bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Exploring the Sources of Productivity Changes for the US Forest Products Industry
Authors: Lee Jun-Yen , Wang Chun-hsien , Chou Shu-Yueh
Published: October 2013

This research investigates sources leading to productivity changes for the US forest products industry during the time period from 1997 to 2009 using the contemporaneous and global Malmquist productivity index (MPI) approaches. Under the assumption of variable returns to scale, the global MPI breaks down into new measures of decomposition, such as efficiency change, best practice change, and scale efficiency change. Overall, the productivity change for this industry shows progression in both approaches. The technical and scale efficiency changes are main sources of productivity growth. However, compared with the contemporaneous MPI, the global MPI can reflect the real-world situation in terms of productivity change. Within the US forest products industry, the annual growth rates in housing starts and in real export value significantly affect the productivity growth in the wood product sector. In contrast, the real export value's growth rate is the only notable effect on the pulp and paper sector's productivity growth.
Projection of Timber Supply and Demand Trends in China Based on an Econometric Model
Authors: He Hui , Xu Jintao
Published: October 2013

This study provides an overview and analysis of China's timber market trends over the last two decades, along with projections to the year 2020. An econometric model (simultaneous equations regression) is applied to estimate China's timber supply and demand. Key variables influencing China's timber market are identified. Corresponding coefficients are estimated and can be applied to other studies and sophisticated timber market models. Results show that timber supply in China increases at a slightly higher rate than timber demand, but timber consumption is projected to triple between 2008 and 2020, which will result in significant growth of timber imports (also nearly tripling by 2020).
Trucking Productivity and Costing Model for Transportation of Recovered Wood Waste in Oregon
Authors: Han Sang-Kyun , Murphy Glen
Published: October 2013

The use of woody biomass has received considerable attention for energy production. However, high production and transportation costs can be a barrier to woody biomass use in some regions. Developing cost-effective transportation systems has become an economically critical issue to expand biomass use. We developed a computer model, named BIOTRANS, to estimate biomass transportation productivity and cost in western Oregon. We used BIOTRANS to evaluate the effects on transportation costs of six different truck configurations, four transported material types, and over 100 travel routes. Different truck configurations, transported material types, and travel route characteristics were found to significantly affect transportation costs. A four-axle truck and single trailer was the most cost-efficient hauling configuration for the conditions studied, and shavings had 30 percent higher trucking costs than other hog fuel, chips, and sawdust.
Logging across Borders and Cultures: An Example in Northern Maine
Authors: Taggart Deryth , Egan Andrew
Published: October 2013

Persistent concerns about the continued use of foreign labor and the viability of northern Maine's logging industry prompted further research on the cross-cultural logging workforce found in Maine's counties that border the province of Quebec. Two distinct populations of woods workers are employed in these border counties: Maine residents and Quebec residents. This study examined sociodemographic attributes, sense of occupational choice and prestige, and familial attachment held by these two populations of loggers, as well as barriers to business expansion felt by logging entrepreneurs. Significant differences in age, education, logging experience, attitudes toward logging, and perceptions of public image were found between Maine and Quebecois loggers. Additionally, despite an intergenerational labor supply that historically characterizes the logging industry, more than 50 percent of loggers from both countries would not encourage their children to enter the logging profession. These factors may not only pose challenges for logging business stability and labor recruitment efforts in this region but also impact the economic vitality of the forest products industry as a whole. Furthermore, the findings from this research may be of interest and pertinent to those engaged in forest products industries within other cross-border regions.
Impact of Screening on Behavior during Storage and Cost of Ground Small-Diameter Pine Trees: A Case Study
Authors: Searcy Erin M. , Blackwelder D. Brad , Delwiche Mark E. , Ray Allison E. , Kenney Kevin L.
Published: October 2013

Whole comminuted trees are known to self-heat and undergo quality changes during storage. Trommel screening after grinding is a process that removes fines from the screened material and removes a large proportion of high-ash, high-nutrient material. In this study, the trade-off between an increase in preprocessing cost from trommel screening and an increase in quality of the screened material was examined. Fresh lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) was comminuted using a drum grinder with a 10-cm screen, and the resulting material was distributed into separate fines and overs piles. A third pile of unscreened material, the unsorted pile, was also examined. The three piles exhibited different characteristics during a 6-week storage period. The overs pile was much slower to heat. The overs pile reached a maximum temperature of 56.8°C, which was lower than the maximum reached by the other two piles (65.9°C and 63.4°C for the unsorted and fines, respectively). The overs also cooled faster and dried to a more uniform moisture content and had a lower ash content than the other two piles. Both piles of sorted material exhibited improved airflow and more drying than the unsorted material. Looking at supply system costs from preprocessing through in-feed into thermochemical conversion, this study found that trommel screening reduced system costs by over $3.50 per dry matter ton and stabilized material during storage.
Innovation Impacts on Biomass Supply in Maine's Logging Industry
Authors: Stone Ian Joseph , Benjamin Jeffrey G. , Leahy Jessica E.
Published: October 2013

A robust supply chain is critical to ensure a sustainable supply of feedstock to the existing and emerging bioenergy and bioproducts industries. Logging contractors are a key group in this process, since they provide harvesting and transportation services, and their success is directly linked to innovation activities. Surprisingly, very little is known about the innovation system in the logging industry—especially about how it relates to biomass supply. Failure to understand how logging contractors adopt and implement biomass production technologies could lead to failed innovation efforts, unmet development goals, and a lack of properly equipped contractors. This article presents results from a series of case studies of highly innovative logging contractors in Maine. All of the firms had some experience producing biomass within their operations. The firms had also used multiple biomass harvesting technologies. This study highlights the variation in challenges that led to the adoption (or rejection) of biomass as a product innovation—with particular emphasis on harvesting technologies. A major finding of this study was the need for a high degree of collaboration between landowners, logging contractors, and biomass consuming facilities in the innovation process. The future development of the biomass industry is highly dependent on contractors adopting biomass harvesting and related technologies. The innovation process of logging firms is an area that is not sufficiently studied, and this research provides valuable insight into this important component of the forest biomass industry.
Wood-Based Electric Power Generation in Michigan: Wood Use and Policies
Authors: Leefers Larry
Published: October 2013

A survey of six stand-alone wood-based electric power generation plants in Michigan assessed facility operating characteristics, fuel characteristics, sources of wood, and operators' views on wood supply and needed policy changes. Survey results provide insights regarding the role of these renewable energy plants in meeting Michigan's Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS). The plants have long-term power supply agreements with Consumers Energy Company; they produced the bulk of renewable energy for Consumers in 2009. The six plants were the only wood-burning electric generating facilities operating in Michigan during 2008, the base year for the survey. Each plant employed 22 people, on average, to operate the facility. The three smaller plants generated 18.4 MW on average in 2008 and used 195,954 tons (177,766 metric tons) of wood fuel. Larger plants produced 27.7 MW on average and consumed 323,915 tons (293,851 metric tons) of wood fuel. Green wood from logging residues was the largest source of material. The second largest wood fuel source in 2008 was chips, but managers noted that this was an anomaly driven by depressed activity in the wood products industry. Given the economic downturn in 2008, more logs and chips were available for power generation. Most facilities supplemented their wood fuel with tire-derived fuel. Managers identified several policy changes that would encourage stability and growth in their industry, most related to wood fuel supply.
An Overview of the Forest Products Sector Downturn in the United States
Authors: Woodall C.W. , Ince P.J. , Skog K.E. , Aguilar F.X. , Keegan C.E. , Sorenson C.B. , Hodges D.G. , Smith W.B.
Published: October 2013

In recent years, the forest products industry of the U.S. experienced a downturn in output to levels not seen in decades and employment losses in the hundreds of thousands — for instance, a number far greater than witnessed in the Nation's automotive industry. The extent of the forest industry downturn varies by sector, impacted by structural changes in the overall economy coupled with substantial impacts from the Great Recession. Globalization of manufacturing and expanded use of electronic communication media contributed to a decline in U.S. pulp, paper, and paperboard output since the late 1990s, while the collapse of housing construction since 2006 and off-shoring of furniture production contributed to declines in U.S. wood product output. The paper points to structural changes that may be difficult to reverse, but also points to some potential prospects for growth in the future such as increased secondary product manufacturing and wood energy. This paper serves as an introduction to the extent of the downturn with a particular focus on trends in forest sector economic production and employment across the U.S. Because the nation's forest industry varies by region due to differences in forest resources and forest industries, additional regional examinations of this downturn (same issue) will highlight variations in the regional industrial response to the “Great Recession.”
Recession Effects on the Forests and Forest Products Industries of the South
Authors: Hodges D.G. , Hartsell A.J. , Brandeis C. , Brandeis T.J. , Bentley J.W.
Published: October 2013

The economic recession affected southern forests and related industries substantially, particularly those sectors most closely related to home construction. Between 2005 and 2009, for example, the three primary forestry sectors wood manufacturing, paper manufacturing, and forestry and logging lost more than 110,000 jobs in the southern United States. This article assesses the effects of the recession on the southern U.S. by reviewing existing data related to economic and resource impacts, including employment, timber product output, production facilities, state economies, exports, and forest area and management activities. While all sectors were affected, wood products and furniture manufacturing experienced the greatest change. As a result of the downturn, the South's forest sector's direct contribution to the regional economies decreased by 24 percent between 2004 and 2009. Some developments such as rebounding paper consumption, expanding export markets, and bioenergy, however, offer potential growth opportunities for the future.
Impact of the Great Recession and Housing Collapse on the Forest Products Industry in the Western United States
Authors: Keegan C.E. , Sorenson C.B. , Morgan T.A. , Hayes S.W. , Daniels J.M.
Published: October 2013

The first decade of the Twenty-first Century proved tumultuous for the West's A strong economy, low interest rates, easy access to credit, and real estate speculation fostered more than two million U.S. housing starts in 2005 and record lumber consumption from 2003 to 2005. With the decline in U.S. housing beginning in 2006, the 2008 global financial crisis, an over 50-year record low 554,000 housing starts in 2009, wood product prices and production fell dramatically. In 2009 and 2010, virtually every major western mill suffered curtailments and 30 large mills closed permanently. Sales value of wood and paper products in the West dropped from $49 billion in 2005 to $34 billion in 2009. Employment declined by 71,000 workers and lumber production fell by almost 50 percent from 2005 to 2009. Capacity utilization at sawmills and other timber-using facilities in the West fell from over 80 percent in 2005 to just over 50 percent in 2009 and 2010. With the exception of exports and some paper markets, U.S. wood products markets have improved little since the recession officially ended in 2009. Modest improvements are expected in domestic markets in the short term but substantial improvements are unlikely until 2014 or later, as U.S. home building recovers and global demand increases. Much of the West retains the bulk of its pre-recession (2006) capacity and mills could respond quickly to increased demand spurred by economic recovery.
Deconstructing Innovation: An Exploratory Study of the US Furniture Industry
Authors: Barčić Andreja Pirc , Vlosky Richard , Motik Darko
Published: October 2013

The Merriam-Webster's dictionary defines innovation as (1) the introduction of something new or (2) a new idea, method, or device. Many empirical studies suggest that innovation is an important driver for developing or maintaining firm competitiveness. Innovation has been linked to improving products, production processes, supply chain efficiencies, market research, customer retention, business systems, relationships with exchange partners, profitability, and competitiveness. But how does it work? How can innovation be measured? In this study, we examined innovation in the US furniture industry. First, we deconstructed innovation into three broad categories: product, production processes, and company culture. Second, we examined relationships between the innovation subcomponents and the internal/external demographic characteristics of company size, company location population, age of employees, and education level of employees. Results show that although we were able to develop the three innovation constructs, only 25 percent of their hypothesized relationships to demographic factors followed hypothesized patterns of significance or directionality.
Sanitation Felling and Helicopter Harvesting of Bark Beetle–Infested Trees in Alpine Forests: An Assessment of the Economic Costs
Authors: Faccoli Massimo , Finozzi Valerio , Gatto Paola
Published: October 2013

Since 2004, an outbreak of Ips acuminatus killed thousands of Scots pines (Pinus sylvestris L.) in the southeast Alps. In autumn 2007, all infested trees were cut and the timber was harvested by helicopter. The aims of this article are to provide detailed information on total stump-to-truck costs and to analyze the single components of those costs. The felling of 4,519 trees, about 970 m3, needed about 2,417 working hours. The overall cost for tree felling amounted to €35,100, which included €24,600 for labor, €8,300 for coordination and management, and €1,800 for machinery, with a mean cost of about €7.8 per tree. Timber harvesting by helicopter required 73 hours, with an hourly production rate of 13.3 m3. Timber harvesting cost about €56,000, with a mean of €58/m3. The total cost for tree felling and timber harvesting amounted to about €91,000, with a mean cost of €20.1 per tree, i.e., €94/m3. The main results are discussed by comparing our data with those published in similar studies or with costs of alternative harvesting techniques. We argue the environmental aspects may justify the use of helicopter harvesting in alpine forests.
A Comparison of Drying Strategies for Spruce–Pine–Fir Dimension Lumber
Authors: Cai Liping , Oliveira Luiz C.
Published: October 2013

Mills producing spruce–pine–fir (SPF) dimension lumber are required to carry out heat treatment before shipping the lumber to markets. Kiln drying/heat treatment is the most common strategy for drying SPF lumber. Currently there is a question about whether to use air drying before or after heat treatment to improve lumber grade recovery and reduce energy consumption. We tested three drying strategies for spruce/pine and sub-alpine fir lumber: heat treatment followed by air drying (HT+AD), air drying followed by heat treatment (AD+HT), and kiln drying heat treatment alone (KD/HT). Results related to final moisture content uniformity, warp, and drying stress were better when air drying was incorporated in the strategy. The standard deviation of the final moisture content was reduced from 3.9 to 1.3 percent for spruce/pine and from 7.2 to 3.1 percent for sub-alpine fir. Warp was reduced by 27 to 42 percent for spruce/pine and 14 to 41 percent for sub-alpine fir. Using the prong tests, drying stress was reduced by 23 to 60 percent for spruce/pine and 35 to 71 percent for sub-alpine fir. Improved final moisture content uniformity, less warp, and lower drying stresses were obtained for the lumber tested under the HT+AD strategy compared with the AD+HT strategy.
Determination of Crosscutting Safety Zone for Finger-Jointed Pinus sylvestris Furniture Components
Authors: Fredriksson Magnus , Öhman Micael , Song Haitong
Published: October 2013

A common problem with finger-jointed wooden furniture components is chipping in the finger joints due to fiber deviations around sound knots. To avoid this, a fixed size safety zone between defects and crosscuts is used, but can lead to an excess of material cut away in the crosscutting operation.

To reduce chippings in finger joints while maximizing recovery, an adaptive strategy was developed for setting the safety zone size between sound knots and finger joints in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) furniture components. The strategy was based upon modeling the risk of chipping the finger joint depending on the knot measurement. The model was used in an adaptive strategy in order to minimize the expected loss due to cutting away material around knots, compared with the cost of rejecting components in later stages due to chipped finger joints. Thus, each knot was assigned a unique safety zone. The strategy was tested using computer simulation of the finger-jointing process, and a sensitivity analysis was performed in order to quantify the effect of variations in the input data. The results show that the adaptive strategy improves recovery by at least 3 percent in the process of turning lumber into finger-jointed furniture components. It is very robust toward variations in knot size measurements (e.g., by scanning equipment), but less robust toward variations in crosscutting precision.
Bending Strength and Stiffness of Portuguese Maritime Pine Utility Poles
Authors: Martins Carlos , Dias Alfredo
Published: October 2013

The Civil Engineering Department of the University of Coimbra set up a project with the purpose of grading and characterizing Portuguese maritime pine utility poles. To achieve the aim of this project, 64 utility poles that met the requirements of Comité Européen de normalization EN14229 were collected in the central coastal region of Portugal. The utility poles were characterized according to various anatomic and geometric characteristics: the number of knots, the amount of taper, the nominal diameter, and the rate of growth. Each utility pole was also tested in bending. From these tests, the bending strength and modulus of elasticity were determined. The results obtained were in line with previously published results for utility poles from other species. In addition to this, wood samples were collected from each specimen to determine the moisture content and density. The correlation coefficients between the bending strength and modulus of elasticity were determined, as were the coefficients between the bending strength and the anatomic and geometric characteristics. From this analysis, it was concluded that the properties that had a closer correlation with bending strength were those of modulus of elasticity, density, and taper. The correlation coefficient between bending strength and the set of geometric and anatomic characteristics and density was determined by a multiple linear regression, and it was concluded that this set of parameters may be used for nondestructive evaluation of the utility poles.
Effects of Peripheral Planing on Surface Characteristics and Adhesion of a Waterborne Acrylic Coating to Black Spruce Wood
Authors: Cool Julie , Hernández Roger E.
Published: October 2013

Peripheral planing of black spruce (Picea mariana) wood was optimized for rake angle and feed speed. Both cutting parameters affected surface characteristics at the microscopic and macroscopic level. In turn, the interaction between rake angle and feed speed had a significant impact on surface roughness, disperse component of surface energy, and total surface energy, as well as on initial pull-off adhesion strength of a waterborne coating. Loss in adhesion during the accelerated aging treatment was significantly lower for samples machined with a rake angle of 10°. This rake angle combined with a wavelength (feed per knife) of 1.3 mm yielded coated surfaces with high initial pull-off strength. Therefore, this wavelength could be used to increase production rates without significantly affecting surface quality. In addition, no torn grain was observed for surfaces prepared with a rake angle of 10° regardless of feed speed.
A Laboratory Test of the Leachability and Decay Resistance of Some Synthesized Borate Compounds
Authors: Li Zhiqiang , Jiang Mingliang , Ma Xingxia , Jiang Zehui , Fei Benhua
Published: October 2013

Quaternary ammonium tetraphenylborates (TPBs) and quaternary ammonium tetrafluoroborates were synthesized for the manufacture of leaching-resistant boron wood preservatives. The leachability of these boron compounds and the termite and decay resistance of wood treated with these compounds were evaluated. The boron leaching rate of wood treated with quaternary ammonium TPB formulations ranged from 2.1 to 6.7 percent, while that of quaternary ammonium tetrafluoroborate formulations ranged from 23.3 to 59.0 percent. Quaternary ammonium tetrafluoroborates performed better than quaternary ammonium TPBs in termite resistance and inhibition zone tests. Quaternary ammonium tetrafluoroborates could inhibit Gloeophyllum trabeum and Phanerochaete chrysosporium at all concentrations used in the laboratory inhibition zone test. Weight loss of masson pine (Pinus massoniana) sapwood treated with quaternary ammonium tetrafluoroborate solutions was 1.4 to 2.6 percent (G. trabeum) and 2.5 to 3.8 percent (by Coriolus versicolor) at preservative retentions around 7.0 kg/m3.
Exploring Market Opportunities for American Hardwoods through Chinese International Furniture Supply Trade Shows
Authors: Shi Wenping , Smith Paul M.
Published: October 2013

Global competition is increasingly impacting business organization and practice, which is forcing US hardwood manufacturers to become more efficient in manufacturing, distribution, and marketing. At the international marketing level, firms must target their promotional mix more effectively and efficiently toward relevant buyers from around the world. International trade shows have long been considered a cost-efficient and quick way to promote exports or gain valuable market information for entry. China is now the world's largest furniture producer and exporter and the leading importer of US hardwoods. As such, it is important to better understand mechanisms for cost-effective participation in this huge hardwood market. This study was conducted to increase awareness of the importance of US–Chinese hardwood trade and knowledge of Chinese international furniture supply trade shows (IFS-TSs). In 2011, US hardwood lumber exports to China totaled US$506 million or two-thirds of the US$775 million worth of all hardwood product exports that year. A total of 27 Chinese IFS-TSs were identified through a two-part process: a review of secondary sources and personal communication with key trade show informants in China. This article also profiles the largest and most influential Chinese IFS-TSs (n = 9) in terms of the number of attendees and exhibitors, and other relevant factors. A better understanding of these trade shows will help US hardwood manufactures make show participation decisions.
A Comparison of Geometry Effect on Tensile Testing of Wood Strands
Authors: Kohan Neil , Via Brian K. , Taylor Steven
Published: October 2013

There is currently no ASTM standard for testing the tensile mechanical properties of strands used in wood-strand–based composites. In this study we compared the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) parallel to grain and tensile modulus of elasticity (MOE) for southern pine (Pinus spp.) wood strands from an oriented strand board plant in which one treatment consisted of rectangle-shaped specimens and the other treatment consisted of samples milled into a tapered (“dog-bone”) shape. For bone-shaped samples, the measurements observed were 16 and 27 percent higher for MOE and UTS, respectively, than for the rectangular samples, and this was attributed to the generally accepted fact that dog-bone–shaped geometry yields measurements that are closer to true population parameters. Variation in mechanical properties was not statistically different for the two test methods. This study quantified that tensile testing of the rectangular strands will underestimate the true strength and MOE of the southern pine material. Because both methods resulted in similar levels of variability in test results, in-plant testing, using the traditional rectangular sample, may be acceptable for quality control as long as there is a recognition that the UTS and MOE values will be substantially more underestimated than those of smaller, dog-bone–shaped samples. As such, for future standards development, consideration should be given to the geometry of the strand when determining mechanical properties. Given the large amount of studies that use rectangular strands, there may be a need for a methodology to relate test results for rectangular and bone-shaped specimens.
Effects of Outdoor Exposure Angle on the Deterioration of Wood-Based Board Properties
Authors: Korai Hideaki , Sekino Noboru , Saotome Hiroshi
Published: October 2013

Wood-based boards were exposed to an outdoor environment at angles of 90° and 45° to the ground surface in order to investigate the effect of exposure angle on board properties. In a study on 5-year outdoor exposure, the effects of the exposure angle varied depending on the type of board. Particleboard (PB) and oriented strand board (OSB) deteriorated faster when exposed at 45° compared with 90°, and the difference was more apparent with longer exposure. Five years of exposure at 45° lowered the retention of the modulus of rupture and internal bond of phenolic resin–bonded PB to 15 and 4 percent, respectively. In contrast, medium-density fiberboard (MDF) showed no difference in deterioration between both exposure angles. After 5 years of exposure, the retention of the modulus of rupture was 70 to 80 percent in MDF, while that of internal bond was 81 to 97 percent, thereby showing that the internal bond was better retained than the modulus of rupture. The high durability of MDF was attributable partly to its smoother surface compared with the other boards, which prevented residual rainwater on the surface from infiltrating into the board. Conversely, PB and OSB were prone to surface weathering, which led to the ingress of rainwater. The resultant swelling resulted in the collapse of bonding points, followed by the formation of voids inside the boards. Residual moisture in the voids then caused decay as well as a further reduction in strength (biodegradation).
China's Wood Furniture Manufacturing Industry: Industrial Cluster and Export Competitiveness
Authors: Hongqiang Yang , Ji Chunyi , Nie Ying , Yinxing Hong
Published: October 2013

China is the largest furniture exporter in the world. Its wood furniture industry has become an important part of the country's forestry economic development. Hence, investigating China's furniture industry cluster and export competitiveness would benefit the sustainable development of China's forestry industry. Our study indicates that, under the export-oriented strategy of China's reform and opened economy, the country's furniture industry has developed in three large areas over the last 30 years, namely, the Eastern Pearl River Delta, the Yangtze River Delta, and the Bohai Rim Region. As the strategy shifts from an export orientation to a focus on domestic demand, the country's midwestern area will take over China's industrial production. At present, China's furniture products have an important position in the world market. In 2010, furniture exports accounted for 27 percent of the world's total exports, with wood furniture accounting for US$10.6 billion worth of exports, or 58 percent of China's total exports of furniture. Among the main export markets, the United States accounted for 39 percent of China's total exports. In terms of international furniture trade, an important mutual relationship exists between China and the United States. China's office furniture and kitchen furniture have price advantages, whereas the bedroom furniture lacks price advantages. In particular, the production and export of mahogany furniture may be hampered by raw material shortage because of the protection of tropical forest resources. This challenge puts China's furniture industry in future competition with emerging countries such as Malaysia.
Stem Sinuosity Changes in Young and Merchantable Stands of Pinus taeda
Authors: Jones P. David , Fox Thomas R.
Published: October 2013

A survey of stem sinuosity severity and occurrence was conducted on six sites in North Carolina and South Carolina (USA) in Pinus taeda stands approximately 2 years after establishment. Approximately 1,400 trees on each site were measured for height, diameter, and degree of sinuosity in the stem at the beginning of the growing season and again after the completion of the growing season. Fifty-two percent of the trees increased in sinuosity over the growing season. Using stand records and observations by local foresters, two mature stands of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) were located in the Atlantic Coastal Plain, where excessive stem sinuosity was reported to be present at ages 1 to 3 years. Seven trees were felled from each site. The 2.4-m butt logs were removed from each tree along with a 0.61-m bolt from the remaining felled tree. Slices were then cut through the log progressing through the pith. A single veneer containing the pith from each log was then selected for calculation of log volume, juvenile wood volume, and the volume of sinuous growth. Seven trees at the two sites were found to have had severe sinuosity earlier in their lives. Of the seven sinuous trees, three trees took only 1 year to correct the sinuous growth and return to a normal growth pattern. Two trees took an additional year to return to cylindrical growth, one tree returned to normal growth after the third year, and a single tree returned to a straight appearance by the end of the fifth year after the initiation of sinuous growth. Therefore, the sinuous portions of all seven trees were entirely contained within the juvenile core of the tree. Clear static bending specimens were machined and tested. Trees that were found to be nonsinuous produced mature wood that was significantly stiffer than the sinuous trees.
Environmental Impact Assessment of Wood Pulp from a Eucalyptus Plantation in South China by Using Life-Cycle Analysis
Authors: Xu Wei , Becker Gero
Published: October 2013

This exploratory study evaluated the environmental impacts associated with Bleached Eucalyptus Kraft Pulp supplied from a eucalyptus plantation in South China by applying the life-cycle analysis approach. The system boundary was defined by a “cradle-to-gate” perspective including the forest subsystem and the pulp mill subsystem. Key processes were investigated and site-specific data were collected during 2009 and 2010 through field trips to a leading plantation operator and a representative pulp mill in China. Umberto 5.5 software was used to conduct a life-cycle inventory, which compiled all the inputs and outputs of the examined system. Hot-spot processes with high environmental burdens were identified with regard to selected impact categories of global warming, acidification, eutrophication, nonrenewable resources depletion, and human toxicity.

According to the findings of this study, the forest subsystem showed significant contributions to the total environmentaltable4 burdens in almost all impact categories, mainly due to the application of fertilizers in eucalyptus plantation management. The study discovered that while the pulp mill subsystem was the primary contributor to global warming impacts, the upstream processes of raw materials and energy production accounted for more than half of the impacts of acidification, human toxicity, and resources depletion. Therefore, eucalyptus plantation management and the supply of raw materials and energy in pulp mills in China are concluded to be concerns for future development. These findings may help the Chinese forest industry and pulp industry achieve better environmental performance toward sustainable development.
Vacuum–Steam Phytosanitation of Hardwood Pallets and Pallet Stringers
Authors: Chen Zhangjing , White Marshall , Wu Yiqiang
Published: October 2013

The vacuum–steam treatment of pallets and pallet parts for compliance with the International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures No. 15 regulation was evaluated. Vacuum–steam treatment consists of four steps: (1) vacuum, (2) heating, (3) holding at an increased temperature for a period of time, and (4) cooling. The system produces steam and maintains the saturation or superheated state in a flexible container. Hardwood dry and green pallets (122 by 101.6 cm) and notched stringers (122 cm long) were treated. After the vacuum was drawn, steam was injected into the container to heat the pallets through condensation. The steam was turned off when the center of the pallets or stringers reached 56°C. The stringer parts were treated in three stacking patterns: deadpacked piles of 12, 2, and 5 layers in a stack. Vacuum–steam treatment is significantly faster than conventional convective hot air treatment. The pallets were treated in less than 65 minutes, which included a vacuum time of 5 minutes and a holding time of 30 minutes. The average treatment times of dry pallets were 7.1 and 10.4 percent faster than green pallets at 400 and 665 mbar, respectively. Wood species affected the treatment time. The average treatment time of dry yellow-poplar pallets was 15.9 percent faster than that of dry red oak pallets at 400 mbar. Pressure also affected the treatment duration. The stringers could be successfully treated even when they were arranged in various stacking patterns. The moisture content increased after the treatment, but the change was less than 3 percent for both green and dry pallets.
An Investigation of Drying Technologies for Small Masson Pine Logs
Authors: Cai Jiabin , Ding Tao , Li Tao , Wang Chuangui , Zhang Shuangyang
Published: October 2013

Small-diameter Masson pine (Pinus massoniana) logs with a length of 800 mm and a diameter ranging from 108 to 132 mm were dried with a mild schedule in a laboratory dryer. The drying experiments were done using logs with or without bark and with or without a longitudinal cut. The reduction in moisture content over time was monitored by a resistance-type moisture meter. The results indicated that small-diameter Masson pine logs can be dried by the proposed schedule successfully. Debarking reduced drying times; however, more checks on the log surfaces were detected. Making a longitudinal cut in logs helped to increase the drying rate and reduce drying stresses.
The Development of Wood Floor Construction in Finland
Authors: Vahtikari Katja , Silvo Jonna , Metsälä Harri , Paajanen Olli
Published: October 2013

Traditionally, wood has been widely used for construction in Finland and other Scandinavian countries and has been the dominant floor material in Finland. Solid wood floors that were installed more than 100 years ago are still in service. In Finland, however, the current attitude toward using wood floorings differs from that in the past.

This review evaluates how current wood floor constructions differ from those used in the past. The review covers the period from the early 19th century, when stone-based floor construction became common in Finland, to the present. The review includes only solid wood floors.

The largest change in floor construction occurred when insulation was added below the whole boarded floor. The wood species used for the floor boards have remained unchanged, but the dimensions have decreased and become consistent and uniform over time. The insulation materials have developed from dry clay and moss to the current mineral wool. Availability of coatings has also increased remarkably. Examples of old buildings show that properly built solid wood floors provide a useful service life of more than 100 years.
A Dry–Wet Process to Manufacture Sliced Bamboo Veneer
Authors: Li Yanjun , Shen Yucheng , Wang Siqun , Du Chungui , Wu Yan , Hu Gouying
Published: October 2013

The processes and properties of sliced bamboo veneer are discussed in this article. The results show that using a dry–wet process in the assembly of wet laminated bamboo lumber is the key technology for improving the yield of sliced bamboo veneer. Use of the dry–wet process increases the moisture absorption of laminated bamboo lumber, which results in the improvement of heat transfer and makes it possible to solve the problems of bamboo damage caused by uneven softening. The yield of sliced bamboo veneer is 66 percent by the dry–wet process, which is significantly higher than the previous dry process (20%). The final moisture content and appearance quality of sliced bamboo veneer in the dry–wet process are improved compared with the previous dry or wet processes.
Properties of Medium-Density Fiberboards from Bagasse Digested with Different Retention Times
Authors: Adam Abdel-Baset A. , Basta Altaf H. , El-Saied Houssni
Published: October 2013

The present work deals with studying the influence of different steam digestion retention times on properties of finished medium-density fiberboard (MDF). It aims to operate the defibration process with the minimum deterioration of stored bagasse-fiber strength. In this respect the wet-stored bagasse (WSB) samples were studied, parallel to dry-stored bagasse (DSB) samples, at different digestion retention times. Regression equations of quadratic order were used to optimize the independent variables (retention time and storage period).

The results obtained show that a relatively higher digestion time (353 s) reduced the hollocellulose and hemicellulose contents of WSB. In the case of DSB, the changes in chemical constituents as a function of retention time were not very significant because the mechanical properties of MDF (static bending, internal bond, and screw holding) produced from applying a higher digestion time do not fulfill the standard requirements of ANSI A208.2. However, digestion at a shorter retention time (253 s) is recommended for stored bagasse in order to produce a board that complies with the European standards on MDF. DSB fibers at all the examined retention times are recommended for comparison. The advantage of applying a shorter retention time is evident from preserving, to some extent, the chemical constituents of WSB fibers.
Study on Urea-Formaldehyde Prepolymer and Hot-Press Treatment of Italian Poplar Wood
Authors: Wu Guofeng , Jiang Yifei , Qu Ping , Song Shuping , Pu Junwen
Published: October 2013

The purpose of this study was to modify Italian poplar (Populus euramevicana cv. ‘I-214’) wood with urea-formaldehyde prepolymer followed by hot pressing. The timbers were impregnated with urea-formaldehyde prepolymer using a pulsed-dipping machine and cured in a hot press. The results showed that the timbers could be easily compressed and cured at temperatures between 90°C and 120°C. The characteristics and quality of the modified wood were up to A grade according to Chinese Standard GB/T 6491‐1999. The air-dried density of modified wood was improved by 58 percent, and the hardness in the transverse, tangential, and radial directions was increased by 67, 210, and 160 percent, respectively. The bending strength was improved by 78 percent; the bend elastic modulus was improved by 66 percent. The water absorption of treated wood decreased relative to that of the untreated timbers. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy of the modified wood showed a significant reduction in the C=O absorbance at 1,750 cm−1. The peak at 1,645 cm−1 was found to increase as a result of treatment with the prepolymer.
Binderless Particleboard Resistance to Termite Attack
Authors: Suhasman S. , Hadi Y. S. , Massijaya M. Y. , Santoso A
Published: October 2013

Three particleboard types, including urea-formaldehyde (UF), melamine-formaldehyde (MF), and binderless, were made from three wood species, sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria), gmelina (Gmelina arborea), and mindi (Melia azedarach). Wood particle sizes of 10 to 20 mesh were manufactured for the 30 by 30 by 0.7-cm (length by width by thickness) boards, with 0.75 g/cm3 as the density target. Binderless particleboards were made through particle activation with hydrogen peroxide and ferrous sulfate as the catalyst, and the boards were hot pressed at 180°C for 12 minutes. For the purpose of comparison, conventional particleboards were made with UF and MF, with the resin level at 10 percent and the boards hot pressed at 120°C for 7 minutes. All particleboards were conditioned for 8 months prior to testing against the subterranean termite (Coptotermes curvignathus Holmgren) in laboratory and field tests, and against the dry wood termite (Cryptotermes cynocephalus Light) in laboratory tests. Results showed that wood species affected particleboard resistance in both of the subterranean termite tests and that the type of particleboard affected board resistance in field tests. Particleboard from sengon wood had the lowest resistance in both tests, followed by from gmelina and mindi woods, and particleboards with UF and MF resins had better resistance than binderless particleboard in field tests. Particleboard type and wood species did not affect board resistance to dry wood termite attack.
Twenty-Year Performance of Decking with Two Levels of Preservative Penetration
Authors: Morris Paul Ian , Ingram Janet Kathleen
Published: October 2013

In 1991 a field test was established at two locations in Canada to assess the longevity of deck boards that were either untreated or pressure treated with two levels of preservative penetration. These penetration levels were (1) single incised with 80 percent ≥ 5 mm and (2) unincised. Minidecks were prepared from each species/treatment variable and visually inspected for decay after 5, 9, 15, and 20 years of exposure. After 9 years the treated boards were virtually free of fungal attack, regardless of the preservative penetration, while decay of the untreated boards was moderate to severe. After 15 years there was still almost no decay in the treated boards, while decay in untreated boards had progressed significantly. At the 20-year inspection all untreated decks, with the exception of western red cedar (Thuja plicata), would have had to be replaced due to decay of multiple boards, while all chromated copper arsenate–treated decks remained serviceable regardless of preservative penetration. Based on published work showing how shell treatments with copper-containing preservatives protect decking even with checks penetrating the treated zone, these data are expected to be also relevant to newer preservatives with low levels of mobile copper.
A Study of the Visual Physical Characteristics and Psychological Images of Select Taiwanese Hardwoods
Authors: Chen Tien-li
Published: October 2013

This study investigated the relationship between visual images of wood color and wood grains of wood products manufactured from select Taiwanese commercial hardwoods. The Taiwan Forestry Research Institute provided samples for 23 species of commercially available woods, each with tangential and radial sections (46 samples total). Wood color parameters were measured, followed by a survey using a Semantic Differential scaling method to discern the consumers' mental perception toward the wood products. Finally, factors involved in constructing different images underwent statistical analysis to offer designers and consumers a reference for designing a product or wood product selections. Among Taiwan's commercial woods, Swietenia mahogoni was perceived to be advanced, elegant, and exquisite in the tangential section and warm, soft, and possessive of a natural image in the radial section. The tangential section of Paulownia taiwaniana was perceived to possess a common image; meretricious and rough images were associated with the tangential section of Cassia siamea. Cold and hard images were associated with the tangential and radial sections of Actinodaphne nantoensis, and Cyclobalanopsis longinux was perceived to possess an artificial image. In terms of color (Commission Internationale d'Eclairage L*a*b*), the relative images of advanced and common, elegant and meretricious, and warm and cold were closely related to L* and a*; the relative images of exquisite and rough and of soft and hard were related to a*. In terms of grains, the relative images of soft and hard and of natural and artificial are closely related to thickness of the wood lines.
Evaluation of Strategic Software Investments for the Canadian Cabinet Industry
Authors: Hewitt Richard , Sowlati Taraneh , Paradi Joseph C.
Published: October 2013

Software investments are increasingly important to remain competitive in modern manufacturing. However, wood product industries generally make minimal information technology (IT) investments and are slow adopters. This study determines the types of software that could contribute the most to the future competitiveness of the Canadian cabinet industry using industry and IT expert input into an Analytic Network Process model. Findings include the following. The Quality strategy is the most crucial for the industry's future competitiveness, with a normalized weight of 0.332, and the Delivery strategy is the least important (0.111). For software, Operations & Engineering and Enterprise Resource Management applications are the most important, having final priorities of 0.227 and 0.222, respectively. Content applications are relatively unimportant (0.087). The sensitivity analysis indicates that the results are robust for varying weights of all strategies except Customer Service. A higher emphasis on the Customer Service strategy increases the priority of the Customer Relationship Management and Collaboration applications to the first and the second-highest priority, respectively.