bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sovereign Spaces
Authors: Maclean Kama
Published: September 2008

This chapter draws attention to the fort of Allahabad, built by Akbar at the sangam next to the mela grounds, and charts the tensions that characterized the coexistence of these highly charged arenas of devotional expression and military security. Drawing on oral histories and Hindu traditions relating to the sangam site and the fort, the chapter describes how locals have understood and incorporated the presence of the fort, and the British, into their devotional landscape. It also delineates the changes in pilgrimage activity in the 18th century, as the East India Company inserted itself into key pilgrimage cities in north India, attempting to manage pilgrimage as a matter of diplomacy and limiting pilgrim access to a key shrine in the fort, while profiting handsomely from pilgrim taxes. This intervention was resented and resisted by pilgrimage priests in Allahabad, Prayagwals, who traditionally played an important role in the management of piety at the sangam in Allahabad. This reached its height when the Prayagwals lent their support to the rebellion in 1857, in which the fort of Allahabad, as the base of British military organization and refuge, was a key site.
Mela as Resistance
Authors: Maclean Kama
Published: September 2008

This chapter points out that while the tradition of an annual Magh Mela is very old, and is attested to in several historical accounts, a complete absence of any record or any other evidence of a quinquennial “Kumbh” festival suggests that it is a relatively recent phenomenon in Allahabad. The chapter then contends that the Kumbh genre of festivals was adapted from Haridwar, where it was a recognized and celebrated tradition, and that this was carried out primarily by Allahabad's pilgrimage priests, who saw the disjuncture created by the change of power after the rebellion as an opportunity to establish, through the institution of a religious festival, an arena of sovereignty, as had been guaranteed by Queen Victoria's Proclamation after the 1857 rebellion. A careful analysis of these changes reveal the extent to which colonized people understood, and made sophisticated use of, the discourses, dynamics, and constraints of colonialism.
Competing for Minds at the Mela
Authors: Maclean Kama
Published: September 2008

This chapter examines the way in which the pilgrimage system functioned as a device to communicate a range of ideas in colonial India. Both colonial authorities and nationalists sought to use the occasion of the mela to spread their respective ideas to a broad public. While colonial authorities sought to communicate the benefits of colonial modernity through impressive exhibitions, nationalists found the pilgrimage system an expedient way of spreading ideas such as swadeshi. The ways in which the British sought to manage and manipulate this information mechanism is also delineated. The chapter reveals the advantages and limitations that nationalists — including prominent Congressmen such as Malaviya, Tilak, Gandhi, and Jawaharlal Nehru — encountered in doing this, contributing to recent debates about the relationship between Congress politics and Hindu idioms, symbols, and genres. The chapter also examines the linkages and dynamics between different modes of information dissemination regarding the mela, from Indian and Governmental press reports, to rumours disseminated through indigenous communication mechanisms. During this period, Seva Samitis — voluntary social service organisations — were increasingly deployed at melas to enhance the provision of basic needs and necessities to pilgrims. The management of, and attempt to constrain attendance at melas (predominantly through limitation on railway services) during the two world wars also highlights some of the ongoing tensions regarding British administration of the mela. Grievances and rumours relating to attempts to limit the pilgrimage became a concern for would-be pilgrims, making it clear that even an arrested pilgrimage played an important role in indigenous communication.
The Sarkari Mela
Authors: Maclean Kama
Published: September 2008

The newly independent government took a prominent role in encouraging people to attend the first Kumbh after independence, which was held in a spirit of celebration. If critics of the British administration of the festival had pointed to its heavy handedness and a sense of dismissiveness of the “heathen beliefs” that were enacted at the mela, the Indian administration of it was to be characterised by a more encouraging ethos. Sadly, hundreds of pilgrims died on the biggest bathing day, largely as a result of crowd mismanagement, which the subsequent inquiry blamed largely on the aggressive actions of a band of sadhus. The findings of the official inquiry were not well accepted, as attested to by a thriving oral tradition which maintains that there was a cover-up in the inquiry. This chapter examines closely the Kumbh Tragedy, examining a range of evidence, analysing the recriminations and debates and that attempted to reimagine the relationship between the state and religious events. The chapter concludes with a brief overview of government-mela interactions since independence.
The Romantic Era
Authors: Mutter Matthew
Published: September 2008

This chapter discusses Ralph Waldo Emerson's prophetic announcement of both the decay of orthodox, institutional religion and the ascent of a solitary spirituality founded upon the intuition of the “moral sentiment.” Matthew Mutter argues that this dual expectation is made possible by a radicalization of the Puritan project of integrating the sacred and the secular. This radicalization ultimately placed the burden of sacred order on the vision of the perceiving individual, which in turn diminished the significance of outward social and political arrangements. Attention is given to Emerson's misapprehension of the actual trends in nineteenth‐century American religious life, to the differences between Emerson's prophetic stance and those of Whitman, Thoreau, Melville and Lincoln, and to the effects of the Civil War on Emerson's thought and American public religion in general. The conclusion looks at Emerson's legacy in American religious history.
After the Civil War
Authors: Witmer Andrew
Published: September 2008

During the second half of the nineteenth century, American intellectuals found much to argue over in the writings of Auguste Comte. A French social theorist generally credited as the founder of modern sociology, Comte grounded his Positivist philosophy in a theory of history predicting the demise of theism and the triumph of naturalistic science and humanistic religion. Debates over Positivism peaked in the United States between the 1860s and 1880s, and became entangled with arguments over Darwinism and the alleged battle between religion and science. Most Americans dismissed Comte's predictions that belief in God would vanish, but his theories won over a small group of important thinkers, clothed Enlightenment attacks on traditional religion in the garb of scientific neutrality and historical inevitability, spurred on the academic secularizers who sought to reduce religion's public influence, and emerged during the middle decades of the twentieth century as a commonplace of modern sociology.
The Thirties to the Fifties
Authors: Ciepley David
Published: September 2008

In the United States, in contrast to continental Europe, science and social reform maintained generally positive relations with organized Christianity into the twentieth century. After World War Two, however, American social scientists frowned on religion's public role and embraced secularization theory despite its conceptual and empirical shortcomings. More important than the influx of European émigrés in effecting this shift was the reinterpretation of American democracy by native‐born social scientists. Under assault from Catholic intellectuals for their “moral relativism,” social scientists turned the tables, arguing that totalitarianism was the child of Catholic‐style moral absolutism, while democracy flowed from moral openness and skepticism. They buried the covenantal conception of America as a moral project and reinterpreted it as a regime of neutral process. Modernization‐secularization theory, as developed in the United States, projected this procedural, “secular Enlightenment” image of America onto the world stage, casting it as the telos of history.
The Sixties
Authors: Jakelić Slavica
Published: September 2008

This chapter shows that during the 1960s there was an increasing affinity between the notion that de‐institutionalized religion is something good and the intellectual and social sensibilities of the period. Two views on secularization and de‐institutionalization of religion, those of Christian theologian Harvey Cox and sociologist Peter L. Berger, mirrored the intellectual and social climate of the time and were broadly discussed and debated. In this chapter Slavica Jakelić argues that Berger and Cox's claims about the inevitable link between deinstitutionalization of religions and modernity were persuasive because they happened in a context in which “religionless religion” was increasingly becoming the ideal of religious life. Berger and Cox talked of the de‐institutionalization of religion as progress that brought about freedom for individuals to choose. Their prophecies of godlessness were the prophecies of freedom.
The Seventies and Eighties
Authors: Davis Joseph E. , Franz David
Published: September 2008

This chapter explores the trajectories of two traditions of thinking about godlessness, which move in opposite directions in the 1970s and 1980s: the jeremiad tradition and the social scientific tradition. During this period, evangelicals and fundamentalists forcefully reasserted themselves in public life after decades of self‐imposed exile animated in part by stories of secularization and moral decay told by leaders Francis Schaeffer and Jerry Falwell. They entered the 1990s with new confidence and renewed hope. Many sociologists of religion, by contrast, were surprised by the surge of new religious energy and mobilization. They lost confidence in their predictions of religious decline and basic assumptions about the triumph of scientific rationalism. By the 1990s, consensus on their “secularization thesis” had collapsed.
Interpreting the Musical Past
Authors: Ellis Katharine
Published: September 2008

What did it mean for French musicians to sing Handel's choral music in the 1870s, to defend the operas of Lully and Rameau against hostile criticism, or to vote for Palestrina, alongside plainchant, as being essential to the Catholic musical liturgy? The early music revival in France gives us a vivid sense of how music's cultural meanings were contested, distilled into dominant visions, and then often revised. Peppering the century are famous fakes, pastiches, and other creative negotiations between past and present. When contemporary witnesses described these phenomena, the resulting dissension could run along social, religious, and political lines, helping us understand why certain musical genres became idealized while others were disparaged. This book discusses what is at stake in the construction of a musical heritage, and how ideology informs musical value judgements. In its focus on the nature of musical experience and the meaning of music in society, it explores amateur and professional music-making; working-class, aristocratic, and bourgeois cultural life; national pride; religious politics; and ritual, both liturgical and secular. Covering five centuries of music (from the mid-13th to the mid-18th centuries) and a century of French history, this book explains long-term changes of cultural meaning while celebrating the richness of local detail, and explores what lies at the heart of the construction and development of a musical cultural memory.
7 Baroque Choral Music: The Popular and the Profound
Authors: Ellis Katharine
Published: September 2008

This chapter examines how the politicized nature of Handel's reception in the late 1860s caused enthusiasm for his choral music to reach a nationalist peak at Bach's expense shortly after war ended. Presented as a quasi-Latin and quasi-Republican figure, Handel the oratorio composer appeared accessible, macho, indomitable, and expressive of social cohesion. The chapter centers on debates about France's relatively weak musical capital in comparison with Protestant countries, especially an ascendant Germany. The state of the nationwide orphéon tradition, seemingly in crisis with musically illiterate participants and a simplistic repertory, fuelled calls to overhaul France's choral traditions. The chapter examines this short-lived, almost expedient, revival of Handel ode and oratorio as an example of cosmopolitan nationalism intensified by the experience of defeat. It offers telling evidence of a French need for a masculine musical culture and of their inability to find such a combination of brute strength and stylistic accessibility among native composers. It closes with an account of the post-Handelian return to Bach's choral music and the ideologies underpinning it.
Music, Criticism, and the Challenge of History
Authors: Karnes Kevin
Published: September 2008

This book provides a first look at the ideological dilemmas and methodological anxieties that pervaded the discipline of musicology (in German, Musikwissenschaft, encompassing music theory, analysis, and the study of music history) at the time and place of its academic institutionalization. Engaging in close readings of key contributions by Eduard Hanslick, Heinrich Schenker, and Guido Adler, all leading pioneers in the field, it argues against the widely held assumption that German musicology of the period was characterized, first and foremost, by a positivist endeavor to transform the discipline after the model of the natural sciences. Instead, it suggests that the work of its three central figures was shaped not only by progressivist ideologies of scientific positivism but also, and just as profoundly, by the skeptical pronouncements of Richard Wagner, Friedrich Nietzsche, and other critical observers of modern culture. It furthermore suggests that some of the most pressing questions regarding musicology's disciplinary identities in the present day—about the relationship between musicology and criticism, the role of the subject in analysis and the narration of history, and the responsibilities of the scholar to the listening public—have points of origin in the discipline's conflicted and largely forgotten beginnings.
Large-scale collective motion at finite thermal excitations
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter uses a Kramers-Moyal expansion to derive from short time propagators transport equations of Fokker-Planck type for global motion. Because of the inherent non-linearities, the transport coefficients may vary strongly with the collective coordinates. In this sense the resulting equation for the phase space density differs markedly from that of Kramers, implying modifications in the probability distribution of the collective coordinates. Of particular importance are consequences for the limit of over-damped motion, where one faces problems typical for multiplicative noise. This influences the relation of equations for the collective density distribution to those of Langevin type for the collective variables themselves. Microscopic computations of transport coefficients are presented in their variation both with nuclear shapes and with temperature. Problems related to level crossings are discussed, together with general thermal aspects of global motion.
Giant dipole excitations
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter discusses giant dipole excitations as the prime example for nuclear modes of isovector nature. Absorption and radiation of the classical dipole are described exploiting the benefits of linear response theory, and cross sections for the scattering of and reactions with electromagnetic waves are derived. These formulas are adapted to the nuclear case by introducing effective charges for neutrons and protons, and by giving microscopic expressions for the response functions. The damping of giant resonances is addressed in its variation with temperature. Because of couplings to isoscalar modes which exhibit statistical fluctuations, the giant mode becomes a stochastic process itself. A critical review is given for models presented in the literature, like that for motional narrowing. Assumptions made therein on timescales are examined in the light of microscopic results presented in previous chapters.
Metal clusters
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

The stability of metal clusters exhibits shell effects similar to that of nuclei. This chapter reviews how this feature is treated in the jellium model. The main focus is on optical properties described by the dielectric function, which is analyzed in greater detail, first for the Drude-Lorentz model then for a fully quantal treatment. With increasing volume of the clusters, only bulk properties typical for a metal are important. For smaller systems, quantum size effects come into play. This effect is studied, reporting on microscopic calculations within the jellium model. Of special interest is the damping width, for which finite values are obtained even at small frequencies if the quantal electronic states are treated as being quasi-continuous. This mechanism is often associated with Landau damping known to conserve entropy. The problem related to this fact is examined, together with the analogous one of wall friction in finite nuclei.
The Political Economy of Adjustment in Mixed Market Economies: A Study of Spain and Italy
Authors: Molina Óscar , Rhodes Martin
Published: September 2008

VoC theory seems to be caught in a trade-off between parsimony and explanatory capacity. It provides high heuristic value-added for analysing countries where performance-enhancing complementarities rely on clearly different patterns of actor interaction and forms of coordination. It appears more difficult to extend to ‘deviant’ cases where there is a mix of logics, a high degree of institutional incoherence and an apparent absence of complementarities. This chapter uses the tools of VoC to explain how mechanisms of market and non-market coordination work and change over time in two ‘mixed market economies’ (MMEs) — Italy and Spain. It focuses on the relationship between production regimes and welfare systems, and specifically the wage-labour nexus and employment protection. In contrast to arguments for a distinctive form of state capitalism alongside ‘market’ and ‘managed’ varieties, this chapter argues that the state's role is distinctive but not unique in the Mediterranean countries, and has also undergone considerable change in recent years. It also argues that two different trends can be perceived in these countries: the growth of ‘autonomous coordination’ in which actors seek to manage the economy via new kinds of non-market governance; and ‘market colonization’, a process whereby market modes of coordination emerge and prevail.
Strengths and Weaknesses of ‘Weak’ Coordination: Economic Institutions, Revealed Comparative Advantages, and Socio-Economic Performance of Mixed Market Economies in Poland and Ukraine
Authors: Mykhnenko Vlad
Published: September 2008

This chapter explores and explains: ‘what type of capitalism has emerged in post-communist Europe?’ and, ultimately, ‘does it work?’. It also critically examines the suitability and applicability of essentially Western neo-institutionalist theories of comparative capitalism for the study of post-communist phenomena. On the basis of empirical evidence and comparative analysis of the two largest neighbouring political economies of eastern Europe (Russia apart), it is argued that notwithstanding the world-wide neo-liberalising pressures, the changeable politics of post-communist transformation, and the unstable nature of eastern European institutions, both Polish and Ukrainian national variants of capitalism can be described as mixed- or ‘weakly’ coordinated market economies. In spite of the prevailing perceptions and popular media praise given to post-communist nations for adopting a deregulated, privatised, liberal type of capitalism, neither Polish nor Ukrainian political economy generally resembles the liberal market-based model. It is contended, however, that despite the apparent system-wise detachment of the eastern European economies of Poland and Ukraine from the ideal types of a coordinated-market economy (CME) and, especially, of a liberal-market economy (LME), the institutional structures of the two post-communist countries are not necessarily of a ‘low-level’, ‘dysfunctional’, or ‘suboptimal equilibrium’ type.
Introduction
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: September 2008

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the meaning of occasion-sensitivity. Specifically, it argues that occasion-sensitivity is the answer to the question: when would what we say be true? The philosophies of Austin, Frege, and Grice are considered. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
Pragmatics
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: September 2008

There are two non-equivalent characterizations of pragmatics. Pragmatics (first version) concerns the linguistic phenomena left untreated by phonology, syntax, and semantics. Pragmatics (second version) is the study of properties of words which depend on their having been spoken, or reacted to, in a certain way, or in certain conditions, or in the way, or conditions, they were. There are also two equally non-equivalent characterizations of semantics. Semantics (first version) is, by definition, concerned with certain relations between words and the world, and centrally with those on which the truth or falsity of words depends. Semantics (second version) is defined by this idea: ‘A theory of meaning for a language should be able to tell us the meanings of the words and sentences which comprise that language’. Combing these different ideas yields a substantial thesis: such things as English sentences have statable conditions for truth, and meanings can be given in or by stating these. That might be wrong. Perhaps, as J. L. Austin suggested, questions of truth arise at a different level entirely from that of expressions of a language. Perhaps conditions for truth depend, pervasively, on the circumstances in which, or the way in which, words were produced. If so, then on the second version of pragmatics and the first version of semantics, semantic questions are pragmatic ones; whereas semantics (second version), however it is to be done, would have little or nothing to do with truth conditions. This is called the pragmatic view. This chapter argues that the pragmatic view is the right one; that it is intrinsically part of what expressions of (say) English mean that any English (or whatever) sentence may, on one speaking of it or another, have any of indefinitely many different truth conditions, and that any English (or whatever) expression may, meaning what it does, make any of many different contributions to truth conditions of wholes in which it figures as a part.
Sublunary Intuitionism
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: September 2008

Truth matters to all those capable of thinking falsely (so of thinking things); but to philosophers in a special way. Philosophers have spoken volumes on the topic. One such example is Michael Dummett's early essay, ‘Truth’, where he defends two intuitions. The first is that no statement could be neither true nor false; or it could never be right to say so. The second is that it is not so of every statement that it is guaranteed to be either true or false. Each has its exponents. Few, though, defend both. If both are right, that may argue for a view dubbed sublunary intuitionism: in an important sense (though one yet to be clarified) the logic of ordinary discourse is intuitionist, not classical. This chapter argues that Dummett's first intuition is incorrect. His second intuition stands on a more radical, perhaps more simple-minded, reading than he gives it. But it is the tension between the two intuitions, if anything, that argues for sublunary intuitionism. Neither alone makes the case.
Aristotle's Condition
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: September 2008

This chapter argues that bivalence does not hold, as conceived by Tim Williamson. Bivalence, on Williamson's conception, seems essential to (the motivation for) his own account of vagueness. As for meaning, the problem, this chapter puts forth, is to locate Williamson's view of that. In fact, he has suggested two views, which move in opposing directions. One of Williamson's suggested views severs the link one finds, for example, in Donald Davidson (e.g., 1967) between what words mean and the conditions under which they would be true (of something). The other view has the same shape as a later view of Davidson's (1983), and, for the same reasons, will not do.
Are Belief Ascriptions Opaque?
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: September 2008

This chapter reviews some of what is known about belief ascriptions. It does not settle whether there are opaque ones, since it is not known what would be needed to know to decide that. The chapter also argues that the usual reasons for finding (some) such ascriptions opaque are bad ones, as are the usual accounts of what such opacity would come to. In fact, there is more than just a possibility that in this area, our notions of opacity such as they are, break down.
Attitudes As States
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: September 2008

A recurrent theme emerges in Wittgenstein. Its subjects are meaning, understanding, and attitudes such as expecting, believing, hoping, and intending. The point is not that there is no good sense in which such things are mental states. It is rather that so thinking of them suggests false pictures. Which ones? At least two. This chapter explores just one, and only for belief.
On Concepts of Objects
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: September 2008

This chapter explores Wittgenstein's views on Frege's view of referents. Wittgenstein argued that naming or reference underdetermines conditions for the correctness of wholes, notably, where relevant, conditions for their truth. Wholes with given referents, embedded in different language games, would be true under any of many very different sets of conditions. What Frege leaves out on Wittgenstein's view is that ‘true’ and ‘false’ are in the first instance evaluations of particular historical events — speakings of words on particular occasions, in particular circumstances — and of the fittingness of the words for those circumstances. Those issues do not reduce to facts about referents; nor can we make them do so by definition. There is nothing to play the role that reference would thus be assigned. The chapter supports Wittgenstein's view, and considers what is left open by references to ways for things to be — properties and relations. It argues that a term's having referred to such-and-such object is compatible with its having made any of many distinct contributions to the truth conditions of its whole, so that two wholes with parts thus alike in reference may nevertheless differ in their truth value. Such variation manifests itself, e.g., in identity statements — statements whose truth depends on their referring to one thing twice. In this case, it is difficult to make the Wittgensteinian view coherent. The chapter attempts to do this and suggests that once coherent, the view is eminently plausible.
Introduction: The Institutions of the Market
Authors: Ebner Alexander
Published: September 2008

This introductory chapter begins with a brief discussion of the significance of addressing the institutional substance of markets. It presents the underlying thesis of the chapters in this book: that the basic conceptual parameters of the new institutionalism are currently shifting towards an integrative framework that adheres to evolutionary concepts in accounting for the matter of knowledge, learning, and institutional change. The institutions of market and varieties of institutionalism, recent trends in the differentiation of institutionalist theorizing, and evolutionary reasoning on institutional change are discussed. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
7 On the Social Structure of Markets: A Review and Assessment in the Perspective of the New Institutional Economics
Authors: Richter Rudolf
Published: September 2008

This chapter deals with the claim of sociologists that the social structure of markets matters for their performance. ‘Social structure’ is understood as ‘structure of social relationships between actors’. To understand the meaning of ‘social structure’, a reasonable starting point is social network analysis. This chapter begins with a brief description of some basic concepts of social network analysis. It then considers some of the major sociological contributions on the effect of the structure of social relationships between actors on market performance. It shows that positive market models need to include elements of existing social networks between actors to become ‘sufficiently good approximations for the purpose in hand’.
9 Organizational Ecology as a Theory of Competition
Authors: Beck Nikolaus
Published: September 2008

This chapter shows that organizational ecology is much more sociological and less biological than many critics of organizational ecology think. It argues that organizational ecology and its theory of competition rests heavily on the seminal work of Emile Durkheim on the division of labour, and on the thoughts of Amos Hawley on human ecology. It suggests that the expressions used by the agents of organizational ecology are ‘Darwinian’ but that the theoretical argumentation is ‘Durkheimian’. The chapter highlights the theoretical foundations of organizational ecology and emphasizes that competition — and not the biological aspects of evolution — forms the core of the organizational ecology theory. The most the most important sub-concepts of organizational ecology that deal with competition and market formation are also discussed: density dependence and resource partitioning. The first concept deals with the impact of the number of competitors on the survival and founding chances of organizations. The latter is concerned with the influence of market concentration on the vital rates of specialist and generalist organizations.
10 Different Paths of Industry Evolution: Timing of Entry, Legitimation, and Competition Spillovers Across Countries
Authors: Wezel Filippo Carlo , Boone Christophe , Witteloostuijn Arjen van
Published: September 2008

This chapter has two main goals: (a) to model some of the variety of evolutionary paths of organizational populations empirically observed and (b) elaborate on a model refinement that captures the existence of legitimation and competition spillovers across national populations. In doing so, it contributes to an emerging branch of organizational ecology concerned with evolutionary processes taking place at the international level. A model is proposed that points to cross-country differences in timing of entry and development as key drivers of the country-specific processes of legitimation and competition. It distinguishes pioneer from follower countries, and uses this distinction to advance how observable patterns of population evolution — that is, density growth and decline — may be related to and sustained by spillover effects across countries. The proposed model is largely inspired by that literature in biology, in which the form and the strength of density-dependent evolution are modelled.
11 Co‐evolution of Technologies and Institutions in Market Economies
Authors: Nelson Richard R.
Published: September 2008

This chapter argues that economists are right in seeing ‘the right institutions’ as the key to economic productivity and progressiveness. But for the argument to be delved deeper, it needs to be recognized that there is a very real challenge; the magnitude of the challenge is only beginning to be understood. The conglomerate of things different economists have called institutions largely reflects the fact that many different kinds of structures and forces mould the way individuals and organizations interact to get things done — so-called ‘social technologies’. Economic growth involves the co-evolution of technologies and the institutions needed for their effective operation and advancement. Some institutions provide the broad background conditions under which technologies can proceed, and others come into existence and develop to support the important new technologies that are driving growth. The chapter reviews the processes of institutional change and argues that institutional change, and its influence on economic activity, is much more difficult to direct and control than technological change, and hence prevailing institutions are often drags on economic productivity and progressiveness. The evolution of technology and institutions in pharmaceutical biotech is considered.
Externalism and Empiricism
Authors: Jenkins Caroline
Published: September 2008

This chapter discusses a commitment to epistemological externalism and empiricism. It has often been claimed that empiricism cannot deal properly with the a priori. The chapter describes the most common worries and expresses sympathy with them; but it argues that since the account of a priori arithmetical knowledge that the chapter envisages is very different from the existing empiricist accounts of the a priori, the existing critiques do not apply.
Development
Authors: Jenkins Caroline
Published: September 2008

This chapter consists in development of some of the key ideas of the previous chapter. It begins by showing how an arithmetical epistemology along the lines suggested in the previous chapter sits well with a structuralist conception of arithmetic and arithmetical concepts (although it is also compatible with other views). It cautions against a simplistic understanding of the envisaged grounding relationship between concepts and sensory input, arguing that the proposed account allows us to say that our arithmetical beliefs count as knowledge by the lights of Chapter 3. It shows that the account is consistent with realism as characterized in Chapter 1. The chapter spends some time discussing the crucial notion of unconceptualized sensory input, and also offers some comments on what is called here ‘ungrounded’ and ‘unfitting’ concepts.
Clarifications
Authors: Jenkins Caroline
Published: September 2008

This chapter distinguishes the book's project from other philosophical enterprises which bear some prima facie similarities to it. These range from linguistic conventionalism, through pragmatism, to Lockean empiricism. It offers some tentative explanations for the absence from the extant philosophical literature of the kind of epistemological proposal discussed in this book.
Other Objections
Authors: Jenkins Caroline
Published: September 2008

This chapter considers objections to the proposal of the second part of the book which are not simply objections to the claim that our arithmetical concepts are empirically grounded. These include some objections that might be generated by a broadly Quinean outlook, a circularity worry (which are related here to the Wittgensteinian notion of ‘deep nonsense’), and a number of issues concerning the epistemic step from possession of concepts to belief in conceptually true propositions. The chapter also discusses in some detail the objection that, by definition, arithmetical knowledge cannot be a priori if it is empirical.
3 Pensions and Everyday Investment
Authors: Langley Paul
Published: September 2008

The chapter focuses on pensions, pension funds, and saving for retirement, and further explored the argument that transformations in Anglo-American saving hinge on the partial displacement of the calculative risk technologies and performances of insurance and thrift by those of everyday investment. It shows that although far from complete, there is a discernable and sustained move from insurance to investment in pensions, a move that is prompted by three broadly concurrent processes of change.
4 The Uncertain Subjects of Everyday Investment
Authors: Langley Paul
Published: September 2008

This chapter considers the embodiment of transformations in Anglo-American saving, and addresses the making of everyday investor subjects with particular reference to the pension guides produced by state agencies on both sides of the Atlantic. The chapter is organized as follows. The first part marks out a specific route to understanding the making of investor subjects. Concerns with the disciplinary assembly of the ‘entrepreneurial self’ are extended to consider financial and especially investor subjectivity. The second part focuses on the calling up of everyday investor subjects in occupational and personal pension networks. Particular reference is made to the financial literacy programmes of US and UK governmental agencies in the individualization of responsibility and risk in pensions. The final part of the chapter explores the so-called ‘investment shortfalls’ on both sides of the Atlantic that suggest that the subject position of the investor is not simply occupied and performed by individuals in a straightforward manner.
6 The Boom in Everyday Borrowing
Authors: Langley Paul
Published: September 2008

This chapter focuses on the boom in everyday borrowing and the qualitative transformations in consumer credit and mortgage networks that have made it possible. This boom is situated in the two principal sets of market networks of Anglo-American everyday borrowing — consumer credit and mortgage networks. It is argued that it is only through qualitative transformations in these networks, which include the forging of close relationships with the capital markets of ‘global finance’, that the boom has been made possible. The chapter also calls attention to the close interconnections that have become consolidated between mortgage and consumer credit networks, on the one hand, and the networks of the capital markets, on the other. It argues that the overlapping and intersecting of previously disconnected and detached networks has materialized through new calculative devices and performances which rationally figure and manage the uncertainties of future repayments by everyday borrowers as ‘default risks’. Particular attention is paid to the default risk management techniques of lenders — especially asset-backed securitization, but also so-called ‘structured finance’ and the use of credit derivatives — that turn on the issue and trading of default risk-related instruments in the capital markets.
The Je-Ne-Sais-Quoi in Early Modern Europe
Authors: Scholar Richard
Published: September 2008

This book studies the je-ne-sais-quoi and its fortunes in early modern Europe. It examines the expression's rise and fall as a keyword and as a topic of debate, its cluster of meanings, and the scattered traces of its pre-history. It focuses on the je-ne-sais-quoi during the key period 1580-1680 but strays on either side of these limits to trace the expression's precursors and its later fortunes. The je-ne-sais-quoi is now assumed to be a quintessentially French phenomenon, but in the early modern period it also marks the cultures of France's neighbours, and this is reflected in the book's inclusion of Italian, Spanish, and English material. It is now assumed, too, that the je-ne-sais-quoi belongs purely to the realm of the literary, but in the early modern period it serves to articulate hitherto unrelated problems in the domains of natural philosophy, the passions, and polite culture, and for that reason it is examined here from an interdisciplinary perspective. Placing major literary and philosophical figures such as Montaigne, Shakespeare, Descartes, Corneille, and Pascal alongside some of their lesser-known contemporaries, this study argues that the je-ne-sais-quoi serves above all to trace a series of first-person encounters with a certain something as difficult to explain as its effects are intense, and which can be expressed only by being expressed differently. The book shows how the je-ne-sais-quoi comes to express that certain something in the early modern period, and suggests that it remains capable of doing so today.
A Certain Something: Montaigne
Authors: Scholar Richard
Published: September 2008

This chapter attempts to rescue the je-ne-sais-quoi from its history of sedimentation and loss of semantic force as a supple lexical means of tracing powerful first-person experiences that elude explanation. It undertakes this rescue attempt by altering the direction of the historical narrative and by moving backwards, against the flow of the topic's history, into its ‘pre-history’ (as defined by Terence Cave). Montaigne is offered as the key example of this pre-history because he writes about the experience of the je-ne-sais-quoi in the realms of natural philosophy, the passions (friendship), and culture, without ever using the settled noun, drawing instead on various non-substantival forms of the je-ne-sais-quoi and related terms and figures. In so doing, he uncovers in the Essais a form of writing that captures the force of the je-ne-sais-quoi better than the sedimented noun itself.
The Hindu Equilibrium
Authors: Lal Deepak
Published: September 2008

India is an emerging giant. This book explains its long economic stagnation and recent rise by examining its social, political, and historical evolution with a long-term perspective. It explains how its distinct social system based on caste arose and why it still is of importance in its political and social arrangements, despite India's recent move from the plan to market.
The Evolution of Labour Markets1
Authors: Lal Deepak
Published: September 2008

This chapter examines the evolution of the labor market during the Raj in rural and urban India. Topics discussed include rural labor, industrial labor, migration, and public employment and earnings.
A Summary
Authors: Lal Deepak
Published: September 2008

This chapter brings together the major themes of this book. It discusses the parameters of the Hindu equilibrium, rural development, and fostering efficient industrialization. It argues that many of the parameters which have sustained the ancient Hindu equilibrium have decisively shifted during the past century. It is to be hoped that the revenue economy will over time be replaced by a market economy; if this happens, the Hindu equilibrium will be eliminated.
Reasserting Control: The Regulation of Mass Culture
Authors: Ross Corey
Published: September 2008

This chapter considers one major aspect of the heterogeneous responses of cultural and political elites to the rise of the media and burgeoning entertainment industry. It focuses on efforts, above all through means of state regulation, to reassert elite values and standards by establishing a formal framework of control over popular culture, including literary and film censorship as well as state ownership of broadcasting. While the censorship of cultural forms as a means of social control was of course nothing new at the time, the avowedly commercial orientation of most popular amusements and their unprecedented dissemination via new communications technologies elicited a new brand of cultural interventionism among the educated elite, a belief not only in their ability to improve the tastes and cultural practices of the masses, but indeed in their right — even duty — to do so.
Attempting Reform: Legitimation, Education, and Uplifting Tastes
Authors: Ross Corey
Published: September 2008

This chapter looks at the other principal way in which cultural elites engaged with the rise of the mass media: namely efforts to reform mass culture itself. It considers the diverse attempts — ranging across the political spectrum — to harness film, radio, the phonograph, and advertising for the purpose of ‘educating’ and ‘uplifting’ popular tastes. Closely related to this project were a variety of avant-garde efforts to synthesize ‘high’ and ‘low’ culture, and to legitimate the new media in the eyes of cultural elites themselves. The response of German elites was therefore more complex than the common emphasis on ‘cultural pessimism’ suggests. It is shown that however ‘progressive’ such efforts appeared or were intended to be, they, too, essentially reflected a patriarchal and authoritarian view of the audiences — the dangerous ‘masses’.
Political Control and Commercial Concentration Under the Nazis
Authors: Ross Corey
Published: September 2008

This chapter focuses on the ways in which the social impact of the mass media changed in the Third Reich. After emerging victorious from the propaganda battles of the early 1930s, the Nazi leadership's rapid shift away from the shrill tones of electioneering towards a more consensual form of ‘state propaganda’ reflected a desire both to consolidate their position and to advance their professed goal of national völkisch integration. The far-reaching political and commercial restructuring of cultural life within Germany is investigated and it is argued that the new circumstances shaping the media and mass culture in the 1930s were by no means all specific to the Third Reich. Rather, the process of political co-ordination was accompanied and partially abetted by a parallel process of commercial concentration observable across much of the industrialized world.
Scientific Representation
Authors: van Fraassen Bas C.
Published: September 2008

Science represents natural phenomena by means of theories, as well as in many concrete ways by such means as pictures, graphs, table-top models, and computer simulations. This book begins with an inquiry into the nature of representation in general, drawing on such diverse sources as Plato's dialogues, the development of perspectival drawing in the Renaissance, and the geometric styles of modeling in modern physics. Starting with Mach's and Poincaré's analyses of measurement and Reichenbach's ‘problem of coordination’, this book presents a view of measurement outcomes as representations achieved in a process of mutual stabilization of theory and empirical inquiry. With respect to the theories of contemporary science, the book defends an empiricist structuralist version of the ‘picture theory’ of science, compatible with a constructive empiricist view, through an inquiry into the paradoxes that came to light in 20th-century philosophies of science. It is argued that indexicality enters irreducibly into the conditions of use and application of measurement, models, and theories. The book concludes with an analysis of the complex relationship between appearance and reality in the scientific world-picture, arguing against the completeness criterion that demands a derivation of the appearances from the theoretically postulated reality.
From theBildtheorieof Science to Paradox
Authors: van Fraassen Bas C.
Published: September 2008

The advocacy of the Bildtheorie — the view that what science gives us is representations, important as it is in its own right — was also integral to the origins of what is now known as structuralism in the philosophy of science. Structuralism about science — the thesis that a science represents only structure in its domain — became increasingly and recurrently a salient theme in 20th-century philosophy of science. This development had two motivating philosophical controversies in its past. The chapter focuses on a debate among physicists about the status and use of models, including a paradox posed by Herman Weyl, where there was a clear foreshadowing of later debates over scientific and structural realism.