bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Relationship between Cleaner Production and Industrial Ecology
Authors: van Berkel René , Willems Esther , Lafleur Marije
Published: May 2006

Industrial ecology is an emerging concept for the promotion of environmentally sound manufacturing and consumption. It aims to balance industrial development with the sustainable use of natural resources including energy, materials, and the capacity of the environment to assimilate wastes and render valuable services. The widespread adoption of industrial ecology can be furthered by a critical review of current preventive activities in industry. This article reviews the role that current preventive environmental activities‐known as cleaner production‐could play in the implementation of industrial ecology. The article focuses on whether cleaner production in its present form is sufficient, in terms of breadth of both industrial activities (sources) and environmental concerns (impacts addressed), for achieving industrial ecology's core objectives. It is concluded that current cleaner production practices are not sufficient for achieving the ultimate goals of industrial ecology. Nevertheless, cleaner production practices and methodologies may evolve into useful instruments for the implementation of industrial ecology.
Industrial Ecology in Practice: The Evolution of Interdependence at Kalundborg
Authors: Ehrenfeld John , Gertler Nicholas
Published: May 2006

The exchange of wastes, by‐products, and energy among closely situated firms is one of the distinctive features of the applications of industrial ecological principles. This article examines the industrial district at Kalundborg, Denmark, often labeled as an “industrial ecosystem” or “industrial symbiosis” because of the many links among the firms. The forces that led to its evolution and to the interdependencies are described and analyzed. Key has been a sequence of independent, economically driven actions. Other potential forms of industrial linkages are critically reviewed in the light of the Kalundborg experience. The evolutionary pattern followed at Kalundborg may not be easily transferable to greenfield developments.
The Life‐Cycle of Chlorine, Part I: Chlorine Production and the Chlorine‐Mercury Connection
Authors: Ayres Robert
Published: May 2006

Chlorine is an important industrial chemical. Not only is it a component of many important products, it is also needed for many chemical manufacturing processes, even where it does not appear in the final product. But a number of chlorine chemicals, especially organochlorines, are toxic, carcinogenic, tentogenic or otherwise potentially disturbing to the environment. For this reason, some environmentalists—notably Greenpeace‐have advocated a ban, not just on some products but on all uses of elemental chlorine. The chemical industry is taking this threat seriously and mounting a vigorous defense. But the debate so far is not illuminating the issues effectively, because both sides are selectively using questionable and unverifiable data.

The scientific uncertainties are not really the problem. Rather, data in the public domain and accessible to environmentalists and even regulatory authorities are of very poor qualrty. Because of industry secrecy much crucial inforrnation is unavailable and some of what is available is misleading or wrong. The dual purposes of this article, and the ones that follow, are (I) to elucidate the information requirements for an adequate life‐cycle analysis of chlorine and its uses and (2) to indicate how and where the use of massbalance methodology can help identify errors and fill in gaps.

The present article deals with electrolytic chlorine produdion and mercury flows arising from chlorine production. Subsequent articles deal with conversion processes and losses and further chemical industry uses of chlorine, major end uses of chlorine and chlorine chemicals, and persistent organochlorine pollutants.
Minimizing Chlorine Use: Assessing the Trade‐offs Between Cost and Chlorine Reduction in Chemical Manufacturing
Authors: Chang Dennis , Allen David T.
Published: May 2006

A mathematical model ofthe material and energy flows in the chemical manufacturing industries was used to evaluate trade‐offs between cost and chlorine use in chemical manufaduring. The model was also used to assess the impact that new technologies could have on chlorine use. Although the cost data in the model were subject to considerable uncertainty, the results did provide general guidance in choosing chemical manufacturing technologies that reduce chlorine use in a cost‐effective way More significant, the modeling demonstrates that material flow data can play a critical role in assessing the environmental implications of industrial systems.
A Framework for Information Systems in Life‐Cycle‐Oriented Environmental Management
Authors: Shaft Teresa M. , Ellington Rex T. , Meo Mark , Sharfman Mark P.
Published: May 2006

Although business firms have improved their environmental performance, a variety of forces are pushing businesses toward adopting environmental management throughout the entire life cycle of their products and processes. In this article we discuss the information systems elements of an environmental management approach we call “life‐cycle‐oriented environmental management” (LCOEM).This approach requires the firm to manage the effects of its processes from the creation of inputs to the final disposal of outputs, that is, from cradle to grave. We present a framework of the classes of information systems needed, describe their use in an LCOEM setting and define their inter relationships. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of LCOEM information systems.
Toward a New Generation of Environmental Technology: The Need For Legislative Reform
Authors: Heaton George R. , Banks R. Darryl
Published: May 2006

Given near unanimity in the environmental and industrial communities about the need for a new generation of environmental technology, the policy process unfortunately lags behind in moving toward this objective. This article examines causes and remedies for this gap in the context of American environmental policy. U.S. environmental laws continue to be pervaded by structural biases against new technology, and the complexity of their administration exacerbates the problem. Within the last few years, several important reform initiatives have arisen from inside the regulatory community; however, these can only go so far, given the current statutory framework Congress, too long quiescent, needs to become involved. A legislative reform package is proposed consisting of four main elements: a legislative mandate that makes promotion of technological innovation an explicit environmental objective; elimination of structural features in current law that impede innovation; creation of a new framework for standard‐setting and enforcement that puts every firm on a trajectory toward environmental and technological improvement; and enlisting regulation as a “demand‐pull” for environmentally superior technology.
The Life Cycle of Chlorine, Part II: Conversion Processes and Use in the European Chemical Industry
Authors: Ayres Robert U. , Ayres Leslie W.
Published: May 2006

The major purpose of this article is to construct a plausible emissions profile for the European chemical industry from process data and mass balance considerations.' In it we describe this industry and its major conversion processes and emissions. Four major process chains, beginning with methane, ethylene, propylene, and benzene are analyzed, along with five important stand‐alone processes. A self‐consistent version of the industry is constructed for 1992, based on data from a variety of sources.

In 1992 Europe consumed 9,297 metric kilotons as measured by weight of chlorine (kMT[CI]) of salt and 2 I I kMT(CI) of recycled hydrochloric acid (HCI) to produce 86 I0 kMT of virgin elemental chlorine, plus 278 kMT(CI) of virgin by‐product HCI. Total chlorine input to the industry was 8,689 kMT including I2 kMT(CI) of recycled chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHCs) and (net) 79 kMT(CI) of HCI. Shipments of chlorine and HCI to other sectors was 1,367 kMT(CI), while 7,322 kMT(CI) was embodied in products or lost within the sector: Of this subtotal, 350 kMT(CI) was used to manufacture identified inorganic chemicals, 5,694 kMT(CI) for identified organic chemicals, and 1,278 kMT(CI) for “other unspecified” chemicals.

We estimate that products account for 41.6% of inputs (measured at the “fence”), while wastes account for 24.7%
Chlorine in the Netherlands, Part II: Risk Management in Uncertainty for Chlorine
Authors: Tukker Arnold , Kleijn René , van der Voet Ester , Smeets Edith R. W.
Published: May 2006

The debate over chlorine in industrialized economies has become extremely polarized in the last decade. Environmental pressure groups are striving for a virtual phaseout of chlorine and chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHCs), because they are convinced that the risks cannot be managed. Industry argues this is not necessary because environmental risks can be controlled, nor is it feasible, because at least 60% of all firms use CHCs, produds made with CHCs, or elemental chlorine. In an attempt to give this discussion a more factual basis, the Dutch minister of environment launched a strategic study on chlorine (see Kleijn et al. I997;Tukker et al. 1995). Using all available knowledge about emissions and contemporary evaluation methods, the study found only a limited number of environmental issues outstanding related to the chlorine chain: however, it also found important uncertainties. This article describes the outstanding uncertainties in more detail. It defines which uncertainties have to be regarded as chlorine‐specific and the extent to which additional research can resolve them. For the remaining uncertainties the potential benefts of uncertainty reduction strategies are evaluted, relying mainly on the precautionary principle
Towards a Sustainable Paper Cycle: A Summary
Authors: Grieg‐Gran Maryanne , Bass Stephen , Bishop Joshua , Roberts Sarah , Sandbrook Richard , Robins Nick , Bazett Michael , Gadhvi Varsha , Subak Susan
Published: May 2006

The production of paper is a key economic activity accounting in value terms for about 2.5% of the world's industrial production and 2% of world trade. Paper products make a vital contribution to education, communications, packaging, and health care. In recent years the paper cycle has become the focus of environmental concerns about the impacts of forestry pollution from manufacturing, and waste. To address these concerns, the World Business Council for Sustainable Development commissioned the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) to examine the sustainability of the paper cycle. The first phase ofthe study involved a review of literature related to the paper cycle to identify the main debates and gaps in knowledge. This was followed by a journal of Industrial Ecology wide‐ranging program of research and consultation on various aspects of the paper cycle. This article summarizes the key findings of the study for different stages of the cycle covering issues such as the impacts of forestry, the outlook for fiber supply, the role of nonwood fiber; the environmental and social impacts of pulp and paper manufacturing, the choice of options for wastepaper and the contribution of the paper cycle to greenhouse gas emissions. The study makes a number of recommendations for the pulp and paper industry, governments, international agencies, consumers, and nongovernmental organizations
Perspectives on the U.S. Paper Industry and Sustainable Production
Authors: Smith Maureen
Published: May 2006

In the past decade and a half, the U.S. paper industry became the target of an unusual convergence of environmental concerns. These concerns have focused on the industrys role in forest and biodiversity depletion, the municipal solid waste management crisis, and various toxic chemical pollution problems. Although such concerns are traditionally treated as distinct environmental policy areas, the prominence of the paper industvs impacts in each area gave rise to an increasingly integrated environmental perspective fixed on the system of paper production and consumption, and on the paper industry itself. The argument advanced here suggests that the structure of the modem industry itself must be a central focus in a more integrated environmental perspective that can meaningfully accommodate the multiple social, economic, and ecological goals of sustainabilrty. Two issues, paper recycling and the use of nonwood fiber sources, are discussed from this point of view. The article concludes with a discussion of how a sectoral analysis of environmental problems can be Addrw correspondence tot used to frame a comprehensive strategic vision of attemative futures in the industry, and to design effective public policies and strategies
Measuring Corporate Environmental Performance: The ICI Environmental Burden System
Authors: Wright Michael , Allen David , Clift Roland , Sas Hein
Published: May 2006

The Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) group has developed a method, called the “environmental burden system” to rank the potential environmental impacts of its emissions and wastes. The method uses potency factors to characterize the potential environmental impacts of wastes and emissions in ten major impact categories. When compared to the more traditional approach of reporting the total mass of emissions and wastes, the environmental burden approach provides a more meaningful picture of the potential impact of emissions: it helps identi?. the most harmful wastes and emissions; it provides the public with a better understanding ofthe potential impact of company operations: and it helps communicate the effectiveness of waste and emission reduction programs
Economic Consequences of Increasing Polymer Content for the U.S. Automobile Recycling Infrastructure
Authors: Isaacs Jacqueline A. , Gupta Surendra M.
Published: May 2006

Environmental awareness regarding resource use and emissions over the life cycle of the automobile has heightened the concerns for end‐of‐life (EOL) vehicle disposal. With increasing use of lighter materials to enhance fuel economythe steel dominated content of automobiles is changing to include a greater fraction of polymers. In light of impending regulations for vehicle disposal, various alternatives for remanufacturing and reuse of components and material disposal are under investigation. For example, if shredder operations are used to reclaim metallic materials, then the extent of disassembly will significantly affect proftability as well as the environment.

Using goal programming, we explore changes to the current US. vehicle recycling infrastructure for their effects on dismantler and shredder proftabilities. To investigate the effect of lightweighting on the profrtabilrty of the recycling infrastructure, two specific vehicle designs are compared: a steel unibody and a polymer‐intensive vehicle. Other scenarios examine the outcomes for mandating removal of polymer materials during disassembly and for increasing the disposal cost of scrap polymer to that of hazardous waste. The results indicate that, if properly controlled, the current automobile recycling infrastructure in the United States can remain economically viable while it improves with respect to environmental considerations. Alternatively, implementation of certain policies that reduce profitability could cause disastrous consequences, resulting in the economic collapse of the infrastructure.
Recycling Postconsumer Nylon Carpet
Authors: Lave Lester , Conway‐Schempf Noellette , Harvey James , Hart Deanna , Bee Timothy , MacCracken Christopher
Published: May 2006

Each year 34 billion pounds of nylon carpet are discarded into landfills in the United States. As a case study we examine the technical and economic feasibility of recycling a portion of this source of discarded plastic. The carpet could be (I) shredded for use as daily cover at landfills or as a strengthening component of concrete, (2) sheared or chemically processed for reuse as recycled nylon or as pure nylon feedstock, or (3) made into a new type of plastic. We estimate the costs of a recycling facility to handle 450,000 Ib of discarded nylon carpet each month in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. We found that with current technology, regulations, and markets, only the recycling of carpet from commercial settings using shearing or chemical processing is economical and only under very narrow circumstances. We learned four lessons from this study, First, collection costs are high and can dominate the economics of recycling. Second, given time and incentives, collection costs can be reduced. Third, trying to recycle products not designed to be recycled leads to many problems. Carpet could be redesigned to make recycling easier by making the carpet out of a single material and using an adhesive that can be removed easily. Fourth, recycling processes should be designed to produce an existing material if at all possible, because new materials present marketing problems.
An Environmentally Conscious Decision Support System for Life‐Cycle Management
Authors: Biswas Gautam , Kawamura Kazuhiko , Hunkeler David , Dhingra Rajive , Caffey Lochlin , Huang Ellen
Published: May 2006

An Internet‐based environmentally conscious decision support tool (EcoDS) has been developed for life‐cycle management EcoDS involves an initial vertical streamlining step, where the significant life‐cycle stages, stressors, and impact categories are selected and cross‐correlated. Because the streamlining is performed prior to the inventory, the approach expedites data collection. Comparisons among alternative product designs or manufacturing processes are based on two metrics: financial risk (or cost) and “residual” risk. For purposes of evaluation these two indicators are individually aggregated using a user or organization‐specified value system. A salient feature of EcoDS is that this output can be condensed into a single summary matrix akin to a hybrid pro forma income statement and environmental balance sheet. The clear delineation between the tradeoffs involved in each alternative facilitates decision making by upper management. A case study on painting attematives is presented to illustrate the methodology
Industrial Ecology and Competitiveness
Authors: Esty Daniel C. , Porter Michael E.
Published: May 2006

In the emerging field of industrial ecology one of the unsettled questions is the degree to which design for the environment, closing energy and materials loops, and other industrial ecology concepts apply at the firm level. In this article we examine this issue with a particular focus on whether industrial ecology can guide company strategy and efforts to enhance competitiveness.

We conclude that industrial ecology thinking will often be useful for firms seeking to improve their resource productivity and thus their competitiveness. The systems perspective that industrial ecology promotes can help companies find ways to add value or reduce costs both within their own production processes and up and down the supply chain. But industrial ecology cannot always be counted upon to yield competitive advantage at the firm level. In some cases, the cost of closing loops will exceed the benefits. In other cases, regulatory requirements do not fully internalize environmental costs, and thus polluting firms may gain temporary or permanent cost advantages relative to companies that attempt to eliminate all emissions. Finally, because industrial ecology focuses attention on materials and energy flows, it may not optimize other variables that contribute to competitiveness within the corporate setting.
Trade‐off Modeling for Product and Manufacturing Process Design for the Environment
Authors: Camahan James V. , Thurston Deborah L.
Published: May 2006

This article presents a method for integrating pollution prevention and concurrent engineering (simultaneous design of products and the manufacturing processes used to produce them). The central issue is unavoidable trade‐offs, such as those among pollution, manufacturing cost, and quality. The probabilistic nature of the manufacturing process is exploited as an opportunity for pollution preventi0n.A decision tool in the form of a mathematical model is presented, which can be used by engineers and others with whom these trade‐offs must be negotiated, Specifically, the method integrates statistical manufacturing process control into a mubobjective design optimization formulation. First, the framework of a multiattribute utilty function is developed to determine which objectives are both relevant and negotiable. Then, a statistical manufacturing process control experiment is conducted to formulate some of the constraints that prevent all objectives from being maximized. Simultaneously, information obtained from the experiment is also used to fine‐tune the upper and lower bounds in the utility functions. The results of an industrial case study of a floor tile manufacturer are presented, from the manufacturer's viewpoint. The material choice and manufacturing process settings that result in the best combination of the conflicting objectives of product quality (measured in terms of scrap rate), air pollution, and manufacturing cost are determined. The analysis also reveals the irony that for this manufacturer; efforts to reduce solid waste through greater use of scrap materials increase air pollution levels
The Economic and Environmental Impact of Wastepaper Trade and Recycling in India
Authors: van Beukering Pieter , Duraiappah Anantha
Published: May 2006

There have been increasing pressures by governments and nongovernmental organizations to restrict international trade in waste in the conviction that each nation has to take care of its own waste. We develop a sectoral flow model to investigate if free trade in nontoxic waste can support economic development and simultaneously reduce environmental degradation. The model is formulated as a nonlinear programming model with an objective function that minimizes environmental and economic costs. The model in principle describes the life cycle of Indian paper: Preliminary results suggest that trade in wastepaper is both economically and environmentally advantageous. The results also show that domestic and imported waste‐paper are complementary and that import of wastepaper does not “crowd out” the domestic waste paper sector. This implies that the current trend of increasing trade of wastepaper does contribute to a more sustainable paper cycle in India.
Western European Materials as Sources and Sinks of CO2
Authors: Gielen Dolf J.
Published: May 2006

Materials use is an important factor influencing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions because significant amounts of carbon dioxide are released during the production of materials from natural resources, and because products and wastes can function as important sinks for CO2. This article analyzes the impact of Western European materials use on CO2emissions. The material flows for steel, cement, petrochemicals, and wood products are analyzed in more detail. The analysis shows that particular characteristics of the materials system must be considered in the development of emission reduction strategies. It is important to select a relatively closed system for policymaking, as in Western Europe, in order to prevent unwanted transboundary effects. The materials stored in the form of products, and the net exports of materials, products, and waste limit the potential of a recycling strategy. Carbon storage in products and waste disposal sites is significant both for synthetic and natural organic materials, but is not accounted for in natural organic materials in current emissions statistics. Accordingly the emissions accounting practices should be modified to reflect the storage of such materials.
Influence of Inventory Data Sets on Life‐Cycle Assessment Results: A Case Study on PVC
Authors: Peereboom Eric Copius , Kleijn René , Lemkowitz Saul , Lundie Sven
Published: May 2006

This study compared six widely used European life‐cycle assessment (LCA) inventory data sets, identified those, data elements that introduce major differences, and quantitatively determined the influence of these data elements for a cradle‐to‐gate LCA o f polyvinyl chloride (PVC).Large differences in data (10‐ I 100%) were found. Data on substances with recognized high environmental impact and easily determined emissions and environmental impacts, like those related to energy, show the least differences. Process‐specific emissions show larger differences. Substantially more substances emitted t o air than t o water or soil are reported, and differences between the values are less. Furthermore, various inventory data sets donot always cover the same substances. Often, individual substances, such as specific (chlorinated) hydrocarbons and metals, are collectively categorized rather than individually reported. Specific data elements o f the inventory causing many differences were geographical, temporal, and technological representativeness; categorization o f substances; naming of substance categories; use of different category definitions: system boundaries; and allocation method. The influence of these differences on LCA results, determined through sensitivity analysis, was significant, typically 10‐ 100%. Results emphasize the importance of appropriate and explicitly described data sets and the necessity o f sensitivity analyses. Results also show the need for a regularly updated and openly available database with high quality data. The availability of such a database would improve the reliability of LCA and thereby stimulate its application.
Applying Material Flow Accounting: Ecoauditing and Resource Management at the Kambium Furniture Workshop
Authors: Liedtke Christa , Rohn Holger , Kuhndt Michael , Nickel Regina
Published: May 2006

The European Commission has established the Eco Management and Auditing Scheme (EMAS) to promote and institutionalize corporate environmental management and environmental audits. This article summarizes a study primarily concerned with the execution of an ecoaudit in a medium‐sized furniture enterprise according to the rules of EMAS. Material flow accounting was used to assess and analyze the “gate‐to‐gate” and “cradle‐to‐grave” environmental impacts related to the firm's products and activities. A resource management strategy was developed that permits the determination of methods for firm‐specific material flow management, product management, and ecological product design to improve environmental performance as seen from the vantage point of resource efficiency
Indicators of Dematerialization and the Materials Intensity of Use
Authors: Cleveland Cutler J. , Ruth Matthias
Published: May 2006

We review the major empirical analyses of the related concepts of dematerialization and intensity of use. Dematerialization refen to the absolute or relative reduction in the quantity of materials used and/or the quantity of waste generated in the production of a unit of economic output A common indicator is the intensity of material use, which is the quantity of material used per unit of economic output. Our discussion focuses on seven topics: the environmental Kuznets curve for materials, material use and long wave theory material decomposition analysis, statistical, inpuboutput and dynamic models of material use, and analyses of national material use. We examine the measurement of aggregate material use and waste emissions, hypothesis testing, the importance of imports, and forces that countervail dematerialization such as rising affluence and the “rebound effect.” We conclude that: our knowledge of the extent of and mechanisms behind the patterns of material use are limited largely to individual materials or very specific industries, and most of those examples are metals; the economy is getting “lighter” but the aggregate economic significance of that trend, if any, is unknown; there is no compelling macroeconomic evidence that the US. economy is “decoupled” from material inputs; and we know even less about the net environmental effects of many changes in materials use. We caution against gross generalizations about material use, particularly the “gut” feeling that technical change, substitution, and a shift t o the “information age” inexorably lead to decreased materials intensity and reduced environmental impact. We end with some suggestions for research that may help answer these important questions.
Talking with the Donkey: Cooperative Approaches to Environmental Protection
Authors: Harrison Kathryn
Published: May 2006

In recent years, governments throughout the world have expressed growing interest in cooperative approaches to environmental protection, including negotiated rulemaking, flexible approaches t o enforcement, and voluntary codes and agreements. It is often argued that cooperative approaches are more cost effective, more conducive t o innovation, and better able t o promote fundamental attitudinal change than traditional “command and control” regulation. However, the overly broad term “cooperative approaches” fails t o acknowledge fundamental differences among these novel po I icies, including distinct ions between mandatory and voluntary programs and between those that involve bipartite negotiations between government and business and those that invite participation by a broader range of interests. This article analyzes these cooperative approaches first by offering a framework to distinguish among various cooperative policy instruments. Second, the article critically examines theoretical arguments and empirical evidence concerning one class o f cooperative approaches, voluntary challenges and agreements. The most striking finding is how little we know about the effectiveness of voluntary approaches. This is a function not only of the quite recent experience with these approaches, but also of more fundamental inattention t o program evaluation and obstacles to evaluation inherent in voluntary programs. The article concludes with a call for a more rigorous program of research to examine the effectiveness of the new policy instruments and t o compare them with traditional regulation and market‐based incentives.
Earth Systems Engineering: The Role of Industrial Ecology in an Engineered World
Authors: Allenby Brad
Published: May 2006

A principal result of the Industrial Revolution and concomitant changes in human population levels, technology systerns, and culture has been the evolution of a world in which the dynamics of major natural systems are increasingly dominated by human activity Many resulting anthropogenic perturbations of fundamental natural systems‐for example, the nitrogen and carbon cycles and heavy metal stocks and flows‐have been both unanticipated and problematic. Reducing such unintended consequences of human activity will require development of the ability to rationally engineer and manage coupled human‐natural systems in a highly integrated fashion. Such “earth systems engineering” activity will rely on industrial ecology studies and methodologies to provide critical elements of the required science bb and technology (S&T) base. Although the need to develop such anffff earth systems engineering Andustrial ecology capability is clear, it is also apparent that the current S&T bbbase, institutional structures, and ethical systems are inadequate to support such activity Accordingly, it is desirable to begin to develop such support structures while recognizing that premature attempts to engineer fundamental natural systems should be discouraged.
Book: Environmental Guide to the Internet, Third Edition
Authors: Nobel Carolyn
Published: May 2006

Book reviewed in this article:

Enuironmental Guide to the Internet, Third Edition, by Carol Briggs‐Erickson and Toni Murphy

Recycling and Waste Management Guide to the Internet, by Roger M. Guttentag
Heavy Metal Balances, Part I
Authors: Moolenaar Simon W. , Lexmond Theo M.
Published: May 2006

The control of heavy metals in such a way that soil functioning and product quality are not impeded is a prerequisie to sustainable agricutture. The current status of heavy metal accumulation in agricultural soils differs widely by region, by metal, and by agricultural system; levels of concern have already been reached in several regions (for instance, in the Netherlands and Australia). An analysis of the input and output fluxes of cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) in agriculture and of their resulting accumulation in agricultural soils is necessary to define strategies that ensure sustainable management of these metals in agricultural systems. In this article, general aspects of heavy‐metal balance studies are described for the agricultural sector within the broader context of substance flow analysis and industrial ecology. The approach chosen in this study is both precautionary and related to actual problem areas.
Sustainability Indicators at the Firm Level
Authors: Tyteca Daniel
Published: May 2006

After reviewing recent attempts to develop sustainability indicators, this article shows how the principles of productive efficiency can be used to elaborate such indicators at the firm level. The theory of productive efficiency is somewhat expanded to incorporate fundamental issues of sustainable development: environment, equity, and futurtty. Efficiency, in the expanded notion of productive efficiency, is viewed as a necessary condition for sustainability. Working with aggregate performance indicators, it is important not to lose track of the relevant basic information. Therefore, instead of elaborating one unique indicator; we propose to implement several kinds of indicators, each of which stresses one particular focus (e.g., environmental vs. social concems). The definition of sustainable development indicators is illustrated with reference to a small data set of U.S. fossil fuel‐fired electric utilities. In a sustainabiltty perspective, two important aspects are stressed, namely, the use of nonmewable resources and the inclusion of employment as a variable to maximize rather than an input to minimize. The article ends with a discussion of the significance of, and limits to, the proposed indicators.
Material Reuse Modeling
Authors: Keckler Sara E. , Allen David T.
Published: May 2006

The techniques of water distribution modeling, a well‐developed subject, have been applied to water management in an industrial park‐the Bayport chemical manufacturing complex in Houston, Texas in the United States. Linear and other mathematical programming approaches were used to evaluate water reuse opportunities for a variety of scenarios, including redesigning the industrial water use network, adding a facility to the network, limiting the total water available to the network, and varying the price of water rhe results of the modeling demonstrate that a number of economical water reuse opportunities may exist for this network of facilities. More generally, the types of mathematical models developed for water reuse may find application in reuse modeling for other materials.
Emissions of Total Volatile Organic Compounds from Anthropogenic Sources in India
Authors: Varshney Chandra K. , Padhy Pratap Kumar
Published: May 2006

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have a direct bearing on the levels of ozone and other reactive chemicals in the atmosphere and play an important role in determining air quality Anthropogenic emission of VOCs has greatly increased due to growing consumption of fossil fuels and related activities. This article presents an emissions inventory for VOCs emitted from anthropogenic soutres in India. VOC emissions factors for important source categories and activities are assembled from the literature and an effort is made to use Indian emission factors as far as possible. Important sources of VOCs include livestock, combustion of firewood and fossil fuels, rice paddy fields, manufacturing. petroleum (production and refining), natural gas (production and distribution), vehicular exhaust, and coal mining. The annual anthropogenic VOC emissions for India have been estimated to be 21 million metric tons (mt). A comparison of VOC emissions inventories for a group of countries varying in their industrial and economic development, in terms of income (gross domestic product, or GDP), population, and land area, reflects the differences among the countries. This VOC emissions inventory provides baseline information for comparisons over time and across countries. In addition, it may serve as an important tool for formulating national VOC control policies.
Books
Authors: Allenby Brad
Published: May 2006

The Religion of Technology: The Divinity of Man and the Spirit of Invention, by David F. Noble.

Science and Civilization in China (Vols. 1 and 2), by Joseph Needham
Books
Authors: Wernick Iddo
Published: May 2006

Upsizing: The Road to Zero Emissions, More Jobs, More Income, and No Pollution, by Gunter Pauli.

Stuff: The Secret Lives of Everyday Things, by John C. Ryan and Alan Thein Durning
Book
Authors: Vincent Julian
Published: May 2006

Book reviewed in this article:

Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature, by Janine M. Benyus

Cats' Paws and Catapults: Mechanical Worlds of Nature and People, by Steven Vogel
Commentary: Was Verdi a “Revolutionary”?
Authors: Castelvecchi Stefano
Published: May 2006

The recent work of historians and musicologists on Restoration Italy illustrates the complexity of the relationship between opera and society, allowing us to leave behind simplistic claims about either the “revolutionary” role of Italian opera or its political irrelevance. From a perspective closer to that of mentality history, the question to what extent a particular composer was “revolutionary” may take new directions, and even become irrelevant altogether.
Commentary: A Stroll in the Piazza and a Night at the Opera
Authors: Smart Mary Ann
Published: May 2006

Giacomo Leopardi was convinced that the willingness of Italians to wallow passively in operatic spectacle was an important reason for Italy's lack of a civil society based on debate and the exchange of opinions. Despite recent proposals that opera and opera going constituted signiªcant means of social engagement and contributed to regional and/or national identity, the preoccupations of early nineteenth-century music journalism suggest that opera existed outside the mainstream of both political and aesthetic debate, and was not yet the subject of a truly vibrant national discourse.
The Politics and Aesthetics of Operatic Modernism
Authors: Steinberg Michael P.
Published: May 2006

A survey of European trends and works suggests that the extent to which operatic modernism resists the pull of ideology may well depend on two factors: the post-Wagnerian recuperation of the primacy of voice and the proclivity of modernist operatic texts and music to engage (rather than repress) nostalgia. One work not usually included in modernist canons, Erich Korngold's Die Tote Stadt, presents an interesting model.
French Identity in Flux: The Triumph of Honegger's Antigone
Authors: Fulcher Jane F.
Published: May 2006

Why did the Paris Opera stage Arthur Honegger's Antigone in 1943, sixteen years after rejecting it for being too modernist? Recent theories of modernism reveal how the later production was able to penetrate the cultural “spaces” inadvertently created during Vichy's collaboration with Germany. The opera appealed not only to the German-and French-authorized press but also to the public, which viewed it as a work of existential examination, free from political and cultural propaganda.
Commentary: The Operatic Tragedy of Central Europe
Authors: Wolff Larry
Published: May 2006

The operas of Leos Janacek-such as Jenufa and Katya Kabanova-illustrate the nature of operatic modernism in relation to history and folklore in the context of the Habsburg monarchy and postwar Central Europe. In the performance history of the operas, moving from Janacek's city of Brno, Moravia, to such cosmopolitan capitals as Prague, Vienna, Berlin, and even New York, the case of Janacek also suggests the complex relationship between provincial, national, and transnational elements in the operatic modernism of Central Europe.
Where Did Porgy and Bess Come From?
Authors: Crawford Richard
Published: May 2006

In 1924, Metropolitan Opera board chairman Otto Kahn proposed that the yet-to-be-written Great American Opera might well be a “jazz opera.” Eleven years later, George Gershwin's engagement with Kahn's idea came to fruition in Porgy and Bess (1935), set to a libretto by DuBose Heyward, based on Heyward's novella Porgy (1925) and his play of the same name staged in 1927. Several months before Porgy was published, Gershwin had already decided that a work of Kahn's description would have to be written for a black cast. Gershwin and Heyward, two white men, revealed through their collaboration not an exploitative impulse but an understanding that the wellsprings of an American operatic art might lie as much with the performers as with the creators.
Time-locked Perceptual Fading Induced by Visual Transients
Authors: Kanai Ryota , Kamitani Yukiyasu
Published: May 2006

After prolonged fixation, a stationary object placed in the peripheral visual field fades and disappears from our visual awareness, especially at low luminance contrast (the Troxler effect). Here, we report that similar fading can be triggered by visual transients, such as additional visual stimuli flashed near the object, apparent motion, or a brief removal of the object itself (blinking). The fading occurs even without prolonged adaptation and is time-locked to the presentation of the visual transients. Experiments show that the effect of a flashed object decreased monotonically as a function of the distance from the target object. Consistent with this result, when apparent motion, consisting of a sequence of flashes was presented between stationary disks, these target disks perceptually disappeared as if erased by the moving object. Blinking the target disk, instead of flashing an additional visual object, turned out to be sufficient to induce the fading. The effect of blinking peaked around a blink duration of 80 msec. Our findings reveal a unique mechanism that controls the visibility of visual objects in a spatially selective and time-locked manner in response to transient visual inputs. Possible mechanisms underlying this phenomenon will be discussed.
Children Processing Music: Electric Brain Responses Reveal Musical Competence and Gender Differences
Authors: Koelsch Stefan , Grossmann Tobias , Gunter Thomas C. , Hahne Anja , Schröger Erich , Friederici Angela D.
Published: May 2006

Numerous studies investigated physiological correlates of the processing of musical information in adults. How these correlates develop during childhood is poorly understood. In the present study, we measured event-related electric brain potentials elicited in 5and 9-year-old children while they listened to (major–minor tonal) music. Stimuli were chord sequences, infrequently containing harmonically inappropriate chords. Our results demonstrate that the degree of (in) appropriateness of the chords modified the brain responses in both groups according to music-theoretical principles. This suggests that already 5-year-old children process music according to a well-established cognitive representation of the major–minor tonal system and according to music-syntactic regularities. Moreover, we show that, in contrast to adults, an early negative brain response was left predominant in boys, whereas it was bilateral in girls, indicating a gender difference in children processing music, and revealing that children process music with a hemispheric weighting different from that of adults. Because children process, in contrast to adults, music in the same hemispheres as they process language, results indicate that children process music and language more similarly than adults. This finding might support the notion of a common origin of music and language in the human brain, and concurs with findings that demonstrate the importance of musical features of speech for the acquisition of language.
Disturbed Sound Lateralization in Patients with Spatial Neglect
Authors: Zimmer Ulrike , Lewald Jörg , Karnath Hans-Otto
Published: May 2006

Previous studies on auditory space perception in patients with neglect have investigated localization of free-field-sound stimuli or lateralization of dichotic stimuli that are perceived intracranially. Since those studies in part revealed contradictory results, reporting either systematic errors to the left or systematic errors to the right, we reassessed the ability of auditory lateralization in patients with right hemispheric lesions with and without neglect. Unexpectedly, about half of the patients with neglect showed erratic judgments on sound position, that is, they were completely unable to lateralize sounds. The remaining neglect patients only showed a small deviation of the auditory median plane to the left side, indicating that they perceived the sounds as slightly shifted to the right side. The comparison between both groups revealed higher severity of neglect in the group of neglect patients who were unable to perform the task, suggesting that the inability of sound lateralization was associated with the strength of clinical neglect. However, we also observed 1 out of 9 patients with left brain damage who was not able to lateralize spatial sounds. This patient did not show any symptoms of spatial neglect. Thus, it may be that a spatial auditory deficit, such as that observed here in right-braindamaged patients, only co-occurs with spatial neglect if the right superior temporal cortex is lesioned.
Patterns of Activity in the Categorical Representations of Objects
Authors: Carlson Thomas A. , Schrater Paul , He Sheng
Published: May 2006

Object perception has been a subject of extensive fMRI studies in recent years. Yet the nature of the cortical representation of objects in the human brain remains controversial. Analyses of fMRI data have traditionally focused on the activation of individual voxels associated with presentation of various stimuli. The current analysis approaches functional imaging data as collective information about the stimulus. Linking activity in the brain to a stimulus is treated as a pattern-classification problem. Linear discriminant analysis was used to reanalyze a set of data originally published by Ishai et al. (2000), available from the fMRIDC (accession no. 2-20001113D). Results of the new analysis reveal that patterns of activity that distinguish one category of objects from other categories are largely independent of one another, both in terms of the activity and spatial overlap. The information used to detect objects from phase-scrambled control stimuli is not essential in distinguishing one object category from another. Furthermore, performing an object-matching task during the scan significantly improved the ability to predict objects from controls, but had minimal effect on object classification, suggesting that the task-based attentional benefit was nonspecific to object categories.