bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Your Money or Your Life
Authors: Messac Luke
Published: September 2023

For the crime of falling sick without wealth, Americans face grave punishment. Patients are being sued and having their wages and bank accounts seized, their credit destroyed, their homes foreclosed. Patient debtors can even be thrown in jail. This book tells the story of how the collection of medical debt in the United States came to be so aggressive and the impact this is having on Americans’ lives. For centuries, doctors were often unable to collect—or declined to pursue—unpaid patient debts. But since the 1980s, such debts transformed from obligations negotiated by doctors, hospitals, and patients into assets bought and sold by people with no role in patient care. As government spending for the care of the poor slowed, and insurance companies pushed patients to pay higher out-of-pocket costs, hospitals faced growing debts. Hospital executives then turned to a rising industry of debt collectors, debt buyers, and collection attorneys. Entrepreneurs made fortunes in medical debt buying and collections, but the ruthlessness toward patients did not solve hospitals’ financial woes. The tactics did spark protests from patients, health care workers, and politicians from across the political spectrum. Although investigative reporting, congressional hearings, class action lawsuits, and new regulations have changed some debt collection practices, the industry has continued to find ways to demand patients pay up, no matter their means. This book exposes the criminalization of poverty and illness and reimagines how health care can be redesigned to fulfill its true purpose.
Before the Debt Machine
Authors: Messac Luke
Published: September 2023

For much of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, doctors struggled to organize an even remotely standardized billing system and insisted—although they often did not live up to the pledge—that the poor should be given free or discounted care. By the middle of the twentieth century, however, new medical technologies increased the costs of care, threatening patients with financial ruin even after their ills were cured. Private and public insurance schemes were devised to protect against these disasters, but unlike most other industrialized countries of this period, the United States never guaranteed universal coverage. Bankruptcies stemming from medical expenditures became a growing problem, covered in newspapers and decried in congressional hearings. Medical debt drove people to desperate acts, as when an unemployed former insurance salesman hijacked a plane in an ultimately fatal attempt to secure a ransom sufficient to pay for his son’s hospital bills.
Reformers, Abolitionists, and the Costs of Inaction
Authors: Messac Luke
Published: September 2023

This chapter highlights some of the people working to change the system of medical debt, including former debt collectors and hospital administrators who have used their knowledge to press for reform and activists seeking to abolish medical debt altogether. The COVID-19 pandemic did lead some private and public hospitals to slow or halt lawsuits over medical debt, but this pause did not last long. Nevertheless, by the early 2020s, the role of medical debt in harming Americans’ health and their financial well-being became an increasingly common subject in medical and public health journals, the popular press, and political speeches. The Biden Administration, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, and major credit bureaus have announced changes to debt collection and credit reporting, but aggressive debt collection continues.
Conclusion
Authors: Messac Luke
Published: September 2023

The Conclusion discusses the perils of cynicism and the possibility of an America without medical debt. In no other wealthy nation do patients and their families face such a high risk of ruinous debt from the costs of medical care. The United States did not always stand alone, as Canadians and Britons worried about medical debt until the enactment of universal health coverage during the mid-twentieth century. The persistence of medical debt as an American problem is not inevitable. From incrementalist ideas to improve access to hospital financial assistance to more comprehensive plans to abolish out-of-pocket health care fees, there are viable and popular ideas to ease or even eliminate the burden of medical debt in the United States.
Introduction
Authors: Lutz Amy S. F.
Published: September 2023

The Introduction defines the intact mind; establishes the author’s positionality as both a historian of medicine and the parent of a severely autistic son; and presents her main argument that the intact mind assumption has become baked into much current policy and practice for those with autism and other intellectual and developmental disabilities, resulting in the marginalization of those with impaired minds in both service design and public discourse more broadly. It explains the author’s choice of the genre of autism parent memoirs as her primary archive, both as the vehicle through which the intact mind assumption was amplified over the past five decades, and its role as a key driver of public perception of the disorder. The Introduction also includes a brief history of the Disability Rights Movement and a critique of the social model of disability upon which it is based.
Valuing the Disabled Child
Authors: Lutz Amy S. F.
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers the first memoirs by parents of intellectually disabled children—most notably Pearl Buck’s The Child Who Never Grew (1950) and Dale Evans Rogers’s Angel Unaware (1953), as well as the accounts that followed by non-celebrity parents. These books shared several themes, including the contributions of intellectually disabled kids to their families and broader communities, as well as the blamelessness of parents for their children’s impairments. Completely absent is the trope of the intact mind—not one of these authors suggests that children with Down syndrome, phenylketonuria (PKU), or other forms of congenital intellectual disability really have “normal” intelligence that just needs to be accessed. Where this idea does emerge is in memoirs of cerebral palsy (CP), which also date to this period. By the mid-twentieth century, physicians had discovered that many individuals who were nonverbal and otherwise profoundly physically disabled by CP actually had typical or even gifted intellects, as most notably demonstrated by Irish writer and painter Christy Brown in his 1954 memoir My Left Foot. These accounts, the author argues, primed the American public to believe that appearances could not always be trusted, and lay the groundwork for the narrative of the intact mind.
Is There a “Key”?
Authors: Lutz Amy S. F.
Published: September 2023

Following the publication of Son-Rise came a lull of about fifteen years before autism parent memoirs began to proliferate in the 1990s. By then, psychiatry looked very different than it did when Park’s book was released: biomedical theories of autism had consolidated a decade earlier among the most prominent autism clinicians and researchers, who all considered autism both physiologically based and incurable. This agreement, however, did not in any way signify consensus around autism more broadly. In the absence of established guidelines for treating autism, parents decided that they were the best experts on their own children, and felt justified in picking and choosing among seemingly incompatible theoretical constructs that resonated with their lived experience. The chapter closes by returning to Park, who wrote a second memoir, Exiting Nirvana, thirty-five years after she published The Siege. This account is much more somber—gone are the metaphors of walls and fortresses and breakthroughs. Instead, Park acknowledges that her daughter is still significantly disabled and will never be able to live independently.
Living with . . . (M)other
Authors: Bollas Christopher
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on multiple functions of pregnancy with Donald Winnicott’s theory of primary maternal preoccupation. It explains pregnancy as a psychobiological learning experience in which the mother gradually becomes rather helpless. According to Winnicott, the quality of a mother’s care is crucial to the emotional well-being of the infant. Another crucial aspect of the maternal task is her provision of a holding environment that sustains the infant’s continuity of being. The chapter considers the differences between good enough mothering and not good enough mothering, citing how the mother’s active presence ensures that the infant does not have to take responsibility for their own action or feeling.
Becoming a Living Reality
Authors: Bollas Christopher
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the true self becoming a living reality. According to Donald Winnicott, the correlation between an infant’s gesture and the mother’s action is the foundation of symbolic intersubjective creativity. The chapter explains how gratifications in interpersonal relations are simultaneously pleasurable for self and others, referencing the child’s conviction to receive pleasure and gratification and a mother’s pleasure being used by the child. Winnicott suggests that all good enough mothers mess up, and that children benefit from such failure and build tolerance for subsequent frustrations. The chapter cites how the emotional attitude behind the maternal act may affect or not affect the infant into the compliance that sponsors a false self.
False Self
Authors: Bollas Christopher
Published: September 2023

This chapter explicates the creation of a false self. It elaborates on Donald Winnicott’s basis of the psyche, which is soma that concerns physical aliveness or aliveness imagined. Early functions of the psyche concern the binding together of past experiences, potentialities, and the present moment, so the part of an individual’s psyche is primarily concerned with the relationship to the body and to the external world. Moreover, according to Winnicott, the mind evolves as part of the psyche-soma concerned with environmental failure. The chapter clarifies that a person living from the false self is concerned with compliance, adaptation, and the nature of their life instead of continuity of being.
On Celebration and Ruthlessness
Authors: Bollas Christopher
Published: September 2023

This chapter tackles the evolution of the true self, which primarily depends on the containing function of the mother. During an infant’s containing process, they may either develop an assumption about the usefulness of the mind or develop an intellectual inhibition and attack thinking as a way of demonstrating the experience of the maternal mind. The chapter looks into the true self during the sustained analysis of the false self. It explains Donald Winnicott’s perspective of analysis of defence, anxiety, or persecutory states is technically an analysis of the false self. Moreover, Winnicott believed that the infant’s ego is in a state of unintegration.
The Vitality of Aggression
Authors: Bollas Christopher
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the vitality of aggression. According to Donald Winnicott, aggression can be traced back to the beginnings of foetal movement because the beginnings of motility are forms of aggression. The child discovers the object through movement, which triggers the beginnings of exploration and the clear distinction between what is the self and what is not the self. Additionally, Winnicott believes that the capacity to hate represents the trust in the mother, the father, and society. The chapter looks into the change in the use of objects when it correlates to the destruction of internal objects and external objects.
Lives in Germany before 1933
Authors: Fulbrook Mary
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores personal recollections of lives in Germany before Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933. Introducing many individual examples, the chapter discusses how autobiographical accounts illuminate subjective perceptions and experiences. Social relationships between German Jews and German gentiles, as well as those of mixed descent, were changing with growing integration and assimilation in the early twentieth century; for many people, questions of class, status, and gender were more important than the notion of ‘race’. The First World War and the humiliating conditions of the Versailles Treaty massively affected people’s lives; and while antisemitism was prevalent in some quarters, including members of the army and conservative political elites, it became more widespread after 1918. Yet before 1933 it was not state policy—and under Hitler, this would make all the difference.
Over the Precipice
Authors: Fulbrook Mary
Published: September 2023

In contrast to accounts that focus on the extermination camps, particularly Auschwitz (iconic in public perceptions of the Holocaust), this chapter explores aspects of the development of genocide in Lithuania and Latvia. Deceit was significant in numerous ways: not only use of narratives of resettlement to ensure docility and prevent unrest among victims of mass murder, but also the presentation of local Lithuanians and Latvians and not the Germans as the primary perpetrators of murder. It explores patterns of involvement and self-representation during the escalation of genocide, including a focus on the Vilnius ghetto, the killing sites in Ponary, the IXth Fort at Kaunas, the Liepāja beaches, and the pits of Rumbula near Riga.
Towards the End
Authors: Fulbrook Mary
Published: September 2023

Focussing on individual examples of survival and rescue, this chapter explores how political sympathies, personal interests, and moral commitments could play a role, under changing social and political conditions, in affecting survival chances during wartime. While some victims were able to ‘go under’ and survive in hiding, others relied on individual rescuers—or were simply lucky to make it through to liberation despite all. After the war, ‘Aryans’ preferred to claim they had known nothing (ignorance), or had been powerless to act (impotence), rather than admit to having being indifferent or even antisemitic when accused of complicity with Nazism.
Afterword
Authors: Gupta Diya
Published: September 2023

The Afterword discusses what studying visual culture, such as colonial photographs, alongside textual sources has revealed for Indian emotions during the war. It highlights how economic concerns continue to dominate the soldiers’ emotional worlds as they anticipate a world beyond conflict, and assesses our fraught relationship with war memory and war service in the UK and South Asia today. If letters, memoirs, and literary texts do not merely reflect war experience but also shape the way Indians thought about and interpreted the war, the Afterword considers what this can tell us about the act of writing itself and its relationship with our emotional worlds.
Islam and Alcohol
Authors: Matthee Rudi
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses Islam’s verdict on alcohol as reflected in the Koran and the hadith, the presumed sayings of the Prophet and his companions. It lays out the ambiguity that hides behind Islam’s formal rejection of wine, and the myriad ways in which Muslims, including religious scholars, have evaluated types of alcohol other than red wine on their permissibility. Interdiction was a process in parallel with the trajectory of Islam toward a fully formed faith. Those intent on drinking explored the many loopholes and excuses available to them, from the association of wine with youth and fun to the “medical” excuse, the notion, borrowed from antiquity, that alcohol has medicinal benefits. Promoting social stability was the main goal of the Islamic law, and the maintenance of a balance between morality and pragmatism was at the heart of its political philosophy.
Alcohol in the Early Modern Islamic Empires
Authors: Matthee Rudi
Published: September 2023

Chapter Five catalogues the drinking habits of early modern Iran, arguing that Iranians, heirs to a venerable pre-Islamic oenophilic tradition, were less squeamish about alcohol than the Turks. It documents the alcoholism of various Safavid shahs, beginning with the first one, Isma‘il, as well as raucous scenes of ritualized court drinking, offering examples of wine-fueled parties to which European visitors were invited.
The Decline and Fall of Republican Afghanistan
Authors: Jamal Ahmad Shuja , Maley William
Published: September 2023

The Taliban’s takeover of Afghanistan in 2021 was facilitated by declining active support for the government, waste, and inefficiency in aid delivery, and poor political leadership. Yet while corrosive, these problems were not in themselves sufficient to have brought about a collapse. To a significant degree, they were the result of early failings in institutional design, reflecting an American inclination to pursue short-term policy approaches that created perverse incentives⁠—thus interfering with the long-term objective of stability. This book exposes the deeper factors underpinning Kabul’s fall. The Afghan Republic came under relentless attack from Taliban insurgents who depended critically on Pakistani support. It suffered a creeping invasion that put the government on the back foot as the US tried and failed to deal with Pakistan’s perfidy. The fatal blow came when bored US leaders naively cut an exit deal with the enemy, fatally compromising the operation of the Afghan army and air force and triggering the final collapse, with top leaders at odds over whether to make a final stand in Kabul. The Afghan Republic did not simply decline and fall. It was betrayed.
The Pilots
Authors: Wigger John
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes Art Koester, who was a check pilot for American Airlines and responsible for making sure that American’s pilots stayed current on the planes they flew. Koester grew up just a few miles from Chicago’s O’Hare Airport and always had a taste for adventure and a love of speed. The chapter also mentions Leroy Berkebile, who grew up in western Pennsylvania and earned his pilot’s license in 1939. The chapter discusses the decision-making process regarding hijackings in 1972, which was divided between the FBI, the airline, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), airport security, and local police. Koester and Berkebile replaced two of the pilots in the hijacked American Flight 119 while it was at St. Louis.
Tom Parker
Authors: Wigger John
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes ex-cop Tom Parker, who was working on organized crime in St. Louis when the hijacking of American Flight 119 unfolded. It discusses how most agents became G-men when someone suggested that the FBI would be a good fit for them, noting that they had been cops, lawyers, accountants, military officers, and schoolteachers before joining the agency. Parker was supervising a wiretap in St. Louis when he heard about the hijacking and rushed to the airport. The chapter describes how American Airlines convinced the hijacker that it needed to replace the pilots because they had been on duty for more hours than federal regulations allowed. This gave the FBI an opportunity to replace one of the American pilots with Parker as a switch pilot.
Cadillac Impact
Authors: Wigger John
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes David Hanley’s attempt to end the hijacking of American Flight 119 by trying to hit the plane with his Cadillac Eldorado. When Hanley crashed through the fence, FBI agents tried to intercept him and stop him. At the last second, Hanley swerved, careening off the nose wheel before slamming to a stop, smashing up against the landing gear under the port wing, and rocking the plane backward. FBI agents ran to the demolished Cadillac and tried to rescue Hanley, who hung motionless over the driver’s-side door. Because of the car slamming into the plane and the danger of fire due to the leaked fuel, the hijacker panicked and intended to either kill his hostages or blow up the plane with his grenade.
The Boeing 727
Authors: Wigger John
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the Boeing 727, which began commercial flight in 1964. It begins by tracing the history of jets, looking at the Douglas Company’s DC-3, which made commercial airlines profitable beginning in 1936. The Boeing 707 was the first successful jet airliner, and the Boeing 727 pushed the boundaries of commercial jet performance. Jack Steiner, the head of the 727 program, and his engineers gave it full hydraulically boosted controls, giving it sports-car handling compared with the 707’s school-bus feel. The 727 was also the first airliner to have an auxiliary power unit, which meant that it could start its main engines without assistance from ground equipment. It also had aft stairs, which could be opened in flight. The hijacker of American 119 had selected the right plane.
Peru, Indiana
Authors: Wigger John
Published: September 2023

This chapter provides a background of Peru, Indiana. Like a lot of rural communities, the population of Peru had declined over the previous decade to about 14,000. In the early 1800s, the Miami Indians lived along the banks of the Wabash River, where Peru now stands. The town was chosen as the seat of Miami County in the 1830s, before it was much more than just a name on a map. What kept Peru on the map was the circus, but it was devastated by a 1913 flood. The chapter recounts how John Dillinger raided the Peru police station in October 1933 as part of a fourteen-month crime spree that made him one of the most famous bank robbers of the time. In 1972, for visitors needing a place to stay, there was only one option: the Peru Motor Lodge. For the FBI agents who needed a place to stay during the search for the hijacker of American 119, the Peru Motor Lodge was the obvious choice.
The Arrest
Authors: Wigger John
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes the arrest of Martin McNally for the hijacking of American Flight 119. FBI special agent Neil Welch put out a call for agents, police officers, and Detective Robert Krichke’s narcotics squad to assemble at the Wyandotte, Michigan, police station, and he also called on Jim Petty to learn how McNally would react to being arrested. Dick Marquise, a newcomer to the American Flight 119 investigation, received information and orders to participate in the arrest. Marquise held a shotgun throughout the arrest but then realized after the event that he was carrying no bullets in a potential shootout. The chapter notes the meek demeanor of McNally during the arrest.
Take Me to Cuba
Authors: Wigger John
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses how airline hijackings surged in 1968, with most of the perpetrators being only homesick Cubans. From 1968 to 1970, there were at least twenty hijackings by Cubans desperate to return home. Airlines had learned that if they complied with hijackers’ demands, no one would get hurt, and passengers would be little more than inconvenienced. Moreover, some travelers were deliberately booking flights in hopes of being hijacked and having colorful stories to tell. The chapter also mentions how airline hijacking became another expression of teen angst following numerous news accounts of hijacking and little resistance from air crews, referencing the cases of fourteen-year-old David Booth and seventeen-year-old Roger Pastorcich.
A Means of Escape
Authors: Wigger John
Published: September 2023

This chapter covers how hijackers escaped after demanding ransom. Paul Cini was the first hijacker to consider using parachutes to escape, but he never made it off the plane because he was too scared to jump. Cini was quickly forgotten when D.B. Cooper parachuted from the aft stairs of a 727 and vanished into the night. The chapter notes how dozens of copycats followed D.B. Cooper’s plans, but only five were able to jump. More than anything, the hijackers of this era were looking for respect, a way to give their lives meaning instead of just taking money for ransom.
Duce: The Contradictions of Power
Authors: Williamson Peter J.
Published: September 2023

Eighty years after the fall of Benito Mussolini, controversy remains about what his dictatorship represented. This reflects the different sides to the Duce’s leadership: while adept at nurturing and enforcing his personal political power, Mussolini’s lack of insight into the requirements of governance prevented him from converting this power into influence to achieve his aims. His efforts to maintain the support of Italy’s conservative elites—economic, social, and political—also created tensions with his radical Fascist ambitions, diminishing the momentum behind his regime. Mussolini is frequently portrayed as a charismatic leader, but his rule was secured principally by repressive means of coercion, violence and a “spoils system.” Nonetheless, his personality cult had significant popular appeal, even if based upon a political myth. This enabled him to consolidate his position and to dominate his Fascist colleagues—but at a price of over-centralized, dysfunctional decision-making. Mussolini’s Fascist rule saw the establishment of a political, economic, and social order in Italy that was distinctly conservative in character and protective of the existing social order. Beyond that, the regime struggled to successfully pursue Mussolini’s radical nationalist-Fascist aims, particularly that of social engineering the character of Italians and achieving territorial expansion. Many of the regime’s economic and social policies in support of these aims significantly failed to deliver the expected results as the regime pursued stability over serious radical change.
Introduction
Authors: Williamson Peter J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers existing assessments by historians of Mussolini and how these would benefit from further development. Such assessments tend to focus upon a range of broad features of his rule, notably his personal opportunism, the extent to which he was an ideological politician with nationalist-Fascist ambitions for Italy, and how far he was a benevolent or malevolent dictator, but do not explore in depth the actual way he operated as a political leader. Where the operation of his leadership is examined, it concentrates largely upon his personality and underplays the structural constraints and contradictory tensions his leadership faced. It is argued that, to get a fuller understanding of what drove his leadership behavior, it is necessary to broaden the considerations and examine collectively his comprehension of political leadership, the social forces and institutional arrangements that set parameters around the judgements he made, as well as his personal psychological make-up and experiences. It also argues that Mussolini can be better judged by considering the outcomes achieved by his rule, not only what he professed to do.
Mussolini’s Power as Leader
Authors: Williamson Peter J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers two institutions—the Fascist Party and the Catholic Church—that from the outset represented a challenge to Mussolini’s personal authority. Consideration is given to how the Fascist movement and Party had been instrumental in his coming to power, but the continuing militancy and violence of some local Party leaders threatened his aim of normalization to reassure the regime’s conservative support base and in his mind were potential rivals to his position. Once he consolidated his own power, he embarked on a series of initiatives to gain central state control over local parties which by 1927 had largely removed the threat to his personal position. The Lateran Accords agreed in February 1929 saw a reconciliation of the Catholic Church under Pope Pius XI with the Fascist state that helped give the regime considerable legitimacy. For Mussolini it however represented a compromise that sat uncomfortably with his totalitarian ambitions, while Pius XI became increasingly doubtful about such ambitions and the regime’s moves to European war, although his successor Pius XII (March 1939) proved more conciliatory towards Fascist policies.
Mussolini and Reshaping the State
Authors: Williamson Peter J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers attempts by Mussolini to mobilize the population behind his Fascist projects, particularly military ones, the principal vehicle for which was to be the Fascist Party. The Party and its associated bodies by 1939 had over 25 million members of which approximately a third were young people. The Party, which was resented for its repressive and corrupt nature, struggled to mobilize Italians because membership was driven by incentives and sanctions rather than true commitment to the cause, while an emphasis on hierarchical control and obedience produced passive compliance rather positive commitment behind Fascist aims. Mussolini was frustrated at the inability to create “new Italians” but his promotion of a highly regimented Party created an organization of stasis that belied his radical notions for an anthropological revolution. Women’s sections of the Party represented for women the first taste of any form of political participation, but the role of women was confined to providing services of support for the Party rather than direct political engagement.
The Ukraine War and Russia’s Africa Strategy
Authors: Ramani Samuel
Published: September 2023

The final chapter of this book examines how Russia’s presence in Africa weathered the Ukraine War and corresponding Western sanctions. The February 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine created a quandary for African countries. Eritrea was the only country that regularly voted with Russia in the UN General Assembly, while nations that condemned Russian aggression refrained from imposing sanctions. Led by South Africa, a sizeable bloc of African countries pursued a policy of non-alignment and framed their neutral stance as being supportive of peace. Russia’s weaponization of food, which was only partially ameliorated by the July 2022 Black Sea grain deal, did not cause African countries to abandon their non-aligned position. To capitalize on this limited backlash, Russia elevated Africa’s place in its multipolar foreign policy vision and redirected dwindling military resources to preserving its military presences in Mali, CAR, and Libya.
Trust as Social Infrastructure in Somali Trading Networks
Authors: Carrier Neil , Elliott Hannah
Published: September 2023

Based on ethnographic work in Nairobi’s Eastleigh district and elsewhere in Somali East Africa, this chapter scrutinizes the everyday functioning of trust in business transactions at the interface between kinship and religion. Trust, the authors explain, is a normative discourse that promotes mutuality in trade between fellow Somalis and adherents of Islam. These discourses lubricate the flow of capital and goods and create affirmative counter-narratives to often overly negative depictions of Somali society. Where insurance, Letters of Credit, bank loans, identity cards, and licenses for trade and transport are lacking, acts of trusting help circumvent such limitations, even though trusting remains a risky business.
Raising Fiscal Revenues
Authors: Musa Ahmed M. , Varming Kirstine Strøh , Stepputat Finn
Published: September 2023

This chapter analyzes the political economy of taxation by a host of state, state-like and non-state authorities in the Somali territories. Taxation is at the heart of state making, but Somali state(s) don’t have a monopoly on taxation. The authors shed light on the multiple revenues generated from the taxation of commodity flows, on the politics of circulation that evolve as different authorities compete over revenues from different hubs and routes in the region, and on various “tax games” playing out between traders and taxing authorities, ranging from tax bargaining to avoidance of heavily taxed routes. Finally, the chapter considers the effects of trade taxation on fiscal social contracts, state (un-) making, and inequality among larger and smaller trade operators.
Hunting in Transition
Authors: Trefon Theodore
Published: September 2023

Chapter 4 presents the hunter’s universe—his motivations, world views, constraints, and opportunities. It addresses the paradox of hunters being empathetic to the animals they kill. This chapter highlights both change and continuity in the hunting realm, focusing on how traditional subsistence hunting has given way to commercial professional hunting and trade for urban markets.
Bushmeat and Zoonosis
Authors: Trefon Theodore
Published: September 2023

Chapter 8 makes the connection between consumption of wild animals and zoonotic diseases—meaning diseases that are transmitted to humans from wild animals. Although there are thousands of them, this chapter looks at three case studies: Covid-19, the origins of which remain unclear, and HIV and Ebola, which both emerged in Central Africa through human–wildlife contact. Instead of delving into medical and biological complexities of zoonotic diseases, the value-add of this chapter is its focus on the social and cultural dynamics connecting people, wild animals, and disease.
Legality, Legitimacy and Enforcement
Authors: Trefon Theodore
Published: September 2023

Chapter 9 argues that the legal frameworks adopted by the governments in the countries of the Congo Basin are unable to sustainably manage wildlife for a host of reasons—one of which is the persistent problem of poor public service provision. It analyzes the legality–legitimacy dichotomy and points out the overwhelming obstacles to enforcing laws, concluding that despite important advances in designing alternative livelihood strategies and launching behaviour change campaigns, laws without social appropriation cannot be effective.
The Economy
Authors: Hansbury Paul
Published: September 2023

Unlike other post-Soviet republics, independence did not bring wholescale liberalization or privatization to Belarus. The structure of the economy did undergo changes, nonetheless, and this short chapter describes the main economic activities contributing to the country’s GDP in the years leading up to its political crisis in 2020. It looks at Belarus’s role in oil refining, gas transit, and manufacturing, and its strong position in the potash and fertilizer marketplace. The chapter also sheds light on Belarus’s role in the arms trade and the global shadow economy, such as the illegal tobacco trade. It closes with an evaluation of the extent of Russia’s support for the Belarusian economy, and Belarus’s efforts to extract “rent” from Russia.
Viral Convergence
Authors: Powell Catherine
Published: September 2023

Even as Black intellectuals and leaders have sought to address the country’s “raced” nature—, and the ways this intersects with the nation’s narrow and privileged conception of national security—racism remains a deadly virus in the United States. This chapter argues that to live up to America’s founding ideals, national security observers must broaden the lens for analysis beyond military security to encompass economic, physical, and human security. This more expansive understanding of “security” in turn calls for transformative change, beyond incremental reform, with respect to policing, poverty, and racism.
Carceral Secrecy and (In)Security
Authors: Armstrong Andrea
Published: September 2023

This chapter situates the experiences of Black and Latine incarcerated women and femmes within the context of carceral secrecy. Secrecy is often invoked as a necessary element of ensuring traditional conceptions of security. Carceral spaces, which disproportionately confine Black and Latine women and femmes, present an opportunity to critically examine how secrecy can enable insecurity for incarcerated women and femmes of color and their communities simultaneously with the alleged production of generalized security for all. By virtue of their confinement within these secret, gendered, and racialized carceral spaces, incarcerated women and femmes of color experience distinct physical and mental harms. These harms also flow outward, harming their communities as well. Employing an intersectional analysis focusing on incarcerated women and femmes of color raises questions of “security for whom” and highlights how disrupting secrecy is a critical piece of reimagining security.
This Border Called My Skin
Authors: Ramji-Nogales Jaya
Published: September 2023

Immigration law in the United States constructs and perpetuates racist imaginaries of national security that locate the border on people of color, including and extending beyond migrants. This chapter engages with the concept of “foreignness,” a label that contains within it race, religion, and language, enabling and obscuring their use as mechanisms of control. Immigration law performs the work of racial, religious, and linguistic discrimination through distinctions facially based on nationality. This exclusion based on foreignness is amplified through the invocation of national security. Examining several points in the historical development of the concept of national security in immigration law, the chapter illustrates the work that foreignness performs in defending White supremacy and justifying the unequal distribution of political and economic power. By recovering that history and surfacing the roles of foreignness and national security, this chapter aims to begin unraveling the power of these concepts and the harm that they inflict on people of color.
Militarized Biometric Data Colonialism
Authors: Hu Margaret
Published: September 2023

This chapter contends that the unprecedented collection of biometric data of the Afghan people by and under the direction of the United States from 2001 to 2021 transformed into both a method for data colonization and resource extraction, as well as a vehicle for surveillance capitalism. The U.S. military scanned fingerprints, facial recognition images, DNA, and other biometric identifiers of the Afghan population for almost two decades. Biometric data eventually formed the cornerstone of the Afghan government’s “identity management” strategy, used for identity cards, election security, and other daily governance objectives. After beta testing of biometric and cybersurveillance technologies abroad, these technologies have migrated to the United States and have been revealed in instances of militarized policing, especially within communities of color. The long-term risks of biometric-enabled warfare and militarized expansion of biometric cybersurveillance can be better understood as a form of data colonialism and the targeted surveillance of digitized “others.” Interrogating the racialized impact of biometric cybersurveillance renders visible an experiment of sociotechnical control and coercion in both foreign and domestic spheres.
The Infrastructure of Catholicism
Authors: Begadon Cormac
Published: September 2023

The period c.1746–1829 was one which saw many significant changes to the infrastructure of Catholicism in Britain and Ireland. In this regard the most visible signs of the evolving nature of the Catholic communities were the developments in their physical and pastoral infrastructures. This evolution was not uniform, however, and improvements varied between, and within, the four nations. Yet while the infrastructure of Catholicism developed unevenly in the towns and cities, villages and townlands of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, there was an overriding sense of improvement and modernization, however gradual this may have been. This was brought about not only by changes in the political and social landscapes affecting the respective Churches, but also was as a result of better economic fortunes and, crucially, patterns of migration. This chapter documents the evolution of the infrastructure of Catholicism in Britain and Ireland, with particular attention to pastoral structures and demographics, chapel-building, elementary education, and finances.
Catholic Belief and Practice
Authors: Phillips Peter
Published: September 2023

The setting of Catholic liturgies in Britain and Ireland changed significantly between the 1740s and the 1820s, as population increase and a growing sense of toleration encouraged the construction of new chapels, although the pace of change varied considerably across the four nations. This ensured the continued use of irregular liturgical venues, frequently as a result of poverty and the attendant inadequate resources. Even in London, alongside the liturgically rich experience of the embassy chapels, Mass was still celebrated in garrets, and Catholics gathered in hired rooms at local inns to hear sermons until late in the eighteenth century. In many locations, the celebration of the sacraments moved out from their former domestic settings to larger and more public gatherings in local chapels. Prayer books were increasingly available; preaching and devotions like Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament became more common. The bishops, particularly in Ireland, attempted to regulate what they viewed as unseemly practices which had become attached to certain events like the burial of the dead and the celebration of local holy sites. In England, seigneurial Catholicism gave way to urban congregations swollen by Irish immigration. At the beginning of the industrial age, the Church, by the imposition of clerical dominance over the laity, had in its own way made a clear option for the poor: the clergy went out into the industrial slums administering spiritual and material comfort to the Catholic masses amidst the dire poverty and disease of the inner-city cellars, courts, and tenements in which they clustered.
Convents and Women Religious
Authors: Moutray Tonya J.
Published: September 2023

Irish and British women religious faced many challenges between 1746 and 1829, including the refugee migration of English religious orders from the Continent to England, the development of Irish congregations across Ireland, and the continued struggles of the Irish and English convents yet remaining in France, the Low Countries, and Portugal. The French Revolution’s dismantling of religious life had devastating impacts on the religious communities located in its pathway. English and Irish communities abroad contended with anti-Catholic legislation within both the country of exile and the country of refuge. Upon arrival in England, refugee communities encountered various receptions within local communities and moved about England seeking the best situation for their particular needs. Opening schools and secretly recruiting novices, Catholic nuns living and working in England were tolerated but remained controversial, particularly with the failed proposal of the Monastic Institutions Bill of 1800 which brought attention to both foreign and English nuns seeking safe asylum in England. Irish congregations gained in numbers in the late eighteenth century alongside the traditional contemplative orders. While Catholic emancipation of 1829 had no direct impact on religious orders, women religious were duplicating and growing congregations and convents across Ireland, recruiting significant numbers of novices across Ireland and England, and determining the long-term viability of the convents yet in exile abroad.
Colleges, Seminaries, and Male Religious Houses
Authors: Chambers Liam
Published: September 2023

In the mid-eighteenth century, networks of Irish, Scots, and English colleges, seminaries and male religious houses extended across Catholic Europe, providing access to education, centres for the formation of priests, and communities of regular clergy. These institutions faced significant external and internal challenges in the second half of the eighteenth century and many were already under severe pressure before the outbreak of the French Revolution. Almost all of the colleges closed in the 1790s, but this coincided with a political rapprochement between Catholics and the government in Britain and Ireland which facilitated the establishment of a network of domestic institutions, notably at Maynooth College in Ireland, Ushaw and Stonyhurst Colleges in England, and Blairs College in Scotland. This did not mean the complete abandonment or disappearance of the pre-Revolutionary Continental networks: centuries of investment ensured that British and Irish Catholic interests made substantial attempts at retrieval and revival. While many of the Continental colleges never reopened, a significant number survived and even where this was not the case, some financial investments were at least partially recovered. This ensured that alongside the establishment of a domestic college network, British and Irish Catholics retained a more modest, but nonetheless significant, Continental network into the nineteenth century.
Separation
Authors: Bridges Emma
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the impact of a period of separation on the spouse left at home when military personnel deploy on active service. In particular, it considers how Penelope’s experience as ‘waiting wife’ is depicted in the Odyssey of Homer, and how this might compare with the experiences of contemporary military spouses. The concept of ‘ambiguous loss’ is used to think about the psychological effects on those left behind—like Penelope in Odysseus’ absence—when a soldier is physically absent and there is uncertainty as to whether they will return home safely. The chapter also considers the Homeric representation of Penelope as the ideal wife, as well as the emotions associated with separation in a military context—in particular grief and anxiety around waiting for news—and the ways in which the partner at home may be expected temporarily to assume new roles. Finally, the chapter considers the significance of Penelope’s tactic for delaying her decision to marry the suitors—the trick whereby she weaves and unpicks a shroud—as both a coping strategy and as a mechanism by which her life, like that of modern-day military spouses, is placed on hold until Odysseus’ return.
Epilogue
Authors: Bridges Emma
Published: September 2023

The epilogue provides some brief reflections on key themes of the book as a whole, and in particular on the construction of gender roles within the context of armed conflict, both in ancient texts (Greek epic poetry and Athenian tragedy) which relate stories of the Trojan War and in modern military settings. It also reflects on the various ways in which the women who are married to soldiers have been silenced both in ancient texts and in contemporary society. It notes that, although their experiences are less visible than those of combatants, women are as profoundly affected by war as the men whose stories tend to be given most space.
Marian Counter-Reformation
Authors: Edwards John
Published: September 2023

It is undeniable that the brief reign of Mary I of England, accompanied by that of her husband Philip of Spain, was seminal in the relationship between England (with Wales and Ireland) and the rest of Europe, both religiously and politically. Two opposing historical narratives have to be confronted: first, the story of the growth of England’s Protestant identity and eventual world power, which Mary and Philip failed to halt; and second the Catholic story of a failure to keep England and Wales (and to some extent Ireland) within Catholic Europe. While outlining the events of the reign, this chapter concentrates mainly on the attempted restoration of traditional Catholic religion, including the roles of both Cardinal Reginald Pole and Philip’s Spanish ecclesiastical advisers, especially Friar Bartolomé Carranza. The Catholic successes of the reign are assessed, along with their long-term limitations, and due attention is also given to the painful subject of the violent and notorious repression of Protestants, including the burning of dozens of individuals, especially in England. An underlying theme is the continuing debate over the extent to which Mary and Philip’s reign saw a restoration of Catholic tradition and practice, and how far, in contrast, both England and Ireland became in this period, laboratories for what would later become Tridentine Catholicism.