bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The First Numismatists
Authors: Holt Frank L.
Published: July 2021

Innovative and infinitely varied, the many coinages of the ancient world inspired much commentary and speculation by philosophers, poets, playwrights, and religious leaders. Among these were Plato, Aristophanes, Pliny the Elder, and Jesus of Nazareth. These early numismatists took note of exchange rates, coin-types, hoards, counterfeits, forgeries, and monetary superstitions. Rulers and minting officials, such as Rome’s tresviri monetales, knew a great deal about the history of coins and sometimes paid homage to old designs. Folklore spun from Judas’s infamous thirty pieces of silver an elaborate tale of this money’s long journey across many lands. Medieval Europe witnessed major changes in levels of monetization and produced only one notable numismatic commentary from the pen of the scholastic bishop Nicholas Oresme.
Science and Pseudoscience
Authors: Holt Frank L.
Published: July 2021

In the nineteenth century, political, social, and industrial revolutions shattered the class ceiling of Renaissance and early modern numismatics. Wealthy enthusiasts and dedicated academics from outside European aristocracy gained greater access to collectible coins and soon organized themselves into clubs and learned societies. They sponsored research journals, adopted new technologies such as photography, introduced new investigative methods such as the die study, and established numismatics as a scientific discipline with a foothold in university curricula. Yet, even as numismatics became more and more scientific in its aims and methods, old notions endured about coins and physiognomy. The rise of phrenology as a pseudoscience infiltrated the field and still undermines the historical value of some numismatic research. Another unfortunate development has been the estrangement of numismatics and archaeology because the latter now repudiates its antiquarian origins and generally denounces coin collecting as a form of looting.
The Ethos and Ethics of Collecting
Authors: Holt Frank L.
Published: July 2021

Many archaeologists insist that collecting coins of historical importance is tantamount to looting. This chapter examines the ethos and ethics of collecting by introducing a case study. In a pointed dialogue, a biologist who collects coins with a nautical/marine ecology theme confronts the objections of college students taking a numismatics course. The collector explains his interest in coins and shares with the class some of the results. Students raise questions about the visitor’s right to own rare artifacts, no matter his good intentions. The commercial side of numismatics is explored, as well as the role played by museums in curating artifacts. When called upon to referee if not resolve the debate, the professor explains how paleontology might offer a better model for numismatics than does archaeology.
Failing My Way to Success
Authors: Lobel Steve
Published: July 2021

This chapter on “Failing My Way to Success” offers an “in the trenches” account of social entrepreneurship drawn from the 2015 memoir Failing My Way to Success: Life Lessons of an Entrepreneur. The book chronicles personal and professional disappointments, betrayals, and bankruptcies from which grew the author’s hard-won lessons of failure and the climb back to success. These lessons range from business best-practices to interpersonal skills to philosophical truths, but at their heart lie two ancient principles. The first warns against self-deception, expressed as the axiom “know thyself” and is perhaps the toughest challenge that the beginning entrepreneur faces. The second is the Jewish concept of tikkun olam—“repair of the world”—the belief that we bear responsibility not only for ourselves and our immediate circle but for the world at large. This essay argues that perhaps the most important definition of “success” is the capacity both of means and spirit to fulfill this command.
Socioeconomic Development in India
Authors: Bhat Meera , Barai Swapnil
Published: July 2021

This chapter on “Socioeconomic Development in India: Lessons from the Third Sector” is a broad overview of India’s economic growth and human development since independence in 1947. It traces the evolving role of government, market, and civil society in navigating the global political economy and the creative tension in which they have coexisted. The chapter dives deeply into the civil society sector which once inspired the founding of Ashoka and is now referred to as a hotbed of social enterprises. The sector which once had firm foundations in pluralist social movements and a focus on social innovation now struggles to distinguish social business from social entrepreneurship. The current ecosystem, while extensive, lacks focus, disregards questions of power, and lacks accountability mechanisms. The goals of improving lives and affecting social change would be better served by focusing on social innovation, treating people as stakeholders rather than clients, and protecting and promoting citizen participation in a democratic economy, society, and polity.
Popular Sovereignty
Authors: Potter David
Published: July 2021

Chapter 4 explores how the same set of ideas about ideal constitutions resulted in two radically different outcomes: the American Constitution, and the French Revolution and its numerous, failed constitutions. The chapter traces the development of constitutional thought from the fifteenth century to the eighteenth, focusing on the work of Bodin, Hobbes, Locke, Montesquieu and Rousseau. Again we explore the importance of media for the spread of ideas and then the adaptation of those ideas by practical politicians to very different ends.
Marx and Spencer
Authors: Potter David
Published: July 2021

The chapter opens with the exploration of the thought of Karl Marx and of his contemporary, Herbert Spencer, and efforts to derive scientific models of social development. Discussion of Spencer leads to discussion of social Darwinism and eugenics, and then to the way these theories influenced politics in the early twentieth century, especially the behaviors that led to the outbreak of the First World War. The outbreak of the war draws us into the collapse of Russia and the emergence of the Bolsheviks as a powerful force, able to take over the state (aided by the massive errors of their political adversaries and the transformation of Marxist thought by Lenin). Social Darwinism and eugenics return with the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany, stressing both his ability (like Lenin) to dominate media and make his movement seem acceptable to German political society.
Preliminary Concepts
Authors: O’Hara Kieron
Published: July 2021

This chapter presents some of the basic concepts required to describe the Internet. The Internet has to meet functional specifications, but it also needs to work as a data transportation network. The concept of a network is introduced, because the Internet is a network of computer networks, controlled by the Internet Protocol Suite TCP/IP. The value of a network increases as the number of members, and the number of connections between them, increase, and a network is more efficient at communication than a hierarchy. Metcalfe’s Law, quantifying positive network effects, is introduced. Fragmentation is defined as incompatibility of technical standards across different parts of the Internet. The Internet transports data, defined as uninterpreted symbols, which is contrasted with information, defined as interpreted data. Finally, digital modernity is introduced as the evolution of modernity driven by networks and data, disrupting offline norms, processes, and institutions.
The Third Internet: The DC Commercial Internet
Authors: O’Hara Kieron
Published: July 2021

This chapter describes the DC Commercial Internet. The ideal consists of economic liberty, market solutions to resource allocation problems, property rights over the Internet, and exploitation of positive externalities. The exemplar is the United States, especially its Supreme Court, which has judged networks as private spaces (‘walled gardens’) which can and should be monetized as their owners prefer. Such an approach, it is argued, will lead to greater innovation and value creation for the public, even at the cost of interoperability and net neutrality. Social networks have gained from this view, able to create closed networks within walled gardens benefiting from network effects to collect data about members. Facebook has offered free services in the developing world in order to bring more people online within its boundaries. An attempt to sell the .org domain to a private equity company, however, foundered. This model has been called ‘surveillance capitalism’.
Peaceful Coexistence
Authors: O’Hara Kieron
Published: July 2021

The visions and spoiler outlined in earlier chapters coexist. The binary US/China view of the Internet is not tenable; the picture is more nuanced. Other Internets could also emerge, if a vision could be combined with technical implementation and geopolitical backing; examples raised include a green Internet, an Islamic Internet, and a caring Internet. Different kinds of democracy could be digitally constructed. The proposal of a postcolonial Internet is critiqued. However, pressures are building. Within the United States itself, splits are evident between supporters of the DC Commercial Internet and the Silicon Valley Open Internet, while the US tech giants are trying to woo EU governments.
India, the ‘Swing State’
Authors: O’Hara Kieron
Published: July 2021

If India’s population and Internet penetration grow at current rates, it will make a large contribution to the growth of the Internet. It has a world-class technology establishment. The chapter considers several possible policy directions. Openness is looked at through experiments in Andhra Pradesh to provide digital government. The attempt by Jio Platforms to provide integrated services for mobile users exemplifies the Commercial Internet. The influence of the Modi government’s Hindutva ideology is considered in a discussion of paternalism, together with the Aadhaar ID platform, and the Indian Data Protection Bill. There is a lot of misinformation and conspiracy theory in India, but it has not created a spoiler model to export misinformation to other countries. Finally, the export of ID technology using open source software and open standards is considered as a potential future Indian influence on the global Internet.
Policy Question: When Should Personal Data Cross Borders?
Authors: O’Hara Kieron
Published: July 2021

This chapter examines the flow of data across borders, in order to support the digital economy. Governments are increasingly treating data as a national asset, which will give economic advantages to foreign companies, while compromising the privacy of citizens. India and other nations in the developing world are concerned that they will be reduced to providing data as raw material and will be forced to import high-value services from tech companies in the United States and China, rather than developing their own digital economies. Initiatives using World Trade Organization agreements to coordinate global trade in data, supported by China and the United States, are examined, but they have not persuaded sceptics, leading to accusations of neo-colonialism. India is leading the holdouts, which may influence the Internet’s future. The ideologies underlying the Four Internets are compared with respect to their views of flows of data.
Artificial Intelligence
Authors: O’Hara Kieron
Published: July 2021

The data provided by the Internet, plus the cloud-based computing power it allows, have helped develop machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI). Conversely, AI promises to unlock the value of the data being created. The ideology underlying Internet governance will have an effect on the flow of data and therefore AI. The Silicon Valley Open Internet favours open data, while the DC Commercial Internet allows rightsholders to monetize the data they have, implying returns to integration, while allowing privacy issues to be resolved by contract (privacy policies). The Beijing Paternal Internet provides other means for privately held data to be used in the national interest, while also supporting integration. The position is most complex with the Brussels Bourgeois Internet, where respect for human rights, exemplified by GDPR, makes it harder to accumulate data to train ML algorithms, and so may have a negative effect on the AI industry.
Social Machines
Authors: O’Hara Kieron
Published: July 2021

People use familiar networked technologies for coordinating social activities, from games to problem-solving. Such sociotechnical networks have been called social machines, and can be found in healthcare and well-being, crime prevention, transport, citizen science, and in particular during emergencies such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The role of platform(s) as host(s) is key as to how, and how privately, the social machine operates. Social machines can be monetized on the DC Commercial Internet, and monitored on the Beijing Paternal Internet. One means of democratizing the platform is the project to re-decentralize the Internet and Web, to break down the walls of walled gardens and restore decentralization. One such idea, Solid, is described in detail, where people take charge of their personal data, storing it as linked data to increase its utility, but keeping it in personal online datastores (pods) under their control.
Finding the Seeds of the Word
Authors: Garrard Virginia
Published: July 2021

Chapter 1 takes a close look at Christianity’s most recent effort to engage local culture directly, inculturation theology, which began as a top-down approach to tame syncretism into a controlled orthodoxy that was respectful of culture, but which in recent decades has evolved into a generative bottom-up method of “making theology” in a way that affirms local beliefs and conditions in ways that are, at the very least, parallel to Christianity and sometimes fully compatible with it. Inculturation is an approach to religion and culture that is unique in that it is a Christian approach with an unusual willingness to seek out and consciously learn from other spiritual traditions.
Tricksters, Gods, and Global Pentecostalism in Almolonga, Guatemala
Authors: Garrard Virginia
Published: July 2021

Chapter 2 visits the Guatemalan village of Almolonga, a K’iche’ Maya town known throughout the region both as the “food basket of Central America” and the “city of miracles” due to its high economic productivity and overall prosperity. Residents of Almolonga, who are overwhelmingly Pentecostals, attribute their success to the global Pentecostal practice of Spiritual Warfare. In return for casting out the demons and pre-Hispanic idols that controlled their town and reclaiming it in the name of Jesus, Alamogueños believe that God has transformed their village beyond measure, building a religious modernity that both reified their local Maya habitus even as it directly repudiates key elements for their traditional identity.
Interpretation and Hobbes’s Political Philosophy
Authors: Martinich A.P.
Published: July 2021

The persistent debate over Hobbes’s political and religious views may be explained by the fact that scholars come to their texts with different networks of beliefs, arising from different experiences and dispositions. Although the networks of people overlap, especially those from the same culture, they may not overlap with regard to the beliefs relevant to the interpretation of crucial passages. These differences are not overcome even when an interpretation has substantial interpretive virtues such as conservatism, frugality, palpability, and generality. Other properties, such as simplicity, consistency, completeness, connectedness, and defensibility, are more successful in this regard. The author refers to them to defend his interpretation of Hobbes as a Jacobean, that is, as a supporter of absolute sovereignty, episcopacy, high liturgy, orthodoxy, and English Calvinism.
On the Proper Interpretation of Hobbes’s Philosophy
Authors: Martinich A.P.
Published: July 2021

This chapter responds to Edwin Curley’s criticisms of the author’s interpretation of Thomas Hobbes’s philosophy. The author discusses the importance of the intellectual context for understanding an author’s thought. Hobbes’s context is the political and religious doctrines of King James I. The key issue raised by Curley in his article concerns the conditions under which it is appropriate to interpret a text ironically. For example, he thinks that Hobbes’s defective theory of the Trinity is evidence of atheism. But in the seventeenth century, a botched theory of the Trinity cast doubt on the theory, not the doctrine, which Christians held tenaciously. Also, many of Hobbes’s biblical interpretations that seemed false to his contemporaries are not presented ironically. They were novel theories that biblical scholars today largely accept. Some other views that may seem today to be irreligious, such as that miracles no longer occur, were standard views in the seventeenth century.
The Interpretation of Covenants in Leviathan
Authors: Martinich A.P.
Published: July 2021

This chapter is a reply to criticisms by Edwin Curley. An important reason that scholars do not agree about the correct interpretation of a text is that they have different networks of beliefs arising from different experiences and different affective states. For similar reasons, evaluations of interpretations will vary. Nonetheless, we can agree about properties of good interpretation, such as conservatism, generality, simplicity, coherence, completeness, and proportionality. But good interpretations may be strong in some virtues and weak in others. If the presence of perceived absurdities or contradictions were good grounds for thinking that the author was not serious in presenting them, then there would be good grounds for doubting that Hobbes took political philosophy seriously. These deficiencies are not signs of insincerity. A similar judgment should be made about perceived deficiencies of his religious views.
Natural Sovereignty and Omnipotence in Hobbes’s Leviathan
Authors: Martinich A.P.
Published: July 2021

According to Hobbes, God is a natural sovereign because of his omnipotence, not because of his goodness or creation. The relation between power and kingship is also expressed in the idea of Yahweh as a warrior god, for example in Deuteronomy and the Book of Psalms. Kings, “mortal gods,” need power to protect their subjects and could only do so if they had properties similar to those attributed to God. In the seventeenth-century, intellectuals sometimes made God the model for human sovereigns, and sometimes the reverse. Since both God and human sovereigns are owed obedience, a troubling question arises: “Should human beings obey God or their sovereign if there is a conflict?” Hobbes has an easy answer. God commands people to obey their human sovereign. Arash Abizadeh’s interpretation that God is a person by fiction is refuted.
Hobbes’s Erastianism and Interpretation
Authors: Martinich A.P.
Published: July 2021

This chapter is a response to Jeffrey Collins, who maintains that Hobbes was Erastian and promoted Independency and irreligious views. The author agrees that Hobbes was an Erastian; the Act of Supremacy made Erastianism law. Hobbes’s support for Independency was hedged at best. Some of his other views are original and non-standard but not intended to be irreligious. The author shows that Collins sometimes omits crucial evidence or draws the wrong inference from the evidence. Hobbes worshipped according to the rite of the Church of England, and his justification for the unity of religion and government was in line with the ideal of ancient Israel taught in the Old Testament. Hobbes argued that Christianity is not politically destabilizing and tried to reconcile Christian doctrine with modern science. The author’s reply to Collins is guided by the idea that interpretation is a form of inference to the best explanation.
Sovereign-Making and Biblical Covenants in On the Citizen
Authors: Martinich A.P.
Published: July 2021

In On the Citizen, Hobbes describes two kinds of covenants. The first are covenants among human beings, most importantly sovereign-making covenants. The second are the major biblical covenants. Hobbes follows the traditional interpretation of biblical covenants, according to which God is a party to them with Abraham, the Israelites at Mt. Sinai, and all humanity. His political theory had the resources to give a single account of both kinds of covenants. He could have said that God accepted the transfer of rights from humans. So, he could have given a unified account of covenants. He does not say why or discuss any relationship that may exist between the two kinds. A significant element common to ordinary sovereign-making covenants and the central biblical ones is faith.
Recovering the Midwestern Ethos of Journalism Research
Authors: Pyo Jane Yeahin , Usher Nikki
Published: July 2021

This chapter is a reminder that practice and theory have gone hand in hand since the beginning of professional journalism. However, this history and this partnership have been lost somewhat, particularly when it comes to PhD research. By calling back to the land-grant mission at the universities home to the first schools of journalism in the United States (the University of Missouri, the University of Illinois, the University of Wisconsin), the chapter recalls how the focus on skills and on understanding mass communication was aligned with the mission of journalism education. The chapter examines the founding of the Institute of Communications Research at the University of Illinois and its PhD program that focused on applied journalism and mass communication research, explaining the role of legendary journalism scholar James Carey in recentering (and decentering) the tension between practice and research.
The Business of Digital News
Authors: Kiesow Damon
Published: July 2021

In news organizations today, editorial strategy is business strategy. The two are entirely intertwined. Understanding either requires studying both. With the shift to digital, the process of publishing the news has transitioned from a series of loosely coupled, sequential, and periodic production tasks to a set of complex, overlapping, and stochastic outputs requiring significant alignment and coordination to succeed. For journalists, these changes are challenging newsroom norms and driving an embrace of human-centered design practices and product thinking. For academics it is an opportunity to study the remaking of organizational roles and relationships in the business of digital news, an effort that is still in its infancy.
Rebuilding Trust through Journalism Education
Authors: Mourão Rachel R. , Shin Soo Young
Published: July 2021

This study details the development of a public affairs reporting course for journalism schools in resource-limited communities offered at a land-grant institution surrounded by a resource-strapped community. This chapter focuses on inequalities related to opportunities for engagement, both when it comes to newsrooms and academic settings. More specifically, we address the challenges of teaching a multimedia-based curriculum while maintaining historical relationships with local citizens in Michigan. Our approach of combining survey, content analysis, in-depth interviews, and a field experiment provides a framework for connecting journalism education with communities surrounding land-grant institutions.
What Is Data Literacy?
Authors: Boyles Jan Lauren
Published: July 2021

Decades after the public journalism movement attempted to redefine the relationship between news outlets and the communities they cover, local journalists are still grappling with how best to cultivate audiences in civic spaces. Community news providers—battling against diminished levels of trust in media institutions—are seeking to counter these sentiments by building closer partnerships with their readers. In this light, data journalism is often heralded for its ability to coalesce fragmented audiences in conversation around salient civic issues. Yet despite its promise, successful storytelling requires basic data literacy skills on behalf of both practitioners and the public. To understand the story, all parties must understand the data. This chapter tackles programmatic efforts to address societal shortfalls in data knowledge and accessibility across the news production/consumption spectrum (with an emphasis on journalism experiments in community news).
Would We Do It Again?
Authors: Moore Jennifer
Published: July 2021

This is a short commentary from a practice perspective. Would We Do It Again?
What Journalism Researchers Should Be Doing
Authors: Willis Derek
Published: July 2021

This is a short commentary from a practice perspective.
Nowhere to Run
Authors: Phillips Christian Dyogi
Published: July 2021

Nowhere to Run: Race, Gender, and Immigration in American Elections advances an intersectional account for why the underrepresentation of women and racial minorities in elected office has proven so persistent. Using an original dataset encompassing nearly every state legislative general election from 1996 to 2015, and interview and survey data from 42 states, the book demonstrates that factors in candidate emergence that have long been treated as exclusively “racial” or “gendered” in political science are, in fact, shaped by race and gender simultaneously. Focusing on women and men from the two fastest-growing racial groups in the United States—Asian Americans and Latina/os—the book shows that prevailing conceptions of the utility of majority-minority districts and the importance of individual-level concerns like ambition in explaining representation on the ballot require revision. The intersectional model of electoral opportunity presented in the book argues that overlapping and simultaneous structural factors play a previously underappreciated role in shaping who runs for office—and who does not. At the national level, the distribution of majority-white populations across most districts sharply constrains the number of realistic opportunities for nonwhite women and men to get on the ballot. At the local level, within districts and communities of color, the scarcity of viable opportunities to run exacerbates informal processes and institutions that tend to push women of color further from the candidate pipeline. These interactive features of the landscape of electoral opportunities produce a systemic absence of competition for descriptive representation in most state legislative elections.
Empirical Strategies for Intersectional Research
Authors: Phillips Christian Dyogi
Published: July 2021

Chapter 2 specifies how the book’s research design operationalizes intersectionality theory through its multi-method and multilevel data collection and analysis. This includes an expanded discussion of how using this framework to analyze Asian American women and men, and Latina and Latino candidates, facilitates new understandings of the relationship between race-gendered political processes and electoral opportunity within those communities, and more generally across other groups. The chapter then details the data collection processes for the book’s original datasets. The first is the Gender Race and Communities in Elections dataset, encompassing candidate and district demographic data for every state legislative general election from 1996 to 2015 in 49 states. Next, the American Leadership Survey of state legislators fielded in 2015 is described. And finally, the design for a multi-method case study of Asian American and Latina/o candidate emergence in Los Angeles County is presented.
Candidacy in Contexts
Authors: Phillips Christian Dyogi
Published: July 2021

Chapter 3 shifts and expands the lenses that extant scholarship has often relied on to explain candidate emergence. The chapter moves away from a primary focus on individual-level concerns like ambition, to an interactive set of considerations that engage individual, household, group, and macro contexts. Using national survey and interview data, the results and analysis in Chapter 3 affirm the utility of integrating individual-level concerns and domestic relationships with group membership and positioning in explaining variations in candidate emergence. Key findings include lower levels of ambition relative to white men among all other groups in the study, including groups of men, and asymmetrical impacts on domestic structures and relationships stemming from the decision to run. The chapter also relies on a feminist conceptualization of self-recognition to argue that a strong sense of immigrant identity plays a complex role in advancing the likelihood of candidacy among Asian Americans and Latina/os.
If Not Here, Then Where?
Authors: Phillips Christian Dyogi
Published: July 2021

Chapter 6 presents a case study of Asian American and Latina/o candidate emergence in Los Angeles County. The county is defined by large immigrant populations, strong coalitions of racial minorities who are Democrats, unions active in electoral politics, and an effective Latina/o political infrastructure focused on candidate development and support. Yet here, as in the rest of the country, white men’s choices about where and when to run appear relatively unconstrained while women and men from other racial groups are largely focused on running in a small number of select seats. The chapter offers new data on patterns of descriptive representation among white, African American and Asian American women and men, and Latina/os in Los Angeles County for the past two decades. The chapter also uses interviews to detail how Latinas, Latinos, and Asian American women are positioned in the political context and coalition politics of the county.
“She Came out of Nowhere”
Authors: Phillips Christian Dyogi
Published: July 2021

Chapter 7 shifts the case study of Los Angeles to group-level contexts and examines race-gendered processes of candidate development and emergence among Latina/o and Asian American political elites. Latina/os and Asian Americans as pan-ethnic groups occupy distinct positions within the electoral context of Los Angeles County. The chapter uses original qualitative data and interviews to show that the pressures associated with those positions interact with and shape the internal dynamics of candidate development within those communities in distinct ways. Latina/os’ informal but highly organized candidate emergence systems often actively exclude Latinas and limit their access to electoral opportunities that are otherwise available to Latinos. Asian Americans’ lack of political infrastructure contributes to an “entrepreneurial” field of candidates and a dearth of resources to facilitate the emergence of potential Asian American women candidates, in an electoral context marked by a high cost of entry.
Conclusion
Authors: Phillips Christian Dyogi
Published: July 2021

The concluding chapter offers a review of the main arguments and findings of the book and situates them in the broader literatures on women of color in politics, immigrant incorporation, and descriptive representation. Immigrant communities’ recent and possible future roles in reshaping American electoral processes are also discussed. The chapter specifically details how the intersectional model of electoral opportunity can offer more expansive accounts of the forces shaping descriptive representation, due to its embrace of multidimensional and multilevel analyses. This includes a discussion of how the representation of other marginalized groups that are not centrally featured in the book, such as LGBTQ communities, working-class and low-income communities, and white women, can be studied in future research using the intersectional model’s approach. The chapter closes by looking forward to upcoming redistricting processes and reforms that may address the structural challenges to equitable electoral opportunities and representation raised in the book.
Socialist Laments
Authors: Sprigge Martha
Published: July 2021

Antifascist and socialist monuments pervaded the landscape of the former German Democratic Republic (1949–1989), presenting a distorted vision of the national past. Official commemorative culture in East Germany celebrated a selective set of political heroes, seeming to leave no public space for mourning those who were excluded from the country’s founding myths. Socialist Laments: Musical Mourning in the German Democratic Republic examines the role of music in this nation’s memorial culture, demonstrating how music facilitated the expressions of loss within spaces of commemoration for East German citizens. Music performed during state-sponsored memorial rituals no doubt bolstered official narratives of the German past. But it simultaneously provided an outlet for mourning in highly politicized environment.
Introduction
Authors: Sprigge Martha
Published: July 2021

By taking the reader on a cemetery walk in the Eastern part of now-reunified Berlin, the Introduction describes how mourning practices, while constrained by the governmental strictures in the German Democratic Republic (GDR), were made possible through musical practices. It positions the book within musicological work on the Cold War and provides an overview of antifascism, which was the central framework for interpreting the nation’s past in East Germany, particularly World War II. Rather than taking a bifurcated approach to German memory politics during the Cold War, a central premise of Socialist Laments is that music was a medium that facilitated the coexistence of mourning and commemoration in the GDR. To demonstrate, the Introduction articulates a theory of musical mourning that combines psychological understandings of grief work with site-specific hermeneutics, arguing that embodied practices are crucial for understanding how mourning took place within the memorial spaces of former East Germany.
Power and Liberty
Authors: Wood Gordon S.
Published: July 2021

This book covers major issues of constitutionalism in the American Revolution. It begins with the imperial debate over taxation and representation between the colonists and the British government. That debated climaxed with the Declaration of Independence. Each of the former colonies became republics and drew up written constitutions with several of them including bills of rights. These constitutions established patterns that later influenced the federal Constitution created in 1787, including bicameral legislatures, independent executives, and independent judiciaries. But because the Confederation of the states lacked the power to tax and regulate trade and the state legislatures were abusing their considerable power, the revolutionaries sought to solve both problems with a new federal Constitution in 1787. In addition to having to recognize the equality of each state in the Senate, the Convention faced the problem with slavery. Although most Americans thought that slavery was gradually dying, South Carolina and Georgia wanted to import more slaves and forced the Convention to guarantee twenty more years of slave importations and some protections for slavery in the Constitution. The institution that benefited most from the Revolution was the judiciary. It became very important in monitoring the demarcation between the public and the private realms that emerged from the Revolution.
The Imperial Debate
Authors: Wood Gordon S.
Published: July 2021

This chapter covers the imperial debate between the colonists and Great Britain between the early 1760s and 1776. The debate began with the differing ideas of representation held by the colonists and the mother country. But eventually it came to focus on the doctrine of sovereignty that said that in every state there must be one final supreme lawmaking authority. The colonists’ inability to deal with the doctrine of sovereignty forced them to create a new conception of the British Empire in which they were outside of Parliament’s authority and tied only to the king. The debate climaxed with the Declaration of Independence.
The Crisis of the 1780s
Authors: Wood Gordon S.
Published: July 2021

This chapter describes the crisis that led to the calling of the convention that created the federal Constitution in 1787. Although the Articles of Confederation that united the thirteen states lacked the powers to tax and regulate trade, the country was not doing too badly economically or demographically. But the state legislatures were abusing the great power that had been granted to them in the revolutionary state constitutions and tending to ran amuck. The multiplicity, mutability, and injustice of state legislation, especially with the printing of paper money, led reformers to use the weakness of the Confederation as a cover to scrap the Articles and to create an entirely new and powerful central government.
Slavery and Constitutionalism
Authors: Wood Gordon S.
Published: July 2021

One of the major problems faced by Americans in the Revolutionary era was slavery, and they had made it a problem. Slavery had existed in the colonies for generations without substantial criticism until the Revolution. Abolishing slavery became one of the major reforms undertaken by the Revolutionaries. In the northern states they were reasonably successful, putting an end to slavery by 1804. Virginia was crucial, and there the effort failed. Virginians and others consoled themselves with the illusion that slavery was dying a natural death. But the desire of South Carolina and Georgia for twenty more years of slave importation should have exposed the illusions. The Deep South’s commitment to slavery required protective clauses in the new Constitution that eventually became sources of sectional division.
The Great Demarcation Between Public and Private
Authors: Wood Gordon S.
Published: July 2021

One of the major consequences of the Revolution was a clarification of the demarcation between private and public. In the ancien régime of the colonial period, the distinction between private and public had often been blurred. Social authority seemed to be a prerequisite to political authority, which enabled private individuals to conduct public affairs as if they were their own private business. The state was weak and used its legal authority to entice or compel private individuals to undertake things on behalf of the public. This was seen most clearly in the use of the corporation. All this was changed by the Revolution. Within a few years following the Declaration of Independence, the relation between state and society, pubic and private, including the nature of the corporation, had been transformed.
Epilogue
Authors: Wood Gordon S.
Published: July 2021

This brief epilogue attempts to answer why Rhode Island was so criticized and why it alone refused to attend the Constitutional Convention. It was by far the most democratic colony and state and the most commercially advanced. It had the weakest elite and the most middling elements, which made it an ideal example of what was to come in the wild and disorderly northern economy of antebellum America. Its excessive paper money was a symptom of its advanced commercial character and the source of much of its economic success in the nineteenth century.
Big Hopes and Trouble, 1961–1969
Authors: Kelly Catriona
Published: July 2021

In 1961, the government bodies responsible for film production (the Ministries of Culture of the USSR and RSFSR) forcibly imposed on a reluctant Lenfilm the complete reorganization of production planning. The old Scripts Department was shut down and three “creative units” set up. This change was pushed through by Lenfilm’s energetic and flamboyant new general director, Ilya Kiselev, who had begun his career as an actor. Of the creative units, the earliest to emerge was the Third Creative Unit, which soon had a role as the flagship of contemporary cinema, a genre heavily promoted during the Thaw. However, the Third Creative Unit ran into increasing trouble as political control tightened after Khrushchev was forced to resign, and in 1969, it was closed down altogether. Yet life was not always calmer in the other units, as witnessed in particular by the difficulties that gripped the Second Creative Unit’s efforts to produce movies commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of the October Revolution in 1967, and by the problems of the First Creative Unit in establishing its own character and repertoire. At the same time, the general political line at this period, while unpredictable, was not uniformly harsh, as manifested in the conclusion of Leningrad’s Party leader that audiences could “make up their own mind” about a film he disliked.
Trust in Talent
Authors: Kelly Catriona
Published: July 2021

This chapter examines the career of Ilya Averbakh, whose work more than any other director’s came to signify to 1970s audiences the essence of “Lenfilm style.” It contends that a key factor in Averbakh’s easy progress to authority among his elders was his capacity to inspire trust not just by his professional standing within the world of cinema, or his elite Leningrad background, but by virtue of his former professional life as a physician—that is, his membership of a group that enjoyed particularly high esteem from the Soviet population generally. The chapter also traces the resonance of trust in Averbakh’s own films, and particularly, Degree of Risk (which represents a cardiologist) and Monologue, where a scientist’s difficult path to professional rehabilitation is juxtaposed to his increasingly tense relations with his student-age granddaughter.
Hystoria
Authors: Kelly Catriona
Published: July 2021

Aleksei German’s recollections of his time at Lenfilm emphasize his own marginality and beleaguered status. The documentary record does not bear this out. However, the conviction that he had endured discrimination and misery was, for German, creatively energizing. Whether in relation to his own life or in relation to history more broadly, German sought not to establish facts in order to challenge or undermine myths, but to use myths of his own to challenge official myths. In other words, he tried to combat official war history on its own terms, rather than searching for alternative, antimythic narratives. Hence the provocativeness of German’s historical films with the agencies that were charged with protecting the integrity of official memory. Added to this, it was the emotional resonance of German’s historical films that made them problematic, their frequent recourse to hysteria not just in the sense of uncontrollable weeping, shrieking, and laughter, but in the technical, Freudian, sense, where hysteria applies to a specific worldview and set of discursive principles. This chapter traces these elements with particular reference to My Friend Ivan Lapshin, perhaps German’s greatest film, which also represented a decisive break with the “Lenfilm style” of the late 1960s and 1970s, and the start of a new artistic era.
Phrase Structure
Authors: Mirka Danuta
Published: July 2021

This chapter focuses on phrase structure, whose discussion in the eighteenth century was subsumed under the theory of melody and based on the parallel between music and language. The first part is devoted to classification of caesuras and melodic sections contained by them. Since the former were equivalent to punctuation marks (period, colon, semicolon, comma) and the latter to grammatical units (sentences, clauses), the musical terminology adopted by eighteenth-century authors (Johann Mattheson, Joseph Riepel, Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg, Johann Philipp Kirnberger, and Heinrich Christoph Koch) was influenced by linguistic terminology and it developed for decades, with meanings of individual terms changing from author to author. The second part of the chapter treats the different lengths of phrases. It links the preference for four-measure phrases to regular hypermeter and it presents a classification of four-measure phrase rhythms.
Hypermetrical Irregularities in Basic Phrases
Authors: Mirka Danuta
Published: July 2021

This chapter’s focus is on hypermetrical irregularities caused by irregular phrases. It addresses five-, six-, and seven-measure phrases, considers their use as recommended by eighteenth-century music theorists, and discusses their subdivision into shorter segments. It then shifts to much longer phrases without subdivisions. While not recommended by theorists, such phrases were used by eighteenth-century composers. A series of analyses in the final part of the chapter illustrates Haydn’s use of irregular phrases and illuminates their formal implications in minuet movements of string quartets Op. 50 No. 3 and No. 4 and in the first movement of Op. 55 No. 2.
Hypermetrical Irregularities in Compound Phrases
Authors: Mirka Danuta
Published: July 2021

The chapter is devoted to hypermetrical irregularities caused by techniques of phrase linkage, including overlap and elision. It traces the historical pedigree of these concepts and compares their use by Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff (1983) to that by William Rothstein (1989). It supplements the concepts of left and right elision, distinguished by the former authors, with the concepts of left and right deletion. It then concentrates on phrase linkages that occur at formal junctures marked by cadences and it presents a classification of all hypermetric scenarios at such junctures. In the final part it evaluates the concept of “shadow hypermeter.”
Disorder in Kandahar
Authors: Malkasian Carter
Published: July 2021

Chapter Six, “Disorder in Kandahar,” explains how government mistreatment, American policies, Pakistan, and tribal competition from 2002 to 2005 contributed to the return of the Taliban .
The 2006 Taliban Offensive
Authors: Malkasian Carter
Published: July 2021

Chapter Seven, “The 2006 Taliban Offensive,” details the Taliban military attacks of 2006 in Helmand, Kandahar, and elsewhere that marked a turning point in the war.
Taliban Advances
Authors: Malkasian Carter
Published: July 2021

Chapter Ten, “Taliban Advances,” covers the Taliban successes in 2008 in Helmand and Kandahar, as well as outcome of the US military campaign in the mountains of Kunar and Nuristan.
Looking Back
Authors: Malkasian Carter
Published: July 2021

Chapter Twenty-One, “Looking Back,” concludes the book. It identifies the significance of the war for Afghanistan and the United States. It answers the overarching questions of the book: Why did the United States fail? What opportunities existed to reach a better outcome? Why did the United States not withdraw from the war?
Introduction
Authors: Moreda Rodríguez Eva
Published: July 2021

The introduction sets out the aims of the book—namely, to produce a cultural history of the phonograph in Spain, from the first notices about Edison’s invention in 1878, to the development of the music record as a commercial product and as a cultural artifact. It situates the book within existing research, arguing that telling the early history of recording technologies necessitates a context-sensitive approach that puts the focus on how local discourses, practices, and communities contributed to shaping these transnational technologies. It sets out the historical and political context in which the phonograph arrived to and developed in Spain, focusing on the political and cultural movement known as Regeneracionismo.
Introduction
Authors: Moss-Wellington Wyatt
Published: July 2021

This introduction lays out the book’s foundational philosophies and scope. It makes a case for the ways in which current metaethical trends in cognitive media theory could be extended to more normative and prescriptive goals, and explains how our inherent acts of moral evaluation in media engagement could be refined using the resources of cognitive science. Normativity, in the pressure it puts on theorists to ask “so what?” and to explain the practical applications of their knowledge, is positioned as a rigor that can be brought to current theories of film and screen media. The chapter considers foundational problems in drawing prescriptive ethics from scientific descriptions of the world, addresses the political and cultural challenges to a normative approach, and establishes key themes that will be explored throughout the book.