bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cross-Modal Transfer of Discrimination Learning in Cebus Monkeys
Authors: Blakeslee Pat , Gunter Ralph
Published: April 2008

Cebus monkeys were tested for cross-modal transfer of discrimination LSs or single problem discrimination learning in both directions between vision and touch. In Experiment I, seven animals were trained on multiple problems in one of the two modalities and were then tested for cross-modal transfer in the alternate mode. One monkey out of the seven showed evidence of significant improvement in performance on tactile problems attributable to his previous visual learning. No other transfer, from vision to touch or from touch to vision, was observed in this experiment. In Experiment II, eight animals were trained to discriminate between a single pair of stimulus objects either tactually or visually and then were required to discriminate between these same objects in the opposite modality. Another four animals were trained similarly but, in order to determine if observed transfer across modes was dependent upon the identity of the discrimination required in the two modalities, were given different stimulus pairs to discriminate in the two modalities. Analysis of the results of Experiment II showed that transfer in both directions occurred under single problem training conditions and that this transfer was not necessarily attributable to specific learning of the same discrimination in the two modes.
Fighting and Avoidance in Response To Aversive Stimulation
Authors: Ulrich R.E. , Stachnik T.J. , Brierton G.R. , Mabry J.H.
Published: April 2008

Avoidance behavior in single and paired rats was established by placing the animals into a chamber and allowing their shock-induced random movements to produce a bar press. Single subjects consistently performed better in the avoidance situation than paired subjects. This finding was related to the high incidence of shock elicited fighting which was observed between the paired animals. Both avoidance and fighting responses were typically made by one of the paired subjects while the other showed only the stereotyped fighting reaction. The addition of a naive subject into the chamber with a subject that had previously learned to avoid, also produced fighting behavior which disrupted the avoidance responding.
Imprinting in Birds and Primates
Authors: Salzen Eric A.
Published: April 2008

Birds and Primates might be expected to have some similar behaviour patterns because they have some similarities in the nature and organization of their distance and contact receptors. An analysis of the reactions of newly-hatched chicks and neonatal monkeys to objects reveals many similarities and suggests that the contact provided by objects is an important factor influencing these reactions. Further similarities are evident in the behaviour of neonatal chicks and monkeys which are reared without objects either alone or in small groups, and in the behaviour of these infants when they are subsequently presented with objects or placed in small groups. The behaviour of neonates towards large objects is analysed into approach responses mediated by distance receptor systems and contacting responses mediated by contact receptor systems. It is suggested that contact reinforcement is required for the establishment of enduring social attachments and for distance perceptions to become secondary reinforcers for social behaviour. Available data on the role of contact reinforcement in imprinting are reviewed. The fear behaviour of chicks and infant monkeys is compared. There are similarities in their fear responses to strange obj ects both when tested alone and when tested in the presence of imprinting objects to which they have developed social attachments. In both chicks and monkeys fear of the unfamiliar object or situation is alleviated by the presence of the imprinting object. The social and sexual behaviour of chickens and monkeys that have been reared in isolation is briefly described and the similarities of their abnormal and inadequate responses are indicated. Normal social and sexual behaviour is prevented by fear, aggression, and lack of acquired stimulus-response adjustments to an active social partner. A similar analysis of social attachment in the human infant is presented and it is suggested that contact stimulation is necessary for such attachment but not for the establishment of distance perceptions of a familiar environment. The smiling response is treated as an ambivalent fear/relief response involving recognition of familiar distance stimulation. Social smiling differentiates from this ambivalent response through reinforcement by the social partner. The paper is based on available published experimental studies of neonatal birds and Primates and is intended to provoke new analysis and further studies rather than to provide a definitive analysis of the behaviour of neonates.
The Maturation and Regulation of Glancing Off the Parents By Young Orange Chromides (Etroplus Maculatus: Pisces - Cichlidae)
Authors: Ward Jack A. , Barlow George W.
Published: April 2008

I. During the parental period (3 to 4 weeks) young Etroplus maculatus skim or bounce against the body wall of the parent, a response termed glancing. 2. The glancing rate for the individual does not change during the first week of free-swimming but thereafter it increases; the increase, however, is only apparent in fry that have been fed. The glancing rate for the school decreases during the first week but this is due to mortality. 3. The individual glancing rate is independent of the number of individuals within a school (25-125 individuals) regardless of age. 4. Hour-to-hour changes in glancing rate also occur and are related to the time of feeding. 5. The orientation of glancing when characterized by 3 divisions, a ventral, a medial, and a dorso-anterior division, remains unchanged during development. 6. The orientation of glancing, when characterized by an anterior and a posterior division, shows definite ontogenetic changes. The anterio-posterior changes in orientation are reinacted each day, but steadily less so as the fry become older. 7. Feeding does not change the glancing rate for individuals about 7 days old or less, but it increases the amount of glancing 1.6-fold for fry 12 days old and 2.2-fold for fry 18 days old. The hour-to-hour changes in glancing rate can also be predicted from pre-feeding performance. 8. Feeding affects the school organization. After feeding the school becomes more uniform, moves closer to the parent, and as it does the young glance more. 9. Fry with normal parental care undergo progressive morphological changes. Fry deprived of parental care have a high mortality rate, while growth and morphological differentiation are severely retarded. After 9 days of parental care, fry have completed the major morphological changes and can survive independently of the parent. 10. During the early free-swimming days of the fry, the number of mucus glands in the epidermis of the parent increases by 34%. 11. When parents were coated with carbon powder it was shown that young actually eat from the parents' side when glancing, and presumedly eat mucus. 12. The changes in behavior during development are discussed with regard to the possible mechanisms by which feeding influences glancing rate, causal factors that might affect orientation of glancing, and the possible functional and ecological significance of this behavior.
Stimulus Preferences and Discrimination in Neonatal Ducklings
Authors: Klopfer Peter H.
Published: April 2008

Neonatal ducklings which do not distinguish between a particular imprinting surrogate and some other model, may be able to learn to discriminate between the two with heat as reenforcement. When the reenforcement is a drink of water, some pairs of models are discriminated, but not others; there is no concordancy between discriminability in this and the imprinting context. The peculiar effectiveness of certain imprinting surrogates can therefore not be attributed to the sensory capacities of the ducklings.
The Songs of Five Species of Passerina
Authors: Thompson William L.
Published: April 2008

A total of 1404 advertising songs of five species of Passerina, P. leclancherii, P. ciris., P. versicolor, P. cyanea, and P. amoena, were analyzed by measurement of sonagrams. Songs of P. amoena, P. cyanea and P. versicolor characteristically have compound elements, i.e., elements composed of more than one syllable, whereas the songs of P. leclancherii and P. ciris typically include only simple elements, elements of only one syllable. Songs of P. amoena, P. cyanea and P. leclancherii have essentially no repetition of elements. Student's t-test of the means of the frequency of each species indicated that the frequency ranges of amoena and leclancherii were very significantly different from each other and from those of cyanea and ciris. The frequency ranges of cyanea and ciris, however, were not significantly different from each other. In general the arrangement of the five species according to similarities in song structure parallels the morphological grouping of the species.
Factors Affecting Agonistic Communication in Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca Mulatta)
Authors: Møller G.W. , Harlow H.F. , Mitchell G.D.
Published: April 2008

This study dealt with factors affecting agonistic communication in rhesus monkeys. Definitions were given for various postures, facial expressions, and vocalizations. The data revealed that such communications depended at least upon the following factors: 1. Age Dominance displays (yawning, threats) increased with age while fear grimaces and vocalizations decreased with age. 2. Sex Dominance displays occurred more often and fear grimaces and vocalizations less often in males than in females. Crook tail should be used with caution as a measure of dominance, at least in subadult rhesus monkeys. The average duration of crook tail seemed to be a more relevant index of dominance than the frequency of crook tail. 3. Rearing Motherless mothering and peer deprivation depressed displays of dominance, while rotated mothering increased dominance displays. Repeated separation produced submissive and dependent behavior; however, calls for social contact (coos) were emitted much more frequently in these animals. This vocalization change was probably a product of social learning. 4. Social stimulus Displays of dominance and submission were dependent upon the nature (i.e., size, age, hostility) of the social partner. 5. Adaptation to the social partner Dominance related behaviors decreased and calls for friendly contact increased as the animal became more familiar with a strange social partner.
The Ontogeny of Greeting, Grooming, and Sexual Motor Patterns in Captive Baboons (Superspecies Papio Cynocephalus)
Authors: Anthoney Terence R.
Published: April 2008

During the summers of 1964 and 1965, a group of approximately 85 baboons (superspecies Papio cynocephalus) was observed at close range on an island of artificial rock-work in the Chicago Zoological Park (Brookfield). The group was unusual in that it contained no adult males. Data were collected on the ontogenetic relationships of several motor patterns used in greeting, grooming, and sexual behaviors. i. Lip-smacking, a motor pattern common to all baboons on the island, probably consists of rapidly repeated sucking movements. In the newborn the lip-smacking pattern is associated with nursing and soon becomes associated with sexual arousal as well. As the infant grows older, his responses to lip-smacking adult females guide his learning of mature greeting and sexual behaviors. Several objects are associated with lip-smacking; all are pink like the female nipple, and some also resemble it in shape. These objects- the nipples and sexual skin of the female, the penis of the male, and the face and perineum of the black infant (0-6 mo. old) - are attractive to other baboons and probably contribute to group cohesion. 2. The embrace and mounting use essentially the same motor patterns. Both are derived from the grasping reflex of the infant. Which appears in a given situation depends primarily on the posture of the recipient. 3. Grooming first acquires significance for the infant when he becomes weaned from the breast. Although he may not nurse, his mother usually tolerates his attempts to groom her. Thus, whenever he is frightened or otherwise needs security, the weaned infant comes to groom instead of seeking his mother's breast. Although the usual grooming patterns are only abstracted remnants of the patterns originally displayed by the infant as he nursed and was weaned, some less common grooming patterns- saliva-licking, oral-grooming, plucking, and hair-pulling - retain more detail and thus show more clearly their infantile derivation.
Innate Visual Form Preferences in the Pecking Behavior of Young Chicks
Authors: Goodwin Elizabeth Bird , Hess Eckhard H.
Published: April 2008

1. Young chicks from the age of 1 to 91/2 days were tested daily for unrewarded two-dimensional form preferences in pecking behavior. 2. Forms having a 049 square inch area were found to be preferred, from high to low, as follows: serrated circle, oval, circle, hexagon, star, pentagon, square, rectangle, and diamond. 3. Chicks that were shown the same forms in a smaller size, .012 square inches in area, preferred them in the same order except that star shifted to last place. The smaller forms elicited a higher level of pecking behavior than did the large ones. 4. There were found increases in pecking behavior as a function of age up to the age of 5 days, after which there was a plateau. Up to (but not including) and after the age of 6-61/2 days the order of preferences for the forms was the same. 5. The disruption of the preference hierarchy at the age of 6-61/2 days is discussed in relation to the food imprinting that HESS (1962, 1964) has demonstrated to occur in chicks.
Innate Visual Form Preferences in the Imprinting Behavior of Hatchling Chicks
Authors: Goodwin Elizabeth Bird , Hess Eckhard H.
Published: April 2008

1. Dark-reared socially naive hatchling chicks 13 to 16 hours old were exposed to one of ten two-dimensional forms in an imprinting procedure. Two different imprinting procedures were used. 2. The relative effectiveness of the ten forms, from high to low, in eliciting affiliative behavior was as follows: square, pentagon, oval, diamond, triangle, serrated circle, star, rectangle, circle, and hexagon. 3. These preferences were compared with the pecking preferences found for the same shapes that have been previously reported by GOODWIN & HESS (190). 4. A comparison of affiliative and pecking behavior was made.
The Organisation, Control and Development of Parental Feeding in the Oystercatcher (Haematopus Ostralegus)
Authors: Norton-Griffiths M.
Published: April 2008

I. The transport and presentation of food to the young Oystercatcher is described. The parents will present food to the young either on their own initiative or in response to the approach of the young. 2. The auditory and tactile interactions between the hatching eggs and the incubating parents are described. As hatching proceeds both the parents and young become more responsive to each other, and both show marked selective responsiveness. These pre-hatch interactions lead to the transition from incubation behaviour to brooding behaviour and to the onset of parental feeding. It is suggested that the young may learn to respond to the call of the parent before hatching. 3. Both non-breeding and breeding birds show the same cyclical pattern of total feeding activities and it is suggested that self-feeding and parental feeding are part of the same motivational system. Once the food has been presented to the young, the subsequent behaviour of the parent is dependent upon the speed with which the young seizes and eats the food. If the young reacts within a certain time (the Waiting-Time Threshold) then the parent will present more food, and will continue to do so for as long as the young reacts within the threshold time. In this way feeding trains are initiated and maintained. The feeding train is broken off once the young fails to react within the threshold time. As the young grows older the parent plays an increasingly minor part in the initiation of feeding trains, the role of the young becoming more important. This leads to the eventual breakdown of parental feeding which is closely correlated in time with how long it takes the young to learn to feed itself. A model of the motivation and control of parental feeding is described. 4. It is suggested that parental feeding evolved in the Oystercatcher subsequent to the evolution of a specialised feeding behaviour which very small young were unable to
Changes in Aggressive Interaction in Adjacently Territorial Convict Cichlids (Cichlasoma Nigrofasciatum): a Study of Habituation
Authors: Peeke Harman V.S. , Herz Michael J. , Gallagher James E.
Published: April 2008

Pairs of male Convict Cichlids (Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum) were isolated from each other and then exposed in adjoining territories under one of two exposure conditions, either daily 20 minute exposure for 38-44 days or a massed continuous exposure for 24 or 28 hours. The incidence of biting and the duration of chin display for each fish was recorded. The duration of the chin display described a near uniform pattern of attenuation for both exposure conditions. The waning of the biting response was evident but it was more variable than the chin display. It was concluded that these behaviors both tend to habituate with repeated or constant exposure to the same stimulus source and that prolonged exposure facilitates the habituation of aggressiveness between territorial neighbors, thus promoting peace in a particular ecological niche.
Role Des Photorecepteurs Dans Les Reactions De Vol Du Criquet Pelerin Schistocerca Gregaria (Forsk.)
Authors: Michel Raoul
Published: April 2008

Des Schistocerca gregaria mâles élevés en groupes denses sont testés sur des manèges individuels animés par leurs seuls battements d'aile et isolés dans des enceintes. Les criquets sont soumis à des séquences alternativement lumineuses ou obscures (lumière naturelle ou artificielle). Les passages d'une séquence à l'autre sont progressifs (3 minutes environ). Chez Schistocerca, les ocelles au contraire des yeux n'interviennent pas dans l'induction à l'activité de vol ou sa cessation dans les situations alternativement d'obscurité ou d'éclairement étudiées ici. La vitesse moyenne de vol ne dépend pas plus des photorécepteurs mis en jeu que de l'éclairement. Dans certaines conditions, le tégument céphalique est suffisamment perméable à la lumière pour intervenir dans l'activité de vol quand les photorécepteurs sont occlus. Les criquets réagiraient différemment à l'occlusion des photorécepteurs selon qu'ils se déplacent en marchant ou en volant.
Analyse Factorielle Du Comportement Agonistique Chez Tilapia Macrochir (Boulenger 1912)
Authors: Balthazart J.
Published: April 2008

Cet article analyse les possibilités d'utilisation de l'analyse factorielle des corrélations en tant que méthode d'étude de la causalité en éthologie. Il fait suite à deux autres articles consacrés au même problème, l'un analysant d'un point de vue théorique, l'autre présentant une critique de la méthode de calcul des corrélations couramment utilisée (WIEPKEMA, 1961; BURTON, 1970; BAERENDS & DRENT, 1970). On présente ici deux grands types de calcul des corrélations entre patrons-moteurs: 1) à partir des fréquences d'apparition par unité de temps fixe et par observation ensuite; 2) à partir des durées d'apparition par unité de temps fixe et par observation. Ces procédures de calcul sont testées au niveau expérimental en analysant le comportement agonistique d'une population d'environ 20 Tilapia macrochir. L'étude des corrélations entre fréquences par combat fournit un modèle en accord avec les résultats de l'analyse éthologique classique (2 facteurs indépendants représentant des tendances à l'attaque et à la fuite permettent de rendre compte des inter-corrélations entre patrons-moteurs). La méthode, en plus, permet de fournir un modèle quantifié du comportement agonistique de Tilapia macrochir. Après ces résultats encourageants, l'analyse des durées effectuée par la même méthode, fournit un modèle sensiblement différent ce qui soulève de nombreuses questions. Les conclusions ne peuvent, dès lors, être que partiellement positives. L'analyse factorielle ne peut actuellement servir qu'à confirmer des résultats obtenus par l'analyse éthologique classique. Elle permet cependant, en plus, de proposer un modèle quantifié du comportement. Le mode de calcul de la matrice de corrélation de départ marque cependant une limite à la méthode et l'empêche actuellement de devenir un outil exploratoire.
The Response of Incubating Laughing Gulls (Larus Atricilla L.) To Calls of Hatching Chicks
Authors: Impekoven Monica
Published: April 2008

Observations on Laughing Gulls suggest that calls emanating from pipping eggs are responsible for several behavioural changes typical for the transition from incubation to parental behaviour. In order to study the role of vocalisations unconfounded by tactile stimuli provided by pipping eggs, calls recorded from a hatching chick were played to incubating birds from underneath the nest-cup and their effects were observed. Incubating gulls responded to such calls by an increase in the frequency of the following behaviour patterns: looking down, rising-resettling, shifting the eggs, quivering while sitting and calling. Qualitatively new, parental behaviour patterns were not quantitatively recorded, but were seldom observed in response to the calls. In contrast to earlier experiments with tactile stimuli, nest-material manipulations and the proportion of incomplete settling movements were not significantly affected by these auditory stimuli. An inverse relationship was found between the strength of responsiveness to chick-calls and the number of nest-building movements performed during the experiment. Tests carried out at different stages of the incubation period revealed that the responsiveness to chick-vocalisations increases as a function of progressing incubation. A preliminary experiment was performed to test for the selectivity of the response. Incubating birds responded more strongly to the calls played to them at normal speed than at half the speed (which changes the calls' pitch, frequency modulation and temporal characteristics).
Experimental Demonstration of Selective Predation On Gasterosteus Aculeatus
Authors: Moodie G.E.E. , McPhail J.D. , Hagen D.W.
Published: April 2008

Three groups of independently conducted tests demonstrate selective predation on sticklebacks having various plate numbers. Differential survival of sticklebacks in some tests was clearly due to behavioural differences. Since fish from two populations were used, however, we are unable to say whether this indicates differential predation upon plate classes, or differences between populations, or both. Fish with seven plates seemed to be at a selective advantage only under winter conditions in the laboratory, and these results conflict with those from the field where sevens are at an advantage during the summer. This may result from behavioural changes associated with breeding during the summer. Results of test conducted under winter conditions are in accord with selective predation observed in three natural populations. Given the different feeding behaviour of the predators it seems likely that the traits contributing to survival are geneeral ones that function in a variety of physical and biotic environments.
A Comparative Ethological Study of Strombid Gastropods
Authors: Berg Carl J.
Published: April 2008

The behavior of ten species of strombid gastropods (Strombus and Lambis spp.) was studied in the Marshall, Hawaiian and Line Islands. Measurements were made in both the laboratory and the field of the MAP's comprising feeding, locomotion, righting of overturned shells, and escape from predators, which reflect significant ecological and morphological determinents of behavior in the Strombacea. All species feed by grazing with the proboscis under the protection of the shell. All Strombids use the MAP Leap during locomotion. The rate of locomotion varies as a hyperbolic function of length; increasing with greater size in the genus Strombus and decreasing in the genus Lambis. Larger animals travel a greater distance with each leap but make fewer leaps/minute. Species of Strombus right their overturned shells by a Kick at the substratum with the operculum, but species of Lambis use the MAP Pull and turn the animal over with the operculum wedged under the shell. Only one attempt is needed in the species of Lambis, but more are used by the faster moving species of Strombus. Intention movements are performed during righting. Species of both genera escape from molluscivorous cones using the MAP's Tentacle Wave, Flip and Run. In the species of Strombus, Flip causes a backward movement of the shell off the substratum, but in species of Lambis the shell restricts the movements and the animal merely turns to one side. Escape locomotion is much faster than normal locomotion, due to the greater distances travelled with each flip by the smaller species of Strombus and the greater number of leaps/minute made by all species. The flip escape response appears particularly adapted for escape from dart-shooting predators. A review of the literature on strombid behavior shows that the behavior of all species within the Strombacea is remarkably similar even though there is great disparity in shell shapes. Because of similarities in soft body parts and behavior, the Xenophoridae should be retained within the Strombacea. It is suggested that the species within the Strombacea evolved in parallel from a common aporrhaid-like stock and the behavior has diverged less than shell form and is therefore a more conservative character in the group's phylogeny than is shell shape. The behavior of a snail can be greatly modified by its shell. Differences in behavior between Strombus and Lambis are attributed to restrictions imposed by the shell and not differences in body movements. Behavior must be adapted to the shell shape and both, of course, reflect the animal's ecological setting.
Mating Speed and Courtship Behaviour of Inbred Strains of Drosophila Melanogaster
Authors: Connolly Kevin , Burnet Barrie , Kearney Marie , Eastwood Lynn
Published: April 2008

Three inbred wildtype strains of Drosophila melanogaster, Amherst, Novosibirsk and Pacific differ in mating speed. An analysis of courtship behaviour reveals significant differences between genotypes in the latency and duration of courtship, attributable to differences in sexual response thresholds between males and levels of receptivity between females. There are significant interstrain differences in the proportions of time spent in, and bout lengths of, the principal elements of courtship behaviour of males with virgin females. Virgin females differ from fertilised females in their repertoire of courtship rejection responses and there are significant strain differences in the rates of rejection response. However, rate of rejection was not found to be a good indicator of the female's receptivity. Extrusion forms the characteristic rejection movement of fertilised females and has consequences which are genotype dependent, serving to inhibit further courtship by the male in some strains and to avoid copulation in others. Preening appears to serve as a displacement activity in males which are persistently rejected by females.
Ultraschall-Laute Nestjunger Mäuse
Authors: Zippelius Hanna-Maria
Published: April 2008

Nestjunge Feld-, Haus-, Rötel- und Gelbhalsmäuse senden bei Abkühlung, so vor allem wenn sie aus dem Nest geraten sind, wie auch in anderen Gefahrensituationen im Ultraschallbereich liegende Laute aus, durch die das säugende Weibchen alarmiert und zum rufenden Jungen hingeleitet wird. Die Ultraschallimpulse sind für jede Art nach Frequenz, Lautdauer und Gestalt gut zu charakterisieren. Junge Zwergmäuse senden im Gegensatz zu den bisher untersuchten Mäusearten als "Laute des Verlassenseins" im Hörbereich des Menschen liegende Laute aus. Die Ultraschallaute der jungen Mäuse dienen der Auffindung eines aus dem Nest geratenen Jungen durch die Mutter. Die Einzellaute werden zu unterschiedlich langen Rufserien zusammengefasst, hierdurch wird dem Weibchen die Ortung erleichtert. Die Bereitschaft Notrufe auszusenden, nimmt mit zunehmender Selbständigkeit der Jungen ab. Säugende Weibchen sprechen nicht nur auf die Notrufe der eigenen, sondern auch auf die Rufe artfremder Nestlinge an, die sich vor allem hinsichtlich der Frequenz voneinander unterscheiden. Die schnelle, rhythmisch festgelegte Folge der Einzelsignale scheint das entscheidende auslösende Signal für das Bergungsverhalten der Weibchen zu sein, während die Ton-höhe der Laute ohne Bedeutung zu sein scheint.
Studies On the Behaviour of Cyprinodont Fish. Ii the Evolution of Aggressive Behaviour in Old World Rivulins
Authors: Ewing A.W.
Published: April 2008

The aggressive behaviour of eighteen species of Old World rivulins is described. The phylogenetic relationship of these species is known and thus the evolution of the behaviour patterns can be elucidated. Comparisons of behaviour were made using transition matrices and the changes in behaviour that occurred during the course of aggressive encounters. It is possible to construct an archetypal pattern of aggressive behaviour from which all existing patterns can be derived. The following types of behavioural change have occurred during evolution. a. Changes in the importance and thus the frequency of occurrence of individual elements of the behaviour. In some species certain of the elements have become eliminated from the repertoire. However the order in which the individual components of aggression reach maximum frequency during the course of encounters is essentially the same in all the species. b. The acquisition of novel transitions between elements often in the form of higher order interactions involving more than two elements. c. Changes in the form and orientation of the elements. Differences between closely related species are mainly in minor variations in frequency of elements and transitions between them; more distantly related species differ more fundamentally and thus the differences in behaviour are in accordance with the taxonomic status of the species.
The Use of the Rump Patch in the Fallow Deer (D. Dama)
Authors: Alvarez Fernando , Braza Francisco , Norzagaray Alberto
Published: April 2008

The rump patch of the Fallow Deer shows different visual patterns according to the activities performed by the animals. While in calm conditions the black tail sways over the white anal field; if in alarm, the tail hangs still, dividing the white field into two parts ; in higher stress the tail tends to be raised to a horizontal position, leaving the white anal field unbroken and outlined by the two lateral black stripes; if danger is impeding the tail gets erect, showing the white underside, now seen as an extension of the white anal field, or may even go up and down, the white brush of the tail appearing and disappearing On the basis of our results on the use of the rump patch and on the frequency of defecation (high in conditions of stress) and considering that the posture of the tail during defecation is one of the most frequently observed in alarm, we hypothesize that when defecation turned to function as a communicative signal of danger, a new selective force came into play, increasing the amplitude of the movements and originating the visual pattern of the rump patch that makes them more evident.
A Description and Experimental Analysis of a Stereotyped Cheliped Flexion Behaviour in Hermit Crabs
Authors: Field Laurence H.
Published: April 2008

Spontaneous cheliped flexion behaviour of hermit crabs was studied using a large aquarium with a gravel substrate. The effects of chemical, visual and tactile stimuli, as well as intervals between flexions were determined using a smaller tank, which facilitated experimentation. The behaviour consists of bringing the tip of the cheliped to the mouth by flexing the four most distal joints, opening the dactyl, wiping the claw with the third maxillipeds and re-extending. Single flexions are used in feeding to pick-up substrate particles covered with diatoms. The rate of activity increases in the presence of glycine (10-3M) or fish juice. Trains of flexions comprise a cleaning behaviour which is elicited by fouling of the claw with food or petroleum jelly, or by strong concentrations of chemicals (10-1M glycine or sea water of pH<1.5 or >9.5). In addition, cleaning flexion behaviour was elicited by a variety of disturbance stimuli, including sudden shadow, reflections from a mirror, vibration, "simulated attack" by a plastic rod, handling, and fighting with conspecific hermit crabs. The implications of this response as a displacement behaviour are discussed. The mean interval between cleaning flexions does not change significantly as glycine concentration is increased from 10-4M to 10-2M, but the mean rate of flexion increases sevenfold and mean adaptation time increases threefold. The mean inter-flexion intervals for the chelipeds of individual animals are not significantly different, but the small cheliped undergoes an average of 1.61 times more flexions than the large one.
The Use of Urine Marking in the Scavenging Behavior of the Red Fox (Vulpes v uLpes)
Authors: Henry J. David
Published: April 2008

The eleven different functions for which mammals use urine marking are reviewed in this paper, and the urine marking behavior of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is described in detail. A new hypothesis is advanced that urine marking may serve as a "book keeping system" in the red fox's scavenging behavior. Foxes consistently investigate and urine mark inedible food remnants (e.g., bones, bird wings, and dried out pieces of hide). When a fox re-investigates a marked remnant, the urine mark signals "no food present," and the fox investigates this object for only a brief period of time. This use of urine marking may increase the efficiency of its scavenging behavior, i.e. more food-items found per hour of scavenging. This efficiency may be particularly important during periods of food shortage. The hypothesis is tested in three different experiments, using free-ranging red foxes as subjects. Experiment I establishes that fox do urine mark food remnants. Experiment II shows that foxes investigate for a significantly shorter period of time (P<0.001) food remnants exhibiting both the odor of food and the odor of urine as compared to remnants exhibiting just the odor of food. Experiment III suggests that there a hierarchy of stimuli which determines different responses in the fox's scavenging behavior. The experiments also suggest that there is a degree of social behavior in the scavenging activities of red foxes. Foxes appear to use each other's urine marks to increase the efficiency of their scavenging behavior. Thus this study definitely support LEYHAUSEN'S (1965) statement that the social life of solitary animals is frequently more complex than we realize. Solitary species probably show many ingeniously adapted mechanisms for occupying niches where highly social species could not be maintained. The social evolution and ecological advantages of solitary species deserve to be the focus of future research.
The Breeding Behaviour of the Pink-Footed Goose: Parental Care and Vigilant Behaviour During the Fledging Period
Authors: Lazarus John , Inglis I.R.
Published: April 2008

In this study we describe the pattern of parental investment in the pink-footed goose (Anser brachyrhynchus) during the fledging period in Iceland, concentrating particularly on the analysis of vigilant behaviour as one important element of parental care. We quantify parental investment, and its cost to the parent, by comparing the behaviour of parents with that of 'pairs' of adults without young (most of which are probably failed breeders). Each partner's strategy of investment is not expected to be purely selfish in this long-term pair-bonding species, and the sex differences in parental care are examined in this light. The time budgets of parents and pairs differed, parents walking more, grazing more and preening less. Parents also spent more time in the extreme head up posture and less in the head low and head on back postures than pairs but time devoted to the head up posture was the same for both. Brood size had no effect on the time budget. Time spent extreme head up declined over the study period in parents but not in pairs. Spacing patterns and behaviour varied independently in non-breeding birds but families sat closer to other geese when the vigilance level of the parents was low (i.e. in the head on back or head low postures) than when it was high (the head up or extreme head up postures). All agonistic encounters between parents and non-breeders were both initiated and won by the parents. Tied encounters occurred between birds of equivalent status in terms of brood size or non-breeding group size. The potential sources of parental care are summarized (Table 6) and, after considering the evidence for each, it is concluded that (apart from brooding) two types of parental investment are made by parents: (1) enhancement of offspring feeding efficiency by reducing competition through agonistic behaviour, and perhaps avoidance; and (2) protection from predators by (a) active defence, (b) seeking proximity with other geese when resting, and (c) visual scanning for predators (mainly by the male) using the extreme head up posture. Parents paid for this investment by devoting less time to preening and sleeping. The male's investment in predator vigilance was made at the cost of a reduced feeding time and to compensate for this he pecked at a faster rate than his mate. These sex differences are explicable in terms of earlier differences during incubation. The adoption of unrelated goslings was observed and the implications of the phenomenon are discussed. For individuals in non-breeding groups the time spent extreme head up declined as group size increased. The functional significance of this finding is discussed and it is concluded that in sitting groups extreme head up is probably used to scan for predators.
Acoustic Competition Between the Song of the Wren (Troglodytes Troglodytes) and the Songs of Other Species
Authors: Jean-Claude Brémond
Published: April 2008

The efficiency of the Wren's song may be impaired by certain background noises. Natural noises, such as those emitted by sympatric birds decrease the receiving Wren's alertness (Table 1). This phenomenon has no compensating process and is probably rather detrimental to communication between Wrens in an acoustically rich natural environment. When the Wren's song is masked with artificially made signals there are no serious ethological consequences (Table 2) as masking is seldom complete, and decrease in the received information is largely compensated by the song's inherent redundancy. The precise requirements for a mask to hinder communication efficiency are described. They are so stringent that the odds are overwhelmingly against their being ever met with in nature.
Aggression in the Female Northern Elephant Seal, Mirounga Angustirostris
Authors: Christenson T.E. , Le Boeuf B.J.
Published: April 2008

Maternal aggressive behavior of northern elephant seals enhances reproductive success by increasing the likelihood of pup survival. Detailed observations of marked mother-pup pairs revealed that female aggressiveness increased dramatically after giving birth. Maternal aggressiveness also correlated negatively with the number of times the pup was bitten by alien females. Mothers of these pups were less aggressive than the 17 whose pups survived. Pup behavior was not directly related to mortality. Frequencies of interfemale aggressive encounters were compared for different beach areas. Aggression was most frequent on the smallest area, where interfemale distance was the shortest, and tidal action extreme. Aggression was least frequent on the sparcely populated beach, affected little by tide or male activity. Interfemale distance was greatest here. Reproductive advantages and disadvantages of pupping on each area are noted.
The Induction of Aggressive Behaviour By Electrical Stimulation in the Hypothalamus of Male Rats
Authors: Kruk Menno R. , Van Der Poel A.M. , DE VOS-FRERICHS Thea P.
Published: April 2008

Electrical stimulation in the hypothalamus induces male rats to attack another rat in an external stimulus situation where such attacks are unlikely events without stimulation. Among the goal objects which are attacked besides live male rats are live female rats, anaesthetized or dead-and-frozen rats and mice. According to the morphology of the induced attacks, the electrode placements can be classified as attack jump or bite attack electrode placements. Both attack patterns can be observed in "spontaneous" aggression between male rats. These attacks are directed to the fronto-dorsal side of the goal objects. The relation between the current intensity and the induction of the first attack has characteristics of a dose-response relation. The subliminal electrical stimulation in the presence of a partner, which usually precedes the induction of the first attack in an electrode placement, does not facilitate the induction of attack behaviour. Similarly, experience with attacks elicited in one electrode placement in a rat does not facilitate the induction of the first attack in another electrode placement in the same rat. Threshold current intensities of attack behaviour can be determined in about 85% of the attack-inducing electrode placements. Some of the factors probably involved in the initial decrease in such attack thresholds are discussed.
An Analysis of Time-Budgeting By Roe Deer (Capreol Us Capreol Us) in an Agricultural Area
Authors: Turner Dennis C.
Published: April 2008

An analysis of time-budgeting by Capreolus capreolus in an agricultural area is presented in two sections: the first concerns resting behavior, the second, time-budgeting within the active state. Of primary interest were comparisons between age-/sex-classes over seasons. Data were collected by direct observation of a free-ranging roe deer population with ca 50% of the animals individually marked. The study site consisted of ca 200 ha of agricultural cropland with a small wooded area on one end and interspersed tree-rows. An ethogram was constructed to enable the recording of behavioral samples on tape; these were later transcribed onto computer cards and the data were analyzed by computer using non-parametric and parametric tests. Roe deer spent ca 55% of the day lying (and ruminating) during the Winter. Differences between age-/sex-classes over the year were related to differential behavior towards protective cover, rather than differential energy requirements. Therefore, age-/sex-differences in time-budgeting were sought within the active period. It was found that ca 90% of the time spent on foot was devoted to 4 non-overlapping ethogram elements - orienting, walking, moving (searching), and feeding - and one collective element - social behavior. These 5 elements were subjected to more detailed statistical analyses, and indeed, significant age-/sex-class, as well as seasonal differences were found. The differences elucidated were often in agreement with predictions made from models or theories based on energetic considerations. This does not reduce the importance of recently hypothesized nutrient-balancing tasks, but it did demonstrate that time-variable energy demands were still operative in herbivores. Several results indicated that females follow more conservative strategies than males: they tended to reduce costs when faced with higher energy demands, whereas males tended to increase energy intake.
The Facial Expressions of the Brown Capuchin Monkey (Ceb Us Apella)
Authors: Weigel Ronald M.
Published: April 2008

Two captive groups of the brown capuchin, Cebus apella, were observed for approximately 146 hours, with particular attention paid to the facial expressions of this species. Seven discrete facial expressions having the properties of ritualized displays were observed. These were classified as follows according to motivational, status indication, and social functional criteria: (I) Open Mouth Bared Teeth-threat, (2) Open Mouth Staccato Beep-probably defensive threat, (3) Bared Teeth Scream-appeasement, maternal solicitation, (4) Grin-probably appeasement and reassurance, (5) Lipsmacking-reassurance, leads to passive contact, (6) Forehead Raise-affinitive, leads to active contact, and (7) Relaxed Open Mouth-play face, possibly play reassurance. An examination of the intention movements and the behaviors temporally associated with the facial expressions strongly suggests the brown capuchins studied here are providing accurate motivational information to other group members. Facial expressions morphologically similar to those observed in capuchins are also given by many species of Ceropithecinae, especially Macaca and Papio, with similar expressions occurring in similar social contexts. The presence of ritualized appeasement gestures in Cebus, Macaca, and Papio may be a function of the diversity of diet and the resulting spatial distribution of food items.
Adaptedness of Arena Behaviour in Black Grouse (Tetrao Tetrix) and Other Grouse Species (Tetraoninae)
Authors: De Vos G.J.
Published: April 2008

I. Arena grouse species probably descended from a forest-living grouse species. 2. The behaviour of arena grouse species differs from the behaviour of forest-living grouse species with respect to the size of individual home ranges, the type of territory which is defended by males and the gregariousness of males as well as females. These differences indicate in which aspects the behaviour of arena grouse species is adapted to their present environments. 3. The large individual home ranges in arena grouse species are in all likelihood an adaptation to environments in which critical ecological resources are unevenly distributed. 4. The defence of small territories on arenas by males of arena grouse species can be explained as an adaptation which enables territorial males to exploit large home ranges and to live in groups continuously. 5. Several advantages may be cormected with group life in arena grouse species. There is some evidence that groups provide possibilities to acquire information about the location of resources. Groups may provide protection against conspecific territorial males which control the population distribution range outside arenas. It cannot be excluded that groups also provide protection against predators. 6. Female mating preferences in arena grouse species for males in a cluster probably evolved because clustering has ecological advantages for males. 7. Female mating preferences for clustered males may have resulted in a "runaway process" through which the tendency to cluster in males became stronger than is most advantageous with respect to their chances of staying alive.
Ontogeny of Visual Acuity of Rainbow Trout Under Normal Conditions and Light Deprivation
Authors: Rahmann H. , Jeserich G. , Zeutzius I.
Published: April 2008

The development of visual acuity (minimum separable visual angle) in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) was investigated from hatching to one year old trout by eliciting optomotor reactions in an optokinetic drum. I. The first optomotor responses were found 10 days after hatching with a visual angle of 30° of arc. Then a rapid increase in the visual resolving power occurs leading to a visual angle of about 1° at the end of the larval period. Up to the age of one year the visual angle of rainbow trout improves slightly to final 14' of arc. 2. Light deprivation during rearing causes a severe impairment ot visual acuity during the first 40 days after hatching (best visual angle only 2°05' of arc). 3. The results are discussed with respect to synaptogenetical and biochemical findings in the tectum opticum of rainbow trout under the same rearing conditions.