bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Strategies of the Eye-Head Orientation in Human Infants Related to Cognitive Development
Authors: Roucoux Marguerite , Culée Christine
Published: April 2012

Young infants can orient themselves toward visual targets by means of eye saccades and head movements. In this study, a population of “at-risk” infants is tested for visual preferences to evaluate the significance of a behavioral examination for such a population. A control population of fifty normal infants was also examined. It is concluded that the test of visual preferences discriminates the control group and the at-risk group after five months of age. The results have shown that there are different capabilities in selective visual discrimination for at-risk and control infants. The differences in responses just reflect the differences in later intellectual abilities.
Functions of Local Circuits in Neocortex: Synchrony and Laminae
Authors: Connors Barry W. , Amitai Yael
Published: April 2012

This chapter focuses on one feature of the local cortical circuit that has been relatively neglected but which is particularly important and probably widespread. The neurons that provide output from the neocortex are largely found in layer V. This location alone makes it indispensable, but there are several other characteristics of structure and function that distinguish layer V. The basic hypothesis is that the neural network within layer V is uniquely capable of ordering, controlling, coordinating, and synchronizing the activity of the neocortex. The chapter outlines some reasons for proposing this hypothesis and speculates about its significance.
Pathophysiology of Cortical Synapses and Circuits
Authors: Schwartzkroin Philip A.
Published: April 2012

This chapter focuses on the cellular features of the epileptic brain that may be key to an understanding of mechanisms underlying the pathophysiological discharge. The major issues are reviewed in historical context to show how our views have evolved from electrophysiological analyses of epileptogenic cortical tissues. Intrinsic cellular and synaptic contributions to the abnormal activities are examined, and illustrations are drawn from studies of chronic animal models of the epilepsies.
Psychophysiological Recordings
Authors: Stern Robert M. , Ray William J. , Quigley Karen S.
Published: April 2012

Somatic responses such as heart rate and muscle potentials abound. Electrical activity can be recorded from the surface of the skin at any moment. Background electrical activity is always present and spontaneous changes in activity occasionally appear, even when it seems that an individual is relaxing or asleep. This makes the task of recording and correctly interpreting a subject's evoked response to a specific stimulus or situation a challenge. Most psychophysiological recordings can be analyzed in terms of three types of activity: spontaneous, tonic (background), and phasic (evoked responses). Tonic activity is often referred to as the background level or resting level of activity of a particular physiological measure, while phasic activity is a discrete response to a specific stimulus — an evoked response. What is referred to as spontaneous activity is in reality a change in physiological activity that occurs in the absence of any known stimuli.
Eyes: Pupillography and Electrooculography
Authors: Stern Robert M. , Ray William J. , Quigley Karen S.
Published: April 2012

Investigators have claimed that various responses of the eyes can be used to determine many things, from interest in sexual feelings to the relative degree of processing occurring in the brain. Some of the more common areas of research have included relating the size of the pupil to arousal and examining eye movements in relation to processes such as reading and dreaming. Of the various measures possible, psychophysiologists have been most interested in pupillography, or the measurement of the size of the pupils and eye movement. This chapter explores pupillography and electrooculography, a technique for studying the position of the eyes. The use of electrodes for psychophysiological recording of eye movements is also discussed.
Gastrointestinal Motility: Electrogastrography
Authors: Stern Robert M. , Ray William J. , Quigley Karen S.
Published: April 2012

The psychophysiology of the gastrointestinal system is a relatively unexplored area, in part due to the instrumentation and measurement problems of obtaining data from far inside this constantly changing many-meter-long system. Nevertheless, a number of studies of motor activity have been conducted, particularly in the more easily accessible two ends of the gastrointestinal tract, the esophagus and rectum, and also in the stomach. This chapter focuses on the motor activity of the stomach as measured with the noninvasive method of electrogastrography, a technique which records electrogastrograms (EGGs). EGGs reflect gastric myoelectrical activity as it is recorded from the abdominal surface with cutaneous electrodes. The physiological basis of EGGs is discussed, along with the psychophysiological recording procedure, typical recordings, common problems associated with EGGs, and analysis and quantification.
Developmental and Computational Approaches to Variation in Working Memory
Authors: Munakata Yuko , Morton J. Bruce , O'Reilly Randall C.
Published: April 2012

This chapter considers the working memory processes that contribute to the ability to handle tasks and differences that lead to variations in these working memory processes. Two processes are focused on: active maintenance and information updating. They are important processes that other working memory processes are likely to tap into or build on. Computational models and behavioral studies are described to test the mechanisms subserving active maintenance and information updating. The overaching theory of working memory focuses on the computational mechanisms underlying the active maintenance and updating of information. Simulations made demonstrate computational trade-offs in active maintenance. They provide a strong computational foundation for our overall theory of working memory function. The main theme emphasized is that the grounding of constructs in neural mechanisms can provide important constraints on interpretations of behavioral findings of individual variability.
Cortical Neurophysiology in the 1950s
Authors: Hubel David H.
Published: April 2012

Neurophysiology has changed radically since the late 1950s. In the cerebral cortex, early work was mainly concerned with localization of function, essentially a type of neuroanatomy that used clinical neurology and electrical stimulation and electrical recording. By the late 1950s, the topographic maps of the primary and secondary visual, auditory, and somatosensory receiving areas had been delineated electrically, in humans, cats, and monkeys. In vision, the most important topographic mapping had been done back in 1941 by Wade Marshall and Samuel Talbot, at Johns Hopkins. In the mid-1950s, the first single-cell studies of the visual cortex came from a group led by Richard Jung and his collaborator Günter Baumgartner in Freiburg. In the 1950s, most of the single-cell recordings from the sensory cortex were concerned with topography.
The New Department
Authors: Hubel David H.
Published: April 2012

The first-ever Department of Neurobiology was launched in 1966, with Kuffler as the chairman. In the 1960s and 1970s, the main problem between Torsten and David concerned the question of continuing collaboration. Kuffler was puzzled over how to justify two senior appointments to the rest of the faculty, especially two people working in the same field. Around the time the new department was being formed, the dean of the medical school offered David the position as chairman of the Department of Physiology. He accepted because it offered an opportunity to build his own group. Certain awkward aspects of the arrangement soon became evident for his and Torsten's backgrounds were neurology and psychiatry, not physiology. He later recognized that he made a mistake, and resigned the job before doing the Department of Physiology and his research any irreparable harm.
Survey of the Monkey Lateral Geniculate Body—A Foray into Color
Authors: Hubel David H.
Published: April 2012

This chapter presents a paper entitled “Spatial and Chromatic Interactions in the Lateral Geniculate Body of the Rhesus Monkey”. This paper represents the first effort in mammalian visual neurophysiology to examine the color sensitivities of the different spatial subdivisions of receptive fields. The study examined in detail how cells respond to variations in stimulus, size, shape, and wavelength. It explored the connections of rods and cones with single fourth-order cells by working in various states of light and dark adaptation. A wide variety of cell types were found to be present in the monkey geniculate. Some were concerned mainly with spatial variables, others with color, but most were able to handle both variables.
The First Three Kitten Deprivation Papers
Authors: Hubel David H.
Published: April 2012

This chapter presents the first three kitten deprivation papers entitled “Effects of Visual Deprivation on Morphology and Physiology of Cells in the Cat's Lateral Geniculate Body”, “Receptive Fields of Cells in Striate Cortex of Very Young, Visually, Inexperienced Kittens”, and “Single-Cell Responses in Striate Cortex of Kittens Deprived of Vision in One Eye”. The first paper describes single-unit recordings in the optic tract and lateral geniculate body of kittens in which one eye had been deprived of vision, and an anatomical examination of the visual pathways in these animals. The second paper describes single-unit recordings in the striate cortex of newborn kittens. The last paper deals with the responses of cells in the visual cortex of visually deprived animals.
The Siamese Cat
Authors: Hubel David H.
Published: April 2012

This chapter presents a paper entitled “Aberrant Visual Projections in the Siamese Cat”. This study investigated the central pathway of Siamese cats and kittens, particularly the topographic projections of the retinas to areas 17 and 18 of the visual cortex, and the receptive-field properties and binocular interaction of cells in these areas. It confirmed Guillery's observation that the central visual pathway of the Siamese cat was highly abnormal, and they supported his idea that the abnormality consisted primarily of a mistake at the chiasm, with some optic fibers from the temporal retina crossing instead of remaining uncrossed.
Cells Grouped in Orientation Columns in Newborn Monkeys
Authors: Hubel David H.
Published: April 2012

This chapter presents a paper entitled “Ordered Arrangement of Orientation Columns in Monkeys Lacking Visual Experience”. The main objective of the study was to see whether ordered sequences of orientation columns were present in very young visually naïve monkeys. Recordings were made from area 17 in two macaque monkeys whose eyes had been closed near the time of birth. The first monkey was born normally, but one day elapsed before eye closure could be done. The second was delivered by Caesarian section and the lids sutured shut immediately. The results in these two animals were very similar. In both, highly ordered sequences of orientation shifts were present, and were in no obvious way different from those seen in the adult. This indicated that the ordered column system was innately determined and not the result of early visual experience.
Due Process and Fair Procedures
Authors: Galligan D. J.
Published: April 2012

Due process is one of the most interesting and conceptually challenging areas of the common law, and in recent years there has been a major revival of interest in the sheer range and applicability of the term. In this book, the author offers a study of the underlying principles of due process and fair procedures, and sets the discussion within a broad comparative and theoretical framework. In landmark decisions such as Ridge v. Baldwin (1968) the courts in Britain and other parts of the Commonwealth have begun to recognize the importance of procedural fairness across a broad spectrum of official powers and decisions. Principles have begun to emerge, and yet the courts have not so far developed an approach that is entirely adequate to the task. In this book, the author traces the development of these principles within a framework which includes analysis and critique of legal developments in the major common law jurisdictions, and which relates these developments to similar ideas under both the European Convention on Human Rights and the American Constitution.
A Map of Procedures
Authors: Galligan D. J.
Published: April 2012

This chapter is a study of procedures: what they do and how they fit into a coherent picture. In their simplest form, procedures are the steps leading to a decision; they are the means for reaching a decision or other result. In a modern legal system, the range of legal decisions is considerable, but one common feature is that each tries to advance certain ends and goals. Legal decisions are in that sense purposive, and so the main point of procedures is to serve those purposes.
Procedural Fairness
Authors: Galligan D. J.
Published: April 2012

This chapter examines the notion of procedural fairness. It begins with a statement of the main features of procedural fairness and then moves on to a fuller analysis. Procedural fairness is then considered in its relationship to standards of fair treatment. Finally, the notions of fair treatment and procedural fairness are placed in their social context and a critique is offered of some of the empirical research into common perceptions of procedural fairness.
The Virtues of Participation
Authors: Galligan D. J.
Published: April 2012

This chapter analyses the notion of participation in its legal and political contexts. First, it considers participation in legal and administrative processes. It then explores the main ideas on participation found in the literature of political theory. Finally, the social basis of participation is considered, and some of the practical issues highlighted.
Legal Approaches to the Policy Process
Authors: Galligan D. J.
Published: April 2012

This chapter examines the legal approaches to rule making within several jurisdictions. It focuses on the policy process in English law, but also makes extensive reference to important variations in the USA and Australia. The analysis concentrates on rule making, both formal and informal, while little is said about policy making on specific issues.
Consumer Accountability
Authors: Leigh Ian
Published: April 2012

This chapter deals with consumer accountability. It suggests that the development of consumerist devices was the most important legacy to democratic practices of the past two decades, although consumerism is best seen as a difference of emphasis, and not as a wide-scale theory of government. It examines the implications for local government of the Citizen's Charter and the statutory recognition of consumer choice, both individually and collectively, especially in the field of education. It places mechanisms for complaining about local services, both internal to local authorities and to the Local Ombudsman within a democratic context. A less generous lien of criticism sees consumerism as an attempt to increase the control of central government by imposing national standards or creating a direct relationship between users of local services and national bodies.
The Politics of Local Contracts
Authors: Leigh Ian
Published: April 2012

This chapter discusses the contractual powers of local authorities. It evaluates the courts' attitude to the interaction of politics and contract ‘contract compliance’, and the statutory exclusion of non-commercial criteria from contractual decision-making. Underlying these is a limited legal model of the role of local authorities, which sees their role purely as the effective or commercial delivery of services. This is quite at variance with aspects of the new vision of councils as community leaders. It is apparent that the consequence of applying public law principles to local government contracts has been the creation of a distinctive body of public contract law. The discussion suggests that the notion of commercial behaviour imposed on local government has in fact been a cover for a level of public control of public contracts.
In the Beginning: the International Geophysical Year
Authors: Cheng Bin
Published: April 2012

This chapter, written soon after the publication of the then highly exciting news that the United States and the Soviet Union were both going to launch the world’s first artificial earth satellites as part of their programmes for the International Geophysical Year (1 July 1957–1 December 1958), examines some of the international law problems which the forthcoming space age was likely to encounter. Topics discussed include the principle of airspace sovereignty, the definition of airspace, the upper limits of airspace, the legal status of outer space, and artificial satellites and space travel.
International Law and High Altitude Flights: Balloons, Rockets, and Man–made Satellites
Authors: Cheng Bin
Published: April 2012

This chapter, the appearance of which coincided with the launching of Sputnik I, assesses the legal aspects of the then raging controversy provoked by the release in the West of unmanned high altitude ‘meteorological’ balloons over various Soviet-bloc countries. These balloons, likened to miniature satellites, carried sophisticated photographic and other recording equipment, and were designed to fly over a number of Soviet-bloc countries, before landing their equipment and recordings somewhere in the Pacific or in North America. The controversy provided a foretaste of the disputes to come.
United Nations Resolutions on Outer Space: ‘Instant’ International Customary Law?
Authors: Cheng Bin
Published: April 2012

The General Assembly of the United Nations has no legislative power. Nevertheless, two of its resolutions on outer space, resolution 1721A (XVI) of 20 December 1961 and resolution 1962 (XVIII) of 13 December 1963, have often been hailed as ‘the first chapter in the book of space law’. This chapter examines the legal status of these resolutions. It is hoped that, in doing so, some light may also be shed on the nature of the so-called international ‘customary’ law.
Definitional Issues in Space Law: ‘Space Objects’, ‘Astronauts’, and Related Expressions
Authors: Cheng Bin
Published: April 2012

Much of international space law has been developed through the United Nations, principally in the form of the five treaties that it has drafted and presented to States for their acceptance. These are the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of 27 January 1967 (the Space Treaty); the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts, and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space of 22 April 1968 (the Astronauts Agreement); the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects of 29 March 1972 (the Liability Convention); the Convention on Registration on Objects Launched into Outer Space of 14 January 1975 (the Registration Convention); and the Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of 5 December 1979 (the Moon Treaty). Owing partly to the speed of the development of astronautics, and partly to a lack of co-ordination, some of the terms and phraseology used in these treaties are increasingly being seen as, if not exactly inconsistent, at least ambiguous, confusing, or inadequate. Among these terms are ‘space objects’ and ‘astronauts’, and some of their related expressions, such as ‘personnel of spacecraft’. This chapter seeks to unravel the meanings of these terms in international space law, especially in the context of the several treaties relating to outer space elaborated by the United Nations.
International Responsibility and Liability of States for National Activities in Outer Space, Especially by Non-governmental Entities
Authors: Cheng Bin
Published: April 2012

Most States have subscribed to the principle, albeit by treaty, that States bear international responsibility for national activities in outer space, carried on whether by State agencies or by non-governmental entities, and international liability for damage caused by space objects launched by them or their components. This wholesale assumption of direct State responsibility and international liability for the acts of non-governmental entities is quite unprecedented. Since then, activities in outer space have long entered the era of exploitation and commercial use, including in particular commercial exploitation by non-governmental entities. The implications of this situation on the principle of direct international responsibility and liability for national activities in outer space appear to be still little appreciated. The legal position in any event is somewhat obscure, especially since not all the relevant multilateral treaties on outer space are necessarily consistent on the subject. It merits careful examination.
The Jurisprudence of the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal
Authors: Aldrich George H.
Published: April 2012

The Iran–United States Claims Tribunal is the most important source of international arbitral decisions for at least the past half-century, and its decisions have contributed significantly to the development of international law and the law of international commercial transactions. This book is about the jurisprudence of the Tribunal. It seeks to preserve and to make accessible the substantial body of Awards and Decisions rendered by the Tribunal during the years since it was first established. The Tribunal’s hundreds of Awards and Decisions may be individually consulted (there are 27 volumes so far), but hitherto there has been no detailed analytical guide through its vast published work. This book provides a two-fold service. First, it quotes from the most significant Awards and Decisions at sufficient length so that both their substance and the reasoning of the Tribunal can be understood from access to the present volume alone. Second, it organizes and summarizes the decisions to facilitate finding complete texts relevant to any particular issue.
Introduction
Authors: ALDRICH GEORGE H.
Published: April 2012

This book aims to preserve and to make accessible the substantial body of Awards and Decisions rendered by the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal during the years since its establishment in 1981. The jurisprudence of this extraordinary tribunal is of much broader interest than simply to the parties before it and the two governments that created it. While copies of its hundreds of Awards and Decisions may individually be purchased from the Tribunal and have been or are being published in the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal Reports, that set of many volumes is quite expensive and may not be widely available. The book attempts to accomplish its objectives in two ways: first, by quoting from the most significant Awards and Decisions at sufficient length; and secondly, by so organizing and summarizing them as to facilitate finding complete texts relevant to any particular issue.
Expropriations, Takings, and Deprivations of Property
Authors: ALDRICH GEORGE H.
Published: April 2012

The Islamic Revolution that toppled the Shah of Iran and, in February 1979, saw the formation of the Islamic Republic gave rise to the expropriation claims presented to the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal. In those circumstances, various actions by the new Iranian authorities affected adversely the property interests of many Americans. It should also be noted that, by the time the first claims for expropriation or other takings of property began to be decided by the Tribunal in late 1983, the interference with property rights had endured for at least three years or more. Consequently, the often difficult question of when allegedly temporary interference with the rights of property owners should be considered to have ripened into a compensable taking or deprivation of those rights rarely troubled the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal. This chapter examines the Tribunal’s Decisions by drawing together holdings in different cases on the same or similar issues.
Evidentiary Issues
Authors: ALDRICH GEORGE H.
Published: April 2012

The Algiers Declarations make no reference to rules of evidence, except as may be implicit in the general directive of Article 5 of the Claims Settlement Declaration that the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal ‘shall decide all cases on the basis of respect for law’. The Tribunal Rules, however, deal with the question of evidence in Article 24. While any party could request an opposing party to produce relevant, identified evidence, and the Tribunal could order such production, there was no means of enforcement available except for the Tribunal to draw adverse inferences from a failure to produce evidence that was evidently in the possession of that party. For all of these reasons, the Tribunal was inclined to accept as adequate proof of claims and defenses evidence that fell far short of what one might normally consider the best evidence, particularly when the Tribunal was satisfied that it was the best evidence available to the party.
Treaty Interpretation
Authors: ALDRICH GEORGE H.
Published: April 2012

It is generally acknowledged that the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of May 23, 1969 codified the relevant law. Despite this definitive guidance, when the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal first faced a question of treaty interpretation, it made no reference whatsoever to the Vienna Convention. The issue in that case was whether the Algiers Declarations gave the Tribunal jurisdiction over claims by the Government of Iran against nationals of the United States. Iran had asked the Tribunal to interpret the Declarations and had contended that the provisions of General Principle B of the General Declaration expressing ‘the purpose of both parties…to terminate all litigation as between the government of each party and the nationals of the other’ indicated that such jurisdiction existed despite the fact that the Claims Settlement Declaration, in Article 2, specified the jurisdiction of the Tribunal in a way that clearly excluded such jurisdiction.
Currency
Authors: ALDRICH GEORGE H.
Published: April 2012

Relatively few issues concerning currency arose in cases decided by the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal. While many contracts between American claimants and Iran provided for payments in Iranian rials, the 1981 Algiers Declarations established a security account in U.S. dollars for the payment of all claims against Iran. Consequently, as Awards by the Tribunal against Iran were all to be paid in dollars, with a few exceptions, the awarded amounts were stated in dollars. Thus, the principal currency question facing the Tribunal was the choice of the exchange rate for debts due in rials. Awards to Iranian parties were either in dollars or rials, depending upon the debt. While one might have expected Iranian foreign exchange controls, which were put into effect in late 1978, to be a frequent source of dispute, in fact the issue was not often addressed.
Structure and Function in Criminal Law
Authors: Robinson Paul H.
Published: April 2012

This book has two themes. First, it argues how the criminal law is not just a matter of theoretical interest but has important real-world practical effects. A second theme is to demonstrate that there is any number of ways in which one could structure criminal law. This chapter specifically discusses the formal and operational structures of current criminal law and evaluates its functional structure. It is also shown that a criminal code must announce to the general public, ex ante, the rules of conduct that are to be enforced with criminal penalties.
Principles of Imputation
Authors: Robinson Paul H.
Published: April 2012

This chapter attempts to establish that a conceptual grouping of equal importance to the definition of offences and general defences should be recognized: doctrines of imputation. It also discusses the doctrines that make up this conceptual group and demonstrates their shared operation in imputing a required offence element. In addition, it illustrates that, beyond the shared operational character, these doctrines share common theories and rationales. In general, the definition of an offence describes the elements normally required to hold an actor liable for the offence; it is that offence's paradigm for liability. Despite the absence of a required element of the definition, however, an actor may be held liable for the offence if a doctrine imputes the absent elements.
The Division of Lawmaking Powers: The Revolution that Never Happened
Authors: Bell John
Published: April 2012

This chapter explores the division of lawmaking powers between Parliament and Government, one of the major changes introduced in 1958. In studying the allocation of legislative power within the 1958 Constitution, it is possible to see how far the French republican constitutional tradition provides the real point of reference for that document's interpretation. This chapter begins by exploring the constitutional tradition before 1958. The picture that emerges from analysis of the actual functioning of the Constitution and from the way in which it has been interpreted belies the suggestion that the division of power between loi and règlement has been a radical revolution in the operation of French government. Parliament, far from being marginalized, has remained a central lawmaking body. Moreover, the recognition that Parliament cannot control all the rule-making that the 1958 Constitution enshrines is being taken further than the provisions of articles 34 and 37 envisaged.
Constitutional Texts
Authors: Bell John
Published: April 2012

This chapter presents the constitutional texts. The French people solemnly proclaims its attachment to the rights of man and to the principles of national sovereignty such as are defined by the Declaration of 1789, confirmed and completed by the Preamble to the 1946 Constitution. In virtue of these principles and that of the self-determination of peoples, the Republic offers to overseas territories that express the desire to join them new institutions based on the common ideal of liberty, equality, and fraternity, conceived with a view to their democratic evolution. The chapter specifically describes sovereignty, the president of the Republic, the government, parliament, relations between parliament and the government, treaties and international agreements, the Conseil constitutionnel, the judiciary, the high court of justice, the economic and social council, local authorities, European communities and European Union, revision, and transitional provisions. The organic law on the Conseil constitutionnel is also explained.
Law in the Age of Crisis
Authors: Honoré Tony
Published: April 2012

This chapter discusses a summary of the analysis of laws and legal culture presented in the following chapters. This summary also assumes the correctness of the results of that analysis and places them in an even wider context. The discussion also touches on the subject of law in the Roman Empire during the Theodosian age, which was considered as a time of crisis.
Interpretation
Authors: Mielke Jeff
Published: April 2012

This chapter presents the Pure Theory of Law's discussion of the occasion for, and the subject-matter of, interpretation; the relative indeterminacy of the lower level of the legal hierarchy; intended and unintended indeterminacy of the lower level; the norm as frame, encompassing various possibilities for application; the so-called methods of interpretation; interpretation as act of cognition or act of will; the illusion of legal certainty; the problem of gaps, so-called technical gaps; and the legislator's theory of gaps.
The Morality of Tort Law—Questions and Answers
Authors: HONORÉ TONY
Published: April 2012

H.L.A. Hart was writing about punishment. In his view, those who are puzzled about the justification of punishment should begin by disentangling a number of questions about the criminal process. Moreover, once one sees that a single aim will not justify every aspect of the system, one should not replace the single aim by a compound aim. One should not, for example, say that the justification of punishment is a mixture of deterrence, retribution, reform, and denunciation. According to Hart, at least six questions about punishment need to be answered separately. Hart meant his remark to apply to institutions other than criminal law, and it can certainly be applied to tort law. The theory of tort law is now the subject of a sophisticated debate, especially in North America. This chapter tries to unravel some of the questions and to suggest some answers.
Right, Justice, and Tort Law
Authors: WRIGHT RICHARD W.
Published: April 2012

The two principal monistic theories of law are the utilitarian efficiency theory and the Kantian-Aristotelian theory of right or justice, based on the foundational norm of equal individual freedom, which asserts that the purpose of tort law is and should be just compensation and deterrence. It is clear that the equal freedom theory, rather than the utilitarian efficiency theory, provides the foundation for morality and law in general and for tort law in particular. This chapter elaborates the equal freedom theory underlying the concepts of right and justice, arguing that this theory and its constituent concept of corrective justice undergird the general structure, content, and institutions of tort law. It expands and deepens the argument by shifting from the global perspective to a detailed normative and descriptive analysis of one of the central issues in tort law: the standards of care in negligence law.
The Standards of Care in Negligence Law
Authors: WRIGHT RICHARD W.
Published: April 2012

This chapter challenges the utilitarians’ claim with respect to the standards of care in negligence law. Negligence liability is the most common type of tort liability and is thought to be the most obvious example of tort law’s utilitarian foundation. If the utilitarian efficiency theory cannot explain negligence liability – its prime doctrinal example in its favorite field of common-law liability – it is in very serious trouble. Conversely, if the equal freedom theory can explain and justify negligence liability, it will have cleared what many see as the biggest hurdle for a non-utilitarian theory of tort liability. Negligence is generally described as behaviour that creates unreasonable foreseeable risks of injury. Almost all jury instructions do not provide any test or definition of what constitutes unreasonably risky behavior, other than an often circular reference to the ‘ordinary care’ that would be exercised by the reasonable or prudent person in the same or similar circumstances.
Property Law: Sources and Doctrine
Authors: Reid Kenneth
Published: April 2012

This chapter is concerned with the law of property. The fact that a legal system is ‘mixed’ does not imply consistency in the mixture, whether measured by subject or by time. Not only may the proportions differ from subject to subject, but the ingredients themselves may not be the same. The first part of this chapter seeks to examine, through historical eyes, the mixture of sources and influences which make up the law of property. The second part considers the literature of the law, and the attempts to bind the disparate sources into some kind of a unified theory. In the final part there is a brief consideration of two doctrines which, in different ways, typify the law of property in Scotland. These doctrines are the doctrine of possession and the law of the tenement.
Introductory
Authors: Beyani Chaloka
Published: April 2012

One of the most basic of human rights which international law protects allows an individual to freely move around and select where he or she wants to live within States. Such protection may have originated from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, which accounts for the setting up of international standards for various aspects of human rights protection. Including such concerns as the freedom of movement both in terms of entering and leaving the State and travelling within the State entails certain justification for its advancement that such a basic and natural human right is now declared an essential for every individual. Literature about these concerns, however, is not given as much focus and importance as it should be given. This book therefore attempts to bridge the literature gap in issues of human rights and general international law.
The Movement and Residence of Minorities
Authors: Beyani Chaloka
Published: April 2012

In 1950, Sir Hersh Lauterpacht pointed out that protecting the minorities served not only as a basic human right that involves instilling peace within and between nations, but such is also important in maintaining an identity that is based on the heritage, values, and qualities that may be attributed to a certain people. Also, it is important to note that such an assessment is essential for the stability of States with particular minority groups. This chapter focuses on the protection of minority groups in line with the standards for the freedom of residence and movement within states through presenting such as standards in relation to the international law that specifically covers the welfare and protection of minorities.
Restrictions on the Movement and Residence of Refugees
Authors: Beyani Chaloka
Published: April 2012

From the perspective of human rights, this chapter attempts to look into the legality of restrictions enforced on the entry and residence of refugees who are trying to attain protection from places outside their country of origin. Using this approach allows us to understand how these refugees acquire a certain legal status that is determined by the host States in which they enter and move in to under international treaties and other measures that attempt to protect refugees and that there is a need for these ‘refugee specific’ standards to be synchronized with those of human rights that involve restrictions and residence of these said refugees in prisons, settlements, camps, and other such facilities.
Partial Defences to Homicide: Questions of Power and Principle in Imperfect and Less Imperfect Worlds…
Authors: Lacey Nicola
Published: April 2012

Partial defence and its relation to English Law are discussed in this chapter, as well as the underlying factor that this certain defence is often used to mitigate the effect of the sentence of an accused of a higher privilege and status. Could it then be argued that certain individuals of affluence and status could be excused from a rightful sentencing due to effect of partial defence upon their personage? This chapter discusses heavily the factors and the relationship of partial defence to both provocation and the English criminal law itself, giving a comparative analysis of similar cases from other governments.
Cortical connections and functional interactions between visual cortical areas
Authors: Bullier Jean
Published: April 2012

This chapter begins by presenting the general characteristics of interarea cortico-cortical connections. It also discusses the hierarchical organization of cortical areas. It then explores the functional streams and channels in feedforward cortico-cortical connections. In addition, a discussion on the functional roles of feedforward and feedback connections is offered. The results of thirty years of investigation on the development of cortical connections provides a more balanced view of the mechanisms involved. There is an early specification of the connectivity pattern that involves regional and areal specification.
Electro- and magneto-encephalographic and event-related potential studies of visual processing in normals and neurological patients
Authors: Münte Thomas F. , Heinze Hans-Jochen
Published: April 2012

This chapter provides an overview of non-invasive electrophysiological studies of the human visual system. It begins to explore the influences of passive visual stimulation using different stimuli, followed by a review of the effects of attention to location and other visual features on event-related brain potentials. It then considers recent findings linked to complex visual stimuli such as hierarchically structured objects and faces. A prevailing theme in experimental psychology is that selection of stimuli by the visual system is predominately obtained on the basis of location. Screening a complex visual scene for some relevant item or feature is a prerequisite for the survival of the individuum. It is shown that event-related potentials (ERPs) now provide a quite detailed picture of face-processing in humans. Event-related brain potentials, event-related magnetic fields, and induced activity are applied to track the fate of a visual stimulus on its way through the cortex.
Failures of visual analysis: scotoma, agnosia, and neglect
Authors: Fahle Manfred
Published: April 2012

This chapter deals with different types of failure to analyse the visual world, starting with the complete loss of vision, blindness, as well as blindness for circumscribed parts of the visual field, scotomata. It also reports some syndromes characterized by difficulties in perception of and discrimination between different domains or submodalities of vision, while leaving most others intact, such as acquired inability to assess visual motion, or acquired colour blindness caused by cerebral damage (achromatopsia). It then provides an overview of the most astonishing examples of failed visual perception: simultanagnosia; neglect; and Balint's syndrome. These syndromes share the phenomenon that conscious perception of objects in (parts of) the peripheral visual field is absent in spite of intact stimulation of the primary visual cortex by these objects. It also attempts to fill in some gaps of knowledge by means of speculation to produce a consistent taxonomy of symptoms encountered in visual neuropsychology. It combines the theoretical background with clinical findings and with a description of at least some of the methods used to diagnose patients suffering from failures of visual analysis.
Categorization versus similarity: the case of container names
Authors: Sloman Steven A. , Malt Barbara C. , Fridman Arthur
Published: April 2012

This chapter reports studies that examine a clear notion of categorization — how people choose names for simple artefacts — and three specific kinds of similarity — physical, functional, and overall similarity. Constructs are measured carefully. For naming, a straightforward, naturalistic naming task is used that does not limit participants' choices. For similarity, three different measures of the three kinds of similarity are examined: sorting, direct similarity judgement, and a measure based on feature listings of the objects. The studies are all intended to evaluate the degree to which the names of these objects can be explained by appealing to perceived similarity relations among the objects with the aim of uncovering the relation between naming and similarity.
Dissociation between categorization and similarity judgement: differential effect of causal status on feature weights
Authors: Ahn Woo-kyoung , Dennis Martin J.
Published: April 2012

Given that most investigators agree that categorization can be based on an expanded definition of similarity, elucidating the mechanism underlying dissociations between similarity and categorization judgements becomes important. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce one way of distinguishing deep versus surface features and then show how this framework explains dissociations between categorization and similarity. First, the chapter reviews previous demonstrations of dissociations between similarity and categorization. Next, it presents a new set of evidence showing a specific mechanism by which dissociations between similarity and categorization occur.
Structural alignment, similarity, and the internal structure of category representations
Authors: Markman Arthur B.
Published: April 2012

The study of categorization in psychology has typically proceeded along two parallel tracks. On the one side, researchers have explored the structure of people's existing categories. On the other side, researchers have brought categorization into the lab in order to understand how categories are acquired and used. This chapter discusses the relationship between similarity and categorization using both of these tracks. It begins by describing research on the structural alignment view of similarity. This work, which was focused initially on understanding similarity comparisons, has since been used to explore the structure of people's categories. After laying out this view and its implications, the chapter considers the more general question of what similarity is used for in cognitive processing.
Dynamic similarity: a processing perspective on similarity
Authors: Keane Mark T. , Smyth Barry , OʼSullivan Joseph
Published: April 2012

This chapter aims to illustrate by example a perspective on similarity that has not received sufficient attention in the literature. For want of a better name, and one certainly exists somewhere, this is called the dynamic similarity perspective. Traditionally, the computation of similarity has been treated as a process acting over parts of static representations; this view is as fundamental to traditional models as it is to more recent alignment models of similarity. In contrast, the dynamic similarity view proposes that the whole processing context — whether that context is a past, present, or prospective one — can contribute to the conceived similarity of things. To put it another way, it stresses a class of ‘processing-oriented’ respects for similarity that have not been given due recognition in the literature.
The time course of perceptual categorization
Authors: Palmeri Thomas J.
Published: April 2012

Perceptual categorization is a fundamental aspect of human cognition. Any time we decide that some visually presented object is a dog rather than a cat, a bottle rather than a jar, or a tree rather than a shrub, we are making a categorization decision based on the perceptual attributes of that object. This chapter aims to review a class of theories of perceptual categorization with particular emphasis on how these theories account for the time course of these judgements. A key assumption of these theories is that perceptual categorization depends on the underlying perceptual similarity relations among objects. This general assumption is not without some controversy.
Interactions between taxonomic knowledge, categorization, and perception
Authors: Gosselin Frédéric , Archambault Annie , Schyns Philippe G.
Published: April 2012

Object recognition and categorization research are both concerned with the general question of ‘What is this object?’. To recognize an object as a face or a computer is not very different from assigning it to the ‘face’ or the ‘computer’ category. The problem is to understand how information available in the visual array matches the information representing categories in memory. Both categorization and object recognition research therefore address the same fundamental issues of ‘What is the organization of information in memory?’, ‘What is the information available in the input?’, and ‘How do memory and input information interact to explain behaviour?’ Despite these fundamental similarities, object recognition and categorization have evolved independently, without much dialogue.