bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Load Tests on Stone Columns
Authors: Greenwood DA
Published: March 2009

Stone column foundations are often incorrectly regarded as piles and tested accordingly. For single columns load tests are appropriate. However full scale field tests in which stresses on and between columns were measured clearly demonstrate how the performance of columns under widespread loads depends on loading circumstances which cannot be simulated by small scale tests on single columns. Such tests are misleading for contract purposes. A more cost effective approach is to concentrate on high grade site investigation and control during design and construction; supplemented by instrumentation to monitor response to initial loading of the prototype.
Analysis of Quick Load Tests on Stone Columns: Case Histories
Authors: Hussin JD , Baez JI
Published: March 2009

This paper examines 6 stone column projects constructed throughout the United States from 1985 to 1988 in which quick vertical load tests were performed to predict performance of foundations and to compare this prediction with the design prediction. The stone columns were constructed through various types of soil including sand, clay, silt, peat and construction debris. The configuration of the load tests varied from .76 m (30 inch) diameter to 1.8 m (6 foot) square steel plates with loads from 89 kN to 916 kN (10 to 103 tons) on one to four stone columns.

The proposed construction, design load, settlement criteria and soil profile are reviewed for each project. Special emphasis is placed on using the load test data to predict the settlement of the planned foundations. In addition, the configuration and mechanics of the load test set ups are presented.
Leak Detection Methods for Airport Hydrant Systems
Authors: Flora JD , Glauz WD , Hennon GJ
Published: March 2009

Airport hydrant systems are large underground pressurized piping systems. Typically, these systems operate with a pressure of about 150 psi and range in diameter from 6 in. to 16 in.. Systems vary in their design, but typically have trunk lines and laterals that end in hydrant pits. These systems are orders of magnitude larger than piping systems found at retail fuel outlets. The lines themselves may contain 250 000 to 500 000 gal of product. Since they are large and operate at high pressure, the potential for environmental damage in the event of a leak is correspondingly increased.

Airport hydrant systems are currently deferred from the leak detection requirements of the federal EPA regulations covering underground storage tanks. However, several states, eg. Texas, have neither exempted nor deferred these systems. These states are regulating hydrant systems on a case by case basis. There is a clear need for leak detection methods for such systems.

A number of approaches to leak detection for hydrant systems have been proposed. These include double wall piping with interstitial monitoring, external monitoring methods for vapor or liquid product on the water table, tracer methods, pressure-step methods, and inventory methods. This paper describes several approaches to leak detection for hydrant systems. It also provides estimates of the performance that may be expected from each method. It relates these performance estimates to the EPA standards for nonexempt/nondeferred systems. The approximate cost to install and operate the methods is discussed.
Pipeline Leak Detection Using Volatile Tracers
Authors: Thompson GM , Golding RD
Published: March 2009

A method of leak detection for underground storage tanks and pipelines adds volatile tracers to the product in the tanks and analyzes the surrounding shallow soil gases for tracer vapors. This method has several advantages : the success of the test is not limited by the size and structural design of the vessels, tanks can be tested at any fill level without taking the tank out of service, the location of a leak along a pipeline is clearly marked by the location of the tracer, and liquid leaks as small as 0.2 liters per hour (lph) can be detected. A limitation is: the backfill material must have some degree of air permeability in the zone above the water table. Several field tests document the success achieved using this method. A tracer leak detection system was installed at Homestead AFB after several other testing methods failed to locate a leak at a valve pit location along approximately 4 kilometers of fuel transfer piping. The leak was detected to the side of the valve pit at a depth of approximately 2.5 meters below the ground surface. Another installation at Edwards AFB involved the collection of 415 soil gas samples along approximately 3, 050 meters of 15.25-centimeter fiberglass pipeline. Fourteen separate leaks were detected.
Characteristics of Non-Petroleum Underground Storage Tanks
Authors: Hillger RW , Starr JW , MacArthur MP , Maresca JW
Published: March 2009

It is generally acknowledged that a small fraction of the total underground storage tank population is used to store substances other than petroleum fuels. The detailed characteristics of these tanks, however, are not well known. Additional information is required if competent decisions are to be made regarding leak detection, tank upgrading, and tank management practices. In order to obtain more detailed information regarding these tanks, a survey was conducted to determine the primary features of tanks containing non-petroleum substances. Databases were generated that were based on information from 14 states covering a wide geographical area. The results of this survey suggest that, of the non-petroleum tanks, approximately 50%, either by number or tank volume, contain hazardous substances. Acetone, toluene, methanol, methyl ethyl ketone, and xylene were found to be the most commonly stored hazardous substances, comprising approximately 30% of hazardous materials stored in tanks. Tank age was found to average 18 years, with over 85% of the tanks being fabricated from steel. Roughly 60% of the tanks in the state databases had capacities between 1 000 and 10 000 gal (3 790 and 37 900 L), with the average tank size from all states being 7 205 gal (27 307 L).
Surfynol Surfactants as Defoamers for Glyphosate Formulations with Alkyl Glycoside Surfactants
Authors: Kassebaum JW
Published: March 2009

A major limitation to the use of alkyl glycosides as surfactants for liquid glyphosate formulations is their unacceptable degree of foaming when diluted in the spray tank. I have found that certain acetylenic diol surfactants can be used as defoamers in glyphosate formulations with an alkyl glycoside. The acetylenic diol surfactant was completely solubilized by the alkyl glycoside in the concentrated formulation. Therefore it remained homogeneously distributed throughout the formulation. This overcomes a severe limitation of using conventional defoamers, such as those based on silicone, with water soluble concentrates, since they are not soluble in the formulation and will separate with time. When the formulation was diluted to spray solution concentrations the acetylenic diol surfactant became apparently insoluble (the solution was hazy) and it functioned as a defoamer. The relative defoaming ability of three acetylenic diol surfactants from Air Products, called Surfynol® surfactants, in a liquid glyphosate formulation containing Henkel APG 325 surfactant, was Surfynol 110D > Surfynol 104 ≫ Surfynol 420.
Processed Guar Gum in Agricultural Applications: New Interest for an Old “Inert”
Authors: Hazen JL
Published: March 2009

The endosperm of Cyamopsis tetragonolobus (L.) Taub. is better known as guar gum. This material has been known to the agricultural chemical formulation industry for many years. Nevertheless, this poly-saccharide is generally overlooked during formulation development work, in favor of more expensive natural and synthetic polymers.

Recent work with natural and derivatized guar has shown certain performance and economic advantages when guars are used in conjunction with other rheology-modifying polymers. These varied applications include suspension concentrates, suspoemulsions, agglomeration, extrusion, gellation, and adhesion.

This paper reviews the nature of guar and derivatives in terms of structure and rheological properties. Suggested applications are presented in terms of performance enhancement. Opportunities to optimize formulations utilizing the replacement and synergy value of guar derivatives are emphasized.
Pesticide Microemulsion Concentrate Formulations Utilizing Fatty Acid Methyl Esters as Solvent Alternatives
Authors: Skelton PR
Published: March 2009

In an attempt to investigate solvent alternatives in pesticide microemulsion concentrates, the use of fatty acid methyl esters proved advantageous by providing excellent solubility with a wide variety of pesticide compounds. Various pesticide microemulsion concentrates were prepared utilizing fatty acid methyl esters as alternatives to water immiscible solvents such as aromatic hydrocarbons or chlorinated hydrocarbons. Microemulsion concentrates consisting of hydroprene, dicofol, and trifluralin were examined under laboratory conditions with a cross section of typical fatty acid methyl ester chain lengths. Fatty acid methyl esters containing carbon chain lengths of 8–12 provide maximum solubility and emulsification characteristics. Solubility and emulsification decrease with fatty acid carbon chain lengths of 18 or greater. Temperature stability data is provided describing the specific carbon chain length fatty acid methyl ester which enhances solubility in these microemulsion concentrate formulations.
Continuous Process for Starch Encapsulated Herbicides
Authors: Wing RE , Carr ME , Doane WM
Published: March 2009

Up to new all reported starch encapsulation processes for pesticides were either batch or semicontinuous. Now a continuous process for encapsulation has been developed which involves twin-screw extrusion with die-face product pelletizing into granules. If a very small particle size is desired, the extruded granules can be dried, ground, and reclassified. The process and equipment used to produce the products containing various amounts of active agent loading and rates of release are described.
Recent Advances in Water Dispersible Granule Formulation Technologies Dealing with Non-Traditional Technicals
Authors: Munie LA
Published: March 2009

This paper discusses the advancements in formulation technologies of Water Dispersible Granules. Historically, technicals had to meet certain criteria in order to be formulated as Water Dispersible Granules. This criteria generally excluded all technicals with melting points below 60°C or highly volatile technicals. Over the past several years developments in formulation technology and the EPA's position on solvents has changed the perspective of the formulator. This paper addresses methods of formulating Dry Flowables with low melting or liquid technicals. This paper discusses what happens to nontraditional technicals when several different methods of agglomeration are utilized.
Corrosion Protection of Aluminum Heat-Transfer Surfaces in Engine Coolants Using Monoacid/Diacid Inhibitor Technology
Authors: Maes J-P , Van de Ven P
Published: March 2009

A low depletion monoacid/diacid corrosion inhibitor technology that provides superior high-temperature aluminum corrosion protection combined with excellent heat-transfer characteristics has been identified. The efficiency of the inhibitor technology was evaluated gravimetrically on aluminum specimens under static and dynamic heat-transfer conditions. Testing techniques and results are discussed. The thermal properties of the protective film and the coolant were evaluated under dynamic heat-exchange conditions. Information on composition and structure of the protective film formed under conditions of heat-transfer was obtained through the use of microscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR).
Early History of Calcium Phosphate Materials and Coatings
Authors: Driskell TD
Published: March 2009

Bioactive calcium phosphate materials were developed by Driskell and his co-workers at Battelle Memorial Institute's Columbus Laboratories and successfully implanted At the U. S. Army Institute of Dental Research at Walter Reed Army Medical Center. in 1971. Coatings of these materials were applied to dental implants in 1972. Disappointment with results of earlier research and development of “bioinert” ceramic implant materials and coatings stimulated this departure into bioactive materials development. Subsequent work by Hubbard Jarcho, Kay, and numerous other researchers resulted in the development of additional variations of calcium phosphate materials and coatings. The substance of this research is the foundation upon which the field of calcium phosphate materials technology and hydroxlapatite coatings has developed.
A Calibrated Method for Crystallinity Determination of Hydroxylapatite Coatings
Authors: Flach JS , Shimp LA , van Blitterswijk CA , de Groot K
Published: March 2009

A quick and inexpensive method was developed to determine the crystallinity of hydroxylapatite coatings using X-ray diffraction for the purpose of production control.

Crystalline hydroxylapatite powder, when sprayed onto a substrate with thermal spraying, forms a mostly two phase material consisting of crystalline hydroxylapatite and amorphous material and very likely some trace impurities. The term crystallinity of a thermal sprayed hydroxylapatite coating is defined as the weight percentage of crystalline hydroxylapatite material to the total amount of material in the coating. With X-ray diffraction of the coating, the integrated crystalline hydroxylapatite peak intensity between 25° and 40° (2⊖) is measured and divided by the same integrated intensity of a 100% crystalline hydroxylapatite standard. The ratio between both is called the crystallinity of the hydroxylapatite coating. The method is calibrated using crystallinity standards which have been made by mixing 100% crystalline hydroxylapatite powder with 100% amorphous powder in different ratios.
X-Ray Diffraction Method for the Quantitative Characterization of Calcium Phosphate Coatings
Authors: LeGeros JP , LeGeros RZ , Burgess A , Edwards B , Zitelli J
Published: March 2009

An X-ray diffraction (XRD) method was developed to quantify the crystallographic character of coatings for implants in terms of phases present and amount of amorphous calcium phosphate or micro-crystalline phases included. This method requires only information from the Joint Committee for Powder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS) files, does not require the use of admixed standards, and automatically takes into account and corrects for the variations in crystallite sizes of component phases. This method employs an algorithm based on real XRD optics and not a statistical fit. The residual information from convoluted peaks after defining one or more of them using the algorithm gives the basic data for further deconvolution of any remaining peaks and a quantitative assessment of the phases present which they represent. Usually an explanation of variance greater than 95% is achieved for the deconvoluted modeled profiles. The method is robust. The overall deconvolution of the peaks of all crystalline phases present from the total XRD profile gives the profile and quantification of any amorphous or micro-crystalline phase present. The reliability of this method was demonstrated by analyses of admixtures from three different laboratories and comparison of results on the same coatings from two different laboratories.
Hydroxylapatite-Coatings for Non-Precision Implant Placements
Authors: Kay JF
Published: March 2009

Ceramic hydroxylapatite (HA) coating results in faster bony adaptation, no fibrous tissue seams, firmer implant-bone attachment, decreased healing time, higher tolerance of surgical inaccuracies and an inhibition of ion release from the metallic substrate. In oral implantology, placement of dental implants in fresh tooth extraction sites is difficult, due to non-precision sites available for the implant placement. Upon tooth extraction, a superior void is created while the apical implant portion may be firmly seated. In orthopaedics, osteoporotic patients may not have total bony support for primary hip or knee placement and non-precision conditions may exist along much of the attachment area of a revision joint replacement. In-vivo studies of precision and not precisely placed HA-coated implants show that HA on a metallic implant device provides a mechanism for compensation, somewhat, for absence of a precision interference fit of the implant within the bone site. The coating acts as a substrate for bony proliferation and provides compensation for lack of direct bone contact leading to osseo-integration associated with metallic devices.
Elimination of IR Error in Measurements of Corrosion in Concrete
Authors: Escalante E
Published: March 2009

The deterioration of concrete bridge decks owing to the corrosion of imbedded steel has generated interest in developing techniques to measure the corrosion of steel in this high-resistivity environment. Several electrochemical polarization methods have been used successfully in the laboratory. This paper describes the use of current interruption to eliminate the IR that arises in measuring the potential of steel during polarization measurements.

Polarization measurements were carried out using a small, portable computer system that controlled and monitored the potential of the steel and the applied current. Current was cycled on and off, with the potential measured during the off cycle and the current during the on cycle. The duty cycle was 2.2 s on and 0.4 s off, and sampling of the voltage occurred approximately 75 ms after the current was interrupted. Results indicated that 95% of the error is eliminated using this technique.
Solid Waste Landfill Performance During the LOMA Prieta Earthquake
Authors: Orr WR , Finch MO
Published: March 2009

The Loma Prieta earthquake (ML=7.1) produced only minor damage to solid waste landfills located near the epicenter. Site personnel were interviewed using a questionnaire to determine Modified Mercalli Intensity customized for landfills. Questionnaire results showed maximum intensities of VII near the epicenter and VI on bay muds. Estimated Peak Horizontal Accelerations for these sites ranged from 0.10 to 0.45g. Earthquake acceleration and duration appear to be the most important factors for predicting the seismic behavior of solid waste landfills.
Geotechnical Analysis of Some Industrial Sludges
Authors: Belfiore F , Manassero M , Viola C
Published: March 2009

The application of soil mechanics principles to the study of waste engineering behaviour involves an awareness of the similarities and differences between such material and soil. A suitable waste classification system is needed in order to standardize test procedures and assess the significance of the results. Since density is the most important waste property governing its overall behaviour, compaction procedures are important for the successful operation of a landfill from both a technical and an economical point of view. A traditional soil mechanics approach to waste investigation is presented in this paper, which emphasizes the necessity of adapting and integrating the usual geotechnical tools, also with the aid of a comprehensive performance monitoring program.
Design Criteria for Footwear and Functional Testing on Artificial and Natural Surfaces
Authors: Abraham CJ , Newman M , Pugh J , Shulman LS
Published: March 2009

Twisting and cutting sports such as football, baseball, and soccer involve torsional forces placed on the knee which can result in traumatic injuries. In many cases, these injuries relate directly to the sport shoe design and the nature of the playing surface. Although there are many tests performed on shoes involved in various sports, most are performed in the laboratory. There is a distinct difference between the variables in those tests and the ones encountered in the field environment. Laboratory tests that do not take into account the actual motions demonstrated in the field cannot yield meaningful results. A relationship between the loading, surface, and performance aspect of the athlete's movements must be used in order to properly design the sole and heel of any sports shoe. By using a mechanical testing device which consists of a direct readout torque wrench and a detachable foot, one can quantitatively and qualitatively predict whether the forces created during a twisting motion on artificial and natural surfaces could result in injuries. Such measurements are valuable as design criteria for footwear in sports.
Selection of Materials for Artificial Turf Surfaces
Authors: Orofino TA , Leffingwell JW
Published: March 2009

Characteristics of diverse polymers used as pile ribbon, backing yarns, and shock-absorbing pads in artificial turf systems are examined. Particular attention is directed toward end-use performance in the major commercial systems of polypropylene or nylon 66 pile ribbon combined with polypropylene or polyethylene terephthalate backing yarns and with shock-absorbing pads of cross-linked polyethylene or poly vinyl chloride/rubber interpolymer. As with most applications of plastics, inclusion of various additives is necessary for key performance. Data on the effect of carrier resins, used to conveniently introduce additives into nylon 66, on the frictional characteristics of the final pile ribbon are presented. The role of turf ribbon friction as it may relate to wear resistance of the pile, monitored in the laboratory by the ASTM Schiefer and Taber abrader tests, and to shoe traction is examined.
Pesticide Drop Size as a Function of Spray Atomizers and Liquid Formulations
Authors: Akesson NB , Gibbs RE
Published: March 2009

The use of the ruby laser automatic, in situ spray drop size and frequency analyzer has permitted a much more detailed, rapid and reproducible study of spray drop atomization than hitherto possible. With the advent of these machines and their use in pesticide spray studies, it is now possible to enumerate specific size and size range for the many different atomizers, fan, cone, jet hydraulic pressure types and rotary screen devices used for pesticide spraying. A given atomizer will respond to formulation changes as these affect surface tension, viscosity and density and will produce drop size in relation to these physical properties.

As a result of several years collection of field drift-loss data we have put together a model program which utilizes the drop size information as noted, combines this with weather factors and operational parameters of the spray aircraft to enable prediction of amounts of pesticide to be expected as fallout and airborne portion at specified distances downwind. This information will be of significant value to pesticide manufacturers, users and to registration and regulatory agencies charged with safe use of pesticide chemicals.
Individual Mound Treatment for Rapid Control of Fire Ants
Authors: Appel AG , Woody LG
Published: March 2009

Techniques for controlling individual mounds of the red and black imported fire ants were evaluated. Of the five techniques the following combination provided the best control: perimeter spray followed by disturbing the mound, applying the spray topically, and injecting the spray into at least 12 locations. Mounds were inactive within 3 minutes. This procedure used approximately 2 cans of wasp spray per mound and usually killed the mound. Approximately 5% of the mounds either contained live ants or relocated within 24 hours after treatment. Within 7 days, the relocated mounds had died, and there was no further relocation after 30 days. This procedure controlled ants effectively rapidly and killed treated mounds in most cases.
Thermomechanical, Time-Dependent Analysis of Layered Metal Matrix Composites
Authors: Lee K-D , Krempl E
Published: March 2009

The orthotropic, thermal viscoplasticity theory based on overstress (TVBO) is specialized for plane stress in a simple laminate theory. It maintains the same geometric assumptions as the classical laminate theory except that the orthotropic linear elasticity law is replaced by TVBO. In this way, rate sensitivity, creep, and relaxation can be modeled without the use of a yield surface and loading/unloading conditions. The laminate theory is intended for thermal analysis of metal matrix composites operating at high temperature under simultaneous mechanical and thermal loadings.

The rate-dependent laminate behavior is described by a set of coupled, first order, nonlinear differential equations that must be numerically integrated for a given mechanical and thermal history to yield the laminate and ply stresses as well as the laminate total strain as a function of time. To describe the behavior, the elastic constants and the coefficients of thermal expansion need to be known in addition to two material functions and six constants that describe the inelastic deformation behavior. Two metal matrix composites, MMC1 and MMC2, are constructed theoretically. For MMC1, the strength in the fiber and the transverse directions decrease with temperature. The strength in the transverse direction of MMC2, patterned after Ni3Al/Al2O3, increases with temperature before it decreases and the strength in the fiber direction is nearly constant. First, the ply behavior is simulated by off-axis m-phase and out-of-phase thermomechanical numerical tests. Then the behavior of a [±45]s laminate under a temperature excursion is computed both when it is free to expand and when the laminate is clamped in one direction. After the temperature returns to the datum point, residual stresses are shown to redistribute in time. They are induced by prior inelastic deformation.
A Review of the Fraunhofer Diffraction Particle-Sizing Technique
Authors: Felton PG
Published: March 2009

The Fraunhofer diffraction technique for measuring particle size distributions was originally developed for the measurement of spray drop-size distributions at the University of Sheffield in 1976. It has since become an industry standard for the optical characterization of sprays. In this paper, the basic theory is described and further developments of the technique are discussed. These developments include: the use of calibration standards, such as standard reference materials and photomask reticles; the limits to spray concentration imposed by multiple scattering and the theoretical analysis of multiple scattering; the limitations to the physical scale of a spray plume caused by vignetting by the collection lens system; and the tomographic transformation of “line-of-sight” data to give radial profiles of drop-size distributions. Comparisons made between laser diffraction data and other techniques such as flash photography and laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV)-based instruments are also discussed.
Sampling Techniques to Determine Droplet Size Spectrum for Fan Nozzles
Authors: Mitchel RD , Bouse LF , Bode LE
Published: March 2009

Droplet size measurements obtained by sampling at discrete spray plume locations were compared to those obtained by sweeping the spray plume from fan nozzles through the sampling area of a laser droplet imaging probe. A mixture of water, 2.5% Tenneco 500/100 solvent and 0.5% Titron X-100 adjuvant was sprayed through flat spray and even flat spray nozzles. The distribution of spray volume across the spray plume, Dv0.5, % volume <204 μm, % volume >415 μm and % volume between 204 and 415 μm are presented for discrete location and sweep methods of sampling.
Anesthesia Vapor Monitoring: Questions To Be Answered
Authors: Hedley-Whyte J
Published: March 2009

From 1985 to 1987, according to the Medical Device Reporting System of the United States Food and Drug Administration, 1554 deaths were ascribed to medical devices either wholly or in part; another 29 176 patients were seriously injured. Anesthesia machines were the subject of 1807 malfunction reports during this time and were the medical device sixth most likely to cause death. An award of 15 million dollars was made in the United States for failure to detect a change in anesthetic concentration. Cost of anesthesia vapor monitoring varies, but the costs of additional training in its use have also to be considered. If anesthesia vapor monitoring is to become universal, the versatility of the anesthesia machine and circuit can be cut down.
Acceptance Sampling - Past, Present, and Future
Authors: Schilling EG
Published: March 2009

Acceptance sampling procedures can be used as part of the quality system to achieve better quality at lower cost, increased productivity, and improved control. This paper presents an overview of the past, present, and future use of modern acceptance sampling plans, schemes, and systems in applications involving unique lots or a steady flow of product from the producer. Sampling procedures must continually be made to match existing conditions in terms of quajity history and sampling results. In this way they can be used with process control in an evolutionary manner to supplement each other in a continuing approach to quality improvement and elimination of massive inspection programs.
Skip-Lot Sampling: History and Perspective
Authors: Perry RL
Published: March 2009

Skip-lot sampling, originally introduced by Harold F. Dodge in 1955, provides for a method of reducing the amount of sampling inspection of lots of good quality, as evidenced by previous lot acceptances. This is accomplished by skipping the inspection of some of the submitted lots. These plans, designated as SkSP-2, are evaluated by such standard measures as the Operating Characteristic (OC) curve, the average sample number, and the average run length, a measure of the plan's ability to detect that a sudden shift in quality levels has occurred. A table is provided to help in designing a skip-lot plan by matching its OC curve to that of a given single sampling plan. An example is used to illustrate this.
Examples of the Use of an Advanced Mass Spectrometric Data Processing Environment for the Determination of Sources of Wastes
Authors: Hughes BM , McKenzie DE , Trang CK
Published: March 2009

One of the most important and complex issues facing the cleanup of Superfund Sites is “who is responsible for site contamination and what percentage of the cleanup costs should be prorated among the Potentially Responsible Parties (PRPs)”. This paper describes one approach which has recently been used to answer these questions. This method uses a state-of-the-art mass spectrometric data processing environment to produce visual and quantitative comparisons of chromatographic and mass spectrometric patterns in an attempt to determine the origin of wastes which produced these patterns. This approach can easily be extended to a large number of complex systems, other than Superfund Sites, and has proven to be a very efficient way of understanding complicated organic mixtures.
Quality Control in Field Sampling Methods
Authors: Kontopanos KN , Williams ES
Published: March 2009

Maintaining quality control in field sampling involves preparation in three stages: 1) Pre-sampling preparation of sampling and safety plans, sampling equipment and sampling containers; 2) On-site collection of site specific and quality control samples; 3) Post sampling preparation of laboratory and chain-of-custody forms as well as preparation of samples for shipment.

Sampling begins with the development of site sampling and safety plans. The sampling plan is used to determine the location, type and number of samples to be collected. On the site, the sampling plan may be adjusted to reflect field conditions. The safety plan is used to establish levels of protection required for specific activities and any other emergency information necessary. Once these determinations are made, field equipment (which includes both sampling supplies and personal protective clothing) can be prepared. For each sample collected, a lab specified volume of aqueous or solid material must be collected to ensure an adequate volume of sample for analysis. Samples are collected in specified types of jars so that the container itself does not influence sample results. When packing sampling equipment, care is given to each item so that samples will not be contaminated with off-site material.

Quality control samples are collected to assure reliable analytical results. These quality control samples include: a trip blank, used to determine contamination which may result from storage, transport or site activities; a field blank, used to determine previously existing container contamination and contamination which may result from ambient on-site conditions; an equipment blank, used to determine contamination in sampling equipment; an additional sample volume for a laboratory matrix spike/matrix spike duplicate sample, used by the laboratory to determine spike recoveries for analysis of matrix effects and laboratory data accuracy; unidentified (“blind”) duplicate samples, used to check laboratory precision; and background samples, used for comparison when determining the type and amount of contamination present. Preserve samples as required in the field. Decontaminate all field equipment to prevent cross-contamination of samples collected.

After sampling, complete all required laboratory forms. Maintain chain-of-custody on samples at all times. Pack jars in individual plastic bags to reduce cross-contamination if breakage occurs. Wrap jars individually with bubble plastic and place in coolers with ice for shipment. Ship samples for overnight delivery.
Reporting Environmental Data of Known Quality
Authors: Pink PN , Jessup JS , Knight DK
Published: March 2009

A comprehensive approach was developed for environmental program documents to integrate field data, analytical chemistry data, quality control data, and historical data when reporting results to accommodate technical and programmatic data users. The objective of this paper is to present this comprehensive and effective means of reporting the quality and usability of the analytical chemical data generated from the analysis of environmental samples. Most environmental programs require legally admissable data of known quality that will satisfy regulatory requirements and the rigors of potential litigation. Analytical chemical data generated using validated Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) protocols or their equivalent provide the supporting quality control (QC) information necessary to assess the quality of the data; however, no conclusion is drawn as to the programmatic usability of the data. The approach outlined in this paper details a mechanism for assessing, documenting, and reporting what is known about the data quality and consequently the usability of the analytical chemical data generated.
Detection Limits: For Linear Calibration Curves with Increasing Variance and Multiple Future Detection Decisions
Authors: Gibbons RD , Jarke FH , Stoub KP
Published: March 2009

With increasing concern over chemicals that are potential health hazards at low levels, determination of detection limits has undergone considerable scrutiny. Most traditional detection limit estimators suffer from one or more statistical and/or conceptual limitations [1]. In this paper, a new detection limit estimator is proposed, that builds upon the previous work of Clayton and co-workers [1]. The proposed detection limit is computed directly from calibration data, and specifies both false positive and false negative rates (i.e., Type I and Type II error rates) at fixed levels. The new detection limit estimator extends previous work by permitting variability in the instrument response to be proportional to concentration, and by incorporating multiple future detection decisions, where the exact number is large and potentially unknown. Previous methods have only considered the problem of a single future detection decision, and have assumed that variability in the response signal is constant throughout the range of the calibration curve, or can be suitably transformed to bring about this condition. The new method is illustrated using calibration data for 10 volatile organic priority pollutant compounds.
Fatigue Behavior of Neutron Irradiated Zircaloy-2 Fuel Cladding Tubes
Authors: Nakatsuka M , Kubo T , Hayashi Y
Published: March 2009

Effects of neutron irradiation and iodine as a corrosive fission product on the fatigue behavior of Zircaloy-2 fuel cladding tubes were investigated using two different types of test specimens in order to evaluate the fatigue strength of BWR fuel subjected to such variable loading conditions as load following or automatic frequency control operations.

An in-cell fatigue tester was developed that enabled tests on the C-shaped specimen machined from irradiated fuel cladding tubes. Unirradiated Zry-2 plate specimens were also fatigue tested for reference. In order to obtain the effects of iodine on fatigue life, the tests using plate specimens were undertaken at iodine partial pressures from 0.5 to 140 Pa as well as in an inert gas atmosphere. Experimental results from fully reversed bending test at 623 K for unirradiated and irradiated fuel cladding tubes up to 6 × 1025 n/m2 (E > 1 MeV) are summarized as follows.

Fatigue life had a tendency to drop with increasing iodine partial pressure, reaching a saturation value about one tenth of that in an inert gas atmosphere.

Minimum iodine partial pressure affecting the fatigue behavior of fuel cladding tubes was estimated to be 0.1 Pa. This value was much higher than the calculated equilibrium vapor pressure of iodine in fuel rods, indicating that effects of iodine on the fatigue life would be very small or negligible during variable loading conditions.

Neutron irradiation was found to increase the fatigue life of cladding tube for the total strain amplitude above 0.3% and decrease it below 0.3%. The increase or decrease in fatigue cycles was attributed to the hardening effect or localized deformation in the irradiated material, respectively.

Fatigue limit of unirradiated Zry-2 tubes was shown to be 0.22%, and neutron irradiation reduced the value to 0.18%. The total strain amplitude of 0.18% was found to coincide with the elastic strain at the proportional limit under the uniaxial tensile test of irradiated Zry-2.

Both for unirradiated and irradiated specimens, transgranular fracture surfaces were induced by the bending. Ductile fracture surfaces were observed for unirradiated material, and neutron irradiation changed this surface into a typical brittle transgranular one.
Controlled Composition Zircaloy-2 Uniform Corrosion Resistance
Authors: Graham RA , Eucken CM
Published: March 2009

The influence of chemical composition and manufacturing variables on the nodular corrosion resistance (determined by 500°C non-refreshed steam autoclave testing) of controlled composition Zircaloy-2 was reported previously (Zirconium in the Nuclear Industry: Eighth International Symposium, ASTM STP 1023, pp. 334–345.). The present study extends the previous work to include uniform corrosion, which is of interest for cladding tubes and spacer strips.

Controlled composition Zircaloy-2 is defined where nickel and iron are adjusted towards the upper ASTM composition limits and tin is adjusted towards the lower limit. To investigate the effects of tin, iron, chromium, and nickel on the uniform corrosion of Zircaloy-2, a special 5500-kg ingot was triple melted. The composition was intentionally varied within a controlled portion of the ASTM B 350 range along the ingot length. Specimens of the ingot with different compositions were hot worked and beta quenched at a common size. Strip specimens (0.7 mm thick) were fabricated using three process schedules spanning the annealing parameter (ςAi = ςti exp (-80 000/RTi) range applicable to current production practice for either tubeshell or strip material. Corrosion weight gains were obtained from 360 and 420°C static autoclave tests extending to over 500 days exposure.

A statistically significant reduction in 360°C corrosion weight gain was observed as the nickel was increased to the upper ASTM composition limit. An interaction was observed between nickel content and ςAi. In the 420°C test, increasing nickel decreased the variability in observed weight gains that occurred as the annealing parameter varied. The data are comparable with controlled composition Zircaloy-2 spacer strip manufactured using production equipment and processing. No effect of varying nickel within the upper half of the ASTM Zircaloy-2 composition range (580–750 ppm) on hydrogen uptake was found. Hydrogen uptake depended primarily on corrosion weight gains of the individual specimens.
Effect of Alloying Elements in Zircaloy on Photo-Electrochemical Characteristics of Zirconium Oxide Films
Authors: Inagaki M , Kanno M , Maki H
Published: March 2009

Semiconducting characteristics of oxide film on pure Zr, Zr-Sn binary alloy, and Zr-Sn-X (X: Fe, Ni, or Cr) ternary alloy were evaluated by a photo-electrochemical method to study the effects of alloying elements on the oxidation mechanism of Zr alloy in a boiling water reactor (BWR) environment.

Oxide films of the alloys showed the characteristics of an n-type semiconductor. Maximum photocurrent (Imax) was generated by an illumination of monochromatic light with a photon energy of 5 to 6 eV (i.e., the band gap energy of the Zr oxide semiconductor was 5 to 6 eV).

Higher corrosion-resistant alloys showed a lower value of Imax. Maximum photocurrent decreased by an addition of Fe, Ni, or Cr, notably Fe or Ni, to Zr-Sn alloy. By repetition of cold-working and α-annealing subsequent to β-quenching, Imax increased. Such changes of Imax caused by changes in alloy chemical composition and material processing, were explained by the valence theory of oxide semiconductors (i.e., the decrease of Imax was considered to result from the increase of holes in the oxides due to the substitution of divalent cations (Ni2+) and trivalent cations (Fe3+, Cr3+ ) at Zr4+ cation sites).

From these results, the effects of alloying elements on the oxygen vacancy structure of the surface oxide were believed to play a major role in controlling the corrosion resistance of zirconium alloys.
Corrosion of Zircaloy in the Presence of LiOH
Authors: Perkins RA , Busch RA
Published: March 2009

The corrosion of Zircaloy-4 is accelerated in water or steam above about 350°C when LiOH is present in sufficient concentrations. A short-term test (16 h) to predict inreactor corrosion behavior has been developed based on this accelerated corrosion. A group of claddings with a range of in-reactor corrosion behavior has been tested in LiOH solutions from 310 to 415°C with Li concentrations up to 375 ppm. Up to 100 times the rate seen in pure water was obtained in supercritical water with high LiOH levels. The best correlation to the in-reactor behavior was obtained for a Li content in the range of 75 to 190 ppm in the temperature range of 390 to 410°C.

The corrosion rate for Zircaloy-4 in steam containing LiOH has been observed to be higher than in water with LiOH for tests below the critical temperature. For tests above the critical temperature, the corrosion rate was greater for samples which were above the initial water line in the capsule. These samples would have been exposed to LiOH-bearing steam during the initial heat up of the samples. Therefore sufficient Li is present in the steam phase to cause accelerated corrosion.

The accelerated test with LiOH correlated well with 415°C/3 day autoclave test results for Zircaloy-4 but not for zirconium-based alloys containing niobium. The 415°C/3 day test has been found to correlate well to in-reactor corrosion performance for Zircaloy-4. Based on the assumption that this test is also effective for evaluating the corrosion resistance of other zirconium-based alloys, the accelerated LiOH test appears to be effective only within the Zircaloy-4 composition range. Therefore the LiOH accelerated test should not be used for evaluating new alloy compositions.
Lithium Uptake and the Corrosion of Zirconium Alloys in Aqueous Lithium Hydroxide Solutions
Authors: Ramasubramanian N
Published: March 2009

Corrosion films on zirconium alloys were analyzed for lithium by Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS), Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS), and Infrared Reflection Absorption Spectroscopy (IRAS). The oxides grown in reactor in dilute lithium hydroxide solution, specimens cut from Zircaloy, and Zr-2.5Nb alloy pressure tubes removed from CANDU (CANada Deuterium Uranium, Registered Trademark) reactors showed low concentrations of lithium (4 to 50 ppm). The lithium was not leachable in a warm dilute acid. 6Li undergoes transmutation by the 6Li(n,t)4He reaction. However, SIMS profiles for 6Li and 7Li were identical through the bulk oxide and the isotopic ratio was close to the natural abundance value. The lithium in the oxide, existing as adsorbed lithium on the surface, has been in dynamic equilibrium with lithium in the coolant, and, in spite of many Effective Full Power Years (EFPY) of operation, lithium added to the CANDU coolant at ∼2.5 ppm is not concentrating in the oxides. On the other hand, corrosion films grown in the laboratory in concentrated lithium hydroxide solutions were very porous and contained hundreds of ppm of lithium in the oxide. A large fraction of the lithium in these oxides was leachable. In concentrated solutions, undissociated LiOH participates in the corrosion process, producing surface -OLi groups and Li2O. Dissolution of Li2O generates porosity, concentrates lithium in the solution inside the pores, and provides an easy access of the corrodant to the oxidealloy interface to maintain an accelerated corrosion.
Effects Of LiOH on Pretransition Zirconium Oxide Films
Authors: Cox B , Wong Y-M
Published: March 2009

At short times and intermediate LiOH concentrations (pH 10–13) the pretransition oxidation kinetics of the Zircaloys appear to be identical with those in neutral water. Nevertheless, in pH12 LiOH the time to transition is reduced and post-transition rates are increased over those in water. In a search for evidence for precursors of these effects, oxide films were formed on Zircaloy specimens in 573 K water and pH10-14.5 LiOH solutions (0.7 to 2.1 × 104 ppm Li) for times from 1–70 days and were examined subsequently by optical and electron microscopy (EM), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) interferometry, impedance spectroscopy, and polarization in a fused nitrate/nitrite melt at 573 K. A more limited range of measurements was performed on specimens of fuel cladding that had been oxidized in pH 7 and 12 LiOH solutions (70 ppm Li) at 633 K for other studies.

Results showed that all specimens corroded in LiOH solutions, even at low concentrations, exhibited enhanced electronic conductivity in the oxide; this resulted in enhanced oxidation in the fused salt medium, even when no such effect was visible in aqueous solutions (from the weight gains). FTIR interferometry and impedance spectroscopy showed that some oxide films formed in pH12 LiOH were significantly thicker than in water (when no difference in their weight was evident), while in other tests the oxide in pH12 LiOH was thinner than in pH7. This dichotomy can be explained by a loss of oxide by dissolution if in some instances it reprecipitates on the surface as a porous layer, whereas in other circumstances it reprecipitates on the autoclave walls.