bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Development of the Technical Compendium and Summary of IVI Human Factors Research
Authors: Campbell John L. , Granda Thomas M.
Published: January 2012

The transportation human factors community has supported the development and evaluation of advanced transportation systems through many years of analyses, research, and system design activities However, for many individuals directly involved in the day-to-day development of these systems, the accumulated human factors knowledge base is generally dispersed and not available in one central source. This paper summarizes the development and content of a compendium and summary of human factors research supporting the US DOT's Intelligent Vehicle Initiative (IVI). The final report for this effort is a comprehensive and easy-to-use resource that summarizes the accumulated human factors knowledge and practices that are relevant to the IVI. It is intended for use by both human factors and non-human factors (i.e., engineers, designers, program managers) participants in the transportation system development process.
Critical Issues in Driving Simulation Methods and Measures
Authors: Caird Jeff , Rizzo Matthew , Hancock Peter
Published: January 2012

This panel focuses on key issues that confront investigators who use driving simulators and must (a) design experiments, (b) interpret data and (c) write reports in human factors and medical research-related applications of these simulators. Presentations from an experienced panel of researchers from the U.S. and Canada aim to raise awareness of the audience (and panel members) and discuss solutions to a number of thorny research issues confronting driving simulator users. This effort draws upon but is distinct from previous work that has customarily emphasized engineering concerns facing simulator developers.

The panel began with a “Collaboratory” at University of Iowa in March 2001. Discussions continued at the Driving Assessment conferences in Snowmass (2001) and in Park City (2003), the latter under the aegis of the Simulation Users Group (SUG). The SUG met again at the Transportation Research Board (TRB) in Washington, D.C. in January (2004) to address an array of topics including physical fidelity, simulation adaptation syndrome, standards for reporting methods, and variable selection. The session room was filled to capacity and the topics were deeper than could be addressed in the available time. Clearly, the discussions needed to continue beyond the TRB.

The current HFES panel session addresses a limited set of topics in depth and allow the audience to explore the issues at length during the open discussion period. The abstracts of each panelist address topics that are not much discussed in the literature. These topics include: simulator discomfort related drop-out rates, participant characteristics, measurement precision and missing data, and the need for simulation standards, e.g., for reporting methodology and as a prelude to clinical trials, e.g., to test efficacy of “treatments” such as in-vehicle driver alerting devices for at-risk drivers.
The Effect of Insight and Error-Based Feedback on Young Drivers' following Behavior and Confidence
Authors: Creaser Janet I. , Lees Monica N. , White Cale
Published: January 2012

Young drivers are known to perform less than ideally in a number of traffic contexts. Behavior feedback is critical for the development of safe driving skills. Forty-two young drivers aged 18 to 20 were randomly assigned to three training conditions: an insight and error training condition, an error only training condition, or a control condition. Participants in the training conditions drove simulated trials in which a lead vehicle braked suddenly in front of them. The insight + error group received verbal performance feedback, while the error only group did not. The insight + error group showed a significant increase in time headway by the end of training. However, the increase was not significant in the follow-up drive one week later. Overall driver confidence was also not affected by the training. Results suggest that the combination of insight and error-based feedback modulates behavior over short time periods, but may not be sufficient for the adoption of safe behaviors over longer time periods.
Using Eye Movements in Driving Simulators to Evaluate Effects of PC-Based Risk Awareness Training
Authors: Fisher Donald L. , Narayanaan Vinod , Pradhan Anuj , Pollatsek Alexander
Published: January 2012

Novice drivers have a fatality rate that is ten times higher than the most experienced group of drivers. The primary reason for this is the novice drivers' inability to predict the risks that appear in the roadway ahead. No driver education programs currently exist which teach risk awareness skills to novice drivers across a number of different scenarios. Such a program was developed and then evaluated in two experiments. In the first, 24 novice drivers completed a PC-based risk awareness training program which displayed plan views of 10 different risky scenarios. In the second, the risk awareness of these 24 trained novice drivers and an additional 24 untrained novice drivers was evaluated in an advanced driving simulator using measures of their eye movements. The set of PC trained novice drivers were more likely to recognize risks on the driving simulator, both in those scenarios studied in training and those not seen previously.
Driving on the Wrong Side of the Day: Synchrony and Gender Effects
Authors: Spitz Catherine T. , Stanny Claudia J. , Kass Steven J.
Published: January 2012

The purpose of the current study was to investigate the impact of circadian cycles, gender, and propensity for cognitive errors on driving performance. Participants (14 women, 6 men), classified as “Evening Types,” performed a low-fidelity driving task during either their peak (evening) or off-peak (morning) times. Although neither penalty nor damage scores varied significantly by time of day, a gender by time of day interaction was observed for damage scores. Specifically, women driving during the day (off-peak) had accrued significantly more damage to their vehicles than did women driving in the evening (peak). However, damage scores for men were not significantly impacted by the time of day in which they drove. Women also received significantly higher penalty scores regardless of time of day. Participants' overall propensity for committing cognitive failures was significantly related to penalty scores ( r = .50), but not to damage scores ( r = .39). The results help identify individual differences in risk factors for driving.
Driver Adjustment to Solar Glare
Authors: Ayres T. J. , Kelkar R. , Woodruff W. H.
Published: January 2012

When the sun is low in the sky, a driver headed directly towards the sun is subject to glare, which impairs target detection. Unobtrusive (video) observations of drivers approaching a setting afternoon sun found only a small decrease in speed compared with a non-glare condition; in addition, speed variability appeared to increase somewhat in the sun condition. These effects, which are similar to what has been reported for driver behavior in fog and other impaired-visibility conditions, increase the risk of accidents. Causes and implications are discussed in the paper.
Using Perceptual Boundaries to Control Braking Actions
Authors: McKenna B. , Bennett A. , Flach J. M.
Published: January 2012

Flach, Smith, Dittman, & Stanard's (2003) hypothesis that a linear weighting of optical angle and expansion rate are used as a criterion for braking is evaluated in a simple driving task. The task required participants to drive from an initial stationary position to a full stop at a comfortable distance in front of a stationary obstacle. The simulated vehicle was controlled with an accelerator and a brake. Acceleration and deceleration were proportional to displacement of these controls. Results showed that people's critical actions (releasing the accelerator and initiating the brake) corresponded with a Tau criterion (constant ratio of angle and expansion rate). Time histories suggest that people were adopting non-proportional, discrete control strategies that approached time optimal, bang-bang control.
Mental Workload as a Function of Road Type and Visibility: Comparison of Neurophysiological, Behavioral, and Subjective Indices
Authors: Baldwin Carryl L. , Freeman Fredrick G. , Coyne Joseph T.
Published: January 2012

Advanced in-vehicle technologies (IVTs) are rapidly being introduced. Methods of assessing the mental workload required by the driving situation are imperative to the safe implementation of these advanced systems. The current investigation compared the sensitivity of an array of assessment techniques to changes in simulated driving task demand. P300 amplitude was sensitive to increased driving task demand due to reduced visibility (presence of fog) but was not sensitive to changes in road type (urban versus freeway). Conversely, RT and accuracy to a secondary task were sensitive to changes in road type but were not sensitive to the visibility manipulation. Subjective workload ratings were not sensitive to either manipulation. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for assessing the impact of environmental factors on the mental workload demands of the driving task and for the design and implementation of adaptive driver interfaces.
Vehicle Braking is Slower under Dual-Task Conditions: Evidence for “Central” Interference
Authors: Levy Jonathan , Pashler Harold , Boer Erwin
Published: January 2012

Participants attempted to perform 2 concurrent tasks superimposed on a car-following task in a driving simulator. In the choice response task, they responded either manually or vocally to whether a visual or auditory stimulus was presented once or twice. In the braking task, they depressed a brake pedal to the onset of the lead car's brake lights. The onset delay between the choice and braking stimuli was varied. This manipulation revealed that the braking reaction was greatly affected by concurrent performance of the choice task, although there were no or very small specific effects on it by the stimulus and response modalities of the choice task. The results demonstrate that even a well-practiced, “simple” task such as vehicle braking is subject to dual-task slowing and appear to be due to central, not peripheral, interference.
Focal and Ambient Visual Contributions and Driver Visual Scanning in Lane Keeping and Hazard Detection
Authors: Horrey William J. , Wickens Christopher D.
Published: January 2012

In some previous simulator studies, we showed that drivers, engaged in a secondary in-vehicle task at different display separations, were able to buffer some aspects of the driving task (e.g., vehicle control), but not others (e.g., hazard response; Horrey & Wickens, 2002, Horrey, Alexander, & Wickens, 2003). We speculate that this pattern of results may be a result of effective time-sharing between the ambient visual task of vehicle control and the focal visual in-vehicle task, but task interference between the in-vehicle task and the focal task of hazard detection and identification. Alternatively, drivers may be using an optimal scanning strategy that allows them to effectively monitor both the roadway and the in-vehicle device. In this paper, we detail some of the theoretical background, describe some relevant research, and present a model of scanning behavior.
Teen Drivers, Education, and Licensing: A Panel Discussion
Authors: Olsen Erik C. B. , Lee Suzanne E. , Smith-Jackson Tonya L. , Kline Terry L. , Hartos Jessica , Bingham C. Raymond , Pezoldt Val , Manser Mike P.
Published: January 2012

Research and education aimed at reducing the crash risk of young drivers has become a top priority to researchers and educators around the world. This panel provides an overview of some of these recent and ongoing efforts. To that end, the purpose of this panel is to: 1) raise awareness of human factors and ergonomics researchers of research needs and problems relevant to teen drivers and education, 2) provide a forum for discussion in this area, and 3) provide a paper summarizing key issues including teenage drivers, driver education, and driver licensing.
The Life Cycle and Quality Assurance of Performance Assessment Batteries
Authors: Schlegel Robert E. , Gilliland Kirby
Published: January 2012

As software products, computer-based performance assessment tasks and batteries cannot escape one of the cornerstones of software engineering – the software life cycle. This paper presents a discussion of the elements of the software life cycle that are unique to performance assessment batteries and focuses on a specific element of product development, quality assurance assessment. A discussion of the key ingredients for converting a computer-based assessment task into a commercially viable product is also included.
Developing Human Factors Design Principles for Information Display Systems in Air Traffic Control
Authors: Friedman-Berg Ferne , Yuditsky Tanya , Smith Alfred
Published: January 2012

An Information Display System (IDS) provides access to many types of information. It consolidates data to one source and eliminates the need for multiple displays. An IDS provides a logical structure and uses a standardized information display format. We present a set of design principles for IDSs in Air Traffic Control (ATC). We conducted an investigation of information and usability requirements in each of the ATC domains. Based on the investigation and on existing design guidelines and standards, we developed design principles that capture the critical components of designing an effective IDS for ATC. In order to be useful and usable, an IDS and the information it contains should be accessible, current, comprehensive, and standardized. We discuss each of these principles, the motivation for including them, and some specific examples of how they can be implemented in an IDS. We also discuss the methods used for collecting data from the field, refining, and validating the principles.
Cognitive Task Analysis and Performance Modelling for Early Human Systems Integration
Authors: Hamilton W. Ian , Lowe Christopher , Blanchard Harry
Published: January 2012

Successful human systems integration demands early involvement of human factors professionals, using a range of model-based analysis and assessment methods. Typically these rely on task analysis data supported by various algorithms that provide measures of performance quality. This paper reports on a validation study with one such method, for cognitive task analysis of skilled operator performance, task performance time estimation, workload assessment, and human error analysis. This was used to model train drivers' response to route features and derive performance time and workload estimates. The modelled scenarios were run in a cab simulator with N=17 driver subjects. Observational data were used to compare their strategy, performance times and workload profiles against predictions. The results show that the method produces data that are a useful approximation of real performance strategy, timings and workload.
Knowledge Engineering: Applying the Process
Authors: Bowles C. Travis , Sanchez Julian , Fisk Arthur D. , Rogers Wendy A.
Published: January 2012

Current expert operators provide valuable information to developers of new systems. They can help inform the design of new systems, new interfaces, or new methods of training. Knowledge engineering is a process to extracts knowledge from expert operators that has been applied successfully in the past to redesign current systems and to develop training methods for complex tasks. In this paper we present a formal model of the process, a description of its steps, and an example of its application to a current system. The present study demonstrates the benefit of applying the knowledge engineering process to learn about the operation of a commercial lawn mower. In this study, nine operators were interviewed to obtain the knowledge and cues they used to perform a mowing task. Examples of the results from knowledge engineering are presented.
Building Task-Product-Focused User Interfaces Using Information Sets and Design Patterns
Authors: Osga Glenn A.
Published: January 2012

Design patterns have been increasing in popularity as a method supporting human-computer interface (HCI) development. Patterns represent various levels of design abstraction and can describe the design rationale in a constent manner. They can enable design communication among distributed designers working on large scale command and control (C2) systems. The design goal for a complex C2 system is a concise set of patterns that supports a large variety of mission domains. A set of design patterns has been developed for a future Naval C2 system. The HCI task domains encompass a variety of mission and shipboard task processes. A small set of design patterns have been created to represent a set of HCI navigation tasks which serve a variety of mission types. Task navigation HCI methods guide the user to computer generated products which service mission goals in a “mission-centered” design context. Task product patterns are described by a taxonomy of task product characteristics. Further testing of the proposed navigation & product patterns is in progress and usability tests indicate that patterns tested thus far show promising performance and training gains.
Integrated Multi-Dimensional User Requirements Analysis: Transit Information Application
Authors: Richman Joel B. , Cluett Chris , Bregman Susan M. , Bittner Alvah C.
Published: January 2012

A survey method is described that has been successfully used to gather multi-dimensional user preferences for public transit information systems. Iterative user testing aided in both (a) creation of a transit meta-scenario and (b) design of an intuitive survey method for collecting a broad array of data in a short period of time (30 minutes). The survey provided user requirements for 2,304 combinations of preferred types of information, as well as where, when, and the preferred delivery method for each type. Letter-number combinations were used to capture where and how participants wanted each information type. The survey method provided high-quality data over a range of transit customer types. Effectiveness of the survey no doubt benefited from the iterative user testing approach used during development. The technique employed in this study provides an efficient and productive approach to the collection of multi-dimensional user requirements.
Theory-Based Directional-Testng: Revisiting a Primary Option for Efficient Human-Factors/Ergonomics (HF/E) Studies
Authors: Bittner Alvah C. , Winn Frank J. , Bittner Rachel C. L. , Lundy N. Catherine
Published: January 2012

This study revisited use of directional-models/analyses in HF/E. Surveys revealed both that: these models/analyses are not widely used in studies reported in HF/E journals, and practitioners avoid them due to misconceptions regarding their scientific validity. For applications-orientated HF/E studies, two conditions are demonstrated where directional testing is appropriate: (a) When unpredicted direction differences would be meaningless (e.g., cumulative-risk declines with increased exposure); and (b) When unpredicted directional findings will result in the same action as no difference (e.g., many programand product-evaluations). One-vs. two-tailed testing results in sample-size savings of æ30% across virtually all situations where the Student t-test or corresponding ‘ directional F-test’ may be appropriately applied. HF/E practitioners are encouraged to: Utilize onetailed and directional models/analyses when conditions reflect the logical or functional ‘one-sidedness’ implicit in many HF/E studies, and Take full advantage of the substantially reduced sample-sizes (æ70%) and associated resource expenditures.
Wizard of Oz in a Structured Expert Review (WiSER): An Evaulative Study
Authors: Balaji T.S. , Roche Elizabeth
Published: January 2012

Time and money constraints are often an issue when selecting a method for testing user interface designs. The Wizard of Oz technique allows usability practitioners to re-create speech user interfaces without building a hi-fidelity prototype. Wizard of Oz in a Structured Expert Review (WiSER) leverages the advantages of Wizard of Oz by combining it with aspects of the Cognitive Walkthrough method. The result is a method which can be efficiently implemented to test speech user interfaces by using usability practitioners as test participants and the designer as the wizard. The participant is presented with a set of tasks to complete using the speech user interface. After each task, problem areas are discussed and design alternatives, explored; modified versions of the two questions identified by Spencer [2000] are addressed for each problem area. This paper covers a direct comparison of WiSER to an online usability test in which both tests are executed on a voice dialer application.
Reoccurring LISREL patterns describing Mental Workload, Situation Awareness and Performance
Authors: Nählinder Staffan , Berggren Peter , Svensson Erland
Published: January 2012

The main purpose of this paper is to present how LISREL models using subjective ratings is consistent over several studies. That is, the same pattern is repeated each time suggesting that the subjective ratings actually represent something stable and that the responses from the participants are true. The studies all include different subjects in different settings rating different subjective measures on different occasions, locations, and questionnaires. The ratings concern primarily the concepts “Mental Workload”, “Situation Awareness” and “Subjective Performance”.
In-Situ Ergonomics: A Proposal of Product Operation Information Gathering Method for Ubiquitous Computing Environment
Authors: Shinya Atsushi , Koh Hirofumi , Kumata Toshiaki , Matsunobe Takuo , Yamaoka Toshiki , Shimosako Kazuo , Nakamura Kazuki , Takeda Harumi
Published: January 2012

In a ubiquitous computing environment, the operation information on a product is collectable to a homeserver.

Operation information in this paper means that the button on an operation panel are pushed and the door of a refrigerator are opened.

This data is very extensive and is a motion level.

Authors consider analysing this information by datamining method.

That is, it is extracting the information about usability out of operation information by datamining.

The authors propose this called In-Situ Ergonomics: gathering data from products in the actual situation, analysing data with datamining method and extract information for ergonomics research.

In order to realize In-Situ Ergonomics, the following serves as a subject.

- The collection method of the user operation information from each product

- The accumulation method of a lot of data

- The semantic analysis of operation information

- datamining method

- The cooperation method with the existing usability analysis method
Comparison of Fuzzy Signal Detection and Traditional Signal Detection Theory: Analysis of Duration Discrimination of Brief Light Flashes
Authors: Murphy Lauren , Szalma James L. , Hancock Peter A.
Published: January 2012

Both Traditional and Fuzzy Signal Detection Theory (SDT) methods of analyses were compared using a duration discrimination task of brief light flashes. Both difficulty and response bias (by instruction) were manipulated. The two methods clearly provided different estimates of SDT parameters. The Fuzzy SDT analyses inflated performance while the traditional SDT analyses underestimated performance. In some cases performance on the ‘easier’ condition was worse than on the more ‘difficult’ condition. This may be due to differences in the range of durations discriminated, which was narrower in the ‘easier’ condition. Range of stimuli used can impact performance, although it or maybe an artifact of the procedure for the crisp analysis. Fuzzy SDT met the assumptions of traditional SDT, the assumption of normally distributed noise and signal plus noise distribution holds. In addition, the equal variance assumption holds for the more difficult discrimination for all participants.
Mild Motion Questionnaire (MMQ): Further Evidence of Construct Validity
Authors: Brill J. Christopher , Kass Steven J. , Lawson Benton D.
Published: January 2012

Validation is an essential step in developing a new measure. This research is concerned with gathering initial evidence of the construct validity of the Mild Motion Questionnaire (MMQ), a 39-item paper-and-pencil based tool for assessing sopite syndrome and other responses to non-sickening motion. Two groups of participants (49 US Navy trainee pilots versus 56 undergraduate students) completed the MMQ after exposure to one of four disparate stimuli: a familiarization flight, visuomotor sensory rearrangement, a control task, or progressive muscle relaxation. The various treatment conditions led to distinctly different symptoms of sopite in participants. The specific symptom profiles revealed through MMQ subscale scores differed greatly and predictably across conditions, suggesting that the MMQ effectively discriminated among the types of symptoms experienced. In addition, a convergence was observed between responses on an established motion sickness questionnaire and subscales of the MMQ pertaining to sickening responses to mild motion, supporting further the (convergent) construct validity of the MMQ.
Using the Plastic Framework to Augment Scenario-Based Training Systems with Instructional Agents
Authors: Douglass Scott A.
Published: January 2012

This paper describes the Prolog-Like Agent Specification & Tutor Implementation Calculus (PLASTIC) framework. PLASTIC is an intelligent tutor authoring system in which instructional agents based on models of human decision making, communication, action, and unit task execution are specified and deployed. To help non-programmers develop agent-based intelligent tutoring systems, PLASTIC includes GUI-based agent specification and performance visualization tools. PLASTIC agents provide instructional scaffolding by offering helpful hints that highlight task-relevant aspects of problems, help trainees think about tasks appropriately, guide trainees through unfamiliar problems, and encourage new strategy formation. To demonstrate how PLASTIC is used to implement agent-based instructional systems, a tutor incorporated into an Anti-Air Warfare Coordinator (AAWC) scenariobased training system is discussed. The technology through which PLASTIC tracks AAWC trainee actions and produces instructional scaffolding is discussed. The instructional impact of the PLASTIC tutor incorporated into the AAWC scenario-based trainer is illustrated with a discussion of training effectiveness data.
A Psychometric Framework for Intelligent Scenario Generation
Authors: Mangos Phillip M.
Published: January 2012

The scenario-based approach to training offers the potential for customized instruction. However, practical limitations and little theoretical guidance for individualizing instructional events to learners' needs have rendered difficult the realization of this potential. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to propose a framework for intelligent, scenario-based training that iteratively and adaptively tailors training events to the unique needs of the learner. Drawing from advances in assessment and psychometric theory, the proposed framework allows decomposition of scenarios into component elements, empirical investigation of how these elements influence training performance, and adaptive generation of scenario content that targets the occurrence of subjective learning events.
Human Performance in Virtual Environments: Effects of Presence, Immersive Tendency, and Simulator Sickness
Authors: Jerome Christian J. , Witmer Bob G.
Published: January 2012

To better understand how performance on virtual environment (VE) tasks can be affected, four virtual environment constructs were studied and a model was generated to explain the relationships among them. The overarching relationship of interest was between performance and presence. The results from structural equation modeling (SEM) suggest that a sense of presence in VEs has a direct causal relationship upon VE performance, and immersive tendency and simulator sickness have an indirect relationship with VE performance, both fully mediated through presence.
Motion Sickness, Video Games, and Head-Mounted Displays
Authors: Merhi Omar , A. Thomas
Published: January 2012

We evaluated the nauseogenic properties of console video games that are presented using head-mounted displays. Subjects played a standard console video game, using an Xbox game system. Subjects used a standard Xbox game pad, and viewed the video portion of the game using a bi-ocular head-mounted display system. Half the subjects played while seated, and half while standing. Subjects played the game for up to 50 minutes, and were asked to discontinue if they experienced any symptoms of motion sickness. Most subjects reported motion sickness, but sickness was more common among standing subjects. The severity of sickness was similar to previous studies of visually induced motion sickness. The results indicate that contemporary console video game systems are capable of inducing motion sickness.
Visually-Induced Motion Sickness: An Experimental Investigation
Authors: Mouloua Mustapha , Smither Janan , Kennedy Robert C. , Kenned Robert S. , Compton Dan , Drexler Julie
Published: January 2012

This study examined the effect of adaptation training on simulation sickness by inducing graded motion sickness through the systematic distortion of the relevant characteristics of a VR device. Forty adults between the ages of 18 and 47 participated in this experiment. In the control condition, the participants were required to complete a single self-propelled rotation simulation (SRS) trial, and then use a visually coupled head mounted virtual reality (VR) device plus exposure to an optokinetic rotating drum (OKN) device. In the experimental condition, all the participants took part in a five-session study in which they were exposed to five trials of the SRS and to the VE and OKN rotating drum. Immediately following each task, all participants were required to rate their level of dizziness. The results showed a significant main effect of adaptation training on both the VR and OKN rotating drum as reported by the dizziness ratings. These findings indicate that the difference in dizziness rates was markedly higher among the control group than the experimental group.
Gravity-Referenced Attitude Display for Teleoperation of Mobile Robots
Authors: Wang Jijun , Lewis Michael , Hughes Stephen
Published: January 2012

Attitude control refers to controlling the pitch and roll of a mobile robot. As environments grow more complex and cues to a robot's pose sparser it becomes easy for a teleoperator using an egocentric (camera) display to lose situational awareness. Reported difficulties with teleoperated robots frequently involve rollovers and sometimes even failure to realize that a robot has rolled over. Attitude information has conventionally been displayed separate from the camera view using an artificial horizon graphic or individual indicators for pitch and roll. Information from separate attitude displays may be difficult to integrate with an ongoing navigation task and lead to errors. In this paper we report an experiment in which a simulated robot is maneuvered over rough exterior and interior terrains to compare a gravity-referenced view with a separated attitude indication. Results show shorter task times and better path choices for users of the gravity-referenced view.
Integrating a Computational Model of Optical Flow into the Cybersickness Dose Value Prediction Model
Authors: Jennifer T.T. Ji , Felix W.K. Lor , Richard H.Y. So
Published: January 2012

This paper describes a computational model of optical flow and demonstrates how it can be used to estimate the navigation velocity of the user's viewpoint during a virtual reality (VR) simulation. The model takes as input a VR simulation video sequence and outputs the estimated average navigation velocity. When this estimated velocity is integrated into the published cybersickness dose value model (CSDV: So, 1999), the severity level of the cybersickness associated with the VR simulation can be predicted. Results of two simulation studies indicated that the average navigation velocities in lateral and vertical axes can be estimated to within 10% error. The simulations used a virtual environment (VE) with a known single depth. Discussion of an extension of the computational model to accommodate VEs with unknown multiple depths is included. The reported model is consistent with the biological neuro-pathway of the perception of visual motion velocities in humans. The benefits associated with this consistency are discussed.
Evaluation of the Space Shuttle Cockpit Avionics Upgrade (CAU) Displays
Authors: McCandless Jeffrey W. , McCann Robert S. , Berumen Kelsey W. , Gauvain Stephen S. , Palmer Victoria J. , Stahl William D. , Hamilton Andrew S.
Published: January 2012

In 1999, NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC) initiated a Cockpit Avionics Upgrade (CAU) project to increase shuttle mission safety by improving the crew's situation awareness, reducing their workload, and improving their performance. The primary focus of the project was a complete redesign of the current cockpit displays. To determine the effectiveness of the redesigns, a human-centered evaluation was conducted in the Shuttle Mission Simulator (SMS) at NASA JSC in 2003 and 2004. Measures of crew situation awareness, workload, and nominal and off-nominal task handling performance were made in a series of simulations of off-nominal flight situations during the dynamic flight phases of ascent and entry. The redesigned display formats yielded dramatic increases in situation awareness, reductions in workload, and improvements in performance.
Deconstructing Complexity in Air Traffic Control
Authors: Cummings M.L. , Tsonis Chris
Published: January 2012

While previous research has addressed air traffic controller workload as a function of cognitive complexity due to environmental and to a lesser degree, organizational factors, significantly less attention has been paid to the role of displays and complexity in the ATC environment. One drawback to new display technology is that in dynamic human supervisory control domains, it is not always clear whether a decision support interface actually alleviates or contributes to the problem of complexity. In an attempt to quantify the influence of environmental and display complexity factors on cognitive complexity, an experiment was conducted to determine if these two components could be effectively measured. Results revealed that the environmental factor of increasing aircraft number affected subject performance only slightly more than the display complexity factor of increased color categories. These findings are important because the use of color in displays is meant to reduce environmental complexity, not add to it.
Use of a Functional Aviation Display Under Varying Workload Conditions
Authors: Smith Carl F. , Fadden Steve , Boehm-Davis Deborah A.
Published: January 2012

Twenty pilots performed flight maneuvers on a flight simulator over three levels of workload with either a conventional or alternative display that incorporates functional information. Pilots' performance with the functional display (OZ) showed greater control of power and position, as well as improved performance on a secondary task. The role of increased workload with functional displays and the potential of functional information in future aviation displays are discussed.
Characterizing Scan Patterns in a Spacecraft Cockpit Simulator: Expert Vs. Novice Performance
Authors: A. Valerie , M.S. Huemer , Hayashi Miwa , Renema Fritz , Elkins Steve , McCandless Jeffrey W. , McCann Robert S.
Published: January 2012

Operating a spacecraft is a complex and demanding task that requires years of training and constant monitoring of both navigation and systems parameters. By examining differences in scanning between “expert” and “novice” operators, we can develop cognitive models of scanning behavior or enhance training. In the Intelligent Spacecraft Interface Systems (ISIS) laboratory, we measure eye movements and record performance parameters in a part-task space shuttle cockpit simulator. We trained airline transport pilots (as our “novice” group) on fundamentals of flying an ascent (”launch-to-orbit”) in the space shuttle. We tested three levels of malfunctions occurring during a trial—none (nominal), one malfunction, or three malfunctions—on both pilots and astronauts (our “expert” group). Astronauts had fewer errors and faster reaction times. Eye movement analyses showed that both astronauts and pilots similarly modified their scan strategies depending on the flight segment and how many malfunctions occurred during a trial.
Estimating Pilot Fatigue in Commercial Flight Operations
Authors: French Jon , Garrick Katherine
Published: January 2012

In order to assess airline pilot duty fatigue levels associated with normal operations, subjective fatigue, sleep cycles were unobtrusively monitored and compared to the estimates of a fatigue prediction algorithm (FADE). A group of 9 commercial airline pilots completed log sheets on which sleep, flight data and periodic estimates of fatigue levels were recorded over a 10-day period. The subjective fatigue scores indicated a significant increase during the 2000-0400 hours time block. The lowest reported fatigue scores occurred during the 0800-1200 hours. Hours of sleep predicted pilot fatigue levels better than circadian time, hours of flight, time zones crossed or hours of non-flying work. A fatigue-estimating algorithm (FADE) used logged sleep data and was well correlated with the subjective reports of fatigue. Use of fatigue algorithms may be useful to select the timing and crew rest considerations of comercial airline routes before they become part of normal operations.
Older Adults and Attitutdes Towards Computers: Have they Changed with Recent Advances in Technology?
Authors: Nair Sankaran N. , Lee Chin Chin , Czaja Sara J.
Published: January 2012

Although the use of computers is expanding in the overall population, for older adults there still remains a “digital divide”. Development of strategies to help insure that older people have equal opportunities to access computer technology depends on understanding why they have lower adoption rates. This paper examines changes in attitudes towards computers over time among a sample of 745 adults ranging in age from 18 — 75 yrs. Attitudes towards computers were assessed using the Attitudes Towards Computers Questionnaire across two time periods: 1994-1997 and 2000-2004. Over time, participants rated computers as less dehumanizing and reported an increased belief that computers were equally important to both genders. There were also age groups differences in ratings of comfort, efficacy, and control. The older adults reported less comfort, competence with computers. Over time, perceptions of having control over computers increased over time for the younger people but not for the middle-aged and older people. Understanding individual differences in attitudes towards computers is important to the design of intervention strategies such as training programs.
Identifying the Needs of Elderly for Technological Innovations in the Smart Home
Authors: Helander Martin G. , Ming Kow Yong
Published: January 2012

The study used Projective Testing techniques to identify the needs of elderly users of various features in a smart home, including: telemedicine, customized computer, teleconferencing, teleshopping, event reminder, robot helper and smart pets. Drawings of home scenarios and a male user were shown to 18 elderly users of service apartments. Altogether 192 different needs were identified. These were sorted by HF experts into broad categories. Nine categories of needs emerged relating to: Health, Communication, Security, Mobility, Mental Activities, Physical Activities, Prestige, Independence and Dependence. These were compared to needs structures documented in the literature including: Transcendent, Optimization, Anti-ageing, Dependency Avoidance and Nurturance Seeking. These needs structures are expressed at a higher level of abstraction then our nine categories. In addition the nine needs categories identified in this study can be used as a point of departure for the design of a smart home.
Examining Keyboard Shape and Arrangement Effects for Younger and Older Adults
Authors: O'Brien Marita A. , Rogers Wendy A. , Fisk Arthur D.
Published: January 2012

This research investigated the effects of keyboard shapes and letter arrangements for text entry with a rotary input device. In Study 1, we examined movement of a cursor across four different keyboard shapes. Shape and age had significant effects, and the interaction of the two variables was also significant. Compatibility and movement simplicity were key features of the better shapes. In Study 2, we examined visual search across three different letter arrangements on the same four shapes among the same participants. Age and arrangement were significant, but shape was not. Only the shape by arrangement interaction was significant, so the benefit of arrangement familiarity may be limited to specific virtual keyboard shapes.
Age Differences in the Useful Field of View during Real-World Driving
Authors: Schieber Frank , Gilland Jess
Published: January 2012

Age differences in the useful field of view (UFOV) were assessed during real-world driving using a newly developed car-following protocol. Nineteen young (mean age = 23) and 19 older (mean age = 73) drivers were examined. Peripheral target detection performance declined significantly with age and target eccentricity. However, consistent with several recent studies, no age by target eccentricity interaction was observed. These findings contribute to the validation of the UFOV construct and provide a foundation for better understanding age-related changes in visual attention in the real-world driving domain.
Age Differences in Search Time for Two Over-Thecounter (OTC) Drug Label Formats
Authors: Mendat Christina C. , Watson Aaron M. , Mayhorn Christopher B. , Wogalter Michael S.
Published: January 2012

This study compared older and younger adults' knowledge acquisition and search times for information on older and newer over-the-counter (OTC) drug label formats. The results showed that younger adults were faster than older adults. The younger group performed significantly faster with the newer formatted labels than the older formatted labels, whereas the older adults yielded no difference between the two formats. Potential directions for future research are discussed.
Achieving Cyber Defense Situational Awareness: A Cognitive Task Analysis of Information Assurance Analysts
Authors: D'Amico Anita , Whitley Kirsten , Tesone Daniel , O'Brien Brianne , Roth Emilie
Published: January 2012

A Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA) was performed to investigate the workflow, decision processes, and cognitive demands of information assurance (IA) analysts responsible for defending against attacks on critical computer networks. We interviewed and observed 41 IA analysts responsible for various aspects of cyber defense in seven organizations within the US Department of Defense (DOD) and industry. Results are presented as workflows of the analytical process and as attribute tables including analyst goals, decisions, required knowledge, and obstacles to successful performance. We discuss how IA analysts progress through three stages of situational awareness and how visual representations are likely to facilitate cyber defense situational awareness.
Envisioning Evolvable Work-Centered Support Systems: Empowering Users to Adapt Their Systems to Changing World Demands
Authors: Scott Ronald , Roth Emilie , Deutsch Stephen , Kuper Samuel , Schmidt Vincent , Stilson Mona , Wampler Jeffrey
Published: January 2012

Work-Centered Support Systems (WCSS) provide visualizations that reveal domain constraints and affordances based on software agent technology to support cognitive and collaborative work. Here we argue for a need to incorporate facilities that enable users to adapt these systems to the changing requirements of work—– evolvable work-centered support systems. We recently developed a WCSS for weather forecasting and monitoring in an airlift organization that is currently used in their operations center. As part of the development process we conducted field observations both prior and subsequent to system introduction. A striking finding was the constant changes that operations personnel faced (changes in goals and priorities; changes in scale of operations; changes in team roles and structure; changes in information sources and systems). We describe the changes in workplace demands that we observed and the modifications we needed to make to the WCSS in response. Our findings are presented as a case study to illustrate the challenges confronted in designing a WCSS to support a constantly changing environment. For today's fielded systems, making changes that are responsive to users changing requirements in a timely manner is seldom possible.
Cognitive System Engineering - Based Design: Alchemy or Engineering
Authors: Gualtieri James W. , Szymczak Samantha , Elm William C.
Published: January 2012

Cognitive Systems Engineering (CSE) techniques are widely used for the description and analysis of the sources of cognitive complexity and explicating the basis of expertise within a work domain. However, the results of the CSE techniques often focus on work analysis and are only weakly coupled to the design of decision support systems that are built based on those analyses. In fact, some within the CSE community have suggested that such a design epiphany occurs as if by magic. If CSE is to be treated as an engineering discipline, it cannot rely on magic to create systems. The approach described in this paper assumes that an explicit relationship between system design and supported cognitive work is fundamental to the design's effectiveness. The goal is a pragmatic, effective engineering process that explicitly designs systems according to relationships between cognitive work requirements and decision support concepts.
A Methodology for Work Domain Analysis, the First Phase of Cognitive Work Analysis
Authors: Naikar Neelam
Published: January 2012

Cognitive work analysis (CWA) is gaining recognition as a promising approach for the analysis, design, and evaluation of complex, sociotechnical systems. The successful and widespread application of CWA, however, is limited by the lack of a well-defined methodology. This paper proposes a methodology for performing work domain analysis (WDA), the first phase of CWA, and it illustrates this methodology with a work domain of a home — a 'system' that will be highly familiar to everyone. This research will help to: make WDA more accessible to researchers and practitioners who were not involved in the development of WDA or who cannot be apprenticed to experts in WDA; reduce the amount of time and effort it takes to perform WDA even for experts in the area; and facilitate the application of WDA to large-scale, industry projects.
Generic Support Requirements for Cognitive Work: Laws that Govern Cognitive Work in Action
Authors: Woods David
Published: January 2012

Research in Cognitive Systems Engineering (CSE) has successfully identified basic requirements that must be met if new technology will be useful to practitioners in context. Synthesizing these basic requirements or support functions is part of a process of debate and consolidation of the foundations of the field after 25 years of productive activity (Klein, 1999; Endsley et al., 2003; Hollnagel and Woods, 2005). This work takes the “Laws that Govern Cognitive Work” which synthesize basic findings aand patterns (Woods, 2002; Hoffman and Woods, 2005) and provides the next step—a set of basic requirements or support functions for design. General requirements for effective support can be used to jump start individual development projects in any domain. Debating how to achieve these support functions helps translate the insights of cognitive work analyses into tangible new uses of technological possibilities.