bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Domestic horror show
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

Claude Bernard (1813-78), the foremost physiologist of the nineteenth century, had a troubled domestic life. His wife was a strict Catholic, had no sympathy with, or understanding of science, and, worse, strongly disapproved of her husband’s experiments on animals. She contributed money to an anti-vivisection movement and turned her three children against their father. There was some excuse for her distaste, especially because Bernard, a compulsive and passionate experimenter, would often bring work home with him. Here is a description of one such occasion by Bernard’s biographer. It was at an early stage in their married life; they already had a two-year old child and Madame Bernard was again pregnant.

Her husband brought to their small flat [in Paris] on an upper floor on Sunday morning a dog with an open wound in its side from which internal fluids were drawn off from time to time; the dog was in a state of extreme emaciation, yet with a voracious appetite, pus running from its nostrils, coughing as it was led up and down the stairs, suffering from diarrhoea, its faeces being of particular interest to the master of the house.
The physicist as travelling salesman
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

With the advent of atom-smashing machines, colliders designed to accelerate particles to speeds approaching that of light and smash into each other, the practice of physics began to change. The cost of such experiments assumed significance on the scale of national budgets, and it was only men of boundless, even fanatical, self-confidence who could initiate the projects and direct the teams of hundreds needed to bring them to fruition. The leader became an advertising executive and salesman, much of whose work would be done on the road, travelling business class. With such astronomical stakes, intrigues against the competing laboratory became almost as great a preoccupation as the success of the experiment. ‘This generation of high-energy physicists’, in the view of Marty Perl, one of the leaders in the field of fundamental particles, ‘could also have done very well in the retail garment trade.’ One of the most predatory of this fearsome breed is an Italian, Carlo Rubbia, of Chicago and CERN, the pan-European laboratory in Geneva. Here is a tale that encapsulates the high intensity at which such laboratories operate.
The shock of recognition
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

Frederick Soddy, born in Eastbourne in 1877, was a chemist, recruited by Ernest Rutherford [16], then occupying his first professorial chair at McGill University in Canada, to assist in the analysis of radioactive elements. Together, in 1901, they made a staggering discovery: the radioactive metal, thorium, gave rise spontaneously to a radioactive gas, a different and new element. Soddy managed to prepare enough of this gas to liquefy it and show that it resembled the inert gas, argon. This ‘thorium emanation’ was later named radon.
Dr Pincus’s pill
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

The birth-control pill is associated with the names of Gregory Pincus, John Rock, and Carl Djerassi—the physiologist, the doctor, and the organic chemist— and quite a number of others, for many man-years of patient research went into its development. Much of the initial impetus came from Margaret Sanger, who had sought to liberate women from the tyranny of unwanted pregnancies, and the philanthropist Katherine McCormick. The first success came in 1955, when Rock, a professor at Harvard Medical Scool and an expert on fertility, began cautiously testing the effect of the hormone analogue, progestin, on a plucky ‘cagefull’ of ovulating women, willing guinea-pigs all.
The frivolous philosophe
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

The following story of Denis Diderot’s embarrassing encounter with Leonhard Euler (1707-83), the celebrated Swiss mathematician, was attributed to Augustus De Morgan (1806-71), English mathematician and writer. It is repeated in many popular works of mathematics, and goes like this: the renowned encyclopédist e was visiting the Russian Imperial court, expounding his doctrine of atheism. His dissertations aroused much interest, mingled with outrage. One day he was informed that Euler, who had also been received at the Empress Elisabeth’s court, was in possession of an algebraical proof of the existence of God. He would demonstrate it to Diderot before the court if Diderot were willing to attend. The philosophe readily consented. Euler was summoned, advanced towards Diderot, and in a tone of solemn conviction addressed him thus: ‘Monsieur, a + b/n = x, done Dieu existe: répondez!’ Diderot, who was innocent of all mathematical knowledge, was struck dumb. Mortified, and a prey to general mirth, he begged leave to withdraw and departed immediately for France.
The disagreeable man
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

One of the villains of twentieth-century science lived and thrived in Germany, though born in 1877 in Switzerland. His name was Emil Abderhalden and he was a student of Emil Fischer, the great organic chemist. Fischer was at the time preoccupied with the structure of proteins and had developed methods of synthesizing peptides—amino acids strung together in a chain of the kind found in natural proteins; but whereas proteins consist of chains of hundreds, even thousands of amino acids (though of only 20 kinds) in defined order, the chemistry of the day could assemble only a very few. When Abderhalden achieved independence as a professor in a veterinary school in Halle, he continued in the same line of work and his assistants synthesized peptides in vast numbers. To do something useful with these materials Abderhalden turned to the study of proteolytic enzymes, the digestive enzymes that break down proteins into small fragments.
The purple cloud
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

With the destruction of the French fleet during Napoleon’s Egyptian expedition, the British naval blockade in the Mediterranean took effect. An early consequence was that the supplies of potassium nitrate, saltpetre, the main ingredient of gunpowder, which had been mainly imported through the southern French ports, began to dry up. The material was derived from the contents of the cesspits of North Africa by bacterial fermentation. (For the massive demands of the First World War, Germany initially imported its saltpetre from the mines of Chile, and the supply again was interrupted by a naval blockade; this time it was left to Fritz Haber [96], the celebrated chemist, to solve the problem by devising a chemical, rather than biological, ‘nitrogen fixation’ process.) The French sought to ferment their own cesspits and the products of the farms, slaughterhouses, and beaches, and chemists were employed to improve the saltpetre yields from these sources. One of them was Bernard Courtois (1777-1838), but he took a different route and sought instead to collect potassium compounds from seaweed.
The body’s bounty
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

Beliefs about the curative virtues of human bodily products were once common, but the value of oil secreted from a philosopher’s head probably has no precedent. The philosopher in question was Jeremy Bentham, who founded University College London, as a free-thinking institution: its members were liberated from the tyranny of the Anglican Church under which the ancient universities of England were labouring. When Bentham died in 1832, his body was anatomized, as he had laid down in his will, and his mummified remains repose still in a mahogany case in the college foyer, to be exposed to view on ceremonial occasions. Thomas Love Peacock, the novelist, had been a friend of Bentham’s, of whom ‘he talked at much length’.
From Domesday Book To Magna Carta 1087–1216
Authors: Poole Austin Lane , Litt D
Published: November 2023

This illuminating book provides an account of a century and a half of English medieval history, beginning with the compilation of the Domesday Book and culminating in the issue of the Magna Carta and the subsequent civil war. A. L. Poole assesses the social and economic background to the period, the position of the monarchy, progress in education, church reform, and also studies the twelfth-century renaissance in literature and art, providing a full and detailed study of everyday life in English towns and country in medieval England. 'a model of its kind ... has the unusual merit of being at once comprehensive and uniformly satisfying' TES 'an important and useful book, written and well written by a scholar of great learning and integrity' Guardian 'a volume that all medievalists will admire and use will remain, alike for historians and for the general reader, an indispensable and adequate possession.
The Heritage of Medieval Judaism
Authors: Gartner Lloyd P
Published: November 2023

Beneath the surface of events the multiplication of Jewish population is a cardinal fact in modern Jewish history. No more than one and a quarter million Jews lived in the world when Europe’s ascent to global supremacy began about 1650. The number of Jews was far fewer than at the beginning of the Christian era, when there were approximately 8 million in the world-embracing Roman and Persian empires. 1650 was the low point after which the world’s Jewish population climbed to approximately 16.7 million in 1939 on the eve of the Second World War and the Holocaust.
A Rift Opening, 1720–1780
Authors: Gartner Lloyd P
Published: November 2023

Between 1720 and 1780 the surface of traditional Jewish life changed little, as most ‘sacred communities’ (kehillot kedoshot) appeared solid and continued to be governed autonomously by their holy law (ha- lakhah). Cracks began to appear in the structure of community and religious life, but they did not appear about to topple. Neither did the social and economic life of the Jews undergo any basic change except among a small wealthy minority.
Outposts
Authors: Gartner Lloyd P
Published: November 2023

Up to this point in chronology—about the 1870s—our study has been dominated by European Jewry. This should not be surprising. Well before the 1870s Europe, mainly western Europe, exercised world-wide economic and political domination. Also during this period the number of European Ashkenazim, who constituted about half the Jewish people about 1650, multiplied especially in eastern Europe.
A New Jewish World, 1950–1980
Authors: Gartner Lloyd P
Published: November 2023

Seventy years of demographic transformation, Holocaust disaster, building a homeland, and founding a state, ended in 1950. A new era in the Jewish world opened. The era that had ended was one of passionate ideologies, primarily nationalist and socialist. By 1950 they lost their fire, and the new era ran its course without fervent new ideologies. Jews had achieved political, scientific, and cultural prominence in many countries during the years after 1880, but in countries not shattered by the Holocaust their cultural, political, and economic distinction after 1950 became extraordinary.
The path between truculence and servility: Prose literature from Augustus to Hadrian
Authors: Kraus Christina s.
Published: November 2023

The Augustan period is variously dated from 44 BCE-the year of Julius Caesar’s assassination and the appearance on the scene of his heir, the 19-year-old Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian), later Augustus-or from 31 BCE, the year in which Octavian defeated Mark Antony and the Egyptian Queen Kleopatra at the Battle of Actium, and after which his rule received no serious challenge (see pp. 75-6). A third possible date is 27 BCE, when Octavian ‘restored the Repub lic’ and took the title ‘Augustus’, with its connotations of augury and authority. The flexible starting-point appropriately indicates the uncertain, shifting per ceptions of the times. It was not clear then, or indeed later, what role Augustus would play: he called himself princeps, ‘first man’, an ad hoc title with repub lican precedent (as in the ‘first man of the Senate’, the senator with dominant authority) which would, ultimately, become a proper imperial title: ‘Prince’. His dominance in Rome lasted until 14 CE, when he died at the age of 76; in that half-century he gradually encroached on many of the powers of the Sen ate, and devised some new powers of his own. Through a process today often characterized as ‘trial and error’, or experimentation, Augustus invented a kind of sole rule that was, by and large, acceptable to the majority of Roman citizens, despite their traditional hatred of kings.
Imperial space and time: The literature of leisure
Authors: Connors Catherine
Published: November 2023

Alongside the more formal modes of literary production-epic, tragedy, his tory, philosophy, and oratory-Roman imperial audiences also enjoyed less formal literary modes. Examples produced during the post-Augustan period include satire, epigram, mixed collections, the versified fables in the style of Aesop composed by the freedman Phaedrus, and Petronius’ satirical and inventive novel, the Satyricon. These works are generally presented as ones to enjoy in leisure time, otium, and their informal qualities can include smallness of scale, a low or everyday subject-matter and style (as opposed to lofty national or mythological themes), or signs of spontaneous (as opposed to laborious) composition.
Culture wars: Latin literature from the second century to the end of the classical era
Authors: Dewar Michael
Published: November 2023

Sex sells, as any publisher knows. That much was true in the second century too, though it seems a little magic and a lot of learning could be usefully added to the mix. The proof of this contention may be found in The Golden Ass, the celebrated novel of (?Lucius) Apuleius (c.125-70 CE) who came from Madaura in the province of Africa. Known formally as The Metamorphoses, this is the only Latin novel to survive complete from antiquity, and a remarkable piece of work it is (cf. pp. 218-20). Our hero, a young man by the name of Lucius, is travelling in Thessaly, in northern Greece, a part of the world famous for its witches. Lucius’ character is distinguished by a rampant curiosity about, on the one hand, the illicit knowledge of magic and, on the other, a young maid servant who is privy to many of the secrets of her mistress, a sorceress with a nice line in corporeal transformation. The maidservant’s skills are corporeal too, but not quite in the same way. Eager to experiment, Lucius attempts to reproduce the witch’s spells, but instead of becoming, as he hoped, a bird, he is transformed into a shaggy old ass. Luckily, there is an antidote: all he has to do is munch on a few rose petals, and all will be as good as new. But of course, if he were to do that straight off, there would be no novel, so poor Lucius in his grotesque inhuman form is subjected to a series of misadventures that take him from one end of Greece to the other, and see him repeatedly stolen, sold, beaten, humiliated, owned by all kinds of unpleasant characters, and threat ened by all kinds of even more unpleasant deaths, before eventually being scheduled for a performance in the arena at Corinth. His role is intended to be a central one, fitting to his, as it were, assets: he is to copulate with a woman condemned to death, and thus provide the instrument of her execution.
Sophisticates and solecisms: Greek literature after the classical period
Authors: Lightfoot Jane L
Published: November 2023

Hellenistic, post-classical—the old world’s spiral into decline? The mainland Greek states continued their old squabbles for supremacy after the Peloponnesian War; but a new power was rising, and within a couple of generations it produced a figure who, in thirty-two years of life, would change the whole political geography of the world for good. The power was Macedon, and the figure was Alexander, soon known as the Great. He swept across Greece, Asia Minor, and Persia, obliterating the last Persian king; and, that done, stampeded over the central Asian steppe, only to be brought up short in the Punjab by a mutiny.
Disney,1933-1936
Authors: Barrier Michael
Published: November 2023

In the months just after he made Three Little Pigs, Walt Disney took up the challenge of human characters again and made five Silly Symphonies with them. The third of those cartoons, The Pied Piper, was being animated when Three Little Pigs was released in May; it was easily the most ambitious of the new cartoons because its central figures, the Piper and Hamelin ‘s Mayor, most resembled real human beings in how they were drawn. In 1933 the production schedule, and the need to give work to animators, made the thoughtful casting behind Three Little Pigs impractical on every film; on Lullaby Land, the Silly Symphony that came just before The Pied Piper, the animators handled sequences rather than characters, and the infant protagonist looks like a different character from one animator ‘s scenes to the next. For The Pied Piper, though, Disney cast by character again, even more rigorously than he had for Three Little Pigs. All the most important scenes with the Mayor the closeup scenes in which he speaks-were assigned to Art Babbitt, and the comparable scenes with the Piper to Ham Luske.
Disney,1936-1938
Authors: Barrier Michael
Published: November 2023

In the earliest sweatbox sessions for Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, in the late winter and early spring of 1936, Walt Disney reviewed a lot of animation of animals-the ones that help Snow White clean the dwarfs ‘ cottage-as well as some animation by Ham Luske of Snow White herself. By late spring, though, the greatest responsibility for animating Snow White had passed into the hands of Grim Natwick. He had joined the Disney staff on 12 November 1934, an event significant enough to be noted in Walt Disney ‘s desk diary, as few such staff developments were. “Down underneath it all/ Natwick said in 1976, “I think because of Betty Boop-that Walt had an idea all the time that maybe I would be able to draw Snow White.” That was surely true. Not only did Disney hire Natwick away from the Iwerks studio just as serious work on Snow White was getting under way, but when Natwick got his first assignment, on 30 November 1934, it was for the Silly Symphony Cookie Carnival. Ben Sharpsteen, the director, gave to Natwick a long scene (lasting almost a minute on the screen) in which a cookie boy dresses a cookie girl in marzipan finery so that she will be chosen queen of the carnival.
Warner Bros.,1933-1940
Authors: Barrier Michael
Published: November 2023

Early in 1933, the animator Don Williams was working at the Universal cartoon studio. He decided to seek a job at the HarmanIsing studio on Hollywood Boulevard. As he came down the stairs after a meeting with Rudy Ising, Williams said many years later, “I ran into a guy named Ray Katz. He introduced himself and he said, ‘Were you looking for a job up here? ‘ I said, ‘Yes, in fact, I got one! He said, ‘Come on outside. ‘ I went downstairs with him and he said, ‘What did they offer you? ‘ ‘Sixty bucks a week! He said, ‘Will you go to work for me for sixty-five dollars? ‘ I said, ‘Yes, but where are you? ‘ He said, ‘There ‘s a friend of mine opening a new studio over at Warner Bros., called Leon Schlesinger. We need good animators, and if these guys will hire you, I know damned well he will. Would you be interested? ‘ I said I sure would.” that title only because he was Schlesinger ‘s brother-in-law, there was never any question about where his first loyalty lay. When Katz spoke with Williams, Schlesinger was setting up his own cartoon studio on the Warner Bros. lot on Sunset Boulevard. He stocked a building on the lot with freshly carpentered animation desks, and he scraped together a staff mainly by raiding other studios.
The Disney Diaspora, 1942-1950
Authors: Barrier Michael
Published: November 2023

Even in making the Disney studio ‘s stripped-down government films, Dick Lundy said, “you couldn ‘t put out work too fast.” When Lundy was directing training films for the navy, “they allowed me seventeen dollars a foot, and I think I spent twelve dollars, especially on Torpedo Plane The .cries. The Navy...thought they were great. But Walt said, ‘Don ‘t you think, Dick, that you could have spent a little more dough, and got ‘em a little bit better?” ‘1 Disney may have been thinking wholly, or in large part, about the flow of money through his studio-money that would keep useful people on the payroll even though an increased cash flow might not lead directly to increased profits. (For the fiscal year that ended on 2 October 1942, the Disney company reported a loss of more than sixty thousand dollars on its films for the federal government.) It seems likely, though, that Disney was, in fact, concerned with making such films “a little better” because his name was on them; mundane training films proclaimed in their title cards that they were “produced by Walt Disney Productions.”
The Iris Closes,1952-1966
Authors: Barrier Michael
Published: November 2023

In 1951 and 1952, Hollywood suffered through a second round of investigations by the House of Representatives ‘ Committee on Un-American Activities. HUAC, as it came to be called, summoned dozens of actors, writers, directors, and technicians to testify about their connections with the Communist Party. Some refused; some admitted their own membership and told the committee of others who had been members. Fewer than a dozen witnesses had worked in the animation studios, but some of them provided the committee with the names of other cartoonists whom they had known as members of the party. Most of the people who testified, or who were identified as communists, had worked for UPA.
Value Free at Last: Professionals’ Official Story 2
Authors: Derber Charles , Schwartz William A , Magrass Yale
Published: November 2023

‘Iiie modern expert’s creed is simple: “Ideally you will see yourself as a camera whose plate is neutral and free from impressions until properly exposed[You] must let knowledge speak for itself. You simply must not let personal distortions interfere.”1 Of course, professionals recognize that the mental lenses they use inevitably affect the picture they get: “The camera’s focus, aim, and depth of field, to say nothing of the quality of the lenses and the shutter, will obviously determine the kind of picture that is eventually developed-its sharpness, contrast, perspective, and merit.” But by acknowledging and seeking to compensate for personal idiosyncrasies, professionals claim they can get ever closer to objective, verifiable truths.
A Principle of Law but Not of Justice
Authors: Kessler-Harris Alice
Published: November 2023

In 1937, the state of Georgia levied a poll tax that applied, generally, to all persons in the state. It exempted the aged, the young, the blind, and women who did not register to vote. To ensure that the tax was collected and presumably to provide some controls over who might vote, the state instructed tax collectors not to register as a voter any male who had not paid his current tax as well as all back taxes. Women who chose not to register remained untaxed, and those who did register paid only the current year’s tax. The effect was to discriminate against African-American men, most of whom found it impossible to pay large sums for back taxes. But precedent setting legal opposition did not come from that source. Rather, the law was challenged by a man who claimed that his right to equal protection, as specified by the Fourteenth Amendment, had been violated because women did not have to pay the tax on the same basis as men.
What Discriminates?
Authors: Kessler-Harris Alice
Published: November 2023

For his book on electrical workers, the historian Ronald Schatz interviewed a number of women who had sacrificed lucrative jobs after World War II. When he asked one of them how she felt about giving up her job, she offered an acerbic reply: “How’re you going to feel? You gotta give him a chance, right? The fellow that you took his job and [he] went to the service to protect you and your country, the least you can do is give him back his job or there’s going to be a war.” Other women concurred with the tenor of that comment: “There are some jobs—I don’t care how good you are!—you can’t begin to have the muscle that a man has,” a militant woman organizer for the United Electrical Workers argued. “We felt that there were certain jobs that couldn’t be done by women because of the nature of the work,” said another.1
Euripides Hecuba
Authors: Lembke Janet , Reckford Kenneth J
Published: November 2023

The translators of this edition of Hecuba have focused their attention on tonal texture, ranging from grief-stricken monodies and duets to lyrical choral verse, as well as on the problems created by political and forensic rhetoric. The result is a subtle and highly evocative translation of the unjustifiable sacrifice of Hecuba’s daughter, Polyxena, and the consequent destruction of Hecuba’s character.
Freedom by Degrees
Authors: Nash Gary B , Soderlund Jean R
Published: November 2023

This book shows how slavery ended within a single generation at the end of the eighteenth century in the important colony/state of Pennsylvania. The authors have made a study of the slaveholders themselves in order to understand the process by which most slaves were given freedom without legislative or judicial efforts and without compensation to their masters. The book also traces a number of individual cases which show the varying processes by which slaves brought pressure for emancipation. This book represents a major milestone in our understanding of slavery and how it was effectively abolished.
After Freedom
Authors: Nash Gary B , Soderlund Jean R
Published: November 2023

The manumitting sentiment that overtook many, albeit a minority, of Pennsylvania’s slaveholders in the 1780s and 1790s led to the release from bondage of hundreds of slaves. The desire of slaveholders to be quit of the system of bondage, however, did not mean that their need for cheap labor and a flexible system for obtaining it had diminished. In an expanding late eighteenthcentury economy, both rural and urban Pennsylvanians sought a dependable, convenient, and inexpensive labor force—always the goal of employers.
Moving Forward Quietly Family Planning in the Johnson Administration
Authors: Critchlow Donald T
Published: November 2023

“‘f7ollowmg John F. Kennedy’s assassination, Lyndon Bames Johnson £ launched the Great Society to eliminate poverty m the United States. Family plannmg became integral to his War on Poverty. Because Johnson feared a political backlash from Roman Catholics and Afncan-Amencans, his administration quietly pursued a policy of funding family planning programs through existing federal agencies. Congress proved much more willing to press ahead on family planning legislation, even without \Vhite House approval. Understanding the political situation, the population lobby worked actively to educate the nation about the threat of overpopulation, while cultivating liberal opinion within the Catholic Church. At the same time, leaders of the population movement undertook an extensive lobbymg campaign to expand federal family planning programs as a means of reducing welfare costs and the number of out-of-wedlock births among the poor. In 1967 Congress enacted the first e>.l)licit family plannmg legislation through the Social Security amendments that mandated specific federal expenditures for family planning. This legislation went generally unnoticed, however, when Congress became caught up in an acrimonious debate over welfare reform also embodied in the Social Security legislation. By the time Johnson left office in 1968, a policy revolution in federal family planning had occurred, setting the stage for the further expansion of family planning programs under Richard Nixon.
Richard Nixon and the Politicization of Famity Planning Policy
Authors: Critchlow Donald T
Published: November 2023

Nixon’s enthusiasm for family planning as an instrument of social change and a remedy for correcting what he and others in his admm1stration perceived as the “welfare mess” found expression in his support for forming the Comm1ss10n on Population Growth and the Amencan Fumre, headed by John D. Rockefeller 3rd. The establishment of the comm1ss10n m 1969 fulfilled Rockefeller’s decade-long dream. Rockefeller hoped that this comm1ss10n might further awaken the public and policy makers to the problems of overpopulation in America. Rockefeller’s high hopes for the commission crashed, however, in a political environment increasingly polarized over civil rights, war in Vietnam, and abortion. Support for the commission’s work was hindered by divisions \Within the population movement itself over the efficacy of voluntary family planning programs. Critical of voluntarism, more radical activists such as Paul Ehrlich and Garrett Hardin suggested that coercive family plannmg measures to protect the general interest of society needed to be explored. Furthermore, maternal divisions within the comm1ss10n itself played havoc as meetings turned mto acnmonious debates over immigration, abortion, and the very purpose of the commission. The continuing decline in the American birthrate belied the urgency of the comm1ss10n. By the time its final report was issued in 1972, the political climate had changed significantly.
Characters
Authors: Carson Anne , Shaw Michael
Published: November 2023

PAEDAGOGUS OR OLD MAN servant and former tutor of Orestes ORESTES son of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon, king of Argos CHRYSOTHEMIS daughter of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon ELECTRA daughter of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon CLYTEMNESTRA Queen of Argos AEGISTHUS paramour of Clytemnestra CHORUS of Mycenaean women PYLADES Orestes’ silent friend.
Daily Life and Work
Authors: Barnett Victoria
Published: November 2023

Even In Totalitarian Societies the rhythms of daily existence continue. But the structure of a dictatorship is like a spider’s web, its strands interwoven and extending into the farthest corners of society. For those who become caught, the perception and practice of daily routines is abruptly altered. Others evade the web, however, and are able to maintain the illusion that life goes on as before.
The Confessing Church and the Jews
Authors: Barnett Victoria
Published: November 2023

Although The Murder OF the institutionalized patients was the forerunner of the enocide of the Jews, there were important differences between the status of the Jews and that of Nazism’s other victims. Even today, these differences condition our thinking about Nazi Germany. The Nazis planned and carried out the murder of hundreds of thousands of gypsies, disabled children and adults, homosexuals, and political opponents. But it is the Jews who are remembered above all. Genocide evokes a deeper and more lasting horror, and the Holocaust-the murder of the European Jews-has become the primary symbol of Nazi evil.
Reflections on Resistance
Authors: Barnett Victoria
Published: November 2023

Nazi Germany’S Reign Of Terror was over; its purported glories had brought only tragedy. Once again Germans stood on the cusp of history, but this time it was no longer in their hands. That prospect was too much for the countries and peoples who had suffered under Nazism.
Political Issues and The West German Church
Authors: Barnett Victoria
Published: November 2023

After 1945, It Was Understandable that many Confessing Christians, con. confronted by the question, “What should the church be?” responded by demanding new moral standards of the German political realm. The constitution of the Federal Republic, which guaranteed basic civil liberties that Germans in 1933 had not even seen as necessary, was an important step in repudiating Nazism. Many postwar regulations, such as those permitting members of the West German military and police forces to refuse orders they believed were immoral, or those stringently controlling the sterilization of the mentally ill and disabled, were the direct result of the Germans’ experience under Nazism. So was the commitment of many Germans to building a relationship with Israel and paying reparations to the Jews who had suffered in the concentration camps.
The Roots of Solid-State Physics Before Quantum Mechanics
Authors: Eckert Michael , Schubert Helmut , Torkar Gisela , Blondel Christine , Quedec Pierre
Published: November 2023

The plain goal of science is to understand and use the objects around us, and of these objects the most obvious are solids. They were among the first things to be mastered and among the last things to be understood. The growing ability to manipulate stone, then ceramics, then glass, metals, jewels, and so forth was central to the history of the human race. If there was no corresponding progress in finding concepts that could unify the understanding of solids, it was not for lack of trying; the works of Greek philosophers, medieval alchemists, and seventeenth-century Cartesian natural philosophers abounded in fanciful models of the solid state.
Collective Phenomena
Authors: Hoddeson Lillian , Schubert Helmut , Heims Steve J , Baym Gordon
Published: November 2023

In the 1930s and 1940s, the quantum theory of solids dealt primarily with singleelectron phenomena. Although surprisingly many problems were solvable within this framework, some were not-for example, the explanation from first principles of superconductivity and the calculation of the cohesive energy of metals. A related problem, whose connection to superconductivity was recognized almost immediately, was the superfluidity of4He, discovered experimentally in 1937. More generally, phase transitions-ordinary liquid-gas and melting, as well as those to the superconducting, superfluid, and ferromagnetic states-lacked adequate theory. These various phenomena, unexplainable within a single-particle framework, depend strongly on the interactions between particles in the systems; today they are recognized as “collective” or “cooperative” phenomena.
Profession as Vocation: The German Civil Service
Authors: Caplan Jane
Published: November 2023

The inclusion of the civil service in a collection of essays on the German professions raises certain definitional problems at the outset, because one may question whether civil servants meet the classic criteria for a profession. It is true that the German civil service was historically one of the first occupations to adopt many of the standards of organization and conduct that have since come to be associated with professional status; these include rigorous educational prerequisites, a system of training and public certification, a clear career structure, and a strong ethical code embodying an explicit concept of honor in public service, together with a certain distance from market relations.
The Past as Future: The German Officer Corps as Profession
Authors: Geyer Michael
Published: November 2023

Whenever historians and social scientists talk about the military as a profession, they talk about Prussia, but this Prussia has the irritating quality of changing every time it is discussed. If the transformation of the German military during the last two hundred years is a rather straightforward process, then the uses to which this transformation is put in the historical imaginaries have created a veritable excess of meaning. The Prussian officer corps is professional, atavistic, skill-oriented, and heroic; in fact, it is all contemporary images of the military and their oppositions rolled into one.
Women and the Professions in Germany, 1900-1945
Authors: Stephenson Jill
Published: November 2023

It would probably never occur to a historian to write an essay entitled “Men and the Professions.” For the most part, publications on the professions and professionalization-like publications on the vast majority of historical subjects and debates-fall de facto into the unarticulated but implicit category of “men’s history,” which is known simply as “history.” Even in light of the substantial amount of work that has appeared in approximately the last twenty years on “women’s history,” which has been written by men as well as women, there remains a self-conscious ghetto mentality that is at least partly the product of a fear among feminist historians that a genuine integration of women’s experience into mainstream history will once more submerge it in the massive tide of male-dominated political, economic, intellectual, and even social history-although in this last category there is a greater focus on women’s past than can be identified in other fields of history.
Analytical Imaging with a Scanning Ion Microprobe
Authors: Levi-Setti R , Chabala J M , Wang Y , Hallegot, P , Girod-Hallegot C
Published: November 2023

A number of modem microanalytical techniques, many of which are illustrated in this book, describe the chemical composition of materials by means of images. One technique, ion microscopy, has been advanced in recent years as a tool for the sensitive determination of the isotopic and molecular content of any sample surface. Micrographs depicting the two-dimensional distribution (also called maps) of selected constituents over small areas of a sample are one of the essential means by which the retrieved information is recorded. Such images embody a wealth of interwoven information in a most compact form and remain one of the most efficient vehicles for the intelligent interpretation of material microstructure and co position. Compositional maps can be thought of as two-dimensional views of an abstract multidimensional space encompassing the spatial dimensions, the mass or atomic nurnber dimension, and, as a further variable, the concentration for each constituent. Often, an additional unquantifiable attribute enriches these already multifaceted images: their aesthetic appeal.
The Progress of Literacy and Written Law in Athens
Authors: Robb Kevin
Published: November 2023

Cleisthenes was meager in the extreme, depending mainly on some obscure refer­ ences in Aristotle, and a scattering of notices in Herodotus that reveal an out­ sider’s minimal understanding of the Athenian facts. Based mainly on the account in the Athenian Constitution, which in tum shows direct debts to Herodotus, three reforms have been attributed to Cleisthenes. First, perhaps now the most famous but not the most important, Cleisthenes introduced (or perhaps first politically exploited) the institution of ostracism, of which much has been made in the literature concerning popular literacy. It was a short-lived curiosity and never of much political importance.
Truth as Event and as Unique in Kind
Authors: Hunsinger George
Published: November 2023

As the motif of actualism signifies, in Barth’s theology truth is always conceived as an event. Truth is not a static datum, nor is it a fixed and deposited state of affairs. It is essentially a predicate of God’s own living reality as the Lord. Truth is always therefore in essence identical with God’s being itself-a divinely living truth, unified, yet rich and varied in its unity, a truth that continually assumes surprising and ever new forms in constancy with itself. This living truth is also a supremely sovereign truth. It is a truth that can and does speak for itself (and which can be known and received only as a truth that speaks for itself).
Epilogue: Secular Parables of the Truth
Authors: Hunsinger George
Published: November 2023

“Whenever ... we meet with heathen writers,” wrote John Calvin, “let us learn from the light of truth which is admirably displayed in their works, that the human mind, fallen as it is, and corrupted from its integrity, is yet invested and adorned by God with excellent talents.
Introduction: A Neglected Topic
Authors: Pipes Daniel
Published: November 2023

On first entering Syria, the observant traveler will probably be startled to go through passport control and notice a military map of Syria on the wall, for this map contains several anomalies. It shows the Golan Heights under Syrian control, though they have been occupied by Israel since 1967. Syria’s boundaries with Lebanon and Jordan appear not as international borders but as something called “regional” borders. Israel does not even exist; instead, there is a state called Palestine. And Palestine is separated from Syria by a line designated a “temporary” border. Finally, the province of Hatay, a part of Turkey since 1939, appears to be included in Syria; only on close inspection can one see the “temporary” border between it and Syria.
Background And Changes
Authors: Pipes Daniel
Published: November 2023

The name Syria derives from the Semitic term Siryon. In the Bible (Deuteronomy 3.9), this refers to Mount Hermon. Syria is originally a Greek word; its probable first literary use occurs in Aeschylus’s Persae (84), written in 472 B.C. Herodotus, writing about 440 B.C., used Syria loosely in the Histories to refer to Cappadocia. In the Hellenistic period, the Greeks used the term Coele Syria to refer to the area between the Mediterranean and the Euphrates River, distinguishing it from the part of Syria in Mesopotamia. The Seleucids of the third century B.c. also used the term vaguely to mean what is now called Southwest Asia. The Romans first used this term to refer to what came to be the standard area-”those regions of the Near East between Asia Minor and Egypt which belonged to the Roman Empire.” The Byzantines subsequently adopted the Roman usage.
Conclusion: A Dangerous Double Game
Authors: Pipes Daniel
Published: November 2023

Syrian Ba’th leaders have been plagued by a dilemma since the Regionalists emerged as a force in 1960: their ideology and their practice contradict each other. The Regionalists took steps to make Syria a strong and independent state while adhering to a doctrine-Pan-Arabism-that condemned those very steps. This contradiction grew more acute when the Regionalists became rulers of Syria in 1963, for their legitimacy rested partly on a Pan-Arab program. Then the adoption of pragmatic Pan-Syrianism a decade later meant the rulers espoused two opposing ideologies. Surely these inconsistencies must have plagued the Asad regime.
Conclusion: The Historic Significance Of Greater Syria
Authors: Pipes Daniel
Published: November 2023

An overview of the first half-century of activity on behalf of Greater Syria leads to several conclusions about the Pan-Syrian ideology. In particular, we shall review its importance, feasibility, mutability, weakness, and frustration. First, evidence presented here should establish that Greater Syria was not the minor eddy of general repute but a central theme in the history of the Middle East between 1918 and 1950. It was no less important than two much better known nationalisms, the Pan-Arabist and the Palestinian. Pan-Syrian ambitions had major bearing on the course of events in Lebanon, Jordan, and Syria, and almost as much on Palestine and Iraq. It also influenced inter-Arab relations and the Arab-Israeli conflict. As a model of the ideological party, the SSNP had a major impact on a wide range of organizations.
The Direction of Rabbinic Exegesis
Authors: Halivni David Weiss
Published: November 2023

The history of rabbinic exegesis consists of biblical exegesis (as practiced by the rabbis of the Talmud) and talmudic exegesis (the way the rabbis of the Talmud interpreted the Mishnah and other authoritative rabbinic texts). Rabbinic biblical exegesis and talmudic exegesis overlap in time but are distinct in nature, each with its own momentum of change, each with its own course of development. Their constitutive parts display different modes of assumption, different inner creative forces. Yet both, over time, tended toward a greater preference for less interference with the actual wording of the text, a greater preference for peshat.
Introduction: A Comment on Methodology
Authors: Halivni David Weiss
Published: November 2023

Any attempt to outline precisely and systematically the governing principles of rabbinic theology must confront the reality of rabbinic texts which lend themselves neither to theological precision nor systematization. Though the rabbis of the Talmudic era did engage in theological speculation about such classical religious issues as the nature of God and the dynamic of revelation, and about such eminently Jewish concerns as the chosenness of the Jewish people and the essence of Torah, such speculation seems to be haphazardly sprinkled throughout rabbinic literature.
“Chate’u Yisrael” (“Israel Sinned”): A Proposed Resolution to the Conflict of Peshat and Derash
Authors: Halivni David Weiss
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter, we documented the rabbinic evidence in favor of a dichotomy between practical halakha and intellectual pursuit, observance and study. This differentiation of the spheres of normative behavior and critical exegesis was inspired by the instances in rabbinic literature of conflict between majority and minority positions, in which the former systemically holds sway in the realm of behavior while the latter may yet be granted a certain status of truth in the realm of the intellect. The lines of demarcation drawn between a majority view that is halakhically binding and a minority opinion that is intellectually sovereign served to delineate and illuminate the dichotomy between praxis and scholarship.
Introduction
Authors: Ramm Heinrich J
Published: November 2023

Not until the advent of the rocket engine and the aircraft jet engine in the 1930s was flight in the transonic speed range (i.e. at speeds near that of sound waves) studied in detail. To be sure, the tip speed of rotating machinery and the speed of bullets had reached or even exceeded that speed. But the problems that arose in these concepts could be satisfactorily solved in an empirical way, without resort to theory. Only when the development of large-scale jet engines was begun did the difficulties of accelerating a flying object through the so-called sound barrier become apparent. Robert Goddard in the United States and Wernher von Braun in Germany became the early exponents in this new field by actively pursuing the development of reaction engines.
Damascene Ulama and Social Change in Nineteenth-Century Syria
Authors: Commins David Dean
Published: November 2023

Between 1830 and 1880 the ulama of Damascus suffered a decline in status and material fortunes. That decline came as an effect of the Ottoman Empire’s administrative reform movement and changes in cultural life. Political developments in the Ottoman Empire combined with social and economic change to further exacerbate the ulama’s sensitivity to decline. To comprehend their predicament requires an account of their place in Damascene society and the impact of political events and economic trends on Damascus.
The Social Roots of Salafism
Authors: Commins David Dean
Published: November 2023

In the second half of the nineteenth century a social and cultural gap opened between Damascene ulama and both local notables and the imperial elite in Istanbul. At the same time, the ulama encountered the eclectic Islamic vision of al-Qadir al-Jazairi. His international status, huge wealth, and liberal views attracted a number of ulama who enjoyed his patronage and gradually coalesced into a distinct group. Because the Damascene religious reform movement emerged from Jazairis circle, a close examination of its members would disclose whether or not salafism represented the outlook and interests of a particular social group.
The Emergence of Salafism in Damascus: Early Vicissitudes, 1896-1904
Authors: Commins David Dean
Published: November 2023

Damascene ulama coped with the challenges posed by the new social and cultural order in various ways. Some wealthy ulama joined the emergent landholdingbureaucratic elite by acquiring rural landholdings and obtaining posts in the expanding bureaucracy. Those ulama who obtained choice religious posts adhered to established practices in jurisprudence and education. Middle ulama, who lacked the means to join either the urban elite or to secure high religious posts, had two motives to formulate a critique of more fortunate ulama. First, incumbent ulama stood between middle ulama and the greater influence afforded by higher posts. Second, middle ulama could hold the incumbents accountable for the general decline of the ulama’s status. Salafism, then, represented both a critique of official ulama’s practices and an assertion that the ulama should play a leading role in governing the empire.