bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Bzzzzuzuzt!
Authors: Manwaring James F. , Hooton K. A.
Published: February 2018

I agree entirely with William H. Longenecker's letter to the editor, which appeared in the August 1986 issue of the Journal. I found your response to his opinion unconvincing and an attempt to sidestep the issue. The “Biodatos y Sinopsis” column is exactly what Longenecker said it is—an attempt to reach non‐English‐speaking Americans. If AWWA were interested in reaching the readership of Spanish‐speaking nations, it would publish the entire magazine in that language. (If this is not already being done, it should be considered.) I find it difficult to believe that AWWA really expects a non‐English‐speaking person to buy the entire publication for the purpose of reading a two‐page column.
Indian Reservation Water Rights
Authors: Collins Richard B.
Published: February 2018

Indian tribes have uncertain claims to sizable water rights in the western states. State and federal officials are seeking to convert these rights to fixed entitlements in order to make clear to other users the amount of water legally available in various water systems. Two important questions are whether the tribes can find ways to put their rights to use and whether they can sell or lease their rights for use by others.
Arizona's Groundwater Code: Strength in Compromise
Authors: Ferris Kathleen
Published: February 2018

Forced by an imbalance between supply and consumption of groundwater, Arizona enacted in 1980 far‐reaching legislation to encourage conservation and to limit future mining of this resource so essential in a desert environment. The legislation is considered the most comprehensive state groundwater management plan enacted to date. The plan may serve as a model for other states as they prepare their own plans for groundwater management.
Viewpoint – Ban on Asbestos‐Cement Pipe Needed
Authors: Ceraso Jane
Published: February 2018

Jane Ceraso is a staff scientist with the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF), a national nonprofit organization founded in 1967. Based in EDF's New York City headquarters, Ceraso works on local and regional water quality and acid rain problems. Her most recent project is an assessment of the effects of acid deposition on reservoirs in the Catskill Mountains, which supply much of New York City's drinking water.
Test Procedures for Determining Cavitation limits in Control Valves
Authors: Rahmeyer William J.
Published: February 2018

The design and operation of control valves in a closed conduit system require testing of the different flow characteristics of the valves under experimental conditions. Different testing standards and recommended testing procedures have been published for characteristics such as pressure loss and pressure recovery. However, discussion concerning the testing procedures for cavitation and operation limits is scarce. Detailed information is presented on testing procedures and the definitions for the different cavitation limits. The effects of the variables of pressure, size, and flow coefficients are discussed, along with design equations and data for scaling cavitation information with changes in system pressure.
Surviving a Media Blitz
Authors: Jackson Thomas C.
Published: February 2018

Guidelines are presented for implementing public relations programs for dealing with the media during crises. Utilities are urged to start communicating as soon as a problem situation exists and to communicate frequently. Specific strategies to help survive a media blitz are discussed including defining the scope of the problem, implementing a plan for communications, providing a spokesperson, informing employees, and keeping the press and local, state, and federal officials informed of developments. Experiences in dealing with the media after detection of high concentrations of bacteria in the distribution system at the South Central Connecticut Regional Water Authority in New Haven, Connecticut are related.
Challenges in the Offing for Water Utilities
Authors: Miller Kenneth J. , Sayre Ida M.
Published: February 2018

Topics addressed during this interview on the effects of the 1986 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act include the following: small water systems and possible difficulties in paying for construction to provide for filtration and obtaining trained people to operate them; costs of air stripping and granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration; the disposal of spent GAC; radionuclides standards and treatment; the lead ban; the lowered maximum contaminant level for trihalomethanes; ozone disinfection; increased monitoring; privatization; expenditures on water treatment facilities in the United States as compared to Japan and Europe; point‐of‐use devices and bottled water; research; and future directions for the water industry.
Mitigating Copper Pitting Through Water Treatment
Authors: Cohen Arthur , Myers James R.
Published: February 2018

In July 1978, the first of about 25 pitting corrosion failures occurred in the residential plumbing systems of private homes and condominiums in the Highland Greens subdivision of Fort Shawnee, Ohio. An investigation showed that the water distributed to the community promoted and supported the pitting corrosion. Treatment of the water supply by addition of sodium carbonate to increase the pH and to eliminate the dissolved carbon dioxide was introduced. Pitting attack diminished almost immediately, and new reports of leakage ceased within six months. Two corrosion test loops containing 100 tube specimens were exposed to raw and treated waters. The 50 specimens exposed to the treated water showed no pitting attack. About 20 percent of the 50 tubes exposed to the raw water displayed major pitting, with lesser but still observable attack in the remainder of the tube specimens.
The Effectiveness of Residential Water Conservation Measures
Authors: Maddaus William O.
Published: February 2018

In the past, water engineers and planners had to rely on estimates of water use based mostly on laboratory tests of low‐flow fixtures. These estimates span a range of 300 percent, causing confusion and a general lack of confidence in water conservation techniques. With the completed US Department of Housing and Urban Development projects as a basis, water planners can now calculate the benefits of water conservation programs with more confidence that predicted savings will be realized.
Point‐of‐Entry Removal of Radon From Drinking Water
Authors: Lowry Jerry D. , Brutsaert Willem F. , McEnerney Thomas , Molk Cindy
Published: February 2018

Two processes were investigated in the laboratory to determine their efficiency for removing radon from household water supplies. Granular activated carbon (GAC) adsorption was found to be extremely effective as a result of an adsorption‐decay steady state that is established quickly and continues for years. Because bed replacement is not a factor for practical purposes, GAC is the most cost‐effective process for radon removal. The GAC bed, however, adsorbs radon progeny as the radon decays, and it becomes a source of gamma radiation. This problem is believed to be manageable for the vast majority of potential applications. Diffused bubble aeration was found to be as effective as GAC, with removals of greater than 99 percent being practical. Although more costly than GAC, aeration does not have the problem of gamma activity buildup.
Innovative State Policies for Aiding Community Water Suppliers
Authors: Humphrey Nancy Patricia , Walker Christopher
Published: February 2018

State policy initiatives for assisting communities in managing, financing, and regulating water supplies are discussed. States can provide either direct assistance through grants or loans, or act as intermediaries to lend their stronger credit support to communities that otherwise would not have access to the national credit markets. The choice of the specific aid mechanism depends on the state's financial position and on its program objectives. Financial assistance alone, however, may be insufficient to resolve the more fundamental institutional problems that hamper provision of drinking water. Several states have tied financial aid programs to incentives for reforming local management practices. Others have initiated programs with the sole purpose of encouraging improved water resource management. Finally, if water supply problems are criticial, states may regulate management practices and use of local water supplies.
Regulatory Dilemmas Ensnare Arizona's Small Water Companies
Authors: Holub Hugh A.
Published: February 2018

The hundreds of small privately owned water companies in Arizona that have been spawned by development of rural subdivisions are faced with conflicting state conservation requirements and health regulations in addition to the state's public utility regulatory agency, which rules on rate cases. In many instances, developers are unwilling to subsidize the cost of maintaining and operating the water systems necessary for the sale of lots in the subdivision once all the lots are sold. Homeowners are faced with inadequate or unsafe water supplies and depreciated or unsalable properties. The size of the rate increases that would be necessary to rectify the inadequacies of these small systems is politically unpalatable, and noncompliance with health regulations caused by inadequate revenues incurs penalties. Reforms seem to be mandatory, and in the fall of 1986, a sweeping set of proposals worked out by an appointed committee was submitted to the state legislature.
Curbing THMs in Small Water Systems
Authors: Levine Audrey D. , Baumann E. Robert , Lind Lori B.
Published: February 2018

Under current federal law, public water supplies that serve fewer than 10 000 people are not required to monitor or control trihalomethanes (THMs). Small water utilities in Iowa were surveyed to determine whether THM contamination is a problem and to identify measures for THM control appropriate for small utilities. Grab samples were collected in July and August 1983 and September 1984 from treatment facilities and from distribution systems in communities with fewer than 10 000 residents. More than 75 percent of the communities had THM levels in excess of the maximum contaminant level. Treatment modifications that influence the formation of THMs are reviewed and control measures appropriate for small utilities are recommended.
Sludge: The Disposal Dilemma
Authors: Saunders F. Michael , Doe Peter , Moser Richard H. , Wapensky Larry , Cornwell David , Rolan Terry
Published: February 2018

This discussion took place during the AWWA annual conference June 24, 1986. Participants were: Peter Doe, Havens and Emerson Inc., Saddle Brook, N.J.; Richard H. Moser, American Water Works Service Co., Marlton, N.J.; Terry Rolan, City of Durham, Department of Water Resources, Durham, N.C.; F. Michael Saunders, School of Civil Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Ga.; and Larry Wapensky, RCRA Permits Section, US Environmental Protection Agency, Region VIII, Denver, Colo., David A. Cornwell, Environmental Engineering and Technology, Newport News, Va., served as moderator.
Effects of Several Ions on Iron Treatment by Sodium Silicate and Hypochlorite
Authors: Robinson R. Bruce , Minear Roger A. , Holden Joseph M.
Published: February 2018

Several ions were studied for their effect on an innovative iron treatment process under controlled laboratory conditions. The iron treatment method stabilizes iron by adding sodium silicate and chlorine. Calcium greatly increased the silicate dosage necessary to maintain low turbidity and high iron filterability. Iron was stabilized for more than 10 days at a 12‐mg/L silicate dosage as SiO2 without calcium, but precipitated after 3 days in the presence of 10 mg calcium as CaCO3/L. With 100 mg Ca/L, iron precipitated before one day. Sodium had approximately 100 times less effect than calcium. Equilibrium calculations and analysis of previous work show that calcium's action is not a simple complexation with silicate. Rather, the effect of calcium is hypothesized to be a divalent cation acting on a negatively charged colloid.
Establishing a Maintenance Program
Authors: Jordan James K.
Published: February 2018

Guidelines are given for planning and implementing a structured maintenance program for water treatment plants. Both tangible and intangible benefits that result in less costly and more efficient operations are discussed. Such programs are applicable to large utilities that have the resources to invest in computer‐based systems as well as small utilities that can use manual systems for recordkeeping.
Foothills: A State‐of‐the‐Art Water Treatment Plant
Authors: Weir Robert K. , Chapman Robert L.
Published: February 2018

After three years of operation, the showcase Foothills water treatment plant, serving the base needs of the Denver, Colo., metropolitan area, has been performing at, or above, expectations. Taking hydraulic advantage of its location above the city, the plant's pumping costs are minimal and the plant's hydro turbine generates enough power to operate the facilities and sell excess electricity. A minimum staff can operate the automatically controlled processes. The design enables operators to choose the total treatment process or bypass coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation to minimize operation and maintenance costs, depending on seasonal water quality. Solids drying beds take advantage of the climate, further lowering treatment costs, which in 1986 averaged only about $0.03 per thousand gallons.
Upgrading a Landmark Water Treatment Plant
Authors: Smith James G. , Tippin David L. , III Malichi C. Bennet , Salgaonkar Jagdish B.
Published: February 2018

By 1982, rapid growth in the metropolitan area of Tampa, Fla., had increased the demand for water beyond the capacity of the city's only water treatment plant. Designated an AWWA American Landmark, the Hillsborough River plant had been enlarged three times previously since its construction in 1925. The latest expansion, which was completed last year, added 36 mgd (136,000 m3/d) of capacity without constructing new settling basins. Removal of hydraulic bottlenecks and improvement of flow patterns, rapid‐mixing facilities, and the sludge removal system increased capacity without major new construction, saving about half the estimated cost of new settling basins.
Chlorine Dioxide Effects on THMFP, TOXFP, and the Formation of Inorganic By‐products
Authors: Werdehoff Karen S. , Singer Philip C.
Published: February 2018

An investigation of raw and finished waters was conducted (1) to determine whether chlorine dioxide pretreatment lowers trihalomethane (THM) and total organic halide (TOX) formation, (2) to evaluate the rate of chlorine dioxide consumption and the corresponding rate and extent of chlorite formation, and (3) to investigate the stability of chlorite in treated water and its interaction with chlorine. Results of these experiments showed that chlorine dioxide can reduce THM and TOX precursor concentrations and that when added to raw water, chlorine dioxide will not persist long enough to maintain oxidizing conditions through flocculation–sedimentation basins. Utilities should be able to meet the recommended limit of 1.0 mg/L for the sum of the residual chlorine dioxide species by not exceeding a chlorine dioxide dosage of 1.2—1.4 mg/L.
Organizing Water Quality Districts in New York State
Authors: Burke Michael E. , Stasko George A.
Published: February 2018

The state of New York has passed enabling legislation for the formation of water districts that carry out point‐of‐entry treatment device programs in cases of private well contamination. Guidelines have been developed to assure that the devices are properly installed, operated, and maintained by the water districts, once the districts are organized. This program is expected to ensure safe drinking water for approximately 3 million people at a reasonable cost.
Microbiological Characteristics of Third‐Faucet Point‐of‐Use Devices
Authors: Reasoner Donald J. , Blannon Janet C. , Geldreich Edwin E.
Published: February 2018

Studies of third‐faucet point‐of‐use treatment devices indicated that the bacteriological quality of the product water varies among units of the same design as well as among units of different design. The development of bacterial populations is affected by the length of time a filter cartridge is in service, water temperature, flow rate, materials of construction, and the quality of the influent water. Although some units contain silver as a bacteriostatic agent, its effectiveness is questionable because the concentrations of heterotrophic bacteria associated with such units are often as high as those from units that do not contain silver.
Microbiological Characteristics of Point‐of‐Use Precoat Carbon Filters
Authors: Regunathan P. , Beauman W.H.
Published: February 2018

Experiments conducted with commercial point‐of‐use precoat carbon filters showed that these filters can significantly and consistently reduce the heterotrophic plate count (HPC), coliforms, enteric viruses, and protozoan cysts in water. Although the effect of silver in the precoat filters on HPC organisms was inconclusive, the presence of silver dramatically reduced coliform levels. The antimicrobial effect of copper in these filters was similar to, but much less than, that of silver.
Trends in Privatization of Water Utilities
Authors: Arber Richard P. , Wade Jeptha A. , Joering Everard A. , Haney William F.
Published: February 2018

In this roundtable discussion, the terms contract services, contract management, contract operations and privatization are defined and examined. Each term describes a different level of outside participation in the running of a water utility ‐ from contract services which are advisory or consulting services, to privatization which involves financing and a certain amount of ownership in the utility by an outside entity. How these various services, and the companies who offer them, will be affected by the Safe Drinking Water Act requirements is also discussed. The consensus is that the SDWA will increase business for contract operations because of the need for more sophisticated levels of water treatment, and because there will be a number of new plants in communities that have not had skilled operations staff before.
Comparing Three Sampling Designs for Monitoring Coliforms in Small Community Water Systems
Authors: Stukel Thérèse A. , Reed Frank C. , Greenberg E. Robert , Jacobs Nicholas J.
Published: February 2018

Three sampling designs—weekly, monthly, and spatial cluster—are compared to determine their effectiveness in detecting coliform contamination in small community drinking water systems. Water samples were collected over a one‐year period from 15 systems in rural Vermont and New Hampshire. Sampling five times a month, regardless of whether samples were collected simultaneously at five different sites within a system (spatial cluster) or once a week at the same site, detected between 50 and 100 percent more incidents of contamination than were found by sampling once a month. The spatial cluster design was slightly more sensitive than the weekly sampling design in its ability to detect coliform contamination.
Water Industries Viewed as Rigid
Authors: Smith Stuart
Published: February 2018

Corrections are provided for incorrect figures which appeared in an earlier Journal AWWA article (“Modeling Point‐of‐Entry Radon Removal by GAC,” Journal AWWA, October, 1987).
Optimizing the Placement of GAC Filtration Units
Authors: Wiesner Mark R. , Rook John J. , Fiessinger François
Published: February 2018

The costs of granular activated carbon (GAC) filter‐adsorbers (second‐stage GAC filtration) were compared with those of the sand replacement option (first‐stage GAC filtration). Simulation models of total organic carbon (TOC) adsorption and particle removal were used to describe filter performance. First‐stage filtration was found to be the most cost‐effective treatment option when TOC removals of <;55 percent are sufficient. When treating waters with low TOC concentrations, using a large number of adsorbers in parallel, and regenerating the GAC off‐site, first‐stage filtration was found to be cost‐effective for TOC removals as high as 75 percent. Second‐stage GAC adsorbers should become more cost‐efficient for removal of low concentrations of TOC as conventional filters for turbidity removal are designed at higher filtration rates.
Improving the Initial Effluent Quality of a Dual‐Media Filter by Coagulants in Backwash
Authors: Cranston Kelly O. , Amirtharajah Appiah
Published: February 2018

The purpose of the research described in this article was to develop a revised conceptual theory for filter ripening and to evaluate the effect of adding various coagulants to backwash water as a means of reducing the magnitude and duration of the filter ripening sequence. It was found that the use of coagulants in backwash water can be very effective in improving initial effluent quality, with the optimum coagulant type being alum or the primary coagulant. The time for injection of the coagulant into the backwash water, the volume of water used for backwashing, and the remnant volume above the filter media after backwashing were also optimized.
Disinfecting Water With a Mixture of Free Chlorine and an Organic N‐Halamine
Authors: Worley S.D. , Williams D.E.
Published: February 2018

It has been demonstrated that a mixture of free chlorine and 3‐chloro‐4,4‐dimethyl‐2‐oxazolidinone (compound I) is an effective water disinfectant. A small amount of free chlorine in the mixture provides rapid initial disinfection, with a larger amount of compound I maintaining disinfection efficacy over a long period of time. The mixtures used in this study disinfected against several challenges of Staphylococcus aureus for 30 or more days. In some cases the actions of the free chlorine and compound I may have been synergistic.
Selecting Coagulant, Filtration, and Sludge‐Conditioning Aids
Authors: Dentel Steven K. , Resta John J. , Shetty Prasanna V. , Bober Todd A.
Published: February 2018

An investigation of methods for the evaluation of polymer performance in coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and sludge conditioning involved a literature review as well as laboratory and in‐plant comparisons of a number of candidate methods and associated variables. Results are given for the comparison of numerous jar‐test variations, small‐scale filtration methods, dewaterability tests, and other techniques. A procedures manual was developed during this study for use in the selection of optimal polymers and doses for water treatment applications.∗
Removal of Hepatitis A Virus and Rotavirus by Drinking Water Treatment
Authors: Rao (deceased) V. Chalapati , Symons James M. , Ling Alfred , Wang Paul , Metcalf Theodore G. , Hoff John C. , Melnick Joseph L.
Published: February 2018

The removal of hepatitis A virus (HAV) and rotavirus (RV) from source water was studied by means of laboratory and pilot‐scale treatment, including coagulation, filtration, and softening. Poliovirus (PV) was included as a frame of reference because considerable data are available on the removal of this virus during treatment. The authors conclude that coagulation and flocculation remove HAV and RV as effectively as PV, with turbidity and alkalinity having no influence on the extent of removal. In addition, all three viruses were found to be efficiently removed during Ca2+ and Mg2+ hardness reduction at pH 11. Coagulation, settling, and filtration in a pilot plant lowered the densities of HAV, RV, and PV by 98.4–99.7 percent.
Investigation of Legionella pneumophila in Drinking Water
Authors: Witherell Linden E. , Duncan Robert W. , Stone Kenneth M. , Stratton Lori J. , Orciari Lillian , Kappel Steven , Jillson David A.
Published: February 2018

An investigation of Legionella pneumophila in drinking water systems and home plumbing appurtenances was conducted in two phases. In phase 1, 68 water samples for L. pneumophila analysis were collected from hot and cold kitchen sink faucets in homes on 17 community water systems. No L. pneumophila organisms were isolated from any of these samples. However, the relatively small sample size, the many variables in the sampling procedure, and potential limitations of the laboratory detection techniques employed may have contributed to the failure of significant recovery. In phase 1a, the kitchen sink faucets and aerators, showerheads, and supply pipes were sampled with sterile swabs, and samples of hot water were collected from the drains of water heaters in each home. A total of 184 samples was collected from homes on four community water systems. In addition, two samples were collected from a home with a shallow dug well. During this phase, L. pneumophila organisms were recovered from two water heater flush samples—one from a home on a community water system and the other from the home with the shallow well. Both of the positive samples were taken from electric, nonrecirculating water heaters. This finding, together with the lack of recovery in the home water distribution plumbing, could indicate that L. pneumophila may be transported from natural aquatic sources via drinking water systems in very low levels to home water heaters, in which the organisms may increase to detectable levels.
Discovery and Elimination of Dioxins From a Carbon Reactivation Process
Authors: DeMarco Jack , Miller Richard , Hartman David J.
Published: February 2018

After completion of a long‐term granular activated carbon (GAC) project, the US Environmental Protection Agency informed the Cincinnati Water Works about the possible formation of dioxins during carbon reactivation. This information prompted the utility to conduct an additional study on avoiding potential dioxin precursor materials and on evaluating a reactivation system capable of preventing adverse environmental emissions. This article describes the results of these studies for exhausting GAC in a postfiltration carbon contactor and reactivating GAC in a fluid bed reactivation system.
Determining Ultratrace Metal Concentrations by Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission Spectrometry
Authors: Malinski Tadeusz , Fish Judith , Matusiewicz Henryk
Published: February 2018

The use of electrothermal vaporization devices (ETV) to introduce analytes into inductively coupled plasma (ICP) for determination by atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) provides detection limits in picograms but requires solution concentrations higher than nanogram‐per‐litre levels. Determination of metal concentrations lower than nanograms per litre requires a preconcentration step. The method of controlled potential electrodeposition of metals into mercury film on glassy carbon electrodes for ETV‐ICP‐AES is described. The method can be used for simultaneous multielemental determination of trace and ultratrace concentrations of metals in water. Modification and optimization of the technique are discussed. Also included are the results of determinations of eight trace elements.
Using Moringa Seeds as Coagulants in Developing Countries
Authors: Jahn Samia Al Azharia
Published: February 2018

A few traditional plant flocculants such as those found in Moringa seeds have been observed to act as primary coagulants and have been recommended for domestic water treatment in rural areas of Africa and Asia, where people cannot afford conventional coagulants. Once a plant has been shown to possess outstanding clarifying properties, applied taxonomy and selective breeding can help in the identification of sources of even more potent flocculants and in the production of the best “flocculant crop” for a particular situation. The process of identifying potential natural flocculants and of managing crops, as well as methods of optimizing simplified water coagulation with plant materials, are described.
Controlling Swampy Odors in Drinking Water
Authors: Wajon Johannes E. , Kavanagh Brian V. , Kagi Robert I. , Rosich R.S. , Alexander R.
Published: February 2018

Swampy odors occurred in some areas of Perth, Western Australia, supplied with treated groundwater. The odors, caused by dimethyl trisulfide, developed in the water supply mains when chlorine demand was not satisfied. When swampy odors occurred, flushing of water mains reduced the number of complaints. The addition of 2 mg/L or more of chlorine also eliminated the swampy odor. To control the formation of swampy odors in mains, an extra 2–5 mg chlorine/L was added at the outlet of the groundwater treatment plant, thereby increasing the concentration of free chlorine at most points in the water supply system. Since this strategy was instituted, complaints of swampy odors have almost ceased.
Evaluating Modifications to the MF Total Coliform Method for Drinking Waters With High Noncoliform Backgrounds
Authors: Standridge Jon H. , Sonzogni William C.
Published: February 2018

A method involving anaerobic incubation of membrane filtration cultures for total coliform analysis of drinking water is evaluated and contrasted with swab inoculation of overgrown cultures to brilliant green bile broth. The anaerobic incubation technique resulted in the unmasking of many coliform organisms that would have been missed in the standard technique because of overgrowth. Many coliform organisms failed to test positive, however, when incubated anaerobically. The swab inoculation technique and the anaerobic technique unmasked similar percentages of coliform‐positive samples.
Occurrence of Radon in Well Supplies
Authors: Dixon Kevin L. , Lee Ramon G.
Published: February 2018

In 1986 and 1987, a survey was conducted of the occurrence of radon in well water within the American Water Works Company system. It was observed that the highest levels of radon occurred in the northeastern part of the United States and were associated with formations of uranium‐bearing granitic rocks. The decrease in radon levels in water stored within the distribution system was attributable primarily to volatilization of the gas. Blending of radon‐free surface water with radon‐laden groundwater resulted in a water with a radon concentration that is a function of volumetric dilution. The use of granular activated carbon to reduce radon levels was found to be impractical, but aeration was observed to be cost‐effective as well as efficient.
Occurrence of Radon, Radium, and Uranium in Groundwater
Authors: Longtin Jon P.
Published: February 2018

The need to establish new and revised drinking water regulations led the US Environmental Protection Agency to conduct the National Inorganics and Radionuclides Survey to obtain information on the occurrence of various contaminants in drinking water from groundwater sources in the United States. In this article, the results that relate to radionuclides are discussed and compared with data from other studies. A description of the acquisition, analysis, and processing of the data is included.
Financing Strategies for Small Systems
Authors: Sagraves Barry R. , Peterson John H. , Williams Paul C.
Published: February 2018

The financing demands and economic burdens of complying with the requirements of the 1986 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act will be the greatest and most difficult to overcome for water systems serving populations of fewer than 10,000 people. The unit cost of compliance will be dramatically higher for small systems than that for larger systems, and small systems will have to deal with “rate shock,” financing plans of marginal feasibility, and limited access to capital markets. Creative new measures must be developed to furnish the needed capital to small water utilities. Models for these efforts include local initiatives in the form of mergers and joint action and state initiatives that include pooling of debt financing, credit support, and outright subsidies.
Source Protection and the Small Utility
Authors: Gollnitz William D.
Published: February 2018

Water supply source protection is extremely important in the management of a small water utility. The development of a source protection plan is illustrated with a case study of the Westfield watershed in western New York State. Oil and gas well development activities were evaluated using inexpensive models and were found to have a possible significant adverse impact on raw water quality. If not properly controlled, increased sediment from access road and site construction and chloride contamination from brine disposal could degrade water quality. The small water utility can mitigate these adverse effects through land use controls, watershed rules and regulations, and environmental assessment requirements.
The New Regulations—A Challenge for Small Systems
Authors: Sykes Richard G. , Doty Ronald N.
Published: February 2018

This article illustrates how the 1986 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act may affect small water systems by focusing on three small utilities that use groundwater as the sole source of supply. One of these, Mountain Water Company in Montana, faces the possibility of having one of its water sources redesignated as a surface source—a potentially expensive prospect. The problem of another utility, in Vandenberg Village, Calif., involves meeting the expected lower maximum contaminant level for total trihalomethanes. The third utility, Santa Paula (Calif.) Water Works, may require no changes as a result of the new regulations. By carefully studying potential compliance problems, small systems can plan for cost‐effective projects where they are likely to be needed.
Dependable Yield Evaluations: How Much Water Is Really There?
Authors: Smith Robert L. , Lampe Les K.
Published: February 2018

The yield capability of surface water impoundments is not usually tested frequently. Many factors, however, may have altered the yield capability of an impoundment, especially if the appraisal was done 20–30 years ago. Utility managers should ensure that dependable yield appraisals are updated frequently.
Cultivating Consumer Confidence Through Communication
Authors: Wendel Douglas P.
Published: February 2018

The old adage—“How you communicate is as important as what you communicate”—is especially true regarding public relations between a water utility and its customers. A utility will not be perceived as trustworthy, even if it provides the cleanest, safest water possible—it has to be a visible part of the community, and it must communicate on a regular basis with its constituency.
Can Public Notification Work for You?
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

Public notification requirements of the Safe Drinking Water Act are viewed by some water utility managers as negative and unnecessary. This article explains the regulations and advises utility managers how to prepare public notices, emphasizing how such notices can have positive effects if used to increase consumer awareness of the challenges and needs of water utilities.
Management Aspects of Public Notification Requirements
Authors: Wayne H. Abbott
Published: February 2018

New public notification requirements will challenge many US water utilities to reexamine public information attitudes and practices. The author discusses the requirements and the industry's reactions to them and encourages water utility managers to take a proactive position toward keeping customers informed and educated on a broad range of drinking water issues. A successful public information program implemented in 1977 by the Ann Arbor (Mich.) Utilities Department is highlighted.
Risk Communication: An Avenue for Public Involvement
Authors: Shaw Judy A. , Herb Jeanne
Published: February 2018

Government agencies dealing with environmental issues have traditionally excluded the public from the regulatory decision‐making process, opting instead to solicit public comment mainly after decisions have been made. Faced with increasing health threats from environmental contaminants and fearing a loss of control over decisions that affect their lives, the public is demanding to be involved throughout the regulatory process. Recent research on risk communication offers regulatory agencies a framework for developing new approaches to public involvement.
Predicting Pipeline Frost Load
Authors: Fielding Mellburne B. , Cohen Arieh
Published: February 2018

A study was undertaken to find a formula for predicting the additional load imposed on underground pipelines by soil freezing. The authors conclude that a modified Boussinesq equation can be used to assess this load. Results also showed that frost affects the modulus of soil reaction and therefore the induced stress in flexible pipe.
Demand Forecasting: A Model for San Francisco
Authors: Metzner Rudolph C.
Published: February 2018

Water demand forecasts are commonly calculated by multiplying population by per‐capita demand. This forecasting technique assumes that population is the only factor influencing water demand. In this article, the author describes a mathematical model that has been applied to forecast water demands by customer class in San Francisco, Calif., to the year 2005. The model considers several variables in addition to population on which demand is dependent. The forecasts by customer class are compared to a forecast of overall water use in San Francisco.
Committee Report: Computers in the Water Industry
Authors:   Computer Advances Research Committee
Published: February 2018

The main purpose of this report is to present the results of the special session, “Computers in the Water Industry: The Next Five Years,” held at the 1987 AWWA annual conference in Kansas City, Mo., and sponsored by AWWA's Computer Advances Research Committee. Also included is an overview of automation in the area of water supply, giving management, technical, and computer‐centered viewpoints. The report concludes with a summary of the committee's short‐term plans.
Uniting the World of Water
Authors: Bays Leonard , Richardson William H.
Published: February 2018

William H. Richardson, a past president and honorary member of AWWA, became the seventeenth president of the International Water Supply Association (IWSA) in 1988. Along with Leonard Bays, secretary‐general of IWSA, they outline the organization's history, plans for the future and relationship with AWWA.
Effects of Various Parameters on the Thickening of Softening Plant Sludges
Authors: Peters Guenther H. , Baumann E. Robert , Larson Maurice A.
Published: February 2018

Spectroscopic and thermal data for sludges from full‐scale softening plants showed calcium and magnesium precipitated as calcite and an amorphous hydrated hydroxide, respectively. Magnesium ions were not incorporated into the calcium lattice to form a magnesian calcite. Scanning electron photomicrographs indicated that only the calcium carbonate precipitate has a well‐defined crystal structure. The shift of the crystal size distribution (CSD) to greater sizes, observed by comparing the different sludges, may be due to bigger calcite crystals rather than to crystal size changes caused by the magnesium hydroxide. The settling rate of the sludges is related to the CSD. Higher fluxes were achieved with an upflow contact clarifier.
Determination of Practical Quantitation Levels for Organic Compounds in Drinking Water
Authors: Oxenford Jeffrey L. , McGeorge Leslie J. , Jenniss Stephen W.
Published: February 2018

This article describes the approach used by the state of New Jersey to determine practical quantitation levels (PQLs) for 22 organic compounds in drinking water. An interlaboratory study was conducted using six state‐certified laboratories. Samples with concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 20 μg/L were analyzed using US Environmental Protection Agency methods 502.1, 503.1, and 524.1. Results indicated a clear decrease in precision and accuracy with decreasing concentration. Acceptable quantitation could be achieved between 1 and 5 μg/L for volatile organic contaminants. The PQLs were affected by the individual analyte's performance in the methods.
Rates, Standards, and Customers
Authors: Mannion John B.
Published: February 2018

Mr. Mannion believes that water rates will definitely rise due to the economic impact of the upcoming regulatory program. He suggests that utility officials be more communicative with their customers, assuring them of the industry's commitment to safety and describing the rate increases likely to be necessary to achieve the new standards. Also utilities should take an active role in providing data, technical advice, and professional assistance to the government.
Long‐Term Destratification in an Illinois Lake
Authors: Raman Raman K. , Arbuckle Benny R.
Published: February 2018

Lake Eureka was created in 1942 to serve as a water supply source for Eureka, Ill., but because of persistent complaints about tastes and odors, in 1979 the city abandoned the lake and switched to groundwater. A low‐energy mechanical destratifier installed in the deepest part of the lake and chelated copper sulfate application to control blue‐green algae were first used in 1981 to improve water quality. The aerator has destratified the lake and maintained adequate oxygen levels. Iron and manganese concentrations in deep water have been reduced by 95 to 97 percent from the predestratification levels. Chlorine demand values have been reduced by more than half, and problem‐causing blue‐green algae have been brought under control. The city reinstated the lake as its water supply source in April 1982 and has realized a 50 to 60 percent savings in annual plant operating costs over the past six years.
Limitations of the Iodometric Determination of Ozone
Authors: Gordon Gilbert , Rakness Kerwin , Vornehm David , Wood Delmer
Published: February 2018

Three popular variations of the iodometric determination of ozone were investigated using a spectrophotometric ozone monitor as the referee method. Determinations carried out with a neutral buffered potassium iodide reagent acidified to pH 2 with sulfuric acid were observed to give values that were 15–30 percent higher than those obtained with the unbuffered potassium iodide and Masschelein modification methods relative to the referee method. Sampling parameters such as flow rate were shown to have a marked effect on the determinations. Because of the technique‐sensitive nature of the determinations, it is recommended that iodometry not be pursued as a standard method for measuring ozone.
Technical Note: Eliminating Interferences in the DPD Method for Residual Ozone
Authors: Palin A. T.
Published: February 2018

Recent studies have shown that when the DPD method is adapted for determining residual ozone, it is necessary to reduce substantially the potassium iodide concentration because of possible interference from hydrogen peroxide and other oxidants.
POU Devices Offer Utility Managers Option to Being Politicians’ Scapegoats
Authors: McCarthy Brian , Roland Richard
Published: February 2018

The authors favor the use of home water purification devices in the case of individuals whose tap water does pose a health risk or who want a less expensive alternative to bottled water. To ensure the units reliability, they suggest third‐party product testing and an effective maintenance program. The private water treatment devices industry wants to position itself as supplementing–not supplanting the work done by municipal water authorities. The authors surmise that water district managers and environmental protection officials have maintained continued resistance to supporting the use of home purification devices because of the rash of unsavory and quick‐buck charlatans who gave the industry a bad reputation in its infancy. They also acknowledge that, from a health point of view, controversy exists over who may require such a unit.
Detecting Viruses in Water
Authors: Hurst Christon J. , Benton William H. , Stetler Ronald E.
Published: February 2018

Various and divergent approaches that have been used to concentrate and assay viruses from tap water and environmental freshwaters are summarized and briefly explained. The basic principles behind the different methodologies and descriptions of the most recent developments are emphasized. Comparisons help demonstrate the relative sensitivities of different concentration and assay techniques.
More and Better Water for Thirsty São Paulo, Brazil
Authors: Kawamura Susumu , Pacheco Luiz A.M. , de Souza Paulo E.A. , Omori Mario
Published: February 2018

One of the fastest growing industrial cities in the world, São Paulo, Brazil, is located in a region with scarce water resources. Supplying adequate water to the greater São Paulo metropolitan area is a monumental task. At the present time, 1,070 mgd (47 m3/s) of water is supplied to 15 million people in the area, but it is not enough. An additional 450 mgd (20 m3/s) will be needed by the turn of the century. To meet this challenge, Companhia de Saneamento Basico do Estado de São Paulo (SABESP) has developed a new water supply system, the Alto Tiete system, to cover the eastern part of the metropolitan area, together with a 340‐mgd‐(15‐m3/s‐) capacity state‐of‐the‐art water treatment plant, which is now under construction. This article discusses the project and the highlights of the treatment plant design.
Identifying Efficient Pump Combinations
Authors: Ormsbee Lindell E. , Walski Thomas M.
Published: February 2018

Water supply pumps can account for a great deal of the energy consumed by municipalities. Significant reductions in energy consumption and costs can be obtained by identifying and using the most efficient pump combination for a given situation. A procedure for identifying such a combination is presented in this article.
Specificity of the DPD and Amperometric Titration Methods for Free Available Chlorine: A Review
Authors: Jensen James N. , Johnson J. Donald
Published: February 2018

Both the DPD and amperometric titration methods for measuring free available chlorine (FAC) are subject to interference from monochloramine and organic chloramines. The measured FAC concentration in the presence of chloramines is often significantly larger than the true FAC residual. Interference in the DPD method can be reduced by rapid titrations. Interference in the amperometric titration method can be minimized by maintaining a 200‐mV positive potential on the platinum electrode.
Of Crystal Balls and Iron Resolutions
Authors: Mannion John B.
Published: February 2018

Both resolutions and predictions for the water industry for the coming decade are made. Among the resolutions are: to have the industry unite in a aggressive effort to exercise leadership in developing standards, to be more communicative with various groups the industry deals with, to be more outspoken among industry colleagues and associates calling for participation in common efforts, to encourage and provide for continuing professional education, and to make AWWA a bigger, more effective instrument for industry action and progress. Among the predictions are: New York City and Seattle will announce sometime in the 1990s that they are going to filter their water, the influence of the environmental movement will continue to grow, the threat posed by drinking water contaminates will be seen from a more balanced perspective, but the movement toward more sophisticated water treatment will thrive, state drinking water programs will supplement their budgets through various forms of surtax on water rates.
GAC Adsorption and Infrared Reactivation: A Case Study
Authors: Koffskey Wayne E. , Lykins Benjamin W.
Published: February 2018

A study evaluated the effectiveness and cost of removing trace organic contaminants and surrogates from drinking water by granular activated carbon (GAC) adsorption. The effect of multiple reactivations of spent GAC was also evaluated. Results indicated that reactivated GAC effluent was essentially equivalent to that of virgin GAC when total organic carbon or total organic halides were evaluated. Although low levels of some reactivation by‐products were observed, the maximum associated risk level was only 3 in 1,000,000,000. A capital investment of approximately $2.2 million (in 1983 dollars) was required for design and construction of the 3‐mgd GAC adsorption and reactivation facility. The operations and maintenance cost for this facility was projected to be approximately $0.14/1,000 gal for a 20‐min empty bed contact time and a three‐month reactivation cycle.