bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Hough-like approach to the measurement and detection of symmetry in two- and three-dimensional structures
Authors: Beltrán-del-Río Luís , Gómez-Rodríguez Alfredo
Published: November 2003

In this work an algorithm for the detection and measurement of symmetry in material aggregates is presented. The algorithm is based on the Hough transform in the sense that points (and pairs and triplets of points) `vote' for all the symmetry elements that are compatible with them.
The `Octopus' plate for protein crystallization under an electric field
Authors: Charron C. , Didierjean C. , Mangeot J. P. , Aubry A.
Published: November 2003

A piece of equipment, adapted to a vapour-diffusion plate, has been designed to apply an external electrical field during the crystallization of protein samples.
Promoting entrepreneurship – changing attitudes or behaviour?
Authors: Dreisler Poul , Blenker Per , Nielsen Kent
Published: November 2003

The objective of this article is to analyse the Danish policies used to promote entrepreneurship during the last 30 years. The initiatives to promote entrepreneurship have been implemented as part of the Danish industrial policy. The initiatives are presented and ordered according to a model of planned social change, examining whether they are trying to create a change in attitudes or in behaviour or in both? This analysis has implications beyond the Danish case, as general reflections on entrepreneurship policy are induced from the analysis. It is argued that policy makers should reflect whether the target groups towards which policy initiatives are directed: first, have a positive or negative attitude towards entrepreneurship, and second, are engaged or not engaged in entrepreneurial action.
Multiple entrepreneurship among successful SMEs in peripheral locations
Authors: Pasanen Mika
Published: November 2003

Multiple entrepreneurship can offer an alternative approach to understanding business growth mechanisms. Despite the growing interest in entrepreneurs who have been involved in more than one venture, few studies have focused on serial and portfolio entrepreneurship. This article explores the prevalence of multiple entrepreneurship among successful small and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs) in peripheral locations, and compares SMEs owned by multiple business entrepreneurs with SMEs owned by single business entrepreneurs. Multiple business entrepreneurs were defined as SME owner‐managers who are both serial and portfolio owners simultaneously. Among successful owner‐managed SMEs 22 per cent of firms were owned by such multiple entrepreneurs, and only 50 per cent by single business entrepreneurs. The comparison revealed 11 variables that showed differences between these two groups of SMEs. Multiple entrepreneurship was emphasized among entrepreneurs of growth firms. The findings suggest that more attention should be paid to the roles of the multiple entrepreneurs in regional economic development.
Farm‐based entrepreneurs: what triggers the start‐up of new business activities?
Authors: Agnete Alsos Gry , Ljunggren Elisabet , Toril Pettersen Liv
Published: November 2003

This exploratory study combines three theoretical approaches to investigate why farmers start additional business activities: the rural sociology perspective, the opportunity perspective and the resource‐based perspective – as applied within entrepreneurship research. Building on in‐depth interviews of respondents from Norwegian farm households, three types of entrepreneurs were identified: the pluriactive farmer, the resource exploiting entrepreneur and the portfolio entrepreneur. These entrepreneurial types differed in regard to their basic motivation and objectives for start‐up, the source of their business ideas, the basis of competitive position and the connectivity between the new business and the farm, as well as in several other ways.
Disciplining Society through the City: The Genesis of City Planning in Brazil and Argentina (1894–1945)
Authors: Outtes Joel
Published: November 2003

This paper looks at the genesis of a discourse on urbanismo (city planning) in Brazil and Argentina between 1894 and 1945 using the ideas of Michel Foucault on discipline and his concept of bio–power. The demographic pattern of the major cities in both countries from 1890 onwards and the renewals of the centres of these cities are also discussed. Other sections are dedicated to the plans proposed for the same cities in the 1920s and to urban representations, such as ideas about social reform, the role of hygiene as a point of departure for planning, and the relationship of ideas on Taylorism (scientific management) and the city. The paper also discusses the planners opposition to elections, when they claimed that they were the only ones qualified to deal with urban problems and therefore they should be employed in the state apparatus.

Other concerns of the paper are the use of planning as an element of nation building and ideas defining eugenics (race ‘betterment’) as an important aspect of city planning. I conclude by arguing that, if implemented, city planning was a way of creating an industrial culture, disciplining society through the city, although the industrial proletariat has never made up the majority of the population in Brazil or Argentina. Even if many aspects of the plans proposed for both countries were not implemented, the discourse of planners can be seen as a will to discipline society through the city. This discipline would affect the freedom of movement of human bodies, and is therefore approached through Foucault's concepts of bio–power and discipline
Strangers in their own land: friendship issues when children have cancer
Authors: Fraser Deborah F. G.
Published: November 2003

More children than ever before are surviving childhood cancer. While treatment protocols have improved, there is little consideration given to their ongoing educational needs, including their social needs for positive peer relationships and friendships. This qualitative study of 12 families included children from four to 15 years of age. Most of the children were attending primary school and half were still undergoing treatment. Interviews in family homes were undertaken with parents, children with cancer and their siblings. The results show that most of these children with cancer have special social relationship needs beyond the impact of absence from school. This article focuses specifically upon friendships and peer relationships which often change dramatically when a child has cancer. Such changes can place children with cancer at risk both academically and emotionally. Some suggestions for addressing this issue are explored.
A blind person's cognitive mapping of new spaces using a haptic virtual environment
Authors: Lahav Orly , Mioduser David
Published: November 2003

Mental mapping of spaces is essential for the development of efficient orientation and mobility skills. Most of the information required for mental mapping is gathered through the visual channel. Blind people lack this crucial information, facing in consequence difficulties in mapping as well as navigating spaces. The work reported here is based on the assumption that the supply of appropriate spatial information through compensatory sensorial channels may contribute to blind people's spatial performance. The main goals of this study were: (a) the development of a haptic virtual environment enabling blind people to learn about real life spaces; (b) the study of blind people's cognitive mapping of these spaces; and (c) the study of the contribution of this mapping to blind people's spatial skills and performance in the real environment. The focus of this paper is on a case study of G, a 25‐year‐old late blind. The results were encouraging: G mastered the ability to navigate the virtual environment in a short time; after navigating, he generated a verbal description and a physical model of it which unveiled a fairly precise map of a space he did not know before; and finally G showed impressive navigating performance in the real space.
Efficient Photosensitization of Nanocrystalline TiO2 Films by a New Class of Sensitizer: cis-Dithiocyanato bis(4,7-dicarboxy-1,10-phenanthroline)ruthenium(II)
Authors: Sugihara Hideki , Singh Lok Pratap , Sayama Kazuhiro , Arakawa Hironori , Nazeeruddin Md K , Grätzel Michael
Published: November 2003

A new class of ruthenium(II) complexes containing carboxylated 1,10-phenanthroline were synthesized. Photosensitization of nanocrystalline TiO2 electrode by bis(tetrabutylammonium)dihydronium cis-dithiocyanato bis(4,7-dicarboxy-1,10-phenanthroline)ruthenium(II) showed a high incident photon-to-current conversion efficiency (IPCE: 70% at 540 nm). The overall solar-to-electric power conversion efficincy of 6.1% was obtained at AM-1.5 (100 mW/cm2).
Conformational and Orientational Switching of Uridine Derivatives by Borates
Authors: Wada Takehiko , Minamimoto Narutoshi , Inaki Yoshiaki , Inoue Yoshihisa
Published: November 2003

We have demonstrated for the first time that the syn-anti orientation of 5′-amino-5′-deoxyuridine (1b) can readily be switched by adding borate as an extermal controlling factor. In borate added phosphate buffer, the syn/anti ratio of 1b dramatically increased with increasing borate concentration. This unique syn preference is most probably driven by the cooperative action of cyclic esterification of the 1b’s 2′,3′-cis-diol with borate and of hydrogen-bonding formation between 2-carbonyl oxygen and 5′-amino proton.
Preparation and Characterization of a Polyrotaxane with Non-enzymatically Hydrolyzable Stoppers
Authors: Watanabe Junji , Ooya Tooru , Yui Nobuhiko
Published: November 2003

A degradable polyrotaxane, in which many α-cyclodextrins are threaded onto the poly (ethylene glycol) capped with L-phenylalanine via ester linkages, was synthesized and characterized for use as new implantable materials.
Synthesis and Structure of Cyclotrigermenium Salt of the Tetrakis{3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl}borate Anion. A Stable Free Germyl Cation in the Condensed Phase
Authors: Ichinohe Masaaki , Fukaya Norihisa , Sekiguchi Akira
Published: November 2003

The reaction of tetrakis(tri-t-butylsilyl)cyclotrigermene with Ph3C+·[3,5-(CF3)2C6H3]B− (TFPB) and Ph3C+·(C6F5)4B− (TPFPB) in benzene produced the stable free tris(tri-t-butylsilyl)cyclotrigermenium ion (2a) with the corresponding tetraarylborate as a counter anion. The crystal structure of 2a·TFPB reveals a free germyl cation with a 2π-electron system.
New Protocol for the Siteselective Alkylation and Vinylation of Aromatic Compounds. Catalyst-Specific Reactions
Authors: Kakiuchi Fumitoshi , Sato Taisuke , Tsujimoto Takuya , Yamauchi Masakazu , Chatani Naoto , Murai Shinji
Published: November 2003

Catalyst-specific C-H/olefin as well as C-H/acetylene coupling has been accomplished for aromatics which contain both keto and imino substituents by simply changing the catalyst. By using Ru(H)2(CO)(PPh3)3 as the catalyst, the C-H bond at the position ortho to the carbonyl group reacted to add across an olefin. When Ru3(CO)12 is used as the catalyst, the C-H bond at the position ortho to the imino group reacted with the olefin.
Mechanistic and IR Spectroelectrochemical Studies for Alkali Metal Ion Catalyzed Multiple Bond Metathesis Reactions of Carbon Dioxide
Authors: Kim Woo Young , Chang Jong-San , Park Sang-Eon , Ferrence Gregory , Kubiak Clifford P
Published: November 2003

The reaction of the tetrakis(alkyl or aryl isocyanide) complex, Ni(CNR)4 (R = 2,6-Me2C6H3, Me), with carbon dioxide in the presence of Li+ leads to the formation of Ni(CO)2(CNR)2 and the alkyl- or arylisocyanate, RN=C=O. 13C-labeling studies indicate that the carbonyl ligands of Ni(CO)2(CNR)2 are produced by multiple bond metatheses between CO2 and CNR (R = 2,6-Me2C6H3, Me) not by deoxygenation of CO2.
First Artificial Energy Conversion from Proton Gradient to Electricity
Authors: Tsuge Kiyoshi , Tanaka Koji
Published: November 2003

The proton gradient is catalytically converted to electricity by ruthenium aqua complex [Ru(trpy)(3,5-di-tert-butylquinone)(H2O)]2+ (trpy = 2,2′:6,2″-terpyridine). The first successful energy conversion from proton gradient to electricity is based on the redox reactions of this ruthenium complex coupled with acid-base reaction.
Design, Development and Utility of Glycosyl Donors Bearing an Acetoxymethoxy Leaving Group
Authors: Mereyala Hari Babu , Gurrala Srinivas Reddy
Published: November 2003

Novel glycosyl donors 2d, 4d and 6d bearing an ‘acetoxy methoxy’ leaving group have been prepared and their utility is shown by coupling them with alcohols A-G to obtain di- and trisaccharides by use of BF3-Et2O as a promoter.
New Organic Gelalors Bearing a Porphyrin Group: A New Strategy to Create Ordered Porphyrin Assemblies
Authors: Tian Hong Jian , Inoue Kazuhiko , Yoza Kenji , Ishi-i Tsutomu , Shinkai Seiji
Published: November 2003

Cholesterol-based gelators 1 bearing a porphyrin moiety were synthesized. (S)-1 with a natural C-3 configuration could gelatinize a few solvents whereas (R)-1 with an inverted C-3 configuration could not gelatinize any solvent. The absorption and CD spectra for less cohesive (R)-1 were changed only to a smaller extent at 10−5∼10−2mol dm−3 whereas more cohesive (S)-1 gave a new λmax at 444 nm and its corresponding CD band only in the gel phase. The results indicate that “gelation” is a new strategy to create ordered porphyrin assemblies.
Decomposition and Regeneration of Methane by Hydrogen Absorbing Alloys
Authors: Otsuka Kiyoshi , Nakajima Naoto , Yamanaka Ichiro
Published: November 2003

CaNi5, a hydrogen absorbing alloy, has been applied for the complete decomposition and regerneration of methane. The complete decomposition of methane was realized at 773∼873K over CaNi5 when the amount of methane introduced had been less than 800 μmol·g-CaNi5−1. The complete recovery of methane was observed by adding excess hydrogen at 773K if the amount of carbon deposit had been controlled less than 100 μmol·g-CaNi5−1.
Novel Dimers of 2,2′-(m-Phenylene)bis(4,5-diphenyl-1-imidazolyl) Diradical
Authors: Okada Keiji , Imamura Kunihiko , Oda Masaji , Kozaki Masatoshi , Morimoto Yoshiki , Ishino Kiyotaka , Tashiro Kohji
Published: November 2003

The oxidation of 2,2′-(m-phenylene)bis(4,5-diphenylimidazole) 1 with potassium ferricyanide in benzene-aqueous KOH heterogeneous solution gave the diradical dimers 2 and 3. The dimer 2 showed photochromic and piezochromic properties, whereas the dimer 3 has only photochromic property. The structure of the dimers was deduced by NMR analyses. The X-ray structural analysis revealed that the dimer 3 has a novel syn-[3.3]metacyclophane structure.
Synthesis and Molecular Structure of Tetranuclear Tungsten-Gallium Complexes with Bridging Dinitrogen Ligands
Authors: Takagahara Kaoru , Ishino Hiroshige , Ishii Youichi , Hidai Masanobu
Published: November 2003

The dinitrogen complex cis-[W(N2)2(PMe2Ph)4] reacted with Ga2Cl4 or GaX3 (X = Cl, Br) to form tetranuclear tungsten-gallium complexes with μ3-η1:η1:η1-N2 ligands, trans, trans-[{WX(PMe2Ph)4(μ3-N2)}2(GaX2)2] (3). The molecular structure of complex 3a (X = Cl) has been determined by X-ray diffraction study.
Reactions of Alkenylruthenium(II) Complexes with Hydrosilane: C-Si vs C-H Bond Formation
Authors: Maruyama Yooichiroh , Yamamura Kunihiro , Ozawa Fumiyuki
Published: November 2003

Alkenylruthenium complexes, Ru{C(R1)=CH(R2)}Cl(CO)(PPh3)2 (R1 = H, R2 = Ph; R1 = H, R2 = t-Bu; R1 = Ph, R2 = Ph; R1 = CH=CH(SiMe3), R2 = SiMe2Ph), react with HSiMe2Ph via two reaction courses (path A and path B), leading to C–Si and C–H bond formation, respectively. Relative ratio of the two courses is strongly dependent upon steric bulkiness of substituent(s) on the alkenyl ligands.
The Unusual Fluorescence Strengthened by Steric Hindrance
Authors: Song Aimin , Wu Tao , Zhang Manhua , Shen Tao
Published: November 2003

In four dyads of fluorescein and carbazole, photoinduced intramolecular electron transfer occurred in polar solvents and was negligible in nonpolar solvents. However, unprecedented fluorescence strengthening in the dyad linked with a semi-rigid bridge (-CH2-Ph-CH2-) at the carboxyl of fluorescein (as 3.2 and 10 times as the model dibutyl derivative of fluorescein in toluene and cyclohexane, respectively) was observed. Experimental data showed it could result from steric hindrance.
Theoretical Studies on Cyclopropanation Reaction with Lithium and Zinc Carbenoids
Authors: Hirai Atsushi , Nakamura Masaharu , Nakamura Eiichi
Published: November 2003

Theoretical studies on cyclopropanation of ethylene with lithium carbenoid and zinc carbenoid (Simmons-Smith reagent) revealed two competing pathways, methylene transfer and carbometalation. Both processes are fast for the lithium carbenioid, while only the former is fast enough to be experimentally observable for the zinc carbenoid.
Syntheses of Ruthenium Chlorohydroborato Complexes Cp*RU(PMe3)(η2-BH3Cl) and CP*Ru(PMe3)(η2-BH2Cl2): Unexpected Chloride Transfer from Ruthenium to Boron
Authors: Kawano Yasuro , Shimoi Mamoru
Published: November 2003

Trimethylphosphineborane (1) reacted with [Cp*RuCl]4 to lead the unexpected chloride transfer from ruthenium to boron affording a chlorotrihydroborato ruthenium complex [Cp*Ru(PMe3)(η2-BH3Cl)] (2) in 44% yield. The structure of 2 was elucidated by X-ray crystallography. Reaction of 1 with [Cp*RUCl2]2 produced a dichlorodihydroborato complex [Cp*Ru(PMe3)(η2-BH2Cl2)] (3) besides 2.
Surface Functionalization of Doped CVD Diamond via Covalent Bond. An XPS Study on the Formation of Surface-bound Quaternary Pyridinium Salt
Authors: Ohtani Bunsho , Kim Young-ho , Yano Takashi , Hashimoto Kazuhito , Fujishima Akira , Uosaki Kohei
Published: November 2003

Lightly boron-doped polycrystalline diamond thin films prepared on single crystal silicon wafers via chemical vapor deposition (CVD) were treated with chlorine (Cl2) under ultraviolet (> 200 nm) photoirradiation and then heated in boiling pyridine. Ex situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopic measurements suggested the plausible formation of surface-bound chloride species and quaternary pyridinium salt by these chemical processes.
Evidence for Spontaneous Cycloaromatization of Nine-Membered Monocyclic Enediyne
Authors: Mita Takashi , Kawata Shinji , Hirama Masahiro
Published: November 2003

Treatment of 2,2-dimethyl-6-nonene-4,8-diynal (2) with CeCl3/LiN(TMS)2 at −5∼25°C gave 2,2-dimethyl-1-indanol (3) in a moderate yield. In the present study, acyclic (Z)-enediyne aldehyde (2) was cyclized to afford a nine-membered monocyclic enediyne (7), which cycloaromatized spontaneously at room temperature.
Detection of Molecular-Shape Recognition for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons by α-Helical Poly(L-Alanine) on Silica
Authors: Ihara Hirotaka , Nakanishi Noritada , Sagawa Takashi , Hirayama Chuichi , Sakurai Toshihiko , Kinoshita Takatoshi , Tsujita Yoshiharu
Published: November 2003

α-Helical poly(L-alanine) grafted onto porous silica particles with a reactive terminal trimethoxysilyl group showed a specific shape-selective retention for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, recognizing their molecular linearities and slenderness. This selectivity is derived from the carbonyl groups on the rigid secondary structure and thus the poly(L-leucine) derivative having bulky residual groups showed almost no similar selectivity.
Characterization of an Intramolecular Nonbonded Interaction between Selenium and Fluorine in Solution
Authors: Iwaoka Michio , Komatsu Hiroto , Tomoda Shuji
Published: November 2003

NMR measurements of JSe···F coupling constants (22.7–84.2 Hz) of o-selenobenzyl fluoride derivatives in solution provided strong evidence for weak intramolecular selenium-fluorine nonbonded interaction, in which fluorine donates electrons to selenium.
Novel Thiolato-Bridged Tetranuclear Manganese(II) and Iron(II) Complexes with Adamantane-like Cores
Authors: Mikuriya Masahiro , Kotera Takanori
Published: November 2003

Thiolato-bridged tetranuclear manganese(II) and iron(II) complexes, [M4Lb3Cl]Cl (M = Mn and Fe; H2Lb = 2-[bis(2-mercaptoethyl)aminomethyl]pyridine), have been isolated and characterized by X-ray crystallography, which reveals an adamantane-like M4S6 core. Magnetic susceptibility data show an overall antiferromagnetic interaction.
Redox Active Artificial Ferrocenyl Ellagitannins. Simple Synthesis and Their Electrochemical Properties
Authors: Itoh Toshiyuki , Shirakami Shohei , Nakao Yasuo , Yoshida Takashi
Published: November 2003

Synthesis of three types of novel redox active artificial ferrocenyl ellagitannins has been accomplished in just three steps, and their electrochemical properties have been investigated.
Stereospecific Double Aldol Reaction of Phenylacetaldehyde Catalyzed by Group 4 Metallocene
Authors: Yun Sock-Sung , Suh IL-Hwan , Choi Sung-San , Lee Samkeun
Published: November 2003

Reaction of phenylacetaldehyde with catalytic amount of “Cp2M” (M = Ti, Zr) produces spectroscopically pure 5-benzyl-1, 3-dihydroxy-2, 4-diphenyl pyran as single isomer in good yield, which could be assumed formal trimerization of phenylacetaldehyde.
Fluxional Behavior of Alkoxy-Bridged Bis(silylene)ruthenium Complexes Cp*(Me3P)Ru{SiMe2···O(R)···SiMe2}(R = Me,tBu) Caused by Rotation of the Silylene Ligands
Authors: Wada Hiroaki , Tobita Hiromi , Ogino Hiroshi
Published: November 2003

The exchange of Si-Me groups caused by silylene ligand rotation in alkoxy-bridged bis(silylene)complexes Cp*(Me3P)Ru{SiMe2···O(R)···SiMe2}(R = Me,tBu) is observed by the variable temperature 1H NMR (VT 1H NMR) spectroscopy. This fluxionality is considered to be due to the weakened Si···O partial bonds caused by the strong electron-releasing effect of Cp* and PMe3 ligands.
Using Multimarket Data to Predict Brand Performance in Markets for Which No or Poor Data Exist
Authors: Bronnenberg Bart J. , Sismeiro Catarina
Published: November 2003

The authors show how multimarket data can be used to make predictions about brand performance in markets for which no or poor data exist. To obtain these predictions, the authors propose a model for market similarity that incorporates the structure of the U.S. retailing industry and the geographic location of markets. The model makes use of the idea that if two markets have the same retailers or are located close to each other, then branded goods in these markets should have similar sales performance (other factors being held constant). In holdout samples, the proposed spatial prediction method improves greatly on naive predictors such as global-market averages, nearest neighbor predictors, or local averages. In addition, the authors show that the spatial model gives more plausible estimates of price elasticities. It does so for two reasons. First, the spatial model helps solve an omitted variables problem by allowing for unobserved factors with a cross-market structure. An example of such unobserved factors is the shelf-space allocations made at the retail-chain level. Second, the model deals with uninformative estimates of price elasticities by drawing them toward their local averages. The authors discuss other substantive issues as well as future research.
Search and Alignment in Judgment Revision: Implications for Brand Positioning
Authors: Pham Michel Tuan , Muthukrishnan A.V.
Published: November 2003

The authors propose a model of judgment revision, which posits that counterattitudinal challenges to a brand initially trigger a memory search for proattitudinal information about the brand. The proattitudinal information accessible from memory is then aligned with information contained in the challenge in order to assess the diagnosticity of the challenge, that is, how much it “damages” the retrieved brand information. If the challenge is not perceived to be diagnostic, the retrieved brand information is used to defend the previous attitudinal position. If the challenge is perceived to be diagnostic, judgments are revised in direct proportion to the amount of damage identified in the alignment phase. Four experiments test the model's predictions about the influence of abstract versus attribute-specific brand positioning on judgment revision. Consistent with the model's predictions, results show that compared with attribute-specific positioning, abstract positioning will result in less judgment revision when the challenge is specific (e.g., a direct attack about particular attributes of the brand) and the initial brand evaluation is based on limited learning of the positioning information. When the challenge is general (e.g., a blanket, unspecific negative statement about the brand), abstract positioning will result in greater judgment revision than attribute-specific positioning will. The differential effectiveness of abstract versus attribute-specific positioning is mediated by (1) the accessibility in memory of the positioning information at the time of the challenge and (2) the perceived diagnosticity of the challenge after alignment with the retrieved brand information.
The Field behind the Screen: Using Netnography for Marketing Research in Online Communities
Authors: Kozinets Robert V.
Published: November 2003

The author develops “netnography” as an online marketing research technique for providing consumer insight. Netnography is ethnography adapted to the study of online communities. As a method, netnography is faster, simpler, and less expensive than traditional ethnography and more naturalistic and unobtrusive than focus groups or interviews. It provides information on the symbolism, meanings, and consumption patterns of online consumer groups. The author provides guidelines that acknowledge the online environment, respect the inherent flexibility and openness of ethnography, and provide rigor and ethics in the conduct of marketing research. As an illustrative example, the author provides a netnography of an online coffee newsgroup and discusses its marketing implications.
Color Vision
Authors: Knoblauch Kenneth
Published: November 2003

Color vision is a multistage process which can be studied at various levels, if not yet all the way from physics to perception.Trichromacyand linearity (Grassmann's Laws) of human color matching permit the coding oflightsin a three‐dimensional vector space. These principles are well accounted for by three independent channels, beginning with the absorption oflightin three classes of cone photopigments and encoding information between the retina and the cortex. The basic notions for constructing and usingcolor spacesare reviewed.Trichromacy, however, does not account for the appearance of colors. Analyses of the perceptual organization of color suggest that six psychologically elementary hues are organized in three opponent‐processes: red‐green, yellow‐blue, and white‐black. Hue cancellation experiments indicate that the channels underlying these perceptual processes are nonlinearly related to the signals emanating from the cones.
Decision Making
Authors: Markman Arthur B. , Medin Douglas L.
Published: November 2003

For much of the 20th century, decision making research was strongly influenced by theories in economics. Economic models predict that people strive to make optimal decisions. True optimality is impossible to achieve given limitations in processing ability, and so much research examined the heuristics that people use to make good decisions in most natural situations. We begin by reviewing this work. However, there has been growing interest in the relationship between decision making and other aspects of psychological processing. The core areas of this emerging research are discussed in the second half of this chapter. First, we present research relating goals, motivation, and emotion to decision making. Then, we consider the role of expertise, analogical comparison and problem solving strategies in choice. Finally, we explore the types of choices people make and how those choices are influenced by culture. In this way, we examine the ways that decision making research has gone beyond its roots in economic models of choice.
The Role of Learning in the Operation of Motivational Systems
Authors: Dickinson Anthony , Balleine Bernard
Published: November 2003

Acquired behavior is motivated by two forms of incentive learning. Pavlovian incentive learning reflects the acquisition of motivational properties by conditioned stimuli (CSs) through their association with appetitive and aversive reinforcers. Although the influence of appetitive CSs is modulated by primary motivational states, they exert a general motivation influence on appetitive behavior. By contrast, aversive CSs inhibit appetitive behavior. The second process, instrumental incentive learning, determines the incentive value assigned to outcomes of goal‐directed, instrumental action. This incentive value, and its control by primary motivational states, has to be learned through experience of the hedonic reactions elicited by the outcome. The two incentive learning processes function in parallel to motivate instrumental behavior.
Hunger and Energy Homeostasis
Authors: Woods Stephen C. , Seeley Randy J.
Published: November 2003

Food intake is a complex behavior so integral to our everyday experience that its complex and redundant biological underpinnings are often ignored or misunderstood. The biological control of ingestive behavior is multifold. First, there are a number of biological systems that operate within a single meal to bring that individual bout of ingestion to an end. While the initiation of meals appears to be influenced primarily by learned environmental cues, satiety signals, including those from the stomach, the intestine, and the liver, provide information to the CNS concerning the number of calories that have been consumed to terminate ingestion. Second, adult mammals also maintain relatively constant levels of stored calories in the form of adipose tissue. This is accomplished via a number of circulating adiposity signals that provide information to the CNS about changes in the amount of adipose in the body. Changes in these adiposity signals that reflect depletions of stored calories result in a complex neuroendocrine response that acts to conserve ongoing calorie usage and push the organism to ingest additional calories. Ultimately these adiposity signals act to alter food intake by adjusting the efficacy of satiety signals to influence food intake within a single bout of ingestion.
Reproductive Motivation
Authors: Pfaff Donald W. , Ågmo Anders
Published: November 2003

Because of tremendous progress in unravelling the neural, hormonal, and genetic mechanisms for simple sex behaviors, it is now possible to launch investigations of their underlying motivational and arousal states. Assays of sexual motivation are compared, for both male and female animals. In turn, “arousal” of brain and behavior requires an operational definition and a quantitative approach. Mechanistic understanding of arousal will benefit not only the total analysis of sexual behaviors but also a variety of normal and pathological behavioral states.
Addiction
Authors: Wise Roy A.
Published: November 2003

While addiction is a familiar term, it lacks a precise technical definition. Theories of addiction differ as to whether addiction is seen as a uniqueformof habit or only as a habit that is particularlystrong. Traditionally, habit has been associated with the concept of reinforcement, and most drugs that are claimed to be addictive for humans have been shown to be reinforcers in animal models. The primary theoretical disagreements have to do with the issue of physical dependence; classical dependence theories hold that a drug‐taking habit only becomes an addiction when the frequency of use establishes autonomic and metabolic adaptations such that drug intake becomes required for normal homeostatic function. In this view drug intake becomes compulsive because the addict needs the drug to self‐medicate withdrawal distress. Physical dependence, readily demonstrated in the case of opiates and other depressant drugs, is associated with drug tolerance such that increasing doses are required to “self‐medicate” the autonomic distress that results from drug detoxification. However, classic dependence signs are absent in the case of the psychomotor stimulants cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine; indeed, withdrawal from these drugs has effects generally opposite to opiate and alcohol withdrawal symptoms. Nonetheless, self‐administration of these substances can be as compulsive as—and more physiologically harmful than—self‐administration of opiates. Thus alternatives to dependence theory have stressed the role of drugs as powerful reinforcers, reinforcers that can elevate mood state above normal levels and can establish or reinstate compulsive drug‐seeking habits even in nondependent subjects. The brain mechanisms involved in foraging for and ingesting addictive drugs are much the same as those involved in more natural motivated behaviors such as foraging for and engaging food or sexual partners. Thus such habits such as compulsive eating, compulsive sexual behavior, and compulsive gambling are increasingly labeled addictions. Recent brain imaging studies support the view that drug addiction shares common mechanisms with these other compulsive behaviors.
Psychophysical Scaling
Authors: Marks Lawrence E. , Gescheider George A.
Published: November 2003

Psychophysical scaling refers to the process of quantifying psychological events, especially sensations and perceptions. Scaling requires both a set of empirical operations and a theoretical framework to derive the quantitative values or representations. The chapter treats scaling as it is accomplished through discrimination, partition, and magnitude methods, in each case considering how the relevant data are obtained, how the scales depend on the particular theoretical assumptions, and the extent to which findings are compatible with those assumptions. With partition and magnitude methods in particular, it is important to consider the ways that nonlinear response transformations may intervene between underlying perceptual scales and overt responses; within this framework, the chapter reviews the experimental and methodological variables that affect overt psychophysical responses, as well as theories that seek to validate various approaches to scaling. Detailed examples are given of the design and analysis of two experiments, one of which used a partition method (graphic rating) and the other a magnitude method (magnitude estimation), to study binaural summation of loudness, thereby illuminating many of the important experimental and theoretical issues while at the same time revealing the pragmatic value of using scaling methodology to study sensory and perceptual processes.
Functional Brain Imaging
Authors: Hernandez‐García Luis , Wager Tor , Jonides John
Published: November 2003

Different imaging techniques allow the investigator to observe a number of physiological changes that are associated with brain function with great specificity regarding the location and the timing of events. In this chapter, we discuss a number of applications of neuroimaging to cognitive psychology questions, such as mapping different brain functions; and we investigate the dissociation between cognitive processes. This chapter also discusses the strategies and statistical principles of designing a functional neuroimaging experiment in the context of cognitive psychology research. Our review ranges from basic blocked designs to more complex event‐related designs, and we explain the principles of subtraction, parametric variation, factorial and correlation designs. The chapter includes an overview of the physics and engineering principles of Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), the two dominant functional neuroimaging techniques. We discuss the phenomenon of positron emission and detection in PET scanning along with the reconstruction of PET images through filtered backprojection. For MRI, we discuss the concepts of magnetic moment, spin precession, resonance, and the BOLD effect, as well as how to obtain spatial information (i.e., an image) from the resonance signal by use of the Fourier Transform. Finally, the chapter provides an introduction to the current methods of statistical analysis that are applied to functional imaging data, with emphasis placed on regression techniques, or the “general linear model.”
Analysis, Interpretation, and Visual Presentation of Experimental Data
Authors: Loftus Geoffrey R.
Published: November 2003

This chapter has two main purposes: the first is to discuss serious problems with two generally accepted and widely used foundations of current statistical analysis in psychology, the linear model and null hypothesis significance testing; the second purpose is to describe some alternative valuable techniques. The alternatives are grouped into six categories: (1) use of sophisticated pictorial and graphical techniques for data display, (2) use of confidence intervals in numerous situations, (3) use of planned comparisons, emphasizing
contrasts
, (4) use of percent total variance accounted for, (5) representation of theoretical fits to data, and (6) use of
equivalence techniques
to investigate interactions. Detailed hypothetical numerical examples along with associated calculations and graphs are constructed to illustrate each of the techniques.
Infant Cognition
Authors: Rovee‐Collier Carolyn , Barr Rachel
Published: November 2003

This chapter reviews the various methods that researchers have used to study infant cognition from birth through 2 years of age. Most of these methods can also be adapted to the study of infant perception. The authors have emphasized research methods that have been applied to classic experimental problems, including habituation, classical and operant conditioning, detour learning, concept formation, categorization, spatial learning, serial‐list learning, and memory processing. Some of the well‐developed methods that have been applied to a particularly wide range of problems are highlighted. In the learning section, for example, the authors have detailed the basic features of habituation and conditioning phenomena; later in the chapter, they describe how habituation and conditioning procedures have been used as tools to study other cognitive phenomena in infants. The chapter also includes descriptions of some of the methods that have been developed to study special problems in early cognition, such as infants' object representations (individuation, segmentation), their understanding of number and causality, and their attentional processes in visual search tasks. Finally, the chapter considers problems commonly encountered in infant research as well as some of the practices that can lead to ambiguous results and erroneous conclusions.
[{W(O)(O2)2(H2O)}2(μ‐O)]2–‐Catalyzed Epoxidation of Allylic Alcohols in Water with High Selectivity and Utilization of Hydrogen Peroxide
Authors: Kamata Keigo , Yamaguchi Kazuya , Hikichi Shiro , Mizuno Noritaka
Published: November 2003

A dinuclear peroxotungstate, K2[{W(O)(O2)2(H2O)}2(μ‐O)]⋅2 H2O, exhibits high catalytic performance for the epoxidation of various allylic alcohols with only one equivalent of hydrogen peroxide at 305 K in water solvent. The effectiveness of this system is evidenced by high chemo‐, regio‐, and diastereoselectivity, and stereospecificity for the epoxidation of allylic alcohols. Furthermore, products/catalyst separation can be easily carried out by simple extraction and the catalyst recovered can be reused with the maintenance of the catalytic performance.
Cover Picture: The Convergent Synthesis of Poly(glycerol‐succinic acid) Dendritic Macromolecules (Chem. Eur. J. 22/2003)
Authors: Luman Nathanael R. , Smeds Kimberly A. , Grinstaff Mark W.
Published: November 2003

The cover picture shows the convergent synthesis of dendritic macromolecules composed of glycerol and succinic acid. In the picture, the color red represents the benzylidene acetal protecting group for the 1,3‐hydroxyl groups of glycerol. The color blue represents the tert‐butyldiphenyl silyl protecting group for the carboxyl functionality of succinic acid. The color green depicts a linear poly(ethylene glycol) polymer. Finally, black represents the dendritic branches consisting of glycerol and succinic acid. For more details see the paper by M. W. Grinstaff et al. on page 5618 ff.
Improved prevention of moderately emetogenic chemotherapy‐induced nausea and vomiting with palonosetron, a pharmacologically novel 5‐HT3 receptor antagonist
Authors: Eisenberg Peter , Figueroa‐Vadillo Jazmin , Zamora Rosalio , Charu Veena , Hajdenberg Julio , Cartmell Alan , Macciocchi Alberto , Grunberg Steven
Published: November 2003

BACKGROUND

Palonosetron, a highly selective and potent 5‐HT3 receptor antagonist with a strong binding affinity and a long plasma elimination half‐life (approximately 40
hours), has shown efficacy in Phase II trials in preventing chemotherapy‐induced nausea and vomiting (CINV) resulting from highly emetogenic chemotherapy. The current Phase III
trial evaluated the efficacy and safety of palonosetron in preventing acute and delayed CINV after moderately emetogenic chemotherapy.

METHODS

In the current study, 592 patients were randomized to receive a single, intravenous dose of palonosetron 0.25 mg, palonosetron 0.75 mg, or dolasetron 100 mg, 30 minutes before receiving moderately
emetogenic chemotherapy. The primary efficacy endpoint was the proportion of patients with a complete response (CR; defined as no emetic episodes and no rescue medication) during the first
24 hours after chemotherapy. Secondary endpoints included assessment of prevention of delayed emesis (2–5 days postchemotherapy).

RESULTS

In the current study, 569 patients received study medication and were included in the intent‐to‐treat efficacy analyses. CR rates during the first 24 hours were 63.0% for
palonosetron 0.25 mg, 57.1% for palonosetron 0.75 mg, and 52.9% for dolasetron 100 mg. CR rates during the delayed period (24–120 hours after chemotherapy) were superior
for palonosetron compared with dolasetron. Adverse events (AEs) were mostly mild to moderate and not related to study medication, with similar incidences among groups. There were no serious
drug‐related AEs.

CONCLUSIONS

A single dose of palonosetron is as effective as a single dose of dolasetron in preventing acute CINV and superior to dolasetron in preventing delayed CINV after moderately emetogenic
chemotherapy, with a comparable safety profile for all treatment groups. Cancer 2003. © 2003 American Cancer Society.
Granzyme B leakage‐induced cell death: a new type of activation‐induced natural killer cell death
Authors: Ida Hiroaki , Nakashima Tomoki , Kedersha Nancy L. , Yamasaki Satoshi , Huang Mingguo , Izumi Yasumori , Miyashita Taiichiro , Origuchi Tomoki , Kawakami Atsushi , Migita Kiyoshi , Bird Phillip I. , Anderson Paul , Eguchi Katsumi
Published: November 2003

Activation‐induced natural killer (NK) cell death is very rapid compared to activation‐induced T or B cell death. Here we show that NK cell activation is accompanied by the leakage of granzymeB from intracellular granules into the cytoplasm. Evidence for granzyme B leakage includes the formation of granzyme B/serine proteinase inhibitor 9 (PI‐9) complexes that are detected by immunoprecipitation as well as colocalization of granzyme B and PI‐9 detected by immunocytochemistry. The pro‐apoptotic molecule Bid, a specific substrate for granzyme B, was cleaved within 2 min following CD2‐induced NK cell activation, suggesting that granzyme B triggers apoptosis by directing Bid to mitochondrial membranes. The granzyme B/PI‐9 protein ratio was found to mirror the percentage of CD2‐induced NK cell death, suggesting that an excess of leaked granzyme B over its inhibitor is a major determinant of cell death. We suggest that granzyme B leakage‐induced cell death is an important determinant of activation‐induced NK cell death and that this process may be important for the fate of NK cells which encounter malignant or virus‐infected cells.
CD59 is physically and functionally associated with natural cytotoxicity receptors and activates human NK cell‐mediated cytotoxicity
Authors: Marcenaro Emanuela , Augugliaro Raffaella , Falco Michela , Castriconi Roberta , Parolini Silvia , Sivori Simona , Romeo Elisa , Millo Romano , Moretta Lorenzo , Bottino Cristina , Moretta Alessandro
Published: November 2003

Triggering of cytotoxicity in human NK cells is induced by the combined engagement of several triggering receptors. These include primary receptors such as NKG2D and the natural cytotoxicity receptors (NCR) NKp30, NKp46 and NKp44, while other molecules, including 2B4, NTB‐A and NKp80, function as co‐receptors. As reported in the present study, during an attempt to identify novel NK receptors or co‐receptors, we found that CD59 functions as a co‐receptor in human NK cell activation; engagement of CD59 by specific mAb delivers triggering signals to human NK cells, resulting in enhancement of cytotoxicity. Similar to other NK co‐receptors, the triggering function of CD59, a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)‐linked protein, depends on the simultaneous engagement of primary receptors such as NCR. Accordingly, CD59‐dependent triggering was virtually restricted to NK cells expressing high surface densities of NKp46, and mAb‐mediated modulation of NKp46 resulted in markedly decreased responses to anti‐CD59 mAb. Biochemical analysis revealed that CD59 is physically associated with NKp46 and NKp30. Moreover, engagement of CD59 resulted in tyrosine phosphorylation of CD3ζ chains associated with these NCR, but not those associated with CD16. Thus, CD59‐mediated costimulation of NK cells requires direct physical interaction of this GPI‐linked protein with primary triggeringNK receptors.
IL‐21 induces both rapid maturation of human CD34+ cell precursors towards NK cells and acquisition of surface killer Ig‐like receptors
Authors: Sivori Simona , Cantoni Claudia , Parolini Silvia , Marcenaro Emanuela , Conte Romana , Moretta Lorenzo , Moretta Alessandro
Published: November 2003

The NK cell maturation from CD34+ Lin– hematopoietic cell precursors is a complex process that requires the direct contact with stromal cells and/or the synergistic effect ofdifferent cytokines. In this study we show that IL‐21 is capable of inducing an accelerated NK cell maturation when added to cultures of CD34+ Lin– cells isolated from human cord blood supplemented with IL‐15, Flt3‐L and SCF. After 25 days of culture, 50% of CD56+ cells expressed various NK cell markers including the NKp46 and NKp30 triggering receptors, the CD94/NKG2A inhibitory receptor and CD16. At day 35, substantial fractions of NK cells expressed KIR, CD8 and CD2, i.e. surface markers expressed by mature NK cells, that are virtually undetectablein developing NK cells cultured in the absence of IL‐21. Remarkably, similar to mature NK cells all these markers were included in the CD56dim cell fraction, while the CD56bright population was only composed of CD94/NKG2A– and CD94/NKG2A+ cells. Thus, IL‐21 allows the induction of a full NK cell maturation in vitro and offers an important tool for dissecting the molecular mechanisms involved in different steps of NK cell maturation and in the acquisition of a mature KIR repertoire.
A Practical and Stereoconservative Synthesis of (R)‐3‐Amino‐4‐(trimethylammonio)butanoate [(R)‐Aminocarnitine], and Its Trimethylphosphonium and Simple Ammonium Analogues Starting from D‐Aspartic Acid
Authors: Calvisi Giuseppina , Dell’Uomo Natalina , De Angelis Francesco , Dejas Roberto , Giannessi Fabio , Tinti Maria Ornella
Published: November 2003

We have developed a new stereospecific synthesis of (R)‐aminocarnitine using D‐aspartic acid as the starting material. This strategy, which is simple and amenable to an industrial scale‐up, gives the target compound in six steps and in fairly good overall yields (41%). Other aminocarnitine related molecules such as optically pure (R)‐3‐amino‐4‐(trimethylphosphonio)butanoic acid and (R)‐3,4‐diaminobutanoic acid dihydrochloride have also been prepared according to the same synthetic strategy. (© Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 69451 Weinheim, Germany, 2003)