bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Innovative Nondestructive Method Determines Fracture Toughness of In-Service Pipelines
Authors: Haggag Fahmy M. , Phillips Larry D.
Published: December 2008

Applications of the innovative, patented Stress-Strain Microprobe (SSM) system, that utilizes an in-situ nondestructive Automated Ball Indentation (ABI) test technique to determine fracture toughness of in-service steel pipelines, are described in this paper. The ABI test provides the actual/current values of fracture toughness properties for base metal, welds, and heat-affected-zones. The ABI-measured key mechanical properties are used with other nondestructive measurements, such as crack/defect sizes (determined from in-line smart pigs or from on-line ultrasound instruments), to determine the safe operating pressure of the pipeline or to necessitate certain rehabilitation actions. The ABI test is based on progressive indentation with intermediate partial unloadings until the desired/required maximum depth (maximum strain) is reached, and then the indenter is fully unloaded. The ABI test is fully automated (using a notebook computer, data acquisition system, and a servo motor), and a single test is completed in less than two minutes. This paper describes two recent field investigations. The first investigation assessed a catastrophic failure that occurred in a natural gas plant on a cold winter night shortly following the leak of liquid natural gas into a natural gas pipeline. The combination of cold temperature and high strain rate near a crack resulted in the destruction of approximately a 12-meter section of a 508-mm (20-inch) diameter pipeline into several hundred small pieces. Since the remaining pieces from the exploded pipeline section were not sufficient to machine destructive tensile and fracture toughness specimens, the SSM system was used to measure the tensile and fracture toughness properties from multiple ABI tests on several pipeline pieces. The ABI-measured tensile and fracture toughness results provided the basis for the fitness-for-service assessment of the remaining pipeline sections of the natural gas plant. The second application involved a fire that occurred due to a leak from a 356-mm (14-inch) diameter Kerosene pipeline. The fire-damaged section of the pipeline was cut out and replaced. As part of the effort to prevent future accidents, the entire 7-km pipeline needed a structural integrity assessment. In-Situ ABI tests were conducted to measure the tensile and fracture toughness properies, from each ABI test, for the fitness-for-service assessment since the carbon steel pipeline had undocumented grade.
Transient Flow Analysis of Fast Valve Closure in Short Pipelines
Authors: Pires Luis F. G. , Ladeia Renata C. C. , Barreto Cla´udio V.
Published: December 2008

The present papers presents an analysis of transient pressure behavior in short pipelines for tanker’s loading at a marine terminal. The analysis was focused on the interaction of several dynamic components that are present in the line, such as check, flow control and block valves, pump and pipe elasticity. The purpose of the analysis is to maximize flow rate through the line thereby minimizing tankers dockage time, without exceeding the allowable pressure limits. A commercial software was employed in the calculations that were able to reveal the complex interaction of the dynamic components present.
Global Buckling of a Heated Pipeline in the Campos Basin Brazil in a Region With Free-Spans
Authors: Cardoso Carlos de Oliveira , Mourelle Marcio Martins , Maia da Costa A´lvaro , Andueza Alejandro , Amaral Cla´udio dos Santos
Published: December 2008

This article presents the behavior a heated flowline in Campos Basin-Brazil that crosses an uneven seabed region with free-spans of different lengths. In that region the mean water depth is arround 900 m and the pipeline supports the highest temperatures. A regular inspection with ROV (Remote Operate Vehicle) showed that the flowline is interacting with the surrounding soil, evidencing movements due to thermal expansion. Geotechnical survey showed that the soil in the pipeline route is composed by normally consolidated clay where the strength properties were obtained by CPT interpretation. The principal question for the pipeline operator concerns the pipeline integrity despite of the evidence of thermal buckling occurrence. In order to answer this question, a 3D finite element model was generated considering lateral imperfections, free-spans and pipe-soil interaction along the pipeline route obtained by ROV. A complementary inspection was done with Side Scan Sonar Image obtained by AUV (autonomous Underwater Vehicle), mapping lateral buckles and the free-spans in the pipeline route. The bending moment and effective axial force in the pipeline obtained by 3D finite element global model were used to verify the pipeline integrity based on DNV OS-F101 standard [1]. In order to verify the vertical buckling in the free-spans, a parametric study was done with different free-spans and feed-in lengths based on geometry acquired from inspections. This study supplies the critical temperature variation that triggers thermal buckling in the free-spans, enabling the determination of the critical free-spans in the flowline route. The results obtained by finite element modeling was the definition of the maximum operating temperature and pressure that enables operate the flowline safety based on DNV OS-F101 code.
The Impact of Aboriginal Interests Upon Proposed Pipeline Projects
Authors: Campbell Tara L. , Treacy Heather L.
Published: December 2008

This paper will seek to address the rapidly evolving issues relating to the impact of aboriginal interests upon resource development projects. In particular, this paper will address the interaction between aboriginal interests and pipeline projects and recent judicial decisions that have impacted upon this interaction. This paper will specifically discuss the extent of consultation obligations with aboriginal people and strategies that may be employed by proponents of pipeline projects. More specifically, this paper will address the following: Distinctions between various types of constitutionally protected aboriginal interests, including, treaty rights (both historic treaties and comprehensive land claim agreements), aboriginal rights, including aboriginal title, and Me´tis rights; Understanding the obligations of government and third party resource developers to consult with aboriginal people, including consultation and accommodation of aboriginal interests and compensation issues; - Consultation as part of the regulatory approval processes for both provincially and federally regulated pipelines, including both National Energy Board requirements and provincial requirements (British Columbia and Alberta); and - The practical realities of consultation, including the scope of remedies for the unjustified infringement of aboriginal interests; and how to create a more effective consultation process and protect the interests of proponents of pipeline projects.
Spatially Enabled Pipeline Route Optimization Model
Authors: Wasi S. Raza , Bender J. Darren
Published: December 2008

An interesting, potentially useful, and fully replicable application of a spatially enabled decision model is presented for pipeline route optimization. This paper models the pipeline route optimization problem as a function of engineering and environmental design criteria. The engineering requirements mostly deal with capital, operational and maintenance costs, whereas environmental considerations ensure preservation of nature, natural resources and social integration. Typically, pipelines are routed in straight lines, to the extent possible, to minimize the capital construction costs. In contrast, longer pipelines and relatively higher costs may occur when environmental and social considerations are part of the design criteria. Similarly, much longer pipelines are less attractive in terms of capital costs and the environmental hazard associated with longer construction area. The pipeline route optimization problem is potentially a complex decision that is most often undertaken in an unstructured, qualitative fashion based on human experience and judgement. However, quantitative methods such as spatial analytical techniques, particularly the least-cost path algorithms, have greatly facilitated automation of the pipeline routing process. In the past several interesting studies have been conducted using quantitative spatial analytical tools for finding the best pipeline route or using non-spatial decision making tools to evaluate several alternates derived through conventional route reconnaissance methods. Most of these studies (that the authors are familiar with) have concentrated on integrating multiple sources of spatial data and performing quantitative least-cost path analysis or have attempted to make use of non-spatial decision making tools to select the best route. In this paper, the authors present a new framework that incorporates quantitative spatial analytical tools with an Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) model to provide a loosely integrated but efficient spatial Decision Support System (DSS). Specifically, the goal is to introduce a fully replicable spatial DSS that processes both quantitative and qualitative information, balances between lowest-cost and lowest-impact routes. The model presented in this paper is implemented in a four step process: first, integration of multiple source data that provide basis for engineering and environmental design criteria; second, creation of several alternate routes; third, building a comprehensive decision matrix using spatial analysis techniques; and fourth, testing the alternative and opinions of the stakeholder groups on imperatives of AHP model to simplify the route optimization decision. The final output of the model is then used to carry out sensitivity analysis, quantify the risk, generate “several what and if scenarios” and test stability of the route optimization decision.
SCADA Communications Over Low Speed, High Latency Links
Authors: Nunes Marcelo D. , Teixeira Paulo L. B. , Branco Nicolau A.
Published: December 2008

Controlling and monitoring a compressor station with more than 3,000 tags remotely can be a heavy burden for a low speed (9,600 bps) double-hop satellite link, over which an ICMP packet takes more than 2 seconds to traverse all the way across the spatial segments, forth and back. This paper presents an application named Datasync, specially developed to take full advantage of the scarce resources provided by the VSAT link. One of its main features is to enable the setting up of communication deadbands and the “hot” changing of these deadbands. Therefore, the operator is able to increase the deadband of a tag immediately after detecting that too many exceptions are reported on that tag, which would cause an undesirable increase on the traffic, ultimately resulting in unacceptable response times.
Technology Dependence Beyond Control Systems
Authors: Murray Mark
Published: December 2008

Operations has grown beyond relying only on SCADA infrastructure — can you operate without your non-scada infrastructure? As the operator of the world’s longest and most complex liquids pipeline, Enbridge Pipelines Inc. relies heavily on automated systems to control, monitor, maintain our pipeline system. As the scope of automation continues to expand beyond the SCADA control system, so to does the dependence on ancillary computer applications such as pipeline scheduling, electronic ticketing, nominations and oil accounting. Uninterrupted operation of the pipeline system now depends on an increasingly complex electronic infrastructure and new levels of reliability are required from this infrastructure. This paper will describe the inherent risks as we continue to increase the automation of pipelining functions such as scheduling, oil accounting and electronic ticketing. We will discuss the type of technological threats (system failure, design flaws, security) and the strategies adopted by Enbridge for mitigating each of them. Further to the risks, this paper will explore the infrastructure components where exceptional risk mitigation is required, and the measures that Enbridge has taken to minimize the risks associated with those components. Specific areas to be analysed include; wide and local area networks, power and environmental systems, system clustering, hot and cold standby systems, network segment isolation and system backup solutions. Attention will also be paid to the increasing dependence on shared infrastructure services such as the Internet and telecommunications. For each of these technology areas, we will discuss the level of adoption within Enbridge, and the value proposition for these decisions. We will attempt to answer the questions; Why go that far? Why not go further? Finally, we will discuss the technology infrastructure requirements for business resumption. We will discuss system and site redundancy alternatives employed by Enbridge, the challenges involved in establishing business resumption plans, and how they are used by Enbridge to minimize the operational risk to our pipeline.
A Permeable Coating Model for Predicting the Environment at the Pipe Surface Under CP-Compatible Coatings
Authors: King Fraser , Jack Tom , Kolar Miroslav , Worthingham Robert
Published: December 2008

Some underground pipeline coatings, such as asphalt, coal tar enamel and fusion-bonded epoxy, are said to be CP-compatible. When these coatings degrade and groundwater contacts the pipe, the surface is still protected from corrosion and stress corrosion cracking (SCC) as the CP current can pass through the permeable coating. The electrochemical reactions on the pipe surface generate a local environment under the coating that is quite different from that in the surrounding soil. In general, the pH of the trapped water increases due to the cathodic reduction of water and oxygen by the CP current. A mathematical model has been developed to predict the generation and evolution of the environment under a disbonded permeable coating as a consequence of the action of CP. The model couples the electrochemical reactions on the surface of the pipe to the transport of species to and from the pipe surface through the permeable coating and the surrounding soil. The model is structured to use available field data (such as soil and ground water data and information from CP surveys) to predict conditions on the pipe surface. The model can be used to predict CP and environmental conditions under which the pipe may be susceptible to corrosion or SCC.
A Validation Strategy for Semi-Quantitative Risk Assessment in Pipeline Integrity Management
Authors: Colquhoun Iain , Kariyawasam Shahani , Gu Bill , Choong Evelyn , Yang Zupei , Mei Yunxin , Qingshan Feng
Published: December 2008

Public concern and pressure from regulatory bodies are accelerating the need for pipeline operators to formalize and intensify their approach to integrity management. There is a growing acceptance of risk-based approaches. Semi-quantitative methods are attractive since they make the most efficient use of data available. However the risk models have to be validated and customized to specific pipeline systems. The strategy to do this has to be based in a clear understanding of the specific risk methodology used and industry requirements of the risk assessments it produces. The paper describes a validation strategy that can be used when only sparse data are available and which can act as a framework to incorporate additional data from integrity assessments and operational experience as these become available.
In Situ Monitoring of Environmental Conditions for Stress Corrosion Cracking
Authors: King Fraser , Ikeda-Cameron Katherine , Van Boven Greg , Jack Tom , Sutherby Robert , Worthingham Robert
Published: December 2008

TransCanada Pipelines have been involved with monitoring environmental conditions at pipe depth for almost 10 years. The purpose of this monitoring is to understand the mechanism of SCC as it occurs in the field and to assist in the development of site-selection models for identifying locations where SCC might be occurring. Monitoring can either be done at many locations along the right-of-way at a given time or continuously at discrete locations in order to observe seasonal variations. A range of environmental parameters can be monitored. Early work focussed on parameters relevant to corrosion, such as soil resistivity, redox potential, temperature, pH, and on- and off-potentials. More recently, parameters relevant to SCC have also been monitored, such as soil CO2 and permeable hydrogen concentrations. In addition, the extent to which these parameters change seasonally has been monitored to determine if the environment is conducive to SCC continuously or whether cracking might only occur at certain times of the year. In terms of implementation, the results of in situ monitoring can be used as part of a larger integrity management program to decide where and when to mitigate SCC. Correlations between soil parameters measured using the portable probe and known SCC sites can be used to identify other susceptible locations or to prioritize different lines for inspection. Seasonal variations at a particular location can be used to derive effective crack growth rates from accelerated laboratory testing in order to determine re-inspection intervals. Examples are provided of both portable and permanent NOVAProbe measurements for low-pH and high-pH SCC.
Tank Volume Measurement Systems: Volume Measurement Uncertainty Analysis
Authors: Oracheski J. D. , Rausch Neil
Published: December 2008

Enbridge Inc. operates the world’s longest crude oil and products pipeline system. The company owns and operates Enbridge Pipelines Inc. (the Canadian portion of the Enbridge crude oil mainline) and a variety of affiliated pipelines in Canada and the United States, including Enbridge Energy Partners, L.P. that operates the Lakehead Pipeline System in the United States. Much of the main pipeline system has been in operation for over 55 years. The mainline system has been in operation for over 55 years. The mainline system is comprised of approximately 15,000 kilometers (9000 miles) of pipeline, 3 million barrels of cavern storage and 3.7 million barrels of tankage (352 tanks) which collectively are integral to transporting more than 2.2 million barrels per day of crude oil and refined products. Enbridge’s measurement needs and practices have continuously evolved, with radar gauging on tanks becoming the standard over the past few years. This paper discusses a number of issues associated with the accuracy of volume measurements in upright, cylindrical petroleum product storage tanks with floating roofs. It includes the analysis and discussion of the process of determining tank volumes and the overall accuracy of a tank volume measurement system. It also includes a discussion of the influence and relevance of each measurement variable on the overall accuracy of tank volume measurements, in order to provide pipeline operators with some insight into determining which variables are most important to the process of tank volume measurement. Finally, it discusses issues regarding tank volume measurement system accuracy, as opposed to overall tank volume measurement accuracy. The focus of this paper is not on the uncertainty analysis process itself, but rather on understanding the results of the uncertainty analysis performed for tank volume measurement systems.
The TRANSPETRO Emergency Response System
Authors: Ferreira Filho Alui´sio T. , Cardoso Vanderlei F. , Carbone Ronaldo , Berardinelli Ricardo P. , Carvalho Marcelo Ti´lio Monteiro de , Casanova Marco Antonio , de Oliveira Wilson Jose´
Published: December 2008

This paper describes the TRANSPETRO Emergency Response System, developed by PETROBRAS / TRANSPETRO, which is applicable to oils terminals, mostly located in sea or river harbor areas, and a large oil pipeline mesh that spans the Brazilian territory. The engine of the system consists of a distributed workflow management software, called InfoPAE. The software runs locally at each major installation, all connected to a central site. The deployment of the TRANSPETRO Emergency Response System is part of a larger effort to achieve a standard of excellence in the response to emergency situations at each operational unity, including full compliance with environmental regulations set by the federal government.
Learnings From Data Management and Integration Efforts on the Enbridge Pipeline System
Authors: Sommer Garry L. , Smith Brad S.
Published: December 2008

Enbridge Pipelines Inc. operates one of the longest and most complex pipeline systems in the world. A key aspect of the Enbridge Integrity Management Program (IMP) is the trending, analysis, and management of data collected from over 50 years of pipeline operations. This paper/presentation describes Enbridge’s challenges, learnings, processes, and innovations for meeting today’s increased data management/integration demands. While much has been written around the premise of data management/integration, and many software solutions are available in the commercial market, the greatest data management challenge for mature pipeline operators arises from the variability of data (variety of technologies, data capture methods, and data accuracy levels) collected over the operating history of the system. Ability to bring this variable data set together is substantially the most difficult aspect of a coordinated data management effort and is critical to the success of any such project. Failure to do this will result in lack of user confidence and inability to gain “buy-in” to new data management processes. In 2001 Enbridge began a series of initiatives to enhance data management and analysis. Central to this was the commitment to accurate geospatial alignment of integrity data. This paper/presentation describes Enbridge’s experience with development of custom software (Integrated Spatial Analysis System – ISAS) including critical learnings around a.) Data alignment efforts and b.) Significant efforts involved in development of an accurate pipe centreline. The paper/presentation will also describe co-incident data management programs that link to ISAS. This includes enhanced database functionality for excavation data and development of software to enable electronic transfer of data to this database. These tools were built to enable rapid transfer of field data and “real time” tool validation through automated unity plots of tool defect data vs. that measured in the field.
The Role of Aerial Photograph Interpretation in Natural Hazard and Risk Assessment
Authors: Tribe Selina , Leir Mark
Published: December 2008

Aerial photograph interpretation is an accurate and economical method of assessing terrain conditions and natural hazards affecting pipelines and other linear facilities. Completed in advance of vehicle and helicopter-based reconnaissance, it provides a comprehensive site overview that cannot be obtained at ground level. Aerial photograph interpretation helps construct and confirm preliminary hazard and stream-crossing inventories, understand hazard mechanisms, and estimate hazard volume and activity. Time series photo interpretation uses several sets of aerial photographs taken of the same area in different years to track changes in terrain, stream patterns and land-use over time. In addition, aerial photographs are superior navigation tools in the field. These points are illustrated using examples from pipelines in British Columbia and Alberta. This work will be of interest to managers of pipelines throughout western Canada, and to those involved with pipeline route selection through mountainous regions.
Corrosion Defect Management Based on a Quantitative Growth Approach
Authors: Sillers R. W. , Kariyawasam S. , Smith B. S.
Published: December 2008

Enbridge Pipelines Inc. operates one of the longest and most complex pipeline systems in the world. As such, thorough, system-wide understanding of defect behavior is a critical aspect of Enbridge’s Integrity Management Program (IMP). To enhance understanding of corrosion behavior, and aid in determination of in-line inspection revalidation intervals, a quantitative corrosion defect assessment approach has been developed and implemented for the Enbridge system. To date nine trap-to-trap pipeline sections have been completed using this approach. Utilizing defect data from consecutive high-resolution corrosion in-line inspection tool runs in correlation with pipe attribute information and environmental characteristics, a statistical approach has been developed to determine the distribution of the corrosion growth rates along these nine sections of pipeline. Validation was achieved through comparison with other corrosion growth rate assessment methods. This comparison was also used to develop refinements to the approach. The approach provided an upper-bound estimate of corrosion growth and was considered appropriate for system-wide application where other defect-by-defect comparison methods can be time, labour, and cost intensive. Use of this upper-bound estimate of corrosion growth in combination with field metrics, operational history of the pipeline, defect trending and, where available, additional sources of corrosion growth rate determination have provided the operator with an effective, practical, and defensible tool set for determining subsequent in-line inspection reassessment intervals across the pipeline system. Data integration inherent in the process has also provided valuable insight regarding corrosion growth rate drivers as affected by pipeline and environmental factors. While focusing on trap-to-trap sections of the Enbridge system that have been inspected with multiple high-resolution in-line inspection tools, this paper/presentation will also discuss a statistical corrosion growth rate approach for trap-to-trap sections with only one high-resolution in-line inspection run.
Pipeline Pig Tracking Through the Internet: A New Use for Existing Technology in the Pipeline Pigging Industry
Authors: McDonnell Shamus , Bhatia Arti , Nickle Randy
Published: December 2008

Pipeline pigs are routinely launched and ran through pipelines to separate batches, clean and inspect the pipe. It is critical to know the location of pigs in the pipeline for numerous reasons; all pigs have a risk of getting stuck in the pipeline and plugging off the flow, pipeline stations and valves often require operational adjustments to allow the pig to pass, and inspection runs need reference markers deployed along the pipeline as the pig passes. While many operational and technical innovations have been developed to assist with the tracking and locating of pigs, there has not been any advancement made in the communications of the pig tracking information to the pipeline operators; until now. This paper discusses the development and field trials of a system to post and view pig tracking information through the Internet.
Using Pipeline Operating History for Integrity Management
Authors: Lazor Robert , Verbit Stephanie
Published: December 2008

There are several forms of material degradation that can affect the long-term integrity of buried pipelines, such as generalized corrosion, stress corrosion cracking, and fatigue crack growth. Pipeline operators must periodically assess the condition of their pipeline systems and address current repair priorities and then schedule the next inspection and maintenance programs. The analyses described in this paper have been used to determine the growth of typical cracks that could be found on buried pipelines using the pipeline operating pressure history and fracture mechanics techniques. The details that have been examined include the characterization of the pressure history using rainflow counting techniques and a review of typical pipeline defect types. Examples are provided to describe how the following variables affect the predicted crack growth history: • Pressure histogram ‘bin size’; • Initial crack dimensions. The general techniques and procedures can be used as an integral part of a pipeline integrity management program to establish failure risks and to schedule regular maintenance activities.
Design and Construction of Pipeline Integrated Oil Storage Caverns
Authors: Broyles Jack , Dusseault Paul , Vanden Elsen Frank
Published: December 2008

In response to industry demand, Hardisty Caverns Limited Partnership (HCLP) has developed cost effective underground storage facilities with a capacity to store 480,000 m3 (3 million barrels) of crude oil. This project is unique through the integration of existing underground salt caverns into a significant North American crude oil transportation hub. Annually, 64 million cubic meters (400 million barrels) of oil move through this hub. This project utilizes existing caverns developed in the late 1960’s. Significant work was required to upgrade the cavern facilities and to construct new surface facilities to integrate the caverns into the crude oil transportation hub. Remote operation of the facility is performed from a control centre in Edmonton. In this paper, the key features of the design and construction of the Hardisty Cavern Storage Project will be presented. Of particular interest are the unique challenges presented due to hydraulic considerations related to cavern operation with multiple product characteristics and to provide crude oil movements exchanges between the cavern storage facilities and both low flow rate feeder pipelines and high flow rate transportation pipelines.
Best Practices for the Design and Installation of Bolted Joints
Authors: Tetteh-Wayoe Debra
Published: December 2008

The cost effective design and construction of liquid pipeline facilities traditionally necessitates the use of bolted joints as opposed to welds. Some of these bolted joints are frequently disassembled and reassembled as part of regular maintenance, while others are assembled at the time of construction and expected to retain a seal for the lifetime of the pipeline. Consequently, the design and installation practices employed for bolted connections are relied upon to produce the same operational life and integrity as welded pipe. In an effort to ensure that the bolted joints used on our pipeline system are as reliable as our welded joints, we investigated industry best practices for flange assembly and the root causes of joint failure. We have completed extensive research of technical literature, including the torquing procedures used in various industries, and performed field-testing on our own system. Generally we have found that: • Flange assembly failures and concerns about this issue are common in the oil and gas industry; • Practices for tightening flanges are inconsistent; and • To accomplish and retain an effective gasket seal, and thus minimize life cycle leaks, one has to consider many factors, including the amount of torque applied to nuts, the stud and nut friction, the type of gasket used, the size of the studs/nuts/flanges, the type of equipment used for tightening, the calibration of the torquing equipment, flange face alignment, and torquing sequence. Using the results of our investigation, we implemented several measures to enhance both the quality and the long-term integrity of our bolted flange connections. This paper describes the results of our investigations, as well as the practices implemented for flange assemblies required for maintenance and new construction activities.
Challenges in the Development of a Risk Management System for Natural Gas and Hazardous Liquid Pipelines
Authors: Filho Mario Pezzi , Carvalho Jose´ Flavio A. , Gloven Mike , Hendren Elaine , Gosse Steve
Published: December 2008

This paper covers some challenges encountered in the development of a risk management system for onshore natural gas and hazardous liquid pipelines. This system is based on the premises of PID – Petrobras Pipeline Integrity Management Program that defines rules for risk calculation and risk mitigation actions to be carried out whenever risk is above a level defined as tolerable. Commercial risk assessment software was customized to PID and is being upgrade with an algorithm able to assist in optimizing risk mitigation projects based on proposed scenarios. This study presents the challenges and benefits of implementing such a risk management system on a prototype pipeline system and the difficulties faced along the development of a scenario optimization algorithm, which is still in progress at the date of its publication.
Application of Risk Based Inspection Methodology of API 581 BRD to Oil Pipelines
Authors: Filho Mario Pezzi , Freire Jose´ Luiz de Franc¸a , Marangone Fa´bio de Castro
Published: December 2008

This study focuses on the calculation procedure of probability of failure according to the API 581 BRD RBI methodology for equipment under uniform or localized corrosion. This calculation procedure was applied to the data available from three existing oil pipelines to know a priori the influence of frequency and effectiveness of inspection activities on the probability of failure, and consequently, on the risk exposure they might be subjected along their remaining operating life. The results show that if the confidence on the damage rate and on the inspection effectiveness is known it is possible to design different alternatives to an existing inspection plan, which calls for pig inspections at every 5 years, still assuring that the probability of failure for these pipelines will be under a certain tolerable level.
Mechanical Properties of X80 Grade UOE Pipe for Long-Term Exposure at Elevated Temperature
Authors: Muraoka Ryuji , Okatsu Mitsuhiro , Ishikawa Nobuyuki , Endo Shigeru , Kakihara Shinichi , Kondo Joe , Murakami Muneyoshi
Published: December 2008

Recently, X80 grade UOE pipes have been planned to apply to steam injecting oil sand recovery systems to increase the volume of steam to be injected and lowering installation cost. The pipes for systems are subjected to high temperature for a long time, such as 350-C, for 20 years. Before real applications of the pipes, it is important to ensure the reliability of the pipes during and after long-term operations. In this study, in order to establish simulation conditions for 350-C × 20 years of operation, the change in microstructure and resulting mechanical properties of X80 grade pipes after a long-term exposure at elevated temperatures were investigated. Then, mechanical properties of the pipes subjected to the established simulated condition were examined. Change in the microstructure was quite small after exposure of 400-C and lower temperatures. Tensile strengths of the base metal and seam weld after up to 400-C of heat treatment can be arranged with the Larson-Miller parameter composed with temperature and holding time of the heat treatments. Therefore, heat treatments at 400-C for shorter than 20 years can be simulation conditions for the operation condition of the systems. As a result of mechanical tests simulating long-term exposure, satisfied performance of X80 grade pipes can be obtained.
Updated DNV-RP-F101 for Corroded Pipelines, 2004
Authors: Bjo̸rno̸y Ola Hallvard , Sigurdsson Gudfinnur , Marley Mark J.
Published: December 2008

Capacity assessment of corrosion defects in pipelines is a challenge for the pipeline industry, and has resulted in several methods and codes in the recent years. DNV issued in 1999 a recommended practice for the assessment of corroded pipelines, DNV-RP-F101 [1], which was developed in cooperation with the industry. This RP differs from other methods as the RP includes calibrated safety factors for various safety levels, and includes the effect of the inspection quality. The RP has been widely accepted, and the RP is under revision in 2004 based on experience from the first five years of use. This paper presents the background for the DNV-RP-F101, the safety philosophy, a presentation of the improvements in the latest revision, and a comparison with other codes.
High Pressure Hot Taps, What Every Pipeline Operator Must Know
Authors: McElligott John , Manuel Paul
Published: December 2008

Operating companies must consider the risk implications of any technology before they can use it. Although hot taps offer enormous environmental and economic benefits over alternative technologies, the consequences of inadequate preparation or execution can hurt people and damage property. Operators must know how hot taps work and be aware of the design options and the situations that can make them unfeasible or unsafe. More importantly, the commitment to quality control must be reflective of the ethic that “failure is not an option.”
In-Service Dent Management From an Operator’s Perspective
Authors: Adams Keith , Zhou Joe
Published: December 2008

Pipeline dents are common occurrences that have a potential integrity threat to the system. Dents are typically found through in-line inspections, and historically, low-resolution in-line inspection geometry tools were used to find the locations of dents. These tools gave little information about shape, orientation or other dent features. Newer ‘high-resolution’ tools give a much clearer picture of the dent shape, location, orientation and location of welds. This information has been previously unavailable and has enabled dent integrity assessment with much greater accuracy and confidence. However this still leaves the question of how to best address the information from older, low-resolution inspection tools. In the past, CSA Z662 required that all dents with a deflection greater than 6% or that contained stress concentrators, including welds, had to be repaired. In the newly published 2003 edition of CSA Z662, dents can be assessed by an engineering assessment to determine their acceptability. Historical evidence has shown that dents less than 6% can also be subject to failure under certain conditions, and is indicated in the notes of CSA Z662-03 10.8.2.4.2. Dents that contain stress concentrators, including corrosion, welds and cracks must be given special consideration, however often little information is available for the dent from solely a geometry tool. TransCanada PipeLines Limited has been involved in the development of a dent assessment methodology for several years. Based on the 2003 revisions to CSA Z662, TransCanada has started to implement a dent integrity management program. This paper discusses the approach taken by TransCanada: to create a database of dent features, classification of dents, finite element analysis (FEA) to determine cyclic stress spectra, fatigue analysis, validation through dig programs, and the management of these features from a system integrity standpoint.
Evolution of the Bauschinger Effect During Fabrication of Micro-Alloyed Pipeline Steels
Authors: Wiskel J. B. , Rieder M. , Henein H.
Published: December 2008

A study to quantify the Bauschinger effect during fabrication of micro-alloyed pipeline steel (X52 and X70) was conducted. A finite element stress model, that incorporates a kinematic yield surface formulation, was developed to calculate the magnitude of the Bauschinger effect viz a viz the relative yield surface shift ratio α/αsat. The evolution of this ratio during ERW fabrication and its relation to post forming yield behaviour is discussed. Finally the relationship between α/αsat and pipe properties will be discussed.
Integrity Planning and SCC Management in a Liquid Pipeline
Authors: Gu Bill , Feil Wayne , Kania Richard , Gao Ming , Krishnamurthy Ravi
Published: December 2008

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a major concern for many gas and oil pipeline operators. Extensive efforts continue to be made to develop strategies for a better management of the problem. Predictive models for stress corrosion crack growth were developed using lab testing data, limited inspection and excavation measurements since mid 70s and early 90s, respectively. In this paper, a systematic study of crack growth rates was conducted on the Imperial Oil Rainbow 24 NPS pipeline based on the two consecutive UltraScan Crack Detection (USCD) tool runs and field measurements. Findings of this study provide, perhaps, for the first time since the phenomenon was discovered, a direct measurement of crack growth rates for shallow cracks (in the category of <12.5%wt). Future integrity of the pipeline was assessed and the integrity management strategies were refined using the determined crack growth rate and fracture mechanics based approach. In addition, the susceptibility of SCC was studied in detail using a decision tree approach for data mining. Some important correlations between SCC susceptibility and environmental and mechanical variables were identified and presented. Findings on SCC susceptibility are discussed in terms of environmental and loading parameters such as soil, drainage, topography, pressure, and CP along the pipeline.
Inspection of Thin-Walled Pipe Welds Using Mechanized Ultrasonic Techniques
Authors: Lozev Mark , Spencer Roger , Hodgkinson David
Published: December 2008

In this paper an effective way to optimize the inspection of welds in thin-walled pipe less than 6 mm (0.24 in.) thick using automated ultrasonic testing (AUT) is described. AUT offers a better solution than radiography for detecting and sizing of planar defects. However, cap width, weld shrinkage and defect sizing put constraints on the actual ultrasonic approach for inspection of pipes with wall thickness less than 6 mm (0.24 in.). The applications of high-frequency single/multiprobe techniques and phased-array technology for inspection of thin-walled pipe welds have been investigated in this paper. It has been demonstrated that combining these techniques with modeling and simulation of UT have potentially significant advantages for enhanced detectability, better sizing and improved flaw characterization of randomly oriented planar fabrication imperfections in thin-walled pipe welds.
Detection and Location of Damage on Pipelines
Authors: Moore Karen A. , Carrington Robert , Richardson John
Published: December 2008

The U.S. Dept of Energy Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL) has developed and successfully tested a real-time pipeline damage detection and location system. This system uses porous metal resistive traces applied to the pipe to detect and locate damage. The porous metal resistive traces are sprayed along the length of a pipeline. The unique nature and arrangement of the traces allows locating the damage in real time along miles of pipe. This system allows pipeline operators to detect damage when and where it is occurring, and the decision to shut down a transmission pipeline can be made with actual real-time data, instead of conservative estimates from visual inspection above the area.
Corrosion Detection in Pipelines by Radiograph Density Measurements
Authors: Edalati K. , Rastkhah N. , Kermani A. , Seiedi M. , Movafeghi A.
Published: December 2008

In this study the thickness profile of pipes; with 6 inch in diameter and thickness ranges from 4.2 to 15.0 mm; was determined by using radiograph density measurements. It was concluded that thickness loss of 10, 20 and 50 percent and corrosion surface could be determined by this method in pipes. Also some Formulas were drawn and suggested for this method.
Key Elements of an Integrity Management Program for Pipelines to Achieve Consistent Reliability
Authors: Aladinsky Vladimir V. , Makhanev Valentin O.
Published: December 2008

This paper describes mosaic complex of analytical issues developed to ensure integrity management of main (transmission) pipelines. The following applications of analytical supporting (incorporated by integrity management scheme) are considered: probabilistic analysis of ILI data; corrosion growth evaluations; strength assessments of damaged pipes; procedure of defect ranging; strength recovery by wrap repairs; remaining life and reliability assessments; optimization of maintenance strategy.
Welding of High Strength Pipelines
Authors: Bruce Bill , Ramirez Jose , Johnson Matt , Gordon Robin
Published: December 2008

This paper presents the results of a project jointly funded by PRCI and EWI to evaluate the welding of X100 pipe grades using commercially available welding consumables. The welding trials included manual, semi-automatic and mechanized welding procedures. It was found that the combination of Pulsed GMAW and ER100S-1 (using a mixed shielding gas) produced both excellent Charpy impact and CTOD performance, but could result in undermatched girth welds if the pipe significantly exceeds minimum strength requirements. Although ER120 S-1 provides an additional margin of safety in strength, which should accommodate variations in X-100 pipe properties, the toughness results were marginal at −10°C. The risk of weld metal hydrogen cracking in X100 girth welds was also investigated.
CO2 Compression Using an Eight Stage, Integrally Geared, Centrifulgal Compressor
Authors: Olson Bill , Ammerman David , Hage Harmut
Published: December 2008

This paper discusses the design, specification, and installation of an integrally geared, 8-stage centrifugal compressor for CO2 pipeline service in North America. To the authors’ knowledge, this was the first, and remains the only, such application of this compression technology in a cross-country pipeline in North America. The facilities were installed in 1999 and became operational in 2000. Design considerations included compressing process CO2 from near atmospheric pressure to the super critical phase that allows for efficient transport of large volumes over long distances in a pipeline. In this phase, the CO2 behaves much like a liquid, but its physical properties (e.g. density and viscosity) vary much like a gas in response to temperature and pressure changes. In order to function properly in this application, the compressor must be flexible enough to compress the CO2 under varying inlet temperature and pressure conditions. Inlet guide vanes were used to regulate flow to the suction of alternating stages. The controls system for these vanes was required to closely monitor interstage conditions in order to make sure that no stage entered surge. Furthermore, the interstage coolers also required precise control to prevent overheating in summer or liquid formation in winter. Ambient design temperatures ranged from −50°F (−45°C) to +104°F (+40°C). A simplified system diagram is shown in Fig. 1. If the air-cooled heat exchangers remove too much heat, liquids will form and the subsequent compressor stage could be severely damaged. If the compressor unit, or any stage, enters surge (stalls), the machine can also be damaged. Consequently, bypass and recirculation schemes (see Fig. 1) were used to enhance safe operations. Ambient airflow to the coolers was controlled by louvers, which in turn were regulated by the compressor control system. These heat exchangers also employed recirculation plenums to permit recirculation of warm air during low ambient temperature conditions. The problem solved by the application of this technology was to efficiently compress large volumes of very low pressure CO2 into the super critical phase for pipeline transportation. The overall compression ratio across these units exceeded 180. In the past, CO2 compression for pipeline service has been accomplished by using numerous, multi-stage reciprocating compressors, over much narrower compression ratios (typically < 15).
SAAAP: An Automated Pipeline Routing System
Authors: de Oliveira Wilson Jose´ , Porciano Patri´cia Pereira , Alvarez Beatriz V. , Casanova Marco A. , Carvalho Marcelo Ti´lio M. de , Montenegro Anselmo Antunes , Pinto Carvalho Paulo Cezar
Published: December 2008

SAAAP — Routing Alternatives Environmental Evaluation System — was designed to select the best alternative route, within an area of interest, to implement a new pipeline project. The system takes into account economic, environmental and engineering factors, according to an optimality criterion that combines several variables, such as vegetation coverage, soil type and declivity. The system is operational and has been tested in several realistic projects.