bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Owens Jonathan
Published: October 2023

Brockelmann does not align Ge’ez, representing South Semitic, among the expansion waves, merely noting that its speakers probably reached Ethiopia in the pre-Christian era (1908: 30). Arabic history is traditionally conceived of as falling into at least two stages: Old Arabic (sometimes equated with Classical Arabic) and Neo-Arabic. The justification for this, however, rests on fallacies of different sorts. The linguistically best thought-out (Ferguson 1960; Fischer and Jastrow 1980; Blau 1981b) is the metonymic (part for whole) fallacy, whereby the justification of the Old–New dichotomy rests on data which in fact does not divide Arabic into two stages characterized by dichtomizing innovations. A feature such as the so-called “taltala,” once thought to define Old (/a/ vowel) vs. New (/i/ vowel) turns out to be distributed in both “Old” and “New” Arabic. Desirable though it is from a historical linguistic standpoint, it is problematic defining Arabic as Old vs. New via shared innovations. The chapter points to the need for a broadly empirical approach utilizing multiple pathways, such as are discussed in the remainder of the book.
Arabic and Semitic
Authors: Owens Jonathan
Published: October 2023

Chapter 2 introduces the reader to Arabic as a Semitic language. A core of basic phonological and morphological structures characterizes all of the Semitic languages. In this world, Arabic is one out of many. The genetic classification of Arabic has therefore been the object of discussion going back to the nineteenth century or earlier, a key question centering on the interpretation of Arabic as a South Semitic language, closest to Ge’ez (inter alia) or being a Central Semitic language, closest to Northwest Semitic languages such as Aramaic and Hebrew. In this book the question of genetic affiliation is essentially sidestepped. It is suggested that Arabic is a composite language with clear South Semitic and clear NW Semitic affinities. This interpretation is underscored by recognizing a class of bifurcated features, features which divide not only Semitic languages, but also divide Arabic itself into contrasting parts.
Arabs, Arabic
Authors: Owens Jonathan
Published: October 2023

The central icon of Arabic is Classical Arabic. What, though, is Classical Arabic? A distinction is drawn here between a normed Classical Arabic such as was defined by Ibn al-Sarraj’s (d. 316/928) Al-ʔUṣuwl fiy l-Naħw and the earlier, monumental, heterogeneous grammar of Sibawaih (179/789). Sibawaihi’s Kitaab marks a watershed in Arabic linguistics. Only with him do we have a reliable, for the most part unambiguous idea of what Arabic was. To underscore our dependency on his descriptive acumen, one detailed study concerning palatalization of /*k/ is offered. The distinction between a normed Classical Arabic and Sibawaihi’s Kitaab is not, however, a complete answer to the question, what Classical Arabic is. Following another classical linguist, Ibn al-Nadim (late fourth/tenth century), a distinction is drawn between an Arabic of diverse tribes, antedating and post-dating Classical Arabic, and the normed Arabic which by the end of the fourth/tenth century had become associated with the Koran, and with emerging Arabic-Islamic culture in general.
Three types of pre- and early Islamic sources
Authors: Owens Jonathan
Published: October 2023

Chapter 4 takes a critical look at the epigraphic and papyrological sources from a linguistic stance. In order to illustrate concretely the evidential nature of these texts, samples of epigraphic (Taymanitic, Safaitic) and papyri texts and Greek orthographic segments are commented upon. Three perspectives are invoked, two of them of a cautionary nature. First the limits of texts shorn of vowels and prosodic features—the epigraphic texts—for reconstruction is discussed. Secondly, the papyri fall into Kaplony’s (2018) “documentary Arabic,” which both preceded and antedated Classical Arabic. These are interpreted as an inheritance of Wansbrough’s (1996) “juridical and cultural koine” attested in the Middle East since Akkadian times. Thirdly, the limits to the contribution ostensibly unambiguous Greek transliterations of Arabic names can make is discussed. This chapter cautions that conclusions derived solely by comparing the oldest written texts without integrating them into the longer and larger development of Arabic cannot be equated with the history of Arabic.
Four issues in Arabic historical linguistics
Authors: Owens Jonathan
Published: October 2023

Chapter 6 tackles four themes. Its main purpose is to illustrate the tenacity with which inherited differences may survive migration using a sample variationist case study from Maiduguri in the LCA region. An analogy suggests itself. The written word is inherently contextualized in a stone, a piece of paper, papyrus which can be interpreted socio-historically more or less depending on how well known the circumstances are surrounding that stone or piece of paper. For its part, the oral word is contextualized in a speech community, whose historical provenance can be more or less understood depending on how much is known about that community and its antecedents. However, not all oral variation in Arabic is due to the oral language. The confounding effects of a written standard on spoken Arabic are also discussed. Two further issues introduced previously in Chapter 5 are treated: the role of reconstruction in the Arabicist/Semiticist tradition, and how and whether grammaticalization theory elucidates language history.
Arabic in contact I
Authors: Owens Jonathan
Published: October 2023

There was probably no other ethnic group with whom pre-Islamic Arabs had greater contact with and shared closer cultural affinities than the Aramaeans. Chapter 7 summarizes the ensuing extensive pre- and early Islamic influence of Aramaic on Arabic. This influence is understood in Dixonian terms as representing an era of equilibrium whereby there were diverse, but extensive instances of Aramaic–Arabic contact throughout the Middle East homeland. The concept of dia-planar diffusion is introduced to model the existence of multiple instances of Arabic–Aramaic contact distributed across wide areas of the Middle East over long periods of time.
Morphosyntax as an adapative mechanism II
Authors: Owens Jonathan
Published: October 2023

This chapter continues the illustration of Lake Chad areal influence on LCA Arabic this time in the domain of the demonstrative. A corpus-based comparison with its parent Egyptian Arabic shows the LCA demonstrative to have nearly doubled in token count. This expansion is explained by the acquisition of a number of new functions that LCA now shares with other languages of the Lake Chad area. Kanuri, Glavda, Wandala, Bagirmi and Fali are used in the comparison. Significantly, this functional expansion impinged in no way at all on the inherited deictic function of the Arabic demonstrative, nor does it affect the inherited functions of the definite article.
Language stability II
Authors: Owens Jonathan
Published: October 2023

Chapter 11 treats a complex morpho-discourse problem, comparing three separate, non-contiguous Arabic dialects, Emirati Arabic, Hijazi, and LCA, to argue that the reconstructed result gives an insight into why languages do not change. The object of explanation is the highly stable Arabic verb paradigm, which in its essentials has not changed at all in over 1,500 years. Using regression techniques, it is shown that the stability derives from an identical set of discourse constraints across the three dialects related to the cross-referencing of the subject in the verbal paradigm. Properties of the subject as defined by classical discourse parameters are from a statistical perspective identical across all three dialects, even the geographically and chronologically isolated LCA Arabic.
Summing up
Authors: Owens Jonathan
Published: October 2023

The comparative features adduced throughout the work are classified according to their status within Semitic and West Semitic, and within a broad chronological scale hinged on Islam (nominally 622) and whether or not confirmed in Sibawaih (178/793). A relatively detailed historical picture of Arabic can be described which in chronological time is as old as the earliest Germanic languages. A second focus lies in the general linguistic issues which inform the study: the role of diffusion in Arabic language history, contact, incrementation and internal change; how grammaticalization theory helps and hinders understanding its history; why the history of Arabic cautions against the wholesale invocation of parallel independent development; what insights the use of large, oral corpora brings to understanding language history, particularly when coupled with understudied domains of historical linguistics like idiom theory and discourse analysis; how the concept of speech community informs a taxonomy of linguistic change.
The Idea of Neutrality
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: October 2023

Wight argued as follows: when international law was in its initial formation in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the doctrine of just war constrained the right of neutrality. Grotius, for example, held that a state seeking neutrality must not obstruct the belligerent with a righteous cause nor aid a belligerent with an unjust case for war. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, however, the just war doctrine lost support, and states agreed that neutrals would be impartial and that states at war would respect the rights of neutrals. In contrast, since the 1907 Hague Conference and the two world wars, the scope for neutrality has been widely seen as limited by a type of just war doctrine. That is, neutrality is seen by many as morally incompatible with the commitment to collective responsibility for international order expressed in the League Covenant, the Kellogg–Briand Pact, and the UN Charter. The pursuit of neutrality by Small Powers since the seventeenth century has often been disregarded by Great Powers that have justified their actions on grounds of military necessity. The term “neutralism” is sometimes employed to describe a dynamic policy of engagement, non-alignment, and mediation such as that pursued by India to complement its domestic priorities of social welfare and economic growth.
Is the Commonwealth a Non-Hobbesian Institution?
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: October 2023

According to Christopher Dawson, “the British Commonwealth has disproved the Hobbesian doctrine that if political power is not concentrated, society returns to the jungle.” Wight observed, however, that Commonwealth theory “has failed adequately to explain what has been, essentially, the progressive disintegration of the British Empire, and the steady assimilation of its internal relationships to the condition of international politics.” The Indo-Pakistani frontier is so mutually “suspicious” that “no international frontier could give a more vivid illustration of that ‘posture of gladiators’ which Hobbes described as the natural condition of sovereigns. … There are intra-Commonwealth disputes which threaten the peace of the world. … The United States … has been the unacknowledged major premise of all Commonwealth theory, since but for the United States the Commonwealth might not have survived the First World War and certainly would not have survived the Second. … At the … Unofficial British Commonwealth Relations Conference at Lahore [in 1954] … three hypothetical situations were adumbrated which it was suggested would be incompatible with Commonwealth membership (and what was implied was some kind of expulsion since secession is always open to the individual member). (i) If one member went to war with another member. (ii) If a member joined a hostile bloc—if India had joined China and Russia in the Korean War, for example. (iii) If a member abandoned democratic government, which in the case of Communism would approximate to (ii).”
The United Nations Assembly
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: October 2023

In this paper Wight discussed “three conflicts of interest which are mirrored in the United Nations. The first is the conflict between the Western imperial Powers and the new ex-colonial nations, chiefly of Eastern Asia. The second conflict is the conflict between Great Powers and Small Powers. Thirdly, there is the conflict between the Soviet bloc and the West. These all interpenetrate and influence one another, but each of them would exist without the others. The first two are at present governed by the third—the Soviet-Western clash; but they are quite independent of it in origin and may surpass it in potential importance.” India and the Philippines have been exceptionally successful in championing the interests of the ex-colonial nations against the Western imperial Powers. The discord between Small and Great Powers has been most visible concerning the veto held by the permanent members of the Security Council. The split between the Soviet bloc and the West has conditioned the deliberations about “the most conspicuous topics on the agenda,” including “the reduction of armaments,” and “lurked behind the discussions of practically everything else.” Despite the prominent Soviet diplomacy in the United Nations, Wight concluded, “It is in the conferences of the Big Three and in the Council of Foreign Ministers that the Soviet Union bargains for her strategic lines, her provinces ceded, her economic advantages. The United Nations has the secondary function of propaganda, moulding opinion, trial balloons, defamation of opponents, and, above all, preaching of the gospel.”
Review of Henrique de Pinheiro, The World State or the New Order of Common Sense (Rio de Janeiro: Grafica Olimpica, 1944)
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: October 2023

As a matter of principle Martin Wight professed a lack of interest in defining practical prescriptions to deal with immediate strategic and foreign policy issues, notably in his lecture “What Is International Relations?” “International confederations and world-state utopias can be as respectable as Penn and Saint-Pierre,” Wight wrote, “but few remain readable after the lapse of a couple of years. This one, written by a Brazilian diplomat in London during the ‘blitz,’ organizes the whole of humanity as a federal democracy on the highest Western ethical and juridical principles. It has nothing to do with the international politics which produce the structure and fitful functioning of the Security Council.”
Review of J. L. Brierly, The Covenant and the Charter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1947)
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: October 2023

As Wight observes, “Brierly contrasts the cooperative character of the League, which was based on the agreement between sovereign States to do certain things, with the quasi-organic character of the United Nations, which confers the power of directing how the collective body should act on one of its organs, the Security Council. … The veto precludes the United Nations from taking action against a Great Power, and [in Brierly’s words] a collective system which does not propose to deal with aggression by a Great Power, is, I venture to say, not a system of collective security at all. … Thus the Covenant system of public law and graded sanctions has been replaced by the Charter system of security intended to be always ready for immediate action, but capable of being jammed by a single Great Power. We must realize [Brierly adds] that what we have done is to exchange a system which might or might not have worked for one which cannot work, and that instead of limiting the sovereignty of States we have actually extended the sovereignty of the Great Powers, the only States whose sovereignty is still a formidable reality in the modern world. How different is this cool analysis in language of studied restraint, from the cant and self-deception that accompanied the establishment of the United Nations, the disagreeable lack of candour of the Great Power statement at San Francisco, the lack of realism of the official British Commentary.”
Review of W. W. Rostow, Harmsworth Professor of American History The American Diplomatic Revolution: An Inaugural Lecture Delivered before the University of Oxford on November 12, 1946 (Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1947)
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: October 2023

Wight wrote that Rostow’s American diplomatic revolution extends “from the isolationism of 1939 to the expanding world commitments of 1945.” Rostow noted that “For Great Britain and France the problems presented by Germany, Austria, and Eastern Europe are basically familiar; and there are, whatever their present worth, traditional formulae of the national interest on which to guide the day-to-day operations of diplomacy. Similarly, the position of Russia in Europe and in Northern Asia, however striking it may be to this generation, is in many ways a reversion. Russian troops have been in Berlin before; and a powerful Russian interest in Eastern Europe, in Manchuria, and in Korea is not new. In the case of the United States, not only the public at large but the Department of State as well have been forced to define the American interest in strange regions under novel circumstances.” … “The lecture falls into five parts: a historical retrospect; the revolution in strategy and politics forced upon the United States by Pearl Harbor and Hiroshima; the post-war balance of power and the danger of a Soviet domination of the Eurasian continent; an analysis of American policy in the new circumstances, with an excursus on ‘the schizophrenia of Potsdam’; and a wider view of the strength and weakness of the United States. … Rostow not only gives the immediate background to the Truman doctrine and the Marshall plan; on every page he illuminates the permanent factors that govern the policy of the United States.”
Review of Hugh Seton-Watson, The Pattern of Communist Revolution (London: Methuen, 1953)
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: October 2023

Wight described this book as “a comparative historical analysis of Communist movements throughout the world. … Communism is a product of the European socialist movement, which itself has a double origin: industrialism and the development of democratic ideas. … Outside Europe, Communism appears when industrialism appears, and both have been produced by the impact of the West. ‘The great attraction of Bolshevism [in China], and especially of Lenin’s doctrine of imperialism, was that it could reconcile admiration for Western civilization with resentment against Western policy in China’; and this has a universal application. Lenin’s tactic was a partnership between the disciplined conspiratorial Bolsheviks and the ignorant, gullible masses. … More important, it explains why Communism has had its greatest triumphs in the industrially backward regions of the world. In industrially advanced countries the Communist cadres as well as their followers come chiefly from the workers, but in backward countries the Communist cadres come from the intelligentsia and the followers from the peasants. Mao Tse-tung has written a new chapter in Marxist theory by defining the peasants, instead of the proletariat, as the revolutionary vanguard. … On the relations between the Chinese and Russian régimes he maintains a judicial balance: there is a latent conflict of interest between the two Powers, but it is prudent to assume that in the foreseeable future Mao will show himself more Communist than Chinese. Communism is a substitute for the liberation promised to those who accept the Gospel.”
Review of Rupert Emerson, From Empire to Nation: The Rise to Self-Assertion of Asian and African Peoples (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; and London, Oxford University Press, 1960)
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: October 2023

Wight wrote, “The core of the book is a discussion, first of nationalism; secondly of the relation between nationalism and democracy; thirdly of self-determination. All the nineteenth-century doctrines on these matters were already undermined by the experience of Eastern Europe; have they any relevance to Asia and Africa? … The only induction Emerson allows himself is that nationalism is a phase of ‘the expanding Western revolution’, an imprecise term comprising the disruption of traditional communities and the appearance of a money economy, industrialism, urbanization, social mobilization, and mass politics. … He concludes by pointing out that, if historical experience is worth anything, the economic development of these nations will make them more unstable internally and more warlike. Nevertheless, ‘the chances that development will move in acceptable directions are far better if the West is actively engaged in the process than if it either grudgingly holds back or lays its emphasis too heavily on military goals’ (p. 417). The field is prodigiously wide and its edges are left conveniently indistinct. He includes Cyprus, the West Indies, and British Guiana, and uses Eastern Europe and Latin America illustratively. … Emerson does not ask whether new nations which (for the first time in history) have been given independence by a peaceable transfer of sovereignty will survive so well as the great majority which have won independence by blood and struggle—what is a nationalism without its Joan of Arc or Armada victory, its Lexington, Calatafimi, or Easter Rebellion?”
Confronting Colonial Heritage
Authors: Stahn Carsten
Published: October 2023

This introductory chapter sets restitution and return of colonial objects into context. It addresses the methodological challenges of confronting object histories, including positionality, post-colonial theories (e.g. Said, Fanon), and the agency and ontology of objects. It shows how civilizatory discourses and tensions between empire, cultural dispossession, and protection of cultural objects have existed since Roman and Greek times and persisted in just war theory. It examines the tension between cultural nationalism and cosmopolitan views of cultural property in the Renaissance and Enlightenment era, and the schizophrenic justification of takings in nineteenth-century practices. It then identifies parallels to contemporary practices, including exploitation of the exotic or spectacular nature of objects, the role of distancing or silencing, as well as new ways to break impasses and confront entangled histories. It illustrates dilemmas through the story of Tipu’s Tiger, an iconic object acquired by the British East India Company in 1799.
Collecting Mania, Racial Science, and Cultural Conversion through Forcible Expeditions
Authors: Stahn Carsten
Published: October 2023

This chapter traces the link between evolutionary and racial science and the scramble for objects since the mid-nineteenth century, based on micro-histories of forcible expeditions, carried out by different colonial powers (France, the UK, Belgium, Germany). It argues that ‘scientific’ discourse contributed to central premises of the colonial project: the idea of racial superiority or the image of the ‘vanishing’ of other cultures. It shows that colonial takings were driven by conflicting narratives which centralized colonizers. It demonstrates that cultural takings challenged at the time some of the premises of colonial ideology. The artistic value of objects increased not only the scramble for objects, but forced colonial agents, collectors, and museums to rethink some their world views. The violence behind the takings has prompted calls for return long after the facts. In modern times, objects taken in punitive expeditions have become the forerunners of new engagement with the colonial past.
Colonial and Post-colonial Continuities in Culture Heritage Protection: Narratives and Counter-narratives
Authors: Stahn Carsten
Published: October 2023

This chapter traces the contrasting faces of legal frameworks throughout the twentieth century, including their interplay with market economies. It argues that the political economy of takings and the market value of objects contributed to patchwork regulation of entangled cultural objects, which protected the status quo. It shows that legal instruments in the inter-war period, the post-Second World War era, and decolonization have strengthened protection but have also upheld unequal power relations or legitimized the retention of objects. It investigates the extent to which indigenous rights (UNDRIP) and human rights law serve as frames to challenge historical gaps and blind spots and promote resistance to cultural extraction and epistemic violence. It examines lessons from settler colonial contexts, including the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. It identifies alternative property, guardianship (kaitiakitanga), or object conceptions (e.g. Radin, Atuahene, Rassool), which are able to accommodate different world views on cultural colonial objects.
Agonistic Legislation in Hadrian’s Time
Authors: Hervás Rocío Gordillo
Published: October 2023

During the second century ad the number of agones celebrated across the Roman empire underwent a considerable increase. Consequently, the emperor Hadrian issued by means of a series of edicts a new set of regulations that encompassed the norms that had to be followed by all, and a new calendar including all the main agones of the empire, all of which has survived in stele found in Alexandria Troas. This paper analyses the implications of the method of dissemination of Hadrian’s mandate throughout the Roman territories, the possible role of the synods of artists and athletes as a mean of propagation of the new imperial dispositions, the range of diffusion of the calendar, and the potential presence of analogues to the Alexandria Troas’ stele in both cities whose games were included in the calendar and those whose agones were not part of it.
Tokens from Roman Imperial Athens
Authors: Gkikaki Mairi
Published: October 2023

The tokens discovered in and around the Stoa of Attalos in Athens and within the destruction layers which resulted from the sack of the city by the Heruli in ad 267 form a coherent lot of particular importance. Careful examination of the legends and the designs they carry as well as key-facts concerning find spot, manufacture, and countermarks provide evidence for their function in festivals of Roman imperial Athens. The chapter places special emphasis on the imagery of these tokens and the multiple readings they enabled. Symbols of Athenian cultural identity converge with images from the glorious past of Greece; models of Athenian elite self-representation collide with Roman views on exploiting the Greek past and appealed equally to Greeks and Romans. The festival communities, enchanted by the aura of classical Athens, profited from the city’s heritage and celebrated the cultural exchange of their own age in the broader spectrum of pan-imperial ideology.
Festivals and the Performance of Community and Status in the Theatres at Hierapolis and Perge
Authors: Newby Zahra
Published: October 2023

Theatres were a crucial stage not only for the theatrical performances which took place as part of festivals, but also for other forms of social rituals and performances, such as processions, libations and public honours. This chapter explores the decoration above the central doorway of two theatres in Asia minor, those at Hierapolis and Perge, and explores the ways in which it presented a normative view of the most important aspects of civic festivals to both citizens and visitors. Drawing on the insights of both performance theory and the ‘spatial turn’, it explores the ways in which the decoration of these theatres exerted agency onto those who used the space, offering up a vision of the meaning of the activities in which they were involved, and identifying a hierarchy of activities, individuals, and groups. At Hierapolis the porta regia frieze asserts the importance of Hierapolis’ festivals and her cult of Apollo, and the involvement in this of officials, performers, and civic bodies as well as sacred envoys from the wider region. At Perge the concentration is narrower, focussing particularly on the different ages groups which took part in religious processions in honour of the patron goddess Artemis Pergaia. In both, the decorative programme sets forth messages which acted to frame and inform the human activities which took place within the space, and to solidify a particular version of festival in civic memory.
An Epigraphic Stage
Authors: Unwin Naomi Carless
Published: October 2023

The function of inscriptions in the civic landscape depended on their architectural and spatial contexts; this in turn moulded how they should be ‘read’. This paper will trace the epigraphic development of the theatrical complex at Aphrodisias in Caria, through the construction of the scaenae frons, the erection of victors’ statues, the modification of the orchestra to accommodate gladiatorial fights, and the choice of this venue for the display of the so-called ‘archive wall’. It will consider the cumulative impact of such epigraphic choices, exploring how the different types of inscription helped to project a particular civic image, whether commemorating notable individuals, modelling euergetic behaviour, or celebrating the history and prestige of the city. It will also consider the audience responses to this quintessential civic space, exploring the ‘informal’ epigraphy found in the auditorium and on the stage. The moulding of festival space at Aphrodisias will be contextualized within the festival culture of the Greek world during the imperial period.
The Artists of Dionysos and the Festivals of Boiotia
Authors: Grigsby Paul
Published: October 2023

The artistic guilds of Dionysus were one of the major players in Hellenistic and Roman festival culture, providing competitors and helping organize agonistic festivals across the Greek world. This chapter examines the conspicuous role played by these guilds in the organization of the festivals in Hellenistic and Roman Boiotia and in the development of Boiotia as an artistic agonistic hub as revealed primarily through inscriptions, such as those prominently displayed at Delphi and the Boiotian festival sites including Thebes, Thespiai, and Akraiphia. During the third century bc, various Boiotian poleis were granted honours for their sanctuaries and associated agones, with Boiotia undergoing an agonistic boom quite unlike any other region on the Greek mainland at this time. As this chapter argues, the presence in Thebes and Thespiai of branches of the guilds of Technitai of Dionysos of Isthmos and Nemea was integral both for this agonistic boom as well as the bestowals of honours such as asylia. Additionally, it will examine how under the guilds’ influence Boiotia developed a new artistic agonistic culture which harked back to the days of Hesiod, cementing the reputation of Boiotia as something of an artistic centre into the Roman period, when the games most closely aligned to the Technitai became a locus for establishing relations with Rome.
Classicism
Authors: Fritz Peter
Published: October 2023

A range of coarse-grained views of propositional identity are considered, with an eye towards strong and simple views. The first is Extensionalism, the view that materially equivalent propositions are identical. It is argued that this is untenable, since some truths are necessary while others are contingent. This raises the question whether there are any views of coarse propositional identity which are distinguished in terms of simplicity and strength, without entailing Extensionalism. An argument is made that a view called Propositional Booleanism satisfies these criteria. This view is extended and strengthened in a number of steps, culminating in a view called Classicism. Roughly, Classicism can be characterized as a view according to which any provably equivalent sentences express identical propositions.
Actuality, and the Necessity of Distinctness and Possibility
Authors: Fritz Peter
Published: October 2023

An actuality operator is introduced, governed by two principles according to which p if possibly actually p, and necessarily actually p if p. With actuality added to Classicism in this way, two new principles, namely the necessity of distinctness and the necessity of possibility, become derivable. Relative to Classicism, these two principles are equivalent. Setting aside the actuality operator, this motivates extending Classicism by the necessity of possibility; the resulting view is called C5. It is shown that this leads to the strong and well-known modal logic S5.
Spiritual Translatio in the French Lives of Saint Catherine of Alexandria
Authors: Campbell Emma
Published: October 2023

Focusing on Latin and French versions of Saint Catherine of Alexandria’s legend, this chapter examines the gendering of translation in medieval hagiography. It is argued that, by integrating intertextual translation into a more pervasive translation of divine truth, hagiography configures gendered power relations differently from later source-oriented models influentially analysed by feminist translation scholars. Latin and vernacular versions of Catherine’s passio emphasize women’s visibility as spiritual and textual mediators. The Latin Vulgate’s association of Catherine with spiritual translatio is, in the French texts by Gui and Clemence, further aligned with the hagiographer’s translational agency. In these French texts, the revelatory capacities of intertextual translation work alongside Catherine’s revelation of divine truth, simultaneously designating and overcoming the limit of what is translatable in human terms. This model of translation values female bodies and voices as points of contact with the divine, authorizing and restricting women’s translational agency in historically specific ways.
Translating Nature in French Verse Bestiaries
Authors: Campbell Emma
Published: October 2023

French verse bestiaries participate in translatio as an interlinguistic mode of textual transmission that disseminated the Greek Physiologus; they also use multiple, intersecting forms of translation to uncover the spiritual truths that the world was thought to contain. By engaging with the untranslatability of bestiary creatures, French bestiaries derived from the B-Isidore branch of the Latin Physiologus activate the ontological potential of translation as well as its epistemological capacities. Translation in these works is a way of understanding the world and of reflecting on (human) being itself. This use of translation is compared with Derrida’s concept of the ‘animot’, which uses linguistic translation to think beyond the supposed human–animal divide. Bestiaries expose the historical limitations of Derrida’s concepts of language and of the human–animal binary he deconstructs, while nonetheless sharing Derrida’s interest in translation as a process that reveals what animal and human natures have the potential to become.
Conclusion
Authors: Campbell Emma
Published: October 2023

The Conclusion returns to Evrat’s French translation of the Genesis narrative as a means of teasing out the broader implications of the book’s main arguments. Evrat’s account of Babel was first published in print by nineteenth-century French philologist Paul Meyer as part of a collection of texts that Meyer used for teaching a first-year class on Romance languages. The inclusion of Evrat’s work in Meyer’s collection helps to underscore the political and cultural stakes of historically variable conceptions of linguistic unity and diversity—conceptions for which Babel is a cipher. This example introduces the Conclusion’s reflection on the importance of cross-period, interdisciplinary conversation for critically re-examining the legacies of nineteenth-century linguistic and literary histories.
Writing Against Expulsion
Authors: Herd David
Published: October 2023

Across the mid-century texts with which the book is concerned, and in the face of the geopolitical non-place, there was a drive to envision a non-expulsive spatiality. This chapter details the importance of thinking about the Universal Declaration in spatial and relational terms. The commitment to envisioning a non-expulsive spatiality is established through the 1951 Convention on Refugees with its emphasis on non-refoulement. Drawing on the defining terminology of the Universal Declaration, an evolving image of ‘reciprocal recognitions’ is traced through Olson’s manifesto, Arendt’s Human Condition and Fanon’s Black Skin, White Masks. Across these texts, ‘recognition’ is identified as a transitional term, not generating a politics in itself but opening up the intersecting intention to articulate non-expulsive spatiality.
How financiers access knowledge resources
Authors: Meyer David R.
Published: October 2023

Financiers require access to a wide range of knowledge to effectively execute their job, but they face constraints on the time they can spend accessing knowledge versus performing their jobs. Non-confidential sources such as the World Wide Web provide few competitive advantages. Cohesive colleagues within a firm share confidential knowledge from their external networks. Financiers use their own external networks to directly access confidential resources. The most important external network contacts are friends, peers, and colleagues; intermediaries; and clients. Financiers access significant structural social capital in the form of the network and the resources that can be accessed through network ties. Many of these contacts are not linked, which means that the financier accesses substantial non-redundant knowledge. Typically, financiers deal directly with clients, and they are highly valued as confidential knowledge resources. Financiers felt compelled to specifically cite experience as a key mechanism for accumulating knowledge resources.
How financiers view meetings
Authors: Meyer David R.
Published: October 2023

Face-to-face meetings are integral to financiers’ network behaviour. Venues include formal settings, such as around a conference table, or informal settings such as an office, meal, or coffee/tea. Financiers’ network behaviour exhibits a significant degree of formality in subsequent meetings with actors for whom the financier supplies execution/transaction services, actors under control of the financier’s firm, actors who prefer to maintain a formal relationship, and government officials. When financiers possess an extreme diversity of contacts and many of them are not linked, they can act as the tertius gaudens, the one between who benefits. Most financiers prefer an informal approach in meetings. They are mechanisms to build strong relationships and promote reciprocal sharing of sophisticated insights and strategies. Informal meetings of a cohesive group generate extensive relational social capital. Some financiers operate in a small world in which financiers readily reach each other, and various sub-networks have some overlap.
The relevance of alumni networks
Authors: Meyer David R.
Published: October 2023

It is widely assumed that graduates of elite schools benefit from superior alumni networks. Elite undergraduate schools in the United States and United Kingdom, top US Masters in Business Administration (MBA) schools, and Indian Institutes of Management and Technology make this claim. Presumably, financiers leverage their alumni networks to advance their careers. Financiers from these schools socially identify with fellow alumni, and their interactions in social events and business directly and indirectly transfer high status to each other. However, for most financiers, alumni networks have little or no relevance for their current business networks. The reason is that financiers build their own networks as their career advances. They access substantial relational social capital and extensive structural social capital from their network ties. A focus on alumni ties significantly hinders financiers’ performance. Elite schooling supplies access to influential alumni, but most benefits derive from social identification with their prestigious schools.
The role of organizations in financiers’ networks
Authors: Meyer David R.
Published: October 2023

Organizations whose membership includes financiers seem to be optimal settings for financiers to enhance their network relationships. Many of them are prestigious organizations with which financiers socially identify, and the organizations confer high status on financiers. This implies that they are high-quality professionals. Only a small share of financiers, mostly senior executives, gain social capital from their participation in business organizations. A significant minority of them do not belong to any, and this includes senior executives. Family-orientated organizations, such as those related to schools, sports activities, and country clubs, generate few network benefits. Special-purpose clubs are venues for the elite to meet, but they are rarely used for business. Financiers do not combine business with participation in religious organizations. They also do not leverage network contacts from organizations based on social concerns. Their key network relationships are created throughout their career as part of their ongoing business.
Universality
Authors: Russell Gillian K.
Published: October 2023

This chapter formulates and proves an initial version of the particular/universal barrier theorem. A key step is coming up with appropriate characterisations of particular and universal for use in the theorem. It introduces and defines the broad model-theoretic properties of fragility and anti-fragility with respect to the relation of model-extension, and uses them to define classes of sentences. It formulates and proves a universal barrier to entailment and then analyses counterexamples from Chapter 1 to see why they fail.
Informal Models, Informal Logic
Authors: Russell Gillian K.
Published: October 2023

This chapter introduces and motivates the idea of informal counterparts to the formal barriers to entailment established in the earlier part of the book: barrier theses, as opposed to barrier theorems. It develops the idea of an informal logical model and uses this to define informal logical properties directly onto natural language constructions. It is argued that the definition of logical consequence should neither be understood as quantifying over possible worlds, nor over possible interpretations of the language, but rather over both. A novel proposal is made as to which aspects of meaning should be preserved over informal models, and which allowed to vary.
Informal Barriers
Authors: Russell Gillian K.
Published: October 2023

This chapter argues for informal barriers to entailment for natural languages, modifying the formal logical techniques developed in the first two parts of the book. It provides arguments for each of the barriers, making use of informal counterparts to the model-theoretic R-relations for each of the barriers, and in particular defines normative sentences as sentences that are sensitive to shifts in the normative standards. It shows how to establish Hume’s Law on this interpretation. The book finishes with analysis of some informal counterexamples and by looking at the relationship between the metalogical barriers from the first two parts of the book and the intuitive folk-logical theses normally treated as barriers to entailment.
The Fundamental Processes in Ecology
Authors: Wilkinson David M.
Published: October 2023

This book raises and attempts to answer the following thought experiment: ‘For any planet with carbon-based life, which persists over geological timescales, what is the minimum set of ecological processes that must be present?’ The main intention of this book is to use an astrobiological perspective as a means of thinking about ecology on Earth. Its focus on processes contrasts with the commoner focus in ecology textbooks on entities such as individuals, populations, species, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere. The book suggests that eight ecological processes are fundamental (not including natural selection and competition, which characterize all of life rather than only ecology): energy flow (energy consumption and waste product excretion), multiple guilds (autotrophs, decomposers, and parasites), trade-offs (specialization versus generalization, leading to biodiversity within guilds), dispersal, ecological hypercycles (i.e. auto-catalytic cycles), merging of organismal and ecological physiology (as life spreads over the planet, biotic and abiotic processes interact so strongly as to be inseparable), photosynthesis (which is likely in most biospheres but not inevitable), and carbon sequestration. These fundamental processes lead to the emergence of nutrient cycling. The integration of Earth system science with ecology is vitally important if ecological science is to successfully contribute to the massive problems and future challenges associated with global change. The book is heavily influenced by Lovelock's Gaia hypothesis—with recent theoretical work on Gaian systems discussed in the final chapter.
Trade-offs and biodiversity
Authors: Wilkinson David M.
Published: October 2023

Trade-offs are a fundamental aspect of biodiversity as they prevent a few species from monopolizing the planet. Well-known ecological concepts, such as the niche, only make sense in the context of this more fundamental idea of trade-off. The resulting biodiversity will have a positive Gaian effect; that is, it will tend to make an ecological community more stable than if it was composed of a smaller number of species. Biodiversity does not evolve to help stabilize the system (except in the limited sense that taxon-poor systems may be more prone to extinction); it is an inevitable by-product of trade-offs and other processes such as geographical isolation. One potentially important way to think about the Gaian effect of biodiversity is the idea of the ‘portfolio effect’ from economics, although other ideas, such as Grime's ‘transient species’, are also important.
Dispersal
Authors: Wilkinson David M.
Published: October 2023

This chapter argues that dispersal is a fundamental process—as the environment changes (e.g. glacial/interglacial cycles) organisms that cannot move will become extinct. So dispersal is important in the context of climate change. Classic modelling work by Hamilton and May in the 1970s suggests that even if conditions are good at its home site an organism will benefit from a proportion of its offspring dispersing. More recently, dispersal has been seen as an important process in population ecology with the rise of ideas of metapopulations. Such ideas can be speculatively extended to solar system or even galactic scales.
Introduction
Authors: Gustafson Sandra M.
Published: October 2023

A reading of Abraham Lincoln’s last public speech provides a view of the challenges facing the United States after Lee’s surrender to Grant at Appomattox. More concrete than the Second Inaugural Address, the “Speech on Reconstruction” highlights the difficulties of ending a civil war and confirms the need for Black suffrage as a central component of national Reconstruction. A discussion of this pivotal moment in US history lays the ground for a brief account of the early peace movement, followed by definitions of key terms from leading peace researcher Johan Galtung, including direct and indirect violence, as well as negative and positive (or just) peace. The Introduction also provides an overview of the book’s contents, including historical background and chapter summaries.
Regeneration through Nonviolence
Authors: Gustafson Sandra M.
Published: October 2023

After tracing a central tension between nonviolence and resistance to oppression in the early US peace movement, this chapter focuses on the writings of Quaker writers William Penn and John Woolman, as well as the “Peaceful Kingdom” painter Edward Hicks. Turning to the late frontier novels of James Fenimore Cooper, the chapter highlights the Quaker background of his parents and his friendship with William Jay, a leading peace and anti-slavery activist, and Henry Wheaton, a specialist in international law and translator of Immanuel Kant. The central sections of the chapter examine the themes of peace and violence—and their relationship to human rights and republican ideals—in The Deerslayer (1841) and The Oak Openings (1848). The chapter closes with a discussion of the connections between Cooper and the Ojibwe author and activist Kah-Ge-Ga-Gah-Bowh (George Copway).