bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Acculturation as a Theme in Contemporary Arab Literature
Authors: von Grunebaum Gustave E.
Published: March 2007

Acculturation, or more precisely Westernization, in the Near and Middle East has gone through distinct typical phases. After the shock of inferiority discovered, an almost complete surrender to the foreign values and (not infrequently misunderstood) aspirations; then, with Westernization partially realised, a recoiling from the alien, which however continues to be absorbed greedily, and a falling back on the native tradition; this tradition is restyled and, in some cases, newly created with borrowed techniques of scholarship to give respectability to the results. Finally, with Westernization very largely completed in terms of governmental reforms, acceptance of the values of science and adoption of Western literary and artistic form, regained self-confidence expresses itself in hostility to the West and insistence on the native and original character of the borrowed product.
Prolegomena for the Establishment of a General Theory of Translation
Authors: Cary Edmond , Alexander Sidney
Published: March 2007

During the past ten or twenty years this question has begun to concern a great many thinkers. The interest which it holds for our time is not only of an academic order. The vigorous growth of various forms of teaching of translation and interpreting; and the setting under way of gigantic programs of translation by electronic machines (to cite only two “spectacular” facts) illustrate its practical importance.
Tradition Versus Modernization in Postwar Japan
Authors: Kuwabara Takeo
Published: March 2007

Serious intellectuals in Japan have been concerned with problems of tradition and modernization not only in the postwar period but at least as far back as the Meiji Restoration, although it is true that in each period the problems were viewed in different ways. The issue of tradition and modernization is not peculiar to Japan. However, there are sufficient reasons for the fact that this issue has been and is being conspicuously argued among the Japanese.
The Middle Empire, a Distant Empire, an Empire Without Neighbors
Authors: Elisseeff Vadime
Published: March 2007

Among the many problems suggested by the theme of the symposium, there is one in particular which seems capable of shedding light on the fundamental attitude of Chinese historians to their documents : On what foundations does the notion of the Middle Empire—the counterpart of the Greek ombilikon—rest?

This notion is certainly familiar to anyone who examines the documents and who knows that a historian always attributes peculiar features to his own country. Basing himself on a long tradition, he sometimes contrasts the civilized with the barbarians, and sometimes he distinguishes the strong from the weak, arguing from ephemeral junctures of circumstances.
Man and the Concept of History in Turkish Central Asia During the Eighth Century
Authors: Bazin Louis
Published: March 2007

The most ancient Turkish texts known to us at the present day consist of inscriptions carved onto tombstones, which are to be found in Central Asia, in territories, where, from the fifth century of the Christian era, vast confederations of Turkish tribes, comprising nomad shepherds and soldiers, had formed powerful States, which, strongly national in character, promoted the development of a truly original culture.
The Economic Renaissance of the Indian Communities of Mexico
Authors: Caso Alfonso
Published: March 2007

Although the problems of the Indian communities of Mexico are not identical with those of other Latin American countries, they are nevertheless similar, and I am sure that the solutions that have been tried in Mexico can also be used in other countries on that continent.

The present territory of the Republic of Mexico was divided, in the period prior to the Spanish conquest, into two great cultural provinces: There was on the one hand the Northern region which was generally inhabited by nomadic tribes—hunters and gatherers whom the Mexicans used to call by the name of chichimecas—and on the other hand the central region of the country which extended towards the North-West as far as Sinaloa along the Western Sierra Madre and towards the North-East as far as Soto la Marina along the Eastern Sierra—a province which is now called Mesoamerica—and which then comprised various native peoples with a plurality of languages and characteristic cultural features, whose manner of life was based essentially on the cultivation of corn, beans and other edible plants and who lived without exception in cities organized already according to a political system which was essentially monarchical and theocratic.
Humanism, Historical Consciousness and National Sentiment
Authors: Chastel André , Klein Robert
Published: March 2007

Under the impact of humanism the historical sciences were placed in a paradoxical situation: philology, publishing, archaeology brought with them an enormous increase of factual knowledge, but the ancient universal and abstract perspectives still provided the necessary framework. If one compares a mediaeval chronicle to an Italian history from the 15th or 16th century, whether it be humanist or claims to be pragmatic, such as the work of Machiavelli, one is generally struck by an essential difference: the chronicler relates the events as a simple succession of facts, but for the Renaissance historiographer there is always an underlying theme, “human nature,” “the lessons of history,” the model of Rome.
The Masses, Culture and Leisure
Authors: Dumazedier Joffre
Published: March 2007

In a society based on democratic principles and equipped with powerful techniques of dissemination, the participation of the masses in cultural life and the elaboration of works adapted to the needs of this new and vast public become imperative. This participation and elaboration are fairly extensive, and the quality of the cultural work disseminated or created is relatively high, but all modern societies, whatever their reigning ideology and their level of technical evolution, face this problem in their own fashion.
Religious Factors in the Geography of Animal Husbandry
Authors: Isaac Erich
Published: March 2007

The general expansion of western Asian peasant cultures through the Mediterranean to Iberia, France, Switzerland and ultimately to the channel coast and across into Ireland and the British Isles is well documented by detailed studies. The resultant local European cultures, collectively known as Western Neolithic, were the product of colonists who introduced the first domestic cattle into their areas of settlement. The period of the migrations to Europe can be bracketed roughly. Mesopotamian tholoi and other megalithic architecture were introduced into Cyprus in the fifth millennium together with snake symbolism. At the farthest reach of the migration lies Great Britain, and the neolithic colonists, known to the archaeologists as the Windmill Hill culture, arrived at the southern shores of Great Britain ca. 2300. Obviously the expansion into Europe was not a single movement, but proceeded by fits and starts with groups hiving off and even back tracking along the routes. Longifrons cattle were introduced into Europe with this migration. The important migration of the fifth millennium was followed in the third millennium by a second major expansion with West Asian colonists following the track of the first expansion, but this time taking two major additional routes, one into southeastern Europe via Asia Minor and the Aegean and the other into Europe via the Caucasus, the southern Russian grassland and forest steppes. In the settlement sites of this second migration, whether in Crete or in the Caucasus on the shores of the Baltic, the evidence for the cultural complex we have described becomes overwhelming, and primigenius, the sacred breed, is found at all major sites.
Indian Thought and the Ethos of Economic Development
Authors: Chacko George Kuttical
Published: March 2007

Professor Northrop, in his introduction to Professor Heisenbergs volume in the World Perspectives series entitled Physics and Philosophy, makes the following significant observation:

It is frequently assumed by native leaders of non-Western societies and also often by their Western advisors, that the problem of introducing modern scientific instruments and ways into Asia, the Middle East and Africa is merely that of giving native people their political independence and then providing them with the funds and the practical instruments. This facile assumption overlooks several things. First, the instruments of modern science derive from its theory and require a comprehension of that theory for their correct manufacture or effective use. Second, this theory in turn rests on philosophical as well as physical assumptions… one cannot bring in the instruments of modern physics without sooner or later introducing its philosophical mentality, and this mentality, as it captures the scientifically trained youth, upsets the old familial and tribal moral loyalties. If unnecessary emotional conflict and social demoralization are not to result, it is important that the youth… must see their experience as the coming together of two different philosophical mentalities, that of their traditional culture and that of the new physics.
Modern Indian Politics and Political Thought
Authors: Varma Vishwanath Prasad
Published: March 2007

The achievement of the independence of India in August 1947 was an event of epochal significance. It has meant that about four hundred million human beings have become concerned with finding a worthy place for themselves in the political and economic map of the world. The work of rehabilitation, solidification, reconstruction and development done in diverse departments of life in the country in the past nineteen years has been an eye-opener both to Indians and outsiders and is slowly revealing the tremendous energy of the Indian population, which had also expressed itself before through the hard and agonizing process of the years of struggle for freedom. India's independence has also had a pronounced intellectual and cultural consequence. 1 It has given a heightened stature to the great prophets, heroes and statesmen of India's struggle for liberation (1857-1947). It has invested the political parties and movements of this country with an Asian and even international significance. India has embarked upon the colossal task of transforming an under-developed agrarian economy and static society to the status of a modern industrialized country within the framework of parliamentary democracy, and this imparts to the political and economic experiments of this country great significance even for outsiders. The number of books on modern India is rapidly increasing. It is satisfying to note that some of these books are bound to have an influence for decades.
The Adaptation of Foreign Religious Influences in Pre-Spanish Mexico
Authors: Kirchhoff Paul
Published: March 2007

Just a very few years ago no one would have thought of introducing an article with this title, because only more or less isolated religious traits and complexes of traits were known to be common to Mexico and China on the one hand, like the series of animal etc. names used in the calendar, and to Mexico, India and Indianized Southeast Asia on the other, like the belief in four or five destructions and re-creations of the world, the pachisi-patolli game connected with the four directions, the tearing out of the heart of a still-living victim of human sacrifice, the piercing of the tongue by priests and the pulling through of thin objects, and a considerable number of motives in religious art, including the representation of specific gods with their characteristic paraphernalia.
The Inca Garcilaso De La Vega Humanist Interpreter of the Inca Religion
Authors: Duviols Pierre
Published: March 2007

If the Royal Commentaries of the Incas, published in 1609, for a long time enjoyed an authority and exceptional prestige, if this work created the image in the French 18th century of an ideally ordered, just and virtuous society, it was no doubt due more to the admirable skill with which Garcilaso presented an especially brilliant and fascinating picture of the civilization of his maternal ancestors, the lords of Peru, than to the title of Inca, in which he could take pride—as the son of a Peruvian princess and a noble Spanish conqueror—or to the fact that he witnessed the aftermath of the conquest and the fall of the empire. It was perhaps a too attractive picture, and toward the middle of the 19th century it raised some doubt and scepticism. The Commentaries were then considered to be a romanticized history of the Inca civilization, even a utopia pure and simple. Modern criticism has reversed this view. It has pointed out that many facts in the book were valid, and that some were indisputable. Recent works tend to revindicate in their conclusions the historical importance and the sincerity of Garcilaso, without denying in the process the stylization, idealization and prejudices of the book. The viewpoint of the erudite Peruvian scholar Porras Barrenechea is in this respect significant: “The image of the Inca Empire that Garcilaso projects,” he writes, “is neither false nor deceptive. It is only one-sided. He gathered and related essentially favorable facts, those which exalted the memory of the lost empire and not which would have justified its disappearance…”
Cities and Culture in the Colonial Period in Latin America
Authors: Kubler George A.
Published: March 2007

Unlike recent proponents of indigenismo I shall try to show that the physical phenomenon of the colonial city in Latin America was entirely European in genesis and in form. I shall also review some recent theories concerning the psychology, the transmission, and the reception of European urbanism in colonial America. Finally I hope to set colonial metropolitan centers into perspective with the longer span of archaeological history as well as with events in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Art and Seduction
Authors: Lanuza Eduardo Gonzalez
Published: March 2007

Being is, above all, a vocation to continue to be. In the inanimate world, pure inertia achieves this ambition by means of its insistence on maintaining every conceivable state of equilibrium or else of movement. That which is persists in remaining as it is; a stone, for instance, insofar as nothing prevents it from continuing to exist in its condition as a stone. Certainly, this is the earliest and most remote origin of that which, at a later stage, is destined to manifest itself in art in a form that is not recognizable; in this case one might well say that, in the Beginning, was Classicism.
Progress for my People
Authors: Schmidt Blanca
Published: March 2007

We think of the Indian as our problem. We think of him as a biological entity within our collectivity. He is not exactly the proletariat, the working class of our society. He is the underdog, the outcast, the untouchable.

We admire the sheer ability of the Indian to live as an animal, to procreate his image without change century after century, to lie drunk in the cool soft air of the Andes muttering bad words and supplications to the virgin and all the pagan gods. “The Indian always works slowly, at a retarded rhythm, a monotonous and unchangeable beat. Never, or very rarely, can he be seen running, jumping, excited, realizing rapid action, violent, energetic, of nervous impulse. In his music, in his dance, in his song, we see the repercussion of this physical state and from it the sobbing monotony of his cultural manifestations. The reciprocal action of the physiological on the psychological and vice versa complete the group of factors that account for the morbid languor in which the Indian vegetates.” Yet despite all of this the Indian is eternal. Since he does not enter into the cycle of evolution, of progress, he neither lives in the true sense of civilization, nor does he die. This phenomena of stagnant purely biological existence may be explained from many points of view.
Mythologies of the World's Origins in Africa
Authors: Holas Bohumil
Published: March 2007

The myth (whose different definitions we need not enumerate here) cannot be categorized. It has an autonomous status. Imbued as it is with religious ideas, it is in practice an indispensable part of the African liturgy. It is often a necessary component of the rite, sustaining the thread of certain ceremonies. What we call drame sacré is, with all its implied formalism, a dramatization of the myth, or what amounts to the same thing, an actualization of holy scriptures.
The Narcotic Complex of the New World
Authors: La Barre Weston
Published: March 2007

Exorbitant attention has been paid to the nature of gods, whose character it is to be inacessible to examination, but relatively less attention has been paid to the impresarios of gods, viz. prophets and shamans and priests—the de facto sources of all our religious information—who are available for study. It is our contention that the nature of deities is to be sought in the psychic disposition of their exponents and, more than this, that the ancestor of the god is the shaman himself. The vatic personality is often known to be psychologically abnormal, or perhaps only temporarily in such a state as the dream or the vision, and doubtless often in response to the pressure of some current crisis, personal or social or both. But the conditions for hallucinatory contact with spirits and gods may easily be gained by psychically quite ungifted persons, through the use of psychotropic drugs. It is this second situation we would wish to examine in the present study.
The Politics and Economics of Communist China
Authors: Clark Colin
Published: March 2007

At the centre of Chinese affairs lies a profound paradox. China is governed, with unquestioned authority, by the most dogmatic Marxians in the world—Russian communists, to them, are weak-kneed backsliders. The central principle of Marxian doctrine, to which they adhere with religious intensity of conviction, is the Materialist Conception of History—the doctrine that changes in the methods of production, and in the relationships between economic classes, peasants, wage earners, and capitalists, determine the whole course of politics, culture, religion, everything else in human affairs.

But in their actions the rulers of China have shown themselves fanatically concerned to demonstrate the exact opposite, namely the belief that political decision and agitation, backed by sufficient force, will enable them to over-ride all the facts of economics.
The Theory of the Second State
Authors: Viraghaty Lászlo
Published: March 2007

When the Western Empire collapsed under the impact of the barbarians and from its own internal corrosion, the people of Western Europe were playing without being aware of it a game of “whoever loses wins.” Roman theocracy developed out of the ruins of the Empire, inheriting its ambition and its universality, and gradually undertook through the sole means of the faith the reconquest of the world. Its pioneers penetrated even further than the eagles of Rome had ventured. Christ's labarum flew triumphant over lands from which Rome in its time had been unmercifully driven. While the victorious church broadened the limits of the antique world, everywhere under its domination the lay, local and national forces organized and consolidated their power, taking full advantage of the Pauline and Augustinian doctrine favoring the separation of church and state. After several centuries of painful anarchy the characteristic profile of the West emerged: two symmetrically organized powers, the spiritual power of the church, universal in ambition or vocation, and the lay, local or national power. A society unique in the annals of history was born from the balance of these two powers, a society that succeeded where much richer and more civilized societies had failed miserably, notably in preparing the way for the advent of industrial society, master of science, nature and technique.
Semantic Structurations
Authors: Mounin Georges
Published: March 2007

The word “structure” is now too often used as a password. But in linguistics it appears to have been adopted independently, before the current vogue. Here it has retained its most narrow connotation. The study of linguistic structures means the study of the construction of certain linguistic fragments: the attempt to uncover, according to their linguistic function, the real units that make up these fragments and the rules for using these units in constructing the fragments. This method of analysis, functional and structural, forty years ago transformed the description of language, whether it was a question of phonemics, of morphology, or even of syntax. But for a long time the structuralists themselves insisted upon the resistances that semantics raise—and its most apparent formal manifestation, the lexicon—to any attempt at analysis of this sort.
The Element of Time in Competitive Games
Authors: Vernes Jean-René
Published: March 2007

Competitive games form a distinct category of games. They are in contrast first of all to the sensory-motoric games of small children, who play with a foot, utter inarticulate sounds or throw things on the floor for the simple pleasure of acting upon the surrounding world, games of make-believe or acting out a fictitious situation, and emotional games, the best known of which are those whose object is to make you dizzy or lose balance, and sexual games.

Philosophers who have studied games to determine their nature have evidently established two hypotheses: on the one hand, that all games can be studied collectively, as though the essence of the game were common to all, and on the other hand, that the answer to the problem lies in the subject, or who plays, and not in the game itself considered as an object. The question then is to determine the psychological, biological or social reasons that induce men or animals to play, the inclinations that are involved, but not the external structures to which games must conform in order to please or to be adopted.
The Study of Mime as a Manifestation of Sociability, as Play and Artistic Expression
Authors: Radar Edmond
Published: March 2007

Mime expresses a condition suffered by all men: the physical condition. Since here is the seat of all consciousness and the implicit support of the mind's most delicate constructions, mime is the original and universal language. Learning to talk is mimicry at the beginning, and the small child repeats the words before he has understood their meaning. The adult never stops resorting to it; sympathy, love are born and avowed in a mimetic exchange; and relaxation results from the freedom of movement which most games entail. Mime is also a means of social communication; it gives birth to pity, which is awakened by physical sympathy. Pity in turn is the most binding sentiment of all : Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and anthropology consider it fundamental to the condition of society.
Photography and Reality
Authors: Keim Jean A.
Published: March 2007

The day Niepce successfully achieved a “view-point” for the first time, it was possible for man to believe that a century-old dream was being fulfilled: the dream of obtaining a reproduction of reality that would be absolutely faithful and could be preserved. The people of the time, surprised to see that in a daguerreotype, the first widely diffused form of photography, they could “count the tiles on a roof,” somewhat naively believed that they had succeeded in catching hold of reality. Confronted with this new picture, which was of a still unknown kind and must understandably have been illusive at first glance, they were carried away by a childish enthusiasm and hence did not realize that what they had before their eyes was only a simulacrum.
Psychoanalysis and the American Scene: a Reappraisal
Authors: Zinberg Norman E.
Published: March 2007

For many people in the United States the designation of the first part of the twentieth century as the Age of Analysis does not seem strange or even overstated. They know immediately that the phrase refers to psychoanalysis and not spectrum analysis or content analysis or market analysis. Psychoanalysis as a therapy, as a way of looking at the world, undeniably caught on in this country and in this hemisphere to a far greater extent than it has anywhere else in the world. Yet today many signs indicate that its influence has leveled off and perhaps even declined, while in Europe and Japan the boom may be just getting under way. This current disparity between the Old World and the New provides fresh impetus for speculation about the forces that implemented the acceptance of psychoanalysis in this country and for illustration of how this acceptance became in part a silly infatuation. Some of these factors should be outlined both from the point of view of phychoanalysis as a cultural phenomenon and from the point of view of psychoanalysis as potentially the most inclusive general psychological theory. To spell out some of the conditions that did and do obtain in the United States in regard to psychoanalysis may supply a baseline from which to study the similarities and differences in the growth, in other countries, of psychoanalysis as an institution and as a system of thought, as well as a part of medicine along with its barely legitimate offspring, dynamic psychiatry. This vast task can be undertaken here only in the broadest possible terms. Hence historical, sociological, and psychological generalizations will be offered without the necessary noting of ever-present exceptions and disagreements.
Language and Human Experience
Authors: Benveniste Emile
Published: March 2007

All languages share certain categories of expression which seem to correspond to a constant model. The forms which these categories assume are listed and classified in linguistic description, but their functions become clear only when they are studied in action—in the practice of language and the fabrication of discourse. These categories are fundamental, independent of all cultural determination. They reveal the subjective experience of speakers who establish and situate themselves in and by language. Our effort here will be to clarify two basic and necessarily associated categories of discourse, that of person and that of time.
Structural Linguistics and the Philosophy of Science
Authors: Bach Emmon
Published: March 2007

In 1957 American linguistics seemed to have reached a plateau of achievement and acceptance on which its practitioners could pause in retrospective pride. That year saw the publication, under the aegis of the American Council of Learned Societies, of a sampling of papers, edited by Martin Joos (Readings in Linguistics) and documenting, according to its subtitle, “The development of descriptive linguistics in America since 1925.” In a period of about five years around that date H. A. Gleason, Jr., Charles F. Hockett and Archibald A. Hill published textbooks which summarized and extended current views on linguistics, while another leading linguist, Kenneth L. Pike, summed up his considerable experience in a preliminary version of a major work on Language. In the same year there appeared a slim volume which was to have a startling impact on linguistics. Its author, Noam Chomsky, was a student of Zellig S. Harris who himself had codified the methods of structural linguistics in 1951 and was one of the leading proponents of the assumptions and goals of American linguistics attacked so sharply by its new critic. Truly a paradigm of the Hegelian myth of history.
The Life and Death of Languages
Authors: Pande Govind Chandra
Published: March 2007

Although language is at least as old as mankind, its mysteries have as yet hardly been scratched and whatever we may hold as its ultimate nature, origin and destiny would remain at present highly speculative. Indeed, a bylaw of the Linguistic Society of Paris is mentioned to rule out of order any formal paper on the origin of language. What is more, socially accepted perspectives on language have altered in the course of ages and while it is true that a “scientific” study of linguistic phenomena has been confined to ancient India and recent times, it may very well be that the fundamental and really controlling level of these phenomena, as distinguished from the level of their habitual use and description, lies in that spontaneous power latent in the psychic reality whereby it is able to attain self-expression in lower media through inducing in them rhythm and pattern. Behind the pattern of the audible sound waves of speech lie the patterns of articulation and neural activity. Despite the operation of chance in the choice of convention in language and in its actual use, there are discernible in it patterns of a statistical and logical nature.
Models in Science
Authors: Auger Pierre
Published: March 2007

Model children—the painter and his model—a model of a foundry—a miniature model of an aeroplane—Bohr-Rutherford's model of the atom. If one seeks the common element of these various objects and concepts, it would appear to be a comparison between two things displaying some common characteristics, one of which, at least, is the result of a creative effort on the part of man. One of these objects is called a model. But it can be the man-made one or the other which will be, for example, a given thing, either natural or artificial. A similar ambiguity exists in French with the word hôte; it is the notion of hospitality which prevails rather than the identification of one of the parties. In the case in question the relation is that of a form or structure which in both parties corresponds in some aspects, if not in all, to the supplementary criterion of human and voluntary origin of one of them. It also often happens that the thing called model in the relationship is single, whereas the other is multiple and varied both in its homologous characteristics and the additional ones it may possess. In the particular case of models used in science, the models themselves are a result of the creative effort of man.
Elements of the Dramatic Model
Authors: Sacksteder William
Published: March 2007

By a model I understand some familiar kind of object the idea of which we extend by an analogy or metaphor in order to assist our understanding of other things. When we say, “All the world's a stage,” we are using the familiar antics and attitudes of the theatre as a model for thinking about our woes and joys and our activities.

Sometimes a complex model is used by a thinker, by a group, or by a whole age as a guiding pattern suggesting ways of thinking in many areas. One model may even determine an inclusive view about the world from which derive emotional attitudes as well as ruling concepts and ways of thinking for our knowledge of the world. It is often said that the mechanism of a clock served in this way as a ruling model for much thought in the 17th and 18th centuries. Despite their novelty, clockworks were then becoming well known, and they were peculiarly fascinating. Reflection on them made very vivid such notions as regular motion, interchangeable parts, precise mechanical connection, influence by push and pull, and design for specific function.
The Electronic Machine At the Service of Humanistic Studies
Authors: Froger Dom Jacques
Published: March 2007

The multiplication of documentary sources (books or objects) from which the various disciplines glean their data has made the machine an indispensable tool of scholarship today.

The horizons of research are broadening continually. The traditional sciences have widened the field of their investigations. Linguistic studies, for example, are no longer limited to a few languages, but encompass all dialects which have ever been spoken or are spoken today throughout the world. Archaeology is armed with methods of prospecting undreamed of yesterday, and uses the airplane and aerial photography to locate sites. A submarine branch of archaeology, exploring the beds of the seas, has sprung up alongside of land-based archaeology. New sciences have come into being relatively recently, like demography, or even very recently, like experimental psychology. All of these sciences owe something to humanistic studies, not only the applied sciences and industry but even the pure sciences such as mathematics, methodology, heuristics, for scholars are men, integrated into groups, and their intellectual activity falls into the domain of psycho-sociology.
History and Theodicy
Authors: Papaioannou Kostas
Published: March 2007

No other culture, no other epoch has portrayed nature with as much nostalgia, has projected, discovered and venerated in nature so rich a complex of meaning as the one which, gradually and paradoxically, ended by sanctifying history. Around the time of the French Revolution the frontiers of the universe suddenly seemed to melt away into infinity: the emancipation which the Enlightenment had worked in the domain of religion, philosophy, morality, education was a prelude to the inauguration of a new world which, with the effervescence of a spring wine, flooded the carefully delineated and organized landscape of traditional humanism. The powerful wind of Sturm und Drang now blew across the world, closed and arranged like a garden, in which man had hitherto seen the theater of his actions and his sentiments. From Rousseau on nature is no longer the enemy of the spirit, but the life-giving force of a world fulfilled in and for itself. No longer does nature draw its movement and meaning from man, but on the contrary it obliges him to strain his limited forces and pushes him out of himself and toward the great Whole, the ἕν καὶ πἇν from which he had painfully torn himself.
Original Characteristics and Consequences of the Industrial Revolution
Authors: Bairoch Paul
Published: March 2007

In the final analysis it is evident that two economic events have influenced the life of humanity more strongly than any other phenomena, especially if we consider their global consequences.

The first was the neolithic revolution, which marked the passage from a human society based on berry and fruit picking and hunting—implying very low population densities—to a society based on agriculture and cattle raising, which permitted higher population densities.
The Growing Pains of Arab Intellectuals
Authors: Khalaf Samir
Published: March 2007

As a social group intellectuals everywhere are almost always gripped by certain tensions and uncertainties. Some of these tensions are inherent in the universal role of intellectuals as creators and carriers of culture; others reflect the particular socio-economic and political milieu in which they live. Although, for instance, the American intellectual has been enjoying more power and status in society, he still must “avoid the twin temptations of total withdrawal and total integration.” As intellectuals are being increasingly absorbed and recognized by various parts of the American “establishment,” they seem haunted by the fear of selling out or losing part of their creative and critical role in society.

Conversely, total detachment or alienation may also be self-defeating. Likewise, some observers have found the English intellectual “gentlemanly, amateurish and unrigorous, too near the upper classes and to established power to exercise real independence of mind and creativity.” The French intellectual also appears to be plagued by the same paradox. “There is no country in the world where intellectuals have more influence, attract more attention, or enjoy more prestige than they do in France. But the relationship between French intellectuals and the society to which they belong is a paradoxical one.”
Terrestrial and Celestial Gods in Mexican Antiquity
Authors: Soustelle Jacques
Published: March 2007

Among all the religions of pre-Columbian Mexico, we know the Aztecs the best. Observed and described while their religion was still alive, illustrated by a thousand monuments, bas-reliefs, and illuminated manuscripts, from the 16th century to our own day it has prompted a wealth of commentaries and studies on the part of innumerable indigenous or Spanish chroniclers and by scholars from all over the world. The museums of the world overflow with religious statues and sacred objects, the libraries are full of books dealing with the beliefs, rites, and gods of Mexico. It is no surprise that the Aztec religion, that is, the last indigenous form of religious phenomenon in central Mexico, has fascinated researchers to the point of putting in the shade earlier or peripheral forms of the non-Aztec peoples.
Problems of Physical Time
Authors: Merleau-Ponty Jacques
Published: March 2007

It is possible to propose purely empirical and extrinsic criteria to distinguish a philosophic question from other kinds: it interests and stimulates research and discussion, and it is susceptible to a purely rational approach, although there may not be any solution which will receive a unanimous consensus *.
Alienation and Social Action
Authors: Schaff Adam
Published: March 2007

The word “alienation” is today one of those fashionable and hence suspect words. It is very often used and therefore misused; it is an ambiguous and therefore obscure word; moreover it gives rise to the defensive reactions of those who believe that what it represents is dangerous in practice and who are interested in maintaining a situation which, according to them, is worthwhile defending. These reactions stem from different ways of reasoning and practical attitudes; starting with those who consider that it is necessary to fight against all obscure and ambiguous words and ending with those who oppose the pessimism of “ the philosophy of despair.” There are therefore, among the opposers, all those who believe in the traditions of neo-positivism and in the postulate of the semantic analysis of terms. There are some catholics and even—astonishing as it may seem—some Marxists who, historically speaking, are those who are most responsible for the actual popularity, not only of the term “alienation” itself, but also for the theoretic concepts connected with it.
On the Fecundity of Mathematics from Omar Khayyam to G. Saccheri
Authors: Jaouiche Kalil
Published: March 2007

As an introduction to the study which is the subject of this article, we would like to provide some definitions and make a few elementary observations, in order to make it possible for the less informed reader to understand better the origins and the raison d’être of the propositions that are under examination.
Birth and Death in an Islamic Society
Authors: Vieille Paul
Published: March 2007

Moslem countries have a high birth rate (4096-50%) and a rapid rate of natural growth (28%-34%). Not even in towns where mortality has decreased does natality appear to have decreased, and not even where the family nucleus is beginning to assert itself can a drop in the birth rate be ascertained. This is attributed to a “backward attitude toward economic and social changes.”
On Dialectic
Authors: Dal Pra Mario
Published: March 2007

In this article dialectic is taken to mean that way of considering the development of thought and reality theorized by Hegel and later reconsidered and discussed by Marx; even today the dialectic concept of reality is an important theme in modern Marxism. As for Marx, some people hold that he turned the Hegelian concept of dialectic back to front, shifting its accent and basis from the Idea to real and concrete man, seen in his social relations; but there is no doubt that, thanks to this reversal, or rather thanks to a varied and complex attitude to dialectic (in some ways more positive and more directly fruitful than the Hegelian logical instrument, in others more polemical and detached), Marx never abandoned his determination to preserve its validity even in a context more or less radically different from Hegel's. Although, within the sphere of modern Marxism, beside the more orthodox school of thought that makes the dialectic concept of reality one of its doctrinal bastions, there is also the school that attempts to limit its doctrine to the field of historical reality and the world of man, relinquishing every pretension to a more generalized metaphysical perspective; one must not forget that even the latter does not believe it possible to form an adequate concept of the development of history without any reference to the dialectic concept; whether the whole of reality or only history are considered, it does not seem possible to leave the dialectic theory of development out of a consideration of either point of view.
Full Concreteness and the Re-Materialization of Matter
Authors: Feibleman James K.
Published: March 2007

We have been going through a period in the philosophy of science in which it has been dominated by the theory of the dematerialization of matter. From Eddington in 1927 to Hanson in the present day, this theory, in one formulation or another, has been maintained. Its adherents suppose that matter upon examination can be resolved into mental constructs of every description, from organized sets of sense impressions to mathematical equations. The idealists are so dazzled by the conditions under which the mental recognition of the extra-mental world occurs that they end by doubting the genuineness of the extra-mental world. But there are reasons to suspect that the idealistic interpretation is not the correct one, and I shall attempt here to present (though not to prove) the counter position. The materialist considers the extra-mental world genuine, but, as we shall see, it is not simply the case of an old materialism confronted with new evidence by the idealists. There is evidence for a new materialism as well. Thus what we have perhaps is an ancient controversy under fresh guises, a new idealism confronted by a new materialism.
Landscape and Society
Authors: Romano Ruggiero
Published: March 2007

Since the appearance of man on the surface of the earth, one can say that the essence of his history lies in the modifications he has gradually introduced into the landscape. Destruction, change and construction: these three elements showed themselves very early on in man's history and, with its development, have taken on an ever clearer and more marked character. If the action of a single man on the environment is already important, then that of a larger number can have modifying and absolutely determinative consequences.
Medieval Heritage and Modern Realities in Protestant-Jewish Relations
Authors: Baron Salo W.
Published: March 2007

Like most revolutions, the Protestant Revolution of the sixteenth century changed the existing socio-cultural realities far less than appears on the surface. To the Reformers themselves and most of their contemporaries the new ideas sounded startlingly novel, and their realization promised to alter the existing social and political structures to their very foundations. In fact, however, except for the overt changes in certain dogmatic and ritualistic postulates, specifically advocated by the new champions of Reform, life proceeded largely along accustomed lines.
Aesthetics of Analogy
Authors: LaGuardia Eric
Published: March 2007

Universal analogy as a principle which underlies a variety of intellectual sciences in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance has been a topic for students of this period for a long time and in a variety of ways. The doctrine of correspondences, the levels of allegory, the art of memory, Neo-Platonism, the metaphysical conceit, the political theology of king and state, alchemy, astrology, and hermeticism all, in one way or another, reveal the endemic characteristics of asserting and explaining a symbolic and harmonious relationship which prevails among many things. The consequences of this phenomenon seem to be limitless, both for the culture in question and for those who choose to give some account of it.
Marx and Contemporary Humanism
Authors: Sçhaff Adam
Published: March 2007

One of the more interesting theoretical problems is why history is being constantly re-written. After all it is a notorious fact that everything of historical consequence is not only variously viewed by those living at the time, depending on their social background, convictions, etc., but is also subject to different constructions in different ages. This applies to the vision and interpretation of events and people alike; and especially of great people.
Instincts and Poetry
Authors: Faucher Eugène
Published: March 2007

It may be a temptation to build the science of letters upon the concept of individuality. In this case the researcher tries to isolate the qualities which distinguish one work from other works by the same author, and these works from those of his contemporaries, predecessors, and successors. This approach evokes objections of a logical and of an empirical kind.
On Creative Education
Authors: Radar Edmond
Published: March 2007

There is only one bondage: that forbidding a person from seizing his creatives opportunities. On the contrary, when the person does put them to work he can recognise a primitive part and a destiny in the energies being used. Once in possession of his opportunities to create, he can master any servitude more surely than by an enfranchisement from his relevant social class. Furthermore, the classless society of the future will require possibly more compulsive and certainly more insidious conditions than those that have issued from capitalism, and these must be anticipated. And we are in any case committed to develop the infinite resources in the possession of the human being. Should this evidence not be apparent, it is enough to envisage the provocations of planetary civilisation to summon up a formation that is open to all possibilities: the contemporary world is calling for continuous creation; in a minor form this can be seen in the innovations under way, and in the daily adaptations that these entail.
The Second Scientific Revolution
Authors: Čapek Milič
Published: March 2007

It is easy to guess from the title of this article that its content will deal with the current changes in the foundations of physical sciences—the changes which are far-reaching enough to be called revolutionary. But the full significance of this intellectual upheaval will become clear only if we compare it to another scientific revolution which took place in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The significance of this first scientific revolution is fully recognized by the historians of science and historians in general; if I shall recall its main features, it will be only to provide us with a contrasting backdrop against which the salient features of the contemporary transformation of physics will stand out more vividly and more suggestively. The comparison between what is going on now and what went on three centuries ago will clearly show that the distance along which physical science moved in the last fifty years is not only greater than that covered in the last three centuries, but also—and this is far more significant— greater than the distance separating the science of Newton from that of Aristotle. In other words, the twentieth century revolution is far more profound than what was rather inappropriately called “the Copernican revolution;” the intellectual distance between Aristotle and Newton is far smaller than the distance separating the world of Newton and Laplace from that of Einstein, Planck, de Broglie, and Heisenberg.