bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sport Psychology and Professional Hockey
Authors: Botterill Cal
Published: August 2016

This article describes the features and characteristics of a 3-year involvement of SportPsych consulting in professional hockey from 1987 to 1990. Primarily discussion revolves around a 2-year development program with the Chicago Blackhawks. The components of an educational interdisciplinary philosophy of mental skills development and application are outlined and some of the challenges involved in professional team sport are discussed. The range of services described includes involvement in training camp, game preparation, individual development, subgroup work, team meetings, staff development, family support, minor pro development, playoffs, off-season programming, and scouting. The importance of a primary responsibility to players is pointed out, along with some of the advantages and disadvantages of a part-time role. Discussion covers some of the challenges faced and the potential effectiveness of various interventions and services.
Providing Sport Psychology Consulting Services in Professional Hockey
Authors: Halliwell Wayne
Published: August 2016

This article relates experiences and knowledge gained in providing sport psychology consulting services to professional hockey teams over a 6-year period. The process of getting involved in professional hockey is described and the importance of obtaining ample consulting experience before working with professional athletes is discussed. Philosophical and organizational components of service delivery are presented along with the range and type of service provided. The development of trust and confidence in the player/consultant relationship is seen as the key to effective sport psychology consulting. Also, the importance of being able to read situations, fit into the professional sports environment, and adopt a low-key, behind-the-scenes approach is discussed.
On the Use of Paradoxical Interventions in Counseling and Coaching in Sport
Authors: Bar-Eli Michael
Published: August 2016

This article discusses the use of paradoxical interventions in counseling and coaching in sport. The concepts of first- and second-order change processes are clarified. The logic of the paradox is described in detail. Several examples of paradoxical intervention in sport are presented, together with guidelines for its use. Finally, the possibilities of integrating paradoxical thought processes into educational sport psychology are discussed.
Effects of a Rational–Emotive Education Program on Heightened Anxiety Levels of Female Collegiate Gymnasts
Authors: Elko P. Kevin , Ostrow Andrew C.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the effects of a Rational-Emotive education program on the competitive state anxiety levels and performance of female collegiate gymnasts who were identified as anxiety prone. The gymnasts (n=6) were participants on a Division I gymnastic team during the 1988–89 season. The high-anxious gymnasts were distinguished from their teammates via the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump, & Smith, 1983) and the Sport Competition Anxiety Test (Martens, 1977) and were interviewed by the investigator prior to competition. They ranged from 17 to 22 years of age (M=19.25 yrs). Additionally, this study analyzed the effects of the education program on performance and thought listening (positive vs. negative self-talk). The results revealed that the Rational–Emotive education program significantly decreased levels of cognitive anxiety in five of the six gymnasts. However, the influential effect of the program on somatic anxiety, performance, and thought listening was not significant.
Future Directions in Applied Sport Psychology Research
Authors: Strean William B. , Roberts Glyn C.
Published: August 2016

Many debates have raged about professional issues in sport psychology, but the research aspect of applied sport psychology has received relatively little attention. In an effort to stimulate thinking about research, this paper discusses the aims of science, the underlying philosophy of science issues that impinge on sport psychology research, and current methodological controversies. The paper concludes with suggestions for future directions for research in applied sport psychology, and implications for consulting are addressed.
Evaluation of a Psychological Skills Training Workshop for Male Intercollegiate Lacrosse Players
Authors: Brewer Britton W. , Shillinglaw Robert
Published: August 2016

This study evaluated the effects of a four-session psychological skills training (PST) workshop on self-reported knowledge, perceived importance, and use of goal setting, relaxation, imagery, and cognitive restructuring in a sample of male intercollegiate lacrosse players (n=49). In an interrupted time-series design with switching replications, subjects were randomly assigned to one of two groups. Self-report data were collected on three occasions at 2-week intervals. Group 1 received PST during the first 2-week interval and Group 2 received PST during the second 2-week interval. The overall effectiveness of the PST workshop was supported by both between-subjects and within-subjects analyses. This study illustrates that controlled research can viably and ethically be conducted in applied sport settings. Limitations of the current study and directions for future PST outcome research are discussed.
Developing Reflective Performers by Integrating Mental Management Skills with the Learning Process
Authors: Sinclair Gary D. , Sinclair Dana A.
Published: August 2016

A developmental approach to the acquisition of mental management skills for use by teachers and coaches who wish to meet the needs of beginning and elite performers is outlined. The natural linkage of psychological skills training with the learning and instructional process is discussed, and a case is presented for the teaching of mental skills by teachers and coaches in the practice setting. A learning and an action cycle model are used both to illustrate how mental skills are embedded in the learning process and to identify the appropriate learning phase where each of the fundamental mental skills would be most effectively introduced. A practice session oriented protocol that enables learners to develop the ability to mentally manage their own physical performance is presented. This “mental management” view recognizes that a response is more easily taught, learned, understood, and remembered if it is developed along with the other responses with which it naturally occurs.
A Survey of Counseling Psychology Programs and Exercise/Sport Science Departments: Sport Psychology Issues and Training
Authors: Petrie Trent A. , Watkins C. Edward
Published: August 2016

As the field of sport psychology has evolved and become more focused on applied/practitioner issues, the need for interdisciplinary training has been noted. Little information exists, however, concerning the acceptability of sport psychology training in applied psychology programs. Thus, 41 counseling psychology programs and 41 exercise/sport science departments (matched pairs) were surveyed to determine their relative attitudes toward sport psychology research, training, and current professional issues. The exercise/sport science departments were found to offer more courses in sport psychology and to have more faculty and students interested in sport research. Over 70% of the counseling psychology programs, however, had students with sport psychology interests. In addition, the two academic areas reported equally high levels of acceptance concerning their graduate students pursuing sport psychology research and training. Mechanisms for promoting interdisciplinary training in sport psychology are discussed.
Assessing the Skills of Sport Psychology Supervisors
Authors: Andersen Mark B. , Van Raalte Judy L. , Brewer Britton W.
Published: August 2016

To assess the supervisory skills of sport psychologists who are training future practitioners, the Sport Psychology Supervisory Skills Inventory (SPSSI) was mailed to 201 potential applied sport psychology supervisors. Supervisors were associated with graduate programs that offered applied sport psychology practica and/or internships, as identified in the Directory of Graduate Programs in Applied Sport Psychology (Sachs, Burke, & Salitsky, 1992). Supervisors rated themselves on 41 supervisory skills. The SPSSI was also mailed to 416 student members of AAASP, who were asked to rate their supervisors. There was a 35% return rate from supervisors and a 45% return rate from students. The findings suggest that supervised experience with athletes is limited for both supervisors and graduate students.
Toward the Combined Use of Nomothetic and Idiographic Methodologies in Sport Psychology: An Empirical Example
Authors: Dunn John G.H.
Published: August 2016

Traditionally, nomothetic and idiographic methodologies have been viewed as antithetical. This dichotomous perspective has caused many researchers to advocate the benefits associated with only one of the two approaches. Such a biased view hinders the acquisition of knowledge in the sport psychology field because the potential benefits that the nonfavored approach can offer are frequently overlooked. The present study demonstrates how research in sport psychology can be enhanced by combining nomothetic and idiographic procedures. This combined approach provides the researcher with the opportunity to validate nomothetic principles at the individual level, while simultaneously generating nomothetic hypotheses from idiographic analyses. To illustrate these points, a nomothetic profile of situational threat perceptions based upon the responses of 46 ice hockey players (reported by Dunn & Nielsen, 1993) is compared with the perceptual profiles of three individual ice hockey players. The comparisons show many unique perceptual differences between the group and individual solutions.
The Effect of Highlight Music Videotapes upon the Game Performance of Intercollegiate Basketball Players
Authors: Templin David P. , Vernacchia Ralph A.
Published: August 2016

Recent technological developments in applied sport psychology that utilize videotaping and playback techniques to enhance athletic performance have become increasingly attractive to coaches, athletes, and sport psychologists. This study of 5 male intercollegiate basketball players was designed to examine the effectiveness of highlight peak performance music videotapes on competitive offensive field goal percentage. Videotapes incorporating each player’s best and most effective plays were supplemented by inspirational music and were viewed by the athletes throughout the competitive season. Treatment effects were determined by a single-subject multiple-baseline-across-subjects design. Although a causal relationship between highlight videotapes and offensive field goal percentage was not established, the results did demonstrate a mean increase of 4.7% in overall field goal percentage for 3 of the 5 participants. Social validity was explored through the use of imagery evaluation sheets, individual player logs of introspective thought, and personal interviews.
Manipulated Outcome Expectations and Competitive Performance in Motor Tasks with Gradually Increasing Difficulty
Authors: Eyal Noam , Bar-Eli Michael , Tenenbaum Gershon , Pie Joan S.
Published: August 2016

The aim of this study was to examine whether outcome expectations can be generalized from one defined task to other tasks. A deception paradigm was employed in which outcome expectations were manipulated. High, low, or medium expectations toward performing five tasks, which gradually increased in complexity and shared a common skill, were manipulated. Ninety adult males were randomly assigned to manipulation groups. A within-subjects repeated measures ANOVA indicated that those manipulated by medium expectations showed elevated perceptions of outcome expectations. Their performance, however, was superior only in the two tasks most similar in complexity to the initial task. On the less similar tasks, the differences among the groups were insignificant. A generalization effect can therefore be demonstrated on outcome expectations and performance to a certain degree of task complexity. Implications of the superior performance of participants manipulated to produce medium outcome expectations are discussed.
A Conceptual Model for Integrating Athletes’ Needs and Sport Demands in the Development of Competitive Mental Preparation Strategies
Authors: Taylor Jim
Published: August 2016

This article provides a conceptual model that describes several critical aspects in the development of competitive mental preparation strategies: (a) a complete understanding of the specific needs of the athlete, (b) detailed knowledge of the particular demands of the sport, (c) integration of this information to identify the most critical psychological factors that will affect performance, and (d) a the development of the most effective competitive mental preparation strategies for the specific athlete. This discussion is presented in several stages. First, gaining an in-depth understanding of an athlete with the use of subjective and objective assessment is described. Second, the critical physical, technical, and logistical differences between sports are delineated. Third, the roles that key psychological factors play and what priority they should be given in each sport are discussed. Fourth, strategies that are most suitable to each mental factor within each sport are identified.
History of Sport Psychology in Cultural Magazines of the Victorian Era
Authors: King D. Brett , Raymond Brittany L. , Simon-Thomas Jennifer A.
Published: August 2016

The 19th century can be characterized as a time of avid public interest in team and spectator sports. As diverse and challenging new sports were developed and gained popularity, many articles on a rudimentary sport psychology began to appear in cultural magazines in the United States and Great Britain. Athletes, physicians, educators, journalists, and members of the public wrote on topics such as profiles and psychological studies of elite athletes, the importance of physical training, exercise and health, and the detrimental effects of professional sports to the role of age, gender, and culture in sports. Although a scientific foundation for such observations was largely absent, some of the ideas expressed in early cultural magazines anticipate contemporary interests in sport psychology.
The Interface between Social and Sport Psychology
Authors: Brawley Lawrence R. , Martin Kathleen A.
Published: August 2016

Over the past three decades, an interface has developed between sport and social psychology, characterized primarily by commonly utilized concepts and theories. The list of social psychological benefits to sport psychology is lengthy and includes theory, hypotheses, research paradigms, general independent and dependent variables, methods, and measures. In this paper, the following areas of sport research are used to illustrate the interface between sport and social psychology: (a) social facilitation and cohesion as two social influence phenomena, (b) anxiety and goal orientations as personality moderators of social behavior, and (c) self-efficacy beliefs and attitudes as social cognitions relevant to motivated behavior. Each of these areas are discussed in terms of social psychology’s impact on its development as a line of research in sport and in terms of the recent contributions each has made in return to social psychology. The general nature of the interface of social and sport psychology is also discussed.
Unsafe at Home Base: Women’s Experiences of Sexual Harassment in University Sport and Physical Education
Authors: Lenskyj Helen
Published: August 2016

This investigation of sexual harassment in university sport begins by developing a theoretical framework based on feminist analyses of male violence, and examining the links between violence and the ideology of male sport. The organization of sport and physical education in Canadian universities is then described, and university women’s experiences of male violence in sport-related contexts is investigated, with particular reference to the issues of power relations in coaching and control of women’s bodies. Relevant findings from a preliminary survey of women’s experiences of sexual harassment in sport contexts are presented throughout the discussion, and recommendations are developed.
Morphological, Functional, and Fitness-Related Characteristics of Young Female Field Hockey Players
Authors: Fedotova Elena
Published: August 2016

Morphological parameters (stature, weight, segment lengths, diameters, circumferences, body composition), functional characteristics (work capacity, respiratory performance, static strength of hand) and aspects of health- and skill-related fitness (explosive strength, speed, anaerobic and aerobic endurance, agility) of 141 well-trained young female field hockey players (10 to 18 y) were examined and analyzed. The main purpose of the investigation was to study growth trends of these parameters of female field hockey players and to analyze the character and feature of their development.

Standard anthropometric measurements were used for evaluation of morphological characteristics. Matiegka’s equations were used for computation of body composition’s parameters. Modification of the Harvard step test was used for estimation of physical capacity. Respiratory performance was evaluated using vitalograph. Static strength of the hands was obtained using a handgrip. Characteristics of health- and skill-related fitness were evaluated using the following test battery: standing broad jump, 30 m dash run, flying 30 m test, 210 yards shuttle run, 2000 m run, push-ups and 20 m zig-zag run.

Results of the study were as follows: the functional characteristics have the greatest total increase (about 108-144 %) during the age span considered (from 10 to 18 years). Stature and other length parameters increased about 18-20 %. The periods of the acceleration of increases in morphological parameters precede the periods of the sizable increases in functional parameters. Based upon the analysis of aspects of health- and skill-related fitness of players training and practicing in hockey has a beneficial effect on this group of characteristics. Based on the results of the study, the optimum periods for speed, strength and endurance training of female hockey players are exposed.
Frequency of Training on Strength Development in Women 40 - 65 Years of Age
Authors: Di Brezzo Ro , Fort Inza L. , Hoyt George L.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of training two times per week versus three times per week on strength development in older women. Subjects were 59 women between the ages of 40 and 65 years. Variables measured were body weight, percent fat, girth, flexibility, and strength one-repetition maximums (1RM). Subjects were randomly assigned to one of two training groups: twice a week (2x) or three times a week (3x). Total training volume for the two groups was approximately equal and the training period lasted eight weeks. Pre-to-post results were analyzed within and between groups. Both training protocols were effective for reducing body fat and increasing strength as measured by the 1RM. The 3x group showed greater gains in increasing 1RMs in the Standing Lat Pull, Triceps Extension, and Leg Press. Most girth measurements in both groups did not significantly change, but both groups increased flexibility. In an age when time demands on women are increasing, resistive training two times a week is effective for producing strength gains.
Selling Girls Short: Advertising and Gender Images in Sports Illustrated for Kids
Authors: Lynn Susan , Walsdorf Kristie , Hardin Marie , Hardin Brent
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study is to ascertain how, if at all, advertising images in Sports Illustrated for Kids (SIK) changed following the 1996 Olympic Games, from late 1996 through 1999. Advertising photographs in 36 issues of SIK, from July 1996 to June 1999 were examined using content analysis methodology. A recording instrument was generated to analyze SIK advertising photographs. SPSS Statistical Package 9.0 was used to analyze the nominal data. Simple descriptive statistics, crosstabs, and frequency distributions were used for determining the presence of an association between gender and the remaining variables. Findings from this content analysis of SIK advertising were comparable with those of Cuneen and Sidwell’s (1998) analysis of SIK advertisement photographs. A clear pattern of differential photographic treatment of gender was noted throughout the analysis. Although there have been some improvements, a majority of the stereotypical relationships between gender and sport that the previous researchers found have continued in SIK photographs, even when cultural acceptance and expectations of women in sport have evolved toward equity.
Attentional Focus in Motor Skill Learning: Do Females Benefit from an External Focus?
Authors: Wulf Gabriele , Wächter Sebastian , Wortmann Stefan
Published: August 2016

Recently, researchers in the motor learning area have shown that instructions to direct the learner’s attention to their body movements (i.e., induce an internal focus) – such as those typically used in applied settings – are less effective than instructions directing attention to the movement effects (i.e., inducing an external focus). Under the assumption that females tend to be more concerned about performing a movement correctly than males, who might be more inclined to focus on the outcome of their actions, the purpose of the present study was to examine whether females would benefit more from external-focus instructions than males. Female and male high-school students practiced a soccer instep kick with instructions that either induced an internal or external focus of attention. Subsequent retention (stationary ball) and transfer (moving ball) tests without instructions were performed to assess learning. The female group that was given internal-focus instructions during practice showed a greater performance decrement from retention to transfer than all other groups. This provides support for the view that the type of attentional focus induced by instructions might be particularly relevant for females, and that females might show greater learning advantages when provided with external-focus instructions.
Gender Bias in the 1996 Olympic Games: Audience Perception and Effects
Authors: Weiller Karen H. , Higgs Catriona T. , Martin Scott B.
Published: August 2016

Sports are omnipresent in American society; available for viewing 24 hours a day and can constitute much of everyday life and conversation. Researchers have indicated that men and women relate to sport differently (Gantz & Wenner, 1991). Evidence shows males outnumber females in sport viewership, and in the past much of the sport programming to which we are exposed caters specifically to men. The purpose of the present study was to explore issues related to audience perception of the 1996 Olympic Games. Participants (125 males and 92 females) ranging from 18 to 40 years of age were administered a gender specific version of the Audience Perception Questionnaires (APQ) following viewing video segments of men’s and women’s competitions (i.e., basketball, gymnastics, swimming and diving, and volleyball). The two versions of the APQ were developed from current literature, and by employing a delphi technique to validate the APQ. Factor analyses resulted in four underlying media perception dimensions: Commentary Coverage, Gender Marking and Stereotyping, Hierarchy of Naming, and Verbal Descriptors. Results revealed perceptions of male and female athletes by the public are influenced to a great degree by gender.
A Longitudinal Examination of Disordered Eating Correlates in Collegiate Gymnasts
Authors: Doughty Jessica H. , Hausenblas Heather A.
Published: August 2016

It is commonly believed that gymnasts are at risk for eating disorders. However, research examining whether gymnasts are a high-risk population for eating pathologies is equivocal. The purpose of our study was to examine disordered eating among Division I female gymnasts using a longitudinal design with validated eating disorder measures. Participants (n = 72) completed the Drive for Thinness, Body Dissatisfaction and Perfectionism subscales of the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (Garner, 1991), and the Social Physique Anxiety Scale (Martin et al., 1997), twice during their competitive season (i.e., October and March). There were no significant time differences for the eating disorder subscales, indicating that gymnasts’ perfectionism, body dissatisfaction, and anorexic tendencies may be stable characteristics that do not change across a competitive season. Implications of these results and future research directions are discussed.
A Coach’s Way: A Life-Affirming Organic Model Created in Sport
Authors: Cash Robin G.
Published: August 2016

This article explores a women’s way of coaching and being in sport that existed prior to Title IX. It considers a shift from an organic to a mechanistic coaching approach. An alternative model based on the concept of organicism and underlying principles of relational power, life-affirming actions, and inclusiveness of all beings is presented. This model emerged from three sources: (a) personal experience; (b) dissertation research interviews with former athletes of Eleanor Snell, who coached at Ursinus College from 1931 to 1972; and (c) the literatures of systems theory, systemic thinking, and Chinese philosophy. The life-affirming organic model re-visions sport, where sport is an important site for transformation not only of our individual selves but also of our human cultures.
Wellness amoung First Year Collegiate Female Athletes
Authors: LaFountaine Janna
Published: August 2016

As more campuses begin to address the needs of athletes in general, and female athletes in particular, more research assessing current wellness behaviors on the part of female athletes can be used to improve the support available while providing guidance with regard to the kinds of programs and outreach efforts that will make the greatest positive impact on female athletes. The purpose of this study was to compare the wellness behaviors of female athletes and female non-athletes to gain a better appreciation for the factors that affect female athletes and the steps that can be taken to assist athletes in proactively working toward a level of wellness that they can sustain throughout their lives.
Subjective Judging and the Home Advantage in Female Collegiate Division I Gymnastics
Authors: Baghurst Timothy , Fort Inza
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate the home advantage in female collegiate Division I gymnastics by apparatus and determine the performance effect of the Judges’ Assignor System (JAS) introduced in 2005 on each apparatus. Participant teams (N = 15) were selected based on their ranking in the top 25 nationally at the end of each regular season from 2003 to 2007. A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed home scores for each apparatus were significantly higher than their respective away scores, with the largest differences occurring in the uneven bars and floor exercise. Additionally, a repeated measures ANOVA to assess the JAS impact on scores revealed that home performances yielded higher scores than away for all apparatus, and scores for all apparatus were lower both at home and away since the introduction of JAS. Results are assessed based on current research, and application for judges and coaches is discussed.
Competitive Balance in Women’s Basketball: The Gateway Collegiate Athletic Conference and Missouri Valley Conference Merger
Authors: Perline Martin M. , Stoldt G. Clayton
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this paper was to measure the change in competitive balance for women’s basketball as a conference merges and changes its membership. Specifically, we surveyed the changes in competitive balance as the Gateway Collegiate Athletic Conference was merged into the Missouri Valley Conference (MVC). While competitive balance may not have been the primary reason for the merger, it tended to increase fan interest and was, therefore, considered desirable by member institutions. Three measures of competitive balance were used, producing mixed results. However, there was arguably a more competitive balance after the merger, because there tended to be more predictably perennial winners and losers in the Gateway than the MVC.
Female Athletes Do Ask! An Exploratory Study of Gender Differences in the Propensity to Initiate Negotiation among Athletes
Authors: Guthrie Sharon R. , Magyar T. Michelle , Eggert Stephanie , Kain Craig
Published: August 2016

Researchers have extensively documented gender differences in negotiation perceptions and performance which, in turn, may contribute to the persistence of salary and workplace inequity between women and men. The purpose of this study was to determine if these differences existed among a sample of 228 athletes (women n = 151 and men n = 77) who had competed in sport at high school, competitive club, college, or through professional levels for 15 years. More specifically, gender differences in the propensity to initiate negotiation were investigated in order to determine whether the three factors associated with the Babcock, Gelfand, Small, and Stayn (2006) Propensity to Initiate Negotiation Model (i.e., recognition of opportunity, sense of entitlement, and apprehension) explained and mediated such differences. Propensity to initiate negotiation (PIN) was operationally defined as self-reported responses to a series of hypothetical negotiation scenarios, as well as recent and anticipated future negotiation experiences. Females reported significantly more negotiation apprehension than males; they did not differ, however, in their recognition of opportunities and sense of entitlement associated with negotiation. The implications of these findings are discussed.
Mentoring Women to Advance Within Leadership Positions as International Physical Educators
Authors: Bower Glenna G. , Hums Mary A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to explore the reasons for mentoring women to advance within leadership positions as international physical educators. The study focused on the following within international physical education departments: (a) individual reasons for mentoring women, (b) organizational factors that inhibit or facilitate the ability to mentor women, (c) protégé characteristics that attract mentors to women protégés, and (d) outcomes associated with mentoring women. A phenomenological research design was chosen to examine the mentoring relationship. A group of women from a wide variety of colleges and universities were con at the International Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women (IAPESGW) conference (N = 5). The primary means of collecting data were in-depth interviews. A constant comparative analysis was used throughout the study. The study provided valuable information for mentors wanting to find ways to successfully mentor women to advance within leadership positions as interna academic physical educators.
Female Representation in Feature Articles Published by Sports Illustrated in the 1990s
Authors: Lumpkin Angela
Published: August 2016

Sports remain a man’s world as the coverage of females in sport continues to be marginalized. In During the 1990s Sports Illustrated, which appeals primarily to male readers interested in spectator sports publicized by the media, provided limited coverage of females. Based on an examination of the number of feature articles, article length in column inches, number of pictures, and article content, only in tennis, figure skating, and gymnastics were more females featured than males. In reporting on females in sports, Sports Illustrated emphasized individual sports and the femininity of female athletes, while including some usage of sexist language.
Group Mentoring as an Alternative Model for Women
Authors: Bower Glenna G.
Published: August 2016

Women continue to be underrepresented in leadership positions within sport. As the number of women entering sport increases, a growing number of professionals recognize the inherent benefits of the mentoring relationship across a range of professional settings including sport (Bower, Hums, & Keedy, 2006; Grappendorf, Burton, & Lilienthal, 2007). Unfortunately, mentors are not always a viable option for women wanting to advance within leadership positions in sport. A primary reason for limited opportunities is the shortage of female in leadership positions within sport organizations creating a dearth of potential female mentors (Weaver & Chelladurai, 2002). Therefore, this paper explored the dynamics of the mentoring relationship between one professional organization (NAGWS) and potential career outcomes for women in sport. Specifically, how does NAGWS use group mentoring initiatives for girls and women in sport which may lead to potential advancement opportunities?’
Perceptions of Girls about Their Participation in Aussie Footy
Authors: Hastie Peter A.
Published: August 2016

As the children were having their half time oranges, and the coach was busily organizing the team so that “everyone will be getting a turn,” I noticed one of the players at the back had long hair and an earring. I thought this was quite strange, since the fashion for nine year old boys is more of a prickle cut these days. I didn’t take too much notice as I was more interested in what the coach was saying. Then he mentioned that Natalie would be changing from the forwards to the backs, and it struck me. Yes it was a girl! So much for my stereotype that footy was a boy’s only game.
Women in Sport and Physical Education: A Review of the Literature in Selected Journals
Authors: Lock Robyn S.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the paper was to review the physical education literature in selected journals with regard to women’s issues. The review was inclusive of the years 1972 to 1991 and focused on five prominent publications in physical education: Research Quarterly, a journal which presents current research in the different knowledge base areas in physical education (exercise physiology, biomechanics, sport pedagogy, etc.); The Journal of Physical Education Recreation & Dance, a journal which features articles for the practitioner in physical education; Quest, a journal which is a publication of an association of physical educators in higher education; The Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, which focuses on pedagogy in physical education; and The Physical Educator, a journal which is a publication of Phi Epsilon Kappa, a fraternal organization in physical education.
Maternal Physical-Activity-Related Parenting Behaviors May Influence Children’s Physical Activity Levels and Relative Weight
Authors: Rosenkranz Richard R. , Dzewaltowski David A.
Published: August 2016

Previous studies have demonstrated that parents may influence the physical activity (PA) levels of children. The present study sought to determine whether PA-related parenting behaviors were associated with the physical activity and relative weight of children, controlling for other covariates. A community sample of mothers (n = 193) of after-school-program attendees completed questionnaires assessing parental social support for PA, sedentary behavior, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Children (N = 193, 51% girls) were objectively assessed for height and weight via stadiometer and digital scale, and the data were converted to body mass index (BMI) percentile via Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2010a) growth charts. Linear regression analysis revealed that maternal encouragement for child PA was positively related to both child PA and BMI percentile. However, mother-child shared physical activity was negatively related to child BMI percentile. Therefore, varying types of PA-related parenting behaviors may have differential relationships with child PA and relative weight.
Understanding Physical Activity through the Experiences of Adolescent Girls
Authors: Yungblut Hope E. , Schinke Robert J. , McGannon Kerry R. , Eys Mark A.
Published: August 2016

Researchers have found that female youths are particularly vulnerable to withdrawing from sport and physical activity programs in early adolescence (see Active Healthy Kids Canada, 2010). However, there is an absence of a comprehensive, emic description of how female adolescents experience physical activity. Open-ended, semi-structured interviews were conducted individually with 15 early adolescent females (12–14 years old) and 20 middle and late adolescent females (15–18years old). Co-participants in the mid to late adolescent cohort provided retrospective accounts of their early adolescent experiences along with insight on how their experiences shaped their current participation. The girls’ voices were brought to the forefront through composite vignettes that highlight their physical activity experiences, integrating the words used by the co-participants. Results are discussed in relation to physical activity programming for adolescent females and why a qualitative approach is useful in contributing to gender-specific physical activity programming.
Effects of Skill Level, Hand Laterality and Movement Direction during Visuomotor Processing of Female Athletes Performing Manual Aiming Tasks
Authors: Beehler Pamela J. Hoyes
Published: August 2016

Hand laterality research efforts have shown a performance advantage in terms of pointing accuracy and limb speed (movement time—MVT) for the preferred hand (right-hand), and a slight reaction time (RT) performance advantage for the non-preferred hand (left-hand) for rapid manual aiming movements (Flowers, 1975; Roy, 1983; Roy & Elliott, 1986). These performance advantages for the right and left-hands, respectively, are considered an enigma in the motor behavior literature (Magill, 1993) and were investigated. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of skill level, hand laterality, and movement direction during visuomotor processing of female athletes performing manual aiming tasks. Results showed that skill level and hand laterality did not influence the initiation of manual aiming movements; but, left direction movements were initiated faster than right direction movements. Right-hand MVT was faster than left-hand MVT; but, main effects skill level and movement direction were not significant for MVT. Skill level did interact with hand laterality and movement direction for MVT. Also, right-hand right direction movements were the easiest manual aiming tasks to complete while left-hand right direction movements were the most difficult manual aiming tasks to complete. Differences in hemispheric visuomotor processing when performing manual aiming movements based on skill level and hand laterality were discussed. Training implications for manual aiming movements were also discussed.
Defending the Self: Martial Arts and Women’s Self-Esteem
Authors: Guthrie Sharon R.
Published: August 2016

Self-esteem changes among adult women who had been practicing seido karate for at least six months and had acquired the perceived ability to physically self-defend were examined in this study. The research site was a feminist martial arts dojo for women in a midwestern state. Thirty women, aged 26-62, participated in strucured interviews. All of the women perceived improvements in self-esteem after participating in martial arts training for at least six months. These self-esteem changes were perceived to be related to improvement in physical self-perception. Recovery from psychosexual abuse, eating disorders, substance abuse, and growing up in dysfunctional families was another commonly perceived consequence of martial arts training, and most of the participants who had experienced such problems believed their martial arts practice was a valuable adjunct to traditional therapeutic approaches. Significantly, however, they viewed certain aspects of the feminist environment, particularly its gynocentricity, as essential to the self change process. A relationship between the martial arts experience, particularly gaining the ability to defend oneself physically, and other attitudes and behaviors related to self-perception is suggested.
Predictors of Social Physique Anxiety in Elite Female Youth Athletes
Authors: Martin Jeffrey J. , Engels Hermann J. , Wirth John C. , Smith Kari L.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine predictors of social physique anxiety (SPA). SPA, self-esteem, body-esteem, public body consciousness (PBC) and percent body fat (%BF) were assessed with elite female youth athletes (̲N=68) competing in either figure skating, soccer or gymnastics. Stepwise multiple regression analyses, controlling for BF%, accounted for 59% of the variance in SPA. Self-esteem entered first, after BF%, followed by body-esteem and PBC. The psychological variables accounted for 57% of the variance with self-esteem contributing the most (R square change = 45%). Contrary to previous research, BF% did not significantly contribute to SPA. Additionally, a MANOVA and follow-up ANOVA and Scheffe’s tests revealed significant sport differences among SPA, self-esteem, and body-esteem.
Weight Cycling and Body Composition in Obese Women
Authors: Hammer Roger L. , McCombs Daryl , Fisher A. Garth
Published: August 2016

It has been suggested that weight loss and regain, known as weight cycling, may result in greater body fatness and increased upper body fat distribution which may lead to adverse health consequences. These are concerns that may discourage some obese women from undergoing weight loss efforts. We retested 44 obese women, who took part in one of two weight control studies conducted in our laboratory, at either 6 or 12 months posttreatment. The followup study was performed to determine whether percent body fat and waist/hip ratio (WHR) had increased in those subjects who failed to maintain their weight loss. Subjects lost (mean + SD) 8.6 + 1.2 kg body weight, of which 7.0 + 1.0 kg was fat, and reduced their WHR by 0.03 + 0.006 (all p’s < .01) after either 12 or 16 weeks of treatment comprised of eating a low-fat diet, and in most cases performing endurance exercise training. At followup subjects were divided into groups based on the amount of weight regained. Those who regained (n=19) their lost weight were not fatter nor was their WHR higher than before the study began. These results do not support claims that weight cycling, in this case a single cycle, increases overall percentage of body fat or causes a redistribution of fat to the abdominal region of women.
Development of Relationship to Sport: Sport Biographies of German Women
Authors: Pfister Gertrud
Published: August 2016

In Germany there is a huge discrepancy between positive attitudes toward physical activity and actual practice of sport. According to representative studies more than 80% of the population is convinced that for various reasons, especially those of health, it is very important to take up a sport (Kaschuba, 1989). However, only 21% of the male and no more than 14% of the female population (older than 14) were reported to practice a sport at least once a week (Opaschowski, 1995).

This article focuses on the question of how a relationship to sport develops in the course of the lives of girls and women. The empirical data derives from a project on “Sport in the Lives of Women” in which women active in football (soccer), gymnastics/aerobics and tennis were interviewed about their biographies and their experience with physical activities. The theoretical background is based on approaches towards life course and biography, gender and gender relations, and socialization. Typical patterns of sport involvement in the different stages of life, e.g. the important role of the parents in early childhood and the importance of peers at school were found.,.

In addition, different types of sport commitment could be identified. Certain patterns, for example, were dependent on the combination of the simultaneous practice of different types of sport and the alternation between practice and non-practice of sport. In this way it was possible to distinguish between all-round sportswomen and women who practice sport for reasons of health. In general, sport biographies develop through the close interaction of social factors and individual decisions.
Game Strategy Used by the World’s Top Female Squash Players in International Competition - A Notational Analysis
Authors: Hong Youlian , Robinson Paul D. , Chan Wan Ka
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this paper was to profile game strategy used by world’s top female squash players in international competitions using postevent notational analysis methods. A total of 10 matches from the Ladies Hong Kong Open 1993 and 1994 were selected for analysis. A total of 15 right-handed competitors, who were ranked in the top 15 in the world at that time, were involved in the matches. Matches were played under the International scoring system. A 3-CDD video camera, positioned behind the court, was used to record the player’s performance throughout the matches. Frame-by-frame video notation was used to record the player, the kind of stroke, the position where the stroke was made, and the success or failure of that stroke. Shots were classified as “effective”, “ineffective”, “winning” and “losing” shots. Statistics show that the mean number of games per match was 4, rallies per game was 13.57 and shots per rally was 12.44. Of all the shots, 57.13% were “effective”, 31.36% were “ineffective”, 6.24% were “winning” and 5.27% were “losing” shots. Over half (62.01%) of all shots played were the drive, followed by drop (18.20%), volley (11.23%), boast (5.06%) and lob (3.50%). Of all shots played, 43.81% were in the back left court, 32.66% in the back right court, 13.04% in the front left court, and 10.49% in the front right court, showing that these right-handed players preferred to attack the backhand of the opponent. The drive (45.9%) was found to provide the greatest contribution shots to winning scores, with the next greatest being the drop (27.9%), then the volley (20.2), the boast (5.6%) and, finally, the lob (0.5%). Almost an equal number of cross-court shots and straight shots were played. In an average game, the winner played 50% more winning shots than the losing player, showing that in high level competition of female squash, the attacking shots, which produce the most winning scores, are required for success.