bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
G
eorge of Cappadocia (
d
. 361)
Authors: Gray Patrick
Published: January 2012

George of Cappadocia was an Arian prelate of humble origins who served as bishop of Alexandria (357–361) during the third exile of Athanasius. He was for a time a pork supplier to the Roman army but later became tutor of the future emperor Julian the Apostate. George's dealings with the supporters of Athanasius and his other opponents — who included both pagans and Christians — were by all reports tyrannical and corrupt. He was killed by a mob on Christmas Eve 361 following news of the death of his patron Constantius. His body was burned and his ashes cast into the ocean to prevent any followers from venerating his remains as those of a martyr. The newly enthroned Julian seized George's excellent library upon hearing news of his death. None of George's writings have survived. The primary sources for his life and views are writers such as Gregory Nazianzus, Epiphanius, and Sozomen, who sided with Athanasius in the trinitarian controversies of the 4th century. Some sources mistakenly identify George with his contemporary George of Laodicea, a Semiarian from Alexandria. Edward Gibbon popularized the now discredited theory that George was the basis for legends about St. George, the patron saint of England who shared his name and also hailed from Cappadocia.
Georgian Orthodox Church
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

The Georgian Orthodox Apostolic Church dates back to the 4th century although there is evidence that the gospel was preached in the nation as early as the second century. Evidence relating to the spread of Christianity is found in a number of hagiographic works such as the
Passion of Eustathius of Mtskheta
and the
Passion of Abo of Tbilisi
.
German Christianity
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas
Published: January 2012

In the 3rd centuryad, German tribes within the Roman Empire or along its borders came into contact with Christianity, mainly in its Arian form. The Roman army, especially, brought Christian soldiers and officers to the borders. The veneration of the martyrs among them is often the first signs of Christian life. Thus the first wave of Christianization of the various Celtic and Germanic people occurred only in the western part of Germany. There is evidence for bishops in Cologne, Trèves (Trier), Strasbourg, Speyer, Worms, Mainz, Augst, Augsburg and Lorch, but rarely is there evidence that the small organized church outlived the fall of the Roman Empire. The small remaining Christian population was powerless to protect its faith against the new ruling Merovingian and Franconian lords.
G
hiberti,
L
orenzo (1378–1455)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Florentine sculptor who made the second and third pairs of bronze doors for the Baptistery at Florence. His fame also rests on the statues of Sts. John the Baptist and Matthew at Orsanmichele, Florence, and the baptismal font panels in the Siena baptistery. In addition Ghiberti is believed to have written a treatise on architecture.
G
ibbons,
O
rlando (1583–1625)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

One of the most versatile composers of his generation, Orlando Gibbons came from a family of organists. He was the first organist of the Chapel Royal, London and served as virginalist to the early Stuart kings and organist of Westminster Abbey.
Gill,JohnC. (1697–1771)
Authors: Mickle Allen R.
Published: January 2012

John Gill was born in Kettering, Northamptonshire on November 23, 1697 to Edward and Elizabeth Gill. His parents were God‐fearing individuals of the Calvinistic Baptist tradition. His father served as a Baptist deacon in Kettering. Gill grew up in a good Christian home. His early years were spent studying in the local grammar school where he excelled in languages. However, at the age of 11 he had to leave school when it was required of students to attend morning prayer at the parish church, which his parents, being Dissenters, would not allow. It was the end of Gill's formal education but he spent his time teaching himself so that he not only excelled in Greek and Latin but was quite adept at Hebrew by the age of 19.
G
ilson, Étienne (1884–1978)
Authors: Murphy Francesca Aran
Published: January 2012

Étienne Gilson was the greatest Thomist philosopher of the 20th century. The Frenchman's thought falls into three parts. Having been trained at the Sorbonne by Lucien Lévy‐Bruhl, Gilson was first a historian of medieval Christian thought. Gilson showed the diversity of ideas as between, for instance, Augustine, Bonaventure, Albert the Great, Aquinas, and Duns Scotus. His classic historical studies include
Bonaventure
(1924),
The Spirit of Mediaeval Philosophy
(1932), and
Jean Duns Scot
(1952). The immediate result of Leo XIII's promotion of Thomas Aquinas in
Aeterni Patris
(1879), reinforced by the “modernist crisis” in Catholic theology (1903–1915), was the use of “Thomism” in seminary education as a timeless source of philosophical truths. The “medievals” were viewed as a single block, opposed to the “moderns.” Gilson, however, taught his contemporaries to see the medievals as individuals. He established the
Archives d'histoire doctrinale et littéraire du moyen age
and the Institute of Medieval Studies, in Toronto, to further the text‐based study of medieval philosophies and theology.
G
ordon,
G
eorge
A
ngier (1853–1929)
Authors: Kemeny P. C.
Published: January 2012

George Angier Gordon, Congregationalist minister and liberal Protestant theologian, was born to George and Catherine Gordon on the estate of Pitodrie, in Oyne parish, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, where his father worked as an overseer. At the age of 18, Gordon emigrated to Boston, Massachusetts.
G
ospels
Authors: Bruce James E.
Published: January 2012

The canonical gospels — Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John — narrate the birth, life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. Matthew, Mark, and Luke are collectively referred to as the synoptic gospels because of their striking similarities, while the Gospel of John presents a unique, and complementary, picture of Jesus. K. Lachman, writing in 1835, believed that Mark was written first, in part because whenever Matthew and Luke present the same material, Mark does also. Later in the 19th century, Heinrich Holtzmann and Bernhard Weiss developed a two‐source hypothesis: Matthew and Mark used Mark and an unnamed source, called Q, for the German word for
source
(
Quelle
). B. H. Streeter, in 1925, developed a four‐source hypothesis, adding M (for Matthew) and L (for Luke) to Mark and Q, to explain the specific material particular to each. Current scholarly consensus believes that the Gospel of Mark, the shortest gospel, was written first, followed by Matthew, Luke, and, finally, John. This order is by no means settled, however, with arguments made for the priority of Matthew or even John.
Gothic Church Architecture
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

From the time Christianity became a legal religion inAD313, with the Edict of Milan, to the end of the 1st millennium, churches were mostly built in the style of the Roman basilica. These churches to a degree still retained some of the pagan architectural style, such as Greek pillars supporting the flat‐roofed ceilings and round Roman arches over the doorways. It was not a style that lifted the human spirit. It was, as one scholar has observed, “a time in which the Christian spirit was still acquiring an individuality of its own, which in due course would express itself in an art of its own.”
Grace
Authors: Doyle Dominic
Published: January 2012

Divine help that moves the believer to God; at its deepest level, the forgiving, intimate, and transforming presence of the Holy Spirit in the heart of the human person.
Great Awakening
Authors: Pratt J. Kristian
Published: January 2012

The Great Awakening is the name given to widespread revival in the American colonies in the 1740s. Prior to the Great Awakening, revivals, while commonplace in the colonies, were localized events. The Great Awakening, which reached its peak between 1740 and 1742, had great influence on religion in the Middle Colonies and New England, and served as a missionary enterprise in the Southern Colonies.
G
reek
Authors: Lamp Jeffrey S.
Published: January 2012

Greek is an Indo‐European language with early written attestation dating from the mid 2nd millennium
bce
(known as Linear B). After a period in which written Greek disappeared (11th and 10th centuries
bce
), it reappeared in the 9th century with an alphabet derived from Phoenician script. It existed in several dialects in ancient Greece (Aeolic, Attic, Doric, Ionic). In the Hellenistic and Roman periods, the Koine dialect, derived from Attic, became the lingua franca of the lands conquered by Alexander and later dominated by the Romans. The vernacular Koine and the Atticistic Greek of education, government, and liturgy became the official language of the Byzantine Empire until its fall in the 15th century
ce
, and evolved into the modern Greek of the present day.
G
reek Christianity
Authors: Gkortsilas Paschalis
Published: January 2012

Although in earlier times the Eastern Orthodox Church was generally known as the Greek Orthodox Church, here the term Greek Christianity signifies the Orthodox Church after the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and its life under Ottoman rule (with the exception of the Russian Orthodox Church) and the Church of Greece up to the Greek War of Independence in 1821.
G
reene,
G
raham (1904–1991)
Authors: Veith Gene Edward
Published: January 2012

Henry Graham Greene was born on October 2, 1904, in Berkhamsted in Hertfordshire in the UK to a prominent family. His father Charles was the second master of the prestigious Berkhamsted boarding school. As a schoolboy, Graham displayed the erratic behavior and suicidal emotions that would plague him for the rest of his life — even after he became one of the 20th century's most prominent Catholic novelists.
Gregory of Nyssa (331/340–c.395)
Authors: Harmon Steven R.
Published: January 2012

Gregory of Nyssa was born sometime betweenad331 and 340 into a family that included among his nine siblings his elder sister Macrina the Younger (c.327–379); elder brother Basil, later bishop of Caesarea (330–379); and younger brother Peter, later bishop of Sebaste (c.334–c.394). While his family was one of wealth and ecclesiastical importance, he was educated at home primarily by Basil and Macrina instead of at the university in Athens as Basil and their mutual friend and fellow Cappadocian theologian Gregory of Nazianzus (c.329–390) had been. A reference to the nature of married life in his treatiseOn Virginityhas suggested to many scholars that Gregory might have been married, but the evidence for this is uncertain. After aborted careers in the service of the church as a lector and as a teacher of rhetoric, he became bishop of Nyssa in 372, from which see he was temporarily exiled in 375 when Arians came to power; he was allowed to return to his bishopric in 378 by imperial decree. After Basil's death in 379, Gregory took up his brother's role in defending the Nicene faith against the late 4th century resurgence of Arianism, writing a lengthy three‐book treatiseAgainst Eunomiustoward that end and participating prominently in the First Council of Constantinople (381) convened to address the controversy. There is no record of his activities between 385 and 394; in the latter year he participated in a synod in Constantinople and died sometime afterward.
G
regory the Illuminator (257–325)
Authors: Mooradkanian Helen Sybil
Published: January 2012

Gregory the Illuminator, an Armenian nobleman, is recognized for evangelizing Armenia so rapidly that Armenia became the first nation to adopt Christianity as the state religion in
ad
301 (some date it at 285). Gregory first converted the king, Trdat III (Tiridates), and with his support led massive “people movements” to Christ. This is the first case where a king's conversion led to the conversion of a nation. It preceded by a dozen years Constantine's edict of 313 whereby Christians were tolerated but paganism not banned, as it was in Armenia.
Guilt
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Guilt is a judicial and legal term that expresses criminality before a court of law and responsibility for actions in order to satisfy the demands of justice. Sin is the fallen state of all humanity, which has resulted in both alienation and separation from God, and is manifested in disobedience to the revealed will of God by either concrete action or thought. The biblical notion of guilt is the relationship of corporate and individual sin (which is an inherent component of the universal human condition) to justice (i.e. the requirement of the law).
Gunton,Colin (1941–2003)
Authors: Green Bradley G.
Published: January 2012

Colin Gunton will likely be remembered as a key figure in the revival of interest in trinitarian theology in the late 20th century. Colin Ewart Gunton was born on January 19, 1941, and died on May 6, 2003. Raised in Nottingham, England, Gunton studied at Oxford: he read “Greats” at Hertford College (graduating in 1966), received the M.A. from Mansfield College (1967), and the doctorate in 1973, with a dissertation exploring the doctrine of God in Charles Hartshorne and Karl Barth.
G
uyon,
M
adame (1648–1717)
Authors: Smith Steven
Published: January 2012

Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Motte‐Guyon was born April 13, 1648 in Montargis, France, and died in Blois, June 9, 1717. In early childhood she was placed under the care of the Duchess of Montbason while she was residing with an order of Benedictines. It was here that she showed initial spiritual interest and publicly expressed her complete devotion to Christ.
H
agia
S
ophia
Authors: Gallagher Robert L.
Published: January 2012

Emperor Justinian I rebuilt (532–537) Constantine's Church of Holy Wisdom (dedicated to Christ in 360) destroyed by fire in the Nika revolt of 532. In 538 Justinian dedicated this work of the architects Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus, and proclaimed that the achievement of Hagia Sophia (Greek) or Sancta Sopia (Latin) was greater than that of Solomon's temple.
H
agiographa
Authors: Pannell Randall J.
Published: January 2012

The term “Hagiographa” (hǎgē‐ǒg'ra‐fa) is derived from the Greek, meaning “sacred writings,” and was given by the Greek church fathers to the third section of the Hebrew Bible (
Tanakh
),
Ketubim
(“Writings”), which follows the
Torah
and the Prophets.
Hamartiology
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Hamartiology (from the Greek words
hamartia
, “sin,” and
logos
, “word” or “discourse”) is doctrine or teaching concerning sin. God created man in his image, and in the beginning he was good and upright (Gen. 1:31; Eccles. 7:29). God placed man in Eden “to cultivate and keep it” (Gen. 2:15). According to Genesis 2:16–17, there was an immediate prohibition not to eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Since the moral nature of man was innocent and uncorrupted, he was able to make moral choices. Satan, however, appeared in the form of a serpent, and tempted Eve to eat from the tree, and she then gave Adam fruit from the tree to eat. Although both deliberately rebelled against God (Gen. 3:1–13), only Eve was deceived (1 Tim. 2:14) in a threefold manner, concerning the physical, material, and intellectual aspects of human need (Gen. 3:1–6; cf. 1 John 2:16). Personal awareness of their sin confirmed the presence of a conscience in their spiritual nature; sin awakened the conscience (Gen. 3:7). The immediate result of the Fall of man was both spiritual and physical death. To dramatize the separation from fellowship with God, Adam and Eve were expelled from Eden (3:23; cf. 2 Cor. 5:17–21). God subsequently pronounced a curse upon Adam and Eve that included the woman's heaviness in childbirth, and the man's heaviness in labor (3:16–19). As a result of sin, the sorrow involved in those blessed privileges and responsibilities was increased. Although headship and hierarchy was an aspect of the original creation, sin would introduce an element of discord in the relationship between husband and wife that would often be manifested in an inappropriate subjection of the wife by the husband. The Fall brought mankind from his original estate into sin and misery. Original sin affects humanity in terms of the corruption of his entire nature. However, man's depravity does not mean that every human being is as morally bad as they could be; the potential, however, is such that sin is comprehensive and pervasive in all humanity, so that every part of the human person is completely affected by sin.
H
aydn,
J
ohann
M
ichael (1737–1806)
Authors: Hettrick Jane Schatkin
Published: January 2012

Johann Michael Haydn was born in Rohrau, Lower Austria, and died in Salzburg. Probably no 18th century composer contributed more consistently to sacred music than Michael Haydn. Like his famous elder brother Franz Joseph, Michael received his musical training as a choirboy in St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna (1745–c.1757), where he sang and heard works by the leading composers of the time. In 1763 he became
Hofmusicus und Concertmeister
to the Prince‐Archbishop Sigismund Graf Schratten‐bach in Salzburg, where he remained until his death. He succeeded Anton Adlgasser as organist in the Dreifaltigkeitskirche (1777) and Mozart as court and cathedral organist (1782). From the beginning, Haydn was renowned for his church music. A writer in the
Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung
(November 1801) noted: “on the basis of his sacred music, and precisely in the pure church style, [Haydn] certainly has very few among his contemporaries who could claim honorably to be his rivals.”
H
owells,
H
erbert (1892–1983)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

English composer considered one of the best 20th century liturgical composers in the English cathedral tradition. He taught composition for more than 60 years at the Royal College of Music. From 1936 he served as music director of St. Paul's Girls School. He also produced a corpus of secular works as keyboard pieces, chamber music, and orchestral works.
Hugh of
S
aint
V
ictor (
d
. 1141)
Authors: Condict Ellen
Published: January 2012

Hugh of Saint Victor was a leading medieval theologian, biblical interpreter, philosopher, and mystical writer, appointed head of the school of the abbey of Saint Victor in Paris in the early 12th century. Under his direction the school became the center of the mystical movement, and went on to produce pioneering spiritual and exegetical writers, including Richard and Andrew of Saint Victor. Employing the rule of St. Augustine, the canons of Saint Victor chose to live in closer communion with those outside their walls, emphasizing the importance of spiritual renewal for all people (who would be assisted by the edifying example of those within the cloister) and bridging the gap between the intellectual pursuit of scholars and the religious pursuit of the cloistered.
Human Rights
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick
Published: January 2012

The modern human rights movement is generally considered to have arisen following the Nuremberg war crimes trials at the end of World War II. The horrors of the Nazi atrocities led to the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the creation of the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, France, to implement the European Declaration of Human Rights; the latter became the model for the American Convention on Human Rights and the corresponding American system of human rights protection with its Inter‐American Court sitting in Costa Rica.
Christianity in
I
celand
Authors: Symeon Magnússon Ágúst
Published: January 2012

Christianity has been a part of Iceland's culture since the beginning of human habitation on the island. Irish monks came to Iceland sometime in the 6th or 7th century, 150 years before the Norse settled the island in the 870s. Their purpose was probably either to proselytize the native population — they didn't know it was nonexistent — or to continue the tradition of the Egyptian desert fathers, to disappear into an unforgiving wilderness to engage in spiritual warfare. When the Norse settlers started arriving on the island the monks quickly disappeared, most likely because they did not want to engage with the emerging pagan culture.
Iconoclasm
Authors: Allen Michael
Published: January 2012

Iconoclasm refers to the intentional removal of religious icons. Between the years 726 and 843cethe imperial and clerical powers debated the place of images within the life of the church. The iconoclasts believed that the use of images within the liturgy and devotion of the church involved idolatrous practice, whereas the iconodules supported the use of icons. The Roman, Eastern, and Lutheran Churches follow iconodule practice to this day, as do most evangelical and nondenominational churches. The Eastern churches continue to allow only two‐dimensional images of God, suggesting that the third dimension represents divine transcendence and cannot appear within the creaturely realm. The Reformed churches revived the iconoclastic movement within the 16th century in opposition to both Roman Catholic liturgy and Lutheran christology.
Ignatius of Antioch (
c
.35–
c
.112)
Authors: Culpepper Scott
Published: January 2012

Ignatius was the third bishop of Antioch and a Christian martyr whose correspondence revealed the depth of Christian reverence for the martyr's calling. Ignatius' early life and training are shrouded in mystery and legend. One early Christian tradition asserted that Ignatius was the child held by Jesus in Mark 9:35. He was also believed to have heard the Apostle John teach. Theodoret of Cyrus wrote that Ignatius was appointed to serve at Antioch by St. Peter. Eusebius of Caesarea was responsible for recording that Ignatius was the third bishop to serve at Antioch. While Ignatius apparently served his flock with distinction, he became the first of many Christian martyrs better known for the manner of his death than the course of his life.
Ignatius of Loyola, Saint (1491–1556)
Authors: S.J. Harvey D. Egan
Published: January 2012

St. Ignatius of Loyola was born Iñigo López de Oñaz y Loyola to parents of minor nobility in the Basque region of Spain. When Iñigo was 14 years old, he was sent to a relative who was chief treasurer at the royal court. There he received the basic education of a Spanish gentleman and courtier but later changed his profession to soldiering. Women, gambling, dueling, and a tremendous desire for glory soon dominated his life, until he received a disabling leg wound at the battle of Pamplona in 1521. During his long convalescence at Loyola, he experienced a conversion in which God opened his eyes to the “different spirits” that were moving him: God, the “good angels,” and “the enemy of our human nature.” From this seed grew his famous rules for the discernment of spirits.
Impanation
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

The Latin
impanare
means “to impane, that is, to enclose in bread.” As a doctrine, impanation states that Christ's body and blood are enclosed, but are not changed, in the elements of bread and wine in the Lord's Supper. The concept harks back to the Middle Ages when Guitmund of Aversa (d. c.1090) first introduced the term. Later, Ruprecht von Deutz (d. 1129) explained its meaning, saying that with the elements of bread and wine there was the local inclusion of Christ's body and blood. An analogy would be meat enclosed in a sandwich. The doctrine of impanation arose in opposition to the doctrine of transubstantiation. Impanation differs from transubstantiation. The latter asserts that the priest in the act of consecrating the bread and wine changes them into the body and blood of Christ. Impanation does not imply changes in the bread and wine.
I
ndonesian Christianity
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas
Published: January 2012

Comprising 13,000 islands located on both sides of the Equator and stretching from southeast Asia to Australia, Indonesia has 235 million people, 80 percent of whom live on Java, Sumatra, and Kalimantan. The islands have a diverse religious history. In the 1st century
ad
Hinduism became the dominant religion besides the animist religions practiced by many of the tribes. Around 1300 Islam arrived and gradually gained ground in eastern Sumatra, Java, and the North Moluccas (Maluku). From 1525 to 1527 the Hindu kingdoms in the interior of Java all collapsed and became Muslim. Up till the 18th century Indonesia was Muslim, with the exception of the interior of Bali, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Irian. Even today this Muslim majority holds many animistic ideas, and approximately 80 percent of Indonesian Muslims hold to the Javanese kebatinan mysticism. This is why many Muslims in Indonesia do not favor an Arabic form of Islam or an Islamic theocracy.
Intercession
Authors: Lamport Philip Bustrum and Mark A.
Published: January 2012

Prayer is the act of attempting to communicate with God for the purpose of worshiping, requesting guidance, confessing sin, or to express one's thoughts and emotions. Intercession is a form of prayer making an urgent request or emotional appeal on behalf of another in the hope that God will miraculously intercede. The words of this prayer may be a hymn, an incantation, or a spontaneous utterance. Intercessory prayer is to be distinguished from those requesting favor for oneself (petition) or acknowledgment of personal inadequacy (confession).
J
amaican Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

The earliest Christian missionaries in Jamaica were the Quakers in 1791. The first Baptist missionary was George Lisle, a freed slave from Virginia, who arrived in Kingston in 1783. His congregation evolved into the Jamaica Baptist Union. British Baptists came in 1813. By the latter part of the 19th century, Baptist missionaries were sent from Jamaica to Africa. Jamaican missionaries also helped to evangelize Cameroon. The Jamaica Baptist Missionary Society sent its missionaries to Fernando Po off the coast of Equatorial Guinea in 1884. Baptists make up one of the three leading denominations on the island along with the Anglicans and the Seventh‐Day Adventists. A number of Baptist missionary societies from the United States are also active. British Methodists arrived in 1789 and the Moravians in 1764. The Congregationalists and the Presbyterians have merged since 1965 as the United Church of Jamaica and Grand Cayman. However, the predominant Protestant tradition in numerical terms is Pentecostalism. The first Pentecostal mission was the Church of God (Cleveland) in 1917, and its daughter church, the New Testament Church of God, remains the largest Pentecostal denomination followed by the Church of God of Prophecy and 11 other Pentecostal groups.
Japanese Christianity
Authors: Jennings J. Nelson
Published: January 2012

Japanese Christianity is known for its small minority status. The accompanying question is why. Those acquainted with the history know that a distinctive Japanese Christianity has appeared twice in times of intense nationalism. The entire story is a complex one, filled with colorful people, periods, events, and developments.
J
enson,
R
obert W. (
b
. 1930)
Authors: García Alberto L.
Published: January 2012

Robert W. Jenson was born on August 2, 1930, at Eau Claire, Wisconsin. He is considered one of the most prominent and creative systematic theologians in the world. His work on the Holy Trinity is particularly important for the proclamation of the Gospel in the 21st century (Jenson 1997, 1999). The proclamation of the Gospel as the word of promise to the world and as a doxology to God is what drives his theology.
J
erusalem
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Jerusalem is a holy city to the three monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Scripture refers to it as “the Holy City” (Neh. 11:1, 18; Isa. 48:2; 52:1; Dan. 9:16–19; Matt. 4:5; 27:53; “Moriah,” Gen. 22:2; 2 Chron. 3:1; “Ariel,” Isa. 29:1). Since ancient times the city has been inhabited continuously. Primary evidence of fortification is during the Middle Bronze period. According to 1 Chronicles 11:4 (cf. 2 Sam. 5:7), it was originally a Jebusite (a Canaanite people who were descendants of Amorites and Hittites, Gen. 10:15–16; cf. Ezek. 16:3) settlement known as Jebus at the time of the Conquest (Josh. 18:28; Judg. 19:10–11; 1 Chron. 11:4). Jerusalem is mentioned in the Egyptian Execration Texts as “Urushalim,” the Tell el‐Amarna tablets as “Urusalim,” and in later Akkadian texts as “Urusilimmu.” Some scholars believe the name may mean “the city of Shalem” or “founded by Shalem,” an Amorite god (Ezek. 16:2–3). Psalm 76:2 connected “Salem” with the name “Zion.” The prophet Isaiah declared, “the LORD has founded Zion” (14:32; cf. Pss. 48:8; 87:1). It is thought that the king of Jerusalem was called the king of Shalem, since an ancient abbreviated form of the name “Jerusalem” was “Salem.” Melchizedek's title was “king of Salem,” which was certainly an early name of Jerusalem appearing as early as 1400
bc
in the Tell el‐Amarna letters. As a type of Christ (Heb. 7:1–10), Melchizedek was not only king, but also “priest of the Most High God.” From the beginning of its history, Jerusalem has belonged to God. The first boundaries of the Promised Land included Jerusalem (Gen. 13:14–17; and reaffirmed in 15:18–21). Prior to the Amorites establishing worship of Baal‐hadad in place of El as the chief god of the Canaanites, the king‐priest of Salem (Jerusalem) was a true worshipper of Yahweh.
J
esuit Order
Authors: McAlhaney Timothy M.
Published: January 2012

Known as the Society of Jesus, the Jesuits first formed in 1534 around Ignatius Loyola (1491–1556) in Paris. The order was officially recognized by Pope Paul III in the bull
Regimini militantis Ecclesiae
in 1540.
J
esus Christ
Authors: Bertone John A.
Published: January 2012

Jesus Christ is the central figure in Christianity. The title “Jesus Christ” is a composite made up of the personal name “Jesus” (from the Greek
I
ē
sous
, which translates the Hebrew name
Y
ē
shûa
, “Yahweh is salvation” or “Yahweh saves/has saved”) and “Christ” (from the Greek
Christos
, which translates the Hebrew
Māshîah
, “anointed one,” indicating a future son from the royal line of King David who fulfills pro‐phecies and who will rule on the throne of David his father forever; see Ps. 2:2; 2 Sam. 7:12–16). The name “Jesus Christ” combines the historic figure Jesus with the messianic status that the early Christian movement attributed to him. Most often Jesus was also referred to as “Jesus the Galilean” (Matt. 26:69) or “Jesus of Nazareth” (Matt. 21:11).
J
esus People
Authors: Fulkerson Randal C.
Published: January 2012

During the 1960s youth revolt diverse Christian groups, known as Jesus People, developed on the West coast of the United States. Hollywood, California served as a magnet for disenchanted youth. Here the flamboyant Baptist Arthur Blessitt opened a Sunset Strip coffee house for street people and former talent agent Tony Alamo transported street youths to his Saugus, California ranch for emotional revivals. Blessitt left the Strip when police and local businessmen forced street freaks to Hollywood Boulevard where former nightclub magician Duane Peterson, publisher of the
Hollywood Free Paper
, witnessed to youth. Similar youth‐oriented street ministries formed in Berkeley and Seattle simultaneously.
J
ews for
J
esus
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Jews for Jesus is a Christian missionary organ‐ization with international headquarters located in San Francisco, California. The plaque at the headquarters reads “Jews for Jesus: EST. 32 A.D. Give or Take a Year.” Martin “Moishe” Rosen founded the organization officially in September 1973. Recognizing the divergence among Jews as to what it means to “be Jewish” and “live Jewishly,” Jews for Jesus are com‐mitted to living their Jewishness actively and view that life, as a whole, in light of belief in Jesus as Messiah. Jews for Jesus defines Jewishness in terms of birthright and inheritance from parents. Although nearly all denominations of Judaism insist that Jews for Jesus is not Jewish, the organization insists that Jews are who they are by birth, and the designation of being Christian designates whom they follow. Nevertheless, Jews for Jesus and other Messianic Jewish groups are thought to be antithetical to Judaism and the majority of Jews.
Joachim ofFiore (c.1132–1202)
Authors: Jordan Jessy
Published: January 2012

Joachim of Fiore (or Flora), was born c.1132 in the small town of Celico, located in Cosenza within the Calabrian region of southern Italy, and died at San Giovanni in Fiore in 1202. He was a Cistercian abbot, apocalyptic theologian, and scriptural commentator, best known for his spiritual interpretation of history based on the Trinity.
J
ohn
P
aul II,
P
ope (1920–2005; Pontificate from 1978)
Authors: Morrow Jeffrey L.
Published: January 2012

Pope John Paul II was born Karol Jósef Wojtylstroka in Wadowice, Poland, on May 18, 1920. He died on April 2, 2005. Wojtylstroka was an avid soccer player and skier, as well as a theologian, philosopher, poet, actor, and playwright. He studied Polish literature and philology at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland. When the Nazis invaded Poland, Wojtylstroka engaged in peaceful cultural resistance through his clandestine outlawed theater group. After his ordination to the Catholic priesthood, Wojtylstroka proceeded to earn two doctoral degrees, one in theology, the second in philosophy. After years working as a parish priest, Wojtylstroka became a university professor, teaching philosophy and moral theology at the Catholic University of Lublin in Poland. He later became the youngest bishop in Poland. At the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) Wojtylstroka participated in every session, and significantly helped shape the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World,
Gaudium et Spes
, as well as the Declaration on Religious Freedom,
Dignitatis Humanae
. During the council, Wojtylstroka became archbishop of Kraków.
J
ohnson,
T
orrey
M
aynard (1909–2002)
Authors: Streett R. Alan
Published: January 2012

Torrey Maynard Johnson, pastor, conference speaker, and founder of Youth For Christ International, was born in Chicago, Illinois, one of five children to Jacob and Thora Johnson. Torrey was named for the late R. A. Torrey, pastor of the famed Church of the Open Door in Los Angeles, CA and the first president of the Bible Institute of Los Angeles (BIOLA). After high school graduation, Torrey Johnson attended Wheaton College in suburban Chicago, graduating with his Bachelor of Science degree in 1930. He also attended Northwestern University's Dental School's McKinlock campus in Chicago with the intention of becoming an oral surgeon. He abandoned his plans after undergoing a conversion experience in 1927 during a chapel service at Wheaton. He decided on a career in the ministry.
J
ulian of
N
orwich (
c
.1342–1415)
Authors: Coulter Dale M.
Published: January 2012

There are only a few details about Julian's life. She indicates that she experienced her first vision when she was thirty and a half years old during the month of May, 1373. This would put her birth at 1342. She was also visited by Margery Kempe in 1415 during the latter's travels around England. While it is unclear as to when she embraced this vocation, from at least 1373 Julian was an anchoress at the Church of St. Julian in Norwich, which is most likely where her name stems from. As an anchoress, Julian would have lived in a small house (an anchorhold) with two or four rooms attached to the church. After entering this residence by means of a ceremony that included last rites, the anchoress would never leave. A servant would aid with domestic tasks as well as securing food for the anchoress. The anchorhold would also have a window through which Julian could give spiritual advice to others who, like Margery Kempe, sought it.
Just Peacemaking
Authors: Alexander Paul Nathan
Published: January 2012

Since emerging in the early 1990s, just peacemaking theory has established itself as a third way alongside the paradigms of just war theory and pacifism. The latter two provide competing arguments for deciding when or if a nation or individual should participate in war. Just peacemaking encourages both pacifists and just war theorists to work together to engage in theologically and empirically based practices that have been proven to build peace and reduce violence. It claims that pacifists should be active peacemakers rather than just saying no to killing, and that just war theorists should explain and practice the resorts that should be tried before the last one.
Kenosis
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick
Published: January 2012

Kenotic theory takes its name from the Greek word for “emptying” in Philippians 2:6–8. Though the passage says nothing concerning fallibility on Jesus' part, the idea of incarnational limitation has been employed in modern critical theology and by some liberal evangelicals to support a belief in Jesus' authority in the face of supposed errors in his teaching (especially his clear belief in the entire trustworthiness of the Old Testament). The kenotic position holds that Jesus' views could well have been colored by the very fact of his becoming a human being and being limited to the knowledge of his time. Accordingly, Jesus either unknowingly was limited, or knowingly limited himself, to the thought forms of his day.
Kerygma
Authors: Hartog Paul
Published: January 2012

The Greek noun
kerygma
is a derivative of the verb
kerusso
, meaning “to preach or proclaim.” Attic Greek employed
kerygma
especially in relation to a herald or public crier; the word was used of either the act of announcing or the content of the message. The word
kerygma
appears eight times within the critical text of the Greek New Testament, where it still retains this notion of a public annunciation. For example, Luke 4:18–19 provides a paradigm of the public nature of
kerusso
. After reading from the prophet Isaiah, Jesus proclaimed to his listeners that his ministry would herald good news to the poor, blind, and captive. Early Christian preaching (such as is portrayed in the book of Acts) highlighted the fulfillment of God's promises in Jesus of Nazareth, the beneficent and miraculous ministry of Jesus, his crucifixion and resurrection, his exaltation and bestowal of the Spirit, his future restoration of all things, and a call for personal response. The interpretive context of this proclamation included moral accountability to the creator, human failure in sin, and coming divine judgment (Acts 14, 17). In the New Testament, the Christian
kerygma
appears in connection with the “gospel.” In a doxology at the end of Romans, the apostle Paul lauded God “who is able to establish you according to my gospel and the kerygma of Jesus Christ” (Rom. 16:25). According to Paul, God saves sinners through the foolishness of the kergyma, which centered upon “Jesus Christ, and him crucified” (1 Cor. 1:24; 2:4). Furthermore, according to 1 Corinthians 15:14, if Jesus was not raised from the dead, then the Christian kerygma was futile and vain. This kerygmatic emphasis upon the death and resurrection of Christ parallels Paul's delineation of the Gospel in 1 Corinthians 15:1–11. The Pastoral Epistles portray the kerygma as the foundation of faith and of the knowledge of the truth (Titus 1:1–4; cf. 2 Tim. 4:17). Later Christian theologians, such as Irenaeus, emphasized and defended the “apostolic kerygma” (
Adversus haereses
1.10).
K
homiakov,
A
lexei (1804–1860)
Authors: Higgins Paul
Published: January 2012

Russian theologian, born in Moscow on May 1, 1804, to Stepan Khomiakov and Maria Alexeevna Kireevskaia. Khomiakov is best known for having cofounded the Slavophile movement. He was a polymath and renaissance man: a politician, philosopher, linguist, philologist, historian, poet, artist, journalist, engineer, and inventor, though primarily a theologian. Khomiakov was raised by an extremely pious mother in an atmosphere of traditional Russian Orthodoxy, though like many young nobles of his day, he was taught European classics as an adolescent. He studied mathematics at the University of Moscow and briefly served in the Russian army, but spent the majority of his time in intellectual pursuits; he was an especially prolific letterwriter and public speaker. Khomiakov married in 1836, fathering nine children, and died of cholera on September 23, 1860, while treating his peasants during an epidemic. He published little during his lifetime, primarily due to censorship under Nicholas I, but was later quite influential on Dostoevsky, Solovyov, and Florensky, among others.
K
nights
T
emplar
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

This medieval Order of knights originated in 1118 when Hugues de Payen led nine knights who vowed to protect traveling Christian pilgrims from bandits on public roads in the Holy Land, especially from Jaffa to Jerusalem during the Crusades. In 1127, Bernard of Clairvaux, a respected Cistercian abbot, gave the Order its rules, which transformed it into a highly effective militia of Christ during the Crusades. In 1128/29 the Council of Troyes endorsed the Order, and the pope issued three Bulls in support of it. When first founded, the group was named The Poor Knights of the Temple because initially they were quartered on the temple site in Jerusalem, where they also did some excavating with the hope of finding artifacts belonging to King Solomon's temple.
T
ischendorf,
C
onstantin
V
on (1815–1874)
Authors: Thompson Glen L.
Published: January 2012

Born to German Lutherans in Saxony, Tischendorf studied at the University of Leipzig under the famous Greek grammarian G. B. Winer, earning his doctorate in 1838. Inspired by the studies of Lachmann, he soon became mesmerized by New Testament manuscripts. Obtaining a university lectureship in 1840, he remained on the faculty at Leipzig for the rest of his life, but increasingly devoted himself to research rather than teaching. His lifelong goal was to defend the authenticity of the New Testament by establishing its original text on the basis of the earliest surviving manuscripts.
K
uhlman,
K
athryn
J
ohanna (1907–1976)
Authors: Streett R. Alan
Published: January 2012

Faith healer and leader in the Charismatic movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s, Kathryn Kuhlman was born on May 9, 1907 in Concordia, Missouri and reared in the home of Joseph and Emma Kuhlman. Her parents attended separate churches: her father, who served as mayor of the city, was Baptist and her mother, a homemaker, was Methodist. One Sunday in 1921, the tall gangly 14 year old redhead attended a revival service at her mother's church. At the invitation, as she stood singing, she began to shake all over and sob, and was converted as she sought forgiveness for her sins. The following year she began preaching.
Lambeth Conference
Authors: Gray Patrick
Published: January 2012

The Lambeth Conference is an international assembly of the bishops of the Anglican Communion which meets approximately every ten years. It takes its name from Lambeth Palace, the London residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury, who presides over the assembly. Along with the archbishop, the Anglican Consultative Council, and the Primates' Meeting, the conference is one of four Anglican “Instruments of Communion.” The fourteenth conference was held in 2008.
L
assus,
O
rlando (1532–1594)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Franco‐Flemish composer and one of the most prolific composers of the High Renaissance. At 21 he was the mastro di cappella of the Church of St. John Lateran in Rome. In 1556 he became singer at the Bavarian court of Duke Albrecht V in Munich. He remained in Munich for the remainder of his life, making it the most famous musical center in Europe and inspiring a host of young composers (including the Gabrielis) to study with him there.
Last Rites
Authors: Lamport Therese C. , Lamport Mark A.
Published: January 2012

“Last Rites” are the final prayers administered to a person who is seriously ill and in danger of death. The term is used synonymously with the ancient phrase “Extreme Unction” meaning “the final anointing” given in preparation for the journey embarked upon after death. Last Rites include confession, anointing, and communion, in that order, and in the past were delayed until nearest the point of death when forgiveness of sins bequeaths the final preparation for heaven.
Lateran Councils
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Lateran councils were a series of ecclesiastical councils or synods held in the
Sala Concilii
and Basilica of the Lateran (Rome) from the 12th to the 16th century. Five of the most prominent general councils that were held at the Lateran complex have been classified as the First (1123), Second (1139), Third (1179), Fourth (1215), and Fifth Lateran Councils (1512–1517).
Latin
Authors: Djintcharadzé Anna
Published: January 2012

The Lingua Latina born and spoken around Latium (the region of Rome) belongs, together with Oskian (south of Rome as far as Naples) and Umbrian (northeast of Rome), to the Italic linguistic family. Chronologically and formally it can be divided into six parts, the last three of which are of particular interest for us: 1. Archaic; 2. Classical; 3. Post‐Classical; 4. Late‐Antiquity and Christian; 5. Medieval; 6. Humanistic.
L
atin
A
merica, Christianity and Politics in
Authors: Mallimaci Fortunato , Donatello Luis
Published: January 2012

The links between Christianity and politics in Latin America are heterogeneous: religion has often played a central role in politics in the same way that politics has always featured in religious life. In Latin America religion as a factor is very much visible in the public sphere, reflecting the relationship between religion and politics. There are six models of relationships between Christianity and politics that developed in Latin America during the 20th century.
L
atin
A
merica, Evolution of Christian Beliefs in
Authors: Mallimaci Fortunato , Donatello Luis
Published: January 2012

The growth and development of the Protestant movement in Latin America in recent years, particularly among the excluded and those suffering from discrimination, has led to even greater complexity in an analysis of its religious heritage. Leaving simplistic explanations of the development of Christianity in Latin America as being of North American origin only or as part of the imperial conspiracy against the popular people's movements, Jean‐Pierre Bastián (1990) has demonstrated with vigor the diverse traditions that have crossed the field. He sees a division between liberal Protestantism and the groups that expanded from 1960 onward. Thus Bastián sees in Latin American Pentecostalism a reproduction and continuation of the authoritarian and corporate model of popular Catholicism and of indigenous religions.
The Lausanne
II
in
M
anila 1989 International Congress on World Evangelization
Authors: Clark Gary Kenneth
Published: January 2012

“Proclaim Christ Until He Comes” was the theme of the Lausanne II International Congress on World Evangelization held in the Philippine International Convention Center in Manila, Philippines in July of 1989. The goal of the Congress was “Calling the Whole Church to Take the Whole Gospel to the Whole World.” Lausanne II was built on the foundation of the 1974 International Congress on World Evangelization held in Lausanne, Switzerland, sponsored by the Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization.
Law and the Gospel of Liberty
Authors: Bruce James E.
Published: January 2012

Though perhaps most well known in the context of Lutheran theology, all Christians characterize the relationship between law and gospel, and how one characterizes the relationship may well reveal one's overall ecclesiastical commitments. At various times, the scriptures compare law and gospel. The Gospel of John contrasts the law given to Moses with the grace and truth of Jesus Christ (John 1:17), and the Apostle Paul compares the ministry of the law with the ministry of the gospel (2 Cor. 3:6–8). Romans 3:28 states that we are justified by faith apart from works of the law, and the Epistle to the Galatians takes Hagar and Sarah as an allegorical depiction of those enslaved by the law, on the one hand, and those set free by Christ, on the other.