bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Duration of Protection (Articles 7 and 7bis; TRIPS Agreement, Article 12; Wct, Article 9)
Authors: Ricketson Sam , Ginsburg Jane C
Published: June 2022

This chapter addresses articles 7 and 7bis, which concern the duration of copyright protection. The first permissive rule concerning duration of protection appeared in the Berlin Act (article 7(1)), and was made absolute and binding in the Brussels Act. It was accompanied by a number of supplementary rules relating to the term of protection in specific cases. Duration is one of the most important issues in international copyright relations, and in this respect the Berne Convention’s achievements have been impressive so far as impact at the national level is concerned. It is also a striking instance where the Convention has had an educative effect in bringing about such changes in the domestic laws of Union countries, rather than simply reflecting changes that had already occurred in those laws. But where the Convention had once set the prevailing (and generous) minimum term, more recently, many of the Union’s most significant member states, including the countries of the European Union and the USA, have adopted yet longer terms. The resulting disharmony has prompted bilateral negotiations as Union countries who have implemented longer terms seek to persuade those who have yet to exceed the Conventional minimum.
The Rights Protected by the Convention: General Introduction; Moral Rights (Article 6bis)
Authors: Ricketson Sam , Ginsburg Jane C
Published: June 2022

This chapter begins by describing the articulation of rights in national legislation and under the Berne Convention. Each successive revision of the Convention has seen the addition of a new right or rights. The original Berne Act contained exclusive rights only in relation to the making and public performance of translations of works. Rights in relation to cinematographic adaptations and the mechanical reproduction of musical works were added at the time of the Berlin Revision; broadcasting and moral rights at Rome; public performance and recitation and adaptation, together with the droit de suite, at Brussels; and reproduction at Stockholm. The present Act now contains provisions for the protection of both moral and pecuniary rights. Meanwhile, in addition to filling in some of the Berne Convention gaps, later multilateral instruments have endeavoured to address the challenges of digital communications. The chapter then focuses on moral rights in the Berne Convention, and their treatment in later multilateral instruments. Moral rights have been recognized in the Berne Convention since the Rome Act; they are now protected under article 6bis of the Paris Act.
Membership, Territory, and Application of the Berne Convention and Later Agreements (The Final Clauses)
Authors: Ricketson Sam , Ginsburg Jane C
Published: June 2022

This chapter examines the ‘final clauses’ of the Berne Convention and the later agreements. These cover a miscellany of matters, but are primarily concerned with questions of Union membership (eligibility and obligations) and the territorial application of each convention. The matter of membership raises some complex issues of international law, particularly in relation to the question of state succession. The relevant articles of the Paris Act which regulate these questions are: article 28, which is concerned with ratification of the Act by existing members of the Union; article 29, which is concerned with accessions by non-Union states; article 30, which deals with the reservations that may be made by countries ratifying or acceding to the Act; article 31, which is concerned with the application of the Act to dependent territories; and article 35, which is concerned with denunciations of the Convention. As it is the oldest of the conventions, most of the chapter’s discussion focuses on the Berne Convention, but interesting issues also arise with respect to those conventions of the ‘beyond Berne’ category, namely the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Copyright Treaty (WCT); the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT); the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights 1994 (TRIPs Agreement); and the Marrakesh and Beijing Treaties.
The Berne Convention and Other Related International Conventions On Copyright
Authors: Ricketson Sam , Ginsburg Jane C
Published: June 2022

This chapter investigates the relationship between the Berne Convention and other related international conventions on copyright. Following World War II, seven major conventions on copyright and neighbouring rights have sprung from the side of, or alongside, the Berne Convention. These are the Universal Copyright Convention (UCC); the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations 1961 (Rome Convention); the Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms against Unauthorized Duplication of their Phonograms 1971 (Phonograms Convention); the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Copyright Treaty (WCT); the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT); the Beijing Treaty on Audiovisual Performances 2012 (BTAP); and the Marrakesh Treaty to Facilitate Access to Published Works for Persons Who are Blind, Visually Impaired or Otherwise Print Disabled 2013 (Marrakesh VIP Treaty). None of these later conventions stands in contradiction to the Berne Convention: on the contrary, each can be seen as an important supplement to the international system of protection established by that Convention. The chapter focuses on the UCC and its Pan-American predecessors. This is now a topic that is chiefly of historical interest, but the role that the UCC has played as a ‘stepping stone’ or bridge to Berne has been of considerable importance.
The Berne Convention and Neighbouring Rights
Authors: Ricketson Sam , Ginsburg Jane C
Published: June 2022

This chapter evaluates the international agreements that have sought to provide protection to the categories of ‘non-authors’ whose productions may nevertheless be seen as closely relating to, or neighbouring upon, the traditional categories of authors’ rights. It begins with an account of the first major treaty in this area, the International Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organisation Organizations 1961 (the Rome Convention), and then considers the international agreements that have followed in the wake of Rome. These include Phonograms Convention 1971, the Satellites Convention 1974, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Performances and Phonograms Treaty 1996 (WPPT), the Beijing Treaty on Audio-visual Performances 2012 (BTAP), and the relevant provisions of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights 1994 (TRIPs Agreement). The chapter also looks at a number of other agreements touching upon authors’ and neighbouring rights. Several of these have never entered into force or have not yet reached the stage of a final text.
Public Utilities
Authors: Haslam Colin , Leaver Adam , Tsitsianis Nick
Published: June 2022

In this chapter, Colin Haslam, Adam Leaver, and Nick Tsitsianis show how those managing seemingly ordinary firms, such as public utilities, can use corporate forms to maximize how the firm integrates financial and productive assets. The authors show how firms dealing with water use global wealth chains to manipulate how profit is accounted for to heighten the power of the firm. Their case focuses on how the firm acts as a conduit between debt markets and financial returns, with extensive use of subsidiaries to coordinate this activity. Lead firms maintain tight control over the financial and legal technologies involved, presenting a mix of captive and hierarchy wealth chains. The authors detail how accounting and financial engineering allows managers to use multijurisdictional corporate forms to concentrate financial control.
Tax Treaties
Authors: Hearson Martin
Published: June 2022

In this chapter, Martin Hearson explains why taxation treaties should be understood as assets that coordinate activity within global wealth chains. Hearson describes how multinational enterprises have changed their use of tax treaties. At first it was to remove the threat of double taxation, while in the contemporary period it is to facilitate advanced tax planning and ease internal transactions within multinational enterprises. Hearson describes how global professional service firms, especially the Big Four global accounting firms, are involved in establishing tax treaties, and how value chain activity is being restructured around wealth chain articulation. This chapter shows how legal forms can be understood as captive and hierarchy forms of wealth chain management, as well as how regulatory interventions to constrain such tax planning are important but not especially effective.
Advance Pricing Agreements
Authors: Matti Ylönen
Published: June 2022

In this chapter, Matti Ylönen explains how Advance Pricing Agreements and Advance Tax Rulings are used to stabilize activity in Global Wealth Chains and lower tax burdens. Ylönen describes how these tax ruling arrangements are used to lower potential tax burdens for multinational enterprises nationally and internationally. The selection of which tax ruling is appropriate depends on the capabilities and scale of the firm, which can be understood as a choice between Modular or Hierarchy forms of Global Wealth Chains. At the national level firms may deal directly with states (Hierarchy) or go through an intermediary, such as a professional tax advisory, to choose from a menu of options (Modular). At the international level the same choice is apparent, with the character of relations between states informing what opportunities are most attractive to firms.
Food
Authors: Grondona Verónica , Burgos Martín
Published: June 2022

In this chapter, Grondona and Burgos explore export mispricing in Argentina’s soybean sector. The key asset strategy here is mispricing internal trades. Argentinian law sanctions the “sixth method” in transfer pricing to counter the mispricing of internal transactions by firms, but regulatory intervention is weak. Grondona and Burgos show the presence of mispricing by comparing the price of internal transactions to the price of the same commodity on a recognized international exchange. By comparing the average prices of soybean exports reported in daily customs registrations with the daily price on the Gulf of Mexico, they demonstrate the systematic underpricing of food exports. With soybean exports accounting for 24 percent of all Argentinian exports the fiscal impact of export mispricing is profound. This is an example of a formally market global wealth chain that has evolved, with increasing market concentration, into a captive global wealth chain where firms execute asset strategies via related entities that span multiple jurisdictions.
Experiencing God in Late Medieval and Early Modern England
Authors: Davis David J.
Published: June 2022

Experiencing God in Late Medieval and Early Modern England demonstrates that experiences of divine revelation were central to late medieval and early modern English religion. The book illuminates previously under-explored notions about divine revelation and the role these notions played in shaping large portions of English thought and belief. Bringing together a wide variety of source materials, the book argues that in the period there was a collective representation of divine revelation as a source of human knowledge that transcended other religious and intellectual divisions. Not only did most people think that divine revelation, through a ravishing encounter with God, was possible, but also divine revelation was understood to be the pinnacle of religious experience and a source of pure understanding. The book highlights a common discourse running through the sources that underpinned this collective representation of how human beings experienced the divine, and it demonstrates a continual effort across large swathes of English religion to prepare an individual’s soul for an encounter with the divine, through different spiritual disciplines and devotional practices. Over a period of several centuries this discourse and the larger culture of revelation provided an essential structure and legitimacy both to contemporary claims of divine revelation and the biblical precedents that contemporary experiences were modelled after. Finally, the book situates the experience of revelation within the wider context of knowledge and identifies the ways that claims to divine revelation were legitimated as well as stigmatized based on this common understanding of the experience of rapture.
‘Wee should bee rapt vp into the third heauen’
Authors: Davis David J.
Published: June 2022

This chapter identifies the discourse of divine raptus as a significant continuity between the late medieval contemplative tradition and the emerging Protestant understanding of biblical prophecy and revelation. Focusing upon the English Protestant commentaries of the book of Revelation from its genesis with John Bale’s The image of both churches to the end of the seventeenth century, the chapter illustrates how Protestant writers both followed the late medieval tradition in how they described the revelatory experience and recontextualized this discourse into new, popular contexts, inviting the larger religious community to pursue, through devotional discipline, the experience of divine revelation.
‘The foundation of all Knowledge’
Authors: Davis David J.
Published: June 2022

This chapter examines the culture of divine revelation in the context of the Scientific Revolution and early Enlightenment, paying particular attention to certain philosophical challenges to the epistemic validity of divine revelation. Highlighting particular challenges from thinkers like Baruch Spinoza, Thomas Hobbes, and Richard Overton, the chapter charts the responses to challenges to the traditional ideas about the human soul and the relationship of human reason to revelation, which were enumerated by England’s leading scientists, philosophers, and churchmen. Rebutting any simple decline of divine revelation as being philosophically warranted, the chapter illustrates that there was a robust defense of divine revelation on offer at the end of the seventeenth century, although it was a defense that relied upon arguments beyond the strictly mechanical and empirical.
The Spiritual Effects of Excommunication
Authors: Hill Felicity
Published: June 2022

This chapter discusses the implications of excommunication for the afterlife using legal texts, exempla, liturgy, chronicles, and curse formulae. Although theologians and certain legal texts emphasized that excommunication was not a permanent bar to salvation, it is argued here that the information conveyed to the majority of people implied that excommunication meant hell. Miracle stories and the rite of excommunication, in particular, implied damnation. The chapter also argues that legal procedures, which were increasingly emphasized in canon law, did not preclude the use of excommunication by clerics for their own ends. Instilling fear was a crucial part of excommunication’s potential to coerce sinners; it was in the interests of the institutional church and its members to give the impression that hell was the destination of excommunicates when they died.
Exclusion from the Community of the Faithful
Authors: Hill Felicity
Published: June 2022

This chapter addresses the rules regarding ostracism of excommunicates, who were supposed to be excluded from Christian society. Excommunication was described as a contagious disease. However, there were a number of exceptions to the requirement to shun excommunicates, so that ostracism was not absolute. In fact, there is relatively little direct evidence of ostracism of excommunicates, but those under the ban could have their status used against them. Excommunicates were not allowed to enter churches and lost legal rights, while social shunning could affect their lives in many ways. In extreme cases, excommunication was used to justify even harsher treatment. It could be a steppingstone towards deposition of rulers. Crusades and other violence relied on excommunication as a justification for otherwise inexcusable attacks on Christians. Excommunication could be coopted by communities, who might enforce sentences too harshly or not at all. Those in power were particularly vulnerable to having their exclusion from the church used against them.
Publicity, Reputation, and Scandal
Authors: Hill Felicity
Published: June 2022

This chapter argues that the publicity attached to excommunication was its most striking and important feature. The only way of ensuring that people shunned excommunicates was to make sure they knew who was excommunicated and why. Publication was therefore fundamental to how excommunication functioned. Thus it was used to vilify individuals and to condemn causes. In such situations, use of excommunication was seemingly more about publicizing the position of the church and its version of events than it was about getting those excommunicated to capitulate. The chapter discusses various examples to demonstrate that in cases where churchmen were personally involved, excommunications were pronounced far more widely than canon law required. Those on the receiving end of such treatment often felt persecuted; their greatest concern appears not to have been spiritual fears or ostracism, but the impact that excommunication had on their reputations. The publicity attached to excommunication could, however, backfire against churchmen, since it brought attention to petty squabbles and misuses of the sanction.
Violence, Excommunication, and Dispute Settlement
Authors: Hill Felicity
Published: June 2022

This chapter uses one particularly well-documented conflict to illuminate the role of excommunication in disputes, showing how vividly we can reconstruct such quarrels in the period. The struggle for the benefice of Thame took place between two prominent families over the course of two years. The key records for the case are the register of the bishop of Lincoln and depositions made at the ecclesiastical court of Canterbury, but these are supplemented by royal letters, proceedings before the king’s bench, inquests, and the parliament rolls, allowing for a full analysis of the events. The chapter assesses the importance of excommunication in this conflict alongside other strategies used by the rival claimants, which included violence and appeals to secular and ecclesiastical courts. The chapter argues against using a narrow definition of the ‘efficacy’ of excommunication: in this case, the sanction did not succeed in forcing either side to capitulate. Yet excommunication played a crucial part in a number of ways. The case also demonstrates how the complicated and intricate legal requirements governing excommunication could be circumvented by using ipso facto sentences.
Enforced Diaspora
Authors: Moore Bob
Published: June 2022

Like its Axis partner, the Italian state created the necessary machinery for dealing with prisoners of war and communicating with other belligerent powers. While capturing British imperial forces in Greece and North Africa, it soon lost many of its own men to captivity as its forces were driven out of east Africa and Libya. After the Tunisian campaign had ended and the Western powers had invaded Sicily, they held more than 500,000 Italian prisoners. For pragmatic reasons, the captors chose to move these prisoners to other parts of the British Empire and to the United States. Likewise, the more limited Italian contribution to the Eastern Front had left 60,000+ men in Soviet hands. However, the Italian surrender in September 1943 left the rump of the Italian army at the mercy of the invading Germans—with some tragic consequences as in the case of Kefalonia. While some units remained to fight alongside the Nazis, the majority were interned and taken to German as forced labourers. In many respects, this holds the key to an understanding of this Italian diaspora—namely the perceived usefulness of Italian prisoner labour to the war economies of the capturing belligerent powers. The internees of the Germans are very much at the forefront of Italian post-war memory, thus stressing the country’s anti-Axis stance at the end of the war. They are followed by the victims of the USSR, whose plight fitted a Cold War agenda, while the large numbers captured by the country’s future allies, Britain and the United States, were largely forgotten.
Jewish Prisoners of War
Authors: Moore Bob
Published: June 2022

The genocidal policies carried out by the Nazis during the Second World War have been subjected to the closest scrutiny, but seldom has there been any overall examination of how they dealt with Jewish prisoners of war save the treatment of Red Army political commissars who were all assumed to be Jews. In reality, although the Germans did seek to segregate Jews from among the masses of prisoners of war, this was done assiduously only in Eastern Europe but ignored when it came to British and American forces. This chapter looks at the issue in comparative terms to highlight the inconsistencies in German policy and the assumptions that meant the Nazis’ ideological war was overridden by reciprocity in Western theatres.
Governing Doubt and Belief
Authors: Callard Caroline
Published: June 2022

Because in sixteenth-century societies ghosts have a strong capacity to act, they were the object of particular scrutiny and interest on the part of political and religious powers. This chapter and the next examine the effects of this confrontation. Both the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation sought to control spectres and their comings and goings, and paid increasing and critical attention to the ability of human beings to manipulate them. This chapter focuses particularly on the attitude of the Catholic Church to apparitions and how it seeks, despite the tricks and impostures, to maintain a place on earth for the apparitions of souls, safe from sceptical and reformed doubt.
Spectral Politics
Authors: Callard Caroline
Published: June 2022

This final chapter examines how political powers have sought to capture the power of spectres. It is first of all about its capacity to represent an absent power: as a spiritual body, the king is in a sense always a ghost ‘already there’, capable of appearing everywhere and at any time. It also concerns the legitimising power of ghosts: the ghost is the bearer of a prophetic, extra-lucid word, in contact with the divinity as well as with the deep genealogies of royalty. But the king does not have a monopoly on the manipulation of ghosts: there are several of them in the polemics of the sixteenth century, to the point that in the middle of the seventeenth century, the king sought to exorcise ghosts more than to enlist them in his service. This power of exorcism met with other changes, notably the end of the Wars of Religion, the rise of experimental science, and the affirmation of a scholarly decorum that kept the preternatural at a distance. The ‘spectral moment’ of the long Renaissance was coming to an end, in the expectation of a future ‘recharge’.
What’s it all about? A legacy for the next generation of scholars in evolutionary medicine and palaeopathology.
Authors: Plomp Kimberly A. , Roberts Charlotte A. , Elton Sarah , Bentley Gillian R.
Published: June 2022

This book aims to encourage more co-produced research addressing questions about human health, past and present, by scholars working in evolutionary medicine (EM) and palaeopathology. It highlights future research that may promote that collaboration between palaeopathology and EM. This chapter starts with the premise that EM and palaeopathology have clear synergies in that they take a deep time perspective as they explore health in both the past and the present. It introduces the volume and first provides a background to EM from its first appearance in the early 1990s, including discussions about ultimate and proximate explanations for disease. It then highlights that the field of palaeopathology was initially established much earlier than EM and it is argued that practitioners before the 1990s, often physicians, were simply not exposed to evolutionary theory in relation to the diseases they were seeing both in the living and in the dead. However, the stage now looks set for more productive collaborations. A thematic overview of the volume and its individual chapters follows within the framework of the suggested categories for study within EM. The chapter finishes with some discussion about the One Health Initiative—considered an essential area of study now and into the future—and how it relates to EM and palaeopathology.
Birthing humans in the past, the present, and future: how birth can be approached holistically through an evolutionary medicine lens
Authors: Decrausaz Sarah-Louise , Galloway Frances
Published: June 2022

Birth is a key biocultural event for humans. It can be examined from multiple research perspectives and represents an important part of clinical medicine. Research on childbirth may be locked into disciplinary silos that do not acknowledge birth in a holistic manner. This chapter unites research on childbirth in bioarchaeology and biological anthropology with midwifery practice, providing a platform for a deeper understanding of childbirth in theory and in practice. The chapter is organised around three central questions that broadly address the value of a holistic perspective on birth, and how this may be deepened through an evolutionary medicine lens. This discussion outlines the importance of archaeological human remains in developing hypotheses and theories on the evolution of birth, as well as integrating themes in ecology and energetics to address birth from a holistic perspective. The chapter opens with a review of birth today, then outlines relevant information on the evolution of the human pelvis, before moving to examine studies of childbirth in the past (and associated challenges with these investigations) before closing with calls for the integration of evolutionary and clinical research considerations within analyses of human childbirth.
Evolutionary perspectives on human parasitic infection: from ancient parasites to modern medicine
Authors: Ledger Marissa L. , Mitchell Piers D.
Published: June 2022

Parasites account for a significant burden of disease today, with 200 million people infected with malaria and more than 1.5 billion people infected with soil-transmitted helminths alone. This chapter explores the impact that parasitic infection has had on the evolution of Homo sapiens, as well as the impact that our species has had on the evolution of common parasites. It first establishes the long co-evolutionary history that exists between many parasite species and hominins by presenting both direct archaeological evidence for parasitic infection in humans from the Palaeolithic through to modern day, as well as indirect evidence that has been used to identify parasites that were likely passed down from hominin ancestors. It explores the major changes in parasite disease burden through our evolution as a result of biological, cultural and social changes. After establishing the significant time depth to human-parasite interactions it explores the co-evolutionary relationship between humans and their parasites by drawing on recent evidence gained from studies in immunology and genetics, identifying mechanisms that parasites use to alter human immune function to their benefit, human genes involved in parasite resistance and the intricate relationship between autoimmune diseases and parasitic infection. Finally, it reflects on how an evolutionary approach to parasitic infection can contribute to new approaches to the control of parasite transmission and treatment development.
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) in ancient people and contemporary implications.
Authors: Thompson Randall C. , Rowan Chris J. , Weis Nicholas W. , Sutherland M. Linda , Finch Caleb E. , Binder Michaela , Roberts Charlotte A. , Thomas Gregory S.
Published: June 2022

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD), principally coronary artery disease and stroke, are the leading cause of death throughout the globe. Atherosclerosis (hardening and narrowing) of the coronary arteries results in blockages that cause myocardial infarction (i.e. necrosis of heart muscle). The majority of strokes are also caused by obstructive atherosclerosis in the arteries leading to and within the brain. Atherosclerosis is considered by many to be a modern-day disease secondary to contemporary lifestyles. However, in recent years it has been confirmed as a much older disease with a longer evolutionary history. This conclusion has been reached by the discovery of evidence found in naturally mummified individuals living 3000 years ago in what is now modern-day Sudan. This evidence demonstrates vascular calcifications which, based on morphology, anatomic location and scanning electron microscopy, are atherosclerotic in origin. Confirmatory computed tomography (CT) scans by the HORUS team and other research groups of the mummified remains of people from Egypt, Peru, North America, Europe and Asia dating back over 5000 years also demonstrate arterial calcification. These CT findings have the same radiographic characteristics and appear in the same anatomic locations as modern-day patients with atherosclerosis, which is the underlying cause of myocardial infarction and most deaths from cardiac disease. These findings of vascular calcification in mummified individuals from cultures across the globe not only demonstrate that atherosclerosis cannot solely be attributed to modern-day lifestyles, but also raise questions as to the evolutionary and cultural factors that may have predisposed humans to atherosclerosis.
Uncovering tales of transmission: an integrated palaeopathological perspective on the evolution of shared human and animal pathogens
Authors: Uhl Elizabeth W. , Thomas Richard
Published: June 2022

This chapter highlights the potential of an integrated palaeopathological approach for unravelling the evolutionary history of shared human and animal pathogens. The transfer of pathogens between animals and humans has occurred for millennia and remains a public health issue today, as evidenced by the Covid-19 pandemic. Although the focus has traditionally centred on pathogens transmitted from animals to humans (zoonoses), the direction of transmission is also often the other way (reverse zoonoses). The best way to understand the cross-species transfer of pathogens is by investigating the conditions that make it possible for a new host, whether human or animal, to be infected. As societies transitioned from hunting and foraging to herding and farming, and from living in rural to urban settings, and in increasingly industrialised environments, dramatic changes occurred in their relationships with animals. These changes had major impacts on pathogen evolution. In particular, the new opportunities for transmission affected pathogen virulence and distribution. This chapter investigates the factors driving transmission of Taenia tapeworms, Mycobacteria, Plasmodium falciparum, Brucella, Burkholderia mallei and the morbilliviruses in domestic environments. It draws evidence from palaeopathology, historical sources, molecular analysis, paleoenvironmental data and medical/veterinary clinical literature. This approach helps explain why these pathogens became problematic when and where they did, and it identifies factors that are likely to contribute to future outbreaks. The chapter concludes with a reflection on the ways an interdisciplinary understanding of past diseases provides insights for current and future epidemics.
Trends in Transnational Campaigning: Issues, Targets and Partners
Authors: Hall Nina
Published: June 2022

Many international relations scholars have theorized that the internet would make it easier to engage in a transnational network, to campaign on an international issue, and/or to target an international institution. However, digital advocacy organizations rarely target international decision-makers or institutions, or ally with international non-governmental organizations. They regularly campaign on transnational issues, but they do so through a national lens. Digital advocacy organizations are member-driven organizations that see the locus of power as being within the state, even in this globalized, interdependent world. Their primary strategy is to mobilize citizens to put pressure on national political representatives for change.
Lost in Translation
Authors: Ugelvik Thomas
Published: June 2022

Sykes’s The Society of Captives is an undisputable classic. It can be said to have spawned a whole penological tradition of studies of the phenomenology of imprisonment. It has also been hugely influential internationally, including in Norway where criminology students have been assigned Sykes’s book at least since the 1980s. In this chapter, I look at how Norwegian criminologists have read and used Sykes’s classic text as part of their own research. I discuss why some parts of the book have been referred to extensively while other parts seem to have been mostly ignored by Norwegian scholars, and I show how selective interpretation of some of Sykes’s key terms (one might even say “misinterpretation”) have contributed to this lopsided focus.
The Society of “Sex Offenders”
Authors: Ievins Alice
Published: June 2022

This chapter considers the differences and similarities between Trenton, the institution described in The Society of Captives, and HMP Stafford, an English prison that only held men convicted of sex offenses. It argues that the nature of the convictions of men in Stafford, and their resulting social identities as “sex offenders”, drastically altered the institutional form that the prison took and the effects that it had. One significant difference was in the location of the defects of total power in each prison. Stafford had very different dynamics of authority and resistance to Trenton: prisoners were normally very compliant, but the prison struggled to exercise power over prisoners’ sexualities, relationships with their families, and moral identities. Prisoners in Stafford also experienced a hitherto undescribed pain of imprisonment, “stain”, which impacted the shape of the prisoner society. The chapter concludes by arguing that Stafford was a morally communicative institution – it said something to the people it held about the type of person they were – and argues that thinking about Stafford in this way draws our attention to some significant forms and functions of punishment.
1,3-dibromo-2,5-diethyl-4,6-dimethylbenzene (Bemb2)
Authors: Welberry T.R.
Published: June 2022

This system provides an excellent example of how the use of the modulation-wave approach to modeling disorder can provide insights into the origins of diffraction features. In the disordered crystal the molecule may take up one of two different orientations in each molecular site. The rather broad diffuse scattering indicates that the intermolecular correlations generally extend only over a few unit cells but close to some Bragg positions there is a ‘hole’ in this scattering. The size of this points to correlations extending over many unit cells. The phenomenon is explained in terms of forces on a local scale that favour preserving c-glide symmetry but over larger distances (modulations close to q=0) the forces prefer to maintain a screw axis.
Pentachloronitrobenzene, C6Cl5NO2
Authors: Welberry T.R.
Published: June 2022

Monte Carlo computer simulation has been used to interpret and model observed single-crystal diffuse X-ray scattering data for pentachloronitrobenzene, C6Cl5NO2. Each site in the crystal contains a molecule in one of six different basic orientations with equal probability. However, no short-range order amongst these different orientations has been detected. The strong, detailed and very distinctive diffraction patterns can be accounted for almost entirely on the assumption of random occupancy of each molecular site, but with very large local relaxation displacements that tend to increase the neighbouring distances for contacts involving NO2 – NO2 and NO2 – Cl with a corresponding reduction for those involving Cl– Cl. The results show that the mean NO2 – NO2 distance is increased by ~0.6 Å, compared with that given by the average structure determination.
(Why) Is the Recent Recovery So Different from the Past?
Authors: Woo Jaejoon
Published: June 2022

The prospect of the economy returning to high growth looks increasingly like a pipe dream for many Koreans. The unusually weak pace of the recent economic recovery amid continued decline in trend growth has become a major concern. Yet the unpleasant economic downtrend has been years in the making, as suggested by a wide range of economic indicators. This chapter explores the debate on the nature of the growth deceleration from a short-term business cycle perspective. A new event-study of recovery episodes shows that the most recent recovery was the weakest among eleven business cycles since 1970 and uncovers important (and some surprising) new features about the recent recovery episode, shedding some light on a likely future growth path. Against the backdrop of post-crisis sluggish global growth amid retreat from globalization, unusual weakness is a result of a series of adverse shocks (domestic, external) compounding the already slowing growth trend on structural problems. In particular, negative shocks amplified repercussions owing to Korea’s unique industrial structure, with heavy reliance on manufacturing exports, highly concentrated exports sensitive to certain types of shocks, and substantial linkage with China playing a significant role in dramatically weakening the strength of economic recovery.
Taking the Long View of Economic Growth, Part 1
Authors: Woo Jaejoon
Published: June 2022

From a long-term perspective, this chapter addresses the important question of whether the continuing growth decline should be attributed to the convergence process. The magnitude of growth deceleration turned out to be greater than what is predicted by the well-established convergence argument alone, as suggested by our new cross-country growth regression. Moreover, our analyses based on gross domestic product (GDP) decomposition and growth accounting methods show that the GDP growth drop-offs are largely explained by sharply lower growth in labor productivity, which is in turn driven by marked declines in growth of total factor productivity and capital stock over the recent years. Contrary to popular belief, however, there still exists sizable scope for catching up on the productivity and technology gap with advanced economies, and hence for further growth. Paradoxically, the low productivity holds a key to future growth. For Korea, structural rigidities and poor-quality institutions have a bearing on it, which makes a strong case for structural reforms and institutional modernization. A range of GDP growth rates for the next decade are then calculated for various scenarios. While the long-term economic forecast is inherently fraught with challenges and errors, the result sends a clear message that underscores our view that Korea is at a critical juncture.
Taking the Long View of Economic Growth, Part 2
Authors: Woo Jaejoon
Published: June 2022

More worryingly, there are multiple risks that threaten to self-perpetuate low or stagnant growth in Korea over the next decade or so, akin to Eurosclerosis symptoms or, worse, Japan-style stagnation. This is the subject of Chapter 4. There are a few channels that may lead to such an outcome. One is a negative feedback loop between weakening growth and rising financial and economic distress due to already high private debt. A more severe case will be an outright financial crisis resulting from household debt, for example, with a housing market crash or an interest rate shock or a combination of both. Yet another channel is the rise of populism in knee-jerk reactions to the growth deceleration amid rising income inequality and social polarization, which can lead to the adoption of myopic and unsustainable policies that entrench structural rigidities, induce fiscal largesse and rent seeking, and cause macroeconomic volatility, ultimately harming long-term growth further. With deepening political polarization, the lack of effective political mechanism to deal with rising social risks is most concerning. Furthermore, population aging can certainly compound these risks. The chapter provides a careful assessment of these potential systemic risks for the economy.
Jobs and Wages
Authors: Woo Jaejoon
Published: June 2022

Importantly, standard aggregate measures of inequality mask much more pronounced changes in wage dispersion in many different dimensions, such as firm size, industry (manufacturing versus service, or high- versus low-technology industry), types of occupation, employment status, educational level, gender, and age. Wage inequality reflects individual differences in talent and motivation, but there are also significant socioeconomic, structural, and cultural causes. Chapter 6 explores the underlying drivers of wage inequalities in multiple areas, presenting a new analysis. The common forces such as new technology, automation, globalization, sectoral shifts, and changing skill requirements of the workforce are important drivers. But wage disparities also reflect long-standing structural problems, including gaping disparities between productive and unproductive sectors, labor market rigidities and duality, and outdated business regulations. Our analysis shows that the structural problems amplify wage differentials, while causing misallocations of labor and hence lower productivity. Therefore, addressing productivity disparities could help boost economic growth and at the same time reduce wage disparities in some important ways.
Are There Political Business Cycles in Korea?
Authors: Woo Jaejoon
Published: June 2022

Does having a left- or right-wing government matter for Korea? Conventional wisdom has it that the right and the left are of little consequence for the country’s economy. There are some reasons for thinking like this. For example, technocrats including at the Ministry of Strategy and Finance who are more practical and less driven by political ideology tend to act as a counterbalance to political swings. The traumatic and humiliating experience of the 1997–1998 financial crisis constrains the adoption of excessive policies. Yet the key reason the differences have not shown up more prominently in the GDP data is elsewhere. An event study shows that in the past, supercharged export growth has often masked or more than offset the adverse effects of policy mistakes or the wrong kind of domestic policies. However, this is rapidly changing. In the face of slow growth amid social polarization, the potential for starkly different policy choice between the left and the right and its economic consequence is high. This is already happening. Moreover, our new evidence suggests that the conventional wisdom about Korea’s political cycles is misleading because it overlooks the important dynamics and distinct channels through which the policy differences operate.
Korean Presidents and Major Policy Agendas over the Last Three Decades
Authors: Woo Jaejoon
Published: June 2022

Political agenda and ideologies evolve over time as voters and politicians learn from the past, and at the same time, they are shaped by the imperative conditions and events at the time. Chapter 8 offers a critical review of major economic policies, events, and political economy backdrops under each president since the first free democratic presidential election in 1987. The onset of democratization in 1987 is viewed as one of the major turning points that set in motion powerful political and economic changes in Korean society. As part of the discussion, it also includes a critical assessment of President Moon’s economic policy agenda, including his signature policy known as the income-led growth strategy.
Korea’s Monetary Policy and Challenges for the Bank of Korea
Authors: Woo Jaejoon
Published: June 2022

In response to risks of financial market dislocations, massive layoffs, and bankruptcies brought about by the global lockdown amid the COVID-19 pandemic, major central banks around the world have pursued aggressive monetary easing at an extraordinary speed and size. In the spring of 2020, the Bank of Korea (BoK) cut its policy rate to a record low level of 0.50% and activated emergency lending facilities. Going into this crisis, however, there was not much room for further monetary easing, with its policy rate at 1.25 percent at the end of February 2020. As market participants wonder how much ammunition is still available for the BoK, this unparalleled crisis leads us to rethink the monetary policy framework and strategy. Chapter 9 explores a number of monetary policy issues and challenges for Korea, including the BoK’s policy framework, inflation dynamics, evaluation of the BoK monetary policy conduct, and what new policy tools can and should be considered for use in the future. It also makes several recommendations. Among others, it proposes establishing a standing committee on macro financial policy that comprises the BoK, the Financial Services Commission, and the Treasury, which would be tasked with working out the coordination between monetary and macro-prudential policy for cyclical purposes.
Criminalising Female Genital Mutilation
Authors: Proudman Charlotte
Published: June 2022

This chapter explores the evolution of FGM legislation in the UK, which has had a tortured and lengthy history. Whilst the efficacy of the law is contested in a context in which there has only been one conviction, this chapter examines whether the law has had any impact in deterring FGM and preventing the practice. For the first time in history the views of leading figures responsible for introducing anti-FGM laws and enforcing the laws are laid bare. Politicians, police officers, and lawyers speak frankly about their role in introducing anti-FGM laws in the UK. It exposes the ethnocentric tone of anti-FGM laws which perhaps explains the polemic nature of anti-FGM discourse. The chapter draws on the challenges of criminalising a cultural practice by outlining key themes that emerged from four FGM trials which featured widely in the media. Whilst the first conviction for FGM was secured in 2019, does this really signal that the law is eliminating FGM?
Epilogue
Authors: Proudman Charlotte
Published: June 2022

This chapter draws together the evidence gathered across the book and seeks to answer the question: What impact has the law had on ending the practice? This chapter explores women’s roles in ending FGM in order to break the generational cycle of the practice. It examines the tensions in criminalising women for encouraging or performing FGM when they have also been victims of the practice. This chapter outlines the key motivations for the practice and how they have changed overtime. Whilst the law is necessary to eliminate FGM, this chapter shows some of the unintended consequences of criminalising FGM and the resistance from within communities to criminalising the practice. Conceptualising FGM as a specific, individual cultural practice can lead to counter-productive, racial stereotyping. To further the end-FGM movement, this chapter sends a key message to its readers: FGM must not be seen as cultural violence but instead as an aberration of the individual man. This chapter concludes by outlining areas for further research.