bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The credit supply
Authors: Briggs Chris
Published: February 2012

Credit in medieval England was obtained in various ways, either through a deferred payment or through cash loans. All these transactions were efforts to maintain production and consumption at its previous level or for investment purposes. During this period, the majority of the transactions arose from the need to obtain goods or services or to discharge an obligation at a time when immediate full cash payments from that individual's own resources were impossible or inadvisable. In the medieval period, full payment in cash was impossible as societies during this period did not have regular monetary income. Thus, in such societies, debtors accrue their needs through credit and they were not obliged to make immediate cash payments from their own resources whenever they obtained goods or services. This chapter examines credit supply during this period with emphasis on the willingness of the creditors to lend or sell goods and services on credit. It examines the effects of dearth and high prices, coin shortage or money supply, and crisis mortality on the credit supply of medieval Europe.
Introduction: The Ottoman Empire and its Frontiers
Authors: PEACOCK A. C. S.
Published: February 2012

Stretching across Europe, Asia and Africa for half a millennium bridging the end of the Middle Ages and the early twentieth century, the Ottoman Empire was one of the major forces that forged the modern world. The chapters in this book focus on four key themes: frontier fortifications, the administration of the frontier, frontier society and relations between rulers and ruled, and the economy of the frontier. Through snapshots of aspects of Ottoman frontier policies in such diverse times and places as fifteenth-century Anatolia, seventeenth-century Hungary, nineteenth-century Iraq or twentieth-century Jordan, the book provides a richer picture than hitherto available of how this complex empire coped with the challenge of administering and defending disparate territories in an age of comparatively primitive communications. By way of introduction, this chapter seeks to provide an overview of these four themes in the history of Ottoman frontiers.
Evliya Çelebi, the Mani and the Fortress of Kelefa
Authors: WAGSTAFF MALCOLM
Published: February 2012

The fortress of Kelefa on the western side of the Mani peninsula in southern Greece is one of a series of fortifications constructed or refurbished to defend the Ottomans' maritime frontier against Venice in the late seventeenth century. This chapter addresses whether the castle is indeed of Ottoman construction, or whether it is in fact an earlier, Frankish, structure that was merely restored by the Ottomans. It outlines what The Chronicle of the Morea says and how it can be interpreted. It looks at what light later literary and other sources can throw on the problem, discussing Evliya Çelebi in the process. It identifies Grand Magne with a fortress which others have claimed is of Ottoman construction and dates from the seventeenth rather than the thirteenth century. The chapter also provides a sketch of the Mani as part of the Ottoman frontier zone in the Mediterranean region.
Palanka Forts and Construction Activity in the Late Ottoman Balkans
Authors: ÖZGÜVEN BURCU
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines military building activity in the region in the light of Ottoman sources preserved in the Prime Ministry Ottoman Archive in Istanbul and memoirs written by the senior bureaucrats of the Empire. It aims to assess whether the military building programme of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries continued in later periods in the same spirit as in the earlier time of conquests and expansion, or if the empire only supported repairs of existing strongholds. The issue was noted by numerous Ottoman writers as early as the Koçi Bey Risalesi in the seventeenth century. This chapter examines four frontier areas of the Ottoman Empire: the Hapsburg borderland in Croatia; the frontier between Montenegro and southern Herzegovina; the fortress line on the banks of the Danube in Wallachia; and the Danube Delta region near the Black Sea.
Continuities in Ottoman Centre–Periphery Relations, 1787–1915
Authors: ANSCOMBE FREDERICK
Published: February 2012

In the political history of the Ottoman Empire, the long nineteenth century (1789–1915) stands out as a period of far-reaching, rapid change in the nature of the state. While the persistence of old practices should not be assumed along all frontiers of the empire, where it was applied the mutual support arrangement worked reasonably well at both ends of the nineteenth century. The two cases examined in this chapter illustrate this in a surprising fashion. The parallels are unexpected because among the notables involved, Tepedelenli Ali Pasha (1787–1820) in Epirus (Greece and Albania) and the Al Sabah and Al Thani shaykhs (1870–1915) in eastern Arabia carry reputations as unwilling subjects who rebelled against the sultan. It was largely due to the centre's failure to continue to uphold its part of the mutual support arrangement.
Razing Gevele and Fortifying Konya: The Beginning of the Ottoman Conquest of the Karamanid Principality in South-Central Anatolia, 1468
Authors: YILDIZ SARA NUR
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the initial Ottoman campaign of conquest of the Karamanid principality with the assault on Gevele, a mountain fortress lying 11 kilometres to the west of Konya, and the seizure of Konya in 1468. It also looks at the establishment of administrative and military control of the fertile agricultural plains as well as over the rich steppe grasslands of the region's northern highlands by the Ottomans on the eve of their conquest of the Karamanid principality in order to reveal an important factor in the conquest of Karaman: Ottoman political involvement in Karamanid internal affairs before the conquest. By interfering in Karaman succession politics, the Ottomans laid the political groundwork by which they were able to establish an administrative and military presence in the hinterland of the more vulnerable stretches of Karamanid territory prior to the Ottoman military conquest.
The Krajina Project: Exploring the Ottoman–Hapsburg Borderland
Authors: CARLTON RICHARD , RUSHWORTH ALAN
Published: February 2012

This chapter summarises the results of the Krajina Project, which was established in 1998 to investigate the archaeological remains, material culture and continuing ethnographic legacy of this distinctive late medieval/early modern frontier society. The project has focused on an area in the north-west corner of Bosnia-Herzegovina, between Kladuŝa and Bihać, known as the Bihaćka Krajina. This was one of the last districts in the region to be conquered by the Ottoman state, not falling to the sultan's forces until the late sixteenth century — a territorial high water mark. The ethnographic evidence provides significant insights into the continuing legacy of the Ottoman-Hapsburg frontier in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Ottoman Suakin 1541–1865: Lost and Found
Authors: MALLINSON MICHAEL , SMITH LAURENCE , BREEN COLIN , FORSYTHE WES , PHILLIPS JACKE
Published: February 2012

The island town of Suakin (Ott. Sevvakin) was one of the major Red Sea ports and, for a short period, the capital of the Ottoman eyelet of Habes. It lies 60 kilometres south of present-day Port Sudan, and has recently been the subject of a Sudanese-British collaborative archaeological project focusing on three main areas of research: archaeological study of the development of the settlement, architectural study of the ruins, and the future protection of the place as a cultural site. This chapter summarises the aspects of the project reflecting Suakin's Ottoman history. The study identifies material confirming the activities that led to this prosperity, namely trade. The archaeological evidence recovered in the recent excavations does support the existence of a wide-ranging trade network into which Suakin was linked from the earlier Ottoman period, covering neighbouring areas but also extending to east and south-east Asia.
A Frontier without Archaeology? The Ottoman Maritime Frontier in the Western Mediterranean, 1660–1760
Authors: HEYWOOD COLIN
Published: February 2012

The North African maritime frontier in the period under review in this chapter presents a paradox. On the one hand, there was a situation in which, to borrow J. S. Bromley's luminous phrase, ‘two societies, two conceptions of justice, collaborated and collided’. Bromley was referring to the contemporary Caribbean world of the late seventeenth-century boucaniers, but, equally, in the western Mediterranean, and on the land frontier of the North African littoral, there was a common maritime culture which shared many traits across the religious divide. In the context of the Ottoman frontier, the discussion suggests that a British archive-based archaeography of the Ottoman North African maritime frontier for the entire period from 1660 to the end of the eighteenth century and even into the early nineteenth is a subject which both has something to contribute and deserves to be taken further.
‘The Subduing of a Pestilent Heresy’:1 Edward Coleman’s Letters
Authors: Hinds Peter
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses Edward Coleman, who was the first man to be tried and executed based on the testimony of Oates, as well as a set of events and debates that were related to him. It considers his controversial correspondence with the members of the French Court during the early to mid-1670s, as well as the parliamentary debate over whether his letters should be printed or not. Coleman's trial, execution, and the discourse surrounding his death are also examined.
‘Have a Care of perverted Authorities’:1 Parliament, Partisanship, and the Earl of Shaftesbury
Authors: Hinds Peter
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses and addresses two main concerns. It starts by examining the controversy that surrounded the moving of Parliament from Westminster to Oxford in March 1681. It analyses the pamphlet discourse that circulated before and after it met, and considers the powerful strategy of invoking historical precedents in polemical debate. Finally, it looks at some representations of Antony Ashley Cooper, who was the Earl of Shaftesbury.
Mexico City: Space to Mourn, Time to Spend
Authors: MONSIVÁIS CARLOS
Published: February 2012

This chapter describes Mexico City through the observant eyes of Carlos Monsiváis, an influential and engaging commentator of the transformations of the city. This urban cronica offers snapshots of the post-apocalyptic city. It looks at the different ways in which the ordinary people negotiate and appropriate urban space or the lack of space in the city and amusingly presents such snapshots of Mexico City as its source of pride. Blending humour with social criticism, the chapter discusses the ‘humanism of squeeze’ and the pluralism on the metro and subway of Mexico wherein singularity and anonymity is abolished by squeezing the nation into an entire square meter. The chapter also offers political criticisms for the travails of working and marginalized people with a sense of wit including the attempts for the Americanization of some of the cities of the nation.
The Cinematic City
Authors: CHÁVEZ HUGO LARA
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses a city created by a cinema and a cinema created by the city, with emphasis on the dynamic interplay of these two. In this chapter the focus is on the last three decades, from 1977 to 2007, a period wherein the symbols and social expressions that were used to delineate the city have grown in strength while some others have consolidated to form Mexico’s current identity. In some of the cases, these symbols were placed in the film intentionally, while others seemed like they appeared through chance. The development of cinema in Mexico was bound with the developments of the city. Mexican cinema has played an important role as a mirror that reflected the developments within the city. Through the medium of film, the moving image became the most useful tool for visualizing the immeasurable wholeness of the city. In this chapter, the most defining moments that have found their way into the Mexican cinema are discussed. These events are the 1985 earthquake, the realities of globalization, and the defeat of the PRI in the 2000 elections. These are interwoven into narratives and images that explore dislocation, isolation and different forms of resistance.
Treating with the ‘Infidel’: Education and Negotiation in Syria
Authors: Dueck Jennifer M.
Published: February 2012

This chapter brings in the local Syrian participants. The student demonstrations in the late 1930s targeted a wide variety of issues, including Syrian government policies, the status of religious minorities, the teaching of religion in the Christian schools, the moral standards of teachers in state schools, and the Mandate administration. As a result of their activism, students became a threat to the French administration and the Syrian National Bloc alike, and the local authorities periodically suspended classes in an effort to suppress the agitation. Notwithstanding the Syrian concern for maintaining order, Syrian leaders exploited the student disturbances to oppose the French. In spite of the troubles surrounding the closure of schools at the war's end, there nevertheless remained a perception that French culture was a valuable commodity.
Artists and Educators at War: Franco-British Competition for the Limelight
Authors: Dueck Jennifer M.
Published: February 2012

This chapter considers British involvement in the war years. Although the French had worried about the Italians and the Germans before the war, the British and American governments ultimately emerged as a more daunting foe. The USA did not become a significant force until during the war, but already in 1936 the American press judged the British to be more dangerous to the French than the Italians, in spite of the latter's educational investment. The interaction of French and local actors with British cultural networks is visible in the arenas of cinema, publishing, and education. Each of these ventures involved multiple actors, including the Allied partners, foreign intermediaries, and local Levantine interlocutors. The French and the British generally managed to cooperate over the dissemination and censorship of cinema, yet reports by local mobile cinema team leaders display films as pawns in political struggles within the Syrian and Lebanese populations.
Women and the family in political culture
Authors: Gleadle Kathryn
Published: February 2012

Historians of feminism, such as Jane Rendall, have demonstrated how the family was construed as a vital locus of civic virtue in Enlightenment histories, evangelical moralizing, and revolutionary politics. More recently, scholars of elite politics have demonstrated that family networks of patronage and electoral influence were critical to the functioning of parliamentary politics. Within the family, gendered roles which privileged the position of the male head of the household remained remarkably enduring, a factor which complicated the construction of female political subjectivity. The family was an important forum for the constitution of political culture and women were sometimes fully implicated in this. It was a process which could — but did not inevitably — result in the construction of empowering female subjectivities. Whilst the bland imprecision of ‘female influence’ acknowledged women's potential for political input within the family, it obscured the complexities of exercising such sway within the actuality of family relations and underplayed the significance of broader cultural currents which prioritized wifely submission.
Women and the 1832 Reform Act
Authors: Gleadle Kathryn
Published: February 2012

The Reform Act of 1832 stands as one of the defining moments in the political history of Britain, yet its implications for women and their involvement in its passage remain underexplored. The reform bill pertaining to Scotland did not specify that the parliamentary voter should be male. It presumably did not occur to those drafting the Scottish legislation that such clarification was necessary; whereas the gender-specific wording of the statutes covering England, Wales, and Ireland suggests an awareness that there was a theoretical possibility that it might be otherwise open to challenge. These differences are indicative of the subtle fissures in seemingly dominant assumptions concerning female citizenship. This chapter examines how, within the interstices of parliamentary legislation, there were many such moments of telling indeterminacy in the collective understanding of women as political subjects. It also explores the notion of women as ‘borderline citizens’, women in parliament and their political rights from 1830 to 1832, women's involvement in the campaign for reform, and the impact of the reform crisis on female subjectivities.
The Irish Role in the Origins of the Old English Alphabet: A Re-assessment
Authors: O’Neill Patrick P.
Published: February 2012

This chapter re-examines the role of the Irish in the origins of the Old English alphabet. There are many theories about the Old English alphabet's origins. These include those contained in Karl Luick's Historische Grammatik and E. Sievers and K. Brunner's Altenglische Grammatik, which both offered the view that the model for the Old English alphabet was the Latin alphabet. But the first work to cover Old English orthography was Alistair Campbell's Old English Grammar, which rejected the notion that the Latin alphabet which underlay the Old English alphabet was the one taught by the Irish.
The Practicalities of Communication between Northumbrian and Irish Churches, c.635–735
Authors: Edmonds Fiona
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the relation between Northumbrian and Irish churches during the period between 635 and 735. It suggests that the journeys of churchmen between Ireland and Northumbria were in some ways inextricably linked with those of their lay counterparts and that the development of major ecclesiastical establishments during the seventh and early eighth centuries added a new dimension to trans-Irish Sea contact. The chapter also explains why the trans-Irish Sea contact did not cease in 664 when formal links between Lindisfarne on the one hand, and Iona and the Columban churches in Ireland, on the other, were terminated.
Behind Animals, Plants and Interlace: Salin’s Style II on Christian Objects
Authors: Wamers Egon
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines art-historical classification and style-dating and evaluates their applications in establishing the connections between Ireland and Anglo-Saxon England during the seventh century. It describes the animals and plants in Christian objects and suggests that they are variants of the Germanic Animal Style II defined by Bernhard Salin. The chapter also argues that these objects reflect the relationships between the Anglo-Saxon and Irish ruling elites.
Glitter in the Dragon’s Lair: Irish and Anglo-Saxon Metalwork from Pre-Viking Wales, c.400–850
Authors: Redknap Mark
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines Irish and Anglo-Saxon metalwork in Wales during the pre-Viking period from 400 to 850. The findings indicate that the conscious creation or adaptation of distinctive glitter in metalwork was used to convey the social position, legitimacy, and cultural leanings of some groupings during the early medieval period. The chapter also explains that while it can be argued that the native material culture of some people of Wales became progressively distinctive in parallel with a growing sense of self-identification as Cymru, highly complex patterns of regional variation and expressions of identity appear to have existed.
The Die is Cast(e): The Debate on Backward Caste/Class Quotas, 1990 and 20061
Authors: HASAN ZOYA
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the controversy generated by the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government's decision to extend reservations for Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in higher education. It looks at two issues that have dominated Indian policy debates with regards to reservations for OBCs. The first issue is about whether caste is an indicator of disadvantage, while the second issue pertains to the conception of backwardness. The chapter shows that many issues still remain unresolved, such as the position of the more affluent segments and the position of minorities.
Technologies of Séparation and the Evolution of Social Extension
Authors: Gamble Clive
Published: February 2012

Archaeological accounts of cognitive evolution have traditionally favoured an internal model of the mind and a search for symbolic proxies. This chapter argues for an external model of cognition and uses this perspective to develop the understanding of Palaeolithic material culture as based on sensory experience. It explores ways of investigating the evolution of cognition by using the social brain model combined with a theory of distributed cognition. The emphasis is on social extension, which was a necessary step to a global distribution and which was achieved by mechanisms such as focused gaze that amplified the emotional content of bonds. The discussion examines the importance of these mechanisms through three aspects of social extension — ontological security, psychological continuity and extension of self.
Excavating the Prehistoric Mind: The Brain as a Cultural Artefact and Material Culture as Biological Extension
Authors: Mithen Steven
Published: February 2012

The adoption of an explicitly cognitive approach has become prominent in archaeological research during the last decade, helping to place Palaeolithic archaeology into a driving role in the development of archaeological theory and developing inter-disciplinarity with the cognitive sciences. Two prominent approaches have emerged: the social brain hypothesis and the distributed mind. Precisely how these can be integrated into a single, unified approach for the study of the evolution and nature of the human mind remains unclear, if indeed it is desirable to do so. This chapter reflects on the emergence of these approaches within archaeology and comments upon their relative strengths and weakness.
John Lloyd Ackrill 1921–2007
Authors: Judson Lindsay
Published: February 2012

John Lloyd Ackrill (1921–2007), a Fellow of the British Academy, had a powerful and far-reaching influence on the way ancient philosophy is done in the English-speaking world and beyond. In his first article, he interpreted Plato's claim at Sophist 259e, in the process confronting what would have been at the time the authoritative interpretation, that of W. D. Ross. Ackrill was born in Reading to Frederick William Ackrill and Jessie Anne Ackrill. He was educated at Reading School and at St John's College in the University of Oxford; his philosophy tutors at St John's were Paul Grice and John Mabbott. Ackrill's first book was Aristotle's Categories and De Interpretatione. He also published a pair of seminal articles on Plato's Sophist. Perhaps the most important aspect of Ackrill's enduring influence was his editorship of the Clarendon Aristotle Series.
Terence Wilmot Hutchison 1912–2007
Authors: O’Brien D. P.
Published: February 2012

Terence Wilmot Hutchison (1912–2007), a Fellow of the British Academy, was a historian of economics, methodologist, and acerbic critic of hubris and pretension amongst economists. He was born at Bournemouth and grew up in London. Hutchison's father was the flamboyant and much married Robert Langton Douglas, while his mother was Grace Hutchison. It was as a classicist that he went to the University of Cambridge in 1931. But Hutchison quickly lost interest in a subject that seemed to him to have little relevance to the economic turmoil of the world, and switched to economics, graduating in 1934 with a First. He left Cambridge in 1934 and registered as an occasional student at the London School of Economics (LSE). This chapter presents a biography of Hutchison and also narrates his trips to Germany, Iraq, and India, as well as his stints at the University of Hull, LSE, and the University of Birmingham.
Philip James Jones 1921–2006
Authors: Dean Trevor
Published: February 2012

Philip James Jones (1921–2006), a Fellow of the British Academy, was one of the most distinguished, complex, and challenging of medieval historians. His works on the Italian city-states of the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries and on Italy's agrarian history are monuments built to last, benchmarks that defined the field for a generation. Jones was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1984 and was awarded the Serena Medal for Italian studies in 1988. He won a major open scholarship in Modern History at Wadham College, University of Oxford. Jones took a First in Modern History in 1945 and was appointed to a research studentship (Senior Demyship) at Magdalen College. He had also secured a temporary teaching post at Glasgow University. All Jones's previous works flowed into the 700 pages of his mammoth book Italian City-State: from Commune to Signoria.
Was Shakespeare an Essex Man?
Authors: BATE JONATHAN
Published: February 2012

This lecture presents the text of the speech about William Shakespeare's involvement in the 1601 rebellion of the Earl of Essex delivered by the author at the 2008 Shakespeare Lecture held at the British Academy. It discusses the closure of performance theatre after the arrest of Essex, his steward Sir Gelly Meyrick, and several other men. The lecture also explains that the case of Meyrick is the first instance on record of a person being executed for commissioning the performance of a Shakespeare play.
The Alfredian Project and its Aftermath: Rethinking the Literary History of the Ninth and Tenth Centuries
Authors: GODDEN MALCOLM
Published: February 2012

This lecture presents the text of the speech about the Alfredian project and its aftermath delivered by the author at the 2008 Sir Israel Gollancz Memorial Lecture held at the British Academy. It explains the details of King Alfred's programme of mass education and to deliver near-universal literacy in English, and evaluates the impact of Pastoral Care on English literature.
Reason and Identity
Authors: PAREKH BHIKHU
Published: February 2012

This lecture presents the text of the speech about reason and identity delivered by the author at the 2008 Isaiah Berlin Lecture held at the British Academy. It discusses the style and content of Sir Isaiah Berlin's thought and explores the complex relation between the closely connected ideas of reason and identity. The lecture explains that reason and identity are both constitutive features of human life in the sense that human beings cannot be defined and understood without reference to either.
A Genealogy of the Modern State
Authors: SKINNER QUENTIN
Published: February 2012

This lecture presents the text of the speech about the genealogy of the modern state delivered by the author at the 2008 British Academy Lecture. It explains that to investigate the genealogy of the state is to discover that there has never been any agreed concept to which the word state has answered. The lecture suggests that any moral or political term that has become so deeply enmeshed in so many ideological disputes over such a long period of time is bound to resist any efforts at definition.
Displacement by Repatriation: The Future of Turkish Settlers in Northern Cyprus
Authors: Ronen Yaël
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the future of Turkish settlers in Northern Cyprus. It examines the prospect of their repatriation to Turkey within the framework of the peaceful settlement of the conflict in Cyprus. Although ordinarily repatriation has a positive connotation of going home, in the case of the Turkish settlers, repatriation or homecoming may mean the displacement for another home. This chapter begins with a short overview of the history of the settler issue in Northern Cyprus and its evolution. It then considers the problems the prospect of repatriation may impose on the vision of a future unified Cyprus. It also discusses the modalities which are currently negotiated for addressing this issue. Because these modalities are framed in the shadow of international human rights law, the implications of some human rights standards for the conflict are also examined. Lastly, the proposed modalities are examined in comparison with the alternative solution for the settler issue which was adopted in the Baltic states during the 1990s.
When the Self Becomes Other: Representations of Gender, Islam, and the Politics of Survival in the Sahrawi Refugee Camps
Authors: Fiddian-Qasmiyeh Elena
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the ways in which the protracted Sahrawi refugee context has been represented by its political body, the Polisario Front, to its non-Sahrawi ‘audience’ in such a way as to assure continued political and humanitarian support. This chapter builds upon the recognition that the delivery of development aid is generally dependent on the capacity of the recipients to fulfil a set of non-economic conditionalities such as the creation of democratic political structures, the protection of human rights, and the promotion of gender equality. Refugees are expected to conform to the values of their sponsors. Conformity to these imposed values assuages them continued arrival of humanitarian supplies. However, such conditionalities do not necessarily lead to the modification of recipients’ socio-political structures as sponsors may expect. Rather, multiple forms of dependence on external aid and the broader political context have directly impacted the manners with which the recipients market themselves to their sponsors. In this chapter, the efforts of the Polisario Front in developing a particular representation of the Sahrawi ‘Self’ based upon the observations of its own observers form the focus of this chapter. It examines the strategies employed by the Front such as placing the Sahrawi refugee woman and solidarity movements as forefront representations of the refugee camps in order to secure external aid.
Narrative as Identity: Perspectives from an Iraqi Women Refugees’ Oral History Project
Authors: Hamblin Laura , Al-Sarraf Hala
Published: February 2012

This chapter consists of collected oral histories of Iraqi women refugees in Jordan. It examines the identity of Iraqi women refugees as revealed through their personal narratives. In the Ba’athist regime, the Iraqi identity was reinforced as an Arab identity. During the 35-year rule of this regime, Iraqis watched other Arab nationalities enjoying privileges while they lived in Iran. After the fall of the regime, the new government emphasized Iraqi identity as separate from the Arab identity. The new regime imposed an Iranian identity within the concepts of ethnic and sectarian power sharing. While this new identity posed a dilemma with the manner refugees formed representations of themselves in host countries and with the distribution of privileges they used to enjoy in the former regime, many of the Iraqi women refugees still saw themselves as Arabs and refused the sectarian criteria. All the women interviewed in this chapter expressed the notion that their identity was challenged as their life circumstances demanded them to accommodate the changes they experience.
Epilogue: Dispossession and Forced Migration in the Twenty-first-century Middle East and North Africa: The Way Forward
Authors: Chatty Dawn
Published: February 2012

The chapters presented in this volume have covered a wide range of case studies; the Sahrawi refugees in Algeria and Spain; the Palestinian refugees in the West Bank and Gaza; the Turkish settlers in Cyprus; the Iraqi refugees in Jordan and the internally displaced Iraqis in the northern Iraq; and the Afghan refugees in Iran. These chapters have opened up areas of research which are important to pursue. They have examined displacement and the impact of generation and gender including the physical and mental stress of refugee situations. They have explored the phenomenon of repatriation and its various forms such as voluntary repatriation and involuntary repatriation such as the case of the Afghan and Iraqi refugees. The chapters also have discussed the Palestinian ‘right of return’ within the context of legal, emotional and cultural expressions. In addition to these, the crisis in identity in exile has been addressed to provide a better understanding of assimilation, integration and alienation. Policies have also been considered to understand the international refugee regime as well as national and regional interpretations. The chapters in this volume hope to prove to be significant contributions to the understanding of the plight of refugees and displaced people and the political and economic universe in which they must operate. Refugees are categories of people who have lost the protection of their government and who thrive at the margins of the global nation-state system. Their struggle to survive depends upon turning their exile or forced migration around; to regain the protection of a government and to become ‘citizens’ once again either in the original homeland or a new nation. It is a quest all should sympathize with and support.
Defective Paradigms of Reflexive Nouns and Participles in Latvian
Authors: Kalnača Andra , Lokmane Ilze
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the defective paradigms of the reflexive nouns and participles in the Latvian language. In Latvian, the reflexiveness of the nouns and the verbs functions as a complex derivational and inflectional system. In this language, the reflexive verbs, participles, and nouns are formed through the fusion of verbal or noun forms with enclitic accusative form of the reflexive pronoun. Reflexive verbs have full person, tense and mood paradigms whilst reflexive nouns and participles have defective paradigms in Latvian. Although the rationale behind defectiveness of the paradigms of the reflexive nouns and participles are difficult to pinpoint, there are several types of compensation for the defectiveness in the Modern Latvian. These include the use of non-standard forms, the use of corresponding non-reflexive participle and noun forms, and the use of other forms of paradigms in lieu of the missing ones. These alternative paradigms depend however on the syntactic function of the word-form. Some topics discussed herein include: derivation and semantics of reflexive nouns; paradigmatic system of reflexive nouns and participles; and functioning of the paradigms of reflexive nouns and participles.
Defective Verbal Paradigms in Hungarian—Description and Experimental Study
Authors: Lukács Ágnes , Rebrus Peter , Törkenczy Miklós
Published: February 2012

This chapter evaluates the defective verbal paradigms in the Hungarian language. The first section of the chapter provides an overview of the defectiveness in Hungarian, with emphasis on the systematic, phonotactically motivated defectiveness of the paradigms of some verbal stems. The aim of this section is to be as theoretically neutral and descriptive as possible to facilitate a good comparison with other types of defectiveness in other languages. The second section of the chapter discusses the results of the experiments which are conducted in order to determine the various aspects of the defectiveness in the verbal paradigm. Some of the aspects tested include: the gap locations such as the occurrence and variation of forms in other designated cells of the verbal paradigm, and the correlations between the occurrence of forms in some designated cells; and the gap properties such as the differences in the classification of some verb stems into various stem-classes, and the range of variation exhibited by the forms that native Hungarian speakers accept as fill-ins for the gaps that are present in the paradigms of the defective verbs.
Unreliable Witnesses
Authors: Leedham-Green Elisabeth
Published: February 2012

Innovation in print and the dissemination of reformation texts were as central to Protestant reform as biblical translation and the circulation of erudite Protestant scholarship in manuscript. The history of the book is an obvious starting point for understanding reformation reception and overlaps with reception studies by its concern with readership and the historical context of printed matter. This chapter explores the historical contingency of the sources available for quantifying the ownership of continental reformed texts, with particular emphasis on the universities in Britain. Probate inventories, anecdotal evidence, booksellers’ lists, and surviving books present different and often conflicting stories. The discrepancy between Cambridge and Oxford inventories, for instance, may have had more to do with the university appraisers than religious conservatism in Oxford.
The Reception of Martin Luther in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century England
Authors: Trueman Carl R. , Euler Carrie
Published: February 2012

By challenging any assumed passivity in British adoption of continental reform, reception calls for a closer scrutiny of their relationships. The reception of Martin Luther in England reflects his changing role among continental Protestants. This chapter identifies how English reception of Luther shifted over time. Whereas the early English writer William Tyndale adapted Luther’s theological writing to speak to his own preoccupations, John Foxe was largely responsible for Elizabethan translations of Luther’s commentaries that provided pastoral guidance for afflicted consciences. Luther’s translations continued to speak to troubled consciences in the seventeenth century, yet English divines more often cited Luther as a symbol than as a source in the heated debates over justification in the mid-seventeenth century. The symbolic status of Luther in theological disputes, however, did not simply introduce the indiscriminate use of his example.
Peter Martyr Vermigli’s Political Theology and the Elizabethan Church
Authors: Kirby Torrance
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the theological affinity between the Elizabethan church and Peter Martyr Vermigli, the Italian reformer who spent his later career in Zurich. Vermigli’s thought did not simply migrate from the continent to England. The discussion notes that Vermigli’s English experience as an exile was formative for the development of his political theology and that the English monarchy left an imprint on his subsequent Old Testament commentaries on the subject of kingship. Scottish Covenanters and English puritans in the early seventeenth century nonetheless continued to find the work of Zurich reformers useful for refuting episcopacy. If the political theology of Vermigli was agreeable to the Elizabethan church, conformists associated Calvinism with political sedition on the grounds that reformation in Geneva was born out of revolution.
John Knox, Christopher Goodman and the ‘Example of Geneva’1
Authors: Dawson Jane E. A.
Published: February 2012

This chapter provides a narrative of the sustained use of Genevan forms of worship in the British Isles after Knox and Goodman’s return from exile. Genevan devotional practices were not strictly celebrated by the former exiles alone. The broader singing of metrical psalms in England aroused suspicion by authorities of a popular brand of Calvinism. It was not ultimately Cranmer’s Latin translation of the Bible that English and Scottish Protestants shared, but a common edition of the Bible produced by the English exile congregation in Geneva. Gaelic translations of the Geneva Bible intended for an Irish readership extended the edition’s use even further. The discussion also draws attention to Archbishop Adam Loftus’s missionary plan to deploy Goodman in Ireland in order to introduce reformed worship.
Martin Bucer and Early Seventeenth-Century Scottish Irenicism
Authors: Thompson Nicholas
Published: February 2012

The call for religious unification was part of a polemical project itself. Irenic concerns nonetheless represent another use of reception for reformation study: the hermeneutic of ecumenism. Scottish reception of the Strasbourg reformer Martin Bucer is a case in point. Bucer’s mediation between continental reformers and his prominent role in English Reformation history is more often noted than his appeal to Scottish divines in the seventeenth century. This chapter highlights the changing religious milieu of the Scottish Kirk as both Presbyterians and Jesuits alike appealed to Bucer’s writing. Bucer became a favourite of the Arminian Bishop and Royalist from Aberdeen, William Forbes. The chapter finds particular potency in Bucer’s ecumenical hermeneutic, which Forbes adopted as a means of bridging confessional divisions and even searching for agreement with moderate Catholics.
Milton in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Lockwood Tom
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines Milton not as an absolute, but as a concept historically constructed and changing over time. It examines the ways in which the different Miltons are repaired and returned in the twentieth century. Two of those many Milton revivals form the focus of the chapter: one constructed in polemic about how and why to read Milton; and the other constructed in and by the availability of actual Milton editions that were read over the century. The first section discusses Milton's changing place within academia and his movement from being the common property of men of letters and the common reader in general culture to become the sole preserve of the university-bound specialist in the narrower and less-rewarding culture of higher education. The second section examines Milton readership. It outlines Milton's different periodicities of publishing and reading through the twentieth century.
Milton and His Biographers
Authors: Campbell Gordon , Corns Thomas N.
Published: February 2012

This chapter presents an overview of Milton's biographers from the earliest lives of the poet to the year 2000. The life of Milton has been a subject of quite a lot of accounts compared to other early modern English writers, due in part to the availability of early biographies by people who knew him; in part because of the towering status he enjoyed in the English canon despite attempts to unseat him; and in part because of his story, of poetic genius surrounding surviving political engagement, of resolution and moral courage overcoming great physical impairment. Biographers from Cyriak Skinner to Barbara Lewalski are discussed in the chapter, including the ebbs and flows of Milton biography and the ideological partiality among the biographers.
Formation, Expansion, and Membership of the Lombard League to 1183
Authors: Raccagni Gianluca
Published: February 2012

The first section of this chapter describes the Veronese League, the group of city communes that first rose in rebellion against Emperor Frederick Barbarossa around LLQO, of which no documentation survives. However, a number of chronicles, usually contemporary with these events, describe its rise, offering varying points of view. The work of Cardinal Boso is the only source that gave a name to the rebellious alliance–Veronensium Societas–translated as ‘League of the Veronese March’. The second section describes the formation of the Lombard League from 1167 to 1183. It also deals with the Verona, Bergamo, and Piacenza, that is, respectively, a former member of the Veronese League, a former imperial supporter, and one of the cities that had been defeated by the emperor in 1162.
Conceptualization of the League
Authors: Raccagni Gianluca
Published: February 2012

This chapter describes the conceptualization of the Lombard League. The first section depicts the League as a regional organization, and describes its identity. The second section discusses the legitimacy of the League and its conflict with the emperor. The two stages in the development of the League–the stage when it was simply a coniuratio and then its change into a corpus–recall the distinction between universitates that can only act through the medium of their physical members and those lacking this feature described by Bassianus. The continuator of the Morenas places this development, which coincided with the adoption of the official name Societas Lombardie and with the formation of the college of rectors of the League, around 1168. The latter event signalled the evolution of the League into an organization, that is, into a body with its own funding and defined rules and responsibilities for its leaders.
The Status Quaestionis of Research in Rabbinic Literature
Authors: MILIKOWSKY CHAIM
Published: February 2012

This chapter comments on Peter Schäfer's attempt to define the state of present-day research into rabbinic literature. It analyses Schäfer's opinion on the rabbinic text and its redaction and on the question of interrelationships between different rabbinic works. It explains that Schäfer considers these two questions to be different aspects of one problem. It argues that there is reason to doubt the redactional identity of the work and suggests that the variations found in the manuscripts conform to the hypothesis that there was one single work known as Bereshit Rabbah.
The State of Mishnah Studies
Authors: TROPPER AMRAM
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the current state of research into mishnah, the first major work of rabbinic Judaism. It explains that the mishnah is primarily an edited anthology of brief and often elliptical pronouncements on matters of Jewish law and practice, frequently providing conflicting views on the individual matters discussed. It discusses the six sedarim of the mishnah and mentions that the mishnah frequently digresses from its main topics at every level of the organisational hierarchy.
The Talmud Yerushalmi
Authors: STERN SACHA
Published: February 2012

This chapter evaluates the usefulness and reliability of the Talmud Yerushalmi as a historical resource. The contents of the Yerushalmi are halakhic and aggadic and these stories constitute an important source for the social history of the rabbinic movement and possibly of other Jews. However, the Yerushalmi contains high incidence of parallel or repeated passages and the textual errors associated with parallel passages indicate that that these parallels were simply copied over from one tractate to the next.
Literary Structures and Historical Reconstruction: The Example of an Amoraic Midrash (Leviticus Rabbah)
Authors: SAMELY ALEXANDER
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines historical reconstruction and literary structures of rabbinic texts using the Leviticus Rabbah as an example. It explains that Leviticus Rabbah is a commentary on the Book of Leviticus which now forms part of Midrash Rabbah. It proposes ten theses about the special problems which the literary structures of rabbinic texts pose for the historian and analyses a section of the amoraic work of Leviticus Rabbah to describe some of those literary structures. The findings suggest that it is impossible to explain how the textuality of rabbinic sources worked and that many rabbinic works fill the same functional position in a text more than once.
Hekhalot Literature and the Origins of Jewish Mysticism
Authors: SCHÄFER PETER
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the origins of Jewish mysticism and the Hekhalot liteature. The findings do not confirm the trend in modern scholarship which locates the origins of Jewish mysticism in the Qumran literature and wishes to see an unbroken chain of distinctly mystical ideas leading from Qumran through rabbinic Judaism to the Hekhalot literature. The result also suggests that the category of mysticism has proved to be a dubious one mainly because of scholars' tendency to insert the notion of unio mystica into the ancient texts.
‘Rabbinic Culture’ and Roman Culture
Authors: SCHWARTZ SETH
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines Roman culture through an analysis of rabbinic literature. The findings indicate that Rabbinic texts tell satisfyingly complex stories about Roman culture and its reception. The analyses of some rabbinic stories also attest to a relatively unfraught process of romanisation. However, the rabbinic tales are complicated by all sorts of contextual issues including the rabbis' rejection of Rome and of romanitas in all its manifestations.