bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Paper 1: Measurement and Recording of Transient Pressures in Unsteady Flow
Authors: Davies P. O. A. L.
Published: June 2010

The problems in developing satisfactory measuring techniques for studying pressure transients can best be considered under three headings. First, there are the problems concerned with obtaining a continuous electrical signal which represents the value of the pressure at any instant. Suitable devices include diaphragm-type instruments and piezo-electric types and these may have quite different characteristics. The former are generally more suitable for low pressure and low frequency applications, while the latter can be used for very short time transient measurements at higher pressures. The types of error which are most likely depend both on the application and the characteristics of the primary transducer unit chosen.

A second group of problems is concerned with the recording or analysis of the electrical signals from the pressure transducer. These include errors associated with chart-type recordings, cathode-ray oscillograph recording, statistical sampling and filters, and for frequency analysis. The importance of various transient and steady-state recording errors and the type of application will again determine which is the most suitable equipment to choose.

A final group of problems is associated with the calibration of the measuring system finally selected and the interpretation of the measurements. There are several difficulties and sources of error here since it is not always possible to perform basic calibration under the same conditions as the experimental measurements.
Paper 2: Accuracy in Cylinder Pressure Measurement
Authors: Lyn W. T. , Stockwell A. J. , Wang C. H. T.
Published: June 2010

The paper commences with a definition of the requirements of cylinder pressure measurements for (1) general engine development work, (2) frequency spectrum analysis in engine noise investigation, and (3) thermodynamics and combustion analysis.

Methods for the determination of the frequency response of cylinder pressure transducers are then treated both theoretically and experimentally. For the continuous recording type of transducer a shock chamber technique is used. For the balanced pressure type of pick-up a comparison with a continuous recording type, of known frequency response, is made.

These techniques do not completely simulate engine conditions and comparisons of the two types of pressure transducers were made dynamically under engine conditions. The results showed that all the continuous recording types of pressure transducer so far tested were sensitive to transient heat transfer owing to combustion. A rig was therefore developed to simulate such conditions outside the engine.

Detailed descriptions are given of examples of both types of pressure transducer as developed at C.A.V. The method of recording timing marks is presented in some detail and the advantage of the ‘closed circuit’ magnetic type of degree pick-up is described.
Paper 7: Accuracy of and Representative Results Obtained with an Infra-Red Pyrometer Measuring Compression Temperatures
Authors: Myers P. S. , Uyehara O. A.
Published: June 2010

In a spark-ignited internal combustion engine there are two zones of interest ( a) the burnt mixture and ( b) the unburnt mixture. Of interest to the authors and to many of their colleagues are the pre-reactions which occur in the unburnt zone. To follow the extent of these pre-reactions both the pressure and the temperature of the unburnt mixture are required. Pressure transducers can be obtained from many commercial establishments, but a temperature pyrometer that can follow the temperature of the unburnt mixture is not commercially available.

The current technique uses the absorption, emission characteristic of the water vapour in the cylinder. The use of water vapour as the sensing element is desirable since water vapour is normally in the air which the internal combustion (i.c.) engine breathes.

Radiation of a known intensity (known black-body temperature) is passed through the engine, through a band pass filter (H2O water vapour band at 2.6 μ) to an infra-red detector. The output from the detector, after amplification, is fed to a cathode-ray oscilloscope. By suitable means, it is possible to compare the undisturbed radiation from the black body with the black-body radiation after it has experienced absorption emission events during the compression process. The reversal point can be visually observed on the oscillogram. At this reversal point the temperature of the gas and the black body are equal and the crank angle at which this occurs can be determined. Other temperatures and crank angles at which reversal occurs can be observed to obtain the unburnt mixture temperature versus crank angle curve.

The authors' experiences with different infra-red detectors and other temperature-measuring techniques, as well as comparison between the velocity of sound method and the infra-red technique, are discussed. Data obtained with the instrument are presented.
Paper 9: Velocity and Rate of Flow Measurements in Internal Combustion Engines
Authors: Kastner L. J. , Tindal M. J. , Williams T. J.
Published: June 2010

Measurement of both the mean and instantaneous values of gas velocity in internal combustion (i.c.) engines presents problems of considerable difficulty and the application of electronic methods of measurement has made important contributions in this field. The problems encountered in metering pulsating flows are briefly discussed with special reference to the advantages of two metering devices which employ electronic circuits.

Whilst pressure transducers enable the variation in instantaneous gas velocities to be inferred in certain circumstances there are many other cases where a direct indication of velocity variation is desirable. The hot wire anemometer (h.w.a.) has been highly developed for aeronautical engineering applications but special problems arise in the reciprocating engine where velocity variations can be large. This paper describes a constant temperature h.w.a. using a d.c. circuit which has proved stable and relatively easy to operate. If velocity measurements in the engine cylinder are required the problem becomes a three-dimensional one, and the response of the h.w.a. to variation in flow direction is discussed. Consideration is given to materials suitable for probe wires.
The Architect's Viewpoint
Authors: Newnham P.
Published: June 2010

The paper discusses from the point of view of the architect the relationship between the designers and their clients, the implication for the architect of growth and change, the influence on planning, of the need for greater productivity in the building industry, architectural implications of social and academic patterns into which the department fits.
Paper 5: The Complete Transfer of an Existing Mechanical Engineering Department to a New Site
Authors: Till A. J. , Smith H. J.
Published: June 2010

An account is given of the planning, construction and occupation of the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Brighton College of Technology. This College took over all the advanced studies of the Brighton Technical College and the paper describes the transfer of the old department and its establishment in a new building.

The organization of planning consultation between architects and College is explained and the position of the Department in relation to the whole College is shown. Schedules of accommodation indicate the floor areas available and the expected student capacity.

Description is given of the detailed design of individual laboratories involving work by all members of the teaching staff grouped in three sections dealing with Thermodynamics, Mechanics and Materials and Production Engineering respectively.

The preparation and finance of the schedule of equipment and the purchasing, supply and installation arrangements are explained. Economy made necessary the transfer of some existing equipment and the organization of removal and reinstallation is described.

A short description of the main features of construction of the building is given followed by details of services and furnishings. The final layout of the laboratories is discussed and criticized in the light of eighteen months' use.

The paper concludes with general comments which may prove of value to others undertaking similar tasks.
Paper 16: An Analysis of the Losses in a Radial Gas Turbine
Authors: Benson R. S.
Published: June 2010

A discussion of the flow pattern in the rotor passages of a radial gas turbine showed that loss data for predicting turbine performance could only be adequately obtained from rotating cascades or turbine tests. The details are given of an analysis of the radial gas turbine tests described by Hiett and Johnston. The analysis showed that the deviation in the nozzle gas leaving angle was dependent not only on the nozzle geometry and gas leaving angle but also on the rotor speed and geometry. Two rotor loss coefficients were obtained, one, ζ RA, was similar in form to the conventional axial turbine type loss coefficient, the other, ζ RB, could be used with Wallace's theory for predicting the off-design characteristics of the turbine. The two loss coefficients are shown to be related. The results showed that ζ RB could be expressed as a function of the gas incident angle and the relative velocity at the rotor tip for each turbine. The conventional loss coefficient ζ RA had a minimum value at negative incidence to the blade but was nearly constant over a wide incidence range. At high positive and negative incidence the coefficient was strongly dependent on the overall pressure ratio across the turbine.

At zero incidence the two loss coefficients were equal. The tests showed that for this condition the rotor loss coefficients decreased with increase in flow coefficient and with increase in mean acceleration across the rotor. For low mass flow rates there was a rapid increase in the loss coefficient. Finally, it was observed that there was a correlation between the deviation in the nozzle gas leaving angle and the optimum incident gas angle to the rotor.
Paper 19: An Investigation of the Flow through Tandem Cascades
Authors: Railly J. W. , El-Sarha M. E.
Published: June 2010

An experimental investigation of the slow speed performance of a tandem cascade of aerofoils is described. The theoretical criteria on which the cascade was designed are discussed; the method of Ackeret, described elsewhere, was used to obtain the geometry of the aerofoils.

Tests were carried out on the effect of the magnitude of the gap between each tandem pair and of the effect of varying, independently, the stagger of each aerofoil. Tests were carried out over a wide range of inlet angle for the range of staggers adopted and optimum deflections for the cascade were determined.
Paper 24: The Decay of Turbulent Velocity Profiles
Authors: Livesey J. L. , Turner J. T. , Glasspoole W. F.
Published: June 2010

The importance of rapidly changing velocity profiles in turbulent ducted flow systems is discussed. A review of the available experimental data is then made.

Various methods of generating an artificial velocity profile are described and, where possible, comparison is made between experiment and theory. It is shown that two velocity profiles which apparently have similar characteristics, namely peakiness and shape, may have widely differing decay rates. This is determined by the turbulence introduced into the flow at the time of profile generation. A correlation is discussed which relates the decay rate of a particular velocity profile to the profile peakiness and the loss coefficient of the generating spoiler.

Some evidence is produced which gives a physical foundation for the correlation. A method of calculating the maximum pressure rise associated with changes in velocity profile shape is described. It is then shown that this maximum pressure rise will be significantly reduced by turbulent mixing and wall skin friction. The changes are discussed in relation to pipe velocity profiles of the power law type. Estimates are obtained for the mean transverse velocities leading to the decay. These are compared with some recent experimental jet flow data.

Finally, the paper discusses the effect which velocity profile decay may have on turbulent ducted flow. In particular, the improvement in performance of a diffuser and the changes in the drag on a cylindrical strut when the upstream flow is in a state of decay are commented upon.
Paper 14: On the Reflection of Shock Waves from Deflector Plates
Authors: Woods W. A.
Published: June 2010

The paper first explains the importance of the reflection of shock waves in the design of certain chemical plant. The theory of the reflection of shock waves is also discussed in the first part of the paper. It is shown that when a shock wave travelling along a pipe containing stationary gas reaches the outlet end of the pipe there may be ( a) a reflected expansion wave, ( b) a reflected shock wave, ( c) a reflected sound wave, ( d) no reflected wave at all, ( e) a standing shock wave situated at the end of the pipe, depending upon the strength of the incident shock wave and the amount of blockage present at the outlet end of the pipe. The conditions for each kind of reflection are determined, and in the case of the reflected shock wave region the strengths and speeds of the reflected shock waves are established throughout the region and the results are presented graphically.

In the second part of the paper the results are given of experiments carried out on a shock tube fitted with various kinds of deflector plates. The experiments were performed to study the reflection of shock waves from the deflector plates by measuring pressure/time indicator diagrams near the outlet end of the pipe. The indicator diagrams revealed the approximate pressure amplitudes of the incident and reflected shock waves and also the wave travel times for the shock waves. This information was used in conjunction with the charts given in the first part of the paper to establish the deflector geometry and spacing needed in order to avoid the occurrence of a reflected shock wave.
Paper 4: Study of the Effect of Material Combination and Hardness in Rolling Contact
Authors: Scott D. , Blackwell J.
Published: June 2010

Because of uneven stressing, environment, or lubricant effects, one element of a rolling mechanism may be prone to premature failure, and it has been found in some instances that the seemingly easy solution of replacing the element with one manufactured in a superior material has not been successful. By means of the simple rolling four-ball test, the effect of the combination of material in rolling contact has been studied. The effect on the incidence of rolling-contact fatigue of running different materials such as high-speed tool steels, stainless steels, and other wear resistant materials potentially suitable for rolling elements against one another and against conventional En 31 ball-bearing steel has been explored. The effect of various hardness combinations of En 31 steel balls has been determined. The choice of material combination is shown to be a major factor in enhancing or reducing the performance of either mating material. With En 31 steel there appears to be an optimum hardness range and the hardness of both surfaces is important to ensure a maximum rolling-contact fatigue life. Metallurgical investigations have been carried out to elucidate the mechanisms of failure, and ‘compatibility’ is discussed in the light of fundamental concepts of the initiation of surface fatigue by mechanisms such as reversed micro-plastic deformation and how these mechanisms, the contact area, and the stress distribution are influenced by the material properties such as hardness and by rolling and sliding action.
Paper 17: The Action of the Parallel-Surface Thrust Bearing
Authors: Ettles C. M. M. , Cameron A.
Published: June 2010

The pressure generation of parallel-surface bearings has been investigated experimentally using dynamic instrumentation mounted in the moving surface. It was found that when the pads were truly flat and parallel a negative pressure was generated which was approximately proportional to the inverse square of film thickness.

A complete reversal of pressure generation was shown as the film thickness was successively decreased. This is shown to be due to increasing thermal distortion of the pads. It is shown that useful loads are carried on a wedge-shaped film produced by thermal distortion.

Appropriate theory has been developed for the infinitely wide case which includes the density and viscosity wedge effects, variations of film shape, frictional generation and conduction to the bearing solids. Fair agreement was obtained between theory and experiment after suitable treatment for side leakage.
Paper 3: Film Thicknesses in Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication by Silicone Fluids
Authors: Dyson A. , Wilson A. R.
Published: June 2010

In an earlier paper it was shown that the thicknesses of lubricant films in elastohydrodynamic contacts, as deduced from the measured electrical capacities between two heavily loaded rotating discs, agreed well with theoretical values. Exceptions to this result were observed for a polymer solution and a silicone fluid; the discrepancy between experimental and theoretical film thicknesses with these fluids was tentatively attributed to non-Newtonian behaviour.

This paper describes further work carried out with the object of investigating this point more closely. Polydimethylsiloxanes (silicone fluids) covering a wide range of nominal viscosities were used, and the thicknesses of the films formed by these fluids in a disc machine were measured over a wide range of rolling and sliding speeds and of temperatures.

Since continuous shear viscometry of these materials is impossible under the conditions encountered in the disc machine, use was made of the relation between the behaviour of visco-elastic substances in oscillatory and in continuous shear. There is a good experimental and theoretical basis for this relation. Published information on the properties of silicones in oscillatory shear was used to predict their behaviour in continuous shear, under the conditions of interest in elastohydrodynamic lubrication. This information has been used to predict the film thicknesses in elastohydrodynamic lubrication, and to compare these predictions with experimental results. Although there were differences in detail, experiment and theory were in approximate agreement over most of the range covered. The reasons for some of the discrepancies are discussed.
Paper 19: Numerical Analysis of Effects of Tilt, Sliding, and Squeeze Action on Externally Pressurized Oil-Film Bearings
Authors: Royle J. K. , Raizada R. S.
Published: June 2010

The analysis of externally pressurized, plane, oil-film pads has been mainly restricted, in the current literature, to simple pad shapes without tilt or relative sliding action or squeeze effects.

As tilt can arise owing to manufacturing tolerances, or by dynamic inertial forces causing elastic deformation, it is important to assess the combined effects of tilt and sliding action in order to predict such factors as the stability of the system or the onset of cavitation.

This paper presents general numerical solutions from the Atlas digital computer of the Reynolds equation applied mainly to circular pressurized pads. Results for a square pad and for an infinitely wide pad are also given.

The load and location of the centre of pressure, the impedance of the pad and thus the flow rate are calculated in dimensionless form for any combination of tilt, sliding velocity, and squeeze rate. It is argued that these calculated terms are required before any dynamical problem, involving loaded hydrostatic bearings, can be attempted and before refinements of film lubrication theory can be incorporated. This paper illustrates the application of the results to dynamical problems.
Paper 21: Partly Grooved, Externally Pressurized Bearings
Authors: Hirs G. G.
Published: June 2010

In externally pressurized bearings, forces can be transmitted by means of a fluid film interposed between the two bearing surfaces by an external source. In the conventional types, the equilibrium of external forces and fluid film forces becomes stable by making the fluid flow through external restrictions before entering the clearance space.

In the new types, external restrictions are superfluous. Stability and load capacity are ensured by directing the flow in the clearance space, by means of recurrent grooves on one of the two bearing surfaces, towards a zone where both surfaces are plain.
Paper 7: Review of Porous Metal Bearing Developments
Authors: Marshall P. R. , Morgan V. T.
Published: June 2010

Recent developments aimed at increasing the life and performance of porous metal bearings have included a double layer bearing of low permeability, porous aluminium for better heat conductivity, ultrasonic cleaning of the porous surface, and the possible use of synthetic oils for improved oxidation resistance. The interactions between the porosity and the oil in terms of the surface tension, the effects of gas content on viscosity and permeability, and the rate of oil loss and reabsorption, are discussed in relation to these developments. A better understanding of the mechanisms involved leads to a practical design criterion for the limit of hydrodynamic lubrication of porous bearings of finite L/d ratio based on an eccentricity ratio of 0.8 and the difficulties of determining the appropriate value of permeability required for a more rigorous design procedure are outlined, together with suggested work for overcoming them.
Paper 9: New Possibilities for the Solution of Bearing Problems by Means of the Spiral Groove Principle
Authors: Muyderman E. A.
Published: June 2010

Although research on the spiral-groove bearing is now being carried out in laboratories throughout the whole world, it is still an unknown type to the practising mechanical engineer. Apart from applications in certain specialized constructions, particularly in the form of gas bearings—carbon dioxide circulators in nuclear reactors and gyroscopes may be mentioned in this connection—it has not yet found its way into practical use. On the one hand this is attributable to the lack of theoretical information about this bearing, cast in the form to which the designer is used, and on the other hand it is because little is known about its possibilities. This is a pity, since the spiral-groove bearing—particularly when lubricated with oil or grease—offers a solution to all sorts of everyday (and more specialized) problems.

In particular, this full-film lubricated bearing is very promising for replacing or supplementing porous bearings and ball bearings.

This paper is specially intended to describe the new practical applications which the author has found for this bearing. Reference is also made to convenient and yet accurate methods of calculating optimum designs, which are available in published form but not yet generally known. An Appendix with a supplementary method for calculating spiral-groove bearings prestressed with elastic elements and grease-lubricated concludes the paper.
Paper 6: Process Lubrication for the Production of Rolled Strip in Copper and its Alloys
Authors: Exley H.
Published: June 2010

Some form of lubrication is required at each stage in the rolling of strip in copper and its alloys. In the finishing operations the problem is complicated by the need to produce a clean, stain-free surface, which imposes severe limitations on the types of lubricants and additives that can be used. This paper briefly reviews the reasons for lubrication during rolling and then discusses the qualities required in the lubricants, how near the precise requirements can be achieved in practice, and the limitations which currently available lubricants place on the processes.

Hot rolling and cold breaking down give little trouble, but intermediate and finish rolling are more critical; the types of both oil-in-water emulsions and neat oils needed are dealt with in some detail for slow-and highspeed mills. The problem of contamination of the rolling lubricant by the oils and greases used as mill lubricants and in mill hydraulic systems is considered and suggestions are presented for minimizing the trouble by the use of special lubricants and modern methods of lubrication, including the latest practices on cluster-type Sendzimir mills.

The design of roll coolant systems for modern high-speed four-high strip mills and cluster-type Sendzimir mills is discussed, in so far as it affects the lubricant and strip finish. The paper concludes with a brief review of the problems posed by the latest development of the pendulum mill and their possible solutions.
Paper 18: The Use of Fuel Additives for Running-in Diesel Engines
Authors: Golothan D. W. , Waghorn G. C. S.
Published: June 2010

There is still no universally accepted method of obtaining adequate running-in of piston engines. Measures adopted to reduce wear of the piston rings and cylinder in service, e.g. the use of chromium-plated rings and heavy duty lubricating oils, inevitably prolong the initial running-in, and some means must be employed to induce wear during this critical period. One of the most successful ways of doing this in a controlled fashion in diesel engines has been found to be the use of an additive which is soluble in the fuel, and which when burnt in the combustion chamber produces an abrasive material which wears the rings and the cylinder. No adverse side effects have been observed from the use of this additive, and various examples are quoted of its successful application, both in engines operated by the manufacturer on the bench, and in new and reconditioned engines in vehicles operating on the road.
Paper 14: The Influence of Clearance and Journal Surface Finish on the Load Capacity of Water-Lubricated Plain Bearings
Authors: Garside D. W. , Hother-Lushington S.
Published: June 2010

Experiments are described into the effect of surface finish and clearance upon the value of ZN/P at which a water-lubricated plain journal bearing begins to operate hydrodynamically. It is shown that clearance ratio has only a small effect and that the measured values of the critical ZN/P are between values calculated from the narrow bearing theory of Dubois and Ocvirk and those calculated from the infinitely long bearing solution of Cameron and Wood.
Paper 3: Wetness in Steam Turbines: A General Progress Survey
Authors: Wood B.
Published: June 2010

The subject of wetness in steam cycles divides naturally into three aspects, erosion, wetness loss, and supersaturation effects. The close relation once postulated between one or the other is no longer accepted. Erosion is no longer thought to be closely related to braking and this, after addition of slip loss and Coriolis loss, does not seem to account for the observed wetness loss which must therefore be at least partly attributed to supersaturation or to some other effect not yet isolated. Supersaturation theory does not offer any practical means of calculating its effect and therefore continues to be included in the classic type of wetness formula which is to be regarded as purely empirical. There is no evidence that drainage reduces the loss markedly though it may reduce erosion. Droplets created in suspension within the body of the steam are smaller than about 1 micron and make no contribution to erosion. Large droplets (about 0.5 mm diameter) shed by the stator vanes and protected from disintegration by lying in the wake of the vanes are now the accepted cause. The precise mechanism by which films of water collect on the vanes is not fully explained. Better understanding of erosion mechanism has resulted in several devices with expectations of significant amelioration. Among these the simplest is widening of the gap between the vanes and blades. The problem of making high-speed blades last a reasonable time does not now seem as formidable as some people thought a few years ago.
Paper 1: The Collision, in Free Flight, of Water Droplets in Atmospheres of Air and Steam
Authors: Ryley D. J. , Wood M. R.
Published: June 2010

Droplets of diameter 300–1300 μ are projected into collision at 140–220 cm/s within a steam atmosphere from two identical horizontally opposed vibrating capillary atomizers. High-speed photography of the events following collision enables an analysis of the collision process to be made in terms of momentum and energy continuity.

Tests conducted in air and in steam at atmospheric pressure suggest that the outcome of a collision is dependent upon the relative velocity of the drops and on the phase angle of the collision. Drops which mutually strike a glancing blow tend to bounce. As the path interference becomes greater drops tend to coalesce unstably. Maximum path interference tends to result in a stable coalescence provided a limiting capacity for energy absorption by the coalesced mass is not exceeded.

The significant energy quantities are those associated with motion, with the extent of the interfacial surface and with oscillation. To assess the latter it was assumed that an oscillating drop at its extreme deflection exchanged without loss its energy of internal motion for that of extended surface.
Paper 5: Considerations of Similarity for Hydroelastic Vibrations
Authors: Lecher W. A.
Published: June 2010

In order to achieve the highest reliability in operation of large hydraulic turbo-machines, it is essential, amongst other things, to determine the magnitude not only of the static but also of the dynamic stresses under all operating conditions. The adjustable guide vanes of reversible turbine-pumps, for example, form a particularly critical component from the point of view of dynamic stresses, especially during pumping operations.

This paper deals with the possibilities of predicting resonance conditions and of obtaining the magnitude of dynamic stresses in full-size machines on the basis of tests on model machines. The laws of similarity for forced and self-excited vibrations as well as vibrations in resonance are derived. It is shown that all kinds of hydraulically excited vibrations can be examined by model tests. It is permissible to carry out these measurements under reduced test head, provided that for the tested components different materials are used for the model and full-scale machine, and that the head ratio model-prototype is chosen accordingly.

Suitable materials for model tests are recommended. The evaluation of the dynamic stresses for the full-size machine, based on the measured data of model tests, is shown for resonant and non-resonant conditions. Further, as an example, vibration investigations are described on the movable guide vanes of a pump-turbine, that is, using the derived laws of similarity.
Paper 8: Vibrations in Boiler Feed Pumps: A Critical Review of Experimental and Service Experience
Authors: Duncan A. B.
Published: June 2010

Simplified design procedures for boiler feed pump shafts, based on a ‘stiffness criterion’ related to the first critical speed in air, have generally led to trouble-free shaft designs. An indication that this approach had shortcomings was the serious vibration experienced with a recent booster feed pump. The efforts to cure the vibration are fully described. A review is made of the various factors, both mechanical and hydraulic, that can influence the vibration of pump shafts and some of these are shown to have little effect on critical speed. Others, in particular the hydrostatic centering force associated with wearing rings, seem to be of undoubted importance and must be considered when designing large high-speed boiler feed pumps.
Paper 1: Tests on a 24-in Diameter Journal Bearing: Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow
Authors: Huggins N. J.
Published: June 2010

As the size of steam turbo-alternators has so rapidly increased, the diameter and surface speed of the journal bearings are such as to cause the oil film to become at least partially turbulent. Little information is available on the performance of large bearings operating in the transition and turbulent regimes and it became necessary to undertake a research programme on a full-size test rig.

The apparatus was designed so that bearings of various geometries could be tested under both static and dynamic loads. This paper describes some of the static load tests on a 24-in diameter by 18-in long bearing and is confined to describing the factors influencing the transition from laminar to turbulent flow in the film.

An analysis of the results indicates that even at low speeds there is a dependence on the Reynolds number and it is suggested that the inertia of the oil film has a pronounced influence. The transition to turbulence is delayed by axial flow and shaft eccentricity, but is ultimately precipitated by the effect of eddies in the oil supply channels and in the grooving.
Paper 4: Reduction of Oil Burner Noise
Authors: Briffa F. E. J. , Kennedy D. R.
Published: June 2010

The noise spectra of industrial and domestic oil-burner installations are presented and considered. Methods of reducing the noise from domestic burners, steam-raising boiler-burner units, and oxy-fuel burners are discussed, together with the results of experiments carried out. From an examination of the possible noise- generating mechanisms in burning fuel sprays it is shown that the process of atomization can influence the noise spectrum, especially when it becomes acoustically coupled with the environment.
Paper 6: Noise and Vibration from Ancillary Marine Equipment with Particular Reference to a 350-KW Turbo-Alternator
Authors: Bryant J. R. , Poole E. J.
Published: June 2010

Experiments have been undertaken at selected electrical loads on a self-contained turbo-alternator set comprising a 350-kW 60-c/s alternator driven by means of double helical parallel shaft gearing by a high-speed (15 000 rev/min) steam turbine.

The turbo-alternator was erected on flexible mountings with all steam, water, and other service connections arranged in such a manner that they placed no constraint on the machine.

In addition to the turbine and alternator rotors several auxiliary drives each contribute to the total noise output. These include the d.c. exciter, pilot exciter, and metadyne unit which are driven directly, or by belts, from the alternator shaft and the oil pumps, governor, etc., which are driven from the turbine shaft by way of spur and bevel gears.

The paper describes the manner in which the separate effects of each of the major sources of structural vibration and airborne noise were isolated and measured. In-place balancing techniques were employed to aid an investigation of the variation of vibration level with rotor out-of-balance. In the process experimental information was obtained about the damping effects of journal bearing oil films, vibration amplitudes of the bearing housing being as much as 25 dB below the equivalent shaft amplitudes.
Paper 4: The Skills of the Driver and the Response of the Vehicle
Authors: Singleton W. T.
Published: June 2010

There appears to be increasing acknowledgement of the importance of ergonomics in automobile design but only at the superficial level of seat comfort, panel design, and control positions. This is not to say that these aspects are not important, a reasonable level of research of this kind obviously deserves support but there is, as yet, almost no appreciation of the kind of problems which a professional ergonomist would like to study, given the opportunity and the resources.

Ergonomics is systems design with the characteristics of the human operator as the frame of reference. Automobiles are not ends in themselves, they should be designed to conform to the requirements, abilities, and limitations of the people who are the sole justification for their existence. This includes passengers, drivers, maintenance engineers, pedestrians, and producers.

The passenger problems can be summarized under that useful, if indefinable term, ‘comfort’. This is a question of seat and space design which sounds straightforward but in detail it becomes quite complex. The properties of seats cannot be determined in isolation from those of suspension systems and road surfaces. Although there has been a good deal of work in the last decade on vibration most of it is on the basis of sinusoidal inputs from which any extrapolation to real conditions of wide power density spectra is dubious. Noise levels and heating systems are probably understood to the point where the design compromises are made on a cost basis.

The driver has all the passengers' problems plus those of the handling characteristics of the vehicle. Little is known scientifically about the relative importance of inputs of information through the windows, from the instruments, through the control linkages, and from the various modes of acceleration of the head. The dynamics of steering systems is another potentially fruitful area when related to human performance.
Paper 4: Methods of Packaging Milk
Authors: Ashton T. R.
Published: June 2010

The paper gives an account of the methods of packaging milk which have been in use in Britain since 1900 (approximately). The author endeavours to explain the reasons for changes or developments in the light of technical progress within the dairy industry and the advances which have taken place in associated industries. The importance of hygiene, economics, conformity with legislation, and changes which have occurred during the present century are discussed. Particular emphasis will be given to the use of the glass bottle as a container for milk, the reasons why it has remained in use for so long, and the likelihood of its being in use for some considerable time in the future. Washing, filling, and handling methods in relation to the glass bottle will be dealt with in detail. Improvements in design standardization will be considered, as well as the effects of reducing the weights of bottles and surface treatments which are now being adopted. The usage of alternative materials for the packaging of milk will be considered. The difficulties associated with the introduction of cartons are considered, and the possibilities of increased sales in these and other containers in the future receive attention. Plastic bottles, sachets, and bag-in-box developments for the packaging of milk are discussed, and indications given of their limitations, advantages and economics under commercial conditions. The aseptic packing of milk in Tetra Paks is discussed in detail. An account of experimental work on different laminates for this type of milk, and their effect on flavour changes, will be explained. The author's views on future trends in the packaging of milk are indicated.
Paper 3: The Future of Packaging Adhesives
Authors: Smith C. A.
Published: June 2010

Varying requirements necessitate numerous assembly processes, although all need fluidity which is achieved by a solid being dissolved or dispensed in fluid, or melted. A common adhesive base is a polymer, and more general dispersions are based on polyvinyl acetates; but where speed of assembly and special surfaces are needed, hot melt adhesives are used. Starch pastes and dextrines being ‘natural’ aqueous adhesives are used mainly for bonding non-synthetic porous materials. With the development of cellulose acetates, plastics, polythene, etc., and the introduction of improved machinery, synthetic adhesives became necessary. In view of the fact that hot-melt application appears to be the norm for modern packaging, applications of this type only have been enlarged upon in this paper.

As it is essential that adhesive be applied with minimum waste and at a speed regulated to the packaging line there are two main types of applicator, namely, the nozzle type which applies a continuous bead of cement on to a moving web of material and the wheel type which applies a line or pattern of adhesive on to intermittently passing articles by means of a rotating transfer wheel.

To arrive at the monetary expenditure it is usual to estimate in terms of milage of seam inches of bond per pound or cost per package unit. Whereas the actual amount of hot melt purchased is usable as an adhesive because it is all solid (although it does yield varying milage), in liquid adhesives the solid content, expressed as a percentage of the total volume, can be quite low. A more important cost factor is the effect of the adhesive system on the production rate of the packaging line—greater efficiency and output offset slightly higher costs.

Speed packaging by fully automatic cartoning machines has been introduced and there is a trend for the package to be built around the product, involving joint activities of converter, machinery manufacturer, and adhesive manufacturer all at the same time. This era necessitates high-speed packaging machines together with complete adhesive systems for bonding natural and synthetic materials at high speed.

It can be concluded that future packaging adhesives must be fast-setting, have the ability to bond synthetic materials, be automatically fed and applied, be able to withstand exacting service conditions, and adhesive systems must be introduced at the design stage of a new package.
Paper 1: Hot Melt Adhesives and Machinery Design Requirements for Their Application
Authors: Roberts B. C.
Published: June 2010

Simple and sometimes rather crude melt adhesives have been used in a limited number of industries for centuries, but in the last five years new adhesives based on synthetic polymers, resins, and waxes have become of growing importance in the packaging and similar industries. The increasing usage has been brought about by the need for higher rates of output, simplification of packaging machinery, and a movement towards more sophisticated packaging which often requires the bonding together of two impermeable surfaces. The increasing availability of new synthetic materials, often at reduced cost, has enabled the adhesives technologist to formulate a wide range of versatile melt adhesives which fulfils these needs.

An outline of the constitution of melt adhesives is presented. Melt adhesives are thermoplastic solids which are brought to a working viscosity by heating, and bond by cooling alone without the loss of volatiles. The significance of this, in their ability to bond both porous and non-porous materials at great speed, is considered.

To build successful applicators the thermal properties of melt adhesives require careful design of heating and temperature control. Principles of heating and control are discussed and materials of construction indicated. The types of applicator that can be used are reviewed. The effect on machinery design of the fast setting potential of hot melt adhesives is also discussed.
Paper 1 Railway Electrification in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Warder S. B.
Published: June 2010

In this paper the author, having been responsible for the recommendation that 25 000 V single-phase electrification at industrial frequency should be adopted as standard for Great Britain, completes the story first unfolded at the previous Electrification Conference in 1960.

The paper is of a general character and reviews the evolution of the art and the contribution made by British Railways and industry, giving historical reasons for the present position.

Reference is made to electrification schemes outside the London Midland scheme, and because of the author's subsequent extensive travel abroad, it has been possible to include some interesting comparisons.

Remarks are also presented on the peculiar situation of Great Britain, geographically located between countries East and West who hold divergent views on motive power policy, and the future of the industry at home and abroad is considered.
Paper 3: Civil Engineering Works of the Euston Main Line Electrification Scheme
Authors: Butland A. N.
Published: June 2010

This paper discusses, with illustrations, some of the civil engineering problems encountered on a main-line electrification scheme on British Railways. These tasks are as follows: the provision of adequate clearances beneath bridges and through tunnels; the design of overhead structures and their foundations; the provision of inspection, maintenance, and repair sheds for electric stock and locomotives, sub-station buildings, signal boxes, and relay rooms. A scheme of this magnitude also requires ( a) a thorough modernization of the track formation, ballasting, drainage, soil stabilization work, and the introduction of continuous welded track; ( b) route rationalization, reducing the requirement of operating facilities to a minimum; ( 1c) station modernization and rebuilding; and ( d) strengthening and improving the type of bridges carrying the lines.
Paper 5: Development of the San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit System (Bartd)
Authors: Forsythe S. D. , Lowe T. J.
Published: June 2010

The San Francisco Bay area is facing a mounting problem of handling the ever-increasing flow of traffic. With this traffic rising so rapidly in an area severely constricted by topography it has been concluded that freeway, bridge, and parking improvements alone cannot meet the Bay area's mounting transportation needs. Rapid transit, utilizing only a fraction of the space and with much less cost, would provide far more passenger capacity than automobiles on freeway and as a result a billion dollar rapid transit system has been planned for the Bay area. This paper describes the design and development of the BARTD system at present being undertaken.
Paper 2: Monorails
Authors: Wheatcroft E. L. E. , Woodhouse L. C.
Published: June 2010

The authors define the monorail as a transport system which does not depend on width of track (e.g. rail gauge) to keep the vehicles upright. Two basic types have been developed, namely (1) the ‘supported’ type where the car rides on a narrow beam and is kept upright by wheels running on the side of the beam, and (2) the ‘suspended’ type where the beam is hollow with a continuous slot on the underside allowing the cars to be suspended from a driving trolley running inside the beam.

There are only two monorails at present operating full-scale passenger service, namely one of the suspended type, sixty years old, in Wuppertal, Germany, and one of the supported type, two years old, in Tokyo. The paper includes engineering details of the latter, and briefly describes a modern version of the suspended type.

The authors suggest that the likely future for monorails is in urban–suburban passenger transport where right-of-way problems make surface lines impracticable (and motor transport is no solution). Proposals for such monorails, however, still have to compete with ‘conventional rail’ which can, of course, also be constructed overhead and has advantages wherever the system is to be at grade or in tunnel.
Paper 3: Fuel Cells as a Source of Power in Locomotives
Authors: Williams K. R. , Thomas B. M.
Published: June 2010

The principles of the more important fuel cells are described and their current state of development assessed. Reference is made to the suitability of various fuels for fuel cell power systems applied to locomotive traction.

The overall scheme for a 300-kW power unit using a low-temperature fuel battery is described. While technically possible, such a system is unlikely to be economically viable. It is suggested that fuel cell traction for locomotives will have to await the development of an improved fuel cell, such as one using a solid oxide electrolyte.
Paper C: Magnetic Suspension
Authors: Polgreen G. R.
Published: June 2010

Tracked transport by magnetic suspension using new ceramic permanent magnets is now practicable for slow as well as highest speeds. Vehicles float with clearance up to an inch on a magnetic field requiring no power expenditure, and hence without noise and the need for maintenance. Development that is now at the man-carrying model stage is described, including propulsion–braking by a simple d.c. linear motor that uses the track permanent field for excitation. The paper opens with an outline of latest progress in magnet material and design, on which this whole subject is based.