bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Effect of Speed Alterations on Tempo Note Selection
Authors: Madsen Clifford K. , Duke Robert A. , Geringer John M.
Published: June 2006

The present study was an attempt to investigate musicians' tempo note preferences within a musical context. Using relatively familiar orchestral music as stimuli, the study tested the ability of subjects to discriminate how an altered excerpt differed in tempo from its unaltered presentation by asking subjects to select a beat note for each trial. One hundred randomly selected subjects participated in the study. A representative list of eight relatively familiar orchestral works was specifically selected because of the ambiguity of the perceived rhythmic organization, that is, either in oneness (dotted note as beat note) or in threeness (undotted note as beat note), regardless of the actual notation. Subjects heard each of the eight excerpts three times, at increased, decreased, and unaltered tempi. The amount of tempo change in either direction was 12%. Thus, an original tempo of (•) = 164 beats per minute (bpm), for example, was heard at altered tempi of (•) = 184 bpm (increased) or (•) = 144 bpm (decreased). Subjects selected a beat note for each example and estimated the speed (in beats per minute) of each beat note selection. Results of the study indicate that: (a) subjects preferred dotted notes for those examples that were faster compared to those that were slower, (b) subjects preferred undotted beat notes for the slower presentations, and (c) musicians were not accurate in estimating tempi. Subjects' estimations of beat speed were inaccurate and consistently faster than the actual tempi presented.
Relationship Between Home Musical Environment and Selected Musical Attributes of Second-Grade Children
Authors: Brand Manny
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between home musical environment and musical attributes among second-grade (primarily) Mexican-American school children. Parental musical involvement with child, attitude toward music, and other aspects of the home musical environment were examined as sources of variance in tonal and rhythmic perception and school musical achievement. Data from 116 students and their parents were analyzed by means of setwise multiple regression. Although analyses revealed that scores on the Home Musical Environmental Scale (HOMES) were not significantly related to tonal or rhythmic perception, the results did show a statistically significant relationship, p < .001, between scores on the HOMES and musical achievement as assessed by the subjects' music teachers. The scores on the HOMES account for 20% of the variance in musical achievement scores. Additionally, an important finding in this study is that not all home musical environmental variables are related in the same degree to musical achievement.
Some Implications of Students' Attitudes Toward a Computer-Based Melodic Dictation Program
Authors: Pembrook Randall G.
Published: June 2006

To compare college students' opinions of computer-based melodic dictation instruction and classroom instruction, 75 students enrolled in sophomore music theory who had been exposed to both approaches were surveyed. A 34-item questionnaire evaluated students' opinions of the hardware, software, and departmental requirements regarding the computer-based instruction and asked for comparisons of this tutelage with the classroom instruction they had subsequently received. While hardware and software received generally favorable reviews; students basically related a negative opinion of the computer-based melodic dictation instruction. This opinion was based on the following three points: The computer program required too much time outside class, too much progress was expected in too little time, and pacing (the increase in difficulty levels) was not consistent throughout the program. On the basis of student comments, several suggestions regarding construction of computer-based instructional materials are presented.
Effects of Music on Anxiety as Determined by Physiological Skin Responses
Authors: Peretti Peter O. , Swenson Kathy
Published: June 2006

Music affects performance in both sensory and motor tasks. It can also provide a significant form of therapy for some mental illness, particularly anxiety. This study investigated the effects of music on anxiety between: (1) music and nonmusic majors; (2) females and males of each group; and (3) females and males, regardless of sex, to determine the combined interaction effect. Results showed that there were significant differences in responses between each of the stated groups. Moreover, the female responses to music were more consistent than the male responses in all groups.
Automated Aural-Visual Music Theory Instruction for Elementary Education Majors
Authors: Roach Donald W.
Published: June 2006

A self-instructional linear program of 388 frames was constructed to teach music theory skills and knowledge to elementary education majors. Sixty-two elementary education majors, divided equally between the control group and experimental group, participated in the evaluation of the program. Both groups were administered the Aural-Visual Music Theory Test, developed by the experimenter, as pretest and posttest. The control group received no music instruction during the course of the experiment; the self-instructional program was the only music instruction received by the experimental group.

Statistically significant gains by the experimental group from pretest to posttest showed that the self-instructional program was highly effective with elementary education majors. The unique aural-visual format provided immediate application of theory to the sound of music. The study suggests that much can be learned outside of class, permitting greater efficiency and individualization as well as conservation of in-class time for greater stress upon methods for the classroom teacher.
Effects of Certain Lateral Dominance Traits, Music Aptitude, and Sex Differences with Instrumental Music Achievement
Authors: Schleuter Stanley L.
Published: June 2006

The effects of music aptitude, sex, handedness, eyedness, and footedness on music achievement and executive skills of elementary instrumental music students was explored. Handedness was defined for the present study as the observed preferred hand used for a specific set of familiar tasks; eyedness refers to sighting dominance; and footedness was defined as the observed foot preferred to perform selected familiar tasks. A five-way multivariate analysis (2×2×3×2×3) was employed to analyze the data. No conclusive evidence was found to show that combinations of eye and limb dominance, sex differences, and music aptitude variables affect music achievement or executive skill variables. Only music aptitude levels when considered alone strongly affected tonal, rhythmic, and performance achievement
Intonational Performance and Perception of Ascending Scales
Authors: Geringer John M.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between the performance of intonation and the perception of intonation regarding ascending scalar patterns. Ninety-six undergraduate and graduate music students from four instrumental groups were placed in one of four experimental conditions. Following differential verbal feedback, subjects either performed a second time or listened to their individual performances and retuned them using a variable-speed tape recorder. Results indicated a tendency toward sharp intonation throughout the study, relative to the standard of equal temperament. Differences between performance and perception were not independent of accompaniment and scale degree. Intonational perception of unaccompanied scales was less accurate than both accompanied scale perception and performance conditions of unaccompanied and accompanied scales.
Auditory Laterality Effects for Melodic Stimuli Among Musicians and Nonmusicians
Authors: Franklin Elda , Baumgarte Roger
Published: June 2006

A dichotic melody recognition task was employed to determine cerebral lateralization of melodic stimuli among musicians and nonmusicians. The non-musicians revealed a significant left ear (right hemisphere) strength for the recognition of test melodies. The left ear effect among musicians was found to be related to the subject's area of music specialization. Singers demonstrated a significant left ear superiority for melody recognition, whereas ear differences were not significant for instrumentalists. Overall performance (combined ear scores) on the melodies task was positively related to right ear scores. Subjects who performed well on the melody recognition task were more likely to show a right ear (left hemisphere) superiority than those who performed poorly.
The Effects of Listening Instructions and Cognitive Style on Music Appreciation
Authors: Zalanowski Annette H.
Published: June 2006

The effects of several different listening instructions on music appreciation were examined with two types of music and among subjects with different cognitive styles—right versus left hemisphere preference. Before listening to a selection of programmatic music, 60 subjects were divided into three instructional groups: pay attention, form free mental images, or follow a story program. With a selection of absolute music, 48 subjects were divided into four instructional groups: pay attention, form free mental images, follow an abstract verbal program, or follow a concrete analytical program. Following the music, subjects rated their attention, enjoyment, and understanding of the music. A recognition test of both selections was conducted one week later. Imagery instructions were found to lead to greatest enjoyment of both selections, while the story program led to greatest understanding of the programmatic music; the abstract and concrete analytical programs did not improve any aspect of appreciation of the absolute music. Cognitive style interacted with instructions. Imagery was more beneficial for right hemisphere subjects and the analytical program benefited left hemisphere subjects more. The results indicate that no single type of program or instruction can enhance all aspects of music appreciation in all people.
An Investigation of the Factor Structure of a Scale for the Measurement of Children's Attitudes Toward Handicapped Peers Within Regular Music Environments
Authors: Jellison Judith A.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the structure of a newly developed survey instrument for the measurement of children's attitudes toward severely handicapped (retarded) peers integrated into music school and recreational environments. An Acceptance Within Music Scale (AMS) was developed to parallel items on a general Acceptance Scale (AS) that has demonstrated validity and reliability (Meyer, 1981). Factor analysis was used to explore the structure of the AMS and to determine whether the dimensions found are similar to those dimensions being assessed by the AS (i.e., social contact willingness, actual contact-wheelchair, name calling, and deviance consequation). Both the AS and AMS were administered to 136 public school students in an elementary school specifically selected as a low-contact school. No severely or moderately retarded students were enrolled in the school. Results suggest that there are four dimensions assessed by the AMS. Based on factor-loadings and item-by-item comparisons, the factors found for the AMS were very similar to those dimensions suggested by Meyer. The most prominent factor and the factor with identical correspondence was social contact willingness.
Trends in the Aesthetic Responses of Children to the Musical Experience
Authors: Nelson David J.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to identify and define possible age-related characteristics of children's aesthetic responsiveness to music they performed on the violin; to investigate the relationship between any identifiable characteristics with an area of musical conceptualization (conservation of rhythm); and to determine the relationship between musical training and aesthetic responsiveness. Forty-six violinists between the ages of 3 and 16½ were presented an author-designated Aesthetic Responsiveness Task designed to elicit verbal responses on aesthetic judgments and experiences in the areas of preferential judgment, qualitative judgment, emotional experience, and empathy. The high level of agreement found between the judges' scoring of the Aesthetic Responsiveness Task tended to support protocols established for the study. Results seemed to indicate that age was the primary factor in the development of aesthetic judgments and experiences over both training and rhythmic conservation.
An Assessment of the Classroom Performance of Music Teachers
Authors: Taebel Donald K.
Published: June 2006

Information from a statewide norming study of all teachers was used to compare the I performance of music teachers and other teachers on 10 competencies and a variety of classroom behaviors. Music teachers' competency scores were below the mean for all teachers on 7 of the 10 competencies; however, music teachers' scores on specific classroom behaviors showed virtually no difference from those of other teachers on 94 of the 117 behaviors included on the Classroom Observation Instrument (COR). Music teachers outperformed other teachers in using materials and eliciting student performance; however, they had lower frequencies in their use of various types of questions. On an opinion questionnaire, music teachers tended to support the evaluation program; however, a number expressed concerns about the validity of the competencies for music teachers and the evaluators' expertise.
A Systematic Approach to Aural-Visual Identification Instruction in Music for Young Children
Authors: Jetter June Thomsen
Published: June 2006

This study investigated the functional nature of a model for aural-visual identification instruction (AVII) to design effective instruction for musical concept development in young children. The purpose of the study was to compare achievement gain of second-grade children of high, middle, and low musical aptitude on three tasks in the area of pitch concept development and three tasks in the area of timbre concept development. The instructors in the study were experienced music specialists, first-year music specialists, student teacher music specialists, and experienced classroom teachers using AVII model materials. Subjects were 203 children in intact second-grade music classes in eight urban elementary schools. Results indicated that there was a significant mean achievement gain for subjects in this sample. Teacher experience was a main effect in the amount of gain. There was a significant interaction between teacher type and musical task. Musical aptitude, musical task, and other interactions were not significant.
Poor Pitch Singing: Response of Monotone Singers to a Program of Remedial Training
Authors: Roberts Emlyn , Davies Ann D. M.
Published: June 2006

An experiment was carried out to see whether the musical performance of monotones could be improved by a program of remedial training. A group of 90 children aged 6+ to 8+ years was chosen, all of whom had been rated by their school singing teachers as monotones or droners. The children were randomly assigned to a remedial training group, a traditional training group or a control group. All children in the experiment were assessed on a nine-test pre- and posttest battery of musical recognition and production with single note, interval, melody, and rhythm scales, and a test of free song. Responses were tape-recorded and scored blind by a panel of music teachers who knew neither which group the child was in, nor whether the responses derived from the pre- or posttraining session. A group of 30 normal singing children of the same age was also given the test battery to judge the discriminating powers of the various individual subtests.

The remedial training group was given two 30-minute sessions per week for eight weeks and had practice in singing a note within their speaking range. The traditional training group was intended to control for the possibility that extra attention and tuition might by itself improve the child's vocal performance. This group studied contemporary and traditional songs with piano, guitar, and percussion accompaniment for the same length of time. All groups showed significant improvement from pre- to posttest assessment except on the test of single note recognition. The monotone and normal singing groups did not differ on this measure. The remedial group showed greater improvement of single note and interval production than did the other two groups. Their vocal range was extended significantly, but within the eight weeks there was no differential improvement of this group on the test of free song.
The Effect of Subdivision Activity on Rhythmic Performance Skills in High School Mixed Choirs
Authors: Major James E.
Published: June 2006

This study investigated the effect of subdivision activity on rhythmic performance skills in high school mixed choirs. Three matched choirs ( N = 96) were involved in the ten-week project, with one choir receiving subdivision treatments, another imitation treatments, and the third serving as a control group. The pretreatment test, posttest, interview procedure, and musical activity questionnaire were developed by the investigator. The data were analyzed using the three-way ANOVA and Pearson Product-Moment subprograms in the SPSS. The results indicate significant differences ( p ≤ .01) in favor of the subdivision approach for performing rhythms accurately, maintaining one' s own pulse, and maintaining a pulse established by an outside visual source. This was generally true at both fast and slow tempi as well as for all ability strata. Students demonstrating a high degree of rhythmic ability often indicated they used analytical subdivision procedures, although they may not have previously received such instruction. Finally, instrumental experience other than keyboard had the strongest relationship with rhythmic skills. The amount of choral experience was not a good predictor of rhythmic competency.
Froebelian Implications in Texts of Early Childhood Songs Published Near the Turn of the Century
Authors: Alper Clifford D.
Published: June 2006

Genuine Froebelian implications in early childhood song texts depend upon the extent to which they adhere to Friedrich Froebel' s goals and purposes, rather than whether they refer to him or paraphrase his material. Turn-of-the-century songs sometimes neglect genuinely childlike, and thus Froebelian, considerations. Even the most important revision of Froebel' s Mother-Play and Nursery Songs, Susan Blow' s The Songs and Music of Froebel' s Mother-Play, leaves something to be desired in genuine Froebelian philosophical thought. Texts that deal with religion, morality, and ethics tend to tell rather than to suggest subtly and therefore miss a fundamental Froebelian methodological point. Only those song texts that accurately reflect Froebel' s teachings, philosophy, and methodology have truly Froebelian implications.
Effect of Majority Consensus on Preferences for Recorded Orchestral and Popular Music
Authors: Furman Charles E. , Duke Robert A.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of statements of group preferences on the verbal responses of individual group members, using a paradigm developed by Asch (1951, 1952, 1956) in which the responses of a “minority of one” were tested within the context of a “unanimous majority.” One hundred sixty university music ( n = 72) and nonmusic ( n = 88) majors participated in the study. Subjects in Experiment 1 ( n = 80) listened to two paired versions of each of 10 popular music excerpts and identified a preferred version in each pair. In 8 of the 10 pairs, either the frequency or tempo (or both) of one of the two versions was increased or decreased from the original recorded version by 12%. Subjects in Experiment 2 ( n = 80) listened to paired versions of 10 orchestral excerpts presented in an arrangement identical to that of the popular music excerpts in Experiment 1. Experimental subjects were tested individually in the presence of three confederates, who gave unanimous verbal preference responses according to a predetermined response list. The control group used written forms on which to indicate preference in each pair. Results of Experiment 1 (popular music) indicated no significant differences across all items between music and nonmusic majors ( p > .75) and showed no significant conformity effects concerning comparisons of altered and unaltered excerpts ( p > .50). Results of Experiment 2 (orchestral music) indicated no significant differences ( p > .70) between music and nonmusic majors in the control group, although music majors responded differently than did nonmusic majors in the experimental condition ( p < .01); nonmusic majors' publicly stated preferences were significantly affected by the preferences of others.
Instrumental Music Instruction as a Contingency for Increased Reading Behavior
Authors: Gordon Michael
Published: June 2006

This study examined two related problems: (1) Does contingent music instruction act as reinforcement for reading behavior in the classroom? (2) What is the effect of contingent music instruction on music performance achievement levels? Fifty-four subjects were selected from all fourth grade students in two inner-city schools. Selection was based on music aptitude, interest in playing a band instrument, parental interest, and classroom teacher's recommendation. Students from one school, the experimental group, were at least one year delayed in reading achievement. The control group, from the other school was at or above grade level in reading. All subjects received music instruction daily, noncontingently, during the baseline phases. During the two treatment phases, experimental subjects received music instruction only if they met contingent individual daily criteria in reading. Control subjects' music instruction was always received noncontingently. Analyses of the reading achievement data revealed a significant difference between groups at pretest and no difference at posttest. Analyses of pretest and posttest music performance achievement revealed no significant differences between groups. Music instruction was found to be an effective reinforcer for increasing daily reading performance.
Effect of Videotape Feedback Techniques on Performance, Verbalization, and Attitude of Beginning Conductors
Authors: Yarbrough Cornelia , Wapnick Joel , Kelly Roseanne
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of two videotape feedback techniques on improvement in conducting skills of beginning conductors. One videotape feedback technique consisted of sessions spent with an experienced conducting instructor; the other technique used sessions in which each student independently viewed videotapes with behavioral observation forms and checklists. Pre- and posttests consisted of four-measure examples in 2/4, 3/4, 4/4, and 6/8 conducted by each student and videotaped for subsequent analysis. In addition to the two experimental groups, two control groups were employed. One control group was both pre- and posttested, and the other was posttested only. Judges rated each student's pre- and posttest conducting examples (N= 336) on accuracy of beat pattern, cueing, preparatory beats, cutoffs, tempo, style, dynamics, eye contact, and frequency of mannerisms. Two other dependent measures were used-an instructional rating survey to determine student attitude and a verbal content analysis of critiques written after each feedback session. Analysis of performance data indicated (1) significant pretest to posttest gains for both experimental groups; (2) no significant difference between experimental groups; (3) no significant difference between control groups; but (4) significant differences between experimental and control groups. A content analysis of critiques written after each feedback session demonstrated significantly more deference to instructor authority in the instructor feedback group than the observation form group. In addition, the instructor feedback group had more statements concerning technique, eye contact, score preparation, and mannerisms; the observation form group had more statements concerning facial expression, body movement, and rehearsal time; and both groups had approximately equal numbers of statements concerning verbal content. The instructor rating survey indicated no significant differences between experimental groups in “instructor warmth,” “academic-intellectual content,” or “student work/input.”
Perceived Effectiveness of Mainstreaming in Iowa and Kansas Schools
Authors: Gfeller Kate , Darrow Alice-Ann , Hedden Steven K.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the perceived status of mainstreaming among music educators in Iowa and Kansas. A questionnaire was developed with items concerning years and type of teaching experience; area of music instruction; amount of educational preparation in special education; extent of instructional support in main-streaming students into regular music classes; the extent to which musical and nonmusical goals are primary concerns of music educators; the degree of difficulty in mainstreaming students with various handicapping conditions; and the perceived success of mainstreaming. Results of the study revealed the following: (1) slight differences among general, choral, and instrumental music specialists in their perceptions regarding mainstreaming; (2) no significant difference in responses among music educators with varied experience in working with mainstreamed students; (3) a low level of educational preparation for most music educators working with mainstreamed students; (4) a positive correlation between perceived success in mainstreaming and extent of instructional support; (5) consensus that students with certain types of handicapping conditions are more difficult to integrate into the music classroom; and (6) lack of consensus in primary instructional objectives for handicapped students.
Predicting Music Theory Grades: The Relative Efficiency of Academic Ability, Music Experience, and Musical Aptitude
Authors: Harrison Carole S.
Published: June 2006

Multiple regression techniques were used to analyze the relative contributions of academic ability, music experience, and musical aptitude in predicting grades in first- and second-semester freshman music theory courses. The best predictor of grades in both courses was the math component of the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). For the first-semester course, high school grade point average, the incidence of piano study, and scores on the verbal portion of the SAT were also statistically significant predictors. Together, the four predictors accounted for 41% of the variation in theory grades. For the second-semester course, principal instrument was also statistically significant in the prediction of grades, and the incidence of experience on more than one instrument was marginally significant. A principal components analysis of the first-semester data produced five factors that accounted for 78.6% of the variance in the original variables: (1) academic and musical ability, (2) piano experience, (3) years of performing experience, (4) performance on more than one instrument, and (5) musical aptitude.
A Graduate Level Listening Test in Music History and Analysis
Authors: LeBlanc Albert
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was the development and validation of a graduate level listening test in music history and analysis. Nine exploratory test forms were sequentially developed and tried. The resulting Listening Test of Musical Style is uniquely different from other tests predicting graduate school success because of its complete reliance upon music listening as the basis of measurement. The test was found sufficiently reliable and valid for its intended use, and potentially useful for institutions subscribing to the test' s design of content sampling.
The Effect of Melodic Context on Students' Aural Perception of Rhythm
Authors: Boisen Robert
Published: June 2006

To determine whether the accuracy of students' aural perception of rhythmic completeness and incompleteness is influenced by melodic context, 2,207 public school students were administered a 42-item data-collection instrument based on 14 rhythmic units, 7 complete and 7 incomplete. Students heard each unit (1) on one pitch, (2) as part of a melody in which the completeness or incompleteness of the pitch sequence matched that of the rhythm, and (3) as part of a nonmatching melody; indicating, in each case, whether the unit was complete or incomplete. According to the results, accuracy is influenced by melodic context.
Relationships between Motivation Variables and Selected Criterion Measures of High School Band Directing Success
Authors: Caimi Florentino J.
Published: June 2006

The level of musicianship achieved by the high school band is often attributed to the director. The personality subcategory referred to as motivation is increasingly becoming recognized as an important factor in teacher effectiveness. Motivational characteristics that contribute to the success of the high school band director are unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate relationships between eight motivational vari ables and three criteria of high school band directing success. The criteria of band directing success were: (1) ensemble musicianship, (2) ensemble music performance, and (3) students' ratings of their director. A combination of two motivational vari ables–conscious concern for security and subconscious concern for home and parents–were statistically significant predictors of the ensemble performance criterion, while subconscious concern with ethical values was a statistically significant predictor of the ensemble musicianship criterion. The number of students in the high school was also found to be a statistically significant predictor of band directing success.
Interval and Pitch Recognition in and out of Immediate Context
Authors: Shatzkin Merton
Published: June 2006

Samples of 24 and 12 college music majors were given tests of interval recognition and pitch recognition to investigate specific context effects. Absolute-pitch individuals were excluded. Conditions were: (1) single tones (pitch recognition), (2) isolated as cending intervals terminating in the same tones, (3) the same intervals, preceded by a distractor tone, and (4) the same intervals followed by a distractor tone. Conditions 3a and 4a were also run, with the distance of the distractor tone from its adjacent tone changed from a major third to a minor third. Recognition of the minor third, tritone, and minor and major sixths was enhanced by condition 4, as compared with the control condition 2. In condition 3 incorrect responses overestimated the targets, whereas in condition 4 targets were underestimated. There was no evidence that pitch recognition ability in nonabsolute pitch subjects aids interval recognition.
Music in Special Education Before 1930: Hearing and Speech Development
Authors: Solomon Alan L.
Published: June 2006

This paper examines the ways music has, historically, been used to treat two problems that cut across the boundaries of many areas of exceptionality: retarded speech development and impaired hearing. To support the hypothesis that music played an important role in hearing and speech development in early special classrooms, evidence is presented of actual nineteenth-century classroom practices. Pictures of classrooms in the first schools for the deaf in the United States show evidence of music activities and the presence of music instruments. Early diagnostic uses of music to determine hearing capacity and an analysis of texts written in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries covering the uses of music in the special classroom to develop speech are also presented.
A History of Music Education in the Black Community of Kansas City, Kansas, 1905-1954
Authors: Buckner Reginald T.
Published: June 2006

This study investigated music education in the black community of Kansas City, Kansas, from 1905 to 1954. It examined the facilities, teachers, curriculum, activities, and students to determine if this history was worthy of recognition by mainstream music education. Public documents, including annual reports, courses of study, personnel records, grade reports, programs, and newspaper articles, were the main sources of information. Interviews and letters of former students, teachers, and administrators were used as supportive evidence. The study documents the respectable music education that developed in this black community by identifying the black music educators who possessed outstanding credentials, the curriculum, and the musical activities that resulted from their students' involvement. This study, which helps to fill a void in the documentation of blacks in music education, provides valuable historical data on a nonwhite group's music educational development.
Elementary School Children' s Concept of Tonality
Authors: Wassum Sylvesta
Published: June 2006

The study was conducted over a five-year period simultaneously with a study of children' s vocal ranges. Data were drawn from 1, 062 testings of 496 children, including 40 who comprised three longitudinal (L) groups. Results were derived from ascending and descending major scale patterns and a child-selected song. The concept of tonality (scales and songs) is a “ learned” concept, not related at a significant level to voice range. The sample population performed better on song singing; the L groups performed better on scale singing. Consistent teaching of both tasks is required in order for children to develop a concept of tonality in their elementary years. Individual differences among the three L groups were noted. The study indicated that performance testing avoids verbalization problems encountered by receptive/interpretive testing. Positive responses of children to non-Western musics may be due to the lack of differentiation among tonal systems or to other factors that are more easily discerned: loudness, timbre, or rhythm.
Developing and Using Videotapes to Teach Rehearsal Techniques and Principles
Authors: Gonzo Carroll , Forsythe Jere
Published: June 2006

This report describes a project in which a series of videotapes that demonstrate the principles of teaching employed in a rehearsal setting of junior high school, senior high school, and college choral organizations were developed. The tapes were produced as teaching aids for music education classes to help prospective music teachers understand the relationship among teacher, learner, and subject in the music classroom. In choral methods classes the tapes were used to demonstrate rehearsal techniques and principles. Each tape contained examples of teaching techniques, musical problems, and singers' vocal behavior on one of nine topics—pitch, rhythm, phrasing, interpretation, text, intonation, note accuracy, and conducting techniques. These tapes were used in three ways. One approach was to present tape excerpts in class after a brief introduction. Students then discussed what they had seen. A second approach was to allow students to check out the tapes for personal viewing. The third approach was to have a graduate student show the tapes to groups of students in a quiz section. Three other tapes, made from the same initial footage, were used in an introductory music education course to demonstrate rehearsal techniques and principles of behavior modification as they relate to choral ensemble rehearsals. Since two sections of the course were offered, it was possible to have an experimental and a control group. A posttest only control group design was used to test whether the class of students receiving the video material would be significantly different from the control class in observational skills, knowledge of behavioral principles (final exam), and attitude toward the course. Students in the experimental groups showed significantly fewer incorrect responses in the observation tests and reported a higher level of interest in the course as reported in the questionnaire.
Discrimination of Pitch Direction by Preschool Children with Verbal and Nonverbal Tasks
Authors: Webster Peter R. , Schlentrich Kathy
Published: June 2006

This study investigated the abilities of 4- and 5-year-old children for discriminating pitch direction using one of three modes of response: verbal (spoken), gestural, and performance-based. The sample ( N = 107) included children from two different nursery school settings and was balanced with respect to age and gender. Three testing formats were constructed to correspond with the three response modes. They were designed to be as equivalent as possible. The results reinforced the notion that nonverbal, performance- based response modes are the most natural way for young children to react to pitch direction without substantive training. A large number of children (34%) responded at or below chance regardless of mode. The variables of gender, presentation order, number of pitches per item, item range, and item direction did not show significant effects on test results. Mean score tendencies, however, warrant further study.
Discrimination and Interference in the Recall of Melodic Stimuli
Authors: Madsen Clifford K. , Staum Myra J.
Published: June 2006

Two studies were designed to investigate the nature of forgetting in regard to melodic stimuli; specifically, the degree to which 400 college-age subjects were able to discriminate identical melodies when extremely similar melodies were interpolated between test and recall melodies. Additionally, an attempt was made to investigate differences that might be attributed to either modal (major-minor) or meter (simple-compound) presentations. In each experiment, nonmusic majors were given a 16 trial stimulus presentation consisting of nine 10-sec. melodies per trial. In each trial, the initial test melody was presented followed by 8 additional melodies. After each of the melody presentations, subjects indicated whether that particular melody was identical to or different from, the first test melody. All 144 melodies for the 16 trials were extremely similar in that they represented 4 alterations of 4 similar original melodies. The original melodies were based on a descending diatonic scale with modal and meter alterations. The first experiment attempted to isolate simple-compound alterations; the second experiment, major-minor alterations. Results indicated that subjects were able to discriminate effectively throughout the stimulus presentations with extremely high accuracy for those specific melodies that were identical to the test melody. In addition, when melodies were identical except for slight modifications, melodies presented in duple meter appeared less susceptible to interference than melodies in triple meter or than melodies having modal changes. As would be expected, accuracy declined across time and across interpolated melodies; however, even after 8 interpolated melodies, subjects recalled the test melody with at least 43% accuracy.
Musical Development in Preschool Disadvantaged Children
Authors: Young William T.
Published: June 2006

The present study was designed to investigate the effect of a structured program of musical training on the musical abilities of preschool children from disadvantaged backgrounds. All the children in one advantaged school and one disadvantaged school were given musical instruction. A second pair of preschools (one advantaged and one disadvantaged) were used as control groups. All children were pre- and posttested with an especially designed primary music ability test. Data from these tests were analyzed by means of an A x B two-factor design using 32 individuals in each of the four cells for a total N of 128.

Results showed no statistical difference between abilities of the two advantaged groups of children and the disadvantaged group that had received instruction. The overall conclusion was that the type of instruction offered in this project was effective for all, regardless of environmental background.
The Effect of Various Instructional Modes on Children's Performance of Music Concept Tasks
Authors: Taebel Donald K.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the development of children's concepts of volume, tempo, duration, and pitch. The specific goals were to determine the effects of grade level, instructional mode, and task variables on performance of music concept tasks. The instrument chosen to measure conceptual behavior consisted of four parts, each of which contained twenty two-choice problems. The listener was asked to select the positive exemplar of a concept. Treatment consisted of four modes of instruction designated as discovery, verbal cue, verbal response, and motor response. Tests were administered to 260 children randomly selected from kindergarten, first, and second grades. The sample, which was stratified by grades, was divided into four nearly-equal treatment groups. The results led to the conclusion that age was a significant variable, particularly between kindergarten and first grade. It also was concluded that volume concepts were readily available and that tempo concepts were slightly less so. Duration and pitch concepts were demonstrated poorly. The effect of the instructional mode was not significant in a consistent manner but varied with the ages of the subjects and the kinds of conceptual tasks given.
The Maidstone Movement—Influential British Precursor of American Public School Instrumental Classes
Authors: Deverich Robin K.
Published: June 2006

This report describes the developmental path of the Maidstone Movement, a British group violin instructional program for children (1897–1939), and examines the extent of the movement's influence upon the emergence of instrumental classes in American public schools. This study found that the Maidstone Movement directly influenced Albert G. Mitchell's 1911 formation of the first public school violin classes in the United States. Athough the movement does not appear to have had a significant methodological impact on American instrumental classes in general, widely circulated reports of the Maidstone Movement motivated school music educators throughout the United States to develop their own group instrumental programs.
Effects of Music Loudness on Task Performance and Self-Report of College-Aged Students
Authors: Wolfe David E.
Published: June 2006

This study examined the effects of the loudness of background music on task performance of college students. In addition, students' perceptions of the music and the effect these perceptions had on performance were investigated. Two hundred undergraduate nonmusic majors were randomly assigned to one of four experimental groups: (1) task only (no music); (2) task plus background music presented at 60–70 dB (all decibel measurements here are on the C scale); (3) task plus background music presented at 70–80 dB; and (4) task plus background music presented at 80–90 dB. The performance task consisted of computing mathematic problems, and a questionnaire was subsequently administered to the task plus background music groups to assess perceptions of the background environment. Results indicated that (1) the experimental conditions had no significant effect on task performance; (2) the majority of subjects did recognize the music and were able to identify some of the selections; and (3) subjects in the 80–90 dB group perceived the music as most distracting, with the majority of these same subjects reporting that the musical element of loudness seemed to be the contributing factor. Findings are discussed in relation to current music and noise research, and implications for educational and therapeutic applications are given.
Montessorian Music Method: Unpublished Works
Authors: Rubin Jeanne S.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this article was to announce the existence of 35 unpublished booklets on Montessorian music education that were conceived by Maria Montessori and authored by her music consultant, Anna Maria Maccheroni, at the beginning of this century. These booklets considerably extend the brief portions devoted to music in Montessori's publications. The joint effort of these two women resulted in a comprehensive program that is distinctive by reason of unique aspects that include (1) collaboration, (2) structure, (3) prepared environments, (4) auto-education, (5) control of error, (6) isolation of the aural sense, and (7) scope. Representative examples of distinctive features and a cursory description of the booklets and their contents are presented.
The Effect of Male and Female Vocal Modeling on Pitch-Matching Accuracy of First-Grade Children
Authors: Small Ann R. , McCachern Frances L.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the present study was to determine whether children in first grade could, prior to practice, match pitch more accurately with a female than with a male vocal model. The investigators also sought to determine whether there would be any significant difference in pitch-matching accuracy between groups of first-grade children after a period of practice with a female versus a male vocal model. Results of this study indicated that, prior to practice, subjects who could match pitch with one model could generally match pitch with the other. Practice with vocal models, apart from pitch-matching feedback, did not produce significant differences in accuracy means among practice and control groups. The female model grand mean (pre- and posttest average) was only slightly higher than the male model grand mean. It is apparent that male vocal modeling may not necessarily present unique pitch-matching problems to first-grade children.
Johann Gottfried Schmauk: German-American Music Educator
Authors: Wolf Edward C.
Published: June 2006

German influence was especially strong in the development of nineteenth-century American music education. Some of this influence came from the many German Lutheran parochial schools, churches, and singing schools. Even small congregations customarily supported a schoolmaster-organist, and since the positions of schoolmaster, precentor, choir director, and organist overlapped, music inevitably received prominence in Lutheran education. Johann Gottfried Schmauk was a leading schoolmaster-organist in Phila-delphia from 1819 to 1842 and was instrumental in introducing Pestalozzian methods to German-American music instruction. Schmauk's tunebooks, with their theoretical introductions, received widespread use during the mid-nineteenth century, and these books provide an insight into the methods of vocal music instruction in America at that time as well as evidence of the musical competence that was expected of the old German-American school-masters.
Effect of Music and Biofeedback on Alpha Brainwave Rhythms and Attentiveness
Authors: Wagner Michael J.
Published: June 2006

This study investigated the effect of two music stimuli and silence on alpha rhythm production in the temporal lobes of 30 musicians and 30 nonmusicians. The experiment consisted of a no-feedback and an alpha-feedback presentation.

Analysis of time spent in alpha showed significantly more alpha rhythm content in electroencephalograms of musicians than in electroencephalograms of nonmusicians. Comparisons of results evidenced no significant differences among aural conditions used nor between the no-feedback and alpha-feedback presentation.

Analysis of verbal reports of attentiveness indicated that subjects ascribed a significantly lower attentiveness rating to silence conditions than to either music condition. Correlational analysis between time spent in alpha and verbal reports of attentiveness showed that an extremely low correlation existed between the two dependent measures.