bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Hatcher Brian A.
Published: January 2008

This introductory chapter begins with a brief discussion of the establishment of the group, Tattvabodhinī Sabhā, or the Truth-Propagating Society, in 1839, whose chief goal was to educate the Bengali reading public regarding the religion its members liked to call Vedānta, a religion they believed to be enshrined in India's ancient Upanishads. The chapter then explains the book's use of the terms “bourgeois Hinduism” and the “faith of the modern Vedantists”, then discusses what makes the Sabhyadiger vaktṛtā so remarkable. An overview of the chapters in this volume is presented.
Debendranath Tagore and the Tattvabodhinī Sabhā
Authors: Hatcher Brian A.
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses the origins of the Tattvabodhinī Sabhā. Topics covered include the early religious experiences of Debendranath Tagore, Debendranath's great awakening, founding of the Tattvabodhinī Sabhā, and understanding Sabhyadiger vaktṛtā in its moment.
The Text of Sabhyadiger vaktṛtā and the Problem of Authorship
Authors: Hatcher Brian A.
Published: January 2008

This chapter focuses on the text of the Sabhyadiger vaktṛtā. It outlines an approach for determining authorship in Sabhyadiger vaktṛtā using as a starting point the enigmatic system of initials employed in the text.
An Ornament for Jewels
Authors: Hopkins Steven P.
Published: January 2008

A thematically organized, annotated anthology of translations from the Sanskrit, Tamil, and Maharashtri Prakrit devotional poetry of the South Indian Srivaisnava philosopher, sectarian preceptor (Acarya), and saint‐poet Venkatanatha or Venkatesha, also known as Vedantadesika (c. 1268‐1369). The poems collected in this volume, composed out of devotion (bhakti) for one particular Hindu god, Vishnu Devanayaka, the “Lord of Gods” at Tiruvahindrapuram, form a microcosm of the saint‐poet's work. They encompass major themes of Vedantadesika's devotional poetics, from the play of divine absence and presence in the world of religious emotions; the “telescoping” of time past and future in the eternal “present” of the poem; love, human vulnerability and the impassible perfected body of god; to the devotional experience of a “beauty that saves” and to the paradoxical coexistence of asymmetry and intimacy of lover and beloved at the heart of the divine‐human encounter. Moreover, these poems form more than a thematic microcosm, but also embrace all three of the poet's working languages—forming a linguistic one as well. Each translated poem forms a chapter in itself, has its own individual short afterword, along with detailed linguistic and thematic notes and commentary. The volume concludes, for comparative reasons, with a translation of Tirumankaiyalvar's luminous cycle of verses for Devanayaka from the Periyatirumoli. As much an argument as an anthology, this book will be of interest to students and scholars of South Asian studies, comparative religion, and Indian literatures.
Political Priests
Authors: Domke David , Coe Kevin
Published: January 2008

This chapter focuses on the first religious signal: speaking the language of the faithful. Two types of presidential communications — invocations of God and invocations of faith — are examined in all major presidential speeches since the Inauguration of Franklin Roosevelt in 1933. The evidence reveals dramatic increases in both types of language beginning in 1981 with the Inauguration of Ronald Reagan. Since that time, presidents have made direct references to God a more consistent and more prominent part of their public speeches. They have also made invocations of faith — using terms such as Bible, blessing, church, crusade, mission, pray, and the like — a more prominent part of their speeches. Further evidence reveals that these changes cannot be accounted for by political party, the occurrence of war, or the prospect of facing a re-election campaign. Regardless of these factors, the past four presidents have engaged in religious politics in a way that previous modern presidents did not.
Morality Politics
Authors: Domke David , Coe Kevin
Published: January 2008

This chapter focuses on the fourth and final religious signal: engaging in morality politics. Morality politics is an approach that elevates political issues into symbolic, moral battles. The evidence in this chapter comes from Republican and Democratic party platforms since 1932. It considers five issues central to religious conservatives' political engagement: abortion, the Equal Rights Amendment, same-sex relationships, school prayer, and stem-cell research. Analyzing platforms language shows that since 1980 Republicans have increasingly aligned their issue positions with those of religious conservatives, while Democrats have done the opposite. Further, Republicans have elevated the importance of these issues by attacking the courts and calling for constitutional amendments, while also grounding their claims in the language of faith and family. The chapter concludes with an analysis of three Justice Sunday events, which showcase morality politics in its most overt form.
Prologue
Authors: Ruffin J. Rixey
Published: January 2008

The prologue narrates both the formative years of Bentley's life before his call to the East Church in 1783 and also the history of that church before that date. Born the son of an artisan father in Boston's North End in 1759 but educated at Harvard thanks to his own intellectual skills and the financial largesse of his maternal grandfather, Bentley began and continued through his life straddling two social worlds, a tension that would later help drive his ideological changes. Meanwhile, members of the East Church were no longer satisfied with their pastor after the Revolutionary War. They wanted a corresponding change of leadership in their own spiritual community. They could not easily dismiss their existing pastor, but they could call an assistant pastor in order to bring the conflict to a head. In Bentley they found their man and in 1783 invited him up to Salem.
13 We See in the Dark
Authors: Sorensen Roy
Published: January 2008

The experience of a man in a perfectly dark cave is a representation of an absence of light, not an absence of representation. There is certainly a difference between his perceptual knowledge and that of his blind companion. Only the sighted man can tell whether the cave is dark just by looking. But perhaps he is merely inferring darkness from his failure to see. To get an unambiguous answer, the focus is switched from perceptual knowledge to nonepistemic seeing. The conclusion is that we see even in the limiting case of absolute darkness – regardless of whether we believe we are seeing. We see little of practical interest. But in terms of basic information, we see about as much as we do when the lights are on. Depending on what has gone before and after, we may even see ordinary objects.
Zen Writes
Authors: Heine Steven
Published: January 2008

The first issue discussed in Chapter Two is ineffability versus speech, which concerns the role of language and discourse in a tradition that has produced voluminous texts despite an emphasis on being a special transmission without reliance on words and letters. This chapter considers the question of whether Zen literature is primarily used as a heuristic device, as claimed by the traditional view, or represents some kind of gibberish, as charged by critical Buddhism's harshest skeptics, by comparing the wordplay and allusions in Zen commentaries to the “nonsense” writing in Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland and the free‐floating surrealism of T. S. Eliot's The Wasteland. By focusing on several specific kōan case records, the chapter argues that Zen literature is the product of carefully constructed narratives. The narratives are not nonsense in the conventional use of the term, but show the role of bizarre or outrageous personal interactions between masters and disciples that establish the value of radical anti‐structural behavior within the otherwise conservative setting of monastic institutional structure.
Zen Rights
Authors: Heine Steven
Published: January 2008

The third topic dealt with in Chapter Four, societal harmony versus discrimination, is the most hotly contested area between the traditional and critical Zen standpoints. It involves the impact of Zen, which espouses peace and tolerance, on a variety of social issues, including class and gender discrimination as well as nationalism and imperialism in Japan. The chapter traces the roots of antinomianism, and of how this tendency has led to apparently compromised values and a static sense of status quo‐ism in the context of the ethical concerns of modern society to a lack of regard in Zen practice for the role of confessionals. It also discusses the possibility for recapturing a genuine sense of repentance, and of what is referred to in modern Japan as self‐criticism in the Zen outlook.
3 Biotechnology and the Food Label
Authors: Degnan Fred H.
Published: January 2008

Should the food label serve to communicate required information about whether food is the product of biotechnology or contains ingredients that are produced using biotechnology? Unlike most other regulatory authorities throughout the whole world, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has resisted the urgings of interested parties to require such information to appear on a broad-scale basis. This position finds root in both science and law. Specifically, from a scientific perspective, FDA has concluded that there is nothing inherently unsafe or mysterious about food biotechnology. As a result of this conclusion, any effort by FDA to require biotechnology-related information to appear on the food label would be inconsistent with FDA's statutory authority and with the labeling policies and precedents that have derived from that authority. At the heart of these policies and precedents is the notion that to be required to appear on the food label, information must be essential and material to a consumer's ability to choose food wisely.
3 Knowledge
Authors: Wolfsdorf David
Published: January 2008

This argues for a strict identification of the putative parts of excellence with the knowledge of the good. Knowledge itself is identified with a kind of psychological power (dunamis), the good is identified with form, and form is identified with order.
Internal Constraints on Criminalization
Authors: Husak Douglas
Published: January 2008

This chapter argues that the criminal law itself, and especially its so‐called “general part,” is the source of four internal constraints on the authority of the state to enact and enforce penal offenses: crimes must be designed to proscribe a harm or evil; criminal conduct must be wrongful; persons may only be punished according to their desert; and the state must bear the burden of proof to justify a penal offense. These constraints are derived from an understanding of what the criminal law is: that body of law that subjects persons to punishment and thus implicates valuable rights. Each constraint is given a novel defense and applied to a handful of examples. In particular, these constraints create difficulties in attempts to justify many of the mala prohibita offenses that have been enacted recently.
3 External Constraints on Criminalization
Authors: Husak Douglas
Published: January 2008

The internal constraints introduced in chapter two are supplemented by three external constraints derived from a political account of the conditions under which the state may infringe the important rights implicated by punishment: a criminal offense is unjustified unless the government has a substantial interest in enacting it; the statute must directly advance the government's purpose; and the law must be no more extensive than necessary to achieve its objective. These three constraints are defended, embellished, and applied to a handful of controversial examples, including laws designed to serve expressive functions, statutes with a paternalistic rationale, and drug and gun controls. To implement these constraints effectively, legal philosophers need an analysis of public wrongs, empirical data, and a theory of the objectives the state may legitimately pursue. The final section argues that many crimes designed to prevent risk will fail to satisfy these constraints, largely because they are overinclusive.
Inventing the "American Way"
Authors: Wall Wendy
Published: January 2008

For fifty years, scholars and popular commentators have portrayed the decades immediately following World War II as a time of unusually deep and well-grounded national unity, a period when postwar affluence and the Cold War combined to naturally produce a remarkable level of agreement about the nation’s core values. This book challenges that vision of inevitable consensus. Americans were united, it argues, not so much by identical beliefs, as by a shared conviction that a distinctive “American Way” existed and that reinforcing such common ground was essential to the future of the nation. This book also suggests that the roots of that consensus political culture lie, not in the postwar years, but in the turbulent decade that preceded U.S. entry into World War II. The social and economic chaos of the Depression years alarmed a diverse array of groups, as did the rise of two “alien” ideologies: fascism and communism. In this context, Americans of divergent backgrounds and agendas seized on the notion of a unifying “American Way” and sought to convince their fellow citizens of its merits.

This book traces the competing efforts of business groups, politicians, leftist intellectuals, interfaith proponents, foreign policy strategists, civil rights activists and many others over nearly three decades to shape public understandings of the “American Way.” It explores the politics behind cultural productions ranging from The Adventures of Superman to the Freedom Train that circled the nation in the late 1940s, and locates the origins of phrases such as “free enterprise” and the “Judeo-Christian tradition” that remain central to American political life. In uncovering the culture wars of the mid-twentieth century, it sheds new light on a period that proved pivotal for America’s national identity and that provides the unspoken backdrop for debates over multiculturalism, national unity, and public values today.
Reforming the Church
Authors: Collins David J.
Published: January 2008

This chapter draws attention to the type of saints which appeared most frequently in the humanist hagiography, the holy bishop. These holy bishops, drawn from all eras of Germany's ancient and medieval past, consistently modelled a way of achieving church reform that was predicated on a sense of Christianity's lamentable state and the bishops' proper role as the agent of reform. Humanist authors embedded their perceptions of contemporary problems and their proposed solutions in the vitae of the ancient and medieval holy bishops: The German peoples needed a re‐evangelization in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries analogous to the evangelization of pagan tribes by missionary bishops centuries before. The confidence in the holy bishop was decidedly more emphatic in this period than it had been in previous centuries; lives of holy bishops had been much neglected in the later Middle Ages. The attractiveness of this plan for reform was not limited to humanists but drew the authors into alliances with like‐minded patrons and devotees beyond narrow humanist circles.
The New Quest for Schweitzer
Authors: Barsam Ara Paul
Published: January 2008

It has been said that there is no ethics without meta‐ethics: too true, Schweitzer would say. The philosophical ground‐plan against which Schweitzer operates — particularly Schopenhauer's and Nietzsche's metaphysics of the “will” — is explored in this chapter in order to understand Schweitzer's particular characterization of life as the “will‐to‐live”. Moreover, whereas previous commentators have focused on reverence for life as a philosophical ethic located in that tradition, this Chapter demonstrates that Schweitzer's theology provides the hitherto undiscerned foundation for his “ethical mysticism”.
Knowing the “One Unknown”
Authors: Barsam Ara Paul
Published: January 2008

Schweitzer's interest is not in mysticism per se , but only in “ethical mysticism”, that is, mysticism directed outwards towards the service of other suffering life. Christ mysticism provides the entry into this new life of service and the heralding of a new creation. Chapter Five exposes the organic link for Schweitzer between eschatology and mysticism, particularly in his notion of “practical eschatology” which anticipates Karl Barth's account of the moral life in terms of an eschatological activism, and, even more recently, Jürgen Moltmann's use of the very term in his theology of hope.
The Disruption Principle
Authors: Steel Daniel P.
Published: January 2008

This chapter presents the disruption principle, which links mechanisms, identified with causal structure as explained in the previous chapter, to the probabilistic concept of causal relevance. The disruption principle is illustrated by a case study from HIV research, and the motivation for accepting it and possible situations in which it can fail are explored.
Inauspicious Enthronement
Authors: Baer Marc David
Published: January 2008

This chapter explores Mehmed IV's turbulent accession to the sultanate at the age of seven following the dethronement (and subsequent execution) of his father, Ibrahim. Nearly a week after Ibrahim was dethroned and put under house arrest, and his son Prince Mehmed became Sultan Mehmed IV, the royal family boarded a skiff at the imperial boathouse down the hill from Topkapı Palace and took a short journey up the Golden Horn to make a pilgrimage to the district of Eyüp, a fundamental part of an Ottoman sultan's enthronement. The purpose of the boy's first trip beyond the palace walls was for him to visit the city's most sacred cemetery; gird the sword of the sultanate in its most holy mosque; acquire both the charisma of a man who fought for Muhammad and that of his sultanic predecessors; ride on horseback through the city mimicking Mehmed II's triumphant path after the conquest; and, finally, to display his munificence to his subjects, who would be able to see him for the first time.
Conversion and Conquest
Authors: Baer Marc David
Published: January 2008

This chapter analyzes how Ottoman historians writing after a mature Mehmed IV moved to Edirne, depicting him as a model, active sultan. In their accounts he is a pious, strong, manly, warrior (ghazi) sultan, who reclaimed power taken by royal women and, with his preacher at his side, converted many people and many places throughout the Ottoman Europe. The perspective of contemporary chronicle writers allows a revision of how scholars have depicted Mehmed IV as well as the evolution of the sultanate and the figure of the sultan in the 17th century. According to the authors of books of kings and conquest books, works written to extol the virtues of the sultans and grand viziers who conquered infidel citadels and cities, sultans could still matter, and Mehmed IV certainly did. The chapter focuses on the link between conversion and conquest during the successful final siege of Candia, Crete.
Postscript
Authors: Baer Marc David
Published: January 2008

This postscript argues that Mehmed IV's reign has been overshadowed by subsequent historical events and silenced by two centuries of historical interpretation. It also contends that one of the most long-lasting consequences of Mehmed IV's era may have been the creation of communities of descendants of 17th-century Christian and Jewish converts to Islam that either maintained religious beliefs and engaged in practices that combined elements of the original and adopted faiths, or created new religions following their ostensible conversion experience. The converters' and converteds' aims of conversion can be radically different; conversion is not a one-way street, as converts shape their religion in light of their own interpretation. Mehmed IV thought that he had converted the messianic claimant Shabbatai Tzevi into Aziz Mehmed Efendi, a proselytizing force for Islam. His actions and those of his followers, however, provide another example of the fleeting effects and ultimate unraveling of Mehmed IV's successes.
2 Is Innateness a Confused Concept?
Authors: Samuels Richard
Published: January 2008

This chapter argues that cognitive science's concept of innateness is not confused. It begins by setting out the Argument for Confusion, which seeks to show that the concept of innateness is confused because it confounds several independent properties. This argument is shown to be inconclusive by highlighting two ways in which innateness might be associated with a range of distinct properties without confounding them. Although this perhaps shows that the Argument for Confusion is inconclusive, it leaves an important challenge unaddressed: how to explain in detail the relationship between the various properties associated with innateness and innateness itself. It is shown that the concept of innateness, at least as it figures in cognitive science, is not a confused one. This leaves a residual puzzle: if the concept of innateness is not confused, then why are debates over innateness in cognitive science often accompanied by confusion? The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of this matter.
13 The Creative Action Theory of Creativity
Authors: Carruthers Peter
Published: January 2008

Most models of creative thought and creative activity assume that thought is normally the precursor of action: we think first, then we act. This chapter argues that creative action can't be reduced to creative thought, and that at least some forms of creative action aren't preceded by a creative thought. It then briefly argues that it is implausible that there should be two distinct and independent sources of creativity — one for action and one for thought. It shows how creative thought can be explained in terms of creative action, utilizing known mechanisms including a well-established system for the mental rehearsal of action, and a cognitive architecture for global broadcasting of sensory or quasi-sensory (imagistic) states. It is argued that act-first accounts of creativity have evolutionary precursors, some of them quite ancient. It is shown that thought-first accounts of creativity, in contrast, face problems of evolvability, and that they need to assume a heavy explanatory burden in comparison with the act-first account. Some of the costs and benefits of accepting an act-first account of creativity are outlined.
19 The Moral Mind
Authors: Haidt Jonathan , Joseph Craig
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses how morality might be partially innate, meaning organized, to some extent, in advance of experience. It begins by arguing for a broader conception of morality and suggests that most of the discussion of innateness to date has not been about morality per se; it has been about whether the psychology of harm and fairness is innate. Five hypotheses about the origins of moral knowledge and value are considered, and one of them (a form of flexible and generative modularity) is endorsed as being the best candidate. The importance of narrativity in moral functioning is discussed. In some respects, this is another corrective to what is seen as an overemphasis on deductive and calculative conceptions of value and rationality among both philosophers and psychologists. It is shown that a narrative approach to morality fits well with the nativist ‘five foundations’ view developed in the first part of the chapter, and also helps to explain how the intuitive, evolved foundations of morality are elaborated by cultural activity into the complex, diverse moral functioning that mature human beings display.
Sacred Arrangements
Authors: Murphy Michael Patrick
Published: January 2008

Chapter 3 focuses on Balthasar's theological aesthetics as a well‐articulated critical methodology. Balthasar's fusion of aesthetics with history forges both a Christology and an analogy of being that is developed in light of that Christology. Balthasar urges us to “see the form [of Christ]” in all manner of being and experience—human activities, natural phenomena, and especially human works of art. “Seeing the form” becomes a central critical and theological hermeneutic; and the chapter cultivates a parallel between “seeing the form” and interpreting, broadly, the “word(s)” of narrative art. The first three sections of the chapter develop an aesthetics of a representative word (in this case, the term “hierarchy”); the last section is an application of what is gleaned from the first three upon Flannery O'Connor's “Revelation.” While a close reading of O'Connor's text serves as a literary exemplum of a Catholic imagination, other poets and authors who demonstrate a similar theological aesthetic are considered in order round out the discussion.
Contested Island
Authors: Connolly S. J.
Published: January 2008

This book is a study of the multiple transformations that reshaped the character of early modern Ireland. It covers the extension across the whole island of English state power, a process often referred to as the Tudor conquest, as well as Ireland's early years as part of the Stuart composite monarchy. It also explores the associated shift from a society based on consumption and distribution, to a primitive but rapidly developing market economy. The arrival, as part of the process of conquest and assimilation of growing numbers of English and Scottish settlers, brought new ethnic complexity to an island already divided in language and culture between the Gaelic Irish and the Old English descendants of medieval colonists. The failure of the Reformation to win significant support among either the Irish or the Old English meant that rivalries between native and newcomer were also conflicts between Catholic and Protestant. At the same time, political and personal alliances, and the interaction of languages and cultures created relationships across lines of political, ethnic, and religious division. By the end of the period, members of all three groups: New English, Old English, and Gaelic Irish, can be seen reassessing their sense of their own identity and their relationship to other groups, in an Ireland unrecognizable from that of a century earlier.
Orthodoxy and the Courts in Late Antiquity
Authors: Humfress Caroline
Published: January 2008

This book approaches the subject of late Roman law from the perspective of legal practice revealed in courtroom processes, as well as more ‘informal’ types of dispute settlement. From at least the early 4th century, leading bishops, ecclesiastics, and Christian polemicists participated in a vibrant culture of forensic argument with far-reaching effects on theological debate, the development of ecclesiastical authority, and the elaboration of early ‘Canon law’. One of the most innovative aspects of late Roman law was the creation and application of new legal categories used in the prosecution of ‘heretics’. Leading Christian polemicists not only used techniques of argument learnt in the late Roman rhetorical schools to help position the Church within the structure of Empire, they also used those techniques in cases involving accusations against ‘heretics’ — thus defining and developing the concept of Christian orthodoxy itself.
Legal Experts and the Late Roman Courts
Authors: Humfress Caroline
Published: January 2008

This chapter begins with a discussion of iurisperitus and legal science. According to the mid-2nd century jurist Pomponius, the origins of juristic science lay in the disputes of the Forum, in the necessary interpretations of (statute) law given orally, on request, by those who were iuris prudentes. Hence the iurisprudens or iurisperitus was also known as the iurisconsultus. Post-classical iurisperiti and private clients, legal education in the late Empire, and whether the advice of post-classical iurisperiti contributed to the creative elaboration of Roman law are discussed.
Late Roman Advocates
Authors: Humfress Caroline
Published: January 2008

This chapter explores the question of whether post-classical advocates influenced the development of late Roman law through their forensic pleading. Under the various late Roman civil cognitio procedures, advocates could be involved in every phase of the lawsuit, from the principium litis (including the registering of the case, the summons, the response of the defendant and the prescribing of the necessary cautiones), through the medium litis (formally encompassing the narratio of the plaintiff and the contradictio of the defendant before the judge) to the definitum negotium (the administration of proofs up to the definitive sentence). If appointed, defence advocates would also be at hand throughout a public/‘criminal’ trial.
Defining Heresy and Orthodoxy
Authors: Humfress Caroline
Published: January 2008

This chapter argues that late Roman heresiology was not simply a discourse controlled by the ‘orthodox’ at the expense of the ‘heretic’ — all Christians were inscribed within it whether they wanted to be or not. Nor was the late Roman discourse of heresiology a ‘rhetorical construct’; rather it produced its own field. In other words, it created the very objects that previously it had been thought merely to explain or describe. Heresiological categories and classifications were part of late Roman lived experience. What was to be defined as ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ belief, was constructed through argument; moreover, the very processes of theological and legal definition threw up new matters to be defined and categorized. Individuals, however, are not passive subjects of a given structure (such as ‘law’ or ‘orthodoxy’, for example), but rather active participants — constituting and reconstituting the structure itself by their constant negotiation of its rules and expectations.
Heresy and the Courts
Authors: Humfress Caroline
Published: January 2008

This chapter analyses concrete legal processes involving accusations of heresy in late antiquity. Topics discussed include heretics before the courts, the use of heresy accusations by private individuals, and ecclesiastics and accusations of heresy.
Ethiopian Famines 1973–1985: A Case‐Study
Authors: Kumar B. G.
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines the famines of Ethiopia during the period 1973-85, with its rather bleak and gloomy situation. Though a decline in food availability played a major role in the famines, it is shown that the distributional effects were crucial and were different in nature for various occupation groups. The chapter also explores the demographic and social impacts of famines. On the policy frontier, the chapter underlines the importance of improving infrastructural facilities and providing massive investment in agriculture. While the potential for improvements in warning systems might exist, the delayed response was actually caused by political factors, as was the case in success stories.
The Food Crisis in Africa: A Comparative Structural Analysis
Authors: Platteau Jean-Philippe
Published: January 2008

Policy errors have often been indicted as the major culprits for Africa's plight, while policy reversals have been identified as general tools for salvation. This chapter argues that this dominant ‘price-focused’ view is erroneous and diverts attention from the critical issue for African agriculture: the generation and diffusion of technology at a substantial rate. The chapter's analysis brings forth the structural nature of growth-inhibiting factors. It investigates six ‘constraint areas’ and asserts that policy-design must not be limited to the technological sphere, but should include institutional changes and changes in cultural and political systems. Additionally, agricultural growth-promoting strategies should take into account the equity issues and distributive effects of policies. However, the exposition suggests that the policy prescription has country specificity.
Growth and Poverty: Some Lessons from Brazil
Authors: Sachs Ignacy
Published: January 2008

Brazil provides an ideal example of a country which has seen very rapid and sustained economic growth and spectacular modernization, going hand in hand with persistent poverty, malnutrition, and occasional hunger afflicting a substantial fraction of the population. This chapter examines why economic growth has failed to uplift the living standards of millions. Brazil's social profile is much lower than expected, and the growth pattern has a built-in bias towards social inequality the non-rectification of which will lead only to further polarization. However, Brazil can afford to build a welfare state by employing public support measures with comprehensive coverage which have a high manpower component and a low capital and foreign exchange component.
Malnutrition and Poverty in Latin America
Authors: Kanbur S. M. Ravi
Published: January 2008

This chapter reviews the state of malnutrition and poverty in Latin America, and attempts to quantify the magnitudes of the problem and identify the poor and the malnourished. Growth plays a minor role in eradicating malnutrition within a generation, and there remains a significant role for redistribution. With regards to the targeting of redistribution, socio-economic groups with a high incidence of poverty should be given priority, and the identification of the socio-economic groups in terms of vulnerability to deprivation is crucial. The chapter suggests that the analysis of the patterns of poverty and malnutrition should be carried out at country-specific level.
Learning theory and anxiety
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil
Published: January 2008

The chapter reviews two-process theories of learning, and justifies the equation of reward with punishment omission and of punishment with reward omission. Learning is presented as a means of endowing neutral stimuli with the properties of associated innate stimuli and, whether innate or learned, inputs to the behavioural inhibition system are defined as stimuli that elicit conflicting (particularly approach-avoidance) tendencies. As with the innate behaviours of Chapter 2, a key point is that behaviours attributed to the behavioural inhibition system are sensitive to anti-anxiety drugs.
The anxiolytic drugs
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil
Published: January 2008

This chapter defines anti-anxiety (anxiolytic) drugs, and reviews their types, clinical use, and behavioural pharmacology. Classical anxiolytic drugs and novel anxiolytic drugs share only anxiolytic action and no side-effects, in the clinic. They also share common actions on behaviours attributable to the behavioural inhibition system by the analysis of Chapter 3. Specific details of the changes produced lead to the conclusion that these drugs do not affect behaviours as such but rather, in other species as well as humans, act fundamentally to reduce anxiety itself.
BEC: Its definition, origin, occurrence, and consequences
Authors: Leggett A.J.
Published: January 2008

This chapter contains a general discussion of the phenomenon of BEC, under conditions much broader than those realized in the equilibrium noninteracting system introduced in Chapter 1. A definition of BEC in a general (nonequilibrium, noninteracting) Bose system is given in terms of the eigenvalues of the single-particle density matrix; alternative definitions are also discussed. The important concepts of order parameter and superfluid velocity are introduced. The question is raised: why should BEC occur, and when does it (not)? For Fermi systems, Cooper pairing is defined in terms of the eigenvalues of the two-particle density matrix; again, alternative definitions are briefly discussed, and possible reasons for the occurrence of the phenomenon reviewed. The chapter concludes with an overview of the consequences of BEC/Cooper pairing, and with a discussion of some unusual cases in which the BEC is “fragmented”. Two appendices review the second-quantization formalism and the properties of number and phase operators.
Classical superconductivity
Authors: Leggett A.J.
Published: January 2008

After a brief review of the normal state of a “textbook” metal, the origin of the effective electron-electron attraction believed to exist in superconducting metals is discussed and the calculation of Cooper leading to the instability of the normal Fermi sea is presented. A derivation of the BCS theory is presented within a particle-number-conserving formalism; results are given for both zero and nonzero temperature, but the properties of the normal component in the superconducting phase are not discussed in any detail. The microscopic basis of the two-fluid model of superconductivity and of the Ginzburg-Landau phenomenology is discussed. Generalizations of the BCS theory are made for the case of both “non-pair-breaking” and “pair-breaking” perturbations. Finally, the microscopic basis of the Josephson effect is presented. Appendices cover inter alia, Landau Fermi-liquid theory, and the phonon-induced inter-electron attraction.
Superfluid 3He
Authors: Leggett A.J.
Published: January 2008

After a brief review of the properties of the normal state of liquid 3He and its description in terms of Landau Fermi-liquid theory, this chapter extends the BCS theory of pairing to the superfluid phase, where in contrast to classical superconductors it is believed that the pairs form with nonzero relative orbital angular momentum (“anisotropic Fermi superfluidity”). The generalization of the Ginzburg-Landau formalism to this case is presented, as is a possible physical mechanism (spin-fluctuation-induced feedback) for the stabilization of more than one anisotropic superfluid phase. The concept of spontaneously broken spin-orbit symmetry is introduced and used to explain the anomalous spin dynamics of this system. Finally, some topological properties unique to the superfluid phases of 3He are reviewed.
Cuprate superconductivity
Authors: Leggett A.J.
Published: January 2008

Starting with an account of the chemical composition, crystalline structure, and phase diagram of the high-temperature (cuprate) superconductors, this chapter reviews the principal experimental properties of the optimally doped normal phase, the superconducting phase, and the so-called “pseudogap” region of the phase diagram, and some general comments made on the implications of the experimental data. The question is then raised: what do we know for sure about cuprate superconductivity in the absence of a specific microscopic model? And some answers are attempted. Next, various ideas which may be important in understanding these systems are reviewed. Finally, some novel consequences of the type of pairing realized in the cuprates are explored.
The National Physical Laboratory
Authors: Magnello Eileen
Published: January 2008

This chapter details the establishment of the National Physical Laboratory (NPL). The NPL is one of the world's great national standards laboratories. In his presidential address to the British Association in 1895, Sir Douglas Galton called for the creation of a NPL supported by government funding. It was decided that a public institution should be established to determine and verify instruments, test materials, determine physical constants, and undertake investigations into the strength and durability of materials. The work of the NPL up to World War II is discussed.
The ACE and the shaping of British computing
Authors: Campbell-Kelly Martin
Published: January 2008

This chapter focuses on the legacy of the ACE to British computing. Design of the ACE began in earnest in 1953, when the pilot machine was complete, although physical construction did not start until 1956. When finally completed, the ACE was a machine of awesome proportions that remained in use until 1967. Commercially, the most important machines were those descending from the Test Assembly and the Pilot ACE.
Computer architecture and the ACE computers
Authors: Doran Robert
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines the architecture of the ACE computers in the light of developments in computer architecture over the fifty years that followed the birth of ACE. The concept of computer architecture is discussed and the history of the RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) movement is reviewed. It is argued that a closer inspection of the Pilot ACE and the earlier proposals for the ACE suggests that the ACE's claim to be the first RISC architecture has merit.
Applications of the Pilot ACE and the DEUCE
Authors: Vickers Tom
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses applications of the Pilot ACE. These applications include linear equations, photogrammetry, traffic simulation, matrix programmes, demonstration programmes, and crystallography. The Pilot ACE was a highly successful computer, earning around £100,000 in its four years of life.
Integrating theArabidopsis thalianaFlower Induction Pathways and Assessing the Extent to Which the Model Is Ubiquitous
Authors: Glover Beverley J.
Published: January 2008

Previous chapters discussed the different inhibitory and inductive pathways regulating flowering in Arabidopsis. An average Arabidopsis plant will experience inhibitory and promotive signals from each of these pathways to a greater or lesser extent. The first part of this chapter investigates how the pathways are brought together to result in a single response, through the activities of the flowering time integrator genes. The second section looks at the evidence that the same or similar pathways operate in other species, with particular emphasis on the short day plant rice, and Gregor Mendel's famous genetic model, the garden pea.
Function and Development of Gametophytes
Authors: Glover Beverley J.
Published: January 2008

The role of flowers is to ensure the transfer of a small but precious package, the pollen grain, from one plant to another. That pollen grain contains the sperm, which fertilizes an egg cell retained within the tissues of another flower, resulting in the formation of a zygote and, in due course, a new generation of plants which will produce flowers in their turn. Within the male and female reproductive organs of the flower meiosis and then haploid mitosis produce an independent generation, the gametophyte, including the gametes. This chapter discusses the development of male and female gametophytes, and briefly considers the events that occur when they are brought together.
Preventing Self-fertilization
Authors: Glover Beverley J.
Published: January 2008

Perfect (hermaphrodite) flowers can, assuming no other constraints, self-pollinate, and fertilize their own ovules. This guaranteed sexual reproduction gives self-pollinating plants the ability to colonize new habitats, and it is a common trait in weedy species. However, self-fertilization does carry a disadvantage relative to outcrossing, which is that the genetic variability produced, although greater than in an asexual population, is considerably less than that seen in an outbreeding population. The balance between the relative importance of assured reproduction and genetic variability differs in different species, largely as a result of their habitats, lifecycles, and the niches that they occupy. This chapter considers the ways in which self-fertilization can be reduced or prevented through dichogamy, herkogamy, monoecy, dioecy, and biochemical self-incompatibility.
Do Pollinators Discriminate between Different Floral Forms?
Authors: Glover Beverley J.
Published: January 2008

This chapter investigates whether the different shapes, structures, and colours that flowers produce have the potential to enhance pollinator visitation. To do this, they must fulfil two criteria. First, they must be visible to the appropriate pollinator, or detectable using some other sense. Secondly, the pollinator must discriminate between different floral forms. Simply because a change in floral form is detectable to an animal, it does not necessarily follow that the animal will discriminate between the original and the novel form. Such discrimination will only occur if one form provides an advantage to the animal. This chapter begins by discussing the current evidence on what different pollinating animals can see and detect in other ways. It then considers the experimental evidence that pollinators do discriminate between different floral forms, focussing on flower colour, flower shape, and flower scent.
4 Applications
Authors: Maggiore Michele
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses some important applications of the formalism previously developed. It describes the inspiral of compact binaries, and shows how the backreaction caused by GW emission affects the motion of the source and in turn the GW emission itself, leading to the so-called ‘chirp waveform’. The effect of the eccentricity of the orbit on the total radiated power and on its frequency spectrum (Peters-Mathews formula) is calculated. The radiation from rotating and precessing rigid bodies is studied in view of applications to rotating neutron stars. The radial infall of a star into a black hole is then considered; depending on the compactness of the star, this leads to the emission of coherent or incoherent gravitational radiation. Finally, the radiation emitted by accelerated masses is discussed.
7 Data analysis techniques
Authors: Maggiore Michele
Published: January 2008

This chapter deals with experimental aspects of gravitational waves. It defines spectral strain sensitivity, describes the detector's noise and the pattern functions that encode its angular sensitivity, and discusses various data analysis techniques for GWs. It also introduces the theory of matched filtering. A proper interpretation of the results obtained with matched filtering relies on notions of probability and statistics. These are discussed together with an introduction to the frequentist and the Bayesian frameworks. The reconstruction of the source parameters is discussed, and the general theory is then applied to different classes of signals, namely, bursts, periodic sources, coalescing binaries, and stochastic background.
1 The World that is Mystical
Authors: Klein Terrance W.
Published: January 2008

This chapter begins with a brief introduction to the thought of Wittgenstein. It argues that Christians have nothing to fear by accepting his now commonplace maxim that the meaning of any word is its usage, not some occult object lying beyond the word. It then introduces the thought of this seminal thinker to those who might be unfamiliar with it, but it also takes discussion of Wittgenstein's writings to a deeper, theological level. It addresses questions such as: what is the relationship between the divine and the human in the thought of Wittgenstein? Can the word ‘grace’ find a place within the world of his discourse?
From Ethics to Epistemology
Authors: Klein Terrance W.
Published: January 2008

This chapter takes up the biblical roots of grace, noting that grace begins its life as an act, specifically the human perception of being favoured by God. All revealed religions view their adherents as graced, or favoured by God, even if the purpose of this favouring is ultimately a more universal election for all peoples. In its encounter with non-biblical thought, specifically Neoplatonism and Gnosticism, the Galilean religion would be forced to defend what could be called ‘the emergence of history from nature’ and its proclamation of historical predilection on the part of God. St Augustine of Hippo will appear as grace's champion in this struggle, defending salvation history by recasting it as a great dialogical drama of love. It is argued that the passion driving Augustine was a personal, nuptial relationship, one inadequately expressed by the concept of nature, demanding instead that history be seen as the foundational horizon for grace.
5 Grace as Gaze
Authors: Klein Terrance W.
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines the noetic character of grace, attempting to make grace comprehensible to those outside of Christian discourse. It argues that grace is the apperception of a form that reveals itself to be the offer of a person. It is something akin to meeting a gaze. Hence, it has a noetic, experiential element that represents real contact with God, without sacrificing divine transcendence vis-à-vis the world.