bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
CONTAINMENT AND CLEANUP OF A MAJOR OIL WELL BLOWOUT IN TEXAS
Authors: Quina Christopher L. , Thebeau Larry C. , Bond Charles C. , Hammack Patrick
Published: January 2013

In November 1985, an estimated 326,000 barrels (13.04 million gallons) of 42 gravity crude oil, 32,600 barrels (1,304,000 gallons) of salt water and paraffin, and 176 million cubic feet of gas were released into the environment from the blowout of the Ray Richey and Co., Inc. well Ora B. Jones #3. The well site is seven miles southeast of Ranger, Texas, in Eastland County. The well was reported to have blown out because of insufficient weight on the formation, or insufficient application of drilling muds, as the drill stem casing was being withdrawn from the well. Fear of upper elevation formation fracturing necessitated the installation of a more versatile blowout preventer (BOP). For about six days, the well emitted a vertical aerosol of oil and gas that reached heights of 75 feet and resulted in the contamination of a one square mile area surrounding the well site. Horizontal diversion of the oil to an adjacent stock pond and diversion of the gas to constructed flare pits was achieved after the higher capacity BOP was installed. Eleven days elapsed before emergency crews were able to divert flow from the well to on-site storage tanks and flare pits. The responsible party assumed full and immediate responsibility for the incident. Contracted cleanup, emergency and site safety crews were on the site within hours of the initial release. This article addresses the activities of the various regulatory agencies involved with the site, and how they interacted with the responsible party's contracted mitigative crews, for what may be considered a model for future oil spills of this type. Cleanup and environmental restoration methodologies also are addressed.
AN OIL SPILL AFFECTING CORAL REEFS AND MANGROVES ON THE CARIBBEAN COAST OF PANAMA
Authors: Cubit John D. , Getter Charles D. , Jackson Jeremy B. C. , Garrity Stephen D. , Caffey Hugh M. , Thompson Ricardo C. , Weil Ernesto , Marshall Michael J.
Published: January 2013

In April 1986, more than 50,000 barrels of medium weight crude oil were spilled into the largest complex of coral reefs and mangroves on the central Caribbean coast of Panama. Considerable amounts of oil came ashore at Punta Galeta, where a long-term environmental sciences program of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute provided extensive baseline information for investigating the effects of the oil spill. Immediate mortality was most apparent for organisms living at the seaward edge of the reef flats and on drying substrata above mean water level. By June 1986, a number of reef species were reduced in abundance, and a bloom of microalgae grew over much of the reef flat that had been directly exposed to the oil at low tide. The abundances of some fast-growing algae appeared to have recovered by September 1986, but the slower-growing corals, zoanthids, and calcareous algae were at the lowest abundances recorded. Defoliation and mortality of mangroves, particularly Rhizophora mangle, was severe on windward coasts, and other areas where the oil penetrated into sediments around the mangrove roots. Oysters and other organisms living on mangrove roots also suffered severe mortality. The types of habitats and organisms affected were obviously dependent on the particular weather conditions during the oil spill. Studies are continuing to follow succession and other changes in seagrass meadows, coral reefs, mangrove forests, and associated habitats that were affected by the oil.
ANALYSIS OF SIGNIFICANT OIL SPILL INCIDENTS FROM SHIPS, 1976–19851
Authors: Bao-Kang Pu
Published: January 2013

The most important objectives of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) have been improving maritime safety and preventing marine pollution. The Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), which is responsible for coordinating IMO's activities in preventing and controlling marine pollution from ships, agreed that spills of 100 tons of oil or more should be regarded as “significant.”1 Analyses of significant oil spills (more than 100 metric tons) from ships have helped develop spill statistics, categories of spill incidents, geographical data on spills, and so on.

Analyses for the past 10 years show that about 75 percent of the incidents were caused by grounding, collision, and breakdown; about 8 percent were caused by operational errors while loading, discharging, or washing tanks; and about 17 percent were due to rough weather, fire, and other causes. These analyses suggest that measures can be taken to prevent oil pollution from ships chiefly by improving safety standards for ship construction, equipment, and operation.

This paper analyzes several incidents to understand the causes, actions taken, and results of oil spills in different circumstances and with different types of oil. It also examines IMO's achievements in combating oil pollution and the difficulties that have been met in implementing Annex I of the Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil, the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78).
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF LOW-PRESSURE SEAWATER FLUSHING OF OILED SEDIMENTS
Authors: Howard S. , Little D. I.
Published: January 2013

The objectives of this study were to assess the field effectiveness and biological effects of low-pressure saltwater flushing of a thin (<4 mm) oil layer applied to a very fine intertidal sand. On average approximately 85 percent of the applied medium fuel oil mousse was found to be recoverable. Hydrocarbon analyses indicated negligible oil incorporation into flushed plots. The technique is believed to have been effective partly because the water table was successfully raised (by up to 20 cm), and also because the surface 3 to 4 cm was sufficiently disturbed to liberate oil that had penetrated the surface layer during the 2 hours between oil application and flushing. Counts of Arenicola marina casts in “oiled” plots were significantly lower (P = 0.02) than in the “oiled and then flushed” plots. The technique is likely to work with viscous oils deposited in 10 mm thick Strandlines on accessible sloping shores, where the sediment is greater than 4 cm thick and reasonably firm. The technique is likely to be unsuccessful on very coarse sands and gravels, fluid muds, and low shear strength sands, because of erosion and mixing of sediments and oil.
OIL-HOLDING CAPACITIES AND REMOVAL COEFFICIENTS FOR DIFFERENT SHORELINE TYPES TO COMPUTER SIMULATE SPILLS IN COASTAL WATERS
Authors: Gundlach Erich R.
Published: January 2013

Two components have been developed and integrated into a coastline oil spill simulation model: (1) an oil holding capacity for different shoreline types to represent the amount of oil that can be brought onto the shoreline, and (2) a removal coefficient to reflect the amount of oil that can be removed from a beach during a rising tide. The oil holding capacity changes with oil viscosity. The combination of these two factors, delineated for seven shoreline types and tied to chemical weathering and surf zone transport submodels, enables the basic prediction of oil motion and persistence within most marine environments.
FUEL OIL EFFECTS ON MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY IN SPARTINA ALTERNIFLORA ROOTS1
Authors: Booker Fitzgerald
Published: January 2013

To investigate the toxic action of petroleum on root tissue of the marsh grass Spartina alterniflora Loisel., the acute effects of weathered No. 2 fuel oil on plasmalemma permeability were studied. A mixture of fuel oil and deionized water was weathered outdoors for four days, after which the fuel oil was decanted off. Root tissue samples (1 g, wet weight) were exposed to weathered fuel oil, heavy mineral oil, mineral oil plus 1% weathered fuel oil, or deionized water (control) for 10 minutes. Tissue samples were placed subsequently in 25 mL of 0.5 mM sodium phosphate solutions buffered at pH 6.8. Tissue viability and conductivity, soluble carbohydrates, ribose, and free amino acids in the solutions were monitored. Five hours after treatment, the colon-metric viability assay of extracts from roots treated with fuel oil had 68% less absorbance than controls, indicating that weathered fuel oil significantly reduced viability in the treated roots. Significantly higher levels of conductivity, soluble carbohydrates, ribose, and free amino acids were also observed in the buffered solutions of the fuel oil exposed roots. The apparent result of the observed responses to fuel oil exposure was altered plasmalemma permeability. In the mineral oil, as well as the mineral oil plus fuel oil treatments, however, the detected levels of conductivity, carbohydrates, and amino acids were not significantly different from controls. But, the viability assays of extracts from roots treated with mineral oil or mineral oil plus fuel oil had decreased absorbances of 41% and 55%, respectively, indicating some reduced tissue viability.
AN EVALUATION OF EPA SHEEN TESTS FOR DRILLING FLUID DISCHARGE1
Authors: Jones Maurice , Otto Gordon H.
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has prohibited the discharge of “free oil” in offshore drilling discharges and proposed new procedures to detect such oil. A statistically designed series of experiments was performed to evaluate three proposed sheen test procedures: EPA's Gulf of Mexico, Alaska, and cup protocols. Seventy-four independent observers conducted over 6,360 sheen tests. The experiments evaluated the effects of freshwater and saltwater test media, two lighting types, two mud types, and two oil types (diesel and mineral) at five concentrations (including a blank). The cup and Gulf tests had relatively high false positive rates. The Alaska procedure had a lower false positive rate, but did not detect oil concentrations of 5% reliably under some test conditions. As a result, none of the three procedures used can be considered satsifactory for National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit compliance.
COMPARISON OF FEDERAL GUIDELINES FOR NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT OF A MAJOR OIL SPILL, ISLAND PARK, NEW YORK1
Authors: Ott Gary L.
Published: January 2013

Federal guidelines that outline a process for natural resource damage assessment have recently been published. The guidelines provide two types of assessment procedures that are referred to as Type A assessments and Type B assessments. The Type A procedures are for simplified assessments and use a computer model to measure in monetary terms compensation for injury to marine and coastal natural resources through the use of average values and approximations. The proposed Type A computer model was used to analyze a major oil spill that occurred in Island Park, New York, where the federal on-scene coordinator had attempted to evaluate the magnitude and severity of the spill. In this one instance, both field observations and the proposed Type A computer model characterized this major oil spill as having a limited impact on the environment.

Oil and chemical spills are generally characterized only by the size of the release. Conceivably, the proposed Type A model could be used as a tool for characterizing a spill by its potential to injure natural resources. The ability to focus on the environmental impacts of a spill may help analyze response actions that reduce natural resource damages.
THE NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT MODEL FOR COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENTS (NRDAM/CME)1
Authors: Grigalunas Thomas A. , Opaluch James J. , French Deborah , Reed Mark
Published: January 2013

This paper describes the Natural Resouce Damage Assessment Model for Coastal and Marine Environments (NRDAM/CME) developed by the authors for the U.S. Department of the Interior. The NRDAM/CME is to be used for type A, simplified assessments of damages to natural resources in coastal and marine environments under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act of 1980. Given limited information supplied by an authorized official after a discharge or release covered by the act, the model simulates the physical fates, biological effects, and economic damages resulting from the incident.
THE UNDERGROUND OIL SPILL AT KOTZEBUE, ALASKA: UNKNOWN CAUSE, ELUSIVE CURE
Authors: Janssen John H. , Kane Douglas L.
Published: January 2013

In 1980, the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC) became aware of a problem with oil seeping into the elementary school basement of the northwest Alaska coastal community of Kotzebue. After initial investigation, it was determined that 100,000 to 200,000 gal (378,000 to 756,000 L) of #1 fuel oil (diesel) was contaminating an underground area estimated at up to 10 acres (4 ha). The fuel had been in the ground for 25 to 30 years, and may have been associated with fuel storage or handling in the 1950s. ADEC learned that many local residents had been collecting fuel from backyard sumps for years. Many gathered enough to heat their homes, and others sold their excesses of recovered oil.

More recently, oil has been observed leaching into Kotzebue Sound from time to time, posing a potential threat to local fisheries. ADEC has since been involved in recovering the oil, using the limited funds available to mitigate the potential environmental and safety problems. Problems experienced in collection of the fuel included a seasonally frozen groundwater aquifer above the permafrost and inconsistent monitoring of the primary collection sump in the school basement. By the fall of 1984, about 40,000 gal (151,000 L) of fuel had been recovered by a variety of methods. A large quantity of oil remains underground, but recovery has been severely reduced, mainly by recent funding constraints and sporadic collection conditions associated with the cold climate and permafrost.

The 1986 Alaska state legislature appropriated $50,000 so that ADEC could install monitoring and collection wells and conduct pressure tests of all fuel lines that might be still contributing to the problem. Continuing this cleanup depends on future funding.
A COMPARISON OF SOIL-GAS SAMPLING METHODS USED AT TWO HARBOR SITES
Authors: Owens Victor H. , Sexton Walter J. , Michel Jacqueline
Published: January 2013

Underground oil spills leaking into navigable waterways at Baltimore, Maryland, and Hilo, Hawaii, were investigated using soil-gas sampling methods. Gas extraction methods were used in Hilo with mixed but favorable results. Component adsorption methods were used in Baltimore with highly favorable results. In comparing the two soil-gas sampling methods and results, the component adsorption method was found to be superior in detecting the presence or absence of underground diesel oil. The gas extraction method produced results that were somewhat limited in use because of lack of sensitivity to the components of diesel oil. Interpretation of data from both methods was found to be complicated by the presence of surface spill contamination leading to false indications of underground oil.
TACID: A COMPUTER-BASED INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR ON-SCENE COMMANDERS
Authors: Goodman R. H. , Peabody C. H. , Holoboff A. G.
Published: January 2013

This paper describes the development of TACID, a computer-based data base system for use by on-scene commanders and technical advisors at the scene of an oil spill. The system uses an MS-DOS-based lap-top computer, a readily available data base program, and a menu-driven selection process. All the environmental and response data for a geographic area are recorded on a number of 3.5-inch rugged computer discs, and an operating program has been written to allow users to select the appropriate disc. The computer serves both as a retrieval program and as an arithmetic processor. The use of TACID greatly enhances the capabilities of emergency response commanders and their technical advisors to deal with an oil spill on the scene.
REAL-TIME PROCESSING OF OIL SPILL REMOTE SENSING DATA1
Authors: Le Guen Yvon J. F. , Brussieux Marc , Burkhalter Rolland
Published: January 2013

The good quality of thermal infrared imagery and the relation between infrared emissivity and the thickness of an oil slick have led to the development of a visualizing rack and an image processing program. This system, tested on board a surveillance aircraft, has permitted on-site estimation within 20 seconds of the total volume of a 28 cubic meter slick with less than 15% error.
LABORATORY STUDIES ON THE BEHAVIOR AND CLEANUP OF WAXY CRUDE OIL SPILLS
Authors: Buist Ian , Potter Stephen , Mackay Don , Charles Michael
Published: January 2013

Small- and mid-scale laboratory tests were undertaken to investigate the behavior and cleanup of spills of waxy crude oils at sea. The results indicate that the behavior of such oils is very different from that of conventional oils. This difference is likely due primarily to the precipitation of waxes, asphaltenes, and other unknown resinous compounds as the oil evaporates or as environmental temperatures drop. Thus, the oil spreads, evaporates, and naturally disperses very slowly, or in the extreme, even gels into a semisolid mass. Waxy oil spills can be expected to survive on the sea surface considerably longer than an equivalent spill of conventional crude. The results of simple countermeasure tests suggest that waxy crude oil spills will be difficult to clean up, since they are very viscous, do not adhere well to oleophilic surfaces, and are extremely resistant to chemical dispersants.
OIL SPREADING UNDER ICE COVERS
Authors: Yapa Poojitha D. , Chowdhury Tamara
Published: January 2013

A new set of equations is presented for describing oil spreading under ice in calm waters. These equations consider the constant discharge mode, constant volume mode, and termination of spreading due to a balance of forces. Therefore, a complete description of the spreading phenomena from the time of initial spill to termination of spreading is presented. The equations are derived based on a simplified form of Navier-Stokes equations. Laboratory experiments were conducted using ice covers of different roughnesses, oils of different viscosities, and varying discharge rates. The theory agrees closely with the experimental data.
OIL LAYER FLOW AROUND SKIMMING VESSELS
Authors: Suzuki Isao , Tasaki Ryo , Miki Kkenjiro , Kajita Etsuji , Yagi Takanobu
Published: January 2013

The flow of an oil layer around an advancing skimming vessel was investigated theoretically on the following assumptions: (1) the oil layer is so thin that the velocity distribution is uniform over the depth; (2) there is no shear and tension at the oil-water interface; and (3) the density difference between oil and water is so small that the elevation of the air-oil interface is negligible. The investigation showed that the oil layer flow is replaced by a supercritical flow in a shallow open water channel which is characterized by the densimetric Froude number in the ideal case of inviscid fluids with no interfacial tension.

Tank tests have been carried out to verify the theoretical model and its simulation of an oil layer flow, using scale models of a mono-hull vessel. Similar models with different entrance angles have been tested, at varying ship speeds and oil layer thicknesses. The test results show that the theoretical model and the similitude are valid at lower densimetric Froude numbers, and the effect of the Froude number appears at higher densimetric Froude numbers.
COMBATING OIL POLLUTION IN CHINA1
Authors: Baokang Pu
Published: January 2013

China is accelerating its economic growth now, but prevention of pollution also has been put on the priority agenda of the government and has become a basic policy of the country.

The first National Environmental Protection Law (for trial implementation) was adopted in 1979. Since then, more than five national laws and regulations relating to the prevention of marine pollution, as well as other laws for the prevention of air and land pollution have been approved.

The focus of this paper is on the marine pollution situation which China is facing, the problems China is dealing with, and the difficulties remaining.

Regulations for the prevention of oil pollution have been published in The Regulations Concerning The Prevention Of Pollution Of Sea Areas By Vessels Of The People's Republic Of China, based on those of The International Convention For The Prevention Of Pollution From Ships, 1973, As Modified By The Protocol Of 1978 Relating Thereto (MARPOL 73/78).

The pollution control organization from national to regional levels, their activities and achievements, difficulties in implementation of both national and international regulations, and the technical assistance available from international bodies, such as the International Maritime Organization (IMO), United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and foreign countries such as Norway and Sweden are introduced.
OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING IN THE BALTIC SEA
Authors: Bender Klavs , Østfeldt Preben , Kronborg Poul
Published: January 2013

In 1986 an oil and gas concession in the Baltic Sea was granted by the Danish Ministry of Energy to a group of oil companies with Norsk Hydro as operator. In this connection, the company initiated a three-year research project in the area, covering the following subjects:The use and development of analytical methods for biomarkers, prior to any oil spill, to identify oil in marine sedimentsBaseline evaluation at 10 sediment stations within the concession area of certain defined heavy metals and hydrocarbonsSimulation of drift, spreading, and fate of oil slicks using advanced computer models calibrated for the Baltic Sea areaCoastal vulnerability mapping of resources and development of a computerized data base system for this information.

This paper is a status report on the research, describing the goals achieved midway through the program.
A COMPARISON OF REGULATIONS RELATED TO THE OIL SPCC PROGRAM
Authors: Novotny Sandra K. , Wendel Thearin R.
Published: January 2013

Several federal agencies regulate selected aspects of the production, refining, transportation, and storage of petroleum and petroleum products. Based on analyses of such programs, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) may propose modifications to the Oil Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasures (SPCC) program. These proposed changes would be likely to result in improved consistency with other government and industry standards.

Regulatory changes may occur in two extensive and significant areas: adoption of specific and widely recognized industry and regulatory tank standards, and mandatory contingency planning at all facilities covered by the SPCC regulations. Relevant industrial, trade association, and technical standards generated by the American Petroleum Institute, the Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., the National Fire Protection Association, the American National Standards Institute, and the National Association of Corrosion Engineers have been reviewed for applicability to the SPCC regulations. Areas of concern include materials specifications, welding requirements, pressure testing prior to service, overpressure and vacuum relief requirements, design specifications, hydrostatic testing requirements, and siting specifications.
THE ROLE OF INDIAN TRIBES IN NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGES RECOVERY
Authors: Parker Grant D.
Published: January 2013

Oil and hazardous substance spills can have a catastrophic impact on Indian tribes relying on natural resources such as fish and wildlife for subsistence or economic survival. Indian tribes have increasing legal and administrative opportuntiies to protect, and recover damages for, tribal resources injured by oil and hazardous substance releases. Common law, and recent amendments to the federal Superfund statute recognize the importance of resource protection to tribal governments and specifically provide for the participation of tribal governments in both assessing damage to, and bringing claims to recover for the loss of, natural resources.
NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT OF THE AMAZON VENTURE OIL SPILL
Authors: Michel Jacqueline
Published: January 2013

The release of approximately 500,000 gallons of No. 6 fuel oil into the Savannah River on December 4 to 6, 1986 resulted in extensive contamination of wetlands. The extreme tidal currents transported the oil over 100 river miles, heavily contaminating 650 acres of wetlands and lightly contaminating 690 acres. The affected area included the Savannah National Wildilfe Refuge and wetland and fishery resources within the states of Georgia and South Carolina. A natural resources damage assessment was conducted, focusing on damages to the wetlands, using replacement cost and two different loss-of-use valuation methods. Damages to fisheries and wildlife were estimated using the draft Type A computer model. Other costs included impacts to a three-year study at the refuge. The initial assessment valuation ranged from $640,000 to $3.0 million. The out-of-court settlement was $1.2 million. The assessment followed the spirit of the Type A assessment, as a simple method using readily available information, without the constraints of the computer model, which was not appropriate to the spill conditions.
STUDY OF OIL-IN-WATER DISPERSION USING A DYNAMIC TURBIDIMETER
Authors: Pelletier Emilien , Brochu Charles
Published: January 2013

A new laboratory method using a turbidimetric technique has been developed to study basic oil-in-water dispersion processes and oil spill chemical dispersant effectiveness. A simple dynamic turbidimeter was interfaced to a microcomputer, and rates of oil dispersion and oil droplet resurfacing were recorded and correlated to experimental parameters such as oil-to-water ratio and dispersant-to-oil ratio. The new technique was found much more sensitive than classical effectiveness methods and experimental results were in excellent agreement with a mathematical model developed a few years ago to predict oil spill dispersant effectiveness. The method was also found very useful for studying dispersant formulation.
STUDY TO DETERMINE THE RECOVERY OF A LOUISIANA MARSH FROM AN OIL SPILL
Authors: Fischel Marion , Grip Wayne , Mendelssohn Irving A.
Published: January 2013

A pipeline break in April 1985 near the Shell Pipe Line Corporation pumping station at Nairn, Louisiana, resulted in the release of approximately 300 barrels of crude oil in a south Louisiana marsh. A study was conducted three months after the spill to assess the effects of the oil on the marsh community. Results showed that the vegetation was affected by the oil.3 A follow-up study was conducted in fall 1986 to determine the extent of recovery of the marsh vegetation. Color infrared aerial photographs taken in October 1986 revealed an increase in healthy vegetation and a decrease in stressed vegetation, indicating that some marsh recovery had occurred. However, some vegetated areas were converted to mudflats or open water after the spill. A review of historical aerial photographs taken between 1952 and 1978 showed that deterioration of the marsh had been occurring at an estimated annual rate of one percent since 1972 and may have increased to three percent since the early 1980s.

A vegetation survey conducted in September 1986 also showed recovery of some of the marsh vegetation. The extent of recovery appeared to be a function of location of the vegetation within the marsh. Sampling plots located on the western side of the study area (adjacent to Bay Vacherie) exhibited substantial recovery, while some of the plots on the eastern half (near a flood protection levee) did not recover. The greater impact of the oil on the vegetation adjacent to the levee appears to be attributable to the prevalent wind direction at the time of the oil spill; the lower marsh elevation, causing waterlogging of the vegetation and concentration of the oil; and use of marsh buggies near the levee during the cleanup. Some additional recovery may still occur in the future in areas that have suitable surface elevation for reestablishment of the vegetation.
CHARACTERIZATION OF THE INITIAL WEATHERING OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS BY FTIR SPECTROSCOPY AND SUPERCRITICAL FLUID CHROMATOGRAPHY
Authors: Mansur Lamya , Williams Alan , Bartle Keith D. , Raynor Mark W.
Published: January 2013

Chemical changes resulting from the weathering processes of oils have been investigated on a bench scale weathering apparatus. A multicomponent oil simulating crude oil was developed for this purpose. Hydrocarbon concentrations resulting from evaporation and dissolution were measured using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and interpreted by a computer program (CIRCOM), which uses the method of principal components regression for multicomponent quantitative analysis. This method could be fast and accurate for quantitative assessments of changes in chemical and physical properties of an oil. However, this study outlines only the chemical measurements of saturated and aromatic hydrocarbon composition.

Experiments were also undertaken to study weathering processes on oil droplets. In this technique single droplets of crude oil were suspended in water, the trends of dissolution were studied, and the behavior of the remaining heavy fraction assessed by FTIR spectroscopy and capillary column supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC). SFC was used to identify compounds, especially high molecular weight alkanes, and their changes in concentration with time in suspension in water. The results show that the main changes in the composition of oil droplets in stagnant waters are loss of low molecular weight material and differential loss of high boiling n-alkanes compared to their isoprenoid counterparts. FTIR spectroscopy and SFC proved powerful techniques for detecting minimal weathering processes, including oxidation, dissolution, and microbial degradation.
BIODEGRADATION OF OIL IN THE ARCTIC: ENHANCEMENT BY OIL-SOLUBLE FERTILIZER APPLICATION
Authors: Sveum Per , Ladousse Alain
Published: January 2013

Oil exploration in arctic regions will require special oil spill cleanup methods for shorelines. The application of fertilizers to speed biodegradation of oil may hold promise. INIPOL EAP22, an oil-soluble fertilizer that is nontoxic and biodegradable, was tested in a series of experiments on Spitsbergen, Norway, to determine its effectiveness under various conditions. The fertilizer was applied to floating oil and to oil on shoreline sediments. Effectiveness of the treatments varied. The oil-on-water experiments showed virtually no signs of biodegradation, perhaps because photo-oxidation products and low-boiling-point hydrocarbons interfered. Experiments with oil in sediments showed mixed results: oil in finer sediments showed little or no biodegradation, but oil in coarser sediments was significantly biodegraded. Uptake and exchange of nutrients depends on the complex growth kinetics of the bacteria involved, and requires detailed study.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF THE 1985 ARCO ANCHORAGE OIL SPILL: 1988 CONCLUSIONS1
Authors: Mancini Eugene R. , Lindstedt-Siva June , Chamberlain Dilworth W.
Published: January 2013

The beach of Ediz Hook, Port Angeles, Washington, was heavily oiled by Alaska North Slope (ANS) crude oil spilled subsequent to the grounding of the Arco Anchorage on December 21, 1985. Intertidal crude oil concentrations measured in beach sediments ranged from less than 50 to 20,000 ppm, with an average of 2,240 ppm. Beach reclamation efforts, concluded in April 1986, reduced average crude oil concentrations to 670 ppm. An intertidal and subtidal sediment chemistry and benthic invertebrate monitoring program was initiated at Ediz Hook in 1986 and was concluded in early 1988. Sediment chemistry data indicated a decline in mean intertidal concentrations from 670 to 110 ppm between April 1986 and July 1987. Shallow subtidal concentrations decreased from a mean of 460 to 110 ppm in the same time period. Benthic invertebrate population indices, developed with core and box sampler data, generally demonstrated a negative correlation with sediment crude oil concentrations. Organism density, taxonomic diversity and biomass increased significantly at numerous stations during the course of the monitoring studies. Successful bivalve population recruitment and growth were evident for several hardshell clam species by the fall of 1987. There was no evidence of petroleum-derived hydrocarbons in the edible tissues of salmonids (rainbow trout and Atlantic salmon) which were gathered for several months after the spill from a net-pen culturing facility in Port Angeles. Despite vigorous bird rehabilitation efforts, approximately 80 percent of the 1,917 oiled birds perished. Pre- and post-spill population census data indicate, however, that population level impacts did not occur. Various reconnaissance, monitoring and damage assessment investigations conducted during and after the spill have documented the environmental value of a rapid and effective spill response and cleanup effort. Significant impacts associated with the spill were short-term in nature and generally limited to the immediate spill area.
A PRIORITY APPROACH TO REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SENSITIVITY MAPPING
Authors: Rooney Ann Hayward , Ledwin Jane
Published: January 2013

Identifying and mapping especially sensitive environments in coastal areas is essential to protecting these environments from the effects of oil spills. Accordingly, “hot spot” habitats and resources in the Chesapeake Bay, one of the nation's major estuarine ecosystems, have been illuminated in a unique series of four seasonal maps. Incorporating these maps into contingency planning and spill response efforts not only speeds the identification of priority areas requiring protection from oil spills, but also enhances the effort itself.
ESTABLISHING A BREEDING EIDER DUCK POPULATION IN MASSACHUSETTS
Authors: Stanton Philip B.
Published: January 2013

In an effort to make a waterfowl population with a limited breeding range—Maine to the Canadian Maritimes—less vulnerable to local catastrophe from petroleum activities, a population of common eiders (Somateria mollissima dressesi) was transplanted from Maine to Massachusetts. The objective of the relocation of the eiders was to see if a population of seabirds could successfully be moved from an area subject to petroleum activities to a new breeding ground. This move involved taking a group of birds from its existing breeding ground to a nonbreeding territory and establishing another breeding population. Such wildlife management techniques could contribute to increasing the reproductive potential of birds lost to oil spills, thus decreasing the need for high-cost oiled bird rehabilitation, which is often ecologically unsound.

From 1973 to 1975, adult eiders and eggs were collected from Casco Bay, Maine. Eggs were hatched and hand-reared for several weeks both at the Wildlife Rehabilitation Center and on Penikese Island in Massachusetts. The birds were released on Penikese in Buzzard's Bay, about 240 kilometers (150 miles) south of their known breeding range, but in an area of habitat similar to that of the islands of Casco Bay. An acclimation program included rearing the birds at the release site for one to three weeks and introducing a saltwater environment and natural foods to the birds.

The released eiders began breeding in 1976 on Penikese and have since colonized at least three nearby islands. By 1988 the population had increased to an estimated 200 breeding pairs.
INDEMNIFICATION OF OIL SPILL COOPERATIVES DURING THIRD PARTY SPILLS
Authors: Onstad L. A. , Gallagher John J.
Published: January 2013

Oil spill cooperatives are generally organized under an agreement that requires a member company to indemnify all other members fully against liability arising from a member company's spill and response actions with cooperative resources. The cooperatives also require the same type of indemnification on the part of nonmembers and third parties.

When a major third-party spill occurs in an area where the cooperative's equipment is required, the cooperative can find itself dealing with representatives of shipping companies who are unable or unwilling to commit to required indemnification. At the same time, it is likely to be in the interest of the cooperative (the oil and gas industry) to ensure an adequate response is made. Reverting to federal response under U. S. Cost Guard direction is an option (Section 311[k] Fund), but not preferred. The Coast Guard has been unwilling or unable to establish contractual arrangements before the fact with cooperatives, thus leading to instances of delayed payments, non-allowable costs, and disputes.

Protection and indemnification (P&I) clubs, which underwrite the liability insurance of the vessels, are accustomed to dealing with marine disasters and have been asked to review the indemnification requirements of Clean Seas, which are similar to those of other industry cooperatives. The clubs are willing to work with the cooperatives’ requirements to eliminate an inordinate amount of time in contract negotiations during the early hours or days of a spill and to ensure parties do not have to rely upon a federal response. With the acceptance of these requirements by the clubs, it is hoped shipping companies and representatives will be able to enter into contracts or indemnification agreements with cooperatives with full support from the clubs.
THE INTERNATIONAL OIL POLLUTION COMPENSATION FUND: TEN YEARS OF CLAIMS SETTLEMENT EXPERIENCE
Authors: Jacobsson Måns
Published: January 2013

The International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund (IOPC Fund) was established in October 1978, pursuant to the 1971 Fund Convention, with the task of providing compensation to victims of oil pollution damage in states party to that convention, to the extent that the victims do not receive adequate compensation from the shipowner and his insurer. During its 10 years of operation, the IOPC Fund has been involved in the settlement of claims arising out of 34 incidents.

The fund has developed a reputation for quick settlement of claims. This is based on the fund's careful monitoring of incidents that may lead to claims against the fund, of its readiness to provide information on how to present claims, the well-defined procedures laid down for accepting claims, the discretion given the fund's director in paying compensation, and its close cooperation with shipowners’ protection and indemnity (P & I) clubs. The IOPC Fund's criteria for presentation, documentation, and admissibility of claims are described here, as well as its policies for negotiating with claimants and its definitions of oil pollution. The IOPC Fund's decisions in the past 10 years have contributed to the development and harmonization of international law regarding oil spill liability.
AN OIL SPILL MODEL SYSTEM FOR ARCTIC WATERS
Authors: Spaulding Malcolm , Isaji Tatsusaburo , Jayko Katherine
Published: January 2013

An Arctic coastal sea model system, consisting of submodels for weather, hydrodynamics, waves, suspended sediment, ice cover, oil spill trajectory and fates, and ecosystem dynamics is presented. The structure and operation of each sub-model and linkages among the various model components are briefly described. The weather, hydrodynamic, ice, and oil spill fates components of the model system are applied to predict hydrodynamics and oil spill trajectories from selected release points in the Bering Sea. Trajectory data are analyzed to describe the percent of trajectories affecting land and the direction, length, and duration distribution of trajectories. A detailed sensitivity study is performed to determine the role of the various mean current components and wind drift effects in describing spill trajectories. Model predictions highlight the importance of accurately representing the environmental data used as input to the model.
USE OF SOIL-AQUIFER TREATMENT IN OIL POLLUTION CONTROL OF UNDERGROUND WATERS
Authors: Béraud Jean-François , Ducreux Jean , Gatellier Claude
Published: January 2013

One case history describes the remedial actions taken to mitigate the contamination of a pumping field for drinking water supply by a spill of 5,000 gallons of leaded gasoline:Providing continuous pumping to prevent further migrationAssessing the hydrodynamic context by a water table surveyUsing ground purification processes based on the techniques developed for wastewater treatment by infiltration.

The plan of action is fully described. Attention is drawn to the importance of the aeration of the system, ensured by a controlled alternating of watering and drying phases. After one year, the aromatic hydrocarbon content was lowered from 0.8 mg/L to an undetectable level. The overall cost of the operation was about $70,000 in U.S. dollars.
RESPONSE TO THE APRIL 1988 OIL SPILL AT MARTINEZ, CALIFORNIA
Authors: Fraser J. P. , Mortenson J. R. , Montoro D. P. , Rugg M. E.
Published: January 2013

A spill of approximately 9,400 bbl of San Joaquin Valley crude oil (13.5 API gravity) occurred on April 23, 1988, from the Shell Oil Company Martinez Manufacturing Complex. Part of the high-viscosity oil eventually reached Carquinez Strait and Suisun Bay. Areas initially affected by the spill included a 103-acre freshwater marsh, the shorelines of Carquinez Strait and Suisun Bay, saltwater marshes associated with both the strait and the bay, three marinas, two local parks, and waterfront properties in Benicia.

To aid in the cleanup, Shell used the facilities of the local oil spill cooperative, Clean Bay, Inc., four oil spill contractors, and U.S. Navy skimmers. Two local organizations were actively involved in caring for birds and other widlife oiled by the spill. Within four weeks, over 90 percent of the spilled oil was judged by the federal On-Scene Coordinator to have been recovered. Cleanup of floating oil involved use of skimmers and vacuum trucks. Sorbent materials were used extensively for shoreline cleanup, and a substantial amount of vegetation was removed to reduce the risk of wildlife contamination. High-pressure hot water was used to clean some rocky shorelines.
Chevron Worldwide Exposures Project
Authors: Boortz Marielle J.
Published: January 2013

The Chevron Worldwide Exposures (WIE) Project illustrates the application of risk management to spill prevention and response planning efforts. The WIE project team defined two terms, “relative risk” and “relative exposure,” for describing the risk of a large spill with negative consequences. The team developed a worldwide exposures survey form to collect data for making relative risk and relative exposure evaluations. Using the form, the team identified and evaluated over 500 operations worldwide where Chevron has exposure to oil and chemical spills to surface water. The project team's findings are primarily being used within Chevron to prioritize operations for reviews of spill prevention, preparedness, and response capabilities.
Task Force on Oil Spill Preparedness: A Canadian On-Shore Evaluation
Authors: Wiebe Wayne O. , Wotherspoon Paul
Published: January 2013

The oil industry's ability to effectively contain and clean up oil spills has been questioned over the years, and recent events have heightened this concern. Growing public interest and efforts by the upstream oil industry in Canada to assess its operations resulted in formation of the Task Force on Oil Spill Preparedness. The study was sponsored by the Canadian Petroleum Association and the Independent Petroleum Association of Canada, which represent most companies in the upstream industry. The overall evaluation concentrates on both onshore and offshore activities, but this paper discusses only the onshore segment.

In the past 40 years the industry has made substantial efforts to prevent oil spills. As a result, Canada has experienced no catastrophic oil spills in operating about 40,000 producing wells and 37,000 km of oil pipelines. In spite of these efforts, the industry believes there is room for improvement. The study recommends allocating more resources to improving equipment, training on-site personnel, establishing better communications within companies and between companies and regulatory agencies, and continuing research in oil spill countermeasures. These recommendations are being incorporated in the existing framework to improve the response capability of the upstream oil industry.
Beach Cleaning Trials: Newhaven 1989
Authors: Webb Maurice , Turner Anthony C.
Published: January 2013

The aims of the work described here were to develop the most cost effective ways for mechanical removal of stranded oil from shingle beaches and to establish a basic set of procedures for responding to any future emergency. Previously, such a coherent response had been limited to firm sand.

The experimental work was carried out at Tide Mills Beach, New-haven, England during February 1989. It comprised 28 experiments which involved flexible trackway, vehicle mobility testing, removal of oil emulsion by both scooping and scraping, beach material washing, demulsification, and aerial surveillance.

Selective scooping with a large excavator bucket was the quickest and most economical removal method, achieving in excess of 0.25 cubic meters per minute. The beach material washing plant achieved efficiencies up to 99.9 percent and rates in excess of 30 metric tons per hour. A standard cleaning cycle has been specified which allows cleaned shingle to be returned to the beach.
Oil Tracking, Containment, and Recovery During the Exxon Valdez Response1
Authors: Noerager Jere A. , Goodman Ron H.
Published: January 2013

The initial response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill, in Prince William Sound, Alaska, March 24, 1989, was to locate, contain, and recover free oil on the open water before it reached the shoreline. Mobilizing the necessary equipment and materials was a major challenge. Oil was tracked primarily by airborne observers supplemented by remote-sensing devices; the immediate generation of maps showing the oil's location was a critical component in the initial response. Free oil was contained mainly by the placement of booms of various designs and manufactures in crucial locations. Ultimately, more than 100 miles of containment boom were used for this purpose. After containment, oil was removed by skimmers and other devices from the water's surface. Additional equipment was needed to transfer the recovered oil from the skimmers to temporary storage, where it was held pending final disposal. This paper presents the details of the tracking, containment, and recovery operations, with comments on how well various types of equipment performed.
Rehabilitation of Oiled Seabirds and Bald Eagles Following the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
Authors: Wood Millicent A. , Heaphy Nicolette
Published: January 2013

The International Bird Rescue Research Center coordinated a six-month-long oiled bird rehabilitation program that spanned three seasons. Over 1,600 migrating, breeding, nesting, and fledgling oiled birds, representing 71 species, were presented for care to four rehabilitation centers. Many of these species, including puffins, cormorants, shearwaters, murrelets, petrels, and bald eagles, have rarely, if ever, been treated in large numbers in an oil spill rehabilitation effort.

Bald eagles, oiled and secondarily poisoned by the ingestion of oil-laden food sources, were of major concern. Their successful rehabilitation required special handling, caging, cleaning, and release criteria.

Extensive clinical and pathological evaluations of the effects of oil contamination were ongoing. The findings spirited the development of new techniques and equipment that enhanced survival rate. These new developments and knowledge will greatly benefit affected animals in future oil spill rescue and rehabilitation endeavors.