bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Vocabulary in Listening
Authors: van Zeeland Hilde
Published: January 2018

This entry looks at the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and listening from two perspectives. First, it explains how learners' vocabulary knowledge can serve as a predictor of their listening success and discusses how much word knowledge is required for adequate listening comprehension. It also explains how to assess whether learners' vocabulary knowledge is sufficient for them to comprehend particular passages. Second, the entry focuses on incidental vocabulary learning from listening. It discusses several factors that contribute to learning from listening, such as target words' frequency of occurrence and salience in the input. A number of techniques that can stimulate learning from listening are outlined.
Authenticity in Listening Assessment
Authors: White Goodith
Published: January 2018

It is argued that the assessment of listening appears to have changed little over the past 30 years. Generally speaking, it does not appear to reflect changes in the way listening is taught, or encourage 21st‐century thinking skills such as evaluation and creativity. It often ignores the fact that English is spoken globally and that many national varieties of English exist. On the whole, listening tests tend to be inauthentic in terms of texts, tasks, and learner responses. They provide no personal reason for listening and tend to focus on a narrow range of listening skills. A discussion of what authenticity in listening assessment might involve is followed by suggestions of some ways in which listening assessments could be designed to be more authentic.
Construct of Listening
Authors: Winke Paula M. , Isbell Daniel R.
Published: January 2018

Developing L2 English listening skills is a major challenge for learners and teachers due to real‐time demands, linguistic processing, and rich contexts. This entry traces the development of listening models from the 1940s to the present and presents examples of research that highlight important learner‐internal and learner‐external factors of listening for TESOL educators and researchers to consider. Finally, pedagogic issues are discussed, including broader consideration of socially situated listening, time‐tested tips, and ways to incorporate technology in listening instruction.
Developing Test Specifications for Listening
Authors: Harsch Claudia
Published: January 2018

Listening test specifications describe and define what a test tests and how it sets out to do it. They serve three main purposes: they guide the test development, form the basis for validation research, and inform potential test users. This entry summarizes the main aspects to be considered in developing listening test specifications: the test's purpose, the target group, the areas and content covered, the approaches, tasks, and formats employed, and aspects of administering and scoring as well as of interpretation and reporting. Pedagogical implications for developing and using listening test specifications in teaching contexts are also considered.
Discrete Testing of Listening
Authors: Harsch Claudia
Published: January 2018

Discrete listening tests have their origin in the structuralist behavioral paradigm. In the meantime they have evolved and nowadays embrace characteristics of communicative testing, presenting listening input in meaningfully contextualized test tasks. The entry summarizes the main features and characteristics of modern discrete listening tests, outlines their purposes, and considers a range of pedagogical implications with a view to employing tests of this type for positive washback in the English language classroom.
Purposes of Listening Assessment
Authors: Abeywickrama Priyanvada
Published: January 2018

Listening ability is an important skill in learning English. However, because listening is a complex process, it is one of the least researched areas, especially in the field of language assessment. One of the challenges for test developers is not having a clear definition of the construct of listening as the process involved is so dependent on the context of the listening situation. The ability to process authentic spoken language, understand explicit linguistic information, and make inferences of clearly presented information are broadly defined competencies of listening that can be assessed. Having a clear purpose of listening assessments and how the results are inferred to make decisions about test takers is important as listening ability is central to pedagogy and evaluation of learning in the English language classroom.
TOEFL
(Test of English as a Foreign Language) Listening Sub‐Test
Authors: Badger Richard
Published: January 2018

This entry describes the listening section of the TOEFL and addresses issues related to the validity of the test and its impact. There are two main challenges to TOEFL's validity, namely the choice of tasks in TOEFL and whether it reflects the multimodal nature of lectures. The impact of TOEFL relates to two areas: first, how it influences language learning and teaching; second, its use in the admission of international students to anglophone universities.
Future of English
Authors: Boraie Deena
Published: January 2018

Due to the widespread use of English around the world, the native‐speaker construct has diminished and the traditional English as a second language/English as a foreign language (ESL/EFL) dichotomy is no longer the dominant view. English is the current global lingua franca and, unlike former lingua francas, is no longer connected to a single country or empire. The predominance of English is driven by education, including science and technology, leading to its use as both a subject and medium of instruction particularly in higher education and the global economy, and its perceived importance in employment and the media. English itself is changing, as observed in the simplification of its grammar, affecting the teaching and learning of the language. The future of English is to be determined more by those who learn it and use it as an additional language than by L1 speakers.
Glocalization of English
Authors: Sharifian Farzad
Published: January 2018

The English language has close affinities with globalization on many levels. Some even view English to be
the language of globalization
. In line with other aspects of globalization, the unprecedented global spread of English has increased the degree to which the language has become localized, serving to encode the communication needs of various speech communities. This dual process of globalization and localization of English may be referred to as the
glocalization
of the language. The glocalization of English involves various processes at the level of
cultural conceptualizations
. These include: (a) the use of English to encode cultural conceptualizations that were originally associated with other languages, (b) the spread of Anglo‐English cultural conceptualizations to non‐Anglo speech communities, and (c) the blending of cultural conceptualizations. This entry elaborates on these processes and discusses the implications of the glocalization of English for the field of TESOL.
Nativized Varieties
Authors: Sharifian Farzad , Xu Zhichang
Published: January 2018

There is a long history of nativized varieties of English, some of which go back around 200 years in some parts of the world covering culturally and linguistically dissimilar contexts such as Africa, South Asia, and the Far East. Over the last few decades, nativized varieties have received due attention in research and practice in world Englishes. This entry introduces nativized varieties from a Cultural Linguistics perspective in terms of cultural conceptualizations, including cultural schema, cultural category, and cultural metaphor. Within the scope of the analytical framework of Cultural Linguistics, “nativized” varieties of English are those that encode cultural conceptualizations of the speech community for whom English has found a communicative function for intracultural and intercultural communication.
World Englishes
Authors: Barduhn Susan
Published: January 2018

The field of World Englishes seeks to describe the different national and regional varieties of English that are spoken around the world, although even the phrase “varieties of English” suggests that there is a common core of English to which such varieties are subservient, whereas the current lens for looking at World Englishes is more focused on the autonomy and plurality of these Englishes. Various World English models seek to explain, describe, and address the ways in which the usage of English is changing as a result of contact with other languages and communities. World Englishes differ from each other in the areas of grammar, vocabulary/idiom, phonology, and discourse style. The earliest growth patterns of English that led to its becoming the lingua franca of the world can be divided into four diasporas. Current thinking and study include describing and differentiating between the different varieties of English, examining issues of intelligibility and inclusivity, and approaches to research.
Primary Grades
Authors: Ariza Eileen N. Whelan
Published: January 2018

This entry defines professional development for early childhood teachers of English learners. The topics discussed include difficulties that early childhood teachers face when teaching English learners, and especially teaching children oral language in English when their native language is not yet fully developed. Ideas for professional development seminars are offered to meet the challenges of promoting early literacy in both the L1 and L2, so that further academic instruction may not be delayed or hindered because of a lack of early literacy development.
Authentic Materials
Authors: Li Guofang , Zhou Wenying
Published: January 2018

Authentic materials in English as an international language (EIL) include both the oral and written materials that are used in the English language environment but that are not created expressly for the purpose of English language teaching or learning. Central to the prominent use of authentic materials in EIL are the advances in pedagogical approaches such as the audio‐lingual methods and the communicative language teaching that have resulted in a paradigm shift in the role of English language teacher and the types of texts used in English language instruction. While research has identified many advantages of using authentic materials in EIL, there exist many challenges in locating and designing communicative tasks around authentic materials. Future research must address the processes of authentic materials use as well as audience (i.e., advanced versus beginner learners) and purpose (i.e., culture learning and what and whose culture) of use of such materials.
English as a Lingua Franca
Authors: Marlina Roby , Xu Zhichang
Published: January 2018

The English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) movement, through its various language corpora—Vienna Oxford International Corpus of English (VOICE), English as a Lingua Franca in Academic Settings (ELFA), and Asian Corpus of English (ACE)—has challenged the monolithic nature of English and, thus, the native‐speaker oriented approach to language teaching. In addition to advocating the dynamic nature of English, ELF research has shown that the nature of today's communication is characterized by multilingual practices. Thus, English language diversity and multilingualism should lie at the core of English language teaching. Despite its liberating ideology, critics have questioned the validity of the data that they have collected for their corpora as they represent bilingual “elite” users of English. ELF's emphasis on diversity has also not been enthusiastically received by many language teachers, literacy brokers, and test‐developers.
First Language and Assessing English as an International Language
Authors: Nguyen Thi Thuy Minh
Published: January 2018

The globalization of English has resulted in the constant contact of this language with indigenous languages in the periphery and hence unprecedented variation in the norms of the English‐speaking world. Notwithstanding this variation, the dominant paradigm of English language assessment is still based strongly on an invariant, monolithic view of the language. As a result, a call for a “paradigm shift” to address the above situation is evident in the current English language teaching scholarship. In this new paradigm, the idealized, unitary model of “native” English is challenged as greater legitimacy is granted to peripheral varieties, and assessment objectives are critically re‐examined to accommodate non‐native speakers' complex communicative needs in the pluralistic context of postmodern globalization. This entry presents the scholarly discussions around this paradigm shift and outlines some considerations for its future implementation.
Technology and
ELLs
in Middle School
Authors: Lapp Susanne , Ariza Eileen N. Whelan
Published: January 2018

Common Core State Standard (CCSS) objectives may be difficult for English language learners (ELLs) in middle school because they lack sufficient vocabulary and background knowledge. Teachers can scaffold this necessary background knowledge by incorporating mobile technology (apps) on iPads. Training is needed for current and future teachers unfamiliar with apps and their potential. Teachers who incorporate iPad technology can prepare ELLs to learn, think, and share the most current technological information available. Using apps to enhance learning leads to fundamental changes in how teachers prepare ELLs for the technological literacy demands of the 21st century.
Race and Ethnicity in Teacher Education
Authors: Anya Uju
Published: January 2018

The impact of social identities like race and ethnicity is not restricted to experiences outside the English language classroom. It can be seen, for example, through the racism and ethnic bias inherent in the stereotypical white image and reified status of the native English speaker, which contributes to discrimination against teachers of color and the unjust hierarchies normalized and reproduced through teacher education in TESOL. A critical approach to understanding race and ethnicity is necessary to address racism and ethnic bias, and coursework and training on critical pedagogy for English language classrooms should be instituted in preservice preparation and in‐service professional development programs. Training activities, materials, and curriculum should model the same critical practices and methodologies being taught in the program to raise awareness of inequities and to support the key role that teacher education plays in combating racism and ethnic bias in TESOL.
Language Status
Authors: Porter Curtis
Published: January 2018

This entry describes various uses of the term “Language Status” and introduces some examples of how an ideological understanding of language status can challenge natural boundaries between languages and dialects. When language status is understood in this way, instruction can begin to focus on the ways that language is continually adapted to meet the communicative, social, and personal needs of English users in different contexts. Teachers and learners of English can thus move beyond an emphasis on “standard” or “native speaker” models in pursuit of learning goals predicated on the strategic and creative adaptation of language in authentic settings.
English Language Fellows and Fulbright Scholars
Authors: Crawford Jenifer , Anya Uju
Published: January 2018

The US government sponsors a range of competitive educational exchange grants to study, research, and teach in the US and abroad. Two prominent grants for US citizens in the field of TESOL are the English Language Fellow Program and the Fulbright Scholar Program. Grant recipients have a profound opportunity to learn from their host institution, colleagues, and students as well as contribute to English language instruction around the globe.
Latin American Classrooms and Teaching American Culture
Authors: Christiansen M. Sidury
Published: January 2018

Traditionally, in the field of second language teaching and learning, culture has erroneously been paired with the notion of one single country. This results in the homogenization of ethnic groups within a specific country, and the erasure of cultures of legitimate speakers of English in less powerful nations. This entry discusses the ambivalent views of American culture in Latin America and proposes ways in which EFL teachers can help students to learn through intercultural perspectives in a critical and analytical way.
Cultural Influences in Texting
Authors: Christiansen M. Sidury
Published: January 2018

Texting has revolutionized the way we communicate with each other and the way we interact with the world. In other words, texting has influenced our cultures. This entry is about the ways in which culture has influenced texting practices, and how English language teachers can leverage students' texting knowledge to advance their language‐learning experience.
Technology in Instruction
Authors: Kulavuz‐Onal Derya
Published: January 2018

Technology in English language instruction around the world is not isolated from the discussions of instructional technology in other education fields. While the major actors of this topic are teachers, students, and the technology itself, the concepts of digital divide, digital natives, and digital immigrants have always been influential in any attempts to integrate technology in English language instruction. The historical evolution of technologies and their uses in English language instruction show alignment with the evolution of the major language learning and teaching approaches, such as behaviorism, communicative language teaching, and sociocultural theory. While, in the past, the technology used in English language instruction was limited to tape recorders, cassettes, and TVs, many of today's classrooms have access to computer‐assisted technologies. As technologies afforded multimodality, human‐to‐human interaction, content creation on the Web, social networking, international collaboration, and real‐time communication, their use in English language classrooms became normalized.
Use of Technology in Teaching Pronunciation Skills
Authors: Dixon Daniel H.
Published: January 2018

In recent years, many automatic speech recognition (ASR) programs have been developed for a wide range of pronunciation teaching and learning needs. This entry gives a broad overview of the advantages that current technology has in terms of teaching pronunciation, as reported by English learners, teachers, and researchers. The entry also attempts to summarize the criticisms. While technology does show a lot of promise for the teaching of English pronunciation, many agree that the key to making use of it is careful pedagogical planning. Such planning will likely require that English language teachers expand their knowledge of ASR systems and of how technology can be beneficial for improving English pronunciation in their particular classrooms.
Pronunciation Assessment
Authors: Spezzini Susan , Barratt Leslie , Carter Diane
Published: January 2018

Pronunciation assessment serves to place, diagnose, and promote L2 speakers, adjust L2 curriculum, and individualize instruction. The field of L2 pronunciation assessment has evolved over several decades in both focus and purpose. The focus shifted from assessing segmental features (vowels and consonants) of L2 speakers who read passages with targeted phonemes to assessing suprasegmental features (stress, intonation, rhythm) of L2 speakers while they performed authentic‐speaking scenarios. As for the purpose of pronunciation assessment, this has evolved in the sense that unrealistic goals, such as attaining native‐speaker pronunciation, have been replaced by more attainable ones, such as becoming intelligible to others. Today's field of pronunciation assessment encompasses listener‐perceived ratings for identifying degrees of L2 intelligibility. After providing a brief overview of pronunciation assessment, this entry examines theoretical considerations and key research findings and concludes with suggestions for classroom‐based pronunciation assessments, both formative and summative.
Use of Technology in Teaching Speaking Skills
Authors: Gajek Elżbieta
Published: January 2018

In the development of speaking skills digital technology plays various roles. It can be a means of communication between learners via messengers and videoconferencing software. It also allows for the use of audiovisual materials that support oral production by providing patterns or by empowering students to produce their own audiovisual texts, which involves recording and rehearsing speech samples and editing them. The use of digital technology also creates language learning environments in virtual worlds, in games, and in interactions with digital “robots.” It further helps to provide immediate feedback on oral production in speech‐to‐text applications and enables learners to hear what they write. Although analog technologies (e.g., audiolingual labs) were widely used for developing speaking in the 1970s this entry focuses on the current potential of digital technology and its application in teaching practices.
Using Authentic Materials in Teaching Speaking
Authors: Bordonaro Karen
Published: January 2018

Authentic materials are materials produced for native speakers for the transmission of information, not for pedagogical purposes. Incorporating their use in a speaking class for non‐native English speakers allows teachers to show students how the target language is used in everyday life outside of a classroom setting. This entry describes what authentic materials are, where they can be found, and how they can be used in speaking classes. Pedagogical implications cover considerations of time, cost, and access in materials selection and effective task design.
Globalization, English Language Teaching, and Teachers
Authors: McKay Sandra Lee
Published: January 2018

With a greater awareness of the effect of globalization on English language teaching, it becomes imperative to describe, unpack, and reflect upon widely accepted myths regarding English language teaching and teachers. Building on this rationale, this entry deals with the complexity of defining a native speaker and points out the many strengths ofL2teachers of English. Furthermore, it specifically explicates what allELTteachers, native, andL2speakers need to know to be effective teachers of a global language such as English. In conclusion, it offers some ways of becoming more effective teachers, capable of equippingL2users with the knowledge, skills, and dispositions required for the present‐day sociolinguistic realities of English as an international language.
Native English Speaker Teacher (NEST) Schemes Around the World
Authors: Sue Garton , Fiona Copland , Mann Steve
Published: January 2018

In a number of countries, the attraction of having native English‐speaking teachers (NESTs), either because of the perceived benefit of their language skills or because of a lack of English teachers at home, has resulted in the establishment of a variety of NEST schemes. This entry will examine some of the key issues arising out of native‐speaker schemes in the context of wider debates around NESTs and local English teachers (LETs). It focuses specifically on how such schemes operate and the experiences of those involved. The implications for NESTs and LETs will be identified and practical suggestions provided.
Genres of Spoken Interaction
Authors: Tajeddin Zia , Alemi Minoo
Published: January 2018

Genres of spoken interaction refer to talk‐in‐interaction, which involves two (dialogic) or many (multiparty) interactants in everyday or institutional contexts. These genres include interaction types such as job interviews, small talk, classroom discourse, and service encounters. This entry describes the typologies for the categorization of genres of spoken interaction. It goes on to deal with various approaches, ranging from conversation analysis to ethnomethodology, which are used to analyze certain aspects of spoken interaction. Moreover, the entry characterizes different features of spoken interaction, of which the main ones are turn‐taking patterns, sequence organization, (im)politeness, and repairs. Finally, the pedagogical implications of the study of genres of spoken interaction, particularly classroom interaction, for second language teaching are discussed.
Phonological Processes, Transfer, and Markedness
Authors: Khvtisiashvili Tamrika
Published: January 2018

Phonology is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the systematic organization of sounds or phonemes. In this entry several of the phonological processes that second language (L2) speakers use to simplify the production of complex words will be explored, together with the constructs of language transfer and markedness. These processes are not random but are predictable and defined as structural and systemic. All children use these processes while their first language (L1) is developing. In second L2 acquisition, learners often rely on L1 phonology for L2 pronunciation. In other words, they transfer features of the L1 sound system to the L2, or they use phonological processes from the L1 to simplify the L2. The sounds, phonemes and the phonological rules in the world's languages vary in frequency and complexity. Unmarked forms are the ones that are common in a language, while marked forms are the ones that are least likely to occur. The principle of markedness is important to language teachers because it can help them understand some of the difficulties that learners face with certain sounds (or structures) during L2 learning.
Teaching Speaking to Young Learners
Authors: Nunan David
Published: January 2018

This entry addresses some of the concerns related to the teaching of speaking to young learners. The age at which English instruction begins in many countries around the world has been getting younger. For example, data from the Eurydice showed an increase in the number of primary children studying English in Europe and a similar increase can be seen in Japan and other Asian countries. Most parents are of the opinion that learning English as a second or foreign language is easier and faster when their children are young and, in addition, they believe that achieving high levels of proficiency in English is important for upward economic mobility. While it is not entirely true that learning a language is easier and faster when one is young, it is a common position held by most laypersons outside of the world of language‐teaching professionals. With almost two billion speakers of English worldwide and an increase in the number of multinational companies, there is little doubt that English proficiency can enhance one's opportunities in the global workforce.
Role of Speaking inL2Program and Curriculum Design
Authors: Vinogradova Polina
Published: January 2018

While educators recognize a significant role of teaching speaking in second language (L2) instruction, they are presented with a complex task of finding the right place for speaking skills within an English language teaching program curriculum and among teaching materials and procedures that evolve around students' needs in both academic and conversational environments. In this process they need to account for the cognitive demand that speaking presents to language learners, as it relies not only on these learners' linguistics knowledge but also on their understanding of sociocultural nuances, knowledge of the topic, and willingness to communicate in various settings. This entry discusses how the L2 speaking curriculum can provide diversified speaking instruction that fosters the students' willingness to communicate, accounts for the role of silence, and brings in activities that encourage peer‐to‐peer interactions and also simulate speaking practices, in which students will engage outside of their L2 programs.
World English Literatures
Authors: Singh Sunaina , George Jibu Mathew
Published: January 2018

English has transformed itself into the language of writings produced globally, adopted and fostered by writers who hail from diverse nations and cultures across the world. Recognition of the new literatures in English has entailed a theoretical engagement with the assumptions and ideologies underlying the literary canon. A major theoretical paradigm for the study of World English literatures has been postcolonial studies, involving questions concerning the hybrid and subversive character of these literatures, as well as issues of terminology, communicability, hermeneutics, and cultural politics. Two notable practices of postcolonial literary praxis are contrapuntal rereading and subversive rewriting of canonical texts. The emergence of literatures in English and the abandonment of the essentialist definitions of literature have expanded the field of literary studies.
Teaching Prepositions of Location
Authors: Hellman Andrea B.
Published: January 2018

The frequency of prepositions in English makes them high priority to learn very early in any language program. However, the complicated polysemy of English prepositions constitutes a formidable challenge to language learners. This entry presents a principled approach to teaching prepositions starting with their prototypical spatial meanings and expanding incrementally to their metaphorical uses. The semantic features of prepositions are detailed and represented with diagrams of their spatial protoscenes to be used as teaching aids. Recommended teaching strategies are aligned with principles drawn on the synthesis of research on instructed vocabulary learning.
Teaching the Many Uses of the Word “
UP
”
Authors: Garnier Mélodie
Published: January 2018

Spatial prepositions such as
up
,
down
,
on
,
off
,
in
, and
out
are undoubtedly among the most frequently used words in the English language. They are also highly polysemous, which means that learning or teaching them effectively may appear to be an overwhelming, if not impossible, task. Drawn from the field of cognitive linguistics which emerged in the 1980s, the conceptual approach offers some interesting suggestions for tackling polysemes. By positing that spatial prepositions are motivated by underlying conceptual meanings and that figurative or metaphorical meanings are mere extensions of core prototypical meanings, the conceptual approach serves to highlight the fundamental systematicity behind the use of polysemous words. A number of studies have pointed to its effectiveness in enhancing retention of new vocabulary. This summary reviews those studies relevant to spatial prepositions, and offers some recommendations for teachers interested in implementing the approach when teaching spatial prepositions such as “
UP
.”
Teaching Vocabulary for Academic, Social, and Personal Purposes
Authors: Kayi‐Aydar Hayriye
Published: January 2018

Teaching vocabulary is crucial in second language learning and pedagogy. Given the diverse English language learner groups around the world as well as their different needs and expectations, each learning context might demand different types of vocabulary instruction. This entry provides a brief historical overview regarding teaching vocabulary for academic, social, and personal purposes, and then provides pedagogical implications for practitioners.
Encouraging and Motivating Vocabulary Development
Authors: Grogan Myles , Lucas Matt , Takeuchi Osamu
Published: January 2018

Neither motivation nor vocabulary is perfectly understood, and both seem to depend on the individual in question. This entry begins with an overview of motivation, focusing on Dörnyei's tripartite model of motivation. This model seems to sufficiently incorporate former models (such as Gardner's idea of “integrativeness”) and to take account of self‐regulation. The next section looks at how research into vocabulary has attempted to incorporate the findings within this sphere. The last section gives advice for learners to develop their self‐regulatory capacity and future selves by becoming active learners. This is combined with recommendations on task design for teachers, revolving around the involvement load hypothesis and task‐based learning. Finally, the role of technology is considered.
Research‐Based Vocabulary Instruction Strategies
Authors: Lucas Matt , Grogan Myles , Takeuchi Osamu
Published: January 2018

Building a solid base of vocabulary is of utmost importance for all language learners. However, since there appears no single best means of doing so, it is logical to adopt an approach that is balanced and well reasoned by taking into account the learner and their unique pedagogical context. This entry considers how general theoretical frameworks that focus on cognitive, metacognitive, and socioaffective aspects of learning may, in turn, provide a platform from which to apply a number of tailored vocabulary‐learning strategies in a practical setting.
Scaffolding Vocabulary Development
Authors: Kayi‐Aydar Hayriye
Published: January 2018

Expanding vocabulary knowledge is necessary for English learners to be able to use the language efficiently for various purposes and in different contexts. Given the vast amount of vocabulary an English learner needs to learn and use in order to be proficient, learning new words can easily become an overwhelming task for such learners. Strategic scaffolding (i.e., the implementation of temporary and gradual supports in learning) provided by teachers becomes necessary in vocabulary instruction and is important if English learners are to understand, acquire, and interact with words, which is an essential part of second language acquisition. This entry discusses the most common research‐supported scaffolding practices that are effective for building and reinforcing English vocabulary development, particularly in the classroom environment.
Teaching/Developing Vocabulary Using Graphic Organizers and Modeling
Authors: Ajayi Lasisi
Published: January 2018

Vocabulary graphic organizers are useful visual resources to teach English language learners (ELLs) to represent and visualize relationships between vocabulary words and their possible meanings, attributes, and associations. In addition, teachers use vocabulary graphic organizers to deepen students' understanding of difficult words and the relationships of such vocabulary words to their prior knowledge through multiple instructional activities, including word definitions, examples, synonyms/antonyms, and word attributes. Graphic organizers are effective visual learning strategies because they are engaging and they allow ELLs to work in collaborative groups. Similarly, modeling as a scaffold allows teachers to show students how to unpack difficult words as they share with students (and students observe) the series of steps and thinking processes (through thinking aloud) they go through in order to complete a cognitive task. Students can then use what they observe to “mediate” their thinking as they work in small groups or independently to complete a similar or new task.
Teaching/Developing Vocabulary Through Peer Engagement and Interactive Strategies
Authors: Elyas Tariq , Shah Sayyed Rashid
Published: January 2018

Vocabulary refers to the words that we require for effective communication. In a language classroom, teaching target vocabulary is as important as teaching other aspects/skills of a language. Research has shown that interactive activities which trigger peer engagement in classrooms can increase learners' knowledge of target vocabulary. This entry discusses the importance of developing learners' vocabulary through interactive strategies and their implications on pedagogical practices in a language classroom.
Teaching/Developing Vocabulary Using Semantic Feature Analysis
Authors: Amer Aly
Published: January 2018

Recent developments in “lexical semantics” have prompted the development of the “semantic field theory,” or “semantic features analysis” approaches, which organize words in terms of interrelated lexical meanings. Research has shown that semantic feature analysis is a powerful strategy that mimics the way the brain organizes information. SFA suggests that the lexical content of a language is best treated not as an unstructured list of words but as a collection of interrelating networks of relations between words. Hence, it is plausible to assume that a method of teaching that takes account of the psychological processes underlying semantic relatedness must be more effective pedagogically than one that does not.

The present entry discusses the pedagogic implications of “semantic feature analysis” to second language vocabulary teaching and learning.
Teaching/Developing Vocabulary Through Word Origins, Root Words, Prefixes and Suffixes
Authors: Hirsh David
Published: January 2018

The idea of word origins has attracted some attention in first language reading contexts, with discussions regarding the ability of children to decode words. In second language learning contexts, there has been some interest in the ability of language learners to recognize some of the more frequently occurring and regular prefixes and suffixes, as part of a broader interest in the concept of word families. The thinking is that, with increased exposure to the language, learners may be able to apply knowledge of prefixes and suffixes to help with processing new words met while reading.

Following this line of thinking, the language teacher could assist language learners with becoming familiar with the form, meaning, and use of the most commonly occurring and salient prefixes and suffixes, as a tool to assist with processing unknown words met in written and spoken texts.
Teaching High‐Frequency Vocabulary
Authors: Qureshi Muhammad Asif
Published: January 2018

Mastering a second language is largely dependent on mastering a second language vocabulary. Second language (L2) and foreign language (FL) learners are often observed memorizing long vocabulary lists to better cope with their academic needs; and perhaps, that is the reason several vocabulary lists have been created. This entry will review the major high‐frequency vocabulary (HFV) lists created for SL/FL learners of English. It will discuss their creation, their pros and cons, and various methods and implications for teaching.
Innovative Strategies for Vocabulary Development
Authors: Stoller Fredricka L. , Grabe William
Published: January 2018

Language teachers can promote students' vocabulary development by supplementing their textbooks with explicit teaching techniques that recycle vocabulary in meaningful contexts, promote active student engagement with words, utilize visual displays to showcase terms in relation to others, and help students make meaningful connections between new and already familiar words. The use of visual displays, concept of definition maps, word walls, word sorts, word splashes, association networks and semantic mapping, and word chains can promote vocabulary retention and consolidate learners' vocabulary learning.
Games and Fun Activities to Build Vocabulary
Authors: Dodigovic Marina
Published: January 2018

Games and fun activities in the service of vocabulary learning have been found to stimulate both learning and motivation. The principles involved in vocabulary learning in general are at work in games too. Some of the most important of these are repetition, retrieval from memory, spaced rehearsal over a period of time, and the use of words in language production. This chapter uses the principles of vocabulary learning to create a framework for the classification and description of games and fun activities. It then introduces examples of games and fun activities.
Teaching the Most Useful Words of English
Authors: Dang Yen
Published: January 2018

Introducing the most useful words of English to second language (L2) learners has great pedagogical value because it ensures the best return for learners' vocabulary‐learning effort. Research has suggested that high‐frequency words, the words that occur very often in a wide range of texts, are the most useful words of English and should be the starting point in vocabulary learning. However, high‐frequency words have not received sufficient attention from teachers and institutions. This situation calls for a more principled approach to vocabulary teaching, one that places greater focus on the high‐frequency words. This entry provides information about four useful high‐frequency wordlists and discusses the pedagogical implications of learning from wordlists so that teachers can help their learners to master the most useful words.
Teaching Vocabulary for First Certificate
Authors: Haghighi Sara
Published: January 2018

Vocabulary learning and vocabulary growth are very critical aspects of language learning. Vocabulary knowledge and quick retention can lead to successful understanding of listening and reading comprehension. Further, vocabulary development plays an important role in improving EFL learners' ability to use language to communicate their ideas and intensions. For this reason, four systematic and efficient approaches to the learning of vocabularies—namely word association, scaffolding, cooperative learning, and vocabulary self‐collection—are suggested. Students benefit from systematic vocabulary instruction. This is mainly because they are provided with strategies that involve the context. Second, these strategies actively engage students in the vocabulary‐learning process. Further, using these strategies, students can create a short dialogue around the new vocabularies.
Teaching Business Vocabulary
Authors: Zhang Zuocheng , Sun Ya
Published: January 2018

This entry summarizes several salient features of business vocabulary by drawing on functional, cognitive, and corpus linguistic studies of business discourse and communication and discusses how these features may be taught in business English classrooms.
Teaching Prefixes and Suffixes
Authors: Saigh Kholood , Sonbul Suhad
Published: January 2018

Research on English as a first language (L1) suggests that vocabulary development can benefit substantially from morphological awareness (explicit morphological knowledge). In fact, research on teaching prefixes and suffixes has mainly focused on raising L1 learners' morphological awareness and its contribution to proficiency in skills like reading and spelling. However, very little is known about the development of this knowledge in the second language (L2) context and its role in vocabulary growth. Nevertheless, L2 vocabulary research has for long presupposed knowledge of inflections and at least certain types of derivations as evidenced by the existing wordlists which mostly use word families as their basic unit of counting. Based on the theoretical background and research results within the fields of second language acquisition (SLA) and vocabulary development, this summary presents important pedagogical implications for the teaching of English prefixes and suffixes.
Teaching Verb + ‐ingForm, Infinitive, or Base Form—a Semantic Interaction Approach
Authors: Sato Yoshiaki , Nakamura Shunsuke
Published: January 2018

Verb complementation in English is among the highest hurdles for learners to clear. The selection between infinitive and ‐ingcomplements in context is a daunting task even for advanced learners. Semantic instruction is crucial here since rote learning will never encourage learners to process information in the target language. However, this problem cannot be solved by simply applying a binarism such as “potential (toinfinitive) vs. factual (‐ingform),” which is partially true but may at times mislead and confuse learners. A semantic interaction approach, which viewstoinfinitive, bare infinitive (base form), and ‐ingform complements as explainable through the semantic interaction between verbs and their complement clauses, may help to teach what is often said to defy instructional intervention.
Teaching Indirect Objects
Authors: Nenchin Jacqueline
Published: January 2018

The indirect object is the beneficiary of the action or recipient of a thing or service; in other words, the indirect object tells to or for whom the action is done, and comes after ditransitive verbs, that is, verbs that can have two objects. This brief summary gives consideration to some theoretical and pedagogical aspects of the indirect object and their implications for the 21st century ESOL classroom.
Teaching Notional Concepts: Time, Numbers, Distance, Size, Dimension, Shapes, Colors, and Patterns
Authors: Reynolds Kate Mastruserio
Published: January 2018

This entry guides readers from basic definitions of notions to complex discussions of the operational definitions of notional, semantically‐related and thematically‐related vocabulary sets. The overlap between these operational definitions is expounded in addition to research‐based advantages and disadvantages of each set type. Guidelines and activities are provided to highlight recommended practices while avoiding undesirable issues when working with notional vocabulary sets.
Levels or Stages of Word Knowledge
Authors: Bush Jerome C.
Published: January 2018

Vocabulary knowledge can be seen as existing on a continuum from unknown to mastery. How well a student knows a word has been referred to as “depth” of vocabulary knowledge, as opposed to “breadth” of knowledge, which is the number of words known. Several scales have been developed that describe the levels or stages of vocabulary knowledge. Teachers have a limited time in which to teach vocabulary. Therefore, they should adopt a strategic perspective and train students to develop vocabulary acquisition systems. Teachers would do well to foster fascination with words and spark curiosity within their students. Then they will be able to develop independent learners who will be successful in acquiring vocabulary knowledge.
Reading Silence in Japanese Classrooms
Authors: Kayi‐Aydar Hayriye
Published: January 2018

The silence in language classrooms has been a topic of considerable investigation in language research. Japanese classrooms, in particular, continue to attract discussion that emphasizes the role of silence in active learner participation and English language learning and use in class. The use of silence by Japanese EFL learners seems to appear in many diverse learning contexts; not only in the monolingual EFL context in Japan but also in multilingual and multicultural ESL contexts abroad. Drawing on insights from related theories and literature, this entry attempts to describe the sources and meanings of silence in Japanese classrooms where English is taught and learned as a foreign language. The entry concludes with pedagogical implications that can be effective in teaching Japanese learners in varied language classrooms and contexts.
Teaching and Learning Styles in Middle‐Eastern Cultures
Authors: Kayi‐Aydar Hayriye
Published: January 2018

Learning styles, defined as self‐selected approaches in language learning, are influenced by culture, among other factors. Cross‐cultural understanding of language learning styles is crucial, so that teachers can recognize their students' learning strengths and difficulties and work toward providing the best language instruction. Drawing on related literature and theories, this entry provides a description of teaching and learning styles in Middle‐Eastern cultures and concludes with practical implications.
Metacognition in
TESOL
: Theory and Practice
Authors: Zhang Lawrence Jun , Zhang Donglan
Published: January 2018

Metacognition as a theoretical construct and as a framework for guiding pedagogical practice in and outside the classroom in the field of general education has been well documented. Its significance has also been recognized in the field of TESOL in recent years. Scholars have investigated learners' metacognition about their learning of various language skills (e.g., listening, reading, speaking, writing, and vocabulary) as well as the effect of incorporating metacognition in classroom pedagogy on student improvement in these language skills. In this entry, metacognition is defined, related research on it in TESOL and applied linguistics is examined, and its pedagogical implications are offered.