bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A COMPARISON OF TWO APPROACHES FOR IDENTIFYING REINFORCERS FOR PERSONS WITH SEVERE AND PROFOUND DISABILITIES
Authors: Fisher Wayne , Piazza Cathleen C. , Bowman Lynn G. , Hagopian Louis P. , Owens James C. , Slevin Irene
Published: March 2006

The development of effective training programs for persons with profound mental retardation remains one of the greatest challenges for behavior analysts working in the field of developmental disabilities. One significant advancement for this population has been the reinforcer assessment procedure developed by Pace, Ivancic, Edwards, Iwata, and Page (1985), which involves repeatedly presenting a variety of stimuli to the client and then measuring approach behaviors to differentiate preferred from nonpreferred stimuli. One potential limitation of this procedure is that some clients consistently approach most or all of the stimuli on each presentation, making it difficult to differentiate among these stimuli. In this study, we used a concurrent operants paradigm to compare the Pace et al. (1985) procedure with a modified procedure wherein clients were presented with two stimuli simultaneously and were given access only to the first stimulus approached. The results revealed that this forced‐choice stimulus preference assessment resulted in greater differentiation among stimuli and better predicted which stimuli would result in higher levels of responding when presented contingently in a concurrent operants paradigm.
A SEQUENTIAL LEARNING ANALYSIS OF DECISIONS IN ORGANIZATIONS TO ESCALATE INVESTMENTS DESPITE CONTINUING COSTS OR LOSSES
Authors: Goltz Sonia M.
Published: March 2006

Reinforcement processes may underlie decisions frequently found in organizations to escalate investments of time, money, and other resources in strategies (e.g., product development, capital investment, plant expansion) that do not result in immediate reinforcers. Whereas cognitive biases have been proffered in previous explanations, the present analysis suggested that this persistence is a form of resistance to extinction arising from experiences with past investments that were variably reinforced. This explanation was examined in two experiments by varying the pattern of returns and losses subjects experienced for investment decisions prior to experiencing a series of losses. Consistent with the proposed explanation, two conditions resulted in higher levels of recommitment during continuous losses: (a) training using a variable schedule of partial reinforcement, and (b) no training on the task. Results indicate that behavior analysis can be used to understand and control situations in organizations that are prone to escalation, such as investments in the research and development of new product lines and extensions of further loans to customers.
GOING BEYOND WITH BAYESIAN UPDATING
Authors: O'Flaherty Brendan , Komaki Judith L.
Published: March 2006

It all started innocently enough. One spring‐like winter day, I happened to ask Brendan whether economists ever dealt with escalation.

“With what?” he replied.

“A phenomenon where people keep investing in the face of continuing losses,” I answered.

Then I described how industrial/organizational psychologists had become intrigued with situations in which investors seemed to throw good money after bad, how their explanations for the phenomenon centered on individual characteristics such as commitment, how Sonia Goltz (1992) used a standard bread‐and‐butter operant procedure—fixed and variable schedules of reinforcement—to explain their persistence, and how Goltz's experiments had shown that during the extinction phase investors even increased their investments for a while when the news was all bad.

Without a moment's hesitation, he exclaimed, “I bet I can predict the turning point.”

Another arrogant‐economist remark, I thought to myself. “How?”

“Bayesian updating.”

Then we talked at length about Bayesian analysis techniques and how they could be used to predict the shape of extinction curves. I realized that these techniques might be just what psychologists needed as an enticement to study sequences of behavior over time.

And that's how this commentary got started.
INCREASING NURSES' USE OF FEEDBACK TO PROMOTE INFECTION‐CONTROL PRACTICES IN A HEAD‐INJURY TREATMENT CENTER
Authors: Babcock Robert A. , Sulzer‐Azaroff Beth , Sanderson Mary , Scibak John
Published: March 2006

This study established regular implementation of a simple feedback procedure by supervisory nurses with their assistants at a head‐injury treatment center. Five nurses were trained to distribute brief written comments to their assistants about infection‐control practices, including using gloves to avoid contact with body fluids. Following low rates of written feedback, nurses met with the trainer weekly to set goals for using the system, to review feedback rates, and to examine contingent letters of appreciation. Written feedback increased from 0.09 to 0.58 per day. When outcome data on glove use were subsequently added to the feedback provided to nurses, nurses' feedback on glove use increased and overall glove use by assistants increased by 36.7% for 66.7% of assistants who responded to feedback. Assistants rated feedback as highly accurate and indicated some interest in receiving future feedback. However, nurses and assistants expressed a preference for oral over written feedback.
DENTIST‐IMPLEMENTED CONTINGENT ESCAPE FOR MANAGEMENT OF DISRUPTIVE CHILD BEHAVIOR
Authors: Allen Keith D. , Loiben Ted , Allen Sarah J. , Stanley Robert T.
Published: March 2006

We evaluated the effectiveness of a dentist‐implemented intervention in which brief escape from dental treatment was provided to manage disruptive child behavior during restorative dental treatment. Within a multiple baseline design across subjects, 4 children, aged 3 to 7 years, were provided temporary escape from dental treatment contingent upon brief periods of cooperative behavior. Disruptive behavior decreased when the appropriate escape contingency was used at least 80% of the time. The escape contingency required no more time than traditional management procedures (e.g., tell‐show‐do, reprimands and loud commands, restraint) to bring disruptive behavior under control. Independent ratings by two dentists provided social validation of the efficacy of the escape contingency.
EFFECTS OF A MULTIFACETED TRAINING PROCEDURE ON THE ACQUISITION AND GENERALIZATION OF SOCIAL BEHAVIORS IN LANGUAGE‐DISABLED DEAF CHILDREN
Authors: Rasing Eef J. , Duker Pieter C.
Published: March 2006

Effects of a multifaceted training procedure were assessed on the acquisition and generalization of social behaviors with 9 language‐disabled deaf children. The training procedure consisted of (a) child training and (b) supervision, feedback, and goal setting directed by teachers and residential staff. Target behaviors were turn waiting, initiating interaction, and interacting with others. Procedures to promote generality of effects and to determine the social validity of the procedures were used. Data were collected within a multiple baseline design across behaviors. Results showed a functional relationship between introduction of the training procedure and increases in percentage of appropriate target behaviors for all 9 children. The effects were maintained throughout a 5‐ to 10‐week follow‐up period.
USE OF DESCRIPTIVE AND EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSES TO IDENTIFY THE FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF ABERRANT BEHAVIOR IN SCHOOL SETTINGS
Authors: Sasso Gary M. , Reimers Thomas M. , Cooper Linda J. , Wacker David , Berg Wendy , Steege Mark , Kelly Laura , Allaire Ann
Published: March 2006

We conducted descriptive and experimental analyses of aberrant behavior in school settings with 2 children with autism, using teachers as assessors. Experimental functional analyses carried out by the investigators were followed by training teachers to conduct a descriptive analysis and a classroom experimental analysis. A comparison of the assessment procedures showed that each procedure identified negative reinforcement as a maintaining variable for aberrant behavior. The teacher implemented an intervention based on the assessment with mixed results. We then replicated the initial results by having the first teacher train a second teacher to carry out the two assessment procedures. The results of these analyses were also in agreement, again identifying negative reinforcement as a variable maintaining aberrant behavior. An intervention based on negative reinforcement was then successfully implemented. These results suggest the applicability and utility of functional analyses carried out in school settings.
ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTS OF TASK PREFERENCES, TASK DEMANDS, AND ADULT ATTENTION ON CHILD BEHAVIOR IN OUTPATIENT AND CLASSROOM SETTINGS
Authors: Cooper Linda J. , Wacker David P. , Thursby Deanna , Plagmann Lee Ann , Harding Jay , Millard Thomas , Derby Mark
Published: March 2006

Two studies were conducted with children who displayed behavior problems to evaluate the effects of task preference, task demands, and adult attention on child behavior. In Study 1, we conducted brief functional analyses in an outpatient clinic to identify variables that facilitated appropriate behavior. For 8 of 10 children, distinct patterns of performance occurred; 3 children displayed improved behavior with changes in task demands, 1 child displayed improved behavior with a preferred task, and 4 children displayed improved behavior with changes in adult attention. In most cases, the children's parents carried out the assessments with adequate procedural integrity. In Study 2, we applied similar assessment methods to a classroom setting over an extended period of time. We identified independent variables controlling appropriate, on‐task, and academic behavior for 2 children on two tasks, with slightly different treatment procedures across tasks for both children. In addition, the results of brief functional analyses for both children corresponded to the extended classroom assessments.
GENERALIZED EFFECTS OF A PEER‐DELIVERED FIRST AID PROGRAM FOR STUDENTS WITH MODERATE INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES
Authors: Marchand‐Martella Nancy E. , Martella Ronald C. , Agran Martin , Salzberg Charles L. , Young K. Richard , Morgan Daniel
Published: March 2006

Peers with mild intellectual disabilities taught first aid skills to 4 students with moderate intellectual disabilities. A multiple probe design across participants was used to examine the effects of the peer teaching program during an acquisition and a partial sequential withdrawal phase. Generalization assessments were conducted in the participants' homes using novel, randomized simulated injuries. Results suggested that the peer teaching program resulted in acquisition of first aid skills, and the participants' skills generalized to the home, to novel simulated‐injury locations, and to new trainers. Additionally, a more detailed analysis of the generalized responding suggested that when given a choice among first aid materials, participants treated burns using large adhesive bandages rather than the materials used in training. Participants also successfully treated injuries when novel instructional cues were used. The findings are discussed with respect to training issues, generalization and maintenance of the acquired skills, and the use of peer tutors with disabilities.
NONCONTINGENT ESCAPE AS TREATMENT FOR SELF‐INJURIOUS BEHAVIOR MAINTAINED BY NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
Authors: Vollmer Timothy R. , Marcus Bethany A. , Ringdahl Joel E.
Published: March 2006

We extended research on the role of noncontingent positive reinforcement following a functional analysis of attention‐maintained self‐injurious behavior to self‐injury maintained by negative reinforcement in 2 young males with developmental disabilities. During a pretreatment functional analysis, each participant's self‐injury was shown to be differentially sensitive to escape from instructional activities as negative reinforcement. During noncontingent escape, escape from learning activities was provided on a fixed‐time schedule that was not influenced by the participant's behavior. One participant was also exposed to differential negative reinforcement of other behavior. During this condition, escape from instructional activities was provided contingent on the omission of self‐injury for prespecified intervals. Results showed that the provision of escape, even when noncontingent, resulted in significant reductions in self‐injury. These results are particularly interesting in light of the experimental history of noncontingent reinforcement as a control rather than as a therapeutic procedure. Noncontingent escape is discussed as a form of extinction that may be less likely than other forms of extinction to produce severe side effects.
EFFECTS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUPS DURING SOCIAL STUDIES FOR STUDENTS WITH AUTISM AND FOURTH‐GRADE PEERS
Authors: Dugan Erin , Kamps Debra , Leonard Betsy , Watkins Nancy , Rheinberger Ann , Stackhaus Jan
Published: March 2006

We investigated the use of cooperative learning groups as an instructional strategy for integrating 2 students with autism into a fourth‐grade social studies class. Baseline consisted of 40 min of teacher‐led sessions including lecture, questions and discussion with students, and the use of maps. The intervention condition consisted of 10 min of teacher introduction of new material, followed by cooperative learning groups that included tutoring on key words and facts, a team activity, and a whole class wrap‐up and review. An ABAB design showed increases for target students and peers for the number of items gained on weekly pretests and posttests, the percentage of academic engagement during sessions, and durations of student interaction during the intervention.
AN EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF FACILITATED COMMUNICATION
Authors: Montee Barbara B. , Miltenberger Raymond G. , Wittrock David
Published: March 2006

We evaluated the authorship of messages produced through facilitated communication by 7 adults with moderate or severe mental retardation and their facilitators. The clients had been reported to be communicating fluently through facilitated communication. We controlled the facilitators' access to information to be communicated in two evaluation formats, naming pictures and describing activities. In both formats we conducted three conditions: (a) the facilitator and client had access to the same information, (b) the facilitator did not have access to the picture or activity, and (c) the facilitator was given false information about the picture or activity. The results showed that the clients typed the correct answer only when the facilitator had access to the same information, never typed the correct answer when the facilitator had no information or false information, and typed the picture or activity presented to the facilitator when it was different from the one experienced by the client. These results provide unequivocal evidence for facilitator control of typing during facilitated communication.
THE EFFECTS OF MULTIPLE‐EXEMPLAR SELF‐INSTRUCTIONAL TRAINING ON HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS' GENERALIZED CONVERSATIONAL INTERACTIONS
Authors: Hughes Carolyn , Harmer Melinda L. , Killian Daniel J. , Niarhos Frances
Published: March 2006

A multiple‐baseline‐across‐students design was used to investigate the effects of multiple‐exemplar self‐instructional training on the acquisition and generalization of conversational interaction of 4 high school students with mental retardation. The multiple‐exemplar component of the model consisted of (a) several peers without disabilities teaching the use of a self‐instructional social skills strategy across diverse examples of conversational interactions and across two settings and (b) assessing the generalized effects of training across additional peers and one setting. Findings indicated that peers were effective in teaching the multiple‐exemplar strategy and that peer training was associated with systematic increases in generalized conversational interactions with familiar and unfamiliar peers with and without disabilities in an additional setting. Social validation data indicated that following multiple‐exemplar training, all participants' performances approximated those of general education students and was judged by others to have improved.
EFFECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT ON DISRUPTION AND COMPLIANCE
Authors: Marcus Bethany A. , Vollmer Timothy R.
Published: March 2006

We examined the effects on compliance of two types of differential negative reinforcement (DNR) with a 5‐year‐old girl with a history of severe disruption. During DNR (communication), escape from instructional trials was provided contingent on a communicative behavior. During DNR (compliance), escape was provided contingent on compliance. Both interventions decreased inappropriate behavior and increased appropriate behavior. However, during DNR (communication), compliance rarely occurred.
LONG‐TERM FOLLOW‐UP OF A BEHAVIORAL TREATMENT FOR STUTTERING IN CHILDREN
Authors: Wagaman Joel R. , Miltenberger Raymond G. , Woods Douglas
Published: March 2006

We report 3.5‐year follow‐up data from children who participated in a study that evaluated a behavioral treatment for stuttering. Six of 7 subjects continued to be at or below the criterion of 3% stuttered words. Stuttering increased for 1 subject, but remained far below his baseline level. Social validity data are also reported.
THE APPLIED IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH ON THE MATCHING LAW
Authors: Pierce W. David , Epling W. Frank
Published: March 2006

In this essay, we evaluate the applied implications of two articles related to the matching law and published in the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, May 1994. Building on Mace's (1994) criteria for increasing the applied relevance of basic research, we evaluate the applied implications of basic research studies. Research by Elsmore and McBride (1994) and Savastano and Fantino (1994) involve an extension of the behavioral model of choice. Elsmore and McBride used rats as subjects, but arranged a multioperant environment that resembles some of the complex contingencies of human behavior. Savastino and Fantino used human subjects and extended the matching law to ratio and interval contingencies. These experiments contribute to a growing body of knowledge on the matching law and its relevance for human behavior.
THE COSTS OF EATING: A BEHAVIORAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF FOOD REFUSAL
Authors: Kerwin MaryLouise E. , Ahearn William H. , Eicher Peggy S. , Burd Deana M.
Published: March 2006

Behavioral economic concepts were applied to the analysis and treatment of pediatric feeding disorders in a clinical setting. In Experiment 1, children who chronically refused food were presented with varying amounts of food on a spoon (empty, dipped, quarter, half, and level). Each child exhibited a different but orderly demand function of response (acceptance, expulsion, and mouth clean) by cost (increasing spoon volume) for a constant pay‐off of toys and social interaction. In Experiment 2, physical guidance or nonremoval of the spoon for food refusal was initiated at the smallest spoon volume with low levels of acceptance, and was subsequently introduced at the largest spoon volume with moderate levels of acceptance. Treatment was effective in increasing acceptance, and these effects generalized hierarchically across untargeted spoon volumes. The results of both studies provide preliminary support that increasing spoon volume can be equated conceptually with increasing response effort, and that the change from differential reinforcement to physical guidance or nonremoval of the spoon appears to have altered the elasticity of each child's demand function.
REDUCING ESCAPE BEHAVIOR AND INCREASING TASK COMPLETION WITH FUNCTIONAL COMMUNICATION TRAINING, EXTINCTION AND RESPONSE CHAINING
Authors: Lalli Joseph S. , Casey Sean , Kates Kelly
Published: March 2006

The effects of functional communication training, extinction, and response chaining on 3 subjects' escape‐maintained aberrant behavior were evaluated using a multielement design. Functional communication training consisted of teaching subjects a verbal response that was functionally equivalent to their aberrant behavior. Subjects initially were allowed to escape from a task contingent on the trained verbal response. In subsequent treatment phases, escape was contingent on the trained verbal response plus the completion of the specified number of steps in the task (response chaining). The number of steps was increased until a subject completed the task to obtain a break. Results showed that the treatment reduced rates of aberrant behavior and that the chaining procedure was effective in decreasing the availability of escape.
AN ANALYSIS OF THE REINFORCING PROPERTIES OF HAND MOUTHING
Authors: Goh Han‐Leong , Iwata Brian A. , Shore Bridget A. , DeLeon Iser G. , Lerman Dorothea C. , Ulrich Sonya M. , Smith Richard G.
Published: March 2006

Hand mouthing often has been described as a stereotypic response that is maintained by non‐social (automatic) reinforcement; however, data supporting this conclusion can be found in relatively few studies. This series of studies presents an experimental analysis of conditions associated with the maintenance of hand mouthing. In Experiment 1, a functional analysis was conducted for 12 individuals who engaged in chronic hand mouthing to determine whether the behavior is usually maintained independent of social contingencies. Results obtained for 10 subjects were consistent with an automatic reinforcement hypothesis; the remaining 2 subjects' hand mouthing was maintained by social‐positive reinforcement. Based on these results, Experiment 2 was designed to identify the specific reinforcing properties of hand mouthing. Each of 4 subjects was provided with a toy that substituted for hand mouthing, and preference for a specific topography of toy manipulation (hand‐toy contact or mouth‐toy contact) was measured. Results indicated that hand stimulation was the predominant reinforcer for all subjects. Experiment 3 provided an extension of Experiment 2 in that the same responses were measured across a variety of toys presented to each of 5 subjects. Results again indicated that hand stimulation was the predominant reinforcer for all subjects. Implications of these results are discussed with relevance to treatment.
TRAINING RESIDENTIAL SUPERVISORS TO PROVIDE FEEDBACK FOR MAINTAINING STAFF TEACHING SKILLS WITH PEOPLE WHO HAVE SEVERE DISABILITIES
Authors: Parsons Marsha B. , Reid Dennis H.
Published: March 2006

We evaluated procedures for training supervisors in a residential setting to provide feedback for maintaining direct‐service staff members' teaching skills with people who have severe disabilities. Using classroom‐based instruction and on‐the‐job observation and feedback, 10 supervisors were initially trained to implement teaching programs themselves. The training improved supervisors' teaching skills but was insufficient to improve the quality of feedback they provided to direct‐service staff regarding the staff members' teaching skills. Subsequently, classroom‐based instruction and on‐the‐job observation and feedback that targeted supervisors' feedback skills were provided. Following training in provision of feedback, all supervisors met criterion for providing feedback to their staff. Results also indicated that maintenance of teaching skills was greater for direct‐service staff whose supervisors had received training in providing feedback relative to staff whose supervisors had not received such training. The need for analysis of other variables that affect maintenance of staff performance, as well as variables that affect other important areas of supervisor performance, is discussed.
PYRAMIDAL STAFF TRAINING IN THE EXTENSION OF TREATMENT FOR SEVERE BEHAVIOR DISORDERS
Authors: Shore Bridget A. , Iwata Brian A. , Vollmer Timothy R. , Lerman Dorothea C. , Zarcone Jennifer R.
Published: March 2006

We implemented a pyramidal training procedure for staff working with individuals who exhibited self‐injurious behavior (SIB), aggression, and disruption. Two adults with developmental disabilities and their direct‐care staff and supervisors participated. Following successful treatment by the experimenters, two types of baselines were conducted with the clients and their direct‐care staff. During an initial baseline, the staff implemented preexisting procedures. Staff members then received instruction on the new treatment procedures using training methods common throughout the institution, and data were collected during this “post‐in‐service” baseline. Experimenters then taught unit supervisors to implement treatment, collect and interpret data, and provide similar instructions and feedback to the staff members. The supervisor training was implemented in a multiple baseline design across subjects (clients and direct‐care staff). Results showed little change following in‐service training but noticeable improvements in direct‐care staff behaviors and corresponding decreases in the clients' inappropriate behavior following the pyramidal training intervention with supervisors. Six additional clients (along with their direct‐care staff and supervisors) participated in pre‐ and posttreatment replication designs, and their results provided additional support for the efficacy of the supervisor training procedures.
FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS AND INTERVENTION FOR BREATH HOLDING
Authors: Kern Lee , Mauk Joyce E. , Marder Tamara J. , Mace F. Charles
Published: March 2006

We conducted a functional analysis of breath‐holding episodes in a 7‐year‐old girl with severe mental retardation and Cornelia‐de‐Lange syndrome. The results showed that breath holding served an operant function, primarily to gain access to attention. The intervention, consisting of extinction, scheduled attention, and use of a picture card communication system, resulted in decreased breath holding.
ACHIEVING AND MAINTAINING COMPLIANCE WITH THE KETOGENIC DIET
Authors: Amari Adrianna , Grace Nancy C. , Fisher Wayne W.
Published: March 2006

The ketogenic diet, a treatment for intractable epilepsy, is rarely initiated because it requires strict compliance with a diet that is perceived to be unpalatable. In a case study of a 15‐year‐old girl with uncontrolled epilepsy, we used a stimulus‐choice procedure to assess relative preferences of 33 foods from the diet and to develop two treatments based on Premack's principle. The results of a multielement analysis showed that both treatments increased dietary compliance. Compliance was maintained with generalization of treatment across settings, and was associated with a 40% reduction in seizures.
TWO MEASURES OF PREFERENCE DURING FORCED‐CHOICE ASSESSMENTS
Authors: Derby K. Mark , Wacker David P. , Andelman Marc , Berg Wendy , Drew Janet , Asmus Jennifer , Prouty Anne‐Marie , Laffey Peggy
Published: March 2006

A forced‐choice preference assessment was conducted in which two dependent measures were used to select preferred stimuli: (a) approach responding and (b) latency to the first aberrant response. Stimuli identified as preferred based on both dependent measures were then evaluated during treatment. The results suggested that latency may be a useful measure in the selection of preferred stimuli during forced‐choice assessments.
USING STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL TO MAKE DATA‐BASED CLINICAL DECISIONS
Authors: Pfadt Al , Wheeler Donald J.
Published: March 2006

Applied behavior analysis is based on an investigation of variability due to interrelationships among antecedents, behavior, and consequences. This permits testable hypotheses about the causes of behavior as well as for the course of treatment to be evaluated empirically. Such information provides corrective feedback for making data‐based clinical decisions. This paper considers how a different approach to the analysis of variability based on the writings of Walter Shewart and W. Edwards Deming in the area of industrial quality control helps to achieve similar objectives. Statistical process control (SPC) was developed to implement a process of continual product improvement while achieving compliance with production standards and other requirements for promoting customer satisfaction. SPC involves the use of simple statistical tools, such as histograms and control charts, as well as problem‐solving techniques, such as flow charts, cause‐and‐effect diagrams, and Pareto charts, to implement Demings management philosophy. These data‐analytic procedures can be incorporated into a human service organization to help to achieve its stated objectives in a manner that leads to continuous improvement in the functioning of the clients who are its customers. Examples are provided to illustrate how SPC procedures can be used to analyze behavioral data. Issues related to the application of these tools for making data‐based clinical decisions and for creating an organizational climate that promotes their routine use in applied settings are also considered.
APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS AND STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL?
Authors: Hopkins B. L.
Published: March 2006

This paper examines Pfadt and Wheeler's (1995) suggestions that the methods of statistical process control (SPC) be incorporated into applied behavior analysis. The research strategies of SPC are examined and compared to those of applied behavior analysis. I argue that the statistical methods that are a part of SPC would likely reduce applied behavior analysts' intimate contacts with the problems with which they deal and would, therefore, likely yield poor treatment and research decisions. Examples of these kinds of results and decisions are drawn from the cases and data Pfadt and Wheeler present. This paper also describes and clarifies many common misconceptions about SPC, including W. Edwards Deming's involvement in its development, its relationship to total quality management, and its confusion with various other methods designed to detect sources of unwanted variability.
HOME ACCESS MODIFICATIONS: EFFECTS ON COMMUNITY VISITS BY PEOPLE WITH PHYSICAL DISABILITIES
Authors: White Glen W. , Paine‐Andrews Adrienne , Mathews R. Mark , Fawcett Stephen B.
Published: March 2006

We examined the effects of access modifications to home entrances of people with physical disabilities on their reported community outings. An interrupted time‐series design was used, in which the introduction of ramps was staggered across the homes of 6 people with moderate to severe mobility impairments. Four participants reported increases in weekly outings following installation of ramps at their entrances, and 2 reported a small decrease. These findings suggest that reducing the response requirements of access to and from the residence of people with mobility impairments may increase community visits, but may be insufficient given other environmental barriers in the community.
IMPROVING THE PEER INTERACTIONS OF STUDENTS WITH EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS THROUGH SELF‐EVALUATION PROCEDURES: A COMPONENT ANALYSIS AND GROUP APPLICATION
Authors: Kern Lee , Wacker David P. , Mace F. Charles , Falk George D. , Dunlap Glen , Kromrey Jeffrey D.
Published: March 2006

We conducted two experiments examining the effects of a self‐evaluation package on the peer interactions of students described as emotionally or behaviorally disordered. Experiment 1 assessed the additive effects of various components of a self‐evaluation package on the frequency of inappropriate and appropriate peer interactions. The components assessed were rewards alone, rewards plus discussion, and self‐evaluation plus rewards. Results showed limited effectiveness when rewards alone and rewards plus discussion were implemented. However, substantial improvements in peer interactions were observed when the self‐evaluation component was added. Experiment 2 examined the efficacy and feasibility of the procedures when implemented in a group setting. Students in three classrooms served as participants. Direct observation data collected for 8 of the participants showed the procedures to be effective in improving peer interactions when implemented in a group context.
ELIMINATING THE BATTERING OF WOMEN BY MEN: SOME CONSIDERATIONS FOR BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
Authors: Myers David L.
Published: March 2006

Based on review of representative literature, history and current research indicate that battering by male partners is a major health problem for women. Use of physical aggression and verbal coercion can be described by three‐term contingencies involving escape, avoidance, punishment, and positive reinforcement. These contingencies occur within societal practices, rules, and models that involve oppression of women and insubstantial consequences for men who batter. The difficulties in directly observing a couples interactions and their aggression have been a methodological barrier to the involvement of behavior analysts in treatment of and research on domestic violence. Recommendations are made for behavior analysts to contribute to reducing battering through development and analysis of program components and application of contingency management and behavioral training technology.
ANALYSIS OF ESTABLISHING OPERATIONS FOR SELF‐INJURY MAINTAINED BY ESCAPE
Authors: Smith Richard G. , Iwata Brian A. , Goh Han‐Leong , Shore Bridget A.
Published: March 2006

Self‐injurious behavior (SIB) can be maintained through negative reinforcement when, in the context of training or task requirements, it produces escape as a consequence. Several studies have demonstrated methods for identifying and treating SIB maintained by negative reinforcement; however, few analyses of the establishing operations associated with demand situations have been conducted. The current series of studies illustrates a method for identifying some establishing operations for escape by systematically altering certain dimensions of the demand context while maintaining an escape contingency for SIB. Dimensions assessed in these studies included task novelty, duration of instructional sessions, and rate of task presentation. Data indicate that these variables can have establishing properties for behavior maintained by escape. Implications of the results are discussed, as are potential refinements and extensions of the assessment procedures.
PROGRESSING FROM BRIEF ASSESSMENTS TO EXTENDED EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSES IN THE EVALUATION OF ABERRANT BEHAVIOR
Authors: Vollmer Timothy R. , Marcus Bethany A. , Ringdahl Joel E. , Roane Henry S.
Published: March 2006

The role of experimental analyses in guiding treatment is well established. However, not all experimental analyses yield conclusive results. Outcomes may be inconclusive due to time limitations that preclude extended observation and detailed experimental manipulations, or may result from interactions across experimental conditions, multiple control, or other unknown factors. In this study, we describe an assessment sequence that moves through four phases beginning with relatively brief (1 to 2 hr) analyses and culminating in extended analyses that may control for experimental confounding effects (e.g., interaction effects). Data illustrating the model are presented for 20 individuals referred for severe behavior problems including self‐injury, aggression, stereotypy, and tantrums. Analyses were considered to be complete only when clear and replicable response patterns emerged. Results showed that clear and replicable response patterns emerged for 85% of the participants.
PRELIMINARY COMPARISON OF TWO NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES TO REDUCE SELF‐INJURY
Authors: Roberts Maura L. , Mace F. Charles , Daggett Julie A.
Published: March 2006

This study compared the effectiveness of differential negative reinforcement of other behavior (DNRO) and alternative behavior (DNRA) for reducing self‐injurious tantrums maintained by escape from demands in a 4‐year‐old girl with severe retardation. Both DNRA and DNRO reduced self‐injury and increased independent performance of two tasks (tooth brushing and bathing); however, improvement on both measures was greater with the DNRA intervention.
INCREASING DESIGNATED DRIVING WITH A PROGRAM OF PROMPTS AND INCENTIVES
Authors: Brigham Thomas A. , Meier Steven M. , Goodner Viki
Published: March 2006

Designated driving (DD) is a potentially viable but underutilized component of efforts to reduce driving while intoxicated. A reversal design was used to evaluate the effects of prompts and incentives in a bar on the frequency of DD. The results showed an approximate doubling of the number of designated drivers during the two intervention periods.
LEVEL OF INTERACTIVITY OF VIDEODISC INSTRUCTION ON COLLEGE STUDENTS' RECALL OF AIDS INFORMATION
Authors: Kritch Kale M. , Bostow Darrel E. , Dedrick Robert F.
Published: March 2006

Experiment 1 confirmed the greater effectiveness of constructed‐response interactive videodisc instruction when compared to a click‐to‐continue or passive viewing formats on posttest recall of AIDS information by 101 college students. Experiment 2 extended the analysis using a counterbalanced (ABAB‐BABA) intrasubject design with 4 students in each of three ability groups. The necessity of constructing answers appears to be an important factor in the effectiveness of instructional programs.
SUCCESSFUL USE OF THE NOCTURNAL URINE ALARM FOR DIURNAL ENURESIS
Authors: Friman Patrick C. , Vollmer Dennis
Published: March 2006

We report the effects of using a urine alarm, typically employed for nocturnal enuresis, to treat chronic diurnal enuresis in a 15‐year‐old female resident at Boys' Town. The results of an ABAB reversal design indicate that the alarm eliminated wetting in both treatment phases and that continence was maintained at 3‐ and 6‐month follow‐up.
USING A CHOICE ASSESSMENT TO PREDICT REINFORCER EFFECTIVENESS
Authors: Piazza Cathleen C. , Fisher Wayne W. , Hagopian Louis P. , Bowman Lynn G. , Toole Lisa
Published: March 2006

A choice assessment has been found to be a more accurate method of identifying preferences than is single‐item presentation. However, it is not clear whether the effectiveness of reinforcement varies positively with the degree of preference (i.e., whether the relative preference based on the results of a choice assessment predicts relative reinforcer effectiveness). In the current study, we attempted to address this question by categorizing stimuli as high, middle, and low preference based on the results of a choice assessment, and then comparing the reinforcing effectiveness of these stimuli using a concurrent operants paradigm. High‐preference stimuli consistently functioned as reinforcers for all 4 clients. Middle‐preference stimuli functioned as reinforcers for 2 clients, but only when compared with low‐preference stimuli. Low‐preference stimuli did not function as reinforcers when compared to high‐ and middle‐preference stimuli. These results suggest that a choice assessment can be used to predict the relative reinforcing value of various stimuli, which, in turn, may help to improve programs for clients with severe to profound disabilities.
RESPONDING MAINTAINED BY INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE USE OF EXTINCTION WITH PROBLEM BEHAVIOR IN CLINICAL SETTINGS
Authors: Lerman Dorothea C. , Iwata Brian A. , Shore Bridget A. , Kahng SungWoo
Published: March 2006

Results of basic research have demonstrated that behavior maintained on an intermittent schedule of reinforcement (INT) will be extinguished more slowly than behavior maintained on a continuous schedule (CRF). Although these findings suggest that problem behaviors may be difficult to treat with extinction if they have been maintained on INT rather than on CRF schedules, few applied studies have examined this phenomenon with human behavior in clinical settings. The purpose of this study was to determine whether problem behavior maintained on CRF schedules would be extinguished more rapidly than behavior maintained on INT schedules. Three individuals diagnosed with profound mental retardation participated after results of pretreatment functional analyses had identified the sources of reinforcement that were maintaining their self‐injury, aggression, or disruption. Subjects were exposed to extinction following baseline conditions with CRF or INT schedules alternated within reversal or multielement designs. Results suggested that problem behaviors may not be more difficult to treat with extinction if they have been maintained on INT rather than CRF schedules. However, switching from an INT to a CRF schedule prior to extinction may lower the baseline response rate as well as the total number of responses exhibited during extinction.
GROUP VERSUS INDIVIDUAL REINFORCEMENT CONTINGENCIES WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF GROUP STUDY CONDITIONS
Authors: Lloyd John Wills , Eberhardt Matthew J. , Drake George P.
Published: March 2006

We investigated the effects of two teaching variables on students' Spanish vocabulary quiz performance: (a) group study and (b) individual versus group contingencies. In Experiment 1, we compared students' quiz scores under conditions in which students either studied independently and received no programmed reinforcement or studied in groups and received individual rewards for high scores. The results showed that, on average, the group‐study individual‐reward condition produced superior quiz scores. In Experiment 2, we compared individual (i.e., the superior condition in Experiment 1) and group contingencies within the context of the group study condition. On average across the class, group contingencies produced performance superior to individual contingencies. In both studies, however, benefits for the classes as a whole were mitigated by effects on individual students. These results extend the literature on the effects of group‐based instructional activities and reinforcement contingencies. Educators who choose such procedures may encounter conflicting findings depending on whether they examine results at the group or individual level.
A COMPARISON OF REINFORCER ASSESSMENT METHODS: THE UTILITY OF VERBAL AND PICTORIAL CHOICE PROCEDURES
Authors: Northup John , George Teresa , Jones Kevin , Broussard Carmen , Vollmer Timothy R.
Published: March 2006

We compared three methods of stimulus preference assessment for verbal children and specifically evaluated the utility of a verbal choice procedure for assessing relative reinforcer value. Using a token system, relative preference for five categories of reinforcers, representing 15 different stimuli, was assessed by three methods: a reinforcer survey, a verbal stimulus‐choice questionnaire, and a pictorial stimulus‐choice procedure. Results showed that the verbal and pictorial stimulus‐choice assessments accurately identified high‐ and low‐preference categories for 3 of 4 participants. Survey results alone often rated multiple categories as high preference, were less likely to identify low‐preference categories, and were less likely to correspond with the results of a reinforcer assessment.
RECENT REINFORCEMENT‐SCHEDULE RESEARCH AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
Authors: Lattal Kennon A. , Neef Nancy A.
Published: March 2006

Reinforcement schedules are considered in relation to applied behavior analysis by examining several recent laboratory experiments with humans and other animals. The experiments are drawn from three areas of contemporary schedule research: behavioral history effects on schedule performance, the role of instructions in schedule performance of humans, and dynamic schedules of reinforcement. All of the experiments are discussed in relation to the role of behavioral history in current schedule performance. The paper concludes by extracting from the experiments some more general issues concerning reinforcement schedules in applied research and practice.
ON THE REINFORCING EFFECTS OF THE CONTENT OF VERBAL ATTENTION
Authors: Fisher Wayne W. , Ninness H. A. Chris , Piazza Cathleen C. , Owen‐DeSchryver Jamie S.
Published: March 2006

During a functional analysis, a boy with autism and oppositional defiant disorder displayed destructive behavior that was maintained by attention in the form of verbal reprimands (e.g., “Don't hit me”). In a second analysis, contingent verbal reprimands produced higher rates of the behavior than contingent statements that were unrelated to the target response (e.g., “It is sunny today”), suggesting that some forms of attention were more reinforcing than others. A treatment based on these analyses reduced the behavior to near‐zero levels.
USE OF ASSISTED READING TO INCREASE CORRECT READING RATES AND DECREASE ERROR RATES OF STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
Authors: Gilbert Lorna M. , Williams Randy Lee , McLaughlin T. F.
Published: March 2006

The effects of assisted reading on 3 elementary students with learning disabilities were evaluated using a multiple baseline design. Data were collected from the students' oral reading from their basal texts. The results indicated an increase in number of words read correctly as well as a decrease in the number of words read incorrectly when assisted reading was used in the classroom.
TRAINING AND GENERALIZATION OF AFFECTIVE BEHAVIOR DISPLAYED BY YOUTH WITH AUTISM
Authors: Gena Angeliki , Krantz Patricia J. , McClannahan Lynn E. , Poulson Claire L.
Published: March 2006

The purpose of this study was to teach contextually appropriate affective behavior to 4 youths with autism. Treatment consisted of modeling, prompting, and reinforcement introduced in a multiple baseline design across response categories of affective behavior. During treatment, verbal praise and tokens were delivered contingent on appropriate affective responding during training trials. Modeling and verbal prompting were used as correction procedures. Each youth received treatment in either three or four response categories. Treatment systematically increased responding within the response categories for all 4 participants, with effects being specific to the affective response categories under treatment. Treatment effects occurred across untrained scenarios, therapists, time, and settings, suggesting that generalization had occurred.
SEPARATE AND COMBINED EFFECTS OF METHYLPHENIDATE AND A BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION ON DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR IN CHILDREN WITH MENTAL RETARDATION
Authors: Blum Nathan J. , Mauk Joyce E. , McComas Jennifer J. , Mace F. Charles
Published: March 2006

We investigated the separate and combined effects of a behavioral intervention and methylphenidate (Ritalin®) on disruptive behavior and task engagement in 3 children with severe to profound mental retardation. The behavioral intervention involved differential reinforcement of appropriate behavior and guided compliance. All 3 children demonstrated decreased disruptive behavior and improved task engagement in response to the behavioral intervention. Two of the 3 children demonstrated similar improvement in response to methylphenidate. Although both interventions were highly effective for these 2 participants, the relative efficacy of the interventions varied between the 2 children. There was no evidence of an additive or synergistic effect of the two interventions, but the high efficacy of each intervention alone limited our ability to detect such effects.
TREATMENT OF MULTIPLY CONTROLLED PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
Authors: Lalli Joseph S. , Casey Sean D.
Published: March 2006

The aggressive behavior of a young boy with developmental delays occurred most frequently following a request to pick up his toys. The request ended a period of play and social interaction. This suggested the presence of multiple establishing operations. The initial treatment consisted of praise, a break, and access to the toys contingent on compliance. Results showed that aggression decreased only when we added social interaction to the break. Findings are discussed regarding treating multiply controlled problem behavior without extinction.