bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Music Sociology in a New Key
Authors: McCormick Lisa
Published: June 2017

This article examines how scholarship in the sociology of music has been dominated by an economic framework known as the production/consumption paradigm. It first traces the history of the production/consumption paradigm through its appearance in key texts, showing how it changes as it passes from Theodor W. Adorno and Pierre Bourdieu to the American production of culture perspective. It then presents a thematic overview of the literature and highlights the strengths of established research agendas as well as the blind spots that reveal the need for a more cultural approach. It also considers music as a text, as a resource, as a product, and as performance before proposing an alternative to the production/consumption dichotomy. The article argues that the growing interest in performance presents an opportunity not only to advance the study of music, but also to engage with the core theoretical issues in sociology.
Broadening Cultural Sociology's Scope: Meaning-Making in Mundane Organizational Life
Authors: Lo Jade , Eliasoph Nina
Published: June 2017

This article proposes a more serious engagement between the fields of cultural sociology and organizational sociology by studying how culture shapes daily organizational life and how, in turn, everyday activity can build up to large-scale cultural change. It argues that people’s everyday methods of coordinating action in organizations, no matter how mundane, are meaningful. To support its arguments, the article examines transformations of words’ meanings in everyday language use by looking at three examples, one from a study of changes in the publishing industry and the other two from a larger study of youth civic engagement projects in the United States. It also discusses the concept of typification, structuralism in practice, border disputes within organizations, and Jeffrey C. Alexander’s notion of “performance” within organizations. Finally, it considers the use of cultural sociology to see how people in organizations coordinate action.
Reinventing the Concept of Civic Culture
Authors: Lichterman Paul
Published: June 2017

This article proposes a new and better concept of civic culture and shows how it can benefit sociology. It argues that a better concept of civic culture gives us a stronger, comparative, and contextual perspective on voluntary associations—the conventional American empirical referent for “civic”—while also improving our sociologies of religion and social movements. The article first considers the classic perspective on civic culture and its current incarnations in order to show why we need better conceptual groundwork than they have offered. It then introduces the alternative approach, which is rooted in a pragmatist understanding of collective action and both builds on and departs in some ways from newly prominent understandings of culture in sociology. This approach’s virtues are illustrated with ethnographic examples from a variety of volunteer groups, social movement organizations, and religious associations.
Semantics
Authors: Gardiner Mark Q. , Engler Steven
Published: June 2017

Semantics is the study of meaning in the linguistic sense, broadly understood, rather than in the sense of existential significance. The study of religion seeks to understand exactly what religious adherents believe, do, desire, contemplate, exhort, command, require, represent, or communicate to themselves and others. Scholars of religion also typically seek to explain why religious persons and groups do what they do, believe what they believe, etc. Thus both main tasks of the discipline presuppose that its data are things that carry semantic significance—that they mean something rather than something else, and that there are better and worse ways of capturing those meanings. This chapter describes some of the main positions in philosophical semantics, explains that they should not be ignored by the serious scholar of religion, and points to a few examples of how paying attention to them have clear practical utility for the study of religion.
Semiotics
Authors: Yelle Robert A.
Published: June 2017

Within those disciplines pursuing semiotic approaches to religion, recent decades have been characterized by a shift toward the pragmatic and performative dimensions of discourse. Roman Jakobson’s analysis of the poetic function of language has been extended to ritual, which in some cases deploys poetry to enhance rhetorical performance. The metricalization of ritual often constructs indexical icons that mirror and converge with real-world events that ritual seeks to bring about. The ability of the sign to figure something absent intersects with the general problem in religion concerning how (and whether) to represent transcendence. Semiotics is shifting attention from universalizing and formalist approaches to a study of cultural and historical differences, including differences in semiotic or linguistic ideologies. The semiotic ideology of modernity reflects an inheritance from Protestant iconoclasm: a bias against metaphysical and poetic language. Differences in semiotic ideology were on display in various colonial encounters between Europeans and indigenous peoples.
(Post)structuralism
Authors: Tremlett Paul-François
Published: June 2017

This chapter suggests that structuralism and poststructuralism should be understood as part of a ‘turn’ in social theory and philosophy to ‘systems.’ It explores Claude Lévi-Strauss’s approach to myth, demonstrating that his approach entwines elements from linguistics and dynamic systems theory that point ‘back’ to formalism and ‘forward’ to poststructuralism. It then examines Lévi-Strauss’s critique of evolutionist and functionalist accounts of ‘primitive’ religion and his engagements with work by Frazer and Malinowski. The chapter shows the extent to which Lévi-Strauss’s approach undermined notions of progress and accounts of the regulatory role of religion in the closed social system described by functionalism. The chapter then moves on to explore Jacques Derrida’s account of language and deconstruction and the critique of the metaphysics of presence, suggesting that deconstruction also privileges the idea of the open system. This is shown to have significant implications for textual, historical, and sociological studies of religion.
Sound
Authors: Hackett Rosalind I. J.
Published: June 2017

Sounding or listening practices are central to most forms of religious activity, and in some traditions particular spirits or deities, even the universe itself, may be associated with particular sounds. The chapter explores the significance and potential of a sound-based approach to the study of religion using the themes of voice, ritual instruments, and spatiality. Such an approach is timely given the growing attention to the phenomenon of sound, noise, and silence in a range of academic disciplines from ethnomusicology to ecology, and physics to phenomenology. A more sonically aware religious studies provides new analytical insights into forms of religious mediation, expression, and communication, notably in those cultures that do not privilege visuality. Moreover, new forms of technological mediation that have transformed the capacity to amplify, record, transmit, modify, and repurpose religiously or spiritually significant sounds call for our scholarly attention.
Economy
Authors: Koch Anne
Published: June 2017

Religion is in many ways an economic phenomenon and can be analyzed as such. By economy most economists understand systems for the allocation of resources. In this light, this chapter notes various ways in which religious organizations are engaged in sectoral markets and produce private and public goods, entailing products and services. Religion and economy are interdependent and relate to each other in distinct ways across societal subsystems. Economy both permeates religious structures and is a co-system. This is generally studied by political economy: recent moves beyond neoclassical economic theory (which saw culture as an exogenous factor) emphasize the economy’s embeddedness in social relationships and its variation across cultures. The chapter considers ways in which religious phenomena reflect recent changes in capitalist systems and ways in which religious economies function as explicit economic systems.
Media
Authors: Krüger Oliver
Published: June 2017

Media technology is always embedded in certain cultural and social patterns of reception. Media are received differently over time in diverse milieus. This becomes particularly evident when a new technology is introduced. Beyond the pivotal question of media content, the scientific study of religion and for cultural studies benefits from highlighting issues of the cultural integration of specific media in general and from attempts to understand the valuation of specific media content. This chapter notes that ‘medium’ has a long-term etymology in European theology and philosophy and offers a roadmap for the study of media and religions. A systematic analytical approach is proposed focusing on the three dimensions of media production, media contents, and media reception. The combination of these three dimensions facilitates a cross-media perspective that offers insights into the mutual interplay between the production and the reception of religious contents in media.
Science
Authors: Vollmer Laura J. , von Stuckrad Kocku
Published: June 2017

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the ways religion and science have been related to each other since the nineteenth century, taking into account contemporary debates on the role of the church in society and of the professionalization of science. There are at least four different positions on how to conceptualize the relationship: the conflict thesis, the complexity thesis, the dynamism thesis, and the discursive perspective. Most discussions of the relationship between religion and science operate with a conceptual distinction that defines ‘religion’ and ‘science’ as clear, separate categories, which then are related to each other, creating rigid dichotomies. The chapter discusses integrative and discursive approaches that are more suitable to capture the complexity of meanings of ‘religion’ and ‘science’ and that attempt to move beyond problematic dichotomous constructions. Two case studies demonstrate the usefulness of discursive approaches for the study of religion and science.
Belief
Authors: Bivins Jason C.
Published: June 2017

Belief is a central shaping category in the study of religion. Owing to its continued scrutiny, belief is both an analytic device and a conceptual prism through which to assess changes in the study of religion. While it is difficult to write about ‘belief’ outside the category’s well-known critical interrogation, engagement with the complexities of lived religion shows ineluctably how belief takes numerous and multivalent shapes that point beyond such critiques. This chapter first describes some of the complexities of ‘belief’ as a concept in the study of religion, and it briefly considers three examples—New Age, Hindu, and Christian—to illustrate some of these complexities in context. A review of discussions in the history of the discipline highlights both the core of recent critiques that a focus on belief has obscured practice and recent possibilities for reassessing ‘belief.’ The chapter concludes by assessing recent related developments.
Initiations and Transitions
Authors: Bogdan Henrik
Published: June 2017

This chapter discusses initiations and transitions, two phenomena that can be found in all known cultures, both historically and geographically. Initiations and transitions are interlinked types of ritualized behavior, which share the basic common object of marking an event that leads to a new social and psychological state. Thus, when ritualized, they can be studied as rites of passage. Furthermore, the ritualized use of secrecy is frequently encountered in this type of ritual, especially in those that are connected to closed or secret societies, as shown in the case study of the chapter, the Entered Apprentice ritual of Freemasonry. Finally, the notion that the experience of undergoing a ritual of initiation is non-communicable, and how this is related to the use of secrecy, is discussed.
Salvation
Authors: Flood Gavin
Published: June 2017

Although the category ‘salvation’ developed in the context of Christian theology, it has come to be used as a fundamental category defining religion in general. Many religions have a doctrine of salvation or soteriology that claims that the human condition of death and suffering can be overcome. Doctrines of salvation in religions present accounts of how humans can flourish, which means how they can achieve or be restored to a state of completion or wholeness, although there is great variation as to how this is understood and achieved. As a category of comparison, salvation has strengths and weaknesses. It draws attention to broad similarities, for example in relations to sacrifice and in conceptions of a healing of the human condition, but it retains an irreducibly specific character due to its place in Abrahamic traditions.
Tradition and Innovation
Authors: Hammer Olav
Published: June 2017

All religions change over time. Although tradition and innovation used to be seen as opposites, it is now generally recognized that there is a close connection between the two. Examples of how religious narratives and actions are transmitted over time illustrate some mechanisms by which a historical tradition arises. These include cultural transmission from one person to another or across generations through the particularities of human memory. A range of mechanisms introduce innovative practices into these traditions. For example, religions can have lifecycles of birth, maturity, stagnation, reform or schism, decay and stagnation, and death. There is also the work of religious entrepreneurs, e.g. prophets and leaders of new religious movements. In addition, religions adapt to changes in such structural factors as legislation and technology. Although innovation is ubiquitous, theological elites will often deny that any significant change has taken place, and accuse their ideological opponents of being excessively innovative.
History
Authors: Stausberg Michael
Published: June 2017

This chapter deals with the history of the study of religion as an academic discipline rather than as a field of research. Disciplinary history is often self-justificatory: different narratives emphasize continuity or discontinuity and engage tropes of progress or nostalgia. As an academic discipline, the history of the study of religion is embedded in the wider field of religious studies and in institutional and societal developments. For its emergence, it required an operative concept of ‘religion’ and the institutional setting of the modern research university. The discipline emerged in an international network of scholarly interaction. A new wave of institutional growth and expansion occurred from the 1960s onwards, in the context of a worldwide expansion of tertiary education. Both in institutional and intellectual terms, the study of religion remains a marginal branch of the academy. The development of journals evidences accelerated growth and diversification of publication activities in recent decades.
The Disintegration and Death of Religions
Authors: de Jong Albert
Published: June 2017

This chapter attempts to design lines of thought that will enable scholars to establish and explain the phenomenon of ‘religion death.’ This requires some academic courage: in order to explain disappearance, presence needs to be established first. And establishing presence requires the resurrection of the notion of distinctiveness for concrete religious traditions. Once this heuristic step has been taken, it becomes possible to outline patterns of attrition, code-switching, and extinction. Two extreme cases form the book-ends of these processes: genocide on the one hand and mass conversion on the other. In between is a richly varied range of options in which outside forces and internal developments can be seen at work in continuing processes of change and adaptation that may lead to the disappearance of a particular religion. The chapter concludes with brief reflections on the responsibilities of scholars who work with religious communities that are rapidly disappearing.
Expansion
Authors: Ukah Asonzeh
Published: June 2017

Religions expand via many pathways, including mission activities, transmission of faith, conversion of non-members, and the constitution of new communities of believers. They also expand through military conquest, revival, and migration. Religions may expand geographically or doctrinally and ritually. In both ways, mission and revival activities are important strategies of expansion, which often incorporate migration and mobility of religious believers and preachers. Technologies of transportation and communication as well as a free market of goods and beliefs facilitate religious expansion. The Muslim group Tablīghī Jamā’at, founded in India in 1927, exemplify religious expansion by revival; while the Christian group Redeemed Christian Church of God, founded in Nigeria in 1952, illustrate religious expansion by evangelism. Increased democratization of religious authority means that believers generally, rather than leaders, are taking up the responsibility of spreading religious beliefs and practices around the world.
Cognitive Science
Authors: Geertz Armin W.
Published: June 2017

The cognitive revolution reinstated the mind as a central unit of empirical and theoretical analysis and inspired the cognitive science of religion (CSR), which attempted to explain symbolic-cultural systems in terms of innate cognitive constraints. There is an ongoing debate on whether cognition is simply individual mental representations or broader interactions of minds in bodies negotiating natural and social environments. CSR produced significant foundational hypotheses during the 1990s, but it is an open question whether these hypotheses constitute ‘explanations.’ There are at present five significant new directions in CSR, namely neuropsychology, experimental science of religion, field experiments, history, and big data. CSR is an ever-expanding field of inquiry drawing on the methodologies of the natural and social sciences and using new methods and technologies to answer age-old questions about consciousness, culture, social behavior, and religion. In this sense it is crucial to the comparative study of religion.
Economics
Authors: Seele Peter , Zapf Lucas
Published: June 2017

The chapter provides an overview of economics as an academic discipline, particularly with regard to the study of religion. Three of economics’ driving forces are explored with regard to religion: (a) the household and its productions, (b) the market and its miraculous workings, and (c) the self-interested Homo oeconomicus and his actions. In each field, the inclusion of religion expands the understanding of the respective economic phenomenon. The authors present paradigms and axioms of economics and give a critical assessment, and provide a brief overview of alternative models (New Institutional Economics) that serve well for describing religious topics while benefitting from a religious-studies perspective to analyze the economy. With it, the economist’s perspective broadens and the endeavor becomes interdisciplinary. This approach is subsumed as Economics of Religion, with a multitude of topics, and theoretical/methodological diversity. The chapter presents basic concepts and scientific opportunities within this field of research.
Users, Patents, and Innovation Policy
Authors: Strandburg Katherine J.
Published: June 2017

Users are important innovators in many fields. Often, they do not need socially costly patent incentives to invent, disclose, and disseminate their inventions. A patent-free user innovation (UI) paradigm is likely to be successful and socially desirable when an invention’s value to users has a substantial non-competitive component. If a user innovator values an invention primarily for providing a competitive edge, the patent-free UI paradigm is not viable. Most such inventions have little social value. Some, however, such as improved manufacturing processes, produce significant collateral value for non-users and should be encouraged. Patents may be important for these UIs. Socially beneficial policy interventions to buttress the patent-free UI paradigm might include tools and infrastructure to support user communities and changes to patent doctrine, such as accounting for UI in assessing nonobviousness, patentable subject matter exemptions, particularly for many types of processes, and user exemptions from infringement liability.
The Light of the Flame
Authors: Bintsi Eleni
Published: June 2017

This chapter presents a study of light, in particular light produced by flame, by investigating the most representative lighting devices used in preindustrial Greece. The symbolism of lighting devices in traditional Greek society, used either out of necessity or in ritual ceremonies and customs as well as in representations in art and in social discourse, is examined to reveal aspects of culture, common beliefs, and social structure. The oral literature, the myths and sayings still in use in Greek language, are studied as cognitive instruments, as forms of thought, to understand the way people interpret the world and act within it. Finally, the oil lamp, and its ceremonial use in Modern Greek society, which is closely connected to the Orthodox Christian rituals, is interpreted as a symbol that represents national and cultural identities.
What is Analytical Sociology All About? An Introductory Essay
Authors: Hedström Peter , Bearman Peter
Published: June 2017

This book deals with analytical sociology, an approach for understanding the social world. Analytical sociology explains important social facts such as network structures, patterns of residential segregation, typical beliefs, cultural tastes, and common ways of acting. It does so by detailing in clear and precise ways the mechanisms through which social facts are brought about. This introductory chapter discusses some of the fundamentals of analytical sociology, with particular emphasis on two interrelated aspects: the explanatory principles guiding the approach and the type of explanatory factors being evoked. It first describes what is meant by a ‘mechanism‘ and a ‘mechanism-based explanation’ before turning to structural individualism, a methodological doctrine according to which social facts should be explained as the intended or unintended outcomes of individuals’ actions. It also present various examples to make the abstract principles more concrete and concludes with a brief overview of the book’s organization.
Social Dynamics from the Bottom Up
Authors: Flache Andreas , Macy Michael
Published: June 2017

This article focuses on agent-based computational (ABC) modeling of social interaction. It begins with an overview of ABC modeling as a computational implementation of ‘methodological individualism’, the search for the microfoundations of social life in the actions of intentional agents. It then considers how the ABC method differs from an earlier generation of modeling approaches, including game theory, equation-based models of computer simulation (such as system dynamics), and multivariate linear models. It also discusses potential weaknesses of ABC modeling and proposes research strategies to address them. The article suggests that ABC modeling will lead to significant advances in the bottom-up approach to the study of social dynamics.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
Authors: Biggs Michael
Published: June 2017

This article examines self-fulfilling prophecies and the conditions under which they are most likely to arise. The term ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’ (SFP) was coined in 1948 by Robert K. Merton to describe ‘a false definition of the situation evoking a new behavior which makes the originally false conception come true’. SFP is a particular type of dynamic process and is also known as ‘Oedipus effect’, ‘bootstrapped induction’ and ‘Barnesian performativity’. It has been discerned in a variety of processes; for example, between social theory and social reality. This article begins by proposing an explicit definition of SFP, followed by the argument that analytical sociology must be both empirical and theoretical. A summary of methods for investigating SFP is followed by a review of systematic empirical evidence for selected phenomena. Finally, explanations are given for why self-fulfilling prophecies occur: why false or arbitrary beliefs are formed and why they are subsequently fulfilled.
Game Theory
Authors: Bohnet Iris
Published: June 2017

This article considers how game theory can be simultaneously deployed as a tool for framing questions and for formal analytical investigation of the relationship between micro-level decisions and macro-level outcomes. It first provides an overview of some basic concepts of game theory before turning to evolutionary game theory and its most salient features, including the concept of equilibrium. It then examines behavioral game theory and presents examples of how game theory has been used in the field of sociology for the purposes of thinking and for the derivation of system-level outcomes. It also reviews studies that have used game theory in a more formal way in order to derive aggregate distributions from a social system comprising interacting agents and to explain aggregate outcomes. Finally, it describes various applications of evolutionary games and suggests that evolutionary game theory may provide an especially fecund tool for sociologists.
Experiments
Authors: Brückner Hannah
Published: June 2017

This article discusses game theoretic experiments conducted in the laboratory on topics of particular interest to analytical sociologists, including cooperation, collective action, and social order. It reviews experimental work in economics that seems to be of direct relevance to analytical sociology and what it has to offer, with particular emphasis on behavioral economics. It first provides an overview of some key methodological considerations, focusing on seven key elements of experimental design: incentives, social context, language, repetition, common knowledge, control group, and empirical analysis. It also considers social norms of fairness and cooperativeness and describes how norms can be measured experimentally, how they become salient, and what experiments tell us about how norm-abiding behavior can be sustained.
Emotions
Authors: Elster Jon
Published: June 2017

This article explores the role of emotions in the explanation of behavior. It first provides an overview of complexities associated with the term ‘emotion’ before discussing the link between emotions and rationality. In particular, it considers the rational choice theory of action and the notion of emotional choice, along with the impact of emotion on substantive preferences, formal preferences, beliefs and belief formation, and information-gathering. The article argues that emotions governing action should not be deemed inaccessible to analytic social-science inquiry. Even if emotions trigger actions and reactions discontinuous with prior action streams, emotions do not make the rational-actor model fail. Emotions can determine belief and urgency-based emotions can determine outcomes.
Rational Choice Theory, Heuristics, and Biases
Authors: Collins Megan Eileen , Loughran Thomas A.
Published: June 2017

A growing body of research on offender decision making has focused on studying the use of heuristic biases, or cognitive shortcuts taken in certain situations, when offenders make decisions in the face of uncertainty. The idea is that when offenders (or any individuals) are contemplating uncertain decisions with limited time, information, or resources to make a rational choice calculus, heuristics enable a suitable decision to be reached quickly. However, often heuristics can lead to biases, errors, preference reversals, or suboptimal decisions. This chapter considers departures from rational behavior and heuristics and biases, specifically how the latter have been integrated into the study of offenders’ choice calculus. In particular, it reviews how biases and deviations from rationality have been routinely observed when studying offender decisions.
Temporal Discounting, Present Orientation, and Criminal Deterrence
Authors: Mamayek Chae , Paternoster Ray , Loughran Thomas A.
Published: June 2017

Theory has suggested that between-individual differences in decision making can be used to explain criminal offending. Individuals who commit crime have been described as lacking willpower or as too present oriented, leading them to think in the here and now. In this chapter, temporal discounting is proposed as one way to explain how an individual may consider immediate rewards and underweight future sanction costs, allowing criminal behavior in the present to become a rational choice under expected utility theory. This chapter provides an overview of temporal orientation as it is related to the discounted utility model and describes how these concepts may have implications for the celerity principle of deterrence.
Crime Location Choice
Authors: Ruiter Stijn
Published: June 2017

Crime is unevenly distributed in space. This chapter discusses the uneven spatial patterns in crime from an offender decision-making perspective. It describes the main theoretical perspectives in environmental criminology (the rational choice perspective, routine activity approach, and crime pattern theory) and reviews the empirical research with an emphasis on studies that have used a discrete spatial choice framework for analyzing individual crime location choices. The strength of the discrete spatial choice framework, several of its assumptions, and its link with random utility maximization theory are discussed. The chapter concludes with several challenges for future crime location choice research, including challenges regarding temporal aspects of criminal decision making, planned versus opportunistic crimes, and solved versus unsolved crimes.
Cold-Blooded and Badass
Authors: Cesar Gabriel T , Decker Scott H.
Published: June 2017

Carjacking is a bold crime characterized by unpredictability and danger. Media reports have identified carjackings throughout the world, and estimates suggest 34,000 occur annually in the United States alone. Research with active offenders has examined carjacking in the context of US street crime, but official reporting inconsistencies and a focus on instrumental motivations hinder a more comprehensive understanding of this crime. The lack of a theoretical framework to analyze the decision-making behaviors of carjackers further complicates the development of effective means to deal with carjacking. With this in mind, this chapter synthesizes the current literature about carjacking and then integrates that synthesis with van Gelder’s “hot/cool” approach to offender decision making. It concludes with a discussion of the implications of this framework for carjacking policy and prevention, and it suggests directions for future research.
Offender Decision Making in Corporate and White-Collar Crime
Authors: Huisman Wim
Published: June 2017

Corporate and white-collar crimes are crimes committed by managers or other professionals acting in an occupational or business-related context. These crimes are generally viewed as outcomes of rational decision making rather than opportunistic or impulsive behavior. This chapter addresses offender decision making in corporate and white-collar crimes. It builds from, as well as critically reflects on, the rationality paradigm of white-collar decision making. It discusses sociodemographic and psychological characteristics of the managers who commit these crimes and the organizational structures and corporate cultures of the firms that are involved. The chapter also describes the situations in which these crimes are committed, and it reviews research on the perception and evaluation of choice in white-collar and corporate crime settings. The chapter discusses implications of research on white-collar decision making for prevention and intervention of white-collar and corporate crime.
Editors’ Introduction
Authors: Bernasco Wim , Elffers Henk , van Gelder Jean-Louis
Published: June 2017

Decision making is central to all human behavior, including criminal conduct. Virtually every discussion about crime or law enforcement is guided by beliefs about how people make decisions in one way or another. This interdisciplinary handbook integrates insights about the role of human decision making as it relates to crime. It contains reviews of the main theories of offender decision making and also reviews of empirical evidence on topics as diverse as desistance, crime locations, co-offending, victimization, and criminal methods and tools. It further includes in-depth treatments of the principal research methods for studying offender decision making and a series of chapters on specific types of crime.
Perceptual Deterrence
Authors: Apel Robert , Nagin Daniel S.
Published: June 2017

In theory, deterrence is a behavioral response to an individual’s perceptions about the certainty and/or severity of criminal justice sanctions. The perceptual underpinnings of compliance with the law are therefore of long-standing interest in perceptual deterrence scholarship. This chapter provides an overview of the broad scope of this scholarship. After reviewing the basic perceptual elements of crime decision-making models, attention turns to a consideration of research on the determinants of sanction perceptions. First, the overall accuracy of sanction perceptions with respect to existing statutes and penalties is discussed. Second, the degree to which an individual’s sanction perceptions are updated in response to his or her experiences as a successful or unsuccessful offender is examined. Third, the manifold research traditions speaking to situational influences on sanction perceptions are surveyed. Emerging dual-process models inspired by research on judgment and decision making are finally considered.
Game Theory
Authors: Rauhut Heiko
Published: June 2017

Game theory analyzes strategic decision making of multiple interdependent actors and has become influential in economics, political science, and sociology. It provides novel insights in criminology because it is a universal language for the unification of the social and behavioral sciences and allows deriving new hypotheses from fundamental assumptions about decision making. This chapter first reviews foundations and assumptions of game theory, basic concepts, and definitions. This includes applications of game theory to offender decision making in different strategic interaction settings: simultaneous and sequential games and signaling games. Next, the chapter illustrates the benefits (and problems) of game theoretical models for the analysis of crime and punishment by providing an in-depth discussion of the “inspection game.” The formal analytics are described, point predictions are derived, and hypotheses are tested by laboratory experiments. The chapter concludes with a discussion of theoretical and practical implications of results from the inspection game.
Dual-Process Models of Criminal Decision Making
Authors: van Gelder Jean-Louis
Published: June 2017

This chapter discusses the application of dual-process and dual-system models to offender decision making. It is argued that these models offer a more accurate account of the decision process than the traditional choice models in criminology, such as rational choice and deterrence models, and can overcome their various limitations. Specific attention is devoted to the hot/cool perspective of criminal decision making, which takes the dual-process hypothesis as a point of departure. This model is rooted in the idea that both “cool” cognition and “hot” affect, or thinking and feeling, guide behavior and that understanding their interaction is fundamental for understanding how people make criminal choices.
Hegel on Logic as Metaphysics
Authors: Pippin Robert B.
Published: June 2017

In the last twenty years, the question of Hegel’s view of metaphysics has become a contested question. Especially important is the issue: what does Hegel mean when he says, not that metaphysics requires an unusual, speculative logic for its exposition, but that “metaphysics coincides with logic” (Die Logik fällt daher mit der Metaphysik zusammen.“EL §24). The aim of this chapter is to offer an interpretation of this claim, with special attention to Hegel’s understanding of Kant’s transcendental logic, which Hegel both highly praises and sharply criticizes, and to his equally important attention to Aristotle, the originator of the view that logic itself has metaphysical implications.
Subjectivity in Hegel’s Logic
Authors: Zambrana Rocío
Published: June 2017

Hegel famously argues that everything hinges on understanding substance as subject. This formulation, which appears in the Preface to the Phenomenology of Spirit, is the locus classicus for specifying the status of Hegel’s idealism. Yet Hegel repeats this claim in the transition from the Objective Logic to the Subjective Logic in his Science of Logic. This chapter provides a reading of the Preface to the Subjective Logic, “On the Concept in General,” and the first section of the Doctrine of the Concept, “Subjectivity.” It argues that key to Hegel’s transformation of Kant’s notions of subjectivity, objectivity, and the idea is Hegel’s move away from the first-person perspective of Kantian epistemic or moral subjectivity toward understanding subjectivity as the rationality of ‘matters themselves’. Tracing the notion of concrete universality in these chapters, it further clarifies Hegel’s notion of subjectivity, thereby providing a rubric for specifying the status of Hegel’s idealism.
Hegel’s Vorbegriff to the Encyclopedia Logic and Its Context
Authors: Stern Robert
Published: June 2017

This chapter offers an account of the ‘Vorbegriff’ or ‘preliminary conception’ in Hegel’s Encyclopedia Logic, which covers §18 to §83 in the final edition. The chapter thus covers Hegel’s account of what he means by ‘thought’; his account of the three main ways in which previous philosophers have conceived how thought may be taken to relate to things; and his brief but important distinction between the ‘moments’ of thought, which he calls the understanding, the negatively rational, and the positively rational. The chapter concludes with a consideration of what problems the text may seem to raise for Hegel and his overall project, focusing in particular on its apparent rationalism; its claim to presuppositionlessness; and its apparent suggestion that the ‘positively rational’ violates certain fundamental logical principles.
Hegel’s Philosophy of Nature
Authors: Rand Sebastian
Published: June 2017

Hegel’s Philosophy of Nature is best understood through its contribution to Hegel’s larger philosophical project of both articulating and actually achieving human freedom. It contributes to this project by showing that nature and natural things are themselves free, in a specific sense of freedom that Hegel critically appropriates from Kant. Hegel demonstrates this freedom of nature through the conceptual transformation of natural-scientific “representations” (laws, kinds, and other universals) into systematically ordered “concrete universals” in which the empirical content of the sciences is preserved and systematized in a way that emphasizes nature’s self-determination, rather than its alleged sheer givenness and “externality.” After a general account of, first, Hegel’s understanding of the natural sciences and their results, and, second, his transformative method, the chapter presents a detailed reconstruction of his treatment of collision, fall, and orbital motion in the Mechanics.
Hegel’s Anthropology
Authors: Novakovic Andreja
Published: June 2017

This chapter considers Hegel’s Anthropology from two points of view. First, it asks how the Anthropology fits into the developmental process presented in the Encyclopedia at large, specifically into the emergence of consciousness and the achievement of individuation. This is Hegel’s primary systematic aim: to explain how the cultivation of certain subjective capacities contributed to the differentiation between subject and object that is distinctive of consciousness and necessary for individuation. But the chapter also shows that this is not Hegel’s only interest in these capacities. Second, it asks how the Anthropology fits into the subsequent domain of Objective Spirit, and thus to what extent it is written from a “pragmatic point of view,” with an eye to the realization of those capacities in the context of ethical life. Here it focuses specifically on Hegel’s anthropological account of habit and its application to the habit of the ethical.
Hegel’s Liberal, Social, and ‘Ethical’ State
Authors: Siep Ludwig
Published: June 2017

Hegel’s philosophy of the state has been tied to liberal and conservative— and even totalitarian—traditions. In dealing with the state’s reaction to economic crises, it contains elements of the social welfare state as well. This chapter tries to assess to which degree and extent Hegel’s conception of the state can be called “liberal” and “social”—and in which sense it is “ethical.” It tries to elucidate its relation to German constitutional history as well as to the “classicism” of the French revolution. At the same time, the book of 1820–1821 must be integrated into the development of Hegel’s (“pre-Berlin”) political philosophy and read against the background of his mature dialectical logic and ontology. Hegel’s way of reconciling the “principle of particularity” with the “idealization” of the particular moments within the ethical whole separates this conception from modern forms of liberalism as well as from state absolutism.
Hegel and Twentieth-Century French Philosophy
Authors: Stone Alison
Published: June 2017

This chapter looks at Hegel’s impact on twentieth-century French philosophy by focusing on Kojève’s influential interpretation of Hegel, which enabled Beauvoir and Fanon to adapt Hegel’s philosophy to theorize gender and racial inequalities. Kojève took the struggle for recognition and the master/slave dialectic to be the central elements of Hegel’s thought. On this basis, Beauvoir and Fanon came to understand gender and racial oppression in terms of distortions in human relations of recognition. They argue that women (for Beauvoir) and black people (for Fanon) have been excluded from full participation in the struggle for recognition. However, these existential-Hegelian views are sometimes thought to have been superseded by the anti-Hegelianism of post-1960s French post-structuralism. Against this position, the chapter explains how the post-structuralist ‘French feminist’ Irigaray takes up and transforms Hegel’s notion of mutual recognition, to recommend that differently sexed individuals accept and recognize one another in their irreducible difference.
Hegel and the Frankfurt School
Authors: Finlayson James Gordon
Published: June 2017

Hegel’s philosophy exerted a magnetic attraction on the various thinkers that comprise the Frankfurt school. This chapter aims to gauge and specify the relation that three members of the ‘inner circle’ of the Frankfurt school (Horkheimer, Adorno, and Marcuse) have to Hegel. It concludes that the young Horkheimer is a Hegelian-Marxist who endorses a qualified Hegelianism, while claiming that Hegel’s idealist metaphysics had become obsolete and superseded by a combination of sociology, psychology, and materialist historiography. Adorno remains a more committed Hegelian (and a Marxist-Hegelian) who sees his own dialectical approach to philosophy as emerging from and consistent with an immanent criticism of Hegel. Both, however, tend to reject Hegel’s philosophy of objective spirit as conservative apology for the Prussian state. Marcuse, by contrast, is a Hegelian-Marxist who has a more scholarly, nuanced, and charitable approach to Hegel, placing more emphasis on the critical moment in Hegel’s conception of reason.
Consciousness and the Criterion of Knowledge in the Phenomenology of Spirit
Authors: Emundts Dina
Published: June 2017

Chapter 3 suggests that the aim of Hegel’s Phenomenology is to work out the right understanding of what knowledge is, through an examination of other theories in philosophy and their failures. The author does so first by discussing the structure of consciousness from the Introduction and then by giving an interpretation of Sense-Certainty, Perception, and Force and Understanding. The chapter aims to show that a plausible account of knowledge can be developed by looking at the failures of other philosophical theories. It is possible, for example, to learn that a holistic understanding of laws and principles is required in order to establish physical laws and to claim any knowledge at all about the physical world.
Reason, Self-Transcendence, and Modernity in Hegel’s Phenomenology
Authors: Bristow William F.
Published: June 2017

Chapter 5 displays narrative unity in the “Reason chapter” of Hegel’s Phenomenology by showing how consciousness as reason becomes, and takes successive forms as, purposive activity: first, as organism, then, as end-directed human action, and finally, as human action that is its own end. The successive forms of purposive activity in the chapter are generated as attempts to resolve the overarching tension between rational consciousness’s certainty of itself as an existing individual and its certainty of being all reality. The internal criticism of the successive forms of rational consciousness in the chapter amounts to a general criticism of distinctively modern self-consciousness, particularly of its individualism. It is argued that the alleged resolution of reason’s tension in the transition at the end of the chapter to spirit, in particular, to ethical life, itself contains a tension between the realization of reason, on the one hand, and its repudiation, on the other.
Religion, Art, and the Emergence of Absolute Spirit in the Phenomenology
Authors: Speight C. Allen
Published: June 2017

More than a decade and a half before he began to deliver separate series of lectures on aesthetics and religion in Berlin, Hegel offered an early account of art in the context of the “Religion” chapter of Phenomenology of Spirit. This chapter examines the importance of Hegel’s emerging perspective on art as offering a key to three main claims that remain crucial for his mature system: the development of a notion of pre-classical “natural religion,” the interpretation of ancient Greek religion as a “religion of art,” and the fundamentally altered stance that Hegel comes to take toward Christianity in a new account of the relation between religion and philosophy.
Self-Determination
Authors: Wehmeyer Michael L. , Shogren Karrie A. , Little Todd D. , Adams Nicole
Published: June 2017

Self-determination refers to self- (vs. other-) caused action—to people acting volitionally. “Human agency” refers to the sense of personal empowerment involving both knowing and having what it takes to achieve goals. Human agentic theories share the view that organismic aspirations drive human behaviors. An “organismic” perspective of self-determination that views people as active contributors to, or authors of, their behavior provides a foundation for examining and facilitating the degree to which people become self-determined and the impact of that on their pursuit of well-being. An organismic approach requires a focus on the interface between the self and context. This chapter discusses the self-determination construct within an organismic perspective, surveys the construct’s history and usage in philosophy and psychology, summarizes theories of motivation and causal action, and provides a framework for understanding its development. Research implications based upon existing knowledge and research in self-determination and positive psychology are identified.