Food insecurity and the risk of HIV acquisition: Findings from population-based surveys in six sub-Saharan African countries (2016-2017)
Authors: Low Andrea , Gummerson Elizabeth , Schwitters Amee , Bonifacio Rogerio , Teferi Mekleet , Mutenda Nicholus , Ayton Sarah , Juma James , Ahpoe Claudia , Ginindza Choice , Patel Hetal , Biraro Sam , Sachathep Karam , Hakim Avi , Barradas Danielle T. , Hassani Ahmed Saadani , Kirungi Wilford , Jackson Keisha , Goeke Leah H. , Philip Neena M. , Mulenga Lloyd , Ward Jennifer , Hong Steven , Rutherford George , Findley Sally 
Published: September 2021

Abstract

Introduction

Food insecurity has a bidirectional relationship with HIV infection, with hunger driving compensatory risk behaviors, while infection can increase poverty. We used a laboratory recency assay to estimate the timing of HIV infection vis-à-vis the timing of severe food insecurity (SFI).

Methods

Data from population-based surveys in Zambia, Eswatini, Lesotho, Uganda, and Tanzania and Namibia were used. We defined SFI as having no food ≥three times in the past month. Recent HIV infection was identified using the HIV-1 LAg avidity assay, with a viral load (>1000 copies/ml) and no detectable antiretrovirals indicating an infection in the past 6 months. Logistic regression was conducted to assess correlates of SFI. Poisson regression was conducted on pooled data, adjusted by country to determine the association of SFI with recent HIV infection and risk behaviors, with effect heterogeneity evaluated for each country. All analyses were done using weighted data.

Results

Of 112,955 participants aged 15-59, 10.3% lived in households reporting SFI. SFI was most common in urban, woman-headed households. Among women and not men, SFI was associated with a two-fold increase in risk of recent HIV infection (adjusted relative risk [aRR] 2.08, 95% CI 1.09-3.97), with lower risk in high prevalence countries (Eswatini and Lesotho). SFI was associated with transactional sex (aRR 1.28, 95% CI 1.17-1.41), a history of forced sex (aRR 1.36, 95% CI 1.11-1.66), and condom-less sex with a partner of unknown or positive HIV status (aRR 1.08, 95% CI 1.02-1.14) in all women, and intergenerational sex (partner ≥10 years older) in women aged 15-24 (aRR 1.23, 95% CI 1.03-1.46), although this was heterogeneous. Recent receipt of food support was protective (aRR 0.36, 95% CI 0.14-0.88).

Conclusion

SFI increased risk for HIV acquisition in women by two-fold. Worsening food scarcity due to climactic extremes could imperil HIV epidemic control.

What is already known

The link between food insecurity and the adoption of high-risk sexual behaviors as a coping mechanism has been shown in several settings.

HIV infection can also drive food insecurity due to debilitating illness reducing productivity, the costs of treatment diverting money from supplies, and potentially reduced labor migration.

Food insecurity has been associated with chronic HIV infection, but it has not been linked with HIV acquisition.

What are the new findings

This study of 112,955 adults across six countries in sub-Saharan Africa provides unique information on the association between acute food insecurity and recent HIV infection in women, as well as the potential behavioral and biological mediators, including community viremia as a measure of infectiousness.

The data enabled a comprehensive analysis of factors associated with risk of infection, and how these factors differed by country and gender. Women living in food insecure households had a two-fold higher risk of recent HIV acquisition, and reported higher rates of transactional sex, early sexual debut, forced sex, intergenerational sex and sex without a condom with someone of unknown or positive HIV status. This pattern was not seen in men.

This study is also the first to demonstrate a protective association for food support, which was associated with a lower risk of recent HIV infection in women.

What do the new findings imply

In light of worsening food insecurity due to climate change and the recent COVID-19 pandemic, our results support further exploration of gender-specific pathways of response to acute food insecurity, particularly how women’s changes in sexual behavior heighten their risk of HIV acquisition.

These and other data support the inclusion of food insecurity in HIV risk assessments for women, as well as the exploration of provision of food support to those households at highest risk based on geographic and individual factors.