bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Employment and Role Satisfaction: Implications for the General Well-Being of Military Wives
Authors: Rosen Leora N. , Ickovics Jeannette R. , Moghadam Linda Z.
Published: July 2006

A path analytic model was used to examine the impact of three domains of life satisfaction and three employment-related variables on general well-being in a sample of 1,145 Army wives. The life domains included marital, financial, and role satisfaction. The employment-related variables included: (a) time spent employed (none, part, or full); (b) role fit; and (c) satisfaction with overall career development prospects. The employment-related variables were hypothesized to impact on general well-being both directly and indirectly through their relationship to role satisfaction. Time spent employed and role fit were found to be significantly related to role satisfaction, which in turn, was significantly related to general well-being. One variable—satisfaction with overall career development prospects—had a significant direct impact on general well-being.
Affect Expression, Marital Satisfaction, and Stress Reactivity Among Premenopausal Women During A Conflictual Marital Discussion
Authors: Morell Marie A. , Apple Robin F.
Published: July 2006

Relationships between women's affect expressions, marital satisfaction, and cardiovascular reactivity were investigated. Twenty-four healthy women and their spouses completed the Marital Satisfaction Inventory (MSI). Women's cardiovascular reactivity was monitored during a 10-minute videotaped husband-wife conflict discussion that later was rated for affect expressions. Regression analysis showed that active negative affect accounted for 20% of the variability in systolic blood pressure. Neither positive affects nor MSI Global Marital Distress was related to women's cardiovascular responses. For women, 53% of the variance in MSI Global Marital Distress was accounted for by total negative affect, but for men affects and marital distress were unrelated. Further research is warranted on the associations between marital distress, affect expression, and cardiovascular reactivity that may lead to physical and mental health problems.
Genital Herpes: Gender Comparisons and the Disease Experience
Authors: Jadack Rosemary A. , Keller Mary L. , Hyde Janet Shibley
Published: July 2006

The purpose of this descriptive study was to examine gender differences in the disease experience of persons who have genital herpes. Participants were 60 volunteers (34 females, 26 males) with recurrent genital herpes. Their average age was 31.7 years and the average length of time since diagnosis was 5.3 years. They completed questionnaires that included items about disease characteristics, disease stressors, and disease impact. The majority of reported stressors related to the consequences of the disease. A wide diversity of stressors were described, and results gave evidence of gender similarities in the disease experience. Exceptions were that women reported experiencing more worry with regard to negative effects on future and present health, disruption of daily activity, and disease symptoms. Men reported that recurrences last longer. Both disease symptoms and the presence of an intimate relationship were related to the perceived disease impact. Implications for sensitive interventions are discussed.
Women's Prime of Life: Is It the 50s?
Authors: Mitchell Valory , Helson Ravenna
Published: July 2006

The hypothesis is advanced that the early 50s is women's prime of life, an androgynous time of good health combined with autonomy and relational security. In a sample of 700 college alumnae, aged 26–80, who were studied in 1983, women in their early 50s most often described their lives as “first-rate.” In a longitudinal sample from the same institution in 1989, women in their early 50s also rated their quality of life as high. Conditions distinguishing the early 50s from earlier and/or later periods of the middle years included more “empty nests,” better health, higher income, and more concern for parents. All but the last of these conditions were related to quality of life within each sample of “prime” women. In both samples, “prime” women showed confidence, involvement, security, and breadth of personality. Prime of life is offered as a useful concept in adult development.
Sexuality and The Midlife Woman
Authors: Leiblum Sandra Risa
Published: July 2006

Both physical and psychological factors affect the sexual interest and behavior of women at midlife. Hot flashes and genitourinary atrophy are the major menopausal complaints and may affect the ease and comfort of sexual exchange, although hormone replacement therapy can be helpful in reducing these symptoms. Changes in the sexual response cycle occur as well and may be attributable to the psychological and/or physical effects of aging, the partner's physical or psychological difficulties and/or the hormonal changes associated with the climacteric. Many women note a decline in sexual desire during the climacteric years, although orgasmic response is usually unimpaired. Hysterectomy, the second most commonly performed major surgical operation, can either enhance or diminish sexual comfort, depending on the women's preoperative distress and expectations. Often, sexual difficulties can be avoided at midlife by alterations in the sexual script.
Commentary on “Sexuality and the Midlife Woman”
Authors: Cole Ellen , Rothblum Esther
Published: July 2006

In responding to Sandra Leiblum's clearly written, well-researched, and very well-balanced article, we would like to make three points about (a) the nature of language in menopause research and discussion; (b) the pathological and heterosexist bias in the scientific literature on menopause; and (c) our own research of menopausal lesbians.
Adolescent Daughter/Midlife Mother Dyad: A New Look at Separation and Self-Definition
Authors: La Sorsa Valerie A. , Fodor Iris G.
Published: July 2006

The mother–daughter relationship is seen as complex, unique, and emotionally charged, with adolescence being the most difficult period for this dyad. Yet much of the literature has highlighted the struggle of adolescents, while underemphasizing that many of their mothers themselves are confronting their own developmental issues at this time. In this article, the developmental tasks and dyadic issues of adolescent daughters (aged 13–19) and their midlife mothers (aged 35–55) are examined from a psychodynamic perspective. The authors posit that both mother and daughter are experiencing a lifecycle crisis of separation and self-definition. Drawing from psychoanalytic and lifespan developmental literature as well as their own clinical experience, the authors propose that the current generation of mothers and daughters requires a new look at old models, parts of which may still be relevant and parts of which need to be revised or dropped. The issues of competition and rebellion as they relate to separation and self-definition are also addressed.
Determinants and Consequences of Creativity in a Cohort of Gifted Women
Authors: Vaillant George E. , Vaillant Caroline O.
Published: July 2006

Forty women who had been selected by Lewis Terman in 1921 for his study of intellectually gifted California school children were reinterviewed in 1987 (Mean = 77 years, SE ± 1). These women had been prospectively followed by questionnaire over the intervening 65 years. Their capacity for creativity—putting something in the world that was not there before—was assessed by review of their prospectively gathered questionnaires and by retrospective interview. The 20 women viewed as most creative (usually for literary publication, art, music, or starting an organization) were more likely in the past to have manifested generativity, and at the present to have adjusted well to old age. Although the ego defenses of sublimation, humor, and altruism were more frequent among the creative women, no differences were noted in the happiness of their childhoods or their mental health prior to the present.
“Feminization” of Psychology: The Changing Sex Ratio and Its Implications for the Profession
Authors: Ostertag Patricia A. , McNamara J. Regis
Published: July 2006

Women are participating in the field of psychology in increasing numbers relative to men. This development has been referred to as the “feminization of psychology,” and it carries with it a number of implications. This article reviews statistical data relating to the changing sex ratio and discusses their implications. Participation rates of women in psychology are examined as they pertain to enrollment in doctoral programs, graduation from baccalaureate programs, and career progress within the profession. Implications of changing sex ratios for occupational prestige, income and economics, work structure, education and training, and theory, research, and practice are then discussed. In conclusion, the concept of “feminization” is challenged as questions are raised about whether the increase in the number of women in psychology is a problem, as has been alleged, or a symptom of other problems within the field.
Masculine Bias in the Attribution of Personhood: People = Male, Male = People
Authors: Hamilton Mykol C.
Published: July 2006

Silveira (1980) noted that not just masculine generics, but also neutral terms, have masculine connotations; she called this the “people = male” bias. Her hypothesis takes two forms: people = male, a male is more likely seen as a person than is a female; and male = people, a person is more likely believed to be male than female. A total of 108 female and 91 male college students participated in three studies. Study 1 tested male = people. Participants referring back to a female or male protagonist as a woman/man or as a person were significantly more likely to refer to the male with a nongender-specific term. Studies 2 and 3 tested people = male. In Study 2, reanalysis of data from Hamilton and Henley (1982) showed that hearing unbiased generics promoted male-biased mental imagery in men. In Study 3, participants' imagined “typical person” was significantly more likely to be male than female.
The Ms. Stereotype: Its Domain and the Role of Explicitness in Title Preference
Authors: Dion Kenneth L. , Cota Albert A.
Published: July 2006

It was hypothesized that (a) a woman who prefers Ms. as her title of address would be seen by perceivers of both sexes as being higher on positive as well as negative instrumental qualities and also lower on positive and negative qualities of expressiveness than a woman who prefers a traditional title of address (i.e., Miss and Mrs.), and (b) explicit preference for the woman's title of address would elicit stronger trait attributions for women with different titles of address than would an implicit preference. These hypotheses were tested by having respondents rate a brief description of a female stimulus person whose title of address and explicitness of preference for the title were orthogonally varied. Scales from the Extended Personal Attributes Questionnaire were employed as measures of instrumental and expressive traits. The two hypotheses were well supported. Implications of these findings are discussed.
Feminist Attitude Accessibility and Behavioral Intentions
Authors: Branscombe Nyla R. , Deaux Kay
Published: July 2006

In order to investigate the role of attitude accessibility in reported intentions to engage in feminist behavior, feminist attitudes were or were not activated, and attitude-behavior relations in the two conditions were assessed. Overall, the attitude-behavior relationship was strong and significant when the attitude was made accessible via a priming manipulation. In contrast, the attitude-behavior relationship was low and not significant when the attitude was not accessible, even though domain-relevant behavioral intentions had been accessed. Other theoretical perspectives, potential directions for future research on feminist attitude-behavior consistency, and the applied implications are discussed.
Stress, Social Support, and Health in Married Professional Women with Small Children
Authors: Reifman Alan , Biernat Monica , Lang Eric L.
Published: July 2006

Two hundred married professional women with small children were surveyed to investigate what types of occupational and role-conflict stresses are associated with physical and depressive symptoms, and whether social support could protect individuals from the negative health effects of stress. Six stress indices predicted physical and depressive symptoms, both concurrently and 1 year later. These stresses reflected perceptions of lack of authority and influence on the job, sex discrimination, a heavy work load, work imposing on relaxation, family imposing on relaxation, and overall suffering from role conflict. Social support yielded no stress-buffering effects.
Double Standard/Double Bind: The Sexual Double Standard and Women's Communication about Sex
Authors: Muehlenhard Charlene L. , McCoy Marcia L.
Published: July 2006

We tested the hypothesis that the sexual double standard, which gives more sexual freedom to men than women, might in some situations make women reluctant to acknowledge their desire for sexual intercourse. We asked 403 college women whether they had been in situations in which (a) they were with a man who wanted to have sexual intercourse, and they wanted to have sexual intercourse with him, but they indicated that they did not want to do so (scripted refusal); and (b) they were in the same situation, but they openly acknowledged their willingness to have sexual intercourse (open acknowledgment). If they had been in either or both of these situations, they were asked to complete a scale measuring acceptance of the sexual double standard, first the way they believed their partner would have completed it, and next the way they would have completed it. As expected, women in scripted refusal situations believed that their partners accepted the double standard more than did women in open acknowledgment situations. Consistent with theories emphasizing proximal determinants of gender-related behavior, scripted refusal provides sexually active women with a socially acceptable way of dealing with the sexual double standard.
Women's Heritage in Psychology: Past and Present
Authors: O'Connell Agnes N. , Russo Nancy Felipe
Published: July 2006

The American Psychological Association's Centennial provides a unique opportunity to celebrate, preserve, and interpret women's heritage in the origins and development of psychology. This special issue documents women's contributions to, and the impact of feminist critiques on, the discipline of psychology and its organizations. The articles in this special issue demonstrate how psychological theories and practice, research methods, and interpretation of data are embedded in social, political, and historical contexts. Moreover, they document how feminist critiques have challenged traditional assumptions about knowledge and served as a catalyst for the transformation of psychological theories, methods, and practice—a transformation that has just begun.
Social Psychology: Humanist Roots and Feminist Future
Authors: Lott Bernice
Published: July 2006

The central theme of this article is that a feminist perspective is not only compatible with the history, objectives, and emphases of social psychology, but necessary for its continued vitality. In view of social psychology's humanist roots and its “nurturist” and “social optimist” tenets, it is not surprising that feminist scholarship has flourished within it. Situational factors and group membership—the focus of social psychological inquiry—are also key to understanding how culture constructs gender, a central issue in the feminist agenda. Some of the important women in the early decades of American psychology are claimed as foremothers of social psychology and as feminist voices, and the feminist perspective is defined and identified in terms of its major interrelated themes. The influence of feminist scholarship on contemporary social psychology is illustrated, and it is argued that a feminist perspective will become increasingly more visible.
Feminist Contributions to Counseling Psychology
Authors: Gilbert Lucia Albino , Osipow Samuel H.
Published: July 2006

In this article we first identify and provide evidence for feminist contributions to counseling psychology in four broad areas. These are policy and leadership in the field, theory and research, training and practice, and recognition of feminist scholarship and contributions by women. In view of the evidence, we conclude that feminist perspectives are irrevocably changing the field of counseling psychology by stimulating the rethinking of its premises and models with regard to normal development and by developing new approaches to inquiry and practice.
The Effects of Feminist Scholarship on Developmental Psychology
Authors: Jacklin Carol Nagy , McBride-Chang Catherine
Published: July 2006

The present article examines some of the ways in which feminist scholarship has helped shape developmental psychology, particularly the study of child development. Three main influences are discussed. (a) Feminist scholars have helped break the “male-as-norm” tradition. Toward this end, feminists have encouraged the valuing of females, the recognition that fewer sex differences exist than had previously been asserted by society at large, and the understanding that many sex differences that do exist are caused by the different socialization patterns of girls and boys. (b) Feminist scholarship has helped lessen “mother blaming” in accounting for children's behavior. The entire social world of the child (including fathers, peers, siblings, schools, grandparents, daycare, etc.) and biological makeup and predispositions are now all recognized as important influences on children's behavior. Finally, (c) feminist scholars have helped reconceptualize children's gender-role socialization. This has been done both by reinterpreting existing theories of gender-role socialization and by developing new theories.
Feminist Contributions to Health Psychology
Authors: Travis Cheryl Brown , Gressley Diane L. , Crumpler Cheryl A.
Published: July 2006

A brief review of health psychology shows that the early leadership began what has come to be a major alternative to traditional medical models of diagnosis and treatment. Numerous women were involved with these implementations and changes in the field. Many of the key developments within health psychology—for example, behavioral prevention, compliance, coping, health promotion, locus of control, and social support–reflect essentially feminist principles that emphasize the legitimate authority and significance of the individual. Feminist principles of equity and inclusiveness are also represented in emerging concerns that the health needs of many underprivileged groups deserve more focused attention, and, additionally, that entirely new areas of health can be profitably examined within the framework of health psychology.
The Impact of the Feminist Critique on Tests, Assessment, and Methodology
Authors: Lewin Miriam , Wild Cheryl L.
Published: July 2006

In this article we discuss the implications of the feminist critique for methodologies related to tests and assessment. Several specific examples of the impact (or lack of impact) of feminist thinking on psychological, vocational, and educational tests are provided. From the point of view of a feminist critique, while the revision of the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory appears to be a success, the 1990 revision of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) is not. Feminists have inspired methodological improvements such as the use of meta-analysis to evaluate sex difference data and the ability to estimate sampling error to challenge the research on free-response and multiple-choice tests. Recognition of the need to involve women in the development of normative data, introduction of sensitivity reviews, and implementation of differential item functioning analyses have improved tests. However, although testing has improved from the feminist perspective, additional changes can be expected as feminists (female and male) become more involved as scholars and scientists.
Currents and Futures in American Feminist Psychology: State of the Art Revisited
Authors: Mednick Martha T.
Published: July 2006

The intellectual development of feminist psychology is discussed in terms of social change that is affecting the discipline. The issues that seem important are the changing sex ratio, changes in the practice of psychology, decline of interest in the pursuit of academic/research careers, and the generally conservative tenor of society.
A Brief History of the Association for Women in Psychology: 1969–1991
Authors: Tiefer Leonore
Published: July 2006

The Association for Women in Psychology (AWP) was founded in 1969 by American Psychological Association (APA) members who were frustrated with sexism in psychology, in the APA, and at the 1969 APA convention itself. The activism of the 1960s, together with the new women's liberation movement, gave the founders tools and justification for a new organization. This article, the first published AWP history, describes the founding circumstances, early skirmishes concerning structure and operations, evolution of major activities (such as the annual conference, importance of lesbians, growing attention to multiculturalism), and ongoing tensions between centralization and “feminist process.”
The Origins and Activities of Apa's Division of the Psychology of Women
Authors: Mednick Martha T. , Urbanski Laura L.
Published: July 2006

The activities of APA's Division of the Psychology of Women are traced from the origins of the Division in 1973 to the present. Division 35 evolved in response to pressures relating to the status of women in psychology as well as concerns about the content and practice of the psychology of women. The Division has fostered significant research on the psychology of women, been an important organizing base for women psychologists in their quest for visibility and influence, and provided institutional support for issues of diversity in psychology and society.
Women and Anger: Sex and Sex-Role Comparisons in the Expression of Anger
Authors: Kopper Beverly A. , Epperson Douglas L.
Published: July 2006

This study investigated the relationship of sex and sex-role identity with the expression of anger. In particular, a number of common assertions about women's experience and expression of anger were examined empirically. Female (242) and male (213) college students completed several questionnaires assessing sex-role identity and multiple dimensions of the subjective experience and expression of anger. Univariate analyses revealed consistent relationships between sex-role identity and anger proneness, outward expression of anger, modulation or control of anger expression, and suppression of anger. Significant sex differences were not observed. Viewed unidimensionally, sex did not appear to be the determining factor in anger expression or the tendency to suppress anger.
Women's and Men's Scripts for Interpersonal Conflict
Authors: Miller Judi Beinstein
Published: July 2006

Two studies are reported in which women's and men's mental representations of interpersonal conflict were compared. In the first, exploratory study, undergraduate women and men wrote scripts for a conflict between two friends over broken promises. In the second, they created scripts for five different types of interpersonal conflicts by selecting from among previously written responses that depict alternative beginnings, middles, and ends to each conflict. Results from both studies suggest few differences in general types of responses selected by women and men but consistent differences in contingencies of their responses. Development of the men's scripts depended more on the offended party's initiation of conflict, whereas development of women's scripts depended more on whether the offending party apologized. Results suggest that men may use more personal or independent criteria in representing the management of conflict, whereas women may use more interpersonal or interdependent criteria.
The Hairless Ideal: Women and Their Body Hair
Authors: Basow Susan A.
Published: July 2006

A major component of “femininity” in the United States today is a hairless body, a norm that developed in the United States between 1915–1945. Little has been written regarding the development of this norm, and virtually no empirical research has been done to assess how universally ascribed to is this standard or why women actually remove their leg and underarm hair. More than 200 women from two national professional organizations responded to a mailed questionnaire (response rate 56%). The majority (around 80%) remove their leg and/or underarm hair at least occasionally. Two types of reasons for shaving emerged: feminine/attractiveness reasons and social/normative reasons. Most women start shaving for the latter reasons but continue to shave for the former reasons. Certain groups, however, were least likely to remove leg and/or underarm hair: strongly feminist women and self-identified lesbians. The results of the study are discussed in terms of the function the hairlessness norm may serve in our culture.
Overcoming Gender Bias in Reward Allocation: The Role of Expectations of Future Performance
Authors: L'Heureux-Barrett Tara , Barnes-Farrell Janet L.
Published: July 2006

The present study examined the relationships among gender, causal attributions for success, and the distribution of organizational rewards. In this study, which attempted to control for methodological deficiencies of previous research, male and female undergraduates reviewed the performance of four stimulus managers: three men and one woman. Participants were asked to make causal attributions for the stimulus manager's success, and to rate how effectively they believed the manager would perform in the future. They were then asked to nominate a manager for an organizational reward. Bias against the female manager was exhibited by females only. Results indicated that lower expectations of future performance for the female manager significantly predicted the bias against her in reward allocation.
Gender's Role in Responses to Infertility
Authors: Abbey Antonia , Andrews Frank M. , Halman L. Jill
Published: July 2006

Infertility is a major life stressor that affects approximately 10% of U.S. married couples. Infertile women and men have reported experiencing depression, helplessness, and marital strain. Given U.S. society's emphasis on women's role as mothers, it has been suggested that women's lives are more disrupted by infertility than those of men. This hypothesis was supported in a survey of 185 infertile couples and 90 presumed fertile couples. Infertile wives, as compared to their husbands, perceived their fertility problem as more stressful, felt more responsible for and in control of their infertility, and engaged in more problem-focused coping. Infertile husbands experienced more home life stress and lower home life performance than did their wives. These differences were not found for presumed fertile couples. Both infertile and presumed fertile wives experienced more depression, more sexual dissatisfaction, and lower self-esteem than did their husbands. Theoretical and counseling implications of these findings are discussed.
Ethical and Epistemological Tensions in Applying A Postmodern Perspective to Feminist Research
Authors: Allen Katherine R. , Baber Kristine M.
Published: July 2006

We examine tensions that arise in applying postmodernism to feminist research. First, we consider epistemological tensions generated in the process of deconstructing existing knowledge and constructing new knowledge that benefits women. Second, we examine six ethical issues that reflect the tensions in feminist practice as we attempt to justify the dialectic between knowledge and power. In keeping with a postmodernist perspective, we pose these six issues as questions: Is feminist postmodernism “postfeminist”? Does postmodernist language mystify feminist practice and goals? Are qualitative methods more feminist than quantitative ones? Must feminists have a liberatory purpose in their research? Is the personal too personal? Whose aims are served, feminists or their collaborators? We conclude that by adopting a postmodern feminist perspective, we can embrace the struggle between knowledge and practice rather than privilege one over the other.
Achievement Styles of Women Leaders and Their Peers: Toward an Understanding of Women and Leadership
Authors: Offermann Lynn R. , Beil Cheryl
Published: July 2006

Women's achievement was examined by studying the achievement styles and leadership outcomes of women college leaders as compared with those of a control sample of undergraduate men and women (Study 1) and with those of men college leaders (Study 2). Women leaders scored significantly higher than control women on six of nine achievement styles, scored higher than control men on three of nine, and derived satisfaction from a greater number of achievement sources than did women or men controls. Women leaders perceived more support from their institutions and attached more importance to contributing to their community and becoming an authority in their field than did men or women controls. Achievement style was related to leadership role, with endorsement of six styles correlated with attaining leadership. Achievement profiles of women leaders were replicated in Study 2. Men and women college leaders showed similar profiles on eight of nine achievement styles. However, women leaders were significantly less likely to derive satisfaction from competitive achievement than were men leaders.
Is Science Persistence A Matter of Values?
Authors: Worthley Joanna S.
Published: July 2006

This study investigates the hypothesis that congruence in value perspectives distinguishes science-able students who persist in science from those who do not (nonpersisters). A science values measure was administered to 173 undergraduates with high levels of commitment and ability in the sciences. On each of six hypothetical dilemmas from everyday science, respondents rated the importance of three justice and three care considerations for self and for science, using a Likert-type 7-point scale. A significant three way interaction involving sex, persistence, and point of view (self/science) emerged, with persisters generally demonstrating congruence between self and science on the value perspectives; female persisters, however, were more likely to combine justice and care perspectives than were males. Nonpersisters' self/science ratings of justice and care were sharply dissimilar, with females demonstrating the most incongruence. In all groups, justice was the prominent perspective attributed to science.
Variables Related to Breast Self-Examination: Model Generation
Authors: Lee Champion Victoria , Miller Theodore K.
Published: July 2006

Using a prospective design, variables from several relevant social psychological theories that would predict breast self-examination were identified. The participants included a probability sample of 362 women who were 35 or older. Instruments were tested for validity and reliability. Data were collected from each participant twice, 1 year apart, using an in-person interview for Time 1 and a telephone interview for Time 2. Results of standardized path coefficients (beta) indicated that breast self-examination (BSE) at Time 2 was directly related to BSE at Time 1 (.76). Indirect paths for susceptibility (.40), health motivation (.46), and barriers (- .54) were identified. All paths mentioned were significant ( p ≤ .01). Findings have implications for interventions to increase BSE in women 35 and older.
Gender and Serious Mental Illness: A Feminist Perspective
Authors: Mowbray Carol T. , Herman Sandra E. , Hazel Kelly L.
Published: July 2006

Perhaps in reaction to criticisms of “woman as problem” formulations, psychological literature has nearly ignored women with serious mental illnesses (SMI), although epidemiological research indicates that women are overrepresented in these diagnoses. Data are presented on characteristics, functioning, and services received for a sample of nearly 2,500 SMI clients. Statistical clustering of clients with similar profiles produced four out of six clusters with significant differences in proportions of female versus male clients represented. The results indicate that the extent to which SMI clients display gender-related symptoms and behaviors is a significant factor in clinician perceptions and in service utilization. However, results also show substantial overlap in gender composition of the clusters. Discussion centers on the quality of care and appropriateness of services for female clients. Future research is suggested, utilizing a feminist understanding of women's diversity and of sociopolitical factors related to mental health.
Caucasian Lesbians' Use of Psychotherapy: A Matter of Attitude?
Authors: Morgan Kris S.
Published: July 2006

Evidence suggests that a high proportion of lesbians seek psychological counseling. This study represents an empirical investigation of the disproportionate use of mental health services by lesbians, focusing on the hypothesis that lesbians place a greater value on psychotherapy than do nonlesbian women. Participants (100 lesbians and 309 nonlesbian women, 97% Caucasian) completed Surgenor's revision of the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale. Results indicate that the lesbian group had a significantly more positive attitude toward seeking psychological counseling than did the nonlesbian sample, regardless of whether or not they had experienced psychological counseling.
Cultural Diversity and Methodology in Feminist Psychology: Critique, Proposal, Empirical Example
Authors: Landrine Hope , Klonoff Elizabeth A. , Brown-Collins Alice
Published: July 2006

This article calls for a revision in the methodology of feminist psychological research because cultural differences can neither be investigated nor integrated without methodological change. A methodology that combines etic (objective, behavioral) and emic (subjective, phenomenological) approaches was demonstrated in an empirical investigation. White women did not differ from women of color in self-ratings on several gender-role stereotypic terms (etic data). However, the two groups differed significantly in how they had defined and interpreted those terms while rating themselves (emic data), and these subjective, culturally constituted interpretations predicted the self-ratings.
Feminist Attitudes Toward Pornography Control
Authors: Cowan Gloria
Published: July 2006

Feminist attitudes toward legislative control of pornography were investigated. A sample of 119 recipients of the National Organization of Women Newsletter in a Southern California community responded to a questionnaire assessing variables expected to be related to pornography control: demographic variables, and attitudes toward pornography, censorship, free speech, and the harm of pornography. Values were related to attitude toward pornography control, especially the prioritizing of responsibility versus freedom. Attitudes toward pornography were also significant predictors; however, beliefs about importance of protecting free speech and the harm of pornography were the strongest predictors, with the protection of free speech making the largest contribution. In understanding “mainstream” feminists' attitudes toward pornography control, the most important variables appear to be those that assess the consequences of pornography.
Dating, Drinking, and Rape: Effects of Victim's and Assailant's Alcohol Consumption on Judgments of Their Behavior and Traits
Authors: Norris Jeanette , Cubbins Lisa A.
Published: July 2006

Effects of an acquaintance rape victim's and her assailant's alcohol consumption on judgments of their behavior and traits were examined in a 2 × 2 × 2 between-subjects factorial experiment. Sixty-eight women and 64 men, 21 or older, read one of four stories in which only the victim, only the assailant, both victim and assailant, or neither victim nor assailant consumed alcohol. One individual difference trait, rape attitudes, was also measured. The interaction of victim and assailant drinking diminished the view that a rape had occurred and that the victim responded negatively, whereas it enhanced judgments of the assailant's likability and sexuality. The portrayal of only the victim drinking resulted in a more negative view of the assailant's behavior and traits. Evaluations of the victim depended on the assailant's drinking behavior rather than on her own. Implications for treatment of rape victims and establishing assailant accountability are discussed.
Two Routes to Eliminating Gender Differences in Personal Entitlement: Social Comparisons and Performance Evaluations
Authors: Bylsma Wayne H. , Major Brenda
Published: July 2006

This analog study examined how the presence and absence of explicit social comparison standards and performance feedback influenced women's and men's perceptions of personal entitlement for pay. In the absence of both comparison information and performance feedback, women felt they deserved less pay than did men. However, these gender differences were eliminated when women and men were exposed to either the same comparison information or the same performance feedback. Path analyses further revealed that the effects of comparison information and performance feedback on judgments of pay fairness and satisfaction were mediated almost exclusively by feelings of entitlement.
Sex-Linked Bias in Promotion Decisions: The Role of Candidate's Career Relevance and Respondent's Prior Experience
Authors: Pazy Asya
Published: July 2006

To investigate the idea that information about relevant career experience has an effect on the degree of sex bias in promotion decisions, an analogue study was conducted in which sex of candidate and relevance of prior jobs were varied. The effect of respondent's experience of subordinacy to a female manager was also investigated. A within-subject design was used with two response formats, ranking and rating. As predicted, relevance of career experience was a primary consideration in the promotion decision. Respondents who had worked in the past under a female manager showed a profemale bias in choosing among candidates with relevant career experience. No sex-linked bias was identified in the treatment of the candidates with irrelevant prior experience. Additional results suggested that the ranking format was more sensitive to the effect of sex-linked bias than was the rating format.
Dimensions of Family Relationships Associated with Depressive Symptomatology in Mothers of Young Children
Authors: Hock Ellen , Schirtzinger Mary Beth , Lutz Wilma
Published: July 2006

Although mothers of young children have a higher incidence of depressive symptomatology than do either women who are not mothers or men, very little is known about the psychological nature of this phenomenon. This study examines the way in which psychological dimensions of family relationships are associated with or contribute to this increased risk in married Caucasian mothers raising first-born children. The relationships between maternal depressive symptomatology and recollections of parental relationships during childhood, marital satisfaction, and maternal separation anxiety were examined. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that these three factors explained 35.5% of the variance in maternal depressive symptomatology. These results, in addition to significant zero-order correlations, are discussed in light of the existing psychological literature.
Dimensions of the Contraceptive Attributes Questionnaire
Authors: Beckman Linda J. , Harvey S. Marie , Murray Joan
Published: July 2006

This article describes the development and evaluation of the Contraceptive Attributes Questionnaire (CAQ), a research instrument designed to assess the subjective importance of specific contraceptive attributes (Importance) and the perceived characteristics of specific contraceptives (Agreement). Three birth control methods are examined—the sponge, pill, and diaphragm. Factor analyses indicate that the four scales are multidimensional, and as subscales the factors have reasonable internal consistency reliability. The validity of the CAQ was established through comparisons of ratings of women who use different contraceptive methods. The women differed by user status on the ratings of the importance factors and on the ratings of the agreement factors for all three methods rated.
Women's Difficult Times and the Rewriting of the Life Story
Authors: Helson Ravenna
Published: July 2006

Eighty-eight women in their early 50s described their most difficult time since college, the one that had most affected their subsequent lives. The age at occurrence and theme of the difficult times were related to each other, to gender role (whether or not the women were mothers), and to the self-system as assessed by similarity of each woman's California Q-sort description to Q-sort prototypes of ego-identity status. The themes of Independent Identity and its sequelae (Put-downs at work and Abandonment) were related to adequacy of ego identity and occurrence of difficult time between ages 36 and 46. California Psychological Inventory and other data from the women at ages 27, 43, and 52 helped to explain why “rewriting of the life story” tended to occur around age 40. Work by feminist literary critics is used for additional perspective.
Perceptions of Power
Authors: Oyster Carol K.
Published: July 2006

This research examined the perceived use of power by women executive's best and worst bosses. Using a new methodology to measure French and Raven's (1959) and Raven's (1965) power bases, members of the National Association of Female Executives responded to a survey in which they evaluated the power bases of their best and worst bosses. Male bosses were more likely than female bosses to be identified as the worst boss, whereas females and males were equally likely to be identified as the best boss, although these women probably had far more male than female bosses.
Gender Identity and Adversarial Sexual Beliefs as Predictors of Attitudes Toward Sexual Harassment
Authors: Murrell Audrey J. , Dietz-Uhler Beth L.
Published: July 2006

The present study replicates the work of Konrad and Gutek (1986) within a college sample and extends their work by examining the impact of gender identity and adversarial sexual beliefs as predictors of attitudes toward sexual harassment. One hundred seven college students indicated specific aspects of their direct experiences with sexual harassment and then completed several attitudinal measures. Endorsement of adversarial sexual beliefs and experience with sexual harassment significantly predicted negative (less tolerant) attitudes toward sexual harassment for male respondents. Strong gender group identity and the endorsement of adversarial sexual beliefs significantly predicted negative (less tolerant) attitudes toward sexual harassment for female students. Implications for the focus of intervention strategies within an academic environment are discussed.
Beliefs About the Consequences of Maternal Employment for Children
Authors: Hyde Janet Shibley , McKinley Nita Mary
Published: July 2006

This study investigated the psychometric properties of the Beliefs About the Consequences of Maternal Employment (BACMEC) scale in a sample of 570 pregnant women and 550 of their husbands/partners. Both the costs and benefits subscales showed excellent internal consistency reliability. The two subscales emerged as two separate factors in factor analyses, both for the mothers' data and for the fathers' data. Construct validity was indicated by moderate correlations with a scale assessing traditional versus egalitarian sex-role attitudes. The two subscales significantly differentiated a group of mothers who favored early entry into childcare from a group who favored later entry. Fathers' scores were quite close to those of mothers, indicating that they have similar beliefs about the consequences of maternal employment for children.
Pink Or Blue
Authors: Bridges Judith S.
Published: July 2006

To examine societal gender stereotypes of infants, this unobtrusive study examined the visual images and verbal messages present in birth congratulations cards. The sample consisted of 61 girl and 61 boy cards selected from 18 establishments in four municipalities, which differ in size, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. A content analysis revealed several differences between girl and boy cards. Visual images indicative of physical activity, such as action toys and active babies, were more prominent on boy than girl cards. Verbal messages of expressiveness, including sweetness and sharing, appeared on more girl than boy cards. In addition, more boy than girl birth cards presented a message of happiness for the parents and/or the baby. The findings are discussed in the context of gender stereotypes.
Perceived Frequency of role Conflict and Relationship Quality for Caregiving Daughters
Authors: Walker Alexis J. , Pratt Clara C. , Wood Barbara
Published: July 2006

A role-conflict approach was employed to explore the impact of perceived frequency of conflict between caregiving and other obligations on the quality of relationships between daughters and their care-receiving mothers. Frequency of conflict between caregiving and responsibilities as a wife, mother, and paid and unpaid worker was assessed. Daughters reported relatively infrequent conflict between caregiving and other obligations. A multiple regression analysis revealed that daughters who reported frequent conflict between their obligations as caregivers and their obligations as wives had poorer relationships with their mothers. The findings emphasize the importance of a supportive spouse for married caregivers.
Pregnancy Decision Making
Authors: Cohan Catherine L. , Dunkel-Schetter Christine , Lydon John
Published: July 2006

Pregnancy decision making was examined among pregnant and nonpregnant women seeking pregnancy testing. The majority of women had decided upon and were certain of a decision to either abort or carry a possible pregnancy before learning the pregnancy-test results. Adjustment to pregnancy decision making was examined longitudinally among the women who tested positive for pregnancy. Pregnant participants were interviewed about their decisions to carry or abort their pregnancies at three times—immediately prior to pregnancy testing, a day after receiving positive test results, and 4 weeks later. Nearly all maintained their original decision over the course of the study. Adjustment was related primarily to which outcome was chosen and, to a lesser degree, to whether a woman was initially decided or not upon the outcome. The time surrounding pregnancy testing was stressful for women who decided to abort their pregnancies. However, negative feelings at the time of pregnancy testing among those who later aborted their pregnancies subsided by the end of the study and did not differ from those who carried their pregnancies.
Patterns of Service Utilization Among Pregnant and Parenting African American Adolescents
Authors: Rhodes Jean E. , Fischer Karla , Ebert Lori , Meyers Adena B.
Published: July 2006

This study explored factors associated with differential patterns of social and health service use among pregnant and parenting African American adolescents. One hundred seventy-seven young women between the ages of 14 and 22 took part in the study. Cluster analysis suggested three groups of users: frequent users, moderate users, and inconsistent users. These groups were distinct in terms of their frequency of service usage, perceptions of barriers to usage, and psychological and social functioning. Moderate users appeared to be healthier than either the frequent or inconsistent users, as indicated by their relatively higher levels of psychological functioning. In contrast, inconsistent users were distinguished by their high rates of sexual victimization, their low use of medical services, and their perceptions of many programmatic and personal barriers to usage. Suggestions for research and interventions that encompass the diverse needs of young African American women are made.