bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Political Modernization: Gaps Between Theory and Reality
Authors: Pye Lucian W.
Published: March 2007

Academic interest in "political development" declined in the later 1960s for a variety of reasons, including events in the Third World which both challenged nascent theoretical concepts and also inhibited further empirical research. Theory building was further complicated by a rise in ideological passions, changes in scholarly fashions, and continuing advances in technology which, in auguring the advent of "post modern" societies, made the concept of "modernization" even more ambiguous.

Interest in the questions of "dependency" and the relationships of the Third World to the international system forced theorists to reexamine the significance of the traditional basic concepts of "authority" and "sovereignty" for changing societies. Greater effectiveness in public policy implementation demands the establishment of more competent authorities in the new states and the achievement of their true sovereignty. This test of effectiveness, however, runs into the old realities of cultural differences which stand in the way of greater "equality" of performance according to modern standards. The problems of achieving greater equality, both domestically and internationally, are already well recognized in the economic realm, but will be even more difficult with respect to power. Hence the subject of political development is certain to become increasingly significant in the next decade.
Institutional Innovation: Organizing for Better International Relationships
Authors: Richardson John
Published: March 2007

American attitudes that have handicapped the United States in building healthy political and economic relationships with other countries in the world are outlined as a prelude to discussion of some creative and successful United States' innovations in relationship building. While acknowledging the United States' role in the U.N. and its agencies, and the significant contributions made by American private sector businesses and organizations, the article focuses on official government efforts in transnational relationship building. Beginning with the post World War II period, the development and organization of transnational institutions ranging from the Fulbright Program to the currently proposed Institute for Human Rights are examined. What seems to be taking place is an ongoing process of development and refinement of our government's capacity to encourage transnational dialog, defuse conflict, and reinforce constructive tendencies in the previously underrated human dimension of foreign policy. Americans may be learning more rapidly than could be expected, given the cultural constraints, some new ways to improve international relations.
The Energy Social System
Authors: Klausner Samuel Z.
Published: March 2007

An array of economic markets in mineral resources is being displaced by a politically dominated energy social system. International energy decisions are now part of regular diplomatic activity. Growing governmental involvement in energy activities has contributed to politicizing relations among energy suppliers and energy consumers within nations. The environmental and energy social movements are expressions of conflict between social strata. Energy and environment issues are selected and acted upon in the context of this wider political confrontation. The debate between "growth" and "steady state" reflects the struggle between two forms of utopian ideology within the energy social system. Two effects of the emergence of the energy social system are: (1) a redrawing of the axes of alliance and conflict among national states and among groups within states; and (2) the reduction in the supremacy of the capitalist market as a cultural institution in favor of political action governing resource allocation.
Moral and Ethical Dilemmas: Seven Years into the Debate About Human Ambiguity
Authors: Duff Raymond S. , Campbell A.G.M.
Published: March 2007

Developments in modern medical technology force many questions upon the health professions and the public. To what extent should technology be used to extend life when doing so seems futile, perhaps brutal? Who should decide such questions? What options should be available? Conditions in which such questions arise are often chaotic because of the nature of illness and treatment and because many extremely important issues in life have been poorly deliberated by the health professions and the public. This essay is an attempt to clarify some of the issues.
Federal Urban Transportation Policy and the Highway Planning Process in Metropolitan Areas
Authors: Rabin Yale
Published: March 2007

State highway departments wield a disproportionately great influence on the comprehensive planning process and on patterns of decentralization in metropolitan areas because highways are a fundamental influence on land development and because highway departments control the production of highway facilities from planning and construction to operation. Because of that influence, highway departments have been able to pursue the narrow objective of accommodating traffic despite congressional attempts to redirect transportation goals toward meeting the land-use needs of declining central cities and avoiding the adverse social, economic, and environmental impacts of highways. These adverse effects have included the isolation of central city transit-dependent minorities from suburban employment and the creation of an excessive dependence on gasoline. The inertia of this limited purpose highway program has been sustained by massive federal funding, a bureaucratically embedded and technologically intimidating planning methodology, and a system of federal plan and impact reviews whose major effect has been to expedite the approval and construction of highway projects. These deficient impact analyses and token reviews have deprived the public and elected officials of vital information about foreseeable adverse impacts and have unreasonably restricted their ability to judge highway proposals or make important decisions affecting decentralization.
Chapter 1
Authors: Kitagawa Evelyn M.
Published: March 2007

The 1970s was a decade of particularly rapid change in life-styles in the United States. The postponement of marriage by many young adults and the escalating divorce rates resulted in a large increase in the proportion of one-person households. Sharp increases in the proportion of illegitimate births—in combination with rising rates of separation and divorce—brought substantial increases in the proportion of children living in one-parent families. Average household size and average family size declined. The total fertility rate, which had declined by 50 percent from 1960 to 1975, leveled off after 1975. First and second births to women 25-34 years old increased significantly after 1975, suggesting that these cohorts were making up for their very low levels of fertility in previous years. Illegitimate birthrates, which had almost quadrupled between 1940 and 1970, decreased during the 1970s; however, the proportion of all births that were illegitimate continued to increase. These changes are not interpreted as evidence that Americans are moving away from their basic orientation to marriage and a family existence.
Chapter 8
Authors: Peterson Richard A.
Published: March 2007

To a greater degree than in other industrial nations, questions of culture and leisure time use in America are matters of personal and private choice which the state should not shape or direct. Consequently, little attention has been paid to how to conceptualize the field or to organize the available statistics and to collect information on a regular basis. The establishment of a number of public agencies with responsibilities in the field of culture, the arts, recreation, and leisure, added to the call of research scholars, highlights the need for more and better statistics organized within a comprehensive framework.
Inflationary Effects on Transportation
Authors: Fuller John W.
Published: March 2007

The U.S. transportation sector is faced with uncertainty, overextension, and bankruptcy, due less to energy-price inflation or the high cost of replacement capital than to a long history of inappropriate government policies. Economic regulation and government promotion, in virtually every mode of transportation, have led to inflexibility and technological stagnation. A complicating factor in this inflationary period, however, is the tie between energy consumption and public user-fee receipts, which has led to modal service declines or higher subsidies as energy prices have risen. A healthy transport sector is an unlikely prospect unless fundamental policy changes occur in pricing, government institutions, and planning.
The Superpower Relationship and U.S. National Security Policy in the 1980s
Authors: Pfaltzgraff Robert L.
Published: March 2007

In retrospect, the United States has experienced repeated failure in the efforts of successive administrations over the last decade to bring about an improved relationship with the Soviet Union because of fundamentally different Soviet and American security interests and objectives and conceptions of the role of force in international politics. The debate in the United States about the SALT II Treaty provided the basis for a broader discussion of the adequacy of American defense capabilities in light of the growth of Soviet capabilities and the manifest propensity to extend Soviet influence by direct means, as in Afghanistan, or by the use of surrogates, as in Africa. In the years ahead, the United States faces the need both to rebuild its military forces and to fashion a global political strategy that deters the Soviet Union from exploiting whatever advantages may be perceived to accrue from vast military capabilities during this period of vulnerability in which interests vital to the United States and its allies will be at stake.
From Dependency to Interdependency: Japan's Experience with Technology Trade with the West and the Soviet Union
Authors: Sternheimer Stephen
Published: March 2007

As the debate over the merits and demerits of technology trade between East and West gathered force in the 1970s, an awareness slowly dawned that the issues at stake touch the fortunes not only of the United States but those of her allies as well, including Japan. Japan's own success with technology imports, beginning only a few decades ago, gives grounds for new fears regarding future competitiveness on the part of a reinvigorated Soviet economy. Further, Japan's raw-materials vulnerability and the importance of export markets to her economy have led some to suggest that Japanese technology trade with Communist nations might leave her leadership politically vulnerable to pressure from Moscow and elsewhere. As this article demonstrates, such fears are largely groundless. The Japanese and Soviet approaches to technology transfer for economic development display far more differences than similarities. Likewise, in terms of a potential Japanese export dependency on Soviet markets, Tokyo remains more critical to Moscow than the reverse. From the perspective of Japanese import dependency, especially in the energy sector, a review of the statistical picture that can be drawn up for Japanese-Soviet energy cooperation in Siberia reveals that the Soviet contribution to Japan's energy balance, even in 1990, will be quite minimal. The real issue, this article concludes, arises from the need for the United States to develop a policy for the control of technology trade between East and West that will reflect the needs and perspectives of all Western allies, rather than those of the United States alone.
Policy Implications of the Diffusion and Control of Medical Technology
Authors: BANTA H. DAVID , BURNS ANNE KESSELMAN , BEHNEY CLYDE J.
Published: March 2007

Medical technology has become a controversial national policy issue, largely because of rapidly rising national health expenditures and their relation to medical technology. These costs are increasingly viewed in relation to benefits or effectiveness. Attempts to control medical technology, to consider benefits in relation to costs, have largely been regulatory, and have failed to ameliorate cost rises. This failure has stimulated consideration of the reimbursement system as a controlling device. The Medicare program already has developed a rather formal process for making reimbursement decisions based on technology assessments. However, fundamental reform of the reimbursement system seems necessary to counter perverse incentives built into payment. Recent proposals to shift to prospective payment is an example of such a change. However, the basically private nature of the health care system and the limited leverage of the Medicare program limits the power of the federal government to make change.
Industrial Rationalization of a Cottage Industry: Multi-Institutional Hospital Systems
Authors: ZUCKERMAN HOWARD S.
Published: March 2007

The environment facing hospitals, generally supportive until the 1970s, may now be characterized as complex, turbulent, and constrained. In response to such environmental conditions, hospitals have adopted new strategies and structures. The strategies, described as corporate rationalization, have led away from the traditional structure of free-standing, autonomous hospitals and toward the formation of multi-institutional systems. These systems are designed to provide sufficient strength to cope with the environment, to acquire scarce and valued resources, to allow organizational stability, to achieve organizational purpose, to enable growth and/or survival, and to enhance market position. The impact of multi-hospital systems is viewed in two major areas: acquisition, retention, and utilization of economic and human resources, and organizational, political, and social factors.
Japanese Robotics: Challenge and—Limited—Exemplar
Authors: LYNN LEONARD
Published: March 2007

At the end of 1982 Japan's robot population was triple that of the United States, and Japan's robot producers seemed positioned to dominate this strategic new industry. Underlying this early success was an elaborate set of government policies including low-interest loans, special depreciation allowances, and government-coordinated research projects. Many argue that the Japanese have been successful not only in developing their robotics industry but also in coping with the social impacts of this new technology. Their success, however, should not be overstated. Some Japanese fear that the introduction of robots may lead to record unemployment by the end of the decade. Women and certain other groups may already be disproportionately bearing the costs of the change in technology. This suggests that while we may have much to learn from Japan, it is a mistake to regard Japan as a paragon. What is needed is for Americans to study the Japanese experience with robotics, just as the Japanese routinely study our experiences, not to borrow uncritically but to seek new ideas and insights.
Labor and Politics in the 1980s
Authors: REHMUS CHARLES M.
Published: March 2007

American labor's contemporary political activities—lobbying, organizing election workers, raising political funds, and attempts to persuade members to vote for favored candidates—have not since the 1960s proved effective in influencing public policy in ways that labor favors. As a consequence, in the 1980s organized labor has turned to deliberate efforts to control the selection of the Democratic party's nominee for president. Whether the result will be a Democratic-Labor party contending for electoral and legislative victories or a politically weakened labor movement that is simply another minority lobby cannot now be predicted with assurance.
Labor-Management Cooperation in American Communities: What's in it for the Unions?
Authors: CUTCHER-GERSHENFELD JOEL
Published: March 2007

Area labor-management committees (ALMCs) have been established in over 40 American communities. These committees have the potential, not always realized, to improve dramatically the legitimacy and power accorded to unions at the community level. While separate from the collective bargaining process, ALMCs do contribute to improved communications and other changes at the bargaining table. They also can serve as a unique forum to assist local employers and unions interested in establishing work-site labor-management committees and in exploring the quality of work-life. Finally, these local labor management organizations stand as a microcosm and as a potentially important element in a national industrial policy.
Evaluation of China's Bureaucratic Reforms
Authors: LEE HONG YUNG
Published: March 2007

Among the various reforms initiated by the post-Mao leadership in China, the most crucial for stability of the political leadership and continuity of the policy line is the bureaucratic reform. In the name of making the state apparatus more efficient for economic development, the central Party leaders promoted to leadership positions a new set of cadres who are “revolutionized, better educated, professionally competent, and younger.” This article evaluates the results of the reforms in three important organs: the Central Committee, the central government ministries, and the provincial Party secretaryship. The article finds that although a large number of the bureaucratic technocrats has replaced veteran cadres of the civil war era, the gains are temporary, and the regime's efforts to rationalize and institutionalize the personnel management further will encounter much more serious obstacles imposed by the structural conditions of the Leninist party-state.
Charting a Course for Imprisonment Policy
Authors: CONRAD JOHN P.
Published: March 2007

There is no coherent policy on the use of imprisonment in the United States or on its operation other than the interpretation of the Eighth Amendment to the Constitution by the federal courts. The absence of such a policy results in overcrowding and other abuses, made even more serious than ever by the increasing concentration of violent prisoners in the large penitentiaries of the more populous states. It is proposed here that the elements of a coherent policy should comprise appropriate restraint, differential security, middle-range planning, an integrated penal plan including community programs as well as incarceration, and the maintenance of public support. To assure that such a policy is continuously sustained, a commission on penal policy should be instituted in each state to plan and review legislative and policy changes.
Religion's Very Public Presence
Authors: SHRIVER PEGGY L.
Published: March 2007

The 1984 election emphasized the public role of religion in both parties; much uneasiness about the proper place of religion in politics was revealed. The United States was originally envisioned by some religious groups as a voluntary Christian commonwealth. Although that dream is less persuasive today, religion supplies a continuing definition and critique of the public good. Growing religious diversity produces conflicting views, necessitating rethinking by mainline Protestants. A major difference is between those who nourish nationalism and an individualistic religion and those with a world-encompassing vision and a communal faith. Religion provides sustaining hope and a commitment to wholeness, and it contributes politically, often through coalitions. The role of the religious convictions of politicians was heatedly debated with modest resolution in the 1984 campaign. American democratic ideals are being tested, and religion, in dialogue with science, is challenged to help shape the nation's future.
The Organization of African Unity and Intra-African Functionalism
Authors: NWEKE G. AFORKA
Published: March 2007

The Organization of African Unity was the product of a compromise between African statesmen who wanted political union of all independent African states and those who preferred functional cooperation as a building block toward the construction of an African sociopsychological community. As embodied in the Charter of the Organization of African Unity and put into operation, the inherent contradictions of the ideas, behaviors, and interests of member states, in conjunction with the dynamics of international politics, brought practically all efforts at functional cooperation to naught. In order to revamp Africa's commitment to functionalism, the Lagos Plan of Action was adopted in April 1980. But it remains to be seen how practicable it will be for Africans, relying on themselves, to achieve the goal of an African Common Market by the year 2000, as envisaged in the plan.
The Improvement of Foreign Language Competency in the United States
Authors: LAMBERT RICHARD D.
Published: March 2007

A great deal of discussion and planning is under way the purpose of which is to upgrade our national system of foreign language instruction. Out of that discussion has emerged a consensus on a few key points of leverage to supplement and improve the system. These include focusing on adult language needs; the development of consistent measures of individual and program performance; the elaboration of the technology of teaching upper-level language skills; and the establishment of empirically oriented experimental classrooms. To carry out this agenda, the creation of a national foreign language center is proposed.
The Making of the Fulbright Program
Authors: VOGEL RALPH H.
Published: March 2007

The nature and character of the Fulbright program were shaped by the 1946 legislation that gave it life, by the circumstance of its foreign currency financing generated by surplus property sales, by those in the State Department and in a few private organizations, and by members of the first Board of Foreign Scholarships, who transformed the Fulbright Act into the worldwide educational exchange program we know today. Early decisions by the Board were the building blocks on which the program has grown and flourished. The first bilaterial Fulbright programs depended on the negotiation of executive agreements with participating governments and the establishing of binational commissions abroad. The latter played a key role in the initial acceptance of the exchange program, in its planning and administration, and in eventual joint financing by many participating governments. Today the Fulbright program looks to the future with confidence as it proudly claims over 156,000 alumni in the United States and abroad.
Education with a World Perspective—A Necessity for America's Political and Economic Defense
Authors: NEWELL BARBARA W.
Published: March 2007

American businesses and the military are forming a new alliance with education for they are experiencing critical deficiencies in international expertise. As a result, they are calling for strengthening the international perspective of American education. Proposals to meet these needs should incorporate changes in the entire education system, build on the multicultural, multiracial characteristics of American society, take advantage of the vast expansion of the international information base made possible by computers, and incorporate an international extension service for American business.
The Pursuit of Informal Economies
Authors: MILLER S. M.
Published: March 2007

Considerable differences exist between informal economies. Consequently, a wide range of interests and frames of analysis influence the way they are thought about. Four main approaches are discussed: economic, social, fiscal and regulatory, and living conditions. In turn, four policy choices dealing with informal economies compete: drive them out, make them pay up, improve them, and expand them. The future of informal economies is uncertain, but the concern with them is likely to continue and will challenge the hegemonic role of neoclassical economic theory and the concern with the large corporation.
Developing Economies and the Informal Sector in Historical Perspective
Authors: GERRY CHRIS
Published: March 2007

In the 1970s, social scientists used the term “informal economy” to describe the economic survival strategies of many of the working poor in Third World cities. Now, both terminology and analysis are applied in the advanced, industrialized countries to the often proliferating variations in nonwage employment that have emerged during the world recession of the late 1970s and 1980s. In this article, social science's understanding of the relationship between the informal economy and socioeconomic development is traced back to the early nineteenth century. It is argued that this interest has tended to wax and wane according to the cycle of boom and slump in national and international economy alike. It is in this broader historical context that the policies and reality of small-scale informal economic activity in the Third World can best be elucidated.
Information Society and Global Science
Authors: BENIGER JAMES R.
Published: March 2007

In many advanced industrial countries, much of the labor force works at informational tasks, while wealth comes increasingly from informational goods and services. But why? Answers can be found in the Control Revolution, an abrupt change in the technological and economic arrangements by which information is collected, stored, processed, and communicated that began in the middle of the nineteenth century. The early history of computers in science can be understood from this perspective, as can telematics, the recent convergence—through digitalization—of information-processing and communication technologies. Telematics does not necessarily follow from advanced industrialization because new control technologies present societal choices subject to political control. Problems of control in an interorganizational system like science are considered, with special attention to the role of generalized symbolic media in distributing system status and exchange authority across organizational boundaries. Potential control problems are foreseen in a telematic basis for the system of science, in which computerization has tended to minimize exchange authority, thereby threatening both interorganizational incentives and macro-level control.
Vanishing Intellectual Boundaries: Virtual Networking and the Loss of Sovereignty and Control
Authors: SOLOMON RICHARD JAY
Published: March 2007

The programmable electronic computer is unique in the history of technology. It is a machine that may change its own instructions and can be programmed to emulate or simulate and thereby become any other machine. This definition of the stored-program computer is often misconceived by analysts who focus on narrow issues of what the machine does with information flow, instead of how it changes what flows. Because of this machine's capabilities, and that of ancillary electronics and optics technologies, over the next two decades we will probably witness a watershed in industrialization and the practice of science. The new technologies are also likely to create problems for international trade, the specialization of labor, and the use of national resources: they will make it virtually impossible to protect intellectual creations, including creations that underpin the workings of computer infrastructure; they will muddle definitions of legal, political, social, and economic boundaries—and impinge on paradigms of national and perhaps personal and corporate sovereignty; and they will accelerate the decentralization of decision making and permit stronger remote management.
The World Climate Program: Collaboration and Communication on a Global Scale
Authors: BIERLY EUGENE W.
Published: March 2007

This article discusses the rationale and history of the World Climate Program (WCP) as a prime example of gains in scientific knowledge achievable only through collaboration and communication on a worldwide basis. The WCP is managed jointly by the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environmental Program, both of which are specialized agencies of the United Nations, and by the International Council of Scientific Unions. This unique arrangement has both given strength and presented problems in getting governments and scientists from all over the world to work together in the pursuit of program goals. Vital to this work are the tools made available by contemporary communications technology, particularly supercomputers and satellites. Nevertheless, the availability and usefulness of those tools does not supplant the more basic ground work that has to be laid and maintained in order to conduct global research. The necessary groundwork requires intra- and intergovernmental collaboration, and also continued progress in the underlying science base. The WCP is composed of the World Climate Data Program, the World Climate Applications Program, the World Climate Impact Program, and the World Climate Research Program.
Machine Cognition and the Downloading of Scientific Intellect
Authors: ABORN MURRAY
Published: March 2007

This article concerns itself with what artificial intelligence (AI) may have in store for how science will be conducted and communicated in the not too distant future. It highlights some of the AI literature to show that computers have been successfully programmed to perform many of the procedures involved in scientific decision making and problem solving. It briefly reviews the ongoing debate over whether systems designed to exhibit intelligent behavior really think in the same sense that humans do. Finally, it reports on the possibility that more of the process of science will in the future be carried out by such systems as a result of research linking AI with progress in cognitive science.
Anti-American Attitudes in the Arab World
Authors: PARKER RICHARD B.
Published: March 2007

Anti-Americanism in the Arab world today is not an inherent and unavoidable phenomenon of race or religion. It is a reaction to American policies and to the penetration of Western culture. It will be with us for some time to come for a number of reasons, including U.S. identification with Israel, U.S. involvement in local issues, and U.S. overidentification with local leaders. We will continue to have relations with Arab states in spite of it. The seizure of American hostages, which is one current gauge of anti-Americanism, is not a new phenomenon. The Algerians once held 150, and we paid a ransom of over $800,000 to obtain the release of 82 survivors because we had no alternative. Early in this century, Theodore Roosevelt blustered in order to obtain the release of American hostages in Morocco, but success was due more to the efforts of the French than to American armed strength. Neither case offers much of a precedent for handling today's hostage problem.
Personnel Selection in the Private Security Industry: More than a Résumé
Authors: LIPMAN IRA A.
Published: March 2007

Private security is charged with protecting both assets and people—employees, customers, vendors, even passers-by. This responsibility cannot be met without security officers who are honest, trustworthy, law-abiding, and psychologically stable. To guarantee a superior security force, the most stringent screening methods are required. The responsible private security company will use the best means of ensuring that its security guards, as well as all its employees, are of the highest quality. Those means include a combination of background checks, polygraph examinations, checks of criminal records, and drug tests. In addition, a psychological test should be administered to ensure that the person hired is not placed in the wrong job. Recent trends—social, demographic, and legislative—are making the selection process increasingly difficult. As a result, the quality of service provided by the industry as a whole will likely decline in the near future.
Gramm-Rudman-Hollings and the Politics of Deficit Reduction
Authors: WEST DARRELL M.
Published: March 2007

Procedural change often has generated unanticipated consequences for the policymaking process. This article examines an effort in the United States Congress to institute a procedural mechanism for deficit reduction, the so-called Gramm-Rudman-Hollings procedure. Although the triggering mechanism for automatic spending reductions ultimately was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, this case illustrates the strategic consequences that flow from procedural change. Negotiations over the content of Gramm-Rudman-Hollings dramatically shifted strategic advantages between Congress and the president as well as between Republicans and Democrats. A reform that started out with particular strategic consequences ended up being transformed into a procedure having quite different implications. This period, therefore, illustrates the crucial role that the strategic environment plays in legislative bargaining over deficit reduction.
News of the Culture or News of the Universe?
Authors: ROCHBERG GEORGE
Published: March 2007

There is widespread and justified concern over the steady decline of culture in America—and in the West generally. In this article I examine the societal forces I believe to be largely responsible for this disquieting tendency. Among them I identify the loss of psychic and intellectual immunity to Bad Art; the century-long slide into vulgarity, tawdriness, and sleaziness, which have helped turn America into the Land of Entertainment; the loss of standards and criteria of taste and judgment in both the production of art and its critical evaluation; the loss—especially in America—of innocence brought on by the corrosion of human values; and, finally, the rise of sentimentality and the consequent triumph of kitsch, which has come to be accepted as an illusory substitute for genuine seriousness and sentiment. In this context I juxtapose what I call “news of the culture” with “news of the universe.”
The View of the Big Performers
Authors: MULLER STEVEN
Published: March 2007

The Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) of The Johns Hopkins University serves as an illustrative example of a large laboratory sponsored by a military service—the U.S. Navy—that is owned and operated by a major research university. After an examination of how APL functions within Johns Hopkins, the positive side of the relationship is examined. It is found primarily in the combination of national service and research and teaching collaboration with the University's academic divisions. The primary negatives are public controversy and the risks and burdens of the University's obligation. The position of The Johns Hopkins University has been and remains that classified research is not necessarily inconsistent with the purposes of the University and that a major public service is legitimately rendered by the contributions to national defense made by APL to the Navy, within limits set by the University.
Bilingual Education and English-Only: A Language-Planning Framework
Authors: HORNBERGER NANCY H.
Published: March 2007

Public debate about English-only invariably includes reference to bilingual education; furthermore, both are recognized to be language-policy issues. Yet there has been no systematic treatment of English-only placing it within a language-planning framework that also includes bilingual education. This article attempts to do so, examining English-only in the context of corpus and status language-planning types; restrictive and expansive goals; aims, implementation, and evaluation processes; and language-as-problem, language-as-right, and language-as-resource orientations. It argues that a complete consideration of this language-policy issue needs to include both bilingual-education legislation and the widespread concern for English usage; that English-only goals need to be contrasted with other language-planning goals; and that both the underlying orientations and the future implementation of English-only policies properly belong in the arena of debate.
Regulating Intergovernmental Relations in the 1990s
Authors: ZIMMERMAN JOSEPH F.
Published: March 2007

The period since 1974 has witnessed major changes in intergovernmental relations as Congress has decreased federal financial aid to state and local governments and has exercised partial and total preemption powers in new areas and in innovative ways. President Ronald Reagan persuaded Congress to combine 57 categorical grant-in-aid programs into nine new or restructured block grants, thereby giving state governments a degree of regulatory relief. In addition, several of his administrative initiatives reduced federal regulation of state and local governments. Nevertheless, the president signed several major preemption, crossover-sanction, and tax-sanction bills into law. Current trends suggest that Congress will rely less on grants-in-aid and more on preemption, supplemented by crossover and tax sanctions, to achieve its policy goals. As a result, the federal system will become more complex. Federalism theory must be modified to explain fluctuating national-state relations on a continuing basis and the mutual dependence of each plane upon the other two planes for the performance of functions by incorporating, as central elements, informal and formal federal preemption.
The Social and Economic Origins of Immigration
Authors: MASSEY DOUGLAS S.
Published: March 2007

Contemporary immigration patterns represent a sharp break from the past, when international movements were dominated by flows out of Europe to a few key destination areas. Europe has now become a region of immigration, and, like other developed regions, it draws migrants from a variety of Third World countries. The large-scale movement of immigrants from developing to developed regions has both economic and social foundations. Economically, immigration originates not from simple wage differentials between poor and rich countries but from the spread of economic development to rapidly growing Third World populations and from a persistent demand for low-wage workers in developed nations. Immigration has many social foundations, but the formation of migrant networks is probably the most important. Networks build into the migration process a self-perpetuating momentum that leads to its growth over time, in spite of fluctuating wage differentials, recessions, and increasingly restrictive immigration policies in developed countries.
Japan's Role in Asia-Pacific Cooperation
Authors: OKITA SABURO
Published: March 2007

The Asia-Pacific countries achieved rapid economic growth with the flying-goose model in the 1980s, growth buttressed by export-oriented development strategies and the policy culture in these countries. While Japan and the other Asia-Pacific countries still have strong growth potential, many problems remain, including trade imbalances with the United States and the rise of protectionism there, the Asia-Pacific economies' vulnerability, and the need to consolidate the infrastructure for growth. It is imperative that Japan contribute to the development of the region by responding effectively to these issues and that it strengthen the international trading arrangements by promoting Asia-Pacific cooperation premised on openness. Given the region's great internal diversity, Asia-Pacific economic cooperation can well serve as a model for international economic coordination.
Feminism: A Generation Later
Authors: SAPIRO VIRGINIA
Published: March 2007

Investigations by political psychologists reveal some of the changes in public opinion, gender consciousness, and gender ideology that have taken place since the beginning of the women's movement. There is more general acceptance of equality between the sexes, but even young people still show some adherence to traditional divisions of roles, and traditional gender ideology still plays a part in maintaining inequality. There is still widespread support for a women's movement, especially among women.
The Determinants of U.S. Capital Imports
Authors: NISKANEN WILLIAM A.
Published: March 2007

Since 1982 the United States has been a large net importer of capital. This condition, consistent with the standard explanation, appears to be primarily attributable to the large sustained federal budget deficit. In addition, net U.S. foreign investment in the 1980s appears to be more sensitive to changes in domestic demand, suggesting an increasing substitutability of domestic and foreign goods in the U.S. market. Changes in foreign economic conditions and policies in the 1980s do not appear to have had a substantial effect on the balance of capital flows. The article concludes that the large net U.S. importation of capital is not a policy problem but is the result of a policy problem, specifically, the decline in private saving and the large continuous federal budget deficit.
China and Europe
Authors: SHAMBAUGH DAVID
Published: March 2007

Relations between China and Europe have traveled a fluctuant course since 1949. To a significant extent, China's relations with both Eastern and Western Europe have been a function of its broader pattern of relations with the Soviet Union and the United States. Yet, in both cases, independent factors have served to sustain and strain ties. This article examines the course and dynamics of these relationships over the past four decades. Sino-European relations today are businesslike yet fragile—a fragility that the receding Cold War, the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe, and the West European common market of 1992 will all serve to intensify.
The Future of the Environment
Authors: LAMM RICHARD D.
Published: March 2007

In terms of population growth and resource use, humankind is living on the upper slopes of some awesome geometric curves. Current growth rates have certain areas of the world doubling their population every 25 years. What is at risk is no less than the future of the whole globe. It will be hard for the world to avoid a demographic trauma. It is very difficult to motivate people when there is uncertainty and when the problem will manifest itself in the future. We really do not know what limits there are to population growth or resource use, and at what point ecological disaster takes over, but there are clearly limits on certain nonrenewables such as energy, land, and water. Additionally, humankind must decide how it will deal with a large number of environmental challenges: depletion of the protective ozone layer, global warming, deforestation, soil erosion, spreading deserts, and pollution of land, air, and water. To begin making the required changes, people must educate themselves and then educate each other.
The Drive for Racially Inclusive Schools
Authors: THERNSTROM ABIGAIL
Published: March 2007

Disproportionate numbers of black students do poorly on standardized tests; strategies to improve American education thus frequently target inner-city schools. These strategies often have an unrecognized affirmative action component. A search for more minority students or teachers is clearly an affirmative action effort, but the elimination of all tracking or competency grouping is another matter. It is normally viewed as nothing more than a pedagogical strategy, but in fact, like other affirmative action efforts, it amounts to a conscious effort to alter the low-track status of minority pupils. Similarly, the demand for curricular reforms, racial sensitivity training, and more culturally appropriate tests, while not obviously affirmative action strategies, are in fact precisely that. They attempt to broaden the definition of excellence and to create a more racially inclusive educational system. Such well-meaning strategies are not likely to close the racial gap in school performance. That task may call for quite a different approach.
Affirmative Action in the Military
Authors: BUTLER JOHN SIBLEY
Published: March 2007

African Americans have fought in American conflicts since colonial days. The segregation practiced during the Civil War endured until abolished by President Truman in 1948. Since the all-volunteer force was established in 1973, the number of African American troops has risen; in 1991, they composed 28 percent of the Army and three-fifths of some combat units. Thus desegregation and affirmative action in the military have been years ahead of that in civilian society. Current policy seeks to increase the enlistment of whites and to ensure fully equal treatment and opportunity and good race relations.
Crime in the Pits: The Regulation of Futures Trading
Authors: SCHLEGEL KIP
Published: March 2007

In the late 1980s, the Federal Bureau of Investigation initiated an extensive undercover investigation of trading abuses in the two largest futures exchanges in the United States. Though the investigation received widespread media attention, the nature and significance of the crimes involved remain unclear to many people, largely because of the complexity of futures trading itself. This article describes the organization and operation of futures markets and provides an account of the offenses targeted by the investigation. Two structural components of futures trading, dual trading and the openoutcry system, criticized as offering ripe opportunities for abuse, are examined in detail. Finally, efforts at reform can be understood only when set within the context of organizational forces and pressures acting on the futures exchanges and the agencies responsible for regulation. In particular, the changing world market and competition for regulatory jurisdiction are offered as guides for understanding reform efforts.
Organizational Probation and the U.S. Sentencing Commission
Authors: LOFQUIST WILLIAM S.
Published: March 2007

As part of federal organizational sentencing guidelines enacted on 1 November 1991, the United States Sentencing Commission included organizational probation. This sanction allows courts to place convicted corporations on probation, with conditions designed to reduce the likelihood of future law violations and remedy the effects of the original offense. This article explores the history, development, and significance of organizational probation. Its statutory foundations, rejection of market logic, linkage to organizational theory, and approach to regulatory relations are identified as its theoretical strengths. The forces shaping this unexpected legal outcome, particularly legitimacy concerns on the part of the Sentencing Commission and a business strategy of opposing the Sentencing Commission itself, rather than its specific proposals, are also outlined. The conclusion addresses the prospects for enforcement of organizational probation.
Where is Rural Policy Headed?
Authors: JOHN DeWITT
Published: March 2007

New approaches to rural policy focus on (1) providing information and specialized expertise to rural communities along with traditional development finance and infrastructure programs; (2) building civic capacity to mobilize public and private resources for community development goals; and (3) new approaches to governance of the rural development process. These new governance strategies are similar to those now being used in other areas of public policy. Taken together, these approaches represent the beginnings of a fresh approach to rural development, and an alternative to seeking new policies and programs that are explicitly labeled “rural.”
Current Trends and Developments in the Arms Trade
Authors: ANTHONY IAN
Published: March 2007

More attention has focused on the issue of arms transfers since Iraq, with an inventory based exclusively on foreign military technology, invaded Kuwait. Political and academic analysts of the issue are handicapped by the absence of an agreed set of data with which to work. Given that different analytical tasks require different data sets, this article reviews the types of data that could be of value. Using the aggregate data that are available, the article tries to identify trends in the trade in major conventional weapons and assess which of these trends are transient—an interim adjustment to the end of the Cold War—and which might be more long-lived. Finally, the article offers a projection of macrotrends over the medium term.