bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Teachers' Expectations for Black Males' and Black Females' Academic Achievement
Authors: Ross Sandra I. , Jackson Jeffrey M.
Published: March 2007

Expectancy effects for Black males and Black females and a suspected cause of these effects were studied. Teachers responded to a questionnaire containing 12 case histories of hypothetical Black fourth-grade males and females. Teachers predicted students' academic performance far the current school year and in the future and rated their preference for having the students in their classes. Results indicated that even when students had equivalent qualities, teachers consistently held more negative expectations for Black males and gave them lower ratings. Teachers had the lowest expectations for nonsubmissive, in independent Black males and preferred them least. Fear of Black males who are nonsubmissive and independent may be the cause of this bias.
Meta-Analyses Relating Goal Structures to Achievement: Findings, Controversies, and Impacts
Authors: Maruyama Geoffrey
Published: March 2007

Meta-analytic methods are designed to bring order to diverse and complex literatures by summarizing and synthesizing the findings of empirical studies. This article examines how meta-analytic methods were applied to the literature relating cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures to achievement. In this instance, meta-analytic techniques revealed clear patterns in the findings favoring cooperative goal structures. A more important question is "Did the meta-analysis findings affect the way researchers and practitioners think about the literature?" The present article summarizes the findings from a meta-analysis of that literature, reviews substantive and methodological issues surrounding that meta-analysis, and examines how the meta-analysis affected the literature relating goal structures and achievement.
The Relations among Talking, Liking, and Similarity between Friends
Authors: Deutsch Francine M. , Sullivan Lisa , Sage Cristina , Basile Nicoletta
Published: March 2007

Self-concept similarity in 58 female first-year roommate pairs was examined using the spontaneous trait generation task. On the basis of the trait overlap identified by this task, friends were more similar than nonfriends. Correlational analyses demonstrated that the amount of talking between roommates was more highly related to trait overlap than was liking or reported time spent together, suggesting that conversation between friends may be a key to the development of self-concept similarity. These results were interpreted as support for a model of self-concept change in which exposure to new interpersonal constructs leads to their adoption as self-schemata. Conversation between friends is discussed as one means of exposure to new constructs.
The Effects of Framing, Problem Variations, and Providing Rationale on Choice
Authors: Miller Paul M. , Fagley N. S.
Published: March 2007

Tversky and Kahneman reported a large effect of the framing of decision options on choice. When options were phrased positively in terms of gains, people chose the sure thing. But when options were phrased negatively in terms of losses, people chose the risky option. However, not all researchers have replicated this finding, especially when using different decision problems and task requirements. Consequently, problem and/or task variables may be important. The current study investigated two problem variables: degree of apparent gain/loss in the risky option (e.g., partial vs. total) and probability of success in the risky option. The effect of requesting a rationale on the framing effect was also studied. Although framing significantly affected choice, its effects were mediated or moderated by rationale request, degree of apparent gain/loss, and probability, sometimes in complex ways. The findings suggest that framing is less pervasive than previously believed.
Social Perception in Multitarget Settings: Effects of Motivated Encoding Strategies
Authors: Sedikides Constantine , Devine Patricia G. , Fuhrman Robert W.
Published: March 2007

Two experiments examined the effects of a number of motivated encoding strategies (anticipated-interaction, impression formation, later use, self-comparison, friend comparison, and memory instructions) on the recall and cognitive organization of information about multiple target persons. As in past research on the effects of motivated encoding strategies on the cognitive processing of information about a single target, memory instructions produced the lowest levels of recall. However in contrast to past research, no instruction set produced evidence of higher cognitive individuation of targets than memory instructions. The results are discussed in the context of two alternative models of person memory the associative network model and the elaboration model.
Publication Trends in JPSP: A Three-Decade Review
Authors: Reis Harry T. , Stiller Jerome
Published: March 2007

To examine recent changes in research and publication practices, the authors systematically compared articles published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology during 1 968, 1978, and 1988. Analyses revealed that over time published articles became longer; presented more procedural information and tables, cited more prior literature, and reported research based on more studies, more subjects per study, and more complex statistical methods. These results provide evidence of growing complexity both in the kinds of theoretical questions that social personality researchers ask and in the methodologies and statistics they use to answer them. Several other factors that may influence this trend are also considered. Implications of these trends are described for the way substantive knowledge is accumulated and for the way social-personality psychologists regard their work
Publication Trends in JPSP: Stability and Change in Topics, Methods, and Theories Across Two Decades
Authors: West Stephen G. , Newsom Jason T. , Fenaughty Andrea M.
Published: March 2007

Content analyses of a sample consisting of approximately 30% of the articles published in the journal of Personality and Social Psychology in 1968 and in 1988 are reported. The proportion of articles classified in the section Attitudes and Social Cognition has shown little change, whereas the proportion classified in Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes has decreased and the proportion in Personality Process and Individual Differences has increased over the two-decade period. Examination of several characteristics of research methodology indicates that both gains and losses have occurred and that the judged difficulty of conducting single studies has not changed Gender representative ness of subjects, but not authors, has improved. More qualitative observations suggest that theory in social psychology may have become less integrative. Issues in statistical analysis in the field are addressed The authors' mixed picture of progress in personality and social psychology is contrasted with the more optimistic view presented by Reis and Stiller (1992 [this issue]).
Remembering Old Flames: How the Past Affects Assessments of the Present
Authors: Clark Leslie F. , Collins James E.
Published: March 2007

The impact of remembering a past love relationship on current well-being judgments was examined. The influence of recounting details was compared with that of drawing conclusions about these past interpersonal experiences. Participants wrote about falling in (positive event) or out of (negative event) love. Why were asked either to describe how the event occurred or to explain why the event occurred. In addition, prior understanding regarding the past relationship was examined. Experiment 1 showed why-focus contrast and how-focus assimilation effects for judgments of current relationship satisfaction and general life satisfaction. The effect for general life satisfaction held only for understood relationships. In Experiment 2, participants who initially described how they fell in love later listed more related relationship events and reported more positive mood than participants who described how they fell out of love. Prerequisites for contrast and assimilation effects are discussed.
When are You What You Did? Behavior Identification and Dispositional Inference in Person Memory, Attribution, and Social Judgment
Authors: Newman Leonard S. , Uleman James S.
Published: March 2007

Recent models of dispositional inference highlight the distinction between the role of traits as descriptions of or labels for behavior and their role as inferred attributes of the people emitting those behaviors. The distinction is an important one; studying the interpersonal consequences of trait inferences requires specifying what such inferences are and what they are not. How current models of person memory accommodate the distinction between behavior identifications and trait inferences is examined, and the possible consequences of identifying a person's behaviors (but not necessarily the person) in trait terms are considered. In addition, research is described suggesting that trait identifications of behavior are likely to occur spontaneously (without impression formation goals). Behavior identifications are essentially incomplete trait inferences, but they have subtle and important effects on subsequent social inference and behavior:
Causal Perceptions of Intertrait Relations: The Glue that Holds Person Types Together
Authors: Sedikides Constantine , Anderson Craig A.
Published: March 2007

Two experiments tested the hypothesis that implicit personality theory person types are composed of causally interconnected traits. Experiment 1 showed that the weakest trait member of a person type is perceived as more causally related to the core trait members of the type than are nonmember traits, even when those nonmember traits are both more highly correlated with and closer in multidimensional scaling (MDS) space to the core members than the weakest member. Experiment 2 demonstrated that within-person-type members are perceived as more causally related to each other than to members of other types even when all are located in the same MDS space. The hypothesis that person types consist of causally interrelated traits was strongly supported. Implications for categorization, impression formation, and stereotyping are considered.
How Stories Make Sense of Personal Experiences: Motives that Shape Autobiographical Narratives
Authors: Baumeister Roy F. , Newman Leonard S.
Published: March 2007

People's efforts to understand their experiences often take the form of constructing narratives (stories) out of them, and this article offers framework for the motivations that may guide the construction of stories. Evidence about the nature, importance, and pervasiveness of narrative thinking is reviewed. Next, motivations are considered that may guide narrative thought, both in terms of interpersonal manipulation and in terms of wanting to make sense of experiences. Regarding the latter, four needs for meaning are proposed as guiding narrative thought. First, people interpret experiences relative to purposes, which may be either objective goals or subjective fulfillment states. Second, people seek value and justification by constructing stories that depict their actions and intentions as right and good. Third, people seek a sense of efficacy by making stories that contain information about how to exert control. Fourth, people seek a sense of self-worth by making stories that portray themselves as attractive and competent. Within this framework, narratives are effective means of making sense of experiences.
Constraints on Excuse Making: The Deterring Effects of Shyness and Anticipated Retest
Authors: Shepperd James A. , Arkin Robert M. , Slaughter Jean
Published: March 2007

Although prior research has documented a pervasive egocentric bias in the self-perceptions, self-ascriptions, and behaviors of most people, shy individuals seem not to share this bias. This study examined whether the apparent absence of an egocentric bias among shy individuals is reflected in their excuse making following poor performance. It also examined whether anticipating a challenge to one's excuses would dissuade even nonshy individuals from making excuses. Shy and nonshy subjects received either success or failure feedback on an intelligence test and then were or were not told that they would be retested. Consistent with predictions, shy individuals refrained from making consistency-lowering excuses regardless of performance feedback and retest instructions. By contrast, nonshy subjects made consistency-lowering excuses after failure feedback, but only when they expected that their excuses would go unchallenged by a retest.
Has Social Psychology Always Been Cognitive? What is "Cognitive" Anyhow?
Authors: Berkowitz Leonard , Devine Patricia G.
Published: March 2007

Contrary to the claim that social psychology has always been cognitive, important early researchers actually had an associationistic perspective. Today's cognitivism is more similar to contemporary associationism than is often supposed because it no longer maintains the necessity of an active mental transformation of sensory input and recognizes automatic, passive processing. However, many social cognitivists still prefer analyses assuming mental activity, and the authors note how this preference influences current social psychological research. Social psychology can benefit from the recognition of the commonalities between social cognition and the theoretical perspective held ty earlier investigators.
Religion as Quest: The Self-Directed Pursuit of Meaning
Authors: Burns Christopher T. , Jackson Lynne M. , Tarpley W. Ryan , Smith Galadriel J.
Published: March 2007

Four studies were conducted to test two assumptions regarding Batson's quest religious orientation that have received little empirical attention: (a) Quest is born out of existential struggle with tragedy and conflict; (b) quest reflects an autonomous, self-directing approach to religion that may be inimical to established religious traditions. Studies I and 2 found increases in quest to be associated both with experimentally induced confrontation with tragedy and with self-reported family conflict. Studies 3 and 4 found quest to be linked to personal (nonaffiliated) religion and to variables suggestive of decreased social identification in general. Models of development of quest are subsequently considered.
Subjective Experience Versus Content of Information in the Construction of Attitude Judgments
Authors: Winke Michaela , Bless Herbert , Biller Barbara
Published: March 2007

Experienced ease of thought generation was found to affect the impact of thought valence on attitude judgments. Participants generated either three or seven arguments that were either in favor or opposed to a specific issue. After generating three arguments, which was experienced as easy, participants' reported attitudes reflected the implications of their arguments, but this was not the case after generating seven arguments, which was experienced as difficult. In contrast, yoked participants who had read the arguments generated by the first group and consequently had lacked the subjective experience in thought generation were influenced more strongly by having been exposed to seven arguments rather than three. The results suggest that individuals use their subjective experience that accompany thought generation for the construction of their attitudes.
Culture, Ideology, and Antifat Attitudes
Authors: Crandall Christian S. , Martinez Rebecca
Published: March 2007

Research on antifat attitudes in the United States has shown the position of antifat attitudes in an ideological network and the importance of attributions of control to prejudice against fat people. To test the role of blame and ideology in antifat prejudice, the authors compared attitudes among students in the United States and Mexico. Mexican students were significantly less concerned about their own weight and more accepting of fat people than were U.S. students. Antifat attitudes in the United States were part of a social ideology that holds individuals responsible for their life outcomes and may derive from attributions of controllability over life events. Attributions of controllability were significantly less important in Mexico for predicting antifat attitudes, and antipathy toward fat people showed no evidence of being part of an ideological network. Prejudice toward fat people in the United States appears to have a significant ideological component.
Controlling Self and Others: A Theory of Anxiety, Mental Control, and Social Control
Authors: Fiske Susan T. , Morling Beth , Stevens Laura E.
Published: March 2007

This address integrates social and personality variables by studying the impact of social structure on basic human motivations and anxiety. When situations threaten the ability to meet basic human needs, people become anxious and attempt to restore control Social structures of power threaten people's sole control over meeting basic needs for competence, self-esteem, and a benevolent world. Depending on the need under threat, people may cope with their anxiety in different ways. For example, anxiety over different threatened needs may cause powerless people either to be hyper vigilant toward those in power or to discount negative information about them and align with them. Just as people who are anxious because of social powerlessness may attempt to restore control by social cognitive processes, trait-anxious people may attempt to restore control by their impression formation strategies.
The Direct Effect of Personal Relevance on Attitudes
Authors: Liberman Akiva , Chaiken Shelly
Published: March 2007

The personal relevance of several academic and public policy proposals was manipulated, in the absence of any persuasive message, in two studies using a survey methodology and in two laboratory studies. Results generally showed that high personal relevance attitudes differed from low personal relevance attitudes. These results seem to indicate that a high-relevance version of a policy proposal is not the same attitude object as the low-relevance version of the same proposal. In expectancy-value terms, relevance manipulations may affect the valued consequences of a policy that come to mind. Framing a question in high-versus low-relevance terms can increase the accessibility of different object attributes. Implications for interpreting personal relevance findings in persuasion research are also discussed.
Self-Differentiation and Well-Being in a Life Transition
Authors: Showers Carolin J. , Ryff Carol D.
Published: March 2007

Previous research has shown that evaluative organization of self-knowledge explains variance in self-esteem and mood beyond that accounted for by positive or negative content. Here, that model is applied to the changing self perceptions of women in a life transition. In a sample of 120 older women who had relocated within the past year, evaluative differentiation of self-change—the tendency to perceive self-change very positively in some domains and very negatively in others—was associated with greater well-being among women whose positive domains were perceived to be important. People who perceive great improvement in at least one important domain of the self (despite sacrifice in others) may be more resilient during a life transition than those who experience the same average improvement spread evenly across domains. Having a few very important positive aspects of the self to fall back on may help to buffer the stress of a life transition.
The Importance of Subjective Norms for a Minority of People: between Subjects and within-Subjects Analyses
Authors: Trafimow David , Finlay Krystina A.
Published: March 2007

Intentions to perform most behaviors are more controlled by attitudes than by subjective norms. Yet subjective norms typically account for a significant, albeit small, proportion of unique variance in intentions. To explore the hypothesis that this effect can be explained largely by individual differences in the degree to which some people are apt to be more under normative control, subjects were asked to indicate their intentions, attitudes, and subjective norms toward performing 30 behaviors. Between-subjects and within-subjects analyses were performed. The within-subjects analyses revealed important differences in whether subjects are under attitudinal or normative control across the behaviors. Further, when "normatively controlled" subjects were excluded from the sample, the significant effects of subjective norms on intentions that were obtained in previous between-subjects analyses were eliminated, and the attitudinal effects were augmented. Finally, this individual difference was associated with the strength of the collective self;
Antecedents to Spontaneous Counterfactual Thinking: Effects of Expectancy Violation and Outcome Valence
Authors: Sanna Lawrence J. , Turley Kandi Jo
Published: March 2007

Three studies examined the effects of expectancy violation and outcome valence on spontaneous counterfactual thinking. In Study 1, prior expectations and outcome valence were varied orthogonally in a vignette. More counterfactuals were generated after failures and unexpected outcomes. Also, more additive than subtractive counterfatuals were found after failure, particularly unexpected failure, and more subtractive than additive counterfactuals were found after unexpected success. Evidence for the generality of these results was obtained in Study 2, in which counterfactuals were assessed after students' real-life exam performances. In Study 3, the authors further assessed nonspontaneous counterfactuals, which were shown to differ in number and structure from spontaneous counterfactuals. Discussion centers around antecedents to spontaneous counterfactual thinking and comparisons to research on spontaneous causal attributions.
Ambiguity, Social Influence, and Collective Action: Generating Collective Protest in Response to Tokenism
Authors: Wright Stephen C.
Published: March 2007

Social identity theory (SIT) proposes that disadvantaged group members take collective action only when intergroup boundaries are believed to be impermeable and in-group status is perceived as illegitimate and unstable. In North America, the actual permeability of intergroup boundaries is often ambiguous, and decisions to take collective action are made against a dominant ideology of individual mobility. This research used the context of tokenism-highly restricted boundary permeability-to reflect this social reality and to test the impact of referent informational influence and information from a salient out-group on endorsement of collective action. In Experiment 1, information from an in-group member describing tokenism as illegitimate and demonstrating a norm of anger increased interest in collective action. In Experiment 2, messages from the advantaged out-group focusing attention on collective injustice also increased interest in collective behavior. Findings support SIT; while highlighting the impact of socially relevant influences on interest in collective action.
Constructing Perceptions of Vulnerability: Personal Relevance and the Use of Experiential Information in Health Judgments
Authors: Rotliman Alexander J. , Schwarz Norbert
Published: March 2007

The perceived self-relevance of a health issue determined whether participants relied on recalled content or experienced ease of recall in assessing risk. Participants recalled either three or eight behaviors that increase or decrease risk of heart disease. Although recalling three risk factors was relatively easy, people had difficulty recalling eight risk factors. When heart disease was not considered self-relevant, participants used a heuristic judgment strategy and relied on their ease of recall. They reported greater vulnerability after having recalled three rather than eight risk-increasing behaviors and lower vulnerability after having recalled three rather than eight risk-decreasing behaviors. When heart disease was considered self-relevant, people used a systematic processing strategy and relied on the content of the information recalled. They reported greater (lower) vulnerability after having recalled eight rather than three risk-increasing (decreasing) behaviors. Theoretical implications concerning the interplay of recalled content and ease of recall in judgment and applied implications for risk perception are discussed.
Automatic Activation of Stereotypes: The Role of Self-Image Threat
Authors: Spencer Steven J. , Fein Steven , Wolfe Connie T. , Fong Christina , Duinn Meghan A.
Published: March 2007

Does self-image threatening feedback make perceivers more likely to activate stereotypes when confronted by members of a minority group? Participants in Study 1 saw an Asian American or European American woman for several minutes, and participants in Studies 2 and 3 were exposed to drawings of an African American or European American male face for fractions of a second. These experiments found no evidence of automatic stereotype activation when perceivers were cognitively busy and when they had not received negative feedback. When perceivers had received negative feedback, however, evidence of stereotype activation emerged even when perceivers were cognitively busy. The theoretical implications of these results for stereotype activation and the relationship of motivation, affect, and cognition are discussed.
On the Dominance of Moral Categories in Impression Formation
Authors: Wojciszke Bogdan , Bazinska Roza , Jaworski Marcin
Published: March 2007

Based on the notion that approach-avoidance underlies impression formation processes and that approach-avoidance is more directly based on appraisals of others' morality (M) than competence (C), we hypothesized that M-related information played a more important role at various phases of global impression formation than C-related information on target persons. In four studies (N = 342 university students), we predicted and found that (a) M traits showed a higher chronic accessibility than C traits; (b) when gathering information to formulate a global impression, perceivers were more interested in M traits than C traits; (c) global impressions of real persons were better predicted from M trait ascriptions than C trait ascriptions, and (d) positivity-negativity of impressions of fictitious persons was decided mainly by the M content of their behavior, whereas C information served as a weak modifier of impression intensity. The dominance of M traits over C traits was more pronounced for female perceivers than for male perceivers.
Cross-Dimension Ambivalence toward Social Groups: Can Ambivalence Affect Intentions to Hire Feminists?
Authors: MacDonald Tara K. , Zanna Mark P.
Published: March 2007

Cross-dimension ambivalence refers to the experience of evaluating an attitude object positively on one dimension (e.g., admiration) but negatively on another (e.g., affection). In two studies, the authors examined cross-dimension ambivalence toward feminists. In Study 1, they found that, as expected, males exhibiting ambivalence toward feminists tended to rate them positively on the dimension of admiration but negatively on the dimension of affection. In Study 2, the authors primed participants by having them attend to positive agentic qualities or negative interpersonal qualities in an audio recording of a job interview. They were then asked to rate three resume's, one of which described a feminist. Participants exhibiting cross-dimension ambivalence toward feminists who received the positive prime reported more liking for, and great intentions to hire, the feminist than did ambivalent people receiving the negative prime. Nonambivalent participants, however, were unaffected by the priming manipulation. Implications of this research are discussed.
The Republican Who Did Not Want to Become President: Colin Powell's Impact on Evaluations of the Republican Party and Bob Dole
Authors: Stapel Diederik A. , Schwarz Norbert
Published: March 2007

In this study, respondents' attention was either drawn to Colin Powell's decision to join the Republican Party or to his decision not to run as a presidential candidate of this party before they began to evaluate the Republican Party or Bob Dole. When the Republican Party was first evaluated, thinking about Powell's party membership resulted in more favorable evaluations and thinking about his refusal to run as its candidate resulted in less favorable evaluations relative to a control condition. When Bob Dole was first evaluated, thinking of Powell always resulted in more negative evaluations. Moreover, carryover effects between both judgments were observed (i.e., initial judgments of the party affected subsequent judgments about Dole, and vice versa, in an additive manner). The results are consistent with predictions derived from Schwarz and Bless's inclusion/exclusion model of social judgment.
Computer Programs for Performing Iterative Partitioning Cluster Analysis
Authors: Blashfield Roger K. , Aldenderfer Mark S.
Published: March 2007

Eight programs which perform iterative partition ing cluster analysis are analyzed; they are discussed in terms of versatility of options, accuracy, and cost. These eight programs contain very different heuristic approaches to finding the optimal partition of a data set; the different heuristic approaches are shown to affect both accuracy and cost of clustering solutions. It was not possible to recommend any one program as generally being preferable, however, because of the striking variability in these programs and the lack of knowledge about iterative partitioning methods.
Internal Invalidity in Pretest-Posttest Self-Report Evaluations and a Re-evaluation of Retrospective Pretests
Authors: Howard George S. , Ralph Kenneth M. , Gulanick Nancy A. , Maxwell Scott E. , Nance Don W. , Gerber Sterling K.
Published: March 2007

True experimental designs (Designs 4, 5, and 6 of Campbell & Stanley, 1963) are thought to provide internally valid results. This paper describes five studies involving the evaluation of various treat ment interventions and identifies a source of inter nal invalidity when self-report measures are used in a Pretest-Posttest manner. An alternative approach (Retrospective Pretest-Posttest design) to measuring change is suggested, and data comparing its ac curacy with the traditional Pretest-Posttest design in measuring treatment effects is presented. Finally, the implications of these findings for evaluation re search using self-report instruments and the strengths and limitations of retrospective measures are discussed.
Dependent Variable Reliability and Determination of Sample Size
Authors: Maxwell Scott E.
Published: March 2007

Arguments have recently been put forth that stan dard textbook procedures for determining the sam ple size necessary to achieve a certain level of power in a completely randomized design are incorrect when the dependent variable is fallible. In fact, however, there are several correct procedures—one of which is the standard textbook approach—be cause there are several ways of defining the magni tude of group differences. The standard formula is appropriate when group differences are defined rel ative to the within-group standard deviation of ob served scores. Advantages and disadvantages of the various approaches are discussed.
A Contribution to the Construct Validity of the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Authors: McGuire Beth , Tinsley Howard E. A.
Published: March 2007

Non-statistical confirmatory factor analyses of the items on the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS) were performed on samples of 678 university stu dents and 341 male juvenile offenders to test hy potheses regarding the internal structure of the in strument. For the college sample, good confirma tion of the external and internal frames of reference postulated by Fitts (1965) were obtained, but sup port for the internal x external cross-classification was not obtained. No support for any of the hy potheses was found for the juvenile sample; rather, one major factor emerged. These findings are re lated to Super's theory of self-concept development, and implications of these findings regarding the psychometric properties of the TSCS and its use are discussed.
Two Simple Models for Rater Effects
Authors: de Gruijter Dato N. M.
Published: March 2007

In many examinations, essays of different exami nees are rated by different rater pairs. This paper dis cusses the estimation of rater effects for rating designs in which rater pairs overlap in a special way. Two models for rater effects are considered: the additive model and a nonlinear model. An illustration with em pirical data is provided.
Equating Tests Under the Graded Response Model
Authors: Baker Frank B.
Published: March 2007

The Stocking and Lord (1983) procedure for computing equating coefficients for tests having dichotomously scored items is extended to the case of graded response items. A system of equations for obtaining the equating coefficients under Samejima's (1969, 1972) graded response model is derived. These equations are used to compute equating coefficients in two related situations. Under the first, the equating coefficients are obtained by matching, on an examinee by examinee basis, the true scores on two tests. In the second case, the equating coefficients are obtained by matching the test characteristic curves (TCCS) of the two tests. Several examples of computing equating coefficients in these two situations are provided. The TCC matching ap proach was much less demanding computationally and yielded equating coefficients that differed little from those obtained through the true score distribution matching approach.
Distinctive and Incompatible Properties of Two Common Classes of IRT Models for Graded Responses
Authors: Andrich David
Published: March 2007

Two classes of models for graded responses, the first based on the work of Thurstone and the second based on the work of Rasch, are juxtaposed and shown to satisfy important, but mutually incompatible, criteria and to reflect different response processes. Specifically, in the Thurstone models if adjacent categories are joined to form a new category, either before or after the data are collected, then the probability of a response in the new category is the sum of the probabilities of the responses in the original categories. However, the model does not have the explicit property that if the categories are so joined, then the estimate of the location of the entity or object being measured is invariant before and after the joining. For the Rasch models, if a pair of adjacent categories are joined and then the data are collected, the es-timate of the location of the entity is the same before and after the joining, but the probability of a response in the new category is not the sum of the probabilities of the responses in the original categories. Furthermore, if data satisfy the model and the categories are joined after the data are collected, then they no longer satisfy the same Rasch model with the smaller number of categories. These differences imply that the choice between these two classes of models for graded responses is not simply a matter of preference; they also permit a better understanding of the choice of models for graded response data as a function of the underlying processes they are intended to represent. Index terms: graded responses, joining assumption, polytomous IRT models, Rasch model, Thurstone model.
Conditional Covariance-Based Nonparametric Multidimensionality Assessment
Authors: Stout William , Habing Brian , Douglas Jeff , Hae Rim Kim  , Roussos Louis , Jinming Zhang
Published: March 2007

According to the weak local independence approach to defining dimensionality, the fundamental quantities for determining a test's dimensional structure are the co variances of item-pair responses conditioned on exam inee trait level. This paper describes three dimensionality assessment procedures-HCA/CCPROX, DIMTEST, and DETECT—that use estimates of these con ditional covariances. All three procedures are nonpara metric ; that is, they do not depend on the functional form of the item response functions. These procedures are applied to a dimensionality study of the LSAT, which illustrates the capacity of the approaches to assess the lack of unidimensionality, identify groups of items manifesting approximate simple structure, determine the number of dominant dimensions, and measure the amount of multidimensionality.
Multidimensional DIF Analyses: The Effects of Matching on Unidimensional Subtest Scores
Authors: Mazor Kathleen M. , Hambleton Ronald K. , Clauser Brian E.
Published: March 2007

Popular techniques for assessing differential item functioning (DIF) assume that the test under study is unidimensional. When this assumption is tenable, number-correct score is a reasonable matching criterion. When a test is intentionally multidimensional, matching on a single test score does not ensure comparability and may result in inflated error rates. An alternate approach is to match on all relevant traits simultaneously, using a procedure such as logistic regression. In this study, data were generated to simulate two-dimensional tests. The dimensional structure of the tests, the discrimination levels of the items, and the correlation between the traits measured by the test were varied. Standard DIF analyses were conducted using total test score as the matching variable. High false-positive error rates were found. Items were divided into subtests using nonlinear factor analysis and DIF analyses were repeated with subtest scores as the matching criteria. False-positive error rates were reduced for most datasets. The dimensional structure of the test and the discrimination level of the items influenced false-positive rates for both sets of DIEF analyses. The findings suggest that assessing the dimensional structure of a test can be an important first step in DIF analysis. If a dataset is intentionally multidimensional, conditioning on scores reflecting each dimension can enhance the validity of the analyses.
The Effects of Intra-individual Goal Conflict on Performance
Authors: Locke Edwin A. , Smith Ken G. , Erez Miriam , Chah Dong-Ok , Schaffer Adam
Published: March 2007

Two studies are reported on an aspect of goal setting that has not been explicitly researched to date, namely, intra-individual goal conflict. The first study utilized an experimental, laboratory design using student teams in which conflicting goals ( quantity vs. quality) were assigned. The second study was a correlational, field study of college professors which measured conflict between teaching and research. In both studies conflict was negatively related to at least one performance outcome. This negative association was not mediated by goal commitment, goal priority, goal level or task strategies in either study. In both cases, the main source of the conflict was pressure.
Type II Error Problems in the Use of Moderated Multiple Regression for the Detection of Moderating Effects of Dichotomous Variables
Authors: Stone-Romero Eugene F. , Alliger George M. , Aguinis Herman
Published: March 2007

Monte Carlo simulation procedures were used to assess the power of moderated multiple regression ( MMR) to detect the effects of a dichotomous moderator variable under conditions of: ( 1) between- group differences in within-group relationships between two variables ( i.e., |ρ XY(1) -ρ XY(2) |= .20, .40, .60) ; ( 2) different combined sample sizes for the two groups ( N1 + N2 = NT = 30, 60, 90, 180, 300); and ( 3) differing proportions of cases ( P-i) in the two groups ( i.e., P 1 = .10, .30, .50). Results showed that, consistent with our a priori predictions, the power of MMR increased as: ( 1) total sample size ( NT) increased; ( 2) the difference between within-group correlation coefficients increased; and ( 3) the difference between the proportion of cases in each group decreased. Moreover, the simulation showed that these three variables had interactive effects on power. The major implication of our findings is that in cases where tests of moderating effects are conducted with MMR and the proportion of cases in each group differs greatly, inferences of no moderating effect may be erroneous: Such inferences may be the result of low statistical power rather than the absence of a moderating effect.
Nonlinearity, Multicollinearity and the Probability of Type II Error in Detecting Interaction
Authors: Ganzach Yoav
Published: March 2007

The paper analyzes the impact of the inclusion of quadratic terms on the probability of type II error in testing for interaction in the pres ence of multicollinearity. The analysis focuses on two situations: (a) when the true model includes only linear and interaction terms; and (b) when the true model includes linear, interaction and quadratic terms. The implications of this analysis on the estimation of interaction in multiple regression are discussed.
Planning for Mental Health Care: A Reconsideration of Public Facility Location Theory
Authors: Dear Michael
Published: March 2007

This paper suggests that a critical reassessment of the theory of public facility location is long overdue. A comprehensive theory should contain three standard analytical components: location as access; location as externality; and definition of the policy context for public facility planning. Recent empirical research on mental health facility location is used to illustrate the significance of these analytical themes.
A Critical Review of the Development of the Gravity Model
Authors: Hua Chang-i , Porell Frank
Published: March 2007

This paper analyzes and criticizes recent work on gravity models with respect to form, structure, derivation, and theoretical and methodological grounds. The evolution of the model is summarized and a general form is defined. The models are compared as regards certain structural properties — biproportionality, scale, endogeny, consistency, and spatial interaction. The various macro and micro approaches to deriving or interpreting gravity models are reviewed. Problems and limitations of each approach are noted, and their basic theoretical foundations are criticized. Finally, the general trend of gravity model development is discussed.
Regional Fertility Patterns in the United States: Convergence or Divergence?
Authors: O'Connell Martin
Published: March 2007

Birth expectations data frequently are used in population projections. A common assumption in preparing sub-national population projections is that the completed cohort fertility rates of the areas in question will converge over time to a level equivalent to the prevailing average number of lifetime births expected nationally by women in the principal reproductive ages. This paper examines whether such an assumption is justified for the United States. Although there is little supporting evidence for any convergence in state fertility rates for the period 1940 to 1977, birth expectations data for women 18 to 29 years old for 1977 and 1978 indicate a fairly uniform expected family size of two children per woman. The reliability of these expectations data are examined in light of the currently low period fertility rates.
A VAR Forecasting Model of a Regional Economy: Its Construction and Comparative Accuracy
Authors: Kinal Terrence , Ratner Jonathan
Published: March 2007

The usefulness of the vector autoregression (VAR) approach to forecasting regional economies is explored. A VAR model and a Bayesian VAR (BVAR) model of selected New York State economic variables are constructed using monthly data. Their predictions about these variables are compared with ARIMA and transfer function model forecasts. Overall, the accuracy of BVAR matches or exceeds that of the other techniques. Thus, a previous suggestion that BVAR is promising, as a forecasting tool and as a benchmark for regional forecasts, is supported.
Land and Landlessness among Rural-to-Rural Migrants in Nepal's Terai Region
Authors: Dignan Tony , Haynes Kingsley E. , Conway Dennis , Shrestha Nanda R.
Published: March 2007

Nepal has been experiencing a permanent rural-to-rural migration of households from the central hill zone to the Terai region. Migrant households, due to the structure of the Terai economy, are impelled to acquire control of land for subsistence agriculture by squatting, purchasing, or receiving a grant. A household's ability to maximize subsistence opportunities is partly a function of the means by which land is acquired and whether land is acquired at all. Factors which determine the chances of acquiring land reflect the role of institutional rigidities such as the distribution of wealth and the caste structure, state-imposed land reform policies, and such household characteristics as family size and risk aversion. A multinomial logit model is used to empirically assess the importance of these elements in the outcomes of migrant households' resource acquisition decisions.
Supply and Demand Interaction in Integrated Econometric and Input-Output Models
Authors: Beaumont Paul M.
Published: March 2007

Integrated input-output and econometric models are often claimed to be superior to either input-output or econometric models alone by virtue of capturing supply and demand interactions. This claim is examined by considering the structure of existing integrated models. It was found that existing integrated models do not offer supply and demand interaction. This is because neither of the major components of the integrated models offer an adequately specified supply side. Integrating two demand-driven models does not produce a model with supply and demand interaction. The prospects that integrated models will improve on this score, particularly at the subnational level, are not high. Rather, it is suggested that the integrated modeling strategies be skipped over and a computable general equilibrium modeling strategy be adopted.
Measuring Productivity Growth in U.S. Regions: A Survey
Authors: Gerking Shelby
Published: March 2007

This article surveys empirical evidence from U.S. regions concerning measurement of productivity levels and patterns of change in those levels over time. Literature reviewed includes both econometric studies and more recent work that has heavily emphasized sources-of-growth accounting. Key articles are discussed and evaluated in detail, particularly from a methodological perspective. Further research topics are suggested. They focus on the changing role over time in the relation between agglomeration economies and urban productivity, on whether regional productivity levels are converging over time, and on the reconciliation of divergent regional estimates of total factor productivity to account, for example, for industry mix effects.
Foreign Investment in the Nonmetropolitan U.S. South and Midwest: A Case of Mimetic Location Behavior?
Authors: Luker Bill
Published: March 2007

This study asks a basic question about foreign direct manufacturing investment (FDI) in the United States: are its location patterns really "foreign"? This question is motivated by the observation that rather than changing the geography of U.S. manufacturing, foreign manufacturers appear to be mimicking the location patterns of their domestically owned counterparts. A conditional logit procedure is used to analyze the reasons why foreign manufacturers have been attracted to nonmetropolitan counties of the South and Midwest. This analysis supports the case for a mimetic explanation of their location decisions.