bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Capturing Institutional Change
Authors: Jha Himanshu
Published: November 2020

Institutions are norms that undergird organizations and are reflected in laws and practices. Scholars point towards the ‘stickiness’ of institutions as stubbornly persisting on the historical landscape. As institutions tend to persist, the related political, administrative, and social processes persist as well. Therefore, it is puzzling when perpetuating institutions change paths. This book unravels one such puzzle by examining the process of institutional change through the lenses of transformation in the ‘information regime’ in India by tracing the passage of the Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005. Historically, in India, the norm of secrecy was entrenched within the state, perpetuating since colonial times. Yet, in 2005, the RTI Act was enacted heralding an institutional shift from the norm of ‘secrecy’ to the new norm of ‘openness’. What explains this institutional change? Based on new historical evidence overlooked in the mainstream literature, this book shows that the RTI Act was path-dependent on ideas of openness that emerged within the state since Independence. It argues that an endogenous policy discourse on enacting legislation on access to information had begun since Independence; it incrementally evolved and reached a ‘tipping point’ and, after surviving many political challenges, resulted in institutional change. Initially these ideas emerged gradually and incrementally as part of opposition politics, but eventually became part of mainstream politics. The book presents an alternate perspective to the mainstream narrative explaining the evolution of the RTI Act and makes theoretical contribution to the literature on institutional change.
Changing State Thinking
Authors: Jha Himanshu
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the emerging processes in the second phase (1989–2005), which is treated as the second and final layer. It shows that the incremental effect of emerging ideas on the state’s thinking resulted in tangible policy movements and led to institutional change. We show that in the final stage of layering the transition from ‘opposition’ to ‘mainstream’ politics was consequential in institutional change. Nascent ideas emanating from the ‘opposition politics’ got embedded within the ‘mainstream politics’ resulting in political commitment and tangible policy actions. The rudimentary ideas on the norm of openness matured and were consolidated within the state thinking and reached a tipping point in 2005. The weight and momentum of ideas incrementally rendered the issues of openness and access to official information a sine qua non within the state.
Constitutional Interpretation by the Judiciary
Authors: Jha Himanshu
Published: November 2020

This chapter traces the trajectory of ideas that emanated from the judiciary since the early 1950s. The ideational movement within the judiciary coincides with the first two phases. This chapter discusses significant judicial cases in which the Supreme Court has interpreted Article 19 (1) (a) of the Constitution of India as inherently containing the right to know. Initially ideas on openness from the judiciary emerged in a nascent form where the judicial verdicts established the linkage between the freedom of press and the importance of information flow and dissemination in a democracy. Later, the judiciary moved beyond the specifics of the press freedom and examined the question of openness in government affairs, challenging the nested norm of secrecy. This interpretation provides the link to the long-drawn process of emerging ideas on openness emanating from within the state.
Social and Political Processes of State and Society
Authors: Jha Himanshu
Published: November 2020

This Chapter examines the processes around state and society, traces the role of social networks outside the state realm, and conceptualizes these processes as the complementarity of state and society, where strong ideational linkages led to the formation of an ‘epistemic network’. These processes played a significant role in the final phase of the enactment of the Right to Information Act. The period covered in this chapter coincides with the latter half of the second phase. This chapter establishes that mainstream politics converged with the emerging socio-political processes led by the elite within the social movement, judiciary, the press, bureaucracy, and the academia. This convergence needs to be viewed as one of state–society synergy, where the collective ‘epistemic push’ of actors from both within the state and society ‘tips over’ the institution from ‘secrecy’ to ‘openness’.
Do Global Norms Matter?
Authors: Jha Himanshu
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the role of global norms in institutional change. The nature and extent of the impact of global norm diffusion on the domestic discourse is traced in this chapter. The global–national processes around global norms on transparency, accountability, and access to information are spread over two phases outlined in this manuscript. This chapter shows that while the transparency norms evolved endogenously, they benefitted from the demonstration effect of international norms. At the same time the endogenous movement of ideas played a substantial role in localizing the global norms. Norm diffusion in this case was not part of the coercive conditionalities of multilateral agencies; it was adapted in conjunction with the ideational churning at the national level.
Rabindranath Tagore Meets Paul and Edith Geheeb
Authors: Kämpchen Martin
Published: November 2020

The focus of Chapter 1 is on Paul and Edith Geheeb and their first foundation, the Odenwaldschule (1910–34). The chapter begins with a summary of the Reformpädagogik Movement, of which Paul Geheeb was a major exponent. From a modest background his life progressed—through a decade of university studies and several attempts to join alternative schools, to prominence as an educator. By contrast, Edith Geheeb, hailing from a wealthy Jewish business family, was, as a woman, denied higher education. Her family’s generosity made the Odenwaldschule possible. Among the early contacts with Indian guests at the Odenwaldschule were Ananth Nath Basu, Premchand Lal, Aurobindo Mohan Bose (the great-nephew of the famous scientist Jagadis Chandra Bose), and the Gujarati dancer Shrimati Hutheesing. All of them were associates of Rabindranath Tagore in Santiniketan. Emma von Pelet and especially Alwine von Keller where two teachers at the Odenwaldschule with close contacts to India, especially to the Ramakrishna Mission. The only Indian teacher was V.N. Sharma who introduced Sanskrit studies and theosophy to the school. The most far-reaching Indo-German event, described here in detail, was Tagore’s three-day-visit to the Odenwaldschule in 1930. It has repercussions until this day.
The United States and the Arab-Israeli Conflict
Authors: Slater Jerome
Published: November 2020

With rare exceptions, since 1948 and the onset of the Arab-Israeli and Israeli-Palestinian conflicts, the United States has provided near unconditional support of Israel. The downside of that support is that it has enabled Israel to spurn repeated opportunities for peace settlements of those conflicts, for even when US governments have disagreed with hard-line Israeli policies, they have only rarely been willing to press for changes. A number of factors that explain these US policies are examined: the belief that support of Israel is morally required; shared religious and political values; public opinion; strong congressional and presidential support of Israel; the strategic and national interests of the United States, particularly concerning Middle East oil and the containment of the Soviet Union during the Cold War and the “war on terrorism” afterward; and the power of the Israel lobby. Particular attention is paid to the dispute over how much power the lobby has over US Mideast policies.
The Creation of the State of Israel, 1947–48
Authors: Slater Jerome
Published: November 2020

The 1947 UN partition plan divided Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem designated as an international city. The Zionist leaders “accepted” the plan, but only as a temporary tactic, until Israel could later expand and take over all of historical Palestine. The Palestinians rejected the plan, unwilling to compromise their claim to Palestine and aware of the Zionist expansionist plans. American policies toward the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine were mixed. Roosevelt was sympathetic to Zionist goals, but he was unwilling to jeopardize US ties to the Arab states in the Middle East, especially because of their control of oil vital to the US economy. Similarly, Truman was advised by the State and Defense Departments that it was against the national interests for the United States to support the creation of Israel, but for reasons of both morality and domestic politics, he overrode them.
From War to War, 1956–67
Authors: Slater Jerome
Published: November 2020

Despite the Israeli myths, the 1967 war was not “a war of no choice.” Before the war, Israeli political and military hawks hoped to use another war to seize the West Bank and the Golan Heights. Israel deliberately provoked Syria into war. Egypt was forced by its alliance with Syria to come to its assistance, but did not intend to start a war with Israel. U.S and Israeli intelligence knew this and anticipated that Israel would easily defeat Egypt, even if the Egyptians attacked first. Though strongly pro-Israel, Lyndon Johnson did not want the U.S. to be drawn into the war. Therefore, the Israeli military attack on Egypt in June 1967 was not forced on Israel. During the war Israel seized the West Bank, Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights. After the war Israel decided to keep its conquests and to ignore signals from the Arab states for compromise peace settlements.
The Cold War and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1967–74
Authors: Slater Jerome
Published: November 2020

During the Cold War, the Arab-Israeli conflict became entangled in the global rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union. American policymakers, particularly Henry Kissinger, believed that the Soviets wanted to exploit the Arab-Israeli conflict to drive the West from the Middle East and dominate the region. To prevent that, the Nixon administration sought to end Soviet influence there and exclude it from all efforts to reach a negotiated settlement. However, the American view was based on misperceptions about Soviet interests and objectives in the region. In fact, fearing American dominance and a war with the United States, the Soviets proposed a joint superpower-guaranteed or even imposed comprehensive peace settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict. Because the United States spurned these proposals, the Cold War was exacerbated, there were several near-confrontations between the superpowers, and important opportunities to reach a comprehensive settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict were permanently lost.
The Lebanon Wars
Authors: Slater Jerome
Published: November 2020

From the onset of the Arab-Israeli conflict, the major Israeli leaders looked for opportunities to invade and annex southern Lebanon and install a friendly Christian and anti-PLO government in the rest of the country, working closely with Israel in its conflict with the Palestinians and other Islamic organizations. After the PLO established its main bases and headquarters in the region, there were a series of Israeli-PLO-Hezbollah cross-border attacks, culminating in the 1978, 1982, 1993, 1996, and 2006 wars. Although Israel “won” the wars and the PLO was expelled from Lebanon, Hezbollah recovered and grew stronger after each one. It now has an estimated 130,000 rockets and missiles and can hit almost every part of Israel in case of new wars. As a result, since 2006 a state of acknowledged mutual deterrence and an uneasy peace has emerged between Israel and Hezbollah, except for Israeli attacks on Hezbollah forces cooperating with Iran in the Syrian civil war.
The Israeli-Syrian Conflict, 1973–2019
Authors: Slater Jerome
Published: November 2020

Israel is largely responsible for the Israeli-Syrian conflict. Before the 1948 war, Israel rejected opportunities to reach peace agreements with moderate Syrian monarchs or military governments, because they would have required the end of Israeli expansionist goals focusing on the Golan Heights. Syria’s participation in the 1967 and 1973 wars was partly the intended result of Israeli military provocations designed to give Israel the pretext to seize the area. Since then. the Hafez and Bassar Assad monarchies have repeatedly offered to end the conflict, provided Israel returned the Golan. While several Israeli prime ministers and top military leaders believed Israel’security would be enhanced by such a deal, the negotiations collapsed when the Israeli prime ministers, fearing a rightwing domestic backlash, on the verge of an agreement backed away. For the foreseeable future, the Syrian civil war, together with Israel’s annexation of the Golan, has ended the prospect for a peace agreement.
The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, 1917–88
Authors: Slater Jerome
Published: November 2020

The early history of the Zionist-Israeli conflict, from 1917 to the 1980s, is discussed. The early Zionist leaders recognized that the Palestinians had understandable reasons to resist Zionism but concluded that the need for a Jewish state outweighed the Palestinian case, leaving the Zionists no choice but to militarily defeat the Palestinians by the “iron wall” strategy. The Peel Commission and UN partition plans are explored, accepted by the Zionists only tactically until they were strong enough to expel most Palestinians from the land allotted to a Jewish state, so as to create an 80 percent Jewish majority. The rise of the PLO under Yasser Arafat is examined, along with its gradual transformation from an extremist terrorist group to its acceptance in 1988 and ever since as a proponent of a two-state compromise peace settlement. Israel’s refusal to reach such a settlement, especially before and after the 1948 and 1967 wars, is discussed.
Camp David, Taba, and the Clinton Parameters, 2000–2001
Authors: Slater Jerome
Published: November 2020

The most promising Israeli-Palestinian negotiations occurred in the 2000 Camp David and Taba conferences, presided over by Bill Clinton. According to the Israeli mythology, Prime Minister Ehud Barak offered the Palestinians an independent state in at least 95 percent of the occupied territories. However, Arafat and the PLO rejected the offer, and then launched a new violent and often terrorist intifada, demonstrating that they still sought to destroy Israel and take over all of historic Palestine. As with the many other mythologies in the Arab-Israeli conflict, this bears little resemblance to reality. In fact, Barak refused to withdraw the settlers, refused to give the Palestinians sovereignty over mosques in the Old City, refused to allow a Palestinian capital in East Jerusalem, and refused to acknowledge any Israeli responsibility for the Nakba and the plight of the refugees. At the follow-up Taba conference, the Israeli delegation was more forthcoming on the central issues, but Barak disowned their concessions.
The Peace Process
Authors: Slater Jerome
Published: November 2020

The last serious political negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians occurred between 2003 and 2008. The Road Map initiative of 2003 died because Sharon sabotaged it and the Bush administration abandoned it. Sharon’s intransigence also killed the Geneva Accords, a comprehensive two-state peace settlement negotiated between leading Israeli and Palestinian dovish political leaders. Similarly, the Arab Peace Initiative was ignored by Israel. However, the 2008 secret negotiations between Israeli prime minister Ehud Olmert and PA president Mahmoud Abbas, apparently came close to success but died when Olmert was replaced by Benjamin Netanyahu. Netanyahu had long history of opposing the creation of a Palestinian state. Although early in his presidency Obama had indicated support for a two-state settlement, he backed down when confronted with Netanyahu’s intransigence rather than risk a conflict not only with Israel but also with the US Congress and the Israeli lobby.
Athens After Empire
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: November 2020

When we think of ancient Athens, the image invariably coming to mind is of the Classical city, with monuments beautifying everywhere; the Agora swarming with people conducting business and discussing political affairs; and a flourishing intellectual, artistic, and literary life, with life anchored in the ideals of freedom, autonomy, and democracy. But in 338 that forever changed when Philip II of Macedonia defeated a Greek army at Chaeronea to impose Macedonian hegemony over Greece. The Greeks then remained under Macedonian rule until the new power of the Mediterranean world, Rome, annexed Macedonia and Greece into its empire. How did Athens fare in the Hellenistic and Roman periods? What was going on in the city, and how different was it from its Classical predecessor? There is a tendency to think of Athens remaining in decline in these eras, as its democracy was curtailed, the people were forced to suffer periods of autocratic rule, and especially under the Romans enforced building activity turned the city into a provincial one than the “School of Hellas” that Pericles had proudly proclaimed it to be, and the Athenians were forced to adopt the imperial cult and watch Athena share her home, the sacred Acropolis, with the goddess Roma. But this dreary picture of decline and fall belies reality, as my book argues. It helps us appreciate Hellenistic and Roman Athens and to show it was still a vibrant and influential city. A lot was still happening in the city, and its people were always resilient: they fought their Macedonian masters when they could, and later sided with foreign kings against Rome, always in the hope of regaining that most cherished ideal, freedom. Hellenistic Athens is far from being a postscript to its Classical predecessor, as is usually thought. It was simply different. Its rich and varied history continued, albeit in an altered political and military form, and its Classical self-lived on in literature and thought. In fact, it was its status as a cultural and intellectual juggernaut that enticed Romans to the city, some to visit, others to study. The Romans might have been the ones doing the conquering, but in adapting aspects of Hellenism for their own cultural and political needs, they were the ones, as the poet Horace claimed, who ended up being captured.
Farewell to Freedom
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: November 2020

After a survey of Athens at the height of its power in the Classical period, the chapter focuses on the rise to power of Philip II of Macedonia, how he expanded his kingdom, his relations with Athens, and his eventual military establishment of hegemony over Greece. Conditions in the city, especially during the Lycurgan era, are covered. On Philip’s death, that hegemony continued under his son, Alexander the Great. When Alexander died, the Greeks, led by Athens, revolted against Macedonian rule in what is called the Lamian War. The Macedonian general Antipater re-established Macedonian control, and punished Athens, including installing a garrison in the city, curtailing democracy, and reducing the number of citizens. This was the start of the Hellenistic era, commonly seen as a slump in Athens’ fortunes.
Demetrius “The Besieger” and Athens
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: November 2020

Chapter 4 returns to historical narrative with a discussion of the rule of Demetrius Poliorcetes in Athens and his relationship with the Athenians, especially sycophantic political leaders. The Athenians’ attitude to Poliorcetes and his father Antigonus Monophthalmus is discussed as the Athenians referred to them as “savior gods,” beginning a tradition. Comments are made on religion and Athenian piety, and whether the Athenians really believed they were savior gods or just ingratiating themselves with them. Also discussed is that these Antigonids were the first to call themselves kings, establishing a trend in Hellenistic kingship. Poliorcetes’ exploits in the Wars of the Successors are traced, including the defeat and death of his father at the battle of Ipsus and the subsequent Athenian defiance of him, which led to a period of tyranny in the city under a man named Lachares. Poliorcetes returns to Athens and re-establishes control, but eventually Athens revolts with the aid of the Athenian Callias, and Poliorcetes is forced out of Greece, ending an era of his control.
Independence Day
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: November 2020

Chapter 6 discusses Athens’ relations with Antigonus Gonatas, up until the time of his death. Next, the chapter discusses the city’s relations with his successors Demetrius II and Antigonus III, along with the problems Macedonians were beginning to face, especially from marauding Illyrians. Taking advantage of the situation, Athens was able to declare its independence from Macedonia in 229, which proved to be a watershed year in its Hellenistic history. The city continued its diplomatic influence in Greece and with other Hellenistic courts. But the rise of Philip V to the Macedonian throne would significantly impact Greece as well as Athens.
Enter Rome, Exit Macedonia
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: November 2020

The chapter traces Rome’s involvement in Greece and Philip’s growing military strength, including his alliance with Hannibal of Carthage in the Second Punic War against Rome. Rome’s first clash in Greece against Macedonia—the First Macedonian War—is recounted, and then events leading to the more fateful Second Macedonian War, which involved Athens on Rome’s side against Philip, culminating in Philip’s defeat in battle by Rome. Punitive measures against Macedonia are discussed, heralding the demise of Philip to Rome, and then the so-called Roman proclamation of Greek freedom by the general Flamininus and what it meant for the Greeks and more ominously, Rome. That Rome could do this demonstrates Rome’s power in the Greek world.
Being Free without Freedom
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: November 2020

Increasing warfare in Greece involved the Athenians, who sided with Rome in their best interests. But in Macedonia, Philip V’s death led to his son Perseus becoming king. Eventually he and Rome went to war—the Third Macedonian War. It ended in Rome’s victory in a battle at the hands of Aemilius Paullus, after which Rome ended the Antigonid dynasty and split up the Macedonian kingdom to bring to an end the Macedonian state. Importantly for Athens, Rome granted the city the island of Delos, which had a profound effect on the Athenian economy because of its prosperity. An Athenian embassy to Rome—the so-called philosophers embassy—also introduced the Romans to the three major types of philosophy studied at Athens, and Romans began to take a serious interest in them, and by extension Greek culture. But increasing warfare in Greece and the belligerence of the Achaean League forced Rome to intervene, and to annex Greece formally into its empire: a watershed year for Greece. Athens did not suffer, and the chapter ends considering its position in the Greek world, and diplomatic dealings with Hellenistic kings like the Ptolemies and Seleucids.
Sulla’s Sack of Athens
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: November 2020

Chapter 10 begins with a consideration of the constitution and political activity in Athens, followed by a change in the Athenian attitude toward Rome and the activities of Mithridates VI of Pontus. Mithridates’ clashes with Rome led to him seek allies in Greece, especially Athens. His case polarized Athenian politics, but the people voted to support him, and hence declared war on Rome. The Romans sent Sulla to Greece, who besieged Athens. Eventually the city capitulated, and Sulla’s men then killed many citizens and destroyed many buildings. The city’s economy was destroyed; Delos defected; further restraints were made on the city’s political life; and even artistic output was affected. Yet Roman visitors to Athens began to increase in the years after Sulla, including to study there, and Greek culture continued to be attractive to Romans.
Building a New Horizon?
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: November 2020

Chapter 14 takes another break from the historical narrative to discuss the major Roman building projects in Athens, which some scholars argue brought about a Romanization of the city and led to its becoming a provincial one. The argument is made that despite Roman buildings, Athens remained a Greek city. The chapter discusses the Roman Agora; the Temple of Roma and Augustus in front of the Parthenon; Agrippa’s Odeum; the lesser public works under the post Julio-Claudian emperors; and Hadrian’s great building program (including the completion of the monumental Temple to Olympian Zeus (Olympieion), a library, an aqueduct), second only to that of Augustus, with a nod to the next chapter to explain why he did what he did. The funerary monument to Philopappus, not at the behest of an emperor but still part of a building program because of Roman style in its architecture, is also discussed. Finally, the chapter examines the transplanting of some temples from the Attic countryside during this period and why this occurred, and the reuse of earlier (especially Classical) statues dedicated to Romans, as part of a plan of the Athenians to keep their heritage alive and not have statues removed to Rome.
Introduction
Authors: Shandler Jeffrey
Published: November 2020

This introduction provides a concise presentation of Yiddish as the foundational vernacular of Ashkenazi Jews and addresses the challenge of how to present the story of the language by explaining the book’s thematic approach to studying Yiddish through the format of a biographical profile. The introduction notes some key distinguishing characteristics of Yiddish, including its complex and dynamic interrelation with other languages and its symbolic stature within different multilingual configurations. In addition, the introduction provides an overview of the distinctive issues that Yiddish raises for the study of languages generally, including language diaspora, language fusion, multilingualism, language ideologies, and postvernacularity.
Date and Place of Birth
Authors: Shandler Jeffrey
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the various efforts to explain when, where, and how Yiddish emerged. These efforts variously draw on linguistic and extra-linguistic evidence, including the earliest textual traces of the Ashkenazic vernacular and the demotics used by these Jews’ neighbors, as well as information that testifies to early Jewish settlements in northern Europe and, more recently, DNA analysis. This inquiry responds to a broader modern interest in the origins of languages in relation to their speakers, and these explanations of the beginnings of Yiddish reflect their proponents’ ideological as well as intellectual agendas regarding the nature not only of the language but also of Ashkenazim.
Family Background
Authors: Shandler Jeffrey
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the classification of Yiddish as a member of two different families of languages: Germanic languages and Jewish languages. Each of these language families is founded on a different conceptualization of how languages are related to one another: genetic or cultural, respectively. These two distinct classifications of Yiddish can be integrated by considering it a fusion language, which situates the perceived hybrid nature of Yiddish as its defining essence. Discussions of the family background of Yiddish also reveal extralinguistic concerns reflecting ideologically shaped notions of about cultural legitimacy, demographic integrity, social and political status, and the construction of a Jewish authenticity.
Name
Authors: Shandler Jeffrey
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the range and dynamics of the various names by which the language now called Yiddish has been identified. This examination reveals changing conceptualizations of the foundational vernacular of Ashkenazim in relation to other languages, both those used by Jews and those of their neighbors, signifying its distinctive usage or stature. Earlier terms reflect understandings of the demotic of Ashkenazic Jewry that are more mutable and contingent that modern notions of what constitutes a discrete, integral language. Widespread use of the term “Yiddish” to name the language is relatively recent and reflects modern extralinguistic concepts of Ashkenazic ethnicity and Jewish nationality.
Gender
Authors: Shandler Jeffrey
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the multiple roles that gender plays in Yiddish, beginning with its grammar. Yiddish has often been conceptualized as a gendered language, whether in its instrumental use or in its symbolic value, given that Yiddish is always used in relation to other languages. In particular, women have figured strategically in the development of Yiddish literature, both in the early modern period and during the Haskalah. In the modern period, Yiddish has sometimes been characterized as essentially “feminine” in contrast with Hebrew as “masculine.” Yiddish has also been used to disrupt a heteronormative gender binary, whether articulating a third gender in traditional Jewish literacy or the recent phenomenon of Queer Yiddishkeit.
Appearance
Authors: Shandler Jeffrey
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the visual presence of Yiddish. Rendering Yiddish in the Jewish alphabet, originally conceived for a Semitic language, has entailed shifting orthographic strategies. In both old manuscripts and early publications, Yiddish was written with distinct scribal conventions and often printed with a special typeface that differentiated it from Hebrew. Efforts to standardize Yiddish spelling are a late development, with competing standards that are honored more often in the breach. Though full Yiddish texts have only seldom been published in Romanized transcription, individual words and phrases are frequently Romanized according to a variety of conventions when Yiddishisms are integrated into a language spelled with Latin letters.
Life Expectancy
Authors: Shandler Jeffrey
Published: November 2020

The chapter examines the discourse of Yiddish as an endangered or dying language, which emerges at the turn of the twentieth century. This discourse reflects a range of anxieties about Jewish cultural and demographic continuity as much as it addresses concerns about language use. Yiddish has also been characterized as a spectral presence in other languages, including Dutch, Esperanto, German, and Israeli Hebrew. In defiance of the trope of Yiddish as a dying language, contemporary postvernacular engagements with Yiddish in particular present new possibilities for contemplating the future of Yiddish, including the value of understanding Yiddish in the modern period as thriving on discontinuity.
Heat and Light
Authors: McCall Thomas H. , Stanglin Keith D.
Published: November 2020

Chapter 2 begins the account of Arminian theology after Arminius, turning attention to the complexities of the continental Remonstrant and English Arminian theologies as they took shape in the seventeenth century. After a historical overview of the controversies surrounding the Synod of Dordt (including the British involvement in the Dutch controversies), we provide an account of the theology of Dutch Remonstrantism. After examining the relationship between Scripture and reason, we then turn attention to the doctrine of God, theological anthropology, and the doctrines of salvation. Moving across the North Sea, we then explore the development of doctrine within the English variants of Arminian theology, describing issues related to the doctrine of the Trinity, the proper understanding of the divine attributes, the extent of the atonement, and the doctrine of justification and its relation to good works.
Freedom and Responsibility
Authors: McCall Thomas H. , Stanglin Keith D.
Published: November 2020

In Chapter 4, we survey how claims to knowledge of God were defended in the nineteenth-century Methodist context; we look both at the theological methods that were employed and how apologetic impulses functioned within those prolegomena. Turning to the doctrine of God, we trace some of the momentous changes that took place as Wesleyan theology wrestled with modern challenges in relation to its classical inheritance (especially in relation to classical doctrines of perfection, simplicity, aseity, immutability, and omniscience as well as Trinitarian theology). With regard to theological anthropology, we see how the major Methodist theologians wrestled not only with long-standing disputes (for example, the mind–body relation) but also with current debates (for example, race and ethnicity). We trace the Wesleyan debates (both internally, and against traditional Reformed theology as well as revisionism and modernism) over the doctrine of original sin.
Yesterday and Today
Authors: McCall Thomas H. , Stanglin Keith D.
Published: November 2020

In Chapter 6, we take brief notice of other anti-Calvinist (and distinctly Protestant) movements that emerged after the sixteenth century, including some groups that did not always self-designate as Arminian, such as the English Baptists, nonsubscribing Presbyterians, and the American (Stone-Campbell) Restoration Movement. We then take stock of the breadth of Arminian views in the twentieth and early part of the twenty-first centuries, with a special emphasis on movements arising from Methodist and Wesleyan influences. We conclude with a summary of Arminianism, its historical development, and the major themes that are common to the various expressions of Arminian theology.
Social and Political Trust
Authors: Vallier Kevin
Published: November 2020

This chapter draws on the extensive empirical literatures on trust in the social sciences in order to explore how to create and maintain social and political trust in the real world. The overall conclusion of this chapter is twofold. First, social and political trust are critical social achievements for sustaining a diverse social order, but social trust is more important than political trust. Second, liberal-democratic market institutions play a modest role in sustaining social trust, and a large role in sustaining political trust. We can conclude, then, that liberal democratic market societies are part of a positive causal feedback loop that sustains trusting social orders with diverse persons who disagree. That is how we get trust for the right reasons.
Democratic Constitutionalism
Authors: Vallier Kevin
Published: November 2020

To create trust for the right reasons, states should organize their lawmaking process to conform to democratic constitutionalism. Democratic constitutionalism holds both that the legislative process should appeal to extensive citizen input, and that government officials should convert citizen input into policy via processes that are predictable, effective, and neutral between citizens. It turns out that many elements of democratic constitutionalism create real trust, and that democratic constitutionalism can be publicly justified. We will also see that democratic constitutionalism is the most important factor in disrupting distrust and divergence, in no small part because it is the prime factor determining levels of trust in government.
The Solidarity Solution
Authors: Olson Kristi A.
Published: November 2020

What is a fair income distribution? The empirical literature seems to assume that equal income would be fair, but the equal income answer faces two objections. First, equal income is likely to be inefficient. This book sets aside efficiency concerns as a downstream consideration; it seeks to identify a fair distribution. The second objection—pointed out by both leftist political philosopher G. A. Cohen and conservative economist Milton Friedman—is that equal income is unfair to the hardworking. Measuring labor burdens in order to adjust income shares, however, is no easy task. Some philosophers and economists attempt to sidestep the measurement problem by invoking the envy test. Yet a distribution in which no one prefers someone else’s circumstances to her own, as the envy test requires, is unlikely to exist—and, even if it does exist, the normative connection between the envy test and fairness has not been established. The Solidarity Solution provides a novel answer: when someone claims that her situation should be improved at someone else’s expense, she must be able to give a reason that cannot be rejected by a free and equal individual who regards everyone else as the same. Part I develops the solidarity solution and shows that rigorous distributive implications can be derived from a relational ideal. Part II uses the solidarity solution to critique the competing theories of Ronald Dworkin, Philippe Van Parijs, and Marc Fleurbaey. Finally, part III identifies insights for the gender wage gap and taxation.
Fleurbaey’s Egalitarian Equivalent Approach
Authors: Olson Kristi A.
Published: November 2020

Chapter 7 critiques Marc Fleurbaey’s egalitarian equivalent approach. A distribution is egalitarian equivalent when each individual is indifferent between her actual bundle of goods and a reference bundle that is the same for everyone. This chapter raises three objections to the approach: first, the outcome crucially depends on the choice of reference bundle; second, there is no foolproof argument for a particular reference bundle; and third, any choice of reference bundle inevitably permits dominated bundles. The chapter examines Fleurbaey’s responses to each of the above charges and ultimately concludes that, in contrast to the solidarity solution, the egalitarian equivalent approach lacks a coherent foundation.
Forensic DNA Data Banks and Data Mining
Authors: Bieber Frederick R.
Published: November 2020

This chapter discusses how comparing the genetic profiles from crime scene evidence with the profiles in a DNA database can identify persons of interest. Forensic data banks contain DNA extracts as well as computerized databases of coded DNA profiles of convicted offenders, arrestees, and crime scene samples. Searching forensic DNA data banks has provided key investigative leads in thousands of criminal investigations. The chapter explains familial searching, the search for a “partial” match of the evidence profile with a database profile, which leads to the identification of a suspect who is related to the individual in the database, and discusses several high-profile cases that have used this strategy. The recent cases solved by searching ancestry-based DNA databases (genealogics or forensic genetic genealogy) are discussed, as are the metrics for evaluating the effectiveness of DNA database mining as well as the legal and policy issues involved in balancing public safety with privacy interests.
The Living Disappeared
Authors: Piñero Mariana Herrera , Stover Eric , Tupa Melina , Penchaszadeh Víctor B.
Published: November 2020

This chapter tells the story of the Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo, or Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo, and their search for more than 500 grandchildren who were kidnapped by the Argentine military or born in captivity during military rule from 1976 to 1983. Most of the parents of these children were executed and buried in clandestine graves, while their children were given to childless military and civilian couples. Hope turned the Abuelas into detectives. Over many years, they examined thousands of pages of public documents, conducted stakeouts, and went undercover in their search for clues to the whereabouts of their missing grandchildren. But sleuthing was easy compared to convincing courts that the children they had located were biologically related to the grandparents who claimed them. In spring 1984, several foreign geneticists came to the aid of the Abuelas. Six months later, the first grandchild was identified on the basis of genetic analysis and returned to her grandmother. DNA sequencing soon followed, and in 1987, the Argentine Congress passed a law establishing the Banco Nacional de Datos Genéticos (National Genetic Data Bank), dedicated exclusively to identifying Argentina’s missing children. To date, 127 stolen children have been identified, most of them based on DNA analysis. While tracing this history, the chapter explores the scientific, legal, and psychosocial challenges that have arisen during the Abuelas’ search for their missing grandchildren.
Disappeared, Not Lost
Authors: Lampros Andrea , Gómez Montserrat Martínez , Benavente Cristián Orrego , Marías Patricia Vásquez
Published: November 2020

This chapter explores the use of DNA in reuniting families separated by the armed conflict in El Salvador, highlighting the history and trajectory of the nongovernmental Asociación Pro-Búsqueda de Niñas y Niños Desaparecidos de El Salvador (the Association in Search of Missing Children of El Salvador; http://www.probusqueda.org.sv/), established two years after the end of the armed conflict in El Salvador (1980–1992). Pro-Búsqueda’s in-house database of forensic genetic profiles of family references as well as of children, now young adults, separated from their families during the 13-year conflict, serves not only to confirm biological kinship but often, following initial partial matching of DNA profiles, to suggest investigatory leads. The chapter chronicles Pro-Búsqueda’s use of DNA in the search for El Salvador’s missing children, lessons learned in finding and reuniting family members, and the complexities of the process for investigators and survivors. The chapter tells the story of parents who lost children, children who found parents, and Father Jon de Cortina, the priest who spearheaded the search.
Large Scale Identification of the Missing
Authors: Kleiser Andreas , Parsons Thomas J.
Published: November 2020

This chapter describes the experiences of the International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) in conducting large-scale, DNA-based identification of the missing, discussed within the context of policy and historical developments underpinning today’s requirement for effective investigations when persons go missing. These developments include a shift to the rule of law and human rights reference framework as part of advancing state responsibility on the issue of the missing. The chapter takes note of historical as well as rule-of-law initiatives at the international level in the wake of the wars in the former Yugoslavia in the 1990s, including the creation of ICMP. Generally accepted as capable of establishing facts, forensic science, including DNA analysis, has become a centerpiece of effective investigations in the pursuit of justice at the individual and societal levels. However, access to forensic science is not universal, largely due to cost. The chapter discusses two limitations on using DNA to identify missing persons that drive cost: the use of kinship analysis and degraded DNA. DNA analysis through next generation sequencing (NGS), or massive parallel sequencing (MPS), will likely redress both shortcomings. In ICMP’s experience, innovation, research, and dedication can contribute to a more effective approach to accounting for missing persons; this in turn will contribute more broadly to the pursuit of justice and the advancement of human rights globally.
America’s Legacies in Southeast Asia
Authors: Shambaugh David
Published: November 2020

This chapter traces the history of American presence in Southeast Asia. The American legacy in the region began with traders and missionaries during the first half of the nineteenth century, then progressed to diplomats and official relations during the second half, and then to the arrival of American armed forces at the turn of the twentieth century. Meanwhile, America’s commercial interests and footprint continually broadened and deepened; educational and religious ties also blossomed. Except in the Philippines, America was largely seen as a benevolent partner—but not yet a power. That would change in the wake of World War II and the Cold War. With the advent of communist regimes in China, North Vietnam, and North Korea, and the ensuing Korean War, Southeast Asia took on a completely different cast in Washington. It became one of two major global theaters of conflict against communism. Thus began America’s long and draining involvement in Vietnam and Indochina (1958–1975). But with the end of the long and exhausting Indochina conflict, which tore the United States itself apart, American attention naturally began to wane and dissipate. Yet, the United States continued to engage and build its relations with the region from the Carter through the Bush 43 administrations.
Navigating between the Giants
Authors: Shambaugh David
Published: November 2020

This chapter explores how the ten Southeast Asian countries each try their best to navigate between the two big powers of China and the United States. Not a single country in the region is entirely under either Chinese or American influence. Most Southeast Asian states “hedge” between the two big powers; they seek to maintain their independence and freedom of choices and action; most seek benefits from each while avoiding dependency; and all have to simultaneously navigate bilaterally with each power, trilaterally with both powers, and multilaterally with other significant regional powers and within the framework of “ASEAN centrality.” Among the ten states, the chapter reveals one notable overarching characteristic: pervasive ambivalence. That is, all ten countries exhibit ambivalence about both powers—not fully trusting either.
Heartland Blues
Authors: Dixon Marc
Published: November 2020

Heartland Blues provides a new perspective on union decline by revisiting the labor movement at its historical peak in the 1950s and analyzing campaigns over right-to-work laws and public-sector collective bargaining rights in the industrial Midwest. The focus on 1950s labor conflicts, including union failures, departs from popular and academic treatments of the period that emphasize consensus, an accord between capital and labor in collective bargaining, or the conservative drift and bureaucratization of the labor movement. The state campaigns examined in Heartland Blues instead reveal a labor movement often beset by dysfunctional divisions, ambivalent political allies, and substantial employer opposition. Drawing on social movement theories, the book shows how many of the key ingredients necessary for activist groups to succeed, including effective organization and influential political allies, were not a given for labor at its historical peak but instead varied in important ways across the industrial heartland. These limits slowed unions in the 1950s. Not only did labor fail to crack the Sunbelt, it never really conquered the industrial Midwest, where most union members resided in the mid-twentieth century. This diminished union influence within the Democratic Party and in society. The 1950s are far more than an interesting side story. Indeed, the labor movement never solved many of these basic problems. The labor movement’s social and political isolation and its limited responses to employer mobilization became a death knell in the coming decades as unions sought organizational and legislative remedies to industrial decline and the rising anti-union tide.