bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Novel Methodology for the Study of Children at Risk for School Failure
Authors: Cooper David H. , Speece Deborah L.
Published: December 2008

This paper introduces the conceptual framework guiding a 3-year investigation of first-grade children at risk for referral and placement in special education. Preliminary data for the first of three planned cohorts are presented that illustrate a novel methodological approach to identifying the characteristics of children at risk for referral. The sample ( n = 35) consisted of 25 first graders who were referred by their teachers to Teacher Assistance Teams and 10 control children, matched for classroom membership and sex. Children's scores on a battery of standardized and experimental tasks were used to form subgroups based on the presence or absence of risk factors. The resulting profiles were examined via a relative risk analysis to determine degree of risk for referral associated with each subgroup. The potential of the proposed methodology to understanding the characteristics and learning environments of at-risk children is discussed.
The Power of Hypothesis Testing in Special Education Efficacy Research
Authors: Sindelar Paul T. , Allman Carol , Monda Lisa , Vail Cynthia O. , Wilson Cynthia L. , Schloss Patrick J.
Published: December 2008

The efficacy of special class placement for mildly handicapped children was an early focus of special education research and has been the subject of at least two narrative reviews and one meta-analysis. In general, special class placement has proved to be no more effective than regular class placement on measures of achievement and social adjustment. However, the power with which the efficacy of special classes has been tested is unknown; thus inadequate statistical power represents an alternative explanation for the findings. The power of the statistical tests in 35 efficacy studies to detect small, medium, and large effect sizes was determined. The power to detect a medium effect size where one existed was no better than chance. However, 21 studies had adequate power to detect a large effect size. The effect sizes for these 21 studies on academic and social measures were highly variable and their averages quite small. Thus, conclusions drawn from previous reviews may be valid, in spite of the failure of earlier reviewers to consider statistical power. The implications of the present analysis for researchers, policy makers, and funding agencies are discussed in relation to the Regular Education Initiative and contemporary efficacy research.
A Review of Research on Picture Reading Skills of Developmentally Disabled Individuals
Authors: Lignugaris/Kraft Benjamin , McCuller Glen L. , Exum Mary , Salzberg Charles L.
Published: December 2008

Pictures can be an efficient means for presenting instruction to nonhandicapped and handicapped individuals. The effectiveness of pictures as an instructional tool depends in large part on the extent to which a learner's responses generalize from pictures to the realities they represent. In this paper, the component skills that constitute a picture reading repertoire are defined, and research on the development of those skills with developmentally disabled individuals is reviewed. In addition, recommendations for further research are presented.
Resources Available In School Districts Serving Secondary Special Education Students: Implications For Transition
Authors: Fairweather James S. , Stearns Marian S. , Wagner Mary M.
Published: December 2008

Survey data were gathered from 1,450 school districts to determine the extent to which vocational and transition-oriented services were available to secondary-age special education students. Extensive variation between districts was found in the types of students served and in the configuration of agencies serving them. Most districts reported cooperating with other districts or agencies to find appropriate instructional settings and related services. District size was strongly related to number and variety of services, with larger districts providing more services to more secondary special education students with a wider range of disabilities compared to smaller districts. In most districts, vocational training was available and accessed by special education students, but special transition-oriented arrangements, such as assisting special education students to find jobs, were less evident.
A Multidimensional Scaling Study Of Administrators' And Teachers' Perceptions Of Disabilities
Authors: Garvar Adrienne , Schmelkin Liora Pedhazur
Published: December 2008

There is a growing recognition that the perceptions educators hold about youngsters with disabilities may affect the way they classify and treat these children in their classes. The present investigation focused on the perceptions of disabilities of four groups of educators: elementary school principals, special education administrators, regular elementary teachers, and special education teachers. The study examined differences in the perceptual spaces of the four groups. Multidimensional scaling was utilized to assess the perceptions of disabilities. Results indicated that perceptions of disabilities were multidimensional and that the perceptual structure differed for the four groups. Despite the differences among the perceptual spaces, the groups shared some commonalities relating to physical, behavorial-emotional, perceptual, and sensory disabilities.
Survival Word Acquisition In Mentally Retarded Adolescents With Multihandicaps: Effects Of Color-Reversed Stimulus Materials
Authors: Blyden Amelia E.
Published: December 2008

This study examined the effects of reversing the color of stimulus materials used to teach survival vocabulary to 16 spastic cerebral palsied and 16 other multihandicapped adolescents with mental retardation. Subjects were taught with standard black-on-white and with white-on-black, sight word cards. Order of administration, color presentation, and words were counterbalanced; trials to criterion was the dependent measure. Results indicated that white-on-black cards improved the acquisition performance of both groups, but did not affect retention. Findings are consistent with previous related research with cerebral palsied and nondisabled children. Implications for practice and for additional research are discussed.
Aids In Children: Effects On Neurological Development And Implications For The Future
Authors: Byers Julia
Published: December 2008

HIV, the virus that causes AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome), was originally thought to affect only the immune system. However, a review of the medical literature indicates that HIV may also directly infect the brain, especially in children. The most profound result of brain involvement in HIV infection for children is the marked delay of developmental milestones, particularly motor function, or the actual loss of milestones previously attained by the infant or child. The areas of the brain most affected by the virus are the basal ganglia and the thalamus, which show considerable calcification. Implications for the future are discussed in terms of dealing with chronic illness and possible educational needs should these brain-damaged children be healthy enough to eventually attend school. Those with interest in special education and child development are beginning to recognize the far-reaching effects HIV has on children. Now we must address the implications of those effects in an ever-increasing population of children with AIDS. Research in this area is urgently needed and should become a priority area for educational and developmental specialists.
A Comparison Of The Social Competencies Of Learning Disabled And Low Achieving Elementary-Aged Children
Authors: Sater Gary M. , French Doran C.
Published: December 2008

The social competencies of learning disabled (LD) and non-LD low achieving (LA) children were investigated in two studies. First, the social status of 101 LD, 156 LA, and 608 normally achieving children were assessed using peer sociometric ratings. LD and LA children received statistically significant lower ratings than normally achieving students. LD children were lower in social status than non-LD children, but did not differ significantly from LA children. Furthermore, approximately 70% of the LD children did not experience social rejection. In Study 2, parent and teacher behavior ratings were obtained for rejected and accepted LD and LA children to assess the comparability of these populations. Both LD and LA rejected children exhibited lower social competence and a greater incidence of behavior problems than did accepted children. Contrary to predictions, no differences between LD boys and girls were found in either study. Findings of significant heterogeneity in social status and the failure to find specific behavioral qualities associated with the presence of learning disabilities contradict arguments that social skill deficits constitute a major defining characteristic of the LD population.
The Schools, The Courts, And The Integration Of Students With Severe Handicaps
Authors: Brady Michael P. , McDougall Dennis , Dennis H. Floyd
Published: December 2008

In spite of advances in public school programs for students with severe handicaps, numerous cases challenging the placement of students in non-integrated programs are reaching the courts. These cases typically seek to establish whether integrated public schools represent the least restrictive environment (LRE) for students with severe handicaps. In this paper, court case decisions supporting both integrated and nonintegrated placements as the LRE are investigated. Specifically, the extent to which recent court decisions have influenced educational concepts of the LRE for severely handicapped students is examined. The rationale for these decisions is presented and implications for special educators are discussed.
Attentional Cuing In Spelling Tasks For Hyperactive And Comparison Regular Classroom Children
Authors: Zentall Sydney S.
Published: December 2008

Hyperactive children were predicted to attend more readily to tasks where color was added than were normal comparison children. If color were added to relevant cues in a spelling task, this attentional selectivity could produce improved performance. Alternatively, there was evidence to suggest that adding an additional dimension (color) to the early trials of a difficult task could produce performance disruption. To determine whether added relevant stimulation or the timing of relevant stimulation was important, 20 hyperactive and 26 comparison boys were pre-assessed on spelling level and then randomly assigned to condition-order (color added to relevant letters for the first two trials of the task and all black letters for the second two trials, or the reverse order). Findings were that hyperactive children who practiced the task with all black letters first, and color added later, out-performed comparison children.
Special Education Student-Teacher Ratios For Mildly Handicapped Children
Authors: Ysseldyke James E. , Thurlow Martha L. , Wotruba Joseph W.
Published: December 2008

A national survey of special education teachers was conducted to document current student-teacher ratios (STRs) and instructional arrangements used for students with mild handicaps. For this study, students with “mild handicaps” were those who received some instruction in the mainstream classroom. The 54.3% response rate included 141 elementary and 79 secondary teachers. The average STR was 4.7:1, with a range of 1:1 to 15:1. Minor differences were found as a function of the students' categorical designations and the elementary versus secondary distinction. Differences were found in the reported bases that teachers with higher (above 8:1) and lower (4:1 to 6:1) STRs used for selecting students for instructional groupings. The most frequently identified basis, regardless of category or grade level, was the student's level of academic performance. Survey results also indicated that teachers generally were unfamiliar with their local district guidelines for STRs and caseloads; 42% either stated that they did not know or left the item blank. Those who did respond indicated that guidelines for STRs and caseloads are ambiguous, not used, and/or difficult to apply. Implications of the findings and the need for additional research are discussed.
Adaptive and Maladaptive Behavior
Authors: Kauffman James M. , Lloyd John Wills , McGee Kathleen A.
Published: December 2008

Thirty-four elementary and 22 secondary teachers responded to Walker and Rankin's SBS Inventory, which assesses teachers' expectations regarding students' behavior and the types of problems for which they require technical assistance. Ratings of behaviors as critical or unacceptable were generally consistent with previous research. Teachers disagreed, however, about their needs for technical assistance. Approximately 20% considered many behaviors critical or unacceptable, but indicated willingness to take responsibility for teaching pupils who lack critical skills or exhibit unacceptable behavior without technical assistance. Nearly 30% considered many behaviors critical or unacceptable but were unwilling to accept responsibility for pupils without technical assistance. About 30% considered relatively few behaviors critical or unacceptable but were willing to take responsibility for them. About 20% considered few behaviors critical or unacceptable but were unwilling to take responsibility for them. Extreme individual differences among teachers were found among both special and regular education teachers. No significant differences were found between special and regular education teachers or among groups currently working with handicapped students. Significant differences were found, however, for groups differing on dimensions related to demandingness, responsibility, and sense of self-efficacy. We discuss implications for integrating handicapped pupils into general education and for future research.
Employment of Youth with and without Handicaps Following High School
Authors: Hasazi Susan Brody , Johnson Rosamund E. , Hasazi Joseph E. , Gordon Lawrence R. , Hull Marc
Published: December 2008

Factors associated with the employment status of students with and without handicaps were investigated in a sample of 133 youths from nine Vermont school districts. Students with handicaps who exited high school in 1984-85, and who had been receiving special education services, were identified and compared to non-college-bound, vocationally oriented students without handicaps. Two sets of interviews were conducted, one in 1986 and one in 1987. During these interviews, information was obtained on current employment status, employment and training history, social service utilization, and residential status. Additional information regarding educational history, age, and community demographics was obtained through individual student records. Employment, educational, and residential experiences were compared across both groups of former students. Results indicated that students without handicaps had more favorable post-high-school employment outcomes than students with handicaps. Across groups, males were more likely to be employed than females and employment was positively associated with paid work experiences during high school. Vocational class experience was positively associated with later employment for handicapped but not for nonhandicapped students. Although some changes in employment status over the 2-year period did occur, the majority of former students remained in the same employment status (full time, part time, or unemployed) for both years. The results of the study help to put the employment status of youth with handicaps into context and suggest both similarities and differences between students with and without handicaps in employment correlates.
Use Of Constant Time Delay In Small Group Instruction: A Study Of Observational And Incidental Learning
Authors: Doyle Patricia Munsony , Gast David L. , Wolery Mark , Ault Melinda Jones , Farmer Jacqueline A.
Published: December 2008

This investigation examined the effectiveness and efficiency of constant time delay in small group instruction. Four secondary-age students with mild and moderate mental retardation were taught to identify local and federal service and government agencies and over-the-counter medications. The amount of information learned when each subject was presented with two target and six observational stimuli (same-task, different-stimuli condition) was compared to when each student in the group was taught the same eight target stimuli (same-task, same-stimuli condition). The subjects' acquisition of incidental information presented in the descriptive praise statement following correct responses to the target stimuli was assessed. A multiple probe design across behaviors was used. The results indicated that (a) constant time delay was effective across all facts, students, and conditions; (b) the same-task, different-stimuli condition produced more efficient learning than the same-task, same-stimuli condition; (c) students acquired more target information in the same-task, same-stimuli conditions; (d) observational learning occurred in the same-task, different-stimuli condition for all subjects; (e) increased exposure to other students' target information and differential reinforcement in the probe conditions increased the percentages of correct observational responding in the same-task, different-stimuli conditions; and (f) there were no differences between conditions in students' acquisition of incidental information. These findings are discussed in terms of strategies for designing effective and efficient small group instruction.
Generalization Of Community Skills: How Much Training Is Necessary?
Authors: Westling David L. , Floyd Jane
Published: December 2008

The current emphasis on preparing students with mental handicaps to operate in community settings requires practitioners to implement educational methods that will foster community skill acquisition and generalization. Skill generalization calls for the implementation of methods that are potentially more complex than those required for simple skill acquisition. The present paper focuses on the success of generalization within community training studies and the strategies used to achieve this success. The present review analyzed 27 studies that taught community skills to persons with moderate to severe mental handicaps and tested the generalization of these skills. The analyses included the degree of generalization that occurred and the effect of different strategies used to promote generalization. The paper concludes with a discussion of implications for practitioners and the need for additional research.
The Case For Mnemonic Instruction: From Laboratory Research To Classroom Applications
Authors: Scruggs Thomas E. , Mastropieri Margo A.
Published: December 2008

This article describes the design and execution of a systematic body of research using, as an example, the authors' own mnemonic strategy research. We describe the evolution of this research, from theory-driven laboratory research to long-term classroom applications of the effectiveness of curriculum-relevant mnemonic strategies. We argue that different experimental materials, different implementation procedures, and different experimental designs are necessary at different stages of the development of this research, and provide examples to support our positions. Finally, we describe the necessary contribution of other, independent researchers in supporting the external validity of the findings.
Cost Analysis Of Special Schools For Students With Mental Retardation
Authors: Lewis Darrell R. , Bruininks Robert H. , Thurlow Martha L.
Published: December 2008

What does it cost to conduct the programs of special schools for youth with moderate and severe mental retardation within an urban public school setting? What resource components contribute most to these costs? And who bears the financial burden of these costs? This article reports (a) some of the issues inherent in addressing these questions and (b) some benchmark cost estimates for two special schools located within a metropolitan area of the Midwest. It also illustrates an accounting framework that individual school districts might want to replicate for assessing service costs and for use in their internal decision making.
Classroom Teachers' Views Of Intervention Strategies For Learning And Behavior Problems: Which Are Reasonable And How Frequently Are They Used?
Authors: Johnson Lawrence J. , Pugach Marleen C.
Published: December 2008

This study investigated intervention strategies that general educators use and believe are reasonable for implementation when dealing with children with mild learning and behavior problems. Two sources of data were used. Teachers from Wisconsin and Illinois (n = 232) rated how often they used 57 intervention strategies and how reasonable these strategies were for implementation in the classroom as a means of accommodating the needs of students with mild learning and behavior problems. Teacher ratings of use and reasonability were factor-analyzed, and five factors were generated for each. The two factor structures were interrelated and had similar factors. Factors generated for use were principal involvement, teacher intervention, special education, teacher consultation, and parent involvement. Factors generated for reasonability were teacher intervention, principal/teacher consultation, student alternatives, special education, and data collection. Eighty-seven of these teachers then were interviewed to determine specific issues they consider when determining whether an intervention strategy can be implemented reasonably in their classrooms. These data provide a clear profile of interventions teachers use and find reasonable, as well as an indication of factors that inhibit teachers from selecting intervention strategies to address the mild learning and behavior problems of their students.
Individual Differences and the form and Function of Instruction
Authors: Hofmeister Alan M.
Published: December 2008

Selected approaches to the individualization of instruction are reviewed and compared to the findings of the effective teaching literature. The instructional setting, as a salient variable in instructional adaptations for individual differences, is questioned. Special educators should focus on the needed, validated, student learning experiences. To accomplish this, the special educator should emphasize the function, not the form, of instructional treatments. It is recommended that the effective teaching literature be viewed as a source of practical information on cost-effective approaches that address instructionally relevant individual differences.
Score Structures and Applications of Core Profile Types in the Mccarthy Scales Standardization Sample
Authors: Glutting Joseph J. , McDermott Paul A.
Published: December 2008

This study reports the development of a normative profile typology for showing what types of score patterns are commonplace in the standardization sample of the McCarthy Scales of Childien's Abilities (McCarthy, 1972). The benefit of such a core profile typology is that it provides necessary contrasts for testing hypotheses that children's profiles are descriptively or clinically unique. Standard scores from the battery's primary scales were grouped according to similar shape and level using sequential minimum-variance cluster analysis with independent replications. A final solution of five core profile types met all formal heuristic and statistical criteria, including (a) satisfactory internal cohesion, (b) external isolation, (c) replicability, and (d) full coverage of the sample. The five core types are described according to their score configurations and by members' age, gender, race, parental education, and family occupation levels. Typological findings for the McCarthy Scales then are related to core profile types identified previously for the three Wechsler scales. Finally, three methods are presented for testing whether a given child's profile is unique in comparison to subjects in the McCarthy Scales standardization sample.
The Coverage of Persons with Disabilities in American Newspapers
Authors: Keller Clayton E. , Hallahan Daniel P. , McShane Edward A. , Crowley E. Paula , Blandford Barbara J.
Published: December 2008

Surveys of individuals with disabilities and interpretive essays have criticized the media for their lack of coverage of disability issues and for stereotypical and inappropriate portrayals of persons with disabilities. We conducted an empirical study of a national sample of American newspapers to check the validity of these findings and ideas. We found, on the average, a sizeable number of substantial references to persons with disabilities or their family members on a daily basis. These references tended to occur in feature or “soft” news articles rather than “hard” news stories and to be about individuals with physical disabilities, mental retardation, or individuals identified by the generic labels “handicapped” and “disabled.” When articles mentioned the impact of the disability on the person's life, they often portrayed the negative impact of the disability. If articles considered the possibilities for the improvement of the person's condition, they frequently suggested the person's condition could be improved.
Effects Of Social Skills Training And Contingency Management On Reciprocal Interaction Of Preschool Children With Behavioral Handicaps
Authors: McConnell Scott R. , Sisson Lori A. , Cort Carol A. , Strain Phillip S.
Published: December 2008

Four subjects participated in a study to evaluate the effects of various social interaction skill interventions on the social behavior of preschool children and the reciprocal nature of their interactions with peers. Intervention included social skills training conducted in a controlled instructional setting, as well as individual and group-oriented contingency management procedures implemented during free play. Subject performance was assessed with a behavioral role play test and via direct observation of subject and peer behavior in free play settings. Results indicated unique effects for social skills training and the two contingency management interventions. Social skills training alone produced significant improvement in the production of target social skills, as measured by role play, for 3 of 4 subjects. However, this intervention produced relatively modest effects on subject and peer behavior in free play. Prompts and praise for target behaviors delivered to individual subjects during free play (i.e., Coaching) produced significant change in rates of subject initiations and responses to peers and peer responses to subject initiations, but produced few changes in reciprocal interactions between subjects and peers. Prompts and praise delivered to total play groups (i.e., Group Coaching) produced desired effects on peer behavior, but had less effect on interactive behavior of subjects. These results are discussed with respect to the role of reciprocal interaction and behavioral trapping for producing maintenance and generalization in social interaction interventions for preschool children with behavioral handicaps.
Teachers' Decisions To Transfer From Special To General Education
Authors: Billingsley Bonnie S. , Cross Lawrence H.
Published: December 2008

We investigated why some special education teachers choose to stay in teaching, but leave their special education assignments. In addition, we identified deterrents and potential incentives that might lead former special educators to reconsider teaching positions in special education. Questionnaires from 286 respondents were analyzed. The primary reasons cited for leaving special education suggest that teachers transfer from special to general education because of administrative factors and the stress involved in working with special education students. Implications for educational agencies are addressed.
Reducing Teacher Prompts in Peer-Mediated Interventions for Young Children with Autism
Authors: Odom Samuel L.
Published: December 2008

The purpose of this study was to examine an intervention package designed to support the transfer of a peer-mediated intervention for young children with autism to a setting in which teacher verbal prompts were not provided. Three preschool children with autism and four nondisabled peers, all enrolled in an integrated special education class, participated. Teachers first taught peers social initiation strategies for promoting the social interactions of the children with autism and then provided verbal prompts when necessary to peers in structured play setting. In a second structured play setting, teachers did not provide prompts to peers. Initiations increased in the setting in which teachers provided verbal prompts, but not in a second setting. In the third phase of the study, a correspondence training/visual feedback (CTVF) package was introduced in the second setting and resulted in substantial increases in peer initiations. In the final phase of the study, the peer-initiation intervention was discontinued and the CTVF package continued to support the peers' social initiations. Implications for practice are discussed.
Social Status: A Comparison of Mainstreamed Students with Peers of Different Ability Levels
Authors: Larrivee Barbara , Horne Marcia D.
Published: December 2008

This study compared the peer acceptance of main-streamed elementary school students with that of their class peers of differing ability levels. In each classroom, a mainstreamed student and a student of low, average, and high ability, defined in terms of reading-group placement, were selected randomly. To assess peer acceptance, a sociometric scale was group-administered to each of the participating 100 classes while the mainstreamed student was present. ANOVA indicated that the main effect due to ability level was significant. The Scheffe test revealed that peer acceptance was significantly lower for the mainstreamed student as compared with both the average- and the high-ability student. However, the mainstreamed and low-ability students were not significantly different from each other, nor were the average- and high-ability students.
Parent and Teacher Referrals for a Psychoeducational Evaluation
Authors: Gottlieb Jay , Gottlieb Barbara W. , Trongone Sharon
Published: December 2008

The school records of 439 pupils who had been referred for special education evaluation were studied. Of the pupils, 328 were referred by teachers and 111 by parents. Results indicated that both parents and teachers referred primarily for academic reasons, but parents did so more often, and that parents referred higher functioning pupils than teachers referred. Data also indicated that white parents were more likely than minority parents to refer their children, but that teachers were more likely to refer minority pupils.
Deaf Children's Knowledge of Internal Human Anatomy
Authors: Jones Elaine , Badger Terry
Published: December 2008

The purpose of this study was to investigate deaf children's knowledge of internal human anatomy. A static group comparison design was used to gather data from 80 deaf children and 190 hearing children who attended either a local public school for the deaf and the blind, or the regular public schools. Children were assigned to three groups according to age: 5–7 years, 8–11 years, and 12–15 years. Differences in deaf and hearing children's scores on the Draw-A-Person Test of general abilities were not statistically significant. Children's knowledge of internal body parts was assessed using a projective drawing test. Results indicated that (a) deaf children in successively older age groups knew more internal body parts than the younger subjects, and (b) deaf children in all three age groups knew significantly less about internal body parts than subjects in their normally hearing cohort.
Establishing Conversational Exchanges with Family and Friends
Authors: Hunt Pam , Alwell Morgen , Goetz Lori
Published: December 2008

Three high school students with severe disabilities were taught to participate in conversations with a number of peers in a variety of school and community settings utilizing a communication book adaptation. Additionally, during baseline, training, and informed-generalization-partner phases, measures were taken of the degree to which conversation initiation and turn taking generalized to conversation opportunities outside the instructional situation with family members and other nondisabled partners at home and in the community. During the independence phase, when students were participating in sustained conversations with a large number of peers at school, there continued to be breakdowns in conversational turn taking in probe contexts. Utilizing a multiple baseline design across students, probe partners at home and school received the information they needed to support the students with disabilities by conversing via the communication book and utilizing the conversation structure to provide additional prompts. The results showed that the number of balanced conversational turns taken following partner training immediately matched performance with informed peers at school. Finally, the study demonstrated that one family member could provide the necessary information for successful interactions to another without further input from school personnel.
Leisure Instruction Outcomes
Authors: Vandercook Terri
Published: December 2008

Acquiring and performing leisure skills for a teacher does not denote the criterion of ultimate functioning for a teenager. One important criterion for community leisure participation by teenagers includes engaging in those activities with friends. The primary purpose of the present study was to investigate the degree to which leisure skills acquired and demonstrated through instruction would generalize when students were provided opportunities to engage in those same activities with a peer. A secondary purpose was to determine the impact of leisure skill competence by the student with disabilities on social interactions with peers while engaging in leisure activities. A tertiary purpose was to examine the attitudes of the teenagers without disabilities who participated in the study. Results indicated that the increase in skills demonstrated with the instructor were associated with an increase in the demonstration of those same skills when engaged in the activity with a peer. Correlations were calculated between leisure skill demonstration by the student with disabilities and specific social behaviors. Only the skill defined as “cooperative participation” was highly correlated. Attitude scores of the high school peers showed a statistically significant increase following the 4 months of interaction. The implications for intervention approaches to facilitate the acquisition and generalization of leisure skills for students with severe disabilities are discussed.
Teacher Perceptions of the Classroom Behaviors of Nominated Handicapped and Nonhandicapped Students in China
Authors: Semmel Melvyn I. , Gao Xiaohong
Published: December 2008

Research in nations that do not use elaborate labeling systems may be particularly appropriate for studying teacher perceptions of difficult-to-teach students. This study investigated Chinese teachers' perceptions of the classroom behavior of students nominated as learning disabled (NLD), educable mentally retarded (NEMR), average (NA), and gifted (NG) based on the salient defining features commonly used in America to designate labeling categories. Behavioral ratings were obtained for a random sample of 196 nominated students from 27 teachers in two cities. Results indicated that NLD and NEMR students were rated significantly less favorably than NA and NG students; NLD students were rated significantly higher on verbal intelligence, creativity, and curiosity, and as more extroverted than NEMR students. Discriminant analysis yielded 72.19% agreement between original nominations and the classification based on the ratings. The results are compared to published findings of studies conducted in the United States.
Decision Reliability and Validity: Contributions and Limitations of Alternative Assessment Strategies
Authors: Barnett David W. , Macmann Gregg M.
Published: December 2008

The need to develop alternative models of psycho-educational assessment, more attuned to the logical and empirical requirements of intervention design, has been a central theme of school psychology and special education reform. In response to these challenges, alternative assessment and service delivery models have been proposed in which classification and assessment strategies are linked more directly to principles of intervention design. Yet, the degree to which alternative assessment models may share a number of problems with traditional diagnostic assessment practices has not been analyzed sufficiently. In this paper, the concepts of decision reliability and validity, extensions of reliability and validity theory that encompass decision outcomes, are used to frame a general analysis of three alternative assessment strategies: multiple gating, template matching, and time-series methods. We argue that relatively little knowledge may be gained through the analysis of individual scales and assessment technologies without placing them within a decision-making context and studying individual outcomes.
Greater Validity for Oral Reading Fluency: Can Miscues Help?
Authors: Parker Richard , Hasbrouck Jan E. , Tindal Gerald
Published: December 2008

Oral reading fluency (ORF), or number of words read correctly per minute, is well researched as a reliable and valid reading index for use in remedial and special education. However, widespread use has been limited, apparently by its lack of face validity as a measure of reading comprehension. The purpose of this study was to examine the criterion-related validity of traditional ORF and two miscue-based assessment types: (a) modified ORF, based on only meaning change miscues (ORF-M), severe meaning change miscues (ORF-S), and uncorrected miscues (ORF-U); and (b) modified oral reading accuracy (ORA), based on the same miscue types, to produce ORA-M, ORA-S, and ORA-U. Four external criteria were used to judge criterion-related validity: (a) teacher judgments of student reading ability, (b) the Analytical Reading Inventory (ARI) (Woods & Moe, 1985), (c) a maze procedure (multiple choice cloze), and (d) reading group placement (special education/Chapter 1 pull-out groups vs. lowest regular classroom reading group). Results did not favor any modifications of traditional ORF. A modified ORA (ORA-S) demonstrated predictive power comparable to traditional ORF, but with reduced interscorer accuracy. The study confirmed the strength of traditional ORF, but pointed out the potential for the practical use of selected miscue types as accuracy indices, if reliability problems can be overcome.
Redefining the Wisc-R: Implications for Professional Practice and Public Policy
Authors: Macmann Gregg M. , Barnett David W.
Published: December 2008

The factor structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (Wechsler, 1974) was examined in the standardization sample using methodological advances in exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Three competing models were evaluated: (a) a one-factor model, (b) an oblique (or correlated) two-factor model, and (c) an oblique three-factor model. Because of high correlations across factors, the discriminant validity of the two- and three-factor models was problematic. The substantial overlap across factors was most parsimoniously represented by a single general factor, consistent with the interpretations of O'Grady (1989). The competing factor models are discussed in relation to treatment utility and alternative assessment practices. Given the widespread use of the scale, the issues are of critical importance to public policy regarding the purposes and outcomes of special education assessments.
A Preliminary Study in Teaching Self-Protective Skills to Children with Moderate and Severe Mental Retardation
Authors: Watson Mark , Bain Alan , Houghton Stephen
Published: December 2008

A modification of the multiple-probe design was used to teach students with mental retardation appropriate strategies for responding to inappropriate invitations from strangers. Seven students were tested in three different naturalistic settings using adult confederates prior and subsequent to receiving instruction in self-protective skills. Students' responses were videotaped by a concealed camera and subsequently rated using a behavior checklist. Six of the 7 students displayed improvement in self-protective skills, which generalized to a nontraining situation and across individual abductors. A 14-day follow-up probe indicated that the gains made by 6 of the 7 students in refusing a lure were maintained, despite variability in scores across the component behaviors of the self-protective skills taught. Design limitations, in part arising from the nature of the subject matter, limit the generalizability of the findings of this preliminary study; however, results are encouraging with respect to the effects of group-based self-protective training with individuals who are mentally retarded.
Policy Issues in School Attendance of Children with Aids: A National Survey
Authors: Katsiyannis Antonis
Published: December 2008

The purpose of this study was to determine the nature of existing state school attendance policies for children with acquired immune-deficiency syndrome (AIDS). In addition, responses from a brief survey instrument were used to secure information regarding the development and use of these policies. Results indicated that the majority of states had developed policies emphasizing the education of children with AIDS within the regular classroom setting, the use of preventive measures enhancing hygiene and sanitary practices, and the involvement of health officials as appropriate.
Cognitive Modifiability and Cognitive Performance of Deaf and Hearing Preschool Children
Authors: Tzuriel David , Caspi Naomi
Published: December 2008

This study was designed to (a) assess the cognitive modifiability of preschool deaf and hearing children using dynamic and static-conventional instruments, and (b) compare the factorial pattern of the cognitive measures in both groups. The sample was composed of 26 deaf and 26 pair-matched hearing preschool children from 4·1 to 6·3 years of age. All of the children were given, individually, Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices (RCPM), Children's Analogical Thinking Modifiability (CATM), the Picture Analogy Test (PAT), and the Analogies subtest from the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Test (SON), and were initially matched on a motor integration scale. No significant differences were found between the two groups on RCPM, Analogies (SON), or PAT. On the CATM, a dynamic assessment instrument, the deaf children scored lower than the hearing children at pretest but improved their scores more than the hearing children when taught; both groups scored similarly after teaching. Results are interpreted according to the Structural Cognitive Modifiability and Mediated Learning Experience theory (Feuerstein, Rand, & Hoffman, 1979) and the unique communication barriers of deaf children.
The Application of Dynamic Methods to Language Assessment
Authors: Peña Elizabeth , Iglesias Aquiles
Published: December 2008

Dynamic methods are discussed as interactive and process-oriented procedures for nonbiased assessment of communicative competence and language learning potential. Specifically, this study demonstrates the application of mediated learning experience to language assessment. Significant results of the study supported the hypothesis that a task matching young children's socialization better differentiates between nondisabled and language disordered children than a static standardized measure. Dynamic methods were most effective in differentiating nondisabled children from those with possible language disorders.
The Effects of Residential Versus Day Placement on the Performance IQS of Children with Hearing Impairment
Authors: Braden Jeffery P. , Maller Susan J. , Paquin Marius M.
Published: December 2008

The effect of placement on the PIQs of children with hearing impairment (HI) was examined. Specifically, children in three types of placement options (commuter to a residential school, resident at a residential school, and commuter to a mainstream day program) were evaluated 3 to 4 years after enrollment to determine what, if any, changes had occurred in their Wechsler Performance IQs. The ANCOVA results demonstrate statistically significant gains for commuters and residents attending the residential program, in contrast to no PIQ change for children attending the day program. These results contradict arguments that placement in a segregated, residential setting invariably inhibits cognitive development. Additional implications for educational placement and research are discussed.
Teacher Efficacy and Student Problem as Factors in Special Education Referral
Authors: Soodak Leslie C. , Podell David M.
Published: December 2008

We investigated the influence of teacher efficacy and student problem type on teachers' placement and referral decisions. Regular and special educators ( N= 192) were randomly assigned a case study describing a student having a learning and/or behavior problem and asked to judge (a) whether the student was appropriately placed in regular education and (b) whether they would refer this student to special education. Analysis of an efficacy scale yielded two factors: personal efficacy and teaching efficacy. Results indicated that regular and special educators were most likely to agree with regular class placement when they were high in both dimensions of efficacy. Regular educators higher in personal efficacy were more likely to agree with regular education placement than those with lower personal efficacy. In addition, students with combined learning and behavior problems were found to be the most susceptible to referral. This study suggests that teachers' sense of efficacy underlies their placement decisions.
Promoting Social Interaction and Status of Children with Intellectual Disabilities in Zambia
Authors: Rønning John A. , Nabuzoka Dabie
Published: December 2008

A group of Zambian primary school children with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities was studied together with nondisabled peers. Observations were carried out in two situations: an “experimental” situation where manipulations were made to investigate subsequent increases in social interaction, and a “natural” situation without any manipulations. Several interventions were tested at intervals separated by baselines. Although play-skills training of children with disabilities resulted in some increases in interaction between these children and nondisabled children, training coupled with teacher prompts led to more substantial increases in such interaction. These effects were transferred to the natural situation, but reduced in both situations when the intervention was withdrawn. A “special friends” approach, associated with the nondisabled children taking the role of initiators of interaction, led to increases in social behavior in both the experimental and natural situations. This was maintained at both 1-month and 6-month follow-ups. In addition, sociometric assessments carried out at three points in time showed increases, associated with the intervention programs, in the status of the children with disabilities. Results are discussed as preliminary, with implications for the design and evaluation of intervention programs aimed at promoting integration of children with disabilities in mainstream schools.