bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Directives
Authors: Swan Tony , Gilchrist Robert , Bradley Malcolm , Clarke Mike , Green Peter , Reese Allan , Hinde John , Stalewski Andrew , O’brien Carl
Published: November 2023

This chapter defines the syntax and semantics of each directive in GLIM, and in some cases gives examples of their use. It presupposes the terms and definitions given in [13] and [14]. The underlining within directive names in the syntax definitions indicates their minimum abbreviation [13.2].
Methodological concerns, choice of groups and instruments
Authors: Poortinga Ype H , Sinha Jai B P
Published: November 2023

To investigate the framework described in Chapter 1 four major studies were carried out, two in India and two in The Netherlands, as well as three smaller scale projects on norms of retaliation (Chapter 8). In this chapter the research methods are described, as far as they were common to the four main studies (Chapters 3–6). First we pay attention to methodological concerns. Then we discuss the selection of the pairs of groups from which subjects were recruited. In the last section we present the various instruments that were used. In a cross-cultural study the ideal is to use instruments that give strictly comparable or equivalent results. This implies that scores of an equal value obtained in culturally different groups have the same meaning in terms of the psychological characteristics inferred from the scores. There is substantial evidence, particularly from the domain of cognitive tests, that for groups culturally as far apart as the Indians and the Dutch, this ideal of comparable scores is unrealistic (e.g. Poortinga and Malpass 1986). This means that a direct comparison between the scores of subjects in India and The Netherlands had to be avoided.
The role of the 'face-cell' area in the discrimination and recognition of faces by monkeys
Authors: Heywood C A , Cowey A
Published: November 2023

Cortical neurons that are selectively sensitive to faces, parts of faces and particular facial expressions are concentrated in the banks and floor of the superior temporal sulcus in macaque monkeys. Their existence has prompted suggestions that it is damage to such a region in the human brain that leads to prosopagnosia: the inability to recognize faces or to discriminate between faces. This was tested by removing the face-cell area in a group of monkeys. The animals learned to discriminate between pictures of faces or inanimate objects, to select the odd face from a group, to inspect a face then select the matching face from a pair of faces after a variable delay, to discriminate between novel and familiar faces, and to identify specific faces. Removing the face-cell area produced no or little impairment which in the latter case was not specific for faces. In contrast, several prosopagnosic patients were impaired at several of these tasks. The animals were less able than before to discern the angle of regard in pictures of faces, suggesting that this area of the brain may be concerned with the perception of facial expression and bearing, which are important social signals in primates.
Face recognition impairments
Authors: Young Andrew W
Published: November 2023

Face recognition impairments are often found in the context of brain injury involving the right cerebral hemisphere. Recognition impairments can be dissociated from impairments affecting the processing of other types of information carried by the face, such as expression. The face recognition impairments themselves take different forms, corresponding to idealized stages or levels of recognition. These types of error can also arise as transitory phenomena in normal everyday life.
Lipreading and audio-visual speech perception
Authors: Summerfield Quentin
Published: November 2023

This paper reviews progress in understanding the psychology of lipreading and audio-visual speech perception. It considers four questions.
The extraction and use of facial features in low bit-rate visual communication
Authors: Pearson Don
Published: November 2023

A review is given of experimental investigations by the author and his collaborators into methods of extracting binary features from images of the face and hands. The aim of the research has been to enable deaf people to communicate by sign language over the telephone network. Other applications include model-based image coding and facial-recognition systems. The paper deals with the theoretical postulates underlying the successful experimental extraction of facial features. The basic philosophy has been to treat the face as an illuminated three-dimensional object and to identify features from characteristics of their Gaussian maps. It can be shown that in general a composite image operator linked to a directional-illumination estimator is required to accomplish this, although the latter can often be omitted in practice.
Optimal Stopping for a Non-Communicating Team
Authors: Goel Prem K , Gulati Chandra M , Degroot Morris H
Published: November 2023

Marschak and Radner (1972) ([MR] for short) define an organization as, “a group of persons whose actions agree with certain rules that further their common interests”, and a team as an organization with “only common interests.” The common interest is expressed mathematically by a single expected utility function U for the team. The [MR] monograph presents various formulations of the team organization problems in economic theory setting along with the underlying decision analyses for different information structures, corresponding to the level of information exchange between the team members, and various payoff functions in a comprehensive manner. A recent monograph by Kim and Roush (1987) presents the core material developed by Marschak in the 1950’s and describes many aspects of teams, not previously studied, using modern techniques such as the theory of algorithms.
SAGA: Sample Assisted Graphical Analysis
Authors: Racine-Poon Amy
Published: November 2023

Graphical diagnostic techniques are introduced via two illustrative examples. The first example involves reparameterization of a nonlinear estimation problem; the second involves identifying outliers in hierarchical models. The diagnostics are performed in the parameter space. Algorithms for generating samples from the posterior density are briefly discussed. Recently considerable attention has been paid to the development of efficient algorithms for generating samples from high-dimensional posterior densities (see Gelfand and Smith, 1990, and Gelfand, et al. 1990). These sampling methodologies have been mostly used for the purpose of inference but not for diagnostics. Meanwhile, in the field of exploratory data analysis, due to the easy availability of highly efficient dynamic graphics, considerable progress has been made in multivariate exploratory data analysis (see Weihs and Schmidli, 1990). Most graphical techniques have so far been applied to the space of observations or the space of variables, like residual diagnostics and biplots. However, these graphical tools can also be applied to the parameter space when samples from the posterior density are available. We therefore have the means to visualize the forms and shapes of a high dimensional posterior density. This will give us insight into the impact on the inference of the choice of parameterization, transformation, model and prior, and also will provide us with a tool for diagnostics.
Bayesian Analysis of Linear Models
Authors: Schervish Mark J
Published: November 2023

We consider Bayesian methods for answering common questions in univariate and multivariate linear models. The types of questions we consider are all of the form “How far is some linear function of the parameters away from some specified value?” We construct random variables whose posterior distributions are useful for answering such questions. We compare the answers to those which classical statisticians try to derive from the usual F test. Of particular concern is the confounding of sample size with effect size, which the F test is unable to unravel.
Bayesian Predictive Inference for Samples from Smooth Processes
Authors: Zidek J V , Weerahandi S
Published: November 2023

This paper extends a method of the authors to obtain a Bayes linear procedure for predicting the value at a specified time of a future sample path. It is supposed that data are available from a number of sample paths which are deemed to be related to the future sample path. The method is local and relies on a simple linear model which derives from the Taylor expansions of the processes at the point at which the inference is required. It is argued that the resulting Bayes linear predictor is approximately the same as that from any one of a family of complex Bayes linear predictors which obtain under the assumption that the processes possess several derivatives. An illustrative application to growth curve analysis is used to bring out some of the strenghts and weaknesses of the proposed method.
Use of the Student-t Prior for the Estimation of Normal Means: A Computational Approach
Authors: Angers Jean-François
Published: November 2023

Estimation of the mean of a multivariate normal distribution is considered. The components of the mean vector, θ, are assumed to be exchangeable which will be modeled, in a hierarchical fashion, with independent Student-t distributions as the first stage prior. The first stage Bayes estimator will be described in closed form when the Student-I priors have odd numbers of degrees of freedom.
The Influence of Prior and Likelihood Tail Behaviour on the Posterior Distribution
Authors: Gómez-Villegas M A , Maín P
Published: November 2023

The tails of a continuous distribution may be classified as light, medium or heavy, depending on the limit of the hazard rate as x tends to infinity. We consider some likelihood and prior distributions with different right tails, and study the resultant posterior right tail. To this end we relate the concept and properties of regularly varying functions to the notion of tail weight.
Empirical and Hierarchical Bayes Estimation in Multivariate Regression Models
Authors: Merwe A J Van Der , Merwe C A Van Der
Published: November 2023

Consider the linear multivariate regression model Y = X1β1+ X2 β2+ ε:, where ε ∼ N(0; In < Σ). This paper is an extension of the work of Ghosh et al. (1989) and considers estimation of β1 when it is suspected that β2 = 0. Empirical Bayes and hierarchical Bayes estimators of β1 are proposed. They serve as a compromise between β1, the ordinary least squares estimator and β1, the restricted least squares estimator under the assumption β=2 = 0, and lean more towards β1 if the hypothesis HO : β2 = 0 is true, and towards β1 otherwise. The methods developed are applied to a real problem.
Interaction between religions and reproduction in human populations
Authors: Reynolds V
Published: November 2023

Studies of the ways in which religious affiliation affects people’s attitudes to, and realization of, their reproductive potential have tended in the main to focus on a number of issues, in particular how strongly pronatalist sects may promote high fertility rates (Eaton and Mayer 1953; Hostetler and Huntington 1967, 1971; Reynolds and Tanner 1983; Reynolds 1988; Coleman, Chapter 2), or conversely how reduced fertility can come about in religious groups (Lesthaeghe 1977, 1980; Coale and Watkins 1986; Lesthaeghe and Wilson 1986; Landers 1990; Stevenson and Everson 1990). Most of the latter studies have concerned Christian sects, with the notable exception of Chamie (1981) who investigated fertility decline among educated Muslims in the Lebanon.

Such studies raise a number of wider issues that are less often addressed, probably because they are further removed from the empirical data and reach into some contentious areas of argument in sociology and economic history. For example, there is the question ‘To what extent are people’s reproductive decisions determined by their religious affiliation and to what extent by secular, economic considerations?’ This question is not overly contentious in itself. For example, Westoff and Ryder (1977) demonstrated that from 1916 to 1950 there was a progressive increase in the use of artificial methods of birth control and it became more popular among younger Catholics in various countries (see Table 3.1); this they interpreted in terms of secular factors such as the cost of education, the provision by the state of welfare benefits for the aged, and so on.
Population genetics of the a-globin complex in Oceania
Authors: Boyce A J , Harding r. M , Martinson J J
Published: November 2023

The techniques of molecular genetics now make it possible to study genetic variation at the level of the DNA and the application of these techniques has greatly enhanced our understanding of the causes of genetic diversity within and between human populations (Devor 1992). One of the most extensive surveys of DNA variation has been of the a-globin complex. The analysis of this diversity has provided new evidence for the importance of malaria as a selective agent. In addition to selection, genetic diversity results from the interaction of genetic drift and migration, and present day distributions of DNAmarkers are providing information about population movements and affinities. The purpose of this chapter is to review some of the recent population genetics analyses of the a globin complex, drawing on the extensive data which have been accumulated for South-East Asia and the Pacific.
The International Water Decade and Beyond: New Public Health Interventions
Authors: Bell Morag , Franceys Richard , Liao Mary
Published: November 2023

Since the late 1970s, the provision of public health facilities for low income communities has become the subject of heightened debate. The sheer numbers involved-in many cases, some 40-50% of major city inhabitants and some two-thirds of rural populations-have provided a compelling reason for renewed efforts at social and environmental engineering (WHO 1985). By supporting the principles of slum and shanty upgrading and minimum services in rural areas, the international aid community has given political respectability to various low cost approaches and technologies (Glaser 1985). This paper explores recent attempts to improve the effectiveness of environmental health programmes and projects as reflected in the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, or Water Decade, and beyond. Launched by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 November 1980 following the Mar del Plata Conference in 1977, this global movement sought to improve human access to clean water, appropriate sanitation and primary health care by 1990.
The police
Authors: Bottomley Keith , Coleman Clive
Published: November 2023

The primary source of statistical data on police work is the annual publication, Criminal Statistics England and Wales, with its four additional volumes of Supplementary Tables. Reference has already been made (Chapter 3) to the comprehensive data on police cautioning provided in Criminal Statistics. In addition, data is provided on how persons proceeded against at magistrates’ courts have been dealt with by the police, prior to first court appearance, including the numbers summonsed, arrested, and bailed by the police, and those arrested and held in custody (p. 27), although some official doubts have been expressed about the quality and accuracy of some of these data on remands on bail and in custody.
Survey design and interpretation of the British Crime Survey
Authors: Maung Natalie Aye
Published: November 2023

For most of this century, the only source of information on levels of crime has been statistics of offences recorded by the police. However, in the last 20 years an alternative has emerged: surveys of the victims of crime themselves. The origins of victim surveys lie in the USA with the 1967 United States President’s Commission on Crime, which recommended the collection of information on experiences of crime from representative samples of the population. As a result, the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), covering individuals in private households, was established in 1972, and continues today.
Programming in Genstat
Authors: Payne R W , Lane P W , Digby P G N , Harding S A , Leech P K , Morgan G W , Todd AD , Thompson R , Wilson G Tunnicliffe , Welham S J , White R P
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we tell you more about the structure of a Genstat program (5.1). We also describe the directives that allow you to loop over sequences of statements, or to choose between alternative sets of statements (5.2). These give you the flexibility to write general programs, where the exact analysis to be performed depends on information derived from the data when the program is run. Programs that are frequently required can be stored in procedures, as described in 5.3. This not only makes them simpler for you to use; it also means that you can make them easily available to other users, by means of libraries (5.3.1) or by articles in the Genstat Newsletter.
Analysis of time series
Authors: Payne R W , Lane P W , Digby P G N , Harding S A , Leech P K , Morgan G W , Todd AD , Thompson R , Wilson G Tunnicliffe , Welham S J , White R P
Published: November 2023

A time series in Genstat is a sequence of observations at equally spaced points in time. Each time series is stored in a variate for which the unit number indexes the time points. Genstat cannot deal explicitly with unequal spacing in time. So if you have such a sequence, you will need to do some form of adjustment or interpolation before using the methods described here. Genstat will handle missing values in time series, but these should not represent more than a small fraction of the data.
Modern human origins and the dynamics of regional continuity
Authors: Brace C Loring
Published: November 2023

Paleoanthropology has long operated ‘in the complacent mold of medieval Neoplatonic essentialism as though Darwin had never existed’ (Brace 199le, p. 884; see also Brace 1964). Not only has Homo erectus been conceptualized as an invariant typological entity throughout its existence (Rightmire 1990), but Neanderthals also continue to be regarded as though all were clones of the single robust male specimen found at La Chapelle-aux-Saints in 1908 (Stringer 1984, 1990; Stringer eta/. 1984; Tattersall 1986; Brace 1991b).
Ancient migrations from Asia to North America
Authors: Szathmary Emoke J E
Published: November 2023

The origin of the aboriginal peoples of North America lies in Asia. The biological evidence for this is indisputable, and includes dental traits (Hanihara 1979; Turner 1988), anthropometric and craniofacial features (Howells 1973; Alekseyev 1979; Steele and Powell 1992) and genetic characteristics (Szathmary 1979a,b, 1993; Nei and Roychoudhury 1982). The array of genes includes those that are shared between aboriginal Americans and peoples of Asia, and genes that reflect European or African gene flow. (Szathmary and Reed 1972; Williams eta/. 1986; Szathmary 1993). There are also genes that are characteristically North American, some widely distributed across the continent, and others restricted to the tribal groups in which they first appeared (Table 9.1) (Szathmary and Auger 1983; Schell and Blumberg 1988; Szathmary 1993). Not surprisingly, there is con siderable genetic heterogeneity within and between the aboriginal populations of the Americas (Salzano and Callegari-Jacques 1988; O’Rourke eta/. 1992). North of Mexico the variation is associated with differences in language (Spuhler 1972) as well as differences in culture area (Spuhler 1979), the latter being geographic regions in which tribes shared a variety of cultural attributes, though language was not necessarily one of them.
Adaptive voyaging and subsistence strategies in the early settlement of East Polynesia
Authors: Anderson Atholl J
Published: November 2023

The final prehistoric dispersal of the Mongoloid peoples was into the islands and archipelagos of East (or Marginal) Polynesia, a migration that probably began less than 2000 years ago and which briefly completed the Pacific-rim circle of Mongoloid colonization by contact with South America. It was, of course, only the last of a series of migrations which had begun during the Pleistocene and it arose directly from the ca. 3000 BP expansion of Lapita culture which provided a common foundation to late Holocene settlement of Remote Oceania as far east as Tonga and Samoa. East Polynesia, however, lay entirely beyond the Lapita range, according to current data. Instead, it was colonized by people who, by about 2500 BP, had diverged from Lapita ancestry in culture and perhaps phenotype and become Polynesians.

In colonizing the archipelagos and islands of East Polynesia they had to con tend with a region of 20 million km2 of Pacific Ocean, in which the total land mass amounted to less than 0.3%, and nearly all of that in the least accessible and last-discovered islands of New Zealand (269 000 km2). The combined total landmass of all the other islands is a mere 22000 km2, which is barely larger than Shikoku, the smallest of the main islands of Japan, and it was distributed amongst some 150 habitable islands.
Some observations on detecting extra-binomial variability within the beta-binomial model
Authors: Risko Kenneth J , Margolin Barry H
Published: November 2023

The study of methods of analysis for over-dispersed binomial data has received much attention in the past decade. A substantial portion of that effort has centred on models in which the increased variability is attributable to the heterogeneity of the binomial parameter p across observations.
C(α) Tests For Homogeneity Of Proportions In Toxicology In The Presence Of Beta-Binomial Overdispersion
Authors: Paul S R
Published: November 2023

Data in the form of proportions arise in toxicology and other similar fields. An important problem is to compare proportion of a certain characteristic in several groups. However, these proportions often exhibit variation greater than predicted by a simple binomial model (Williams 1975). Several parametric models are available for analysing binomial data with overdispersion (see, for example, Altham 1978, Haseman and Kupper 1979). The superiority of the beta-binomial (BB) model for the analysis of toxicological data in the form of proportions has been shown by many authors (Paul 1982, Pack 1986). For a fuller discussion of the methods of analysis of proportions in toxicology, see Haseman and Kupper (1979). A number of procedures are available for testing homogeneity of proportions in the presence of overdispersion. Of these, the likelihood ratio (LR) test has found prominence in the literature. For the homogeneity of proportions in two groups, Pack (1986) found, through simulation, that the likelihood ratio test was better than a range of others, including those based on simple transformation of proportions.
Issues in DNA fingerprinting
Authors: Chernoff Herman
Published: November 2023

The use of blood types for identification of parents and criminals began to be replaced in 1985 by the much more powerful technology of DNA profiling, popularly referred to as DNA fingerprinting (Jeffreys et al. 1985). Since then the use of this method in court has been questioned, and it has been the subject of numerous discussions in legal and scientific journals.
Numbering the people: issues of accuracy, privacy and open government
Authors: Redfern Philip
Published: November 2023

The title ‘Numbering the people’ may be interpreted in two ways. It could mean counting the people by taking a census; alternatively it could mean assigning to each citizen a personal number to distinguish him or her from other citizens - the citizens’ names and their numbers would be listed in a register held by the numberissuing authority. In this century personal names have increasingly been supplemented by personal numbers in order to correct for the imprecision and unreliability of names. These two interpretations of my title are closely related and I shall examine both of them.
Experimentation: just do it!
Authors: Moses Lincoln E , Mosteller Frederick
Published: November 2023

Progress in activities like medical care, education and business grows largely from making changes in the way things are done. We will call those ‘policy changes’. Their many forms include: decisions to change, abandon, or begin regulatory measures; decisions to invest or divest; decisions to introduce, modify, or curtail services or product lines. The success of policy changes rests in large part on the availability and reliability of the information considered in making the decision. Information sources include sample surveys, administrative records, focus groups, theoretical formulations – and experiments.
Talents, rewards and professional choice: a general equilibrium analysis
Authors: Dresch Stephen P , Janson Kenneth R
Published: November 2023

Even the most casual observer recognizes that ‘talent’, however conceived, varies significantly across individuals. Not only are some individuals ‘more talented’ than others; perhaps more importantly, individuals differ in the fundamental nature of their talents. Thus, one individual may exhibit ‘scientific’ talent, another ‘artistic’ talent, another a ‘talent’ for manipulation of others, etc. Correspondingly, as similarly casual observation reveals, professions or occupations are differentiated by the degree to which individual performance is dependent on specific talents and hence by the extent to which rewards (earnings and other perquisites of employment) reflect the particular configurations of talent brought to bear by individual practitioners. Thus, casual observation gives rise to a quite sophisticated characterization of the role of talent in interacting labor markets.
Statistical analysis for the masses
Authors: Savage Sam L
Published: November 2023

Several years ago I came to the conclusion that many graduates of basic statistics courses don’t understand the Central Limit Theorem. I was wrong. They don’t even understand the concept of a probability distribution! I will present evidence for this bad news, but also suggest that good news may be on the way.
The Framing of Statistical Decision Theory: A Decision Analytic View
Authors: French S
Published: November 2023

General decision theory has grown from studies in many disciplines: economics, mathematics, operational research, philosophy, politics, psychology and statistics, to name but a few. The applications of decision theory are numerous, each drawing upon slightly different decision theoretic themes and sets of assumptions. This paper will focus on just two applications: firstly, decision analysis as practised in supporting strategic decision making; and, secondly, statistical decision theory.
Construction of Thematic Maps from Satellite Imagery
Authors: Green* E J , Smith** A F M , Strawderman* W E
Published: November 2023

We examine the problem of constructing thematic maps which show land-use patterns, given satellite data and deterministic prior information. The latter came from a road network. We make the simplifying assumption that the satellite observations are conditionally independent, given the scene. We specify a normal likelihood, the usual normal-inverse Wishart prior for the distributional parameters, and a Markov random field prior for the image together with the road information. Our results indicate that the Markov random field prior and road network information help improve classification, despite evidence that the assumption of normal likelihoods is suspect.
Bayesian Approaches to Non- and Semiparametric Density Estimation
Authors: Hjort N L
Published: November 2023

This paper proposes and discusses several Bayesian attempts at nonparametric and semiparametric density estimation. The main categories of these ideas are as follows: (1) Build a nonparametric prior around a given parametric model. We look at cases where the nonparametric part of the construction is a Dirichlet process or relatives thereof. (2) Express the density as an additive expansion of orthogonal basis functions, and place priors on the coefficients. Here attention is given to a certain robust Hermite expansion around the normal distribution. Multiplicative expansions are also considered. (3) Express the unknown density as locally being of a certain parametric form, then construct suitable local likelihood functions to express information content, and place local priors on the local parameters.
Mixtures, Bayes and Archaeology*
Authors: Buck* C E , Litton** C D
Published: November 2023

As a consequence of marked improvements in computer power and innovations in both statistical modelling and Markov chain Monte Carlo sampling schemes, it is now practical to undertake genuinely applied investigations of mixtures models even in high dimensions. In this paper we introduce a field of archaeological study, that of ceramic provenancing, which requires statistical investigation of trace element data arising from the chemical analysis of pottery objects. We explain that there is a vast range of prior information which has, traditionally, not been incorporated into statistical investigations, but which nonetheless should play an important role in any inferences made. Although the computations are time consuming, we show that a wide range of different types of prior information can be included and thus permitted to affect the archaeological interpretations made. We believe that, for the first time, archaeologists are now offered an inferential framework for mixtures problems which encourages explicit statement of their prior knowledge and coherent, model-based, probabilistic reasoning.
Sequential Diagrams and Influence Diagrams: A Complementary Relationship for Modeling and Solving Decision Problems
Authors: Covaliu Z
Published: November 2023

The conventional influence diagram paradigm is deficient in representing and solving asymmetric decision problems, which abound in the practice of decision analysis. A sequential diagram is a directed graph that, while sharing the node set of an influence diagram, captures asymmetric and time aspects of sequential decision problems as effectively as a decision tree. We define reduction operations on sequential diagrams and focus on the close relationship between sequential diagrams and influence diagrams in extensive form. We propose that the concurrent reduction of the two graphs and the complementary representation of a problem at all stages of solution provide insight into a problem’s structure not available by any of the graphs alone, streamline computations, and may indicate potential inadequacies in the initial model.
A Bayes Decision-Theoretic Approach to Dimensionality Reduction in Screen Design
Authors: Laws* D J , Boys** R J , Glazebrook** K D
Published: November 2023

A performance variable T is expensive or destructive to measure, but a p-dimensional variable x_(P) is available to screen for T. A Bayes decision-theoretic approach is used to generate robust screen designs in which the parameters in a linear probit model for TIX.(p) have an asymptotic normal posterior distribution. Within this modelling context we explore the design of simple screens based on d ( < p) components of x_(P) and propose a variety of heuristic approaches to how these components should be chosen. The proposed designs are assessed computationally assuming multivariate normality for x_(P).
A Belief Function Approach to Likelihood Updating in a Gaussian Linear Model
Authors: Meehan* P M , Dempster** A P , Brown*** E N
Published: November 2023

We consider a stochastic model for cortisol dynamics that can be expressed as a Gaussian linear model conditional on a set of unknown pulse locations. Implementation of the Bayesian paradigm by Monte Carlo Markov Chajn (MCMC) methods requires iterative updating of the likelihood for changes in the model. We show that likelihood updating can be efficiently performed by representing the model components as a set of belief functions and using the sweep operator to perform computations.
Models for Shape Deformation
Authors: Wilson A G , Johnson V E
Published: November 2023

Much work in Bayesian image analysis has focused on incorporating vague prior knowledge about an image into its analysis and on the calculation of appropriate estimates of the resulting posterior distribution. However, in the field of medical imaging, there is a need to incorporate specific prior information into many image analysis tasks. This paper discusses various models for shape deformation and proposes a model that accounts for features at multiple spatial resolutions.
Open problems
Authors: Laursen Kjeld B , Neumann Michael M
Published: November 2023

Does every bounded linear operator on an infinite-dimensional separable Hilbert space have a non-trivial closed invariant subspace? See Beauzamy (1988) for general information on this classical problem, and Section 2.6 for further references and certain partial results.
Introduction
Authors: Field J V
Published: November 2023

The name Renaissance is really a label for a style not for a period. In art and literature its beginnings are usually traced back to the powerful works of the painter Giotto di Bondone (r. 126(i-1337) and the poet Dante Alighieri (1265-1321). In mathematics and the mathematical sciences the process of ‘rebirth’ is generally seen as starting later, perhaps in the mid-fifteenth century, with astronomers’ attempts to return directly to Greek sources. This scientific Renaissance, like that of the arts, has no definite> end-which is to say that books with titles of the form X and the end of the Renaissance arc a good way for certain kinds of historian to make bids for the attention of their professional colleagues.
Through the wall: Masaccro’s Trinityfresco (c. 1426)
Authors: Field J V
Published: November 2023

Masaccio’s fresco of the Trinity is shown in Fig. 3.1. In his Life of Masaccio, in the version printed in 1568, Giorgio Vasari describes the picture in the following terms: But the most beautiful thing in it, apart from the figures, is a semicircular barrel vault drawn in perspective, and divided into squares containing rosettes that diminish in size and are foreshortened so well that it seems as though the wall is pierced.
Piero Della Francesca’S Mathematics
Authors: Field J V
Published: November 2023

Piero della Francesca (c. 1412-1492) is acknowledged as one of the most important painters of the fifteenth century. His pictures are notable for their characteristically Renaissance quality of seeming to portray real figures in real pictorial space (see Fig. 4.1). Piero is, however, unique in also having an independent reputation as a highly competent mathematician. As we have seen from our investigation of Masaccio’s Trinity, it is extremely perilous to attempt to use works of art as evidence of an artist’s mathematical skills. Luckily, for Piero the case is entirely different. We have three mathematical treatises by him-Vasari says he wrote ‘many’ such works-and these establish that as a mathematician he was indeed both competent and original. How far his mathematical skill can be seen in his art is a more difficult question, so it is with his mathematics that we shall begin.
Density Estimation for Inference
Authors: Bowman Adrian W , Azzalini Adelchi
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 1, the role of kernel functions in constructing nonparametric density estimates was illustrated on a variety of different types of data. This led to a set of useful tools, particularly for graphical illustration of distributional shape. The uses of density estimates in reaching conclusions in a more quantitative way will now be investigated. Attention will be focused on one- and two-dimensional data on an unrestricted continuous scale. In order to go beyond the exploratory and graphical stage it is necessary first to understand more about the behaviour of these estimators and to derive some basic properties. Although many theoretical results exist, simple expressions for means and variances of the estimators are enough to allow ideas of interval estimation and hypothesis testing to be discussed, and to motivate techniques for choosing an appropriate bandwidth to employ with a particular dataset.
Nonparametric Regression for Exploring Data
Authors: Bowman Adrian W , Azzalini Adelchi
Published: November 2023

Regression is one of the most widely used of all statistical tools. Linear modelling in its widest sense is both well developed and well understood, and there is in addition a variety of useful techniques for checking the assumptions involved. However, there are cases where such models cannot be applied because of intrinsic nonlinearity in the data. Nonparametric regression aims to provide a means of modelling such data. Even where the suitability of linear models has not yet been brought into question, smoothing techniques are still useful by enhancing scatterplots to display the underlying structure of the data, without reference to a parametric model. This can in turn lead to further useful suggestions of, or checks on, appropriate parametric models. In this chapter, the main ideas of nonparametric regression are introduced and illustrated on several different types of data. The emphasis throughout is on the exploration of data, although technical and inferential issues will be raised for discussion in later chapters.
Inference with Nonparametric Regression
Authors: Bowman Adrian W , Azzalini Adelchi
Published: November 2023

Some basic ideas of nonparametric regression were introduced in Chapter 3 and illustrated with a variety of data of different types. The emphasis has so far been on the graphical representation of data. However, a number of issues have arisen. A principal question is how the features of a nonparametric regression curve can be assessed, to discover whether these indicate structural effects or whether they can be attributed simply to random variation. In addition, some attention needs to be devoted to methods of selecting suitable smoothing parameters. In order to prepare the way for a discussion of these issues some very simple properties of nonparametric regression estimators are derived. Attention is restricted mostly to the case where the response y and a covariate x both lie on continuous scales. Many theoretical results exist in this area. However, for the purposes of the tools to be described in later chapters it is sufficient at this stage to focus simply on means and variances.
Artificial Neural Networks and Multivariate Statistics
Authors: Martin E B , Morris A J
Published: November 2023

The mechanistic modelling of processes can present major challenges in practice and attention has turned to the sophisticated use of monitored plant data. As a result of this transfer of interest, two major areas of strategic research have emerged since the mid-1980s: multivariate statistics and artificial neural networks. This chapter introduces the key methodologies and describes a number of related issues prior to applying such techniques to complex engineering problems. A number of industrially based examples are presented which contrast multivariate statistical approaches with those of neural network techniques. An additional example is included which focuses upon a situation where linear statistical approaches are not applicable. The first case study compares the techniques of principal components regression, projection to latent structures, orthogonal least squares based regression, feedforward neural networks, radial basis function neural networks and locally weighted regression using, as an example, near-infra-red spectral data. For the second example, some aspects of neural networks are considered and different approaches assessed for the prediction of polymer properties. An industrial application is then presented which is analysed using dynamic artificial neural networks since multivariate statistical techniques are inappropriate for the study. The application of linear projection to latent structures and nonlinear projection to latent structures to the prediction of pH are presented and the results compared. The final case study focuses upon principal components analysis (PCA) and its nonlinear variants. A number of examples are discussed including its application to fault detection and diagnosis.
Rejecting the dull hypothesis: the relation between method and theory in cognitive aging research
Authors: Perfect Timothy J , Maylor Elizabeth A
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we begin by outlining a basic problem in cognitive aging research, namely that the statistical approach based on rejection of the null hypothesis is not appropriate for theory building. We then discuss two broad approaches that have been used in an attempt to overcome this shortcoming. We end with a discussion of potential ways forward, as outlined in the chapters that follow. Psychologists spend considerable time and effort attempting to establish the reliability of basic effects. Over the past century psychologists have utilized many sophisticated statistical techniques to detennine whether the variability in performance they are measuring is likely to represent a real phenomenon to be explained, or whether it is just chance variation about the population mean. We inculcate this approach upon our students, against considerable resistance. Students’ intellectual opposition to this idea is entirely understandable: if one stops to consider, it is odd that we base our science on setting up, and then rejecting the hypothesis that there will be no effect in our studies.
From the mountains of Valcamonica to the University of Pavia
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

The family name Golgi can be found in the oldest church records of Pavia, and a’Torre di Casa Golgi’ (Golgi Household’s Tower) still dominates Piazza della Posta, one of the City’s main squares.
The University of Pavia Medical School before Golgi
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

Pavia lies on the river T1cino. In the middle of the nineteenth century, with its towers and medieval churches, it was a tranquil and misty city that could be comfortably and quickly traversed on foot. Pavia did not differ much from other Lombard cities except for the presence of the University, the city’s topographic and cultural centre. This institution, whose remote origins can traced back to the year 825,1 was a powerful cultural magnet for the Lombard bourgeoisie, who sent their sons to study there.
Neurohistology and neurophysiology before the ‘black reaction’
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

The notion that vegetables and animals are made of cells is relatively recent. In 1665 Robert Hooke reported the presence of ‘cellular’ structures in vegetables and soon afterwards Antony van Leeuwenhoek and Marcello Malpighi made analogous but more precise observations in animal and vegetable tissues. For many years, however, the importance of these discoveries was not fully recognized. In 1781 Abbot Felice Fontana glimpsed the internal structures of the cell, the nucleus and nucleolus, but it was Robert Brown, the discoverer of Brownian motion, who in 1831 recognized the nucleus as an essential part of the living cell.
The threat from Milan
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

On 4 November 1893, Golgi read the official opening address for the academic year 1893—94, as the new Rector of the University of Pavia. His election had been bitterly opposed by the members of the old guard, such as Sangalli, who were jealous of their power and prerogatives. Golgi was the leading exponent of that generation of’progressive’ middle-aged academics who were called ‘Young Turks’ by the students1 because of their aggressive assault on the key positions within the University.
The Golgi apparatus
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo
Published: November 2023

During his three years as Rector of the University, Golgi had been occupied primarily with bureaucratic and administrative issues, even if every now and then he was able to return to the laboratory to carry out some experiments. He had resolved to his advantage the problem of the Palazzo Botta (and had cut a few corners in the process) and now his Institute occupied a vast wing of this building. In 1894 he had set up the section for the production of the anti-diphtheria serum and now, three years later, he added a section for anti-smallpox vaccine.
Separating hippocampal maps
Authors: Redish A David , Touretzky David S
Published: November 2023

Hippocampal place cells also show correlations to non-spatial aspects of the world, including environment (Kubie and Ranck 1983; Muller and Kubie 1987; Thompson and Best 1989), task within environment (Markus et al. 1995), and even stage within task (Eichenbaum et al. 1987; Eichenbaum and Cohen 1988; Cohen and Eichenbaum 1993; Hampson et al. 1993; Gothard et al. 1996). Some have argued that these experiments imply that place cells should be understood as being general context cells, with space being only one of many parameters to which they are tuned (Eichenbaum et al. 1992; Wiener 1993; Eichenbaum 1996).
Right medial temporal-lobe contribution to object-location memory
Authors: Brenda Milner , Ingrid Johnsrude , Joelle Crane
Published: November 2023

The study of patients undergoing unilateral brain operation for the relief of epilepsy has revealed impairments after right anterior temporal lobectomy on a variety of spatial learning and spatial memory tasks, but only if the removal encroached extensively upon the hippocampus and/or the parahippocampal gyrus. The tasks sampled ranged from simple delayed recall of the position of a point on a line (Corsi 1972; Rains and Milner 1994) to more complex ones, such as stylus maze learning, both visual (Milner 1965) and tactual (Corkin 1965), and spatial conditional associative learning (Petrides 1985). These results for spatial memory are in marked contrast to the findings for complex visual patterns, such as faces, abstract designs, or the figurative detail in representational drawings, where an impairment in recognition memory is demonstrable after right temporal-lobe removals, even when the hippocampal region is spared (Kimura 1963; Milner 1968; Burke and Nolan 1988; Pigott and Milner 1993). They also contrast with those for verbal material, where memory impairment is typically seen after left temporal lobectomy but not after right.
Hierarchical organization of cognitive memory
Authors: Mishkin Mortimer , Suzuki Wendy A , Gadian David G , Vargha-Khadem Faraneh
Published: November 2023

Long-term cognitive memory, often referred to as declarative (Squire 1982) or propositional (Tulving 1993) memory, is critically dependent on the part of the medial temporal lobe that comprises the ‘ hippocampal system’ , a set of heavily interconnected structures consisting of the hippocampus and the underlying entorhinal, perirhinal and parahippocampal cortices. According to one func¬tional view, the medial temporal hippocampal system contributes in a unitary fashion to cognitive memory ability, which includes both memory for specific events (episodic memory) and memory for factual information (semantic memory). This single-system, unitary-process view is based on results that sug¬gest that the episodic and semantic memory impairments of amnesic patients with medial temporal-lobe damage vary together in a graded manner depend¬ing on the extent of damage to the hippocampal system as a whole (RempelClower et al. 1996; Squire & Zola 1996).