bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Intratumor depletion of CD4+ cells unmasks tumor immunogenicity leading to the rejection of late-stage tumors
Authors: Yu Ping , Lee Youjin , Liu Wenhua , Krausz Thomas , Chong Anita , Schreiber Hans , Fu Yang-Xin
Published: March 2005

Tumor environment can be critical for preventing the immunological destruction of antigenic tumors. We have observed a selective accumulation of CD4+CD25+ T cells inside tumors. In a murine fibrosarcoma Ld-expressing Ag104, these cells made up the majority of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes at the late stage of tumor progression, and their depletion during the effector phase, rather than priming phase, successfully enhanced antitumor immunity. We show here that CD4+CD25+ T cells suppressed the proliferation and interferon-γ production of CD8+ T cells in vivo at the local tumor site. Blockade of the effects of IL-10 and TGF-β partially reversed the suppression imposed by the CD4+ cells. Furthermore, local depletion of CD4+ cells inside the tumor resulted in a change of cytokine milieu and led to the eradication of well-established highly aggressive tumors and the development of long-term antitumor memory. Therefore, CD4+CD25+ T cells maintained an environment in the tumor that concealed the immunogenicity of tumor cells to permit progressive growth of antigenic tumors. Our study illustrates that the suppression of antitumor immunity by regulatory T cells occurs predominantly at the tumor site, and that local reversal of suppression, even at a late stage of tumor development, can be an effective treatment for well-established cancers.
Homeostatic maintenance of natural Foxp3+ CD25+ CD4+ regulatory T cells by interleukin (IL)-2 and induction of autoimmune disease by IL-2 neutralization
Authors: Setoguchi Ruka , Hori Shohei , Takahashi Takeshi , Sakaguchi Shimon
Published: March 2005

Interleukin (IL)-2 plays a crucial role in the maintenance of natural immunologic self-tolerance. Neutralization of circulating IL-2 by anti–IL-2 monoclonal antibody for a limited period elicits autoimmune gastritis in BALB/c mice. Similar treatment of diabetes-prone nonobese diabetic mice triggers early onset of diabetes and produces a wide spectrum of T cell–mediated autoimmune diseases, including gastritis, thyroiditis, sialadenitis, and notably, severe neuropathy. Such treatment selectively reduces the number of Foxp3-expressing CD25+ CD4+ T cells, but not CD25− CD4+ T cells, in the thymus and periphery of normal and thymectomized mice. IL-2 neutralization inhibits physiological proliferation of peripheral CD25+ CD4+ T cells that are presumably responding to normal self-antigens, whereas it is unable to inhibit their lymphopenia-induced homeostatic expansion in a T cell–deficient environment. In normal naive mice, CD25low CD4+ nonregulatory T cells actively transcribe the IL-2 gene and secrete IL-2 protein in the physiological state. IL-2 is thus indispensable for the peripheral maintenance of natural CD25+ CD4+ regulatory T cells (T reg cells). The principal physiological source of IL-2 for the maintenance of T reg cells appears to be other T cells, especially CD25low CD4+ activated T cells, which include self-reactive T cells. Furthermore, impairment of this negative feedback loop via IL-2 can be a cause and a predisposing factor for autoimmune disease.
Lessons from the English smoking treatment services
Authors: Raw Martin , McNeill Ann , Coleman Tim
Published: March 2005

This paper summarizes and discusses the key findings of the evaluation of the English  smoking  treatment  services,  which  were  established  in  1999  as part of the English National Health Service. Within 4 years these services existed throughout the country and were working at full capacity, a total of £76 million having been spent on them over this period, excluding medication costs. In the fourth year almost 235 000 people attended treatment and set a quit date, and the total budget, including medications, was approximately £50 million. At the end of the fourth year the government allocated £138 million for the services for the period April 2003–March 2006. The CO‐validated 4‐week abstinence rate was 53%, the validated 52‐week abstinence rate was 15%, and the relapse rate from 4 to 52 weeks was 75%. There was no sex difference in cessation rates at long‐term follow‐up. The cessation results and relapse rate from weeks 4 to 52 are consistent with results from published studies, including clinical trials. The estimated cost per life‐year saved was £684 and the figure is even lower if the potential future health care cost savings are taken into account at £438 per life‐year saved. This compares with the benchmark of £20 000 per life‐year saved, which the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) is using to recommend new health care interventions in the National Health Service. The services were also succeeding in reaching disadvantaged smokers. However, there have been problems, and other health care systems considering an initiative of this kind should: set national training standards and increase training capacity before launching the services; standardize the provision of pharmaceutical treatments and make them as accessible as possible before launching the services; and give the services at least 5 years of central funding to allow them to become well established. Monitoring is extremely important but should not be so much of a burden that it detracts from developing a quality service and although cessation targets can be helpful, care needs to be taken that they are reasonable and do not promote throughput at the expense of quality.
Paracetamol: a haemorrhagic risk factor in patients on warfarin
Authors: Mahé I. , Bertrand N. , Drouet L. , Simoneau G. , Mazoyer E. , Bal dit Sollier C. , Caulin C. , Bergmann J. F.
Published: March 2005

Aim

To quantify the effect of paracetamol on the anticoagulant effect of warfarin under normal clinical conditions.

Patients and methods

In a prospective double‐blind, cross‐over, placebo‐controlled study, 11 patients on stable warfarin therapy received in random order two 14‐day regimens of paracetamol 4 g day−1 or placebo, with a 14‐day or more wash‐out period in between, time necessary to fulfil the inclusion criteria.

Results

In patients on paracetamol, the mean maximum increase in the International Normalized Ratio (INR) observed was 1.04 ± 0.55 vs. 0.20 ± 0.32 in those on placebo (P = 0.003). The mean maximum INR observed was significantly higher with paracetamol than with placebo (3.47 vs. 2.61, P = 0.01). In patients receiving paracetamol, the mean observed INR was significantly increased after 4 days (+ 0.6 ± 0.6, P < 0.001).

Conclusion

Paracetamol at 4 g day−1 induces a significant increase in INR in patients receiving a stable regimen of warfarin, increasing the risk of bleeding associated with warfarin.
Effects of clarithromycin on lansoprazole pharmacokinetics betweenCYP2C19genotypes
Authors: Saito Masato , Yasui‐Furukori Norio , Uno Tsukasa , Takahata Takenori , Sugawara Kazunobu , Munakata Akihiro , Tateishi Tomonori
Published: March 2005

Aims

Lansoprazole is a substrate of CYP2C19 and CYP3A. The aim of this study was to compare the inhibitory effects of clarithromycin, an inhibitor of CYP3A on the metabolism of lansoprazole betweenCYP2C19genotypes.

Methods

A two‐way randomized double‐blind, placebo‐controlled crossover study was performed. Eighteen volunteers, of whom six were homozygous extensive metabolizers (EMs), six were heterozygous EMs and six were poor metabolizers (PMs) for CYP2C19, received two 6‐day courses of either clarithromycin 800 mg or placebo daily in a randomized fashion with a single oral dose of lansoprazole 60 mg on day 6 in all cases. Plasma concentrations of lansoprazole and its metabolites, 5‐hydroxylansoprazole and lansoprazole sulphone were monitored up to 24 h after dosing.

Results

During placebo administration, the mean AUC(0, ∞) of lansoprazole in homozygous EMs, heterozygous EMs and PMs were 4652 (95% CI, 2294, 7009) ng ml−1 h, 8299 (4784, 11814) ng ml−1 h and 25293 (17643, 32943) ng ml−1 h (P < 0.001), respectively. Clarithromycin treatment significantly increasedCmaxby 1.47‐fold, 1.71‐fold and 1.52‐fold and AUC(0, ∞) of lansoprazole by 1.55‐fold, 1.74‐fold, and 1.80‐fold in these genotype groups, respectively, whereas elimination half‐life was prolonged only in PMs. The clarithromycin‐mediated percent increase in pharmacokinetic parameters such asCmax, AUC(0, ∞) or elimination half‐life did not differ between the threeCYP2C19genotypes.

Conclusions

The present study indicates that there are significant drug interactions between lansoprazole and clarithromycin in allCYP2C19genotype groups probably through CYP3A inhibition. The bioavailability of lansoprazole might, to some extent, be increased through inhibition of P‐glycoprotein during clarithromycin treatment.
Relationship between the C3435T and G2677T(A) polymorphisms in the ABCB1 gene and P‐glycoprotein expression in human liver
Authors: Owen Andrew , Goldring Chris , Morgan Paul , Chadwick David , Park B. Kevin , Pirmohamed Munir
Published: March 2005

Aims

The aim of the study was to determine whether a correlation exists between MDR1 (ABCB1) gene polymorphisms at positions 3435 (C3435T) and 2677 (G2677T(A)) and the expression of human hepatic P‐glycoprotein (P‐gp).

Methods

P‐gp protein expression in 26 human livers was assessed by Western blotting and ABCB1 mRNA expression was determined by real time RT‐PCR. The C3435T and G2677T(A) polymorphisms were identified by RFLP and direct sequence analysis, respectively.

Results

The C and G allele frequencies for the C3435T and G2677T(A) polymorphisms were 0.48 and 0.79, respectively, and the genotypes were in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. There was a 200‐ and 20‐fold variation in the expression of ABCB1 mRNA and Pgp protein expression, respectively. There were no differences in mRNA and protein expression identified amongst the different genotypes attributable to the C3435T and G2677T(A) polymorphisms in the ABCB1 gene. Exposure to a PXR ligand prior to death did not influence mRNA or protein expression.

Conclusions

There is substantial variability in the expression of Pgp in human liver, but this is not due to the presence of C3435T and G2677T(A) polymorphisms in the ABCB1 gene, although our study is limited by a small sample size.
Co‐administration of ketoconazole with H1‐antagonists ebastine and loratadine in healthy subjects: pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects
Authors: Chaikin P. , Gillen M. S. , Malik M. , Pentikis H. , Rhodes G. R. , Roberts D. J.
Published: March 2005

Aims

Two studies were conducted to evaluate the effects of coadministration of ketoconazole with two nonsedating antihistamines, ebastine and loratadine, on the QTc interval and on the pharmacokinetics of the antihistamines.

Methods

In both studies healthy male subjects (55 in one study and 62 in the other) were assigned to receive 5 days of antihistamine (ebastine 20 mg qd in one study, and loratadine 10 mg qd in the other) or placebo alone using a predetermined randomization schedule, followed by 8 days of concomitant ketoconazole 450 mg qd/antihistamine or ketoconazole 400 mg qd/placebo. Serial ECGs and blood sampling for drug analysis were performed at baseline and on study days 5 (at the end of monotherapy) and 13 (at the end of combination therapy). QT intervals were corrected for heart rate using the formula QTc = QT/RRα with special emphasis on individualized α values derived from each subject's own QT/RR relationship at baseline.

Results

No significant changes in QTc interval from baseline were observed after 5 days administration of ebastine, loratadine or placebo. Ketoconazole/placebo increased the mean QTc (95% CI) by 6.96 (3.31–10.62) ms in the ebastine study and by 7.52 (4.15–10.89) ms in the loratadine study. Mean QTc was statistically significantly increased during both ebastine/ketoconazole administration (12.21 ms; 7.39–17.03 ms) and loratadine/ketoconazole administration (10.68 ms; 6.15–15.21 ms) but these changes were not statistically significantly different from the increases seen with placebo/ketoconazole (6.96 ms; 3.31–10.62 ms), P = 0.08 ebastine study, (7.52 ms; 4.15–10.89 ms), P = 0.26 loratadine study). After the addition of ketoconazole, the mean area under the plasma concentration–time curve (AUC) for ebastine increased by 42.5 fold, and that of its metabolite carebastine by 1.4 fold. The mean AUC for loratadine increased by 4.5 fold and that of its metabolite desloratadine by 1.9 fold following administration of ketoconazole. No subjects were withdrawn because of ECG changes or drug‐related adverse events.

Conclusions

Ketoconazole altered the pharmacokinetic profiles of both ebastine and loratadine although the effect was greater for the former drug. The coadministration of ebastine with ketoconazole resulted in a non significant mean increase of 5.25 ms (−0.65 to 11.15 ms) over ketoconazole with placebo (6.96 ms) while ketoconazole plus loratadine resulted in a nonsignificant mean increase of 3.16 ms (−2.73 to 8.68 ms) over ketoconazole plus placebo (7.52 ms). Changes in uncorrected QT intervals for both antihistamines were not statistically different from those observed with ketoconazole alone. The greater effect of ketoconazole on the pharmacokinetics of ebastine was not accompanied by a correspondingly greater pharmacodynamic effect on cardiac repolarization.
The effects of climate variability on zooplankton and basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) relative abundance off southwest Britain
Authors: COTTON PETER A. , SIMS DAVID W. , FANSHAWE SAM , CHADWICK MARK
Published: March 2005

At small spatial scales basking sharks (Cetorhinus maximus) forage selectively on zooplankton along thermal fronts, but the factors influencing broader scale patterns in their abundance and distribution remain largely unknown. Using long‐term sightings data collected off southwest Britain between 1988 and 2001, we show that the number of basking sharks recorded was highly correlated with abiotic factors, principally sea surface temperature (SST) and the lagged effect of SST in the previous month, but only very weakly to zooplankton density. This suggests that the changes in number of basking sharks recorded over large spatio‐temporal scales are more closely related to the availability of climate‐driven thermal resources than prey availability, whereas the converse is supported by previous studies at local scales. Taken together, these results imply scale‐dependent behavioural responses in basking sharks, with small‐scale foraging movements linked by broad scale responses to temperature variation.
How important is long‐distance seed dispersal for the regional survival of plant species?
Authors: Soons Merel B. , Ozinga Wim A.
Published: March 2005

Long‐distance seed dispersal is generally assumed to be important for the regional survival of plant species. In this study, we quantified the importance of long‐distance seed dispersal for regional survival of plant species using wind dispersal as an example. We did this using a new approach, by first relating plant species’ dispersal traits to seed dispersal kernels and then relating the kernels to regional survival of the species. We used a recently developed and tested mechanistic seed dispersal model to calculate dispersal kernels from dispersal traits. We used data on 190 plant species and calculated their regional survival in two ways, using species distribution data from 36,800 1 km2‐grid cells and 10,754 small plots covering the Netherlands during the largest part of the 20th century. We carried out correlation and stepwise multiple regression analyses to quantify the importance of long‐distance dispersal, expressed as the 99‐percentile dispersal distance of the dispersal kernels, relative to the importance of median‐distance dispersal and other plant traits that are likely to contribute to the explanation of regional survival: plant longevity (annual, biennial, perennial), seed longevity, and plant nutrient requirement. Results show that long‐distance dispersal plays a role in determining regional survival, and is more important than median‐distance dispersal and plant longevity. However, long‐distance dispersal by wind explains only 1–3% of the variation in regional survival between species and is equally important as seed longevity and much less important than nutrient requirement. In changing landscapes such as in the Netherlands, where large‐scale eutrophication and habitat destruction took place in the 20th century, plant traits indicating ability to grow under the changed, increasingly nutrient‐rich conditions turn out to be much more important for regional survival than seed dispersal.
Intrathecal fentanyl added to hyperbaric ropivacaine for transurethral resection of the prostate
Authors: Yegin A. , Sanli S. , Hadimioglu N. , Akbas M. , Karsli B.
Published: March 2005

Background:  Our purpose was to evaluate the effect of intrathecal fentanyl 25 µg added to 18 mg of 6 mg ml−1 hyperbaric ropivacaine on the characteristics of subarachnoid block and postoperative pain relief in patients undergoing TURP surgery.

Methods:  The patients were randomly assigned into two groups: Group S (saline group, n=16) received 3 ml of 18 mg hyperbaric ropivacaine + 0.5 ml saline – in total, a 3.5‐ml volume intrathecally; and Group F (fentanyl group, n=15) received 3 ml of 18 mg hyperbaric ropivacaine + 0.5 ml of 25 µg fentanyl – in total, a 3.5‐ml volume intrathecally. In both groups the onset and recovery times of the sensory block, degree and recovery times of the motor block and side‐effects were recorded and statistically compared.

Results:  There was no significant difference between the groups in achieving the highest level of sensory block, and in the times taken to reach the peak level. Regression to L1 was significantly prolonged in the fentanyl group compared with the saline group (P=0.004). Times to the first feeling of pain and the first analgesic requirement were significantly prolonged in the fentanyl group compared with the saline group (P=0.011 and P=0.016, respectively). The frequency of pruritus was significantly higher in the fentanyl group compared with the saline group (P=0.022).

Conclusion:  Addition of fentanyl 25 µg to hyperbaric ropivacaine 18 mg for spinal anesthesia in patients undergoing TURP may significantly improve the quality and prolong the duration of analgesia, without causing a substantial increase in the frequency of major side‐effects.
Long‐time outcome after transient transtentorial herniation in patients with traumatic brain injury
Authors: Skoglund T. S. , Nellgård B.
Published: March 2005

Background:  This study investigates mortality and morbidity in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) who developed episode(s) of transtentorial herniation. The transtentorial herniation was defined as a deterioration of consciousness accompanied by uni‐ or bilateral pupil dilatation.

Methods:  The medical records of all patients with traumatic brain injury admitted during 1999 to the Neuro‐ or General Intensive Care Units at Sahlgrenska University Hospital were analyzed, and patients with at least one episode of transtentoryal herniation were included.

Information regarding patient age, gender, type of trauma, initial GCS, precipitating reason for herniation, uni‐/bilateral pupil dilatation, treatment(s) and outcome after at least 6 months, assessed with the Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS), was collected from medical records.

Results:  The study included 27 patients, average age 44 years (range 6–81), with a male proportion of 81%. The majority of the patients were victims of traffic accidents and falls. The results demonstrated that 16/27(59%) of the patients had a favorable outcome (GOS 4/5), 4/27(15%) were severely disabled (GOS 3), none was vegetative (GOS 2) and 7/27(26%) died (GOS 1). When analyzing patient subgroups, best outcome was found in children where 3/4 (75%) had a GOS 4/5.

Conclusion:  Transtentorial herniation is a serious consequence of supratentorial edema/mass lesions in patients with TBI. However, with aggressive neurointensive care and neurosurgical treatments we found a 59% patient incidence of a favorable outcome.
Preoperative caudal block prevents emergence agitation in children following sevoflurane anesthesia
Authors: Aouad M. T. , Kanazi G. E. , Siddik‐Sayyid S. M. , Gerges F. J. , Rizk L. B. , Baraka A. S.
Published: March 2005

Background:  The frequency of emergence agitation in children is increased following sevoflurane anesthesia. However, controversies still exist concerning the exact etiology of this postanesthetic problem. Although this phenomenon is present with adequate pain relief or even following pain‐free procedures, pain is still regarded as a major contributing factor.

Methods:  In a prospective, randomized, double‐blind study, we enrolled 48 premedicated and calm 2–6‐year‐old children undergoing inguinal hernia repair. We assigned children to one of two groups: children assigned to the caudal group (n = 24) received a caudal block to supplement sevoflurane, while children assigned to the fentanyl group (n = 24) received a bolus injection of 1 µg kg−1 intravenous fentanyl before skin incision to supplement sevoflurane. In the post anesthesia care unit, all children were received by their parent, and the incidence of emergence agitation and pain scores, as well as hemodynamic changes, were compared in both groups.

Results:  Forty‐four children completed the study. In the fentanyl group, 59% of the children were agitated following emergence from anesthesia as compared to 4.5% in the caudal group (P < 0.001). Also, pain scores, mean values of heart rate and blood pressure as well as morphine requirement were significantly higher in the post anesthesia care unit in the fentanyl group compared to the caudal group.

Conclusion:  Our results show that in children undergoing inguinal hernia repair, pain control with a preoperative caudal block as compared to intraoperative intravenous fentanyl significantly reduces the incidence of emergence agitation and pain scores following sevoflurane anesthesia.
Sperm function and assisted reproduction technology
Authors: HENKEL RALF , MAAß GESA , BÖDEKER ROLF‐HASSO , SCHEIBELHUT CHRISTINE , STALF THOMAS , MEHNERT CLAAS , SCHUPPE HANS‐CHRISTIAN , JUNG ANDREAS , SCHILL WOLF‐BERNHARD
Published: March 2005

The evaluation of different functional sperm parameters has become a tool in andrological diagnosis. These assays determine the sperm's capability to fertilize an oocyte. It also appears that sperm functions and semen parameters are interrelated and interdependent. Therefore, the question arose whether a given laboratory test or a battery of tests can predict the outcome in in vitro fertilization (IVF).

One‐hundred and sixty‐one patients who underwent an IVF treatment were selected from a database of 4178 patients who had been examined for male infertility 3 months before or after IVF. Sperm concentration, motility, acrosin activity, acrosome reaction, sperm morphology, maternal age, number of transferred embryos, embryo score, fertilization rate and pregnancy rate were determined. In addition, logistic regression models to describe fertilization rate and pregnancy were developed. All the parameters in the models were dichotomized and intra‐ and interindividual variability of the parameters were assessed. Although the sperm parameters showed good correlations with IVF when correlated separately, the only essential parameter in the multivariate model was morphology. The enormous intra‐ and interindividual variability of the values was striking. In conclusion, our data indicate that the andrological status at the end of the respective treatment does not necessarily represent the status at the time of IVF. Despite a relatively low correlation coefficient in the logistic regression model, it appears that among the parameters tested, the most reliable parameter to predict fertilization is normal sperm morphology. (Reprod Med Biol 2005; 4: 7–30)
Indigenous theorizing in a complex world
Authors: Jackson Paul R.
Published: March 2005

Indigenization in psychology leads to modes of theorizing based within local knowledge communities and defined in terms of culturally relevant criteria. The present study offers a conceptualization of the social psychology of science in terms of complexity theory. The value of alternative choices in advancing psychological knowledge is shown by a knowledge landscape whose shape depends on the diversity of paradigms within the community. Dominance by a single paradigm (such as a Western world view) leads to a single‐peaked landscape where advances in knowledge are judged using only the criteria of that paradigm. Here, the most effective form of working is incremental step‐by‐step research; but this ignores the historical context of the indigenous community and runs the risk of promoting a kind of psychology that is irrelevant to its values and priorities. Indigenization is presented as a complexification of the knowledge community building on a diversity of world views, leading to a rugged, multiple‐peaked knowledge landscape. Four features of working on rugged landscapes are examined: path dependence, showing the importance of history for shaping the direction of research; fostering research progress through seeding of multiple starting points; the benefits of locally dense networks within knowledge communities; and the role of policy‐makers in tuning knowledge landscapes. Examples are drawn from the development of indigenous psychology within a number of countries.
Integrated analysis of indigenous psychologies: Comments and extensions of ideas presented by Shams, Jackson, Hwang and Kashima
Authors: Kim Uichol , Park Young‐Shin
Published: March 2005

The purpose of the present paper is to provide an integrated analysis of indigenous psychologies and to outline the epistemological foundation of indigenous psychologies. In the first part of this paper, the authors provide commentary of the four articles in this Special Issue. In the second section, the epistemological foundation of general psychology is reviewed. General psychology has adopted positivism in search of abstract and universal laws of human behavior and eliminated the subjective aspects of human functioning (i.e. agency, meaning, intention and goals) and the influence of context and culture. In the third section, the authors introduce the transactional model of science. In this approach, human beings are viewed as agents of their own action and are motivated to control and manage their environment. In the fourth section, indigenous psychologies and culture are defined. Cultural differences exist due to the diverse goals that cultures pursue, the methods people use to attain the goals, and the differential use of natural and human resources. In the fifth section, a review of empirical studies focusing on academic achievement is provided to highlight the scientific merits of indigenous psychologies. In the final section, the authors distinguish between the speculative analyses of indigenous concepts from systematic indigenous analyses. Indigenous psychologies represent a scientific paradigm in which the goal is to create a more rigorous, systematic and universal science that can be theoretically and empirically verified.
Income Inequality and Living Standards: Changes in the 1970s and 1980s
Authors: JENKINS STEPHEN P.
Published: March 2005

‘This country has the highest standard of living that it has ever known … Real incomes have increased throughout all income groups.’ Margaret Thatcher (Weekly Hansard, 27 April 1989, cols 1087–8)

‘While the very rich have lost some of their riches to the less rich, over time, the poor have hardly profited proportionately.’ Neil Kinnock (The Future of Socialism, Fabian Tract no. 506, January 1986)
A General Neutral Profits Tax
Authors: DEVEREUX MICHAEL , FREEMAN HAROLD
Published: March 2005

‘We need investment decisions based on future market assessments, not future tax assessments’ (Chancellor of the Exchequer, Budget Speech 1984)

‘… an ideal tax system would be as neutral as possible towards private decisions’ (US Treasury, 1984, vol. 1, p. 13)
Women, Men and the Redistribution of Income
Authors: SUTHERLAND HOLLY
Published: March 2005

This paper explores the implications of examining the effect of policy changes on individual incomes rather than household incomes. Conceptual problems arise from the treatment of collective resources and responsibilities, particularly children. These are dealt with in a manner that is transparent with the aim of establishing a practical method of analysing policy at the individual (and gender‐specific) level. Two policy‐related issues are examined in this framework: the impact of a minimum wage and the effect of introducing a minimum pension guarantee. In each case, the implications of choosing the individual as the income unit are examined and analysis of the issue by gender is presented.

JEL classification: C81, D31, H55, J16.
Consumption and Saving Behaviour: Modelling Recent Trends
Authors: ATTANASIO ORAZIO
Published: March 2005

This paper illustrates recent trends in household consumption and personal savings in the UK and the US and discusses some theoretical models that can be used to interpret them. The trends in these two countries are interesting for several reasons. The decline in personal saving rates in the US during the 1980s is an unresolved puzzle. The corresponding variable in the UK has undergone large fluctuations, as have several other variables ranging from projected demographic trends to female labour supply. This paper stresses the need to analyse individual data to shed some light on these aggregate trends. It also stresses the need to have a sound structural model to interpret observed patterns in the data.

The theoretical framework discussed throughout the paper is the life‐cycle model, which views consumption and saving decisions as part of a dynamic optimisation process. The development of the model and the current research agenda and ways that it can be enriched with various degrees of sophistication are discussed. Particular attention is devoted to the discussion of the most recent developments.

JEL classification Dl, E21.
A Cost–Benefit Approach to the Evaluation of Regional Selective Assistance
Authors: SWALES KIM
Published: March 2005

The ‘Green Book’ and the recent EGRUP report support exchequer cost per job as a key input in the ex‐ante appraisal of individual applications for Regional Selective Assistance (RSA) and the ex‐post evaluation of the RSA scheme as a whole. In this paper, following a recommendation in the House of Commons Trade and Industry Committee's report on regional policy, the merits of an alternative, explicitly cost‐benefit, framework are outlined. This approach incorporates the administration and compliance costs of the subsidy, costs at present ignored in RSA evaluation studies. An optimal ex‐ante appraisal rule is developed. This takes the form of a cost‐per‐job ceiling, and a representative value is calculated for this figure.

JEL classification: H20.
Financial Markets, Ageing and Social Welfare
Authors: MILES DAVID
Published: March 2005

This paper considers some of the economic impacts that demographic change may have in developed economies over the next fifty years. I focus on the role that financial markets might play in economies where the pressure on government‐run unfunded pension systems is likely to rise. The role of unfunded schemes is considered in a world where financial markets are incomplete and important types of risk cannot easily be offset by trading. How demographic shifts might affect labour productivity, asset prices and aggregate output is investigated using a simulation model of an economy where population structure is changing.

JEL classification: E21, E60, G10, H1.
Share Repurchases
Authors: SHIRLEY PHILIP
Published: March 2005

The UK government recently introduced legislation to treat the qualifying distribution on a repurchase of shares in the same way as ‘foreign income dividends’. This paper examines and criticises this reform from two perspectives. First, there is no underlying rationale for such an approach. Second, the legislation moves the tax system away from simplification. A better approach would have been to remove the advance corporation tax (ACT) charge on a repurchase.

JEL classification: H25, K34.
Inequality, Mobility and Income Distribution Comparisons
Authors: CREEDY JOHN
Published: March 2005

This paper examines the relationship between the cross‐sectional and lifetime income distributions using a simple model of relative income mobility. It asks whether cross‐sectional comparisons between countries can provide a good indication of lifetime inequality differences if income mobility is similar, and whether lifetime inequality increases by less than cross‐sectional inequality if the latter increases as a result of higher mobility. Analytical and simulation methods are used to show that the answer to both questions is negative. Comparisons must allow for different types of mobility, the nature of the age‐income profile and the age distribution in each country.

JEL classification: D31.
A Comment on the Viability of the Allowance for Corporate Equity
Authors: ISSAC JOHN
Published: March 2005

This article, acknowledging the potentially important general attractions of the allowance for corporate equity (ACE), looks at some of its more specific implications.

On corporate taxes, the article looks at questions about the implied revenue‐neutral rate of corporation tax (and redistribution of the tax burden); the effects on cash flow of both government and companies; and what would become a crucially important charge on capital gains.

On income tax, the article comments on the implications for self‐employed earnings (and also, potentially, employees); for investment income and the logically accompanying EXPEP (extended personal equity plan); and therefore for inheritance tax.

For international investment, the article notes that unless and until other countries adopt an ACE as the basis for harmonisation, the interaction of the ACE and existing taxes would not always be helpful for outward investment; and on some inward investment, if the most optimistic assumptions are not borne out, the effects could be rather bleak.

JEL classification: H25, K34.
Peculiar Institutions: A British Perspective on Tax Policy in the United States
Authors: KEEN MICHAEL
Published: March 2005

By both effect and example, tax policy in the United States has a huge impact on the rest of the world. This paper explores five features of the American tax system that seem, from a British and European perspective, to be both especially peculiar and potentially instructive. These are: the remarkably low overall level of taxation; the absence of a value added tax (or any other general national tax on consumption); the absence of any explicit interstate equalisation; the marginal subsidisation of low earnings under the Earned Income Tax Credit; and the fragmentation of power in policymaking, an important aspect of which is the role played by the Constitution.

JEL classification: H10, H20, H50, H70.
Forecasting the PSBR Outside Government: The IFS Perspective
Authors: GILES CHRISTOPHER , HALL JOHN
Published: March 2005

Expectations regarding the future state of the public finances are vital for public policy formation. The UK experience has been that forecast of the PSBR have been beset with problems since the mid‐1980s. Independent assessments of the accuracy and plausibility of public finance forecasts are an important check on government forecasts and serve to increase public debate over government finance issues. We examine the success of various possible methods available to those outside government.

JEL classification: E6, H1, H6.
What Should Be Our Human Capital Investment Policy?
Authors: HECKMAN JAMES
Published: March 2005

This paper considers the magnitude of the human capital investment required to offset the increase in the inequality in labour earnings in the US economy since 1979. It considers the ineffectiveness of government training policies, the effectiveness of private sector training and the conflict between economic efficiency and the work ethic. It also considers revisions of the tax code. The importance of the distinction between the long view and the short view in analysing human resource policies is emphasised.

JEL classification: J24, I28, H40.
The Dynamics of Male Retirement Behaviour
Authors: TANNER SARAH
Published: March 2005

This paper uses data from the two waves of the UK Retirement Survey to present a detailed descriptive analysis of the retirement behaviour of older men. The main motivation for doing this is the fall in the employment rates of older men over the last 20 years. A comparison of the labour market behaviour of men with and without an occupational pension suggests that increases in the coverage and levels of occupational pensions may not be enough to explain the long‐term trends in labour market behaviour, but that there are important differences in the retirement experiences of the two groups.

JEL classification: J26.
The Dynamics of Incomes and Occupational Pensions after Retirement
Authors: JOHNSON PAUL , STEARS GARY , WEBB STEVEN
Published: March 2005

This paper uses two waves of the UK Retirement Survey to look at how incomes change during retirement. We concentrate on men aged 65–69 and women aged 60–69 in 1988–89 and look at how their incomes change over the following five years. Overall, we find a considerable degree of stability in real incomes. We use the panel data to look at the incomes of widows before and after they are widowed and find that, for this group of relatively young widows, their low incomes are in large part determined by the fact that it tends to be the relatively poorer husbands who die among this age‐group. Finally, we consider the most important component of private income — occupational pensions — separately. We find a strong relationship between pension level and the probability of indexation — pensions that start low are less likely than higher pensions to keep up with inflation.

JEL classification: D31, H55
Global and Regional Public Goods: A Prognosis for Collective Action
Authors: SANDLER TODD
Published: March 2005

This paper applies modern concepts from the theory of public goods to indicate why progress has been made with respect to some global and regional public goods (for example, cutting sulphur emissions) but not with respect to others (for example, cutting greenhouse gases). Factors promoting collective action at the transnational level include the removal of uncertainty, a high share of nation‐specific benefits, a limited number of essential participants and the presence of an influential leader nation. The impact of public good aggregation technologies on the future provision of transnational public goods is related to the trend in world‐wide income inequality. Principles are presented for designing supranational structures for addressing transnational public good problems.

JEL classification: H41, D70, Q20.
Distributional Effects of Liberalising UK Residential Utility Markets
Authors: PRICE CATHERINE WADDAMS , HANCOCK RUTH
Published: March 2005

Competition is being extended into residential utility markets world‐wide; the European directives on telecoms, electricity and gas will extend choice throughout the European Union by the turn of the century. In the UK, the Privatisation Acts not only changed the ownership of utilities, but imposed a duty on the regulators to encourage competition. It is the introduction of competition, actual and potential, that has been the main force behind changing the relative prices charged to different consumers, particularly in the residential market. We use household‐level data to identify the distributional impact, particularly on vulnerable households and those for whom regulators have special responsibilities. We find a mixed outcome, with some vulnerable households, especially pensioners, adversely affected: we suggest potential compensation mechanisms that could improve welfare by enabling the benefits of competition in these industries supplying essential services to be gained without harming the most vulnerable households.

JEL classification: D40, 118.
Regulating Drug Prices: Where Do We Go from Here?
Authors: BLOOM NICHOLAS , VAN REENEN JOHN
Published: March 2005

This paper examines the arguments for changing the ways that UK drug prices are regulated. In the UK, NHS pharmaceutical expenditures on branded drugs, currently worth about £3 billion a year, have been regulated by the Pharmaceutical Price Regulation Scheme (PPRS) since 1978. We argue that, in publicly funded healthcare systems, pharmaceutical price regulation is necessitated by a tendency towards excessive government expenditure because of over‐prescription and the monopoly power of firms with on‐patent drugs. We briefly explain the operation of the PPRS. which is based on rate‐of‐return regulation, and discuss its merits and drawbacks. We then consider five alternative pricing systems: free pricing, therapeutic benefit pricing, international reference pricing, therapeutic reference pricing and RPI ‐ X price regulation. However, we reject all these alternatives in favour of a reformed PPRS. We suggest three potential reforms of the PPRS: an RPI ‐ X cost allowance if feasible or a widening of the rate‐of‐return bands otherwise; the introduction of a marketing innovation allowance; and greater regulatory transparency.

JEL classification: L5, L6, D4.
Does It Pay to Work in the Public Sector?
Authors: DISNEY RICHARD , GOSLING AMANDA
Published: March 2005

This paper uses microeconomic data from the British Household Panel and General Household Surveys to describe how the distribution of pay differs between the public and private sectors in 1983 and in the early 1990s. Separate analyses by gender and education group reveal that it is women and those with intermediate‐level qualifications who do best in the public sector. The large differences between the shapes of the conditional (that is, holding age and education constant) distributions of wages in the public and private sectors are demonstrated using quantile regressions estimated separately for each education group. The paper also exploits the longitudinal structure of the data used to assess how much of these differences can be explained by the unobserved characteristics of individuals.

JEL classifications: J31, J45.
Equity and Ecotax Reform in the EU: Achieving a 10 per cent Reduction in CO2Emissions Using Excise Duties
Authors: BARKER TERRY , KÖHLER JONATHAN
Published: March 2005

This paper considers the distributional effects of imposing additional excise duties on energy products according to carbon content. The assumed duties escalate from 1999 to 2010 and achieve levels reducing CO2emissions by 10 per cent below baseline by 2010 for 11 EU member states. By 2010, real personal disposable incomes are 1.6 per cent above baseline and employment is 1.2 per cent above, assuming that the change is tax‐revenue‐neutral. The study concludes that the changes will be weakly regressive for nearly all the member states in the study if revenues are used to reduce employers’ taxes and strongly progressive if they are given back lump‐sum to households.

JEL classification: C53, D12, H22, Q48.
Tax Relief and Partnership Pensions
Authors: AGULNIK PHIL , GRAND JULIAN LE
Published: March 2005

‘No‐one ever got rich by passing up golden opportunities and that's exactly what a personal pension offers you. Why?Because one of the beauties of saving for your retirement is that the government actually gives you money — and lots of it — to encourage you … you get back every penny of the income tax you pay on the money you invest.’ Small print: ‘the value of the tax benefit depends on how much tax you pay’.

Virgin advertisement, The Guardian, 17 September 1997.

Government support of private (occupational and personal) pensions through tax relief is an important element in the UK's retirement income system. However, the current tax relief system is regressive, lacks transparency and is difficult to control. This paper argues that it should be replaced by a cost‐neutral matching‐grant or tax‐credit scheme. Such a scheme would embody the ‘partnership’ idea implicit in much government policy in this area, but would be much more progressive, more open and more accountable than existing arrangements. The argument is illustrated through a comparison of the cost and distributional impact of the current system with those of an alternative tax‐credit scheme.

JEL classification: H55.
Measuring Compliance with the Golden Rule
Authors: ROBINSON MARC
Published: March 2005

The golden rule of public finance is based upon the notin that intergenerational equity requires that the cost of public expenditures be spread over time in a manner that reflects the intertemporal distribution of the benefits generated by those expenditures. This is often translated into a rule that the budget be structurally balanced in accrual accounting terms. This article considers the form of accrual accounting that is most suited to the task of measuring the consistency of fiscal policy with the golden rule. It recommends a combination of the real capital maintenance approach (also known as ‘current purchasing power accounting’) and annuity depreciation. Such an approach differs from ‘current cost accounting’, which has dominated public sector models of accrual accounting in recent years. The meaning of balance‐sheet measures is also considered, and it is concluded that the golden rule is more appropriately expressed as an accrual balanced budget requirement than as a requirement for the maintenance of constant net worth.

JEL classification: H6, M40.
Ecological Restoration and Large‐Scale Ecological Disturbance: The Effects of Drought on the Response by Fish to a Habitat Restoration Experiment
Authors: Bond N. R. , Lake P. S.
Published: March 2005

Human‐induced erosion regularly delivers massive quantities of fine sediments into streams and rivers forming large static bodies of sediment known as sand slugs, which smother in‐stream habitat, alter community structure, and decrease biodiversity. Sand slugs are widespread in parts of southeastern Australia as well as in many other parts of the world, and there is now considerable interest in restoring such affected streams. The reintroduction of large timber is widely suggested as a strategy for restoring habitat complexity, but this has rarely been tested in sand slug–affected streams. We examined the response of fish populations to wood addition to two streams in southeastern Australia that have been impacted by sand slugs. Manipulated sites (three per treatment) had either one or four timber structures added, and these sites were compared with (three) unmanipulated (control) sites before and after the manipulation occurred. Despite a supraseasonal drought during the study, we observed short‐term increases in the abundance of Mountain galaxias (Galaxias olidus) at the four‐structure sites, while both the four‐structure and the one‐structure treatments appeared to buffer against drought‐induced declines in two other species, River blackfish (Gadopsis marmoratus) and Southern pygmy perch (Nannoperca australis), relative to controls. However, drought eventually caused the complete loss of surface water from these streams and the loss of fish from both manipulated and unmanipulated sites. Thus, although the study supports the use of timber structures as a means of increasing local fish abundances, these beneficial effects were, in these streams, contingent upon permanency of flow. Because sedimentation has depleted the number of permanent refuge pools in these creeks, recovery rates of the fauna (i.e., resilience) are likely to be slow. We therefore conclude that in streams subjected to frequent disturbance, restoring refugia may be as, if not more, important as restoring what we term residential habitat.