bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Taxes and Transnational Treaties: Responsive Regulation and the Reassertion of Offshore Sovereignty
Authors: RAWLINGS GREGORY
Published: January 2007

Regulatory dialogue between states with widely diverging tax systems has emerged as a key feature of Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), International Monetary Fund (IMF), and European Union (EU) initiatives on Offshore Finance Centers (OFCs) or tax havens. This has brought together states of differing dimensions in size, population, economy, and power. Where there is such a discrepancy in power between states there is often a temptation to assert a command‐and‐control regulatory approach. This was the initial reading of the OECD's Harmful Tax Practices Project that demanded tax havens—mostly small states in Europe, the Pacific, Indian Ocean, and the Caribbean—repeal financial secrecy legislation and commit to Tax Information Exchange Agreements (TIEAs). As these initiatives have unfolded there has been a transition away from regulation by command‐and‐control towards responsive regulatory dialogue in which tax havens have been encouraged to cooperate through engagement and active participation. Based on qualitative research with key stakeholders in OFC jurisdictions and multilateral organizations, this article explores this transition towards meta‐principles of responsive regulation. The preservation of tax bilateralism has limited the capacity of multilateral organizations to deploy the full range of regulatory techniques, particularly those involving penalty and coercion. Instead all parties, tax haven states and multilateral institutions alike, have been confined to the broadest base of the regulatory pyramid. Responsive regulation can end up having the opposite effect from what is intended where the enforcement peak of the regulatory pyramid is absent. This has resulted in strengthening the sovereignty of small OFC states and has increased international tax competition, rather than reduced it.
The Challenge of Institutional Integrity in Responsive Regulation: Field Inspections by the Australian Taxation Office
Authors: WALLER VIVIENNE
Published: January 2007

Based on responsive regulation, the Australian Taxation Office (ATO) Compliance Model was developed as a way of dealing with the complexities of the Australian tax system. This article demonstrates some of the challenges that come with introducing responsive regulation into a bureaucracy such as the ATO. Selznick's ideas of institutional integrity provide a conceptual framework that allows the regulatory agency engaged in responsive regulation to emphasize voluntary compliance and the building of positive relationships with the regulatee, while simultaneously ensuring that non‐compliance is both detected and dealt with. Using evidence from a qualitative study of ATO “walk‐ins” with used car dealers, the article demonstrates the unintended consequences that can occur without institutional integrity both at the level of design and at the level of everyday ATO field‐officer practices.
Culture Change in Three Taxation Administrations: From Command‐and‐Control to Responsive Regulation
Authors: JOB JENNY , STOUT ANDREW , SMITH RACHAEL
Published: January 2007

Law and policy is one thing, but their implementation and administration is affected by organizational cultures. Meidinger has argued that knowledge of regulatory and organizational cultures assists understanding of how law and policy work in practice. This article examines three revenue administrations that are moving from a command‐and‐control style of regulation to a more persuasive and responsive style of regulation. The central argument is that there is a determining step in the process of clarification, reconciliation, responsiveness, and design of a tax system. That step is the extent to which organizational culture can be changed to embrace inclusive discussion and creative solutions to the administration of tax law and policy.
Higher Education Loans and Tax Evasion: A Response to Perceived Unfairness
Authors: AHMED ELIZA , BRAITHWAITE VALERIE
Published: January 2007

Australian higher education funding policy has been a contentious and emotionally charged topic on the political agenda since the introduction of the Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS). Under HECS, students have options either to pay upfront or defer payment. This article examines the implications for the Australian Taxation Office, which has responsibility for debt collection among students who defer HECS payments. Results show that HECS debt undermines tax compliance directly, and indirectly through perceived injustice. The path model demonstrates how perceptions of government policy can shape cooperation with government in other spheres.
PASSPORT OPTIONS
Authors: Delbaen Freddy , Yor Marc
Published: January 2007

We relate the theory of passport options with general principles from martingale theory as well as with the theory of Bessel processcs. The calculation of the price of a passport option leads to an equality between two norms on continuous martingales. We also solve the discrete time case for passport options.
MARKET SELECTION OF FINANCIAL TRADING STRATEGIES: GLOBAL STABILITY
Authors: Evstigneev Igor V. , Hens Thorsten , Schenk‐Hoppé Klaus Reiner
Published: January 2007

In this paper we analyze the long‐run dynamics of the market selection process among simple trading strategies in an incomplete asset market with endogenous prices. We identify a unique surviving financial trading strategy. Investors following this strategy asymptotically gather total market wealth. This result generalizes findings by Blume and Easlcy (1992) to any complete or incomplete asset market.
SEPARABLE TERM STRUCTURES AND THE MAXIMAL DEGREE PROBLEM
Authors: Filipović Damir
Published: January 2007

This paper discusses separablc term structure diffusion models in an arbitrage‐free environment. Using general consistency results we exploit the interplay between the diffusion coefficients and the functions determining the forward curve. We introduce the particular class of polynomial term structure models. We formulate the appropriate conditions under which the diffusion for a quadratic term structure model is necessarily an Ornstein‐Uhlenbeck type process. Finally, we explore the maximal degree problem and show that basically any consistent polynomial term structure model is of degree two or less.
VALUATION OF CLAIMS ON NONTRADED ASSETS USING UTILITY MAXIMIZATION
Authors: Henderson Vicky
Published: January 2007

A topical problem is how to price and hedge claims on nontraded assets. A natural approach is to use for hedging purposes another similar asset or index which is traded. To model this situation, we introduce a second nontraded log Brownian asset into the well‐known Merton investment model with power law and exponential utilities. The investor has an option on units of the nontraded asset and the question is how to price and hedge this random payoff. The presence of the second Brownian motion means that we are in the situation of incomplete markets. Employing utility maximization and duality methods we obtain a series approximation to the optimal hedge and reservation price using the power utility. The problem is simpler for the exponential utility, and in this case we derive an explicit representation for the price. Price and hedging strategy are computed for some example options and the results for the utilities are compared.
A GENERAL PROOF OF THE DYBVIG‐INGERSOLL‐ROSS THEOREM: LONG FORWARD RATES CAN NEVER FALL
Authors: Hubalek Friedrich , Klein Irene , Teichmayn Josef
Published: January 2007

A senera1 proof of the Dybvig‐Ingersoll‐Ross Theorem o n thc monotonicity of long foraard rates is presented. Some inconsistencies in the original proof o f this theorein are discussed.
Examining the Relationships between Capital, Risk and Efficiency in European Banking
Authors: Altunbas Yener , Carbo Santiago , Gardener Edward P.M. , Molyneux Philip
Published: January 2007

This paper analyses the relationship between capital, risk and efficiency for a large sample of European banks between 1992 and 2000. In contrast to the established US evidence we do not find a positive relationship between inefficiency and bank risk‐taking. Inefficient European banks appear to hold more capital and take on less risk. Empirical evidence is found showing the positive relationship between risk on the level of capital (and liquidity), possibly indicating regulators' preference for capital as a mean of restricting risk‐taking activities. We also find evidence that the financial strength of the corporate sector has a positive influence in reducing bank risk‐taking and capital levels. There are no major differences in the relationships between capital, risk and efficiency for commercial and savings banks although there are for co‐operative banks. In the case of co‐operative banks we do find that capital levels are inversely related to risks and we find that inefficient banks hold lower levels of capital. Some of these relationships also vary depending on whether banks are among the most or least efficient operators.
The Determinants of Financial Structure: New Insights from Business Start‐ups
Authors: Huyghebaert Nancy , Van de Gucht Linda M.
Published: January 2007

Business start‐ups lack prior history and reputation, face high failure risk, and have highly concentrated ownership. The resulting information and incentive problems, combined with entrepreneurial private benefits of control, affect initial financing decisions. This paper examines simultaneously the impact of these issues on leverage, debt mix and maturity. We find that start‐ups with high adverse selection and risk shifting problems contract less bank debt but compensate with other debt sources. Start‐ups in growing industries have lower leverage, but raise more bank debt. Entrepreneurs with large private control benefits contract less but longer term bank loans to lower the default probability.
A New Econometric Model of Index Arbitrage
Authors: Taylor Nicholas
Published: January 2007

This paper introduces a new econometric model of the mispricing associated with (contemporaneous) differences between spot and futures prices. Like existing models, this model assumes that the level of arbitrage activity is positively related to the magnitude of absolute mispricing. However, unlike existing models, the new model assumes that a parameter governing a key feature of this relationship varies over time. Specifically, several versions of a smooth transition model of mispricing are introduced that each allow the shape of the transition function to be determined by a set of explanatory variables. Using high frequency data from the S&P 500 spot and futures market, the results show that the nature of the non‐linearity in mispricing corresponds to arbitrageur behaviour that varies (in a periodic fashion) over the trading day. This is evinced by the superior fit of the new model of mispricing, in comparison to the results based on existing econometric models of mispricing. Finally, the observed periodicity in arbitrageur behaviour indicates that arbitrageurs prefer to trade during certain periods within the trading day – a result that contradicts the findings obtained when using existing econometric models of mispricing.
Which spinal levels are identified by palpation of the iliac crests and the posterior superior iliac spines?
Authors: Chakraverty Robin , Pynsent Paul , Isaacs Karen
Published: January 2007

The line joining the superior aspect of the iliac crests posteriorly (the intercristal line) is commonly stated to cross the midline at the L4 or L4–5 spinal level on imaging. This study aimed to assess the spinal level identified through palpation of surface anatomy (iliac crests and posterior superior iliac spines) in adults and the level of agreement compared with the intercristal line identified through imaging. The study participants included consecutive adult patients undergoing prone fluoroscopically guided spinal injections for chronic low back pain at the Royal Orthopaedic Hospital, Birmingham, between April and July 2004. Prior to fluoroscopic imaging, each patient's surface anatomy was palpated by two examiners and lines created to form the palpated intercristal line and the posterior superior iliac spine line. Following imaging, the mid‐line spinal levels identified by these palpated lines were recorded and the level of agreement (kappa coefficient) with the intercristal line formed by imaging of the iliac crests was assessed. The results showed that although the L4 or L4–5 spinal levels were identified on imaging of the intercristal line in 86.7% of 75 patients (49 female), the intercristal line formed through palpation tended to identify higher levels; the L3 or L3–4 spinal levels in 77.3% of cases and more commonly in females than in males (85.7 vs. 61.5%) and in patients with higher body mass indices. The level of agreement between the two lines was poor (κ = 0.05). The posterior superior iliac spine line identified the S2 spinous process in 51% and the S1 in 44% of 60 (45 female) patients. The results suggest that formation of the intercristal line by palpation of the iliac crests identifies different spinal levels to those identified by imaging and that both methods should be regarded as different instruments. In the clinical situation, it may be more appropriate to consider that palpation of the intercristal line is a guide for identifying the L3 or L3–4 spinal levels rather than the L4 or L4–5 levels, particularly in females and patients with higher body mass indices.
Molecular mechanisms mediating pathological plasticity in Huntington's disease and Alzheimer's disease
Authors: Spires Tara L. , Hannan Anthony J.
Published: January 2007

Neurodegenerative diseases such as Huntington's disease and Alzheimer's disease, although very different in etiology, share common degenerative processes. These include neuronal dysfunction, decreased neural connectivity, and disruption of cellular plasticity. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying the neural plasticity deficits in these devastating conditions may lead the way toward new therapeutic targets, both disease‐specific and more generalized, which can ameliorate degenerative cognitive deficits. Furthermore, investigations of ‘pathological plasticity’ in these diseases lend insight into normal brain function. This review will present evidence for altered plasticity in Huntington's and Alzheimer's diseases, relate these findings to symptomatology, and review possible causes and commonalities.
Anti‐homeostatic synaptic plasticity of glycine receptor function after chronic strychnine in developing cultured mouse spinal neurons
Authors: Carrasco M. A. , Castro P. A. , Sepulveda F. J. , Cuevas M. , Tapia J. C. , Izaurieta P. , Zundert B. van , Aguayo L. G.
Published: January 2007

In this study, we describe a novel form of anti‐homeostatic plasticity produced after culturing spinal neurons with strychnine, but not bicuculline or 6‐cyano‐7‐nitroquinoxaline‐2,3‐dione (CNQX). Strychnine caused a large increase in network excitability, detected as spontaneous synaptic currents and calcium transients. The calcium transients were associated with action potential firing and activation of γ‐aminobutyric acid (GABAA) and alpha‐amino‐3‐hydroxy‐5‐methyl‐4‐isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors as they were blocked by tetrodotoxin (TTX), bicuculline, and CNQX. After chronic blockade of glycine receptors (GlyRs), the frequency of synaptic transmission showed a significant enhancement demonstrating the phenomenon of anti‐homeostatic plasticity. Spontaneous inhibitory glycinergic currents in treated cells showed a fourfold increase in frequency (from 0.55 to 2.4 Hz) and a 184% increase in average peak amplitude compared with control. Furthermore, the augmentation in excitability accelerated the decay time constant of miniature inhibitory post‐synaptic currents. Strychnine caused an increase in GlyR current density, without changes in the apparent affinity. These findings support the idea of a post‐synaptic action that partly explains the increase in synaptic transmission. This phenomenon of synaptic plasticity was blocked by TTX, an antibody against brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and K252a suggesting the involvement of the neuronal activity‐dependent BDNF‐TrkB signaling pathway. These results show that the properties of GlyRs are regulated by the degree of neuronal activity in the developing network.
Pyruvate modifies glycolytic and oxidative metabolism of rat embryonic spinal cord astrocyte cell lines and prevents their spontaneous transformation
Authors: Rouleau Caroline , Rakotoarivelo Clovis , Petite Didier , Lambert Karen , Fabre Christine , Bonardet Andrée , Mercier Jacques , Baldet Pierre , Privat Alain , Langley Keith , Mersel Marcel
Published: January 2007

This study aimed to provide detailed data on mitochondrial respiration of normal astrocyte cell lines derived from rat embryonic spinal cord. Astrocytes in early passages (EP), cultured without pyruvate for more than 35 passages, defined here as late passages (LP), undergo spontaneous transformation. To study initial steps in cell transformation, EP data were compared with those of LP cells. LP cells had reduced glycolysis, fewer mitochondria and extremely low oxidative rates, resulting from a dysfunction of complexes I and II + III of the respiratory chain. Treatment of EP cells with pyruvate until they were, by definition, LP cultures prevented transformation of these cells. Pyruvate‐treated EP cells had more mitochondria than normal cells but slightly lower respiratory rates. The increase of mitochondrial content thus appears to act as a compensatory effect to maintain oxidative phosphorylation in these LP ‘non‐transformed’ cells, in which mitochondrial function is reduced. However, pyruvate treatment of transformed LP cells during additional passages did not significantly restore their oxidative metabolism. These data highlight changes accompanying spontaneous astrocyte transformation and suggest potential targets for the control of astrocyte proliferation and reaction to various insults to the central nervous system.
The vesicular monoamine transporter 2 contains trafficking signals in both its N‐glycosylation and C‐terminal domains
Authors: Yao Jia , Hersh Louis B.
Published: January 2007

The vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) and the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT) belong to the same transporter family that packages acetylcholine into synaptic vesicles (SVs) and biogenic amines into large dense core vesicles (LDCVs) and/or SVs, respectively. These transporters share similarities in sequence and structure with their N‐ and C‐terminal domains located in the cytoplasm. When expressed in PC12 cells, VMAT2 localizes to LDCV, whereas VAChT is found mainly on synaptic‐like microvesicles. Previous studies have shown that the cytoplasmic C‐terminal domain of VAChT contains signals targeting this transporter to SVs. However, the targeting signals for VMAT have not been completely elucidated. To identify signals targeting VMAT2 to LDCV, the subcellular localization of VMAT2–VAChT chimeras was analyzed in PC12 cells. Chimeras having either the N‐terminal region through transmembrane domain 2 of VMAT2 or the C‐terminal domain of VMAT2 do not traffic to LDCV efficiently. In contrast, chimeras having both of these regions, or the luminal glycosylated loop in conjunction with transmembrane domains 1 and 2 and the C‐terminal domain of VMAT2, traffic to LDCV. Treatment of PC12 cells with 1‐deoxymannojirimycin, a specific alpha‐mannosidase I inhibitor, causes VMAT2 to localize to synaptic‐like microvesicles. The results indicate that both mature N‐linked glycosylation and the C‐terminus are important for proper trafficking of VMAT2 and that the locations of trafficking signals in VMAT2 and VAChT are surprisingly different.
Tubulin cofactor B plays a role in the neuronal growth cone
Authors: Lopez‐Fanarraga M. , Carranza G. , Bellido J. , Kortazar D. , Villegas J. C. , Zabala J. C.
Published: January 2007

Tubulin cofactors, initially identified as α‐, β‐tubulin folding proteins, are now believed to participate in the complex tubulin biogenesis and degradation routes, and thus to contribute to microtubule functional diversity and dynamics. However, a concrete role of tubulin cofactor B (TBCB) remains to be elucidated because this protein is not required for tubulin biogenesis, and it is apparently not essential for life in any of the organisms studied. In agreement with these data, here we show that TBCB localizes at the transition zone of the growth cones of growing neurites during neurogenesis where it plays a role in microtubule dynamics and plasticity. Gene silencing by means of small interfering RNA segments revealed that TBCB knockdown enhances axonal growth. In contrast, excess TBCB, a feature of giant axonal neuropathy, leads to microtubule depolymerization, growth cone retraction, and axonal damage followed by neuronal degeneration. These results provide an important insight into the understanding of the controlling mechanisms of growth cone microtubule dynamics.
A role of local signalling in the establishment and maintenance of the asymmetrical architecture of a neuron
Authors: Hur Eun‐Mi , Kim Kyong‐Tai
Published: January 2007

Significant progress has been made in the identification of intrinsic and extrinsic factors involved in the development of nervous system. It is remarkable that the establishment and maintenance of the asymmetrical architecture of a neuron is coordinated by a limited repertoire of signalling machineries. However, the details of signalling mechanisms responsible for creating specificity and diversity required for proper development of the nervous system remain largely to be investigated. An emerging body of evidence suggests that specificity and diversity can be achieved by differential regulation of signalling components at distinct subcelluar localizations. Many aspects of neuronal polarization and morphogenesis are attributed to localized signalling. Further diversity and specificity of receptor signalling can be achieved by the regulation of molecules outside the cell. Recent evidence suggests that extracellular matrix molecules are essential extrinsic cues that function to foster the growth of neurons. Therefore, it is important to understand where the signalling machineries are activated and how they are combined with other factors in order to understand the molecular mechanism underlying neuronal development.
Assessment of blood pressure in cats presented with urethral obstruction
Authors: Malouin Annie , Milligan James A. , Drobatz Kenneth J.
Published: January 2007

Objective:To determine the arterial blood pressure at presentation in male cats with acute urethral obstruction, and to determine whether there was any correlation between these measurements and concurrent metabolic abnormalities.

Design:Prospective, single cohort, observational study.

Setting:Private, small animal, after‐hours emergency clinic.

Animals:Twenty‐eight client‐owned male cats with acute urethral obstruction and no other known coexisting disease.

Interventions:Indirect oscillometric blood pressure measurements obtained before blood sampling and treatment.

Measurements and main results:Mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) measurements, physical examination parameters, serum blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, potassium, phosphorus, total calcium and magnesium concentration, venous pH, lead II electrocardiogram, and urine volume in bladder were evaluated. No cats were hypotensive at presentation; 71% (20/28) were normotensive (median MAP=100 mmHg, range 93–140 mmHg); and 29% (8/28) were hypertensive (median MAP=153 mmHg, range 145–176 mmHg). Compared with hypertensive cats, normotensive cats had significantly lower heart rates (P=0.0201) and lower calcium (P=0.0152). For all 28 cats, MAP correlated with serum potassium and total calcium (P=0.0033).

Conclusions:Though potassium and total calcium were inversely and directly correlated respectively with blood pressure in cats with urethral obstruction, none of the cats were hypotensive on presentation. Normotension on admission does not support the absence of biochemical and physical abnormalities in obstructed cats.
The effects of ice‐water storage on blood gas and acid–base measurements
Authors: Rezende Marlis L. , Haskins Steve C. , Hopper Kate
Published: January 2007

Objective: To determine the effects of storage of arterial and venous blood samples in ice water on blood gas and acid–base measurements.

Design: Prospective, in vitro, laboratory study.

Setting: School of veterinary medicine.

Subjects: Six healthy dogs.

Measurements and main results: Baseline measurements of partial pressure of oxygen (PO2), partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2), pH, hemoglobin concentration (tHb), oxyhemoglobin saturation, and oxygen content (ContO2) were made. Bicarbonate (HCO3) and standard base excess (SBE) were calculated. Arterial and venous blood samples were separated into 1 and 3 mL samples, anaerobically transferred into 3 mL plastic syringes, and stored in ice water for 6 hours. Measurements were repeated at 15, 30 minutes, and 1, 2, 4, and 6 hours after baseline measurements. Arterial (a) PO2 increased significantly from baseline after 30 minutes of storage in the 1 mL samples and after 2 hours in the 3 mL samples. Venous (v) PO2 was significantly increased from baseline after 4 hours in the 1 mL samples and after 6 hours in the 3 mL samples. The pHa significantly decreased after 2 hours of storage in the 1 mL samples and after 4 hours in the 3 mL samples. In both the 1 and 3 mL samples, pHv decreased significantly only after 6 hours. Neither the arterial nor the venous PCO2 values changed significantly in the 1 mL samples and increased only after 6 hours in the 3 mL samples. No significant changes in tHb, ContO2, SBE, or HCO3 were detected.

Conclusions: The PO2 of arterial and venous blood increased significantly when samples were stored in plastic syringes in ice water. These increases are attributable to the diffusion of oxygen from and through the plastic of the syringe into the blood, which occurred at a rate that exceeded metabolic consumption of oxygen by the nucleated cells.
The Syphilis Elimination Project: Targeting the Hispanic Community of Baltimore City
Authors: Endyke‐Doran Cara , Gonzalez Rosa Maria , Trujillo Marangellie , Solera Angelo , Vigilance Pierre N. , Edwards Lori A. , Groves Sara L.
Published: January 2007

ABSTRACT
Objective: The objective of the Syphilis Elimination Project was to decrease the incidence of syphilis in the Hispanic community of Baltimore City through a culturally appropriate health initiative.

Design: Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in the study design. Surveillance data were used to collect testing information. Comparisons at the start and end of the project measured change in individual knowledge about syphilis. Cross‐sectional data from interviews with business owners and qualitative comments from outreach workers evaluated perception of program effectiveness. The local health department collected surveillance data.

Sample: A convenience sample of 63 Hispanic community members, 12 business owners/managers, and 8 outreach workers was utilized throughout the evaluation process.

Intervention: The project was a culturally appropriate approach to health promotion with street and business outreach.

Results: Post intervention there was a statistically significant increase in knowledge about syphilis within the Hispanic community and an increase in testing behaviors.

Conclusions: The Syphilis Elimination Project was created in response to a marked increase in syphilis in Baltimore among the Hispanic population and a health disparity that existed within the city. It increased community members' knowledge of syphilis and positively influenced testing behaviors.
Warned, but Not Well Armed: Preventing Viral Upper Respiratory Infections in Households
Authors: Larson Elaine L.
Published: January 2007

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this state‐of‐the‐science review was to identify strategies and household‐level interventions for public health nurses to help prevent the acquisition and spread of viral upper respiratory infections (URI) in the community. Even though viral URI are a major global economic and social problem, surprisingly little research has been conducted to attempt to prevent them or reduce their transmission, probably because URI (with the exception of epidemic influenza) are generally considered to be mild and self‐limited. Based on the research to date, public health nurses can use several promising strategies for prevention: (a) provide more tailored educational messages regarding preventive strategies such as vaccination, hand hygiene, spatial separation of infected household members, avoidance of antibiotics to treat viral URI, and environmental cleaning (e.g., for toys or other shared items), which are delivered personally rather than passively (e.g., pamphlets placed in a waiting room); (b) use each patient encounter in any setting to encourage influenza vaccination for relevant risk groups; (c) encourage use of alcohol hand sanitizers by household members during the cold and flu season; and (d) provide opportunities for skill development for adult and child household members (e.g., cover your cough, when to seek care or an antibiotic).
Improving the Selective Neonatal BCG Program
Authors: Wroe Abigail L. , McKeever Charmian , Thackray Sue , Bhan Angela
Published: January 2007

ABSTRACT
Objectives: The aim of the work was to develop and implement an improved selective neonatal Bacille‐Calmette‐Guerin (BCG) vaccine program in which neonates are systematically assessed, and those identified as at “high risk of being exposed to tuberculosis” are given neonatal BCG.

Design: Service models used in other parts of the country were assessed and their limitations and difficulties were carefully considered. Possible service models for local use were then considered. A selective neonatal BCG program involving universal neonatal screening was implemented.

Sample: A program was implemented offering BCG to high‐risk neonates.

Results: As has been the case with other health trusts, developing a new neonatal BCG service met with obstacles and hurdles. Means of overcoming some of the difficulties are presented. Preliminary findings regarding the service model, including neonatal BCG uptake rates, were positive.

Conclusion: A successful neonatal BCG program was implemented.
Social Justice: Added Metaparadigm Concept for Urban Health Nursing
Authors: Schim Stephanie Myers , Benkert Ramona , Bell Sue Ellen , Walker Deborah S. , Danford Cynthia A.
Published: January 2007

ABSTRACT
Historically, the nursing metaparadigm has been used to describe 4 concepts of nursing knowledge (person, environment, health, and nursing) that reflect beliefs held by the profession about nursing's context and content. The authors offer an assessment of the metaparadigm as it applies to community and public health nursing in urban settings and offer an amendment of the metaparadigm to include the central concept of social justice. Each of the metaparadigm concepts and the central concept of social justice is discussed as it applies to a model of urban health nursing teaching, research, and practice.
A Relationship Power Scale for Female Adolescents: Preliminary Development and Psychometric Testing
Authors: Wang Ruey‐Hsia , Wang Hsiu‐Hung , Hsu Hsiu‐Yueh
Published: January 2007

ABSTRACT
Objectives: To develop and test psychometric characteristics of the Relationship Power Scale (RPS), which can be used to explore the relationship power of female adolescents in heterosexual relationships.

Methods: Cross‐sectional design. Female adolescents in Kaohsiung City, Taiwan, who had a steady relationship with a boyfriend at the time of the study were recruited as study subjects (n=414) to test validity and reliability of the RPS.

Results: Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that a one‐factor model with correlated uniqueness among the positively worded items best fits the data. There were significantly different scores in 3 different response groups on 2 items regarding who (participants, both themselves and their boyfriends equally, or their boyfriends) had more power in the relationship, and who was more emotionally involved in the relationship for all subjects. For subjects having sex with their steady boyfriends, RPS scores significantly differ among the 3 different response groups on 2 items regarding who had more say about having sex, and who had more say about using condoms. Cronbach's α for the RPS was .69. Test‐retest reliability coefficients for the RPS were .83.

Conclusions: The RPS exhibited acceptable reliability and validity. Further research is recommended to use the RPS in sex‐related behavior research among heterosexual female adolescents.
From the Grey Nuns to the Streets: A Critical History of Outreach Nursing in Canada
Authors: Hardill Kathy
Published: January 2007

ABSTRACT
This article traces the historic antecedents of outreach nursing in Canada, going as far back as the Grey Nuns in what is now Quebec. It attempts to place modern‐day street nursing in a historical context, which includes Nightingale, Wald, the early Victorian Order of Nurses, and the social reform movements of the early 20th century. The article critiques the involvement of nursing in less than virtuous aspects of social control with respect to impoverished and otherwise marginalized groups. The article goes on to trace the origins of modern Canadian street nursing in three cities: Vancouver, Toronto, and Montreal. It uses both a search of the nursing literature and, because much of this history is undocumented, oral history and anecdotal information as well. It critiques nursing's traditional avoidance of political action and calls upon modern‐day nurses to support and educate one another to engage in this work.
Does 8‐Foot Walk Time Predict Cognitive Decline in Older Mexicans Americans?
Authors: Alfaro‐Acha Ana , Al Snih Soham , Raji Mukaila A. , Markides Kyriakos S. , Ottenbacher Kenneth J.
Published: January 2007

OBJECTIVES: To examine the association between 8‐foot time walk and change in cognitive function over time in older Mexican Americans.

DESIGN: Data used are from the Hispanic Established Population for the Epidemiological Study of the Elderly (1993–2001).

SETTING: Five southwestern states: Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and California.

PARTICIPANTS: Two thousand seventy noninstitutionalized Mexican‐American men and women aged 65 and older who had a Mini‐Mental State Examination (MMSE) score of 21 or greater at baseline.

MEASUREMENTS: Sociodemographic factors (age, sex, education, marital status), MMSE score, 8‐foot walk time, body mass index, medical conditions (stroke, heart attack, diabetes mellitus, depression, and hypertension), and near and distant visual impairment.

RESULTS: Using general linear mixed models, it was found that subjects with the slowest 8‐foot walk time had a significantly greater rate of cognitive decline over 7 years than subjects with the fastest 8‐foot walk time. There was a significant 8‐foot walk time–by‐time interaction with MMSE scores. Subjects in the lowest 8‐foot walk time quartile had a greater cognitive decline over 7 years (estimate=−0.32, SE=0.08; P<.001) than those in the highest quartile. This association remained statistically significant after controlling for potential confounding factors.

CONCLUSION: Slow 8‐foot walk time in older Mexican‐American adults without cognitive impairment at baseline was an independent predictor of MMSE score decline over a 7‐year period. Slow 8‐foot walk time may be an early marker for older adults in a predementia state who may benefit from early‐intervention programs to prevent or slow cognitive decline.
Anxiety Symptoms and Decline in Physical Function over 5 Years in the Health, Aging and Body Composition Study
Authors: Mehta Kala M. , Yaffe Kristine , Brenes Gretchen A. , Newman Anne B. , Shorr Ronald I. , Simonsick Eleanor M. , Ayonayon Hilsa N. , Rubin Susan M. , Covinsky Kenneth E.
Published: January 2007

OBJECTIVES: To examine the relationship between anxiety and functional decline.

DESIGN: A 5‐year longitudinal cohort study of well‐functioning adults.

SETTING: The Health, Aging and Body Composition (Health ABC) Study.

PARTICIPANTS: Two thousand nine hundred forty adults aged 70 to 79 (48% male, 41% black), initially free of self‐reported mobility difficulty.

MEASUREMENTS: In 1997/98, presence of three anxiety symptoms (feeling fearful, tense or keyed up, or shaky or nervous) from the Hopkins Symptom Checklist were ascertained. Physical function was examined over 5 years using the Health ABC performance battery (continuous range 0–4) consisting of chair stands, usual and narrow course gait speed, and difficulty with standing balance and self‐reported mobility, defined as difficulty walking one‐quarter of a mile or difficulty climbing 10 steps.

RESULTS: Participants with anxiety symptoms had similar baseline physical performance scores. After adjustment for potential confounders, subjects with anxiety symptoms had similar declines in physical performance over 5 years as participants without anxiety symptoms. Adults with anxiety symptoms were more likely to report incident mobility difficulty, with a hazard ratio of 1.4 (95% confidence interval=1.3–1.6), compared with adults without anxiety symptoms. These results persisted after adjustment for depressive symptoms, demographics, comorbidity, and use of antianxiety, depressant, and sedative hypnotic medications.

CONCLUSION: Anxiety symptoms are not associated with declines in objectively measured physical performance over 5 years but are associated with declines in self‐reported functioning. Future studies are needed to determine why anxiety has a differential effect on performance‐based and self‐reported measures of functioning.
A Higher Dose of Vitamin D Reduces the Risk of Falls in Nursing Home Residents: A Randomized, Multiple‐Dose Study
Authors: Broe Kerry E. , Chen Tai C. , Weinberg Janice , Bischoff‐Ferrari Heike A. , Holick Michael F. , Kiel Douglas P.
Published: January 2007

OBJECTIVES: To determine the effect of four vitamin D supplement doses on falls risk in elderly nursing home residents.

DESIGN: Secondary data analysis of a previously conducted randomized clinical trial.

SETTING: Seven hundred twenty‐five‐bed long‐term care facility.

PARTICIPANTS: One hundred twenty‐four nursing home residents (average age 89).

INTERVENTION: Participants were randomly assigned to receive one of four vitamin D supplement doses (200 IU, 400 IU, 600 IU, or 800 IU) or placebo daily for 5 months.

MEASUREMENTS: Number of fallers and number of falls assessed using facility incident tracking database.

RESULTS: Over the 5‐month study period, the proportion of participants with falls was 44% in the placebo group (11/25), 58% (15/26) in the 200 IU group, 60% (15/25) in the 400 IU group, 60% (15/25) in the 600 IU group, and 20% (5/23) in the 800 IU group. Participants in the 800 IU group had a 72% lower adjusted‐incidence rate ratio of falls than those taking placebo over the 5 months (rate ratio=0.28; 95% confidence interval=0.11–0.75). No significant differences were observed for the adjusted fall rates compared to placebo in any of the other supplement groups.

CONCLUSION: Nursing home residents in the highest vitamin D group (800 IU) had a lower number of fallers and a lower incidence rate of falls over 5 months than those taking lower doses. Adequate vitamin D supplementation in elderly nursing home residents could reduce the number of falls experienced by this high falls risk group.
Sensitivity and Specificity of the Mini‐Mental State Examination for Identifying Dementia in the Oldest‐Old: The 90+ Study
Authors: Kahle‐Wrobleski Kristin , Corrada Maria M. , Li Bixia , Kawas Claudia H.
Published: January 2007

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of the Mini‐Mental State Examination (MMSE) in identifying dementia in the oldest‐old when stratified by age and education.

DESIGN: Cross‐sectional.

SETTING: Research clinic and in‐home visits.

PARTICIPANTS: Population‐based sample of adults aged 90 and older (n=435) who are enrolled in the 90+ Study, a longitudinal, population‐based study.

MEASUREMENTS: Neurological examination to determine dementia diagnosis, MMSE, and demographic data.

RESULTS: Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses indicated that the MMSE had high diagnostic accuracy for identifying dementia in subjects aged 90 and older across different age and education groups (area under the ROC curve values ranged from 0.82 to 0.98). A range of possible cutoff values and corresponding sensitivity and specificity are provided for the following age groups: 90–93, 94–96, and ≥97. Age groups were subdivided by educational attainment (≤high school, vocational school or some college, college degree or higher). In subjects aged 90 to 93 with a college degree or higher, the suggested MMSE cutoff score is ≤25 (sensitivity=0.82, specificity=0.80). In those aged 94 to 96 with a college degree or higher, the suggested cutoff is ≤24 (sensitivity=0.85, specificity=0.80). Those aged 97 and older with an education of high school or less had the lowest suggested cutoff ≤22 (sensitivity=0.80, specificity=0.76).

CONCLUSION: Overall, the MMSE had good sensitivity and specificity across all age and educational groups. Optimal cutoff points were lower in the older age groups and those with less education, primarily to preserve specificity. This screening instrument is appropriate for use with the oldest‐old.
Surgical Management of Left‐Divisional Intrahepatic Portosystemic Shunts: Outcome After Partial Ligation of, or Ameroid Ring Constrictor Placement on, the Left Hepatic Vein in Twenty‐Eight Dogs (1995–2005)
Authors: MEHL MARGO L. , KYLES ANDREW E. , CASE JOSEPH B. , KASS PHILIP H. , ZWINGENBERGER ALLISON , GREGORY CLARE R.
Published: January 2007

Objectives—To evaluate outcome in dogs with left divisional intrahepatic portosystemic shunts (PSS) treated by partial ligation (PL) or ameroid ring constrictor (ARC) placement on the left hepatic vein.

Design—Retrospective study.

Animals—Dogs (n=28) with left divisional intrahepatic PSS.

Methods—Retrieved data from medical records of dogs with left divisional intrahepatic PSS that had PL (n=17) or ARC (n=11) were signalment, history, clinical signs, preoperative blood work, portal pressure measurements, ARC size, complications and postoperative technetium scintigraphy. Outcome assessed by owner interview 6 months–10 years after surgery was classified as excellent, good or poor. Differences were tested by exact χ2test.

Results—Major complications occurred in 3 dogs: coagulopathy (1 PL dog died), ascites (1 PL dog survived) and seizures (1 ARC dog died). Eight PL dogs had technetium portal scintigraphy; 1 dog was negative and 7 dogs positive for persistent shunting. Seven ARC dogs had scintigraphy; 4 dogs were negative and 3 positive for persistent shunting. In PL dogs, long‐term clinical outcome was excellent (92%) or good (8%) whereas, in ARC dogs it was excellent (20%), good (50%) or poor (30%). This outcome difference between treatment groups was significant (P=.0012).

Conclusion—Dogs treated by PL had significantly better long‐term outcome compared with ARC treated dogs.

Clinical Relevance—Based on these data, ARC placement on the left hepatic vein in dogs with left‐divisional intrahepatic PSS cannot be recommended.
Retrospective Comparison of Surgical Ligation and Transarterial Catheter Occlusion for Treatment of Patent Ductus Arteriosus in Two Hundred and Four Dogs (1993–2003)
Authors: GOODRICH KIMBERLY R. , KYLES ANDREW E. , KASS PHILLIP H. , CAMPBELL FIONA
Published: January 2007

Objective—To compare procedure time, complications, mortality, and short‐term outcome in dogs with patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) treated by surgical ligation (SL) or transarterial coil occlusion (TCO).

Study Design—Retrospective study.

Animals—Dogs with PDA (n=204).

Methods—Medical records of dogs treated for PDA were reviewed. Dogs treated by SL when it was the primary method used for PDA treatment (1993–1998) were compared with dogs treated by TCO when it was the primary method used for PDA treatment (1999–2003). Dogs treated during the transition between techniques, dogs treated with SL (1999–2003) and dogs treated with TCO before 1999, as well as dogs with pulmonary hypertension, or bidirectional or reversed (right‐to‐left) flow through the PDA were excluded from analysis.

Results—Age, weight, gender distribution, and procedure times (P=.43) were similar for both groups. Major complications were more common with SL (12% versus 4.3%;P=.035) whereas minor complications were more common with TCO (12% versus 26%;P=.015). Initial success rate was higher for SL (94%) compared with TCO (84%;P=.027). There was no significant difference in mortality between SL (5.6%) and TCO (2.6%;P=.27).

Conclusions—Both SL and TCO are acceptable PDA treatments with comparable mortality; however, SL was associated with a higher risk of major complications and TCO was associated with a lower initial success rate.
In Vitro Biomechanical Properties of Linear, Circular, and Hybrid External Skeletal Fixation Devices for Use in Large Ruminants
Authors: SINGH GAJ RAJ , AITHAL HARI PRASAD , SAXENA RAJENDRA KUMAR , KINJAVDEKAR PRAKASH , AMARPAL, MVSc, PhD  , HOQUE MOZAMMEL , MAITI SWAPAN KUMAR , PAWDE ABHIJIT MOTIRAM , JOSHI HEM CHANDRA
Published: January 2007

Objective—To report the biomechanical properties of 3 external skeletal fixation (ESF) devices for use in large ruminants.

Study Design—In vitro biomechanical testing of ESF constructs.

Sample Population—Adult buffalo (weighing, 250–350 kg) tibiae (n=27).

Methods—ESF constructs (bilateral linear fixator [BLF], 4‐ring circular external fixator [CEF], and hybrid fixator [HF]) were made using mild (low carbon) steel implants plated with nickel and cadaveric buffalo tibiae. After ESF application, a 1 cm mid‐diaphyseal gap was created. Constructs were loaded to failure, on a materials testing machine, in axial compression (n=5/ESF type) and craniocaudal bending (n=3/ESF type). In addition, 3 CEF constructs were tested in intact tibiae under craniocaudal bending.

Result—In compression, HF was the strongest and most rigid construct; yield load was significantly higher for HF than for BLF or CEF. Under bending, both CEF and HF had similar strength and modulus of elasticity. Strength for BLF was higher than CEF and HF, whereas the reverse was true for modulus of elasticity.

Conclusions—ESF made from mild steel for use in large ruminants could withstand ≤300 kg load applied under compression and bending moment without any substantial adverse biomechanical effects on the constructs. HF was most rigid and strong under compression, whereas BLF was strongest in craniocaudal bending. Overall, HF seemed biomechanically the most suitable ESF device.

Clinical Relevance—A hybrid ESF developed using mild steel is sufficiently strong and economical and may prove useful for fixation of long bone fractures in large ruminants (weighing ≤300 kg).