bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Interest Group Politics
Authors: Zambarloukou Stella
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the unfolding of interest representation and intermediation, from 1974 to 2018 by focusing mostly on the organization of wage labour, farmers, and the liberal professions and their respective ties to the political system. State–society relations in Greece have undergone a number of transformations since the transition to democracy in 1974, but until 2010 these were mostly of a path-dependent nature. Legacies of authoritarianism and clientelism contributed to the formation of close ties between organized interests and political actors, and the model of interest representation and intermediation that emerged after 1974 did not fit with either the pluralist nor the neo-corporatist models that prevailed in other Western European states in the 1970s and 1980s. The particularistic ties formed between interest groups and political parties was seen as part of the problem that led Greece to the verge of default in 2010, which in turn contributed to a dismantling of the existing model. Given that policies during the 2010–18 period were for the most part dictated by the bailout agreements, the role of interest groups inevitably subsided, but a clear alternative to the previous model has not yet emerged.
Pensions in the Greek Political Economy
Authors: Tinios Platon
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines pensions as a factor fuelling Greece’s crisis, as a consideration shaping its bailouts, and as a locus for future unease. The problem was not the absence of reform—there were repeated ineffectual changes before 2010. Nor was it due to structural faults—the system’s building blocks are familiar. A toxic mixture of narratives, between social insurance, government, and social pensions, encouraged fragmentation, transforming sectional privileges into future liabilities; pensions became a key instrument of clientelistic politics. During the crisis a new player, the Troika, reversed ‘Words without Action’ into ‘Action without Words’. The pension landscape after 2018 is characterized by a new system and a recalibration of pensions to restrain their level. Two-tier pensions are provided by a single entity, financed by uniform contributions, with high retirement ages for new retirees. The attempt to protect those close to retirement backfired and necessitated deep cuts in pensions-in-payment. When these were ruled unconstitutional, their place was taken by retroactive application of new system rules to all pensioners in 2016. Despite deep parametric changes, Greece chose institutional continuity over systemic change—opting for a monolithic state-run pay-as-you-go defined benefit pension system, reminiscent of the 1960s. The evolving system is called to overcome the legacy of broken promises, must prove politically durable but also conducive to growth. The last word on pensions may not have been written.
Migration In Greece
Authors: Triandafyllidou Anna
Published: November 2020

Greece has been typically a southern European emigration country until the 1970s but shifted rather abruptly to becoming a host country after 1989, developing slowly and reluctantly migration, integration, and asylum policies. This chapter offers an overview of the migration policies and challenges that Greece faces in the twenty-first century and on how these have evolved in the 2000s and 2010s. The chapter starts with a short presentation of the migrant population in Greece, its composition, and its insertion in the labour market so as to give a sense of the socio-economic and demographic importance of immigration in Greek society today. It then looks at the evolution of immigration and asylum policies in relation also to the politics behind such evolutions, notably the positions of the two main parties, New Democracy and PASOK, and more recently SYRIZA, as well as the role of external pressures from fellow member states and EU institutions and the overall role of exogenous factors, such as the dramatic increase of asylum-seeking flows since 2015. The chapter concludes with some critical observations concerning the present and future of immigrants and their descendants in Greek society.
State–Market Relations
Authors: Pagoulatos George
Published: November 2020

The chapter tracks the evolution of state–market relations in Greece from the post-authoritarian period to the end of the 2010s’ economic crisis. Four conceptual frameworks are singled out, each corresponding to successive stages of evolution of the Greek political economy: (a) developmentalism (up to the 1973 final collapse of the Bretton Woods system), a context driven by the primacy of economic development; (b) democratization (1974 up to roughly the mid-1980s), where the paramount objective of consolidation of democracy led both politics and economic policies; (c) Europeanization (from the mid-1980s to the 2000s), when catching-up with the advanced EU countries (economic, institutional, structural) became Greece’s hegemonic political project; and (d) the eurozone crisis, when the accumulated weaknesses and failures, at domestic and EMU level, led the Greek economy to crash and subsequently to a forced adjustment under the bailout programmes. The crisis challenged the limits of Greece’s Mediterranean variety of capitalism and its compatibility with the EMU framework. Nonetheless, the account substantiates a case of continuity through adaptation. Structural rigidity and path dependency define the enduring features of the Greek political economy and state–market relations, yet the relationship is an evolving one, adjustment and change being either domestically driven or (most powerfully) externally forced.
Foreign Policy: The Dilemmas of a Revisionist State
Authors: Wright Jonathan
Published: November 2020

The aim of Weimar foreign policy was peaceful revision of the Versailles Treaty. German governments, however, had little leverage. The opposition of anti-republican groups limited their room for manoeuvre and the problem of French security restricted what other powers were able to concede. Germany’s main strength was its importance to the international economy. Following the crisis caused by the French occupation of the Ruhr in 1923, a sustained attempt was made to resolve the most pressing issues in partnership with France, Britain, and the United States. With Gustav Stresemann as Foreign Minister from 1923 to 1929, the policy achieved notable success: the Dawes Plan, Locarno Pact, entry into the League of Nations, and French evacuation of the Rhineland. By 1930, however, German expectations of further revision and France’s fear of Germany once again becoming the stronger power, set a limit to what could be agreed. Driven by the depression and the rise of the Nazi Party, German governments fell back on unilateral policies and ultimatums. These methods anticipated the policies of Third Reich, just as the earlier period had anticipated those of the Federal Republic of Germany.
From Democracy to Dictatorship
Authors: Jones Larry Eugene
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the various factors that led to the paralysis of parliamentary democracy in the last years of the Weimar Republic and that set the stage for Hitler’s installation as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. In doing this, it attempts to determine the extent to which the transition from democracy to dictatorship was driven by long-term structural problems over which individual historical actors had little control or by the agency of those actors in time and place. At the same time, it seeks to identify those precise points in the last years of the Weimar where the actions of specific individuals like Heinrich Brüning, Franz von Papen, Kurt von Schleicher, and Reich President Paul von Hindenburg assumed much greater causal agency than might otherwise have been the case.
An Industrial Policy Framework to Advance a Global Green New Deal
Authors: Pollin Robert
Published: November 2020

This chapter argues that, as an analytic proposition and industrial policy challenge, it is realistic that global CO2 emissions can be driven to net zero by 2050, the goal set in 2018 by the IPCC. This will require an average level of investment spending of about 2.5 per cent of global GDP per year, focused in two areas: (1) dramatically improving energy-efficiency standards in the stock of buildings, automobiles and public transportation systems, and industrial production processes; and (2) equally dramatically expanding the supply of clean renewable energy sources—primarily solar and wind power—available at competitive prices to all sectors and in all regions of the globe. The chapter examines the industrial and financial policy measures that will be needed to support this global clean energy investment project, focusing on approaches that have been implemented throughout the world to varying degrees.
The European Union’s Industrial Policy
Authors: Landesmann Michael A. , Stöllinger Roman
Published: November 2020

This chapter reviews the industrial policy in the European Union in the light of the revived interest in the subject and the most pressing challenges ahead. In the current global context these challenges are (i) to keep pace at the technology frontier with the technologically most advanced economies; (ii) to meet the challenges of fast catching-up emerging economies; (iii) to contribute to the convergence and cohesion processes within the European Union; and (iv) to deal with climate change and environmental sustainability issues more generally. A quantitative exercise that makes use of the European Union’s budget data, including the structural funds, and member states aid expenditures, is used to identify the European Union’s current industrial policy priorities. The results are the basis for an assessment of the extent to which the key challenges are addressed at the supranational level and which aspects are primarily dealt with by national governments.
Industrial Policies in the BRICS
Authors: Santiago Fernando
Published: November 2020

This chapter discusses industrial policy in the BRICS. It contributes to the literature in three ways. First, by approaching the BRICS as a single entity, it documents the gradual buy-in to the concept of BRICS by the participating countries, and their efforts at strengthening collaboration, including on industrial development matters. Second, it corroborates that differences in individual development paths influence the expected contribution of each member to advancing a joint industrial development agenda, while it is early to dismiss their ability to consolidate as a major player in global economic dynamics. Third, the BRICS response to the Fourth Industrial Revolution builds on their traditional proactive stance around industrial policy, while their expected collective collaboration with third-party regions, particularly Africa, reflects cumulative interests at the individual country level.
Enterprises and Industrial Policy
Authors: Roberts Simon
Published: November 2020

This chapter considers the central role of firm strategies in industrial policy. It focuses, in particular, on large firms which can make investments to realize economies of scale and scope, coordinate clusters of suppliers, and build capabilities. The main schools of thought addressing the theory of the firm and the development of productive capabilities are reviewed, especially with reference to the resource-based theory of the firm. Large firms generally have economic power and considerable political influence and, as such, a critical aspect is firms as agents in political settlements and the implications for industrial development. Substantive sections then cover the following key areas: market power, competition, and enterprise strategies; the internationalization of production and global value chains; and recent developments regarding digital platforms and the implications for industrial policy.
Global Value Chains and Regionally Coordinated Industrial Policy
Authors: Djafar Budi A. , Milberg William
Published: November 2020

The well-documented failures of the liberal policy regimes of the period 1980–2007 to generate sustained economic growth and development have led in the past ten years to a renewed interest in industrial policy. The re-emergence of industrial policy occurs in a new world of well-developed GVCs in major industries with integrated regional economies. This chapter assesses the success of industrial policy in this context by considering the case of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). After laying out the case for industrial policy in regionalized GVCs, we find that ASEAN, a regional trade bloc, has helped to coordinate regional production integration and promoting industry competitiveness for member states in several strategic industries. We conclude that the future success of ASEAN industrial policy will hinge on continued growth in Chinese demand and the ability of ASEAN countries to build some globally competitive, lead firms in key industries.
Managing Trade through Productive Integration
Authors: Kozul-Wright Richard , Fortunato Piergiuseppe
Published: November 2020

This chapter reviews the debates around trade and industrial policy and discusses how the composition of trade and investment flows, as well as the spread and form of participation in GVCs, affects structural transformation. It focuses on three characteristics that have been identified in the literature as critical to assessing the export structure of an economy and its potential to accelerate industrialization: the diversification of production, the level of sophistication of the exported products and upgrading of productive capacities/capabilities required to sustain the production and export of increasingly sophisticated goods, and the establishment of linkages within and across sectors. The chapter also discusses the critical components of a national export strategy which could support the insertion of national firms in international markets, adopt a strategic approach to attracting FDI and enable constant upgrading along global (and regional) value chains. Because, success comes not simply from shifting resources from primary activities to labour-intensive manufactures but also anticipating future challenges in these industries (as costs rise and new competitors emerge) and nurturing new linkages and more sophisticated products. An effective national export strategy depends on active industrial policies, targeted support for upgrading, and regional economic arrangements.
Introduction and Background to The Oxford Handbook on Early China
Authors: Childs-Johnson Elizabeth
Published: November 2020

The volume, The Oxford Handbook on Early China, offers a rich assembly of pioneering research on pre-imperial China. The study is a coordinated, multidisciplinary approach focused on the period before the establishment of imperial rule, encompassing the whole span of time from the Neolithic through Eastern Zhou eras, ca. 5000–250 bce. Our approach is multidisciplinary in encompassing fields ranging from archaeology, anthropology, art history, architecture, metallurgy, literature, religion, paleography, cosmology, prehistory, to history. This interdisciplinary perspective of 33 authors profoundly enhances our understanding of early China and its cultural achievements in multiple directions.
The Spread of Erlitou Yazhang to South China and the Origin and Dispersal of Early Political States
Authors: Tang Chung , Wang Fang
Published: November 2020

One of the major offshoots of the Jade Age and urban evolution of Erlitou is the role played by jade and stone as symbols of political order. The chapter considers how specific attributes of yazhang may be used to differentiate capital and secondary sites of influence in terms of state formation and Erlitou’s role in early Chinese history. Analysis of yazhang unearthed in East Asia suggests that one major and representative type and style of yazhang, Erlitou VM3:4, had a significant influence in south China during the Erlitou period. Erlitou appears to have had direct contact with the Jinsha culture in today’s Sichuan in southwest China and had relatively indirect interactions with southeast China’s Tai Wan culture in Hong Kong and the Hulinshan culture in Fujian. The replication of Erlitou yazhang in south China can be seen as representative of a political order spreading from a primary state to secondary states. Through analyses of Erlitou yazhang and other material evidence, it is possible to understand the political symbolism used in the early state. This is also significant in illustrating how states and political systems originated in wider East Asia. While the search for written evidence from the Xia period continues, archaeological remains and artifacts can provide scientific and crucial evidence to substantiate the early political state in China.
The Cultural and Historical Setting of the Shang
Authors: Smith Jonathan , Fan Yuzhou
Published: November 2020

This chapter offers a basic historiographical overview of the Shang period and polity, with focus on the roles that general archaeological, specifically inscriptional, and received textual evidence have played in approaching the history, chronology, religious traditions, calendrical practices, material culture, and lifeways of the Shang and their cultural forebears. Special attention is paid to pyro-osteomancy plus inscription, a defining feature of Shang religious life. These “oracle bone inscriptions” testify to the use of divination by or on behalf of Shang royals to gauge the auspiciousness of circumstances and hypothetical courses of action relating to sickness and health, military campaigns, hunting expeditions, agricultural production, meteorological conditions, and much else, perennial and overarching question being the proper manner of presenting sacrifice to deceased ancestors.
Shang Belief and Art
Authors: Childs-Johnson Elizabeth
Published: November 2020

This chapter identifies Shang religion as based on a belief in yi異 metamorphism and analyzes this in connection with the Great Settlement Shang at ancient Yinxu (Anyang), Henan. The chapter analyzes why the Shang may be identified with a religio-social system of “institutionalized shamanism,” theocratic hegemony, and sifang (four-directional) cosmology, in addition to identifying standardized rules for representation in art. The chapter discusses how Shang belief and religious practice reveal themselves in both visual formats and oracle bone terminology, and how the Shang embraced metamorphic belief, worshipped an empowered dead, and created a visual vocabulary of mnemonic royal power symbols. The chapter approaches data from a holistic point of view, including written, archaeological, and visual materials.
Late Shang: Fu Zi [Fu Hao] and M5 at Xiaotun
Authors: Cao Dingyun
Published: November 2020

This chapter analyzes the titles and names inscribed on implements buried with Fu Zi (Fu Hao) in order to understand important political figures of the Wu Ding era. The chapter examines in detail each of the eleven legible inscriptions found inscribed on relics in the tomb. These inscriptions include: Fu Zi [Fu Hao]; Si [Hou] Mu Xin; Si [Hou] Xin; Si [Hou] Mu; Ya; Ya Qi; Ge; Ren Zhu ru shi; Zi Quan; and Lu Fang Gua ru ge wu.
Western Zhou Cultural and Historic Setting
Authors: Khayutina Maria
Published: November 2020

The present chapter deals with the early history and archaeology of the Zhou dynasty (mid-eleventh to third centuries bce), beginning with the legendary period of early ancestors, traditionally traced back several centuries earlier. Up-to-date efforts of Chinese archaeologists to systematize and to interpret manifold cultural remains from circa the thirteenth to eleventh centuries bce in the present-day Shaanxi province are reviewed with the goal of identifying “proto-Zhou” in the material record. In addition, data are reviewed pertaining to contacts between Zhou and the contemporary political hegemon, Shang, before and during their final collision, after which the Zhou started claiming hegemony for itself. The outline of the “Western Zhou period” ending with the death of King You 幽 (r. 780–771 bce) is then introduced, touching upon the problems of periodization and of chronologic reconstructions proposed for the date of the conquest of Shang and for early Zhou reigns. Finally, political organization and integrative factors of the Western Zhou period are addressed.
Western Zhou Rites and Mortuary Practice (Inscriptions and Texts)
Authors: Cook Constance A.
Published: November 2020

This chapter presents an evaluation of Zhou ritual from the standpoint of modern archaeological evidence and excavated texts. While there is some continuity with the definition of Zhou ritual in transmitted texts, the differences with and gaps in the transmitted records are striking. The chapter explores rites and mortuary practices in detail, and it presents several examples of Western Zhou bronze inscriptions related to ancient rituals and practices for conferring political power and for ancestor worship. The chapter analyzes several inscriptions providing examples of early ceremonies and also discusses the sixty-day ritual calendar that governed ritual life during this period. The use of ritual to preserve the past led to the rise of literature and history in ancient China.
The Warring States Period: Historical Background
Authors: Pines Yuri
Published: November 2020

This chapter starts with introducing major textual, archeological, and paleographical sources for the history of the Warring States period. It then focuses on the inter-state dynamics following the de facto dissolution of the state of Jin in 453 bce and up to the Qin unification of 221 bce. In particular, the chapter explores the rise and fall of the state of Wei as the major hegemonic power in the end of the fifth and the first half of the fourth centuries bce; the subsequent rise of Qin and attempts to block it through formation of anti-Qin alliances; and, finally, the collapse of these alliances and the acceleration of Qin’s territorial expansion in the third century bce.
Iron Technology and Its Regional Development during the Eastern Zhou Period
Authors: Lam Wengcheong
Published: November 2020

The appearance of the cast iron industry was one of the most technological innovations in ancient China. Nonetheless, how iron technology shaped the historical development during this critical period has not yet been fully investigated. This chapter first reviews evidence dating to the Spring and Autumn period regarding the appearance of bloomery iron and cast iron industry. Archaeological evidence suggests a simultaneous development of cast iron in multiple states during the first half of the first millennium BCE. Regional variations between these two centers were also present. The chapter further explores regional variations in the development of the iron industries during the Warring States period on the basis of frequencies and types of iron objects from burial data in the Jin, Qin, and Chu regions. The regional comparison suggests that the total amount of iron objects in the Qin state was much less than the assemblage in the three Jin states; the latter should belong to the manufacturing core given the frequencies and types of iron objects in tombs. Moreover, the local iron industry of the Chu state distinctively focused on the manufacture of weapons compared to former two states. In sum, the regional variations in iron industry should be the foundation for further addressing the social significance of iron technology in ancient China. In addition, the iron industry in the Qin state during the Warring States period should be more carefully scrutinized in the future because it might have been operated on a relatively smaller scale than presently understood.
Institutional Reforms and Reformers during the Warring States Period
Authors: Pines Yuri
Published: November 2020

This chapter explores the transformation of the Warring States–period polities from loose aristocratic entities into centralized bureaucratic states. It focuses primarily on the reforms in the state of Qin associated with Shang Yang and his followers. The reforms resulted in the formation of an assertive agro-managerial state, able to mobilize its population to agriculture and warfare. Shang Yang overhauled Qin’s social system, replacing the pedigree-based order with the system of the ranks of merit, which allowed sociopolitical and economic advancement to individuals who excelled on the battlefield or in increasing their grain yields. The accompanying centralization and profound bureaucratization of Qin’s society had dramatically improved the state’s control over its human and material resources. The newly emerging assertive and all-reaching state allowed Qin to successfully subjugate its rivals. In the long term, however, an excessively activist state proved to be a liability once imperial unification was achieved.
Change and Continuity at the Intersection of Received History and the Material Record during the Warring States Period
Authors: Sanft Charles
Published: November 2020

This chapter concentrates on archaeologically recovered paleographic and material culture remaining from the pre-imperial and early imperial periods in China. One part of the chapter treats capitals and the settlements and cities that preceded them. Another section considers the systems of household registration that, beginning circa fourth century bce, created and maintained records of the population. Those records allowed officials to keep track of population statistics. Another section looks at the information we have about practices connected with oaths and covenants. Whether between states or within polities and groups, oaths and covenants were an important means of affirming agreement and creating cohesion. The final section concerns tallies, which archaeologists have recovered in various forms. Tallies were a way of proving authority and establishing trust and are known from examples in shapes ranging from tigers and dragons to bamboo.
Introduction to the Xia Period: Definitions, Themes, and Debate
Authors: Xu Hong
Published: November 2020

This chapter introduces Erlitou as the first dynasty of the Bronze Age by reviewing differing opinions and the basis for identifying the Erlitou Culture as that of Xia, ca. 2100–1600 bce. After tracing the historiography of excavations and definitions the chapter reviews connections with the preceding and overlapping Longshan era, particularly Taosi in Shanxi province. Finally analysis focuses on the history of excavations and finds (1959–present) and the current state of research on the significance of the Erlitou culture. Due to the elusiveness of any transmitted textual data to verify the historicity of Xia, the debate surrounding the “Xia dynasty” goes on.
Law in Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt
Authors: Yiftach Uri
Published: November 2020

The papyri from Egypt allow a rare glimpse of the workings of Greek law outside the settings of the polis. The evidence stems from an extremely long period from the Macedonian to the Arab conquest, a period in the course of which Greek law interacted with and was influenced by other legal cultures, most notably Egyptian and Roman. The evidence is also unique: literary sources play a marginal role, as do inscriptions. It is rather private correspondence, texts composed on papyrus for ephemeral purposes, discarded and uncovered millennia later, that provides most of our evidence. Such direct access to everyday documentation is one of the most fascinating features of legal papyrology.
The “White Man,” Race, and Imperial War during the Long Nineteenth Century
Authors: Lake Marilyn
Published: November 2020

This chapter explores the transnational formation of the gendered and racialized figure of the “white man” in the constitutive relations of colonial conquest and imperial rule across the nineteenth and into the twentieth century. The self-styled bearer of a “civilizing mission” to indigenous peoples, the white man became a perpetrator of violence and atrocity as imperial rule and colonial settlement encountered continuing resistance and guerrilla warfare. In the process, the older ideal of moral manliness gave way to a more modern conception of masculinity characterized by toughness, aggression, and a capacity to use firearms to “pacify the natives.” Defined by power, even as he was haunted by his vulnerability, the white man engaged in systematic denial and disavowal, evasion, and euphemism and narratives of nation-building that justified his right to rule.
Changing Modes of Warfare and the Gendering of Military Medical Care, 1850s–1920s
Authors: Quataert Jean H.
Published: November 2020

The chapter centers on the gendering of battlefield services found at the nexus of war, law, and medicine from the 1850s to the 1920s. It offers a sociolegal analysis of the impact of states’ accession to the Geneva Conventions of 1864 (revised in 1906), which brought a medical reform agenda into national life and simultaneously created a global network of relief associations in the international Red Cross movement. Blending global and local analyses, the chapter examines the diverse national struggles that gained women entry into battlefield nursing and explores the complex motives sustaining the work of the gendered medical staff on the global battlefields. It offers a historically sensitive assessment of the evolution of humanitarian practices in their formative ties to war and their place in helping shape the new face of international public health under the League of Nations after 1918.
States, Military Masculinities, and Combat in the Age of World Wars
Authors: Kühne Thomas
Published: November 2020

In the age of the two world wars, traditional concepts of exclusive and heroic masculinity gave way to inclusive, protean masculinities. Their fabric as tutorials for coping with the emotional, moral, and physical challenges of total war allowed for the integration of soldiers with different personalities and different social backgrounds into the cohesive face-to-face combat group that proved crucial for the fighting morale of modern armies. While men within these homosocial groups could perform a broad range of seemingly contradictory emotions and practices, coded from “masculine” to “feminine,” these groups relied on the exclusion of women. This chapter tracks representations and experiences of military masculinities in the first half of the twentieth century and compares the developments in Europe and the United States.
Colonial Soldiers, Race, and Military Masculinities during and beyond World Wars I and II
Authors: Smith Richard
Published: November 2020

Millions of colonial soldiers served the empires during World Wars I and II. Until the end of the twentieth century their history and memory received little attention. This chapter shows how martial-race theory, notions of mental capacity, and pre–world war experiences impacted the deployment of colonial troops. These factors included fear of arming colonial subjects, anxieties about the apparent mental and physical incapacity of some white soldiers, and pragmatic strategic considerations. The chapter takes a comparative approach to explore how the imperial military service of colonial soldiers contributed to masculine visions of independent nationhood and citizenship following the First and Second World Wars. Visions of heroic masculine sacrifice were appropriated by emerging nations, even where war service involved discrimination and deployment as military labor. The chapter also evaluates the extent to which imperial loyalty and the hope of postwar political patronage motivated colonial troops.
Post-1945 Western Militaries, Female Soldiers, and Gay and Lesbian Rights
Authors: Hagemann Karen , Campbell D’Ann
Published: November 2020

This chapter analyzes the changing policies of the Western militaries toward female, gay, and lesbian soldiers in the post-1945 era and the challenges these policies posed to dominant ideas of military masculinity. The focus will be on the NATO states of Britain, Canada, and the United States with different military traditions. The chapter discusses the main blocking, enabling and driving factors for policies of integrating women as well as gays and lesbians in these three countries. It argues that their integration was fostered, first, by the move to professional armies based on volunteers, which led to growing military manpower needs; second, by the expanding centrality of degendered technological sophistication, which allowed the integration of more and more women, because it required skills and knowledge and not mainly strength; third, by social movements that pushed for equal rights for women and queer people; and fourth, a change in public opinion.
War and Gender
Authors: Dudink Stefan , Hagemann Karen , Honeck Mischa
Published: November 2020

This chapter provides an introduction to the intertwined histories of gender and war from the end of the Age of Revolutions in the early nineteenth century to the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. In the opening section, it offers a reconsideration of the notion of Europe’s post-Napoleonic century as an “era of peace” and of key concepts that historians have used to make sense of pursuits of war and military force during this time period, such as total war, imperialism, and militarism, and nationalism. It then offers a panoramic view of the major wars waged from the 1830s to the 1910s, paying special attention to the often porous and fluid boundaries between national, colonial, and imperial armed conflicts. Next, the chapter surveys the peacetime militarization of the “Western world” before the era of the two world wars, analyzing it as part of the movement of politics, society, culture, and economics in what was by the mid-nineteenth century a global age. The chapter concludes with an exploration of the intersections of war and gender and a reflection on the state of scholarship.
War, Culture, and Gender in Colonial and Revolutionary North America
Authors: Zabin Serena
Published: November 2020

The warfare of colonial and revolutionary North America, from European–native conflicts and the Seven Years’ War to the American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812, has only recently come to be considered in gendered terms. The roles of both women and men in North American warfare underwent enormous changes from the last quarter of the sixteenth century to the first quarter of the nineteenth. Two major themes are at the center of this chapter: on the one hand, the theme of the contested and changing constructions of military masculinity of Native Americans, British, and French white settlers and the British and French armies that were brought to North America especially in the context of the Seven Years’ War; and on the other hand, the theme of women’s different and changing involvement in warfare, which is related to the contested and changing representations of femininity in the different war societies.
Gender, Slavery, War, and Violence in and beyond the Age of Revolutions
Authors: Colwill Elizabeth
Published: November 2020

A definition of war limited to fields of battle orchestrated by monarchs or nation-states elides a primary form of state-sponsored violence at the heart of European wars of empire—slavery. It involved the forcible conversion of persons to chattel through the legal and military arms of the state—a conversion secured through the subjection of sexual, productive, and reproductive labor and the erasure of genealogies and family ties. In this sense, slavery could be seen as a protracted state of war. Armed conflict fueled the slave trade, slave revolts blended into “official” wars, and enslaved people sometimes spoke of slavery as a state of war. Soldiers and the state march front and center in the archives, their presence camouflaging the gendered implications of warfare for women, families, and statecraft. Yet armed conflict in the Age of Revolutions spilled beyond the battlefield, constructed distinct pathways to emancipation for men and women, and enshrined new, gendered forms of citizenship. These interrelated themes are the focus of this chapter.
Ottoman Europe
Authors: Gerelyes Ibolya , Vionis Athanasios , Bikić Vesna , Dinu Niculina , Biliaieva Svitlana
Published: November 2020

The expansive territories in South-Eastern and Central Europe that came under Ottoman rule in the 15th and 16th centuries were culturally and religiously diverse. Some of these territories became Ottoman vassal states, and others fell under direct Ottoman rule. Considering the diversity of the Empire’s inhabitants, research on the lands under Ottoman rule belongs only partly to the field of Islamic archaeology. However, in the context of the Ottoman Empire as a whole, it is clear that analysis of the archaeological heritage of the non-Muslim subjects of the Empire has its place in Ottoman archaeological research and, therefore, constitutes a part of Islamic archaeology. The written sources lend background and credibility to archaeological research and investigations of historical monuments. In this sense, archaeological research into the Ottoman period in Europe represents a branch of historical archaeology which is heavily impacted by textual source analysis.
Clinical observation of mineralized collagen bone grafting after curettage of benign bone tumors
Authors: Gao Chong , Qiu Zhi-Ye , Hou Jian-Wen , Tian Wei , Kou Jian-Ming , Wang Xi
Published: November 2020

Curettage of benign bone tumor is a common cause for bone defect. For such bone defect repair, autogenous bone, allogeneic bone and traditional artificial bone graft substitutes have many disadvantages. In recent years, a biomimetic mineralized collagen (MC) with similar composition and microstructures to the natural bone matrix was developed and used for treating various bone defects. In this work, a retrospective study analyzed clinical outcomes of patients treated with curettage of benign bone tumors and bone grafting with MC, in comparison to another group treated with the same surgical method and autogenous bone. Lane–Sandhu X-ray score of the autogenous bone group was superior to the MC group at 1 month after the operation, but the two groups had no statistical difference at 6 and 12 months. The MC group was better in Musculoskeletal Tumor Society scoring at 1 and 6 months after the operation, and the two groups had no statistical difference at 12 month. Therefore, the MC performed not as good as autogenous bone in early stage of bone healing but achieved comparable outcomes in long-term follow-ups. Moreover, the MC has advantages in function recovery and avoided potential complications induced by harvesting autogenous bone.
A longitudinal observational population-based study of brain volume associated with changes in sleep timing from middle to late-life
Authors: Kim Regina E Y , Kim Hyeon Jin , Kim Soriul , Abbott Robert D , Thomas Robert J , Yun Chang-Ho , Lee Hyang Woon , Shin Chol
Published: November 2020

Study Objectives

Sleep behaviors are related to brain structure and function, but the impact of long-term changes in sleep timing on brain health has not been clearly addressed. The purpose of this study was to examine the association of longitudinal changes in sleep timing from middle to late-life with gray matter volume (GMV), an important marker of brain aging.

Methods

We enrolled 1798 adults (aged 49–82 years, men 54.6%) who underwent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) between 2011 and 2014. Midsleep time (MST) on free days corrected for sleep debt on workdays was adopted as a marker of sleep timing. Data on MST were available at the time of MRI assessment and at examinations that were given 9 years earlier (2003–2004). Longitudinal changes in MST over the 9-year period were derived and categorized into quartiles. Subjects in quartile 1 were defined as “advancers” (MST advanced ≥ 1 h) while those in quartile 4 were defined as “delayers” (MST delayed ≥ 0.2 h). Quartiles 2–3 defined a reference group (MST change was considered modest). The relationship of GMV with MST changes over 9 years was investigated.

Results

Nine-year change in MST were significantly associated with GMV. Compared to the reference group, advancers had smaller GMVs in the frontal and temporal regions. A delay in MST was also associated with smaller cerebellar GMV.

Conclusions

In middle-to-late adulthood, the direction of change in MST is associated with GMV. While advancers and delayers in MST tend to present lower GMV, associations appear to differ across brain regions.
MYB_SH[AL]QKY[RF] transcription factors MdLUX and MdPCL-like promote anthocyanin accumulation through DNA hypomethylation and MdF3H activation in apple
Authors: Li Wen-Fang , Ning Gai-Xing , Zuo Cun-Wu , Chu Ming-Yu , Yang Shi-Jin , Ma Zong-Huan , Zhou Qi , Mao Juan , Chen Bai-Hong
Published: November 2020

Heritable DNA methylation is a highly conserved epigenetic mark that is important for many biological processes. In a previous transcriptomic study on the fruit skin pigmentation of apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) cv. ‘Red Delicious’ (G0) and its four continuous-generation bud sport mutants including ‘Starking Red’ (G1), ‘Starkrimson’ (G2), ‘Campbell Redchief’ (G3) and ‘Vallee spur’ (G4), we identified MYB transcription factors (TFs) MdLUX and MdPCL-like involved in regulating anthocyanin synthesis. However, how these TFs ultimately determine the fruit skin color traits remains elusive. Here, bioinformatics analysis revealed that MdLUX and MdPCL-like contained a well-conserved motif SH[AL]QKY[RF] in their C-terminal region and were located in the nucleus of onion epidermal cells. Overexpression of MdLUX and MdPCL-like in ‘Golden Delicious’ fruits, ‘Gala’ calli and Arabidopsis thaliana promoted the accumulation of anthocyanin, whereas MdLUX and MdPCL-like suppression inhibited anthocyanin accumulation in ‘Red Fuji’ apple fruit skin. Yeast one-hybrid assays revealed that MdLUX and MdPCL-like may bind to the promoter region of the anthocyanin biosynthesis gene MdF3H. Dual-luciferase assays indicated that MdLUX and MdPCL-like activated MdF3H. The whole-genome DNA methylation study revealed that the methylation levels of the mCG context at the upstream (i.e., promoter region) of MdLUX and MdPCL-like were inversely correlated with their mRNA levels and anthocyanin accumulation. Hence, the data suggest that MYB_SH[AL]QKY[RF] TFs MdLUX and MdPCL-like promote anthocyanin biosynthesis in apple fruit skins through the DNA hypomethylation of their promoter regions and the activation of the structural flavonoid gene MdF3H.
Right Ventricular Dysfunction and Mortality After Cannulation for Venovenous Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation
Authors: Ortiz Fernando , Brunsvold Melissa E. , Bartos Jason A.
Published: November 2020

Objectives:

To assess the prevalence and prognostic value of right ventricular dysfunction as measured by echocardiography in patients treated with venovenous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.

Design:

Retrospective cohort study. The primary endpoint was survival to discharge. Survival to extracorporeal membrane oxygenation decannulation was the secondary endpoint.

Setting:

ICU at an academic quaternary medical center.

Subjects:

Sixty-four consecutive patients treated with venovenous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation between January 2013 and December 2018 with an echocardiogram performed after cannulation.

Interventions:

Transthoracic or transesophageal echocardiography was used to assess several standard right and left ventricular characteristics after cannulation with venovenous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.

Measurements and Main Results:

No single echo variable was predictive of outcomes. Composite markers such as right ventricular dysfunction (right ventricular dilation and abnormal septal motion) or a small dynamic left ventricle (left ventricle internal diastolic diameter < 4.0 cm and left ventricular ejection fraction > 60%) were associated with significantly decreased survival to decannulation (45% vs 83%; p < 0.01) and survival to hospital discharge (32% vs 64%; p = 0.02). Regression models confirmed the absence of both right ventricular dysfunction, and small left ventricle was highly predictive of increased survival to decannulation (odds ratio, 6; 95% CI, 1.87–19.28; p < 0.01) and discharge (odds ratio, 3.86; 95% CI, 1.29–11.55; p = 0.02).

Conclusions:

Echocardiographic variables consistent with right ventricular dysfunction or a small dynamic left ventricle were associated with decreased survival to decannulation and hospital discharge. These results enhance prognostic capabilities while implicating right ventricular dysfunction in the high mortality observed in this patient population.
Vasopressin in Conjunction With Norepinephrine in Septic Shock: A Retrospective Cohort Study From a Low Middle-Income Country
Authors: Raza Hussain Ahmed , Arshad Ainan , Ayaz Ahmed , Raja Mohummad H. R. , Gauhar Fatima , Khan Maria , Jamil Bushra
Published: November 2020

Objectives:

Guidelines recommend use of norepinephrine as the first-line treatment for fluid-refractory septic shock and if septic shock persists vasopressin may be initiated. Since there are limited data from low middle-income countries with high disease burden of sepsis, we aimed to compare the outcomes of using vasopressin adjunct to norepinephrine in comparison with norepinephrine alone.

Design:

Retrospective cohort study.

Setting:

Aga Khan University Hospital, Karachi, Pakistan.

Patients:

Six-hundred fifty-three patients diagnosed with septic shock from January 2019 to December 2019, with 498 given norepinephrine only and 155 given norepinephrine-vasopressin combination.

Interventions:

None.

Measurements and Main Results:

Primary outcome was in-hospital mortality. Secondary outcomes were duration of vasopressor used, length of hospital stay, length of ICU stay, and days on ventilatory support. After adjustment by multivariable logistic regression, it was found that mortality was not significantly associated with the norepinephrine-vasopressin combination (adjusted odds ratio, 0.633 [95% CI, 0.370–1.081]). However, Sequential Organ Failure Assessment score at admission (1.100 [1.014–1.193]), lactate at admission (1.167 [1.109–1.227]), duration of vasopressor used (1.481 [1.316–1.666]), and level of care (3.025 [1.682–5.441]) were found to be independently associated with the adjunct usage of norepinephrine and vasopressin.

Conclusions:

The use of norepinephrine-vasopressin combination has remained debatable in literature. Our study showed that although there was no difference in mortality between the two groups, admission Sequential Organ Failure Assessment scores and admission lactate levels were found to be significantly higher in the norepinephrine-vasopressin group. Hence, physicians from Pakistan used the norepinephrine-vasopressin combination in resistant septic shock patients who were sicker to begin with. Furthermore, duration of vasopressor therapy and ICU admission were also significantly higher in the combination group. Considering the recent hyperinflation of vasopressors costs and that most healthcare expenditure for patients in Pakistan is out-of-pocket, this can consequently lead to unwarranted financial burden for patients and their families.
Bacillus Calmette-GuÉrin-Associated Cervical Spondylitis in a 3-Year-Old Immunocompetent Girl
Authors: Imakiire Ryo , Nishikawa Takuro , Tominaga Hiroyuki , Tawaratsumida Hiroki , Imuta Naoko , Koriyama Toyoyasu , Nishi Junichiro , Taniguchi Noboru , Kawano Yoshifumi
Published: November 2020

Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG)–associated osteomyelitis is a rare adverse event following BCG vaccination, and there have been no previous reports of BCG-associated cervical spondylitis. Here, we describe the case of a 3-year-old immunocompetent girl who developed BCG-associated cervical spondylitis and was successfully treated by prompt surgical drainage of the abscess and administration of isoniazid and rifampicin for 9 months without sequelae.