bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Brunei
Authors: Grotz Florian
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Cambodia since its independence in 1945. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Cambodia's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums at both the national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Cambodia
Authors: Hartmann Christof
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections held in Indonesia since its independence in 1945. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Indonesia's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections at both national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Indonesia
Authors: Rüland Jürgen
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections held in Laos since its independence in 1945. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Laos’ political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Laos
Authors: Hartmann Christof
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections held in Malaysia since its independence in 1957. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Malaysia's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for parties in parliamentary elections at both the national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the national and regional distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Thailand
Authors: Nelson Michael H.
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held since 1946 in former South and North Vietnam and then in unified Vietnam. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Vietnam's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Korea (Democratic People's Republic/ North Korea)
Authors: Suh Mark B.
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in South Korea since independence in 1948. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of South Korea's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums at both the national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the national and regional distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Australia
Authors: Hughes Colin A.
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Cook Islands since the establishment of self‐government in 1965. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Cook Islands’ political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for parties in parliamentary elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Cook Islands
Authors: Hassall Graham
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in the Federated States of Micronesia since its establishment as a self‐governing entity in 1979. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Micronesia's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast in parliamentary elections and referendums etc.).
Fiji Islands
Authors: Hartmann Christof
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections held in Kiribati since its independence in 1979. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Kiribati's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Nauru
Authors: Reilly Benjamin , Gratschew Maria
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in New Zealand since 1890. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of New Zealand's political history and outlines the evolution of electoral provisions in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for parties in parliamentary elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
New Zealand
Authors: Roberts Nigel S.
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Palau since becoming a self‐governing territory in 1980. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Palau's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Papua New Guinea
Authors: Reilly Benjamin
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Samoa since its independence in 1962. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Samoan political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Solomon Islands
Authors: Steeves Jeffrey S.
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections held in Tonga since 1987. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Tonga's political history and outlines the evolution of electoral provisions in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary elections at both the national and constituency level, the electoral participation of political forces, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Tonga
Authors: Campbell Ian C.
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Tuvalu since 1974. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Tuvalu's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes available electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast in parliamentary elections and referendums, etc.).
The European Union and the Promotion of Democracy
Authors: Youngs Richard
Published: October 2003

This book assesses European Union (EU) policies aimed at encouraging democratization in East Asia and the North African and Middle Eastern states within the Euro–Mediterranean partnership—these two regions being the source of some of the strongest conceptual challenges to ‘Western’ liberal democracy since the end of the cold war. The book addresses theoretical debates over the international dimensions of democratization and the EU's characteristics as an international actor, including in relation to the development of a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). The factors both driving and inhibiting European democracy promotion policies are explored. The book outlines the EU's distinctive bottom‐up philosophy, aimed at constructing the socio–economic and ideational foundations for political liberalization, but argues that the EU has, in practice, failed to develop a fully comprehensive and coherent democracy promotion strategy.
EU Democracy Promotion Instruments: Evolution and Shortcomings
Authors: Youngs Richard
Published: October 2003

This chapter outlines the nature of the instruments introduced by the EU pursuant to the democracy promotion commitment and examines the shortcomings and lacuna that remained in the range of policy tools available. The chapter describes the EU's new democracy aid provisions, its instruments of political conditionality, and the democracy‐related initiatives of the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). Different theories of integration are explored in relation to the development of the EU's presence as an international actor.
Conclusion: Conceptualizing the EU as a Promoter of Democracy
Authors: Youngs Richard
Published: October 2003

The conclusions revisit the conceptual debates outlined in the first chapter in light of the study of EU democracy promotion in the Mediterranean and East Asia. The EU's efforts to develop deeply embedded institutionalized regimes based on democratic norms are conceptualized. The conclusion also examines the relationship between material interests and international norms in EU policies; the extent of internal EU coherence and coordination over democracy policies; and the implications of EU policies for theoretical explanations of the democratization's external dimensions.
Liberty
Authors: Berlin Isaiah
Published: October 2003

Liberty is the new and expanded edition of Isaiah Berlin’s Four Essays on Liberty, a modern classic of liberalism. These essays, of which the best known is ‘Two Concepts of Liberty’, do not offer a systematic account of liberalism, but instead deploy a view of being, knowledge, and value which was calculated by Berlin to rule totalitarian thinking out of court. The new edition adds to the four, ‘From Hope and Fear set free’, which reinforces Berlin’s argument and which he wanted to include in the original edition. Three further essays, and three autobiographical appendices have been included, so that all Berlin’s principal statements on liberty are gathered together. The whole is introduced by Berlin’s editor, Henry Hardy.
Historical Inevitability
Authors: Berlin Isaiah
Published: October 2003

Berlin’s position in ‘Political Ideas’ postulated a human ability to make free choices. His lecture ‘Historical Inevitability’ attacked determinism as a foundation of the view that ‘the world has a direction’ and that society is governed by deterministic laws. Instead, Berlin suggested that determinism was implausible, because it would require radical changes in our ‘moral and psychological categories.’
Two Concepts of Liberty
Authors: Berlin Isaiah
Published: October 2003

This lecture insisted upon negative liberty as the political complement to the human capacity for free choice, and made matching metaphysical claims: the nature of being, and especially the conflicts amongst values, were inconsistent with totalitarian claims. Berlin, arguing along this line, provided an account of the perversion of positive liberty into a warrant for such claims, discussed nationalism, and emphasized the value‐pluralism, now linked so frequently with his name.
John Stuart Mill and the Ends of Life
Authors: Berlin Isaiah
Published: October 2003

This lecture explored the tension between liberty and one view of knowledge. Berlin presented Mill not only as an exponent of determinism and an associated consequentialism, but also as someone who came to recognize that this doctrine did not fit the facts of experience, and who emphasized, especially, free choice and the importance of negative liberty in society.
Liberty
Authors: Berlin Isaiah
Published: October 2003

This short essay is a summary of the main theses of Berlin’s ‘Two Concepts of Liberty’, and thus provides a brief introduction to his views.
Final Retrospect
Authors: Berlin Isaiah
Published: October 2003

This item consists of two excerpts from Berlin’s ‘My Intellectual Path’, an autobiographical piece, which was the last essay he wrote. It was written to help introduce Chinese students of philosophy to contemporary western philosophy. The portions reprinted here give a reminiscence of ‘Historical Inevitability’ and ‘Two Concepts of Liberty’.
Notes on Prejudice
Authors: Berlin Isaiah
Published: October 2003

This briefest of notes, written to help a friend speaking to a popular audience, gives an informal statement of Berlin’s views on liberty, nationalism and the plurality of human goals. It excoriates ‘the belief that there is one and only one true answer to the central questions which have agonized mankind’ as ‘responsible for … oceans of blood.’
Merchants to Multinationals
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: October 2003

This book examines the history of British multinational trading companies from the eighteenth century to the present day. During the Industrial Revolution, British merchants established overseas branches that became major trade intermediaries and subsequently engaged in foreign direct investment. Complex multinational business groups emerged controlling large investments in natural resources, processing, and services in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. While theories of the firm predict the demise over time of merchant firms, this book identifies the continued resilience of British trading companies despite the changing political and business environments of the twentieth century. They ‘reinvented’ themselves in successive generations. The competences of the trading companies resided in their information‐gathering, relationship‐building, human resources, and corporate governance systems.
Trading Companies in Theory and History
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: October 2003

This chapter reviews the theoretical literature on the role of trading companies, which emphasizes the importance of knowledge, information, reputation, and relationships. It places the experience of British trading companies in the context of the literature on the history of international business. The methodology of the study is explained, including the calculations of return on capital employed.
Foundations
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: October 2003

This chapter reviews the growth of British merchants in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. They were widely spread around the ports and entrepôts of the developing world by 1870. They reduced transactions and information costs to buyers and sellers in a context where distances remained large, and there were high levels of uncertainty about markets.
Trading in Crisis
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines the revival of British trading companies between 1914 and 1945 in the face of the recession, including the Great Depression, the collapse of primary commodity prices, the disruption of trade caused by import substitution and world wars. There was a loss of entrepreneurial vigour, but some continued geographical and product diversification. The survival of British trading companies rested on robust organizational structures and management systems, family ownership, collusive cartels, and imperial protection.
External Relationships
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines the external relationships of the trading companies. There were close and often long‐term relationships with banks and shipping and insurance companies, although agency agreements with manufacturers tended to be more contractual. Many relationships were based on trust, in which the advantages derived from the ongoing relationship were greater than was expected gains from opportunistic behaviour.
Natural Resources
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: October 2003

This chapter discusses the large direct investments made by trading companies in the ownership of natural resources, especially commodities such as tea, sugar, rubber, and tropical timber. Asset specificity, uncertainty, and opportunism provided incentives for this backward integration, and the companies were able to use their region‐specific information and contacts to identify profitable opportunities. There are case studies of investments in tea and tropical hardwoods, and also petroleum, in which merchants were initially important, but whose capital‐intensive nature led over time to their divestment.
Canon and Criterion in Christian Theology
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

Traces a radical shift in the history of Christian theology from the canon of scripture as a list of books to that of a criterion of truth in theology. The argument takes the form of a narrative showing how epistemology won out over soteriology in the conception of the bible. Within this development, theologians were upstaged by philosophers when scripture as a criterion failed to resolve critical material issues in Christian theology. The middle section of the narrative shows that the epistemology of the Enlightenment was deeply indebted both historically and formally to the foundationalism first worked out within theology. The net result was the collapse of the internal content of Christian theology in the modern period and its ongoing replacement by speculative exercises in epistemology. The cure for this state of affairs is the retrieval of the canonical heritage of the patristic Church and a resolution to develop rigorous solutions to problems in the epistemology of theology. The Church needs a wider canon of materials, practices, and persons than that supplied by scripture for her spiritual health. All epistemological proposals related to theology need to be treated as significant Midrash that are deployed when appropriate, but that should not be canonized.
Orientation: Authority, Canon, and Criterion
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

The critical problems for debates about the authority of scripture stem from confusing ecclesial canons with epistemic criteria. The slide from canon to criterion represents a category mistake that is natural but fatal for both theology and epistemology. The time is now ripe for reorientation in thinking about scripture, not least because of the wealth of new work in epistemology and philosophy of religion.
Canonical Division Between East and West
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

The long, drawn‐out‐division between Eastern and Western Christianity, the Great Schism, arose, in part, because of the addition of the filioque clause to the Nicene Creed. In and around this, the Western Church introduced radical changes in the status of the bishop of Rome and in the list of Fathers. Both these developments represent a move to bring epistemology into the very heart of the Church. Thus the division between East and West was more than a political operation; it involved subtle changes in the way the canonical heritage of the Church was identified and construed. In particular, the informal adoption of papal infallibility marked a radical shift in perspective within the life of the Church as a whole.
Canon and Scientia
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

The division between the East and West in the Church is brilliantly carried forth in the West in the work of Thomas Aquinas. By reaching for a conception of theology as scientia and by privileging the concept of divine revelation over scripture, Aquinas incorporated epistemic conceptions of scripture into the hard‐drive of the Church. Revelation displaced soteriology as primary in the life of the Church. The canonical heritage was refigured as a combination of scripture and tradition to reflect this revolution. Once he was canonized as the teacher par excellence, his epistemology was given a privileged position in the Roman Catholic Church.
Theological Foundationalism
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

The Reformation did not represent a radical break from the epistemological vision of scripture developed in the Western tradition. Initially, valiant efforts were made to focus on the soteriological significance of scripture as mediating the gospel, but these were quickly overtaken by the need to supply a justification for the new and sometimes radical theologies developed by the Reformers. That justification took the form of a robust theological foundationalism that sought to ground all theological claims in scripture alone. Tradition and teaching magisterium were sidelined or set aside.
The Epistemic Fortunes ofSola Scriptura
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

The appeal to sola scriptura, scripture alone, had devastating consequences for the canonical heritage of the Church within Western Christendom, systematically eroding and eliminating everything that could not be grounded in scripture. Thus, the great doctrines of the Church, like the doctrine of the Trinity, were now displaced by theories of revelation and inspiration. Paradoxically, doubt triumphed over fellowship and faith. The Reformers who failed to reach an agreement on critical issues of faith, found themselves cornered when asked to defend their foundationalism and divided the Church into a network of warring factions. Not surprisingly, friendly overtures to Eastern Orthodoxy failed.
Canonical Synthesis: The Anglican Via Media
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

The great architects of the Anglican Reformation were clearly uneasy with the practical and pastoral problems generated by an exclusive appeal to sola scriptura . They restricted the authority of scripture to matters essential to salvation, while making judicious appeal to tradition and reason to supplement the appeal to the bible. In time, the appeal to scripture, tradition, and reason has tended to supplant and erode the critical components of the canonical heritage that were central to the early Anglican tradition.
The Rule of Reason
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

The instability of the epistemology of the Anglican Reformation and the continuing failure to reach agreement on contested moral and religious issues came to the fore in the work of John Locke. Locke sought to make reason both prior to, and judge over, divine revelation. In so doing, he developed a robust form of empiricism that matched in form the foundationalism of Descartes. By this time, the tradition of the Church, not least its central creedal doctrines, was idling. The Church had become fully hostage to philosophy and epistemology.
Theology Within the Limits of Experience Alone
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

Once the Church had privileged epistemology over its canonical heritage, its theologians were drawn inescapably into solving problems in the epistemology of theology and into developing fitting material theological proposals. Schleiermacher, the founder of Liberal Protestantism, opted for religious experience as the foundation of faith and allowed only that which could be grounded in the religious affections. He rejected the Old Testament canon and reworked the conception of the New Testament canon as a norm of Christian identity. The doctrine of the Trinity became strictly optional.
More Light Amid the Encircling Gloom
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

The creation of Anglo Catholicism represents a fresh way to deal with the epistemological crisis at the heart of Western Christianity. John Henry Newman's journey from Evangelicalism to Roman Catholicism can be seen as a valiant effort to find a way to salvage scriptural foundationalism. While he appealed to conscience and judgement, he developed a vision of the infallibility of the Church and of the pope that emerged as a real alternative to Liberal Protestantism and scepticism. Epistemology has by now fully triumphed within Western Christianity.
Ending the Great Misery of Protestantism
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

Karl Barth's vision of a Neoorthodoxy that would recover the insights of the Protestant Reformation looked to the material content of scripture to fend off the encroachments of bad epistemology as represented by natural theology. His bold and exclusivist vision of special revelation was intimately tied to a retrieval of the doctrine of the Trinity. Contrary to his avowals, this enterprise continued the Cartesian revolution at the root of the Enlightenment. Its resources for recovering the full faith of the Church were severely limited; it is more by accident than by deep principle that it upheld the doctrine of the Trinity.
Institutions and the Evolution of European Democracy
Authors: Hall Peter A.
Published: October 2003

The purpose of this chapter is to place contemporary debate about European democracy in a wider historical context by considering how analyses of the institutions that underpin democracy in Europe have evolved over time in tandem with political developments. It is said that those who neglect history are doomed to repeat it, and that can be also true of social science. We depend on the insights of successive generations of scholars for much of what we know about democracy, and by examining how their analyses shifted as European governance itself evolved, we can develop perspectives with which to understand the problems confronting Europe today. The survey is necessarily brief survey, but references are provided that lead to deeper debates. The different sections of the chapter are: The Feasibility of Popular Government; The Importance of Culture, Organization, and Social Conditions; Technocracy, Neo–Corporatism, and the Romantic Revolt; The Move to the Market; and Contemporary European Democracy.
National Courts and Community Law
Authors: Craig Paul P.
Published: October 2003

An examination is made of the way in which national courts have reacted to European Community law, in particular to the claim to supremacy over national law contained in the jurisprudence of the European Court of Justice. The discussion begins with a brief account of the Community’s supremacy doctrine. This is followed by an analysis of the reaction of national courts to this claim. The focus then shifts from positive law to the normative evaluation of a number of issues central to this topic. The chapter concludes with an overview of the political science literature that has considered the reasons for the reaction of national courts to the claims made by the Community’s judicial institutions.
On Studying Governments
Authors: Andeweg Rudy B.
Published: October 2003

This chapter gives an overview of approaches to the study of governments, building explicitly on the work of A. King (1975) and C. Campbell (1993), who, respectively, offered three research themes (composition, internal dynamics and external relations) and three theoretical perspectives (institutionalism, rational choice and political sociology/psychology). Each of the three research themes is discussed separately, using examples that illustrate the theoretical perspectives: under ‘composition’, the examples are coalition formation (rational choice) and recruitment/motivation (political sociology/psychology); under ‘internal dynamics’, the examples are prime–ministerial v. cabinet government (institutionalism) and political roles/groupthink (political sociology/psychology); and under ‘external relations’, the examples are executive–legislative relations (institutionalism) and control over bureaucracy (rational choice). The last section of the chapter compares the three theoretical approaches.
What Is New About Governance and Why Does It Matter?
Authors: Rhodes R. A. W.
Published: October 2003

This chapter defends the ‘private patois of political science’, revisiting in separate sections the notions of governance, the core executive, the hollowing out of the core executive, and the differentiated polity. There are already plenty of formal academic statements, but the aim here is to provide an informal guide to one way of understanding British government, to what we are trying to understand, and to how we understand it. The author believes that the old vocabulary for describing Westminster and Whitehall is at best a partial description of how British government works, and that a new language is needed to capture the changes that have taken and are taking place.
Executives in Comparative Context
Authors: Goetz Klaus H.
Published: October 2003

The comparative study of European executives stands at the interface of two subdisciplines of political science – comparative government (which focuses on the primarily political and governmental aspects of the executive) and comparative public administration (which focuses on the bureaucratic parts of the executive that extend beneath its thin political veneer). The tension between politics and administration is central to understanding the institutionalization of executives: it is first about the tasks that executives are expected to perform and the most appropriate executive organization; and second about the relation between the formal office and the office holders. The first main section of the chapter analyses how these two constitutive tensions in the institutionalization of executives play out in different countries; the discussion is with reference to executive coordination and the organization of centres of government. Further sections discuss the evaluation of executives, and executive reform. Overall, the analysis of the state of, and trends in, executive development suggests that the institutional foundations and fortifications of the executive may be less solid than is generally assumed.
The Political System of the European Union
Authors: Nugent Neill , Paterson William
Published: October 2003

An examination is made of the political system of the European Union (EU), which seeks to highlight its key features. One of these underpins much of the explanation and analysis of the chapter: that the European Union is at the centre of what is becoming a European system of governance, in which different levels of government are increasingly interpenetrated and in which boundaries between the EU and its member states are becoming eroded. The chapter begins with an analysis of the nature of EU policy activity, and this is followed by an examination of EU decision making, focused particularly around the question of who governs. Next, there is an analysis of the nature of the EU as a political system, with particular consideration given to the extent to which it displays the characteristics of a state on the one hand and features of new governance on the other. There is then an examination of an issue that concerns all political systems and which has become increasingly debated in EU circles – the nature of the EU’s legitimacy.
Dismantling and Rebuilding the Weberian State
Authors: Peters B. Guy
Published: October 2003

The title of this chapter reflects an important question about the contemporary development of public administration and its role within the contemporary state. It is clear that the public sectors in most contemporary European countries have been through some process of administrative reform, and that the traditional public bureaucratic (Weberian) sector has been, to a great extent, dismantled. The character of the emergent system for governing is not always clear, but the question posed by the reforms that have taken place is whether that earlier version of government can, or should, in any way be recaptured. The implicit and explicit argument is that a good deal of value has been lost through these changes in the style of governing, but that it may well be impossible (and undesirable) to rebuild anything approximating the older version of the state and the public bureaucracy. The different sections of the chapter look at the Weberian state (and other forms of bureaucratic government), critiques of the Weberian model, the dismantling administrative reforms of the 1980s and 1990s, and the issue of putting back together the Weberian state.
The Age of Administrative Reforms
Authors: Cassese Sabino
Published: October 2003

The first section of the chapter discusses the factors that give rise to a need for administrative reform in the public sector: the size and stability of public administrations means that they change less quickly than the political, economic and social framework within which they operate; and frictions periodically emerge between their two components – the political overseers and the administration proper. The second section identifies administrative reform as a peculiarly twentieth century phenomenon in Europe. The remaining sections of the chapter go on to look at various aspects of this administrative reform: reform motivations and objectives; administrative reform in West Europe; and comparative contrasts in administrative reform.
Europeanization and the Persistence of Administrative Systems
Authors: Page Edward C.
Published: October 2003

Europeanization represents something of a paradox: at one level it is impossible to argue that the state has not been ‘Europeanized’ to some degree in various sectors; and on the other hand, there is precious little evidence of ‘Europeanization’. The difference between these two views can be explained by the different meanings of ‘Europeanization’ on which they are based: the first argument is based on the definition of Europeanization as impact of whatever sort on the way in which policies are developed in member states of the European Union (EU); the second argument is far more exacting since it is based on a definition of Europeanization as having a homogenizing impact on specific institutions and practices across a wide range of state activities; to a very large degree then the argument about whether and to what extent ‘Europeanization’ is taking place, depends upon the definition used. This investigation addresses a central theme in much of Vincent Wright’s later comparative work, as well as his work on French politics – the persistence of national differences in the light of wider global as well as European influences on the institutions of individual states. The chapter looks at the expectation of homogenization, and whether or not European administrative systems have converged. The various mechanisms considered through which this convergence could occur are: coercion, imitation, adjustment and polydiffusion.
The Decline of Party?
Authors: Smith Gordon
Published: October 2003

The question of party political decline is approached by examining four aspects that have featured prominently in debate: parties as representative agencies; party organization; parties in relation to the state and society; and parties in their ‘external’ environment. The last aspect includes discussion of the alternatives to party democracy and ‘party deficit’ in the European Union. Since this account is concerned with European developments, the effects of European integration on the role of political parties are particularly relevant. Before the main analysis is undertaken, the chapter takes a brief look at the whole question of party decline in its historical context.
Contentious Politics in Western Europe and the United States
Authors: Tarrow Sidney
Published: October 2003

The first part of this chapter examines the four main types of political contention outlined in the introduction to it: expressive contention, reformist contention, integral contention and communal contention. The second section looks at how contentious political movements change; the four types frequently intersect, combine and transmute from one form to another. The types of change considered here are institutionalization, radicalization of once–moderate movements, the creation of hybrid forms of organization and strategy, and the privatization of movement activists. The third section of the chapter turns to how states interact with movements and considers the hypothesis that Western Europe and the United States are, in some ways, becoming movement societies. The chapter closes on a speculative note: how are European social movements – which arose in relation to the national state – being affected by the forces of ‘globalization’ and European integration in today’s world?
Democratizations in the European Periphery
Authors: Alonso Sonia , Maravall José María
Published: October 2003

The 1962 Birkelbach report of the European Parliament declared that only those states that guaranteed truly democratic practices and respect for human rights and fundamental liberties would be admitted into the Community. This political requirement was addressed to the South European dictatorships, and had an important influence on political events in these countries, to which the European Community represented, thus, a form of political conditionality; this ‘conditioning’ required monitoring. The European Union 1993 summit in Copenhagen opened the door to membership to the new regimes in the East if political and economic conditions, later ratified by the Amsterdam Treaty in 1997, were fulfilled: the political conditions referred to democracy, the respect of minorities and the rule of law; the economic ones, to a market economy, an independent financial sector and macroeconomic stability. The Commission submitted regular reports on the fulfilment by each candidate country of such conditions. The monitoring, however, described states of affairs while not explaining their causes. This chapter examines these two periods of regime change in Southern and Central Eastern Europe, reviewing (with empirical evidence), arguments about economic development, regimes and political institutions; the purpose is to understand better the political and economic transformations that went on in what was the southern and eastern periphery of Europe.
The Politics of Regulation and European Regulatory Institutions
Authors: Majone Giandomenico
Published: October 2003

A distinctive feature of the modern regulatory state is the extensive delegation of powers to politically independent institutions (agencies, boards, commissions, tribunals), and this delegation of legislative powers to unelected policy- makers has always been somewhat problematic from the viewpoint of democratic theory. The American regulatory state has grappled with this issue for more than a century, and regulatory legitimacy is becoming an increasingly important political problem also in Europe, both at national and Community levels. In the United States the ‘non–delegation doctrine’ was the first attempt to resolve the normative problems raised by the emergence of a modern system of administrative regulation, and found widespread acceptance, but the delegation problem is considerably more complicated in the European Community/European Union (EC/EU), where various initiatives have been enacted. In both the United States and in Europe, constitutional doctrines against delegation have unravelled because the practical case for allowing regulatory discretion is overwhelming, so it is impossible to study the politics of regulation without first understanding why political principals choose to delegate rule–making powers. This is the subject of the first section of this chapter, which then goes on to analyse the relation between delegation and agency independence using the concept of political property rights, and to discuss the future of European regulation, and the politics of institutional change.
Recasting European Welfare States
Authors: Ferrera Maurizio , Hemerijck Anton , Rhodes Martin
Published: October 2003

The chapter presents, in synthesis form, some key elements of what is now understood about welfare regimes, their respective pathologies of development, their current paths of reform, and the challenges that still confront them. The first section examines welfare state performance thematically, focusing on employment, the scale and shape of social security systems, and distributive outcomes. The second section takes Europe’s four welfare regimes (those of Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, continental Europe and Southern Europe) and analyses their respective strengths and vulnerabilities. The conclusion considers where the literature on welfare states is likely to go in the future.
International Relations, International Institutions, and the European State
Authors: Hurrell Andrew , Menon Anand
Published: October 2003

This chapter takes a broad look at the impact exerted by international economic and political pressures on patterns of government and governance in Europe. It assesses the degree to which, as a consequence of the end of the Cold War and of the forces of globalization, these pressures are changing, and considers the implications of such change. It is argued in the first section of the chapter that the profound impact of the external environment on the character of the European state has been all too evident, despite the internalist tendencies of so much comparativist scholarship; moreover, West European states continue to confront several external challenges to the stability that has, since the Second World War, characterized their half of the Old Continent. The first challenge comes from the continued development of the very forces of liberalization that have played such an important role in Europe's recent past, changes that, for the sake of convenience, can be categorized under the heading of ‘globalization’; the second section examines some of the major aspects of the globalization debate as it relates to the European state, but takes a sceptical viewpoint. The second challenge comes from the changes in the international political system (the emergence of the United States as the single superpower; the collapse of the Soviet Union; the changing character of the security problems facing Europe); an emphasis on these changes can be found most prominently in the writings of US neo–realists who asserted that the end of the Cold War would inevitably result in Europe returning to its geopolitical and conflictual ‘historic norm’. In the third section it is shown why such extreme predictions have been proved wrong but nevertheless argues that the neo–realist emphasis on the international political system is, in a fundamental sense, correct.
Moral Writings
Authors: Prichard H. A.
Published: October 2003

Develops Prichard's intuitionist position on moral philosophy. As a realist, he maintains that through direct perception in particular cases, we come to have knowledge of universals. To questions about moral obligation, he argues that no single principle explains why right acts are right, that is to say, why certain acts are obligatory. Prichard rejects any link between ‘the right’ and ‘the good’, maintaining that the rightness of action depends not upon what is good, nor upon our own good, nor upon what we believe is good, nor upon what we desire. In these essays, Prichard analyses the views of Plato, Aristotle, Green, Sidgwick, Kant, and others. Only the last of these thinkers, according to Prichard, steers clear of those views that Prichard finds to be in error since Kant also distinguishes between what is right and what is good.
Moral Obligation
Authors: Prichard H. A.
Published: October 2003

Examines four principle questions about moral obligation raised by key philosophers: (1) Plato asks in The Republic ‘Will a man be better off for doing his duty?’; (2) Plato then asks ‘Ought man to do his duty?’; (3) we may also ask ‘What is the criterion of a duty?’; and (4) we may ask ‘What is moral obligation?’ Rejecting the last question as unreal, Prichard then argues against the connection between duty and happiness or duty and personal or general advantage. After critiquing both teleological and quasi‐teleological theories of obligation, he ends by contrasting goodness and obligation.
Green: Political Obligation
Authors: Prichard H. A.
Published: October 2003

Analyses Green's rather obscure treatment of two important questions: (1) ‘Why does a subject have the duty to obey the ruler or sovereign?’; and (2) ‘Why is the receipt of an order backed by a threat sufficient to establish this duty when the order comes from a ruler?’ Prichard considers Green's position regarding the grounds and justification for obedience to law to be part of a larger theory of moral obligation that is inconsistent with our ordinary moral ideas. To Green's seeming denial of the existence of any natural rights or duties, Prichard responds that Green in fact has failed to state a sense in which there really are natural rights and obligations. Moreover, Green's denial that we can answer the question ‘Why ought we to obey the government?’ can be formulated only by maintaining the existence of an obligation independent of our government's commands. The core of truth in Green's position, according to Prichard, lies in his recognition that a factor necessary to secure obedience is the subject's unselfish interest in the welfare of other members of her community.