bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The use of simulation in the design of two cardiovascular survival studies
Authors: Yateman Nigel A. , Skene Allan M.
Published: April 2007

Simulation has become practical as an everyday tool given the wide availability of high performance workstations. We argue that simulation can play an important role in determining the number of patients required in a survival study, particularly if the assumption of proportional hazards does not hold, or if the study design is complex. The argument is illustrated by two examples. The first considers the design of a post myocardial infarction survival trial in which the hazard ratio is not constant. The second provides sample size estimates for a multicentre heart failure study in which both the treatment effect and the control mortality rate vary across centres.
Clinical trials and causation: Bayesian perspectives
Authors: Schaffner Kenneth F.
Published: April 2007

In addition to the safety, it is essential to establish the causal efficacy of extant and new treatments, and well‐designed clinical trials are thought by most to be the ‘gold standard’ to accomplish this. Contrary to most statisticians' and regulators' views, however, I will argue that the concept of causation involved in clinical trials is not all that clear. I discuss the manipulability approach to causation, interpreted counterfactually, which seems to fit causation as it is found in such sciences as physiology, but it has unclear relations to a concept of causation proposed by a number of epidemiologists. I characterize £epidemiological causation as probabilistic and formulated at a population level, and dependent on certain general criteria for causation as well as study‐design considerations. I then attempt to clarify the connections between these concepts of causation and Cartwright's views on complexity and causality, a ‘Bayesian’ framework proposed by Rubin and further elaborated by Holland, and Glymour and his colleagues' recent directed graphical causal modelling approach.
Verifying keyed medical research data
Authors: Blumenstein Brent A.
Published: April 2007

Although diminished use of double keying for the verification of keyed medical research data has occurred, there are no published data that demonstrate the existence of equivalent or better replacement. The simple replacement of double keying with visual comparison is not recommended because visual comparison is too susceptible to the transient energy levels of the individual who makes the comparison. Some system design innovations applicable in specific situations allow elimination of verification by providing nearly equivalent or possibly even superior data quality assurance opportunities. These alternatives include designs where one replaces the transcription to data forms by direct keying from original source documents coupled with extensive quality reviews, and designs with direct data base input of data subjected to intense automated consistency checking and immediate analytic use. In both cases, the absence of keyed data verification places a greater burden for data quality assurance on other subsystems, such as quality review, and ultimately the analytic process. Data entry systems based on new technologies, such as tablet computers, electronic image processing, and voice input, will require similar considerations for assuring data quality.
A model for seasonal changes in time series regression relationships: With an application in psychiatry
Authors: Albert Paul S.
Published: April 2007

This paper proposes a two‐stage linear model for the regression relationships between a time series and a set of time‐dependent covariates when the relationships change according to a seasonal pattern. The first stage consists of a piecewise constant autoregression model for these relationships. The second stage models the piecewise coefficients with harmonic equations to examine for seasonal trends. This approach models the seasonal trends in time series regression relationships in the presence of non‐constant autoregression, non‐constant residual variance, and stochastic variation in the regression effects across time. Seasonal affective disorder )SAD( time series data illustrate the methodology. I model the seasonally changing regression relationships between the change in daily sunlight )from the previous day( and depressive mood and between the change in daily temperature and depressive mood for a SAD patient, and I employ an empirical Bayes method to obtain efficient month‐specific estimates for these relationships.
Multiple imputation for threshold‐crossing data with interval censoring
Authors: Dorey Frederick J. , Little Roderick J. A. , Schenker Nathaniel
Published: April 2007

Medical statistics often involve measurements of the time when a variable crosses a threshold value. The time to threshold crossing may be the outcome variable in a survival analysis, or a time‐dependent covariate in the analysis of a subsequent event. This paper presents new methods for analysing threshold‐crossing data that are interval censored in that the time of threshold crossing is known only within a specified interval. Such data typically arise in event‐history studies when the threshold is crossed at some time between data‐collection points, such as visits to a clinic. We propose methods based on multiple imputation of the threshold‐crossing time with use of models that take into account values recorded at the times of visits. We apply the methods to two real data sets, one involving hip replacements and the other on the prostate specific antigen )PSA( assay for prostate cancer. In addition, we compare our methods with the common practice of imputing the threshold‐crossing time as the right endpoint of the interval. The two examples require different imputation models, but both lead to simple analyses of the multiply imputed data that automatically take into account variability due to imputation.
Estimating the causal effect of smoking cessation in the presence of confounding factors using a rank preserving structural failure time model
Authors: Mark Steven D. , Robins James M.
Published: April 2007

Estimating the causal effect of quitting smoking on time to death or first myocardial infarction requires that one control for the differences in risk factors between individuals who elect to quite at each timetversus those who elect to continue smoking at timet. In this paper we examine the limitations of standard time varying Cox proportional hazards models to yield tests and estimates of this effect. Implementing the method of G‐estimation proposed by Robins, we perform an observational analysis of data from the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial )MRFIT( and estimate the causal effect of cigarette cessation while controlling for such time varying confounders as angina. We reject the null hypothesis of no effect of quitting on time to failure, and estimate that by quitting smoking, an individual increases by 50 per cent his time to death or first myocardial infarction )MI(.
Incomplete factorial designs for randomized clinical trials
Authors: Byar David P. , Herzberg Agnes M. , Tan Wai‐Yuan
Published: April 2007

Recently there has been increased interest in considering factorial designs for randomized clinical trials when one wishes to study two or more treatments. Such designs may offer impressive gains in efficiency compared with a series of trials studying one treatment at a time. This is especially true when the treatments do not interact with one another. If interactions are of special interest, factorial designs provide one sensible approach for studying them, but larger sample sizes would be required because tests for interactions have lower power than those for main effects. In trials designed to test putative agents for preventing cancer, interactions may be of less interest so that fractions of higher‐order factorial designs might be appropriate. Sometimes it may not be reasonable, interesting, feasible, or ethical to study all treatment combinations required in a complete or fractional factorial design, yet one may want to preserve some of the factorial structure to increase efficiency and to aid understanding. For such situations, incomplete factorial designs are proposed. Although not all of the advantages of full factorial designs are preserved, such designs may provide reasonable compromises for certain situations.
Reporting bayesian analyses of clinical trials
Authors: Hughes Michael D.
Published: April 2007

Many clinicians wrongly interpretp‐values as probabilities that treatment has an adverse effect and confidence intervals as probability intervals. Such inferences can be validly drawn from Bayesian analyses of trial results. These analyses use the data to update the prior )or pre‐trial( beliefs to give posterior )or post‐trial( beliefs about the magnitude of a treatment effect. However, for these methods to gain acceptance in the medical literature, understanding between statisticians and clinicians of the issues involved in choosing appropriate prior distributions for trial reporting needs to be reached. I focus on two types of prior that deserve consideration. The first is the non‐informative prior giving standardized likelihood distributions as post‐trial probability distributions. Their use is unlikely to be controversial among statisticians whilst being intuitively appealing to clinicians. The second type of prior has a spike of probability mass at the point of no treatment effect. Varying the magnitude of the spike illustrates the sensitivity of the conclusions drawn to the degree of prior scepticism in a treatment effect. With both, graphical displays provide clinical readers with the opportunity to explore the results more fully. An example of how a clinical trial might be reported in the medical literature using these methods is given.
Trees and tracking
Authors: Segal Mark Robert , Tager Ira B.
Published: April 2007

Epidemiologists have used the term ‘tracking’ to connote an individual's maintenance of relative rank of some longitudinally measured characteristic over a given time span. To assess the extent to which an attribute tracks we have first to summarize individual growth curves, and second to quantify the notion of maintenance of relative rank, both in the face of random error. A sequence of papers appearing in 1981 provided differing methodologies for appraising tracking. Here we take a different approach to tracking by using regression trees for longitudinal data. The above two concerns are simultaneously addressed in that the procedure identifies subgroups. defined in terms of covariates, within which the collection of growth curves is homogeneous. After reviewing the existing approaches to tracking we describe the tree‐structured methodology, and present an illustrative example pertaining to lung function growth in children.
HOW reliable are change‐corrected measures of agreement?
Authors: Guggenmoos‐Holzmann Irene
Published: April 2007

Chance‐corrected measures of agreement are prone to exhibit paradoxical and counter‐intuitive results when used as measures of reliability. It is demonstrated that these problems arise with Cohen's kappa as well as with Aickin's alpha. They are the consequence of an analogy to Simpson's paradox in mixed populations. It is further shown that chance‐corrected measures of agreement may yield misleading values for binary ratings. It is concluded that improvements in the design and the analysis of reliability studies are a pre‐requisite for valid and pertinent results.
Sample size calculations for ordered categorical data
Authors: Whitehead John
Published: April 2007

Many clinical trials yield data on an ordered categorical scale such asvery good, good, moderate, poor. Under the assumption of proportional odds, such data can be analysed using techniques of logistic regression. In simple comparisons of two treatments this approach becomes equivalent to the Mann–Whitney test. In this paper sample size formulae consistent with an eventual logistic regression analysis are derived. The influence on efficiency of the number and breadth of categories will be examined. Effects of misclassification and of stratification are discussed, and examples of the calculations are given.
Cross‐validation in survival analysis
Authors: Verweij Pierre J. M. , Van Houwelingen Hans C.
Published: April 2007

The predictive value of a statistical model is conceptually different from the explained variation. In this paper we construct a measure of the predictive value of the Cox proportional hazards model, computed from the leave‐one‐out regression coefficients. These coefficients can also be used to calculate a shrinkage factor which can be applied to improve the predictions and that can be used inR2‐type measures of the proportion of explained variation. Our methods are illustrated by a study of chemotherapy for advanced ovarian cancer.
Alert systems for post‐marketing surveillance of adverse drug reactions
Authors: Praus Michaela , Schindel Fritz , Fescharek Reinhard , Schwarz Sabine
Published: April 2007

When monitoring spontaneous reports of adverse reactions to registered drugs, it is important to detect any change in the number of reported adverse reactions in the course of time. Sales adjusted adverse drug reaction rates are usually compared in order to be able to take drug exposure into account. Here we review the so‐called arithmetic and some statistical procedures which could form the basis for an alert system. The advantages and disadvantages of each of these methods are discussed. The importance of data requirements and the problems which arise when using an alert system are pointed out and then clarified with the help of the example of diphtheria/tetanus vaccine.
An efficient MAC protocol for cooperative diversity in mobile ad hoc networks
Authors: Islam Md. Rajibul , Hamouda Walaa
Published: April 2007

Cooperative diversity is proposed to combat the detrimental effects of channel fading. In this paper, we investigate the effectiveness of cooperative diversity in interference limited ad hoc networks. The negative effects due to relay blocking on the network throughput are investigated. We show that the relay blocking problem is mainly dependent on the relay selection criterion. To overcome this problem, we propose a new cooperative diversity technique based on a modified IEEE 802.11 Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol. The throughput performance of the proposed MAC protocol is analyzed using a random structured network where nodes are assumed to be equipped with multiple antennas. In our simulations, we consider both single‐ and multiple‐relay scenarios over fading channels. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
MAC protocols using directional antennas in IEEE 802.11 based ad hoc networks
Authors: Ko Young‐Bae , Choi Jong‐Mu , Vaidya Nitin H.
Published: April 2007

Using directional antennas can be beneficial for wireless ad hoc networks consisting of a collection of wireless hosts. The most important benefit includes a reduction of the radio interference. Thus, it can significantly increase the spatial reuse, thereby improving the network throughput. To best utilize directional antennas, a suitable Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol must be designed. Current MAC protocols, such as the IEEE 802.11 standard, do not benefit when using directional antennas, because these protocols have been designed for omnidirectional antennas. In this paper, we present modified MAC protocols suitable for 802.11 based ad hoc networks using directional antennas. Our comprehensive simulation results demonstrate the performance improvement obtained with the proposed protocols. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Sucrose inversion monitored by x‐ray scattering and chemometrics
Authors: Goraieb Karen , Alexandre Thais L. , Bueno Maria Izabel M. S.
Published: April 2007

The present work proposes a reliable method to monitor the acid‐induced inversion of sucrose (a disaccharide) into β‐fructose and α‐glucose (both monosaccharides) by x‐ray spectrometry (XRS) coupled with chemometrics. A conventional energy dispersive x‐ray fluorescence (EDXRF) equipment is used to obtain the spectra during the inversion process, and the multivariate method of partial least squares (PLS) is used to correlate them with the respective rotation angles obtained by the traditional polarimetric method. It is shown that it is possible to monitor sucrose inversion by XRS with a good correlation coefficient (∼0.97) for calibration with rotation angles. The root‐mean‐square error of cross validation (RMSECV) value of 1.81 is also adequate. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Seminal and endocrine characteristics of male Pallas' Cats (Otocolobus manul) maintained under artificial lighting with simulated natural photoperiods
Authors: Newell‐Fugate Annie , Kennedy‐Stoskopf Suzanne , Brown Janine L. , Levine Jay F. , Swanson William F.
Published: April 2007

Pallas' cats (Otocolobus manul) have a pronounced reproductive seasonality controlled by photoperiod. Previous studies of reproduction in captive Pallas' cats exposed to natural light showed a breeding season of December–April. This study evaluated the impact of artificial lighting timed to simulate natural photoperiods on male reproductive seasonality of four Pallas' cats housed indoors. Semen evaluation, blood collection, and body weight measurements were conducted every 1–2 months from November 2000–June 2001. Fecal samples were collected from each male twice weekly to assess testosterone and corticoid concentrations. Mean values for reproductive traits (sperm attributes, testicular volume) were highest from February–April, the defined breeding season. Fecal testosterone concentrations were highest from mid‐January to mid‐March. Male Pallas' cats managed indoors under simulated photoperiods experienced a delayed onset of the breeding season by 1–2 months and a decreased length of the breeding season. Over the course of the study, fecal corticoid concentrations did not seem to differ among seasons. Although mating attempts during this study were unsuccessful, subsequent pairings of male and female Pallas' cats in the same research colony during the 2002 and 2003 breeding seasons produced viable offspring. These results suggest that male Pallas' cats, housed indoors under simulated photoperiods, exhibit distinct reproductive cyclic patterns, characterized by a delayed and truncated breeding season. Adrenocortical activity varied among individuals, but did not adversely affect reproductive parameters. Housing Pallas' cats indoors under simulated photoperiods may represent a viable strategy for maintaining breeding success while limiting disease exposure. Zoo Biol 0:1–13, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
World supply and demand situation for oilseeds, oils, and meals
Authors: Mielke Siegfried
Published: April 2007

In recent years, the demand for meal has been relatively stronger than for vegetable oils. Thus, we have to get the meal demand if we want to determine the extent of oil production and the requirements of oilseeds. This is true although the average annual increase in world meal consumption has declined from 5.5% during the five seasons ended 1970–71 to probably 3.8% in the following five seasons. The share of soybean meal is predominating and ever increasing from 49% ten years ago to as much as 61% this season.

In most seasons, including the current one, soybean oil output is determined by the more rapidly increasing meal demand. It is thus often in surplus supply, specifically at present. The marketing of soybean oil is becoming even more difficult as world supplies of low‐cost palm oil and lauric oils are increasing more and more sharply.

World supplies of oilseeds are developing in cycles of ca. seven years—three years buildup stocks and four years liquidation. The present expansion period, which ends this season, has been more pronounced owing to last season's severe economic recession which also affected the consumption of meals and oils/fats.

Present prospects for the next five seasons point to a slowing‐down of the increase in world production of soybeans, soybean oil, and meal owing to a continuing sharp expansion of supplies of palm oil and lauric oils. This assumes that the general economic activity will more or less stagnate or show only a small expansion during this period.
Referee chemists and official methods
Authors: Link William E.
Published: April 2007

The need for Referee Chemists was recognized more than 50 years ago. Currently the Examination Board of the American Oil Chemists’ Society issues certificates to commercial laboratories in the name of qualified representatives who are members of the AOCS. A total of 79 chemists presently hold Referee Certificates in categories of cottonseed, soybeans, peanuts, cottonseed oil and other cup refined oils, soybean oil and other neutral oil loss oils, tallow and grease, protein concentrates, and cellulose yields. Referee Certificates have also been issued to a few chemists in Japan and Canada. The National Cottonseed Products Association, National Soybean Processors Association, etc., publish listings of their Official Chemists, who must first obtain AOCS referee certificates.

Laboratories holding certificates must use Official Methods of the AOCS wherever applicable. The AOCSOfficial and Tentative Methods is one of the leading sources of standard methods for the fat and oil industries in the world. The origin of the present edition of AOCSMethods is described, and the roles of the Uniform Methods Committee, various technical committees, and the editor in the development, publication, and distribution of the methods are discussed.
Characteristics and composition of vegetable oil‐bearing materials
Authors: Langstraat A.
Published: April 2007

A survey of the commercially most important oil‐bearing fruits and seeds is presented. Their place in the nutrition of the world's population is sketched, both as a source of fat and as a potential source of protein. Origin and occurrence of a number of oil fruits and seeds are treated, and their relative importance is discussed. Characteristics of the vegetable oils are described in the light of their fatty acid compositions. Nutritional aspects of polyunsaturated fatty acids are discussed briefly, as well as the antinutritional properties of erucic acid. Oilseed proteins are discussed from the point of view of their growing importance as a source of food for man, and compositions of their essential amino acids are discussed in relation to their nutritive value.
Current equipment for mechanical oil extraction
Authors: Tindale L. H. , Hill‐Haas S. R.
Published: April 2007

This paper describes the range of screw presses available to processors and lists technical features which have been brought to the authors’ attention. The range of equipment is discussed manufacturer by manufacturer, starting with the smallest available equipment and progressing to the largest. The manufacturer's rated capacity is used as the measure of size. As most manufacturers prepare their information in a variety of ways, this paper, in an attempt to compare machines on a uniform basis, has based all throughputs on 2,000 lb/ton, with meats from “whole cottonseed” (with an assumed hull content of 8–10%) at 24 hr/day. For this reason, the figures given in this paper will not always agree with figures published by manufactures. Throughputs on other material should be discussed with the equipment manufacturers, who generally have available data on most commercially processed oil‐bearing seeds.
Energy conservation in solvent extraction plants
Authors: Jongeneelen H. P. J.
Published: April 2007

Solvent extraction plants have been designed for a long time at low capital cost, often at the expense of higher operating costs. Due to rising energy prices, the processing cost structure is changing to such an extent that the designs should be reconsidered. Conservation of steam, on the liquid side (distillation and condensation) and on the solid side (desolventizing, toasting, drying, and cooling), is discussed for existing plant designs.
Safety in solvent extraction plants—USA
Authors: Heilman John E.
Published: April 2007

The history of the National Fire Protection Association, Solvent Extraction Committee, is discussed with particular emphasis on the impact of the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1971. A review of the important features standardized in NFPA No. 36, “Solvent Extraction Plants,” is discussed, with particular emphasis on their relevance to construction of new plants and expansion of existing plants.
Protein products and hulls for animal foods
Authors: Roberts R.
Published: April 2007

The acceptability of a raw material to the animal feed industry is based on two parameters—it must be both safe and economical. Approximately 90% of the world production of oilseeds is supplied by five materials—soy, cotton, groundnut, sunflower, and rape—and it is interesting that three of these materials contain significant antinutrients. The large use of soy in animal feeds is indicative of the part played by the seed processor in improving the value of a product, and work with both chicks and calves will be discussed in this area. The use of cottonseed in the U.K. is virtually restricted to ruminant feeds because of their tolerance to gossypol, but the significance of the processing in minimizing the level of free toxin and the antidote effect of soluble iron will be considered. Rapeseed is taking on a major role in the EEC. While the geneticist has made significant contributions in recent years and the processor still has his part to play, problems with the oilseed are not all solved, and this complex of activity will be discussed. The economic value of a commodity is a sum of the value of its individual nutrients and the rightness of dehulling, and the overall effect of processing conditions, both good and bad, can offer an optimum compromise. This optimum compromise is still our goal.
Oilseed flour for human food
Authors: Bastiaens F. G.
Published: April 2007

Methods of producing oilseed flours, primarily soybean flours, for human consumption are reviewed. Differences between processing for human food and for animal feed are described.
Oilseed vegetable protein concentrates
Authors: Johnson Dale W.
Published: April 2007

Soy protein concentrates are articles of commerce in the U.S. and other areas of the world. The procedures for producing these products involve processes where the protein is “immobilized” by various procedures, whereby soluble materials such as carbohydrates, mineral matter, and other water or alcohol soluble constituents are removed. There have been four general procedures which have been used commercially, but recently a fifth procedure involving what might be referred to as a “triple” solvent procedure has been developed. While the commercial products available, at least in the U.S., are from soy, development work has been carried out to produce concentrate products from peanut, sunflower, sesame, and rapeseed. However, there are no commercial installations for producing protein concentrates from these oilseeds. A brief discussion of the various processes is presented.
Special problems in small scale operations
Authors: Neumunz George M.
Published: April 2007

Initial design, start‐up, processing, and inventory control problems in small scale refineries are discussed, together with suggested solutions.

Typical control forms for vegetable oil processing plants are illustrated, and suggestions are given on how to avoid common pitfalls and inefficiencies caused by lack of experienced personnel.
Bleaching practices in the U.S.
Authors: Goebel Ernst H.
Published: April 2007

The differences between European and U.S. vegetable oils with respect to their influence on bleaching requirements are discussed. Based on the information supplied by over 50 refiners, a summary gives an insight into bleaching conditions with earth and heat. These data are condensed in a chart relative to most used oils and fats. General information on pre‐and post‐bleach is also indicated.
Degumming and refining practices in Europe
Authors: Braae Ben
Published: April 2007

European practices for degumming and refining various vegetable oils are reviewed. Special attention is given to specific processes differing from those commonly used in the U.S. and to the practical problems of day‐to‐day operations.
Miscella refining
Authors: Cavanagh G. C.
Published: April 2007

Miscella refining can be practiced as a batch process or, preferably, as a continuous process with oil concentrations through the range of 30–70% by wt of oil. Miscella refining is preferably practiced at the oilseed solvent extraction plant for the economic reason of single solvent recovery system. Three immediate benefits are lower refining loss, lighter colored refined oil, and elimination of water washing. Various types of chemical conditioning, mechanical conditioning, and combinations of both are discussed for miscella refining certain oils. Blends of compatible crude oils can be advantageously miscella refined and, if desired, winterized or hydrogenated to produce oils with unique properties.
Salad and cooking oils
Authors: Lesieur Bernard
Published: April 2007

Raw materials and techniques for the production of salad and cooking oils are reviewed. Particular attention is given to oil properties that are related to end uses. Availability, local markets, and culinary practices are discussed, with particular respect to the ways these factors influence the use of oils in many countries.
Antioxidants for vegetable oils
Authors: Sherwin E. R.
Published: April 2007

Several chemical compounds having antioxidant efficacy in food fats and oils and cleared for food use by governmental regulatory agencies are available for such use by vegetable oil processors in many nations of the world. These antioxidants are reviewed with particular attention to major benefits and possible shortcomings they may afford when added to vegetable oils. Some guidelines in selecting antioxidants to achieve optimum results are offered. Also, precautions to be observed in adding antioxidants to fats and oils are discussed.
Use or disposal of by‐products and spent material from the vegetable oil processing industry in Europe
Authors: Svensson Christina
Published: April 2007

The tendency in the oil and fat industry in Europe as far as by‐products and spent material are concerned is to use and regenerate as much as possible for chemical‐technical purposes. Materials with a high thermal value which are not suitable or profitable for use in chemical‐technical products will in the future probably be utilized as a fuel in combination with fuel oil. By‐products and spent material that cannot be exploited in the manners outlined above will be deposited in dumps. Incineration is another possibility. However, the quantities of waste must be of a considerable magnitude if this method is not to be too expensive.
Liquid waste treatment in the vegetable oil processing industry—European practices
Authors: Choffel G.
Published: April 2007

The waste treatment methods that are currently used in the vegetable oil processing industry are reviewed with special attention to three points: a very careful study of the local conditions is necessary before selecting any treatment process; in any case, it will mean an expensive investment, and the running costs will be high; and, in the near future, new laws will leave no choice to plant owners—they will have to comply with legal requirements or close up shop.
Liquid waste treatment in the vegetable oil processing industry—U.S. Practices
Authors: McDermott G. N.
Published: April 2007

Wastewaters from vegetable oil processing in the U.S. are in many cases discharged to publicly owned wastewater systems for treatment with community wastewaters. Nine plants provide treatment for direct discharge to rivers or streams. The major treatment process utilized in either case is biological treatment. Both research studies and full‐scale treatment have demonstrated the effectiveness of biological treatment in degradation of vegetable oil to an extent equal to or superior to removal of organic material from domestic sewage. Limitations of the concentration of oil accepted in discharges to publicly owned treatment works were prevalent in earlier years; however, during the last few years, the compatibility of vegetable oil in municipal wastewater treatment systems has been acknowledged. Real problems with oil are more likely from petroleum type oil which can be associated with process and effluent quality problems. The train of treatment processes for direct discharge typically includes pH adjustment to acidic state, gravity separation, pH adjustment to near neutral, chemical coagulation plus dissolved air flotation, biological treatment, and in some cases filtration through granular media. Effluent qualities as good as 7.5 mg/1 of biochemical oxygen demand and 1 mg/1 of oil have been reported.
Cyanoethylation of ketostearates
Authors: Kenney H. E. , Donahue E. T. , Maerker G.
Published: April 2007

Reaction of methyl9(10)‐ketostearate with acrylonitrile under basic catalysis leads to the formation of new carbon‐carbon bonds by the introduction of one to four β‐cyanoethyl groups on carbon atoms adjacent to the carbonyl function. Five cyanoethylated products of 4‐heptanone have been isolated and identified. A GLC method has been developed to separate and determine four of the cyanoethylated derivatives of methyl 9(10)‐keostearate and methyl 12‐ketostearate but the fifth, the tetracyanoethylated product, cannot be determined by this procedure. With the aid of this analytical method a study of some of the reaction parameters was undertaken to determine the degree to which yields and product distribution could be influenced by change in reaction conditions. Among the factors studied were amount of catalyst, reagent ratio, reaction temperature, use of solvents and precision. These series of experiments revealed that the degree of cyanoethylation of methyl 9(10)‐ketostearate can be varied within wide limits, but that monocyanoethylation cannot be accomplished in realistic yields without the simultaneous formation of polycyanoethylated products.
Influence of temperature‐induced phase transitions on fat emulsions
Authors: Wilton I. , Friberg S.
Published: April 2007

The polymorphic behavior of a commercial monoglyceride emulsifier together with a liquid vegetable oil and water has been investigated by means of microscopic examination and differential scanning calorimetry. The results show that the stability regions of the liquid crystalline phases formed are highly dependent on the temperature and related both to the solubility of the monoglyceride emulsifier in the oil phase and to its polymorphic behavior. The formation and stability of emulsions are discussed in connection with the results obtained.
Structure of monohydroperoxides formed by chlorophyll photo‐sensitized oxidation of methyl linoleate
Authors: Fedeli E. , Camurati F. , Jacini G.
Published: April 2007

The structures of the hydroperoxides prepared by photochemical oxidation of methyl linoleate in the presence of chlorophyll were determined by gas liquid chromatography‐mass spectrometry (GLC‐MS) of the trimethylsilyl (TMS) derivatives of the hydroxyesters. The position of the double bonds were deduced via hydroxylation with OsO4, followed by GLC‐MS analysis of the TMS derivatives. Structures of the original hydroperoxides were elucidated from these data.
Separation and quantitation of alkene and hydroxy alkane sulfonates by thin layer chromatography
Authors: Allen M. C. , Martin T. T.
Published: April 2007

In the production of detergent range olefin sulfonates a rapid and relatively simple method for the analysis of compounds produced is desirable. This paper describes a thin layer chromatographic technique for the separation and quantitation of the sodium salts of alkene monosulfonates and disulfonates and hydroxy alkane monosulfonates and disulfonates. The separation is accomplished on tracked, unactivated sulfate‐impregnated Silica Gel G layers. Standard equilibrated developing tank conditions are employed in conjunction with a developing solvent of chloroform‐methanol‐sulfuric acid. Visualization of the compounds is based on their suitability for charring by heat and SO3 fumes resulting from fuming sulfuric acid which is smeared on the inner sandblasted surface of a charring lid. The charred compounds are quantitated using a scanning photodensitometer. Areas of resultant peaks are calculated and related to composition of the sample.
Biodegradation of synthetic detergents evaluation by community trials Part 2: Alcohol and alkylphenol ethoxylates
Authors: Mann A. H. , Reid V. W.
Published: April 2007

The biodegradability of ethoxylates based on synthetic primary alcohols and on iso‐octylphenol has been evaluated by field trials with a trickling filter sewage treatment plant serving a small community. Ethoxylates based on synthetic alcohols showed good biodegradability in the trickling filter even in winter. This is in line with laboratory tests. Effluents were practically nonfoaming and on further aeration an ultimate biodegradability of 99% was achieved. Ethoxylates based on iso‐octylphenol biodegraded in winter to an extent of some 20% only. In summer, values as high as 80% were obtained. In general however ethoxylates of this type cannot be considered biodegradable. Effluents showed a considerable tendency to foam even under summer conditions.
The autoxidation of highly unsaturated fatty acids: Methyl 4,7,10,13,16,19‐docosahexaenoate
Authors: Noble Ann C. , Nawar W. W.
Published: April 2007

Methyl docosahexaenoate was selected as a model system for studying the autoxidation of highly unsaturated fatty acids. The ester was oxidized at 50 C for 28 hr and the volatiles collected by high vacuum distillation and fractionated by gas chromatography. A number of aldehydes, aldehyde esters, hydrocarbons and methyl esters were identified. Mechanisms are proposed for the formation of these compounds.
Monoethylenic fatty acids of a partially hydrogenated herring oil
Authors: Ackman R. G. , Hooper S. N. , Hingley J.
Published: April 2007

A Canadian Atlantic herring oil hydrogenated for margarine use to an iodine value of 76 and melting point of 32.5 C was found to have 30% saturated acids and 66% monounsaturated fatty acids. The monounsaturated fatty acids could be analytically determined ascis andtrans isomers by open tubular gas liquid chromatography.Trans acids were 33% of the C16 and C18 monounsaturated acids, and 32 and 28%, respectively, of the C20 and C22 monounsaturated acids. After separation of geometric isomers by Florisil‐silver nitrate chromatography the positional isomers in each class were determined by oxidative fission. The double bond positions of the originalcis fatty acids were largely retained in bothcis andtrans isomers, but additional isomers were observed, especially in thetrans fatty acids.
Full‐fat and defatted soy flours for human nutrition
Authors: Mustakas G. C.
Published: April 2007

Full‐fat and defatted soy flours represent basic forms of soy protein that can be produced by simple, uncomplicated and low cost processes, and properly processed soy flours have excellent nutritional value as demonstrated in biological feeding tests with humans and small animals. New, simple production methods for full‐fat soy flours, including an extrusion process for use in urban communities and a simple hand process for use in villages where skilled labor, machines and steam power are unavailable, have been developed. Severe heat treatment during processing reduces the availability of amino acids, impairs oxidative stability, reduces vitamin content and develops poor flavor characteristics in the product. Lipoxygenase inactivation before the toasting treatment is important to obtain a stable, high fat product. Good flavor in soy flours can be achieved to make them acceptable to the consumer as constituents in a wide range of processed foods.
The sesame plant as a source of protein and other nutrients
Authors: Yermanos D. M. , Saleeb W. , Labanauskas C. K. , Cavanagh G. C.
Published: April 2007

Tropical varieties of sesame grown in California exhibit lush vegetative growth and could serve as sources of leaf protein concentrates. Green sesame plants were harvested in late August and, following 3 months of vegetative growth, produced 18.5 tons of fresh material per hectare, 543 kg/ha of protein. It is expected that these yields could be increased with breeding of better varieties and improvement of cultural practices. Amino acid composition of sesame leaves was comparable to alfalfa; 17 amino acids make up 21% of dry leaf weight.
Crambe seed processing: Decomposition of glucosinolates (thioglucosides) with chemical additives
Authors: Kirk L. D. , Mustakas G. C. , Griffin E. L. , Booth A. N.
Published: April 2007

Crambe meal was cooked with a variety of bases and metal salts to study decomposition of the undesirable glucosinolate (thioglucoside),epi‐progoitrin. Salts of iron and copper were preferred because they were the most active decomposers and because they did not reduce the lysine content as did the alkalies. An unsaturated hydroxy nitrile, representing about 25 mole per cent of the decomposedepi‐progoitrin, was the major reaction product left in the cooked meal. A thionamide product, representing about 7 mole per cent of the decomposedepi‐progoitrin, was also observed in meals cooked with metallic salts. The thionamide was relatively unstable in moist, hot crambe meal, especially at basic pH, and may therefore be an intermediate in a complex decomposition path. Rats fed ferrous sulfate‐treated crambe meal as 30% of a protein sufficient diet gained 70% compared with a basal control. Enlargement of thyroid, liver and kidneys was about 1.5 times that of the control organs. A crambe meal heated under the same conditions but without ferrous sulfate and fed at the same diet level caused 100% mortality within two weeks.
Composition of seeds of cruciferous oil crops
Authors: Appelqvist L. ‐Å
Published: April 2007

Several species of the Cruciferae family are presently used as oilseed crops, viz.,Brassica campestris (turnip rape and sarson),B. juncea (brown or yellow mustard),B. napus (rape),Crambe abyssinica (crambe), andSinapis alba (white or yellow mustard). Seed oils of these species are characterized by variable but generally large amounts of erucic acid (22:1) in the triacylglycerols, which make up 95–98% of the total lipids of high quality, viable seeds. In addition to erucic acid, the major fatty acids are oleic (typically 10–25%), linoleic (10–20%), linolenic (7–11%) and eicosenoic (5–10%). However cultivars of rapeseed lacking erucic acid and having about 55–60% oleic, 20–25% linoleic and ca. 10% linolenic acid have been developed. The eicosenoic and erucic acids are located exclusively at the 1 and 3 positions of the triacylglycerol. As a consequence, major triacylglycerol types have carbon numbers 54, 56, 58, 60 and 62. The phospholipids of rapeseed are essentially devoid of erucic acid and have palmitic, oleic and linoleic acids as major fatty acids. Sterols generally amount to about 0.5% of the oil with β‐sitosterol, campesterol and brassicasterol as major constituents (about 55%, 25% and 15%, respectively, of the total sterols). A few per cent of the total sterol fractions is cholesterol. The tocopherol content of rapeseed oil is about 800 ppm with α‐ and γ‐tocopherol as major components. Cruciferous seeds contain a fairly large number of storage proteins. Thus approximately 50 components have been detected in alkaline extracts ofBrassica napus, a major portion of which are in the molecular weight range 120–150,000. The protein spectrum ofB. napus (rape) is more complex than that ofB. campestris (turnip rape) since the former species is an allotetraploid withB. oleracea (kale, cabbage, etc.) andB. campestris as parents. Approximately 5% of the fat free seed meal is composed of glucosinolates, which are split upon enzymatic hydrolysis to antinutritional factors: isothiocyanates, oxazolidinethiones and nitriles. The different crucifers discussed have both qualitative and quantitative differences with respect to glucosinolate content.
A laboratory centrifugal refining method for control application
Authors: Pohle W. D. , Gregory R. L. , Tierney S. E.
Published: April 2007

A control method is presented for selecting the appropriate processing conditions for alkali refining of crude vegetable oils by the centrifugal process to yield lowest losses with satisfactory color. This technique is sufficiently analogous to actual processing conditions to provide reliable information upon which plant performance can be based.

The cup method cannot be used in this manner in that it no longer approximates operating procedures as in the days of kettle refining. The chromatographic neutral oil method, on the other hand, provides an index of the amount of oil available for recovery without regard to the possibility of attaining such levels.

For these reasons the centrifugal method fills a void of long standing. Other tangible benefits that accrue from this technique are: selection of sources of oil that can be most profitably refined by establishing the relative value of competitive oils, and a means of evaluating plant efficiency.
Quick and simple methods for studying crystallization behavior of fats
Authors: Wilton I. , Wode G.
Published: April 2007

A simple method of obtaining reproducible cooling curves has been developed. A microscopical technique is described for determining melting point and transformation time of the unstablea‐form, which has a marked influence on the consistency of commercial fats.

A correlation between the transformation time and the shape of the cooling curve has been found. Examples of the application of the cooling curve technique in factory control are given and discussed.
A method for the determination of the extent of polymerization in frying fats and in fats extracted from fried foods
Authors: Sahasrabudhe M. R. , Bhalerao V. R.
Published: April 2007

A method is described for the isolation of polymerized products in frying fats as a urea non‐inclusion fraction (NAF). Analysis of fats used in commercial frying operations and of fats extracted from some fried foods is reported. Amount of NAF obtained by the method appears to be in direct relation to the duration of heating. Oils heated at 200C for 24 hr yield 15舑18% of NAF having molecular weights of 500舑550. Some of the fats extracted from fried foods yielded up to 2.5% of the polymeric fatty acids.
Methods for the determination of cyclopropenoid fatty acids. I. Aqueous hydrochloric acid method
Authors: Magne F. C. , Harris J. A. , Skau E. L.
Published: April 2007

An analytical method is described for the estimation of long‐chain cyclopropenoid fatty acid derivatives. It is based upon the quantitative addition of a molecule of hydrogen chloride at the cyclopropene ring when the sample is shaken with concentrated hydrochloric acid. The cyclopropenoid content can be calculated, as sterculic acid, from the increase in chlorine content. Epoxy compounds and hydroperoxides interfere and must be removed by one of the accepted pretreatment methods.
Methods for the determination of cyclopropenoid fatty acids. II. A stepwise hydrogen bromide titration method for cyclopropenid and epoxy derivatives
Authors: Harris J. A. , Magne F. C. , Skau E. L.
Published: April 2007

A rapid titration method is described for the quantitative determination of both cyclopropenoid and epoxy fatty acid derivatives in mixtures. It was found that epoxy compounds can be titrated selectively with Durbetaki reagent at 3C without interference from cyclopropenoid derivatives. Cyclopropenoid derivatives can be titrated much more rapidly to a much sharper end point a 55C that at room temperature. Thus mixtures can be analyzed by first titrating at 3C to determine the epoxy compounds and then continuing the titration at 55C to determine the cyclopropenoid components.
Methyl azelaaldehydate purification via the bisulfite compound
Authors: Miller W. R. , Moore D. J. , Fullington J. G.
Published: April 2007

Methyl azelaaldehydate was obtained at 99.8% purity with 82.5% recovery from the ozonolysis products of commercial methyl oleate by separations as the sodium bisulfite addition compound, regeneration with 10% NaOH, and distillation.