bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Basics of Crystal Structure and Band Structure
Authors: Vurgaftman Igor , Lumb Matthew P. , Meyer Jerry R.
Published: January 2021

III–V semiconductors form crystalline structures with three-dimensional periodic arrangements of the atoms. In this chapter, we will explore the nature of the crystal lattice starting from lower dimensions and progressing to real semiconductor crystals. We also learn why we expect distinct energy bands to form in the solids that crystallize in such lattices. The carrier statistics and occupation of the bands will also be examined.
Absorption and Emission of Light in III–V Semiconductors
Authors: Vurgaftman Igor , Lumb Matthew P. , Meyer Jerry R.
Published: January 2021

Previous chapters discussed the crystal structure and bandstructure of III–V semiconductors. This chapter shifts to the book’s second major topic: electronic interactions with light. It introduces the main ideas about how light waves propagate in semiconductor crystals and induce absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission in bulk semiconductors. It also considers the differences between the electronic interactions with light in zinc-blende and wurtzite crystals and what happens as the energy gap of the semiconductor is reduced to zero or when the crystal is two-dimensional.
Analytic Theology and the Academic Study of Religion
Authors: Wood William
Published: January 2021

Analytic theology can flourish in the secular academy, and flourish as authentically Christian theology. This book aims to explain analytic theology to other theologians and to scholars of religion, and to explain those other fields to analytic theologians. The book defends analytic theology from some common criticisms, but also argues that analytic theologians have much to learn from other forms of inquiry. Analytic theology is a legitimate form of theology, and a legitimate form of academic inquiry, and it can be a valuable conversation partner within the wider religious studies academy. All sides would benefit if analytic theology were given a seat at the interdisciplinary table. The book articulates an attractive vision of analytic theology, fosters a more fruitful interdisciplinary conversation, and enables scholars across the religious studies academy to understand one another better.
The Value and Distinctiveness of Analytic Theology
Authors: Wood William
Published: January 2021

The book begins with three very brief chapters that collectively introduce the work as a whole. I aim to hold together three very different audiences: analytic theologians and philosophers of religion, other academic theologians, and scholars of religion. I want to build bridges across the various intellectual gaps that currently divide them. Chapter 1 introduces analytic theology and attempts to distinguish it from related forms of inquiry. Analytic theology uses analytic philosophy to elucidate the meaning, coherence, and truth of Christian doctrines. This form of inquiry is valuable because the questions it asks are intrinsically important. For analytic theologians, though not for everyone, analytic theology is also fun. I outline the argument of Part II, which considers the nature of analytic theology and analytic philosophy in more depth.
Why Do They Write That Way?
Authors: Wood William
Published: January 2021

A deep gulf of misunderstanding separates analytic philosophers from scholars in other humanistic disciplines. The same gulf also separates analytic theologians from the rest of the religious studies academy. Explaining and addressing this gulf is one of the major tasks of this book as a whole. There is no doubt that the gulf is a joint construction, and that analytic and nonanalytic thinkers have collectively created it and allowed it to persist. Analytic philosophers sometimes lack hermeneutical charity. But at the same time, other humanists often misunderstand what analytic philosophy really is. I want to persuade nonanalytic colleagues of the value of analytic theology, and so I must allay some of these misunderstandings. Yet I also want analytic theologians and philosophers to recognize that the analytic style of writing and thinking comes with its own limitations. Like all forms of inquiry, analytic theology has “characteristic deformations,” typical excesses, and common ways of going wrong. Many of its characteristic deformations are inherited from analytic philosophy. Analytic theologians can accept this criticism without conceding the value of analytic philosophy or analytic theology.
The Real Trouble with Ontotheology and Univocity
Authors: Wood William
Published: January 2021

Part III calls for a more theological analytic theology and defends analytic theology from some common theological objections. Chapter 8 considers contemporary theological worries about ontotheology and univocity. Ontotheology is the error of treating God as a being among beings; univocity affirms that Creator and creatures all fall under a single concept of being. Both seemingly lead to the same theological fault: the sin of idolatry. Building on Chapter 7, I argue that analytic theologians should indeed worry about ontotheology, but as long as they avoid idolatry, they avoid ontotheology too. Furthermore, semantic univocity does not entail ontological univocity or, as I call it, “ontological sameness.” Even though many analytic theologians do affirm semantic univocity, and do say that God is “a being,” it does not follow that they endorse any ontological sameness between God and creatures, violate the creator/creature distinction, or fall into ontotheology or idolatry.
Analytic Theology as a Spiritual Practice
Authors: Wood William
Published: January 2021

Part III calls for a more theological analytic theology and defends analytic theology from some common theological objections. Many theologians reject analytic theology because they find it too abstract and spiritually sterile to count as genuine theology. In contrast, I argue that analytic theology may be understood as a spiritual practice. Intellectual practices are also spiritual exercises when they (1) aim at self-improvement or liberation, instead of simply the acquisition of knowledge; (2) discipline the passions, since unchecked passions and immoderate desires are the enemy of both the spiritual life and the life of the mind; (3) help us see the world as it really is, rather than as we imagine or wish it to be; and (4) help us cultivate specific virtues that are at once intellectual and moral, like attention or concentration. It is in these senses that analytic theology can be understood as a spiritual practice. Analytic theology is an authentic development of a tradition of Christian philosophical theology, which includes Anselm and Aquinas as members, and which treats theology as both theoretical and practical at once.
Inquiry and Argument in the Secular Academy
Authors: Wood William
Published: January 2021

Part IV turns to an extended engagement with the academic study of religion, which is often constitutively hostile to any form of theology. Chapter 11 identifies some of the norms of inquiry and argument that prevail in the secular academy in order to show that analytic theology conforms to those very same norms. I develop a framework for academic argument that depends on the notion of “discursive commitments,” taken from the pragmatist philosophy of Robert Brandom and Jeffrey Stout. Here is the central insight: when we engage in academic argument, we are obliged to support our claims with reasons and evidence, and to respond with reasons and evidence when our claims are appropriately challenged.
The Hegemony of Critique
Authors: Wood William
Published: January 2021

Part IV turns to an extended engagement with the academic study of religion, which is often constitutively hostile to any form of theology. Chapter 13 concerns the role of “critique” in the academic study of religion, where “critique” is understood as a specific discourse—something more than mere criticism. Critique remains valuable, but in the contemporary religious studies academy, it has become hegemonic, to the point where it threatens to crowd out other equally legitimate methods of inquiry. Analytic theologians are well positioned to grasp the limitations of critique precisely because critique’s moves and methods are so different from those of analytic theology. I argue that the academic study of religion needs to supplement critical inquiry’s “epistemology of power” with a more analytic “epistemology of truth,” one that allows us to assess religious adherence as a form of rational behavior. At the same time, analytic theologians have much to learn from the tradition of critical inquiry.
Analytic Theology as Rigorous Appreciation
Authors: Wood William
Published: January 2021

Part IV turns to an extended engagement with the academic study of religion, which is often constitutively hostile to any form of theology. Chapter 14 considers the vexed role of normative inquiry in the academic study of religion. It defends normative inquiry, and argues that analytic theology is a form of post-critical, normative inquiry that prizes attachment and “rigorous appreciation.” As such, analytic theology can contribute to the study of religions while it also maintains its own distinctive focus on evaluating Christian truth claims and practices. The chapter then concludes with a modest proposal on behalf of comparative analytic theology.
Extraction constraints
Authors: Chaves Rui P. , Putnam Michael T.
Published: January 2021

This chapter offers a detailed survey of the constraints that restrict filler-gap dependencies (island constraints), and argues that there are several different kinds of island constraints, due to different combinations of independently motivated factors. Most importantly, it argues that most islands are not cross-constructionally active. That is, most island phenomena are restricted to certain kinds of unbounded dependency constructions (e.g. interrogatives, or relative clauses). In particular, several island types are primarily caused by drawing the hearer’s attention to a fronted referent that is not at-issue, and is of little consequence to what the utterance convey. Such an account emerges naturally from the observation that not all propositions express equally likely states of affairs and that different constructions come with different biases with respect to how information structure is packaged, and consequently, to which referents it is pragmatically licit to single out. The chapter concludes with a discussion of resumption and supposed island effects in other types of construction.
Non-movement-based approaches
Authors: Chaves Rui P. , Putnam Michael T.
Published: January 2021

This chapter compares movement-based conceptions of grammar and of unbounded dependency constructions with their construction- and non-movement-based antithesis. In particular, the focus of this chapter is on how unification and construction-based grammar provides not only a better handle on the phenomena than the MP from a linguistic perspective, but also from a psycholinguistic point of view. The flexibility of non-movement-based accounts allows a much wider and much more complex array of unbounded dependency patterns because it rejects the basic idea that extracted phrases start out as being embedded in sentence structure, and instead views the propagation of all information in sentence structure as a local and distributed (featural) process. The grammatical theory discussed in this chapter is also more consistent with extant models of human language processing than the MP, and demonstrably allows for efficient incremental and probabilistic language models of both comprehension and production.
The acquisition of UDCs
Authors: Chaves Rui P. , Putnam Michael T.
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on behavioral evidence concerning acquisition of unbounded dependency constructions and island phenomena. It provides a general overview of their acquisitional trajectory in normal developing L1, focusing on the emergence of filler-gap dependencies from one-word constructions to multi-clausal constructions, as well as island effects. The chapter argues that the gradual and frequency-based developmental evidence is consistent with an exemplar-based approach that contains rich morphosyntactic, semantic, and pragmatic information along the lines of the empiricist perspective. In particular, the extant evidence supports a usage-based view in which the growth of a grammar proceeds from simple units to more complex ones, exploiting the frequency of simple as well as complex exemplars. The chapter concludes by describing a exemplar- and chunk-based account of grammar development, composed of rich information that is probabilistic in nature, and shaped by experience.
Conclusion
Authors: Chaves Rui P. , Putnam Michael T.
Published: January 2021

This chapter summarizes the main empirical, theoretical, and experimental contributions of the book and argues that both experimental and linguistic research must continue to shape and change our understanding of linguistic phenomena and the relationship between grammar and the mind.
Children and the European Court of Human Rights
Authors: Fenton-Glynn Claire
Published: January 2021

This book provides a comprehensive and detailed overview of the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights as it relates to children. Covering areas including juvenile justice, the immigration system, and education and religion, as well as family life, child protection, and adoption, it undertakes a comprehensive examination of the way in which the Court has approached the rights of children, both in relation to their parents and in relation to the state. In doing so, it tracks the evolution of the Court’s treatment of children’s rights, from its inauspicious and paternalistic beginnings to an emerging recognition of children’s individual agency.
Introduction
Authors: Fenton-Glynn Claire
Published: January 2021

This chapter provides a brief introduction to the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), and the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), as it relates to children. Over the past 60 years, the ECtHR has developed a substantial and ever-growing body of case law concerning children, covering issues ranging from juvenile justice and physical integrity to immigration, education, and religion, as well as a code of family law which significantly expands the scope and influence of the ECHR. The chapter explains four key principles of interpretation (positive obligations, the living instrument doctrine, subsidiarity, and the margin of appreciation), as well as the Court’s use of international instruments.
The Right to Respect for Private Life
Authors: Fenton-Glynn Claire
Published: January 2021

This chapter considers the right of the child to respect for private life from the perspective of three interrelated, but distinct, aspects. First, it considers the Court’s case law concerning the right to privacy, and the protection of one’s image. Second, it examines the development of the Court’s approach to the right to receive information—this ranges from rather conservative and paternalistic beginnings to a more robust protection of freedom of expression. Finally, the chapter analyses the Court’s jurisprudence concerning the right to identity, including the right to information on origins and rights concerning the naming of children and their citizenship.
Juvenile Justice
Authors: Fenton-Glynn Claire
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights concerning juvenile justice. It begins by considering challenges to differences in treatment between adult and child offenders, as well as disputes concerning the minimum age of criminal responsibility. It then goes on to analyse the deprivation of liberty of children under Article 5 of the Convention, looking at both detention for the purposes of educational supervision and detention on suspicion of having committed an offence. Under Article 6, the chapter examines the way in which the Court has interpreted the ‘right to a fair trial’ in proceedings concerning children, including the right to effective participation in proceedings, the right to a public hearing, and the right to legal representation. Finally, the chapter discusses the sentencing of children, focusing on the issue of proportionality.
Conclusions
Authors: Fenton-Glynn Claire
Published: January 2021

This chapter summarises how, as an instrument for the protection of children’s rights, the European Convention on Human Rights has come a long way from its limited beginnings in 1950, and the many achievements of the Court in enforcing and progressing children’s rights, both in terms of substantive rights and procedural safeguards. However, it also acknowledges the deficiencies of the Convention as a child rights instrument, noting in particular the lack of strong participation rights for children, the focus on ‘best interests’ rather than rights, and the emphasis placed on the margin of appreciation. Finally, the chapter outlines possible future challenges for children’s rights before the Court.
Neither Older nor Wiser? What Continual Party Change Means for the Quality of Democracy
Authors: Haughton Tim , Deegan-Krause Kevin
Published: January 2021

New party emergence poses major questions for the quality of democracy. New parties can help remove incompetent and corrupt politicians from power, re-engage citizens, represent neglected interests and issues, respond to changes in society, and provoke established parties to perform better. But new party emergence can also bring into public office inexperienced individuals offering easy and unworkable solutions to society’s woes. When they fail to deliver, they can further undermine trust in democracy, and fuel cynicism and disillusionment in politics more broadly. New parties may be responsive, but they are less likely to be responsible. Moreover, new parties tend to focus on the present, with a series of shorter-term goals. With their longer-term time horizons, well-developed and institutionalized parties are much more likely to help foster environments conducive to the innovation and technological progress integral to long-run economic development.
Unsupervised Sex Work and Prostitution as a Means of Survival
Authors: Röger Maren
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on illegal prostitution, including street prostitution and private prostitution, during the German occupation of Poland. Although this sex work took place outside the organized brothels, it was not beyond official controls. The authorities kept a particularly close eye on established streetwalking sites, which were a metropolitan and urban phenomenon. Known prostitution sites of this kind were far easier to control, however, than private residences — also frequently used for paid sex between the occupiers and the occupied. The chapter then considers why numerous Polish women sold sexual services during the occupation. Ultimately, for Polish women, sex work was a means of earning money and thus of survival.
Fraternizing Women and Men
Authors: Röger Maren
Published: January 2021

This chapter describes the sociocultural characterization of fraternizing women. The majority opinion in Polish society was that women who socialized with German men did so for two clear reasons: money and social advancement. In fact, many of the relationships entered into during the occupation should be considered instances of survival sex. While historians and sociologists have long used the term “survival sex”, the more neutral parallel term “sexual barter” has been established in recent years as it concedes the women more agency. Indeed, many wartime relationships can be seen as complicated systems of interaction, into which the German and Polish partners brought different articles of exchange. The Germans were not always solely interested in the physical; they also sought human warmth. Other motivating factors, besides material advantages and romantic emotions, included protection and the need for human connection. Women sometimes also befriended the Germans for reasons of political sympathy, while some women thoroughly enjoyed the proximity to power. The chapter then considers the range of motives of the Reich German men in embarking on banned sexual and intimate relationships with Poles.
(Attempts at) Legalizing Relationships
Authors: Röger Maren
Published: January 2021

This chapter studies the attempts at legalizing relationships between German men and Polish women. One alternative that Reich German–Polish couples had to the kinds of prosecution described in the previous chapter was to legalize their relationships — however paradoxical this may seem at first glance. Regulating marriages was an important element of Nazi occupation policy as a whole. Numerous decrees had the aim of keeping the German, “neo-German”, and Polish populations apart. Accordingly, newly-recruited Germans should marry among themselves wherever possible, and certainly not marry Poles. This did not work well everywhere so the authorities sometimes changed tack and legitimized cohabitation. The racial planners also permitted such weddings in an attempt to hide the fact that it was not possible to entirely separate the populations in the occupied territories as they had intended. The chapter describes the process of marriage applications and the authorities involved, and introduces some examples of successful and denied marriage applications. It shows further that SS men were more likely to have longer relationships, but did rarely succeed in marrying Polish women.
Patterns of Sexual Violence in Occupied Poland
Authors: Röger Maren
Published: January 2021

This chapter traces the patterns of wartime sexual violence in occupied Poland. Emotional overload, shame, and the desire to avoid questioning or investigations all prevented Polish women from accusing the offenders during the Second World War. But the most important inhibiting factor was the marked imbalance in power between perpetrators and victims. The chapter then distinguishes between three time periods and five types of sexual violence, relating to the various phases of the German occupation. During the invasion in 1939, gang rapes and individual assaults were frequent, also during Warsaw Uprising in 1944 sexual violence was a frequent tool. During occupation, German men, made use of their power. One of the most frequent clusters had been sexual extortion at the workplace.
Dream to See Patterns
Authors: Llewellyn Sue
Published: January 2021

What is a dream? I think a dream identifies a complex pattern in experience and portrays this in a dream image. In other words, I argue for a complex pattern identification theory of dreaming. We can detect complex patterns in wake too, but our thought is convergent, sequential, and driven by more obvious associations, whereas, during dreaming, we see less obvious associations because we think in a divergent way. This chapter covers why, in our evolutionary past, we needed to detect complex, non-obvious, divergent patterns, and begins to explain why the dreaming state evolved to do this. I think complex pattern identification occurs during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, with the pattern visualized in a REM dream.
Dream to Associate
Authors: Llewellyn Sue
Published: January 2021

Dreams make non-obvious associations to depict complex patterns in past experience. These patterns are constructed from elements of different memories. This chapter illustrates this concept through a dream, ‘the white paper kite and the butterfly’. Dreams portray a complex, experiential pattern, but this pattern hasn’t been experienced, so dreams don’t depict what really happened. Memories can be semantic (for knowledge) or episodic (for experiences). They are held in brain networks composed of pathways and junctions. Episodic memories are represented along pathways. I argue rapid eye movement (REM) dream images, composed of elements of different experiences, are represented at junctions.
Dream to Decide (and to Act)
Authors: Llewellyn Sue
Published: January 2021

Freud famously thought dreams to be the ‘royal road’ to the unconscious. Do retained dream associations, which depict a probabilistic pattern inherent in experience, drive unconscious decision making and consequent action? This chapter focuses on this question. I argue that, across evolutionary time, retained dream images prompted unconscious decision making and action, archetypically, to approach or avoid the waterhole. Unconscious decisions may still drive our decisions and actions but, perhaps surprisingly, only when the decision is complex, with several things to be taken into account. When the decision is simple, with few variables, conscious decisions are best.
Development banks in BRICS
Authors: Weiss John
Published: January 2021

The use of development banks as a source of long-term funding is one of the common characteristics of BRICS economies. This chapter summarizes data on the extent of the involvement of such banks and reviews the key objectives identified for such banks in the academic literature—in particular their role in terms of strategic lending and financial inclusion. The experience of the Brazilian bank Banco Nacional de Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social is used as a case study. This bank has played a major role in the Brazilian economy as a source of long-term credit, although critics have pointed to a focus on large borrowers and its possible impact in stifling the emergence of private sector financial institutions.
Links between financial inclusion and financial stability
Authors: Arora Rashmi Umesh
Published: January 2021

Financial inclusion has become an important policy objective in recent years in a number of developing and developed countries. It is increasingly viewed as a tool of poverty alleviation, enables the poor to be risk averse and allows investment in health and education. However, including a large number of different groups of the population within the financial system if not accompanied by the appropriate regulatory measures could pose a risk to the country’s financial stability. Financial stability too has assumed increased importance in recent years especially since the financial crisis. A dilemma among policymakers is how to achieve a balance between the two and how to promote financial inclusion without destabilizing the financial system. In this study we explore the state of financial inclusion and financial stability in the context of BRICS.
Small and medium enterprises and industrial clusters in BRICS countries
Authors: Biggeri Mario
Published: January 2021

Industrial clusters have a prominent role in the innovation system and territorial development of many developed and emerging countries, including BRICS. They represent an important variable not only in terms of GDP growth but also in employment creation and poverty reduction, becoming potential drivers for the country’s development. Given the complexity of the process underlying cluster formation, this chapter analyses the evolution of industrial clusters of small and medium enterprises in BRICS countries in the last two decades. Particular focus is dedicated to the main endogenous and exogenous drivers of change and how these concurred in shaping different outcomes in each country, also in terms of sustainable human development.
Building world-class universities in BRICS and emerging economies
Authors: Kumar C. Raj
Published: January 2021

As many studies indicate, BRICS and emerging economies, especially those with a colonial past from Asia and Africa, have traditionally witnessed an exodus of students and researchers seeking opportunities in established universities outside their home country to develop their academic careers. However, a culmination of democratic values, aspirations of citizens from these countries, and globalization have resulted in the need for world-class universities in BRICS and emerging economies. While resources are important, the relationship between the government/regulatory bodies and universities warrants serious examination. Understanding and facilitating the role of faculty (staff), students, researchers, and international collaboration will remain important.
Demography and roots of gender inequality in BRICS
Authors: Bhattacharya Prabir C. , Saxena Vibhor
Published: January 2021

All BRICS countries suffer from gender inequality in different dimensions. Three of the BRICS countries—India, China, and Russia—have highly skewed sex ratios, while the other two—Brazil and South Africa—do not have the problem of skewed sex ratios. Highly skewed sex ratios have major economic and social consequences, as indeed have gender inequalities in other dimensions. A comparative perspective on these inequalities is provided in this chapter. Within BRICS, India probably has most to gain by reducing such inequalities. Equally, Russia stands to gain most by changing the gender order that estranges men from most family spheres.
Political economy of inequality in Chile: historical institutions, taxation, and elite power
Authors: González Javier
Published: January 2021

The chapter analyses the political economy of inequality in Chile from a historical perspective, highlighting the need to use a holistic institutional approach in order to unravel persistent structural inequalities. It examines the power of elites to shape formal rules to their advantage, studying the income distribution of the top 1 per cent and the key characteristics of the Chilean tax system. This institution is analysed for its centrality to the distributive class struggle of a society. The analysis shows that Chile’s income concentration at the top 1 per cent is extremely high, even when compared to OECD countries when the latter had the same level of economic development as Chile today. Therefore, the levels of inequality in Chile cannot be fully explained by market forces, as the neoclassical approach suggests, nor by Chile’s level of economic development; instead, data suggest the existence of an ‘institutional lag’ (exemplified by the current tax system), sustained by asymmetries of power.
Indigenous communities, ICT, and rural development
Authors: Gevelt Terry van
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on the role that information and communications technology can play in advancing rural development for indigenous communities in BRICS and emerging economies. Using the Thunen model as a theoretical framework, this chapter begins by highlighting the twin challenges that indigenous communities face in balancing outside influences with the consolidation of traditional organizational structure and culture and a limited set of economic activities due to the disadvantage of economic distance. Three in-depth case studies in Tanzania and Sarawak, Malaysia, are carefully analysed to show how, with the appropriate institutional support, carefully executed information and communications technology projects have the potential to alter the vector of economic distance for remote indigenous communities thereby both strengthening and expanding the set of economic activities undertaken.
Humane global governance—an area for the future where progress inches forward
Authors: Jolly Richard
Published: January 2021

This chapter argues that the twenty-first century requires humane global governance, well beyond current perspectives usually based on neoliberal economics. Humane global governance would give priority to human concerns and human rights; encompass the Sustainable Development Goals as key objectives; be focused on support for national and international priorities for human rights, poverty reduction, and diminishing extremes of inequalities. Global public goods should be defined and pursued in a humane way, emphasizing human needs in tackling such global threats as the transmission of communicable diseases, extremes of rapid migration, civil conflict, peace and human security—all key elements in human development. Examples are given as to how such approaches have been demonstrated by different UN agencies and how they can be built on for the future.
Planet Earth
Authors: Evans John
Published: January 2021

The pressure on planetary resources is substantially driven by increases in energy demands that have been mostly met by the combustion of fossil fuels. The basis of the warming in the troposphere is explained starting from the molecular structure of atmospheric components and their resulting rotational and vibrational spectra. From the absorptions in the infrared, the radiative efficiencies of atmospheric gases can be established. The residence times of gases in the atmosphere is explained on the basis of their atmospheric chemistry. Taking these factors together with atmospheric concentrations, the Global-Warming and -Temperature Potentials can be derived. The overall energy balance in the atmosphere is shown and the resulting net radiative forcing. The principle of the sustainability triangle is explained showing that reduction in radiative forcing may be achievable by a summation of contributions.
Introduction
Authors: Sin Julie
Published: January 2021

This introductory chapter sets out the book’s practical purpose to be a useful and salient guide in the real life arena of commissioning and health services decision-making for better population health outcomes. The book is grounded in the experience of health services in England where the intention is to provide a comprehensive range of services on a whole population basis. The reader will be taken through the book using the main anchoring point of commissioning, the process of securing services for populations within finite resources. The book is structured in two parts. The first half (Part I) contains core topics to help build confidence about commissioning for health gain. It covers the purpose of commissioning, its health service context, and offers concepts that tangibly link commissioning actions with a population approach. Part II builds on that to cover more applied topics that commissioners will need to navigate in practice.
Whitman, Washington, and the Convulsiveness of Civil War
Authors: Price Kenneth M.
Published: January 2021

In the Civil War, more wounded soldiers were treated in Washington, DC, than in any other city, and Whitman, a visitor to dozens of hospitals, gravitated toward the epicenter of suffering. He returned repeatedly to Armory Square Hospital, which hosted the worst cases and had the highest death rate. At a time of unprecedented maiming and killing, Whitman engaged in the work of healing. Leaves of Grass, his poetic masterpiece, intertwined the physical bodies of men and women and the symbolic body of the nation and saw in both a capacity to embrace contradictions and diversity while still remaining united and whole. Both the nation and Whitman’s poetic project were at risk as he confronted innumerable broken and battered bodies. In this new context, he reassessed the possibilities for poetry, the future of democracy, and even the efficacy of affection, a quality that he had always believed sustained civil society. Faced with massive destruction, in what ways did Whitman succeed and fail in making meaning of it, in finding reasons for hope?
Whitman as a Paradoxical “Missionary to the Wounded”
Authors: Price Kenneth M.
Published: January 2021

Whitman described himself as a “missionary to the wounded.” The phrase is striking and deserves exploration. Both before and after the Civil War he tended to be critical of missionaries. Why, then, did Whitman use this charged term in describing his work with soldiers in the Civil War hospitals? Two of the major organizations aiming to assist soldiers were the Christian Commission and the Sanitary Commission; Whitman signed up with the former. Joining the Christian Commission was in some ways an odd choice since the Christian Commission had evangelical purposes, and Whitman was not a church-goer. However, Whitman admired the Christian Commission’s reliance on volunteer delegates unlike the Sanitary Commission with its paid staff. Moreover, many principles of care-giving recommended by the Christian Commission were ones made famous by Whitman’s own dedicated care for wounded soldiers. There is no evidence that Whitman was ever dismissed by the Christian Commission, though he did quickly decide that he preferred to aid soldiers, as he said, “on my own hook.”
Multi-racial Democracy and Black Democratic Vistas
Authors: Price Kenneth M.
Published: January 2021

Democratic Vistas and Whitman’s later poetry and prose writings were shaped by his experiences in Washington, DC, a key site of experimentation with multi-racial democracy, and a city where local experiments had national implications. Washington was the nation’s first emancipated city and after the Civil War the combined forces of newly gained suffrage and effective political organizing led to a brief but remarkable surge in African American political power. Yet after promising initial gains, multi-racial democracy foundered, and ultimately democratic government itself was lost in the city when it became governed by appointed commissioners. Whitman’s mid-career achievements and failures can be illuminated against the backdrop of these local developments and the national scope of his work within the attorney general’s office.
Prevalence data—models, likelihood, and binomial regression
Authors: Carstensen Bendix
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines prevalence data, using a dataset which contains the number of diabetes patients and the total number of persons in Denmark as of January 1, 2010, classified by age and sex. Prevalence of a disease condition in a population is merely the proportion of affected people. The chapter uses prevalence to illustrate core modelling concepts: the model itself, the likelihood, the maximum likelihood estimation principle, and the properties of the results, all of which underlies most modern epidemiological methods. It also explains the concept of a statistical model leading to the distinction between empirical and theoretical prevalences. The chapter then focuses on the task of comparing different models for the same data, models that describe data in various degrees of detail.
Do not group quantitative variables
Authors: Carstensen Bendix
Published: January 2021

This chapter explores the problems caused by categorizing quantitative variables (here termed continuous variables). Optimum decisions are made by applying a utility function to a predicted value. At the decision point, one can solve for the personalized cutpoint for predicted risk that optimizes the decision. Dichotomization on independent variables is completely at odds with making optimal decisions. To make an optimal decision, the cutpoint for a predictor would necessarily be a function of the continuous values of all the other predictors. Moreover, categorization assumes that the relationship between the predictor and the response is flat within intervals; this assumption is far less reasonable than a linearity assumption in most cases. Categorization of continuous variables using percentiles is particularly hazardous. To make a continuous predictor be more accurately modelled when categorization is used, multiple intervals are required.
Windsor-Forest and the Politics of Panegyric
Authors: Hone Joseph
Published: January 2021

This chapter considers Pope’s most important early poem, Windsor-Forest, as a panegyric to Stuart monarchy. It traces the textual history of Windsor-Forest and investigates moments of contact between this poem and others by Pope’s friends and contemporaries, including Diaper, Higgons, Finch, Granville, and John Philips. It begins by exploring the enduring appeal of Stuart panegyric and the common motif of the renewed golden age before moving on to examine two of the most famous conceits of the poem: a fiat and a metamorphosis. Those motifs were frequently deployed by Pope’s contemporaries to reflect on current theories of monarchy. By studying the development of Windsor-Forest in context—and alongside parallel developments in contemporary politics—this chapter begins to explain when and why Pope’s political outlook turned from confidence to anxiety and disaffection.
Conclusion
Authors: Hone Joseph
Published: January 2021

This conclusion draws together the findings of individual chapters. It establishes that the political animus behind Pope’s verse can be traced back to his engagement with poets who have been lost to posterity; that his allusions to the great authors of the seventeenth century—Waller, Denham, Dryden, and Cowley—were usually refracted through the literary critical judgements of his milieu; that he consistently returned to the topic of dynastic politics through his early poems; that he emerged from his milieu because, unlike some of his contemporaries, he was willing to distance himself from politics by constructing himself as an aloof literary author. The conclusion explores the significance of this shift from political authorship to literary authorship and its influence on our modern ideas about the literary canon.
Targeting Without Lawyers
Authors: Jones Craig
Published: January 2021

This chapter argues that the US-led war in Vietnam (1955–1975) paved the way for institutional changes in the US military, including the establishment of the US Law of War Program, which later precipitated the emergence of a new doctrinal approach to the laws of war called ‘operational law’. Military lawyers emerged from the Vietnam War better equipped and with a formal mandate to advise military commanders on the legality of targeting operations. Military lawyers performed a wide range of duties in Vietnam, especially around Prisoner of War (POW) issues, and were deployed in unprecedented numbers. Military lawyers were not involved in targeting, neither during ‘Operation Rolling Thunder’ nor ‘Operation Linebacker’, but the Vietnam War in general and the My Lai massacre of 1968 in particular helped to create the conditions for their involvement in subsequent wars.
The Birth of ‘Operational Law’
Authors: Jones Craig
Published: January 2021

This chapter analyses the invention and development of ‘operational law’ by US military lawyers and commanders in the decades following the Vietnam War. Operational law is a pragmatic, practitioner-oriented, and military-friendly framework for interpreting rights and responsibilities under international, domestic and military law. This chapter shows how operational law helped the US military to put these legal regimes to work in the service of achieving military objectives, as military lawyers helped create a broadly permissive albeit bounded legal environment for military operations. The birth of operational law laid the foundations for a new symbiosis between commanders and lawyers, providing them with a common vocabulary and a shared understanding of the mission—factors which were later crucial to the integration of military lawyers into targeting operations.
‘The Lawyers’ War’
Authors: Jones Craig
Published: January 2021

This chapter analyses the involvement of military lawyers in the planning and conduct of the US-led First Gulf War in 1990–1991. Contrary to representations of the First Gulf War as one of the cleanest, most precise, and limited wars the US military has ever fought, this chapter outlines the planning process and rationale behind the US military’s destruction of Iraq’s key infrastructure. The laws of war and military lawyers played no small part in the patterning of violence as key legal interpretations turned ‘dual use’ infrastructures into legitimate military targets—with cascading collateral consequences for civilian life in Iraq. The chapter considers how calculations of proportionality failed to properly consider the ‘slow violence’ of targeting, which enabled and legitimized forms of infrastructural violence and military destruction that might otherwise be considered impermissible.
On conducting management-relevant mechanistic science for upriver migrating adult Pacific salmon
Authors: Cooke Steven J. , Raby Graham D. , Bett Nolan N. , Teffer Amy K. , Burnett Nicholas J. , Jeffries Kenneth M. , Eliason Erica J. , Martins Eduardo G. , Miller Kristina M. , Patterson David A. , Nguyen Vivian M. , Young Nathan , Farrell Anthony P. , Hinch Scott G.
Published: January 2021

Pacific salmon undertake iconic homeward migrations where they move from ocean feeding grounds to coastal rivers where they return to natal spawning sites. However, this migration is physiologically challenging as fish have to navigate past predators, nets, hooks, and dams while dealing with variable flows, warm water temperatures, and pathogens. These challenges often interact in synergistic ways that can sometimes lead to migration failure. The conservation physiology toolbox has led to new understanding of how salmon deal with different challenges with a goal of generating management-relevant science. Given the sensitivity of Pacific salmon to warm temperatures, much research has focused on identifying thermal thresholds. In addition, physiology has informed the development of methods for recovering fish that are exhausted from fisheries interactions and for enhancing passage success at fishways. These successes have arisen in part due to the extent to which we partnered with fisheries managers and other stakeholders to ensure that we were conducting relevant research.
Applying isotopic clocks to identify prior migration patterns and critical habitats in mobile marine predators
Authors: Madigan Daniel J. , Shipley Oliver N. , Hussey Nigel E.
Published: January 2021

Large-scale migrations present challenges to management of exploited or at-risk marine species. Our understanding of predator movements has greatly improved, but data are often inadequate to understand patterns on population scales. The chemical composition of predator tissues, most often stable isotope ratios of carbon and nitrogen (δ‎13C and δ‎15N), provides markers of movement as predators incorporate discrete regional isotopic signatures throughout their migratory pathways. These signals can be analysed from small quantities of various tissues (e.g. muscle, liver, blood, hair, feathers) all of which provide different timescales of movement. Predator physiology mediates the assimilation and turnover rates of stable isotopes in tissues, providing a temporal element to interpretation of predator isotopic signatures. Combining physiology-mediated isotopic turnover rates and geographic ‘isoscapes’ of regional isotopic gradients allows for isotopic clock estimates of predator migration timing, which can be used to generate population-scale estimates of retrospective movements using large datasets across targeted regions and sampling periods. This allows for improved regional and international management and conservation of mobile species across their migratory ranges.
Using physiological tools to unlock barriers to fish passage in freshwater ecosystems
Authors: Cramp Rebecca L. , Rodgers Essie M. , Myrick Christopher , Sakker James , Franklin Craig E.
Published: January 2021

Globally, freshwater fish numbers have declined substantially in part due to anthropogenic structures (e.g. dams) that impede fish movements. The environmental and societal benefits of balancing environmental health with human resource requirements have meant that there is increasingly a concerted effort to remove or remediate barriers to fish passage. However, this is technically, financially, and biologically challenging. Experimental approaches provide a controlled, iterative, integrative, and cost-effective approach to assess the physical, physiological, and behavioural limitations of fish that can be used to provide evidence-backed information to support or develop remediation practices. This chapter explores some of the physiological tools used to measure fish performance in modified environments, and how empirical studies are informing current issues in the management of freshwater fish passage.