bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Citizens’ Democracy: What Might Be Done
Authors: Gans Herbert J
Published: November 2023

The news media and journalists can do little to reduce the political imbalance between citizens and the economic, political, and other organizations that dominate America. Very different policies and politics must be pursued to move the country toward what I called citizens’ democracy in Chapter 1. Journalists could, however, play a role in several of them. Citizen’s democracy is that form of representative government that maximizes the political responsibilities, rights, and most important, the public decision making of citizens without imparing the function of the economic and political system.
Dickinson in Context: Nineteenth-Century American Women Poets
Authors: Walker Cheryl
Published: November 2023

By now the feminist argument that Emily Dickinson should be read in the context of other nineteenth-century American women poets has a long history. To be sure, it is still a minor strain in Dickinson criticism, but what is minor, as the poet herself was fond of suggesting, can over time find a permanent place at the table. The first hint that this might happen came in 1977, when Emily Stipes Watts published her ambitious survey of American women poets and situated Dickinson among her peers, arguing that “In a variety of ways, . . . Dickinson’s poetry stands firmly within the developing tendencies of [nineteenth-century] American female verse.”
Illustrated Chronology
Authors: Pollak Vivian R
Published: November 2023

1830: In the fall, Edward Emily Norcross Dickinson and small son William Austin move into The Homestead, which they share with Edward’s father and other family members. Birth of Emily Elizabeth Dickinson (December 10).

1830: Birth of poet, and Indian Rights activist Helen Maria Fiske (Helen Hunt Jackson) in Amherst. Massachusetts residents no longer required to pay taxes to support churches. Abraham Lincoln moves with his father’s family from Indiana to Illinois. There are thirteen million Americans.
Bilingual Visual Word Recognition and Lexical Access
Authors: Dijkstra Ton
Published: November 2023

However, although there is parallel lexical activation in both languages during bilingual word recognition, the actually observed result patterns also appear to be task depen-dent. A distinction must therefore be made between factors affecting the word identification system directly (such as sentence context) and factors affecting the task/ decision system (non linguistic context and task demands). Recent models of bilingual word recognition are discussed with respect to these two types of factors.
Automaticity in Bilingualism and Second Language Learning
Authors: Segalowitz Norman , Hulstijn Jan
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we examine automaticity in light of the role it might play in second language acquisition and in bilingual functioning. We review various theoretical and operational definitions of automaticity, considering their respective strengths, limitations, and challenges they present to researchers studying automaticity in the context of bilingualism. Studies are reviewed regarding automaticity in grammar acquisition and in lexical access and the connection between automaticity and attention in second language acquisition. The implications of automaticity for second language instruction are also discussed.
What Can Functional Neuroimaging Tell Us About the Bilingual Brain?
Authors: Abutalebi Jubin , Cappa Stefano F , Perani Daniela
Published: November 2023

Over the past decade, functional neuroimaging technologies such as positron emission tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging have enabled neuroscientists to examine the spatial and temporal mechanisms of cognitive functioning and to probe online the close relationship between brain and mind. The advent of these noninvasive neuroimaging techniques opened a new era in the investigation of language organization in healthy individuals. The main focus of the present chapter is to provide an overview of the most relevant results that have so far been achieved in the field of the exploration of the cerebral basis of bilingualism using functional neuroimaging techniques and to discuss which conclusions may be drawn from these studies.
More Than a Trend: Abolition in the Developed Nations
Authors: Zimring Franklin E
Published: November 2023

In September 1977, Hamida Djandoubi was led to his death by guillotine in southern France and so became an important figure in the history of modern Europe. His place in history was not a function of the enormity of his crime. Mr. Djandoubi was a Tunisian agricultural worker who had been convicted of murdering a female acquaintance, a garden-variety homicide in any nation. What set his execution apart, however, was that it was to be the last state execution in Western Europe in the twentieth century and perhaps for all time (Forst 1999, p. 112). When compared with the recent events in the United States, the events in the other developed democracies in the last quarter of the twentieth century are remarkable in two respects. The first is that as recently as the late 1970s, the situation in the other developed democracies was not much different from conditions in the United States. In 1977, only one person was executed in the United States: Gary Gilmore became the first offender put to death in a decade. But that same year, France beheaded two homicide offenders.
The Consequences of Contradictory Values
Authors: Zimring Franklin E
Published: November 2023

The United States is the world capital of mixed feelings about the death penalty. When executions are delayed, citizens get angry. But when short-cuts are used to accelerate executions, many of the same citizens worry about potential injustice. Why is this? The continuing controversy about capital punishment is the result of a clash of two inconsistent value traditions that cannot coexist. Conducting executions is inconsistent with one fundamental tenet of American culture. But stopping executions violates a second cultural tradition with deep roots in our history. There is no low-conflict path out of the chronic clash of cultures. And any significant shift from the impossible status quo will require a change in long-standing cultural traditions.
Introduction
Authors: Curnutt Kirk
Published: November 2023

F. Scott Fittzgerald (1896-1940) belongs to that handful of American writers whose life stories threaten to overshadow their art. As also the case with Mark Twain, Ernest Hemingway, and Jack Kerouac, popular culture remembers the author of The Great Gatsby as much for his exploits and tragedies as for the influential and enduring literature he produced during his brief career. When pressed to name one of Fitzgerald’s literary accomplishments, few readers are capable of citing more than the title of his aforementioned 1925 classic or that of his second best-known work, Tender Is the Night (1934). Yet many who remain un-familiar with his actual writing can recount at least a fragment of his personal history: He was young and famous in the 1920s; he invented the flapper and coined the term “jazz Age”; he served as spokesman for the “Lost Generation”; he drank a lot; he died young after falling out of fashion. And, oh yes-his wife went crazy.
Fitzgerald and War
Authors: Meredith James H
Published: November 2023

War is an essential element of F. Scott Fitzgerald’s work. While Fitzgerald’s fiction, like Arnold’s “Dover Beach,” is primarily focused on love, war’s “confused alarms of struggle” are never far removed. Throughout his adult life, Fitzgerald deeply regretted that he never clashed in combat among “ignorant armies” because like the majority of unwitting young men of his generation, he believed that war was a necessary test of manhood. Of even greater importance to him, heroic death would have been a matter of aristocratic virtue, a recognition that he had achieved the social prominence he always craved.
Mental Disability Law, Policy, and Service Delivery
Authors: Petrila John , Levin Bruce Lubotsky
Published: November 2023

As a discrete body of law, mental health law has focused on the conflict between individual autonomy and government intervention designed to provide treatment or protection from risk. This traditional focus is not surprising. Mental health law first emerged in the mid-1960s, when most people with serious mental illnesses were confined to large, often grossly inadequate state psychiatric hospitals. Adopting tactics and arguments first used in the African-American civil rights movement, lawyers argued that mental illness alone should not deprive an individual of his or her civil rights. Federal judges assumed control over state hospitals and ruled that state civil commitment statutes violated constitutional rights to liberty and due process, and in a number of states administrators of public mental health systems engaged in friendly litigation designed to bring more state resources into underfunded public mental health systems. The federal courts were the dominant force in the first two decades of mental health law, and the roles of the legislative and executive branches of government were often secondary.
Mental Health Policy and Aging
Authors: Bartels Stephen J , Dums Aricca R , Shea Dennis G
Published: November 2023

The number of older adults with major psychiatric illnesses will more than double over the coming three decades as the baby boomer cohort ages, increasing from an estimated 7 to 15 million individuals (Jeste et al., 1999). The needs of this rapidly growing population have been neglected in the public policy debate on how best to organize and finance mental health services. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the major issues pertaining to mental health policy and aging including the following: (]) the prevalence and impact of geriatric mental disorders; (2) service use and costs associated with mental disorders in older persons; (3) the mental health service delivery system for older adults; (4) financing geriatric mental health services; (5) the impact of federal regulatory initiatives; and (6) future policy directions and challenges.
Mental Health Informatics
Authors: Hanson Ardis , Levin Bruce Lubotsky
Published: November 2023

The second half of the twentieth century was marked by striking changes in the way people live, work, and communicate with each other. The twenty-first century brings minimal change to a new era of continuing fiscal constraints and advanced technologies. Although telecommunications has an important and prominent role in society, in knowledge exchange, and in commerce, it is in the field of public health practice that the most remarkable opportunities, as well as challenges, have emerged. The growth of information, the development of communication technology, and the evolving infrastructures to support technology have contributed to dramatic changes in the methods of managing information and its application to improve the quality of health care and health systems performance through new approaches for the delivery of health services.
Dynamic Complexity of Wing Form in Bats: Implications for Flight Performance
Authors: Swartz Sharon M , Bishop Kristin , Aguirre Maryem-Fama Ismael
Published: November 2023

For many decades, students of animal flight have taken advantage of the body of engineering theory used to design fixed-wing aircraft. Here, we review important ways in which bat wings and bat flight violate the assumptions of this body of theory, and we identify features of bat wing morphology and kinematics that may be of particular importance for flight performance. In particular, the complexity and heterogeneity of the mechanical properties of wing membrane skin and the low material and structural stiffness of wing bones result in wings that deform extensively under aerodynamic loading in ways not seen in aircraft engineered by humans.

INTRODUCTION

Biologists have long used aircraft aerodynamics to estimate lift and drag forces encountered by wings, aspects of flight energetics, and limits of flight performance, particularly regarding speed and maneuverability. Here, we examine how well the wings of bats meet the assumptions of conventional aerodynamic theory, and try to identify those areas where such theory can be effectively employed to understand bat flight, as well as those for which conventional aerodynamic theory poorly models bat flight. Aerodynamic principles suited to large fixed-wing aircraft have been applied to bat flight largely because of the lack of more appropriate theory; the mechanics and aerodynamics of small, flexible, flapping wings has traditionally been beyond the scope of fluid mechanics. Recent technological, computational, and theoretical advances, however, have dramatically changed the field of fluid dynamics. As a consequence, biologists can gain considerable new insight into bat flight and its morphological basis. We may be able to better identify the most functionally significant features of wing morphology and flight kinematics, and more accurately estimate the mechanics and energetics of flight. This will enable us to draw more realistic and informative comparisons among taxa that differ in wing shape, body size, etc. One important first step
Causes and Consequences of Genetic Structure in the Greater Horseshoe Bat, Rhinolophus ferrumequinum
Authors: Rossiter Stephen J , Jones Gareth , Ransome Roger D , Barratt Elizabeth M
Published: November 2023

Social organization plays a fundamental role in determining the apportionment of genetic variation in animal populations. Genetic structure may, in turn, have far-reaching consequences for individual fitness and behavior. A review of long-term studies of the greater horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum) shows that population structure is shaped by a combination of breeding behavior, dispersal, and population history. Strong female philopatry and polygyny might be expected to produce genetic drift among colonies. The absence of strong differentiation among most colonies is probably explained by common ancestry, as well as contemporary gene exchange via male dispersal, extra-colony copulation, and occasional inter-colony transfer of females. In contrast, where they do occur, genetic differentiation and differences in genetic variability between isolated populations probably reflect the species’ colonization history, and also point to reduced gene flow over greater distances. Although females breed with males originating from both within and outside their own colony, relatedness and Hardy–Weinberg analyses indicate that neither active inbreeding nor outbreeding occurs. Nevertheless, offspring with higher mean d 2 values, a measure of outbreeding based on microsatellite allele divergence within the individual, were more likely to survive to adulthood, indicating that outbreeding is important for individual fitness. Within the colony, significant relatedness structure, coupled with elevated relatedness among matrilineal kin, may provide suitable conditions for the evolution of kin-selected behavior. Indeed, radiotracking showed that female kin preferentially share foraging sites and nightroosts. Such associations may result from long-term maternal tutoring, rather than short-term kin-directed cooperation.
Flexibility and Specificity in the Roosting Ecology of the Lesser Long-Eared Bat, Nyctophilus geoffroyi: A Common and Widespread Australian Species
Authors: Lumsden Linda F , Bennett Andrew F
Published: November 2023

An increasing body of literature suggests that tree-cavity roosting bats are selective in their use of roosts. By comparing aspects of roosting ecology for which there is a high level of specificity with those where roost use appears more flexible, we may gain a better understanding of the key influences on roost selection. Here we review eight studies on the roosting ecology of the lesser long-eared bat, Nyctophilus geoffroyi, a common and widespread vespertilionid in Australia. Nyctophilus geoffroyi is flexible in the distribution of roost sites, with roosts occurring in urban, rural, and a wide range of natural environments. While predominantly roosting in tree cavities, individuals (especially males) also use other natural and artificial roost sites. Tree roosts include a range of forms and orientations, but roosts located under bark and in fissures are common, frequently with a northerly orientation. A strong preference is shown by both sexes for roosts in dead trees, and entrance dimensions of roosts are consistently narrow (2.5–2.8 cm). Males predominantly roost solitarily, while females form larger colonies, especially while breeding. In some studies, females displayed a significant preference for roosts in larger trees, especially for maternity roosts, but this pattern was not consistent in all areas. In all studies, individuals shifted roosts frequently (every 1–2 days), and these roosts occurred within restricted areas. We suggest that key influences on roosting ecology for this species are the thermal requirements of roosts, the risk of predation, social organization within populations, and the pattern of roost availability in the landscape.
How Did Life Arise? The Way To RNA
Authors: de Duve Christian
Published: November 2023

The details of the life-generating pathway still elude us and may do so for a long time. But they are not hidden in total darkness. First, we have a pretty good idea of what the starting and ending points were. The former consists almost certainly of the amino acids and other organic materials that arise spontaneously in various parts of the cosmos. To believe otherwise would stretch the boundaries of likelihood excessively, considering the close chemical kinships that exist between those substances and biological constituents and considering their apparent ubiquity. As to the ending point, it is represented by the common ancestor of the whole living world, most likely, as we have seen, a primitive bacterium already endowed with all the basic properties that characterize present-day life. We know the beginning and the end.
How Did Life Arise? The Birth of Cells
Authors: de Duve Christian
Published: November 2023

Cellular life depends on a number of fundamental properties that must have been achieved, albeit in primitive fashion, already in the first protocells. What is needed, in the first place, is a boundary, obligatorily endowed with the ability to exchange matter, energy, and information with the outside. In addition, cells must be capable of growing within the confines of their boundary and of multiplying by division.
The History of Life
Authors: de Duve Christian
Published: November 2023

The notion that life may have a history dates back only little more than two centuries. Before that, living species were viewed as given once and for all. Life had no more history than the universe. Only we, humans, had a history.
The Visible Revolution
Authors: de Duve Christian
Published: November 2023

It would thus seem, barring new evidence to the contrary, that eukaryotic life remained unicellular during many hundreds of millions of years. It did not stay still, however, but fanned out into an extraordinarily rich spread of branches that have given rise to the vast group of organisms formerly classified as protophytes (pro-plants) and protozoa (pro-animals) and now grouped together under the single name of protists. Details of this ramification are beginning to be known, thanks to comparative sequencmg.
Becoming Human
Authors: de Duve Christian
Published: November 2023

The human twig detached from the primate branch about six million years ago. The last ancestor we share with another existing primate probably resembled a chimpanzee, our nearest extant relative. Evolution from this ancestor favored erect walking, manual skill, and a number of other traits that are clearly evident when humans and apes are compared. Most impressive is the development of the brain, which took place at a staggering speed. After having taken some 600 million years to reach a volume on the order of 450 cm in our simian ancestors, the size of the hominoid brain went through an astonishingly rapid phase of expansion, virtually jumping to three times this value in little more than two million years. On the evolutionary time scale, such a rate of change is no less than dazzling. It illustrates in a remarkable way how fast vertical evolution may rush when given the opportunity. Note, however, that the rate of change still would have been hardly noticeable on a human time scale, amounting, on average, to a volume increase of about ten cubic millimeters-no more than a pin’s head-per generation.
Reshaping Life
Authors: de Duve Christian
Published: November 2023

This typical example of media hype has, less than 25 years later, come close to reality. What the slow and laborious process of evolution has been doing for nearly four billion years, by letting natural selection screen off, among myriad random mutations, the rare variants that happened to fit some local environmental conditions, can now be accomplished almost at will and almost in no time by a human-led engineering procedure that chooses and creates a particular genetic combination to fit a set of pre­ determined conditions. There is still a big element of uncertainty in this newly gained mastery over life because of technological hazards and of limitations in our predictive abilities. But the tools are available, wrestled from nature by human ingenuity, and now mass-produced for anyone with the required know-how to use.
Are We Alone?
Authors: de Duve Christian
Published: November 2023

More than 2,000 years ago, the Roman poet and philosopher Lucretius reasoned that ours cannot be the only inhabited world. “Confess you must,” he wrote in his De Rerum Natura, “that other worlds exist in other regions of the sky, and different tribes of men, kinds of wild beasts.” For agreeing with Lucretius, the Dominican friar Giordano Bruno paid with his life in 1600, burned at the stake on a Roman piazza, by order of the Inquisition.
The Advance Effects of Anger
Authors: Golden Bernard
Published: November 2023

What is it you experience when you feel anger? Maybe you think of times when you were upset, annoyed, furious, enraged, or irritated. But anger is more complex than these words imply. Anger is an emotion, but it also affects your physical state, your thoughts, and your behavior, though you may not always be consciously aware of it. Understanding the experience of anger will provide you insight into the role anger may play in your life and that of your child.

Certain of these reactions typically accompany acute (intense, short lived) anger. Other reactions, such as sleep difficulties, digestive problems, cynicism, and loss of faith may occur with the development of chronic (long-lived) anger. Here are some of the adverse ways anger can impact us.
Okay, I’m Ready to Talk About It
Authors: Golden Bernard
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes specific communication skills that will encourage your child to self-reflect and lead her to value using words to express her feelings. In addition, it provides specific guidelines to help your child constructively communicate anger. These skills focus initially on helping your child look inward to better determine what she wants to communicate.

Every relationship we have is very much influenced by the quality of our communication with the other person. We nurture a healthy connection when we communicate with others in ways that foster freedom to express thoughts and feelings, support open self-reflection and growth, promote healthy self-acceptance, and encourage candid dialogue.
Acceptance and Forgiveness
Authors: Golden Bernard
Published: November 2023

Anytime you help your child reflect on anger, you help her practice .flacceptance and forgiveness. By helping your child increase awareness of her needs, hopes, expectations, and conclusions, and of the range of emotions surrounding anger, you assist her in moving past the provoking event, beyond anger and resentment. Similarly, you teach your child acceptance and forgiveness when you help her develop realistic expectations and appraisals. Finally, you teach her acceptance and forgiveness when you encourage her to identify and practice new ways to meet her needs.
Responding to Escalating Anger
Authors: Golden Bernard
Published: November 2023

This chapter focuses on strategies to help diffuse your child’s anger, especially when it begins to physically escalate out of control. Perhaps the most challenging aspect of anger management for most parents is responding to these more severe expressions of anger.

It is extremely uncomfortable to witness any child expressing anger through tantrums or physical aggression. His raised voice, angry facial expression, or aggression toward people or objects may very quickly activate your own child logic, invoking your automatic thoughts and feelings surrounding anger and the expression of anger. You may experience a range of emotions and thoughts that include hurt, frustration, rejection, a sense of inadequacy, self-doubt, and anger. This is a moment when you will feel tested.
Beloved Enemy A Cripple in the Crippled City
Authors: Kriegel Leonard
Published: November 2023

“Speak of me as I am, nothing extenuate,” pleads Othello. Moments before he takes his own life, Othello addresses the Venetian ambassadors, hoping to make them privy to his agony. Othello does not seek to excuse the murder of Desdemona. He asks only that, when they speak of the horror they have witnessed, the ambassadors speak also of the rage that led him to kill the woman he passionately loved. That a murderer on the verge of taking his life believes so self-serving a request to be justified is as good an illustration of the Yiddish term chutzpah as I know. Yet it is also the sort of behavior that must strike those of us who were born and bred in New York City as neither surprising nor atypical. Acting as if he himself were to the outer boroughs born, Othello seeks what all true New Yorkers seek—not understanding but vindication. He has no interest in justifying the murder of his wife (he believes that the act has guaranteed his eternal damnation) but wants those who will judge him to recognize just what it was that led him to kill that which he most loved in the world.
Probing Accommodations Testing,Testing, and Retesting the (Dis)abled
Authors: O’Brien Ruth
Published: November 2023

Tollifson’s story about her trip to the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) in Illinois leaves the reader with questions about testing. These questions do not involve disputing the DMV’s role in testing, however. The federal, state, and local governments must set standards for people safely to operate all types of equipment and to conduct a myriad of services without endangering anyone relying on these services.
A Look to the Future
Authors: hanski Ilkka , Ehrlich Paul R
Published: November 2023

The diversity of the living world is so huge that I “knowledge of everything” will not be attained. We might develop a theory of everything, in some sense that we do not attempt to define here, but complete knowledge of the evolving living world is not an option. The reasons are simple. First, human beings have not been, are not, and will not be observing, recording, ananalyzing everything of significance in every part of the globe. Even if we narrowed our focus to just a single species, or even a single small population, the goal would not be attainable. Second, the living world is in a state of perpetual ecological and evolutionary change. That not everything worth knowing for population biology, and for humanity, will ever be known keeps scientists busy-the excitement of making new discoveries will always be there. At the same time, though knowing more of checkerspot butterflies and the other parts of the living world always raises new questions, one hopes that the broad picture of how the world works will become increasingly sharp and accurate. We have every reason to believe that this will occur.
How Do Animals Find Stored Food? Strong Inference by Testing Alternative Hypotheses
Authors: Jenkins Stephen H
Published: November 2023

In 1964, John Platt published a famously provocative article in the journal Science in which he developed a blueprint for success in science called strong inference and used molecular biology and high-energy physics to illustrate rapid progress through the systematic use of this process. According to Platt, strong inference is a process in which multiple alternative hypotheses are proposed to answer a question, and then experiments are designed to discriminate clearly among contrasting predictions of these hypotheses.
Why Do We Age? Levels of Causation as Complementary Explanations
Authors: Jenkins Stephen H
Published: November 2023

In January 2002, a team of biologists in Lawrence Done hower’s laboratory at the Baylor College of Medicine in Waco, Texas, reported a surprising chance discovery in their colony of mice used as a model system to study cellular and molecular processes of cancer. A protein called p53 is a major focus of their work. This is a tumor-suppressor protein, which can forestall cancer by blocking cell division or causing the death of primordial cancer cells.
Community Interventions and HIV/AIDS: Affecting the Community Context
Authors: Trickett Edison J
Published: November 2023

When the AIDS epidemic drew national attention in the United States, the dominant (though by no means exclusive) scientific response mirrored the “normal science” (Kuhn, 1970) paradigm of the time. Within psychology, the paradigm was reflected in what Sarason (1981) called the “acultural, asocial, and ahistorical” study of the individual. Epistemologically, it reflected the positivistic tradition characteristic of the history of psychology. This focus and epistemology has had its successes, and much is now known about how individually based interventions can be crafted to affect individual attitudes and self-reported sexual risk behaviors (Valdiserri, Ogden, & McCray, 2003; van Empelen, Kok, van Kesteren, van den Borne, Bos, & Schaalma, 2003).
Multiple Pathways to Community-Level Impacts in HIV Prevention: Implications for Conceptualization, Implementation, and Evaluation of Interventions
Authors: Yoshikawa Hirokazu , Wilson Patrick A , Peterson John L , Shinn & Marybeth
Published: November 2023

In recent years, researchers, community-based organizations, activists, and policy makers have called increasingly for community-level change in HIV prevention. Behavioral interventions to prevent HIV infection in the United States, particularly those evaluated by researchers, were most commonly directed toward the individual or small-group levels of behavior change in the 1980s and early 1990s. The two most glaring shortcomings of this approach have been pointed out many times: neglect of efforts to change contextual and structural influences on HIV infection, and lack of attention to culturally specific influences omitted from most individual level theories of behavior change (Diaz, 1998; Friedman, Des Jarlais, & Ward, 1994; Hays & Peterson, 1994; Ickovics & Yoshikawa, 1998; Kelly, 1999; National Institutes of Health [NIH] Consensus Panel, 1997; Sobo, 1995; Trickett, this volume). More importantly, these shortcomings limited evidence-based efforts to bring about community-level reductions in HIV infection. In the past decade, funding agencies, researchers, and activists have engaged in multiple efforts to implement and evaluate community level HIV prevention across the United States with populations such as injection drug users (IDUs), men who have sex with men (MSM), women, and youth. These interventions have been based on theories that bring much needed extraindividual levels of analysis—whether at the social network, organizational, or community levels—to the behavioral science base of HIV prevention.
The Diversity of Complexity
Authors: Schlichting Carl
Published: November 2023

Holmes was of course not referring to biological complexity, but this phrase distills the sense of amazement shared when we are confronted with yet another of life’s labyrinthine contrivances to increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction. However, as strange and complicated as life is, it also exhibits order and regularity, and it is the job of evolutionary biologists to discover common underlying patterns and discern how they can be modified to generate diversity. The chapters that comprise this book confront some of the intricacies and dilemmas of investigating the complexity and integration of organisms in the modern world.
The Developmental Systems Perspective: Organism-Environment Systems as Units of Development and Evolution
Authors: Griffiths Paul E , Gray Russell D
Published: November 2023

Undergraduate textbooks typically define evolution as change in gene frequency.1 This reflects the conventional view of natural selection and the conventional view of heredity. Natural selection occurs because individuals vary, some of these variations are linked to differences in fitness, and some of those variants are heritable (Lewontin 1970). Because variants that are not heritable cannot play a role in natural selection, and because the mechanism of inheritance is presumed to be genetic, evolution is defined as change in gene frequencies. In the 1960s and 1970s this gene-centered vision of inheritance was extended to yield a gene-centered view of selection (Williams 1966; Dawkins 1976). According to gene-selectionism, the fact that individual genes are integrated into larger units, from genetic modules to entire phenotypes, is merely a special case of the fact that the fitness of any evolutionary unit is a function of the environment in which it happens to find itself (Sterelny and Kitcher 1988). The study of development and the study of how phenotypes are integrated are thus doubly divorced from the study of evolution. First, all causal factors in the development of the phenotype other than genes are excluded as potential sources of evolutionary change. Second, the study of development and phenotypic integration cease to be possible sources of theoretical insight into the evolutionary process. The phenotypes to which an individual gene contributes and the developmental processes by which it makes that contribution are simply environmental factors like rainfall or predator density.
Conceptions of Creativity
Authors: Sawyer R Keith
Published: November 2023

In his childhood in the 1930s, young Mihaly loved to climb the hills of his native Hungary, and the larger mountains just across the border in Czechoslovakia. Why does someone climb a mountain? The obvious answer to the question is “to get to the top,” but Mihaly, like all mountain climbers, knew that he didn’t climb mountains to get to the top. That’s why mountain climbers answer the question with a half-joking reply, “because it’s there.” Mihaly climbed for the sheer pleasure of climbing. Mihaly’s family left Europe to escape the terrors of World War II.
Visual Creativity
Authors: Sawyer R Keith
Published: November 2023

When I teach the psychology of creativity at my university, painting is always the first example that comes up in class discussion—and it comes up more than music, theater, advertising, architecture, videogame design, Web site design, movie directing, or any of the many other creative domains of modern society. Painting dominates our discussions not because it’s the most common or the most influential art form of today; my students are surrounded by music, movies, videogames, and Web sites, and they only occasionally go to art museums. The reason that painting always comes up is that it seems to fit better into our culture’s individualist myths about creativity. More than any other creative domain, we imagine the painter working in isolation, without influence from the external environment and without concern for convention. It turns out that these stereotypes about painters are wrong. In this chapter I’ll show that explaining painting requires both individualist approaches and contextualist approaches. And of course fine art painting is only one of the many visual arts, so I’ll move beyond fine art painting and discuss installation art, comics, videos, and movies. With these genres of visual creativity, our creativity myths begin to fail in very dramatic ways.
Caretaker Resource Accounts
Authors: Alstott Anne L
Published: November 2023

Caretaker resource accounts would give the parent of every child under age 13 an annual grant of $5,000, which could be used to pay for child care, education, or retirement savings in the current year or in any future year. All three uses would, in some way, improve parents’ future options. The hallmarks of the program are that each individual would receive an equal grant each year, and that each would decide for himself or herself how to deploy the funds over time. The program would direct resources not only to parents who remain in the paid workforce continuously but also to “sequencers,” who leave their jobs (or take part-time positions) for a time and return to the full-time workforce later on. It would be up to each individual to decide how best to plan for the future.
Practical Limitations of the Family-Friendly Workplace
Authors: Alstott Anne L
Published: November 2023

Family-friendly workplace policies seek to improve job options for parents, but they could produce unintended—and distinctly unfriendly—side effects: they could cut women’s wages, increase women’s unemployment, and reinforce sex segregation in the workforce. These problems arise because, in a free market, employers can shift the costs of workplace regulation to workers, and to female workers in particular. In this chapter, I present economic theory and empirical evidence that suggest caution in adopting family-friendly regulations.
Evolutionary Dynamics of the Mutualistic Symbiosis between Fungus-Growing Termites and Termitomyces Fungi
Authors: Aanen Duur K , Boomsma Jacobus J
Published: November 2023

Colonies offungus-growing termites (Isoptera: Termitidae) are among the most spectacular organismal phenomena in the world. One of the best-known species offungus-growing termites is Macrotermes bellicosus. A queen of this species (fig. 8.1) can lay up to 40,000 eggs per day, and a mature colony, normally founded by a single queen and king, consists of millions of sterile individuals, the workers and soldiers. Macrotennes bellicosus builds mounds that can be up to 7 m tall (fig. 8.2; Korb 1997). This species and all fungus-growing termites live in an obligate symbiosis with basidiomycete fungi of the genus Tennitomyces. The volume of the fungus garden of a live colony of M. bellicosus has been estimated to encompass several cubic meters. This chapter summarizes recent advances in our understanding of the major macroevolutionary developments that have shaped the symbiosis between the fungus-growing termites and their fungal symbionts and places these changes in an ecological context.
The Beetle Gut as a Habitat for New Species of Yeasts
Authors: Suh Sung-Qui , Blackwell Meredith
Published: November 2023

The study of endosymbioses continues to accentuate the extraordinary impact that microorganisms have had on the ecology and evolution of invertebrates, especially insects. One only has to learn of the studies of Buchneria and Wolbachia and their interactions with a wide variety of arthropods to wonder at the dramatic effect of endosymbionts on their hosts (van Meer et al. 1999; Dale et al. 2001; Funk et al. 2001). The study of eukaryotic endosymbionts, however, has lagged somewhat behind that of the prokaryotes. Nevertheless, fungi are increasingly being recognized as important endosymbionts of insects. It is difficult to predict which insects might be associated with fungi because even close relatives feeding on similar nutrient resources may vary in whether they are associated with bacterial or fungal symbionts, or for that matter with any symbiont (Buchner 1965; Martin 1987).
Conclusion Symbioses, Biocomplexity, and Metagenomes
Authors: Vega Fernando E , Blackwell Meredith
Published: November 2023

A common thread in this book is symbiosis, organisms living together in an association, the outcome of which could be neutral, positive, or negative and that might even change from time to time. Ever since de Bary (1879) popularized this term, we have seen the reductionist approach of science in vogue, an approach that has been quite productive. This approach has resulted in the development of revolutionary technologies, such as the tools of molecular biology, which have revealed a tremendous level of biocomplexity in nature. For example, Hermsmeier et al. (2001) found that more than 500 genes in Nicotiana attenuata respond to attack by the lepidopteran Manduca sexta. This mind-boggling analysis points at the need for a concerted effort aimed at understanding the biocomplexity of insect-fungal associations. We have to start fitting the parts together in a new puzzle that uses parts based on molecular studies. It is not just a matter of examining tri-trophic interactions or of examining how insects deal with plant trichomes, allelochemicals, or a thick cuticle.
The Volume-Variance Correction Alternative
Authors: Journel André G , Kyriakidis Phaedon C
Published: November 2023

Because any mining venture investment requires an estimate of recoverable reserves and associated profits, many different approaches to such estimation have been developed. It would take years of compilation of great works and lesser manuals to write the history of mine valuation techniques starting from Agricola’s de Re Metallica (Agricola, 1950). Such a survey would go far beyond the scope of this book, which is limited to the presentation of the stochastic simulation approach.
Estimation of Recovery Volume-Variance Correction
Authors: Journel André G , Kyriakidis Phaedon C
Published: November 2023

To evaluate the results obtained from the proposed simulation approach, we now proceed to estimation of the recovery functions using the traditional volume-variance correction (VVC) described in Chapter III. Remember, though, that the VVC approach does not account for the information effect; that is, the fact that SMUs are selected on the basis of future estimated values not on their true average grades. The VVC approach thus provides only estimates of recovery under perfect selection, not of actual recovery un der imperfect selection.
Discovery of the Southern Route
Authors: Hillary Sir Edmund
Published: November 2023

From Namche Bazar It took only three days to get to the foot of Everest, but in many ways they were the most exciting and dramatic days I had ever spent. The rivers foamed through great gorges; the hillsides were clothed in dense forest, broken only here and there by a sheer rock face or a sharp crag. And then, high above the early autumn tints, towered the unbelievable peaks of the Khumba region – mighty ice-fluted faces, terrific rock buttresses, and razorsharp jagged ice ridges soaring up to impossible summits. These peaks were rarely more than 22,000 feet high, but I found it hard to believe that they would ever be climbed.

Perched amongst them all on a wooded spur is the Monastery of Thyangboche, one of the spiritual homes of the Sherpas. No temple could have a more glorious setting. Ageless, it is wrapped in an aura of peace and meditation. The Lamas proved to be kindly, gentle folk and entertained us regally. We had great difficulty in dragging ourselves away from their hospitality.
Preparation on Cho Oyu
Authors: Hillary Sir Edmund
Published: November 2023

This News Was A serious and unexpected blow to our hopes and plans, but the Joint Himalayan Committee of the Royal Geographical Society and the Alpine Club acted with admirable courage. They decided to go ahead irrespective of the Swiss attempt. Permission had been granted by the Nepalese Government for a British Expedition to Everest in 1953. The Himalayan Committee decided to spare no effort to prepare for this, and at very short notice agreed to send a training expedition to the Himalayas in 1952. This would have the very useful purpose of providing a pool of climbers who had shown that they could function effectively at great altitudes. It would also give an opportunity to carry out experiments with the existing oxygen apparatus with a view to developing something suitable for use on Everest.

It was a great moment when I received a cable from Shipton. He had been asked to lead the Expedition to Cho Oyu, 26,867 feet, the seventh highest peak in the world. And he wanted me to go along too.
Playing With The Boys
Authors: Mcdonagh Eileen , Pappano Laura
Published: November 2023

From small-town life to the national stage, from the boardroom to Capitol Hill, athletic contests help define what we mean in America by “success.” And by keeping women from “playing with the boys” on the grounds that they are inherently inferior to men, society relegates them to second-class status in American life. In this forcefully argued book, Eileen McDonagh and Laura Pappano show in vivid detail how women have been unfairly excluded from participating in sports on an equal footing with men. Using dozens of powerful examples from the world of contemporary American athletics--girls and women trying to break through in football, ice hockey, wrestling, and baseball to name just a few--the authors show that sex differences are not sufficient to warrant women’s coercive exclusion from competing with men; that some sex-group differences actually confer a sports advantage to women; and that “special rules” for women in sports do not simply reflect the “differences” between the sexes, but actively create and reinforce a view that women as a group are inherently inferior to men--even when women clearly are not. For instance, women’s bodies give them a physiological advantage in endurance sports like the ultra-marathon and distance swimming. So, why do so many Olympic events--from swimming to skiing to running to bike racing--have shorter races for women than men? Likewise, why are women’s tennis matches limited to three sets while men’s are best-of-fives? This book shows how sex-segregated sports policies, instead of reflecting sex-group differences, in fact construct them. An original and provocative argument to level the athletic playing field, Playing with the Boys issues a clarion call for sex-sensible policies in sports as a crucial step toward achieving social, economic, and political equality for men and women in our society.
What’s The Problem?
Authors: Mcdonagh Eileen , Pappano Laura
Published: November 2023

When two former U.S. presidents, Bill Clinton and George H. W. Bush, sat down the evening of February 6, 2005, at the Fox Network sports desk, they delivered more than the planned message. Ostensibly the two appeared on the Super Bowl pregame show to win support for tsunami relief efforts. However, in choosing this event as their venue, they embraced an unabashed cultural and political fact: Sports matter. Athletic events, they confirmed, are more than entertainment, exercise, orpastime. Sports—footballand the Super Bowl inparticular— provide one of the largest and most important stages in American society. Some 86 million U.S. households tuned in to watch Super Bowl XXXIX. By contrast, four days earlier just 38.4 million tuned in to President George W. Bush’s State of the Union Address. The NFL may be among the most superbly packaged and marketed athletic products in the world, but the ease with which politics, power, and money intermingle with organized sports is more than a good pitch. The connections run deep. Some sociologists argue that “sports have replaced formal religion as a dominant force in the lives of many Americans.” And in educational contexts, as law scholar Julia Lamber notes, the purpose of sports “is for students to learn the kinds of discipline, cooperation, and ability to meet challenges that often produce success in later public and private life.”