bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Rational analysis of exploratory choice
Authors: Young Richard M
Published: November 2023

One of the virtues of rational analysis is that it offers a way to make predictions of the behavior of a complicated system-the human cognitive processing system-from the outside, i.e. without having to know anything about the internal mechanisms. Even if one is primarily interested in investigating cognitive processing, we can identify a number of potential benefits that rational analysis might provide. First, rational analysis is a powerful tool for analysing a task, to help us understand it better, and essentially to specify what it is that the cognitive processing has to do. Second, rational analysis allows us to derive an optimal strategy for performing the task. Although people will generally not actually follow the optimal strategy, whether because of cognitive limitations or for other reasons, they will often come close to it. Third, knowing the optimal strategy often helps us to interpret empirical phenomena, for example to understand why people find certain aspects of a task difficult and other aspects easy.
Attitudes Toward Physical Activity: The role of Implicit Versus Explicit Associations
Authors: Gheldof Els L M , de Jong Peter J , Vinck, Jan , Houben Ruud M A
Published: November 2023

There is growing evidence that attitudes and beliefs play an important role in the etiology, chronification, and treatment outcomes of chronic low back pain. In this context, negative attitudes and beliefs toward daily and work-related physical activity have been studied extensively, validating cognitive–behavioral models explaining how exaggerated fear of pain/movement/injury may lead to avoidance of activities, disability, and depression (Vlaeyen and Linton 2000; see also Chapter).
Fear reduction in chronic pain: Graded exposure in vivo with behavioral experiments
Authors: Vlaeyen Johan W S , Jong Jeroen de , Leeuw, Maaike , Crombez Geert
Published: November 2023

In acute injury, the escape from the harmful situation and the associated withdrawal behavior promotes the healing process. In majority of the cases, healing occurs within a couple weeks and the pain resolves quickly. However, in certain people with pain, the immediate withdrawal behaviors do not lead to the anticipated reduction of pain, which then is interpreted as a signal of a continuous threat to the integrity of the body. In fact, a mismatch occurs between what the patient expects (quick decrease of pain) and what actually happens (increasing or lasting pain). Negative interpretation may not always reflect a real threat and, in such cases, catastrophic misinterpretations of benign physical sensations may occur.
The genetic bases of HIV-1 neuropathogenesis
Authors: Marle Guido van , Power Christopher
Published: November 2023

Like many retroviruses human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) causes a broad spectrum of neurological diseases. Diverse neurological complications have been described in HIV-1-infected patients ranging from multiple neuropathies involving the peripheral nervous system (PNS) to HIV-1 encephalitis (HIVE) and development of dementia, commonly known as HIV-associated dementia (HAD) in the central nervous system (CNS) (The Dana Consortium 1996; McArthur et al. 1993). The impact of HIV-1-associated neurological disease in the clinical setting is significant. Twenty per cent of untreated AIDS-defined patients will develop HAD, which heralds a worsened survival prognosis (McArthur et al. 1993). HIV-1 infects cells of the CNS soon after primary infection (Davis et al. 1992; Sasseville and Lackner 1997; Poli et al. 1999).
HIV and sexual dysfunction: a patient’s view
Authors: Kramer Ian
Published: November 2023

Ian Kramer was a California attorney and English barrister until medical retirement in 1997. He has been living with HIV since about 1982. He has served as Vice-Chair of the UK Coalition of People Living with HIV/AIDS, and a member of the board of the Global Network of Positive People. He sat as a member of the Department of Health’s Steering Group on the National Strategy on Sexual Health and HIV for England. He now advises and trains for the National Health Service’s Modernisation Agency’s Clinical Governance Support Team. Ian would like to thank Professor Ian Everall, of the HIV Mental Health Team at the South London and Maudsley Mental Heath Trust, and Dr Chris Taylor of the Caldecot Centre, Kings Healthcare for their tender and expert care of his mind and body.
The spectrum of peripheral neuropathies in AIDS
Authors: Keswani Sanjay C , Luciano Carlos , Pardo Carlos , Cherry Catherine L , Hoke, Ahmet , McArthur Justin C
Published: November 2023

With the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), peripheral neuropathies have become the most common neurological complications in HIV infection and AIDS. The frequency and spectrum of these neuropathies are changing as various toxic and immune factors are modified by new antiretroviral strategies. The number of people living with HIV infection has continued to increase to a total of 42 million by the end of 2002, and we should anticipate rising rates of neuropathic disease Recent studies have provided a better understanding of risk factors, markers, and relevant pathogenic mechanisms in the current era, and this review will cover both the common and uncommon neuropathies (Brinley Jr et al. 2001; Manji 2000; Verma 2001; Wulff et al. 2000). Apart from cytomegalovirus (CMV) polyradiculitis, other infectious neuropathies such as leprosy and herpes zoster will not be covered in this review.
Hepatitis C
Authors: Soriano Vincent , Barreiro Pablo , González-Lahoz Juan
Published: November 2023

Both human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) share multiple biological properties (see Table 1), including similar routes of transmission by parenteral and sexual exposure, which explains the high number of co-infected individuals. Overall, around one-third of HIVinfected persons suffer from chronic hepatitis C (CHC), but it goes up to 75% among intravenous drug addicts and other individuals exposed to HIV parenterally (Wasley and Alter 2000). Worldwide, up to 10 million people may be co-infected with both HIV and HCV (Fig. 1). The introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has significantly improved the life expectancy of HIV-infected patients over the last few years.
Magnetic resonance spectroscopy of animal models of neuroAIDS
Authors: Greco Jane , González R Gilberto
Published: November 2023

Neuroimaging is essential for the evaluation of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patient with neurological and/or cognitive symptoms. While structural neuroimaging methods such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are important for the diagnosis of cerebral opportunistic infections and mass lesions, these techniques are limited in the evaluation of early cognitive changes (Dooneief et al. 1992). During the later stages of HIV-associated dementia, MR images may demonstrate atrophy and white matter hyperintensity. Quantitative structural neuroimaging techniques may be used to measure basal ganglia and cortical atrophy in advanced neuroAIDS (Aylward et al. 1993; Broderick et al. 1993; Dal Pan et al. 1992; Heindel et al. 1994; Hestad et al. 1993; McArthur et al. 1990; Paley et al. 1994).
Clinical features
Authors: Mintz Mark
Published: November 2023

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection has created a devastating international public health crisis for children (Association Francois Bagnoud < Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1994a). Although children with HIV-1 infection represent a relatively small percentage of the overall epidemiological rates, there are well over one million children presently infected with HIV-1 worldwide, with over 1000 new pediatric infections occurring daily. Furthermore, parental deaths have left over 11 million children orphaned, 95% of them in Africa (Association Francois Bagnoud <). In some countries, children have accounted for the majority of HIV-1 infection (Mintz et al. 1995). Thus, the prevention, identification, and treatment of pediatric HIV-1 infection is an important component of the battle against HIV/AIDS.
Antiretroviral therapy in children
Authors: Wood Lauren V
Published: November 2023

The epidemiology and clinical manifestations of HIV disease remain a constantly emerging and evolving dynamic. Nowhere is this more evident than among the population of children with perinatally acquired HIV infection. Beginning in the mid-1980s and through the early 1990s, increasing numbers of HIV-infected children were being born to women with HIV acquired as a consequence of intravenous drug use or heterosexual transmission. Perinatally acquired AIDS cases peaked in 1993 and have been declining ever since (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1997), subsequent to the landmark PACTG 076 study demonstrating a 68% reduction in transmission rates associated with the use of zidovudine during pregnancy (Connor et al. 1994). Development of guidelines for prenatal testing and the use of antiretroviral agents and elective Cesarean section during pregnancy have resulted in the unprecedented decline in US perinatal transmission rates to their present levels of less than 2% (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1994a, 1995).
Topology and Category Theory in Computer Science
Authors: Reed G M
Published: November 2023

The Oxford Topology Symposium was held in June 1989. Since techniques from topology and category theory have been used increasingly by theoretical computer scientists in recent years, it was decided to hold a special session at the symposium which would be devoted to the application of these topics in computer science. By holding this session in the context of the topology symposium, the organisers hoped to achieve a cross-fertilization between the communities they brought together - giving one a course of new problems with a more practical flavour, and the other a source of solutions and ideas. The session itself proved successful, attracting a large audience of mathematicians as well as computer scientists. The organizing committee decided to produce two separate proceedings for the conference. All those who had presented papers, plus a very few others, were invited to submit papers for these proceedings of the special session on topology and category theory in computer science.
Topology, computer science, and the mathematics of convergence
Authors: Blamey Stephen
Published: November 2023

At first sight, computer science and topology seem unlikely bedfellows. We show that they are linked by the idea of convergence: in computer science we are often interested in processes which converge, often in spaces which are, mathematically speaking, rather unconventional.
On topological characterization of behavioural properties
Authors: Kwiatkowska Marta Z
Published: November 2023

Behavioural properties of programs are usually expressed as formulae of temporal logic interpreted over a suitable structure that models the program’s behaviour (for example, a set, a tree, or a partial order). Each formula thus gives rise to a subset of behaviours that have that property. An interesting question arises as to how the sets of behaviours corresponding to different classes of behavioural properties may be characterized semantically, as opposed to a syntactic characterization in terms of the language of a given logic.
A characterization of effective topological spaces II
Authors: Spreen Dieter
Published: November 2023

Starting with Scott’s work on the mathematical foundations of programming language semantics, interest in topology has grown up in theoretical computer science, under the slogan ‘open sets are s-emi- decidable properties’. But whereas on Scott domains all such properties are also open, this is no longer true in general.
An Algebraic Equation for the Halting Probability
Authors: Chaitin Gregory J
Published: November 2023

Abstract. We outline our construction of a single equation involving only addition, multiplication, anf1 exponentiation of nonnegative integer constants and variables with the following remarkable property. One of the variables is considered to be a parameter. Take the parameter to be 0, 1, 2, ... obtaining an infinite series of equations from the original one. Consider the question of whether each of the derived equations has finitely or infinitely many nonnegative integer solutions. The original equation is constructed in such a manner that the answers to these questions about the derived equations are independent mathematical facts that cannot be compressed into any finite set of axioms.
Gandy’s Principles for Mechanisms as a Model of Parallel Computation
Authors: Dahlhaus Elias , Makowsky Johann A
Published: November 2023

R. Gandy, in 1980, discusses some philosophical aspects of the Church Turing Thesis related to mechanistic realizability (hardware implement ability)of computable functions. Gandy postulates four principles concerning models of computability from which, in contrast to Church’s Thesis, it is provable that functions in these models are totally recursive. In other words, whatever is computable by a mechanistic machine (a Gandy machine) is also computable by a Turing machine. He also proves the minimality of those four principles in the sense that no three of them suffice to prove this result. The universe of discourse in Gandy 1980 are the hereditary finite sets with urelements (cf. Barwise 1975), which also form the background of our Dahlhaus and Makowsky 1986, 1986a, 1987 and Shepherdson 1987. We assume the reader is familiar with Gandy 1980 and Shepherdson 1973.
The Fifth Generation’s Unbridged Gap
Authors: Michie Donald
Published: November 2023

The “Fifth Generation” planning decisions (JIPDEC 1981) of 1979-80 by the Japan Information Processing Development Centre (JIPDEC) embodie da number of primary themes, subsequently institutionalized in the ICOT laboratory in Tokyo. In addition to improvements to the general run of man machine communication aids, such as visual and speech input-output, sensory robot interfaces, natural language database query and the like, cognitive compatibility between the new ultra-powerful machines and their users was to be ensured by use of knowledge-based programming techniques. Taken together with radical approaches to the design of computing hardware, the Fifth Generation plans exceed present-day machines in power, instructability, and task-oriented intelligence by margins which leave the reader of the Japanese material somewhat dazed.
Turing Naturalized: Von Neumann’s Unfinished Project
Authors: Schnelle Helmut
Published: November 2023

Turing’s enterprise must be seen in its historical context: the Turing machine is the result of an attempt to establish an epistemologically absolute foundation of mathematics and, through it, of science. Since it was realized that an absolute foundation of science is impossible, a program of a relative foundation seemed to be appropriate, based on the assumption that successful parts of science are true. In this perspective we are free to naturalize logic and perception of obvious facts by specifying psycho-physical mechanisms of logic and of perception and by investigating whether science could be reconstructed in all its ramifications on the basis of such mechanisms. The obvious charge of circularity has lost its force since it was agreed upon that certain kinds of circularity are unavoidable. This naturalization of logic may take Turing’s proposal as a first step and continue along the lines indicated by von Neumann and other neo-intuitionists, who consider mental mechanisms as the basis of logic, mathematics, and science. Let me explain these introductory remarks in further detail.
Partial Gaggles Applied to Logics with Restricted Structural Rules
Authors: Dunn J Michael
Published: November 2023

In Dunn (1991) a class of algebraic structures called ‘gaggles’ were investigated with an idea to abstracting out an algebraic structure common to a wide class of logics. But one feature, although common to many of the logics and abstracted into the notion of a gaggle, still is inessential to the main ideas. This feature is that there be a distributive lattice underlying the family of gaggle operations. This is an appropriate assumption to make for many logics, and leads to a representation theory where ‘conjunction’ (meet) is interpreted as intersection and ‘disjunction’ (join) as union.
Decidability and Interpolation for a First-Order Relevance Logic
Authors: Kron Aleksandar
Published: November 2023

Grishin (cf. [7], [8], [9], and [10]) investigated the logic obtained from the classical first-order calculus by deleting the contraction axiom-scheme formula.
Logical Operators In English
Authors: Ranta Aarne
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we shall look at some examples of English sentences that can be formalized as propositions of Σ, II, and +forms.No mechanical rules of formalization will be given, just general principles concerning various modes of expression. The formalizations are intended to be, as often as possible, compositional in the sense of Section 1.8; that is, the formalizations of smaller expressions are constituents of the formalizations of larger expressions of which those smaller expressions are parts.
Introduction to this book
Authors: Mackinnon John , Phillipps Karen
Published: November 2023

THE Greater Sunda Islands—Borneo, Sumatra,Java, and Bali—are biologically one of the richest and most complex areas of our planet. Their complexity led to a large extent the Victorian naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace to identify the process of evolution by natural selection, which then prompted Charles Darwin to publish his own conclusions on the subject. These form the foundations of modern biology. Yet 150years later, our knowledge of the precise relationships of the bird faunas of these important islands remains only a little better than it was when Wallace was collecting in northern Borneo. Worse, the forests are now being destroyed, and if we do not document quickly which species occur where, the information content of the region may be lost for ever.
Early Palaeozoic
Authors: Hallam Anthony
Published: November 2023

Following the general acceptance of plate tectonics, studies have shown that the disposition of continental areas in the Early Palaeozoic was totally different from that seen today. Based on a combination of biogeographic, palaeoclimatic, and palaeomagnetic data, it is widely believed there was a series of relatively small continents occupying mainly low palaeolatitudes and one large continent; Gondwana. In the east, components of Gondwana including the present Australia and adjacent parts of eastern Asia occupied a low latitude zone, while further west, the present Africa and South America occupied high southern latitudes (Figs 5.1-5.3.
France
Authors: Crampon N , Roux J C , Bracq P , Delay F , Lepiller M , Mary G , Rasplus L , Alcaydé G
Published: November 2023

Artois-Picardy includes the French départements of the Nord (Dunkerque, Lille, Valenciennes), Pas de-Calais (Calais, Boulogne, Arras) and also Picardy (Amiens, Saint Quentin), as far as the Oise in the south-east and the Bray anticlinal axis in the south-west. A dominant physical feature is the Artois Horst, which runs from north-west to southeast, at an average height of 140 m. It is dissected by numerous dry valleys and, in places along the Channel coast, by hanging valleys (valleuses). In the north-west this massif ends against the eroded core of the Boulonnais—Weald Anticline, from which the Chalk has been eroded. Picardy is also dissected by dry valleys, although it lies at a lower elevation. One of the geomorphological characteristics of the area is the numerous ‘steps’, abrupt and sharp breaks of slope with the axes parallel to the thalwegs, several metres high, sometimes accentuated by the presence of a hedge. Although the presence of colluvium deposited behind the hedge suggests a man-made origin for the features, a structural element is clearly present (Lasne 1890; Leriche 1926; Roux 1963), at least for the ‘steps’ that are cut into the Chalk. Their trends are commonly similar to those of other geomorphological features of the area, which are themselves related to the regional fracture pattern.
Mississippi Valley-type epigenetic deposits
Authors: Hutchison Charles S
Published: November 2023

Mississippi Valley-type deposits are stratiform concentrations predominantly of galena and sphalerite, most commonly but not exclusively, in carbonate host rocks. Fluorite and/or barite, pyrite and chalcopyrite, are usually also present. The host rocks are exclusively shallow water, marine carbonate-dominated sequences, and they always occur on the rim of a large sedimentary basin or over basement highs at or near limestone/dolomite or limestone/shale interfaces, and at any depth (Hutchison, 1983a). The deposits are truly epigenetic, that is not formed contemporaneously with the host rocks. The low temperature hydrothermal solutions are considered to have moved laterally out of a major sedimentary basin towards its margins, where the change in salinity caused the deposition. Mississippi Valley-type deposits are therefore considered to be laterally secreted epigenetic deposits. The fluorite in such deposits often contains hydrocarbon globules, suggesting that large scale brine migration up-dip from the basin may also have carried the metals. These then became concentrated on the basin margins where the saline solutions encoumered fresh or less saline water and sedimentary facies changes, for example to carhonates, which provided suitable host rocks for mineral deposition.
Iron ore deposits
Authors: Hutchison Charles S
Published: November 2023

Iron ore deposits are widespread throughout the Circum Pacific (Park, 1972). However significant production has been confined to three areas: the south-east China province from Hainan island through Kwangtung and Fukien, the Malay Peninsula and the Philippines (Fig. 9.1). They are predominantly of contact pyrometasomatic type with associated sedimentary deposits occurring in China.
Mainly about railways, writers, and wildwood
Authors: Evans Julian , Stephen White , Evans John , Titchmarsh Alan
Published: November 2023

The wood is squashed between a railway line and a lane. Its nearly square shape, and neat internal subdivision into four quarters, suggest it is of recent origin rather than a wood which has existed since medieval times or earlier. The coming of the railway may have led to the original planting. In the golden age of railway building the line at the bottom of the wood effectively cut off farmland at the western extremity of the sprawling Steventon estate. With access impaired (even now the link, Waltham lane, can only boast a narrow bridge with 11 feet 1 inch headroom), it seems that four fields were eventually put down to trees to form the wood. Obviously trees do not require the same daily attention as farming, making it a sensible change of land use.
Ruth’s gloves
Authors: Evans Julian , Stephen White , Evans John , Titchmarsh Alan
Published: November 2023

For us, it is just under half-an-hour’s drive to the wood; for John it is a little bit less. The route through the north Hampshire downs is a reward of rural, almost rustic, peacefulness marred only by going under the M3 where the lane from Axford approaches the Wheatsheaf Inn at North Waltham. There are two other small villages on the way, one of which is Dummer, where the greatest open-air preacher of the eighteenth century, George Whitefield, held his first curacy, and now is famous for ‘Fergie’, Duchess of York. I can claim no other link with the Duchess apart from the meaningless one of coincidence: as she was courted by a prince, John and I were falling for a wood.
Encounters of the rural kind
Authors: Evans Julian , Stephen White , Evans John , Titchmarsh Alan
Published: November 2023

I grew up a surburbanite with strong rural connections. By the teenage years, home had become ‘sarf ease Lunnon’ with the ‘f’ almost aspirate. Herds of ‘How now brown cows?’ sorted out the vowels-though this oft repeated question was never answeredand research and teaching in the Third World, of necessity, added the consonants and completed the re-instatement of ‘south-east London’. This was hardly preparation, however, for encounters in refined rural Hampshire-at least, not for some of them.
Mother-in-law’s dustbin
Authors: Evans Julian , Stephen White , Evans John , Titchmarsh Alan
Published: November 2023

The Forestry Commission’s grant not only helped with the planting, but a small sum was used for improving the patch of sycamore where Taid’s plaque is found. Cleaning out of undergrowth, getting rid of some tired hazel, and some early thinning among the coppice shoots were all needed. Provided woodland is under 20 years old, the Forestry Commission helps with the costs of the unremunerative work of rehabilitation. This assistance was introduced in 1985 and is a real help with what has often been dismissed silviculturally as worthless scrub.
Oak
Authors: Evans Julian , Stephen White , Evans John , Stephen White , Titchmarsh Alan
Published: November 2023

The oak standards in Nain’s copse were ready for thinning. The dense canopy of the copse with tall, drawn-up sycamores jostling with the spreading crowns of the over-stocked oaks heavily shaded the woodland floor. A few emaciated primroses struggled to glean what little sunlight penetrated, their leaves distended, pale and flaccid, and even the aggressive Dog’s mercury hadn’t colonised everywhere. Parts of the floor were bare with dead leaves, twigs, and fallen branches. Clumps of ash and sycamore coppice, which hadn’t seen open sky either, languished etiolated1 in terminal decline, denied their share of radiation and warmth. There was little point in delaying thinning, and a start was made shortly after Nain’s copse became ours.
Introduction
Authors: Barker John
Published: November 2023

It is generally accepted that marketing is one of the most crucial aspects of farm management and, within the context of full membership of the European Economic Community (EEC), the significance of marketing in UK agriculture is increasing even further. It is also widely accepted that marketing is one of the least understood aspects of agriculture. It is the overall aim of this book to undertake a practical consideration of agricultural marketing, in order to improve that level of understanding.

In an attempt to make the book as meaningful and useful as possible it is divided into two sections. The first examines the background to agricultural marketing, discussing the basic principles of marketing, and the applicability of these to farming. In the light of this examination, various marketing techniques applicable to farming are considered, with particular emphasis being placed on the position of the farmer as an operator in the market. In addition, domestic and EEC legislation which has affected, and affects, the marketing of agricultural products is discussed.
Possibilities for direct marketing by the farmer
Authors: Barker John
Published: November 2023

Considerable emphasis has been placed in earlier chapters of this book on the fact that, in general, the farmer has an indirect demand for his output; in other words, his produce is not bought directly by the final consumer. The way in which the producer and the consumer are linked is often referred to as the marketing chain. All marketing chains in agriculture can be defined as beginning with production on the farm, and from there on can vary considerably in length, depending on the use to which the commodity is put.
Musc Ovite Russia 1450–1598
Authors: Kollmann Nancy Shields
Published: November 2023

It was long-term geographical, institutional, and cultural realities that shaped Muscovy’s drive to mobilize its human and natural resources. So we will try to see the realm as Moscow’s rulers saw it, again evoking Braudel with a focus on long-term sources of change (geography, climate, settlement patterns, trade routes, and other aspects of Braudel’s ‘la longue durée’) and middle-level ones (social and religious structures, ideational systems, etc.) in preference to individuals, wars, and events. But we need to start briefly with Braudel’s ‘histoire événementielle’ to define the constantly expanding territory with which we will be concerned.
Meltdown, Rebuilding, Reform 1996–2001
Authors: Freeze Gregory L
Published: November 2023

THE presidential election of 1996 did not end the misery and malaise, but indeed only accelerated the political disintegration, economic decline, social unrest, and marginalization in world affairs. The systemic meltdown culminated in the fiscal crisis of August 1998, when the state—unable to tax or borrow—had to default on its spiraling loans and to devalue its currency, with devastating consequences for the general population.
Economic structures and transformations
Authors: Marino John A
Published: November 2023

Written in retirement 1537-40 and published posthumously twenty years later, Francesco Guicciardini’s History of Italyincludes a short digression on the explorations of the Portuguese and Spanish in the chronicle for the year 1504, ‘since this was one of the most memorable things which happened in the world for many centuries and since the harm it caused the city of Venice has some connection with Italian affairs’.
The public sphere and the organization of knowledge
Authors: Dooley Brendan
Published: November 2023

‘The kittens have opened their eyes.’’ So proclaimed Lionardo Fioravanti in 1576, commenting on the distribution of knowledge about nature to wider and wider audiences. No longer, in his view, could the specialists count on popular ignorance for guaranteeing their prestige.
Enlightenment and reform
Authors: Rao Anna Maria
Published: November 2023

For Italy, too, the eighteenth century was the age of Enlightenment and reform. But, as in the rest of Europe, this did not mean that the institutions of government in Italy suddenly became the object of an irresistible desire for reform, nor were Enlightenment and reform linked directly as cause and effect. In fact, much of recent historical debate on eighteenth-century Italy has been devoted to exploring how the Enlightenment and reform were linked, and also the extent to which it would be more correct to think in terms of distinct ‘national’ enlightenments, each with features that made them specific and hence different from France.
The Republic in crisis: politics 1914–1945
Authors: Passmore Kevin
Published: November 2023

The Third Republic withstood four years of murderous combat against invading German armies during the Great War, yet crumbled within six weeks of another incursion in 1940. The triumph of republican France in 1918 contrasts with parliament’s abject surrender to Marshal Pétain in 1940. Faced with these paradoxes, some historians have emphasized the weakness of democratic culture, others, its strength.
The Fifth Republic as parenthesis? Politics since 1945
Authors: Vinen Richard
Published: November 2023

Describing the Fifth Republic as a ‘parenthesis’ may sound gratuitously perverse. France has seen five republics, two empires, two sorts of monarchy, a consulate, and an ‘état’ since 1789. The Fifth Republic has already lasted longer than all but one of these, the Third Republic of 1870–1940. The Fifth Republic did not, as its defenders would hasten to point out, spring from nowhere.
The opening of China
Authors: Gray Jack
Published: November 2023

The modern history of the Far East begins with the forcible opening of China in 1843 by Britain, the leader in the new technologies of which the Chinese (and the Japanese) knew nothing, having deliberately closed their doors to foreigners and foreign influence. This situation, however, was not preordained.
The Chinese economy
Authors: Gray Jack
Published: November 2023

Conventional opinions on the state of the Chinese economy and Chinese society in the first half of the twentieth century have been largely the reflection of nationalist emotion rationalized in a vulgar Marxism. These opinions are easily stated. They are that the Chinese economy was stagnant and regressing; that one major cause of this was the deteriorating conditions in which the peasant majority lived, conditions which were leading to their rapid expropriation; that the second major cause was the competition of foreign enterprise, buttressed by privileges imposed by force and served by a sycophantic class of compradors, competition which made it virtually impossible for modern enterprises in Chinese hands to thrive; and that such foreign competition also crushed the life out of the traditional handicrafts.
The rise of Chiang Kaishek
Authors: Gray Jack
Published: November 2023

After Sun’s death in March 1925 the civilian contenders for the succession to the leadership of the Guomindang were veteran revolutionaries who had been closely associated with him since the early days of the Tong Meng Hui: Hu Hanmin, Wang Jingwei, and Liao Zhongkai. Liao, born and educated in San Francisco, a journalist by profession, was the most able of the three. His support, however, came mainly from the Communist Party and from the Comintern advisers. Of the other two, Hu Hanmin probably had the greater following; in the elections to the first Central Executive Committee he had come top of the poll.
The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, II
Authors: Gray Jack
Published: November 2023

Once questions of policy were brought into the struggle, virtually the entire membership of Liu Shaoqi’s government became vulnerable. Even Zhou Enlai, although perhaps the most widely respected figure in the whole leadership, was not immune.
Languages of Silence
Authors: Perriam Chris , Thompson Michael , Frenk Susan , Knights Vanessa
Published: November 2023

The preceding chapters have examined ways in which dominant discourses are imposed, exposed, or transcended. This chapter begins by looking at the silences and suppressions that lie behind them during the Franco years, and in particular examines the peculiar workings of official censorship and its effects on writers and publications at different moments in this period; but the chapter is concerned, too, with other forms of silencing and exclusion and writers’ responses to these. Although the transition to democracy brought the recuperation of previously silenced voices and the return of exiled writers, many forms of writing were initially implicated in tricky processes of negotiation and compromise; under the PSOE, controls of certain media (Anson et al.: 1996) and the formation through policy of a dominant cultural discourse brought their own suppressions; and by the 1990s an appearance of openness and pluralism is contradicted by voices which remain stifled, ignored, or without an instrumental language as well as by those which paradoxically challenge through silence.
Through the Kaleidoscope
Authors: Perriam Chris , Thompson Michael , Frenk Susan , Knights Vanessa
Published: November 2023

The second half of the 1990s, where we end our thematic narrative of writing after the Civil War and after Franco, is a time from which those two predicating eras seem impossibly distant and distinct. These recent years are ones of constant changes and fluctuations in the forms and boundaries of imaginative writing and, possibly, in culture in general, although official cultures, for all that they are recycled as vibrant and colourful (as New Spanish/Galician/Catalan/Basque and so on), remain at base no more (and certainly no less) than art museums, Big Names, grand buildings, public image.1 Many new texts (though countered by booming markets in good, solid reads) are characterized by a persistent questioning of identities as multiple, often contradictory images emerge of Spain (Labanyi 19956) and Spanish subjects (whether in the sense of individuals, citizens, or cruxes of debate), as if the cultural changes of the transition to democracy, the political change, ‘el Cambio’, which was the PSOE’s early motto, and the heady days of the movidas and intricately contradictory claims on lo posmoderno were, in some arenas anyway, mere rehearsals.
Parliament under the Tudors
Authors: Loach Jennifer
Published: November 2023

This is an examination of the role and development of parliament throughout the Tudor period, now a central topic in the study of Tudor history. Jennifer Loach examines the constitutional position, political activities, and relationships of the two houses of parliament from the late Middle Ages until the accession of the Stuarts. She explores the growing importance of the Commons and examines the ways in which the Tudor monarchs, from Henry VII to Elizabeth I, attempted to exert their royal power. Topics covered include elections, patronage, and constitutional issues such as the succession to the throne; the fundamental part played by parliament in taxation and other financial matters; the social and economic background; and the vexed and vital question of religion. Thoroughly grounded in contemporary sources, this is a comprehensive and lucid account, which will be invaluable to students of Tudor history.
Procedure
Authors: Loach Jennifer
Published: November 2023

Parliament usually met in London, and began with a splendid procession to Westminster Abbey led by the monarch, with the peers in their scarlet and ermine parliament robes and the bishops in scarlet with lawn sleeves. The procession would then return to the White Chamber of the Palace of Westminster, where the chancellor (or lord keeper) would set out, briefly, the main reasons for which the parliament had been summoned. The two Houses would then separate, the Lords to register absentees and their proxies, the Commons to elect their speaker. Thereafter, the two Houses assembled separately: the Lords in the White Chamber, the Commons, at first, in the chapter house or the refectory of Westminster Abbey. In the reign of Edward VI, however, the Commons acquired St Stephen’s chapel for their meetings. The layout of that building, and, in particular, of its antechamber, was to have an important effect on the way in which procedure developed in the Lower House.
Mid-Tudor Parliaments
Authors: Loach Jennifer
Published: November 2023

The consequences of the Reformation Parliament were immense, for parliament as well as for the religious history of England. Because Henry VIII had used parliament in his fight with the pope, his son was to use it to carry through a Protestant reformation: because the Reformation had been sanctioned by parliament, the Counter-Reformation of Mary’s reign had also to be carried out through parliament. Of course parliament had concerned itself about religious matters before the Reformation, but the Reformation and the changes of the subsequent decades, changes carried out by statutory authority, brought parliament into the centre of religious debate to an unprecedented extent: Hooker’s treatise on parliament of about 1571 would indeed declare that the chief justification for parliament’s existence was the need to see ‘that God be honoured’. This central role was recognized by clergy and laity alike. In 1547 the lower house of convocation asked that the lesser clergy might be represented in the Commons-the bishops, of course, already sat in the Lords-so that ‘such statutes and ordinances as shall be made concerning all matters of religion and causes ecclesiastical may not pass without the sight and assent of the said clergy’.
Elizabethan Parliaments
Authors: Loach Jennifer
Published: November 2023

The first parliament of Elizabeth’s reign began on 25 January 1559 with a service in Westminster Abbey. Historians have scrutinized with care the form taken by that service in an attempt to understand Elizabeth’s intentions, but the episode, like so many of those involving Elizabeth, is shrouded in ambiguity. When the queen met the abbot of Westminster at the door, ‘robed pontifically, with all his monks in procession, each of them having a lighted torch in his hand’, she declared, ‘Away with these torches, for we see very well’, a comment which has led some writers to suggest that Elizabeth disliked all the monks’ popish ceremonial. However, she apparently accepted the incense and holy water with which she was also greeted, balking only at the processional lights. This middle position fits Elizabeth’s declaration to Philip II’s envoy, Count Feria, that she was resolved ‘to restore religion as her father left it’: the implication was that although she needed to resume the supremacy, without which her claim to the throne itself was shaky, she hoped to avoid doctrinal change.
Conclusion
Authors: Loach Jennifer
Published: November 2023

Parliaments existed to make laws. This function they carried out with remarkable consistency throughout the Tudor period: in Henry VIl’s reign an average of 27 statutes were passed in each session. The average rose to 44 in the second part of Henry VIII’s reign, with a peak in the session of 1 540, which saw 80 statutes passed. Under Edward and Mary the average number of statutes passed per session was 27, and in Elizabeth’s reign it was 31. These figures conceal, however, a growth in the number of bills being considered by either or both Houses. No figures can be calculated before 1547 and the beginning of the Commons Journal, and the difficulty of identifying bills even after that makes any precise figures impossible, but the general trend is none the less obvious. Between 1547 and 1558, about 68 bills, on average, were considered in each session. In the first part of Elizabeth’s reign, the average was 126, and it was just over 95 in the years after 1584.
Modern India
Authors: Brown Judith M
Published: November 2023

A new edition of this widely used text covers the last two centuries of Indian history, concluding with an epilogue written from the perspective of the 1990s. It thematically and analytically discusses the emergence of India as one of the world's largest democracies and one of the most stable of the states to emerge from the experience of colonialism. The foundations of this rare phenomenon in either Asia or Africa are seen in India's society, the ideas and beliefs of her people, and the institutions of government and politics which have developed on the subcontinent, in a process of interaction between what was indigenous to India and the many external influences brought to bear on the country by economic, political, and ideological contact with the Western world.
Merchants and their Trade
Authors: Britnell Richard
Published: November 2023

The long-distance trade that had grown up before 1300 was important to a wide range of people and contributed a sufficiently large amount to incomes across Britain to be a matter of political significance. Any landlord who sold wool, any merchant who handled it, any shipman who shipped it, and the king himself who taxed it, felt the effects of fluctuations in international markets or the breakdown of normal relations. So did townsmen who depended upon imported goods for a livelihood—the clothmakers who needed imported dyes, the furriers, the mercers who sold linen, the vintners who imported wines and sold them both wholesale and retail. By 1300 foreign trade was sufficiently valuable to affect landlords’ incomes, and to a lesser extent the volume of employment, in most parts of Britain, as Edward I’s critics appreciated when they criticized the tax he imposed on wool exports.
Gender and the family
Authors: Diefendorf Barbara B
Published: November 2023

Images of the father as sovereign in his family and of the king as father to his subjects flowed naturally from the pens of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century political theorists. Paternal authority was not merely an analogy for monarchical authority, it was considered the necessary complement to the king’s powers in the well-run monarchical state. Jean Bodin summed up this view in his Six Books of the Commonwealth, first published in 1576, when he wrote that ‘the family, which is the source and origin of all republics, is the principal member of it’. It followed for Bodin that the ideal family, like the ideal republic, was authoritarian and patriarchal. Governed by commandment and obedience, strong families were the building blocks of a strong state.
Interaction with the non-European world
Authors: Armstrong David , Goldstein Erik
Published: November 2023

At the risk of oversimplifying a vast topic, Europe’s interaction with the world may be considered in the context of three broad themes: the cold war (and its ending), which established both constraints and imperatives for the divided continent; decolonization and its aftermath, which defined Western Europe’s relations with half the world and also helped condition the Soviet Union’s approach to its adversaries’ former colonies; and the processes of globalization and internationalization, which created much of the international political, economic, and cultural environment within which the developments during this period took place.
Introduction
Authors: Bull Marcus
Published: November 2023

This volume in the Short Oxford History of France series deals with some of the most important changes that took place between c.9oo and c.1200 in the area that we may for convenience label <France ‘. More broadly, therefore, the book addresses processes and events that are sometimes grouped together under a heading along the lines of (The birth of France ‘. The problem here, of course, is that any metaphor like this runs up against the fact that there was no single moment when France came into being; what we mean by France itself is not reducible to the sort of single, coherent entity which one needs if organic analogies are to work properly. To speak of medieval France is effectively to use a piece of shorthand for a mass of concurrent ideas, myths, geographical features, historical memories, word associations, mental maps, and senses of belonging, sometimes in harmony, sometimes in conflict. To some extent France existed in the area bounded by the coastlines and land boundaries (however vague) that literally gave it shape, but it was also inside people ‘s minds as a construct, or more accurately a host of different constructs.
Political culture
Authors: Koziol Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

In 754, three years after Pippin the Short had deposed the last Merovingian to become king of the Franks, Pope Stephen II levelled a curse good to the end of time against any who would ever choose a king from outside Pippin ‘s line. Some 130 years later, in the face of a pressing Viking threat and mindful that the four previous Carolingians had proven themselves arrogant, incompetent, or simply fatally unlucky, the northern magnates of the west Frankish kingdom did just that, overriding the claims of the three-year-old Charles, great great-great-grandson of Pippin, and electing as king Odo, count of Paris and margrave of Neustria. Judging by the next 300 years of west Frankish history, God must have taken Stephen ‘s curse seriously, for Odo ‘s reign (888-98) begins a sorry story. Civil wars and treacheries followed in an endless succession that numbed even contemporaries. Alliances, truces, and treaties were repudiated at first advantage. Kings were imprisoned or deposed, counts, bishops, and court favourites assassinated, and conspiracies and intrigues abounded. The wonder of it is that the Franks kept doing it, over and over, for three centuries, swearing oaths they knew would be broken, anointing kings they would conspire against, accepting safe conducts they knew could be violated.