bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Multiplexed short tandem repeat polymorphisms of the Weber 8A set of markers using tailed primers and infrared fluorescence detection
Authors: Oetting William S. , Armstrong Catherine M. , Ronan Shawn M. , Young Terri L. , Sellers Thomas A. , King Richard A.
Published: May 2005

Short tandem repeat polymorphism (STRP) markers have become important reagents for mapping genetic diseases. These markers are available as screening sets, which are located in all chromosomes at discrete intervals, allowing the entire genome to be analyzed. Mapping studies that include many individuals in the analysis necessitate the production of large numbers of genotypes. In an effort to increase the efficiency and lower the cost of using these STRP screening sets, we have divided the amplification primers of the Weber 8A screening set into groups that can be amplified in single polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification reactions, resulting in a reduction of both time and cost. Fluorescently‐labeled amplification products were produced using a three primer reaction. The forward STRP amplification primer for each marker contained a 19 bp sequence at the 5′ end. A fluorescently‐labeled primer, with a sequence identical to the 19 bp tail, was added to the amplification reaction as the sole source of fluorescent label. The STRP banding pattern is detected using an automated fluorescent DNA sequencer. Use of this multiplexed genomic screening set should greatly enhance the mapping of human disease loci.
Capillary electrophoretic analysis of synthetic short‐chain oligoribonucleotides
Authors: Cellai Luciano , Onori Alberto Mochi , Desiderio Claudia , Fanali Salvatore
Published: May 2005

Thirty synthetic oligoribonucleotides, 3 to 18 nucleotides (nt) long, were analyzed by capillary electrophoresis, under nondenaturing conditions, using a commercial kit. The migration time tm was dependent on nt length and composition, capillary length, operating temperature, and type of sieving polymer. Under fixed experimental conditions, the tm proved predictable by the equation: tm = [0.22(n‐1) + 6.14A/n + 6.86G/n + 3.61 (C+U)/n] min, for n3, where A/n, G/n, C/n, U/n is the frequency of each type of nt within the oligonucleotide (ONT). The equation accounts for the influence of charge‐to‐mass ratio on tm, but not for structural effects, if present. This approximation is acceptable for short ONTs. The possibility of detecting n+1, n‐1, n‐2 impurities, having predicted the tm, is of crucial importance in assessing the purity of synthetic ONTs dedicated to structural studies. This appears to be feasible. High resolution was shown among homologous series of ONTs of increasing length, and in some cases, even within groups of ONTs of the same length but different composition. The addition of 7 M urea to the buffer, as denaturing agent, accelerates the tm and significantly lowers the resolution for the shortest ONTs. It was also possible to monitor the state of association of mixtures of RNA and DNA sequence‐complementary strands.
Nonaqueous capillary electrophoretic separation and thermo‐optical absorbance detection of five tricyclic antidepressants and metabolism of amitriptyline by Cunninghamella elegans
Authors: Li Xing‐Fang , Liu Chung‐Sheng , Roos Pieter , Hansen Eugene B. , Cerniglia Carl E. , Dovichi Norman J.
Published: May 2005

We developed a technique based on nonaqueous capillary electrophoresis and laser‐based thermo‐optical absorbance detection to assay five antidepressants with similar structures and mass‐to‐charge ratios. A mixture of methanol and acetonitrile with ammonium acetate was essential to achieve baseline resolution of these compounds. We investigated the effects of ammonium acetate concentration, temperature, applied voltage, and capillary length on separation efficiency. The nonaqueous capillary electrophoresis and laser‐based thermo‐optical absorbance detection technique was used to study the metabolism of amitriptyline by Cunninghamella elegans. Sample preparation procedures were simplified for fast screening of the parent drug and its metabolites. Reproducible electropherograms were obtained from replicate cultures of C. elegans growing in the presence of amitriptyline.
Cholangiocyte‐specific rat liver proteins identified by establishment of a two‐dimensional gel protein database
Authors: Tietz Pamela , de Groen Piet C. , Leigh Anderson N. , Sims Christina , Esquer‐Blasco Ricardo , Meheus Lydie , Raymackers Jos , Dauwe Martine , Larusso Nicholas F.
Published: May 2005

The liver is composed of a variety of cells that form a functional unit involved in uptake, synthesis, metabolism, and secretion. Until recently, most studies examining liver function did not analyze the specific proteins expressed or functions performed by the multiple individual cell types that constitute the hepatic mass. In the last decade, novel isolation methods have been developed that allow the purification of liver cell populations highly enriched in one type of liver cell. Here, we present a detailed two‐dimensional (2‐D) protein map of rat bile duct epithelial cells (i.e., cholangiocytes) using a recently developed isolation procedure. In addition, we identify 27 major cholangiocyte proteins either by comparison to maps of known rat liver proteins (based on pI and Mr) or by tryptic digestion and microsequencing. Finally, we compare the relative abundance of individual proteins present in cholangiocytes to whole liver as well as hepatocyte‐specific proteins. Our results show that cholangiocytes express a unique array of individual proteins. The cholangiocyte 2‐D protein pattern is markedly different from that of isolated rat hepatocytes or whole rat liver, with high levels of proteins previously known to be expressed by cholangiocytes (e.g., cytokeratins, actins) as well as protein not previously demonstrated to be expressed at high levels (e.g., annexin V, selenium binding protein). We conclude that this cholangiocyte‐derived, 2‐D protein map will be a crucial resource for studies directed at our understanding of cholangiocyte physiology and pathobiology.
Potential heat: Considerations in the application of a new fire test
Authors: Robertson A. F.
Published: May 2005

A review is presented of the nature of the potential heat test method. It is emphasized that the procedure usually yields a property‐type measurement of the material or composite when applied. As a result, care must be taken to insure that necessary supplementary tests are performed by other methods to guarantee that a substantial fraction of the possible fire hazard has been considered. Suggestions for appropriate use of the procedure are included and information available on the precision of the procedure is reviewed. It is concluded that, when properly applied, the procedure can serve well as one of the tools for characterizing possible fire hazards. Suggestions are made for possible future development of the procedure to yield information on rate of heat release.
Burning plastics: Mechanisms of smoke formation
Authors: Green R. J. S. , Hume J. , Kumar S.
Published: May 2005

Quantitative pyrolysis gas chromatography studies have been conducted on three grades of cross‐linked polyester resin formulated for improved resistance to surface spread of flame. Pyrolysis temperatures from 723 to 1273 K were used, and these values correspond to ‘surface’ temperatures of materials exposed to heat fluxed of 15–149 kW m–2 which are typical of conditions experienced in real fires. Comparison is made with earlier macro studies on the evolution of smoke from plastics materials exposed to similar heat fluxes under an inert atmosphere. There is some correlation between the smoke obscuration data obtained in previous macro studies and the yield of volatile aromatic products evolved on pyrolysis. The presence of flame retardants increases the formation of carbon in the pyrolysis residue and decreases the yield of volatile aromatic products isolated. The results are considered in the context of mechanisms of smoke formation.
Furniture and furnishings in the home—some fire statistics
Authors: Chandler S. E. , Baldwin R.
Published: May 2005

A statistical study of fires in the United Kingdom involving the ignition of furniture and furnishings is presented. This paper examines the data for one year (1970). The analysis shows that in fires starting in furniture and furnishings the chance of a fatality is over twice that in other domestic fires. The majority of furniture fires involve upholstery or bedding and over 90% were started by smokers' materials, electric appliances, space heating or as the result of the activities of children or suspected arsonists. Eighty‐five percent of the fatalities were found in the room of origin of the fire. Eighty per cent were overcome by smoke or toxic gases. Sixty percent of the fatalities were either under 5 or over 65 years of age. Monetary values are assigned for damage, casualties and deaths in fire. These costs can be used to assess the value of fire precautions. With the values taken, the total losses in furniture fires in the home amounted to £19 million in 1970. Life loss accounted for the major part of this sum. The expected annual loss per dwelling as a result of the ignition of furniture is thus only about £1, and is only £3 for all dwelling fires. This low figure suggests an approach of either selective spending on those most at risk (the elderly and handicapped) or by government activity through publicity and education.
Quantification of threat from a rapidly growing fire in terms of relative material properties
Authors: Friedman Raymond
Published: May 2005

Equations have been developed which give the time available for escape or rescue, i.e., the time interval between detection and blockage of the escape route by smoke, heat or toxic gases. Alternative assumptions are explored concerning exponential vs power law fire growth and an extended fire plume vs uniform filing of the building. The equations are developed in such a form that the threat variable by which the fire is detected is not necessarily the same threat variable which first blocks the escape route. A number of interesting results have been obtained, and numerical values of key parameters measured in various test fires at Factory Mutual Research are tabulated. It is shown that for many polymeric fuels smoke will block the escape route well before temperature or toxicity becomes excessive. In such cases, if the fire, assumed to be growing exponentially, is detected by its smoke, the detector being located in the escape route, then the escape time, surprisingly, is independent of the smokiness of the material as well as the size and shape of the building. It is determined only by the growth rate constant (doubling time) of the fire and the sensitivity of the detector.
Post‐flashover compartment fires: Basis of a theoretical model
Authors: Babrauskas Vytenis , Williamson Robert Brady
Published: May 2005

A theoretical model of compartment fires in the post‐flashover stage is presented. The model incorporates the stirred reactor assumption and window flow approximation of Kawagoe, but treats fuel burning rates and burning regimes in a theoretical manner. The resulting formulation preserves the important features of the fire behavior but is simple enough to permit use for building fire safety design purposes.
Quantification of smoke produced at fires. Test methods for smoke and methods of expressing smoke evolution
Authors: Rasbash D. J. , Phillips R. P.
Published: May 2005

A limited review of the methods available for measuring smoke from burning materials has been carried out in order to define a method that could provide data for calculating smoke load. Results available in the literature have been expressed on a common basis and augmented by further experimental work carried out with a furnace similar to the National Bureau of Standards test furnace and a smoke‐containment volume (13.4m3) closer to that used by the Fire Research Station test. Encouraging agreement between the data have been found for methods which allow smoke to become diluted and to accumulate. Agreement could be improved if an allowance was made for flaming being extinguished at different times in a test, dependent on thermal stress and oxygen concentration, even when a pilot light is present. To help express the results clearly, a new unit for smokiness is proposed—the obscura (ob) defined as 1 ob=1 dB light attenuation per metre of light path. The smoke‐producing potential of different materials (Do) is then expressed in units of obscura—cubic metres per gram of volatiles produced during the fire condition (ob m3 g −1).
Heat transfer from a buoyant smoke layer beneath a ceiling to a sprinkler spray. 1—a tentative theory
Authors: Morgan Howard P.
Published: May 2005

A theory is developed for calculating the heat transferred from a buoyant layer of fire gases and smoke, to a sprinkler spray. The theory involves calculating the heat transfer to a single water drop as it describes its trajectory, and uses experimentally derived information on the nature and structure of such sprays to calculate heat transfer to the whole spray. Because such experimental information is sparse for sprinklers, a very simple model of the ballistic properties of a sprinkler spray is adopted. Calculations using the teory suggest that the practive of installing sprinklers in the smoke reservoirs of shopping malls would, in some cases at least, reduce the effectiveness of natural venting of smoke by reducing the buoyancy of the hot smoky gases.
Thermal conditions to produce skin burns
Authors: Bull J. P. , Lawrence J. C.
Published: May 2005

The numbers and severities of burn casualties are described by reference to national data and a more detailed analysis of causes of burns in Birmingham. The important dimensions of any burn are area and depth, both are relevant to severity of injury and mortality. Personal factors, such as age, disability, unconsciousness, drugs and alcohol, can influence depth and area of burning. There is a relation between exposure time and thermal flux to cause burning, this is described for hot metal and radiant heat. The data can be used to predict likelihood of sustaining burns in specified situation. Such prediction is less easy with poor heat conductors; the reasons for this are discussed. The relevance of this information for advising on safety in a variety of situations is outlined.
Chemical aspects of combustion toxicology of fires
Authors: Woolley W. D. , Ames S. A. , Fardell P. J.
Published: May 2005

This report describes work currently being carried out at the Fire Research Station, Borehamwood to Study the role of the fire atmosphere in causing incapacitation, injury and death of building occupants in fires. The work includes a detailed study of polymer degradation mechanisms (particularly synthetic) and product formation under carefully controlled laboratory conditions and fires, together with pathological and bioassay (in vivo) work being carried out elsewhere under contract. Analytical studies are reported using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry to identify the complex products formed during the controlled pyrolysis and thermal oxidative decomposition of butadiene‐styrene latex rubber foam, polyacrylonitrile and polypropylene under low (30–400°C), medium (400–650°C) and high (700–900°C) temperature conditions. Studies are reported of the products formed during smouldering and flaming fires in an experimental 0.4 m3 fire chamber in an attempt to reproduce conditions relevant to the early stages of fires. In this way, chromatographic fingerprinting of the smouldering products from BS latex rubber foam, and the flaming products of wood wool and polypropylene are given and where possible the major components identified. The relevance of this analytical work in predicting the types of products likely to be encountered during various stages of burning is discussed. General information on the pathological studies and bioassay work being carried out at the Department of Forensic Medicine, University of Glasgow and at the Huntingdon Research Centre respectively are given in order to integrate the overall research programmes and methods of approach being adopted to give an insight into the very difficult area of toxicity assessment.
Relative toxicity of pyrolysis gases from materials: Effects of temperature, air flow and criteria
Authors: Hilado Carlos J. , Cumming Heather J. , Scheinder Jane E.
Published: May 2005

Relative toxicity can vary considerably, depending on the test conditions used and the toxicity criterion selected. Three commodity plastics, three engineering plastics and Douglas fir were evaluated at various temperatures and with the closed and flow‐through systems to demonstrate these effects. For the closed system, the rising temperature program (procedure B) appeared to be a cost‐effective method of summarizing a range of fixed temperatures.
Structural fire protection. Report of group session 5.2, CIB W14 commission meeting, Copenhagen, May 1978
Authors: Pettersson Ove
Published: May 2005

Recent development and trends of development in progress within the field of structural fire protection are described and evaluated with a focus on the contributions circulated within CIB W14. The presentation is structured on the one hand with regard to different methods of design (experimental determination of fire resistance, analytical determination of fire resistance, analytical design based directly or indirectly on real fire exposure characteristics), on the other with regard to different structural materials (steel, concrete and wooden structures). The presentation gives evidence of a development towards an increased application of analytical design methods based on modern structural safety philosophy. The urgency of increased research is stressed for improving the present building code systems in order to achieve fire safety levels which are consistent with strictly defined functional requirements.
Heat transfer characteristics of flight jacket materials
Authors: Ross Jack H.
Published: May 2005

The heat transfer behavior was determined for textile materials used in Air Force flight jackets. The primary objective as to incorporate flame resistant, thermally stable fiber forms in jackets to provide greater protection to aircrewmen from fire. Combinations of fabric/insulation, flammable and nonflammable, were evaluated in the layered configurations intended for use in either cold weather and moderately cold weather jackets. A combination of Nomex fabric (outer shell) and Kynol® batting (insulation) proved superior to all other combinations of fabric and batting.
Fire performance standards and the problem of fire risk assessment
Authors: Harmathy T. Z.
Published: May 2005

It is submitted that the development of a set of complementary performance test standards and of an algorithm for calculating from the test results the inherent potential of products for harm is the prerequisite of any progress towards a coherent fire risk assessment philosophy.
Heat release rate in fires
Authors: Tewarson A.
Published: May 2005

In this paper the definition of heat release rate in fires is given in terms of heat of combustion and mass loss rate of the fuel. Various components of the heat of combustion are defined. The dependency of heat of combustion components and mass loss rate on factors such as fire stages, oxygen to fuel ratio, heat flux received by the fuel, chemical composition of the fuel vapors and products are enumerated. Applications of heat release rate data for relative fire hazard of fuels, for various fire conditions, for human escape potential from fires and for the operation of fire‐sensing devices are discussed.
The fire resistance test and its relation to real‐world fires
Authors: Harmathy T. Z.
Published: May 2005

The characteristics of fire resistance test furnaces are examined. It is shown that the efficiency of a furnace, as measured in terms of the heat load it imposes on a test specimen, depends markedly on the size of the furnace and the nature of the furnace gas. Only with large furnaces heated by gases of high radiation potential (near‐black gases) can the test results be regarded as meaningful and reproducible. Reling a defective furnace with a material of very low thermal inertia, though helpful, is unlikely to bring its performance up to the required level. Methods of determining the efficiency of test furnaces are outlined. The theorem of uniformity heat load is recognized as a succinct descriptor of fires with respect to their destructive potential. As such, it forms the basis for correlating real‐world fires with standard test fires.
Short‐term creep of concrete at elevated temperatures
Authors: Gillen Michael
Published: May 2005

Results of a study of time‐dependent deformation of concrete over a period of five hours at room and elevated temperatures (22 to 649°C) are described. The influences of load, temperature and material variables are examined and data compared with several mathematical models commonly used to describe concrete creep behavior. Information obtained from this study will help in evaluation of the design of concrete structures to withstand fire and other high temperature environments.
Textile flammability testing: Appropriate levels for moisture content of specimens
Authors: Krasny John F. , Braun Emil
Published: May 2005

This study was performed to establish the appropriate moisture level for textile flammability test specimens. Three investigations were carried out: into the effect of the level of humidity in dwellings; into the moisture content of garments worn at various distances from the body; and into the effect of relatively short exposures to heat on the moisture content of fabrics (simulating the case of a person standing in front of an open fire or space heater). The moisture content of ambient air in dwellings was found to be primarily governed by the moisture content of the air outside and can be quite low, ten to twenty percent, especially in winter (unless, of course, humidifying equipment is used). The moisture content of garment parts which are at some distance from the body (e.g., the loosely fitting parts of skirts) is governed by the relative humidity of the room. Closely fitting parts are more likely to be exposed to ignition sources than closely fitting parts. Fabric specimens exposed at a short distance from an electric space heater had moisture contents similar to specimens which has been oven‐dried and cooled in a desiccator. The results of these studies indicate that oven‐drying is a reasonable conditioning requirement for testing the flammability of apparel and home furnishing fabrics.
How well are we measuring smoke?
Authors: Mulholland George W.
Published: May 2005

Estimates of the errors in light extinction measurements of smoke resulting from forward scattered light entering the detector and from the spectral width of the light source are presented. It is shown for specific examples that each of these effects can lead to an error of about 25% in typical applications. A potential method for calibrating extinction instruments is described.
Development of an improved radiant heat source for fire testing
Authors: Robertson A. F.
Published: May 2005

The development, construction, and testing of a gas‐fired radiant heat source for use as part of a fire test method is described. The unit has been shown capable of operation over extended periods at surface temperatures yielding radiance corresponding to that of a black body at 935 °C. This permits a 60% increase of specimen irradiance over that possible with a burner previously used, without modifying the specimen–burner configuration factor. One such application of this burner allows operation with specimen irradiance levels at 5 W cm−2 or for short periods at levels approaching 7 W cm−2 at higher temperatures. This performance is achieved while maintaining effective spatial separation between specimen and heat source. This assists in avoiding imposition of vitiated air near the surface of a burning specimen. Some performance data are provided on its behavior when supplied with natural gas. The unit can burn propane but only with a significant reduction of thermal output.
The effect of ammonium sulphate—decabromobiphenyl oxide on the flammability of polyester/cotton blend
Authors: Kandil S. H. , Khattab M. A. , Farid M. M. , Morsi S. E.
Published: May 2005

A 87.5:12.5 polyester/cotton blended fabric was treated with various concentrations of ammonium sulphate and decabromobiphenyl oxide (DBBO) as well as mixtures of the two additives. The flammability of the resulting systems was determined by the limiting oxygen index (LOI) method and their thermal decomposition by thermogravimetry. Ammonium sulphate was particularly less effective as a flame retardant than the DBBO. Decabromobiphenyl oxide acts in the gas phase to retard the flammability of the polyester while the inorganic salt acts in the condensed phase to decrease that of the cotton. A mechanism for the interaction of ammonium sulphate with cotton was suggested. When a mixture of the two additives containing a high percentage of the bromo‐compound was used a significant increase in the LOI values was observed compared to one having the same total loading but containing a higher percentage of ammonium sulphate. This may be attributed to the stabilizing effect of the released ammonia on the intermediate species formed after the liberation of the bromine radicals from the DBBO.
A decision logic for trading between fire safety measures
Authors: Harmathy et al. T. Z.
Published: May 2005

Based on statistical data and Delphi input, a logic has been worked out which is capable of offering quantitative support for decisions concerning the equivalence of various fire safety alternatives. Examples of the use of the logic are presented and some conclusions drawn as to the relative merits of various fire safety measures.
The role of insurance in ‘code‐writing’
Authors: Favre Jean‐Paul
Published: May 2005

The paper outlines how European research, concepts and regulations relating to fire protection are absorbed into Swiss Codes. Switzerland's procedures and conceptual thinking are also considered, particularly in relation to steel structures.1, 2
Smoke generation from polypropylene in different thermal environments
Authors: McIlhagger R. , Hill B. J. , Stephens G. G.
Published: May 2005

This paper examines the effect of different thermal regimes on the production of smoke from a variety of injection‐moulded polypropylene samples. The tests were performed in a Stanton Redcroft BS 6401 smoke chamber. The results indicate that, of the thermal regimes examined, the radiant heat source alone produced the smoke with the greatest optical density, particularly after long exposure times, while the addition of an inorganic salt to the polypropylene produced a reduction in optical density. The different thermal regimes produced different effects depending on the additives used in the preparation of the polypropylene samples.
Response time of platinum resistance thermometers in flowing gases
Authors: Chohan R. K. , Hashemian M.
Published: May 2005

The determination of the time of response of industrial temperature sensors both during service and in various environments is of importance. Recent effort has been directed at this problem solution. The present paper is concerned with the determination of the response time using available procedures recently developed. A rig was constructed to test the procedures. The results appear to provide confidence in the use of these procedures.
Ammoniumphosphate—Decabromobiphenyl oxide synergistic effect in treatment of polyester/cotton blend
Authors: Kandil S. H. , Khattab M. A. , Farid M. M. , Morsi S. E.
Published: May 2005

Polyester/cotton blend (87.5:12.5%) was treated with various concentrations of diammonium hydrogen phosphate (DAP)‐Decabromobiphenyl oxide (DBBO) mixture. The flammability of the resulting systems was determined by the limiting oxygen index (LOI) and simultaneous thermal analysis (TA) methods. Evaluation of the results was achieved by plotting the variation of the LOI with the percentage of ammonium phosphate‐‐‐DBBO mixtures at constant total additive loadings on triangular diagrams. The activity of the inorganic salt as a flame retardant was found to be synergistically enhanced by the addition of the DBBO. The maximum interaction between the two additives occurred at bromine‐phosphorus atomic ratio of about 3:1. This corresponds to the stoichiometric ratio for the formation of phosphorus tribromide, PBr3, a species which most probably interacts with the acidic products resulting from the thermal decomposition of the polyester and thus changes their nature so that they become no longer capable of recombination with the other decomposition fragments to produce flammable gases.
Problems in a drum friction test for fire‐resistance evaluation of rubber conveyor belts with fabric skeletons
Authors: Nakagawa Yuichi , Takahashi Masayoshi
Published: May 2005

A drum friction test was conducted on four different ‘flame‐resistant’ and one ‘non‐flame‐resistant’ rubber conveyor belts with a fabric skeleton manufactured in Japan. These test results were compared with those obtained from the other flammability tests, i.e. a small‐scale flame test, an oxygen index test and a laboratory‐scale gallery test, and both sample and rank correlation coefficients were calculated. As a result, the authors have concluded that fire resistance of belting materials themselves could not be adequately assessed by the results from the drum friction test, which could have some significance only when other combustible materials exist near the drive pulleys or idlers of belt conveyors.
The integration of the objectives of fire safety into the process of architectural design
Authors: Stollard Paul
Published: May 2005

Architects designing a building are faced with a series of objectives which they must satisfy. Among these are those of fire safety, and the evidence of past fires indicates that both the design of a building the design processes behind it influence the building's eventual fire safety. Research into the factors in the architectural design process which influence the successful integration of fire safety objectives with the more general objectives of architectural design is described and the findings outlined. On the basis of these findings it is concluded that the education, attitudes and sources of advice of the architects are important, as is their relationship with the statutory authorities. Recommendations based on the research are made which could lead to a better integration of the objectives of fire safety into the process of architectural design.
Ignitability and heat‐release properties of forest products
Authors: Gardner W. D. , Thomson C. R.
Published: May 2005

Forest products comprising sawn boards of seven timber species, plywoods of three timber species, two hardboards and one particleboard have been tested to ASTM E 906—Standard Test Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products. One plywood was also tested after fire‐retardant treatment by pressure impregnation. The fire‐retardant treated plywood was also tested after being overlaid with untreated face and back veneers. One sawn board product was also tested after coating with an intumescent fire retardant. The ignition times of the forest products that had not been fire‐retardant treated increased with density when exposed to heat fluxes of 20 and 40 kWm−2. The maximum rate of heat release and the cumulative heat released rose with increasing impressed heat flux over the range 20–60 kWm−2. Heat‐release properties were dependent upon the impressed heat flux. Relationships were also established between the maximum rate of heat release and the cumulative heat released for heat flux exposures of 20, 40 and 60 kWm−2. The ignition times of plywood were increased by pressure‐impregnated fire retardants. Fire‐retardant treatment by pressure impregnation prevented the ignition of a plywood and reduced its heat‐release properties. The heat‐release properties of a sawn board product were reduced by a fire‐retardant surface coating.
Ignition of exterior building details in bushfires: An experimental study
Authors: McArthur N. A. , Lutton P.
Published: May 2005

A laboratory study of the ignition of building details incorporating timber, under bushfire conditions, using ‘mock‐ups’ of these details and both realistic (leaves and twigs) and, mainly, artificial (cribs) ignition sources has been carried out. Parameters such as mock‐up type, moisture content of the timber comprising the mock‐ups, and temperature and relative humidity of the experimental atmosphere were examined. It was found that all these parameters affected the ignition and flame propagation induced and that under conditions typical of a severe bushfire, only very small amounts of fuel were required to cause ignition. These results support the belief, based on field studies, that ignition of exterior building details composed of timber plays an important role in the destruction of buildings in bushfires.
The performance of aluminium building products in bushfires
Authors: McArthur N. A.
Published: May 2005

A study of the behaviour of aluminium building products in bushfires was carried out to test the validity of assertions that they perform poorly under bushfire conditions. The work was conducted in two parts: an examination of data from bushfire damage surveys and laboratory experiments in which window assemblies were exposed to radiant heat from a furnace. Data from surveys conducted after major bushfires were augmented with information from a questionnaire related specifically to this work. Analysis of these data did not provide any support for the belief that houses incorporating aluminium building products are at greater risk of being destroyed. The laboratory experiments on both timber‐ and aluminium‐framed windows showed their performance under simulated bushfire conditions to be similar. It was found that bending of glass through distortion of the frames was not a factor in crack initiation.
The role of intumescents for construction products with improved fire safety
Authors: Becker Wolfram
Published: May 2005

Using a brief review of the history of fire safety technology, the author outlines the development of intumescents and their effect under fire conditions, in particular discussing silicate‐based materials. Finally a classification system based on the height of the foam and the foam pressure developed under fire exposure along with the operational stresses to which the intumescent may be subjected is put forward. It is suggested that this kind of classification needs to be taken into account in the development of guidelines for European Technical Approvals.
Toward the goal of a performance fire code
Authors: Bukowski Richard W. , Tanaka Takeyoshi
Published: May 2005

The paper presents a strategy for the development and implementation of performance‐based fire codes on an international scale. The process begins with agreement on a common set of goals which underlie the code. Existing code bodies then decide on an appropriate set of quantitative prediction tools with which they are comfortable, and use them to quantify the degree to which their current code addresses these goals by establishing a standard design fire for each occupancy. By applying standard safety criteria and safety factors appropriate to the choice of predictive methods, the performance of any building can be quantified against the stated goals. To allow for an orderly transition from current codes, an interim code structure under which currently acceptable methods are ‘deemed to satisfy’ the code is presented.
Wall fire close to an horizontal surface: Numerical modelling and experimental validation
Authors: Annarumma Marcelo , Audouin Laurent , Most Jean‐Michel , Joulain Pierre
Published: May 2005

In order to contribute to a better understanding of natural fire configurations, three different experimental arrangements were considered. They simulated, at laboratory scale, three simple room fire situations.1–3 First, we tested a gas‐fueled porous burner simulating a wall fire. Then an insulated floor was placed close to it. Finally the wall and the floor burnt simultaneously. Velocity and turbulence measurements were performed using a two‐component laser‐doppler velocimetry (LDV) system operating in the forward‐scatter mode. Mean gas temperatures were obtained with a 200 μm butt‐welded chromel‐alumel thermocouple, located 2 mm downstream of the velocity measurement control volume. Simultaneous measurements of two velocity components proved to be very useful, especially in the characterization of the flame structure and of the entertainment process. A simple field model describing strongly buoyant diffusion flames is proposed in search of computational economy and a basic understanding of the phenomena involved. Our aim is to analyse the suitability of such a simple model for the description of the mean properties of the flow. This work showed the interaction between the burning wall, the floor and the pool fire, and especially the role played by the large‐scale structures characteristic of entertainment and mixing processes in free fires.
A cone calorimeter for controlled‐atmosphere studies
Authors: Babrauskas Vytenis , Twilley William H. , Janssens Marc , Yusa Shyuitsu
Published: May 2005

Many fires occur in ambient atmospheric conditions. To investigate certain types of fires, however, it is necessary to consider combustion where the oxidizer is not 21% oxygen/79% nitrogen. The Cone Calorimeter (ASTM E 1354, ISO DIS 5660) has recently become the tool of choice for studying the fire properties of products and materials. Its standard use involves burning specimens with room air being drawn in for combustion. To facilitate studying fires involving different atmospheres, a special version of the Cone Calorimeter was designed. This unit allows controlled combustion atmospheres to be created by the use of bottled or piped gases. To make such operation feasible, a large number of design details of the standard calorimeter had to be modified. This paper describes the background for these changes and provides an explanation of how the controlled‐atmospheres unit is operated.
Communication: High‐performance liquid chromatography to identify melamine in order to differentiate between combustion modified and traditional polyurethane foam
Authors: Cody Maria K. , Patterson Iain D.
Published: May 2005

A high‐performance liquid chromatography method is described for the identification and quantification of melamine in polyurethane foam. A trial of this method has been undertaken and the results show a correlation between the presence of combustion‐modifying chemicals in the polyurethane foam and its compliance with the Furniture and Furnishings (Fire) (Safety) Regulations 1988. This method provides a rapid means of screening materials and supplements the British Standard flame test.
Survey of fire testing of electrical cables
Authors: Hirschler Marcelo M.
Published: May 2005

The National Electrical Code (NEC) is the document which regulates electrical cables in the United States. It addresses two fire properties only for which it requires testing: flame spread and smoke obscuration. Thus, a hierarchy of tests exists which cables need to pass to be allowed in occupancies regulated by the NEC. On a flame spread basis they are, in increasing severity: UL VW‐1, UL 1581, UL 1666 and UL 910. For smoke obscuration only one test is mentioned in the NEC: UL 910. The /LS category (limited smoke) introduced in NEC '90, as a voluntary label, will probably be addressed in NEC '93 under the new standard UL 1685, a modification of UL 1581. Rate of heat release is measured for cables only for R&D purposes. However, it is by now well established that rate of heat release is the one most important fire property to assess fire hazard. Cable flame spread tests (except for VW‐1) have all been modified, in non‐standard ways, to measure rate of heat release, which gives much more useful results than char‐length determinations. Moreover, small‐scale RHR test instruments (cone calorimeter, OSU calorimeter) have also been used extensively to test cables. The results of such tests have been correlated with those of UL 1581 (and of similar cable tray tests) in several cases, with excellent outcome. Work is underway to develop algorithms to predict largescale cable test results from small‐scale compound tests. This area of research is very promising, and, once completed, would decrease product development costs considerably and allow faster introduction of advanced materials into the market. However, such work can only be completed by using rate of heat release techniques in both large‐ and small‐scale tests.
Optical measurement of smoke
Authors: Chow W. K. , Lai K. F.
Published: May 2005

The optical density of smoke liberated by burning seven samples of materials and six commercial plastic products was studied using different light sources in a modified NBS smoke chamber. Materials included plywood, PMMA (polymethylmethacrylate), PF (phenolformaldehyde), PE (polythene), PC (polycarbonate), PP (polypropene) and POM (acetal). The plastic products were a polyvinylchloride pipe, an unplasticized polyvinylchloride pipe, a telephone casing, an insulator, an electrical fitting and floor tiles. Light sources used were a helium‐neon laser, a mercury lamp, a sodium lamp and a tungsten filament lamp. The errors in optical measurement of smoke due to a forward‐scattering effect and the frequency of light beam were investigated.
Ignition and flame propagation of electric cables in a laboratory‐scale gallery fire test
Authors: Nakagawa Yuichi , Komai Takeshi , Kohno Makoto
Published: May 2005

The authors have conducted a laboratory‐scale gallery fire test on eight different samples of electric cable in a horizontal airflow. The number of speciments and the distances between them on the trestle were varied for each test. As a result, it was found that both ignitability and flame‐propagation properties depended on the distance between the specimens as well as on their number. Such flammability properties obtained for each cable sample were also found to be considerably consistent with the critical oxygen index. In addition, it is proposed that the flammability should be classified largely into five categories in this laboratory‐scale gallery fire test for fire‐retardance evaluation of solid combustible materials such as electric cables.
Burning rate of solid wood measured in a heat release rate calorimeter
Authors: Tran Hao C. , White Robert H.
Published: May 2005

Burning rate is a key factor in modeling fire growth and fire endurance of wood structures. This study investigated the burning rate of selected wood materials as determined by heat release, mass, loss and charring rates. Thick samples of redwood, southern pine, red oak and basswood were tested in a heat release rate calorimeter. Results on ignitability and average heat release, mass loss and charring rates are reported for a heat flux range between 15 and 55 kw m−2. In this range, burning rate increased linearly with heat flux. Burning rate was very species dependent. Heat release rate was related to mass loss by effective heat of combustion, which also increased with heat flux. Charring rate was related to mass loss rate and original wood density. Important char property data such as yield, density and contraction are reported. A simplified calculation method is proposed for calculating mass loss rate and charring rate based on heat release rate.
Irritancy of the smoke (non‐flaming mode) from materials used for coating wire and cable products, both in the presence and absence of halogens in their chemical composition
Authors: Hirschler Marcelo M. , Purser David A.
Published: May 2005

Four wire coating materials (two of them based on PVC and the two others based on XLPE) were assessed for the irritancy of their smoke, under non‐flaming conditions, by using the respiratory depression method, expressed as the RD50. The DIN 53 436 combustion tube was used as the fire model, at a temperature of 550°C (smouldering mode), and the animal model was the mouse. Animals were exposed for 10 min, at concentrations too low to cause lethality. It was found that there was relatively little difference between the irritancy of all four smokes. This was an unexpected result, since it had been predicted that PVC smoke would be much more irritating than XLPE smoke. In fact, the smoke from the PVC compounds had an RD50 roughly in the range of 100–1000 ppm, while the smoke from the XLPE compounds had an RD50 roughly in the range of 10–100 ppm. This means that PVC smoke is somewhat less irritating than XLPE smoke. The components in the smoke of all materials were determined by a combination of continuous gas analysis, ion chromatography and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, with the objective of understanding the factors causing the irritancy. Hydrogen chloride, one of the major decomposition products of PVC, is also the most important smoke constituent causing irritancy of the smoke. Its irritancy, however, was insufficient, by a considerable margin, to explain the full degree of irritancy found. The RD50 of HCl is, like that of PVC smoke, in the range of 100–1000 ppm. On the other hand, the only compound found in the smoke of XLPE compounds with an RD50 in the same 10–100 ppm range as he overall smoke is methyl vinyl ketone. Unfortunately, the concentration of methyl vinyl ketone was much too low to account for the irritancy levels encountered. Literature data indicate that polyethylene smoke is rich in long‐lived free radicals and that PVC smoke does not contain them. Moreover, such free radicals are associated with various illnesses, particularly with respiratory symptoms. Thus, it is speculated that such free radicals could be the cause of the high irritancy of the smoke from the XLPE wire coating materials.
Transient hot‐strip (THS) method for measuring thermal conductivity of thermally insulating materials
Authors: Log T.
Published: May 2005

The fast and precise transient hot‐strip (THS) method is well suited for thermal conductivity measurements on solid materials. The THS method may, however, give large experimental errors when applied to thermally insulating materials of low heat capacity per unit volume. Models to deal with those potential error sources and some indications about the precautions to be taken in order to minimize them are described in the present work. Measurements of thermal conductivity of a styrofoam insulating material (thermal conductivity 0.036 W m−1K−1, density 25.4 kg m−3) was performed to verify the models. The result obtained is in good agreement with the standard hot plate method, indicating that the THS method is also well suited for thermal conductivity measurements of thermal insulators.