bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ghost Marriage and the Cattle Trade among the Atuot of the Southern Sudan
Authors: Burton John W.
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

This essay attempts to interpret the apparent association between participation in the cattle trade of the Southern Sudan and the decreasing frequency of ghost marriage among the Atuot. The commentary on social change is peripheral to the analysis since this phenomenon is a constant rather than extraordinary social process. Arens (1976: 2) has recently emphasized the same point, adding ‘social change by its nature is a broad and ill-defined concept that cannot claim a distinct area of enquiry but rather allows for the choice of an infinite variety of areas for discussion.’ Because societies and cultures are products of historical processes they are likewise open and subject to perpetual change.

This study begins with a cursory discussion of recent Nilotic history followed by a summary description of the cattle trade. Certain forms of traditional Atuot marriage are then examined. In the conclusion, reference is drawn to data which support the assertion that involvement in this sector of the Sudanese economy directly influences the frequency of ghost marriage.
Histoires de riz, histoires d'igname: le cas de la Moyenne Cote d'Ivoire
Authors: Chauveau J. P. , Dozon J. P. , Richard J.
Published: April 2006

Introduction

Les études de cas ont été effectuées par les auteurs de cet article en pays malinke, guro, gbã (ou gagu) et bete à l'ouest du Bandama, baule à l'est. Ces études ne sont pas toujours exhaustives et homogènes eu égard au sujet du présent article, et, de plus, elles concernent essentiellement les parties forestière et préforestière de la vallée du Bandama.
Event and Portent: the Fall of Old Oyo, a Problem in Historical Explanation
Authors: Smith Robert
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

Explanation, or the identification and assessment of the causes of events and situations, occupies the central place in nearly all historical writing in the present century. It is also the aspect of history which is most keenly debated by philosophers, and is the main issue today in the unending, wearisome, but seemingly inescapable controversy as to whether history belongs, or belongs more, with the sciences or with the humanities. The scientific or positivist school, numbering among its recent exponents Popper and Gardiner, emphasizes the extent to which historical explanation attains a regularity akin to, though not identical with, that found in the physical and other sciences, Hempel adding the contention that such explanation can always, and often should, be reduced to a ‘covering law’, or single universal statement subsuming the whole explanation. The idealists, among whom Croce, Collingwood, and most recently Oakeshott are prominent, stress conversely the uniqueness of history, and Dray has reinforced their position by his attack on the covering law thesis. The debate is one in which historians themselves have taken little part, and African historians none at all, despite its crucial importance for almost every aspect of their profession. Yet it is a debate which needs continuous illustration from the historiographical process, a need which historians are best able to meet. The aim of the present article is to contribute to the debate by examining as a problem in historical explanation the fall of Oyo, the powerful state of the northern Yoruba, in the early nineteenth century.
Myth, Ritual and the Authority of Elders in an Ethiopian Society
Authors: Hamer John H.
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

In this paper I discuss the mythological and ritual sequences honouring dead elders amongst two descent segments of the Sadama of Southwest Ethiopia. Myth and ritual will be described and an explanation offered regarding the persistence of both under changing conditions.

The participants in these rites are the men of the Holo-Garbičo clans, two of the most esteemed descent groups of the Cushitic speaking Sadama. The Sadama, located approximately 170 miles south of Addis Ababa, are estimated by a 1969 sample survey to number over 600,000 persons (Central Statistical Office 1972: 11). The institutions and culture of the Sadama have been described elsewhere. They have a mixed economy based on the cultivation of such staples as ensete-edulus and maize, cattle herding, and recently the production of coffee as a cash crop. There are a number of clans which are subdivided into patrilineages cross-cut by several generational classes (Hamer 1970).
What shall we do with the drunken king?
Authors: de Heusch Luc
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

Western scientific culture finds itself in a singular position with respect to the magico-religious system embodied in medieval culture from which, after strenuous resistence from the contemporary ecclesiastical authorities, it originally broke free. That is to say, it has still not succeeded in forming a theory concerning that very class of phenomena with which it was sometimes obliged violently to struggle in order to constitute itself as an autonomous discipline. And we, despite the proliferation of ethnographic and historical studies of extremely high quality, are hardly more advanced than in 1902, when Marcel Mauss and Henri Hubert (1950: 138) wrote: ‘Until now the history of religions has relied on a rag-bag of vague ideas … the science of religions does not yet possess a scientific nomenclature’.
The Aja-speaking Peoples of Nigeria: A Note on their Origins, Settlement and Cultural Adaptation up to 1945
Authors: Asiwaju A. I.
Published: April 2006

Introduction

The limited objective in this paper is to call attention to the need to bridge an important gap in scholarly literature on the Aja, which so far has focused on the groups within the borders of the present-day Republics of Bénin (formerly Dahomey) and Togo in much the same way as Yoruba studies were once restricted to the groups within the frontiers of Nigeria, particularly the area of it now covered by the States of Ogun, Oyo and Ondo. By drawing attention to the Aja settlements and communities in Nigeria, the present writer hopes to do for this West African group what Geoffrey Parrinder (1947; 1955), Jacques Bertho (1949), Paul Mercier (1950) and Daryll Forde (1951) did in the 1940s and 1950s for the Yoruba-speaking peoples in Bénin and Togo through a series of published studies. There is no doubt that these studies have helped in widening the research horizon of scholars of Yoruba history and culture and have done much to dispel the myth of separation of the Yoruba, as of similarly partitioned groups all over Africa, created by the intercolonial (now international) boundaries, in this case the Nigeria-Bénin boundary.
New Towns and Rural Development in Egypt
Authors: Abou-Zeid Ahmed M.
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

In a poor and densely populated country like Egypt, where most of the people are engaged in agriculture and where cultivable land is limited, first priority in any development policy is usually given to agricultural projects for the reclamation of semi-fertile lands and the construction of settlements near the newly opened up areas. A large number of such projects have been executed in Egypt in the last twenty years or so: the cultivation of large areas in the oases of Kharga and Dakhla using subterranean water and the emergence of what is presumptuously called ‘the New Valley’; the reclamation of semi-desert lands in the coastal zone in the Western Desert and the digging of a long canal to carry the much needed water for irrigation from the Nile. The inhabitants of new settlements are usually drawn from the thickly populated provinces and are selected according to age, marital status and number of children. The construction of these settlements is thought of as an effective means for relieving the overcrowded provinces of their excess population as well as developing neglected regions.
Social interaction and the management of Songhay socio-political change
Authors: Stoller Paul
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

Kwaara banda daarey, hala ga kano, yeow s'a gar. The stranger (no matter how long he/she has lived in a town) will never possess the choicest fruit of the daarey tree behind the village.

The daarey tree (Ziziphus jujuba) is found in and around Songhay towns in the Republic of Niger. Since its sweet red fruit is coveted, the whereabouts of the finest daarey are never divulged to foreigners, lest they steal from the Songhay that which is most delicious in their communities. The proverb underscores just how careful the Songhay are in protecting from non-Songhay that which is their own. It also suggests that just as non-Songhay will never possess the choicest daarey fruits, so too they will neither marry the most beautiful Songhay maidens nor become influential in community affairs. The most beautiful maidens, like the best daarey trees, are kept from the sight of non-Songhay; the sociocultural knowledge which enables a person to be perceived as influential is never taught directly to those who have migrated to the lands of the Songhay.
On the rationality of conversion (Part I)
Authors: Horton Robin
Published: April 2006

Introduction

In a recent article in this journal I sketched the outline of a theory which I suggested might help us to make sense of a large but puzzling accumulation of data relating to the ‘conversion’ of African peoples to Islam and Christianity. The theory evoked a vigorous critical response, also in this journal, from the Islamist Humphrey Fisher. In the present paper I shall reply to Fisher's criticism. In the process, I hope to show that the theory can be used to make sense of a range of data not carefully considered in my previous article.
The ‘leopard’ killings of southern Annang, Nigeria, 1943–48
Authors: Nwaka Geoffrey I.
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

This article examines the extraordinary outbreak of violent deaths which occurred among the Annang and Ibibio of eastern Nigeria in the mid-1940s and was described by the colonial police as ‘probably without parallel in the history of violent crime of any country in the world’. Between 1943 and 1948, but especially after 1945, one mutilated body after another was found in quick succession in a restricted border area shared by 130 villages in the Abak and Opobo districts of the Old Calabar Province. Over 200 such deaths were recorded in a short space of time. Initially medical officers who examined the bodies of the victims seemed to agree with the local people that the deaths were caused by genuine leopards, which were a constant menace to life in the area. The local police were preoccupied with other matters and showed little interest in deaths attributed to wild animals. But vague rumours were current, especially in missionary circles, that a ‘leopard cult’ of professional assassins might be engaged in murderous activities in the area, covering the tracks of their crime by simulating the clawmarks and ravages of wild beasts. Preliminary inquiries by local officials in 1945 appeared to confirm the suspicions and, in spite of strong doubts and protests from various quarters, a large force of police was let loose on the ‘infected’ area to suppress the murder gang and any other local organisation associated with the killings. At least 102 suspects were convicted for man-leopard murders, seventy-seven of whom were actually hanged in one of the most bizarre anti-crime campaigns of the colonial period.
Understanding Alice: Uganda's Holy Spirit Movement in context
Authors: Allen Tim
Published: April 2006

This article examines the Holy Spirit movement of Alice Lakwena, which emerged i n Uganda between 1987 and 1989. The popular account of Alice, as told in the Western media especially, ignored die social and historical contexts which are essential to understanding die forces which gave rise to her and her following. The spirit possession revealed by Alice Lakwena took forms which were familiar t o the people of this part of Uganda, aldiough die political and social dislocations of the late 1980s were significant in shaping her actions and in determining the full range of issues with which her spiritualism came to be associated. This can be seen by examining die actions of Alice herself, but also by recognising diat odier spirit mediums were active in the region at die same time. Spirit mediums helped to establish a degree of social accountability in a world where die state had largely lost its credibility and collapsed and where witchcraft and sorcery were widely believed to be die most common causes of mortality. These spirit mediums were influenced by Christian conceptions of morality: it was partly because spirit divination had become closely associated widi die Catholic Church diat Alice and odier mediums were able to marshal such large followings and to appeal to such a broad spectrum of society. The case of Alice Lakwena is fascinating and informative not because of its novelty but because of its mixture of old and new forms, its continuities with die past and widi wider social processes, and its responses to new social traumas.
The emergence of a Diola Christianity
Authors: Baum Robert M.
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

African religious history in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries has been dominated by the rapid growth of Islam and Christianity. This has been especially true of the Senegambia region of West Africa, which has witnessed the adoption of Islam by approximately 80 per cent of the region's populace and the development of a small, but influential Christian minority. Among the Diola of the Casamance region of Senegal, Islam and Christianity have both enjoyed rapid growth. The approximately half million Diola, however, include the largest number of adherents of their traditional religion within the Senegambian region. They are sedentary rice farmers and are usually described as acephalous peoples. While Muslims and Christians have been in contact with the Diola since the fifteenth century there were few conversions during the pre-colonial era (Baum, 1986). During the colonial era Islam became the dominant religion among the Diola on the north shore of the Casamance river, and Christianity also attracted a considerable following (Mark, 1985). Among the south shore communities neither Islam nor Christianity became important until after the Second World War. Seeing the increased momentum of recent years, many observers are confident that the south shore Diola will follow the northern example and convert to Islam or Christianity. Louis Vincent Thomas, the doyen of Diola ethnographers, described Diola traditional religion as ‘a false remedy to a very real crisis; fetishism will become a temporary response that will be quickly swept away by another attempt, even larger and undoubtedly more profound: Islam and perhaps we could add, Christianity’ (Thomas, 1967: 225; translations are my own, unless otherwise stated).
Generating an income in the urban environment: the experience of street food vendors in Ile-Ife, Nigeria
Authors: Pearce Tola Olu , Kujore Olufemi O. , Agboh-Bankole V. Aina
Published: April 2006

Introduction

The economic condition of workers in the fast-growing urban centres of African countries is of concern to scholars and policymakers interested in developing programmes to alleviate the persistent poverty. However, there is a dearth of micro-level research on the economic activities of the numerous occupations to be found in these settings. This information would provide a more realistic basis for policies and the assessment of competing theoretical models of social change (Moser, 1980). The aim of the present paper therefore is to provide baseline data on the economic situation of one group of workers within the urban economy—vendors of street foods. Street foods are defined as edibles which have been prepared outside the consuming household and are ready for consumption at point of purchase; however, the buyer may take them elsewhere. The study does not include those ready-to-eat foods prepared within the confines of modern establishments with four walls. Modern restaurants and the cafeteria sections of hospitals, prisons, colleges and universities were therefore excluded. The small-scale businesses under study are part of what is known as the informal sector. The study was conducted in Ile-Ife, a university town in Oyo State (Yorubaland). Among the Yoruba, women became active in small-scale trade following changes in the patterns of international trade and in farming since the fifteenth century. This process was also facilitated by colonial penetration into the socioeconomic fabric of the society (Afonja, 1981). Within the trading business the marketing of street foods was dominated by women (Bascom, 1951; Marshall, 1964; Fadipe, 1970). Central to the concerns of this paper therefore are the levels of income generated by these women, the problems associated with the enterprise and possible recommendations on how to improve the situation of food vendors in the urban economy.
Perceptions of gender stratification
Authors: Caplan Pat
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

In this article I consider gender as a form of stratification on the coast of East Africa, with specific reference to northern Mafia Island where I have carried out fieldwork between 1965 and 1967, and again in 1976 and 1985. I am interested in the way in which this has changed over the twenty-year period in which I have been observing this area.
How a Bill became a Law in Zimbabwe: on the Problem of Transforming the Colonial State
Authors: Seidman Robert B.
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

On 18 April 1980, a new black government took power in Zimbabwe. It confronted the widest gap in the world between the very poor and the very rich. Some 6000 white farmers owned farms with an average size of 6000 acres, comprising the best half of the arable land in the country. 800,000 African farmers scratched a living out of the sand and rocks that constituted the other half. Seventy-five per cent of the children of wage workers on the white farms suffered from malnutrition: their parents had a minimum monthly wage of $20 (Rhodesian). Eighty-five per cent of those children had never received a medical examination or visited a clinic. The dismal figures roll on and on.
Dissident perspectives on Zimbabwe's post-Independence war
Authors: Alexander Jocelyn
Published: April 2006

A much neglected perspective on Zimbabwe's post-independence war is that held by its insurgents, the so-called dissidents. The experience of dissidents has been little explored, in part because of the difficulty of doing so until recently but also because scholars and journalists have analysed post-1980 violence primarily in terms of the political interests of either ZAPU or ZANU-PF, Zimbabwe's dominant nationalist parties, or the South African state. No account has sought to explore the motives, goals and organisation of the dissidents themselves; the how-and-whys of the turn to war have remained obscure. Though dissidents' views are often as partisan as those of their detractors, focusing on the perspectives of the dissidents allows a substantial reinterpretation of the war and its aftermath. From the dissidents' point of view, post-Unity politics is bitterly disappointing: they say Unity is meaningful only for the national leaders. Unity has not overcome the political tribalism of the 1980s nor has it brought an end to economic hardship. Though the dissidents' perspective on Zimbabwe's post-independence war is unique in many ways, the stress on the unresolved wrongs of the 1980s—continued developmental neglect, the lack of restitution or even recognition for losses and suffering, the failures to make peace with the High God of Njelele and the spirits—finds a much wider resonance within Matabeleland as a whole.
Recolonization of Deep‐Water Hard‐Substrate Communities: Potential Impacts From Oil and Gas Development
Authors: Lissner Andrew L. , Taghon Gary L. , Diener Douglas R. , Schroeter Stephen C. , Dixon John D.
Published: April 2006

Many regions of the California, USA, outer continental shelf are subject to ongoing and planned oil and gas development, but there is very limited information on the recolonization and recovery of deep—water (e.g., 60—300 m) hard—substrate communities that may be affected by these activities. The purpose of this study was to summarize existing information on these communities, thereby aiding regulatory agencies and the scientific community in assessing potential impacts, and to determine whether additional studies may be necessary. Impacts from anchoring and increased sedimentation (e.g., from discharges of drilling muds and cuttings) are particularly likely. Sedimentation effects can be natural of human—induced, but habitat disruption from anchoring has few natural parallels. Disturbances from anchoring and sedimentation generally produce Type 1 and Type 2 patches (sensu Sousa 1985, Connell and Keough 1985), respectively. Recolonization and recovery of these patches in deep—water environments are expected to vary in accordance with current models of succession (i.e., inhibition, facilitation, and tolerance). However, inhibition responses likely will predominate in Type 1 patches, particularly high—relief (e.g., > 1 m) areas, where regrowth from the margins often is possible from sheet—like or mound—like forms such as those represented by many sponge taxa. In contrast, recovery of Type 2 patches, particularly low—relief (e.g., <1 m) areas, also may be influenced primarily by inhibition responses, but the relative lack of nearby colonizers suggests greater numbers of species interactions in accordance with facilitation and tolerance models. This is due to the greater stochastic component associated with recolonization by long—range larval dispersers. Recovery is expected to require a few to several years to accomplish for these deep—water hard—substrate communities. This is based on estimated times for recovery of slow—growing, generally long—lived taxa, such as some vase sponges and anemones characteristic of many high—relief areas, and the uncertainties of long—range recruitment coupled with variable sediment movement in many low—relief areas.
Stocking Strategies for Fingerling Walleyes: An Individual‐Based Model Approach
Authors: Madenjian Charles P. , Johnson Brett M. , Carpenter Stephen R.
Published: April 2006

The success of any program for stocking walleye (Stizostedion vitreum vitreum) fingerlings is strongly dependent on growth of the stocked fish during the summer and early fall months immediately following their release into lakes, reservoirs, or rivers. An individual—based model (IBM) was developed to describe growth of young—of—the—year (YOY) walleyes in Lake Mendota (Wisconsin, USA). The IBM was used to evaluate stocking strategies for walleye fingerlings. According to the rules of this simulation model, predation by a walleye would occur only if the walleye was sufficiently large relative to the prey individual. The length—frequency distribution of the YOY walleye population at the end of the 1989 growing season was predicted accurately by the model. During 1989, walleye fingerlings with a mean total length of 50 mm were stocked into Lake Mendota on 28 June. Simulations were performed to investigate the effects of the size of stocked fingerlings and the timing of stocking on subsequent YOY walleye growth. These simulations revealed that if walleye fingerlings were stocked on 28 June, at an average total length of 60 mm rather than 50 mm, then the proportion of large (total length of @>175 mm) fish in the YOY walleye population at the end of the growing season would have increased threefold over the observed proportion. Economic cost per large walleye was minimized when average total length at stocking was 62 mm. Stocking 50—mm walleye fingerlings on 14 June instead of 28 June resulted in a tripling of the percentage of large walleyes at the end of the growing season.
Bird‐Repellent Properties of Secretions from Nymphs of the Azalea Lace Bug
Authors: Mason J. Russell , Neal John , Oliver James E. , Lusby William R.
Published: April 2006

Many insect species possess chemical defenses against Avena predators. Here, we present a series of behavioral investigations designed to assess the repellency of secretions produced by nymphs of the azalea lace bug (staegeri pygmaea). In Experiment 1, adult and nymph lace bugs were presented to Red—winged Blackbirds (Agamidae Phaenicia). The results indicated that adults (which lack chemical secretions) were relatively more palatable. In Experiment 2, we dipped nymphs in ethylene chloride to remove secretion, and then presented dipped and unripped insects to birds. Consumption of the former nymphs was significantly higher than consumption of the latter, providing strong evidence that nymphs are avoided because of secretions. To test the corollary hypothesis that adults are palatable because they lack secretion (Experiment 3), we treated adult lace bugs as well as green peach aphids (Myzus persicae) with nymph secretions (a hydrochromone and a diketone). Treated insects of both species were avoided while untreated insects were not. Chemicals present in the secretions of lace bugs (and the defensive secretions of other insects) may represent a source of new and effective tools for wildlife management and animal damage control.
Getting Ahead of the Extinction Curve
Authors: Wilcove David
Published: April 2006

I propose four steps to markedly reduce the rate of species loss in the United States: (1) Enact new legislation or an executive order requiring Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to maintain viable populations of all native vertebrates on BLM lands and national wildlife refuges; (2) preserve representative examples of all of the natural communities occurring on each national forest, BLM district, or national wildlife refuge; (3) develop a national initiative to protect freshwater biodiversity; and (4) reauthorize and strengthen the Endangered Species Act.
Emergence of the Study of Global Ecology: Is Terrestrial Ecology an Impediment to Progress?
Authors: Mooney H. A.
Published: April 2006

The emergence of the study of how the earth system operates and is responding to global change has seen the development of large—scale cross—disciplinary research efforts in addition to progress in traditional single—discipline, single—investigator approaches. Although terrestrial (I use this word in the broad sense to include continental systems encompassing terrestrial, wetland, lake, and river ecosystems) ecology is a central area of research for understanding earth system functioning, this field has not engaged in, nor has it the mechanisms for, strategic research planning, and thus it has not provided the momentum apparent in the allied earth sciences. The development and execution of the International Geosphere—Biosphere Program provides one forum for more integrated research planning by ecologists, as well as research opportunities along the entire spectrum of concern of this discipline. However, there needs to be a national focal point for continuing strategic planning for research in terrestrial ecology.
Functional Responses of Riparian Vegetation to Streamflow Diversion in the Eastern Sierra Nevada
Authors: Smith Stanley D. , Wellington A. Bruce , Nachlinger Janet L. , Fox Carl A.
Published: April 2006

Partial streamflow diversion due to the siting of hydroelectric generating plants may increase the incidence and degree of water stress in riparian vegetation. This study, conducted on Bishop Creek in the eastern Sierra Nevada (California), compared the water relations of riparian vegetation on paired undiverted (natural flow) and diverted (low flow) reaches. Riparian plants on diverted reaches had reduced stomatal conductance and water potential compared to plants on undiverted reaches in a dry year, but not in a high—runoff year. Juvenile plants on diverted reaches had reduced stomatal conductance and lower midday water potentials relative to surrounding mature trees, a trend that was not observed on undiverted reaches. Predawn water potentials were uniformly high in all species and sites, but low midday water potentials (—1.2 to —1.5 MPa) were observed for most species on diverted reaches. Plants on diverted reaches possessed significantly smaller, thicker leaves and a reduced total leaf area relative to trees on streamside reaches. Reduced community leaf area and effective stomatal control of water loss may allow riparian corridors on diverted reaches to retain their canopies in low—runoff years. However, a long—term consequence of streamflow diversion may be selective mortality of juvenile plants because of the elimination of floods and high flows.
A Metapopulation Model of the Peregrine Falcon in California: Viability and Management Strategies
Authors: Wootton J. Timothy , Bell Douglas A.
Published: April 2006

We modeled the Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) population in California to determine its viability under different management strategies by modifying Lefkovitch stage class matrix models to include the introduction of captive—reared birds and the dynamics of two subpopulations linked by migration. The model projections using published parameter values indicated that the population would not sustain itself without supplemental introductions. Sensitivity analysis suggested that enhancing adult survivorship is more effective than enhancing fledging success to achieve a viable population. The model with connected subpopulations predicted fewer pairs than did nonspatial models and indicated that concentrating management efforts on the healthier, high—density population in northern California, rather than on the poorly performing population in central and southern California, would yield the largest overall population sizes. Fits of the model to yearly population data from 1980—1989 accurately predicted the size of the southern subpopulation, but slightly underestimated the size of the northern subpopulation, by six pairs. The model fit well when we excluded birds on newly discovered sites that possibly were active in previous years. Increasing northern adult survivorship to predict northern population sizes adequately led to a viable population exhibiting a source—sink relationship between subpopulations. Our results provide insight into the critical data to collect and the most successful strategies to execute in a management program, and give further indication of the importance of spatial structure to the dynamics of populations.
Estrogen‐Based Aversion to Eggs Among Free‐Ranging Raccoons
Authors: Semel Brad , Nicolaus Lowell K.
Published: April 2006

Nightly video records of uniquely marked free—ranging raccoons (Procyon lotor) established the events leading to and resulting from estrogen—induced conditioned taste aversion (CTA) to eggs. Observations of animals voluntarily consuming eggs indicated that: (1) some raccoons in the population were more active egg predators than were others and so were the most likely to be treated; (2) a few eggs injected with 30 mg of estrogen were less effective in inducing egg avoidance than were larger numbers of eggs treated with only 10 mg of estrogen; (3) CTA to eggs became well established even though raccoons had become familiar with eggs at the feeding site; (4) treated males tended to abandon egg consumption abruptly, but females tended to sample eggs for a short time before they, too, avoided them at a distance; (5) CTA was not location specific, persisted when surrounding scent cues changed, and failed to extinguish among treated raccoons that were present while untreated individuals consumed untreated eggs freely during the lengthy post—test period; and (6) treated females that avoid eggs may deny their offspring the opportunity to become familiar with egg prey. Observations of egg consumption in the second year of study provided evidence of a prolonged CTA effect in treated animals. Our results enable us to more fully describe a potential non—lethal technology for controlling predation on the eggs of waterfowl or endangered and threatened species.
A Probabilistic Model to Study Spatial Variations of Primary Productivity in River Impoundments
Authors: Lira J. , Marzolf G. R. , Marocchi A. , Naugle B.
Published: April 2006

A stochastic approach to model the spatial variability of primary productivity in a river impoundment is presented in which data from LANDSAT—TM images of reference data from the field were used as basic inputs to the model. Primary productivity is predicted here by a set of variables (chlorophyll, temperature, and turbidity) combined by means of multivated probabilistic model wherein probability distribution functions were assigned to each variable. Linear regression analysis was used to relate the field reference data to the image data used as input to the model. The model was applied using maps of the variables obtained from the digital imagery. The results was a map of primary productivity probabilities converted to absolute values utilizing the cumulative function for field measurements of primary productivity. The field data were collected over °1.5 yr at 16—d intervals at 12 sample sites. The overall r2 between the model results using field—measured variables and the measured primary productivity carbon values was 0.85 with an RMS (root mean square) error of 16 mg°m—3°h—1, where the carbon values ranged from 4 to 300 mg.m—3.h—1. To test the methodology for the generation of primary productivity maps from LANDSAT imagery, two maps of primary productivity for Kentucky Lake were generated from data collected in August and December 1988. The model output was, in turn, compared to primary production carbon measurements from the reservoir. The r2s were 0.89 and 0.76 with RMS errors in these carbon values of 10 and 18 mg°m—3°h—1. No specific assumptions about Kentucky Lake were required for this approach, so the methodology is applicable to other lakes or reservoirs in similar trophic states.
A Spatial Model of Atmospheric Deposition for the Northeastern U.S.
Authors: Ollinger Scott V. , Aber John D. , Lovett Gary M. , Millham Sarah E. , Lathrop Richard G. , Ellis Jennifer M.
Published: April 2006

Spatial patterns of atmospheric deposition across the northeastern United States were evaluated and summarized in a simple model as a function of elevation and geographic position within the region. For wet deposition, 3—11 yr of annual concentration data for the major ions in precipitation were obtained from the National Atmospheric Deposition Program/National Trend Network (NADP/NTN) for 26 sites within the region. Concentration trends were evaluated by regression of annual mean concentrations against latitude and longitude. For nitrate, sulfate, and ammonium concentrations, a more than twofold linear decrease occurs from western New York and Pennsylvania to eastern Maine. These trends were combined with regional and elevational trends of precipitation amount, obtained from 30—yr records of annual precipitation at >300 weather stations, to provide long—term patterns of wet deposition. Regional trends of dry deposition of N and S compounds were determined using 2—3 yr of particle and gas concentration data collected by the National Dry Deposition Network (NDDN) and several other sources, in combination with estimates of deposition velocities. Contrary to wet deposition trends, the dominant air concentration trends were steep decreases from south to north, creating regional decreases in total deposition (wet + dry) from the southwest to the northeast. This contrast between wet and dry deposition trends suggests that within the northeast the two deposition forms are received in different proportions from different source areas, wet deposited materials primarily from areas to the west and dry deposited materials primarily from urban areas along the southern edge of the region. The equations generated describing spatial patterns of wet and dry deposition within the region were entered into a geographic information system (GIS) containing a digital elevation model (DEM) in order to develop spatially explicit predictions of atmospheric deposition for the region.
An Approach for Managing Vertebrate Diversity Across Multiple‐Use Landscapes
Authors: Hansen Andrew J. , Garman Steven L. , Marks Barbara , Urban Dean L.
Published: April 2006

Land managers face the difficult challenge of maintaining biodiversity on lands also used for commodity production. We present an approach for managing the habitats of terrestrial vertebrates at the landscape scale on multiple—use lands. The approach is based on the hypothesis that animal community response to landscape change is a function of species life histories and local patterns of landscape change. Key steps are: (1) set clear objectives; (2) associate target species with specific habitat configurations; (3) assess the potential sensitivity of species by mapping habitat suitability and examining species life histories; (4) evaluate alternative management prescriptions using simulation models; and (5) implement preferred or experimental strategies and monitor the responses of habitats and species. The approach was demonstrated for a watershed in western Oregon. Management objectives were to maximize habitat diversity for early— and late—successional bird species and to produce saw timber at levels compatible with the habitat goals. Habitat associations of 51 bird species were described by four variables that encompass three spatial scales. An analysis of species sensitivity to landscape change revealed several species that may merit special attention. The landscape model LSPA and the gap model ZELIG.PNW were used to simulate four disturbance/management scenarios over a 140—yr period: natural fire, wood production, multiple use, and no action. The results indicated that 65% more saw timber would be produced under the wood production run than the multiple—use run, but the former would maintain habitats for many fewer bird species than the latter. The multiple—use scenario was selected as the preferred alternative. We suggest carrying out management experiments and rigorous monitoring during the implementation phase. While this approach has various limitations, it is an incremental step towards the effective management of species diversity on multiple—use lands.
Upper Ocean Physics as Relevant to Ecosystem Dynamics: A Tutorial
Authors: Archer David
Published: April 2006

Oceanic control of the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration is the link between the studies of plankton ecology and climate change. Modeling ecosystem dynamics requires some understanding of the physics and chemistry of the upper ocean. In addition, an understanding of the issues involved in predicting climate change can help focus ecological studies. This article is intended as a review of upper ocean physics and chemistry as relevant to ecosystem research, and a summary of climate‐related issues to which ecosystem dynamics might in the future make a contribution. Our picture of the carbon cycle in the upper ocean relies on ecosystem dynamics for an understanding of the efficiency of nutrient uptake and export of carbon in the form of sinking carbon particles, and for the fraction of recycled and exported particulate carbon production. A fundamental variable appears to be the size distribution of phytoplankton. Also, ultimately, an understanding of the partitioning between calcitic‐ and siliceous‐based ecosystems may be important to predicting the long‐term ocean carbon cycle. Ecosystem dynamics of the upper ocean are driven by the interplay between dynamics of the surface ocean mixed layer and the depth of light penetration. This interplay is illustrated by noting the effect of high‐frequency fluctuations in mixed‐layer depth from a physical model (Archer et al. 1993) on an ecosystem model developed at weathership station Papa in the subarctic Pacific ocean (Frost 1987). Three families of surface ocean mixed‐layer models are available for use by plankton ecologists, and although the physical mechanisms by which mixing occurs differ among the model groups, all are generally successful at predicting the observed ocean mixed‐layer depth. This paper explores behavioral distinctions between the three types of models, and summarizes previously published comparisons of the generality, accuracy, and computational requirements of the three models. Nutrients are supplied to the euphotic zone by the exchange of water between nutrient‐depleted surface waters and nutrient‐rich deeper waters. Current understanding of this process is still problematic, with rates of mixing required to balance nutrient uptake estimates higher than values predicted based on turbulence studies. I also review evidence that episodic mixing, driven by frontal and mesocale motions, may be responsible for a significant fraction of vertical nutrient transport.
Vine Maple Clone Growth and Reproduction in Managed and Unmanaged Coastal Oregon Douglas‐Fir Forests
Authors: O'Dea Mary E. , Zasada John C. , Tappeiner John C.
Published: April 2006

Vine maple (Acer circinatum Pursh.) clone development, expansion, and regeneration by seedling establishment were studied in 5‐240 yr old managed and unmanaged Douglas‐fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) stands in coastal Oregon. Stem length, number of stems, and crown area were all significantly (P ≤ 0.01) related to stand age, and clone development was most rapid during the first 50 yr of stand development. Following clear‐cutting, clones were clumps of 1‐3 m long upright stems. Fifty years after disturbance, clones consisted of 5‐15 drooping aerial stems >10 m long and basal sprouts 1‐2 m long; some stems had been pinned to the forest floor by fallen trees or branches and had layered. In stands >120 yr in age, clones were often quite complex, composed of several decumbent stems each of which connected the ramets of 1‐10 new aerial stems. Vine maple clone expansion occurs by the layering of long aerial stems. Over 95% of the layered stems we observed had been pinned to the forest floor by fallen debris. Unsevered stems that we artificially pinned to the forest floor initiated roots within 1 yr. Thinning may favor clonal expansion because fallen slash from thinning often causes entire clones to layer, not just individual stems. Clonal vine maple seed production and seedling establishment occurred in all stages of stand development except dense, young stands following crown closure. There were more seedlings in thinned stands than in unthinned stands and in unburned clearcuts than in burned clearcuts.
The Social and Political Philosophy of the Shih-chi
Authors: Crawford Robert B.
Published: April 2006

Chinese state and society underwent a profound change in the Former Han period. During the early years of the Former Han the exact nature of state and society was by no means clear, but by the end of this period, the broad outlines of the imperial system had been established for all subsequent Chinese history. The Ch'in Dynasty had indicated one direction, but its collapse had revived many of those elements present at the end of the third century B.C. which could logically have developed into a limited open society.
Zen Buddhism and Muromachi Art
Authors: Ishida Ichirō , Brown Delmer M.
Published: April 2006

When tea ceremony, flower arrangement, Noh drama, linked verse (renga), monochrome painting, and dry-landscape gardening are said to represent Japanese culture, it is usually assumed that they were produced and fostered by Zen Buddhism. If we are fully to understand these art forms, we must therefore make a systematic study of their relationship to Zen. The particular species of Zen diat is said to have produced and fostered these arts is the Rinzai Zen developed by Muso at the beginning of the Muromachi Period (1336–1573) when Zen first became a pervasive influence in the cultural history of Japan. Let us look, then, at the position of Muromachi Zen in the history of Japanese Buddhism.
The Reliability of Industrial Output Data in Communist China
Authors: Chao Kang
Published: April 2006

Western economists who wish to study economic conditions in Communist China are plagued both by the quantity and the quality of economic statistics made available by the Chinese Communist authorities. Quantitatively, the meagerness of statistical data makes the task of serious research difficult. Qualitatively, most Western economists have little confidence in these statistics as reliable representations of the actual situations. This paper will examine the general reliability of the physical output data of industrial commodities published by the Chinese Communist authorities. Industrial output data have been selected for our purpose for two reasons. First, great emphasis has been given to industrial production in the economic plans. Second, the Chinese Communist authorities have released relatively abundant data concerning industrial production so that it is possible to conduct certain empirical tests, as will be seen later, to determine the general reliability of the output figures for certain commodities.
The Symbolic Significance of the Number Twelve in Ancient India
Authors: Spellman John W.
Published: April 2006

There is a story that the Jain saint Bhadrabāhu predicted a famine which would last for twelve years and, as a result of this famine, he led twelve thousand Jains in search of better lands. King Candragupta Maurya is said to have accompanied them and lived for twelve years after the death of the saint in Mysore; then, according to the legend, he starved himself to death. In commenting on this Jain story, Vincent Smith says, “… after much consideration I am disposed to accept the main facts as affirmed by tradition. It being certain that Candragupta was quite young and inexperienced when he ascended the throne in or about 322 B.C., he must have been under fifty when his reign terminated twenty-four years later … the twelve years' famine is not incredible. In short, the Jain tradition holds the field, and no alternative exists.”
Gulab Singh and the Creation of the Dogra State of Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh
Authors: Huttenback Robert A.
Published: April 2006

Current chinese activity along the northern frontier of India, and Peking's claims to much of this area, have focused attention on a remote and sparsely populated region whose arid reaches, blanketed by perpetual snow, have never held a central position on the stage of world history. The history of Ladakh, where controversy currently rages over conflicting claims to Aksaichin, the Chang Chenmo Valley, Kurnak Fort, Spangur, and Demchok, has been characterized by instability and turmoil. Squeezed between Tibet, India, Kashmir, and the autonomous Muslim Rajahs of Baltistan, Ladakh as an independent entity suffered a precarious existence.
Japanese Writers and the Greater East Asia War
Authors: Keene Donald
Published: April 2006

Japanese literature of the war years (1941–45) has hardly been discussed abroad, and in Japan the tendency, until very recently, was to dismiss the entire production as “sterile,” or even to deny that any existed. Obviously more than strictly literary criteria have occasioned this reluctance to consider a most important though painful period in modern Japanese writing. Foreign scholars have hesitated to uncover dirty linen; the Japanese, embarrassed by old remembrances, naturally prefer to allude to the war in terms of its suffering, rather than in terms of the joy which most people had experienced when sharing certain ideals. On occasion, polemicists have attempted to discredit an opponent by quoting his wartime publications, but the sting of their attacks is dulled by the unspoken awareness that almost everybody was involved and, if guilty, equally so.
Note: Reflections on Chinese Language Study
Authors: Mote Frederick W.
Published: April 2006

The study of Chinese differs in some important respects from the study of the other languages that figure importantly in American college curricula. This is because the structure and nature of the language itself are so different, and because Chinese culture is so distinct. Santayana said that to learn another language is to acquire another soul; we might add that in the case of Chinese there is less certainty about which is the possessor and which the possessed.