bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
chapter 14
Authors: Campbell Gordon , Corns Thomas N
Published: November 2023

The mid-century decades had followed only imperfectly the aspirations and intentions evinced by Milton in the 1630s and on his return from Italy. Certainly, he had achieved fame, indeed in its more challenging sub-species, notoriety. He had published a great deal and his learning, so patiently accumulated since childhood, had been widely displayed and variously feared or praised. He had married, not one but two, not especially poor, probable virgins.
Yeats’s Feet
Authors: Leighton Angela
Published: November 2023

Yeats’s esoteric beliefs caused some discomfort to the writers who succeeded him in the war-torn 1940s. His apparently naive faith in what George Orwell called ‘a hocus-pocus of Great Wheels, gyres, cycles of the moon, reincarnation, disembodied spirits, astrology and whatnot’1 seemed, in 1943, if not downright ‘Fascist’,2 at least laughable. MacNeice, in a grudgingly honest revaluation of Yeats’s gifts in 1941, found himself reconsidering his own generation’s ‘reaction against Pure Form, against Art for Art’s Sake’.3
Selecting a Monument
Authors: Carroll Maureen
Published: November 2023

Choosing a monument, the location where it was to be erected, and what it was to express were necessary considerations when preparing for death. Of course, not everyone was or could be prepared for death, nor did everyone have a say in how, or even if, they would be commemorated. A brief epitaph for a female slave in Portus, inscribed simply Glycerae servae (to Glycera, a slave), presumably on orders from her owner, is one of many inscriptions cut for individuals of low status who themselves were not in a position to ensure their commemoration. For those who did make plans, however, the monument could be designed by the deceased, or written specifications for it could be left in a will, a plot could be selected and paid for and a clear visual message could be conveyed to communicate what was important to the person as fitting memorial. A marble slab on Tomb A in the Vatican cemetery under St Peter’s basilica in Rome reproduces a supplement taken from the will of Gaius Popilius Heracla. In it he instructed his two heirs to build him a tomb near the circus on the Vatican hill at a cost of 6,000 sestertii.
Research History
Authors: Rüpke Jörg
Published: November 2023

The first substantial modern priestly ‘fasti’ were compiled in 1848 by LUDWIG MERCKLIN in his investigation of cooptation procedures in Rome. To the texts of the epigraphic fasti as known at his period he added a parallel list of augurs and pontificesobtained from Livy’s notes of 218–167 bc.2 MERCKLIN himself gave this appendix the name ‘Die romischen Sacerdotalfasten’. This material formed the basis for Theodor Mommsen’s 1864 essay on the ‘Roman patrician families’, which included a substantial number of Republican priestesses and priests of various cults. His aim was to clarify the question as to which offices had patrician descent as a strict prerequisite; Mommsen chose the fastiformula only for the material from MERCKLIN, but remains an important point of reference.
Anthropology and/as myth in modern criticism
Authors: Bell Michael
Published: November 2023

Literary use of myth no longer enjoys the prestige accorded it by many writers of the Modernist generation, and their uses of a now discredited anthropology are part of the reason for this. But the Modernist example remains important for several reasons, including its major, and still lingering, impact on subsequent criticism. It is necessary to appreciate the combined literary, philosophical, and psychological motives for the Modernist use of myth into which contemporary anthropological conceptions were assimilated. For anthropology was a corroboration of existing beliefs of poets and novelists as much as a cause of their recourse to myth. Above all, the Greek word mythopoeia, or myth-making, points to the close relation of myth and poetry within the activity of creation at large. To create a poem is analogous to creating a cultural world.
Anti-canon theory
Authors: Punter David
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I want to outline some of the limits against which critical theory is currently pushing. In doing so, I will necessarily be traversing again some of the terrain already dealt with in other chapters—on psychoanalysis, for example, and on deconstruction. But my purpose is not so much to establish or describe a single unified critical position as to try to demonstrate something about an instability, or a set of instabilities, that are increasingly coming to characterize some areas of critical activity. They have, of course, their own counterweight. Books such as Harold Bloom’s The Western Canon (1995) attempt a triumphant reassertion of the monolithic grandeur of Western literature. But many would argue that this can, alternatively, be seen as a defensive reaction, as precisely part of the evidence for the supposition that recent developments in the theory of the subject are radically troubling the critical enterprise, and in particular bringing to the foreground the crucial question of ‘location’—that is to say, the position from which the critic speaks.
Moral Incompetence
Authors: Morton Adam
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I describe a family of ways in which well-intentioned people, well equipped with the standard moral virtues, can do wrong. It is no news that good people can make decisions that turn out badly, and we all recognize that a morally admirable person could lack some practical skill required for realizing some of her intentions. She could have a bad memory or be bad at scheduling actions. The phenomenon that I am discussing is different from both bad luck and impracticality. It concerns the moral failings of decent people. The claim is that there are ways in which good will and virtue are consistent with a tendency to make the wrong choices in some kinds of moral problems. Such tendencies are what I refer to as moral incompetence. I expect that most people will agree not just that decent people can make a mess of things, but that there can be systematic patterns in the moral disasters of even morally admirable individuals.
‘Kapetoōleia Olympia’: Roman Emperors and Greek Agōnes
Authors: Spawforth Tony
Published: November 2023

The following two inscriptions from Moretti’s corpus illustrate some key aspects of Greek agonistics under Rome. The first is an inscribed portrait-herm from Athens (IG ii 3769). On prosopographical grounds the text dates to the later 240s ad—to what Moretti termed the ‘advanced’ imperial age. But time—and this is the real point here—seems to have stood still: we could almost be back in the world of Pindar. Two Athenian brothers proudly celebrate their father’s victories in chariot-races, the Homeric sport of the rich in Classical Greece. The victories specified are in the four traditional Panhellenic festivals of the Greek mainland, and of these Olympia is still given pre-eminence as the Panhellenic gathering par excellence, with victory there said to have been conferred by ‘all Hellas’
Poetry and postcoloniality
Authors: Patke Rajeev S
Published: November 2023

The first section of this opening chapter defines the conditions under which the notion of ‘postcolonial poetry’ serves a meaningful function in literary and cultural studies. It describes the historical preoccupations and linguistic strategies that constitute the central link between poetry and postcoloniality. It also indicates how the method and organization of this book takes account of some of the pitfalls associated with the term ‘postcolonial’. The second section provides a condensed account of the spread of English in the British Isles, and the ambivalence with which this was met from Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. The significance of this motif is developed in section 3, which provides a reading of two poems about the relation between Ireland and England. These readings prefigure the analyses in Chapter 2, where the issues surveyed in the first chapter are extended to cultures and societies outside Britain.
Back to the future
Authors: Patke Rajeev S
Published: November 2023

This chapter introduces the central issues that have preoccupied postcolonial poets in English across the twentieth century— language, history, locality, and displacement—through a reading of three volumes published during the period 1989–2002. Recent poetry is used as a vantage point from which to begin mapping the contours of the large and variegated territory of poetic concerns addressed in Parts II and III. Each volume undertakes a radical revision of the poet’s relation to her own historicity in poems of striking force, precision, and originality. Such writing demonstrates the responsibility undertaken by poets towards the practice of a vocation that is energized rather than disabled by the traumas of a colonial past.
Recurrent motifs: voyage and translation
Authors: Patke Rajeev S
Published: November 2023

Colonialism bred three kinds of willing voyager—adventurer, explorer, colonist; one type of partially willing voyager—the indentured labourer; and one type of unwilling voyager—the slave. Postcolonial history adds two more types to this motley: the migrant, and the exile; in them, as in the indentured labourer, the distinction between willing and involuntary displacement is blurred. Postcolonial writing proliferates with symbolic voyages that are meant to ameliorate the displacement caused by diaspora. One kind of poet tackles the voyage in a collective spirit, as an individual rooted in imagined community, as when Walcott and Brathwaite appear to head away from home, only for their poetry to discover ways of revising their view of the birthplace. The second type of traveller suffers a more literal relocation through migration or self-exile, as illustrated by A. K. Ramanujan, Agha Shahid Ali, and Ee Tiang Hong. Their work shuttles between an emotional anchorage in a home left behind, and the attempt to grow new roots in a place that the poet strives to accept as home.
What is a little more health and safety worth?
Authors: Culyer Anthony J , Amick III Benjamin C , Laporte Audrey
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we introduce readers to the principal ways in which economists evaluate workplace health and safety investments. We draw extensively on work that has been done in the field of health care, although there are major differences and challenges posed by the analysis of workplace interventions for health and safety that are largely absent in the field of health care.
Parasitism and biological control
Authors: Wajnberg Éric , Ris Nicolas
Published: November 2023

Parasites exert negative effects on their hosts, both at the individual and population level. This ecological feature can be used to develop biological control programmes, i.e. ‘the use of living organisms [called biological control agents] to control the population density or impact on a specific pest organism, making it less abundant or less damaging than it would otherwise be’ (Eilenberg et al. 2001). More than a thousand biological control agents are currently in use worldwide and most of them are parasitoid insects used to control phytophagous insect pests. This chapter aims to describe this particular form of parasitism, highlighting its huge diversity and the associated consequences for demographic interactions between hosts and parasitoids.
History of Universities
Authors: Larsen Andrew E
Published: November 2023

Volume XXII/1 of History of Universities contains the customary mix of learned articles, book reviews, conference reports, and bibliographical information, which makes this publication such an indispensable tool for the historian of higher education. Its contributions range widely geographically, chronologically, and in subject-matter. The volume is, as always, a lively combination of original research and invaluable reference material. To place a standing order for volumes in this series, please contact: Standing Orders Oxford University Press, Distribution Services Saxon West Way, Corby, Northants Great Britain NN189 ES Tel: (01536) 741068 Fax: (01536) 741894 email: standingorders.uk@oup.com
The Auditory Imagination of Thomas Moore
Authors: White Harry
Published: November 2023

One cannot always be sure how strategic Leopold Bloom’s stream of consciousness in Ulysses is meant to be. When Bloom passes the statue of Moore in College Green, however, there can be little doubt that his taking the piss out of Moore, when added to Bloom’s incipient feminism (and perhaps femininity, to judge by what happens to him later in the novel), apostrophizes the kind of reception history which has plagued Thomas Moore since the second half of the nineteenth century. The association made by Bloom between Moore and Balfe does not seem fortuitous in this regard; nor does the unmistakable reference to ‘The Dead’ (‘Great song of Julia Morkan’s’), a narrative in which Irish music, if not Moore himself, is so structurally and emotionally decisive.
Why J. M. Synge Abandoned Music
Authors: White Harry
Published: November 2023

In 1893 I went to Germany (partly for a holiday), but I stayed there studying music for nearly a year. I saw that the Germans were so much more innately gifted with the musical faculties than I was that I decided to give up music and take to literature instead. I went back to Germany for a few months to work at the language only, and then on the first day of 1895 I went to Paris for six months … In 1898 I went to the Aran Islands to learn Gaelic and lived with the peasants. Ever since then I have spent part of my year among the Irish speaking peasants in various localities as I am now doing once more.
Words after Music: Samuel Beckett after Joyce
Authors: White Harry
Published: November 2023

The proposition that in the Irish literary imagination words are ‘words for music’ is radically reformulated in the theatre of Samuel Beckett. Although he rivals Shaw in the magnitude of his influence on English drama in particular (so that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead and The Caretaker, for example, both strikingly reconfigure Waiting for Godot (1955) ),3 and, although like Shaw he determines upon a stringent originality of dramatic voice in the aftermath of his own fiction, Beckett does not stop there.
Operas of the Irish Mind: Brian Friel and Music
Authors: White Harry
Published: November 2023

The main item in tonight’s concert is the First Movement of the Violin Concerto in E minor, Opus 64, by Jacob Ludwig Felix Mendelssohn … the Orchestra is conducted by Gareth O’Donnell and the soloist is the Ballybeg half-back Gareth O’Donnell. I imagine you have poets in England of much greater accomplishment, Mr Richard. But Tom Moore is the finest singer we have, the voice of our nation. he has our true measure, Mr Richard. He divines us accurately. He reproduces features of our history and our character.
In Search of Lost Worlds
Authors: Brasier Martin
Published: November 2023

It is January, 1859. Imagine being a visitor, seated on a sofa in Darwin’s large and dark study at Down House in Kent. The Christmas decorations have been put away. The smell of leather- covered books, gas lamps and moth balls rises up from the walls of this well-used room. Over the past few months, our world-weary naturalist has been drawing together the last remaining thoughts for his new work, to be called ‘On the Origin of Species’. Its contents have been gathered from notes and observations made since 1831, an epic of nearly thirty years’ gestation.
The Devil’ To Enail
Authors: Brasier Martin
Published: November 2023

I was catapulted into the quest to solve the dilemma of Darwin’s Lost World in September 1973 by a single piece of rock. It was full of black and white swirls like 1970s pop art. This weird cobble had been discovered when my geological colleague Roland Goldring, jumped out of his Landrover to open a farm gate at Brachina Gorge in the outback of South Australia. That was back in 1967. He had spotted it propping up a fence post and, without much thought, popped it into his tucker bag and brought it back to Reading in England.
The First Terror with Teeth
Authors: Brasier Martin
Published: November 2023

Standing outside my circular tent, called a gher, on a windy afternoon in August 1993, I felt like pinching myself to check that life was real. Earlier in the day, the sky had been peppered with eagles circling above our little cluster of nomadic ghers, pitched by local tribesmen from the Dzabkan River. Camped up here, on stony ground in the Gobi-Altai Mountains, not far to the north of the Gobi Desert, I scanned the horizon for signs of Mongolian horsemen. The air was crystal clear but I could, as yet, see neither horses nor men. Nor could I see trees or fields. In fact, I had seen neither fields nor vegetables for several weeks. Here I was, then, an ancient fossil hunter in an ancient hunters’ land- scape. Grass, mountains, rivers, and snow. It felt as though I had travelled back in time some twenty thousand years, to an age when our ancestors had painted the ceilings of caves in distant Lascaux and Rouffignac.
A Worm that Changed the World
Authors: Brasier Martin
Published: November 2023

In May 1983, it fell to me to drive a ramshackle minibus containing four Russian and four Chinese scientists across England and Wales. We had just completed our ‘Country House murder mystery meeting’ at Burwalls. But the mood in the bus was dark. We had voted on the placement of the Precambrian–Cambrian boundary. And the Chinese delegates had almost overthrown the Russian case (and in the following year, they actually succeeded in doing just that). Clearly, they meant business. Added to that was the fact that two of our passengers—Boris Sokolov and Xing Yusheng—were of impressively senior rank. Had I accidentally ‘rolled’ the minibus during the week-long trip, some said, I could have triggered World War Three.
A Mistaken Point
Authors: Brasier Martin
Published: November 2023

The road that leads from Portugal Cove to the lighthouse at Cape Race can feel like the most desolate place in the North Atlantic. It follows a line of telegraph poles that march in single file across forty kilometres of rolling bog and moss. And the wind across this plateau is so strong and constant that no tree can gain a foothold. On the day we arrived in 1987, a thick grey mist had rolled in from the sea, turning daylight into appropriately Celtic twilight—for this is the Irish corner of Newfoundland.
Torridon
Authors: Brasier Martin
Published: November 2023

At long last, I was about to approach the pinnacle—a lonely pyramid of rock called An Teallach. This is just one of a series of peaks that stretches from Loch Assynt down to Loch Torridon, in the north-west Highlands of Scotland. Each mountain is like a monument, standing above its own plain of bedrock, provided with its own distinct personality, isolated and aloof. Had Henry Moore ever sculpted mountains instead of mother-goddesses, he would have made them look like these—Quanaig, Suilven, Canisp, and An Teallach. Crofters hereabouts once thought of them as the haunt of fairies and giants, and it is easy to see why. This is a place without equal—surely the finest spot on the planet for contemplating the realm of Darwin’s Lost World.
Beyond the ‘Moderns’? The Accademia Fisico-matematica of Rome (1677–1698) and the vacuum
Authors: Favino Federica
Published: November 2023

The Accademia di Naturali Esperienze (Academy of Natural Experi- ences) was founded in Rome in 1677 by Giovanni Giustino Ciampini, a member of the papal chancery, and was explicitly based on the Accademia del Cimento in Florence, the Royal Society, and the Acade´mie Royale des Sciences. Despite its models and the fact that it was quickly formalized through statutes and rules, the Roman academy always remained a private body, entirely dependent upon the protection and support of its founder.
Introduction: Lord Lansdowne’s Wounded Amazon
Authors: Coltman Viccy
Published: November 2023

At the auction of the Lansdowne collection of ancient marble sculptures in London in March 1930, the prize lot was a Wounded Amazon (figure 1) which sold for a then record of 28,350 guineas. This sculpture had been acquired by the 2nd Earl of Shelburne, later 1st Marquis of Lansdowne, in 1773 from the dealer Gavin Hamilton for £200, and is now in the Metropolitan Museum in New York.2 In the century and a half that had elapsed since its excavation in Tor Columbaro about 9 miles outside Rome on the Appian Way, its acquisition by an aristocratic British politician and its subsequent public auction, this restored ancient sculpture had been identified as one of the finest and best-preserved masterpieces of the canon of Greco-Roman art. Following a passage in Pliny’s Natural History (XXXIV, 53), the Lansdowne Amazon was identified as a type of Wounded Amazon executed by the 5th century BC Greek sculptor Polykleitos. ‘It is as like the head of the Doryphoros by Polykleitos as sister to brother.… an excellent translation into marble of the characteristics of a bronze original’, expounds the Christie’s sale catalogue, whose entries were founded on the ‘business-like descriptions’ of the British Museum curator A. H. Smith in his Ancient Marbles at Lansdowne House (1889). Smith’s ‘thorough, trustworthy, and unsensational’ catalogue in turn acknowledges its debt to the pioneering account of Ancient Marbles in Great Britain (Cambridge, 1882) by Adolf Michaelis, Professor of Classical Archaeology at the University of Strasbourg. The Amazon’s archaeological celebrity is reflected in her privileged treatment by Michaelis. For the early 1880s was a time when, to paraphrase Bernard Ashmole writing in 1929, photography was a rudimentary and costly new technology, and although Michaelis described thousands of pieces only a dozen or so were reproduced, one of which was the Lansdowne Amazon (figure 1).
Collecting and global politics: The export of marbles from Rome and their transport to Britain
Authors: Coltman Viccy
Published: November 2023

The restoration of Townley’s discobolus (figure 34) featured in the previous chapter as a compelling case study in the restorative operations of sculpture in Rome in the second half of the 18th century, specifically in the early 1790s, using innovative techniques implemented in the previous decade for cleaning post-classical sculpture. Restoration was cast as an art that was both material in its sculptural practice and rhetorical in its artful epistolary representation by Townley’s dealers. Another prosthesis that is (represented as) fundamental to Townley’s acquisition of the discobolus is the art of cultural politics. Once a collector had been seduced by a restored sculpture, or an idea of it via drawings and descriptions, the next stage in the business of collecting was the export of ancient marbles out of Papal territory and their foreign and domestic transport. On Jenkins’ initial application for an export licence in March 1792, the discobolus was refused on the grounds that it was considered the superior version of a surviving sculptural type, and a material survival, to the bronze discobolus preserved in ancient texts as a work of the 5th-century BC Greek sculptor Myron. When auspicious excavations unearthed another discobolus earmarked for the Papal collection, Jenkins assured Townley that a licence would be forthcoming. Papal permission to export the version destined for Park Street was not actually granted until six months later, in November 1792. In the intervening period, the lost head of the Papal version was restored on the basis of Townley’s variant—the (thought to be) superior prototype with its head looking downwards away from the discus.
‘The lecture on Venus’s arse’: Richard Cosway’s Charles Townley with a Group of Connoisseurs, c.1771–5
Authors: Coltman Viccy
Published: November 2023

From a cursory glance at Richard Cosway’s Charles Townley with a Group of Connoisseurs, 1771–5 (plate 18), this group portrait appears to represent a congenial company of gentlemen in an unspecified interior viewing a group of ancient marble sculptures. The six full-length portraits have been identified from left to right as Richard Oliver, Charles Townley, Dr Verdun, Chase Price seated, and behind him, Richard Holt and Captain Wynn. Some of the marbles have similarly been identified as deriving from Charles Townley’s collection. He bought the altar that doubles as a pedestal in the painting from the collection of Antonio Burioni in Rome in 1768; the seated Muse playing the lyre in the top left corner from the Palazzo Barberini; while the torso of the naked Venus on the right of the Muse was acquired from the sculptor–restorer Bartolomeo Cavaceppi. The painting, which is in the collection at Towneley Hall Art Gallery and Museum in Burnley, Lancashire, was recently described as ‘a genial but revealing conversation piece’. Notwithstanding its revelatory status, the significance and extent of its cultural and social meanings has yet to be disclosed. Ironically, the best documented of all Cosway’s paintings in terms of unpublished primary sources rather than secondary literature, it remains underexploited as a form of cultural document.
‘Placed with propriety’: The display and viewing of ancient sculpture
Authors: Coltman Viccy
Published: November 2023

In a letter from Charles Townley’s uncle cited in the preceding chapter, the projected location of Richard Cosway’s conversation piece (plate 18) was alluded to. Seemingly on account of its risque´ subject matter, it was not to be hung in one of the public, formal rooms in Townley’s London townhouse at the upper end of Whitehall, rather in a prominent position over the fireplace in the more intimate, informal space of the parlour. An awareness of the physical location of Cosway’s conversation piece temporarily suspends the climax of the phallic camaraderie that it celebrates in visual form and leads us to consider the related issue that is the display of sculptures in Townley’s collection, examples of which have been identified in Cosway’s conversation piece. In discussing the disposition of the collection, a number of different strands of intellectual enquiry will be drawn together. The significance of its topographical location brings us into the realm of cultural geography; its built environment is the bricks and mortar of architectural history, forming the shell which accommodates the domestic interior and the spatial arrangement of the sculptures therein. Through the exhibition of his marbles, it will be demonstrated how Townley continually confronted a series of irreconcilable tensions between metropolitan and provincial properties, between the urban townhouse or the rural country house that was his ancestral Lancashire seat, and between the choice of a single gallery or a suite of adjoining display spaces, either purpose-built or remodelled to accommodate the collection.
Speech Acts
Authors: Shawcross Teresa
Published: November 2023

In the Chronicle of Morea, speech acts form the backbone of the narrative: almost every scene is organized round the depiction and dramatization of a debate or other verbal exchange, to which only the briefest representation of action is appended. Typical of the work as a whole is a passage on the subject of the negotiation of a marriage alliance between the Principality of Morea and the Angevin Kingdom of Southern Italy, where an account is given of a sequence of embassies, formal audiences, private interviews, and deliberative councils (H vv.6335–427 and B § §446–51). The passage begins with the arrival of the embassy of Prince Guillaume II de Villehardouin in Naples. The envoys initially come into the presence of the royal court, and give King Charles I d’Anjou their credentials to inspect, after which they are taken aside and given an opportunity to tell the King the details of their master’s proposition in private. Having questioned the envoys to his satisfaction and listened attentively to their replies, Charles announces that he wishes to take advice before he can give a definite answer.
Voice
Authors: Shawcross Teresa
Published: November 2023

Who speaks here? Questions such as this, concerning the identity of the being who tells a story, seem so banal as to require no discussion, until an attempt is made to answer them. The originators behind the production of medieval texts cannot be known to us. Author, redactor, and scribe have fallen back into history, each more or less ‘like a deity after creation who leaves what he has wrought’. All that can be transmitted is a name, and even this may be absent. Information regarding the actual individuals responsible for the Chronicle of Morea could conceivably once have been available either in the prologue or epilogue of the work, but these sections have proven to be especially vulnerable, both because of their physical location at extremities of the manuscript, and also because the data they contained was liable to be perceived as irrelevant whenever a new redaction or copy was made. Yet this does not impede an analysis of narrative voice, for that voice resides elsewhere: with the narratorial ‘I’, the narratorial ‘we’, or, alternatively, with a narrating instance of an impersonal nature that is attributed to the flow of the narrative itself and designated by expressions such as ‘the tale’, ‘the story’, and ‘the book’. The characteristics of the voice can be observed in detail because of the existence of comments or asides which make an appearance from time to time within the narrative.
Imagining the Principality of Morea: A National History
Authors: Shawcross Teresa
Published: November 2023

It was by the sword that they conquered the land of the Morea’, Guillaume II de Villehardouin is made to remark in H concerning the actions of his father and the other Latins [ineq]. According to this version of the Chronicle of Morea, a momentous battle took place during the Latin acquisition of the Peloponnese. In the olive grove of Koundouras not far from Kalamata, the invaders, we are told, faced the forces hastily assembled to resist them: cavalry and infantry from the fortified towns of Nikli, Veligosti, and Lacedaemonia, together with motley auxiliary troops recruited in the Taygetos mountains (vv.1715–31). Although both sides fought hard, the Franks were eventually entirely victorious, and few of their opponents escaped [ineq]. Thus, the creation of the Principality of Morea is predicated in H upon an initial act of military conquest, a fact we are repeatedly reminded of in speeches attributed to the crusaders and their descendants (vv.1382–3, 1613–22, 2438–40, 2456–7, 2732–4, 4485–7, 6311–12). Yet it would be a mistake to conclude that events in the Peloponnese are viewed by the text consistently in terms of the subjugation of the indigenous population. Already in the episode of the battle of Koundouras, mention is made of the presence at the side of Guillaume I de Champlitte and Geoffroy de Villehardouin of their Greek collaborators [ineq]. From the beginning, an effort is made by H to assign a positive space within the narrative to the native Peloponnesians.
The Rise of Vernacular Greek Historiography in the Late Medieval Eastern Mediterranean
Authors: Shawcross Teresa
Published: November 2023

Within the historiographical output of those territories of the eastern Mediterranean under western occupation, the Copenhagen manuscript of the Chronicle of Morea (H) was not the first text to present the encounter between conquerors and conquered as resulting in the negotiation of a new identity. An antecedent of sorts had already been provided over two hundred years previously. In the course of the twelfth century, the establishment and subsequent fate of the Crusader States in Syria and the Holy Land had been recorded not only by westerners whose presence in the area was more or less temporary, but also by a few permanent residents. Of the extant works produced by the latter, one of the earliest was the Gesta Francorum Iherusalem Peregrinantium or Historia Hierosolymitana by Fulcher of Chartres, a participant in the First Crusade who settled in Palestine as chaplain to Baudouin I, the lord of Edessa and first of the crusader kings at Jerusalem, dying there in old age c.1127. In his account of the foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Principality of Antioch, and the Counties of Edessa and Tripoli, Fulcher was concerned to stress the coming together of diverse ethnic elements in the foreign land which the crusaders had made their own. Thus, he drew attention in the penultimate pages of his Historia to a process of assimilation, noting that, as the incomers became more rooted in the locality and their descendants multiplied, the old homelands had been forgotten (‘obliti sumus nativitatis nostrae loca’, III.xxxvii.3). Those who had emigrated to the Levant, he explained, no longer spoke of their birthplaces, while the new generations had no first-hand knowledge of the West.
General Conclusion
Authors: Shawcross Teresa
Published: November 2023

The Chronicle of Morea recounts the events of the Fourth Crusade and of the ensuing conquest and occupation of the Byzantine Empire. At the centre of the work is the story of the formation of the Principality of Morea in Southern Greece and the Peloponnese. As a repository of fact, the account cannot be relied upon, for the depiction of ‘reality’ which it offers is never innocent. Yet, the very nature of the Chronicleas historiography—a locus of textual strategies that can be analysed and deconstructed—means that it affords us an invaluable insight into the thought-world of the late Middle Ages. This study has compared the various extant versions of the Chronicle, identified the resources and pressures that contributed to the development of the work, and shed light on the nature of the lost archetype which lies behind the surviving manuscripts. In seeing how the author and subsequent redactors interpreted and transformed their material, we gain a sense of the aspirations and anxieties of the societies in which the work was composed, transmitted and received.
Towards a History of Performativity
Authors: Fowler Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

In this essay I shall entertain the notion that performativity itself—let’s call it the sum of the conditions surrounding the efficacy of language and its acts—changes over time. My case will be drawn from Shakespeare’s imaginative reaction to the Protestant reformation of the sacraments of the medieval church, especially penance. If the sacraments perform and thus produce community, as the consensus among medievalists runs, then what happens when they are radically altered in the Reformation? How are social persons created and re cognized?3 How is society achieved? Social contract theories, ages old and sometimes compatible with sacramental thought, sometimes distinct, offer one of the a lternatives available to Reformation society.
The Voice of the Author in ‘The Phoenix and Turtle’
Authors: Cheney Patrick
Published: November 2023

To specify the connection between Shakespeare and the Middle Ages, we might turn to one of the defining medieval moments of the Elizabethan era. In Book 4, canto 2, of the 1596 Faerie Queene, England’s New Poet, Edmund Spenser, pronounces himself the national heir to the Old Poet, ‘Dan Chaucer, well of English undefiled’ (4.2.32): In this self-conscious apostrophe to a ‘dead’ author, Spenser identifies the principle by which he will ‘revive’ Chaucer’s ‘labours lost’—a principle he calls ‘infusion’. Through the ‘sweete’ process of infusion, he will mystically receive the surviving ‘spirit’ of Chaucer, and through this transfer of spiritual power he will ‘follow’ the ‘footing’ of the old poet’s ‘feete’, so that he can ‘meete’ Chaucer’s ‘meaning’ and thus continue his immortalizing fame.
Recursive Origins
Authors: Kuskin William
Published: November 2023

Literary Studies has an ambivalent relationship to precedence. Caught between the recognition of chronology and the urgency of formal innovation, it resorts to claims of the new: to a new vernacular literary culture in the fourteenth century, to a new formulation of authorship in the sixteenth, and to an early modern print revolution. So, Literary Studies reports a fractured timeline, one paradoxically committed to chronology as a progressive record of temporal change and to period as a convincing explanation for cultural difference. Such an approach to late medieval and early modern literary history neglects both the fifteenth century and the historical role played by the material reproduction of texts.
Marvels and Counterfeits
Authors: Marsalek Karen Sawyer
Published: November 2023

The image of a character returning from the dead was a potent and enduring one in early English drama, partly because of the inherent dramatic power of the character’s reappearance, and partly because the image had a long theatrical history in biblical drama. From the twelfth through the sixteenth centuries, plays dedicated to Christ’s resurrection were a central feature of the English theatrical landscape. Their dramaturgy and its connotations of community-building extended to other plays as well. Elizabethan and Jacobean dramatists who appropriated the motif of Christ’s resurrection often used its iconographic and linguistic elements to underscore themes of reunion, forgiveness, and restoration; Shakespeare’s work in The Winter’s Tale is a good example. However, other resurrection moments.
Iron Age Britain in its European context
Authors: Harding D W
Published: November 2023

For the past hundred and Wfty years, since the beginnings of prehistoric archaeology as a serious scientiWc discipline, the European Iron Age has been classiWed into two principal stages, named after the type-sites of Hallstatt in upper Austria and La Te`ne in Switzerland. SigniWcantly, neither of these sites was a settlement in the normal domestic sense. Hallstatt (Kromer, 1960; Peroni, 1973; Hodson, 1990) was a cemetery of the community that worked the adjacent salt mines and doubtless managed cattle herds on which the economic wealth of the region was based; La Te`ne (Vouga, 1923) was a more enigmatic site on the shores of Lake Neuchatel, where large quantities of metalwork and other artefacts, together with human remains, have led to speculation regarding the ritual signiWcance of these deposits. Chronologically the two were successive. Hallstatt spanned the end of the Bronze Age and earlier Iron Age to the end of the 6th century bc; La Te`ne represents the second Iron Age from the mid 5th century, though the type-site itself has relatively little material dating from the last phase of the pre-Roman Iron Age.
Identifying houses: principles and problems
Authors: Harding D W
Published: November 2023

Any study of later prehistoric round-houses in Britain and beyond should begin by deWning what is meant by ‘house’. To review all the various meanings that have been advanced in the archaeological or anthropological literature alone would take an entire volume in itself, so for present purposes attention will focus on two contrasting but complementary meanings. First, ‘house’ will be applied to structural remains of a building or building complex that may be regarded as having an occupational or domestic function, though this need not have been its role exclusively. Second, ‘house’, or more appropriately ‘household’, may refer to the social unit that used the building or buildings in question, that unit normally being deWned by kinship, but not necessarily exclusively so. Archaeological usage tends towards the former, being con- cerned Wrst with the Weld recovery of the structural data. Our objective, of course, should be the sustainable interpretation of that data in terms of the social units that occupied these sites and the cultural signiWcance of buildings to the communities that built and used them. The validity of our interpretation, however, will be in direct relationship to the standard of observation and recovery of the Weld data, which in turn will reXect the questions that underpin our research strategy.
Later Iron Age buildings in the Atlantic north and west
Authors: Harding D W
Published: November 2023

Progressive changes in the settlement patterns of the later Iron Age in Atlantic Scotland are well exempliWed in classic sequences like that excavated at Beirgh in west Lewis (Harding and Gilmour, 2000) or at the Howe on Orkney (Smith, ed., 1994). But later Iron Age settlement is by no means conWned to or even determined by pre-existing broch settlements, as the examples of Skaill (Buteux, 1997) or Pool (Hunter, 2007) on Orkney demonstrate. The decline in monumentality from around the 2nd century ad, as we have seen, need not have been universally synchronous, and in some notable cases, like Mousa or the Glenelg brochs, the tall broch towers were evidently not dismantled, even where there is evidence for secondary occupation. As we have seen, however, the immediately post-broch occupation in many in- stances still involved round-houses that eVectively utilized the same ground Xoor area as their grander predecessors. What followed is well exempliWed in the Beirgh sequence.
Round-houses, settlement, and society
Authors: Harding D W
Published: November 2023

In attempting to interpret archaeological traces of houses, we might Wrst consider what factors inXuenced their construction and use. Sanders (1990) identiWed seven such factors. Two were environmental, namely climate and topography; three were variable according to circumstance, namely available materials, level of technology, and economic resources; and two were cultur- ally Wxed, namely function and cultural conventions. The last category, though the least visible archaeologically, would be for many archaeologists and social anthropologists the most important. These factors will also aVect the archaeological survival of houses, whilst research strategies and recovery techniques deployed by archaeologists, as already indicated, will further condition our capacity to recognize and recover the surviving evidence. In interpretation, Carsten and Hugh-Jones (1995b, 45) actually complained that social anthropologists since Le´vi-Strauss tended to overstate the importance of ritual aspects of social life to the detriment of the study of everyday aspects of community living, a concern that sometimes has resonance in relation to archaeological discussions. Sanders (1990, 45) acknowledged that ‘interpret- ations of function are generally founded on the formula ‘‘form follows function’’ and/or on assumptions from loose ethnographic parallels and ancient textual records’. The application of ethnographic parallels by archae- ologists may sometimes be less than rigorous in failing to recognize that they can only illuminate general principles rather than explaining speciWc features of houses from an unrelated culture. ‘Meanings’, as Carsten and Hugh-Jones (1995, 46) stressed, ‘constantly shift within cultures, and they have no inher- ent cross-cultural validity. However, although the meanings of a house may be speciWc, the patterns by which these are generated . . . are much more general.’ If form follows function it need not follow that only one form can satisfy the same function. Furthermore, identifying function may not be so straightfor- ward.
Why use drugs?
Authors: Robson Philip
Published: November 2023

We live in an age of unprecedented reliance upon drugs. Whether it is a prescription medicine, an ‘over-the-counter’ pharmaceutical or a herbal remedy, pills and potions are seen by many as a quick and easy solution to problems which have little or nothing to do with medical disorders. Family doctors are besieged by distressed and demanding people who would much rather walk out of the surgery with a prescription than set about the more demanding task of finding practical solutions to their economic, social, and interpersonal difficulties. In this context it is hardly surprising that there is an equally unprecedented appetite for ‘recreational’ psychoactive drugs.
Alcohol
Authors: Robson Philip
Published: November 2023

It is impossible to say just how long ago it was that humans first learnt to ferment sugars into alcohol, but the founders of the Babylonian Empire were brewing beer 4,000 years before the birth of Christ. An Egyptian papyrus dating from around 3,500 Bc describes wine-making techniques, and knowledge of the process had reached the Atlantic coast of Europe by 2,500 BC. Alcohol partially displaced the ritual and medical roles of cannabis and opium which were being cultivated by Stone Age farmers. From that time onwards alcohol has been produced wherever humans have settled.
Introduction: Reception as Conversation
Authors: Hopkins David
Published: November 2023

The classical past is a pervasive presence in English poetry from the early Middle Ages to the present day, and particularly in the centuries which are the main concern of the present volume. Many of the most prominent English poetic forms – epic, verse-tragedy, ode, formal satire, elegy, pastoral, verse-epistle – derive from classical precedent. English writers have regularly invoked what they took to be the assumptions and criteria of ancient literary criticism. And a long line of English poets has devoted substantial energy and practised artistry to the direct translation of Greek and Latin verse, a topic which will be a central concern of this book. Thus, when the late Philip Larkin remarked that ‘to me the whole of classical and biblical mythology means very little, and I think that using them today not only fills poems full of dead spots but dodges the writer’s duty to be original’,1 he was giving voice, in a deliberately provocative manner, to sentiments that he knew to be unrepresentative even of such well- known contemporaries as W. H. Auden and Louis MacNeice, let alone of the great poets of the past. English writers, to be sure, had often noted the dangers of excessive or injudicious use of classical material, or expressed more open hostility to classical influences.
‘The English Homer’: Shakespeare, Longinus, and English ‘Neoclassicism’
Authors: Hopkins David
Published: November 2023

Discussions of the relations between English writers and the classics have, whatever the precise nature of their larger assumptions or local conclusions, generally focused on the impact of classical literature and culture on those English writers’ work, whether by considering the broader effects of classical education and scholarship, or the specific responses of English writers to particular classical authors and themes. But the reception of the classics is also a topic which can have important implications when considering the afterlife of certain English writers themselves.
Dryden’s ‘Baucis and Philemon’
Authors: Hopkins David
Published: November 2023

In a letter to William Wycherley of 26 December 1704, Alexander Pope wrote of Dryden that ‘those Scribblers who attack’d him in his latter times, were only like Gnats in a Summer’s evening, which are never very troublesome but in the finest and most glorious Season; (for his fire, like the Sun’s, shin’d clearest towards its setting).’ Pope’s remark may seem strange to the modern reader accustomed to regard Dryden as primarily a political poet, and the satires and religious poems of the 1680s as the summit and core of his achievement. However, Pope’s would have been the more familiar view to readers in the century after Dryden’s death. The poet’s friend Sir Samuel Garth wrote in 1717 that ‘as his earlier Works wanted no Maturity, so his latter wanted no Force, or Spirit.’ Similarly, and in the same year, William Congreve, another friend, and Dryden’s chosen literary heir, wrote that Dryden’s ‘Parts did not decline with his Years: But ... he was an improving Writer to his last, even to near seventy Years of Age; improving in Fire and Imagination, as well as in Judgement: Witness his Ode on St. Cecilia’s Day, and his Fables, his latest Performances’.