bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Evaluation in the ODA. A view from the inside
Authors: Browning R.
Published: July 2007

Evaluation is an important part of the project cycle, but it is not confined to projects: any aid‐funded activity can be evaluated. ODA spends about £1/2 million per annum on evaluation (including in‐house staff costs). The policy on evaluation is controlled by the Projects and Evaluation Committee which receives the reports. As the same Committee approves all major new projects there is instant feedback. It is vital that senior management learn recent lessons from experience to supplement their own personal experience which may be out of date. Evaluations need to be done as soon as useful lessons are to be learned—if left too late the findings are likely to have been overtaken by recent changes in ODA procedures. Using outside evaluators brings a welcome element of impartiality. But a balance of in‐house and out‐of‐house evaluators yields the best results. Evaluation reports need to be presented in a systematic way (as appraisals are), and they should be made widely available. Two lessons stand out: the need for in‐depth appraisal and careful monitoring and the importance of good management for successful projects.
Development policy and international administrative relations: The aspect of education and training
Authors: König Klaus
Published: July 2007

Within the framework of administrative co‐operation, transnational arrangements of education and training constitute a delicate activity. Many reverberations of colonial and early post‐colonial times can still be felt in this domain. Nevertheless, the problems of transfer, be it doctrine, technical implementation or practical experience, are still very apparent and will probably continue. This article traces the progress of education and training through post‐colonial history until the present, discusses the merits of the different approaches taken by the most active Western institutions and identifies the major experiences and lessons regarding the various problems of transfer. The debate concentrates on the specific activities and experiences of the most recent programmes offered by the Graduate School of Administrative Sciences in Speyer in co‐operation with the public administration branch of the German Foundation for International Development.
Financing smallholder production: A comparison of individual and group credit schemes in Zimbabwe
Authors: Bratton Michael
Published: July 2007

Credit programmes aimed at individual smallholders in Africa have had disappointing results, particularly with regard to loan repayment. This article enquires whether group lending under terms of joint liability is a more effective approach. Data are derived from the performance of smallholder credit schemes in Zimbabwe in the period 1980–1984. The findings are as follows: (a) access to credit is easier for small farmers if they belong to voluntary agricultural associations; (b) loans issued on terms of joint liability have lower administrative costs; (c) most importantly, joint liability arrangements lead to higher repayment rates than schemes based on individual liability; (d) although joint liability is better enforced by mandatory sanction than by selective incentive, this advantage is offset by a disintegrative effect on farmer organizations. The conclusion is that a policy of group lending is generally more viable than an individual approach, but only in the context of the creation and strengthening of local farmer institutions.
Paradigms of public financial administration in the evolution of papua new guinea
Authors: Hardman D. J.
Published: July 2007

In the evolution of Papua New Guinea from dependent territory to independent entity, public financial administration has experienced a series of changes. Each historical group of changes may be represented by a characteristic paradigm which identifies the nature of the underlying concepts and their essential dynamics in the context of the political, economic and social environment. From the early days of Australian settlement, public financial administration was dominated by the colonial paradigm as the two constituent territories—initially separately and then jointly—relied almost exclusively on Canberra for the provision of funds, supply of expertise and formation of policies. More recently, since national independence, legislative and staffing changes have occurred in public financial administration but there have been no infrastructural innovations in response to current needs and priorities. Australian support of the recurrent budget and other foreign aid have not abated, while the forms and institutions involved in public financial administration continue to reflect strong metropolitan influences which militate against the formation of an indigenous paradigm consonant with national aspirations, development goals and cultural values.
Programme and performance budgeting in Malaysia
Authors: Dean Peter N.
Published: July 2007

This paper reviews the evolution of programme and performance budgeting (PPB) in Malaysia from its beginning in 1969, through the in‐depth implementation phase which began in 1972, to the present day. It outlines the system in the Ministry of Health, where PPB has been extensively developed and comments on the systems established in other in‐depth ministries, in several of which little appears to have been achieved. In 1981 all other agencies were asked to adopt PPB in their budget submissions. Compliance has been superficial. The paper explores the constraints to the further development of PPB. These range from difficulties of securing appropriate staff, lack of top‐level commitment and information problems, to the inherent difficulties of programming and performance measurement. In seeking to evaluate the success of PPB the paper adopts two approaches. The first, involving a small questionnaire survey amongst those involved in PPB, reveals rather guarded opinions concerning its usefulness and progress. The second, which explores the use made of PPB, reveals little use by legislators, budget officers or line managers, and no link between PPB and the planning process. However the audit department expresses considerable interest in relation to performance auditing. In summary the achievements of PPB have been modest.
The contribution of beneficiary participation to development project effectiveness
Authors: Finsterbusch Kurt , Van Wicklin Warren A.
Published: July 2007

Criticism of development projects is widespread, and blame for disappointing results is cast in many directions. One line of criticism which has become quite strong in the recent development literature is that development projects are too top‐down and need to be more bottom‐up (e.g. Maguire, 1981). Projects should involve more participation by beneficiaries. In fact, some would argue that real development, by definition, must involve beneficiaries in their own improvement (e.g. Gran, 1983a,b). Without participation the people may benefit but not develop from a project. Thus participation has intrinsic value.

As the recognition of the value of public, popular, beneficiary, or community participation has increased, so has the range of what is meant by participation. Some authors have expanded the concept to mean empowerment and capacity‐building, sometimes including institution‐building. In this paper we do not attempt to redefine participation per se. but aim instead to make an inventory of the principal concepts that have evolved in the literature so far, elicit a general model of participatory development projects, deduce the central implicit hypotheses from this literature on the relationship between participation and project effectiveness, and statistically test these hypotheses from the empirical evidence provided by AID'S series of 52 Impact Evaluation Reports. Our major question is how much does beneficiary participation contribute to project effectiveness?
Management and training for development: The Hombe thesis
Authors: Reilly Wyn
Published: July 2007

A fundamental reason why public service management in many Third World countries has improved so little, despite significant training inputs, is that the political and bureaucratic elite do not want it to. The ‘Hombe thesis’ is that the elite consists of executives skilled in managing the system to meet their own interests and to preserve the status quo. Further, aid organizations and third parties engaged in management development tend to collude with the elite. Three additional basic problems are explored. First, that of developing a style of management appropriate to the local political and social environment. Second, identifying the actual functions of chief executives in the public service and helping managers to develop expertise in their roles. Third, the difficulties of assessing real managerial training needs rather than expressing desires. The paper concludes with a plea to face the fundamental constraints to effective management and training instead of playing around with subordinate issues.
Government administration in a small microstate: Developing the Cayman Islands
Authors: Kersell John E.
Published: July 2007

The Cayman Islands use some of the increasingly familiar methods of resolving administratively the problems of smallness. The country's development and administrative performance depend on human resources which need to be planned in order to reduce dependence on outsiders, especially among the middle ranks of technical and professional staff. Education and training for the public service in the Cayman Islands is inadequate. Control of the administration is weak, especially among the independent boards and commissions, and there is a need for appeal procedures when the principles of natural justice have been breached. Political manipultion in personnel matters adversely affects performance, and there is a need for an effective civil service association to deal with other abuses. The problems of public administration are solved by scaling down the role of government in favour of private enterprise and against the provision of social welfare.
Decentralization and the implementation of rural development in Senegal: The role of rural councils
Authors: Vengroff Richard , Johnston Alan
Published: July 2007

Decentralization efforts in Francophone African countries are both rarer and far less ambitious than those in Anglophone states. The decentralization programme launched by Senegal over a decade ago is an important exception. Since 1972, when the administrative reform law took effect, Senegal has been engaged in an effort to decentralize its administrative structures in order to promote rural development, to escape from the burdens of the remnants of an overly centralized colonial system and to stem the rising tide of rural opposition(malaise paysan).This new initiative, which led to the creation of local elected councils in rural communities(communautés rurales).has thus far achieved only marginal success. The 319 rural councils suffer from serious under‐financing, and often from domination by administrative authorities, especially thesous‐préféts.Based on an examination of the attitudes. perceptions and behaviour of a sample of rural councillors (n= 144), particularly regarding budgetary matters, it appears that the rural communities in fact provide the possibility for some popular input into local and regional planning.
Mobilization and participation: Singapore in the 1980s
Authors: Hill Dilys M.
Published: July 2007

Singapore is an island state with no formal lower tier of government. The network of consultation and mobilization created after Independence in 1959 is now raising important issues of consensus and compliance. Twenty‐five years of continuous one‐party rule offer opportunities to evaluate the working of the mechanisms of integration and participation. In the late 1980s the highly urbanized, multi‐ethnic society is placing new demands on the government, and questions of decentralization and feedback are high on the political agenda.
Evaluating development assistance: A review of the literature
Authors: Cracknell Basil E.
Published: July 2007

Three phases of development of the subject of evaluation are identified. Up to 1979 it was still in its infancy, with the main impetus coming from the USA (the World Bank and US AID), and from one or two large UN organizations, although the OECD also did some useful work in bringing evaluators together.

The second phase (1979‐1984) saw rapid ‘take‐off’, with greatly increased resources going into evaluation work, and a veritable ‘explosion’ of interest worldwide. All the main donors had by now set up evaluation units and were amassing enough material to begin to ‘synthesize’ the findings. The OECD provided a focus and a forum through its Expert Group on Aid Evaluation.

The third phase, from 1984 onwards, finds the subject having ‘come of age’, its maturity being marked by the publication of major works such as Cassen's Does Aid Work?. The emphasis now is switching from ex‐post evaluation towards improving project design through such techniques as the logical framework.
Administrative reform in developing countries: A comparative perspective
Authors: Jreisat Jamil E.
Published: July 2007

This study investigates administrative reform in seven Arab states, delineates common problems and describes general tendencies via content analysis of official statements. The study deals with reform in three major phases: defining administrative problems and needs; developing strategies for reform; and developing instruments of action for implementation. Appraisal of reform efforts discloses mediocre results based on a poor implementation record attributable to incongruities of methods and objectives of reform. Among such incongruities are the conventional limitations of bureaucracy, the copying of Western administrative rationality in form if not in substance, and insufficient attention paid to traditional, cultural, religious, and political contexts of administration. Recognizing the difficulties involved in conceptualizing and implementing reform in any society, the analysis offers several recommendations to improve the outcome of reform efforts, among them: encouraging employee involvement in reform decisions; improving collected diagnostic data; providing special training for employees responsible for managing reform; soliciting unwavering political commitment; developing incentive systems; and replacing the piecemeal approach with reliance on a systems perspective.
The management of institutional innovation: Lessons from transferring the land grant model to India
Authors: Goldsmith Arthur A.
Published: July 2007

The US and India collaborated on a successful institution building programme in the 1950s and 1960s to develop capacity for agricultural education, research and extension. This paper analyses that process for lessons that might bear on efforts to build similar institutions in other countries. India was an especially favourable environment due to the sophistication of its scientific base, the openness of its leaders to institutional innovation, the presence of public sector enterpreneurs to mobilize support for reform, and a food crisis that made it urgent to find new technology. The US did not fund institutional changes that had little demand in India, but it did influence Indian preferences over the long run by creating several mechanisms to exchange information about the American land grant system. These exchange mechanisms enhanced India's capacity for agricultural science and, less often noticed, contributed to the political support essential to new institutions.
Local government and urban protest in Colombia
Authors: Collins Charles David
Published: July 2007

This article examines how urban conflict in Colombia is highlighting important features of local government in that country. Four interrelated questions are asked: (a) What is the role of local government in the provision of public goods and services in urban communities? (b) To what extent has local government been the target of urban community protest? (c) Has local government taken on a petitioner role by being a participant in urban community protest? (d) Does urban protest threaten the system of political domination of which local government is an integral part? The article points to certain key features of local government in Colombia that may be built upon in order to create a more progressive, democratic and community‐based system of local government. There are, however, powerful political constraints on this occurring.
Learning and not learning from experience in rural project planning
Authors: Hulme David
Published: July 2007

The theme of learning from experience as a means of improving the effectiveness of rural development projects and programmers has been common in recent years. Considerable effort has been put into refining, monitoring and evaluation systems to enhance organizational learning processes. However, an emphasis on normative approaches to evaluation and learning from experience has led to the neglect of research into the actual processes by which rural development agencies utilize experience. The case study presented here points to the shortcomings of such approaches and illustrates the partisan manner in which individuals and organizations treat the lessons of experience. Actively ‘not learning from experience’ is as much a part of organizational processes as learning from experience. This paper examines the implications of this finding and reviews alternative approaches to improving experiential learning in rural development activities. It is found that such a perspective does not generate the innocuous technical prescriptions characteristic of conventional approaches, but a number of useful directions for further research can be identified.
Development management: Plain or fancy? Sorting out some muddles
Authors: Dichter Thomas W.
Published: July 2007

This paper explains why development thinking has been caught up in polemical divisions, and cautions against skipping over a sound, basic approach to development management in favour of more complex approaches which in some cases are premature or inappropriate. While we largely recognize the need for better development management, we have not been clear about how to get it. Instead, symbols have been made out of management models and means confused with ends, techniques with goals. Because, for example, the participation of people in their own growth is valued, it is assumed that Western management models that stress this value can be exported, wholesale, to a far less organized Third World contexta perfect example of confusing techniques with goals. When projects are no longer run on rhetoric, and means confused with ends, the need to choose between management models (such as ‘people‐centred’ versus ‘blueprint’ management) ends. Instead, actual field conditions can be focused on. Actual conditions often demand nuts‐and‐bolts skills first. What is needed (and described here) are straightforward, basic management skills to meet equally straightforward, basic weaknesses in organizational structure. Neither fancy nor fashionable, these basics are the forgotten backbone of development management.
The revival of ‘native administration’ in the Sudan: A pragmatic view
Authors: Elhussein Ahmed Mustafa
Published: July 2007

The basic theme of this paper is to trace the pragmatic attempts of different governments in the Sudan to revive the system of native administration. The need for this revival became clear shortly before the overthrow of Nimeiry's government in April 1985. The approaches to this revival followed two main lines. The first approach adopted piecemeal reforms initiated by individual regional governments before 1986. In the second approach the central government adopted a comprehensive strategy to revive native administration. The implications of these attempts and their expected influence on the new multi‐party system in the Sudan are briefly analysed in this paper. The data for this article was collected by the author while touring the Eastern and Western regions with an ILO project identification team between March and June 1986 as a consultant on local government and popular participation.
Whose wants in ‘needs‐based planning’? Some examples of unwritten agendas from the provincial integrated rural development programmes of Papua New Guinea
Authors: Crittenden Robert , Lea David A. M.
Published: July 2007

The rhetoric of ‘needs’‐based planning requires little refining. What must be questioned and recognized are the values of decision makers and the unwritten agendas of those involved in the planning process. Taking the example of some of the integrated rural development programmes (IRDPs) in Papua New Guinea, this paper looks at the way planners and others cast development and information ‘nets’. These nets abrogate indigenous development processes. The ‘nets’ make it easy for development professionals and others involved in planning to follow unwritten agendas and difficult for target groups to articulate their ‘needs’ and to understand what is going on. It is suggested that these problems are not unique to PNG and may well be relevant to ‘needs based planning’ in other situations.
Integrating blueprint and process: A structured flexibility approach to development management
Authors: Brinkerhoff Derick W. , Ingle Marcus D.
Published: July 2007

Managing socio‐economic development according to highly detailed pre‐implementation plans rigidly applied has not had a high degree of success in generating sustained progress in the world's poorer nations. At the other end of the spectrum is the process approach that avoids specifying targets in advance, and concentrates upon building problem‐solving capacity among the people involved. Many international donor and developing country agencies favour the blueprint model, despite its performance weaknesses, for its control and specificity. The process approach is limited by its lack of fit with agency procedures and incentives. This article discusses a structured flexibility approach to development management that integrates the blueprint model's planned structuring of action with the process model's flexibility and iterative learning orientation. This blend provides the basis for the programmatic and financial accountability required to obtain support from donor and developing country bureaucracies, and facilitates adaptive management to deal with uncertain and changing task environments. Case examples from the Caribbean, Portugal, and Pakistan illustrate the application of the structured flexibility approach.
Public Choice in Melanesia: Community, bureaucracy and the market in land management
Authors: Larmour Peter
Published: July 2007

The relationship between bureaucracy, market and community is a political issue in many countries, for example in debates about privatization or welfare policy. The following article considers how some of the arguments apply in the circumstances of the island South Pacific where community forms of organization have persisted in spite of the introduction of markets and states. Examples are drawn from land management, though similar arguments could be applied to other sectors such as housing or health. The paper deals mainly with the independent Melanesian states (including Fiji). First it looks at the relationship between land ownership and management. Then it defines three kinds of management—by bureaucracies, markets, and communities—in terms of ‘ideal types’, and the triangular relationships between them. Much policymaking about land in Melanesia in the 1970s concerned the relationship between bureaucracy and community. In the 1980s, and since independence, there has been more government concern with another arm of the triangle, between bureaucracy and the market. The relationship between bureaucracy and markets is a theme of the so called ‘public choice’ approach to administrative theory. The article concludes with a discussion of the relevance of ‘public choice’ approaches to management in the Melanesian states.
Rheology of highly filled natural CaCO3 composites. II. Effects of solid loading and particle size distribution on rotational rheometry
Authors: Kaully T. , Siegmann A. , Shacham D.
Published: July 2007

Suspensions of poly(dimethyl siloxane) containing various loadings of natural CaCO3 particles, of several particle size distributions, were studied using capillary rheometry. Highly loaded suspensions were characterized, emphasizing their unique rheological behavior. Shear thinning was observed mainly for suspensions with solid loading close to the maximal volume fraction, significant at low frequency and becoming negligible at 1 decade higher frequency. The Cox‐Merz rule was found valid for suspensions containing up to nearly 40 vol% particles. The viscosity was unaffected by particle size up to roughly 40 vol% particles as well. However, the dominancy of particle size distribution was demonstrated by the relative viscosity; fine filler suspensions exhibited much higher viscosity at a given loading. Equivalently, the maximal solid loading of coarse unimodal and of bimodal particle size distributions was significantly higher than the one of fine unimodal suspensions. Fair agreement with the Chong and Krieger‐Dougherty (k = 2.5) models was found for unimodal suspensions, while the combined Farris‐Chong model showed a much better fit for the bimodal suspensions. A unique behavior of the high volume fraction suspensions is the liquid solid transition that is defined by the crossover of G′ and G″ as function of frequency curves. Nevertheless, tan δ as a function of frequency curves for all studied compositions showed positive slopes, which is characteristic of solid‐like materials. POLYM. COMPOS., 28:524–533, 2007. © 2007 Society of Plastics Engineers
The fracture properties of a smart fiber metal laminate
Authors: Cortes Pedro , Cantwell Wesley J. , Kuang Kevin S. C.
Published: July 2007

This paper investigates the interfacial, tensile, and fatigue properties of a novel smart fiber‐metal laminate (FML) based on a nickel‐titanium (Ni‐Ti) shape memory alloy and a woven glass fiber reinforced epoxy. Initial tests, using the single cantilever beam (SCB) geometry, have shown that this unique system offers high values of metal‐composite interfacial fracture toughness. Tensile tests have shown that the mechanical properties of these FMLs lie between those offered by its constituent materials and that their tensile modulus and strength can be easily predicted using a rule of mixtures approach. Tension‐tension fatigue tests have shown that the fatigue performance of notched smart FMLs is superior to that offered by the plain Ni‐Ti alloy. A subsequent optical examination of unnotched laminates tested to failure under tension‐tension fatigue loading has shown that the fracture mechanisms occurring within the Ni‐Ti FMLs are strongly dependent on the applied cyclic stress. POLYM. COMPOS., 28:534–544, 2007. © 2007 Society of Plastics Engineers
Novel polylactide/vermiculite nanocomposites by in situ intercalative polymerization. I. Preparation, characterization, and properties
Authors: Zhang Jian Hua , Zhuang Wei , Zhang Qiang , Liu Baolei , Wang Wei , Hu Bai Xing , Shen Jian
Published: July 2007

Polylactide (PLA)/vermiculite nanocomposites were prepared by in situ intercalative polymerization of L,L‐lactide (LLA) in the presence of organomodified vermiculite (VMT). The d‐spacings of both the organomodified VMT and the exfoliated nanocomposites were investigated by X‐ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, and the morphology of exfoliated nanocomposites was examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) indicated that there is some enhancement in degradation behavior between the nanocomposites and the PLA matrix. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) confirmed the constraint effect of exfoliated VMT layers on PLA chains, which is beneficial to the increased storage and loss modulus and increased glass transition temperature. The tensile strength showed that the exfoliated nanocomposites are reinforced and toughened by the addition of nanometer‐size vermiculite layers. POLYM. COMPOS., 28:545–550, 2007. © 2007 Society of Plastics Engineers
Effect of matrix molecular weight on the dispersion of nanoclay in unmodified high density polyethylene
Authors: Chu David , Nguyen Quang , Baird Donald G.
Published: July 2007

The effect that polymer molecular weight has on the dispersion of relatively polar montmorillonite (MMT) in nonpolar, unmodified high density polyethylene (HDPE) was examined. Polymer layered silicate (PLS) nanocomposites were prepared via melt compounding in a single screw extruder using three unmodified HDPE matrices of differing molecular weight and organically modified MMT (organoclay) in concentrations ranging from 2 to 8 wt%. The weight average molecular weights (MW) of the HDPE matrices used ranged from 87,000 to 460,000 g/mol. X‐ray diffraction (XRD), tensile testing, dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), and dynamic rheometry were performed on these nanocomposites. Nanocomposites generated from the high molecular weight (HMW) HDPE matrix exhibited increased intercalation of the MMT as shown by XRD and greater improvements in the Young's modulus when compared with nanocomposites generated from the low (LMW) and middle molecular weight (MMW) matrices. DMTA measurements carried out in torsion showed that the increase in shear modulus of the HMW nanocomposites was not as great as that of the LMW and MMW counterparts as observed from a lower percentage enhancement in the storage modulus (G′) and estimated heat distortion temperature (HDT). This was attributed to the higher degree of mechanical anisotropy in the HMW nanocomposites. POLYM. COMPOS., 28:499–511, 2007. © 2007 Society of Plastics Engineers
Structure–function relationship studies of PTH(1–11) analogues containing sterically hindered dipeptide mimetics
Authors: Fiori Nereo , Caporale Andrea , Schievano Elisabetta , Mammi Stefano , Geyer Armin , Tremmel Peter , Wittelsberger Angela , Woznica Iwona , Chorev Michael , Peggion Evaristo
Published: July 2007

The N‐terminal 1–34 fragment of parathyroid hormone (PTH) is fully active in vitro and in vivo and reproduces all biological responses characteristic of the native intact PTH. In order to develop safer and non‐parenteral PTH‐like bone anabolic agents, we have studied the effect of introducing conformationally constrained dipeptide mimetics into the N‐terminal portion of PTH in an effort to generate miniaturized PTH‐mimetics. To this end, we have synthesized and conformationally and biologically characterized PTH(1–11) analogues containing 3R‐carboxy‐6S‐amino‐7,5‐bicyclic thiazolidinlactam (7,5‐bTL), a rigidified dipeptide mimetic unit. The wild type sequence of PTH(1–11) is H‐Ser‐Val‐Ser‐Glu‐Ile‐Gln‐Leu‐Met‐His‐Asn‐Leu‐NH2. The following pseudo‐undecapeptides were prepared: [Ala1, 7,5‐bTL3, 4, Nle8, Arg11]hPTH(1–11)NH2 (I); [Ala1, 7,5‐bTL6, 7, Nle8, Arg11]hPTH(1–11)NH2 (II); [Ala1, Nle8, 7,5‐bTL9, 10, Arg11]hPTH(1–11)NH2 (III). In aqueous solution containing 20% TFE, only analogue I exhibited the typical CD pattern of the α‐helical conformation. NMR experiments and molecular dynamics calculations located the α‐helical stretch in the sequence Ile5‐His9. The dipeptide mimetic unit 7,5‐bTL induces a type III β‐turn, occupying the positions i − 1 and i of the turn. Analogue II exhibited an equilibrium between a type I β‐turn and an α‐helix, and analogue III did not show any ordered structure. Biological tests revealed poor activity for all analogues (EC50 > 0.1 mM). Apparently, the relative side‐chain orientation of Val2, Ile5 and Met8 can be critical for effective analogue‐receptor interaction. Considering helicity as an essential property to obtain active PTH agonists, one must decorate the correctly positioned dipeptide mimetic azabicycloalkane scaffold with substitutions corresponding to the displaced amino acids. Copyright © 2007 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Development of GaInNAsSb alloys: Growth, band structure, optical properties and applications
Authors: Harris James S. , Kudrawiec R. , Yuen H. B. , Bank S. R. , Bae H. P. , Wistey M. A. , Jackrel D. , Pickett E. R. , Sarmiento T. , Goddard L. L. , Lordi V. , Gugov T.
Published: July 2007

In the past few years, GaInNAsSb has been found to be a potentially superior material to both GaInNAs and InGaAsP for communications wavelength laser applications. It has been observed that due to the surfactant role of antimony during epitaxy, higher quality material can be grown over the entire 1.2–1.6 µm range on GaAs substrates. In addition, it has been discovered that antimony in GaInNAsSb also works as a constituent that significantly modifies the valence band. These findings motivated a systematic study of GaInNAsSb alloys with widely varying compositions. Our recent progress in growth and materials development of GaInNAsSb alloys and our fabrication of 1.5–1.6 µm lasers are discussed in this paper. We review our recent studies of the conduction band offset in (Ga,In) (N,As,Sb)/GaAs quantum wells and discuss the growth challenges of GaInNAsSb alloys. Finally, we report record setting long wavelength edge emitting lasers and the first monolithic VCSELs operating at 1.5 μm based on GaInNAsSb QWs grown on GaAs. Successful development of GaInNAsSb alloys for lasers has led to a much broader range of potential applications for this material including: solar cells, electroabsorption modulators, saturable absorbers and far infrared optoelectronic devices and these are also briefly discussed in this paper. (© 2007 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
High resolution imaging of extended defects in GaN using wave function reconstruction
Authors: Niermann T. , Kocan M. , Roever M. , Mai D. , Malindretos J. , Rizzi A. , Seibt M.
Published: July 2007

The cover picture of this issue of physica status solidi (c) has been taken from the article [1].
Exploring reliability data
Authors: Bendell A. , Walls L. A.
Published: July 2007

Despite the recent revolution in statistical thinking and methodology. practical reliability analysis and assessment remains almost exclusively based on a black‐box approach employing parametric statistical techniques and significance tests. Such practice, which is largely automatic for the industrial practitioner, implicity involves a large number of physically unreasonable assumptions that in practice are rarely met. Extensive investigation of reliability source data indicates a variety of differing data structures, which contradict the assumptions implicit in the usual methodology. As well as these, lack of homogeneity in the data, due, for instance, to multiple failure modes or misdefinition of environment, is commonly overlooked by the standard methodology.

In this paper we argue the case for exploring reliability data.The pattern revealed by such exploration of a data set provides intrinsic information which helps to reinforce and reinterpret the engineering knowledge about the physical nature of the technological system to which the data refers. Employed in this way, the data analyst and the reliability engineer are partners in an iterative process aimed towards the greater understanding of the system and the process of failure. Despite current standard practice, the authors believe it to be critical that the structure of data analysismustreflect the structure in the failure data. Although standard methodology provides an easy and repeatable analysis, the authors' experience indicates that it is rarely an appropriate one. It is ironic that whereas methods to analyse the data structures commonly found in reliability data have been available for some time, the insistence about the standard black‐box approach has prevented the identification of such ‘abnormal’ features in reliability data and the application of these approaches. We discuss simple graphical procedures to investigate the structure of reliability data, as well as more formal testing procedures which assist in decision‐making methodology. Partial reviews of such methods have appeared previously and a more detailed development of the exploration approach and of the appropriate analysis it implies will be dealt with elsewhere. Here, our aim is to argue the case for the reliability analyst toLOOK AT THE DATA.and to analyse it accordingly.
The rationale of reliability prediction
Authors: Harris L. N.
Published: July 2007

This paper is the first of what is intended to be a series of papers which investigate the foundations of reliability theory, particularly when applied to the prediction process. It will contrast current reliability practice against those practices common in normal science and engineering. The claim will be made that in general the prediction process as used in reliability, when stripped of the mathematical embellishments, is no more than simple enumeration: a method long held by the philosophers of science to be unreliable and in general a poor basis on which to make predictions.

This initial paper rejects the statistical method as being an insufficient basis for making predictions and claims that it is incapable of logically supporting its conclusions. Although no evidence is provided to substantiate this claim, a number of scientific methods, both of historical and present day importance, are briefly reviewed with which one can contrast the statistical method.
Reliability of plastic‐encapsulated integrated circuits in moisture environments
Authors: Gallace L. , Rosenfield M.
Published: July 2007

An overview of the factors affecting the reliability of plastic‐encapsulated ICs in moisture environments is presented. Particular attention is given to the moisture‐related failure mechanism EMA (electrolytic metal attack). The package design and process steps and techniques developed at RCA (through identification of the proper analytical models, thorough engineering programs, and by the statistical design of experiments) are detailed. Particular attention was paid to eliminating chlorides and their sources. The nature and state of ongoing plastic‐package moisture‐resistance programmes and future expectations are described.
Burn–in models and ttt‐transforms
Authors: Bergman Bo , Klefsjou Bengt
Published: July 2007

The total time on test (TTT) concept has proved to be a very useful tool in many reliability applications. In this paper we illustrate the usefulness of the TTT‐transform, a certain functional of the survival function, and an empirical counterpart called the TTT‐plot when analysing some different burn‐in models for both repairable and non‐repairable units.
The use of models in reliability
Authors: Harris L. N.
Published: July 2007

The paper reviews the scientific and philosophical basis of the use of models in engineering, particularly in reliability engineering, and their credibility in predicting future outcomes.
Mechanical reliability by design
Authors: Carter A. D. S.
Published: July 2007

With distributed loads and strengths the condition of minimum whole life cost defines uniquely the safety margin (or factor of safety) that must be used. Established empirical factors used in current deterministic design are not then relevant. It is postulated that computer‐aided design packages should incorporate a simultaneous optimization of the safety margin and maintenance policy in place of these factors, since once the design is finalized the whole life cost is finalized. The full development of stochastic CAD methods is seen as the next essential step to advance design techniques.
Reliability indicators
Authors: Jensen Finn , Møltoft Jørgen
Published: July 2007

This is a review paper. It describes the state‐of‐the‐art of the research on reliability indicators for either electronic or mechanical components. Typical component failure patterns are presented and discussed. The concept of component screening using reliability indicators is then outlined. The paper sketches a theoretical approach to the problem of detecting flaws in components. The approach is based on an old concept of energy imbalance in flawed objects.
Proportional hazards modelling in reliability analysis—an application to brake discs on high speed trains
Authors: Bendell A. , Walley M. , Wightman D. W. , Wood L. M.
Published: July 2007

There has been much recent interest in the reliability field in the application of proportional hazards modelling. A number of practitioners and academics have recently been advocating its use and reviewing the basic theory. The technique is, however, in the early stages of application in reliability studies, and apparently no satisfactory examples of its application to reliability data are to be found in the open literature. An implication is that the enormous potential of this approach for reliability analysis, as well as the particular shortcomings and difficulties of applying it in this field are not well understood in the reliability community as a whole.

In this article we discuss the application of the method to the reliability analysis of the brake discs on British Railways high speed trains. The need for such an approach arose owing to the paucity of current reliability analysis methods for the problem in hand. The proportional hazards methodology provided an effective means of exploratory analysis and the application of the method provided an explanation for a previously unresolved discrepancy between the statistical and metallurgical analyses. As a result of its use, the effects of the underlying failure mechanism and the various design and operating variables and their interactions are better understood, and British Rail's maintenance policy has been changed accordingly. On the basis of experience of this and similar applications, the potential for application of proportional hazards modelling in reliability, and the likely benefits to be obtained, are discussed.
A review of the ‘taguchi methods’ for off‐line quality control
Authors: Basso L. , Winterbottom A , Wynn H. P.
Published: July 2007

The Taguchi methods have recently become popular in the U.S.A following a realization of their importance in Japanese quality design. This review is an initial attempt to extract the important ideas while drawing on the ‘Western’ experience with response surface methodology and experimental design.
Fatigue analysis for crack initiation
Authors: Yen Charles C. S.
Published: July 2007

For the prediction of life leading to fatigue crack initiation, a method for performing a cycle‐by‐cycle local stress analysis at the stress concentration area of a structural component was developed. Elastoplastic stress‐strain values along the hysteresis loop are traced for each load reversal in making the life prediction calculations. In this manner, the load sequence effect and the residual stress due to local yielding are inherently included.

Neuber's rule and a linear rule were used with this method and compared. The results of life prediction were compared with test results. The use of the linear rule provided more accurate predictions than using other alternatives, including Miner's rule.
Acceleration and time to fail
Authors: Hale P. W.
Published: July 2007

A physical model of the growth of chemically related failures in electronic components is developed. This model is used to demonstrate that time to failure is as much a function of the component geometry as it is of the activation energy of the reaction. Further interpretation suggests that for any specified failure mechanism the acceleration achieved in a high temperature stress environment will appear to be a variable. Finally, using a simulation technique, a statistical distribution of the times to fail can be generated which resembles very closely the classical exponential failure curve.
Application of the weibull proportional hazards model to aircraft and marine engine failure data
Authors: Jardine A. K. S. , Anderson P. M. , Mann D. S.
Published: July 2007

The environment in which an equipment operates and associated diagnostic variables, such as metal particle level in engine oil, are factors that can influence an equipment's failure time. These factors can be incorporated into concomitant variable models such as the proportional hazards model (PHM), which has been widely used in medical research but not in engineering reliability. A Weibull PHM is applied to both aircraft engine failure data and marine gas turbine failure data. Examination of the residuals shows a good fit of the Weibull proportional hazards model to the data.
Causes and effects of spacecraft failures
Authors: Hecht Myron , Fiorentino Eugene
Published: July 2007

In a study conducted for the USAF Rome Air Development Center to improve reliability prediction for spacecraft approximately 2600 incident reports on 300 spacecraft (representing 100 programmes) that were launched between the early 1960s and January 1984 were analysed. The causes of the spacecraft failures and the severity of the observed effects are examined.

The classification of causes is explained in detail and examples of each type of failure are provided. Differences in the relative frequency of certain causes between pre‐1977 missions and later ones are analysed and some significant trends are identified. The association of spacecraft subsystems with the major causes of failure is investigated. Finally, the severity of the failure effects due to the identified cause categories is discussed. A significant finding is that a large fraction of the incidents is due to design and environmental causes rather than to random failures.
The role of data transformation in taguchi analysis
Authors: Logothetis N.
Published: July 2007

This paper reports on the usefulness of data transformation in a proper application of the ‘Taguchi method’ for off‐line quality control. With the joint aim of establishing a meaningful measure of performance variability and reducing the risk of incorrectly assuming no interactions in the performance model, a simple method of choosing appropriate data transformations is presented. This provides the basis for a suggested general procedure for carrying out Taguchi analyses. The technique is assessed by considering how it performs on data taken from previously published applications of the Taguchi method.
Reliability prediction: A constructive critique of MIL‐HDBK‐217E
Authors: Blanks Henry S.
Published: July 2007

MIL‐HDBK‐217E is based on some major fallacies and oversimplifications. These include the assumption of constant failure rate, the assumed independence of the Pi factors, the oversimplification of temperature dependence, the neglect of process yield and screening fall‐out as determinants in the categorization of quality grade and the absence of manufacturing date information. These weaknesses are discussed and some recommendations made.
Detecting lack of control in a new, untried process
Authors: Murray Ian , Oakland John S.
Published: July 2007

In his original work on the use of control charts, Shewhart distinguished between a long running known process and a new, untried process. In the latter case, the control limits are obtained from the sample data. If the process variability increases during the sampling period, the control limits will widen, reducing the sensitivity of the standard deviation and range charts and producing charts which are in control for out‐of‐control situations. Simulations were produced to investigate this problem through the eyes of the operator. Cusum procedures were used to provide the operator with a means of controlling process variability which is more sensitive to change than the control chart alone. The method was applied to data taken from an industrial situation.