bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Paranthropus boisei: An example of evolutionary stasis?
Authors: Wood Bernard , Wood Christopher , Konigsberg Lyle
Published: February 2006

Of the presently recognised early hominid species, Paranthropus boisei is one of the better known from the fossil record and arguably the most distinctive; the latter interpretation rests on the numbers of apparently derived characters it incorporates. The species as traditionally diagnosed is distributed across approximately one million years and is presently confined to samples from East African sites. The hypodigm has been examined for evidence of intraspecific phyletic evolution, with particular emphasis on the areas best represented in the fossil record, namely the teeth and mandible. The results of this examination of 55 mandibular and dental variables, which uses the Γ test statistic for the detection of trend, and nonparametric spline regression (Loess regression) for investigating pattern and rate of temporal change, show that within Paranthropus boisei sensu stricto most evidence of temporally related morphological trends relates to the morphology of the P4 crown. There is little or no evidence of any tendency to increase in overall size through time. Fossils from the Omo Shungura Formation and West Turkana which have been recovered from a time period earlier than the P. boisei sensu stricto hypodigm resemble the latter taxon in some features, but differ from it in aspects of cranial morphology. There is insufficient fossil evidence of the earlier taxon to tell whether it changes through time, but when trends of 47 mandibular and dental variables are assessed across the combined East African “robust” australopithecine sample, there is evidence for a relatively abrupt change around 2.2–2.3 Myr in approximately 25% of the dental and mandibular remains. Some of these changes correspond with the temporal trends within P. boisei sensu stricto, but others, such as mandible height, do not. If the earlier material is ancestral to P. boisei sensu stricto, evidence from the teeth and jaws is consistent with a punctuated origin for the latter taxon. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Genetic variation in North Africa and Eurasia: Neolithic demic diffusion vs. paleolithic colonisation
Authors: Barbujani Guido , Pilastro Andrea , De Domenico Silvia , Renfrew Colin
Published: February 2006

The hypothesis that both genetic and linguistic similarities among Eurasian and North African populations are due to demic diffusion of neolithic farmers is tested against a wide database of allele frequencies. Demic diffusion of farming and languages from the Near East should have determined clines in areas defined by linguistic criteria; the alternative hypothesis of cultural transmission does not predict clines. Spatial autocorrelation analysis shows significant gradients in three of the four linguistic families supposedly affected by neolithic demic diffusion; the Afroasiatic family is the exception. Many such gradients are not observed when populations are jointly analyzed, regardless of linguistic classification. This is incompatible with the hypothesis that major cultural transformations in Eurasia (diffusion of related languages and spread of agriculture) took place without major demographic changes. The model of demic diffusion seems therefore to provide a mechanism explaining coevolution of linguistic and biological traits in much of the Old World. Archaeological, linguistic, and genetic evidence agree in suggesting a multidirectional process of gene flow from the Near East in the neolithic. However, the possibility should be envisaged that some allele frequency patterns can predate the neolithic and depend on the initial spread of Homo sapiens sapiens from Africa into Eurasia. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Inflammatory lesions of ribs: An analysis of the Terry Collection
Authors: Roberts Charlotte , Lucy David , Manchester Keith
Published: February 2006

The aim of this paper is to consider the diagnostic criteria for tuberculosis in ancient populations. It investigates the frequency of periosteal new bone formation on the visceral surfaces of ribs from 1718 individuals from the Terry Collection, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D. C. and attempts to determine the aetiological factors producing these lesions. Numbers of individuals with lesions according to cause of death were recorded and the patterning of lesions compared between people who had died from tuberculosis and those whose cause of death was unrelated to a pulmonary disease. Rib lesions were more common in individuals dying from tuberculosis (61.6% or 157 of 255) than in individuals dying from other causes (15.2% or 165 of 1086). It is suggested that tuberculosis at a peripheral lung focus may disseminate directly through the pleura to the visceral surfaces of the ribs, or that pulmonary tuberculosis may be the cause of empyema of the pleural cavity and that this, per se, may initiate inflammatory change on the visceral surfaces of ribs. The nonrecognition or description of these often very subtle proliferative lesions on ribs by radiological examination of tuberculous victims is significant in the discussion of bone changes in tuberculosis. The possibility that individuals with no recorded history of tuberculosis at death actually suffered from the disease was considered in light of the frequency of rib lesions and noncorrelation with a tuberculous cause of death. Differential diagnoses are discussed including the possibility that the lesions represent a general nonspecific indicator of stress. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Enamel microstructure in lemuridae (mammalia, primates): Assessment of variability
Authors: Maas Mary C.
Published: February 2006

This study describes the molar enamel microstructure of seven lemurid primates: Hapalemur griseus, Varecia variegata, Lemur catta, Lemur macaco, Lemur fulvus rufus, Lemur fulvus fulvus, and Lemur fulvus albifrons. Contrary to earlier accounts, which reported little or no prism decussation in lemurid enamel, both Lemur and Varecia molars contain a prominent inner layer of decussating prisms (Hunter‐Schreger bands), in addition to an outer radial prism layer, and a thin, nonprismatic enamel surface layer. In contrast, Hapalemur enamel consists entirely of radial and, near the surface, nonprismatic enamel. In addition, for all species, prism packing patterns differ according to depth from the tooth surface, and for all species but Varecia (which also has the thinnest enamel of any lemurid), average prism area increases from the enamel‐dentine junction to the surface; this may be a developmental solution to the problem of accommodating a larger outer surface area with enamel deposited from a fixed number of cells. Finally, contradicting some previous reports, Pattern 1 prisms predominate only in the most superficial prismatic enamel. In the deeper enamel, prism cross‐sections include both closed (Pattern 1) and arc‐shaped (Pattern 2 or, most commonly, Pattern 3). This sequence of depth‐related pattern change is repeated in all taxa. It should also be emphasized that all taxa can exhibit all three prism patterns in their mature enamel. The high degree of quantitative and qualitative variation in prism size, shape, and packing suggests that these features should be used cautiously in phylogenetic studies.

Hapalemur is distinguished from the other lemurids by unique, medially constricted or rectangular prism cross‐sections at an intermediate depth and the absence of prism decussation, but, without further assessment of character polarity, these differences do not clarify lemurid phylogenetic relations. Some characters of enamel microstructure may represent synapomorphies of Lemuridae, or of clades within Lemuridae, but homoplasy is likely to be common. Homoplasy of enamel characters may reflect functional constraints. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Phylogenetic, paleodemographic, and taphonomic implications of Victoriapithecus deciduous teeth from Maboko, Kenva
Authors: Benefit Brenda R.
Published: February 2006

More than 240 milk teeth of Victoriapithecus macinnesi, representing all elements of the deciduous dentition, are described. Their morphology is intermediate between that of hominoids and cercopithecids. Unlike colobine and cercopithecine milk teeth, Victoriapithecus dp3s, dp4s, and at least 7 (14%) dp4s lack transverse distal loph(id)s and are not bilophodont. Victoriapithecus also differs from cercopithecids in having less elongated deciduous premolars, a dp3 metacone set mesial to a very small hypocone, a dp4 crista obliqua, and a dp4 hypoconulid. The deciduous canines and incisors of Victoriapithecus are like those of other cercopithecids in having an uneven distribution of enamel around a compressed (rather than cylindrical) root, but differ from cercopithecids and resemble hominoids in being more elongated. Since Colobinae and Cercopithecinae share features of the deciduous dentition that are derived relative to Victoriapithecus and hominoids, extant Old World monkeys are interpreted as representing the sister‐taxon of the middle Miocene cercopithecoids.

Due to a dramatic increase in the number of deciduous teeth found at Maboko Island, juvenile individuals represent a much larger proportion of recently excavated Victoriapithecus collections than is true of pre‐1987 assemblages which mainly derive from sediment first excavated during the 1930s and 1940s. Age distribution differences between pre‐ and post‐1987 samples indicate that paleontological collection procedures were more important than taphonomic biases in determining the paleodemographic profile of the Maboko fossils.

Since the Victoriapithecus assemblage from Maboko is strikingly similar to that of fossil Theropithecus oswaldi from Olorgesailie in terms of the large number of specimens and high representation of juvenile and infant individuals, the latter can no longer be viewed as unique among cercopithecoid fossil assemblages. Rather than being related to a specific cause of death, such as selective hunting of T. oswaldi by Homo (Shipman et al. [1981] Curr. Anthropol. 22:257–268), the large number of cercopithecoids at both sites is attributed to the fact that both assemblages represent excavated samples and that the preferred habitats of the extinct monkeys were probably at or near the site of deposition.

The greater number of young adult male than female canines in the apparently attritional Maboko Bed 5 assemblage, indicate that the social organization of V. macinnesi may have been similar to that of modrn macaques, with males migrating out of their natal group and suffering higher death rates than females at puberty. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
“Giant” tamarin from the Miocene of Colombia
Authors: Kay Richard F.
Published: February 2006

A nearly complete but badly crushed skull and mandible of Lagonimico conclucatus, gen. et sp. nov. is described from the La Victoria Formation, Colombia. The specimen is of middle Miocene age and dates from about 13.5 Ma. Features of the dentition suggest Lagonimico is a sister group to living Callitrichinae (Saguinus, Leontopithecus, Callithrix, and Cebuella). These features include having elongate compressed lower incisors, a reduced P2 lingual moiety, and the absence of upper molar hypocones. The new taxon also has autapomorphies, such as a relatively deep jaw, that rule it out of the direct ancestry of any living callitrichine. This animal is assigned to a new tribe of the callitrichine clade.

The orbits of L. conclucatus are small, suggesting diurnal habits. Inflated, low‐crowned (bunodont) cheek teeth with short, rounded shearing crests, as well as premolar simplification and M3 size reduction, suggest fruit‐ or gumeating adaptations, as among many living callitrichines. Procumbent and slightly elongate lower incisors suggest this species could use its front teeth as a gouge, perhaps for harvesting tree gum. Estimates from jaw size suggest Lagonimico weighed about 1,200 g, about the size of Callicebus, the living titi monkey of South America. Judged from tooth size and jaw length, Lagonimico would have been slightly smaller than Callicebus, but still larger than Callimico or any living callitrichine. Therefore, many of the distinctive anatomical features of the callitrichine clade, sometimes explained by phyletic dwarfing, may have evolved at larger body size. Evolutionary size reduction may have occurred in parallel in callitrichines and Callimico. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Frequency and chronological distribution of dental enamel hypoplasia in enslaved African Americans: A test of the weaning hypothesis
Authors: Blakey Michael L. , Leslie Teresa E. , Reidy Joseph P.
Published: February 2006

The dentition of 27 enslaved African Americans from archaeological sites in Maryland and Virginia were examined. All 17 males and 7 of the 10 females in this study exhibited enamel hypoplastic defects indicative of systemic nutritional and disease stresses interfering with amelogenesis. Estimates of the ages of occurrence of these defects show that most occur between 1.5 and 4.5 years of age, 0.5–3.75 years later than historically documented weaning age (9–12 months of age) in similar plantation populations. Comparisons are made with studies of dental enamel hypoplasia in contemporaneous enslaved and free African American populations, including our data on 75 individuals from the First African Baptist Church cemetery in Philadelphia. These populations were highly stressed. While there appears to be a modest effect of early weaning stress, no direct relationship of peak frequencies to weaning age can be shown. These data raise questions about the attribution of peak hypoplasia frequencies to age at weaning or “post‐weaning” stresses in previous paleopathological studies. High hypoplasia frequencies during the middle years of enamel development are more likely the result of a combination of 1) multiple environmental stresses, 2) differences in hypoplastic susceptibility in enamel, and 3) random factors. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Cranial variables as predictors of hominine body mass
Authors: Aiello Leslie C. , Wood Bernard A.
Published: February 2006

Body mass is a key variable in investigating the evolutionary biology of the hominines (Australopithecus, Paranthropus, and Homo). It is not only closely related to life‐history parameters but also provides a necessary baseline for studies of encephalization or megadonty. Body mass estimates are normally based on the postcranial skeleton. However, the majority of hominid fossils are cranio‐dental remains that are unassociated with postcranial material. Only rarely can postcranial material be linked with craniodentally defined hominid taxa. This study responds to this problem by evaluating body mass estimates based on 15 cranial variables to determine whether they compare in reliability with estimates determined from postcranial variables.

Results establish that some cranial variables, and particularly orbital area, orbital height, and biporionic breadth, are nearly as good mass predictors for hominoids as are some of the best postcranial predictors. For the hominines in particular, orbital height is the cranial variable which produces body mass estimates that are most in line with postcranially generated estimates. Both orbital area and biporionic breadth scale differently in the hominines than they do in the other hominoids. This difference in scaling results in unusually large estimates of body mass based on these variables for the larger‐sized hominines, although the three cranial variables produce equivalent predicted masses for the smaller‐bodied hominines. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Further evidence of lead contamination of Omaha skeletons
Authors: Ghazi A. Mohamad , Reinhard Karl J. , Holmes Mary Anne , Durrance Eric
Published: February 2006

A previous analysis of Omaha skeletons dating between A. D. 1780 and 1820 revealed the presence of lead in all skeletons with high concentrations in children and adult males (Reinhard and Ghazi [1992] Ann. J. Phys. Anthropol. 89:183–195). Two likely explanations for the high lead levels were presented: 1) metabolic absorption of lead and 2) diagenetic uptake of lead by the bones from postmortem application of pigments to the corpse. Two types of lead were available to the Omaha tribe: 1) Mississippi Valley type, and 2) non‐Mississippi Valley type. It has been suggested that red‐lead pigment mixed with mercury sulphide (cinnabar) applied to the corpse may have been one of the sources of lead found in bones. Further isotopic analyses of samples of pigment and metallic lead artifacts associated with the skeletons revealed that non‐Mississippi Valley type lead is present in the pigment while Mississippi Valley type lead comes from metallic artifacts. Both lead and mercury were found in the pigment samples, verifying that a lead‐based pigment mixed with cinnabar‐based pigment was used as a cosmetic by the Omaha. Isotopic analysis of lead in skeletons indicates that the pigment contributed most to lead content of bone. This new evidence clarifies the previous study and suggests specific mechanisms by which lead became incorporated into bone. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
A re‐evaluation of subspecific variation and canine dimorphism in woolly spider monkeys (Brachyteles arachnoides)
Authors: Leigh Steven R. , Jungers William L.
Published: February 2006

A recent study suggests that differing populations of woolly spider monkeys exhibit a substantial degree of morphological, cytogenetic, and behavioral variation. We re‐evaluate the differences between populations in the degree of canine tooth height sexual dimorphism and in the frequency of thumbs. Statistical analysis of variation in the degree of canine sexual dimorphism between these populations fails to provide strong evidence for subspecific variation: differences in the degree of canine dimorphism cannot be considered statistically significant. Differences between populations in the frequency of thumbs are, however, statistically significant. The lack of clear distinctions between populations in the degree of canine dimorphism complicates assessments of behavioral variation between these populations. We suggest that the level of geographic variation in woolly spider monkey canine dimorphism is not consistent with subspecific status. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Positional behavior in five sympatric old world monkeys
Authors: Gebo Daniel L. , Chapman Colin A.
Published: February 2006

Observations of positional behavior and habitat use were recorded on focal individuals of five species of Old World monkeys at Kibale Forest, Uganda, through the dry season of 1990 and 1991. Cercopithecus ascanius, Cercopithecus mitis, Cercocebus albigena, Colobus badius, and Colobus guereza commonly utilize five similar types of positional behavior (i.e., quadrupedalism, leaping, climbing, sitting, and standing), but in varying frequencies and situations. As a group, colobines use oblique supports and leap more often, and cover greater linear distances during leaps than do cercopithecines. Colobines also prefer to sit (about 90% of all postures), while cercopithecines stand more frequently. Body size differences between the sexes of a species are not reflected in positional behavior. The two small‐bodied species climb more and leap less often than the three larger species, which is the reverse of what we would expect. Leaping is the most common method of crossing open spaces within the canopy; but most spatial gaps and leaps are over short distances, usually one meter or less. All five species, regardless of body size or the availability of forest supports, prefer mediumsized supports. Incorporating our work from Uganda with previous investigations of positional behavior reveals few consistent trends with respect to body size or habitat use across primates. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Dust accumulation in the canopy: A potential cause of dental microwear in primates
Authors: Ungar Peter S. , Teaford Mark F. , Glander Kenneth E. , Pastor Robert F.
Published: February 2006

Dental microwear researchers consider exogenous grit or dust to be an important cause of microscopic wear on primate teeth. No study to date has examined the accumulation of such abrasives on foods eaten by primates in the forest. This investigation introduces a method to collect dust at various heights in the canopy. Results from dust collection studies conducted at the primate research stations at Ketambe in Indonesia, and Hacienda La Pacifica in Costa Rica indicate that 1) grit collects throughout the canopy in both open country and tropical rain forest environments; and 2) the sizes and concentrations of dust particles accumulated over a fixed period of time differ depending on site location and season of investigation. These results may hold important implications for the interpretation of microwear on primate teeth. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Deciduous dental morphology of the prehistoric Jomon people of Japan: Comparison of nonmetric characters
Authors: Kitagawa Yoshikazu , Manabe Yoshitaka , Oyamada Joichi , Rokutanda Atsushi
Published: February 2006

Morphological variations of the deciduous dentition are as useful as those of the permanent dentition for determining the biological affinities of human populations. This paper provides material on morphological variations of deciduous teeth of the prehistoric Japanese population from the Late and the Latest Jomon Period (ca. 2000–ca. 300 B.C.).

The expression of nonmetric traits of the deciduous teeth in the Jomon sample shows a closer affinity with modern Japanese and Native American samples than with American White, Asiatic Indian, and African samples. However, the frequency of shoveling in deciduous upper incisors in the Jomon sample is lower than those in modern Japanese and Native American samples. The Jomon sample also expresses a much higher frequency of cusp 6 in deciduous lower second molars than seen in modern Japanese, Ainu, and Native American samples. The frequency in the Jomon sample is equal to that in the Australian Aboriginal sample, which shows cusp 6 most frequently among the samples compared.

A somewhat low incidence of incisor shoveling in the Jomon sample was also reported in the permanent dentition (Turner [1976] Science 193:911–913, [1979] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 51:619–635, [1987] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 73:305–321, [1990] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 82:295–317; T. Hanihara [1992] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 88:163–182, 88:183–196). However, the frequency of cusp 6 in the Jomon sample shows no significant difference from those of Northeast Asian or Native American samples in the permanent dentition (Turner [1987] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 73:305–321; T. Hanihara [1992] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 88:1–182, 88:183–196). Evidently, some nonmetric traits express an inter‐group difference only in the deciduous dentition. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Fossil Homo femur from Berg Aukas, northern Namibia
Authors: Grine F. E. , Jungers W. L. , Tobias P. V. , Pearson O. M.
Published: February 2006

The proximal half of a hominid femur was recovered from deep within a paleokarst feature at the Berg Aukas mine, northern Namibia. The femur is fully mineralized, but it is not possible to place it in geochrono logical context. It has a very large head, an exceptionally thick diaphyseal cortex, and a very low collodiaphyseal angle, which serve to differentiate it from Holocene homologues. The femur is not attributable to Australopithecus, Paranthropus, or early Homo (i.e., H. habilis sensu lato). Homo erectus femora have a relatively longer and AP flatter neck, and a shaft that exhibits less pilaster than the Berg Aukas specimen. Berg Aukas also differs from early modern femora in several features, including diaphyseal cortical thickness and the degree of subtrochanteric AP flattening.

The massive diaphyseal cortex of Berg Aukas finds its closest similarity within archaic H. sapiens (e.g., Castel di Guido) and H. erectus (e.g., KNM‐ER 736) samples. It has more cortical bone at midshaft than any other specimen, although relative cortical thickness and the asymmetry of its cross‐sectional disposition at this level are comparable with those of other Pleistocene fem ora. The closest morphological comparisons with Berg Aukas are in archaic (i.e., Middle Pleistocene) H. sapiens and Neandertal samples. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Pelvic sexual dimorphism and relative neonatal brain size really are related
Authors: Ridley Mark
Published: February 2006

Primate species in which the neonatal brain size is large relative to the birth canal tend to have more sexually dimorphic pelves: this is a classic comparative relation, discovered by Schultz and Leutenegger. The original work did not correct for phylogenetic nonindependence of the data points; it only partly corrected for body size; it used ratios in both variables, and the size of the female pubis featured in bothx‐ andy‐variables. A recent publication by Tague placed a question mark over the validity of the relation. I therefore retested it, correcting for all four statistical defects. A strongly significant statistical relation exists. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Variation in pelvic size between males and females in nonhuman anthropoids
Authors: Tague Robert G.
Published: February 2006

Whether there is a sexual difference in phenotypic variance has been the subject of theoretical and empirical studies. The presence of such a difference is integral to some models on the evolution of sexual dimorphism. Several studies report that males are more variable than females for nonpelvic measures. This study tests for a sexual difference in variability of the pelvis. Phenotypic variance is a correlate of both the intensity and mode of selection. In both sexes, the pelvis is subject primarily to stabilizing selection. However, selection intensity is greater among females than among males because only among females does the pelvis function as a birth canal and, thereby, serve as a proximate cause of death. As selection intensity and phenotypic variability are inversely related under stabilizing selection, the implication is that females should be less variable than males in pelvic size and shape. However, the results of previous studies on this issue are equivocal or contradictory. This study compares the sexes for differences in pelvic variability by analyzing nine species (and ten samples) of nonhuman anthropoids. Data were collected on 16 measures of the pelvis; only adults were used. Levene's univariate and multivariate tests for relative variation were used in the analysis. The results show that the sexes do not differ significantly in pelvic variability either within or among the nine samples of noncaptive anthropoids. Only in the one sample of captive specimens (Saimiri sciureus) do the sexes differ significantly in pelvic variability, with males being more variable than females. Two interpretations are derived from these results. First, the sexual difference in variability in captive Saimiri may be due either to a bias in the selection of Saimiri specimens by the captors/experimentors or to a sexual difference in growth associated with the stress of captivity. Second, the sexes do not differ in pelvic variability among noncaptive anthropoids because the anlage of the pelvis is bipotential in development. The intrinsic (i.e., agonadal) pattern of growth and development is that characteristic of a female. Testicular androgens are requisite to redirect the pattern of growth and development to that characteristic of a male. However, the redirected pattern of growth in males simply shifts en masse the intrinsic (i.e., female) distribution curve. The consequence among adults is sexual dimorphism in pelvic size, but sexual equivalency in relative pelvic variability. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Socioeconomic change and patterns of growth in the Andes
Authors: Leatherman Thomas L. , Carey James W. , Thomas R. Brooke
Published: February 2006

Changes in the pattern of growth over a 20‐year period are described for a combined rural and semi‐urban population in the District of Nunoa (Puno) in the southern Peruvian Andes. Over the past two decades, Andean regions have experienced many socioeconomic changes, including the implementation of agrarian reform policies and increased integration into a market economy. Local changes in Nunoa have included improved transportation networks, new markets, an expanded public school system, and improved health care facilities. Secular trends in stature and weight have been found to be associated with social and economic development throughout the developing world, including Peru. The purpose of this paper is to present the findings from a re‐study of growth in the Nurioan population, and to assess whether changing conditions in Nunoa have resulted in secular increases in growth.

A cross‐sectional sample of 1,466 children and adults and a mixed‐longitudinal sample of 404 children (age 3–22), measured between 1983 and 1984, are compared to similar samples collected from the same location between 1964 and 1966. Adolescents are taller, heavier, and somewhat fatter in the present population, although these differences diminish or disappear in adulthood. Age of maturation, peak growth velocities, and cessation of growth may come 1 to 2 years earlier than in the 1960s. As was found in earlier studies, growth velocities are low, the adolescent growth spurt is small, and sexual dimorphism is delayed. No secular trends in adult stature were found. Thus, the effects of social and economic change on nutrition, health, and growth in the population are uneven and generally unclear. This points to inequalities in access to the benefits of change throughout the region. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Socioecology and the ontogeny of sexual size dimorphism in anthropoid primates
Authors: Leigh Steven R.
Published: February 2006

This study examines statistical correlations between socioecological variables (including measures of group composition, intermale competition, and habitat preference) and the ontogeny of body size sexual dimorphism in anthropoid primates. A regression‐based multivariate measure of dimorphism in body weight ontogeny is derived from a sample of 37 species. Quantitative estimates of covariation between socioecological variables and this multivariate measure are evaluated. Statistically significant covariation between the ontogeny of dimorphism and socioecological variables, with the possible exception of habitat preference, is observed. Sex differences in ontogeny are lacking in species that exhibit low levels of intermale competition and are classifiable as species with monogamous/polyandrous mating systems. Among dimorphic species, two modes of dimorphic growth are apparent, which seem to be related to different kinds of group compositions. Multimale/multifemale species tend to become dimorphic through bimaturism (sex differences in duration of growth) with minimal sex differences in growth rate. Single‐male/multifemale species tend to attain dimorphism through differences in rate of growth, often with limited bimaturism. Measures of intermale competition may also covary with these modes of dimorphic growth, but the relations among these variables are sometimes ambiguous.

Correlations between dimorphic growth and behavioral variables may reflect alternative life history strategies in primates. Specifically, the ways in which risks faced by subadult males are distributed and the relations of these risks to growth rates seem to influence the evolution of size ontogenies. The absence of dimorphic ontogeny in some species can be tied to similar distributions of risk in each sex. In taxa that become dimorphic primarily through rate differences in growth, the lifetime distribution of risks for males may change rapidly. In contrast, males may face a pattern of uniformly changing or stable risk in species that become dimorphic through bimaturism. Finally, much variation recorded by this study remains unexplained, providing additional evidence of the need to specially examine female ontogeny before primate body size dimorphism can be satisfactorily explained. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Functional anatomy of the trunk musculature in the slow loris (Nycticebus coucang)
Authors: Curtis Deborah J.
Published: February 2006

Lorisid locomotor and postural behaviour exhibits a number of features that distinguish it clearly from other primates. The comparative myological study of the trunk in the slow loris (Nycticebus coucang) and the squirrel monkey (Saimiri sp.) presented here reveals differences that are related to unique aspects of lorisid positional behaviour. While quadrupedal running and leaping requires flexion and extension of the spine, slow climbing quadrupedalism in lorisids depends on spinal lateral flexion and rotation. The contrasting development of the epaxial musculature in the two species dissected reflects these different requirements. Bipedal suspension is a common posture in the lorisids during which rotation and dorsiflexion of the head is made possible by the robustly developed deep, dorsal, cervical musculature. The long lower lever arm in the M. rectus abdominis may play a significant role in the ventroflexion required to regain a quadrupedal stance. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Effect of life history on the squirrel monkey (Platyrrhini, Saimiri) cranium
Authors: Hartwig Walter Carl
Published: February 2006

Among primates, squirrel monkeys uniquely possess an interorbital fenestra, in which the midline bony orbitosphenoid septum is largely absent and the soft tissues of the orbits are separated only by a thin membrane. Neural development may contribute to the approximation of the orbits to the midline in Saimiri, insofar as other platyrrhines with relatively large brains also have relatively narrow interorbital spaces compared to their near relatives. In Saimiri the narrow spacing of the orbits is further exacerbated by intense predation pressure on infants that may select for precocial neonates. The result is a large‐headed neonate that is subject to unusual parturition constraints. These parturition constraints apply to the size and dolichocephalic shape of the squirrel monkey head in general, and to the relatively large eyes and approximated orbits in particular. The unique interorbital condition in Saimiri is an example of the effects of life history on skeletal morphology. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Genetic consequences of differential demographic behaviour in the Saguenay region, Québec
Authors: Heyer E.
Published: February 2006

Some rare inherited disorders are found with a high frequency in the population of the Saguenay region (Québec province, Canada, population 300,000). Inbreeding coefficients are too low to be an explanation for these high frequencies. In the first decades of settlement (1842–1870), most of the immigrants came from a small region called Charlevoix (east of Québec city). As most of the genetic disorders found in the Saguenay region are also found in the Charlevoix region, it is strongly suspected that the genes were introduced by these first settlers from Charlevoix. Using the BALSAC database (which contains linked information on the entire Saguenay population) to calculate the number of contemporary descendants and the genetic contribution of each founder to these descendants, we show that:

Founders who entered the population before 1870 contribute to 45% of the contemporary gene pool, despite the fact that they represent only 15% of all the 20,012 immigrants with descendants in the contemporary population (individuals born between 1950 and 1971).

Their genetic contribution is not homogenous in the contemporary population: 5% of the population have 100% of their gene pool coming from these first founders, while 10% have a zero to 5% contribution from these earliest founders.

Fifty percent of the genes introduced in the population were lost.

If only 68 immigrants among the first founders (2.0%) were carriers of the same gene, it could reach a frequency of 5% in the contemporary population, which is the frequency of most of the inherited disorders found in the population.
Structural adaptations for gliding in mammals with implications for locomotor behavior in paromomyids
Authors: Runestad Jacqueline A. , Ruff Christopher B.
Published: February 2006

The gliding abilities of paromomyid plesiadapiforms are evaluated through a functional analysis of long bone morphology in a comparative sample of modern gliders and related nongliders. Relationships between body mass, long bone lengths, and long bone midshaft cross‐sectional areas are explored. Theory suggests that gliders should have long humeri and femora to improve aspect ratio, and that larger gliders should have relatively longer limb bones than smaller gliders to minimize drag and patagial loading at greater body masses. Comparisons between extant taxa support these predictions: gliders have relatively longer humeri and femora than those of nongliders, and glider long bone lengths scale with positive allometry, while the scaling of nonglider long bones does not differ from isometry. Preliminary analysis of distal to proximal limb segment proportions further suggests that bone lengthening is, to some extent, related to patagial attachment site, although humeri and femora are relatively long in all of the gliders, regardless of attachment site. The proportions of paromomyids relative to those of extant mammals do not support a gliding interpretation for these fossils. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
X‐linked hypophosphatemic rickets: A probable upper paleolithic case
Authors: Formicola Vincenzo
Published: February 2006

The skeleton of a middle‐aged adult male, found in the Late Epigravettian necropolis of Arene Candide cave (Italy) and dated to the XII millenniumB.C., exhibits abnormal changes, including bowing deformities, stunted growth, enthesopathies, and increased bone density. The pattern of the observed changes is less consistent with diagnoses of metaphyseal chondrodysplasias, hypophosphatasia, dietary rickets, or diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) than with X‐linked hypophosphatemic rickets, which is the most likely etiological factor. This diagnosis may explain other abnormalities (exceptional elongation of the skull and bilateral absence of the lesser trochanter) displayed by other individuals from the same site. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Effects of ontogeny and sexual dimorphism on scapula morphology in the mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringel)
Authors: Taylor Andrea B.
Published: February 2006

Scapular measurements were obtained from growth series of the sexually dimorphic mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringei). Juveniles, subadults, and adults were compared to determine if scapula morphology varies with age. Analyses reveal significant (P < 0.05) differences in scapula form for shape ratios of length vs. breadth, length vs. infraspinous fossa length, and length vs. spine length. Males and females were also compared to determine if sexual dimorphism in scapula morphology is a consequence of differential extension of common patterns of relative growth. Analyses reveal that scapula proportions are ontogenetically scaled. Data indicate that male scapulae grow at a faster rate and for a longer duration than females. Results of comparisons of males and females suggest that unique adaptations to different ecological niches have not evolved between the sexes despite sexual differences in frequency of patterns of locomotor behavior. By contrast, age‐related variation in scapula morphology may be linked to differences in locomotor behavior during ontogeny. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Characterization of gout in a skeletal population sample: Presumptive diagnosis in a micronesian population
Authors: Rothschild Bruce M. , Heathcote Gary M.
Published: February 2006

Characterization of the nature and skeletal distribution of gout was accomplished in a Chamoru (Chamorros) population with predilection to the disease. Uniform excavation by the gouty diathesis produces a punched‐out appearance to these predominantly monarticular lesions. The lesion is distinct from that seen in rheumatoid arthritis, spondyloarthropathy, or infection. Reactive new bone formation in some gouty lesions also has an apparently unique, ivory‐like discoloration (contrasted with the adjacent bone), which facilitates diagnosis. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Efficiency of the stabilization process of a poly(arylate‐arylenesulfoxide) melt: The fractal approach
Authors: Kozlov G. V. , Zaikov G. E.
Published: February 2006

The present study has shown that the parameter ϵ can be accepted as a characteristic of polymer (stabilized or nonstabilized) resistance to thermooxidative degradative action. This parameter can characterize the number of steps number required for a random walk (molecule or atom of oxidant) to achieve the reactive center of a polymer macromolecule. The main structural factor for defining polymer resistance to thermooxidative degradation is effective spectral dimension. It also shows the physical sense of the term structural stabilization. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 100: 2614–2618, 2006
Cardiovascular response of rats exposed to 60‐Hz electric fields
Authors: Hilton D. I. , Phillips R. D.
Published: February 2006

Recently, it has been reported that exposure to high‐strength electric fields can influence electrocardiogram (ECG) patterns, heart rates, and blood pressures in various species of animals. Our studies were designed to evaluate these reported effects and to help clarify some of the disagreement present in the literature. Various cardiovascular variables were measured in Sprague‐Dawley rats exposed or sham‐exposed to 60‐Hz electric fields at 80 or 100 kV/m for periods up to four months. No significant differences in heart rates, ECG patterns, blood pressures, or vascular reactivity were observed between exposed and sham‐exposed rats after 8 hours, 40 hours, 1 month, or 4 months of exposure. Blood pressure and heart rate measurements, made during exposure to a 100‐kV/m electric field for one hour, revealed no significant differences between exposed and sham‐exposed groups. In addition, physiologic reserve capacity, measured in rats subjected to low temperature after exposure to 100 kV/m for one month, showed that electric‐field exposure had no significant effect on physiological response to cold stress. Our studies cannot be directly compared to the work of other investigators because of differences in animal species and electric‐field characteristics. However, our failure to detect any cardiovascular changes may have been the result of 1) eliminating secondary field effects such as shocks, audible noise, corona, and ozone; 2) minimizing steady‐state microcurrents between the mouth of the animal and watering devices; and 3) minimizing electric‐field‐induced vibration of the electrodes and animal cages.
Tests of mutagenesis and reproduction in male rats exposed to 2,450‐MHz (CW) microwaves
Authors: Berman Ezra , Carter Hershell B. , House Dennis
Published: February 2006

Tests of mutagenesis and reproduction were conducted in male rats which were irradiated by 2,450‐MHz, continuous‐wave (CW) microwaves, 4 hr/day from day 6 of gestation to 90 days of age at 5 mW/cm2; or 5 hr/day for five days beginning on the 90th day of age at 10 mW/cm2; or 4 hr/day, 5 days/ wk for four weeks, beginning on the 90th day of age. During selected weekly periods after treatment, the rats were bred to pairs of untreated, normal female rats that were examined in late pregnancy by means of the dominant lethal assay. The reproductive efficiency of these males, as reflected in their breeding, was also examined for changes relating to their microwave experience. No significant evidence of germ‐cell mutagenesis was detected when data of microwave‐exposed males were compared with those of sham‐exposed males, even though there were significant increases in rectal and intra‐testicular temperatures at a power density of 28 mW/cm2. Temporary sterility, as indexed by fewer pregnancies, was seen at the highest power density.
Modification of the repeated acquisition of response sequences in rats by low‐level microwave exposure
Authors: Schrot John , Thomas John R. , Banvard Richard A.
Published: February 2006

The acute effects of microwave exposure on a repeated acquisition baseline were investigated in three rats. Each session the animals acquired a different four‐member response sequence. Each of the first three correct responses advanced the sequence to the next member, and the fourth correct response produced food reinforcement. Incorrect responses produced a three‐second timeout. Baseline and control sessions were characterized by a decrease in errors within each session. The animals were acutely exposed to a 2.8 GHz pulsed‐microwave field prior to test sessions, with average power densities ranging from 0.25 to 10 mW/cm2. In comparison to control sessions, 1/2 hour of exposure to microwave radiation at power densities of 5 and 10 mW/cm2 increased errors and altered the pattern of within‐session acquisition. Exposure to the 10 mW/cm2 power density decreased the rate of sequence completion in all animals. The results of exposures at 0.25, 0.5, and 1 mW/cm2 power densities were generally within the control range. The results are interpreted as indicating a disruption in the discriminative stimulus control of the repeated acquisition behavior.
Comparison of the coupling of grounded humans, swine and rats to vertical, 60‐Hz electric fields
Authors: Kaune W. T. , Phillips R. D.
Published: February 2006

Published and new data for grounded humans, swine, and rats exposed to vertical, 60‐Hz electric fields are used to determine field strengths at the surfaces of the bodies and average components of induced‐current density along the axes of the bodies. At the tops of the bodies, surface electric fields are increased (enhanced) over the unperturbed field strength present before the subjects entered the field by factors of 17,7, and 4 for humans, swine, and rats, respectively. For an unperturbed field strength of 10 kV/m, average induced axial current densities in the neck, chest, abdomen, and feet are: 550, 190, 250, and 2000 nA/cm2, respectively, for humans; 40, 13, 20, and 1100 nA/cm2, respectively, for swine; and 28, 16, 2, and 1400 nA/cm2, respectively, for rats. These data are used to show that the actual electric fields experienced by animals depend strongly on the shape of the body and its orientation relative to the electric field and ground plane. This fact must be taken into account if biological data obtained with laboratory animals are to be used for the assessment of possible hazards to humans exposed to 60‐Hz electric fields.
Effect of microwaves (2450‐MHz) on the immune system in mice: Studies of nucleic acid and protein synthesis
Authors: Wiktor‐Jedrzejczak W. , Ahmed A. , Czerski P. , Leach W. M. , Sell K. W.
Published: February 2006

CBA/J adult male mice were given single or triple exposures to 2450‐MHz microwaves in an environmentally controlled wave guide facility. The average absorbed dose rate for a single exposure varied from 12 to 15 mW/g. Shamexposed mice served as controls. Lymphoid cells were collected and tested for metabolic activity on days 3, 6, and 9 following a single exposure, and on days 9, 12, and 16 following triple exposures on days 0, 3, and 6. Cells were cultured in vitro for four hours to seven days before their metabolic rates were assayed. Under these conditions, microwaves failed to produce any detectable change in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA), and protein synthesis, as measured by the incorporation of methyl(3H)‐thymidine (3H‐TDR) (DNA substrate), 3H‐uridine (3H‐UR) (RNA substrate), and 3H‐leucine (protein substrate) by spleen, bone marrow, and peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) in vitro. These data suggest that microwave‐induced increases in the frequency of complement‐receptor (CR)‐ or surface‐immunoglobulin (sIg)‐bearing cells were not associated with a concomitant increase in cell proliferation and/or protein synthesis, and favor the concept that microwaves under these conditions stimulate already existing B‐cell precursors for maturation.