bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Participatory/Action Research
Authors: Brinton Lykes M.
Published: October 2013

Action research (AR), participatory research (PR), or participatory action research (PAR) represent three overlapping research processes frequently associated with community‐ and organization‐based research designed and facilitated collaboratively by local participants and university‐based researchers seeking to transform social inequalities or redress social injustice. Some have argued that these approaches to knowledge generation and social change can be traced back to early Greek philosophers or to indigenous communities. Others trace their beginnings to twentieth‐century social scientific research, more specifically to the work of Kurt Lewin in the 1940s and the experiential learning and inquiry communities of the 1960s. Action research contributed importantly to the fields of organizational behavior and development, introducing strategies for enhancing communication and cooperation as well as system changes. Lewin and his students developed such practices in industry and business. In line with this latter understanding, Adelman (1993, p. 7) defined action research as “the means of systematic enquiry for all participants in the quest for greater effectiveness through democratic participation”.
Pe‐Pua, Rogelia
Authors: Navarro Atoy M.
Published: October 2013

Rogelia Pe‐Pua is an Australian‐based Filipino psychologist, regarded as one of the prime movers of
sikolohiyang Pilipino
(Filipino Psychology) and contributor to indigenous psychology in the Philippines. Born in Manila on June 15, 1956, she is the sixth child of Loreto Pe and Rogelia Eben. Pe‐Pua finished her elementary and secondary education at Uno High School. She went to the University of the Philippines (UP) where she received a Bachelor of Science degree in psychology,
cum laude
, in 1977; Master of Arts degree in psychology in 1981; and Doctor of Philosophy degree in Philippine Studies in 1988.
Perfect Pitch
Authors: Phillips William L.
Published: October 2013

Perfect pitch (also referred to as absolute pitch) is the ability to vocally reproduce a musical tone or sound without an external reference tone.
Perspective Taking
Authors: Weyant James M.
Published: October 2013

Perspective taking is the extent to which a person considers another person's point of view. Figuratively, it occurs when an individual temporarily “walks in the shoes” of another person, perceiving the world as he or she does. Some researchers have measured it as a personality trait. For example, measured it as a component of the more inclusive trait of empathy by asking research participants to indicate the extent to which statements such as “I try to look at everybody's side of a disagreement before I make a decision” and “I sometimes try to understand my friends better by imagining how things look from their perspective,” are descriptive of themselves. Other researchers have temporarily induced perspective taking by experimental manipulation. For example, showed college students a picture of an elderly man and asked them to write an essay about a typical day in his life as if they were him, “looking at the world through his eyes and walking through the world in his shoes.”
Phoneme
Authors: Padakannaya Prakash , Chengappa Shyamala K.
Published: October 2013

The term
phoneme
was coined by French phonetician Antoni Dufriche‐Desgenettes (1804–1878) to refer to speech sounds. It is adopted from the Greek word
phoneme
, meaning “a sound uttered.” A phoneme on its own is arbitrary and abstract, but it combines with other phonemes to form words. The system of rules governing phonemes and their combinations is called phonology. The use of phonemes in a language is governed by two sets of rules called distributional and sequential rules. Distributional rules describe how sounds are distributed in various word positions. For example, all languages have their own restrictions on which sounds can or cannot occur in word initial or terminal positions. Sequential rules specify the combination rules of phonemes. For instance, certain sequences of phonemes are not allowable in some languages (e.g., the /r/ and /v/ sequence is not legal in English).
Ponzo Illusion
Authors: Phillips William L.
Published: October 2013

The Ponzo illusion (created by Italian psychologist Mario Ponzo) is a size‐depth illusion in which the length of two parallel lines (typically horizontal) is misjudged when bordered by two converging angled lines.
Positive Psychology
Authors: Wong Paul T. P.
Published: October 2013

Positive psychology is the study of the human strengths that allow people to thrive. Cross‐cultural positive psychology refers to research on and applications of the main themes of Positive Psychology (PP) from cross‐cultural or multicultural perspectives. PP is culture‐bound, perhaps more so than other sub‐disciplines of psychology, because what is positive requiresa priorivalue judgments based on social norms and cultural context. Consistent with the emerging wave of cross‐cultural psychology as a major force in mainstream psychology, the next stage of development of PP is focus on the cultural context.
Proxy Control
Authors: C. Fitch Jenelle
Published: October 2013

Identified four types of personal control: direct, indirect, proxy, and collective.
Psychological Reactance
Authors: Miller Richard L.
Published: October 2013

Social influence is not always successful. Individuals value their freedom and autonomy and will sometimes resist social influence. When social pressure becomes so blatant that individuals think that their freedom to think or do what they want is threatened or eliminated, they may experience psychological reactance. This can cause a boomerang effect that may lead individuals to do the opposite of what is desired in order to restore their freedom of choice. Reactance can occur when an individual confronts prohibitions, strong admonitions, regulations, and even persuasive arguments that imply a reduction in decision freedom. For example, in the 1964 American presidential election, Barry Goldwater's campaign slogan was: “In your heart, you know he is right.” Many people were offended that a politician they had never met would claim that he knew what was in their heart. He lost the election.
Psychophysiology
Authors: Verney Steven P. , Ellwanger Joel
Published: October 2013

Psychophysiology is a field of study that uses physiological measurements to investigate psychological phenomena. Many physiological functions have been linked to psychological processes such as cognition and emotion. Examples of psychophysiological measures involving the peripheral nervous system include heart rate, blood pressure, galvanic skin response (GSR), electromyography (EMG), eye movement, and pupillary dilation response. Psychophysiological measures of the central nervous system include electroencephalography (EEG) and various functional neuroimaging measures including functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), magnoencephalography (MEG), and positron emission tomography (PET).
Psychosocial Stages of Development
Authors: Bishop Christopher L.
Published: October 2013

Erik Erikson's psychosocial development model has been a leading theory on the stages of human development since 1963. Erikson was a student of Anna Freud, studying to become a psychoanalyst. However, his view of psychosocial development diverged from psychoanalysis and he concluded that development is influenced not only by inner conflicts, but also by the social world. He challenged the field to examine how identity is formed and the extent of social and environmental influences in shaping individual development. Erikson's theory revolutionized the field of development and identity, leading to pioneering work such as James Marcia's identity status model, which focused on adolescent development.
Public Displays of Affection
Authors: Miller Richard L.
Published: October 2013

Public displays of affection (PDAs) are acts of physical intimacy that can be seen by others. Forms of intimacy vary from relatively mild displays (e.g., holding hands or hugging) to more intimate forms of affection (e.g., kissing or groping). PDAs include various forms of touch, eye contact, gestures, and exhibitionism. Acts that are considered acceptable PDAs vary over time and across cultures.
Qualitative‐Quantitative Research Approach Distinction
Authors: Allwood Carl Martin
Published: October 2013

The concept of qualitative research methodology developed during the last half of the twentieth century, and the distinction between qualitative and quantitative research appears to have followed as a consequence of this development. Other contrasts suggested earlier, such as Wilhelm Dilthey's distinction between the natural and the human sciences, might have functioned as a thought model for many authors promoting the distinction. Today, the distinction between qualitative and quantitative research is well entrenched, as evidenced, for example, in the organization of research methodology texts, book series, and courses on research methodology. The distinction often appears in the cultural and cross‐cultural research context. For example, some writers have suggested that cultural psychology and the indigenous psychologies should be identified or associated with a qualitative approach and cross‐cultural psychology with a quantitative approach.
Realo, Anu
Authors: Draguns Juris G.
Published: October 2013

Anu Realo was born in Estonia and received her Ph.D. degree in psychology at the University of Tartu in 1999, followed by a postdoctoral fellowship at the Research Group on Quantitative Psychology and Individual Differences at the University of Leuven in Belgium.
Reference Group
Authors: Tanzer Norbert K.
Published: October 2013

In the inaugural issue of theInternational Journal of Testing, reported the case of an Italian job applicant assessed at a test center in France using an English language test. The person was applying for a position as manager in the Tokyo office of a U.S. multi‐national corporation. The test was developed in Australia by an international test developer and publisher. The report of the test results was to be sent to the applicant's potential supervisor in Japan, having first been interpreted by a human resources consultant in Belgium.
Reliability
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: October 2013

Reliability refers to the degree to which measurements of a construct show stability across different forms of measurement, repeatability over time, and consistency among items within a measurement instrument. In psychological research on complex topics like culture, reliability is always imperfect, because of limitations in the measurement process and inconsistencies in people's behaviors.
Religion and Spirituality
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji
Published: October 2013

Like culture, religion is a complex phenomenon. The term could imply one or more of the following: religious faith, tradition, affiliation, doctrine, values, practices, or culture. Furthermore, the terms religion, religiosity, and spirituality have often been used interchangeably in the literature. Some social thinkers believe these terms are similar or even identical, whereas others consider them distinct and having different connotations. Thus, definitions of religion vary considerably depending on the orientation, background, understanding, and worldview of the people involved in the discussion.
Rohner, Ronald P
Authors: Khaleque Abdul
Published: October 2013

Ronald P. Rohner (b. 1935) is professor emeritus of family studies and anthropology at the University of Connecticut, where he is also director of the Ronald and Nancy Rohner Center for the Study of Interpersonal Acceptance and Rejection.
Rothbaum, Frederick M
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

Born December 24, 1949, Fred Rothbaum completed his undergraduate education at the University of Michigan in 1971 and received his Ph.D. in clinical and developmental psychology from Yale University in 1977.
Sampling Equivalence
Authors: Zink Davor , Hernandez Margie , Puente Antonio E.
Published: October 2013

It is impossible to assess all individuals on one construct. And, as a consequence, an assessment is completed on a much smaller though carefully selected group of individuals referred to as a sample. In turn, that sample is extrapolated to the population at large. When an investigation has been conducted, the investigator hopes for valid and reliable results and conclusions that can be generalized across different individuals, situations, or cultures. Cross‐cultural research involves the use of rigorous applications of experimental techniques and involves the implementation of a comparative method. Because cross‐cultural research involves making inferences about certain phenomena across cultures, it is imperative that the sample obtained is representative of the population of interest.
Schema
Authors: Inoue Noriyuki
Published: October 2013

Schema refers to a set of actions and thinking coordinated to achieve a certain goal. Schema is a mental structure or representation in the human mind that reflects the relationship between humans and environment. Because people live in different environments depending on the culture, schemas developed in one culture could differ from schemas developed in another culture. For instance, the schema to drink tea could be significantly different depending on environmental factors (e.g., climate), accepted manners, and sometimes philosophical values that people associate with drinking tea. In the Japanese culture, the schema to properly drink tea consists of a set of actions to slowly bring up a cup to your mouth, sip the tea slowly, feel the bitterness of the tea and the after‐taste, and formally thank the provider of the tea, all as a part of the tea ceremony tradition in the culture. However, in another cultural setting, the schema to drink tea could be to quickly drink a cup of tea, throw away the cup, and drink another cup of tea, if it is done for quickly quenching thirst in a sultry environment.
Segall, Marshall H
Authors: Phillips William L.
Published: October 2013

Marshall H. Segall, arguably one of the most influential American contributors to cross‐cultural psychology as a discipline, was born in Bridgeport, CT in 1930. While attending Northwestern University, he was introduced to psychology as the science of human behavior. Even as a young undergraduate, he admittedly did not understand how any science of human behavior could be complete without “attending to the cultural context in which all humans behave“. After completing his undergraduate degree, Segall visited the experimental laboratories at the University of Iowa, where he discovered that a strict behaviorist approach was not the kind of psychology that interested him. He instead went to Europe to study at the University of Geneva for one year, an experience that solidified his growing belief that culture was an integral determinant of behavior. Upon returning to the United States, he completed a master's degree at Yale University. Although the psychology department there was largely laboratory‐oriented, it was housed within the Institute of Human Relations, which included anthropologists, sociologists, and psychologists, and many projects conducted there had a cultural bent.
Self‐Effacement
Authors: Miller Richard L. , Madani Yaser
Published: October 2013

The concept of self‐effacement is rooted in the Confucian principle of propriety, which requires that individuals maintain a degree of humility, that reflects their standing in society and promotes modesty, fitting in, not sticking out, and not bragging. In contrast, research conducted in North America has shown that individuals tend to engage in self‐enhancement rather than self‐effacement, in part because Western culture encourages individuals to define themselves as unique and separate individuals who are self‐confident and responsible to themselves. Evidence for these cultural differences can be found in research conducted by Heine and, in which they found differences in self‐enhancement and self‐effacement between Japanese and Canadians. Similarly, found that Chinese are less positive than North Americans when describing themselves. Bond suggested that self‐effacement is more common than self‐enhancement among the Chinese because Chinese society promotes modesty and balance. Thus, modesty should not be taken as an indication of low self‐regard but instead reflects the cultural norms that regulate such behavior. Kitayama, Markus, Matsumoto and cited a number of studies in addition to their own indicating that in North America there has been a persistent and increasing focus on enhancing people's self‐esteem. As a result, Americans tend to overestimate the uniqueness of their own positive attributes (e.g., ability or talent), as compared to the Japanese who tend to explain their success in terms of their relationship with others. In general, one might conclude that there is a pervasive tendency among North Americans to engage in self‐ enhancement while East Asians demonstrate a preference for self‐effacement. However, Inumiya and his colleagues (1999) did not find a tendency toward self‐effacement in Korea but rather a bias toward self‐enhancement similar to that of North Americans, and Yik, Bond, found that the tendency to self‐efface varied as a result of the domain being evaluated. In their study of Hong Kong Chinese, they found self‐effacement on ratings of emotional stability, sociability, helpfulness, application and restraint, but not on three agentic traits: openness to experience, assertiveness, and intellect.
Serial Position Effect
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

The serial position effect is the tendency for individuals to most easily learn and remember items at the beginning and end of a list.
Serpell, Robert
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

Robert Serpell is professor of psychology at the University of Zambia. Born in 1944 in the United Kingdom, he completed the B.A. in psychology and philosophy at Oxford University in 1965 and the D. Phil. at the University of Sussex in experimental psychology in 1969. His association with the University of Zambia began as a research fellow in the mid‐1960s and continued until 1989, with the exception of a year (1971−1972) spent at the Hester Adrian Research Centre of the University of Manchester. From 1989−2002, Serpell was a member of the psychology department at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County in the United States, returning to the University of Zambia as vice‐chancellor in 2003. Following three years as vice‐chancellor, he assumed his present role in the psychology department.
Sexual and Reproductive Health
Authors: Gwirayi Pesanayi , Mpofu Elias , Hossain Zaka , Dune Tinashe , Maruatona Sandra L.
Published: October 2013

Sexual and reproductive health (SRH) addresses sexual rights, reproductive processes, and sexual functions at all stages of life. It is about the right to participate in sexuality, including seeking, receiving, and passing on information about sexuality. It also encompasses personal choices about sexual activity, including fertility control. Yet, SRH is a taboo subject in many tradition‐led communities, and its practice is constrained by social mores and conventions that restrict access to SRH information by women and minors. This is most apparent in four key areas of SRH practice: fertility control, sexually transmitted infections, maternal health, and sex education.
Sexual Motivation
Authors: Lawson Kathryn C.
Published: October 2013

Across cultures, gender plays a significant role in sexual motivation and the pursuit of either short‐ or long‐term mating strategies. Perhaps the most basic motivation for sexual behavior is the reproductive imperative (though this is not necessarily a conscious motivation). From an evolutionary perspective, men have developed an adaptive desire for sexual variety, in order to maximize their reproductive success. Because the minimum parental investment required of men (a single insemination) is much lower than that required of women (internal gestation), men can increase their reproductive capacity significantly by mating with multiple women. This desire for sexual variety is reflected in findings that men seek short‐term mates much more than women do, men prefer to have more sexual partners than women do, and men require a shorter period of acquaintanceship before engaging in sex than women do. Under some circumstances, women require a shorter period of acquaintanceship than is typical for the gender. Women with declining fertility think more about sex, have more frequent and intense sexual fantasies, are more willing to engage in sexual intercourse, and report actually engaging in sexual intercourse more frequently than women of other age groups. Evidence also suggests that women sometimes preferentially engage in short‐term mating relationships. They may be motivated to engage in these short‐term sexual relationships for a number of reasons, including immediate acquisition of resources and an effort to determine the partner's potential suitability for a long‐term mateship. It is also not uncommon for women to find a replacement mate before terminating an existing mateship.
Smith, Peter B
Authors: Bond Michael Harris
Published: October 2013

Peter B. Smith is emeritus professor of social psychology at the University of Sussex in the United Kingdom, where he has been a faculty member for more than 40 years. Following his Ph.D. (Cambridge University, 1963), he became an acute observer and analyst of group processes, writing extensively on this topic. Inspired by conversations on cultural issues with his colleague Neil Warren, Smith developed an interest in variations across nations in leadership activities and task group interactions.
Social Construction of Emotions
Authors: Sibia Anjum
Published: October 2013

The traditional view that emotions are primarily biological, involuntary bodily changes or evolved adaptations has been challenged by social constructivists such as psychologists, anthropologist and philosopher Claire. The proponents of the social constructivist approach argue that emotions have meaning and are experienced and expressed in a particular socio‐cultural context. According to “emotions are not only remnants of our phylogenetic past, nor can they be explained in strictly physiological terms. Rather, they are social constructions, and they can befullyunderstood only on a social level of analysis.”
Social Desirability Bias
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: October 2013

Social desirability bias (SDB) involves a person's responding to questions in a way that leads to a more positive depiction of the individual than is objectively warranted. Psychologists have defined it in several slightly different ways, but it is common to regard SDB as having two different manifestations. An individual might knowingly provide responses to questions in a way designed to portray the person in a positive light, which is called
impression management
. Or the person might attempt to provide accurate responses to a question but unknowingly give a more favorable report than is accurate, which is called
self‐deception positivity
or
self‐deception enhancement
.
Social Loafing
Authors: Swearingen CaSandra L.
Published: October 2013

Social loafing occurs when individuals exert less effort in a group setting than when they are alone. The term social loafing was first coined by Latané, Williams, however, research on the phenomenon was reported in 1913 by French agricultural engineer Maximilien Ringelmann, who found that when individuals were asked to participate in a rope‐pulling activity, those who were in a group exerted less effort than individuals who carried out the activity alone. Subsequent research has found that the size of the group affects how much social loafing is likely to occur. Individuals exert less effort when they are in large versus small groups. Individuals who are part of large groups will be less likely to engage in desirable actions, such as being productive at work, assisting others in need of help and maintaining public areas in towns and cities, which can lead to negative consequences for society.
Somatization
Authors: Hwang Wei‐Chin
Published: October 2013

Somatization refers to the tendency to express, experience, and communicate psychological distress through physical means. The origins of the word stem from the Greek words for the mind and body – that is, “psyche” and “soma.” Writers often use the term in discussions of the mind‐body relationship as well as psychosomatic medicine. Somatization is a normative process and people from all across the world experience both physical and mental symptoms of distress. However, the relative weighting of emotional versus physical experience may be different across cultures, and can be influenced by cultural values, stigma associated with mental illness, and differences in social response to different forms of communication.
Spatial Cognition
Authors: Kennison Shelia M.
Published: October 2013

Spatial cognition refers to thinking about environmental spaces and spatial properties of objects and events. Spatial properties include the location of environments and objects, their sizes, their shapes, their internal patterns, their distances from other environments and objects, and any movements that occur. For events, spatial properties include location of the occurrence in the environment, the objects involved, the movements of the objects involved, and the duration of the event. In humans, animals, and machines, spatial cognition includes the acquisition of spatial knowledge, the retrieval of knowledge from memory, and the manipulation and application of spatial information in problem solving. In humans, animals, and machines, spatial cognition is involved in navigation, which involves moving through environments using immediately available sensory information and/or memory representations of previously experienced routes. In humans and animals, spatial cognition involves sensation, perception, and memory. In humans, spatial cognition also involves mental imagery, language processing, reasoning, and solving problems.
Straub, Jürgen
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

Jürgen Straub was born in Stuttgart, Germany, October 13, 1958.
Structural Equivalence
Authors: Tanzer Norbert K.
Published: October 2013

It cannot be taken for granted that test scores obtained from two cultural groups can be meaningfully compared. The meaning of the scores may be partly or entirely different in the two cultures. If this is the case,
measurement inequivalence
or
measurement bias
is said to occur. There are several types of measurement equivalence, including structural equivalence. As noted by, the term
structural equivalence
is used in different ways in cross‐cultural psychology and psychometrics. Specifically, it may be helpful to distinguish three different concepts of structural equivalence: (a) structural (and functional) equivalence as an aspect of construct and/or measurement equivalence in the tradition of cross‐cultural psychology, (b) levels of
measurement model invariance
in the context of multi‐group structural equation model (SEM) analyses, and (c) levels of
invariance related in the structural model part
of SEM models.
Subjective Elements of Culture
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: October 2013

Culture is a hard construct to define, but most definitions include the concept of shared perspectives that people pass from one generation to the next. Psychologists recognize two overarching components of culture: subjective aspects and objective or physical aspects. Subjective elements of culture refer to social and cognitive aspects of life, broadly conceived, including such concepts as attitudes, roles, beliefs, and values. Physical culture involves tangible external aspects of life (e.g., buildings, roads, food, clothing). Subjective aspects of culture are of greater significance to psychologists than are physical aspects.
Subjective Experience of Emotion
Authors: Matsumoto David , Hwang Hyi Sung
Published: October 2013

In psychological science, affect refers to the various feeling states humans, and perhaps other animals, experience. Affect plays an important role in our lives, serving as a mechanism of self‐information about one's internal states, events that occur, and our relationship with others and our environment. Humans experience a wide range of affective phenomena, such as being tired, bored, sleepy, excited, hungry, angry, afraid, sad, ashamed, proud, embarrassed, happy, or jealous. Affect motivates our behavior, directs our goals, changes our ways of thinking, and colors all of life's experiences in meaningful, relevant, and important ways. Feeling hungry, for instance, motivates us to find food, just as feeling tired motivates us to rest.
Subjective Wellbeing
Authors: Tov William , Diener Ed
Published: October 2013

The cross‐cultural importance of happiness and contentment can be inferred from their emergence in philosophical discussions across many cultural traditions. Aristotle linked happiness to virtuous behavior; Bentham regarded it as the basis for an overarching moral principle. An appeal of Buddhist meditation is the sense of contentment and freedom from suffering that mindful awareness can bring. Even Confucius—whose emphasis on social harmony and righteous action invites the image of a stern, conservative scholar—was said to be a man “whose life was full of joy”, a characteristic that may have been as appealing to his many disciples as his teachings.
Sumner, William Graham
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

William G. Sumner was born October 30, 1840 in Paterson, New Jersey, and graduated from Yale College (now Yale University) in 1863.
Survey
Authors: Chao Ruth Chu‐Lien , Green Kathy
Published: October 2013

To “survey” means to scrutinize, examine, or inspect, with specific foci in mind. To conduct a survey, researchers search for information on particular topics. Surveys are conducted with varied research designs in which questionnaires, inventories, or interviews are the tools used to gather information. Researchers typically use surveys to examine the attitudes, opinions, or preferences of individuals in a social group or population of interest. When using surveys in cross‐cultural psychology, researchers must note that culture is not a simple independent variable and it is influenced by numerous other factors, such as geography, climate, language, politics, religion, and history. Thus, an understanding of cultural difference is fundamental to creating effective surveys in cross‐cultural psychology. But, despite the importance of culture in cross‐cultural surveys, there has been no synthesis of methodological issues prescriptive of appropriate survey construction and use in cross‐cultural psychology.
Symbolic Resources
Authors: Zittoun Tania , Gillespie Alex
Published: October 2013

Symbolic resources, sometimes called cultural resources, are cultural elements (i.e., created by people and loaded with meaning) that become resources in the process of being used by people to act upon the world, another person or themselves. This definition includes such diverse phenomena as using a shovel to dig a hole and being calmed by listening to soothing music.
Symbolizing Three Dimensions in Two
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

Perception of pictures and photographs by people of different cultures is a subject that has long interested explorers, missionaries, anthropologists, and others who have traveled in non‐industrial parts of the world.
Temperament
Authors: Singer Janet S. , Navsaria Neha
Published: October 2013

Temperament refers to a set of traits within an individual, which describes how the person interacts with his or her surroundings. These traits are relatively stable over time, as they can be observed from infancy through adulthood. Because temperament can be observed early in life, it is considered biologically based, though factors in the environment, such as parenting and socialization, can change the way in which temperament is expressed. Infants, children, adolescents, and adults can be placed into temperamental categories which cluster together sets of traits describing an individual. These groups can be used to predict the way in which one might respond to future situations, and allow for adjustments to an environment to better suit the individual (see entry forGoodness of Fit).
Territoriality
Authors: Miller Richard L.
Published: October 2013

Territoriality is the tendency to stake out an area and a willingness to defend that area from intruders. Both humans and non‐human animals practice territorial behavior. The purpose of territorial boundaries is to make life more predictable, orderly, and stable. Territories also provide people with feelings of distinctiveness, privacy, and a sense of personal identity. Territorial boundaries can reduce the potential for conflict between people, but only if the boundaries are seen as legitimate.
Torture
Authors: Forrest Krista D. , Miller Richard L.
Published: October 2013

The United Nations Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhumane or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT) defines torture as “any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is intentionally inflicted on a person for such purpose as obtaining from him or a third person information or a confession, punishing him for an act he or a third person has committed, or is expected to have committed, or is suspected of having committed, or intimidating or coercing him or a third person, or for any reason based on discrimination of any kind, when such pain or suffering is inflicted by, or at the instigation of, or with the consent or acquiescence of, a public official or another person acting in an official capacity. It does not include pain or suffering arising only from, inherent in, or incidental to lawful sanctions”.
Transnational Care of the Elderly
Authors: Kalavar Jyotsna M. , Robert Bridges K. , Harnish Richard J.
Published: October 2013

Transnational caregiving refers to the exchange of care and support across national boundaries. There are many important issues faced by transnational caregivers of the elderly, a topic of increasing interest in an ethnically changing world. In today's global economy, a great deal of communication, support, exchange, and care takes place bi‐directionally between adults and their parents who reside in different nations. Although illness or disability can occur at any time throughout the life cycle, transnational care primarily focuses on caregiving by migrant adult children for their elderly parents who remained in their homeland. Here we examine the importance and growth of transnational care and selected variables (e.g., gender, culture, family histories, and migrants’ socioeconomic status) that impact upward care provided by adult children to elderly parents.
Triandis, Harry C
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji , Peterson Christa E.
Published: October 2013

Born in 1926, Harry C. Triandis is internationally known as professor, researcher, lecturer, author, and cross‐cultural psychologist. His many contributions have significantly influenced the social sciences, especially psychology. Triandis has specialized in the cultural factors affecting human personality, social relations, attitudes, prejudices, group behavior, and intergroup dynamics in management and the workplace. He is also an expert in the areas of individualism and collectivism and has studied the antecedents and consequences of these constructs. To date, he has authored or co‐authored more than 200 publications.
Trimble, Joseph E
Authors: Morse Gayle Skawennio
Published: October 2013

Many American Indian elders believe that as they teach their grandchildren they also teach the seven generations yet to come. As a young child, like many American Indian children, Joseph Trimble heard many stories and learned valuable life lessons from his grandfather during his long summer walks on the trails through the shaded woods of his grandfather's home. His first memorable lesson was when his grandfather admonished him to “pay real close attention because you're going to see something wonderful happen right now”. It is this lesson of looking, listening, and paying attention that Trimble carried with him on his journey to understand himself and others in a cultural context. This lesson stayed with him as he built a career as one of the most influential American Indian scholars in cross‐cultural psychology today.
Tseng, Wen‐Shing
Authors: Chiang Howard
Published: October 2013

Wen‐Shing Tseng is professor emeritus at the John A. Burns School of Medicine of the University of Hawaíi at Manoa. Born in 1935 in Tainan, a southern city of Taiwan, Tseng entered the world during the period of Japanese occupation. By the time he attended the College of Medicine at National Taiwan University in 1954, Japan had returned Taiwan to China and the Nationalist Government had assumed political sovereignty in Taiwan since 1949. Tseng spent his early years speaking Japanese (he received a Japanese education until the fourth grade), but by 1961, the year he began his psychiatric residency training at the National Taiwan University Hospital, he had learned to communicate in his original maternal language, Mandarin Chinese, for more than 15 years. After he settled in Hawaíi in the 1970s, his main language became English. As Tseng has emphasized on multiple occasions, the way that his life experience spans three national identities (Japanese, Chinese, and American) has played a significant role in the shaping of his deep‐seated interest in cultural psychiatry and appreciation of different languages and cultures.
Universality Studies
Authors: Matsumoto David , Hwang Hyi Sung
Published: October 2013

One of the most influential sets of studies in the history of psychology provided the first evidence for the universality of facial expressions of emotion. The universality of facial expressions is an important aspect of basic emotions and served as the impetus for much of the research that has occurred in psychology in the area of emotion over the past four decades. In this entry, we describe the scientific evidence underlying the conclusion that these expressions are universal.
Unpackaging Study
Authors: Smith Peter B.
Published: October 2013

An unpackaging study is one that attempts to identify the causes of differences across cultures. Many studies in cross‐cultural psychology have compared responses to some type of measure by respondents in two or more cultural groups. When differing responses are found in studies of this type, there are many possible explanations, because cultural groups typically differ in many interrelated ways. Samples chosen randomly may differ in terms of age, gender, social class, education, the type of environment in which they live, and so forth.
Valsiner, Jaan
Authors: Giordano Peter J.
Published: October 2013

Jaan Valsiner is professor of psychology in the Francis Hiatt School of Psychology at Clark University in Worcester, MA. He also holds a joint appointment as a research professor and research associate in the Center for Developmental Science at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC‐CH). Valsiner was born in Tallinn, Estonia in 1951 and received his Ph.D. from Tartu University (Estonia) in 1979. In 1980, Valsiner left Estonia, which was then part of the former Soviet Union, to take a position as a visiting professor at Justus‐Liebig‐Universität in Giessen, West Germany. His departure from Estonia was viewed by Soviet authorities as a defection. After six months in Germany, he emigrated to the United States and worked as a visiting assistant professor in the Institute of Child Development at the University of Minnesota. In 1981, he took a position as assistant professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Then in 1997, he left UNC‐CH to take his current position at Clark University.
van de Vijver, Fons J. R
Authors: van Hoorn Willem
Published: October 2013

Fons van de Vijver was born October 4, 1952 in Koewacht, the Netherlands.
Ward, Colleen
Authors: Lonner Walter J.
Published: October 2013

Colleen Ward is professor of psychology and Director of the Centre for Applied Cross‐Cultural Research, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. Born in the United States, she received her Ph.D. from Durham University (United Kingdom) and previously held research and teaching appointments at the University of the West Indies (Trinidad), Science University of Malaysia, National University of Singapore, and University of Canterbury (New Zealand). Her areas of research expertise include identity, acculturation, adaptation, and intercultural relations, topics summarized in
The Psychology of Culture Shock
(revised edition forthcoming) and featured in over 150 journal articles and book chapters.
Wayfinding
Authors: Miller Richard L.
Published: October 2013

Wayfinding refers to the mechanisms people use to find their way in both familiar and unfamiliar environments. Wayfinding includes how people determine their current location within a setting, determine their destination, and develop a plan to take them from their location to their destination. This ability is dependent on one's skill at cognitive mapping, which refers to the process of forming mental representations of one's spatial environment. This ability can be seen early in life. For example, tested the mapping abilities of four‐year‐old children in South Africa, Iran, Mexico, England, and the United States. They found that essential mapping abilities, including perspective taking and scale transformations, were well developed by the age of four in these cultures, which suggests that this skill exists without specific training. In support of this idea, found that the five‐ and six‐year‐olds from Puerto Rico, St. Vincent, and the United States could, to some extent, understand aerial maps without previous experience with an aerial view.
Whiting, Beatrice B
Authors: R. Brown Jill , Bartholomew Theodore T.
Published: October 2013

Beatrice Blyth Whiting, (1914−2004) was a leading anthropologist of childhood and professor emerita of education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. She, along with her husband and long‐time collaborator John W. M. Whiting, were pioneers in psychological anthropology and the comparative study of children. Born in New York on April 14, 1914, and graduating from Bryn Mawr College in 1935, Beatrice Whiting became one of the first women to study anthropology at Yale. She did fieldwork among the Paiute Indians in Oregon and received her Ph.D. in 1943; her dissertation was published as a book,
Paiute Sorcery: A Study of Social Control
(1950). After working at both Brandeis University and Wellesley College, Whiting became a professor at the Harvard Graduate School of Education in 1973 and was among the first women to be appointed to tenured professorships at Harvard University. She retired in 1980, then served as a distinguished fellow at the Henry A. Murray Center for the Study of Lives at Radcliffe College from 1980 to 1985.
Wundt, Wilhelm
Authors: Chakkarath Pradeep
Published: October 2013

Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (1832–1920) was one of the key figures in the development and institutionalization of the human sciences in the nineteenth century. He contributed to many fields of study, such as physiology, philosophy, logic, anthropology, and psychology.
Zen Buddhism
Authors: Wu Kuang‐ming
Published: October 2013

Zen Buddhism emphasizes the personal expression of experiential wisdom more than standard theoretical knowledge. Zen Buddhism also focuses on direct self‐realization via meditation and
dhama
practice. Thus, the attainment of enlightenment is a key element in Zen Buddhism. As such, standard theoretical knowledge may be too abstract for believers in Zen Buddhism. Zen Buddhism is somewhat different from Buddhism dedicated to all‐vacuity, insisting that every “thing” is actually all empty. For Buddhists, empty are all meanings, all beings, and even the word “empty” is empty of meaning.
Dimensions of Culture (Shalom H. Schwartz) – Hierarchy
Authors: Reid Laura M.
Published: October 2013

Hierarchy is a dimension of culture concerned with the societal problem of ensuring responsible behavior that will support the maintenance of the social structure of that society.
Dimensions of Culture (Shalom H. Schwartz) – Intellectual Autonomy
Authors: Niu Jianghe
Published: October 2013

Described two types of autonomy: affective and intellectual autonomy. Intellectual autonomy refers to the independent pursuit of ideas, intellectual directions, and rights (e.g., creative work and curiosity). Intellectual autonomy also motivates individuals to follow their ideas and paths through values like broadmindedness, creativity, and curiosity.
Dimensions of Culture (Shalom H. Schwartz) – Mastery
Authors: Cvasa Gregory Peter , Conway Lucian Gideon , Houck Shannon C. , Gornick Laura Janelle
Published: October 2013

The aspiration to be a high achiever is not unique to any one culture. Achievement, unlike some of the values in the Schwartz hierarchy, is considered truly pan‐cultural. Consequently, it would not be unusual to meet a high achiever regardless of where you find yourself. In fact, you mightbea high achiever.
Values (Shalom H. Schwartz) – Power
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji , Driscoll Elizabeth G.
Published: October 2013

Power refers to the degree to which people value the need to achieve social recognition, preserve their public images, and aspire to positions of authority or dominance. This human value was not among the original seven put forth by Schwartz, since previous studies had omitted it, considering that people could be hesitant to admit being motivated merely by power. However, as Schwartz further developed his theory, he added markers that would indicate later that the dimension of power is: (a) a position of authority and significance, (b) self‐determination of one's own direction in life and in the future, and (c) equity – the distribution of rewards fairly based on individual contributions, which indicate the desire for differential treatment, since rewards could be accumulated by those who aspire to status and control.
Attention
Authors: Justi Francis dos Reis , Justi Cláudia Nascimento , de Freitas Araujo Saulo
Published: October 2013

Attention is a selection process in information processing that prevents a system of limited resources from being overloaded. Besides selectivity, other characteristics commonly attributed to attention are improving the processing of objects that are the focus of attention and promoting the access of these objects to awareness. While it may be said that these characteristics are central to the concept of attention, it is important to emphasize that attention is controversial and difficult to define, with several metaphors having been proposed to characterize it and different features added to the concept depending on the metaphor used. For example, visual attention is often characterized as a kind of spotlight, used to “illuminate” the visual field. In this metaphor, control mechanisms (executive processes) are responsible for shifting attention between visual field areas, and objects that fall in the center of the “beam” are the focus of attention and are more highly processed than objects on the periphery. Therefore, this kind of metaphor adds control mechanisms and the idea of dislocation to the concept of attention. It is also common to distinguish between attention driven by exogenous factors, such as stimulus characteristics (e.g., an abrupt movement that captures our attention), and that driven by endogenous factors, such as expectations and goals.
Cultural Response Bias
Authors: Cummins Robert A.
Published: October 2013

It is common to find lists that compare countries on their levels of subjective wellbeing (SWB) or mood happiness. In compiling these lists the authors inevitably find lower SWB within Confucian influenced societies (mainland China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and Singapore) than in Australia and North America. The assumption, then, is that such differences represent valid international comparisons of life quality. The assumption is incorrect and the reason is cultural response bias. That is, people from Confucian influenced societies respond differently from Australians to self‐rated happiness scales.