bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Spreading Our Wings
Authors: Fain Cicero M.
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines Huntington’s growth as a regional urban-industrial hub and black socio-cultural enclave during the early-twentieth century, an era of resurgent white racism nationally. Central to this examination are the responses of second generational Afro-Huntingtonians to the manifestations of strengthening Jim Crow era racism, including what white West Virginian state and municipal authorities euphemistically characterized as “benevolent segregation.” It contends that although social stratification complicated intra-class cooperation, a maturing black professional class within the city and state, linked to the foundation of inter-generational wealth acquisition attendant to family stability, access to broadening educational opportunities, continuing black influx, and embrace of the “Self-Help” philosophy, engaged in a variety of successful actions that advanced African American economic and political progress.
Improving Paradise
Authors: Nelson David J.
Published: January 2020

Key to Florida’s tourism was the commodification of the state’s natural resources, tangible and otherwise. Florida developed a specific image of itself: tropical, exotic, safe, and natural. But reality did not always cooperate. In order to present the expected natural landscape for its visitors, the Civilian Conservation Corps created state parks that fit the popular image of what Florida was supposed to look like. It began to remove native fauna and flora, alter water flow, introduce exotic species, and artificially landscape areas that were then presented as natural. We will also look at similar processes in other areas of Florida. Although advertisements, publications, and other forms of popular culture celebrated Florida’s Eden-like qualities, many in the state still believed that paradise needed improving.
Analogism at Chavín de Huántar
Authors: Mattina Nicco La
Published: January 2020

Approaches to understanding the core beliefs and worldviews of ancient peoples are not superficially facilitated by the archaeological record. Sometimes, pre-Columbian people are described by analogy to presumably similar contemporary people; that is, a theoretical framework applicable to certain modern peoples is applied a priori in the investigation of a site. This chapter argues that at Chavín de Huántar, interpretations centred around animism and shamanism employ these concepts a priori as ways of understanding the material record. Many of the references to shamanism make specific analogies to Amazonian practices and import these ideas to Chavín de Huántar. Furthermore, the chapter authors argue that, if the iconographic and material record at Chavín de Huánta are carefully evaluated, interpretations centred around animism and shamanism will not follow. The authors demonstrate that the analogist ontology formulated by Descola finds a firmer grounding in the iconographic and material record when these are considered together.
Moche Corporeal Ontologies
Authors: Muro Luis Armando , Castillo Luis Jaime , Tomasto-Cagigao Elsa
Published: January 2020

The body is an analytical category that has been very little problematized, and even less theorized, in archaeology. This limitation is particularly notorious in Andean archaeology. This chapter resonates with the current discussion of the ontological turn in the discipline and discusses how this paradigm offers new theoretical tools for an alternative understanding of the human body, its boundaries, and the various ways in which it manifests in the natural and social world. By using Viveiros de Castro´s Amerindian Perspectivism, this chapter re-evaluates the archaeological data from the Late Moche (AD 650–850) cemetery of San José de Moro, in northern Peru, and, thus, characterizes a Moche corporeal ontology, under which the body is conceptualized as an ever-changing entity with relational characteristics and transubstantiation properties. This conceptualization echoes the Andean notion of sami or vital essence, which transfigures, transmutes, and exerts significant influences on the social and natural world of Andean people.
Introduction
Authors: Tudor Adrian P. , Burr Kristin L.
Published: January 2020

This introduction establishes the importance and fluidity of identity in medieval French literature, viewed particularly through the lens of the “Other Within,” an example of which is seen in Chrétien de Troyes’s Conte du Graal when Perceval exists simultaneously within and an outside of a community. The introduction also situates the book within the scholarly discourse on identity. Finally, it provides a synopsis of the chapters that make up the volume. Taken together, the chapters study a wide variety of medieval French texts and point to the process and consequences of forming and re-forming identity, at the same time revealing how identity may be imposed and self-imposed by authors, characters, and audiences. They invite readers to consider how multiplicities of understanding may exist and interact, leading to new insights regarding identity shifts.
Huon de Bordeaux
Authors: Burgwinkle William
Published: January 2020

In this chapter William Burgwinkle studies the ways in which Huon de Bordeaux—itself a hybrid text that mixes elements of chansons de geste and romance—blurs boundaries and raises questions about geographical, cultural, philosophical, and religious differences. Analyzing Huon’s interactions with Auberon and the world that he inhabits, the chapter demonstrates that cultures may take on the customs of others and thus become “other” themselves. Burgwinkle argues that Huon is a tale that, in Roger Kennedy’s terms, “dreams history” by imagining Carolingian revenge and the return of Islamic lands to Christians. In the end, however, the West’s victories are hollow. The text presents itself as a middle ground that mediates difference, yet the extremes that it depicts are less distinct than they appear.
Sex, the Church, and the Medieval Reader
Authors: Tudor Adrian P.
Published: January 2020

Analyzing the interaction between sex, the Church, and the medieval reader, this chapter by Adrian Tudor highlights the conflicts and sense of “marginality” that underpin the message of conversion in the Vie des Pères. The study demonstrates that sex is a motif rather than a lesson in itself: characters from many backgrounds can shape their own identity or have their identity shaped by a third party, overcoming the pitfalls of carnal sin in the process. The characters’ eventual conversion comes less often through divine intervention than through human agency: their spiritual transformation—to be imitated by the medieval reader when positive—arises generally from compassion rather than compunction. By creating a world where, under the right circumstances, sex and salvation can coexist, the Vie des Pères invites the audience to reassess their own conduct.
The Archaeology of Prostitution and Clandestine Pursuits
Authors: Yamin Rebecca , Seifert Donna J.
Published: January 2020

The archaeological study of prostitution in nineteenth-century American contexts grew out of the discovery of brothels in the 1990s during large urban projects done in compliance with the National Historic Preservation Act. This book provides an overview of many of those projects as well as detailed discussions of a brothel found at Five Points in New York City and several parlor houses found in Washington, D.C. The large artifact assemblages recovered in combination with detailed primary and secondary historical research have produced a complex picture of commercial sex, which the book discusses in both nineteenth-century and twenty-first century perspectives. Agency theory is used to link the practice of prostitution with other forms of clandestine behavior that have come to light through archaeology. Issues of gender, class, and race run through the archaeological study of clandestine behavior, which includes acts of resistance in public—from drinking on the job to piracy—and acts in private—from hiding caches of artifacts in vulnerable places to scratching inscrutable designs on ceramic pots. The book ends with questions that touch on the age-old conundrum of passing judgment. Should prostitution be decriminalized? Should the efficacy of spiritual practices be questioned? The value of anomalous artifacts and their interpretation is stressed as crucial to recognizing brothels and evidence of clandestine pursuits.
Clandestine Pursuits
Authors: Yamin Rebecca , Seifert Donna J.
Published: January 2020

Prostitution and the reasons for turning to it are contrasted with other clandestine activities done for other reasons. The chapter is organized around several subjects: resistance in the nineteenth century, the Underground Railroad, and resourcefulness in the eighteenth century. Archaeological examples of nineteenth-century resistance include defiance in the workplace at factories and railroad sites and archaeological evidence of prison escape attempts and site conditions behind the walls. The difficulty of finding legitimate evidence of the Underground Railroad is discussed, archaeologically identified hiding places are described, and the potential of using archaeology to reveal the participation of otherwise unknown free black communities is considered. Evidence for eighteenth-century resourcefulness includes in-the-ground evidence of smuggling as well as the presence of illegitimately acquired artifacts and the underwater recovery of two pirate ships.
Clandestine Pursuits
Authors: Yamin Rebecca , Seifert Donna J.
Published: January 2020

This chapter focuses on intentionally hidden objects and their meaning for the individuals who hid them. The emphasis on objects illustrates the strength of archaeology to use the material record to connect to specific people in the past. Window panes with messages and/or names scratched in them are described and witch bottles and pierced and folded coins are discussed in the context of European traditions continued in the New World. Classic archaeological studies of ceramic pots, clay pipes, and caches of artifacts found on African American sites are presented as setting the standards for finding evidence of agency where agency was presumed not to exist. Archaeological evidence of agency is also found in remains relating to children, soldiers on military sites, and the homeless in modern cities.
Canoe Caching at Transit Points
Authors: Duggins Julia B.
Published: January 2020

This chapter by Julia B. Duggins examines one of the most frequently asked questions that followed the discovery of over 100 ancient dugout canoes in Newnans Lake (Lake Pithlachocco) near Gainesville, Florida: why so many canoes in one place? Duggins analyzes ethnographic data in this exploration of how canoes may have been kept at intersections between major watersheds, facilitating canoe travel throughout the Florida peninsula.
A Path Forward to an Integrated Study of Bioarchaeology in Southeastern Arabia
Authors: Williams Kimberly D. , Gregoricka Lesley A.
Published: January 2020

This chapter provides an introduction and brief overview on major themes in mortuary archaeology and bioarchaeology in southeastern Arabia. This context sets the stage for the subsequent chapters, which focus on identification of transitions in mortuary practice and bioarchaeological inquiry in this region.
Introduction
Authors: Shu Yuan
Published: January 2020

Against the background of colonialism and the emergence of de-colonial thinking, we first explore the trajectoryof the Euro-American consciousness and movement from the Atlantic coast tothe Pacific coast of the United States and from North America to the Asia Pacific,and suggest the specific ways in which Asian studies, Asian American studies, and Pacificstudies intervene in American exceptionalism as alternatives. Next, we considerthe formation and development of the Asia Pacific in terms of what Kuan-HsingChen calls “Asia as method,” and the construction of the Pacific Islands in relation towhat Epeli Hau‘ofa defines as “our sea of islands” and “the ocean in us.” While Cheninsists on decolonization as a mutual process for the colonized and the colonizeralike, Hau‘ofa envisions a new indigenous way of rereading geography and rewriting humanity against neocolonialist and neo-imperialist practice. By investigatingthe transpacific as moments of military, cultural, and geopolitical contentions aswell as sites of global economic integration and resistance, we develop transpacificAmerican studies as a new critical paradigm in transnational American studies.
American and International Whaling, c. 1770–1820
Authors: Fichter James R.
Published: January 2020

This chapter outlines an international environmental history of whaling in the South Seas (the Southern Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans). Pelagic (ie., deep-sea) whaling was not discretely national. “American” whaling, as traditionally understood, existed as part of a broader ecological and economic phenomenon which included whalers from other nations. Application of “American,” “British” and other national labels to an ocean process that by its nature crossed national boundaries has occluded a full understanding of whaling’s international nature, a fullness which begins with whaling community diaspora spread across the North Atlantic from the United States to Britain and France, and which extends to the varied locations where whalers hunted and the yet other locations to which they returned with their catch. Ocean archives—the Saint Helena Archive, the Cape Town Archive Repository, and the Brazilian Arquivo Nacional—and a reinterpretation of published primary sources and national whaling historiographies reveal the fundamentally international nature of “American” pelagic whaling, suggesting that an undue focus on US whaling data by whaling historians has likely underestimated the extent of turn-of-the-nineteenth-century pelagic whaling.
Land, History, and the Law
Authors: Najita Susan Y.
Published: January 2020

This essay examines the history of land acquisition in creating Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park during the period after the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy and the annexation of the islands to the United States. Its specific focus are the land condemnations and exchanges that went into creating what is known as the Kalapana Extension, an area of active lava flows along the area known as the East Rift Zone. I examine the implications of this history for our understanding of "the public" and conservation’s best legal principal, the public trust doctrine.
The Open Ocean for Interimperial Collaboration
Authors: Akami Tomoko
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines the Pacific Ocean as a transnational space from the perspective of the US as a new maritime empire in the region, and proposes an alternative analytical perspective for this analysis, interimperialism, to three currently dominant ones; imperialism versus nationalism; a vertical analysis of an empire; and power conflicts among the empires. The chapter focuses on experts at the two institutions, namely, the Institute of Pacific Relations and the Pan Pacific Science Congress, in the 1920s, and examines the nature of their Pan Pacific visions, a Pacific version of Pan Americanism. It argues that these experts saw the ocean as an open space that connected the people in and across the Pacific and pursued interimperial cooperative schemes, not as a space divided into closed seas where various polities competed for territorial control. Their interimperial schemes had two distinct characteristics; first, they framed their objectives in the rhetoric of a shared “imperial civilizing mission.” which satisfied moral guilt of the metropolitan elite, but still reinforced their empires’ superior position over the colonized. Second, Pan Pacific schemes ensured interimperial cooperation of managing the ocean space, rather than a conflict.
Memories of Murder
Authors: Nguyen Viet Thanh
Published: January 2020

This paper argues that the Other Korean Warin Viet Nam hardly means foregrounding Asians solely as victims or noblenatives. Such re-centering means acknowledging the full subjectivity of Asians, includingtheir agency, their complicity, their cruelty, and their own strategic designs forpower and profit at the expense of the weaker ones in their own societies and theirenemies and neighbors. HowKorea deals with Viet Nam of the present, the Viet Nam of its past, and the shadowof its American patron has everything to do with Korea’s transformation from oneof the world’s backwater provinces, humiliated by Japan and subordinated by theUnited States, to a chic and sleek global minipower whose projection of itself takesplace notonly in the factory, the boardroom, the stock market, and the UnitedNations, but in movie theaters, on family televisions, in the hands of readers, and inarchitecture signifying might and prowess, meant to intimidate and impress bothcitizen and tourist.
Introduction
Authors: Inoue Mayumo , Choe Steve
Published: January 2020

This introductory essay foregrounds "aesthetics" as a fundamental mode of inquiry that enables scholars to question and overcome many "imperial" assumptions that still govern East Asia studies to this day. Through this renewed focus on art and aesthetics in the age of neoliberalism, the chapter seeks to extend the earlier efforts to critique the area studies paradigm and its methodological nationalism by Naoki Sakai, Rey Chow, Harry Harootunian, and Masao Miyoshi. By underscoring the ways in which global protocols of capitalist accumulation, biopolitics, and warfare require their local legitimation through the fundamentally aesthetic figures of nation, race, and culture, this essay theorizes toward a critically liberating mode of aesthetics that seeks to undo the imperial categories of thinking and politics in East Asia. Notably, this chapter critiques how imperial aesthetics often works in the guise of local culturalism, making the task of aesthetic critique more urgent in East Asian and North American intellectual space.
On the Form’s Edge
Authors: Inoue Mayumo
Published: January 2020

This essay looks at postwar painter Adaniya Masayoshi's abstract landscape paintings of U.S. military bases in Okinawa in the 1960s as well as the painter's own theoretically sophisticated reflections on them. By situating Adaniya's painterly figurations of landscape, military infrastructure, and soldiers' bodies alongside recent Foucauldian and autonomist Marxist analyses of "Okinawa" as an effect and product of global imperial politics, this essay seeks to closely analyse Adaniya's lifelong effort to make visible his torqued forms as a rupturing of the mode of racializing biopolitics in U.S.-occupied Okinawa in the time of the Vietnam War.
Reconciling the Animal and the City in Photography
Authors: Lee Youngjune
Published: January 2020

By carefully analyzing South Korean photographer Kim Kichan's works on the ordinary people's lives in the streets of Seoul in the 1970s, this chapter problematizes two photographic ideologies that have informed South Korea's anticolonial minjung nationalism: photography as a truthful record of reality and as a nostalgic emblem of the past. Instead of indexing such notions of linear history, this chapter treats Kim Kichan's works as the interfaces located among diverse forces and elements in the matrix of history that far exceed the nationalist horizon of minjung imaginary. More specifically, Kim Kichan's photographs foreground the three-partite relationship ofhuman-animal-environment in narrow streets, providing a significant axis around which the very notion of the human and its agency are redefined.
Multitemporality between Sovereignty and Neoliberal Governmentality
Authors: Park Jecheol
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines South Korean films about the minjung movement in the 1980s and analyses their tendency to reduce the latent potential of South Korea's radical struggle into cultural memories that are resolutely national, readily consumable, and highly individualized. Through a close-reading of two films, A Single Spark (Park Kwang-su, 1995) and The Old Garden (Im Sang-soo, 2006), this chapter argues that residual nationalism of such a modality of memorialization in South Korean cinema conforms to an ultimately conservative notion of the Deleuzian-Bergsonian "time-image." Cautioning against the uncritical use of Bergson within both postcolonial theories and postcolonial film studies, the chapter calls for a different kind of cinematic time-image, a Nietzschean-Deleuzianone that inspires us to demand what has been here to fore considered impossible or insensible within the social space.
The Affective Multitude
Authors: Solomon Jon
Published: January 2020

This chapter calls for an emergence of an "affective multitude," an assemblage that is not organized according to the imagined binary between the universal (the West) and the particular (Asia). Instead, such an affective multitude produces its own resonance through an endless distribution of singularity to all sentient beings that traverse the presumed division between humans and nonhumans, and life and matter. Aligning Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna's notion of "dependent origination" to Althusser's concept of "over determination," Foucault's reconceptualization of Kant's notion of "enlightenment," and a more recent strand of object-oriented theorizations about causation as a constitutively aesthetic event, this chapter rethinks "enlightenment" as an irruption of singular beings that are solitary but never alone, always undergoing and practicing change through their mutual exposition and articulation. In doing so, this chapter reveals ways of thinking and feeling beyond imperial aesthetics, simultaneously contesting the biopolitics of East Asia and opening up more capacious links among material beings.
Some Historical Background
Authors: Johnson Elizabeth Lominska , Johnson Graham E.
Published: January 2020

Tsuen Wan offered an appropriate, although politically challenging, research site to social scientists interested in the social effects of economic transformation. The process of refining their methods and specific locations took some months, during which the authors explored the town and its surroundings, studied district office records, and learned about the complexities of land ownership in this industrial town in the New Territories. Elizabeth focused primarily on one village, studying the effects of industrialization on families and the demographic transition as well as the survival of lineages, while Graham focused on the adaptation of immigrants through the formation of associations and questions of leadership overall.
The Japanese Occupation, Recovery, and Transformation 1941–1970
Authors: Johnson Elizabeth Lominska , Johnson Graham E.
Published: January 2020

Kwan Mun Hau Village in Tsuen Wan includes the Yau, Chan, and Fan lineages. Some members also lived in nearby villages. Both reconstructed full genealogies and printed them for their members in the 1960s-70s, bringing them to the present and mentioning their halls, re-sited when Kwan Mun Hau moved in 1964. The Yau also preserved an important document, a will from 1837, dividing the property among the branches. Kwan Mun Hau has two protective shrines, one honouring nine long-term workers who died defending the village. Before the Japanese occupation, marriages were arranged, and sometimes made with small daughters-in-law. Women were expected to work hard for their husbands’ families. Children often did not survive, and families resorted to adoption.
Settling In: Kwan Mun Hau, 1968–1970
Authors: Johnson Elizabeth Lominska , Johnson Graham E.
Published: January 2020

Hong Kong was occupied by Japanese military forces from 1941-45. The occupation was brutal. Many died and women were abused by soldiers. There was clandestine support for guerilla activities. Civil war, and revolution, in China after 1945 brought investment by, especially, industrialists from the Shanghai area and the onset of industrialization, primarily in textiles. There was mass migration from China which provided labour for industry but caused major housing problems. Village lands were overwhelmed by industry and immigrants which reduced the original Hakka inhabitants to a numerical minority, but brought them rental income. Their distinctive land rights were key for development of the growing town and allowed kin groups and some families to flourish. The original inhabitants maintained political dominance through the Rural Committee. Some villages were re-sited away from the growing town centre in the early 1960s, but development was compromised by colony-wide disturbances in 1967-68. The town had great linguistic diversity in the 1950s and 1960.
Leaders and Leadership
Authors: Johnson Elizabeth Lominska , Johnson Graham E.
Published: January 2020

There were 92 voluntary associations in Tsuen Wan in 1969. They were formed primarily by immigrants to deal with the dramatic changes that confronted them. Merchants, hawkers, industrialists and workers created them to help meet the challenges of new economic and social forces. Most associations were focussed on the welfare needs of their members since government assistance was inadequate. Associations which recruited on the basis of locality or surname ties were common in the Imperial past and among Overseas Chinese communities. Religious associations were numerous and met important cultural needs typical of the areas of migration, in a context dominated by change and unfamiliarity.
An Unexpected Opportunity
Authors: Johnson Elizabeth Lominska , Johnson Graham E.
Published: January 2020

Although their rights are protected, the original people have recently intermingled with immigrants in most aspects of life. Over time their distinctive identity has faded as they, and the immigrants, have increasingly blended into the Hong Kong population. The construction of the MTR line, although profoundly disruptive, connected Tsuen Wan to urban Hong Kong and the new airport. The central Tianhou temple was directly affected, but was preserved, and continues to be managed by the Rural Committee, although many immigrants worship there, especially Teochiu women devotees. In Kwan Mun Hau, although many members now live elsewhere, the lineages have remained strong, and the village united, as evidenced by a special ceremony and banquet on the day before retrocession. Their level of education and quality of life have greatly increased.
Conclusions
Authors: Johnson Elizabeth Lominska , Johnson Graham E.
Published: January 2020

In 2014, Kwan Mun Hau hosted a banquet for 2000 people celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of their move to their new site. Invited dignitaries spoke, and unicorn dancers paid respects at the ancestral halls and shrines. By this time, Tsuen Wan district had been divided. It is governed in part by the District Council. Residents continue to form associations to meet social needs, although some new forms have emerged.
Preserving Purity
Authors: Driessen Miriam
Published: January 2020

The bitter taste experienced by Chinese road builders arises not only from the challenges they face in their encounters with Ethiopians, but also from a chasm between a dominant rhetoric of unity and solidarity, and an underlying concern with the reality of social divisions. Straddling ethnic boundaries by sharing food with Ethiopians and gaining fluency in Amharic, some Chinese foremen threaten to close the distance to the other and, by extension, the boundaries between the knowledgeable and the ignorant, and the managers and the managed. The preservation of purity plays a central role in Chinese engagement with the other. Indeed, self-control is a prerequisite for the control of Ethiopian others. The disciplining of Chinese colleagues through the cultivation of restraint and reticence is closely linked to the project of disciplining Ethiopian laborers.
Entangled in Lawsuits
Authors: Driessen Miriam
Published: January 2020

In the courtroom, Ethiopian workers have proved even more successful in challenging Chinese management and the power hierarchies that lend them authority. To the consternation of their Chinese employers, the damages awarded to Ethiopian laborers in the courts keep rising. The wereda courts, the lowest-level state courts in Ethiopia, have come to play a principal role in negotiating the employment conditions of Ethiopian laborers. Judges make Ethiopian workers aware of their rights and remind Chinese employers of their obligations regarding contractual procedures, wage levels, and recruitment and dismissal practices. Together with professional writers and law student interns, the wereda courts enhance the leverage of the Ethiopian workforce over Chinese managers. Lost legal battles frustrate the managers; the unconditional support of the authorities for the local workforce goes against their idea of the local state’s role as bolstering economic growth by supporting foreign investment.
Introduction
Authors: Ulbrich David J
Published: January 2020

The introduction to this anthology connects a diverse collection of essays that examine the 1940s as the critical decade in the United States’ ascendance in the Pacific Rim. Following the end of World War II, the United States assumed the hegemonic role in the region when Japan’s defeat created military and political vacuums in the region. It is in this context that this anthology stands not only as a précis of current scholarship but also as a prospectus for future research. The contributors’ chapters eschew the traditional focus on military operations that has dominated the historiography of 1940s in the Pacific Basin and East Asia. Instead, the contributors venture into areas of race, gender, technology, culture, media, diplomacy, and institutions, all of which add nuance and clarity to the existing literature of World War II and the early Cold War.
Theater of WAR
Authors: Raines Rebecca Robbins
Published: January 2020

This chapter focuses on the establishment by the Signal Corps of the Army Command and Administrative Network (ACAN) in the Pacific Theater where unique challenges of distance, climate, and terrain faced the Army’s communicators.Initially a manually operated system, ACAN eventually adopted automatic radioteletype equipment that enabled faster and more accurate transmission of the rapidly growing message workload.ACAN made possible significant innovations, such as teleconferencing, that enabled Allied leaders to communicate with their commanders thousands of miles away. By war’s end, the system was carrying fifty million words per day over its circuits—an estimated eight words for every bullet fired.With the return to peace, the United States Government decided to dismantle ACAN.Not until the war in Vietnam would the Army operate another globe-spanning system, this time using the latest satellite technology to bridge the distance between Washington and the fighting front.
Here’s Your Air War
Authors: Call Steve
Published: January 2020

By World War II, public fascination with aviation and air power had created a powerful presence in popular culture.Military and government leaders sought to exploit that presence in shaping public perceptions of the war against Japan and the public fascination that drove it, but so too did writers, editors, producers, and even air power theorists.Movies, books, and popular magazine articles in significant numbers featured air power themes in a number of different guises.Some sought merely to cash in on audience appeal, while others sought to boost public morale or support for the war effort; still others used the various media to build public support for air power itself or to push distinctive theories about air power’s application.Regardless of intent, these depictions reached wide audiences and helped shape attitudes toward the war, the enemy, and air power itself, giving a unique insight into the nature of the Pacific air war.
Hidden Island
Authors: Sarantakes Nicholas Evan
Published: January 2020

The Pacific world of the early twentieth century, dominated by Europe, Japan, and the United States, is gone. The region’s control by outsiders has been succeeded by increasing economic importance, broader political negotiation, and wider cultural acceptance. Whether considering transoceanic communication, popular understanding of air power, the limits to training a continental Asian army, local uses of food, the role of “special” military units, the understanding of nuclear weapons, or the impact of American military occupation, these essays shed light on the volatile Pacific as a whole. The chapters in War in the American Pacific and East Asia, 1941–1972illustrate how the mid-twentieth-century world set the stage for the Pacific of our own era, offering important waypoints for explaining the transition to the twenty-first century.
The Fracture of the 1960s
Authors: Hadley David P.
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines the increasingly fraught press environment of the 1960s and its effect on the CIA, as the Cold War consensus slowly began to unravel. In an effort to garner support, the Central Intelligence Agency began more systematic efforts to provide briefings to members of the press. The New York Times Washington Bureau, first under James Reston and then under Tom Wicker, had a standing arrangement for briefings by the CIA. Once that arrangement ended, the New York Times published an unprecedented series of articles exploring the CIA’s activities. In 1967 a radical publication, Ramparts, revealed the agency’s decades-long foray into supporting private organizations and student groups to use culture as a weapon in the Cold War. The CIA survived each crisis, but its position continued to deteriorate, and there emerged a growing faction in the press skeptical of the agency and national security arguments against publishing stories.
Origins of the Code
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

This chapter traces the origins of film censorship in the US from 1910 onward. It documents the rise of public concern over movie sex and violence and traces the manner in which pressures from religious and social groups led to the formation of individual censorship entities in various states and municipalities. The motion picture industry tried to counter these pressures by forming the Motion Picture Production and Distribution Association under Will Hays and promising to police itself, an effort that proved ineffectual until 1934, when government pressure, the Legion of Decency, and Catholic boycotts led to the requirement that any motion picture produced in the US had to earn the Seal of Approval of the Production Code Administration under Joe Breen.
Censors at Work
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

This chapter views the Production Code Administration through the eyes of the censors employed by the administration, documenting their approach to reviewing film sources, scripts, and completed films. General and specific guidelines in the four-thousand-word Code are cited, and the chapter provides examples of the interpretation of these guidelines by administration employees such as Joe Breen, Jack Vizzard, and Albert Van Schmus. Guidelines explored include the duration of screen kisses, forbidden words and the use of double beds. The approaches and effectiveness of Code censors are documented through their correspondence with producers and directors, including Alfred Hitchcock.
The British Board of Film Censors
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

This chapter traces the origins of film censorship in Great Britain, in particular the development of the British Board of Film Censors, which was managed by Joseph Brooke Wilkinson over the years Alfred Hitchcock was directing films in England. The chapter cites examples of the Board’s general impact on film production in the UK and on Hitchcock in particular. In comparison with American film censorship, with its emphasis on sex and violence, British censors proved to be more interested in social and political issues. Their concern for worker strikes caused them to ban the classic Battleship Potemkin for over twenty years.
Hitchcock and Selznick
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

This chapter describes the interactions between Hitchcock and David O. Selznick when the director came to America to work for Selznick International. The two men were a mismatched pair, Selznick flamboyant and Hitchcock withdrawn, but they were united in their love of movies. Hitchcock resented Selznick’s memo-writing interference and welcomed his loan-outs to other studios, but Selznick gave the director his ticket to America and the financial support and star access he needed to make first-rate films. Subsequent chapters examine the impacts of censorship on each of the ten films Hitchcock made while under contract to Selznick.
Rebecca (1940)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines the battles fought by David O. Selznick with the censors over their demands during the making of Rebecca and Hitchcock’s mollifying efforts in acceding to those demands. Selznick purchased the rights to Daphne du Maurier’s best seller Rebecca against the advice of the Code officials, who felt that the story of a man who murders his wife and gets off scot-free could not receive Code approval. Hitchcock suggested that the man’s wife die by accident, leaving the rest of the plot elements intact. Hitchcock’s suggestion got the film past the censors while raising the level of implausibility fairly high, but not high enough to keep the film from winning a Best Picture Oscar.
Shadow of a Doubt (1943)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines the impact of external forces on the film Hitchcock often claimed to be his personal favorite. The Production Code office found little fault with the tale of a serial killer returning to his small-town roots. The War Production Board, by putting a limit of $5,000 on construction costs using new materials in Hollywood pictures, forced Hitchcock and screenwriter Thornton Wilder to shoot much of the film on location in Santa Rosa, California, adding greatly to the small-town feel of the film.
Lifeboat (1944)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines the influence of Production Code censors and the Office of War Information on the tale of survivors of a U-boat attack confined to a lifeboat commandeered by the captain of the U-boat that sunk the survivors’ ship. It was Hitchcock’s idea to create the lifeboat as a symbol of World War II in microcosm, with the survivors representing various aspects of democracy arrayed against the competent, single-minded German captain. The Office of War Information objected to this portrayal, viewing the plot as one that ‘Nazi propagandists themselves would like to promote.’ The author of the original source, John Steinbeck, was also unhappy with Hitchcock’s allegorical treatment, and the critics agreed with the view of the Office of War Information, causing this well-made film to do poorly at the box office.
Notorious (1946)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

Notorious is one of the few Hitchcock films that were actually improved by the involvement of the Production code. Code censors objected to the original plot, in which a woman of loose reputation is hired by the FBI to use her wiles to infiltrate a group of ex-Nazis hiding out in Rio de Janeiro. Code officials suggested that the woman, played by Ingrid Bergman, be someone who lived by her wits, rather than someone with loose morals, and who is recruited because the head of the exiled Nazi ring, played by Claude Rains, was once in love with her. These suggestions greatly improved the film, making both Bergman and Rains more sympathetic characters. Notorious contains a kissing scene between Bergman and Cary Grant that Hitchcock concocted specifically to get around the supposed ‘three-second rule,’ according to which lips locked for more than three seconds were considered unduly lustful. Grant and Bergman remain in each other’s arms for nearly three minutes as they travel through her Rio apartment exchanging at least twenty kisses, none of which exceed three seconds. Hitchcock also had to contend with close scrutiny from the FBI as a result of the use of uranium as a plot point in pre’atom bomb days. The film has gone on to become one of Hitchcock’s most venerated masterpieces, partially because of the Production Code insights that improved the plot and gave Hitchcock the impetus for a memorable romantic sequence.
The Paradine Case (1947)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

The Paradine Case is another example of an instance in which the Code insistence that evildoers must be punished altered the screenplay and weakened the film. The leading character in the source novel was an adulteress and murderess who is acquitted of the charge of murder through perjured testimony and commits suicide after the truth is revealed?all red flags for Code reviewers. It was the final film Hitchcock made with David O. Selznick, whose constant interference and script rewrites caused irritating delays and rarely improved the plot and dialogue. The delays and changes were debilitating, causing Hitchcock to take more time in shooting this film than any of his other movies, and the film lost over $2 million for Selznick International.
Hitchcock and Warner Bros.
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

This chapter describes the relationship between Hitchcock and Jack L. Warner. Warner Bros. had agreed to serve as a distributor for pictures made by Transatlantic films with the proviso that Hitchcock direct one Warner’s film for each Transatlantic film. When Transatlantic floundered, Jack L. Warner restructured the deal so that Hitchcock would direct four films for Warner Bros., receiving $3,000 a week as his own producer and points on those films that turned a profit. The deal worked out well for Hitchcock, earning him roughly $250,000 per film, a considerable increase over the $50,000 Selznick had paid him for Rebecca and making him one of the best-paid directors in Hollywood. Subsequent chapters discuss the impacts of censorship on each of the four films Hitchcock made for Warner Bros.
Strangers on a Train (1951)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

The plot of Strangers on a Train revolves around a crisscross murder scheme in which a psychotic playboy (Robert Walker) suggests trading murders with a tennis player (Farley Granger). He offers to murder the tennis player’s cheating wife if, in return, the tennis player will murder the playboy’s rich father. The tennis player fails to take the offer seriously, until the playboy strangles his wife and awaits the tit-for-tat murder of the playboy’s father. In the Patricia Highsmith book on which the film is based, the tennis player is blackmailed into committing the reciprocal murder. But this plot element could not survive the Code’s admonition against letting murderers go unpunished, altering the scope and tone of the source material. After influencing this major plot change, the Production Code office was relatively quiet on other points, suggesting that the blame for the tennis player’s failed marriage be laid clearly on the cheating wife, and warning against attempts to portray the playboy’s attraction to the tennis player as homosexual, an attraction that Hitchcock planted, nurtured, and did not excise.
Dial M for Murder (1954)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

Dial M for Murder, the fourth and final film owed to Warner Bros. under Hitchcock’s Transatlantic contract, was based on Frederick Knott’s successful stage play. Hitchcock filmed the play almost exactly as written, making no attempt to ‘open up’ its apartment setting and embellishing the tightly knit plot with a spellbinding murder scene. The Production Code Administration found little to quibble with, asking that a few hells and damns be omitted and that the ‘intimate parts’ of Grace Kelly’s body ‘be fully clothed at all times.’ The film was a success both critically and at the box office, bringing in the most profit of any of the Warner’s films.
The Wrong Man (1956)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

The Wrong Man was based on the true story of Manny Balestrero, a New York musician who was unjustly accused of armed robbery and hounded by the legal system until his wife suffered a nervous breakdown. Hitchcock felt so strongly about following the true story that he filmed in a semi-documentary fashion, shooting in black and white and using authentic New York locations wherever possible. The censors’ review of the script elicited only three suggestions, the fewest they had to offer on any of the director’s American films. The Code office asked that the toilet fixture be eliminated from Manny’s cell, that Manny not be shown ‘quite naked,’ and that the word geez be eliminated. Hitchcock easily accommodated these suggestions, but argued with Warner Bros. over the coda at the end of the film, which suggested in on-screen words over a family strolling beneath palm trees that the Balestrero family lived happily ever after. In actuality, Manny’s wife Rose never recovered fully from her depression. But Warner’s need to tack a happy ending onto the grim story outweighed the director’s pursuit of reality.
Psycho (1960)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

The shower stabbing of Janet Leigh in Psycho is one of the most famous scenes in movie history. The Production Code office had problems with this scene, as well as the noontime lovemaking between Janet Leigh and John Gavin in the opening sequence, the flushing of evidence down a toilet, Tony Perkins seeing Janet Leigh partially naked through a peephole, and the suggestion of an incestuous relationship between Perkins and his mother. Hitchcock had carefully concocted the shower scene with the censors in mind, editing down seventy-eight pieces of film into forty-five harrowing seconds that showed no nudity and no piercing of the skin. When the censors couldn’t agree on whether they saw nudity or not, Hitchcock eventually agreed to eliminate an overhead shot of Janet Leigh’s bare buttocks as she sprawled over the tub, using this as a bargaining chip to retain the opening lovemaking scene. He also eliminated a shot of Perkins peeping at Janet Leigh as she removed her bra, but kept the toilet-flushing scene, a victory over years of acquiescing to the Code insistence that no toilets be shown, let alone flushed, on-screen.
The Birds (1963)
Authors: Billheimer John
Published: January 2020

The Production Code Administration insisted that Hitchcock submit to the oversight of the American Humane Association during the filming of The Birds, and the Humane Association had a greater impact on the finished film than the Code itself. Humane Association representatives were on location for all scenes involving birds, and an aviary was set up to treat any that were injured. Concern for the birds’ welfare often dictated shooting schedules, which were sometimes halted when the Humane Association representatives felt the birds were too tired to continue. The production company also had to obtain a special permit to catch and train seagulls, a protected species. For its part, the Production Code Administration found the basic story acceptable, but cautioned against presenting the Tippi Hedren character in a bra and skirt, preferring a bra and full slip, and warned against excessive gruesomeness in the bird attacks. At least one commentator suggested it might have been better if Hitchcock and the Code office had shown less solicitude for the birds and more for the leading lady, who suffered grievously under the final avian attack and had to take a week off to recuperate.