bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Endophenotype
Authors: Gottesman Irving I. , McGue Matt
Published: January 2015

Endophenotypes, measurable components unseen by the unaided eye along the pathway between disease or other phenotypes and distal genomics, have emerged as an important concept in the study of complex neuropsychiatric diseases. The term was introduced to psychopathology in 1972 by Gottesman and Shields, and reinvigorated in 2003 by Gottesman and Gould. An endophenotype may be neurophysiological, biochemical, endocrinological, neuroanatomical, cognitive, or neuropsychological (including configured self‐report data) in nature. Endophenotypes represent simpler clues, in principle, to genetic underpinnings than the disease syndrome itself, thus promoting the prescient view embodied in the recent emphasis on new research domain criteria orRDoCthat psychiatric diagnoses can be optimally deconstructed in ways that allow discovery of their etiology by focusing on endophenotypic dimensions rather than categories. Endophenotypes differ from other biomarkers in a number of ways, most importantly, they are heritable and thus not the consequence of disease. They are heuristic in the development of animal models of psychopathology. For example, genes implicated in humans can be knocked out or in to observe their effects on animal behaviors and their endophenotypes.
Methodological versus Radical Behaviorism
Authors: Platt Tyson L.
Published: January 2015

In 1913, J. B. Watson (1878–1958) proposed that psychology should be a “purely objective experimental branch of natural science.” This idea, known asbehaviorism, continues to influence the field of psychology. In the last century, the behaviorism proposed by Watson and formally known asmethodological behaviorismhas been substantially revised and expanded by a variety of authors. The foremost revision and expansion was proposed by B. F. Skinner (1904–90) and is known asradical behaviorism.Although both schools of thought place emphasis on environmental variables as causal mechanisms and view behavior as the appropriate subject matter for a scientific psychology, they differ in their conceptualization of the relationship between stimulus and response in learning, assumptions about the relevance of internal states, and analysis of language.
Addiction Treatments
Authors: Utley Joni , Najavits Lisa M.
Published: January 2015

The development of addiction treatment within the context of historical perceptions of addiction and social movements (e.g., recovery movements and 12‐step approaches, such as Alcoholics Anonymous) is described. Recent trends in the addiction treatment field are addressed, including the rise of evidence‐based practice (research to define effective treatments for addiction); a focus on comorbidity (addiction treatment that occurs in the context of mental illness); adaptation of addiction treatments to subpopulations including women, adolescents, and others who have typically been more hidden in their addiction; and the development of specialized treatments for couples and families. Examples of several prominent addiction treatment models are described, including motivational enhancement, 12‐step facilitation, contingency management, cognitive behavioral therapy, relapse prevention, screening, brief intervention, and referral to treatment, seeking safety, dialectical behavior therapy, behavioral couples therapy, brief strategic family therapy, and multidimensional family therapy. Common elements across models and future directions are also identified.
Employee Assistance Programs
Authors: Younger Beverly
Published: January 2015

Employee assistance programs (
EAPs
) consist of professional services provided primarily by licensed clinicians offering problem identification and/or assessment, referral, short‐term counseling, treatment coordination, and follow‐up to employees affected by a variety of personal concerns. Other
EAP
technologies are aimed at organizational level needs, including management or supervisor training and consultation. Employee assistance program service models have largely shifted from internal or workplace‐based service delivery to external
EAP
firms or consultants providing contractual services. Standardization of the
EAP
field has been achieved through the support of professional associations who created certification for
EAP
professionals and accreditation of established programs. A growing body of
EAP
outcome literature reveals evidence of positive clinical and work‐related outcomes, as well as cost savings to employers. Emerging trends in the
EAP
field include an increasingly dual focus on employee and organizational well‐being and functioning, and expansion into global markets through transnational companies.
Cross‐Cultural Issues in Assessment
Authors: Braje Sopagna Eap , Nagayama Hall Gordon C.
Published: January 2015

A nuanced understanding of psychological assessment may be an important avenue for reducing observed disparities between ethnic groups. Psychological assessment plays an important role in clinical, educational, and legal settings. Bias inherent in clinical, intellectual, and neuropsychological assessment may contribute to disparate prevalence rates and invalidate the results for diverse populations. Excluding or ignoring diverse psychological experiences can affect the validity of assessment outcomes. Gaining a better understanding of how cultural issues relate to the assessment of mental health, intellectual, and cognitive functioning may increase diagnostic accuracy, as well as help address educational and mental health disparities.
R
ubin,
D
onald
B
. (
b
. 1943)
Authors: West Stephen G.
Published: January 2015

Donald B. Rubin (b. 1943) has made seminal contributions to the modern analysis of missing data and causal inference in randomized and nonrandomized designs. An overview of his contributions in these two areas is presented.
Culture‐Bound Syndromes
Authors: Alarcón Renato D.
Published: January 2015

Culture‐bound syndromes (CBSs) are defined as sets of symptoms and signs unique to specific regions or countries around the world. They are understood as characteristic responses to a variety of pathogenic agents and are explained in the context of beliefs, traditions, and moral or religious perspectives from their societies of origin. Over many decades, CBSs have become a subject of research and didactic interest in academic centers, leading to growing points of contact among cultural psychiatry, social sciences, and established medical and psychiatric practice. This entry includes a listing of CBSs described in different regions of the world. It enumerates their main clinical characteristics and causal (etio‐pathogenic) factors; presents cultural explanations of these conditions' origin, nature, and degree and type of accompanying emotional and physical distress; and attempts to locate each nosologically. The entry closes with the new set of concepts proposed in the
DSM‐5
, which will probably guide future research efforts in this area.
L
ykken,
D
avid T. (1928–2006)
Authors: Iacono William G.
Published: January 2015

David T. Lykken (1928–2006) was a seminal figure in American psychology. His interests were diverse and widespread, leading to publications in behavior genetics, research methods, personality, psychophysiology, and psychopathology. Key contributions included advancing a theory of psychopathy that has profoundly influenced the field for over a half century, generating the concept of emergenesis to explain why some traits are heritable yet do not run in families, exposing how conventional lie detector tests were biased against truthful people, developing the guilty knowledge test to assess recognition memory, introducing the “set‐point” theory of happiness to explain why wellbeing is trait‐like despite changes in life circumstances, establishing standards for electrodermal measurement, and characterizing what constitutes meaningful replication of experimental results in psychology.
Expert Testimony and Cross‐Examination
Authors: Meyer Donald , Drogin Eric Y.
Published: January 2015

Expert mental health testimony is the last stage of a multiphase process in the investigation of a mental health issue that the trier of fact cannot assess without assistance. The expert, though typically retained by a side, serves as an educator of the trier of fact, not a member of the advocacy team. Expert witnesses commence examinations without bias and proceed with objectivity, independence, and scientific accuracy. Testimony that is admissible as evidence should have a foundation guided by the requirements articulated in
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.
,
Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael
, and
General Electric Co. v. Joiner
and meet the standard of reasonable scientific certainty. Thoughtful, thorough preparation for testimony under oath is ultimately the best intrapsychic and intellectual ballast that an expert can bring to the stand to counter the external forces of an adversarialized legal environment.
Labeling Theory
Authors: Ruscio John
Published: January 2015

Thomas Scheff's labeling theory entails a two‐stage relationship between aberrant behaviors and diagnostic labels. First, behaviors that violate implicit rules, which Scheff refers to as primary deviance, can lead to a diagnostic label. Second, this label can cause others to react in ways that elicit additional behavioral disturbance known as secondary deviance that contributes to mental illness. The novelty of labeling theory lies in the importance given to secondary deviance. The theory is evaluated first by critically examining not only three studies frequently held to be supportive, but also the broader empirical literature. Research seldom addresses, and ultimately fails to substantiate, the impact of secondary deviance in causing or exacerbating mental illness. Though diagnostic labels are often confounded with the behaviors they denote, which increases the apparent influence of “mere labels” on participants' judgments, it still seems that aberrant behaviors exert a stronger influence on judgments than do labels.
Bayesian Analysis
Authors: Wetzels Ruud , van Ravenzwaaij Don , Wagenmakers Eric‐Jan
Published: January 2015

A Bayesian analysis concerns the quantification and updating of knowledge according to the laws of probability theory. A Bayesian analysis allows researchers to estimate parameters (e.g., how effective is a new treatment?) or to conduct hypothesis testing and model selection (e.g., is the new treatment more effective than the standard treatment?). The Bayesian paradigm offers concrete advantages for the practical research worker; one of these is the ability to attach probabilities to hypotheses and parameters, and another is the ability to collect data until the evidence conclusively supports the null hypothesis or the alternative hypothesis.
VeteransAffairs (VA)
Authors: Zeiss Antonette M. , Zeiss Robert A.
Published: January 2015

Psychology has had profound growth and impact in the delivery of mental health care in the Department of Veterans Affairs health‐care system, the Veterans Health Administration (VHA). The profession has helped to foster mental health care integration, interdisciplinary practice, recovery‐oriented care, and service innovation. In so doing, psychology staffing and training positions have grown to historic high levels, to support delivery of mental health care inVHA.
Interpersonal and Social Rhythm Therapy
Authors: Weinstock Lauren M.
Published: January 2015

Over the past several decades, in response to a growing awareness that pharmacotherapy alone is often suboptimal in preventing recurrence of mood episodes in bipolar disorder, researchers and clinicians have become increasingly interested in the potential for psychotherapy to enhance clinical outcomes in bipolar disorder. Interpersonal and Social Rhythm Therapy (IPSRT) is an adjunctive, manual‐driven psychotherapy that emerged during the 1990s in response to this clinical need. Grounded in an integrated psychosocial and chronobiological model of bipolar disorder, IPSRT was developed to intervene on three major pathways to the recurrence of bipolar disorder: (a) medication nonadherence, (b) stressful life events, and (c) disruptions in social rhythms. In the period since, the efficacy of IPSRT for the acute and prophylactic treatment of bipolar mood episodes has been supported by two large clinical trials, and more recent research has expanded its application to the treatment of other indications within bipolar disorder.
Clinical Science Model
Authors: McFall Richard M. , Treat Teresa A. , Simons Robert F.
Published: January 2015

The clinical science (CS) model was created to guide all aspects of clinical psychology as it pursues its mission of promoting psychological science in the interest of advancing knowledge, improving health care, and serving the public. The basic premise of the CS model is that a scientific epistemology should be the centerpiece of clinical psychology and is the best way forward in the advancement of psychological knowledge in the research, service, and education domains. The CS model is a strong version of the older Boulder model and a reaction to the more recent scholar–practitioner model. Adherents of the CS model have developed a robust supporting infrastructure that includes the Society for a Science of Clinical Psychology, the Academy of Psychological Clinical Science, and the Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System. Not surprisingly, the model also has stirred criticisms among some clinical psychologists; the most common of these are discussed briefly.
Delusional Disorder
Authors: Blaney Paul H.
Published: January 2015

The term “delusional disorder” encompasses a group of psychotic conditions in which the individual holds a belief that others judge to be false. For example, affected individuals may believe without evidence that some distant celebrity is in love with them (erotomanic), that they have superior attributes (grandiose), that their spouse is unfaithful (jealous), that another person is targeting them for harm (persecutory), or that they have some physical illness or impairment (somatic).
Dual Relationship/ Conflict of Interest
Authors: Cohen‐Filipic Jessye
Published: January 2015

As part of a larger discussion about the ethical practice of psychologists, much attention has been devoted to dual relationships and conflict of interest. Ethical guidelines for psychologists are designed to protect the welfare of the public served by the profession of psychology. Dual relationships and conflicts of interest are two possible sources of harm or exploitation for the public. Conflicts of interest occur within psychology when a psychologist has interests or relationships that may interfere with his or her ability to perform professional roles. Dual or multiple relationships exist when a psychologist is in a professional role with a person (e.g., therapist and client) as well as another relationship with that person or someone close to that person. This entry reviews the relevant ethical guidelines for psychologists, current controversies in the literature, and several ethical decision‐making models regarding dual relationships and conflict of interest.
Empirically Supported Treatments (
ESTS
) and Empirically Supported Principles of Change (
ESPS
)
Authors: Herbert James D.
Published: January 2015

Empirically supported treatments (
ESTs
) are psychological interventions that are supported by quantitative scientific research, and empirically supported principles of change (
ESP
) refer to a treatment's underlying causal mechanisms or to procedures directly linked to those mechanisms. Beginning in 1993, a division of the American Psychological Association established a project for identifying and listing
ESTs
. Although highly influential, this ongoing project has been widely criticized by practicing clinicians and clinical scientists. Some clinicians denounce the project's privileging of scientific data over clinical experience, question the relevance of such data to “real‐world” clinical practice, and decry the perceived encroachment on professional autonomy. In contrast, scientists question the usefulness of the specific criteria used to identify
ESTs
. The field is now moving toward the more flexible concept of evidence‐based practice (
EBP
) supported by scientifically grounded treatment guidelines, although tensions remain over what kinds of evidence should form the basis for clinical practice.
Actor–Partner Interdependence Model
Authors: Campbell Lorne , Stanton Sarah C. E.
Published: January 2015

The actor–partner interdependence model (APIM) is a versatile statistical framework designed to analyze and interpret data obtained from dyads. The model stresses the importance of considering how people influence each other (i.e., that people are interdependent). In particular, the APIM allows researchers to estimate, simultaneously and separately, how a person's independent variable score affects not only his or her own outcomes, but also his or her partner's outcomes. APIM data can be analyzed using both multilevel modeling and structural equation modeling. To date, the APIM has generated interesting and informative findings in many areas of psychology, including romantic relationships, friendships, parent–child relationships, and client–therapist relationships.
Loevinger,Jane (1918–2008)
Authors: Cohn Lawrence D.
Published: January 2015

Jane Loevinger (1918–2008) made significant contributions to psychometrics, personality theory, and developmental psychology. Trained as a psychometrician, she developed a technique for constructing homogeneous tests, challenged traditional theories of reliability and validity, and proposed that objective tests should be used as instruments of psychological theory rather than mere expressions of “psychotechnology.” She developed a series of measures that eventually led to the construction of the Washington University Sentence Completion Test (WUSCT) of ego development and, more importantly, the development of an empirically constructed scoring manual. Loevinger made major contributions to the study of maturity and character development using her technique of microvalidation to continually refine both the WUSCT scoring manual and the underlying developmental model. Her use of microvalidation represents a rare example of the continual interplay between theory, measurement, and data.
Self‐Help/Bibliotherapy
Authors: Nowakowski Matilda E. , Atkey Sarah Kate , Antony Martin M.
Published: January 2015

Self‐help/bibliotherapy includes information, explanations, exercises, and treatments that are completed with little or no assistance from a therapist. Research shows that self‐help approaches are effective for treating emotional disorders, especially when combined with brief regular therapist contact. Self‐help approaches are commonly accepted by both therapists and patients, and have the potential of increasing the accessibility and cost‐effectiveness of psychology treatments. This entry describes empirically supported self‐help books, and discusses the research evidence concerning several popular self‐help books for anxiety disorders and depression. We discuss the costs and benefits of incorporating self‐help approaches into the treatment of psychological disorders.
Quasi‐Experiments
Authors: Steiner Peter M. , Kim Yongnam
Published: January 2015

When randomized controlled trials are not feasible, quasi‐experiments are the second‐best alternative for estimating causal treatment effects. Quasi‐experiments are characterized by an active intervention, but in contrast to randomized experiments, they lack random assignment of treatments to subjects. Instead, subjects deliberately select or are systematically assigned to treatment conditions. According to the type of the assignment or selection mechanism, four basic quasi‐experimental designs can be distinguished: regression discontinuity design, interrupted time series design, nonequivalent control group design, and instrumental variable design. This entry reviews the basic designs, analytic strategies, and the assumptions required for estimating causal treatment effects from quasi‐experiments.
Laws of Nature
Authors: Kincaid Harold
Published: January 2015

The nature of scientific laws and their role in science has been a central issue in philosophy of science for decades. A dominant account of laws pictures them as universal regularities and argues that when combined in a systematic way to make theories, laws are essential and central to science. This picture of laws focuses on associations and downplays the role of causes, with causation being seen as a metaphysical nonscientific notion. This general view has been quite influential in psychology and historically fits well with the professional goals of the discipline and widely used statistical methods. Recent developments in history and philosophy of science, however, have called into question this picture of laws. Across the sciences, including parts of physics, laws in the sense of exceptionless generalities are rare. Instead, science produces piecemeal causal explanations. Laws are thus better thought of as identifying causal forces or factors that combine in complex and multiple ways.
Antisocial Personality Disorder/Psychopathy
Authors: Patrick Christopher J. , Brislin Sarah J.
Published: January 2015

This entry reviews the historic background for the diagnoses of antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy along with modern conceptions of these disorders and empirical findings pertaining to their correlates and causes. In doing so, the entry discusses these clinical conditions in relation to a broader integrative model of impulse control disorders that encompasses substance‐related problems along with impulsive sensation‐seeking tendencies and aggressive behavior of differing types. Approaches to prevention and treatment of these conditions are also reviewed.
Biomedical Model
Authors: Strickland Casey M. , Patrick Christopher J.
Published: January 2015

The biomedical model posits that all physical and mental illnesses are due to measurable, physiological deviations from normal, healthy functioning. The notion that all mental illnesses are diseases of the brain, first advanced by Wilhelm Greisinger, is a strict application of the biomedical model within a psychological context. The model's philosophical and historical origins, including the scientific principle of reductionism, are discussed. The biomedical model's exclusion of psychological and social factors as essential to mental illness has led to a number of criticisms of the model. Alternatives to the biomedical model in psychological science include Engel's biopsychosocial model, which provides for inclusion of psychological and social factors in definitions of disease. The biomedical model has had a profound influence on medical and psychological science and continues to drive research efforts directed at identifying physiological underpinnings of psychological disorders.
Pragmatism
Authors: Sisti Dominic A. , Brendel David H.
Published: January 2015

Pragmatism refers to the American philosophical tradition that began in the late nineteenth century with the work of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914), William James (1842–1910), and John Dewey (1859–1952), all of whom developed complementary but distinctive theories about the nature of reality (metaphysics) and knowledge (epistemology), logic, psychology and free will. This entry first presents an introduction to the key features of classical Pragmatism and, second, describes a contemporary pragmatic method for analysis and action on ethical issues encountered by clinical psychologists.
Art, Dance, and Music Therapies
Authors: Brandsma Lynn L.
Published: January 2015

Art, dance, and music therapies comprise the helping professions known as the creative arts therapies. Although clinical psychologists, counselors, and other mental health and medical professionals can integrate the creative arts into their work, the approaches also represent unique disciplines with distinct programs of study and professional recognition. Although there is a rich clinical literature describing creative arts interventions with a wide range of populations, scientific research on their efficacy is limited. The existing research consists mostly of uncontrolled pilot studies, and the few randomized trials that have been conducted are marked by methodological limitations that preclude conclusions regarding the specific effectiveness of these interventions.
M
ischel,
W
alter (b. 1930)
Authors: Babeva Kalina N. , Davison Gerald C.
Published: January 2015

Walter Mischel (b. 1930) is a distinguished researcher in the fields of social, personality, and clinical psychology, holder of a named chair at Columbia University, and author of numerous scholarly works. He is widely known for his research on delayed gratification (e.g., The Stanford Marshmallow Experiments) and his contributions to personality theory and assessment. In particular, Mischel's work has improved significantly our understanding of the wide within‐person variability in behavior that cannot be explained through global, stable personality traits. His cognitive–affective processing system (
CAPS
) model stresses the importance of internal processes (social, cognitive, and motivational) that are triggered by different situations and that influence behavior. Mischel's approach to personality and assessment has been integral to evidence‐based therapy interventions that rely on functional‐analytic assessment rather than trait‐oriented psychodiagnosis.
Barnum Effect
Authors: Rosen Gerald M.
Published: January 2015

The
Barnum effect
is a phenomenon wherein people accept personality statements that apply to most everyone, as if these statements provide insight into their own traits. In actuality, the contents of universally valid statements fit any and all individuals by virtue of their triviality. The Barnum effect highlights the importance of taking base rates into account when considering the incremental validity of psychological tests from which personality descriptors are derived.
Antidepressant Research Controversies
Authors: Spielmans Glen I. , Kirsch Irving
Published: January 2015

Despite their wide usage, several important issues remain unresolved regarding the efficacy and safety of antidepressants. A large volume of clinical trials has shown that antidepressants outperform placebo—but the margin of superiority is debatable, and there are some groups who receive minimal or no benefit from medication. Effectiveness in real‐world clinical settings has received less investigation but appears quite modest. Studies of long‐term efficacy have been complicated by conflating withdrawal effects with evidence favoring long‐term benefit. Mechanisms of antidepressant action remain elusive, as drugs with several differing pharmacological profiles have achieved similar efficacy. Some treatment‐related adverse events are well established, whereas some important potential adverse events (including suicidality and hostility) remain under investigation. Systematic assessment of treatment‐related adverse events is sparse.
Suggestibility
Authors: Scullin Matthew H.
Published: January 2015

Since the late nineteenth century, concerns have been raised about the influence of clinician suggestions on an individual's recall of past events. These concerns started to receive increased attention from researchers in the 1980s when the use of a range of suggestive therapeutic techniques designed to recover repressed memories of trauma in adults increased in popularity, resulting in significant numbers of patients supposedly recovering memories of childhood abuse, ritualistic abuse, and alien abductions. Almost concurrently, large numbers of children began testifying about bizarre and ritualistic abuse they had supposedly undergone. Suggestibility has also been implicated in the development of dissociative identity disorder, inaccurate eyewitness memory, and false confessions. This entry reviews research on the role of suggestibility in areas that are relevant for clinical practice.
Materialism versus Dualism
Authors: Worley Sara
Published: January 2015

Materialism is the doctrine that the world is entirely physical, whereas dualism is the doctrine that there are two fundamentally different kinds of things in the world: mind and bodies. Dualists say that minds are not made out of physical stuff, and they are not subject to the laws of nature. There are a number of arguments for dualism, ranging from concerns about free will, to religious concerns about life after death, to the difficulty of explaining consciousness in physical terms.

However, there are also serious problems with dualism, including the problem of explaining how the mind and body interact, and the fact that materialism seems, overall, the simpler theory.
M
oniz,
E
gas (1874–1955)
Authors: Roosevelt Rodney W.
Published: January 2015

Egas Moniz (1874–1955) was a Portuguese neurologist and politician born to a prominent family in the small coastal village of Avanca. Most of his close family died before he reached adulthood. He was married to Elvira de Macedo Dias and had no children. Moniz studied medicine at the University of Coimbra, graduating in 1899. He pioneered the cerebral angiogram and shared the 1949 Nobel Prize in Medicine for the prefrontal leucotomy (lobotomy). He was also a prolific author and active in government until the rise of the Salazar regime in 1926.
Mind, Theories of
Authors: Worley Sara
Published: January 2015

Historically, a common view about the mind in Western culture has been a dualist one. That is, the mind is something fundamentally distinct from matter, made out of different “stuff” and obeying different laws. In recent years, more materialistic views have come into favor, which claim that the mind is nothing but the functioning brain. However, there are a whole range of theories about just what the relationship is between mental states and brain states. Some theorists claim that each particular type of mental state (pain, for instance) can be identified with a particular type of brain state. Others claim that each mental state can be identified with particular set of behavioral dispositions. Still others claim that having mental states is a matter of being subject to a particular set of interpretive strategies.
Etiology And Causality
Authors: Worley Sara
Published: January 2015

Although talk of causality is ubiquitous in both science and everyday life it is far from clear how we should understand causality. Theories about causality range from those that understand it in terms of regularities to those which understand causation in terms of the exchange of conserved quantities to those which say that the idea of causation is foundational, so it cannot be understood in other terms. Furthermore, especially with regard to the problems of the etiology of psychiatric and psychological disorders, there are concerns over how we should understand the relationship between explanations of behavior in terms of reasons and explanation of behavior in terms of causes.
Phenomenology (Clinical)
Authors: Kaler Rupinder , Broome Matthew
Published: January 2015

Clinical phenomenology was developed in the twentieth century and has become increasingly utilized as a means of examining patients' experience and behavior in a rigorous and systematic way. A discipline conceptualized and propagated by Karl Jaspers (1883–1969), clinical phenomenology is part of day‐to‐day practice in psychiatry. Description of a patient's mental state using the phenomenological approach is termed descriptive psychopathology, which is formulated by use of the Mental State Examination (
MSE
). An
MSE
provides a framework of documenting the experiences of a patient to facilitate formulation of a diagnosis and a case conceptualization.
Galton,SirFrancis (1822–1911)
Authors: Revelle William
Published: January 2015

Sir Francis Galton (February 16, 1822–January 17, 1911) was among the preeminent psychologists of the nineteenth century. Born to a wealthy English family, he was able to devote his life to a variety of scientific inquiries. Although best known to psychologists for his pioneering work on the correlation coefficient and the study of individual differences in intellectual ability, he also did fundamental research on behavior genetics, meteorology, and the use of fingerprints for identification.
Clinical Internship
Authors: McCutcheon Stephen R. , Sannes Timothy S.
Published: January 2015

The predoctoral clinical internship is a requirement for conferral of the degree in clinical, counseling, and school psychology. This entry describes important historical developments, notable initiatives that advanced conceptualization of the internship, and important structural, governance, and financial variables in the implementation of internship training.
Alcohol‐Related Disorders
Authors: Schroder(deceased) Stephanie , Sher Kenneth J.
Published: January 2015

Problem drinking has been defined in a number of ways throughout history; current definitions focus on exceeding what are considered to be healthy levels of alcohol consumption and meeting criteria for an alcohol use disorder (
AUD
), where alcohol causes impairment in functioning.
AUDs
are a prevalent problem in the United States, with one study finding 8–9% of adults to meet criteria for a recent (past 12 month)
AUD
. This entry reviews the individual and environmental risk factors for
AUDs
, their course, theories on their development, the effects, and their treatment.
Rehabilitation Psychology
Authors: Wegener Stephen T. , Bentley Jacob A.
Published: January 2015

Rehabilitation psychology is a specialty focused on service to individuals with physical and cognitive impairments through the implementation of assessment and intervention procedures that are person‐centered and focused on promotion of health, quality of life, independence, personal choice, daily functioning, and social role participation. Consistent with the current International Classification of Function set forth by the World Health Organization, the field of rehabilitation psychology conceptualizes disability as an interaction between the person, task, and environment. Rehabilitation psychologists practice as members of an interdisciplinary team and implement assessment and intervention procedures aimed at optimizing psychosocial adaptation and enhancing physical, emotional, and cognitive function while minimizing the risk of secondary complications associated with chronic health conditions.
Models of Specific and Nonspecific Change Mechanisms in Mental Health Treatments
Authors: Gelfand Lois A. , DeRubeis Robert J.
Published: January 2015

Treatments for mental health problems are often designed to target particular mechanisms. If a mechanism improves outcome in one treatment but not in others, the mechanism is specific to that treatment. If its effects are shared by other treatments, then the mechanism is nonspecific with respect to those treatments. Both specific and nonspecific mechanisms may be altered to the same or to different degrees in different treatments, resulting in a wide variety of possible models of change. When constructing and evaluating models of change in mental health treatment, it can be useful to consider how each treatment would be expected to affect the mechanism as well as how the mechanism would be expected to affect the outcome. As shown in the examples included in this entry, graphical representations of data can be particularly useful. The correspondence of these models to the concepts of statistical mediation (mediators) and moderation (moderators) are highlighted.
Factor Analysis
Authors: Widaman Keith F. , Helm Jonathan L.
Published: January 2015

Factor analysis is a mathematical/statistical method for identifying and investigating dimensions of individual difference in a particular domain. Initially, factor analysis was conducted using an exploratory approach, with no strong a priori theory regarding the number and nature of factors that might be present. More recently, researchers have exploited confirmatory factor analysis, in which explicit hypotheses can be tested regarding the number of factors and the placement of the zero and nonzero loadings in the factor loading matrix. Factor analysis has been crucial for the development and evaluation of current theories regarding the dimensional structures of the mental ability and personality domains, among others. Further, confirmatory factor analysis can be used to test advanced hypotheses, including multitrait–multimethod structures, longitudinal models, and multiple‐group models, that were difficult or impossible to test with exploratory factor analysis. Factor analysis continues to be the most useful and adaptable method for studying the latent structure of behavioral domains, and innovative extensions are developed regularly within this broad framework.
Animal Models of Psychopathology
Authors: Minor Thomas R. , Smith Nancy J.
Published: January 2015

Animal modeling has been central to understanding the psychology and neurobiology of psychopathology. Most treatments in cognitive behavioral therapy have their roots in the conditioning and aversive learning literatures in nonhuman animals. The number of animal models of psychopathology has proliferated since the early work of I. P. Pavlov. Some of these models are more useful than others. Three criteria are discussed that are central to validating an animal model. The study of avoidance learning is reviewed as an illustration of how validation criteria relate to a model and just how difficult the validation process can be. Recent experiments also are discussed that overcome historic problems with avoidance models and may provide new insight into the role of avoidance in anxiety disorders.
Propensity Score Analysis
Authors: West Stephen G. , Cham Heining , Thoemmes Felix
Published: January 2015

Propensity scores represent the probability that an individual is assigned to a treatment group given the individual's scores on a set of covariates. Propensity scores are used in nonrandomized studies to equate treatment and control groups on a large number of covariates measured at baseline. Assumptions necessary for propensity score analysis to yield a valid estimate of the causal effect are presented. The five steps involved in a propensity score analysis are reviewed: (a) selecting the covariates, (b) estimating the propensity scores, (c) conditioning on propensity scores, (d) checking covariates for balance, and (e) estimating the causal effect. Complexities including designs with more than two groups, covariates with missing values, multilevel designs, and sensitivity analysis to check for the potential effects of unmeasured covariates are briefly considered. Finally, a short evaluation of the performance of the propensity score approach is presented.
Licensure and Certification
Authors: Hall Judy E.
Published: January 2015

Licensure and certification summarizes the mechanisms in place for identifying qualified psychologists, both at the governmental level, and by private organizations that credential licensed psychologists. Those terms are distinguished from and compared to other terms such as credentials, registered, and chartered. Standards for the recognition of psychologists are stated. Organizations that credential psychologists in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom are briefly described. Characteristics of credible credentialing organizations are summarized.
Acute Stress Disorder
Authors: Malaktaris Anne , McNally Richard J. , Bryant Richard , Lynn Steven Jay
Published: January 2015

Acute stress disorder (ASD) first appeared in theDSM‐IVas a diagnosis describing acute stress reactions occurring within a month following exposure to trauma. In response to accumulating evidence,DSM‐5no longer places the same emphasis on dissociative symptoms, and does not require a specific number of any cluster of symptoms for a diagnosis ofASD. Instead, it requires the presence of 9 of any of 14 potential symptoms ofASD, and prohibits the diagnosis until 3 days have elapsed post trauma. AlthoughASDpredicts the onset of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), relative to trauma‐exposed people who do not developASD, most individuals withPTSDdo not meetASDdiagnostic criteria prior to the diagnosis ofPTSD. Accordingly, theDSM‐5diagnosis ofASDintends to describe severe acute reactions rather than predict subsequentPTSD. Cognitive behavioral therapy reduces the rate of subsequentPTSDin individuals withASD.
Controversial Therapies
Authors: Mercer Jean
Published: January 2015

Controversial therapies (CTs) are psychotherapies that lack an evidence basis, are implausible with respect to current psychological science, and may be associated with adverse events. CTs are rarely independently evaluated or transparently reported, and are often commercialized. Among CTs are Dianetics, primal therapy, transactional analysis, neuro‐linguistic programming, thought field therapy, recovered memory therapy, and attachment therapy. CTs have historical commonalities and share emphases on unconscious motivation, mind–body interactions, and views of memory that contradict established evidence.
Designs for Studying Mediation
Authors: David Daniel , Sava Florin A.
Published: January 2015

Once we find a cause‐effect relationship, the next question is related to the mechanisms of change. Mediators play a prominent role in establishing these mechanisms because they are variables that intervene between the cause (i.e., predictor/independent variable) and its effect (i.e., outcome/criterion/dependent variable). A wide range of designs can focus on mediators. These include both nonexperimental designs (i.e., cross‐sectional or longitudinal) and experimental designs. Experimental designs are more appropriate designs for studying mediation but no single study can meet all prescriptive requirements for considering a specific mediator as a causal mechanism. A strong recommendation is that any endeavor to establish mediation should be complemented by a conceptual analysis through the lens of a well‐supported and/or well‐specified theory.
Self, Philosophical Considerations
Authors: Tekin Şerife
Published: January 2015

The debate between the proponents of realism and antirealism about the self has played an important role in philosophy, and, though less directly, in clinical psychology. Realism has two fundamental commitments about the world posited by scientific theories: existence and evaluation‐independence. According to the existence claim, both the everyday world of objects and their properties—the subject of scientific theorizing—do exist. According to the evaluation‐ independence claim, the objects and properties posited by a scientific theory exist independent from what human beings think about them or how they are linguistically articulated. Realists argue that the self exists as an evaluation‐independent phenomenon. Antirealists, on the other hand, argue that there is no such thing as the self. What is conventionally conceived of as the self is contingent on our evaluations; that is, it is a mere artifact of cultural, social, and linguistic conventions.
Behaviorism and Eliminativism
Authors: Kostko Aaron
Published: January 2015

Behaviorism and eliminativism represent significant challenges to the scientific legitimacy of folk psychological concepts and explanations. Both views emphasize the explanatory inadequacies of folk psychological explanations of human behavior, but they differ with respect to the theoretical framework that they hypothesize will take its place. B. F. Skinner's radical behaviorism maintained that folk psychological explanations would eventually be replaced by explanations in terms of reinforcement contingencies. In contrast, the eliminativism of Paul and Patricia Churchland contends that folk psychological explanations will eventually be replaced by neuroscientific explanations. The motivations and implications of each of these views are discussed.
Academy of Psychological Clinical Science (
APCS
)
Authors: Fowles Don C.
Published: January 2015

The Academy of Psychological Clinical Science (
APCS
;
http://acadpsychclinicalscience.org
) is an organization whose members are
PhD
programs in clinical psychology and clinical psychology internships that strongly value psychological clinical science. Richard
McFall
organized a “Clinical Science in the 21st Century” conference in April 1994. The attendees voted to create
APCS
.
APCS
held its first meeting in July 1995 with 26 member programs. By 1998, eight internships were members of
APCS
. Since then,
APCS
has supported clinical science in many domains. In 2006–2009,
APCS
created the Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System (
PCSAS
).
PCSAS
was recognized in September 2012 as an accrediting body by the Council of Higher Education Accreditation (
CHEA
). As of May 2013,
APCS
had 55 graduate programs and 11 internships as members, and
PCSAS
had accredited 21 programs.
Debriefing
Authors: Sharf Allyson , Kimonis Eva R.
Published: January 2015

Debriefing is the process of discussing the general purpose of the psychological study and its implications with a participant at the conclusion of the study. Historically, debriefing is most notably discussed in the psychological empirical literature as the ethical solution to the use of deception. Debriefing serves to educate the participant as to the logic and importance of the overall study, explain the reason for any deception, attempt to ameliorate any damage caused by the deception, and investigate potentially negative reactions to the study, among other goals. Formal ethical codes discuss debriefing but potential problems arise in the variation enacted by researchers, potential harmful consequences to complete disclosure, and the growing use of the internet to carry out studies.
J
öreskog,
K
arl
G
ustav (b. 1935)
Authors: McArdle John J.
Published: January 2015

Karl G. Jöreskog (b. 1935) has enjoyed a long and distinguished career as a behavioral science statistician. He is best known for his creation (along with Dag Sörbom) of the
LISREL
computer program for data analysis for linear structural equation models (
SEM
). He has done much more. He has taught generations of social and behavioral scientists how to apply this approach to their own
SEM
problems, and this has changed the way many of us think about multivariate analysis.
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (
DBT
)
Authors: Cameron Amy Yule
Published: January 2015

Dialectical behavior therapy (
DBT
) is an empirically supported psychotherapy with mounting evidence for its efficacy in treating borderline personality disorder, nonsuicidal self‐injury, and suicidal behaviors. Based on psychologist Marsha Linehan's (b. 1943) biosocial theory of the development and maintenance of borderline personality disorder, behavior theory, and dialectics. Dialectical behavior therapy is a multimodal treatment with specific treatment stages and targets. Since its early beginnings,
DBT
has also demonstrated efficacy at reducing hostility, impulsivity, anger, depression, substance use, anxiety, eating‐disordered behaviors, and attention‐deficit and hyperactivity disorder. Dialectical behavior therapy has demonstrated efficacy in adults and adolescents, as well as elderly and forensic populations. Dismantling studies to date have been few, and further work needs to be done to understand the specific mechanisms underlying the efficacy of
DBT
in these populations, as well as to determine a necessary length of treatment.