bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
MUSICAL AND AUTOMATON CLOCKS AND WATCHES
Authors: Kerman Sharon
Published: June 2023

This chapter describes in chronological order the use of music in clocks and watches, from the simplest chiming of bells, to elaborate melodies, combined with lifelike automaton figures and covers the period from the Late Middle Ages to the twentieth century. The chapter covers the mechanisms of both clocks and watches. It also discusses the important export trade to the Far East, as well as the development of singing bird mechanisms, and provides examples of the latter, including those of Jaquet Droz and Leschot, the most prestigious makers of mechanical singing birds in the second half of the eighteenth century.
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY CLOCK EXPORTS FROM BRITAIN TO THE EAST INDIES
Authors: Smith Roger
Published: June 2023

The chapter offers a case study in clock exportation from Britain to the Far East, primarily India and China. It describes the production of the high-value goods required for this long distance and difficult commerce, including the role played by the Dutch East India Company and the British East India Company, or EIC, as well as the role played by missionaries. It also discusses the local conditions of reception and difficulties of payment explained, for example, the Anglo–Chinese clock trade and the choosing of specific cargo as part of tributes to the emperor. Finally, it covers the volume of goods estimated.
WRISTWATCHES FROM THEIR ORIGINS TO THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
Authors: Boettcher David
Published: June 2023

This chapter describes the origins of the wristwatch in the late nineteenth century, how it was originally considered to be ‘effeminate’, and how it was slowly emancipated from such a label. The chapter also examines the role of the wristwatch as regards sporting activity and war, and how both contributed to stimulating its adoption by the general public. It covers the development of ‘wristlets’, protective grills, and luminous dials as innovations in the design of the wristwatch. It demolishes various myths about the origins of the wristwatch, and finally it discusses the phenomenon of the survival of the mechanical wristwatch in the face of the success of quartz watches.
ELECTRICITY, HOROLOGY, AND NETWORKED TIME
Authors: Nye James , Rooney David
Published: June 2023

This chapter explores the use of electricity in enabling standardized precise time to be measured and distributed in modern industrial societies. First, it examines electrical communication networks used from the nineteenth century onwards to disseminate precision standard time signals as well as the use of electricity in the primary standards that fed them. Next, it looks at city-wide and local clock networks linked by electrical or pneumatic infrastructures. Finally, it examines the everyday use of precision timekeepers based on electrical and related technologies. Four themes recur. The first is motivations for distributed time networks. Who needed standardized time, when, and why? The second is about automation and resulting societal changes. The third recurring theme is the role electricity played in the idea of increased timekeeping synchronization and precision as well as its achievement. The fourth is standardized precision time’s disappearance from view as it became cheaper and easier to acquire.
WOMEN IN HOROLOGY
Authors: Mauerhan Joëlle
Published: June 2023

The chapter describes the sometimes-hidden role of women in horological manufacture, including across various subindustries like gilding, balance-making, and painting watch dials with radium. It discusses the role of the woman within the family, including within the family business as it relates to horology. It also investigates the special position of widows in Early Modern Europe and their place in the horological business world. It provides case studies of some exceptional women entrepreneurs, as well as the various role played by women in strikes, union disputes, and working-related protests about wages, safety, and other aspects of employment as experienced by women.
APPLICATIONS OF CLOCKWORK
Authors: Nepstad Sharon Erickson
Published: June 2023

Geared or clockwork mechanisms have many time-related uses beyond straightforward time-telling. In science, orreries offer models of the solar system; short-duration timing (for sports as well) is achieved with chronoscopes, chronographs, and stopwatches; instruments such as telescopes require drives to keep them aligned on target, while heliostats, siderostats, and coelostats maintain a fixed relationship between two objects, one celestial and one local. Time signatures in music can be followed with metronomes, while clocks have provided time for car drivers on the move since the early days of the automobile. Night watchman’s clocks, or noctuaries, provide tamperproof recording devices to monitor the diligence of security staff in making their rounds. Finally, when cooking on open fires, clockwork roasting-jacks allowed the regular and consistent turning of meats to be roasted.
International Criminal Tribunals and Domestic Accountability
Authors: Labuda Patryk I.
Published: June 2023

The revival of international criminal tribunals (ICTs) in the mid-1990s has been followed by a renewed emphasis on domestic accountability for international crimes across the globe. In identifying a turn towards domestic accountability in the field of international criminal justice, this book studies how the shadow of ICTs shapes capacity building, norm internalization, and prosecutions of serious crimes at the national level. Drawing on research in Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Sierra Leone, it argues that the ‘fight against impunity’ reveals dynamics of accommodation, iteration, and isolation between states and tribunals. While international prosecutors and judges generally attempt to foster cooperation and decrease tension with government actors, an overly deferential posture vis-à-vis states reduces the likelihood of domestic accountability and may enable governments to consolidate authoritarian power. By interrogating how international accountability stakeholders support their domestic counterparts, this book advocates more dynamic interactions between tribunals and states so as to strengthen the enforcement of international criminal law. This book is suitable for academics and practitioners interested in international (criminal) law, human rights, and transitional justice.
Institutional Design
Authors: Labuda Patryk I.
Published: June 2023

This chapter examines how the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, the Special Court for Sierra Leone, and the International Criminal Court regulate(d) their relationship to states. Against the backdrop of the law of primacy, a hybrid/restrictive mandate, and complementarity, it illuminates similarities and differences between their mandates, explains the relationship of each tribunal to national jurisdictions, and assesses the potential of each arrangement to incentivize states’ responses to serious crimes. This chapter argues that, rather than fixed bodies of norms that generate specific procedural interactions or substantive outcomes, these three institutional arrangements also express general values or a dominant institutional preference for international, domestic, or mixed trials. While no mandate was designed to encourage the domestic enforcement of international criminal law, the case law illustrates how ideas about the fight against impunity have changed over time and why some institutional arrangements are more amenable to adjustment than others.
International Intervention and Capacity Building
Authors: Labuda Patryk I.
Published: June 2023

This chapter examines to what extent the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, the Special Court for Sierra Leone, and the International Criminal Court encouraged capacity building for the national justice sectors in Rwanda, Sierra Leone, and the Democratic Republic of Congo, in particular by revitalizing criminal justice institutions and local expertise. Although the term positive complementarity has become a shorthand for international financial and technical assistance to national justice systems, the prioritization of support to international criminal law enforcement through national justice systems is poorly understood. Focusing on areas of synergy, antagonism, and indifference, this chapter argues that, while there is increased attention on how international criminal tribunals, foreign partners, and state-based actors can work together to enhance domestic capacity and expertise, the turn to (positive) complementarity may also legitimize authoritarian practices at the national level while romanticizing domestic accountability to the exclusion of international responses.
International Intervention and Norm Internalization
Authors: Labuda Patryk I.
Published: June 2023

This chapter examines to what extent the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, the Special Court for Sierra Leone, and the International Criminal Court encouraged domestic actors in Rwanda, Sierra Leone, and the Democratic Republic of Congo to enact normative reforms and to what extent international norms are respected in national trials of serious crimes. Focusing on areas of synergy, antagonism, and indifference, it assesses not just how international criminal tribunals influence legislative reforms but also to what extent domestic judiciaries internalize international standards in practice. The chapter argues that, while the Rome Statute functions as a global code for international crimes, states under the shadow of the International Criminal Court’s intervention may prioritize the holding of criminal proceedings as such, which is sufficient to repel external scrutiny but does not necessarily address the underlying conditions that enable impunity. As a result, international intervention may even promote ‘unintended diversionary complementarity’ and elide complex questions around the quality and aims of domestic and international trials in fostering emancipatory justice and transitions towards peace.
Introduction
Authors: Beckett Ian F. W.
Published: June 2023

The Introduction establishes the existing historiography on the British army. It explains terms such as ‘the British way of warfare’, and sets out the army’s often ‘exceptional’ English and/or British nature, including its constitutional position, its close links with the monarchy, and its usual pattern of voluntary enlistment. The Introduction also identifies recurring themes such as issues of professionalism, civil–military relations—including swings in the public’s perception of the army and its personnel—the army’s unrepresentative social composition, contrasting strategic views, and the army’s image and identity. Lastly, there is an overview of the topics covered by individual chapters.
A Standing Army
Authors: Beckett Ian F. W.
Published: June 2023

This chapter traces the origins of the standing army, including the fusion of feudal and ‘national’ systems of military organization in the Tudor period; the influence of the ‘military revolution’; Henrician and Elizabethan campaigns; the Wars of the Three Kingdoms; Cromwell and the New Model Army; George Monck; the beginning of power projection overseas; the constitutional struggles over a standing army leading to the settlement in 1689 following the Glorious Revolution and partial resolution by 1702. It acknowledges that while Wales was incorporated into the English military model in 1536, Scotland maintained a separate military establishment until 1707, and Ireland from 1661 to 1801.
An Imperial Army
Authors: Beckett Ian F. W.
Published: June 2023

In some respects, the army stood outside the military developments observed in Europe during the ‘long nineteenth century’ (1815–1914), its role as an imperial constabulary militating against the wholesale adoption of European models. The chapter features colonial warfare, together with military developments in India and elsewhere. Nonetheless, through a number of factors, including but not exclusively resulting from the imperial role, the whole nature of the army’s relationship with, and image within, British society was transformed. Even if reflecting largely economic constraints, military reforms such as those of Edward Cardwell were put into effect to a greater degree than before. Increasing regard for the army was seen in popular culture and through military participation in the rifle volunteer movement. The chapter deals with popular military figures such as Garnet Wolseley, Frederick Roberts, and Herbert Kitchener, and covers such conflicts as the Crimean War, the Indian Mutiny, the Anglo-Zulu War, the campaigns in Egypt and the Sudan, and the South African War, which was very much a precursor of the Great War in military and cultural terms.
A People’s Army
Authors: Beckett Ian F. W.
Published: June 2023

The two world wars necessitated the introduction of conscription, previously only applied for a limited period to the militia and occasionally for an even more limited period to the regular army in the early eighteenth century. Conscription in the form of national service was then continued until 1963. The creation of a ‘nation in arms’ placed new military, political, and social pressures on the army in both world wars. At the same time the army had to come to terms with the transformational nature of mass modern warfare. Contrasting Continental and imperial/colonial roles also came into play not just in the inter-war period but also in the friction between the conventional challenges of the Cold War and the less conventional (if sometimes traditional but also evolving) demands of decolonization conflicts. The chapter covers the period 1914–63, including both the First and Second World Wars and immediate post-war conflict, as in Korea, Malaya, and Kenya, and discussions of commanders such as Haig, Montgomery, Slim, and Templer.
A Global Army
Authors: Beckett Ian F. W.
Published: June 2023

Restored to the status of an ever-smaller professional body in 1963, the army faced increasing challenges from changing strategic priorities, changing military environments, continuing financial pressures, and often dysfunctional political and military decision-making. Arguably, institutional change has been greater in the last two decades of the twentieth century and first two decades of the twenty-first than ever before with the army having to respond particularly to new societal developments, and to changes in perception with regard to the uses of military force. Yet, there are continuities as well as changes. The chapter covers conflicts from 1963 to the present including Aden, Northern Ireland, the Falklands, Iraq, and Afghanistan.
Introduction
Authors: Beukers Thomas , Fromage Diane , Monti Giorgio
Published: June 2023

This chapter presents the reasons why the edited volume seeks to determine the extent to which and in which domains we are now confronted with a ‘new European Central Bank (ECB)’. It also presents the various perspectives one can take in characterizing the ECB’s transformation, the main elements in the evolution of the ECB, and the main causes, triggers, and factors in the ECB’s evolution. The essence of the evolution of the ECB is discussed by looking at a few elements that stand out. These elements relate to the main features of the ECB enshrined in the Treaties, namely: (1) the ECB’s substantive mandate, to which definition Article 127 TFEU is central; (2) the ECB’s relationship to euro area Member States’ sovereign debt, in which respect Article 123 TFEU is central; and (3) the ECB’s relationship to politics, for which Article 130 TFEU is central. The chapter, moreover, discusses several possible causes, triggers, and factors for the ECB’s evolution. It evidences that the emergence of a ‘new ECB’ is not so much a consequence of Treaty change or a change in the underlying ideas, but is very much a reaction to the events that have occurred since the creation of the ECB, and is determined by autonomous action by an ECB, which has used the gaps inherent in its mandate, and by political decision-making. Finally, the chapter highlights some of the areas where relevant developments can be expected and some of the main challenges the ECB will need to address.
The ECB’s Collateral Framework from the 1990s until the Pandemic
Authors: van ’t Klooster Jens
Published: June 2023

This chapter analyses how the European Central Bank (ECB) has dealt with risk, focusing on its refinancing operations, from its creation in the 1990s until 2020. It discusses how developments after 2010 forced the ECB to pay more attention to the financial market impact of its risk management strategy; both to the pro-cyclical dynamics in sovereign bond markets and the climate impact of bond issuers. Asking whether the ECB’s strategy is still suitable today, the chapter argues that changes are necessary, and outlines the form that these could take. The author argues that the ECB should set out principles for how policy priorities such as financial stability and environmental sustainability should inform its approach to risk. Instead of market neutrality, this should involve a policy of market attentiveness; following markets where appropriate but leaning against the wind where necessary. Two key institutional innovations to bring the ECB’s risk management practices into the twenty-first century are: improve internal credit rating facilities and enhance political coordination for monetary policy implementation.
The Relationship between the ECB and the National Competent Authorities in the Single Supervisory Mechanism
Authors: Della Negra Federico , Lo Schiavo Gianni
Published: June 2023

This chapter examines the first pillar of the European Banking Union, the Single Supervisory Mechanism, by focusing on the relationship between the European Central Bank (ECB) and National Competent Authorities. The chapter outlines the existing problems and future perspectives in this respect and shows how judicial decisions of the Court of Justice of the European Union have contributed to clarify this relationship. It discusses whether the attribution of new competences to the ECB in the area of prudential supervision has affected its role and standing within the EU, and concludes that administrative integration at the EU level should be further reinforced in this area going forward.
The Legitimacy and Accountability of the ECB at the Age of Twenty
Authors: Amtenbrink Fabian , Markakis Menelaos
Published: June 2023

This chapter considers the accountability framework and practice of the European Central Bank (ECB) over its more than twenty years of existence and, relatedly, its degree of transparency. To this end, it employs a chronological and contextual analysis of the relevant legal and institutional arrangements and draws on the concepts of input, throughput, and output legitimacy where appropriate. The principal–agent model is also used as a basic reference point in considering the past and present arrangements regarding the ECB. The discussion begins with the function and main characteristics of accountability, the accountability arrangements at the time of the ECB’s inception, and the subsequent practice. The focus then shifts to the evolution of the ECB’s tasks over the last twenty years. It is argued that the ECB’s accountability framework has not evolved sufficiently to match its expanded powers, thereby rendering it vulnerable to accusations regarding the degree of democratic legitimacy of its action. The chapter identifies the (remaining) gaps across its main fields of activity (monetary policy, financial assistance programmes, and banking supervision), also in light of the ECB’s role during the COVID-19 pandemic. Solutions are proposed, inter alia, in the form of greater involvement of directly or indirectly democratically legitimized Union institutions in the determination of monetary policy objectives. Also, the role of the ECB in tackling major societal challenges including environmental and social sustainability as a means to increase its output legitimacy is explored, but it is argued that it should not be considered a substitute for robust accountability arrangements.
The ECB and the Court of Justice
Authors: Tridimas Takis
Published: June 2023

This chapter explores the judicial accountability of the European Central Bank (ECB). Has judicial control kept pace with the evolution of its functions? The euro-area crisis, in the fight against which the ECB assumed a dominant role, and the advent of Banking Union have had a transformative effect on the ECB’s mandate. Is judicial scrutiny a reliable form of accountability? How has the Court of Justice responded? The chapter engages with the rationale for judicial review of central bank decisions, discusses the distinction between economic and monetary policy, and reflects on the role of proportionality. It also looks at the standard of review and the application of process requirements by the Court of Justice. It then examines the new litigation landscape of prudential supervision focusing on composite procedures, the application of national law by the ECB, and litigation on the imposition of fines. It finds that, thus far, judicial control has kept pace with the evolution of the ECB’s functional transformation although the ECB remains part of a governance framework that suffers from an undue level of uncertainty and the greatest challenges are perhaps still to come.
Assessing and (Re-)situating Today’s ECB in the EU’s Institutional Landscape
Authors: Fromage Diane
Published: June 2023

This chapter analyses the evolution of the European Central Bank (ECB)’s institutional structures—which it finds to have indeed been great since its creation—and compares them to that of other European Union institutions and bodies. It also shows that the dual national and European nature of the National Central Banks and their governors has given rise to tensions and varying dynamics between supranational and national logics. The analysis provided concludes, among other things, that the institutional logics that govern today’s ECB are somewhere between those of the supranational Commission and the intergovernmental Council, although in some ways the Supervisory Board could also be compared to EU agencies. It also outlines what the existing challenges might be in terms of accountability as a result of the existing (varying) institutional structures of the ECB.
The ECB in the New Normal
Authors: Riet Ad van
Published: June 2023

Within the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) of Europe the responsibility for monetary policy lies with the European Central Bank (ECB). EMU was designed without a fiscal counterpart to the ECB that could assist monetary policy with stabilizing the euro area economy. This chapter reviews how euro area governments could cooperate to establish fiscal framework conditions in support of monetary policy that are more similar to those found in other currency areas. First, they could create a central fiscal capacity to ensure a euro area economic policy stance that is consistent with the orientation of monetary policy. Second, member countries could introduce a safe sovereign asset for the eurozone in order to anchor financial integration, secure an even monetary transmission, and facilitate the implementation of monetary policy. Third, euro area governments could commit when necessary to recapitalize their own National Central Bank and (indirectly) the ECB to underpin the credibility of large-scale monetary policy operations. A new normal of fiscal support for monetary policy could strengthen the EMU architecture and support confidence in the euro.
Kant on Freedom and Rational Agency
Authors: Kohl Markus
Published: June 2023

Kant on Freedom and Rational Agency provides an original, comprehensive interpretation of Kant’s doctrine of freedom. It shows that for Kant absolute transcendental freedom or rational autonomy is the necessary presupposition of all meaningful, norm-governed human agency in its moral, epistemic, and aesthetic dimensions. The book thereby gives a compelling sense to Kant’s estimation that freedom is a “cardinal point,” even the “keystone” of his entire critical philosophy. Kant’s doctrine of freedom emerges as a systematic critique of a naturalistic worldview that regards all our capacities, representations, and actions as the causal upshot of natural laws and forces. The book shows why Kant holds that the naturalistic worldview fatally undermines our self-conception as rational agents. Kant’s critique of naturalism culminates in the argument that naturalistic cognizers cannot explain away our freedom from natural forces because they must presuppose such freedom in their own cognitive efforts when they aim to devise rationally valid naturalistic theories.
Freedom, Idealism, and Standpoints
Authors: Kohl Markus
Published: June 2023

This chapter provides an interpretive framework for interpreting Kant’s views on freedom. It introduces various desiderata that any adequate interpretation must meet. It argues that certain prominent approaches, such as the metaphysically deflationary “two-standpoint” reading, fail some of these desiderata. The chapter defends a metaphysical dual-aspect reading of Kant’s transcendental idealism on the grounds that such a reading is uniquely suited to capture his views on human freedom. It articulates a key feature of Kohl’s interpretation: Kant’s doctrine involves a metaphysical belief in the existence of an atemporal, undetermined form of causality, but this belief does not lend itself to any further metaphysical theorizing. The belief that we are free from determination by foreign causes can be adopted only from a distinctive normative standpoint that brackets explanatory questions. The chapter concludes by introducing the main challenges that arise for a rational reconstruction of Kant’s libertarian doctrine. Such a reconstruction must show how Kant can motivate his theoretically inscrutable conception of freedom against naturalistic, compatibilist views on which free capacities can be explained as part of the deterministic natural order. Moreover, it must show how Kant might be able justify the belief that we really are free in his metaphysically ambitious transcendental sense.
Freedom as Autonomous Self-Determination
Authors: Kohl Markus
Published: June 2023

This chapter examines how we can conceive our non-sensible noumenal freedom even though our categorial concepts like causality, contingency, or necessity seem restricted to sensible, empirical phenomena. It argues that we can adequately represent our free will through the idea of the moral law as an autonomous normative standard which governs the noumenal causality of free will. The resulting concept of noumenal causality is a distinctively practical concept that cannot be used for any theoretical, explanatory purposes. The chapter further shows that even though both the free divine will and the free human will are governed by the same moral law, human freedom of will as a faculty of choice (Willkür) differs from divine freedom since it involves metaphysical contingency or alternative possibilities. The human will is akin to the divine will only, but significantly, as law-giving pure practical reason, the faculty of practical judgment (rather than choice). The chapter concludes by suggesting two conceptually separate grounds for Kant’s incompatibilism and anti-naturalism about free will: the causality of nature threatens our freedom of Willkür by removing the absolute contingency of human choice, and it threatens our freedom of practical reason by undermining the lawful a priori necessity of moral judgment.
Freedom of Imagination and the “Autonomy of Taste”
Authors: Kohl Markus
Published: June 2023

The final chapter examines whether Kant’s views on freedom of imagination in his aesthetics (in the Critique of the Power of Judgment) fit into his systematic doctrine of freedom. Kant’s account of the free imagination seems to disrupt his canonical account of freedom as a law-governed rational faculty, since he insists that imaginative freedom is a freedom from rational laws or concepts. The chapter shows that we can nevertheless regard freedom of imagination as a distinctive species of Kant’s generic notion of transcendental freedom. Like freedom of will and freedom of thought, imaginative freedom requires independence from determination by foreign natural causes. And, while our aesthetic activity must not be determined by intellectual laws and concepts, it is still loosely, indeterminately governed by such laws and concepts; hence it does not collapse into an arbitrary liberty of indifference. This interpretation is congenial to various core tenets of Kant’s aesthetics, especially to his view that aesthetic ideas play a central role in our creation and reception of beauty. The account of imaginative freedom developed here further explains how Kant’s aesthetics connects with his transcendental idealism, specifically with his claim that aesthetic ideas are grounded in our super-sensible faculties. The chapter concludes by suggesting that, with some leeway, we can regard our freedom of aesthetic imagination as exhibiting a special form of autonomy, the “autonomy of taste.”
The Pitfalls of ‘Evidence’
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: June 2023

Chapter 4 turns to consider the notion of “evidence” which is central to many contemporary epistemological discussions. Here it is argued that talk of “evidence” is best avoided, at least in our most precise statements of our account of rational belief. Given the meaning that the term ‘evidence’ has in everyday English, the claim that rational beliefs must “respect the evidence” has some unfortunate results. In particular, it encourages some assumptions that are in fact inconsistent with the general conception of rationality that was articulated in the previous chapter. According to the account that is developed here, the degree to which each of the available alternative belief systems is rational for a thinker at a time is determined by how this belief-system relates to what is “given”—that is, to the relevant internal mental facts that cannot be changed by the way in which the thinker deploys her reasoning capacities at that time. But this notion of “the given” does not in fact correspond to what in everyday English could at all naturally be called the thinker’s “evidence”. It is suggested that the concept of ‘evidence’ belongs, not in an account of the rationality of an individual’s beliefs, but in a kind of social epistemology: in effect, “evidence” is what one can use to show that something is the case, to a particular audience.
Correct Belief
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: June 2023

Chapter 7 turns to the question of the standard of correctness for beliefs, beginning with the case of believing propositions with certainty. It is argued that, if you have such a belief, this belief is correct if and only if the proposition believed is true. We can represent this by giving each belief of this kind in a true proposition an incorrectness score of 0 (it is not incorrect at all), and each belief of this kind in a false proposition an incorrectness score of 1 (it is completely incorrect). Then, in comparing two or more alternative systems of such beliefs that are defined over the same set of propositions, the way to measure the degree to which each system is incorrect is simply by a weighted sum of the incorrectness scores that the belief system gets for each proposition. The consequences of this idea are explained, and the idea is defended against a number of objections—including objections that are due to Krister Bykvist and Anandi Hattiangadi, and Selim Berker, among others.
Cannon, Cash, and Kin
Authors: Pert Thomas
Published: June 2023

This chapter looks at the resources available to the Palatine Family during the Thirty Years’ War, broadly categorized as military, financial, and dynastic ‘capital’. The chapter will examine the extent to which the Palatine exiles had access to each type of capital and the relative significance of each in assisting dispossessed regimes and dynasties to recover their lost lands and titles in early modern Europe, especially during the tumultuous period of the Thirty Years’ War. In doing so, this chapter details the military, material, and financial support received by the Palatine Family as a result of their dynastic ties to the rulers of Britain and Denmark, as well as successive Stadtholders within the Dutch Republic. By comparing the resources of the Palatine Family with those of their dispossessed contemporaries both within and outside of the Holy Roman Empire, the chapter will provide an assessment of how representative the experiences of the Palatine dynasty were for exiled rulers in early modern Europe.
‘Best-laid Plans’
Authors: Pert Thomas
Published: June 2023

This chapter covers the strategies pursued by the Palatine family between the ascension of the young Charles Louis as head of the exiled dynasty in 1632 and the outbreak of the First English Civil War in 1642. The chapter is divided into four distinct chronological sections to reflect the changing circumstances facing the Palatine exiles and how they amended their actions in response to developments in the military and diplomatic situation in both the British Isles and on mainland Europe. By looking at how the Palatine Family reacted to events such as the Bishops’ Wars and the early stages of the British Civil Wars, as well as the ongoing Thirty Years’ War, the chapter will examine the extent to which they were able to exercise autonomy during the second half of their exile.
Conclusion
Authors: Pert Thomas
Published: June 2023

This chapter provides a summary for the work as a whole and summarizes many of the key themes identified throughout the preceding chapters, such as the importance of diplomatic recognition, image, and dynastic connections for noble and royal exiles in early modern Europe. The experiences of the Palatine family during the Thirty Years’ War are also compared to those of other dispossessed regimes and rulers during the early modern period. This chapter addresses the significance of this work for the study of early modern exiles as well as the interplay of dynasticism and diplomacy.
Abusive Tax Avoidance and Tax Professionals’ Responsibilities
Authors: Brock Gillian
Published: June 2023

This chapter highlights the ways in which various professionals play an integral role in facilitating corruption. A central case study helps us appreciate how this happens. Illicit flows are a massive driver of corruption around the world, helping those who make use of offshore options to evade the rule of law in the jurisdiction where they reside. Focusing on activities and agents that enable illicit flows is particularly worthwhile, as we can then appreciate the key enablers whose activities currently contribute greatly to corruption and where reforms are urgently needed. Accountants, lawyers, bankers, and other financial professionals have important responsibilities to assist with reforms, given the ways in which they have contributed to, benefit from, and have capacity to fix, corruption. Considering their professional responsibilities adds weight to the argument. This case study serves as a good illustration of key principles that can be applied to fair assignments of responsibilities in this and other cases. There are further important reasons to focus on tackling corruption in this area. The scale of corruption is huge. Stemming and recouping losses here would also release resources that can assist in addressing global justice goals, such as fulfilling human rights and addressing global poverty effectively. While the chapter focuses on the role of tax professionals as key enablers, it also shows how similar arguments apply to other key enablers, such as realtors and those who trade in high value assets.
Who Has the Power to Enforce Private Rights?
Authors: Stone Rebecca
Published: June 2023

It is commonplace among deontological theorists to assume that moral rights are accompanied by enforcement powers that belong in some sense to the right holder, precluding third parties from enforcing a private plaintiff’s rights on her behalf unless she acquiesces or authorizes such third-party action. But why isn’t it everyone’s business when a person’s right is infringed? Can we find a pro tanto justification for leaving enforcement up to victims that is directly grounded in their rights? I offer a qualified defense of the commonplace assumption. Because there is considerable normative uncertainty about what justice requires, there can be legal rights infringements that are beyond the pale on any plausible resolution of the normative uncertainty and legal rights infringements that are only arguably unjust. The former are always everyone’s business, and thus the commonplace view cannot be defended with respect to those. But when it comes to merely arguable infringements, the parties to the dispute, as the persons who are morally authorized to settle questions of justice between them, might validly agree to a settlement that would validate in whole or in part legal rights infringements as conduct that is in fact compatible with justice. This gives us reason to ensure that any enforcement of the infringed legal right should occur at the victim’s behest. If third parties can intervene in the process against the wishes of the parties, any settlement between the parties is less likely to reflect the parties’ views about what justice between them requires.
Equivalence and Substituted Compliance in Financial Markets Law
Authors: Schürger Jonas
Published: June 2023

The fragmentation of financial markets is growing. The reason behind this is not only the increasingly extraterritorial regulation of states following the Global Financial Crisis. Protectionist tendencies are also on the rise, as evidenced by Brexit, emerging trade conflicts and the EU’s tightening of its foreign trade policy. This development poses considerable risks. This book analyses a concept that can help overcome market fragmentation: deference. Deference is a form of (mutual) recognition whereby states waive their regulation of foreign service providers to the extent that they are sufficiently supervised in their home state. This concept has been widely implemented in the EU and Switzerland in the form of equivalence. Although not to the same extent, a mechanism of mutual recognition has also been introduced in the US under the name of substituted compliance. The present work examines these mechanisms from a comparative, economic, constitutional, and public international law perspective. It advocates a depoliticization, strengthening, and expansion of deference to reinforce the global financial architecture.
Access to EU Financial Markets: Equivalence as a New Approach
Authors: Schürger Jonas
Published: June 2023

The first chapter begins with the critical observation that financial markets law is highly fragmented, which stands in striking tension with the reality of globalized financial markets. The author then presents the different options for financial service providers to access the European financial market. He points out that each of these ways is connected to decisive disadvantages. In particular, European rules are often applied extraterritorially, and third country financial service providers are forced to move to the EU (‘forced territoriality’), leading to legal market fragmentation. In the author’s view, the new approach of equivalence is one solution to this problem. The first chapter discusses the historical roots of equivalence, introduces the different regimes by setting out the areas of financial law covered by equivalence and examines the procedure for obtaining equivalence.
The Approach of Substituted Compliance in the United States
Authors: Schürger Jonas
Published: June 2023

The fourth chapter examines the approach of the United States to deference. For a long time, the US primarily pursued the principle of (modified) national treatment and did not allow any kind of recognition. Meanwhile, the US has implemented mechanisms of deference under the name of substituted compliance. However, the existing schemes are limited and lag behind compared to the developments in the EU and Switzerland. This chapter describes how a proposal by two SEC officials launched the first generation of substituted compliance and sets out why the proposal was not widely implemented. It also explains why the idea of substituted compliance experienced a comeback after the financial crisis. The extent to which substituted compliance has found its way into the US system, how the regimes have changed before and after the crisis, and what similarities and differences exist compared to the European and Swiss approaches is then analysed.
Outcomes of Social Movements
Authors: Rucht Dieter
Published: June 2023

The study and explanation of outcomes is a demanding task on both the conceptual and empirical level. It is important to widen our perspective and consider the range of outcomes beyond the stated goals of movement actors, including unintended consequences. This broader perspective takes into account the interaction effects of various kinds of causal factors, different time frames in assessing outcomes, and the modification of goals as part of processes of learning and adaptation. It allows researchers to arrive at more differentiated conclusions when it comes to stating a movement’s failure or success. Instead of positing crude generalizations of factors for outcomes, it is more fruitful to engage in strategically chosen comparisons of cases. Given the number and complexity of causal factors, we should refrain from making unconditional predictions about the effects of contemporary movements.
The Case for an Unfunded Pay as You Go Pension
Authors: Otsuka Michael
Published: June 2023

Chapter 3—‘The Case for an Unfunded Pay as You Go Pension’—asks whether an unfunded pay as you go (PAYG) approach might provide a solution to the problems with funded collective pension schemes discussed in the previous two chapters. With PAYG, money is directly transferred from those who are currently working to pay the pensions of those who are currently retired. Rather than drawing from a pension fund consisting of a portfolio of financial assets, these pensions are paid out of the state Treasury’s coffers. The chapter explores the extent to which a PAYG pension can be justified as a form of indirect reciprocity that cascades down generations. It considers the claim that a PAYG arrangement in which each generation pays the pensions of the previous generation can be justified as in mutually advantageous strategic equilibrium. It makes the case that reciprocity can be realized by a notionally funded PAYG scheme, of which the UK Teachers’ Pension Scheme provides an example. The chapter concludes with the observation that all three of the approaches considered across Chapters 1–3—collective defined contribution (CDC), defined benefit (DB), and PAYG—converge on a similar form of collective pension provision, which breaks open the silos of individual DC pension pots while avoiding the high expense of funding that is pegged to bond yields. Whether it ultimately takes the form of a notionally funded PAYG DB scheme, a genuinely funded DB scheme, or CDC, we should adopt a collective, multigenerational, society-wide form of pension provision.
Fair Terms of Social Cooperation among the Free and Equal
Authors: Otsuka Michael
Published: June 2023

Chapter 4—‘Fair Terms of Social Cooperation among the Free and Equal’—probes the Rawlsian idea of fair terms of cooperation for mutual advantage which has figured prominently in the case for collective pensions advanced in the previous chapters. According to Rawls, the ‘first fundamental question’ of justice concerns the specification of ‘the fair terms of social cooperation between citizens regarded as free and equal, and as fully cooperating members of society over a complete life, from one generation to the next’. This chapter shows how collective pensions can provide fair terms of cooperation that respect both the freedom and the equality of different members of society over time. It also explains how such pensions can help to realize the Rawlsian ideal of a property-owning democracy.
Anticommunism in French Society and Politics, 1945-1953
Authors: Clift Aaron
Published: June 2023

This book examines the role of anticommunism in French politics and society from 1945 to 1953. It evaluates the prevalence of anticommunism among the French population and examines its causes, character, and consequences through a series of case studies on different segments of French society. These include the scouting movement, family organizations, agricultural associations, middle-class groups, and trade unions and other working-class organizations. It contends that anticommunism was more widespread and deeply rooted than previously believed and had a substantial impact on national politics and on these social groups and organizations. Furthermore, it argues the study of anticommunism allows us a deeper understanding of the values they regarded as the most important to defend. Although anticommunism was a diverse phenomenon, it identifies common discourses, including portrayals of communism as a threat to the nation, the colonial empire, the traditional family, private property, religion, the rural world, and Western civilization. It also highlights common aims (such as the rehabilitation of wartime collaborators) and tactics (such as the invocation of apoliticism). While acknowledging the importance of the Cold War, it rejects the assumption that anticommunism was an American import or foreign to French society and demonstrates links between anticommunism and anti-Americanism. It concludes that anticommunism drew its strength from the connection or even conflation of communism with perceived negative social changes that were seen to threaten traditional French civilization, interacting with the postwar international and domestic environment and the personal experiences of individual anticommunists.
Le Parti du Prolétariat?
Authors: Clift Aaron
Published: June 2023

This chapter analyses working-class responses to anticommunism. Workers were the basis of PCF support and were thus the population in which anticommunist competition for the allegiance of the French population was the most direct. While the largest trade union in France was the communist Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT), it was challenged by a variety of Catholic, socialist, and Gaullist groups. Anticommunist trade unionists and workers argued that, despite its claims, the PCF did not actually have the best interests of workers at heart. The chapter foregrounds the importance of issues such as French perceptions of the Soviet Union, productivism, nationalization and planning, the heritage of the labour movement, anti-Americanism, religion, and intersections between gender and class. It also highlights limits to anticommunism imposed by ideas of working-class solidarity and fraternity.
ChatGPT
Authors: Welsby Philip , Cheung Bernard M Y
Published: June 2023

An algorithm is a process or set of rules to be followed, especially by a computer.