bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Media and Globalization
Authors: Sinclair John
Published: September 2017

While in everyday language “globalization” usually refers to economic and political integration on a world scale, it also has a crucial cultural dimension in which the media have a central role. Indeed, in sociology and other disciplines that focus on the media, the concept of globalization has had to be adopted so as to take account of a new reality in which global institutions, especially the media, impact upon the structures and processes of the nation‐state, including its national culture. In that sense, media globalization is about how most national media systems have become more internationalized, becoming more open to outside influences, both in their content and in their ownership and control. This is a cultural phenomenon, one with implications for our contemporary sense of identity, but it is closely linked also to the economic and political factors driving globalization, notably the deregulation of national markets and the liberalization of trade and investment, which in turn facilitate the inroads of global corporations.
Media Literacy
Authors: Potter W. James , Christ William G.
Published: September 2017

Media literacy is a term that has been used to refer to a great many ideas. It has been treated as a public policy health issue; a critical‐cultural issue; as a set of pedagogical tools for school teachers or suggestions for parents; and as a topic of scholarly inquiry from a physiological, psychological, behavioral, sociological, and/or anthropological tradition. Some writers focus primarily on one culture, such as American culture, British culture, Canadian culture, or Chilean culture, while others concentrate on several countries and/or cultures. It is a term applied to the study of media industries, textual interpretation, context and ideology, production, and audience. The term is also used as synonymous with or as part of media education.
Media and Nationalism
Authors: Mihelj Sabina
Published: September 2017

Over the past few decades the relationship between media and nationalism has rapidly developed from a rather marginal topic to one of the most prominent issues in the field of media and communication studies. Developments in communication technology, especially the introduction of satellite television and the World Wide Web, have fueled hopes about the gradual weakening of nation‐states and national attachments and the creation of an interconnected worldwide community. Yet nation‐states, nations, and nationalisms are alive and well despite – and perhaps because of – the dense communication flows circumventing national borders and challenging the national order of things both from above and from below.
Media and Sport
Authors: Bruce Toni
Published: September 2017

This entry encompasses the history and recent developments in sociological scholarship on media and sport. Sports events saturate the popular landscape via television, newspapers, magazines, video games, and the Internet. Despite a long history of interdependence between sport and the media, the sociological analysis of the sports media has a relatively short history, and several significant areas remain under‐researched.
Mediated Interaction
Authors: Wood Helen
Published: September 2017

The phrase mediated interaction is now more popularly associated with the speed and ease of Internet connections which facilitate new ways of creating electronic interpersonal relationships and community‐building through facilities like web forums, SMS messaging, and ICQ. But that is to ignore the involvement of much of the “mass media” – and that phrase itself is problematic – interceding in forms of human life and relationships. Psychiatrists Horton and Wohl (1956) wrote of the ways in which the mass media, radio, television, and film, give an illusion of face‐to‐face relationships between spectator and performer which they describe as “
para
‐social.” More recently, John Caughie has talked about the potential for
pseudo
‐involvements with media figures as “mediated social relationships.” The focus here is on continuities produced through different media over time in their various involvements in the human business of “interaction.”
Medical Sociology
Authors: Cockerham William C.
Published: September 2017

Medical sociology is a subdiscipline of sociology that studies the social causes and consequences of health and illness. It is a relatively new sociological specialty. What makes medical sociology important is the significant role social factors play in determining the health of individuals, groups, and the larger society. Social conditions and situations not only cause illness, but they also help prevent it. This entry examines the development of medical sociology from its inception until the present, including its major works and theoretical developments.
Melting Pot
Authors: Pastrana Antonio (Jay) , Battle Juan
Published: September 2017

Mainly used as a metaphor to evoke the experiences of assimilation for immigrants in the United States, “melting pot” is a term that has been used by scholars and policy‐makers in the exploration of race/ethnicity, immigration, and inequality. One strand of this concept rests on the belief that immigrant groups eventually shed beliefs, linguistic styles, and other cultural practices from their country of origin and meld with other people in order to form a new US‐based culture. However, another strand contends that a melting of previous identities occurs but that what is newly created is a reflection of the dominant culture that already exists in the United States. The melting pot encompasses both of these ideas and has contributed to the growing literature on assimilation.
Merton, Robert K. (1910–2003)
Authors: Johnston Barry V.
Published: September 2017

Robert K. Merton is among the last of the pansophic scholars in American sociology. His works have opened or deepened new fields of study in the sociology of science, studies of social time, the development and analysis of social theory, and the exploration of the dynamic relationship between sociological theory and empirical research. To this brief list of intellectual contributions should also be added a highly improbable journey from working‐class origins in South Philadelphia to Harvard, a 62‐year association with Columbia University, and a journey to the White House in 1994 as the first sociologist to receive the National Medal of Science. The last distinction was one of many acknowledgments for a renowned and distinguished life of scholarship and contributions to sociology and society.
Mesostructure
Authors: Ulmer Jeffery T.
Published: September 2017

As the term itself suggests, mesostructure refers to the social processes and ordering that occur between the macro and micro levels of social organization. Mesostructure is the level of social analysis within which more macro structural or cultural arrangements shape and condition situations of interaction between individuals or groups, and within which the latter in turn maintain, modify, or change the former. Mesostructure also provides a perspective from which to study social organization and structure without compromising an emphasis on the importance of interaction process and human agency. Mesostructure therefore extends Herbert Blumer's insight that people collectively and individually act in situations, that situations are conditioned (though not determined) by larger social structures and processes, and that the latter and are produced and potentially changed by the former.
Meta‐Analysis
Authors: (Hans) Bakker J.I.
Published: September 2017

The term “meta‐analysis” can be used to indicate a literature review of a body of empirical findings as disclosed in a large number of focused research reports; a summary of replication research on a specific topic, often undertaken with precisely the same techniques; or a theoretical or methodological analysis of philosophical problems associated with approaches like “methodological individualism” or the ideal‐type method. Sometimes the term is used without a great deal of analytical precision. A meta‐metaparadigm called pragmatic sociology has been proposed but not widely accepted. Sometimes the attention paid to meta‐issues is regarded as too abstract, even by theorists, and too removed from empirical research. However, without good metatheory it is very hard to translate one paradigm or result into a different framework.
Methods, Bootstrap
Authors: Fan Xitao
Published: September 2017

Quantitative researchers in social and behavioral sciences rely heavily on statistical inference. The validity of parametric statistical inference, however, can be in question when the theoretical assumptions are violated. In addition, there may be situations where the theoretical sampling distribution (e.g., function coefficient in discriminant analysis) is not yet known. In these situations, an empirical resampling procedure may be considered as an analytic alternative.
Methods, Visual
Authors: Grady John
Published: September 2017

Concern with visible evidence has been a part of sociology since the beginning with mostly still photographs, maps, and charts being deployed for various illustrative and emotive purposes. Rarely, however, did authors concern themselves with what made these images useful as data. Thus, while many social scientists acknowledged that visuals could make an argument clearer and more memorable, few considered how they might make an argument sounder. Only in the last three decades have researchers interested in a more visual sociology or anthropology responded to this challenge.
Methods, Visual
Authors: Grady John
Published: September 2017

Concern with visible evidence has been a part of sociology since the beginning, with mostly still photographs, maps, and charts being deployed for various illustrative and emotive purposes. Rarely, however, did authors concern themselves with what made these images useful as data. Thus, while many social scientists acknowledged that visuals could make an argument clearer and more memorable, few considered how they might make an argument sounder. Only in the last three decades have researchers interested in a more visual sociology or anthropology responded to this challenge.
Metropolitan Statistical Area
Authors: Farley John E.
Published: September 2017

A Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) is a geographical entity, defined by the Office of Management and the Budget (OMB) and used by the Census Bureau and other agencies, to represent a city or group of cities and its surrounding built‐up and/or economically integrated region. Counties form the building blocks of MSAs and are used because they allow for comparison between censuses, are widely recognized, and are geographical areas for which a wide variety of data are available. The basic concept of the MSA has existed, under various terminology, since the 1950 census, and various modifications in the definition have been made by OMB just prior to each census since. The number of MSAs has increased significantly over time, as smaller urban areas have grown large enough to become recognized as MSAs. There is no limit to the number of counties that may be included in an MSA, and MSAs can cross state lines, with some including parts of as many as three states. The reason for having MSAs is that city boundaries are arbitrary political boundaries, and the true area in which a metropolitan region's residents live and work is always larger than the incorporated area of any given city. By having a metropolitan area defined on the basis of county boundaries, it is possible to have an entity that (1) captures the entire metropolitan region, not just an area arbitrarily defined by political decisions about incorporated area boundaries, annexations, etc., and (2) is based on county boundaries that remain relatively constant, thus permitting geographical comparisons of data over time.
Micro–Macro Links
Authors: Markovsky Barry , Turner Jonathan
Published: September 2017

Microsociological and macrosociological theories address social phenomena at different levels or scales. Macrosociology addresses large‐scale phenomena such as institutions and stratification systems. Microsociology operates at smaller scales such as interpersonal resource exchanges and conversation analysis. For many decades macrosociology and microsociology have developed almost independently of one another. From time to time, the question of how to link these disparate levels of analysis or to close the micro‐macro “gap” has been debated within theoretical sociology (Alexander, Munch, and Smelser, 1986; Huber, 1991; Mayhew, 1981a, 1981b; Ritzer, 1990; Collins, 1975, 1981; Turner, 1983; Buskens, Raub, and van Assen, 2012).
Migration, Ethnic Conflicts, and Racism
Authors: Scherschel Karin
Published: September 2017

Migration refers to a process of people shifting across borders. Recently, sociology has discussed migration as a core element of globalization. Some theorists, like Stephen Castles and Mark J. Miller (1993), have gone so far as to label the last decade of the twentieth century and the first decade of the twenty‐first as the “Age of Migration.” A currently discussed topic has been classified as “new migration,” which is founded on the following reasons: the number of countries and the amount of people that are nowadays involved in migratory processes is distinct from earlier movements. Contemporary migration flows have become globally significant because of the improvement of travel and communication facilities. This crucial effect of globalization has overcome further distances than before. Furthermore, one important aspect is diversity. Scholars distinguish between a wide range of migration types such as asylum seekers, refugees, undocumented migrants, and labor migrants (highly skilled, unskilled). Finally, since the 1990s the increasingly restrictive measures to control migratory process, particularly the flow of asylum seekers, has been qualified as a remarkable feature.
Migration: International
Authors: Kritz Mary M.
Published: September 2017

The United Nations estimates that the world's number of international migrants increased by 36 percent from 1990 to 2005, climbing to a global high of 190.6 million. The United Nations defines an international migrant as a person who has lived outside his or her country of birth for one year or more. Because international migration is a dyadic process, it can be approached and measured from the standpoint of sending or receiving country and includes arrivals and departures of citizens as well as foreigners. It has four components: (1) the in‐migration of persons to a country other than that of their place of birth or citizenship; (2) the return migration of nationals to their home country after residing abroad; (3) the out‐migration of nationals from their home country; and (4) the out‐migration of foreigners from a foreign country to which they had previously immigrated. The first component, commonly referred to as immigration, has received the most research and policy attention.
Immigration and the Labor Force
Authors: Duleep Harriet
Published: September 2017

This entry examines how immigrants fare in their adopted country's labor market and their effect on the native‐born workforce. Illuminating the first issue requires measuring immigrant earnings growth. When no assumptions are imposed, an inverse relationship between immigrant entry earnings and earnings growth emerges: recent immigrants in the United States and Canada have low initial earnings, relative to natives and earlier immigrant cohorts, but high earnings growth, a pattern that is consistent with high levels of human capital investment. Viewing the decision to migrate in terms of source‐country constraints, as opposed to immigrant ability, generates a model that emphasizes the selection of immigrants with more or less transferable skills and varying degrees of permanence. To measure immigration's effect on the native‐born workforce, two analytical strategies – reaching opposing conclusions – have been used. Cross‐area analyses find little evidence of any detrimental immigration effect; whole‐economy analyses find large detrimental effects. The entry ends proposing a third strategy.
Mill, John Stuart (1806–1873)
Authors: Peart Sandra J.
Published: September 2017

In the nineteenth century, social scientists such as John Stuart Mill struggled with the problem of the individual in society: how to achieve the “improvement of mankind” (Robson 1968) when society consists of free and responsible individuals. As he speculated about how behavior is conditioned by culture, habit, and institutions, and new habits form in the context of institutional change, Mill stepped into the burgeoning field of “speculative politics” or what we know of today as sociology. Social scientists, who now sometimes neglect questions relating to the acquisition of tastes or “character,” may fail to appreciate how much of Mill's writing was designed to deal with problems of human development and interaction in the context of social change. Examples in what follows include the Irish land question, emancipation, the laboring poor, and women's rights.
Mind
Authors: Franks David D.
Published: September 2017

In common parlance, mind means cognitive intelligence, self‐consciousness, mentality, or reason, all of which were once considered unique to humans. While some animal forms exhibit these capacities to some extent, only in humans are they developed as primary adaptive mechanisms. In more academic circles, the use of the term mind rather than its other synonyms recalls its place in broader debates in western theories of knowledge. This is especially true in social psychology since the philosophically trained George Herbert Mead demonstrated the dependency of individual mind on society and behavior. Mind had been previously understood purely mentally, as a self‐enclosed, enduring entity in the head rather than an episodic biosocial, behavior‐dependent process. The broad outline of Mead's theory of mind remains important for a thoroughly social rendition of human mentality. Mead's theory and some current continuities and refinements from neuroscience are presented below.
Minzoku
Authors: Yoshino Kosaku
Published: September 2017

Minzoku
is a Japanese word meaning an ethnic group, a nation, a race, or even a combination of all these. A Japanese dictionary defines
minzoku
as “(1) a social group sharing many common characteristics in race, language, culture, religion, etc.; (2) a social group sharing a territory, an economy and a fate and forming a state. A nation” (Umesao et al. 1989).
Minzoku
is one of the many modern Japanese words coined in the westernizing Meiji era (1868–1911) on the basis of original western concepts.
Mobility, Intergenerational and Intragenerational
Authors: Ultee Wout
Published: September 2017

In
Social Mobility
(1927) Sorokin attempted to ascertain for early twentieth‐century western societies like England, France, Germany, Italy, and the US the extent to which “the occupational status of a father determines that of his children,” as well as “the intensiveness of interoccupational shifting within the life of one generation.” Later, these two phenomena were called intergenerational mobility and intragenerational mobility. Behind this distinction lurks the casual observation or conventional wisdom that, whereas in agrarian societies with autocratic or oligarchic rule the transmission of occupation from father to son along the whole range of occupations is strong, in democratic industrial societies people may work their way up the social ladder during the course of their lives. Because of issues concerning the comparability of data, Sorokin could do no more than suggest that intergenerational inheritance was never fully complete nor fully absent, leaving questions about differences between countries in intergenerational mobility and intragenerational mobility to future generations of sociologists.
Mobility, Measuring the Effects of
Authors: Weakliem David L.
Published: September 2017

Social mobility has always been a central concern of sociology, and theorists have offered a wide range of hypotheses concerning the social, political, and cultural consequences of mobility. For example, mobility has been claimed to reduce class solidarity, to produce tension or strain that finds an outlet in extremist politics, and to produce tolerance and breadth of outlook. Some of the claims about the effects of mobility apply primarily at the societal level, others at the individual level, and still others refer to both levels. Claims about the societal level effects can be evaluated only by comparing societies with different amounts or patterns of mobility. Such studies are difficult, since the number of units is necessarily small and obtaining reliable information on mobility patterns requires representative samples using comparable measures of social position. Hence, most empirical research on the effects of social mobility focuses on individuals.
Mobility, Measuring the Effects of
Authors: Weakliem David L.
Published: September 2017

Social mobility has always been a central concern of sociology, and theorists have offered a wide range of hypotheses concerning the social, political, and cultural consequences of mobility. For example, mobility has been claimed to reduce class solidarity, to produce tension or strain, and to produce tolerance and breadth of outlook. Some of these hypotheses apply primarily at the societal level, others at the individual level. Hypotheses about societal level effects can be evaluated only by comparing societies with different amounts or patterns of mobility; such studies are difficult, since the number of units is necessarily small. Therefore, most empirical research on the effects of social mobility focuses on individuals, and the remainder of this entry will do so as well.
Mobilization
Authors: Johnston Hank
Published: September 2017

Mobilization is a basic concept in the study of social change, protest, and social movements. It captures the processes by which groups and resources are transformed from a state of quiescence, non‐involvement, and inconsequence to availability, application, and influence in the social, political, and economic life of the broader community. In current practice the term most commonly refers to activating, marshaling, and putting to use groups and material resources – and often cultural resources – to achieve the success of a collective effort or campaign. So basic and general is the concept of mobilization that it has remained central in the study of protest and social movements despite major theoretical shifts in the field. These shifts have changed the concept's emphasis and application, but not the fundamental principle that in order for disparate and previously uncoordinated individuals and groups successfully to work together to achieve a goal or a collective good, mobilization is necessary. Thus, it is worth noting that
Mobilization
is also the title of the major peer‐reviewed research journal in the field of protest and social movement studies.
Modernity
Authors: Delanty Gerard
Published: September 2017

The idea of modernity concerns the interpretation of the present time in light of historical reinterpretation. It refers too to the confluence of the cultural, social, and political currents in modern society. The term signals a tension within modern society between its various dynamics and suggests a process by which society constantly renews itself.
Money Management in Families
Authors: Elizabeth Vivienne
Published: September 2017

The equal sharing of financial resources and, hence, material well‐being has become an assumed norm of contemporary heterosexual families. Of course, this is not to say that heterosexual couples actually enjoy financial equality or that they share a similar standard of living. In fact, as Pahl (1989) pointed out over 15 years ago, the failure to open up the black box of familial economies to sociological scrutiny has operated to disguise intrafamilial inequalities: amongst married couples these inequalities, as numerous studies have consistently demonstrated, possess a strongly gendered character. It is women and children who tend to be poor even when the households to which they belong are in receipt of adequate incomes.
Money Management in Families
Authors: Elizabeth Vivienne
Published: September 2017

Two widely held assumptions inform the starting point for thinking about money management in families: first, that family members pool incomes together in one pot; and second, that family members enjoy equal access to the financial resources of their households. Both of these assumptions have been subject to significant challenges over the last 25 years. Indeed, as Pahl (1989) demonstrated some time ago, the historical failure of sociologists to scrutinize the “black box” of familial economies obscured the existence of intrafamilial inequalities. Among heterosexual families this inequality remains strongly gendered: it is women and children who are reliant on the intrafamilial redistribution of money if they are to have equal access to financial resources.
Moral Entrepreneur
Authors: De Young Mary
Published: September 2017

A moral entrepreneur is an individual, group, or formal organization that takes on the responsibility of persuading society to develop or to enforce rules that are consistent with its own ardently held moral beliefs. Moral entrepreneurs may act as rule creators by crusading for the passage of rules, laws, and policies against behaviors they find abhorrent, or as rule enforcers by administering and implementing them. Although these are different and distinct roles, the effect of moral entrepreneurship, according to Howard Becker who coined the term, is the formation of a new class of outsiders whose behavior now violates these newly minted regulations and therefore is subject to the opprobrious label of “deviant.”
Moral Entrepreneur
Authors: de Young Mary
Published: September 2017

A moral entrepreneur takes on the task of protecting society from alleged threats to its moral order. Whether as a rule‐creator or as a rule‐enforcer, a moral entrepreneur uses public fora, the international media, and social media to advance an agenda. More than just a “meddling busybody,” a moral entrepreneur plays a significant role in the social construction of a social problem, the fomenting of a social movement, as well as in a moral crusade or a moral panic, and in moral regulation initiatives. The moral entrepreneur has been of interest to sociologists ever since Howard Becker coined the term more than a half‐century ago.
Moral Panics
Authors: Bromley David G.
Published: September 2017

The phrase “moral panic” was initially coined by Jock Young in an essay in Stanley Cohen's
Images of Deviance
(Cohen, 1971) and was subsequently developed theoretically and applied empirically in Cohen's
Folk Devils and Moral Panics
(Cohen, 2002 [1972]). Cohen studied two British youth movements of the 1960s, the Mods and Rockers, whose feuding in 1964 triggered what he analyzed as a moral panic. According to Cohen, the episode he studied was not unique; indeed he proposed that societies are likely to experience moral panics periodically through their histories. He defined a moral panic as a condition that responds to a threat to established values or interests. The condition is analyzed and diagnosed by various spokespersons and experts, who make moral pronouncements and become the focus of sensationalized media coverage. Societal responses may lead to either subsidence or exacerbation of the situation.
Mortality: Transitions and Measures
Authors: Ho Jessica Y.
Published: September 2017

Mortality transitions are one of the most remarkable population changes to occur over the past three centuries and have important implications for societies’ population size, growth, and age structure. Over the course of human history, life expectancy at birth has more than tripled as countries have transitioned from high to low mortality regimes. The earliest estimates based on skeletal remains, burial inscriptions, and parish registers indicate that, from prehistoric times to around 1400, life expectancy was around 20–30 years. The first national level population estimates for Western European countries date from 1750 and place life expectancy in the range of 30–40 years from the mid‐eighteenth to mid‐nineteenth century. By 1900, life expectancy in these countries reached roughly 50 years. Today, low mortality countries have achieved life expectancies ranging from 75 to 86 years. The mortality transitions in most developed countries began in the mid‐eighteenth to early nineteenth centuries, with the bulk of mortality declines occurring in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and are considered largely complete. Mortality transitions in developing countries, on the other hand, began much later (mostly concentrated in the latter half of the twentieth century), proceeded much more rapidly, and are still in progress.
Multivariate Analysis
Authors: Baur Nina , Lamnek Siegfried
Published: September 2017

One way to classify quantitative methods of social research is by the number of variables involved in statistical data analysis procedures. In univariate statistics, just one variable is of interest, while in bivariate statistics the relation between two variables is analyzed. Multivariate analysis involves, in the loose sense of the term, more than two variables and, in its strict sense, at least two dependent and two independent variables. With increasing numbers of variables, statistical modeling becomes necessary and more complex. At the same time, these models are more appropriate for social sciences, since in social reality many variables are intertwined and there is rarely one central determination.
Mumford, Lewis (1895–1990)
Authors: Luccarelli Mark
Published: September 2017

Lewis Mumford was born in New York City. He is best known as an architectural critic and urban historian, and author of
The City in History
(1961), undoubtedly his greatest work. Of mixed German and German‐Jewish heritage, Mumford grew up with his mother and maternal grandfather – an immigrant and head waiter who took the boy for long walks, initiating Mumford's lifelong interest in cities. With the publication of
The Culture of Cities
(1938) Mumford achieved widespread recognition that grew when the
New Yorker
magazine hired him to write its
Skyline
column. A journalist by profession, he had wide‐ranging intellectual interests and wrote convincingly on a variety of topics, including technology and culture, literary criticism, social ethics, and politics. Mumford was a “public intellectual” who addressed the educated public rather than a specific academic community. Despite or perhaps because of audience, he undertook an ambitious intellectual project: the reexamination of modernity in the light of growing scientific and imaginative understandings of evolutionary processes. Mumford thought that in respect to developments in technology, architecture, and urban form, culture could be likened to the workings of nature, and like the philosopher John Dewey he held that creative innovation holds the key to evolving designs appropriate to the task of reconciling human values and natural processes.
Moral Careers
Authors: Loy John W.
Published: September 2017

Human careers are of prime concern to sociologists, as studying careers “allows one to move back and forth between the personal and the public, between the self and its significant society” (Goffman 1961: 127). This back and forth movement stimulates what C. Wright Mills (1959) calls
the sociological imagination
that “enables us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two in society” (p. 6). It highlights what Mills calls the fruitful distinction of the sociological imagination between “the personal troubles of milieu” and “the public issues of social structure” (p. 8).
Mauss, Marcel (1872–1950)
Authors: Vera Herná
Published: September 2017

Marcel Mauss was born in 1872 in the French town of Épinal, near the German border, where his uncle and mentor Émile Durkheim had been born 14 years earlier. Like Durkheim, Mauss did not participate in the Jewish religious traditions of his family but became a free thinker. In Lorraine, the department of Durkheim's and Mauss's birth, Jews had often been victims of violence and blind religious hatred. The need to struggle against this anti‐Jewish animosity increased cohesion among the Jewish community, which, in Durkheim's words, had “a very keen sense of itself” (quoted in Fournier 2006: 13). In addition, Mauss and Durkheim participated in the infamous Dreyfus affair at the turn of the century. When the Germans occupied Paris during World War II, Mauss suffered the indignities imposed on the population, including those imposed on the Jews. He was forced out of a comfortable apartment in the rue Jourdan and witnessed the decimation of his library (which to this day remains dispersed among the books in the library of the Musée de l'Homme in Paris, where it was placed by students in 1940, together with boxes containing over 20,000 bibliographic card annotations). The loss of this library was no minor detail in the life and career of a scholar whose work was based on the critical study of ethnographic documents. Nazi anti‐Jewish laws forced Mauss to resign from his academic positions at the École des Hautes Études and the Collège de France, to which he was reinstated in November 1944. He also had to wear a yellow Star of David with the wordJude– which he enlarged – on his coat. The persecution of the Jewish community in Paris, the exile to concentration camps, and the extermination of countless friends deeply grieved Mauss. One of his students, Germaine Tillion, wrote a memoir,Ravensbruk, using the ethnographic methods she had learned from Mauss.
Mühlmann, Wilhelm E. (1904–1988)
Authors: Schutte Gerhard
Published: September 2017

Mühlmann is relatively unknown to the English‐speaking anthropological and sociological discourse. This may partially be due to his occupation of the interstice between ethnology and sociology. Wilhelm Emil Mühlmann was born in Düsseldorf on October 1, 1904. At the University of Freiburg in 1925 he studied phenomenology under Edmund Husserl and human genetics under Eugen Fischer. Richard Thurnwald in Berlin introduced him to anthropological functionalism, an aberration in the predominant diffusionist climate of the time. He completed his doctoral studies in 1931 on
Die geheime Gesellschaft der Arioi
(The Arioi Secret Society) in Tahiti. His postdoctoral thesis (
Habilitation
):
Staatsbildung und Amphictyonien in Polynesien
(State Formation and Amphictyonies in Polynesia) was rejected because of “political unreliability.” However, after he joined the National Socialist Party (NSDAP) it was approved in 1938.
Nationalism and Sport
Authors: Bairner Alan
Published: September 2017

The existence of a close relationship between sport and nationalism is widely accepted. This relationship manifests itself in the concept of national sports, in the enduring popularity of international competitions, events, and contests, and in the myriad ways in which politicians and politically motivated groups have sought to harness sport to national causes. On the other hand, questions are increasingly being asked not only about the future of the relationship between nationalism and sport, but also about the fate of the nation itself. The argument is perfectly straightforward, even though it is commonly expressed in far from accessible language. Put simply, it is asserted that economic, political, cultural, and ideological trends, supported by a pervasive and all‐powerful global media industry, must inevitably destroy the distinctiveness upon which nations, nationalism, and national identities depend for their very existence.
Negative Case Analysis
Authors: Athens Lonnie
Published: September 2017

Over the years, negative case analysis has also been referred to as “analytic induction” and “the limited case study method.” Regardless of the name, the researchers who use this method deliberately search for empirical cases that contradict a scientific law or a working hypothesis with the goal of improving the hypothesis or law as well as the underlying conception of the problem to which the law or hypothesis applies. Thus, researchers who use this method do not eschew the discovery of a negative case. On the contrary, they would welcome such a discovery because it would not only give them the opportunity to overturn an established scientific law, but also allow them to invent an alternative hypothesis that could potentially become a pathbreaking scientific discovery (see Becker, 1998: 194–212).
Neoconservatism
Authors: Gamble Andrew
Published: September 2017

Neoconservatism is a particular variant of US conservatism. The label was first applied in the 1970s to a group of dissident liberal intellectuals around particular journals such as the
Public Interest
and
Commentary
. They included Irving Kristol, Norman Podhoretz, Daniel Bell, and Seymour Martin Lipset. Unlike the term neoliberal, the neoconservatives adopted the label with enthusiasm, describing it as a persuasion rather than as a faction. As an important if small intellectual elite, they became a component of the growing conservative movement in the United States through the 1980s and 1990s. Some neoconservatives were influential in the Reagan administration, but they appeared to be in decline in the 1990s. Nevertheless, several neoconservatives were appointed to significant posts in the George W. Bush administration, and the influence of neoconservatism on the policies of the administration after 9/11, particularly the decision to invade Iraq, was marked.
Neoliberalism
Authors: Gamble Andrew
Published: September 2017

Neoliberalism as a distinctive strand of liberal ideology first appeared in the 1940s, but its period of major influence is usually dated from the 1970s. The label is disliked by neoliberals themselves, who generally prefer to be known as classical liberals, libertarians, social market liberals, or simply liberals. Neoliberalism is not a uniform doctrine and has many internal tensions, not least between a
laissez‐faire
strand which believes that the best policy is to allow markets to operate with as few impediments as possible, and a social market strand which believes that for the free market to reach its full potential the state has to be active in creating and sustaining the institutions which make that possible.
New Age
Authors: Introvigne Massimo
Published: September 2017

Although “New Age” is now a household term throughout the world, its precise definition remains elusive. Sociologists have insisted that, although it is often referred to as the “New Age movement,” it is not really a social movement but a network. Disparate “alternative” groups started networking together in the 1960s and met in common festivals, meetings, and conferences under the general label of “New Age,” and the common concept that a new, better era was coming. The Findhorn community in Scotland and the Esalen Institute in Big Sur, California, both established in 1962, are regarded by many as the beginning of the international network, although “New Age” became internationally well known only in the 1970s. The network emphasized its “alternative” nature, seeking at the same time forms of spirituality different from western mainline Christianity, healing techniques alternative to mainline medicine and psychology, and a style of political participation different from traditional parties and organizations. New Age was largely a coming together of preexisting networks, from those focused on eastern or metaphysical spirituality to those interested in non‐mainstream medicine or “deep” ecology. In this sense, some sociologists defined New Age as a network of networks, or metanetwork.
New Middle Classes in Asia
Authors: Embong Abdul Rahman
Published: September 2017

The middle class has become a very important social force, influencing the direction of social and political change and governance as well as consumption patterns in the contemporary world. Middle‐class growth and expansion underwent three phases, with the first phase being in Europe after the Industrial Revolution, followed by the second centered on Europe, North America, and Japan following World War
II
, while the third phase is centered on Asia in the early twenty‐first century. This reflects a historic shift with the base of consumption moving from the West to the East, with Asia now producing the world's largest middle class. Given their different experiences of development, the middle classes in Japan, China, and India make important case studies.
New Social Movement Theory
Authors: Buechler Steven M.
Published: September 2017

New social movement theory (NSMT) emerged in the 1980s in Europe to analyze new types of social movements that appeared from the 1960s onward. These movements were seen as “new” in contrast to the “old” working‐class movement identified by Marxist theory as the major challenger to capitalist society. By contrast, new social movements are organized around race, ethnicity, youth, sexuality, countercultures, environmentalism, pacifism, human rights, and the like. NSMT is a distinct approach to the study of social movements, albeit with significant internal variations (Cohen 1985; Klandermans 1991; Larana et al. 1994).
New Urbanism
Authors: Aseltine Elyshia
Published: September 2017

New urbanism is a philosophical and spatial‐use approach to architectural and city planning that emphasizes creating high‐density, self‐contained communities that meet both the spatial and social needs of neighborhood residents. The ideal new urbanism community is compact, multi or mixed use, diverse in terms of race, ethnicity, income, and age, and pedestrian and public transportation friendly. New urbanist ideals have been used in both revitalization efforts of existing neighborhoods as well as in the creation of new communities, such as Celebration, Florida, Kentlands, Maryland and Laguna, California. New urbanism gained popularity as a planning approach in the 1980s as a criticism of mid‐nineteenth century development patterns of suburban sprawl and disinvestment in central cities. Despite the recent increase in support of new urbanist ideals, new urbanism is not considered a new approach to community planning; instead, its proponents espouse a return to a more “traditional urbanism” (i.e., compact, close‐knit communities that developed naturally until the twentieth century). For advocates of new urbanism, current zoning regulations and subdivision laws are creating communities that are environmentally, physically, and socially destructive. New urbanism supporters suggest that suburban sprawl and central city disinvestment lead to increasing racial and economic segregation, overuse and destruction of environmental resources and habitats, threats to distinct local cultures of place, and limited access of the poor to decent, affordable housing, as well as adequate services and employment opportunities. Advocates propose the principles of new urbanism as a means of revitalizing declining urban areas, promoting local culture, preserving limited natural resources, assisting in addressing social inequalities, and creating spaces more conducive to challenging social problems, such as crime. While the link between the spatial organization of a community and its social health is not new to urban planning overall, new urbanism is unique in that it makes this connection explicit in its planning strategies (Congress for the New Urbanism 2000). Given its broad depth of concerns, new urbanism has piqued the interests of individuals and groups concerned with environmental protection, historical preservation, smart growth, transportation, and social justice.
Non‐resident Parents
Authors: Smyth Bruce , Vnuk Maria
Published: September 2017

Family life has undergone dramatic change in recent decades, especially in relation to family structure. Marked increases in union dissolution and nonmarital childbearing have resulted in a growing number of children living apart from one of their parents. Most nonresident parents are fathers but with shared‐time parenting (also known as joint physical custody) emerging as a new family form in many western countries, children are increasingly in the care of their fathers post‐separation.
Norms
Authors: Dandaneau Steven P.
Published: September 2017

Typically considered the founder of modern sociology, Émile Durkheim famously theorized society as both a system of integration involving social bonds and institutions and, even more importantly, as a normative order
sui generis
. While the former manifestation of society is highlighted in the title of his
The Division of Labor in Society
(1984 [1893]), the latter is more clearly at stake in his last great book,
The Elementary Forms of Religious Life
(1995 [1912]). For Durkheim, society was said to function to produce varying degrees of cohesiveness and regulation within groups, the former an attribute of the type and quality of reciprocal social bonds produced by a given division of labor, the latter the outcome of external repressive forces exerted by a moral fabric that is greater than, objective to, and constraining of individuals. The threads composing this fabric are norms.
National Self‐Determination
Authors: Conversi Daniele
Published: September 2017

Self‐determination
is a principle in international law according to which a people ought to be able to determine its own future and political status, in freedom from external interference. Hence it embodies the right for all peoples to decide their own political, economic, and cultural development.
Objectivity
Authors: Schwandt Thomas A.
Published: September 2017

In everyday life we worry about objectivity. We hear things like: “that judge wasn't very objective”; “he is speaking from his own prejudices”; “that was a very biased comment,” and so on. If we analyze these ways of speaking, we realize several different uses of the termobjectivity. It can refer toa property or quality of a claim: a claim or statement is objective if it is supported with reasons and evidence (or warrantable, supportable), and it is subjective if it is not so supported and only an expression of individual taste or preference. Objectivity can also refer toa characteristic of a person: the objective person is unbiased, unprejudiced, and evinces respect for the importance of evidence and argument. Finally,an aspect or characteristic of a processor means by which a claim is warranted can be called objective. Hence, some argue that the enterprise of science is objective because the claims of scientists are subject to public scrutiny and intersubjective criticism.
Observation, Participant and Non‐participant
Authors: Hammersley Martyn
Published: September 2017

As a method of inquiry, observation is an alternative or complement to the use of interview, documentary, or questionnaire data. It is usually conceived as taking place in “natural” rather than experimental situations, even though experiments necessarily rely on observations by the experimenter. At a minimum, observation involves a researcher watching and listening to actions and events within some context over some period of time, and making a record of what has been witnessed.