bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Locke and Descartes
Authors: Milton J. R.
Published: July 2018

This chapter is a biographical account of Locke’s first encounter with Descartes’s works. It looks at Locke’s manuscript commonplace books with the aim of determining in as much detail as is now possible what books by Descartes Locke read in the period before he started work on the drafts of the Essay, what he found of interest in them, and what conclusions might be drawn from this data about his philosophical development. It shows that there is evidence of a considerable and sustained interest in Descartes’s mechanical physics but hardly any visible interest in his metaphysics or epistemology—and considers the possible reasons for this state of affairs.
Essential Religiosity in Descartes and Locke
Authors: Wilson Catherine
Published: July 2018

This chapter offers an overview and comparison of Descartes’s and Locke’s stances toward religious and moral issues (their ‘essential religiosity’), such as their views on divine agency in the creation of the world and direction of human affairs; the relevance of divine retribution and reward to morality; their sense of supernatural power and artistry as revealed in things of the world. It contrasts the different kinds of epistemic and moral humility that these engender in each author. Descartes’s attitude of acceptance towards all that befalls us followed from his conception of the universe as a law-governed realm, manifesting God’s impersonal wisdom and power. Locke’s belief that God is merciful with respect to human weakness and our tendency to stumble and blunder follows from his sense of the complexity of nature and human affairs and the mediocrity of human reason.
Genes and Groups as Agents
Authors: Okasha Samir
Published: July 2018

In some applications of agential thinking in evolutionary biology, genes and groups, rather than individuals, are the entities that are treated as agents with goals. The genes-as-agents concept is applicable only in cases of intra-genomic conflict, where it helps to make sense of the phenotypic consequences of such conflict. The groups-as-agents concept is applicable only when groups are adapted units, and where within-group conflict is either absent or suppressed; for otherwise the unity-of-purpose constraint on agency will not be satisfied. The idea of group agency has also arisen in social science, where the discussion closely parallels the biological discussion. In both cases, the critical issue is how individuals’ interests can be aligned with that of their group. One such alignment mechanism is the veil-of-ignorance, which deprives individuals of the information needed to pursue their self-interest at the group’s expense.
Final Thoughts
Authors: Okasha Samir
Published: July 2018

This brings us to the end of the journey. The discussion has ranged quite widely, so it is worth stepping back to re-capitulate the main points and to extract some general morals.

Part I focused on a mode of thinking in evolutionary biology that we called ‘agential’. This involves using notions such as interests, goals, and strategies in evolutionary analysis. Agential thinking has a number of manifestations. One is the use of intentional idioms (‘wants, knows’), usually in an extended or metaphorical sense, to describe adaptive behaviour. Another is the analogical transfer of concepts from rational choice theory to evolutionary biology. There are two types of agential thinking, which need to be sharply distinguished. Type 1 treats an evolved entity, paradigmatically an individual organism, as akin to an agent with a goal towards which its phenotypic traits, including its behaviour, conduce. Type 2 treats ‘mother nature’, a personification of natural selection, as akin to a rational agent choosing between alternatives in accordance with a goal, such as maximal fitness. The former is a way of thinking about adaptation (the product), the latter about selection (the process)....
Introduction
Authors: Lord Errol
Published: July 2018

This chapter introduces and motivates the main thesis of the book. This is a view of rationality called Reasons Responsiveness, which holds that what it is to be rational is to correctly respond to possessed objective normative reasons. In this ‘Introduction: Reasons Responsiveness, the Reasons Program, and Knowledge-First’, the author offers a presentation of the main notions in this analysis, these being: objective normative reasons, possession, and correctly responding. It also ties Reasons Responsiveness to more general issues in metaphysical analysis. Finally, it shows how Reasons Responsiveness fits into two broader projects in normative theory, namely Reasons Fundamentalism and Knowledge-First epistemology.
The Coherent and the Rational
Authors: Lord Errol
Published: July 2018

This chapter motivates Reasons Responsiveness by situating it within the metaethical literature on rationality. The first task is to show how Reasons Responsiveness can overcome prominent arguments given by John Broome that seek to show that rationality is not a function of normative reasons. The second task is to show that Reasons Responsiveness can capture the data that motivates rival coherentist accounts in the metaethical literature. It is argued that usually one is irrational when incoherent and that Reasons Responsiveness can explain this because of the way in which reasons transmit. Some forms of incoherence are not irrational. Reasons Responsiveness can explain this as well. The upshot is that Reasons Responsiveness can explain the data that motivates rival views without incurring their main problems.
What it is to Possess a Reason
Authors: Lord Errol
Published: July 2018

It is a truism that in order to possess a reason, one must stand in a privileged epistemic relation with that reason. Most of the literature on possession is about this condition. This chapter defends a view about the epistemic condition. It does this by considering three different divisions between views about the epistemic condition and arguing via process of elimination that the epistemic condition is being in a position to know. Along the way arguments are given against the E = K thesis and the view that reasons explanations are non-factive. Initial connections between possession and correctly responding to reasons are forged.
What it is to Correctly Respond to Reasons
Authors: Lord Errol
Published: July 2018

This chapter defends an account of what it is to correctly respond to possessed normative reasons. This view is intimately connected to my account of possession. When one possesses a reason r to X, one is in a position to manifest knowledge about how to use r as the reason it is to X. When one responds for r, one manifests this know-how. This manifesting is spelled out in terms of essentially normative dispositions, which are dispositions that are essentially sensitive to some normative facts. The view is defended by showing how it (i) explains core data about responding for normative reasons; and (ii) solves problems involving deviant causal chains.
What You’re Rationally Required to Do and What You Ought to Do (Are the Same Thing!)
Authors: Lord Errol
Published: July 2018

This chapter is about whether we ought to be rational—i.e., whether rationality is normative or deontically significant. Although this is a truism, skepticism about whether we ought to be rational is popular in the wake of very influential work by John Broome and Niko Kolodny. This chapter argues that Reasons Responsiveness vindicates the deontic significance of rationality. It is argued that it is independently plausible that what one deliberatively ought to do is determined by the reasons one possesses. The argument for this is anchored in the thought that there is a constitutive connection between deliberative obligations and being able to correctly respond to reasons. If this is right, then what one ought to do and what one is rationally required to do are the same thing. Thus, rationality has ultimate deontic significance.
Gravity versus Pressure
Authors: Saha Prasenjit , Taylor Paul A.
Published: July 2018

Formally, the title of this chapter is a statement of the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium. A large number of stellar objects exist in the balance between gravity and pressure, with the large ‘zoo’ of observed types being due to the various physical phenomena providing the latter. This chapter is devoted to various applications of that equilibrium. Some cases can be solved exactly, such as spheres of solid rock or ice; some cases can only be solved in detail numerically, notably degenerate white dwarfs up to the Chandrasekhar mass limit. For other cases, analytical approximations such as a version of the virial theorem are helpful in understanding underlying structure and behaviour.
‘Too strange to be popular’
Authors: Vandrei Martha
Published: July 2018

Chapter 4 brings the discussion into the nineteenth century, the period most often associated with the development of both popular history and modern historical scholarship. It focuses on new audiences for history—particularly women and girls—while also noting the crossovers that existed between this period and earlier ones. However, this wider audience for Boudica—and indeed for history in general—is itself a product of a much longer process of development. This chapter investigates lesser-known works of the early nineteenth century to show how the act of creating the past can also be viewed as a form of reception, drawing on existing notions of enduring historical ideas. This chapter also seeks to question the conventional scholarly notion that present concerns hold precedence in reconstructions of the past. In particular, it examines Boudica’s mid-Victorian reputation and the expansion of Britain’s empire.
A Redactional Study of the Book of Isaiah 13-23
Authors: Lee Jongkyung
Published: July 2018

This study argues that a series of programmatic additions were made to the oracles concerning the nations in Isa 13-23 during the late-exilic period by the same circle of writers who were responsible for Isa 40-55. These additions were made to create continuity between the ancient oracles against the nations from the Isaiah tradition and the future fate of the same nations as the late-exilic redactor(s) foresaw. The additions portray a two-sided vision concerning the nations. One group of passages (14:1-2; 14:32b; 16:1-4a; 18:7) depicts a positive turn for certain nations while the other group of passages (14:26-27; 19:16-17; 23:8-9, 11) continues to pronounce doom against the remaining nations. This double-sided vision is set out first in Isa 14 surrounding the famous taunt against the fallen tyrant. 14:1-2, before the taunt, paints the broad picture of the future return of the exiles and the attachment of the gentiles to the people of Israel. After the taunt and other sayings of YHWH against his enemies, 14:26-27 extends the sphere of the underlying theme of 14:4b-25a, namely YHWH’s judgement against boastful and tyrannical power(s), to all nations and the whole earth. The two sides of this vision are then applied accordingly to the rest of the oracles concerning nations in chs 13-23. To the nations that have experienced similar disasters as the people of Israel, words of hope in line with 14:1-2 were given. To the nations that still possessed some prominence and reasons to be proud, words of doom in line with 14:26-27 were decreed.
Philistia may take refuge in Zion (Isaiah 14:32b)
Authors: Lee Jongkyung
Published: July 2018

In this chapter, 14:28 is identified as the original introduction to a series of early oracles against the nations in the book and the original poem against Philistia consisted of vv 29, 31-32a plus an ending which is now lost to us. This poem spoke of a future Assyrian attack on the Philistine cities and is to be dated in the pre-exilic period. Verse 30b was written against ‘the rod’ sometime during the exilic period. Verse 32b was then written in the late-exilic period primarily to assert YHWH’s establishment of Zion as a place of refuge for his people in exile. By setting v 32b as an answer to the Philistine messengers, the invitation to hide in Zion is extended to the Philistines too. The use of language in v 32b finds close parallels in chs 40-55 (49:13 in particular).
Egypt will be in dread because of YHWH’s hand against it (Isaiah 19:16–17)
Authors: Lee Jongkyung
Published: July 2018

It is argued that 19:16-17 was added to the preceding verses latching onto the motif of YHWH’s hostile plan against Egypt found in the two secondary additions made to the earlier poems in vv 3, 11b-12 and combining the said motif with the announcement of Egypt’s future trouble using the language of the Exodus tradition. Although no special words or phrases that could help with determining the date of 19:16-17 directly are found, the same pairing of the plan and arm of YHWH present in 14:26-27; 23:8-9, 11 lend support to attributing a late-exilic date to the passage. The fact that the tone of 19:18-25 is expressly different to that of 19:16-17 also serves as a circumstantial evidence for the view that 19:16-17 is not contemporary with 19:18-25, whose post-exilic date is little in doubt.
Passages outside of chs 13–23 that express inclusivity towards the nations
Authors: Lee Jongkyung
Published: July 2018

In this chapter, the passages that sound positive towards the nations in the book of Isaiah outside of chs 13-23 are surveyed and discussed in the order of their presumed date of composition. A particular interest in the positive future for the nations began to take a meaningful place in the book through the introduction of 2:2-4 in the exilic period. Various aspects were added to the vision of 2:2-4 at different periods such as: 1) compassion towards the nations that had experienced divine judgement in a way comparable to Israel; 2) the nations’ subservience towards Israel in the new world-order; 3) visions about lowered cultic boundaries between Israel and the nations; and 4) Zion becoming one of many places of YHWH’s dominion. Of these, the first two aspects (with greater emphasis on the first) were what our hypothesized late-exilic passages in chs 13-23 have in common.
Spinoza’s Metaphysics of Modality
Authors: Newlands Samuel
Published: July 2018

Chapter four argues that ignoring a fundamental explanatory question has led interpreters to misunderstand Spinoza’s views on necessity, contingency, possibility, and impossibility. Although the scope of Spinoza’s necessitarianism has also been hotly debated, a central question has gone largely unasked: just what is modality, according to Spinoza? By focusing first on his analysis of necessity, we gain insight into more familiar questions of modal distribution: what exists necessarily, contingently, and so forth. Spinoza ultimately endorses a form of what might now be called anti-essentialism, according to which the modal status of some things depends partly on how those things are conceived. Hence Spinoza affirms both the genuine contingency and strict necessity of one and the same thing’s existence, depending on how it is conceived. After considering Spinoza’s defense of this account, the author turns to why Spinoza thinks we do not, in fact, adopt necessitarian perspectives on the world.
The Elusive Middle
Authors: Oksanish John
Published: July 2018

This piece considers the paradoxical reception of Vitruvius and his text, De architectura, as a bellwether of attitudes towards traditionally marginal texts and authors within the discipline of classics. Classicizing figures of the Renaissance such as Alberti sought to emulate Vitruvius’ architectural recommendations but criticized his prose. A break from the holistic esteem in which Vitruvius was held in earlier ages, such attacks on Vitruvius’ Latinity catalysed distinct patterns in the reception of De architectura, placing the text and its author (though not his architectural aesthetics) on the margins of ‘the classical’. A survey of more recent critics suggests that such prejudices about Vitruvius’ style and social status remain embedded even in sympathetic treatments of De architectura and that Vitruvius’ choice of Cicero as a literary model all but guarantees his continued marginality within classics as a literary discipline.
The Greek Canon
Authors: Netz Reviel
Published: July 2018

Following the quantitative evidence where it may be found (papyri, marble portraits, ancient citations, medieval copies), the chapter studies the form of the ancient canon. This can be understood in terms of the libraries in which it was preserved (some authors, such as Homer and probably also Menander and Euripides, were owned by every reader, even the most modest book collector, others, such as Plato, would be preserved mostly in bigger libraries), and in terms of its genre: above all, this was the canon of performative literature. The key observation is the early date of the formation of the canon, its enormous stability thereafter, and the contrast between a stable performative canon and a fluid set of non-performative technical authors, in constant competition throughout antiquity, until, finally, the canon of technical literature is formed in late antiquity.
‘…there was no Herodotus before Herodotus’
Authors: Clarke Katherine
Published: July 2018

This chapter explores two major Herodotean contexts. One is the Greek literary tradition of which he was a part, ranging from Homer, through the periegetic texts, through ethnographic writings, and other early historians, such as Hecataeus. After considering these literary and intellectual milieus within which Herodotus operated, this chapter moves on to sketch out the modern scholarly context of recent work on Herodotus, particularly that which relates to the two chosen strands of analysis—the depiction of geographical space and the application of narratological tools, particularly those with a direct bearing on the articulation and viewing of space, such as the distinction between bird’s-eye and travelling viewpoints. This makes it possible to mark out more clearly the new direction and distinctive contribution of the current monograph within the scholarly landscape.
On Identifying the Problem of Evil and the Possibility of Its Theist Solution
Authors: Bishop John
Published: July 2018

The argument of this chapter is that the foundational problem of evil is the existential problem of maintaining hopeful commitment to virtuous living in the face of all that may undermine human fulfilment. Dealing with this problem at the cognitive level involves commitment to a view of reality as favourable to practical commitment to ethical ideals. An intellectual problem of evil then arises to the extent that it seems that the fact of evil is evidence against the truth of the salvific worldview we are inclined to adopt for dealing with it. In relation to theism’s ‘revelatory’ worldview, this intellectual problem is expressible as an Argument from Evil. A ‘normatively relativized’ version of the Argument from Evil is proposed that seeks to exclude rational belief in the ‘personal omniGod’. As a viable alternative conception of God is possible, however, the Argument fails to justify outright atheism.
A Trajectory of Positions
Authors: Tilley Terrence W.
Published: July 2018

This chapter defends three positions, developing arguments originally put forward in the author’s The Evils of Theodicy, published in 1991. First, the argument is made that the discourses of theodicy constitute speech acts that create more evils than they resolve, that they reduce evil to the sin and suffering of individuals, and that they ignore the power of irreducible structural and cultural evils such as racism and sexism. Secondly, the rejection of theodicy ushers in a ‘turn to practice’, and here the claim is advanced that the only solutions to the real problems of evil are practical, and always partial. Thirdly, a ‘Creativity Defence’ is set out, which, adapting ideas from John Searle’s explorations of the construction of social reality, opens up a way to account for the fact that humans create cultural and structural evils as part of the process of creating communities and societies.
John Ashbery and Anglo-American Exchange
Authors: Hazzard Oli
Published: July 2018

This book shows how the work of a major post-war American poet has been centrally concerned with questions of national identity and intercultural poetic exchange, by reading crucial episodes in John Ashbery’s oeuvre in the context of an ‘other tradition’ of twentieth-century English poets he himself has defined. This line runs from the editor of Ashbery’s recent Collected Poems, Mark Ford, through Lee Harwood in the late 1960s, F. T. Prince in the 1950s, to ‘chronologically the first and therefore most important influence’ on his own work, W. H. Auden. Through detailed close readings of the poetry of Ashbery and these English poets, original interviews, and extensive archival research, a new account of Ashbery’s ‘minor’ aesthetic and a significant re-mapping of postwar English poetry are presented. The biographical slant of the book is highly significant, as it reads these writers’ poetry and correspondence together for the first time, suggesting how major poetic innovations arose from specific social contexts, from the particulars of relations between poets, and also from a broader climate of transatlantic exchange as registered by each poet. The result is that both Ashbery himself, and the landscape of post-war English poetry, are viewed in a significantly new light.
Introduction
Authors: Hazzard Oli
Published: July 2018

This is an account of John Ashbery’s career in which, as he puts it in ‘Grand Galop’, the ‘minor eras / Take on an importance all out of proportion to the story’.1 The ‘minority’ of any part of any story is, of course, a relational status always open to dispute, but in the available narratives of Ashbery’s life and work his personal and textual engagements with contemporaneous English poets have, up to this point, occupied a certifiably marginal position. This is unsurprising. When compared with the most ambitious, compelling narratives of Ashbery’s place within literary history—portraying him as a late Romantic, a Francophile avant-gardist, or a coterie poet of the New York School, among many other possible identities—concentrating on his English connections might seem a limited perspective from which to view his work. Yet because the idea of ‘minority’ was a central preoccupation for Ashbery throughout his career, it is apt to discover that many of the important, enduring points of interest which occupied his poetry and poetics—the relation of the margin to the centre, the ways in which art represents the historical moment of its composition, the processes by which canons are formed, the methods through which aesthetic ‘strength’ and ‘weakness’ are determined, the connection between national identities and traditions and individual poetic expression—are foregrounded and illuminated when raised within such a ‘minor’ context. The limitation of scope in this study—which attends to Ashbery’s relationships with W. H. Auden, F. T. Prince, Lee Harwood and Mark Ford—allows for a localized, concentrated sample of his writing to be attended to, and obliquely to substantiate or complicate our understanding of more general themes or practices in his oeuvre. Ashbery’s body of work is broad and varied enough to justify its fragmentation into specific sub-categories, which in combination will allow for a larger, more comprehensive and more complex picture of this inexhaustible poet to be presented. This book hopes to make three central contributions to that broader picture: to demonstrate the significance of Anglo-American contexts to Ashbery’s work, to illustrate his importance ...
‘the barbarous wastes’
Authors: Hazzard Oli
Published: July 2018

Chapter 1 describes Ashbery’s relationship with W. H. Auden in a new way, attending as much to the substantial, productive antagonisms between the two poets as to developing important continuities outlined by earlier critics. It positions The Vermont Notebook—an underrated volume in Ashbery’s oeuvre—as the critical point in Ashbery’s response to his mentor. The chapter argues that The Vermont Notebook serves as a trenchant critique of the turn towards conservatism in Auden’s poetry and cultural outlook after his move to the US in 1939. Through his homage to and appropriation of techniques from The Orators, Ashbery attempts to bring the innovative and versatile early Auden out from the shadow of his later self.
‘we are where we exchanged / positions’
Authors: Hazzard Oli
Published: July 2018

Chapter 4 considers Ashbery’s engagement with and reception by English poets from the late 1980s onwards, particularly in relation to Mark Ford. It is the first discussion of these two poets that attends to their extensive correspondence. It portrays Ashbery’s relationship with Ford as a successful enactment of the idea of reciprocal influence, a form of engagement which allows Ashbery a means to ‘shake off his own influence’ late in his career, and to retain his status as a ‘major minor writer’. It presents Ford as a particularly subtle inheritor of Ashbery’s aesthetic: one who has perceived and elaborated on Ashbery’s ‘other tradition’ of English poetry, rather than the more direct and explicit forms of imitation and appropriation practised by other younger poets, including John Ash.
Human Nature
Authors: Dupré John
Published: July 2018

This sketch of an account of human nature begins with the claim that we should see humans as a kind of process, a life cycle, rather than as a kind of substance or thing. A particular advantage of such a process perspective is that it readily accommodates the developmental plasticity that has been an increasingly important concept in recent biological theory. Human behaviour, on this account, should be understood as providing adaptive and flexible responses to an unpredictable environment. It is, therefore, generally misguided to provide a standard account of human nature in terms of behaviour or behavioural dispositions. If there is such a thing as human nature, it is a uniquely refined propensity for novel and unpredictable behaviour.
Cyril of Alexandria
Authors: Ondrey Hauna T.
Published: July 2018

Chapter 5, “Cyril of Alexandria: The Twelve as Christian Scripture,” considers the meaning Cyril draws from the Minor Prophets as Christian scripture. For Cyril, the texts of the Twelve ground the identity of the church in Christ’s work, identifying those within the church as the single beneficiaries of the restoration effected in Christ’s incarnation, death, and resurrection. Through his commentary, Cyril further calls the church to its mission of extending Christ’s victory through true doctrine and virtuous lives, and equips his readers for this mission through the doctrinal and moral teaching of the prophets—most significantly, offering moral interpretation from the plain sense of prophetic admonitions. The Commentary on the Twelve Prophets warrants an expanded account of Cyril’s Old Testament interpretation, acknowledging the prominence of moral and ecclesial exegesis as well as Cyril’s ecclesiology as the necessary context for his supersessionism.
The Tree
Authors: Steane Andrew
Published: July 2018

The life of an ordinary tree is described, in terms of the main physical and chemical processes: carbon capture by photosynthesis; entropy and energy; moisture. The information expressed in the tree comes partly from the DNA and partly from the sunlight. The tree does not push upwards from the ground, but solidifies the air.
The View from Nowhere
Authors: Sugden Robert
Published: July 2018

Chapter 2 addresses a question that economists rarely ask when they engage in normative analysis: to whom is this analysis addressed? I argue that both neoclassical and behavioural economists usually write as if addressing an imagined ‘social planner’, conceptualized as a benevolent autocrat who agrees with them on all controversial issues. Philosophers who write about normative economics sometimes imagine instead that they are engaging in ‘public reasoning’, addressing an assembly of moral agents who are trying to decide what, all things considered, is good for people (individually and collectively). Both approaches treat normative analysis as an attempt to find a ‘view from nowhere’—an impartial view of what is good for people that is not any actual person’s view of what is good for him. But this is not the only viewpoint from which normative analysis can be made.
The Inner Rational Agent
Authors: Sugden Robert
Published: July 2018

Chapter 4 reviews ‘behavioural welfare economics’—the approach to normative analysis that is favoured by most behavioural economists. This approach assumes that people have context-independent ‘true’ or ‘latent’ preferences which, because of psychologically-induced errors, are not always revealed in actual choices. Behavioural welfare economics aims to reconstruct latent preferences by identifying and removing the effects of error on decisions, and to design policies to satisfy those preferences. Its implicit model of human agency is of an ‘inner rational agent’ that interacts with the world through an imperfect psychological ‘shell’. I argue that there is no satisfactory evidence to support this model, and no credible psychological foundation for it. Since the concept of true preference has no empirical content, the idea that such preferences can be reconstructed is a mirage. Normative economics needs to be more radical in giving up rationality assumptions.
Community Interests in International Taxation
Authors: Dagan Tsilly
Published: July 2018

This chapter describes the multilateral efforts regarding four key concerns of the international community: Prevention of double taxation, fighting “harmful tax competition,” sharing of information, and the “gaps and frictions” between the tax systems of various countries noted by the recent BEPS report. It then asks what, in fact, constitutes the community’s interest in the international tax area, arguing that where tax policy is concerned, there is no clear “textbook answer” regarding the best way to tax internationally. The chapter criticizes two proxies which are often implicitly endorsed in order to evaluate international tax policy: Cooperation among states, and the prevention of market failures. It argues that cooperation, contrary to conventional wisdom, is neither a goal in itself nor is it a good enough proxy for the collective good, and that the elimination of market failures, although indisputably beneficial, may raise a second-best problem.
Human Rights Extraterritoriality
Authors: Reinisch August
Published: July 2018

In an increasingly interdependent and transnational world, the community interest of protecting human rights has led to the need to address human rights violations by private parties abroad through a range of state measures. The chapter seeks to analyze how states have resorted to extraterritorial measures when trying to control companies that may infringe the human rights entitlements of individuals or groups. At the same time, it seeks to move beyond the descriptive to a normative debate about the lawfulness and legitimacy of such attempts. It finally develops an argument for a rethinking of the traditional jurisdictional principles, toward a community obligation-driven, substantive justification for the exercise of jurisdiction. The exercise of extraterritorial jurisdiction often leads to friction because it may infringe upon the territorial jurisdiction of another state. Where a state exercises extraterritorial jurisdiction over companies operating abroad, such jurisdiction appears justified as the enforcement of community values.
“The Rights and Obligations of Parties to International Armed Conflicts”
Authors: Dill Janina
Published: July 2018

This chapter argues that the process commonly described as the development of international law “from bilateralism to community interest” should be dis-aggregated into its formal, procedural, and substantive dimensions. A move away from formal and procedural bilateralism is always a move towards community interest because it furthers the rule of law. In contrast, a move away from formal/procedural bilateralism does not guarantee a better protection of the community’s substantive interests. International humanitarian law is a trailblazer of procedural and formal progress, yet a slacker in the substantive move toward what is commonly taken to be community interest: protecting the individual. The chapter further shows that alongside protecting the individual, the international community has a second competing substantive interest in the regulation of warfare: preserving military efficacy. International humanitarian law’s development highlights that progress in international law is more complex than the phrase “from bilateralism to community interest” suggests .
Rights and Obligations of Third Parties in Armed Conflicts
Authors: Krieger Heike
Published: July 2018

The chapter begins by noting that the prohibition of the use of force is the quintessential ius cogens rule of an erga omnes character. The same holds true for Common Article 1 of the Geneva Conventions. Both norms create third-party rights and obligations. However, structural deficits in the international legal order often hinder their effective enforcement. Moreover, recent state practice challenges certain obligations stemming in particular from the prohibition on the use of force. This chapter analyzes and compares the normative framework of both rules and examines recent contestations in state practice. It concludes by exploring the question as to what extent both rules reflect community interests or are still grounded on a reciprocal bilateral basis related to states’ self-interest.
Wal-Mart: Walton’s Made in America
Authors: Brooker Paul , Hayward Margaret
Published: July 2018

This chapter describes Walton’s use of all six rational methods as founder and developer of the largest retail corporation in the US: the Wal-Mart corporation. In the 1960s his rapid and innovative adaptive response to the rise of discount retailing became an innovative expansion system. Further, Walton’s use of diverse and institutionalized deliberation led to the pioneering use of technology which enabled such rapid expansion. This technology included computerization and a satellite-based communication system. Walton emphasized both quantitative and strategic calculation: cost-reduction was his overarching ‘grand’ strategy which included a specialized labour-relations strategy. The fourth section highlights Walton’s use of learning, in various forms and contexts, as an additional, seventh rational method. A final section examines how learning was used by a different leader, in a different country and a different industry: Marcel Dassault’s establishing of an aircraft-manufacturing corporation in France.
eBay: Whitman’s The Power Of Many
Authors: Brooker Paul , Hayward Margaret
Published: July 2018

Focusing on e-commerce and the Internet this chapter describes how Whitman used all seven rational methods in her scaling-up enhancement of eBay—the now iconic online-auction corporation. After describing eBay’s pre-Whitman era, the chapter examines her use of rational methods as a scaling-up CEO developing an early Internet, e-commerce start-up into a global corporation. Whitman emphasized learning and both quantitative and strategic calculation during this scaling up in the late 1990s and early 2000s. The final section compares the short-term scaling-up opportunities of eBay with the longer-term opportunities offered to Amazon’s founding leader, Bezos, as he diversified Amazon from online bookseller into wide-ranging online retailer and developer of high-tech products and services. This last section argues that Whitman made the most of the comparatively short-term opportunity offered by eBayism, just as Bezos has made the most of the longer-term opportunity offered by Amazonism.
Introduction
Authors: Ridley Aaron
Published: July 2018

This book has been a long time in the writing. When I first aired some of its constituent thoughts, at conferences held in 2002 and 2003, deflationary accounts of Nietzsche’s philosophy of agency seemed to be sweeping all before them. Nietzsche was portrayed as a sceptic if not an outright eliminativist about ‘will’ and ‘action’, the former tending to be reduced to a system of sub-personal drives, the latter to misinterpreted events. I didn’t much care for any of this. Happily, however, fashions changed. For reasons having nothing whatever to do with me, more positive and fruitful accounts of this aspect of Nietzsche’s philosophy have gained traction, and the mainstream has shifted....
Autonomy
Authors: Ridley Aaron
Published: July 2018

This chapter is devoted to the later Nietzsche’s conception of autonomy. The claim defended here is that Nietzsche—in common with the modern philosophical tradition more generally—regards freedom and autonomy as comprising an indissoluble package, and so that his conception of autonomy inherits the expressivism of his conception of freedom. It is argued that this view allows us to make better or fuller sense of Nietzsche’s well-known remarks about the ‘sovereign individual’ in the second essay of the Genealogy; that it makes best sense when seen in the context of Nietzsche’s doctrine of ‘will to power’, to the most plausible interpretation of which it lends support; and that, properly unpacked, it allows us to understand why Nietzsche so often seems to regards artistic agency as exemplary of agency as such. If these arguments are convincing, they add weight to the claim that Nietzsche should be read as an expressivist.
Demographic Representation and the Fifteenth Century Crisis of the University of Paris
Authors: Goddard Eric D.
Published: July 2018

This chapter examines the fifteenth-century crisis of the University of Paris. The decade between 1436 and 1446, immediately following the reclamation of the French capital in the final phase of the Hundred Years War, was a period of crisis at the University of Paris. One of the most important aspects of this crisis was a series of political setbacks suffered by the university. While political setbacks were among the most obvious aspects of the University's crisis, there is also readily available evidence suggesting a decline in demographic representation at the university during this period. In the 1420s and 1430s, a significant number of individuals requested permission to break oaths binding them to complete their studies at Paris. Parisian scholars also frequently invoked the demographic challenges faced by the university and the capital as a whole in the effort to defend their university privileges.
‘Maintain the old institutions in their old quiet way’
Authors: Turner Michael J.
Published: July 2018

This chapter focuses on university reform in Victorian Britain. Change was imposed on the universities of Victorian Britain by outside forces, but it was also the outcome of a struggle within the universities. This struggle was most intense and consequential for the universities in Oxford and Cambridge, owing to their uniquely close connection with established structures of power and privilege in religion, politics, and society. One of the more strident of those who opposed reform was Alexander James Beresford Hope, MP for Cambridge University from 1868 to 1887. The chapter then investigates the universities' connection with the Church, focusing on religious tests, clerical personnel, and theological instruction. It also considers disagreements about other areas of reform: endowments, fellowships, and headships; the independence of colleges; curriculum, teaching, ‘research’, and examinations; administrative and financial issues; and accessibility and the composition of the student body.
Dissociating the Concept of Substance from the Concept of Subject
Authors: Renz Ursula
Published: July 2018

In this chapter, it is argued that Spinoza’s approach in the Ethics is driven by the conceptual decision to radically dissociate the concept of substance from the concept of subject. It is not just that Spinoza’s substance utterly lacks the characteristics of subjects; the chapter also argues that, for Spinoza, subjects are not to be conceived as substances at all. It is not the case that the substance is a subject, nor is it true that those things that we can interpret as epistemic subjects or subjects of action qualify as substances. While this conceptual decision is crucial for Spinoza’s overall philosophical approach, it has often been neglected in the reception of his work, in particular by critics such as Bayle and Hegel.
The Justification of a Realist Rationalism
Authors: Renz Ursula
Published: July 2018

This chapter is concerned with the interpretation of the first few propositions of Part Two of the Ethics. The interpretive question is, how are we to make sense of these propositions if we read Spinoza’s metaphysics as a general ontology rather than a rational theology? The chapter addresses this question by interpreting these propositions as a stepwise justification of Spinoza’s realist rationalism. Three steps are distinguished. The first is the claim put forward in 2p1 that thought is an attribute, which serves to vindicate the attribution of proper or irreducible reality to human thought. Second, by deriving the notion of the idea of there being an idea of God, Spinoza establishes, in 2p3, that all being is intelligible. Third, by maintaining that the idea of God is unique, he commits himself to the view that reality must be conceived as unique, which is necessary for ruling out any asylum ignorantiae.
The Cartel Party
Authors: Katz Richard S. , Mair Peter
Published: July 2018

In terms of an analogy to economic markets, the political market for parties has nearly always been an oligopoly. In recent decades, that oligopoly has transformed into a cartel, in which the parties share rather than compete over resources, and effectively conspire to protect their collective interests. The capacity of their leaders to maintain this cartel of parties depends, however, on their ability to control their own parties, giving rise to a new form of party organization, the cartel party. As with all ideal types, there are never any fully fledged cartel parties, just as there were never any fully fledged mass parties or catch-all parties, but the realities of modern politics are better understood as approaches to the cartel party ideal type than as perversions of the catch-all party.
Introduction
Authors: Radde-Gallwitz Andrew
Published: July 2018

The Introduction makes the case for reading Gregory’s corpus synoptically and through the prism of literary and rhetorical analysis. It begins with a case study of a digression on the Trinity in Gregory’s Epiphany homily In diem luminum. The chapter then sketches Gregory’s life and circumstances in the years following his brother Basil of Caesarea’s death in 378, highlighting Gregory’s defense of Basil, not only in Trinitarian works but also the closely connected writings on creation, Gregory’s role in the definitions of orthodoxy supervised by Emperor Theodosius I, and Gregory’s homilies for the developing festal calendar. Gregory’s oration De deitate adversus Evagrium, which was delivered at the Council of Constantinople in 381, is examined as evidence for Gregory’s construal of that council’s significance.
Excursus: The Distinction of Hypostases
Authors: Radde-Gallwitz Andrew
Published: July 2018

The Excursus examines Gregory’s attempts to articulate the distinction of the three hypostases, addressing current debates over Gregory’s position on the divine nature as a universal. It argues that Gregory articulates three conditions as necessary for an orthodox conception of how the three hypostases are differentiated: the hypostases must be unconfused, ordered in accordance with the baptismal formula, and conceived of as individuals within the common nature. Gregory never offers an account of how the three diverse and potentially contradictory conditions correlate. Still, the varied models he uses to explain the distinction of hypostases are not so much incompatible as mutually correcting. The works addressed are To Peter and the final section of To Ablabius. The Excursus argues that To the Greeks is inauthentic.
Conclusion
Authors: Radde-Gallwitz Andrew
Published: July 2018

This chapter underscores the principal conclusions drawn in previous chapters, especially regarding Gregory’s penchant for thinking via complex and ambiguous chains of imagery. It also underscores the reactive nature of his texts. Gregory was continually prodded not only by opponents but also by allies to revisit his own writings, to clarify matters, and to defend himself. These provocations grew out of the networks he developed as a prominent bishop in the pro-Nicene, pro-Melitian camp favored by Theodosius. Coupled with his rhetorical education, his apprenticeship to his brother, and his preaching at the church’s feast days, this context of accusations and mutual testing led Gregory to write in a certain way, framing his works around objections and counterarguments. These writing practices are inseparable from his doctrinal theology, and they structure not only technical treatises but also homilies, letters, and orations intended for more general audiences.
Methodologies for Microstructures
Authors: Puranam Phanish
Published: July 2018

I review developments in theory and methodology that may allow us to begin creating innovative forms of organizing, rather than rest content with studying them after they have emerged. We now have the conceptual and technical apparatus to prototype organization designs at small scale, cheaply and fast. The process of organization re-design can be seen in terms of multiple stages. It begins with careful observation of phenomena. Qualitative or indeed quantitative induction (i.e. data mining) can play a critical role here. Once we have some understanding or at least conjectures about underlying mechanisms, we can use the behavioral lab or an agent-based model to run cheap experiments to adjust the design. Once we have formulated a new design, we may want to run a field experiment with randomization. If the results look satisfactory, we can scale up and implement.
Phonetics, phonology, and orthography of medieval Hispano-Romance
Authors: Dworkin Steven N.
Published: July 2018

This chapter describes the phonetics, phonology, and the orthographic practices of Old Spanish. It first identifies the vocalic and consonantal phonemes of the medieval language. The following sections describe specific phonetic and phonological issues such as possible allophonic variation between stressed and unstressed vowels, apocope of word-final /-e/, the formation and evolution of new and unfamiliar consonant clusters in the medieval language through vowel syncope, word-final consonant groups resulting from vowel apocope, the phonetic nature of word-initial /f-/, the nature of affricate consonants, and the possible first manifestations in the late medieval language of seseo and yeísmo. The chapter concludes with an overview of the wide orthographic variation in the earliest texts and the attempt to regularize to some degree spelling practices starting in the mid-thirteenth century.
The medieval Hispano-Romance lexicon
Authors: Dworkin Steven N.
Published: July 2018

This chapter examines the lexicon of Old Spanish. It first surveys the dictionaries and other lexical resources available to the student of the medieval language, before going on to describe briefly the various historical lexical strata and issues of lexical stability. It next offers a rich series of examples of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and function words found in Old Spanish that did not survive into the modern language. The chapter next gives examples of Old Spanish lexical doublets and of lexical items that have undergone major semantic changes over time. The remainder of the chapter is devoted to the creation in Old Spanish of neologisms through such processes of derivational morphology as suffixation, prefixation, and compounding. Emphasis falls here on words that did not survive into the modern language.