bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A LONGITUDINAL ANALYSIS OF BIOGRAPHICAL SUBGROUPS USING OWENS' DEVELOPMENTAL‐INTEGRATIVE MODEL
Authors: DAVIS KERMIT R.
Published: December 2006

The study examined the differential validity of 20 male and 14 female biographical subgroups in terms of 12 factor analyzed dimensions of postcollege experience. Owens' Developmental‐Integrative Model hypothesizes that different subgroups of individuals with similar within‐group early life experiences should exhibit significant differences (between‐group) in a wide variety of life experiences. A sample of 1428 first‐year college students were statistically grouped into 23 male and 15 female biodata subgroups after completing a standardized 118‐item biodata form (Owens, 1968). Seven years later, a 97‐item post‐college experience inventory obtained scores for 484 of the original subjects on 12 factors of post‐college behavior including job satisfaction, transition from college, personal and marital adjustment, and others. Significant univariate and multivariate differences were found between the biodata subgroups across the 7‐year period. Implications for the validity of the D‐I model are offered.
COST‐BENEFIT CONSIDERATIONS IN CHOOSING AMONG CROSS‐VALIDATION METHODS
Authors: MURPHY KEVIN R.
Published: December 2006

There are two general methods of cross‐validation: (a) empirical estimation, and (b) formula estimation. In choosing a specific cross‐validation procedure, one should consider both costs (eg. inefficient use of available data in estimating regression parameters) and benefits (eg. accuracy in estimating population cross‐validity). Empirical cross‐validation methods involve significant costs, since they are typically laborious and wasteful of data, but under conditions represented in Monte Carlo studies, they are generally not more accurate than formula estimates. Consideration of costs and benefits suggests that empirical estimation methods are typically not worth the cost, except in a limited number of cases in which Monte Carlo sampling assumptions are not met in the derivation sample. Designs which use multiple samples to estimate the cross‐validity of a single regression equation are clearly preferable to single‐sample designs; the latter are never expected to be more accurate than formula estimates and thus are never worth the cost. Multi‐equation designs are more accurate than single equation designs, but they appear to estimate the wrong parameter, and thus are difficult to interpret.
THE EFFECTS OF GOAL‐CONTINGENT PAYMENT ON THE PERFORMANCE OF A COMPLEX TASK1
Authors: CAMPBELL DONALD J.
Published: December 2006

Using a highly complex, computerized decision‐making task, 56 university students participated in a six‐week long, repeated measures, goal‐setting project, involving different payment systems. Results indicated that goal‐contingent payment is superior to hourly payment in influencing performance, even though the perceived valence of payment and the actual amount paid is substantially less. Discussion pointed out the limitations of the findings, including some basic equivocality in determining why such results were obtained. Discussion then focused on the implications of the findings for future investigations.
THE ROLE OF LOCUS OF CONTROL IN LEADER INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR1
Authors: JOHNSON AVIS L. , LUTHANS FRED , HENNESSEY HARRY W.
Published: December 2006

This study investigated whether the leader's locus of control moderated the relationship between perceived leader influence behaviors and certain subordinate outcome variables. The results showed that locus of control did significantly moderate the effect of supervisor influence on productivity and subordinate satisfaction with supervision. The difference in satisfaction with supervision was more extreme at high levels of subordinate perceived supervisor influence on productivity. Implications for supervisor training are discussed.
VALIDITY GENERALIZATION: A REVIEW AND CRITIQUE OF THE CORRELATION MODEL
Authors: BURKE MICHAEL J.
Published: December 2006

This paper presents a review and critique of the validity generalization research based on the correlation model. Emphasis was placed on integrating the applied validity generalization studies as well as the computer simulation studies which have tested the accuracy of the various validity generalization procedures in estimating the mean and variance of true validity coefficients. In general, this review indicated that the validity generalization procedures are fairly accurate in estimating the mean and variance of true validities, that the preponderance (e.g., 90%) of corrected validity coefficients for a single predictor‐criterion relationship, based on a series of cumulative studies, when placed in distributional form are positive, and that a substantial proportion of observed validity coefficient variation can be attributed to statistical artifacts with sampling error accounting for the majority of the artifactual variance. Moreover, potential problems with validity generalization/meta analysis based on criterion‐related validity coefficients were discussed. It was concluded that validity general‐ization/meta‐analysis is an important development in summarizing cumulative research, however, caution should be exercised in utilizing and interpreting the findings of such analyses. Directions for future research aimed at establishing trait‐performance relationships were discussed.
GRIEVANCES: A REVIEW OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE
Authors: GORDON MICHAEL E. , MILLER SANDRA J.
Published: December 2006

Behavioral and industrial relations literature on grievances were reviewed. As a result, serious methodological, theoretical, and ethical questions were raised. Fundamental research is required to establish the reliability of grievance phenomena. Further, the use of grievance data as criteria is dubious because of conceptual problems of deficiency and contamination. Given existing threats to traditional grievance systems, basic research, especially program evaluation, on proposed structural and behavior variants of grievance procedures is necessary.
EDUCATION, MANAGEMENT STYLE, AND ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS
Authors: LAWLER EDWARD E.
Published: December 2006

This paper examines the relationship between education, management style, and organizational effectiveness. The increasing education level in the society is pointed to as a strong force toward a more participative management style. However, it is stressed that much of the education which is taking place in the United States may not equip people to participate effectively in a more democratically managed workplace. Finally, a model of a new more participative management style is presented and its relationship to education and skills is explicated.
ALTERNATE METHODS OF ESTIMATING THE DOLLAR VALUE OF PERFORMANCE
Authors: EATON NEWELL K. , WING HILDA , MITCHELL KAREN J.
Published: December 2006

The standard deviation of performance quality measured in dollars, SD$, is critical to calculating the utility of personnel decisions. A popular technique for obtaining SD$ calls for supervisor estimates of the dollar value of performance at different levels. In many cases supervisors can base their estimates on the cost of contracting out the various levels of performance. Estimation problems can arise, however, in contexts where contracting out is not possible, such as in government organizations without private industry counterparts. Estimation problems may also exist where individual salary is only a small percentage of the value of the performance to the organization or of the equipment operated. This paper presents two strategies for estimating the value of performance and for determining SD$ by considering the changes in the numbers and performance levels of system units which lead to increased aggregate performance. One hundred U.S. Army tank commanders provided data about their jobs for these two strategies as well as for the supervisor estimation and salary percentage strategies. The new strategies appear to provide more appropriate and acceptable values of SD$ for those complex, expensive systems where dollar values of performance are less easily estimated.
THE CONCEPT OF DYNAMIC CRITERIA: A CRITICAL REANALYSIS
Authors: BARRETT GERALD V. , CALDWELL MARILYN S. , ALEXANDER RALPH A.
Published: December 2006

Discussions of “the criterion problem” stress the assumedly frequent incidence of dynamic criteria. However, different concepts of dynamic criteria have not been distinguished. Three views of dynamic criteria are clarified in this paper. These are dynamic criteria conceptualized as (a) changes in group average performance over time, (b) changes in validity over time, and (c) changes in the rank‐ordering of scores on the criterion over time. The evidence cited for each concept of dynamic criteria is critically analyzed and submitted to significance tests. The results of analyses of 735 r's and 532 paired r's across time from studies pertinent to dynamic criteria are reported. It is concluded that dynamic criteria are rare phenomena, with the significant changes found in key studies explainable by methodological artifacts. Though many sources suggest that dynamic criteria have dire consequences for the overall selection process, we argue that the phenomena have been over‐emphasized in the literature, and that practitioners' concern should focus instead on removing sources of criterion unreliability.
IMPLEMENTATION OF COMPRESSED WORK SCHEDULES: PARTICIPATION AND JOB REDESIGN AS CRITICAL FACTORS FOR EMPLOYEE ACCEPTANCE
Authors: LATACK JANINA C. , FOSTER LAWRENCE W.
Published: December 2006

This paper summarizes the empirical evidence on compressed work weeks and analyzes the effects of an implementation of a three‐day/ thirty‐eight hour (3/38) work schedule among information systems personnel (N= 84). Data showed that eighteen months after implementation, 3/38 employees still strongly favor the compressed schedule. Those most likely to express favorable attitudes towards the schedule were employees who had participated in the decision to implement 3/38, those whose jobs had been enriched by the schedule change, and those with strong higher order needs. Fatigue did not appear to be a problem. The data also suggest substantial organizational payoffs including reductions in sick time, overtime, and personal leave time.
COMMUNICATION AND PARTICIPATIVE DECISION MAKING: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY
Authors: HARRISON TERESA M.
Published: December 2006

Traditional models of participative decision making neglect the role subordinates play in establishing a participative environment. In this study, participative decision making is viewed as a social phenomenon defined through interaction between superiors and subordinates. Data obtained from 264 employees of a large social service organization were used to test hypotheses predicting positive associations between participation and superior‐subordinate communication behavior. The results provide support for the contention that, for subordinates, participation in decision making is associated strongly with the quantity and quality of communication they experience with their superior. Considering the impact of superior‐subordinate communication in the establishment of participative decision making may aid in understanding what preconditions are necessary before such arrangements can become successful.
THE EFFECTS OF PSYCHOLOGICALLY BASED INTERVENTION PROGRAMS ON WORKER PRODUCTIVITY: A META‐ANALYSIS
Authors: GUZZO RICHARD A. , JETTE RICHARD D. , KATZELL RAYMOND A.
Published: December 2006

A meta‐analysis of the effects on worker productivity of 11 types of psychologically based organizational interventions showed that such programs, on average, raised worker productivity by nearly one‐half standard deviation. The strength of effects was found to vary by type of intervention, criterion of productivity, contextual factors in organizations, and features of research design. Also discussed in the paper are comparisons of conclusions reached through meta‐analysis versus traditional methods of literature review.
DIMENSIONS AND CORRELATES OF THE PERSONNEL AUDIT AS AN ORGANIZATIONAL ASSESSMENT TOOL
Authors: GOMEZ‐MEJIA LUIS R.
Published: December 2006

This study analyzes the measurement properties of the personnel audit as an organizational assessment tool and the extent to which audit results relate to important organizational criteria. The findings reported here indicate that nine dimensions can effectively summarize 37 audit measures. The composite factor scores for these dimensions predict executive perceptions of “overall organizational performance” and “overall contribution of Personnel Function,” employee “overall satisfaction with personnel services,” and to a lesser extent, “profitability per capita.” The personnel budget allotted per capita is in turn related to executive perceptions of Personnel's contributions.
TOWARD NARROWING THE RESEARCH‐PRACTICE GAP IN PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
Authors: BANKS CRISTINA G. , MURPHY KEVIN R.
Published: December 2006

Recently, performance appraisal researchers have adopted a cognitive approach to analyzing judgment processes in performance appraisal. While this approach allows researchers to tap a wealth of knowledge applicable to the appraisal context, this line of research is likely to widen the already existing gap between research and practice. We argue that coordination of the talents of researchers and practitioners is essential for narrowing the gap. Specifically, we suggest researchers focus their research on the best methods of ensuring use of relevant and valid data in appraisal, given organizational constraints. We also suggest practitioners focus on determining observable and measurable aspects of performance, and thus, specify appropriate appraisal content. We also note that cognitive process research has promise for increasing raters' ability to judge accurately, but that this approach does not necessarily address the rater's willingness to provide accurate ratings.
THE EFFECTS OF ATTRIBUTION AND SOCIAL CONTEXT ON SUPERIORS' INFLUENCE AND INTERACTION WITH LOW PERFORMING SUBORDINATES
Authors: TJOSVOLD DEAN
Published: December 2006

Organizations need to create the conditions in which superiors use their power effectively and appropriately, perhaps especially when subordinates are performing inadequately. Ninety undergraduates became managers who interacted with a low performing worker who demonstrated either insufficient ability or motivation. The managers also believed that their goals were cooperatively, individualistically, or competitively linked to the subordinate. Results identify situational variables that moderate superiors' influence. Generally, the social context affected the orientation to the subordinate in that cooperative compared to competitive superiors expected mutual assistance, communicated supportively, and gave assistance. Attribution affected the choice of influence methods and the attitudes of superiors. Superiors used threats and came to dislike the low effort subordinate, but wanted to work again with the low ability subordinate. Cooperation fostered attraction even when the other performed ineffectively, provided the reason was inadequate ability and not inadequate motivation. Evidence also suggests that competition creates a rigid response to the low performing subordinate whereas cooperative supervisors flexibly respond to the specific shortcoming of subordinates.
STATISTICAL POWER OF TRAINING EVALUATION DESIGNS
Authors: ARVEY RICHARD D. , COLE DAVID A. , HAZUCHA JOY FISHER , HARTANTO FRANS M.
Published: December 2006

Sample size requirements needed to achieve various levels of statistical power using posttest‐only, gain‐score, and analysis of covariance designs in evaluating training interventions have been developed. Results are presented which indicate that the power to detect true effects differs according to the type of design, the correlation between the pre‐ and posttest, and the size of the effect due to the training program. We show that the type of design and correlations between the pre‐ and posttest complexly determine the power curve. Finally, an estimate of typical sample sizes used in training evaluation design has been determined and reviewed to determine the power of the various designs to detect true effects, given this sample‐size specification. Recommendations for type of design are provided based on sample size and projected correlations between pre‐ and posttest scores.
FURTHER WITHIN‐SETTING EMPIRICAL TESTS OF THE SITUATIONAL SPECIFICITY HYPOTHESIS IN PERSONNEL SELECTION
Authors: SCHMIDT FRANK L. , OCASIO BENJAMIN P. , HILLERY JOSEPH M. , HUNTER JOHN E.
Published: December 2006

The situational specificity hypothesis in personnel selection holds that variation in observed validity coefficients across studies for the same test and job is due to subtle variations from setting to setting in what constitutes job performance. This hypothesis therefore predicts that, if the setting does not vary, validity will not vary. Using data from a single large‐sample validity study (N= 1,455), this research generated numerous small‐sample studies for which the setting (organization, job, test, criterion measure, applicant pool, time period, and sample size) was held constant. It was found that even under these circumstances there was substantial variability across studies in (a) observed validity coefficients, (b) significance levels, and (c) (using traditional data analytic methods) conclusions about the presence or absence of validity. These findings disconfirm the situational specificity hypothesis and argue strongly against traditional data‐analytic procedures and the practice of reliance on single small‐sample studies. In contrast to the erroneous conclusions produced by traditional data‐analytic procedures, meta‐analytic methods correctly estimated the population observed validity at .22 and correctly indicated that all between‐study variance in observed validities was due to sampling error alone.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE AND PERCEIVED WRONGDOING ASSOCIATED WITH WHISTLE‐BLOWING DECISIONS
Authors: MICELI MARCIA P. , NEAR JANET P.
Published: December 2006

The potential explanations of why some observers report organizational wrongdoing, whereas others do not, are considered in this study. Nearly 8,600 randomly selected employees of 15 organizations completed questionnaires concerning whistle‐blowing. Archival data and aggregate measures of organizational climate were also used. Discriminant analysis revealed that organization members who had observed alleged wrongdoing were more likely to blow the whistle if they had convincing evidence of wrongdoing, if the wrongdoing was serious, and if it directly affected them. Further, where the organization appeared to be dependent on the wrongdoing and threatened retaliation, whistle‐blowers were more likely to report it to someone outside the organization. Implications for management practice and suggestions for future research are discussed.
THE INFLUENCE OF SUBORDINATE AGE ON PERFORMANCE RATINGS AND CAUSAL ATTRIBUTIONS
Authors: FERRIS GERALD R. , YATES VALERIE L. , GILMORE DAVID C. , ROWLAND KENDRITH M.
Published: December 2006

Three issues were examined in this study relative to the role of subordinate age in performance evaluations. First, it was found that supervisors rated older subordinates lower than younger subordinates doing the same job. Second, differences between self‐ratings of performance and supervisory ratings seemed to be a function of the subordinate's age. Third, a significant age × performance interaction was detected on ability attributions.
A FIVE‐YEAR STUDY OF A POSITIVE INCENTIVE ABSENCE CONTROL PROGRAM
Authors: SCHLOTZHAUER DALE L. , ROSSE JOSEPH G.
Published: December 2006

This study reports the results of a positive incentive program designed to reduce absenteeism at a hospital. Absence data for a treatment group (N= 164) and a comparison group (N= 136) were collected for one year prior to the incentive program, the three years the plan was operational, and the year after the program was discontinued. In the treatment program, absence from the treatment group decreased significantly during the first and third years of the program; effects during the second year of the program were marginally significant. No changes occurred in the comparison group's absence level. A utility analysis revealed that the incentive program produced an 11.7% return on investment.
THE EFFECTS OF INDIVIDUAL AND CONTEXTUAL ATTRIBUTES ON THE SIZES OF RECOMMENDED SALARY INCREASES
Authors: FOSSUM JOHN A. , FITCH MARY K.
Published: December 2006

In a series of experiments, college students, line managers, and compensation managers allocated salary increases to hypothetical job holders who varied in the criticality of their positions for accomplishment of organizational goals, occupational marketability, job performance, personal need for money, and increase in capability since the last performance review. Results indicated that though performance had the largest impact, a number of nonperformance factors also influenced the recommendations. Salary recommendations were lower when constrained by a budget, and performance, growth in capabilities, marketability, and criticality were all significantly related to the magnitudes of suggested increases.
QUALITY CIRCLES AND EMPLOYEE ATTITUDES
Authors: RAFAELI ANAT
Published: December 2006

Quality circles have repeatedly been suggested as a technique for enhancing employees' involvement in and satisfaction with their work. This study explored the relationship between employees' participation in quality circle (QC) activities and their reactions to their jobs. Specifically, the relationship of participation in QC activities and employees' perceptions of the influence they have on their jobs, the characteristics of their jobs, and their overall job satisfaction were examined. Four hundred and fifty‐five (455) QC members and 305 non‐QC members, all employees of a large electronics manufacturer, were surveyed. The effect of QC membership as well as tenure in quality circles on the above variables is reported. Involvement in a quality circle was found to have a significant relationship to employees' perception of influence, as well as to some job characteristics. No significant effect of QC membership on job satisfaction was found. The results are discussed in the context of the need for further validation of many arguments heard about quality circles.
THE IMPLICATIONS OF PROFESSIONAL AND LEGAL GUIDELINES FOR COURT DECISIONS INVOLVING CRITERION‐RELATED VALIDITY: A REVIEW AND ANALYSIS
Authors: KLEIMAN LAWRENCE S. , FALEY ROBERT H.
Published: December 2006

Title VII court cases litigated since 1978 were reviewed to assess the implications of the latest professional and legal guidelines for court deliberations regarding the criterion‐related validity of paper‐and‐pencil tests with adverse impact. Major topics important to an understanding of predictor, criterion, procedural, data analysis, and interpretation issues were examined. Among the major findings were the heavy reliance placed on test development procedures and the reluctance of many judges to accept recent research findings, often contained in professional guidelines, which are inconsistent with those in the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (1978). Suggestions are offered throughout to guide employers who are interested in successfully conducting or defending a criterion‐related validation study.
THE PROCESS OF RETIREMENT: A REVIEW AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE INVESTIGATION
Authors: BEEHR TERRY A.
Published: December 2006

Since the average ages of many industrialized nations' workers are increasing, it is important to know (1) the causes of employees' decisions to retire early and (2) the effects of retirement on the lives of retirees and on their employing organizations. The fields of gerontology and of social, clinical, and developmental psychology have investigated retirement, usually focusing on individual well‐being as a criterion. Industrial/organizational psychology generally has not delved into the topic. A review of the empirical literature and theories regarding the two retirement issues leads to conclusions that are very tentative due to the nature of the research methods used until now. I/O psychologists have the opportunity to contribute to knowledge about retirement because of their dual interests in both individuals and organizations and because of their tradition of scientific rigor. Propositions are provided for future research.
MANAGEMENT TURNOVER: EXPERIENTIAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FORMER AND CURRENT MANAGERS
Authors: CAMPION MICHAEL A. , MITCHELL MICHELLE M.
Published: December 2006

Potential experiential determinants of managerial turnover were investigated based on questionnaire responses from 140 former managers and 143 current managers within the same organization. To assess these experiences, measures were developed from four different areas of literature that consider the turnover phenomenon. Results indicate that, compared to current managers, former managers describe their managerial experiences in terms of (1) less satisfying job characteristics, (2) greater degrees of adjustment and socialization difficulties, (3) more unmet job expectations, and (4) greater degrees of job stress. Furthermore, it was discovered that all four areas of literature actually give very similar advice on reducing turnover, but each area differs in terms of intended applications and time perspective. Recommendations are provided for reducing management turnover.
WAGE SURVEYS: DISPELLING SOME MYTHS ABOUT THE “MARKET WAGE”
Authors: RYNES SARA L. , MILKOVICH GEORGE T.
Published: December 2006

The comparable worth controversy has generated much discussion about the appropriate valuation of job worth. To date, academic inquiries into the measurement of job worth have focused primarily on job evaluation; however, recent court decisions suggest that market wages are a more compelling indicator of job worth than are job evaluation results. This paper examines the construct of “market wage” and the process by which it is measured (wage surveys). It is argued that both the construct and the measurement of the market wage have not been sufficiently examined by either academics or the courts. Implications for pay administration and future research are noted.
A FIELD STUDY OF JOB APPLICANT INTERVIEW PERCEPTIONS, ALTERNATIVE OPPORTUNITIES, AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
Authors: LIDEN ROBERT C. , PARSONS CHARLES K.
Published: December 2006

A field study was conducted to examine several factors related to young job applicants, their reactions to job interviews, and their intentions to accept a job if offered. Immediately following their interviews, 422 applicants voluntarily responded to questionnaires concerning the interview, parents' and friends' pressure for them to take the job, alternative job opportunities, and behavioral intentions to accept the job. Applicants who responded more favorably to their interviewers felt somewhat more positive about taking a job in the recruiting organization. Perceived alternative job opportunities moderated the relationship between reactions to the job and acceptance intentions. Multivariate effects were found for applicant sex, applicant race, and interviewer sex on reactions to the interviewer and the interview. Further research on the role of parental and peer pressure on job acceptance among young workers is suggested, as is the moderating role of alternative opportunities. The implications of race and sex differences in interview reactions are also discussed.
ATTRIBUTIONS FOR THE POORLY PERFORMING BLACKJACK DEALER: IN THE CARDS OR INABILITY?
Authors: SMITHER JAMES W. , SKOV RICHARD B. , ADLER SEYMOUR
Published: December 2006

This study examined the effects of task and supervisory experience on causal attributions and recommendations for corrective action following poor performance. One hundred twenty subjects employed in a casino reviewed an evaluation form describing the poor performance of a blackjack dealer in the casino. Subjects included first‐and second‐level supervisors with task and supervisory experience, dealers with task experience only, and employees with neither task nor supervisory experience. Subjects were told that the dealer being evaluated had 2, 6, or 12 months of task experience. Results indicate that task and supervisory experience did affect attributions to specific causal factors; however, the effects were not consistently in the predicted direction. Specifically, supervisors viewed lack of effort and poor supervision as more important and task difficulty as less important causes of poor performance than did dealers. Subjects without task experience viewed poor work conditions and task difficulty as stronger causes of poor performance than did dealers. Task experience of the ratee interacted with rater task experience such that dealers and controls differed in their attributions for employees with 12 months' experience but did not differ if the ratee had 2 or 6 months' experience. Causal attributions for an employee's poor performance were related to subsequent corrective recommendations.
SEX BIAS IN JOB EVALUATION PROCEDURES
Authors: ARVEY RICHARD D.
Published: December 2006

Issues pertaining to possible sex bias in job evaluation procedures are outlined and relevant research pertaining to these issues reviewed. Attention is given to possible sex bias in job analysis procedures, choice and weighting of factors, reliability and validity issues, and other concerns. Future research needs are discussed, with particular attention being paid to the reliability and validity aspects of job evaluation instruments.
ESTIMATION OF EMPLOYMENT VALIDITIES BY LESS EXPERIENCED JUDGES
Authors: HIRSH HANNAH ROTHSTEIN , SCHMIDT FRANK L. , HUNTER JOHN E.
Published: December 2006

In a previous study, Schmidt, Hunter, Croll and McKenzie (1983) demonstrated that estimates of the validity of cognitive tests made by highly trained and experienced judges are more accurate than empirical estimates obtained from small‐sample validity studies. The present study examined whether less experienced judges could also produce accurate estimates. Twenty‐eight recent Ph.D.'s in I/O Psychology estimated observed validities for the same 54 job‐test combinations used by Schmidt et al. (1983). The estimates of these judges contained about twice as much random error as the experts' estimates. Systematic error of the less experienced judges was also greater than that of the experts (.0732 vs .019). The systematic errors of the two sets of judges were in opposite directions: less experienced judges overestimated validities, on average, while experts underestimated them. The results show that the estimates of less experienced judges contain less information than those of experts, but also that averages of estimates of several less experienced judges are as accurate as those obtained from small‐sample empirical studies.
PERCEIVED COSTS AND BENEFITS OF PARTICIPATION IN UNION ACTION
Authors: KLANDERMANS BERT
Published: December 2006

Conflicts in organizations are often initiated by unions. The outcome of a conflict depends on the opportunities of the parties to use the power they have. Parties seldom use all of their resources, either because they are not willing to risk them or because they are not able to muster them. Resources have to be mobilized before they can be used. In this study the conditions under which union members were willing to support their union in a conflict were examined. It was hypothesized that readiness to support union action is a function of the individual's estimates of costs and benefits. One hundred and eight union members in a company where conflict was imminent were asked at two different points in time whether they would support union action. Various types of action were mentioned. The union attempted to mobilize support between the two measurements. Anticipated costs and benefits of a collective, social, and material nature accounted for the variance in willingness to give support, changes in this willingness, and preferences for certain types of action. These findings confirm the contention that a value‐expectancy approach to the willingness to participate in union action can be useful. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
COLLEGE RECRUITING IN LARGE ORGANIZATIONS: PRACTICE, EVALUATION, AND RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS
Authors: RYNES SARA L. , BOUDREAU JOHN W.
Published: December 2006

Directors of college recruiting for Fortune 1000 corporations were surveyed regarding a broad set of college recruiting practices and college recruiting effectiveness measures. Descriptive results suggested that most college recruiting programs diverge from normative prescriptions (e.g., little recruiter training, limited data collection, and almost no empirical evaluation of recruiting outcomes). Stepwise regression revealed several statistically significant relationships between organizational characteristics, recruiting practices, and perceived recruiting effectiveness. Some of these findings were consistent with conventional wisdom (e.g., positive relationships between perceived effectiveness and recruiter information, recruiter selection criteria, and recorded information about new hires) while others were not (e.g., negative associations between perceived effectiveness, personalization of rejection notices, training recruiters in a broad range of content areas, and the existence of a human resource information system). Methodological limitations are noted, and suggestions are offered for future practical recruitment improvements and theoretical research.
THE BIASING EFFECTS OF SUBORDINATE LIKEABLENESS ON LEADERS' RESPONSES TO POOR PERFORMERS: A LABORATORY AND A FIELD STUDY
Authors: DOBBINS GREGORY H. , RUSSELL JEANNE M.
Published: December 2006

A laboratory and a field study investigated the biasing effects of subordinate likableness on leaders' attributions for subordinate poor performance and their corrective actions toward subordinates. In the laboratory study, 96 undergraduate students served as leaders and were presented with a vignette describing an incident of poor performance committed by either a liked or a disliked subordinate. Leaders made attributions for the poor performance and then rated the appropriateness of a series of corrective actions. Analyses revealed that leaders made similar attributions for the poor performance of liked and disliked subordinates, but were more inclined to punish a disliked subordinate than a liked subordinate. A second study replicated these findings with 98 leaders in an actual organization. Implications of the results for disciplinary policies are discussed.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUPERVISORY RATINGS AND RESULTS‐ORIENTED MEASURES OF PERFORMANCE: A META‐ANALYSIS
Authors: HENEMAN ROBERT L.
Published: December 2006

A meta‐analysis was conducted with 23 studies to assess the relationship between supervisory ratings and results‐oriented measures of performance. As hypothesized, the corrected mean correlation was higher when a relative (versus absolute) rating format was used and when a composite (versus overall) rating method was used. These differences did not, however, account for all of the remaining variance around the relationship between ratings and results. Suggestions are offered for the direction of future research and practice.
AN EVALUATION OF ALTERNATE SCORING METHODS FOR THE MIXED STANDARD SCALE
Authors: HUGHES GARRY L. , PRIEN ERICH P.
Published: December 2006

This study investigated the psychometric properties of three methods of scoring a Mixed Standard Scale (MSS) performance evaluation: the patterned procedure as corrected by Saal (1979); a simple nonpatterned scoring procedure suggested by Prien, Jones, and Miller (1977), which gives equal weights to the performance statements; and a procedure that assigned differential weights to each statement on the basis of scale values provided by a panel of subject matter experts. Interrater reliabilities, scale variances for averaged ratings, and a convergent/discriminant validity analysis, which included an alternate method of job skill ratings, indicated no difference in the score distribution variance, interrater reliability, or validity of different method scores.
THE INFLUENCE OF TRAINEE ATTITUDES ON TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS: TEST OF A MODEL
Authors: NOE RAYMOND A. , SCHMITT NEAL
Published: December 2006

Studies of the influence of trainee characteristics on training effectiveness have focused on the ability level necessary to learn program content. Motivational and environmental influences on training effectiveness have received little attention. The purpose of this study was to test an exploratory model describing the influence on trainee career and job attitudes on training outcomes (learning, behavior change, performance improvement). Results of the study suggest that job involvement and career planning are antecedents of learning and behavior change. Future research directions and practical implications of the results are discussed.
DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF A COMPUTERIZED INTERPRETATION SYSTEM FOR PERSONNEL TESTS
Authors: VALE C. DAVID , KELLER LAURA S. , BENTZ V. JON
Published: December 2006

A computerized system was developed for generating narrative interpretations of scores from a battery of personnel screening tests. The report structure and interpretive statement library were designed to capture the test expertise and interpretive strategies of a panel of testing experts. This was accomplished by enumerating the questions that the experts believed the battery could answer, developing answers to these questions, and devising rules for selecting the appropriate answers based on test‐battery scores. The accuracy, thoroughness, readability, and coherence of the computer‐generated reports were evaluated in comparison to reports generated by human experts for the same examinees. Results of the evaluation showed the computerized reports to be more accurate and thorough, as readable, and somewhat less coherent than interpretations generated by the typical human expert. The computerized system development and validation strategies described are useful for other applications in which numbers are interpreted in a narrative report format.
AN EVALUATION OF METHODS TO SELECT RESPONDENTS TO STRUCTURED JOB‐ANALYSIS QUESTIONNAIRES
Authors: GREEN SAMUEL B. , STUTZMAN THOMAS
Published: December 2006

The purpose was to evaluate methods for selecting respondents who would respond accurately to items on a job‐analysis questionnaire. One general method involved obtaining from employees measures that assessed background, performance, and organizational information. This information could be used to identify respondents who were knowledgeable about the job and, therefore, able to rate the job accurately. A second general method involved collecting job‐analysis data from all potential job‐analysis respondents and, on the basis of indices computed on these data, selecting a subsample from them. Two indices were investigated: (1) the D index, which assessed similarity between an individual's ratings and the population's mean ratings, and (2) the carelessness index, which measured an individual's tendency to rate tasks known to be unrelated to the focal job as important. Both methods were applied to a sample of 343 mental‐health workers. Four general postulates for job analysts were proposed on the basis of the results: (1) Different selection measures yield somewhat different job‐analysis respondents. (2) Respondents are not equally accurate and, with the use of the carelessness index, may be screened for the tendency to make errors. (3) In some applications, the number of sampled respondents needs to be greater than three in order to obtain reliable results. (4) To the degree that the job is ill‐defined and unstable, the selection of job‐analysis respondents assumes greater importance and is riskier.
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL BEHAVIORS: SUPERVISOR PERCEPTIONS AND SUBORDINATE REACTIONS
Authors: DORFMAN PETER W. , STEPHAN WALTER G. , LOVELAND JOHN
Published: December 2006

This study examined supervisor perceptions and subordinate reactions to formal performance‐appraisal reviews. The performance‐appraisal behaviors of supervisors and the reactions of their subordinates were studied in a sample of university employees. A factor analysis revealed that there were three dimensions of formal performance appraisals: two developmental dimensions (being supportive; emphasizing performance improvement) and one administrative dimension (discussing pay and advancement). Regression analyses suggested that supervisors supported highly rated individuals and stressed improvement efforts for poor performers. After controlling for the level of previous performance ratings, results indicated that support in the appraisal review was associated with higher levels of employee motivation, while discussing pay and advancement was associated with higher levels of employee satisfaction. Unfortunately, improvement efforts by the supervisors did not influence job performance one year later.
A COMPARISON OF SELECTION DECISION MODELS IN MANAGER VERSUS STUDENT SAMPLES
Authors: BARR STEVE H. , HITT MICHAEL A.
Published: December 2006

Selection decisions in the evaluation of applicants for managerial positions and recommended starting salaries were examined in samples of professional interviewers and students. Significant differences were noted between the two samples in the number and nature of factors used in making selection and salary decisions. Implications of the generalizability of student samples in selection and managerial decision‐making research are discussed.
ORGANIZATIONAL RECRUITMENT ACTIVITIES AND APPLICANTs' REACTIONS AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE RECRUITMENT PROCESS
Authors: TAYLOR M. SUSAN , BERGMANN THOMAS J.
Published: December 2006

Organizational recruitment activities have been hypothesized to affect applicants' reactions to the organization, independent of effects exerted by the job attributes associated with the position (e.g., location, salary, title). This research utilized a correlational design and a field setting in assessing applicants' reactions to a five‐stage recruitment program. Recruitment activities were significantly related to applicants' reactions only at the initial interview stage. Conversely, job attributes emerged as significant predictors of applicants' reactions at each of the four recruitment stages where they were assessed. No support was found for three hypothesized moderating variables–the perceived comparability of job offers, applicants' work experience, and their labor market opportunities. Suggestions for strengthening organizational recruitment programs and for directing further research are discussed.
A SURVEY OF INDIVIDUAL ASSESSMENT PRACTICES BY I/O PSYCHOLOGISTS
Authors: RYAN ANN MARIE , SACKETT PAUL R.
Published: December 2006

Individual assessment, defined as one psychologist making an assessment decision for a personnel‐related purpose about one individual, was the focus of a survey of a segment of the Division of Industrial and Organizational Psychology of the American Psychological Association. A response rate of 31.6% was obtained. The responses of 163 individuals who conduct individual assessment to questions about their practices and of 153 individuals who do not conduct individual assessment to questions concerning their attitudes toward individual assessment were examined. Findings regarding what types of assessment are typically conducted, how methods are chosen, what methods are typically used, how findings are relayed to client organizations and assessees, and how practices are evaluated are reported. Implications for training and practice as well as areas for research are discussed.
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL AND TERMINATIONS: A REVIEW OF COURT DECISIONS SINCE BRITO V. ZIA WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR PERSONNEL PRACTICES
Authors: BARRETT GERALD V. , KERNAN MARY C.
Published: December 2006

Court cases since the classicBritov.Zia(1973) decision dealing with terminations based on subjective performance appraisals are reviewed. Professional interpretations ofBrito v. Ziaare also examined and criticized in light of professional practice and subsequent court decisions. Major themes and issues are distilled from the review of cases, and implications and recommendations for personnel practices were discussed.
THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL GOAL WEIGHTS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF A COMPLEX FINANCIAL TASK
Authors: EDMISTER ROBERT O. , LOCKE EDWIN A.
Published: December 2006

This study involved taking goal‐setting research in a new direction. Its purpose was to determine whether people could attain outcomes on a complex task that would be in line with differential goal weights corresponding to different aspects of the task. One hundred twenty‐nine bank lending officers were run through a four‐period, lender‐simulation exercise. Teams of two to six persons competed with two to five other teams in terms of five weighted performance goals: portfolio yield, portfolio size, net income, net charge‐offs, and credit file deficiencies. Weights for each performance goal were equal for each team in Periods 1 and 2. In Period 3 teams could set their own goal weights within a range. During this period goal weights were significantly related to performance for three of four relevant criteria. In all but Period 4 each group had to maintain a minimum return on assets (ROA) standard or suffer penalties. In Period 4, when the ROA standard became inoperative, ROA performance decreased significantly. These results confirm the effectiveness of goal setting (1) with complex tasks, (2) using the group as the unit of analysis, and (3) using multiple goals with differential weights.
STATE COURT DISPARITY ON EMPLOYMENT AT‐WILL
Authors: KOYS DANIEL J. , BRIGGS STEVEN , GRENIG JAY
Published: December 2006

State courts have produced three major exceptions to the employment at‐will doctrine: (1) violation of public policy, (2) breach of an implied contract (including written policies, oral promises, and implied covenants of good faith and fair dealing), and (3) commitment of a tort of emotional distress, defamation, or third‐party interference with a contractual relationship. We analyzed state appellate court decisions to identify judicial philosophies and to determine which states have accepted or rejected the various exceptions to employment at‐will. Our results show that the states vary considerably. The most commonly accepted arguments against employment at‐will are violations of public policy, breaches of implied contracts in employee handbooks, and torts of outrageous emotional distress. Overall, this research highlights the need for statewide consistency with regard to the at‐will issue.