bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Navigation Device for Steering Vehicles on the Polar Ice-Cap
Authors: Black H. P.
Published: January 2010

Precise navigation upon the ice-cap depends largely upon the accurate steering of a chosen course. This operation can be rendered difficult by three major problems commonly faced by Arctic and Antarctic expeditions. First, the absence of topographic features as points of reference; secondly, the loss of precision of the magnetic compass inside a moving vehicle and in areas adjacent to the Magnetic Pole; thirdly, the dependence of the astro-compass and similar instruments upon an unobscured Sun.

A simple method by which these difficulties are overcome was tested and found satisfactory during an inland traverse from Wilkes Station in November–December 1960 into an area not previously explored by land. The principle of this method is the use of a periscope-like arrangement of mirrors combined with a suitable sighting system to enable the driver to use his track astern to steer a straight course ahead.

The original device was installed upon a vehicle (a ‘Weasel’), already fitted with an astro-compass and a magnetic compass in order to function as the navigation vehicle of the train. The rear vision mirror taken from a ‘Traxcavator’ was used as the main ‘Track mirror’. It was pivoted at its centre point through the shorter axis. The mirror was mounted on a frame of two half-inch steel pipes bolted on to the vertical wall of the well between the windscreen and the forward hatch of the Weasel.
How Deep is the Sea?
Authors: Cloet R. L.
Published: January 2010

Because tankers are increasing in size some thought has lately been given to reducing the underkeel clearance in order to make more economic use of available water. But the problem is being stated in unnecessarily narrow terms by placing too much emphasis on tanker draught. A lot more cargo is still being carried in moderate tonnage vessels, which would show a sizeable economic benefit from a reduction in their under-keel clearance in many areas where tankers would not venture.
The Distribution of Wind and Temperature on Theoretical Routes at Concorde Cruising Level
Authors: Jeffreys H. P.
Published: January 2010

The introduction by an airline of a new aircraft type into passenger service, the inclusion of a new route in a world-wide network, or the adoption of new cruising flight levels, are preceded by extensive route analyses and flight planning studies. The known or expected performance characteristics of the aircraft are matched against statistics of wind velocity and ambient temperature, in order to derive estimates of sector times, fuel requirements and payload capacities. This paper refers to some of the sources of the meteorological data hitherto employed for this purpose and presents the results of a recent airline study of environmental conditions at Concorde cruising levels on a selection of routes.
I—The Pilot's Task
Authors: Akerman L. W.
Published: January 2010

The following discussion on marine pilotage took place at an Institute meeting held at the Royal Geographical Society on 19 February 1954, with Wing Commander E. W. Anderson in the chair. Commander Akerman, who has had considerable experience as a Trinity House pilot, first of all outlines the general requirements of navigation in restricted waters, and Mr. Hansford then proposes what he conceives to be the best solution at the moment to the problem of pilotage in poor visibility. Both contributions are here presented in summary.
II—Some Possible Aids
Authors: Hansford R. F.
Published: January 2010

The problem of navigating a vessel under conditions of bad visibility in open sea and in coastal waters has in recent times been largely solved by the advent of modern aids. The problem in pilotage waters, however, still remains severe and the handling of a sizeable ship in estuaries and harbours in bad visibility is today the exception rather than the rule.

The lack of progress in this field is due mainly to two causes. The first of these causes is the lack of a clear understanding of the pilotage requirements; the discussion at this meeting may help to shed some light on this problem. The second is referred to later. Commander Akerman has stated some of the pilot's requirements and the object of the present paper is to illustrate and further clarify the problem by examining some of the possible systems available to aid its solution. The paper will concentrate on radio systems since these seem the ones most likely to aid in solving the bad-visibility problem.
The Nauticator
Authors: Alabaster R. C.
Published: January 2010

The Nauticator is a vectorial computer for the solution of spherical trigonometrical problems, designed by Captain Leiv Jernæs of the Royal Norwegian Navy, who is at present captain of the training ship M.S. Sjöveien, Oslo. The instrument has been designed particularly for the rapid reduction of astronomical sights, and the calculation of great-circle tracks, distances and vertices. It has been sent to the Institute to assess its value, and this note will discuss its value to the air navigator.
Some Suggestions on the Rules for Preventing Collision at Sea
Authors: Kemp J. F.
Published: January 2010

In recent years the Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea have been the subject of considerable interest to mathematicians. It has been demonstrated that the Rules as they stand are not entirely satisfactory, and this confirms a certain uneasiness which most navigators have in this respect. One of the imperfections in the Rules is that they are not universal: they do not apply in fog, when vessels are not in sight of one another, they do not apply to certain classes of vessel, they are affected by limitations of weather and sea-room, and so on. It does not seem unreasonable that a set of Rules could be devised, based on the mathematical work lately carried out, which would be more rational than the present Rules.
Southerly Error in Early Explorers' Latitudes in the South Pacific
Authors: Sharp Andrew
Published: January 2010

I have read with interest Colin Jack-Hinton's article ‘The Use of Apparent Consistency in Errors of Latitude in the Identification of 16th and 17th Century Pacific Islands Discoveries’ in the July 1964 issue of the Journal of the Institute of Navigation (pp. 311–13). Jack-Hinton takes as his main target the two instances in my book The Discovery of the Pacific Islands in which I used persistent or steady southerly error as an aid to or basis for differentiations between atolls situated north and south of each other, namely Mendaña's Los Bajos de la Candellaria in reference to Roncador Reef and Ontong Java, and the first atoll seen by Le Maire after leaving the Home Islands in relation to Ontong Java and Nukumanu.
Collision Avoidance and the Future of Air Traffic Control
Authors: Ratcliffe S.
Published: January 2010

This paper is a report on some early findings of a long-term study which has the ambitious objective of suggesting better alternative solutions to the general problem of controlling a collection of aircraft. The study aims to answer questions about the optimum division of responsibility between the aircrew and ground A.T.C., about the way in which the A.T.C. tasks are shared between a number of controllers and A.T.C. computers, and about the fundamental principles on which traffic flow is organized.
Properties of Air-derived and Ground-derived Aircraft Landing Guidance Concepts
Authors: Hunter I. M.
Published: January 2010

To judge from literature and verbal statements made in recent years, it is probable that among those who read the title of this paper, a substantial proportion will already hold strong views on the relative merits of the two types of system, that these views will reflect a wide range of incompatible conclusions and that they will not all agree on the precise definitions of the two terms themselves. The terms have not been formally defined which has, of course, contributed to the confusion and this is unfortunate because, in the opinion of the author, the terms do lend themselves to logical definition. Furthermore many of the attributes of the two types of concept do confer obvious penalties or advantages which are not seriously in dispute among the contending parties.
A Preliminary Analysis of Navigational Performance Observed at Strumble 1969–70
Authors: Britland C. M.
Published: January 2010

This note complements the papers by White and Lloyd by commenting on some of the features of a preliminary statistical analysis of the N.A.T.C.S. data on track-keeping recently collected along Green I Airway near the Strumble VOR. All values quoted are illustrative only and have no firm validity at this time but they illustrate the numbers involved in determining acceptable separation standards for the lateral navigation case in a typical ‘continental’ environment.
Traffic Capacity
Authors: Fujii Yahei , Tanaka Kenichi
Published: January 2010

Traffic capacity is the capability of a waterway to deal with the traffic and when the traffic volume exceeds this limit traffic flow stops, as is often experienced on congested roads.

According to the U.S. Government Highway Capacity Manual the capacity of a highway with four or more lanes and free from conditions hindering smooth traffic flow has a maximum value of V/Ymin per lane, where V is the speed of a group of vehicles and Ymin is the average minimum separation of cars. Since Ymin is a function of V and increases rapidly and continuously with speed, there is a maximum value for V/Ymin which is a function of the speed. This is called basic capacity. Several examples of capacity together with the speeds of the transportation facilities are given in Table I.
‘The Master in Changing Times’
Authors: Breedveld D.
Published: January 2010

A situation as presented in the article by Buzek/Wepster (24, 35) is hard to imagine in the quite different atmosphere of another international shipping operation, such as the Continental European river systems of Rhine and Danube.
I—A Prospect of Navigation
Authors: Anderson E. W.
Published: January 2010

With the generous permission of Smiths Industries research is now being undertaken within the Department of Maritime Studies at the University of Wales Institute of Science and Technology, under the supervision of Captain C. H. Cotter. This has led to a study of information theory and its interesting links with entropy; information, as a result of work done, reduces randomness and introduces orderliness just as, in another context, housework reduces random dust and introduces cleanliness.
Automatic Plotting of Airborne Geophysical Survey Data
Authors: Smith B. M. Ewen
Published: January 2010

When geophysical measurements are made from the air, it is important to know the position of the aircraft. The position at any time is usually known from a combination of position-fixing and dead-reckoning systems. In-flight optimization of this combination is a well-studied subject. When post-flight track plotting is required for geophysical survey, use can be made of both the initial and terminal position fixes to correct the dead-reckoning track and hence improve on the in-flight version. This technique is applied to compute the track of aircraft conducting ice thickness measurements in the Antarctic, and the effect of certain errors is evaluated. The algebraic results are equally applicable in parts of the world where better navigational aids are available. A relation is derived between the track plotting errors and die errors in the geophysical measurement such that the precision of one is not degraded by errors in the other.
International Charts
Authors: Pascoe L. N.
Published: January 2010

In his Presidential Address Admiral Ritchie referred to the two series of charts in 79 small-scale sheets which 16 member states of the International Hydrographic Organization have undertaken to produce; some of them will be published this year. This new development, and how it will affect mariners who now use our Admiralty charts, may be of some interest.

The two small-scale charts for ocean and offshore navigation require a comparatively limited effort and with the enthusiasm and interest shown by all participating nations it is expected that both could be completed within a reasonable period, probably before the end of 1974. When these charts are published it will be possible to withdraw many small-scale Admiralty charts, some of which were originally published more than a century ago and have subsequently received only partial correction, and much criticism as being out-of-date. But it will not usually be possible to replace them chart for chart as each individual new International Chart is published, because replacement of existing charts can best be made when the whole scheme or at least a complete regional area has been completed. This applies not only to the United Kingdom but to all the world charting authorities and will result in their still having to maintain many existing charts until the new coverage is complete. This problem of ‘block’ replacement, rather than individual chart replacement, will assume serious proportions in the subsequent larger-scale stages of the International Chart.
‘Manning Reductions and the Cost of Navigation’
Authors: Bingley P. T.
Published: January 2010

After studying Captain J. S. McKenzie's very interesting paper on the above subject (Journal24, 174), and recognizing the need for an improvement in the safety of navigation, it would seem worthwhile considering whether safety could be improved while still reducing costs.

Using Captain McKenzie's assumed costs, and his Table III as a model, the accompanying table shows the costs and savings for two versions of an all officer bridge manning scheme.
Radar at Sea
Authors: Lubin H. L.
Published: January 2010

As one of the authors of Marine Radar and How to Use It which was reviewed by Captain Cockcroft in the October 1971 issue of this Journal I feel it necessary to reply to some of his comments. Though he and I may disagree on a few points the authors can only be pleased to have had someone so well known take the time and effort to review our book.
A Precision Position and Time Service for the Air Traffic of the Future
Authors: Fehlner Leo F. , McCarty Thomas A.
Published: January 2010

This paper describes a precision position and time service which could support the increased air traffic of the future, with an example of its application to air traffic control. Horizontal position and epoch time distribution are provided by Loran-C and vertical position by digital barometric altimetry. The proposed use of these systems for horizontal navigation, vertical positioning and landing approach is based on their successful use by current high-speed aircraft. The paper was presented at the 19th Technical Conference of I.A.T.A., Dublin, October 1972.
Collision Avoidance in a Traffic System
Authors: Calvert E. S.
Published: January 2010

In 1960 Dr. Calvert published a paper in the Journal (13, 127) which proposed a fundamentally new conception of how to avoid collision between single craft at sea or in the air, based on work carried out by the Mathematics Department of the Royal Aircraft Establishment. Later Hollingdale (14, 243) published a rigorously mathematical explanation of Calvert's ideas. The following paper to some extent draws together the arguments that have ranged so widely over this subject during the last ten years or so.

The chief criticism which has always been made against the existing Collision Regulations and is now being made against the revised ones, is that, except for the end-on encounter, no directives are given as to how a vessel should manœuvre to ‘keep out of the way’. Their role, it has been said, is not so much to prevent collisions as to enable lawyers to apportion blame after collision has occurred. The explanation usually given is that ‘the infinite variety of encounters which may arise at sea does not yield to a uniform treatment’.
Aquino's Short-method Tables
Authors: Cotter Charles H.
Published: January 2010

The Royal Institute of Navigation has in its possession a remarkable set of works by its late Honorary Member Vice-Admiral Francisco Radler de Aquino. An interesting feature of many of the items of this set is the large number of annotations, made by Aquino, which throw light on the development of his short-method tables—a development which continued throughout Aquino's long career as a distinguished navigator.
Manœuvring Large Ships in Shallow Water—I
Authors: Hooft J. P.
Published: January 2010

Dr. J. P. Hooft who is a Vice-President of the Netherlands Ship Model Basin at Wageningen, discusses the hydrodynamic forces which act upon a large ship sailing in shallow water. Their effects on the manœuvrability and control of the ship include a smaller response to a given rudder angle, a shift of the pivoting point aft towards the centre of gravity, a larger turning circle and less reduction in speed when turning. In general a ship becomes more sluggish in shallow water.

Since manœuvres with large ships are usually only performed in the proximity of harbours while in deep water the ship is kept on course by means of an autopilot, it will be difficult to compare the manœuvrability of large ships in shallow water with their manœuvrability in deep water. The influence of water depth on the hydrodynamic characteristics of the ship will therefore be the main subject of the present paper; the consequences of these ship characteristics on manœuvrability will then be considered. This term ‘manœuvrability’ is often replaced by ‘controllability’. In this respect a ship is said to be controllable when the navigator is able to manœuvre the ship with ease in such a way that departures from the anticipated manœuvre remain within acceptable limits.
A Cautionary Tale
Authors: Reynolds P. R. J.
Published: January 2010

I Suppose this incident might be entitled ‘How not to find a lightship’. It took place in the 1930s while I was serving in the M.S. Potter, one of the United States Line's long-haul cargo motorships of the period. She was a three-island, fivehatch ship which could lift eight-thousand tons and move it at eleven knots. She was my home for five years and wound up as part of a breakwater at the Normandy beachhead.
Marine and Air Traffic Control
Authors: Proctor J. D.
Published: January 2010

Marine and air navigation can still learn from each other. Mariners are following aviation in adopting some routing and control but aviation could follow mariners in their refusal to accept routing and control unless it is cost effective. However it may be easier in the marine case to measure the cost and probability of a collision than it is in the aerial case. But many states have established mandatory airways and routes; originally their navigational aids were very useful and in the event of forced landing the search and rescue people knew where to look. But many airliners now have self-contained navaids like the inertial navigation system (INS) or doppler so that they can navigate off airways, and also forced landings are rare. In the history of air traffic control at first it applied only around airports; when it spread to routes many aircraft were quite happy to fly off airways. But now airways have proliferated and have become customary and respectable to airline pilots so that few complain when some states force aircraft to follow lengthy and costly routes. The only virtue of airways is their freedom, theoretically, from uncontrolled traffic and from military dangers. If A.T.C. were confined to those situations where the risk of collision without A.T.C. would be worse than, say 1 in 10,000,000, flying would be a little more expeditious, but everyone feels secure within the system and insecure, guilty and uncomfortable outside it, so A.T.C. is used universally by airliners.
Improvement of Navigation Lights and Signals
Authors: Lindsay Douglas J.
Published: January 2010

In recent years there has been growing concern over the adequacy and distinctiveness of navigation lights in use at sea. This has expressed itself in a series of modifications to the lights shown by various specialized vessels, and by and large the more unusual users of the sea are now clearly and distinctively lighted by night. However, despite the noise being made about it, little has so far been done to improve ordinary ship's navigation lights. There can be little doubt that something urgent does need to be done about them; the survey carried out by Shell International Marine1 indicated this statistically, and any practising navigator need only think of the difficulties encountered at sea from other ships showing wrong or inadequate lights to realize it.

The range of navigation lights in general is the first and most obvious matter for improvement. The present statutory ranges were laid down when oil lamps were still the normal means of providing light, and when in addition ships were much smaller and slower than the average today. In view of the current size and speed of ships, and the obvious fact that in the future they are going to get even bigger and faster, it seems senseless to have their navigation light ranges prescribed on a datum established by oil lamps. The mind boggles at the prospect of two crossing supertankers, each with side-lights visible for no more than the statutory 2 miles, maintaining course and speed until each saw the other's side-lights (a common practice at sea).
The En-route to Terminal Area Interface
Authors: Stringer F. S.
Published: January 2010

Long-range transport aircraft of the next decade will almost certainly contain a navigation system capable of providing accurate and reliable fixing and flight director information over any part of the world. Over the North Atlantic Ocean die navigation system must be reliable enough to ensure safety at an agreed separation between aircraft flying in a controlled environment. At the conclusion of the en-route part of a flight these long-range aircraft pass through an interface of some 200 or 300 n.m. radius around the terminal airfield before they come within the close terminal control, with its specialized aids to approach, landing, take-off guidance and holding. The interface is currently served by a variety of radio and radar aids, all ground based at the present time. Aircraft are monitored by primary radar on the ground while they fly along airways some 10 n.m. wide with the aid of VOR/DME, Decca/Harco or A.D.F. The aids used depend upon the traffic density experienced in the area, the geographical environment and many other factors. At this time when consideration must be given to the development of an accepted navigation system for the interface, it is important that close attention should be given to the employment wherever possible of a rational navigation system compatible with all en-route systems and terminal area aids. The system used in the interface should use as much of die en-route and terminal equipment as possible, perhaps eventually removing the airways interface, as we know it, altogedier. Several techniques should be considered, diey include die use of ground radar for die precise up-dating of doppler and inertia navigation aids, die use of differential Omega for up-dating widi conventional Omega and ground radar for gross-error monitoring, and die use of ILS localizer beams used in conjunction with a downwind localizer aerial for the provision of a service presendy supplied by VOR and ADF.
Navigation in the Days of Captain Cook
Authors: Taylor E. G. R.
Published: January 2010

CAPTAIN JAMES COOK is deservedly esteemed as a great seaman, and he must be acclaimed also in the more particular role of a great navigator. For although he made no specific contribution to the art of navigation as such, he advanced it by sheer force of character. It was, indeed, a task for the mathematicians and astronomers, not for the sailors, to lay down new principles and new observations or calculations by which a ship's position could be found and her course directed when at sea. And it was for the mathematical and optical instrument-makers to design and perfect the instruments by which such observations could be made. But, in the last resort, everything depended upon the ships' captains, the masters and the pilots. They alone could decide whether some novel principle should be mastered, some new instrument actually used. ‘We have piped unto you and ye have not danced’ is a cry which echoes through the ages. For the sailor was not alone in turning a deaf ear to the advice of public men, scientists and his own professional instructors. He was hostile to change, he preferred some old rule of thumb. And this is to be expected from all such men as learn the actual practice of their trade or craft by working beside an experienced master who in turn is passing on the traditions of an earlier generation.
The Metrication of Navigation
Authors: Cotter Charles H.
Published: January 2010

THE following notes stem from Ronald Turner's somewhat controversial paper on the metrication of navigation.

The unique feature of the nautical or sea mile as a unit of distance is that it is directly related to a commonly-used unit of angular measure. To be more precise, the nautical mile may be defined as the length of a meridianal arc of the terrestrial sea-level surface, the geographical latitudes of the end points of which differ by one-sixtieth of a degree. In other words, the sea mile is a minute-mile, and the resulting convenience to mariners is one that is not too lightly to be sacrificed on the altar of the metric system.

The association of the seaman's unit of distance with the unit of angular measure and with the size of the spherical Earth, became a serious consideration soon after the initiation of the Age of Discovery by the Portuguese navigators sponsored by Prince Henry. Before this epoch, and indeed for some time after, seamen used landsmen's units of measure: units derived from homely, but certainly non-scientific, standards such as the length of a thumbjoint, forearm, foot and pace, and in no way related to the size of the Earth.

The inconveniences in trade and commerce caused by a wide variety of units of length and weight must always have prompted men to suggest standardizing these units.
Safety in the Dover Strait: a Progress Report
Authors: Gregory P. J.
Published: January 2010

AS readers of the Journal will know the Department of Trade and Industry set up in 1971 a Marine Traffic Systems Steering Group, to commission and coordinate research and development relating to the problems of marine traffic behaviour and to consider practical measures which could be undertaken as regards the Dover Strait area. The Group comprises mariners, economists, scientists and administrators from the Department of Trade and Industry including the National Physical Laboratory, representatives of the Civil Aviation Authority, the Ministry of Defence and, more recently, the Chamber of Shipping of the United Kingdom and Trinity House. Hargreaves has recently described briefly some of the earlier work arising out of the Group's existence. This paper describes in more detail the activities of the Steering Group from the time of its first meeting in March 1971 to the present day (October 1973). Many of the results of this activity are already known to Members of the Institute as a result of the publication in the Journal of papers read at the Conference on Marine Traffic Engineering held at the N.P.L. in May 1972 and sponsored jointly by the Royal Institute of Navigation and the Royal Institution of Naval Architects.
A Simple Area Navigation Display
Authors: Honick K. R.
Published: January 2010

A simple inexpensive optical projection map display is described which converts the range and bearing signals available from ground-based beacon aids such as TACAN or VOR/DME into a continuous map indication of present ground position without additional computing. This provides an area navigation system from such aids within their limits of accuracy, which increases with decreasing range from a beacon.

The display, which is self-synchronous, employs a series of circular map micro-transparencies, each of which is centred on a TACAN or co-located VOR/DME beacon and which can be changed in flight. The transparencies are automatically orientated with reference to beacon magnetic north on insertion, by a notch in the rim. The transparency is rotated by the bearing signal and is translated radially by the range signal to give a continuous indication of present position.
Some further Comments on the Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972
Authors: Hopkins F. N.
Published: January 2010

Having read with great interest the comments of Captain F. J. Wylie in the July 1973 issue of the Journal, and moreover found himself in complete sympathy with the views expressed, the present writer, who shares Captain Wylie's disappointment and apprehension with respect to the construction of the 1972 Rules, offers some further comments as follows.
The Log-books used by Ships of the East India Company
Authors: May W. E.
Published: January 2010

When in 1877 Clements R. Markham edited The Voyages of Sir James Lancaster Kt to the East Indies he remarked that the first log-book with printed headings was that used by Captain Reddell on his voyage in the Samuel & Anna in 1702–3. He does not say that this became standard practice in the ships of the East India Company but it would seem that some of his readers thought that this must have been the case. In The Art of Navigation in England in Elizabethan and Early Stuart Times David W. Waters refers to the Samuel & Anna log and follows it with the comment: ‘The logs of British warships were still ruled and captioned in manuscript in the eighteenth century.’
Maritime Area Control
Authors: Peppitt T. F.
Published: January 2010

Traditionally ‘Freedom of the Seas’ has meant that the ‘Master under God’ has been answerable to no one for his ship handling and manœuvring, except in the case of collision, when he has been answerable to the Courts. Congestion of certain sea areas and waterways has created situations where some restriction to this freedom has become acceptable in the interests of general safety; harbour radar procedures, the Dover Strait and other traffic separation schemes are the most well-known examples. Such areas will increase in number and size as the volume of trade increases.
The Accuracy Contours of a Running Fix
Authors: Namikawa Y. , Yamazaki Y.
Published: January 2010

An accuracy contour can be defined either in terms of a locus of constant radial error or a locus of constant probability density. A short comparison of the two concepts is given in reference 3.

The object of this note is to define contours of constant probability density in the case of a two-position-line running fix; the outcome is of interest in that it enables the navigator to plan his observations so that the accuracy is optimized. In Fig. 1 the object observed is S. The transferred position line corresponding to the first observation is drawn from the point S′, where SS′ is the vector corresponding to the ship's run during the time between the two observations. The fix is at O.
A New Marine Radar Display System
Authors: Watt J. , Piercy B. C.
Published: January 2010

To help him in his use of radar as an aid to avoiding collision in fog, the watch officer needs to be sure which targets appearing on the radar screen are potential hazards, including those with which the collision risk will be increased by alteration of his own course and/or speed made to avoid other ships or in the course of navigation. In the commonly encountered multi-ship situation there are therefore likely to be at any particular instant several ships, perhaps 10 or more constantly changing, concerning which detailed and up-to-date information is highly desirable. This detailed information is of two kinds, namely information concerning the motions of other ships relative to own ship, and information concerning the true motions of other ships.
The Pay-off from Improved Marine Navigational Aids
Authors: Maybourn R. , Mateer W.
Published: January 2010

The Chief Marine Superintendent of BP Tanker Co. and his Electronics Superintendent examine cost–benefit analyses of expenditure on improved navigational aids as part of a broader study which includes a technical appreciation of individual items of hardware and their contribution to the navigational package. It is suggested that the range of modern, and in many cases complex, aids now available needs careful scrutiny before the optimum outfit for a given vessel may be selected. This paper was read at a meeting of the Institute in London on 19 December 1973 with the President in the Chair.
IV—Visual Range and the Degree of Risk
Authors: Fujii Yahei , Yamanouchi Hiroyuki
Published: January 2010

The visual sense supplies a major part of the information necessary for avoiding traffic accidents and fog impedes this channel of information, even though the invention of radar has removed the limitation to a considerable extent. The closure of airports is caused mainly by reduced visual range and partly by low cloud, or by typhoons in Japan. The length of signal sections on the Japan National Railway (600 m) was determined from a study of the frequency of visual ranges. Nishikura and others have studied the influence of visibility on the probability of marine traffic accidents and conclude that the ratio of the collision danger with a visibility less than 1 km and more than 1 km is in the range of from 30 to 100. Wheatley et al. have also shown the risk of traffic accidents to be high in bad visibility in the Dover Strait.
The Use of ABC Tables in Preparing for Star Observations
Authors: Thompson P. A.
Published: January 2010

As part of their navigational outfit many of the ships in service today are equipped with Sight Reduction Tables (A.P. 3270 = H.O. 249), and many navigating officers include amongst their personal kit a Rude Star Identifier (H.O. 2102), or some similar device according to individual preference, for the purpose of obtaining the approximate altitude and azimuth of a selected body as a preliminary to making observations, particularly for star sights. However, for the benefit of those without such means at their disposal and as a matter of interest for others, the use of ABC tables for this purpose is suggested. The origin and author of this method are not known and it does not appear to be included in any of the navigational manuals which have been in circulation in recent years, but there was reference to it by Capt. S. T. Lecky in his General Utility Tables first published in 1897, a reference for which I am indebted to Capt. C. H. Cotter.
Irradiation: A Note
Authors: Cotter Charles H.
Published: January 2010

It is some considerable time since the questions associated with irradiation were considered in the pages of the Journal. Indeed the interesting and practical paper by Captain Brett Hilder is the latest considerable contribution to the Journal and this appeared no less than twenty years ago. It is only in comparatively recent times that nautical astronomers have been provided with an authoritative irradiation correction of any sort. This, which applies only to observations of the Sun's upper limb, was incorporated in the altitude correction table for the Sun and appeared annually in the Nautical Almanac after 1953, the year of Hilder's paper, but was discontinued after 1969.
The Terminal Area Problem at London
Authors: Briggs J. H.
Published: January 2010

The rate of growth of air traffic in the London Terminal Area (T.M.A.) is such that the existing airports will be unable to handle it for more than a few years. If a safe and expeditious flow of traffic is to be maintained, even if more airports of the existing type are provided, ways must be found to increase the capacity of individual airports. In any case, it will be necessary to improve the marshalling of traffic between the airports and the air routes to prevent harmful interaction between the various activities. One solution put forward, tacitly assumed that the growth potentials of Heathrow and Gatwick airports were so limited, that a third, and subsequently a fourth, airport of similar design and capacity would be required.

The alternative solution relying on ideas yet to be proved, is more difficult to assess, since possible improvements in technology must be taken into account together with the changes in A.T.C. procedure which their adoption would permit. By 1967, this task had not received the comprehensive study afforded to en-route (Mediator) problems, and no specific operational requirements existed for electronic aids related to this T.M.A. problem.

For this reason, the fairly substantial amount of work which could have a bearing on T.M.A. problems being carried out in various R. & D. establishments and industry could not be directly related to the users' needs.
‘The Master is Responsible’
Authors: Rawlinson P. R. J.
Published: January 2010

Much is being done to ease the burden on the Master approaching ports, and lane separation is the main thing. It would appear that the next logical step would be to penalize Masters who do not conform to the laid down traffic pattern.

It may be argued that the imposition of a penalty will be adding to the danger of a congested port approach, inasmuch as the Master will be worrying about the consequence of a wrong decision; such worrying may tend to cloud judgment.

However all Masters understand the correct ‘port approach’ technique and that therefore all other vessels will comply with such rules. A case for the imposition of a penalty is shown by the marked reluctance of some Masters to follow the lane patterns. I am speaking from experience when I say that I have seen vessels in the approaches to New York, Delaware River and San Francisco where charts show plainly approach and departure routes, deliberately steaming the wrong way in the laid down routes. It would appear that deliberate flaunting of safety features needs penalization of the person responsible, i.e. the Master.

However, before legislation can be enacted for such a penalty, it will be necessary for legislation to be enacted whereby strict conformance to the laws of approach and departure from a port is law, and not, as at present, recommended. While these routes are only recommended some Masters will still ‘corner cut’.
Ship Navigation—The Means and The End
Authors: Foley F. M.
Published: January 2010

The paper which follows was presented at an Ordinary Meeting of the Institute held in London on 26 January with the President, Rear-Admiral G. S. Ritchie, C.B., D.S.C, F.R.I.C.S. in the Chair.

In a survey of navigational aids which considers both the navigational problems and the means for their solution it is first worth looking back in history because the problems as well as the solutions have changed. It is difficult to decide at what point in time to start, though without any doubt the greatest changes have come in the past fifty years. Even the ancients had their problems; it appears that the Greek general, historian, and apparently sailor, Thucydides was disgraced and exiled in about 400 B.C. because he lost seven of his ships and failed to reach Thrace from Thasos in time to save it from the Spartans. His navigation may have been faulty and perhaps better navigational aids might have changed the course of history!
Establishing Global Traffic Flows
Authors: Thompson Robert P.
Published: January 2010

As vessels become more efficient and shipping demands continue to grow the population explosion of vessels at sea is outdistancing even its famous human counterpart. This increases the risk of accidents, particularly in confluence areas and straits, and to avert future disaster it is important to predict trends in global traffic flows so that appropriate measures may be taken in time. This poses a difficult problem. Due to the diversity of nationalities involved, the autonomy of ships and competitive secrecy, it is only possible to account for the present at-sea ship population within about 16 per cent. Geographical distribution is even more doubtful and predicting changes more speculative still.
The Application of the Economics of Congestion to Marine Problems
Authors: Vanags A. H.
Published: January 2010

Although the economic theory of congestion as applied to road traffic has been known since at least the time of Pigou its application to marine problems has been much slower. It is the purpose of this paper to remedy this somewhat by interpreting the theory in a marine context and to suggest some of the practical implications of taking proper account of congestion effects.
Collision Avoidance and the Mariner
Authors: Kemp J. F.
Published: January 2010

It is suggested that there is a need for research into the problem of collision avoidance between ships with particular emphasis on human factors. Work already done is of interest, but is largely theoretical and it seems likely that the usefulness of this approach is nearly exhausted. Collision avoidance at sea is achieved mainly by the rules for preventing collisions, by routing schemes for separating traffic in certain areas and, within certain port limits, by local rules, advisory services or occasionally by direct control of traffic movements. Similar methods are adopted to prevent collisions in the air and on the roads, but with differences which reflect the respective environments. It is suggested that these are differences of emphasis rather than differences of kind. A great deal of research has gone into methods by which collisions between road vehicles and collisions between aircraft can be avoided. Analysis of this work to establish its application to marine collision avoidance should form a prelude to a study of particular problems in the marine field.
Traffic Regulation in Europoort and its Approaches
Authors: Schimmel N.
Published: January 2010

The situation in the Europoort region has changed markedly in the past ten years. Vast extensions of the harbour areas have been completed, partly by reclaiming land from the North Sea. The new entrance to the river is more than 3 km. further to seaward, and inside this entrance there are now separate entrances to the Rotterdam Waterway and to Europoort (Caland Canal). The number and size of ships visiting the port of Rotterdam has also increased and very large crude carriers and fast container ships are now regular visitors. For these VLCC's, with a draught of up to 65 ft., special fairways have been dredged and are in full use.
Establishing Global Traffic Flows
Authors: Thompson Robert P.
Published: January 2010

In this age of explosive expansion in nearly every aspect of human endeavour our ability to make accurate forecasts is becoming increasingly important. We cannot wait until we run out of oil to find a new source of energy. We cannot wait until we can't stand living on the earth to slow down the rate of pollution. We cannot wait until there is no room left to stand on dry land before we do something about birth rate. We must predict what is likely to happen as a result of trends and then find ways either to change the trends or protect ourselves from the consequences.
Collision Avoidance and the Mariner
Authors: Kemp J. F.
Published: January 2010

In this paper a study is made of that area of marine traffic engineering which is concerned with collision avoidance, and within that area the sub-section in which human factors are involved.

Collision avoidance at sea is mainly achieved by adherence to the rules for preventing collisions, by routing schemes for separating traffic in high density areas and, within certain port limits, by local rules and advisory services, or occasionally by direct control of ship movements. To these well defined factors may be added the mariner's accumulated experience and instinct for self-preservation which gives rise to such nebulous, but not negligible, entities as the ‘seaman's eye’ and the ‘navigator's sixth sense’.
Collision Avoidance at Sea, with Special Reference to Radar and Radio-Telephony
Authors: Corbet A. G.
Published: January 2010

A draft of this paper was circulated for the open meeting of the Technical Committee on 17 May 1972, when the forthcoming revision of the Collision Regulations by Imco was discussed (see page 427).

Radar has been in general use in merchant ships since the end of the Second World War and during this time the Regulations for the Prevention of Collision at sea have undergone two amendments at International Safety Conferences, in 1948 and 1960. The amended regulations were ratified and brought into use in 1954 and 1965 respectively. The 1948 regulations made no reference to the use of radar whatsoever—radar for commercial use was still in its infancy in 1948 and indeed little was then known about its capabilities and limitations, nor of the operational difficulties it was going to present even before these 1948 regulations were finally ratified in 1954.
A Brief History of the Method of Fixing by Horizontal Angles
Authors: Cotter Charles H.
Published: January 2010

John Hadley (1670–1744), Vice-President of the Royal Society of London, communicated his ‘Description of a new Instrument for taking Angles’ to the Society on 13 May 1731. Hadley's invention for the first time provided the navigator with an instrument by which he could measure altitudes of celestial bodies with ease and accuracy on board a lively ship at sea. It was not however until about 1750, when the instrument was to be found on board vessels of the East India Company, that Hadley's quadrant (or octant as it is sometimes called) rapidly came into general use.
Computing the Revised Edition of H.O. 249 (A.P. 3270)
Authors: Duncombe R. L. , Scott W. A.
Published: January 2010

The new U.S. Hydrographic Office publication H.O. 249, Sight Reduction Tables for Air Navigation, comprises three volumes: Volume I covers all latitudes and contains tables of altitude and azimuth of selected navigational stars; Volume II contains tables of computed altitude and azimuth angle for latitudes 0°–39°, declinations 0°–29°; and Volume III contains tables of computed altitude and azimuth angle for latitudes 40°–89°, declinations 0°–29°. The tables have been produced jointly by the American Nautical Almanac Office and H.M. Nautical Almanac Office for the U.S. Hydrographic Office. The British edition of the tables is being published by H.M. Stationery Office as A.P. (Air Publication) 3270; the actual tables are identical with the American edition but the introductory matter has been reset.
The Use of Loran for Survey Work in the Pacific
Authors: Clarke J. O.
Published: January 2010

During the course of recent hydrographic and oceanographical investigations in the Pacific, H.M.S. Challenger made considerable use of the extensive Loran coverage now provided by the United States. This marine radio position-fixing aid was particularly useful in the west Pacific in the area between Japan and New Guinea where the coverage of ground-waves is considerable. In this article an attempt is made to describe some of the work for which Loran was used, the principles on which it was used, and the accuracy expected and errors obtained. No attempt has been made to describe the operation of the system, which has been adequately covered in this Journal and in numerous other publications.
Grid Navigation and its Allied Problems
Authors: Blackmore R. H.
Published: January 2010

The Mercator chart has been used for navigational purposes for nearly four hundred years. Before Kramer devised his chart in 1569 navigators generally used a chart based on the simple cylindrical projection. The Cylindrical Orthomorphic projection devised by Kramer (or Mercator, as he is commonly called) revolutionized navigation and from that time has been the standard navigational chart for marine use. It was to be expected that, when the time came, air navigators would copy and perhaps modify the technique of the seaman. This was done, and today air navigators continue to use the Mercator chart. In many ways, however, it is not an ideal chart; it is now time to depart from this tradition and to use charts more suitable for air navigation. That this is possible has been shown by experimental flying in the Royal Air Force and by other countries, notably the United States and Canada.