bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Polysemy
Authors: Stock Penelope F
Published: November 2023

The aspect of polysemy which I wish to address in this paper concerns the issue of how working lexicographers divide lexical items or words into different, usually numbered, meanings. It is not infrequently stated that lexicographers are somewhat shy of explaining their own techniques – or are perhaps too busy to do so – or even that they are unaware of what they are doing, working from some intuition that cannot be stated. The most recent discussion that I am aware of on the subject of sense division is that by John Ayto (1983). In his paper Ayto gives an account of one accepted working method. His argument is as follows: firstly the lexicographer should consider the superordinates of each of the meanings of the lexical item (that is, the appropriate genus word which will be selected on which to base an analytic definition). This is, so to speak, the first sifting process: where meanings require quite distinct genus words they are ipso facto different senses. If one meaning of fly has the general superordinate term ‘move through the air’ and one has the superordinate ‘an insect’, then they are clearly different senses of fly. Distinct superordinates or genus words suggest distinct senses. The second move is to disambiguate those meanings which have the same superordinate. Ayto uses cup as an example, in which several meanings may have definitions which begin with the same genus word: ‘vessel’. These are two or three differently described vessels for drinking liquids from, and the sports trophy. The second sifting process takes place when the lexicographer considers the various differentiae that will be required in a definition to distinguish these meanings from each other such that, for example, the sports trophy has a different function from other cups, is differently shaped, and so on. Considerations of shape, size, the material used in construction, etc., are used to disambiguate two further meanings, which are roughly speaking (1) a bowl-shaped vessel with a handle typically presented to the drinker with a saucer, and (2) a straightsided vessel usually made from plastic and typically presented to the drinker from a vending machine.
Habitat quality
Authors: Grubb Thomas C
Published: November 2023

The projects reviewed in this chapter take several approaches to the subject of habitat quality, but all focus on food intake rate as the measure of interest. Because of this focus, using feather growth rate was an attractive option. We begin with a project relating territory size to nutritional condition. Loggerhead shrikes have become a species of concern in North America. Once relatively common, this bird has recently undergone a precipitous decline and is currently diminishing in numbers at a rate of about 5% per year. Shrikes are “perch and pounce” predators, requiring perches from which to hunt. With consolidation of farms and changing farm practices in recent decades, removal of fences, hedgerows, and “sentinel trees” in the middle of fields has vastly reduced potential hunting perches. Reuven Yosef and I studied the impact of reduced hunting sites on the nutritional condition of shrikes (Yosef and Grubb 1992).
Taking stock and looking ahead
Authors: Grubb Thomas C
Published: November 2023

In the previous 10 chapters, we have considered the current state of basic and applied ptilochronology. Chapters 1–4 explored attributes of the method, how it relates to other measures of nutritional condition, and reviewed a number of criticisms of the technique. The six subsequent chapters dealt with applications of ptilochronology to a number of conceptual areas of behavior, ecology, and conservation biology. As each of the preceding 10 chapters ended with a summary, to simply add another here would be redundant. Instead, this chapter brings forward conceptual issues that span various topics, and highlights uncertainties needing to be investigated in the future.
The Conductor: Downward Causation
Authors: Noble Denis
Published: November 2023

The organist works from a very dififerent perspective to that of any of the individual pipes of his organ. Although in real organs the pipes themselves are often physically above the player, metaphorically speaking he surveys the keyboards and pedals from above, seeing patterns and musical forms that he constrains the instrument to follow. To play a piece on the organ is to call on many pipes simultaneously. In a complex piece, most of the pipes may at some point come into play. The organist must cause this massive apparatus to express its potential in an ordered way. These ordered patterns form a very tiny fraction of all the possible patterns that could be played, the great majority of which would be cacophonic.
The Orchestra: Organs and Systems of the Body
Authors: Noble Denis
Published: November 2023

The Novartis Foundation is a unique institution. Although based in the UK, it was founded originally by the Ciba Company of Basel. Ciba became Ciba-Geigy and then merged with Sandoz to become the pharmaceutical giant Novartis. The Foundation organises discussions on biological themes. Only a few people are invited. The proceedings are recorded, transcribed, and then published in their entirety. Read the volumes and you feel as if you are listening in to the live debates.
The Opera Theatre: the Brain
Authors: Noble Denis
Published: November 2023

We are approaching the end of the story. We have come a long way from the first steps at the level of the genes, through to the grand composer of the music of life, evolution. At each stage we discovered that there is no single controller. The orchestra of life works without a conductor. We might find that discovery relatively easy to accept for viruses, bacteria, plants, and the simpler animals. But can this really be true for the so-called higher animals, including man? After all, we have a huge brain, with billions of nerve cells. It may well be the most complicated thing in the universe.
Normal sleep
Authors: Stores Gregory
Published: November 2023

The most fundamental aspect of sleep is that it is an essential part of your existence in the sense that without it you cannot survive. Animal experiments have showed that, if kept constantly awake for approximately 10 days, rats undergo a profound deterioration in their basic bodily processes such as temperature control and they die.
Should An Acute Headache Service Be Part Of A Headache Clinic?
Authors: Ducros Anne
Published: November 2023

Academic acute headache services and headache clinics have three common missions: (1) to provide the best possible clinical care to headache patients; (2) to teach young physicians about headaches; and (3) to initiate and participate in headache research programmes. However, these two types of services differ in a number of things. The former provides emergency management to patients with any type of acute headache regardless of the cause, whereas the latter provides multidisciplinary management and long-term follow-up to patients who are mainly affected by episodic or chronic primary headaches. Concerning practical teaching, an acute headache service is a unique tool. Owing to its large recruitment area and to the high number of patients seen every day, such a service gives interns and fellows the opportunity to become familiar with almost all primary and secondary headache forms within a few weeks. In headache clinics, practical teaching may be more focused on diagnosis and treatment of primary headaches. Finally, an acute headache service may offer the opportunity to set up specific research programmes focused on some infrequent secondary headache disorders, on diagnosis strategies and procedures, and on acute pain-relieving treatments. On the other hand, headache clinics may be more involved in therapeutic trials of both abortive and preventive headache treatments.
Organization Of A Multidisciplinary Headache Centre In Europe
Authors: Jensen Rigmor
Published: November 2023

Worldwide, a very long tradition of multidisciplinary pain clinics has been established and the International Association of Pain (IASP) has published international guidelines for the organization and structure of such clinics. Multidisciplinary settings are used in 54–72 per cent of pain clinics varying from two to 26 individuals including medical specialists, nurses, psychologists, physical therapists, and rehabilitation therapists. In Spain and Italy surveys revealed that most pain clinics are directed by an anaesthesiologist (62–89 per cent) and only rarely by neurologists or other specialists with specific interest in headache but there are probably substantial national and organizational differences among countries.
Approach To Headache Management: USA, UK, And India Compared
Authors: Ravishankar K
Published: November 2023

Headache medicine is fast emerging as a new subspecialty, which has resulted in a surge in the number of headache centres across the globe. But interestingly, headaches are not all recognized, diagnosed, and treated the same way across different regions of the world! Geographical factors, genetic differences, cultural barriers, and varying strategies of treatment—all have a bearing on the final outcome of headache management. This chapter attempts to broadly compare the approach to headache management across three continents—America, Europe, and Asia (more specifically the USA, the UK, and India). The impressions are not a scientific comparison but only a personal ‘point of view’ based on observations from patients who have attended the headache clinics at different locations where the author has worked.
An Indian Perspective
Authors: Ravishankar K
Published: November 2023

It is an established fact that in headache centres, primary headaches are more common than secondary headaches; however, unlike secondary headaches, the final outcome of primary headaches and migraine in particular can differ depending on region-specific variables. In contrast to what prevails in developed countries, in many regions of the world there are additional limiting factors such as resource limitations and other health priorities that can have a bearing on the organization of a headache centre. Citing the Indian headache scenario, this study attempts to appraise the international headache community of factors that are barriers to the organization of a headache centre. Suggestions for adaptations to deliver optimal headache care in this setting are also detailed.
Establishment And Organization Of A Research Headache Clinic: Advantages And Disadvantages
Authors: Russell Michael Bjørn , Aaseth Kjersti , Grande Ragnhild Berling , Gulbrandsen Pål , Lundqvist Christofer
Published: November 2023

Headache clinics are either hospital-based or independent. The main goal in both settings is management of headache to the benefit of patients and society in a cost- effective way. The socio-economic impacts of headache disorders are enormous primarily due to the high prevalence of migraine, tension-type headache, and medication overuse headache. A Danish population-based survey reported that tension- type headache causes work absence on 820 days per year per 1000 employed people from the general population, while migraine causes 270 days with work absence in the same population. About 2–3 per cent of the general population suffers from daily or nearly daily tension-type headache. Many patients have never consulted a health professional due to headache, although the majority have consulted a general practitioner, a specialist, a chiropractor, a physiotherapist, or another health professional at least once due to their headache.
A Local Network As A ‘Headache Clinic’ In The French Alpes
Authors: Mick Gérard , Renaud Sabine , Ramponneau Jean-Pierre , Reynes Jean-François , Bodin Claudy , Peronnier-Gros Karine , Traversa Yolande , Bocquet Philippe , Tollet Laurent , Baron Xavier , Croix-Blanche Xavier Buffet
Published: November 2023

In rural or remote countryside areas (e.g. in the northern part of the French Alpes), far from large hospitals and specialized medical departments, patients suffering from disabling episodic or chronic head/facial pains may benefit from local care and long-term follow-up involving general practitioners, specialists from various medical and paramedical disciplines, as well as experts in the headache field. The challenge stands on daily collaborative practice between experts, family doctors, and paramedical interveners, specifically dedicated to proximity care and parallel follow-up. Such a horizontal organization of care allows fast specialized diagnostic or therapeutic help and adequate multimodal therapeutic choices for patients who would otherwise stay away from or enter belatedly into the appropriate medical channels.
Discussion Summary: Classification And Organization Of Headache Clinics
Authors: Evers Stefan
Published: November 2023

This discussion comprised the introductory lecture given by Lars Stovner (Trondheim, Norway) on the epidemiology and cost of severe headache disorders, a lecture on an acute headache service (given by Anne Ducros, Paris, France), on the organization of a multidisciplinary headache centre in the USA (given by Stephen Silberstein, Philadelphia, USA), and on the organization of a multidisciplinary headache centre in Europe (given by Rigmor Jensen, Copenhagen, Denmark). The discussion first focused on the issues related to an acute headache emergency.
Hospitalization of headache patients: Why, when and how?
Authors: Freitag Frederick G
Published: November 2023

Dedicated inpatient treatment programmes for headache began in the late 1970s in Michigan and followed by the programme through Diamond Headache Clinic, which is the largest dedicated inpatient treatment programme with 37 beds. Over the course of the subsequent years other inpatient programmes were developed. More typical though in other areas the situation was different with the programme existing as part of the healthcare services provided by an institution. An inpatient pain unit has produced superior outcomes compared with alternatives.
Similarities And Differences In Tension-Type Headache And Migraine Patients Of Primary Care Providers And A Tertiary Care Headache Centre In Switzerland
Authors: Gantenbein A R , Kozak S , Agosti R , Isler H
Published: November 2023

The Headache and Pain Clinic (HPC) is a unit of the Zürich Department of Neurology. From 1966 treatment methods were continuously diverted from the immediate suppression of symptoms towards elevation of thresholds for headache episodes and migraine attacks. Demographic features, severity of disorders, and medical management in general practice and in the HPC were compared in two groups of 181 patients suffering from tension-type headache and/or migraine. HPC patients were selected semi-randomly from the 1998 records: the first eight to nine files per first letter of the last name, where available. For the second group 18 randomly selected GPs from the Zürich region provided data from the last 10 patients seen for headaches. A questionnaire was used to gather relevant data.
Evaluation And Quantification Of Tenderness And Sensitization
Authors: Bendtsen Lars
Published: November 2023

The importance of abnormal central pain modulation in migraine and tension-type headache (TTH) has been established within the last decade. Thus, it is probable that central sensitization plays a role for both pathophysiology and treatment outcome in migraine and that the same is true for central sensitization and tenderness in TTH. Further investigations of these mechanisms are crucial for better understanding of pathophysiology and treatment possibilities in primary headaches. The aim of this chapter is to review methods for assessment of sensitization and tenderness.
Diaries And Calendars For Migraine. A Review
Authors: Nappi Giuseppe , Jensen Rigmor , Nappi Rossella , Sances Grazia , Torelli Paola , Olesen Jes
Published: November 2023

Headache is one of the most common types of pain and in the absence of biological markers, headache diagnosis depends only on information obtained from clinical inter- views and physical and neurological examinations. In clinical practice, patients often have difficulty recalling precisely the headache characteristics, especially if they have several types of headache. Headache diaries and calendars make it possible to record prospectively the characteristics of every attack and this may reduce the recall bias and increase accuracy in the description.
Stress-Induced Pain And Muscle Activity In Patients With Migraine And Tension-Type Headache
Authors: Leistad Rune Bang , Sand Trond , Westgaard Rolf H , Nilsen Kristian Bernhard , Stovner Lars Jacob
Published: November 2023

Perceived stress is a triggering factor for headache in both migraine and tension-type headache (TTH). One of the physiological responses to cognitive stress is increased muscle activation, but the pathophysiological role of muscle activity in headache has not been fully established. Muscular activation can occur as a direct consequence of stress, or it may be linked to a change in pain modulation such as central sensitization. Central sensitization of pain pathways has been suggested as an important mechanism in both TTH and migraine.
Frequent Tension-Type Headache Sufferers Exhibit Widespread Pain Sensitivity Across Pressure And Thermal Pain Modalities
Authors: Romanek Kathleen M , Foster Katey E , Carson Kara , Holroyd Kenneth A
Published: November 2023

Chronic tension-type headache (CTTH) has been hypothesized to arise from a central pain processing deficit. Research has found that individuals with frequent TTH and CTTH exhibit increased pericranial muscle tenderness and reduced cephalic pressure pain thresholds (PPTs), possibly implicating sensitization at the trigeminal nucleus. However, CTTH sufferers have also been found to exhibit reduced extracephalic PPTs in some studies, suggesting a higher order deficit in pain processing. The purpose of this study was to examine pressure and thermal pain sensitivity in frequent TTH and CTTH at both cephalic and extracephalic locations.
Discussion Summary: Diagnostic Methods
Authors: Olesen Jes
Published: November 2023

The question of diagnostic electronic diaries and electronic charts has elicited enormous interest; however, it was pointed out that to implement an electronic chart is expensive and time consuming. The Mayo system has developed gradually and continues to develop. However, it does not yet save much time, but gave a much higher and more uniform data quality. In Philadelphia a similar system has been developed. This had taken up a considerable amount of time and resources. Also its implementation has been time consuming. Three months after the introduction of the electronic chart in Philadelphia most employees still felt it was more demanding than the usual system. However, subsequently, the employees became satisfied and no one would now wish to have the old fashioned charts back.
Headache Clinics: Physical Therapy
Authors: Jensen Rigmor , Hansen Lene Møller , Rechter Helle Søberg
Published: November 2023

Physiotherapy is often used in the treatment of headache despite limited scientific evidence demonstrating efficacy. Likewise, the role of physical therapists in a multidisciplinary headache clinic is unclear and a clarification of this very popular treatment approach is very much needed. In the field of preventive treatments for headache, the interventions studied were confined to pharmacological and cognitive-behavioural therapies and mostly to the study of migraine. Only a few studies have assessed the effectiveness of traditional physiotherapy in properly classified headache patients.
Efficacy Of Therapeutic Intervention In Headache Units In Patients With Frequent Headaches. EFUNCE Study
Authors: Láinez Miguel J A , Fratalia Lauren , Pascual Julio , Mateos Valentin , Leira Rogelio
Published: November 2023

Headache disorders are a global public health problem because they are frequent and disabling lifelong diseases. Effective healthcare can relieve much of the symptom burden of most headache disorders, and thereby mitigate both the human and financial costs. Most patients with headaches who seek care are treated in a primary care setting. This care could be appropriate and effective in many patients, but often other comorbid illnesses, behavioural problems or excesses in treatment exist, requiring a specialized approach. A longitudinal study of patients with headaches treated in a primary care setting, showed that 20 per cent of them continue with significant pain and disability at 2 years.
Cost-Effectiveness Of Headache Clinics
Authors: Zeeberg Peter
Published: November 2023

In a world with limited resources for healthcare, health economics are gaining in importance when decisions are made how to allocate the resources available. A general understanding of the principles in these kinds of analyses is therefore necessary for all doctors, whether their involvement in healthcare is research, treatment, or organization. The chapter is therefore constructed in two parts. The first section gives a short introduction to health economics in general. The second section discusses cost- effectiveness and cost–benefits of headache clinics, based on data from the Danish Headache Center (DHC).
Headache Clinics For Children
Authors: Thomsen Lise Lykke
Published: November 2023

Headache in children and adolescents is a common and neglected condition, which has a significant impact on the quality of life in the paediatric population. Despite this, there seem to be only very few established specialized headache clinics for children world-wide. As organized handling of headache in children and adolescents is likely to improve the treatment and provide a possibility to perform systematic research and thereby provide a basis for implementing evidence-based procedures, there is a huge unmet need for organized headache clinics for children world-wide.
A Commonwealth of Knowledge
Authors: Dubow Saul
Published: November 2023

The First World War provided a strong impetus to the government's centralizing tendencies and, in the following years, concerted efforts were made to consolidate the South African nation-state. An enabling ethos stressing national efficiency, technical expertise, and scientific training and management was much in evidence in South Africa (Britain and the United States offered useful reference points). Some illustrative examples may be provided to indicate this trend. In 1920 the Associated Scientific and Technical Societies of South Africa was formed in Johannesburg, with financial support from the Chamber of Mines, in order to further the professional interests of its member organizations.
Productive Ambiguity: Galileo contra Carnap
Authors: Grosholz Emily R
Published: November 2023

Argument that employs controlled and highly structured ambiguity can play a central role in mathematical discovery and justification. The exposition of projectile motion given on the Fourth Day, following preliminaries on the Third Day, of Galileo’s Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Concerning Two New Sciences is a good illustration of my central claim. I propose to begin this book in medias res, with a case study, because Galileo’s proofs are canonical, paragons of mathematical and scientific demonstration that set the stage for the scientific revolution.
Genetics and Molecular Biology
Authors: Grosholz Emily R
Published: November 2023

The locus classicus of philosophical discussion about reduction is Ernst Nagel’s discussion in The Structure of Science. Nagel describes reduction as a relation between two theories formalized in first-order predicate logic, where the axioms of the reduced theory are deduced as theorems from the axioms of the reducing theory.
Descartes’ Geometry
Authors: Grosholz Emily R
Published: November 2023

Locke and Leibniz had no admiration for ‘enthusiasm,’ a kind of dogmatism grounded in alleged religious revelation. Enthusiasm is a self-reinforcing subjectivity that refuses to examine its own grounds by objective methods; the enthusiast is above reproach, or criticism. Both philosophers, in different ways, offer an epistemology where improvement and correction are always possible and indeed required, where the one who knows must always be interested in the correction of moral and scientific knowledge.
Aims and assumptions
Authors: Acquaviva Paolo
Published: November 2023

This book is a study in the relation between grammar and lexical competence. Its goal is to analyse how grammatical plurality can be an intrinsic component of certain nouns; or more concretely, to fully explain what it means to say that a noun is plural ‘lexically’. The most obvious example and, I will argue, the least revealing, is represented by nouns with a fixed plural value, like scissors. Then there are lexically idiosyncratic plural forms, like pC11ce from pC1111y. Plurals that must be learned as whole word forms, like suppletive stems, also involve knowledge about certain words and not just about grammatical morphemes (affixal or otherwise). But the empirical domain of lexical plurality is much wider. It includes plural doublets and all instances of competing plural alternants, in so far as the choice between them is not automatically determined by grammar but involves choosing between distinct senses.
Forming, sustaining, and ending therapeutic interactions
Authors: Callaghan Patrick , Playle John , Cooper Linda
Published: November 2023

Over 50 years ago, Hildegard Peplau (1952) identified the pri- macy of the nurse–patient relationship and the phases of this therapeutic alliance (Barker et al. 1999). Her work is still con- sidered seminal and her broadly humanistic view of the nurse– patient relationship remains influential in current mental health nursing literature (Watkins 2001). The provision of the therapeutic relationship has been viewed as being fundamen- tal to the care of mental health service users (Stickley 2002) and underpins success of all types of psychological therapy (Department of Health [DH] 2001b).
Practising safe and effective observation
Authors: Callaghan Patrick , Playle John , Cooper Linda
Published: November 2023

This chapter addresses the core skill of observation. It is quite confusing for everyone (nurses, service users, carers) that there is no universal term used to describe the procedure of observation. Instead the procedure is known by a number of different terms in different places and countries. Here is a list of some of the terms you may encounter in your reading and practice: nursing obser- vation; formal observation; close observation; special observa- tion; maximum observation; continuous or constant observation or supervision; suicide watch or precaution; 15-minute, timed, or intermittent checks; specialing; one-to-one nursing; within eye- sight; within arm’s length. In this chapter, for purposes of consist- ency, the simple term of ‘observation’ is used.
Maintaining a safe environment
Authors: Donaldson Jayne , Ness Valerie
Published: November 2023

By ‘maintaining a safe environment’, we mean the safety of the patient taking into account the patient’s surroundings. Recognizing and preventing risks to patients’ safety is an essential element of the nurse’s role. It is important that once a risk has been identified, it is managed effectively to prevent harm. Where actual problems arise, the appropriate action must be taken by the nurse to prevent further deterioration in the patient’s condition. This chapter introduces the fundamental skills of maintaining a safe environment and will help you develop your knowledge and underlying skills base to assess patients, and to recognize anyone who is at risk.
Communication
Authors: Mcdonald William
Published: November 2023

It is imperative that nurses demonstrate a professional approach in all of their communication and interaction with others, treating people with dignity, care, and respect. This chapter explores the skills associated with communication in nursing, and develops the previous discussion on communication contained in Section 2.1. It also links to Chapter 12, where the specific communication needs of dying patients are outlined.
Controlling body temperature
Authors: Mcdonald William , Mcguinness Claire , Ness Valerie , Simpson Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

This chapter introduces the fundamental skills of taking and recording body temperature and helping patients maintain their body temperature within the normal physiological range. Measuring and monitoring body temperature are important nursing skills, as they allow changes in temperature to be detected and management strategies to be put in place, as necessary. Helping the body to maintain a balance between heat production and heat loss (an important factor in homeostasis) is another important nursing skill. These skills cannot be viewed in isolation. Adopting a holistic approach to care incorporating behavioural and environmental factors enables temperature measurement to be used to guide decisions about treatment.
Mobilizing
Authors: Ness Valerie , Murray John
Published: November 2023

This chapter introduces the fundamental skills relating to the activity of mobilizing. The ability to mobilize relies on functioning motor and nervous systems. Therefore, injury or disease to any part of these systems may affect the person’s ability to move. Any loss of mobility, even if for a very short time, can have devastating effects on an individual’s independence and health.
Ferns
Authors: Pryerand Kathleen M , Schuettpelz Eric
Published: November 2023

Extant ferns form a monophyletic group of vascular plants (1–8) that number about 10,000 species divided unequally among Ave major lineages—ophioglossoids, whisk ferns, marattioids, horsetails, and leptosporangiates—and recognized in 11 orders and 37 families (9) (Fig. 1). theselineages are all spore-bearing and “seedfree” (10). By tradition they were previously classified together with lycophytes (the only other seed-free lineage of vascular plants) under the umbrella-term “pteridophytes” or “ferns and fern allies.” However, it is now clear that the Ave fern lineages together (without lycophytes) are the closest relatives of the seed plants (1–8), a position supported by the presence of euphylls—leaves with marginal or apical meristems and an associated leaf gap in the vascular stele (11)—and a 30-kb inversion in the plastid genome (12). An obvious morphological sharedderived character for ferns is lacking, but the monophyly of this clade is supported by sperm ultrastructure (6), sporophyte anatomy (1), and DNA sequence data (2–5, 8). Here, we provide an overview of fern relationships and divergence time estimates for the major groups.
Scaphopod mollusks (Scaphopoda)
Authors: Strugnell Jan m. , cock a. Louise all
Published: November 2023

The tusk shells (500 sp.) are grouped into 14 families and two orders within the molluscan Class Scaphopoda. Only two molecular studies have focused on phylogenetic relationships within scaphopods. Estimates of divergence times among families are estimated here. The initial divergence among scaphopods, separating Gadilida and Dentaliida, is estimated to have occurred near the Devonian–Carboniferous boundary, 359 million years ago (Ma), with the Fustiariidae, Rhabdidae, and Dentaliidae diverging in the Carboniferous (359–299 Ma). In contrast, the families included in the study from the Order Gadilida were estimated to have diverged from one another in the Cretaceous, 139–96 Ma. The scaphopods (Phylum Mollusca, Class Scaphopoda) are known as tusk shells because of their curved shape (resembling elephant tusks), open at both ends (Fig. 1). 7ey are relatively small, usually 3–6 cm in length. Scaphopods burrow into sediments with the wider (anterior) end of the shell oriented downward. Both the head and foot (used for burrowing) have an anterior location, whereas the viscera are posterior. 7ere are 500 valid species of recent scaphopods and about 800 valid fossil species. 7ere is some argument as to when the lineage originated. Scaphopod fossils have been described from the Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian, but many of these specimens have been reclassiAed as belonging to other groups. Yochelson (1) and others have suggested that scaphopods most likely evolved in the early Carboniferous. Here we review the evolutionary relationships and divergence times of the members of the Class Scaphopoda.
Lungfishes (Dipnoiz)
Authors: Heinickea Matthew P , Sanderb Jennifer M , Hedges S Blair
Published: November 2023

The six species of lungAsh are the living representatives of the Subclass Dipnoi. thesespecies are divided into two suborders (Lepidosirenoidei and Ceratodontoidei) and three families (Lepidosirenidae, Protopteridae, Ceratodontidae) (1). Several additional families are known from fossils extending back to the Devonian (416– 359 Ma). LungAshes comprise one of three extant groups of Sarcopterygii, along with tetrapods and coelacanths (1). Living species are characterized by stocky, eellike bodies and Peshy Ans without spines or rays. thepaired pectoral and pelvic Ans are paddle-like in the Australian LungAsh (Ceratodontidae) and whiplike in the African and South American lungAshes (Protopteridae and Lepidosirenidae). All extant species of lungAsh are obligate air-breathers, and the African and South American lungAshes have the ability to aestivate during periods of drought (for months at a time in the case of African lungAshes) (1). theAustralian LungAsh, Neoceratodus (Fig. 1), is a riverine species able to tolerate water with low oxygen content, not unlike many ray-Anned Ashes with the ability to breathe air, but does not aestivate. Extant lungAshes are intolerant of marine conditions, and are restricted to freshwater habitats, as were most Mesozoic lungAshes (2). Paleozoic lungAshes included numerous marine representatives, however, and the group may have originally been marine (3). Here, the relationships of the three living families of lungAshes are reviewed and the Arst estimates of divergence times are presented based on analyses of published sequence data.
Amniotes (Amniota)
Authors: Shedlock Andrew M , Edwards Scott V
Published: November 2023

Amniota is a clade noted for the extraordinary ecological and taxonomic diversity of its more than 23,000 living species, comprising mammals and reptiles, including birds. thetaxon is named for the characteristic egg structure in which the amnion membrane forms a PuidAlled cavity that surrounds the developing embryo. theamniote egg is considered one of the key adaptations in the evolution of vertebrate terrestrial life history (Fig. 1). 7is shared-derived character is generally accepted to be one of several key adaptations for enduring the terrestrial life adopted by our amniote ancestors, thereby facilitating the remarkable evolutionary success of the group. Considerable debate has been focused on precisely when our most recent common amniote ancestor lived (1). Tightly constrained radiometric analysis of fossils places the divergence between the Arst undisputed synapsids (mammals which have only one temporal fenestration in the skull) and diapsids (reptiles with two temporal fenestrations) at 306.1 ± 8.5 Ma. 7is dating technique generally exhibits about 1% error (2). theupper bound of this narrow estimate for bird–mammal divergence overlaps with a widely cited value of 310 Ma, based on the approximate methods of Benton (3) and employed by Kumar and Hedges (4) to calibrate a comprehensive molecular timescale for vertebrate evolution. theamniote timetree considered here includes six terminal taxa: Mammalia (mammals), Sphenodontia (the tuatara), Squamata (lizards and snakes), Testudines (turtles), Crocodylia (alligators and crocodiles), and Aves (birds). A combination of molecular and fossil evidence suggests that the major lineages of living reptiles likely originated in the Permian and Triassic (3–5) although exact divergence time estimates vary among the molecular studies used in the present synthesis.
Contextually restricted quantification in Basque
Authors: Etxeberria Urtzi
Published: November 2023

Despite the wide acceptance this analysis has had in the formal semantic tradition, there are languages that seem to lack the standard construction exemplified in (1). Matthewson (2001), based on her analysis on St’át’imcets (a Lillooet Salish language) quantifiers, proposes that quantification in natural language must proceed in two steps, rather than in one: first, the D combines 1 I would like to thank Ricardo Etxepare, Fernando Garcia Murga, Anastasia Giannakidou, Brenda Laca, Utpal Lahiri, Luisa Martí, Lisa Matthewson, Louise McNally, Javier Ormazabal, Myriam Uribe- Etxebarria, Aritz Irurtzun, Maia Duguine as well as the organizers and participants of the conference QP Structure, Nominalization & the Role of DP (Universität des Saarlandes in Saarbrücken) for comments and discussion. Thanks also to two anonymous reviewers for useful comments. Finally, thanks to Anastasia Giannakidou and Monika Rathert for their patience and guidance. All remaining errors are my own, of course.
Introduction
Authors: Shafer-Landau Russ
Published: November 2023

Oxford Studies in Metaethics is designed to collect, on an annual basis, some of the best new work being done in the field of metaethics. I’m very pleased to be able to present this third volume, one that has managed so successfully to fulfill the aims envisioned for the series.
Actions, Acting, and Acting Well
Authors: Hanser Matthew
Published: November 2023

Philosophers wishing to understand moral judgments typically focus their attention upon the evaluative or normative predicates that these judgments employ.¹ How is the peculiar force of such predicates to be understood? What are the criteria for their application? I propose to come at matters from another direction. What are the objects of evaluation in this or that sort of judgment? To what do our evaluative or normative predicates apply? The guiding idea behind the inquiry is that we cannot properly understand evaluations of a given sort unless we know what they are evaluations of. Modes of evaluation must suit their objects. Of course one might think that it’s generally pretty obvious what’s being evaluated. In what follows I hope to show that this is not so, and that the question what’s being evaluated has significant consequences for moral theory.
Are Miracles Chimerical?
Authors: Haájek Alan
Published: November 2023

Hume’s notorious essay ‘Of Miracles’ (1902 [1748]; 1986) is as cheeky as it is problematic. A centrepiece in his ongoing attack on theism, it has outraged many, and perplexed still more; it has thus been both denounced with missionary zeal, and scrutinized in countless scholarly works. In this paper, I will scrutinize it further. I will challenge two readings of it by noted Hume scholars, which I regard as uncharitable, offering in their place my own reading. I will also clear it of a prevalent charge. Along the way, however, and especially in the final section, I will level some further charges against it.
The Problem of Evil and the Desires of the Heart
Authors: Stump Eleonore
Published: November 2023

The problem of evil is raised by the existence of suffering in the world. Can one hold consistently both that the world has such suffering in it and that it is governed by an omniscient, omnipotent, perfectly good God, as the major monotheisms claim? An affirmative answer to this question has often enough taken the form of a theodicy. A theodicy is an attempt to show that these claims are consistent by providing a morally sufficient reason for God to allow suffering. In the history of the discussions of the problem of evil, a great deal of effort has been expended on proposing and defending, or criticizing and attacking, theodicies and the putative morally sufficient reasons which theodicies propose.
Suarez: Naturalism
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

So far we have not found that Suarez takes every moral ought to require an obligation imposed by the command of a superior. He maintains only that the impositive obligation belonging to the natural law is derived from a divine command. To discover other aspects of his view about the relation between obligation and moral oughts, we need to see what is left of the natural law without the impositive obligation coming from a divine command. His claims about obligation constitute an analysis of a narrow concept of obligation, and do not imply that all moral requirements involve an imposed necessity. In that case, he ought to recognize moral necessity and moral requirements that are independent of obligation (in his sense).
Grotius
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

We have seen that Pufendorf, Barbeyrac, and some later writers treat Grotius as the founder of a distinctively modern theory of natural law, even though they do not agree about what is distinctive in his position. They regard his theory not only as an innovation, but also as an advance. To see how far they are right, we should compare Grotius with his Scholastic predecessors, and especially with Suarez, whose work he knew. Though Barbeyrac praises Grotius as a pioneer, he admits that Grotius was not completely emancipated from Aristotle and Scholastic errors. If, then, we compare Grotius’ account with Suarez’s account, we may be able to decide whether Barbeyrac is justified either in his criticism or in his praise.
Hobbes: Morality
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

Hobbes believes that the difference between the state of nature and the commonwealth explains why the true moral philosophy is the science of the laws of nature. If Hobbesian agents form a commonwealth that has the power to compel the observance of rules preserving the peace, they have sufficient reason, according to Hobbes, to observe these rules. The benefits of stability and non-aggression are so large and so evident that we must, if we think clearly about our interest, want them to continue at any cost. Since the laws of nature are also the principles of morality, we have good reason to accept morality.
Cumberland And Maxwell
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

Cumberland intends his exposition of the laws of nature to supplement the arguments of his predecessors (Grotius and his brother, Sharrock, and Selden) who have argued ‘from the effect to the cause’, appealing to the shared sentiments of different people at different times to establish the existence of natural law. Cumberland especially commends Grotius’ work, ‘which was the first of the kind, worthy both of the author and of immortality’ (LN, Introd. §1 = P 247). But in contrast to Grotius and the others, he argues from cause to effect, by examining ‘the causes, which produce in the mind of man the knowledge of the laws of nature’ (Introd. §2 = P 248). He begins from the nature of the universe and the first cause, in order to show that our knowledge of the universe makes it reasonable for us to accept certain principles as laws of nature.
Locke And Natural Law
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

This chapter is chronologically anomalous and its title may be misleading. It discusses Sanderson and Culverwell, writing in the 1640s, before the publication of Hobbes’s Leviathan in 1651, but it also considers Locke’s Essay, which reached its fifth edition in 1706, just after Locke’s death in 1704. It discusses both Locke’s essays on natural law, which belong to the 1660s, and his Essay, which first appeared in 1690. This period of nearly 60 years also includes some of the works of Hobbes, Spinoza, Pufendorf, Cumberland, and Cudworth. A more exact chronological arrangement, therefore, would place different sections of this chapter in their historical relation to the chapters on other 17th-century writers.
Pufendorf And Natural Law
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

Though Leibniz’s attacks on Pufendorf from a naturalist point of view do not convince Barbeyrac to abandon Pufendorf ’s position, naturalist arguments influence Barbeyrac’s interpretation of Pufendorf. He believes that once we understand Pufendorf, we will see that he already captures the plausible elements of the naturalist position, so that naturalist criticisms are beside the point. For this reason Barbeyrac believes that Grotius is the pioneer who makes some progress towards the position that Pufendorf articulates fully. Now that we have examined both Grotius and Pufendorf, we can return to Barbeyrac’s argument to show that they basically agree, and that they together achieve an important advance in moral theory.
Clarke
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

Clarke sets out his moral theory in one of his major works on natural theology. He addresses those who reject the Christian revelation because it cannot be vindicated by reason. In his view, the basic principles of morality are evident to reason, apart from any appeal to revelation, and these moral principles make it reasonable to believe in the Christian revelation. His success depends on revealing the rational grounds of ‘the unalterable obligations of natural religion’, which we discover through our moral judgments. To reveal these grounds he defends some elements of a naturalist position against the view of those who claim ‘that there is no such real difference [sc. between good and evil] originally, necessarily, and absolutely in the nature of things’ (DNR = H ii 609 = R 227).
Hutcheson: For And Against Utilitarianism
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

After arguing that we approve moral goodness in its own right, and not as a means to our own advantage, Hutcheson asks what sorts of actions and characters we approve of from the moral point of view. The answer will tell us what moral goodness consists in. In the Inquiry he begins from the claims of Cumberland and Shaftesbury about the general good and the common good. He argues that moral principles are impartial: they are not concerned differentially with the good of some people rather than others, but with the good of all those affected. He takes a teleological view of morality, as both Cumberland and Shaftesbury do. Following Cumberland, but not Shaftesbury, he holds an instrumental version of a teleological view; moral rules and principles are to be observed not for their own sake, but for their causal consequences.
Butler: Naturalism And Morality
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

So far we have seen how Butler applies his naturalist doctrine to moral psychology, to answer the sentimentalist analysis of reasons and motives, and so to undermine some misguided views about the conflict between self-love and benevolence. He might be right about all this, however, and still be wrong in his main claim that virtue is living in accord with nature. To defend his main claim, he needs to show that his conception of nature also provides a plausible account of morality. Even if we agree that the superior principle of self-love prescribes natural actions, we still need to be convinced that some superior principle both prescribes moral virtue, and thereby prescribes natural actions.
Hume: Nature
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

Hume’s Treatise is ‘an attempt to introduce the experimental method of reasoning into moral subjects’ (title page). Hume recognizes that moral philosophy cannot always make the deliberate experiments that advance other inquiries. We cannot always create the situation in which we can observe the effect that we are interested in. In this area we must find a substitute for deliberate experiments by acquiring ‘experiments’ in Hume’s wider sense — a broader acquaintance, based on observation and reading, with human behaviour and reactions in different situations. Moral philosophy, therefore, should rest on the study of human nature, which Hume calls the ‘science of man’ (T, Introd. 4).
Hume: Passion And Reason
Authors: Irwin Terence
Published: November 2023

To attack views that connect nature, reason, and morality, Hume relies on his account of passion, practical reason, and their relation. He sets out his account of the passions in Book ii of the Treatise, before the chapter ‘Of the Influencing Motives of the Will’ (ii 3.3), which describes the roles of passion and practical reason. This account of the passions influences his discussion both of practical reason and of moral judgment. A comparison with Aquinas’ account of the passions, on the one hand, and with Hobbes’s account, on the other, highlights Hume’s distinctive claims about the passions.