bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Development of the Day Treatment Centre for Emotionally Disturbed Children at the West End Crèche, Toronto
Authors: Prochner Larry
Published: December 2016

This article describes the interplay of various interests in centre-based child care from the 1930s to the late 1960s, through an examination of the development of a treatment centre for children with autism at the West End Crèche in Toronto. The impact of the attention to child care during World War II in North America is described in relation to the postwar trend to re-orient child care away from a service for wage-earning mothers and towards an educational-therapeutic service for children and families. The role of local and international welfare associations, as well as the influence of the interrelated professions of child psychiatry, social work, and nursery education, is reviewed. Finally, implications for current developments in the field of early childhood education are discussed.
Assistant Angels: Canadian Voluntary Aid Detachment Nurses in the Great War
Authors: Quiney Linda J
Published: December 2016

Canada’s Voluntary Aid Detachment nurses of the Great War have yet to be recognized in Canadian nursing history. This article offers a synopsis of the evidence traced thus far in the search to recover their history, and presents some of the issues that history addresses. Comparisons to the much larger and well-documented British VADs of the era testify to similarities in social origin from among the more privileged Protestant, middle and upper classes from across Canada. Yet significant distinctions have been found in both the academic and employment profile of Canada’s VADs. The research addresses conflicts that surrounded issues in the professionalization of nursing, the gendered dimensions of nursing as “women’s work,” both in peace and war, and tensions deriving from the juxtaposition of both volunteer and career nurses in the hospital environment. The postwar effects of VAD nursing are also addressed, both from the perspective of the women themselves and the emerging Canadian society witnessing the evolution of the “working girl” and the voting woman. While still incomplete, this research promises to recover a dynamic I community of Canadian women, contributing new insights into women’s history, medical history, and Canada’s history.
Perspectives on Patients' History: Methodological Considerations on the Example of Recent German-Speaking Literature
Authors: Wolff Eberhard
Published: December 2016

Patient-history is a recently developed branch of medical-historical research, and its methodology has not yet been sufficiently developed. In particular, the specific character of patient-centred research still has not received sufficient attention. What kinds of questions can, and should, such research attempt to answer, and from which perspectives? This contribution to the discussion offers some help towards the development of ways of orienting such research towards achieving proximity to the patients’ viewpoint. This aim is best achieved when the mental picture of patients is reconstructed and, in addition, the specific point of view of the patient is adopted. The article illustrates some possibilities and problems of this branch of research by citing the example of relevant recent German-language studies, especially in the field of the relationship of patients to approved doctors in the nineteenth century.
L’intérêt d’un médecin de province du XVIIe siècle pour les eaux minérales et les monstres
Authors: Dubé Jean-Claude
Published: December 2016

Après 15 ans de pratique médicale, un médecin du Gâtinais (région située au sud d’Orléans) décida, en 1649, de se lancer dans l’écriture; il le fera jusqu’en 1692—il est alors âgé de 80 ans. Un de ses livres Le Médecin des Pauvres connaîtra un grand succès. Les deux premiers (1649 et 1650) traitent de sujets rarement abordés à l’époque. Leur analyse a permis de saisir la conception que ce «docteur de l’Université de Montpellier» avait de l’anatomie et de la physiologie traditionnelles, mais aussi son ouverture à des méthodes thérapeutiques nouvelles.
Wood Engraving and the Illustration of American Surgical Texts during the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Hoolihan Christopher
Published: December 2016

Wood engraving as a medium of book illustration emerged at the end of the eighteenth century. In spite of its immediate technical and economic advantages to publishers of medical and surgical books, engraving on metal continued to dominate book illustration until the fourth decade of the nineteenth century. This study examines the two phenomena principally responsible for propelling wood engraving to the forefront of surgical book illustration, i.e., the emergence of the mass-circulation illustrated periodical, and the use of wood engraving in the illustration of British surgical texts post-1840, the source of most surgical literature published in the United States until the 1860s. This study also examines the use of wood engraving in surgical book illustration after the universal acceptance of the medium by American publishers.
Mettre les maux en mots, médiations dans la consultation épistolaire au XVIIIe siècle: les malades du Dr Tissot (1728–1797)
Authors: Pilloud Séverine
Published: December 2016

Cet article se fonde sur une recherche menée à partir de la correspondance médicale du Dr Tissot (1728-1797), un médecin suisse qui jouissait d'une renommée européenne au siècle des Lumières. Conservées à la bibliothèque cantonale et universitaire de Lausanne, ces archives recèlent plus d'un millier de consultations épistolaires, soit des lettres ou mémoires décrivant le cas de malades dans le but d'obtenir des conseils ou des soins. Ces documents constituent une source exceptionnelle en ce qui concerne le vécu de la maladie et ses modalités d'écriture. Ils soulignent en particulier le contexte social dans lequel surgit un problème de santé, en mettant en lumière la participation d'intermédiaires dans les différentes phases de la démarche thérapeutique. On distinguera les divers rôles que peuvent assumer ces médiateurs, tout en s'attelant à comprendre les raisons de leur intervention. Une telle étude sur les médiations dans la consultation épistolaire propose une perspective originale pour explorer les représentations ou attitudes face à la santé, et esquisse une image complexe de la relation soignant-soigné, se déroulant ainsi sous la forme de l'écrit.
La mortalité en bas âge dans la ville de Québec, XVIIe-XIXe siècles
Authors: Larocque Robert
Published: December 2016

Des fouilles archéologiques réalisées dans deux anciens cimetières (1657–1844) de la Basilique Notre-Dame-de-Québec, dans le Vieux-Québec, ont permis d’analyser les restes de quelque 175 enfants décédés avant l’âge de 10 ans. La proportion d’enfants en très bas âge est plus élevée que celle tirée des registres de décès, probablement parce que les restes de ceux dont le décès n’avait pas été enregistré ont été retrouvés par les archéologues. Par ailleurs, deux pics de mortalité ont été notés, chez les nouveau-nés et chez ceux âgés de un à deux ans; les lésions pathologiques observées sur leurs os nous font mettre en cause des stress subis durant la vie foetale et le rachitisme. Bien que ces deux collections d’ossements sont contemporaines et issues de la même communauté, elles présentent des différences dans la morbidité et dans la mortalité, qui seraient attribuables au fait que la plupart des enfants inhumés dans l’un des cimetières sont décédés en temps d’épidémie, tandis que ceux de l’autre cimetière sont décédés en temps ordinaire. Cette étude illustre bien comment l’analyse de restes humains parvient à identifier et à documenter des faits pathologiques qui ne peuvent l’être par la documentation écrite. Par le fait même, elle laisse entrevoir de nouvelles perspectives de recherche sur les maladies et la mortalité aux siècles passés.
“Take Up Thy Bed and Walk”: Aimee Semple McPherson and Faith-Healing
Authors: Dickin Janice
Published: December 2016

Aimee Semple McPherson was an important factor in the spread of Pentecostalism in the first half of the 20th century. Although she always identified herself as Canadian, she built her temple in Los Angeles, from which she hoped to evangelize the world. Before settling down in 1923, however, she experienced unnerving success as a faith-healer. Never comfortable with the role, not least of all because she was committed to saving souls, not bodies, Sister McPherson attempted during her secluded final decade to devise a theory of faith-healing. Although still celebrated by her followers as a prophet and a healer, she had expressed discomfort in her lifetime with both these roles. Physically, she ran herself into the ground and died at the age of 54 from a drug overdose.
The Sometimes Uncertain World of Canadian Obstetrics, 1900–1950
Authors: Mitchinson Wendy
Published: December 2016

All specialities in medicine in the first half of the twentieth century partook of the prestige of medical science and their practitioners looked to the past as a gauge to how far their specialty had progressed. Obstetrics was no different. The introductions to most obstetric textbooks and articles contained almost mandatory praise for the advances made. The writers acknowledged the art of obstetrics and, at times, gave it equal rhetorical standing, but in emphasis, the “science” of obstetrics dominated. Yet underlying the bravado was an unease that not all was well with the field. Several issues contributed to the sense of anxiety—the deficiencies in obstetrical education, its status vis-à-vis other medical specialties, the reality of practice, including the remuneration received, and the perception of competition from “unqualified” individuals. Such concerns are important for historians of childbirth to recognize.
That Other Branch of Medicine: An Historiography of Veterinary Medicine from a Canadian Perspective
Authors: Dukes Thomas W
Published: December 2016

Animal (veterinary) medicine, that other branch of medical healing, forms a part of medical history and there are themes in common between human and veterinary medical historiography. Some of these themes include “ great docs, great diseases,” struggles with professionalization, institutional stories, general chronological overviews, development of medical disciplines, and the role of women. The “patient’s view” in veterinary historiography is somewhat different. Veterinary history includes the theme of “great animals” but this is not, in the medical historical sense, a “patient’s” view. Much work in this area of Canadian history remains to be accomplished.
Ahern, historien de la médecine
Authors: Bernier Jacques
Published: December 2016

Michael Joseph Ahern est celui qui a introduit le corps médical comme objet d’étude dans l’historiographie québécoise. En effet, à partir de 1910, il commença à faire paraître dans le Bulletin médical de Québec une série de biographies intitulées Notes pour servir à l’histoire de la médecine dans le Bas-Canada depuis la fondation de Québec jusqu’au commencement du XIXe siècle. Après sa mort, son fils George continua la publication de ces textes à partir des notes laissées par son père, puis il colligea l’ensemble en un volume qui fut publié sous le même titre. Malgré diverses faiblesses, ce travail constitue toujours un ouvrage indispenable pour les chercheurs en histoire de la médecine québécoise, quel que fut leur statut. En effet, ce travail n’est pas un panthéon des grands noms de la médecine de l’époque. Le docteur Ahern voulait faire oeuvre d’historien. D’ailleurs, pour faire cette recherche, il a fréquenté les dépôts d’archives et consulté les historiens et érudits de son temps.
The Archives of the Canadian Dermatology Association
Authors: Jackson Robert
Published: December 2016

This article describes some details of the archival material of the Canadian Dermatology Association (CDA). Covering its 75 years of existence, these archives consist of seven items: (1) 38 volumes of bound archives; (2) triannual issues since 1975 of the CDA Journal/Bulletin (a socio-political historical newsletter); (3) members’ files containing extensive biographical material; (4) a collection of 150 books and other pamphlets; (5) since 1995, the scientific peer-reviewed official journal of the CDA (Journal of Cutaneous Medicine and Surgery); (6) a sporadic collection of photographs, meeting tape recordings, and protocols of patient presentations at the annual meetings; and (7) a miscellany of historical articles on Canadian dermatologists, dermatology published in other medical journals, and two books published separately.
How Much Gin in the Tonic? The Problems of Writing a Provincial Medical History
Authors: Carr Ian , Beamish Robert E
Published: December 2016

This paper describes the problems and resources involved in writing a Canadian provincial medical history, (Manitoba Medicine: A Brief History). The first decision was whether it should be a scholarly or a popular history; the authors’ background, and the realities of publishing dictated the latter. Resources available were local and easily accessible: archives and records, the Manitoba medical journals, a series of local medical journals (almost continuous for a century), and the Manitoba medical biographies, books variable in length, and content, but relating to a wide variety of physicians. Such a paper leads to a question—“Is local history merely trivial?” The answer to such a question is “no.”
Has the History of Canadian Medicine Come of Age? A Personal View
Authors: Brown Thomas
Published: December 2016

This short “think piece” interrogates the present state of medical history in Canada. What, I ask, are the past accomplishments and future prospects of this new genre of historical writing in Canada? Has Canadian medical history come of age? And what do we mean by asking this question? My answer is that while there is much to celebrate in the sterling individual works in the field in the past 20 years, the field more generally has yet to confront more difficult questions of identity, theory and methodology that, in my view, any young subfield needs to tackle to survive in the presently overcrowded academic marketplace of approaches and ideas.
Stature Analysis of Perris Indian School Students, 1894–99
Authors: Keller Jean A
Published: December 2016

Keller uses anthropometric measurement to examine the health of Native American children attending the Perris Indian School of Southern California during the last decade of the nineteenth century. She compares the mean stature of children at Perris with similar historical and contemporary populations and analyzes their nutrition and linear patterns which reflect on the health of given populations. In accordance with anthropometric research, the taller the population, the better the population’s overall health. Keller shows that in comparison to other populations, the children attending Perris Indian School would be considered the “tallest in the world.” Such a conclusion contradicts research in this volume by Trafzer and Hyer. Keller questions her findings. She argues that Native parents clearly privileged their children in terms of food, but that the methodology she employs does not take into consideration variables such as genetics, ethnicity, or culture. Administrators screened students attending the school to exclude those with illnesses or physical disabilities. The healthiest children attended Perris while the remainder of the Native population in the region was under stress due to government policies and poverty.
Tuberculosis Death and Survival among Southern California Indians, 1922–44
Authors: Trafzer Clifford E
Published: December 2016

According to Death Registers kept by agents of the Office of Indian Affairs, between 1922 and 1946, Cahuilla, Kumeyaay, Cupeño, Luiseño, Serrano, and Chemehuevi people of the Mission Indian Agency of Southern California suffered 180 recorded deaths caused by tuberculosis, the leading cause of death resulting from infectious disease. Nearly half of those who perished were between the ages of 15 and 39. The leading “occupation” of those who died was “child/student.” Throughout the period under examination, Indians had much higher crude death rates per 100,000 population than did all people in the United States. In 1926, the Native death rate reached its zenith of 661, compared to 86 among all races within the United States. Death rates among First Nations people in Southern California declined during the 1930s and dropped off dramatically during the 1940s due to public health efforts of field nurses and teachers as well as the agency of Indian elders who taught children about the causes, transmissions, treatment, and prevention of tuberculosis.
De l’importance de tater le pouls
Authors: Emch-Dériaz Antoinette
Published: December 2016

Le médecin Bordeu (1722–1776) est surtout connu comme personnage du «Rêve de d’Alembert» de Diderot. Cependant, ses écrits médicaux valent la peine d’être étudiés pour leur synthèse de la médecine des anciens et des modernes. En particulier, son traité «Recherches sur le pouls par rapport aux crises» publié en 1756 est une source remarquable pour saisir les changements subtils de sa manière et de ses raisons de prendre le pouls. Bordeu propose de se servir de la prise du pouls pour obtenir plus que la notion traditionelle de tempérament et donc de traitement du patient, il cherche à atteindre l’état de l’intérieur du corps par l’intermédiaire de la circulation du sang que le pouls manifeste. Il pense que les variations du pouls qu’il peut déceler reflètent les activites des organes internes, indiquent où se trouvent le siège de la maladie et aussi prédisent où et quand vont se produire les expulsions des matières morbides.

L'étude de «Recherches sur le pouls» met en évidence comment il adapta les théories traditionnelles aussi bien que les courantes à ses fins spécifiques. De concert avec les sensationnistes, il voulait valoriser l'emploi du toucher pour accroître les connaissances médicales. Bordeu se concentra sur la prise du pouls, alors qu'Auenbrugger (1728- 1809) choisit la percussion thoracique. Les deux médecins s'efforçaient de découvrir le moyen de créer dans l'esprit du médecin, par l'intermédiaire de sensations, une image de l'intérieur du corps. Bordeu poursuivant son penchant vitaliste utilisa la prise du pouls pour atteindre les fonctions; Auenbnigger embrassant sa propension mecanistique employa la percussion pour révéler l'organe. Très justement, tous les deux insistaient qu'ils pouvaient par leur méthode détecter des pathologies insoupçonnées. De nos jours la percussion est toujours utilisée, alors que tâter le pouls est souvent négligé.
Complicating Childhood: Gender, Ethnicity, and “Disadvantage” within the New Zealand Children's Health Camps Movement
Authors: Tennant Margaret
Published: December 2016

By the mid-20th century New Zealand's children's health camps movement had gained the status of a national icon, highlighting children's health and well-being in a campaign unrivalled, before the 1960s, by any equivalent place-time cause. The movement's long existence within a relatively small nation state with an increasingly vocal indigenous population makes it an ideal base from which to study challenges to the undifferentiated category of "the child." The success of the movement was based upon a highly unitary conception of childhood and an uncomplicated view of child health. The paper shows how at certain moments in the movement's development a blanket categorization of childhood was challenged, first by gender and later, and more substantially, by the ethnicity of health camp recruits. “Disadvantage" was a constant subtext, but its link with socio-economic status was downplayed in official discourses. Gender was highlighted in the 1920s and 1930s when girls' health needs were informed by (White) racial anxieties. Thereafter the physical and mental health needs of boys underwrote health camp recruitment and programs, even if this was not formally acknowledged. From the late 1980s, however, gender was subordinated to ethnicity. A growing focus on the Treaty of Waitangi issues and relationships of Maori to social services saw Maori children become visible in New Zealand's health camps as never before. With an acknowledgment of difference came competition for funds and an undermining of the national consensus about child health.
Delivering the City's Children: Municipal Programs and Midwifery in Los Angeles
Authors: Koslow Jennifer
Published: December 2016

In 1915, at the height of a movement in the United States to regulate midwifery, health officials in the city of Los Angeles devised an unusual plan for doing so: they put the city itself in the midwifery business. At the same time that public health officials in Los Angeles enacted traditional regulatory legislation to deal with the "midwife problem," they also established a Division of Obstetrics within the city's health department to provide prenatal and postnatal care for the poor. Unlike the maternity dispensaries of other municipalities, Los Angeles provided physicians to attend home-births. Thus, rather than trying to move the delivery room out of the home, Los Angeles moved physicians in.
Abulcasis, Avicenne et Galien. La savoir d'un médecin juif au miroir d'une expertise médico-légale de la fin du XIVe siècle
Authors: Courtemanche Andrée
Published: December 2016

À partir d'une expertise médico-légale pratiquée par un médecin juif à la fin du XIVe siècle, cet article veut apprécier la qualité de la formation qu'il détient ainsi que les connaissances pratiques qui en découlent. Par le biais des «autorités» (auctoritates) citées dans son expertise, il apparaît que ce médecin, qui n'a certainement pas fréquenté une faculté de médecine, a acquis un savoir théorique correspondant bien aux connaissances qui y sont dispensées et qui sont requises pour l'obtention de la licence de pratique médicale en Provence.
Professions and Intestinal Infections in 15th-Century Florence
Authors: Diana Esther
Published: December 2016

The aims behind this study are to verify a possible relationship between intestinal infectious diseases and certain professional activities carried out in 15th-century Florence by some categories of lesser labourers. Sources of the present study were the Libri dei Morti by the Florentine Ufficio della Grascia concerning the years 1424–25 and 1430 characterized by a plague epidemic. In this period, thanks to the particular social and economic circumstances of the times, the Libri dei Morti were enriched with additional notes about the illnesses that caused the deaths. The tables show an analysis of the data concerning the types of illness, the residence of the deceased and his/her social state. The present study suggests that certain professions were more exposed to infectious pathologies.
Negotiating with Dharma Pinnu: Towards a Social History of Smallpox in Colonial Orissa
Authors: Pati Biswamoy
Published: December 2016

This paper explores the social complexities associated with the history of smallpox in colonial Orissa in Eastern India. It focuses on tribal communities while taking into account their interactions with non-tribal communities and colonialism. This research grapples with the phenomenon of the Hinduisation of tribes and the way this implies an acceptance as well as a rejection of the various aspects of non-tribal, Hindu society. Thus, I examine the specific elements of non-tribal groups like inoculation, black magic, and subversive cults, demonstrating the close affinities some of these features have with tribal communities.
“Because there is pain”: Alcoholism, temperance and the Victorian physician
Authors: Krasnick Cheryl L
Published: December 2016

The effects of beverage alcohol and its use in therapeutics were matters of continuing debate for the medical profession in Victorian Canada. Practitioners, many of whom perceived alcoholism as a disease, were instrumental in the early organisation of the temperance movement. However, as the temperance movement gained momentum, the medical profession was unable to appropriate alcohol abuse as a medical concern, as it had drug addiction. At the same time, threats to its professional autonomy, differing class and ethnic loyalties, and disagreement were the vogue of alcohol, therapy, divided the profession and publicly illuminated inconsistencies in its position. The profession consequently failed to gain public support for the exclusive medical management of alcoholism.
Les débuts de l'enseignement de la médecine en français à Montréal: L'Ecole de médecine Victoria
Authors: Bois P
Published: December 2016

L'Ecole de médecine Victoria a joué un rôle de premier plan dans l'enseignement de la médecine à Montréal au cours du siècle dernier. Complètement oubliée aujourd'hui, elle fut pourtant le sujet de multiples controverses politiques et religieuses et a fait les manchettes des journaux pendant plus de cinquante ans. Son histoire ne manque pas d'intérêt ni d'importance et j’aimerais vous en décrire ici les principales étapes.
The new Marxist orthodoxy: A critique
Authors: Simmons Harvey G
Published: December 2016

In recent years, the historical drama based on the rise of the asylum and the evolution of mental health policy has been drastically edited and re-written by the proponents of the new Marxist orthodoxy. Whig theories of history, humanitarianism and social control theories have all been cast aside in favour of the new interpretation. Gone is the cast of characters that cluttered the historical stage in previous analyses—or, rather, the characters are still present but their motivations, beliefs and intentions have been ruthlessly pruned away so that, like the actors in a Greek drama, their actions can best be understood in terms of larger forces which determine their fate. Whereas history used to be explained in terms of flesh and blood heroes and villains- good reformers, bad asylum superintendents, helpless patients - it is now explained in terms of abstract heroes and villains: the poor and unproductive classes on one side, capitalism and the class struggle on the other.
Smallpox management on Prince Edward Island, 1820–1940: From neglect to fulfilment
Authors: Baldwin Douglas O
Published: December 2016

Viewed in broad, historiographical terms, the rise of the public health movement in Canada has been chronicled from two different perspectives. The first approach attributes the rise of sanitary reform, quarantine regulations, pure water supplies, and immunization to the impact of various epidemics that visited North America in the nineteenth century. These outbreaks, combined with the medical discoveries of such pioneers as Budd, Lister, Snow and Pasteur laid the scientific foundations for the public health movement. This story is usually told in terms of progress, individual achievement, and altruism. The second approach focuses on motivation, and concludes that public health services were not implemented until the leaders of society realized that diseases could be transmitted from the poor to the wealthy. Both interpretations are based largely on society's reactions to outbreaks of cholera in the 1830s, typhoid in the 1840s, and smallpox in the 1880s. Most historians, however, have overlooked the fact that smallpox differed from other contagious diseases. Physicians might not know what caused it or how to cure smallpox, but they did possess the means to prevent it. Society’s leaders could protect themselves from the ravages of smallpox without resorting to universal, compulsory vaccination, which was not the case with other epidemic diseases. The following examination of the evolution of smallpox vaccination on Prince Edward Island illustrates that public interest in vaccination fluctuated between humanitarianism and self-interest, and that although compulsory vaccination laws buttressed the struggle against disease, the key to effective protection depended more on public health education than on compulsion and the availability of prophylaxis.
Les institutions sanitaires internationales: hier et demain
Authors: Sournia J.-C
Published: December 2016

La communauté des nations semble avoir, en notre fin du XXème siècle, des préoccupations sanitaires semblables; elles parlent un langage scientifique commun qui est celui de la médecine rationnelle, et la politique comme l'internationalisation du commerce créent entre elles une solidarité que l'on peut espérer utile pour le bien de l'humanité. Cette opération ne s'est pas instaurée facilement, plus d'un siècle a été nécessaire pour la réaliser, et nous ne sommes pas sûrs que dans l'avenir les heureux résultats espérés soient obtenus facilement.
Bad Habits and Bad Genes: Early 20th-Century Eugenic Attempts to Eliminate Syphilis and Associated “Defects” from the United States
Authors: Wilson Philip K
Published: December 2016

American eugenists in the early 20th century distinguished “degenerates,” including syphilitics, prostitutes, alcoholics and criminals, from the “normal” population by their particular bad habits. From eugenists’ viewpoint, these bad habits were derived from bad character, a flaw that stemmed from an individual’s bad genes. This essay explores how eugenists during this period characterized syphilitics and those with associated character “defects” in terms of heredity. Additionally, it examines the methods eugenists most frequently advocated to rectify these bad habits. These methods included marriage restriction, immigration control and reproductive sterilization. Overall, eugenists directed their efforts not so much at the “degenerate” as at his or her germ line.
The Principal and the Dean
Authors: Entin Martin A , Hanaway Joseph , Nimeh Toni
Published: December 2016

On a beautiful day in May 1916, a graduation convocation was taking place at the Royal Victoria College assembly hall at McGill University in Montreal. The events of this assembly were related years later by Dr. Harold Segall, who was present at the convocation as a freshman in the McGill Medical School. The convocation was proceeding as scheduled. The new graduates in medicine had been capped, and the various prizes had been awarded. The moment for the delivery of the valedictorian address arrived and Harry Goldblatt, the valedictorian and first in the senior class came up to the podium to deliver his address. He began by paying tribute to the great men of the university who were responsible for McGill’s reputation as one of the leading medical schools in the country. Then, as freshman Harold Segall reported the proceedings, Harry exploded a bomb. He stated that the reputation of McGill was in great danger and that measures should be taken to save it. Harry mentioned that the Carnegie Foundation which had given McGill an “A” rating in 1909 was about to reduce it to a “B.” He enumerated McGill’s deficiencies, contended that the medical school was living off the reputations of Osler and Roddick in the 1880s and 1890s and stressed the lack of adequate facilities for and interest in research.
“Impossible Cases Can be Cured When All the Factors Are Known”: Gender, Psychiatry and Toronto’s Juvenile Court, 1912–1930
Authors: Hogeveen Bryan
Published: December 2016

Mental health professionals intent on leaving their mark on juvenile justice and committed to behaviour modification forged a partnership with Toronto’s Juvenile Court during the 1920s. However, the routine practice of the court did not allow for intensive investigation of juvenile offenders or for careful study of the causes of delinquency. Conferences started in 1925 by W. E. Blatz bridged this gap by offering a number of advantages that could not be realized under the court’s busy routine. Taking charge of a limited number of offenders permitted psychiatrists to more thoroughly examine special cases such as recidivists, intensely debate treatment strategies, more carefully supervise individual cases, and test their theories about the causes of juvenile crime. Conference case files reveal that psychiatrically informed strategies of regulation were a novel way to respond to deviance and that gender-specific understandings of, and strategies for, appropriate conduct also served to reproduce prevailing ideals for working-class boys and girls. With clear ideas about appropriate conduct for girls and boys, mental health professionals attempted to create such standards in the delinquents whose cases appeared before them.
Some Introductory Observations
Authors: Burnham John C
Published: December 2016

It is possible that some readers might find “minor vices” or “bad habits” somewhat startling subject matter for a medical history journal. As the papers that follow will show, the subject does have direct links to the history of medicine and health. Beyond some fairly obvious connections to public health by way of alcoholism and sexually transmitted diseases, the efforts of people in the past to deal with moral transgressions, as these authors will point out, often involved personnel and ideas from the health care sectors in Canada and elsewhere.
Malignant Histories: Psychosomatic Medicine and the Female Cancer Patient in the Postwar Era
Authors: Jasen Patricia
Published: December 2016

Cancer had often been linked with unhappy emotions in the past, but this association entered a new phase in the middle of the 20th century as a result of research in the field of psychosomatic medicine conducted in the United States during the 1950s. These researchers focused particularly upon cancer in women, and were strongly influenced by the prevailing psychoanalytic orthodoxy surrounding the nature of femininity and normal female sexuality. The results of these studies, which appeared in the journal Psychosomatic Medicine, confirmed the personality-cancer link but were rife with erroneous assumptions and faulty methodologies. They were widely publicized, nonetheless, and were instrumental in promoting the association between repression and cancer, especially in women. Despite criticism, their influence was manifest in psycho-oncological research in many countries during the decades which followed and in popular notions of the “cancer personality.”
“The Great Debate”: Smoking, Lung Cancer, and Cancer Epidemiology
Authors: Hill Gerry , Millar Wayne , Connelly James
Published: December 2016

During the first decades of the 20th century the lung cancer death rate increased sharply in developed countries, including Canada. An association with cigarette smoking was suspected. Between 1950 and 1960 many epidemiological studies confirmed this association. The validity of these studies was attacked fiercely by some renowned statisticians. The resulting debate sharpened the methodological and analytical rigour of epidemiological studies. Epidemiology became an indispensable tool in cancer prevention.
Creative Supplement: The Cancer Patient Experience—New Poetry and Prose
Authors: Arnold Richard , Roberts Kevin , Schmidt K. Louise , Marrion Leslie , McMaster Sheila , Bullock Chris , Lukiv Dan , Fee Laura , Braid Kate
Published: December 2016

I was ten years old, and I had been given a big responsibility: to help my mother drive our black Plymouth Fury (the one with push-button automatic transmission) from Mobile to New Orleans. It was about 150 miles, but seemed a lot more—and I didn’t actually drive any, but navigated, slowly untangling the maze of coloured lines (this was before interstate highways) spread across the road map in my lap. Mother always said I did well—as I recall, she only had to pull over once or twice to help me solve some red or blue riddle—and we cruised westward through the morning from hamlet to crossroad to country town, Alabama and Mississippi and Louisiana. We were going to visit her younger brother, who was a patient in the world-famous Oschner Cancer Clinic.
The Re-appearing Shadow of 1918: Trends in the Historiography of the 1918–19 Influenza Pandemic
Authors: Phillips Howard
Published: December 2016

This article Iraces the ways in which the subject of the "Spanish" Influenza pandemic of 1918-19. the worst short-term pandemic of modern times. has been treated (or ignored) by historians over the last 86 years. In doing so, it identifies four distinct surges of interest in the topic, each producing a different conception of this pandemic as history: as epidemiology, as high drama, as sodal science and ecology, and as scientific saga. It seeks to explain these differing conceptions as part of a wider phenomenon, viz., how an event can be neglected, discovered, made, and re-made as history.
Almonte’s Great Train Disaster: Shaping Nurses’ Roles and the Civilian Use of Blood Transfusion
Authors: Toman Cynthia
Published: December 2016

Blood transfusion was initially a small-scale, labour-intensive therapy administered by physicians. Through the first decades of the 20th century, transfusion comprised a lJiast resort" measure used and tested primarily in the context of war. Media accounts of the Almonte train disaster on the night of 27 December 1942 linked survival to the newly established blood bank located 42 km east in Ottawa, Ontario. This event did not constitute a "first time"occurrence or a "great discovery" in the history of blood. But it did illustrate in a very visible and public manner that blood transfusion technology was now readily available for use in general hospitals and civilian populations.

Canada had an infrastructure for the collection, processing, storage, and transportation of blood products, and for the recruitment of blood donors by the mid-1940s. As the need for blood declined toward the end of World War n, transfusion became a technology in need of application. The extension of transfusion to civilian populations, however, would require a ready source of labourincreased numbers of health care workers who were available continuously with the necessary knowledge and skills to assume the responsibility. Nurses were well situated for this technological role by a convergence of scientific, economic, labour, gender, professional, and educational influences that both facilitated and constrained blood transfusion as a nursing competency.

This paper examines how the expanded use of one medical technology shaped related roles for nurses. lransfusion ultimately influenced nurses' work and the composition of the workforce as the first medical act"delegated" to nurses in Ontario (1947), setting a precedent for the delegation of further technologies over the next four decades.
Parting at the Crossroads: The Emergence of Education for Psychiatric Nursing in Three Canadian Provinces, 1909–1955
Authors: Tipliski Veryl Margaret
Published: December 2016

Early in the 20th century, nursing emerged as an essential part of psychiatry's attempt to provide scientific care for insanity. Throughout Canada psychiatric nursing is a specialty of general or registered nursing. In Western Canada, however, it is also a separate and distinct profession known as registered psychiatric nursing (RPN). To further the study of nursing history, this paper examines the emergence and early development of mental hospital nursing in Canada, tracing the changing patterns of nurse training from 1909, when Ontario's asylum training school movement was established, to 1955, when education for psychiatric nursing split along the Manitoba-Ontario border into two models. Through case studies in three provinces (Ontario, Manitoba and Saskatchewan), this study examines the question of how Canadian psychiatric nursing developed into two entirely different models.

During the 20th century, an interplay of social, political and economic factors emerged which shaped the development of psychiatric nursing and influenced the evolution of the two models. In addition, there were forces within nursing itself, including the effects of specific strategic decisions taken by nursing's leaders and the continuing role of nurses' resistance to the authority expressed by those within the medical profession. The development of psychiatric nursing is best understood by focusing on the point where psychiatry's authority intersected with the gendered limitations of nursing's leaders. This struggle represented a contest for control over education for mental hospital nursing. This paper argues that the turning point in the battle for control of Canadian education for psychiatric nursing occurred when nurse leaders refused to allow the specialty of psychiatric nursing to be taken over by an expanding psychiatricmonopoly. The distinct psychiatrist-controlled Western Canadian-style apprenticeship training was halted at the Manitoba-Ontario border. That nursing leaders persevered in the struggle to gain authority for psychiatric nursing education was a significant contribution to the development of Canadian nursing education and the psychiatric nursing specialty. Remnants of the themes found in the study endure to the present as organized nursing continues to struggle with issues around autonomy and authority over education and practice.
“Monthly” Nurses, “Sick” Nurses, and Midwives in 19th-Century Toronto, 1830–1891
Authors: Young Judith
Published: December 2016

In the decades before formal training, nursing in English Canada was carried out by untrained women and a few men, of varying skill andrespectability. Little is known of their lives. Using Toronto as a case study, this paper explores the development of nursing in the 19th-century city as a trade for working-class women. As Toronto grew and industrialized, opportunitygrew for working-class women to nurse for pay. This paper considers the range of expertise and respectability of nurses working in city homes and hospitals, explores the fluid nature of nursing roles, and the changing definition of “nurse” over time.
Mapping the Demise of the St. John Ambulance Home Nursing Program in Nova Scotia: 1950–1975
Authors: Gregor Frances M
Published: December 2016

This paper maps the decline in Nova Scotia of a near-century old tradition of instruction in Home Nursing to members of the Nursing Divisions of the St. John Ambulance Brigade, and interested others, the majority women. The focus of this analysis is the period 1950-75. I argue that the gradual loss of program vitality is linked most directly to the changing and ultimately declining fortunes of the Brigade. These in turn are influenced by developments in the world beyond the organization, developments in health care in Canada and in the lives of Canadian women, who were the mainstay of membership. Through the Home Nursing program, a program to which the Canadian Nurses Association and Registered Nurses throughout Canada made a substantial contribution, the Brigade aimed to establish and maintain a reserve army of auxiliary nurses, for deployment when regular nursing services were over taxed. Successful in this endeavour during both world wars, the Brigade, a highly gendered and militarist organization, could not adapt to changes in both social attitude and social policy in postwar Canada. The demise of the Home Nursing program in Nova Scotia mirrors, if in a negative way, the emergence in Canada of a state-sponsored and hospital-focused health care system, and changing patterns in women’s engagement in civic activities.
Medical Selection and the Debate over Mass Immigration in the New State of Israel (1948–1951)
Authors: Shvarts Shifra , Davidovitch Nadav , Seidelman Rhona , Goldberg Avishay
Published: December 2016

This paper examines the discourse regarding medical selection of immigrants to Israel during the years 1948-51, which was a period of mass immigration in which approximately 700,000 people immigrated to the State, thereby doubling the Jewish population in only three years. The paper focuses on the debate that preceded the Israeli Government's eventual acceptance of a selection policy. We assert that the debate was shaped to a large extent by a combination of Zionist ideology and eugenic influences—two intellectual forces that had interacted well before the creation of the Israeli State in the first half of the 20th century.
“Co-operation in All Human Endeavour”: Quarantine and Immigrant Disease Vectors in the 1918–1919 Influenza Pandemic in Winnipeg.
Authors: Jones Esyllt W
Published: December 2016

Unlike occurrences of other contagious diseases such as cholera and smallpox, the 1918-19 influenza pandemic did not lead to anti-immigrant backlash, the stigmatization of newcomers as disease carriers, or aggressive quarantine measures focused against immigrant groups. During influenza outbreaks in several major Canadian cities, quarantine was either rejected or was a low-priority containment measure, reluctantly and sceptically employed. Blaming immigrants during the epidemic was not considered enlightened public health practice or good disease containment strategy. Retrospective evaluation of the successes and failures of the fight against influenza concluded that coercive measures such as quarantine did more harm than good. The experience with influenza contributed to new notions of immigrant inclusion in the social body.
Special Issue on Gay/Lesbian Health
Authors: Tapping Craig
Published: December 2016

When the Call for Papers was drafted and sent out—to NGOs and activist alliances across Canada, and in the UK, Ireland, Australia and the US; and to historians and academics in the field of gay and lesbian studies; and to various individuals—I think that neither Cheryl nor I truly knew what to expect. We received some correspondence disputing the grouping of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgendered Peoples as reaffirming the “medical” use and scientific degradation of queer peoples’ bodies and histories. The “disease” model of non-heterosexualities is still very much in many people’s consciousnesses, not least those who have been historically named as deviant, aberrant, unnatural, perverse or sick—which includes every lesbian, gay man, bisexual and transgendered person you can name or imagine. Given the history of attacks—both physical and discursive—upon the “truths” of our lives and the consequent neglect and marginalization we often still endure, this does not surprise me.
The Formation and Continuance of Lesbian Families in Canada
Authors: Foster Deborah
Published: December 2016

What makes a lesbian family? It has been said the last few decades have seen a “lesbian baby boom” as reproductive choices have opened up for lesbians; but has this been true for lesbians in Canada? This article explores how lesbian families have formed and grown in Canada since the 1970s. It looks at the various types of lesbian families in Canada and explores lesbians’ past and current access to reproductive technologies and adoption across Canada. Current Canadian literature is presented, including information on lesbians’ and their families’ experiences with the medical profession.
The Origin of Cancer Metastasis
Authors: Carr Jean , Carr Ian
Published: December 2016

Little was known about cancer in 1829. Cancer was regarded as scirrhous, encephaloid and melanotic hard, soft and black. Deep-seated cancer was almost inevitably fatal, as was breast cancer. Surgical treatment of breast cancer was ineffective, and often fatal. Post-operative infection was very common. Radical mastectomy was 30 years in the future, and in the 1880s had a mortality rate of 25% in the hands of Billroth; even by 1900, the “safe” radical mastectomy of Halsted had a three-year cure rate of 57%. In 1829, a French surgeon, J. C. A. Récamier, (1774–1852) in his book on cancer, gave the first clear reference to metastasis — “métastase.”
History of Geriatrics in Canada
Authors: Hogan David B
Published: December 2016

Specialization is a pervasive movement in medicine. How specialties develop is a complex phenomenon and does not depend solely on the growth of knowledge. The history of geriatrics in Canada is presented as an example of specialization in our country. The gestation period extended over decades. Practitioners moved from partial specialization to a full-time practice in the care of older patients. Opposition to the emerging specialty was mounted by established fields of practice. The choices made by the leaders of Canadian geriatrics molded the evolution of the specialty and have contributed to its precarious status at the present time.