bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE HEAD OF THE FOREST HOG, HYLOCHOERUS MEINERTZHAGENI
Authors: Ewer R. F.
Published: April 2008

A description is given of the external features, the muscles moving the rhinarium and lower lip, the jaw muscles and the muscles attached to the occiput in a yearling male Hylochoerus.

Rubbing places and scrapes made by the animals in their natural habitat, possibly in search of small invertebrates, are described and certain features of the skull architecture and musculature are considered in relation to the chewing mechanism.
THE BANDED MONGOOSE, MUNGOS MUNGO GMELIN
Authors: Neal Ernest
Published: April 2008

The banded mongoose is a social, diurnal, medium‐sized carnivore classified in the family Viverridae.

Packs of up to 32 animals were found to occupy a single, old termite mound for periods in excess of 2 months. Nine out of ten dens were in termite mounds, the other was in a gully. One den was excavated to show structure. The whole pack occupied the central chamber each night.

One group of 32 consisted of 17 adults, 7 juveniles, and 8 babies too small to leave the den with the pack during the day.

The animals were strictly diurnal, usually leaving the den about one hour after dawn; time of return was more variable, but was usually during the hour before dark.

Senses of sight, smell and hearing were found to be very acute.

During the day the packs covered large distances, foraging as they went. During the period of study, food (estimated by dung analysis) consisted almost entirely of Coleoptera (mainly dung beetles) and millipedes. The packs followed the trails of elephant and buffalo and obtained most of their food from their dung. Detailed behaviour is described.

Mating was seen on three occasions and two males were seen to copulate with the same female. Family size was not determined, but eight young were seen to be suckled by three females indiscriminately. One mother looked after all eight young during the day when the pack was away.

The animals used communal defaecating areas on and around the den, the faeces being scattered over the surface of the ground.

Reactions to various animals, including predators, are described. When caught in the open the pack tended to bunch together acting as a single unit. If bushes were near they used them for shelter.

Adaptations are discussed.
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON FOOD HAWITS OF GERENUK IN TSAVO NATIONAL PARK, KENYA
Authors: Lenthold Walter
Published: April 2008

In the context of widespread vegetation changes in Tsavo National Park, food habits of gerenuk are being investigated; the present paper gives an account of the results obtained during the first year of the study.

Feeding of free‐ranging gerenuk was observed from a landrover in two study areas with different vegetation types. Plant species eaten were determined in the field or collected for identification.

Gerenuk feed almost exclusively on leaves, shoots, flowers, and a few fruits of trees and shrubs, as well as some climbers and vines, the latter mainly during the rainy seasons. No small herbs or grass were found to be eaten.

The composition of the diet differed considerably between the two study areas, largely as a result of differences in the available vegetation.

Seasonal variations in the diet are brought about mainly by variations in the availability of different food plants, notably the ratio between deciduous and evergreen species at different seasons.

On the basis of a preliminary quantitative survey of the vegetation in the study areas, actual preferences have been evaluated. Some common plant species were found to be rejected altogether, although they are eaten by other browsing animals.

A total of 68 plant species has so far been recorded as food plants, indicating that gerenuk are able to utilize a wide range of plants. In view of this adaptability, and of the abundance of preferred food plants in the study areas, the vegetation changes in Tsavo National Park do not, at present, appear to endanger the continued existence of the gerenuk.
APPRAISAL OF CONDITION ESTIMATION METHODS FOR EAST AFRICAN UNGULATES
Authors: Smith Norman S.
Published: April 2008

Previously proposed methods of determining physical condition of game animals are discussed. A total of 286 African ungulates of ten species were collected and autopsied, and several indices of physical condition were calculated. Selected indices were correlated with total fat or total lean percentages or both. Of the methods discussed and evaluated, those based upon fat deposited in particular areas were more accurate or feasible than those based upon blood constituents, adrenal weights, or body weight/skeletal measurement ratios.
FOOD PREFERENCES OF BLACK RHINOCEROS IN THE TSAVO NATIONAL PARK
Authors: Goddard John
Published: April 2008

Food preferences of the black rhinoceros population in Tsavo National Park, Kenya were studied from 1967 to 1969. Feeding rhinoceros were watched for a period of 1 h, and the plants which they selected and rejected were identified, either as they were feeding or when they had moved on. A technique was used which provided an indication of the relative importance of certain plants in the diet during the wet and dry seasons. A total of 70 h was spent actually watching feeding rhinoceros in six habitat types representative of the changing ecosystem; 3,600 feeding stations were examined. Black rhinoceros were observed eating 102 species from 32 botanical families. In all habitat types the rhinoceros is very selective for herbs and shrubs, and shows a marked preference for legumes. Available grasses are very rarely eaten. Results of food preference studies in other areas of East Africa are compared with the present study. It is suggested that the abundance and distribution of certain kinds of leguminose flora may be the key to an optimum black rhinoceros habitat.
SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE SITATUNGA IN KENYA
Authors: Owen Rosemary E. A.
Published: April 2008

A 16‐month study was made of sitatunga in a swamp in western Kenya, with particular reference to distribution within the habitat, daily activity, and food preferences.

Absolute figures for density could not be obtained because of observational difficulties, but there was a minimum of 7.3 animals/linear km of swamp, or c. 55/km2. The sitatunga preferred areas of swamp adjacent to patches of gallery forest, and areas where there was deep water and a dense growth of tall reeds.

They were most active during the first five and last two hours of daylight, and at night. Much of this time was spent feeding. Feeding behaviour and food preferences were studied. The sitatunga usually moved along well‐marked tracks through the swamp vegetation; some of these led to beds of flattened plants, raised above water level, which were probably used for resting and for breeding. The latter took place in most months of the year, with a possible peak in November. Calves remained hidden for some weeks after birth.

Group size and structure were examined; most sightings were of single animals or groups of two. A majority of these two groupings were composed of adult females. The proportion of immature animals seen indicated a healthy population.

Courtship behaviour was observed 18 times and mating once.
A BIBLIOGRAPHY RELATING TO THE ECOLOGY AND ENERGETICS OF EAST AFRICAN LARGE MAMMALS
Authors: PETERSEN J. C. BRIAND , CASEBEER R. L.
Published: April 2008

Summary

Many investigations have made contributions to an understanding of energy flow through large mammals in East African ecosystems. This paper lists references to such works and compiles them according to their application to various segments as they appear in an energy‐flow model. The first part indicates papers on pasture utilization, value of foodstuffs, animal numbers and distribution, population dynamics and secondary production. The second part assembles references dealing with individual animal species, stratifying them according to the subjects of ecology, food habits and nutrient utilization, population dynamics and growth.
A COMPARISON OF FOUR EAST AFRICAN CROCODILE (CROCODYLUS NILOTZCUS LAURENTI) POPULATIONS
Authors: WATSON R. M. , GRAHAM A. D. , BELL R. H. V. , PARKER I. S. C.
Published: April 2008

Summary

Four crocodile populations have been examined by aerial photography with a view to assessing their length frequency distributions.

The assumptions, and the limitations attached to such assumptions, necessary to convert length frequency information into information on the age structure, and hence the status, of the population are considered.

Environmental conditions of value in understanding the status of the populations are listed.

The Victoria Nile population is considered to show adequate recruitment, but dispersal of young crocodiles tends to give the converse impression. The population is probably stable and has not been heavily exploited in the past.

The Grumeti River population may represent a local aggregation mostly of large males from Lake Victoria, probably retreating from human induced pressures. There is little recruitment through breeding, and the largest crocodile encountered in this study are members of this population.

The Lake Rudolf population is a typical healthy population with high recruitment and high juvenile mortality. The population is probably stable, but may be expected to decline as fishing interests on the west shore expand. Growth is retarded in the Rudolf population.

The Lorian swamp population is expanding rapidly probably after a period of heavy mortality wrought by hunters shooting for skins. The present conflicts with human/livestock interests is expected to increase, resulting in stabilization and decline of crocodile in the swamp.

Some comments are made on the possible influence of various environmental parameters on present status and trends of the populations.
ELEPHANT ECOLOGY IN THE QUEEN ELIZABETH NATIONAL PARK, UGANDA
Authors: FIELD C. R.
Published: April 2008

Summary

1. Aerial and ground counts in the Queen Elizabeth National Park from 1963 to 1969 indicate that the number of elephants has more than doubled. The increase appears to be the result of immigration rather than reproduction.

2. Elephant food habits were studied for 10 months in two areas of the Park. In the short‐grass/thicket area, browse intake rose markedly whenever the rainfall fell below 50 mm/month. In the tall‐grass area without thicket, herbs were eaten frequently during the rains and Cymbopogon grass bases in the dry season.

3. Food availability had an important influence on the diet of elephants. Sometimes, however, elephant were very selective, e.g. for Panicum maximum, Azima tetracantha, Securinega virosa, and Tribulus terrestris. Certain grass inflorescences were selected during the rains, and bases in the dry season.

4. Most browse was consumed in the thicket area during the dry season and most grass was eaten in the tall‐grass area of the Park.

5. Stomach and faecal samples gave a similar result and indicated that the diet in the tall‐grass area was comparable to that of elephant in Murchison Falls National Park.

6. Analyses of important plant species showed that, in general, tall‐grass had a lower crude protein content than short‐grass, herbs and browse. Browse leaves had a relatively high crude‐protein content in the dry season. Differences were less marked in the rains.

7. Ether extract, or fat content, was high in browse leaves and in Cymbopogon, in particular its bases. These may have been selected in the dry season for this reason.

8. Grass and browse stems were very fibrous and this may have contributed to their being avoided.

9. High carbohydrate levels probably enhanced the palatability of grass bases and browse leaves.

10. Grasses were very siliceous, in particular their bases when contaminated with soil. Elephant took considerable trouble to remove soil. Browse leaves had little silica but were rich in other minerals, and this may have contributed to their greater palatability.

11. Studies of woodland dynamics show a decline in large trees which corresponds to the increase in elephants. In some cases trees have been almost eliminated. Damage to trees indicates that a most important factor in their decline is the elephant. There is some evidence that the trees are eliminated selectively.

12. In the tall‐grass area there has been an increase of 46.3% in elephant numbers, but a decline of 80.3 % in buffalo, over the past 15 years. An overall decline in combined biomass of 36.9 % is calculated. Estimates of energy utilization of the annual vegetation production by elephant and buffalo indicates a decline from 6.1 % to 3.9% over this period.
The aardwolf (Proteles cristatm Sparrman) 1783 as predator of termites*
Authors: KRUUK H. , SANDS W. A.
Published: April 2008

(1) Food selection of aardwolves was studied by a comparison of faecal contents with available termite populations. Observations are reported on the foraging behaviour, and on aspects of termite biology which expose various species to predation.

(2) The aardwolf diet shows a very high selectivity for one species of termite, Trinervitermes bettonianus in the Serengeti and ecologically similar species elsewhere.

(3) Both morphology and foraging behaviour are very well adapted to feeding on Trinervitermes bettonianus or similarly behaving termites. The aardwolf does not dig for food; hearing is probably an important sense used for locating prey.

(4) Various aspects of the termites' protection against aardwolf predation are discussed.

(5) The aardwolf diet shows an increase in variety during the rains; the cause of this is discussed.

(6) Some brief notes are made about territorial behaviour, scent marking and the use of middens.

(7) As a management recommendation regular grassland burning is suggested for areas where the presence of aardwolves is considered desirable.
The status of the Amboseli rhino population
Authors: WESTERN DAVID , SINDIYO DANIEL M.
Published: April 2008

The status of the Amboseli rhino population has given rise to particular concern, due to an apparently rapid decline since the 1950s.

Information on the causes of death is available over the last 3‐3 years and ground counts give a reasonable picture of the gross population structure of the rhinos. Aerial counts indicate a significant decline and provide population estimates on which a reconstruction of changes is possible. It is shown that the population has been declining at an average of about 12% per annum over the last 4 years at least. Seventy‐five per cent of mortality results from spear wounds inflicted by Maasai. Natality is dropping rapidly, while the level of spearing is increasing. Spearing is possibly nonselective, so that the age‐distribution may be similar to previous periods when the population was more stable. As a result, natality is probably not responding to increasing mortality.

It is concluded that the rhino population is unable to effectively alter the magnitude of decline through intrinsic factors, or immigration. It would take a population over twice its present size to offset the impact of spearing.

The effect of a rapidly changing environment is considered, but although it may result in slightly less favourable conditions for the rhinos, any decline is completely masked by spearing.

The reasons for spearing and the recent increases are discussed, as well as the future prospects and implications.
An identification system for zebra (Equus burchelli, Gray)
Authors: PETERSEN J. C. BRIAND
Published: April 2008

An identification system based on the individual stripe patterns, has been developed for zebra (Equus burchelli, Gray). A taxonomic nomenclature facilitates easy field classification into a number of classes, which form the basis for a photo‐filing system, and thus quick identification of individual animals.
An analysis of mechanical failure of darts and costs involved in drug immobilization of elephant and buffalo
Authors: WOODFORD M. H. , ELTRINGHAM S. K. , WYATT J. R.
Published: April 2008

The failure and success achieved while attempting to immobilize sixty‐two elephants (Loxodonta africana) and twenty‐five African buffalo {Syncerus coffer) with etorphine hydrochloride administered by syringe projectile are described.

Failures due to mechanical causes are divided into those occurring before and those occurring after injection.

In the elephant series the most frequent cause of mechanical failure before injection was due to the dart bouncing off the target animal often coupled with bending or breaking of the needle. In the buffalo series, misfires due to faulty cartridges were responsible for most of the failures before injection, but bounce‐offs were common, too. Failure to immobilize or inadequate immobilization following apparently successful darting of both elephant and buffalo was most often due to the penetration of the plunger by the detonator.

A breakdown of the cost of immobilizing forty elephant and twenty buffalo is given. Total costs for each animal successfully immobilized were U. Shs. 323.0 and U. Shs. 359.9 for elephant and buffalo respectively.
A test of the counting of elephants from the air
Authors: ELTRINGHAM S. K.
Published: April 2008

Aerial counts of elephants made three times a day over the same region tended to be consistent if due allowance is made for observed movements to and from the area. There was little difference between observers when two were present. Ground counts made on the same day as the aerial counts tended to return lower totals, due probably to elephants in dense vegetation being hidden from the ground observer but visible from the air. It is concluded that aerial survey is the most efficient way of counting elephants, at least in the Queen Elizabeth National Park.
Digestion in the hippopotamus
Authors: ARMAN PAMELA , FIELD C. R.
Published: April 2008

The hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius Linn.) has an enlarged stomach, divided into: (a) two anterior diverticula; (b) a large median chamber, and (c) a posterior chamber, secreting gastric juice. Fermentative digestion occurs in (a) and (b). The anatomy and function of the stomach are discussed.

Two experiments were performed to compare digestive efficiency with that of ruminants.

Exp. 1. In a total collection experiment, chopped grass wasfedtoahippopotamusand five ruminants. Overall digestibility was lower in the hippopotamus, but this may have been due to keeping the animal out of water.

Exp. 2. A hippopotamus and two sheep were fed chopped elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum), digestibility being measured by total collection (in the sheep) and the chromogen ratio method. Dry matter digestibility was similar in all three animals, while digestibility of crude protein was higher in the hippopotamus.
Census of the Kafue lechwe by aerial stratified sampling
Authors: BELL R. H. V. , GRIMSDELL J. J. R. , LAVIERNE L. P. VAN , SAYER J. A.
Published: April 2008

The Kafue lechwe population of the Kafue Flats, Zambia, was counted four times within a 26‐month period (April 1970‐June 1972) by aerial stratified random sampling. The censuses gave good agreement which did not differ statistically. By combining the data for the three most precise surveys, the estimated population is 93 975 with 95% confidence limits of ± 8563 (or ± 9‐1%). A method of sampling was used which is based on calculation of animal densities on a linear basis, instead of on densities per unit area. This method has several advantages and is discussed in relation to the problems involved in aerial census. The past and present status of the Kafue lechwe population is reviewed.
Prey selection and annual harvest of game in a rural Zambian community
Authors: MARKS STUART A.
Published: April 2008

The selection and hunting patterns of Valley Bisa hunters were studied as part of a broader ecological investigation of human communities between the two sections of the Luangwa Valley Game Reserves in Zambia. This article provides information on the frequency and duration of hunts recorded for 1 year, yields of individual hunters, prey selection, frequency of kill, community meat supplies and the effect of human and carnivore predation on population levels on a study area of some 155 km2.

Individuals who hunted were classified into four categories–resident, transient, occasional, and official, dependent upon their role in the community, length of time spent on the study area and their village of primary residence. The most frequent hunters were residents followed in rank order by officials, transients and occasionals. Hunts were of shorter duration during the dry season, when game was close to villages, than during the wet season.

Generally hunters who owned or had access to modern weapons were more successful in their pursuits of game than were those who used muzzle‐loading guns. A total of 27 451 kg of meat (carcass yield) was made available to 466 local residents during the course of the year; 40% of this was attributed to the activities of the game guards. Valley Bisa hunters killed primarily buffalo, impala, warthogs, and waterbuck; most of these were males and adults. The kills recorded for carnivores suggest that they took primarily female buffalo and zebra. There was no evidence to suggest that either type of predation was damaging to the game herds on the study area.
Counting the Serengeti migratory wildebeest using two‐stage sampling*
Authors: NORTON‐GRIFFITHS M.
Published: April 2008

A method for sample counting the Serengeti migratory wildebeest using vertical aerial photography to sub‐sample randomly located transects is described. The population estimate achieved was 754 028 animals, with 95% confidence limits of ± 8‐5% of the population estimate. The application of this method to other wildlife populations is considered.
A review of the age determination of mammals by means of teeth, with especial reference to Africa
Authors: SPINAGE C. A.
Published: April 2008

A growing requirement exists to determine the ages of the larger African mammals, concomitant with increasing management. Teeth offer the most practicable means of age determination, but no wholly reliable method, based on teeth, has been demonstrated. Tooth structure, growth and function, are considered, and related to methods of age determination. Methods are divided into those separating groups, and those for determining the chronological ages of groups. The various methods used in these two procedures are evaluated. It is pointed out that studies on the most promising method, cementum line counts, have been neglected in Africa, while methods of determining the ages of large carnivores are virtually uninvestigated, and there is a lack of basic studies describing tooth growth and changes for most large African mammals.
Population structure and dynamics in the African Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vocifer (Daudin) at Lake Naivasha, Kenya
Authors: BROWN L. H. , HOPCRAFT J. B. D.
Published: April 2008

(1) The population structure and breeding success of the Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vocifer (Daudin) at Lake Naivasha was assessed in 1970‐71, as part of a wider pesticide residue survey. The figures obtained have been combined with those of an earlier population and breeding survey in 1968‐69.

(2) Population structure was assessed by plumage criteria, dividing the total adults, subadults (early and late), 2 year‐olds, and recent immatures. Between 1968 and 1971 there was an increase of about 40% in the adult population on the lake, but immatures increased by only 11 %. The adult/immature ratio was 83: 17% in 1968‐69 and 85‐6: 14‐4% in 1970‐71.

(3) From these data it appears that the age of Fish Eagles as adults lies between 16 and 24 years, with a total age of 20–28 years. This is much longer than observed wild life spans in some other eagles.

(4) Although the total population rose, the number of breeding pairs was constant, fifty‐six in each year of survey, with minor changes.

(5) Breeding success overall is about 0–47 young/pair/annum for both years combined, varying greatly between different parts of the lake and from year to year. As only two thirds of all pairs lay, and some of these fail, this equals 0–74 young/pair which bred and 1–28/successful nest.

(6) Breeding success at Lake Naivasha is considered to be unaffected by human interference, either deliberate or casual.

(7) Analysed by habitat, pairs which bred near wide lagoons within the papyrus were markedly more successful than those with access only to open water (0–55 young/ pair/annum overall cf. 0–29). The possibility that this is due to superior food opportunities in the lagoon habitat is discussed. Fish Eagles can catch birds and fish, and pirate other species kills in lagoons, whereas they must catch all their own fish prey in the open lake sites.

(8) Preliminary observations of diurnal behaviour do not indicate that Fish Eagles with access only to open water have any more difficulty in catching prey than those in lagoons, so that the relation between food supply, habitat, and nesting success remains obscure.
Regulation, and population models for a tropical ruminant
Authors: SINCLAIR A. R. E.
Published: April 2008

By annual measurements of population size, fertility and recruitment on a buffalo population in the Serengeti it has been possible to construct a model that predicts the equilibrium level of this population. This model also suggests that the population is increasing towards an equilibrium position, and that adult mortality is the only regulating mortality needed to achieve this equilibrium. Juvenile mortality shows large fluctuations from year to year and potentially is the most important mortality in causing fluctuations in population size.

By extrapolating the model population backwards in time it is possible to observe that the real population has experienced a higher mortality or lower fertility in the past, and there is evidence from the rinderpest disease at that time which suggests that this could have been a possible cause. The models can be adapted to incorporate changing conditions either from habitat change due to the population itself or from environmental change and hence this approach is potentially useful in solving certain population problems.
Elephant mortality in Tsavo National Park, Kenya
Authors: CORFIELD TIMOTHY F.
Published: April 2008

(1) The scale and pattern of the elephant mortality occurring in Tsavo National Park during the dry years 1970 and 1971 was investigated.

(2) Total numbers were estimated from an aerial stratified systematic sample, and a correction made for juvenile carcasses lost through disintegration. The overall total was estimated at c. 5900 although this included a somewhat arbitrary addition for juveniles estimated to have disintegrated during the study period.

(3) The aerial census provided the basis for an analysis of the spatial distribution of carcasses.

(4) The age distribution of the mortality was determined from the collection of found jaws, after the correction made for collection bias and carcass disintegration. Sex composition was determined from a large sample of known‐age tusks.

(5) Age and sex‐specific mortality were calculated, which provided interesting comparisons with the pattern of more normal years. There was good evidence to show: (a) a prolonged phase of high juvenile mortality; (b) raised overall rates; (c) preferential adult female mortality.

(6) The spatial distribution of the mortality coincided with: (a) areas of high, recent immigration; (b) areas of low and erratic rainfall; (c) areas of profound vegetation change. Within these areas it was concentrated near permanent water. Its occurrence in time coincided with 2 years of low rainfall and prolonged dry seasons.

(7) The report concludes with some possible implications of the mortality for Tsavo National Park.
The distribution, density and biomass density of lizards in a semi–arid environment of northern Kenya*
Authors: WESTERN DAVID
Published: April 2008

An attempt was made to determine the species composition, density and biomass density of lizards in some of the principal land units in South Turkana. Thirteen species were recorded. Density estimates were determined from quadrat sampling in representative habitats.

Because the number of lizards active was found to vary with time of day and temperature, minimum density estimates were obtained by confining counts to peak activity periods. Biomass density was calculated from the product of species density and the mean population weight measured from shot specimens. The biomass density estimate of the lizard fauna was found to be about 4–5% of the large mammal fauna, and appreciably more in the more arid land units.

The species composition of South Turkana lizards show affinities to the Somali fauna, though not to the extent of the East Rudolf fauna, suggesting a more recent penetration of arid–adapted species.
Food searching in griffon vultures
Authors: HOUSTON D. C.
Published: April 2008

Observations are presented on food searching in griffon vultures. To locate food directly, griffon vultures do not use a sense of smell but rely on vision. However, most birds locate carcasses indirectly—by watching the activities of neighbouring birds. The method of food searching is described and the number of birds which arrive at a carcass is shown to depend on the amount of food that is available. Birds do not hold feeding ranges, but travel widely during food searching, one bird travelling 180 km in 6 days. The density of searching birds varies greatly according to the density of ungulates in an area, birds being most numerous over high ungulate concentrations. The altitude at which birds search also varies, birds flying at higher altitudes over areas of low ungulate density and at lower altitudes over ungulate concentrations. These variations in searching density and height are shown to affect the efficiency of food searching. Carcasses are located rapidly and the food consumed quickly in high ungulate density areas, while in low ungulate density conditions carcasses can take a long time to be located. It is concluded that griffon vultures are more likely to find food and are better able to compete with mammalian competitors by searching over migratory ungulate herds than over areas containing resident ungulate species. Their adaptations for gliding flight enable these birds to follow these migratory ungulates throughout the year.
The age of puberty of the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius Linn.) in the Luangwa River in eastern Zambia
Authors: SAYER J. A. , RAKHA W A. M.
Published: April 2008

As part of a study of the ecology of a high density hippopotamus population (Hippopotamus amphibius) in the Luangwa river in eastern Zambia, a shot sample of 176 males and 161 females was examined. All animals were classified according to age (0–43 years). The female reproductive organs were removed, dissected, examined, and the lactational status was noted. Ovaries and corpora Iutea were weighed, sliced, and all follicles > 5 mm in diameter were recorded. The testes of the males were dissected and weighed. Indications of puberty and maturity in the female were observed in some animals at an age of about 7 and 8 years respectively; but some animals were still not breeding until 20 years of age and the ages at which 50% of the female population reached puberty and maturity (Laws & Clough, 1966) were 11 and 13 years respectively. In the male, puberty begins at an average age of 6 years and maturity is reached at approximately 8 years of age. The data showed that lactation has no effect on ovarian weight or activity. The weight of the corpus luteum during pregnancy (36–72 ± 2–65 g) is significantly (P < 0–01) greater than that observed in non‐pregnant animals (16–64 ± 2–46 g). Multiple ovulation occurs in 8–10% of the animals.
The ovary of Günther's dik‐dik, Madoqua guentheri Thomas
Authors: KAYANJA F. I. B. , SALE J. B.
Published: April 2008

The ovaries of five Günther's dik‐dik were investigated using histological techniques. The structure of the ovary and corpus luteum as well as the growth and atresia of the follicles are described.
Movements of the migratory wildebeest population in the Serengeti area between 1960 and 1973
Authors: PENNYCUICK LINDA
Published: April 2008

Data on the monthly distributions of the Serengeti migratory wildebeest population between June 1960 and May 1973 have been analysed.

It has been shown that the population performs an annual migration, spending the wet season on the Serengeti plains, then moving west towards Lake Victoria at the beginning of the dry season, and later north to the northern extension of the Serengeti National Park or into the Masai Mara Game Reserve in Kenya. The wildebeest return to the plains as soon as the rain begins, but if this is delayed they may move south‐west from the northern areas into the corridor first.

Annual differences in the pattern of the migration can be correlated with differences in rainfall. The rainfall affects particularly the timing of the movements of the wildebeest on and off the plains, and the extent to which they utilize the northern areas.

A large increase in the size of the population over the years studied has resulted in a greater utilization of the northern areas.

It has been shown that about half the total range of the wildebeest population is outside the boundaries of the Serengeti National Park, and it is therefore important that these areas should be protected if such a large population is to survive.
Climate and the food habits of ungulates on Galana Ranch
Authors: FIELD C. R.
Published: April 2008

Vegetation communities and the climate during the study are described for the ranch. From 1970 to 1972 feeding observations were made during 21 months on semi‐domesticated buffalo, eland and oryx and on cattle using the feeding minutes technique. The animals were observed in three plant communities as follows: (1) riverine vegetation with eroded slopes; (2) a catena of dry grassland and bushed woodland on grey and red soils; (3) moist coastal bush with grassland patches. Observations included periods of high and low rainfall in each community although these were irregular. Plant samples from the more common species were collected at intervals for chemical analysis.

Early in the plant growth period all species graze within the grass/herb layer. As the grass matures eland gradually concentrate on browse plants while the other species continue to graze and to browse a little. When deciduous browse plants lose their leaves eland rely on evergreen shrubs.

Annual and drought‐tolerant perennial grasses form the main diet of oryx while buffalo and cattle both eat bulky perennial grasses.

Analyses of browse leaves show that during dry periods they are comparatively rich in protein when compared with grasses. The requirements of eland for protein rich food explain why they migrate over the ranch and do not do well when restricted. The possible influence of irregular rainfall on the eland population is discussed.

The oryx is the smallest of the three grazers and therefore able to be more selective. The annuals which they eat form standing hay which is fairly nutritious, while their small mouths permit selection of protein‐rich parts of perennial grasses. Cattle and buffalo require large quantities of feed which may be of poor quality. Their large mouths are unable to select the protein‐rich parts of perennial grasses and this puts them at a disadvantage during a prolonged drought.
Utilization of waterholes in Tsavo National Park (East)
Authors: AYENI J. S. O.
Published: April 2008

Utilization of waterholes by wildlife was studied between April, 1973 and July, 1974 in Tsavo National Park (East), south of the Voi river. Seasonality was an important factor which influenced the various aspects of waterhole utilization. The numbers of the herbivores utilizing the waterholes increased during the dry season but fell during the rains. Some ungulates also moved near to the artificial waterholes in the dry season but moved away from them during the rains when they drank from natural water‐holes formed in clay pans filled with rain water.

A basic pattern of waterhole utilization dominated by small (adult‐size) species during day‐time 06.00–18.00 hours and larger species at night 18.00–06.00 hours is described. The separation in times of arrival and deparature peaks of waterhole utilization, and average coincidence of percentages of paired species populations are used to show that big‐game attained a measure of time‐spaced ecological separation at the waterholes.

The water relations of some day‐time and night‐time drinkers are discussed. From the baseline study the management implications of the development of additional waterholes in the park are discussed.
The savanna ecology of Kidepo Valley National Park
Authors: FIELD C. R. , ROSS I. C.
Published: April 2008

(1) Food habits of elephant and giraffe were recorded in short sample periods over several years using the feeding minutes technique. (2) Twelve species of common plants were collected on these occasions, separated into their main parts and analysed chemically. (3) Damage to trees was also recorded at intervals. (4) Fifty‐nine species of plant were eaten by elephant. During wet months their diet was predominantly grass but during dry months woody vegetation became more important. Giraffe were observed eating from thirty‐nine species of plant which were almost entirely browse throughout the year. At least eighteen of these species were also eaten by elephant. (5) Three of the browse species most important to giraffe were also important to elephant in dry seasons. In the driest month the species eaten by giraffe formed more than two‐thirds of the observed diet of elephants. (6) Chemical analyses of plants show that browse leaves had a higher level of protein, fat and minerals than most other plants. (7) The trunk of an elephant and the tongue of a giraffe are highly sensitive organs which permit food selection. Elephant in particular appeared to alter their food habits seasonally and it is suggested that this may be an attempt to obtain a balanced intake of nutrients. (8) Due to the effect of elephant and other agencies there is an accelerating decline in Acacia gerrardii woodlands. Browsing and fire are independently preventing their regeneration. (9) The extensive overlap of food requirements on preferred but diminishing browse resources implies potential if not already existing competition between elephant and giraffe. (See Part III.)
The savanna ecology of Kidepo Valley National Park, Uganda
Authors: ROSS I. C. , FIELD C. R. , HARRINGTON G. N.
Published: April 2008

Censuses indicated similar elephant densities in some habitats to those in certain other East African Parks where woodland has been almost completely destroyed. Giraffe densities were low. Herd structure indicated a healthy elephant population; but poor recruitment in the giraffe population.

Policy for the national parks is discussed. It is suggested that it is not in the interests of Uganda or science to allow Kidepo Valley Park to become dominated by elephant in the same way as Kabalega and Rwenzori Park. Evidence that this is happening under current elephant use is strong. Cropping of two thirds of the elephant in the Narus valley is recommended. The revenue from cropping should be used for essential fire control measures and for a monitoring programme to ascertain optimum elephant numbers. Elephant should not be cropped in the absence of fire control.
Density and biomass of ungulates in Tsavo East National Park, Kenya
Authors: LEUTHOLD WALTER , LEUTHOLD BARBARA M.
Published: April 2008

In view of the substantial vegetation changes in Tsavo National Park and their possible effects on the herbivore fauna, this study was undertaken to obtain quantitative information on densities of several ungulate species and their biomass. Road strip counts (belt transects) constituted the main method used, supplemented by aerial counts in parts of the study area. Densities of most ungulate species are rather low, the maximum of 2–25 per km2 being attained by zebra in the southern poition of the study area. There are significant differences between two parts of the study area, related to differences in vegetation types. Mean biomass density is around 4000 kg/km2, of which ⅔‐¾ is made up of elephants. Total biomass density compares well with that in areas of similar climatic conditions but is much lower than that in moist savannas of western Uganda and Zaire with higher rainfall.
Feeding and social behaviour of the striped hyaena (Hyaena vulgaris Desmarest)*
Authors: KRUUK HANS
Published: April 2008

Observations are presented on food, foraging behaviour, ranging and some social behaviour patterns of the striped hyaena; these observations are compared with similar ones on spotted hyaenas. Striped hyaenas are more omnivorous than spotted ones, scavenging a great deal and eating insects, fruits and small vertebrate prey. However, the diets of the two species have several food species in common, and there is competition in the relatively small area where the geographical ranges and habitats of the two hyaenas overlap.

Striped hyaenas are solitary, and they show several behavioural adaptations to this. The relationship between the hyaenas' social organization and resource exploitation is discussed.
Age determination of the female Grant's gazelle
Authors: SPINAGE C. A.
Published: April 2008

Several complementary methods of age determination were investigated in the female Grant's gazelle from an equatorial latitude. It was found that, despite its probable year‐round homeostasis, there was an average of two prominent lines per year visible in the tooth cementum, most consistent results being obtained from the incisor teeth. Tentative corroboration was afforded by a wear model based on decreasing molar height. The female carries continuously growing horns with a distinctive zone of retarded growth at the base in adults, but the extent of this zone was too variable for use in field age determination; and the disappearance of the black lateral band, distinctive in young animals, was not consistent with increasing age.
Impala social behaviour: birth behaviour
Authors: JARMAN M. V.
Published: April 2008

Data collected from observations of eighteen parturient impala females are presented. Females attempt to isolate from the breeding herds 2 to 3 h before parturition. They have a characteristic appearance and behaviour at this stage and are having obvious labour contractions. Nearly all the females sought some cover and a vegetation type including many bushes was used frequently as a birth site. Only four of eleven females left the herd and found cover without harassment by either the territorial male or bachelor males. Many were also followed by impala females. The birth process is described; final expulsion of the foetus occurs in a recumbent position. All birth fluids and membranes are eaten by the mother. Much attention is paid to cleaning up the birth site, baby and herself. Time from birth to expulsion of the placenta is variable and the placenta is normally eaten as soon as it is expelled. Impalas can stand at about 15 min after birth and attempt to suckle soon after this. Only some mothers help the baby to find the udder. Unsteady running occurred at about 25 min after birth. Impalas have a preference for giving birth between 10·00 and 14·00 hours. The significance of this behaviour and the other behaviours shown as anti‐predator devices are discussed. Individual differences in behaviour and early care of the young are noted.
Rumen protozoa of the giraffe with a description of two new species
Authors: KLEYNHANS C. J. , HOVEN W. VAN
Published: April 2008

An analysis was carried out on the rumen ciliate population of giraffe. Eight giraffe shot on the Timbavati and adjoining private nature reserves in the north eastern Transvaal, South Africa, were sampled during 1973. Twenty‐six species of ciliates were found in the giraffe rumen. Two new species were found and they are described viz. Entodinium longicorpum sp.n. and Eodinium bispinosum sp.n. The genus Ento‐dinium with eleven species formed 41% of the total protozoa population. The holotrichs formed 19%, the genus Enoploplastron 16% and Eodinium 11% of the population.
Distribution of tree hyrax (Dendrohyrax validus validus True) on Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
Authors: KUNDAELI J. N.
Published: April 2008

Distribution of Dendrohyrax v. validus True which inhabits the forest belt of Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, is discussed along with factors influencing this distribution. During December 1972 data were collected from the northern, eastern, southern and western slopes at 2000, 2310 and 2620 m a.s.l. to discover the effect of aspect and altitude on vegetation in relation to the densities of the tree hyrax. Using point‐centred quarter method (PCQ) the area around each tree was inspected for recent and abandoned defaecation sites; the tree species and its circumference at breast height were also recorded.

Apparent densities of hyrax, as reflected by the density of defaecation sites, were higher on the southern and western slopes (av. twenty‐three and thirteen hyrax/ha) although a density of seventy hyrax/ha was obtained for the northern slope at the 2620 m elevation. The eastern slope was poorest with only one defaecation site recorded. Higher densities were obtained for the 2310 m elevation indicating less disturbance of this belt through logging and also showing the influence of Ocotea usambarensis Engl, on the southern and Nuxia congesta Fres. on the western slopes which are abundant at this elevation. The tree hyrax showed definite preference for certain tree species and for the larger individuals.

Since food is not limiting, it is suggested that the availability of shelter, strong preference for solitary living, and the inability to withstand rigorous environment limit the density of hyrax within the forest, as well as providing a possible explanation for the inability of this hyrax to venture far outside the forest.
Mortality of wildlife in Nairobi National Park, during the drought of 1973–1974
Authors: HILLMAN JESSE C. , HILLMAN ALISON K. K.
Published: April 2008

(1) The mortality of wildlife in Nairobi National Park during the drought period of 1973/74 was monitored by monthly ground counts. (2) Highest mortality rate was recorded for kongoni at 27%, followed by wildebeest at 10% and zebra at 7% of the live populations present in the Park. (3) The dry period was marked by a massive influx into the Park of the three species most affected. Eland also moved in, and sub sequently left the Athi‐Kapiti ecosystem entirely, while populations of the other species in the Park remained relatively static. (4) Proportionally the highest mortality was recorded in the driest part of the Park and in the forest. (5) Immature and female animals died earliest, but the overall sex and age ratios reflected those reported for live populations, except that a greater proportion of female wildebeest died than expected. (6) Mortality was suspected to result from poor physical condition and lowered disease resistance caused by malnutrition. This occurred during the latter half of 16 consecutive months of below‐average rainfall, which considerably reduced vegetation growth. (7) The results are discussed in relation to those found elsewhere in this ecosystem, and in relation to domestic stock, human development and the future of Nairobi National Park.
Food of three upland game birds in Selengei Area, Kajiado District, Kenya
Authors: SWANK WENDELL G.
Published: April 2008

Foods taken by yellow‐necked spurfowl, crested francolin and helmeted guinea‐fowl were investigated over a 22‐month period. Bulblets of sedge (Cyperus sp.) were the major plant item in the diet of all three species. Other foods were seeds and fruits of forbs, florets and fruits of grasses, leaves of forbs and grasses and insects. Insect use increased following the rains, as did the use of florets of the grasses.

Except for Cyperus sp. there was little overlap of food items taken by the crested francolin and the guinea‐fowl, but both were in competition with the yellow‐necked spurfowl for some species of plants. This was probably due to size of food items, that is, there was a direct relationship between size of bird and size of foods taken. Forag ing habits also influence food intake.