bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Consensus and Infallibility: The Mind of Vatican I
Authors: Caffrey Thomas A.
Published: July 2017

… docemus et divinitus revelatum dogma esse definimus: Romanum Pontificem, cum ex cathedra loquitur, id est, cum omnium Christianorum pastoris et doctoris munere fungens pro suprema sua Apostolica auctoritate doctrinam de fide vel moribus ab universa Ecclesia tenendam definit, per assistentiam divinam ipsi in beato Petro promissam, ea infallibilitate pollere, qua divinus Redemptor Ecclesiam suam in definienda aoctrina de fide vel moribus instructam esse voluit; ideoque eiusmodi Romani Pontificis definitiones ex sese, non autem ex consensu Ecclesiae, irreformabiles esse.
Changes in Driver Steering Control With Learning
Authors: Smiley Alison , Reid Lloyd , Fraser Morris
Published: July 2017

Tracking and steering control data were recorded for 12 novices who drove an instrumented car on nine occasions during and after a driver training course. The data were examined for changes in tracking and steering control variables, as well as for changes in control strategy during the learning process. The most interesting change in steering control with learning was in the strategy used by the driver to control lateral position.
On the Legibility of Segmented Numerals
Authors: Van Nes Floris L. , Bouma Herman
Published: July 2017

Research on the legibility of many new symbol configurations has not kept pace with their increasing use. Such novel configurations appear, for instance, in segmented numerals. This paper reports experiments on their discriminability. Perceptual confusions between members of pairs of seven-segment numerals decreased as these pairs differed in more line segments. Not all segments are equally important for perception. Their perceptive weight can be deduced from their respective contribution to the differences in shape and corresponds to the actually occurring confusions between numeral pairs. These results led to suggestions for improved numerals: a simplified configuration for 6 and 9, another choice of vertical segments for 1, and an accentuation of important segments by broadening or lengthening them somewhat. First, the improvements aim at increasing the discriminability of the numerals, second, at increasing their acceptability; i.e., resemblance to the traditional numeral shapes plays a role.
Container Characteristics and Maximum Acceptable Weight of Lift1
Authors: Garg Arun , Saxena U.
Published: July 2017

A laboratory study was conducted to evaluate the effects of handles, shape of the container, and dimensions of the container on maximum acceptable weight of lift using a psychophysical methodology. Ten male college students were required to lift six different boxes with handles, six without handles, and three different mailbags from the floor to a bench height (76 cm), using a free-style lifting technique. The six boxes varied in length and width, and the three mailbags varied in diameter and length. Statistical analysis showed that the maximum acceptable weights for mailbags and boxes without handles were lower than those for boxes with handles. The maximum acceptable weight significantly increased with an increase in dimensions of the mailbag. Among all the container characteristics studied, handles were found to have the most profound effect on maximum acceptable weight. It is concluded that the recommendations for maximum acceptable weight of the load based on boxes with handles need to be adjusted when applied to boxes without handles or to some other types of containers.
Field Test of Arousal: A Portable Reaction Timer with Data Storage
Authors: Wilkinson R. T. , Houghton D.
Published: July 2017

A portable, unprepared simple reaction time (USRT) test is described. This test is particularly suitable for assessing performance in the field as a function of arousal-related stress. The test, which is housed in a small, battery-powered cassette recorder, presents a visual stimulus at quasi-random intertrial intervals ranging from 1 to 10 s. The subject responds by pressing a button as quickly as possible, whereupon the reaction time is displayed. The duration of the test is limited only by the cassette tape on which the data are recorded, but 10 min is recommended. Reviewed are studies illustrating the test's brief practice curve and its sensitivity to arousal-related stress.
Judgments of Size and Distance with Imaging Displays
Authors: Roscoe Stanley N.
Published: July 2017

The application of computer-animated imagery analogous to a contact view from an air-plane calls for a better understanding of the essential visual cues for spatial orientation. Such systems have application both as contact analog flight displays and as outside visual scenes for flight simulators. In either case, systematic errors in distance judgments are encountered that can be compensated for by magnifying objects in the animated scenes. Results of an experimental investigation of biased distance judgments with a projection periscope accounted for, but did not explain, a portion of the systematic error. The findings are discussed in relation to other unexplained experimental facts associated with size and distance judgments, including various optical illusions and the “projection” of afterimages.
The Influence of the Reflective-Impulsive Cognitive Style on Visual Inspection
Authors: Schwabish Stephen D. , Drury Colin G.
Published: July 2017

Thirty-nine subjects participated in an experiment designed to evaluate the influence of the reflective-impulsive cognitive style on visual inspection. The Matching Familiar Figures Test (MFFT) was used to classify subjects as reflectives (longer times, fewer errors), impulsives (shorter times, more errors), fast-accurates (shorter times, fewer errors), and slow-inaccurates (longer times, more errors). Following administration of the MFFT, subjects participated in a laboratory visual inspection task. Results from the inspection task indicate that the MFFT groups coalesced along an accuracy rather than a speed dimension. The more accurate groups (reflectives and fast-accurates) were significantly faster than the inaccurates (impulsives and slow-inaccurates) in detecting certain flaws, and they made fewer size-judgment errors. However, the inaccurates detected more flaws, (i.e., made fewer search errors) than did the accurates. These results are interpreted in terms of the possible cognitive styles affecting inspection performance.
Glideslope Descent-Rate Cuing to Aid Carrier Landings
Authors: Lintern Gavan , Kaul Charles E. , Collyer Stanley C.
Published: July 2017

Landing performance of experienced naval aviators was tested in a simulator with a conventional Fresnel Lens Optical Landing System (FLOLS) and also with a modified FLOLS that provided descent-rate error information. The FLOLS, used for guidance during carrier approaches, normally provides only glides lope displacement information. Aircraft dynamics can create substantial lags between an incorrect control input and the resulting FLOLS error indication. Addition of descent-rate error to the FLOLS was intended to compensate for that lag. Two algorithms were tested with the rate displays, and both improved glides lope tracking throughout the approach. Lineup was not adversely affected. Differences between the two experimental displays favored one driven by an algorithm based on the weighted sum of glideslope displacement and descent-rate error versus one driven by an algorithm based on descent-rate error only.
Influence of Stairway Handrail Height on the Ability to Generate Stabilizing Forces and Moments
Authors: Maki Brian E. , Bartlett Sheryl A. , Fernie Geoff R.
Published: July 2017

An experimental study was performed investigating the influence of handrail height on the ability of stairway users to generate stabilizing forces and moments, with the aim of improving stairway safety by developing better handrail design standards. The experiments involved measurement of the maximum forces and moments that subjects were able to exert on a handrail while they stood stationary in an upright position. Two age groups were tested: young (20 to 45 years) and elderly (59 years and over), with a total of 35 subjects. All subjects showed a strong linear dependence on handrail height in generating stabilizing forces and moments. Ability to generate forward/backward forces and forward/backward moments increased linearly with increasing handrail height. Ability to generate upward force decreased linearly with increasing handrail height. Based on the results, an optimal design range for handrail height was estimated.
Task Design and Modification Based on Physical Ability Measurement
Authors: Rahimi Mansour , Malzahn Don E.
Published: July 2017

Appropriate design and modification of industrial tasks must consider the matching of human physical abilities with task requirements. This paper describes the Available Motions Inventory (AMI) as a testing and evaluation system for measuring human physical ability based on components of manual industrial tasks. Using a microcomputer, one can transform the AMI scores (71 for each hand) into raw scores, ability scores, motion class scores, and performance prediction indices. Examples of task modification strategies using the design-oriented scoring of AMI are illustrated. Also, the reliability of the AMI testing system was evaluated using a multivariate canonical correlation analysis. A high test-retest reliability of 0.85 was obtained.
Human-System Performance Measurement in Training Simulators
Authors: Vreuls Donald , Obermayer Richard W.
Published: July 2017

Automated human-system performance measurement subsystems are being specified as a requirement in modern training simulators. Although hardware and software technology can support this requirement, there are many unanswered questions about the design of real-time automated measurement systems. Fundamental performance measurement problems and research issues are discussed.
Part-Task Training for Tracking and Manual Control
Authors: Wightman Dennis C. , Lintern Gavan
Published: July 2017

Part-task training was defined as practice on some set of components of the whole task as a prelude to performance of the whole task. Part-task procedures are intended to improve learning efficiency and to reduce costs. Our review focused on the instruction of tracking skills for manual control. Transfer of training was emphasized and crucial features of the methodology and of means of assessing transfer were discussed. The part-task procedures of segmentation, fractionation, and simplification were explained, and procedures for reintegrating parts into the whole task were summarized.
The Effect of Job Experience on the Maintenance Proficiency of Army Automotive Mechanics
Authors: Spiker V. Alan , Harper Walter R. , Hayes John F.
Published: July 2017

The proficiency of 70 Army automotive mechanics in performing two repair tasks was examined under controlled test conditions. The tasks were installation of a generator and a starter on a tank engine. The subjects were assigned to one of 10 job-experience (JE) categories based on the number of times they had performed the repair tasks. The 10 experience categories ranged from no previous experience to nine or more times. Six dimensions of maintenance proficiency were measured: quality checks, adherence to procedures, repair time, information use, tool selection, and tool use. Overall, proficiency improved markedly for mechanics in the 0 to 5 JE range, peaked between 5 and 6 JE, and declined somewhat for mechanics with more than 6 JE. The job-experience/proficiency function was similar for both repair tasks and all six dimensions of proficiency. The results indicate that job experience could be a valid predictor of maintenance proficiency and training needs if based on an analysis of a larger sample of representative maintenance tasks and validated with a larger subject population.
The Effects of Bandwidth Compression and Image Quality on Image Interpreter Performance
Authors: Pearson Judith E. , Pearson Craig E.
Published: July 2017

It is known that poor image quality tends to degrade image interpretability. Previous research has shown that increased bandwidth compression also limits image interpretability. The combined effects of bandwidth compression and image quality are not known. This pilot study examined the possible interactive properties of transmission bandwidth reduction and image quality on the interpretability of digital electro-optical imagery displayed in "softcopy" format on cathode-ray tubes (CRTs). Fifteen U.S. Army image interpreters were tested in a field-deployed image interpretation facility. Their performance was evaluated in terms of completeness of classification and identification of military equipment, accuracy of equipment counts, and speed of interpretation. It was found that greater bandwidth compression and/or low image quality significantly degraded interpreter performance. The study also found significant interactions between bandwidth compression and image quality for speed and completeness of interpreter performance.
Measurement of Seat Pressure Distributions
Authors: Treaster Delia , Marras W. S.
Published: July 2017

Knowledge of seating pressures is important for proper chair design. This study demonstrates the usefulness of a new methodology for measuring pressure distributions. It refines and advances an optical-reflection technique introduced several years ago. In this way precise quantitative measures of the pressure distribution can be obtained. Video image digitization, which converts analog video signals to digital ones, provided data in a form that could be easily submitted for computer analysis. Additionally, a novel method of analysis is presented that allows for the measurement and evaluation of the distribution of seated pressures, rather than peak pressures alone. A preliminary experiment with eight subjects was conducted to demonstrate the validity of the experimental apparatus and the data treatment.
Menu Organization and User Expertise in Information Search Tasks
Authors: Hollands J. G. , Merikle Philip M.
Published: July 2017

A categorical menu structure based on experts' semantic memory organization was developed, and search efficiency using this menu organization, relative to search efficiency using alphabetic and random menu organizations, was evaluated for users with different levels of expertise. In Experiment 1 experts in psychology sorted 120 psychological terms and the data were submitted to a multidimensional scaling procedure to identify the clusters of terms used to develop the categorical menu organization. In Experiment 2 search efficiency with the three different menu organizations was evaluated for users with different levels of expertise in the subject domain on two different search tasks: (1) definition matching, wherein given a definition, it was necessary to find the correct term with its definition; and (2) term matching, wherein given a term, it was necessary to find the identical term with its definition. Performance on both search tasks improved directly with expertise in the subject area when the categorical menu organization was used, and experts completed the definition-matching task faster than novices with all three types of menu organization. However, performance on the term-matching task was not influenced by expertise when alphabetic and random menu organizations were used.
Psychophysical Capacity Modeling in Frequent Manual Materials Handling Activities
Authors: Genaidy, A. M. , Asfour S. S. , Mital A. , Tritar M.
Published: July 2017

Models related to the psychophysical capacity of individuals engaged in frequent manual materials handling (MMH) activities are reviewed and evaluated. Predictive models are classified into regression models and fuzzy models. A list of these models is presented in the form of tables for easy access by designers and practitioners of occupational safety and health. Emphasis is placed on information that has become available since the publication of the NIOSH Work Practices Guide for Manual Lifting. Recommendations for future research in modeling the psychophysical capacity of individuals engaged in MMH activities are provided.
Object Displays Do Not Always Support Better Integrated Task Performance
Authors: Sanderson Penelope M. , Flach John M. , Buttigieg Mary Anne , Casey Elizabeth J.
Published: July 2017

This study examines Wickens' compatibility of proximity hypothesis of visual display design and proposes that an emergent-features approach might carry more explanatory power. Two studies show that a bar graph display is superior to an object display in an integration task if the bar graph has a strong emergent feature that maps directly onto a goal-relevant task invariant. Earlier results by Wickens and colleagues showing an object display advantage could not be replicated or generalized. These new findings suggest that object display advantages occur only under limited conditions and that the exploitation of emergent features may more predictably lead to an advantage of one display over another.
Hip Joint Mobility and Spinal Angles in Standing and in Different Sitting Postures
Authors: Bridger Robert S. , Wilkinson Deborah , Van Houweninge Toni
Published: July 2017

The spinal angles of 25 female subjects were measured in standing and in four different sitting postures with various trunk-thigh angles. Additionally, measurements of hip and lumbar mobility were made in an attempt to relate mobility to spinal curvature in the different sitting postures. Lumbar curvature was observed to decrease as the trunk-thigh angle decreased across the different sitting postures, and reduction in curvature was associated with hip mobility. An exploratory analysis of interrelationships among hip mobility, spinal mobility, and spinal curvature was also carried out. A significant correlation between lumbar and thoracic angular deviations in standing and hip flexion/extension range was obtained. The findings are discussed with reference to theories of sitting posture and the influence of hip joint mobility on postural adaptations to furniture. Further investigations, including studies of male subjects, are indicated.
Components of Fault-Finding: Symptom Interpretation
Authors: Toms Margaret , Patrick John
Published: July 2017

The processing demands of two strategies for symptom interpretation in a fault-finding task were considered. It was predicted that a more demanding, eliminative strategy would result in improved performance when supported by an external memory aid, and impaired performance when unsupported, as compared with a less demanding strategy involving tracing backward from bad system outputs. The nature of such demands, whether primarily verbal or visuospatial, was also examined. Results indicated that the eliminative strategy improved symptom interpretation accuracy slightly when supported by a visual memory aid and depressed performance when combined with a verbal memory aid. When no memory aid was permitted, subjects were apparently unable to use this strategy. No difference between visual and verbal memory aids was indicated with the less demanding strategy. These results are discussed with reference to their implications for the manner in which individuals utilize and represent problem information.
Anthropometry of the Elderly: Status and Recommendations
Authors: Kelly P. L. , Kroemer K. H. E.
Published: July 2017

Available anthropometric information on the elderly in the United States is discussed. Demographic data as well as information on performance capabilities and limitations (such as strength, endurance, and mobility) are needed for ergonomic design of tools, utensils, equipment, and vehicles to improve the working and living environment for the elderly. Recommendations are made for collection of more information.
Visibility Distance of Highway Signs among Young, Middle-Aged, and Older Observers: Icons Are Better than Text
Authors: Kline Theresa J. Babbitt , Ghali Laura M. , Kline Donald W. , Brown Steven
Published: July 2017

The visibility distances for young, middle-aged, and elderly observers of text and icon versions of four different highway signs were compared under day and dusk lighting conditions. No age differences were observed. Icon signs, however, were visible at much greater distances than were text signs for all three age groups, a difference that was more pronounced under dusk conditions. There were no age differences in the comprehension of icon signs, but there was considerable variability from one icon sign to another in the degree to which they were comprehended. Acuity was found to be a better predictor of the visibility distance of text signs in both day and dusk conditions than it was of icon signs. To the degree that they are comprehended, icon signs appear to offer drivers of all ages almost twice as much time in which to respond to them.
Discussion of “Medications and the Safety of the Older Driver” by Ray et al.
Authors: O'Hanlon James F.
Published: July 2017

The clinical relevance of the distinction between short- and long-acting benzodiazepine anxiolytics is discussed, and emphasis is placed on the persistence of these drugs′ effects on functioning throughout a course of treatment. Nootropics (drugs that might benefit driving in older adults) are discussed. However, the evidence that any drug produces such positive benefits is currently weak.
RESEARCH NOTE: On Controlling Inert Gas Narcosis
Authors: Fowler Barry , Pang Elizabeth , Mitchell Ian
Published: July 2017

Ten subjects breathed experimental mixtures of 20% and 35% nitrous oxide (N2O) balanced with oxygen and then aligned a pointer with a target using vision, kinesthesis, or combinations of these senses. In a prior session the subjects had been trained on the task with feedback while breathing N2O. The results showed that N2O did not influence variable error (VE), constant error, (CE), or absolute CE, but perceptual conditions influenced VE and absolute CE. These results suggest that the demonstration by Legge (1965) of changes in the variability and accuracy of matching on this task under N2O are indicative of changes in response bias and/or attention rather than perceptual sensitivity. It is argued that narcosis slows rather than distorts information processing. Slowing is accompanied by strategic changes that may be maladaptive. This suggests that, contrary to conventional wisdom, the safety and efficiency of divers exposed to narcosis could be improved with training.
Judgments of Change and Proportion in Graphical Perception
Authors: Hollands J. G. , Spence Ian
Published: July 2017

Subjects judged change and proportion when viewing graphs in two experiments. Change was judged more quickly and accurately with line and bar graphs than with pie charts or tiered bar graphs, and this difference was larger when the rate of change was smaller. Without a graduated scale, proportion was judged more quickly and accurately with pie charts and divided bar graphs than with line or bar graphs. Perception is direct when it requires simpler or fewer mental operations; we propose that perception of change is direct with line and bar graphs, whereas perception of proportion is direct with pie charts and divided bar graphs. The results are also consistent with the proximity compatibility principle. Suggestions for improving the design of graphical displays are given.
Chromaticity and Luminance as Coding Dimensions in Visual Search
Authors: Nagy Allen L. , Sanchez Robert R.
Published: July 2017

Visual search times were measured as a function of chromaticity and luminance differences between a target and distractor stimuli. Results showed that mean search time increased linearly with the number of distractors if the luminance difference between target and distractors was small but was roughly constant if the luminance difference was large. Similar results were previously found for chromaticity differences. With the number of distractor stimuli held constant, the mean search time decreased with increases in the difference between target and distractors, up to some critical difference. Further increases in target-distractor difference had little effect. Results were similar for targets defined by luminance and chromaticity. There was some advantage to combining luminance differences with chromaticity differences when the target was dimmer than the distractors. Generally there was no advantage for combining a chromaticity difference with a luminance difference when the target was brighter than the distractors.
Real-Time Expert System Interfaces, Cognitive Processes, and Task Performance: An Empirical Assessment
Authors: Adelman Leonard , Cohen Marvin S. , Bresnick Terry A. , Chinnis James O. , Laskey Kathryn B.
Published: July 2017

In this experiment we investigated the effect of different real-time expert system interfaces on operators' cognitive processes and performance. The results supported the principle that a real-time expert system's interface should focus operators' attention on where it is required most. However, following this principle resulted in unanticipated consequences. In particular, it led to inferior performance for less critical, yet important cases requiring operators' attention. For such cases operators performed better with an interface that let them select where they wanted to focus their attention. Having a rule generation capability improved performance with all interfaces but did so less than hypothesized. In all cases performance with different interfaces and a rule generation capability was explained by the effect of the interfaces on cognitive process measures.
Repetitive Motion Disorders: The Design of Optimal Rate-Rest Profiles
Authors: Fisher Donald L. , Andres Robert O. , Airth David , Smith Stephen S.
Published: July 2017

Repetitive motion disorders of the upper extremities are the primary cause of lost time in hand-intensive industries. Typical remedies include the introduction of job aids and the redesign of the job. An alternative approach is considered here. Procedures are developed that can be used to determine the parameters of a job (e.g., the rate of work and the number and duration of the rest breaks) that minimize repetitive motion disorders and maximize productivity. It is shown that in theory the job parameters can be set so that one can achieve not only a decrease in repetitive motion disorders but also an increase in productivity. The application of the procedures to an actual manufacturing job requiring high-repetitive, highforce hand motions is discussed in detail
Cognitive Function at High Altitude
Authors: Kramer Arthur F. , Coyne John T. , Strayer David L.
Published: July 2017

The effects of altitude on human performance and cognition were evaluated in a field study performed on Mount Denali in Alaska during the summer of 1990. Climbers performed a series of perceptual, cognitive, and sensory-motor tasks before, during, and after climbing the West Buttress route on Denali. Relative to a matched control group that performed the tasks at sea level, the climbers showed deficits of learning and retention in perceptual and memory tasks. Furthermore, climbers performed more slowly on most tasks than did the control group, suggesting long-term deficits that may be attributed to repeated forays to high altitudes
Headphone Localization of Speech
Authors: Begault Durand R. , Wenzel Elizabeth M.
Published: July 2017

Three-dimensional acoustic display systems have recently been developed that synthesize virtual sound sources over headphones based on filtering by headrelated transfer functions (HRTFs), the direction-dependent spectral changes caused primarily by the pinnae. In this study 11 inexperienced subjects judged the apparent spatial location of headphone-presented speech stimuli filtered with nonindividualized HRTFs. About half of the subjects "pulled" their judgments toward either the median or the lateral-vertical planes, and estimates were almost always elevated. Individual differences were pronounced for the distance judgments; 15% to 46% of stimuli were heard inside the head, with the shortest estimates near the median plane. The results suggest that most listeners can obtain useful azimuth information from speech stimuli filtered by nonindividualized HRTFs. Measurements of localization error and reversal rates are comparable with a previous study that used broadband noise stimuli.
The Journal at Fifty: Then and Now
Authors: Granatstein J.L.
Published: July 2017

In 1978, on the occasion of the Institute's fiftieth anniversary, J.L. Granatstein was asked to look at the International Journal's first year. For this issue, celebrating the Journal's fiftieth volume, he was invited to add an epilogue commenting on the evolution of the Journal over the succeeding decades. The first three sections of this article are reprinted from the winter 1997–8 issue; the fourth section was written especially for this issue. In the fifth section the current editors of the Journal respond to some of the points raised by Professor Granatstein.
The Influence of International Human Rights Law upon Criminal Justice Systems
Authors: Rehman Javaid
Published: July 2017

Is international law, law in the real sense? This is a question that has been frequently posed not only by inquisitive undergraduate students, but also by national law practitioners. The sceptics of international law point to the absence of firmly established legislative, executive and judicial mechanisms—mechanisms that represent the essence of an effective legal system. The influence of human rights law upon national laws may appear particularly limited and tenuous. Furthermore, in the light of significant violations of individual and collective rights, there is scepticism about the effectiveness or influence of international human rights law upon national legal systems. This article, in challenging those sceptics who question the effectiveness of international human rights law, argues in favour of a strong and influential relationship between national criminal justice systems and international human rights law.
Race and the Criminal Process: Breaking the Mould to Ensure Accurate Ethnic Monitoring
Authors: Sharma Kamal
Published: July 2017

The media, judiciary, legislature and the Executive currently agree that the criminal process is in need of reform. Indeed, on Tuesday 18 June 2002, Tony Blair described the criminal justice system as ‘antique and ineffectual’. This article investigates the purposes and uses of racial and ethnical terminologies in the criminal justice system.

Notwithstanding the importance of existing racial definitions in criminal justice, a standard definition of ethnicity is regarded as necessary to ensure that ethnic monitoring is accurate and effective. Therefore this article questions the validity, accuracy and purposes of the terminologies used in contemporary and past studies in relation to the most extensive reports on ethnic monitoring; namely the National Censuses of Population, the Home Office Research Statistics and Development Directorate's publications and the British Crime Surveys'. This article also considers the impact that foreseeable social and demographic changes may have on the use of racial and ethnic classifications in the criminal justice system, as well as the ways in which the various bodies of the criminal process may prepare for potential changes.
Fraud—The Latest Law Commission Proposals
Authors: Sullivan G. R.
Published: July 2017

This article examines the latest Law Commission proposals for replacing conspiracy to defraud with statutory offences. The Report proposes a general offence of fraud which can be committed three ways: (1) by false representation; (2) wrongfully failing to disclose; (3) abuse of position.

The first form of the general offence constitutes a very useful reform whereas aspects of the second and third ways of committing the general offence are criticised for engendering uncertainty and for their potential to criminalise otherwise valid civil law transactions.

Additionally the Report proposes a broad offence of obtaining services by dishonesty; this is found to be a very useful proposal.
Double Jeopardy: One Idea and Two Myths from the Criminal Justice Bill 2002
Authors: Fitzpatrick Ben
Published: July 2017

In November 2002, the government introduced the Criminal Justice Bill 2002 to Parliament. The Bill is far-reaching, covering issues from the pre-trial process to sentencing. This article focuses on one of the higher profile, and, arguably, more controversial proposals in the Bill, the relaxation of the rule against double jeopardy. The proposal is described and analysed. It is also suggested that the Bill and the proposal are underpinned by two criminal justice policy positions—(1) that defendants are unfairly advantaged in the criminal process; and (2) that the best way to enhance victims' rights is to diminish those of defendants. It is suggested that these positions are misguided, and that they constitute powerful and persistent criminal justice myths.
Positive Obligations under the European Convention on Human Rights: Towards the Human Rights of Victims and Vulnerable Witnesses?
Authors: de Than Claire
Published: July 2017

This article argues that victims of crime and vulnerable witnesses already have identifiable human rights stemming from the positive obligations under the European Convention on Human Rights. Since these rights do exist, albeit in partial form, it is suggested that the focus of current reform proposals should be on upholding and extending these rights rather than simply creating guidelines, codes of practice and ombudsmen.
Compensating the Wrongfully Convicted
Authors: Taylor Nick
Published: July 2017

This article outlines the two schemes currently in operation for compensating victims of miscarriages of justice, namely the statutory scheme under the Criminal Justice Act 1988, s. 133, and the ex gratia scheme operated by the Home Office. It outlines and evaluates the operation of the schemes and considers the effect of recent case law. Finally, it considers the inability of a purely monetary scheme to provide meaningful compensation and considers how a recent Home Office initiative with the National Association of Citizens Advice Bureaux might produce a more holistic approach to compensation.
Affray and Legislative Intent: Cautionary Tales
Authors: Reed Alan
Published: July 2017

In comparison with other doctrinal areas of criminal law relatively little has been written on public order infractions, specifically the offence of affray. A revival of interest in this topic has been prompted by the House of Lords' decision in I v DPP and the Court of Appeal decision in Plavecz. This article examines the outcome in these cases and, more widely, seeks to deconstruct the substantive elements of the affray offence. It is suggested that it does not merit the pre-eminence currently accorded by prosecuting authorities, and that more encomia solutions to breaches of public order may be found through consideration of a gamut of alternative charges.
Legitimate Defence in the Criminal Law of Iran and Islam
Authors: Ghodsi Ebrahim
Published: July 2017

Legitimate defence was enacted in the Iranian Penal Code in 1991 and 1996 and covers defence of life, dignity, family, freedom and property of the person or another. Legitimate defence is differently addressed by Shiite and Sunnite jurists in Islamic literature. Attack and defence have their own conditions in the Iranian and Islamic Penal Codes. These conditions are evaluated and discussed in this article.
The Functions of Saliva
Authors: Mandel I. D.
Published: July 2017

Nature's demands on salivary glands are extensive and diverse and range from the reptilian need for a venomous drop to incapacitate its prey to the 100 quarts that ruminants require to digest a day's grazing. Other species depend on saliva not for survival, but for improving the quality of life, using the fluid for functions varying from grooming and cleansing to nest-building. Humans can manage without saliva; its loss is not life-threatening in any immediate sense, but it results in a variety of difficulties and miseries. Oral digestion per se is only of marginal importance in humans, but saliva is important in preparing food for mastication, for swallowing, and far normal taste perception. Without saliva, mealtimes are difficult, uncomfortable, and embarrassing. The complex mix of salivary constituents provides an effective set of systems for lubricating and protecting the soft and hard tissues. Protection of soft tissues is afforded against desiccation, penetration, ulceration, and potential carcinogens by mucin and anti-proteases. Saliva can encourage soft tissue repair by reducing clotting time and accelerating wound contraction. A major protective function results from the salivary role in maintenance of the ecological balance in the oral cavity via: (1) debridement/lavage; (2) aggregation and reduced adherence by both immunological and non-immunological means; and (3) direct antibacterial activity. Saliva also possesses antifungal and anti-viral systems. Saliva is effective in maintaining pH in the oral cavity, contributes to the regulation of plaque pH, and helps neutralize reflux acids in the esophagus. Salivary maintenance of tooth integrity is dependent on: (I) mechanical cleansing and carbohydrate clearance; (2) post-eruptive maturation of enamel; (3) regulation of the ionic environment to provide a remineralizing potential without spontaneous precipitation; and (4) pellicle deposition and limitation of acid diffusion. Saliva also plays a role in water balance, can serve in a limited way in excretion, and has possible hormonal function in the gastro-intestinal tract.
Physiological Factors Affecting Salivary Flow Rate, Oral Sugar Clearance, and the Sensation of Dry Mouth in Man
Authors: Dawes C.
Published: July 2017

This paper discusses methods for collection of both whole saliva and individual gland secretions, the normal ranges of salivary flow rate, the effects of physiological variables which influence flow rate, and the role of saliva in oral sugar clearance. The physiological basis for the sensation of dry mouth is discussed, and a new concept is advanced which states that the sensation of dry mouth will occur when the salivary flow rate is less than the sum of the rates of water absorption and evaporation from the mouth. In a study of the effects of anticholinergic agents on salivary flow, the subjects experienced the sensation of dry mouth when the normal flow rate of unstimulated saliva was reduced by from 40 to 50%.
Genotoxic and Non-genotoxic Effects of Betel Quid Ingredients on Oral Mucosal Fibroblasts in vitro
Authors: Jeng J.H. , Kuo M.L. , Hahn L.J. , Kuo M.Y.P.
Published: July 2017

To understand the role of betel quid (BQ) in the pathogenesis of oral submucous fibrosis (OSF) and oral cancer, we used DNA damage, cytotoxicity, and cell proliferation assays to study the pathobiological effects of aqueous extracts of three BQ constituents [betel nut ( Areca catechu, BN), inflorescence of Piper betle (IPB), and lime], one BN alkaloid (arecoline), and one BN polyphenol [(+)-catechin] on cultured oral mucosal fibroblasts. Extracts of BN and IPB induced DNA strand break formation in a dose-dependent manner. Extracts of BN and IPB, (+)-catechin, and arecoline decreased cell survival and proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. However, aqueous extract of lime (50-800 μg/mL) increased cell proliferation by 20-40%. These results indicate that BQ contains not only genotoxic and cytotoxic agents, but also compounds which stimulate cell proliferation. These compounds may act synergistically in the pathogenesis of OSF and oral cancer in BQ chewers. In addition, five anti-oxidants [glutathione (GSH), cysteine, mannitol, catalase, and superoxide dismutase (SOD)] were tested for their protective effects against the cytotoxicity of BQ constituents. GSH (1.95 and 2.6 mmol/L) and cysteine (4 and 8 mmol/L) prevented the arecoline-induced cytotoxicity. In contrast, mannitol, catalase, and SOD did not decrease the arecoline-induced cytotoxicity. These results indicate that thiol depletion, but not the attack of oxygen free radicals, could be the mechanism for arecoline cytotoxicity. GSH could also protect cells from the cytotoxicity of IPB extract. Increasing dietary intake of GSH-rich foods or dietary supplements of GSH may have chemopreventive potential to reduce BQ-associated oral lesions.
Eugenol Triggers Different Pathobiological Effects on Human Oral Mucosal Fibroblasts 1
Authors: Jeng J.H. , Hahn L.J. , Lu EJ , Wang YJ , Kuo M.Y.P.
Published: July 2017

Pathobiological effects of eugenol (4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol), a major constituent of betel quid (BQ), were studied on oral mucosal fibroblasts. At a concentration higher than 3 mmol/L, eugenol was cytotoxic to oral mucosal fibroblasts in a concentration-and time-dependent manner. Cell death was associated with intracellular depletion of glutathione (GSH). Most of the GSH was depleted prior to the onset of cell death. At concentrations of 3 mmol/L and 4 mmol/L, eugenol depleted about 45% and 77% of GSH after one-hour incubation. In addition, eugenol decreased cellular ATP level in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. Eugenol also inhibited lipid peroxidation. Inhibition of lipid peroxidation was partially explained by its dose-dependent inhibition of xanthine oxidase activity. The IC50 of eugenol on xanthine oxidase activity was about 0.3 mmol/L. No DNA strand break activity for eugenol was found at concentrations between 0.5 and 3 mmol/L. Taken together, frequent exposure of oral mucosa to a high concentration of eugenol during the chewing of BQ might be involved in the pathogenesis of oral submucous fibrosis and oral cancer via its cytotoxicity. In contrast, eugenol at a concentration less than 1 mmol/L might protect cells from the genetic attack of reactive oxygen species via inhibition of xanthine oxidase activity and lipid peroxidation.
Pain Responses to Experimental Chewing in Myofascial Pain Patients
Authors: Dao T.T.T. , Lund J.P. , Lavigne G.J.
Published: July 2017

Although patients with myofascial pain of the masticatory muscles often report that chewing exacerbates their pain, this has never been verified experimentally. In this study, pain was assessed before and after chewing in 20 asymptomatic subjects and in 61 patients with muscle pain. First, self-reports of pain were obtained with a checklist and on five-point category scales (CAT) at the screening visit. None of the asymptomatic subjects reported that mastication or other jaw movements caused pain. On the other hand, the majority of patients reported that movements were painful (67.2%, checklist; 78.7%, CAT). Afterward, pain intensity at rest and after chewing on wax for 3 min was reported on 100-mm Visual Analogue Scales (VAS). No asymptomatic subjects had pain before or after the chewing test, while about 50% of the patients reported an increase of pain after chewing. In this subgroup, mean pain intensity increased by 102.6%. However, mean pain intensity after chewing decreased by 56.6% in about 30% of the patient sample. These patients had significantly higher resting pain than the first subgroup. These data show that a short chewing test can exacerbate pain in most myofascial pain patients but has no effect in asymptomatic subjects. Surprisingly, the exercise decreased pain in an important subgroup of patients. These results suggest that two subgroups of myofascial pain patients may exist with opposite reactions to exercise. It remains to be seen if these reactions are due to two different pathologies or to the fact that the pre-exercise pain levels were significantly different in the two groups.
ED-A Region-containing Isoform of Cellular Fibronectin is Present in Dentin Matrix in Dentinogenesis Imperfecta Associated with Osteogenesis Imperfecta
Authors: Lukinmaa P.-L. , Vaheri A.
Published: July 2017

To elucidate the defective dentin formation in osteogenesis imperfecta (OI), we analyzed the expression of selected fibronectin (FN) isoforms in the dentin matrix of a patient with dentinogenesis imperfecta (DI) associated with 01, and in normal teeth. Frozen tooth sections were immunostained with three monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). The MAb recognizing the major cell-binding region (f-33), shared by plasma FN (pFN) and cellular FN (cFN), stained the pulp of normal adult permanent teeth intensely, while no reactivity was present in predentin, (demineralized) dentin, or dental cementum. The periodontal ligament stained unevenly. The dentin matrix of the patient with OI displayed reactive zones, alternating layerwise or concentrically with non-reactive ones. Staining throughout the connective tissue of adult oral mucosa, analyzed for the form of FN present, was intense, and in dermis, which was also studied, it was moderate. Reactivities in dental tissues with the MAb specific for the ED-A region (IST-9), included in cFN but not pFN, were similar to those with MAb f-33. The mucosal connective tissue stained weakly and dermis was negative, except that nerves and endothelia of some large blood vessels stained clearly. The MAb specific for the ED-B segment (BC-1), also included in cFN only, did not stain any of the tissues analyzed. The results suggest that, unlike mucosal and dermal FNs, FNs in the dental tissues are largely cellular, and also that dentin formation in OI may be completed by successive generations of pulpal fibroblasts differentiated into hard-tissue-forming cells.
Flow Rates of Resting Whole and Stimulated Parotid Saliva in Relation to Age and Gender
Authors: Percival R.S. , Challacombe SJ , Marsh P.D.
Published: July 2017

Dry mouth is a common feature in the elderly, but it is not clear what proportion of incidences are related to functional disturbances and whether age per se and gender play a role. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of age and gender on salivary flow rates. The effect of age on unstimulated (resting) whole and stimulated parotid saliva flow rates was determined in 116 unmedicated, healthy individuals. The subjects were divided into four age groups: 20-39 years (group A), 40-59 years (group B), 60-79 years (group C), and 80 years and over (group D). A significant decrease in the secretion rates of unstimulated whole saliva in relation to age was observed in the study population (p < 0.001). However, the flow rates of stimulated parotid saliva were not significantly different in the four age groups. Females had significantly lower mean flow rates than males for both unstimulated (resting) whole saliva (p < 0.005) and stimulated parotid saliva (p < 0.05). In the study as a whole, significant negative correlations were found between either the DMF index (decayed, missing, and filled teeth) or the DMFS index (decayed, missing, and filled tooth surfaces) and the flow rates of unstimulated whole saliva (p < 0.02), but no relationship to stimulated parotid saliva flow rates was apparent.

The results suggest that elderly subjects have no impairment in their ability to respond to sialogogues but that resting saliva rates are significantly lower than in younger individuals and may contribute to the increase in oral mucosal diseases seen in the elderly.