bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Seasonal Variation of Arctic Ecosystems Towards Oil Spill
Authors: Rusten Marte , Brude Odd Willy , Aarnes Øivin , Paaske Børre Johan
Published: August 2014

Due to melting of sea ice and predicted richness of petroleum resources, there is an increasing interest and activity in Arctic regions both for shipping and the oil&gas industry. Operations in the Arctic represent specific challenges due to both physical and biological environmental factors. The lack of infrastructure and the extreme physical environment including ice, strong seasonal variability in temperatures and daylight, put specific requirements to ensure safety of personnel and equipment during normal operations and put restraints on search and rescue (SAR) and oil spill recovery operations in case of an accident (ship collision or blow-out). The seasonal variability and extreme physical environment have also resulted in the evolution of specific adaptations of Arctic species, like extensive seasonal migrations and aggregations in large numbers to feed, mate and nurture their young that make them particularly vulnerable in certain periods and areas. Due to the low temperatures, Arctic species are also particularly vulnerable to contamination to oil that will affect their insulating layers of feather or fur. In addition to pollution from discharges and emissions, physical disturbances from ships such as strikes of whales and other marine mammals are of concern in areas where shipping routes overlap with seasonal migration and areas of aggregation. All activities represent a certain risk. To sanction shipping and oil&gas activities in the Arctic will require acceptance of the associated risk level. Stakeholders need to understand what creates the risk level, and on which facts, assessments and assumptions it is made. In this project we have produced an interactive map on which key risk factors associated with oil and gas and shipping activities in the Arctic are identified and assessed. By combining pan Arctic distribution patterns of arctic species at vulnerable life stages with ship traffic obtained from Automatic Identification System (AIS) data, existing oil and gas activity, SAR and vessel action radius and statistics on data related to the physical environment (ice coverage and features, temperature, marine icing, visibility etc.) we have constructed a map based risk matrix in order to communicate to key stakeholders in a form that supports their most important decisions. The map illustrates that the Arctic is not a uniform environment and that the risk picture is continuously changing throughout the season.
Survey of Portable Oil Detection Methods
Authors: Goldthorp* Mike , Lambert Patrick , Brown Carl
Published: August 2014

When oil is spilled into the marine environment, it may be found on the water's surface, in the water column, in the sediment, or on the shoreline. When delineating the extent of contamination, it is important to be able to differentiate the spilled oil from other components that may appear to be oil. There are established methods for detecting oil-in-water, such as fluorometry, that allow in situ measurements to be made. In this study, we investigate both established methods and potential technological advancements that could provide a means for a site investigator to gather meaningful on-site information regarding the presence of oil. The primary focus will be usefulness to a shoreline application, but application to other types of samples is addressed. The degree to which an oil could be identified using these portable methods, such as the ability to differentiate petrogenic from biogenic oils, is also discussed. Method comparisons are discussed, with relevance to portability, selectivity, relative cost, and ability to process multiple samples.
Crisis Response and Management Following Hurricane Sandy
Authors: Cormier Annjea M.
Published: August 2014

The United States Coast Guard responded to the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy in New York and New Jersey under the National Response Framework's Emergency Support Function 10 Oil and Hazardous Material Response. Based on countless lessons learned; decisive response leadership is required in the initial response to build operational momentum, and establish interagency coordination. The Hurricane Sandy Pollution Response is a stellar example of how the initial actions shaped the direction and effectiveness of the rest of the response. This poster will emphasize how the leadership asked the right questions, referred to the right plans, set the right priorities and included the right partners. Additionally, it will identify the protocols that were established to execute Pollution Mitigation. The regional and area contingency plans provided supporting mechanisms and structure for multi-agency cooperation. Due to the extent of the wide spread damage pollution reporting to the National Response Center was disrupted and remained ineffective at a local level until the impacted shoreline communities were reconstituted. The Unified Command conducted wide-area assessments by aerial observers, boat operations and field personnel to quantify and assess the pollution threats from thousands of sources. The Operations Section of the Incident Command utilized Emergency Response Management System Application (ERMA) to develop the common operating picture and prioritize threats based on environmentally sensitive areas. During Hurricane Sandy, critical decision making allowed the response organization to oversee 1,500 contracted personnel, over 1,245 miles of shoreline, and mitigated 439 potential/active pollution threats. The poster will include the Response Time-line, Response Doctrine, ICS Implementation, Key Decisions, Pollution Mitigation protocols and National Strike Force Boat Operations.
Subsurface Oil and Waves in The Coastal Zone
Authors: Barker Christopher H.
Published: August 2014

Over the last decade, there have been more and more oil spill responses effected by subsurface waves in the coastal zone. These have ranged from oil leaking from sunken ships to heavy oils that have sunk to the bottom. A primary example is the DBL 152 incident on the Gulf of Mexico coast in November, 2006. The incident resulted in approximately 70,000 barrels of Slurry Oil (API 4) being released and sinking to the bottom. Waves played a significant role in the mobilization of the oil on the bottom, in addition to effecting sediment loading in the subsurface, often restricting visibility and making ROV operations difficult. Waves can also play a major role disturbing sunken ships, and evidenced by the SS Jacob Luckenbach, sunken off San Francisco during WWII. The ship was a source of occasional incidents of oiled birds washing ashore after certain winter storms. The oil on the ship was removed as part of a major remediation effort in the summer of 2002.The oil spill response community will be more effective, particularly with subsurface oils, with a better understanding of the role of waves on the mobilization of sediment and other deposited substances (such as subsurface oil). This paper provides an overview of wave mechanics and the implications for subsurface oil movement and spill response activities, using examples from the DBL 152, SS Jacob Luckenbach, and other recent incidents. Shortcomings of current understanding will be highlighted, with suggestions for future research offered.
Shoreline Oiling Data Management for the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, Gulf of Mexico, USA: Implications for Data Management Standards for Future Spills of Significance
Authors: Nixon Zachary , Holton William , White Mark , Locke Chris
Published: August 2014

The Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique (SCAT) data management program for the Deepwater Horizon oil spill is, to our knowledge, the largest shoreline spill data management effort in history, still currently providing continuous data management of over 35,000 separate surveys covering over 22,000 survey-miles of shoreline and tens of millions of individual pieces of data. The program flexibly expanded the scope of coverage to support the changing requirements of survey and cleanup over the response, from surface and subsurface oiling survey data to treatment and administrative status, while maintaining backward compatibility and constant availability for planning and analysis. While we hope many of the tools and products developed will be of value in near-term future spill responses, we are less clear on the specific recommendations we can make to data managers during the next nationally significant spill in 10 or 20 years. The differing needs of each spill, varying levels of agency and industry personnel participation, and the inevitable and increasingly rapid change in software and information technology environments, all point to the need for a different way forward. We feel the most important contribution we can make is the recommendation of an open data standard for shoreline oiling and related data management, allowing interested parties in future responses to be assured of data interoperability, transparency, and data quality, while permitting required flexibility. We propose such a standard here. The proposed data standard does not compete with or supplant any existing vendor or solution, and is completely agnostic about physical spill environment, data collection methods, algorithms, software and computing environment. The standard requires only the most basic structured data so as to preserve the maximum flexibility for spill specific conditions and the unanticipated needs of future data collection. The core components are spatial geometry, temporal relationship, and database attribute and relationship requirements for storing and querying oiling, response, and administrative status via standard geometries over multiple time periods. We present generic entity-relationship diagrams and example core and expansion data structures that outline the proposed standard. In the same way that SCAT methodology protocols and terminology have been adopted across the spill response community by agency and industry, we suggest a core standard for storage and analysis of shoreline oiling and response data. This standard reflects, we hope, a root-level understanding of the purpose and scope of SCAT and related data, and imposes only the minimum uniformity required to be of use.
The Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative: a New Research Paradigm
Authors: Colwell Rita R. , Leinen Margaret , Wilson Chuck , Carron Michael
Published: August 2014

The Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative (GoMRI) was established to guide and administer the $500 million research fund committed by BP to understand the fate and effects of the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Competitive research awards are made by an independent research board led peer-review process following the standards established by the National Academy of Sciences and the National Science Foundation. The Board comprises twenty distinguished researchers with 10 members from around the world appointed by BP and 10 members from research universities in the Gulf region appointed by the Gulf of Mexico Alliance. The two main goals of GoMRI are: 1) to study the Deepwater Horizon incident and its associated impacts (and similar incidents), on the environment and public health, and 2) to develop improvements for spill mitigation, oil detection and new remediation technologies. Through public input, GoMRI identified five research themes: 1) physical distribution of contaminants, 2) chemical evolution and biological degradation of contaminants, 3) environmental effects and ecosystem recovery, 4) technological developments and 5) public health impacts. The largest pool of funds made available by the GoMRI to date was through RFP-I, released in April 2011, for consortia composed of at least four institutions to conduct interdisciplinary work on one or more of the research themes over a three-year period. GoMRI awarded $110 million to eight consortia for this three-year period. These awardees included experts from across the country, though most principal investigators were from Gulf States. Funds ($18.5 million) from a second RFP were awarded to nineteen, smaller, research teams at eighteen different institutions; contracted amounts range from $100,000 to $1 million per year for up to three years. The next major research competition will take place in the spring of 2014; awards will be announced in the fall of 2014.GoMRI established extensive data management and outreach programs. It established policies for timely submissions of data to existing national databases so data collected or generated will be available to all interested. Outreach efforts include consortia specific programs, an active central web portal for search of, access to and exchange of information and a centralized outreach program.The construct of GoMRI with emphasis on collaboration and sharing of information through publication of research findings and the timely availability of scientific data offers a new paradigm for the conduct of research.
Massachusetts First Responder Exercises: Preparing Local Communities for Oil Spill Response
Authors: Packard Richard , Popovich Mike , Stengel John
Published: August 2014

As a result of the Buzzards Bay oil spill in 2003, and subsequent passage of the Oil Spill Act of 2004, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, through its Department of Environmental Protection's (MassDEP) Oil Spill Program, has developed a comprehensive, 3-tiered program to protect coastal resources. The program includes three elements: 1) the development of 160 Geographic Response Plans (GRP) to protect environmentally sensitive areas, 2) the acquisition and distribution of 83 oil spill response equipment trailers to coastal communities and, 3) the development of a training and exercise program to better prepare local first responders, including fire departments, police departments, harbormasters and other town officials, to respond to oil spills that threaten environmentally sensitive areas in their communities. This training and exercise program has increased first responders competency and skills as they relate to oil spill response resulting in a higher degree of readiness and preparedness amongst first responders throughout coastal Massachusetts. The program follows standard Homeland Security Exercise and Evaluation protocols with clearly defined goals and objectives. Each exercise includes personnel from multiple municipalities working together to achieve the common goal of protecting coastal resources. The objectives of each exercise include, 1) foster inter-agency planning and coordination by providing the opportunity for local responders to work with each other and with Federal and State responders. 2) deploy a GRP protective booming tactic during a simulated incident, 3) promote resource coordination among local responders by coordinating use of assets from participating towns and agencies, 4) improve local oil spill preparedness by deploying equipment from pre-positioned trailers, providing participants hands-on experience in the field, and 5) evaluate the effectiveness of the booming tactic and identify any modifications necessary. Participants utilize the Incident Command System (ICS), operating within a Unified Command structure, testing their ability to effectively communicate goals, objectives and tactics.
Visualising spill risk: understanding and assessing regions of heightened vulnerability associated with increased seaborne transport of oil.
Authors: Stevens Lisa
Published: August 2014

Understanding and assessing the risk posed by oil spills is an essential starting point in oil spill prevention, preparedness, and response. However, it is a complex process and displaying results of a risk analysis can be particularly challenging. By modelling and analysing volumes of oil transported globally over a ten year period from 2001 to 2011, using data obtained from Lloyds' List Intelligence and historical data from ITOPF's tanker spills database, an informative and useful representation of risk can be derived. Incorporation of local marine sensitivity data into the model can further improving the risk assessment process.

Although there has been a significant increase in seaborne oil trade over the last thirty years and this is predicted to continue for the foreseeable future, the number of accidental oil spills involving tankers is continuing to decline. GIS tools such as the one we describe are an important part of focusing the on-going efforts of government and industry. These tools can help build awareness of the risks through training courses and seminars and by developing regional initiatives in those areas where they can provide greatest benefit to minimise the threat of future incidents.

This poster shows how by using a GIS platform to graphically visualise information, regional areas of heightened vulnerability are more effectively identified and communicated.
Using Foraminifera as Indicators of Habitat Recovery following Remediation of Sheltered Tidal Flats in Saudi Arabia
Authors: Priest Brant M. , Hale Jason A. , Minter Thomas G. , Cormack Christopher D. , Cotsapas Ion , Risk Michael J.
Published: August 2014

After nearly 20 years of limited natural recovery of intertidal habitats along the Gulf Coast of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, large-scale remediation projects were conducted on approximately 1800 ha of tidal flat and salt marsh habitat. In Fall, 2011, multiple passes of mechanical tilling were used to break up oiled cohesive sediment layer across a heavily degraded sand tidal flat, to reduce subsurface liquid oil, and accelerate natural recovery.

Rates and degrees of test deformities in three foram genera were measured from samples collected at degraded and healthy sand tidal flat sites. Dominant genera and rates of test deformity at a heavily oiled sand tidal flat (average surface and subsurface total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) = 10,000 ppm ) were: Peneroplis (41.0%), Ammonia (38.7%), Elphidium (54.7%). Rates of deformity in the same three genera collected at a healthy sand tidal flat habitat were: Peneroplis (11.8%), Ammonia (7.5%), Elphidium (13.9%).

Nearly two years after the remediation event, results indicate a decreasing trend in percent foram deformities at the remediation site, which suggests oil toxicity as an ecological stressor has decreased as a result of remediation activities.
NOVEL OIL-DEGRADING ALGAL-BACTERIAL ASSOCIATIONS FOR THE TREATMENT OF OIL POLUTION IN THE BALTIC SEA
Authors: Safonova Elena , König Swetlana
Published: August 2014

The stability of an ecosystem strongly depends on the biodiversity of its microorganisms population. The network of interactions between microorganisms provides a flexible response to various changes of the coenotic equilibrium. This equilibrium changes drastically if such a network is damaged by oil spills or any other kind of pollution, representing a danger to the existence of a whole ecosystem. Bioremediation is a method employing microorganisms to remove pollutants and to restore the ecology of populations. Understandably due to its nature, this approach is considered to be the most gentle and safe one what makes it very attractive. Our focus was to improve the efficiency of the treatment of oil pollution in the Baltic Sea. As a part of “BioBind” project, we aimed to create artificial associations of alkanotrophic bacteria and phototrophic partners (algae or cyanobacteria) and to use them as an effective tool for the removal of oil spills. In summer and winter 2011–2012, we isolated 157 strains of both algae and cyanobacteria and 199 bacteria. The samples were taken from four different places of the Baltic Sea in the areas of Rostock, St. Petersburg, Kiel and Sassnitz. After the screening, we have selected 19 strains of alkanotrophyc bacteria and 23 strains of green algae and cyanobacteria showing resistance to the pollutants. The screening was performed in media containing an oil, phenol and phenanthrene at low temperatures (4°C and 10°C) and different salt concentrations. All selected species of bacteria belonged to the genus Rhodococcus. Further selection was aimed at finding combinations of bacterial strains which show an increased degrading capacity and exceeding the one of the originally isolated microorganisms. As a result, we have selected associations with the degradation of crude oil (at the concentration of 2 g/L) with a degradation rate from 25% up to 35%. Furthermore, we have discovered that the presence of the phototrophic microorganisms in these associations resulted to a positive modest effect with regard to the efficiency of the system by several percent. Our result proves clearly the concept that bioremediation represents an effective mean to clean up oil spills. This is remarkable that the system also shows plasticity and can be improved by creating different variations of the microorganisms constituting it. Thus bioremedation provides scope for further development. The selected artificial associations can be recommended for the purification of oil pollution in the Baltic Sea.
Guidance for improving comparability and relevance of dispersed oil toxicity tests
Authors: Redman Aaron D , Parkerton Thomas F
Published: August 2014

The complex nature, variable composition and limited aqueous solubility of crude oil and related petroleum products poses challenges for evaluating the aquatic toxicity of these substances. While considerable research has been performed to understand the effects of physically and chemically dispersed oils to aquatic organisms, differences in design and conduct of aquatic toxicity studies often makes results impossible to compare and correctly apply in decision-making. A review of past approaches for generating and characterizing oil exposures in toxicity tests in the absence and presence of chemical dispersants based on the commonly used water accommodated fraction (WAF) procedure is discussed. Differences in the multicomponent dissolution behavior and resulting exposure concentrations of dissolved hydrocarbons in WAFs obtained from different test procedures based on nominal oil loadings or WAF dilutions are illustrated using several case studies. To provide a consistent framework for interpreting toxicity results, dissolved hydrocarbon exposures are coupled to an additive toxicity model. This framework is applied to toxicity tests involving different experimental designs. Two important design considerations that influence observed toxicity are the use of open or closed test systems and constant or declining exposure conditions. A key consideration shown to impact dissolved hydrocarbon exposures in studies that rely on WAF dilutions is the carry over and dissolution of oil droplets. This process can complicate toxicity relationships obtained with predicted or measured oil exposures. Recent advances in passive sampling methods that allow accurate quantification of dissolved hydrocarbon exposure in WAF tests are discussed. Based on insights from this analysis, guidance is provided for standardizing exposure characterization and applying a mechanistic framework in the interpretation of future oil toxicity studies. Adoption of these recommendations would serve to increase comparability across studies, improve the utility of such data in hazard and risk assessments and avoid unsupported conclusions that could misguide rational spill response.
Anti-Deposition Agents to prevent Spilled Oil from Fouling the Coastal Environment and Ecology
Authors: Lochhead Robert , Kemp Lisa , Morgan Sarah , Savin Daniel , Marks Giselle , Adams Andrew
Published: August 2014

Following the recent Deepwater Horizon incident in the Gulf of Mexico, more than one million gallons of dispersant was deployed to the site of the spilled oil. The clean-up strategy in this case was to keep the oil at sea until it was microbiologically degraded. However, in many cases, such as near shore and inland water spills, conventional dispersants cannot be deployed. There is a need for oil treatments that prevent or at least minimize the wetting and spreading of oil on solid substrates, animate and inanimate. In response to the Deepwater incident, we devised anti-depositing dispersants to mitigate the deposition of oil on solid coastal surfaces including soil, sand, plants, and wild-life (especially birds). We focused on materials that were GRAS for human consumption by using commercially-available food-grade materials to provide an economical and environmentally friendly option for oil spill treatment. The dispersant comprises a primary surfactant, soy lecithin, which is biodegradable in the marine environment, and certain cellulose ethers as steric stabilizers to prevent deposition of oil at the oil/water/solid interfaces.

Our technology is set apart from others on the market as it accomplishes all of the following functions:Disperses the oil into small dropletsEncapsulates the dispersed oil dropletsProvides buoyancy to the encapsulated droplets to cause them to move out of the water column to the surface to permit removal by skimming or other conventional meansInherently contains nutrients to initiate microbial biodegradation of the encapsulated oilConfers anti-deposition properties to prevent fouling and penetration of coastal substrates (such as birds and sediment) for the oils that escape capture by skimming and absorption.Comprises natural, renewable, environmentally-friendly, edible componentsAbstract classification: #5: Chemical Response Agents (other than dispersants)
Biodegradation of emulsified Mc252 oil in coastal salt marshes
Authors: Elango Vijai , Pardue John H.
Published: August 2014

On 05/22/10, emulsified form of MC 252oil was collected from Belle Pass near Port Fourchon in Lafourche Parish, LA and used for biodegradation studies. The objectives of this study were to determine the hydrocarbon composition of the emulsified oil, extent of biodegradation of emulsified oil and the change in microbial population. Soil cores were obtained from the salt marshes in Lafourche Parish, LA using aluminum core device and transferred to glass cores (15 cm dia × 100 cm long) and incubated inside a greenhouse. Approximately, 100 g of the emulsified oil was added to cores consistent with oil loadings observed in the field. Replicate cores were used to evaluate three treatment conditions; (i) natural attenuation with existing nutrient concentrations, (ii) nitrogen amendment and (iii) nitrogen + sulfate amendment. The cores were maintained with approximately 1” layer of synthetic seawater above sediment. For each treatment, cores were sacrificed for oil analysis every 30 days for the first three months (short-term fate) and after approximately a year (long-term fate). The cores were cut from the top and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were analyzed from the soil sections 0–2 cm, 2–4 cm and 8–10 cm. Composition of the emulsified oil was characterized as the ratio of the compound analyzed to hopanes. Short-term incubations demonstrated limited biodegradation of key PAHs. Only phenanthrene biodegraded to any statistically significant extent in treatments over the first 3 months. Over the long-term (~1 year), biodegradation of phenanthrenes and dibenzothiophenes was observed and biodegradation extent was greater in fertilized treatments. Spontaneous breaking of emulsions was observed in several cores and this may precede biodegradation. Microbial community structure indicated diverse but different microbial populations in the three treatments.
OIL SPILLS IN NIGERIA: ARE THERE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS?
Authors: Okonkwo Eloamaka Carol
Published: August 2014

Oil exploration and production results in various problems ranging from oil spills, gas flaring, habitat destruction, air and water pollution as well as land degradation. In this work oil spill will be singled out as main topic of discussion as it is one of the area in the oil industry that is been affecting the industry seriously in recent years. Oil spill can cause colossal damage which includes destruction of economic and social activities. The problems culminates into several impacts which include health, environmental, economic and social impacts. Over the years, so much attention is been given to the environmental and health impact of these spills. This work is going to go beyond this environmental and health impacts to the economic and social impacts. Economic impacts of oil spills generally include cost of clean-up and compensation, damage to agricultural lands, fishery and wildlife. Social impact on the other hand includes community conflicts, violence and frustration which leads to militancy, reduction in tourism and hospitality industries. The social and economic impacts actually go together in the sense that social impacts most times affects the economy. For instance, social impacts on tourism and hospitality industries causes reduction in jobs, poverty and revenue. In Nigeria, the impacts of oil spill appear more devastating owing to the fact that it is a developing country and that there is always political crisis in the country. Spills have caused deaths, destruction of farmlands, destruction of fishing industry, destruction of tourism facilities and cultural areas. In the Niger Delta Region, one can say that the impacts take different dimensions are many as spill and subsequent pollution is believed to be one of the main causes of militancy in the Niger Delta. This work looks at the socio-economic impacts of spills holistically and socio-economic impact specifically on the Niger Deltans and proffer solutions. A comparative approach will be used to analyse how socio-economic impacts of oil spills is being dealt with in some selected jurisdictions and the lessons Nigeria can learn from it putting into consideration the socio-economic and political situations. In doing that, formidable options available to Niger Deltans who are victims of oil spills will be explored. This will include options that will make the spillers accountable and responsible.
How to Better Manage Public Expectations and Information Concerning Oil and Chemical Spill Response
Authors: Helton Doug , Loe Vicki
Published: August 2014

NOAA's Office of Response and Restoration (OR&R) provides scientific expertise to support incident response and initiates natural resource damage assessment both in the U.S. and internationally. Although OR&R has responded to every major spill in the U.S. over the past 35 years, OR&R continues to face challenges in communicating realistic expectations of response outcomes, in having technical products interpreted correctly by the public, and communicating the degree of uncertainty surrounding such events. Unlike hurricanes, and because large spills are rare and generally man-made, the public expects rapid, complete, and accurate information on the fate and effects, even as the spill event is still unfolding and the response is on-going. An example of a product that is frequently confusing to the public is the OR&R trajectory map, the modeling tool used to predict the possible route of an oil spill. These maps are frequently misinterpreted as the footprint of the spill as opposed to where the oil might go. Another common misconception concerns how much oil can be recovered following a spill. Given the limitations of mechanical recovery, and the rapidity with which oil spreads, evaporates, and disperses at sea, it is impossible to recover all of the spilled oil. Furthermore, oil may be left in environmentally sensitive areas because the attempt to recover the oil could cause irreparable damage. As a result, mechanical recovery generally accounts for less than 5-20% of the overall oil budget, yet the public has an expectation that the goal of a response is to remove all of the oil from the environment. Public pressure, based on these expectations, may result is response decisions that cause more harm than good. This poster will detail a project that will give recommendations on how to manage public expectations on spill response and communicate technical information through the media and elsewhere. The goal of this project, which will be detailed on our poster, is to make OR&R a reliable and comprehensive source of information on ongoing or past spill events and close the disconnect caused by differing expectations.
Makah IndianTribe – U.S. Coast Guard Memorandum of Agreement A Model for Meaningful Tribal-Federal Engagement
Authors: Bowechop Chad , Connor Andrew , Knutson Scott , Parker Heather A. , Lindgren LCDR Lance
Published: August 2014

On 12 April 2013, the Makah Tribal Council Chairman and the District Commander of the 13th Coast Guard District (D13) signed into effect the “Memorandum of Agreement between the United States Coast Guard and the Makah Indian Tribe Regarding Interoperability and Coordination”. The purpose of this “Makah-USCG MOA” is to establish terms by which the two parties will coordinate and collaborate in the fulfillment of their mutual trust responsibility. The MOA's focus is to enhance consultation, improve leveraging of resources within each party's authorities, and improve collective all-hazards prevention and response posture in the Makah Treaty Area. Such an agreement between a federal agency and an Indian tribe is authorized by Executive Order 13175 - Consultation and Coordination with Indian Tribal Governments, signed in 2000 and is consistent with the 2011 Department of Homeland Security Tribal Consultation Policy.

This groundbreaking document represents a 20 year relationship between key members of the Makah Tribe and the oil spill response members of CG D13 and Sector Puget Sound, and the trust developed over that period while working together to mutually support each party's oil spill prevention, preparedness and response readiness, as well as the desire to help and support each other by harmonizing efforts. With recent legislation such as the 2010 Coast Guard Authorization act, authorizing resources to engage tribes into training, exercises and other spill response preparedness activities particularly in the Northwest, it became clear there was a need to memorialize the strong supportive working relationship between the Makah and the CG, and provide some structure to our planning and development efforts. The MOA lays out a minimum of semi-annual meetings during which the two parties discuss overarching items of mutual interest and determine a work list of concrete, achievable goals to complete within the next 6 month period. An initial work list of common interest issues and responsibilities are outlined in the MOA, and fall into three general categories: Prevention; Preparedness and Response. The MOA also addresses the importance of Communication with the goal of enhancing mutual situational awareness via improved communication protocols between the Coast Guard and the Makah Tribe.
New Challenge in Latin American and Caribbean Oil Spill Control: Offshore Prevention and Response after the DWH Milestone
Authors: Sagrera Carlos
Published: August 2014

With offshore activities at different exploration and production stages in virtually all South American countries with sea coasts, a Central American country, and some Caribbean countries, the Deepwater Horizon (DWH) disaster has not gone unnoticed among the governments and the oil industry in the area. Organizational and human errors committed and highlighted in the investigations that have successively come to light in such a world power as the U.S.—a leader in the sector—, bring to mind the realities and systemic safety failures of the schemes and procedures in force, both in the oil industry and regulatory authorities, to control these potential environmental disasters. The offshore issue has become a priority in the Latin American and Caribbean oil industry and grows because of the recurrent confirmation of new oilfields and their successful exploration by international oil companies through block concessions, which is the only way to access the required effective technology for exploitation. Over the past decades and without exception, Latin America and the Caribbean has gone through emergency situations with spills from oil tankers, explosions and fires in refineries, pipeline fires and sabotage, and explosions and sinkings of oil rigs. The shy cooperation attempts between states and national oil companies obtained few concrete results despite the efforts of regional organizations such as ARPEL. This paper emphasizes the weaknesses in response procedures and standards through specific examples of recent incidents in “the Big Three” (Brazil, Mexico, and Venezuela), which could become worse in the current offshore deep and ultra-deep water scenario. It challenges the National Contingency Plans that must now include offshore goals and an organization scheme, such as the Incident Command System, which must be adapted as soon as possible due to the new scenarios and the need for effective inclusion of environmental actors previously relegated. The paper also outlines response strategies applied in DWH and their possible use in offshore scenarios in the region, which will require coordinated efforts by all stakeholders. It emphasizes that this is an excellent opportunity for operational improvement of the Latin American and Caribbean oil sector with respect to safety, emergencies, and spill control.
Oil Spill Response Under the NCP and the NRF/Stafford Act - Incompatible Regimes?
Authors: Thuring Allen R.
Published: August 2014

This paper examines oil pollution response during disaster situations when the Stafford Act is invoked by the President and the National Response Framework provides funding under ESF-10.

The interrelationship between the National Contingency Plan (NCP), created by various pollution statues (Clean Water Act/CWA, Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability/CERCLA, Oil Pollution Act/OPA) and the National Response Framework (NRF), created to deal with declared disasters under the Stafford Act, is becoming more fractious as time passes and the financial scope of disasters grows. The paradigm that existed when Hurricane Katrina made landfall in 2005 was not in evidence when Hurricanes Isaac and Sandy made landfall in the fall of 2012.

The NCP envisions oil and chemical spill response in the context of a single spill, ideally with a known responsible party (RP), who takes action to respond to the spill. That RP is liable for costs and damages resulting from the spill. Action commences when the spill occurs and the Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC) determines that federal action is required. If the federal funds (Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund/OSLTF, CERCLA/SUPERFUND) are used, the federal government seeks cost recovery afterwards.

The NRF envisions the federal government acting like a “no-fault insurance” regime, providing federal resources/funds to states when their capabilities are overwhelmed and their citizens require immediate succor. FEMA action commences when the State requests and the President approves aid. The states agree to a cost share – not to exceed 25% of Federal funding. There is no private party liability when actions are complete.

The Homeland Security Act established the NRF, and operationally subsumes the NCP under it. However, the Homeland Security Act does not address what fund (Stafford or the pollution funds) will be used when a declared disaster occurs. Furthermore, the Stafford Act structure (State requests, Presidential approvals, Federal Emergency Management Agency Federal Coordinating Officer (FEMA FCO) appointment, area surveys, mission assignments) becomes sclerotic in a large incident when compared to the much more nimble NCP process (spill, FOSC decision, immediate funding). The effect for Coast Guard (CG) and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) field responders is to lean forward with NCP processes to protect the public. FEMA, faced with dwindling resources, observes this tendency and declines to provide disaster funding when the other federal funds “can be used”.

The paper proposes a new paradigm for the “Makris-Suiter” Agreement of 1998 between EPA and FEMA.

The opinions stated in this paper are the author's alone, and do not reflect the official policies of the United States Coast Guard.
Getting Big Results by Going Small - The Importance of Tabletop Exercises
Authors: Gleason Joseph J.
Published: August 2014

Smaller, more focused exercises are important to communities to help improve preparedness, strengthen contingency planning, and enhance inter-agency coordination. With the recent federal emphasis on META scenario exercises, it feels that “Bigger is Better” has been adopted as a premise for several exercise programs. There is a place in the exercise spectrum for full-scale and functional exercises but an over-reliance on such exercises does not always allow government agencies, private sector entities, and non-governmental organizations to focus on strategic-level issues. Discussion-based exercises such as tabletop exercises and workshops allow agencies and companies to address broad strategic issues through a smaller exercise.

For the past two years, the Coast Guard has reduced the size and scope of the Spill of National Significance (SONS) exercise to conduct workshops and executive-level tabletop exercises which have allowed the Coast Guard and other members of the National Response Team to work through many strategic-level issues such as responses in the Arctic and lessons learned from the Deepwater Horizon spill. In contrast to the 2010 SONS exercise which was a full-scale, multi-state exercise, the 2012 and 2013 SONS exercises were executive-level tabletop exercises that focused on response issues in the Arctic.

This paper outlines the benefits of discussion-based exercises and how significant change can occur by going small.
Local Level Stakeholder Coordination and Communications to Support Oil Spill Preparedness and Response
Authors: Walker Ann Hayward , Scholz Debra , Ott Gary
Published: August 2014

Effective response to oil spills can be challenging, especially when multiple levels of government are involved. When an oil spill threatens the coast, local officials and communities are concerned about response strategies and potential impacts, which could affect their area. Local government authorities are responsible for addressing concerns of elected officials and other stakeholders at the community level. In the US and UK, a National Response System (NRS) provides oil spill coordination at the national level down to state level. The NRS can be strengthened by improving the capacity to effectively engage at the local level during preparedness. New opportunities to coordinate could improve response management going forward, by leveraging the relationships developed in emergency preparedness among local government, elected officials, and communities. Relationships and dialogue established during preparedness also support crisis communications with the public at large during response through traditional media, the Internet and social media.

Stakeholder engagement is process which can benefit the response organization and those affected by pollution incidents and other emergencies, e.g., storms. Stakeholder engagement and risk communication methodologies are ways to help cultivate realistic expectations and develop consensus about response options, before, during, and after an incident. Coordination and collaboration between the Incident Management Team (IMT) and affected communities can lead to shared objectives and improved information exchange. This is accomplished through traditional media and direct engagement to address emerging risk perceptions, questions, and concerns, especially about issues that spark social conflict, such as dispersant use in the US. Dialogue is necessary to learn about stakeholder and community risk perceptions associated with an incident, to assess the situation in relation to those perceptions, and then develop appropriate responses to their questions, concerns and perceptions.

This paper explores ways to enhance existing NRS processes to improve interactions and communications at the local level during preparedness, and the response and post response phases of an oil spill.
Responding to Oil Spills in Ice
Authors: Hansen Kurt A.
Published: August 2014

Responding to oil spills in ice is being addressed by many different organizations throughout the world, varying from oil producers to local responders. These efforts are needed to ensure spill response capabilities can be deployed in future spills in the Arctic. The US Coast Guard Research & Development Center (RDC) has sponsored a series of demonstrations in the Great Lakes to show existing stakeholders capabilities and identify potential gaps in response technologies and/or strategies to determine what area still need to be addressed within the United States. This was an attempt to take advantage of the existing Great Lakes ice conditions, vessels and logistics that are harder to access in Alaska. RDC has also participated in demonstrations in the Arctic off of Alaska in 2012 and 2013 to evaluate logistical and operational issues in that region. This paper will describe the demonstrations performed and the lessons learned with applications for any future Arctic spills and research still needed.
In Situ Oil Spill Countermeasures in Ice-Infested Waters: A Modeling Study of the Fate/Behaviours of Spilled Oil
Authors: Niu Haibo , Lee Kenneth , Boufadel Michel C. , Zhao Lin , Robinson Brian
Published: August 2014

The expansion of offshore oil and gas and marine transport activities in the Arctic have raised the level of risk for an oil spill to occur in the Arctic region. Existing technologies for oil spill cleanup in ice-covered conditions are limited and there is a need for improved oil spill countermeasures for use under Arctic conditions. A recent field study has assessed a proposed oil spill response technique in ice-infested waters based on the application of fine minerals in a slurry with mixing by propeller-wash to promote the formation of oil-mineral aggregates (OMA). While it was verified in the experimental study that the dispersion was enhanced and mineral fine additions promoted habitat recovery by enhancing both the rate and extent of oil biodegradation, limited monitoring data provide little insights on the fate of dispersed oil after the response. To help understand the oil transport process following mineral treatment in ice-covered conditions, mathematical modeling was used in this study to simulate the transport of OMA and calculate the mass balances of the spilled oil. To study the effects of ice and minerals on the fate and transport, the result was compared with scenarios without ice and without the addition of mineral fines. The results show general agreement between the modeling results and field observations, and further confirm the effectiveness and potential for using mineral treatment as a new oil spill counter-measure technology. This technique offers several operational advantages for use under Arctic conditions, including reduced number of personnel required for its application, lack of need for waste disposal sites, and cost effectiveness.