bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Burstein L. Poundie
Published: October 2020

Musical form is often discussed by appealing to metaphors that compare formal sections either to types of containers or to segments of journeys. Although both metaphors are usually combined and used interchangeably by most music analysts, since the nineteenth century container metaphors for form have tended to dominate. This contrasts with what was witnessed during the eighteenth century, where journey metaphors for musical form were more prevalent. The introductory chapter broadly compares container metaphors and journal metaphors for form, especially as they apply to sonata-form expositions in works composed during the Galant era. This chapter also introduces some of the features that tend to distinguish eighteenth-century formal discussions from modern ones, and it concludes with a preview of some of the strategies to be explored in subsequent chapters.
Eighteenth-Century Approaches to ExpositionsRiepel and Koch
Authors: Burstein L. Poundie
Published: October 2020

The melodic/harmonic underpinnings of the main resting points (Hauptruhepuncte) that lead to the new-key formal cadence within a Galant exposition tend to follow one of a set of standard possible orderings, forming what is known as a punctuation sequence. The orderings seem governed by two principles: (1) the avoidance of having the same main resting point appear twice in succession (except for under special circumstances); and (2) the tendency for each successive resting point to move closer to the new-key formal cadence. The concepts underlying the punctuation sequence are presented at length in the writings of Joseph Riepel and of Heinrich Christoph Koch. This chapter explores the standard expositional punctuation sequence as witnessed in the writings of Riepel, Koch, and some of their contemporaries.
Other Eighteenth-Century Approaches to Expositions
Authors: Burstein L. Poundie
Published: October 2020

Toward the end of the eighteenth century, some music commentators—including Francesco Galeazzi, A. C. F. Kollmann, and Franz Christoph Neubauer—reacted to recent stylistic trends in their discussion of music form. Accordingly, their writings placed greater emphasis on cadences (as opposed to resting points of various types), implied sections, and thematic character as vital elements for understanding musical form, thereby serving as harbingers for later discussions of musical form. Even so, their observations and descriptions of the section that modern terminology labels as the sonata-form exposition—as well as the works they choose as exemplars of the form—suggest a theoretic approach that differs in some telling ways from what is typical in modern accounts of sonata form.
Modern Terminology
Authors: Burstein L. Poundie
Published: October 2020

In many expositions, the shaping of the resting points and the passages that lead to them give rise to the impression of distinct theme groups such as are described by modern sonata-form terminology. This study takes a common-use language approach in evaluating modern formal terminology, avoiding appeals to abstract, logical criteria for determining formal classifications. Accordingly, a passage is classified as belonging to a theme group or the other if it shares enough features that are typically associated with such a theme group. To this end, this chapter examines a number of the criteria that are used in establishing such theme-group classifications, including those that give rise to contradictions or counterintuitive results when applied to music of the Galant style.
Division Following the Home-Key Dominant
Authors: Burstein L. Poundie
Published: October 2020

In many Galant expositions, the punctuation sequence is demarcated by a single pronounced half-cadential break that follows a resting point on V of the home key. In many of these cases, the break seems to divide the exposition into two parts, with a secondary theme zone following the big break. This is especially so if the break is followed by a Passo di mezzo, that is, a lyrical passage that seems like an interpolation within the larger formal trajectory. This chapter explores the ways and degrees to which such a layout may or may not give rise to the sense of separate theme zones, along with the possible voice-leading implications of the punctuation sequence within such a layout.
Analyses
Authors: Burstein L. Poundie
Published: October 2020

This chapter wraps up the book with close analyses of first movements from four Galant pieces: Johann Adolph Hasse, Overture to Alcide al Bivio (1760); Marianna Martines, Sonata for Keyboard in A (c. 1765); Joseph Haydn, Symphony No. 14 in A (c. 1762); and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Quartet for Strings in B-flat, K. 159 (1773). In each case, the entire movement—not just the exposition—is analyzed, considering matters such form, tonal structure, and hermeneutic impact. As in the previous chapters, eighteenth-century formal concepts are taken as the starting point for the analyses, and more modern formal notions are applied where appropriate.
Drive
Authors: Ware Owen
Published: October 2020

This chapter offers a close analysis of Fichte’s second foundational argument in the System of Ethics, his deduction of the moral law’s applicability in §§4–13. The discussion begins by clarifying the sense in which Fichte’s first deduction, from §§1–3, was ‘formal and empty’ and so did not yet establish the reality of the moral law. It is here that Fichte introduces his claim that what we call our lower and higher capacities of desire are but mere expressions of a single drive, what he calls our ‘original drive’ (Urtrieb), which becomes divided only in reflection. The aim of this chapter is to show how Fichte’s theory of drives culminates in his theory of our higher capacity of feeling, or what he calls our power of conscience, which completes the second main deduction of the System of Ethics.
Conscience
Authors: Ware Owen
Published: October 2020

Building upon Fichte’s theory of drives discussed in the previous chapter, the present chapter offers a new interpretation of his theory of conscience from §§14–15 of the System of Ethics. At the heart of this interpretation is the idea that we can access the alignment between our actual willing and our original drive only in the mode of feeling. When that alignment occurs, Fichte explains, we feel a pleasurable self-harmony; when that alignment does not occur, we feel a painful self-disharmony. For this reason only the feelings of self-harmony and self-disharmony afforded by the power of conscience give immediate certainty to our convictions of duty. That is the basis of Fichte’s claim that conscience gives us an unerring criterion in practical deliberation.
Community
Authors: Ware Owen
Published: October 2020

This chapter and the next consider the final shape of Fichte’s moral philosophy as it appears in Part III of the System of Ethics. It has surprised many readers that Fichte ends up defending a vision of our ethical vocation in terms of acting for the sake of the rational community to which we belong. This chapter traces the origin of this claim to Fichte’s social theory of intersubjective relations, in particular his theory that we require a ‘summons’ issued by another rational being to exercise free choice at all. A crucial feature of Fichte’s moral philosophy comes to light when we begin to understand the parallels between his view of our natural drive, which strives to unite with objects in reciprocal interaction, and his view of our ethical vocation to agree with others in open dialogue.
Conclusion
Authors: Ware Owen
Published: October 2020

The goal of this conclusion is to summarize the main discoveries of the present book, with a focus on Fichte’s idea of wholeness. What animates this idea is Fichte’s claim that our higher and lower capacities of desire are but two expressions of a single drive, our ‘original drive’ (Urtrieb), which only becomes divided in the space of reflection. This serves to highlight the overarching thesis of the present book: that our highest vocation is one of striving for wholeness and re-uniting our fragmented natures. In the final section, this conclusion returns to Fichte’s view of what it means to ground a system of ethics, ending with a reminder to the reader that a system of ethics has ‘science’ (Wissenschaft) as its primary end.
An Essay on Women’s Political Representation
Authors: Celis Karen
Published: October 2020

The Introductory Essay asks readers to consider four vignettes—on prostitution, Muslim women’s dress, abortion, and Marine Le Pen. The vignettes illustrate what the authors term the poverty of women’s political representation, representational problematics experienced by women in established democracies. These are also core issues identified in contemporary gender and politics research: of women’s ideological and intersectional differences, skewed political and parliamentary agendas, and disconnect from political parties and electoral politics. The vignettes adopt a dialogical style to clarify and magnify core concerns of the book, highlighting the contemporary relevance and importance of the book to academic scholarship and democratic practice. The discussion of the vignettes weaves through reflection on “representation as it should be,” what women’s good representation might be. There would be significant change to political institutions, political representatives, political parties, and parliaments; elected representatives would be institutionally and systemically required to represent women.
Introduction
Authors: Celis Karen
Published: October 2020

Chapter 1 makes a defense of representative democracy even as it acknowledges long-standing and contemporary feminist criticism and surveys the appeal of more fashionable non-representative alternatives. As part of this, the authors consider the failure of political parties to “do good by women.” Adopting a problem-based approach, they remake the case for women’s group representation, reviewing the 1990s politics-of-presence literature in light of criticism based on women’s ideological and intersectional differences. Instead of regarding this as undermining the possibility of women’s group representation, the authors hold that these differences should become central to its successful realization. A second observation is the tendency of gender and politics scholars to disaggregate the concept of representation. Eschewing this approach, they instead hold that political representation is better understood as indivisible: a mélange of its many, overlapping, and connected dimensions. The final section of Chapter 1 introduces the structure and component parts of the book’s argument, introducing the reader to the “affected representatives of women,” and the authors’ twin augmentations, group advocacy and account giving.
The Promise of Feminist Democratic Representation
Authors: Celis Karen
Published: October 2020

Chapter 6 fully elaborates the promise of the authors’ parliamentary design. Ideal representational effects go beyond bringing more women in—through the inclusion of the affected representatives of women—and generating just and fair laws and policies for women. Chapter 6 focuses on the broader effects on both the elected representatives and the represented women—this is what the shift from discrete dimensions of representation to conceiving it as a mélange implies. In short, elected representatives become more knowledgeable, care more about women, and are better connected to women and their experiences. Twin augmentations provide both the means and the incentives for a transformation in elected representatives’ attitudes and behavior. In turn, women finally feel recognized as legitimate members of the polity, are more knowledgeable about their own and others’ interests, are positioned to judge their representatives and are thus empowered, and participate more in a democratic politics now that it is belatedly interested in them.
Neoliberal Theory as a Source of Orientation
Authors: McKean Benjamin L.
Published: October 2020

This chapter substantiates the author’s interpretation of the neoliberal theory of political legitimacy through a reconstruction of the views of Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman, whose works were key to popularizing neoliberalism and its attendant orientation. The task for those who want to resist neoliberalism is to provide people in such circumstances with another way of attending to their situation. Neoliberal theory divides the world up into the economic realm of freedom and the political realm of coercion, but in order to get people to see the world this way, it relies on the techniques of power that Michel Foucault dubbed “governmentality,” which escape this neat dichotomy. Neoliberalism’s tacit acknowledgment of its reliance on these forms of power, which preserve freedom of choice but nevertheless reliably guide people to particular perceptions and actions, lays the groundwork for an emancipatory reorientation that recognizes the political nature inherent to the economic realm.
Seeing (Like) Supply Chain Managers
Authors: McKean Benjamin L.
Published: October 2020

This chapter examines transnational supply chains to make visible their actual operation and show how it diverges from the neoliberal way of dividing up and legitimating the political and economic realms. In practice, supply chains diverge significantly from the neoliberal vision of spontaneous, self-organizing market activity and more closely resemble the kind of economic planning neoliberals decry. When pressed to explain these prevalent economic forms, even neoliberals concede that economic activity is not only dependent on extraeconomic coercion from the political realm, but itself shot through with claims to authority, which is demonstrated through an interpretation of Ronald Coase’s theory of the firm. Workers and consumers who are subject to supply chains can contest these claims to authority—in the first place, by insisting on their right to freedom of association with each other—and thus begin to repoliticize the economic realm that neoliberals seek to encase.
Ugly Progress and Unhopeful Hope
Authors: McKean Benjamin L.
Published: October 2020

In order to provide an account of orientation to unjust circumstances, the book’s account of freedom must confront a tension within it: What is the value of this ideal to people who have grown up under unjust institutions and who consequently have not developed freely but instead have been profoundly habituated by unjustified inequality and oppressive hierarchy? The chapter shows how thinkers like W. E. B. Du Bois, Gloria Anzaldúa, and Theodor Adorno transform the dispositional conception of freedom to navigate unjust circumstances. People alive today will never be able to enjoy the kind of free development possible for those who grow up in a just society, but it is still possible to use such an ideal critically to orient people today to both constraints on freedom and opportunities to express what freedom they do have.
Conclusion
Authors: McKean Benjamin L.
Published: October 2020

The conclusion considers widespread dispositions to resentment and pity that can appear motivate resistance to neoliberalism and shows why they instead shore up unjustified hierarchies. Instead, it is argued that the disposition to solidarity can become prevalent by looking at the crucial role that social movements play in making it possible to call for solidarity and to respond to such calls. Participating in social movements can be an attractive expression of freedom for both workers and consumers governed by supply chains and, by repoliticizing neoliberalism, can create additional political possibilities that cannot yet be anticipated. These social movements are a crucial form of political power undertheorized by egalitarian liberals and neoliberals alike. It is argued that social movement organizing should be understood as a widely available, reversible form of governmentality compatible with freedom.
Making Markets
Authors: Slez Adam
Published: October 2020

This chapter examines the process of market-building on the western frontier, focusing in particular on the process through which the expansion of the railroad network in the late 19th century linked towns to the grain buyers who owned and operated the elevators used to load grain on to railcars. It begins by describing western market-building as part of a larger transcontinental project designed to link the agrarian periphery to existing urban centers, leading to the creation of a vast market network. Rail lines played a unique role in this context, serving as a venue for the creation of distinct market communities defined by the relationship between towns and elevator owners. Using formal network analysis, it is shown that market communities differed in terms of not only in terms of their size and geographic structure, but in the centrality of the elevator owners with which the lines partnered.
Getting Thwarted
Authors: Slez Adam
Published: October 2020

This chapter examines the failure of economic regulation in southern Dakota during the late 19th century. It begins by situating the creation of the Dakota Territory Board of Railroad Commissioners within the broader wave of organizational innovation that followed in the wake of the Granger movement. Created in a moment of legal flux when the power to regulate interstate trade was being pushed to the federal level, the Board was limited in what it could do. Further hampered by a legal environment in which private property was consistently favored over public interest, the Board was left to extract voluntary concessions from railroad officials who knew they held the upper hand. Drawing on annual reports provided by Dakota Territory Board of Railroad Commissioners and its South Dakota successor, this chapter describes the process of regulatory failure, focusing in particular on the fights surrounding rate setting and market access.
Getting Partisan
Authors: Slez Adam
Published: October 2020

This chapter traces the rise and fall of electoral Populism in southern Dakota. It begins by examining the transformation of the political field in Dakota Territory, where politics was traditionally organized around the fight for patronage. Excluded from power by the dominant faction of the Republican Party, the leaders of the Farmers’ Alliance turned to third-party politics as a means of waging war on their more elite rivals. I show that support for Populist candidates was closely with Alliance strength, though this relationship weakened over time as the People’s Party took on a life of its own. Major victories were hard to come by in the absence of electoral fusion. The free silver question served as a rallying point for pro-fusion forces, which succeeded in taking power. Unable to manage the distribution of patronage, the fusionist coalition quickly collapsed, taking what was left of the Populist movement with it.
Conclusion
Authors: Slez Adam
Published: October 2020

The conclusion considers the legacy and lessons of the Populist moment, with an eye toward contemporary movements on both the left and right. While the Populist movement collapsed in 1896, the experience had a clear impact on economic and political institutions in the United States. In particular, the potential for third-party mobilization has been limited by the introduction anti-fusion laws designed to combat the People’s Party, restricting the organizational vehicles available to would-be reformers. Examining the rise of Populist mobilization provides important theoretical insights into the nature of populism today. By way of comparison, this chapter revisits the argument that populism is a form of political practice bound up with the configuration of competing elites within the political field. To the extent that political identities are anchored in the physical environment, the resulting patterns of contention tend to persist over long periods of time.
Armed Guests
Authors: Schmidt Sebastian
Published: October 2020

In the years around the Second World War, policymakers in the United States and Western Europe faced unique security challenges occasioned by the development of new technologies and the emergence of transnational ideological conflict. In coming to terms with these challenges, they developed the historically novel practice in which a state might maintain a long-term, peacetime military presence on the territory of another sovereign state without the subjugation of the latter. Such basing arrangements between substantive equals were previously unthinkable: under the inherited understanding of sovereignty, in which there was a tight linkage between military presence and territorial authority, such military presences could be understood only in terms of occupation or annexation. These “sovereign basing” practices, as I call them, are now central to many aspects of contemporary security politics. This book applies concepts derived from pragmatist thought to a historical study of the relations between the United States and its wartime allies to explain the origin of this phenomenon. A pragmatist lens draws attention to how the actors involved creatively recombined inherited practices in response to changes in the material and social context of action and thereby transformed the practice of sovereignty. The tools offered by pragmatism provide needed analytical leverage over the emergence of novelty and offer valuable insight into the dynamics of stability and change. The practice of sovereign basing, bound up as it is now with the constitution of interests and understanding of how states exercise power, is likely a durable feature of international politics.
Searching for Security, 1942–1947
Authors: Schmidt Sebastian
Published: October 2020

In the uncertain security climate after the conclusion of the Second World War but before the intensification of the Cold War, the major factor that shaped US strategic planning was the impact of novel destructive technologies that radically increased the speed and scale of warfare. American planners responded by seeking to enlarge the defensive perimeter of the United States beyond its territory. How to realize this and what it meant in concrete terms, however, was an open question. Over time, the wartime allies worked out a variety of arrangements premised on different rationales in light of the political difficulties associated with a foreign peacetime military presence. Where US military presences were maintained, they were predicated on temporary conditions, and none were fated to become the kind of arrangements we are familiar with today. The discussion develops case studies of American interactions with Canada, Portugal, Britain, France, Iceland, and Saudi Arabia.
Settling in, 1948–1951
Authors: Schmidt Sebastian
Published: October 2020

The deterioration of relations between the West and the Soviet Union highlighted the salience of a perceived transnational communist threat to the security of Western Europe. Together with the emergence of novel destructive technologies, this development constituted a major change in the security environment that policymakers grappled with in the wake of the war. It helped catalyze the transformation of foreign US military presences tied to temporary conditions into longer-term arrangements. This development played out across a number of host countries in largely simultaneous and interlinked processes. Central to the emergence of what became recognized as a distinct practice of foreign military basing was a change in the understanding of sovereignty in terms of the nature of territoriality. Recalling the theoretical emphasis on process, the states that emerged from these developments were significantly changed, with different capabilities and the ability to take advantage of new strategies.
Converging Values for Avogadro’s Number
Authors: Smith George E. , Seth Raghav
Published: October 2020

Perrin’s values for Avogadro’s numbers presuppose that the mean kinetic energies in Brownian motion match those of molecules in the surrounding liquid. In support of these values and the presupposition, Perrin turns to values of Avogadro’s number and mean kinetic energies of molecules obtained by means of theory-mediated measurements by Planck (from blackbody radiation), Rutherford and his colleagues (from α-particle radiation), and Millikan (from ionization). While Perrin’s values differed from these others, they all collectively yielded values for the molecular constants within a theretofore unachievable window of ±5 percent. This chapter assesses first the evidence for Perrin’s values from his appeals to each of these “agreeing” complementary determinations, and then the evidence that molecules exist from all of them taken together. The conclusion is that the latter warranted taking molecules to exist in ongoing research into microphysics even though the referent of the word “molecule” remained seriously underspecified.
Politics as Interpretation
Authors: Echeverri-Gent John , Sadiq Kamal
Published: October 2020

John Echeverri-Gent and Kamal Sadiq’s ‘Introduction’ synthesizes the understandings of the volume’s contributors into an interpretive analytical framework that builds upon the Rudolphs’ seminal insights. It elaborates the implications of the Rudolphs’ concept of ‘situated knowledge’ by depicting it in terms of the meanings and motivations constructed by people embedded in a field that is structured by social relations, time, place, and culture. Analyzing how actors translate contextual circumstances into meaning and motive is central to explaining how they choose strategies for action. Investigation of this interpretive process illuminates the importance of discourse, emotions, and political leadership in shaping the construction of meaning. The chapter elaborates the methodological implications of the interpretive approach including: the importance of interviewing, narrative analysis, and a reflexive approach to scholars’ knowledge claims which takes into account the positionality of the researcher and the researched and the manner in which their mutual interpretation shapes their knowledge claims.
Interpreting the Political Economy of the Indian State
Authors: Fernandes Leela
Published: October 2020

Leela Fernandes points out that the Rudolphs’ analysis challenges the ‘homogenized, de-cultured language’ of conventional political economy to incorporate the unique as well as the general. The Rudolphs utilized a constructivist approach to illuminate how class, the state, and culture historically interacted to shape the way that people give meaning to their lives and ultimately fashion their political identity and behaviour. Fernandes sees class as a dynamic product of the interaction between the state, social relations, and the language and culture that people use to make sense of their world. She shows how the structural and discursive dimensions of class interact through the daily practice of resistance by women workers, the customs and rituals of religious festivals, and the community proceedings of organizations. Fernandes argues for a synthesis of structural approaches of political economy with the cultural sensitivities of area studies.
Mothering India
Authors: Roye Susmita
Published: October 2020

Mothering India concentrates on early Indian women’s fiction, not only evaluating their contribution to the rise of Indian Writing in English (IWE), but also exploring how they reassessed and challenged stereotypes about Indian womanhood, thereby partaking in the larger debate about social reform legislations relating to women’s rights in British India. Early women’s writings are of immense archival significance by virtue of the time period they were conceived in. In wielding their pens, these trend-setting women writers (such as Krupa Satthianadhan, Shevantibai Nikambe, Cornelia Sorabji, Nalini Turkhud, among others) stepped into the literary landscape as ‘speaking subjects,’ refusing to remain confined into the passivity of ‘spoken-of objects.’ In focusing on the literary contribution of pioneering Indian women writers, this book also endeavours to explore their contribution to the formation of the image of their nation and womanhood. Some of the complex questions this book tackles are: Particularly when India was forming a vague idea of her nationhood and was getting increasingly portrayed in terms of femaleness (via the figure of an enchained ‘Mother India’), what role did women and their literary endeavours play in shaping both their nation and their femininity/feminism? How and how far did these pioneering authors use fiction as a tool of protest against and as resistance to the Raj and/or native patriarchy, and also to express their gender-based solidarity? How do they view and review the stereotypes about their fellow women, and thereby ‘mother’ India by redefining her image? Without studying women’s perspective in the movement for women’s rights (as expressed in their literature) and their role in ‘mothering India’, our knowledge and understanding of those issues are far from holistic. A detailed study of these largely understudied, sadly forgotten and/or deliberately overlooked ‘mothers’ of IWE is long overdue and this book aims to redress that critical oversight.
Introduction
Authors: Roye Susmita
Published: October 2020

Indian Writing in English (IWE) today boasts of internationally renowned writers, both male and female. In comparison to the vast amount of critical work on contemporary women writers, the roots of Indian women’s fiction in English are still gravely understudied. The aim of this book is partly to fight that amnesia and draw some of the early works by women out from their long, undeserved eclipse.
Introduction
Authors: Roy Tirthankar
Published: October 2020

From the end of the eighteenth century, two global processes began to transform livelihoods and living conditions in the South Asia region. These were the rise of British colonial rule, and the integration of the region in the emerging world markets for goods, capital, and labour services, or globalization. How did colonialism and globalization shape India’s economy? The chapter discusses how economic historians answer this question and suggests that these answers do not clearly state what facts need explaining. The chapter does a quick tour through national income, employment, and population data to describe the pattern of economic change. The overview suggests that some livelihoods forged ahead, whereas others fell behind during these years. The rest of the book explains why that was the case.
Large-Scale Industry
Authors: Roy Tirthankar
Published: October 2020

Between 1860 and 1940, employment in factories increased from less than 100,000 to two million. The growth of large-scale industrial units using machines and wage-workers was impressive but had certain peculiar features. These industries mainly produced different kinds of textiles, processed agricultural commodities, and stayed confined to only a few cities. The chapter shows why factories emerged in India on such a scale, why they remained confined to a few areas, how the business communities that invested in factories raised the capital, how they managed their businesses, if the state did or did not help them, and where the workers came from.
Plantations, Mines, Banking
Authors: Roy Tirthankar
Published: October 2020

In 1947, about 15 per cent of the Indian workforce was engaged in activities outside manufacturing and agriculture, many of them in the three modern activities, plantations, mines, and banks. Chapter 7 shows that, like large-scale industry, these enterprises used new organizational forms, had global connections, and attracted investment from Europeans and Indians. Many business houses had investments spread over industry, mines, plantations, and banks. Like large-scale industry, mines and plantations processed natural resources available cheap in India.
How the Government Worked
Authors: Roy Tirthankar
Published: October 2020

In many respects, the British colonial rule created a more modern form of government than previous Indian regimes. But it spent little money on those heads that would make a real difference to the poorest earners. How did this government raise money and spend money? What policies and ideologies did it follow in deciding expenditure? Why did it have such a limited effect on poverty and development?
The Princely States
Authors: Roy Tirthankar
Published: October 2020

The princely states were the kingdoms that British India did not annex to itself. The states lived under an agreement with British India. The two main points of the agreement were that they would keep trade open and would not raise an army. How were the states affected by colonialism? Was their economic history significantly different from that of British India or more similar than different? Did their relationship with British India affected their ability to follow an independent policy on development? Chapter 12 answers questions like these.
Indian Economy after Independence
Authors: Roy Tirthankar
Published: October 2020

Chapter 13 surveys economic change and shifts in the political context of economic change in the Indian Union, 1950–2010. Based on the survey, the chapter answers three larger questions. First, why was economic growth relatively low in the first 35 years after the end of colonialism, and why was there a turnaround in the pace of economic change in the 1980s? Second, why did human development lag achievements in income growth after the turnaround? If the quality of life failed to improve enough, then a third question follows, why did the democratic political system survive at all if it did not fairly distribute the benefits from growth?
Dares Forged
Authors: Clark Frederic
Published: October 2020

Chapter 1 begins with an examination of the early medieval encyclopedist Isidore of Seville, who christened Dares Phrygius the first pagan historian. It then moves back in time to consider the likely origins of the Destruction of Troy, and how those in both its supposed and actual milieux of composition (i.e., classical Rome of the first century BCE and late antiquity) defined the nature of history (historia) and distinguished history from fiction or fabula. It also discusses authors whom Dares co-opted, such as the ostensible translator of his text, the Roman historian and biographer Cornelius Nepos, and those whom he challenged (via claims of Aeneas’ treachery), such as the poet Virgil. Finally, it examines numerous attempts—by everyone from Hellenistic chronologers and Nepos himself to early Christian scholars like Eusebius and Jerome—to date the Trojan War and incorporate it into universal history. It argues that both the primacy assigned to autoptic history and the world historical significance assigned to Troy played signal roles in Dares’ afterlife.
Dares Translated
Authors: Clark Frederic
Published: October 2020

Chapter 3 turns to Dares’ place in complex medieval debates over the relative merits of history and fiction. Focusing on the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, it begins by discussing readings of the Destruction of Troy as moral exemplum and then examines how Dares sheds new light on an oft-discussed topic in the medieval reception of antiquity: i.e., allegory. From allegory and exemplarity it moves to poetry, exploring how sources including the Old French Roman de Troie of Benoît de Sainte-Maure, the Iliad of Joseph of Exeter, and the Troilus of Albert von Stade appropriated the supposed truth of the first pagan historian and then translated it into verse. In particular, it reconstructs how medieval poets who claimed to follow Dares engaged in both imitation of—and polemic against—ancient poets like Virgil. This chapter closes with considerations of Dares’ role in later medieval literature, including his use by figures like Guido delle Colonne, Petrarch, and Chaucer.
The Perennial Quarrel
Authors: Clark Frederic
Published: October 2020

The Conclusion begins by bringing the story of Dares up to the decades around 1700. It considers both changes and continuities in Dares’ afterlife over the course of the preceding millennium. It then examines the neglected role of the Destruction of Troy in two developments long linked to the eighteenth century: namely, the origins of modern professionalized classical scholarship and the advent of a sense of “disenchantment” concerning the truth-value of ancient texts and traditions. It places Dares within the so-called “quarrel of the ancients and the moderns” (querelle des anciens et des modernes) and examines the commentary on the Destruction of Troy composed by the French classical scholar Anne Dacier (a partisan of the “ancients” who later defended Homer against “modern” critiques). It also discusses invocations of Dares by figures including Jean Mabillon, Giambattista Vico, and Thomas Jefferson. The Conclusion ends with broader reflections on what Dares’ reception history can tell us about the paradoxes inherent in modern approaches to antiquity.
Learning Isn’t Earning
Authors: Brown Phillip
Published: October 2020

This chapter offers a systematic review of the evidence used to support the key claims of orthodox theory. These include the body of literature showing that investment in education and skills has become more valuable over time as technologically advanced economies come to depend on the brainpower of the workforce. To support this view, orthodox theorists typically compare average rates of return between college and non-college students. There are a number of propositions that can be tested to determine if “learning equals earning.” First, wages reflect human capital investments in education. Second, the value of human capital increases over time. Third, learning equals earnings in all countries. Fourth, reward in the labor market is biased toward the most highly educated workers who will attract higher wages.
A Revisionist History
Authors: Brown Phillip
Published: October 2020

This chapter reconsiders a number of the as if assumptions that shaped the orthodox theory and policy initiative developed around the world. It argues that these as if assumptions need to be rejected at a time when the increasing competition for decent jobs in both developed and emerging economies has resulted in a narrowing of freedom. Within this context, people need to invest more time and effort jumping through more and higher hoops in order to stay in the competition. This is a manifestation of the “impossible pressures” put on people in today’s global economy. The chapter contends that this has narrowed rather than extended human freedom as predicted by the orthodox approach. An urgent need therefore exists to present a radically different interpretation of human flourishing under conditions of economic and social transformation.
Rethinking Labor Supply
Authors: Brown Phillip
Published: October 2020

This chapter redefines labor supply within the context of the new human capital. It seeks to recapture a wider understanding of education and human capabilities, given long-standing objections to treating individuals as passive consumers of knowledge. Labor supply is thus understood as a way of developing individual freedom and rebuilding social cohesion at a time of profound social and economic change. The chapter points out that the relationship between individuals, education, and employment in an era of twentieth-century industrialism is no longer appropriate in an age of machine intelligence. What it means to be educated, along with what it means to be employable, changes in different economic and spatial contexts and in relation to different models of employment.
Rethinking Labor Demand
Authors: Brown Phillip
Published: October 2020

This chapter turns to questions of labor demand at the heart of the new human capital. It rejects Gary Becker’s claim that orthodox theory offered an entirely new way of looking at labor markets, where the main focus is on labor scarcity and a skills competition, in which individuals, firms, and nations compete on differential investments in education and training. It also rejects David Autor’s claim that the issue is not that middle-class workers are doomed by automation and technology, but instead that human capital investment must be at the heart of any long-term strategy for producing skills that are complemented by rather than substituted for by technological change. The chapter argues that the new human capital rejects the view that demand issues can be resolved through a combination of technological and educational solutions. Rather a jobs lens is required to shed new light on changes in the occupational structure, transforming the way people capitalize on their education, along with the distribution of individual life chances.
Strategies for Measuring Virtues
Authors: Wright Jennifer Cole , Warren Michael T. , Snow Nancy E.
Published: October 2020

In Chapter 3 we use our working conception of virtue developed in Chapter 1 to anchor an integrated proposal for virtue measurement. More specifically, we argue that what is needed to accurately measure any virtue is a multilayered research program that allows us to track the degree to which a person exhibits each of several aspects of trait manifestation: (1) the perception of virtue-relevant stimuli (the “inputs”); (2) the processing of those inputs by various social-cognitive systems (the “intermediates”); and (3) the production of situation-specific virtue-appropriate behaviors (the “outputs”). Sensitivity to the connections between these components is of prime importance for accurately measuring virtue. We provide an inclusive overview of these elements of virtue and strategies for their measurement.
Brithop
Authors: Williams Justin A.
Published: October 2020

Brithop investigates rap music’s politics in the twenty-first-century United Kingdom. In it, the author argues that this music is partly an extension of, or often a counter to, political discourses happening in other realms of British society. These rappers are essentially responding through rap to mainstream Britain’s political discourses. The rappers in this book critique the United Kingdom’s more conservative narratives, and they express their relationship to Britain in the politically turbulent climate of the new century, providing valuable perspectives which can go unnoticed by those skeptical of or ignorant of hip-hop culture. Through themes of nationalism, history, subculture, politics, humor, and identity, this book looks at multiple forms of politics in rap discourses from Wales, Scotland, and England. It covers selected hip-hop scenes from 2002 to 2017, featuring rappers and groups such as The Streets, Goldie Lookin Chain, Akala, Lowkey, Stanley Odd, Loki, Speech Debelle, Lady Sovereign, Shadia Mansour, Shay D, Stormzy, Sleaford Mods, Riz MC, and Lethal Bizzle. It investigates how rappers in the United Kingdom respond to the “postcolonial melancholia” (Gilroy) of post-Empire Britain. In contrast to more visible narratives of national identity in Britain, Brithop tells a different, arguably more important, story.
Introduction
Authors: Williams Justin A.
Published: October 2020

This chapter introduces the subject matter of the book, highlighting how rappers in the United Kingdom engage with politics to create a counternarrative to more mainstream narratives. Paul Gilroy's concept of “postcolonial melancholia” is discussed, and that the tacit whiteness of British identity has only intensified since Gilroy discussed the concept in the early twenty-first century. It also discusses the objects of rap analysis, linguistic aspects of accent in regional rap, as well as geographical units of analysis and the dangers of “methodological nationalism.” It lays out the time period of the study (2002–2017) and the relevant political contexts, starting with the devolution of powers in 1997 to Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. I acknowledge my own positionality in the study, reflecting on how this has shaped my perspectives. Lastly, the introduction provides a brief summary of the chapters that follow and artists involved.
Nationalism
Authors: Williams Justin A.
Published: October 2020

This chapter surveys the performance of attitudes towards English nationalism in hip-hop, from banal nationalism to ambivalent Englishness, to the role of history and tradition in constructing the national, to the localism of “hip little Englishness,” and finally to multicultural Englishness with examples from Lady Sovereign, Speech Debelle, The Streets, and others. Rapper responses to constructed “official” versions of England complicate these dominant narratives, and often create or build upon others such as English white working-class identity. By looking at these various examples and categories based on Cloonan’s types of Englishness in pop music, it provides alternative ways to think about the nation and how it is performed, overtly and subtlety, in twenty-first-century English rap music.
Exotica and Europe
Authors: Foster Karen Polinger
Published: October 2020

This chapter focuses on exotica in Europe. Many of the botanical and zoological aspects of Versailles were supported by increasingly rigorous scientific studies being carried out in Paris. Since the early 1500s, France’s botanists had sought a permanent facility where living plant specimens could be studied. Indeed, the French were eager to establish a counterpart to the successful research gardens organized in Padua and Pisa. The Jardin du Roi in Paris was meant to make the capital, and by extension France, the world’s pre-eminent center for natural history. Elsewhere in Europe, it was the major banking houses and trading companies that brokered shipments of exotica along with spices, textiles, and other goods. In Italy, wealthy banker and merchant families vied to obtain the latest New World and tropical wonders for their private gardens. The Dutch went further, cannily marketing the entire globe as a rich, alluring repository of exotica, whose possession by nonroyal persons would confer pure delight, free of the burdens of statecraft. From transit pens at the ports of Antwerp and Amsterdam, exotica were sent on to both private and royal customers.
Introduction
Authors: Brayne Sarah
Published: October 2020

This introductory chapter provides a definition of big data as well as an overview of the use of big data in policing. Big data is a data environment made possible by the mass digitization of information and is associated with the use of advanced analytics, including network analysis and machine learning algorithms. Law enforcement’s adoption of big data is part of a broader shift toward the use of big data and machine-learned decisions throughout the criminal justice system. From surveillance to pretrial determinations and sentencing, big data saturates American criminal justice. It is also the subject of contentious debate in policy, media, legal, regulatory, advocacy, and academic circles. Focusing on the Los Angeles Police Department’s use of big data and associated surveillance technologies, this book studies how big data is actually used by police in practice—and to what consequence.
Policing by Numbers
Authors: Brayne Sarah
Published: October 2020

This chapter traces the history of quantification in policing, from pin maps to predictive algorithms. It examines the surveillance landscape, starting with the “scientific turn” in policing in the early 20th century, then moving to the rise of evidence-based policing, the Information Sharing Environment (ISE) that emerged after the terrorist attacks of 9/11, and then predictive algorithms and big data analytics put to work in modern policing. Historically, the police collected most of the information they use in the course of their daily operations themselves. However, the chapter highlights the growing role of the private sector—for data collection and the provision of analytic platforms—in policing. Both the past and present of policing are highly racialized, so it also describes how data is positioned as an antidote to racism and bias in policing. The chapter concludes with an overview of data use and technologies at work in the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD).