bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Blome David A.
Published: September 2020

This concluding chapter identifies the similarities and differences in the defensive activities of the Phocians, Aetolians, Acarnanians, and Arcadians circa 490–362. The tactics of the four ethnos, the potential threats to each ethnos, and the amount of foreign involvement in each defense provide sources of variation. Despite all of this variety, a common theme cuts across the four cases that reveals an underlying unity to the defense of Greek upland ethnē. Each of the four ethnos developed peculiar defensive strategies tailored to their respective geopolitical circumstances that guarded against potential invasions from the lowlands. Their methods and aims may have been different, but the calculation, coordination, and sophistication on display in the four cases show that these upland Greeks recognized the potential threats that surrounded them and had planned accordingly. The chapter then explains how the defensive strategies of the four ethnos differed from that of the polis-centric realm. It also explores the military roots of ancient federal states.
Introduction
Authors: Ballvé Teo
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter briefly explores the ways in which imaginaries of statelessness have structured the political life of Urabá, Colombia. It argues that Colombia's violent conflicts have produced surprisingly coherent and resilient regimes of accumulation and rule—yet this is not to say they are benevolent. In order to do so, this chapter approaches the state as a dynamic ensemble of relations that is both an effect and an instrument of competing political strategies and relations of power. In Urabá, groups from across the political spectrum, armed and otherwise, all end up trying to give concrete coherence to the inherently unwieldy abstraction of the state in a space where it supposedly does not exist. The way this absence exerts a generative political influence is what this chapter establishes as the “frontier effect.” The frontier effect describes how the imaginary of statelessness in these spaces compels all kinds of actors to get into the business of state formation; it thrusts groups into the role of would-be state builders.
The Postconflict Interregnum
Authors: Ballvé Teo
Published: September 2020

This chapter delves into the country's ongoing experiment with transitional justice, illustrating the messy renegotiations of rule the postconflict entails. Indeed, the postconflict conjuncture has become the latest springboard for Colombia's frontier state formations. Throughout the country's purportedly stateless frontiers, which continue to be major sites of organized violence and a still-raging war on drugs, the forces of law and order have not so much trumped the power of violent outlaw groups as become fused with them. The chapter explores these antinomies of postconflict statecraft through an ethnographic account of land restitution in Tulapas. This small region demonstrates how the contradictions of postconflict state formation have materialized sharply around the politics of community. It is at the scale of community that the postconflict's intense yet often hushed renegotiations of rule are taking place.
Reclaiming Fascism, Housing the Nation
Authors: Ballinger Pamela
Published: September 2020

This chapter assesses how the efforts by the Italian state at certain moments to slow processes of repatriation by requiring guarantees of work and housing proved merely stopgap measures. Despite worries about the potentially destabilizing effect of introducing impoverished Italian repatriates and refugees into an Italian peninsula devastated by the war, the Italian government worried equally about the corrosive consequences of lengthy residence in refugee camps on its inhabitants, as well as for neighboring communities. This prospect carried with it the risks of ruination not only of the generation of adults displaced by the war and the collapse of fascist empire but also of succeeding generations raised in the camps. Examining debates about how to reclaim the children of Italy's lost empire for the nation after 1945, the chapter explores such questions through the prism of resettlement policies and refugee housing. In particular, it asks whether these efforts can be read as instantiations of the famous fascist projects of land reclamation and thus as attempts to reclaim and render productive the ruins of the fascist project.
How Leader-Specific Reputations Form and Change across Repeated Interactions
Authors: Lupton Danielle L.
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines how perceptions of a leader's resolve form and change across multiple hypothetical interactions. By using a survey experiment, it reveals that statements create expectations of future action, which then interact with a leader's subsequent behavior to influence participants' perceptions of that leader's resolve. The results further show that early perceptions of a leader's resolve are significantly correlated with participants' later assessments of that leader's resolve, indicating that early interactions and the perceptions that stem from those interactions are highly influential to leader-specific reputational assessments within the experiment. In other words, first impressions matter, as they influence later assessments. Moreover, only certain contextual factors—namely, a preexisting state reputation and state strategic interest in the issue under dispute—create expectations of leader resolve within the experiment. These expectations then interact with a leader's statements and behavior to influence participants' assessments of resolve.
How Contextual Factors Influence Leader-Specific Reputations
Authors: Lupton Danielle L.
Published: September 2020

This chapter evaluates how key contextual factors and the actions of a new leader's predecessor directly affect assessments of a new leader's resolve. Using another survey experiment, it reveals that only two contextual factors—state reputation and state interest in an issue under dispute—consistently influence leader-specific reputations. The experiment further shows interesting patterns under which these two contextual factors affect leader reputational assessments within the experiment. In particular, it is the state's past actions or communicated interest in an issue under dispute combined with a leader's subsequent statements and behavior that influences leader reputations—echoing the results from the previous chapter. In addition, the experiment demonstrates that perceptions of a new leader's resolve emerge independently of the actions of that leader's predecessor, providing direct evidence to support the underlying assumption of this book's theory that new leaders establish reputations for resolve that are distinct from those of their predecessors and of their states.
Network
Authors: Brescia Ray
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the role of trust in solving collective action problems and the ways in which translocal networks harness this trust to advance broad social change. Such trust is present in the social relationships one forms with others, what is often referred to as one's social capital. From the Sons of Liberty to the civil rights movement, different social movements have utilized different means of communications to form, identify individuals who shared common beliefs, bind people together, and animate collective action. They often did this in networks, and networks of a particular kind. As the name implies, the translocal network is one that may span a wide geographic area and can harness the power of a large group of committed individuals but is also made up of smaller cells where face-to-face communication between individual members can occur. The chapter then looks at examples of the social movements that have emerged in social innovation moments to show how they have generally tended to organize themselves into translocal networks, at least until a means of communication emerged that allowed organizers to form different types of organizations.
Message
Authors: Brescia Ray
Published: September 2020

This chapter focuses on the movement's message. Many of the social movements often embraced a unifying message that sought ways to attract a wide and diverse group of supporters. For an understanding of some of the additional components of social movement success, particularly in social innovation moments, the chapter turns to contemporary social movement theory to try to identify the connection between one's network, the messages that network might send, and the extent to which the identities of the members of that network are tied up in both. It discusses the evolution of social movement theory, beginning with what can be called the rational actor model of community organizing. What this discussion shows is that messages matter for community organizing and social mobilization. Personalizing, humanizing, and optimistic messages can help movements expand and grow, creating the network effects described in the previous chapter. At the same time, when those messages are encoded onto face-to-face relationships, those relationships serve as a channel through which a movement can expand its network.
Introduction
Authors: Trotter LaTonya J.
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter provides a background of Forest Grove Elder Services and its nurse practitioners (NPs). It advances the notion of clinic work to illustrate the ways in which the Grove's NPs brought care work into the medical encounter. The term “clinic work” reflects the reality that the NPs' work was different in both form and content from the medical work of their physician colleagues. It also underlines the ways in which the NPs' work invoked a different form of relationality—it was in deep relationship with the organization or clinic in which it was located. Forest Grove Elder Services is not an ordinary outpatient clinic. It is a federally backed policy experiment to evaluate whether a comprehensive care model could ameliorate the state's economic burdens for long-term care. In some ways, the Grove's experimental objective was to figure out how to deliver care work under the aegis of medical care. Thus, the Grove's NPs were not simply performing an expansive form of work on behalf of their patients; they were also providing an expansive form of organizational care work for their employer. The chapter then considers the utility of NPs under state retrenchment.
Bringing Essanay’s “Special Eastern” to Ithaca
Authors: Lupack Barbara Tepa
Published: September 2020

This chapter describes Ted Wharton's brief stay in Ithaca, wherein he shot Football Days at Cornell (1912), the picture that would prove to be a turning point in his career. Convinced that the town would be an ideal location for a full season of summer shooting, he pressed George K. Spoor, cofounder of Essanay, to allow him to establish a temporary Ithaca studio facility. Spoor agreed to authorize the venture, and in May of 1913, Ted returned to Ithaca with the “Special Eastern,” a complete company of some twenty crew members and photoplayers, including the studio's biggest star, Francis X. Bushman, and his frequent leading lady Beverly Bayne. The Hermit of Lonely Gulch was the first of the pictures the “Special Eastern” would produce that season, and it proved to be an excellent start. Other pictures produced that season include Sunlight, For Old Time's Sake, A Woman Scorned, Tony the Fiddler, and Dear Old Girl. The chapter then considers assistant director Archer MacMackin, who—working under Ted's close supervision—kept himself and the company busy throughout the summer with rehearsals and production. The Toll of the Marshes would be the last picture filmed by Ted's Essanay “Special Eastern.” After the company decided against opening a permanent eastern studio, Ted terminated his contractual association with Essanay and moved to Ithaca to form his own independent production company.
Extending Elaine
Authors: Lupack Barbara Tepa
Published: September 2020

This chapter details how, given The Exploits of Elaine's enormous appeal, plans for an extension, or “extender,” began even as the original serial was still in production. Indeed, the opening episode of The New Exploits of Elaine (1915) was released just one week after the first serial concluded. By picking up where Exploits left off, both William Randolph Hearst and the Whartons hoped to maintain the keen interest in the adventures of Elaine Dodge and Craig Kennedy—and in Pearl White and Arnold Daly, the popular stars who played them. The production of serial-sequels, by then, had become an increasingly common practice among studios hoping to capitalize on their original successes. The unresolved-plot ending of The New Exploits of Elaine provided a natural segue into the third and final installment of the Elaine serial. On the one hand, The Romance of Elaine harked back to familiar elements of the serial formula, among them recurring threats from a mysterious villain, death-defying escapes, car chases, explosions, and romantic rescues. On the other, it celebrated Elaine's tenacity and reinforced the image of her as a new and increasingly independent female type of protagonist within a sensational, action-packed, typically male-oriented and male-dominated story line.
Moving into Feature Filmmaking
Authors: Lupack Barbara Tepa
Published: September 2020

This chapter looks at a controversial release by the Wharton brothers: the five-reel feature The Black Stork (1917). Advertised as a “eugenics love story,” the film told a fictionalized story based on the actual 1915 “Bollinger Case,” in which Dr. Harry J. Haiselden, the chief surgeon at the German-American Hospital in Chicago, refused to perform a life-saving surgery on a severely disabled infant, “Baby [John] Bollinger.” Hoping to clear himself before the American public, Haiselden decided to participate, and even to star, in The Black Stork. In addition to its central premise that it is necessary, even laudable, to ensure the integrity of society by terminating the lives of “defectives,” the film drew a further direct and unfortunate link between hereditary defects and ethnicity, class, and race. The chapter also considers the first new Wharton production of 1917, The Great White Trail. The film was less controversial than The Black Stork, but its subplot of white slavery and prostitution also elicited some concerns.
Leaving Ithaca
Authors: Lupack Barbara Tepa
Published: September 2020

This chapter details the financial woes that the Wharton brothers faced. The once-bustling Wharton Studio at Renwick Park was, by 1919, a film studio in name only. With its debt increasing and prospects for new production slowing correspondingly, it was facing an uncertain future. By May of 1919, the brothers' long-standing money troubles had become too big to hide or ignore. To be sure, the Whartons' prospects in the industry looked grim. Yet surprisingly, within just days of the sale of the studio's contents, reports surfaced of a new Wharton film venture: The Crooked Dagger. However, between the problems with Pathé and the loss of the serial's leading man and other actors, Ted Wharton found himself unable to move forward with the production. Consequently, although a number of filmographies list The Crooked Dagger as a completed picture, the serial “never saw the light of day.”
Measuring Moros
Authors: Hawkins Michael C.
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the role of Moro bodies in the quantification of humanity at the St. Louis World's Fair. Although Moro bodies were routinely quantified in a variety of contexts, the real measure of the Moros' physical prowess was to be established in a grand athletic spectacle known as “Anthropology Days.” With the 1904 Olympics as a backdrop, anthropologist William J. McGee hoped the Anthropology Days would provide an undeniable comparison between “savage” and “civilized” athletes, thus diminishing emphasis on biological development and endorsing culture and technology as the primary measure of human difference. Ultimately, the Moros' role in the quantification of humanity served an important double function. The “semi-civilized” Moros allowed for notions of Caucasian superiority while simultaneously offering an analogy of physical and cultural improvement for all people, thus affirming the efficacy of colonial tutelage and universal human potential. In this way, the Moros were embedded firmly within the central arch of human evolution rather than on its extremes. Unlike “savage” live exhibits or indeed the exceptional Olympic athletes, Moros were more akin to average American patrons.
Epilogue
Authors: Hawkins Michael C.
Published: September 2020

This epilogue reflects on the author's experience while serving as a supporting participant in a grant project known as the Philippine Youth Leadership Program (PYLP). In the closing days of the program, all Filipino participants came together to perform a “Philippine Culture Night.” A conversation between the author and an observer revealed the supposed ubiquity of American culture around the world. If “American” culture is so ubiquitous, then Americans are in no need of discovery, definition, or exhibition, by themselves or by others. This creates an uncomfortable lack of reciprocity in which the dynamics of cultural exhibition are reduced to an asymmetrical “you dance for me, but I never dance for you; I discover, observe, define, and preserve the things of this world, but I am not subjected to those processes by others.” Yet this notion betrays a certain postcolonial cultural narcissism in which the legacies of empire often loom larger in the minds of former colonizing nations than they do in the minds of nations formerly colonized. It cannot be forgotten that “live exhibits” and cultural performers are ultimately agents unto themselves, choosing and participating in representations that are independent of how observers may attempt to objectify them. This was certainly the case for the Moros at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition.
Introduction
Authors: Walczynski Mark
Published: September 2020

This chapter provides an overview of the history of Starved Rock in Illinois. The land that today comprises Starved Rock State Park and the adjacent countryside was nearly continuously occupied by Native Americans until the early nineteenth century. Although the Rock itself was not an occupied Native American site per se, like a semi-permanent village, it was a place where, for millennia, Native Americans camped, sojourned, and in a few instances had their earthly remains interred. West and north of Starved Rock, along the ancient river channels that once crisscrossed the Illinois Valley, aboriginal people hunted, fished, and farmed. Oblivious to the movement of Europeans from the Old World to the New, the Indians in the Starved Rock area established a village named Kaskaskia. European trade goods that made the chores of killing, cleaning, and cooking easier reached the Kaskaskia a decade or so before French missionaries and traders made their debut at Starved Rock. By the early nineteenth century, American frontier settlers would arrive and change the entire dynamic of the Starved Rock area. Their attitudes concerning the use of lands and waterways, and their exploitation of natural resources, embodied values that would have seemed utterly foreign to the Indians who proceeded them.
1673–1679: The Black Robe Arrives at Kaskaskia
Authors: Walczynski Mark
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the arrival of French missionaries at Kaskaskia. On a late August–early September day in 1673, two bark canoes carrying seven Frenchmen and an Indian boy ascended the Illinois River near today's Utica, Illinois. In the party were Louis Jolliet, a Canadian fur trader, and Jacques Marquette, a Jesuit missionary. These men were the first known Europeans to have navigated the Illinois River. Paddling another mile, Jolliet, Marquette, and the crew disembarked at a place the Indians called kaaskaaskinki or kaaskaaskingi and the French called Kaskaskia, a large Illinois Indian village named for the Illinois subtribe that lived at the site. Religious conversion, trade, and building alliances with the Illinois Indians who lived at Kaskaskia would become the primary reason for French interest in the Starved Rock area.
1683: The French Build a Fort
Authors: Walczynski Mark
Published: September 2020

This chapter details the construction of Sieur de La Salle's Fort St. Louis atop Starved Rock. Located along the south shore of the Illinois River in LaSalle County, Illinois, the 125-foot-tall bluff known today as Starved Rock, or Le Rocher to the French, is the tallest and best-known geological feature in the upper Illinois Valley. The strategic advantages of the site, especially during times of Iroquois unrest, were many. The summit of Starved Rock is relatively level when compared to all other sandstone bluffs in the vicinity. It was easily defended by a handful of men, and lookouts could monitor both upstream and downstream approaches to the bluff. With the fort on Starved Rock completed and alliance with the tribes established, La Salle hoped to provide the Indians much-needed trade goods. Having promised the tribes that trade goods would be available at his fort, La Salle was now tasked with procuring those goods and transporting them to Starved Rock. In addition, among the powers and responsibilities specified in La Salle's royal patent was the authority to award land grants to settlers.
1841–1885: Wait! Its Heart Is Still Beating
Authors: Walczynski Mark
Published: September 2020

This chapter illustrates the growing public interest in Starved Rock. Privately owned starting in 1835, Starved Rock was the domain of Daniel Hitt. In time, private development of the Starved Rock region grew. The adjacent property south and east of Starved Rock was purchased by private individuals, mainly farmers, industrious people whose labor brought forth the promise of the underdeveloped lands of Illinois that had years before been reclaimed by nature. In addition to tillable land, the farmers utilized erodible land for pasture to feed domestic livestock. In 1867, the US Army Corps of Engineers dispatched a party of cartographers to map the Illinois River. In September and October of 1883, another group of Army engineers under the supervision of W. H. H. Benyaurd surveyed the Illinois River. By the close of the nineteenth century, mining and industry were becoming an important part of the Starved Rock area's economy.
Harmonic Dissidence
Authors: Zeidel Robert F.
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses how developments during the preceding thirty years, culminating in the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, set the stage for future immigrant-related labor strife. During those years, American industrialization began in earnest, engendering a host of socioeconomic changes. Increased large-scale production led to a growing demand for workers, and when the domestic labor force could not meet employers' needs or would not accept their offered wages, business leaders turned to immigrants. The pull of American economic opportunity, coupled with the paucity of that which was available in the Old World, attracted the first waves of industrial-era aliens. Coming from a host of foreign nations, their presence would create an increasingly heterogeneous population. This in and of itself troubled some Americans, but industrialization also spawned the creation of a nascent proletariat, an effectively permanent working class. As tensions rose between it and the agents of capital, culminating with the Great Strike, employers increasingly emphasized a connection between foreigners and worker radicalism. Business leaders recognized immigrants' essential contribution to American commercial growth but also identified the foreigners and their imported ideologies as the reason why the United States appeared to be on the eve of destruction. Associated developments would shape succeeding decades of ethnically influenced and class-based economic tensions.
Effects of War
Authors: Zeidel Robert F.
Published: September 2020

This chapter addresses how the onset of World War I raised questions about if and how the United States should prepare itself for a military confrontation with a “foreign” enemy, and gave added implications to any talk of armed class conflict, especially if it involved immigrant workers. Americans everywhere increasingly championed the need to provide adequate defense against a potential attack from abroad. But this bulwark alone would not suffice. Dangers to national security also emanated from domestic sources, especially those deemed foreign or un-American. Millions of immigrants, already under scrutiny for their involvement in labor unrest, became potentially dangerous internal enemies. Business leaders would use this heightened tension to portray strikes, and the agitators who allegedly fostered them, as threats to national security. Alleged perpetrators became saboteurs and traitors. In pursuit of their eradication, what had been tacit connections between business interests and governmental agencies in the pursuit of labor tranquility became more direct and the results more draconian.
Epilogue
Authors: Zeidel Robert F.
Published: September 2020

This epilogue discusses how closing America's proverbial gates to the influx of European and Asian laborers ended the decades-long era when industrialization and immigration had combined to transform the United States. Big business had come to dominate the American economy, and millions of working-class foreigners had extensively increased its ethnic diversity. Their nexus created numerous benefits, yet it also engendered a host of socioeconomic maladies. The tragedy of 1886, or 1892, or 1919–1920, was not necessarily the failure of socialism or anarchism to wage a successful revolution against American capitalism. Indeed, whether the doctrines advocated by working-class radicals would have made the United States a better nation invites speculation that exceeds the realm of historical analysis. Ultimately, industrial-era Americans betrayed their most fundamental values. While they welcomed the arrival of immigrant workers who would transform the United States into a commercial giant and produce unparalleled economic gain, they stifled those who demanded radical alterations to the capitalist system in which they toiled, dismissing their alternative doctrines as un-American. Instead of allowing debate and considering the legitimacy of the workers' grievances, they branded their beliefs and behaviors as subversive, and identified their origins as inherently foreign, as having no place in and being inimical to the essence of the United States.
Fall from Grace
Authors: Rury John L.
Published: September 2020

This chapter describes changes in the postwar era to the Kansas City, Missouri, public schools, which went from being considered the very best such local institutions to perhaps the worst. In the 1950s the Kansas City high schools were widely considered to be superior to their suburban counterparts, which were much smaller and offered fewer curricular and extramural options for students. As suburban districts expanded, however, these distinctions began to fade. At the same time, the arrival of large numbers of poor African Americans, most from the rural South, contributed to racial change in the schools. Thousands of white families moved to suburban districts, especially with the advent of desegregation plans in the 1970s. Research on school transfers revealed that most such “flight” headed to the south, remaining largely within the city's municipal boundaries. By 1980, the Kansas City school district's population had fallen dramatically, and only a tiny minority was white, making meaningful desegregation within the system impossible. Meanwhile, neighboring districts had grown enormously, serving an almost entirely white population. A new educational order had emerged.
American Disaster Policy through 1972
Authors: Kneeland Timothy W.
Published: September 2020

This chapter traces the history and expansion of federal disaster aid, beginning with the Disaster Relief Act of 1950. Under the Disaster Relief Act of 1950, the federal government assumed a permanent role and new responsibility for assisting local communities and state governments after a disaster. Between the 1950 legislation and the election of Richard Nixon in 1968, U.S. Congress allocated an ever-increasing amount of money toward disaster relief and added new benefits for disaster victims. As a consequence, the number of executive agencies and civil servants involved in dealing with disaster recovery multiplied. Disaster assistance, which was once aimed exclusively at state and local governments, now included direct payments to private citizens affected by natural disaster. This pattern of adding new benefits to disaster legislation culminated in the Disaster Relief Act of 1970, which made permanent all the benefits and programs found in previous acts, making these programs tantamount to a new entitlement. President Nixon was not pleased with the existing entitlement programs and tried to reduce the role of the federal government by empowering the states to prepare for, and deal with, a disaster on their own.
Who’s in Charge?
Authors: Kneeland Timothy W.
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses how, during the crisis spawned by Hurricane Agnes, the untrained, ill-prepared, and uncommunicative local officials were forced to make decisions and take action with only the limited resources they had at their disposal, often with tragic results. Their situation was the result of federalism, a political system which divides powers, responsibilities, and jurisdictions between the national and state governments. Natural disasters that threaten health and safety are ultimately the responsibility of local officials, who turned to state and federal authorities and to the private sector to assist them in reorganizing and rebuilding after the flooding from Agnes. State governments may have the resources to cope with the disaster, but due to political considerations, most elected officials want to maximize the amount of financial support from the federal government while minimizing the cost at the state level. Scholars have termed this response to disaster “the crying poor” syndrome, in which states exaggerate the cost of a disaster to demonstrate that they are not capable of paying for recovery. Moreover, in 1972, few state governments had kept pace with the changing nature of disasters. The chapter then looks at how Governor Milton Shapp, Governor Nelson Rockefeller, and state senator Bill Smith responded to the flooding.
“Better Than Ever”?
Authors: Kneeland Timothy W.
Published: September 2020

This chapter assesses the plans to redevelop Corning, Elmira, and Wilkes-Barre after the signing of the Agnes Recovery Act into law on August 20, 1972. While political leaders touted community spirit, individuals within these cities found themselves worse off than before the flood. To rebuild their homes and businesses, people took out loans through the Small Business Administration program at one-percent interest. Initially welcomed after the flood, these loans caused many people to fall into long-term debt on property they had already purchased. According to one resident of Elmira, who served in the New York State Senate, the loans saddled the inhabitants of the communities in New York and Pennsylvania with burdensome mortgages funded by outside banks, which contributed little to the local economy. While some people struggled, others enriched themselves; the influx of federal and state money available to local governments proved too strong a temptation for corrupt officials. In addition to inspiring public corruption, the Agnes Recovery Act benefited the most influential members of the community at the expense of ordinary citizens. Members of the local business community oversaw redevelopment in Corning, Elmira, and Wilkes-Barre, and in nearly every case, their interests overshadowed the ideas and input of other members of the community.
The Risky Business of Flood Control
Authors: Kneeland Timothy W.
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses flood control policy, recounting how Frank Townend—who had been the civil defense director for Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, for over a decade when Hurricane Agnes struck—ignored the warnings coming from the National Weather Service. He was sure that the dikes could hold back the Susquehanna River. Convinced that the levees would protect the city, he did not order an evacuation of Wilkes-Barre before flooding began. In the hours before the Agnes-induced flooding, officials reassured the public that they would stay safe and dry behind their protective flood walls, but they soon found themselves and their property in peril. The tragedy is that while residents of the cities were unaware they were at risk, for many years scholars had been warning that structural barriers to flooding were not flood proof and instead encouraged risky behavior in river valleys. The floodwalls lulled people into believing they could safely build residences and businesses on the river's natural floodplain. Disaster scholars use the term “moral hazard” to describe government policy that increases public risk taking. Dikes and levees along the Susquehanna became a moral hazard because once they had been installed, local officials encouraged floodplain development to maximize land use and increase local tax revenues.
Bones and Sinews
Authors: Johnson Matthew
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses how black student activists led a campus strike at the University of Michigan (UM) in 1970, challenging entrenched ideas and practices that seemed so natural and embedded in the institution that administrators had never questioned them. The institutional values and practices that justified an admissions system that created racial disparities began in the mid-nineteenth century. Two core values emerged at the first board of regents meetings in Ann Arbor. Campus leaders wanted to create a university on par with any in the United States, and they wanted the university to offer broad access to the people of Michigan. But over the course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, campus leaders chose to subordinate the ideal of access to the goal of attaining and sustaining UM's elite status. In the 1940s and 1950s, administrators slowly purged official practices that mandated or accommodated segregation in campus buildings and social clubs. They slowly incorporated the prevailing ideas of racial liberalism. However, administrators never anticipated how the implementation of racial liberalism would impact black students. The ways that UM leaders crafted the model multiracial community led to a toxic racial climate at UM.
Affirmative Action for Whom?
Authors: Johnson Matthew
Published: September 2020

This chapter addresses the new affirmative action policies in the University of Michigan (UM), which ultimately led to the racial retrenchment of the late 1970s and early 1980s. Almost all the enrollment gains made since the Black Action Movement (BAM) were reversed. During these years, black enrollment fell from 7.25 percent to 4.9 percent of UM's student body by 1983. Just as important, the economic backgrounds of black students at UM changed, as UM officials shifted their recruiting, admissions, and financial aid policies to focus on bringing middle-class black students from suburban areas around the country. Even as black enrollment began to rise again in the mid-1980s, UM would never again craft its affirmative action policies to target working-class students in Detroit. Ultimately, the policies administrators introduced in the late 1970s revealed that the co-optation of racial justice was a long-term project that evolved to protect the university's priorities as conditions changed. The declining power of black student activists also gave administrators more control over how the university would respond to the changing environment. By the end of the 1970s, the character of affirmative action looked nothing like BAM's vision of racial justice.
Sustaining Racial Retrenchment
Authors: Johnson Matthew
Published: September 2020

This chapter describes how the University of Michigan (UM) leaders fought to preserve the new affirmative action policies. In this context, diversity—the idea that a racially heterogeneous student body improved education and prepared students for a multiracial democracy and global economy—became a tool to defend and sustain the new policies. Diversity helped sever the purpose of affirmative action from addressing the inequality rooted in cities, offered ambiguous goals that helped officials avoid accountability, and advanced administrators' interests in introducing a corporate model for the university. The diversity ideal, in other words, did not spark racial retrenchment. Instead, diversity became a tool to sustain the university's policies of retrenchment. Administrators still had to work to retain control over the meaning of diversity and ensure it supported the new policies. When diversity took hold among administrators, black students and their allies tried to employ diversity language to undermine the policies of retrenchment. Administrators ensured that never happened.
Gratz v. Bollinger
Authors: Johnson Matthew
Published: September 2020

This chapter studies Gratz v. Bollinger, which challenged the racially attentive undergraduate admissions practices of the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts in the University of Michigan (UM). Grutter v. Bollinger, which challenged the Law School's admissions practices, was filed soon thereafter. These cases put UM on a crash course with the Supreme Court. The chapter then highlights UM's defense of affirmative action, showing how the university's co-optation of racial justice aligned with the rightward shift of the Supreme Court since the 1980s. UM leaders' preference for diversity over the social justice rationale, their discomfort with enrollment targets, their efforts to make affirmative action serve business interests, and their selective incorporation of social science that promoted the benefits of interracial contact all made UM's chances of swaying at least one conservative justice more likely.
Introduction
Authors: Liu-Farrer Gracia
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter provides an overview of Japan as an immigrant country. Japan has become an immigrant country de facto. Starting in the 1980s, to stave off economic decline caused by labor shortage and in the name of internationalization, Japan has tried different programs to bring in foreign workers. In 2012, Japan became one of the most liberal states in its policies for granting permanent residency to highly skilled migrants. As a result, the population of foreigners has been rising for the past three decades and is likely to increase significantly in the near future. Why, then, do both the Japanese government and people inside and outside Japan hesitate to accept the discourse of immigration and the reality of its transformation into an immigrant society? This hesitation has to do with Japan's ethno-nationalist self-identity and the widespread myth surrounding its monoethnic nationhood, on the one hand, and the conventional, albeit anachronistic, definition of “immigrant country” and the difficulty for people to associate an immigrant country with an ethno-nationalist one, on the other hand.
Migration Channels and the Shaping of Immigrant Ethno-Scapes
Authors: Liu-Farrer Gracia
Published: September 2020

This chapter explains that migration is a collective action orchestrated by different actors, both human and nonhuman, that either facilitate or hamper mobility. It presents the demographic and residential profiles of the major immigrant groups in Japan. The chapter then categorizes the channels and processes of migration that have helped shape such particular demographic profiles of Japan's immigrants. These channels include side doors for the importation of “unskilled workers” and selective talent programs for skilled migrants; marriage migration; and the expanding networks of global mobility such as student exchange programs, research collaborations, and recruitment agencies. The chapter uses the logic of different dimensions of this migration infrastructure to discuss the particular outcomes of different types of migration.
Weaving the Web of a Life in Japan
Authors: Liu-Farrer Gracia
Published: September 2020

This chapter focuses on the narratives of immigrants who have chosen to stay and settle in Japan. Most people coming to Japan initially do not intend to stay. However, mobility is a contingent and uncertain process; trajectories change. People—for instrumental and, more importantly, emotional, social, and lifestyle reasons—moor themselves in Japan. Japan could be merely one among many migration destinations where people find a means for subsistence and romantic relationships and spin the web of life. Japan is also a particular destination; its physical setting and social engineering make it, for many, a desirable place to live. There are people who even choose to become Japanese citizens. Nonetheless, none of this means stasis; increased global connectivity has allowed more and more possibilities to move, and to move again. Japan's lack of a national narrative of immigration also makes people less certain about their future trajectory. The question then becomes, how long will people ultimately stay? To stay does not mean not moving again.
To Leave, to Return
Authors: Liu-Farrer Gracia
Published: September 2020

This chapter looks at the narratives of immigrants who have lived in Japan for a substantial period of time before leaving. Hundreds of thousands of people arrive in Japan every year on visas that grant them the opportunity to stay for durations ranging from six months to three years. Yet only three million in total have remained. Some of them left the country because they chose to; others had to leave because they lost the means to stay on. Indeed, the prospect of leaving Japan, either to go to a third country or to return to their home country, is an idea lurking in the back of the minds of most immigrants who are currently staying in Japan. Japan is not considered an immigrant destination, and many aspects of the country remain uncompromisingly ethno-nationalistic. As a result, at least initially, migrating to Japan means a temporary sojourn. Leaving seems to be a distinct future possibility, if not an imminent decision to make. For some, it is a crutch to lean on when they feel frustrated with aspects of life in Japan or are nostalgic or restless.
Growing up in Japan
Authors: Liu-Farrer Gracia
Published: September 2020

This chapter studies immigrant children's diverse strategies to make sense of their subjectivities and establish their relationships with Japanese society. In particular, it examines how changing environments, especially the different institutional contexts they go through in the course of their growing up, contribute to the shaping of their identities. Born to foreign parents, immigrant children in Japan are surrounded by a complex cultural and social environment and have to continually adjust their relationships to such contexts and modify their subjectivities in the course of doing so. Because nationality is a powerful identification, they also have to negotiate their own identity between Japan—the place where they live and are acculturated to but at times rejected by—and the country or countries where their parents are from and where their passports say they are from. This process of encounters and negotiations enhances their awareness of the limits and freedom of being immigrants in Japan. In the end, among a group of them, a cosmopolitan self emerges as a response to the limited repertoire of identity choice. In other words, many immigrant children, unwilling to resign to either nationality, choose to become citizens of the world.
Conclusion
Authors: Liu-Farrer Gracia
Published: September 2020

This concluding chapter summarizes the central issues that characterize immigrant experiences in Japan, and reflects on their implications both for migration studies broadly and for Japan's own migration policies in particular. These immigrant experiences illustrate the potential as well as the challenges of Japan as an immigrant country. Some of the challenges are particular to Japan, or ethno-nationalist societies like Japan. However, Japan's transition to an immigrant society also takes place in a global context where policy as well as public opinion regarding immigration is hostile. Anti-immigration becomes the main platform of populist party politics in many major destinations of immigration. In other words, more countries are embracing ethno-nationalism. These developments, however alarming to many observers, are also potentially creating opportunities for Japan because they are shaping a new geography of global migrations and are likely also to redefine the image of an immigrant society as well as the map of attractive destinations of immigration.
From the Classical Soup Kitchen to the Irish Famine
Authors: Scott-Smith Tom
Published: September 2020

This chapter describes how the soup kitchen, based on an Elizabethan model but subsequently scaled up to meet the vast needs of a new urban underclass, became a standardized technology of relief by the middle of the nineteenth century. It returns to Alexis Soyer as well as a man called Count Rumford, who brought the soup kitchen into the modern age. Count Rumford's commitment to everyday reform generated a new word, “rumfordizing,” which meant improving and refining something in accordance with natural laws. In the 1790s he started to rumfordize the soup kitchen. With Rumford's help, the soup kitchen developed to meet the scale of need in urban areas, culminating in Alexis Soyer's “soup-shop of soup-shops” in Dublin. Rumford's vision of the soup kitchen, however, acted as a pivot between the classical and modern periods, before nutritional science emerged onto the scene.
Military Feeding during World War II
Authors: Scott-Smith Tom
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the foods pushed by military planners, which were long lasting, nutritionally balanced, and easy to transport. This was a period when control and power, which is now so central to relief work, became crucial to humanitarian action in the Second World War. Compared to the expansive visions of “social nutrition” that had proliferated in the interwar period, relief in the 1940s was characterized by technical foods, precise nutritional needs, and calorie counting. The use of surplus rations was a good illustration of the era, as it combined technologies of preservation, nutrition, and ordered portability. Other forms of relief, however, took on a militaristic hue as well. This chapter examines how training programs for relief workers taught new military methods for feeding large numbers of people, how nutrients replaced foods in humanitarian efforts, and how this change in thinking generated a range of new and unusual technical foods.
Low Modernism after Biafra
Authors: Scott-Smith Tom
Published: September 2020

This chapter shows how expansive modernist dreams came to be realized through more commercially viable interventions, including the manufacture of profitable commodities such as Corn-Soy Blend. This is known as low modernism: a more pragmatic and business-friendly version of the high modernist ideals that had been percolating for some years when the Biafran crisis began. The approach contained a similar utopianism, but was directed toward smaller, more practical tools, which could be replicated and transported around the world. The MUAC (mid-upper arm circumference) tape and the product known as Corn-Soy-Milk became perhaps the most widespread and influential examples. In particular, this chapter focuses on the evolution of Corn-Soy-Milk: a product composed of three of America's largest surplus commodities that were combined and exported overseas.