bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Defying the Burglar in Post-War London
Authors: Moss Eloise
Published: July 2019

Burglary in London during the decades after the Second World War continued to emblematize the fears, preoccupations, and experiences of ‘home’ of modern urbanites. Burglars’ prevalence was inextricable from the city’s national and international reputation, a reality that posed a stark criminal contrast to the refrain of Britons’ ‘never having it so good’, as Prime Minister Harold MacMillan declared in 1957. Violence, especially the spiralling rates of sexual violence that tore apart households attempting to recover from the war, created a pronounced association between burglary, rape, and on occasion, murder. Chapter 7 reveals the attempts of police officers and criminal psychologists to rationalize the actions of perpetrators in relation to their childhoods, relationships, and family circumstances, embodied in a series of violent burglaries committed during the late 1950s and early 1960s. Yet officials’ observations largely effaced the broader reality of widespread forms of poverty and precarious employment that also fostered crime. The potential for burglars to once more imperil residents’ sense of security had bigger implications for the city’s resurgent economy, damaging the attractiveness of the capital to visiting movie stars and celebrities (and their jewels) who were otherwise drawn to its ‘swinging’ reputation. In response, the Metropolitan Police’s ‘Beat the Burglar’ campaign, created in coordination with security and insurance companies, tried to institute an embryonic form of ‘Neighbourhood Watch’ system. Encouraging citizens to monitor one another and report disturbances, it compromised cherished notions of privacy in the efforts to collapse space and time between police and prey.
Undoing the Institutions of the Democratic State
Authors: Sadurski Wojciech
Published: July 2019

This chapter covers how, from the very beginning, the Law and Justice (Prawo i Sprawiedliwość (PiS)) party targeted five democratic institutions as obstacles to its capture of the state. First, it looks at the parliamentary opposition being marginalized and effectively silenced. Second, it details how the civil service has been subjected to political control, and the principles of professionalism and neutrality in the civil service have been abandoned. Third, the chapter looks at the public media being transformed into a propaganda machine for the ruling party, and the commercial media being threatened with laws that would constrain their operation. Fourth, it considers how electoral commissions have been effectively subjected to the executive, which renders massive electoral frauds possible. Finally, the chapter looks at how institutions dispensing grants and subsidies to civil society organizations have been centralized and subjected to the executive. All these institutions provide a buffer for the population from the arbitrary will of politicians, which is why PiS could not tolerate them.
Why Did It Happen?
Authors: Sadurski Wojciech
Published: July 2019

This chapter discusses the causes of Poland’s constitutional breakdown in and after 2015. On the one hand, they have an ‘agentic’ character: the role of the paranoia and anger of political leaders cannot be disregarded. In addition to such supply-side explanations, there are also important demand-side hypotheses, linked in particular to anti-elite and xenophobic attitudes, concerns and fears. As the chapter shows, in the case of Poland, the most important role is played by identity-related concerns, rather than socio-economic vulnerabilities. In turn, persistent support for the populist Law and Justice (Prawo i Sprawiedliwość (PiS)) party can be explained by its successful even if irrational welfare policies, by its effective if primitive propaganda, and by the weaknesses of the opposition. This leads to a reflection on the fragility of the institutions. As this chapter argues, partly because of its newness, partly because of faulty institutional design, and partly because of the thinness of democratic political culture among the elite and in society at large, the institutional system of Poland was ineffective in blocking anti-constitutional parties’ access to power.
China
Authors: Erickson Andrew S.
Published: July 2019

Scholars still debate the very notion of a Chinese grand strategy. Nonetheless, recent leadership and policy statements, and their explicit linkage to historical patterns of Chinese behavior, suggest that China may well have the most forthright example of a grand strategy of any major power today. This chapter is composed of five parts in substantiating that claim. First, it survey’s Xi’s contemporary grand strategy. Second, it discusses the historical foundations of Xi’s initiatives. Third, it lists the modern factors that shape and complicate China’s grand strategic efforts. Fourth, it examines the two major contemporary prongs that link the global to the national strategy: the external Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) aimed at binding Eurasia to China through infrastructure and commercial development; and the internal efforts to consolidate societal stability with a stronger surveillance state. Together, the chapter argues, these initiatives are designed to mitigate the impact of demographic decline and an S-curved slowdown in the growth of China’s economy, with the goal of buttressing other elements of national power to facilitate China’s re-emergence.
Introduction
Authors: Burnham Michelle
Published: July 2019

The Introduction develops a transoceanic framework for the study of American literature and the emergence of the novel. It establishes that American literature and culture have always been integrated within complex and wide-ranging commercial, political, and textual networks that connected the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. By locating the presence of the Pacific in the Atlantic, and of the Atlantic in the Pacific, this volume establishes a global materiality to narrative in the transoceanic age of revolutions. Long-distance maritime travel depended on capitalist strategies of calculation that also concealed practices of violence against women and indigenous peoples. The resultant narrative of expectation or suspense drives the discourses of commerce, revolution, and the novel.
Richard Burke and St Vincent
Authors: Marshall P. J.
Published: July 2019

The fertile soil and numerous rivers of St Vincent, annexed in 1763, offered potentially good plantation land, which was to be sold on behalf of the British crown by a government commission. Over large parts of the island, however, British settlement conflicted with the claims of Carib peoples. Europeans made distinctions between small communities of what they called Red Caribs, and much larger ones of Black Caribs, who were predominantly the descendants of escaped African slaves. Richard Burke tried to circumvent the restriction that Carib land could only be obtained through the government commission. by dealing directly with the Red Caribs, who agreed to sell him land that he hoped to resell at a large profit for his own benefit. The Black Caribs, however, would not consent to dispose of their land to the British. They were eventually coerced to do so by force in what was called the Carib War of 1772. Edmund Burke strongly supported his brother’s purchase, while very much disapproving of the use of force against the Black Caribs, even if he thought it impolitic to say so publicly while Richard was negotiating with ministers. Richard’s purchase was eventually annulled in Britain, so that he gained nothing from his attempted speculation. But Edmund’s involvement in the affairs of the Caribs gave him insights into the plight of indigenous peoples in an expanding British empire.
Conclusion
Authors: Marshall P. J.
Published: July 2019

The Conclusion restates the narrative theme of the book in briefly tracing the growth of Burke’s involvement with the West Indies through the private interests of his close connections, to making policy on an issue of great national importance, and finally to Burke’s defining of his views on slavery and the slave trade through his Negro Code and his participation in the abolition debates of the late 1780s and early 1790s. It explores his views on these issues further through a brief comparison of his attitude to abuses being perpetrated in India. For a number of reasons Burke’s crusades on India were less inhibited than was his campaign for reform of slavery and the slave trade. The chapter concludes that Burke’s concern for the value of the West Indian asset to Britain and his inability to feel the same intensity of sympathy for the plight of Africans that he did for Indians account for his willingness to make practical compromises with slavery and the slave trade, even though he regarded both as morally indefensible.
Bayes’ Theorem
Authors: Donovan Therese M. , Mickey Ruth M.
Published: July 2019

This chapter focuses on Bayes’ Theorem. The chapter first gives a brief introduction to Thomas Bayes, who first formulated the theorem. It then builds on the content presented in Chapters 1 and 2 to derive Bayes’ Theorem and describes two ways to think about it. First, Bayes’ Theorem describes the relationship between two inverse conditional probabilities, P(A | B) and P(B | A). Second, Bayes’ Theorem can be used to express how a degree of belief for a given hypothesis can be updated in light of new evidence. This chapter focuses on the first interpretation. The chapter also discusses the concepts of joint probability and marginal probability.
The Birthday Problem: Bayesian Inference with Multiple Discrete Hypotheses
Authors: Donovan Therese M. , Mickey Ruth M.
Published: July 2019

The “Birthday Problem” expands consideration from two hypotheses to multiple, discrete hypotheses. In this chapter, interest is in determining the posterior probability that a woman named Mary was born in a given month; there are twelve alternative hypotheses. Furthermore, consideration is given to assigning prior probabilities. The priors represent a priori probabilities that each alternative hypothesis is correct, where a priori means “prior to data collection,” and can be “informative” or “non-informative.” A Bayesian analysis cannot be conducted without using a prior distribution, whether that is an informative prior distribution or a non-informative prior distribution. The chapter discusses objective priors, subjective priors, and prior sensitivity analysis. In addition, the concept of likelihood is explored more deeply.
The Maple Syrup Problem: The Normal-Normal Conjugate
Authors: Donovan Therese M. , Mickey Ruth M.
Published: July 2019

In this chapter, Bayesian methods are used to estimate the two parameters that identify a normal distribution, μ and σ. Many Bayesian analyses consider alternative parameter values as hypotheses. The prior distribution for an unknown parameter can be represented by a continuous probability density function when the number of hypotheses is infinite. In the “Maple Syrup Problem,” a normal distribution is used as the prior distribution of μ, the mean number of millions of gallons of maple syrup produced in Vermont in a year. The amount of syrup produced in multiple years is determined, and assumed to follow a normal distribution with known σ. The prior distribution is updated to the posterior distribution in light of this new information. In short, a normal prior distribution + normally distributed data → normal posterior distribution.
MCMC Diagnostic Approaches
Authors: Donovan Therese M. , Mickey Ruth M.
Published: July 2019

The purpose of this chapter is to illustrate some of the things that can go wrong in Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) analysis and to introduce some diagnostic tools that help identify whether the results of such an analysis can be trusted. The goal of a Bayesian MCMC analysis is to estimate the posterior distribution while skipping the integration required in the denominator of Bayes’ Theorem. The MCMC approach does this by breaking the problem into small, bite-sized pieces, allowing the posterior distribution to be built bit by bit. The main challenge, however, is that several things might go wrong in the process. Several diagnostic tests can be applied to ensure that an MCMC analysis provides an adequate estimate of the posterior distribution. Such diagnostics are required of all MCMC analyses and include tuning, burn-in, and pruning.
The Lorax Problem: Introduction to Bayesian Networks
Authors: Donovan Therese M. , Mickey Ruth M.
Published: July 2019

The “Lorax Problem” introduces Bayesian networks, another set of methods that makes use of Bayes’ Theorem. The ideas are first explained in terms of a small, standard example that explores two alternative hypotheses for why the grass is wet: the sprinkler is on versus it is raining. The chapter describes how to depict causal models graphically with the use of influence diagrams and directed acyclic graphs. Bayes’ Theorem is used to compute conditional probabilities and to update probabilities once new information is obtained or assumed. The software program Netica is introduced. Finally, the chapter provides a second example of Bayesian networks based on The Lorax by Dr. Seuss. The reader will gain a firm understanding of parent nodes (also known as root nodes), child nodes, conditional probability tables (CPTs), and the chain rule for joint probability.
Emergence and Diffusion
Authors: Sweet Alec Stone , Mathews Jud
Published: July 2019

This chapter charts how proportionality has developed into a global principle of constitutional law. The German Federal Constitutional Court constitutionalized the proportionality principle, which has roots in eighteenth-century political theory and nineteenth-century administrative law. From Germany, proportionality radiated outward, spreading through Europe with the aid of the courts from the European Union and the European Convention on Human Rights, and beyond Europe owing to its adoption by influential constitutional courts, including in Canada, Israel, and South Africa. PA has accompanied most successful transitions to rights-based constitutional democracy in the past three decades, including in Asia and Latin America. The empirical focus in this chapter is on (i) how courts have justified their turn to proportionality, (ii) how they subsequently deploy PA, and (iii) how these choices impact law and politics. Proportionality’s diffusion exhibits the basic features of what institutional sociologists call isomorphism, which is driven by mimetic, coercive, and normative mechanisms. Notwithstanding points of convergence, there are profound cross-national variation in how courts adopt and use proportionality. The chapter explains why this diversity is likely to persist.
Global Constitutionalism and Transnational Governance
Authors: Sweet Alec Stone , Mathews Jud
Published: July 2019

This chapter focuses on the evolution of treaty-based human rights regimes in Europe, the Americas, and Africa. Each of the five courts under consideration insists on its own primacy with respect to the interpretation of charter rights; each considers such interpretations to be binding on all domestic judges; and each holds, or strongly implies, that states are under a duty to incorporate the regional charter as directly enforceable, domestic law with a rank at least above statute. Today, the European and the Inter-American courts take pains to portray their role and function in constitutional terms, a posture the three African regional courts appear to be following. All have adopted proportionality, which the European and Inter-American courts, in particular, have prioritized as an instrument of transnational governance. National trustee courts can and do resist transnational courts; but an increasing number have also held that international human rights—and respect for the jurisprudence of the regional court—are an integral part of their own domestic systems of justice. Today, domestic and treaty-based charters overlap, reflect, and reinforce one another. As important, trustee courts, at both levels, intensively interact with one another on the basis of shared commitment to building the effectiveness of rights protection through the enforcement of the proportionality principle. These facts support the view that, over the past three decades, a global, multi-level, and pluralistic constitutional system has emerged.
The Self-Undermining Arguments from Disagreement
Authors: Sampson Eric
Published: July 2019

Arguments from disagreement against moral realism begin by calling attention to (or supposing) widespread, fundamental moral disagreement among a certain group of people (e.g., the folk, moral philosophers, idealized agents). Then, some skeptical or anti-realist-friendly conclusion is drawn. Chapter 2 proposes that arguments from disagreement share a structure that makes them vulnerable to a single, powerful objection: they self-undermine. For each formulation of the argument from disagreement, at least one of its premises casts doubt either on itself or on one of the other premises. On reflection, this shouldn’t be surprising. These arguments are intended to support very strong metaphysical or epistemological conclusions about morality (e.g., that there are no moral facts, that none of our moral beliefs are justified). They must therefore employ very strong metaphysical or epistemological premises. But, given the pervasiveness of disagreement in philosophy, especially about metaphysics and epistemology, very strong premises are virtually certain to be the subject of widespread, intractable disagreement—precisely the sort of disagreement that proponents of these arguments think undermine moral claims. Thus, these arguments undermine their own premises. If Chapter 2’s argument is sound, it provides realists with a single, unified strategy for responding to any existing or forthcoming arguments from disagreement.
Contextualism, Moral Disagreement, and Proposition Clouds
Authors: Suikkanen Jussi
Published: July 2019

According to contextualist theories in metaethics, when a moral term is used in a context, the context plays an ineliminable part in determining what natural property will be the semantic value of the term. Furthermore, on subjectivist and relativist versions of these views, it is either the speaker’s own moral code or her moral community’s moral code that constitutes the reference-fixing context. One standard objection to views of this type is that they fail to enable disagreement in ordinary conversations. Chapter 3 develops a new response to this objection on the basis of Kai von Fintel and Anthony Gillies’s notion of proposition clouds. It is argued that, because we live in a multicultural society, the conversational contexts we face will fail to disambiguate between all the things we could mean. This is why we can at best put into play proposition clouds when we make moral utterances. All the propositions in such clouds are then available for rejection and acceptance on behalf of our audiences. The norms of conversation then guide us to make informative contributions to the conversation—accept and reject propositions in a way that leads to coordination of action and choice.
Internalism and Prudential Value
Authors: Hawkins Jennifer
Published: July 2019

Existence internalism claims that facts about human psychological responsiveness constrain the metaphysics of value in particular ways. Chapter 5 examines whether some form of existence internalism holds for prudential value (as opposed to moral or aesthetic value). It emphasizes the importance of a modal distinction that has been traditionally overlooked. Some facts about personal good are facts about realized good. For example, right now it may be true that X is good for me. Other facts about goodness are facts about what would be good for me in certain possible futures. These are facts about merely possible good. Philosophers should be internalists about realized good. The chapter defends a qualified version of the idea that a necessary constraint on something’s being good for a person at a time is that the thing in question elicits some kind of positive psychological response from the person at that time. However, philosophers should be motivational externalists about merely possible good. Facts about the superior future goodness of an option may ground reasons now to choose it. But we should not expect individuals to always recognize such facts, and so there is no reason to think such facts are always motivating.
Infinitism about Cross-Domain Conflict
Authors: Killoren David
Published: July 2019

Chapter 7 argues that if the overriding view is true, then infinitism about cross-domain conflict is true. The overriding view is the view that (i) there are multiple normative domains (including, e.g., the domains of morality and prudence), (ii) normative domains can come into conflict with one another, and (iii) in some such conflicts, an obligation belonging to one normative domain overrides an obligation belonging to another normative domain. Infinitism about cross-domain conflict contains two main claims. First claim: There is at least one case in which an agent has an obligation OA that belongs to domain DA, and an obligation OB that belongs to domain DB (where DA and DB are different domains), and OA overrides OB. Second claim: For every such case, there is an infinitely long chain of domains D1, D2, D3,…, such that D1 contains an obligation to act in line with the obligations of DA, and D2 contains an obligation to act in line with the obligations of D1, and D3 contains an obligation to act in line with the obligations of D2, and so on, indefinitely.
Definitions: From Cultural Property to Cultural Heritage (and Back?)
Authors: Lixinski Lucas
Published: July 2019

This chapter focuses on the multiple definitions of ‘heritage’ in UNESCO instruments, and particularly on their relationship to the idea of ‘property’, with respect to communities’ engagement with heritage. It examines the drafting history of the key UNESCO treaties in the area, to identify the role of communities and other stakeholders in the definitions, as well as the political compromises made. The chapter also re-examines the move from ‘cultural property’ to ‘cultural heritage’, an important part of the elevation of the field to one overseeing international public goods. The chapter argues that this shift has had unintended consequences, key among which is the exclusion of communities. The field would do well to revisit the idea of ‘property’, but, as the chapter discusses, as a specific understanding of property that goes against conventional wisdom based on property as the ultimate bastion of individual liberty.
Stakeholders in International Heritage Law
Authors: Lixinski Lucas
Published: July 2019

This chapter looks at the actors and stakeholders in the field of international heritage law. It focuses a significant amount of energy on the roles of states and experts, who are the key actors with a seat at the international table, before moving to look at museums, collectors, and other private (corporate) actors, and the elusive ‘community’, which is at the centre of this book’s project. The chapter argues that community, while ambiguous and laden with colonial legacies, is still a concept worth trying to define.
International Heritage Law and the Market
Authors: Lixinski Lucas
Published: July 2019

This chapter introduces the second major part of this book, looking at the application of international heritage law. It focuses on the ways in which the economics of heritage are engaged (or disengaged) by international heritage treaties, and their effects on communities, whose engagement with their own heritage is very often economic. The common assumption is that economic uses of heritage cheapen what is otherwise unique and special culture. Therefore, the economics of heritage end up either made illegal, or ignored. The result backfires: the market does not stop interacting with cultural heritage, it is just that its regulation moves to other fora, which are less sympathetic to culture and its special character. The chapter also looks at the literature on heritage economics and the contribution it can make to heritage law, as well as the connection between heritage and development, particularly from the standpoint of communities.
Heritage and the Environment
Authors: Lixinski Lucas
Published: July 2019

This chapter focuses on the relationship between heritage and sustainable development, and more broadly the environment, particularly in the ways in which sustainable development can exclude communities from their own heritage. It shows how ‘natural’ heritage has a much more pervasive impact on how we think of heritage in international law, and the conservation paradigm more specifically. The chapter also discusses the implications of sustainability for heritage safeguarding; how environmental considerations, while in and of themselves positive and desirable, can also have the effect of excluding community stakeholders, ultimately compromising their ability to promote sustainable safeguarding of heritage, and, in more extreme cases, the very existence of the heritage they set out to protect. The chapter thus argues that sustainable development, in the heritage context, needs to take communities into account more seriously if it is to effectively pursue its goals.
Implementation and Enforcement of International Heritage Law
Authors: Lixinski Lucas
Published: July 2019

This chapter tackles issues of application that are at the forefront of international heritage treaties. It looks at tools inherent to international heritage treaties such as listing, international funds, and cooperation mechanisms, and the ways communities can (or, more often, cannot) rely on them. It also considers how, once compared across treaties, these tools share certain commonalities and differences that are revealing about the way international heritage law as a body of rules operates, particularly vis-à-vis communities. After that, the chapter examines the somewhat elusive matter of enforcement of international heritage law, which is for the most part reliant on non-specific fora, and sometimes other treaties altogether, to translate heritage goals into the language of those other instruments. Alternative fora can have beneficial effects on the inclusion of communities as a central part of heritage processes. Lastly, the chapter engages briefly with the matter of domestic implementation.
Lunar Nomenclature
Authors: Altschuler Daniel R. , Ballesteros Fernando J.
Published: July 2019

This chapter presents a review of the history and development of lunar nomenclature, the first maps, and the work to obtain a uniform and consensual international lunar nomenclature.
Catherine of Alexandria (c.287–c.305)
Authors: Altschuler Daniel R. , Ballesteros Fernando J.
Published: July 2019

This chapter narrates the life of Catherine of Alexandria, saint of whose existence there is no record but who had a notable influence on Christianity.
Nicole-Reine de la Briere Lepaute (1723–1788)
Authors: Altschuler Daniel R. , Ballesteros Fernando J.
Published: July 2019

This chapter talks about Nicole Lepaute, an eighteenth-century French computer that accurately calculated the passage of Halley’s Comet.
Mary Fairfax Greig Somerville (1780–1872)
Authors: Altschuler Daniel R. , Ballesteros Fernando J.
Published: July 2019

This chapter is about the Scottish scientific writer Mary Somerville: her life and her relationships with the main scientists of the time.
Agnes Mary Clerke (1842–1907)
Authors: Altschuler Daniel R. , Ballesteros Fernando J.
Published: July 2019

This chapter is about the Irish scientific writer Agnes Clerke and her work for the popularization of science and astronomy.
Sofia Vasílyevna Kovalévskaya (1850–1891)
Authors: Altschuler Daniel R. , Ballesteros Fernando J.
Published: July 2019

The fascinating life of Russian mathematician Sofia Kovalévskaya is narrated in this chapter, along with her problems in being accepted as an equal in the academic world.
Annie Scott Dill Russell Maunder (1868–1947)
Authors: Altschuler Daniel R. , Ballesteros Fernando J.
Published: July 2019

This chapter focuses on the work and life of the marriage formed by Annie Maunder and her husband, both astronomers.
Henrietta Swan Leavitt (1868–1921)
Authors: Altschuler Daniel R. , Ballesteros Fernando J.
Published: July 2019

This chapter describes the painful life of Henrietta Leavitt, who discovered the tool that allows the distances to other galaxies to be measured.
Marie Skłodowska-Curie (1867–1934)
Authors: Altschuler Daniel R. , Ballesteros Fernando J.
Published: July 2019

This chapter delves into the life of the famous scientist Marie Curie, winner of two Nobel prizes who worked together with her husband in the understanding of radioactivity.
Judith Arlene Resnik (1949–1986)
Authors: Altschuler Daniel R. , Ballesteros Fernando J.
Published: July 2019

This chapter focuses on the life of the American astronaut Judith Resnik, who died in the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger.
Orbitofrontal cortex damage effects in humans and other primates
Authors: Rolls Edmund T.
Published: July 2019

Impairments in the rapid reversal learning of stimulus-reward associations, when expected rewards are not obtained or punishers are obtained, are produced by damage to the orbitofrontal cortex; and contribute to the major changes in emotion, personality, and impulsiveness that can be produced by damage to the orbitofrontal cortex. Impairments in the processing of rewards are found, with alterations in food choice and eating, and in the identification of face and voice expressions, which are important for social behavior.
Uneven Odds
Authors: Vaid Divya
Published: July 2019

Focussing on patterns of intergenerational stability, this book traces the unequal structures of opportunity in India. The author addresses questions and approaches towards social mobility (or the lack thereof) through interactions between social class, caste, and gender while adopting a rural–urban perspective, capturing changes over time, and the implications of social mobility on a national scale. This book plugs in crucial gaps in the research on social mobility, which has been marked by the lack of precision regarding the extent of mobility in contemporary India. Using a broad lens of both caste and class, this up-to-date statistical analysis, which uses national-level datasets and advanced quantitative methods, enriches the sociological as well as the anthropological literature, while also locating India within the larger context of social mobility research in the industrialized and industrializing world.
Mobility Mechanisms
Authors: Vaid Divya
Published: July 2019

The relative and absolute rates of mobility are significant in their own regard, however, it leaves open the question of the ‘processual effects’ of industrialization, or in other words what are the drivers of this mobility. This chapter studies the impact of education on social mobility. The major question posed here is whether education acts as a mediator of mobility or not. Or, are the social origin or inherited characteristics (caste and class) the primary determining factor where the chances of social mobility are concerned? Finally, whether the impact of education varies by community. We find that education mediates the origin-destination relation, with those with higher levels of education able to secure more chances of upward mobility. The critical role of caste and gender is underlined.
State, Community, and Primary Health Care
Authors: Priya Ritu
Published: July 2019

The chapter reconstructs a narrative of health services development in post-Independence India by examining relationships of the state, community, and Primary Health Care approach through existing literature. It combines materialist explanations with analyses of bureaucratic power and cultural hegemony to explain the maldistribution of health care. It argues that a critical analysis of the bio-politics and political economy of health care over the past century must consider five ‘missing links’ in the dominant discourse of HSD policy, that is, the unaffordability of the Euro-American institutional model of over-medicalized health care; the validity of plurality of knowledge; the dominant culture and ethics of health care providers; the prevalent physical, social and cultural iatrogenesis; and complexity of ‘the community’.
Health Care Reforms
Authors: Prasad Purendra
Published: July 2019

How do 35 crore people in India survive on Rs 32 per person per day in urban areas and Rs 26 per person per day in rural areas? The data from National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector indicates that 79 per cent of workers in the unorganised sector live on an income of less than Rs 20 a day. The growing recognition of the devastating effect of illnesses on the capacity of the labouring poor to work, and the rising cost of medical treatment prompted the Indian state to propose a new set of reforms to provide social protection for the unorganized workers. This chapter critiques these reforms, focusing on the possible strategies of inclusion and greater access to the vulnerable groups.
Medical Education and Basic Health Care
Authors: Zachariah Anand
Published: July 2019

Medical education in India is not sufficiently oriented to the health care needs of the country. The knowledge of medicine has primarily originated in western countries and there are mismatches between medical knowledge and health care problems on the ground in India. While specialties such as cardiology and thoracic surgery have grown, basic treatment of coronary artery disease is not accessible to the majority of people. Medial colleges are also not adequately linked to the health care system, therefore not optimally effective in improving health care delivery and exposing students to all levels of the health system. Addressing these structural problems may involve making medical colleges responsible for health care of geographic areas, development of primary care education, and medical curricula that engage with the local context.
Access to Pharmaceuticals
Authors: Srinivasan S. , Aisola Malini
Published: July 2019

Affordability, accessibility, availability, and rationality of medicines are a big challenge in India. Notwithstanding the tag of 'pharmacy of the developing world', the India story is one of poverty and poor access among plenty. The pharma market in India is riven by market failures due to asymmetries of various kinds: between patients, doctors, and pharmaceutical companies. Expecting the market to regulate itself will not work and proactive state intervention is necessary in pricing and provision of medicines and health care services to deal with the extraordinary crisis of public health in India.
Health, Disability, and Equity
Authors: Addlakha Renu
Published: July 2019

This chapter seeks to engage with contemporary debates around health and equity from the perspective of disability. Law is an important site for demonstrating this intersection because it straddles the slippery terrain between configuring the phenomenon of disability as both an individual problem of the body and a historically embedded structural issue with deep roots in the culture, economy and polity. Furthermore, law has been envisioned in India as a critical tool of social reform with the potential for ushering in social transformation as also creating a space for redressal of individual grievances through litigation.
Unwritten Histories
Authors: Middleton Townsend
Published: July 2019

This chapter examines the strategically unwritten practices that made Darjeeling an exceptional space. Reading against the grain of popular history, it interrogates Darjeeling’s exceptionality not as a ‘natural’ outcome of its Himalayan setting, but instead the endgame of a particular calculus of difference and capital, wherein the British made Darjeeling different for their own gain. The critique focuses specifically on the ad hoc and frequently unregulated forms of governance, land distribution, and labour recruitment that enabled Darjeeling to become a bastion of frontier capitalism. Contrasting these dynamics with other frontier regions like Assam, the chapter locates Darjeeling within a broader pattern of colonial exceptionalism, while raising fresh questions about who and what made Darjeeling different—and to what ends and enduring consequences.
Afterword
Authors: Subba Tanka
Published: July 2019

In this provocative afterword, senior scholar and Vice Chancellor of Sikkim University Tanka Subba comments on Darjeeling Reconsidered’s implications for Darjeeling Studies. Subba draws on his own life and work in the Darjeeling hills to productively extend and critique the conversations initiated by the book’s authors. Touching on a range of issues, including Darjeeling’s questionable postcoloniality, its importance in the shifting geopolitics of South Asia, and the long-term prospects of Gorkahaland, Subba leverages his considerable expertise to offer new insight into Darjeeling’s past, present, and future.
Situating Madrasa Education for Girls
Authors: Borker Hem
Published: July 2019

This chapter sets out the historical background and contemporary context of girls’ madrasa education in India. It locates the present research within the broader academic literature. I argue that most research has either completely ignored the everyday experiences of students studying in madrasas or bracketed it in conceptual binaries of social reproduction and empowerment. Drawing on recent anthropological literature, I illustrate an important conceptual gap in research on madrasa education: the tendency to conflate madrasa educational regimes with student practice. In the last part I discuss the theoretical concepts of community, pious self-fashioning, and aspirations that inform my research.
Becoming a Kamil Momina
Authors: Borker Hem
Published: July 2019

This chapter focuses on the everyday lives of the girls inside the madrasa to understand the tension between the ideational construct of an ideal Muslim women and its practice. The madrasa students’ espousal and embodiment of madrasa norms coexists with practices that are not permissible in the madrasa.
From Madrasa to University
Authors: Borker Hem
Published: July 2019

This chapter provides an insight into girls’ lives beyond the madrasa by focusing on the transition made by some madrasa students from girls’ madrasas to higher education in Universities that recognize madrasa degrees.
Values and the Culture of Schools
Authors: Herzberger Radhika
Published: July 2019

This expository essay describes various facets of translating J. Krishnamurti’s educational thought into an institutional setting at Rishi Valley School. Krishnamurti’s is a spiritual philosophy embedded in a transcendental vision; schools are secular institutions located in particular space and time; the former occupies a religious space, the latter address secular issues. How is the gap bridged? And, is there an interface between the secular and the spiritual in Krishnamutri’s thought? These questions form the core of the exposition. The chapter examines the values derived from the founder’s thought embedded in the school’s curricula, the norms that guide student-teacher relationships, and the shape of its outreach programmes in the areas of conservation, health and rural education.
A Space Sans Fear
Authors: Choudhury Priyanuj
Published: July 2019

Fear is one of the foremost debilitating factors that hinder an individual’s growth, and one of the cornerstones of mainstream competitive schooling in India. The presence of fear in the process of schooling has great significance in the way it shapes an individual and affects learning. The purpose of this paper is to analyse the ways in which education can be imparted without the operation of fear, by looking at the everyday practices, rituals and built form of a KFI school in Bengaluru. Through an ethnographic exploration, the author attempts to interpret the micro processes of everyday life in the school and pedagogic practices employed across junior, middle and senior school classrooms that work in collusion to create an environment free of fear. Through a case study of contradictions, the author also looks at the possible factors that may work against the creation of such a space.
Multigrade Instruction at Rishi Valley and Neel Bagh
Authors: Herzberger Radhika
Published: July 2019

Recent surveys of the education scenario in India’s countryside highlight the fact that within a single classroom student learning levels vary greatly. Multigrade classrooms, i.e. classrooms where student competency levels are identified, and each student is enabled to move at his or her own pace, are the need of the hour. This essay examines multigrade classroom structures pioneered in south India by Gordon F. Pearce at Rishi Valley School and David Horsburgh at Neel Bagh. A no less important purpose of the essay is to show that the culture of multigrade classrooms of Pearce’s and Horsburgh’s design, though very different, promoted a vision of education enunciated by Rishi Valley’s founder, J. Krishnamurti.
Contextual Challenges for Primary School Education
Authors: Kukreja Hitesh
Published: July 2019

This chapter attempts to explore the relevance of Mono-grade methodology for teaching-learning processes in primary schools, considering their contextual and spatial specificities. The analyses employ the findings from fieldwork done in rural schools of the Rishi Valley Education Centre (RVEC), Andhra Pradesh and government primary schools in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand, investigating the meaning of Mono-grade methodology and RVEC’s Multi-Grade Multi-Level (MGML) methodology. These comparative meanings are informed by the promise and practice of MGML in RVEC and primary schools that function amidst the precarity induced by disasters and low-cost private schools in Uttarkashi. In conclusion, it locates the possibilities of context specific teaching-learning process in schools outside the paradigm of standardized Mono-grade teaching-learning processes in primary schools in India.
Introduction
Authors: Ahmad Irfan
Published: July 2019

The ‘Introduction’ proposes a framework to understand the truth behind, as opposed to mere reality of, democratic–electoral politics. Rather than viewing the understandings of politics as a function of the state in opposition to the understandings of politics as not limited to the state, it advances the thesis that an important way to analyse democracy is to understand it as an intertwined phenomenon of warfare and welfare. This algebra of warfare-welfare is constitutive of democracy in general, including in India. To this end, the ‘Introduction’ examines important works on the 2014 Indian elections informed by ‘democratic triumphalism’. From an interdisciplinary and in-disciplinary approach, it aims to throw a pebble into the calm, muddy, unquestioned—to some even unquestionable—water of democracy to craft an alternative and democratic idea of democracy. Stressing a longue durée frame, it puts human subjectivity rather than cold statistics at the centre of our understanding of electoral democracy.
Modi and the Spectre of Terrorism
Authors: Sethi Manisha
Published: July 2019

Terrorism constituted an important element of the wider ensemble of ideas and images that Narendra Modi’s election campaign disseminated. It reiterated the Bharatiya Janata Party’s idea of India as, essentially, a Hindu nation; Hindus as authentic citizens and Muslims as the ‘other’. Based on a survey of Modi’s election speeches, BJP’s publicity material and the extensive commentary and analysis focused on the person of Narendra Modi, this paper argues that terrorism as an election issue was carefully calibrated by Modi’s managers: a spectre of imminent threats was raised, dangerous ‘other’ identified, the outgoing government was lambasted for failing to quarantine the danger, and an alternative Modi model of battling terrorism held up. This had the effect of crafting the tough, muscular, macho Hindutva icon who would rein in ‘Islamic terrorism’, and consolidating and rallying a majoritarian vote bank behind this leader.
Hindutva’s Reach Out to Muslims in the 2014 Elections
Authors: Reyaz Mohammad
Published: July 2019

At the peak of the 2014 election campaign, Delhi was dotted with posters like ‘Na Doori Na Khaai, Modi Hamara Bhai’ (neither difference nor gap, Modi is our brother). These posters announcing Narendra Modi as ‘our brother’, were put up by Maulana Suhaib Qasmi of Jamaat Ulema-e-Hind, aligned to the BJP. Several such groups of BJP’s Muslims worked to mobilize Muslim votes for the right-wing Hindutva party. Drawing upon field reporting, covering the 2014 elections, and interviews with some of the political leaders and stake-holders of these organizations (and their literature), this chapter examines three key issues: contradiction between BJP’s outreach programmes towards Muslims and their condemnation of similar initiatives by other political parties as ‘Muslim appeasement’; perception of Muslim identity among leaders engaging in such initiatives; and whether such outreach programs had any impact in drawing Muslim voters towards the BJP?
On the Ground
Authors: French Patrick
Published: July 2019

Based on a personal journey through states in south, west, and north India, starting from Bengaluru and ending with Banaras, this chapter examines popular and elite conceptions of electoral politics during the 2014 Indian general election campaign. It argues that the National Democratic Alliance’s success was not monocausal, but arose from effective targeting of ‘winnable’ seats, high turnout by new voters, the professionalism of the BJP’s national campaign, and limits in the success of appeals to caste identity in favour of voter preference based on economic self-interest and aspiration. Using interviews with individuals, ‘On The Ground’ looks at the ways local, regional, or state factors can affect voting decisions.
On Studying Elections and Democracy
Authors: Thirunavukkarasu R.
Published: July 2019

This conversation between R. Thirunavukkarasu and T.K. Oommen underscores the sociological significance of analysing electoral democracy. Electoral studies pre-supposes democracy which is a recent phenomenon; as recent as 2000, only 58 per cent of the world’s population had electoral democracies. These factors explain the rickety level of election studies in sociology. In West European countries, wherein democracy flourishes the co-terminality between political and cultural boundaries is either a fact or an ideal. However, in India cultural pluralism is both a fact and a valued goal. The three-tier Indian polity—local, provincial (linguistic states), and national—witnesses different behaviours. Along with factors such as class, gender, age, and rural–urban differences which are common to democracies, the specificity of caste is important in India. In addition to the horizontal factors, caste divides voters vertically and the intersectionality among these factors increases the complexity of democracy and electoral behaviour. The conversation also discusses the forthcoming 2019 general election.
Accountability of Judges
Authors: Ranjan Sudhanshu
Published: July 2019

Judges are not above the law. Like the other institutions of the State, the judiciary must be accountable. Chief Justice Edward Coke told King James I point blank that was not above the law and quoted jurist Bracton, Non-sub homine sed sub deo et lege. (The King is under no man, save under God and the law.) Ironically, judges themselves don’t appear to be following this dictum giving an impression that they are above the law. The judiciary should be accountable according to its own reasonings employed for holding all other institutions to account. But it abhors the idea of accountability for itself in the name of its independence. It is a misnomer as independence and accountability are complementary, not antagonistic.
Binary Application of Laws
Authors: Ranjan Sudhanshu
Published: July 2019

The dictum ‘law is no respecter of person’ has become hollow. The priviligentsia always tweak the system in their favour, and get favourable orders from the court. It has been proved with examples how the privileged and the unprivileged have been treated differently. The privileged are treated differentially and deferentially.