bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Jonson’s Breaches and the Typography of Action
Authors: Bourne Claire M. L.
Published: July 2020

Chapter 2 focuses on typography that accounted for the theatrical impact of the actor’s body, locating the earliest of such experiments in the quartos of Ben Jonson’s comical satires. Instead of printing descriptions of this extra-lexical business in detail, the stationers who published Every Man Out (1600), Cynthia’s Revels (1601), and Poëtaster (1602) used parenthetical notes and, later, dashes to account for smoking, hiccupping, vomiting, and other behaviors that threatened eloquence. Jonson’s experiments with these “breaches,” as he termed them, show that the idea of the body in its varying states of insobriety was indispensable to his satire. The dash quickly became typographic shorthand for a whole range of physical activity. By the time Nicholas Rowe used dashes following deictics in The Works of Mr. William Shakespear (1709), it had come to mediate the technique of “pointing”: the use of non-verbal means to consolidate audience perceptions of action and circumstance.
Coda
Authors: Bourne Claire M. L.
Published: July 2020

The coda returns to the idea that early modern playbook typography evinces the creativity of those involved in designing and making these books. Each chapter of the book shows how printers, publishers, and playwrights repurposed typographic arrangements from more familiar print genres to ease readers into the act of play-reading. The coda reads Edward Capell’s highly innovative mid-eighteenth-century edition of Shakespeare as a logical extreme. Capell found all sorts of neat typographic solutions to the problem of mediating the theatricality of Shakespeare’s plays. However, the solutions were so unfamiliar to readers that the edition ultimately failed to make much of an impact. Although Capell’s typographic experiments marked the first comprehensive attempt to codify the theatricality of Shakespeare’s plays in print, English play-readers had already been heeding well-considered, if inconsistent, typographic arrangements engineered to help them intuit aspects of ostensibly unprintable theatricality for almost two centuries.
Introduction and Overview
Authors: Bindseil Ulrich
Published: July 2020

The Introduction describes the main themes and objectives of the book and provides an overview of its content. First, the current dominant view on the origins of central banking is recalled and challenged, and it is outlined what alternative view this book will propose, namely that central banking dates back to before 1800 and that a number of European continental institutions played a major role in its development. Then an overview of the chapters of the book is provided: Chapter 1 restating the currently dominant view on the origins of central banking; Chapter 2 on money issuance; Chapter 3 on the relation with the government; Chapter 4 on lending to the private sector; Chapter 5 on the lender-of-last resort; Chapter 6 on the overall balance sheet of early central banks; and Chapter 7 restating the rehabilitation of early central banking; The annex schematically reviews a total of 25 central banks operating before 1800.
Lender of Last Resort
Authors: Bindseil Ulrich
Published: July 2020

The recent central banking literature often argues that the LOLR function would be the key feature defining a ‘modern’ central bank. This chapter argues that this view may appear too radical (despite the enormous benefits of the LOLR) as the appearance of the LOLR does not change the nature of central banking (which is primarily associated with the issuance of central bank money). After providing an overview of the roles of central banks for financial stability, the chapter focuses on one early LOLR episode, namely the measures of the Hamburger Bank, Bank of Amsterdam and Bank of England in the European debt crisis of 1763. It is shown that in particular the Hamburger Bank acted as systemic lender of last resort, comparable to what modern central banks did in 2008.
Early Central Banks’ Economics and Balance Sheets
Authors: Bindseil Ulrich
Published: July 2020

This chapter summarizes the roles of the various central bank operations in the pre-1800 world, what one can conclude on the overall economics and business model of early central banking, and what this implies in terms of overall balance sheet and risk management approach. The ‘alchemical quest’ of early central banking included in particular the universal challenge of bank balance sheet management to achieve significant liquidity, maturity, and credit transformation while preserving bank funding stability also in future stress situations at a high level of confidence. Section 6.1 reviews again in one context the key balance sheet positions of early central banks and the associated economic functions and market operations. Section 6.2 systematically compares the operations of the major early central banks and reviews their balance sheet structures and relative sizes.
Rehabilitation
Authors: Bindseil Ulrich
Published: July 2020

This chapter returns to the question who invented what in central banking. The review confirms broader and earlier origins of central banking, with particularly the early banks in Barcelona, Genoa, Naples, Venice, Amsterdam, and Hamburg having all made major contributions and actually having developed all central bank operations that would prevail until the early twentieth century (except discounting trade bills). The Bank of England invented the private ownership model based on a joint stock company, which became the template for most central bank creations in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but has been considered outdated since the mid twentieth century. Moreover, it had the largest balance sheet amongst all central banks in the eighteenth century. The chapter ends with a list of 15 major current central bank topics which all can be traced back to before 1800, showing how relevant the study of early central banking remains.
Introduction
Authors: Hom Andrew R.
Published: July 2020

Using the Doomsday Clock as an organizing symbol, the introduction makes the case for time’s relevance to a range of global political phenomena, clears important conceptual ground, and sets the stage for the theory and analyses to follow. It notes a number of empirical and disciplinary areas where time and temporal assumptions play important roles but argues that International Relations (IR) mostly fails to take time seriously as an object of analysis in its own right. It then sketches two dominant and seemingly contradictory cultures of time operating across politics and IR: Western standard time, or the time reckoned by reliable clocks and calendars; and the problem of Time—a much more venerable and vindictive image of time as antagonistic to human and social life, sometimes couched in fluvial metaphors. The problem of Time tradition sets up politics in practice and in theory as efforts to tame Time with sound knowledge and effective action, often linked to Western standard time symbols. Before summarizing the rest of the book, the introduction argues that the prevalence of these two contradictory time cultures in IR opens up important questions about the field’s relationship to time and its means of engaging global politics.
Historical Institutionalism
Authors: Hom Andrew R.
Published: July 2020

Chapter seven covers historical institutionalism (HI), a new approach to international institutions that embraces overtly temporal themes like sequence, path dependence, critical junctures, legacy effects, and the importance of “founding moments.” While historical institutionalists make great strides in setting institutions in motion, this chapter argues that they remain trapped by the problem of Time tradition and moreover that timing theory can help them escape. After summarizing the rise of HI against sociological and especially rationalist treatments, it uses HI accounts of institutions of the “liberal international order” to clarify the role and status of “history” in HI, to show how HI recapitulates and narratively confronts the problem of Time, and to argue that historical institutionalists unintentionally position themselves as horologists who explain institutional faults without challenging the rationalist baseline assumption that institutions should work like near-perfect cooperation mechanisms. This depoliticizes HI and hamstrings its efforts to develop a distinctive theory of institutions. However, timing theory can help by recasting institutions as collective timing projects and by embracing a more realistic view of international-institutional possibility. In turn, HI can push several concepts and insights of timing theory further, opening the possibility not only of a more thoroughly temporal account of institutions but an institutionalist perspective on timing.
Critical Approaches
Authors: Hom Andrew R.
Published: July 2020

Chapter eight tackles the vanguard of IR time studies, where critical scholars have successfully placed time and temporality at the front of the agenda but done less to elaborate and interrelate their diverse conceptual innovations. Covering four critical discourses of time—“savage” and neoclassical times, accelerating time, and temporalities of rupture—this chapter uses timing theory to assess pivotal assumptions at the heart of critical IR. While they propose to problematize time, critical scholars still reify various concepts and selectively deploy the problem of Time against hegemonic political logics. In each case, timing theory offers a more thoroughgoing and coherent account of critical temporalities. In particular, it shows that past times signal long-running timing successes bound up with power, that fast times need not lead to alienation, and that ruptures can never be ends in themselves unless underwritten by the sorts of politics that many critical scholars refute. Instead, ruptures must be understood as moments requiring fraught new forms of timing, unless we rely on silently shared assumptions and a form of liberal-idealism that depoliticizes critical times just when we should be pushing the politics of time and timing further, a task better met by the open timing standards of reflexive realism.
Conclusion
Authors: Hom Andrew R.
Published: July 2020

The book’s conclusion takes stock of insights developed throughout and highlights some of their wider implications. After summarizing narrative timing theory’s contributions to IR and our understanding of time, it proposes that taking timing seriously entails rethinking several aspects of what it means to do IR. Timing theory suggests that IR’s intellectual and academic hierarchies require revision and perhaps outright inversion. It also shows how, in re-timing IR, scholars can also re-claim their field from arbitrary and largely impertinent scientific standards ill-suited to the level of difficulty at which IR scholarship operates. Timing theory also bears on recent efforts to cultivate a more reflexive brand of scholarship, warning against the tendency to reify any methodological, theoretical, or disciplinary doxa when studying the temporal domain of global politics.
Mendelssohn’s Aesthetics
Authors: Guyer Paul
Published: July 2020

Mendelssohn made his mark early with his writings on aesthetics, beginning with the Letters on Sentiments of 1755. He argues that we respond to both the perfections of objects represented by works of art and the works of art as representations themselves, and thus can have “mixed sentiments,” for example in the case of beautiful presentations of tragic events. We enjoy the activity of both our perceptual and cognitive and our conative and emotional powers in such aesthetic experience. Mendelssohn further developed this view in Morning Hours, although in the radically different context of explaining how God can approve of the best of all possible worlds in the absence of desire, which would be an impossible imperfection on his part.
Mendelssohn, Kant, and the Possibility of Progress
Authors: Guyer Paul
Published: July 2020

The book concludes with an examination of Kant’s critique of Mendelssohn’s view of the possibility of moral progress in Part III of his 1793 essay on “theory and practice.” In Jerusalem, Mendelssohn had argued against Lessing’s view of the moral education of humankind that individuals can make moral progress but that the human race as a whole does not morally progress. Kant rejected Mendelssohn’s view in favor of rational belief that the human species as a whole will eventually achieve its moral objective. But Kant’s commitment to the radical freedom of each individual implies that change of heart not only from evil to good but also from good to evil is always possible, so that moral progress of the whole species may be possible but can never be guaranteed. On this issue too, Mendelssohn seems more realistic than Kant.
Love Divine
Authors: Wessling Jordan
Published: July 2020

This book provides a systematic account of the deep and rich love that God has for humans. Within this vast theological territory, the objective is to contend for a unified paradigm regarding fundamental issues pertaining to the God of love who deigns to share His life of love with any human willing to receive it. Realizing this objective includes clarifying and defending theological accounts of the following: • how the doctrine of divine love should be constructed; • what God’s love is; • what role love plays in motivating God’s creation and subsequent governance of humans; • how God’s love for humans factors into His emotional life; • which humans it is that God loves in a saving manner; • what the punitive wrath of God is and how it relates to God’s redemptive love for humans; • and how God might share His intra-trinitarian love with human beings. As the book unfolds, a network of nodal issues are examined related to God’s love as it begins in Him and then overflows into the creation, redemption, and glorification of humanity. The result is an exitus-reditus structure driven by God’s unyielding love.
The Value Account of God’s Love
Authors: Wessling Jordan
Published: July 2020

A model of God’s love, called the ‘value account’, is defended in Chapter 2. According to this value account, God’s love is an appreciative response to intrinsic worth (dignity in the case of a human), wherein God values the existence and flourishing of the one loved as well as union with the loved individual. After this model of love is expounded, it is argued that conceiving of God’s love in this manner is independently plausible, compatible with important kinds of biblical data, and nourished by a traditional Christian stream of thinking about God’s love.
Conclusion
Authors: Wessling Jordan
Published: July 2020

The various conclusions established in the earlier chapters are summarized and brought together in the Conclusion, resulting in an integrated Christian paradigm for thinking about God’s love for humanity.
Collaboration
Authors: Pollard Natalie
Published: July 2020

This chapter examines a particular instance of canonical late-twentieth-century poetry that shows close collaboration with the visual arts. It takes as a case study the work of Ted Hughes, who is often considered central to the development of the English poetic canon, in his collaboration with the American artist and publisher Leonard Baskin in producing the 1973 book, Cave Birds. The trade volume initially contained over ten of Baskin’s pen-and-ink images (which had inspired Hughes to pen his poems). Why, then, are Baskin’s artworks no longer published alongside Hughes’s poems? This chapter puts drawing and text back into dialogue, offering a sustained intra-artistic reading of an image-poem pair as it resonates with the vision of Michelangelo, Michael Ayrton, Giacometti, Sylvia Plath, and Seamus Heaney. Artwork and literary text interact before our viewing-reading eyes, performing an eloquent expression of the complexity of aesthetic co-constitution, across media and history.
Henry James and the Art of Impressions
Authors: Scholar John
Published: July 2020

Henry James and the Art of Impressions examines the concept of the ‘impression’ in the essays and late novels of Henry James. Although Henry James criticized the impressionism which was revolutionizing French painting and French fiction, and satirized the British aesthetic movement which championed impressionist criticism, he placed the impression at the heart of his own aesthetic project, as well as his narrative representation of consciousness. This book tries to understand the anomaly that James represents in the wider history of the impression. To do this it charts an intellectual and cultural history of the ‘impression’ from the seventeenth century to the twentieth, drawing in painting, philosophy (John Locke, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, J.L Austin), psychology (James Mill, J.S. Mill, William James, Ernst Mach, Franz Brentano), literature (William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Walter Pater, Oscar Wilde), and modern critical theory (Jacques Derrida, Paul de Man, Judith Butler, J. Hillis Miller). It then offers close readings of James’s non-fictional and fictional treatments of the impression in his early criticism and travel writing (1872–88), his prefaces to the New York Edition (1907–9), and the three novels of his major phase, The Ambassadors (1903), The Wings of the Dove (1902), and The Golden Bowl (1904). It concludes that the term ‘impression’ crystallizes James’s main theme of the struggle between life and art. Coherent philosophical meanings of the Jamesian impression emerge when it is comprehended as a family of related ideas about perception, imagination, and aesthetics—bound together by James’s attempt to reconcile the novel’s value as a mimetic form and its value as a transformative creative activity.
Introduction
Authors: Scholar John
Published: July 2020

The introduction argues that James’s work is best understood as impression-driven rather than impressionist. It allies the book with those critics who take a philosophical view of literary impressionism, while arguing that the book’s approach complements more historicist views of literary impressionism of the last decade. It emphasizes that this book’s contribution lies in: its belief that James has a greater debt to the impressions of pre-impressionist painters than to those of impressionist painters; its greater emphasis on the making of, rather than the receiving of, impressions, and its use of theories of the performative to conceptualize this; and in the detailed intellectual and cultural history of the impression that it offers, which helps the book tell a new story about James’s artistic, philosophical, and psychological influences.
James’s Criticism of Existing Theories of the Impression, 1872–88
Authors: Scholar John
Published: July 2020

Chapter 1 explores the anomaly that while James was critical of French impressionist painting and literature, he nevertheless made the impression the centrepiece of his representation of the novelist at work in ‘The Art of Fiction’ (1884). It addresses this anomaly by reading some of James’s early art criticism, literary criticism, and travel writing as a remaking of existing models of the impression, arguing that James’s impression combines the best of the French novel’s attention to sensation with the English novel’s attention to reflection. It also places the impressions of James’s criticism in dialogue with those of painterly impressionism. It observes that James attributes as much importance to the making of impressions as to the receiving of them. It thus introduces a distinction, fundamental to the argument in later chapters, between ‘performative’ impressions and ‘cognitive’ impressions.
The Rebirth of Contract Theory
Authors: Weale Albert
Published: July 2020

In the second half of the twentieth century, social contract theory flourished as a branch of moral and political theory. Its central claim was that principles of social and political organization could be derived from a hypothetical social contract that would be agreed among rational persons. It aspired to provide a theory of content, so defining justifiable principles, as well as a theory of obligation, so explicating the reasons that agents would have for following those principles. In scope it offered an account of interpersonal morality, political authority, and economic justice, although all could be regarded as departments of the theory of justice. Social contract theory also offered a method of ethics of a constructivist type. In this respect it followed the model of utilitarianism. The key authors were: Barry, Buchanan and Tullock, Harsanyi, Gauthier, Grice, Rawls, and Scanlon. Their different theories can be classified by reference to two dimensions. Are the hypothetical contracting parties behind a veil of ignorance or not? And, to what type of rationality—utility-based or deliberative—is their reasoning supposed to conform? The purpose of this work is to offer an exposition and evaluation of this body of work.
The Tragic Christian Self
Authors: Blowers Paul M.
Published: July 2020

This chapter capitalizes on a substantial body of recent research on the literary and rhetorical construction of “lives” (especially “holy lives” in hagiography) and “selves” (moral subjects and agents) in the late-ancient Greco-Roman World. It explores a whole other form of tragical mimesis in early Christian literary culture, namely, the rhetorical and theological profiling of the Christian self as a “tragic self,” a self consciously aware of its own finitude, mortality, and vulnerability to tragic circumstance. The bulk of the chapter closely examines three powerful autobiographical profiles of the tragic Christian self articulated by three of the most prolific late-ancient Christian authors: Gregory Nazianzen, John Chrysostom, and Augustine. While each writer, especially Gregory Nazianzen in his autobiographical poetry, rhetorically reconstructed his own life as an unfolding tragedy, each also developed an objective profile of the tragic Christian self that could apply more broadly to Christian experience of life in the flesh. Though these writers all revere the goodness and beauty of creation, and the integrity of the imago Dei, and though they fervently assert the providence and wisdom of the Creator, there is neither naïvety nor quixotism about the arena of creation in which life is lived, endured, enjoyed, the arena where confrontation of evil and suffering is endemic.
From Towns into Battlefields
Authors: Dowdall Alex
Published: July 2020

Chapter 1 explores the topography of the urban battlefield, and provides an urban history of the Western Front. It describes how Arras, Reims, Nancy, Lens, and other towns were progressively transformed into battlefields in the period after August 1914. It describes the transformation of urban space by the First World War, through artillery bombardment, the fortification of these towns by the militaries, and the proliferation of military weaponry and defensive architecture. It discusses how civilians changed their routines to adapt to the urban battlefield, and argues that as much as possible civilians at the front aimed to maintain a semblance of normality. This was encouraged by local authorities, and represented as a form of heroic resistance in the face of the enemy. The chapter charts the physical impact of urban warfare near the front, and describes the extent of urban destruction during the period of the stable Western Front. It also charts the transformation of the civilian population of the front, through discussions of evacuation policies and the scale of civilian death and injury.
Sweet and Clean?
Authors: North Susan
Published: July 2020

Sweet and Clean? Bodies and Clothes in Early Modern England challenges the widely held beliefs on bathing and cleanliness in the past. For over 30 years, the work of the French historian, George Vigarello, has been hugely influential on early modern European social history, describing an aversion to water and bathing, and the use of linen underwear as the sole cleaning agent for the body. However, these concepts do not apply to early modern England. Sweet and Clean? analyses etiquette and medical literature revealing repeated recommendations to wash or bathe in order to clean the skin. Clean linen was essential for propriety but advice from medical experts was contradictory. Many doctors were convinced that it prevented the spread of contagious diseases, but others recommended flannel for undergarments, and a few thought changing a fever patient’s linens was dangerous. The methodology of material culture helps determine if and how this advice was practised. Evidence from inventories, household accounts and manuals, and surviving linen garments tracks underwear through its life-cycle of production, making, wearing, laundering, and final recycling. Although the material culture of washing bodies is much sparser, other sources, such as the Old Bailey records, paint a more accurate picture of cleanliness in early modern England than has been previously described. The contrasting analyses of linen and bodies reveal what histories material culture best serves. Finally, what of the diseases—plague, smallpox, and typhus—that cleanliness of body and clothes were thought to prevent? Did following early modern medical advice protect people from these illnesses?
Manners and Health
Authors: North Susan
Published: July 2020

Chapter 2 surveys and analyses early modern English conduct literature to determine what standards of cleanliness were essential for propriety. It revises accepted wisdom that insists the repetition of this advice over two and a half centuries must mean that it was not being followed, and suggests instead that such reiteration signified parental insecurity. The presentation of advice on cleanliness is influenced by shifting concerns of class during this period. Also included in Chapter 2 is a review of the popular health manuals that have been traditionally used to assess habits of cleanliness. In both genres, recommendations on cleanliness are insistent but imprecise, giving little indication of what to clean, when, and how often, but the health manuals point to other medical genres with more detailed discussions and specific advice.
Manufacturing Linens
Authors: North Susan
Published: July 2020

The processing and marketing of linens expressly for use in underwear and accessories is examined in Chapter 7. The labour-intensive raising and refining of flax is described and the qualities desired in the finished textile are examined—fine, hardwearing, and washable. The property of whiteness demanded by propriety and which represented the cleanliness required by medical advice was particularly important. Centres of production, preferred brands, government support of linen production, and pricing are discussed, as well as the significance of imported plain white calicos from India as a suitable fabric for accessories and underwear.
Sewing Linens
Authors: North Susan
Published: July 2020

The transformation of flat linen textiles to underwear is described in Chapter 8. The cost of linen and the need to own as much underclothes and accessories as possible to maintain standards of propriety forced a strict economy on making these garments. All underwent the rigours of early modern laundry and needed to be firmly sewn together, yet finely enough to be worn comfortably under other clothing. Very little literature in the early modern period documents these processes, therefore, reconstruction is the primary research tool. The exercise of remaking linen shirts and shifts highlights the seamstress’s skills and knowledge, and emphasizes what impact different qualities of linen would have on the durability of the finished garments and cost of their making. How shirts and shifts could be ‘ready-made’ is also explored.
The Macroeconomics of Developing Countries
Authors: Cornia Giovanni Andrea
Published: July 2020

The book focuses on the short- and long-term macroeconomic challenges faced by developing countries characterized by missing, incomplete, and dualistic markets and weak institutions. Such problems affect long-term growth, short-term macroeconomic equilibrium, employment, and inequality far more than in the advanced economies. A central message of the book is that ignoring these features and applying to developing countries models inspired by the reality of advanced economies may lead to wrong conclusions and policies. These challenges are discussed for a number of archetypes of developing economies dependent on land and natural resources, affected by supply rigidities in agriculture, and featuring dualistic markets, a dominant informal sector, fast population growth, and chronic dependence on the export of commodities and a volatile external finance. Finally, the book discusses the impact on growth, inequality, and poverty of the stabilization and structural adjustment reforms that were increasingly implemented during the last thirty years. These issues have taken centre stage since the launch of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) initiatives that have not spelled out a clear macroeconomic approach. There is a risk, therefore, that the wrong policies and sudden shocks may derail progress towards the SDGs which might be achieved by means of social policies.
Genesis, Context, Focus, and Accounting Relations of Standard Macroeconomics
Authors: Cornia Giovanni Andrea
Published: July 2020

This chapter defines the field of investigation and the main issues analysed by short-term, demand-side macroeconomics and long-term growth models in the now advanced economies. It presents also the set of accounting relations (for the production, uses, and distribution of income, for the balance of payments, and for the macro financial accounts) that are used to describe the functioning of the macroeconomy, and to assess its performance. Finally, it discusses briefly the context and historical evolution of macroeconomic theory during the last two centuries, by referring to the classical, Keynesian, neoclassical synthesis, monetarist, new classical, and structuralist macroeconomic approaches.
Growth in Dualistic Economies with a Rigid Food Supply
Authors: Cornia Giovanni Andrea
Published: July 2020

This chapter analyses the growth prospects of developing countries with a dualistic economy consisting of an important agricultural sector and a manufacturing sector, the growth of which is influenced by the price of food. Food supply in turn depends on various types of supply rigidities in agriculture, including those due lack of modernization (despite the fall in farm size), institutional factors, adverse terms of trade effects, and lack of incentive goods in the countryside. The chapter then discusses the Kalecki dual economy model that suggests that—in a closed economy—the rigidity of food supply is a source of rising food prices and overall inflation that may frustrate Keynesian expansionary policies to reduce unemployment in a demand-constrained manufacturing sector.
Rapid Population Growth and Long-term Development
Authors: Cornia Giovanni Andrea
Published: July 2020

This chapter reviews population trends over the last two hundred years and population projections to the end of this century. In 2100 the world population will have stabilized but its geographical distribution will have substantially changed compared to 2015. The chapter then discusses the five stages of the demographic transition, and different neo-Malthusian and non-Malthusian theories of the relation between population growth and economic development. It emphasizes in particular the effects of rapid population growth on land and resource availability, human capital formation, population quality, the accumulation of physical capital, employment, wages, and income inequality. The effects of rapid population growth rate over a given period were found to change in line with the population size and density at the beginning of the period considered.
How do Neoclassical Growth Models Behave in Low-income Countries?
Authors: Cornia Giovanni Andrea
Published: July 2020

This chapter discusses the extent to which the neoclassical long-term growth models developed for the advanced economies are able to reproduce the developing countries’ long-term growth path, convergence with the advanced countries, and steady state equilibrium. To do so, the chapter assesses first whether the hypotheses at the basis of the original Solow model are verified in a prototypical developing country. It then lists the factors that explain the lack of convergence between the GDP per capita of developing and developed countries predicted by the Solow model, and the problems faced by low-income countries in exiting low-level equilibrium poverty traps. It then presents a modified Solow model characterized by multiple equilibria that fits the situation of less developed countries.
Introduction
Authors: Spencer Jane
Published: July 2020

This chapter places nonhuman animals at the centre of the age of revolution, outlining the naturalistic and sympathetic perspectives on animal life underpinning emergent animal rights discourses. Firstly it shows how eighteenth-century natural history influenced a shift from symbolic to literal animal representation. Secondly it argues that David Hume’s and Adam Smith’s philosophies of sympathy each encouraged anthropomorphism in animal representation, Hume’s by blurring the distinction between rationality and animality, Smith’s by opening up the possibility of imaginative projection into nonhuman experiences. Thirdly, it traces the radicalization of the idea of natural rights, showing how the concept of human rights was locked in a complex and fraught relationship with that of animal rights. Human demands for rights entailed claims to a fully human rationality distinct from animality, but the concept of universal natural rights for man and woman was extended beyond the human.
Introduction
Authors: Sawyer Daniel
Published: July 2020

This introduction positions the book in relation to past work in the history of reading, introduces the materials and methods used, and lays out brief overviews of the five chapters. The history of reading has an established large-scale narrative which offers little detail on the reading of vernacular poetry in later-medieval England. Readers’ own marginal comments on Middle English verse cannot supply this missing detail, as they are rare at this time, and so mark their writers out as atypical. A combination of methods is proposed for examining a broader range of evidence instead, including close reading and detailed manuscript case studies, but also quantitative surveys inspired by continental European scholarship. Middle English verse does, it is suggested, constitute an identifiable topic. A working taxonomy of canonicity in Middle English poetry is offered, and widely successful anonymous religious instructional poems such as The Prick of Conscience are proposed as useful comparanda for canonical texts. The introduction closes by summarizing what follows.
Rhyming
Authors: Sawyer Daniel
Published: July 2020

This chapter investigates manuscript evidence for readers’ attention to one particular aspect of form, rhyme. The chapter begins by examining occasions when scribes copied Middle English verse in unusual layouts with atypical lineation, because such occasions drove scribes to punctuate the structures of poems more explicitly. The resulting punctuation reveals that scribes often read, and expected other readers to read, cycles of rhyme, not individual lines, as the basic building-blocks of rhyming verse. The chapter then turns to the evidence of rhyme braces. Manuscript case-studies show that readers were usually adept and accurate when adding rhyme braces, but did not always choose to represent the actual rhyme. Their decisions reveal an aesthetic interest in balanced and unbalanced structures in rhyme, which helps to explain the effects and pleasures offered by some unbalanced stanza forms of the period, such as rhyme royal. A systematic quantitative survey of the braces in long poems written in couplets then shows how much care and labour was spent representing rhyme accurately even in copies of poems which modern scholarship has tended to regard as essentially utilitarian texts. Readers had, it is suggested, a strong formalist interest in rhyme in all kinds of rhyming verse. The evidence also demonstrates that different readers could pursue different kinds of formalism, and that poets did not always see eye to eye with the readers who eventually absorbed and transmitted poetry.
Economic Crisis and Democratic Breakdown
Authors: Cornell Agnes , Møller Jørgen , Skaaning Svend-Erik
Published: July 2020

Economic crisis is the explanatory variable that, among both scholars and laymen, has traditionally been emphasized as the main cause of interwar democratic breakdowns. However, there are also studies which have questioned the presence of an empirical relationship between economic crisis and democratic breakdown in the interwar period. Against this backdrop, we carry out a systematic large-N analysis of the relationship between economic crisis and democratic breakdown in the period 1918–1939. The analysis shows that the degree of economic crisis in itself was not strongly associated with the risk of democratic breakdown in this period. The emphasis on economic crisis in much of the literature seems exaggerated, though it may have contributed to democratic breakdown in some countries, including the paradigmatic case of Germany. These results lend further support to our focus on democratic legacies, associational landscapes, and the underlying clusters of structural conditions.
Conclusions
Authors: Cornell Agnes , Møller Jørgen , Skaaning Svend-Erik
Published: July 2020

Several observers have recently invoked interwar political developments to make the case that even established democracies are fragile. The main takeaway point from our analyses is pretty much the opposite, namely, that democracies have proven remarkably resilient if they have had time to become rooted and/or have strong associational landscapes. Crises—even as devastating as the Great Depression and the appeal of totalitarian movements—had little bite under such circumstances. It was only in new democracies with weak parties and civil societies that the economic, political, and social dislocations of the 1920s and 1930s spelled the end of democracy. On this basis, recent warnings about the fragility of contemporary democracies in Western Europe and North America seem exaggerated. At least, they cannot be sustained by interwar evidence.
Introduction: Balkan Paramilitaries – Undemobilized Combatants
Authors: Tasić Dmitar
Published: July 2020

Introduction provides information about the study chronological and geographical contexts; similarities and differences between broader European and Balkan phenomenon’s of paramilitarism after the First World War as well as most important features of Balkan paramilitarism in investigated period (1917-1924) such as: intensive political engagement, strong inclination towards guerrilla warfare, personal allegiances rather than organizational or institutional ones, active participation in armed conflicts, political crisis, coups, etc, arrival of ‘White’ Russians and ex Russian revolutionaries as the new bearers of paramilitarism and paramilitary violence in the Balkans, violence as an integral part of paramilitaries and reoccurring in identical or similar shapes despite the changes in ideological and political context. It also speaks of strong legacy of Balkan paramilitarism and how it continued to have strong influence in subsequent conflicts in the region—Second World War and Wars of Yugoslav Succession 1991–1999.
The Age of Coups d’état
Authors: Tasić Dmitar
Published: July 2020

Chapter V is dedicated to several coup d’états as well as counter coups and unsuccessful attempts that happened in investigated period in Albania and Bulgaria. In Albania coups were integral part of struggle for stability in this country while in Bulgaria coup was a mean for undoing changes that occurred after the Great War. In almost all of them paramilitaries had their peace of action. In the same time Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, despite numerous difficulties and overall diversity, was never endangered by prospect of violent overturn. On the contrary, it often served as safe haven for those actors from Albania and Bulgaria who lost and were forced to leave the country or served as basis for counter-coup providing assistance, resources and even experienced paramilitaries. However, in both Albanian and Bulgarian examples of overturn it showed how for successful outcome good organization, determination, focus, and precise plans both for the execution and ‘the day after’ showed to be far more important than overall numbers.
Individuals and Organizations
Authors: Tasić Dmitar
Published: July 2020

Chapter VI turns attention on individuals and organizations by emphasizing of the notable features of the Balkan paramilitaries—personal allegiances and building strong personal ties rather than institutional ones. In case of disruption of these ties and drastic changes within organization many Balkan paramilitaries would rather defect or change side. Often these turbulent shifts represented introduction to vicious cycles of vendetta assassinations that threatened to completely paralyse organization’s activities. It also led to the appearance of colourful and interesting personalities whose career paths used to be equally turbulent. Also, opposite to period before the Balkan Wars when organizations tend to rely only on their sponsor states, after the First World War began realignment of organizations following the newly established division on vanquished and victorious. All those who were interested in revision of existing order were considered as convenient ally despite considerable political and ideological differences. In one moment IMRO was forging alliances with Kosovo Committee, Italy, Croatian extremists, and international communist movement.
Legacies
Authors: Tasić Dmitar
Published: July 2020

Chapter VII as final chapter tells a story of legacies, that is, how it happened that in decade to follow, despite weakening of the paramilitary phenomenon, Balkan witnessed several revivals of the paramilitarism. Although in Yugoslavia it had slowly moved towards the commemorations, in Bulgaria ban of IMRO after the 1934 shattered its structures, and in Albania paramilitarism was neutralized through militarization, already during the Second World War it went through its first resurgence. Many paramilitary groups appeared claiming to rely on rich traditions of paramilitary organizing. After the war rich tradition and experience in guerrilla warfare made it possible for many anti-communist individuals and groups to try to resist rapid sovietisation of their respective countries. Finally, during the violent dissolution of Yugoslavia during 1990’s many paramilitary groups tried to appeal to senses of common people and evoke legacies of paramilitary organization of the past. Although they claimed to be heirs of paramilitaries from the time of Macedonian struggle 1903–1908, Balkan Wars and First World War, their ethos, behavioural patterns, and language made them very different. Their appearance was the only thing they had in common. Needless to say how majority of the perpetrators of war crimes during the Yugoslav wars were actually members of various paramilitary organizations.
Three Ethical Traditions
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. , van Kooten Niekerk Kees , Lykke Cobos Kristian-Alberto , Fink Hans , Rabjerg Bjørn , Stern Robert
Published: July 2020

The book begins by setting up what Løgstrup calls the main traditions of Western ethics: teleology and deontology. The teleological tradition is the oldest, originating in Plato and Aristotle, but it also includes Utilitarianism along with early twentieth-century thinkers such as Max Scheler and Nicolai Hartmann. The central proponent of the deontological tradition is Kant, but it also includes Kierkegaard. Also, Løgstrup very briefly introduces a third, ontological, tradition with reference to Luther’s idea of natural law, and which is based on the fundamental conditions of our human existence. This tradition is further described in the subsequent chapters of the book.
The Ethical Demand and the Norms
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. , van Kooten Niekerk Kees , Lykke Cobos Kristian-Alberto , Fink Hans , Rabjerg Bjørn , Stern Robert
Published: July 2020

In ‘The Ethical Demand and the Norms’, Løgstrup addresses the problem concerning relativity in ethics. He makes the claim that ethics involves both an unchanging and a relative and changeable element; the moral rules vary from time to time and in different cultures, whereas the fundamental element that one should be concerned for the well-being of the other is absolute and unchangeable. This leads Løgstrup to discuss the problem as to whether the Ten Commandments still hold good today, as they can reasonably be seen as part of the historical and thus relative moral rules of ethics rather than its unchangeable basis.
Chronicle A and the Early Tenth Century
Authors: Stafford Pauline
Published: July 2020

This chapter considers the chronicles and annals produced in the first decades of the tenth century connected to the courts of King Alfred’s children, Edward the Elder in Wessex and Æthelflæd in Mercia, and probably also to Æthelstan’s court. It provides a detailed consideration of Chronicle A and its manuscript. It identifies three chronicles, two produced close to Edward and his court—one of which is the surviving Chronicle A in at least some of its stages—and one produced close to Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, and Æthelstan, a chronicle known as the ‘Mercian Register’ or ‘Annals of Æthelflæd’. It argues that these chronicling developments are not independent, but respond one to another and illuminate the issues and debates among the court elites of the early tenth century. Apparent resolution of those issues in the accession of King Æthelstan ended the first burst of vernacular chronicle writing and production.
The Lost Worcester Chronicle
Authors: Stafford Pauline
Published: July 2020

This chapter attempts to identify a lost chronicle, most likely a Worcester chronicle, which existed by c. ad 1000. Comparison of the twelfth-century annals in John of Worcester’s chronicle with those which seem to lie behind Byhrtferth of Ramsey’s Vita Oswaldi (Life of Oswald) suggests a lost vernacular chronicle text, whose identifiable interests connect it to Worcester and its bishops, including Bishop Oswald. This chronicle would have provided a more positive view of the early years of the reign of King Æthelred II and a different assessment of King Edgar.