bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Geographical and seasonal influences on the distribution of fungal endophytes in Laurus nobilis
Authors: Göre M. E. , Bucak C.
Published: August 2007

The species composition of the endophytic mycobiota in bark, leaves and twigs of Laurus nobilis were studied in Western Anatolia. Four sampling sites were selected; one of which was sampled twice, in spring and autumn. About 3892 fungal isolates obtained grouped into 85 morphological types. The 11 dominant species, with isolation frequencies >1.5%, were Alternaria alternata, Botryosphaeria sarmentorum, Colletotrichum dematium, C. gloeosporioides, Hendersonula sp., Paraconiothyrium sp., Phoma sp., three species of Phomopsis and Seimatosporium lichenicola. Numbers of fungal species isolated per tree differed between the sampled sites. Isolation frequencies of the dominant species, and other less frequent species, were dependent on the sampling site. The degree of endophytic infection and the diversity of fungal species were significantly higher in spring. Frequencies of all dominant species depended significantly on season, except for Stemphylium sp. and S. lichenicola. Analysis of the total endophytic mycoflora of the sampled trees suggested that geographical factors affects the endophytic distribution patterns more significantly than seasonal factors.
EXCHANGE RATE REGIMES AND TRADE
Authors: ADAM CHRISTOPHER , COBHAM DAVID
Published: August 2007

A ‘new version’ of the gravity model is used to estimate the effect of a full range of de facto exchange rate regimes on bilateral trade. The results indicate that, while participation in a common currency union is typically strongly ‘pro‐trade’, other exchange rate regimes which lower the exchange rate uncertainty and transactions costs associated with international trade are significantly more pro‐trade than the default regime of a ‘double float’. They suggest that the direct and indirect trade‐creating effects of these regimes on uncertainty and transactions costs tend to outweigh the trade‐diverting substitution effects. Tariff‐equivalent monetary barriers associated with each exchange rate regime are also calculated.
MULTIDIMENSIONAL SIGNALING IN THE LABOR MARKET
Authors: KIM JEONG‐YOO
Published: August 2007

I consider a two‐dimensional job market signaling model in which firms care about a worker's personal network as well as his technical productivity, and a worker can choose both academic activity and social activity to signal his ability. In a simple model where the social activity forming a social network does not require special ability, I show that the Cho–Kreps intuitive criterion singles out Spence's outcome of signaling high academic ability by high education. I also demonstrate the possibility that a worker with high academic ability may underinvest in education when the social ability is correlated with the academic ability.
MONEY AND MONETARY POLICY IN DYNAMIC STOCHASTIC GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM MODELS
Authors: BHATTACHARJEE ARNAB , THOENISSEN CHRISTOPH
Published: August 2007

We compare two methods of motivating money in New Keynesian dynamic stochastic general equilibrium models—money‐in‐the‐utility function and the cash‐in‐advance (CIA) constraint—as well as two ways of modelling monetary policy: the interest rate feedback rule and money growth rules. As an aid to model selection, we use a new econometric measure of the distance between model and data variance–covariance matrices. The proposed measure is useful in distinguishing between alternative general equilibrium models. Drawing on our econometric analysis, we argue that the CIA model, closed by a money growth rule, comes closest to the data.
THE APPLICATION OF THE PHOSPHATASE AND TURBIDITY TESTS TO STERILISED MILK
Authors: Clegg L. F. L. , Lomax K. L.
Published: August 2007

1. The possiblity of obtaining high “ phosphatase” test results in the laboratory on overheated sterilised milk is demonstrated. This is not so pronounced with sterilised milk that has not been homogenised. A correlation is shown to exist between the “ phosphatase ” result and the temperature and duration of heating of sterilised milk. (In milk heated to temperatures of 100°C. or lower, an inverse correlation exists).

2. Control (unicubated) phosphatase test are shown to give higher results than completed (incubated) phosphatase tests in overheated sterilised milk.

3. The high “ phosphatase ” values are not caused by liberation of phenolic substances as results obtained with the use of either buffered substrate or buffered water are similar.

4. It is suggested that an indication of overheating is provided by the excess of values of the control over the completed phosphatase test.

5. When Aschaffenburg's turbidity test is applied to overheated sterilised milk the extent of overheating can be judged by the intensity of yellow colour in the nitrate. This modification to Aschaffenburg's test still requires extensive trials, but the measurement of efficiency of heating and extent of overheating in one test appears possible.

6. To estimate overheating by the modification to Aschaffenburg's turbidity test it is necessary to use a Lovibond Tintometer as no discs for the colour values are available. Laboratories possessing only a Lovibond Comparator will be obliged to use the completed and control phosphatase tests in parallel: this requires 24 hours incubation whereas the modification to Aschaffenburg's test can be completed without incubation.

7. Hitherto there has been no satisfactory laboratory control test to determine overheating of sterilised milk. It is suggested that the use of either of the above two methods could be used to prevent detrimental overheating of milk and also could result in fuel economy.
THE PART PLAYED BY THE SOCIETY IN THE STANDARDISATION OF DAIRY EQUIPMENT
Authors: Matthews J.
Published: August 2007

“Standardisation of Dairy Equipment. Dr. Cronshaw drew the attention of the Council to the urgent need for action with a view to securing some degree of standardisation of equipment used by the dairy industry, and suggested that the Council should set up a committee to consider the Problem and to confer with of other interested organizations.”
PREPARING FOR THE CREAM MARKET
Authors: Smillie D. M.
Published: August 2007

In conclusion let me summarise. If cream is coming back to the market there must be a real effort made to improve on pre‐war quality. A considerable section of the public will welcome cream and the consumer must not be disappointed. It is the duty of the creamery management and personnel to see that the fresh cream is of the cleanest and highest quality and of the various trade interests to facilitate a regular and quick channel of distribution. New regulations are advisable in the general trade and public interest and new appropriate laboratory procedures may be required for maximum control of hygienic quality.
A SIMPLE TURBIDITY TEST FOR STERILISED MILK
Authors: Aschaffenburg R.
Published: August 2007

The application of the phosphatase test to sterilized milk is of limited value. In its place, a simple and rapid turbidity test is recommended which allows a clear distinction between posteurized and sterilized milk, and provides an easy means of ascertaining whether or not a sample of milk has been effectively heated to sterilization temperatures.
STERILISED MILK – ITS PRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES
Authors: Procter F.
Published: August 2007

The following is a considerably shortened, version of the paper delivered to the Scottish Section at Glasgow on January 16th, 1951. The material dealing with the aspects already covered by the author's paper in the Society's Journal, January 1951, Vol. 4, No. 2, has been omitted from this version and the two papers should be read together. The analytical reports kindly supplied, by Mr. Stewart, Senior Food Inspector of the Corporation of Glasgow, have been included as an addendum on account of their great interest.
CONCENTRATION AND DRYING IN THE MANUFACTURE OF DAIRY PRODUCTS
Authors: Scott Daniel
Published: August 2007

Before leaving the question of evaporators let me run over the types and their main features:

(1) Vacuum Pan: A batch unit, chiefly for sweetened condensed milk‐may be used for finishing off very thick concentrate for spray drying; low milk temperature‐expensive on steam.

(2) Single‐Effect Evaporators: For continuous work‐low first cost but heavy on steam low milk temperature.

(3) Double AND Triple‐Effect Evaporators: Economical on steam, and can use low pressure steam, even exhaust steam from turbines, etc.‐elevated milk temperature may limit application.

(4) Single‐Effect Vapour Recompression: Ideal for high quality products‐no possible overheating‐gives fair steam economy.
WORLD MILK DISTRIBUTION
Authors: Hills G. Loftus
Published: August 2007

Processes of concentration or drying, to reduce the water content of milk, and freezing or sterilisation, to improve its keeping quality, may be used not only to manufacture milk products, but also as intermediate steps in the provision, in distant markets, of a fully hydrated milk for domestic distribution.
SECOND THOUGHTS ON THE DAIRY INDUSTRY.
Authors: Anderson. E. B.
Published: August 2007

To conclude, here are my impressions of the major changes during my twenty seven years in the industry.

Motor transport has been the vital factor in the development of what is now a very large and important industry, for it has made possible larger and therefore more economical units, and the increased volume of milk which can be handled has stimulated the establishment of such complex processes as the manufacture of condensed and dried milks and products from whey, all of which involve high capital expenditure. In its turn this development has stimulated the growth of a large and vigorous dairy machinery industry, whose main weakness until recently has been, with a notable exception, that it did not call upon the chemist and bacteriologist for advice. Had it done so many mistakes in design might have been avoided.

Increasing labour costs have stimulated progress in mechanisation, which will I am sure continue.

There has been a great improvement in the hygiene of handling and distribution and for so perishable an article the public is very well served by the processors and distributors. It is a popular stunt nowadays to criticise the distributive trade but what would happen if the milk did not arrive daily and every day throughout the year and at the appointed hour? Even a Cabinet Minister or his wife might exhibit serious hysteria !

No less striking has been the development and appreciation of the value of research and what it and scientific advice can do for the industry.

Lastly but not least has been the appreciation of the value of milk as a food, particularly for children, and the necessity of making it a safe food.

So ends my tale of 27 years in which, as I see it, a vast and efficient industry, serving the public well, has been built up by private enterprise.

Looking back, I am glad that I have had a part, even if only a minor one, in so worthy a development.
MILK DISTRIBUTION IN NORTHERN IRELAND
Authors: Thomson W. D.
Published: August 2007

The following article is condensed from a paper read to the Northern Ireland Section of the Society of Dairy Technology at Belfast on 14th February, 1951.

The paper was liberally illustrated by diagrams and photographs, only a few of which are reproduced here, and was prefaced by a historical review of the development of the milk distribution industry from the early primitive methods of retailing to the complex organisation of today.
THE CREAM TRADE
Authors: Smillie D. Murray
Published: August 2007

Paper read to the Scottish Section, 13th November, 1951.
THE COMMONWEALTH BUREAU OF DAIRY SCIENCE
Authors: Marsden A. W.
Published: August 2007

The Commonwealth Bureau of Dairy Science was founded in 1938 as a world‐wide clearing house of dairy science information for research workers, scientists and others connected with dairying. It‐publishes Dairy Science Abstracts monthly and answers enquiries addressed to the Bureau on all scientific, technical and economic matters. It is administered and financed by a Council representing all the Commonwealth and Colonial governments.
ECONOMICS OF MILK DISTRIBUTION FROM FARM TO DAIRY
Authors: Jones J. B.
Published: August 2007

In the traditional method of moving milk from farms the main features are the conditions at the farm which bear on speed of loading and collection, the design of the churn, the type and dimensions of the lorry body, and the type of power unit. After providing the proper instruments for the job, the main contribution from management lies in ensuring

(1) a high standard in the performance of vehicles by a comprehensive system of maintenance.

(2) that the instruments are used in the most effective manner, the routing of lorries, the scheduling of loads to provide service to the dairy plant and the adjustment of roads and routes in line with seasonal variations in the volume of milk, are all matters for management to tackle.

The factors which have been considered are a11 designed to promote economy in operations, economy achieved not by lowering the quality of the service but by raising the level of operational efficiency. In the quest for greater efficiency we should obviously be prepared to examine new methods and techniques however strange they may appear.
SOME INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE BATCH PROCESS OF MILK STERILIZATION
Authors: Burton H. , Akam D. N. , Thiel C. C. , Grinsted Elisabeth , Clegg L. F. L.
Published: August 2007

Bacteriological aspects of the batch‐sterilizing process as practised in one dairy, based on meso‐phile and thermophile spore counts and an analysis of subsequent spoilage, have been examined. The results from the commercial process have been compared with those from processes on a pilot scale giving treatments of 100°C. for 90 min. and 113°C. for 35 min. The treatment at 100°C. gave unsatisfactory bacteriological results: 20% of the treated bottles showed mesophile spoilage within 7 days, while almost all the bottles gave thermophile spoilage. The 113°C. treatment gave milk which was free from mesophile spoilage after 10 weeks, while the thermophile spoilage was reduced to 29%. The colour of the milk was affected considerably by this treatment.

After treatment by the normal process in one of the dairy sterilizers, no spoilage occurred due to growth of thermophiles during the long cooling period. Slow cooling appeared to encourage subsequent mesophile growth slightly. Mesophile spoilage was 12 times as great for bottles treated at the bottom of the sterilizer than for those treated at the top. This was due to temperature variations throughout the sterilizer, caused by large amounts of air in the steam. The effect of efficient air removal on the temperature distribution is shown, and the influence of sterilizer operation on potential spoilage is discussed.

The number of mesophile spores in the milk as received was normally below 5 per 100 ml. The number of thermophile spores in this milk was of the same order, but increased as the milk passed through the plant, particularly towards the end of the day's run. The filler was found to be the main source of this thermophile contamination.

Preliminary results are given on the browning of whole milk during sterilization. At normal processing temperatures it is difficult to produce effectively sterile milk without undesirable brownness.
EFFLUENT DISPOSAL AT LARGE AND SMALL DAIRIES: Based on a paper read to the Western Section on 28th September, 1954
Authors: MUERS M. M.
Published: August 2007

To conclude this paper, the most important points may be summarized as follows.

Firstly, pollution by dairy effluents will have to be stopped, not only for reasons of good public relations, but also because of impending trouble for future offenders when recent legislation begins to take effect. Secondly, the best and cheapest way of reducing the size of the problem is to reduce losses in the dairy of milk solids of all sorts, especially by‐products of low cash value but high polluting power. Thirdly, direct disposal of the remaining effluent is always best, where possible, but the only method of doing this which can be unreservedly recommended is by a pipe‐line to the sea or to the sewer of a willing Local Authority. Direct disposal on land may be a tempting method financially, but is only satisfactory in exceptional places, and is always a potential source of complaints from neighbours. Fourthly, for most dairies some kind of effluent purification treatment is unavoidable. At small non‐manufacturing dairies, where sludge disposal is not too difficult, the chemical precipitation process followed by irrigation has the advantage of simplicity and low capital cost. If space is limited, single biological filtration can be used for the final stage instead of irrigation. Scarlett's process of aerobic fermentation followed by biological filtration seems more suitable for larger dairies. The activated sludge process is relatively compact and cheap, but is unsuitable for manufacturing dairies with fluctuating load.

Of the various biological filtration systems, in our experience the method of choice, when the load is heavy and where a high quality effluent is essential, is undoubtedly the double‐alternating system. It is unfortunately also very expensive. The cost of filter beds, which is the largest item, can be reduced by using one of the high‐rate systems, but these usually involve a bigger sludge disposal problem and an inferior effluent.

Finally, I would like to repeat a plea often made before. An effluent plant should be regarded as part of the normal dairy equipment, and should be cared for like the rest of the factory. It should not be thought of as a mere nuisance, or something to be fitted and forgotten. In our experience, the effluent plant that is best looked after gives the least trouble and the best results. This is not achieved by putting it in charge of the most incompetent odd‐job man in the factory, who is thought fit for nothing better than sewage.
THE DENSITY OF PROCESSED MILK
Authors: Short A. L.
Published: August 2007

There are permanent changes in density of milk brought about by homogenization and sterilization, which are small and do not explain the differences reported between raw and sterilized milk densities. The lag in the phase change of fat after a change of temperature gives a satisfactory explanation for the temporary difference between the densities of the different milks, as the phase lag is exaggerated on dispersion of the fat by homogenization. Any large difference between the densities of raw milk and homogenized or sterilized milk after long storage may be due to the different solid‐liquid composition of the fat in the milks, brought about by the different rates of solidification of the fat. Repeatable density results for homogenized or sterilized milk can be obtained by pre‐warming the samples and the results are then comparable with those for raw milk similarly treated.
THE NEED FOR ULTRA‐HIGH‐TEMPERATURE STERILIZATION OF MILK
Authors: CLEGG L. F. L.
Published: August 2007

There is no point in attempting to produce sterile milk unless it has advantages and unless the industry and consuming public want it. Sterile milk should not be regarded as an alternative to our present ‘sterilized’ milk. In spite of its inherent troubles most of the consumers are reasonably satisfied with it, and apparently it is gaining ground on pasteurized milk. No sterile milk can be looked on as a quality which would replace both pasteurized and sterilized. But how would the consumer react to this? The milk would have an indefinite keeping quality, a good colour and a flavour little different from pasteurized milk. On the other hand there would be no cream line. This might not be difficult for the consumer of sterilized milk to accept, but for the housewife who normally uses the cream off pasteurized milk it would represent a big disadvantage.

From the dairyman's point of view, the plant is likely to be more expensive than any which he now has, and he would obviously have to find some form of saving to justify this. Certainly the increased keeping quality would not as far as the ordinary liquid milk market is concerned. However, delivery is one of the most expensive items the dairyman has to face and if he could reduce the cost of this item by, say, delivery once or twice a week he might have a working margin to justify more expensive plant. However here the housewife would have something to say. Would she take kindly to a dozen or more bottles being left once a week?

Labour costs may rise still further and the dairyman may have to consider something like less frequent delivery to maintain a working margin. Again it may become more difficult to attract labour unless the dairyman can offer a 5‐day week comparable with most other industries, and also offer a comparable wage.
A NEW APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF PHAGE CONTROL DURING THE PRODUCTION OF COMMERCIAL CHEESE STARTERS
Authors: LEWIS J. E.
Published: August 2007

This paper briefly surveys the problem of ‘phage’ control, and the normal methods of protecting starter from contamination.

Details are given of a technique for starter manufacture which provides laboratory control over the whole process from mother culture to bulk starter and which is designed to exclude air from the containers at all stages of production.

I wish to thank the Directors of United Dairies for permission to publish this paper.
BULK MILK COLLECTION—BACTERIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Authors: THOM VALERIE M.
Published: August 2007

(1) During the six months preceding the start of the Angus scheme 118 milk samples from the thirteen farms concerned were examined when approximately thirty hours old. Twenty‐six per cent of these samples were coliform positive in 1/100 ml. and 7 per cent had 37°C. colony counts exceeding 200,000/ ml.

(2) Of 230 milk samples from the farm tanks examined within ten hours of sampling 9.6 per cent were coliform‐positive in 1/100 ml. and 1.3 per cent had 37°C. colony counts exceeding 200,000/ml. Eighty‐seven per cent of the samples had counts below 10,000/ml.

(3) Surface plate counts at 27°C. showed much higher counts and greater variation than the 37°C. counts. Bacterial counts at both 27°C. and 4°C. frequently showed big increases after storage of the samples for eighteen hours at 4°C.

(4) Forty‐nine milk samples were taken from the road tanker. Twenty per cent of these were coliformpositive in 1/100 ml. but the greatest count obtained was only 54,000/ml.

(5) Of 163 swabs arid rinses from fourteen farm tanks 10 per cent were coliform‐positive in 1 ml. and over 46 per cent had 37°C. counts greater than 100/swab. Surface plate counts at 27°C. frequently exceeded 100,000/swab. Rubber‐seated thermometers generally gave unsatisfactory swabs.

A detergent‐hypochlorite cleansing routine gave fewer coliform‐positive swabs and lower counts than did a Q. A.C. routine.
A COMPARISON OF THE EFFICIENCY OF A HYPOCHLORITE AND QUATERNARY AMMONIUM DISINFECTANT IN UDDER WASH WATERS
Authors: MCKENZIE D. A. , ROSBOROUGH ANNE
Published: August 2007

Little difference was found in the teat‐disinfecting efficiency of a hypochlorite or Q.A.C. disinfectant when used at concentrations of 200 ppm. in udder wash waters. The Q.A.C. gave better results than the hypochlorite in summer.

With both types of disinfectant micrococci constituted the dominant surviving flora on the teats. No difference was found in the survival of coliaerogenes bacteria.

The chlorine strength of the hypochlorite was markedly reduced in the wash water after washing four cows but it was well maintained in a second pail of water containing the cloth used for drying the teats.
THE WORK OF THE MILK SERVICE IN RELATION TO MILK HANDLING ON THE FARM
Authors: MORGAN G. T.
Published: August 2007

The Milk Service is a technical service responsible for:

(1) Technical work arising out of the administration of Milk and Dairies Regulations, and the Milk (Special Designations) (Raw Milk) Regulations.

(2) Providing advice to milk producers on the varied problems relating to the handling of milk on the farm. It performs much the same range of advisory work as previously carried out by milk advisory officers in the National Agricultural Advisory Service, other than work relating to the farm manufacture of milk products and questions relating to the chemical composition of milk.

(3) Providing some fee‐paying services to small dairies.
THE EFFECTS OF FILLING ULTRA‐HIGH‐TEMPERATURE STERILIZED MILK INTO CONTAINERS UNDER NON‐STERILE CONDITIONS
Authors: JAYNE‐WILLIAMS D. J. , FRANKLIN J. G. , BURTON H. , KNIGHT H. C. , BRACEGIRDLE R. J.
Published: August 2007

The spoilage of UHT milk filled into sterilized‐milk bottles and capped with Crown cork seals, into pasteurized milk bottles capped with aluminium foil, and into cartons has been investigated. Spoilage was determined by organoleptic examination, clot‐on‐boiling, and methylene blue reduction. When both types of bottle were filled cold, there was rapid spoilage and no improved keeping quality compared with pasteurized milk controls. Similar results were obtained with milk filled hot into pasteurized‐milk bottles. UHT milk filled cold into cartons had a slightly longer keeping quality than the pasteurized milk. Significant improvement in quality was only obtained by filling hot UHT milk into sterilized‐milk bottles and sealing the bottles with Crown seals. Spoilage was then about 40 per cent after six days at 22o C. (72o F.). Tentative identification of the spoilage bacteria showed that Bacillus cereus was responsible for spoilage occurring within the first two to three days, and that corynebacteria were mainly responsible for spoilage occurring later. Experiments with sterile bottles and with ordinary bottles filled by hand suggested that contamination was arising about equally from the washed bottles and from the filling process. Con‐tamination from the bottles might be eliminated (for example by the introduction of a steaming stage) but it is unlikely that filler contamination caused by the entry of unsterile air could be eliminated without a drastic redesign of the filler.
THE PRODUCTION AND DISPOSAL OF MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS IN THE MIDLANDS
Authors: DAVIES ED.
Published: August 2007

1. Milk for sale within the area under review is produced by 21,000 farmers. They produce some 356‐1 million gal. per annum, which at current prices returns to them a sum of £ 52‐5 million.

All counties have increased production since 1938/39 varying from 98 per cent in Shropshire to 24 per cent in Warwickshire, averaging 42 per cent for the ten counties.

2. Total population is 7‐7 millions, an increase of 19‐6 per cent since 1938, and the estimated liquid milk requirement of the area is put at approximately 240 million gal. per annum.

3. The bulk of the manufacture of milk products takes place in Shropshire where milk processing and manufacture has increased by some 100 per cent since pre‐war. Some 20 farmhouse cheesemakers continue to make cheese on their farms.

All Stilton cheese, approximately 1,700 tons per annum, is made within the area. This has increased but very little since pre‐war. In the meantime we import into this country some 3,000 tons Danish Blue cheese per annum.

The dairy industry in these parts is largely made up of medium sized units which have grown from modest beginnings under family names.

4. A wonderful market is available for liquid milk which can be supplied throughout the area direct from farms to town dairies. This also applies to milk products.

There is sound evidence that the whole industry is alive to the value of the present and potential market within its reach and is exerting itself to take full advantage of it.
The Case for Cartons
Authors: DIXON N. F.
Published: August 2007

To summarize: The carton manufacturers claim

(a) The carton is the most hygienic package available.

(b) It is in line with the modern trends to use single use containers.

(c) The methods of cartoning obviate much of the present dairy labour and cost.

(d) The weight factor enormously reduces handling costs.

(e) All handling risks are removed.

(f) Price for price, the consumer offers no resistance to cartons.

(g) The use of single‐use containers removes all noise and all worry.

(h) The consumer would get a more hygienic service.

(i) Milk would be better protected and give a better keeping quality.

In conclusion I repeat that our comments are put forward not to denigrate the glass bottle of the past, but to justify our claims to provide with a carton a superior vehicle for milk for consumer use today, and for the future.

Mr. H. S. Hall: Thank you Mr. Dixon.

We now come to the discussion when you may fire your questions at the two speakers in particular, and also their Junior Counsel, if I may so describe them, Mr. Moxon, Mr. Moody and Mr. Lennard for the bottle, and Mr. Gaunt and Mr. Craik for the carton.

In order to get the ball rolling we have asked Mr. Morley Parry to open the discussion. Mr. Parry needs no introduction from me, in fact, but he can say something to this problem in an authoritative capacity. It has been mentioned by both sides this morning that the question of hygiene is paramount and even if each protagonist claims for his own product the better chance of hygiene, that is only to be expected. Whether Mr. Morley Parry will attempt to judge between those issues, I do not know, so I will ask him to now open the discussion.
THE ESTIMATION OF PENICILLIN IN MILK
Authors: WRIGHT R. C. , TRAMER J.
Published: August 2007

A simple test for the estimation of 001‐0‐30 i.u. of penicillin per ml. of milk is proposed, based on the inhibition of a strain of Streptococcus thermophilics 'BC Fairly accurate assessments are obtained in 21 hr. using 2:3:5 triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) as indicator, or more accurate results in 4 hr. using titratable acidities.
A SEMI‐AUTOMATIC METHOD FOR THE VOLUMETRIC CALIBRATION OF MILK BOTTLES
Authors: MURPHY FLORENCE E. , MUERS M. M.
Published: August 2007

A semi‐automatic apparatus is described for measuring the capacity of milk bottles filled to a prescribed level. The bottle is filled from a large calibrated burette with coarse and fine deliveries. When the water reaches the filling level the flow is stopped by an electromagnetic clamp actuated by a Burndept Proximity Switch, whose probe, mounted in the bottle neck, is sensitive to very small capacity changes caused by movement of the water level. The apparatus is designed for quick and simple operation with large numbers of bottles and gives results of good accuracy and precision.
MILK TESTING – A FORWARD LOOK
Authors: McKENZIE D. A.
Published: August 2007

For rejection test purposes on a creamery platform the 10‐min. resazurin test can be recommended. At the present time there is no adequate test that can be recommended in all circumstances for routine use in a dairy, particularly if it is desired to have a test which gives warning of a potentially unsatisfactory supply. During warm weather and with milk cooled by water only, dye‐reduction tests could be suitable for this purpose. With refrigerated milk, preliminary incubation is necessary before a dye test can be discriminating but the use of preliminary incubation can give misleading results. For official purposes in Scotland the colony count test should continue to be used but at an incubation temperature of 32°C. The coliform test should be restricted to Farm Bottled raw milk and heat‐treated milk. If the coliform test is retained for T.T. raw milk, the pass standard should be reduced from negative in 0·01 ml. to negative in 0·001 ml.
THE CHARACTERISTICS AND PERFORMANCE OF A LABORATORY‐SCALE HTST MILK PASTEURIZING PLANT
Authors: FRANKLIN J. G.
Published: August 2007

An apparatus for the HTST pasteurization of milk in the laboratory is described and satisfactory methods of operation and cleaning are given. Treatment of milk at varying flow rates within the temperature range 156°‐162°F, followed by determination of the residual phosphatase, showed that a flow rate of c 65 ml/min resulted in phosphatase destruction curves closely agreeing with those obtained with commercial plants. The results indicate, therefore, that this apparatus yields an end‐product similar in terms of residual phosphatase to milk heated to the same temperature in commercial HTST pasteurizing plants and that milk heated to 161°F at a flow rate of c 65 ml/min is similarly comparable to commercially pasteurized milk.
A COMPARISON OF THE BACTERICIDAL EFFICIENCIES OF LABORATORY HOLDER AND HTST METHODS OF MILK PASTEURIZATION AND THE KEEPING QUALITIES OF THE PROCESSED MILKS
Authors: FRANKLIN J. G.
Published: August 2007

The in‐place sterilization of a laboratory‐scale HTST milk pasteurizing plant and its use for the aseptic treatment of milk samples are described. Comparisons of the effect of laboratory pasteurization by holder and HTST methods on the bacterial content of milk and its keeping quality after pasteurization have been made. Experiments using sterile milk inoculated with specific test organisms showed the HTST treatment to have a greater bactericidal effect than the holder treatment against a strain of Pediococcus but with a Streptococcus strain the reverse was true. However, pasteurization of naturally infected milks from different sources showed that, in practice, both treatments yielded similar results as indicated by the relative proportions of bacteria destroyed and the keeping qualities of representative samples incubated at 22°C after pasteurization.
CIRCULATION CLEANING OF PIPELINE MILKING MACHINES IN PARLOURS: THE VALUE OF A PRE‐MILKING CHLORINATED RINSE
Authors: MIDDLETON MARJORIE S. , PANES J. J. , WIDDAS DORINE R. , WILLIAMS G.
Published: August 2007

Results so far available have shown that when a cold chlorinated solution is circulated for 2 min through a pipeline milking machine after a cleaning routine has been applied, there is a reduction in the total number of organisms which are removed by rinsing. The time of application is important and just before milking gives the best results. It was also shown that when a cleaning routine was changed, the effect on the bacteriological condition of the equipment was almost immediate and that the condition, as judged by the colony count of rinses, remained fairly constant until such time as some other change was introduced.

The effect which the pre‐milking chlorinated rinse was shown to have on the bacteriological condition of the plant could not be similarly demonstrated in the bacteriological quality of the milk samples. The inability to do so could, perhaps, be attributed to the small number of milk samples, and more frequent sampling during a period of warmer weather might give a more decisive answer. Nevertheless it has been possible to demonstrate that the circulation of a cold chlorinated solution before milking has a beneficial effect on the bacteriological condition of the milking plant. Even if applied only during periods of hot weather, it is an additional treatment which can be recommended.
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF THE GERMAN DAIRY INDUSTRY
Authors: SCHULZ M. E.
Published: August 2007

The author makes an attempt to explain the German dairy situation to Congress visitors from Great Britain by comparing the British and German dairy industries. Both countries, being large centres of consumption, are interesting outlets for those countries which depend upon the export of dairy products. The economic situation and structure of both countries are very similar. The main difference is the fact that market milk consumption in Great Britain ‐ amounting to 60 per cent of total dairy milk ‐ represents the most important factor of milk utilization, whereas in Germany this is only 30 per cent. Much of Germany's total milk production of 21,000 million kg/year is manufactured into butter. Butter consumption in Germany amounts to about 500,000 tons, 95 per cent of which is home produced, whereas 90 per cent of butter consumption in Great Britain is covered by imports. About 50 per cent of cheese consumption in Great Britain is covered by imports, whereas it amounts to 27 per cent in West Germany. For health reasons, fresh cheese varieties ‐ preferably skim milk quarg and cream quarg ‐ have gained great importance in Germany. 3–5 kg of ripened cheese varieties and 3‐2 kg of fresh cheese varieties are consumed in Germany per capita each year. The latter figure corresponds to a total amount of 179,000 tons fresh cheese annually. Technical equipment of German market milk plants equals that of British plants; engineering facilities in Germany are highly influenced by technical developments in other countries. Typical German developments on the engineering sector are continuous buttermaking machines according to the system of Dr. Fritz and a number of continuous cheesemaking machines which facilitate operations in cheese factories. In 1965 500 continuous butter‐making machines and 150 quarg separators operated in German dairies. The main factor for progress in the whole field of the dairy industry is the co‐operation of all disciplines of science and practice. Therefore the importance of research utilization and every kind of extension service will increase in future.
A STUDY OF THE VARIABILITY OF THE COMPOSITION OF MIXED HERD MILKS
Authors: EDWARDS R. A. , DONALDSON E.
Published: August 2007

Samples of mixed herd milks from thirty‐two herds were examined for fat, total solids and solids‐not‐fat content over a period of thirteen days. Day to day variations have been calculated. Estimates of ‘allowable variations’ in composition have been made. Sampling requirements for accurate assessment of the quality of a milk supply are suggested. A comparison of the variability of the composition of mixed herd milks from cows under normal indoor conditions, on grass and in the transitional period between the two has been made.
THE INFLUENCE OF VACUUM PRESSING ON THE TEXTURE OF CHEDDAR CHEESE*
Authors: ROBERTSON P. S.
Published: August 2007

A study was made of the influence of several factors on the texture of young and mature vacuum‐pressed rindless cheese. Pressures greater than 26 lb/in2 were required for maximum improvement in texture. A vacuum of 15 in was less effective than a vacuum of 25 in. Vacuum pressing of ‘dressed’ cheese for 5 min was almost as effective as vacuum pressing for 17 h; vacuum pressing after dressing was more effective than before dressing; transfer of vacuum‐pressed cheese to a normal press for the completion of pressing did not affect texture. Vacuum treatment of curd before hooping and pressing in the normal way had no beneficial effect on texture; vacuum pressing improved the texture of cheese made with mixed‐strain starters although this cheese was not as close as vacuum‐pressed cheese made with single strain starters.

The distinct improvement in cheese texture which resulted from some combinations of vacuum pressing condition was confirmed in commercial scale trials involving 2,540 rindless cheese. This improvement was evident when cheese were graded at two weeks and when regraded at maturity.
HALF A CENTURY
Authors: TYLLWYD SION
Published: August 2007

Two years ago an essay competition was organized in connection with the Welsh Section's 21st Birthday celebrations. This competition has been continued, and last year's winner was Sion Tyllwyd, the nom de plume of Miss Eurwen Richards, the present chairman of the Welsh Section. These reminiscences are not the author's personal observations, but are in part due to information gleaned while listening to elderly farmers discussing the locality of their youth. The competition will be held again this year, but entry will be limited to students.
THE EFFECT OF ANTIOXIDANTS ON THE KEEPING QUALITY OF SPRAY‐DRIED WHOLE MILK POWDER
Authors: ABBOT J.
Published: August 2007

Spray‐dried whole milk powders containing either 0.01 per cent ascorbyl palmitate or this compound plus 0.01 per cent citric acid were prepared and their keeping quality under accelerated storage conditions at 37°C compared with control powders and powders containing dodecyl gallate. Ascorbyl palmitate alone afforded little protection against oxidative deterioration but together with citric acid considerably improved keeping quality.

Although the addition of several antioxidants to edible oils and fats and butter intended for manufacture is permitted, their addition to milk powder is forbidden (Regulations, 1966). There are several reasons for this discrimination, the chief of which lies in the phenolic nature of the most effective antioxidants in spray‐dried whole milk powder (Findlay, Smith & Lea, 1945). More recently ascorbyl palmitate has been used to delay the onset of oxidation in butter (Koops, 1964) and milk fat (Englelhardt & de Man, 1963). It seemed appropriate therefore, despite the different chemical composition and physical condition of the fat in butter and in milk powder, to examine its effectiveness in the latter product. In the quantity employed (0–01 per cent), ascorbyl palmitate would not present a risk to health, and its usefulness could probably be enhanced by the addition of a simple synergist such as citric acid, known to be effective with dodecyl gallate in lard (Lea, 1958).
THE UK DAIRY INDUSTRY AND THE COMMON DAIRY POLICY
Authors: WILLIAMS R. E.
Published: August 2007

A written version of a talk given to the North Western Section and the Cheshire Cheese Federation on 15th March. 1972.
DETERMINATION OF EXTRANEOUS MATTER IN MILK
Authors: Millard D. , Cheeseman G. C.
Published: August 2007

Improvements in the method used to determine extraneous matter in milk enables the analysis to be completed within a few hours. The new method involves centrifugation to recover the sediment and employs chemical treatment to remove material other than extraneous matter from the sediment.
RESIDENTAL COURSE — POLLUTION CONTROL AND THE DAIRY FAGTORY ENVIRONMENT University of Reading, Reading 10th‐14th September, 1973
Authors: Royal L.
Published: August 2007

Methods of computing the BOD load on an effluent plant from the volume, milk content and BOD strength of dairy waste waters are discussed. Sources of milk wastage associated with various operations within the dairy and their contribution to the polluting load are given. Practical procedures are described for identification of sources of milk losses, sampling and testing of volume and strength of individual components and of the final effluent; procedures for reducing milk wastage are suggested. New systems of segregating dairy wastes are proposed.
SUBJECT: MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGY: BASIC PRINCIPLES OF REVERSE OSMOSIS AND ULTRAFILTRATION
Authors: Evans E. W. , Glover F. A.
Published: August 2007

Theories of the process of ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis, that involve permeation of solvent through a membrane in a sense opposite to that which obtains in osmosis, are considered. Factors that affect rates of permeation of solute and of solvent, and hence the selectivity of the membrane, are discussed.

The physical structure and chemical composition of membranes are discussed, and the effect of processing variables on structure and composition, and hence on permeation rates and selectivity, are considered. The formation of boundary layers of high solute concentration at the surface of the membrane exposed to the solution has an appreciable effect on permeation; techniques for preventing their formation are mentioned. Some basic considerations relating to the power requirements of membrane processes are defined.
RESOURCE IMPLICATIONS WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR GLASS AND PLASTICS MILK BOTTLES
Authors: Boustead I.
Published: August 2007

This paper illustrates that any discussion of the energy requirement for milk bottling must examine not just the material from which the bottle is made but also the returnable or non‐returnable nature of the delivery system. Furthermore, for a returnable system, the energy needed to deliver a pint of milk is very sensitive to the trippage and comparison of returnable and non‐returnable delivery systems leads to an energy criterion for deciding which system is the most efficient in specific circumstances.

The paper also includes a brief discussion of some future developments which could influence the type of delivery system used.
ECONOMICS OF MECHANIZED MILKING TODAY
Authors: ROSEN ANTHONY
Published: August 2007

The paper shows how large dairy farm units are increasing in number. The costs and income of a typical advanced 200‐cow unit are given, and the return on capital is shown to be only 7 per cent. Inflation and the decreased level of Government grant are putting great pressures on costs. Better returns are needed to encourage capital expenditure on new and more economic systems.
THE INFLUENCE OF THE REFRIGERATED FARM BULK MILK TANK ON THE QUALITY OF THE MILK AT THE PROCESSING DAIRY
Authors: THOMAS S. B.
Published: August 2007

A brief review is given of the bacteriology of bulk milk collection, with particular reference to the total bacterial content of the raw milk at different stages of collection. This is followed by a consideration of appropriate reference, routine and simplified tests and standards for the bacteriological quality control of bulk collected milk.

It is recommended that the total colony count, thermoduric count and coliaerogenes count, all at 27°C, should always be used for investigational, survey and advisory work. As these tests are too laborious, slow and expensive for the routine fortnightly grading of farm bulk tank milk supplies at creamery laboratories, a modified resazurin test at 30°C is prescribed for this purpose.
FIFTY YEARS‘ DEVELOPMENT IN DAIRY PUNT AND EQUIPMENT
Authors: ENOCK A. GRAHAM
Published: August 2007

The 1922 Milk and Dairies Act started a rapid development in pasteurizing and bottling plant, and the construction of many new dairies. The Model Working Dairy at the 1924 British Empire Exhibition helped to raise standards of performance and reliability. Further legislation ten years later produced new machines for this purpose. The Second World War hastened the introduction of the HTST system and discontinuance of low‐temperature, long‐time holding system. The paper describes the post‐war demands for more congenial and less arduous ways of handling bottles, and further labour saving resulted in automatic mechanical handling plant. Iron, copper, brass and aluminium milk surfaces were all superseded by stainless steel. Speeds of machines were increased sevenfold and labour reduced/gal to about one‐fourth of that customary in 1922.
WHITHER DAIRYING?
Authors: BARKER SIR JAMES
Published: August 2007

It is the hope of the Society of Dairy Technology that the following paper by the President of the Dairy Trade Federation, will be the forerunner of further papers of similar substance and interest to be given by prominent figures in all branches of the dairy industry, as well as in science and technology. (Editor's note.)
SOME ASPECTS OF ENERGY CONSERVATION IN DAIRY PROCESS PLANT
Authors: STARKIE G. L.
Published: August 2007

In the wake of recent large increases in energy costs the dairy industry, like any other, is looking more urgently to ways and means of conserving energy and its efficiency of utilization. This paper considers aspects of energy conservation in the areas of pasteurization, evaporation and spray drying and a method of reducing the cost of chilled water supply in dairy or food plants. Some new techniques, as well as existing methods, are considered. Operating costs as a function of degree of regeneration in typical HTST pasteurization plant are presented and cost savings which can be achieved by the use of mechanical vapour recompression in evaporators are examined. Single and two‐stage spray‐drying plant costs are compared for the production of skimmed milk powder. The paper concludes with a brief consideration of electrical load spreading by the use of ice‐bank units for provision of chilled water.