bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Fermentation Stability and Pore Size Distribution of Frozen Prefermented Lean Wheat Doughs
Authors: Räsänen J. , Laurikainen T. , Autio K.
Published: June 2007

Fermentation stability of frozen prefermented doughs was studied with a maturograph, an instrument that allows monitoring of dough rise, gas production, and gas retention during fermentation. Maturograph curves excellently predicted the baking quality, measured as form ratio, after frozen storage. The greatest decrease in dough level occurred after seven days of storage, after which the level remained constant. With some flours, decreased amount of water improved both the fermentation stability and form ratio of breads baked after seven days of frozen storage of dough. However, no improvement was observed in loaf volume. Preliminary experiments with longer final fermentation time (after thawing) showed that the reduced water content also resulted in higher loaf volumes than did optimal water content. Microscopic studies showed that with most doughs, porosity decreased with reduced water content. However, these changes depended on flour type. In one dough, reduction of water by 2 percentage units decreased the area of pores per total area of section from 56.6 to 46.4%, whereas in another dough the same water reduction had no effect on the pore area.
Zein Compositions of Mechanically Separated Coarse and Fine Portions of Maize Kernels
Authors: Robutti J. L. , Borras F. S. , Eyherabide G. H.
Published: June 2007

Coarse and fine kernel portions from 24 maize inbreds (six grown in two years) and four hybrids were separated by grinding and sifting. Zeins from both portions of all genotypes were analyzed by reversed‐phase high‐performance liquid chromatography (RP‐HPLC) and sodium dodecyl sulfate‐polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS‐PAGE). Results agreed, in general, with those of a previous study in which endosperm separation was done manually, suggesting that endosperm fractionation can be done by mechanical means. Compositions of zeins, as revealed by RP‐HPLC and SDS‐PAGE, support the hypothesis that zeins help determine maize endosperm hardness.
Physicochemical Properties of Common and Tartary Buckwheat Starch
Authors: Li Wende , Lin Rufa , Corke Harold
Published: June 2007

Physicochemical properties of starch of three common (Fagopyrum esculentum) and three tartary (F. tataricum) buckwheat varieties from Shanxi Province, China, were compared. Starch color, especially b*, differed greatly between tartary (7.99–9.57) and common (1.97–2.42) buckwheat, indicating that removal of yellow pigments from tartary buckwheat flour may be problematic during starch isolation. Starch swelling volume in water of reference wheat starch (2.8% solids and 92.5°C) was 20.1 mL; for the three common buckwheat starches it was 27.4–28.0 mL; and for the three tartary buckwheat starches it was 26.5–30.8 mL. Peak gelatinization temperature (Tp) in water was 63.7°C for wheat starch, 66.3–68.8°C for common buckwheat and 68.8–70.8°C for tartary buckwheat. Tp of all samples was similarly delayed (by 4.0–4.8°C) by 1% NaCl. Enthalpy of gelatinization (ΔH) was higher for all six buckwheat starches than it was for wheat starch. However, one common buckwheat sample had significantly lower ΔH than the others. Starch pasting profiles, measured by a Rapid Visco‐Analyzer, were characteristic and similar for all six buckwheat starches, and very different from the reference wheat starch. A comparison of pasting characteristics of common and tartary buckwheat starches to wheat starch indicated similar peak viscosity, higher hot paste viscosity, higher cool paste viscosity, smaller effect of NaCl on peak viscosity, and higher resistance to shear thinning. Texture profile analysis of starch gels showed significantly greater hardness for all buckwheat samples when compared to wheat starch.
Scanning Probe Microscopes—Applications in Cereal Science
Authors: Shewry Peter R. , Miles Mervyn J. , Thomson Neil H. , Tatham Arthur S.
Published: June 2007

Scanning probe microscopes (SPMs) are a family of related instruments which can produce high‐resolution images of structures at the molecular and atomic levels. Their main impact so far has been in surface science, but they also have tremendous potential for the study of biomolecules. In this article we will briefly introduce the properties and principles of these instruments, and then discuss a range of preliminary studies from our laboratories in relation to future applications in cereal science.
Characterization and Quantification of Native Glutenin Aggregates by Multistacking Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS‐PAGE) Procedures
Authors: Huang Dong Yin , Khan Khalil
Published: June 2007

Native glutenin aggregates of two different quality flours containing the same high molecular weight (HMW) glutenin subunit compositions were investigated by multistacking sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS‐PAGE) procedures. Five stacking gels (4, 6, 8, 10, and 12%) with a separating (resolving) gel of 14% were used to separate nonreduced glutenin aggregates solubilized from flour by SDS sodium phosphate buffer. There were large differences in protein solubility of the two flours. It took 8 hr to extract 91% of total proteins from the strong flour (variety Len) while it took only 2 hr for the weak flour sample 205. Total glutenin proteins and the proportions of glutenins at the different origins (including the origin of the 14% separating gel) were quantified by high‐resolution densitometry procedures. As the duration of extraction increased, both total glutenins and glutenins at the 4% origins increased. The good quality flour Len had a higher total glutenin protein (3% more) and higher proportion of glutenins with the largest molecular sizes (also 3% more) at the 4% origins than the poor quality flour sample 205. After glutenin aggregates from each origin were reduced and analyzed by SDS‐PAGE, the largest glutenins at the 4% origin contained twice the amount of total HMW glutenin subunits when compared to the smaller aggregates at the 12% origin. Among the total HMW glutenin subunits, the proportion of subunit 5 (which published literature reports to be the largest molecular weight based on calculations of DNA‐derived amino acid sequence analysis) was twice that at the 12% origin. A randomized structure of native glutenins is proposed based on the results of our investigations.
Pilot‐Plant Wet‐Milling Process for Producing Corn Gluten Meal
Authors: Wu S. , Myers D. J. , Johnson L. A. , Fox S. R. , Singh S. K.
Published: June 2007

A pilot‐plant wet‐milling process was specially used to produce corn gluten meal (CGM) with a relatively high protein content (49.8% from Pioneer 3394 and 53.7% from Wilson D110). The protein content of the CGM obtained from a starch table in our pilot‐plant procedure was similar to the results obtained by using the hydrocyclone method. Wilson D110 has a higher protein content in its corn kernels, producing higher yield and protein content gluten than the Pioneer 3394, which has lower protein content in the corn. The effects of drying method and temperature on the color of CGM were also discussed.
Effects of Maize Hybrid and Meal Drying Conditions on Yield and Quality of Extracted Zein
Authors: Wu Shaowen , Myers Deland J. , Johnson Lawrence A.
Published: June 2007

Corn gluten meal (CGM) produced from two maize hybrids and subjected to five drying treatments were used to determine the effects of variables on zein extraction. Zein extraction yields, protein recoveries, and purities were higher in the CGM with the higher protein content. The yield and protein recovery of zein decreased as the drying temperature increased. Zein yield, protein recovery, and purity were significantly lower in the CGM subjected to freeze‐ and spray‐drying than in those subjected to oven‐drying. A relatively higher pH value in the CGM slurries was a characteristic of freeze‐ and spray‐dried CGM. An explanation of these results based on the mechanisms of protein changes during drying is given.
Whole Grain Amylose Analysis in Maize Using Near‐Infrared Transmittance Spectroscopy
Authors: Campbell M. R. , Brumm T. J. , Glover D. V.
Published: June 2007

The development of genetically modified starches has relied on the use of maize (Zea mays L.) endosperm mutant alleles that alter starch structural and physical properties. A rapid method for predicting amylose content would benefit breeders and commercial handlers of specialty starch corn. For this reason, a study was conducted to investigate the use of near‐infrared transmittance spectroscopy (NITS) as a rapid and nondestructive technique for predicting grain amylose content (GAC) in maize. Many single‐ and double‐mutant inbreds and hybrids were used to create a calibration set for the development of a predictive model using partial least squares analysis. A validation set composed of similar genetic material was used to test the prediction model. A coefficient of correlation (r) of 0.94 was observed between GAC values determined colorimetrically and those predicted by NITS; however, the predicted values were associated with a large standard error of prediction (SEP = 3.5). Overall, NITS discriminated well among high amylose and waxy genotypes. The NITS calibration was used to determine levels of contamination by normal kernels in waxy and high‐amylose (Amy VII) grain samples intended for wet milling. In both cases, a 5% contaminated sample could be detected from pure samples according to predicted NITS values.
Two Metal Ions Improve Brightness in Wheat‐Dough Products and Affect Aqueous Dispersion of Gluten
Authors: Vadlamani Keswara Rao , Seib Paul A.
Published: June 2007

Zinc and aluminum ions at 0.05% of wheat flour, dry basis (7.4 and 18.5 mmol/100 g, respectively), improved the brightness of raw and dried spaghetti and salt and alkaline noodles. They also retarded bacteria and yeast and mold growth in salt noodles held at 25°C for two days as determined by total plate counts. Neither metal ion caused a change in noodle cooking quality, but they imparted a slight aftertaste in cooked noodles. Wheat flour dough mixed with 0.05% zinc or 0.025% aluminum ion (fwb), when kneaded in aqueous 0.1% calcium chloride, gave gluten with increased brightness. Zinc and aluminum ions appear to complex with enzymic browning chromophores in wheat dough and gluten and change their spectral properties. Zinc and aluminum ions affected the dispersion of gluten in water at pH ~5.0 and facilitated its spray‐drying, but they were not detrimental to baking quality. Citric and tartaric acids at 5 mmol/100 g of gluten (db) gave wet gluten with pH ~4.5, which improved its brightness and water dispersibility.
Factors in Hard Wheat Flour Responsible for Reduced Cookie Spread
Authors: Miller R. A. , Hoseney R. C.
Published: June 2007

Time‐lapse photography showed that, during baking, the diameter of sugar‐snap cookies increased linearly then suddenly became fixed. Therefore, cookie diameter was a function of spread rate and set time. Cookies made with soft wheat flour were significantly larger in diameter (184 mm) than those made with hard wheat flour (161 mm). Cookies made with soft wheat flour set later (5.8 min) during baking than those made with hard wheat flour (5.1 min). The differences in set time within cookies made with various hard wheat flours or within cookies made with various soft wheat flours appeared to be affected by flour protein content. However, other factors also affected the difference in set time between cookies made with hard wheat and soft wheat flours. Cookies made with soft wheat flour spread at a faster rate (7.8 mm/min) than those made with hard wheat flour (4.6 mm/min). The level of soluble starch in the flour appeared to cause the difference in spread rate between cookies made with hard wheat and soft wheat flour. The higher level of soluble starch in hard wheat flour (0.352 ± 0.008%) than in soft wheat flour (0.152 ± 0.030%) increased dough viscosity, thus the spread rate was slower. However, soluble starch content did not explain the differences in spread rate within cookies made with various hard wheat flours or within cookies made with various soft wheat flours.
Yield of Starch and By‐Products in the Processing of Different Varieties of Wrinkled Peas on a Pilot Scale
Authors: Meuser F. , Pahne N. , Möller M.
Published: June 2007

A recently developed pilot‐scale process for the extraction of starch and by‐products from wrinkled peas was used to determine the attainable yield and purity of starch and by‐products from different varieties of these peas. It was shown that the starch yield mainly depends on the removal of the starch from the fibers. From the pilot scale experiments, it could be concluded that, for an industrial process, the optimum values of the total starch yield of wrinkled peas and the purity of the starch in relation to the starch content of the starch fraction would be ~80 and 98%, respectively. The best possible value that can be achieved for mechanical separation of the protein from the starch is in the range of 1.5% protein content of the starch fraction. The protein content can be adjusted to values ≤0.5% by alkali extraction of the starch fraction. Similar positive results cannot be achieved for the other fractions. In addition, the water flow balance in the pilot plant demonstrated that the process water flows can only be limited to an economically feasible size when applying membrane filter technology.
Application of the Single‐Kernel Characterization System to Wheat Receiving Testing and Quality Prediction
Authors: Osborne B. G. , Kotwal Z. , Blakeney A. B. , O'Brien L. , Shah S. , Fearn T.
Published: June 2007

Single‐kernel characterization system (SKCS) 4100 measurements on wheat were reproducible and stable and gave good correlations with relevant reference data, e.g., kernel weight vs. 1,000 kernel weight, kernel hardness vs. particle size index, and kernel moisture vs. oven moisture. Under field conditions at a receiving station in Coleambally (NSW, Australia), the SKCS 4100 operated faultlessly and the reproducibility of the results was as good as in the laboratory. The measurements were completed within the time taken for the normal testing sequence, and the histograms were shown to provide valuable information about the samples that would not otherwise be available. For example, the distribution of moisture contents of individual kernels provides additional information about the samples' potential storage stability. Data on the uniformity of hardness could be interpreted in terms of the potential of the wheat to provide a consistent milling performance. An imprecise (r2 = 0.44) but potentially useful calibration was obtained for the prediction of flour yield under test milling conditions using SKCS 4100 measurements on wheat. A much stronger correlation (r2 = 0.83) was obtained between SKCS data on wheat and the starch damage contents of flours produced on a pilot mill. Thus, the SKCS 4100 has the potential for early generation screening of wheat lines for flour yield and starch damage.
Single‐Stage Short‐Duration Tempering of Corn for Dry‐Milling
Authors: Mehra Suhas K. , Eckhoff S. R.
Published: June 2007

Pilot‐scale dry‐milling runs were conducted to study the feasibility of using a short‐duration single‐stage tempering procedure for the tempering‐degerminating system, instead of the 17.8–21.5 hr of conventional three‐stage tempering procedures reported in the scientific literature. Using a Beall degerminator No. 0, pilot‐scale dry‐milling experiments were conducted at 10 tempering levels: 0, 5, 10, 15, 30, 45, 60, 120, 180, and 240 min. Variation in moisture content of through‐ and tail‐stock fractions, degerminator throughput, ratio of tail‐ to through‐stock, yields of different sized grits from tail‐ and through‐stock fractions, and the recovery of germ and pericarp were used to compare tempering periods. A decrease in the milling action was observed for tempering durations >30 min. A tempering period of 15 min gave the highest grit recovery and a 30‐min tempering period resulted in the highest germ and pericarp recovery. Based on these results, it was concluded that short tempering periods of 10–30 min as compared to 17.8–21.5 hr could be used for the tempering‐degerminator system.
Effect of Roller Mill Extraction Rate on the Chapatti‐Making Quality of Canadian Flours
Authors: Hatcher D. W. , Kruger J. E. , Dhaliwal Y. S.
Published: June 2007

The effect of roller mill extraction rate on the chapatti‐making potential of Canadian wheat from six different classes was assessed. Objective measurement of texture including pliability, puncturability, and tearing force, in conjunction with color, discerned significant differences due to flour extraction rate as well as wheat class. The 85% extraction yield was determined by sensory panelists to yield the best chapatti. Analyses of objective measurements, HunterLab values L*, a*, and b*, in conjunction with sensory assessments, suggested that the optimum chapatti have a brightness (L*) of 75–79, redness (a*) of 1.5–4.0, and a yellowness (b*) >17. Sensory scoring compared with objective measurement indicated that a tearing force of <4.0 kg was necessary to achieve optimum panelist evaluation of tearing and chewability. The primary reasons for a fair rating were attributable to either a too white and nonwheaty taste for the low extraction flours or, in the case of the 95% extraction material, dark chapattis with a slightly off flavor. No chapatti prepared from any of the wheat classes or varying extraction rate flours resulted in an unacceptable rating. Evidence suggests that removal of low‐extraction mill‐streams, up to 40%, from a 85% extraction yield flour did not have a detrimental effect on chapatti quality.
Study of Three‐Dimensional Structure of Wheat Starch Granules Stained with Remazolbrilliant Blue Dye and Extracted with Aqueous Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate and Mercaptoethanol Solution
Authors: Seguchi Masaharu , Kanenaga Kazuko
Published: June 2007

Wheat starch granules were obtained from soft wheat flour by acetic acid fractionation (pH 3.5), and the starch was stained by reaction with Remazolbrilliant blue (RBB) dye. RBB‐stained starch was extracted with 1% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and 1% 2‐mercaptoethanol (ME) for 14.5 hr at room temperature. This extraction step was repeated five times (extracts 1–5). SDS‐ME extracts were subjected to size‐exclusion column chromatography, and comparisons of their profiles for specific absorbance at 650 nm (A650) and carbohydrates were made. After high molecular weight (HMW) carbohydrates on the starch granule surface were extracted, HMW carbohydrates inside the granule appeared to be extracted. Finally, low molecular weight (LMW) carbohydrates near the granule surface were extracted. Phase‐contrast light microscopy of the treated starch granules showed that all granules became transparent. Two different interior structures were observed. Scanning electron microscopy indicated that the granule was split into two parts at the equatorial groove. The interior of the granule showed two different areas: a central hole area and the surrounding stratified area. Extraction beyond five times with the same solvent dissolved the weak part of the granule structure and left two types of skeletal structures. The appearance of the skeletal structure of the granule surface was different from the appearance of interior structures.
Effect of Rice Starch‐Lipid Complexes on In Vitro Digestibility, Complexing Index, and Viscosity
Authors: Guraya Harmeet S. , Kadan Ranjit S. , Champagne Elaine T.
Published: June 2007

Effects of nonwaxy (21% amylose, 79% amylopectin) and waxy (100% amylopectin) rice starch‐lipid complexes on the rate of in vitro digestibility were determined. Long‐chain (≥C:18) saturated emulsifiers reduced digestibility more than short‐chain (<C:18) saturated and unsaturated emulsifiers when complexed with nonwaxy and waxy rice starch. The largest decrease in digestibility (33%) was achieved with Polyaldo 10‐1‐2 (100% C18:0 with decaglyceryl monostearate modification) for nonwaxy rice. Waxy rice starch did not complex with most of the emulsifiers, in contrast to nonwaxy rice starch. Most of the emulsifiers that reduced digestibility by 10% or less were composed of unsaturated monoglycerides, including some acetylated and succinylated monoglycerides. The fluid behavior of nonwaxy rice starch‐emulsifier solutions was more pseudoplastic than waxy rice starch‐emulsifier solutions. The consistency index varied with emulsifiers. The nonwaxy rice starchemulsifier solutions and some of those prepared using waxy rice starch would be suitable for semisolid food applications. The waxy rice starchemulsifier solutions with low consistency (0.4–0.7) and high‐flow behavior (0.7–0.8) indices would be suitable for beverage applications.
Comparisons of β‐Glucan Content of Barley and Oat
Authors: Lee C. J. , Horsley R. D. , Manthey F. A. , Schwarz P. B.
Published: June 2007

The cholesterol‐lowering effect of cereal grains has been associated with the soluble fiber component of dietary fiber. β‐Glucan is the major soluble fiber component of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and oat (Avena sativa L.). Much research has been conducted to determine the β‐glucan content of barley and oat genotypes from many different countries. However, genotypes of both crops always were grown in separate experiments, making direct comparisons between the two crops difficult. This study compares in the same experiment the β‐glucan content of nine barley and 10 oat genotypes grown at two locations in each of two years (i.e., four environments) in North Dakota. Averaged across genotypes, total β‐glucan content of barley and oat groat was similar. Soluble β‐glucan content of oat groat was greater than barley, and oat groat had a greater ratio of soluble‐to‐total β‐glucan than barley. The soluble β‐glucan content and ratio of soluble to total β‐glucan content of the “best” barley genotypes were less than that of oat genotypes with the highest levels of these two traits.
Rye and Triticale as Feedstock for Fuel Ethanol Production
Authors: Wang S. , Thomas K. C. , Ingledew W. M. , Sosulski K. , Sosulski F. W.
Published: June 2007

Normal gravity rye and triticale mashes, containing 20–21 g of dissolved solids per 100 mL of mash liquid, were fermented with active dry yeast at 27°C. Fermentations were completed within 48 hr for rye, and within 72 hr for triticale. Supplementation of mashes with urea at a concentration of 8 mM accelerated rates of sugar consumption and fermentation, and reduced fermentation time from 48 to 36 hr for rye, and from 72 to 48 hr for triticale. Rye fermented faster than triticale, due to its higher level of free amino nitrogen. Ethanol yields were 356–363 L/tonne of 14% moisture rye grain, and 362–367 L/tonne of 14% moisture triticale. Fermentation efficiencies, which were 90–91% for triticale, and 91–93% for rye, and ethanol yields were comparable to those obtained from wheat and were not affected significantly by urea supplementation. The replacement of wheats by less expensive crops such as rye and triticale would provide good economic opportunities and alternatives for the fuel alcohol industry.
Intermittent Milling and Dynamic Steeping Process for Corn Starch Recovery
Authors: Lopes‐Filho J. F. , Buriak P. , Tumbleson M. E. , Eckhoff S. R.
Published: June 2007

A procedure that reduces diffusional limitations by periodically milling the corn to reduce particle size and stirring the ground mash in the presence of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and lactic acid was developed. The process, called intermittent milling and dynamic steeping (IMDS), includes three main stages: initial soaking (a short‐time immersion in water) of whole kernels, initial cracking of the partially hydrated kernels, and dynamic steeping with interspersed milling. This study evaluated the three stages of the process separately, evaluating the effect of variables on each stage of the process. Corn fractions yield (germ, fiber, gluten, starch) were used to decide the best conditions for the soaking and steeping stages, and germ damage was used to determine the best kernel cracking method. Starch, gluten, and germ yields were not affected by soak temperatures (52–68°C) or soak time (1–3 hr). A temperature of 60°C was chosen for soaking because it increased the rate of kernel hydration without gelatinizing starch, which happens at higher temperatures. A 2‐hr soak time was preferred because there was less fiber in the germ fraction and less germ damage was observed. Although there were no advantage to using SO2 or lactic acid in the soak water, the presence of these compounds during dynamic steeping enhanced starch yield. The starch yield for 3 hr of dynamic steeping was not statistically different from the starch yield for a 7.5‐hr dynamic steep. The Bauer mill was preferred over the use of a roller mill or a commercial grade Waring blender for kernel cracking. The IMDS process produced, on an average, 1 percentage point more starch than the conventional 36‐hr steeping process. Total steep or kernel preparation time was reduced from 24–40 hr for conventional wet‐milling to 5 hr for the IMDS process.
Influence of Kernel Size and Shriveling on Soft Wheat Milling and Baking Quality
Authors: Gaines C. S. , Finney P. L. , Andrews L. C.
Published: June 2007

Small kernels of soft wheat are sometimes considered to be harder than larger kernels and to have inferior milling and baking characteristics. This study distinguished between kernel size and kernel shriveling. Nine cultivars were separated into large, medium, and small kernels that had no shriveling. Eleven cultivars were separated into sound, moderate, and severely shriveled kernels. Shriveling greatly decreased the amount of flour produced during milling. It adversely affected all other milling quality characteristics (ash content, endosperm separation index, and friability). Shriveled kernels produced flour that had inferior soft wheat baking qualities (smaller cookie diameter and higher alkaline water retention capacity). In contrast, test weight and milling qualities were independent of kernel size. Small, nonshriveled kernels had slightly better baking quality (larger cookie diameter) than larger nonshriveled kernels. Small kernels were softer than large kernels (measured by break flour yield, particle size index, and flour particle size). Small nonshriveled kernels did not have diminished total flour yield potential or other reduced flour milling characteristics. Those observations suggest a possibility of separating small sound kernels from small shriveled kernels to improve flour yield and the need to improve dockage testing estimation techniques to distinguish between small shriveled and small nonshriveled kernels.
Factors Affecting Viscosity of Slurries of Oat Groat Flours
Authors: Zhang Decai , Doehlert Douglas C. , Moore Wayne R.
Published: June 2007

Oat grain is routinely kilned and steamed before milling to develop flavor and to inactivate lipid‐degrading enzymes. Heat treatments can significantly affect viscous properties, which have functional and nutritional importance. Oat flour slurries (23%, w/w, solids dry basis) made from steamed (for 20 min) or autoclaved (at 121°C, 15 psi, for 10 min) grain developed high viscosities, whereas flour slurries made from raw or kilned (105°C for 90 min) oats did not. Flour slurries made from raw groats, surface‐sterilized by 1% hypochlorite, were more viscous than untreated raw groat flour slurries, suggesting that β‐glucan hydrolases on the surface of the groat caused the viscosity losses observed in raw or kilned groats. However, because viscosities developed by surface‐sterilized groats were not as great as in steamed oat‐flour slurries and because some roasting treatments also inactivated enzymes without enhancing viscosity, it appears steaming might also affect the β‐glucan polymer, resulting in its greater hydration in solution. Smaller particle size and higher incubation temperature also resulted in increased flour slurry viscosity, presumably because of increased hydration of the β‐glucan. Rmoval of lipids from steamed oat flour significantly increased the oat flour slurry viscosity, apparently by increasing the β‐glucan concentration in the flour.
Starch Lipids of Barley and Malt
Authors: Kaukovirta‐Norja A. , Reinikainen P. , Olkku J. , Laakso S.
Published: June 2007

Barley and malt starches were compared with respect to their lipid content and composition. The starch lipids were first fractionated into internal and surface lipid fractions followed by lipid class and fatty acid analyses of each fraction. Barley starch contained 13 mg/g lipids, of which 9.3 mg were internal lipids and 3.7 mg were surface lipids. The total lipid content of malt starches varied between 11 and 13 mg/g of starch. However, malt starch contained only 1 mg of surface lipids; therefore, the internal lipid contents were as high as or even higher than those in the corresponding fraction of barley starch. Lipid class analyses suggested that the ability for hydrolysis of starch surface lipids was increased in malt. The hydrolysis occurred during the malting or the isolation process, resulting in reduced surface lipid content in malt starch. However, no reduction in the portion of polyunsaturated fatty acids was seen; therefore, lipid oxidation could not have been responsible for the lower content of malt starch surface lipids. Also, not only was the content of starch internal lipids higher in malt, but the composition of these lipids was different when compared to barley starch. The increase in starch internal lipids during malting may be due to transportation and reacylation of free fatty acids that had been liberated by hydrolysis from surface lipids.
Determination of Damaged Starch and Diastatic Activity in Wheat Flour Using a Flow‐Injection Analysis Biosensor Method
Authors: Haginoya Ryuichi , Sakai Kunio , Komatsu Takashi , Nagao Seiichi , Yokoyama Kenji , Takeuchi Toshifumi , Matsukawa Ritsuko , Karube Isao
Published: June 2007

The determination of damaged starch and diastatic activity in flour was studied using a flow‐injection analysis (FIA) biosensor system. The system consisted of an oxygen electrode and an immobilized enzyme column containing purified glucoamylase and glucose oxidase immobilized on activated aminopropyl glass beads. The biosensor system has an optimum pH between 6.5 and 7.5 and an optimum temperature of 35°C for glucose measurement. The response of the FIA biosensor was linear up to 1.000 g/L of glucose with a lower detection limit of 0.025 g/L. Each assay took about 20 min, and the system showed good reproducibility (r = 0.998, n = 8). When applied to the measurement of damaged starch and diastatic activity in wheat flour, the results obtained agreed with those obtained using the conventional methods of measurement. This biosensor system is a rapid practical alternative for the measurement of damaged starch and diastatic activity in wheat flour.
Quantitative Analysis of Corn Zeins by Capillary Electrophoresis
Authors: Parris Nicholas , Dickey Leland , Craig James
Published: June 2007

Kjeldahl analysis is commonly used to measure zein proteins in corn maize (N × 5.7) with no attempt to eliminate contribution from other nitrogen sources. In this study, dry milled corn was extracted with 70% ethanol or 0.1N NaOH and the zein content of the extract measured using capillary electrophoresis in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate. The amount of zein protein in alcohol extracts, using this method, was in good agreement with that determined by Kjeldahl nitrogen analysis. However, less than half of the Kjeldahl nitrogen in the alkaline extracts could be attributed to corn zein. Reproducibility expressed as relative standard deviation for migration time and peak area was 0.10 and 1.05, respectively. The technique permits rapid analysis of a large number of samples without interference from other compounds present in the extracts.
Physicochemical Properties of Australian Flours Influencing the Texture of Yellow Alkaline Noodles
Authors: Ross A. S. , Quail K. J. , Crosbie G. B.
Published: June 2007

Flour properties of 25 Australian wheat cultivars were examined for their relationship to alkaline noodle quality. Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA) analyses of flours showed that RVA breakdown and final viscosity determined in both water and dilute sodium carbonate were significantly related to the alkaline noodle firmness, elasticity, and surface smoothness. Flour swelling volume (FSV) of flours was negatively correlated with alkaline noodle firmness and elasticity, and positively correlated with surface smoothness of cooked noodles. Use of a dilute sodium carbonate solution led to overall increases in both paste viscosity and FSV. High FSV and low RVA final viscosity values were associated with both the softest noodles and with cultivars containing a null allele for granule‐bound starch synthase on chromosome 4A. Flour protein content and SDS sedimentation volumes were significantly related to noodle texture. The relationship between protein content and noodle firmness was dependent on the Null4A status of the flours and suggested an interaction between starch and protein in determining noodle texture. Multiple regression analysis using flour protein and FSV accounted for 76% of the variation in alkaline noodle firmness. A speculative model of noodle structure was developed based on a concept of the cooked noodle as a composite material.
Extraction of Wheat Starch with Aqueous Sodium Hydroxide
Authors: Matsunaga Naoko , Seib Paul A.
Published: June 2007

Wheat starch was extracted with aqueous sodium hydroxide at 30–38% starch solids, pH 11.5–12.3, and 25–42°C for 0.17–24 hr. Stirring wheat starch at pH 12.3 and 25°C for 3 and 24 hr, then washing with water, neutralizing, and washing again, removed 70 and 90% phosphorus (P), respectively. Adding 16% sodium sulfate (dry starch basis) into the alkaline medium removed ≈80% of P at pH 12.0 and 25°C in 3 hr and >95% of P at pH 11.7 and 42°C in 3 hr. Sulfate ion was absorbed strongly by wheat starch in aqueous sodium hydroxide at pH 12.0, and sodium sulfate also increased the starch's uptake of hydroxide ion. Low‐P wheat starch (>90% of P removed) retained the fatty acids in the untreated starch, but a fatty acid‐amylose complex was not detectable by differential scanning colorimetry. The enthalpy of gelatinization of the low‐P wheat starch almost matched that of prime starch, as did its X‐ray diffraction pattern. Those data are consistent with saponification of the lysophospholipid in the amorphous phase of the starch to form fatty acid salts and glycerol‐choline or glycerol‐ethanolamine phosphodiesters that slowly diffused out of the granules. The low‐P wheat starch was judged to have less “cereal” odor than the prime starch, and its pasting temperature at 9.3% starch solids was lowered by ≈10°C.
Effect of Steeping Conditions on Wet‐Milling Characteristics of Hard Red Winter Wheat
Authors: Yuan J. , Chung D. S. , Seib P. A. , Wang Y.
Published: June 2007

A batch‐wise small‐scale wet‐processing laboratory for whole wheat kernel has been designed and constructed to produce wheat starch and gluten from wheat grains. Hard red winter wheat kernels were steeped in three steeping media: SO2 solution, lactic acid, and hydrochloric acid. Acid concentrations of 0.1, 0.3, and 0.5%, were used for SO2 solutions and hydrochloric acid, and 0.1, 0.6, and 3.0% for lactic acid. After 16, 20, and 24 hr of steeping, the wheat was wet‐milled. Yields and protein contents of wet‐milling fractions were compared. Both high concentration of steeping media and long steeping time increased the starch yield and decreased the protein contents of the starch. However, the steeping time and acid concentration could be reduced from 24 to 20 hr and from 0.5 to 0.3%, respectively, without any statistically significant difference in starch yields or protein contents of the starch. Consistency and color of the starch were affected by both steeping time and acid concentrations of steeping media.
Isolation and Functionality Testing of Low Molecular Weight Glutenin Subunits
Authors: Sissons M. J. , Bekes F. , Skerritt J. H.
Published: June 2007

Various protein fractionation techniques have been applied to the isolation and purification of milligram quantities of low molecular weight glutenin subunits (LMW‐GS). No single technique was applicable to the purification of the majority of the subunits. Partial purification of certain LMW‐GS was obtained using ion‐exchange chromatography and reversedphase HPLC. Preparations containing α‐ and γ‐type subunit sequences did not strengthen dough when incorporated into a base flour, whereas preparations containing a subunit with an N‐terminal methionine residue (METSHIPGL‐) did. Using preparative isoelectric focusing over a narrow pH range, it was possible to purify (to ≈90% purity) a B subunit that also had the N‐terminal sequence of METSHIPGL‐. This polypeptide, when incorporated into a base flour, had a dough strengthening effect in mixing trials, but less so than an equivalent amount of a high molecular weight glutenin subunit.
Springiness of Pancake and Its Relation to Binding of Prime Starch to Tailings in Stored Wheat Flour
Authors: Seguchi Masaharu , Hayashi Machiko , Kanenaga Kazuko , Ishihara Chiho , Noguchi Satoko
Published: June 2007

Wheat flours were stored at room temperature (15–25°C), 40, 60, 80, and 100°C for various times. The baking performance of these flours was then evaluated in terms of the springiness of pancakes (recovery from crushing). Baking performance improved with increased storage time at each temperature. Brabender Amylograph tests of the flours indicated that the onset temperature in viscosity decreased with increased storage time at each temperature. When the flours were fractionated by acetic acid (pH 3.5) with mortar and pestle, recoveries of the water‐solubles and gluten fractions were unchanged, but recoveries of prime starch and tailings fractions changed remarkably with increased storage time. On the other hand, those changes were not observed when flours were fractionated with a Waring blender. The binding of prime starch to tailings was correlated significantly with baking performance.
Quality Response of Twelve Hard Red Winter Wheat Cultivars to Foliar Disease Across Four Locations in Central Kansas
Authors: Puppala Vamshidhar , Herrman Timothy J. , Bockus William W. , Loughin Thomas M.
Published: June 2007

Twelve hard red winter wheat cultivars were grown at four locations in central Kansas to evaluate the role of foliar fungal diseases on wheat end‐use quality in 1995. Disease was allowed to develop naturally on control plots and was controlled partially on plots treated with a systemic fungicide. After harvest, wheat samples were evaluated for the impact of the disease complex (leaf rust, tan spot, speckled leaf blotch) on physical grain quality, grain protein, milling properties, flour absorption, and peak mixing time. Data were analyzed using a mixed model to account for random (location and block) and fixed (cultivar and fungicide) effects. Location significantly influenced quality characteristics except kernel size and peak mixing time. The magnitudes of variation among random effects on all quality characteristics were larger for location than for the interactions between location × cultivar and location × fungicide. The fixed effects portion of the analysis revealed that the cultivar × fungicide treatment interaction significantly affected test weight, kernel protein, and flour absorption. Fungicide treatment resulted in significant increases in yield and kernel weight. Cultivar significantly affected all quality characteristics except kernel size and peak mixing time. Disease resistance exerted a significant influence on yield and test weight. The economic benefit associated with improved wheat quality from fungicide treatment was variety specific. Three cultivars (TAM 107, Karl 92, and Ike), which account for 50% of the 1997 planted wheat acres in Kansas, demonstrated positive improvements in test weight and protein in response to fungicide treatment.
Isolation of Amaranth Starch by Diluted Alkaline‐Protease Treatment
Authors: Radosavljevic M. , Jane J. , Johnson L. A.
Published: June 2007

Starch was isolated from Amaranthus cruentus seeds by different alkaline treatments and combinations of low alkaline steeping and protease treatments. For low alkaline‐protease treatments, amaranth seeds were steeped in a NaOH solution (0.05%, pH 12) for 22 hr to loosen the protein matrix and ground. The pH of the ground slurry was adjusted to 7.5 and subjected to a protease (from Aspergillus sojae) treatment. The slurry was incubated with 1 or 0.5% of the protease (based on total amount of seeds) for 2 hr at 37°C and 50 rpm. The starch was then isolated by screening and centrifugation. This method produced starch with a low protein content (≤0.2%) and a high recovery (≈80%). Amaranth starch isolated by alkaline treatments were also studied by using various concentrations of NaOH steeping solutions and with or without alkaline solution during grinding and washing. The properties of amaranth starch isolated by alkaline and low alkaline‐protease treatments were analyzed and compared. The properties of the amaranth starch were also compared with those of normal and waxy maize starches.
Filtration Characteristics of Maize and Wheat Starch Hydrolysates
Authors: Master Ariette M. , Steeneken Peter A. M.
Published: June 2007

Starch hydrolysates were prepared by one‐ or two‐stage hydrolysis with α‐amylase. The filtration rate of wheat starch hydrolysates was considerably lower than that of maize starch hydrolysates. Omitting the second conversion step lowered the filtration rates of wheat and maize starch hydrolysates. Increasing the incubation time or the enzyme dosage resulted in an increase of the filtration rate of maize starch hydrolysates due to the increase in the dextrose equivalent. These process variables did not influence the filtration rate of wheat starch hydrolysates. Wheat starch hydrolysates had very poor filtration characteristics: low filtration rates, almost no removal of undesired components, and obstruction of the filter cake. On the contrary, maize starch hydrolysates showed good filtration characteristics: a high filtration rate and removal of the largest part of the undesired components. On storage, wheat starch hydrolysates separated into three layers. The intermediate fraction had a higher filtration rate than the total hydrolysate. Adding small amounts of the upper or lower layers to dextrose solutions decreased the filtration rate to that of a wheat starch hydrolysate. This was due to an increase of the protein and lipid concentration.
Enzyme‐Assisted Wet Separation of Starch from Other Seed Components of Hull‐less Barley
Authors: Zheng G.‐H. , Bhatty R. S.
Published: June 2007

A multiple enzyme cocktail containing cellulase, endo‐(1→3), (1→4)‐β‐d‐glucanase and xylanase was used in wet separation of starch, protein, β‐glucan, bran, and tailings from four hull‐less barleys (HB): SB94794 (0% amylose), CDC Candle (5% amylose), CDC Dawn (24% amylose), and SB550831 (40% amylose). Compared to a conventional procedure, the enzyme‐assisted wet extraction reduced slurry viscosity by 50–99%, the amount of water and ethanol used in screening and β‐glucan precipitation by 30–60%, and screening time by 20–80%. The enzyme‐assisted extraction reduced starch contents and yields of tailings and bran fractions, resulting in a 10% increase in average starch extraction efficiency. However, β‐glucan yield was reduced in the enzyme‐assisted extraction, particularly in high‐viscosity HB. The physicochemical properties of isolated starches were not affected by the enzyme‐assisted extraction.
Structure and Pasting Properties of Oat Starch
Authors: Zhou Meixue , Robards Kevin , Glennie‐Holmes Malcolm , Helliwell Stuart
Published: June 2007

Following a period of declining food use, oats are now increasing in importance because of perceived nutritional benefits. The pasting properties of oat starch were regarded as similar to those of other cereal starches until the development of instruments with a more rapid mixing system than the amylograph showed characteristic differences in oats. These differences in pasting properties offer opportunities for novel products in both food and industrial areas. The structure, composition, and pasting properties of oat starch are reviewed, with particular emphasis on methods of measurement. Future directions of research in this area are suggested.
Origins of the Poor Filtration Characteristics of Wheat Starch Hydrolysates
Authors: Matser Ariette M. , Steeneken Peter A. M.
Published: June 2007

The effects of wheat starch components on the filtration characteristics of wheat starch hydrolysates were investigated with a model‐based approach. The filtration rate was not affected by the removal of the pentosans or by altering the conformation of the protein. On the other hand, the filtration rate increased when a hydrolysate was defatted with chloroform or butanol. Some commercially available enzymes also increased the filtration rate. The filtration rate of potato starch hydrolysates decreased when gluten, pentosans, solubles, or propanol extract from defatted wheat starch were added. The latter had by far the largest effect. The composition of this extract was 65% lipid and 11% protein. The main lipid in wheat starch is lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC). This single‐chain lipid forms micelles above a concentration of 0.025 g/kg. The filtration rate decreased when LPC was added to potato starch hydrolysates or glucose solutions at concentrations above the critical micelle concentration. This effect of LPC on glucose solutions proves that the filtration characteristics are not related to the formation of amylose‐lipid complexes. Therefore, micelle formation must be responsible for the effect of LPC on the filtration rate. The critical micelle concentration is only 2.5% of the amount of lysophospholipids in wheat starch hydrolysates. Thus, almost all of these lipids have to be removed from wheat starch hydrolysates to increase the filtration rate.
Structure of Lysophosphatidylglyceryl‐Remazolbrilliant Blue (LPG‐RBB) from the Surface of Dyed Wheat Starch Granules
Authors: Seguchi Masaharu , Kanenaga Kazuko
Published: June 2007

Wheat starch granule surface was covalently stained with Remazolbrilliant blue‐R dye (RBB) and then extracted with 1% SDS containing 1% 2‐mercaptoethanol (2‐ME) at room temperature for 14.5 hr. The extracted blue‐staining material (A650) separated into two fractions. Low molecular weight (LMW) material was further purified by Sephadex G‐75 size‐exclusion chromatography and thin‐layer chromatography. Infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance (1H‐NMR and 13C‐NMR) spectroscopy indicated that the structure of the purified LMW material was 18‐O‐(6‐lysophosphatidylglyceryl)‐RBB.
Measuring and Modeling Grain Sorption Equilibria of Amaranth Grains
Authors: Pollio María Lucía , Tolaba Marcela P. , Suárez Constantino
Published: June 2007

Water activity (aw)of Amaranthus cruentus were measured at 35, 45, and 65°C at different moisture contents by means of an electronic water activity meter. Experimental curves were fitted to one three‐parameter equation (GAB equation). The equilibrium values and temperature shifts were modeled with a three‐parameter equation in the approximate aw range of 0.03–0.88. An analytical expression to calculate the isosteric heat of sorption and its moisture content dependence was used, and the results were compared with the isosteric heat calculated from the experimental equilibrium data by means of the Clausius‐Clapeyron equation.