bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cosmopolitan Classicism
Authors: Evangelista Stefano
Published: September 2017

Oscar Wilde associated ancient Greece and modern France as the homelands of artistic autonomy and personal freedom. France and the French language were crucial in his adoption of a cosmopolitan identity in which his close emotional and intellectual engagement with the ancient world also played a key role. His practices of classical reception therefore have roots in the French as well as English traditions. Wilde’s attitude towards ancient Greece initially shows the influence of French Parnassian poetry. As time goes on, however, he starts to engage with the new images of the ancient world promoted by Decadence and Symbolism, which sidelined the Greek classicism idealized by the Parnassians in favour of Hellenistic and Latin antiquity. Particularly important to Wilde were his exchanges with French Symbolist authors Marcel Schwob and Pierre Louÿs, whose writings on Hellenistic Greece are in dialogue with Wilde’s works, notably ‘The Critic as Artist’ and Salomé.
Wilde’s New Republic
Authors: Hill Marylu
Published: September 2017

As a result of his classical training in the Honours School of Literæ Humaniores at Oxford, Oscar Wilde drew frequently on the works of Plato for inspiration, especially the Republic. The idea of a New Republic and its philosophy resonated profoundly with Wilde—so much so that the philosophical questions raised in Plato’s Republic become the central problems of The Picture of Dorian Gray. This chapter maps the parallels between the Republic and Dorian Gray, with specific focus on several of Plato’s most striking images from the Republic. In particular, the depiction of Lord Henry suggests not only the philosophical soul gone corrupt, but also the ‘drone’ who seduces the oligarchic young man into a life of ‘unprincipled freedom’, according to Plato’s definition of democracy. By invoking the Socratic lens, Wilde critiques Lord Henry’s anti-philosophy of the ‘New Hedonism’ and contrasts it with the Socratic eros.
Oscar as (Ovid as) Orpheus
Authors: Manny Iarla
Published: September 2017

Whereas Plato is more commonly considered as an ancient source for The Picture of Dorian Gray, this chapter looks at Ovid and his Metamorphoses as a classical model for Wilde’s sole novel. Unlike Narcissus and Pygmalion, who are more obviously alluded to in Dorian Gray, Ovid’s Orpheus has mainly been overlooked as a mythical archetype for Wilde’s novel. Orpheus, the legendary minstrel whose story is related in Books 10 and 11 of the Metamorphoses, has long been regarded as the archetypal artist who is the most relevant self-reflexive representative of the poet Ovid himself. While the tragic relationship between Dorian Gray and Sibyl Vane in Wilde’s novel has been compared to that between Orpheus and Eurydice in Ovid’s poem, this chapter proposes that the Ovidian Orpheus’ misogynistic and pederastic tendencies can help unravel the evocatively named Dorian’s troubled relations with the sexes, as well as those of Wilde himself.
Introduction
Authors: Hadfield Andrew
Published: September 2017

There were few subjects that animated people in early modern Europe more than lying. The subject is endlessly represented and discussed in literature; treatises on rhetoric and courtiership; theology, philosophy, and jurisprudence; travel writing; pamphlets and news books; science and empirical observation; popular culture, especially books about strange, unexplained phenomena; and, of course, legal discourse. For many, lying could be controlled and limited even if not eradicated; for others, lying was a necessary element of a casuistical tradition, liars balancing complicated issues and short-term pragmatic considerations in the expectation of solving more problems than they caused through their deceit....
The Religious Culture of Lying
Authors: Hadfield Andrew
Published: September 2017

Chapter 3 explores the varieties of religious belief and religious debates about the nature of lying, in particular whether there was a need to declare religious belief to hostile authorities or whether it was possible to equivocate or practise ‘mental reservation’ even if one could not actually lie. The chapter explores discourses of martyrdom and arguments about the limits of testifying one’s faith, as well as how authorities were to be obeyed or disobeyed. It outlines the implications of the beliefs of a variety of diverse religious groups such as the Jesuits, varieties of Protestants, and those whom Calvin labelled ‘Nicodemites’. The chapter comments on the vitriolic debate between Thomas More and William Tyndale; John Donne’s major treatise Pseudo-Martyr; Nathaniel Woodes’s strange play The Conflict of Conscience; Calvin and Foxe and other Reformation writers.
Rhetoric, Commonplacing, and Poetics
Authors: Hadfield Andrew
Published: September 2017

Chapter 4 examines a variety of treatises and debates about rhetoric and its value, and whether the art of persuasion could be a dangerous tool in the hands of the unscrupulous or even whether it was a skill that risked corrupting the user, dangers that were identified by Quintilian, whose Institutio Oratoria (The Orator’s Education) shaped so much rhetorical theory and practice in the Renaissance. The chapter explores the practice of commonplacing, noting down particular maxims which could then serve as the basis of explorations of issues, a practice that, like rhetoric, generated anxiety about truth, falsehood, and lying. Particular attention is paid to Erasmus’s Colloquies and Lingua; William Baldwin’s A Treatise of Moral Philosophy, the most popular work of philosophy in sixteenth-century England; the use of commonplaces in Montaigne’s Essays; George Puttenham’s use of proverbs and figures in his Arte of English Poesie (1589); and Sir Philip Sidney’s understanding of poetry as lying in The Defence of Poetry.
John Hewitt, Sam Thompson, and a Lost Labour Culture
Authors: Parr Connal
Published: September 2017

This chapter demonstrates the importance of the Labour movement on two Belfast-born Protestant writers and how this inculcated a socialist conviction quite separate, and antagonistic, to Ulster Unionism. Referencing Sam Thompson’s unpublished plays as well as his trio of performed works, it illuminates his public impact as well as the significance of the play Over the Bridge (1960). John Hewitt’s early political activities and regionalist outlook are explored, as is the controversy surrounding his 1957 move to Coventry. The underestimated importance of a class perspective within Ulster Protestantism is addressed, with questions of national identity secondary to the writers’ Left and internationalist politics. With continuing resonance literature itself is shown as intrinsic to the Northern Ireland Labour Party, of which both were associated. The chapter concludes with analysis of the impact of both writers.
Stewart Parker, the UWC Strike of May 1974, and Prisons
Authors: Parr Connal
Published: September 2017

This chapter explores the UWC strike of May 1974 through the prism of playwright Stewart Parker. A native of East Belfast, Parker experimented with the dramatic form at the same time as structuring his work around the politics, divisions, and contradictions of his own community. The strike led to the destruction of the Sunningdale power-sharing Executive, though this was as much an expression of working-class Protestant power as an assault on the concept of nationalists (and Catholics) in power. This connectedly takes in Loyalist prisoners who began swelling the jails, a familiar academic concentration but seldom addressed through a cultural prism. Martin Lynch’s Chronicles of Long Kesh (2009) tackles the experience via a contested portrayal of Loyalist prisoners. The chapter ends with a return to Stewart Parker’s capacious and self-critical take on Ulster Protestant identity.
The Anger and Energy of Gary Mitchell
Authors: Parr Connal
Published: September 2017

Born and brought up on the overwhelmingly Protestant Rathcoole housing estate, Gary Mitchell explored the fragmentation of Ulster Loyalism during the era of the peace process in his key plays and continues to mine the disillusionment and travails of the Protestant working class across Northern Ireland. The Rathcoole focus highlights the dying embers of the Labour movement which carried on in Newtownabbey while the rest of the Northern Ireland Labour Party had faded away, a spirit embodied by the independent councillor Mark Langhammer. Though Mitchell was forced to leave Rathcoole in 2005, he continues to grapple with the strains of working-class Protestant communities in the form of policing tensions, identity questions, and a growing underclass (or ‘precariat’) which considers itself—like other white working-class groups—‘left behind’ by politicians and deindustrialization.
Conclusion
Authors: Parr Connal
Published: September 2017

We have 53 entries in the Census of Religious Denominations in Northern Ireland—Pentecostal, Elim Tabernacle, House of God, Free Presbyterian. You may split and maybe you are the better for splitting, but fission is part of the identity which is strange, because an identity should be an enclosing thing....
Greek Plays in England
Authors: Pollard Tanya
Published: September 2017

Chapter 1, “Greek Plays in England,” argues that England played a crucial role in new transnational conversations about rediscovered Greek plays. The chapter traces the history of scholarship, translation, and publication of Greek plays in England, with a focus on the contributions of Erasmus. It develops extended readings of two important early contributions—Jane, Lady Lumley’s Tragedy of Iphigenia, a translation of Euripides’ Iphigenia in Aulis, and George Gascoigne and Francis Kinwelmersh’s Jocasta, a translation of Euripides’ Phoenician Women—as well as discussing Thomas Watson’s Latin translation of Antigone. The chapter closes by exploring knowledge of Greek among writers for London’s commercial theaters, and identifying key plays and figures that loomed large in English dramatic responses.
Health and healthcare
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: September 2017

Chapter 1 provides a contextual frame for the book. An inquiry into the key concepts of health and healthcare is followed by an illustration of the general health production function, that is, the association between increasing healthcare inputs and resulting health outcomes. The important message is the pattern of positive but diminishing effects of healthcare on health: more healthcare improves health, but at a diminishing rate. The production function is also illustrated at the macro level: when considering the poor countries of the world, a strong association is observed between increased healthcare spending and the country’s life expectancy. However, among rich countries we observe a strongly diminishing effect of increased healthcare spending. Some further international comparisons are included to show that the richer a country gets, the higher the proportion of wealth it spends on healthcare.
What makes the market for healthcare different?
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: September 2017

The market for healthcare is different from ‘ordinary markets’ for two quite different reasons: first, there are inherent failures in the market for healthcare which create inefficiencies if left unregulated. Second, a large number of countries have a policy objective of equity in access to needed health services, in line with the World Health Organization’s ambition of universal health coverage. This chapter investigates the efficiency reasons for public regulations, explaining what makes healthcare different. The assumptions behind the perfect market model are compared with the real-world imperfect market for healthcare. Asymmetric information between the provider and the consumer calls for protection of healthcare users, through quality control and ethical codes of conduct. The chapter explains the agency relationship between doctors and patients. Another important market failure is that of externalities in healthcare consumption, which calls for various types of regulations.
Equality and fairness
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: September 2017

This chapter investigates the equity reasons behind regulations and public finance of healthcare. An inquiry into altruism and redistribution is followed by a discussion of equality and fairness as applied to the distribution of health and healthcare. Voluntary redistribution through cross-subsidized healthcare is explained by paternalistic altruism, that is, most people simply care for their fellow citizens’ access to needed healthcare. The concepts of equity, equality, and fairness in health are explained and defined. Three theories of distributive justice have particular relevance in the context of determining a fair allocation of healthcare: utilitarianism, egalitarianism, and Rawls’ maximin principle. These theories are formally analysed within the framework of a health possibility frontier. The figure illustrates a trade-off between efficiency as health maximization versus equality of health.
The social environment and health
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: September 2017

This chapter explores three main issues related to the analyses of the social gradient in health: correlations, causations, and interventions. Observed correlations between indicators of socioeconomic position and health do not imply that there are causations. The usefulness of various indicators is discussed, such as education, income, occupation categories, and social class. A causal pathway is presented that suggests a chain from early life circumstances, via education, occupation, income, and perceived status onto health. The chapter ends with a discussion of various policy options to reduce inequalities in health that are caused by social determinants.
Funding sources: an overview
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: September 2017

This chapter provides an overview of alternative funding sources. It starts with the ‘three-party model’ to illustrate the money flows between households, providers, and purchasers, that is, government and private insurance as the third-party payers. The chapter distinguishes four funding sources which in sum will represent the total budget for possible healthcare expenditures: (1) patient payments (commonly referred to as ‘out-of-pocket’ payments); (2) private health insurance; (3) tax funding, including social insurance systems with payroll contributions; and (4) donations. These four sources of revenue can be explained by people’s preferences for their own health insurance as well as their willingness to cross-subsidize fellow citizens’ use of healthcare. International comparisons show wide disparities in the proportions of funding sources, primarily reflecting how wealthy a country is.
Patient payments
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: September 2017

This chapter returns to the reason why people—in an ex ante situation—prefer to pay part of the healthcare costs ex post. This is simply because there is no welfare gain from insurance when the potential treatment expenditure is sufficiently low. The efficiency argument for co-insurance as a mechanism to reduce the welfare loss from insurance is illustrated using a standard model. Different patient payment systems are compared. A recurrent issue in policy debates over patient payments is their distributive implications. This inherent inequity problem is discussed, including a diagram showing the deterrent effect of out-of-pocket payments for poor people’s healthcare utilization. Finally, in a context where patient payments are justified as a way to reduce ‘excess demand’, the chapter suggests that it may be doctor initiated rather than patient initiated. Hence, it might be more appropriate to regulate the supply side than the demand side.
The healthcare delivery system: an overview
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: September 2017

This chapter provides an overview of the healthcare delivery system. A figure illustrates how six different parts of the system relate to each other. The primary care level plays a key role in many countries by representing the gate, in which referrals to secondary care are being made. Tertiary care is principally of two types depending on patients’ prognosis: chronic care or rehabilitation. In addition to the three care levels, there are two parts with quite different roles: pharmacies provide pharmaceuticals, and sickness benefit schemes compensate the sick for their income losses. A recurrent policy challenge is to make each provider level take into account the resource implications of their isolated decisions outside of their own budgets. A brief discussion is included on the scope for ‘internal markets’.
Economic evaluation and priority setting: an overview
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: September 2017

This chapter provides an overview of the methodologies that come under the umbrella term of economic evaluation in healthcare. Economic evaluations seek to identify, measure, value, and compare alternative programmes. A taxonomy is developed to distinguish economic evaluation techniques depending on whether benefits have been measured in money terms or not, and whether benefits are based on preferences or not. When benefits are measured in money terms, it is referred to as a cost–benefit analysis (CBA). If benefits are measured in health terms, some sort of cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is being used. An important class of CEA is what has come to be labelled ‘cost-utility-analysis’ (CUA). The chapter explains the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) and illustrates the cost-effectiveness plane. Finally, the idea of discounting health is discussed.
Beyond cost-effectiveness: priority setting
Authors: Olsen Jan Abel
Published: September 2017

The final chapter of this book, Chapter 20, goes beyond the two sets of variables that are considered within an economic evaluation: costs and outcomes. The issue here is how equity and fairness can be included in the decision-making process by allowing different threshold values for quality-adjusted life years depending on the distributive implications of healthcare programmes. The fundamental question is what type of inequality that policymakers would seek to reduce. Five equity principles in health are discussed, and compared using diagrams and numerical examples. These are equality in (1) future health, (2) future health losses, (3) the proportion of future health lost, (4) lifetime health losses, and (5) lifetime health. While the debate on equity weighting generally involves arguments for accepting higher threshold values, the chapter ends with the contexts when lower threshold values would be appropriate, that is, being cost-effective does not imply that the programme should be publicly funded.
Introduction
Authors: Ohlin Jens David , May Larry , Finkelstein Claire
Published: September 2017

This volume brings to bear philosophical analysis and normative legal theory to study the value of lives in war. There is already a well-established literature regarding the lives of civilians, but the lives of combatants have generally received far less attention in both the legal and philosophical literatures. Consequently, this volume aims to consider both questions together, analyzing questions of methodology, legal doctrine, and philosophical commitments. The arguments outlined in this volume reveal a set of principles, including necessity and proportionality, whose core essence remains essentially contested. From the secure viewpoint of the purely descriptive, lawyers might confidently describe some of these questions as settled. But many others, even from the vantage point of descriptive theory, remain under-analyzed and radically lacking in clarity and certainty. The results of this collective investigation open up a new research programme regarding the legal and the ethical regulation of war, specifically how the lives of combatants and civilians alike are valued, weighed, balanced, and protected.
Sharp Wars Are Brief
Authors: Ohlin Jens David
Published: September 2017

This chapter makes three claims. First, Lieber’s conception of necessity stems directly from his philosophical claim that sharp wars are brief. Second, the Lieberian conception of necessity is not a relic of the historical past but rather represents the basic structure of today’s laws of war. If one wants to know why today’s laws of war do so little to value the lives of combatants—while protecting civilians—one need look no further than Lieber’s claim that sharp wars are brief. Finally, the chapter evaluates Lieber’s argument and asks why the laws of war assign so little value to the lives of combatants. The chapter concludes with a very limited normative defense of this state of affairs, but the existing law will not emerge unscathed; reform is still required.
Proportionate Killing
Authors: Davidovic Jovana
Published: September 2017

This chapter attempts to explain how liability and lesser-evil justifications can work together, in an individualist account of just war, to answer some difficult questions about fighting in war. It starts with a brief survey of other individualist attempts to make sense of jus in bello in general and proportionality in bello in particular. It argues that the traditional jus in bello conditions and the separation of labor between them can be helpful, as a model, for understanding exactly how liability and lesser-evil justifications are meant to work together to account for some of our intuitions regarding the more difficult cases of collective action and limited or minimal moral responsibility in war. One upshot of this account is that it gives us reasons to reject the view that a complex picture of justification for actions in war needs to commit us to pacifism.
Rewriting the AUMF
Authors: Todd Jon
Published: September 2017

The chapter starts with a synopsis of the concept of distinction and explains why it is foundational to any understanding of the concept of combatancy. It then provides an overview of the US approach to the concept of combatancy and surveys the changing position of that concept in international law. The chapter goes on to discuss the concept of combatancy in the courts and in Congress. Because the US executive branch either has not acknowledged or cannot follow this evolving concept of combatancy in the context of modern warfare, Congress must reauthorize and update the AUMF, expanding the concept of combatancy to include the issue of non-state actors, a recognition of partial compliance of combatants, and an incorporation of the ICRC Guidance on Direct Participation in Hostilities.
Joint and Combined Targeting
Authors: Schmitt Michael , Biller Jeffrey , Fahey Sean C , Goddard David S , Highfill Chad
Published: September 2017

This chapter discusses how the law is implemented by armed forces during “targeting,” the process by which individuals and objects are systematically analyzed and prioritized for potential engagement. Centered on an examination of the United States’ “Joint Targeting Cycle,” a construct broadly shared by many other states and organizations, such as NATO, it explains how international humanitarian law concepts are given practical effect during armed conflict. The analysis then proceeds to explore the nuances of targeting in different operational domains: air, land, sea, and cyber. While achieving broadly the same set of legal functions, practice has developed to reflect the different means and methods of warfare in each particular environment. The chapter concludes by extending the discussion to targeting in a coalition context, in which processes and procedures are required to account for legal differences between partners, while minimizing the detrimental effect on operations in order to achieve “legal interoperability.”
Emotional Cities
Authors: Prestel Joseph Ben
Published: September 2017

Between 1860 and 1910, Berlin and Cairo went through a period of dynamic transformation. During this period, a growing number of contemporaries in both places made corresponding arguments about how urban change affected city dwellers’ emotions. In newspaper articles, scientific treatises, and pamphlets, shifting practices, such as nighttime leisure, were depicted as affecting feelings like love and disgust. Looking at the ways in which different urban dwellers, from psychologists to revelers, framed recent changes in terms of emotions, this book reveals the striking parallels between the histories of Berlin and Cairo. In both cities, various authors associated changes in the city with such phenomena as a loss of control over feelings or the need for a reform of emotions. The parallels in these arguments belie the assumed dissimilarity between European and Middle Eastern cities during the nineteenth century. Drawing on similar debates about emotions in Berlin and Cairo, the book provides a new argument about the regional compartmentalization of urban history. It highlights how the circulation of scientific knowledge, the expansion of empires, and global capital flows led to similarities in the pasts of these two cities. By combining urban history and the history of emotions, this book proposes an innovative perspective on the emergence of different, yet comparable cities at the end of the nineteenth century.
What is Love?
Authors: Prestel Joseph Ben
Published: September 2017

After the middle of the nineteenth century, city clerks, social reformers, and journalists began to reflect about the effects of Berlin’s dynamic transformation. This chapter focuses on an influential strand of this literature in which authors claimed that the spread of new activities, such as visits to dance halls or seeking marriage through personal ads, resulted in the decline of people’s “feeling of morality” (sittliches Gefühl). The chapter demonstrates that it was important for contemporary authors to draw on the concept of feeling rather than other concepts of morality, as this enabled them to respond to the rising authority of the natural sciences. Since a number of observers described a feeling of morality as an important element that tied Berliners together as a community, its loss raised concern about the effects of urban change on the bodies and minds of the city’s inhabitants.
Neighborhood of Passion
Authors: Prestel Joseph Ben
Published: September 2017

A central entertainment district also became the focus of debates about emotions in Cairo. Following the British occupation of Egypt in 1882, newspapers and magazines began to argue that activities in the neighborhood of Azbakiyya, such as alcohol consumption, prostitution, and gambling, destroyed the rationality of Cairo’s middle-class men. According to these accounts, men were at risk of wavering between extreme emotions of anger and love in the entertainment district. This loss of control over their emotions would ultimately lead to dire consequences for entire families and the Egyptian nation at large. The chapter shows that these portrayals were inseparable from the shifting power structures in Cairo. Since many customers, barmaids and pimps came from Western European countries, Azbakiyya was framed as a symptom of the “foreign” domination of Egypt.
Precarious Calm
Authors: Prestel Joseph Ben
Published: September 2017

In Berlin, the portrayals of the negative emotional effects of the city ushered in attempts at “reform.” Doctors, real estate developers, and city clerks in the German capital penned publications in which they praised the positive effects of suburbs and physical exercise. Berliners were advised that through activities like breathing fresh air, gardening, and exercising the body, they could strengthen their nerves and bring back calm, positive, and controllable emotions. This notion of emotional betterment drove the spread of several gymnastic and sport clubs, as well as the creation of a number of new suburbs that mushroomed along the fringes of the city. While these developments came with a universal promise of improving Berlin as a whole, a closer look at the practices of emotional reform shows that they often served to rearticulate dividing lines of class and gender.
Francis Bacon and the Origins of Christian Virtuosity
Authors: Nuovo Victor
Published: September 2017

Although the vocation of Christian virtuoso was invented and named by Robert Boyle, Francis Bacon provided the archtype. A Christian virtuoso is an experimental natural philosopher who professes Christianity, who endeavors to unite empiricism and supernatural belief in an intellectual life. In his program for the renewal of the learning Bacon prescribed that the empirical study of nature be the basis of all the sciences, including not only the study of physical things, but of human society, and literature. He insisted that natural causes only be used to explain natural events and proposed not to mix theology with natural philosophy. This became a rule of the Royal Society of London, of which Boyle was a principal founder. Bacon’s rule also had a theological use, to preserve the purity and the divine authority of revelation. In the mind of the Christian virtuoso, nature and divine revelation were separate but complementary sources of truth.
Epicurus, Lucretius, and the Crisis of Atheism
Authors: Nuovo Victor
Published: September 2017

The situation that gave rise to a crisis of atheism was in part literary, in part ideological. The rediscovery of Lucretius’ De rerum natura and Book X of Diogenes Laertius’ Lives of Eminent Philosophers brought the philosophy of Epicurus to prominence and led to a revival of ancient atomism. These works became textbooks for the new mechanical philosophy of nature, which was a revival of ancient Greek atomism, and provided reasons and arguments for materialism and a naturalized ethics. They denied divine creation and providence and the future life, attributing such beliefs to mere superstition. Because these views were integral to the new philosophy, they could not be ignored. The upshot of all this was a crisis in belief.
The Origin of Locke’s Essay
Authors: Nuovo Victor
Published: September 2017

According to Locke’s recollection, supplemented by his friend James Tyrrell, the idea that grew into An Essay concerning Human Understanding occurred to him on a winter’s evening in 1671. He and some friends had gathered to enquire about the principles of revealed religion and morality. They quickly came to an impasse. It was then that the idea that became the theme of the Essay entered Locke’s mind. He recalls also having inscribed some ‘hasty and undigested thoughts’ for a subsequent meeting. This document was the original draft or Urtext of the Essay, This chapter considers the circumstances that may have led to the original discussion and its impasse, and attempts to retrieve the original draft or Urtext of the Essay from its earliest surviving draft. Locke’s Urtext outlines an empirical method or logic of enquiry and explanation, which is instrumental in assessing the scope of human understanding. He concludes that a science of nature is beyond its scope, but accepts that it is well enough suited for morality and religious belief and other practical pursuits.
The Philosophy of a Christian Virtuoso iii
Authors: Nuovo Victor
Published: September 2017

The question why Locke failed to publish an ethical system, notwithstanding the value he placed on the moral life, is raised and its answer postponed. Locke’s thoughts about ethics expressed in the Essay and other writings are examined, their sources identified, and the systematic connections between them are considered. Hellenistic sources, especially Epicurean ones, are identified, along with the ethical rationalism and naturalism of Hugo Grotius. Following Grotius, Locke developed a theory of the law of nature, rooted in social convenience, but sanctioned by divine command. In Some Thoughts concerning Education, Locke advocated the cultivation of virtues suitable to the moral and civic life of a gentleman. His abortive attempt to develop a system of ethics in ‘Of Ethics in General’, intended as a chapter of the Essay, but abandoned, brings the reader back to the opening question. Locke concluded that revelation is a more reliable source of moral knowledge.
The Invisible Hand and the Cunning of Reason
Authors: Ullmann-Margalit Edna
Published: September 2017

The idea of the invisible hand has had an impact not only on the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries but on the twentieth and twenty-first centuries as well, and it has had a curious ideological career: in previous centuries it had been used to promote ideals of secular, enlightened progress, while in the twentieth and the twenty-first, it is used inversely to promote conservative reverence toward traditions. There are two main models for invisible-hand explanations, and the current, inverse, ideological use of the idea of the invisible hand by conservative circles as against liberals and social planners springs from not distinguishing between the two models.
Solidarity in Consumption
Authors: Ullmann-Margalit Edna
Published: September 2017

Contrary to a common picture of relationships in a market economy, people often express communal and membership-seeking impulses via consumption choices, purchasing goods and services because other people are doing so as well. Shared identities are maintained and created in this way. Solidarity goods are goods whose value increases as the number of people enjoying them increases. Exclusivity goods are goods whose value decreases as the number of people enjoying them increases. Distinctions can be drawn among diverse value functions, capturing diverse relationships between the value of goods and the value of shared or unshared consumption. Though markets spontaneously produce solidarity goods, individuals sometimes have difficulty in producing such goods on their own, or in coordinating on choosing them. Here law has a potential role. There are implications for trend setting, clubs, partnerships, national events, social cascades, and compliance without enforcement.
The Case of the Camera in the Kitchen
Authors: Ullmann-Margalit Edna
Published: September 2017

In the summer of 2007, a member of the Rationality Center at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem took it upon himself to install a closed-circuit TV camera in the Center’s kitchen. An email explained that the camera was installed in an effort to solve the problem of cleanness in the kitchen. The camera was removed a week later: within this week, the members of the Center exchanged close to 120 emails among themselves, expressing their opinions for and against the camera, and discussing related issues. Taking off from this exchange, this article explores some of the surprisingly rich set of normative concerns touched upon by the kitchen camera incident. Among them: public surveillance and people’s polarized attitudes to it, the invasive gaze and the argument that “if you have nothing to hide you have nothing to worry about,” the efficacy of disciplining behavior through sanctions along with the problem of shaming sanctions, the notion of privacy and its arguable relevance to the kitchen case, and more. In an epilogue, I offer some reflections in the wake of the incident, connecting it to the incipient literature on regulation through observation. I find that it is precisely the smallness, concreteness, and seeming triviality of this incident that helps bring a large set of interconnected, vexing normative concerns into sharp relief.
Introduction
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: September 2017

This chapter introduces the book’s central themes. Arguments are offered to support the assumption that there is a single concept of ‘rationality’, which applies univocally to mental states (like beliefs and intentions) and processes of reasoning (like choices and belief revisions), and plays a central role in epistemology, ethics, and the study of practical reason. It will be widely believed that ‘rationality’ is a normative concept: to think rationally is in a sense to think properly, or as one should think. The goal of the book is to defend this belief, and to explain how ‘rationality’ differs from other normative concepts. Although normative language is not the main topic, reflections on language will be methodologically important, to ensure that we are not misled by our linguistic intuitions.
The Pitfalls of ‘Reasons’
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: September 2017

Many philosophers working on normative issues follow the ‘Reasons First’ program. According to this program, the concept of a ‘normative reason’ for an action or an attitude is the most fundamental normative concept, and all other normative and evaluative concepts can be defined in terms of this fundamental concept. This paper criticizes the foundational assumptions of this program. In fact, there are many different concepts that can be expressed by the term ‘reason’ in English. The best explanation of the data relating to these concepts is that they can all be defined in terms of explanatory concepts and other normative or evaluative notions: for example, in one sense, a ‘reason’ for you to go is a fact that helps to explain why you ought to go, or why it is good for you to go. This implies that none of the concepts expressed by ‘reason’ is fundamental.
Rationality as a Virtue
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: September 2017

A concept that can be expressed by the term ‘rationality’ plays a central role in both epistemology and ethics—especially in formal epistemology and decision theory. It is argued here that when the term is used in this way, it expresses the concept of a kind of virtue, that has the central features that are ascribed to virtues by Plato and Aristotle, among others. Like other virtues, rationality comes in degrees. Just as Aristotle distinguished ‘just acts’ from acts that ‘manifest the virtue of justice’, we can distinguish the ‘abstract rationality’ from the manifestation of rational dispositions; this is the best account of the distinction between ‘propositional’ and ‘doxastic justification’. This approach also helps us to understand the relations between ‘rationality’ and ‘rational requirements’, and to answer further objections to the thesis that ‘rationality’ is a normative concept that are based on the principle that ‘ought’ implies ‘can’.
Why Does Rationality Matter?
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: September 2017

Internalism implies that rationality requires nothing more than what in the broadest sense counts as ‘coherence’. The earlier chapters of this book argue that rationality is in a strong sense normative. But why does coherence matter? The interpretation of this question is clarified. An answer to the question would involve a general characterization of rationality that makes it intuitively less puzzling why rationality is in this strong sense normative. Various approaches to this question are explored: a deflationary approach, the appeal to ‘Dutch book’ theorems, the idea that rationality is constitutive of the nature of mental states. It is argued that none of these approaches solves the problem. An adequate solution will have to appeal to some value that depends partly on how things are in the external world—in effect, an external goal—and some normatively significant connection between internal rationality and this external goal.
The Aim of Rationality
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: September 2017

It is proposed that rationality has an external goal—thinking as correctly as possible. (For example, perhaps believing as correctly as possible is being maximally confident of the truth, and choosing as correctly as possible is choosing something feasible and optimally choiceworthy.) If your thinking is irrational, that is bad news about your thinking’s degree of correctness; the more irrational your thinking is, the worse the news is about your thinking’s degree of correctness. This idea is interpreted in probabilistic terms. There is a probability function, fixed by the mental states and events present in your mind, such that the degree to which your thinking is ‘good news’ about correctness is determined by how your thinking compares to alternative ways of thinking in terms of its expected degree of correctness according to that probability function. This proposal can explain the normativity of the requirements of rational coherence.
International Law and Market Coordination
Authors: Schütze Robert
Published: September 2017

What are the legal instruments regulating international trade? This chapter answers this question in two steps. Section I explores the classic international law model that accommodated the (sovereign) ‘mercantilist’ State. This State was based on the assumption that the national government had the right to regulate all international economic activities in the interest of the national good. Under classic international law, States were thus sovereignly free to become a ‘closed commercial State’. Yet this idea of economic coexistence was gradually replaced by a spirit of economic cooperation in the twentieth century. Section II explores the origins and present structures of the modern international law of economic cooperation. This modern model, while still nominally based on the idea of State sovereignty under international law, nonetheless accepts that national economies mutually benefit from ‘opening up’ by means of a better division of labour and the economies of scale engendered.
American Law and Market Integration
Authors: Schütze Robert
Published: September 2017

What is the structure of the ‘American’ market; and how was the latter ‘established’? When the Philadelphia Convention debated the 1787 Constitution, there was little argument that the (new) Union needed the power to regulate commerce. This chapter analyses the constitutional principles that governed the building (and evolution) of the US ‘common market’. Would interstate barriers to trade be ‘regulated’ away by the federal legislature; or would the Commerce Clause operate as a directly effective judicial norm? And more importantly: what type of common market had the US Constitution wished to establish? Section I explores these questions in the context of the liberalization of regulatory restrictions to the free movement of goods. Section II extends the analysis to fiscal barriers, which have traditionally been subject to special constitutional principles.
Excursus: A Fiscal Affairs Exception?
Authors: Schütze Robert
Published: September 2017

Ever since 1957, the European Treaties made, with regard to goods, a fundamental distinction between regulatory and fiscal barriers to intra-Union trade. Fiscal barriers were here subject to a special constitutional regime. This constitutional regime was however not uniform and itself distinguished between (external) customs duties and (internal) taxes with both aspects being firmly rooted in an international model. Has this changed over the course of the past sixty years? Have the Treaty provisions on fiscal barriers been ‘federalized’and, if so, are they nonetheless subject to distinct doctrinal principles (like in the United States)? This final chapter explores these complex questions. Section I starts with an analysis of the legal structure of the customs union; Section II looks at the question from the point of ‘internal taxation’, and here in particular the question of double taxation.
Introduction
Authors: Lippiatt G.E.M.
Published: September 2017

Historians of political development in the High Middle Ages often focus on the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries as the generations in which monarchy finally triumphed over aristocracy to create a monopoly on governing institutions in Western Europe. However, it was precisely in this period that Simon of Montfort emerged from his modest forest lordship in France to conquer a principality stretching from the Pyrenees to the Rhône. A remarkable ascendancy in any period, it is perhaps especially so in its contrast with the accepted historiographical narrative. Despite the supposed triumph of monarchy during his lifetime, Simon’s meteoric career took place largely outside of royal auspices. Simon’s experience provides a challenge to an uncomplicated or teleological understanding of contemporary politics as effectively national affairs directed by kings.
Subject and Vassal
Authors: Lippiatt G.E.M.
Published: September 2017

Rather than spend his life in the train of one particular king, Simon’s career saw him in the lordship of three different Crowns: France, England, and Aragon. Though his relations with the first of these were almost entirely amicable—if not always harmonious—he was more often in open conflict with the latter two. As a crusader, Simon was also subject to a fourth lord, the pope, for the major events of his career. But even while executing papal mandates, Simon at times came into conflict with the distant will of Rome. However, none of these lords successfully prevented Simon’s ascendancy. By exploiting the margins of monarchical authority, retreating from his obligations of fidelity to one lord in favour of another, he presented himself as a legitimate actor while interfering with the designs of a nominal superior.
Lord of Montfort and Earl of Leicester
Authors: Lippiatt G.E.M.
Published: September 2017

Simon was not always a crusader, and the majority of his career took place in his ancestral lands in France. His time in Montfort provides a crucial glimpse at the ordinary exercise of aristocratic government on a more intimate scale. His forest lordship furnished lessons of administration that would prove relevant to his rule in the Midi, such as the diplomatic projection of authority, the value of seigneurial continuity, the economic benefit of thriving towns, the necessity of an intensively participating chivalric following, and the advantage of wide ecclesiastical patronage. Similarly, Simon’s brief seisin and subsequent disseisin of the honor of Leicester demonstrated the fragility of his power when many of these elements were lacking. In addition to abstract lessons of governance, his northern lands also provided the financial backing necessary for his crusading career. Thus Simon’s lordship in France and England informed his later government and even made it possible.
Viscount of Béziers and Carcassonne
Authors: Lippiatt G.E.M.
Published: September 2017

Unlike in France, Simon’s possessions in the south were obtained by conquest rather than inheritance. Moreover, that conquest was ideologically justified by a characterization of the previous lords as deficiently Christian governors. Therefore, the image and patronage cultivated by Simon in the viscounties of Béziers and Carcassonne made little effort to reflect Trencavel traditions. This negative difference was supplemented by the positive distinction enshrined in the Statutes of Pamiers, which implemented the reform programme embraced by Simon and neglected by his predecessors. Simon countered opposition to his rule not only through superior generalship but by co-opting what native lords and burghers he could, conserving the loyalty of his French followers with confiscated fiefs, generally respecting urban autonomy, and lavishing patronage on local bishops and Cistercian houses. His implementation of government was dynamic rather than dogmatic, balancing the demands of reform with the practical constraints of a largely hostile populace.
Conclusion
Authors: Lippiatt G.E.M.
Published: September 2017

Despite his death and the subsequent collapse of his principality, Simon’s years in power clearly demonstrate a commitment to government usually associated by historians with royal regimes. The achievements and aspirations of Simon’s career suggest that this is too narrow. Not only were kings still unable to control their barons at the turn of the thirteenth century, they were not the only lords interested in the creation of effective government. Indeed, Simon’s preoccupation with government paradoxically contributed to the collapse of his regime: had he been less interested in implementing his reforms, he might not have engendered the resentment that cost him his life. This study, therefore, suggests a corrective to a focus on monarchies as the exclusive engines of medieval government: exceptional though Simon may have been, his career provides a valuable glimpse of both the means and concerns of baronial autonomy at the turn of the thirteenth century.