bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
I Know One When I See One (Or, I Know One Because I Am One): A Response to Mabbott
Authors: Sparks Richard L. , Ganschow Leonore , Javorsky James
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  Educational institutions have witnessed an explosive growth in the numbers of children, adolescents, and adults labeled as learning disabled (LD). The term LD is used increasingly by both educators and the general public. Recently, the term has also appeared in the foreign language literature. However, the LD concept has come under increasing criticism because of the problems of finding an acceptable definition and the concept's lack of scientific validity. In a recent article in this journal, Ann Mabbott describes as LD five adults, all of whom have achieved degrees of proficiency in a foreign language. In this response to Mabbott, the authors take issue with her diagnosis of the subjects as LD because she provides neither substantive standardized testing evidence of the subjects' intellectual ability and academic achievement nor corroboration of the subjects' self‐reports of their native and foreign language learning problems. The importance of using objective criteria to diminish heterogeneity in research samples is examined in the context of Mabbott's case studies.
From Theory to Practice: How Do We Prepare Teachers for Second Language Classrooms?
Authors: Tedick Diane J. , Walker Constance L.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  Major reform efforts in the field of teacher education have occurred during the past decade. This article provides a description of one institution's response to reform efforts within the context of a post‐baccalaureate second language teacher education program, which combines the preparation of foreign language and English as a second language (ESL) teachers. The description begins with a brief overview of the theoretical and philosophical foundations that guide practice within the program. These foundations include a brief analysis of what the authors perceive as fundamental problems in second language education as well as their beliefs that teachers and students both act as knowers and learners in an active, experiential, and integrative process; that teaching is context sensitive; and that reflection is a cornerstone in teacher development. The program description details how the various components–underlying themes, coursework, experiences, and demonstrations of growth–interact to form an integrated whole. The article also highlights challenges that face second language teacher educators and invites colleagues in the profession to continue dialogue on the issues.
Internet Resources and Second Language Acquisition: An Evaluation of Virtual Immersion
Authors: Oliva Maurizio , Pollastrini Yvette
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  This article presents the results of a two‐year study on the integration of Internet resources as a primary instructional tool in the teaching of Italian language classes at the University of Utah. All students studying Italian belonged to the virtual community of Italian speakers who communicate daily on various channels and mailing lists. The first section outlines the study and explains the premises on which it is based. Sections Two and Three describe the project design and data Collection methods used. Section Four reports the findings in quantitative and qualitative tables. The final two sections analyze the findings and discuss their implications with respect to our study, as well as future research.
The Language‐Culture Connection in International Business
Authors: Block Brian
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  This article examines the linkage between language and culture within the context of international business. Much has been written relatively independently on language and on culture in international business, but not on the relationship between the two. The overall significance of language in business is considered, after which the nature and strength of the links between language and culture are discussed. Intracultural homogeneity (uniformity within a particular cultural group) and “context” or background are analyzed in terms of language capabilities. The shortcomings of translation and consequent importance of language skills as a means of facilitating acceptance and minimizing resentment of foreign direct investment are additional relevant issues. Finally, attention is paid to certain exceptions to the normally inextricable culture‐language nexus and the danger of separating the two in training and learning situations.
The Interplay of the Personal and the Pragmatic: Language, Culture, and Interpretation in the Spanish Literature Classroom
Authors: Stewart Melissa A. , Talburt Susan
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  Within the current debate over the methods and content of foreign language curricula, discussion of the relevance and role of literature remains largely at the level of conjecture. In order to learn about the value that students ascribe to the study of Spanish literature, we undertook a semester‐long qualitative study of students' goals for, experiences in, and perceptions of a Spanish literature survey course at a regional state university. Methods of data collection were ongoing throughout the semester and included audiotaped classroom observation, interviews with four students, and a reflective teaching journal kept by the instructor. Analysis of the interviews reveals that for these students, the process of studying literature is a mixture of deciphering language, making sense of texts within their social and historical contexts, and sharing textual interpretations. Rather than the limitations frequently cited regarding foreign language literature study, they describe an interplay among language learning, cultural and historical understanding, and textual interpretation in the literature classroom. Their reflections suggest that the study of literature offers a flexible resource with the potential to combine the personal and the pragmatic and thus make their experiences meaningful.
How Should Heritage Languages Be Taught?: The Effects of a Free Voluntary Reading Program
Authors: McQuillan Jeff
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  The United States has experienced a sharp rise in recent years in the number of heritage language (HL) bilinguals, students who speak a language other than English at home. Due to a lack of advanced language development in other settings, many of these students enroll in foreign language courses in their respective home languages. This paper reports on a program designed to promote heritage language and literacy development in one university‐level HL course, Spanish for Native Speakers (SNS). The ten‐week program involved two classes of mostly English‐dominant SNS students participating in an experimental course that included a combination of the following elements: free voluntary reading (FVR) outside the classroom, in‐class literature circles (small group book discussions), a survey of popular literature in Spanish, and individual inquiry learning projects. Three measures of the course were used to evaluate its success in terms of vocabulary acquisition, attitudes toward Spanish literacy development, and reading habits. The experimental group made significant gains in word knowledge, read more than a comparison group of SNS students, and exhibited positive attitudes toward Spanish literacy at the end of the ten‐week course. The evidence in favor of FVR, theoretical justifications for the approach in SNS courses, and implications for redesigning heritage language curricula at the secondary and university levels are discussed.
Tourist or Explorer? Reflection in the Foreign Language Classroom
Authors: Fischer Gerhard
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  The primacy of form over content has long dominated the teaching of foreign languages, and in a predominantly positivistic educational environment the acquisition of content has often been equated with the learning of facts. Such learning and teaching is at odds with John Dewey's views of education in general and with his philosophy of language in particular. This paper uses the metaphors of “tourist” and “explorer” to illuminate the distinction between acquiring linguistic forms and cultural facts on the one hand and using a second language to construct an understanding of another social reality on the other hand. E‐mail messages of German and U.S. students are used to illustrate this point. The paper argues that students and teachers should not take received messages at face value, but that careful reading and asking questions can lead to an understanding of another and of one's own culture. It does not really matter which topics the students discuss under the guidance of their teachers, as long as the students are inquisitive and curious. Such an approach views language as a tool that gives access to another culture, and it is compatible with ethnographic methods of research. Reflection and thought/illness is both a prerequisite and an outgrowth of foreign language instruction that is based on the assumptions outlined in the paper. This can be achieved at fairly low proficiency levels.
Foreign Language Enrollments in Public Secondary Schools, Fall 1994
Authors: Draper Jamie B. , Hicks June H.
Published: January 2009

Foreign language enrollments continue to make healthy increases in public schools across the country, according to the seventeenth in a series of surveys conducted first by the Modern Language Association (1958–1970and then byACTFL (1974‐present). The following report summarizes the responses received from a questionnaire sent to officials in each state and the District of Columbia. Forty‐eight states responded; however, because not all states collect data, and some collect it in inconsistent formats, enrollments were estimated for several states in whole or in part. The survey was conducted pursuant to a grant from the U.S. Department of Education, International Research and Studies Program. The full report is available from ACTFL Headquarters or can be downloaded from the new ACTFL Web Site (http:www.actfl.org).
Circumlocution, Communication Strategies, and The ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines: An Analysis of Student Discourse
Authors: Liskin‐Gasparro Judith E.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  This study was designed to analyze the use of communication (i.e., lexical repair) strategies, particularly circumlocution, by speakers at the Intermediate High and Advanced levels of oral proficiency in Spanish. All of the instances of communication strategies (CSs) used in oral proficiency interviews by 17 Intermediate High speakers and 13 Advanced speakers were analyzed to discover what strategies were favored by speakers at each level. The analysis of learner discourse found that Advanced speakers, more than Intermediate High speakers, rely on a range of L2‐based strategies that included, but was not limited to, circumlocution. The analysis suggests that the statements in the ACTFL Guidelines about CS use be expanded to include strategies besides circumlocution that develop as learners cross the border between the Intermediate High and Advanced levels.
Even Teachers Get the Blues: Recognizing and Alleviating Language Teachers' Feelings of Foreign Language Anxiety
Authors: Horwitz Elaine K.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  Many foreign language students report feeling anxious about language learning. This paper argues that many nonnative foreign language teachers experience foreign language anxiety and that this anxiety can have negative consequences for language teaching. It discusses how anxiety affects teachers' feelings of selfconfidence, use of the target language, and instructional choices and offers suggestions for increasing teachers' target language confidence.
Using Social‐psychological Variables to Predict The Use of Language Learning Strategies
Authors: MacIntyre Peter D. , Noels Kimberly A.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  Much of the interest in language learning strategies stems from the findings that such strategies facilitate language learning and may be teachable; however, several authors have concluded that students do not use as many strategies as they could. A recent social‐psychological model proposes that strategy use depends on knowledge of appropriate strategies, having a reason to use them, and having nothing to prevent their use. The present study attempted to use variables defined by this model to predict the frequency of use for 50 language learning strategies. Results showed that, on average, the model accounted for 60 percent of the variance in strategy use and that all three components of the model were supported for 72 percent of the strategies. Further analyses revealed that integrative motivation and language anxiety play a role in overall strategy use and the use of certain types of strategies, as well as the ratings of knowledge, effectiveness, difficulty, and anxiety caused by strategy use.
How Language Teachers' Beliefs About Reading Instruction Are Mediated by Their Beliefs About Students
Authors: Graden Ellen Collie
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  When the beliefs about reading and reading instruction of six secondary foreign language teachers were compared with their instructional classroom practices, inconsistencies were found in three areas. All six teachers in this qualitative study believed that reading proficiency is facilitated by providing students with frequent opportunities for reading practice, that the use of the target language is preferable for reading instruction, and that oral reading interferes with reading comprehension. Yet, in practice, all six teachers compromised these beliefs because of poor student performance. Implications for teacher education programs include the need to provide a firmer grounding in L2 reading development, to explore the reality of competing belief systems, and to evolve new strategies to maximize preferred reading practices.
Writing to Read and Reading to Write: Teaching Literature in the Foreign Language Classroom
Authors: Kauffmann Ruth A.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  In the literature classroom we are often faced with a wide range of L2 skills that can make inclusive discussion a great challenge. Through writing assignments we can improve the capacity of our literature students to read and analyze assigned texts. Students are given open questions about the text to prepare for the class discussion. These questions are then reformulated as topics for short essays assigned at frequent intervals throughout the semester. The essays are then rewritten for a final grade and evaluation. This approach provides a higher level of motivation for self‐correction that will enable students to overcome, rather than fossilize, their errors.
Kinesics: The Value of Gesture In Language and in the Language Classroom
Authors: Antes Theresa A.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  Kinesics, the study of gesture and facial expression in a language system, has only recently received attention as an important subfield of semiotics or linguistics; however, the role played by gestures is undoubtedly as old as spoken language itself, if not older. Gestures are an integral part of everyday communication, sometimes accompanied by verbal language, sometimes standing alone. They make up a stock that is known (at least implicitly) to the members of a community, yet they often go unnoticed when talking about (and teaching) language, culture, and communication. This article shows the role that gestures play in language systems, evaluates them as a full‐fledged semiotic system, and then shows the value of gestures in the foreign language classroom.
The Use of Critical Thinking Skills In Literary Analysis
Authors: Esplugas Celia , Landwehr Margarete
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  In this article, the authors argue that a successful class in literature should not merely confine itself to traditional classroom methodology in which students follow the teacher's cues. Instead, the instructor should enable the students to exercise their critical thinking skills in interpreting a text. By applying specific cognitive skills in a systematic manner when analyzing literary works, students learn not only to substantiate their interpretations through well‐reasoned arguments but also to become aware of the reasoning process itself.
Communication between High School and College Japanese Language Education: Implications from a Survey on the Use of Video Materials in the United States
Authors: Ito Yuri
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  This paper presents the results of a survey on the use of video materials at high school and college levels. The study was carried out in an attempt to contribute to better communication between the two levels in Japanese language education in the United States, through the analysis and comparison of the results. The questions posed in this study are: 1) What kinds of videos are used at college and high school levels? 2) What are the purposes of using videotaped material? Although there is similarity between the two groups in that both use commercially available videos largely in a supplemental manner, the comparison between the groups on the purposes of video use suggests different emphasis at the two levels, i.e., “language‐inclusive‐culture” teaching, or to teach the culture, of which the language is a part, at the high school level, and “culture‐inclusive‐language” teaching, or to teach the language and the cultural aspects closely related to the language, at the university level.
The Classroom Dynamics Of Information Gap Activities
Authors: Walz Joel
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  British pedagogues developed the concept of the information gap and activities that reproduce it in language classes. The gap refers to the fact that all people possess information unknown to others and that when a need arises to overcome the gap, communication takes place. Activities that exploit this theory are known as jigsaw or information gap activities (IGAs). The author summarizes theories behind peer interaction in language learning and describes the construction of IGAs from authentic documents. He uses a time‐based approach to study four elementary French classes to determine the most effective strategies for using IGAs in small‐group work. By controlling the information deleted and pinpointing what is to be found, teachers can create efficient, high‐language‐use activities that teach not only linguistic skills but also essential cultural information.
Self‐Directed Learning Contracts to Individualize Language Learning in the Classroom1
Authors: McGarrell Hedy M.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  This paper discusses the form and use of learning contracts in second language teaching and learning. It suggests that learning contracts are an ideal means to offer language learners greater opportunities to work toward, and achieve, individual goals. Learning contracts are discussed within the framework of self‐directed learning. A brief definition of self‐directed learning is followed by a discussion of the purpose and function of learning contracts and the role of instructors and learners who use them. Guidelines for implementing learning contracts are supported by sample contracts. The discussion shows how learning contracts allow learners and instructors to work together to help learners work toward personal language learning goals.
Documenting Growth in a Japanese FLES Program
Authors: Tucker G. Richard , Donato Richard , Antonek Janis L.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  This paper describes the implementation and evaluation of the second year of a three‐year pilot project to teach Japanese to all students in grades K through 5 at a Pittsburgh elementary school. Quantitative and qualitative evidence gathered From children's performance on various types of language tasks confirms that they have made notable progress in develop ing proficiency in Japanese. Furthermore, the gains we have documented were not limited to children in the upper grades of the elementary school. At the same time, there were indications From the teacher's enddyear reflection that more could be done to incorporate the program into the “life” of the school.
Building Better Bridges: Middle School to High School Articulation In Foreign Language Programs
Authors: Rieken Elizabeth , Kerby Wilson , Mulhern Frank
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  Research was conducted to identify factors that facilitate a smooth transition from middle school to high school for foreign language students. Data were collected via survey to determine the type of program subjects taught in, degree of success in transition, problems in achieving effective articulation, and effective articulation strategies. Results indicate that middle schools are more likely to offer either exploratory or sequential programs; fewer middle schools offer both of these two program types. In many cases, the programs are viewed as being in conflict. Almost half the respondents indicated that articulation was not successful in their schools. Findings also indicated that the greater the number of articulation strategies practiced, the greater the likelihood that successful transition would occur. Also, different articulation methods made a difference in success of transition.
Sociolinguistic Goals for Foreign Language Teaching and Teachers' Metaphorical Images of Culture1
Authors: Ryan Phyllis M.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT As foreign language teachers teach a language and its linguistic features, they are necessarily involved with sociolinguistic aspects of language. When they discuss culture, it becomes apparent that they have different definitions, concepts, and underlying assumptions about culture. Teachers' beliefs need to be explored as a first step toward understanding the relationship between their thinking and classroom instruction and curriculum design. Studies involving teachers of both Spanish and English as a Foreign language reveal that metaphors provide teachers with a useful visual image to represent their personal views and the elusiveness of cultural concepts. This article suggests that teachers become ethnographers investigating their own beliefs and those of other teachers while developing sociolinguistic goals For their communicative programs.
Adapting a Cognitive Apprenticeship Method to Foreign Language Classrooms
Authors: Hosenfeld Carol , Cavour Isabel , Bonk David
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  Apprenticeship approaches to education have been used throughout history. They were used in the Greek and Roman Empires, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and they are used in many countries today to teach manual and intellectual skills. Recently, a new form of apprenticeship has emerged in education to teach cognitive skills used in performing classroom tasks. Called “Cognitive Apprenticeship Methods,” they have been used chiefly with native speakers of a language. The purpose of this article is to reconceptualize one of these current methods to provide beginning foreign language learners with the knowledge they need to acquire the four strategies of reciprocal teaching within a “cognitive apprenticeship hamework.” This article gives teachers an example of a set of lesson plans that embed the teaching of prerequisite declarative and procedural knowledge needed to perform higher order cognitive tasks. It has been developed simply as a model for foreign language teachers who may adapt it to fit their own lesson plans for their own textbooks. Translations of the tasks into English allow teachers of other languages and/or using other textbooks to adapt the principles and ideas to their own materials.
Promoting Spontaneous Speech in the EFL Class
Authors: Norman Ünal
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  A common concern of teachers of English as a second or foreign language is how to stimulate their students to use English in spontaneous speech beyond the mechanical level of many textbooks. This article outlines a set of classroom activities to promote Free oral interaction for EFL students at the intermediate level. Basically, an initial stage of individual preparation is recommended in order to give the students some confidence to use English Freely in class. The responsibility of searching for topics and preparing the groundwork for class discussions rests with the students. The materials suggested for various class activities are newspapers, short articles, poems, and scenes From plays, which provide the students with a more authentic medium of language than the EFL textbooks. The teacher's function is to inform the students about possible resources, lay down the ground rules, and encourage Freedom of speech. These activities satisfy not only their need to use English in meaningful exchanges but also their intellects.
From the Margins to the Mainstream: Foreign Language Education and Community‐Based Learning
Authors: Overfield Denise M.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  There is a growing amount of research in language learning and general education that supports the idea that addressing the fifth goal of the National Standards–communities–in the language classroom can be an effective way of teaching the target language. In addition, situating foreign language education within the literal and metaphorical spaces of our communities serves to emphasize the relevance of foreign languages in the contemporary world. This article gives specific examples of how community‐based learning (CBL) in the foreign language classroom addresses the issue of communicative competence.
The Minnesota Articulation Project and its Proficiency‐Based Assessments
Authors: Chalhoub‐Deville Micheline
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  Various articulation projects have been funded across the country with an eye toward improving foreign language learning and instruction. The present paper reports on the Minnesota Articulation Project. It provides an overview of the project's three principal working groups: political action, curriculum, and assessment. The paper then outlines the theoretical underpinnings of the proficiency‐based assessment instruments developed in French, German, and Spanish, and describes in detail the content and format of these instruments.
Assessing the Assessments: The OPI and the SOPI
Authors: Kuo Jane , Jiang Xixiang
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  This paper is an overall examination of the two forms of oral proficiency testing currently in use in most language teaching programs across the country, namely, the Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI) and the Simulated Oral Proficiency Interview (SOPI). The authors, who have extensive experience in conducting the OPI and in training SOPI raters, have attempted to provide readers with an objective assessment of these two oral language tests by comparatively examining the test administration, response elicitation, and rating procedures. At the same time, the paper also provides a concise but general overview of the two test instruments regarding their theoretical underpinnings, administrative support from their test developers, and the test structures and contents.

While recognizing that the two tests under discussion are both proven to be valid and reliable oral proficiency measurements, the authors have examined the characteristics that distinguish them as two different tests suitable for different purposes in different situations. Teachers are encouraged to initially identify the specific testing needs of their own institutions, and then align the features of the two oral tests with their institutional requirements before making a decision on a particular form of the test.
When Are They Going to Say “It” Right? Understanding Learner Talk During Pair‐Work Activity
Authors: Brooks Frank B. , Donato Richard , McGlonem J. Victor
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  Adopting sociocultural theory as their conceptual framework, the authors set out to study selected features of student discourse of three pairs of third‐semester (i.e., intermediate‐level) learners of Spanish at the university level. Specifically, they wanted to investigate how these selected features, identified in an earlier research project (Brooks and Donato 1994), developed during opportunities to engage in five different but similar jigsaw tasks. Through discourse analysis, they traced these features and found that the students indeed developed and became better at performing the tasks. Their work suggests that if the purpose and function of learner language during problem‐solving tasks are not clearly understood, learners may end up being denied strategic opportunities for language activity that can lead to their saying “it” right.
Increasing the Communicative Competence of Foreign Language Students Through the FL Chatroom
Authors: Rankin Walter
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT The popular online “chatroom” can be incorporated into course syllabi of foreign language courses as a regular homework assignment to encourage students to use the target language actively and frequently. By scheduling regular visits to an FL‐specific chatroom, the FL instructor can greatly increase the amount of time students spend communicating in the target language. The FL chatroom allows the instructor and students to continue more in‐depth discussions–grammatical, cultural, and literary–outside of the classroom. Further, these discussions can be opened up to include other sections and classes, as well as guests from outside the institution. Thus, students from all levels of language learning can benefit from a shared knowledge base.
Foreign Languages and Cross‐Cultural Knowledge: A Survey of Their Importance as Perceived by Human Resources Departments of Ohio's International Businesses
Authors: D'Agruma Giannina , Hardy James T.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  Leaders in many professions now realize that fluency in a foreign language and understanding the thinking and behavior of customers and competitors are essential in their fields if the United States is to participate effectively in this global community. The intent of this study was to investigate the degree of importance that Human Resources Departments of Ohio's international businesses place on foreign languages and cross‐cultural understanding when they select candidates for their divisions, on foreign languages and cross‐cultural training for employees once they are hired, and on cooperation with colleges and universities to provide the training. The results indicate that a slight minority of the 170 responding companies consider it important to hire employees with foreign languages and cross‐cultural knowledge; several added that they would consider it most important if the hiring was done for international assignments. Even though a slight minority of companies with expatriates (the term used in business for employees working overseas) do not offer foreign languages and cross cultural training, almost all agree that such training increases productivity among expatriates and generates greater success with the assignment. Companies make little use of colleges and/or universities to train/educate employees and for translation and interpreting; however, if colleges and/or universities were to offer short‐term courses for employees who travel or are transferred overseas, many companies would be interested in enrolling their employees.
Computers and L2 Reading: Student Performance, Student Attitudes1
Authors: Davis James N. , Lyman‐Hager Mary Ann
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  We investigated the ways intermediate‐level undergraduate students of French interacted with a computerized L2 reading gloss from three perspectives: 1) the relationship between the group's choice of program options and the quantity and accuracy of their comprehension; 2) individual user styles; and 3) student perceptions of the effectiveness of the program. Opinions of the software were unanimously favorable, although there was no evidence of a relationship between computer use and comprehension. While many types of information were available to them, students tended to consult almost exclusively word definitions provided in English. Comparisons of tracker data with recall protocols implied that comprehension might have improved had other program components also been accessed. We conclude with suggestions for more effective L2 reading software design for students at this instructional level, as well as with indications of likely directions for future research.
Grammar Instruction for Writing Skills: Do Students Perceive Grammar as Useful?
Authors: Manley Joan H. , Calk Linda
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  As communication has emerged as a goal for second language instruction, the role of grammar in support of communicative goals is being reexamined by the language teaching community. This article describes a classroom‐based study to determine the perceptions of language students themselves regarding grammar instruction, specifically as it relates to the writing skill. The first section presents some issues involved in defining a role for grammar study. It is followed by a description of the study, including excerpts from student essays and explanations of classroom lessons used to teach grammar points, using a communicative approach to language instruction. The results of the study, including both qualitative and quantitative data, are then presented, as well as recommendations for future investigations into the topic of grammar study.
Referential Strategy Training for Second Language Reading Comprehension of Japanese Texts
Authors: Kitajima Ryu
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  Coreferential ties play an important role in extended discourse by connecting different sentences in the text mediated by common referents. Yet monitoring referential ties is a problematic area, causing miscomprehension in L2 (second language) reading. One factor involved in this problem is the variation of cohesive devices of coreferentiality among different languages. This study examines whether or not strategy training that orients students' attention toward referential processes will help them comprehend a Japanese narrative. Two groups of students enrolled in a fourth‐semester Japanese course participated in this study. The experimental group received in‐class strategy training that focused on solving referential problems and using syntactic and discourse cues. For a posttest, the students were asked to read a Japanese narrative and to rewrite the contents in English. The results show that the experimental group of students comprehended the story at the macro level significantly better than the control group of students. These results suggest that strategy training that directs students to focus on monitoring referential ties is beneficial to L2 readers' reading comprehension.
A Comparison of Two Multiple‐Choice Test Formats for Assessing English Structure Competence
Authors: Chung Jing‐mei
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  This study uses item analysis techniques to compare two multiple‐choice test formats, referred to here as Form A and Form B, for assessing student competence in English structure in terms of mean scores, item difficulty, and item discrimination. Data for this analysis are derived from test answer sheets completed by 239 students, which included 144 college students and 95 senior high school students. Form A is composed of 20 “sore finger” test items, which are randomly selected from previous TOEFL papers, and is an error‐detection task. The 20 test items on Form B, which are exactly the same sentences as those on Form A, are traditional multiple‐choice items. The results of the study show that the mean score of Form B is significantly higher than that of Form A. It means that Form B is much easier than Form A for the subjects of the study. It is therefore suggested that Form B may be more suitable for younger or lower‐level students so as to inspire confidence in students, while Form A may be more appropriate for higher‐level students to train their error detection skills in grammar. Examinations of individual items reveal that difficulty and discrimination aspects are item‐specific rather than format‐dependent, and items with moderate difficulty indices tend to have better discrimination power.
Planning for Writing Instruction in a Middle‐Years Immersion/Partial Immersion Setting
Authors: Bilash Olenka S.E.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  Based on a literature review and the reflective practice of a second language teacher educator, this paper discusses three categories of planning for writing instruction for middle‐years students in an immersion or partial immersion context: planning for long‐term balance, planning for daily implementation, and planning for task success. It highlights five considerations that may help reduce student anxiety and improve both the experience of writing and the product: selecting topics, making the writing task as authentic and communicative as possible, providing the language supports necessary for success in a second language context, choosing forms with an appropriate amount of text, and choosing forms governed by an appropriate number of rules. A template for planning writing tasks is included, along with several examples.
Examining the Relationship Between L2 Listening Research, Pedagogical Theory, and Practice1
Authors: Berne Jane E.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  A survey of language instructors was conducted to examine the relationship between L2 listening research, pedagogical theory, and practice. Descriptive and qualitative analyses of the responses suggest that there are gaps between L2 listening pedagogical theory and practice, and between L2 listening research and practice. Several suggestions for closing the gap between L2 listening research and practice are then proposed.
L2 Reading: An Update on Relevant L1 Research
Authors: Brown Carol M.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  First language (L1) reading research, from the psycholinguistic view of reading proposed by Goodman (1967) to schema theory and the interactive reading view (Rumelhart 1977), has had a major impact on second language (L2) reading research. There was a substantial lag in time, however, before these L1 theories were adapted and proposed for L2 reading. The purpose of this article, therefore, is to introduce the L2 researcher to the relevant and current L1 text comprehension issues and theories to help close this gap. Such issues involve 1) levels of representation, especially the situation model, 2) the role of memory in comprehension, 3) content of knowledge structures and inferencing, and 4) the explanation‐based theory of text comprehension. L2 reading research and instruction has much to gain by addressing and investigating these issues.
Taking Foreign Languages in High School
Authors: Finn Jeremy D.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  This study examined variability in foreign language courses taken by students in American high schools. The conceptual model for the study depicted engagement in language courses as being shaped by (1) the school's offerings; (2) school policies and practices that determine access for some or all students, and (3) student choice: the focus of the study was on the first two of these. Data consisted of actual course catalogues of three hundred forty public and private high schools, and transcripts of approximately twenty‐four thousand students who graduated from those schools in 1994. Course offerings in specific languages and summary measures of offerings were examined by school sector, enrollment, urbanicity, and socioeconomic status. Course‐taking, with total credits and advanced study considered separately, was summarized for the student sample. Finally, course‐taking was examined in a statistical model that included school demographic characteristics, school policies (language requirements; advanced language offerings), and student characteristics including academic track. In addition to providing descriptive information about language offerings and course‐taking, the investigation underscored the importance of advanced offerings (especially for more able students), the effects of school‐wide language requirements (especially for lower‐track students), and the deleterious effect of tracking on foreign language study.
Politeness Strategies in Chinese Business Correspondence and Their Teaching Applications1
Authors: Hong Wei
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  The present article reports on an empirical study of the politeness strategies in Chinese business correspondence and considers its applications in teaching Business Chinese. The study investigated twenty examples of business correspondence by native speakers of Chinese. By analyzing the linguistic/stylistic features of the letters in two predesigned situations, the study found a range of various politeness strategies employed for the writing of the correspondence. The study concludes that such a variety of politeness strategies relates strongly to Chinese politeness values and business etiquette. It is therefore suggested, from the empirical data collected from the letters, that such strategies be implemented in an advanced Business Chinese curriculum. Possible instructional methods are recommended for such implementation.
Cross‐cultural Pragmatics—Building in Analysis of Communication Across Cultures and Languages: Examples from Japanese1
Authors: Austin Theresa
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  Native language users draw on implicit understandings and cultural patterns to create and understand messages in conversation. What can foreign language learners do to learn these implicit understandings and patterns so that they may appropriate the language well enough to accomplish the same? What basic unit of analysis can we use to build curricula supportive of this development? Adding to the complexity of interpreting and constructing meaning in a particular language is the cross‐cultural factor. Ways of constructing conversations between two people from different cultures may have similarities and differences from ways in which Japanese and Americans construct conversations with members from their own individual cultures. Cross‐cultural pragmatic knowledge is important to building the individual's ability to communicate with people from different cultures. This paper argues for giving higher priority to developing cross‐cultural pragmatic competence in communication. Examples will be provided from Japanese, where knowledge about cross‐cultural pragmatics helps a learner to construct meanings. Also included are examples of two approaches to designing curricula that would create contextualized opportunities for learners to develop this type of competence and how grammar, i.e., the metalinguistic knowledge about language, can be used to further this type of language learning.
Keeping the Optic Constant: A Framework of Principles for Writing and Specifying the AEI Definitions of Language Abilities
Authors: Lowe Pardee
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  This article examines the need to keep constant the optic, the framework within which the AEI definitions, both the ILR Language Skill Level Descriptions and the ACTFL Guidelines, are revised and more fully specified. Although the definitions have been used for a variety of purposes, such as curriculum development, the discussion below focuses on their use in describing and assessing foreign language user abilities. The author raises issues concerning the delimiting of the AEI ranges, parsimony, and more fully specifying the criterion‐referenced nature of the definitions as well as those concerning their use for assessing the abilities of target language natives and of heritage speakers. In the following, seventeen principles are presented and their utility examined for keeping the optic constant.
Language Development in Social Interaction: A Longitudinal Study of a Japanese FLES Program from a Vygotskyan Approach
Authors: Takahashi Etsuko
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  This study reports the results of a three year‐long qualitative observation study of a Japanese FLES (Foreign Language in Elementary School) program. The observation was analyzed from the sociocultural point of view led by Vygotsky. A Vygotskyan approach treats learning through social guidance and motivation as central to an account of language development. The analysis of the three protocols illustrates the following four findings important in the sociocultural theoretical framework; (1) the assistance given in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) allowed the learners to outperform their current linguistic skills; (2) as the learners' language use developed, they became more capable of providing mutual assistance during classroom activities; (3) the learners were enabled to participate in classroom activities in a more dynamic, student‐centered manner, by collaboration in scaffolding; and (4) the way the learners provided mutual assistance reflected the way the teacher offered them assistance, which indicates that the learners' learning and development were largely influenced by the social interaction established in the given classroom environment.
Authorizing the Foreign Language Student
Authors: Maxim Hiram H.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  This paper begins by reviewing the current practices in foreign language teaching in light of Bourdieu's theories of language and power to show how failing to assess discursive intent prevents students from understanding the strategic use of language. Bourdieu's model is then proposed as the basis for a pedagogy that authorizes students to use their existing cognitive skills in order to assess a text's discourse and uncover its verbal and nonverbal strategies. To illustrate this alternative pedagogy, pedagogical techniques used to teach a short video segment from German television in a third‐semester Business German course will be discussed. Each of the techniques encourages students to look for the significance of the video's visual as well as verbal discourse. To help exemplify both the authorizing process and the pedagogical effectiveness of this new approach, these techniques will also be compared with input exercises that ask students to register information without assessing discursive intent. As a final point, this paper will discuss oral and written exercises that build on students' insights from their analysis of the video's visual and acoustic features.
Role Reversal: The Problems of a Spanish‐Speaking Anglo Teaching Spanish to English Dominant Puerto Rican Children
Authors: Ariza Eileen N.
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  This article describes the unique situation of an Anglo, Spanish‐speaking teacher who is assigned to teach Spanish to a group of non‐Spanish‐speaking youngsters of Puerto Rican descent. The irony is that the children have been raised in the dominant Anglo culture of the mainland United States and are in Puerto Rico against their wishes. Broken families and relocations have caused tremendous strife and have hindered the children's acceptance of the culture and Spanish language. Successfull strategies that overcame the socio‐ and psycho‐linguistic barriers are listed as the teacher describes how she created a non‐threatening learning environment.
Building Connections to Culture: A Student‐Centered Approach
Authors: Jourdain Sarah
Published: January 2009

ABSTRACT  This paper provides a model for becoming more student‐centered when addressing cultural materials in the classroom. The model is comprised of three phases: (1) an information‐gathering phase; (2) a target‐language communication phase, and (3) a phase in which cultural values are discussed. Phases (1) and (2) shift the task of gathering and presenting cultural materials from the teacher to the student, leaving the teacher free to act as facilitator. The teacher's expertise is also required to guide students as they subsequently reflect on the values of the culture they are studying. This student‐centered focus on culture helps students to strengthen their research skills, allows them practice in communicating in the target language, and builds greater understanding of the values inherent in foreign cultures.