bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Principled design of the modern Web architecture
Authors: Fielding Roy T. , Taylor Richard N.
Published: July 2002

The World Wide Web has succeeded in large part because its software architecture has been designed to meet the needs of an Internet-scale distributed hypermedia application. The modern Web architecture emphasizes scalability of component interactions, generality of interfaces, independent deployment of components, and intermediary components to reduce interaction latency, enforce security, and encapsulate legacy systems. In this article we introduce the Representational State Transfer (REST) architectural style, developed as an abstract model of the Web architecture and used to guide our redesign and definition of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol and Uniform Resource Identifiers. We describe the software engineering principles guiding REST and the interaction constraints chosen to retain those principles, contrasting them to the constraints of other architectural styles. We then compare the abstract model to the currently deployed Web architecture in order to elicit mismatches between the existing protocols and the applications they are intended to support.
Collaborative augmented reality
Authors: Billinghurst Mark , Kato Hirokazu
Published: July 2002

Blending reality and virtuality, these interfaces let users see each other, along with virtual objects, allowing communication behaviors much more like face-to-face than like screen-based collaboration.
NONSELECTIVE CATION CHANNELS IN PLANTS
Authors: Demidchik Vadim , Davenport Romola Jane , Tester Mark
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Nonselective cation channels are a diverse group of ion channels characterized by their low discrimination between many essential and toxic cations. They are ubiquitous in plant tissues and are active in the plasma membrane, tonoplast, and other endomembranes. Members of this group are likely to function in low-affinity nutrient uptake, in distribution of cations within and between cells, and as plant Ca2+ channels. They are gated by diverse mechanisms, which can include voltage, cyclic nucleotides, glutamate, reactive oxygen species, and stretch. These channels dominate tonoplast cation transport, and the selectivity and gating mechanisms of tonoplast nonselective cation channels are comprehensively reviewed here. This review presents the first classification of plant nonselective cation channels and the first full description of nonselective cation channel candidate sequences in the Arabidopsis genome.
PLANT RESPONSES TO INSECT HERBIVORY: The Emerging Molecular Analysis
Authors: Kessler André , Baldwin Ian T.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Plants respond to herbivore attack with a bewildering array of responses, broadly categorized as direct and indirect defenses, and tolerance. Plant-herbivore interactions are played out on spatial scales that include the cellular responses, well-studied in plant-pathogen interactions, as well as responses that function at whole-plant and community levels. The plant's wound response plays a central role but is frequently altered by insect-specific elicitors, giving plants the potential to optimize their defenses. In this review, we emphasize studies that advance the molecular understanding of elicited direct and indirect defenses and include verifications with insect bioassays. Large-scale transcriptional changes accompany insect-induced resistance, which is organized into specific temporal and spatial patterns and points to the existence of herbivore-specific trans-activating elements orchestrating the responses. Such organizational elements could help elucidate the molecular control over the diversity of responses elicited by herbivore attack.
STRUCTURE, DYNAMICS, AND ENERGETICS OF THE PRIMARY PHOTOCHEMISTRY OF PHOTOSYSTEM II OF OXYGENIC PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Authors: Diner Bruce A. , Rappaport Fabrice
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Recent progress in two-dimensional and three-dimensional electron and X-ray crystallography of Photosystem II (PSII) core complexes has led to major advances in the structural definition of this integral membrane protein complex. Despite the overall structural and kinetic similarity of the PSII reaction centers to their purple nonsulfur photosynthetic bacterial homologues, the different cofactors and subtle differences in their spatial arrangement result in significant differences in the energetics and mechanism of primary charge separation. In this review we discuss some of the recent spectroscopic, structural, and mutagenic work on the primary and secondary electron transfer reactions in PSII, stressing what is experimentally novel, what new insights have appeared, and where questions of interpretation remain.
Long-Distance Electron Transfer Through DNA
Authors: Giese Bernd
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  DNA molecules are able to transport electrons over long distances. In most experiments the process is stimulated by the oxidation of guanines (G), which generates guanine radical cations. The electron transport through DNA occurs in a multistep hopping mechanism with all Gs as carriers of the positive charge. The rate of each individual hopping step between the Gs decreases strongly with increase of the distance. If the (A:T) bridges between the guanines are long, adenines (A) also become charge carriers. Mismatches, single strands, and G-oxidation products can drastically diminish the efficiency of the charge transport. But in triplexes and DNA/RNA duplexes, as well as in several duplex DNA/peptide complexes, the efficacy of the charge transport is less affected. The ability of DNA molecules to transport charges over long distances could provide a mechanism for ameliorating the harmfulness of damage to DNA under the conditions of oxidative stress.
Metabolism and the Control of Circadian Rhythms
Authors: Rutter Jared , Reick Martin , McKnight Steven L.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The core apparatus that regulates circadian rhythm has been extensively studied over the past five years. A looming question remains, however, regarding how this apparatus is adjusted to maintain coordination between physiology and the changing environment. The diversity of stimuli and input pathways that gain access to the circadian clock are summarized. Cellular metabolic states could serve to link physiologic perception of the environment to the circadian oscillatory apparatus. A simple model, integrating biochemical, cellular, and physiologic data, is presented to account for the connection of cellular metabolism and circadian rhythm.
Formation of Unusual Sugars: Mechanistic Studies and Biosynthetic Applications
Authors: He Xuemei M. , Liu Hung-wen
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Carbohydrates are highly abundant biomolecules found extensively in nature. Besides playing important roles in energy storage and supply, they often serve as essential biosynthetic precursors or structural elements needed to sustain all forms of life. A number of unusual sugars that have certain hydroxyl groups replaced by a hydrogen, an amino group, or an alkyl side chain play crucial roles in determining the biological activity of the parent natural products in bacterial lipopolysaccharides or secondary metabolite antibiotics. Recent investigation of the biosynthesis of these monosaccharides has led to the identification of the gene clusters whose protein products facilitate the unusual sugar formation from the ubiquitous NDP-glucose precursors. This review summarizes the mechanistic studies of a few enzymes crucial to the biosynthesis of C-2, C-3, C-4, and C-6 deoxysugars, the characterization and mutagenesis of nucleotidyl transferases that can recognize and couple structural analogs of their natural substrates and the identification of glycosyltransferases with promiscuous substrate specificity. Information gleaned from these studies has allowed pathway engineering, resulting in the creation of new macrolides with unnatural deoxysugar moieties for biological activity screening. This represents a significant progress toward our goal of searching for more potent agents against infectious diseases and malignant tumors.
Lipopolysaccharide Endotoxins
Authors: Raetz Christian R. H. , Whitfield Chris
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) typically consist of a hydrophobic domain known as lipid A (or endotoxin), a nonrepeating “core” oligosaccharide, and a distal polysaccharide (or O-antigen). Recent genomic data have facilitated study of LPS assembly in diverse Gram-negative bacteria, many of which are human or plant pathogens, and have established the importance of lateral gene transfer in generating structural diversity of O-antigens. Many enzymes of lipid A biosynthesis like LpxC have been validated as targets for development of new antibiotics. Key genes for lipid A biosynthesis have unexpectedly also been found in higher plants, indicating that eukaryotic lipid A-like molecules may exist. Most significant has been the identification of the plasma membrane protein TLR4 as the lipid A signaling receptor of animal cells. TLR4 belongs to a family of innate immunity receptors that possess a large extracellular domain of leucine-rich repeats, a single trans-membrane segment, and a smaller cytoplasmic signaling region that engages the adaptor protein MyD88. The expanding knowledge of TLR4 specificity and its downstream signaling pathways should provide new opportunities for blocking inflammation associated with infection.
Selective Electrical Interfaces with the Nervous System
Authors: Rutten Wim L. C.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  To achieve selective electrical interfacing to the neural system it is necessary to approach neuronal elements on a scale of micrometers. This necessitates microtechnology fabrication and introduces the interdisciplinary field of neurotechnology, lying at the juncture of neuroscience with microtechnology. The neuroelectronic interface occurs where the membrane of a cell soma or axon meets a metal microelectrode surface. The seal between these may be narrow or may be leaky. In the latter case the surrounding volume conductor becomes part of the interface. Electrode design for successful interfacing, either for stimulation or recording, requires good understanding of membrane phenomena, natural and evoked action potential generation, volume conduction, and electrode behavior. Penetrating multimicroelectrodes have been produced as one-, two-, and three-dimensional arrays, mainly in silicon, glass, and metal microtechnology. Cuff electrodes circumvent a nerve; their selectivity aims at fascicles more than at nerve fibers. Other types of electrodes are regenerating sieves and cone-ingrowth electrodes. The latter may play a role in brain-computer interfaces. Planar substrate-embedded electrode arrays with cultured neural cells on top are used to study the activity and plasticity of developing neural networks. They also serve as substrates for future so-called cultured probes.
Spine Ergonomics
Authors: Pope Malcolm H. , Goh Kheng Lim , Magnusson Marianne L.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Occupational low back pain (LBP) is an immense burden for both industry and medicine. Ergonomic and personal risk factors result in LBP, but psychosocial factors can influence LBP disability. Epidemiologic studies clearly indicate the role of mechanical loads on the etiology of occupational LBP. Occupational exposures such as lifting, particularly in awkward postures; heavy lifting; or repetitive lifting are related to LBP. Fixed postures and prolonged seating are also risk factors. LBP is found in both sedentary occupations and in drivers as well as those involved in manual materials handling. Any prolonged posture will lead to static loading of the soft tissues and cause discomfort. Standing and sitting have specific advantages and disadvantages for mobility, exertion of force, energy consumption, circulatory demands, coordination, and motion control. The seated posture leads to inactivity causing an accumulation of metabolites, accelerating disk degeneration and leading to disk herniation. Driver's postures can also lead to musculoskeletal problems. Workers in a driving environment are often subjected to postural stress leading to back, neck, and upper extremity pain. This exacerbates the problems due to the vibration. Prevention is by far the treatment of choice. Improved muscle function can be preventative. Poor coordination and motor control systems are as important as endurance and strength. Fixed postures should be avoided. Seats offering good lumbar support should be used in the office. A suspension seat should be used in vehicles whenever possible. Heavy and awkward lifting should be avoided and lifting aids should be made available. Workers should report LBP as early as possible and seek medical advice if they think occupational exposure is harming them. The combined effects of the medical community, labor, and management are required to cause some impact on this problem.
Bioengineering of Therapeutic Aerosols
Authors: Edwards David A. , Dunbar Craig
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The new field of therapeutic aerosol bioengineering (TAB), driven primarily by the medical need for inhaled insulin, is now expanding to address medical needs ranging from respiratory to systemic diseases, including asthma, growth deficiency, and pain. Bioengineering of therapeutic aerosols involves a level of aerosol particle design absent in traditional therapeutic aerosols, which are created by conventionally spraying a liquid solution or suspension of drug or milling and mixing a dry drug form into respirable particles. Bioengineered particles may be created in liquid form from devices specially designed to create an unusually fine size distribution, possibly with special purity properties, or solid particles that possess a mixture of drug and excipient, with designed shape, size, porosity, and drug release characteristics. Such aerosols have enabled several high-visibility clinical programs of inhaled insulin, as well as earlier-stage programs involving inhaled morphine, growth hormone, beta-interferon, alpha-1-antitrypsin, and several asthma drugs. The design of these aerosols, limited by partial knowledge of the lungs' physiological environment, and driven largely at this stage by market forces, relies on a mixture of new and old science, pharmaceutical science intuition, and a degree of biological-impact empiricism that speaks to the importance of an increased level of academic involvement.
Advances in In Vivo Bioluminescence Imaging of Gene Expression
Authors: Contag Christopher H. , Bachmann Michael H.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  To advance our understanding of biological processes as they occur in living animals, imaging strategies have been developed and refined that reveal cellular and molecular features of biology and disease in real time. One rapid and accessible technology for in vivo analysis employs internal biological sources of light emitted from luminescent enzymes, luciferases, to label genes and cells. Combining this reporter system with the new generation of charge coupled device (CCD) cameras that detect the light transmitted through the animal's tissues has opened the door to sensitive in vivo measurements of mammalian gene expression in living animals. Here, we review the development and application of this imaging strategy, in vivo bioluminescence imaging (BLI), together with in vivo fluorescence imaging methods, which has enabled the real-time study of immune cell trafficking, of various genetic regulatory elements in transgenic mice, and of in vivo gene transfer. BLI has been combined with fluorescence methods that together offer access to in vivo measurements that were not previously available. Such studies will greatly facilitate the functional analysis of a wide range of genes for their roles in health and disease.
The Linkage Between Protein Folding and Functional Cooperativity: Two Sides of the Same Coin?
Authors: Luque Irene , Leavitt Stephanie A. , Freire Ernesto
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  During the course of their biological function, proteins undergo different types of structural rearrangements ranging from local to large-scale conformational changes. These changes are usually triggered by their interactions with small-molecular-weight ligands or other macromolecules. Because binding interactions occur at specific sites and involve only a small number of residues, a chain of cooperative interactions is necessary for the propagation of binding signals to distal locations within the protein structure. This process requires an uneven structural distribution of protein stability and cooperativity as revealed by NMR-detected hydrogen/deuterium exchange experiments under native conditions. The distribution of stabilizing interactions does not only provide the architectural foundation to the three-dimensional structure of a protein, but it also provides the required framework for functional cooperativity. In this review, the statistical thermodynamic linkage between protein stability, functional cooperativity, and ligand binding is discussed.
Rhodopsin: Insights from Recent Structural Studies
Authors: Sakmar Thomas P. , Menon Santosh T. , Marin Ethan P. , Awad Elias S.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The recent report of the crystal structure of rhodopsin provides insights concerning structure-activity relationships in visual pigments and related G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs). The seven transmembrane helices of rhodopsin are interrupted or kinked at multiple sites. An extensive network of interhelical interactions stabilizes the ground state of the receptor. The ligand-binding pocket of rhodopsin is remarkably compact, and several chromophore-protein interactions were not predicted from mutagenesis or spectroscopic studies. The helix movement model of receptor activation, which likely applies to all GPCRs of the rhodopsin family, is supported by several structural elements that suggest how light-induced conformational changes in the ligand-binding pocket are transmitted to the cytoplasmic surface. The cytoplasmic domain of the receptor includes a helical domain extending from the seventh transmembrane segment parallel to the bilayer surface. The cytoplasmic surface appears to be approximately large enough to bind to the transducin heterotrimer in a one-to-one complex. The structural basis for several unique biophysical properties of rhodopsin, including its extremely low dark noise level and high quantum efficiency, can now be addressed using a combination of structural biology and various spectroscopic methods. Future high-resolution structural studies of rhodopsin and other GPCRs will form the basis to elucidate the detailed molecular mechanism of GPCR-mediated signal transduction.
Flow Cytometric Analysis of Ligand-Receptor Interactions and Molecular Assemblies
Authors: Sklar Larry A. , Edwards Bruce S. , Graves Steven W. , Nolan John P. , Prossnitz Eric R.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Flow cytometers make homogeneous real-time measurements of ligand-receptor interactions and, simultaneously, the physiological responses of cells. Their multiparameter capabilities are also useful in resolving multicomponent assemblies or in developing multiplexed assays. Recent advances suggest that these approaches can be extended in several important ways. Sample delivery in the millisecond time domain is applicable to the analysis of complex binding kinetics and reaction mechanisms. The homogeneous discrimination of free components and particle-based assemblies can be extended into the micromolar concentration range. Measurements can be made of molecular assemblies among proteins, DNA, RNA, lipids, and carbohydrates on beads. The topography and assembly of components within cells can be evaluated with resonance energy transfer. Temperature dependence can be evaluated with Peltier temperature control. Many assembly endpoints can be assessed through new tools for high-throughput flow cytometry using plate-based assay formats and small volume samples.
NMR Studies of Lipoprotein Structure
Authors: Cushley Robert J. , Okon Mark
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Early NMR structural studies of serum lipoproteins were based on 1H, 13C, 31P, and 2H studies of lipid components. From the early studies information on composition, lipid chain dynamics and order parameters, and monolayer organization resulted. More recently, selective or complete isotopic labeling techniques, combined with multidimensional NMR spectroscopy, have resulted in structural information of apoprotein fragments. Finally, use of heteronuclear three- and four-dimensional experiments have yielded solution structures and protein-lipid interactions of intact apolipoproteins C-I, C-II, and A-I.
Micromechanics Simulations of Fracture
Authors: Van der Giessen E. , Needleman A.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  A fracture mechanics framework has been developed for predicting crack initiation and growth in full-scale components and structures from test specimen data. Much knowledge has also been gained about the mechanisms by which fracture occurs in a variety of materials. However, the development of quantitative connections between models of the physical processes of fracture and macroscale measures of fracture resistance is still at an early stage. A key difficulty is that fracture spans several length scales from the atomistic to the macroscopic scale. In this paper, some analyses are reviewed that use micromechanical modeling to predict fracture toughness from the physics of separation and plastic flow processes. Attention is confined to fracture by cleavage in metal crystals, under both monotonic and cyclic loading conditions. The role of models at the dislocation size scale in bridging the gap between atomistic and continuum descriptions is highlighted.
Contextual Influences on Visual Processing
Authors: Albright Thomas D. , Stoner Gene R.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The visual image formed on the retina represents an amalgam of visual scene properties, including the reflectances of surfaces, their relative positions, and the type of illumination. The challenge facing the visual system is to extract the “meaning” of the image by decomposing it into its environmental causes. For each local region of the image, that extraction of meaning is only possible if information from other regions is taken into account. Of particular importance is a set of image cues revealing surface occlusion and/or lighting conditions. These information-rich cues direct the perceptual interpretation of other more ambiguous image regions. This context-dependent transformation from image to perception has profound—but frequently under-appreciated—implications for neurophysiological studies of visual processing: To demonstrate that neuronal responses are correlated with perception of visual scene properties, rather than visual image features, neuronal sensitivity must be assessed in varied contexts that differentially influence perceptual interpretation. We review a number of recent studies that have used this context-based approach to explore the neuronal bases of visual scene perception.
TIME-RESOLVED PHOTOELECTRON ANGULAR DISTRIBUTIONS: Concepts, Applications, and Directions
Authors: Seideman Tamar
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The use of photoelectron angular distributions (PADs) as a probe in short-pulse, pump-probe scenarios is reviewed. We focus on concepts, on the insight that can be gained through theoretical analysis, on applications, and on future opportunities. Time-resolved PADs are sensitive to both the time-evolving rotational composition of wavepackets and their time-evolving electronic symmetry. The former feature renders this observable a potential probe of molecular structure, intensity effects, and rotational perturbations. The latter feature renders the PAD a potential probe of radiationless transitions.
TRANSITIONPATHSAMPLING: Throwing Ropes Over Rough Mountain Passes, in the Dark
Authors: Bolhuis Peter G. , Chandler David , Dellago Christoph , Geissler Phillip L.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This article reviews the concepts and methods of transition path sampling. These methods allow computational studies of rare events without requiring prior knowledge of mechanisms, reaction coordinates, and transition states. Based upon a statistical mechanics of trajectory space, they provide a perspective with which time dependent phenomena, even for systems driven far from equilibrium, can be examined with the same types of importance sampling tools that in the past have been applied so successfully to static equilibrium properties.
SURFACE FEMTOCHEMISTRY: Observation and Quantum Control of Frustrated Desorption of Alkali Atoms from Noble Metals
Authors: Petek Hrvoje , Ogawa Susumu
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This review presents a case study of the direct, real-time observation of a surface photochemical reaction, namely the frustrated photodesorption of alkali atoms from noble metal surfaces. Charge transfer excitation of an electron from the metal substrate into an unoccupied resonance of the alkali atom instantaneously turns on the repulsive Coulomb force inducing the nuclear motion of both the adsorbate and substrate atoms. The incipient nuclear wave packet dynamics are documented for the case of Cs/Cu(111) through the accompanying change in the surface electronic structure. The intimate view of atoms attempting to escape the surface bond highlights the unique role of the substrate in the electronic and nuclear dynamics that ultimately determine the product yields. Moreover, slow dephasing of the coherent polarization is exploited to demonstrate the control of nuclear wave packets through the phase of the excitation light.
SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPY STUDIES OF THE ONE-DIMENSIONAL ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES OF SINGLE-WALLED CARBON NANOTUBES
Authors: Ouyang Min , Huang Jin-Lin , Lieber Charles M.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Recent developments in scanning tunneling microscopy studies of the electronic properties of single-walled carbon nanotubes are reviewed. A broad range of topics focused on the unique electronic properties of nanotubes are discussed, including (a) the underlying theoretical description of the electronic properties of nanotubes; (b) the roles of finite curvature and broken symmetries in perturbing electronic properties; (c) the unique one-dimensional energy dispersion in nanotubes; (d) the nature of end states; (e) quantum size effects in short tubes; (f) the interactions between local spins and carriers in metallic systems (the Kondo effect); and (g) the atomic structure and electronic properties of intramolecular junctions. The implications of these studies for understanding fundamental one-dimensional physics and future nanotube device applications are discussed.
The Sociology of Intellectuals
Authors: Kurzman Charles , Owens Lynn
Published: July 2002

The sociology of intellectuals has adopted three fundamentally distinct approaches to its subject. The Dreyfusards, Julien Benda, “new class” theorists, and Pierre Bourdieu treated intellectuals as potentially a class-in-themselves, that is, as having interests that distinguish them from other groups in society. Antonio Gramsci, Michel Foucault, and theorists of “authenticity” treated intellectuals as primarily class-bound, that is, representatives of their group of origin. Karl Mannheim, Edward Shils, and Randall Collins treated intellectuals as relatively class-less, that is, able to transcend their group of origin to pursue their own ideals. These approaches divided the field at its founding in the 1920s, during its mid-century peak, and in its late-century revival.
New Economics of Sociological Criminology
Authors: McCarthy Bill
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This paper begins with a summary of the rational choice approach and its implications for the study of criminal behavior. I then review research on offending that uses the rational choice approach in conjunction with more sociological orientations. I also summarize research on game theory and demonstrate how it can be effectively used to understand and predict criminal decision-making. I argue that, contrary to the assessment of many criminologists, rational choice approach and game theory insights can be combined profitably with sociological perspectives to advance the understanding and prediction of criminal behavior.
Chinese Social Stratification and Social Mobility
Authors: Bian Yanjie
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This essay reviews post-1980 research on class stratification, socio-economic inequalities, and social mobility in the People's Republic of China. Chinese class stratification has transformed from a rigid status hierarchy under Mao to an open, evolving class system in the post-Mao period. Socioeconomic inequalities have also been altered. State redistributive inequalities are giving way to patterns increasingly generated by how individuals and groups succeed in a growing market-oriented economy; rigorous empirical studies have been conducted on occupational prestige, income distribution, housing and consumption, and gender inequality. Finally, occupational mobility, a rare opportunity under Mao, is becoming a living experience for many Chinese in light of emerging labor markets. Scholarly works on status attainment, career mobility, and employment processes show both stability and change in the once politicized social mobility regime. There is relatively richer research output on urban than on rural China, despite the greater and more profound transformations that occurred in rural China.
Comparative Research on Women's Employment
Authors: van der Lippe Tanja , van Dijk Liset
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Women's employment has been widely studied in both Western countries and Eastern Europe. In this article, the most frequently used measurements and descriptions of women's paid work are given, namely, participation rate, number of hours worked, gender segregation, and the gender gap in earnings. Next, three approaches used to study women's employment are discussed: 1. the macro-level approach, which gives a thorough understanding of the influence of the institutional context on women's work; 2. the micro-level approach, which compares individual-level results in a number of countries; and 3. the macro-micro approach, in which the relative importance is shown of institutional and individual level factors. Finally, a review is given of the hypotheses and outcomes of both the institutional level, with welfare regime and family policy playing an important role, and the individual level, which shows that being a mother has an important effect on women's employment in the different countries studied.
Financial Markets, Money, and Banking
Authors: Keister Lisa A.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The study of financial markets, money, and banking is largely considered the purview of economics. Yet sociologists have contributed greatly to understanding financial relations since the early history of the discipline. This review begins with an overview of classical sociological approaches to financial markets, money, and banking and then describes how research in these areas exploded in recent decades. I describe the current state of research on money, relations among firms and banks, and interlocking directorates. I consider the ways financial relations shape firm behaviors and processes, and I describe the growing body of work that treats financial markets as outcomes. I discuss research on the transformation of financial systems during transition from state socialism, and I conclude with a discussion of a growing literature that combines studies of financial markets and social stratification.
Global Ethnography
Authors: Gille Zsuzsa , Riain Seán Ó
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Globalization poses a challenge to existing social scientific methods of inquiry and units of analysis by destabilizing the embeddedness of social relations in particular communities and places. Ethnographic sites are globalized by means of various external connections across multiple spatial scales and porous and contested boundaries. Global ethnographers must begin their analysis by seeking out “place-making projects” that seek to define new kinds of places, with new definitions of social relations and their boundaries. Existing ethnographic studies of global processes tend to cluster under one of three slices of globalization—global forces, connections, or imaginations—each defined by a different kind of place-making project. The extension of the site in time and space poses practical and conceptual problems for ethnographers, but also political ones. Nonetheless, by locating themselves firmly within the time and space of social actors “living the global,” ethnographers can reveal how global processes are collectively and politically constructed, demonstrating the variety of ways in which globalization is grounded in the local.
In Situ Raman Spectroscopic Study on Electroinsertion of Li +  into a Pt / λ ‐ MnO2 Electrode in Aqueous Solution
Authors: Kanoh Hirofumi , Tang Weiping , Ooi Kenta
Published: July 2002

Raman spectra of

λ
‐

MnO

2

and

LiMn

2

O

4

are characterized by two intense peaks at 593 and

628
 

cm

−
1

. Although the Raman intensity of

λ
‐

MnO

2

is generally much greater than that of

LiMn

2

O

4

, the logarithm of the ratio of the intensity at

593
 

cm

−
1

to that at

628
 

cm

−
1

, log

(

I

593

/

I

628

)

has been found to be a good measure of the change of the lithium content, x, in

Li

x

Mn

2

O

4

. The relationship between log

(

I

593

/

I

628

)

and the electrode potential (E) correlated well with that between E and x obtained by coulometric titration. In situ measurement of

Li

+

electroinsertion into a

Pt
/
λ
‐

MnO

2

electrode in an aqueous solution showed spectra similar to the ex situ spectra. The change in

log
(

I

593

/

I

628

)

of the electrode equilibrated at each potential corresponded to the cyclic voltammogram. Raman spectroscopy could be one of the best in situ methods for analyzing the electrochemical reaction of spinel‐type manganese oxide with

Li

+

. ©1998 The Electrochemical Society
Improving the Electrochemical Performance of SnO2 Cathodes in Lithium Secondary Batteries by Doping with Mo
Authors: Morales Julián , Sánchez Luis
Published: July 2002

Small‐grain

SnO

2

,

SnO

2

/
Mo

(2%), and

SnO

2

/
Mo

(30%) samples were prepared by using the low‐temperature aqueous methods and tested as cathodes in secondary lithium batteries. Cells were cycled between 1.0 and 0.0 V. The best electrochemical performance was obtained from the

Li
/
[

SnO

2

/
Mo
 
(
2
%
)
]

cell, which retained 87% of its initial capacity (510 mAh/g) after 50 cycles; by contrast, the

Li
/

SnO

2

cell only retained 60% of its initial capacity (570 mAh/g). Significantly increased Mo contents caused the capacity to fade drastically. © 1999 The Electrochemical Society. All rights reserved.
Copper Electroless Plating at Selected Areas on Aluminum with Pulsed Nd‐YAG Laser
Authors: Chu S. Z. , Sakairi M. , Takahashi H.
Published: July 2002

Local deposition of copper on aluminum was attempted by the successive processes of anodizing, laser irradiation, and electroless plating. Aluminum specimens covered with anodic oxide films were immersed in

Cu

2
+

,

Cu

2
+

/

H

2

PO

2

−

, and diluted NaOH solutions, and irradiated with a pulsed yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) laser. The time variation in the rest potential of the specimens was followed during laser irradiation by a potentiometer, and the change of the surface composition by laser irradiation was examined by X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). After the laser irradiation, copper electroless plating was carried out in

(

Cu

2
+

,

Ni

2
+

)
/

H

2

PO

2

−

solutions with or without

Pb

2
+

or thiourea. The rest potential measurements and XPS analysis suggested that Cu particles nucleate at the film‐removed area by laser irradiation in

Cu

2
+

and

Cu

2
+

/

H

2

PO

2

−

solutions. A copper layer was obtained at the irradiated area by the subsequent electroless plating, and the copper nuclei acted as catalytic centers at the very initial stage in copper electroless plating. The effects of

Pb

2
+

and thiourea concentration and the deposition temperature on the kinetics of copper deposition is also discussed. © 2000 The Electrochemical Society. All rights reserved.
Preparation and Magnetoresistance Characteristics of Electrodeposited Ni‐Cu Alloys and Ni‐Cu/Cu Multilayers
Authors: Tóth‐Kádár E. , Péter L. , Becsei T. , Tóth J. , Pogány L. , Tarnóczi T. , Kamasa P. , Bakonyi I. , Láng G. , Cziráki Á. , Schwarzacher W.
Published: July 2002

Galvanostatic electrodeposition was used to produce Ni‐Cu alloys and

Ni

81

Cu

19

/
Cu

multilayers by direct current (dc) plating and two‐pulse plating, respectively, from a sulfate/citrate electrolyte. For the dc‐plated Ni‐Cu alloys, the deposition rate and the alloy composition were established as a function of the deposition current density, from which the appropriate deposition parameters for the constituent sublayers of the multilayers could be established. By measuring the resistivity at room temperature in magnetic fields up to H = 7 kOe, anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR) was found for

Ni

81

Cu

19

electrodeposits, whereas both giant magnetoresistance (GMR) and AMR contributions were observed for most

Ni

81

Cu

19

/
Cu

multilayers. Finally, Ni‐Cu alloys were also prepared by conventional pulse plating, varying the length of the deposition pulse (on‐time) with constant separation (off‐time) between the pulses. Clear evidence of a GMR contribution also appeared in these pulse plated Ni‐Cu alloys which may be explained by the formation of a Cu enriched layer between the ferromagnetic layers deposited during the cathodic pulses. A quartz crystal microbalance experiment confirmed that an exchange reaction takes place during the off‐time. These findings provide useful information on the formation mechanism of multilayers by the two‐pulse plating technique. © 2000 The Electrochemical Society. All rights reserved.
Aluminum Corrosion in Lithium Batteries An Investigation Using the Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance
Authors: Yang Haesik , Kwon Kyungjung , Devine Thomas M. , Evans James W.
Published: July 2002

An electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance is used in an investigation of the corrosion of aluminum in electrolytes appropriate for lithium batteries. The electrolytes are solutions of

LiN
(

CF

3

SO

2

)

2

,

LiC
(

CF

3

SO

2

)

3

,

LiCF

3

SO

3

,

LiPF

6

,

LiBF

4

, and

LiClO

4

, singly or in a limited number of combinations, in propylene carbonate (PC) and polyethylene glycol dimethyl ether. Aluminum that is scratched or abraded in an inert atmosphere (so that a protective surface film does not reform) undergoes significant corrosion in PC containing

LiN
(

CF

3

SO

2

)

2

,

LiC
(

CF

3

SO

2

)

3

,

LiCF

3

SO

3

, and

LiClO

4

, but forms a protective film in PC containing

LiPF

6

, or

LiBF

4

. A mechanism of corrosion of aluminum in

LiN
(

CF

3

SO

2

)

2

/
PC

is proposed. © 2000 The Electrochemical Society. All rights reserved.
Oxysterols
Authors: Björkhem Ingemar , Diczfalusy Ulf
Published: July 2002

Oxysterols are oxygenated derivatives of cholesterol that are intermediates or even end products in cholesterol excretion pathways. Because of their ability to pass cell membranes and the blood-brain barrier at a faster rate than cholesterol itself, they are also important as transport forms of cholesterol. In addition, oxysterols have been ascribed a number of important roles in connection with cholesterol turnover, atherosclerosis, apoptosis, necrosis, inflammation, immunosuppression, and the development of gallstones. According to current concepts, oxysterols are physiological mediators in connection with a number of cholesterol-induced metabolic effects. However, most of the evidence for this is still indirect, and there is a discrepancy between the documented potent effects of oxysterols under in vitro conditions and the studies demonstrating that they are of physiological importance in vivo. Oxysterol-binding proteins, such as liver X receptor-α (a nuclear receptor), do have a regulatory role in cholesterol turnover, but the physiological ligand of the protein has not yet been defined with certainty. Recently developed genetically engineered mouse models with markedly reduced or increased concentration of some of the oxysterols have exhibited surprisingly small changes in cholesterol turnover and homeostasis. The present review is a critical evaluation of the literature on oxysterols, in particular, the in vivo evidence for a role of oxysterols as physiological regulators of cholesterol homeostasis and as atherogenic factors.
Vitamin C Protects Against Hypochlorous Acid–Induced Glutathione Depletion and DNA Base and Protein Damage in Human Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells
Authors: Jenner Andrew M. , Ruiz J. Emilio , Dunster Christina , Halliwell Barry , Mann Giovanni E. , Siow Richard C.M.
Published: July 2002

Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), generated by myeloperoxidase released from activated macrophages, is thought to contribute to vascular dysfunction and oxidation of low density lipoproteins (LDLs) in atherogenesis. We have previously shown that HOCl exposure can cause chlorination and oxidation of isolated DNA and that vitamin C protects human arterial smooth muscle cells against oxidized LDL–mediated damage. We report in the present study that vitamin C attenuates HOCl-induced DNA base and protein damage and depletion of intracellular glutathione (GSH) and ATP in human arterial smooth muscle cells. Cells were pretreated in the absence or presence of 100 μmol/L vitamin C (24 hours) and then exposed to HOCl (0 to 500 μmol/L, 0 to 60 minutes) in the absence of vitamin C. Intracellular GSH and ATP levels were depleted by HOCl treatment, and gas chromatography–mass spectroscopy revealed a concentration- and time-dependent increase in DNA base oxidation and protein damage (measured as 3-chlorotyrosine). Pretreatment of smooth muscle cells with vitamin C significantly reduced the extent of HOCl-induced DNA and protein damage and attenuated decreases in intracellular ATP and GSH. Our findings suggest that physiological levels of vitamin C provide an important antioxidant defense against HOCl-mediated injury in atherosclerosis.
Pleiotropic Actions of Peroxisome Proliferator–Activated Receptors in Lipid Metabolism and Atherosclerosis
Authors: Barbier O. , Torra I. Pineda , Duguay Y. , Blanquart C. , Fruchart J.-C. , Glineur C. , Staels B.
Published: July 2002

Peroxisome proliferator–activated receptors (PPARs) are nuclear receptors activated by fatty acids and derivatives. Although PPARα mediates the hypolipidemic action of fibrates, PPARγ is the receptor for the antidiabetic glitazones. PPARα is highly expressed in tissues such as liver, muscle, kidney, and heart, where it stimulates the β-oxidative degradation of fatty acids. PPARγ is predominantly expressed in adipose tissues, where it promotes adipocyte differentiation and lipid storage. PPARβ/δ is expressed in a wide range of tissues, and recent findings indicate a role for this receptor in the control of adipogenesis. Pharmacological and gene-targeting studies have demonstrated a physiological role for PPARs in lipid and lipoprotein metabolism. PPARα controls plasma lipid transport by acting on triglyceride and fatty acid metabolism and by modulating bile acid synthesis and catabolism in the liver. All 3 PPARs regulate macrophage cholesterol homeostasis. By enhancing cholesterol efflux, they stimulate the critical steps of the reverse cholesterol transport pathway. As such, PPARs control plasma levels of cholesterol and triglycerides, which constitute major risk factors for coronary heart disease. Furthermore, PPARα and PPARγ regulate the expression of key proteins involved in all stages of atherogenesis, such as monocyte and lymphocyte recruitment to the arterial wall, foam cell formation, vascular inflammation, and thrombosis. Thus, by regulating gene transcription, PPARs modulate the onset and evolution of metabolic disorders predisposing to atherosclerosis and exert direct antiatherogenic actions at the level of the vascular wall.
MRI and Characterization of Atherosclerotic Plaque
Authors: Choudhury Robin P. , Fuster Valentin , Badimon Juan J. , Fisher Edward A. , Fayad Zahi A.
Published: July 2002

Noninvasive high-resolution magnetic resonance has the potential to image atherosclerotic plaque and to determine its composition and microanatomy. This review summarizes the rationale for plaque imaging and describes the characteristics of plaque by use of existing MRI techniques. The use of MRI in human disease and in animal models, particularly in rabbits and mice, is presented. Present and future applications of MRI, including real-time vascular intervention, new contrast agents, and molecular imaging, are also discussed.
Divergence of Angiogenic and Vascular Permeability Signaling by VEGF
Authors: Spyridopoulos Ioakim , Luedemann Corinne , Chen Donghui , Kearney Marianne , Chen Dongfen , Murohara Toyoaki , Principe Nicole , Isner Jeffrey M. , Losordo Douglas W.
Published: July 2002

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) promotes angiogenesis by a variety of mechanisms including stimulation of endothelial cell proliferation and migration and increasing vascular permeability. Although its mitogenic activity is mediated primarily by the β2-isoforms of protein kinase C (PKC), little is known about the signaling pathways transducing its other physiological properties. Accordingly, we used a novel inhibitor molecule to examine the role of PKC isoforms α and β in mediating VEGF-induced angiogenesis and vascular permeability. Because conventional inhibitors of PKC, such as staurosporine or calphostin C, also inhibit a variety of other protein kinases, we used a novel compound to specifically inhibit PKC. A myristoylated peptide, which mimics the pseudosubstrate motif of PKC-α and -β subtypes, has been shown to be a highly selective and cell-permeable inhibitor of PKC. Blocking led, as expected, to abrogation of VEGF-induced endothelial cell proliferation in vitro. In vivo, VEGF-induced angiogenesis was impaired by myristoylated peptide. Surprisingly, selective inhibition of PKC induced vascular permeability in vivo via a NO-dependent mechanism. Moreover, PKC inhibition led to a 6.4-fold induction of NO synthase (NOS) activity in endothelial cells. Our findings demonstrate that activation of PKC is a major signaling pathway required for VEGF-induced proliferation and angiogenesis, whereas vascular permeability was enhanced by blocking PKC. Inhibition of calcium-dependent PKC by itself led to induction of NOS. Although NOS is a downstream target for VEGF-induced angiogenesis, its induction by PKC inhibition was not sufficient to promote neovascularization. These results reveal that angiogenesis and vascular permeability induced by VEGF are mediated by mechanisms which ultimately diverge.