bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Composites, Survey
Authors: Searles K.H.
Published: November 2003

The definition of a composite material, loosely translated, could point to any material having more than a single phase such that the multiple phases act in a synergistic manner to provide a behavior or set of behaviors more desirable than exhibited singularly. By this definition, a significant amount of creative space is available for scientists and engineers alike to develop exciting new materials, structures, processes, and applications to meet the demands dictated by the evolution of new technologies. As this evolution progresses, the traditional distinction made between the five classes of materials (i.e., metals, ceramics, polymers, elastomers, and glasses) tends to fade. It is here where many new possibilities arise to intelligently process and “smear” these classes together to produce new, smarter composite materials and engineering structures that “think” and respond to stimuli. The paradigm for this is by way of the tailorable structure‐performance relationships for composites based on interactions between constituent materials, which may encompass any of the five material classes.

The number of materials available to scientists and engineers for translating ideas into usable products and markets is vast, if not almost overwhelming. Current estimations give a range somewhere on the order of between 40,000 and 80,000 engineering materials. As new materials are developed having novel and exploitable characteristics (properties and responses), the number of choices further expands.

This article gives information on macroscale, microscale and mesoscale behavior of various composites. The opportunity to comprehend new theories of behavior is discussed.
Conductive Polymers
Authors: Wallace G. G. , Lewis T. W. , Kane‐Maguire L. A. P.
Published: November 2003

Intelligent polymer systems have the capacity to sense a variety of stimuli in the operational environment. They can further process this information and then actuate responses. The stimuli utilized may be chemical (e.g., chemical imbalance in a living system) or physical (e.g., structure exceeds a stress limit). Likewise the response actuated may be chemical (e.g., controlled release of drugs) or physical (e.g., increase in stiffness of material).

The intelligent polymer structure will require energy to implement these functions, so energy conversion/storage capabilities are desirable. These latter functions could be achieved, for example, by utilizing the photovoltaic properties of polymer structures. Ideally, all of the above mentioned functions would be integrated at the molecular level.

While a number of classes of polymers are capable of providing one or more intelligent functions, inherently conducting polymers (ICPs) may provide all of them. Synthesis and properties of these polymers are detailed. Their use as sensors, information processors and actuators are discussed as is the possiblity of providing an energy conversion and storage stystem.
Computational Techniques for Smart Materials
Authors: Laso Manuel , Cormenzana Juan L.
Published: November 2003

In this article the term “design” in a rather restricted sense. Calculations, simulations, or in general to any quantitative approach necessary to specify a structure, part, mechanism, processing operation, or function, in which a smart material is used are referred to.

In a large number of cases, the design with smart materials relies on well‐known and established principles of thermodynamics and continuum mechanics, such as the theories of elasticity, fluid mechanics, classical electromagnetic field theory, chemical equilibrium and kinetics, and solid state physics. These theoretical frameworks typically result in a consistent set of equations, of which at least one relates the stimulus and the response of the system. The design task consists often in specifying dimensions of structures or operating conditions of devices that guarantee satisfactory function. A typical example is the design of a smart structure that, under changes in temperature, deforms in a controlled way, possibly operating a valve or tripping a relay switch. The design of such a component, involves a straightforward application of the laws of thermoelasticity, provided that the thermomechanical properties of the material are known.

The controlling principles can often be expressed as very concise and elegant partial differential equations (PDEs) that must be satisfied in domains of complicated shape that have rather involved boundary and initial conditions.

In other cases, the difficult part of the design task is not the structural, fluid‐mechanical, optical or thermal design itself, but the description of the behavior of the smart material.

The two main aspects in which the design and calculation for smart materials departs significantly from standard design techniques. Both aspects are intimately related to the constitutive equation (CE) or, somewhat ironically, to its nonexistence.

The first aspect specific of CEs for smart materials has to do with the existence of memory effects. As a matter of fact, some of the most spectacular effects that smart materials display are related to what is somewhat vaguely called memory. Some general aspects of memory in materials and its mathematical formulation are discussed. We consider the question how to handle materials that have memory in practical calculations. Finally, the more fundamental question how to postulate a constitutive equation for smart materials is discussed. These last two sections reflect some recent developments in fields that are rapidly developing. A tentative outlook into the future of designing smart materials is presented in the closing section.
Electroceramics
Authors: Tuller Harry , Avrahami Ytshak
Published: November 2003

Ceramics have traditionally been admired for their mechanical, chemical, and thermal stability; however, their unique electrical, optical, and magnetic properties have become of increasing importance in many key technologies including communications, energy conversion and storage, electronics, and automation. Such materials are now classified aselectroceramicsas distinguished from other functional ceramics such as advanced structural ceramics. It is the combination of the traditional ruggedness of conventional ceramics and the exceptional functionality of select electroceramic materials that make electroceramics particularly attractive assmart materialsand as components ofsmart systems.

Electroceramics, exhibit a wide range of properties that make them ideally suited to serve as transducers in the form of sensors and/or actuators. In some cases, as in the PTCR self‐regulated heater, the device is inherently smart and requires no microprocessor to respond appropriately to a stimulus. In the vast majority of cases, a microprocessor is needed for the appropriate feedback. Here, the start of a trend toward integrating electroceramics into microelectronic and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) will hasten the development of self‐contained miniaturized smart systems. The microhotplate gas sensor array represents a graphic example. We emphasized transduction to and from electrical forms of energy because this is what most signal handling systems need to operate. This is beginning to change, particularly as all optical systems develop. Here again, given the electro‐optic, piezo‐optic, thermo‐optic, magneto‐optic effects that are exhibited by electroceramics, this group of materials should make important contributions to smart optical systems.
Fiber Optics, Theory and Applications
Authors: Udd Eric
Published: November 2003

Most fiber‐optic smart structure applications fall into one of four major categories. The first is smart manufacturing where fiber‐optic sensors are embedded or attached to parts during the manufacturing process. They are then used to monitor such parameters as temperature, pressure, viscosity, degree of cure, and residual strain. After the parts have been made, the same sensors or another set may be used for the second application area of nondestructive testing. Here, the fiber sensors may be used to measure acoustic signatures, changes in strain profiles, delamination, and other indications of changes in the structural characteristics of fabricated parts. The third aspect of fiber‐optic smart structures that has been the focus of many efforts is health and damage assessment systems for structures. In the parts of the structure that have been assembled, fiber‐optic sensor technology is used to monitor the overall health of the structure. Examples include the status of buildings, bridges, and dams and checks to support the maintenance of aircraft. Finally, fiber‐optic smart structures may be used to support control systems. Unlike health and damage assessment systems, which simply monitor changes in the structure, these control systems measure the environmental effects that act on the structure and then react to them. Examples of these types of structures are buildings that sense and readjust to earthquakes to minimize damage and airplanes that are designed to react to structural changes by adjusting their flight envelopes.

Fiber‐optic sensors that are particularly useful for smart structures are briefly overviewed, followed by examples of applications.
Electrorheological Fluids
Authors: Hao Tian
Published: November 2003

An electrorheological (ER) fluid is a colloidal system in which one kind of particulate material is dispersed in a nonconductive liquid base. When an electric field of several kilovolts per millimeter is applied, ER fluids reversibly change from a liquid state to a solid crystallized state within a millisecond. The purpose of this article is to draw a logical relationship between the dielectric properties of the materials used for making an ER fluid and the ER mechanism. To achieve this goal, the dielectric investigation that was done to characterize an ER fluid and the related ER models that were developed to describe ER phenomena are reviewed. Attention is paid to the ER models proposed on the basis of the dielectric studies; other ER models are only briefly described.

This article attempts to provide a clear physical picture of the ER response mechanism through dielectric analysis of ER phenomena. It begins with a general description of the dielectric properties of heterogeneous systems. Experimental evidence of the way dielectric parameters change the ER effect are discussed, and an empirical dielectric criterion for designing high‐performance ER fluids is proposed. A theoretical treatment on the dielectric criterion is described and an ER mechanism is proposed. A yield stress equation based on the ER mechanism is theoretically derived and comparisons with currently available experimental results are also made. Final conclusions are discussed.
Frequency Dependent Electromagnetic Sensing (FDEMS)
Authors: Kranbuehl D.
Published: November 2003

The use of polymeric materials in extended use structures such as airplanes, bridges, and pipelines, where expected lifetimes are 20 to 40+ years and where failure can be catastrophic, is rapidly expanding. Because of this, there is a clear need to develop

in situ

intelligent processing to ensure the highest quality “smart” fabrication and to monitor

in situ

any changes in the parts' performance properties while in use. This article describes the progress in developing frequency‐dependent dielectric sensor measurements that can detect change in the physical and chemical state of a polymeric material

in situ

, that is, those changes that occur during processing and fabrication and during aging in the field environment.

Frequency‐dependent dielectric measurement sensing (FDEMS) provides a sensitive, automated,

in situ

sensing technique for quality control monitoring, intelligent processing, and monitoring of durability and degradation of polymers during use. FDEMS

in situ

sensing can be designed and calibrated to monitor changes in the mechanical service life properties of polymer materials during aging in the field environment. The FDEMS technique has advantages over other monitoring techniques because it is nondestructive, sensitive,

in situ

, remote, and automated.
Polymer Blends, Functionally Graded
Authors: Agari Yasuyuki
Published: November 2003

Many reports have been published on functionally graded materials made of metals and ceramics. These graded materials have improved strength against thermal stress, electromagnetic, and optical properties. There have been particularly many reports on a functionally graded ceramic, which can be called a smart material. In this article a detailed description of the preparative mechanism for functionally graded polymer blends in the dissolution–diffusion method is given. An explanation is given of how the optimum conditions are determined for the several types of functionally graded polymer blends, polyvinyl chloride/polymethyl methacrylate, polyhexyl methacrylate (PHMA), or polycaprolactone, and bisphenol A type polycarbonate/polystyrene. Graded structures of the blends are characterized by measuring FTIR spectra, Raman microscopic spectra, thermal behaviors around the glass transition temperature by the DSC method or by SEM‐EDX (Scaning Elecro Microscopy‐Energy Disperisive X‐ray Spectrometer). Further, several types of functional properties, especially smart performance, are discussed, which result from the graded structure. Finally, the prospects of functionally graded polymer blends for applications are discussed.
Highways
Authors: Dianatkhah Kambiz
Published: November 2003

The number of automobiles has increased dramatically as a result of population and job growth during the past several decades. During the same period, the commuting distance has also increased. This in turn has resulted in congestion in many suburban areas. This increase in traffic flow translates into higher cost for accident expenses, a rise in fuel consumption, and air pollution. The Department of Transportation has estimated that the volume of traffic will increase by 50% in next 25 years. The loss of time and productivity and health issues caused by increased carbon monoxide and dioxide are the predominant factors that call for building smart highway systems. Smart materials are defined as materials whose properties alter predictably in response to external stimuli. Smart materials can be divided into several categories: shape‐memory alloys, piezoelectric materials, electrorheological fluids, and photochromic glasses.

In this article, the advantages of smart materials are described for application to smart highways, structures and intelligent transportation systems (ITS). Through the application of new technology, there is potential to integrate multiple modes of travel and to focus on demand as well as transportation supply throughout the world. The field of smart highways and structures consist of many areas of innovation in developing superhighways, bridges, modem cars that have built‐in computer‐aided navigation equipment, and a central control unit within each highway system to assist in traffic management.
Giant Magnetostrictive Materials
Authors: Eda Hiroshi , Zhou Libo
Published: November 2003

The importance of an interface that associates the macroworld and the microworld is indicated. The interface is composed mainly of actuators, sensors, and microcomputers. It enables users to feel the microscopic phenomenon as if they were in the macroworld.

In life sciences and medical and biological engineering, there are increasing demands for implementing fabrication, assembly, inspection, modification, and/or evaluation at the micron or submicron scale. To achieve this, the development of new materials and devices that can realize the required functions and movements at a microscopic level becomes mandatory. For instance, great power output, large displacement, and quick response are often required for functional materials, and safety, stability, and flexibility are the primary concern for structural applications. The gap between the macroworld and the microworld needs to be bridged naturally by using advanced devices and smart materials. In these respects, it is believed that giant magnetostrictive material (GMM) is one of the most promising materials for satisfying such requirements.

Although there are some drawbacks in GMMs such as expensive material cost, rather poor corrosion resistance, heat generation by the driving coil, and eddy currents at high frequency excitation, however, fairly stable and robust performance can be obtained by choosing driving conditions according to the applications to be used.
Ken‐Materials
Authors: Yanagida Hiroaki
Published: November 2003

The R&D on so‐called intelligent materials now performed in academe was started in the industrial sector. In February 1994 a group of manufacturing companies gathered to form a research consortium for R&D on intelligent materials. The author was appointed chairman of the consortium. From discussions about the concept and naming of the consortium, the consortium came to be called Ken Materials Research Consortium. This article describes the objectives of the consortium and gives some typical results of R&D that the consortium has sponsored. The objectives of R&D of ken‐materials safety, the environment, and user‐friendliness. “Ken” stems from the pronunciation of some Chinese characters meaning wisdom (self‐control), sensing (functional capability), structure (reliability), integration, simplicity, soundness (supported by people), and ecology.

Some examples are the carbon‐fiber and glass‐fiber reinforced plastics (CFGFRP) with improve mechanical performances and capabilities of self‐monitoring of damage soil‐ceramics by INAX where the humidity and temperature‐adjusting capability of soil is combined with the mechanical strength of ceramics to save energy during fabrication and during actual duties, and electric cable trolleys for Shin Kansen that can monitor damage through the addition of sensors by JR Tokai.
Neural Networks
Authors: Darsey Jerry A.
Published: November 2003

The first part of this article introduces the reader to the fundamentals of artificial neural network (ANN) computing, but it is, in no way, comprehensive. Some of the references at the end of this article will be of great value in this regard. In two sections, examples of the way an artificial network may be used for predictive purposes are presented. It is felt that the most efficient way to familiarize a reader with the power and beauty of artificial neural networks is through presentation of examples.

The use of an ANN for extrapolating heat capacity data of polymers to a temperature range where measurements are difficult is discussed. It is an example of using ANN to predict parameters outside the range of data on which it was originally trained. This shows that predictions can be made accurately, even outside the training range of the data.

The “power” of ANN in correlating vast amounts of input parameters with output parameters oriented to physical properties is then illustrated. The basic principles used can generally be applied to a wide range of problems in material sciences for a large number of chemical and physical systems.
Piezoelectricity in Polymers
Authors: Vinogradov Aleksandra
Published: November 2003

The diverse group of “smart” piezoelectric materials is distinguished by their ability to react actively to changing stimuli as a result of converting mechanical to electrical energy and vice versa. Synthetic piezoelectric polymers, an integral part of the “smart” materials group, exhibit a type of behavior that is often compared with biological reactions involving transformations of the sensed information into the desired response. Due to such special qualities, piezoelectric polymers have been increasingly used in a rapidly expanding range of applications. At present, these materials continue to offer unprecedented design opportunities, leading to the belief that the industry is on the verge of major technological breakthroughs.

The diverse group of piezoelectric materials includes a variety of synthetic polymers such as polypropylene, polystyrene, and poly(methyl methacrylate); semicrystalline polyamides such as nylon‐11; and amorphous polymers such as vinyl acetate. However, piezoelectric effects in these materials are relatively weak, often unstable, and are considered of limited practical significance. Strong piezoelectricity has been observed only in the synthetic polymer poly(vinylidene fluoride) and PVDF copolymers.
Polymers, Biotechnology and Medical Applications
Authors: Galaev I. Yu. , Mattiasson B.
Published: November 2003

The applications of smart polymer in biotechnology and medicine are discussed in this article. The highly nonlinear response of smart polymers to small changes in the external medium is of critical importance for the successful functioning of a system. Most applications of smart polymers in biotechnology and medicine include biorecognition and/or biocatalysis, which take place principally in aqueous solutions. Thus, only water‐compatible smart polymers are considered; smart polymers in organic solvents or water/organic solvent mixtures are beyond the scope of the article. The systems discussed in the article are based on either soluble/insoluble transition of smart polymers in aqueous solution or on the conformational transition of macromolecules physically attached or chemically grafted to the surface. Systems that have covalently cross‐linked networks of macromolecules, called smart hydrogels, are not considered.

One could define smart polymers used in biotechnology and medicine as macromolecules that undergo fast and reversible changes from hydrophilic to hydrophobic microstructure triggered by small changes in their environments. These microscopic changes are apparent at the macroscopic level as precipitate formation in solutions of smart polymers or changes in the wettability of a surface to which a smart polymer is grafted. The changes are reversible, and the system returns to its initial state when the trigger is removed.
Self‐Diagnosing of Damage in Ceramics and Large‐Scale Structures
Authors: Matsubara Hideaki , Okuhara Yoshiki , Yanagida Hiroaki
Published: November 2003

The government is always faced with problems of maintaining municipal buildings and infrastructure facilities that support modern urban existence. Buildings, bridges, highways, tunnels, and other large or important structures need to be assessed objectively or scientifically to ensure their safety and long‐term utilization. Today new systems and materials are being developed that can assist in such tasks. Currently most tested ideas and materials are too complicated or too expensive to be utilized in real situations. The concept behind the development of new systems is that materials should have the ability to evaluate their own condition after serious loading or relatively long service times.

The study of smart or intelligent materials has grown enormously throughout the world. The means of introducing self‐diagnosis or self‐monitoring functions into modern materials have become various and wide‐ranging. For example, piezoelectric ceramics, shape‐memory alloys, and optical fibers can all be used to give materials a certain degree of intelligence. In heavy construction, however, where large volumes of material are required, it is essential to avoid high complexity and high cost. The use of electrical conductivity or resistance is perhaps the most straightforward way of obtaining a relatively simple material system as compared with other high‐tech materials.

Fracture detection using fiber‐reinforced plastics (FRP) embedded in structural materials as a reinforcement has been reported.

In the author's recent work, composites containing a continuous structure of electrically conductive particles, or a so‐called percolation structure, have been designed and fabricated. FRP composites and ceramic matrix composites (CMC) with high performances in the low‐strain region caused by the “percolation structure” of conductive particles in a matrix phase have been successfully produced. These self‐diagnosis functions were evaluated from the changes in resistance with applied strain. It was found that the FRP composites with a self‐diagnosis function are fairly useful for the measurement of damage and fracture in concrete blocks and piles.
Shape Memory Alloys, Applications
Authors: Rice Carolyn
Published: November 2003

Shape‐memory alloys have been engineered for applications and devices since the first discovery of the shape‐memory effect in the 1930s. The majority of this design activity was initiated by the discovery of Nitinol (nickel–titanium alloy) in 1962, and since then more than 10,000 patents have been issued for applications using shape‐memory alloys. This article reviews a number of these applications, discusses aspects of design, and illustrates representative examples.
Vibration Control in Ship Structures
Authors: Koko T.S. , Akpan U.O. , Berry A. , Masson P. , Besslin O. , Szabo J. , Sponagle N.
Published: November 2003

The dominant sources of noise radiation in water are from ship engines and machinery—the propeller cavitation noise, the noise radiation from propeller blades, and the hydrodynamic pressure fluctuations induced by turbulent water flow along the ship's hull. At speeds below propeller cavitation inception, a ship's acoustic signature is generally dominated by structurally transmitted noise from onboard machinery. Reduction or control of ship noise has traditionally been implemented by passive means, such as by the use of vibration isolation mounts, flexible pipe‐work, and interior acoustic absorbing materials. However, these passive noise control techniques are effective mostly for attenuating high‐frequency noise; they are generally ineffective for controlling low‐frequency noise. There are, on the other hand, active noise control methods that have been proven to be effective in controlling low‐frequency and tonal noise. These active control methods could be used instead of, or in combination with, passive techniques, for controlling or reducing ship noise.

Active noise control (ANC) involves the reduction or elimination of noise by modification of the dynamic properties of a system or by noise cancellation through linear superposition of a secondary noise field of equal but opposite strength. An active noise control system will typically consist of all or some of the following ingredients: sensors, actuators, and controllers.
Vibrational Analysis
Authors: Steinberg Dave S.
Published: November 2003

Vibration is present almost everywhere one travels in modern society. Vibrationally induced failures are very common in products such as television sets and computers that are shipped by trains and trucks. Vibrational failure in a television set may be just an inconvenience. However, vibrational failure in a large passenger airplane can lead to many deaths. Methods of vibrational analysis are available that are accurate and can reveal weak structural areas. Steps can then be taken either to repair or replace critical items. Vibrational analysis is a combination of science and art. The science uses sophisticated computers extensively to solve large complex problems. This method requires extensive training and often takes a long time to reach a satisfactory solution. The art uses approximations, short cuts, and test data to reduce the time needed to reach a satisfactory solution. The approximations and short cuts can sharply reduce the time required for a solution, but it also reduces the accuracy of the analysis. Vibrational analysis can be used to make some materials work smarter by making small changes in their physical properties. These changes can often increase the fatigue life of critical structural members without a significant increase in the size, weight, cost, or impact on production and delivery schedules.
Windows
Authors: Bell J.M. , Skryabin I.L. , Matthews J.P. , Matthews J.P.
Published: November 2003

The term Smart Window was introduced in the mid 1980s to describe optically switchable electrochromic glazings. These devices exemplify the fundamental characteristic of all “smart windows”: controllable variation in the optical transmittance of the window. The variation in optical transmittance of electrochromic smart windows occurs through the simultaneous injection of electrons and ions into an electrochromic material. This leads to the development of either a broad absorption band or a reflection edge (depending on the details of the material preparation) that leads to a low transmittance state. The process is reversible; extraction of the ions and electrons returns the material to a transparent state. The control of the process is accomplished by applying a small voltage (or passing a small current) that controls ion injection and extraction. Since the initial discovery of electrochromism in thin film WO3in 1969, an enormous amount of research has been directed toward the goal of large area switchable windows for architectural applications. This initially focused on electrochromic systems that covered a wide range of materials and device structures. During the 1980s and subsequently, several alternate optical switching systems were developed that fall into the general category of smart windows. These include other electrically activated systems such as suspended particle devices and phase dispersed liquid crystals temperature controlled switchable devices such as thermochromic and thermotropic devices, and recently developed gasochromic devices that are controlled by using reducing or oxidizing gas mixtures in a window unit.
Smart Self‐Cleaning Materials—Lotus Effect Surfaces
Authors: Li Jun , Zhang Zhuqing , Xu Jianwen , Wong CP
Published: November 2003

The lotus effect represents superhydrophobicity and self‐cleaning properties of natural lotus leaves. Since it was first explained by Professor Wilhelm Barthlott in 1997, lotus effect has gained much attention, and various applications of lotus effect surfaces have been proposed. However, superhydrophobic surfaces have been prepared and studied since 1950s. In this work, the relationship between the two concepts, the lotus effect and superhydrophobicity, is discussed. We also briefly review the fundamental theories on the wettability of hydrophobic rough surfaces, recent modeling works on superhydrophobic and self‐cleaning properties, as well as the processing of lotus effect films. Based on the properties of lotus effect surfaces, different applications were introduced.
Desert Environments—Soil Microbial Communities in Cold Deserts
Authors: Vishniac Helen S.
Published: November 2003

Physical Characteristics of the Antarctic Desert

Resources in Antarctic Deserts

Desert Soil Communities
Microarrays: Applications in Environmental Microbiology
Authors: Zhou Jizhong , Thompson Dorothea
Published: November 2003

Microarray Basics

Using Microarrays to Monitor Gene Expression

Applications of Microarrays for Microbial Detection in Natural Environments
Bioaerosol Sampling and Analysis
Authors: Buttner Mark P.
Published: November 2003

Bioaerosol Sampling

Sample Analysis
Drinking Water Distribution Systems: Controlling the Microbial Quality of Drinking Water
Authors: Geldreich Edwin E.
Published: November 2003

Basic Concepts in Distributing Microbially Safe Water

Maintaining Distribution System Integrity

Managing Water Quality

Microbial Flora of Drinking Water

Biofilm and Water Stability

Monitoring Microbial Quality

Case Studies on Pathogen Incursions
Rainwater Roof Catchment Systems, Microbial Quality of
Authors: Fujioka Roger S.
Published: November 2003

Use and Status of Rainwater Roof Catchment Systems

Types of RRCS Used Throughout the World

Common Components of RRCS and their Impact on Water Quality

Professional Organizations and Guidelines for RRCS

Vulnerability of RRCS for Microbial Contamination

An Assessment of the Microbial and Hygienic Quality of Cistern Waters

Recommendations for Microbial Contamination in RRCS
Space Microbiology: Microgravity and Microorganisms
Authors: Klaus David M.
Published: November 2003

Growth Kinetics and Motility

Genetics

Antibiotic Effectiveness

Crew Health and Life Support

Sporulation and Secondary Metabolites

Future Opportunities
Protozoan Parasites: Fate in Wastewater Treatment Plants
Authors: Schwartzbrod J. , Maux M. , Chesnot T.
Published: November 2003

Wastewater Treatment

Protozoa Found in Wastewater

Influence of Wastewater Treatment on Protozoa Concentrations

Protozoa Found in Sludge and the Impact of Treatments
Enhanced Detection of Airborne Microbial Contaminants
Authors: Stetzenbach Linda D.
Published: November 2003

Bioassays

Immunoassays

Analytical Instrumentation Assays

Biotechnology‐Based Assays
Bacteriophage as Indicators
Authors: Jofre Juan
Published: November 2003

Model, Index, and Indicator Concepts

Bacteriophages as Model Organisms in Water Quality Assessment

Bacteriophages as Indexes

Bacteriophages as Indicators
Proteomes: Assessing Microbial Proteomes in the Environment
Authors: Ogunseitan Oladele A.
Published: November 2003

Applications of Proteome‐Based Assessments in Environmental Microbiology

Extraction of Proteins from Aquatic Environments

Resolution and Display of Proteins Extracted from Environmental Samples

Internet Resources for Environmental Microbial Proteome Assessment
Protozoa: Occurrence in Spent Filter Backwash Water in Water Treatment Plants
Authors: Arora Harish , Le Chevallier Mark W.
Published: November 2003

Regulation of Wash Water Recycle

Current SFBW Recycle Practices

Occurrence ofCryptosporidiumandGiardiain SFBW

Occurrence of other Water Quality Parameters

Treatment Strategies for SFBW
Water Treatment Plants: Microbial Removal by Pretreatment, Coagulation and Ion Exchange
Authors: LeChevallier Mark W.
Published: November 2003

Pretreatment

Coagulation/Flocculation/Sedimentation

Ion Exchange
Activated Sludge—The “G‐Bacteria”
Authors: Seviour Robert J.
Published: November 2003

Taxonomy of the “G‐Bacteria”

Physiology of “G‐Bacteria”

Mixed Culture Studies with the “G‐Bacteria”

Ecology of “G‐Bacteria”
Archaea: Detection Methods
Authors: Nichols Peter D. , Nichols Carol A. Mancuso
Published: November 2003

Culturing Methods

Molecular Techniques

Cell Envelope—Chemical Techniques

Other Procedures
Clostridium
Authors: Payment Pierre , Godfree Alan , Sartory David
Published: November 2003

General Concepts

Clostridia in Disease

Culture

Occurrence

Removal and Disinfection During Treatment

Correlation with Other Microorganisms
Petroleum Reservoirs, Microbial Diversity in
Authors: Kendall M. M. , Reysenbach Anna‐Louise , Jeanthon C. , Corre E. , Corre E.
Published: November 2003

Geophysical and Geochemical Characteristics of Oil Reservoirs

Microbial Diversity of Petroleum Reservoirs

Microbes from Oil Reservoirs
Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP)
Authors: Burlage Robert S.
Published: November 2003

Molecular Characterization

Applications in Environmental Microbiology

Future Developments
Soil Bacteria
Authors: Alexander David B.
Published: November 2003

Bacterial Cell Structure and Function

Archaea

Physiological Ecology of Soil Bacteria
Soil Quality: The Role of Microorganisms
Authors: Smith Jeffrey L.
Published: November 2003

Soil Quality

The Metabolic State of Microorganisms and Soil Quality
Volcanic Tuffs: Deep Subsurface Microbiology of
Authors: Haldeman Dana L. , Amy Penny S.
Published: November 2003

Pilot Investigation

Sample Collection

Microbial Characterization of Tunnel Systems

Storage‐Related Phenomena

Long‐Term Survival of Subsurface Bacteria
Toxicity Testing in Soil, Use of Microbial and Enzymatic Tests
Authors: Pell Mikael , Torstensson Lennart
Published: November 2003

The Soil Microbial Ecosystem

Soil Quality

Soil Test Data—A Comprehensive Picture

Microbial And Enzymatic Tests

Screening and Testing of Chemicals and Metals

International Guidelines

Testing Effects On Soil Quality

Monitoring Long‐Term Changes in Soil Quality

Important Remarks On Soil Testing

Conclusion
Bioluminescence, Methodology
Authors: Contag Pamela
Published: November 2003

In Vivo Biophotonic Imaging

Methodology
Chemical Weapons, Biodegradation of
Authors: Chen Wilfred , Mulchandani Ashok , Defrank Joseph
Published: November 2003

Mustard Gas

OP Nerve Agents
Bioterrorism
Authors: Sheeran Timothy J.
Published: November 2003

History of biological warfare

Biological agent characteristics

Dispersion methods

Agroterrorism: The biological threat to plants and animals

Environmental sampling

Combating bioterrorism
Compost: Biodegradation of Toxic Organic Compounds
Authors: Dosoretz Carlos G. , Mandelbaum Raphi , Hadar Yitzhak
Published: November 2003

Principles of Composting

Application of Compost for the Detoxification of Toxic Organic Compounds

Degradation of Petroleum Products

Degradation of Halogenated Compounds

Degradation of Pesticides

Degradation of Explosives

The Fate of Organic Pollutants During Composting
Human Caliciviruses: Basic Virology and Epidemiology
Authors: Meschke John S. , Sobsey Mark D.
Published: November 2003

Historical Background

General Characterization of NLVs and Sapporo‐Like Viruses (SLVs)

Genomic Organization

Taxonomy of Human and other Caliciviridae

Methods of Detection

Clinical Symptoms and Diagnosis

Pathogenesis

Immunity

Control and Prevention

Epidemiology
Filamentous Bacteria in Activated Sludge: Current Taxonomic Status and Ecology
Authors: Kämpfer Peter , Wagner Michael
Published: November 2003

Methods for the Detection of Filamentous Bacteria Involved in Sludge Bulking or Foaming

Isolation and Cultivation of Filamentous Bacteria Involved in Sludge Bulking or Foaming

Taxonomy of Filamentous Bacteria Causing Foaming and Bulking Problems in the Activated Sludge Process

Filaments Affiliated with the β‐Subclass of the Proteobacteria

Filaments Affiliated with the γ‐Subclass of Proteobacteria

Flexibacter Cytophaga BacteroidesCluster

ChloroflexusSubdivision

Other Filamentous Organisms
Hydrostatic Pressure: Effect on Microbial Inactivation and Food Preservation
Authors: Ray Bibek
Published: November 2003

Inactivation of Bacterial Cells

Inactivation of Bacterial Endospores

Inactivation of Other Microorganisms
Nosocomial Infections
Authors: Mota Patricia De Q. F. , Edberg Stephen C.
Published: November 2003

Definitions

Incidence

Historical Background and Trends in Microbiology of Nosocomial Infections

Risk Factors for Nosocomial Infections

Special Patients and Nosocomial Infections

Prognosis

Environment and Nosocomial Infections

Prevention and Control Measures
Salmonellain Aquatic Environments
Authors: Borrego Juan J. , Castro Dolores , Figueras Ma José
Published: November 2003

Taxonomic Position ofSalmonella

The Role ofSalmonellain Human Infection

Importance ofSalmonellain Water Environments

Water Treatment andSalmonella

Survival ofSalmonellain Aquatic Environments

Waterborne Outbreaks Caused bySalmonella

Salmonellain Shellfish

Detection and Enumeration Methods
Cholera
Authors: Huq Anwar , Lipp Erin , Colwell Rita
Published: November 2003

History of Cholera

The Pathogen,V. cholerae

Genetic Transfer in the Environment and Emergence of Toxigenic Strains

Environmental and Climate Modeling–Based Approaches to Predicting Outbreaks

Current Status and Future Directions
Nitrogen Fixation in Soils (Symbiotic)
Authors: Graham Peter , Vance Carroll
Published: November 2003

The Importance of Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation in Soil

The Legume‐Rhizobial Symbiosis

The Actinorhizal‐FrankiaSymbiosis
Rhizosphere Microbiology
Authors: Bell‐Perkins Lawrence J. , Lynch James M.
Published: November 2003

The Rhizosphere; a Definition

The Benefits of the Rhizosphere

Factors Influencing the Rhizosphere

The Future of Rhizosphere Science
Biofouling: Chemical Control of Biofouling in Water Systems
Authors: Cloete T. Eugene , Brözel Volker S.
Published: November 2003

Biocides

Factors Affecting Efficacy of Treatment Programs
Desert Environments: Soil Microbial Communities in Hot Deserts
Authors: Kieft Thomas L.
Published: November 2003

Soil Water Potential

Desert Soil Microbial Abundance

Spatial and Temporal Distributions

Diversity of Desert Soil Microbes

Adaptations to Desert Soil Conditions

Practical Applications
Bioremediation: Aquatic Ecosystems
Authors: Baker K. H.
Published: November 2003

Overview of Bioremediation

Aquatic Environments

Bioremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Aquatic Environments
Pulp and Paper Industry: Microbiological Aspects of
Authors: Burnes Todd
Published: November 2003

Wood Degradation and Biological Pulping and Bleaching
Spa and Hot Tub Microbiology
Authors: Stewart Mic H.
Published: November 2003

Operational Parameters of Spas and Hot Tubs

Microbial Loading in Hot Tub and Spa Water

Waterborne Illness Associated with Spas and Hot Tubs

Microbial Persistence in Aquatic Environments

Health Guidelines for Spas and Hot Tubs
Astroviruses
Authors: Matsui Suzanne M. , Herrmann John E.
Published: November 2003

Classification

Epidemiology and clinical disease

Reservoirs

Detection, occurrence, and persistence
Soil Microorganisms: Role in Biodegradation
Authors: Turco Ron
Published: November 2003

The Soil Structure

Microorganisms in Soil

Soil Microbiology and Contamination

Physiological Principles and the Underlying Biodegradation Reactions
Fungal Contaminants
Authors: Yang Chin S.
Published: November 2003

What Are Fungi?

Fungi in the Indoor Environment

Health Effects

Assessment and Investigation

Prevention and Control
Mycorrhizae: Arbuscular Mycorrhizae
Authors: Allen Michael F.
Published: November 2003

What is an Arbuscular Mycorrhiza?

Basic Structure/Functioning for an Individual Plant

Scaling and Community and Ecosystem Effects

Mycorrhizae and Other Soil Organisms
Mycorrhizae: Ectomycorrhizal Fungi
Authors: Molina Randy , Caldwell Bruce A. , Castellano Michael A. , Horton Thomas , Smith Jane E.
Published: November 2003

Host–Fungus Associations

Structure and Function

Ecology of Ectomycorrhizae

Ecosystem Functions

Physiology

Practical Applications in Forestry
Virus Survival in Soils
Authors: Yates Marylynn V.
Published: November 2003

Temperature

Microbial Activity

Soil Moisture Content

pH

Salt Species and Concentration

Virus Adsorption to Soil

Aggregation of Virus Particles

Soil Properties

Virus Type

Organic Matter

Hydraulic Conditions

Mechanisms of Virus Sorption

The Role of the Gas–Liquid Interface
Viable but not Culturable (VBNC) Microorganisms
Authors: Koch Arthur L.
Published: November 2003

The Concept of the Viable but non Culturable (VBNC) Cell

The Reality of the VBNC Phenomenon

Other Cases of Organisms ‘Choosing’ not to Grow Maximally

Still Other Kinds of Lethal Processes

The Different kinds of Bacterial Death
Granules (Anaerobic) and Granulation Processes in Biosolids
Authors: Zheng Dandan , Raskin Lutgarde
Published: November 2003

Microbial Composition of Anaerobic Granules

Structure of Granular Sludge

Granulation Processes

Start‐up Procedures for Reactors That Utilize Granular Sludge
Bacteriophage: Biology and Genetics
Authors: Dowd Scot E.
Published: November 2003

Terminology

Taxonomy

Structure and Pathogenesis

Pathogenesis

Basic Genetics of RNA and DNA Phage
Archaea in Biotechnology
Authors: Cowan D. A. , Burton S. G.
Published: November 2003

Archaeal Phylogenetics

Archaeal Diversity

Uncultured Archaea

Accessing Uncultured Genomes

Archaeal Genome Sequences

Fermentation and Production

Products of Archaea

Archaeal Processes
Hydrothermal Vents: Biodiversity in Deep‐Sea Hydrothermal Vents
Authors: Takai Ken , Fujiwara Yoshihiro
Published: November 2003

Invertebrate‐Associated Microbial Populations

Microbial Communities in Low‐Temperature Habitats

Microbial Communities in High‐Temperature Habitats
Biosurfactants: Types, Screening Methods, and Applications
Authors: Bodour Adria A. , Maier Raina M.
Published: November 2003

Definition of Biosurfactants and Bioemulsifiers

Types of Biosurfactants and Bioemulsifiers

Screening for Surfactant and Emulsification Activities

Industrial and Biotechnology Applications
Insecticides, Microbial
Authors: Candas Mehmet , Bulla Lee A.
Published: November 2003

Production Technology

Safety and Specificity

Efficacy

Viruses

Fungi

Protozoa

Bacteria

Bacillus Thuringiensis

Cry Toxins

Cry Toxin Receptors

Insect Resistance to Microbial Insecticides

Sustainable Agriculture, Health, and Environment
Toxicity of Organic Solvents to Microorganisms
Authors: Isken Sonja , Heipieper Hermann J.
Published: November 2003

Effects of Solvents on Microorganisms

Adaptation of Microorganisms to Organic Solvents

Adaptation Mechanisms

Role of General Stress Response
Snow and Ice Environments
Authors: Fritsen Christian H.
Published: November 2003

Snow

Glacial Ice

Ice Covers on Lakes

Ecophysiology of Ice and Snow Environments
Sorption Properties of Biofilms
Authors: Flemming Hans‐Curt , Leis Andrew
Published: November 2003

Sorption Sites in Biofilms

Sorption of Water, Metals, Organic Substances, and Particles

Remobilization
Microorganisms in Soil: Factors Influencing Their Activity
Authors: Stotzky Guenther
Published: November 2003

Microhabitats in Soil

Factors
Lipid Biomarkers in Environmental Microbiology
Authors: Tunlid Anders
Published: November 2003

The Diversity of Microbial Lipids

Lipids as Biomarkers

Procedures

Applications in Environmental Microbiology
Paleolimnology: Subfossil Algae Other than Diatoms and Chrysophytes
Authors: Shumate Byron C. , Crisman Thomas L.
Published: November 2003

Analytical Methods

Paleoecological Applications of Algal Subfossil Taxa
Water Fungi as Decomposers in Freshwater Ecosystems
Authors: Gessner Mark O. , Van Ryckegem Gunther
Published: November 2003

An Overview of Fungal Systematics

Diversity, Distribution and Dispersal

The Mycelial Growth Form

Sources of Organic Matter

Leaf Litter Decomposers in Streams

Wood Decomposers in Streams

Decomposers in Freshwater Marshes
Artificial Neural Networks for Physicians: A Technology Introduction
Authors: Rodvold David M. , McLeod David G. , Brandt Jeffrey M. , Snow Peter B. , Murphy Gerald P.
Published: November 2003

Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are the sole successfully deployed artificial intelligence (AI) applications that attempt to mimic the activities of the human brain and how it physically operates. The “artificial” in artificial neural nets is included to distinguish the computer‐based systems from their biological counterparts. ANNs have become very common in a broad set of problem domains including medical, industrial, and financial applications. Within urology, the 1994 seminal paper by Snow et al. established ANNs as a significant predictive technology in the prostate cancer arena. ANNs are well‐established computational models, with research dating to the 1940s.

Within AI, ANNs are generally contrasted with knowledge‐based systems (also known as expert systems). Expert systems use a somewhat contrived structure composed of explicit knowledge rules, while ANNs provide a reasonably faithful representation of biological neural systems. ANNs are generally easier to construct than knowledge‐based systems, but the simple rule structure of knowledge‐based systems provides a more traceable chain of logic from the input to output.

There are a large number of different types of ANNs that computer science researchers apply to various problem types. However, one particular type of ANN architecture has emerged as the de facto standard in practice—the so‐called “feedforward” network, which is described in detail below. Other types of networks that the reader may encounter will generally be some sort of a geometric construct, such as probabilistic neural networks or Kohonen networks. Probabilistic neural networks use a “nearest‐neighbor” approach, where prospective cases are associated with the closest case that was available during network construction. Kohonen networks are a clustering technique, where similar cases are identified as being members of the same group. This document does not address these more esoteric constructs, rather it focuses on the ubiquitous feedforward networks. An interested reader can find detailed information on various ANN paradigms in Lawrence or Wasserman.