bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Jay Gatsby, Justice Douglas, and the Significance of Class in American Society
Authors: Driver Justin
Published: May 2019

This chapter juxtaposes the tales of two ambitious men, both born in the American West, who moved east to New York in an effort to make names for themselves during the 1920s. The ambitions of Jay Gatsby—as recounted in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby—and William O. Douglas—as recounted in his autobiography, Go East, Young Man—led the two men in very different directions. Where Gatsby turned to lawlessness, Douglas instead turned to law. The distinct journeys and distinct fates that Gatsby and Douglas experience yield insight into the significance of class within the United States, and also offer significant complications of the American Dream.
Wealth and Warfare in the Novels of Jane Austen
Authors: Datta-Barua Seebany , Masur Jonathan S.
Published: May 2019

Numerous characters in Austen’s novels have commissions in the army or militia, and several central characters enlist in the navy. There was an important distinction between these two services. Officers in the army and militia were paid wages. Sailors, on the other hand, were entitled not just to wages but also to a share in the value of any “prizes” that they captured at sea. We theorize that this prize system existed because naval officers and crew needed to be given equity shares in their endeavors in order to create incentives for aggressive action. This distinction between how soldiers and sailors were paid has a profound effect on the development of Austen’s characters. The army is a force for the status quo. The navy, on the other hand, is an avenue for true social advancement. Austen also uses the choice between services to show the character of the individuals who enlist.
Commerce, Law, and Revolution in the Novels of Elizabeth Gaskell and Charlotte Brontë
Authors: LaCroix Alison L.
Published: May 2019

The 1840s and 1850s witnessed the publication of three great “condition of England” novels: Charlotte Brontë’s Shirley (1849) and Elizabeth Gaskell’s Mary Barton (1848) and North and South (1855). All three novels examine the consequences of the Industrial Revolution in England, and all are critical in their appraisal of its effects on individuals, society, and the national—and even the international—realm. All three focus on the world of commerce and manufacturing, but the realm of law is never far away. Yet there are differences: in Shirley, Brontë delves into the interior lives of two very different female protagonists, while Gaskell’s narratives are more concerned with economic and social injustice. Brontë set Shirley during the Napoleonic Wars of the early 1800s, a period of British imperial struggle and ultimate triumph. Gaskell placed the action of Mary Barton a decade prior to its writing, but in North and South she depicted her current moment, with a consequent sharpening of her critique. This essay examines the novels’ treatment of a set of interconnected themes: commerce, law, and revolution, with reference to related questions of politics, gender, and time.
Money and Art in Edward Bellamy’s Looking Backward
Authors: Baird Douglas G.
Published: May 2019

Edward Bellamy’s utopian novel, Looking Backward, was the second most popular American novel of the nineteenth century after Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Bellamy imagines Boston in the year 2000. Equality prevails, while money and law have disappeared. This essay focuses on Bellamy’s account of how literature thrives in this society and shows that it is fundamentally flawed. First, to explain how literature is produced, Bellamy is forced to introduce a form of money into his society after all. Moreover, he has no way to explain why the logic that leads to the introduction of money in order to make literature possible does not apply to producing everything else a well-lived life requires. Second, the literature that Bellamy envisions suggests that his world is no utopia at all. It is instead a dull dystopian place in which neither literature nor art is likely to flourish.
The Second New Deal and the Fourth Courtroom Wall
Authors: Weinrib Laura
Published: May 2019

This essay explores Marc Blitzstein’s 1937 labor opera, The Cradle Will Rock, as an assault on legal legitimacy. Since its famous first production—a pared-down performance in which actors delivered their parts from the house, improvised when the WPA canceled the scheduled opening of the controversial project—critics have emphasized Cradle’s indebtedness to the German playwright Bertolt Brecht, to whom Blitzstein dedicated the work. Consistent with Brecht’s Verfremdungseffekt, Blitzstein distances the audience from Cradle’s characters, substituting rational understanding for unreflective empathy. Like Brecht, he employs this theatrical device to expose the cultural and economic underpinnings of familiar social practices, including capitalism. Imported to the US context, the Brechtian reimagining of theatrical conventions resonated with a corresponding attack on formal legal justice. At the height of the New Deal’s crisis of legal legitimacy, Cradle depicts a judicial system baldly beholden to wealth and property. The anti-union steel magnate at the show’s center bribes and manipulates journalists, professionals, and public officials to promote his concept of “liberty,” namely, freedom from organized labor. By amplifying the effects of economic interests on legal outcomes while undermining empathy with the characters who facilitate and legitimate repression, Cradle invites the audience to consider its own complicity in law’s injustice.
Raisin, Race, and the Real Estate Revolution of the Early Twentieth Century
Authors: Rose Carol M.
Published: May 2019

Lorraine Hansberry’s hit play of 1957, A Raisin in the Sun, centered on the decision of an African American family in Chicago, the Youngers, to move to a house in a white neighborhood. The play is set in the post–World War II era, but many of its scenes and actions relate back to real estate practices that began at the turn of the century and that continued to evolve into the midcentury and to some degree beyond. During those decades, housing development and finance increased dramatically in scale, professionalization, and standardization. But in their concern for their predominantly white consumers’ preferences for segregation, real estate developers, brokers, financial institutions, and finally governmental agencies adopted standard practices that excluded African Americans from many housing opportunities and that then reinforced white preferences for housing segregation. Many seemingly minor features of the play reflect the way that African Americans had been sidelined in the earlier decades’ evolving real estate practices—not just the family’s overcrowded apartment, but also more subtle cues, such as the source of the initial funds for the new house, the methods for its finance, and the legal background of the white homeowners’ effort to discourage the purchase. This essay pinpoints these and other small clues, and describes how standardizing real estate practices dating from the turn of the century effectively crowded out African American consumers like the Youngers, with consequences that we continue to observe in modern patterns of urban segregation.
The Grapes of Wrath, Economics, and Luck
Authors: McAdams Richard H.
Published: May 2019

Economic success and failure are always, to some degree, a matter of luck. The degree of randomness and luck involved in economic outcomes is, for most people, relevant to their support for schemes of social insurance. But a substantial amount of psychology research suggests that Westerners, especially Americans, systematically and significantly underestimate the role of luck in economic outcomes. Just world theory suggests that people are motivated to interpret good and bad outcomes in the world as more merited or deserved than they actually are. With this social science perspective, I interpret John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath. The novel is most obviously a story about the struggle of labor in a capitalist world, about which much has been written. But the story was provocative and subversive in another way: focused relentlessly on luck, it strongly counters the tendency to underestimate the role of luck in economic outcomes. Contrary to conventional storytelling, as well as the reactionary counter-novels it spawned, hard work and moral decency are not rewarded.
Ancestral Roots
Authors: Jeung Russell M. , Fong Seanan S. , Kim Helen Jin
Published: May 2019

Chapter 2 offers a genealogical exploration of how Chinese traditions have shaped Chinese American religious affiliations and familism. Chinese adopt a plurality of beliefs for utilitarian purposes through their religious repertoire based in Chinese Popular Religion. Given their mixture of beliefs and practices that have no names, Chinese tend to identify as “nothing in particular.” Another factor contributing to the high rates of Chinese American religious nones is Confucian thought, which oriented Chinese society toward religious skepticism and an agnostic, symbolic interpretation of religious rituals. These twin approaches toward religion are the roots of modern-day Chinese atheism and agnosticism. Both reinforce the primacy of familial relations. These two traditions have undergone changes through modernization, migration, and the religious context in which they take root. The chapter ends with a survey of how these traditions have been transformed by Chinese state modernization, acculturation to the American context, and racialization.
The Yi of Family Sacrifice
Authors: Jeung Russell M. , Fong Seanan S. , Kim Helen Jin
Published: May 2019

Chapter 5 details Chinese Americans’ highest values and the central narrative by which they make sense of their lives: family sacrifice. Those under 30 tended to be “maximizing world-changers.” They desired to make a difference with their opportunities and careers. Those over 30 desired to be “expressive balancers,” seeking fulfillment by balancing work, community, and family. Both groups tempered these individualistic Americanized tendencies by expressing family sacrifice in three ways. First, they venerated the past, showing respect and honor to their ancestors and immigrant parents. Second, they gave back to their parents in culturally appropriate ways: hard work, good communication and food, and by including family in major decisions. Third, they centered their dreams for the future around family. The yi of Chinese Americans is an ethic of maintaining right relations with those whom one considers family.
Moral Development and Reality
Authors: Gibbs John C.
Published: May 2019

Moral Development and Reality explores the nature of morality, moral development, social behavior, and human connection. By comparing, contrasting, and going beyond the prominent theories mainly of Lawrence Kohlberg, Martin Hoffman, and Jonathan Haidt, the author addresses fundamental questions: What is morality, and how broad is the moral domain? Can we speak of moral development (Kohlberg, Hoffman), or is morality entirely relative to diverse cultures (Haidt)? What are the sources of moral motivation? What factors account for prosocial behavior? What are the typical social perspective-taking limitations of antisocial youths, and how can those limitations be remedied? Does moral development, including moments of moral inspiration, reflect a deeper reality? Exploring these questions elucidates the full range of moral development, from superficial perception to a deeper understanding and feeling. Included are foundations of morality and moral motivation; biology, social intuitions, and culture; social perspective-taking and development; the stage construct and developmental delay; moral exemplars and moral identity; cognitive distortions, social skills deficiencies, and cognitive behavioral interventions or moral education; and, finally, near-death experiences and the underpinnings of the social and moral world.
Introduction
Authors: Gibbs John C.
Published: May 2019

This chapter introduces not only the social perspective-taking central to morality, but also our theory-based exploration of moral development, behavior, and reality. Perspective-taking relates to both “the right” (justice, reciprocity, equality; Kohlberg’s theory) and “the good” (welfare, beneficence, empathy; Hoffman’s theory) of morality. The right (condition of reversibility) provides an objective basis for morality not recognized in relativistic moral theories such as Haidt’s (Chapter 2). The good may provide the broad moral referent for differentiated intuitions (e.g., loyalty, authority, purity) specified by Haidt. Chapters 3 and 4 address “the right” or the cognitive strand of moral motivation and development, whereas Chapter 5 addresses “the good” or the affective strand. Subsequent chapters (6 through 10) relate the theories of moral development to social behavior (prosocial, antisocial) as well as to a deeper reality of human connection
“The Right” and Moral Development
Authors: Gibbs John C.
Published: May 2019

This chapter explicates cognitive developmental themes in moral development. The attention of young children is readily captured by or centered on that which is immediate and salient in their sociomoral and non-social worlds. Just as centrations and superficiality characterize early childhood moral judgment, “decentration” and depth can be said to characterize the moral competence constructed in the school years and beyond. We relate morality to logic (cf. Piaget); explain that the ideals of justice or moral reciprocity are constructed, not merely enculturated, socialized, or internalized; explicate the role of peer interaction and social perspective-taking opportunities in this moral constructive process across diverse cultures; argue that justice can be a moral motive in its own right; and ponder issues in the concept and assessment of “stages” in the development of moral judgment.
“The Good” and Moral Development
Authors: Gibbs John C.
Published: May 2019

Social perspective-taking and development beyond the superficial also entail caring or feeling. Accordingly, we shift in this chapter from the right to the good, from justice to empathy, from the primarily cognitive to the primarily affective strand of moral motivation and development. We draw heavily on Hoffman’s theory, even as we also consider recent refinements, issues, and challenges (de Waal, Decety, Zahn-Waxler, Bloom). Much more than did Haidt, Hoffman has focused our attention on the role of empathy in moral development. Thanks to cognitive development, language development, and moral socialization, empathy progresses from biologically based responses to surface cues to a more complex and veridical emotional responsiveness to the joys, sufferings, and life situations of others. Attributions, inferences, and biases influence whether empathy eventuates in prosocial behavior. Within moral socialization, Hoffman focuses on parental practices of discipline (especially, “inductions” that make salient the perspectives of others hurt by the child’s transgression). The chapter concludes that Hoffman’s theory withstands recent challenges, and argues for co-primacy (both empathy and justice) in moral motivation.
Litigation Issues
Authors: Rechtschaffen Alan N.
Published: May 2019

Losses in capital markets inevitably lead to litigation. In the trading context, liability stems from the nature of the relationship of the parties involved in a particular transaction. The plaintiff in litigation will look to common law as well as to the federal securities and commodity laws to find a violation that might support a private cause of action. This chapter discusses federal securities law, common law theories, and state “Blue Sky Laws.” Topics covered include the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, Securities Act of 1933, liability under the Commodity Exchange Act, breach of fiduciary duty, common law fraud, shingle theory, tort theory, and contract theory.
Taxation and Human Rights
Authors: Avi-Yonah Reuven S. , Mazzoni Gianluca
Published: May 2019

This chapter assesses the appropriate balance between strengthening tax revenue collection tools to ensure states have adequate resources to meet their human rights obligations, and protecting taxpayer rights to privacy and data security. On the one hand, the ability of rich residents of developing countries and multinational corporations operating in those countries to evade or avoid taxation is directly linked to violations of human rights in those countries, especially from the perspective of social and economic rights like health and education. Providing such countries with the means to fight back and collect adequate revenues is essential in advancing such rights. On the other hand, some of the techniques used to achieve adequate revenue collection, like automatic exchange of information (AEoI) and country-by-country reporting (CbCR), risk violating other human rights like privacy and the legitimate protection of trade secrets.
How Countries Should Share Tax Information
Authors: Cockfield Arthur J.
Published: May 2019

This chapter looks at exchange of information (EOI) policies, proposing several ways to make EOI policies fairer and more efficient, so as to maximize their potential to reduce illicit financial flows and curb abusive tax practices that undermine human rights. While there appears increasing policy and academic support for EOI initiatives that promote global financial transparency, the current international tax regime, with its high transaction costs for taxpayers and tax authorities, does not seem particularly amenable to producing optimal outcomes. The chapter then emphasizes how, to promote enforceability, the ideal EOI system delivers high-quality tax information while providing needed legal protections for taxpayer privacy. The exchange and usage of high-quality tax information would reduce transaction costs for tax authorities as they could more readily identify taxpayers engaged in offshore tax evasion and aggressive international tax planning.
Creating a Human Rights Framework for Mapping and Addressing Corporate Tax Abuses
Authors: Kohonen Matti , Sarin Radhika , Boerrild Troels , Livingston Ewan
Published: May 2019

This chapter identifies several areas of convergence between the fields of tax policy and human rights. These include the concept of the corporation as a unitary entity; the notion of extraterritorial impacts and obligations of states and corporations; and the risks of corporate personhood. These principles are all highly relevant to corporations’ human rights due diligence and risk assessment of their tax policies. Applying a business and human rights perspective to international tax law can clarify responsibilities of companies toward their other stakeholders as well as their relationship with subsidiaries and business partners in terms of responsible tax conduct. The chapter then explores two dimensions of the human rights impacts of tax-related corporate decisions: impacts mediated by the state and impacts not mediated by the state.
Inequality, Taxation, and Public Transfers in Latin America
Authors: Hanni Michael , Martner Ricardo
Published: May 2019

This chapter looks at inequality trends and the redistributive potential of fiscal policies in Latin America. It suggests that increased mobilization of tax revenues from the middle class, the segment of society with the highest “tax morale,” could help rectify the frayed fiscal compact—the fragile agreement between the governed and the government about what sums the former owe as taxpayers and what services the latter provides in return. A new fiscal compact might be constructed around the Sustainable Development Goals, through a holistic approach focused on public tax revenues and spending priorities. The chapter then emphasizes the need to rely on direct taxation, which could help close the gap between the rich and the poor and improve the realization of human rights; to maximize the potential redistributive impacts of taxes and transfers; and to improve service delivery.
Vengeance in the Odyssey: tisis as Narrative
Authors: Loney Alexander C.
Published: May 2019

This chapter establishes the importance of revenge in the Odyssey and shows how a narratological analysis of revenge-taking best accounts for the combination of the ideological points from chapter 1 with the literary form of the Odyssey. The manner in which the Odyssey opens—with the mythic paradeigma of Aigisthos—brings tisis to the forefront, as does the final divine council scene. This chapter next shows how the basic ideological framework of tisis analyzed in chapter 1 takes on a narrative structure. Thus, tisis in the Odyssey is defined as a type of narrative. In addition, with a brief survey of the debate about intertextuality and allusion in Homer, this chapter examines how different instances of tisis refer to one another via intratextuality and can evoke irony. Lastly, some distinctive, prominent features of tisis in the Odyssey are considered, such as ἀτασθαλίαι‎, “recklessness.”
How Democratic Practice Varies by Country
Authors: Fishman Robert M.
Published: May 2019

This chapter introduces the theme of variation among democracies and the book’s new approach to this question. The major outlines of the book’s argument and of its placement in existing literatures are presented. The chapter also provides a working definition of the main concepts—such as democratic practice—that are used in the analysis. The chapter also explains why the empirical work focuses on Spain and Portugal, highlighting the usefulness of this paired comparison as a near natural experiment. Although the neighboring countries have a long history of structural similarity and political parallelism, they moved from dictatorship to democracy through virtually polar opposite pathways of change in the 1970s. The work is placed in the context of studies on democracy, democratization, critical junctures, and culture. The implications of the book for the pursuit of political equality and inclusion are discussed. The content of the book’s eight chapters is outlined.
Democratic Practice in Action
Authors: Fishman Robert M.
Published: May 2019

This chapter provides multiple types of evidence on the large difference between Portugal and Spain in the treatment provided to political “outsiders” and in the degree to which they are included in institutionally important “conversations” about politics and government. Much of the discussion focuses on interactions between protesters and institutional power holders—an arena of conduct in which the two countries are fundamentally different. Various paired comparisons of similar incidents in the two countries are taken up. Evidence from survey research and from the experience of participatory initiatives such as participatory budgeting is also discussed. The chapter also examines evidence from two crucial secondary institutions, the educational system and the mass media. These varied forms of evidence coincide in showing that Portugal’s post-revolutionary democratic practice is inclusionary, emphasizing complementarities between institutional power and the expression of citizen sentiments elsewhere, whereas Spain’s democratic practice is segmented and often exclusionary.
How Democratic Practice Matters
Authors: Fishman Robert M.
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines a large range of consequences of what the book conceptualizes as “the Iberian divide in political inclusion,” that is, the major contrast between Portugal and Spain in democratic practice. The analysis shows that Portugal has made more progress than Spain creating employment, limiting poverty, and improving educational outcomes. Contrasts in the evolution of the welfare state are taken up along with explanations for the major difference between the neighboring countries in the magnitude of unemployment. Differences in cultural tastes and in patterns of civic engagement are also examined. The chapter identifies and considers possible lines of criticism of the analysis. Evidence from two important test cases that developed after the book’s theoretical claims had been developed in initial form—namely the exogenous shock of the Great Recession and the conflict over the demand for Catalan independence—are taken up separately in other chapters.
Economic Conditions
Authors: Venkataramani Atheendar S. , Tsai Alexander C.
Published: May 2019

Economic conditions are among the core conditions that shape health in any environment. Within cities, where populations are living in much greater proximity than in other areas, economic conditions are often the gateway to those resources that can create health. At the same time, economic gaps can undermine the urban social fabric, challenging social cohesion and limiting urban development and capacity. This chapter discusses how economic conditions are a core feature of the urban environment, an ineluctable determinant of health in urban populations.
Children and Adolescents in Cities
Authors: Suglia Shakira F.
Published: May 2019

A life course approach posits that early experiences are deeply influential on our later behaviors and characteristics, including our health. This puts a particular premium on thinking about early life as a determinant of the health of populations. The urban environment is a particular environment for children and adolescents, creating tremendous opportunities for exposure to diverse populations and cultural experiences that can be enriching and a complement to an effective formal education. However, urban environments also present challenges to young people, ranging from safety in the face of multiple environmental exposures to limitations many young people may have in accessing salutary resources. This chapter discusses the opportunities and challenges that urban environments represent for childhood and adolescence and how optimizing urban environments to promote healthy childhood and adolescence can make critical contributions to the health of urban populations.
Healthy Places to Play, Learn, and Develop
Authors: Boynton-Jarrett Renée
Published: May 2019

The urban environment is characterized by human-made spaces, by environments that are created to allow large numbers of people to coexist. These spaces literally shape where and how we play and work, representing an enormous opportunity for urban spaces to influence all aspects of our daily life—including our health. Although abundant urban areas have emerged over the past decades that disincentivize healthy living, innovation around the world is providing examples of approaches to urban design that generates healthy and safe places to play and work. This chapter provides a framework for thinking about the creation of urban spaces, about how the physical environment influences health, and how, to that end, we can create healthy physical environments to improve the health of urban populations.
Climate Change and the Health of Urban Populations
Authors: Kinney Patrick L.
Published: May 2019

Global climate change represents one of the sentinel changes the world is facing and that will threaten population health in this century. In the context of urban health, climate change threatens to increase urban heat island effects, to change exposure to pollution, and to increase urban residents’ risk of exposure to natural disasters, among other phenomena. And yet urban innovation is central to the longer term solution to climate change from the development of innovative approaches that reduce cities’ carbon footprint to initiatives that increase urban resilience in the face of climate change threats. This chapter discusses the threat that climate change poses for urban populations and potential approaches that can mitigate this challenge toward improving urban health.
Crime and Criminal Justice in Cities
Authors: Vogel Matt , Messner Steven F.
Published: May 2019

Urban areas in popular imagination are characterized by crime and challenges to safety. And yet this is often far from the truth. However, crime remains a real issue in some cities and is often a feature of social disorder in rapidly growing cities worldwide. Complicating how crime shapes the health of urban populations has been the role of criminal justice systems that have, time and again, overreacted to the threat of crime and implemented harsh punishment that disproportionately penalizes minority and marginalized populations. This chapter provides a framework that can help us think about crime and criminal justice in cities, discussing how we may improve criminal justice systems to ensure public safety while minimizing unwarranted harms while moving toward improving the health of urban populations.
Urban Planning
Authors: Pineo Helen , Zimmermann Nici , Davies Mike
Published: May 2019

Cities ultimately are human-made environments. It is this very feature of cities that makes them an appealing target for population health inquiry. That they have been created means that they can also be modified and improved to the end of improving the health of their resident populations. Urban planning is concerned with the development and use of land in urban environments and, in this context, can play a central role in how we may think about optimizing urban environments to improve health. This chapter introduces an urban planning perspective on urban health, discussing how a formal urban planning framework can improve our understanding of the health of urban populations.
Cells-to-Society Approaches
Authors: Guffanti Guia
Published: May 2019

The urban environment is characterized by physical and social environments that are the causes of health. At the same time, the production of health ultimately rests on the embedding of health in human populations, on these social and physical environments “getting under the skin.” Cells-to-society approaches consider how features of context manifest, through biologically mediated processes, as health. This chapter explores how, in the face of rising urbanization on a global scale, cells-to-society approaches can help us understand the health of urban populations and open up novel areas of inquiry about how we may create better cities to produce population health.
Urban Land Use and Health
Authors: Simkin Rohan , Seto Karen C.
Published: May 2019

It is well established that local environmental conditions directly impact human health. As the world population and land surface both become increasingly urban, understanding the health consequences of urban land use–driven environmental change is critically important. Understanding these relationships is a necessary condition in planning urban development in ways that may be co-beneficial for both the environment and human health. Environmental influences on health include but are not limited to air pollution and asthma, access to green space and mental and physical health, and water pollution and water-borne diseases. However, it is not only the local environment that affects health; the regional and global environments also contribute to health outcomes. This chapter explores the interdependencies between regional and global environments and human health, using urban land use as an analytical lens.
City Leadership for Health, Equity, and Sustainable Development
Authors: Tsouros Agis D.
Published: May 2019

City leaders have the power and the means to make a significant difference in the health and well-being of their people. This chapter explores and discusses the context, the potential, and the critical preconditions for city leadership for health in the twenty-first century. Leadership encompasses a variety of qualities, skills, and styles and can be addressed from many perspectives. The focus here in this chapter is mainly on four aspects of city leadership: political leadership, leadership for change and innovation, value-based leadership, and capacity for effective leadership and governance for health.
Teaching Urban Health
Authors: Freudenberg Nicholas
Published: May 2019

As urban health comes into full flower as a field of inquiry, the future of the field lies squarely with the next generation of scholars who embrace urban health as their metier. Creating healthier, more equitable, and sustainable cities globally requires an urban health workforce with the knowledge, skills, and capacity needed to achieve those goals. This chapter discusses the state of the science in urban health teaching, drawing both on specific examples and on pedagogic theory to illustrate how we may best contribute to the creation of the next generation of scholars in urban health.
Introduction
Authors: Sullivan Michael J.
Published: May 2019

This chapter introduces the book’s argument for a pathway to U.S. citizenship for long-term resident, unauthorized immigrants through their community contributions in relationships they have developed over time in their adopted country. It addresses the scope of the policy challenge of unauthorized immigrant residence in the U.S. in terms of numbers of migrants and the persistence of the political debate over their future. It explains the special moral challenges that arise from immigrant military service, as well as from the deportation of the parents of citizen children and the separation of their families through immigration enforcement. It then provides a set of nonhumanitarian justifications for legalizing unauthorized immigrants based on their contributions in their relationships with citizens. This argument balances citizen interests in enforcing immigration laws against mitigating factors, including service to citizens, communities, and the nation as a whole.
Civic Membership as Reciprocity
Authors: Sullivan Michael J.
Published: May 2019

Immigration enforcement regimes operate on the pretense that states have the unilateral right to exclude migrants who have entered without their consent. This chapter contends that when unauthorized long-term residents provide necessary services to their adopted countries, citizens have a normative obligation to reconsider their collective decision to exclude them. The principle of civic membership as reciprocity stands for the proposition that a person should be able to earn restitution for immigration offenses and a pathway to citizenship by working with citizens to sustain public institutions. To account for each polity’s interest in preserving its identity through admissions and naturalization decisions, an individual state can modify the principle of civic membership as reciprocity to privilege forms of service that it has historically singled out for public honors. It can then apply this principle to consider why military service by unauthorized immigrants merits regularization and naturalization in countries with a strong citizen soldier tradition.
Recognizing the Civic Value of Parenting a New Generation
Authors: Sullivan Michael J.
Published: May 2019

This chapter contends that polities have a long-term public policy interest in applying the same best interests of the child standard that they use for domestic child welfare determinations to immigration cases that involve deportable noncitizen parents, balanced against the interests of citizens in effective immigration regulation and enforcement. The burden lies with parents who have entered and continued to reside without authorization in a country to show that their right to remain is of benefit to existing citizens. This means that unauthorized immigrant parents should initially be given conditional permission to stay in their children’s country of long-term residence to raise them. Deportable parents should be legalized to fulfill a duty of care to their long-term resident or citizen children in the communities where they reside and be offered the opportunity to acquire citizenship based on their service to their broader communities.
Introduction
Authors: Makse Todd , Minkoff Scott , Sokhey Anand
Published: May 2019

In this introductory chapter, we highlight the distinctiveness of the campaign yard sign as a form of political participation that is public, communicative, and confrontational. In contrast with the received wisdom of campaign professionals who are altogether skeptical about signs and a political science literature that has focused somewhat narrowly on the effectiveness of signs, we believe that yard signs are much more than campaign tools. We make the case for a comprehensive examination of yard signs as a political phenomenon, pointing to three attributes of yard signs that are individually interesting, but particularly compelling in combination: the symbolic aspect of signs as markers of partisan identity, the social aspect of signs as messages to neighbors and other audiences, and the spatial aspect of signs as information in social contexts.
Belonging, 1871–1914
Authors: Nielsen Philipp
Published: May 2019

This chapter covers the period of the Second German Empire from 1871 until 1914. It describes the evolution of efforts to advance agricultural settlement and Germandom in the East and Jewish participation in these endeavors. It also investigates the reasons for German Jews’ attraction to state service. It traces how issues that were not initially linked to the causes of particular political parties or strong ideological leanings tended to move right over time, with or without Jewish participation. Hence, not all of the characters introduced here, who will feature throughout the book, could be fully situated or would have thought of themselves as on the Right before 1914. Considering the complexities of liberal and conservative political positions during the Empire, this is not necessarily something specific to them as Jews. This chapter elucidates these ambiguities.
Struggle, 1924–1929
Authors: Nielsen Philipp
Published: May 2019

This chapter describes the twin pulls felt by the German Right between 1924 and 1929: pragmatic adjustment and ideological purity. Which path the Right and its projects would ultimately take would necessarily impact questions of Jewish inclusion in right-wing circles. But Jews were by no means only bystanders in this process. Instead they actively participated in renegotiating the Right’s political positions in the Weimar Republic. Through renewed attempts at agricultural settlements, in the defense of Germandom in the East, at shared commemorations of the fallen of the Great War, or in party politics, conservative German Jews were active, though increasingly curtailed by antisemitism, in trying to devise new notions of national belonging and community that could be in direct contrast to the republican ideals of Weimar.
Descent, 1929–1935
Authors: Nielsen Philipp
Published: May 2019

In the last years of the Weimar Republic, beginning with the onset of recession in 1929, right-leaning German Jews faced an existential question: where would they fit into this reconfigured political space? For those Jews whose political identity placed them on the Right, the decline of the DVP and DNVP was of critical importance. They perceived class—or, more precisely, the working class model of Marxism—to be a threat on the order of antisemitism. The question for them was whether there would be room for German Jews in a Right that hailed a Volk based on racial descent. The chapter describes the attempts of German Jews on the Right to define and defend their place in the German Volk, or in other instances their turning away from their previous right-wing allegiances and toward alternative categories of belonging.
Conclusion
Authors: Nielsen Philipp
Published: May 2019

The conclusion retraces the major developments within the German Right since the 1871 and the space of German Jews within it. In particular, it describes the fate of the three projects of the Right in which German Jewish conservatives were involved: Germandom in the East, agricultural settlement, and the commemoration of the community of the trenches as a possible basis for a future German state. Though the Great War and the revolution also gave a basis, not least, for the community of the trenches, all of these projects came under strain following the establishment of the republic. The people rather than the state, race rather than soil or language, came markers of German identity on the Right and increasingly excluded Jews. The conclusion also traces developments after 1935, the analytical endpoint of the book.
The Anthropology of Islamic Law
Authors: Nakissa Aria
Published: May 2019

This book shows how hermeneutic theory and practice theory can be brought together to analyze cultural, legal, and religious traditions. These ideas are developed through an analysis of the Islamic legal tradition, which examines both Islamic legal doctrine and religious education. In terms of disciplinary orientation, the book combines anthropology and Islamicist history, utilizing both ethnography and in-depth analysis of Arabic religious texts. The book focuses on higher religious learning in contemporary Egypt, examining its intellectual, ethical, and pedagogical dimensions. Data is drawn from over two years of fieldwork inside al-Azhar University, Cairo University’s Dār al-ʿUlūm, and the network of traditional study circles associated with the al-Azhar mosque. Together these sites constitute the most important venue for the transmission of religious learning in the contemporary Muslim world. Although the book gives special attention to contemporary Egypt, it provides a broader analysis relevant to Islamic legal doctrine and religious education throughout history.
Higher Religious Learning in Modern Egypt
Authors: Nakissa Aria
Published: May 2019

This chapter offers a detailed ethnographic and historical account of higher religious learning in modern Egypt. It begins with a description of premodern Egyptian religious learning prior to the Napoleonic invasion. It then provides an overview of contemporary Egypt’s leading institutions of higher religious education. First it describes al-Azhar University, then Cairo University’s Dār al-ʿUlūm. It examines the structure of each of these institutions, their academic programs, and their political function. It also examines the academic, professional, and personal lives of students and teachers at these institutions.
Sharīʿa, Sunna, and Ethics
Authors: Nakissa Aria
Published: May 2019

This chapter combines ethnography and textual analysis to examine the key concepts of Sharīʿa, Sunna, and ethics. It argues that these concepts can best be understood in terms of the relationship between mind and action, drawing on insights from hermeneutic theory and practice theory. Building on anthropological work in practice theory, the chapter explains how Islamic ethics is a type of virtue ethics. It also explains the place of the Sharīʿa and Sunna in Islamic ethics. Furthermore, it discusses the view of Muslim scholars that proper legal reasoning depends upon ethical living.
The Structure of Islamic Legal Thought
Authors: Nakissa Aria
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines the overall structure of Islamic legal thought, and explains how it relates to the pedagogical practices characteristic of Islamic learning. Here the chapter develops hermeneutic ideas using insights from “planning theory,” an influential approach in recent philosophical and legal scholarship. This allows for a new perspective on an entire range of Islamic legal concepts including: maṣlaḥa, taʿabbud, Maqāṣid al-Sharīʿa, qiyās, istiṣlāḥ, istiḥsān, ijmāʿ, ijtihād, taqlīd, and madhhab. The chapter links its analysis to ideas and practices found at al-Azhar University, al-Azhar mosque, and the Dār al-ʿUlūm. Among the topics discussed are planning theory and instrumental rationality, including how intentions/rules are partially instrumentally rational and partially arbitrary/non-rational; how new circumstances can prompt the abandonment and reformation of intentions/rules; language and the principles of Islamic legal interpretation.
Reorganizing Time and Space
Authors: Nakissa Aria
Published: May 2019

This chapter combines ethnography and textual analysis to examine how modern reform has altered traditional Islamic pedagogies inside al-Azhar and the Dār al-ʿUlūm. It gives special attention to the progressive marginalization of companionship owing to bureaucratization and the concomitant reorganization of educational time and space. The chapter explains how modern reform efforts have diminished the ethical component of traditional Islamic learning. It also discusses the political implications of such reform efforts, and their relationship to European imperialism. Specific topics discussed include student freedom and the study-circle, maximizing “efficiency” and eliminating “disorder,” Al-Azhar’s faculty of Sharīʿa, the Dār al-ʿUlūm, reordering space and time, and teachers as ethical exemplars.
Salafism and Wasaṭism
Authors: Nakissa Aria
Published: May 2019

This chapter combines ethnography and textual analysis to examine how shifts in the structure of religious education have helped give rise to new perspectives on Islamic law. It gives special attention to the emergence of the reformist legal currents known as “Wasatism” and “Salafism.” Both currents reject taqlīd, hold that it is legitimate to dispense with the pedagogy of companionship, and believe that Sharīʿa rules can be adequately learned through the study of texts. The chapter analyzes these currents using insights from hermeneutic theory and practice theory. It first describes Salafism and Wasaṭism in detail, and then turns to the ongoing development of Wasaṭism.
Money
Authors: Cole Harold L.
Published: May 2019

This chapter explains the workings of several standard models of money, including the Baumol-Tobin inventory model and the search model.
Moving away from Money
Authors: Cole Harold L.
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses other electronic payment methods. It describes how these initially arose, and the encryption methods that make them possible. It explains how cryptocurrencies work.
Which Politicians Respond?
Authors: Bussell Jennifer
Published: May 2019

Chapter 9 expands on analyses of the field experiment to explore additional variation in the characteristics of politicians’ responsiveness. First, it investigates the degree to which politicians’ responses reflect state- and individual-level characteristics that may be associated with incentives to cultivate a personal vote. These analyses highlight, in particular, that—consistent with the theoretical discussion in Chapter 4 and existing work on the personal vote—electoral politics play a key role in affecting the degree to which politicians attempt to build their individual reputations via provision of assistance to individual constituents. Chapters 8 and 9 therefore collectively explore the conditions under which constituency service does and does not occur.
Conclusion
Authors: Bussell Jennifer
Published: May 2019

Chapter 12 addresses the broader implications of the book’s findings for our view of representative democracy in many parts of the world. It posits that the form of representation present in these contexts is characterized by “constrained accountability.” High-level politicians in patronage democracies are substantially more accountable to their individual constituents than posited in existing literature. However, this accountability remains limited, in multiple ways outlined in the chapter. In providing this form of limited accountability, constituency service also serves to support the functioning of democracy in patronage contexts. While the targeted nature of clientelist and partisan distribution excludes a large portion of voters from the significant resources of the state, constituency service by high-level politicians offers those same voters a potential resource for accessing benefits. This responsiveness makes the state’s resources available to a much wider swath of voters than would otherwise be the case and, in doing so, contributes to the functioning, and persistence, of patronage democracy.