bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
RETRIEVAL TIME IN SHORT‐TERM MEMORY
Authors: WAUGH NANCY C.
Published: April 2011

Two experiments were performed in order to test the hypothesis that the time taken to remember a recently presented verbal item depends on whether the item is retrieved from primary (immediate post‐perceptual) or from secondary (relatively long‐term) memory. The results indicate that retrieval from primary memory takes significantly less time than retrieval from secondary, and that an item available in both stores is retrieved from the former (after a relatively short delay).
THE SEMANTIC FUNCTION OF NEGATIVES AND PASSIVES
Authors: GREENE JUDITH M.
Published: April 2011

The hypothesis was tested that syntactic constructions would be easier to deal with when they were being used for their natural semantic function rather than for an unnatural function. The experimental task required subjects to decide whether pairs of sentences had the same or a different meaning. The results confirmed the prediction that deciding about pairs of affirmative and negative sentences would be relatively facilitated when the negative was performing its natural function of signalling a change of meaning. In contrast, performance was facilitated when pairs of active and passive sentences had the same meaning. These results are discussed in connexion with the relation between syntactic competence and semantic context.
THE PREDICTION AND ACQUISITION OF SEQUENTIAL PATTERNS OF BINARY EVENTS
Authors: DERKS PETER L. , HOUSE JOYCE L.
Published: April 2011

Patterns of events 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 event runs in length with average run lengths of 2, 3, 4 and 6 events were learned by 16 practised subjects. Increased difficulty was most clearly related to an increase in runs per sequence rather than the sequence length per se, although the generality of the effect is limited. Initial prediction strategies were maintained throughout the acquisition of simple sequences. The more difficult sequences, however, went through several stages of increased prediction accuracy. The elimination of errors on specific events in sequences showed evidence for strategic behaviour (i.e. consistent prediction) only on the relatively short or the relatively difficult sequences. For individual subjects efficient acquisition correlated with consistent response strategies and with a measure of ‘insight’ in acquisition. Response strategy and ‘insight’ did not correlate significantly with each other, however.
ON EXPECTANCY AND AVERAGE REACTION TIME
Authors: THOMAS EWART A. C.
Published: April 2011

The notion of expectancy has often been used in explanations of the relationship between foreperiod variability and simple reaction time. Two interpretations of the notion are distinguished: one is that expectancy or expectancy level is a moment in time, and the other is that expectancy is a regular function of time. The latter interpretation is adopted and it is shown that if expectancy is defined as the conditional probability of signal occurrence, then average reaction time would be linearly related to mean foreperiod duration. It is argued that this result can serve as a basis for unifying apparently diverse explanations of the reaction time—foreperiod relationship. Experimental data are presented which are consistent with the view of expectancy proposed in this paper.
ELECTRIC SHOCK AND RATS' PREFERENCE FOR THE FAMILIAR ARM OF A MAZE
Authors: AITKEN P. P. , SHELDON M. H.
Published: April 2011

Hooded rats were habituated to one arm and the stem of a T‐maze while being able to observe the other arm through a glass door (one arm was black and the other white). In a subsequent free choice trial when both arms were of similar albedo to the habituated arm fewer shocked than unshocked rats chose the novel arm. During an observation period following initial choice it was found that shocked rats spent significantly more time in the habituated arm.
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE TARGETS IN VISUAL SEARCH
Authors: BROWN ROBERT , CHICK GEOFFREY
Published: April 2011

Subjects searched through letter‐arrays to find either the one row which contained a critical letter (positive target) or the one row which did not contain that letter (negative target). Search times for negative targets were significantly longer than for positive targets, a finding similar to one by Neisser (1963). Neisser's explanation of this difference was tested by separating total search time into time required for processing target and non‐target rows, and was found not to be fully satisfactory. Both of these time components were found to be greater for the negative task, while on Neisser's hypothesis the reverse should have been found for target processing time. A revised explanation is proposed which takes into account the relatively greater complexity of the ‘target’ as defined in the negative task.
DISCRIMINATION LEARNING AND THE STUDY OF TRANSFER IN YOUNG CHILDREN
Authors: BRYANT P. E.
Published: April 2011

In discrimination learning experiments the location and dimension of distinctive cues are typically confounded. This raises the possibility that what has been described as dimensional transfer may be transfer of a response to a specific location within the visual display. This possibility was investigated in two experiments in which young children were subjects. In the first experiment it was shown that young children are able to transfer on the basis of the location of the relevant cues within the visual display. In the second experiment the strengths of dimensional and locational transfer were directly compared. Five‐year‐old children showed stronger locational than dimensional transfer, while 7‐year‐olds showed only dimensional transfer.
CHILDREN'S JUDGEMENTS OF DURATION
Authors: HERMELIN B. M. , O'CONNOR N.
Published: April 2011

The ability of young children to distinguish a short from a long duration signal was investigated. The findings were: (1) Though children do not tend to orientate spontaneously towards a temporal stimulus dimension, such orientation increases with specific instructions. (2) The difference between the ability to make non‐temporal as compared with temporal judgements is more marked when visual than when auditory stimuli are given. (3) Duration of lights as well as sounds is judged more efficiently when the stimuli are presented simultaneously rather than successively. This is in contrast to the results from non‐temporal judgements, particularly where tones are concerned. Pitch discrimination is easiest when the two tones to be discriminated are heard one after the other.
REMINISCENCE IN PAIRED‐ASSOCIATE LEARNING
Authors: DEY MUKUL K.
Published: April 2011

Using lists of six tone‐word pairs, two degrees of intra‐list stimulus similarity were factorially combined with three rest pauses (0, 2 and 4 min.) interpolated after the attainment of criterion 4/6. The recalls on the first two post‐rest trials reflect a depressive rather than facilitative influence of rest pause. However, the analyses of post‐rest trials to criterion 6/6 have revealed that significant facilitation occurred only when the length of rest pause was 2 min. and stimulus similarity was high. The latter fact proves that a reminiscence effect resembling the Ward–Hovland phenomenon is obtainable in paired‐associate learning provided the similarity among stimuli is high enough. The results appear to be best explained by a theory of paired‐associate learning which postulates a temporally labile competition‐generated inhibitory potential.
CONDITIONED EMOTIONAL RESPONSE PHENOMENA AND BRAIN STIMULATION
Authors: HAWORTH JOHN T.
Published: April 2011

Electrodes were implanted into the septal region in one group of rats and into the lateral hypothalamic region in another group. After stabilizing for lever‐pressing rates on a variable interval (VI) schedule for brain stimulation, each group was split into two. One group of septal and one group of hypothalamic animals were given the conditioning procedure for a CER whilst they could not obtain brain stimulation, and the other groups were given the conditioning procedure whilst they were lever‐pressing for brain stimulation. Manifestation of the CER was tested whilst the animals were bar‐pressing for brain stimulation and it was found possible to condition a CER in all of the animals. A second experiment, using one of the hypothalamic groups, showed that the CER was still manifest on a faster VI schedule, the same as that used for the septal animals. A third experiment, using one of the hypothalamic groups, showed that when the group was on a CRF schedule the CER was significantly attenuated even though it was later manifest on a VI schedule. This work indicates that the CER technique using brain stimulation reinforcement should prove useful for, amongst other things, the study of the interaction between motivation and conditioned emotional responses; also that comparisons between different brain loci for CER phenomena should be based on parametric studies of schedule of reinforcement and current intensity, etc.
PREFERENCE FOR NON‐OBJECTIVE ART: PERSONAL AND PSYCHOSOCIAL DETERMINERS*
Authors: ROUBERTOUX P. , CARLIER M. , CHAGUIBOFF J.
Published: April 2011

The criteria of representational v. non‐representational art were used to construct a scale of aesthetic preference which was found to be consistent and reliable. By the use of this scale, two groups of subjects were obtained: SN who showed preference for non‐representational art, and SR who showed preference for representational art. SN showed higher mean scores than SR on the three scales of the 16 PF (dominance, dependent character, conservatism) and on the scale of globalism of approach. The socio‐cultural background of the SN's family was found to be significantly lower than that of SR.
DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF IRRELEVANT DIMENSIONS IN THREE SHAPE RECOGNITION TASKS
Authors: COHEN GILLIAN
Published: April 2011

Three shape recognition tasks are examined: matching two shapes, matching a written name to a shape, and naming shapes orally. In each the relevant dimension is shape, but the irrelevant dimensions of colour, orientation and proportion are varied. The effect of changes in the irrelevant dimensions in each task is used to infer the degree of specificity present in the internalized standard against which the test stimulus is matched. The fact that name–visual matches resemble visual–visual matches rather than naming latencies indicates that comparison in this task is based on a generated visual code.
HAPTIC AESTHETIC VALUE OF THE GOLDEN SECTION
Authors: HINTZ J. M. , NELSON T. M.
Published: April 2011

The study re‐examined the finding that blind and sighted subjects haptically perceiving various rectangular proportions, including the golden section, preferred the square as most pleasing. While rectangular preferences of congenitally blind subjects questioned the existence of the golden section as a haptically satisfying figure, the preferences of late blind and sighted subjects generally confirmed the haptic aesthetic value of the golden section. The results thus indicated that the haptic perception of the golden rectangle as aesthetically pleasing is contingent on contact with the visual world.
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN INCIDENTAL LEARNING
Authors: SHEEHAN PETER W.
Published: April 2011

Incidental (INC) and intentional (INT) subjects were given one of two orientating tasks requiring response to 18 high‐imagery (I) and 18 low‐imagery (N‐I) noun stimuli equated for m and frequency of usage. The subjects either responded with a set to image stimuli at inspection (IMG set) or responded to stimuli in terms of their familiarity (FAM set). Independent groups of 18 subjects were allocated to each of the four experimental conditions and groups were equated for sex of the subject; the subjects were tested for free recall and recognition of I and N‐I stimuli. It was predicted that if imagery plays a special role in INC learning, the difference in recall of I and N‐I words would be greater for INC as compared to INT learning. The hypothesis was supported for FAM set in recognition where I and N‐I stimuli were most differentiated. Type of orientating task was related to the presence or absence of the predicted effect.
SITUATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF OPEN‐FIELD BEHAVIOUR IN MUS MUSCULUS
Authors: BLIZARD DAVID A.
Published: April 2011

A cross of eight inbred lines of albino mice was made in order to construct a heterogeneous sample representative of the laboratory species. An experiment incorporating the factors of light, noise, arena size, sex and days was performed using an open‐field test standardized on the rat. The results obtained were compared with previous findings on inbred lines and F1s. Ambulation was markedly affected by most independent variables, whilst defaecation seemed less sensitive in relation to them. The utility of multiple crosses of inbred lines is discussed.
SEMANTICS IN THE PERCEPTION OF VERTICALITY
Authors: CHASE WILLIAM G. , CLARK HERBERT H.
Published: April 2011

Seymour has shown recently that people take less time to judge that the word above correctly describes the spatial position of a small circle drawn above a large reference square than they do for the word below and the circle below the square. Seymour has attributed this asymmetry to the tendency for people to invariably scan a picture from top to bottom. In the present study, the first experiment confirms Seymour's results, but the next three demonstrate that the asymmetry Seymour found cannot be accounted for by an attentional‐scanning process. Instead, it is proposed that people interpret the words above and below as abstract symbols at a first stage of processing, interpret the pictures above and below as abstract symbols at an independent second stage, and compare these two sets of symbols at an independent third stage. In support of this model, the results show, for example, that above is interpreted about 80 msec. faster than below at the first stage quite independently of what happens at the second and third stages. The asymmetry Seymour found is therefore attributable to the difference in the interpretation times of above and below at the first stage of processing.
THE PINMEN RECALL TEST AS A MEASURE OF THE INDIVIDUAL
Authors: CLARKE P. R. F.
Published: April 2011

The Pinmen Recall Test, an instrument developed in an experimental demonstration of repression, is examined for its applicability as a measure of the individual. Questions are raised about the factors which determine the order in which a subject recalls a set of materials on more than one occasion. The first experiment involved eight subjects in an eight‐fold short‐term retest design. The second was a single test–retest study using 20 subjects, all retested at different time intervals. Both studies used balanced orders of presentation and both showed that order of presentation affects order of recall. In both, individual consistency was poor, although group patterns emerged strongly. These group patterns were similar to those found in earlier studies of women students. The material of the second study was examined in the light of a psychiatrist's opinion about what would disturb the individual subject: order of recall did not appear to be related to that opinion.
LONG‐TERM RETENTION AND TRANSFER OF AN INDUSTRIAL SEARCH SKILL
Authors: DUNCAN K. D.
Published: April 2011

The classical finding that transfer, compared with retention, is relatively stable over long periods of time was investigated using a fault‐location task. Following initial, unaided searching, the subject practised fault location with the help of a decision tree specifying the most efficient search sequences. Instructions explained that the subject might subsequently be asked to find faults in a system where the failure probabilities and test costs would be different (the transfer task), and that, besides learning the specific decision tree test sequences, he should attempt to learn more general search strategy. Subjects' performance was measured on one subsequent occasion, either on the training task or on the transfer task, after an interval of either 6, 58 or 182 days. There was a significant decrement in retention but not in transfer. All retention and transfer means were significantly superior to untrained controls. When subjects were divided into high‐ and low‐ability groups (where ability is measured by the efficiency of unaided fault location before training), significant decrement was found only in retention of low‐ability groups. No significant decrements were found in retention of high‐ability groups, or in transfer at either ability level. It is argued that stability of training effects over time depends not so much on whether the criterion is retention or transfer as on the extent to which the subject learns general search strategy, which is well remembered, as distinct from specific search routines, which are more quickly forgotten. A simple law of exercise may explain the superior retention of general strategies over specific response sequences.
SOME FINDINGS RELEVANT TO THE HYPOTHESIS THAT TOPOLOGICAL SPATIAL FEATURES ARE DIFFERENTIATED PRIOR TO EUCLIDEAN FEATURES DURING GROWTH
Authors: COUSINS DONALD , ABRAVANEL EUGENE
Published: April 2011

The Piaget & Inhelder hypothesis that topological spatial features are differentiated prior to Euclidean features ontogenetically was tested with samples of children between 3 1/2 and 5 1/2 years. On a comparative similarity task, subjects indicated which of two comparison figures differing in topological and Euclidean features looked ‘most like’ a standard figure possessing some features in common with either comparison. At all ages, the majority of similarity judgements were in terms of Euclidean features. This was especially true for the more highly familiar figures. In general, the findings do not support the Piaget & Inhelder hypothesis, but some trends in the data are consistent with a modified form of their hypothesis.
ELATION
Authors: STRONGMAN K. T. , WOOKEY P. E. , REMINGTON R. E.
Published: April 2011

The concept of elation is defined as a non‐instrumental change in the vigour of responding brought about by an upward shift in conditions of reward. It is seen that this reward change could be contingent or non‐contingent on behaviour; it could be signalled or unsignalled; and the changed reward could be the same or different in quantity and/or quality from that which went before. Studies under the eight categories suggested by this analysis are reviewed with special reference to the emotional, rather than instrumental, components of behaviour following reward shift. The review strongly indicates that although the various experimental approaches which are considered have reward increase as a common theme, the effects from study to study are disparate. This suggests that future research would profit from parametric analyses of the individual procedures.
WORD ASSOCIATION, ASSOCIATIVE STRUCTURE AND MANIFEST ANXIETY
Authors: INNES JOHN M.
Published: April 2011

Undergraduate subjects gave continuous associations to four stimulus words varying in connotation and abstractness. Subjects scoring high and low on the Manifest Anxiety Scale were selected; these subjects then gave continuous associations to their first five responses to each of the original stimulus words. A measure of inter‐item associative strength was obtained for each of the original stimuli. The highly anxious subjects' associations to the words with positive connotation were found to be more cohesive than these subjects' associations to the words with negative connotation. No such difference was found for low‐anxiety subjects nor was any difference found between associative structures for words varying in abstractness. The results were taken to suggest that the structure of associations to stimulus words may be an important variable in accounting for personality differences in word‐association behaviour.
EXTRAVERSION‐INTROVERSION, NEUROTICISM AND THE EEG: BASAL AND RESPONSE MEASURES DURING HABITUATION OF THE ORIENTING RESPONSE
Authors: GALE ANTHONY , COLES MICHAEL , KLINE PAUL , PENFOLD VALERIE
Published: April 2011

Occipital EEG was monitored during habituation trials to a regularly presented auditory stimulus. The subjects were selected in accordance with a factorial design which varied extraversion–introversion and neuroticism independently. A double‐blind procedure was adopted for recording, scoring and statistical analysis. The EEG of extraverts and introverts was not differentiable; however, high neurotic groups were shown to have significantly greater EEG abundance than low neurotic groups across several frequency bands. There were no readily explicable interactions between the personality variables. For all subjects, two distinct response patterns appeared: (i) EEG attenuation (trials 1–3) and (ii) EEG augmentation (trials 4–20). Recovery time from stimulation may be longer than 10 sec. Both attenuation and augmenting responses are subject to the law of initial values. There were no differences in response amplitude or in speed of habituation for the personality groups.
DIVERGENT THINKING: A COMPLEX FUNCTION OF INTERACTING DIMENSIONS OF EXTRAVERSION‐INTROVERSION AND NEUROTICISM‐STABILITY*
Authors: DI SCIPIO WILLIAM J.
Published: April 2011

Divergent thinking was measured by word fluency and word originality in a sample of 300 university students. After controlling for verbal intelligence, divergent thinking was found to be a complex function of extraversion–introversion and neuroticism–stability. Stable extraverts were significantly more fluent than stable introverts, but neurotic extraverts and introverts attained fluency scores approximating the mean of the extreme stable counterparts. The effect is explained in terms of Eysenck's arousal theory of personality types.
NEW TESTS OF MUSICAL APTITUDE
Authors: DAVIES J. B.
Published: April 2011

Existing tests of musical ability, with the exception of the Seashore battery (1919), have made extensive use of musical material. Since the musical experience of individuals may differ in extent and type, some experiential bias may result. In the present study, a new series of tests of musical aptitude is described which makes no use of formal musical material, but which involves non‐musical or quasi‐musical forms. Analysis of results obtained with the tests suggests that such an approach is feasible, and that the battery operates in a meaningful and consistent manner.
SEMANTIC CONSTRAINTS ON LOCATION OPERATIONS IN SIMPLE SENTENCES
Authors: KENNEDY ALAN
Published: April 2011

Subjects were timed in their recognition responses to single words taken from short active sentences. The pool of stimuli included items which were synonyms of words present in the sentence, or items which would make a meaningful insertion into the sentence frame. The response latencies derived from this study suggest a general ‘priming’ effect on near associates of critical words, this being constrained by the function of the sentence as a whole. Synonymous verbs were rejected relatively rapidly, but the latency to reject nouns differed for those relating to the subject of the sentence (which were slow), and those relating to the object (which were fast). These effects are discussed in terms of the varying degrees of ‘definition’ of the subject, verb and object of the sentences.
ART PREFERENCE AND PERSONALITY
Authors: ROSENBLUH EDWARD S. , OWENS GEORGE B. , POHLER MARTIN J.
Published: April 2011

The neuroticism factor of personality was compared with the romantic/classical dimension of art. Twenty‐five male and 25 female college students between 19 and 24 years of age participated. Subjects chose their preferred selection of each of 11 pairs of paintings, which had been rated by art specialists on a romanticism scale, and completed the Maudsley Personality Inventory as an index of neuroticism. Subjects choosing Romantic art tended to score higher in neuroticism than did those choosing classical paintings. A negative correlation between extraversion and choice of romantic paintings was also found.
SELECTING CREATIVITY TESTS FOR USE IN RESEARCH
Authors: HARGREAVES D. J. , BOLTON N.
Published: April 2011

This study looks at the problem of creativity tost selection by examining the relationships between 15 divergent and non‐divergent tests. This practical problem raises two main theoretical issues: whether ‘creativity’ is a unitary dimension across and within tests, and what relationship this range of abilities bears to IQ. A secondary aim is to evaluate four new tests by comparison with the 11 others. The tests were administered, along with two IQ reference measures, to 117 10‐ to 11‐year‐old school children. Factor analysis of the resulting intercorrelations led to the conclusion that ‘creativity’ implies an integrated range of abilities represented by the divergent tests which, although related to general intelligence in subjects of average IQ, remains factorially distinct from it; within tests, Fluency, Flexibility, Originality and Elaboration subscores were highly intercorrelated. Thus, providing that all modes of response and types of test material are included (drawing/writing; verbal/non‐verbal content), the actual divergent tests chosen are not of vital importance, and calculation of anything other than Fluency scores adds little information. Analysis of the four new tests confirmed this conclusion, and led to suggestions for their further development.
PROCESSING IN PERCEPTUAL INTEGRATION BETWEEN AND WITHIN THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
Authors: DIMOND STUART , BEAUMONT GRAHAM
Published: April 2011

Two experiments are described in which, by a divided visual field technique, simple non‐verbal stimulus material is directed to either the right hemisphere, left hemisphere, or divided between the hemispheres. It is found that when material to be matched is shared between the hemispheres, response latencies are reduced, suggesting increased capacity for the processing of such information and supporting the hypothesis that each hemisphere contains its own processing and analysing system. When the material is directed to only one hemisphere, and a bimanual motor response required, a relative superiority of the right hemisphere is found. If the response required is a vocal response, then further relative blocking of the processing undertaken by the left hemisphere is observed.
SELECTIVE ATTENTION AND PERFORMANCE IN DANGEROUS ENVIRONMENTS*
Authors: BADDELEY A. D.
Published: April 2011

Evidence on human performance in dangerous environments is reviewed and suggests that danger reduces efficiency, except in the case of experienced subjects. Perceptual narrowing is shown to be one source of decrement. It is suggested that danger increases the subject's arousal level which influences performance by producing a narrowing of attention. The nature of the performance decrement and of adaptation to danger are discussed in this context.
INDUCTIVE THINKING IN CHILDREN OF PRIMARY SCHOOL AGE: THE ‘DOOR AND KEY’ TEST
Authors: WETHERICK N. E. , DAVIES P.
Published: April 2011

One hundred and twenty primary children aged between 4:11 and 11:0 were given a test of inductive thinking capacity. A sequence of developmental stages was observed similar to that in Wetherick & Freeland (1969) in a sample that was both larger and more representative. The most important change in performance level appears to take place at about age 7–7 1/2. It is suggested that level of performance may depend on the capacity (increasing with age) of the short‐term memory store.
BASELINE DEPENDENT FACILITATION: EFFECTS OF A PRE‐REWARD STIMULUS
Authors: REMINGTON R. E. , STRONGMAN K. T.
Published: April 2011

Two groups of six pigeons were trained to key‐peck on either a VI or a DRL schedule of positive reinforcement. After response rates were stable subjects were presented with one of the following combinations of a signal and free reward over several sessions. For one subgroup of three birds in each group, an auditory stimulus was paired with free reward whilst birds were prevented from making the operant response. Birds in the remaining subgroups received random presentations of the stimulus and free reward. When the conditioned stimulus alone was presented at random intervals during normal key‐peck sessions for three days, no consistent effects on response rate were observed. Further respondent conditioning sessions followed, after which the effects of the conditioned stimulus were tested against ongoing behaviour, or during extinction of the operant response. Birds retested on the baseline again showed little effect. Of birds tested during extinction, those receiving pairings of the conditioned stimulus and reward showed facilitation of responding during the stimulus, whilst those who had received random presentations showed a slight suppression.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SENSITIVITY TO FIGURAL AND STYLISTIC ASPECTS OF PAINTINGS
Authors: GARDNER HOWARD
Published: April 2011

To determine whether pre‐adolescent subjects can learn to classify paintings consistently by style or by figure, matched groups of subjects at each of two age levels (7 and 10) were given a pre‐test, a seven‐week training session, and two post‐tests. Subjects at both age levels demonstrated the ability to sort paintings according to a consistent criterion; the older group could more readily alter the basis of its classifications when instructed to do so; style sensitivity was not found to be dependent upon concrete operational thought. Strategies used by subjects and the role of Gestalt perception and operational thought in style sensitivity are discussed.
ON MENTAL ENERGY
Authors: HENDERSON LESLIE
Published: April 2011

The notion of mental energy as an account of why we are active at all is as old as the ‘active principles’ of Greek philosophy. It took hold on psychology with the instinct theories of Freud and McDougall and subsequently of the ethologists. The concept was adapted by the behaviour theorists and, under the influence of Cannon, by the energetics school. Currently the tradition is carried by arousal theory. The concept is criticized as being of uncertain ontological status, tending towards hypostatic explanation and as being an application of power engineering principles to a communication system. Current understanding of the reticular system offers little support for its proposed role as an energy source. It is argued that the central question of why we are active at all is an unnecessary one.
PEAK SHIFT, BEHAVIOURAL CONTRAST AND STIMULUS GENERALIZATION AS RELATED TO PERSONALITY AND DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN
Authors: NICHOLSON JOHN N. , GRAY JEFFREY A.
Published: April 2011

Fourteen children, aged 7–11 years, were selected from an initial sample of 190 to give a range of scores on the JEPI. They were also evaluated by a Teacher's Rating Scale for neuroticism. The children were trained in a discrimination learning task which yielded measures of peak shift, behavioural contrast and stimulus generalization. Peak shift and behavioural contrast were positively correlated. Neuroticism was positively correlated with both one measure of peak shift and stimulus generalization. Extraversion was negatively correlated with a second measure of peak shift and positively correlated with generalization. With increasing developmental maturity (chronological age, reading age and relative advance of reading age), both peak shift and behavioural contrast tended to be reduced.
WORD‐ASSOCIATION RESPONSE COMMONALITY AND THE GENERATION OF ASSOCIATIVE STRUCTURES
Authors: INNES JOHN M.
Published: April 2011

Subjects were selected as high or low in the number of primaries given in a word‐association task under both standard instructions and with instructions to give popular associations. Low‐commonality scorers produced words with a larger number of interconnexions than high‐commonality scorers, but did not produce more different words on a later serial‐association task. Commonality score under popular set did not seem to affect the production of associations. The associations of high‐commonality subjects seemed to consist more frequently of the repetition of the original stimulus words and the original responses to those words as responses later in the task compared to low‐commonality scorers.
INFORMATION SELECTION, AROUSAL AND MEMORY
Authors: HAMILTON P. , HOCKEY G. R. J. , QUINN J. G.
Published: April 2011

Two experiments were performed to investigate the effects of noise‐induced arousal on immediate recall of visually presented paired‐associate adjectives. Results of Expt. I suggest that the established finding that high arousal during learning impairs immediate recall is probably an artifact produced by the standard experimental technique of randomizing list order for each anticipation trial. When order is maintained over successive anticipation trials lists are better learned in noise, indicating that order cues receive heavier weighting in that situation. In a second experiment, which employs an A‐B‐A retroactive inhibition (RI) paradigm, RI is less when noise is present during the learning of list A, and greater when noise is present during the learning of list B. The results from the two experiments are interpreted as demonstrating increased processing of input in states of high arousal (as produced by temporary changes in environmental stimulation).
ACQUISITION AND REVERSAL OF ORIENTING RESPONSES TO WORD SIGNALS
Authors: BOWER A. C. , DAS J. P.
Published: April 2011

Acquisition, reversal, adaptation and inhibition of the orienting response were investigated in a mentally retarded sample and its CA and MA matched normal groups. GSR frequency, magnitude and latency were used as indices of the OR. The retarded subjects maintained and modified their ORs as efficiently as the normals during acquisition and reversal. OR decrements to non‐signals and to former signals were distinguished as adaptation v. inhibition.
DEGREES OF INSIGHT
Authors: GOODWIN R. Q. , WASON P. C.
Published: April 2011

This experiment investigated performance on a reasoning task in which the subjects had to say which of four half‐hidden cards they needed to see fully in order to determine the truth or falsity of a conditional sentence. In one experimental condition examples of each of the four types of card were fully displayed to remove any difficulty due to limitation of memory or imagery. No more correct solutions were obtained under this condition than under a control condition in which no such aid was given. After they had made their selections all subjects wrote down their reasons for them. Analysis of the different selections, and the reasons given for them, corroborated a previously proposed information‐processing model, postulated to explain the cognitive processes involved in tasks of this type.
BERLYNE'S DEMONSTRATION OF EPISTEMIC CURIOSITY: AN EXPERIMENTAL RE‐EVALUATION
Authors: FRICK JANET W. , COFER CHARLES N.
Published: April 2011

Berlyne demonstrated the existence of epistemic curiosity by showing that subjects given a questionnaire and then a set of statements including answers to the questionnaire recalled more of these answers than subjects not given the questionnaire. Methodological limitations of this experiment suggested that it should be replicated, and certain extensions of the design were also made. The three experiments reported here confirm Berlyne's findings with improved methods and also show that recall was not influenced by the completion of an irrelevant questionnaire but was facilitated to an uncertain and minor degree by completion of a questionnaire containing questions related to but not identical with the items on the recall test. The present results support Berlyne's concept of epistemic curiosity, but they suggest that it is relatively specific to the content of the questions used to arouse it.
ADAPTATION TO SPEED DISTORTIONS UNDER WATER
Authors: ROSS HELEN E. , REJMAN M. H.
Published: April 2011

A diver's face‐mask normally makes close objects in clear water appear both enlarged and too near. Objects travelling across the line of sight therefore appear to move faster than in air, and objects moving along the line of sight slower. Subjects estimated the speed of a moving rod in air and water, before and after a 10 min. period spent swimming and playing a pegboard game under water. Twenty subjects were tested with the rod moving across, and 20 with it moving along, the line of sight. In both conditions subjects showed the expected directions of speed distortion in water, with significant adaptation and after‐effects after 10 min. submersion. The results are consistent with the assumption that the type of speed perception measured here is largely dependent on size and distance perception, and that speed adaptation follows automatically from the correction of the spatial metric.
VERTICAL DISPARITIES
Authors: LAWSON EVERDINA A.
Published: April 2011

It has been suggested that stereopsis could be explained on a physiological and neuroanatomical basis. However, evidence on depth perception tends to rely on transversely disparate inputs. It was thought that if the explanation lies in the structures of the eye, vertical disparities might result in a depth perception also. The evidence obtained is in favour of this hypothesis but appears to contradict the assumption of different depth organizations depending on crossed or uncrossed visual pathways.
VISUAL IMAGERY DIFFERENCES IN THE RECALL OF PICTURES
Authors: MARKS DAVID F.
Published: April 2011

Male and female subjects who differed in their verbal reports of visual image vividness were tested for recall in three experiments involving coloured photographs as stimuli. In all three experiments subjects who reported vivid visual imagery were more accurate in recall than subjects who reported poor visual imagery. In the first two experiments, females recalled more accurately than males. On the assumption that vividness reports and recall were both mediated by the same covert event ‐ a visual image ‐ these results provide further evidence that images have an important role in memory.
AFFECTIVE PREFERENCE AND MISCLASSIFICATION IN A NOVEL/FAMILIAR IDENTIFICATION TASK
Authors: FREEMAN N. H. , PARKER D. M.
Published: April 2011

Subjects were asked to categorize stimuli, half of which had been pre‐exposed, as familiar or novel, and to rate them on a three‐point scale of affective preference. Rating scores were computed separately for those stimuli which were correctly categorized as novel and familiar, and those which were incorrectly categorized. It was found that subjects preferred the familiar stimuli significantly more than the novel on trials on which these were correctly identified. On the misclassification trials the subjects preferred the stimuli which were objectively novel but were categorized as familiar significantly more than those that were objectively familiar but were categorized as novel. Thus the subjective and not the objective category of the stimuli determined the preference on the misclassification trials. Control groups whose task was confined either to the novel/familiar discrimination or to simple preference ratings established that procedural interference was not a cause of this effect.
RECOGNITION AND RECALL: LATENCY AND RECURRENCE OF IMAGES
Authors: MORRIS P. E. , REID R. L.
Published: April 2011

Explanations of improvements in memory through the formation of mental images require that the same image recurs when the stimulus is re‐presented on the test trial. The experiment obtained information on the latency and recurrence of images to explain anomalies in recognition memory following imaging.

In Part A, words of high or low I were presented one by one and subjects stopped a timer to indicate when they had formed an image to each word. The words were then presented for a second time, together with an equal number of new words. As before, subjects stopped a timer when they had formed an image. They reported whether the word had been presented before, and, if so, whether the image was the same as on the first presentation. No change was found in the latency of image formation to high I words but the latency to low I words decreased on the second presentation and the same image recurred less frequently to low I words. In Part B, pairs of words were presented. Pairs and single words from pairs were presented again, along with equal numbers of new pairs and new single words. On 94 per cent of occasions on which pairs were presented for a second time the recurrence of the same image was reported. When single words were presented the same image recurred on only 22 per cent of occasions.
EYE MOVEMENTS BETWEEN ADJACENT STIMULI: AN AGE CHANGE IN INFANCY
Authors: HARRIS P. L.
Published: April 2011

Infants aged 6 months were found to shift their attention from one stimulus to a second adjacent stimulus more frequently than infants aged 3 months. This age difference was found when the two stimuli differed, but not when the stimuli were identical. The findings indicate a tendency to seek out stimulus change on the part of older infants.
DISCRIMINATION BY NEWBORNS OF THE INTENSITY, FREQUENCY AND TEMPORAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AUDITORY STIMULI
Authors: STRATTON PETER M. , CONNOLLY KEVIN
Published: April 2011

The ability of 3‐ to 5‐day‐old neonates to discriminate between auditory stimuli, in terms of each of the dimensions of intensity, pitch and time, was studied using heart‐rate responses in a habituation paradigm. For each of the dimensions a survey of the literature failed to provide results which could be used as the basis for later work involving auditory patterns. Further analysis of an earlier experiment (Stratton, 1970 a) involving stimuli at 80, 85 and 90 db showed that louder stimuli evoked larger initial responses and more rapid habituation. From the same experiment it was found that a change of pitch produced dishabituation as early as the 10th trial. There are reasonable grounds for attributing the increased response to the frequency characteristics rather than a change in the perceived intensity of the stimuli.

Previous experiments suggested that fixed inter‐stimulus intervals tended to produce anticipatory heart‐rate changes and modify the magnitude and latency of the response. Two experiments designed specifically to examine temporal phenomena revealed time‐linked behaviour. In both experiments acceleratory responses occurred at the first stimulus omission of a fixed‐interval series. Not all of the subjects showed this effect, and in both experiments, only the subjects who failed to respond to the first stimulus presentation responded to stimulus omission. The findings are discussed in relation to general issues of neonatal psychophysiology, and it is concluded that neonates can discriminate in each of the auditory dimensions, but that preliminary work involving patterns should concentrate on varying pitch and intensity.
CONSERVATION BY THE CONGENITALLY BLIND
Authors: CROMER RICHARD F.
Published: April 2011

A conservation study of amount using specially designed wire cylinders was made of congenitally blind children and two control groups of sighted children (one of which undertook the task blindfolded), matched for chronological age. No differences were found among the three groups on the age of attainment of conservation. However, the manner by which the blind processed the environment differed from the blindfolded sighted children, as evidenced in some of their non‐conservation answers. The language of the blind children did not differ from that of the sighted children in describing the materials, but the language of the non‐conserving children of all groups differed from that of conserving children. The importance for several theoretical views on the attainment of conservation is discussed, and it is argued that the achievement of the beginning of operational thinking may be more a central developmental phenomenon than one based on specific sensory experience.
THE ROLE OF CENTRAL PROCESSES IN THE PERCEPTION OF VISUAL AFTER‐IMAGES
Authors: DAVIES PETER
Published: April 2011

Three experiments are reported in which part of the stimulus to be after‐imaged was presented to each eye, producing simultaneous, binocular, after‐images. In each case the monocular stimuli were complementary to each other, so that the binocular combination constituted a meaningful whole. The subjects' reports on the appearances and fragmentations of their after‐images suggest the existence of some central, integrative, mechanism.
PERCEPTION WITHOUT AWARENESS IN A DICHOPTIC VIEWING SITUATION
Authors: SOMEKH D. E. , WILDING J. M.
Published: April 2011

One way of investigating perception without awareness is to utilize the phenomenon of binocular rivalry. The dichoptic viewing situation can be so arranged that a stimulus may be above identification level (when presented alone) but masked by contiguous stimulation, i.e. a brighter image to the other eye.

This experimental situation was used to replicate an experiment of Smith et al. (1959) which claimed to demonstrate that differences in meaning between words registered below recognition threshold could affect associated conscious thoughts. In the two experiments reported here, a neutral face was paired with affect words presented subliminally and subjects were asked to rate its expression using a forced‐choice indicator. Additional controls to those of Smith et al. were used.

In Expt. I it was established that words presented outside of awareness had an effect on semantically related judgements, which was at least as great as that with the same words presented supraliminally. In Expt. II this was confirmed and it was found that increasing the similarity of contour between critical and control words of different meaning suggested differences between subliminal and supraliminal sessions. Responses tended to be meaning‐related in the former and structure‐related in the latter. It was suggested that the experiments have relevance to current theories of selective attention.
AFFIRMATION AND DENIAL IN EVALUATIVE DESCRIPTIONS
Authors: EISER J. RICHARD , WHITE CAMILLA J. MOWER
Published: April 2011

Children made a series of evaluative judgements of 20 nonsense words, which they were told to imagine were people's names. Each subject judged half the names in terms of two‐category rating scales containing an affirmative (A) response category which was evaluatively positive (E +) and a negative (n) category which was evaluatively negative (E ‐), e.g. ‘happy‐not happy’, the other half were judged in terms of scales where the A category was E ‐, and the N category E +, e.g. ‘rude ‐ not rude’. The main finding was a highly significant tendency for subjects to give more A than N responses, irrespective of evaluative content: in addition, a tendency for subjects to give more E ‐ than E + responses, irrespective of grammatical form, approached significance.
USE OF THE d' STATISTIC IN INTERPRETING THE NATURE OF PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE IN SHORT‐TERM MEMORY
Authors: INGLEBY J. D.
Published: April 2011

A model of the response process based on signal‐detection theory (Tanner & Swets, 1954) was used to analyse PI effects in three different tests of short‐term memory. The focus of interest was the effect of interference on the variable d', when the latter is used as a measure of retention theoretically independent of response bias. Three experiments used varying conditions of interference and varying types of recall test: it was found that d' was unchanged, or slightly raised, for an item which had previously been learned in the same serial position. If, however, the item had occurred previously without being memorized, the effect was to lower d', i.e. to impede learning. A response bias existed in all experiments towards items previously presented.