bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Dynamic 3-D Reservoir - Both Hydraulically and Geomechanically
Authors: Heffer K.J. , Koutsabeloulis N.C.
Published: December 2007

Reservoirs are dynamic, not only in the sense that fluid pressures and saturations change during development life, but also in the sense that geomechanical states and therefore absolute permeabilities alter with time. Evidence for this is in the strong correlation between the directionality of reservoir flow in waterfloods and the local orientation of horizontal earth stresses. In addition the correlation coefficients between flow rate histories at pairs of wells in a number of fields indicate that reservoir dynamics have at least some component linked to geomechanics. Coupled geomechanical-fluid flow numerical modelling is able to explain some of the observations and so offers an improved predictive tool for planning and managing waterfloods and determining optimal locations for infill wells. Such modelling is now at the stage when it can soon start to be applied to 3-dimensional problems.

Introduction

One of the most important parameters in designing the pattern of wells for waterflooding a reservoir is the directionality in horizontal flow; i.e. any preferred lateral direction for fluid flow across the reservoir. Recent studies have revealed a strong correlation between the directionality of reservoir fluid flow and the local orientation of modern-day maximum horizontal principal earth stress (Shmax). Even more surprisingly, this correlation holds equally well for the set of reservoirs which would not normally be described as "naturally fractured" as it does for those that obviously do contain open, conductive natural fractures. It has been conjectured that this correlation is explained by coupled processes m which the conductivities of natural fractures and faults (of which, generally speaking, there is a large population even in unfractured reservoirs) are altered by the geomechanical changes induced by the flooding process. According to the concepts of the metastability and self-organized criticality of the lithosphere, perturbation by even minor stress changes is likely. This conjecture was given credence by coupled numerical modelling of the geomechanical, fluid flow and heat flow processes involved in waterflooding; generic modelling of the progress of a flood front around a single injector well gave rise to similar patterns of directionality as observed in the aggregated field data. Coupled modelling therefore provides a potential new tool for improved design of waterfloods and infill drilling projects; this will be further demonstrated later in this paper.
Development of HP-HT Coiled Tubing Unit
Authors: Maroli R. , Tambini M. , Wilde G. , Craig S.
Published: December 2007

Development of HP-HT Coiled Tubing Unit.

This paper presents results on the feasibility studies, development and first operations of a coiled tubing unit for use in deep high pressure and high temperature oil wells.

The coiled tubing unit was required to work primarily in the Villa Fortuna/Trecate oilfield in Northern Italy. This field had an initial reservoir pressure of about 14500 psi at 18400 ft TVD and static wellhead pressure of 8500 psi; reservoir temperature is 330 F. A coiled tubing unit was required to carry out operations such as acid/solvent treatments, washing, fishing etc.

This paper is focused in the following items:

laboratory and field tests, performed for the evaluation of stripper rubber life at 10.000 psi, and tubing failure through ovality.

The modifications of a coiled tubing unit standard components.

Pipe design optimisation with stress analysis software to ensure that the operations could be carried out with the tubing in its maximum allowable ovality state.

Quality control: new tubing ovality monitoring and data acquisition system for coiled tubing O.D. measurement.

Furthermore the first "live" well operation and the first operation in Villa Fortuna/Trecate field are reported in the paper.

Introduction

The development of the Villafortuna Trecate field led to the necessity of extending the operations performed with standard coiled tubing unit in high pressure and high temperature wells.

On the basis of this industry need a research project started in 1990 for the design and construction of a coiled tubing unit able to perform the following operations in high pressure and high temperature wells:

asphaltene deposit removal with chemical solvent;

matrix stimulation by acid placement across the perforations;

fishing operations;

displacement of high density brines in emergency well control situations,

At the time of the project the main operative limits for a standard coiled tubing unit were: maximum wellhead working pressure 5000 psi, maximum depth 17.000 ft, maximum pulling force 25.000 lbs. The industry standard injector head of that time had a nominal pulling capability of 40.000 lb, however, under field conditions slippage of the tubing within the gripper system often occurred when pulling forces exceeded 25.000 lb. It was clear that such behaviour is the result of differing structural compliance for the tubing and the injector chains. Furthermore the wear capability of the stripper rubbers was long enough only with a wellhead pressure less than 3000 psi.

In order to have access at Villafortuna Trecate wells the operating limits had to be increased: in particular the maximum wellhead working pressure had to be 10.000 psi, the maximum depth 22.000 ft, maximum pulling force 60.000 lbs. In order to perform the operations in a safe condition the stripper rubbers wear capabilities had to be satisfactory at 10.000 psi and 240 F.

P. 219
Gas Reservoir Performance in Abnormally High Pressure Carbonates
Authors: Chu Wei-Chun , Kazemi H. , Buettner R. E. , Stouffer T. L.
Published: December 2007

Two-dimensional r-z reservoir simulation and tank material balance were used to develop a prediction technique for gas reservoir performance in abnormally high pressure reservoirs. It is shown that p¯/z¯ versus Gp plot is very sensitive to the variability of the effective compressibility, ĉe. Nevertheless, our technique gets around this problem and, with availability of reliable reservoir history data, accurately predicts the reservoir performance and original gas in place, especially in single-well reservoirs such as the Cotton Valley reefs in East Texas. The calculations presented in the paper are simple and easy to use.
Diagnostics and Improvement of Wellhead Gas Metering: A Case Study
Authors: Shen J. J. S. , Ting V. C. , Holzer R. A.
Published: December 2007

This paper presents a case study of improving the gas metering facilities and operation in the Indian Basin Field, New Mexico. Chevron operates 12 gas wells, each producing 3 to 6 MMSCFD, in the field. The wellhead meters, built about thirty years ago, basically consisted of 3" orifice meters with upstream out-ofplane elbows and other fittings that measured wet gas. Chevron began to examine the production and metering conditions three years ago to improve the measurement accuracy. Since the old meter piping system does not fit the specified configurations in the API 2530/A.G.A. 3 standard, the only way to ascertain the flow condition was to survey the velocity profiles inside the meter. Thus, a directional pitot probe was used to traverse the pipe and no significant swirls were observed. However, the wet gas condition and internal roughness of the old meter tubes were serious concerns. A dehydration unit was constructed to lower the moisture content of the gas and a new orifice meter with electronic measurement was installed downstream of the existing facility. A comparison of the two orifice meters showed that the wet gas measured by the old 3" meter with out-of-plane elbows was approximately 3% lower than the drier gas measured by the new meter. Possible reasons for this metering deviation are discussed in the paper.
Reservoir Properties and Stabilized Gas Well Performance From Short Deliverability Tests
Authors: Hashem Yousef Kh. S. , Kazemi H.
Published: December 2007

Numerical simulation was used to verify that properly conducted deliverability tests in gas wells would yield reliable values for permeability, skin factor, non-Darcy parameter, and stabilized well performance coefficient. Furthermore, the correctness of pseudostabilization time, used in obtaining the stabilized performance coefficient, was verified. Pseudostabilization flow time should not be mistaken for the stabilization time, which is defined as the time corresponding to the onset of pseudosteady-state flow behavior. Stabilization time is 2.52 times greater than pseudostabilization time for radial flow.

The boundary condition at the wellbore included the use of chokes to control flow rates. Wellbore storage and non-Darcy flow effects were also included in the numerical simulation. Both Rawlins and Schellhardt empirical equation as well as the theory-based pressure drawdown equation were successfully used in deliverability calculations using the numerical simulation results.

Introduction

Gas well deliverability tests are multirate tests consisting of three or more flows with rates and pressures recorded as a function of time. These tests are required by state regulatory agencies for proration purposes. Furthermore, these tests can provide information useful for reservoir forecasting, skin damage evaluation, and establishing a base performance curve for future comparisons.

The basic work towards development of a practical test was carried out by Pierce and Rawlins. Rawlins and Schellhardt introduced the concept of backpressure testing using the flow-after-flow test. Cullender presented the isochronical test as an empirical method and Katz et al. presented the modified isochronal test consisting of equal flow and shut-in periods.

Rawlins and Schellhardt historical backpressure (or gas deliverability) equation is:

(1)

From integration of quadratic form of Forchheimer equation (known as non-Darcy flow equation) one can obtain the following steady-state solution:

(2)

Where:

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

It is well known that during transient flow the following analog of slightly compressible flow generally applies to gas wells (especially for p < 2000 psia):

Where:

(7)

(8)

Eq. 7 can be written in a form similar to Eq. 2 as follows:

P. 393
Comparative Evaluation of The Strongly Implicit Procedure (SIP) for Gas Reservoir Simulation
Authors: Steen H. Dale , Ali S.M. Farouq
Published: December 2007

The chief aim of this study was to ascertain the best method for gas reservoir simulation. The research was principally concerned with an evaluation of the new SIP algorithm for solving the matrix problem arising from the application of the implicit, completely implicit and modified implicit difference techniques to the nonlinear partial-differential equation for the flow of partial-differential equation for the flow of a real gas in two dimensions, expressed in two different forms, utilizing the original and the transformed variables, respectively. A number of conventional difference methods were also tested for comparison purposes. The reservoir considered in the simulations was assumed to have a uniform permeability distribution in one set of runs, and a random permeability distribution in another set.

The equations resulting from the application of the completely implicit scheme were solved by both SIP and SOR (successive overrelaxation), in order to evaluate the speed of convergence using the two methods. In addition, a series of numerical experiments was carried out using the SIP algorithm in order to study the effect of the number of iteration parameters on the number of iterations required for convergence, the rate of convergence, and the material-balance error incurred.

Curves of the material-balance error as a function of the simulated production time were obtained for all the runs conducted, using the schemes tested.

It was found that all of the explicit schemes (forward difference, Barakat-Clark, ADEP, and Dufort-Frankel) tested suffered from time-step size limitations and increasing material-balance errors with time. The implicit schemes, in particular, the modified-implicit scheme, is therefore recommended. Computational results show that the SIP algorithm is far superior to the SOR or ADIP methods with regard to the time-step size and material-balance error. The optimized SIP algorithm, although involving more computational work per iteration requires fewer iterations to converge than SOR, for a given accuracy. Furthermore, the number of SIP iteration parameters should be optimized where feasible, since in some cases (e.g., the completely implicit scheme) it may have an important effect on the number of iterations required for convergence.
Production Forecasts for a Heterogeneous Gas Reservoir Using an Integrated Simulation Model
Authors: Geppert E. C. J. , Dimmer Kimberley , Fischer Brian
Published: December 2007

A 3 dimensional reservoir simulation model of the Harmattan East gas condensate field was linked with a surface facilities model in order to predict future gas deliverability and evaluate further capital expenditures, such as additional compression or horizontal infill wells. Using a more rigorous approach for this complex reservoir resulted in an increase in the estimated original gas in place, and allowed surface facility decisions to be tied to the infill drilling program. This model yielded more accurate results than a tank model because of the large permeability and pressure variations within the field.
Planning the First Horizontal Well for the Shallow Oil Zone of Elk Hills Field, Kern County, California
Authors: Hardin James , Martin Jim , Davidson Joe , Paulk Martin
Published: December 2007

A horizontal well was successfully drilled and completed in the Shallow Oil Zone (SOZ) of the Elk Hills field (Naval Petroleum Reserve #1), Kern Co., California. The reservoir formation is Pliocene age, low pressured, unconsolidated sands separated by thin, impermeable shales. The well was drilled to a TVD of 3,998 feet and an MD of 5,648 feet. A 1,111 ft lateral was drilled at 900 and 580 ft of that was completed in two sands. Adjacent wet sands, faults and a thin pay zone were some of the challenges faced in planning and drilling this well.

This paper addresses the reservoir characteristics of the pay zone, planning of the well, and drilling and completion methods that were used. Results of drilling operations, completion operations, production performance and costs are provided, and some comparisons are made to offset vertical wells.

Introduction

Horizontal drilling has proven itself in recent history as a highly profitable alternative to conventional vertical drilling. In a paradigm shift, horizontal wells have become common in some applications, displacing vertical wells.

The Shallow Oil Zone at the Elk Hills field was originally developed through vertical drilling as a strategic reserve under the management of the Department of the Navy (now under the U.S. Department of Energy). Of the estimated 1.6 billion barrels of oil in place in the SOZ, approximately 450 million barrels have been produced since the early 1900s. The SS-1 (Sub Scalez One) is the most significant oil producing sand within the interval referred to at Elk Hills as the SOZ. Gravity drainage and low reservoir pressure in the SS-1 sand have led to a low reservoir decline rate and long productive well lives. This is especially true along the southern flank of the anticlinal structure which comprises the primary trap for oil and gas in the SS-1 sand. Realizing this, recent planning for the SOZ has focused on accelerating recovery and increasing recoverable reserves.

The SS-1 sand at Elk Hills has reservoir characteristics similar to other reservoirs that have been exploited successfully by horizontal well technology. Initial evaluation suggested that horizontal wells could economically accelerate and increase recovered reserves if several challenging obstacles could be overcome.

Reservoir Characteristics

The SS-1 is a member of the Pliocene San Joaquin Formation and has been divided into twelve sublayers within the eastern portion of the field.

These sublayers are separated by thin shales which serve as vertical seals through most of the productive area. Gas/oil and oil/water contacts vary between sublayers. Individual sublayers vary considerably in thickness across the field and pinch out locally, and to the west entirely, along trends easily defined by well logs.

P. 185
Case History of the 31S Peripheral Waterflood Project, Stevens Zone, Elk Hills Field, California
Authors: Starcher M.G. , Engineer R. , Nelson M.L. , Wilson M.L.
Published: December 2007

This paper summarizes and contrasts the peripheral waterflood performance of two reservoirs that constitute the 31S project in the Elk Hills Field, Kern County, California. The combination of light oil (36 API), favorable mobility ratio (0.4) and an anticlinal structure makes these sandstones good candidates for peripheral flooding. From 1978 until December 1995 cumulative water injection in the 31S project was 371 million barrels and cumulative recovery was 155 million barrels of oil. Early initiation of a pressure maintenance project including 117 BCF crestal gas injection has improved oil recovery. The Main Body 'B' reservoir is exhibiting a distinctly layered response with high recovery from its more permeable layers and lower recovery from tighter layers. This flood has the potential for bypassed reserves. The Western 31S reservoir has moderate to high dips and is exhibiting a less layered flood response and very efficient displacement. The gravity drainage component from the secondary gas cap is playing a significant role in the process. Aside from high recovery, the project is remarkable in demonstrating successful resaturation of a secondary gas cap. Future work will include refinement of original-oil-in-place (OOIP) estimates with a new petrophysical model and improving tight layer management by pattern waterflooding and increasing productivity and injectivity with stimulation treatments.

Introduction

In the literature there are a few papers describing peripheral waterfloods. The 31S project in the Elk Hills Field, California provides an opportunity to study a large, mature peripheral waterflood and to see the effects of a long term injection into two very different reservoirs.

The Elk Hills Field is located about 20 miles WSW of Bakersfield, California (Fig. 1). It is one of the 10 most productive oil fields in the United States with a cumulative recovery of over one billion barrels to date. The Main Body 'B' (MBB) and Western 31S (W31S) sands occur at an average depth of 6,500 ft. The zone was discovered in 1941. The field was held in reserve and only periodically produced until 1976 when it was opened up to production at capacity. The current production from the MBB and W31S reservoirs is about 11,300 BOPD and 3,500 BOPD respectively.

The mechanism for primary production from for the MBB and W31S reservoirs was a combination of solution gas, partial water drive, and some contribution from gravity drainage. The primary recovery factor was estimated to be in the range of 12% of the OOIP.

Since the onset of the exploitation, secondary recovery was considered essential for the MBB and W31S reservoirs.

P. 227
A Description of Summer and Winter Environmental Conditions within Cook Inlet, Alaska
Authors: Nelson William G. , Whitney J.W.
Published: December 2007

In spite of severe environmental conditions, successful oil exploration, production and shipping have occurred in Cook Inlet for over 30 years. This paper combines the results of an extensive literature search as well as the results of a continuing study of the winter ice conditions in Cook Inlet to describe the summer and winter environment of Cook Inlet.

Cook Inlet, located in south-central Alaska, is unique in that it has a very high suspended sediment load, high tides (10 m), a moderate snow fall and an air freezing index of 1400 C days per year. These conditions combine to cause low visibility, extreme tidal currents (8 kts) and unique modes of ice generation within the inlet.

The major mode of formation of floating ice is identified as slush ice formation. The slush then coalesces in the turbulent waters to form various ice features. Ice features with depths greater than two meters that formed in less than seven days are described. Ice buildup on shore based structures results in significant downward and upward vertical forces as well as potential horizontal forces.

Information summarized in this paper will be useful when analyzing tidal currents and ice forces on offshore and nearshore structures. Information regarding tidal currents and ice conditions within the inlet will also be beneficial in the avoidance of or cleanup of product spills in the inlet.

General Description of Cook Inlet

Cook Inlet is a large tidal estuary located in Southcentral Alaska at 610 north latitude and 1510 longitude. Cook Inlet extends from the North Pacific Ocean approximately 350 km into Southcentral Alaska. The inlet varies from more than 130 km wide at its southern mouth to less than 15 km at the northern extremity of Knik Arm. The Aleutian and Alaska Mountain Ranges border the inlet to the west and the northwest, the Talkeetna and Chugach Mountains to the northeast, and the Kenai Mountains to the east and southeast.

This estuary is divided into three subareas, the head region, upper inlet, and lower inlet. The head region includes Knik and Turnagain arms which are relatively shallow and each approximately 60 km long. The major constricting point, about 25% of the way down the inlet from the north and known as the Forelands, is the boundary between the upper and lower inlet. Water depths in the upper inlet reach 30 to 40 m with a narrow 100 m deep channel through the Forelands. Water depths in the lower inlet reach 150 m.

Four major islands exist in Cook Inlet. The largest two are Kalgin Island, located in the northern part of the lower inlet, and Augustine Island, a volcanic edifice in the southwestern corner of lower Cook Inlet. The other two islands, Chisik in the lower inlet on the west, and Fire Island, in the upper inlet, are largely extensions of the mainland.

P. 381
Keys to Improving Environmental Performance
Authors: Moreau Roland L. , Raught Deborah L.
Published: December 2007

Environmental protection is a mainstream issue in today's society. Both internal and external drivers motivate the oil and gas industry to continuously improve environmental performance. Companies are integrating environmental considerations into their business plans to a greater extent, and are directing proportionally more resources toward managing these issues.

This paper addresses several environmental management focus areas in Exxon's domestic E&P sector to: 1) manage risks, 2) ensure compliance, 3) improve performance, and 4) assist in the development of balanced legislation and regulations. Specific examples of Production Department programs are discussed, along with keys to success for continued progress in improving performance.
The Management of Healthcare Reform in a West African Oil Company
Authors: Simpson Stephen R.
Published: December 2007

This paper describes how Chevron Nigeria Limited (CNL) provided health care to its 1,700 employees and their families prior to June 1992. A strategic appraisal of both internal and external issues suggested areas of healthcare reform, and the benefits that might be delivered to stakeholders. These are described.

Cultural and other inhibitors to change were highlighted, and methods to overcome them suggested. This paper confirms that health care reform is a sensitive area, and any change should be effected with caution.
A Paradigm Shift in the Management of Health Service for Organizations--Implications for Oil and Gas Exploration and Production Companies
Authors: Simpson J. G.
Published: December 2007

A paradigm shift in the management of health services is needed to manage the modem health needs and expectations of companies. There are trends which have increased these needs and expectations at a time when business competition demands high levels of operational and financial effectiveness. Oil and gas exploration and production companies are especially impacted not only because of the high costs of their operations but also because of their inherently high health risks complicated, in some instances, by healthcare which is below global standards in many of the locations in which they operate. A comprehensive health management (CHM) system which effectively manages their health services needs and expectations is presented.
Efficient Risk Management: Use of Computerized QRA Model for Safety Improvements to an Existing Installation
Authors: Vinnem Jan Erik , Pedersen John Ivar , Rosenthal Peter
Published: December 2007

Information about the Frigg field and its operating criteria and premises is first presented. Then the risk management principles adopted in planning the safety studies are discussed, and the risk assessment process is outlined. The risk management process implemented is considered to have involved a truly successful safety upgrading of an installation nearly 20 years old, with significant improvement of safety in an optimized way for a considerable but well contained budget.

The risk model developed in the OHRAT software package was at the time of completion of the study the most advanced offshore risk model developed, with detailed modelling of important parametres. Two case studies are presented in order to illustrate some of the detailed modelling which has been implemented, namely the risk effect from possible upgrading of the blowdown system, and the risk effect from installation of a fire wall to segregate two fire areas.

The overall results are presented, and the approach used to demonstrate that risks are as low as reasonably practicable is thereafter outlined.

Finally, concluding remarks are presented pertaining to the risk management, communication about and use of QRA and specialized software.
Identification and Quantification of Failure Rate to Effectively Manage Sour Gas Production Systems
Authors: Fischer F.
Published: December 2007

For BEB, as the operator of several sour gas fields in Northern Germany, the protection of residents in the respective production areas is among the principal company objectives.

With the aid of safety analyses it is possible to identify potential hazards which may cause an incident and also to describe the consequences by means of dispersion calculations.

It is, however, advisable not only to list the damage possibilities, but also to evaluate them in order to identify potential hazards as early as possible and take appropriate measures aimed at minimizing the consequences.

Sour gas pipelines were investigated for possible leak sizes, and the leak frequency was estimated. Principal causes of leaks are internal corrosion and third-party activity. The frequencies of occurrence are relatively low within the range known from comparable systems, so that they are considered to be acceptable. The ratio between rupture and leak frequency has been determined at 0.04.

Possibilities of blowouts at wells and their frequency of occurrence were also estimated. Due to the high safety standard of sour gas wells, the frequency of occurrence of blowouts is lower than generally recorded on an international scale.

Introduction

Together with MEEG as its consortium partner, BEB operates several sour gas fields in Northern Germany, comprising approx. 80 wells and 400 km of sour gas pipeline. The sour gas, which may contain up to 35 vol. % of hydrogen sulphide and 15 vol. % of CO2, is dried at each well in glycol-type dehydration units and then transported across relatively densely populated areas to a central desulphurization plant, where it is treated.

Due to the toxic effect of the H2S-containing sour gas, any incident may cause considerable danger to wells and buried pipelines. Risk analyses are carried out in order to obtain information on the possible extent of danger, describing incident and accident processes which could lead to potentially hazardous events.

FIg. 1 shows a complete risk analysis. This paper will specifically address possible failure causes and their frequencies of occurrence as part of the overall investigation. Reasonably accurate information about the physical leak size is essential for determining the emitted, time-dependent volume of pollutants, which serves as the input quantity for the dispersion calculation. By combining the calculated effects with the frequency of occurrence it is possible to determine the risk of potential damage. A risk comparison with other facilities forms a sound basis for an acceptance evaluation, since this is largely free from personal judgment.

Occurrence of leaks in pipelines

In order to be able to determine the expected leak sizes, the following factors must be taken into account:Analysis of potential failuresCalculation of critical leak areasAllocatIon to leak categoriesEstimation of frequencies of occurrence - weak point analysis - evaluation of acceptability

P. 177
Social Impact Assessment - New Dimensions in Project planning
Authors: Jones Murray G. , Hartog Jan J. , Sykes Richard M.
Published: December 2007

The Objective of the presentation is to provide understanding of how to improve attention to the social dimensions of EP projects.

Social Impacts are the consequences to human populations, communities or individuals resulting from a project or activity. Such impacts may change the way in which people live, relate to one another, organise and cope as members of society. There is an increasing demand and expectation that Exploration and Production activities will both understand their impacts and define benefits for the local communities.

Social Impact Assessment can be considered a branch of Environmental Impact Assessment. It has become a tool in its own right due to the focus that was paid to the natural and physical issues within the EIA process. However there are still strong alignments and the wise project planner will integrate sociagl and environmental issues within their project planning process. This can be done through a combination of studies but can result in a single report.

The benefits of SIA will be demonstrated to include: obtaining approvalsforward planning and designincreased project success - benefits to local communityeconomic benefitsdecision making by management

The types of impacts including demographic, socio-economic, health, social infrastructure, resources, psychological and community, cultural and social equity will be reviewed. Methods and techniques to identify and assess impacts will be addressed.

One of the main challenges in SIA is to reach the right audience. Methods to scope studies and implement consultation will be addressed.
Integrating Ergonomics into the Petroleum Business
Authors: Howard M. S.
Published: December 2007

Integrating Health Safety and Environmental issues of the workplace into the design of new installations has always been a continuous challenge facing design engineers. Ergonomics is a proven link for achieving this connection between HSE and design due to its multi-disciplined approach. Often engineers try to incorporate ergonomic issues into the design of an installation only after the detailed design has been completed. The consequence of using ergonomics as an afterthought in design can result in an installation with the high potential of human/machine mismatches which may result. In poor system performance and hazardous working conditions, including emergency response. The message is clear: Ergonomics needs to be incorporated in the front end design of all new projects. However in practice, this is not occurring. Two questions emerge: 1) What kind of company strategy needs to exist to ensure its success? and 2) How will this strategy be implemented within the operating companies? This paper presents an ergonomics strategy and implementation plan used within a global oil company.

In the past, ergonomics has been undertaken on a project by project basis, if the resources permitted. If ergonomics was utilised in the detailed design, it ranged from citing international standards about population anthropometries to lighting and noise levels in the workplace. While these standards are important, they are only a small part of using ergonomics in the detailed design. The most relevant component of ergonomics involves analysing the task and then designing the installation that best accommodates the operator. The only way that designers are able to build well-designed installations is by understanding the task environment and the strengths and limitations of human operators. This principle of designing installations around the human operator's task is the primary drive behind an ergonomics strategy and implementation plan.
Environmental Control - "Drainage System Upgrade"
Authors: El Aldy A.
Published: December 2007

Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) and its affiliated oil companies have been implementing an intensive program to manage the environment as well as reduce levels of industrial pollution. In order to effectively control and minimize the effect of discharges from facilities, ADNOC started to review all facilities drainage systems and identify where improvements related to environment and operational aspects can be achieved. Considering all variables in the situation, and to comply with discharge limits as set by ADNOC Policy & Guidelines, it is necessary to continuously review the drainage systems, to make the best decision possible to achieve higher operation efficiency and set targets for environmental improvements. This paper shall present how ADNOC has set up and implemented its environmental regulation to comply with regulatory requirements and to deal with the environment proactively in its areas of operation, and shall report on the current achievements of the environmental protection program with regard to discharges from the drainage systems in order to maintain satisfactory level of environmental performance.
The New Role of HSE in Chemical Product Development
Authors: Purinton R. J. , Manning T. S.
Published: December 2007

Today, Health, Safety, and Environmental issues take a more prominent role than ever before in chemical product development for the global oilfield service industry. Prior to widespread regulatory guidelines, technical problems were solved and well treatment programs were developed using the chemicals which performed the best and were the least expensive for the application. HSE concerns were sometimes addressed from a remedial standpoint, rather than a preventive one throughout the process. With a clearer understanding of the potential impact of chemicals upon people and the environment, along with the ever-increasing array of government regulations, service companies are taking a new approach to product development. HSE-related risks and costs are being assessed early and continued throughout chemical development, with both product and treatment process features then designed accordingly.

One service company reflects this approach with its "cradle-to-grave" Product Development and Stewardship program. Integral to this program are planned HSE assessments at each step of development, including Feasibility, Lab De-velopment, Field Testing, Manufacturing, and Commercial Field Introduction. These assessments provide the data necessary to "engincer-in" solutions to potential HSE-related problems, produce viable Risk Management Plans, and promote a smoother path to commercialization. This avoids arriving at the commercial launch point with a product which poses unacceptably high personal or environmental risks, may be restricted or banned in key markets, or requires lengthy and expensive government registrations. In order to optimize R&E resources and ensure continuous evaluation, decision points (to continue, modify, or abandon) arc built into the process. Early HSE screenings must be accurate but also relatively quick and inexpensive to be meaningful and economical. The depth and detail of HSE assessments and risk management plans can increase as the development process continues toward commercialization.

Sample HSE Assessment Checklists and how they fit into product development phases are given in this paper. Examples are then shown for applying these principles to actual chemical products.
AIDS in the Workplace : The Experience of an Oilfield Service Company
Authors: Barbey A.
Published: December 2007

AIDS (Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome) was first described almost 20 years ago. Transmission was found to be basically by blood, sex and eventually during pregnancy or breast feeding. Originally thought to be a disease which affected only drug users and homosexuals it has now become a predominantly heterosexual affection.

AIDS will attain millions of individuals by the year 2000. With no known cure and no preventive vaccination, this disease has already reached epidemic proportions and will continue to wreak death and illness for many years to come, particularly in the poorer nations, where health campaigns and prevention are complicated by cultural and socio-economic factors.

A large oilfield service company working in a multitude of countries, with over 50,000 employees representing more than 80 nationalities is faced, just as all other employers, with the ever growing risk and consequences of the AIDS epidemic among its work force and their families.

In this paper we have studied the attitudes with regards to this disease within our local and international staff population and detailed the measures taken by the company as well as its approach to this problem from a medical, legal, economic, and insurance point of view. Management has encouraged information campaigns, provided free condoms and disposable medical material, refused systematic testing of employees, refused discrimination of HIV+ people, and contracted Pasteur Institute in Paris to be a privileged partner in providing technical assistance and expertise.

There is probably no ideal method for handling the AIDS problem, however, we feel that we have taken a broad stand which allows the employee to obtain preventive information, protects his confidentiality vis-^-vis management should he become HIV+, and provides an adapted work position based on his physical fitness in case of full blown AIDS. Ultimately the company provides the employee and his family with long term disability as well as a full and normal pension when he definitely can no longer work and/or after death.

Unless a vaccination and a cure are discovered rapidly, AIDS will become one of the major problems facing the oilfield companies and the world within the years to come.
Current Status of Coal Gasification
Authors: Cochran Neal P.
Published: December 2007

Coal gasification is an ancient art. Not too many years ago gas plants were a common feature of the industrial landscape in much of the northern part of the country. When I was a boy, gas plants abounded on the south side of the city of Chicago, chemical engineers at northern universities regularly visited gas manufacturing plants as a part of the school curriculum, and a man could graduate from a university with a degree in Gas Engineering or some variation of it. We tend to lose sight of this today.

Any process for converting coal to pipeline quality gas involves increasing the ratio of hydrogen to carbon in the coal. This hydrogen comes from water, the energy for the reaction comes from oxidation of some portion of the carbon to carbon dioxide. Any system that carries out these basic reactions can be called a coal gasification process, and technical know-how is available to design and build coal gasification plants — the trick is to be able to carry out the reactions at low cost. Low cost presumes reasonable efficiency in the process and minimum capital charges.

The Office of Coal Research (OCR) was established, by law, in 1960 and the staff was hired in 1961. So we are about ten years old. I propose to discuss coal gasification in general, but I intend to be most specific about the status of our program since that is what I know best. Although I propose to discuss coal gasification solely, I would like to assure you that we are working diligently to manufacture oil from coal as well as gas from coal.

It might be appropriate to touch briefly on the current need for synthetic gas. Irrespective of who makes the projection — and they do vary — all forecasters show a significant gap between supply and projected demand. It is not my intention to discuss the whys and wherefores of this gap, but I do say that it is becoming increasingly difficult to find gas in the amounts needed by our rising standard of living and increasing gross national product. Additionally, we are all aware of the fact that gas companies have been forced to turn down business with increasing frequency during the past three or four years. Fortunately for past three or four years. Fortunately for the gas industry and the nation, we have an adequate supply of coal to bridge this gap and provide us with all the gas we need. As an ancillary benefit, we will create job opportunities in many areas that are not now industrial, we will preserve our landscape, and we will make it possible to recover by-product chemicals into the bargain.
The Development of Environmental Sensitivity Map Within the Indonesian State Oil and Gas Company
Authors: Putri Elviera T.
Published: December 2007

The Petroleum Industry has been one of the backbone of the Indonesian Economic Development since the first Five Year Development Plan (1969/1970 - 1974/1975). Its contribution to Gross National Product (GNP) ranges from 40 to 70 percent. In addition, this industry has substantially generated foreign exchange earnings through Oil and Gas exports. In spite of these positive contributions, without proper management, the petroleum industry can generate a negative impact on physical surroundings, habitat disruption and the social environment. The sources may come from operational activities (e.g., discharged of produced water) and accidents, such as tanker collisions, or well blow outs.

A major constraint in managing adverse environmental impact is the unavailability of an integrated information system covering the potential risk of environmental degradations, which is impacted by oil industry activities. It is obvious that operators, who are responsible for assessing the impact of an oil spill or providing oil spill combating assistance, consistent with the oil spill contingency plan strategy, require specific tools and relevant information, such as, environmental sensitivity mapping.

This paper represents the results from a recent pilot project carried out by PERTAMINA, on the study of environmental sensitivity mapping associated with construction and commissioning of PERTAMINA jiew Refinery at Balongan (Indramayu County, West Java Province). The objective of this study is to identify the coastal resources that have ecosystem sensitivity to oil spills and other discharges from oil and gas industry activities. This study was achieved through the integration of data collecting, the use of a simulation database and G1S (Geographical Information System). It is expected that this pilot project will be used as a model for other relevant PERTAMINA activities in the coastal area.
Improving Contractor Safety Performance in a High Risk Multi-Project Environment
Authors: Ashiedu R. I. , Okoene A. C.
Published: December 2007

Up to 80% of the Exploration and Production activities of Oil and Gas operations are being executed by contractors. The industry's safety performance is therefore what the contractors make of it. implying that any meaningful performance improvement must derive directly from improvements in the contractor's safety performance.

A detailed review has been conducted on the operator / contractor safety management interface, leading to the establishment of a controlled series of improvement initiatives. These initiatives which must be driven by the operator should commence with an enlightenment that to improve safety would improve overall business. Contractor involvement, development programme for contractor safety management system and rigorous auditing to check compliance with systems and procedures, being the main focus. The result of implementing these improvement initiatives demonstrate their effectiveness. Injury levels will be kept low with a sustained reduction trend.
Subsurface Brine Injection : Proactive Approach to Close the Produced Water Loop in the Western Desert of Egypt
Authors: Farid E. E. , Nour M. H.
Published: December 2007

In 1988 a major onshore production facility was producing oil from eight formations in six oil fields located in the western desert of Egypt. Two of these formations include active water drive reservoirs, in addition; three reservoirs at that date were receiving water injection to enhance oil recovery.

To handle the increasing volumes of the produced water (which is contaminated with oil, production chemicals and other pollutants), three alternatives were investigated; -Injection into disposal wells.-Dumping in surface disposal pits.-Re-injection to waterflood some oil reservoirs.

The investigation revealed that the first two options are technically unfavorable, also they are conventional Waste Management Technologies (WMT) which provide short-term remedial solution.

In contrast, Produced Water Re-Injection (PWRI) is an Environmental Control Technology (ECT) which minimize the environmental impact through process improvements.

A state -of-the-ml re-injection process was utilized using chemical treatment, gas liberation , settling, filtration and injection, This process represents a combination of two ( ECT) methods : Reuse ( for water flooding) and Recycling ( when brine is redisposed underground).

This process reduce the overall volumes of produced water to be disposed, increase the oil reserves, reservoir pressure and oil production and converse the underground water reserve.

It has been concluded that (PWRI) is environmentally safe, technically feasible and applicable for similar cases in the western desert of Egypt, it is also more cost effective than usage of the underground water and finally, the chemical treatment and monitoring of the injection-water quality are the keys of successful operation.

This paper illustrates; the studies made to prove the technical feasibility of this project, the process designed to treat up to 20,000 BWPD and the contingency treatment facility. Also it demonstrates the field and analytical data showing the improved performance of the process and the environmental quality.