bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Remplissages quaternaires et paléohydrologie des vallées sèches d’Ajoie (Jura tabulaire, Suisse)
Authors: Braillard L.
Published: December 2012

Abstract. Le Jura tabulaire d’Ajoie est caractérisé par la présence de nombreuses vallées sèches. Afin de préciser leur morphogenèse, une étude multidisciplinaire a été conduite lors des travaux de prospection archéologique le long de l’autoroute A16 (Braillard 2006). La section transversale des vallées sèches, en forme de U, laissait supposer la présence de dépôts quaternaires en profondeur. Un remplissage de 2 à 10 m d’épaisseur a effectivement été mis au jour. L’étude stratigraphique détaillée de ce remplissage a permis une subdivision chronostratigraphique des dépôts en 10 ensembles (E1-E10): une couche très argileuse (E10) interprétée comme un horizon argilique éémien remanié, ou comme une altérite plus ancienne, est localement préservée sur le bedrock karstifié. Des graviers fluviatiles (E9, E5) constituent systématiquement la base du comblement. Ils témoignent d’un système de drainage fossile actif probablement durant le Glaciaire ancien weichsélien (SI 5), ainsi qu’au Pléniglaciaire supérieur (SI 2). Une nappe de solifluxion (E8), attribuée au Pléniglaciaire inférieur (SI 4), a été trouvée en pied de pente. Des loess (E6/7) datés par OSL du Plénigla ciaire moyen (SI 3) sont intercalés entre les graviers E9 et E5. Une partie de ces loess (E4) a été remaniée et altérée durant le Tardiglaciaire et l’Holocène ancien. Finalement, quatre épisodes fluviatiles ont été repérés dans l’enregistrement sédimentaire holocène (E1 à E3). Leur corrélation avec des périodes de hauts niveaux des lacs jurassiens (Magny 2004) suggère qu’un contrôle climatique (augmentation des précipitations) est à l’origine de ces reprises temporaires de l’écoulement superficiel.
Öffentliche Räume und soziale Vielfalt : Einführung zum Themenheft
Authors: Bühler E.
Published: December 2012

Abstract. Im Fachdiskurs besteht wenig Einigkeit, was genau unter öffentlichem Raum zu verstehen ist u. a. Staeheli & Mitchell 2007). Die babylonische Ver wirrung rund um diesen Begriff Selle 2008) lässt sich mit mindestens drei Ursachen in Beziehung setzen. Erstens herrscht keine Klarheit über das Verhält nis der Begriffe öffentlicher Raum und öffentliche Sphäre synonym: Öffentlichkeit). Zweitens handelt es sich beim öffentlichen Raum um einen normativ aufgeladenen Begriff Belina 2005), was nicht selten selbst in der Wissenschaft den analytischen Blick auf die Konstruktionsprozesse öffentlicher Räume trübt. Und drittens besteht über die Richtung des aktuellen Funktionswandels öffentlicher Räume derzeit kein Konsens. Diese drei Aspekte werden nachfolgend in der gebotenen Kürze näher erläutert. Anschliessend werden die Beiträge dieses Themenheftes in der vor¬ liegenden Thematik verortet.
Pluriannual thermal behavior of low elevation cold talus slopes in western Switzerland
Authors: Morard S. , Delaloye R. , Lambiel C.
Published: December 2012

Abstract. The internal and reversible mechanism of air circulation (chimney effect) throughout a porous debris accumulation acts as an efficient advective conveyor of heat, which strongly influences its thermal balance during the whole year. Ground temperature monitoring carried out at eight sites located below the timberline in western Switzerland since 1997 indicates the major role played by winter air temperature conditions in the thermal regime of low elevation talus slopes and relict rock glaciers. In contrast, both snow depth and summer air temperatures have far less influence. The temperature monitoring at these sites offers the longest time series world-wide. Borehole temperature monitoring indicates the presence and growth of permafrost at one particular site from 2004–2006, with its consequent thawing again in 2007.
Post-Development: Fundamentalkritik der „Entwicklung“
Authors: Ziai A.
Published: December 2012

Abstract. The article presents the post-development school in development theory and deals with its basic lines of argument as well as with criticisms raised against the approach. Encountering these criticisms leads to a differentiation between a neo-populist and a sceptical variant of Post-Development. Subsequently the article discusses the theoretical position of the approach. Finally, the "alternatives to development" promoted here are dealt with and the conclusion argues that Post-Development has massive implications also for the North.
Basaltic feeder dykes in rift zones: geometry, emplacement, and effusion rates
Authors: Galindo I. , Gudmundsson A.
Published: December 2012

Abstract. Most volcanic hazards depend on an injected dyke reaching the surface to form a feeder. Assessing the volcanic hazard in an area is thus related to understanding the condition for the formation of a feeder dyke in that area. For this latter, we need good field data on feeder dykes, their geometries, internal structures, and other characteristics that distinguish them from non-feeders. Unfortunately, feeder dykes are rarely observed, partly because they are commonly covered by their own products. For this reason, outcrops are scarce and usually restricted to cliffs, ravines, and man-made outcrops. Here we report the results of a study of feeder dykes in Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain) and Iceland, focusing on their field characteristics and how their propagation is affected by existing structures. Although Holocene fissure eruptions have been common in both islands, only eleven basaltic feeder dykes have been identified: eight in Tenerife and three in Iceland. They are all well preserved and the relation with the eruptive fissure and/or the deposits is well exposed. While the eruptive fissures are generally longer in Iceland than in Tenerife, their feeders show many similarities, the main ones being that the feeder dykes (1) are generally sheet-shaped; (2) are segmented (as are the associated volcanic fissures); (3) normally contain elongated (prolate ellipsoidal) cavities in their central, topmost parts, that is, 2–3 m below the surface (with solidified magma drops on the cavity walls); (4) contain vesicles which increase in size and number close to the surface; (5) sometimes inject oblique dyke fingers into the planes of existing faults that cross the dyke paths; and (6) may reactivate, that is, trigger slip on existing faults. We analyse theoretically the feeder dyke of the 1991 Hekla eruption in Iceland. Our results indicate that during the initial peak in the effusion rate the opening (aperture) of the feeder dyke was as wide as 0.77 m, but quickly decreased to about 0.56 m. During the subsequent decline in the effusion rate to a minimum, the aperture decreased to about 0.19 m. At a later abrupt increase in the effusion rate, the feeder-dyke opening may have increased to about 0.34 m, and then decreased again as the effusion rate gradually declined during the end stages of the eruption. These thickness estimates fit well with those of many feeders in Iceland and Tenerife, and with the general dyke thickness within fossil central volcanoes in Iceland.
Risk Factors to Develop Ocular Surface Disease in Treated Glaucoma or Ocular Hypertension Patients
Authors: Rossi Gemma Caterina Maria , Pasinetti Gian Maria , Scudeller Luigia , Raimondi Marta , Lanteri Sara , Bianchi Paolo Emilio
Published: December 2012

Purpose

To identify risk factors for developing ocular surface disease (OSD), to verify the prevalence of OSD, and to record efficacy of questionnaires in identifying symptoms' impact on patients' quality of life.

Methods

This was an observational, cross-sectional study of patients with topically treated glaucoma. Tear film break-up time (TFBUT) and punctate keratitis were evaluated; 2 quality-of-life questionnaires (National Eye Institute–Visual Function Questionnaire 25 and Glaucoma Symptom Scale) were submitted to all patients. Class of previous and current intraocular pressure (IOP)–lowering drugs, number of drugs, number of drops/day, and total and current benzalkonium chloride (BAK) exposure were collected.

Results

A total of 233 patients completed the study. TFBUT was abnormal in 71 (30.5%) eyes; punctate keratitis was present in 74 (31.7%). Keratitis was more frequent with increasing number of eyedrops (p=0.008) and number of instillations per day (p=0.009). Ocular surface disease was present in 97 (41.6%) patients and was statistically related to number of medications used (p=0.026). The univariate analysis pointed out that patients with OSD were older (p=0.04), had lower IOP values (p=0.03), were topically treated for more time (p<0.0001), had assumed more BAK (p<0.0001), and presented worst quality of life (p<0.01). The multivariate analysis found that OSD was related to number of medications used (p=0.002), prolonged use of preserved medications (p=0.005), and total BAK exposure (p<0.001).

Conclusions

There is clinical evidence that the number of medications, their prolonged use, and the total BAK exposure are risk factors to develop OSD in patients with glaucoma. To prevent OSD onset, BAK exposure and the number of topical medications should be reduced.
Comparison of Anatomic and Functional Results after Retinotomy for Retinal Detachment in Pediatric and Adult Patients
Authors: Stopa Marcin , Kocięcki Jarosław , Rakowicz Piotr , Gotz-Więckowska Anna , Rogulska Monika
Published: December 2012

Purpose

We investigated characteristics and treatment outcomes of pediatric vs adult retinal detachment managed by retinotomy and retinectomy.

Methods

This was a retrospective, nonrandomized, interventional study involving 20 pediatric patients and 25 adult patients operated with vitrectomy and retinectomy due to retinal detachment. Outcome measures included preoperative and postoperative visual acuity at 6 months and at final visit, postoperative proliferative vitreoretinopathy silicone oil removal, final intraocular pressure (IOP), and final anatomic success, defined as complete retinal reattachment.

Results

Reattachment was observed in 60% (12/20) of pediatric patients and 88% (22/25) of adults at final visit (p=0.041). Statistically significant improvement in visual acuity was observed in adults (p<0.001) but not in children (p=0.360) due to large proportion of anatomic failure. Children required a higher number of further reoperations (p=0.008). Postoperative proliferative vitreoretinopathy was significantly more frequent in pediatric eyes (p=0.003).

Conclusions

The clinical features and prognosis for pediatric retinotomies and retinectomies are different from those for adults. When a decision to perform retinotomy in children is made, we can anticipate significantly lower anatomic success than in adults. Even though the overall visual acuity was worse in children than in adults, 25% of pediatric eyes achieved 5/50 or better vision.
Recurrent Central Serous Chorioretinopathy after Peripheral Retinal Laser Photocoagulation: A Case Report
Authors: Semeraro Francesco , Russo Andrea , Delcassi Luisa , Costagliola Ciro
Published: December 2012

Purpose.

To report a case of recurrent central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC) after performing peripheral laser photocoagulation for retinal degenerations.

Methods.

A 44-year-old woman with ocular history of CSC presented to the emergency room of our department complaining of heavy photopsia due to retinal tuft and lattice degenerations, and underwent laser photocoagulation to prevent retinal detachment.

Results.

Two days after laser treatment, the visual acuity dropped, and optical coherence tomography scan showed the onset of CSC. The serous detachment completely resolved in 20 days with no therapy. A new CSC episode occurred in the same eye after another analogous laser treatment and, similarly, quickly resolved spontaneously.

Conclusions.

We reviewed the literature and discuss the possibility that laser-induced inflammation could rouse an inflammatory cascade mediated by proinflammatory cytokines and PAI-1, leading to the exacerbation of retinal serous detachment in susceptible patients.
Influence of Co-Monomer Ratio on the Chemical Properties and Cytotoxicity of Poly[Acrylonitrile-Co-(N-Vinylpyrrolidone)] Nanoparticles
Authors: Li Wenzhong , Pierce Benjamin Franklin , Scharnagl Nico , Wischke Christian , Sisson Adam Lee , Lendlein Andreas
Published: December 2012

Purpose

A system of nanoparticles with varying hydrophilicities may include promising biomaterial candidates as they offer various cellular uptake properties and a range of drug encapsulation efficacies, which would be advantageous in regenerative therapies. Therefore, a model system of nanoparticles with varying hydrophilicities was synthesized and assessed for its candidacy as a biomaterial.

Methods

Here, acrylonitrile (AN) was copolymerized with N-vinylpyrrolidone (NVP) in a mini-emulsion to form a family of nanoparticles, thereby enabling the systematic variation of the copolymer hydrophilicity. The nanoparticles based on these copolymers were prepared and characterized using 1H-NMR, dynamic light scattering, differential scanning calorimetry, and thermal gravimetric analysis. Finally, the cytotoxicity of the nanoparticles was assessed by conducting indirect tests using L929 fibroblasts.

Results

The nanoparticles showed well controlled NVP/AN molar ratios as determined by 1H NMR, well defined diameters ranging from approximately 100 nm to 200 nm, and increasing glass transition temperatures with increasing molar NVP content. Finally, L929 fibroblasts only slightly changed their morphology upon incubation with material eluates.

Conclusions

Poly[acrylonitrile-co-(N-vinylpyrrolidone)] nanoparticles with varying amounts of NVP were shown to be a promising model system for further biological assessment.
Writing Assessment in the Humanities:
Authors: Barrett Jason M.
Published: December 2012

This article examines methodological and institutional challenges for empirically measuring student performance on writing. Writing's intrinsic subjectivity and the great variety of writing formats appropriate to diverse contexts raise fundamental questions about the empirical bias of the assessment culture taking root in U.S. higher education. At the same time, the academic training of humanist scholars, who typically have primary responsibility for writing pedagogy in universities, may predispose them to skepticism about assessment culture's broader mission. This article narrates the process by which the Humanities Department at Lawrence Technological University implemented a writing assessment process designed to address these challenges and evaluates the data generated by this process.
The Eyes and Ears of Engagement:
Authors: Naser Curtis R. , Donoghue Karen , Burrell Stephanie
Published: December 2012

This article analyzes the effectiveness of an effort to assess the extent of student engagement at Fairfield University through the assistance of resident assistants (RAs) and the adaptation of a methodology used by the university's schools of engineering and education. Asking RAs to participate in an assessment of their residents provides several clear benefits: the assessment rubric sets clear expectations in plain language; the rubric sets out clear expectations to the residents; and the assessment data appear to be a valid indicator of student engagement and allow the institution to identify students who may benefit from additional counseling or attention.
The Unknown Women of Well-Known Pages:
Authors: Juliet Carrod Amanda
Published: December 2012

Conference report on “Women in Magazines: Representation, Production and Consumption.”
Evaluation of E-Marketing in Aquaculture Using an Aquachoupal Model in the East and West Godavari Districts of Andhra Pradesh
Authors: Mahalakshmi P. , Krishnan M.
Published: December 2012

In order to evaluate e-marketing systems in the aquaculture value chain, the authors conducted a study on the aquachoupal model in the East and West Godavari districts of Andhra Pradesh, India. Developmental impact and measurement of information dissemination were evaluated using Sen's capability approach and Brown's information-based approach. Quality of service as a component of the value chain is very important for e-marketing, yet difficult to assess due to its complex and intangible nature. In this study, an analytical hierarchy process was used to examine changes in service quality as a result of e-marketing. The study showed that the aquachoupal had been helpful in improving human resource development through the value chain channels of growth and productivity. It also increased the volume, coverage and diversity of information flows in the study area. There has been significant improvement in service quality in the aquaculture value chain as a result of e-marketing.
Comparison between Tube Ileostomy and Loop Ileostomy as a Diversion Procedure
Authors: Patil Vijayraj , Vijayakumar Abhishek , Ajitha M. B. , Kumar L Sharath
Published: December 2012

Aim. Loop ileostomy has high complication rates and causes much patient inconvenience. This study was performed to compare the outcome of tube versus loop ileostomy in management of ileal perforations.Patients and Methods. From July 2008 to July 2011, all patients with ileal perforation on laparotomy where a defunctioning proximal protective loop ileostomy was considered advisable were chosen for study. Patients were randomly assigned to undergo either tube ileostomy or classical loop ileostomy as the diversion procedure. Tube ileostomy was constructed in the fashion of feeding jejunostomy, with postoperative saline irrigation.Results. A total of 60 diversion procedures were performed over the period with 30 for each of tube and loop ileostomy. Typhoid and tuberculosis formed the most common etiology for ileal perforation. The complication rate of tube ileostomy was 33%. Main complications related to tube ileostomy were peritubal leak, tube blockage. In patients with loop, overall complications in 53% majority were peristomal skin irritation and wound infection following ileostomy closure. Two patients developed obstruction following ileostomy closure which needed reoperation.Conclusions. Tube ileostomy is effective and feasible as a diversion procedure and has reduced morbidity. It can be used as an alternative to loop ileostomy.
Serum Asymmetric Dimethylarginine Concentrations in Two Models of Experimentally Induced Hypertension
Authors: Khazaei M. , Zarei M. , Esmaeil N.
Published: December 2012

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of two models of hypertension on serum ADMA concentrations and whether the changes of serum ADMA concentrations are reversible by removing the cause of hypertension.Materials and Methods. 48 male wistar rats were randomly assigned into four groups: control, deoxycorticosterone acetate salt (DOCA-Salt), sham, and two kidneys one clip (2K1C). After 12 weeks, in half of the animals (n=6each group), serums were taken and direct blood pressure was measured. Then, DOCA injection was withdrawn and the animals received tap water and, in 2K1C group, renal clips were removed. After 12 weeks, direct blood pressure was measured and blood samples were taken.Results. Serum ADMA concentration in DOCA-Salt group was slightly higher than control, although it was not statistically significant. In 2K1C hypertensive group, serum ADMA concentration was significantly elevated compared to sham group (P<0.05). Unclipping and reversal of hypertension returned serum ADMA level to sham group. There was a weak positive correlation between systolic blood pressure and serum ADMA concentration.Conclusion. increased serum ADMA concentration during hypertension is dependent on the model of hypertension, and removing the cause of hypertension could reduce it
Étude exploratoire : perceptions, croyances, connaissances et attitudes d’un groupe d’aînés francophones du Nouveau-Brunswick concernant la démence et son diagnostic
Authors: Pakzad Sarah , Paulin Marie-Claire , Jbilou Jalila , Fontaine Véronique , Bourque Paul-Émile , Bélanger Mathieu , Routhier Nicholas , Lavoie Anne Marise
Published: December 2012

Cette étude explore les perceptions, croyances, connaissances et attitudes d’un groupe d’aînés francophones du Nouveau-Brunswick face à la démence et à son diagnostic; le diagnostic précoce de la démence est crucial autant pour l’identification des causes réversibles que pour la mise en place rapide d’interventions de prévention secondaire. Quatre-vingt-onze francophones du Nouveau-Brunswick âgés de 65 ans et plus ont été interrogés face à la démence et à son diagnostic dans cette étude quantitative exploratoire. Entre autres, bien que les participants de cette étude aient rapporté avoir peur de recevoir un diagnostic de démence, la plupart voudraient recevoir le diagnostic s’ils en étaient atteints. Les résultats soulignent l’importance d’éduquer la population face à la démence et aux services d’évaluation de la démence. D’autres implications sont discutées.
Regards croisés Ontario-Québec : les services de soins de santé mentale des communautés de langue officielle en situation minoritaire de 1950 à nos jours
Authors: Thifault Marie-Claude , Lebel Marie , Perreault Isabelle , Desmeules Martin
Published: December 2012

Considérant qu’un Canadien sur neuf hospitalisé pour maladie mentale retournera à l’urgence moins d’un mois après sa sortie d’hôpital, il importe de documenter, dans une perspective socio-historique, les itinéraires « transinstitutionnels » des personnes souffrant de troubles psychiques. Nous proposons ici une note de recherche sur l’enquête que nous menons sur l’évolution des services de soins de santé mentale des communautés de langue officielle en situation minoritaire, en particulier, les communautés francophones de l’Est et du Nord ontarien ainsi que de la communauté anglophone de l’Ouest du Québec. Ces regards croisés entre deux régions francophones de l’Ontario et le Montréal anglophone visent une meilleure compréhension de l’impact des facteurs de « langue de service » et de « culture » sur la santé mentale des communautés francophones en situation minoritaire (CFSM).
L’école québécoise et la « culture scolaire » : développement intégral de l’enfant, développement cognitif de l’élève et contextes éducatifs
Authors: Levasseur Louis
Published: December 2012

La réforme de l’éducation entamée en 2000-2001 au Québec a été justifiée en partie par la nécessité de mettre l’accent sur le développement intellectuel de l’élève et non plus, comme ça aurait été le cas dans les années 1970, sur le développement intégral de la personne. Or, aujourd’hui, le développement intellectuel est-il réellement devenu une priorité dans l’enseignement ? Sans répondre de manière définitive ou catégorique, l’auteur soutient que dans certains milieux, la socialisation a plus d’importance que l’instruction et que dans certaines matières, la justification subjective de la connaissance prend le dessus sur une justification strictement épistémologique.
DNA-PK is a DNA sensor for IRF-3-dependent innate immunity
Authors: Ferguson Brian J , Mansur Daniel S , Peters Nicholas E , Ren Hongwei , Smith Geoffrey L
Published: December 2012

Innate immunity is the first immunological defence against pathogens. During virus infection detection of nucleic acids is crucial for the inflammatory response. Here we identify DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) as a DNA sensor that activates innate immunity. We show that DNA-PK acts as a pattern recognition receptor, binding cytoplasmic DNA and triggering the transcription of type I interferon (IFN), cytokine and chemokine genes in a manner dependent on IFN regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3), TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) and stimulator of interferon genes (STING). Both cells and mice lacking DNA-PKcs show attenuated cytokine responses to both DNA and DNA viruses but not to RNA or RNA virus infection. DNA-PK has well-established functions in the DNA repair and V(D)J recombination, hence loss of DNA-PK leads to severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). However, we now define a novel anti-microbial function for DNA-PK, a finding with implications for host defence, vaccine development and autoimmunity.
Population structuring of multi-copy, antigen-encoding genes in Plasmodium falciparum
Authors: Artzy-Randrup Yael , Rorick Mary M , Day Karen , Chen Donald , Dobson Andrew P , Pascual Mercedes
Published: December 2012

The coexistence of multiple independently circulating strains in pathogen populations that undergo sexual recombination is a central question of epidemiology with profound implications for control. An agent-based model is developed that extends earlier ‘strain theory’ by addressing the var gene family of Plasmodium falciparum. The model explicitly considers the extensive diversity of multi-copy genes that undergo antigenic variation via sequential, mutually exclusive expression. It tracks the dynamics of all unique var repertoires in a population of hosts, and shows that even under high levels of sexual recombination, strain competition mediated through cross-immunity structures the parasite population into a subset of coexisting dominant repertoires of var genes whose degree of antigenic overlap depends on transmission intensity. Empirical comparison of patterns of genetic variation at antigenic and neutral sites supports this role for immune selection in structuring parasite diversity.
Morphologic diversity of cutaneous sensory afferents revealed by genetically directed sparse labeling
Authors: Wu Hao , Williams John , Nathans Jeremy
Published: December 2012

The diversity of cutaneous sensory afferents has been studied by many investigators using behavioral, physiologic, molecular, and genetic approaches. Largely missing, thus far, is an analysis of the complete morphologies of individual afferent arbors. Here we present a survey of cutaneous sensory arbor morphologies in hairy skin of the mouse using genetically-directed sparse labeling with a sensory neuron-specific alkaline phosphatase reporter. Quantitative analyses of 719 arbors, among which 77 were fully reconstructed, reveal 10 morphologically distinct types. Among the two types with the largest arbors, one contacts ∼200 hair follicles with circumferential endings and a second is characterized by a densely ramifying arbor with one to several thousand branches and a total axon length between one-half and one meter. These observations constrain models of receptive field size and structure among cutaneous sensory neurons, and they raise intriguing questions regarding the cellular and developmental mechanisms responsible for this morphological diversity.
KDM2B links the Polycomb Repressive Complex 1 (PRC1) to recognition of CpG islands
Authors: Farcas Anca M , Blackledge Neil P , Sudbery Ian , Long Hannah K , McGouran Joanna F , Rose Nathan R , Lee Sheena , Sims David , Cerase Andrea , Sheahan Thomas W , Koseki Haruhiko , Brockdorff Neil , Ponting Chris P , Kessler Benedikt M , Klose Robert J
Published: December 2012

CpG islands (CGIs) are associated with most mammalian gene promoters. A subset of CGIs act as polycomb response elements (PREs) and are recognized by the polycomb silencing systems to regulate expression of genes involved in early development. How CGIs function mechanistically as nucleation sites for polycomb repressive complexes remains unknown. Here we discover that KDM2B (FBXL10) specifically recognizes non-methylated DNA in CGIs and recruits the polycomb repressive complex 1 (PRC1). This contributes to histone H2A lysine 119 ubiquitylation (H2AK119ub1) and gene repression. Unexpectedly, we also find that CGIs are occupied by low levels of PRC1 throughout the genome, suggesting that the KDM2B-PRC1 complex may sample CGI-associated genes for susceptibility to polycomb-mediated silencing. These observations demonstrate an unexpected and direct link between recognition of CGIs by KDM2B and targeting of the polycomb repressive system. This provides the basis for a new model describing the functionality of CGIs as mammalian PREs.
Abercrombie, David
Authors: Brown Adam
Published: December 2012

David Abercrombie (1909–1992) was born into a family with a literary heritage—his father was the poet Lascelles Abercrombie. When World War I began, his family moved to Liverpool, where his father subsequently became a lecturer at Liverpool University and David was educated at Liverpool College. His father was then appointed professor of English literature at Leeds University and David attended Leeds Grammar School. He went on to Leeds University where he graduated with a third‐class honours BA in English. While living with his parents in London, he worked on an MA on i‐mutation, which he never completed. As Ladefoged (1997, p. 85) notes, he “never set much store on academic credentials.” His father served on the BBC Advisory Committee on Spoken English with George Bernard Shaw and Daniel Jones. When Jones was told of David's interest in speech, he mentored him for the next seven years at University College London (UCL). As a result, David became involved in topics such as spelling reform and the teaching of English to native speakers of other languages.
Accent Reduction
Authors: Thomson Ron I.
Published: December 2012

The term “accent reduction” is normally used by individuals or businesses offering to help second language (L2) learners reduce or eliminate their foreign accent. These services are provided under what Derwing and Munro (2009) refer to as a business view of accent, and are often premised on the belief that foreign accents are a negative trait, and a detriment to L2 speakers' ability to establish relationships and find employment. A Google search for the term “accent reduction” results in well over 100,000 hits, primarily linked to Web sites offering courses that promise to rid speakers of a foreign accent, some in as little as 2.5 hours. In this unregulated market niche, no specialized training is required of instructors in accent reduction programs, although some do have backgrounds in English language teaching (ELT) or as speech language pathologists (SLPs). While some accent reduction programs and instructors are well‐intentioned, many others appear to be solely profit‐driven. This section will contrast accent reduction with related terms and practices, and briefly summarize the perspective of applied linguists and learners.
Adverbs
Authors: Francis Hoye Leo
Published: December 2012

Adverbs are the “bête noire” of English grammar. Their use attracts praise or censure in equal measure. Henry James remarked: “I'm glad you like adverbs—I adore them; they are the only qualifications I really much respect” (James, 1920, pp. 214–15), a view not shared by the writer Stephen King: “I believe the road to hell is paved with adverbs” (King, 2000, p. 95). While mostly optional in a grammatical sense, adverbs can add meaning to other clause elements, such as adjectives, other adverbs, nouns, verbs, even entire clauses. Concluding an interview with the wife of a suspect, a detective instructs:“‘Perhapsyou would notify us, if he returns?’ ‘Ohdefinitely; surely, absolutely, no doubtabout it’” (Furst, 2010, p. 23). Cull the adverbs (italicized) and the exchange sounds lame: “‘You would notify us, if he returns?’ ‘Oh yes.’” The oblique command and the unease it engenders are now gone. Adverbs can be persuasive:The political system ishistoricallygood at promoting social over private interests—notimmediately, notperfectly, notalways, butgenerally. And sometimes ironical: “Yes Mr. [French President] we [the UK]absolutely, categorically, possibly, maybe, could be going into Europe” (Hoye, 1997, p. 236, 2009, p. 112). Positionally mobile and semantically versatile, adverbs cover a range of meanings and grammatical functions, and several may co‐occur. They can be used at best to marked effect; at worst, to create a verbal swamp. Their sheer diversity of use and function has earned them a maverick status as “the most nebulous and puzzling of the traditional word classes” (Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, & Svartvik, 1985, p. 438). Adverbs are heterogeneous: Their miscellany of assorted features has bolstered the argument that, where a word cannot be assigned to another word class (such as noun, verb, adjective), it must be an adverb by default, rendering this a “catch‐all” or “residual” category (Huddleston & Pullum, 2002, p. 563). Such heterogeneity makes for considerable semantic and syntactic diversity—something of a linguistic smorgasbord! In profiling their main features, this entry seeks to highlight the role and significance of adverbs for our everyday spoken or written communication. The examples that follow are given in italics, and the adverb(ial) forms are underlined. Frequent reference is made to three state‐of‐the‐art grammars of contemporary English: Quirk et al. (1985); Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad, and Finegan (1999), and Huddleston and Pullum (2002).
Advocacy in Language Teaching
Authors: Ehlers‐Zavala Fabiola P.
Published: December 2012

Advocacy in language teaching refers to the act of positively advancing the public and political realities connected to issues in language and language teaching. An advocate in language teaching is someone who espouses and argues for one or more issues in language teaching hoping to positively influence its outcome for the common good. When it is enacted by those who are directly involved with the language teaching profession (e.g., applied linguists, language teacher educators, classroom teachers), such actions represent instances of participatory professionalism.
Affect and Language Teaching
Authors: Dewaele Jean‐Marc
Published: December 2012

Affect is at the heart of the foreign language (FL) learning and teaching process and yet, as Garrett and Young (2009) point out: “affect and emotion are terms that have been in the shadows of discussions of classroom foreign language learning, where the primary focus has been on the development of knowledge and use of the new language” (p. 209). The crucial role of the teacher is to nurture positive affect within the group of learners (Arnold, 1999). This implies a use of teaching techniques to encourage the development of learners' positive attitudes toward the FL and the FL culture, to strengthen their self‐belief in their capacity to learn an FL, to increase their motivation to become capable users of the FL, and to control their foreign language anxiety (FLA). Numerous researchers have reflected on the best ways to achieve these goals. I will present a short overview of ways to achieve the goals, and I will reflect on the underlying theories.
Analysis of Gender in Interaction
Authors: Wei Jennifer M.
Published: December 2012

Our conventional idea of gender can be seen from three major perspectives: biological, social, and cultural. That is, we are born with a set of genes that determine our biological sex—either male or female in most of the clear‐cut cases. A male brain is larger than that of a female but that does not make much difference to its overall capacity. Men are also said to be more visual and spatially oriented while women are more audio and emotionally oriented. According to a recent study based on a large corpus of English, the researchers Newman, Groom, Handelman, and Peenebaker (2008, p. 211) found that “Women used more words related to psychological and social processes. Men referred more to object properties and impersonal topics.” It can be said also that society sets gendered expectations or gendered roles for boys and girls, men and women, and husbands and wives, roles that we internalize and with which we socialize as we go through schooling, working, and living in a certain society. We learn that, in most societies, women are thought to be cooperative and family‐oriented while men seem more aggressive, competitive, and career‐oriented. Gender also plays a role culturally as different cultures and the weight of different histories can influence how certain gender traits, especially notions of masculinity and femininity, will interact in our lives.
Analysis of Narrative in Interaction
Authors: Gordon Cynthia
Published: December 2012

Narrative has been widely studied across the social sciences and humanities.
Assessment of Vocabulary
Authors: Read John
Published: December 2012

Vocabulary is such an integral component of language use that to some degree any form of language assessment is a measure of vocabulary ability, among other things. However, assessing vocabulary is normally understood to be a process of testing learners' knowledge of a sample of content words, not simply to find out whether they know those particular words but to investigate their ability to understand and use vocabulary in a more general sense.
Assessment of Writing
Authors: Weigle Sara Cushing
Published: December 2012

The importance of writing in the 21st century cannot be overestimated. As globalization brings people together from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds and the Internet and other technologies allow for instantaneous long‐distance communication, the written word has taken on increased significance.
Attrition and Multilingualism
Authors: Schmid Monika S.
Published: December 2012

To think “bilingualism” is usually to think “second language” (L2). Virtually all research that is conducted on multilinguals focuses on the way in which they acquire and use the languages which are not their “native” one. Observations gained from that study are then compared to first language (L1) speakers, and attempts are made to pinpoint and explain the differences between the two populations (L1 speakers vs. L2 learners).
Audiovisual Translation
Authors: Chiaro Delia
Published: December 2012

Audiovisual translation (AVT) is the term used to refer to the transfer from one language to another of the verbal components contained in audiovisual works and products. Feature films, television programs, theatrical plays, musicals, opera, Web pages, and video games are just some examples of the vast array of audiovisual products available and that require translation. As the word suggests, audiovisuals are made to be both heard (
audio
) and seen (
visual
) simultaneously but they are primarily meant to be seen. We talk of “watching” a movie, a show, or even an opera; we “see” programs that are “shown” on television. However, while the verbal and visual codes in audiovisuals are linked to such an extent that the words naturally tend to rely heavily on the visuals, the translation of these products operates on a verbal level alone.
Austin, John L.
Authors: Mar Torreblanca López María Del
Published: December 2012

John Langshaw Austin (1911–1960) is considered one of the most influential representatives of postwar Oxfordordinary languagephilosophy. Among his main contributions to the philosophy of language is the analysis of performative utterances and its subsequent development into a general conception of “language as action,” which gave rise tospeech act theory.
Aviation English
Authors: Moder Carol Lynn
Published: December 2012

Aviation Englishis a term for the highly specialized language and interactional sequences used by pilots, air traffic controllers, and other aviation professionals. Like other areas of language for specific purposes (LSP), aviation English focuses on the particular pronunciation, vocabulary, grammatical structures, and discourse styles that are commonly used by prac‐titioners in specific work‐related contexts.
Bardovi‐Harlig, Kathleen
Authors: Abello‐Contesse Christian , García‐Amaya Lorenzo
Published: December 2012

Kathleen Bardovi‐Harlig (1955– ) is currently professor and chair of the Department of Second Language Studies at Indiana University (USA).
Biber, Douglas
Authors: Atkinson Dwight
Published: December 2012

Douglas Biber is a linguist who has spearheaded the computerized analysis of large, systematically constructed text corpora, yielding new and more sophisticated ways of understanding language and its use. Hismultidimensionalapproach to analyzing discourse, which examines co‐occurrence patterns of large numbers of linguistic features across a broad range of spoken and written texts, has been highly influential in applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, and English linguistics. Biber also led the intensive, multiyear effort to produceThe Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English(Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad, & Finegan, 1999), a major academic grammar of English based on corpus findings. He has been active in developing pedagogical applications of corpus‐analytic results as well.
Bilingual Lexicography
Authors: Bogaards Paul
Published: December 2012

In many cultures bilingual lexicography is the oldest form of lexicography (but see Boisson, Kirtchuk, & Béjoint, 1991, for another point of view).
Bilingualism and Cognition
Authors: De Groot Annette M. B.
Published: December 2012

Scientific interest in the effects of (individual) bilingualism on cognition dates back to at least the first quarter of the 20th century, as illustrated by two articles that were published in 1923 on the relation between bilingualism and mental development (Smith, 1923) and between bilingualism and intelligence (Saer, 1923). In addition to engaging scientists, the question of whether and how bilingualism affects cognition also concerns policy makers, educators, and parents of bilingual families. The reason for this widespread interest in this issue plausibly is the high incidence of bilingualism and the appreciation that knowing about the way in which bilingualism affects cognition is a prerequisite for creating the circumstances that foster any of its beneficial effects on cognitive functioning while at the same time preventing any adverse effects it might have. In one domain of cognition, namely, language representation and use, the influence of bilingualism is ubiquitous, affecting all components of the language system, but there is also plenty of evidence to suggest that bilingualism affects nonlinguistic cognitive domains as well. In this entry the influence of bilingualism on language (verbal cognition) will first be discussed and, next, its effect on various aspects of nonverbal cognition.
Blum‐Kulka, Shoshana
Authors: Kampf Zohar
Published: December 2012

Blum‐Kulka is Professor Emerita at the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, specializing in pragmatics and discourse analysis.
Brazil, David
Authors: Cauldwell Richard
Published: December 2012

David Brazil (1925–1995) was the originator of
discourse intonation—
a distinctive approach to research into spontaneous speech and the teaching of pronunciation and intonation (see
http://www.speechinaction.com/Brazil.htm
). This approach has influenced research, teacher training, and classroom practice around the world. Publications influenced by his work started appearing in the 1980s, and continue to appear—they include Bradford (1988), Hewings and Goldstein (1993), Cauldwell (2002), and Gorsuch, Meyers, Pickering, and Griffee (2010).
Chaos/Complexity Theory for Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Larsen‐Freeman Diane
Published: December 2012

Chaos/complexity theory (C/CT) and closely related dynamic systems theory were first proposed in the physical sciences and mathematics to explain the behavior of complex dynamic systems. The systems usually involve a large number of elements or agents, which interact and give rise to a different order of complexity at a higher level. An oft‐cited example is how individual birds interact to form a flock of birds. The systems are dynamic because they are always changing, sometimes gradually, sometimes abruptly. Thus, the study of change is central to C/CT researchers. They seek to understand how change occurs and how elements or agents interact to produce it. Change in such systems is often nonlinear, which means that the effect is not proportionate to the cause. The nonlinearity is attributed to the fact that such systems are sensitive to initial conditions, a characteristic popularly referred to as thebutterfly effect, whereby even the flapping of a single butterfly's wings in one part of the world can have an effect on a weather system in another. It is this sensitivity to initial conditions that makes complex systemschaotic—they can change in unpredictable ways.
Classroom Research on Pragmatics
Authors: Martínez‐Flor Alicia
Published: December 2012

The classroom is an educational setting where two or more persons meet for a given period of time for the purposes of learning, for example, languages.
Classroom Research in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Hall Joan Kelly , Johnston Duff
Published: December 2012

A sociocultural perspective of language and learning has had a major impact on classroom research on second language acquisition (SLA) over the last two decades. This perspective considers language to be a fundamentally social phenomenon, comprised of linguistic resources whose meanings are both embodied in and constitutive of everyday communication. Language learning is viewed as a collaborative process that begins in our regularly occurring communicative activities. Through repeated experience and the guidance of more capable others, individuals acquire not only the grammatical, lexical, and other communicative resources essential to full participation, but also the communicative intentions and specific perspectives on the world that are embedded in these resources.
Cognates
Authors: Helms‐Park Rena , Dronjic Vedran
Published: December 2012

Cognatescan be defined in multiple ways depending on one's research or pedagogical focus.
Cognitive Approaches to Translation
Authors: Risku Hanna
Published: December 2012

Obviously, there is more to translation than just associating words in one language with those in another. Cognitive scientific approaches to translation try to understand and explain the workings of translators' minds: How do translators and the other actors involved in translation create meaning in the situations and texts they handle? How do they arrive at their strategies and choices? How does their cultural and linguistic background influence their thinking and understanding? How do they develop translation competence?
Cognitive Constructivism
Authors: Hruby George G. , Roegiers Anthony B.
Published: December 2012

Cognitive constructivism is an umbrella term for a host of related epistemological and psychological theories about the nature of knowledge and how it is formed through a knower's mental (hencecognitive) processes. As the metaphor ofconstructionimplies, cognitive constructivist theories assume that knowledge is a thing made by the mind rather than received from a source. Knowledge, in this view, is not transmitted all of a piece with meaning intact or contained, nor accrued piecemeal and then reconstituted. Rather, knowledge is said to beconstructed, or actively structured, by a knower's mental processes even as particular purposes and contextual constraints guide the result. The anthropomorphic image of a builder orbricoleur(tinkerer) creating a knowledge structure, edifice, or machine is occasionally employed to illustrate this metaphor of mental process, and may be helpful if not taken too literally.
Cognitive Grammar
Authors: Paradis Carita
Published: December 2012

Cognitive grammar (CG) is a relatively recent approach within the functional family of linguistic theories.
Cognitive Linguistics of Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Verspoor Marjolijn , Boers Frank
Published: December 2012

When investigating second language development or deciding on ways to teach it, it is important to know how language and language development are viewed in general, because it will determine to a great extent what you look for, what you find, and what you teach. For example, if you think that syntax (form) drives a modular system, your attention will focus mainly on form. On the other hand, if you think the need to communicate and express meaning drives a dynamic, complex system, your attention turns to how language users develop their meaning system and how insights into this development may help in teaching an L2. Cognitive linguistics (CL) holds the latter view. In this entry, we will first explain the basic concepts in CL, contrast them with syntax‐driven approaches to SLA, and finally show how CL insights may be applied in the L2 classroom.