bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Brief Communication: Can recent ice discharges following the Larsen-B ice-shelf collapse be used to infer the driving mechanisms of millennial-scale variations of the Laurentide ice sheet?
Authors: Alvarez-Solas J. , Robinson A. , Ritz C.
Published: November 2011

Abstract. The effects of an ice-shelf collapse on inland glacier dynamics have recently been widely studied, especially since the breakup of Antarctic Peninsula's Larsen-B ice shelf in 2002. Several studies have documented acceleration of the ice streams that were flowing into the former ice shelf. The mechanism responsible for such a speed-up lies with the removal of the ice-shelf backforce. Independently, it is also well documented that during the last glacial period, the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets experienced large discharges into the ocean, likely reflecting ice flow acceleration episodes on the millennial time scale. The classic interpretation of the latter is based on the existence of an internal thermo-mechanical feedback with the potential to generate oscillatory behavior in the ice sheets. Here we would like to widen the debate by considering that Larsen-B-like glacial analog episodes could have contributed significantly to the registered millennial-scale variablity.
Bullying
Authors: Rigby Ken
Published: November 2011

Bullying has long been recognized as a form of interpersonal behavior practiced by many people, but it has not been regarded as a major social problem until relatively recently. In fact, at times, bullying has been viewed positively. For example, in Shakespeare's
Henry V
, a soldier, Pistol, approves of his king, saying, “I love the lovely bully. I kiss his dirty shoe.” Gradually, however, both the meaning attributed to the word and the behavior it represents have acquired strongly negative connotations. Today, bullying is conceived as an abuse of power and as such widely condemned.
Contact Theory: Extended and Parasocial
Authors: Rodrigues Maria V.
Published: November 2011

Based on Gordon Allport's contact theory, several bodies of research have emerged to suggest that prejudice reduction can be achieved through indirect forms of cross‐group contact, including “extended” and “parasocial” contact.
Decision‐Making, Psychological Dimensions of Foreign Policy
Authors: Renshon Jonathan
Published: November 2011

Social scientists have long looked to psychology to help understand and explain political decision‐making. Sometimes psychological principles have been imported into theories of world politics (e.g., Morgenthau's notion of man's “urge to dominate”), but more often such inquiry has taken the form of the study of individual and group decision‐making. This subfield has varied over the years in its methods (from “process tracing” and qualitative analysis to experimental methods, and virtually everything in between) and in the focus of its attentions. As a result, a comprehensive review would fill several books. This article should therefore not be considered a complete review of the field of foreign policy decision‐making (hereafter, FPDM). Rather, it is a sample of some of the more persuasive and interesting avenues of research that have been prominent in recent years. It is hoped that this introduction will spur readers to seek out more information on these and other subjects within the field.
Disaster Research
Authors: Reyes Gilbert
Published: November 2011

Groups of humans dedicate considerable effort to establishing stable and well‐regulated environments in which they have a combination of high security and access to resources that will serve them in achieving their goals. Disasters severely disrupt one or more of the systems that serve the human capacity for survival and prosperity, and people respond to disasters by dedicating extraordinary efforts toward reducing their most immediate harmful effects and then mobilizing a sustained strategic response for limiting the long‐term material damage and impairment of social and economic activities. Thus, disasters of whatever type severely disrupt the ability to regulate the environments, ensure stability and security, and maintain adequate access to life‐sustaining resources, and are therefore highly salient events of historical magnitude and importance. The role that disasters have played in human history and culture can be partially understood in these terms — that is, as events that reshape the physical, social, economic, and psychological landscapes and ecologies of their time. This is true in principle whether the cause of the disaster is perceived as natural, metaphysical (i.e., an act of God), human malevolence, human negligence, or some combination of these. While individuals and societies do in fact make very different meanings of these events and react accordingly to their explanatory models, the essential defining nature of disasters is located in their destructive and transformative effects, how these effects are distributed, and their consequences for humans and other life forms.
Ethical Considerations in Peace Psychology
Authors: Leach Mark M.
Published: November 2011

The marriage of ethics and peace psychology is a natural one as they are both concerned with human rights, which are predicated on the promotion of positive, empathic, and egalitarian motivations. Peace psychology has a clear moral component and has been committed to advancing the decrease of violence and the promotion of nonviolence as well as pursuing social justice. It has transitioned from a post‐Cold War mentality to include a greater geohistorical context, inclusion of multiple levels of analysis, and increased understanding of multiple worldviews (Christie, Tint, Wagner, & Winter, 2008). Similar motivations emerge within professional ethics, regardless of discipline. The field of ethics has always been intimately connected with morality, and has promoted positive behaviors and attempted to avoid potentially damaging behaviors. It has recently become more globally aware of context, includes multiple levels of analyses, and has also begun to increase sensitivity to multiple cultures and worldviews. Global consciousness within psychological ethics has become increasingly prominent in recent years with the development of ethics codes for the international community. Psychology itself may be working toward an underlying morality on an international level.
Family Violence and Abuse
Authors: Mercurio Andrea E.
Published: November 2011

The field of family violence and abuse is multifaceted, complex, and still in its infancy. The notion of family violence has traditionally been understood as violence between and among members of an immediate family (e.g., a parent who strikes a child or a husband who hits his wife). The subfields of intimate partner violence (the preferred term for marital/spousal abuse) and child physical and sexual abuse have probably garnered the most scholarly attention. However, family violence and abuse takes diverse forms and researchers have begun to direct greater empirical efforts towards understanding the areas of child neglect, elder abuse, and sibling abuse; moreover, particularly in the United States, there is an increased focus on interpersonal violence that occurs outside the boundaries of conventional definitions of the family (e.g., violence between partners in same‐sex relationships).
Gender Inequality
Authors: Lott Bernice
Published: November 2011

This article is about gender, and the significant national and international social, economic, and political problems associated with inequality in status and resources between women and men. Sexual identification at birth appears to be universal across the globe, and this recognition of a baby's sexual category is followed everywhere by the development of gender — a socially constructed category of relationship to other human beings that characterizes all of us throughout our lives. Because the behaviors expected of girls and boys, women and men, are, for the most part, unrelated to the few biological imperatives or biological distinctions between the sexes, we use the word gender to refer to these human groups. Gender serves to organize social relations and interactions at the structural or institutional level as well as at the individual level, each of which reinforces the other. Gender incorporates culturally normative prescriptions and proscriptions with respect to behavior, expectations, and the designation of gender‐appropriate environments. Especially implicated in gender relationships is relative power, or access to resources. Almost universally, beliefs about gender reinforce men's privilege, as do the realities of daily life.
Peace, Positive and Negative
Authors: Galtung Johan
Published: November 2011

Any concept of peace includes the absence of direct violence between states — engaged in by military and others — in general and the absence of massive killing of categories of humans in particular. All these absences of types of violence add up to negative peace; as by mutual isolation, unrelated by any structure and culture. This situation is better than violence, but it is not fully peaceful because positive peace is missing in this conceptualization. Indeed, peace would be a strange concept if it did not include relations between genders, races, classes, and families, and did not also include absence of structural violence, the nonintended slow, massive suffering caused by economic and political structures of exploitation and repression (Galtung, 1985); and if it excluded the absence of the cultural violence that legitimizes direct and/or structural violence (Galtung, 1990). Table 1 provides an overview of key terms about positive and negative peace.
Peace and Coexistence Programs in the Israeli–Palestinian and Middle East Context
Authors: Abu‐Nimer Mohammed
Published: November 2011

In the context of the Middle East, the majority of the peace psychology studies focus on the grassroots and elite intervention efforts to bring peace between Palestinian Arabs and Jews in Israel and in Palestine. Few studies have addressed the psychological factors related to peace in the Arab or larger Middle Eastern societies. Thus this essay will examine some of the possible contributions of these studies to a better understanding of Arab–Jewish relations in the region.
Prejudice Reduction, Approaches to
Authors: Paluck Elizabeth Levy
Published: November 2011

The body of research on prejudice is one of the largest in psychology. Research on prejudice has flourished from the very start of the discipline, which has resulted in a wide range of theories, measurement tools, and approaches to the reduction of prejudice. Across these many different studies, prejudice is commonly understood to mean a negative bias toward a social category of people, with cognitive, affective, motivational, and behavioral components.
Anglo‐Burmese Wars (1823–1826, 1852–1853, 1885–1886)
Authors: Peers Douglas M.
Published: November 2011

Three wars were fought between the British and the kings of Burma over the course of the nineteenth century, with the Burmese surrendering large swaths of territory at the conclusion of each war. The third and final war of 1885–1886 concluded with the deposition and exile of King Thibaw and the imposition of direct British rule over what is now Myanmar. Politically, all three wars proved to be highly controversial. The first war was the most expensive campaign fought to date in India and nearly resulted in the recall of the governor general (it also became the subject of a G. A. Henty novel, a clear sign of its notoriety), the second war was thought by many contemporaries to be one of the least justified small wars of the Victorian era and was hotly debated in parliament, and while the military operations of the third war were short and decisive, the subsequent campaigns by the British to pacify their newly annexed lands lasted four years and were marked by considerable brutality, the consequences of which are still visible today in the dysfunctional nature of the Burmese state.
Anglo‐Dutch Wars (1652–1654, 1665–1667, 1672–1674, 1780–1784)
Authors: Sicking Louis
Published: November 2011

The Anglo‐Dutch Wars sprang from commercial and maritime conflict. Using its superior navy, England challenged Dutch primacy in world trade, which it had acquired since the 1590s. The ability of the Dutch Republic to neutralize England's capacity to damage its shipping and trade was a precondition to the survival of the Dutch global trading network (Israel 1992: 210). These were the dynamics that dominated the first three Anglo‐Dutch Wars. The Fourth Anglo‐Dutch War stands apart as it took place more than a century after, when the Dutch Republic was past its prime, but still possessed the third largest merchant fleet in the world.
Anzac (Australian and New Zealand Army Corps)
Authors: Bou Jean
Published: November 2011

ANZAC, in the strictest sense, refers to the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, but as Anzac (with an initial capital followed by lower case) also has several other meanings and usages.
Artillery
Authors: Dastrup Boyd L.
Published: November 2011

During Operation Iraqi Freedom early in the twenty‐first century, American field artillery demonstrated its capability of being a precision weapon besides an area weapon of destruction as artillery had been for centuries. On September 9 and 10, 2005 the US army's B Battery, 3rd Battalion, 13th Field Artillery Regiment fired Guided Unitary Multiple‐Launch Rocket System rockets at Tal Afar, Iraq. Eight rockets destroyed two insurgent strongholds from a distance of fifty kilometers, killing 48 insurgents in the process. One day later, A Battery, 3rd Battalion, 13th Field Artillery shot six rockets at the Mish'al Bridge during Operation Sayaid to prevent insurgents in Al Anbar, Iraq, from using it. Both missions minimized collateral damage to almost non‐existent according to participants. Almost two years later on May 5, 2007, the 1st Cavalry Division conducted the first operational firing of the Excalibur Unitary, an extended‐range 155mm precision munition, when elements from the 1st Squadron, 7th Cavalry Regiment teamed with the 1st Battalion, 82nd Field Artillery Regiment to destroy an insurgent safe house in Bagdad with one Excalibur round.
Aztec warfare
Authors: Francis J. Michael
Published: November 2011

The term Aztec generally refers to a group of people known as the Mexica who migrated into the Valley of Mexico in the mid‐thirteenth century. Finding the central valley already densely occupied, the Mexica struggled to find a place to settle. Despised by the region's other inhabitants, the Mexica roamed the central valley in search of a place to build a permanent home. Finally, in the Aztec calendar year 2 House (1325), the Mexica founded their capital city, Tenochtitlan (“Place of the cactus fruit”), which they built on a small island in the middle of a swamp. From these humble beginnings, the Mexica slowly emerged as the most powerful group in Mexico's central valley, with Tenochtitlan as the region's largest and most impressive city. In 1428 the Mexica entered into a formal military and economic alliance with the neighboring cities of Texcoco and Tlacopan. All three city‐states agreed not to wage war against each other and to cooperate in military conquests of other towns. All tribute generated through these conquests was to be divided among the three allies, with a 2/5 share for the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, 2/5 for Texcoco, and the remaining 1/5 share to Tlacopan. This Triple Alliance, as it has come to be called, is more commonly labeled the Aztec Empire.
Baybars
I
(1223–1277)
Authors: May Timothy
Published: November 2011

Rukn al‐Din Baybars al‐Bunduqari (r. 1260–1277) was, without question, the most successful and perhaps most brilliant of the Mamluk sultans of Egypt and Syria. Brought into the Middle East as a slave, he emerged as a fierce scourge of the Crusaders and the kingdom of Cilicia (Little Armenia). In addition, he successfully defended Syria against the Mongols. His success lay not only in his cunning, but a series of military reforms that transformed the Mamluks into arguably the finest soldiers in the medieval world.
Brazilian Revolution (1930)
Authors: O'Neill Eoin
Published: November 2011

By the late 1920s, the political system in Brazil was characterized by an alternation of presidential power between the two largest states, São Paulo and Minas Gerais, commonly known as the “milk with coffee” system, due to the importance of these products in the two states. However, this succession system was broken by President Washington Luís, who was from São Paulo and insisted on selecting Júlio Prestes as the official candidate to replace him in the 1930 election, even though Prestes was also from São Paulo. Luís's decision alienated most of the political elite from Minas Gerais and other states, a rupture which the effects of the world economic crisis, especially on the coffee sector, further exacerbated. Another source of conflict was
tenentismo,
a political movement among lower‐ranking army officers aimed at democratizing the country and modernizing the armed forces. Although
tenentista
‐inspired revolts had been defeated in the 1920s, the movement continued to exert considerable influence on Brazilian political life. These conditions fueled the 1930 revolution, which resulted in the overthrow of the president of Brazil.
Bugeaud, Thomas‐Robert (1784–1849)
Authors: Tallett Frank
Published: November 2011

Bugeaud is sometimes referred to as the father of colonial warfare. Between the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the outbreak of World War I, and with the important exception of the Franco‐Prussian conflict, most French military activity was conducted overseas. Bugeaud played a pivotal role in adapting warfare to the different conditions found in the colonial theater. His example, and the principles that he enunciated in his writings based upon his experience in Algeria, had a profound influence on subsequent generations of soldiers, including two other specialists in counterinsurgency, Gallieni and Lyautey.
Bushidō
Authors: Friday Karl
Published: November 2011

Bushidō
(literally, “the way of the warrior”) is a perniciously emotion‐laden term. Both the word and the construct are most directly associated with the mores of the samurai during Japan's Tokugawa period (1600–1868), but this ethos is frequently averred to have derived directly from the values of medieval warriors, and to have guided the actions of the early twentieth‐century Japanese Imperial Army. All three assertions are, in fact, problematic.
Byzantine warfare
Authors: Haldon John
Published: November 2011

The term “Byzantine Empire” refers to the eastern Roman Empire from the fourth (or sixth, as some prefer) century to the fifteenth century, that is to say, from the time when a distinctively East Roman political formation began to evolve with the recognition of the cultural divisions between “Greek East” and “Latin West” in the empire's political structure, to the fall of Constantinople on May 29, 1453, at the hands of the Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II “Fatih,” “the Conqueror.” And although within this long period there were many substantial transformations, the elements of structural continuity are marked enough to permit such a broad chronological definition. Across this period, the “empire” went through a series of major territorial transformations—in the middle of the sixth century it was still a pan‐Mediterranean state, stretching from southeastern Spain to the Great Syrian Desert, and from the Alps and Danube River in the north to the Atlas mountains and upper Egypt in the south. The Arab conquests and the loss of the Balkans reduced it by the 660s to a rump state consisting of central and western Anatolia, the Aegean basin, and some littoral territories in the southern Balkans. Stabilization across the eighth and ninth centuries, combined with a changed external political situation, permitted expansion and reconquest of substantial territories from Islamic powers in the East and from the Bulgarians in the Balkans during the tenth century, but this was followed in the later eleventh century by implosion and a further shrinkage under both internal social—economic pressures and that from the Seljuk Turks in Anatolia. Under the Comnenian Dynasty from the 1080s until the 1180s, the situation was stabilized and some territory recovered from the Turks in Asia Minor. But the Fourth Crusade in 1204 ended this, and for its remaining twilight years the greatly reduced Byzantine state was an empire in name only, more often than not tributary to one or another of its more powerful neighbors.
Caesar, Gaius Julius (100–44
BCE
)
Authors: Gilliver Kate
Published: November 2011

Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman aristocrat, politician, and general who used his military success to gain political dominance during the closing years of the Roman Republic. His Gallic Wars represent one of the largest acquisitions of territory by a single Roman general and brought Caesar the wealth, prestige, and veteran army that allowed him to establish himself through force as dictator in Rome. Far‐reaching political and social reforms followed, until on the eve of leaving Rome for a campaign against the Parthians, Caesar was assassinated by a conspiracy of former enemies and allies.
Caste War of Yucatán (1847–1901)
Authors: England Shawn
Published: November 2011

The Caste War of Yucatán began in 1847 as US forces occupied Mexico's capital and controlled vast stretches of the nation's northern territories. The southern Mexican state of Yucatán was similarly poised to fall, but not to foreign invaders. The term “caste” (castain Spanish) was derived from Spain's race‐based imperial hierarchy. The apex was occupied by European‐born Spaniards (peninsulares), followed closely by US‐born Spaniards (criollos). The burgeoning indigenous Maya population (castas) comprised the bottom of Yucatan's social pyramid and formed the backbone of the colonial labor force in that region.
Castro, Fidel (b. 1926)
Authors: England Shawn
Published: November 2011

Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz was born on August 13, 1926, at Manacas, the Castro family's sugar and cattle estate in Oriente (now Hulguín) province, Cuba. He learned to read and write before the age of 5, and at age 16 he was sent to Havana's Belén College where he graduated in the top 10 percent of his class before attending law school at Havana University in 1945. Castro received a different sort of education in 1947 by taking part in an abortive scheme to invade the Dominican Republic and overthrow the dictator Rafael Leónidas Trujillo. This effort was carried out by the Caribbean Legion, an armed group of Latin American reformists inspired by the defeat of European fascism during World War II to similarly topple authoritarian regimes throughout the Caribbean.
Catherine
II
(“the Great”) (1729–1796)
Authors: Mikaberidze Alexander
Published: November 2011

Empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796, who expanded the Russian Empire and augmented its standing as one of the premier European powers in the late eighteenth century. Born on May 2, 1729 in Stettin (Prussia), she was the first daughter of Prince Christian August of Anhalt‐Zerbst (1690–1747) and Princess Johanna Elizabeth of Holstein‐Gottorp (1712–1760). A quirky and intelligent child, Sophia Augusta Fredericka received home education and read voraciously. In 1739 she was introduced to Prince Karl Peter Ulrich, the grandson of Emperor Peter I of Russia, at the court of Holstein‐Gottorp. Three years later the prince was invited to Russia, where his aunt Empress Elizabeth proclaimed him as her heir apparent and searched for an appropriate bride for him. Her choice finally settled on Princess Sophia, whose family and Frederick the Great of Prussia lobbied for her. In 1744 Sophia traveled to Russia, converted to Orthodoxy, and was renamed Catherine. A year later she married Peter, but the marriage proved to be unhappy largely due to the unstable personality of her husband, who might have suffered from impotency as well. Unlike her husband, Catherine quickly embraced Russian culture, mastered the language and customs, and sought friendships among the court elite.
C
harles
V
(Holy Roman Emperor) (1500–1558)
Authors: Bonney Richard
Published: November 2011

Elected as Holy Roman Emperor in 1519 at the age of 19, though crowned only in 1530, Charles V's territories were more extensive than those of any other ruler in Western Europe. At the height of his power around the year 1550, he ruled over 28 million or so of Europe's estimated population of 70 million.
Chichimecas War (1550–1590)
Authors: Tenace Edward
Published: November 2011

The Chichimecas War was the direct result of the influx of Spanish settlers into the Gran Chichimeca following the discovery of rich silver deposits near Zacatecas in 1546. This region in north‐central Mexico, which straddled the jurisdictions of New Galicia and New Spain, and was situated in the middle of the two Sierra Madre chains, had long resisted control by the sedentary peoples of Mesoamerica. The Spaniards appropriated the Nahuatl word
Chichimecas
(the literal translation is “dirty uncivilized dogs”) to describe the semi‐nomadic peoples who inhabited the desert regions to the north. The ensuing “silver rush,” which saw the rise of the bonanza city of Zacatecas, situated in the northern region of the Gran Chichimeca, led the indigenous peoples to resist Spanish encroachment in their territory.
Civilians in War
Authors: Primoratz Igor
Published: November 2011

We think of war as a conflict between soldiers, who have been trained, armed, and commanded to fight. Normally, civilians are neither equipped with arms nor trained in their use and sent out to fight. Yet virtually all wars have involved not only military, but also civilian casualties. Civilians have been killed and injured and their property has been destroyed, often on a large scale. Some of this killing and destruction has been accidental, caused by actions of soldiers directed at military targets which, as their unintended, unforeseen, and indeed unforeseeable consequences, bring about harm to civilians. In other cases, the harming of civilians has been incidental: inflicted as an unintended but foreseen side‐effect of attacks on military targets. In still other cases, civilians have been deliberately attacked, whether as a way of attaining some war aims or for reasons that have nothing to do with those aims.
Clovis
I
(ca. 466–511)
Authors: Wood Ian
Published: November 2011

Clovis was the first king to impose the rule of the Merovingian Dynasty over all the Frankish tribes. The kingdom he founded would prove to be the most enduring of all the successor states to be established in the territory of the West Roman Empire.
Comnenus, Alexius I (ca. 1055–1118)
Authors: Frankopan Peter
Published: November 2011

Alexius I Comnenus (or Alexios I Komnenos) rebuilt the Byzantine Empire in the wake of a series of disasters. In the decade before he seized the throne in 1071, Byzantium had lost control of vast tracts of territory in the East and the West, with Turks pouring into Asia Minor following the Battle of Manzikert (1071), and Normans bringing to an end centuries of imperial authority over southern Italy with the capture of Bari (1071). The empire had all but disintegrated in the years which followed, with one civil war after another and the economy collapsing to breaking point. Alexius's success lay first in stabilizing a precarious position, and second, in building a platform for the future.
Cossacks
Authors: Rourke Shane O'
Published: November 2011

In late 1864 Jefferson Davis, president of the Confederacy, sought to rally his demoralized forces, telling them that “The fate that befell the army of the French Empire in its retreat from Moscow will be re‐enacted. Our cavalry and our people will harass and destroy his army, as did the Cossacks with Napoleon, and the Yankee general, like him, will escape only with a bodyguard” (McPherson 2003: 810). No introduction or further explanation was necessary, for the Cossacks had long been a byword for heroic warriors across the globe. That global reputation was forged in the service the Cossacks had provided to the Russian Empire in its various wars and, above all, in the destruction of the Grande Armée in 1812. The Cossack military tradition was, however, already centuries old by this point and was rooted in the world of the steppe and the nomadic Turkic peoples who lived there.
Crossbow
Authors: Gervase Phillips
Published: November 2011

The crossbow is a projectile weapon composed of a bow (or lath) attached horizontally to a stock, along which runs a groove from which the bolt or quarrel (a missile of about 40 centimeters in length) is shot. The bow string is drawn down the stock and held in place, as the weapon is aimed, by a nut protruding from the top of the stock, which can then be released by a simple trigger mechanism.
Crusade, Second (1147–1149)
Authors: Marvin Laurence W.
Published: November 2011

To see the Second Crusade as merely a sequel to the First Crusade is to ignore that its inspiration, preaching, leadership, course, and result differed greatly from its eleventh‐century ancestor. Numbered only by modern scholars, the Second Crusade has drawn less scholarly attention than the other major Crusades. This is because of the nature of the source material and the Crusade's ambiguous outcome. Twelfthcentury writers were reluctant to talk about a movement begun with such promise yet which seemingly accomplished so little.
Crusade, Fourth (1202–1204)
Authors: Laurence W. Marvin
Published: November 2011

The Fourth Crusade had its beginnings because of the Third Crusade's failure to regain Jerusalem after its fall in 1187. When Innocent III became pope in 1198, he made recovery of Jerusalem a top priority as he preached a new Crusade. After more than a century of Crusades, Muslim states were well aware of the Crusaders' goal. From the start the Crusade planners opted for an unexpected target, hoping to exchange it for Jerusalem. The organizers initially planned to capture Alexandria in Egypt, a city of great economic importance in the Muslim world. On paper this Crusade was to be well organized, though for a variety of personal and political reasons no other monarch joined except for Enrico Dandolo, doge of the Venetian state. Several of the leading nobles of France sent envoys to Venice to act on their behalf in 1201. The most notable was Geoffrey of Villehardouin, marshal of Champagne. He wrote a first‐hand account from the treaty negotiations with Venice until after Constantinople's conquest in 1204.
De Gaulle, Charles (1890–1970)
Authors: Cogan Charles
Published: November 2011

Charles de Gaulle was born at Lille on November 22, 1890. He was the fourth, and the tallest (6 ft 5 ins) in a family of four boys and one girl. The family some generations back belonged to the so‐called
noblesse de robe
, not blood nobility but rather those who were given juridical‐related positions under the French kings. De Gaulle's father, Henri, was a history teacher in a French lycée, a position of dignity and prestige traditionally in France. He was a teacher in a Jesuit school, which necessitated the young Charles migrating for a year to Belgium to continue his studies, following the anti‐clerical laws in France passed in 1905.
Dionysius I (432–367 BCE)
Authors: Bearzot Cinzia
Published: November 2011

Dionysius, son of Hermocritus and member of the faction of his father‐in‐law Hermocrates, the Syracusan oligarchic leader and aspiring tyrant who died in 407 BCE, was a cultivated, talented, and ambitious man. He turned into a tyrant in 406/5 when the assembly granted him the title ofstrategos autokratorfor the war against the Carthaginians who were menacing Syracuse. Assisted by mercenaries, Dionysius transformed the office of strategos into a form of tyranny characterized by strong military support and by a direct relationship with the population and the army. As common in the tradition of the Siceliots ever since the Dinomenids, Dionysius employed mercenaries on a large scale, whose service he won by his charisma as a military leader, by awarding them lands (taken from the Chalcidian cities of Naxos, Leontini, and Catana), and by allowing citizenship rights.
Dmitrii Donskoi (1350–1389)
Authors: John Lind
Published: November 2011

In 1359, at the age of 9, Dmitrii succeeded his father on the Muscovite throne. Three years later Dmitrii, supported by the Russian Church, managed to be given the title and office of grand prince of Vladimir by the Mongol khan, who presumably saw the youngster as a minor threat to Mongol domination. As grand prince, Dmitrii was responsible for collecting taxes to the Mongols from all the Russian principalities, which, if necessary, he could enforce with the help of Mongol forces. It gave him supreme authority among the Russian princes and also allowed him to cash in on his own behalf. Nevertheless, during his early years he had to fight off more senior rivals for the title of grand prince, just as he had to defend himself against constant inroads from fast‐expanding Lithuania. However, Dmitrii proved a skillful politician, and during the 1370s he was able to create alliances with other Russian princes, who had formerly opposed him. By then Dmitrii must also have felt ready to challenge the Mongols.
Egyptian Revolution (1952)
Authors: Witty David M.
Published: November 2011

The Egyptian Revolution of 1952 ended foreign domination of Egypt and marked the first time that Egyptians would rule themselves since the pharaohs. The revolution, carried out by military officers led by Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser, would change Egypt by ending British occupation and the rule of Ottoman elites, and by establishing economic socialism. More importantly, Nasser would lead the Arab world under the banner of Pan‐Arabism, which aimed to unite all Arabs. Israel's decisive defeat of Egypt in the Six‐Day War of June 1967 marked the end of the Nasser era.
Faidherbe, Louis (1818–1889)
Authors: Barnett Singer
Published: November 2011

Louis Léon César Faidherbe was an enlightened French imperial administrator and an accomplished military figure. He influenced the actions of future French proconsuls abroad, such as Generals Joseph Galliéni and Hubert Lyautey, and French imperial efforts more generally. Under Napoleon III's Second Empire, Faidherbe spearheaded a great push eastward from French bases on the Senegalese coast, leading eventually (if partly by improvisation of later military men) to creation of a huge French West Africa. In so doing, Faidherbe overcame dictatorial Islamic empires and groups in western Africa, both by brutal methods of colonial warfare learned during his time under Thomas‐Robert Bugeaud in Algeria in the 1840s, and by protective fairness, security, and improved infrastructure. A dedicated scholar of African languages, Faidherbe was an authentic intellectual, as well as a soldier of quality and respected administrator; and some historians emphasize his cultured side (e.g., Rivallain 2006: 143–149). Learning from his military experiences in Africa, he became one of the most capable French generals during the Franco‐Prussian War of 1870–1871. He is also renowned as the founder of a celebrated French colonial military corps, the Tirailleurs Sénégalais.
Female combatants
Authors: Goldstein Joshua S.
Published: November 2011

Female combatants are women soldiers serving in fighting roles in uniformed or irregular military forces. Women across cultures and through time have rarely participated in war as combatants. However, when they have fought, women have performed well. Important cases include the nineteenth‐century Dahomey kingdom, the Soviet Union in World War II, various irregular forces, and US forces in Iraq and Afghanistan.
Fornovo, Battle of (1495)
Authors: Mantovani Sergio
Published: November 2011

The first part of the French invasion of Italy in 1494–1495 was a success. The Italian states, politically divided as they were, found no unity to stop the young French king, Charles VIII, in his descent towards southern Italy. In February 1495 Charles conquered Naples. A month later Milan, Venice, the pope, Spain, and Emperor Maximilian I formed a league against France. In the second half of May the French began an inland retreat toward their country, leaving some detachments to defend Naples and its conquered kingdom.
Fortifications, Development of
Authors: Murray Nicholas
Published: November 2011

Fortification exists for a reason. It is used because there is a threat of some sort, whether perceived or real. Without that threat, there would be no need to spend time and resources constructing defenses. Ever since humankind emerged, one of the main problems faced was that of protecting vital resources. Once early humans started to settle, as agriculture began to supersede hunter gathering, they were increasingly also concerned with protecting the resources they had accumulated. Fortifications do this. They also provide more than a mere barrier to an enemy. They fulfill a number of purposes: they act as a force multiplier, allowing fewer troops to engage larger numbers of the enemy, or poorer quality troops to stand and fight. Fortifications provide a secure base and help to secure, or control, lines of communications. They provide, and reinforce, key tactical and strategic points. Further, they protect or dominate an area and they provide physical protection for troops manning them (Murray 2007: 28). There are myriad examples of the above uses, ranging from the Great Wall of China, to the Roman fortifications along the Danube River, and to fortified home sites such as the brochs in Scotland. It should not be forgotten that they can also fulfill a political role; fortifications demonstrate control, and they can act as a symbol of power.
Frederick Barbarossa (1122–1190)
Authors: Holger Berwinkel
Published: November 2011

It might seem curious to rank the Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick I Barbarossa among the most important military leaders of his age, since many of his ventures were unsuccessful. But for almost forty years, Frederick dominated the scene and employed large military resources in pursuit of ambitious goals with considerable skill, though political reasons and tactical misfortune often thwarted his plans. His career illustrates the potential and the limits of strategy in the central Middle Ages.
French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802)
Authors: Forrest Alan
Published: November 2011

It may seem a supreme paradox that a revolution which preached the liberty of humankind should have devoted so much of its energy to waging war. Less than three years, indeed, after the Estates‐General assembled at Versailles, Europe was plunged into a conflict that would last, with only a short truce at Amiens, until Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo, 23 years later. The first phase of that conflict, from 1792 until 1802, is usually referred to as the French Revolutionary Wars.
Fuller, Major General John Frederick Charles (1878–1966)
Authors: Holiden Reid Brian
Published: November 2011

A pioneering military thinker, Fuller was born on September 1, 1878 in Chichester, Sussex. He was educated at Malvern College and the Royal Military College Sandhurst, and in 1898 commissioned into the 1st Battalion, Oxfordshire Light Infantry. Fuller saw service in Ireland, South Africa (1899–1902), and India (1903–1906). On returning to England he befriended the occultist, Aleister Crowley; his first book,
The Star in the West
(1907), discusses Crowley's mystical poetry. The mysteries of “hidden wisdom” were a lifelong pre‐occupation. Also in 1906 he married Margarethe Augusta Karnatz (d. 1968), always known as Sonia.
Galliéni, General Joseph (1849–1916)
Authors: Greenhalgh Elizabeth
Published: November 2011

A well‐known and respected figure in France's nineteenth‐century colonial expansion, General Galliéni came out of retirement on the outbreak of war in 1914 and served as military governor of Paris and later as minister of war until his death in May 1916. He exemplifies both the rivalries in the French army during World War I and the struggle to achieve a satisfactory balance in civil—military relations in wartime.
Gamelin, General Maurice (1872–1958)
Authors: Singer Barnett
Published: November 2011

Maurice Gamelin is best known as commander in chief of the French army in 1940, and as such, considered one key reason that France fell so quickly to the lightning German invasion beginning May 10 of that year. Though replaced by General Maxime Weygand on May 19, many feel that Gamelin's weak leadership and strategic errors had already made the defeat inevitable.
German Unification, Wars of (1864–1871)
Authors: Wawro Geoffrey
Published: November 2011

Germany was not a nation until 1871. Napoleon Bonaparte had abolished the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and carved the German space into French‐allied satellite states. At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the victorious powers returned Germany to Austrian and Prussian control. Prussia absorbed the French satellite states on the Rhine, and Austria assumed the presidency of a new German Confederation orBundof 39 states. TheBund's mission was largely negative: not to unite the three dozen German states, but to deny their wealth and resources to a single great power. Hateful to German nationalists, the “confederation of princes” was nevertheless a pillar of the European balance of power.
Glyn Dŵr, Owain (Owen Glendower) (1359–1416)
Authors: Brough Gideon
Published: November 2011

Born of Welsh noble lineage in Powys ca. 1359, Owain was a warrior and one of Europe's great guerilla leaders who, briefly, overthrew English rule in Wales. Although lauded by bards and poets as Wales's savior from occupation, Owain displayed no early appetite for revolt. He studied law at the Inns of Court in London and fought under English colors, twice in Scotland and finally in Flanders in 1387 under the earl of Arundel. Owain then sought quiet retirement in Powys.
Golden Spurs, Battle of the (1302)
Authors: DeVries Kelly
Published: November 2011

For several years King Philip IV (the Fair) of France had faced rebellion in his very wealthy Low Countries' County of Flanders, fueled mostly by the citizens of the larger towns desiring more political and economic sovereignty. Even imprisoning the count, Guy de Dampierre, had not quelled Flemish ardor. In May 1302 the king named one of his military leaders, James, Count of St. Pol, as governor of the county and sent him, with his chief advisor and negotiator, Pierre Flote, and an armed force, into Bruges to negotiate a peace with the townspeople.
Great Game in Asia
Authors: Siegel Jennifer
Published: November 2011

The Great Game was the competition between the British and Russian empires for dominance in central Asia in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
Greco‐Turkish War (1897)
Authors: Pizzo David
Published: November 2011

The Greco‐Turkish War, also referred to as the Thirty Days' War, was an armed conflict fought between the Kingdom of Greece and the Ottoman Empire. The war began initially over the unresolved issue of the island of Crete, with which many Greeks desired
enosis
, or union. The war represented the debut of the armed forces of independent Greece. While the conflict was ultimately a military disaster for the Greek Kingdom, it did result in special, autonomous status for the island under a Greek high commissioner. The Cretan revolt that provoked the conflict and the war itself also profoundly changed the ethnic composition of the island, which until that point had been a point of contention between Greece and the Ottomans in a manner similar to that presented by Cyprus in the twentieth century.
Greek Civil War (1944–1949)
Authors: Pizzo David
Published: November 2011

The Greek Civil War was a conflict fought between communist and anti‐communist forces in Greece in the wake of World War II. It resembled struggles elsewhere in Europe that followed liberation from Axis rule, though it stands out in terms of its intensity and destructiveness. “The Greek civil war was Europe's bloodiest conflict between 1945 and the breakup of Yugoslavia, and a turning point in the Cold War” (Mazower 2001: 7). The war ended in a victory for royalist and anti‐communist forces and determined the balance of power in the Aegean for the rest of the Cold War.
Haganah
Authors: Bregman Ahron
Published: November 2011

Haganah, which means “Defense” in Hebrew, was a Jewish underground militia in British‐ruled Palestine. It was established in June 1920 following Arab attacks on the
Yishuv,
the Jewish community in Palestine, and it was aimed at providing the Palestinian Jewish community with a self‐defense organization that could reduce dependency on the British army for protection. The first volunteers to join the Haganah were mostly veterans of the Jewish Legion and Zion Mule Corps, who had fought with the British in World War I, and veterans of the Ha'shomer organization that had been formed in Palestine in 1907 to guard Jewish settlements.
Huerta, Victoriano (1850–1916)
Authors: Herrera José María
Published: November 2011

Victoriano Huerta was a general in the Mexican army during the regime of Porfirio Díaz and subsequently served as the president of Mexico from February 1913 until his resignation on July 15, 1914. Huerta was born to Mexican Indian parents in the town of Colotla‘ n in the central state of Jalisco. Little is known of his childhood education and experiences, although it can be discerned that he was of above‐average intelligence and had some measure of leadership skills. He entered military service in 1869 as an aide to General Donato Guerra.
Innocent IV, Pope (ca. 1200–1254)
Authors: Neff Stephen.C
Published: November 2011

Sinibaldo Fieschi was born, around 1200, into a Genoese noble family. In 1243 he became Pope Innocent IV. In this Golden Age of lawyer–popes, he was the most learned of all. Prior to his elevation to the papacy, he taught canon law at the University of Bologna and also served as a judge in the papal curia, becoming particularly prominent in the pontificate of Pope Gregory IX. He became cardinal–priest and vice‐chancellor in 1227, then governor of the March of Ancona (a papal possession) before being elected to the see of St. Peter. During his papacy he completed his major legal work, which was a commentary on the decretals of his predecessor, Gregory IX. He continued to work in a dual capacity as pope, doing commentaries as a scholar on legislation which he himself promulgated as pope.
Jingoism
Authors: Miller Stephen M.
Published: November 2011

Among the more important transformations to take place in nineteenth‐century Europe was the development of an aggressive ethnic chauvinism, often coupled with the new Social Darwinist rhetoric of the day, which partnered with willing conservative governments and a mass market whose newspaper publishers discovered that they could influence policy while turning a profit at the same time. The language of this new patriotism was utilized by politicians like British prime minister Benjamin Disraeli to sell a political, economic, and social agenda, traditionally embraced by the landed classes, to an everwidening electorate. Many in Great Britain who had rejected the growing militarism found on the Continent in the wake of the Franco‐Prussian War (1870–1871) now shamelessly lauded its virtues, tying it to a British exceptionalism and a new imperialism, which saw the rapid expansion of their overseas empire. “Jingoism” was the term used to describe this cultural phenomenon by those who feared the culmination of these forces and felt the middle and working classes were being unfairly manipulated by the Conservatives against their own self‐interest.