bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Rebirth of a Nation
Authors: Dunaway Finis
Published: May 2022

In June 1988, Gwich’in from communities across northeastern Alaska, the Yukon, and the Northwest Territories gathered in Arctic Village, Alaska. The gathering was an urgent response to the Ronald Reagan administration plan to drill in the Arctic Refuge. This chapter explains why the event marked a crucial moment in the history of Gwich’in political advocacy, sparking what many described as “the rebirth of a nation” and leading to the formation of the Gwich’in Steering Committee. For the Gwich’in, the gathering represented a collective effort to prevent cultural genocide. The chapter includes stories and voices of Sarah James, Norma Kassi, and Jonathon Solomon. It also explains how they sought to build a coalition of conscience composed of diverse groups. At the gathering, Gwich’in leaders announced their support for wilderness protection of the Arctic Refuge coastal plain—though their ideas of wilderness, and their reasons for wanting to protect this land, differed from the ideas and vision of the mainstream conservation movement.
The Arctic Refuge in a Broader Frame
Authors: Dunaway Finis
Published: May 2022

This chapter explains how the Last Great Wilderness slide show transcends the narrow vision of the wilderness ideal to place the Arctic Refuge in a broader frame. The show reimagines the meanings of conservation by connecting wilderness preservation to climate change, Gwich’in culture, and fossil fuel dependency. Not every refuge advocate, though, agreed with this approach. Indeed, Edgar Wayburn of the Sierra Club critiqued the show for veering too far from conventional wilderness motifs and giving too much attention to Indigenous rights and US energy policy. The chapter considers how the Last Great Wilderness show fashions an alternative vision of environmentalism: one that combines wilderness preservation with social justice, that merges human rights with the more-than-human world, and that sees the Arctic Refuge as a portal to broader questions of sustainability and survival.
Native Corporations and Arctic Drilling
Authors: Dunaway Finis
Published: May 2022

This chapter considers the impact of Native-owned corporations on the Arctic Refuge debate. It traces the history of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA)—a controversial federal law passed in 1971 that established Native corporations as the instruments for land claims rather than tribal governments. The settlement was explicitly tied to an assimilationist agenda, imposing a corporate model on Indigenous communities. The chapter explains how the Arctic Slope Regional Corporation and the Kaktovic Iñupiat Corporation (both created following ANCSA) have shaped the Arctic Refuge debate and contributed to a simple media framing of the fight as a story of Gwich’in versus Iñupiat. The chapter complicates and challenges this narrative by including voices of Iñupiat, such as Robert Thompson, opposed to drilling and of other Indigenous critics of ANCSA, such as Faith Gemmill. It explains how leaders of Native corporations often present themselves as the voices and representatives of their communities. In addition, the chapter discusses Thomas Berger’s study of the effects of ANCSA, based on testimony from more than sixty villages across Alaska.
A Victory for the Grassroots
Authors: Dunaway Finis
Published: May 2022

This chapter narrates the battle over the Arctic Refuge in 1991, the same moment where Chapter 1 began, as refuge defenders struggled to defeat the Johnston-Wallop bill. It weaves together the debate on Capitol Hill with glimpses of Last Great Wilderness slide show tours that were organized and sponsored by the Alaska Coalition, the Northern Alaska Environmental Center, and the Sierra Club. The chapter emphasizes the impact of grassroots activism on the 1991 Senate vote and also discusses the significance of Gwich’in advocacy on Capitol Hill, including a story of Glenna Frost changing one politician’s mind (Representative Wayne Gilchrest) on the issue. By interweaving stories from both Capitol Hill and local communities, the chapter emphasizes how refuge defenders applied the trick-up theory of politics.
Gwich’in Recruits, Gwich’in Lives
Authors: Dunaway Finis
Published: May 2022

Based largely on interviews with several Gwich’in spokespeople, this chapter considers what the Last Great Wilderness tour experience meant to them. It explains how Lenny Kohm worked closely with First Nations and tribal governments, the Gwich’in Steering Committee, and the Porcupine Caribou Management Board to recruit Gwich’in representatives to join him on tours. The chapter also notes how slide show tours changed Gwich’in lives, as many Last Great Wilderness veterans moved into leadership positions in their communities and are still actively involved in the Arctic Refuge struggle. Some of the Gwich’in leaders profiled in this chapter include Joe Tetlichi, Lorraine Netro, Kenny Smith, Bobbie Jo Greenland, and Faith Gemmill. Gwich’in spokespeople emphasized how Arctic drilling posed an existential threat to their culture and also how the issue had transnational significance, affecting communities on both sides of the US-Canada border.
Turning Spectators into Activists
Authors: Dunaway Finis
Published: May 2022

This chapter explains how Last Great Wilderness presentations inspired audience members to become Arctic Refuge activists. It emphasizes how Lenny Kohm, Gwich’in spokespeople, and others used storytelling to build a social movement. The chapter is framed around Marshall Ganz’s concept of “public narrative,” including its three key components: the story of self, the story of us, and the story of now. The chapter is based on interviews with a few individuals who became involved in the Arctic Refuge struggle after seeing the show: Jeffrey Barrie, Sara Callaghan, David Clemmons, Alex Tapia, and Heather Zichal. It features stories of their activism and also briefly discusses Barrie’s documentary film Arctic Quest: Our Search for Truth.
Flat, White Nothingness?
Authors: Dunaway Finis
Published: May 2022

This chapter considers Subhankar Banerjee’s unlikely path to Arctic activism. An Indian-born photographer, Banerjee spent much of 2001 and 2002 in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, taking photographs during all four seasons. In 2003, an exhibition of his photographs at the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History sparked an unexpected controversy, leading to charges of government censorship. The chapter weaves together Banerjee’s life story with discussions of his approach to photography—including his efforts to render nature in mono- or bi-chromatic color schemes—and of the relationships he built with Gwich’in and Iñupiat communities. Like Lenny Kohm, Banerjee learned that the Arctic Refuge fight was a struggle for Indigenous rights and cultural survival. More than any previous artist and activist, Banerjee—through his photographs of caribou and migratory birds—helped viewers appreciate the transnational significance of the Arctic Refuge, both with and beyond North America. In addition, the chapter explains how Banerjee’s show was revived by the California Academy of Sciences and then toured the United States for two years and how he moved into grassroots activism, including slide show tours with Gwich’in and Iñupiat leaders.
Building a Bigger Choir
Authors: Dunaway Finis
Published: May 2022

This chapter begins with “Building a Bigger Choir,” a talk that Lenny Kohm often gave at Alaska Wilderness Week meetings in Washington, DC. In the talk, Kohm distilled the lessons he learned about activism from years of slide show tours. The chapter also briefly considers his activism in the fight against mountaintop removal coal mining. During the final years of his life, Kohm worked for Appalachian Voices, an environmental group based in Boone, North Carolina, and helped the organization develop a strategy modelled on the Arctic Refuge campaign. In addition, the chapter considers the radicalization of the Republican Party, including the widespread embrace of climate change denialism.
The Slide Show in Old Crow
Authors: Dunaway Finis
Published: May 2022

In 2017, thirty years after Lenny Kohm first visited the Arctic, Lorraine Netro organized a caribou dinner and screening of The Last Great Wilderness slide show in the community hall in Old Crow, Yukon. This chapter describes how Vuntut Gwitchin responded to the show. Their questions afterwards addressed issues ranging from climate change to alliance-building with environmentalists and the role of Vuntut Gwitchin in the Arctic Refuge struggle. They also asked what happened to Kohm’s other photographs (not just those in the slide show) taken in and around Old Crow. Delving into the questions they posed, the chapter highlights how particular photographs—including Kohm’s at Norma Kassi’s family hunting camp along Zelma Lake and Subhankar Banerjee’s of polar bear denning sites along Beaufort Sea—can be seen as historic records of Arctic lands before they were so dramatically impacted by catastrophic climate change. Finally, the chapter explains how the author eventually found Kohm’s other Arctic slides and had them digitized and returned to the Vuntut Gwitchin First Nation.
History and the Ongoing Struggle
Authors: Dunaway Finis
Published: May 2022

The epilogue reflects on the larger implications of Lenny Kohm’s story in relation to environmental-Indigenous alliances, the history of grassroots activism, and the rise of neoliberalism. It also considers the policies of various presidential administrations, including that of Bill Clinton and Barack Obama, who supported Arctic Refuge protection while also expanding fossil fuel development in other areas. The epilogue traces Iñupiat opposition to Shell Oil’s plans to drill in the Arctic Ocean (including the leadership and advocacy of Rosemary Ahtuangaruak) and discusses the solidarity between Gwich’in and Iñupiat on multiple campaigns against Arctic fossil fuel development. Finally, the epilogue traces the Arctic Refuge debate during the presidency of Donald Trump, especially the passage of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, which included a drilling provision. The epilogue emphasizes the continuing opposition of the Gwich’in Steering Committee and their allies to Arctic drilling and their ongoing effort to maintain their relations of responsibility with caribou and the land.
I Am Moving at Once against Lee
Authors: Brown Kent Masterson
Published: May 2022

After locating elements of Lee’s army along a fifty mile stretch of the Chambersburg to York Turnpike- the turnpike axis- Meade, on June 29, moves all of his seven Corps more than thirty miles north, from Frederick toward positions generally along Big Pipe Creek so as to be near what Meade believes are enemy concentrations, and also to protect the approaches to Baltimore and Washington as his orders so dictated. His troops occupy several towns near or along Big Pipe Creek, including Emmitsburg, Middleburg, Uniontown, Union Bridge, and New Windsor, all in Maryland.
Force Him to Show His Hand
Authors: Brown Kent Masterson
Published: May 2022

Meade’s June 30 orders directed General George Sykes’s Fifth Corps to move to Hanover, Pennsylvania; General Henry W. Slocum’s Twelfth Corps to move to Two Taverns, Pennsylvania; General John Sedgwick’s Sixth Corps to Manchester, Maryland, all as Reynolds and the First Corps move to Gettysburg, supported by General Howard’s Eleventh Corps. Those movements were designed to force the enemy to collect in front of those advanced forces in order for their commanders to report the enemy movements to Meade and to fall back to Emmitsburg and the Pipe Creek line if vigorously attacked. Those orders were straight out of the teachings and writings of West Point professor Dennis Hart Mahan as well the written works of Carl von Clausewitz and Antoine Henri de Jomini.
One Corps at Emmitsburg, Two at Gettysburg
Authors: Brown Kent Masterson
Published: May 2022

While Meade is examining the Pipe Creek line on the morning of July 1, General Reynolds leads the First Division of the First Corps from Marsh Creek to Gettysburg, leaving the remaining two divisions of that corps more than an hour behind. Hearing gunfire from General John Buford’s two cavalry brigades then combating columns of Confederate infantry west of Gettysburg, Reynolds, just south of the town, calls up General Daniel E. Sickles’s Third Corps from Emmitsburg. Reynolds then goes to Buford’s support and engages the enemy with only one division, but is killed in the action. Even though General Abner Doubleday arrives on hour later with the remaining two divisions of the First Corps and assumes command, it is too late; General Howard’s Eleventh Corps, that subsequently arrived and deployed to the right of the First Corps, is exposed to overwhelming Confederate forces arriving from the west and north.
Without Tents and Only a Short Supply of Food
Authors: Brown Kent Masterson
Published: May 2022

As all of Meade’s army corps marched to Gettysburg on the afternoon and evening of July 1, the extensive supply wagon trains of each of the seven corps were ordered not to follow the troops, but to go to Westminster and Union Bridge, in compliance with standing orders in the army. The Army of the Potomac was suffering from severe supply deficiencies; over half of the men were without shoes, none had been fed, and the horses and mules lacked shoes and forage. No tents were brought to the front. All those necessities, including the cattle herds, were with the wagon trains sent to Westminster and Union Bridge. Meade arrived at Gettysburg by way of the Taneytown Road in the wee hours of July 2. After examining the defense lines, Meade was not convinced that they could be held, but all his army corps were marching to Gettysburg. He was also concerned that the Baltimore Pike, the only route from Gettysburg to Westminster and Union Bridge, was too close to enemy concentrations below Culp’s Hill and Cemetery Hill.
I Wish to God You Could, Sir
Authors: Brown Kent Masterson
Published: May 2022

At the Leister house, Meade’s headquarters on the morning of July 2, Meade ordered his son, Captain George Meade, to determine if Sickles’s Third Corps had taken up the position assigned to it. Sickles appeared at the Leister House, and Meade gave him explicit instructions; the Third Corps’ left flank must occupy the north slope of Little Round Top and its right flank join the left flank of Hancock’s Second Corps along Cemetery Ridge. Sickles argued for his corps to move to the Emmitsburg Road; Meade sent General Henry Hunt to examine Sickles’s desired positions, but Hunt told Sickles he could not recommend them. Meade called a council of all his corps commanders at the Leister house, and there he was informed that Sickles was moving his Third Corps forward to the Emmitsburg Road. Meade rode to Sickles and told him his position was untenable, and he must return his corps to the position it had been previously ordered to occupy. Just then, Confederate artillery opened fire, and Meade ordered Sickles to keep his corps where it was, and he would bring up reinforcements.
Yes, but It Is All Right Now
Authors: Brown Kent Masterson
Published: May 2022

As the attacks against Sickles’s lines intensified, two brigades of Confederate troops were defeated attempting to seize Little Round Top. Meade ordered a division of Hancock’s Second Corps into the Wheatfield; he then ordered the divisions of United States Regulars, followed by the Pennsylvania Reserves, all from the Fifth Corps, into the Plum Run Valley to stop the Confederate attacks. Positioned north of the Wheatfield along Cemetery Ridge, Meade brought elements of the Twelfth Corps from the vulnerable right flank to enter the fighting north of the Wheatfield Road and to occupy positions along Cemetery Ridge. As darkness fell, Meade personally led elements of the First and Eleventh Corps, that had held positions on Cemetery Hill, to the center of the army along Cemetery Ridge where they stopped the last attack. By dark, all the Confederate attacks against the left and center of the army had been defeated.
Our Task Is Not Yet Accomplished
Authors: Brown Kent Masterson
Published: May 2022

Lee withdrew elements of his army from the bases of Cemetery Hill and Culp’s Hill and took up a strong defensive position from Oak Hill on the north all the way down Oak and Seminary Ridges to a refused position along the Emmitsburg Road across from the Round Tops. What occupied Meade’s attention was getting subsistence stores for the troops and forage for the horses and mules brought to Gettysburg from Westminster and Union Bridge Even though the Confederate threat to the Baltimore Pike had been erased, the pike was too narrow to accommodate the supply trains heading toward Gettysburg and all the empty wagons, along with prisoners of war on foot, and wagons and ambulances carrying wounded, all heading to Westminster. At a council of Meade’s corps commanders, all believed the army should remain at Gettysburg until receipt of positive information that the enemy was heading to the Cumberland Valley and to the Potomac River, and upon receipt of such information, to follow the enemy along a parallel course east of the mountains, a means of pursuit Meade had already decided to follow.
Vinegar-Faced Sisters and Male Monsters
Authors: French Kara M.
Published: May 2022

This chapter examines how sexual restraint challenged and transformed traditional gender roles. Anti-Shaker writings, “escaped nun novels,” and other forms of print culture reveal how dominant notions of masculinity and femininity took on new meanings when they were no longer tied to marriage. Celibate masculinity was in some ways more threatening to the status quo than celibate femininity, if for no other reason that sexual restraint dovetailed neatly with normative ideas about women’s “passionless” nature. Though sexual restraint and celibacy conjured up visions of masculinized women and effeminate men, in practice gender roles within Shaker, Catholic, and Grahamite communities conformed to antebellum social and cultural expectations as much as they transgressed them. Though these groups granted greater influence for women in the realms of spirituality and education, they also upheld antebellum notions of separate spheres and the gendered division of labor.
Identities of Sexual Restraint
Authors: French Kara M.
Published: May 2022

The predisposition to categorize those who practiced sexual restraint as somehow “other” further contributed to the development of sexual restraint as a distinct sexuality in the antebellum era. Chapter 2, “Identities of Sexual Restraint,” examines what it meant to practice sexual restraint as part of one’s daily lived experience. The spiritual testimonies and memoirs of these historical subjects challenge the popularly held notion that there were no sexual “identities” prior to the late nineteenth century. Individuals practicing sexual abstinence or limitation saw themselves as distinctly different from those who did not. Grahamites especially held an awareness that sexuality was not something “natural” but what we today would call “socially-constructed.”
Conclusion
Authors: French Kara M.
Published: May 2022

This chapter opens by illustrating Shakers and Catholic sisters’ contribution to the Union cause during the American Civil War. The self-conscious branding and in the Shaker case, commercialization, around certain goods and services allowed those who were against sex to occupy a place that was both inside and outside the nation by mid-century. The book concludes by summarizing the unique challenges posed by those who were against sex in early America. It further argues for their continued relevance to present-day conversations around celibacy in the Catholic priesthood and the emergence of asexuality as a sexual identity.
Newspapers on the Eve of the Revolutionary War
Authors: Parkinson Robert G.
Published: May 2022

This chapter explores the nature, structure, and business of colonial newspapers in the 1770s. It explores how the concept of a “free press” was changing with the radicalization of American politics in the 1770s. Patriot political leaders, such as John Adams and Sam Adams, realized the power of print and were highly involved in shaping what news appeared in sympathetic newspapers. This chapter also shows how printers constructed their weekly newspapers, especially how they gathered news items, how they built the paper, and how it was disseminated throughout the countryside. It focuses specific attention on the Pennsylvania Journal, a patriot newspaper in Philadelphia, whose subscription books have survived.
The “Shot Heard round the World” Revisited
Authors: Parkinson Robert G.
Published: May 2022

This chapter is about the immediate reaction to the news of bloodshed at Lexington and Concord. As word swept south and west from Massachusetts, colonists interpreted this news in terms of what war might mean for African Americans and Indians in their particular communities. In Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina, worries about slave insurrections brought some towns to the brink of violence. Meanwhile, in upper New York, concern about Indians acting in league with the King also surfaced immediately, producing another crisis. Before the end of May, the notion that war with Britain might mean conflict with slaves and Indians too was already shaping patriot political leaders. Patriot political and communication leaders focused their attention on these issues in New York and the Deep South rather than on Boston.
“Britain has Found Means to Unite Us”
Authors: Parkinson Robert G.
Published: May 2022

This chapter concerns the first months of the Revolutionary War, through the end of 1775. Starting in the summer, stories of British officials – royal governors, naval captains, Indian agents – scheming with Indians and enslaved people to aid the Crown in quelling the rebellion began to spread all over North America. Governors in Virginia and the Carolinas were rumored to or actually armed slaves. This shaped the Revolutionary experience for many people across the South. Rumors of British agents on the northern frontier negotiating for Indian support also began in the summer and fall of 1775. Newspaper printers reported these stories with increasing coverage over the year. The Continental Congress made use of these reports, declaring that British plotting with Indians and slaves were signal reasons why colonists must take up arms in their first official proclamations. This is about stories the patriots sponsored, but it is also about ones they did not tell.
Merciless Savages, Domestic Insurrectionists, and Foreign Mercenaries
Authors: Parkinson Robert G.
Published: May 2022

Instead of viewing the path to independence as just about Paine’s Common Sense and Jefferson’s Declaration, this chapter shows how important stories about loyalist unrest in North Carolina and the threats of British hiring thousands of German mercenary soldiers were in the first half of 1776. Patriot political and communication leaders propagated stories of British hiring proxies – Indians, slaves, Hessians – to bind the American colonies. These stories merged with and deepened Paine’s arguments about independence and republican government to forward the movement for the colonies to become separate states. In fact, the confirmation of rumors that the Crown had hired 10,000 German mercenaries was the final straw that produced debates and votes for independence in colonial assemblies. The list of 27 grievances in the Declaration against the King climaxes with these accusations of hiring proxies: “merciless savages,” “domestic insurrectionists,” “foreign mercenaries.” The concepts of who is not part of the “we” of “we hold these truths to be self-evident,” and therefore Americans, started with the founding itself.
First Responses
Authors: Bodnar John
Published: May 2022

Americans responded to the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001with a mixed set of emotions that included anger, fear, horror, and confusion. This chapter documents the emotional turmoil of the times and responses that included not only calls for war but demands that the nation avoid such a drastic reaction. President George W. Bush sought to bring order to the turmoil of the time by invoking patriotic calls for a War on Terror. Bush’s patriotism was war-based, grounded in myths of American heroism and virtue. Those who challenged him with a more empathic sense of loyalty expressed misgivings over the violence to come but fought a losing battle.
Unmasking Suffering and Iraq
Authors: Bodnar John
Published: May 2022

This chapter documents multiple attempts by Americans to undermine the rationale of George W. Bush to launch a pre-emptive war in Iraq. Bush argued that Saddam Hussain had weapons of mass destruction that needed to be destroyed and that the Cold War policy of containment was no longer a valid basis for conducting foreign policy. Millions of Americans, invested in an empathic patriotism, disagreed with him and used the evidence of human suffering in Iraq to counter Bush’s measures. Groups like 9/11Families for Peaceful Tomorrows sent delegations to Iraq to highlight the harm U.S. military action brought to civilians. Congressional leaders like Robert Byrd and John Murtha came out strongly against the war. Cindy Sheehan and other gold-star mothers mounted protests over the invasion and publicly mourned their own losses to make anti-war statements.
Visualizing the War
Authors: Bodnar John
Published: May 2022

Artists, photographers, and ordinary citizens also critiqued the War on Terror with images rather than words. Photos from Abu Ghraib prison reflected poorly on the American war effort by illustrating the brutal treatment of Iraqi prisoners. Skilled photographers circulated pictures of American soldiers that showed their vulnerability and the suffering of their loved ones to counter pro war declarations with evidence of bitter realities. In several locations such as Lafayette, California citizens erected crosses to mark the deaths of American soldiers, provoking substantial criticism from war-based patriots less willing to weigh the costs of battle. In Boston people created memorials from the dog tags of the dead.
Camera Angles
Authors: Bodnar John
Published: May 2022

American filmmakers, both producers of feature films and documentaries, entered the cultural debate over the War on Terror with their creations. Adherents to a war-based sense of loyalty tended to highlight the heroic actions of American fighters like Navy SEALS and not question the basic need for the war itself. American valor is evident in movies like United 93 and Zero Dark Thirty. A more critical perspective was evident in most movies, however, and in documentaries. In these cinematic presentations there was a willingness to register the trauma of warfare and an insistence that the pain and suffering military violence brought to warriors and families should not be masked in any way. This was clear in productions such as In the Valley of Elah and Fahrenheit 9/11.
Introduction
Authors: Robins Jonathan E.
Published: May 2022

This chapter presents an overview of the oil palm’s changing roles in global history. Beginning with the oil palm’s long history in Africa, the chapter shows how the transatlantic slave trade brought palm oil into world markets, supplying the Industrial Revolution in Europe with oil for manufacturing soap, candles, grease, and other products. The chapter then sketches the impact of colonialism on Africa’s oil palm producers and the emergence of new plantation industries in Southeast Asia. After 1945, oil palm became a key crop for development organizations like the World Bank, leading to a massive expansion in oil palm cultivation. Palm oil found many new markets in the late twentieth century thanks to economic globalization and new scientific developments.
Early Encounters and Exchanges
Authors: Robins Jonathan E.
Published: May 2022

This chapter examines the movement of palm oil and oil palms outside of Africa beginning in the fifteenth century. European botanists struggled to describe and classify oil palms, leading to misleading accounts. Palm wine and palm oil both played important roles in the transatlantic slave trade, and oil palms crossed the Atlantic alongside African captives, taking root in plantation colonies like Barbados. Yet only in Brazil did oil palms thrive, reflecting both African adaptations to America and the survival of African traditions. The chapter concludes by showing how palm oil became a popular medicine in Europe, drawing on observations of medicinal practices in Africa and on American plantations.
From “Legitimate Commerce” to the “Scramble for Africa”
Authors: Robins Jonathan E.
Published: May 2022

Britain’s decision to end its role in the transatlantic slave trade brought major changes to Africa’s palm oil industry. Supporters of abolition argued that “legitimate trade” in palm oil and other commodities would bring benefits to Africans and Europeans. While many merchants did shift to palm oil, the slave trade persisted alongside palm oil for much of the nineteenth century. The chapter shows that slavery expanded in some palm oil-producing regions, and that the growing export trade in palm oil reshaped social and gender relations in many societies. New markets for palm kernels created further opportunities for trade, especially for women. British imperialism in the region expanded due to efforts to control the palm oil trade, leading to the near-complete colonization of the region by 1900.
Machines in the Palm Groves
Authors: Robins Jonathan E.
Published: May 2022

European colonialism sought to transform Africa’s oil palm industry, initially through mechanization. Europeans like Sir William Lever believed machines would lead to huge increases in palm oil production, but mechanization often ran into labor problems rooted in gender roles and the nature of oil palm trees. Tall trees required large amounts of male harvest labor, and the most successful European industries like those in Congo relied on violence and coercion to secure the labor needed to feed palm oil machines. The colonial experience led to a new appreciation of how Africans used the ecology of the oil palm, but it also inspired colonial projects to completely remake that ecology through plantations.
The Oil Machine in Southeast Asia
Authors: Robins Jonathan E.
Published: May 2022

This chapter shows a new plantation oil palm industry emerged in Southeast Asia after 1900, turning the region into the world’s largest exporter of palm oil by 1940. While the “Deli palm,” a variety introduced to the region in 1848, proved to be a high-yielding type suitable for plantation agriculture, the success of plantations relied on access to indentured labor and vast tracts of tropical forest land. Colonial governments in the Netherlands East Indies and British Malaya helped private firms acquire land and labor, seeing oil palm as a way to diversify away from rubber. The result was a highly productive industry, but one that relied on cheap labor and imported nutrients in the form of fertilizers.
Industrial Frontiers
Authors: Robins Jonathan E.
Published: May 2022

Palm oil became a vital part of the global food supply after 1945, expanding out of the margarine industry to capture new markets like vanaspati ghee in South Asia, and the baking and frying fats used in industrial kitchens around the world. The physical properties of palm oil were ideal for many industrial foods, and when concerns about trans fats forced manufacturers to drop rival products, palm oil gained an even bigger share of food markets. Chemical firms also created new markets for palm oil and derivative products in the fast-growing oleochemical sector, beginning with soap and detergents and moving into products as varied as ink and biodiesel. By the 1990s, however, concerns about the sustainability of palm oil motivated a new wave of consumer activism, including boycott campaigns.
First View of Indian Settlements
Authors: Rountree Helen C. , Taukchiray Wesley D.
Published: May 2022

Ever considered being a time-traveler who visits an Indian village? This chapter lets the reader do it in the Carolina Sounds region of more than four centuries ago, using only observation because of a sky-high language barrier. First we discuss how to find a village, since the Native people (especially the women) had definite preferences for certain locations. From there we examine various town layouts (i.e., settlement patterns), whether or not they included palisades, and sanitation issues. The last-named includes annual movements in and out of towns to go foraging, which allowed town sites to “air out.” Those movements, in turn, resulted in few recorded epidemics after Europeans arrived. A really bad epidemic requires townsmen to live in large, year-round, crowded settlements, and Indian towns around the Sounds were not like that. The narrative continues with descriptions of structures in the towns (houses, work arbors, etc.), fish traps and the canoes needed to access them, farming operations whose fields were often interspersed with dwellings, and lastly, concepts of land ownership.
Dealing with New Foreigners
Authors: Rountree Helen C. , Taukchiray Wesley D.
Published: May 2022

There had been a few contacts with Europeans before 1584, most of them being due to wrecked ships. But beginning in 1584, the English began – for a time – trying to settle in the region, first through a reconnaissance effort (1584) and then by making a longer-lasting foothold (1585, 1586-87), which ultimately failed. This chapter tries to reconstruct how it all looked in Native eyes, now that we know more about Indian practices in diplomacy and warfare. We see that there was variation in attitudes toward the newcomers within the towns and even between the two young interpreters, Manteo and Wanchese, and these attitudes could and did change over time. That was because Indian society was neither monolithic nor simple-minded.
Dancing Public
Authors: Schwall Elizabeth B.
Published: May 2022

This chapter examines the effort to create a “dancing public,” which involved teaching Cubans to dance and to watch dance in the 1960s and 1970s. An important vector for this mass education campaign was the so-called aficionados (“amateurs”) movement. Aficionados trained in and performed especially folkloric dance but also modern dance. Meanwhile, ballet remained the purview of individuals with (white) bodies ostensibly predisposed and specially formed from an early age. As a result, the ballet establishment focused on making Cubans into a knowledgeable public. However, these initiatives reinforced the divide between dance experts and learners. By the 1970s, all professional dancers tried with mixed success to cultivate an image of equality mandated by the 1971 First National Congress of Education and Culture. Although previously overlooked, teaching Cubans to dance and to watch dance figured importantly into educational and cultural initiatives that became hallmarks of the Cuban Revolution. Moreover, concert dance histories reveal the ambivalent outcomes of democratizing projects, which had the patronizing aims of enlightening and disciplining the masses. Creating a dancing public involved fraught ideals, dubious methods, and mixed outcomes as dance leaders partnered with the state to popularize art while reasserting hierarchies.
Opening Dance
Authors: Schwall Elizabeth B.
Published: May 2022

This chapter examines dance developments in the late 1970s and 1980s, when revolutionary dance institutions began to show their age and the first generation born after 1959 came of age. Dance makers used their degrees of power and ephemeral political moves to push for more open structures. Their political choreographies made the years leading up to 1990 a period of radical experimentation and bold reckoning with revolutionary steps and missteps. This analysis shows that dancers did not suddenly push boundaries due to external geopolitics like the fall of the Soviet Union in the 1990s, but built a transgressive art praxis to respond to institutional inertias and individual needs in the late 1970s and 1980s.
Introduction
Authors: Vuic Jason
Published: May 2022

In 1970, the talented St. Petersburg Times news editor Elizabeth Whitney ran a series of articles on Florida’s multi-billion-dollar so-called “installment land sales” industry, titled the “Swamp Peddlers,” in which Whitney described how large, usually Miami-based corporations would subdivide large tracts of forest, cattle, and/or swamp land in the hinterlands of southern and central Florida to subdivide and sell as homesites to Northern retirees for as little as $10 down and $10 a month. The industry had virtually no governmental oversight, Whitney learned, and buyers had no recourse when property they had purchased, often sight-unseen, turned out to be in barren wastelands or seasonally-flooded swamps.
The Land Giants
Authors: Vuic Jason
Published: May 2022

Unveiled in 1957, the Mackles Brothers’ $10 down, $10 a month sales campaign brought millions in revenue, and led to the creation of the publically-traded General Development Corporation (GDC) and other so-called “Land Giants,” huge corporations based in Miami that began converting huge stretches of Florida scrub brush and swampland in planned communities like Port Charlotte. In 1962, the Mackles left GDC to found the Deltona Corporation, which developed a 17,000-acre stretch of cattle land between Deland and Daytona Beach north of Orlando into the city of Deltona, and began projects at Marco Island and Spring Hill. GDC had Port Charlotte and eight other communities going; Del Webb had Sun City Center near Tampa; Jack and Leonard Rosen had Gulf American developments at Cape Coral and Golden Gate; while “d-CON” rat poison magnate Lee Ratner developed Lehigh Acres east of Fort Myers. In time, other Land Giants included the Arvida Corporation, the AMREP Corporation, Cavanagh Communities, and ITT, who by the mid-1960s had staked out over one million uninhabited lots, which they peddled through an army of trained and manipulative salesmen who enticed buyers with easy-to-pay installment contracts.
The Last Paradise
Authors: Vuic Jason
Published: May 2022

In the 1960s, the Deltona Corporation began planning for a community on Marco Island, a pristine barrier island on the Gulf. Over 5 phases over 15 years, it planned to dredge and fill some 6,700 acres of Marco to build some 10,000 homes. That required dredge and fill permits from the Army Corps of Engineers, which in 1964 approved phase one of the project in a review that took nine days. However, by the late-1960s, regulations regarding the use of wetlands had been strengthened and observers wondered if the remaining project would go through. Thus, in 1969, the Corps approved a second permit, though warned that further permits would be harder to obtain. Undaunted, the Mackles continued to sell lots, and by 1970 had sold nearly 95 percent of the homesites they had planned. They struck a deal with the state in 1971 for the three other permits: the Mackles could dredge and fill, but would deed 4,000 acres of land and several beaches to the state in perpetuity. That seemed to settle it, but after a series of lawsuits by environmental organizations, the Corps denied the remaining permits in 1975 and the Mackles, facing bankruptcy, never worked together again.
The First-Mortgage Frauds
Authors: Vuic Jason
Published: May 2022

By the mid-1970s, a lack of developable land, stricter environmental regulations, a world recession, and two years of double-digit inflation had made the instalment land sales industry obsolete. Land Giants like Deltona, GDC, ITT, Arvida, Dell Webb, and the Gulf American successor company GAC either went bankrupt or diversified, while a second wave of highly-sophisticated swamp peddlers and land scammers entered the scene. One group didn’t even sell land, but promised elderly investors, who’d been squeezed by inflation, a whopping 12 percent return on so-called “first-mortgage bonds,” backed by installment land sales contracts in fledgling developments in Martin, Volusia, and Citrus Counties. The problem, however, was that the companies issuing the bonds didn’t own the land—they’d mortgaged it—so the 12 percent bonds they’d been selling people were moot. In fact, the entire racket was a carefully designed pyramid scheme, planned and perpetrated by a complex web of loosely-affiliated land companies and brokerages with offshore accounts and mob connections in Arizona and Florida that Fort Myers News-Press journalist Richard Dennis would claim had perpetrated one of the largest land frauds in American history.
Generally Defective Communities
Authors: Vuic Jason
Published: May 2022

Unfortunately for Florida, the effects of the installment land sales boom and subsequent property development first initiated by the Mackles are still being felt today. For better or worse, over a million people live in planned communities built by Deltona and other Land Giants, while thousands of smaller subdivisions, developed using the same principles, house millions more. On the positive side, land sold on the installment plan allowed legions of retired Northerners on moderate incomes to “live the Florida dream.” Indeed, as Florida historian Gary Mormino put it: “We’ll look back at [those years]…as kind of a golden period. The retired postman from Chicago could retire here on the water.” On the flip side, however, Florida’s mid-century land boom has left the Sunshine State with a lasting legacy of poor community planning, overbuilding, over-platting, and rampant environmental degradation which, in all likelihood, will never be fixed. Gulf American’s Cape Coral development is a case in point. Devoid of trees and groundcover and crisscrossed by more aquifer-killing canals than any other city in the world, it has no downtown and a tax base that relies almost entirely of residential properties, but encompasses a territory larger than Boston and San Francisco combined.
Socialist Yugoslavia’s Efforts to Democratize International and Intercultural Communication: A Reappraisal
Authors: Splichal Slavko
Published: May 2022

In this article, I present an annotated (re)reading of some of my research and writings on mass communication and the development of socialist democracy in Yugoslavia published during the last two decades of the existence of this multinational federation before its sudden and violent collapse. The article is conceived as a reappraisal of key ideas and results of some empirical research I designed and conducted in the 1970s and 1980s until Slovenia’s independence in 1991. They include many diverse topics, such as communication between republics in Yugoslavia, foreign radio propaganda and the performance of the Tanjug news agency, news gathering and editorial gate-keeping, and development of communication science as a scientific discipline in Yugoslavia.
Remembering Tanjug
Authors: Vobič Igor , Milić Kristina , Milojević Ana
Published: May 2022

Historically, the role of journalism in society is bound to the prevailing conceptualization of the freedom of the press, specific societal, institutional, and material conditions of news production. This study explores self-perceptions of journalists working in the period of socialist Yugoslavia and synthetizes their recollections of journalistic orientations and performances with respect to journalism’s place in society. The study is based on the oral history interviews with former journalists, who worked also as editors and foreign correspondents from late 1950s to 1990s at the news agency Tanjug, which was considered the information backbone of the federal media system in Yugoslavia and had considerable international relevance. By combining ‘journalistic roles’ studies as well as ‘occupational life history’ research this historical study makes twofold contribution. First, it identifies adaptive strategies of remembering used by the interviewed journalists to legitimize themselves as professionals and relevant interpreters of SFRY journalism. Second, it reveals more nuances within common, often simplified understandings of journalists as collaborators with power during socialism, and highlights roles of privileged disseminator, monitoring analyst, and educator as specific manifestations of collaborative function of journalism.
The unfinished evidence revolution: riding the five waves
Authors:   Campbell Collaboration, White Howard
Published: May 2022

This paper by Howard White, titled ‘The unfinished evidence revolution: riding the five waves’ examines the current state of each of the waves of the evidence revolution, reflecting on how the evidence revolution has developed through different waves, examining the current state of each wave, before discussing the implications for evaluation in the field of international development. This paper examines the current state of each of the waves of the evidence revolution. I offer a critical perspective on each wave, and discuss the implications for evaluation in the field of international development. Whilst the use of evidence has grown, underuse and misuse remain. More importantly, there has been a failure to institutionalize the use of evidence beyond the intervention level. The last part offers some concluding comments.
From soil to sea: Sources and transport of organic carbon traced by tetraether lipids and sediments in the monsoonal Godavari River, India
Authors: Kirkels Frédérique M. S. A. , Zwart Huub M. , Usman Muhammed O. , Hou Suning , Ponton Camilo , Giosan Liviu , Eglinton Timothy I. , Peterse Francien
Published: May 2022

Abstract. Monsoonal rivers play an important role in the land-to-sea transport of soil-derived organic carbon (OC). However, spatial and temporal variation in the concentration, composition, and fate of OC in these rivers remains poorly understood. We investigate soil-to-sea transport of OC by the Godavari River in India using branched glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether (brGDGT) lipids in soils, river suspended particulate matter (SPM), riverbed sediments, and in a marine sediment core from the Bay of Bengal. The abundance and composition of brGDGTs in SPM and sediments in the Godavari River differs between the dry and wet season. In the dry season, 6-methyl brGDGTs dominate SPM and riverbed sediments in the whole basin. Currently, mobilisation and transport of soils from the upper basin is limited due to deficient rainfall and damming. This promotes aquatic brGDGT production in this part of the basin, which is reflected by a high relative abundance of 6-methyl brGDGTs in both seasons. In the wet season, brGDGT distributions in SPM from the lower basin closely resemble those in soils, mostly from the North and East Tributaries, corresponding to precipitation patterns. The brGDGT composition in SPM and sediments from the delta suggests that soil OC is only effectively transported to the Bay of Bengal in the wet season, when the river plume extends beyond the river mouth. The sediment geochemistry indicates that also the mineral particles exported by the Godavari River primarily originate from the lower basin, similar to the brGDGTs. River depth profiles of brGDGTs in the downstream Godavari reveal no hydrodynamic sorting effect in either season, indicating that brGDGTs are not associated with certain minerals. The similarity of brGDGT distributions in bulk and fine-grained sediments (≤63 μm) further confirms the absence of selective transport mechanisms. Nevertheless, the composition of brGDGTs in a Holocene, marine sediment core near the river mouth appears substantially different from that in the modern Godavari basin, suggesting that terrestrial-derived brGDGTs are rapidly lost upon discharge into the Bay of Bengal and/or overprinted by marine in situ production. The change in brGDGT distributions at the river-sea transition implies that this zone is key in the effective transfer of soil OC, as well as for the interpretation of paleorecords based on brGDGTs in coastal marine sediment archives.