bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Tenants and tenure in Durban
Authors: Mohamed Sayed-Iqbal
Published: August 2005

This paper focuses on the work of one NGO, the Organization of Civic Rights, which works on a range of housing and urban renewal issues in Durban. The organization is unusual in that it has been working on issues related to tenant rights since 1984 with a particular focus on the central city areas. The paper starts with a general introduction to the situation of tenants in South Africa and then describes the four different strategies used by the organization in its work with tenants: education and empowerment for tenants, advocacy, networking and tenants' action groups.
New models for aid agencies seeking to improve housing for lowincome groups: Sida's initiatives in Costa Rica, Chile and Nicaragua
Authors:   Sida Urban Development Division
Published: August 2005

This paper describes three initiatives funded by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) to improve housing and living conditions for low-income urban households in Latin America. All three centred on supporting the development of new homes or on improving or extending existing homes although each also had other components – for instance the provision of infrastructure and community services in existing settlements and support for income generation. All three included the setting-up or strengthening of institutions that would allow the initiatives to continue after Sida funding ceased; also the pooling of resources from national agencies, municipal authorities and low-income households. They all sought to involve the private sector, and strengthen and support democratic processes. After outlining the goals and characteristics that these three initiatives had in common, the paper gives short descriptions of each programme. It then considers their performance in reaching the intended beneficiaries, in keeping down costs and in ensuring that they were sustainable, and examines the relevance of these programmes for donor assisted interventions in other countries.
Forced eviction and forced relocation in Nigeria: the experience of those evicted from Maroko in 1990
Authors: Agbola Tunde , Jinadu A. M.
Published: August 2005

This paper examines the consequences for those evicted from the settlement of Maroko in Lagos in 1990 in terms of housing quality, overcrowding, rents, basic services and overall satisfaction with their new neighbourhood. It shows that most of those evicted were worse housed than before the eviction. By way of introduction, the paper describes the scale and nature of recent evictions in Lagos, and the underlying causes, and the concluding section discusses why evictions remain so common in urban areas of Nigeria.
Evironmental perceptions, social class and demographic change in Mexico City: a comparative approach
Authors: Izazola Haydea , Martínez Carolina , Marquette Catherine
Published: August 2005

This paper describes the interrelationships between migration, environmental degradation and perceptions of the environment, by comparing the responses of middle-income and low-income, both native and in-migrant, households to the worsening environmental conditions in Mexico City. Migration to secondary centres by middle-class households is explained as a response to both increasing economic opportunities in intermediate towns and to negative perceptions of the capital city's environment. By contrast, low-income in-migrant households' concerns with land and home ownership eclipse any other environmental perceptions, while long-term resident low-income respondents tend to perceive migrants as the cause of negative environmental change.
Reducing urban poverty; some lessons from experience
Authors: Anzorena Jorge , Bolnick Joel , Boonyabancha Somsook , Cabannes Yves , Hardoy Ana , Hasan Arif , Levy Caren , Mitlin Diana , Murphy Denis , Patel Sheela , Saborido Marisol , Satterthwaite David , Stein Alfredo
Published: August 2005

Many donor agencies are recognizing the need to address the growing levels of urban poverty in Africa, Latin America and much of Asia. Many also acknowledge that they had under-estimated the scale of urban poverty. As they develop or expand programmes on poverty reduction in urban areas, there are many remarkable initiatives on whose experience they can draw.

This paper reflects on the lessons from seven of these: three from Asia, three from Latin America and one from Africa. All these initiatives combined direct action by low-income groups themselves, working with local NGOs, with some support negotiated from one or more external agency in order to improve housing and living conditions, basic services and livelihoods. Each initiative sought to make limited funding go as far as possible-and most achieved partial or total cost recovery for some (or all) of their interventions. All used credit to allow low-income groups to spread the cost of capital investment over a number of years.

These initiatives also changed the relationship between poor urban groups and local authorities, bringing about major benefits. However, official donors may find it difficult to fund initiatives such as these, especially through conventional project-cycle oriented funding for capital projects that is channelled through recipient governments. They may also find it difficult to fund initiatives that aim to change the policies and practices of local (or national) governments; also to support initiatives that are multisectoral, relatively cheap and require long-term support because they are long-term processes rather than discrete projects. Initiatives that generate cost recovery may also present them with difficulties. Most official donors will need to develop new channels to support such initiatives-for instance through support for intermediary funds for community projects located within these cities.
Chimbote's Local Agenda 21: initiatives to support its development and implementation
Authors: F. Maria Elena Foronda
Published: August 2005

This paper describes the initiatives to defend the environment and reduce pollution in Chimbote. This important industrial fishing port is considered the third most contaminated city in Peru due to the lack of urban environmental planning and regulation, and of any genuine leadership from local government. The paper includes an account of the work of the Association for the Defense and Conservation of the Environment of the Province of La Santa (ADECOMAPS), which started as an ecological movement for the protection and conservation of an important park. It then developed an environmental action plan (or Local Agenda 21) for Chimbote. The Association brings together 42 different institutions, including grassroots organizations, NGOs, universities, professional training institutions, politicians and government bodies. The paper also describes the reluctance of the provincial mayor to work with the Association.
Research into the applicability of the healthy cities movement in Dakar district (Senegal): methodology and results
Authors: Ly El Housseynou , Simard Paule , Diop Ousseynou Eddje , O'Neill Michel
Published: August 2005

This paper reports on the findings of participatory research undertaken in three settlements within Dakar which sought to develop concrete actions for achieving “healthy towns and villages” and which also identified the constraints on such action. It begins by describing the key healthy city principles – local authority involvement, dialogue and coordination between sectors, and community participation. It then outlines the range of participatory techniques used in diagnosing problems and developing proposals, and discusses the potentials and constraints on their successful implementation. This highlights the potential contradictions between the “healthy cities” philosophy and conventional local authority management culture. But it also points to the more favourable conditions provided by decentralization and by new models of urban management which rely on the increased use of partnerships between neighbourhood associations, NGOs and local authorities.
Micro-finance of housing: a key to housing the low or moderate-income majority?
Authors: Ferguson Bruce
Published: August 2005

This paper considers why most households in Latin America and the Caribbean remain unserved by traditional housing finance systems and how micro-finance potentially offers a key to help the low/moderate-income majority meet their shelter needs. The characteristics of micro-finance include small loan size for incremental upgrading of an existing dwelling or a new core unit, short repayment period, small or no subsidy, creative underwriting adapted to the conditions and prospects faced by low/moderate-income, technical assistance in documentation and building, and - sometimes - alternate forms of title as collateral. The article presents the work of the Bolivian NGO PROA as a successful case of micro-finance and draws lessons about the possible expansion of micro-finance in Africa, Asia and Latin America.
Healthy cities: a guide to the literature
Authors: Kenzer Marina
Published: August 2005

This paper reviews the literature on “healthy cities” and, more specifically, the attempts by city governments, international agencies, NGOs and community organizations to improve health in cities within Healthy Cities programmes or projects. Such programmes are generally initiated by city authorities, but with a recognition that to be effective, first they must mobilize integrated action from citizen groups, NGOs and private enterprises and, secondly, they must involve coordinated action between many sectors. As such, this review reflects on the achievements of Healthy Cities programmes around the world and the future challenges they face. It also seeks to give some idea of the number of Healthy Cities initiatives underway, especially in Africa, Asia and Latin America, even though there is still relatively little published literature on them.
Beyond tools and methods: reviewing developments in participatory learning and action
Authors: Abbot Jo
Published: August 2005

This paper reviews recent innovations in the use of participatory tools and methods that are relevant to urban areas. This includes the use of participatory approaches for understanding poverty, involving children, identifying livelihood opportunities, and monitoring and evaluating projects. It also highlights recent literature which discusses how participatory and conventional research and planning methodologies can be combined, and how institutional and policy contexts can be changed in order to be more supportive of participatory learning and action.
Anatomy of the Bombay NGO sector
Authors: Desai Vandana
Published: August 2005

This paper presents the findings of research on the activities, target groups, funding base and linkages of a sample of 67 grassroots NGOs working with the urban poor and on the extent to which their work is subject to internal or external evaluation. The paper demonstrates the diversity of NGO characteristics within one particular Indian city, Bombay (1). The paper highlights certain concerns for the future role of the non-governmental sector, especially in the context of the changing role of the state. As NGOs move in to fill the gap left by the public sector, encouraging rapid growth of expectations, complicating objectives and necessitating trade-offs between the competing demands made on them by other actors, they may be ill-equipped to respond effectively to an expanding role in the urban centre.
From healthy city projects to healthy cities
Authors: Werna Edmundo , Harpham Trudy , Blue Ilona , Goldstein Greg
Published: August 2005

This paper discusses experience to date with the formulation and implementation of Healthy City projects in the South. After describing the origin of the Healthy Cities movement and what constitutes a Healthy City project, it reviews the experience of Healthy City initiatives in Fayoum (Egypt), Quetta (Pakistan) and Campinas (Brazil). It then discusses the roles of three critical stakeholders: international agencies (and how their support should facilitate local action rather than dictate it); local government staff and politicians (and the difficulties in getting their sustained support); and citizens and grassroots organizations. It ends by discussing how the real success of any Healthy City project is when it ceases to be a project, because the system it set up to ensure that health issues are given priority, to involve all stakeholders and to ensure that all sectors recognize that their role in healthy cities becomes part of the structure of local governance.
Mexico City: our common future?
Authors: Connolly Priscilla
Published: August 2005

This paper describes Mexico City's environmental problems, how and why they arose, and how they have changed over the last ten years. This includes an interest in how the problems have been affected by environmental policies and demographic structures. It highlights how some environmental problems are simply characteristics of large cities while others can only be understood in relation to specific economic, political and geographic factors. It discusses what constrains the cheapest and most effective solutions - for instance the lack of an integrated public transport policy and measures to promote energy and water conservation. The constraints include complex and often deep-rooted political and administrative factors - for instance the lack of funding available to the municipalities which house a large and growing proportion of the low income population and the powerful vested interests which benefit from the lack of an integrated transport policy. The paper also shows up the inaccuracies in much of the general literature when referring to Mexico City - for instance the exaggerations as to its population and size and the assumption that much reduced population growth rates would necessarily bring improved environmental conditions.
Small-scale entrepreneurs in the urban water and sanitation market
Authors: Solo Tova Maria
Published: August 2005

This paper describes the importance of small-scale private sector or NGO providers of water and sanitation in a great range of urban areas in Africa, Asia and Latin America. It includes many examples of where - contrary to conventional wisdom - they provide good quality, low-cost services. Without these operations, large sections of the South’s urban populations, including tens of millions of low-income households, would be worse off. Yet these generally operate with no subsidy and have to recover their costs. This paper discusses how public policy can support (or at least not seriously constrain) small-scale entrepreneurs in water and sanitation provision while ensuring checks on the quality and price of the services they provide.
Who really benefits from environmental sanitation services in the cities? An intra-urban analysis in Betim, Brazil
Authors: Heller Léo
Published: August 2005

The paper presents the findings of research in Betim (Brazil) which looked in some detail at the association between health and provision for water supply (including water quality, per capita consumption, regularity of supply, household hygiene practices and extent of indoor plumbing), waste water and excreta disposal, garbage disposal (including frequency of collection and quality of refuse storage by households) and provision for drainage. It shows the limitations in official statistics for such services - for instance in their inaccuracy regarding who is served and in their limited range (for instance the lack of attention given to service quality and to provision for drainage). It also shows how the population benefiting from these services is not necessarily the same as that connected to public systems. The paper ends with recommendations for public urban policies and for the collection of data and research to ensure that environmental sanitation services better address health risks.
The local environmental action plan for Olivares commune in Manizales, Colombia
Authors: Velásquez Luz Stella
Published: August 2005

This paper describes the development of a local environmental action plan in Olivares, one of the poorest areas in the city of Manizales. It discusses both the successes and the difficulties in developing an environmental plan in a low-income area that fully involves community organizations – especially when many projects in the past had failed. It also describes the long process whereby different stakeholders were brought together to reach consensus on priorities and whereby priority items received support from the municipal government. The paper also discusses the different stages of the plan and highlights the degree of commitment by the local government, institutions, universities, the private sector, NGOs and community associations in the development and joint management of various programmes and projects.
Children's experience of the physical environment in poor urban settlements and the implications for policy, planning and practice
Authors: Bartlett Sheridan
Published: August 2005

This paper describes how children's needs are routinely ignored or misunderstood by urban development policy, plans and practice – and the very high costs this brings for them in terms of ill-health, injury, premature death and impaired physical, mental and social development. For instance, provision for water, sanitation and housing often fails to address the main requirements for child health while neighbourhood-wide development fails to understand the significance of play for children's development, including the extent to which adequate provision reduces accidents. The impact on children of evictions, overcrowding and neighbourhood violence is also considered. The paper also describes, with examples, how acting on children’s needs and priorities can be incorporated into existing interventions without major cost increases, and the benefits this brings for children and for other inhabitants.
Beneficial urban redevelopment: a Cape Town-Liverpool comparison
Authors: Uduku Ola
Published: August 2005

This paper discusses the effects of urban regeneration projects in inner-city areas which, in the past, have had a pronounced multi-cultural character, in the face of the larger dominant (in this discussion, ‘White’) institutional and residential character of the central city. Drawing on case studies of District Six in Cape Town (South Africa) and Toxteth in Liverpool (England), it questions whether the current forms of urban regeneration benefit local populations who have remained in these inner-city areas largely because of existing cultural and socio-economic structures. This highlights the problematic nature of market driven inner-city regeneration and also, by showing the clear differences between the two districts, the city-specific nature of regeneration. The paper also discusses barriers to the development of socially integrated urban neighbourhoods that retain local less well-off populations and integrate them with newer, more affluent groups, rather than creating segregated “regenerated” areas for newcomers, leaving long-standing residents in unregenerated areas. The paper concludes by discussing other planning models which could be beneficial to a wider crosssection of today's culturally diverse inner-city populations.
Voluntary recycling in Quito: factors associated with participation in a pilot programme
Authors: Hernández Orlando , Rawlins Barbara , Schwartz Reva
Published: August 2005

This paper describes a pilot recycling programme in Quito and the factors associated with residents’ participation in separating their wastes. This municipal programme extended garbage collection to previously unserved neighbourhoods through micro-enterprises formed by residents which provided separate collection services (on different days) for organic (compostable), recyclable and non-recyclable wastes, and delivered these to municipal depots. The revenues from the sale of recyclables went to funds to support neighbourhood improvements. A combination of focus group discussions, in-depth interviews and a household survey identified the steps that would have to be taken to increase and sustain residents’ separation of wastes – for instance, a more reliable collection service, more evidence that the funds generated were being used for neighbourhood improvement and a better information system about the programme. The research also highlighted two other issues. The first was the need for better integration between recycling programmes and existing informal waste collection systems. The second was the importance of involving programme beneficiaries in the design of local development interventions, such as the recycling programme analyzed here, for them to be sustainable.
Ilo: a city in transformation
Authors: Follegatti José Luis López
Published: August 2005

This paper describes the progress made in the city of Ilo over the last 15 years and discusses the reasons for its success. Progress includes the much improved provision for water, sanitation and electricity, and the tree-planting and street-paving programmes. It also includes a municipal programme that has ensured that land is available for housing that even low-income households can afford, and that has avoided problems of illegal settlements – despite the city's rapid population growth. It also describes some of the public works – for instance, the pier and sea walkway, and the parks – and how some 300 projects were financed and executed through partnerships between municipal government and community-level management committees. However, the paper's intention is to go beyond the description of achievements, to a consideration of the processes that underlie them. Drawing on the author’s dialogue with the current mayor of Ilo, the paper discusses how the combination of local factors, a broader national and international context and local leadership has helped form the basis for these achievements. It highlights the importance of a mode of government that helps encourage trust, that meets its commitments and that respects agreements developed with the inhabitants.
Participatory urban appraisal and its application for research on violence
Authors: Moser Caroline , McIlwaine Cathy
Published: August 2005

This paper emphasizes the importance of conducting participatory research on violence and describes the range of participatory urban appraisal tools that can be used to do so. This includes tools that can document the perceptions of poorer groups regarding the kinds of violence (economic, social or political), the extent, causes (and the links with poverty and exclusion) and consequences of violence, as well as the strategies for coping with or reducing, it. The use of these tools is illustrated with examples drawn from the findings of research on violence in 18 low-income communities in different cities in Colombia and Guatemala. The paper also outlines a conceptual framework on violence, poverty/exclusion, inequality and social capital that can help in the research design and in analyzing the findings.
Spiritually-Informed Management Theory
Authors: Steingard David S.
Published: August 2005

The burgeoning line of inquiry and integration of spirituality and management may very well be inspiring managers and scholars to embrace new “metaphysical foundations.” An infusion of spirituality into management necessitates inquiry into new ontological, epistemological, and teleological dimensions of research and practice. This article proposes a preliminary model of a theory of spiritually-informed management that integrates traditional and spiritual approaches to management. The model has three dimensions: (a) awareness: unconsciousness and consciousness; (b) change: translation and transformation; and (c) manifestation: temporal and perennial. The article concludes with an invitation to dialogue and some questions about future research issues: empirical testing of spiritual knowledge systems; unbounded world consciousness; enlightened stakeholder management, spiritually responsible business, and the spiritual transformation of management.
Should We Be Impressed With High Performance?
Authors: Denrell Jerker
Published: August 2005

Popular discourse as well as several recent academic theories view high performance as a signal of capability. Although it is reasonable to believe that more capable firms will achieve higher performance, several other factors influence firm performance, including luck. As a result, high performance is, at best, a very noisy signal of capabilities. Moreover, because it is a rare event, high performance is more likely for firms that engage in practices that produce high variability in outcomes. If such practices lead to lower average performance, exceptionally high performance will in fact be a signal of incompetence rather than competence.
Can Performance Studies Create Actionable Knowledge if We Can’t Measure the Performance of the Firm?
Authors: Meyer Marshall W.
Published: August 2005

The modern conception of the performance of the firm—future cash flows—makes performance difficult to measure and most performance measures inherently flawed. Moreover, the reliability of inferences about the performance of the firm declines as performance measures are used. The balanced scorecard does not improve the quality of performance measurement and can add further complications. Reducing the firm to its activities, their costs, and their revenue consequences may offer a partial solution to endemic problems of measuring performance. Long-term organizational adaptation, however, may require a conception of performance that makes all performance measures problematic and hence avoids lock-in to particular measures.
Evaluating Performance Measurement Systems in Nonprofit Agencies: The Program Accountability Quality Scale (PAQS)
Authors: Poole Dennis L. , Nelson Joan , Carnahan Sharon , Chepenik Nancy G. , Tubiak Christine
Published: August 2005

The drive for accountability in human services puts pressure on nonprofit agencies to develop performance measurement systems. But efforts to build capacity in this area have been hindered by the lack of instruments to evaluate the quality of proposed performance measurement systems. The Performance Accountability Quality Scale (PAQS) attempts to fill this gap. The instrument was field-tested on 191 program performance measurement systems developed by nonprofit agencies in Central Florida. Preliminary findings indicate that PAQS provides a structure for obtaining expert opinions based on a theory-driven model about the quality of a proposed measurement system in a not-for-profit agency. The instrument also is useful for assessing agency needs for technical assistance and for evaluating progress in the development of performance measurement systems. Further study is needed to test PAQS in other settings and to explore new areas of research in outcome evaluation.
The Status of Program Evaluation Expectations in State School Counselor Certification Requirements
Authors: Trevisan Michael S.
Published: August 2005

State-level school counselor certification requirements are discussed with respect to program evaluation expectations. Certification offices of all 50 states and Washington, DC, were asked to supply current school counselor knowledge and skill requirements. Nineteen states and Washington, DC, require some form of program evaluation knowledge and skills. Only Colorado and Washington specifically require program evaluation standards recommended by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs for their school counseling programs. These findings suggest that the nation may be producing school counselors deficient in the program evaluation skills needed to meet their professional responsibilities. Several recommendations are made for ameliorating the current training deficiencies of pre-service school counselors and for using in-service training to remediate the program evaluation knowledge and skill gap of practicing school counselors. Implications for the larger evaluation community are discussed.
Improving Educational and Social Programs: A Planned Variation Cross-Validation Model
Authors: Yeh Stuart S.
Published: August 2005

Planned Variation evaluations implement and compare two or more promising variations of an educational or social program. In this paper, I argue that Planned Variation evaluations may be especially attractive to teachers and program operators, as well as university-based researchers. The establishment of university-based centers for evaluation could support wide-scale implementation of Planned Variation projects. These projects could facilitate the substitution of effective program variants for ineffective variants, bringing Campbell’s (1984) vision of the experimenting society to reality and fostering the use of research results. This paper contrasts the Planned Variation approach with participatory, empowerment, collaborative, utilization-focused, and black-box experimental approaches. The Planned Variation Cross-Validation Model is described and contrasted with alternative models for fostering improvement in social programs.
Lessons in Contracting for Evaluations
Authors: Stufflebeam Daniel L.
Published: August 2005

A 1995 evaluation of the U.S. Marine Corps’ personnel evaluation system and a 1991 evaluation of the National Assessment Governing Board procedure for setting cut scores on the mathematics section of the National Assessment of Educational Progress provided valuable lessons in how to minimize the risks of misunderstanding what an evaluation will involve, subversion of the evaluation, controversy, and animosity. Both evaluations were nationally significant, had to be conducted quickly, were politically volatile, were keyed to professional standards, and had substantial impacts. However, the latter evaluation went sour, whereas the former received an official commendation. Evaluators should do all they can to demonstrate to clients that sound evaluations are not to be feared, but should be valued and used. An investigation of what went right and wrong in these evaluations identified contracting as a key variable. This article advises evaluators and clients to regularly negotiate clear, sound contracts before proceeding with an evaluation, and presents a checklist to assist in the contracting process.
What’s It Like When the Participatory Evaluator is a “Genuine” Stakeholder?
Authors: Mathison Sandra
Published: August 2005

In this reflective, analytic story I discuss what it is like to be a parent and an evaluator in a participatory, democratic evaluation of an after school program. The story tells of tensions between these roles, and how these tensions can instruct participatory evaluators in pursuing goals of democracy, community, and justice in evaluation. This discussion can be situated among a number of recent articles in AJE that have focused on analyses of participatory or empowerment evaluation. (See Schnoes, Murphy-Berman, & Chambers, 2000; and the exchanges between Smith, 1999 and Cousins & Earl, 1999.)
Lessons Learned from the Directed Evaluation Experience
Authors: Gredler Margaret E. , Johnson Robert L.
Published: August 2005

In teaching program evaluation, the development of practitioner skills in real-world settings is a major issue. In-course projects, however, offer limited exposure to the complex evaluator role and also present logistical problems. After reviewing selected alternative ways to offer real-world experiences, this paper describes the directed evaluation experience, in which students and a professor are involved in short-term contracted evaluations separate from academic course-work. Our original purpose in offering directed evaluation experiences was to provide students practice in applying their technical skills. Data from a small focus group of prior participants indicated unanticipated benefits. Included were: (1) the modeling of communicative and interactive skills by the faculty member, (2) mentoring in the form of the support and guidance of the faculty member, and (3) “validation” of student capabilities as emerging professionals. Implications and challenges of the directed evaluation experience are discussed.
The Metaevaluation Imperative
Authors: Stufflebeam Daniel L.
Published: August 2005

The evaluation field has advanced sufficiently in its methodology and public service that evaluators can and should subject their evaluations to systematic metaevaluation. Metaevaluation is the process of delineating, obtaining, and applying descriptive information and judgmental information about an evaluation’s utility, feasibility, propriety, and accuracy and its systematic nature, competence, integrity/honesty, respectfulness, and social responsibility to guide the evaluation and publicly report its strengths and weaknesses. Formative metaevaluations—employed in undertaking and conducting evaluations—assist evaluators to plan, conduct, improve, interpret, and report their evaluation studies. Summative metaevaluations—conducted following an evaluation—help audiences see an evaluation’s strengths and weaknesses, and judge its merit and worth. Metaevaluations are in public, professional, and institutional interests to assure that evaluations provide sound findings and conclusions; that evaluation practices continue to improve; and that institutions administer efficient, effective evaluation systems. Professional evaluators are increasingly taking their metaevaluation responsibilities seriously but need additional tools and procedures to apply their standards and principles of good evaluation practice.
Policy and Program Evaluation, Civil Society, and Democracy
Authors: Hanberger Anders
Published: August 2005

The overall aim of this article is to develop conceptual tools and practical guidelines for evaluating the effects of public policy and program on civil society and democracy, and to analyze three broad ways of taking evaluation to the people. The terms “civil society” and “democracy” are ambiguous, referring to different notions in various discourses. The article demonstrates how different notions (ideal-types) of civil society and democracy can be useful in assessing the effects of public policies and programs. Finally, three broad approaches to evaluation are analyzed as tools for taking evaluation to the people. I argue that, in light of the legitimacy crisis, the “mediating evaluation approach” is the most promising approach today. However, the role of the evaluator and the notion of both civil society and democracy differ among the three approaches.
A Nonparametric Approach to Program Evaluation: Utilizing Number Needed to Treat, L’Abbé Plots, and Event Rate Curves for Outcome Analysis
Authors: Hanes John C.
Published: August 2005

The medical sciences offer several helpful tools to the program evaluator for outcome analysis. Where a single point on the range of a dependent variable clearly defines attainment of outcome success, the number needed to treat (NNT) offers an indicator of a program’s efficacy. L’Abbé plots compare several programs in terms of the event rates that constitute the NNTs.

If the nature of an outcome variable is not amenable to such a demarcation, then the evaluator may extend the NNT concept by calculating and plotting event rates on a continuous, ordinal basis. Graphical analysis of these curves may involve program comparisons, inclusion of other relevant variables, and visualization of the test statistic for inferential purposes.
Program Theory Building: A Strategy for Deriving Cumulative Evaluation Knowledge
Authors: Turnbull Barbara
Published: August 2005

In a recent issue of the American Journal of Evaluation, Mark (2001) challenges evaluators to “derive more cumulative knowledge from and about evaluation” (p. 471). The aim of the current study was to address this challenge by illustrating a three-phase approach for program theory building and testing. This approach is proposed as a compliment to the traditional theory-driven outcomes evaluation as a means of deriving and cumulating evaluation knowledge. Hence, this study was intended as an example of how to cumulate knowledge about evaluation practice itself. It was also intended to illustrate how knowledge can be derived from evaluation by replicating models of program theory across multiple contexts. The study concludes with a discussion of methodological issues related to developing and testing models of program theory.
The Archipelago Approach To Mixed Method Evaluation
Authors: Lawrenz Frances , Huffman Douglas
Published: August 2005

In this article, we propose a new metaphorical framework for understanding and using mixed methods evaluation. Our re-conceptualization of mixing methods provides important insights into the theoretical and practical challenges of using a mixed method approach. Mixed methods can create philosophical and practical dilemmas in the ways data are collected, analyzed, interpreted and reported. We used an archipelago as a metaphor for resolving these challenges. An archipelago is a set of islands that loosely forms a group. Using the archipelago as a metaphor helped to clarify and re-conceptualize the evaluation approach and its findings by allowing simultaneous consideration of different mixed methods and stances. The results have implications for those attempting to use mixed methods to evaluate programs.
Integrating a Comparison Group Design into a Theory of Change Evaluation: The Case of the Urban Health Initiative
Authors: Weitzman Beth C. , Silver Diana , Dillman Keri-Nicole
Published: August 2005

This paper describes how we strengthened the theory of change approach to evaluating a complex social initiative by integrating it with a quasi-experimental, comparison group design. We also demonstrate the plausibility of selecting a credible comparison group through the use of cluster analysis, and describe our work in validating that analysis with additional measures. The integrated evaluation design relies on two points of comparison: (1) program theory to program experience; and (2) program cities to comparison cities. We describe how we are using this integrated design to evaluate the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation’s Urban Health Initiative, an effort that aims to improve health and safety outcomes for children and youth in five distressed urban areas through a process of citywide, multi-sector planning and changed public and private systems. We also discuss how the use of two research frameworks and multiple methods can enrich our ability to test underlying assumptions and evaluate overall program effects. Using this integrated approach has provided evidence that the earliest phases of this initiative are unfolding as the theory would predict, and that the comparison cities are not undergoing a similar experience to those in UHI. Despite many remaining limitations, this integrated evaluation can provide greater confidence in assessing whether future changes in health and safety outcomes may have resulted from the Urban Health Initiative (UHI).
Learning Culture and Outcomes Measurement Practices in Community Agencies
Authors: Botcheva Luba , White Catherine Roller , Huffman Lynne C.
Published: August 2005

The present study is a first step in examining learning culture and outcomes measurement practices as indicators of community agencies’ readiness for the implementation of research-based evaluation. Representatives from Northern California community agencies serving children and youth ( n = 25) completed surveys, which included questions about agency demographics, outcomes measurement practices, and learning culture. Results indicate that, although there is an awareness of the importance of outcomes evaluation, most agencies lack the resources for its systematic implementation. They express interest in learning more about outcomes measurement techniques and program evaluation, and they report needing help in building internal capacity for evaluation. The newly developed Assessing Learning Culture Scale revealed that an underlying set of beliefs, norms, and behaviors characterizes the learning culture of community agencies. These attitudes and beliefs are positively related to systematic data collection efforts and external funding, while attitudes and beliefs that indicate absence of a learning culture are correlated with sporadic data collection efforts and less external funding. Findings indicate that learning culture is an important factor for both the implementation of systematic evaluation efforts and the successful procurement of external funding. They also suggest that systematic evaluation efforts can serve as a change agent for creating a culture that values learning within the organization.
Shaping Educational Accountability Systems
Authors: Ryan Katherine
Published: August 2005

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) institutionalizes the reliance on accountability and assessment systems as a key mechanism for improving student achievement (Linn, Baker, & Betebenner, 2002). However, there is a fundamental tension between performance measurement systems, which do serve stakeholders and public interests through monitoring, and these kinds of indicators where representations of program quality are oversimplified (Stake, 2001). Evaluators are uniquely situated to made a significant contribution in the dialogue about the merits and shortcomings of educational accountability systems. Suggestions concerning how evaluation can contribute to improving and changing accountability systems are presented.
Margaret Mead’s Evaluation of the First Salzburg Seminar
Authors: Russon Craig , Ryback Timothy
Published: August 2005

Over the years, the W. K. Kellogg Foundation has provided funding to the Salzburg Seminar. The Seminar is one of the world’s foremost international educational centers committed to global understanding through broadening the perspectives of tomorrow’s leaders. The first Seminar was held immediately after WWII and was evaluated by Margaret Mead. Mead is a major figure in the field of anthropology whose work as an evaluator has previously been unknown. Mead’s actual report is included in the appendix of this article. Of course, the report would be meaningless out of context. Therefore, we provide an extensive description of the evaluand (the first Seminar). Also included is a discussion of the methods used by Mead to conduct the evaluation. We believe that this article, and the accompanying evaluation report by Margaret Mead, will help us evaluators realize that the history of our profession is even richer than we might once have believed. Perhaps we can better appreciate some aspects of our field as we gain familiarity with some part-time, past evaluators such as Mead.
A Dialogical, Story-Based Evaluation Tool: The Most Significant Change Technique
Authors: Dart Jessica , Davies Rick
Published: August 2005

The Most Significant Change (MSC) technique is a dialogical, story-based technique. Its primary purpose is to facilitate program improvement by focusing the direction of work towards explicitly valued directions and away from less valued directions. MSC can also make a contribution to summative evaluation through both its process and its outputs. The technique involves a form of continuous values inquiry whereby designated groups of stakeholders search for significant program outcomes and then deliberate on the value of these outcomes in a systematic and transparent manner. To date, MSC has largely been used for the evaluation of international development programs, after having been initially developed for the evaluation of a social development program in Bangladesh (Davies, 1996). This article provides an introduction to MSC and discusses its potential to add to the basket of choices for evaluating programs in developed economies. We provide an Australian case study and outline some of the strengths and weaknesses of the technique. We conclude that MSC can make an important contribution to evaluation practice. Its unusual methodology and outcomes make it ideal for use in combination with other techniques and approaches.
A Mentoring Approach to the One-Year Evaluation Course
Authors: Levin-Rozalis Miri , Rosenstein Barbara
Published: August 2005

This article presents the conceptual scheme for a one-year evaluation course. The scheme is based on the experience of the authors in developing a single-year evaluation course over a period of four years. The task of the evaluation course is to teach the competencies required to conduct evaluations that provide the sense-making needed for informed decision-making. Such competencies include eliciting, conceptualizing, and providing information, as well as interactions, processes, and experiences required to conduct evaluations that provide the sense-making needed for informed decision-making. The authors have found that these competencies are based on four kinds of knowledge: theoretical, methodological, conceptualization of practice (including converting tacit to explicit knowledge) and practical personal knowledge. These knowledge categories entail a dialog between theory and practice. Hence, the authors have constructed a conceptual setting for teaching evaluation against the background of mentoring, a system that combines theory and practice. The article presents each kind of knowledge, explaining its role in evaluation, the type of learning needed to master it, and the format adopted in the course for teaching it, including the dilemmas that arose in the course of study and practice. Solutions for such dilemmas are offered and discussed. The article ends with a discussion of student feedback on the course.
Researching Evaluation in National (State) Politics and Administration: A Critical Approach
Authors: Segerholm Christina
Published: August 2005

Evaluation is increasingly taken as a public good, as an activity aimed at development and betterment. At the same time, evaluation is increasingly integrated in accountability movements and in institutionalized systems for governance. It is also embedded in a consumer-oriented New Public Management ideology. Against this background, it is high time to start critically examining evaluation itself as a phenomenon and practice. A conceptual framework for carrying out critical studies of evaluations in national (or state) settings is provided, and examples from previous such studies are given to illustrate possible findings. The framework is meant to capture forces that shape an evaluation process and the knowledge claims that result. These forces can restrict evaluation or enable it to provide a critical examination meant to be part of a public debate. By scrutinizing the premises for, the implementation of, and the impact of public-sector evaluations from a critical perspective, evaluators should gain a more thorough understanding of the various power plays of which evaluation is a part. Further discussions of and additional research on public-sector evaluation, to increase our knowledge and understanding of evaluation as a practice, are encouraged.
An Exploratory Study of Process Use: Findings and Implications for Future Research
Authors: Preskill Hallie , Zuckerman Barbra , Matthews Bonya
Published: August 2005

In recent years there has been increasing interest in the notion of process use, that is, in understanding the ways in which individuals learn about the evaluand, evaluation practice, and each other, from their involvement in an evaluation study. As a form of social constructivism, process use is most closely related to participatory and collaborative evaluation approaches. The purpose of this article is to report the results of an exploratory study of process use and to discuss a set of variables that may influence process use. In addition, we pose several future research questions.
Influential Evaluations
Authors: Henry Gary T.
Published: August 2005

Evaluations can influence perceptions about social problems, the selection of social policies, and adapting policy implementation. In this paper, exemplars of influential evaluations are described. These evaluations and the qualities which characterize them give us evidence to consider as we develop a clearer picture of what evaluation should look like in the future.