bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Comparing Grammatical Categories across Languages: The Semantics of Evidentials
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I am going to illustrate and document the claim that grammar encodes meaning by analysing one area of grammar in a number of different languages of the world: that area which is usually associated with the term “evidentiality”. As the goal of this chapter is mainly theoretical, not empirical, my data will be drawn exclusively from one source: the volume entitled Evidentiality,edited by Wallace Chafe and Johanna Nichols (1986). I will re-examine the data presented in some of the chapters of this volume by experts on a number of languages, and I will try to show how these data can be reanalysed in terms of universal semantic primitives, and how in this way they can be made both more verifiable (that is, predictive) and more comparable across language boundaries.
Key to Coursebook Exercises
Authors: Coles Waltraud , Dodd Bill
Published: November 2023

In the Federal Republic of Germany one does not only speak German (= not only German is spoken). Many foreigners live in Germany and they speak, of course, their own mother tongue. One hears e.g. (for example) Turkish, Greek,Spanish, Italian, and Polish. In Germany many people understand and speak English.
Key
Authors: Coles Waltraud , Dodd Bill
Published: November 2023

Der Wunsch nach Frieden stand bei der Europaischen Gemeinschaft Pate. stehen to stand Pate stehen lit. to stand (as) godfather, to be the force behind something The wish for peace was the force behind the foundation of the European Community.
The Miser and the Prodigal Son
Authors: Yaguello Marina
Published: November 2023

From a purely utilitarian point of view, polysemy-(as well as homophony which we shall look at in a moment)--amounts to an economy in the number of signs used, evoking the image of the miser. Several differ ent signifieds can correspond to the same signifier. The price we have to pay for this is the risk of ambiguity, a feature systematically exploited by cross word compilers and the mainspring of the riddles handed down from gen eration to generation of schoolchildren:
Lesson I
Authors: Mcgregor R S
Published: November 2023

Two cases only need be distinguished, a direct and an oblique. The direct case usually denotes sentence subjects or direct objects; the oblique occurs most commonly with postpositions, see below. Nouns are of singular or plural number, and masculine or feminine gender.
Lesson II
Authors: Mcgregor R S
Published: November 2023

Adjectives whose direct singular masculine form ends in -d agree with nouns in gender, number, and case: Adjectives ending in -d agreein -d agreen follow the pattern of accha, with endings nasalised, e.g. bdydrft ‘left* (hand); and most ordinal numerals.
Lesson IV
Authors: Mcgregor R S
Published: November 2023

The basic structural units of the Hindi verb are: (a) The verb stem.
Lesson VIII
Authors: Mcgregor R S
Published: November 2023

THIS form is invariable. Note especially, in comparison with the last example, This form is invariable.
Lesson IX
Authors: Mcgregor R S
Published: November 2023

THE general function of this postposition may be described as that of a marker or specifier of oblique case in a preceding form. Four applications of this function are considered here.
Lesson XIV
Authors: Mcgregor R S
Published: November 2023

RELATIVE-CORRELATIVE constructions have been mentioned above in connection with the relative pronoun and adjective.
Lesson XVI
Authors: Mcgregor R S
Published: November 2023

SOME types of comparative expression involving relatives were noted in Lesson XIV. Most of the others are considered here.
Lesson XXII
Authors: Mcgregor R S
Published: November 2023

COLLOCATIONS of participles (almost always imperfective) with following forms of the verb.
Lesson XXIV
Authors: Mcgregor R S
Published: November 2023

THIS particle, which shows normal adjectival flexion, is found suffixed to various parts of speech, most commonly adjectives.
Lesson XXVI
Authors: Mcgregor R S
Published: November 2023

imperfective and perfective participles frequently occur otherwise than as bases for members of the conjugational patterns of finite verbs noted in Lessons IV and V.
X’-Theory
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L
Published: November 2023

The structure of a phrase X’-theory is a theory of phrase structure. That is, it is a theory of what constitutes a possible phrase in natural language. Phrase structure concerns the hierarchical and left-to-right relationships between syntactic categories. For example, in English one type of verb phrase (VP) consists of a verb that precedes its NP complement. Early ap¬proaches to phrase structure in generative grammar stipulated both types of relationship for every category of every language.
Head Movement and Minimalism
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L
Published: November 2023

For the most part we have focused in this book on the movement of phrasal constituents, a phenomenon that is central to both A-movement (e.g. NP movement) and A’-movement (e.g. wh-Movement). In this chap¬ter we turn to the movement of X0 categories, which is usually referred to as head movement.
Notation: documentation, layout, and the preserved
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary
Published: November 2023

Writing was for centuries the only way of recording a spoken text. Most actors need a cue-script, a copy of their lines and cues, from which to learn a role; and all revivals depend on the availability of the play-text (and perhaps also on the survival of costumes, sets, or a star actor associated with a role). Text can now be stored electronically and printed as necessary, but must still be available; and since the Renaissance there has been a steadily growing trade in the sale of play texts, both in individual and omnibus or collected editions, in whatever medium currently sells best.
Text II: the process of reading
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary
Published: November 2023

Everything we have said so far applies to each moment (speech, action) of a play in itself, and to write accurately about drama one must maintain in reading a constant awareness of the filters and interventions which affect every word of every play. But another aspect of reading works outward from each moment, connecting an individual line or action with what one already knows of the speaker and auditor(s), the plot, themes, verbal motifs, and theatrical ambitions on show. Plays are relatively short works which need economic construction, and in most canonical plays every moment is both itself and resonant with other moments.
Social genres: political theatre, agit-prop, documentary drama, and epic drama
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary
Published: November 2023

All plays are implicitly political by virtue of the subject-matter, form, and linguistic registers they contain, and the audience for whom they are intended; all productions are implicitly political because the resources they consume are denied to another play, company, and space. Plays may also explicitly deal with governmental policy, as the anti-apartheid play Siswe Bansi is Dead (1972) by Athol Fugard (b.1932) and the socialist plays Maydays (1983) and The Shape of the Table (1990) by David Edgar (b.1948) do. An author may use explicit politics to cover implicit ones, as Miller’s The Cmcible (1953) explicitly deals with superstitious seventeenth-century witch-hunts but implicitly concerns anti-communist witch-hunts led by Joseph McCarthy (1909-57). A director’s interpretation can make an implicitly political play explicit, or impose an agenda different from anything the play wright intended:
Playwrights
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary
Published: November 2023

Authorship in theatre-making is complicated. Even setting aside col lective creation of performance and the question of anonymous texts, and asking only about published texts, it is often difficult to assess how many hands took part in writing and what section/s are attributable to whom. Post-Romantic readers trained on poetry tend to think writing a solitary task, but on the Jacobethan stage collaboration was normal: Thomas Dekker (?1570-1632), for example, contributed to at least 50 plays; 20 have survived; six are usually credited to him alone; only two or three feature in most constructions of ‘the playwright Thomas Dekker’.
Audiences
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary
Published: November 2023

All plays are written for the audiences of their day, but audience research is methodologically difficult and documentation rapidly becomes scarcer the further back in history one reaches. Nevertheless, the social compositions, behaviours, and responses of playgoers at particular times are vital to understanding how a play was first received, and how its reception changes over time. Every performance has a new audience, and subjective accounts of spectating must always be treated carefully and whenever possible compared with other accounts: different venues, casts, and acting- or stage conventions all affect reception, and a play’s potential meanings can be obscured if its social contexts are not researched. Journalism is helpful in some respects, but theatre-critics have their own agendas, playing to their readers, and angling commentaries to fit the market profiles of particular media. Under-researched in the past, issues of play going have in the last twenty years increasingly become an academic preoccupation.
Challenges to the play-text
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary
Published: November 2023

Play-texts have traditionally conformed with certain conventions privileging the presentation of a narrative, more-or-less coherent, and assuming its representation on stage by actors playing specific roles. Their appearance in print conforms with other conventions of dramatic layout, which vary in detail but have fundamentally changed little since the sixteenth century; their look and sound in performance fulfils common expectations about the way plays are staged.
Alternatives to the play-text
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary
Published: November 2023

Current post-Modernist trends in theatre broadly reflect interests in interdisciplinarity (the creation of dialogues between disciplines such as dance, music, fine art, architecture, writing, performance, sculpture, and film) and in radical explorations of space, time, and the meanings of spectating and auditing.1 Outcomes may be expressed within a single medium or in multi-media work, combining, for example, live performance with film and recorded sound. Robert Lepage (b.1957) in Canada, Robert Wilson, Richard Foreman (b.1937), and the Wooster Group in America, Forced Entertainment in England, and Brith Gof in Wales are all notable practitioners whose interests extend and re-work the aesthetic agendas of Modernist experiments.2
The Derivation of Ideas from Impressions
Authors: Pears David
Published: November 2023

In the analysis of Hume’s account of the derivation of ideas, which is the topic of this chapter, there are two points to look out for. Both were made in the previous chapter, but it is worth repeating them before starting the analysis. First, an idea, like a mental image of blue, may occur not as a bearer of any meaning, but as something less than that, a mere datum, for example, which just floats into your mind in daydreaming. Secondly, when this same idea does occur as a bearer of meaning, when, for example, you use it to recall that sapphires exhibit that distinctive shade of blue, it is often, at the same time, more than a bearer of meaning. In fact, in this particular case it is evidently more than a bearer of meaning, because you are making the general memory-judgement that those jewels exhibit this colour. You do not confine yourself to thinking that they might exhibit this colour. You believe that they actually do so.
Personal Identity: The Problem and Hume’s Rejection of Current Solutions
Authors: Pears David
Published: November 2023

In Book I of the Treatise Hume applies his theory of the derivation of ideas to three difficult problems, causation, personal identity, and our perception of the world around us. Personal identity may well be the most difficult of the three. Certainly, it produces a starker situation, in which there is less room for compromise than there was in the case of causation.
Quantifiers
Authors: Bostock David
Published: November 2023

The logic to be studied in this chapter is standardly called ‘predicate logic’, as the logic of the last chapter is standardly called ‘propositional logic’. But a much better name for it is the logic of quantifiers, or, more fully, the logic of ‘elementary’ or ‘first-order’ quantifiers. However, there is a more basic notion to be considered before we can come to the quantifiers, and that is the idea of a name, or more generally of a logical subject. For the elementary, or first-order, quantifiers take the place of names, and sentences containing these quantifiers are most easily understood in terms of the simpler sentences that result from them, when the quantifiers are dropped and names restored in their place.
Sequent Calculi
Authors: Bostock David
Published: November 2023

Let us think, in a general way, about what happens in a natural deduction proof. As a whole the proof is an array of formulae, which we say establishes some sequent (namely the sequent which has on its left all the formulae which are undischarged assumptions in the proof, and on its right the single formula proved at the bottom of the proof). Moreover, the rules of inference too are rules about sequents. A proof always starts with an assumption, say q>, and if we add nothing more, then this itself counts as the proof of a sequent, namely So the rule which allows us to get started is a rule which tells us directly that all sequents of this kind are correct.
Hume on Testimony concerning Miracles
Authors: Garrett Don
Published: November 2023

The Scientific Revolution not only posed questions about the relation between nature and human actions; it also posed questions about the relation between nature and divine action, and about the existence of divine actions in or alongside nature. In the face of a mechanistic universe from which God appeared to stand aloof, many theologians claimed that the historical occurrence of miracles in conjunction with divine revelation, as established by the testimony of scripture, was a primary source of evidence for the truth of Christianity.
Physics
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

In the eleventh book of the Confessions there is a celebrated inquiry into the nature of time. The peg on which the discussion hangs is the question of an objector: what was God doing before the world began? Augustine toys with, but rejects, the answer ‘Preparing hell for people who look too curiously into deep matters’ (Conf. XI. 12. 14). The diYculty is serious: if Wrst God was idle and then creative, surely that involves a change in the unchangeable one? The answer Augustine develops is that before heaven and earth were created there was no such thing as time, and without time there can be no change. It is folly to say that innumerable ages passed before God created anything; because God is the creator of ages, so there were no ages before creation. ‘You made time itself, so no time could pass before you made time.
Sixteenth-Century Philosophy
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

The decade beginning in 1511 can well be regarded as the high point of the Renaissance. In the Vatican Raphael was frescoing the walls of the papal apartments, while Michelangelo covered the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel with his paintings. In Florence the Medici family, exiled since the time of the reformer Savonarola, returned to power and patronage. One of the officers of the former republic, Niccolo` Machiavelli, now under house arrest, used his enforced leisure to produce a classic text of political philosophy, The Prince, which offered rulers frank advice on the acquisition and retention of power. Renaissance art and Renaissance ideas travelled northward as far as Germany and England. A colleague of Michelangelo’s designed Henry VII’s tomb in Westminster Abbey and the foremost scholar of the age, the Dutchman Desiderius Erasmus, lectured at Cambridge early in the reign of his son Henry VIII.
Political Philosophy
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

Two works of the decade 1511–20 mark the beginning of modern political philosophy: Machiavelli’s Prince and More’s Utopia. Both books are very different from the typical scholastic treatise which seeks to derive, from first principles, the essence of the ideal state and the qualities of a good ruler. One is a brief, stylish, how-to manual; the other is a work of romantic fantasy. The two works stand at opposite ends of the political spectrum. A Machiavellian prince is an absolute autocrat, while Utopia holds out a blueprint for democratic communism. For this reason, the two treatises can be regarded as setting out the parameters for subsequent debate in political philosophy.
God
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

The problem of reconciling human freedom with God’s foreknowledge of human actions had baffled all the great scholastics of the Middle Ages. Thomas Aquinas maintained that God foresaw what we would do because all our actions were present to him in the single moment of eternity. Duns Scotus complained that this solution would work only if time was fundamentally unreal. Instead, he proposed that God knew creatures’ actions by knowing what he himself had decreed from all eternity. Ockham objected that such knowledge would provide foreknowledge of human actions only if our actions were predetermined and therefore unfree. He himself offered no solution to the problem: divine foreknowledge was just a dogma to be blindly believed. Peter de Rivo had tried to preserve freedom while accepting divine omniscience by denying that future contingent propositions had any truth-value to be known even by God; but this was a weasel way out and was condemned by the Church. Lorenzo Valla, Erasmus, and Luther were no better able than their predecessors to reconcile liberty and omniscience.
Logic
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

John Stuart Mill’s System of Logic falls into two principal parts. The first two books present a system of formal logic; the remainder of the work deals with the methodology of the natural and social sciences. He begins the first part with an analysis of language, and in particular with a theory of naming.

Mill was the first British empiricist to take formal logic seriously, and from the start he is anxious to dissociate himself from the nominalism that had been associated with empiricism since the time of Hobbes.
Language
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

In the course of the nineteenth century, philosophers turned their attention ever more intensely on the topic of meaning. What do words and sentences signify? How do they signify and do they all signify in the same way? What is the relationship between meaning and truth? These questions were now asked with an urgency that had not been felt since the Middle Ages.

A seminal work in the theory of meaning was Frege’s paper of 1892, ‘Sense and Reference’. That paper starts from a question about statements of identity.
Epistemology
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

Mill described his System of Logic as a textbook of the doctrine that derives all knowledge from experience. He was, therefore, a proponent of empiricism, though he did not like the term. Indeed, in an import- ant respect, he was one of the most resolute empiricists there have ever been. He went beyond his predecessors in claiming that not only all science, but also all mathematics, derived from experience. The axioms of geometry and the first principles of mathematics are, he says, ‘notwith- standing all appearances to the contrary, results of observations and experiences, founded, in short, on the evidence of the senses’ (SL 2.3.24.4).

The definition of each number, Mill maintained, involves the assertion of a physical fact.
Aesthetics
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

The person generally held to be the founder of aesthetics as an independent philosophical discipline is Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714–62). Certainly it was he who coined the word ‘aesthetics’, in a short treatise on poetry published in 1735. For Baumgarten, the purpose of art is to produce beauty, defined in terms of the ordered relationship between the parts of a whole. The point of beauty is to give pleasure and arouse desire. The finest beauty is to be found in nature, and therefore the highest aim of art is to imitate nature.
Political Philosophy
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

In introducing his greatest happiness principle, Bentham was less concerned to provide a criterion for individual moral choices than to offer guidance to rulers and legislators on the management of communities. But it is precisely in this area, when we have to consider not just the total quantity of happiness in a community but also its distribution that the greatest happiness principle, on its own, fails to provide a credible decision procedure.
Teaching a clinical skill
Authors: Hamdorf Jeff , Davies Robert
Published: November 2023

The teachers who have had the greatest impact on us achieved that effect not necessarily because they were the best surgeons or physicians in their fields. Rather they were good teachers because they may have made a difficult concept seems straightforward, a boring subject interesting or relevant, or may even have imparted a level of inspiration to those they were teaching.
Research in simulation
Authors: Garden Alexander
Published: November 2023

This chapter aims to provide a practical discussion about problems and concerns that are commonly encountered while engaging in research using patient simulation. Research is ‘the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and to reach new conclusions’(1), and entire textbooks of research methods are devoted to the key concepts embodied within this definition(2–4). Medical simulation includes a range of technologies, and its breadth of use spans skills training(5), performance evaluation(6), the determination of drug dosing regimes(7) and epidemiology(8). Irrespective of the specific domain and technology that is used, the defining feature is the absence of an actual patient(9) and the underlying rationale is based on a range of potential benefits (Table 18.1). From a research perspective these are particularly enticing, for example, in terms of the potential to enable a high degree of experimental control.
Simulation in nursing education and practice
Authors: O’Donnell John M , S Goode Joseph
Published: November 2023

The use of simulation is neither new nor unfamiliar for most nursing educators. As professionals we have not been crediting many common nursing educational activities as ‘simulation’. Role playing and other forms of nonpatient interaction have long held a role in nursing educational approaches, with static mannequins such as ‘Mrs Chase’ in the 1930s foreshadowing the evolution of SimOne®, the first high fidelity simulator by three decades(1–3). The introduction of advanced, yet affordable, patient simulators has encouraged their widespread acquisition, and pushed nursing educators to explore this educational approach. While simulation training is not a panacea or whole-cloth replacement for traditional education in either the clinical or classroom settings, thought leaders in nursing education perceive the approach as supplementing clinical training, enriching current clinical experience, and in reinforcing didactic principles.
Simulation in paediatrics
Authors: Halamek Louis Patrick , Yaeger Kimberly Allison
Published: November 2023

Before discussing paediatric simulation-based training, it is important first to define what is meant by the term ‘paediatric’. The adjective paediatric applies to the period of human development from birth (0 days) to young adulthood (21 years) of both male and female patients. Paediatric patients range from those born at a gestational age of 22–23 weeks (a little more than halfway through a full-term, 40-week pregnancy) and a birth weight of approximately 500 g, to young adults standing 2 m in height and weighing more than 100 kg. The anatomical, physiological, developmental, and psychological differences found across this spectrum of patients are wide ranging, and present tremendous challenges for those healthcare professionals charged with their care. These differences also present great challenges for those involved in paediatric simulation-based training. Realistically, simulating the wide range of body sizes, anatomial features, vital signs, physiological responses etc, present in this group of very diverse patients is a daunting challenge. Because of the complexity of paediatric healthcare, a large number of subspecialties have evolved over the past century. Just as in adult healthcare the field of paediatrics includes physicians, nurses and allied healthcare professionals with expertise in areas such as newborn intensive care (neonatology), paediatric critical care, cardiology, pulmonology, gastroenterology, nephrology, anaesthesiology, general surgery, cardiothoracic surgery, and multiple other medical and surgical domains.
Obstetric simulation
Authors: Deering Shad H
Published: November 2023

There are few areas of medicine where simulation training is more necessary and potentially beneficial than obstetrics. Given the current medicolegal climate in developed countries, where there is the expectation of a perfect outcome with every delivery regardless of complications, the inability to predict when many common emergencies will occur on the labour and delivery ward, and the difficulties presented by resident work hour restrictions of 80 hours per week in the USA, obstetrics is the ideal field in which to apply simulation training.
Surgical simulation
Authors: Kneebone Roger , Bello Fernando
Published: November 2023

Simulation is now firmly established within mainstream surgical training. We start this chapter by painting a broad picture of what surgical simulation can offer and why it is widely used. After summarising key contributions from educational theory, we give an overview of currently available simulators. Finally we highlight areas of likely growth and speculate about where these might lead in the future.
Introduction
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias
Published: November 2023

The last ten years of the twentieth century might well be considered the ‘‘decade of the brain’’. With the advent of neuroimaging methods, and particularly of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), the Weld of cognitive neuroscience thrived. The study of language posed no exception to this general development: in addition to providing a vehicle for more general goals in neuroscientific research, language soon became one of the major domains of neurocognitive investigation in its own right. On the one hand, the methodological advances suddenly offered a completely new perspective on the tradition of linking language-related functions with particular brain regions, a correlation which has intrigued scientists and non-scientists alike for at least two thousand years.
Methodological Prerequisites
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias
Published: November 2023

Brain responses at the level of higher cognition can essentially be characterized with respect to time and space. The temporal dimension is concerned with the question of ‘‘when’’ particular processes take place, for example with regard to the question of whether different linguistic information types become available at different points in time. In contrast to behavioral methods, which serve to characterize the output of a cognitive process (e.g. in the form of a button-press once an experimental participant has categorized a particular stimulus), neuroscientific methods with a high temporal resolution allow us to track the brain activity engendered by cognitive processes such as language comprehension or production in real time. The spatial dimension seeks to specify ‘‘where’’ specific aspects of cognitive processing take place in the brain.
Mapping Form onto Meaning: The Requirements For a Sentence Processor
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias
Published: November 2023

This chapter aims to provide an introduction to the main issues in sentence processing. In particular, it is concerned with the question of which ‘‘ingredients’’ are required in a sentence processor and, by extension, with the possible relationship between the characteristics of the processing architecture and properties of the grammar. Furthermore, the specific characteristics of neurocognitive investigations of sentence comprehension and their consequences for psycholinguistic modeling will be emphasized.
Relational Structure
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias
Published: November 2023

Beyond constituent structure, the next level in the form-to-meaning mapping comprises the relations between different constituents in a sentence. Consider, for example, the dependency between a verb and its arguments: the lexical entry of the verb specifies how many arguments it requires (or is potentially compatible with), of which type these arguments are (e.g. whether they are NPs, PPs, etc.), which cases they bear in languages with morphological case marking, and so on. In addition, many languages require the verb to agree with one or more of its arguments with respect to features such as number, person, or gender. All of these properties are ‘‘relational’’ in the sense that the dependencies in question do not hold between an element and its position in the constituent structure but rather between different elements within that structure.
Information structure
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias
Published: November 2023

The question of how the processing of sentence-internal relations is constrained by the discourse context in which these sentences occur has long been a major topic of investigation in the psycholinguistic literature (e.g. Crain and Steedman 1985). Whereas early studies within this domain were mainly concerned with factors such as referentiality and plausibility (see also Chapter 11), recent years have seen an increasing interest in possible influences of information structure.
Split Networks and Reticulate Networks
Authors: Huson Daniel H
Published: November 2023

Phylogenetic networks are becoming an important tool in molecular evolution, as the role of reticulate events such as hybridization, horizontal gene transfer, and recombination becomes more evident [7], and as the available data increases in quantity and quality. Increasingly, the problem of sampling error has been replaced by the problem of model error.
Comparative genomics and the macroevolution of RNA viruses
Authors: Holmes Edward C
Published: November 2023

One of the most interesting and important, yet understudied aspects of RNA virus evolution are the processes responsible for the diverse array of genome architectures employed by these infectious agents. Nestled within this general topic are some of the most intriguing of all questions raised in this book. To give a few specific examples: what explains the range of genome sizes in RNA viruses? What forces led to the evolution of segmented genomes? Why are some RNA viruses positive-sense and others negative-sense? Although of immense importance, these questions have, with few exceptions (notably Reanney 1982), rarely been addressed. The aim of this chapter is to suggest answers, albeit tentative ones, to these and a variety of other questions relating to the comparative genomics of RNA viruses. Although my conclusions are unlikely to be definitive, they should at least provide hypotheses for future testing. In doing so this chapter will also emphasize the evolutionary consequences of possessing highly restricted genome sizes: the small-genome dynamics I mentioned at the outset of this book.
Have-Possessives
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

This chapter will be devoted to a validation of the following prediction: If a language has a Have-Possessive, it has balanced encoding of simultaneous different-subject sequences, and shared encoding of copular and locative/existential sentences. The investigation will cover all cases of ‘hard-core’ Have-Possessive encoding in the data base, but also those cases of Have-Drift which have resulted in a transitive structure of the possessive construction (see Chapter 6).
A Model of Predicative Possession Encoding
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

In the chapters of Part II, I have formulated and evaluated a set of four implicational statements, which were meant to correlate the typology of predicative possession with encoding options in two other domains, namely temporal sequencing and nonverbal predication. Reviewing the discussion, I feel confident in saying that all four of these statements can be said to be corroborated by the cross-linguistic facts.
Why use guidelines?
Authors: Nicholls Antony , Wilson lain
Published: November 2023

Doctors are busy, and need easy sources of quick information. Guidelines provide rapid assistance to clinical care, and have become a fact of modern medical life. They are not intended to supplant major textbooks or original research, but when properly written and used, they may improve the quality of care and the efficiency of health care provision. They may also decrease costs, reduce liability and risk, provide medical education, and help in determining legal standards of care. This book contains guidelines intended to improve the care of the surgical patient. The legal status of guidelines has been made unnecessarily controversial. Guidelines such as those in this book legally. constitute hearsay. That is, they cannot be quoted in court as being explicit instructions to act in a certain fashion.
Risk management
Authors: Campbell Bruce
Published: November 2023

Risk is defined as ‘the possibility of incurring misfortune or loss’ and affects any health service in a variety of ways, including risks to patients, staff, visitors, buildings, and property. Risk management concerns the harnessing of information about possible risks, and taking steps to minimize them. The steps include: risk identification: what could go wrong? how could it happen risk analysis: how likely is an adverse event? how serious would it be? risk control: how can a risk be eliminated, or its effect reduced? risk funding. optimal insurance againstinevitable risks clinical incident reporting. when untoward events happen. Doctors are concerned primarily with the risks to patients (clinical risk management). They need to recognize the risks a procedure poses to each individual patient, and balance these risks against the likely benefits.
Principles of physiotherapy
Authors: Gamlen Julia
Published: November 2023

Patients undergoing major surgery and those with pre-existing pulmonary disease are seen prior to their operation. The preoperative assessment aims to identify pre-existing and potential problems and introduce the patient to the physiotherapy team. Relevant data is taken from the medical notes. Factors are identified which may lead to postoperative complications: smoking obesity immobility pre-existing pulmonary disease old age poor nutritional status cardiovascular disease. Instruction in breathing techniques and wound support is given. Analgesia is discussed - the patient must have sufficient pain relief to allow them to breathe deeply, move, and cough postoperatively. The patient is informed of any specific exercise plan and their expected progress.
Drowsiness, coma, and delirium
Authors: Munn Julia , Hardie Richard
Published: November 2023

Coma is defined as a state of impaired consciousness, progressing from mild drowsiness to unrousable coma. The Glasgow coma scale (GCS, see Table 47.1) affords an objective way of assessing the depth of coma and thereby monitoring its progress. Delirium typically presents with irrational behaviour and agitation. Technically, it is defined as global cognitive impairment with impaired levels of attention and consciousness. Speech and movement may be increased or diminished, with disorientation, and disturbance of the normal sleep/wake cycle, and of perceptions leading to misinterpretations, illusions and hallucinations. The onset in a postsurgical patient is usually acute, and often at night. Being called to assess a drowsy, comatose, or delirious patient post­ operatively is one of the most taxing tasks for a junior doctor.
Fever
Authors: Munn Julia , Morgan Marina
Published: November 2023

The timing of postoperative fever suggests the diagnosis in most patients. Typical timings for the common causes of fever are given in Table 50.1, together with comments on frequency. A mild self-limiting fever is common during the first 2 postoperative days. Immediately after major surgery most patients have a low body temperature due to heat losses in theatre and impaired temperature regulation caused by anaesthesia. This is followed by a systemic response in which the metabolic rate is increased and energy stores are mobilized. This frequently causes mild pyrexia « 38°C). If temperature exceeds this, is prolonged, or is associated with systemic upset, other causes must be sought All bacterial infections can result in bacteraemia. The main risks of sepsis are the development of septic shock (the sepsis syndrome) and contamination of prostheses - joints, vascular grafts, heart valves, etc.
Moralistic Strictures and Political Reality: Further Quandaries
Authors: Coady C A J
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 1, I concentrated on elucidating the outlook of political realism, introducing the idea of moralism, and beginning an interpretation of realism in its light. In particular, I explored what I called moralism of scope which, I argued, makes sense of many versions of the realist critique of morality by showing that a more plausible target for some realist criticisms is that form of moralism rather than morality itself. I also argued that once this adjustment is made, we will be less inclined to follow realists by attempting to displace morality with appeal to the national interest, an appeal which, in any case, has its own problems.
What is polycystic ovary syndrome?
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline
Published: November 2023

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the name given to a condition resulting from an imbalance in sex hormone production. As a result of the hormonal imbalance, symptoms such as irregular periods, acne, excess facial and body hair, or scalp hair thinning may develop (Table 1.1).
What causes polycystic ovary syndrome?
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline
Published: November 2023

In order for you to understand what happens in PCOS, it is important to understand the mechanism and control of the menstrual cycle and ovulation. Women have two ovaries located in the pelvis on either side of the uterus (womb). Their main functions are to produce sex hormones and develop eggs. All of the eggs that you have throughout your life are made before you are born and are stored in the ovaries in an immature form.
Coping with stress
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline
Published: November 2023

Stress occurs when you perceive that you cannot handle the demands put on you. We all develop stress at some stage in our lives in response to both positive and negative life events. A little bit of pressure is actually a good thing as it motivates us, enhances our performance, and makes us focus on the tasks ahead (Fig. 7.1).
Treatment of subfertility
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline
Published: November 2023

Infertility affects 10–15 per cent of all couples. About a third of women who are finding it difficult to become pregnant have problems ovulating, and PCOS is found in approximately 75 per cent of women who are not ovulating. However, please note that many women with PCOS do conceive naturally. If you are finding it difficult to become pregnant then this does not mean you will never be able to have a baby as there are several very effective treatments available.
Treatment of excess body hair
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline
Published: November 2023

Hirsutism is the presence of excess facial or body hair in women in a malepattern distribution. It is a common complaint, with one study showing that up to 28 per cent of all women in the UK suffer from unwanted facial hair. PCOS is the most common cause of hirsutism. Approximately 70 per cent of women with PCOS develop unwanted hair at some stage of their lives. If you spend an hour a week secretly tweezering out unwanted facial hair, it can be particularly distressing and can make you feel very self-conscious.
Before you begin to try to lose weight
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline
Published: November 2023

People who try half-heartedly to lose weight are unlikely to succeed. In fact, a half-hearted attempt at losing weight might even to do more harm than good. Success breeds success, and vice versa, and trying to lose weight without succeeding may reduce the amount of confidence you have that you can lose weight in the future.
Polycystic ovary syndrome, carbohydrates, and the glycaemic index
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline
Published: November 2023

Women with PCOS tend to fall into one of two groups: those who crave sweet foods (such as chocolate, cakes, sweets, crunchy nut cornflakes, etc.) and those who crave savoury foods (such as bread, pizza, mashed potato, etc.). All these women, regardless of which group they belong to, are actually craving the same thing—carbohydrates.
Verbal Nouns
Authors: Carnie Andrew
Published: November 2023

The use of Verbal Nouns (henceforth VNs) in Irish grammar is pervasive. These forms perform the functions of gerunds (e.g. destroying), infinitives (e.g. to destroy), and more substantive deverbal nominals (e.g. destruction). In their less verbal usages, verbal nouns can be inflected for case, and less frequently for plurality. These inflections overlap slightly with the normal declension classes discussed in chapter 2, but also exhibit their own patterns. This is the topic of this chapter. I will not, however, be discussing how to form the verbal noun out of a verb; for information on that see Doyle (1992 and 2001). Here I focus only on the inflection of already existing verbal nouns.
1,200 Irish Nouns
Authors: Carnie Andrew
Published: November 2023

This chapter contains 1,200 Irish nouns, from all the declensions and sub-groups and plural types, fully declined for each case. A more complete list of Irish nouns with only the declension, subclass, plural type and gender is found in chapter 7. These lists were compiled from out of previously existing noun lists and dictionaries including: O hAnluain (1985), Christian Bros.
Discontinuous Agreement and the Syntax-Morphology Interface
Authors: Harbour Daniel
Published: November 2023

Discontinuous agreement, that is, agreement with a single argument by distinct parts of the verb, is a genetically and geographically diverse phenomenon:’
Cross-Modular Parallels in the Study of Phon and Phi
Authors: Nevins Andrew
Published: November 2023

As the variety of papers in this volume makes apparent, cp-features are relevant to many different domains of the grammar: syntax, semantics, morphology, pragmatics. Conspicuously absent from this list is phonology. In the current chapter, I wish to discuss the underlying unity of processes affecting φ features in different domains of the grammar, and I will argue that operations performed on cp-features in the syntax, in the morphology, and even in the pragmatics strongly parallel operations performed on articulatory features in the phonology.
Introduction: Thinking about time and living in time
Authors: Jaszczolt K M
Published: November 2023

‘I have no time!’, ‘There isn’t enough time in a day!’, are some of the most common expressions used in the academic world these days. Fast-growing numbers of hours that academics are required to devote to administration, teaching, and grant applications make more and more people resort to com- plaints about time. Perhaps it is worth asking oneself, what exactly do such expressions mean? If I don’t have time, what is it exactly that I don’t have?

Let us imagine the following scenario. There is a ski lift going up a snowy mountain and a line of skiers waiting to catch it to be lifted up on their skis. The lift is moving at a certain steady speed and most of the skiers manage to latch on and go up, but some less experienced ones miss their slot or fall off the lift before they get to the top.
Time as modality
Authors: Jaszczolt K M
Published: November 2023

It has been pointed out that theories of time explain time either in terms of modality, as in Priorean logic, or in terms of space, where the moment or interval in time is understood analogously to a point or area in space (see Meyer 2002). We established in Chapter 1 that there is no real need to make such a choice: both the location and the detachment from the certainty of now are valid and important, albeit on different levels of analysis (physical world and human experience respectively), and are both used in current truth- conditional semantic theories. In this chapter, and in the remainder of this essay, I focus on the psychological time and present arguments in favour of the view that humans conceptualize time in terms of certainty and possibility. In other words, the concept of time supervenes on a more basic concept of modality.
Semantic representation of time: A preamble
Authors: Jaszczolt K M
Published: November 2023

It is reasonable to begin this discussion with the assumption that the semantic representation of temporal expressions requires a perspective that reflects the cognitive reality of the human conceptualization of time and at the same time offers a formal account of meaning. We shall also assume, following the well- tested and successful tradition of contextualism in semantics and pragmatics,1 that this formal theory of meaning should apply the tool of truth conditions not to abstract objects such as sentences or propositions physically expressed in speech or writing but instead to utterances, intended meanings, or thoughts that were intended by some model speaker and subsequently expressed, and at the same time thoughts that are recovered by a model addressee in the process of communication.
Herbert Spencer and a Musical Dispute
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: November 2023

Herbert Spencer, the English philosopher of evolution, seems to have entertained a hearty contempt for criticism and disputation. He once wrote of a critic, “so far as I have observed, he has throughout followed the course which generally characterizes controversy—that of setting up men of straw and knocking them down.”1 One might expect, on the evidence of such a statement, that Spencer would have eschewed controversy. On the contrary, he relentlessly pursued the critics of his writings, defending every proposition as a mother hen her brood. Wrote Ernest Newman, “he is well known to have had an almost invincible repugnance of changing any of his opinions …”.2 Nothing characterizes this aspect of Spencer’s intellectual life more fully than does the dispute which followed the publication, in 1857, of his essay “The Origin and Function of Music”.3 This “musical dispute” is the subject of the present essay.
Handel’s Operas: The Form of Feeling and the Problem of Appreciation
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: November 2023

Serious artworks of the past, as well as those of the present, may pose a problem of appreciation for even sympathetic and receptive audiences. In one sense it is the same problem: the problem of the unfamiliar. But in another, obvious sense it is a different problem. For in the case of contemporary artworks it is the unfamiliarity of the new and the shocking that is the problem; whereas in the case of those problematic artworks of bygone ages, it is the unfamiliarity of the old, the forgotten, the unfashionable. In other words, the problem of appreciating artworks of the past is the problem of lost traditions, the problem of appreciating contemporary artworks, particularly those of the avant-garde, is the problem of no tradition at all: a tradition yet to be or in the making.