bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Note on the Relations of the Supposed Carboniferous Plants of Bear Island with the Palæozoic Flora of North America
Authors: Dawson J. W.
Published: October 2009

I have only recently received the May number of the ‘Geological Journal’, containing the interesting paper of Dr. Heer on the plants above mentioned, and beg to request permission to address to the Society a few remarks on their supposed equivalency with the American Devonian Flora.

The plants catalogued by Dr. Heer, and characterizing what he calls the “Ursa Stage,” are in part representatives of those of the American flora which I have described as the “Lower Carboniferous Coal-measures” (Subcarboniferous of Dana), and whose characteristic species, as developed in Nova Scotia, I noticed in the Journal of the Geological Society in 1858 (vol. xv.). Dr. Heer's list, however, includes some Upper Devonian forms; and I would suggest that either the plants of two distinct beds, one Lower Carboniferous and the other Upper Devonian, have been near to or in contact with each other and have been intermixed, or else that in this high northern latitude, in which (for reasons stated in my Report on the Devonian Flora) I believe the Devonian plants to have originated, there was an actual intermixture of the two floras. In America, at the base of the Carboniferous of Ohio, a transition of this kind seems to occur; but elsewhere in North-Eastern America the Lower Carboniferous beds are usually unmixed with the Devonian.

Dr. Heer, however, proceeds to identify these plants with those of the American Chemung, and even with those of the Middle Devonian of New Brunswick, as described by me—a conclusion from which I
Further Notes on the Punfield Section
Authors: Meyer C. J. A.
Published: October 2009

In a paper read before the Society in March 1872, I stated my conviction that the so-called “Punfield Formation” of the Isle of Purbeck was superior in position to the “Lobster-clay” of Atherfield—or (to state the matter more clearly) that the Punfield beds, from the “marine band” upwards, were Lower Greensand instead of Wealden, representing, however, only so much of the Lower Greensand of the Isle of Wight as would be included between the “Lobster-clay” and the Gault.

The assertion was a bold one, and should, I am well aware, have been supported at the time by fuller evidence. It was not, however, put forward thoughtlessly; and I have now to offer such further evidence as may tend towards a settlement of the points in question.

To test the truth or error of my impressions with respect to the relation of the Isle-of-Wight
Wealden
and
Neocomian
strata to those of Punfield, I revisited the coast-sections at Redcliff and Atherfield, and spent several days in studying the corresponding strata in Compton Bay. I sought carefully in either formation for such change in its passage westward as might indicate the relation of either to the marine, or semi-marine, Punfield beds of the Isle of Purbeck.

The Wealden beds showed no such change. But for slight variations in thickness and disposition, these Upper Wealden shales of the Isle of Wight are almost perfectly alike at Compton Bay, at Sundown, and at Atherfield. The section of the Wealden strata of Compton Bay, at Sandown
Note on the Lignite Deposit of Lal-Lal, Victoria, Australia
Authors: Etheridge R.
Published: October 2009

The observations recorded in the present note were made at the latter end of the year 1868, during a preliminary survey of the Mount Buninyong District, Victoria. Unfortunately, through the dissolution of the late Geological Survey by the Colonial Government, circumstances did not permit of my carrying them to a successful termination.

The village of Lal-Lal is situated about 3 miles to the south of Mount Buninyong, in the Buninyong District, Victoria. The surface aspect of the ground occupied by the lignite deposit is, in winter, that of a sandy marshy flat, in summer dry and parched, covered with coarse grass, and of no great extent. The country immediately to the north of Lal-Lal is composed of granitic rocks overlain by the lava-flows of Mounts Buninyong and Warrenheip, which extend some distance to the northward. On the south and west the deposit is bounded by the low Silurian hills of Williamson's Creek, and the Mount-Doran ranges. The Melbourne, Geelong, and Ballarat Railway crosses the western edge of the Lal-Lal flat; and near this a shaft was sunk by the “Lal-Lal Lignite Company,” which appears to have struck the bed about its thickest point, viz. 115 feet, as later mining operations have proved that it thins out all round this point. The supposition would therefore be that the position of the shaft represents nearly the centre of the bed of lignite. The following is a generalized section from above downwards:—

1.

Alternations of sand, clay, and gravel, about 73 feet.

2.

Fine fire-clay
On the Structure and Age of Arthur’s Seat, Edinburgh
Authors: Judd John W.
Published: October 2009

E
very
geologist is familiar with the features presented by the remarkable group of hills on the outskirts of the city of Edinburgh, and is aware of the important part which their rocks have played in the controversies of Neptunists and Plutonists, of Huttonians and Wernerians. In discussing the origin of certain of the phenomena presented at Arthur’s Seat, and the evidence which these afford of the period of its formation, it will be unnecessary to notice at length the numerous important contributions to our knowledge of the geology of the hill which are to be found in the works of the older controversial writers*. Our retrospect of the previous literature of the subject need not, indeed, go back further than the time of Charles Maclaren, to whom is undoubtedly due the merit of demonstrating that in Arthur’s Seat and the surrounding hills we have the relics of an ancient volcano.

The results of Maclaren’s patient studies and ingenious inferences on the subject were given to the world in a series of letters in the ‘Scotsman’ newspaper in 1834, and were embodied in his well-known work ‘ The Geology of Fife and the Lothians,’ published in 1839. I shall not be exaggerating the merits of this valuable and original work in attributing to it a most important influence on the progress of our science. The descriptions of Maclaren’s work are a model of accuracy and clearness; and nothing can be more admirable than the bold ingenuity, tempered by modest caution, with
The Glaciation of the Southern part of the Lake-District and the Glacial Origin of the Lake-basins of Cumberland and Westmoreland
Authors: Ward J. Clifton
Published: October 2009

Introduction
.—In my paper on the “Glaciation of the Northern part of the Lake-district ”*, I endeavoured to show that at the period of maximum glaciation all the main-valley glaciers were more or less confluent, and that thus the country was enveloped in an almost continuous ice-sheet, which moved, in the northern part of the district, mainly from north to south. In PL VII. C is a continuation southwards of the glacial map brought forward in the previous papers; and a few words must first be said about the distribution of ice-scratches south of the great east-and-west watershed of the district and its import†.

I. T
rend of the
I
ce-Scratches and its
i
mport
.

The first glance at the map (P1. VII. C) shows that, as in the case of the northern part of the district, the general direction of the arrows points to a great system of valley-glaciers more or less confluent with one another. One or two exceptional directions will be mentioned presently.

a.
Wastdale
.—From Scafell Pikes (49)as a centre, there are scratches pointing downwards, from heights above 2500 feet, to the north into Wastdale, and to the south into Eskdale. From the head of Mosedale, beneath the Pillar Mountain (24) ‡ and Red Pike (67), there is a similar series, and from the double valley between Yew-barrow (43) and Middle Fell (42). Upon Buckbarrow (41) there are scratches pointing with the valley at a height of 1250 feet; and at a height of 1600 feet, north of and between Buckbarrow (41)
On the Succession of the Ancient Rocks in the vicinity of St. David’s, Pembrokeshire, with special reference to those of the Arenig and Llandeilo Groups, and their Fossil Contents
Authors: Hicks Henry
Published: October 2009

I
n
my last paper, communicated to the Geological Society in December 1872, the order of the succession of the strata in the vicinity of St, David’s was carefully tabulated to the top of the Tremadoc group; and it was there shown that the succession was a perfectly continuous one from the base of the Cambrian series to the top of the Tremadoc group, and that the only break or unconformity recognized was at the base of the Cambrian, where it rested on the pre-Cambrian ridge. In the accompanying map and sections (P1. VIII.) the following order of the rocks is shown. Directly under the city of St. David’s, or, rather, under its eastern portion, are some massive beds of quartzy conglomerates, very compact in structure, but alternating with dark-green shales, with a strike from N.W. to S.E. These have a thickness as we follow them directly eastward from this spot of about 4000 feet; and they run, with a varying thickness not exceeding this, for about five miles in a N.E. direction from St. David’s, but are then cut off by a fault. They also extend in a line to the S.W., reaching the coast of St. Bride’s Bay, on the east side of Porth-lisky Harbour, but are considerably reduced in thickness at this part by a fault running in a N.E. direction. The ridge formed by these rocks underlies the whole of the remaining strata of the district, being the axis on which the Cambrian and other rocks are
On the Probable Existence of a considerable Fault in the Lias near Rugby, and of a new Outlier of the Oolite
Authors: Wilson J. M.
Published: October 2009

I
t
may be useful in a future geological survey of Warwickshire if I call the attention of this Society to what seems to me the high probability of the existence of a considerable fault in the Lower Lias near Rugby, which has, I believe, hitherto escaped detection. It is accompanied by an outlier of the Oolite, which is not marked in the maps of the Geological Survey.

It will be scarcely worth while to give here the detailed tracing, field by field, of parts of this fault. I propose to print these details in the Report of the Rugby-School Natural-History Society, which will be published in a few weeks. It will be sufficient here to notice its probable existence and position, and to invite to it the attention of some competent geological surveyor.

In the village of Low Morton is a sandpit which is worked against the steep face of a hill to a depth of nearly 50 feet. A few yards from the face of the sand-cliff a well has been sunk 20 or more feet further; and out in the village, and in the bed of the valley, the sand extends to a greater but still unknown depth. No bottom has ever been reached. In a previous communication of mine to the Society will be seen the account of some borings I made for that purpose*. Above the sand-pit is a clay-pit; and there is evidence that the clay is bounded on the side towards the sand by
The Phosphorite Deposits of North Wales
Authors: Davies D. C.
Published: October 2009

I
n
the year 1863 a working miner picked up a piece of black-looking stuff in a small ravine above Cwmgwynen farm-house, five miles west of the town of Llanfyllin, in North Wales. His discovery excited his curiosity, and led him to make some trial-holes in the ravine, in the hope that he might find the substance in bulk. He was successful in this; but the newly found substance perplexed both himself and his mining friends. It was strange to them all, except that some of them pronounced it manganese, and others rotten sulphur. At last, through the late Mr. Hope Jones, of Hooton, Cheshire, the mineral found its way into the hands of Dr. Voelcker, for analysis. Dr. Voelcker found that the best samples submitted to him yielded over 60 per cent. of phosphate of lime, and the most impure over 40 per cent.

At the meeting of the British Association, in Birmingham, in 1864, Dr. Voelcker called attention to the discovery, and rightly estimated the quantity of phosphate, in the property to which his attention had been directed, at over two million tons. Meanwhile preparations were being made for mining the newly discovered substance, and bringing it into the market. Searches, too, were made for the mineral on adjoining properties, which resulted in its discovery at Penygarnedd, to the N.E., and Pwllywrach, to the S.W. of Cwmgwynen, under similar conditions. The district was one well known to me previously; and I had occasion to visit the new workings repeatedly.
On the Axis of a Dinosaur from the Wealden of Brook in the Isle of Wight, probably referable to the Iguanodon
Authors: Seeley Harry Govier
Published: October 2009

T
his
vertebra was collected for the Woodwardian Museum of the University of Cambridge by Mr. Henry Keeping, and catalogued in my ‘Index to the Aves, Ornithosauria, and Reptilia’ (p. 81) as the axis of a Dinosaur. The specimen is perfect, and but very slightly crushed from side to side. It measures
3 1/2
inches in length, from the termination of the dentata to the posterior articular face of the centrum. The vertebra has a small neural arch, and measures
3 1/4
inches from the base of the centrum to the top of the neural spine.

The centrum is depressed, and anteriorly measures
1 5/8
inch deep from the neural canal to the base, and is
2 1/2
inches wide over the articular surface. This surface, below the dentata, is nearly vertical (fig. 1,
a
), and forms more than a quarter of a circle (fig. 2,
a
). In the middle of the base of the centrum a wedge-bone ossification is anchylosed, as in birds (fig. 2,
a
), and projects forward for about a quarter of an inch. The vertical articular surface has its superior (or interior) outline nearly parallel to the circumference of the bone (fig. 2), and is rather more than
3/4
inch deep. Confluent with this area, and between it and the underside of the dentata, which it occupies for half an inch, is an articular band margined by a somewhat sinuous anterior border (fig. 1,
b
), which is
1/2
inch wide in the middle, but becomes narrower at its two extremities, which
Notes on the Bingera Diamond-field, with Notes on the Mudgee Diamond-field
Authors: Liversidge Archibald
Published: October 2009

T
he
first announcement of the occurrence of the diamond in Australia was made by the Rev. W. B. Clarke, F.G.S., in 1860. Specicimens were found, in 1852, at Calula Creek, and, in 1859, near Sutton's Bar, in the Macquarie river, at Burrendong, and at Pyramul Creek.

In 1867 diamonds were discovered by gold-diggers in the Mudgee district on the Cudgegong river, which flows into the Macquarie. In 1869 they were worked pretty extensively at this spot; and in 1870 Mr. Norman Taylor and Dr. Thomson described the Mudgee diamond-field in a paper read before the Royal Society of New South Wales. From this it appears that the diamond-bearing spots lie along the river in outliers of an old river-drift, at varying distances from the river and at an elevation of 40 feet or more above it. The outliers are capped by deposits of hard and compact, sometimes columnar basalt, regarded by Mr. Taylor as of older Pliocene age. These outliers, with their basaltic capping, may be traced for about seventeen miles up the river; in some of them the diamantiferous drift is still 70 feet in thickness.

The outliers which have been worked are enumerated by Messrs. Taylor and Thomson as follows:—Jordan's Hill, 40 acres; Two Mile Flat, 70 acres; Rocky Ridge, 40 acres; Horse-shoe Bend, 20 acres; and Hassall's Hill, 340 acres: in all, 510 acres. The drift has invariably been met with in these localities on tunnelling under or sinking through the basalt. In one patch a peculiar
On the Granitic, Granitoid, and Associated Metamorphic Rocks of the Lake-district. Parts I. & II.
Authors: Ward J. Clifton
Published: October 2009

Preface
.

I
n
the following memoir I propose to consider all the points of
theoretic
importance connected with the granitic and granitoid rocks of the Lake-District and their associated metamorphic rocks, details and self-evident facts being described at full in the ‘Survey Memoir.’

Part I. will treat of the probable pressures under which the granitic and granitoid rocks were consolidated, these pressures being calculated from the evidence afforded by the liquid-cavities contained in the quartz.

Part II. will deal with the case of the Eskdale and Shap granites and the associated altered rocks, on lithological, microscopical, and chemical grounds, the evidence for or against these masses being derived by metamorphism from the surrounding rocks being brought forward.

In Part III. the Skiddaw granite and metamorphosed Skiddaw slates will be treated in a similar manner.

Part IV. will comprehend a like examination of various masses of syenitic granite, syenite, and quartz-felsite, with the rocks metamorphosed around them.

Lastly, Part V. will consist of a summary of results, and a statement of the theoretic points which these support.

P
art
I.—
On the Liquid-cavities in the Quartz-bearing Rocks of the Lake-district
.

Introduction
.

No one can read Mr. Sorby's masterly and elaborate paper on the Microscopical Structure of Crystals* without being struck with the amount of patient investigation it displays and the host of interesting questions it suggests. During the last few years that if has been my privilege to work in the field among the rocks of the Lake-district it has frequently been upon my
On the Association of Dwarf Crocodiles (
Nannosuchus
and
Theriosuchus pusillus
, e.g.) with the Diminutive Mammals of the Purbeck Shales
Authors: Owen Richard
Published: October 2009

Agbeeably with an intimation at the close of the Monograph (No. VIII.) “On the Fossil Reptilia of the Wealden and Purbeck Formations,” which appeared in the volume of the Palæontographical Society issued in 1878 (p. 15), I communicated to the Geological Society of London a paper in which ideas suggested by the subjects of that Monograph on certain relations of Mesozoic and Neozoic Crocodilia to their prey were more fully detailed, and an instructive discussion was thereupon raised agreeably with the writer's design.

To his assumption that the mammalian prey of Neozoic Crocodiles were non-existent in Mesozoic times, an experienced palæontologist objected that such were in existence at those periods, and co-existed with the Teleosaurs and other amphicœlian Crocodiles.

It had not occurred to me that the mammalian prey of the Neozoic Crocodiles, which I had in view, and which were exemplified in my mind and meaning by the Tiger, the Buffalo, and similarly large unguiculate and ungulate species, could be represented or suggested by the extinct mammals from the Purbeck and Stonesfield strata, in the restoration of which, and the vindication of their claims to warm-blooded and mammiferous eminence, no small proportion of past palæontological work had been submitted by me in former days to the Geological Society.
Notes on
Pleurodus affinis
, sp. ined., Agassiz, and Description of three Spines of Cestracionts from the Lower Coal-measures
Authors: Davis J. W.
Published: October 2009

Two years ago I had the pleasure of reading a paper to this Society describing a thin stratum of shale known to extend over an area of several miles, immediately above the Better-bed coal in the neighbourhood of Clifton and Low Moor, south-east of Halifax. The stratum averages from a quarter to three eighths of an inch in thickness, and is almost entirely composed of the fragmentary remains of fishes and Labyrinthodonts. Between thirty and forty species of fishes have been found, and are enumerated in the paper already referred to.
Description of fragmentary Indications of a huge kind of Theriodont Reptile (
Titanosuchus ferox
, Ow.) from Beaufort West, Gough Tract, Cape of Good Hope
Authors: Owen
Published: October 2009

In a series of fossil remains from the Gough and Karroo tracts in South Africa, transmitted by Thomas Bain, Esq., Inspector of Roads, Cape of Good Hope, to the British Museum (May 1878), boxes nos. 1 and 2 were invoiced as containing “Loose hones and fragments of hones of a large Saurian, found lying on the surface at Koodaskop, Gough.”

No bone was entire; all were broken portions more or less water-worn and much weathered. A more seemingly hopeless lot of fossils I never before took in hand.

Indistinct traces of broken teeth, here and there, were the sole guide to a nearer recognition of the parts containing them, and suggested a way of treatment by which a clearer insight of their nature might be obtained. Omitting some tentative procedures, I venture to submit the following results.
On the Triassic Rocks of Normandy and their Environments
Authors: Ussher W. A. E.
Published: October 2009

Mr. Vicary's indefatigable zeal in the collection of specimens has attracted much attention to the lithological characters and fossil contents of the Budleigh pebbles. Being so different from those exhibited by Devonshire rocks (within the present limits of the country), the attention of geologists was divided between certain quartzites on the south coast of Cornwall, at the instigation of Mr. Peach, and the Grès de May, advocated by Mr. Sailer, as the probable source of the pebbles. Mr. Davidson, however, subsequently pointed out the preponderance of Devonian forms in the pebbles; with his arguments and the inferences therefrom deduced I have dealt elsewhere. It suffices here merely to state that the settlement of this vexed question induced me to spend part of my vacation in Normandy, after a careful perusal of M. Bonissent's excellent and exhaustive memoir on the Geology of La Manche; and that, from a footnote to Mr. Salter's paper citing Mr. Godwin-Austen as to the occurrence of a similar Triassic quartzite gravel in Normandy, and from the personal observations of my friend Mr. Linford to the same effect, I was under the impression that the Norman area not only formed the south-eastern margin of our Devonshire Triassic basin, but that it would also furnish a sequence of deposits equivalent to the Upper and Lower Keuper of Devon, and, owing to the proximity of quartzite rocks, would probably afford a much greater development of the quartzite gravels which heralded the formation of the Keuper in South Devon.
Glacial Periods
Authors: Campbell J. F.
Published: October 2009

The general result of sections III., IV., V. is that Indian glaciers are near about as large as they have been since the deposition of the crumpled Tertiary beds which are called “Nahuns” and “Shivaliks.” “The glacial period” is dated “Postpliocene.” The Indian ground traversed extends from Ceylon to Kangra, near lat. 32° N., and includes Lower Himalayan slopes between the river Ravee, lat. 32° N., and Darjeeling in lat. 27° 28' near long. 90° E.

The result of section V. is the same for the Caucasus, about 40° N., and for the Rocky Mountains, about lat. 36° to 37°. About lat. 45°–46° in Northern Italy glaciers certainly were a great deal larger in Postpliocene times. There is reason to believe that glaciers existed as far south as Calabria, near lat. 30°, in “Miocene” times ; that is, about the latitude of Simla and Hirdwar. The general conclusion is in section VI., and the result of the whole paper is in the first paragraph and in the last. The facts are in sections III. to VI.; and to them I beg to refer readers who wish to test my conclusions.
On Remains of
Mastodon
and other Vertebrata of the Miocene Beds of the Maltese Islands
Authors: Adams A. Leith
Published: October 2009

The well-deserved reputation maintained by the Maltese Islands in connexion with their fossil fauna has been increased by a discovery lately made by my distinguished friend Mr. C. A. Wright, F.L.S. In a collection of animal remains he has lately forwarded to me from the Miocene beds of the islands, among other interesting relics I find two molars of Mastodon. The finding of Proboscideans in the rock-strata is of especial concern, and cannot prove otherwise than suggestive with reference to the historical geology of the deposits. I propose therefore, in the first place, to epitomize the main facts relating to the structure and stratigraphical arrangement of the beds and their characteristic fossils, considering especially how far there is evidence of any of the fauna having been derived from older formations. In the second place, I will enumerate all the Vertebrata hitherto discovered in the Miocene beds. The Invertebrata have been carefully described or named by Forbes*, Wright†, Davidson‡, Rupert Jones§, Martin Duncan∥, and Woodward¶. As described in a previous paper**, Maltese formations are divisible into (1) the Upper Limestone, (2) Sand bed, (3) Marl, (4) Calcareous Sandstone, (5) Lower Limestone; all of which are conformable.

I. The U
pper
L
imstone
attains its greatest depth in the island of Comino, which is composed of it entirely, attaining a thickness of about 250 feet above the sea-level. I t is the surface-formation along the western portion of Malta and the highlands of
Gozo
; but I doubt if its original thickness is preserved anywhere.
Notes on the Microscopic Structure of some Shropshire Rocks
Authors: Bonney T. G.
Published: October 2009

The Ercal Hill, to the north of the Rhyoliytes of the Wrekin, so admirably described by Mr. S. Allport, is a mass of reddish granitoid rook. Microscopic exammation of a slide of this caused me to suspect that it was not a true granite, even before the investigation of Dr. Callaway's specimens and our joint visits to the locality. Besides the granitoid rock, there is seen, in the lower portion of a large pit, a compact greyish rock; both these have here been very fully examined with the following results:—

(A)
Compact type
.—Five specimens in all have been examined, three from different parts of the greyish mass forming the lower portion of the pit, two from its upper left-hand corner, where the rock has a redder colour and a very fragmental aspect. As regards the first three, under the microscope they possess in common far more resemblance to the rhyolites described by Mr. S. Allport than one would suspect from their macroscopic aspect. All, seen by transmitted light, have a more or less glassy aspect, and with crossing Nicols exhibit the usual devitrified structure. For the details of this I content myself with referring to Mr. Allport's descriptions, and will merely call attention to the structural variations in each specimen.

(1) A compact buff-grey rock from the base of the quarry (“fairly typical, very jointy”—C. C.). This exhibits a great number of somewhat faintly defined crystallites of a rather curved or wavy form, such as are figured by Zirkel in
On some Superficial Deposits in the Neighbourhood of Evesham
Authors: Ingram A. H. Winnington
Published: October 2009

Subsequently to the late Mr. T. G. B. Lloyd's paper on the superficial deposits of the Vale of Evesham being written, the gravels of the lower series on Green Hill near Evesham have been extensively opened, and disclosed flints of about the weight of 10 lbs. These are so very perfect and unworn by water, presenting generally the same appearance as if they had just been taken from the matrix of the chalk, that floating ice seems to be the most probable agency which brought them to their present elevation, about 120 feet above the level of the Avon. An abundant deposit of flints of the same size and character occurs near Moreton-in-Marsh; and a large block of chalk was discovered in the railway-cutting at Aston Magna. So it is reasonable to conclude that the flints of Green Hill, some of which present glacial marks, were conveyed by shore-ice down the vale of Moreton, through the depression in the Cotswolds forming at that time what might be called the Straits of Mickleton, to the position which they now occupy. A thin layer of fawn-coloured clay resting on a slight stratum of subangular pebbles, at the base of excavations for brick-earth at Bengeworth, well merits the attention of geologists; it and the sand immediately above have yielded entire heads and horns of
Bos primigenius
and
Bison priscus
, antlers of
Cervus tarandus
, and many unwaterworn shank and other bones of large mammals.From the same clay a fine tusk of a Hippopotamus has
On a Section of Boulder-clay and Gravels near Ballygalley Head, and an Inquiry as to the proper Classification of the Irish Drift
Authors: Reade T. Mellard
Published: October 2009

At a point in the road along the west coast of Ireland, between Lame and Cushendall and near Ballygalley Head, is a gravel-pit giving a section which may help to determine the classification of the Irish Drift.

The exposed face is, as nearly as I could judge, about 30 feet high, the pit being cut into a grass-covered slope lying against the hilly ground which mostly flanks the coast-road landward.

The following is a sketch which I took on the spot last autumn; and although I did not measure the thickness of the beds, it may be relied upon as giving their proportionate disposition.

The base of the excavation (A) is formed by a bed of current-bedded gravel containing shells and shell fragments. The actual base of the bed is not disclosed, so it is impossible to say how thick it is, or whether it rests on a Boulder-clay or on the natural rock.

It is capped by a perfectly straight and nearly level bed of sand, about 4 inches thick (B), on which rest irregularly disposed masses of clay and sand containing boulders, and above this a band of red clay, C, which is again overlain by a mass of unstratified Boulder-clay, D, the surface of which is covered by a bed of subaerial detritus, E, forming the subsoil of the grassy slope.

Coming fresh from Lancashire, where some geologists, followingProf. Hull's lead, divide the Drift into three parts (viz. Lower Boulder-clay, Middle Drift or Interglacial Gravels, and Upper
Further Observations on the Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Caernarvon
Authors: Hughes T. McKenny
Published: October 2009

O
n
a former occasion (Quart. Journ. Geol Soc. vol. xxxiv. p. 137) I offered a sketch of the Pre-Cambrian rocks which form the long ridge stretching from Bangor to Caernarvon. The classification I adopted was in descending order:—

i.

The Volcanic series
, consisting of volcanic fragmentary ejectamenta, agglomerates, ash-beds, and slates, occurring near Bangor, and referred to as
Bangor beds
.

ii.

The Felsitic series
, consisting chiefly of quartz felsites, and probably also of volcanic origin, occurring near Llanddeiniolen and Dinorwig, and now referred to as the
Dinorwig beds
.

iii.

The Granitoid series
, occurring near Caernarvon, and referred to as the
Caernarvon beds
.

Endeavouring to correlate these groups with the divisions proposed by Dr. Hicks, I considered that the lowest group included less than the Dimetian, from which I proposed to cut off every thing above the brecciated bed below Bryngarn, on the left of the valley running down from St. David's to Porthclais. The upper group I divided into two. I do not know how far Dr. Hicks, in the modified classification recently offered to the British Association (Report, 1878, Trans. Sect. p. 536), adopts the above threefold classification. I considered that there was no unconformity visible between the groups, whether we accepted the brackets drawn by Dr. Hicks or those which I proposed.

Since this paper was first sent in much additional information has been brought forward by Professor Bonney, Dr. Hicks, and Mr. Houghton, in communications made to the
Tertiary Echinoidea of the Kohat-Potwar Basin
Authors: Davies Lewis Merson
Published: October 2009

Summary

The author describes the results, to dte, of work on the Tertiary echinoids of the Kohat district and northern Punjab. He recalls facts published in previous papers, and deals with collections more recently made. He outlines the stratigraphy of the northern basin, and shows how its echinoids help to correlate its elements with the early Tertiary deposits of Baluchistan and Sind.

I. Introduction

A Number of Tertiary echinoids from the Kohat-Potwar basin have already been dealt with (Davies 1925, 1926A, 1927, 1937), but many more were collected during my last visit to India. An attempt is here made to summarize existing information on the subject.

By the expression “Kohat-Potwar basin” (cf. Davies 1940B, p. 489; 1940C, p. 209), is meant an area approximately covered by the Kohat district and the Potwar plateau. This region formed a fairly well-marked basin during late Cretaceous and early Tertiary times, when an arm of the Tethyan sea crossed the north-western corner of the Indian horst on its way to what is now southern Tibet (Davies 1940B). In the final phases of its marine history this basin showed increased individuality, owing to earth movements which severed its trans-Himalayan extension to the east and restricted its communications with Sind to the south.

II. Marine Tertiary Sequence in the Basin

It seems that land, in this region, stood higher to the south-east than to the north-west at the close of Mesozoic times, for Jurassic beds are often directly overlain by Upper Ranikot beds on the Salt
The Origin and Structure of the Lower Viséan Reef-Knolls of the Clitheroe District, Lancashire
Authors: Parkinson Donald
Published: October 2009

Summary

The reef-knolls discussed in particular are Crow Hill, Worsaw, Gerna, Sykes and Twiston, all of which lie on the south-eastern limb of the Clitheroe anticline. It is shown that along the eastern side of Worsaw Hill the reef-limestone accumulated at high angles to the horizontal and at depths varying from sea-level down to 400 feet or more below, on a slope running perpendicular to the present strike of the surrounding beds. Shales and thin-bedded limestones were deposited between the reefs and contemporaneously with them on a sinking sea-floor. The larger knolls are considered to be the exposed parts of reefs which were originally ridge-like and ran parallel to the north-west and south-east fault lines and perpendicular to the later main orogenic axes. Some of the reefs may have been several miles in length, but their width rarely exceeded half a mile. Reef sedimentation was followed by uplift which resulted in erosion along the flanks of the reefs and a deepening of the depressions between them. The succeeding Worst on Shales were thus deposited on an uneven surface which resulted primarily from original irregularities of sedimentation but which was modified by subsequent earth-movement.

I. Introduction

In 1926, in describing the Lower Carboniferous succession of the Clitheroe-Pendle area, I adduced evidence supporting Tiddeman's theory (1900, and Kendall and Wroot 1924, p. 92) of the origin of the reef.knolls. It was argued that the stratigraphy could only be satisfactorily interpreted on the assumption that the limestone hills lying between the villages of
Scientific Bases of Macroenvironmental Indicators
Authors: Orians Gordon H. , Policansky David
Published: October 2009

We review the development of macroenvironmental indicators, an effort driven by a combination of improved understanding of the functioning of Earth's natural systems at large spatial and temporal scales and of increasing demands by an expanding human population for goods and services provided by ecosystems. To be credible, macroenvironmental indicators need to be based on established scientific concepts and supported by extensive data. To be adopted, they need to serve the interests of diverse stakeholders and be perceived as unbiased. The baselines against which they are evaluated must be clear. A modest number of macroindicators of abiotic natural capital, biotic natural capital, and ecological functioning are currently in use. Some of them are designed to report on trends in legislatively mandated goals and standards. Most environmental indicators, however, report on specific components of the environment at small scales. They are not readily aggregated to form synthetic macroenvironmental indicators.
Infrastructure and the Environment
Authors: Doyle Martin W. , Havlick David G.
Published: October 2009

Infrastructure is the foundation on which industrialized economies are built. As global population has grown and as economies of many regions have expanded, the quantity and scale of infrastructure has increased dramatically. Although some infrastructure is used to move people and commodities, much infrastructure is also used to control natural processes or to extract natural resources. Thus, understanding environmental change necessitates understanding the role of infrastructure in the environment. We review available inventories of infrastructure and current understanding of environmental impacts for different types of infrastructure. We also examine the current status of aging infrastructure and the potential environmental impacts and benefits of infrastructure decommissioning. Finally, we briefly review policies that have facilitated or inhibited infrastructure decommissioning or environmentally oriented modifications of infrastructure operation.
Economic Globalization and the Environment
Authors: Gallagher Kevin P.
Published: October 2009

As the world's economies become more integrated and the global economy subsequently grows, there is increasing concern regarding how such trends will affect the environment. In fact, the relationship between globalization and the environment has become quite contentious in policy circles. In part in response to these controversies, a burgeoning amount of academic attention has emerged that examines the globalization/environment nexus. Although there have been advances in the thinking about these relationships, significant challenges remain. This article provides a critical taxonomy that will help scholars better understand the overwhelming literature on the subject and also outlines the key challenges that scholars and policy makers will face for a second wave of thinking on the subject.
Interactions Between Biogeochemistry and Hydrologic Systems
Authors: Lohse Kathleen A. , Brooks Paul D. , McIntosh Jennifer C. , Meixner Thomas , Huxman Travis E.
Published: October 2009

Here we review the fundamental interactions between hydrology and the cycling of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) in terrestrial and stream ecosystems. We organize this review around five commonly studied environments: land-atmosphere interface, soil, groundwater, streams, and headwater catchments. Common among all environments is that hydrological transitions, either episodic changes in water availability or hydrologic transport of reactants, result in disproportionately high rates of C and N cycling. Two major research challenges in coupling hydrological and biogeochemical research are (a) effectively scaling reactions at these spatiotemporal transitions and (b) combining the progress made within each of the five environments listed above into an integrated understanding of hydrobiogeochemical cycles. Changes in local-to-regional hydrological cycling are likely to result in unexpected surprises at the landscape scale until progress in these research areas is made.
AMP-activated protein kinase activator A-769662 is an inhibitor of the Na+-K+-ATPase
Authors: Benziane Boubacar , Björnholm Marie , Lantier Louise , Viollet Benoit , Zierath Juleen R. , Chibalin Alexander V.
Published: October 2009

Muscle contraction and metabolic stress are potent activators of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). AMPK restores energy balance by activating processes that produce energy while inhibiting those that consume energy. The role of AMPK in the regulation of active ion transport is unclear. Our aim was to determine the effect of the AMPK activator A-769662 on Na+-K+-ATPase function in skeletal muscle cells. Short-term incubation of differentiated rat L6 myotubes with 100 μM A-769662 increased AMPK and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) phosphorylation in parallel with decreased Na+-K+-ATPase α1-subunit abundance at the plasma membrane and ouabain-sensitive 86Rb+ uptake. Notably, the effect of A-769662 on Na+-K+-ATPase was similar in muscle cells that do not express AMPK α1- and α2-catalytic subunits. A-769662 directly inhibits the α1-isoform of the Na+-K+-ATPase, purified from rat and human kidney cells in vitro with IC50 57 μM and 220 μM, respectively. Inhibition of the Na+-K+-ATPase by 100 μM ouabain decreases sodium pump activity and cell surface abundance, similar to the effect of A-769662, without affecting AMPK and ACC phosphorylation. In conclusion, the AMPK activator A-769662 inhibits Na+-K+-ATPase activity and decreases the sodium pump cell surface abundance in L6 skeletal muscle cells. The effect of A-769662 on sodium pump is due to direct inhibition of the Na+-K+-ATPase activity, rather than AMPK activation. This AMPK-independent effect on Na+-K+-ATPase calls into question the use of A-769662 as a specific AMPK activator for metabolic studies.
Role of β-arrestin1/ERK MAP kinase pathway in regulating adenosine A1receptor desensitization and recovery
Authors: Jajoo Sarvesh , Mukherjea Debashree , Kumar Sunny , Sheth Sandeep , Kaur Tejbeer , Rybak Leonard P. , Ramkumar Vickram
Published: October 2009

Exposure of cells to adenosine receptor (AR) agonists leads to receptor uncoupling from G proteins and downregulation of the A1AR. The receptor levels on the cell surface generally recover on withdrawal of the agonist, because of either translocation of the sequestered A1AR back to plasma membrane or de novo synthesis of A1AR. To examine the mechanism(s) underlying A1AR downregulation and recovery, we treated ductus deferens tumor (DDT1MF-2) cells with the agonist R-phenylisopropyladenosine ( R-PIA) and showed a decrease in membrane A1AR levels by 24 h, which was associated with an unexpected 11-fold increase in A1AR mRNA. Acute exposure of these cells to R-PIA resulted in a rapid translocation of β-arrestin1 to the plasma membrane. Knockdown of β-arrestin1 by short interfering RNA (siRNA) blocked R-PIA-mediated downregulation of the A1AR, suppressed R-PIA-dependent ERK1/2 and activator protein-1 (AP-1) activity, and reduced the induction of A1AR mRNA. Withdrawal of the agonist after a 24-h exposure resulted in rapid recovery of plasma membrane A1AR. This was dependent on the de novo protein synthesis and on the activity of ERK1/2 but independent of β-arrestin1 and nuclear factor-κB. Together, these data suggest that exposure to A1AR agonist stimulates ERK1/2 activity via β-arrestin1, which subserves receptor uncoupling and downregulation, in addition to the induction of A1AR expression. We propose that such a pathway ensures both the termination of the agonist signal and recovery by priming the cell for rapid de novo synthesis of A1AR once the drug is terminated.
Hemorrhagic shock augments lung endothelial cell activation: role of temporal alterations of TLR4 and TLR2
Authors: Li Yuehua , Xiang Meng , Yuan Youzhong , Xiao Guozhi , Zhang Jian , Jiang Yong , Vodovotz Yoram , Billiar Timothy R. , Wilson Mark A. , Fan Jie
Published: October 2009

Hemorrhagic shock (HS) due to major trauma predisposes the host to the development of acute lung inflammation and injury. The lung vascular endothelium is an active organ that plays a central role in the development of acute lung injury through generating reactive oxygen species and synthesizing and releasing of a number of inflammatory mediators, including leukocyte adhesion molecules that regulate neutrophils emigration. Previous study from our laboratory has demonstrated that in a setting of sepsis, Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) signaling can induce TLR2 expression in endothelial cells (ECs), thereby increasing the cells' response to TLR2 ligands. The present study tested the hypothesis that TLR4 activation by HS and the resultant increased TLR2 surface expression in ECs might contribute to the mechanism underlying HS-augmented activation of lung ECs. The results show that high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) through TLR4 signaling mediates HS-induced surface expression of TLR2 in the lung and mouse lung vascular endothelial cells (MLVECs). Furthermore, the results demonstrate that HMGB1 induces activation of NAD(P)H oxidase and expression of ICAM-1 in the lung, and MLVECs sequentially depend on TLR4 in the early phase and on TLR2 in the late phase following HS. Finally, the data indicate an important role of the increased TLR2 surface expression in enhancing the activation of MLVECs and augmenting pulmonary neutrophil infiltration in response to TLR2 agonist peptidoglycan. Thus, induction of TLR2 surface expression in lung ECs, induced by HS and mediated by HMGB1/TLR4 signaling, is an important mechanism responsible for endothelial cell-mediated inflammation and organ injury following trauma and hemorrhage.
The balance of autocrine VEGF-A and VEGF-C determines podocyte survival
Authors: Müller-Deile Janina , Worthmann Kirstin , Saleem Moin , Tossidou Irini , Haller Hermann , Schiffer Mario
Published: October 2009

Podocytes are an important component of the glomerular filtration barrier and are the major source of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the glomerulus. The role of VEGF for the phenotype of the glomerular endothelium has been intensely studied; however, the direct effects of autocrine VEGF on the podocyte are largely unknown. In this study we characterized the expression of VEGF isoforms and VEGF receptors in cultured human podocytes and examined direct effects on cell signaling and apoptosis after stimulation with exogenous VEGF or ablation of autocrine VEGF. We identified VEGF-A and VEGF-C as the dominant isoforms in human podocytes and showed that autocrine levels of both are important for the intracellular activation of antiapoptotic phosphoinositol 3-kinase/AKT and suppression of the proapoptotic p38MAPK via VEGFR-2. We demonstrated that ablation of VEGF-A or VEGF-C as well as treatment with bevacizumab or a VEGFR-2/-3 tyrosine kinase inhibitor led to reduced podocyte survival. In contrast, ablation of VEGF-B had no effect on podocyte survival. Treatment with exogenous VEGF-C reversed the effect of VEGF-A neutralization, and exogenous VEGF-A abrogated the effect of VEGF-C ablation in human podocytes. Our results underline the importance of autocrine VEGF for podocyte survival and indicate the delicate balance of VEGF-A and VEGF-C to influence progression of glomerular diseases.
Perception of Simulated Local Shapes Using Active and Passive Touch
Authors: Smith Allan M. , Chapman C. Elaine , Donati François , Fortier-Poisson Pascal , Hayward Vincent
Published: October 2009

This study reexamined the perceptual equivalence of active and passive touch using a computer-controlled force-feedback device. Nine subjects explored a 6 × 10-cm workspace, with the index finger resting on a mobile flat plate, and experienced simulated Gaussian ridges and troughs (width, 15 mm; amplitude, 0.5 to 4.5 mm). The device simulated shapes by modulating either lateral resistance with no vertical movement or by vertical movement with no lateral forces, as a function of the digit position in the horizontal workspace. The force profiles and displacements recorded during active touch were played back to the stationary finger in the passive condition, ensuring that stimulation conditions were identical. For the passive condition, shapes simulated by vertical displacements of the finger had lower categorization thresholds and higher magnitude estimates compared with those of active touch. In contrast, the results with the lateral force fields showed that with passive touch, subjects recognized that a stimulus was present but were unable to correctly categorize its shape as convex or concave. This result suggests that feedback from the motor command can play an important role in processing sensory inputs during tactile exploration. Finally, subjects were administered a ring-block anesthesia of the digital nerves of the index finger and subsequently retested. Removing skin sensation significantly increased the categorization threshold for the perception of shapes generated by lateral force fields, but not for those generated by displacement fields.