bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Technology and Phonetics
Authors: Hincks Rebecca
Published: December 2012

Sound cannot be studied methodically unless it can be captured in some way, and so from the phonograph to the tape recorder to the computer, the development of new technologies has facilitated the study of phonetics. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine studying phonetics without technology. Other entries in this encyclopedia discuss the topics of acoustic phonetics, speech analysis software, automatic speech recognition, text‐to‐speech synthesis, and computer‐assisted pronunciation teaching. This entry will thus simply provide an overview of the position of technology in phonetics.
Technology and Phrases
Authors: Philip Gill
Published: December 2012

Like many linguistics terms, “phrase” also has a nontechnical use in the general language.
Technology and Teaching Writing
Authors: Bloch Joel
Published: December 2012

Writing teachers aim to prepare their students to meet future writing demands both in and outside of academia.
Online Intercultural Exchanges
Authors: O'Dowd Robert
Published: December 2012

Online intercultural exchange (henceforth OICE) refers to the application since the early 1990s of online communication tools to bring together classes of language learners in geographically distant locations with the aim to develop their foreign language skills and intercultural competence through collaborative tasks and project work.
Tense and Aspect
Authors: Bardovi‐Harlig Kathleen
Published: December 2012

The term “tense and aspect” actually includes three terms,tense,grammatical aspect, andlexical aspect.
Technology and Terminology
Authors: Bowker Lynne , Fisher Des
Published: December 2012

Terminology is the discipline concerned with the collection, processing, description, and presentation of terms, which are lexical items used to designate concepts belonging to a specialized subject field.
Terralingua
Authors: Maffi Luisa
Published: December 2012

Terralingua (
www.terralingua.org
) is an international nongovernmental organization (NGO) founded in 1996. It is the world's first organization with a mission to sustain the biocultural diversity of life—our invaluable global heritage of biological, cultural, and linguistic diversity.
Bias in Language Assessment
Authors: Elder Catherine
Published: December 2012

The study of bias in language assessment (as in other areas of educational measurement) is bound up with notions of fairness or disadvantage affecting particular groups of test takers.
Test Design and Retrofit
Authors: Fulcher Glenn
Published: December 2012

All defensible test design presupposes a clear and unambiguous statement of the test purpose.
Test Specifications
Authors: Davidson Fred
Published: December 2012

A test specification (“spec”) is a generative blueprint for test items or tasks from which many equivalent test items or tasks can be produced.
Testing in Pragmatics Research
Authors: Roever Carsten
Published: December 2012

It may seem contradictory to talk about “testing” in the context of “research”: after all, testing in a narrow sense is usually done to collect evidence for real‐world decisions and involves stakes for all parties involved in the process, and tests therefore need to be based on a carefully designed interpretive validity argument (Messick, 1989; Kane, 2006; Bachman & Palmer, 2010), which in itself requires a fairly extensive research program. However, testing in a simpler sense is the measurement of the strength of an attribute, which does not necessarily have to be the basis for a high‐stakes decision. Rather, it might be undertaken to answer a research question; for example, to evaluate the effectiveness of an instructional intervention intended to improve learners’ knowledge or skills, trace learners’ development in language abilities over time, or compare participants with each other who differ in theoretically interesting background variables, such as proficiency level, gender, native language, or study‐abroad experience.
Tests
Authors: Grant Leslie
Published: December 2012

Tests are used in applied linguistics research to measure variables of interest to researchers. A test is “a particular type of measurement that focuses on eliciting a specific sample of performance” (Bachman, 2004, p. 9). Test tasks “elicit performance from which we can make the inferences we want to make” (p. 9). Language ability is one, but not the only, variable of interest in applied linguistics research, and therefore, language testing is a critical area of concern. Because language ability, like all constructs, cannot be seen directly, test takers demonstrate their linguistic abilities by observable choices, words, and actions. These choices, words, and actions are taken as evidence of the ability in question; thus, every test score is the result of the process of inference whereby observed performance is interpreted as indicative of the test takers’ level of ability on the construct measured. Researchers who use test scores in their own studies often count on proficiency tests that have been developed for educational purposes, but in many cases, they need to develop their own tests in order to measure the specific construct that they intend to study.
Term Banks
Authors: Thomsen Hanne Erdman
Published: December 2012

According to the international standard ISO 1087–2:2000, a term bank is a “data bank containing terminological data,” i.e., “data related to concepts or their designations.” It contains terminology relevant to one or more subject fields, and can thus be compared to a dictionary of (some) language for special purposes. Term banks are maintained in the context of an institutionalized organization such as a government agency or a department of a major company.
Thibault, Paul
Authors: O'Halloran Kay L.
Published: December 2012

Paul J. Thibault (b. 1953) has a distinguished research background in general and applied linguistics in areas relating to the sociocultural and biological‐physical dimensions of human meaning‐making activity, which he has developed into a transdisciplinary field of knowledge involving social semiotics, cognitive science, psychology, biology, and complex dynamical systems theory.
Third Language Acquisition
Authors: Cenoz Jasone
Published: December 2012

Is it the same to acquire a second language or a third language? Does the second language play a role in third language acquisition? Are we more expert learners if we have already learned a second language? These are fascinating questions taking into account that multilingualism is spread all over the world. This entry discusses the issues examined in third language acquisition research in order to answer these questions. The entry has three sections. In the first section the scope and focus of this research area are defined. The second section gives an idea of the different situations in which a third language or an additional language is learned. In the third section some of the main findings are discussed.
Transcribing Multimodal Interaction
Authors: Sissons Helen
Published: December 2012

In appreciating what is involved in transcribing multimodal interactions, the researcher must first understand what constitutes multimodal data.
Technology and Translation
Authors: Bowker Lynne , Fisher Des
Published: December 2012

The application of technology to translation got off to an early but inauspicious start in the post‐World War II period, when initial attempts were made to develop fully automatic high‐quality machine translation systems intended to replace translators. Researchers learned, however, that translation was a highly complex task consisting of more than simply word‐for‐word substitution. Contextual, pragmatic, and real‐world information proved very difficult to program, and attention has since shifted to finding ways in which computer tools can assist, rather than replace, professional translators. Indeed, in our current fast‐paced, globalized, and information‐thirsty society, the use of technology by translators is no longer a luxury but a necessity if they are to meet escalating market demands for the speedy delivery of high‐quality texts in many languages.
Translation and Interpreting and Bilingualism
Authors: Angelelli Claudia V.
Published: December 2012

Translation and interpreting are deeply interconnected with bilingualism. Without high degrees of bilingualism, neither translation nor interpreting is feasible. This does not mean, however, that either translation or interpreting is a by‐product of bilingualism. Rather it means that high attainment in bilingualism is a precondition for highly proficient translation/interpreting. The relationship between language ability, types of bilingualism, and translation/interpreting performance has not been sufficiently researched.
Translation Tools
Authors: Dunne Keiran J.
Published: December 2012

In the wake of the digital revolution and the advent of the knowledge economy, the concept of “tool” has expanded beyond its traditional meaning of an implement for performing or facilitating mechanical operations to encompass specialized software applications that help users accomplish specific tasks on computers. In this way, translation‐specific applications are typically referred to as “translation tools.” More than mere jargon, this usage underscores the commonalities between specialized software applications and their mechanical forebears: Both are operated by people; both are designed to facilitate specific tasks; and both are only as good as their operators. This entry offers an overview of translation tools, the problems they have been designed to solve, the ways in which they have evolved, and their limitations, with a focus on their primary components: terminology management and translation memory.
Translators' Code of Ethics
Authors: Arrojo Rosemary
Published: December 2012

Every translation promises to represent the original in a different linguistic and cultural environment, and often in a different time. The complex process that makes it seem possible necessarily raises questions regarding the propriety of the translator's performance. How does a translation do justice to the original? What should the translator do in order to produce a faithful translation? How should the domestic and the foreign relate to one another? In fact, it would be practically impossible to address either the theory or the practice of translation—on any level, in any context, for whatever purpose—without at the same time invoking some kind of implicit or explicit code of ethics that should guide translators and reassure us about the legitimacy of their activity.
Trimble, Louis
Authors: Tarone Elaine
Published: December 2012

Louis Preston Trimble (1917–88) was a leader of the American “Washington School” of rhetorically based research on English for science and technology (EST). EST mostly concerns English‐medium scientific and technical writing focused on facts and hypotheses about facts, and includes journal articles, teaching textbooks, and technical manuals (Trimble, 1985, pp. 5–6). The Washington School was a group of scholars at the University of Washington in Seattle between 1967 and 1988 who were then considered “the only serious and influential” group in the USA working on EST (Swales, 1985, p. 58). Trimble led this group in the development of the “grammatical‐rhetorical” approach, which fundamentally assumed that in researching scientific and technical language use, it is not sufficient to identify grammatical forms in isolated sentences; rather, it is important to identify the relationships between such grammatical forms and their rhetorical function in the discourse. Discourse is here defined as a collection of connected sentences and paragraphs that together make up a coherent, cohesive text. The “grammatical‐rhetorical” EST researcher aims to study the rhetorical organization and functional content of EST discourse as well as its “rhetorical‐grammatical” relationships—for example, the way tense markers function in such rhetorical devices as defining, classifying, describing, or evaluating information (Trimble, 1985).
Turell, Maria Teresa
Authors: Spassova Maria S.
Published: December 2012

In many countries around the world forensic linguistics is a well‐established discipline, which seeks to describe the existing interplay between language and law.
Universal Grammar and Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Parodi Teresa
Published: December 2012

This entry will introduce universal grammar (UG) with respect to second language (L2) acquisition. It will first deal with the notion of UG and how it works in the adult language and in the acquisition of the first language (L1) before turning to the acquisition of an L2.
Using Metalanguage in Teaching
Authors: Basturkmen Helen
Published: December 2012

The term
metalanguage
, or “language about language” (Berry, 2005, p. 3), is used increasingly in the language teaching literature.
Using the First Language and Code Switching in Second Language Classrooms
Authors: Arnett Katy
Published: December 2012

The place of learners' first language (L1) in the second and foreign‐language (SL/FL) classroom has evolved along with the methods of language teaching.
Validation of Language Assessments
Authors: Cumming Alister
Published: December 2012

The validation of a language assessment involves, most simply, gathering compelling evidence that the assessment does what it claims to do. Expectations for effective validation, however, have become increasingly complex, sophisticated, and demanding in recent decades.
van Leeuwen, Theo
Authors: Djonov Emilia
Published: December 2012

Theo van Leeuwen (1947– ) is a cofounder, alongside Gunther Kress, of multimodality as a discipline within applied linguistics, education, and media and cultural studies.
Variables
Authors: Gass Susan M.
Published: December 2012

Why are variables important? Variables identify ideas in research studies in terms of their roles, their definitions, and their measurement.
Varieties of English in South America
Authors: Rajagopalan Kanavillil
Published: December 2012

Made up of 12 sovereign states and 3 major territories, the continent of South America belongs to the “expanding circle” insofar as the worldwide ascendancy of English as an international language is concerned.
Varieties of English in the Caribbean
Authors: Nero Shondel
Published: December 2012

The varieties of English spoken in the Anglophone Caribbean today reflect the linguistic contributions of the English‐speaking explorers and settlers who exported the language from the British homeland to the region in the early 16th century, as well as the range of peoples that have inhabited the region for the past 400 years, either by birth (indigenous Amerindians) or forced transplantation through slavery, indentureship, or both (e.g., Africans from West Africa, Indians from India, etc.).
Varieties of World Englishes
Authors: Bolton Kingsley
Published: December 2012

Over the last thirty years, the term “World Englishes” has been widely used to refer to the localized forms of English found throughout the world, particularly with reference in the Caribbean, West and East Africa, and many parts of Asia. From the early 1980s onwards, in various branches of linguistics, research, and publications on World Englishes have contributed to a paradigm shift in English studies.
Video Documentation and Analysis in Literacy Research
Authors: Green Judith , Bloome David
Published: December 2012

Understanding the use of video documentation and analysis in the study of literacy requires going beyond the procedures and practicalities of the techniques and equipment across disciplines.
Vocabulary Acquisition in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Nation Paul
Published: December 2012

A well‐balanced vocabulary course provides opportunities for acquisition through meaning‐focused input, meaning‐focused output, language‐focused learning, and fluency development.
Vocabulary and Language for Specific Purposes
Authors: Coxhead Averil
Published: December 2012

Language for specific purposes (LSP) can be defined as “the teaching and research of language in relation to the communicative needs of speakers of a second language in facing a particular workplace, academic, or professional context” (Basturkmen & Elder, 2004, p. 672).
Vocabulary and Reading
Authors: Pellicer‐Sánchez Ana
Published: December 2012

Vocabulary and reading are characterized by a reciprocal and mutually supportive relationship. A common way of looking at this relationship has been to focus on the dual direction of its effect (Hu & Nation, 2000).
Voice Quality
Authors: Esling John H.
Published: December 2012

Voice quality refers to the long‐term phonetic characteristics of a person's accent, although the term is also used in a narrower sense for the type of phonation produced in the larynx.
Vygotsky and Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Mahn Holbrook
Published: December 2012

The far‐reaching influence that the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) has had on second language acquisition (SLA) research is reflected in studies which emphasize the important role played by semiotic mediation in social interaction within social, cultural, physical, and historical contexts.
Web‐Based Lexical Resources
Authors: Nakata Tatsuya
Published: December 2012

The Internet offers numerous lexical resources that are useful for teaching, learning, and researching lexis. Useful resources for teachers and learners include online dictionaries, vocabulary support software for reading, word lists, vocabulary tests, vocabulary learning software, corpora, concordancers, vocabulary profilers, guides for teaching and learning vocabulary, and vocabulary quizzes. Researchers will benefit from bibliographies on vocabulary, online articles, and lexical databases. Most resources can be used free of charge, and knowing how to find and use these resources will be valuable for language teachers, students, and researchers.
Williams, Colin H.
Authors: Chríost Diarmait Mac Giolla
Published: December 2012

Colin Williams is currently a research professor in the School of Welsh at Cardiff University (www.cardiff.ac.uk) and has, for many years, been internationally recognized for his expertise in language planning and policy and in the geography of language, in particular the Welsh language.
Wodak, Ruth
Authors: Pérez‐Milans Miguel
Published: December 2012

Ruth Wodak was born in London on July 12, 1950, with Austrian citizenship.
Varieties of English in Asia
Authors: KIRKPATRICK ANDY
Published: December 2012

The earliest contacts between English speakers and Asians led to the emergence of pidgins, as in China (Bolton, 2003).
World Englishes and Assessment
Authors: Lowenberg Peter
Published: December 2012

In tests of English as an international language, the prevailing assumption has long been that the universal target for proficiency in English around the world is the set of norms for Standard English that are accepted and followed by highly educated native speakers of English in the countries of Braj Kachru's Inner Circle (B. Kachru, 1985), particularly Great Britain and the United States.
Writing Development in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Cumming Alister
Published: December 2012

Three reasons may explain why research on second language acquisition has focused primarily on the development of oral rather than written language (as evidenced by contributions to the present volumes and most other related inquiries).
Zipf's Law and Vocabulary
Authors: Sorell C. Joseph
Published: December 2012

In the 1930s, George Kingsley Zipf observed that a few very frequent words make up a very large portion of any text or collection of texts, while the large majority of words occur relatively rarely.
Zone of Proximal Development in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: McCafferty Steven G.
Published: December 2012

At this date the popular educational Zeitgeist has taken the ZPD to be the centerpiece of Vygotsky's theory of mediation with regard to teaching and learning.
Conversation Analysis and Cockpit Communication
Authors: Nevile Maurice
Published: December 2012

Conversation analysis (CA) research on cockpit communication uses audio and video recordings of actual or simulated flights to explore the language and practices by which pilots establish moment‐to‐moment what is happening, who is doing what, who knows what, and what is to be done next, to perform necessary tasks to fly their aircraft.
Conversation Analysis and Design
Authors: Matthews Ben
Published: December 2012

Since the mid‐1980s, the design of various technologies such as user interfaces for photocopiers, surgical monitoring alarms, London Underground control systems, videoconferencing software, and interactive museum exhibits has benefited from investigations informed by conversation analysis (CA). The exemplar studies which form the basis of this entry are best understood as contributions of CA‐informed work, rather than contributions to the discipline of CA.
Conversation Analysis and Dyads, Triads, and More
Authors: Egbert Maria
Published: December 2012

In early sociological work Simmel (1902) first approached the relationship between group size and the possibility of different kinds of affiliation and opposition. Later, Goffman (e.g. 1961) explored how in groups of varying size diverse sorts and degrees of participation are possible. Seminal to later conversation analytic (CA) research has been Goffman's concept of “situation” or “participation framework” as “an environment of mutual moni‐toring possibilities, anywhere within which an individual will find himself accessible to the naked senses of all others who are ‘present’, and similarly find them accessible to him” (Goffman, 1972/1964, p. 63). CA has examined the interactional activities in participation frameworks in which the number of participants is related to the interactional outcome, depending on whether a person is in interaction with another person, in a triad, or in a participation framework with four or more persons.
Conversation Analysis and Prosody
Authors: SZCZEPEK REED BEATRICE
Published: December 2012

The termprosodyhas varying definitions across language‐related disciplines. In conversation analysis (CA) and its linguistic counterpart, interactional linguistics (Selting & Couper‐Kuhlen, 2001), it refers to the “musical” aspects of speech, that is, pitch (intonation and pitch register), loudness, and time (syllable duration, speech rate, rhythm, and pauses); in addition, some writers include voice quality. Another term for prosody that is frequently used in linguistics issuprasegmentals. This term is based on the common linguistic distinction between articulation, which refers to the production of individual sounds orsegments, and those areas of speech production that are above the level of individual sounds, that is, suprasegmental.
Conversation Analysis and Therapy
Authors: Bysouth Don
Published: December 2012

Conversation analysis (CA) as applied to therapy represents an approach to the study of therapeutic interactions (i.e. interactions that involve professional therapists and clients engaged in a wide variety of therapeutic approaches in a diverse range of settings) that might best be regarded as representing a rigorous analytics of the sequentiality of therapeutic actions.
Mediated Discourse Analysis
Authors: Wells Jennifer L. , Wong Fadhil
Published: December 2012

Mediated discourse analysis (MDA), developed by , is a theory of human action.
Conversation Analysis and Repair Organization: Overview
Authors: Fox Barbara A. , Benjamin Trevor , Mazeland Harrie
Published: December 2012

Repairis the cover term for a range of practices, found in all languages that have been studied, by which trouble of all sorts is managed.
Methodological Foundations of Sociocultural Theory
Authors: MAHN HOLBROOK
Published: December 2012

Over the last three and a half decades sociocultural approaches have broadened the scope of and made significant contributions to second language acquisition (SLA) research.
Learner Response Systems in Second Language Teaching
Authors: Cardoso Walcir
Published: December 2012

A learner response system (LRS) consists of a set of software (e.g., a PowerPoint plug‐in) and hardware (a handheld device often referred to as a “clicker” and a receiver that attaches to a computer).
Second Language Acquisition via Second Life
Authors: Milton James
Published: December 2012

Virtual environments such as Second Life offer learners of foreign languages the possibility of extensive language use which has previously only been possible by visits to a foreign country.
Terminology and Data Encoding
Authors: L'Homme Marie‐Claude
Published: December 2012

Terminology is “the study and field of activity concerned with the collection, description, processing and presentation of terms”. A term can be defined as a lexical unit that conveys a specialized meaning (a meaning that is related to a field of knowledge, such as accounting, biology, computer science, history, or physics). Terminology shares many characteristics with lexicography, but has developed over the years as a separate field of activity and produces its own descriptions. Terminological descriptions can appear in specialized dictionaries (in printed or electronic form), large term banks, or in—house terminological databases.
Mc
K
ay,
S
andra
L
ee
Authors: Hornberger Nancy H.
Published: December 2012

Sandra Lee McKay (1945– ), professor emeritus at San Francisco State University and currently visiting professor of applied linguistics at Hawai'i Pacific University in Honolulu, has led and mentored in the field of language teaching internationally for more than 40 years.
Depth of Vocabulary Knowledge
Authors: Webb Stuart
Published: December 2012

Depth of vocabulary knowledge refers to how well words are known. Developing vocabulary depth typically involves the accumulation of knowledge through encountering and using words in a variety of different contexts in order to learn the forms, meanings, and uses of words.
Generalizability Theory in Language Testing
Authors: Gebril Atta
Published: December 2012

Reliability investigation in educational measurement, and consequently in language assessment, primarily focuses on estimating the consistencies and inconsistencies in test scores.
Second Language Word Diffi culty
Authors: Laufer Batia
Published: December 2012

To understand why some words are easy and some are difficult for second language learners, we should first clarify what is meant by knowing a word.
Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Authors: Gu Yongqi
Published: December 2012

Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) are intuitively appealing to teachers and learners. This is partly due to the difficulty and conspicuousness associated with vocabulary in language learning. Learners of a foreign language are confronted with vocabulary learning right from the very beginning; and it is a never‐ending task. It is, therefore, practically useful and theoretically interesting to study the ways students go about learning vocabulary and to find out the effectiveness of various strategies.
Kachru, Braj B.
Authors: Nelson Cecil L.
Published: December 2012

Braj B. (Behari) Kachru was born in Srinagar, Kashmir, India, in 1932. “Kachru,” by the way, is an Englishization of his name, which is from the Kashmiri word
katsur
, “brown.” His family are Pandits (from Sanskrit
pandit
, “learnèd man, scholar”); that is, he is by heritage as well as by inclination a seeker after rational explanations and a willing instructor of willing students.
Kumaravadivelu, B.
Authors: Hasbany Lynn
Published: December 2012

Nobody who enters Professor Kumaravadivelu's office can miss the huge, colorful world map that hangs on the wall behind his desk. It is not the Mercator map that most of us are familiar with since elementary school. This map, drawn by the German cartographer Arno Peters, projects a different view of the world. This view seeks to correct the Eurocentric bias by not making Europe the center of the world; instead the equator is placed at center view and the other areas are sized proportionately. “Start seeing the world differently”, Kumaravadivelu never tires of telling his inquisitive visitors.
Conversation Analysis and Ethnomethodology
Authors: Have Paul Ten
Published: December 2012

There can be hardly any doubt that ethnomethodology has been a major influence in the emergence of conversation analysis (CA) as a unique perspective in the human sciences. Gradually, however, the two seem to have drifted apart. The current situation is ambiguous: For some of its practitioners, CA is still part of the ethnomethodological movement, while many others treat it as an independent pursuit. This entry will provide a summary characterization of ethnomethodology with a focus on its research practices and a consideration of its relation to CA.
Pragmatics: Overview
Authors: González‐Lloret Marta
Published: December 2012

Pragmatics may be defined as “the study of language use” (Levinson, 1983, p. 5); however, such a simple definition hardly reveals what the field really encompasses and it may be more productive to describe the range of phenomena studied within the domain of pragmatics (Levinson, 1983). Such a description would have been easier to develop 30 years ago than it is now, since the boundaries of the area of pragmatics have grown to intersect with disciplines such as linguistics, sociology, discourse analysis, conversation analysis, philosophy of language, anthropology, cognitive psychology, human‐computer communication, computer‐mediated communication, bilingual/multilingualism, ethnography of communication, and first and second language acquisition.
Conversation Analysis: Overview
Authors: Mortensen Kristian , Wagner Johannes
Published: December 2012

Conversation analysis (CA) is a data‐driven research methodology, which studies the organization of naturally occurring social interactions, as they occur in real time.
Lexis: Overview
Authors: Wolter Brent
Published: December 2012

Lexis is a growing field, and one that has clearly found a permanent place in applied linguistics.
Multimodal Communication: Overview
Authors: Norris Sigrid
Published: December 2012

There is an increasing interest among academics, professionals and students in the role of image, gesture, gaze and posture, and the use of space in representation and communication—in other words, multimodality. (Jewitt, 2009, p. 1)
Culture and Context: Overview
Authors: RISAGER KAREN
Published: December 2012

Large parts of structural and functional linguistics have been developed and practiced without any reference to the role of language in culture and society. In applied linguistics, in contrast, the separation between language and culture is not possible because the very purpose of applied linguistics is to investigate the interface between language practices and other cultural and social practices in the real world, whether the primary aim is improvement or critique of existing practices. Thus the whole of applied linguistics can be said to be oriented toward an interest in language in relation to culture and context. For a comprehensive conceptual analysis of the relationship between language and culture in a historical and transnational perspective.
Analysis of Discourse and Interaction: Overview
Authors: JONES RODNEY H.
Published: December 2012

When we speak of the study of discourse and interaction, we are mostly concerned with the analysis of synchronous conversation as opposed to written texts, although we might also consider text‐based computer‐mediated communication. This is not to say that writing is not interactive: people write letters to each other and, more recently, engage in asynchronous written interaction through blogs and social networking sites. The focus of the analysis of discourse and interaction, however, has traditionally been on “real‐time ”interaction in which participants are temporally copresent (though they may be spatially distant) and jointly engaged in some kind of social action. Examples include face‐to‐face interactions of various kinds (from religious rituals to casual conversations), telephone conversations, video conferences, chat and instant messaging sessions, and the interaction between avatars in online games or in virtual worlds. Discourse analysts are chiefly concerned with how parties in interaction work together to construct their social identities, their social relationships and their social realities moment by moment through language.
Cognitive Second Language Acquisition: Overview
Authors: Williams John , Gullberg Marianne
Published: December 2012

Cognitive approaches to second language acquisition are characterized by an interest in how the human mind deals with language in learning; in what language learners know and how they use that knowledge in speaking and understanding.
Critical Discourse Analysis: Overview
Authors: Lin Angel
Published: December 2012

Critical discourse analysis (CDA) as a young discipline has a history of only about three decades.
Language Ideology: Overview
Authors: Friedrich Patricia
Published: December 2012

Ralph Waldo Emerson once said, “Language is a city to the building of which every human being brought a stone.” With each stone we bring, we also carry a bit of our identity, our convictions, and ourselves. So building this city is not always the tidy process one might expect it to be.
Multimodal Literacy
Authors: Lancaster Lesley
Published: December 2012

The terms “multimodality” and “literacy” have been associated as part of a critique of conventional accounts of literacy, reviewing traditional associations between spoken language and writing.
Teaching English as a Foreign Language to Students With Specific Learning Differences
Authors: Kormos Judit
Published: December 2012

In our globalized world, proficiency in another language is often as important as other basic competencies such as literacy and arithmetic skills. Therefore, it is of great importance that students who have special educational needs receive assistance not only in basic academic skills but also in learning foreign/second languages (L2). Providing these language learners with adequate support is especially imminent in the case of English, which has become an international language, and which is a foreign language most frequently taught in many countries of the world.
Anion‐Doped Mixed Metal Oxide Nanostructures Derived from Layered Double Hydroxide as Visible Light Photocatalysts
Authors: Cho Seungho , Jang Ji‐Wook , Kong Ki‐jeong , Kim Eun Sun , Lee Kun‐Hong , Lee Jae Sung
Published: December 2012

Mixed metal oxide (MMO) nanostructures co‐doped uniformly by carbon and nitrogen are synthesized for the first time by annealing a terephthalate‐intercalated layered double hydroxide (LDH) under ammonia gas flow. The interlayer gallery of LDH allows effective access of NH3 and the carbon source to its crystal lattice for a uniform nitrogen and carbon doping. Such co‐doped MMO exhibit significantly red‐shifted absorption spectra to visible light region relative to pure MMO. Photoelectrochemical water oxidation and incident‐photon‐to‐current‐conversion efficiency of LDH‐derived photocatalysts demonstrate that all the visible light absorption caused by the anion doping contributes to the photocatalytic activity over the entire absorbed wavelength range of <610 nm. Density functional theory calculations of electronic structures are performed to elucidate the possibility of bandgap narrowing upon nitrogen and carbon co‐doping on MMO structures.
Tunable Magnonic Spectra in Two‐Dimensional Magnonic Crystals with Variable Lattice Symmetry
Authors: Saha Susmita , Mandal Ruma , Barman Saswati , Kumar Dheeraj , Rana Bivas , Fukuma Yasuhiro , Sugimoto Satoshi , Otani YoshiChika , Barman Anjan
Published: December 2012

Tunable magnonic properties are demonstrated in two‐dimensional magnonic crystals in the form of artificial ferromagnetic nanodot lattices with variable lattice symmetry. An all‐optical time‐domain excitation and detection of the collective precessional dynamics is performed in the strongly magnetostatically coupled Ni80Fe20 (Py) circular dot lattices arranged in different lattice symmetry such as square, rectangular, hexagonal, honeycomb, and octagonal symmetry. As the symmetry changes from square to octagonal through rectangular, hexagonal and honeycomb, a significant variation in the spin wave spectra is observed. The single uniform collective mode in the square lattice splits in two distinct modes in the rectangular lattice and in three distinct modes in the hexagonal and octagonal lattices. However, in the honeycomb lattice a broad band of modes are observed. Micromagnetic simulations qualitatively reproduce the experimentally observed modes, and the simulated mode profiles reveal collective modes with different spatial distributions with the variation in the lattice symmetry determined by the magnetostatic field profiles. For the hexagonal lattice, the most intense peak shows a six‐fold anisotropy with the variation in the azimuthal angle of the external bias magnetic field. Analysis shows that this is due to the angular variation of the dynamical component of magnetization for this mode, which is directly influenced by the variation of the magnetostatic field on the elements in the hexagonal lattice. The observations are important for tunable and anisotropic propagation of spin waves in magnonic crystal based devices.
Layered α‐Co(OH)2 Nanocones as Electrode Materials for Pseudocapacitors: Understanding the Effect of Interlayer Space on Electrochemical Activity
Authors: Wang Lei , Dong Zhi Hui , Wang Zheng Gong , Zhang Feng Xing , Jin Jian
Published: December 2012

The effect of space accessible to electrolyte ions on the electrochemical activity is studied for a system of transition‐metal hydroxide‐based pseudocapacitors. Layered α‐Co(OH)2 with various intercalated anions is used as a model material. Three types of layered α‐Co(OH)2 with intercalated anions of dodecyl sulfate, benzoate, or nitrate, are prepared by a simple reflux and an anion‐exchange process. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) observations and X‐ray diffraction (XRD) data show the formation of layered α‐Co(OH)2 nanocones with interlayer spacing between adjacent Co(OH)2 single sheets of 1.6, 0.7, and 0.09 nm, corresponding to the anions as listed above. Electrochemical characterization reveals that interlayer space has a great effect on the electrochemical activity of α‐Co(OH)2 nanocones as an electrode material. For the interlayer spacing of 1.6 nm, in the case of dodecyl sulfate‐intercalated α‐Co(OH)2, the Faradaic reaction takes place more adequately than for benzoate‐ and nitrate‐intercalated α‐Co(OH)2. As a result, a higher specific capacitance and better cycling stability is obtained for the dodecyl sulfate‐intercalated α‐Co(OH)2. The electrochemical activity obviously reduces when the interlayer space decreases to 0.7 nm. Our results suggest the importance of rational designing the interlayer space of layered transition metal hydroxides for high‐performance pseudocapacitors.
Taxonomy of the Bornean Slow Loris, With New Species Nycticebus kayan (Primates, Lorisidae)
Authors: MUNDS RACHEL A. , NEKARIS K. A. I. , FORD SUSAN M.
Published: December 2012

More species of nocturnal primates are now recognized than in the past, because many are cryptic species. Subtle morphological disparities, such as pelage pattern and color variation, vocal cues, and genetics have aided in elucidating the number of diagnosable species in a genus. The slow lorises (genus Nycticebus) once included only two species, but recent taxonomic studies resulted in the description of three additional species; further incompletely explored variability characterizes each of the currently described species. The Bornean loris in particular is characterized by pelage and body size variation. In this study, we explored facemask variation in the Bornean loris (N. menagensis). Differing facemask patterns, particularly influenced by the amount of white on the face, significantly clustered together by geographic regions, separated by notable geographic boundaries. Our results support the recognition of four species of Bornean lorises: N. menagensis, N. bancanus, N. borneanus, and N. kayan. Genetic studies are required to support these findings and to refine further our understanding of the marked variability within the Bornean loris populations. Am. J. Primatol. 75:46‐56, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Effects of various liquid organic solvents on solvent‐induced crystallization of amorphous poly(lactic acid) film
Authors: Sato Shuichi , Gondo Daiki , Wada Takayuki , Kanehashi Shinji , Nagai Kazukiyo
Published: December 2012

The effects of 60 organic solvent on poly(lactic acid) (PLA) were systematically investigated using the Hansen solubility parameter (HSP). The hydrogen bonding solubility parameter accurately reflects the solubility of PLA films using HSP but it depends on hydrogen bonding, as well as dispersion and polar parameters. The PLA films immersed in organic solvent became cloudy and showed no changes in chemical structure. However, solvent‐induced crystallization of the PLA films was observed. Crystalline structures do not dependent on the organic solvent but on the degree of swelling. The organic solvent‐induced crystallization formed a crystallized mixture of a‐ and β‐forms. The density of the crystalline PLA films was lower than that of amorphous PLA films. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
Boron removal by liquid‐phase polymer‐based retention technique using poly(glycidyl methacrylate N‐methyl D‐glucamine)
Authors: Sánchez Julio , Rivas Bernabé L. , Nazar Eliza , Bryjak Marek , Kabay Nalan
Published: December 2012

The removal of boron was analyzed by liquid‐phase polymer based retention (LPR) technique using washing and enrichment method. The extracting reagents were water‐soluble polymers (WSPs) containing quaternary ammonium salts and N‐methyl‐D‐glucamine (NMG) groups. The removal experiments of boron using the washing method were conducted at 1 bar of pressure by varying pH, polymer:boron molar ratio, and concentrations of interfering ions (chloride and sulfate). The results showed higher retention capacity for boron (60%) at pH 10 with the polymer containing NMG group. The optimal polymer:boron molar ratio was 40 : 1. Selectivity experiments showed that the presence of interfering ions did not affect the boron removal capacity. The maximal boron retention capacity was determined by the enrichment method, obtaining a value of 12 mg B/g‐polymer. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
Resin film infusion: Toward structural composites with nanofillers
Authors: Anand Anoop , Harshe Rahul , Joshi Makarand
Published: December 2012

Resin Film Infusion (RFI) has been used to fabricate composites with continuous unidirectional E‐glass and epoxy with low weight fractions of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in matrix. An ultrasound‐assisted dissolution‐evaporation method with thermoplastics or block copolymers as dispersing agents for nanoparticles enabled uniform dispersion of CNTs in the resin. Rheological characterization of CNT‐filled epoxy revealed that viscosity, and hence processing of the resin remains unaffected as compared to pristine resin at elevated temperatures of subsequent composite manufacturing. Local flow of the modified resin through the sandwiched fabric plies in RFI process as against the global flow in traditional liquid composite molding processes, made sure that uniform distribution of nanoparticles is accomplished throughout the composite. Compressive properties of hybrid composites improved considerably with CNTs at loading fractions as low as 0.2 wt %. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
Preparation of thiolated polyvinyl alcohol hydrogels
Authors: Gupta Bhuvanesh , Anjum Sadiya , Ikram Saiqa
Published: December 2012

The esterification reaction of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) with thioglycolic acid (TGA) in the presence of sulfuric acid as a catalyst offers an attractive route to develop thiolated functional material. During esterification maximum thiol content of 3.9 mmol/g was achieved. It was observed that the esterification is significantly influenced by the reaction conditions, such as TGA concentration, reaction time, reaction temperature and reactant concentration. Sulfuric acid had considerable influence on the thiolation. The thiol content was found to increase with the reaction temperature but showed significant increase beyond 60°C. The swelling decreases with the increasing reaction temperature indicating the role of crosslinking during the thiolation at higher temperature. Suitable conditions for the modification of PVA via thiolation have been investigated. The involvment of thiol group in the PVA matrix was confirmed by ATR‐FTIR spectra. The micro analysis of sulfur in sample by EDX analysis showed the sulphur content of 3.7%. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
Synthesis and properties of highly hydrophilic waterborne polyurethane‐ureas containing various hardener content for waterproof breathable fabrics
Authors: Kim Eun‐Young , Lee Jung‐Hee , Lee Dong‐Jin , Lee Young‐Hee , Lee Jang‐Hun , Kim Han‐Do
Published: December 2012

As part of an ongoing search for highly hydrophilic waterborne polyurethanes for waterproof breathable fabrics, a waterborne polyurethane [waterborne polyurethane‐ureas (WBPU): P70, the number indicates the poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) content] dispersion was synthesized from PEG (70 wt %) and dimethylol propionic acid (14 mol %) as the hydrophilic/ionic components, 4,4′‐diisocyanato dicyclohexylmethane as a diisocyanate, ethylenediamine as a chain extender, and aliphatic tri‐isocyanate as a hardener. To determine the best highly hydrophilic WBPU coatings for waterproof breathable fabrics, this study focused on the effect of the hardener content(0–1.2 wt %) in the WBPU P70 sample on the dynamic thermal mechanical properties, contact angle/surface energy, water swelling, water insolubility, and water vapor transmission rate (WVTR). The contact angle, water swelling, glass transition temperature, modulus, and strength increased with increasing hardener content, whereas the surface energy, water insolubility, and WVTR decreased. Sample P70/0.5 (cured sample containing 0.5 wt % of hardener) showed relatively good dimensional stability in water (high water insolubility), strong hydrophilicity (low‐water contact angle/high‐surface energy/high water absorption), and a high WVTR, highlighting its promising applications in waterproof breathable fabrics. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
The potential of flavonoids as natural antioxidants and UV light stabilizers for polypropylene
Authors: Samper M. D. , Fages E. , Fenollar O. , Boronat T. , Balart R.
Published: December 2012

This article presents a study on the stabilization of polypropylene against thermo‐oxidation and UV radiation by using natural phenolic compounds derived from the structures of flavonoids: a flavone (chrysin), a flavanol (quercetin), two flavanone glycosides (hesperidin and naringin), and flavanoligand (silibinin). Thermal stabilization has been assessed in an oxidizing atmosphere by means of differential scanning calorimetry both in isothermal and in dynamic conditions. In addition, the effectiveness of these phenolic compounds as thermal stabilizers at high temperature has been quantified with the use of thermogravimetric analysis. Stabilization against UV radiation has been estimated by studying the morphology changes of the exposed surfaces by scanning electron microscope (SEM); also, surface chemical changes have been followed by infrared spectroscopy. Global results show that flavonoid compounds of type flavonols (quercetin and silibinin) provide the best results in stabilizing both against oxidation and against the action of UV radiation. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
ChemInform Abstract: Dielectric Properties of a Polar ZnSnO3 with LiNbO3‐Type Structure.
Authors: Inaguma Yoshiyuki , Sakurai Daichi , Aimi Akihisa , Yoshida Masashi , Katsumata Tetsuhiro , Mori Daisuke , Yeon Jeongho , Halasyamani P. Shiv
Published: December 2012

The title compound is synthesized by solid state reaction of a stoichiometric mixture of ZnO and SnO2 (7—8 GPa, 850—1000 °C, 30—60 min).