bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Enlightenment Orpheus
Authors: Agnew Vanessa
Published: May 2008

Ancient beliefs in the power of music gained urgency during the mid to late 18th century. The period saw an efflorescence of Orpheus-themed musical works, including operas by Gluck, Mozart, and Haydn. Orpheus as archmusician also emerged as a key trope in aesthetic, literary, critical, and historical thought. Yet this widespread interest in musical utility (called Orphic discourse) seems to conflict with the notion of aesthetic autonomy that emerged around the same time. The confluence of these apparently antithetical positions casts doubt on the widespread view that there was an aesthetic-philosophical break between the 18th and 19th centuries. Instead, this book exposes the hidden instrumentality that is typically disavowed by aesthetic disinterest and concludes that musical utility is a site of discursive continuity within modernity. Focusing on the English traveler and music historian Charles Burney's 1772 journey through the Netherlands and central Europe — soon to be the home of aesthetic autonomy — the book examines the scholarly discussions and social practices that characterize the Enlightenment as an age of Orpheus. It argues that aesthetic autonomy went hand in hand with the late 18th-century insistence on music's moral, social, and political utility. It argues that the foregrounding of alterity, like the new historicization of music, arose within the context of the late 18th century's increased mobility and its burgeoning cross-cultural encounters. The traveler's exposure to new listeners and new musical vernaculars posed critical challenges to classical ideas about what music could do. Understanding the broader function of Orphic discourse thus necessitates a transnational approach that coheres with the cosmopolitan character of serious music and music scholarship. Such an approach exposes the ways in which Orphic discourse made claims about music acting at the margins in order to promote specific class, professional, and national interests.
Introduction
Authors: Agnew Vanessa
Published: May 2008

This introductory chapter presents the central figures in the book — Charles Burney and his German interlocutors — along with the book's main problem: the Enlightenment interrogation of Neoplatonic ideas. It argues for the centrality of travel and cross-cultural musical encounters to the development of musical thought in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Further, it raises the question of how music and musical thought were imbricated in the articulation of new cultural and national identities. The chapter frames this with a rereading of the Orpheus myth and asks what happened to Neoplatonic ideas when Europeans were systematically exposed to other kinds of music. It argues that the encounter with musical difference brought about a shift in thinking. When scholars found that Orpheus ceased to exert exclusive control over music, they mobilized the pendant to the myth — Orpheus's subjugation by the savage and raucous Thracians. From now on, listening to others would hold potential dangers.
Argonaut Orpheus
Authors: Agnew Vanessa
Published: May 2008

Focusing on Charles Burney's 1772 central European journey to collect material for a general history of music, this chapter shows how travel and musical mapping were co-opted for the making of a German cultural imaginary. It transnationalizes Bourdieu's notion of symbolic capital to show how national cultural identities were mobilized via the figure of the traveler. It was the traveler who was authorized to traverse liminal spaces, compare cultural systems, and exercise aesthetic judgments. German scholars like Christoph Daniel Ebeling, Johann Nicolaus Forkel, and Johann Friedrich Reichardt saw the Englishman's journey as an opportunity to reprioritize German over French and Italian music, and thereby contribute to a German Kulturnation. Yet Burney preferred a protosociological approach to the study of music and this helps explain his negative reception in Germany. The dispute between Burney and the Germans highlights the problems with an epistemology of music based on travel: the unreliability of the musical informant and the social and political uses of music did not ultimately cohere with the kinds of music-immanent criteria upon which the German scholars' project depended.
Anti‐Orpheus
Authors: Agnew Vanessa
Published: May 2008

This chapter analyzes debates about the meaning and power of music and the constitution of English culture in the latter part of the century. These debates pitted ideas about the power of music against an anti-Orphic discourse that challenged what some writers saw as the hyperinflation of music's moral and social uses. The chapter centers on Burney's thwarted efforts to found a music conservatory and makes a detailed study of his opposition — in particular, John Bicknell's parody, Musical Travels thro' England, by Joel Collier, Organist (1774). In so doing, the chapter investigates the kind of cultural work performed by parody, burlesque, and other forms of symbolic inversion. It shows that rather than ushering in a new set of aesthetic values, anti-Orphic discourse used a triangulated argument in which figures like the castrato, the Polynesian, the traveler, and the music scholar were parodied. By burlesquing the outsider, composers and writers sidelined cosmopolitan, aristocratic musical culture in an effort to consolidate middle class forms of cultural production. This suggests that by the latter part of the century, Britons'fascination with foreignness was giving way to new anxieties as debates about music were folded into broader concerns about changing class relations, abolitionism, Jacobinism, and the loss of the American colonies.
Siva in Trouble
Authors: Michaels Axel
Published: May 2008

The book deals with festivals and rituals at the Nepalese Paśupatnātha Temple located in Deopatan, the City of (all) Gods, and the Paśupatikṣetra, the “Field of Paśupati.” Paśupati, a form of Śiva, is regarded as the tutelary and protective deity of Nepal and his temple as both national and sacred monument that has since many centuries attracted thousands of pilgrims from India. After introducing the temple, its history, organisation and vicinity, all major festivals connected to it are thoroughly described and examined. The material used by the author includes mythological and eulogising texts, chronicles, inscriptions and elaborate field‐work studies. The book also deals with religious conflicts between different forms of Hinduism as well as with religious identities and contested priesthood. Due to the strength of various tantrically worshipped goddesses in Deopatan, Śiva comes under ritual pressure time and again. Underlining this religious tension are fundamental conflicts between the indigenous Newar population and the Nepali speaking population which originally immigrated from India or between the South Indian Bhaṭṭa priests and the Newar Karmācārya priests. Moreover, ritual forms of worship are contested, as in the instance of tantric forms of worship with alcohol and animal sacrifices versus pure, vegetarian forms of worship. In recent times these conflicts have increasingly been politicized and due to the impact of the World Heritage Monument policy the Paśupati area is successively restructured and shaped into a religious pilgrimage place for Indian and Western tourists.
The Procession of Lamentation (Dūdūcyā̃cyā̃jātrā)
Authors: Michaels Axel
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the Procession of Lamentation (Duducyā̃cyā̃jātrā), a ritual invitation of the goddesses of the Kathmandu valley to celebrate the Vatsalā festival at the Paśupati temple.
The Festival of the Goddess Pīgãmāī
Authors: Michaels Axel
Published: May 2008

This chapter deals with the festival of the local goddess Pīgãmāī situated under the Ring Road which surrounds Kathmandu. It is made up of a group of twenty‐two children representing the Navadurgā and other deities who are worshipped. It is celebrated with animal sacrifices and a procession through Deopatan.
Śiva under Refuse and Goblin's Fourteenth (Lukumahādyaḥ, Piśācacaturdaśī)
Authors: Michaels Axel
Published: May 2008

This chapter presents material on a festival in which Śiva is worshipped as Hidden Mahādeva (Lukumahādyaḥ). The festival is also known as or Goblin's Fourteenth due to the fact that Śiva manifests himself as a demon hiding for(from?) his consort whom he has abused raped? because of her consumption of the polluting substances of garlic and alcohol. In the Newar households, Śiva, depicted in a small stone, is kept hidden in filthy unclean places such as garbage dumps. Ironically, he is worshipped with garlic and alcohol otherwise abhorred by him.
Deopatan Revisited
Authors: Michaels Axel
Published: May 2008

This chapter presents new material on architectural and ritual transformations in the Field of Paśupati (Paśupatikṣetra) that were caused by the political changes in Nepal after the deprivation of the king. In the focus are the activities of the Paśupati Area Development Trust and the concept of marketing a heritage site to a global audience.
2 The New Musical Language
Authors: Antokoletz Elliott
Published: May 2008

This chapter explores the sources and evolution of the new musical language that lead to the symbolist ideal and corresponding musical processes. The latter is based on transformation of traditional diatonic pitch constructions, symmetrical, and cyclic-interval properties of the dominant-ninth chord and other traditional harmonic constructions, as developed by Russian nationalist, French impressionist, and Hungarian composers. The interaction of pentatonic, diatonic, whole-tone, and octatonic sets by means of common suhcollections or cells is essential to the new twelve-tone language based on the concept of the interval cycle.
4 Pelléas et Mélisande
Authors: Antokoletz Elliott
Published: May 2008

This chapter looks at Act I, Prelude, according to its structure and leitmotifs associated with the “Forest”, “Fate”, “Mélisande”, and “Mélisande's Naïveté”. It discusses Golaud as political symbol, points to polarity as an internal principle of musico-dramatic structure, and uncovers the symbolic link between Mélisande and fate. The chapter then describes Act I, Scene 1 — the first meeting of Golaud and Mélisande — and points to the hybrid diatonic/whole-tone form of “Fate” and Golaud's “Love” motif. Then, it addresses the influences on the musical language and aesthetics of the Debussy opera, and the interaction of “Golaud”, “Mélisande”, and “Fate” motifs. The test of the will and the dual role of Mélisande as real-life being and instrument of fate are discussed. Next the chapter considers Act 1, Scene 2, here a room in the castle, and presents the first explicit text reference to “Fate” and the “Pelleas” motif. Finally, the chapter considers Act I, Scene 3 — before the castle — and further develops the “Mélisande” and “Fate” motifs.
6 Pelléas et Mélisande
Authors: Antokoletz Elliott
Published: May 2008

This chapter looks at Act III, Scene I — one of the towers of the castle — and examines the idea of Mélisande's hair as object of manifold symbolic significance, the seduction of Pelléas in the magic of the night, and the threatening arrival of Golaud. Intervallic expansion serves as basis for dramatic tension and change of mood. This scene also expresses passion and sensuality in terms of diatonic and chromatic saturation, and represents Golaud and fate by the whole-tone-1 collection. The chapter also explores dramatic parallels and polarities. Increasing passion and impending fate are represented by chromatic (octatonic) compression of the whole-tone set by common tritone projections. This scene reveals the emergence of Pelléas, then Golaud. in the darkness, while Mélisande's dilemma is symbolized by heightened dramatic polarity and complex pitch-set interactions. Finally, Act III, Scene 2, the vaults of the castle; Scene 3, a terrace at the entrance of the vaults, dark and light; and Scene 4, before the castle, are examined. These all develop Golaud's expression of jealousy; based on a primary manifestation of the whole-tone cycles and their cells. The chapter further addresses the principle of polarity.
7 Pelléas et Mélisande
Authors: Antokoletz Elliott
Published: May 2008

This chapter first looks at Act IV, Scene 1, a room in the castle. This scene anticipates Pelléas's fate as foreseen by his father. It then next looks at Act IV, Scene 2, which presents Mélisande as symbol of resurrection as foreseen by Arkel, while Golaud's vengeance and Mélisande's hair are presented as a symbol of the Crucifixion. Next the chapter turns to Act IV, Scene 3 — a well in the park — which provides a symbol of the sacrificial lamb. Scene 4 is based on the love duet and the death of Pelléas. Finally, the chapter looks at Act IV, Scene 4, which addresses structure and proportion in the service of musico-dramatic development and emotional climax. This scene presents the “Shadows” motif and “Ecstasy” motif. The fusion of light and dark is represented by octatonic fusion of pentatonic and whole-tone sets. The scene culminates with Golaud's vengeance and the fulfillment of fate.
12 Duke Bluebeard's Castle
Authors: Antokoletz Elliott
Published: May 2008

This chapter looks at Doors VI, lake of tears, and VII, former wives, and begins with the transition from Doors V to VI which reveals Bluebeard's acquisition of Judith's “Fate” (pentatonic/whole-tone) motif. These final Doors suggest the sexual instinct and the death wish. They point to the traditional role of women and the transition to equality. The chapter explores the Symbolic connections of Nietzsche, Bartók, Bluebeard, and Judith.
The Ramellian Paradigm
Authors: van der Merwe Peter
Published: May 2008

The orthodox view is that melody is based on harmony, at least in Western classical music. But this ‘Ramellian paradigm’ (so called because it was given classic expression by Rameau in the early 18th century) is a fallacy. If melody is ‘arpeggiated’ harmony, then harmony is consolidated melody. If anything has primacy, it is melody. The traditional concept of tonality, as developed over the past two centuries, centres exclusively on the harmony (in effect, the bass), but there is potentially another tonality, that of the melody (usually the top line). The aesthetically satisfying conflict between the two is here called ‘tonal counterpoint’.
The Pentatonic Scale
Authors: van der Merwe Peter
Published: May 2008

This chapter shows how the pentatonic scale develops out of the children's chant, either by transference and superimposition (e.g., a–g–e + d–c–a) or by the addition of a note at either end (a–g–e + b + d). It also examines the paradoxical nature of this scale, which both maximizes melodic consonance and depends on the major second, an interval intermediate between consonance and dissonance. (Triadic melodies are in a sense pentatonic, since the major triad forms part of the pentatonic scale, but they are not fully pentatonic in effect.) By filling in the gaps, the pentatonic can be developed into the seven-note diatonic scale, but will still be present as a framework. Such frameworks fall into the three pentatonic species of ‘natural’ (c–d–e–g–a), ‘hard’ (e–g–a–b–d), or ‘soft’ (f–g–a–c–d).
Primitive Harmony
Authors: van der Merwe Peter
Published: May 2008

This chapter deals with the two most important routes from pure melody to harmony: the so-called ‘double tonic’ progression, consisting of two alternating triads with basses a tone apart, which is to harmonic progression what the children's chant is to melody; and the other is the drone, which for all practical purposes entered European music from the East.
The Evolution of Tonality
Authors: van der Merwe Peter
Published: May 2008

This chapter outlines the evolution of tonality from its beginnings in the early 16th century to the maturity of the Classical style in the late 18th century. The two main processes were ones that, first, from very early on the chords making up simple harmonic formulas, came to be preceded by their own ‘applied’ dominants, which then developed into systematically contrasted keys; and secondly, that from the early 18th century composers found new uses for the tonic-and-dominant progression. A momentous discovery was the split dominant (tonic–dominant dominant–tonic), arrived at by uncoupling harmonic rhythm from phrase rhythm. This harmonic simplicity made possible the structural complexities of the Classical style.
Modernism
Authors: van der Merwe Peter
Published: May 2008

This chapter presents a brief survey of early Modernism and its ambivalent relation to the musical vernacular and popular art generally. The cultures and representative composers singled out are France (Debussy), Germany (Richard Strauss, Schoenberg), and Russia (Stravinsky).
Epilogue
Authors: van der Merwe Peter
Published: May 2008

This epilogue glances at the further estrangement between ‘serious’ and popular music during the remainder of the 20th century. It concludes that the future of the classical tradition is unpredictable, but that if it is to survive it will need popular roots.
2 Fugacious Resources and Common Property
Authors: Scott Anthony
Published: May 2008

This brief chapter introduces the similarities in the evolution of the characteristics of property rights over the using of running water, petroleum resources, and stocks of ocean fish. These are all the subjects of later chapters. Often described as ‘access’ to common-pool or common-property resources, rights have evolved but have failed to gain the exclusivity characteristic. The chapter attributes this failure to lack of incentive on the demand side. On the supply side, ancient doctrines such as free public access deterred the courts from accepting claims to private rights in user conflicts. These matters are illustrated in the next two chapters (and in Chapter 9, for coal and petroleum).
8 Mineral Disposal and Mining Rights on Private Land
Authors: Scott Anthony
Published: May 2008

Changes in mining rights on private lands came about in leasing contracts, court interpretations, and custom. By the nineteenth century English landowning families could set up mining operation themselves, call on free miners, or lease or sell mining rights to outsiders. Under changing property law, the family head might be impeachable for waste — for his family and his tenants his title might require that the estate's minerals and surface lands remain intact. Changes in tort law lawsuit decisions increased his exclusivity. They prevented him from interfering with his neighbours, his neighbours from harming him, and flooding. The courts in Rylands v Fletcher (1868) produced a spillover doctrine that was soon applied beyond mining. If the holding originating the flooding was doing something that was not ‘natural’ to its operations, it was liable to the victim. In the booming US mining, Rylands v Fletcher was cited frequently. The chapter mentions damage from surface collapse. The English courts were driven to an extreme: any surface landowner was absolutely entitled to support. The parties' contract could not waive this right. Instead of this for some decades some American courts followed a doctrine that when on one piece of land surface and mining interests were in physical conflict the miner's was always the ‘dominant’ estate.
10 Concepts in Forest Property Rights
Authors: Scott Anthony
Published: May 2008

This brief chapter introduces the following chapters' discussion of property in the forest by surveying the six characteristics of any property right as they apply to the rights held by forest-resource holders. It prepares the following chapters' references to rights in multiple-owner and multiple-use forest resources.
11 Forestry on Public Lands from the Medieval to the Modern Era
Authors: Scott Anthony
Published: May 2008

The chapter examines the origins of the tenures in American and Canadian public forests. They began with the licenses on English Crown forests, the medieval monarch's personal property. On such forests naval timber reserves were created, first in England then overseas. Desirable trees were marked with a broad arrow. After the revolution both the US and Canadian governments succeeded to huge acreages covered with trees. The new US federal government did not develop a specific timber-land tenure or sale procedure. The chapter offers the explanation of high classification costs and enforcement costs. Also the Canadian provinces were prevented by high land classification costs from offering timber lands for outright sale. Instead they offered timber-cutting licenses, and later they assigned forests to particular firms as incentives for investing in sawmills. In the 1940s Canadian provinces went one step further and offered to combine a mill's owned or licensed forest with dedicated government forest, thus producing large managed sustained-yield ‘agreement’ units. The US had already created managed National Forests, some closely integrated with neighbouring timber-using plants and communities, but tended by government. Apart from their agreement units, the Canadian provinces now offer short-duration licenses or ‘timber sales’ to commercial loggers.
2 Greeks and Romans
Authors: Osiander Andreas
Published: May 2008

Following an analysis of the economic and ecological bases of society in the pre-Christian Mediterranean world, this chapter studies how and why the pre-Persian Greek pólis-world evolved — charting the rise of Athens, the rise of Persian Greek kingship, then the rise of Rome and the gradual absorption of the entire Mediterranean region into the Roman empire. It discusses what pre-Christian Greek and Roman authors — such as Plátôn (Plato), Aristotle, Isokrátês (Isocrates), Polýbios (Polybius), Sallust, Seneca, and Tacitus — had to say on the mutual relations of autonomous actors in the Mediterranean world. A special section is dedicated to an analysis of Thukydídês (Thucydides), showing that contrary to received wisdom he was far from an ancestor of Realist International Relations thought. In particular, he did not believe and never said that the ‘Peloponnesian War’ broke out because of a shift in the ‘balance of power’.
4 Pre‐industrial Europe
Authors: Osiander Andreas
Published: May 2008

In the late pre-Reformation period, re-urbanization and increasing monetization impacting on what had become a profoundly rural civilization gave rise to political structures markedly different from those of the pre-Christian Mediterranean world. The increasing availability of energy from water power and wind power was one important (and much underestimated) factor enabling economic growth. Another was the expansion of the monetary mass as a result of the establishment of a supralocal financial system (unknown to the ancient world) and the easy availability of credit. This helped to give the more important princes an increasing edge over lesser actors, at the same time that development was both furthered and impeded by conflicting cultural and ideological currents — as reflected in the thinking of such authors as Enea Silvio Piccolomini, Nicolaus Cusanus, Jean Bodin, Johannes Althusius, and Thomas Hobbes. Even 18th-century ‘absolute’ monarchies like the French or Prussian ones remained closer to the ‘heteronomous’ political structures of the pre-Reformation period than to today's state.
War Finance and Fiscal Devolution
Authors: Tracy James D.
Published: May 2008

Wars with France made Charles V's government in Brussels dependent on the creditworthiness of the provinces. The provincial states issued long‐term bonds (underline renten), using the capital to pay off high‐interest bankers' loans, but the states (not the central government) collected the taxes by which bonds were funded. By 1557 things looked so desperate that Philip II summoned the States General—a risk his father had carefully avoided. While the revenue plan adopted was found to be unworkable, the fact that the larger assembly had been convened to deliberate on high policy did much to enhance its prestige. Meanwhile, Antwerp's bankers followed the money; they dealt not with government officials (who now had little disposable revenue) but with the provincial parliaments.
Toward a Workable Strategy for Defensive Warfare
Authors: Tracy James D.
Published: May 2008

When Prince Philip toured the Low Countries in 1549, lavish festivities allowed him to greet the great nobles who commanded Habsburg armies in the region, including young William of Orange. He also met the bankers, based in Antwerp, whose loans kept Habsburg armies marching, while eating up revenues, often pledged far in advance. From Castile Philip knew the ways of nobles and bankers. But nothing there prepared him for the politics of this country, a loose union of semi‐autonomous provinces; as heir apparent to Charles V, Philip had to be acclaimed separately by each local parliament, as duke of Brabant, count of Flanders, count of Holland and Zeeland, etc. Moreover, in solemn entries laid on by the towns, His Catholic Majesty had unpleasant reminders that Protestant doctrine was making inroads.
The New Fiscal Regime
Authors: Tracy James D.
Published: May 2008

Holland's rebel towns could only be defended by garrisons of professional soldiers, paid on time. To this end the States of Holland appropriated the sole reliable revenue stream: the provincial taxes that had hitherto funded Holland's debt. The Lords States (as they styled themselves) induced creditors to accept unsecured notes (underline obligatiën), and town corporations got burghers to subscribe to war loans. To satisfy those impatient for repayment, magistrates (with approval from the states) used properties confiscated from the Catholic Church, or from loyalists who had chosen exile instead of joining in the rebellion. Just as the Habsburg government had depended on the provinces to manage its finances, the States of Holland now depended on the towns to manage provincial finances.
Holland's Garden
Authors: Tracy James D.
Published: May 2008

With Spanish troops now gone, the Lords States could concentrate on “closing off” what they called “Holland's Garden”. This meant subjecting loyalist towns to Orange's authority; Amsterdam, hitherto a center of loyalism, was reunited with Holland by an internal coup (May 1578). One also had to reduce the war budget, by cutting back the number of mercenary companies; less‐desirable units were sent off to fight for the States General—leaving open the question of how they were to be paid. Finally, Holland itself could not be secure without a chain of fortified positions, not only along the the border, but also upstream at key points along the rivers flowing into Holland. In the Union of Utrecht, Holland agreed to pay for the defense of selected areas in neighboring provinces. The strategic goal, as one deputy put it, was to “fight the war on someone else's ground”.
Paying for an Ever More Expensive War
Authors: Tracy James D.
Published: May 2008

The provincial excise and land taxes had once funded Holland's underline renten. From 1572, these revenues, now called “the common means” (underline gemene middelen), were allocated to wages for garrison companies, both within and beyond Holland's borders. When fighting resumed after a two‐year lull, military costs rose steeply. Hence the states relied on war loans, many of which were raised from burghers by town magistrates, in keeping with quotas set by the states. As Holland's debt accumulated, some creditors agreed to renew their loans, others were put off with pleas for patience. For those demanding payment, some new source of revenue was needed. After difficult negotiations, Amsterdam settled outstanding differences with the Lords States late in 1581. This opened the door for a tax on real property (the underline verponding) that was to be dedicated to debt settlement.
SOME MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS FOR TOMOGRAPHIC RECONSTRUCTION
Authors: Kuba Attila , Herman Gabor T.
Published: May 2008

This chapter presents some of the mathematical concepts associated with computed tomographic reconstruction from projects. Topics covered include foundations of reconstruction from projections, filtered backprojection, algebraic reconstruction techniques, discrete tomography, and some problems associated with the application of reconstruction algorithms.
TOMOGRAPHY USING MAGNIFYING OPTICS
Authors: Suzuki Yoshio , Toda Hiroyuki , Schroer Christian
Published: May 2008

This chapter describes the principles of Fresnel zone-plate (FZP) optics and imaging properties of FZP microscopy in the context of tomographic application. The limitation of zone-plate optics is discussed, and some typical examples of tomographic imaging experiment are shown. A brief introduction to reflective and refractive X-ray optics is presented since they are used for X-ray microscopy in the hard X-ray range relevant for materials research.
THREE-DIMENSIONAL X-RAY DIFFRACTION
Authors: Poulsen Henning Friis
Published: May 2008

Three-dimensional X-ray diffraction (3DXRD) is a novel technique aimed at quick and non-destructive characterization of the individual elements within millimetre- to centimetre-sized specimens. It is based on two principles: the use of highly penetrating hard X-rays from a synchrotron source (X-ray energies above 30 keV) and the application of ‘tomographic” reconstruction algorithms for the analysis of the diffraction data. This chapter outlines the 3DXRD methodology with the focus on characterizing grains and orientations. The chapter is organized as follows. The 3DXRD setup is presented and 3DXRD strategies discussed. Then, the standard modes of operation are presented in more detail with emphasis on reconstruction principles and providing selected examples of use. Next, a novel method called diffraction contrast tomography is proposed — this is related to 3DXRD in the same way as bright-field and dark-field images are in transmission electron microscopy. Finally, the mathematics underlying the 3DXRD diffraction geometry and the representation of the crystallographic orientation are summarized.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRON TOMOGRAPHY
Authors: Midgley Paul A. , Weyland Matthew
Published: May 2008

This chapter reviews the fundamentals of electron tomography and highlights aspects that are unique to using electrons. Each imaging mode used for electron tomography is discussed. Their benefits and drawbacks are outlined with examples of the diverse range of materials now being studied. Topics covered include tomography using the electron microscope, alignment and reconstruction, bright-field and dark-field electron tomography, HAADF STEM tomography, and EFTEM tomography.
NEUTRON PHASE-CONTRAST AND POLARIZED NEUTRON TOMOGRAPHY
Authors: Kardjilov Nikolay
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses recent developments in neutron phase-contrast and polarized neutron tomography. Topics covered include theory of phase-contrast imaging, experimental techniques for phase-contrast imaging, and imaging with polarized neutrons.
1 Common Property Resources: Economic Analytics
Authors: Dasgupta Partha
Published: May 2008

The subject of common property resources (CPRs) has generated enormous academic interest in recent years. Offering an alternative to impersonal markets and coercive states, the communitarian institutions built around CPRs have looked attractive to scholars in the humanities and social sciences. Oddly, economic theory has been missing from almost all discussions on CPRs, making it difficult to judge the status of empirical works, which, in the case of CPRs, have mainly been case studies. This chapter presents a fairly complete economic theory of CPRs. The theory not only identifies circumstances which engender trust and credibility, allowing communitarian institutions to function well, but also shows when those institutions could be expected to unravel. Recent empirical evidence on the fragility of CPRs and viability of privatization in some contexts is cited to display the robustness of the theory. The theory identifies a dark side of communitarian institutions, namely, their capacity to permit one group to exploit another within long-term relationships. The incentives parties may have for carrying out their respective promises are explored.
2 Some Places Again: A ‘Restricted’ Revisit to Dry Regions of India
Authors: Jodha Narpat S.
Published: May 2008

This chapter presents the findings of revisits to the areas covered by an earlier, (1982-85) comprehensive study of common property resources (CPRs) in the dry regions of India. The study reveals rural communities' increasing emphasis on units of CPRs rather than aggregates of different types of CPRs, reflecting their changed approach to management of CPRs. The chapter identifies the causes and consequences of this change and its implications for both research and policy aspects of CPR management.
3 Decentralization, Devolution, and Collective Action—A Review of International Experience
Authors: Shyamsundar Priya
Published: May 2008

This chapter reviews international evidence on community-based natural resource management in three sectors: forestry, irrigation, and wildlife management. It asks how and in what way decentralized natural resource management has contributed to improved livelihoods and better resource management. It identifies key challenges faced as governments promote resource management through local communities and user groups.
4 Does Afforestation Ensure Sustainability? A Study of theHaorsof Bangladesh
Authors: Haque A. K. Enamul
Published: May 2008

This chapter studies the biggest haor system in Bangladesh, the Hakaluki Haor, located in the Sylhet and Moulvi Bazar districts of north-eastern Bangladesh which has been declared an Ecologically Critical Area (ECA). There is an attempt to develop a sustainable management plan for this haor, focusing on problems of conservation and extraction. Using a simple bio-economic model to provide simulations, the chapter examines the policy options available and whether the current policy adopted by the government with the help of NGOs ensures efficiency or sustainability.
6 The Stake‐Net Fishery Association of Negombo Lagoon, Sri Lanka: Why Has It Survived over 250 Years and Will It Survive another 100 Years?
Authors: Gunawardena Asha , Steele Paul
Published: May 2008

Fisheries are key to the livelihoods of up to a million poor people in Sri Lanka. Open-access fisheries exhibit free entry with the result that fishing leads to overharvesting and profits fall to zero. This chapter examines issues in fishery management in the Negombo lagoon on the west coast of Sri Lanka. It focuses on the determinants of successful collective action by the Stake Net Fishery Association, a common property regime which is more than 250 years old and has managed to control the problem of open access. Solving this open-access problem has helped increase the incomes of fishers and sustained the resource base.
7 Transaction Costs and Institutional Innovation: Sustainability of Tank Aquaculture in Sri Lanka
Authors: Senaratne Athula , Karunanayake Kalpa
Published: May 2008

Freshwater community-based aquaculture was introduced to village irrigation tanks in the dry zone of Sri Lanka in order to offset the limited supply of animal proteins available to residents in inland areas. As village irrigation tanks are common property resources (CPRs), community-based aquaculture demands collective action by farmer groups. This chapter shows that the values generated by aquaculture are not adequate to provide a major livelihood for all members of a given community. The sustainability of community-based aquaculture depends on the success of experimenting with institutional arrangements that can, on the one hand, minimize transaction costs and, on the other, achieve adequate returns for participants through productivity gains from tanks.
9 Heterogeneity, Commons, and Privatization: Agrarian Institutional Change in Goa
Authors: Mukhopadhyay Pranab
Published: May 2008

In the debate on common property resource management, asset redistribution and privatization of commons have emerged as contentious issues. This chapter uses a case study in Goa, India, to examine whether tenure security and asset redistribution can lead to environmentally sustainable outcomes. It concludes that when public policy involves institutional transition (private purchase of communidade lands), there may be trade-offs involved between equity and sustainability. Institutional change can affect social networks by triggering exit of agents who previously managed land. Due to lack of a prior history of cooperation among the new resource owners, the new equilibrium may shift to a non-cooperative regime that might endanger embankment maintenance and be unsustainable in the long run.
10 Is Cooperation Costly with Diverse Economic Agents?
Authors: Adhikari Bhim
Published: May 2008

Under the Nepal forestry programme, open-access forests have been transferred to forest user groups under a community-based property rights regime. This chapter examines the relationship between group heterogeneity and transaction costs on the one hand, and, on the other, the transaction costs with the degree of collective action in community-based forest management. While only a few measures of inequality seemed to influence the extent of transaction costs, forest user groups with higher transaction costs incurred by their community members appear to have lower levels of collective action.
11 Who Pays for Conservation: Evidence from Forestry in Nepal
Authors: Khatri‐Chhetri Arun
Published: May 2008

The contribution of forest products to household income differs according to the household's socio-economic characteristics and institutional differences in the management of community forestry. The contribution of forest products to household income is higher in the case of forest management without formal forest users group (FUGs) than in the case of management under a formal forest management group. Furthermore, in terms of access to and dependence on forest resources, poorer households currently benefit less from the community forestry in Nepal.
14 Is the State Passé? Competing Domains in Forestry in Orissa
Authors: Mishra Arabinda
Published: May 2008

The chapter looks at different dimensions of policy failure relating to forest management in the Indian state of Orissa, where village communities have countered the government's devolution-based policies by forming regional federations. A case-study approach is followed to identify the areas where self-initiated community institutions have an advantage over the state-designed alternatives such as Joint Forest Management. The federal framework ensures that the community movement has strength in numbers when dealing with the state and other external agencies. The chapter concludes that in Orissa the state-community relationship is fundamentally altered due to the formation of federations. This requires devolution protagonists in the public policy-making domain to start thinking about building synergies between the state and communities that would serve to bridge the existing ‘trust gap’ between the two parties.
2 The Definition of a Mercenary and the Definition of the Proscriptive Norm
Authors: Percy Sarah
Published: May 2008

This chapter defines the term ‘mercenary’ and identifies the problematic qualities which differentiate mercenaries from other types of fighters. It states that mercenaries do not fight for an appropriate cause and that they are not controlled by the state or another legitimate actor. It argues that these problematic qualities form the core of the proscriptive norm against mercenary use.
5 How Citizens Became the Standard: A Normative Explanation of the Shift Away from Mercenary Use
Authors: Percy Sarah
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the decision in the late 18th and early 19th centuries to adopt a citizen army and stop the long-standing practice of hiring mercenaries from abroad, using four case studies. It is shown that an intellectual tradition of dislike of mercenaries provided the framework for the subsequent changes in the relationship between citizens and states, and the effect that having (or not having) a citizen army had on state identity, ultimately leading to the end of mercenary use.
2 Joseph Priestley, Enlightened Experimentalist
Authors: Brock W. H.
Published: May 2008

Priestley's observations and experiments enabled others to interpret nature in a new way. This chapter reviews these observations and experiments covering electrostatics, optics, pneumatic chemistry, and photosynthesis. It then considers the ways recent historians have interpreted Priestley's scientific activities in the context of his theological, educational, and political activities. Finally, the chapter re-examines the question of Priestley's attitude towards Lavoisier and his continuing support for a phlogistic world view.
Introduction to Quantum Theory
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung
Published: May 2008

This chapter covers the rudiments of quantum theory, including the dual nature of light and matter, the Uncertainty Principle and probability concept, the electronic wavefunction, and the probability density function. Numerical examples are given to show that given the electronic wavefunction of a system, the probability of finding an electron in a volume element around a certain point in space can be readily calculated. Finally, the electronic wave equation, the Schrödinger equation, is introduced. This discussion is followed by the solution of a few particle-in-a-box problems, with the ‘box’ having the shape of a wire (one-dimensional), a cube, a ring, or a triangle. Where possible, the solutions of these problems are then applied to a chemical system.
Chemical Bonding in Condensed Phases
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung
Published: May 2008

This chapter starts off with the classification of solids, then discusses the various types of bonding or interaction in solids, including ionic bonding, metallic bonding, covalent bonding (band theory), and van der Waals interaction. Numerous examples are given for each type of bonding.
Computational Chemistry
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung
Published: May 2008

This chapter first discusses the difference between semi-empirical and ab initio methods, then devotes most of the remaining pages to ab initio calculations. Each ab initio calculation is defined by two ‘parameters’: the basis set employed and the level of electron correlation adopted. These two topics are discussed in some detail. Density functional theory is also discussed, which has gained popularity in recent years. After describing these computational methods, a brief assessment on the performance of various levels of theory in yielding structural parameters, vibrational frequencies, and energetic quantities is given. Finally, a few examples are selected from recent literature to show how computations complement experiments to arrive at meaningful conclusions.
Symmetry and Elements of Group Theory
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung
Published: May 2008

This chapter covers the rudiments of group theory, with emphasis on the use of the character tables of molecular point groups. The chapter begins with the identification of the symmetry elements a molecule possesses, and the symmetry operations these elements generate. With such knowledge at hand, the symmetry point group of a given molecule can be readily determined. The character tables of the point groups are then introduced, and the Mulliken notation for the irreducible representations is discussed in detail. Finally, the direct product of two irreducible representations is covered. The result of the direct product is used to identify the non-zero integrals in quantum chemistry and derive the selection rules in electronic spectroscopy. No rigorous mathematics is used in treating the various theories in this chapter. Instead, abstract concepts are often illustrated with examples based on real chemical compounds or practical applications.
Application of Group Theory to Molecular Systems
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung
Published: May 2008

This chapter applies the group theoretic technique introduced in Chapter 6 to a number of chemically interesting problems. These problems include molecular orbital treatment of AHn (n = 2-6) molecules and cyclic conjugated polyenes (with and without d-orbital participation), construction of hybrid orbitals, relationship between molecular orbital and hybridization theories, molecular vibrations, etc. A large number of worked examples have been selected to illustrate that group theory can be used to simplify the physical problem and yield solutions of chemical significance. The advantage of this method becomes more obvious when the symmetry of the chemical system increases. Indeed, for highly symmetric molecules, very complex problems can have simple and elegant solutions. Even for less symmetric systems, symmetry arguments can still lead to meaningful results and conclusions that cannot be easily obtained otherwise.
Bonding in Coordination Compounds
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung
Published: May 2008

This chapter covers the electronic structure of coordination complexes, using the language of group theory throughout. The bonding of these complexes ranges from ionic (crystal field theory, or CFT) to covalent (molecular orbital theory). In CFT, group theory is employed to derive the terms split from a given atomic electronic state under the influence of a set of ligands. Other topics discussed include Orgel diagrams, Tanabe-Sugano diagrams, correlation of weak and strong field approximations, spin-orbit interaction (double group), etc. Regarding molecular orbital theory, techniques used in Chapters 3 and 7 are applied to coordination complexes, with the metal d-orbitals now playing a central role. These theories are then used to interpret a number of electronic spectra of complexes selected from the literature. The chapter concludes with sections on vibronic interaction in complexes and on the f-orbitals and their crystal field splitting patterns.
Symmetry in Crystals
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung
Published: May 2008

The symmetry properties of molecules were discussed in Chapter 6, and the corresponding properties of crystals are presented here. In contrast to discrete molecules, crystals have a lattice structure with three-dimensional periodicity. Hence, additional symmetry elements such as translations, screw axes, and glide planes, which are applicable to an infinitely extended system, need to be considered. This chapter introduces the concept and nomenclature of space groups and their application in describing the structures of crystals. Examples of crystal structures for selected space groups are provided. The chapter concludes with a section on the use of space group symmetry in the determination of crystal structure. In short, the chapter gives a succinct introduction to the symmetry of crystals.
Basic Inorganic Crystal Structures and Materials
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung
Published: May 2008

Following an extensive discussion on the symmetry of crystals in the previous chapter, a large number of crystal structures of inorganic compounds are collected in this chapter to familiarize readers with the most common space groups. The basic crystal structures introduced include cubic closest packing (NaCl, CaF2, cubic ZnS, spinel compounds, etc.), hexagonal closest packing (hexagonal ZnS, NiAS, CdI2, α-Al2O3, rutile, etc.), body-centered cubic packing (α-AgI, CsCl, etc.). The final two sections of the chapter cover perovskite structure, including superconductors belonging to this structural type, and magnetic materials such as SmCo5, Sm2Co17 and Nd2Fe14B.