bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
10 Polk’s Early Response to the Antislavery Movement
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM
Published: January 2010

Although during the 1840s James Polk cultivated the image of a Southern moderate on the slavery question, his early career contradicted this impression. In 1832 he had provoked a furious debate in the U.S. House of Representatives, aimed at discouraging any criticism there of slavery, which foreshadowed later debates over the “gag rule.” In October 1839, as governor of Tennessee, he publicly adopted the Calhounite view that it would be unconstitutional for the federal government to take any antislavery action, even in the District of Columbia or in the federal territories. Both publicly and behind the scenes, Polk promoted the view that disunionism would be an inevitable consequence of the enactment of the (allegedly) abolitionist-tainted slavery policies of the Whig Party. Polk acted from political conviction, but also in accordance with his own economic interest, as he doubled his Mississippi plantation investment during the twelve months before October 1839.
13 Alternatives
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM
Published: January 2010

The South's response to the growth of an antislavery movement in the North proved disastrous to Southern white people. James Polk — the most powerful Southern politician in the late 1840s — imposed his will upon Mexicans and upon the Whig Party, but he failed to develop alternatives to the self-destructive tendencies of Southern Democrats. Instead of acknowledging that most Northern antislavery leaders respected the constitutional right of each Southern state to reach its own decisions about the future of slavery, Polk smeared every such leader with the “abolitionist” label. Instead of resolutely opposing Southern disunionism, he declared that disunionism was the natural response to the growth of an antislavery movement. The ultimate triumph of a secessionist policy arguably owed much to the suicidal policies pursued by influential Southern Democrats like James Polk.
Epilogue: Slavery and the Civil War
Authors: DUSINBERRE WILLIAM
Published: January 2010

The self-destruction of the slave system from 1860 to 1865 cannot be attributed primarily to an eccentric group of South Carolina extremists. The real responsibility for secession was widespread throughout the Deep South and the middle South, and it fell most heavily on Democratic Party leaders such as James Polk and his successors. Their ideology — an expanded version of states' rights, plus unconstrained economic individualism — meshed perfectly with the short-term interests of slavemasters and would-be slavemasters. But Polk and his Southern Democratic colleagues (aided by many of their Northern Democratic allies) did nothing at all to open the eyes of the electorate to the long-term interests of Southern whites. Secession was on the cards from the moment Polk launched his war against Mexico in May 1846. The language of key addresses by President Polk suggested that, when the crunch finally came, nearly the whole Southern Democratic Party would follow South Carolina into secession.
The Presentation of Authorship in Medieval German Literature 1220-1290
Authors: Coxon Sebastian
Published: January 2010

This book sheds light on the complexity of medieval German literary culture as it evolved in the course of the thirteenth century (c.1220-1290), by analysing the attitudes of narrative poets towards the issue of authorship. It describes the various ways in which vernacular writers could address the theme of their own authorship within their literary works, and explores the tensions that arose between such authorial strategies on the one hand, and their subsequent manuscript transmission on the other. The first part of the book deals with the presentation of authorship in the works of two poets who stand at the heart of literary tradition (Rudolf von Ems; Konrad von Würzburg), and involves discussion of such topics as authorial signature, acrostics, author portraits, and patronage. The second part deals with two genres (heroic epic; short story) that evince a rather more problematic relationship with the figure of the author.
Introduction: The Author In The Text
Authors: Coxon Sebastian
Published: January 2010

This introductory chapter begins with a brief discussion of the purpose of the book, which is to shed further light on authorship in the Middle Ages by examining its ‘presentation’ in German narrative literature between 1220 and 1290; that is to say, the medieval poetic practice of addressing the question of the authorship of a text within the literary work itself. It then reviews the main issues involved in the critical discussion of authorship for the Middle Ages, and presents an exposition of the various ways in which authorship was taken into account in the production of medieval (German) manuscript books. It introduces the phenomenon of the literary presentation of authorship properly, with specific reference to the works of the most distinguished German narrative poets of around 1200: Hartmann von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach, and Gottfried von Strassburg. In the examination of these authors' works the question of the relationship between the presentation of authorship and the appearance of a narrator in the text is of particular importance. Finally, the chapter discusses key socio-cultural developments that occurred in Germany over the course of the 13th century, in order to establish a broader historical framework of reference for the sustained close textual analysis which follows.
The Author Displaced, The Author Restored: The Case Of The Later Heroic Epic
Authors: Coxon Sebastian
Published: January 2010

This chapter analyses the later heroic epic. It draws on seventeen works that are widely held to have been composed in the course of the 13th century. Although they vary considerably in metrical form and thematic character, their repeated transmission in collections (so-called ‘Heldenbücher’) underlines their status as representatives of an identifiable genre.
Conclusion: The Medieval Author in the Text
Authors: Coxon Sebastian
Published: January 2010

Michel Foucault's analysis of the author as a variable function has led to the re-evaluation of authorship for a number of historical periods. This chapter considers several of the particulars of Foucault's argument and measures the book's own findings against them. The centrepiece of Foucault's essay is his four-point characterization of the author-function in Western literary culture. By exploring the extent to which these points are relevant to German narrative literature of the 13th century (1220-90), it should prove possible to view the workings of medieval authorship from a fresh perspective. The issues that Foucault highlights still represent the best frame of reference for any future objective comparison of data relating to authorship in different times and cultures.
Venice and Venetia under the Habsburgs
Authors: Laven David
Published: January 2010

This work deals principally with the fate of Venice and Venetia during the first twenty years of the so-called second Austrian domination. It begins by providing background to the period, by examining the fall of the Venetian Republic in 1797, and its early experiences of foreign domination during the Napoleonic era. It then focuses on the nature of Habsburg rule during the reign of Francis I. Challenging longstanding assumptions about the supposedly repressive and exploitative and nature of Austrian control, it highlights the difficulties faced by the authorities in balancing the needs of Venetia with wider considerations of imperial policy, and in particular the tensions generated by the retention of significant elements of the Napoleonic machinery of government established during the period 1806-1814. The central aim of the book is to move away from the traditional Risorgimento historiography, which focuses on unrest, to explain why Venetia was perhaps the most politically passive area in Europe in the two decades after the collapse of the Napoleonic Empire. The final section of the book examines the developments that took place in the period after Francis I's death in 1835, which permitted the outbreak of revolution in 1848.
The Napoleonic Legacy and the Imposition of Habsburg Rule, 1813–1818
Authors: LAVEN DAVID
Published: January 2010

In the aftermath of the Congress of Vienna, the Austrian authorities were faced with a dilemma of how far to retain the relatively efficient, but widely disliked and costly, Napoleonic machinery of government. This chapter describes how Vienna eventually opted for an administrative system that combined elements of Theresian, Josephist, and Napoleonic models, but which slimmed down the role of the state, and paid little or no attention to Venetian traditions. Unfortunately this system would prove extremely ponderous and inflexible, and closed career opportunities for many talented and ambitious men.
The Venetian Milch-Cow
Authors: LAVEN DAVID
Published: January 2010

One of the chief criticisms of Austrian rule voiced by Risorgimento propagandists and echoed by subsequent historians is that it was fiscally exploitative of Venetia. This chapter questions the extent to which the Austrians set out to impose heavy tax burdens on the region. While not investigating all aspects of fiscal policy in detail, it provides a brief survey of the attitudes of the Habsburg bureaucracy in Venetia, and a detailed case study of the operation of the widely-resented poll tax.
Censorship
Authors: LAVEN DAVID
Published: January 2010

Austrian censorship, while milder than that of most Italian states in the post-Napoleonic era, was nevertheless oppressive and unenlightened. The attempt to circle the citizens of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia with a cordon sanitaire to prevent contact with dangerous ideas was not only ineffective, but counterproductive: grievances about censorship ultimately assumed a major place in the opposition to Austrian rule.
The Forces of Law and Order
Authors: LAVEN DAVID
Published: January 2010

Traditionally Austrian rule of Venetia has been associated with repressive policing. This chapter highlights a very different story. Not only does it emphasise that relatively little police activity went into dealing with subversion — in part because of the quiescence of Venetia during the period on which this study focuses — but also that the police played a key part in ensuring the good government of the region through information gathering, monitoring the bureaucracy, and, perhaps surprisingly, representing Venetian interests to central government.
Women in a Celtic Church
Authors: Harrington Christina
Published: January 2010

This book covers the development of women's religious professions in the primitive church in Saint Patrick's era and the development of large women's monasteries such as Kildare, Clonbroney, Cloonburren, and Killeedy. It traces its subject through the heyday of the 7th century, through the Viking era, and the Culdee reforms, to the era of the Europeanisation of the 12th century. The place of women and their establishments is considered against the wider Irish background and compared with female religiosity elsewhere in early medieval Europe. The book shows that while Ireland was distinct it was still very much part of the wider world of Western Christendom, and it must be appreciated as such. Grounded in the primary material of the period, the book places in the foreground many largely unknown Irish texts in order to bring them to the attention of scholars in related fields. The book explores widespread ideas about Celtic women, pagan priestesses, and Saint Brigit, considering how these perceptions came about in light of the texts and historiographical traditions of the previous centuries.
Introduction: The Irish Holy Woman and her Modern Inquisitors
Authors: Harrington Christina
Published: January 2010

Religious women in early medieval Ireland have begun to receive attention only recently. This book examines whether there were different grades or sorts of religious women, the extent to which they were creatures of their families' political ambition, and how often, if ever, they were strictly enclosed. It also explores whether women under vows ever continued to control wealth, whether powerful abbesses owed their power to royal or noble status rather than ex officio, whether the number of female houses declined over time, whether female houses were more vulnerable to dissolution than male ones, and whether double houses were anything other than nunneries with male workers attached. First, the academic historiography of early medieval nuns is discussed, along with popular perceptions and non-specialist historiography on early Irish holy women, modern Celtic Christianity movement, and modern pagans, especially those who practice a revived druidism.
Christian Virgins and their Churches in the Sixth Century: The View from the Seventh
Authors: Harrington Christina
Published: January 2010

Between Saint Patrick's era and c.600 there came into existence places in Ireland where consecrated women could live in community under an abbess. At the turn of the 7th century, many doubtless still lived in their home environments, as they had in Patrick's day, but many did not. In the course of the 5th and 6th centuries, hundreds of churches and monasteries were established, so that by c.600 there existed across Ireland small women's ‘churches’ and a handful of flourishing nunneries. This chapter considers how these places came into existence, looking in particular at the role of those great evangelising women founders who subsequently were revered as saints, as well as at those male missionaries who helped devout Christian women to establish the small churches at which so many lived.
Nuns in Other Settings
Authors: Harrington Christina
Published: January 2010

There were many women in early Ireland following a monastic life, yet only four women's foundations survived as major monasteries over a long period: Kildare, Killeedy, Killevy, and Clonbroney. It is not just the martyrologies (calendars) in which the myriad names of holy nuns appear; they are also found in hundreds in the corpus of so-called genealogical texts of the saints. Virtually unmentioned in the voluminous scholarly literature of Irish monasticism is the fact that many male monasteries had nuns in their familiae. Nuns who were at a men's monastery include those who were within the administrative structure and who were physically within its bounds or locale. This chapter looks at monasteries at which women were reported only as temporary members, that is to say, students. This is because there would have been a constant female presence, transient though it may have been. This chapter also looks at nuns in local churches and religious women on family property.
Women of God in the Seventh to Ninth Centuries
Authors: Harrington Christina
Published: January 2010

If the living situations of religious women in early medieval Ireland were diverse, so too were the grades and varieties of their profession. There were two, possibly three, grades of female monastic: the virgin, the widow/penitent, and the priest's ‘wife’, in addition to the peregrina or religious pilgrim. Some religious women acquired a special status in law, achieving a high degree of law-worthiness, and were deemed as equivalents to bishops and presbyters. Their high legal and ecclesiastical status is understandable in the context of the theological ideas which lay behind the idea of their offices. The virgin and penitent widow in particular carried a complex of symbolisms which, though grounded in the Western tradition, reflected a particularly Irish ‘take’ on them. This chapter discusses the ecclesiastical status of nuns as well as their status with respect to the law in Ireland during the 7th to 9th centuries.
Abbesses and other High-Ranking Holy Women
Authors: Harrington Christina
Published: January 2010

The highest level a nun could achieve in Ireland was the office of abbess and, like other female professions, it was imbued with symbols and metaphors. This chapter looks at abbesses and other high-ranking holy women during the early medieval period, as well as the other types of ‘exceptional’ nuns which the Irish acknowledged. As for the latter group, these were women who gained many of the honours and even elements of the legal status of abbesses, without being heads of monasteries. They seem to have earned their status through pilgrimage, holiness, miracle-working, or service to their wider communities. In the highest echelons of the female religious profession, there was the same trend toward diversity and flexibility which have already been seen in the living arrangements and grades of nunhood. This chapter also discusses the selection and consecration of abbesses and their attendance of synods.
Equity and discretion in Islamic law
Authors: ROSEN LAWRENCE
Published: January 2010

This chapter outlines the cultural context of Islamic law. It shows that the central feature — the constant negotiation of social ties — is vital to understanding both Islamic law and society. Specific examples that will be treated in more detail in the succeeding chapters are introduced.
Responsibility and compensatory justice in Arab culture and law
Authors: ROSEN LAWRENCE
Published: January 2010

This chapter argues that the concept of responsibility is linked to the negotiation of a web of interpersonal indebtedness. So, too, is the system of compensation for delicts. The result is a view of Islamic law that reconsiders such ideas as intention, responsibility, and the nature of harmful acts.
Private thoughts, public utterances: Law, privacy, and the consequences for community
Authors: ROSEN LAWRENCE
Published: January 2010

Western ideas of privacy are less applicable to the Muslim world than are ideas of when something is public. This chapter shows that actions that impact webs of relationship are public and hence garner attention, whereas those acts that do not affect relationships are regarded as being of no concern to others. This affects what is seen as slander.
Islam and Islamic culture in the courts of the United States
Authors: ROSEN LAWRENCE
Published: January 2010

American courts are increasingly addressing Muslims who appear before them. This chapter shows how these courts understand Islam, the customs of various Muslims, and allow for a range of variation through a series of reported and unreported decisions.
Other Theories of Obligation
Authors: WATSON GEOFFREY R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines whether the Accords might be binding as unilateral declarations, as customary international law, or as some quasi-binding for ‘soft law’. It rejects these suggestions as incompatible with the nature of the Accords and the intent of their drafters. It also rejects suggestions that the Accords have no legal effect.
The Oslo Accords as Binding Agreements Between Subjects of International Law
Authors: WATSON GEOFFREY R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter argues that the Accords are binding as formal agreements between subjects of international law. Thus, there is a legal basis for the assertion that the Oslo process is ‘irreversible’. Whether there is a practical basis for that assertion is more a question of political will. Conversely, there is no basis for the claim that the Accords are non-binding ‘political’ documents.
Redeployment from the West Bank
Authors: WATSON GEOFFREY R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines Israel's compliance with its obligations to redeploy Israeli troops from the West Bank. It begins by analyzing the relevant provisions of the Accords. It then considers Israel's argument that Palestinian violations of the Accords justify Israel's suspension of its obligations to withdraw. The chapter concludes by analyzing the parties' disagreement over the meaning of ‘specified military locations’.
Settlements
Authors: WATSON GEOFFREY R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter asks whether the Har Homa project and other Israeli settlements violate either the Oslo Accords or any other source of international law. The first section considers whether the text of the Oslo Accords outlaws new or existing settlements. The second section asks whether the settlements are inconsistent with any other source of law. It argues that the law of belligerent occupation is applicable to territories occupied by Israel in 1967, and that aspects of Israeli settlement policy are inconsistent with occupation law.
Passages, Ports, and Economic Issues
Authors: WATSON GEOFFREY R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter analyzes Israeli compliance with its obligations on safe passage for Palestinians between the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, on the establishment and operation of a seaport and airport in the Gaza Strip, on economic questions, and on other related questions of infrastructure and civil affairs. It argues that most of the so-called ‘Israeli responsibilities’ on ports, passages, and economics are really joint obligations of negotiation and implementation. In particular, Israel and Palestinian Authority are both obliged to negotiate and implement in good faith.
Israeli Human Rights Obligations
Authors: WATSON GEOFFREY R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines Israel's compliance with specific human rights obligations under the Oslo Accords: the release of prisoners, and access to the Holy Places. Israel's record of compliance has been uneven, but has steadily improved over the past few years, to the point at which Israel is now in substantial compliance.
The Palestinian Duty to Prevent Terror and Violence
Authors: WATSON GEOFFREY R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter considers the Palestinian record on counter-terrorism and security matters. The Palestinian Authority has a disappointing record on its obligation to prevent and punish terror and other forms of violence. It has taken some steps to strengthen security cooperation with Israel, but has permitted (and sometimes engaged) in inflammatory anti-Israel propaganda verging on incitement to violence.
Palestinian Human Rights Obligations
Authors: WATSON GEOFFREY R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines the Palestinian Authority's (PA) compliance with its human rights obligations under the Accords. The PA has a discouraging human rights record. It cannot justify its human rights violations by pointing to similar (or dissimilar) violations by Israel.
International Law and the ‘Permanent Status’ Issues
Authors: WATSON GEOFFREY R.
Published: January 2010

The Oslo Accords lists seven ‘permanent status’ issues in the following order: (1) Jerusalem, (2) refugees, (3) settlements, (4) security arrangements, (5) borders, (6) relations and cooperation with other neighbours, and (7) other issues of common interest. This chapter considers these issues. International law offers general guidance on how the parties might resolve most of the final-status issues. The main part of the task ahead it political, not legal. The law will not dictate any particular outcome. But it can draw baselines for parties, set limits, and help advance negotiations by providing a common language for discussion.
Conclusion
Authors: WATSON GEOFFREY R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter presents some conclusions about the Oslo Accords. Among these is that the Accords are legally binding instruments, that neither party has fully complied with the Accords, and that the Accords remain in force. It discusses the broader lessons taught by the Accords about the peaceful settlement of disputes.
Green Functions
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B.
Published: January 2010

This chapter introduces the second quantization formalism based on Schrödinger and Heisenberg operators. It defines the temperature and real-time Green functions for Bose and Fermi particles and discusses their analytical properties.
The Bcs Model
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B.
Published: January 2010

This chapter applies the Green function formalism to the BCS theory of superconductivity — the Gor'kov equations are derived which make the basis for the further analysis. The Green functions are used to derive the expressions for such physical quantities as the superconducting order parameter, the electric current, the electron density, and the thermodynamic potential. The Bogoliubov–de Gennes equations are derived from the Gor'kov equations. The Gor'kov theoy is used to derive the Green functions in a homogeneous state, the gap function, the critical temperature, the supercurrent, etc.
Superconducting Alloys
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B.
Published: January 2010

This chapter explains how to incorporate scattering by random impurity atoms into the general Green function formalism of the theory of superconductivity. The cross-diagram technique based on the averaging over random impurity positions is derived using the Born approximation for the scattering amplitude. Impurity self-energy is derived. Homogeneous state of an s-wave superconductor is considered.
General Principles of the Quasiclassical Approximation
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B.
Published: January 2010

This chapter introduces the quasiclassical Green functions integrated over the energy near the Fermi surface. Using these functions, the expressions for supercurrent, electron density, and order parameter are derived. Self-energy, Eilenberger equations, and the normalization condition are derived for the quasiclassical Green functions. How to reduce the Eilenberger equations to diffusion-like Usadel equations in the case of superconducting alloys is shown. The boundary conditions for the quasiclassical Green functions at a rough interface between a superconductor and an insulator are derived.
Quasiclassical Methods in Stationary Problems
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B.
Published: January 2010

This chapter demonstrates the potentialities of the quasiclassical method for selected problems in the theory of stationary superconductivity. The Ginzburg–Landau equations are derived, the upper critical field of dirty superconductors at arbitrary temperatures is calculated, and the gapless regime in superconductors with magnetic impurities is discussed. Effects of impurities on the critical temperature and the density of states in d-wave superconductors are discussed. The energy spectra of excitations in vortex cores of s-wave and d-wave superconductors are calculated.
Nonstationary Theory
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B.
Published: January 2010

This chapter considers two methods designed for calculating the real-time (retarded, advanced, and Keldysh) Green functions of nonstationary superconductors: (i) the method of analytical continuation worked out by Eliashberg; and (ii) the Keldysh diagram technique. The Eliashberg phonon model of superconductivity is discussed and the equation for the order parameter is derived. Expressions for self-energies of electron-phonon and electron-electron interactions are obtained. Transport-like equations for the retarded (advanced) and Keldysh Green functions of particles interacting with impurities, phonons, and with each other are derived. Expressions for the electron density, electric current, internal energy, and energy current are derived in terms of the Keldysh Green functions.
The Time-dependent Ginzburg-Landau Theory
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B.
Published: January 2010

This chapter specifies the conditions when the time-dependent Ginzburg–Landau (TDGL) model can be justified microscopically. The TDGL model is shown to be exact for gapless superconductors. It is not exact, however, for systems with a finite energy gap. The role of nonequilibrium excitations is elucidated in the dynamics of superconductors. The generalized version of TDGL-like model is derived for superconductors with relatively strong pair-breaking effects due to inelastic relaxation. The (different) characteristic relaxation times for the order parameter and for the superconducting phase are identified. The TDGL-like theory is developed for d-wave superconductors. The charge imbalance, the decay of a d.c. electric field in a superconductor, and the surface resistance are discussed.
Time-Dependent Ginzburg–Landau Analysis
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B.
Published: January 2010

This chapter considers vortex dynamics within the frameworks of the conventional and generalized TDGL models. The forces (the Lorenz force and the force from environment) acting on a moving vortex are identified and the force balance is derived from the free energy considerations. The vortex viscosity and the flux flow conductivity are calculated in the limits of rare (low fields) and dense (high fields) vortex lattice for both s-wave and d-wave superconductors. The flux flow conductivity for anisotropic and layered superconductors is also calculated. A modification of the TDGL model is considered which allows one to account for a small flux-flow Hall effect.
Vortex Dynamics in Clean Superconductors
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B.
Published: January 2010

The general features of the vortex dynamics in clean superconductors are first discussed using the Boltzmann kinetic equation. The conditions when the dissipative dynamics of vortices transforms into a Hamiltonian one are established. The crucial importance of excitations localized in vortex cores is clarified. Next the quasiclassical Green function technique and the kinetic equations of the previous chapters are used to calculate the longitudinal and Hall components of the flux flow conductivity for s-wave superconductors. The forces on a vortex, vortex cross sections, and the flux-flow conductivity are discussed in detail as functions of temperature and of purity of the superconductor. The transition from viscous to non-dissipative vortex dynamics is demonstrated to occur as a function of the relaxation time in superconductor.
Bolizmann Kinetic Equation
Authors: Kopnin Nikolai B.
Published: January 2010

This chapter derives the canonical Boltzmann kinetic equation for two particular examples. First case is a superconductor with homogeneous in space order-parameter magnitude and current. The second example treats the excitations in the vortex core. The Boltzmann equation is then applied to calculate the vortex momentum and vortex mass. It is also used for the vortex dynamics in a d-wave superconductor. The non-trivial behaviour of the d-wave flux-flow conductivity and the Hall effect is discussed.
Mean-Field Theory of Spin Glasses
Authors: Nishimori Hidetoshi
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the problem of spin glasses. If the interactions between spins are not uniform in space, the analysis of the previous chapter does not apply. In particular, when the interactions are ferromagnetic for some bonds and antiferromagnetic for others, the spin orientation cannot be uniform in space, unlike the ferromagnetic system. Under such a circumstance it sometimes happens that spins become randomly frozen — random in space but frozen in time. This is the intuitive picture of the spin glass phase. The chapter investigates the condition for the existence of the spin glass phase as an extension of the mean-field theory. In particular, the properties of the so-called replica-symmetric solution are explained in detail for the Sherrington–Kirkpatrick (SK) model.
Replica Symmetry Breaking
Authors: Nishimori Hidetoshi
Published: January 2010

This chapter continues the analysis of the Sherrington–Kirkpatrick (SK) model started in the preceding chapter. The free energy of the SK model derived under the ansatz of replica symmetry has the problem of negative entropy at low temperatures. It is therefore natural to investigate the possibility that the order parameter may assume various values depending upon the replica indices. The theory of replica symmetry breaking started in this way as a mathematical effort to avoid unphysical conclusions of the replica-symmetric solution. It turned out, however, that the scheme of replica symmetry breaking developed by Parisi has a very rich physical implication, namely the existence of a vast variety of stable states with ultrametric structure in the phase space. The chapter is devoted to the elucidation of this story.
Error-Correcting Codes
Authors: Nishimori Hidetoshi
Published: January 2010

Reliable transmission of information through noisy channels plays a vital role in modern society. Some aspects of this problem have close formal similarities to the theory of spin glasses. Noise in the transmission channel can be related to random interactions in spin glasses and the bit sequence representing information corresponds to the Ising spin configuration. The replica method serves as a powerful tool of analysis, and TAP-like equations can be used as a practical implementation of the algorithm to infer the original message. The gauge theory also provides an interesting point of view. This chapter introduces these problems.
Associative Memory
Authors: Nishimori Hidetoshi
Published: January 2010

The scope of the theory of neural networks has been expanding rapidly. The statistical-mechanical techniques stemming from the theory of spin glasses have been playing important roles in the analysis of model systems. This chapter summarizes basic concepts, such as neurons, synapses, axons, and studies the characteristics of networks with interneuron connections given by a specific prescription called the generalized Hebb rule. An important goal is to elucidate the structure of the phase diagram with various parameters as their axes, such as the temperature and number of memorized patterns. Related is the capacity of a network, which means the number of patterns that can be memorized. The problem of learning, where the connections gradually change according to some rules to achieve specified goals, is delegated to the next chapter.
Learning In Perceptron
Authors: Nishimori Hidetoshi
Published: January 2010

The capacity of a simple perceptron has been calculated in the previous chapter under random combinations of input and output. The problem of learning is different from the capacity problem in that the perceptron is required to simulate the functioning of another perceptron even for new inputs, not just to reproduce random signals as in the previous chapter. For this purpose, the couplings are gradually adjusted so that the probability of correct output increases. An important objective of the theory of learning is to estimate the functional relation between the number of examples and the expected error under a given algorithm to change couplings. The argument in this chapter concerns the learning in simple perceptrons.
Introduction
Authors: Henriksen Niels E. , Hansen Flemming Y.
Published: January 2010

This introductory chapter considers first the relation between molecular reaction dynamics and the major branches of physical chemistry. The concept of elementary chemical reactions at the quantized state-to-state level is discussed. The theoretical description of these reactions based on the time-dependent Schrödinger equation and the Born-Oppenheimer approximation is introduced and the resulting time-dependent Schrödinger equation describing the nuclear dynamics is discussed. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of matter at thermal equilibrium, focusing at the Boltzmann distribution. Thus, the Boltzmann distribution for vibrational, rotational, and translational degrees of freedom is discussed and illustrated.
Potential energy surfaces
Authors: Henriksen Niels E. , Hansen Flemming Y.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses potential energy surfaces, that is, the electronic energy as a function of the internuclear coordinates as obtained from the electronic Schrödinger equation. It focuses on the general topology of such energy surfaces for unimolecular and bimolecular reactions. To that end, concepts like saddle point, barrier height, minimum-energy path, and early and late barriers are discussed. It concludes with a discussion of approximate analytical solutions to the electronic Schrödinger equation, in particular, the interaction of three hydrogen atoms expressed in terms of Coulomb and exchange integrals, as described by the so-called London equation. From this equation it is concluded that the total electronic energy is not equal to the sum of H-H pair energies. Finally, a semi-empirical extension of the London equation — the LEPS method — allows for a simple but somewhat crude construction of potential energy surfaces.
Unimolecular reactions
Authors: Henriksen Niels E. , Hansen Flemming Y.
Published: January 2010

This chapter considers unimolecular reactions; photo-induced reactions, i.e. true unimolecular reactions; and reactions initiated by collisional activation, i.e. apparent unimolecular reactions where it is assumed that the time scales for activation and subsequent reaction are well separated. Elements of classical and quantum dynamical descriptions are discussed, including Slater theory and the quantum mechanical description of photo-induced reactions. Statistical theories aiming at the calculation of micro-canonical as well as canonical rate constants are discussed, including a detailed discussion of RRKM theory. It concludes with a discussion of femtochemistry, i.e. the observation and control of chemical dynamics using femtosecond pulses of electromagnetic radiation, focusing on the control of unimolecular reactions via the interaction with coherent light, that is, laser control.
Microscopic interpretation of Arrhenius parameters
Authors: Henriksen Niels E. , Hansen Flemming Y.
Published: January 2010

This chapter reviews the microscopic interpretation of the pre-exponential factor and the activation energy in rate constant expressions of the Arrhenius form. The pre-exponential factor of apparent unimolecular reactions is, roughly, expected to be of the order of a vibrational frequency, whereas the pre-exponential factor of bimolecular reactions, roughly, is related to the number of collisions per unit time and per unit volume. The activation energy of an elementary reaction can be interpreted as the average energy of the molecules that react minus the average energy of the reactants. Specializing to conventional transition-state theory, the activation energy is related to the classical barrier height of the potential energy surface plus the difference in zero-point energies and average internal energies between the activated complex and the reactants. When quantum tunnelling is included in transition-state theory, the activation energy is reduced, compared to the interpretation given in conventional transition-state theory.
Introduction to condensed-phase dynamics
Authors: Henriksen Niels E. , Hansen Flemming Y.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses chemical reactions in solution; first, how solvents modify the potential energy surface of the reacting molecules, and second the role of diffusion. As a first approximation, solvent effects are described by models where the solvent is represented by a dielectric continuum, focusing on the Onsager reaction-field model for solvation of polar molecules. The reactants of bimolecular reactions are brought into contact by diffusion, and the interplay between diffusion and chemical reaction that determines the overall reaction rate is described. The solution to Fick's second law of diffusion, including a term describing bimolecular reaction, is discussed. The limits of diffusion control and activation control, respectively, are identified. It concludes with a stochastic description of diffusion and chemical reaction based on the Fokker–Planck equation, which includes the diffusion of particles interacting via a potential U(r).
Dynamic solvent effects, Kramers theory
Authors: Henriksen Niels E. , Hansen Flemming Y.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses dynamical solvent effects on the rate constants for chemical reactions in solution. The effect is described by stochastic dynamics, where the influence of the solvent on the reaction dynamics is included by describing the motion along the reaction coordinate as Brownian motion. Two theoretical approaches are discussed: Kramers theory with a constant time-independent solvent friction coefficient and Grote-Hynes theory, a generalization of Kramers theory, based on the generalized Langevin equation with a time-dependent solvent friction coefficient. The expressions for the rate constants have the same form as in transition-state theory, but are multiplied by transmission coefficients that incorporate the dynamical solvent effect. In the limit of fast motion along the reaction coordinate, the solvent molecules can be considered as ‘frozen’, and the predictions of the Grote–Hynes theory can differ from the Kramers theory by several orders of magnitude.
Simple Future and Future Perfect in Archaic Latin
Authors: DE MELO WOLFGANG DAVID CIRILO
Published: January 2010

It is often claimed that the contrast between simple future and future perfect is one of aspect in the early period. The simple future is said to be imperfective, the future perfect, perfective. In reality there are many simple futures that have to be interpreted as perfective as well. Since the future perfect is very rare in main clauses and relatively frequent in subordinate ones, it makes more sense to regard it as a future anterior. The simple future, which is not restricted in any way, is its non-anterior counterpart. There is only a limited overlap of usage in that, in certain contexts, either tense is possible.
Prohibitions with fēcerīs and faciās in Archaic Latin
Authors: DE MELO WOLFGANG DAVID CIRILO
Published: January 2010

There are many ways of forming prohibitive clauses in Latin. This chapter looks at those containing perfect and present subjunctives. Various possible contrasts are examined, for instance that between inhibitive prohibitions (‘stop doing’) and preventive ones (‘do not do’). Prohibitions introduced by nē (‘not’) are often indistinguishable from subordinate negative clauses; since the latter are historically derived from the former, this fuzziness of categories comes as no surprise. Prohibitions can also be introduced by caue, an original imperative (‘beware’) that underwent a grammaticalization process and turned into a simple prohibition marker. The use of perfect subjunctives in prohibitions does not fit into the synchronic tense system; we are dealing with old aorist uses that were eventually restricted to the second person, in contrast to the present subjunctive.
The Sigmatic Future in Archaic Latin
Authors: DE MELO WOLFGANG DAVID CIRILO
Published: January 2010

The sigmatic future has a remarkable pattern of distribution. In main clauses only the fossilized faxō occurs, while in subordinate clauses we find forms belonging to different verbs and persons. In main clauses the meaning is that of a simple future (‘I shall do’), whereas in subordinate clauses the forms could be replaced by future perfects (‘I shall have done’). The perfective, but non-anterior meaning in main clauses is original. The anterior meaning in subordinate clauses is the result of reanalysis.
The Type duim in Archaic Latin
Authors: DE MELO WOLFGANG DAVID CIRILO
Published: January 2010

Subjunctives of the type duim ‘I may give’ contain the same optative morpheme as the sigmatic faxim ‘I may do’. Similarly, they always have non-past meaning, but have peculiar restrictions of use in that they are absent in commands and ut-clauses, but frequent in prohibitions and subordinate nē-clauses. These forms also belong to an elevated register.
Some Problems of Reconstruction
Authors: DE MELO WOLFGANG DAVID CIRILO
Published: January 2010

In theory the sigmatic forms could go back to Proto-Indo-European desideratives or aorists. While diachronic morphology on its own remains inconclusive, the perfective meaning of the forms and their prevalence in prohibitions point strongly to aoristic origin. Even though some of the forms are undoubtedly old, the frequent faxō ‘I shall do’ must be relatively recent. Both duim and dem ‘I may give’ go back to aorist forms, but only dem was reanalysed as a present subjunctive. The -u- in duim is of Proto-Italic age.
Introduction
Authors: Jenkins Alice
Published: January 2010

This introductory chapter begins with a brief discussion of the purpose of the book, which is an interdisciplinary study of British literary and scientific culture in the first half of the 19th century, focusing on the development in those decades of a new spatial imagination. Its central concern reflects the increasing importance of space in critical enquiry over recent decades. The book steps back from the lived spaces of social geography to view the abstract space with and within which early 19th century writers organized knowledge, and which affected literature and the literary imagination in ways which have not yet been fully investigated by literary critics. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
Culture as Nature: Landscape Metaphors and Access to the World of Learning
Authors: Jenkins Alice
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the landscape metaphors that were very frequently used to regulate and describe access to knowledge. By imaging knowledge as a series of outdoor spaces, subject to a greater or lesser degree of human intervention, and accessible to a greater or lesser range of human characters, these metaphors of gardens, wildernesses, pastoral, and picturesque landscapes staged debates about who should be able to learn what in early 19th-century Britain as a tussle between nature and culture. The chapter asks how spatial rhetorics were mobilized to manage access to knowledge in the face of strong pressures at once to enlarge and to control popular engagement in education. Using evidence from both popular and elite texts, it explores the political implications of the particular kinds of spatial metaphor most widely deployed, focusing especially on arguments and anxieties about individualism, conquest, and exploration.
Bodies in Space: Ether, Light, and the Beginnings of the Field
Authors: Jenkins Alice
Published: January 2010

This chapter argues that physics in the early 19th century was radically changing the nature of conceptions of space, essentially by dematerializing it. Contrary to the accepted account of Victorian culture as increasingly rooted in the material, the story of Victorian physics is one of jettisoning material explanations for phenomena. The contemporary success of the theory that light is a wave rather than a particle is one indication of the rise of dematerializing explanations in the period; another is the development of field theory. Field theory, particularly in its early form as propounded by Michael Faraday, collapses the distinction between matter and space, describing them instead as greater and lesser intensities of lines of electromagnetic and other forces. Field theory thus dramatically undermined all previous conceptions of space as passive container for material objects and paved the way for the energy physics of the late 19th century.
Scale-Free Networks
Authors: Caldarelli Guido
Published: January 2010

A variety of different social, natural and technological systems can be described by the same mathematical framework. This holds from the Internet to food webs and to boards of company directors. In all these situations, a graph of the elements of the system and their interconnections displays a universal feature. There are only a few elements with many connections and many elements with few connections. This book reports the experimental evidence of these ‘Scale-free networks’ and provides students and researchers with a corpus of theoretical results and algorithms to analyse and understand these features. The content of this book and the exposition makes it a clear textbook for beginners and a reference book for experts.
Introduction to graphs
Authors: Caldarelli Guido
Published: January 2010

This introductory chapter provides the basics of the graph theory used in the book.
The origin of power-law functions
Authors: Caldarelli Guido
Published: January 2010

This chapter is devoted to the mathematical models that can originate power-law exponents.
Graph generating models
Authors: Caldarelli Guido
Published: January 2010

This chapter presents the various models introduced to describe the growth and evolution of networks.
Networks in the cell
Authors: Caldarelli Guido
Published: January 2010

This chapter presents the activity done on networks in the field of biology, mostly protein interaction networks.
Ecological networks
Authors: Caldarelli Guido
Published: January 2010

This chapter presents the area of ecological networks analysis, mostly in the area of food webs.