Interactions Between Sponges and Macroalgae on Temperate Rocky Reefs
Authors:   , Cárdenas César A. 
Published: November 2021

<p>Changes in the distributions of organisms not only alter community composition and food web structure, but also can initiate important changes at the ecosystem level. Understanding the interactions between biotic and abiotic factors affecting species’ distribution patterns in temperate habitats is important for predicting responses to future environmental change. Sponges are important members of temperate rocky reefs assemblages that are influenced by a number of abiotic factors including water movement, light regime, inclination and stability of the substratum, as well as complex ecological interactions.  The aim of this thesis was to investigate the interactions between sponges and macroalgae on shallow-water rocky reefs of Wellington, New Zealand, assessing if the distribution patterns of sponges are independent of algal populations. I used a combination of surveys, and manipulative field and laboratory experiments to explore the existence of interactions (positive or negative) between sponges and macroalgae and also to explore the effect of environmental factors on the distribution and abundance of temperate sponges. My first objective was to determine if the spatial distribution patterns of sponges are independent of macroalgae distribution and abundance at different sites on the Wellington south coast (Chapter 2). The results showed that abundance of most sponge species were strongly correlated with inclination, which supports previous studies in the northern hemisphere suggesting that sponge abundance and algal abundance are negatively correlated. In contrast, only a few sponge species were positively correlated with algal abundance. I then explored the positive interactions occurring between some sponges species and the presence of canopy-forming algae (Chapter 3). Results from this chapter suggest the canopy of Ecklonia radiata facilitates the existence of some sponge species such as Crella incrustans on vertical rocky walls. The removal of Ecklonia canopy led to a community dominated by turf algae, which corresponded with a decrease in sponge abundance and richness. My results suggest that the Ecklonia canopy facilitates the presence of some sponge species and allows their coexistence with turf algae underneath the canopy and also by altering immediate physical factors that may be detrimental for some sponge species. To further explore the existence of sponges and understory algae, I used an experimental approach (Chapter 4) to investigate the effect of the brown alga Zonaria turneriana on Leucetta sp. and also mechanisms involved in the interactions. However results from this chapter provided no evidence to support previous hypotheses that understory algae negatively affect sponges. In the last data chapter (Chapter 5), I studied sponges inhabiting different habitats in order to test if environmental variation affects the abundance and diversity of microorganisms, hence having the potential to affect the distribution and abundance of these species The stability observed in bacterial communities among specimens occupying different habitats suggests that environmental variation occurring in those habitats does not affect the stability of the community, and hence most likely does not radically alter the metabolism of these sponges. Although environmental factors such as light and sediment may have an effect on early sponge stages, other environmental (e.g. nutrients, temperature, wave action) and biotic factors, are more likely to influence the growth, survival and distribution of sponges on temperate rocky reefs.  In summary, temperate sponge assemblages are strongly influenced by interactions between a number of abiotic and biotic factors. The outcomes of the ecological interactions are controlled by environment (e.g. influence of inclination on competition between sponges and understory algae) and at the same time, biological interactions (e.g. facilitation) can moderate the influence of abiotic factors such as light, sedimentation and wave action, thus facilitating the coexistence between sponge and macroalgae underneath the Ecklonia canopy. My thesis makes a significant contribution to our knowledge of temperate subtidal ecology, in terms of the effects of biotic and abiotic factors on sponge assemblages and also improves our knowledge of temperate patterns of sponge and macroalgal interactions. Finally, my thesis highlights the importance of small-scale environmental variation in influencing the structure and diversity of sponge assemblages and also increase our understanding of temperate rocky reefs sponges, especially on the less studied sponge assemblages occurring in Ecklonia stands on vertical rocky walls.</p>