bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Surface-exposed C-terminal amino acids of the small coat protein of Cowpea mosaic virus are required for suppression of silencing
Authors: Cañizares M. Carmen , Taylor Kathryn M. , Lomonossoff George P.
Published: October 2004

The small (S) coat protein of Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) has been identified previously as a virus-encoded suppressor of post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS). Deletions within the C-terminal 24 aa of this protein affect the yield and systemic spread of the virus, suggesting that the C-terminal amino acids of the S protein, which are exposed on the surface of assembled virus particles, may be responsible for the suppressor activity. To investigate this, versions of CPMV RNA-2 with deletions at the C terminus of the S protein were tested for their ability to counteract PTGS in leaf-patch tests. The results showed that the C-terminal 16 aa of the S protein are particularly important for suppressing PTGS and that these amino acids are virus-specific and cannot be substituted by the equivalent sequence from the related virus Bean pod mottle virus.
Codon usage bias from tRNA's point of view: Redundancy, specialization, and efficient decoding for translation optimization
Authors: Rocha Eduardo P.C.
Published: October 2004

The selection-mutation-drift theory of codon usage plays a major role in the theory of molecular evolution by explaining the co-evolution of codon usage bias and tRNA content in the framework of translation optimization. Because most studies have focused only on codon usage, we analyzed the tRNA gene pool of 102 bacterial species. We show that as minimal generation times get shorter, the genomes contain more tRNA genes, but fewer anticodon species. Surprisingly, despite the wide G+C variation of bacterial genomes these anticodons are the same in most genomes. This suggests an optimization of the translation machinery to use a small subset of optimal codons and anticodons in fast-growing bacteria and in highly expressed genes. As a result, the overrepresented codons in highly expressed genes tend to be the same in very different genomes to match the same most-frequent anticodons. This is particularly important in fast-growing bacteria, which have higher codon usage bias in these genes. Three models were tested to understand the choice of codons recognized by the same anticodons, all providing significant fit, but under different classes of genes and genomes. Thus, co-evolution of tRNA gene composition and codon usage bias in genomes seen from tRNA's point of view agrees with the selection-mutation-drift theory. However, it suggests a much more universal trend in the evolution of anticodon and codon choice than previously thought. It also provides new evidence that a selective force for the optimization of the translation machinery is the maximization of growth.
Mismatch Between What Is Expected and What Actually Occurs Triggers Memory Reconsolidation or Extinction
Authors: Pedreira María Eugenia , Pérez-Cuesta Luis María , Maldonado Héctor
Published: October 2004

In previous experiments on contextual memory, we proposed that the unreinforced re-exposure to the learning context (conditioned stimulus, CS) acts as a switch guiding the memory course toward reconsolidation or extinction, depending on reminder duration. This proposal implies that the system computes the total exposure time to the context, from CS onset to CS offset, and therefore, that the reminder presentation must be terminated for the switching mechanism to become operative. Here we investigated to what extent this requirement is necessary, and we explored the relation between diverse phases in the reconsolidation and extinction processes. We used the contextual memory model of the crabChasmagnathuswhich involves an association between the learning context (CS) and a visual danger stimulus (unconditioned stimulus, US). Administration of cycloheximide was used to test the lability state of memory at different time points. The results show that two factors, no-reinforcement during the reminder (i.e., CS re-exposure) and CS offset are the necessary conditions for both processes to occur. Regardless of the reminder duration, memory retrieved by unreinforced CS re-exposure emerges intact and consolidated when tested before CS offset, suggesting that neither reconsolidation nor extinction is concomitant with CS re-exposure. Either process could only be triggered once the definitive mismatch between CS and US is confirmed by CS termination without the expected reinforcement.
Generalization of Extinguished Skin Conductance Responding in Human Fear Conditioning
Authors: Vervliet Bram , Vansteenwegen Debora , Eelen Paul
Published: October 2004

In a human fear conditioning paradigm using the skin conductance response
(SCR), participants were assigned to two groups. Following identical
acquisition, group ABA (n = 16) was extinguished to a generalization
stimulus (GS), whereas group AAB (n = 20) was extinguished to the
conditioned stimulus (CS). At test, presenting the CS in group ABA yielded a
strongly recovered SCR. Presenting the GS in group AAB, on the other hand, did
not disrupt the effects of extinction. We conclude that extinguishing the CS
(group AAB) is an efficient strategy to overcome the stimulus specificity of
extinction observed otherwise (group ABA). Clinical implications are
discussed.
Spontaneous Recovery
Authors: Rescorla Robert A.
Published: October 2004

Spontaneous recovery from extinction is one of the most basic phenomena of
Pavlovian conditioning. Although it can be studied by using a variety of
designs, some procedures are better than others for identifying the
involvement of underlying learning processes. A wide range of different
learning mechanisms has been suggested as being engaged by extinction, most of
which have implications for the nature of spontaneous recovery. However,
despite the centrality of the notion of spontaneous recovery to the
understanding of extinction, the empirical literature on its determinants is
relatively sparse and quite mixed. Its very ubiquity suggests that spontaneous
recovery has multiple sources.
Postextinction Infusion of a Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Inhibitor Into the Medial Prefrontal Cortex Impairs Memory of the Extinction of Conditioned Fear
Authors: Hugues Sandrine , Deschaux Olivier , Garcia René
Published: October 2004

We investigated whether postextinction training infusion of PD098059, a
selective inhibitor of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation,
into the medial prefrontal cortex, would impair retention of extinction
learning in rats. We found that immediate, but not late (2 or 4 h),
postextinction infusion of PD098059 provoked a full return of conditioned
freezing. These results suggest that activation of prefrontal MAPK in early
stages of postextinction training participates in processes that protect
against spontaneous recovery of aversive responses.
Reinstatement of Extinguished Conditioned Responses and Negative Stimulus Valence as a Pathway to Return of Fear in Humans
Authors: Dirikx Trinette , Hermans Dirk , Vansteenwegen Debora , Baeyens Frank , Eelen Paul
Published: October 2004

The present study investigated reinstatement of conditioned responses in
humans by using a differential Pavlovian conditioning procedure. Evidence for
reinstatement was established in a direct (fear rating) and in an indirect
measure (secondary reaction time task) of conditioning. Moreover, the amount
of reinstatement in the secondary reaction time task was significantly
correlated with the difference in valence between the conditioned stimulus
(CS)+ and the CS-after extinction. These data provide clear evidence for
reinstatement and for the role of negative stimulus valence in the return of
conditioned responding after extinction.
Inactivation of the Anterior Cingulate Cortex Impairs Extinction of Rabbit Jaw Movement Conditioning and Prevents Extinction-Related Inhibition of Hippocampal Activity
Authors: Griffin Amy L. , Berry Stephen D.
Published: October 2004

Although past research has highlighted the involvement of limbic structures such as the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and hippocampus in learning, few have addressed the nature of their interaction. The current study of rabbit jaw movement conditioning used a combination of reversible lesions and electrophysiology to examine the involvement of the hippocampus and the ACC during acquisition, performance, and extinction. We found that microinfusions of procaine into the ACC did not significantly alter the rate of behavioral learning or the amplitude of hippocampal conditioned unit responses, but that they disrupted the rhythmic periodicity of conditioned jaw movements. During extinction, whereas controls showed a rapid decline in behavioral CRs and active inhibition of hippocampal unit responses, ACC lesioned rabbits showed a persistence of conditioning-related hippocampal activity and behavioral responding. The results show that the ACC can be important for adaptive suppression of conditioned behavior and suggest a crucial physiological modulation of hippocampus by ACC during extinction.
Delayed Recall of Fear Extinction in Rats With Lesions of Ventral Medial Prefrontal Cortex
Authors: Lebrón Kelimer , Milad Mohammed R. , Quirk Gregory J.
Published: October 2004

Extinction of auditory fear conditioning is thought to form a new memory.
We previously found that rats with vmPFC lesions could extinguish fear to the
tone within a session, but showed no recall of extinction 24 h later. One
interpretation is that the vmPFC is the sole storage site of extinction
memory. However, it is also possible that lesioned rats were unable to
retrieve extinction memory stored in other structures. To determine if a
latent extinction memory could be retrieved with additional training, we
repeated the experiment but added an additional 5 d of extinction reminder
trials. Replicating our previous findings, vmPFC-lesioned rats extinguished
normally on day 1, but showed no recall of extinction on day 2. Over the next
5 d, however, lesioned rats showed significant savings in their rate of
re-extinction. Thus, the vmPFC is not the only site where extinction memory is
stored. Nevertheless, lesioned rats receiving only two extinction trials per
day required twice as many days to initiate extinction as controls. Although
recall of extinction is possible without the vmPFC, it is significantly
delayed. We suggest that the vmPFC accelerates extinction by permitting access
to recently learned extinction trials, thereby maximizing behavioral
flexibility.
Context and Behavioral Processes in Extinction: Table 1.
Authors: Bouton Mark E.
Published: October 2004

This article provides a selective review and integration of the behavioral
literature on Pavlovian extinction. The first part reviews evidence that
extinction does not destroy the original learning, but instead generates new
learning that is especially context-dependent. The second part examines
insights provided by research on several related behavioral phenomena (the
interference paradigms, conditioned inhibition, and inhibition despite
reinforcement). The final part examines four potential causes of extinction:
the discrimination of a new reinforcement rate, generalization decrement,
response inhibition, and violation of a reinforcer expectation. The data are
consistent with behavioral models that emphasize the role of generalization
decrement and expectation violation, but would be more so if those models were
expanded to better accommodate the finding that extinction involves a
context-modulated form of inhibitory learning.
Emotional Perseveration: An Update on Prefrontal-Amygdala Interactions in Fear Extinction
Authors: Sotres-Bayon Francisco , Bush David E.A. , LeDoux Joseph E.
Published: October 2004

Fear extinction refers to the ability to adapt as situations change by learning to suppress a previously learned fear. This process involves a gradual reduction in the capacity of a fear-conditioned stimulus to elicit fear by presenting the conditioned stimulus repeatedly on its own. Fear extinction is context-dependent and is generally considered to involve the establishment of inhibitory control of the prefrontal cortex over amygdala-based fear processes. In this paper, we review research progress on the neural basis of fear extinction with a focus on the role of the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex. We evaluate two competing hypotheses for how the medial prefrontal cortex inhibits amygdala output. In addition, we present new findings showing that lesions of the basal amygdala do not affect fear extinction. Based on this result, we propose an updated model for integrating hippocampal-based contextual information with prefrontal-amygdala circuitry.
Cognitive Processes in Extinction: Figure 1
Authors: Lovibond Peter F.
Published: October 2004

Human conditioning research shows that learning is closely related to consciously available contingency knowledge, requires attentional resources, and is influenced by language. This research suggests a cognitive model in which extinction consists of changes in contingency beliefs in long-term memory. Laboratory and clinical evidence on extinction is briefly reviewed, and it is concluded that the evidence supports the cognitive position. There is little evidence for a separate, noncognitive conditioning system. The primary implication for neural analysis is that learning and extinction are unlikely to be reducible to direct connections in which one stimulus simply activates or inhibits the memory representation of another. Rather, an adequate neural model will involve the integration of both low-level and high-level systems, including attention, representation of stimulus relations in long-term memory, and a dynamic performance mechanism based on anticipation, not just activation.
Lesions of Rat Infralimbic Cortex Enhance Recovery and Reinstatement of an Appetitive Pavlovian Response
Authors: Rhodes Sarah E.V. , Killcross Simon
Published: October 2004

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) has a well-established role in the inhibition
of inappropriate responding, and evidence suggests that the infralimbic (IL)
region of the rat medial PFC (MPFC) may be involved in some aspects of
extinction of conditioned fear. MPFC lesions including, but not those sparing
the IL cortex increase spontaneous recovery of extinguished conditioned fear
when tested 24 h after an initial extinction session. The current experiment
extended these findings by use of appetitive rather than aversive
conditioning. Ten IL-lesioned and 11 sham-operated rats were trained on a
Pavlovian task in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) was followed by food
pellets (the unconditioned stimulus or US). IL lesions had no effect on
extinction of the conditioned response (CR, magazine entries) during the first
extinction session. However, the level of spontaneous recovery between the
first extinction session and a second, 24 h later, was increased in
IL-lesioned rats relative to sham animals. In contrast, evidence of savings
measured between the extinction sessions did not differ between groups.
Furthermore, reinstatement of the CR following unsignaled delivery of the US
was also increased in IL-lesioned rats.
Brain Mechanisms of Extinction of the Classically Conditioned Eyeblink Response
Authors: Robleto Karla , Poulos Andrew M. , Thompson Richard F.
Published: October 2004

It is well established that the cerebellum and its associated circuitry are essential for classical conditioning of the eyeblink response and other discrete motor responses (e.g., limb flexion, head turn, etc.) learned with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US). However, brain mechanisms underlying extinction of these responses are still relatively unclear. Behavioral studies have demonstrated extinction as an active learning process distinct from acquisition. Experimental data in eyeblink conditioning suggest that plastic changes specific to extinction may play an important role in this process. Both cerebellar and hippocampal systems may be involved in extinction of these memories. The nature of this phenomenon and identification of the neural substrates necessary for extinction of originally learned responses is the topic of this review.
Extinction Training Regulates Neuroadaptive Responses to Withdrawal from Chronic Cocaine Self-Administration
Authors: Self David W. , Choi Kwang-Ho , Simmons Diana , Walker John R. , Smagula Cynthia S.
Published: October 2004

Cocaine produces multiple neuroadaptations with chronic repeated use. Many
of these neuroadaptations can be reversed or normalized by extinction training
during withdrawal from chronic cocaine self-administration in rats. This
article reviews our past and present studies on extinction-induced modulation
of the neuroadaptive response to chronic cocaine in the mesolimbic dopamine
system, and the role of this modulation in addictive behavior in rats.
Extinction training normalizes tyrosine hydroxylase levels in the nucleus
accumbens (NAc) shell, an effect that could help ameliorate dysphoria and
depression associated with withdrawal from chronic cocaine use. Extinction
training also increases levels of GluR1 and GluR2/3 AMPA receptor subunits,
while normalizing deficits in NR1 NMDA receptor subunits, in a manner
consistent with long-term potentiation of excitatory synapses in the NAc
shell. Our results suggest that extinction-induced increases in AMPA and NMDA
receptors may restore deficits in cortico-accumbal neurotransmission in the
NAc shell and facilitate inhibitory control over cocaine-seeking behavior.
Other changes identified by gene expression profiling, including up-regulation
in the AMPA receptor aggregating protein Narp, suggest that extinction
training induces extensive synaptic reorganization. These studies highlight
potential benefits for extinction training procedures in the treatment of drug
addiction.
Spontaneous Recovery After Extinction of the Conditioned Proboscis Extension Response in the Honeybee
Authors: Sandoz Jean-Christophe , Pham-Delègue Minh-Hà
Published: October 2004

In honeybees, the proboscis extension response (PER) can be conditioned by associating an odor stimulus (CS) to a sucrose reward (US). Conditioned responses to the CS, which are acquired by most bees after a single CS-US pairing, disappear after repeated unrewarded presentations of the CS, a process called extinction. Extinction is usually thought to be based either on (1) the disruption of the stored CS-US association, or (2) the formation of an inhibitory “CS-no US” association that is better retrieved than the initial CS-US association. The observation of spontaneous recovery, i.e., the reappearance of responses to the CS after time passes following extinction, is traditionally interpreted as a proof for the formation of a transient inhibitory association. To provide a better understanding of extinction in honeybees, we examined whether time intervals during training and extinction or the number of conditioning and extinction trials have an effect on the occurrence of spontaneous recovery. We found that spontaneous recovery mostly occurs when conditioning and testing took place in a massed fashion (1-min intertrial intervals). Moreover, spontaneous recovery depended on the time elapsed since extinction, 1 h being an optimum. Increasing the number of conditioning trials improved the spontaneous recovery level, whereas increasing the number of extinction trials reduced it. Lastly, we show that after single-trial conditioning, spontaneous recovery appears only once after extinction. These elements suggest that in honeybees extinction of the PER actually reflects the impairment of the CS-US association, but that depending on training parameters different memory substrates are affected.
Reversal of Motor Learning in the Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex in the Absence of Visual Input
Authors: Cohen Marlene R. , Meissner Geoffrey W. , Schafer Robert J. , Raymond Jennifer L.
Published: October 2004

Motor learning in the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) and eyeblink
conditioning use similar neural circuitry, and they may use similar cellular
plasticity mechanisms. Classically conditioned eyeblink responses undergo
extinction after prolonged exposure to the conditioned stimulus in the absence
of the unconditioned stimulus. We investigated the possibility that a process
similar to extinction may reverse learned changes in the VOR. We induced a
learned alteration of the VOR response in rhesus monkeys using magnifying or
miniaturizing goggles, which caused head movements to be accompanied by visual
image motion. After learning, head movements in the absence of visual
stimulation caused a loss of the learned eye movement response. When the
learned gain was low, this reversal of learning occurred only when head
movements were delivered, and not when the head was held stationary in the
absence of visual input, suggesting that this reversal is mediated by an
active, extinction-like process.
Extinction Memory Improvement by the Metabolic Enhancer Methylene Blue
Authors: Gonzalez-Lima F. , Bruchey Aleksandra K.
Published: October 2004

We investigated whether postextinction administration of methylene blue
(MB) could enhance retention of an extinguished conditioned response. MB is a
redox compound that at low doses elevates cytochrome oxidase activity, thereby
improving brain energy production. Saline or MB (4 mg/kg intraperitoneally)
were administered to rats for 5 d following extinction training of
tone-footshock conditioning. Postextinction freezing was lower in rats
receiving MB compared with saline, suggesting that MB improved retention of
the extinction memory. The MB effect was specific to tone-evoked freezing
because there were no differences in pretone freezing. Control subjects
similarly injected with MB showed no evidence of nonspecific effects on
measures of motor activity and fearfulness. MB-treated rats exhibited both
greater retention of extinction and greater overall brain metabolic activity.
Rats with higher retention of extinction also showed a relative increase in
cytochrome oxidase activity in prefrontal cortical regions, especially
anterior infralimbic cortex, dorsal and medial frontal cortex, and lateral
orbital cortex. These regional metabolic increases were also correlated to the
behavioral freezing index used to assess retention of extinction. It was
concluded that MB administered postextinction could enhance retention of
extinction memory through an increase in brain cytochrome oxidase
activity.
Extinction as New Learning Versus Unlearning: Considerations from a Computer Simulation of the Cerebellum
Authors: Mauk Michael D. , Ohyama Tatsuya
Published: October 2004

Like many forms of Pavlovian conditioning, eyelid conditioning displays robust extinction. We used a computer simulation of the cerebellum as a tool to consider the widely accepted view that extinction involves new, inhibitory learning rather than unlearning of acquisition. Previously, this simulation suggested basic mechanistic features of extinction and savings in eyelid conditioning, with predictions born out by experiments. We review previous work showing that the simulation reproduces behavioral phenomena and lesion effects generally taken as evidence that extinction does not reverse acquisition, even though its plasticity is bidirectional with no site dedicated to inhibitory learning per se. In contrast, we show that even though the sites of plasticity are, in general, affected in opposite directions by acquisition and extinction training, most synapses do not return to their naive state after acquisition followed by extinction. These results suggest caution in interpreting a range of observations asnecessarilysupporting extinction as unlearning or extinction as new inhibitory learning. We argue that the question “is extinction reversal of acquisition or new inhibitory learning?” is therefore not well posed because the answer may depend on factors such as the brain system in question or the level of analysis considered.
Bringing religious traditions into educational theory: Making an example of Joseph Smith, jr.
Authors: Warnick Bryan R.
Published: October 2004

Educational theorists should engage more deeply with normative religious traditions because people often consult their traditions for guidance about education. Projects that work within such traditions, however, often seem irrelevant or irrational to those on the outside. In contrast, I argue that there are at least three intellectually respectable approaches to religious engagement in mainstream educational theory. I focus on what I call the “educational religious criticism” approach, and, as an example, I offer an analysis of Joseph Smith, Jr., the Mormon prophet. I discuss the controversial question of whether Joseph Smith brings forward any resources for living in a pluralistic society. I draw a parallel between Mormonism and American pragmatism and show (1) that Joseph's thought is, in many ways, radically pluralistic, (2) that he attempts to find unity in this plurality in mediating “deliberative councils,” and (3) that education should be aimed at developing the ethos of council. After developing this example, I offer some reflections on the function of “religious criticism” in educational theory.
Paying attention to attention: New economies for learning
Authors: De Castell Suzanne , Jenson Jennifer
Published: October 2004

Challenging formal education's traditional monopoly over the mass‐scale acculturation of youth, the technological infrastructure of the new economy brings in its wake a new “attentional economy” in which any “connected” adult or child owns and controls a full economic share of her or his own attention. For youth who have never known the text‐bound world from which their elders have come, new technologies afford them far greater power and greatly expanded rights that enable them to decide for themselves what they can see, think, and do, as their teachers grapple with ways to attract, rather than compel, students' voluntary attention. This paper reviews various formulations of “attentional economy,” and it urges the study of popular forms of technologically enabled play. These technologies effectively mobilize, direct, and sustain the engaged attention of youth, whose learning in and through play far exceeds the kind of glazed‐eyed button‐mashing complained of by those who have made little effort to understand the educative prospects of computer gaming.
Training aesthetic perception: John Dewey on the educational role of art museums
Authors: Costantino Tracie E.
Published: October 2004

In this article I examine Dewey's ambivalent attitude toward art museums — criticizing their existence as repositories for the rich, while exploring their educational potential — by analyzing Dewey's comments on museums in various texts, by relating his ideas to museum education theories and practice of the time, and by exploring his involvement with Albert Barnes and the Barnes Foundation. Specifically, I discuss how these men influenced each other and consider possible reasons for Dewey's involvement with a “capitalist collector” such as Barnes. This examination is placed within the broader context of Dewey's philosophy of art as experience. An analysis of these issues is especially relevant at the present time, given that museums are increasingly involved in K‐12 education through outreach and professional development programs, in addition to school tours.
Plurealism and education: Israel Scheffler's synthesis and its presumable educational implications
Authors: Holma Katariina
Published: October 2004

Israel Scheffler, one of the most important figures in the history of philosophy of education in the United States, has recently introduced an interesting idea in terms of the long‐standing debate between constructivism and realism. Scheffler's idea has its roots in his debate with Nelson Goodman, his Harvard colleague, who defended thoroughgoing constructivism and pluralism (a fusion he termed “irrealism”). Scheffler describes his plurealism as a synthesis of Peircean “monistic realism” and Goodmanian “pluralist irrealism.” This article elaborates the possible educational implications of all three of these positions: constructivism, realism, and plurealism. Scheffler's idea of plurealism is educationally rewarding since it preserves Goodmanian pluralism without slipping into his voluntarism or relativism. In educational terms, plurealism implies, first, the value of different ways to both see and describe the world and, second, the independent importance of different realms of science as well as other areas of human understanding. As a version of realism, it indicates that we can evaluate and improve our understanding of reality.
Transport Infrastructure, Agglomeration Economies, and Firm Birth: Empirical Evidence from Portugal*
Authors: Holl Adelheid
Published: October 2004

Abstract.  This paper uses municipality‐level data to study firm birth in Portugal from 1986 to 1997. This is a period of significant improvements to the Portuguese motorway network raising important questions as to its impact on the spatial pattern of firm birth. The paper focuses on the effect of such large‐scale road investment together with the role played by agglomeration economies for firm birth in 13 industry sectors and 9 service sectors. Motorways increase the attractiveness of locations close to the new infrastructure for most sectors. However, marked differences among sectors exist in the way transport improvements affect geographical firm‐birth concentration. The results also indicate that a more diversified local economic environment encourages firm birth, but little evidence is found for agglomeration benefits stemming from sectoral specialization at the local level.
Encouraging voices: listening to young people who have been marginalised
Authors: ROSE RICHARD , SHEVLIN MICHAEL
Published: October 2004

When provided with an opportunity to reflect upon their experiences of education, young people can often offer insights into those procedures and actions which have either supported or inhibited learning. In this article Richard Rose and Michael Shevlin describe how a team of researchers came together with a group of young people from marginalized communities, including those with disabilities, from refugee families or from ethnic minorities to explore the ways in which they had been included or excluded by the education system. The project described involved a team of people drawn from the UK and the Republic of Ireland. Their work focused upon the experiences of young people who were concerned to tell their stories and, in so doing, inform teachers and education policy makers about the steps which may be taken to enable the inclusion agenda to be more thoughtfully addressed.
Visual annual reviews: how to include pupils with learning difficulties in their educational reviews
Authors: HAYES JULIA
Published: October 2004

The challenge for schools, following the Green Paper Every Child Matters (HM Treasury, 2003) and the Special Educational Needs Code of Practice (DfES, 2001), is to enable young people to give their views about matters affecting their lives. Whilst these recommendations are a welcome step to enable the effective inclusion of all young people, whatever their needs, there is little information on how this can be done, particularly in terms of making a young person's presence at a meeting meaningful and one where there is genuine regard for their views. The challenge increases if the young person has limited communication or significant learning difficulties. In this article Julia Hayes describes the development of the visual annual review, a practical, child‐centred planning tool to use in a review at a time of transition for those who may have limited understanding or language. The effectiveness of this method was evaluated following a review. The response was very positive from the staff, the pupil and the parent involved in the study. They felt that it was child‐centred, fun and accessible, whilst ensuring that all professionals had the chance to speak and chart the young person's progress.
Aiming high: the educational and occupational aspirations and of young disabled people
Authors: BURCHARDT TANIA
Published: October 2004

This article provides an overview of the aspirations and expectations disabled teenagers form for their future education and employment and the factors which are associated with positive aspirations. After reviewing what is already known about the formation of aspirations in general, and among young disabled people in particular, Tania Burchardt presents preliminary analysis from original research using two large‐scale representative surveys: the Youth Cohort Study (YCS) and the 1970 British Cohort Study (BCS70). The results indicate that young disabled people have similar aspirations to their non‐disabled counterparts, although tempered in some cases with a recognition that there are likely to be obstacles in the world of work. There is also some–tentative–evidence that young disabled people feel less well served by advice and support services. SEN coordinators in secondary schools and further education, and Connexions advisors, need to ensure that they encourage positive aspirations, especially among young people from disadvantaged backgrounds, while offering practical support in overcoming disabling barriers.
Pupil participation: the NASEN policy
Authors: LINDSAY GEOFF
Published: October 2004

NASEN is to be congratulated for developing a Policy on Pupil Participation (NASEN, 2004). The importance of developing this practice has been increasingly recognised over recent years by policy makers, practitioners and researchers. In this short article I shall address some of the issues that the development of such a policy raises. Although generally welcoming NASEN's initiatives and similar actions by other organizations, I consider it important also to review the issue more broadly.
Reasoning About Emotional and Neutral Materials
Authors: Blanchette Isabelle , Richards Anne
Published: October 2004

In two experiments, we investigated whether people reason differently when they reason about emotional and neutral contents. We gave participants a conditional reasoning task (“If p, then q”) and varied the emotionality of the items used as p and q. Participants were asked to draw inferences based on these statements. In Experiment 1, we compared statements including preexisting emotional and neutral words. In Experiment 2, we experimentally manipulated the emotionality of initially neutral words using classical conditioning. In both experiments, emotionality affected participants' responses. They were more likely to draw invalid inferences in response to emotional compared with neutral statements.
Receptive Fields for Flexible Face Categorizations
Authors: Smith Marie L. , Gosselin Frédéric , Schyns Philippe G.
Published: October 2004

Examining the receptive fields of brain signals can elucidate how information impinging on the former modulates the latter. We applied this time-honored approach in early vision to the higher-level brain processes underlying face categorizations. Electroencephalograms in response to face-information samples were recorded while observers resolved two different categorizations (gender, expressive or not). Using a method with low bias and low variance, we compared, in a common space of information states, the information determining behavior (accuracy and reaction time) with the information that modulates emergent brain signals associated with early face encoding and later category decision. Our results provide a time line for face processing in which selective attention to diagnostic information for categorizing stimuli (the eyes and their second-order relationships in gender categorization; the mouth in expressive-or-not categorization) correlates with late electrophysiological (P300) activity, whereas early face-sensitive occipitotemporal (N170) activity is mainly driven by the contralateral eye, irrespective of the categorization task.
Development of Perceptual Completion in Infancy
Authors: Johnson Scott P.
Published: October 2004

Perceptual completion consists of bridging the gaps imposed by occlusion, such as perceiving the unity of center-occluded objects. It is unknown at present what developmental mechanisms underlie the emergence of functional perceptual completion in infancy. One current debate centers on the role of visible surface motion. According to a core-principles account, perceptual completion emerges simultaneously with the onset of motion discrimination, the sole determinant of unity percepts in infants. According to a contrasting constructivist account, motion discrimination is but one of several independent inputs to perceptual completion. In the present study, 2-month-old infants were tested for both unity perception and motion discrimination in partial-occlusion displays. Motion discrimination obtained under all conditions, even under circumstances in which infants were unable to perceive completion. Four-month-olds showed marked improvements in perceptual completion, most likely because of improvements in information integration. Taken together, these findings support a constructivist view of early perceptual and cognitive development.
Large-Number Addition and Subtraction by 9-Month-Old Infants
Authors: McCrink Koleen , Wynn Karen
Published: October 2004

Do genuinely numerical computational abilities exist in infancy? It has recently been argued that previous studies putatively illustrating infants' ability to add and subtract tapped into specialized object-tracking processes that apply only with small numbers. This argument contrasts with the original interpretation that successful performance was achieved via a numerical system for estimating and calculating magnitudes. Here, we report that when continuous variables (such as area and contour length) are controlled, 9-month-old infants successfully add and subtract over numbers of items that exceed object-tracking limits. These results support the theory that infants possess a magnitude-based estimation system for representing numerosities that also supports procedures for numerical computation.
Individual Differences in Leadership Emergence: Integrating Meta‐Analytic Findings and Behavioral Genetics Estimates
Authors: Ilies Remus , Gerhardt Megan W. , Le Huy
Published: October 2004

This paper investigates the extent to which differences in the likelihood of emerging as leaders are explained by genetic differences between individuals. Results indicated that approximately 17% of the variance in the latent construct of leadership emergence is explained by genetic effects that are mediated by intelligence and the Big Five personality traits. Because intelligence and the Big Five do not mediate all genetic influences on leadership emergence (other genetically‐influenced personal characteristics, such as height and attractiveness, are likely to mediate genetic effects on leadership emergence), the heritability estimate obtained in this study represents a lower‐bound estimate of the genetic influences on leadership emergence.
Why Openness to Experience is not a Good Predictor of Job Performance
Authors: Griffin Barbara , Hesketh Beryl
Published: October 2004

Recent meta‐analyses investigating the relationship between personality and job performance have found that openness to experience is the least predictive of the Big Five factors. Unlike other research that has sought to explain the low criterion‐validity with relation to job performance, this study explores the actual construct of openness to experience, suggesting that it consists of two dimensions that relate differentially to job performance thus reducing correlations between overall measures of openness to experience and performance criteria. Exploratory factor analysis of the six sub‐dimensions, or facets, of the NEO PI‐R (a popular measure of the Big Five factors) produced two factors of openness to experience corresponding to different areas to which people are open. A confirmatory factor analysis on a second set of data provided some support for this result. A pattern of differential relationships between the two factors and other variables including personality, biodata and supervisor‐rated performance offered further support for the multidimensionality of openness to experience. The implications of these findings for future research in the selection context are discussed.
An Integrative Analysis of Person–Organization Fit Theories
Authors: Westerman James W. , Cyr Linda A.
Published: October 2004

This study provides an integrative analysis of three approaches to person–organization (P–O) fit theory and measurement: values congruence and personality congruence (supplementary fit measures), and work environment congruence (a needs–supplies fit measure). Commensurate measures of each aspect of fit were collected from 105 employees in six organizations in the western United States. Values congruence and work environment congruence were both related to job satisfaction and organizational commitment, but personality congruence was not. All three fit measures were related to employees' intent to remain with their employer, although this effect was generally mediated by satisfaction and commitment. When multiple fit measures were used in a single analysis, values congruence and work environment congruence had the strongest and most consistent effects on the outcome measures. These results suggest a revised, multidimensional model of P–O fit.
The Impact of Job Complexity and Study Design on Situational and Behavior Description Interview Validity
Authors: Huffcutt Allen I. , Conway James M. , Roth Philip L. , Klehe Ute‐Christine
Published: October 2004

The primary purpose of this investigation was to test two key characteristics hypothesized to influence the validity of situational (SI) and behavior description (BDI) structured interviews. A meta‐analysis of 54 studies with a total sample size of 5536 suggested that job complexity influences the validity of SIs, with decreased validity for high‐complexity jobs, but does not influence the validity of BDIs. And, results indicated a main effect for study design across both SIs and BDIs, with predictive studies having 0.10 lower validity on average than concurrent studies. Directions for future research are discussed.
Online Testing: Mode of Administration and the Stability of OPQ 32i Scores
Authors: Bartram Dave , Brown Anna
Published: October 2004

This study explores the equivalence of web‐based administration with no local supervision and traditional paper‐and‐pencil supervised versions of OPQ32i (the ipsative format version of the Occupational Personality Questionnaire). Samples of data were collected from a range of client projects and matched in terms of industry sector, assessment purpose (selection or development) and candidate category (graduate or managerial/professional). The analysis indicates that lack of local supervision in high‐stakes situations has little if any impact on scale scores. At worst, some scales appear to show shifts of less than quarter of an SD, with most scales showing little change, if any. Analyses in terms of the Big Five show differences of less than .2 of an SD. Scale reliabilities and scale covariances appear to be unaffected by the differences between the supervised and unsupervised administration conditions.
Construct Validity Evidence for the Intercultural Readiness Check against the Multicultural Personality Questionnaire
Authors: Van Der Zee Karen I. , Brinkmann Ursula
Published: October 2004

The psychometric qualities of the intercultural readiness check (IRC) were evaluated against an existing instrument for multicultural effectiveness: the Multicultural Personality Questionnaire (MPQ). The IRC has scales for intercultural sensitivity, intercultural communication, intercultural relationship building, conflict management, leadership and tolerance of ambiguity. A sample of in majority employees who were trained for an international position (N=137) participated in the study. The IRC scales were moderately to sufficiently reliable. Correlations with the MPQ scales were in the expected direction. Both instruments were equally strongly related to international inspiration, with open‐mindedness (MPQ) and intercultural sensitivity (IRC) as most important predictors. The IRC scales explained more variance in international experience.
The Influence of Prescription Drug Use on Long‐Term Care Insurance Ownership
Authors: Bernet Patrick Michael
Published: October 2004

Abstract

Long‐term care insurance (LTCI) can be an effective way of protecting individual assets from nonacute medical costs not covered by traditional health insurance. Prior research suggests a number of economic, health, and family structure factors related to the decision to purchase LTCI. Theories that health and income shocks precipitate precautionary saving introduce the possibility that prescription drug use may also play a role in such decisions. Findings that poor health increases the propensity to insure against risk in asset holdings provide another possible relation to LTCI. This study extends prior research to investigate the link between the routine use of prescription drugs and the decision to purchase LTCI. Using data from the Health and Retirement Survey, logistic regression is employed to test the significance of LTCI policy ownership determinants. In addition to lending empirical support to theories on intrafamily moral hazard, results indicate that there is a positive relationship between routine drug use and LTCI purchase decisions.
A Pedagogical Note on Risk Framing
Authors: Barth Michael M. , Hatem John J. , Yang Bill Z.
Published: October 2004

Abstract

This article presents several classroom games that help illustrate the effect of risk framing on choices under uncertainty. These games are presented in the context of Kahneman and Tversky's prospect theory that is an alternative to the traditional expected utility theory. Expected utility theory is a prescriptive model of decision making that explains how people should react to risk, while prospect theory is a descriptive model that explains how people actually do react to risk. These classroom games can be used in introductory risk management courses, insurance courses, and financial risk management courses to help students to understand the effect of context on choices made under uncertainty. Although results from actual classroom experiments are included, these results are not meant to be indicative of normal results but are rather illustrative of the type of results that may arise when alternative framing contexts are used.
Risk Aversion and the Willingness to Pay for Insurance: A Cautionary Discussion of Adverse Selection
Authors: Eisenhauer Joseph G.
Published: October 2004

Abstract

Textbooks frequently describe adverse selection as an almost inevitable feature of insurance markets with heterogeneous buyers and asymmetric information. But if low‐risk applicants are more risk averse than their high‐risk counterparts, the former may be as willing or more willing than the latter to purchase insurance at any given price. The present article discusses this possibility in several forms suitable for different levels of instruction, to help bridge the gap between insurance education and current research on this topic.
A User‐Friendly Introduction to Property‐Casualty Claim Reserves
Authors: Calandro Joseph , O'Brien Thomas J.
Published: October 2004

Abstract

Property‐casualty (P&C) claim reserves are financial statement liabilities that represent estimated future claims. An understanding of P&C reserves is important to both risk managers and investment analysts, since this information is crucial in assessing solvency and value. We review some basics of P&C reserves, and add some of our own thoughts, in a way that tries to be user‐friendly for practitioners and students.