The importance of acid-processed meteoric smoke relative to meteoric fragments for crystal nucleation in polar stratospheric clouds
Authors: James Alexander D. , Pace Finn , Sikora Sebastien N. F. , Mann Graham W. , Plane John M. C. , Murray Benjamin J. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract. The crystal formation of nitric acid trihydrate (NAT) in the
absence of water ice is important for a subset of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) and thereby ozone depletion. It has been suggested that either fragmented meteoroids or meteoric smoke particles (MSPs), or possibly both, are important as heterogeneous nuclei of these crystals. Previous work has focused on the nucleating ability of meteoric material in nitric acid in the absence of sulfuric acid. However, it is known that when immersed in stratospheric sulfuric acid droplets, metal-containing meteoric material particles partially dissolve and components can reprecipitate as silica and alumina that have different morphologies to the original meteoric material. Hence, in this study, we experimentally and theoretically explore the relative role that sulfuric acid-processed MSPs and meteoric fragments may play in NAT nucleation in PSCs. We compared meteoric fragments that had recently been prepared (by milling a meteorite sample) to a sample annealed under conditions designed to simulate heating during entry into the Earth's atmosphere. Whilst the addition of sulfuric acid decreased the nucleating ability of the recently milled meteoric material relative to nucleation in binary nitric acid-water
solutions (at similar NAT saturation ratio), the annealed meteoric fragments nucleated NAT with a similar effectiveness in both solutions. However, combining our results with measured fluxes of meteoric material to the Earth, sedimentation modelling and recent experiments on fragmentation of incoming meteoroids suggests that it is unlikely for there to be sufficient fragments to contribute to the nucleation of crystalline NAT particles. We then considered silica formed from sulfuric acid-processed MSPs. Our
previous work showed that nanoparticulate silica (radius ∼6 nm) is a relatively poor promoter of nucleation compared with micron-scaled
silica particles, which were more effective. Both materials have similar
chemical and structural (crystallographically amorphous) properties,
indicating that size is critical. Here, we account for surface curvature of
primary grains using the Classical Nucleation Theory (CNT) to explore this size dependence. This model is able to explain the discrepancy in nucleation effectiveness of fumed silica and fused quartz by treating their nucleating activity (contact angle) as equal but with differing particle size (or surface curvature), assuming interfacial energies that are physically reasonable. Here, we use this CNT model to present evidence that nucleation of NAT on acid-processed MSPs, where the primary grain size is tens of nanometres, is
also effective enough to contribute to NAT crystals in early season PSCs
where there is an absence of ice. This study demonstrates that the modelling of crystal nucleation in PSCs and resulting ozone depletion relies on an accurate understanding of the transport and chemical processing of MSPs. This will affect estimated sensitivity of stratospheric chemistry to rare events such as large volcanic eruptions and long-term forecasting of ozone recovery in a changing climate.