bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Implications of the Race Between Economics and Population in Latin America
Authors: James Preston E.
Published: March 2007

Hunger is the price today of the race between economics and population in Latin America. Thus, the pri mary problem is to achieve an adequate food supply at prices which the poor people can afford. The changes in economics and population must be seen in the perspective of the indus trial revolution and the democratic revolution. The industrial revolution has provided the means to achieve a better life and the democratic revolution has provided the desire for and awareness of a better life. But the industrial revolution has also brought in its wake increased poverty. The industrial revolution, for example, tremendously advanced the public health services, but as the death rate declined population in creased and more mouths needed to be fed. The industrial revolution by modernizing agricultural production increased the food supply but it also released people from the land who could earn higher wages in the cities. As the demand for and the price of food increased, less and less people could afford to buy the food. Thus, the hunger problem, and the need for tremendously increased agricultural productivity arose. Co operative efforts among many disciplines are needed to devise balanced development programs—programs that will stimu late economic growth in Latin America but will obviate in creased hardships.—Ed.
The Argentine Paradox
Authors: Whitaker Arthur P.
Published: March 2007

The Frondizi government in Argentina is com mitted to democratic principles and international co-operation, but the Argentine people are committed to rabid nationalism and political fragmentation. A permanent crisis in Argentina since 1930 has produced extreme fragmentation, as distin guished from pluralism, and has made it necessary for the military actively to protect the stability and integrity of what ever government holds office. Although the behavior of the Argentines is generally typical of the behavior of peoples in underdeveloped countries, Argentina has long enjoyed national independence and has been well developed. The middle class is large, and literacy is high. Argentine nationalism cannot be explained as a simple function of the struggle for political in dependence and economic development. Following the Perón debacle, however, Frondizi was compelled by economic neces sity to adopt unpopular policies of economic stability and austerity. The resistance of the people to these has increased the dependence of Frondizi upon the military. Unless great successes are obtained before the Frondizi term expires, the policies which have come to be identified with him will almost certainly be reversed, and a situation similar to that in Cuba may result. In the immediate future, the United States, with out being charged with interventionism, can only offer the help Argentina solicits. In the long run, the United States can advise and assist the Argentines, as Americans, in finding a solution for themselves.—Ed.
The Revolution Next Door: Cuba
Authors: Fitzgibbon Russell H.
Published: March 2007

The Cuban Revolution, led by the charismatic Fidel Castro, is remarkably complex. Its causes were varied: the long overshadowing by the United States, social and eco nomic imbalances, and others. Castro, himself a complex per sonality, has led it along an erratic path of development, but probably much constructive reform has been accomplished. The Revolution has been chiefly social and economic, not politi cal. Fidel Castro, his brother Raul, and Dr. Ernesto Guevara have quite different personalities, but Fidel alone dominates the Revolution. In recent months, the movement has shifted far to the left, due to both positive and negative factors; Rus sian and Chinese Communist influence is now considerable. The major defects of the Revolution include its failure to de velop institutional apparatus other than the Communist party, its cavalier attitude toward freedom of expression, and the abandonment by masses of the people of any wish to think for themselves. The Revolution has had an enormous impact on Latin America and, hence, naturally, on the United States as well.
Will Most Uncommitted Nations Remain Uncommitted?
Authors: Debrah E.M.
Published: March 2007

To the newly independent state, the assertion of its particular personality and the development of its own mate rial and spiritual culture are morè pertinent and real issues than the choosing of sides in the Cold War. The question of good or evil for an emerging African state is not a question of East or West but a question of poverty or development. Neutralism, as conceived by Ghana, is positive. It does not imply suspension of judgment; it means, rather, the conscien tious exercise of judgment in strict accordance with the merits of the issues, not with regard to the contesting parties. Two principal problems for the uncommitted nations in their rela tions with the great power blocs are military bases and eco nomic aid. The neutrals who reject military bases do so in the belief that bases do not reduce the risk of war. In matters of economic aid, the West has a record of which it can be proud. It is unrealistic, however, to expect independent coun tries who need aid in order to develop their resources to decline it when offered by any country which shows a real desire to assist their economic development. In its economic system, Ghana follows a pattern of socialism designed to make avail able to the country all the resources that can be directed to ward its goal. The foreign policy of Ghana is based upon the desire to have Africa put its own house in order to the fullest extent possible. The future of neutralism depends upon general acceptance of the independence and sovereignty of the neutral countries, upon assistance from peace-loving coun tries to make the new countries economically viable, and upon general acceptance by all the nations of equal dignity of all men regardless of color or geography.—Ed.
Will Latin America Continue to Adhere to the West?
Authors: Mora José A.
Published: March 2007

The Americas, North and South, Anglo and Latin, are close to each other in their discovery, traditions, and cultural and philosophical climate, despite differences be tween the dominant settling nations. The spirit of independ ence, the willingness of the colonies to revolt against their mother countries, is characteristic. The aspiration to personal freedom and political emancipation has been common to the citizens of the Americas since the earliest struggles against colonial domination. Liberal ideas developed in Europe or the United States have been received in Latin-American life. A striking difference in conscious emphasis between Anglo- and Latin America is the Latin-American emphasis upon spiritual values, as opposed to an emphasis upon material or pragmatic values, the contrast of Ariel and Caliban, but a harmonious contrast between North and South. The role of Latin America at the United Nations has been to favor and support the eman cipation of all peoples, defending the right to self-determina tion, respect for human rights, and equality among creeds and races, all of which is only a development of Western doctrines in their highest moral, philosophic, and even religious aspects. The Atlantic, far from dividing Latin America from the West, facilitates interchange at a moment when tendencies have arisen toward supranational groupings of states. The eco nomic and commercial interests which once brought the dis covery of America now open new prospects for increasingly close and fruitful interchange between the Old World and the New.—Ed.
Organizing Medical Care Programs to Meet Health Needs
Authors: Donabedian Avedis , Axelrod S.J.
Published: March 2007

Medical care in the United States is organized around a large number of agencies both governmental and non- governmental, with insufficient co-ordination among them and no effective machinery for over-all planning. There are short ages and maldistribution of both personnel and facilities. The rise in specialization has resulted in continued decline in the number and status of the family physician. Organized group practice, which may offer one possible answer to the fragmenta tion and depersonalization of medical care, has increased, but not to the extent of making a significant impact on the prevail ing solo, fee-for-service pattern of medical practice. Hospitals face especially acute problems in the form of rapidly increasing costs and shortages of staff. Facilities for the care of the chronically ill and aged are insufficient in number and the care they offer is often far from adequate. Some trends that may presage a more rational organization of medical services are the concentration of community medical resources in and around voluntary hospitals; the differentiation of care within hospitals to fit patient needs more closely; the development of hospital-based services for ambulatory and homebound pa tients ; and increasing consideration to the establishment of closer relationships among hospitals, nursing homes, and other facilities serving a given region.
Procedures Before Trial
Authors: Miller Frank W. , Remington Frank J.
Published: March 2007

The arrest of a suspected offender is the first official action in a criminal case. Then, the prosecuting at torney must decide whether to charge or not. For borderline business misconduct, default of family obligations, or similar offenses, except with habitual offenders, a settlement is sought rather than prosecution. The prosecuting attorney must deter mine whether to charge the most serious offense for which the evidence will support a finding of probable cause. With the multiple offender, it must be decided whether to prosecute for one or all of the offenses committed and, if the latter, whether to prosecute once or successively. Usually, the willingness of the offender to plead guilty is taken into account in deciding upon a charge and, sometimes, in fixing sentence later. A complaint sworn to by a private complainant or by the police officer and a warrant issued by a magistrate are the documents representative of the decision to charge. All suspects must be brought promptly before a magistrate to hear the reading of the warrant. Minor offenses triable by a magistrate may be tried summarily. For more serious offenses, a preliminary examination will be scheduled, if the suspect desires, and bail will be set. Where a grand jury is used, it performs the same function as the preliminary examination. If the preliminary examination or the grand jury finds probable cause to believe the suspect guilty, the suspect is bound over to a court of trial jurisdiction.—Ed.
Automation Outside the United States
Authors: Morse David A.
Published: March 2007

Today, automated equipment can be found in all parts of the world. In the industrial countries, automation has gone beyond the experimental stage and has turned into a rapidly growing movement. In the developing countries, in dividual examples of automation exist, but they are still rare and isolated. Technically, automation is everywhere alike. But the reasons for its utilization, and its social and economic impact, vary between countries according to their stage of de velopment, international trade factors, employment situation, skill level of the labor force, and other factors. So far, there has been little evidence that automation causes unemployment, particularly in Europe where labor shortages are on the in crease, although a certain amount of dislocation is inevitable in the transitional stages. A variety of social measures, com bined with early consultation of the workers affected, should help effect a reasonably smooth transition until the benefits of higher productivity may be reflected in the economy in the form of more job opportunities. The International Labour Organisation has devoted much attention to the social impact of automation and expects this field to remain at the forefront of its preoccupations for many years to come.
Tribalism, Nationalism, and Pan-Africanism
Authors: Bascom William R.
Published: March 2007

Tribalism, no longer an obstacle to self-govern ment in Africa, is still an obstacle to national unity. In Ghana, national solidarity has been built by eliminating effec tive opposition. In the Congo, tribalism has produced con flict and violence. In Nigeria, a middle course of federation has been pursued. Balkanized by rival European powers in the past, African boundary lines impose artificial divisions on already complex patterns of tribal and subtribal groupings. In some instances, tribal ties have been successfully exploited to develop a sense of national identification. Growing na tionalism, however, may become a future obstacle to broader African identification. The smallness in area and population of many colonial territories increases the urgency of African federation if independent and viable African nations are to emerge and operate in a world context. The basic responsi bility for solving these problems from the past belongs to the Africans themselves, and a solution clearly lies in merging the smaller territories with larger ones. Precedents have already been established. Thus far, Pan-Africanism has produced vigorous and sometimes almost blind stands against colonial ism. For the future, federation can increase the stature of African nations and multiply the effectiveness of work that must be done in economic development, education, communi cations, technical services, social services, and related fields.— Ed.
The Appeals of Communism in Asia
Authors: Johnstone William C.
Published: March 2007

Assessment of the appeals of communism in Asia is handicapped by false conceptions and generalizations about the peoples of South and Southeast Asia. In Western writings and in the Western press, they are identified as "Asians," although they do not accept this identification them selves. Communist appeals are directed at the ethnic-lin guistic groups within each state. We have not analyzed the reasons why the peoples of the countries of southern Asia do not agree with us about the dangers of Communist expansion and world domination. We have not understood the bases for their attitudes which focus on different problems. Com munist appeals are more carefully directed to meet the real concerns of the peoples of this area. We tend to view the problems of communism as a contest in which one side must be a winner, and we tend to be impatient with those who are not either for us or against the Communists. This is illustrated by the many references to the contest between India and China as one of democracy versus communism. The impression is left that people in other Asian countries are watching this con test closely. Nothing could be farther from the truth. If we are successfully to counter the appeals of communism in Asia, we must study and investigate the history, culture, political behavior, and norms of conduct of the peoples in each country, particularly during the colonial period. We must know why segments of the people in each country think as they do and act as they do. This requires concerted research with at tempts to answer questions which are relevant to American policy formulation and action.
The Influence of Congress in the Formulation of Disarmament Policy
Authors: Clark Joseph S.
Published: March 2007

In Congress and throughout the country, we have failed to readjust our thinking about disarmament to accom modate the fact of international life that two great powers have the present capability of destroying civilization. Congres sional influence over disarmament policy, for good or bad, has and will be great. The influence of the Senate is important because of its veto power over treaties. The House of Rep resentatives must appropriate funds to make a treaty effective. Common sense and history strongly indicate that Senate mem bers should at least be named as advisers to the delegation at Geneva. Owing in part to staffing deficiencies and in part to lack of funds, congressional knowledge of the United States position on disarmament is poor. Few in Congress know or care about weaknesses in the United States position at Geneva which it would be within the power of Congress to improve. The Disarmament Agency is short staffed, due to appropria tion cuts as well as to statutory security requirements. Advice and consent is needed, if only to help the agency avoid political pitfalls in its relations with Congress. Constructive, intel ligent criticism by Congress, on and off the record, can and must be increased. The incentive for Congress to be construc tive rather than destructive must come from the grass roots of public opinion.—Ed.
A Behavioral Approach to the Study of Intergovernmental Relations
Authors: Ostrom Vincent , Ostrom Elinor
Published: March 2007

The study of intergovernmental relationships re quires a systemic approach to phenomena involving the inter action of many large-scale organizations. The concept of an industry, borrowed from economics, is used to characterize a set of interrelated public enterprises which makes use of a com mon body of knowledge and methods in the production of similar goods or services. The disparity of interests within an industry is related to diversity in the organization of separate enterprises in a public industry. The problem of regulating the interrelationships among numerous public agencies functioning in a public industry is then considered. Study of the structure, conduct, and performance of different public industries which form a part of the American public enterprise system offers an approach to the systemic study of intergovernmental relation ships.
Can Pax Americana Succeed?
Authors: Fleming D.F.
Published: March 2007

With the election of President Johnson, the American people had every right to expect the lessening of cold-war tensions and defense expenditures and increased government attention to the serious and long-standing domestic problems of the nation. However, the decision to use force in Vietnam has done irreparable harm to the American image in Asia and is forcing the Soviet Union and China together in spite of their ideological differences. Coupled with the growing hostility toward American economic outthrusts in West Europe—which are encouraging economic co-operation between West and East Europe—the danger of an involuntary "Fortress America" looms large. Also the Administration's decision to send large numbers of troops to Santo Domingo to protect and evacuate American citizens and to prevent "another Cuba" has aroused Latin-American anger and fear of us. If the United States continues to intervene in every small revolution which seems capable of turning Communist, it will find itself encircled by a hostile world. The Fortress America which would perforce result would lower our living standards, endanger nuclear war, and usher in a new era of McCarthyism, none of which would be conducive to individual freedom. As in 1954, when a few powerful officials were pushing us into preventive war with China, conservatives and liberals should join in effective protest against government policies before it is too late.—Ed.
Peking's Revolutionary Strategy in the Developing World: The Failures of Success
Authors: Robinson Thomas W.
Published: March 2007

Three facets of China's strategy of revolutionary war are examined in this article: (1) the Mao Tse-tung-Lin Piao theory of "people's war"; (2) the history of Chinese Communist involvement abroad in promoting "national liberation wars"; and (3) some constraints upon this instrument of Chinese policy. The contradiction between theory and practice is explained by real-world restraints upon Chinese desires. The Maoist theory is essentially an analogy between the Chinese pre-1949 revolutionary past and the realities of the present-day world political situation. The analogy is imperfect, however, and many of the problems which China has encountered in fostering revolutionary movements abroad may be traced to this fact. Chinese leaders, prisoners of their limited world outlook, cannot admit this. In fact, there is a low level of actual Chinese involvement in the "Third World"; nowhere have the Chinese become, or are they about to become, a major element in attempts to overthrow local governments by rural-based guerrilla tactics. Three sets of limitations—internal, external, and historical—are important because together they place severe limits on the level and the direction of Chinese involvement. The possibilities for successful revolutionary war lies in the hands of those who elect to pay more attention to local circumstances than to the niceties of the Chinese theory.
Europe and the Third World
Authors: Lyon Peter
Published: March 2007

Europe and the Third World are both richly evocative, rather than exact, terms, as immediately becomes apparent if we trace—however lightly—some of their varying connotations from their origins to today. The idea of Europe is ancient, ambiguous, and multivariable. The Third World is a powerful myth and a practical anachronism. European colonialism and decolonization—especially that of Britain and France—have left many legacies which provide opportunities for continuing ties today and help or hinder new definitions, declaratory and operational, of purposes, policies, and procedures. The future of Europe and the future of the Third World are two profoundly open and complex sets of possibilities which will, in some manner, undoubtedly interact. Any substantial political rearrangements in Europe will, it is most likely, be inaugaurated and practiced without any substantial influence from the Third World. If greater European unity is accomplished, then Europe could become a great benefactor to some, or most, of the countries of the Third World. Europe and the Third World are, in many important senses, comembers of one world.
Social Problem Indicators
Authors: Guttman Louis
Published: March 2007

By use of a mapping sentence, a universe of observations is defined for social problem indicators. Emphasis is made on the concept of "problem" in order to distinguish such an observation from other observations of social behavior. Similarly, a more detailed mapping sentence is presented for observations of data to guide policy formation of government ministries. Illustrations are given from the Continuing Survey conducted in Israel. Distinction is made between "core" items and specific items. These considerations hold for data obtained from institutions or from individuals, whether the data be primary or secondary.
There's More to Crime Control Than the ''Get Tough" Approach
Authors: Skoler Daniel L.
Published: March 2007

In addressing today's difficult crime control problems, the focus should not be on a set of "tough" or "soft" prescriptions but rather on crime control that works. Indeed, serious question exists about the nation's capacity and re sources, even if we so desired, to achieve "tough crime control" in significant degree—that is, to substantially increase ap prehension and conviction rates and intensify the severity and length of sentences and imprisonment. It appears also that the most critical leverage point for crime reduction may lie in the correction of offenders and redirection of repeaters away from criminal behavior. Here, the "tough" or punitive ap proach is a high-cost, low-yield alternative. It offers much less potential than the "softer" regime of training, education, job placement, counseling, and community reacceptance, designed to equip offenders for a productive, law-observing role in the society to which virtually all will return.
Some Medical and Social Aspects of the Treatment for Genetic-Metabolic Diseases
Authors: Stevenson Roger E. , Howell R. Rodney
Published: March 2007

By enhancing the survival of certain patients with inheritable disorders, advances in medical therapy have pro duced an apparent conflict between medical ethics and the natural laws governing the viability of humans. There has arisen considerable concern that the quality of the human gene pool will deteriorate if medicine succeeds in significantly alter ing the survival and reproductive fitness of individuals with deleterious genetic disorders which were heretofore selected against by nature. A review of the successful treatment cur rently used for phenylketonuria (PKU) is given as an example of therapy for a genetic disorder which will not significantly increase the gene frequency in the population. However, the disastrous and unexpected results of reproduction by phenyl ketonuric women dramatically illustrate the unforeseen prob lems that may arise from new therapeutic approaches. Ther apy that confers normal reproductive fitness on a previously incapacitating disorder inherited in a dominant manner will increase the future frequency of the disorder. Medicine is now in the early stages of implementing methods of efficient genetic counseling and prenatal diagnosis which will not only benefit the affected family but will hopefully lessen the impact of deleterious genetic diseases on future generations.
Who Gains from Public Health Programs?
Authors: Stuart Bruce C.
Published: March 2007

Analysis of the economic impacts arising from the introduction of Medicare and Medicaid into federal and state budgets leads one to question the actual magnitude of gains which recipients can expect to obtain from new funding in the health area. A modified cost-benefit analysis of Medicare/ Medicaid income effects on program recipients, non-recipients, and physicians from 1966 to 1968 shows that scarcely 56 per cent of the $14.8 billion spent on the two programs represented gains to recipients. Over the same period, physicians received average net gains of between $5,400 and $7,400 over what would have been the case in the absence of both programs. The implications of these findings apply as much to the several proposals for national health insurance as they do to Medicaid and Medicare. It can be shown that the President's health in surance plan, among others, would result in a similar if not larger unintended allocation of public funds. This raises seri ous questions of equity in the development of national health policy.
Environmental Quality as an Administrative Problem
Authors: Caldwell Lynton K.
Published: March 2007

The basic task of protection and control of environmental quality involves the integration of man's arti ficial and managed systems with the evolved systems of the natural world. Imbalances and incongruities among these systems are the underlying causes of resource depletion, pollution, and qualitative deterioration of the environment. The essential purpose of environmental administration is therefore to obtain a synthesis of artificial and natural systems that will simultaneously serve man's needs and values, and maintain the life-support systems of the biosphere upon which man's welfare and survival ultimately depend. New struc tures and procedures of planning and control appear to be inevitable if contemporary man is to deal effectively with the circumstances that he has himself created. But governmental reorganization cannot safely be undertaken solely with respect to environmental needs. Provision for meeting the environ mental challenge, if it is to be effective, must be made within the context of the broad range of issues and problems confronting contemporary society.
The United States, the Arabs, and Israel: Peace Efforts of Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon
Authors: Peretz Don
Published: March 2007

American evenhanded approaches toward a solu tion of the Arab-Israel conflict have been frustrated by the role of the Middle East in big power competition, domestic ethnic politics, and suspicions of both Arabs and Israelis. Not since the presidency of John Kennedy have both sides had confidence in the United States. Kennedy, like other Amer ican presidents, emphasized the Arab refugee problem, but his efforts to break the impasse also failed. Unable to prevent outbreak of the June 1967 war, President Lyndon Johnson sought to avoid a superpower confrontation and opened direct negotiations with Russia to find a peaceful settlement. The two powers co-operated in the United Nations, especially in the Security Council during 1967. The Council's resolution 242 became the basis of American policy, but efforts to imple ment it have been undermined by the continued arms race in the area, by Israel's reluctance to withdraw from Arab occu pied territory because of fear that its security will be jeopar dized, and by Arab reluctance to deal with Israel. The Nixon administration has continued attempts to resolve the dispute along lines similar to those of Johnson, but its piecemeal efforts to break the impasse have so far been no more successful.
Electricity as a Social Force
Authors: Ross Charles R.
Published: March 2007

Until recent years the measure of a nation's economic and social prosperity was its consumption of electricity. Over the course of time, electricity has come to be considered indispensable. Thus, the aim of both government and industry was directed towards reducing the cost of power. These aims and goals are now being seriously questioned by the environmental movement. In the developing struggle it is going to be necessary to institute an orderly procedure by which solutions to these issues may be discovered. Such procedures must not, however, allow any one segment of society to impose its value system upon another. This can be prevented if everyone is given a reasonable opportunity to express his own values, during both planning and decision-making. Without full public participation there is a serious danger that society will never agree to accept the increased restrictions on its conduct which will be necessary in years to come if man is to survive.
International Cooperative Efforts in Energy Supply
Authors: Akins James E.
Published: March 2007

During the 1970s and into the next decade, petroleum and natural gas derived in conventional ways will continue to constitute the major share of the fuel consumed in the United States and the world. After 1985 other forms of energy will increase in importance. Since the demand for oil and gas will increase in the near term, it is likely that prices will also rise. Thus, during the next ten to twenty years, the supply and price of oil and gas will be critical elements in the energy policy of both consuming, and exporting, nations. An ideal solution to the supply-price matter would be a rise in the supply of oil and gas which would meet the demand until alternative energy sources are available. Concurrently, the price of oil and gas should rise, but should not substantially exceed the cost of the alternative sources being developed. In order to pursue such an ideal solution, it must be understood that there is a real problem: the current energy difficulties are not created by an oil conspiracy; the price of oil and gas will not fall; and easy solutions cannot be expected. As a necessary part of the ideal solution, the major consuming areas should jointly approach the energy situation; another cooperative effort should be joint development of new energy sources. All should avoid narrow self-serving, near term actions. The cooperative approach to the world's energy problems fits well into the larger framework of cooperation on international matters pursued by the Nixon administration.
Energy and Environment: The Bases for Public Policies
Authors: Caldwell Lynton K.
Published: March 2007

Public policies for energy and its environmental impact cannot be developed solely upon the bases of scientific and technical knowledge. Ad hoc and improvising measures to cope with energy problems have often induced as many difficulties as they have resolved. Policies based on present patterns of social behavior may prove ineffectual or un necessarily destructive to the environment if major changes in either energy supply or social values occur in the near future. The only rational basis for an energy policy which answers to more than expediency is an examination of the energy-related problems confronting present-day society and a projection of alternative courses of action towards preferred futures. To obtain an adequate conceptual basis for alternative futures, a conscious problem-identification and analysis effort should be constituted. The role of central government would be to stimulate and orchestrate the inde pendent efforts of many inquiries interrelated, however, by a network of free and full communication. The outcome of this effort should be the development of alternative proposi tions suitable for social choice. The attitudes and mecha nisms which would be necessary for the success of this effort would tend to induce a politics of problem solving and rational decision making within a context of generally preferred futures.
Human Rights and Amnesty International
Authors: Scoble Harry M. , Wiseberg Laurie S.
Published: March 2007

This is a descriptive, analytical treatment of international human-rights nongovernmental organizations. A typology of human-rights groups is developed. Threats to human and political rights are analyzed. Following a brief description of Amnesty International as a new type of noneconomic interest group in world politics, the article focuses explicitly on three practical political— yet, also, social—scientific—problems: (1) the legitimacy of human-rights organizations; (2) the selection of targets and of tactics, including prepolitical resource-generating tactics; and, especially, (3) the problems entailed in evaluating the impact, if any, of interest group activities. The last, which questions the efficiency of translation of activity into access and then influence, opens up another discrete question: whether and how the group evaluates its own goals, structure and tactics. This evaluation suggests that Amnesty International has meas urable impact on the defense of human and political rights.
Interest Groups in the Republic of South Africa
Authors: Pretorius L. , Vosloo W.B.
Published: March 2007

The South African interest group structure is in large measure determined by the racial and ethnic divisions within the population. The low degree of overlap ping group membership can be attributed to three, partly coinciding factors: (1) voluntary establishment of associa tions to promote the interests of specific racial or ethnic groups; (2) government measures introducing racial segrega tion into associational life; and (3) the establishment of associations on an ethnic or racial basis as a result of clashes of interest within mixed associations. Despite these factors a number of racially or ethnically mixed associations do exist—for example, some trade unions—mainly as a result of the integrated nature of the economic system. Because most effective forms of formal political and economic power are concentrated in the hands of the white population groups, their organized interest groups are more influential than the respective nonwhite counterparts. There are indica tions, however, that nonwhite interests are increasingly articulated by institutional and nonassociational interest groups using the various communal councils as channels of access to the key points of decision making.
Aspects of Sharing Science and Technology
Authors: Graham Loren R.
Published: March 2007

Before 1972 the exchange of science and technology between the United States and the Soviet Union was limited to the very small program administered in accordance with official agreements which dated back to 1958. The tempo and scale of the exchanges in technical areas were dramatically altered by the eight separate agree ments signed at the 1972 and 1973 summit meetings. These agreements were reached as a part of foreign policy considerations pointing toward detente and were thus not given specific content. While progress in each of the ex change areas has been slowed by numerous delays in making the original agreements more concrete, the prospects for the future appear to be good. Yet, a most sensitive problem plagues Soviet-American scientific relations: that of political or human-rights issues as factors influencing the course of the exchange program. Among American scientists there is a full spectrum of opinion on these questions. Dealing with this dilemma can be facilitated by making several important distinctions, starting with one between protests by American individuals and those by official administrators. We are now entering a period of optimism tempered by realism in which the rate of expansion of exchanges will rest on the willingness of both countries to face problems openly and to find solutions to them emanating from a spirit of accommodation.
Aging and the Future of American Politics
Authors: Binstock Robert H.
Published: March 2007

Trends suggesting a dramatic increase in the pro portion of aging Americans have brought attention to the pos sibility of gains in "senior power." Consideration of this possi bility is most appropriately focused on voting and interest group politics, the political activities which have bases in large categories of citizens. Examination of electoral politics suggests there is no sound reason to expect the aging will gain power by voting more cohesively in the future. The most pow erful likely result for interest group politics is that organiza tions based on aging members, consumers, clients, and sub jects for study will have credentials to participate in the poli tics of a broader range of interest group arenas than they do now. At most, some roles in the political system may be ex changed, and some aging citizens as well as aging interest groups may achieve incremental gains in the playing out of what Lowi has characterized as interest-group liberalism. A more important political implication of increased numbers of the aging is the concomitant increase in services and facilities they will need. If government responds to those needs, how ever, it will be because of pervasive ideological considera tions and not because it is pushed to do so by so-called senior power.
New Directions in Interstate Relations
Authors: Beyle Thad L.
Published: March 2007

Despite their too often irrelevant boundaries and a long history of competitiveness, recent activities among the states suggest that they may be beginning to seek new ways of joint problem solving. There are several models of interstate cooperation available, and one, the interstate compact or agreement, is now very much in the forefront as a state-based vehicle to help states work with mutual problems. In the growth and development policy area, beginning with the stimulus of the federal-multistate efforts of the 1960s, new regional interstate organizations have been created to aid states and localities cope with unplanned growth and development. These new agencies do have problems of their own: a new manner of defining regions, a much greater expansion of roles than previous interstate agencies, and, importantly, an uncertain constituency base.
Labor Supply Concepts: The Political Economy of Conceptual Change
Authors: Moses Stanley
Published: March 2007

Disputes over the true volume ofunemployment are much more than scientific discussions among experts. Concepts and statistical data regarding employment, unem ployment and employability reflect the conflicting and chang ing orientations, needs and purposes of competing groups and interests. From earliest pre-statistical concerns with the dynamics of the entire population as the source of labor supply, attention shifted to the gainfully occupied concept, which reflected concern with specialization and the occupa tional needs of a developing industrial economy. Recurring cycles of boom and bust, and the dominance of a mass depression with unemployment as the critical problem, resulted in the introduction of the labor force concept which reflected a job scarcity, rationing orientation in its approach to defining unemployment and full employment. The current labor force approach understates the dimensions of un employment by omitting millions of persons who, though not actively seeking employment, wish to work and would be seeking jobs if adequate opportunities and conditions existed. Current attempts to develop new approaches to labor supply reflect the continuing struggle of different groups for greater equality and justice. A consideration of the real dimensions of labor supply is necessary as part of a genuine full employment strategy which attempts to respond to the needs of people who, while not officially unemployed, nevertheless very much desire and are capable of work.
Planning for Total Employment
Authors: O'Toole James
Published: March 2007

The prime concern of current labor and economic policy is so-called full employment. Clearly, this pursuit of an adequate supply of jobs is essential, particularly in the midst of a recession. But even the achievement of full employment would leave many basic and enduring employ ment problems unaffected—problems such as subemploy ment, underemployment, low-level employment and in voluntary employment. Society fails to respond to these problems because the performance criteria for the economy are directed towards measuring the quantity of jobs and not their quality. Moreover, we have developed a panoply of myths and rationalizations to support the single-minded pursuit of more jobs and lower unemployment rates. These myths blind us to the fact that the nature of employment is a powerful influence on such social problems as poverty, family disorganization and delinquency. Rather than pursuing full employment, then, a more inclusive and appropriate goal might be total employment. This condition—one in which everyone who desires a job would be reasonably assured of finding a satisfying one—can not be achieved through a single, monolithic government program. "Total employment" would be the state of equilibrium in the economy achieved as the result of workers' making free choices about when, where and in what jobs they work. Freedom of choice of workers could be enhanced by removing the artificial barriers and constraints that currently prevent them from realizing their personal employment needs. The policy would even permit reluctant workers to leave the work force, thus opening jobs for willing but unemployed workers.
Managing Inflation in a Full Employment Society
Authors: Lekachman Robert
Published: March 2007

Reconciliation of full employment with price stability requires at least four and possibly five signifi cant alterations of American institutional practices, each of which relates to equity of sacrifice and reward. The first four policy innovations include an unqualified federal guarantee of full employment; income maintenance at decent levels for individuals unable or unwilling to work; an in comes policy based upon mandatory federal controls over the prices of large corporations and the fees of physi cians, dentists, lawyers and other professional workers; and serious attention to redistributive taxation on grounds of equity and controlled inflation. If these measures discourage private investment, a fifth policy comes into play: the socialization of a growing portion of the private sector and a consequent expansion in the importance of the public economy.
The Liberation of Women in a Full Employment Society
Authors: Diamond Irma
Published: March 2007

After 10 years of struggle for the right to full participation in public life, American women, along with the rest of the country, are facing a national economic crisis. Economic issues like equal work and access to educational opportunity, bolstered by support services needed by women, can be clearly identified as the major public policy issues in 1975 for women. Equal employment increases the proba bility of women's participating in responsible, decision making jobs. However, this will not be possible unless ade quate support services are provided on a large scale. The need for these services is urgent. In the recent past, we have witnessed increased labor and higher education participation by women. We have also witnessed an increase in the status of women. These two facts are interdependent. There fore, in order to arrive at a high status for women, a full employment society is a necessity. In addition to this, a women's policy bureau is needed to speak to the specific issues raised by increased participation in public life of half of the citizens of this country—women.
General Revenue Sharing and American Federalism: Towards the Year 2000
Authors: Caputo David A.
Published: March 2007

This summary essay explores the political con text and the limitations on attempts to measure the impact of general revenue sharing. Contextual matters relating to political developments, specific legislative requirements, and comparisons with prior categorical programs are explored. In addition, the impact of general revenue sharing on ex penditure decisions and political developments are reviewed and considered. The concluding sections summarize the essential points where the renewal debate concerning general revenue sharing is most likely to become intense and parti san. Finally, the overall importance of general revenue sharing for American federalism is considered and a perspec tive on the role of general revenue sharing offered.
Commodity Shortages and Changes in World Trade
Authors: Takeuchi Kenji , Varon Bension
Published: March 2007

The healthy expansion of trade relations experi enced throughout the postwar era has recently been inter rupted. During the 1973-74 economic boom, there were widespread shortages of commodities. As the world economy has plunged into a deep recession, most of the commodity shortages have disappeared. Looking ahead for the next 10 years or so, when the world economy returns to a path of normal growth, are we likely to see widespread chronic commodity shortages? An analysis of prospective market con ditions leads us to conclude: (1) that we are not on the threshold of an era of chronic and widespread commodity shortages; (2) that, indeed, the trade picture that emerges is not favorable for developing countries; (3) that the absence of global shortages in most primary commodities in the coming decade points up the soundness of interdependence through trade; and (4) that while trade has not so far bene fited all participants equitably—and this situation should be corrected in the future—trade should not be strained to the point of breakdown by treating it as the only means for cor recting all the inequities among nations.
The Rural Church and Rural Religion: Analysis of Data from Children and Youth
Authors: Nelsen Hart M. , Potvin Raymond H.
Published: March 2007

The heyday of studies of the rural church was the 1920s-1940s. Even then researchers noted that structural rather than ecological characteristics were especially im portant in understanding it. A more recent focus has been on rural-urban differences in religiosity. Research done in the 1960s and 1970s indicated differences only on the ideological (belief) dimension. Data from two 1975 studies—one involv ing children in Minnesota and the other adolescents in a national sample—are reported, showing continuing rural- urban-metropolitan differences in religious belief. There are higher rates of fundamentalism for Protestants in the first two residential categories. For the first sample, the relationship between SES and fundamentalism virtually disappears in the rural area. The importance of residential (and church) propinquity of social classes is suggested as an important intervening variable, and this brings the focus full circle in terms of ecological versus structural and organizational characteristics. Finally, the future of the rural (small) church is discussed. Negative effects of inflation and the overall de cline in national church membership and participation and the positive effect of church decentralization as they impinge upon the rural church are discussed.