bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Reconciling Resilience with Reliability: The Complementary Nature of Resilience Engineering and Human Reliability Analysis
Authors: Boring Ronald Laurids
Published: January 2012

Resilience engineering has introduced a number of new ideas into safety science, capitalizing on similarities to some safety fields within human factors yet distancing itself from other fields like human reliability analysis (HRA). Resilience engineering highlights important new aspects of safety that should be further considered in HRA and other areas of safety. However, resilience engineering does not represent a paradigm shift away from HRA. As this paper will demonstrate, to a great extent, concepts explored by resilience engineering are already covered by HRA. This paper reviews core assumptions of HRA and resilience engineering and then presents a discussion of: (i) three ways in which HRA can fortify the emerging field of resilience engineering and (ii) two ways in which resilience engineering can infuse important new concepts into HRA. This paper argues that in order to achieve this mutual benefit, it is important to reconcile the two fields.
On Warning Symbols, Text, and ‘getting it right’: The Iterative Refinement of a Teratogenic Pharmaceutical Label
Authors: Goldsworthy Richard C. , Mayhorn Christopher B.
Published: January 2012

Several birth defects warning symbols identified as most successful in an earlier study (Mayhorn & Goldsworthy, 2007) were further modified and then evaluated within a nationally distributed field trial (n = 2773). A total of 11 warning labels were examined: 4 new symbols plus the existing baseline symbol, each in versions with and without text, plus a text-only condition. Participant interpretation accuracy and preferences were assessed. For symbol-only conditions, several candidate symbols outperformed the existing symbol, one substantially so. The effect of adding text to symbols varied significantly by symbol. Symbol+text and text-only conditions performed equivalently, generally exceeded symbol-only conditions, and often surpassed the ANSI benchmark of 85% accurate interpretation. Implications are drawn from the process and outcomes in relation to warning design, warning evaluation, and future research.
Habituation, Dishabituation, and Recovery Effects in Visual Warnings
Authors: Kim Soyun , Wogalter Michael S.
Published: January 2012

Decrement of visual attention to repeatedly exposed warning labels and signs has been discussed in the warning literature without much empirical research support. The present research examined whether habituation, dishabituation, and recovery of habituation occur to visually presented warnings. Participants (N=72) were presented to a long sequence of repeated visual warnings (40 warnings presented 8 times = 320 initial trials) in a particular format (ANSI or OSHA type formats), followed by 5 warnings manipulated either in the same or different format. Five more warnings in same format as in the initial trials were presented to end the sequence. Measured were participants' ratings of perceived alertness to each warning. Findings showed a decrease in ratings from beginning to end of the initial 320 trials, indicative of habituation. Dishabituation was observed with higher ratings when the warning format changed. Evidence of habituation recovery of lowered ratings was observed upon return to the previously habituated (initial trials) format after a set of different formatted warnings. Implications for formalized standards and guidelines, which recommend an unchanging, relatively constant format, are discussed.
Vehicle Backup Alarm Localization (or Not): Effects of Passive and Electronic Hearing Protectors, Ambient Noise Level, and Backup Alarm Spectral Content
Authors: Casali John G. , Alali Khaled
Published: January 2012

A parametric human factors experiment employed a hemi-anechoic sound field in which listeners were required to localize a vehicular backup alarm warning signal in 360-degrees azimuth. Measures of localization performance included: 1) percentage correct localization, 2) percentage left/right localization errors, 3) percentage front/rear localization errors, and 4) the absolute deviation in degrees from the alarm's location. In summary, the data demonstrated that normal hearing listeners did not improve in their ability to localize the backup alarm warning signal in 360-degrees azimuth when wearing augmented hearing protectors (including dichotic sound transmission earmuffs, flat attenuation earplugs, and level-dependent earplugs), as compared to when wearing conventional passive earmuffs or earplugs of the foam or flanged types. Furthermore, a diotic sound transmission earmuff resulted in the poorest localization. Localization was also degraded in 90 dBA pink noise, as compared to the relatively quiet condition of 60 dBA pink noise. An augmented backup alarm which incorporated 400 Hz and 4000 Hz components to exploit the benefits of interaural phase and intensity cues slightly improved localization compared to the standard, more narrow-bandwidth backup alarm, and these results have implications for the updating of backup alarm standards.
Bar Graphs and Small Screens: Mitigating Cognitive Load in Mobile Visualizations
Authors: Luong Mary G. , McLaughlin Anne Collins
Published: January 2012

The literature separately addresses issues related to mobile visualization techniques (Chae & Kim, 2004; Chittaro, 2006; Chittaro & Camaggio, 2002; Gutwin & Fedak, 2004) and visuospatial working memory demand (Baddeley & Hitch, 1994; Huang et al., 2006; Plumlee & Ware, 2006; Lecerf & de Ribaupierre, 2005). The current study investigated the effect of zooming on graph-reading performance under lower and higher cognitive loads, finding that a visualization that reduced working memory demands both stabilized performance under different task load conditions and reduced error. We propose a theory of mobile visualization that capitalizes on a reduction in working memory demand to reduce errors in performance.
The Role of Effortful Attention in Effective Spatial Training
Authors: Whitlock Laura A. , McLaughlin Anne Collins
Published: January 2012

The objective of this study will be to identify the components of a 3-D puzzle game (BlockOut) that influence gain in spatial ability. Training with video games has been shown to improve spatial ability in ways that are both transferable (Terlecki, Newcombe & Little, 2008) and long-lasting (Feng, Spence & Pratt, 2007), but results for different games are mixed. It is hypothesized that one component of games, the need for maximal attention, will influence spatial ability improvement. To test this hypothesis, 24 participants will play BlockOut for 10 hours under either a rotation-only or a maximal attention condition. It is predicted that participants in the attentional-limit condition will show more improvement on a battery of tests than participants in the rotation-only condition. Potential applications include targeted training approaches to improving spatial ability.
Are Unskilled Drivers Aware of their Deficiencies? How Driving Skills Influence the Accuracy of Driving Performance Estimates
Authors: Kidd David G. , Monk Christopher A.
Published: January 2012

Numerous studies have shown that drivers are overconfident and have inaccurate perceptions of their driving ability. There is evidence to suggest the skills needed to accurately assess performance are the same as those required to perform a task well. Thus, drivers that perform poorly may also be unable to accurately evaluate their performance (i.e., they suffer a “double curse”). In this study, drivers responded to yellow-light changes while performing a distracting task. Drivers were grouped into quartiles based upon driving performance and drivers' estimated braking performance and intersection safety were compared between quartiles. Evidence of a “double curse” was found for both braking performance and intersection safety. The poorest performing drivers thought they performed as well as the best drivers despite performing significantly worse. Additionally, drivers did not perceive distraction effects in braking performance
Effects of a Motion-Coupled Visual Display on Motion Sickness and Task Performance
Authors: Hunter David R. , Monk Christopher A. , Hurwitz Elisa
Published: January 2012

This study tested the effects of a motion-coupled display on task performance and self-reports of motion sickness for subjects experiencing motion at a frequency and intensity previously found to be nauseogenic. Subjects were randomly assigned to a control condition or a treatment condition. Both groups performed a simple computer game (Tetris) for a 30-minute period while moving forward and backward at 0.2 Hz in an enclosed chamber. In the treatment condition, a visual flow field whose movement was coupled to the motion of the enclosed test chamber was displayed behind and around a window in which subjects performed the computer game. For the control condition, the visual flow field elements were kept stationary. Contrary to expectations, no differences were found between the two groups on self-reported motion sickness symptoms; however, the treatment group performed significantly better than the control group on the computer game.
A Task Analysis of the Task Analysis Process
Authors: Ainsworth Les
Published: January 2012

Task analysis is one of the most useful tools for investigating human tasks and together with associated analysis techniques it provides considerable versatility, that enables analysts to investigate a wide range of issues on both new and existing systems. However, software tools for task analysis generally do not currently provide the flexibility or range of applications, to fully utilize this versatility.

Therefore, in order to define the user requirements for an analyst using a task analysis package, a task analysis was undertaken of the task analysis process. This produced an extensive set of different user requirements, both at a generic level and at the level of specific analysis techniques. Some of the more significant of these findings are summarized. It was also noted that there is room for some standardization in the way that some features of task analysis data are presented, in order to assist the readers of a task analysis to understand the data presentation of task analysis data.
Beyond User-Centered Design: Applicable Concepts from Complementary Approaches
Authors: Hoeft Raegan M. , Mentis Helena M.
Published: January 2012

In human factors, and especially in the area of computer system design, practitioners often employ a design approach or design philosophy called user-centered design (UCD). This paper provides an introduction to three complementary approaches (Quality Function Deployment, Front End Loading, and Service-Oriented Project Management) that originated in different domains and are primarily used by business development and project management. These approaches are then compared to UCD to determine whether UCD practitioners may be able to complement these approaches as well as incorporate new perspectives, strategies, or principles to enhance their application of UCD in system design. The principles from these other approaches may provide UCD practitioners with guidance to create a more robust approach to incorporating the human element into system design, and the tools and methodologies that accompany each approach could enhance UCD practices in the future.
Human Factors Requirements: Being Involved in the First Stage of System Development
Authors: Grier Rebecca A. , Lizza Gretchen , Linegang Michael , Kortum Philip
Published: January 2012

One of the common refrains among human factors professionals is “We need to be involved earlier in the process.” One of the earliest stages of any project is requirements definition. However, developing requirements is not a skill many of us learned in school. Requirements definition is not easy even for other engineering domains. At a minimum, a well written requirement expresses a necessary and verifiable characteristic of the end system in simple, clear, and concise language. Necessary characteristics are those aspects of a system that can be traced to technological or user need. Requirements that are verifiable are those that can be proven not necessarily only by testing, but could be confirmed through inspection or demonstration as well. Finally requirements must be written in simple, clear and concise language in order to ensure that there is no ambiguity in its interpretation. There are many who think it is a quixotic task to write clear, verifiable and effective requirements that involve humans. Some of the arguments are that humans are too unreliable for testing or that there are few known thresholds in human related factors as such human factors requirements are not verifiable. The result is human factors professionals have not been brought in to the requirements definition process. Even when human factors professionals are included, they may be challenged by the complexity of the job. In this panel, highly experienced human factors professionals who have worked in a variety of domains (e.g., military, government, commercial, and academia) will discuss identifying and writing good human factors requirements, lessons learned on becoming a part of the requirements definition process, how to teach requirements writing to new human factors professionals, and a framework for capturing the nuances of human factors requirements.
Multidimensional Training System Evaluation using the Revised Bloom's Taxonomy
Authors: Lee Yoon Suk , Smith-Jackson Tonya L. , Nussbaum Maury A.
Published: January 2012

Many organizations employ training systems to reduce work-related low back disorders. However, the evaluation of training programs is often not satisfactory, mainly due to the complexity of training systems, the high costs involved, heavy reliance on trainee reactions, and little integration of outcomes-based validation. In this work, we used the Revised Bloom's Taxonomy to classify the learning objectives of a training program. These classified objectives were then examined to predict training performance, and were further compared with trainee reactions using multiple regression and correlation analyses accordingly. Results indicated that the classified learning objectives were better predictors of training performance than trainee reactions. Practical implications of the results are discussed.
Interference between Visuospatial Dual Tasks and the Effects of Training
Authors: Dillard Michael B. , Boles David B.
Published: January 2012

The mechanisms involved in reducing interference in visuospatial dual tasks were investigated. Three computerized visuospatial tasks, bargraphs, dot clusters, and occlusions (Boles, 1991, 1992, 1996) comprised the dual tasks. To compare the roles of automaticity and encapsulation, one group practiced dual tasks drawing upon separate processes while another practiced dual tasks drawing upon the same process. The results suggest automaticity plays a larger role in reducing interference than encapsulation. They also support the existence of resource training, in which practicing a mental resource in one task shows transfer to another task using the same resource.
Enhancing Unmanned Aerial System Training: A Taxonomy of Knowledge, Skills, Attitudes, and Methods
Authors: Pavlas Davin , Burke C. Shawn , Fiore Stephen M. , Salas Eduardo , Jensen Randy , Fu Dan
Published: January 2012

The burgeoning use of Unmanned Aerial Systems (UASs) has, regrettably, not been met with an appropriate integration of training science into UAS training efforts. At best, current UAS training efforts are fragmented; at worst, they are ineffective (Stulberg, 2007). However, this need not be the case. Though nascent, the UAS literature has identified many necessary knowledge, skill, and attitude (KSA) components of UAS operation. This article works to aid the UAS training community in combining practice with science. In order to accomplish this goal, the emerging UAS knowledge base is collected herein as a taxonomy of KSAs. These KSAs are joined by a listing of training methodologies that can be used to impart them to UAS operator teams. Finally, these KSAs and methods are used to resolve example training deficiencies drawn from the literature.
Procedural or Conceptual Training: Which is Better for Teaching Novice Pilots Landings and Traffic Patterns?
Authors: Dattel Andrew R. , Durso Francis T. , Bédard Raynald
Published: January 2012

Forty-eight student pilots and recently licensed private pilots were randomly assigned to one of three training groups: procedural, conceptual, and control. Participants in the procedural group spent approximately two hours reading text and watching videos specific to the step-by-step procedures of how to fly traffic patterns and land an airplane. Participants in the conceptual group spent approximately two hours reading reasoning explanations, everyday metaphors to aviation, and viewing diagrams of traffic patterns and landings. Participants in the control group spent approximately two hours watching aviation-themed videos and reading aviation-themed text, but unrelated to traffic patterns, landings, or any other flight task. During training, participants answered questions specific to the material they were reading or watching. At the conclusion of the training participants were tested on typical and atypical traffic pattern performance, typical and atypical landing performance, and routine and non routine situations for 20 minutes in a medium fidelity flight simulator. Conceptual training was best for traffic pattern performance and atypical landings. Additionally, the conceptual group had better situation awareness than the procedural and control groups for landing situations and non routine traffic pattern situations. Finally, the procedural group did not show better performance than the control group on any test.
Waste Water Treatment Simulation (WaTr Sim): Validation of a New Process Control Simulation Tool for Experimental Training Research
Authors: Burkolter Dina , Kluge Annette , German Sinan , Grauel Britta
Published: January 2012

We introduce a new simulation tool designed for experimental training research and present results from an experimental study conducted to validate it. The Waste Water Treatment Simulation (WaTr Sim) is a computer-based simulation of a complex process control task characterized by high dynamics, interrelated-ness, feedback delays, and opaqueness. It includes start-up and shut-down procedures, monitoring, and control. In a training experiment ( N = 48) WaTr Sim was evaluated and compared to a well-studied process control simulation called Cabin Air Management System (CAMS). Diagnostic performance on CAMS was especially related to those performance elements in WaTr Sim that required consideration of and adherence to fixed and contingent sequences. WaTr Sim has unique features, such as the possibility of creating scenarios to study instance-based learning or transfer tasks. Findings indicate that the simulation can be employed in training experiments to analyze various demands of process control tasks.
A Distributed Game-Based Simulation Training Research Testbed
Authors: Lampton Donald , Bliss James , Orvis Karin , Kring Jason , Martin Glenn A.
Published: January 2012

[This paper is a companion piece for a presentation to be given as part of a panel discussion on the topic “Leveraging Virtual Reality and Computer-Based Games for Training”]. Our paper describes: the establishment of a testbed to support behavioral research on training applications of online distributed multiplayer gaming systems, several of the initial experiments conducted with the testbed, and some lesson learned. The testbed is itself geographically distributed with military, government, industry, and academia participants. We describe the behavioral research objectives and the technological challenges encountered in adapting commercial off-the-shelf gaming systems for training research use. Our focus is on the performance feedback process within the overall context of using gaming systems for distributed training. Research areas addressed include: factors general to training small teams such as law enforcement, urban search and rescue, or first responder personnel; and specific aspects of kinetic and non-kinetic dismounted infantry operations. Lessons learned involve: voice communications, Internet firewalls and quality of service, and “modeling mania”.
Interacting in 3D Space: Comparison of a 3D Two-handed Interface to a Keyboard-and-mouse Interface for Medical 3D Image Manipulation
Authors: Seagull F. Jacob , Miller Peter , George Ivan , Mlyniec Paul , Park Adrian
Published: January 2012

Interacting with computer-generated 3-dimensional (3D) data can pose challenges in the control of 3D objects and navigation in 3D space. The traditional mouse-driven interfaces are limited to controlling two degrees of freedom (DOF) at a time. The current research examines the efficacy of a two-handed interface (THI), “iMedic,” that uses two 6-DOF controllers that afford a more direct style of manipulation of 3D medical imagery. The iMedic interface employs a 3D “multi-touch” type of interaction for manipulation of objects, and self-navigation in space. Medical 3D images of human anatomy from computer tomography (CT) scans were used as a testbed in comparing the two interface: the THI, and a traditional keyboard-and-mouse interface (KMI) commonly used in medical imaging contexts. Novice system users with medical background used each system to carry out navigation, visual search, and measurement tasks with abstract synthetic and realistic anatomical objects. Results indicate that for novice users, there was no clear advantage to either interface in subjective or objective measures. However, a case study of an experienced user showed clear advantages in all tasks using the THI. Reasons for the findings are examined, and interface design implications are discussed.
Bridging the gap between Human — Automation Interface Analysis and Flight Deck Design Guidance
Authors: Feary Michael , McCloy Tom , Wickens Christopher , Kaber David , Pritchett Amy , Sherry Lance
Published: January 2012

Next generation aviation operations will place a much greater dependence on automation usage, and therefore additional emphasis needs to be placed on the evaluation of human automation interaction in the design and evaluation of these systems. Additionally, new airworthiness regulations and regulatory certification processes are beginning to focus on the design and verification testing of the pilot-automation interaction. Current human computer interaction analyses (computational human performance models and task analysis methods) are not effectively usable within the constrained timeline of real world design and certification processes. Fundamental and theoretical work is needed to develop methods and tools that will provide designers and regulators with the means of testing and providing useful feedback about the efficacy of these interactions.
The Influence of Individual Differences in Perceptual Performance on Pilot Perceptions of Head-Up Display Clutter
Authors: Kaufmann Karl A. , Kaber David B.
Published: January 2012

The objective of this study was to investigate the role of individual differences in pilot perceptual abilities on their experience of head-up display (HUD) clutter during a simulated instrument approach. Pilot contrast sensitivity, useful field of view (UFOV) and field dependence were assessed using standardized instruments. When these measures were included in a model of perceived clutter based on pilot subjective ratings of HUD configurations in terms of display clarity, contrast, density and similarity of elements, the predictive utility of the model modestly increased. Contrast sensitivity was found to be the most influential perceptual ability, with UFOV also being a predictor of perceived clutter. High contrast sensitivity for higher spatial frequencies was associated with higher ratings of overall clutter, while greater contrast sensitivity for moderate spatial frequencies was associated with lower ratings of clutter. Better performance on the UFOV measure of divided attention ability was associated with lower ratings of clutter, while better performance on the selective attention processing speed scale was related to higher clutter ratings. However, these variables had a much smaller degree of influence on clutter ratings than contrast sensitivity.
Human Factors Research for Space Exploration: Measurement, Modeling, and Mitigation
Authors: Kaiser Mary K. , Allen Christopher S. , Barshi Immanuel , Billman Dorrit , Holden Kritina L.
Published: January 2012

As part of NASA's Human Research Program, the Space Human Factors Engineering Project serves as the bridge between Human Factors research and Human Spaceflight applications. Our goal is to be responsive to the operational community while addressing issues at a sufficient level of abstraction to ensure that our tools and solutions generalize beyond the point design. In this panel, representatives from four of our research domains will discuss the challenges they face in solving current problems while also enabling future capabilities.
Comparative Analyses of Functional Reaches of Older Mexican American Adults
Authors: Ventura Grisel , Senapati Rajeev , Diaz Luis , Pennathur Arunkumar , Contreras Luis Rene , Bader Julia
Published: January 2012

Older Mexican American adults have greater difficulty in performing activities of daily living (ADL) compared to other older adult groups. Differences in functional upper extremity anthropometry measures may help explain higher incidences of ADL difficulties among older Mexican American adults. Hence, as a first step, the objectives of this study were to compare baseline limiting outer fingertip and grip reaches of older Mexican Americans with published and available functional anthropometry data from other older adult groups. Older Mexican American females and males, aged 60–85+, recruited from Senior Centers in the City of El Paso, participated in the study. Stature, vertical fingertip and grip reaches, and horizontal fingertip and grip reaches, among other dimensions, were measured. Summary statistics, percentiles, and correlations between dimensions were generated for elderly Mexican American females and males. For overall comparison of Mexican American older adult anthropometry with other older adult groups, data available from several other studies in the Older Adult Data compendium was used. Overall comparisons of weighted means of available reach dimensions between older Mexican Americans and other older adult groups showed significant differences in most functional reach dimensions. Older Mexican American adults were found to have significantly different functional anthropometry than other groups.
A Low-Cost Intervention to Prevent Falls in Active Older Women
Authors: Hall Robert A. , Componation Paul J. , Carpenter Sandra L. , O'Neal Pamela
Published: January 2012

One-third of the elderly population falls one or more times annually. Older adults are more susceptible to falling and are more susceptible to serious injury. Falls are the greatest killer of those 75 years of age and older. Additionally, active older women, compared to active older men, are more likely to fall and are twice as likely to experience serious injury from a fall. Methods used to prepare individuals to avoid falls—from an economic point with no consideration for the emotional cost—are breakeven at best when comparing the cost of preventing a fall to the medical costs of a resultant fall. This paper reports on a 10-month intervention study of 121 women, 65 years of age and older, to determine whether a low-cost repetitive intervention consisting of visualization and repetition would decrease the occurrence of falls. In the study, the number of falls in the treatment group, excluding repeat fallers, was less (11%) than the control group although not to a level of statistical significance. Nevertheless, benefits were gained from the study. The women almost exclusively reported that their awareness to hazardous situations was heightened by the study and some reported changing their approach to hazardous situations in order to decrease their exposure to harm. There is some indication that to be most effective, a fall intervention program should be ongoing to the extent as permitted by economic considerations. Suggestions for future study are included.
The Roles of Working Memory Capacity, Visual Attention and Age in Driving Performance
Authors: Lambert Ann E. , Watson Jason M. , Cooper Joel M. , Strayer David L.
Published: January 2012

Older adult drivers' disproportionate involvement in traffic fatalities coupled with growing population projections for this age group present a need for public policy that regulates the safety of our roadways. Before such a policy can be developed, a highly predictive model of the cognitive factors responsible for successful driving performance is necessary. The present study investigated the relationship between age and cognitive control on simulated driving performance to develop a predictive model for individual driving ability. Visual attention and working memory capacity of young adult college students and community dwelling older adults were tested using Useful Field of View® and Operation Span which are thought to measure aspects of attention. These scores were correlated with participants' simulated driving performance. Preliminary results indicated that attentional measures are important predictors of driving performance. Results are discussed in terms of implications for public policy related to driving and aging.
Feedback Requirements for Older Adult Learning: Do Cognitive Abilities Matter?
Authors: Kelley Christopher M. , McLaughlin Anne Collins
Published: January 2012

A century's worth of research has failed to identify the amount of feedback necessary to learn a new task ( cf. (Schmidt & Bjork, 1992; Van Merrienboer & Sweller, 2005). Some argue less feedback is beneficial in acquisition as it provides conditions similar to those needed for retention (Schmidt & Bjork, 1992); others advocate more feedback will reduce the cognitive load of the learner thus freeing up the resources needed for learning (McLaughlin, 2007; McLaughlin, Rogers, & Fisk, 2006; Sweller, 1988). To test the model feedback requirements are determined by the cognitive resources of the learner and the demands imposed by the task (McLaughlin et al., 2006), a simple cue-based learning exercise was created. Cognitive resources was controlled for by using participants with documented declines in cognitive resources, older adults (Horn & Cattell, 1967; Salthouse & Babcock, 1991). Results indicated feedback requirements for a cue that drew from fluid abilities differed from a cue that drew from crystallized intelligence suggesting feedback requirements may be based on individual ability levels. Theoretical and applied contributions are also discussed.
Temporal Sequences of Neurophysiologic Synchronies can Identify Changes in Team Cognition
Authors: Stevens Ronald H. , Galloway Trysha L , Berka Chris , Behneman Adrienne
Published: January 2012

Neurophysiologic synchronies (NS) are the second-by-second co-expression of the levels of cognitive measures by individual members of a team. Previously we showed that the NS obtained from EEG-derived measures of engagement (EEG-E) were not random across a variety of teamwork situations, but changed with changing task demands. In this study we hypothesized that the expression of different NS may represent unobserved states of the team and that the sequence of NS expression may contain long memory relevant to the performance of the team. To test this hypothesis we performed hidden Markov modeling of the EEG-E NS streams from novice and expert Navy submarine piloting and navigation teams and show that the dynamic expression of states derived from these models identified short and long-term changes in the behavior of teams.
EEG Spectral Analysis of Workload for a Part-task UAV Simulation
Authors: Roberts Daniel M. , Taylor Brian A. , Barrow Jane H. , Robertson Geoffrey , Buzzell George , Sibley Ciara , Cole Anna , Coyne Joseph T. , Baldwin Carryl L.
Published: January 2012

Electroencephalography (EEG) has the prospect of providing a means to gauge operator workload in a manner that does not intrude on the task being performed. Specifically, it has been proposed that the technique could be used as a method to speed the learning of a task, by adjusting the task to suit the state of the learner. The present study recorded EEG while participants performed a simulated Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) reconnaissance task. Analysis of power in three EEG frequency bands of interest found differences between the types of task being performed; however more complex analysis may be necessary to discern levels of difficulty within the task.
Squeezing the Balloon: Analyzing the Unpredictable Effects of Cognitive Workload
Authors: Ralph Jason , Gray Wayne D. , Schoelles Michael J.
Published: January 2012

Cognitive workload effects behavior like squeezing a balloon. If you squeeze at one place, it pops out at another, and it is hard to predict where it's going to pop out. Understanding workload requires understanding the control of cognition at the 1/3 to 3s-time span during which cognitive, perceptual, and motor operations become bound together into interactive routines. Interactive routines constitute unit tasks (3 to 30 s), and unit tasks constitute subtasks (30s to 3min). To reduce cognitive workload and overload, the Functional Resource Hypothesis maintains that an optimal allocation of interactive routines to task performance would be based on the functional resource of time not modality. Some of the implications of this hypothesis are investigated in an empirical study that varied memory load as well as the demands on the eyes, visual attention, auditory cognition, and motor operations. A microanalysis of the data revealed tradeoffs between groups in their pattern of resource allocation that were compatible with the Functional Resource Hypothesis and led to surprising behavioral effects.
Mapping Biases to the Components of Rationalistic and Naturalistic Decision Making
Authors: Rehak Lisa A. , Adams Barb , Belanger Micheline
Published: January 2012

People often create and use shortcuts or “rules of thumb” to make decisions. The majority of time, reliance on these heuristics helps us to perform efficiently and effectively. Yet, this reliance can also promote bias, or systematic error. Our review of the literature suggests that both decision-making approaches that are rational and natural are likely to be subject to a range of biases. Unfortunately, the available literature provides very little discussion of what aspects biases are likely to impact within each of these processes. In the absence of this discussion, we have attempted to combine our knowledge of the bias literature and the decision-making literature to explore what biases are likely to impact various components of each decision-making process. Includes the following biases: availability, representativeness, anchoring & adjustment, confirmation, hindsight, overconfidence, framing and affect.
A Comparison of Asset versus Criteria Allocation Decisions in Military Decision Making
Authors: Hutchins Shaun , McDermott Patricia , Barnes Michael
Published: January 2012

The effectiveness of complex, dynamic, and stochastic decisions require an understanding of the tradeoffs between decisions and the facility to perform what if analyses of alternatives. Set in the context of future combat systems, the current study explored features of a robotic asset allocation decision for a surveillance and reconnaissance task. Decision features explored included the method of interaction with plan data, possible decision bias, and robustness following a change in planning assumptions. Findings suggest that planning decisions made from a predetermined set of optimal plans may be faster and more effective than creating plans from scratch if the planning assumptions remain constant. However, plans created from scratch may more deeply engage the planner in the planning conditions, and consequently, result in plans that more effectively handle changes in the planning assumptions.
Teams for Teams Performance in Multi-Human/Multi-Robot Teams
Authors: Lee Pei-Ju , Wang Huadong , Chien Shih-Yi , Lewis Michael , Scerri Paul , Velagapudi Prasanna , Sycara Katia , Kane Breelyn
Published: January 2012

The present study addresses the interaction between automation and organization of human teams in controlling large robot teams performing an Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) task. We identify three subtasks: perceptual - visual search for victims, assistance - teleoperation to assist robot, and navigation - path planning and coordination. For the studies reported, navigation was selected for automation because it involves weak dependencies among robots making it more complex and because it was shown in an earlier experiment to be the most difficult. Two possible ways to organize operators were identified as assignment of robots to particular operators or as a shared pool in which operators service robots from the population as needed. The experiment compares two member teams of operators controlling teams of 12 robots each, in the assigned robots conditions or sharing control of 24 robots in the shared pool conditions using either waypoint control or autonomous path planning. Automating path planning improved system performance. Effects of team organization were equivocal.
Natural Break Points: Utilizing Motor Cues when Multitasking
Authors: Janssen Christian P. , Brumby Duncan P. , Garnett Rae
Published: January 2012

We investigate how people utilize motor preparation time under varying task objectives as a cue to switch between tasks when dialing and driving. Previous research has shown that people tend to switch between tasks at positions where a chunk of digits is retrieved from memory. If the number of chunks is minimized, do people use motor preparation time as a cue to switch between tasks instead? A study was conducted in which participants drove a simulated vehicle while also dialing two phone numbers that contained sets of repeating digits. Participants tended to switch between tasks after typing in a complete set of repeating digits. This effect took precedence over cognitive cues, and was robust when different relative priorities for the two tasks were adhered to (focus on driving, or on dialing). However, when participants prioritized driving they invested more in steering control. Limitations and implications of the work are discussed.
Situation Displays for Dynamic UAV Replanning: Intuitions and Performance for Display Formats
Authors: Cook Maia B. , Smallman Harvey S. , Lacson Frank C. , Manes Daniel I.
Published: January 2012

Operating unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) requires quickly replanning routes to satisfy multiple complex three-dimensional (3D) mission constraints. How well do conventional two-dimensional (2D) displays support replanning? What are users' intuitions about alternate display formats, given the trend towards user-configured displays? Previously, we developed a realistic replanning task, and measured time and accuracy for satisfying UAV mission constraints. With present-day 2D displays, performance was particularly poor in complex mountainous environments (Cook, Smallman, Lacson, & Manes, 2009). In the current work, to address this shortfall, we designed novel displays to support replanning, and measured performance and intuitions for three canonical display formats: (1) baseline 2D, a proxy for current UAV displays, (2) augmented 2D, with integrated replanning constraints, and (3) perspective 3D, comparable in features to the augmented 2D. Using the three formats, participants replanned UAV routes compromised by closed airspace and repositioned ISR targets, over flat and mountainous terrain. Replanning was slowest and most error-prone for baseline 2D in flat terrain, and error severity was greatest for perspective 3D in mountainous terrain. However, users' intuitions strongly favored perspective 3D. Overall, time and accuracy were best for augmented 2D, and better performance with augmented 2D relied less upon higher spatial ability. Results highlight the mismatch of users' intuitions with performance, and the role of individual differences. The study informs the design of future replanning displays and lays the foundation for introducing and visualizing automated path planning solutions.
Infrasonic Measures as an Index of Workload
Authors: McClernon Christopher K. , Middendorf Mathew A. , Funke Gregory J. , Harter Michael J. , Knott Benjamin A.
Published: January 2012

This study investigated whether sub-auditory, infrasonic measures of vocal cord microtremors are sensitive to workload manipulations in a collaborative command and control task. Research participants performed 16 hours of simulated military command and control scenarios during which time task demand and access to collaborative tools were manipulated. NASA-TLX scores were used to assess subjective workload while infrasonic measures of vocal cord undulations were used as an objective measure of workload. The results of this study suggest that during high task demand trials infrasonic measures increased. In addition, during trials with access to collaborative tools that have previously been found to decrease subjective workload, infrasonic measures also decreased. Subjective workload scores and infrasonic measures were also found to correlate during trials. These results provide promising empirical evidence for the efficacy of this non-intrusive, non-invasive measure of operator workload.
Information Sharing in Distributed Teams
Authors: Hunter Arwen E. , Pierce Linda G.
Published: January 2012

Better understanding of information sharing in complex, distributed environments is critical for enhancing distributed team operations. This paper examines information sharing among distributed team members in an applied Army setting, with focus placed on precursors to information sharing, the importance of perceived interdependence and trustworthiness of distributed teammates for information sharing, and the effect of information sharing in these complex environments on team states and processes such as the building of trust and team cohesion. Importance is placed on better understanding the processes affecting information sharing in a distributed environment, influencing both research and practice involving distributed team collaboration.
Investing in User Research: Making Strategic Choices
Authors: Rosenbaum Stephanie , Swamy Seema , Braun Kelly , Van Laan Krista , Wixon Dennis , Wilson Chauncey
Published: January 2012

This panel examines the relationship between methods and business strategy: how should an organization spend whatever budget it has for user research? Despite the many in-depth explorations of user experience research methodology, practitioners—especially user experience managers—still struggle with the challenge of choosing the research that will add the most value to their company's products and services. This panel will reveal how and why some of the best managers in the human-computer interaction community make these decisions.
The Effect of Disability and Approach on Touch Screen Performance during a Number Entry Task
Authors: Duff Sacha N. , Irwin Curt B. , Skye Jennifer L. , Sesto Mary E. , Wiegmann Douglas A.
Published: January 2012

As touch screen technology improves in functionality and decreases in price, these input devices are becoming increasingly more integrated into daily life. People are frequently required to interact with touch screens at places ranging from their local grocery stores to airport check-in kiosks. Since it is becoming necessary for people to use touch screens in order to access needed products or services, we conducted an experiment to examine how individuals with varying motor control disabilities perform on a simple number entry task. Since some individuals may also be wheelchair users, and the Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines allows for the touch screen to be approachable by a wheelchair user from the front or parallel (side), the effect of approach on performance was also evaluated. Participants with and without motor control disabilities, including wheelchair users, performed a number entry task on a number pad with different combinations of button and gap sizes, while seated at a touch screen kiosk. Results revealed that participants with motor control impairments had significantly more inaccurate touches overall than participants without. Performance from the front orientation was significantly more accurate than from the side for all participants, regardless of the presence of a motor control disability. Results from this study may be used to guide design of touch screen accessibility for individuals with motor control disabilities and wheelchair users.
Identifying Aggregate Scanning Strategies to Improve Usability Evaluations
Authors: Goldberg Joseph H. , Helfman Jonathan I.
Published: January 2012

Automated analysis methods are needed to convert eye tracking data into meaningful descriptions of high-level scanning strategies that can help usability professionals understand how designs are viewed. Prior techniques for analyzing eye tracking sequences, or scanpaths, are limited in their ability to find aggregated visual search strategies for a group of observers. We describe a pattern analysis tool that finds clusters of sequentially matching patterns among multiple scanpaths. Scanning strategies are clustered hierarchically, then represented as aggregate scanpaths. The tool can also match scanpaths against a hypothetical scanning strategy, input by mouse gesture. Use of the pattern analysis tool was demonstrated using a 114-participant eye tracking dataset in which several aggregate scanning strategies were identified. Matching against a hypothetical, counter-clockwise scanning strategy was also included in the demonstration. The analysis tool provides a valuable resource for aggregating or grouping scanning strategies, a vital step toward generalizing eye tracking results to guide design recommendations for improving usability.
A Hand-held Data Tool Design for Teachers
Authors: Rhodes Suzanne
Published: January 2012

Formative feedback systems provide rich opportunities for teachers to reflect on and adjust instruction to learn about and better meet student needs. However, data tools that support teachers' practice in the classroom are often left out of school data system designs. Via a Design-Based Research approach we collaborated with 11 elementary school teachers, leaders, and staff to examine educators' student data collection practices and iteratively design tools to support classroom teaching and learning within the school's and district's Data-Driven Instructional System. This paper illustrates how our hand-held data tool design supports and extends teachers' practice.