bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Coupling the GAL4 UAS system with alcR for versatile cell type‐specific chemically inducible gene expression in Arabidopsis
Authors: Sakvarelidze Lali , Tao Zheng , Bush Max , Roberts Gethin R. , Leader David J. , Doonan John H. , Rawsthorne Stephen
Published: May 2007

The Aspergillus alc regulon encodes a transcription factor, ALCR, which regulates transcription from cognate promoters such as alcA(p). In the presence of suitable chemical inducers, ALCR activates gene expression from alcA(p). The alc regulon can be transferred to other species and can be used to control the expression of reporter, metabolic and developmental genes in response to low‐level ethanol exposure. In this paper, we describe a versatile system for targeting the alc regulon to specific cell types in Arabidopsis by driving ALCR expression from the GAL4 upstream activator sequence (UAS). Large numbers of Arabidopsis lines are available in which GAL4 is expressed in a variety of spatial patterns and, in turn, drives the expression of any gene cloned downstream of the UAS. We have used a previously characterized line that directs gene expression to the endosperm to demonstrate spatially restricted ethanol‐inducible gene expression. We also show that the domain of inducible gene expression can easily be altered by crossing the UAS::ALCR cassette into different driver lines. We conclude that this gene switch can be used to drive gene expression in a highly responsive, but spatially restricted, manner.
SEARCHING FOR EXPLANATORY WEB PAGES USING AUTOMATIC QUERY EXPANSION
Authors: Tauchi Manabu , Ward Nigel
Published: May 2007

When one tries to use the Web as a dictionary or encyclopedia, entering some single term into a search engine, the highly ranked pages in the result can include irrelevant or useless sites. The problem is that single‐term queries, if taken literally, underspecify the type of page the user wants. For such problems automatic query expansion, also known as pseudo‐feedback, is often effective. In this method the topndocuments returned by an initial retrieval are used to provide terms for a second retrieval. This paper contributes, first, new normalization techniques for query expansion, and second, a new way of computing the similarity between an expanded query and a document, the “local relevance density” metric, which complements the standard vector product metric. Both of these techniques are shown to be useful for single‐term queries, in Japanese, in experiments done over the World Wide Web in early 2001.
SPEECH UNDERSTANDING BASED ON KEYWORD EXTRACTION AND RELATIONS BETWEEN WORDS
Authors: Shimada Kazutaka , Endo Tsutomu , Minewaki Sayaka
Published: May 2007

In this paper, we propose a method for speech understanding using a corpus. First, the method extracts keywords from an N‐best list of speech recognizer output. This process employs two measures: a confidence measure of speech recognizer output and an association probability between words. Next, the method uses dependencies between keywords in a corpus. Finally, it evaluates relations (tagged labels) of the dependencies. Our method obtained high accuracy as compared with a method with only the confidence measure of the speech understanding module. The results show the effectiveness of the proposed method.
COMPUTATIONAL LOGICS AND AGENTS: A ROAD MAP OF CURRENT TECHNOLOGIES AND FUTURE TRENDS
Authors: Fisher Michael , Bordini Rafael H. , Hirsch Benjamin , Torroni Paolo
Published: May 2007

The concept of anagentis increasingly used in contemporary software applications, particularly those involving the Internet, autonomous systems, or cooperation. However, with dependability and safety in mind, it is vital that the mechanisms for representing and implementing agents are clear and consistent. Hence there has been a strong research effort directed at using formal logic as the basis for agent descriptions and agent implementation. Such a logical basis not only presents the clarity and consistency required but also allows for important techniques such as logical verification to be applied. We present a road map of research into the use of computational logic in agent‐based systems and survey much of the recent work in these areas. Even though, with such a rapidly changing field, it is impossible to cover every development, we aim to give the reader sufficient background to understand the current research problems and potential future developments in this maturing area.
Publishing Trends of Psychology Faculty During Their Pretenure Years
Authors: Byrnes James P.
Published: May 2007

This article describes an analysis of the productivity of psychology faculty during their first 7 post-doctoral years. The primary goal was to provide objective data regarding the typical rates of productivity for un-tenured cognitive, developmental, and social psychologists who hold appointments at highly ranked institutions. Although the median rate of pretenure publishing conforms to informal impressions that junior faculty are typically awarded tenure if they publish at least one or two articles per year, tenure was awarded to 25% of the sample even though these individuals published less than one article per year. This finding cannot be explained by appealing to (a) the number of articles published prior to accepting a tenure-track appointment, (b) the number of chapters produced, or (c) the impact factors of the journals in which the individuals published.
Reporting Tendencies Underlie Discrepancies Between Implicit and Explicit Measures of Self-Esteem
Authors: Olson Michael A. , Fazio Russell H. , Hermann Anthony D.
Published: May 2007

The assumption that implicit measures assess associations that are not accessible to consciousness abounds in current social cognition research. In the present report, we question this assumption, focusing on the construct of implicit self-esteem as a case in point. Although researchers often argue that implicitly measured self-esteem is unconscious, we provide evidence that it is not, and that discrepancies between implicit and explicit measures of self-esteem are the result of reporting tendencies. Study 1 demonstrated that individuals for whom explicitly measured self-esteem is relatively high and implicitly measured self-esteem is relatively low admit to overpresenting themselves. In Study 2, implicit and explicit measures of self-esteem were related when subjects were urged to avoid over- or underpresenting themselves when responding to the explicit measures. We discuss the critical distinction between awareness of one's attitudes and awareness of their influence.
No Representation Without Awareness in the Lateral Occipital Cortex
Authors: Carlson Thomas A. , Rauschenberger Robert , Verstraten Frans A.J.
Published: May 2007

Recent research has shown that four small dots presented in the vicinity of, but not adjacent to, a target stimulus can banish that stimulus from conscious awareness. It is thought that the mental representation of the masked stimulus is “erased” by the trailing quartet of dots. Using functional magnetic resonance adaptation, we show that there is no persisting neural representation of the successfully masked stimulus in lateral occipital cortex, a region that has been implicated in the processing of object structure. This finding rules out the alternative interpretation that a lingering neural representation is merely rendered inaccessible to consciousness, as is the fate, for example, of monocular information under conditions of binocular rivalry.
Externalizing Psychopathology and the Error-Related Negativity
Authors: Hall Jason R. , Bernat Edward M. , Patrick Christopher J.
Published: May 2007

Prior research has demonstrated that anti-social behavior, substance-use disorders, and personality dimensions of aggression and impulsivity are indicators of a highly heritable underlying dimension of risk, labeled externalizing. Other work has shown that individual trait constructs within this psychopathology spectrum are associated with reduced self-monitoring, as reflected by amplitude of the error-related negativity (ERN) brain response. In this study of undergraduate subjects, reduced ERN amplitude was associated with higher scores on a self-report measure of the broad externalizing construct that links these various indicators. In addition, the ERN was associated with a response-locked increase in anterior theta (4–7 Hz) oscillation; like the ERN, this theta response to errors was reduced among high-externalizing individuals. These findings suggest that neurobiologically based deficits in endogenous action monitoring may underlie generalized risk for an array of impulse-control problems.
Essentializing Race: Implications for Bicultural Individuals' Cognition and Physiological Reactivity
Authors: Chao Melody Manchi , Chen Jing , Roisman Glenn I. , Hong Ying-yi
Published: May 2007

It is a widely held belief that racial groups have underlying essences. We hypothesized that bicultural individuals who hold this essentialist belief about race are oriented to perceive rigid interracial boundaries and experience difficulty passing between their ethnic culture and the host culture. As predicted, we found that the more strongly Chinese American participants endorsed an essentialist belief about race, the less effective they were in switching rapidly between Chinese and American cultural frames in a reaction time task (Study 1), and the greater emotional reactivity they exhibited (reflected in heightened skin conductance) while they talked about their Chinese and American cultural experiences (Study 2). Taken together, these findings suggest that essentialist beliefs about race set up a mind-set that influences how bicultural individuals navigate between their ethnic and host cultures.
Fixational Eye Movements Are Not an Index of Covert Attention
Authors: Horowitz Todd S. , Fine Elisabeth M. , Fencsik David E. , Yurgenson Sergey , Wolfe Jeremy M.
Published: May 2007

The debate about the nature of fixational eye movements has revived recently with the claim that microsaccades reflect the direction of attentional shifts. A number of studies have shown an association between the direction of attentional cues and the direction of microsaccades. We sought to determine whether microsaccades in attentional tasks are causally related to behavior. Is reaction time (RT) faster when microsaccades point toward the target than when they point in the opposite direction? We used a dual-Purkinje-image eyetracker to measure gaze position while 3 observers (2 of the authors, 1 naive observer) performed an attentional cuing task under three different response conditions: saccadic localization, manual localization, and manual detection. Critical trials were those on which microsaccades moved away from the cue. On these trials, RTs were slower when microsaccades were oriented toward the target than when they were oriented away from the target. We obtained similar results for direction of drift. Cues, not fixational eye movements, predicted behavior.
Domestic Violence, Emotional Competence, and Child Adjustment
Authors: Katz Lynn Fainsilber , Hessler Danielle M. , Annest Amalia
Published: May 2007

This article examined emotion competence in children exposed to domestic violence (DV). It also examined the hypothesis that children's emotional competence mediates relations between DV and children's later difficulties with peers and behavioral adjustment. DV was assessed when children were at the age of five, emotional competence was assessed at the age of 9.5, and peer quality and behavioral adjustment were obtained at the age of 11. Children from homes with greater DV were less aware of their own emotions and more emotionally dysregulated at the age of 9.5. Emotional awareness mediated the relationship between DV at the age of five and children's friendship closeness and internalizing problems at the age of 11. Emotion dysregulation mediated the relationship between DV at the age of five and children's negative peer group interactions, social problems, and internalizing and externalizing problems at the age of 11. Results are discussed in terms of the impact of DV on children's emotional development and the role that different aspects of emotional competence play in children's socio‐emotional adjustment.
Children's Differentiation Between Ingratiation and Self‐Promotion
Authors: Watling Dawn , Banerjee Robin
Published: May 2007

Previous research has demonstrated that 10‐year‐olds can provide interpersonal explanations for certain self‐presentational tactics, but detailed information about the development of their understanding of these tactics is lacking. This research investigated children's understanding of the processes involved in ingratiation (used to indicate likeability) and self‐promotion (used to indicate competence). In the first study, with a sample of 60 children aged six to 11 years, children saw ingratiation as leading to more positive social evaluation than self‐promotion, which was seen as having a more concrete, instrumental function. Additionally, children's differentiation between ingratiation and self‐promotion was correlated with their level of peer preference, as determined through sociometric nominations, particularly for boys. In a second study, with a sample of 63 children aged six to 11 years, it was found that audience type (peer vs. adult) was related to children's understanding of the self‐presentational tactics: children offered more social evaluation justifications for a self‐promotion tactic when the audience was a peer rather than an adult. Results are discussed with reference to emerging insights into the links between peer relations and social cognition.
Cultures and Cultural Property
Authors: YOUNG JAMES O.
Published: May 2007

abstract  In a number of contexts one comes across the suggestion that cultures are collective owners of cultural property, such as particularly significant works of art. Indigenous peoples are often held to be collective owners of cultural property, but they are not the only ones. Icelandic culture is said to have a claim on the Flatejarbók and Greek culture is held to own the Parthenon Marbles. In this paper I investigate the conditions under which a culture is the rightful owner of cultural property. I argue against the claims that cultures inherit cultural property. I also argue that a culture's claim to own cultural property is seldom, if ever, founded on either practices employed in the culture or collective production of cultural property. I maintain, however, that the very value of cultural property for some culture can, in some instances, provide the basis for the culture's claim on the property.
What's Wrong with Exploitation?
Authors: MAYER ROBERT
Published: May 2007

abstract  This paper offers a new answer to an old question. Others have argued that exploitation is wrong because it is coercive, or degrading, or fails to protect the vulnerable. But these answers only work for certain cases; counter‐examples are easily found. In this paper I identify a different answer to the question by placing exploitation within the larger family of wrongs to which it belongs. Exploitation is one species of wrongful gain, and exploiters always gain at the expense of others by inflicting relative losses on disadvantaged parties. They do harm to their victims, even when their interactions are mutually advantageous, by failing to benefit the disadvantaged party as fairness requires. This failure is the essential wrong in every case of wrongful exploitation. At the end of the paper I assess how wrong this failure is as a way to gain at another's expense.
Contractarianism, Other‐regarding Attitudes, and the Moral Standing of Nonhuman Animals
Authors: COHEN ANDREW I.
Published: May 2007

abstract  Contractarianism roots moral standing in an agreement among rational agents in the circumstances of justice. Critics have argued that the theory must exclude nonhuman animals from the protection of justice. I argue that contractarianism can consistently accommodate the notion that nonhuman animals are owed direct moral consideration. They can acquire their moral status indirectly, but their claims to justice can be as stringent as those among able‐bodied rational adult humans. Any remaining criticisms of contractarianism likely rest on a disputable moral realism; contractarianism can underwrite the direct moral considerability of nonhuman animals by appealing to a projectivist quasi‐realism.
The Measuring Rod of Time: The Example of Swedish Day‐fines
Authors: ERIKSSON LINA , GOODIN ROBERT E.
Published: May 2007

abstract ‘Time is money’, Benjamin Franklin's ‘Poor Richard’ tells us. But instead of converting time expenditures into monetary equivalents, it makes more sense in many cases to convert money into temporal equivalents. The difficulty in putting a monetary value on time in unpaid household labour, when adjusting the National Accounts, points to the problems of the first approach. The advantages of the latter approach are illustrated by the Swedish system of specifying criminal fines in terms of the number of days the offender would have to work to pay them off.
Sphingolipids are necessary for nicotinic acetylcholine receptor export in the early secretory pathway
Authors: Baier C. J. , Barrantes F. J.
Published: May 2007

The nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (AChR) is the prototype ligand‐gated ion channel, and its function is dependent on its lipid environment. In order to study the involvement of sphingolipids (SL) in AChR trafficking, we used pharmacological approaches to dissect the SL biosynthetic pathway in CHO‐K1/A5 cells heterologously expressing the muscle‐type AChR. When SL biosynthesis was impaired, the cell surface targeting of AChR diminished with a concomitant increase in the intracellular receptor pool. The SL‐inhibiting drugs increased unassembled AChR forms, which were retained at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). These effects on AChR biogenesis and trafficking could be reversed by the addition of exogenous SL, such as sphingomyelin. On the basis of these effects we propose a ‘chaperone‐like’ SL intervention at early stages of the AChR biosynthetic pathway, affecting both the efficiency of the assembly process and subsequent receptor trafficking to the cell surface.
Dopamine depletion and subsequent treatment with l‐DOPA, but not the long‐lived dopamine agonist pergolide, enhances activity of the Akt pathway in the rat striatum
Authors: Bychkov Evgeny , Ahmed M. Rafiuddin , Dalby Kevin N. , Gurevich Eugenia V.
Published: May 2007

Dysregulation of signaling pathways is believed to contribute to Parkinson’s disease pathology and l‐DOPA‐induced motor complications. Long‐lived dopamine (DA) agonists are less likely to cause motor complications by virtue of continuous stimulation of DA receptors. In this study, we compared the effects of the unilateral 6‐hydroxydopamine lesion and subsequent treatment with l‐DOPA and DA agonist pergolide on signaling pathways in rats. Pergolide caused less pronounced behavioral sensitization than l‐DOPA (25 mg/kg, i.p., 10 days), particularly at lower dose (0.5 and 0.25 mg/kg, i.p.). Pergolide, but not l‐DOPA, reversed lesion‐induced up‐regulation of preproenkephalin and did not up‐regulate preprodynorphine or DA D3 receptor in the lesioned hemisphere. Pergolide was as effective as l‐DOPA in reversing the lesion‐induced elevation of ERK2 phosphorylation in response to acute apomorphine administration (0.05 mg/kg, s.c.). Chronic l‐DOPA significantly elevated the level of Akt phosphorylation at both Thr308 and Ser473 and concentration of phosphorylated GSK3α, whereas pergolide suppressed the lesion‐ and/or challenge‐induced supersensitive Akt responses. The data indicate that l‐DOPA, unlike pergolide, exacerbates imbalances in the Akt pathway caused by the loss of DA. The results support the hypothesis that the Akt pathway is involved in long‐term actions of l‐DOPA and may be linked to l‐DOPA‐induced dyskinesia.
Copper induced oxidation of serotonin: analysis of products and toxicity
Authors: Jones Christopher E. , Underwood Clare K. , Coulson Elizabeth J. , Taylor Paul J.
Published: May 2007

Serotonin is a major neurotransmitter that controls many functions, ranging from mood and behaviour through to sleep and motor functions. The non‐enzymatic oxidation of serotonin is of significant importance as some oxidation products are considered to be neurotoxic. An interaction between copper and serotonin has been suggested by symptoms observed in a number of neurodegenerative diseases such as Wilson’s and Prion diseases. Using PC12 cells as a model of neuronal cells, we show that the interaction between copper and serotonin is toxic to undifferentiated cells. The toxicity is largely due to reactive oxygen species as cell death is significantly reduced in the presence of the antioxidant mannitol. Differentiation of the PC12 cells also confers resistance to the oxidative process. In vitro oxidation of serotonin by copper results in the eventual formation of a coloured pigment, thought to be a melanin‐like polymeric species. Using spectroscopic methods we provide evidence for the formation of a single intermediate product. This dimeric intermediate was identified and characterized as 5,5′‐dihydroxy‐4,4′‐bitryptamine. These results indicate that copper structurally alters serotonin and this process may play a role in copper related neurodegenerative diseases.
Genetically augmenting tau levels does not modulate the onset or progression of Aβ pathology in transgenic mice
Authors: Oddo Salvatore , Caccamo Antonella , Cheng David , Jouleh Bahareh , Torp Reidun , LaFerla Frank M.
Published: May 2007

The two hallmark pathologies of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) are amyloid plaques, composed of the small amyloid‐β (Aβ) peptide, and neurofibrillary tangles, comprised aggregates of the microtubule binding protein, tau. The molecular linkage between these two lesions, however, remains unknown. Based on human and mouse studies, it is clear that the development of Aβ pathology can trigger tau pathology, either directly or indirectly. However, it remains to be established if the interaction between Aβ and tau is bidirectional and whether the modulation of tau will influence Aβ pathology. To address this question, we used the 3xTg‐AD mouse model, which is characterized by the age‐dependent buildup of both plaques and tangles. Here we show that genetically augmenting tau levels and hyperphosphorylation in the 3xTg‐AD mice has no effect on the onset and progression of Aβ pathology. These data suggest that the link between Aβ and tau is predominantly if not exclusively unidirectional, which is consistent with the Aβ cascade hypothesis and may explain why tauopathy‐only disorders are devoid of any Aβ pathology.
Increased stem cell proliferation in the spinal cord of adult amyotrophic lateral sclerosis transgenic mice
Authors: Guan Ying‐jun , Wang Xin , Wang Hong‐yan , Kawagishi Kyutaro , Ryu Hoon , Huo Chun‐feng , Shimony Ethan M. , Kristal Bruce S. , Kuhn Hans‐Georg , Friedlander Robert M.
Published: May 2007

Harnessing the regenerative potential of the central nervous system to repopulate depleted cellular populations from endogenous stem cells would be a novel approach for the treatment of neurological diseases resulting from cell death. Consequently, understanding if and how the central nervous system is capable of such regeneration would determine if such an approach is feasible. In this report, we provide evidence of widespread regenerative response in the spinal cord of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis transgenic mice. However, this regenerative response appears to be largely unproductive. We demonstrate that there is significantly increased gliogenesis, but an absence of convincing neurogenesis. The fact that the neurodegenerative process stimulates a regenerative response suggests that the adult spinal cord has at least limited ability for regeneration. Further studies will determine if this endogenous regenerative process can be enhanced and directed so as to slow or even reverse the natural progression of this devastating disease.
Aggregation of cellular prion protein is initiated by proximity‐induced dimerization
Authors: Goggin Kevin , Bissonnette Cyntia , Grenier Catherine , Volkov Leonid , Roucou Xavier
Published: May 2007

Prion diseases or transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are infectious and fatal neurodegenerative disorders in humans and animals. Pathological features of TSEs include the conversion of cellular prion protein (PrPC) into an altered disease‐associated conformation generally designated PrPSc, abnormal deposition of PrPSc aggregates, and spongiform degeneration of the brain. The molecular steps leading to PrPC aggregation are unknown. Here, we have utilized an inducible oligomerization strategy to test if, in the absence of any infectious prion particles, the encounter between PrPC molecules may trigger its aggregation in neuronal cells. A chimeric PrPC composed of one (Fv1) or two (Fv2) modified FK506‐binding protein (Fv) fused with PrPC were created, and transfected in N2a cells. Similar to PrPC, Fv1‐PrP and Fv2‐PrP were glycosylated, displayed normal localization, and anti‐apoptotic function. When cells were treated with the dimeric Fv ligand AP20187, to induce dimerization (Fv1) or oligomerization (Fv2) of PrPC, both dimerization and oligomerization of PrPC resulted in the de novo production, release and deposition of extracellular PrP aggregates. Aggregates were insoluble in non‐ionic detergents and partially resistant to proteinase K. These findings demonstrate that homologous interactions between PrPC molecules may constitute a minimal and sufficient molecular event leading to PrPC aggregation and extracellular deposition.
Elevated plasma cholesterol does not affect brain Aβ in mice lacking the low‐density lipoprotein receptor
Authors: Elder Gregory A. , Cho Julie Y. , English Daniel F. , Franciosi Sonia , Schmeidler James , Sosa Miguel A. Gama , Gasperi Rita De , Fisher Edward A. , Mathews Paul M. , Haroutunian Vahram , Buxbaum Joseph D.
Published: May 2007

Epidemiological studies support an association between vascular risk factors, including hypercholesterolemia, and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Recently, there has been much interest in the possibility that hypercholesterolemia might directly promote β‐amyloid (Aβ) production. Indeed, in vitro studies have shown that increasing cellular cholesterol levels enhances Aβ production. However, studies in AD transgenic mouse models have not consistently found that elevated plasma cholesterol leads to increased Aβ production or deposition in vivo. In this study, we determined whether elevated peripheral cholesterol influences Aβ production in mice with a null mutation of the low‐density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR). We show that dramatically elevated plasma cholesterol levels, whether induced by high cholesterol, high fat, or high fat/high cholesterol diets, did not affect either levels of brain Aβ40, Aβ42, or APP, or the Aβ42/40 or APP‐CTF/APP ratios, nor substantially alter brain cholesterol levels. ApoE protein levels in brain were, however, elevated, in LDLR−/− mice by post‐transcriptional mechanisms. Collectively, these studies argue that plasma cholesterol levels do not normally regulate production of brain Aβ.
The organotellurium compound ammonium trichloro(dioxoethylene‐0,0′) tellurate enhances neuronal survival and improves functional outcome in an ischemic stroke model in mice
Authors: Okun Eitan , Arumugam Thiruma V. , Tang Sung‐Chun , Gleichmann Marc , Albeck Michael , Sredni Benjamin , Mattson Mark P.
Published: May 2007

Ammonium trichloro(dioxoethylene‐0,0′) tellurate (AS101) is a non‐toxic organotellurium compound with pleiotropic activities. It was recently shown to induce production of the neurotrophic factor glial cell line‐derived neurotrophic factor and to rescue neuronal‐like PC‐12 cells from neurotrophic factor deprivation‐induced apoptosis. In this study, we show that AS101 improves functional outcome and reduces brain damage in a mouse model of focal ischemic stroke. Both pre‐stroke and post‐stroke intraperitoneal treatments with AS101 reduced infarct size and edema and improved the neurological function of the animals. AS101 treatments reduced both apoptotic and inflammatory caspase activities, and also inhibited protein tyrosine nitration suggesting that AS101 suppresses oxidative stress. Studies of cultured neurons showed that AS101 confers protection against apoptosis induced by either glucose deprivation or the lipid peroxidation product 4‐hydroxynonenal. Moreover, AS101 treatment reduced glutamate‐induced intracellular calcium elevation, a major contributor to neuronal death in stroke. As AS101 has an excellent safety profile in humans, our pre‐clinical data suggest a potential therapeutic benefit of AS101 in patients suffering from stroke and other neurodegenerative conditions.
A specific inhibitor of cholesterol biosynthesis, BM15.766, reduces the expression of β‐secretase and the production of amyloid‐βin vitro
Authors: Parsons Richard B. , Subramaniam Daryl , Austen Brian M.
Published: May 2007

We have previously shown that statins reduce the production of amyloid‐β (Aβ) by both isoprenoid‐ and cholesterol‐dependent mechanisms. These pathways contribute to the regulation of the dimerisation of BACE into its physiologically active form. Statins reduce cellular cholesterol levels by 20–40%; therefore, it is possible that the remaining cholesterol within the cell may play a significant role in the production of Aβ. Incubation of cells with the specific cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitor BM15.766 together with 50 μmol/L simvastatin and 400 μmol/L mevalonate reduced cellular cholesterol levels in a dose‐dependent manner with increasing BM15.766 concentration (r = −0.9736, p = 0.0264). Furthermore, decreases in cellular cholesterol levels correlated with reductions in total Aβ production (r = 0.9683, p = 0.0317). A total of 2.5 μmol/L BM15.766 inhibited the dimerisation of BACE, whilst the expression of BACE monomer was reduced by 5 μmol/L BM15.766. BM15.766 treatment localised BACE predominantly within the Golgi, and reduced total BACE expression per cell. Similar changes were observed in the expression of the Golgi marker golgin‐97, suggesting that reduced BACE expression may arise from a decrease in protein trafficking and an increase in degradation. By targeting cholesterol synthesis using specific cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitors, it is possible to reduce Aβ production without reducing protein isoprenylation.
Characterization of microsatellite loci in the endangered grand spider orchid Caladenia huegelii (Orchidaceae)
Authors: SWARTS NIGEL D. , SINCLAIR ELIZABETH A. , DIXON KINGSLEY W.
Published: May 2007

The orchid genus Caladenia is species rich with many threatened and endangered taxa. We report on the isolation and characterization of microsatellite loci in the rare Caladenia huegelii for molecular evaluation of this and the closely related C. thinicola as part of the development of conservation initiatives. Eight di‐ and trinucleotide loci were screened using 30 samples from each species. All loci were highly variable, with similar levels of heterozygosity and number of alleles across both species. These markers will be highly informative for population studies in both species.
Absence of protandry in the spring migration of a population of Song Sparrows Melospiza melodia
Authors: EDWARDS DARRYL B. , FORBES MARK R.
Published: May 2007

Early male arrival at breeding sites, or protandry, is thought to have evolved from intrasexual competition among males for access to mates or breeding resources. Males of polygynous species tend to be larger than females and have exaggerated secondary sexual traits. Additionally, such species show a high degree of protandry, suggesting that timing of arrival is sexually selected. Species showing limited sexual dimorphism and showing sexual monochromatism may be expected to show limited early male arrival. However, there are very few studies of migration timing of the sexes in such species because individuals cannot be readily identified to sex in the hand. In this study, we genetically sexed birds and found no evidence for early male arrival, for a population of migratory Song Sparrows Melospiza melodia. For our study population, males and females display limited sexual size dimorphism and are sexually monochromatic which is characteristic of the species. Fat scores for males were inversely associated with timing of arrival, whereas for females, larger‐winged birds arrived sooner – suggesting that early migration timing may be selected for in both sexes.
Systematic measurement errors involved in over‐refraction using an autorefractor (Grand‐Seiko WV‐500): is measurement of accommodative lag through spectacle lenses valid?
Authors: Kimura Shuhei , Hasebe Satoshi , Ohtsuki Hiroshi
Published: May 2007

Purpose:  Lags of accommodation in ametropic children are often evaluated through spectacle lenses (over‐refraction). This study investigated the validity of over‐refraction when using an autorefractor.

Methods:  Using an autorefractor (Shin‐Nippon SRW‐500/Grand‐Seiko WV‐500), refractive readings were obtained in 25 cyclopleged eyes (mean ± S.D. refraction: −3.44 ± 3.56 D, range: from −10.56 to +0.25 D) while placing spherical lenses of different power (from −5.00 to +5.00 D) in front of the eye at a vertex distance of 12 mm. Based on the refractive readings with and without the lens, and the lens power, measurement errors were estimated. Similarly, the measurement errors were estimated also in model eyes of −10.00, −4.75, 0.00 and +10.00 D. The results were compared with ray‐tracing simulations based on the internal specifications of the autorefractor.

Results:  Measurement errors were found unless the power of the spectacle lens was equal to the refractive error of the eye. When the spectacle lens power was greater (less myopic or more hyperopic) than the refraction of the eye, the measurement error was negative in sign and greater than −0.3 D. It follows that, when an accommodative response is measured in myopic subjects, the refractive reading usually becomes more myopic than the refraction of the eye including the accommodative response; hence, the accommodative response is overestimated, and the lag of accommodation is underestimated.

Conclusions:  The autorefraction through spectacle lenses involved systematic measurement errors. The extent of the errors is usually small but needs to be taken into account in a comparative study of accommodative responses among different refractive groups.
Technical Note: The effect of refractive blur on colour vision evaluated using the Cambridge Colour Test, the Ishihara Pseudoisochromatic Plates and the Farnsworth Munsell 100 Hue Test
Authors: Thyagarajan Sri , Moradi Philip , Membrey Luke , Alistair D. , Laidlaw H.
Published: May 2007

The results of a prospective study examining the effect of refractive blur on colour vision performance in normal subjects measured with three different colour vision tests are reported. The Farnsworth Munsell 100 Hue (FM100) and Cambridge Colour Test (CCT) results were significantly affected at +6 D of spherical refractive blur, whereas those from the Ishihara Pseudoisochromatic Plate (IPP) test were not. In a clinical setting, correction of refractive error up to 3 D for colour vision testing with these tests may not be required. Poor colour vision should not be attributed solely to refractive causes of poor visual acuity (Snellen equivalent: >6/36). Fastest test times were achieved using IPP, followed by CCT.
Does prior instillation of a topical anaesthetic alter the pupillary mydriasis produced by tropicamide (0.5%)?
Authors: Haddad David E. , Rosenfield Mark , Portello Joan K. , Krumholz David M.
Published: May 2007

Purpose:  It is common clinical practice to instill a topical anaesthetic prior to the instillation of a mydriatic agent into the eye. The main rationale for using the anaesthetic is to increase corneal permeability, so that more of the mydriatic agent reaches the receptor sites within the anterior chamber. It addition, as mydriatics generally cause stinging, prior use of an anaesthetic should reduce the degree of discomfort. The aim of the present study was to determine whether the efficacy of mydriasis produced by an antimuscarinic agent is enhanced by prior instillation of a topical anaesthetic.

Method:  The study was performed using a double‐masked protocol on 20 healthy young subjects. One drop of either proparacaine (proxymetacaine) (0.5%) or isotonic saline was instilled into the eye, followed by one drop of tropicamide (0.5%). Pupil diameter was measured using a customized photographic device at 0, 10, 20, 30 and 60 min following drug instillation. Additionally, subjects were asked to rate the degree of discomfort following the instillation of each drop on a scale from 0 (no discomfort) to 10 (agony).

Results:  There was no significant difference in either the rate of onset of mydriasis, or the maximum pupil diameter achieved between the two conditions. The mean change in pupil diameter produced by tropicamide after the instillation of saline or proparacaine was 2.31 and 2.28 mm, respectively. The mean discomfort scores following instillation of saline and proparacaine were 1.15 and 1.65, respectively, while mean discomfort scores following the instillation of tropicamide after saline or proparacaine were 4.00 and 0.85, respectively.

Conclusions:  Instillation of a topical anaesthetic does significantly reduce the degree of discomfort produced by the instillation of tropicamide. However, it does not produce any significant increase in either the magnitude or rate of onset of mydriasis.
Refractive, biometric and topographic changes among Portuguese university science students: a 3‐year longitudinal study
Authors: Jorge J. , Almeida J. B. , Parafita M. A.
Published: May 2007

Purpose:  The aim of this study was to investigate the changes in refractive, biometric and topographic ocular parameters among university students in Portugal during a 3‐year period.

Methods:  A 3‐year longitudinal study comprised 118 Portuguese university students from the School of Science (34 males and 84 females; mean age 20.6 ± 2.3 years). Ocular refraction, corneal curvature (CR) and eccentricity, and A‐scan biometry were conducted under cycloplegia. The sphero‐cylindrical refractive results were converted into vector representations (M, J0 and J45) for statistical analysis. Myopia was defined as M ≤ −0.50 D, emmetropia as M > −0.50 D and < +0.50 D and hyperopia as M ≥ +0.50 D.

Results:  At the beginning of the study sphero‐cylindrical refraction (M) ranged from −6.75 to +3.00 D, with a mean value of 0.23 ± 1.46 D [mean ± standard deviation (S.D.)]. Eighty‐three students presented astigmatism with a mean value (±S.D.) of −0.52 ± 0.41 D, and a maximum of −2.25 D. After 3 years the mean refractive change for the M component was −0.29 ± 0.38 D (p < 0.001) and non‐significant changes of 0.02 ± 0.16 D (p = 0.281) for the J0 component and 0.01 ± 0.09 D (p = 0.784) for the J45 component. Prevalence of myopia increased by 5.1%, while the prevalence of hyperopia decreased by 9.4%. Myopia progression ≥0.5 D was observed in 22% of the population. Axial length, vitreous chamber depth and lens thickness increased significantly while anterior chamber depth and central CR did not change significantly.

Conclusions:  This study shows a change in refraction towards myopia accompanied by a vitreous chamber elongation in a Portuguese population comprising science students during the first three years of their university course. Younger students were more likely to show clinically significant myopia progression.
Reaching and grasping with restricted peripheral vision
Authors: González‐Alvarez Carmen , Subramanian Ahalya , Pardhan Shahina
Published: May 2007

Aim:  To investigate how prehensile movements, such as reaching and grasping, are affected by different fields of view when both haptic and visual information are available.

Methods:  Ten volunteers with normal vision (mean age 24.5 years) participated. Subjects picked up an object with a full monocular field of view (FOV) and with two different sizes of pinholes which simulated a central FOV of 23° and 11° respectively. The Vicon motion analysis system was used to record and reconstruct the 3D‐kinematic data. The kinematic parameters measured were total time of the movement, maximum velocity, time to maximum velocity, deceleration time, maximum grip aperture, time to maximum grip aperture and time taken after maximum grip aperture.

Results:  Restricting the FOV affected both the transport and grasp components of the movement. The maximum velocity decreased (p = 0.008) and the maximum grip aperture increased (p = 0.003) with both restricted FOV when compared with the full field. The execution or on‐line control of both reach and grasp components were also longer (p = 0.005 and p = 0.002 respectively) for the 11° FOV only.

Conclusions:  Reducing the FOV to 11° (an absence of peripheral vision) affects the planning and execution of the reach and the grasp component of the movement. Restricting the FOV to 23° of central vision (with some peripheral cues present) affects only the planning of the reach and grasp component of the movement. Peripheral visual cues are therefore more important for the on‐line control than for the planning of the movement. The findings of this study have important clinical implications in patients who suffer from ocular diseases in which peripheral vision gradually decreases.
Conversion of statistics calculated from the coordinates of the power matrix to those of principal meridional representation of power
Authors: Abelman H. , Abelman S.
Published: May 2007

Principal meridional powers of thick astigmatic systems, like the eye, are not necessarily at right angles. The consequence is a class of phenomena included in the category commonly described as irregular astigmatism. The conventional principal meridional representation of power, however, is unsuited to quantitative analysis. The coordinates of the power matrix are scalars well suited to quantitative analysis. In a sizeable sample of such data it would be tedious to contemplate all the individual observations to obtain knowledge of the material. A standard summary in a manageable form is needed for concise reliable description to deal with all of the data. This paper is concerned with measures of dispersion of a data sample of coordinates of the power matrix, conversion to dispersion of principal meridional representation of power (or any other clinical or scientific power representation), and the nature of the dispersion.
Effect of Critical Access Hospital Conversion on Patient Safety
Authors: Li Pengxiang , Schneider John E. , Ward Marcia M.
Published: May 2007

Background. The Medicare Rural Hospital Flexibility Program of the 1997 Balanced Budget Act allowed hospitals meeting certain criteria to convert to critical access hospitals (CAH) and changed their Medicare reimbursement mechanism from prospective payment system (PPS) to cost‐based.

Objective. To examine the impact of CAH conversion on hospital patient safety.

Data Source. Secondary data on hospital patient safety indicators (PSIs), hospital CAH status, patient case‐mix, and market variables, for 89 Iowa rural hospitals during 1997–2004.

Study Design. We employed quasi‐experimental designs that use both control groups and pretests. The hospital‐year was the unit of analysis. We used generalized estimating equations logit and random‐effects Tobit models to assess the effects of CAH conversion on hospital patient safety. The models were adjusted for patient case‐mix and market variables. Sensitivity analyses, which varied by sample and statistical model, were used to examine the robustness of our findings.

Data Extraction Methods. PSIs were computed from Iowa State Inpatient Databases (SIDs) using Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality indicators software. Hospital CAH status was extracted from Iowa Hospital Association. Patient case‐mix variables were extracted from Iowa SIDs. Market variables came from Area Resource File (ARF).

Principal Findings. CAH conversion in Iowa rural hospitals was associated with better performance of risk‐adjusted rates of iatrogenic pneumothorax, selected infections due to medical care, accidental puncture or laceration, and composite score of four PSIs, but had no significant impact on the observed rates of death in low‐mortality diagnosis‐related groups (DRGs), foreign body left during procedure, risk‐adjusted rate of decubitus ulcer, or composite score of six PSIs.

Conclusion. CAH conversion is associated with enhanced performance of certain PSIs.
British Muslims: Past, Present and Future
Authors: Hellyer Hisham A.
Published: May 2007

Abstract:  Around the European Union, the implication by large sections of society is that there is something intrinsically different about Islam that makes it difficult to integrate Muslims into European societies. Some of these sections of society are non‐Muslim, and are reluctant to allow such integration to take place; others are Muslim. These sentiments raise a number of issues relating to plural identities and their compatibility with modern day Europe and Islam, with such issues finding variable expressions in member‐states. The British example represents an illustrative case study, having a long history of interaction with Muslims and being the home of a large Muslim population. History bears witness that in terms of religious diversity, the U.K. was never a monolithic society based on a monoculture. From the Middle Ages until the beginning of the twentieth century, there is strong evidence to show that there was, at the least, British contact with Muslims. In Britain, just as all over Europe, Islam has a long lineage: “For British Muslims, the past does not have to be ‘another country.’”
Reasoned and Inspired Beliefs: A Study of Islamic Theology
Authors: Souaiaia A. E.
Published: May 2007

Abstract:  In most cases, Islamic theology has been examined as a sub‐field of Islamic legal studies. Ignaz Goldziher and Joseph Schacht for instance, see a link between Islamic law and theology. However, Islamic materials from the formative period of Islamic thought show that Muslim scholars distinguished between disciplines dealing with theological themes and those dealing with legal and jurisprudential topics. In this article, the author defines theology and identifies the major trends that contributed to the development of theological doctrines in Sunni and Shi‘ite Islam. He argues that, during the various historical periods, the scope and reach of Islamic theology depended on the political, social, and intellectual environment. He concludes that, in the end, Muslim theology could only be understood in a context radically different from its counterpart in Judaism and Christianity.