Batteries
Authors: Berndt Dietrich , Spahrbier Dieter 
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.History3.Fundamental Laws3.1.Equilibrium or Thermodynamic Parameters3.2.Current Flow, Kinetic Parameters3.2.1.Electron Transfer3.2.2.Tafel Lines3.2.3.Influence of Temperature3.3.Heat Effects3.3.1.Reversible Heat Effect3.3.2.Current Related Heat Effects (Joule Effect)3.3.3.Heat Generation in Total3.4.Heating of the Battery4.Battery Properties and Characteristics4.1.Cell and Battery4.1.1.Active Material4.1.1.1.Change of Volume4.1.1.2.Change of Electrode Structure4.1.2.Nonactive Components4.1.2.1.Conducting Components4.1.2.2.Nonconducting Components4.2.Battery Parameters4.2.1.Voltage4.2.2.Capacity4.2.2.1.Secondary Batteries4.2.2.2.Primary Batteries4.2.3.Energy Content4.2.4.Internal Resistance and Power Output4.2.5.Charge Parameters4.2.6.Self‐Discharge4.2.6.1.Mixed Potential4.2.6.2.Further Self‐Discharge Mechanisms4.2.6.3.Apparent Self‐Discharge4.2.6.4.Capacity Loss During Storage5.Classification of Battery Systems5.1.Classification by Electrolyte5.2.Classification by Construction5.2.1.External Construction5.2.2.Internal Construction6.Primary Batteries, Systems, and Application6.1.Systems Employing an Aqueous Electrolyte6.1.1.Batteries with Weak Acid Electrolyte6.1.1.1.Carbon ‐ Zinc Systems6.1.1.1.1.General6.1.1.1.2.Electrochemistry6.1.1.1.3.System‐Immanent Properties6.1.1.1.4.Batteries and Their Applications6.1.1.1.5.Prospects6.1.1.2.Air ‐ Zinc System6.1.1.2.1.General6.1.1.2.2.Electrochemistry6.1.1.2.3.System‐Immanent Properties6.1.1.2.4.Batteries and Their Applications6.1.1.2.5.Prospects6.1.2.Batteries with “Neutral Electrolyte”6.1.3.Batteries with Alkaline Electrolyte6.1.3.1.Manganese Dioxide ‐ Zinc System6.1.3.1.1.General6.1.3.1.2.Electrochemistry6.1.3.1.3.System‐Immanent Properties6.1.3.1.4.Batteries and Their Applications6.1.3.1.5.Rechargeable Alkaline Manganese Dioxide ‐ Zinc System6.1.3.1.6.Prospects6.1.3.2.Silver Oxide ‐ Zinc System6.1.3.2.1.General6.1.3.2.2.Electrochemistry6.1.3.2.3.System‐Immanent Properties6.1.3.2.4.Batteries and Their Application6.1.3.2.5.Prospects6.1.3.3.Mercuric Oxide ‐ Zinc System6.1.3.3.1.General6.1.3.3.2.Electrochemistry6.1.3.3.3.System‐Immanent Properties6.1.3.3.4.Batteries and Application6.1.3.3.5.Prospects6.1.3.4.Alkaline Air ‐ Zinc System6.1.3.4.1.General6.1.3.4.2.Electrochemistry6.1.3.4.3.System‐Immanent Properties6.1.3.4.4.Air Access Opening: Its Seal and Diffusion Resistance6.1.3.4.5.Batteries and Their Application6.1.3.4.6.Prospects6.2.Batteries with Nonaqueous Electrolyte6.2.1.Batteries with Organic Electrolyte6.2.1.1.Manganese Dioxide ‐ Lithium System6.2.1.1.1.General6.2.1.1.2.Electrochemistry6.2.1.1.3.System‐Immanent Properties6.2.1.1.4.Batteries and Their Applications6.2.1.1.5.Prospects6.2.1.2.Carbon Poly‐monofluoride ‐ Lithium System6.2.1.2.1.General6.2.1.2.2.Electrochemistry6.2.1.2.3.System‐Immanent Properties6.2.1.2.4.Batteries and Their Applications6.2.1.2.5.Prospects6.2.1.3.Iron Disulfide ‐ Lithium Systems6.2.1.3.1.“1.5 V” Lithium Systems6.2.1.3.2.Electrochemistry6.2.1.3.3.System‐Immanent Properties6.2.1.3.4.Batteries and Their Applications6.2.1.3.5.Prospects6.2.2.Batteries with Soluble Cathode6.2.2.1.Sulfur Dioxide ‐ Lithium System6.2.2.1.1.General6.2.2.1.2.Electrochemistry6.2.2.1.3.System‐Immanent Properties6.2.2.1.4.Batteries and Their Applications6.2.2.1.5.Prospects6.2.2.2.Thionyl Chloride ‐ Lithium System6.2.2.2.1.General6.2.2.2.2.Electrochemistry6.2.2.2.3.System‐Immanent Properties6.2.2.2.4.Batteries and Their Applications6.2.2.2.5.Prospects6.2.3.Batteries with a Nonliquid Electrolyte6.2.3.1.Polymer and Solid Electrolyte Systems6.2.3.2.The LiI(Al2O3) Solid Electrolyte System6.2.3.3.The Lithium ‐ Iodine System6.2.3.3.1.General6.2.3.3.2.Electrochemistry6.2.3.3.3.System‐Immanent Properties6.2.3.3.4.Batteries and Their Applications6.2.3.3.5.Prospects6.3.Reserve Batteries6.3.1.Principles6.3.1.1.System Activation with Liquid Electrolyte6.3.1.1.1.Water‐Activated Batteries6.3.1.1.2.KOH Activated Batteries6.3.1.1.3.Ampoule‐Type Batteries6.3.1.1.4.Battery Activation by Ammonia6.3.1.2.Thermal Batteries6.3.1.2.1.General6.3.1.2.2.Systems6.3.1.2.3.Pyrotechnic Heat Sources6.3.1.2.4.Battery Construction6.3.1.2.5.Batteries6.3.2.Prospects7.Secondary Batteries7.1.Batteries with Aqueous Electrolyte7.1.1.Lead ‐ Acid Batteries7.1.1.1.Charge/Discharge Reactions7.1.1.2.Secondary Reactions7.1.1.3.Self‐Discharge7.1.1.4.Heat Effects7.1.1.5.Valve‐Regulated Lead ‐ Acid Batteries7.1.1.6.Discharge Performance7.1.1.7.Charge Performance7.1.1.8.Technical Design and Manufacturing7.1.1.9.Lead Alloys7.1.1.10.Separators7.1.1.11.Container Material, Post Seals7.1.1.12.Vents, Valves7.1.1.13.Water Refilling Systems, Forced Acid Agitation7.1.1.14.Catalytic Gas Recombination7.1.2.Batteries with Alkaline Electrolyte7.1.2.1.Nickel ‐ Cadmium Batteries7.1.2.1.1.Thermodynamic Situation7.1.2.1.2.Charge/Discharge Reactions7.1.2.1.3.Equilibrium or Open‐Circuit Voltage7.1.2.1.4.Reversible Heat Effect, Calorific Voltage7.1.2.1.5.Heat Capacity (Specific Heat Content)7.1.2.1.6.Heat Effects7.1.2.1.7.Self‐Discharge7.1.2.1.8.Types of Electrodes7.1.2.1.9.Cell Design7.1.2.1.10.Cell Assemblies, Power Packs7.1.2.1.11.Valve Design7.1.2.1.12.Controlled Charging7.1.2.2.Nickel ‐ Hydrogen Batteries7.1.2.3.Nickel ‐ Metal Hydride Batteries7.1.2.3.1.Thermodynamic Parameters7.1.2.3.2.Hydrogen‐Absorbing Alloys7.1.2.3.3.Design7.1.2.4.Nickel ‐ Iron Batteries7.1.2.5.Nickel ‐ Zinc Batteries7.1.2.6.Silver Oxide ‐ Zinc Batteries7.1.3.Rechargeable Batteries of Particular Design7.1.3.1.The Chlorine ‐ Zinc Battery7.1.3.2.The Bromine ‐ Zinc Battery7.1.3.3.The Vanadium Redox Battery7.1.3.4.Rechargeable Air ‐ Zinc Batteries7.2.Batteries with Nonaqueous Electrolyte7.2.1.Rechargeable Lithium Batteries7.2.1.1.Button or Coin Cells7.2.1.2.Lithium Batteries with Polymer Electrolytes7.2.1.3.Batteries with Glassy Electrolytes7.2.1.4.Lithium‐Ion Batteries7.2.1.4.1.Lithium ‐ Carbon Electrodes (Lithiated Carbons)7.2.1.4.2.Negative Electrodes Based on Alloys7.2.1.4.3.Active Materials in the Positive Electrode (Cathode)7.2.1.4.4.Electrolytes7.2.1.4.5.Separators7.2.1.4.6.Lithium‐Ion Polymer Batteries7.2.1.4.7.Practical Batteries7.2.2.High‐Temperature Batteries7.2.2.1.Iron Sulfide ‐ Lithium Batteries7.2.2.2.Sodium ‐ Sulfur Batteries7.2.2.3.Nickel Chloride ‐ Sodium (ZEBRA) Batteries8.Battery Standards8.1.General8.2.National Standards8.3.International Standards8.3.1.Technical Committees and how they operate8.3.2.TC21, SC21A , TC35, and Their Standards8.3.3.TC21, SC21A, and TC35: Harmonization of Standards8.3.3.1.IEC Vocabulary on Batteries8.3.3.2.Harmonization of the Nomenclature Systems8.3.3.3.Designation of Batteries, Present Status8.3.3.4.IEC Nomenclature Systems for Batteries8.3.4.Closing Remark8.4.Annex 1: IEC Standards on Batteries8.5.Annex 2: Designations by Manufacturers8.6.Annex 3, Examples of IEC Nomenclature Systems for Batteries8.7.Annex 4, Denoting Electrochemical Systems9.Battery Disposal, Environmental Protection9.1.Programs to Collect Disposed Batteries9.1.1.The ISO Recycling Sign9.1.2.Sorting of the Collected Batteries9.2.Recycling of Batteries9.2.1.Recycling of Lead ‐ Acid Batteries9.2.2.Recycling of Nickel ‐ Cadmium Batteries9.2.3.Recycling of Nickel ‐ Metal Hydride Batteries9.2.4.Recycling of Lithium‐Ion Batteries9.2.5.Recycling of Primary Batteries9.2.5.1.Recycling of Mercury‐Containing Batteries9.2.5.2.Recycling of Mercury‐Free Batteries