bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ontologies, Problem Representation, and the Cuban Missile Crisis
Authors: Sylvan Donald A. , Thorson Stuart J.
Published: March 2007

“Problem representation” and “ontology” are introduced as concepts critical to understanding foreign policy decision making. The article explicates these concepts and their relationship and focuses on such issues of representation rather than veridical descriptions of reality, thereby shifting attention away from concern with misperception and toward attempting to understand how these representations are socially constructed and modified. It is argued that the conflict resolution process can be enhanced by inclusion of concerns with “problem representation” and “ontology” along with traditional interest in “option selection.” These concepts are then related to decision making in the cuban missile crisis. Two different ways of using new information on the crisis — and more generally understanding foreign policy decision making — are presented. The first is deemed an “option selection” perspective. A second approach expresses a theory of foreign policy decision making in a model of one important aspect of the Cuban missile crisis — the debate over whether Soviet missiles in Cuba were offensive. That model illustrates why focusing primarily on options or alternatives may obscure the most critical determinants of decision making. By focusing on ontologies and problem representations, the new model illustrates an approach to understanding and representing why some decision makers are predisposed to particular options over others.
The Economic Theory of Alliances
Authors: Sandler Todd
Published: March 2007

This article surveys the development of the economic theory of alliances over the last quarter of a century since the 1966 article by Olson and Zeckhauser. The pure public good model and the joint product model are presented and then brought up to date. Alternative demand functions for military expenditures are indicated. Issues that concern alliance size, burden sharing, and suboptimality are addressed for the alternative paradigms. Theoretical extensions are reviewed and have involved the technology of public supply, the security function, alternative cost structures, group allocation processes, and institutional arrangements. Finally, theoretical developments are briefly related to the large empirical literature.
Influences on the Duration of Wars, Strikes, Riots, and Family Arguments
Authors: Vuchinich Samuel , Teachman Jay
Published: March 2007

Utility theory has been frequently applied in the analyses of the outbreak of war. The present study extends the application of utility theory to conflict duration. The authors consider how the perceived utility of continuing conflict changes while conflicts are under way, and posit that conflicts end when the utility of continuing is less than the utility of surrender. Predictions developed from the theory are tested, using hazard models, on duration data from actual wars, strikes, riots, and family arguments. Consistent with utility theory, the likelihood of wars and strikes ending is found to decrease while they are under way, exhibiting a tendency for these conflicts to become entrenched. In sharp contrast to this, but consistent with utility theory, riots and family arguments are more likely to end the longer they last. Size of conflict and dispute issue are shown to effect duration in some circumstances. The results offer a way of explaining how conflicts between “rational” organizations become entrenched and resistant to resolution. Implications for efforts to reduce conflict duration are discussed.
A Conjunctural Model of Political Conflict
Authors: Schock Kurt
Published: March 2007

Violent political conflict has typically been studied either from an economic discontent or a political opportunity framework. This study proposes a conjunctural model, which hypothesizes that the production of grievances due to economic inequality varies systematically and interacts with political opportunities to generate violent political conflict. Using multiple regression analysis, this cross-national research examines the interaction between economic inequality and political opportunities, and their direct effects on political violence. Findings provide support for the conjunctural model propositions that political opportunity structures moderate the relationship between economic inequality and violent political conflict. Specifically, the positive effects of income inequality and separatist potential on political violence are enhanced in weak states. The impact of class exploitation on violent political conflict is moderated by regime structure and political institutionalization. Findings suggest that political opportunity structures may operate in different ways for challenges rooted in class as opposed to ethnic inequalities.
Dynamics of Theory Change in the Social Sciences
Authors: Brush Stephen G.
Published: March 2007

The extent to which theories in the social sciences are accepted or rejected on the basis of empirical tests can be shown only by a detailed analysis of specific cases. The author examines the reception by social scientists in the 1970s and early 1980s of T. R. Gurr's theory of collective violence based on the concept of relative deprivation. The history of this theory may be considered an example of definite progress in social science: a hypothesis widely accepted at one time has been tested and rejected, thus making room for the development of alternative hypotheses. But although Gurr and other advocates of the theory have abandoned it in its original form following the mostly negative results of empirical tests, many social scientists (especially psychologists) have continued to cite it favorably. Slightly less than half of the unfavorable citations have been supported by references to empirical evidence.
Democratic Politics and International Trade Negotiations
Authors: Milner Helen V. , Rosendorff B. Peter
Published: March 2007

Elections affect both the probability of successful ratification and the terms of international trade agreements; domestic politics in its simplest form shapes international negotiations. Without elections, the extent of protection in a trade agreement increases with the degree of divided government, and the Schelling conjecture—whereby an international negotiator can point to a hawkish legislature to extract greater concessions from the foreign country—holds only when the legislature is not too hawkish. An election (where the executive anticipates the preferences of the legislature imperfectly) implies that when divisions in government rise, the probability of ratification failure increases, the expected outcome becomes more protectionist, and the executive's influence vis-à-vis the foreign country declines, thus challenging the Schelling conjecture.
Endogenous Domestic Institutions in Two-Level Games and Parliamentary Oversight of the European Union
Authors: Pahre Robert
Published: March 2007

Many scholars argue that domestic politics can tie the hands of diplomats, who can sometimes exploit these constraints for bargaining leverage in international negotiations. The author examines domestic institutions that make such constraints permanent, and thus credible, in a parliamentary system. Existing “divided government” theories are unable to explain the pattern of parliamentary constraints that we find because they treat executive preferences as exogenous to the legislature. In the author's model of parliamentary politics, in contrast, parties may constrain the government by forming governing coalitions or establishing effective oversight institutions. This model explains the variation in these oversight mechanisms among the members of the European Union (EU). The most interesting of these is Denmark's system of parliamentary oversight, which the author analyzes in detail. Among the newest members of the EU, analogous institutions are most likely in Sweden and least likely in Austria.
All Politics Are Local
Authors: Gartner Scott Sigmund , Segura Gary M. , Wilkening Michael
Published: March 2007

Inquiries into the domestic determinants of international behavior, including democratic peace arguments, build on the pioneering work of Mueller by presupposing that individuals in a democracy are extremely sensitive to casualties. The authors hypothesize that this relationship is, in part, dependent on the rate at which casualties accumulate and the local variation in these costs. Employing, for the first time, spatially disaggregated “killed in action” data, the authors offer a multivariate logit model of individual opinion on the administration's policies in Vietnam as a function of both local- and national-level casualties. The authors find that recent county-level losses and partisanship are important predictors of individual opinion on the president's policies early in the war as marginal casualties increased but are less helpful in understanding opinion in the war's later years when marginal casualties declined. Conversely, a number of individual-level variables that had minimal explanatory power at the beginning of the conflict become more important.
A Cross-Cultural Exploration of the Reference Dependence of Crucial Group Decisions under Risk
Authors: Levi Ariel S. , Whyte Glen
Published: March 2007

This study investigates risky group decision making in Japan from a prospect theory perspective. Hypotheses concerning the effects of the reference point on risk preferences in group decision making were tested by content analyzing transcripts of Japanese leaders' deliberations prior to their 1941 decision for war and subsequent attack on Pearl Harbor. Consistent with prospect theory, the results show systematic associations between the reference point used and the riskiness of policy recommendations. The highly risky decision for war appears to have been influenced by the group's reference point, which framed the group's alternatives as a choice between losses. The decision for war thus appears to have been motivated by a desire to avoid what were otherwise perceived as certain losses.
The Latitude of Acceptance
Authors: Yuchtman-Yaar Ephraim , Hermann Tamar
Published: March 2007

This article answers two related questions: did the assassination of Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin bring about significant changes in the attitudes of Israeli Jews toward antigovernment protest, and were there systematic group differences in these attitudes before and after Rabin's assassination? The empirical findings of four public opinion surveys point to a significant decline in overall support for antigovernment protest immediately after the assassination, apparently reflecting the shock effect of the murder. The decline was noticeable across the entire spectrum of political and sociodemographic segments of the public, and the plateau attained shortly after the assassination remained almost intact afterwards. Findings also indicate significant group differences in attitudes toward political protest, especially before the assassination. The changes in attitudes were systematically related to two hypothesized influences: guilt by association and socioeconomic status.
United in Opposition?
Authors: Reising Uwe K. H.
Published: March 2007

This article examines the role of contentious collective action directed toward the European Community by citizens of three member countries—Belgium, France, and the Federal Republic of Germany—over a 16-year period from 1980 to 1995. Specifically, it looks at whether contentious collective action that is directed at the policies or the institutions of the European Union occurs independently of other collective action in the three member countries under focus, or whether diffusion or contagion effects within the countries and across country boundaries are present. The article uses time-series of protest events with a generalized event-count model to test for the presence of cross-national contagion effects. Results show the presence of both spatial and temporal diffusion effects among the three countries, indicating the adaptation of protesters to new, evolving forms of governance.
Serbian Compliance or Defiance in Kosovo?
Authors: Pevehouse Jon C. , Goldstein Joshua S.
Published: March 2007

Working during the third week of NATO's bombing campaign against Serbia (in April 1999), the authors analyzed events data from the Kosovo conflict for January 1998 through January 1999. The authors expected the Serbian government's actions toward Kosovo to show an inverse-triangular response to Western actions toward Serbia—a response pattern found earlier for Serb forces in Bosnia and for Iraq from 1979 to 1997. The authors found, however, using time-series statistics, that Serbian actions toward Kosovo were not affected by international actions toward Serbia, despite bilateral reciprocity in the international-Serbian dyad. If this past pattern continues, it is predicted that NATO bombing will not affect Serbian actions toward Kosovo either by inducing Serbian compliance or by provoking greater Serbian hostility toward Kosovo Albanians.
The Meaning of “Being Chinese” and “Being American”
Authors: Tsai Jeanne L. , Ying Yu-Wen , Lee Peter A.
Published: March 2007

Few studies have investigated how the meanings attached to being of a particular culture vary within cultural groups. The meanings of “being Chinese” and “being American” were compared among three Chinese American groups: 122 American-born Chinese (ABC), 119 immigrant Chinese who arrived in the United States before or at age 12, and 112 immigrant Chinese who arrived in the United States after age 12. Participants completed the General Ethnicity Questionnaire (abridged version). For each group, the relationship between “being Chinese” and “being American” and the specific cultural domains (e.g., engagement in American activities, Chinese language proficiency) on which they were based were assessed. Results suggest that “being Chinese” and “being American” were unrelated for ABC, but were negatively related for immigrant Chinese. Results also suggest that for immigrants, the domains on which “being Chinese” and “being American” are based change with increased stay in the United States.
Social Dominance Orientation and the Legitimization of Inequality Across Cultures
Authors: Pratto Felicia , Liu James H. , Levin Shana , Sidanius Jim , Shih Margaret , Bachrach Hagit , Hegarty Peter
Published: March 2007

The authors tested three hypotheses from social dominance theory in four cultures: (a) that individual differences in social dominance orientation (SDO), or the preference for group-based inequality, can be reliably measured in societies that are group-based hegemonies; (b) that SDO correlates positively with attitudes supporting hegemonic groups and correlates negatively with attitudes supporting oppressed groups; and (c) that men are higher on SDO than women. For the most part, the results confirmed the hypotheses. SDO scales were internally reliable and were administered in English, Chinese, and Hebrew. SDO scores correlated with sexism, measured in culturally appropriate ways, in every culture, and with ethnic prejudice and other attitudes concerning the local hegemony except in China. Men were higher on SDO than women in most samples. Findings are discussed in terms of ideological and psychological facilitators of group dominance.
Conceptions of Wisdom among Taiwanese Chinese
Authors: Yang Shih-Ying
Published: March 2007

To fully understand wisdom, culture must be taken into account. Several previous studies have shown that people in diverse cultures define wisdom differently. Two studies investigated the concept of wisdom in Taiwanese Chinese culture through examination of implicit theories of wisdom. In study 1, a master list of the behavioral attributes of a wise person was compiled from the responses of 296 adult participants. Another group of adult participants ( N = 616) was asked to rate this master list for wisdom in study 2. The ratings were factor analyzed. Results show that Taiwanese Chinese have well-formed conceptions of wisdom consisting of four factors: competencies and knowledge, benevolence and compassion, openness and profundity, and modesty and unobtrusiveness. A tentative definition of wisdom is proposed according to these findings.
Sex and Culture Differences in Perceptions of Estimated Multiple Intelligence for Self and Family
Authors: Furnham Adrian , Shahidi Shahriar , Baluch Bahman
Published: March 2007

In all, 212 British and 154 Iranian students estimated their own, their parents’, and their siblings’scores on the Gardner (1983) seven multiple intelligences. Men tended to rate their own mathematical and spatial intelligence higher than did women. Iranian students thought they themselves had lower mathematical but higher spatial, musical, and intrapersonal intelligence compared with British students The Iranians rated their fathers’ mathematical and spatial IQs lower but their interpersonal and intrapersonal IQs higher than did British students. The Iranians rated their mothers’ IQs significantly lower than did the British on six of the seven scales. Results for siblings showed far fewer gender and interaction effects but many effects of culture, particularly for first brothers. Iranians rated the intelligence of their first brothers higher than did the British on six of the seven scales. Iranians tended to be more in favor of tests and more willing to acknowledge race and gender differences.
Future Time Perspectives of Adolescents in India and The United States
Authors: Mehta Perin , Sundberg Norman D. , Rohila Pritam K. , Tyler Leona E.
Published: March 2007

A review of event-listing research suggests that longer time perspective is associated with more favorable characteristics including higher socio-economic level. The major samples consisted of approximately 100 boys and 80 girls each in ninth grades in small towns in India and America. They did not show significant differences on median time attributed to seven expected life events, though Indian boys showed greater diversity. In smaller samples in large cities, high socio-economic groups had longer time spans, but again nationality and sex differences did not appear. Content analysis showed a greater American emphasis on leisure and one's own courtship, marriage, and children, while a greater Indian emphasis was placed on other's courtship, marriage, and children, other's deaths and health. For further work, the authors suggested the study of individual meanings attached to this aspect of life perspective and planning.
The Salience of Negative Information in Impression Formation Among Two Danish Samples
Authors: Gray-Little Bernadette
Published: March 2007

Two Danish samples were asked to rate an unknown other based on two descriptions, one containing praiseworthy and the other reproachable behaviors. With both samples, negative descriptions had a delayed disproportionate effect on the impression formed. The results for Danish subjects are similar to those found with Americans in spite of broad social and cultural differences which would seem to militate against this similarity.
Weight Conservation and Matrix-Solving Ability in Papuan Children
Authors: Heron Alastair , Dowel Wend Y
Published: March 2007

A nonverbal method of assessing ability to conserve weight is further validated, and an earlier finding that fifty percent of Zambian urban school children of median stated age of thirteen years cannot do so is repeated with a comparable sample of Papuan children. A quasi-experimental study is made of the reasoning ability of conservers and nonconservers: this confirms previous observations by Goodnow and by Heron that this is largely unrelated to conservation status. Following a model put forward by Flavell and Wohlwill, it is suggested that the transitional stage in various cultures may be unduly extended, thus presenting a variable and incomplete range of competences regarded by Piaget as together forming a unitary stage of concrete operations.
Patterns of Intellectual Ability in Jewish and Arab Children in Israel
Authors: Kugelmass Sol , Lieblich Amia , Bossik Dorit
Published: March 2007

Two samples of Israeli Arab village children were tested on an Arabic translation of the WPPSI. The subtest profiles of these samples were compared to a relevant subsample of the Israeli Jewish normative national sample. In contrast to the Jewish ethnic subsamples, the pattern for the Arab rural samples was distinctly different. These findings, based on the usual mean score analysis, were supplemented by a more extensive analysis based on the total distribution of scores. Correlational configurations of the two samples, however, reveal certain invariance of the structure. The findings are related to other studies.
Value Preferences Associated with Social Class, Sex, and Race
Authors: Malpass Roy S. , Symonds John D.
Published: March 2007

Preferences for 92 values were measured in ten groups of Ss in two separate and geographically distinct settings in the United States. Groups consisted of black and white males and females of lower-and middle-class status. Factor analysis showed five shared value composites: (1) the good life, (2) pleasant working companions, (3) balance and adjustment, (4) artistic creativity, and (5) religiousness. Class differentiated groups more than race or sex on composites 1-4. Middle-class groups showed lower preference for the first two and higher for the third value composite, as compared with lower-class groups. Black groups showed higher preference than whites for the fifth. Discriminant analysis showed the greatest differentiation of groups when groups are combined on the basis of class.
Affiliation Motivation and Hawaiian-American Achievement
Authors: Gallimore Ronald
Published: March 2007

Research was reviewed suggesting that Hawaiian-American achievement is related to affiliation motivation. Fantasy n affiliation (nAff) was correlated with reading achievement test scores, but not math achievement scores, for a sample of 67 males and females. There was no relationship between n Ach and achievement test scores. The process linking nAff and Hawaiian-American achievement was suggested to involve differential responsiveness to teacher social influence. The results support the view that there are cultural variations in the motivational antecedents of achievement.
Patterns of Intellectual Ability in Jewish and Arab Children in Israel II
Authors: Eblich Amia L , Kugelmass Sol , Ehrlich Chedva
Published: March 2007

Following the finding (previously reported in JCCP) of a particular pattern of WPPSI subtests in samples drawn from children of Arab villages, we studied a sample of Arab city children. Arab and Jewish children living in a city in northern Israel were matched as closely as possible for school grade, age, and SES. The results indicated little if any difference between Jewish and Arab children in level or pattern of the intellectual abilities tapped by the WPPSI. It is thus suggested that the pattern difference previously found is not likely to be related to the Arab-Jewish ethnic difference per se, but probably reflects an interaction of ethnicity and subcultural environment.
Instructing Ugandan Primary Schoolchildren in the Execution of an "Intelligence" Test
Authors: Minde Klaus , Kantor Seymour
Published: March 2007

The performances of 514 Ugandan primary school children from variously developed areas of the country were examined on the Draw-a-Man Test. These scores were compared with the repeat performances on the same test by children who received explicit instructions as to the execution of the test and a matched group of noninstructed children. Both results were then correlated with the children's academic achievement. Although there was a significant rank-order correlation between first and second drawings of all children, the instructed children had a lower test-retest correlation than their noninstructed peers, indicating teaching effect. Children who improved the most on retest were also those who had the highest general academic standing, suggesting that a general compliance to instruction (rather than practice alone) is an important determinant of performance change on this test. These results are discussed in terms of transcultural psychological research and the concept of intelligence held by the Baganda.
The Semantic Differential Technique
Authors: Martinez Joe L. , Martinez Sergio R. , Olmedo Esteban L. , Goldman Roy D.
Published: March 2007

Osgood's Semantic Differential Technique was used to investigate responses of Chicano and Anglo high school students on five concepts viewed as basic to the traditional Mexican family structure: (1) self, (2) male, (3) female, (4) father, and (5) mother. It was found that the Chicanos and Anglos differed significantly on the five concepts, suggesting that these concepts have different affective meanings for the two cultural groups. The results also showed that the differences seem to be centered around the Potency dimension. In addition, there were sex differences, also centered around the Potency dimension, as well as an ethnic by sex interaction.
Perception of the Emotional Content of Speech
Authors: Albas Daniel C. , McCluskey Ken W. , Albas Cheryl A.
Published: March 2007

White and Indian adult males, speaking whatever words came to mind in their native languages (English and Cree, respectively), attempted to express vocally the emotions of happiness, sadness, love, and anger. After these simulations of emotional state were recorded, the speech samples were rendered unintelligible by means of an electronic filter (which removed verbal meaning while leaving intact the tonal aspects of speech). The filtered vocal expressions from the white and Indian speakers were then played to other groups of white and Indian adult males (receivers). When both heard the samples from the white speakers, the white receivers were able to identify the emotional content of tone of voice more accurately than the Indian receivers. On the other hand, Indian receivers performed more accurately than whites when judging the samples from Indian speakers. The significant interaction suggested that language and culture are crucial factors in the transmission of emotion-even on the nonverbal vocal level.
Group Polarization in a Non-Risk-Taking Culture
Authors: Gologor Ethan
Published: March 2007

Issues concerning the significance of the risky-shift phenomenon have recently been raised. One argument treats the phenomenon as an instance of a more general finding of group polarization. Experimentation in an African culture was conducted to shed light on these questions as well as on an earlier posed explanation of the risky-shift as being attributed to cultural values. Liberian high school students participated in the experiment which used original and culturally apt choice-dilemmas. Results supported the idea of group polarization and not the risky-shift. Differences were not found among groups of different sexual composition nor in taking risks for oneself compared to others.
Illusion Susceptibility and Adaptation to the Marine Environment
Authors: Pollnac Richard B.
Published: March 2007

The relatively flat and featureless marine environment makes unique perceptual demands on fishermen who must make distance judgments in order to locate themselves with respect to available resources. Past research has found that perceptual adaptation to one environment (e.g., a carpentered environment) can result in perceptual erors in another (e.g., judging line lengths on the Muller-Lyer Illusion). This paper provides a strong test of the environmental hypothesis by interrelating years of experience as a fisherman with susceptibility to the horizontal-vertical illusion among small-scale fishermen in the Gulf of Nicoya, Costa Rica.
Differential Sensitivity to Contradictory Communication as a Function of Age and Culture
Authors: McCluskey Ken W. , Albas Daniel C.
Published: March 2007

Recordings were made of Canadian and Mexican actresses reciting contradictory messages in their respective languages (i.e., English and Spanish). The speech samples were contradictory in that the tone of voice was incongruent with the words spoken. When these contradictory communications were played to Canadian and Mexican children aged 7, 9, and 11, it was found that there was a clear age effect. That is, the younger children in both cultures interpreted the contradictory messages more negatively than the older children. Further, a culture effect was noted, such that the Mexican children viewed the contradictory speech significantly more negatively than did their Canadian counter-parts.
The Decline of Egocentrism in Hausa Children
Authors: Fahrmeier Edward D.
Published: March 2007

Two samples of Nigerian (Hausa) children were given two tests of egocentrism. One test involved the identification of right and left hands; the second test involved visual perspective. Correct identification of the child's own hands occurred by the age of six years, but correct identification of the investigator's hands was much later than that reported previously. Understanding of differences in visual perspective was achieved by 75% of the eight- to nine-year-old children. The correlation between the two tests was only moderate (r = .30).
Locus of Control among Hungarian Children
Authors: Rupp Maria , Nowicki Stephen
Published: March 2007

To test the generality of the results of the children's form of the Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External control scale, it was given to 469 Hungarian children ranging in age from 10 to 14. Internal-external scores of Hungarian children did not differ significantly from those obtained in the American sample. Higher school achievement as measured by general grade point average (GPA) and by specific grades in mathematics, Hungarian language, and literature courses was positively related to an internal locus of control orientation for all children. Finally, higher students' rated level of developmental congruence was significantly related to an internal orientation, but only for females. Results from this two-culture contrast support the conclusion that the relation between locus of control and achievement behaviors are comparable across cultures.
Anglo-Chicano and Male-Female Differences in Disclaimed Activity
Authors: Baker Richard C. , Roll Samuel , Melgoza Bertha
Published: March 2007

In order to test the hypothesis that Chicanos, as part of a more generally passive coping style, are more likely than Anglos to disclaim responsibility for actions, 374 subjects (196 Anglos and 94 Chicanos) were evaluated. Each subject was presented with 12 stories, and asked to judge the likelihood that 6 alternatives which differed in degree of disclaimed activity, were responsible for the behavior of characters in each story. These judgments provided a measure of disclaimed activity, which is defined as ascribing responsibility for one's actions to someone or something else. It was expected that Chicanos would show even greater disclaimed activity than Anglos on themes related to parents and peers than on stories which involved themes of death. Additionally, it was expected that women would show more disclaimed activity than men. Contrary to earlier studies on disclaimed activity, no significant differences were found between Anglos and Chicanos. Surprisingly, women showed less rather than more disclaimed activity than men, with the difference significant at the .01 level. Conflicts with previous literature are discussed.
Antecedents of and Reactions to Emotions in the United States and Japan
Authors: Matsumoto David , Kudoh Tsutomu , Scherer Klaus , Wallbott Harald
Published: March 2007

In this study, we examined the degree of cultural similarity and specificity in emotional experience by asking subjects in the United States and Japan to report their experiences and reactions concerning seven different emotions. The data used for this study were part of a larger cross-cultural study of emotion antecedents and reactions involving more than 2,000 subjects in 27 countries (Wallbott & Scherer, 1986). The American-Japanese comparison is a particularly interesting one, given theoretical and anecdotal evidence suggesting differences in emotion processes between the two cultures, especially concerning the "inscrutability" of the Japanese. Data were gathered specifically to test the component-process model of emotion. The data yielded a high degree of cultural agreement concerning many aspects of the antecedent/evaluation process, replicating the general findings from all 27 cultures, and suggesting a large degree of universality in emotional experience. There were cultural differences as well, which mostly centered on reactive/expressive aspects of the emotion. The findings are discussed in terms of a model of emotion that incorporates the possibility of innate emotion programs (to account for the large degree of cross-cultural similarity) setting the stage for cultural constants in emotion, but allows for cultural and individual learning processes to account for cultural differences in other aspects.
Individualistic Striving and Group Dynamics of Fifth- and Eighth-Grade Japanese Boys
Authors: Shwalb David W. , Shwalb Barbara J. , Murata Koji
Published: March 2007

Forty-two fifth-grade and 42 eighth-grade Japanese boys were videotaped in trios, building houses with playing cards during two experimental sessions. The experiment crossed group/individualized and competitive/noncompetitive aspects of task instructions and used a repeated measures design. Unlike most tasks used to study social loafing, the card stacking procedure encouraged social interaction and tested for the influence of competition. Eighth graders stacked more cards working individually than as trios, and this individualistic striving was strongest when the eighth graders were told to compete. Fifth graders exhibited no such difference for individualistic or competitive striving. Comparing the group dynamics of fifth and eighth graders, younger groups were significantly more socially interactive. The results were discussed in terms of the possible developmental origins of three patterns of Japanese adult behavior: social preoccupation, emerging in childhood, and individualism and competition, emerging from early adolescence.
Social Errors in Four Cultures: Evidence about Universal Forms of Social Relations
Authors: Fiske Alan Page
Published: March 2007

To test the cross-cultural generality of relational-models theory, four studies examined the social errors of Bengali, Korean, Chinese, and Vai (from Liberia and Sierra Leone) subjects resident in the United States. Few of the subjects understood or spoke English well or participated substantially in American culture. Subjects reported errors in which they called someone they knew by the wrong name, misremembered with whom they had done something, or mistakenly directed an action at an inappropriate person. As predicted in all four cultures, people making these errors tend to substitute someone with whom they have the same basic kind of relationship. This effect of the four relational models is strongest in the least acculturated subjects. This effect is generally independent of tendencies to confuse people of the same age, gender, or ethnicity, or the tendency to confuse people whom subjects encounter in similar situations or refer to by the same role or kin term. These findings support the hypothesis that four universal relational categories underlie everyday social cognition across cultures.
Parent-Child Interactions in France, Germany, and Italy
Authors: Best Deborah L. , House Amy S. , Barnard Anne E. , Spicker Brenda S.
Published: March 2007

Previous research has demonstrated that mothers and fathers interact differently with their children and these interactions have important consequences for children's social development. The present study examines gender differences in parent-child interactions and the similarity of these patterns in France, Germany, and Italy. Samples in these countries were used because within Western societies they represent differing cultural expectations concerning the behavior of men and women. Parent-child dyads interacting on playgrounds were observed for affection, play, vocalization, showing and sharing, aggression, discipline, caregiving, soothing, and controlling behaviors. Gender and country differences were found. French and Italian fathers engaged in more play than mothers, but the opposite was found in Germany. French children showed and shared more than did the other children. Overall, French and Italian parents and children were more interactive than were German dyads. Although gender generally influences parent and child behaviors, culture modifies the way that these differences are displayed.
Cross-Race Facial Recognition
Authors: Ng Wei-Jen , Lindsay R. C.L.
Published: March 2007

Two studies were conducted to increase our knowledge of cross-race recognition of White and Oriental faces and to test the hypothesis that the "cross-race effect" (inferior facial recognition of other races) is due to lack of contact with the other race. In Experiment 1, White (n = 60) and Oriental (n = 60) university students in Canada attempted to recognize White and Oriental faces in a standard facial recognition paradigin. Although the cross-race effect was replicated for false alarms and d', neither perceived similarity nor self-rated contact predicted recognition accuracy. In Experiment 2, White (n = 92) and Oriental (n = 115) students from Singapore and Canada were tested. Contact with Whites and Orientals differed significantly for students in Singapore versus Canada but was not related to facial recognition even though the cross-race effect was replicated. On average, 6 predicted effects of the cross-race effect from the two experiments accounted for 10.83% of the variance, whereas the 18 predicted effects based on the contact hypothesis on average accounted for only 0.89% of the variance in facial recognition. The "contact hypothesis" is not a viable explanation of the results in studies of cross-race facial recognition. The cross-race effect remains unexplained.
Cross-Cultural Translation
Authors: Sperber Ami D. , Devellis Robert F. , Boehlecke Brian
Published: March 2007

Translating questionnaires for cross-cultural research is fraught with methodological pitfalls that threaten research validity. Some flaws are difficult to detect, leading to the erroneous conclusion that cultural differences are substantive when, in fact, they stem from semantic inconsistencies. We describe the process of translation and validation of the Hebrew version of an American questionnaire for cross-cultural comparisons of medical students' attitudes toward preventive medical services. The results provide evidence to support the validity of the Hebrew instrument for cross-cultural comparisons. Although it is always possible to contend that differences in cross-cultural comparisons result from metiodological flaws rather than actual differences, we believe that the arduous step-by-step process of validation described here reduces that possibility to an acceptable minimum.
A Cross-Cultural Study of Personality with the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire
Authors: Ben-Porath Yossef S. , Almagor Moshe , Hoffman-Chemi Aviva , Tellegen Auke
Published: March 2007

The cross-cultural stability of the factorial structure of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ) was studied by comparing Israeli and American samples. The MPQ was translated into Hebrew and administered to 583 Israeli subjects. In the United States, a comparison group of 1,644 subjects completed the 300-item instrument. Replicatory factor analyses demonstrated the factorial stability of the MPQ's primary and higher order scales across the two cultures. Internal consistency analyses demonstrated satisfactory reliability of the Hebrew MPQ's scales. Three culture-specific MPQ items were replaced with items that were found to be more suitable for Israeli subjects. Comparisons of mean scores across cultures and gender were conducted to identify personality variables and gender differences that may be influenced by environmental factors that vary across the two cultures.
Cultural Influences on the Recognition of Emotion by Facial Expressions
Authors: Schimmack Ulrich
Published: March 2007

Cross-cultural studies on the recognition of facial expressions of emotions were reanalyzed. It was found that (a) number of emotions included in the stimulus set influenced the accuracy scores; and (b) that Caucasian judges recognized emotions better than non-Caucasian ones. The latter effect may have been due to the culturally biased stimulus sets used in the studies, or to stricter display rules in non-Caucasian cultures. Correlations of the accuracy scores with Hofstede's cultural dimensions, in which number of faces and race of judges were statistically controlled, revealed that uncertainty avoidance predicted accuracy scores in the recognition of sadness and fear, suggesting that some reliable cultural differences in the recognition of emotions from facial expressions may exist.
An Empirical Study of Multidimensional Ethnic Change
Authors: Laroche Michel , Kim Chankon , Hui Michael K. , Joy Annamma
Published: March 2007

This study provides empirical evidence to support the view that ethnic change is a multidimensional process. Using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis conducted on measures of several French Canadian (FC) ethnicity facets, it identifies ethnic affiliation and acculturative tendency as two key dimensions of ethnic change experienced by French Canadians in their contacts with English Canadians. The ethnic affiliation dimension was indicated by measures of FC social interaction, FC family, FC self-identification, and attachment to FC culture, whereas the acculturative tendency dimension was indicated by measures of attachment to English Canadian (EC) culture, attitude toward cultural exchange, and EC social interaction. These two dimensions are subsequently used to develop a typology of French Canadian ethnic orientation. Findings provide support for the ethnic pluralism or multiculturalism perspective in describing ethnic change.
Indigenous Psychologies
Authors: Ho David Y. F.
Published: March 2007

To clarify the arguments for and against indigenization, the author constructs a metatheory of cross-cultural comparisons between theories, theorists, and cultures. This metatheory makes clear that cross-cultural psychology encompasses both indigenous and exotic theories; accordingly, indigenous psychologies may be regarded as a subdomain of cross-cultural psychology. The case for indigenization rests on acknowledging a critical point: The conceptualization of psychological phenomena is a psychological phenomenon in itself and is, therefore, subject to investigation. Illustrations are provided on how indigenous theorizing derived from Filipino and Confucian heritage cultures makes a conceptual and methodological contribution. To go beyond indigenization, methodological relationalism is explicated as a conceptual framework originating from Asia toward the realization of a universal psychology.
Ecological and Psychosocial Correlates of Male Homosexuality
Authors: Barber Nigel
Published: March 2007

Predictions were tested using the Human Relations Area Files database that (a) homo-sexuality would be rarer in hunter-gatherer societies and (b) psychosocial stressors of women would predict its increased frequency. Homosexual frequency decreased as a function of amount of gathering practiced and increased with size of the local community, supporting the first prediction. Lack of control by women in sexual matters predicted increased homosexuality, supporting the second prediction. These data constitute the first quantitative cross-cultural evidence for (a) environmental mediation of homosexuality and (b) Domer's theory that maternal stress causes homosexuality. The data suggest that homosexuality would have been rarer in our hunter-gatherer ancestors.
Environmental Belief Systems
Authors: Bechtel Robert B. , Verdugo Victor Corral , de Queiroz Pinheiro Jose
Published: March 2007

This study analyzes responses from 505 undergraduates from the United States, Mexico, and Brazil to the New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) scale. This instrument typically measured the separation from nature (Human Exception Paradigm) from the NEP as a dichotomy. Using confirmatory factor analysis, a trifactorial structure emerged from the Brazilians and Mexicans and a bifactorial from the U.S. sample. The United States held the most dichotomous view, the Mexicans were also dichotomous but less extreme, and the Brazilians seemed to see no need for a separation between nature and growth.
Differences in Self-Effacing Behavior between European and Japanese Americans
Authors: Akimoto Sharon A. , Sanbonmatsu David M.
Published: March 2007

Self-presentational differences and subsequent misperceptions between Japanese Americans and European Americans were examined. In Experiment 1, Japanese Americans and European Americans were given positive feedback on their performance and were asked to either publicly or privately describe their performance. As predicted, Japanese Americans described their performance less favorably than European Americans in public but not in private. In Experiment 2, interviewees from the first study were evaluated on the basis of their self-reported performance descriptions. Observers consistently evaluated Japanese Americans less favorably than European Americans. The study illustrates the judgmental and interpersonal consequences of self-presentational differences between minority and majority individuals.
Gender Role and Religion as Predictors of Attitude Toward Abortion in Croatia, Slovenia, the Czech Republic, and the United States
Authors: Wall Sally N. , Frieze Irene Hanson , Ferligoj Anuška , Jarošová Eva , Pauknerová Daniela , Horvat Jasna , Šarlija Nataša
Published: March 2007

Since socialism’s decline, abortion has become a divisive political issue in East Central Europe, just as it is in the United States. Questionnaires administered to college students in Croatia, the Czech Republic, Slovenia, and the United States between 1991 and 1994 assessed the importance of religious identification, degree of religious feelings and participation, desired number of children, and gender role attitudes as predictors of approval of abortion for reasons of personal choice. Multiple regression indicated that these variables best predicted level of approval of abortion in Slovenia. The strong link between gender role attitude and abortion approval that emerged in the Slovene 1993 data is discussed in relation to the changing social and political contexts.
Intergenerational Patterns of Values and Autonomy Expectations in Cultures of Relatedness and Separateness
Authors: Stewart Sunita Mahtani , Bond Michael Harris , Deeds Osvelia , Chung Siu Fung
Published: March 2007

This study assessed the assumption that socialization practices relevant to value priorities and autonomy expectations differ between collectivist and individualist cultures. The authors investigated value priorities and autonomy expectations in 58 pairs of Caucasian and 66 pairs of Asian teenagers and their mothers. This pairing enabled them to address similarities on values and autonomy expectations within families, which has not been done previously. Although Asian and Caucasian teenagers showed similarities on many value priorities, Asian participants’ autonomy expectations were delayed compared to those of their Caucasian counterparts. Mother-teenager autonomy expectations were correlated in Asian but not in Caucasian families. Unlike Asian mothers, Caucasian mothers endorsing high value priority for Openness to Change supported earlier autonomy expectations for their teenagers. Parental expectations unpackaged the effect of culture on teenagers’ autonomy expectations. These findings support models that predict persistent family interdependence despite adoption of many individualist values in modernizing collectivist cultures.