bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Combining alternative and conventional systems for environmental gains
Authors: Painter K.M. , Young D.L. , Granatstein D.M. , Mulla D.J.
Published: October 2009

Two conventional cropping systems (winter wheat/dry peas and winter wheat/spring barley/dry peas) in the dryland grain region of southeastern Washington were compared with several alternative systems regarding profitability and environmental impacts. Two of the alternative systems use green manure crops and have low fertilizer and pesticide requirements. The remaining two are otherwise conventional rotations modified to include soil-building crops, bluegrass seed and rapeseed.

Estimates of annual off-site erosion damage ranged from $6.56 to $20.50 per rotational acre, while on-site damage estimates ranged from $0.50 to $1.55 per rotational acre. Estimated leaching losses of pesticides to a water table 3.6 feet deep were negligible, but significant leaching losses of nitrate-N were predicted to occur from fall-applied inorganic fertilizer.

Including bluegrass in a conventional grain rotation increased estimated net returns over variable costs by 16% and decreased soil loss by 33% compared with the most profitable conventional rotation. The next most profitable alternative system, rapeseed plus a conventional grain rotation, had slightly higher net returns over variable costs than the second most profitable conventional rotation, with slightly less soil loss. When fixed costs of machinery depreciation and land are included, the alternative systems fared relatively better. An experimental wheat/pea/medic system had higher projected net returns over total costs than the most profitable conventional rotation, while averaging just one-third as much soil loss per year. A wheat/barley/sweetclover green manure rotation was similar in profitability to the less profitable conventional rotation, but had only two-thirds as much soil loss.

We constructed a mixed-integer linear programming model to determine the profitmaximizing combination of conventional and alternative rotations under 1990 farm bill provisions. Planting all or nearly all land to the bluegrass plus conventional grain rotation maximized returns over total costs for high, medium, and low program crop price scenarios. Farmers maximized profit by participating in both the wheat and barley programs under the low price scenario, only in the wheat program with moderate prices, and in neither the wheat nor the barley program under the high price scenario.
The compatibility of domestic birds with a nonchemical agroecosystem
Authors: Clark M. Sean , Gage Stuart H. , DeLind Laura B. , Lennington Marian
Published: October 2009

We evaluated free-range domestic chickens and geese as components of a nonchemical apple orchard intercropped with potato. Chickens and geese were compatible with the system but provided different benefits and had different requirements. Chickens were omnivorous and highly active throughout the day, and dispersed throughout the available area. In contrast, geese were strictly herbivorous and less active, and usually remained close to their coop and water source. Geese substantially reduced vegetation biomass under the trees and around the potatoes without damaging either crop. Chickens reduced noncrop vegetation biomass slightly but also consumed several insect species, including Japanese beetle and Colorado potato beetle. Factors influencing the feasibility of integrating domestic chickens or geese into agroecosystems are discussed.
Weed science in sustainable agriculture
Authors: Zimdahl Robert L.
Published: October 2009

Five thoughts about the role and future of weed science in agriculture are analyzed. Much about the tools, techniques, and achievements of weed science should be lauded. Its achievements in basic science and its worldwide contributions to agricultural production and productivity are incontestable. The discipline has been based primarily on chemical technology, and the weed science community has been shaped by the available technology and by the purposes of its members. New, sustainable weed management systems will rely on knowledge derived from answers to new questions about weed-crop relationships and management techniques. As weed scientists develop better management systems, they will need to find better words to describe what they do and why it is important.
An overwintering cover crop increases inoculum of VAM fungi in agricultural soil
Authors: Galvez L. , Douds D.D. , Wagoner P. , Longnecker L.R. , Drinkwater L.E. , Janke R.R.
Published: October 2009

We conducted a field experiment within a low-input reduced tillage trial to determine how a cover crop affects inoculum levels of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi. Plots with and without the hairy vetch cover crop were established on September 30, 1993, under moldboard plow (MP), chisel-disk (CD), and no-till (NT) treatments in low-input (LI) management, and MP in conventional (CONV) management. We conducted a 3-week colonization assay in the greenhouse with bahiagrass seedlings to assess the relative colonization potential of the soils in the fall and following spring. Hairy vetch roots were colonized by indigenous VAM fungi by 65 days after planting, with plants from NT being more colonized than plants from MP or CD plots. Spore populations were greater in the LI than in the CONV system. The beneficial effect of the cover crop on VAM spore populations in soil was manifested in the spring, with theGlomustype group more abundant in plots with cover than without it. The greenhouse bioassay showed that colonization potential of spring 1994 soil samples was higher in plots with cover than without cover for both the LI and CONV systems. Just one season of an overwintering cover crop of hairy vetch increased the inoculum of VAM fungi the following spring before the next cash crop was planted.
Environmental policy and swine manure management Waste not or want not?
Authors: Hoag Dana L. , Roka Fritz M.
Published: October 2009

Livestock production and manure handling decisions often have been treated in the literature as separate enterprises. Policymakers, too, have ignored the interactive nature of manure management by focusing on land application for nutrient disposal. This study outlines a systems approach to describe the interrelated decisions producers face, using examples from North Carolina and Iowa that show how producers' attitudes toward manure management lead them to handle manure differently in different regions. In North Carolina, nutrients in manure are “not wanted.” There are economic incentives to treat manure, thus reducing its nutrient content, and to apply it on as little land as possible. In Iowa, nutrients are “not wasted.” Producers conserve the nutrients in manure and use them more fully, applying manure to higher value crops such as corn. Policies that influence manure management can be made more effective by accounting for the differences in producers' incentives to waste or want the nutrients.
Economic analysis of an areawide program for biological control of the alfalfa weevil
Authors: White J.M. , Allen P.G. , Moffitt L.J. , Kingsley P.P.
Published: October 2009

An areawide program for biological control of the alfalfa weevil showed expected economic benefits of $2.2 billion, expressed in present value terms. Alfalfa producers and consumers of livestock products are the main beneficiaries. The control program was highly successful, with a benefit/cost ratio of about 91. Not all areawide biological pest control programs will be as successful; a benefit-cost analysis like the one described here should be performed before areawide control is initiated to identify programs expected to provide economic benefits.
Tillage, seeding and fertilizer application technologies
Authors: Wilkins Dale E.
Published: October 2009

Tillage, seeding and fertilizing implements for rainfed cereal production with a winter precipitation pattern have unique functional requirements. In designing and developing implements for these systems, soil and water conservation principles are critical and must be integrated into the total production system. Plant diseases, insects, weeds, environmental degradation, crop yield, crop quality and economics all may be influenced by tillage, seeding and fe rtilizing implements. Advances have been made in implements f or improved residue management, stand establishment and crop fertilization that leave more crop residue on the surface for soil and water conservation. However, they alter the seed and root zones, often resulting in uncontrolled pests, reduced yields, or increased production costs. Research is needed to integrate production implements into ecosystem management through automatic control systems for improved tillage, se eding and fertilizing. These systems should include field history mapping, real-time soil sens ors, and models to link data bases with equipment functions.
Insect pests and management technologies in dryland wheat in Washington
Authors: Pike K. S. , Tanigoshi L. K.
Published: October 2009

Six species of ophids (Homoptera: Aphididae) are the most economically significant insect pests of wheat in Washington. Management technologies under development or in use in Washington emphasize biorational approaches, including development and use of resistance germplasm, manipulation of pest populations through cropping systems, and development of biological controls. We review wheat yield losses caused by aphids, their biological control, and the effects of conservation tillage and systemic seed treatment.
The linkage between pesticide use and pesticide residues
Authors: Kuchler Fred , Chandran Ram , Ralston Katherine
Published: October 2009

Newly available data from USDA's Pesticide Data Program allow us to trace pesticide residues on fruits and vegetables to their sources among various uses. We show that pesticide residues come from four sources: on-farm pesticide use; post-harvest pesticide use; pesticide use on imported food; and canceled pesticides that persist in the environment. Post-harvest pesticides account for the largest share of residue detections. Farmers' pest control choices influence consumers' dietary intake of pesticides, but the way in which food is marketed and the history of pest management techniques used on farms may have a greater influence. For pesticides that U.S. farmers currently use, the data show the geographic sources of residues and the extent to which use contributes to dietary intake risks. This information could be used to target development of pest control alternatives more narrowly. However, research to develop on-farm pest control alternatives will not address all pesticide residue risks in consumers' diets.
Sustainable agriculture in the Corn Belt: Production-side progress and demand-side constraints
Authors: Lighthall David R.
Published: October 2009

This paper explores the constraints to sustainable agriculture in the Com Belt stemming from the trend toward increased farm size and the continued dependence of the region on undifferentiated farm commodities produced for regional, national, and international markets. It is based on a three-county comparison of 14 full-time farmers who have embraced sustainable principles and practices, and a randomly sampled group of 25 farmers. An encouraging finding was the substantial progress made towards lower-input production of com and soybeans by the nine farmers who had adopted the ridge tillage system, which uses elevated seedbeds, banded herbicides, and post-plant nitrogen application to reduce both soil erosion and synthetic chemical inputs while maintaining yields. However, operators of large farms that depend on hired labor and highly dispersed field sites regarded these practices as too risky at their scale of production despite their short-term economic and long-term environmental benefits. The region's commercial farmers appear split between family farmers who wish to avoid the headaches of scale expansion and hired labor, and therefore, embrace more efficient low-input systems such as ridge tillage versus those who reject the increased management intensity and risks of lower-input systems in favor of scale expansion via more chemical-intensive no-till systems. Although ridge tillage represents movement toward low-input cash grain production, low-input production systems alone are not sufficient to improve the underlying social welfare of rural areas. Arresting the trend towards fewer and larger farms will also require development of more specialized or more localized markets for sustainably produced commodities.
Inoculative release of anecic earthworms in a California orchard
Authors: Werner Matthew R.
Published: October 2009

Anecic earthworms (e.g., nightcrawlers) create deep, vertical burrows and feed by dragging organic matter from the soil surface into the burrow, thereby incorporating organic matter. The incorporation of leaf litter in orchards may reduce inoculum levels of organisms that cause diseases such as apple scab. However, anecic earthworms are generally absent from agro-ecosystems in California, in part possibly because of low rainfall and seasonal drought. Anecic earthworms(Lumbricus terrestris)were introduced to an organic apple orchard in Watsonville, California, where the resident earthworm community included only the endogeic (subsurface-feeding) speciesAporrectodea caliginosaandMicroscolex dubius.WithL. terrestrispresent, incorporation of apple leaf litter increased from less than 28% to 79%. Yearly patterns of activity of resident earthworm species were unimodal, corresponding to the winter season of peak rainfall and low soil temperature. Earthworm populations were similar for organic and conventional treatments until the third year, when abundance and biomass of resident species were significantly greater in the organic plots.
Flooding in cranberry to minimize insecticide and fungicide inputs
Authors: Averill Anne L. , Sylvia Martha M. , Kusek Charles C. , DeMoranville Carolyn J.
Published: October 2009

A traditional flooding practice showed promise for reducing pesticide use in Massachusetts cranberry beds. The 4-week long spring flood, termed “late water,” checked pressure of two of the most prevalent and severe management problems, cranberry fruitworm (CFW) and fungal finit rots (CFR). Fruit rot generally was equal or lower and infestation of fruitworm was consistently lower at the late water beds compared with unflooded beds, even though no fungicides were used for CFR control (standard practice is two or three applications per season) and insecticide applications for CFW were cut by almost 70%. Although there were no significant reductions in yield in two of the years studied, a significant decline (about 25%) occurred on late water beds in one year for unknown reasons.
Introduction: Improving the sustainability of dryland farming systems in the Middle East
Authors: Parr James F. , Papendick Robert I.
Published: October 2009

Six papers in this issue were presented by Middle Eastern authors at the U.S.-Middle East Conference and Workshop on "Dryland Farming Systems and Technologies for a More Sustainable Agriculture," held at Moscow, Idaho on October 18–23, 1993.
Dryland farming systems in Jordan
Authors: Taimeh Awni Y. , Katkhuda Nabil
Published: October 2009

Resources available for dryland farming in Jordan are limited since 91% of the country has an arid climate. Moreover, the available resources are subject to a wide range of natural and human constraints. The farming systems consist of two main types: annual crops such as wheat and barley, and fruit trees such as olives, grapes, and stone fruits. Socioeconomic factors coupled with a fluctuating rainfall pattern cause some shifting in land use and variation in land under cultivation. Alternative land use strategies and preservation and more efficient use of resources are the means to achieve higher production. Substantial addition of land suitable for cultivation is unlikely since it would require additional water resources, which are diminishing in Jordan. Environmental degradation such as desertification is a major concern to land use planners. Several issues must be addressed if agricultural productivity is to be sustained: preservation of resources; overcoming various pressures imposed on agricultural lands; adoption of new practical and economical practices; introduction of modern technologies such as water harvesting, supplemental irrigation, use of treated waste water, and proper soil conservation measures; and adaptive research.
Effect of cultural practices on barley and durum wheat yields in semiarid regions of Tunisia
Authors: Yahyaoui A. , M'Hedhbi K. , Rezgui S.
Published: October 2009

The semiarid regions (SARs) are characterized by extreme temperature changes, low and unevenly distributed precipitation, hazardous torrential rains, and frequent early spring droughts. Barley is the most highly adapted cereal in SARs, but durum wheat is the most widely cultivated. The area in cereals varies considerably from year to year, and yields are low. Tillage practices are used to conserve both soil and moisture and to prepare the seed bed. However, improved fertilizer use and weed control practices are not being used. Without development of needed cultural and tillage practice systems, the genetic potential of today's varieties cannot be realized. Planting depth and rate, row spacing, fertilizer application, and weed control were investigated under conventional tillage and reduced tillage systems. In on-farm trials, reduced tillage did not significantly affect durum wheat yield but slightly increased barley yield compared with traditional practices. Optimum planting depth for both wheat and barley was 7 cm. Higher seeding rates increased the yield of both crops. Highest yields were obtained at planting rates of 140 kg/ha for wheat and 100 kg/ha for barley. At these rates, maximum yields were achieved at row spacings of 30 cm for barley and 20 cm for durum wheat. Use of fertilizer and weed control increased yields substantially. Sustained and increased production in SARs can be achieved with a “package of practices” approach that incorporates these cultural and tillage practices.
The potential for sustainable rainfed farming in Palestine
Authors: Isaac Jad , Gasteyer Stephen
Published: October 2009

The most important source of increased crop yield in the Middle East has probably been the increase in irrigated area although it has been accompanied by other inputs such as chemical fertilizers, improved varieties, mechanization, and pesticides. Palestine, which in this paper encompasses West Bank and Gaza, has had a similar emphasis on irrigation although only 5% of West Bank agricultural land is irrigated. However, the possibility of further expanding or even maintaining present water use for fostering agricultural growth in this dry region is diminishing. There now is a growing understanding that future sustainable agriculture in the Middle East may depend on shifting emphasis to rainfed farming; in the past, this was not considered possible because of its perceived low productive potential. Recent research, however, has evaluated the status of rainfed farming in Palestine and targeted areas that need improvement. Experiments and demonstrations have shown the potential to vastly improve rainfed farming's production, economic return and status. Following up on these initial steps should be an important priority in maintaining food production in this region.
Agricultural development in Israel: Challenges and opportunities for regional collaboration
Authors: Seligman No'am G. , Blum Abraham , Morin Joseph , Amir Jacob
Published: October 2009

Agriculture in Israel is practiced throughout the country from the Arava Valley in the South, where average annual rainfall is less than 40 mm, to the Upper Galilee in the North, where annual rainfall exceeds 700 mm. Less than half the cultivated area used for field crops is irrigated. Much of the output is exponed, primarily to Europe, but some to the United States and Japan. In nonirrigated dry-farming areas, the main crops grown are wheat for grain and silage and several secondary crops, including sunflower, watermelons and hay legumes. Animal production is predominantly intensive dairying (mainly cows, but also sheep and goats), poultry production, and aquaculture, all of which use large quantities of imported feed grains. Beef production is largely from dairy bullocks, but includes an important rangeland beef sector. Problems that face Israeli agriculture in general and dryland agriculture in particular are primarily economic, including low prices for many traditional dryland crops, a small local market, and increasing input costs. The changing socioeconomic scene, reflected by decreasing employment in agriculture, has added to the problems of proper land use. There is an urgent need for more appropriate production systems and associated innovative research and development. This includes management for higher output/input ratios, conservation and enhancement of genetic resources, crop diversification, integration of crop and livestock production, and alternative land use options such as agroforestry, recreation, ecological refuges, and landscape enhancement. These challenges are common to most countries in the Middle East, and offer opportunities for regional and international collaboration to improve the sustainability of agriculture in the region.
Management of natural Kentucky bluegrass-white clover pasture
Authors: Murphy William M. , Silman Joshua P. , McCrory Lisa E. , Flack Sarah E. , Schmitt Abdon L. , Mzamane Nthoana M.
Published: October 2009

Management recommendations are needed f or low-input (no N fertilizer) Kentucky bluegrass-dominant/white clover swards, particularly to increase or maintain white clover content. We applied treatments involving different amounts of forage present pre- and postgrazing, with and without harrowing and soil aeration, to a well-established, naturally seeded pasture grazed by dairy cows. Pregrazing dry matter was 2350 or 2700 kg/ha (about 10 or 15 cm tall). Postgrazing dry matter was 1100 or 1575 kg/ha (about 2.5 or 5 cm tall). The sward was composed mainly of Kentucky bluegrass, orchardgrass, quackgrass, timothy, white clover, dandelion, and chicory. Soil aeration and harrowing did not affect botanical composition, plant components, or forage yield. Pre- and postgrazing mass (total forage dry matter per unit area) did not affect botanical composition or plant components, but did influence total forage yield. White clover tended to increase under all pasture-mass treatments. During the second year the lowest postgraz- ing mass produced the most forage (mean: 6685 kg DM/ha). Forage quality of all treatments was excellent (seasonal means: 26% crude protein; 1.6 Meal net energy lactation/kg DM).
Soil erosion and productivity research: A regional approach
Authors: Jones Alice J. , Lal Rattan , Huggins David R.
Published: October 2009

Soil erosion is occurring at an alarming rate and threatens soil productivity and crop growth. A regional research committee was formed in the North Central region of the US in 1983 to develop a better understanding of soil erosion and productivity relationships on a broad geographic scale. This paper presents the history, project development and implementation and results of the committee, and a perspective on soil erosion-productivity research approaches. The original project included multistate field experiments on soils selected f or their local extent or agricultural importance. Erosion was classified as slight, moderate, or severe. Cropping practices were continuous corn or small grains, with cultural practices appropriate f or the area. The crop yields on moderately and severely eroded soils were consistently lower than on comparable slightly eroded soils. Precipitation and soil available water holding capacity were the factors most often identified as affecting yields. Other specific limitations were soil- or location-dependent. The most frequent soil limitations were depth of the mollic epipedon/topsoil, organic matter and clay content. Evolving objectives of the committee and state-based research emphases have provided additional information germane to soil erosion-productivity research. More than 40 papers have been published on soil properties, crop growth, management, and modeling as a result of this effort. The regional approach has fostered research on complex interactions among management and environmental factors and led to an increased understanding of functional relationships between soil erosion and productivity.
Small-scale, intensive cultivation methods: The effects of deep hand tillage on the productivity of bush beans and red beets
Authors: Holt Ben F. , Smith Ivan K.
Published: October 2009

This study examined how one aspect of intensive cultivation, double digging by hand (loosening the planting bed to 50 cm deep), contributed to crop productivity and nutrient uptake in bush beans (1994 and 1995) and red beets (1995 only). Comparison beds were prepared with the soil cultivated to 25 cm (single dig) and 6 cm (surface cultivation). Although there were significant differences (1994 beans) between the surface cultivated beds and other cultivation types for leaf mass and chlorophyll content, there were no significant differences in the total mass of beans (whole fruit) produced. There were no significant differences in beet green or root (edible portion) biomass among cultivation methods. Levels of Ca, Mg, and K in the bean fruits and beet roots were not significantly different among cultivation methods. This study demonstrated that deep cultivation significantly alters the soil profile as measured by penetrometer resistance, but that this change does not necessarily alter productivity or nutrient uptake. We suggest that deep hand tillage has little effect on crop productivity in well-watered and moderate to high fertility soils. These results are similar to those found in mechanically subsoiled systems.
Farm Profile: Sörtorp, an organic farm in Sweden
Authors: Lockeretz William
Published: October 2009

About 120 km west of Stockholm, beside a beautiful lake in a landscape of farmland interspersed with evergreen forests, lies perhaps the best known and most frequently visited organic farm in Sweden. As managed by Kalle and Inger Källander since 1982, Sörtorp has become an impressive example of how, with careful planning and management, a farm's available resources can be fashioned into a stable, productive system whose diverse components work together as an organic whole. This cardinal principle of organic farming is often voiced in the abstract, but to achieve it in practice is another matter. It requires a sustained willingness and ability to learn, to devise ingenious uses for the farm's land and facilities, and to try different approaches to solve existing problems and adapt to changing conditions. All this is abundantly evident at Sortorp.
Geographic information systems for selection of CRP tracts to meet different management goals after contract expiration
Authors: Rickerl D.H. , Gritzner J.H. , Wieland P.K. , Rial G.
Published: October 2009

Land use decisions, following expiration of Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) contracts, can be aided by Geographical Information System (GIS) analysis. We utilized a GIS to overlay maps of CRP tracts including wetlands, a surficial aquifer, lakes, rivers and other landscape features in a small watershed in eastern South Dakota. Attribute data including the percentage of highly erodible land, soil type, vegetation, and land capability class were also integrated with the maps. Lake County, South Dakota was used to test the GIS selection model. Criteria were developed for the selection of tracts suitable for various management goals including: protection of surface and groundwater resources, wildlife enhancement, and row-crop or grassland agriculture. The maximum percentage of tract hectares selected for each goal was 17 for groundwater protection, 22 for surface water protection, 18 for wildlife enhancement, 30 for rowcrop production, and 38 for pasture or rangeland. All CRP tracts were selected at least once. The GIS provides a mechanism for selecting CRP tracts to meet several management goals.
Supplementation of midgestation swine grazing alfalfa
Authors: Honeyman M. S. , Roush W. B.
Published: October 2009

For four years (1991–1994), gestating gilts rotationally grazing alfalfa were compared to gilts in a dry lot fed 1,800 g/d of a corn-soy diet (control). The dietary supplementation treatments for the grazing gilts were 1,260 g, 720 g, and 180 g of ground corn (70, 40, and 10% of the gilts' energy needs) plus 45 g of monosodium phosphate and 9 g of salt (sodium chloride) per day. All gilts were fed individually. In 1991 and 1992, the gilts were fed daily. In 1993 and 1994, the gilts were fed their weekly feed ration in three equal feedings on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. Alfalfa paddocks were grazed for one week with a stocking rate of 62 gilts/ha/wk. All gilts had rings in their noses to minimize rooting. For the 42-d mid-gestation trial, the weight gain of the control gilts did not differ from the gain of the grazing gilts daily fed 720 g corn (40%) (P<.05). The interval feeding reduced gains compared to the daily feeding. Gilts daily fed 1,260 g corn/d (70%) gained more than the other grazing treatments (P<.05). The gilts daily fed 180 g corn/d (10%) gained less than all other treatments (P<.05) and had the greatest backfat loss (P<.05) for the 42-d trial. No major trends were noted in number of pigs born per litter or pig birth weight. After one week of grazing, alfalfa height decreased 14.7 cm and DM content of the remaining alfalfa increased 9%. Each grazing season, the alfalfa stand decreased 3.8 plants/m2. Daily alfalfa intakes per gilt were calculated at 11.5 kg (3.2 kg DM) for 1991 and 1992, and increased to 16.3 kg (4.2 kg DM) for 1993 and 1994. These are composite intakes because all grazing gilts were commingled. Mid-gestation gilts rotationally grazing alfalfa need 720 g of corn per day plus phosphorus and salt to match weight gains of gestating gilts in a drylot fed 1,800 g/d of a corn-soy diet. Daily feeding, rather than interval feeding, resulted in greater weight gains and lower alfalfa intakes. The practice of grazing gestating sows has the advantages of no manure to haul, reduced purchased feed inputs, and inclusion of a soil-building crop like alfalfa in the crop rotation.
Performance of reduced-tillage cropping systems for sustainable grain production in Maryland
Authors: Teasdale J.R. , Rosecrance R.C. , Coffman C.B. , Starr J.L. , Paltineanu I.C. , Lu Y.C. , Watkins B.K.
Published: October 2009

Sustainable production systems are needed to maintain soil resources and reduce environmental contamination on erodible lands that are incompatible with tillage-intensive operations. A long-term cropping systems comparison was established at Beltsville, Maryland, on a site with 2 to 15% slope to evaluate the efficacy of sustainable strategies compatible with reduced-tillage systems. All systems followed a 2-year rotation of corn the first year and winter wheat followed by soybean the second year. Treatments included (1) no-tillage system with recommended fertilizer and herbicide inputs, (2) crownvetch living mulch system with similar inputs to the no-tillage system, (3) cover crop system including a hairy vetch cover crop before corn and a wheat cover crop before soybean with reduced fertilizer and herbicide inputs, and (4) manure system including crimson clover green manure plus cow manure for nutrient sources, chisel plow/disk for incorporating manure, and rotary hoe plus cultivation for weed control. Results from the initial 4 years demonstrated the relative productivity of these systems. Corn yields were similar in the no-tillage and cover crop systems in each year; both systems averaged 7.8 Mg ha-1 compared to 5.7 Mg ha-1 in both the crownvetch and manure systems. Wheat yields were highest in the manure system in the first 2 years and in the crownvetch system in the last 2 years. Soybean yields were highest in the cover crop system in all years. The manure system usually had lower yields than the highest yielding systems, partly because of competition from uncontrolled weeds. Several measures of the efficiency of grain production were evaluated. The no-tillage system produced the most grain per total vegetative biomass throughout the rotation. The cover crop system produced the most grain per unit of external nitrogen input and, along with the no-tillage system, had the highest corn water-use efficiency. The cover crop system also recycled the most vegetative residues and nutrients of all systems. No single system performed best according to all measures of comparison, suggesting that trade-offs will be required when choosing production systems.
The effect of farming systems on the relationship of corn root growth to grain yields
Authors: Goldstein Walter A.
Published: October 2009

The Wisconsin Integrated Cropping Systems Trial has been comparing different farming systems on two farm sites in southern Wisconsin since 1989. Inexplicable differences in the yields of corn grown in three systems stimulated research on the relationship between yield and the dynamics of root growth. The three systems were continuous corn with mineral fertilizer (CS1), corn—soybean—winter wheat—red clover (CS3), and corn—oat + alfalfa—alfalfa with dairy manure applied (CS5). Four or five sequential root samplings were taken each growing season on two sites for 3 years. Soil monoliths were taken from around the base of the plant and washed out over a 1-mm sieve. Estimates were obtained of the length and health of roots from different nodes that were attached to the crown of the plant. The seasonal accumulation of root length was estimated by summing the maximal root length produced at each root node. Corn grown in monoculture averaged 7.5 Mg of grain/ha, which was similar to corn grown after red clover green manure (7.3 Mg/ha) but less than corn grown after alfalfa with manure (8.5 Mg/ha). Contrary to expectations, corn grown in monoculture averaged 26% more root length over the season than CS3 and 12% more length than CS5. The differences were mostly due to increased production of later sets of roots (nodes 6–9) for the corn in monoculture. However, for the first sets of nodes (seminal—node 5) the percentage of healthy roots was lower in the monoculture system (59%) than in CS3 (63%) or CS5 (76%). The increased root growth associated with corn grown in monoculture may be a response to poor root health. Regressions with root growth accounted for a large amount of the variation in grain yields. Corn grown after alfalfa with manure achieved higher yields with less roots than did corn grown in monoculture. Yields in the former system plateaued at root lengths of 1 cm/cm3 and greater, producing grain yields that ranged from 8 to 10 Mg/ha. Corn grown in CS1 and CS3 showed curvilinear responses with calculated yield maxima of 8.7 and 9.9 Mg/ha at root lengths of 2.12 and 1.74 cm/cm3, respectively. Intensifying the use of rotations and organic manures seemed to increase the ability of the corn rooting system to support grain yields. The cause for this greater efficiency is not yet clear, though root health may be an important factor.
The meaning of sustainable agriculture: Reflections of some Kansas practitioners
Authors: Norman D. , Bloomquist L. , Janke R. , Freyenberger S. , Jost J. , Schurle B. , Kok H.
Published: October 2009

In this paper we report on what “sustainable agriculture” means to farmers who seek to develop more sustainable farming systems. Group interviews were conducted with two groups of sustainable farmers in Kansas to learn how they developed their respective approaches, the kinds of parameters they have used to evaluate success and progress, and what other evaluation tools would be helpful to them. For the farmers we interviewed, the central meaning of sustainable agriculture is its holistic approach to assets management. It also means an alternative perspective on what constitutes success in farming. While economic considerations are important, they are balanced by other considerations such as environmental quality, quality of life, and the contributions the farmers can make to their communities. Sustainable agriculture also means an approach to agriculture that entails “thinking risks” as much as financial risks. Lastly, sustainable agriculture means whole farm planning; the farmers we interviewed were more interested in applying whole-farm planning principles based on their local knowledge, than in evaluation tools based on the expert knowledge of researchers and other scientists. The implications of what sustainable agriculture means to these farmers for research and educational programs are discussed.
Soil salinity, a major constraint to irrigated agriculture in the Punjab region of Pakistan: Contributing factors and strategies for amelioration
Authors: Davidson Andrew P.
Published: October 2009

Salinity is widely perceived to have severe effects on farmers in Pakistan. However, to date there is little direct evidence on how salinity specifically affects farm operations and the patterns of agricultural activity, and how farmers seek to overcome the effects of salinity. The purpose of this study was to develop an understanding of the causes of soil salinity and to consider possible remedial actions whereby farmers might reduce its adverse effects. Correlation analysis was used to determine whether farmers responded to soil salinity in identifiable patterns of socioeconomic activity and behavior. Throughout these analyses, it was assumed that salinity was the primary force driving the farming systems. Soil salinity was found to pose real constraints to agricultural productivity and the economic livelihoods of Pakistani farmers. With few notable exceptions, no discernible patterns in responses to soil salinity have emerged. Aside from the more traditional and costly methods for dealing with the problem, no new technologies to combat soil salinity have been widely disseminated, due to socioeconomic limitations of most farmers and general lack of awareness. Yet, the data indicate that in order to increase agricultural productivity, alternative technologies are needed, such as trees and shrubs to lower the water table, more effective water management to prevent waterlogging, and salt-tolerant and -resistant strains of edible crops. Without these measures, it is likely the situation will worsen in the coming years.
Integrated crop management: The other precision agriculture
Authors: Padgitt Steve , Petrzelka Peggy , Wintersteen Wendy , Imerman Eric
Published: October 2009

“Precision agriculture” was a favorite buzzword in agricultural discussions in the 1990s. Proponents of precision agriculture note its promises are twofold: economic benefits for the producer and environmental benefits for society. These benefits are to be achieved by improving the efficiency of input use, based on data obtained with global positioning systems (GPS) and geographic information systems (GIS) technologies. Although fulfillment of these promises has been mixed to date, it appears that “precision agriculture” will continue in the agriculture vernacular into the 21st century. In this article, we propose another sense of the term, and argue that precision agriculture, or at least long strides in that direction, is possible short of these highly complex methods and capital investments, through integrated crop management (ICM). As practiced by the producer and/or provided by independent crop consultants, ICM is one alternative to providing information-intensive management on the farm, and has proven efficiency of input use. That is, the promise of economic and environmental benefits holds true in a manner that makes it possible for any producer to implement “precision agriculture.” Using data from users and nonusers of independent crop consultants implementing ICM, this study reveals that several economic and environmental benefits are gained from the information and management recommendations provided by consultants. Pest and nutrient management recommendations have led to decreases in pesticide and commercial fertilizer use. For the majority of users, these input reductions have resulted in an increase in profits since hiring a consultant. Users attributed changes in total cost of production to their consultant's effectiveness, and some reported receiving double or greater return for every dollar invested in consultant services. The results confirm the important role that Iowa's independent crop consultants could play in agricultural production and environmental protection through their promotion of ICM activities. However, the scarcity of consultants in Iowa, and possibly elsewhere, presents a challenge within the industry. Addressing this issue may help in contributing to rural development, economic benefit for the producer, and environmental benefit for all of society.
Use of soil tests among organic farmers in New England
Authors: Kozower Claire A.
Published: October 2009

This research explores the soil testing practices and interests of organic farmers in New England. Data were collected through telephone surveys conducted between December 1998 and January 1999 with 81 certified organic farmers. Organic farmers' commitment to the maintenance of healthy soils necessitates the use of soil evaluation tools. However, it is becoming increasingly understood that a complete picture of soil quality cannot be created solely through the use of laboratory soil tests. For example, many of the soil's critical physical characteristics are more suited to in-field assessment than to laboratory analysis. For this reason, utilization of both laboratory and on-farm tests was investigated. The use of evaluation tools can be influenced by the degree to which laboratory and farming services help organic farmers put test results into practice. Thus, additional questioning focused on the ease of understanding test results, the usefulness of soil test results and recommendations to organic farmers, and the likelihood of turning to expert help when soil management issues arise. Results indicate that in managing their soils, organic farmers in New England rely heavily on laboratory tests provided by public institutions. Most farmers were satisfied with laboratory services and found test results easy to interpret. Over one-quarter (31%) of the farmers surveyed were employing on-farm tests, but very few of these tests assessed physical or biological characteristics of the soil. Organizations most often sought by organic farmers for information on soil quality management were Extension services, followed by local organic certifying agencies, and state agriculture departments.
Beyond profitability: Using economic indicators to measure farm sustainability
Authors: Freyenberger S. , Levins R. , Norman D. , Rumsey D.
Published: October 2009

United States farm policy has a long tradition of subsidizing farmers in order to achieve national goals. The issue of agricultural subsidies poses a particular challenge in terms of relevant policy design. This paper explores the potential for economic indicators to guide policies that encourage sustainable agriculture through alternative-oriented approaches. We begin by reviewing several indicators of sustainable agriculture that have been proposed previously. We then suggest a set of three economic indicators: energy and machinery use, creation of local jobs, and feed balance, and apply them to two groups of farmers: conventional farmers and those with an explicit orientation towards sustainable agriculture. Though our survey groups cannot be compared statistically, it appears that these three indicators are capable of distinguishing between the two farmer groups. We conclude with some suggestions for further research and application.
Agriculture's mission: Finding a partner
Authors: Zimdahl R.L. , Speer R.L.
Published: October 2009

What is the mission of agriculture and what techniques are used to accomplish the mission? This paper examines mission statements of agribusiness companies, agricultural producers, and environmental groups. One hypothesis is that agricultural producer groups share missions and objectives with environmental groups and their mission statements should demonstrate shared goals. A second hypothesis is that agricultural producer groups do not share missions or objectives with agribusiness companies and their respective mission statements should demonstrate their lack of common interests. The paper also asks which of these three groups will be the best sources of intellectual and other support as land-grant universities strive to fulfill their respective missions. It is not obvious from the mission statements that the three groups studied share missions or objectives. The mission statements neither reveal clear information on the second hypothesis, that agricultural producers do not share missions or operational objectives with agribusiness companies, nor do the mission statements demonstrate their lack of common interests. Analysis of mission statements is one place to learn which groups have common goals and should work together. But this is only a beginning.
Performance evaluation and impact assessment of a small water-harvesting structure in the Shiwalik foothills of northern India
Authors: Sur H.S. , Bhardwaj Anil , Jindal P.K.
Published: October 2009

Construction of small water-harvesting structures (WHS) across seasonal streams, in the vicinity of cultivated areas, has proved to be a viable technique of water harvesting in the Shiwalik foothills of northern India. This paper reports on the performance and impact of one such structure in this area. Sufficient rainwater was available for harvesting because 86 ± 5.4% of monsoon rainstorms were runoff producing, resulting in collection of 29 ± 5% of the total monsoon rainfall. Out of this harvested water around 62% was available for irrigation at the start of the Rabi season (i.e., the dry season starting around 1 November). With time the water losses from the WHS declined from 66% in the first year of construction (1985) to 18% in 1996, because of sealing of soil pores from siltation of the reservoir bed. The life of the WHS was estimated to be 65 years at the observed average siltation rate of 47 Mg/ha/year. After construction of the WHS, the area under cultivation increased from 17 ha to 20 ha and the cropping intensity by 170 to 200%. The Rabi crop yields were approximately doubled. Assured availability of water and fodder increased milk production by 103%. Additional annual income of Rs. 7,015 per year was generated through fish culture. A rise in the groundwater level and higher growth of vegetation around the WHS were also observed. On the basis of increased crop production alone, the WHS proved to be an economically viable venture resulting in a benefit:cost ratio of greater than one. Socioeconomic considerations in the management of the WHS were also studied and showed that community involvement was essential to the success of this project.