bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
HABITAT OF SOME MALAYAN RATS
Authors: Harrison J. L.
Published: August 2010

During the last five years a good deal of information about the detailed distributon of Malayan rats has been gathered in connection with studies on trombiculid mites carried out at the Institute for Medical Research, Malaya. By methods of trapping and marking rats in a variety of habitats some of their preferences have been worked out. Information on these habitat preferences is given for the following rats: Rattus rattus diardi, R. r. jalorensis, R. r. argentiventer, R. exultans, mülleri, rajah, whiteheadi and sabanus: and some notes on R. norvegicus, annandalei and bowersi.

The infestation by trombiculid mites is used as evidence that rats do or do not share the same micro‐habitat, since these mites have no marked host preferences.

Evidence is adduced that Rattus rajah surifer and R. r. pellax are probably but colour varieties of the one species.
LARVAE OF THE BRITISH SPECIES OF DIOGENES, PAGURUS, ANAPAGURUS AND LITHODES (CRUSTACEA, DECAPODA)
Authors: MACDONALD J. D. , PIKE R. B. , WILLIAMSON D. I.
Published: August 2010

Larvae of nine of the eleven members of the Paguroidea (including Coenobitoidea) recorded from British waters have been hatched from the egg in the laboratory. Zoeal stages and the glaucothoe of each of these nine species are described. A single zoea of a 10th species was obtained from the plankton It is provisionally identified and described.

Larval characters provide strong evidence of convergent evolution in the adults, both in those species at present grouped in the Paguridae and in those at present grouped in the genus Pagurus. A revised classification is proposed.
AGE CHANGES IN DIMENSIONAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE SKULLS OF MALE AND FEMALE APES
Authors: ASHTON E. H.
Published: August 2010

Comparison has been made between the mean values of corresponding cranial dimensions of samples of male and female chimpanzees, and of male and female gorillas of various ages.

The skull of the adult male chimpanzee is, on the average, 5 per cent bigger than that of the female. No consistent sexual differences in skull size appear to exist in immature specimens of this ape.

The skull of the adult male gorilla is about 18 per cent bigger than that of the female, sexual differences first appearing when the permanent incisors, second molars and premolars are erupting.

It is suggested that the greater degree of sexual differentiation in the gorilla arises because its adolescent growth‐spurt begins earlier, and possibly lasts longer, than in the chimpanzee.
OBSERVATIONS OF THE MOVEMENTS OF MOLES (TALPA EUROPAEA L.) AFTER WEANING
Authors: Crowcroft) GILLIAN K. GODFREY (Mrs.
Published: August 2010

Pregnant female moles (Talpa europaea L.) were labelled with radioactive Cobalt and their ranges determined with a Geiger‐Müller counter unit.

Some of their young were also labelled and their movements studied during the first ten weeks after weaning.

The young became familiar with their mothers' ranges within a few days of leaving the nest, and remained within them for the entire period.

Factors influencing the dispersal of young moles are briefly discussed.
THE ANATOMY OF POTAMOTHERIUM AN OLIGOCENE LUTRINE
Authors: SAVAGE R. J. G.
Published: August 2010

A detailed account is given of the anatomy of the skeleton and dentition of Potamotherium, the first known otter, from Upper Oligocene lacustrine deposits in Allier, central France. Almost all parts of the skeleton are represented: the bones are plentiful and well preserved, displaying many aquatic adaptations.

The taxonomy of the Lutrinae, the stratigraphy of the deposits containing Potamotherium and their associated fauna are briefly discussed in the introduction.

Study of the dentition includes consideration of milk teeth. Potamotherium is the only lutrine retaining the second upper molar and the dentitions, both milk and permanent, are rather more complex than those of present day lutrines, though basically very similar to Lutra: the differences are interpreted taxonomically but no functional explanations are possible.

The description of the skull bones is outlined and the structures transmitted by the cranial foramina interpolated. Detailed study is centred on the brain, ear and nasal region. The pattern of the cortical convolutions is mapped, and the ratios of brain weight to body weight in various lutrines are compared. The petrosum reveals details of the semi‐circular canals and cochlea, and two of the ossicles are described: an attempt is made to interpret auditory perception. Preservation of maxillo‐ and ethmo‐turbinals, together with the olfactory lobes of the brain leads to an analysis of the nasal region and its functions. The mechanics of jaw movements are discussed and these considered along with the dentition suggest the likely feeding habits.

The anatomy of the vertebral column, ribs and sternum is described in detail. The main factors influencing locomotion are discussed and comparisons made with living carnivores. The poise of the neck, arching of the back and length of the tail are each considered. The varying position of the zygapo‐physes are correlated with the degree of flexibility of the back and certain characters of the ribs are shown to be adaptations to aquatic breathing.

The anatomy of the pectoral girdle and fore limb includes discussion of the main muscles. The mechanical bases of the limb adaptations are explained, and these compared with fully aquatic and non‐aquatic species. The rotary movements of the manus are correlated with its use in land and in water.

The study of the pelvic girdle and hind limb reveals that most bones have different proportions from those of terrestrial carnivores; this effects the mechanics of muscle actions, enabling aquatic movements to be performed more effectively. Prom the shape of the pelvic girdle the probable size of the litters is predicted. The knee joint, the patella, the muscles to the pes and the length of the metatarsals are among the features discussed in the determination of the functions of the hind limb.

In conclusion the mode of life and probable appearance of Potamotherium are considered. On land it must have closely resembled Lutra, while in the water this abundantly successful lake‐dweller was a powerful swimmer.
THE FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE SEA URCHIN PSAMMECHINUS MILIARIS (GMELIN) IN THE LABORATORY
Authors: HANCOCK D. A.
Published: August 2010

Feeding experiments have shown that burrs, Psammechinus miliaris, are capable of penetrating and eating adult oysters, but they were found to do so only rarely.

The erosion of oysters seemed to result from the activity of Psammechinus in search of Polydora and Cliona. Barnacles, cockles and ascidians were eaten frequently. The maximum feeding rate occurred during the summer.
NAPHTHAQUINONE PIGMENT IN THE TROPICAL SEA URCHIN DIADEMA ANTILLARUM PHILIPPI
Authors: MILLOTT NORMAN
Published: August 2010

Pigment with the characteristics of a naphthaquinone is widely distributed throughout the body of the echinoid Diadema antillarum. Chromatography indicates that there is a main reddish orange pigment sometimes accompanied by small amounts of a purple pigment.

The purified main pigment crystallises in red needles which melt at 223°C, sublime about 200°C, and in acidified ether show absorption maxima at 263/64: 337/39: 462/63 mμ. It appears to be a hydroxynaphthaquinone resembling echinochrome A.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTESTINAL BLOOD‐SYSTEM OF LAMPREYS (PETROMYZONIDAE), WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE ORIGIN OF VASCULAR COUPLES
Authors: BAXTER E. W.
Published: August 2010

The circulation of blood in the intestinal wall has been studied in living lamprey embryos and unpigmented larvae.

A simple circulation is established just before the time of hatching.

The anterior mesenteric artery supplies the intestinal wall and the sub‐intestinal vein drains it.

Shortly after hatching, posterior mesenteric vessels appear.

When pigmentation sets in the posterior mesenteric artery develops a connection with the posterior cardinal veins by way of recto‐cloacal vessels.

Torsion of the intestine and its blood vessels extends gradually towards the posterior end but ceases at the end of the typhlosole.

A median dorsal branch of the posterior mesenteric artery comes to lie in or on the wall of the intestine on its left side and enters the typhlosole to become confluent with the anterior mesenteric artery as the typhlosolar artery.

Additional posterior mesenteric arteries supply the peripheral part of the intestinal wall and persist throughout the ammocoete stage.

In the ammocoete a sub‐cardinal vein takes blood from the kidneys to the post‐cardinal veins.

At or just before metamorphosis outgrowths from the sub‐cardinal vein grow down within the connective tissue coat of the posterior mesenteric arteries to reach the intestinal wall, thus forming the “vascular couples” characteristic of the adult.

During metamorphosis secondary venous connections are developed between the kidney veins and the post‐cardinal veins.

Questions of terminology are discussed and the term “supra‐renal sinus”abandoned in favour of“sub‐cardinal sinus”.

The term “vascular couple” is retained. “Veins”, “arteries” and “ligaments” of previous authors are interpreted according to the mode of development of the vascular couple.

The “valves” of Keibel (1924) are shown to be sphincters in the wall of the dorsal aorta at the origin of the segmental parietal arteries.

The general plan of the intestinal blood system of the adult lamprey shows the persistence of several features characteristic of the earlier developmental stages.

The functional significance of the vascular couples is still not fully understood.
THE STRUCTURES PRODUCING “NON‐IRIDESCENT” BLUE COLOUR IN BIRD FEATHERS
Authors: AUBER L.
Published: August 2010

The paper deals with the morphology and evolution of feathers of structural colours based on Tyndall's principle (short wavelengths of light are scattered from a cloudy medium, underlaid by pigmentations that absorb long wavelengths).

The texture of the cloudy medium, usually of medullary origin, represents a dimensional extreme of vacuolization in feathers without Tyndall colour.

Concealed bases of Tyndall‐coloured feathers show primitive conditions, as found in dull‐coloured feathers. Transitions between bases and bright terminal regions are interpreted as evolutionary steps, ontogenetically repeated in retrogression.

There are few alternative configurations in pigmentation (1) of medullary or cortical portions, each of them evolved convergently in heterogeneous families: convergence is evident from differences in baso‐terminal transitions (3).

Divergence of related species (or of plumage regions in the same species) in late evolutionary phases is suggested by agreement in transitional, but differences in terminal, configurations.

Evolution of alternative configurations may be controlled by available quantities of cells: these are sometimes correlated with the body volume.

The taxonomic significance of Tyndall configurations has been discussed.

Convergent evolution (4) of configurations in Alcedinidae and Thraupidae has been studied in detail.

Double medullae in Alcedinidae and Thraupidae may represent stabilization of fluctuant conditions in other families.
ANOMALOUS CLEFT PALATE IN SNAKE EMBRYOS
Authors: BELLAIRS A. D'A. , BOYD J. D.
Published: August 2010

The occurrence of the combined anomaly of ‘hare‐lip’ and cleft palate in embryos of three species of snakes is recorded.

Study of serial sections of these embryos shows that the cleft, which is unilateral in three cases and bilateral in one, extends from the nostril to the choanal opening. It passes between the premaxilla and vomer medially and the maxilla and palatine laterally. The shape of these bones, and of the cartilaginous nasal capsule, is not grossly abnormal, but the cleft passes through the septomaxilla dividing it into two portions.

The organ of Jacobson related to the anomalous cleft is slightly abnormal in shape but has developed a complete duct which opens on to the palate in the usual situation. The lachrymal duct, instead of opening into the duct of the organ of Jacobson, ends blindly on the outer side of the nose.

A comparison is made with the condition in mouse embryos with cleft palate, and the mode of formation of the palate, as well as the morphogenesis of anomalous cleft palate in Squamata and mammals is discussed.
THE INTRINSIC MUSCLES OF THE HAND IN THE SLENDER LORIS
Authors: KANAGASUNTHERAM R. , JAYAWARDENE F. L. W.
Published: August 2010

The intrinsic muscles of the hand have been described in Loris and a comparison is made with the palmar musculature in Nycticebus and in the Potto.

The presence of flexores breves superficiales has been noted for the first time among primates and the morphological significance of the muscle is discussed.

The thenar and hypothenar muscles are poorly differentiated in Loris and the separation of the different components is very often artificial.

There is only a single contrahentis in Loris while the full complement is present in Nycticebus.

The deep branch of the ulnar nerve dominates not only in the muscular supply but even in the sensory distribution of the palm in Loris.
MATING BEHAVIOUR OF THE SEAL PHOCA VITULINA IN SHETLAND
Authors: VENABLES U. M. , VENABLES L. S. V.
Published: August 2010

The pupping season of Phoca vitulina in Shetland is approximately 14th June to 5th July.

Preceding the pupping season there is a period of excited erotic rolling behaviour among “pairs”. We have not seen this lead to coition nor have we seen it renewed in the immediate post‐lactation period by which time the seals have already begun to moult.

Another rolling period commences in the first week of September and at this season it often leads to coition by moult‐completed seals. Mating finishes in the first week of October. The blowing of bubble streams is introduced into the rolling sequence during this autumn period. Rolling and bubble blowing are described

A Table is given comparing the pupping and mating seasons of Phoca vitulina in Shetland with these seasons for the species in other parts of its range

We have seen coition only on or close to the bottom of the sea in water of two to four fathoms and in the shallows immediately behind the breakers Rough water was avoided by mating seals. No sexual behaviour was seen ashore.

No change of partners by rolling “pairs” of Phoca vitulina was seen but we have witnessed this, instigated by either sex, among rolling “pairs” of Halichoerus grypus.

The possibility of the existence of a spring mating season is discussed.

Counts are given of this Shetland Common Seal population to the north of Fitful Head. It has remained fairly constant at some 400 animals over the period 1954 to 1956 though many pups of up to six weeks old are slaughtered annually for their pelts.
THE BOTTOM FAUNA COMMUNITIES ACROSS THE CONTINENTAL SHELF OFF ACCRA, GHANA (GOLD COAST)
Authors: BUCHANAN JOHN B.
Published: August 2010

A quantitative investigation of the marine bottom fauna has been earned out, in conjunction with an analysis of the physical environment, across the continental shelf off Accra from the shore to a depth of fifty fathoms.

The concept of “community” used in the present work is discussed and defined.

Although the nature of the bottom sediment is of primary importance, wave action in shallow water and temperature in deeper water are important factors in community differentiation.

Four distinct infaunal communities have been recognised associated with four different types of bottom conditions, these are:

The Inshore Fine Sand Community (0 to eight fathoms), dominated by the polychaetes Owenia fusiformis and Diopaira nea/polilana with the lamellibranch Cultellus tenuis.

The Sandy Silt Community (8–20 fathoms), with Turritdla annvMa and Sternaspis scutata.

The Silty Sand Community (20–25 fathoms), dominated by two species of Foraminifera–Jullienellajoetida and Schizammina sp.

The Coarse Sand Community (25–50 fathoms), dominated by the coral Caryophyllia clavus.

At depths greater than fifty fathoms a rock epifauna exists which is Mediterranean in nature and contains many new faunal records for West Africa. It is characterised by massive colonies of the coral Dendrophyllia ramea and large numbers of the basket star Astrospartus mediterraneus. The bottom temperature at this depth varies little from similar depths in Northwest Africa and the Mediterranean.

The communities off Accra are clear cut and well defined and this is considered to be largely due to the rapidly changing nature of the bottom deposits across the shelf. These rapid changes in bottom conditions are caused first of all, in shallow water, by the sorting action of the surf waves on the bottom deposits. In deeper water a second transition is brought about by the production of coarse sediment from the erosion of a limestone deposit on the outer shelf edge.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF THE MITE CHEYLETUS ERVDITUS (SCHRANK, 1781)
Authors: HUGHES T. E.
Published: August 2010

The arrangement of the tracheal trunks is compared in Cheyletus eruditue, Allothrombium fuliginosum and Dinoihrombium tinctorius.

It is concluded that the condition in Cheyletus arose by fusion of the cheliceral bases and the extension dorsally of paired atria.

The opening to the external air is in the last peritrematal chamber in Cheyletus eruditus.
NOTES ON THE SOUTHERN FUR SEAL IN SOUTH GEORGIA
Authors: BONNER W. NIGEL
Published: August 2010

The occurrence of a colony of fur seals in South Georgia is recorded and the observed habits and interspecific relationships of the seals described. The colony is estimated to consist of between 8,000 and 12,000 seals, excluding pups. The ratio of harem bulls to breeding cows was found to be 1: 8‐4. The future prospects of the herd are discussed and it is suggested that expansion and increase in numbers may be expected to take place. The occurrence of fur seals in the South Orkneys is noted.
GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION AND POLYMORPHISM IN CHLOROPHONEUS SHRIKES
Authors: MOREAU R. E. , SOUTHERN H. N.
Published: August 2010

Chlorophoneus multicolor and C. nigrifrons (possibly conspecific) are polymorphic forest shrikes that are widely but discontinuously distributed over most of tropical Africa. Between them they show five main colour‐phases of the under‐parts (each divisible into sub‐phases), as many as three of which occur together in certain localities. In addition there is geographical variation in other plumage characters and in size.

This geographical variation tends to be clinal, but the occurrence of the various colour‐phases and the proportions in which they appear in the various local populations vary without apparent correlation. Moreover the extent to which neighbouring populations differ in regard to the phases represented bears no relation to the distance or to the severity of the ecological barriers between them. At present it is impossible to suggest any adaptive significance in the differences between the populations.

The nature of the colour‐phases suggests that they may be controlled by very few genes, but no data are available from the offspring of mixed matings.

The colour‐phases appear to be equally distributed in both sexes, except that the black phase, although evidently under different genetical control in East African and West African birds respectively, is known only from males.

The whole situation is discussed in relation to other cases of polymorphism.
STUDIES ON THE STRUCTURE, LIFE HISTORY AND ECOLOGY OF THE TREMATODE PHYLLODISTOMUM SIMILE NYBELIN, 1926 (GORGODERIDAE: GORGODERINAE) FROM THE URINARY BLADDER OF BROWN TROUT, SALMO TRUTTA L.
Authors: THOMAS J. D.
Published: August 2010

Brown trout (Salmo trutta L.), salmon parr (Salmo salar, L.) and the eels (Anguilla anguilla (L.)) from certain rivers in West Wales were examined over a period of nearly two years for parasites.

Large numbers of Phyllodistomum simile Nybelin were found in the urinary bladder of the trout from the River Teify.

P. simile, was not found in any of the 274 salmon parr or 243 eels examined, probably due to an ecological immunity in the former and a physiological immunity in the latter.

There was no evidence of a seasonal variation in the occurrence of P. simile in trout aged two years or more.

Trout aged four or more years were more heavily infested than young trout and there was no indication of the development of a total immunity with increase in the age of fishes.

The life history of P. simile was elucidated under experimental conditions by feeding the trout precocious metacercariae present in daughter sporocysts obtained from the gill lamellae and epibranchial cavity of the freshwater bi‐valve, Sphaerium corneum.

The anatomy of the daughter sporocyst, the cercaria, metacercaria and the adult stages are described.

The gorgoderid cercariae and the attempts to classify them into groups corresponding to those of the adults are discussed. It is suggested that attempts at discussing the evolution of the cercariae placed in the family Gorgoderidae may be premature in view of the fact that life histories have only been elucidated experimentally for cercariae of the macrocercous, cystocercous kind.

The advantages in the life cycle of precocious encystment within the sporocyst are commented upon but it is also suggested that P. simile may have a second intermediate host, possibly the minnow, Pkoxinus phoxinus L. or a freshwater arthropod.

The morphological changes that take place during the development of P. simile and their importance in specific diagnosis are discussed. It is suggested that in view of the more readily discernible differences between the larvae, certain larval features might well be used in distinguishing species of doubtful validity.
TERATOLOGICAL EXAMPLES OF AN ELECTRIC RAY, TORPEDO NOBILIANA BONAPARTE
Authors: PALMER G. , WHEELER ALWYNE C.
Published: August 2010

Two abnormal examples of Torpedo nobiliana are described and compared with normal forms.

Previously recorded specimens showing varying degrees of abnormality are listed and commented upon.

The presence of pectoral notches in young stages is discussed.

It is suggested that this type of abnormality is teratological in nature.
THE COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE SUBULUMD HEAD (NEMATODA): WITH A CONSIDERATION OF ITS SYSTEMATIC IMPORTANCE
Authors: INGLIS WILLIAM G.
Published: August 2010

The structure of the head in the nematode family Subuluridae has been studied comparatively and the results obtained used as the basis of a new classification.

The three structures at the base of the buccal cavity are shown to be not teeth, as they are commonly described, but modifications of the anterior end of the pharynx. These modifications are of two basic types: one which is lobed and spirally arranged and one which bears an elaborate arrangement of tooth‐like structures and flanges on the inner surface.

It is shown that at least three parts of the head are of value in systematic analysis: the shape of the mouth opening, the cross‐sectional shape of the buccal cavity and the structure of the pharyngeal portions.

The various structures are analysed throughout the family, and are shown to vary along three evolutionary lines which show a high degree of parallel evolution leading to complex mouth openings with lip‐lobes in all three. It is suggested that this trend towards a complex mouth is associated with increasing efficiency of the mouth as a holding organ.

It is shown that the so‐called ‘double’ buccal cavity, commonly reported from Subulura species, has always been reported because of a misinterpretation of the pharyngeal portions, due to the reduction of their musculature leading to fully cutieular portions.

The nine genera of which the family is composed, two of which–Prima‐subulura and Tar subulura–are new, have been grouped into three subfamilies, of which one–Allodapinae–is new, on the basis of the analysis of the head structure, in conjunction with other previously better known characters.

The genera are grouped as follows: Subulurinae with three genera, Subulura, Oxynema and Labiobulura; Allodapinae subfamily nov. with two, Allodapa and Aulonocephalus; Parasubulurinae with four, Parasubulura, Primasubulura, Tarsubulura and Leipoanema.

As far as possible nominal species have been referred to these various genera on the basis of published descriptions as well as a study of specimens.

Since most of the rearrangements suggested in this paper are based on the structure of the head, which has been almost completely ignored heretofore, many nominal species cannot be referred to a genus and a list of thirty such names is given. These names are considered to represent species incertae sedis.
THE NEST‐BUILDING BEHAVIOUR OF DOMESTICATED CANARIES
Authors: Hinde R. A. , Matthews L. Harrison
Published: August 2010

The nest‐building behaviour of domesticated canaries was studied.

The principal activities, or groups of activities, studied were inspecting, gathering, carrying and sitting (building). The latter includes a number of stereotyped motor patterns functioning in shaping the cup.

The nest‐site is selected by the female as or before building begins.

Building activity reaches its peak three or four days before the laying of the first egg, and slightly before the peak of copulation. The temporal relations between building and egg‐laying are highly variable between individuals. The male plays only a small part in nest‐building.

The total times spent gathering, carrying and sitting per watch are positively correlated. Since the change‐over from one activity to the next does not depend solely on external stimuli, this suggests that these activities share internal causal factors.

Two characteristics of building behaviour (total time building per watch and number of placings per watch) are not fully correlated with each other, and there are differences between the relations of the total times spent gathering, carrying and sitting with each of these characteristics (Figs. 3 and 4). The concept of a nest‐building drive is thus not useful, for the selection of criteria whereby it could be quantified is arbitrary.

The median bout lengths of gathering, carrying and sitting first increase and then decrease with increase in the number of placings per watch (Figs. 5 and 6) and there are correlations between the bout lengths of the different activities in each nest‐building sequence. Each activity can be interrupted by the activity which functionally follows it before it own motivation has fallen to the normal threshold.

The appetitive/consummatory behaviour dichotomy is not useful in analysing the relationships between gathering, carrying and sitting, but these can be understood in terms of concepts such as common causal factors, threshold differences, and self‐suppressing effects consequent upon performance.

The stereotyped movements of nest‐building differ in frequency between individuals “Scrabbling” is influenced by the size of the nest.

The decrease in nest‐building activity around the time of egg‐laying is due partially to internal changes, and partially to stimuli from the nest.

The length of sitting bouts is influenced by stimuli from the nest‐pan as well as internal factors.

The change‐over from building with grass to building with feathers which occurs shortly before egg‐laying is due partially to internal changes and partially to stimuli from the nest.

Canaries reared without material show a number of bizarre patterns of behaviour which are established by learning during deprivation. The mere performance of nest‐building movements has some reinforcing value.

Many of the constituent patterns of nest‐building behaviour occur in naive birds, but their integration is partially dependent on learning.
MOULTS AND WINTER WHITENING IN THE MOUNTAIN HARE LEPUS TIMIDUS SCOTICUS, HILZHEIMER
Authors: Hewson Raymond
Published: August 2010

The mountain hare undergoes three annual moults. These are a spring moult from white to brown, an autumn moult from brown to brown, a winter moult from brown to white

Flat air‐dried skins were used to trace the course of the moults because new growth is clearly indicated by hair root marks on the flesh side of the skin

The pelage of the mountain hare consists of fur, pile hair and guard hair. The summer pelage is described

The autumn moult begins in June and ends in September. It begins about the end of the main breeding season. Some white hair is grown, particularly on the feet

The winter moult begins in October. Winter fur is longer, finer in texture and denser than that of summer or autumn. Projecting as “fine white hair” to the tips of the pile hair it is largely responsible for the hare's white colouring. Moulting on the body ceases in December; on the head not until January or early February

The spring moult begins in February, rather later than the beginning of the breeding season. Pelage is shed before replacement in this moult and in the autumn moult; in the winter moult the old hair is only shed when the new hair is almost or fully grown

No significant regional variations, owing to temperature, occur within England and Scotland. Variations in the progress of the moult, due to temperature, may occur

There is some blanching of winter pile and guard hairs and probably of whiskers

In season and duration the moults resemble those of the Scottish ptarmigan
A REVISION OF THE BRITISH ACEOSEJINAE (ACARINA: MESOSTIGMATA)
Authors: EVANS G. OWEN
Published: August 2010

This paper deals with a revision of the British species of the subfamily Aceosejinae together with a synonymic list of the species of the subfamily.

Keys are given for the separation of genera and species of the British aceosejines.

The following new synonymy is introduced:

Arctoseiulus Willmann and Arctotarseius Willmann are synonyms of Arctoseius Sig Thor.

Arctoseiodes Willmann is a synonym of Leioseius Berlese.

Seiopsis Berlese, Jordensia Oudemans and Blattilaelaps Womersley are synonyms of Proctolaelaps Berlese.

Garmania Nesbitt and Paragarmania Nesbitt are synonyms of Melichares Hering.

Arctoseiopsis Evans is a synonym of Iphidozercon Berlese.

Aceosejus Sellnick is a synonym of Lasioseius Berlese.

Lasioseius (L.)innumerabilis Berlese, Lasioseius alpinus Schweizer and Lasioseius ventritrichosus Schweizer are synonyms of Hypoaspis hypudaei Oudemans.

Typhlodromus domesticus Oudemans is a synonym of Melichares agilis Hering.

Typhlodromus tineivorus Oudemans, Blattisocius triodons Keegan and Lasioseius similis Schweizer are synonyms of Lasioseius (L.) tarsalis Berlese.

Lasioseius fimbriatus Halbert and Seiulus amboinensis Oudemans are synonyms of Lasioseius (L.) dentriticus Berlese.

Laelaps ligoniformis Michael is a synonym of Sejus muricatus C. L. Koch.

Arctoseius austriacus Willmann is a synonym of Gamasellus (Sessiluncus) eremitu Berlese.
THE MULTIMAMMATE MOUSE RATTUS (MASTOMYS) NATALENSIS SMITH: A LABORATORY‐ADAPTED AFRICAN WILD RODENT
Authors: DAVIS D. H. S. , OETTLÉ A. G.
Published: August 2010

Laboratory‐breeding stocks of the multimammate mouse, Rattua (Mastomys) natalensis, have been maintained since 1939 and have become of increasing importance in medical research. This mouse has been used primarily as the standard test‐animal in routine diagnostic and experimental work in plague.

It is highly susceptible to experimental infection with Schistosoma mansoni, and in consequence has assumed importance in bilharzia research.

A high proportion (30 to 50 per cent) of animals dying in the colony from natural causes have been found to be suffering from spontaneous adenocarcinoma of the glandular stomach—a condition which is extremely rare in animals other than man. The multimammate mouse promises to be an impor tant experimental animal in cancer research.

The taxonomic status of the multimammate mouse has not been satis factorily defined. Some of its anatomical and physiological features are Rattus—like, others Mus—like, while others appear to be unique (e.g. the presence of a prostate gland in the female).

The known similarities and differences between the multimammate mouse, the laboratory rat and the laboratory mouse are tabulated. On the available data it is hard to say whether it should be classified as a subgenus of Rattus, as it is at present, or whether Mastomys should be given generic rank or made a subgenus of Mus.
THE YOLK‐SAC OF THE MOLE TALPA EUROPAEA
Authors: MORRIS B.
Published: August 2010

The distribution of RNA, fats, iron, glycogen and alkaline phosphatase in the endometrium, yolk‐sac placenta and decidua of Talpa europaea is described.

The areolae which are formed are associated, at first, with the vitelline circulation and are probably important sites for the uptake of iron—derived from maternal erythrocytes, protein and saliva insoluble carbohydrate material derived from the secretions of the adjacent uterine glands. The aerolae persist into late pregnancy in association with the allantoic circulation.

A vascular yolk‐sac placenta is formed in early pregnancy but it is probably not of any real significance in embryonic nutrition—with the exception of the areolae mentioned above. It is evident that the structural changes which occur in the uterine wall during the formation of this placenta are essentially preparatory to the subsequent establishment of the allantochorionic placenta.

Stainable glycogen is absent from the decidual tissue and little lipoidal material is present except in the symplasma which invests the trophoblastic villi.

The avascular yolk‐sac placenta, the progressive establishment of which is described, is concerned with the absorption of protein, saliva insoluble carbohydrate material and other substances contained in the secretions of the uterine glands of the mesometrial wall of the uterus. The uterine secretions are of considerable importance in embryonic nutrition and probably continue to be of some significance even in late pregnancy.

The yolk‐sac increases in volume up to about the 11·5 mm. stage and the concentration of protein in its fluid at this stage is about 60 per cent of that in the maternal serum. In late stages the concentration of protein in the fluid is greater than that in the maternal serum. Fibrinogen is absent from the fluid in Talpa.

The yolk‐sac fluid could serve as an important source of absorbable material and it is probable that the yolk‐sac splanchnopleur, the histochemical and histological properties of which are described, is of some significance EM a placental structure in this species.

Reichert's membrane is formed in the avascular wall of the yolk‐sac in early pregnancy and it attains a thickness of about 3 μ in late stages. Its histochemical and tinctorial properties resemble those which have been described for the membrane in the rat and hedgehog and; EM in these species, it is formed of collagenous material. In Talpa the membrane is probably of endodermal origin.
STUDIES OF THE BRAIN, SENSE ORGANS AND LIGHT SENSITIVITY OF A BLIND CAVE FISH (TYPHLOGARRA WIDDOWSONI) FROM IRAQ
Authors: MARSHALL N. B. , THINES G. L.
Published: August 2010

The structures of the brain and sense organs of Typhlogarra widdowsoni, a blind cave fish from Iraq, are described and compared with those of Garra rufa, the nearest related species.

In Typhlogarra the optic lobes and eyes are very regressed. Only the lateral parts of the optic tectum are developed and these incompletely. The optic nerves do not connect with the brain and the different parts of the eye are not easily recognisable.

Experiments on the light sensitivity showed that Typhlogarra is slightly photonegative, but indifferent to the wave length. It is quite unlike Caeco‐barbus geertsi, a, blind cave fish from the Belgian Congo, which is markedly photonegative. Other differences in behaviour are also considered

More general comparison of Typhlogarra with other blind species re‐emphasises that such fishes are remarkably diverse in their biology.
SOME VARIATIONS IN THE MAXILLARY NERVE OF PRIMATES
Authors: ASHTON E. H. , OXNARD C. E.
Published: August 2010

The maxillary nerve has been dissected throughout its course in representatives of the Prosimii (tree shrew, lemur, loris and galago); the Ceboidea (New World monkeys); the Cercopithecoidea (Old World monkeys), and the Hominoidea (chimpanzee, orang‐utan and man).

The maxillary trunk gives off the zygomatic and superior dental nerves before splitting at a variable point into nasal and labial divisions. The first is distributed to the side and vestibule of the nose and supplies the rhinarium if present. The second is distributed to the mystical vibrissae (if present) and to the skin of the cheek and upper lip—some of its branches being faaciculated with twigs of the facial nerve.

In the Prosimii, where a rhinarium is associated with an uncomplicated facial musculature, the nasal division is the bigger. Relatively few fibres of the labial division are fasciculated with twigs of the seventh nerve.

In monkeys where the rhinarium has disappeared and the facial musculature has increased in complexity, the labial division is the bigger and more of its fibres are associated with twigs of the facial nerve. In certain New World monkeys (Lagothrix, Saimiri and Ateles) many of these presumably proprioceptive fibres travel via the zygomatico‐facial nerve.

The further elaboration of the facial musculature in apes results in still more fibres being fasciculated with twigs of the seventh nerve, while in man, the trend continues further and the infraorbital plexus is more extensive than in any lower primate.
SHELL FORM, PALLIAL ATTACHMENT AND THE LIGAMENT IN THE BIVALVIA
Authors: Owen Gareth
Published: August 2010

Examples are given to show how in the Bivalvia, (a) changes in the form of the mantle/shell may affect the position of the adductor muscles, and (b) secondary extension of the primary ligament may limit the extent of pallial attachment in the anterior and posterior embayments of the mantle.

Secondary extension of the ligament may take place by periostracum or by fusion layer but it is probable that only fusion layer is of functional significance. Where the outer surfaces of the outer folds of the mantle margins anterior and posterior to the mantle isthmus are fused, as in the formation of fusion layer, there is an accompanying loss of pallial attachment and in most, if not all bivalves, the pallial line extends to the anterior and posterior ends of the functional ligament whether this consists of primary ligament only, as in Mytilus edulis, or of primary ligament secondarily extended by fusion layer, as in Anodonta cygnea. The extent of the pallial muscles in the anterior and posterior embayments is therefore of use in distinguishing between (a) fusion of the inner surfaces of the outer folds (i.e. when the two valves are joined by periostracum) and (b) fusion of the outer surfaces of the outer folds (i.e. when the two valves are joined by fusion layer).

Elongation of the mantle/shell on either side of the demarcation line results in a corresponding extension of the region of cross fusion of the pallial muscles in the anterior and posterior embayments. For functional reasons the adductor muscles develop new the anterior and posterior margins of the shell and as a result, in many bivalves pallial attachment extends beyond the adductors to the anterior and posterior ends of the functional ligament. This feature of pallial attachment in the Bivalvia appears to have been overlooked.
Observations on the Anatomy of a rare Cephalopod (Gonatus fabricii)
Authors: Hoyle William E.
Published: August 2010

In addition to the general sketch of the anatomy of an interesting form, the preceding pages record the existence of several tracts of cartilage hitherto unobserved in the Cephalopoda, and give details regarding the structure of the pen‐sac and the development of the pen, as well as new facts regarding the structure of the funnel‐organ. The genus Gonatus is regarded as being somewhat more nearly related to Onychoteuthis than to Enoploteutkis, but as much further removed from both than they are from each other. The creation of the sub‐family Gonatidæ is held to be justified.
The Rudd Exploration of South Africa.‐VIII. List of Mammals obtained by Mr. Grant at Beira.
Authors: Thomas Oldfield , Wroughton R. C.
Published: August 2010

The Rudd Exploration of South Africa.—VIII. List of Mammals obtained by Mr. Grant at Beira.
8. On the Segmentation of the Occipital Region of the Head in the Batrachia Urodela
Authors: F.Z.S. Edwin S. Goodrich M.A. F.R.S.
Published: August 2010

The chief contents of this paper may be summarised as follows. Three occipital segments occur in the head of Amblystoma. Of the three somites developed in these, the first forms no muscle and disappears early the second forms a myotome divided into dorsal and ventral portions, of which the former alone persists, fusing with the myotome next behind. The myotome of the third segment persists dorsally, that of the first trunk‐segment combines with it to form the temporal longitudinal muscle supplied in the adult by the first spinal nerve. The glosso‐pharyngeal nerve belongs to the first metaotic segment and has no ventral root. To the second segment belongs the vagus root, with which seems to be combined the ganglia of the next two nerves. No ventral root was found in the second segment; but a ventral root occurs in the Iast metaotic segment in early stages of development. The first spinal issues from between the skull and first neural arch as a ventral root only; it joins the second spinal to form the hypoglossal nerve supplying muscles derived from ventral outgrowths of the second. third, and fourth myotomes. The basilar plate of the skull is formed by a backward growth of the trabeculæ: meeting a forward growth of the base of the orcipital arches. It fuses with the auditory capsules, and with the praæoccipital arches developed in the septum between the first and second myotomes. The occipital arches arise in the septum between the second and third myotomes. There is no evidence of the disappearance of segments behind the vagus, and no valid objection to the view that the hind limit of the skull may shift backwards or forwards in the course of phylogeny. At the same time there is no reason to suppose that the ancestors of the Amphibia had more than three occipital segments, when the occipital condyle became clearly defined.
Structure of the Alimentary Canal of the Stick‐Insect, Bacillus rossii Fabr.; with a Note on the Parthenogenesis of this Species
Authors: Cameron Alred E.
Published: August 2010

The alimentary canal of B. rossii presents us with much that is of interest. Its rectilineal shape is what we would naturally expect from the narrow elongated form of the insect. But the absence of a gizzard, together with the rudimentary digestive cæca and the presence of tubular filiform organs at once arrest attention. The anterior portion of the mid‐gut is puckered owing to the isolation of the circular muscle‐bundles. The Malpighian tubes are curiously grouped in bundles of from three to six, each bundle opening into the gut by a common duct. The small intestine is separated from the rectum by six powerful pyramidal valves. The internal wall of the crop telescopes into the lumen of the mid‐gut, and the telescoped portion is reflected on itself in a curious manner.

The fact that the males of B. rossii are disappearing points to parthenogenesis not being the primitive method of reproduction, but suggests that the species has become adapted to it through the failure of sexual reproduction.
On the Nature of the Lateral Muscle in Teleostei.
Authors: Shann Edward W.
Published: August 2010

The body‐wall of a Teleostean fish is composed on either side of a series of transverse muscles (myomeres) divided from one another by fasciæ of connective‐tissue (myocommata).

For practical purposes these may be regarded collectively as forming a single lateral muscle.

The lateral muscle is composed of a single layer, which varies considerably in thickness in different parts of the body.

In its primary condition, such as obtains in the caudal region, it is divided into two symmetrical longitudinal moieties, which are separated by a horizontal septum passing from beneath the lateral line to the vertebral column.

The dorsal moiety is marked externally by a series of backwardly directed >‐shaped bands. By joining the apices of these >'s an imaginary line is formed dividing the dorsal moiety into a (dorsal) mesio‐dorsal portion and a (ventral) latero‐dorsal portion. In the mesio‐dorsal portion the muscle‐fibres run from above anteriorly to below posteriorly; in the latero‐dorsal portion they take the opposite inclination.

Internally the mesio‐dorsal portion is recognised as a series of incomplete hollow pyramids, or cones, whose apices are directed posteriorly; while the latero‐dorsal portion is composed of a series of complete hollow pyramids, or cones, whose apices are directed forwards.

The ventral moiety is likewise divided into a (dorsal) lateroventral portion and a (ventral) mesio‐ventral portion. The fibres of the latter, at first oblique, as they approach the middle line become straight, and resemble a rectus.

The above divisions of the dorsal and ventral moieties suffice for descriptive purposes; but, pending further evidence, they must be regarded as essentially empirical in nature.

Small cylindrical longitudinal muscles are frequently cut off from the mesio‐dorsal portion, along the mid‐dorsal line in the interspaces of the dorsal fins. These are the supracarinales of Owen.

Similar muscles are frequently cut off from the mesio‐ventral portion along the mid‐ventral line. These are the infracarinales of Owen.

A small muscle, whose fibres are usually distinguished by their red colour, is cut off from the latero‐dorsal portion and occupies the slope of the furrow in which the lateral nerve is situated.

A corresponding muscle is cut off from the latero‐ventral portion immediately below the lateral line.
A Monograph of Orycteropus afer.—II. Nervous System, Sense‐organs and Hairs
Authors: Sonntag Charles F. , Woollard H. H.
Published: August 2010

Summary.

 The external and internal anatomy of the brain have been described.

 Characters suggesting Ungulate affinities have been found in the gyrus ambiens, in the fissuration of the cortex and in the distribution of the cortical areas.

 Despite the high degree of osmatism, the brain as shown by the amount of cortical differentiation is by no means a very primitive one. On the other hand, it is much nearer the generalized type of Proto‐Oarnivore or Ungulate brain than is Sus communis, for instance.

 The brain of Orycteropus has advanced sufficiently far from the generalized type to suggest that it was advancing along the line of the Ungulates.

 The anterior olfactory nucleus appears to be the same structure which previous writers called the olfactory peduncle with its prolongation into the bulb. Since its cell type differs from the other secondary olfactory centres, and it is continuous with the cellular laminæ of the bulb, it more properly belongs to this structure than to the olfactory cortex.

 It is thought that the wide extent and pattern of the secondary olfactory cortex needs no other explanation than the response to the macrosmatism.

 The constitution of the amygdaloid nucleus conforms to the account given by Johnstone for other mammals.