bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Note sur l’étude et la politique du développement des firmes
Authors: Wickham Sylvain
Published: August 2023

Current literature on the firm consists either of analyses in terms of abstract models or of monographs describing particular entreprises. There is need for operational models in this field , i. e. for an analysis that :

1/ lends itself to verification on the basis of existing data ,

2/ can serve as a guide to policy.

The questions such an analysis should answer concern : a) the measurement of the firm's growth in terms of its size and in terms of its assets’ structure ; b) the control of the firm's management , and the firms' internal and external relations.

Economic development requires that established firms expand and new firms appear. The above analysis already provides useful conclusions for a policy which aims at stimulating such development : action against large firms as such should be more discriminating — anti-trust proceedings, e. g., do not necessarily ensure efficiency and progress. The capital market is notoriously imperfect, especially as regards risk capital for new ventures : there is scope, here too, for more positive credit and fiscal policies which would encourage new enterprise.
La dépense des biens d’alimentation dans les grandes villes de France, par catégories socio-professionnelles
Authors: Chamly E.
Published: August 2023

An enquiry, in 1951, into the expenditures of urban households, has permitted a comparison to be made of expenditure types between five socio-occupa-tional groups. The percentages and elasticities obtained seem to show that variations between groups are small.
La théorie de la concurrence monopolistique du Professeur E. H. Chamberlin
Authors: Krier Jane
Published: August 2023

Prof. E. H. Chamberlin’s theory of monopolistic competition

Prof. Chamberlin’s theory of monopolistic competition is both a new theory of prices, the resultant of monopolistic and competitive forces , and a general reassessment of the theory of the firm, the author introducing new variables alongside the traditional price variable. These characteristics show the work's originality and explain why , in his preface to the French edition, Prof. Perroux speaks of Prof. Chamberlin's “General Theory". Among the new lines opened up for research, the analysis of advertising is the most important. But before generalizing the work of Prof. Chamberlin it is necessary thoroughly to understand its meaning and with this object a number of particular aspects are discussed.
Note sur les conjectures des oligopoleurs
Authors: Keirstead Burton Seely , Weldon J.C.
Published: August 2023

A note on the expectations of oligopolists

The solution of a duopolistic situation depends upon subjective uncertainty and the application of a general theory of expectations. The normal framework of oligopolistic situations is made up of price agreements and unbalanced competition. The agreed price is fixed by a dominant group and any surplus demand, remaining unsatisfied at that price, is met by small firms acting as if they were in a competitive situation.

It is suggested that the hypothesis of single value expectations in the case of duopoly is a special case and that the most usual situation is one of real uncertainty where a probability calculation is not possible.

In the real world the strategies used in duopoly are neither very varied nor very complex and imply normally an agreement on pricing. In oligopolistic situations a determinate solution also implies an agreement on prices. Empirical studies in Canada suggest that this is frequent and that the remaining demand is met by small marginal firms.
Le cinéma français et l'oligopole des rentiers
Authors: Oger Éric
Published: August 2023

The french film industry and the oligopoly of rentiers

This is an enquiry into the existence of a rather singular type of oligopoly in the French film industry. The units concerned are three in number, each of large size ; two are private and the third public (whose continued existence, it is true, is not certain). The two private units are based on an international financial structure and they are also linked together financially. Each of the three units forming the oligopoly is built up along vertical integration lines (projection, distribution, production). The two private units also possess equipment goods. The oligopoly is hardly expansionist in character. It profits from a given situation in order to continue in existence. It intervenes relatively little in actual production. It is in no way concerned with the culture aspect of the consumption of its products but only with customers ; one could even say with inevitable customers. It is a rentiers' oligopoly.
Effondrement et relève de l'économie européenne : 1947-1954
Authors: Triffin Robert
Published: August 2023

The study integrates the different approaches commonly used in the discussion of inflationary and balance of payments problems. It shows that data on the balance of payments, the national income, and monetary and banking activities converge in an analysis of the inflationary process.

The causes and characteristics of the 1947 crisis in European external payments are described as the background to the recovery from 1948 to 1954. However , the explanation of this recovery, which is described by the balance of payments statistics, must be sought in the overall pattern of Europe’s production and expenditures, in the domestic monetary policies which financed, or held down, the external deficits, and in the double impact of domestic monetary liquidity and international cost competitiveness on Europe’s export and import levels. These aspects of European recovery are dealt with in the following sections of the study.

The final abatement, in Western Europe, of both internal inflationary pressures and balance of payments deficits came about as a result of the restoration of overall monetary balance. This implied the end of current credit monetization, the reabsorption of previously created monetary liquidities by production increases, monetary purges, balance of payments deficits or price increases, and the adaptation of exchange rates to the new pattern of international prices.

By 1953 or 1954, this process of monetary readjustment could be regarded as completed in most European countries. The obstacles to the restoration of currency convertibility in Europe no longer lie in a weakness of its economy, in a persistent tendency to inflation, or in shortage of dollars, but in fears and uncertainties regarding the future harmonization of nationalistic trade and monetary policies in an interdependent world.
Le repli vers la convertibilité
Authors: Tew Brian , Niveau Maurice
Published: August 2023

As a result of defensive action by the British Government at a time when the pound was relatively weak , nearly all non-resident sterling balances have acquired de facto convertibility. This situation has arisen as a result of the successive changes in the status of transferable sterling since the end of the war.

The reform of March 1954 extended the use of transferable sterling to alt countries outside the sterling and dollar zones and abolished the distinction between the use of transferable sterling for current and capital account transactions.

The two ways in which transferable sterling can be converted into dollars — commodity convertibility, sale of transferable sterling on the free market — are described in relation to the nature and origins of the supply of and demand for transferable sterling for these purposes.

In February 1955 the weakness of transferable sterling necessitated support from the Exchange Equalization Account. Since then the rate for transferable sterling has rarely fallen more than 1 % below the official rate. This implies that transferable sterling is now convertible de facto at a rate slightly below the official sterling exchange rate. It would be difficult now to go back on this decision. It is suggested that this sort of convertibility is better adapted to modern conditions than the convertibility of the text-books.
L'évolution des places de New-York et de Londres depuis la dernière guerre
Authors: Hackett John W.
Published: August 2023

It is suggested that the normal market analysis approach to the study of financial centres does not fully account for1 the nature of the activities and means of action of these centres. The point of view adopted here is that of a monetary and financial complex. It is suggested that the notion of a monetary and financial complex makes it possible to incorporate directly in the analysis the problems of the non-market aspect of modern financial centres such as the interdependence of public and private activities and the non price relationship between the units of the centre. In this way the linked growth of individual units of a monetary and financial centre can be determined more precisely than by the use of a concept of external economies. In the first part of the study the structures of the New York and London monetary and financial centres are examined. The nature of the units, both public and private, of the two centres is studied and the contrasts and simila¬ rities between the two centres noted. The relationships between the units of the centres and between New York and London are reviewed under three. headings : price relationships, flow relationships, expectation relationships. Finally, the volume of the activity of the two centres is studied and compared as regards long-term investments, short-term capital , and reserves.

The second part of the study examines the dialogue between New York and London since 1945. Using the analysis of the structure of the two centres developed in the first part, it seeks to assess the nature and results of the dialogue during the post-war years.
La théorie des trois secteurs et le développement économique
Authors: Okyar Osman
Published: August 2023

The three sector theory and economic development

The author recalls Ihe nature of the analysis adopted by Colin Clark in his demonstration of the evolution of the occupational structure in western industrial economies and the criticisms of the three sector theory presented by Bauer and Yamey.

The criticisms made by the latter authors led to the conclusion that any observed correlation between economic progress and occupational distribution is more the result of statistical chance than a proof of an economic law.

The evolution of the occupational structure in Turkey from 1927 to 1950 furnishes ihe statistical basis for an evaluation of the three sector theory in relation to the study of economic development. The statistical evidence for Turkey does not correspond to the evolution which the theory of the three sectors leads us to expect.

It is suggested that the examples chosen by Colin Clark, drawn as they are from developed capitalist societies, do not help for an analysis of economic growth in under-developed societies. In the latter, where the capitalist mentality and structure are not present, ihe absence of a well-defined occupational specialization makes it impossible to build a theory of economic development on the basis of the growth of the tertiary sector.
La théorie de la croissance et l'expansion régionale
Authors: Milhau Jules
Published: August 2023

Theory of growth and regional economic expansion

The problem of inequalities in regional development in France is becoming serious and various efforts to remedy the situation are being made. However , it is not certain that present policy is inspired by a correct theory of economic growth.

Nevertheless, in France, economists have contributed a great deal to the study of economic growth — notably, the notion of « development poles » and the study of the modalities of expansion generated by a «leading » industry or firm. The appearance of such growth poles, or « leading » activities, cannot lake place in any type of surroundings. There is a difficult problem of choice involved. In some cases the appearance of growth poles is spontaneous, but elsewhere it has to result from state activity. In a planned economy this can be decided by authority, but in a capitalist economy the profitability of private firms is the guide, though the State can give a start to private industry.

One of the most important obstacles to a rational choice of centres for the establishment of growth poles is the resistance of the environment to innovation : in particular, less populated regions offer less resistance than densely populated ones.

These considerations of a general nature are applied to the example of the development of a region in France — the Bas-Languedoc.
La politique monétaire britannique et la zone sterling
Authors: Opie Redvers G.
Published: August 2023

British monetary policy and the sterling area

In 1955 and 1956, the United Kingdom has had recourse to an increase in Bank rale and to credit restrictions in order to limit internal inflation and to check the deterioration of the balance of payments situation. The present article sets out to examine the repercussions, on the other countries members of the sterling area, of British monetary policy.

Before 1914, the success of British monetary policy in re-establishing equilibrium of the balance of payments rested on the fact that overseas countries were dependent on conditions prevailing on the London money market. Since then, conditions in the world economy have changed notably but, nevertheless, monetary conditions in overseas sterling area countries are still affected by events in the United Kingdom.

Today, in the sterling area, both economic problems and the institutional framework of monetary systems differ greatly. In 1955 and 1956, some sterling countries, notably Australia and New Zeland, were suffering from inflation and balance of payments deficits, though for different reasons than the United Kingdom. In others, there were no inflationary tendencies. In only one overseas Sterling area country, South Africa, is there anything ressembling a developed money market. As a result, the similarities observed, since 1955, between the evolution of the monetary situation in Great Britain and in other sterling countries cannot be attributed mainly to the co-existence of identical economic and institutional conditions. What , then, explains the spead to the rest ot the sterling area of the influence of recent monetary policy in Great Britain ?

The main factor which explains this phenomenon is the dependence of other sterling countries on the London capital market. Long term issues in London fell notably in 1955 and short-term borrowing became more expensive. Overseas sterling countries reacted to some extent by appealing to other financial centres or by increasing financial facilities offered by their own banking systems. Nevertheless, although overseas sterling area countries were able to turn to some extent, to other sources for short and long term finance, their action was not a completely adequate substitute for the London market and had the result, as well, of tightening monetary conditions in other European and North American financial centres and in each of the sterling countries îhemselves. The course of monetary conditions in each of the sterling area countries since 1955 is examined in detail.

It is concluded that economic problems in the United Kingdom since 1955 , and the policy adopted to deal with them, have imposed severe strains on the other countries of the sterling area which, if they countinue for a long time, or, are repeated, will weaken notably the economic cohesion of the area.
L'évolution capitaliste à la lumière de l'économie keynésienne
Authors: Kaldor Nicholas , Mouly Jean
Published: August 2023

Capitalist evolution in the light of keynesian economics.

The author notes that progress in production and living standards in capitalist countries since the war has been at least as great, if not grater , than during the previous hundred years. Although capitalism does not necessarily secure full employment, historical experience indicates that real wages do rise with increased productivity and that the share of wages in the national income does not tend to fall.

The defects of capitalism, such as unemployment , fluctuations, and concentration of ownership, do not appear to be unavoidable either since the work of Keynes and of other economists.

The author notes that, in many respects, Marxian prophesies regarding the evolution of capitalist societies have been proved incorrect by experience. He presents an alternative theoretical scheme concerning the laws of the evolution of capitalism which is based on keynesian economics.
Échanges extérieurs, profits d'entreprise et gains des nations
Authors: Weiller Jean
Published: August 2023

Foreign trade profits and national gains from trade.

Recent discussions concerning the conditions of international trade (Marshall aid, regional groupings, common-market ) question the operation attributed to the law of comparative costs. Statistical observations of the structure of international trade seem also at variance with this law. The author concentrates on one factor which explains these divergences — the role of profits.

For Ricardo, the essential element determining trade currents is cost of production. This conforms to his method of static economics. Rut if we are concerned with the conditions of economic growth present in the world to day, we have to consider other factors. Leontieff has shown that the structure of United States’ foreign trade does not correspond to the structure which relative prices and factor proportions would lead us to expect. Part of this difference may be atiribued to differential profit margins. Such margins are not just temporary phenomena but condition the growth of foreign trade whether they are profits due to innovations or to imperfect market structures.
Le profit et la croissance planifiée en économie collective
Authors: Surányi-Unger Théo , Montuori M.
Published: August 2023

Profits and collectivist planned growth.

Although, at first sight, the role of profits in collectivist economic growth would, seem to be non-exislanl, in fact socialist countries have retained both business profits and State taxes on them.

As regards unplanned profits, these tend to be directed towards consump¬ tion expenditure and may affect growth rather indirectly although the sti¬ mulus to create them makes for real cost reductions. Planned profits result mainly from price planning. The enterprise’s share of these is turned over directly to investment and part of the governments’s share also. In the People’s Democracies , it should be noted, the importance of private enterprise profits is by no means negligible. These statements are illustrated by a detailed examination of the Hungarian economy, the changes in state revenues from enterprises and budgetary policy.

It seems that, in planned economies, the functional link between profits and economic growth is still apparent even when the sui generis entrepre¬ neurial profit motive is eliminated. As regards private enterprise, even when profits are strictly controlled there have been occasions when they have been used consciously to promote economic growth. It may well be that their role will increase in the future ; whilst, in capitalist countries, partial government planning of the growth function of profits is now stressed.
Les zones de crise aux Etats-Unis. Problèmes de politique économique régionale
Authors: Fyot Jean-Louis
Published: August 2023

Crisis areas in the U.S.A. : problems of regional economy

Despite the long period of prosperity enjoyed by the U. S. A. for years now , certain areas have participated less than others in this general prosperity. Many of these regions correspond to the old industrial centres and have suffered from technological change. The present article describes the measures taken in the United Stales to remedy this situation.

The decline of the coal basin at Scranton in Pensylvania and of the Lawrence , Mass., textile area are taken as practical examples. The author concludes that efforts to give new life to these regions have been essentially local. The Federal and State governments have played a relatively minor role. Nevertheless, it would seem desirable to deal with some aspects of this problem on the national level.
Préparons l'An 2000
Authors: Angoulvent Paul-Joseph
Published: August 2023

Let us prepare for the year 2000.

The author envisages the prospects for the year 2000. He recalls the immense changes in the economic and social scene since 1914 such as the notion of property and the social classes. In part these changes may be attributed to the tremendous demographic expansion of the twentieth century, the food problem in the underdeveloped countries and the increase in wellbeing the rich countries. At the same time, a polarisation of basic economic activities around certain development poles may be observed. In such a situation a radical change of attitude towards world poverty is necessary.

As far as France is concerned, the future will set more store on the intellectual and cultural qualities of the youth of today than on material richesses. Unfortunately, the present organization of french university life is not adequately adapted to this task. This is, however, only part of the needed renovation of french institution and an indication of the urgency of an effort to raise the level of social and political consciousness in France.
La probabilité comme guide dans la recherche et la confirmation des lois universelles
Authors: Demaria Giovanni
Published: August 2023

All deductive judgements are not strictly speaking necessarily either real or pragmatic judgements. They have to be accepted not only after verification of what they affirm but also after having solved, as it were, the problem of the degree to which a deductive truth (which is abstract and simplified ) is a truth in an absolute sense.

Confirmations of deductive judgements are always of limited validity and uncertain. This is the value of probability in the task of verification of universal laws.
Conflit et correspection en tant que facteurs décisifs dans le monopole bilatéral
Authors: Ster W. Van der
Published: August 2023

The traditional price theory approach to bilateral monopoly in wage determination is insufficient and need to be completed by incorporation of formerly «neglected » factors. The contribution of labour economics is particularly valuable in this respect. The theory of games also, in its present form, is insufficient as it uses an inappropriate analogy between bilateral mono¬ poly and parlour games. This paper introduces two other factors as elements of bilateral monopoly ; correspeclion and conflict, and applies them to the study of bilateral monopoly situation in organized labour markets.
Sur les difficultés qui se présentent quand on se fonde sur des considérations de probabilités pour en déduire des lois de fréquence
Authors: Cantelli Francesco Paolo
Published: August 2023

A consideration of Pareto’s use of probabilities to deduce his law of income distribution. The general frame-work adopted is that of Maxwell-Bollzmann. The author recalls his own work in this field and the main contributions made since then towards a solution of the difficulties inherent in this approach.
Note sur l’emploi du calcul des probabilités en économie politique
Authors: Thionet P.
Published: August 2023

A first section describes some applications of probabilities to Economics , the author (and Mr. Jean Dayre) encountered in the course of their work with the French Economic Ministry. These examples relate to large economic spaces, labour market, retail price indexes, business stocks. The mathematical apparatus is limited to the use of Normal, Bernoulli and Poisson distributions.

Various criticisms are reviewed in the second section. The author’s opinion is that these objections are only partly founded. It would perhaps favour clarity if the distinction between economic models and economic arbitrary schemes was accepted. At all events, for all Sciences is it not difficult to understand just how purely mathematical constructions are able to throw light on the causes of natural phenomena ?
Le marché des capitaux et la politique monétaire
Authors: Horowitz David
Published: August 2023

Capital market and monetary policy

The post-war world is characterized by a strong demand for capital. Heavy competing demands for capital are likely to be unfavourable to underdeveloped countries with most need for outside capital. This leads to inflation and balance of payments disequilibrium in these countries — as their own savings are inadequate. The result is a distortion of the development process.

Government policy then tends to be directed to various systems of physical and price controls, of subsidies and of foreign exchange differentials. Internally, the government and the trade unions hold the key positions with a marked preference for inflation. Externally, the growth of consumption in developed countries faster than the growth of production deprives underdeveloped countries of needed capital.
Note sur la dynamique du déséquilibre des changes
Authors: Davin Louis E.
Published: August 2023

Note on the dynamics of exchange disequilibrium

The notion of exchange disequilibrium is defined not only with regard to the balance of payments but also with regard to the inadequacy of exchange rate adjustments and with regard to specific international capital movements. It is then observed that exchange disequilibria can vary according to the period of time or the geographical area under examination. The author notes, finally, that each case of disequilibrium has its own specific characteristics.

The nature of the dynamics of exchange adjustment is studied in relation to a series of examples : underdeveloped countries practising either unbalanced or balanced growth, the older industrial economies of Western Europe, the dominant American economy. The ways in which disequilibria are created and diffused differ in each case.

The study of the reactions to an exchange disequilibrium deals in turn with : monetary policy, budgetary policy, international capital transfers. The undiscriminate application of an overall monetary policy is not likely to be effective. It must be adapted to circumstances and selective in ils aims. Fiscal policy is frequently an indispensable adjunct of monetary policy. Public expenditure is, however, often incompressible in underdeveloped countries. Even in developed countries it plays a role in the orientation of the necessary adaptation of the economy and, in this respect, the country with an export surplus is at a marked advantage. This leads to a consideration of the role of international credit movements between debitor and creditor countries. An adequate use of this latter instrument can be of great help in the task of promoting balanced economic growth.
La pensée monétaire en Italie depuis 1945
Authors: Gangemi Lello , Montuori M.
Published: August 2023

Monetary writings in Italy since 1945

This is an exhaustive survey of recent publications on monetary subjects by Italian economists. A detailed, historical introduction enables the reader to situate post-war monetary writings in relation to earlier economic traditions in Italy.

The author considers first of all general monetary theories and then goes on to examine a number of specific problems dealt with by Italian economists : post-war reconstruction ; economic fluctuations and development ; monetary and financial policy ; international monetary problems.

In his opinion, the major characteristics of Italian writings on money since 1945 are, in the first place, that Italian economists refect the concepts of the «veil of money» and of «neutral money». They accept the idea that the introduction of monetary factors necessarily changes the situation of equilibrium which is supposed to exist in a non-monetary economy and also the nature of departures from that equilibrium. Secondly, a purely mechanical interpretation of the quantity theory has no adepts. Finally, economists in Italy tend to stress the importance of real economic factors and therefore, despite their rejection of monetary neutrality, have only a limited faith in the potency of monetary policy.
Le rôle de la protection douanière dans une politique de développement
Authors: Bertrand Raymond
Published: August 2023

The role of protective tariffs in a policy of economic development

The article describes and discusses the conditions in which protective tariffs might be used to increase an underdeveloped country’s national income, in preference to alternative expedients such as subsidies or Free Trade.

Using as a starting point the traditional arguments for the protection of infant industries expounded by such writers as Haberler and Kindelberger, the author analyses the effects of the introduction of a tariff on one particular product.

He concludes that, since the effects in question are differential in nature, protection must be confined to a small group of products to be effective from a development (and particularly an investment) point of view. A uniformly high tariff will have less satisfactory investment or production effects and will bring about a general rise in production costs with adverse effects on exports industries.

The effects of isolated tariffs of the kind described on saving, it is argued, will depend upon the elasticity of supply of and demand for imports and upon the amounts of the good imported and produced at home respectively. A cumulative process of investment and saving may be engendered if the protected industry expands and decreasing costs result. The saving engendered in an underdeveloped country by a general tariff will, in contrast be principally Government saving, and will be productive only if invested in infant industries and not used to finance such things as armaments expenditure, etc.

In a conclusion dealing with the practical aspects of protection, the author emphasises the difficulties and risks involved in attempting to use a protectionist policy for development purposes alongside import restrictions, subsidies and multiple exchange rales. A selective policy of protection may bring about the desired results with regard to economic development : a generalised protectionism has no such stimulating effect on growth.
De l'impôt, propulseur de croissance
Authors: Davin Louis E.
Published: August 2023

Taxation as a generator of growth

The author argues that taxation can be an instrument of economic growth, but that this would in many cases require a fundamental revision of national tax systems, in the light of the needs of technical progress and the phenomenon of polarisation.

The needs of a tax system conducive to balanced growth are examined , and reasons adduced why such a system may differ greatly from existing ones.

The fiscal system of many countries is profoundly influenced by strictly juridical conceptions, and this produces conflicts and checks economic progress. A narrow «legality» causes grave maladjustments and distortions. Tax administrations of this kind are oriented towards the past and are governed by purely accounting conceptions of taxation rather than by economic considerations. This inevitably conflicts with the requirements of economies undergoing rapid and intensive change. Tax legislation concerned with amortisation, with mergers and with turnover taxes illustrates this point.

Conflict also arises because the juridical basis of the fiscal system encourages concentration on short-term objectives (e. g. income redistribution). This can often lead to manifest error, as the short-term policies conceal the great economic benefits that might be obtained in the middle and long-term from fundamental fiscal adaptations.

The relation of public expenditures and particular taxes to harmonious growth is considered, it being argued inter alia that heavy taxes are not necessarily harmful to growth. The important mailer is the points of application which should be so chosen as to give the mechanisms of development the fullest possible effect.

Fiscal policies then, need to be considered in relation to a stream of macroeconomic decisions and in the context of a programmed economy, and this has somehow to be reconciled with short-term needs inspired by the Treasury. This latter may be the most important force making for inertia ; even the bravest Chancellor may be frightened away from satisfactory growth policies by the spectre of a temporary decline in receipts.
Monnaie et politique monétaire - Le rôle des prétendus "impondérables"
Authors: Schmölders Günter
Published: August 2023

Money and monetary policy :

the role of the alleged «imponderables»

Neither the «purchasing power» nor the «balance of payments» theories of exchange rate determination constitutes a complete explanation. They both have to include consideration of other imponderable factors. These factors can be psychological, traditional, sociological, etc.

In the case of the debate, in 1957, concerning the reevaluation of the D. Mark several such factors were present. At that lime such imponderables as the respective «interests» of exporters and importers, of banking and financial organizations, of political parties were very important. Finally, the upsurge of rumours and speculation which had been unleashead subsided only with Mr. Jacobson’s declaration to the I.M.F. that neither the D. Mark nor the pound sterling required exchange rate adjustments.

This example shows the importance of defining the laws which govern the formation of public opinion in economic matters. In the author’s opinion three hypotheses may be advanced in this field : 1° The form of an event is more important than its substance as regards the evolution of public opinion ; 2° Emotional considerations are more important than rational arguments ; 3° Frequent repetition strengthens the force of an argument. At the present time, the behaviour postulates of economics are of no help for the solution of such problems.
Introduction
Authors: Massé P. , Boiteux M.
Published: August 2023

The introduction describes the scope of the issue and gives short comments upon the texts. The publication follows upon the number for January-March 1957, which dealt with Economic Policy and the Calculus of Probabilities, but is at once broader and more limited. Broader, because it ranges beyond economic policy and because uncertainly is a more general notion than probability. Narrower, because the present number is oriented towards problems of action.

Summaries in English of the individual articles are given at the beginning of each text.
Marché «mondial» ?
Authors: Perroux François
Published: August 2023

Classical and neo-classical economisls analysed the international market in terms of the transactions of firms and individuals of different countries with one another, and set out «perfect » conditions of competition, mobility and so on in which the trade between nations was explained in terms of comparative costs.

If such an approach was ever satisfactory Professor F , Perroux argues, it is certainly unsatisfactory as an approach to conditions as they are in the twentieth century. A nation is not simply composed of firms and individuals, but is «group of groups, oriented, coordinated, and arbitrated by the State, which has a monopoly of public constraint ». It is in terms of the behaviour of these groups and especially in terms of the nation conceived as a combination of growth points (pôles de croissance) , that international exchanges and the dynamic of comparative costs need to be explained.

Accordingly, analysis of the world economy and the world market needs to start from a point which accepts the existence and importance of nations so defined ; though we can still think in terms of an «ideal » world economic situation, in which a world without nation utilises world resources to produce an optimum product in optimum conditions of localisation. This «ideal » is the contemporary and progressive form of the univer-salism of the classical models ; we can measure actual conditions against it. Professor F. Perroux offers such an analysis, and uses it to illuminate the course of economic history and its earlier interpretation.
L’inégalité du développement économique
Authors: Brunet J. P.
Published: August 2023

Industrial development has become the order of the day in many underdeveloped countries with a large potential home market (in terms of numbers). This has usually begun in consumer goods industries using simple techniques, but it has already spread to other industrial activities in some such countries. Development of this kind generates a need for the countries in question to open up world markets, since the products cannot be absorbed at home (given low income per head) and since it is normally desirable to increase export earnings.

There must in consequence arise a need for reconversion of industrial activity in developed countries. This need has already arisen in some European industries, and Britain alone has faced it without resort to protection. Clearly , policies of commercial liberalism towards the manufactured exports of less developed countries would help to solve the problem, if there were no widespread resort to «safeguards », whenever imports from such countries grow at all quickly, and the less developed countries have argued for such an approach in G.A.T.T. The author believes that suitable regulatory policies would be more satisfactory , and that these should be accompanied by private investment in the less developed countries by the developed economies. Policy measures should also take into account countries employing state trading as well as those with more liberal systems ; the growth in industrial production and desire for export markets is likely to be common to both.
Bilan et perspectives
Authors: Philip André
Published: August 2023

Earlier articles have been concerned with the activities of G.A.T.T. in recent years , and with consideration of the problems it now faces. This final article attempts to bring the discussion together by drawing attention to the questions of fundamental importance that have been raised for decisions between alternative possible world economic policies.

The author approaches the problem through a survey of earlier history, leading to comment upon the problems that existed at the end of the second World War and the policies it gave rise to. This provides the basis for discussion of the emergence of the European Community, exposition of the present difficulties that have to be met if a world market is to be created, and suggestions for the future activities and organisation of G.A.T.T. with this in mind.
La commune populaire chinoise
Authors: Minc Bronislaw
Published: August 2023

Started in Summer 1958, they constitute a new hold experience. They are not only a Union of ayricultural cooperatives and organise more than 500 millions people. Each commune groups from twenty to hundred thousand membres. It is divided in “ larges brigades " which organises production in agriculture and industry and divide the proceeds. The P.C. is a production unit which organises also social security, transport and distribution. They have a very high accumulation potential and have changed the production relations radically.

The People's Communes' Council establishes the draft plan in accordance with the directions of the district authorities. They have to distribute the labour force and the capital goods. The question of the properly of the means of production is not solved completely yet. The P.C. are grouped in district unions.
L’évolution du réseau ferroviaire chinois et le nouvel équilibre régional
Authors: Chesneaux Jean
Published: August 2023

After an initial section describing the pre-1949 railway system in China, the author describes developments since that date. This is done in three stages, dealing successively with the creation of new international links and new main line systems, with developments of regional and interregional importance , and with the beginnings that have been made in the construction of lines to meet the needs of local areas.

The author concludes that the developments that he described need to be assessed as a part of a coherent policy of regional development, and suggests that they emphasise the need to study the economic growth of China in regional terms.
Le fonctionnement de deux oligopoles protégés au Canada
Authors: Eastman Harry C. , Stykolt Stefan
Published: August 2023

The Performance of Two Protected Oligopolies in Canada

The usual explanation of the high costs of Canadian industry in comparison with U.S.A. is concerned with the smallness of the Canadian domestic market. The authors use an examination of two protected oligopolies (cement and petroleum refining) to develop an alternative hypothesis. Their study indicates that performance is adequate in industries whose markets can accommodate several firms of minimum optimum size, but in other industries the small size of the Canadian market does affect the efficiency of manufacturing industry. In particular, it is argued that the efficiency of firms is reduced in markets where attaining efficient scale by the firm would entail the elimination of rivals, because of a preference for collusion over competitive price reductions.
Sur une application particulière de la programmation linéaire au problème de la programmation régionale
Authors: Del Punta Veniero
Published: August 2023

On a Specific Utilization of Linear Programming to Regional Programming Problem.

Planners are using methods that sometimes amount to mere «rules of thumb ». The author tells us how he has been given the idea of applying input-output matrices developed by W. Leontief as well as linear programming to the development problem of the southern part of Italy.

The author describes a «simplified model » based on physical units. The monetary aspects of development problems have been avoided. He shows how the model could be expanded in order to be applied to a given economic system, and to changing conditions in the development process. The author also considers that a profound knowledge of the economy as a whole is necessary before setting up a plan.

The author’s aim was to show a way to apply linear programming to development problems and in doing so, to set the planning business on a much steadie ground than before.

Applying econometrics to planning is not a miraculous way to solve difficult problems but it may help to reach chosen aims.

The mathematical and statistical obstacles will be very difficult to overcome but it pays to use the greater amount of effort available to solve problems, whose solutions amount to nothing less than raising the living standard of a whole nation.
Variations par secteurs dans l'effort de recherche-développement en Grande-Bretagne
Authors: Williams B. R.
Published: August 2023

Sectoral Variations in Research and Development Effort in Britain

The article first considers research effort in terms of employment of scientific man-power, and brings out differences in this respect between different sectors of the British economy. Sources of finance of research and development in Great Britain and U.S.A. are then examined the importance of the Government and of defence expenditures in the case of Britain being demonstrated.

On this basis, variations between sectors are discussed from a number of points of view — types of development , industries based on science and traditional industries, size of enterprises, and types of industry.

The author offers some conclusions as to likely future developments, e.g. if there should be more stable conditions of world peace.
La stratégie et l'économique de la recherche
Authors: Sengupta Satya S.
Published: August 2023

The Strategy and Economics of Research

The article attempts to apply the principles of rational economics in order to determine how much should be spent on what kinds of research, at the levels of the firm and of the industry. A first section treats this problem at the level of the firm, and discusses the planning of research expenditures to promote growth, the whole being considered as an adaptive process. A model of growth is developed under a set of restrictive assumptions. A second section removes some of the assumptions, introducing such considerations as the nature of competition and quality differences. The final model does not claim to provide direct guidance as to how much a firm should spend on research, but offers rather a description of the interdependences between the variables of interest. Its use by a firm would require estimation of the parameters concerned ; the fact that this is an uncertain business does not rob the model of value, however, since those taking the decisions would have to estimate the relevant parameters in any case.
Le multiplicateur dynamique d'exportation : un modèle pour l'Argentine
Authors: Bee de Dagum Estela Maria
Published: August 2023

Dans cette étude, on a modifié le modèle orthodoxe du multiplicateur dynamique d'exportation afin de l’utiliser pour l’Argentine pendant la décennie des années cinquante. Parmi les raisons les plus importantes d’une telle modification, il y a l’existence d’une propension marginale à l’épargne négative. (Nous définissons cette dernière comme étant la différence entre l’unité et la somme des propensions marginales à importer et à consommer des biens de production nationale).

L’estimation des paramètres du modèle a été faite par la méthode des moindres carrés. On a obtenu comme résultat final une valeur, pour le multiplicateur d’exportation entre l’Argentine et les Etats-Unis, égale à 3,06 et entre l’Argentine et l’Angleterre égale à 3,49. Dans la version dynamique du modèle, le processus de multiplication d’une exportation autonome atteint, pour le cas de l’Argentine avec les Etats-Unis, 95 % du total au bout de trois ans, tandis que pour l’Argentine et l’Angleterre, le multiplicateur dynamique atteint 89 % de sa valeur finale au bout de six années.
D’un objet économique non identifié
Authors: Ménard Claude
Published: August 2023

La théorie de la concurrence monopolistique n’a pu établir le lien entre la stratégie de différenciation et l’organisation oligopolistique. La prise en compte simultanée de ces deux aspects suggère une représentation de l’économie concurrentielle où le nombre restreint de rivaux éclaire le processus de formation des prix, mais aussi la dimension sociale d’un équilibre “mouvant”.

Dans une première partie, nous rappelons certaines critiques développées par Chamberlin contre la théorie “standard” de la valeur, et leur confrontons les hypothèses “nouvelles” avancées par l’auteur. Le retour au modèle de concurrence monopolistique permet alors d’en mesurer l’insuffisance. Mais cet écart même invite à une autre approche du problème des unités économiques.
La transmission de l’opinion, une approche structurale du pouvoir au sein des structures fortement connexes
Authors: Gazon Jules
Published: August 2023

L’exercice du pouvoir au sein d’une structure s’appréhende par la transmission de l’influence, appelée ici, transmission de l’opinion. Cette opinion, supposée mesurable peut, soit s’identifier à une grandeur économique (prix, activité,...), soit correspondre à une opinion qu’un agent souhaite voir partager par d’autres agents. L’opinion d’un agent est tributaire de l’opinion des agents qui l’influencent ainsi que de la résistance qu’il manifeste� pour conserver son opinion initiale et pour convaincre les autres agents. Cet article étudie les conditions d’un compromis (opinion unanime) résultant d’une part, du vecteur d’opinion initial, d’autre part de la répartition inégale du pouvoir qu’implique la structure. Seules les structures fortement connexes sont ici, prises en considération.