bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conquest and Colonial Oaxaca
Authors: Oudijk Michel R.
Published: February 2012

The present state of Oaxaca in southern Mexico is particularly known for the Classic-period archaeological site of Monte Albán (100–800 ad) and the presence of multiple indigenous peoples today. However, during the last 500 years, before the arrival of the Spaniards, it was home to many autonomous city-states that were involved in a constant flux of alliances and wars. The alliances were typically formed and consolidated through elite marriages and the exchange of land and/or people to work such lands. The historical relationships between peoples and the ethnolinguistic distribution make it worthwhile to think in terms of an Oaxacan culture area that includes parts of the present-day states of Puebla and Guerrero, rather than in terms of the state of Oaxaca. While this population was and continues to be constituted by at least sixteen different ethnolinguistic groups, this aspect was of no particular political importance, because the alliances and wars were determined by economic, political, and historical motivations. With the arrival of the Spaniards, much of the previous patterns of political maneuvering continued. Thus, local lords decided to reject or join the ever-growing army of Spanish and indigenous allies, based on existing antagonisms with other rulers. Furthermore, the most-important contacts between Spaniards and Oaxacan indigenous lords took place after the emblematic fall of Mexico-Tenochtitlan in 1521. These two aspects have resulted in a relatively peaceful conquest of the region, which obviously does not mean that its effects were less traumatic, particularly considering the disastrous population loss caused by the diseases brought by the Spaniards. As early as 1524, Hernán Cortés incorporated large parts of the Oaxacan culture area into his Marquesado, which resulted in the presence of few Spaniards and the continuation of the pre-Hispanic social and political organization in order to maximize the tributary revenue. At the same time, many of the lords of the city-states quickly adapted to the new colonial society but also continued their policies of intermarital alliances, forming large landholding corporations called cacicazgos. However, the previous city-states now became towns with their own authorities often held by the lower nobility and commoners, which meant a serious erosion of power for the lords or caciques.
The Era of Porfirio Díaz, 1876–1911
Authors: Beezley William
Published: February 2012

Porfirio Díaz (b. 1830–d. 1915) had a brilliant military career that included participating in the Mexican victory over the French at the battle of Puebla, now celebrated as the Cinco de Mayo (5 May 1862) holiday, and in driving the Emperor Maximilian’s troops out of Mexico City in 1867. The latter victory helped restore the Liberal regime, and with peace, Díaz turned to politics. He was largely unsuccessful until 1876, when his uprising, called the Revolution of Tuxtepec, enabled him to win the presidency. He dominated Mexico for the next thirty-five years until forced into exile in Paris by revolutionaries in 1911. His successful political regime accounts for naming the era for him. The telenovela (television soap opera series) El Vuelo del Águila (1994), with 140 thirty-minute episodes, created tremendous popular interest in this era. Enrique Krauze, Mexico’s premier public historian, created the project for national television; it was directed by Jorge Fons and Gonzalo Martínez and starred Manuel Ojeda as Porfirio. The telenovela caused a sensation and excited great curiosity about the era on its own terms, rather than as the cause of the revolution. Historians have to some extent responded to this curiosity about the era. The published evaluations of the Porfirian regime have gone through three major phases, from the appearance of panegyrics during the era itself, to studies of its policies as provocations for the revolution of 1910, to the appearance of professional scholarship evaluating the period and its successes and failures. The last phase, dating from the 1950s, has benefitted in the 1990s and 2000s from the availability of major archival collections, notably the archive of Porfirio Díaz; the archive of Rafael Chousal, his personal secretary while president; and the archive of José Limantour, his successful secretary of the treasury. More recently, many scholars have undertaken analyses using the methodologies of cultural history, focusing on crime, ethnicity, gender, civic celebrations, and public diversions as a way to discuss everyday life and to incorporate the women, Indians, and working people of the era into the historical narrative. As of 2011 a number of these significant investigations are only available as unpublished dissertations; this will likely change in the near future.
Women in Colonial Latin American History
Authors: Socolow Susan M.
Published: February 2012

The history of women in colonial Latin America has been a productive and exciting field since the mid-1970s. The study of women in the colonial empires of Spain and Portugal began in the final quarter of the 20th century, clearly influenced by the feminist movement and work by scholars in U.S. history. Although at least one male scholar had already produced a thin volume on the subject, his work, lacking a feminist perspective, tended to be ignored. Initial work on women was heavily politicized, presenting women as the victims of sexism and patriarchy and assuming that gender created a common “sisterhood” that trumped race and class. But during the 1980s, a more balanced historiography began to appear as scholars began to point out that the experience of a white elite woman was far different from, for example, a rural Indian woman. Moreover, historians became more sensitive to the range of variation within any social or racial group. More recent work, drawing in part from the work of subaltern studies, has tended to “empower” colonial women, seeing them as more able to overcome the structural limitations of their lives than previously thought. At the same time, as there were changes in interpretation of women’s actions, historians grew aware of new and far more varied sources then originally imagined. These sources include dowries, wills, probate records, parish records, Inquisition proceedings, both civil and criminal judicial cases, spiritual dowries, personal letters as well as censuses, donor lists, and notary and Cabildo records. While women of different economic and social strata have been studied, in general elite women, indigenous women, and female slaves have received the most attention. Still needed is more work on women from “middling groups,” such as artisans and small shop owners, as well as on poor women, many of whom were of mixed race. Whether women’s conditions improved over time is another issue that calls for more research. There is some suggestion that women’s roles were more fluid in the early colonial period, but few works have attempted to systematically compare women’s ability to mold their own lives across the colonial centuries. In addition it is not clear whether Enlightenment reforms improved or worsened the female situation.
Morphology
Authors: Aronoff Mark
Published: February 2012

Morphology, the study of forms, is the branch of linguistics that deals with the internal structure of complex words. The term was first used in linguistics by August Schleicher in 1859. Linguists distinguish between simple words, such as soon, which have no internal structure apart from sound, and complex words, such as sooner, which can be analyzed into meaningful parts (in this case soon and the English comparative suffix –er). Morphology addresses the latter. The world’s languages differ greatly in the complexity of their morphology. At one extreme, such languages as Vietnamese have very few ways to form complex words, while at the other, languages such as Chukchi (spoken in Siberia) may have very long words, constructed by adding many affixes one after another, that are equivalent in meaning to entire sentences. Languages also differ in the devices that are used to form complex words and the functions that this complexity serves. The study of morphology is one of the oldest branches of linguistics. The oldest known linguistic work, Panini’s grammar of Sanskrit, consisted entirely of morphology, and the classical Greek, Latin, and Semitic grammarians also concerned themselves largely with morphology. In modern-day linguistics, which began in the 19th century, morphology is one of the core areas of grammar, along with phonetics, phonology, syntax, and semantics/pragmatics.
Evidentials
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y.
Published: February 2012

Evidentiality is a grammatical category with source of information as its primary meaning—whether the speaker saw the event happen, did not see it but heard it, made an inference based on general knowledge or visual traces, or was told about it. Languages may distinguish firsthand and nonfirsthand information or have a special marker just for reported evidentiality. In larger evidential systems, firsthand or visual evidential may contrast with nonvisual, inferred, assumed, and reported. Evidentiality is a verbal category in its own right. It does not bear any straightforward relationship to the expression of the speaker’s responsibility or attitude toward the statement. Neither is evidentiality a subcategory of modality or a tense. Nonevidential categories, including perfect aspect, past tense, conditional, and other modalities and complementation devices, can develop meanings related to information source. French linguists employ the term “mediative.” Scholars of Quechua use the term “validational” or “verificational.”
IPA
Authors: Esling John H.
Published: February 2012

The acronym IPA can refer either to the International Phonetic Association or to the International Phonetic Alphabet. The International Phonetic Alphabet is the association’s alphabet, published periodically in chart form, usually referred to as the chart of the IPA. The chart has been refined and updated over the years to accommodate the need to represent symbolically the sounds of the world’s languages. The purpose of the association and of its alphabet has been to devise and promulgate a uniform standard for phonetic writing, known commonly as phonetic transcription.
Mass-Count Distinction
Authors: Bale Alan , Barner David
Published: February 2012

The mass-count distinction is reflected in the syntax and semantics of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and quantifiers. Sometimes called by other names (e.g., countable vs. uncountable), the distinction was first made in modern times by O. Jespersen and L. Bloomfield and has since been discussed by linguists, philosophers of language, and psychologists alike. The distinction is of broad interest because it offers a tractable problem for natural language semantics but also because it relates clearly to important topics in cognitive development (e.g., object permanence) and is subject to significant cross-linguistic variation, raising questions about the relationship between linguistic diversity and its effects on nonlinguistic thought. Recently, work on the topic has extended into psycholinguistics and the neurosciences as a fundamental case study for exploring the psychological representations that underlie natural language syntax and semantics.
Muskogean Languages
Authors: Martin Jack
Published: February 2012

The Muskogean languages are a family of languages native to the southeastern United States. The members of the family include Choctaw, Chickasaw, Alabama, Koasati, Apalachee, Hitchiti-Mikasuki and Muskogee (Creek). Choctaw and Chickasaw are quite close: the term Western Muskogean is sometimes used to cover both varieties. Alabama and Koasati are more different from each other but similar in vocabulary and grammar. Apalachee is known primarily from one 17th-century letter. Hitchiti and Mikasuki are different names for the same language, referred to here as Hitchiti-Mikasuki. Muskogee includes varieties of the language spoken by Seminoles in Oklahoma and Florida. In addition to these seven languages, a trade language known as Mobilian Jargon was used in the vicinity of Louisiana.
Austronesian Linguistics
Authors: Adelaar Alexander
Published: February 2012

Austronesian linguistics is the linguistic study of languages belonging to the Austronesian language family. The more than 1,200 Austronesian languages occupy a vast area. Traditionally, they are spoken in the Pacific in the area bounded by Hawaii in the northeast, Taiwan in the northwest, Easter Island in the southeast, New Zealand in the southwest, and Wallis Island in the south. In Southeast Asia they are spoken in the Philippines, in Brunei Darussalam, and in most parts of Indonesia, Malaysia, and East Timor. Minorities speaking Austronesian languages are also found in some regions in Vietnam, Kampuchea, southern Thailand, and coastal South Burma. Much farther to the west, speakers of Austronesian languages are found in Madagascar and the island of Mayotte (Comoros), along the East African coast. Australian languages, the Austro-Asiatic (Orang Asli) languages in the Malay Peninsula, and the Papuan languages in and around New Guinea do not belong to the Austronesian language family. Genetically, the Austronesian language family has several primary branches. Most of these consist of only one or several of the twenty or so Austronesian languages of Taiwan (the so-called Formosan languages). Only one branch, Malayo-Polynesian, includes all other Austronesian languages. Historically, the Austronesian language family is commonly believed to have originated in Taiwan, whence its members spread to other parts of Southeast Asia, to the Pacific, and to Madagascar (see Blust 2013, cited under Textbooks).
Definiteness
Authors: von Heusinger Klaus
Published: February 2012

Definiteness is a semantic-pragmatic notion that is closely associated with the use of the definite article (or determiner) in languages like English, Hungarian, Hebrew, and Lakhota. The definite article can be used in different conditions: deictic, anaphoric, unique, and certain indirect uses, often also called “bridging uses.” Accordingly, there are different semantic theories of definiteness, such as the salience theory, the familiarity or identifiability theory, and the uniqueness or inclusiveness theory. Definite expressions cover personal pronouns, proper names, demonstratives, definite noun phrases, and universally quantified expressions. Noun phrases with the definite article, known as “definite descriptions,” are a key issue in semantics and analytic philosophy with respect to the interaction of reference and description in identifying an object. The research and analysis of definiteness is of great importance not only for the linguistic structure of languages but also for our understanding of reference and referring in philosophy, cognitive science, computational linguistics, and communication science.
Vowel Harmony
Authors: van der Hulst Harry
Published: February 2012

We speak of vowel harmony when there is a general condition that demands that all vowels within a certain domain, usually the word, must agree in one or more than one phonological property. This condition is manifested in the facts that vowels within morphemes display agreement and that, when morphemes are combined into complex words, all vowels of these various morphemes will agree. In the most typical case, the vowels of affixes vary in the relevant phonological property or properties depending on the base with which they are combined. This means that the bases (roots, stems) are invariant and control the harmony. Vowel harmony can be understood as an unbounded form of phonological assimilation or agreement, and as such it forms a subclass of a broader phenomenon that also includes unbounded harmony among consonants or among consonants and vowels as well as forms of assimilation that are limited to adjacent segments. This bibliography only covers the subclass of vowel harmony.
Acting
Authors: Baron Cynthia
Published: February 2012

Perceptions about screen acting have been remarkably polarized: when people give priority to the now-mythical experiment by Soviet filmmaker Lev Kuleshov that is supposed to have shown that editing creates film and other mediated performances, it appears there is no real acting in film; when they reckon with the importance of stars and the star system, it seems clear that understanding films necessarily involves an appreciation of screen performances. In the era before cinema was superseded to some degree by television and digital entertainment, distinctions between acting on stage and acting in film seemed paramount. In fact, the film actor’s absence from the physical space occupied by the spectators led theorists to believe that responses to the connotatively rich details of screen performances must be related to other factors. Cine-semiotics proposed, for example, that audience responses to shot-reverse-shot sequences featuring over-the-shoulder medium close-ups of the changing, evocative expressions on actors’ faces were not related to the legible human expressions but were grounded instead in films’ correspondence to psychic experience—specifically, the way seamless continuity editing mirrors the process by which subjectivity arises as an effect of being sutured into language and culture. However, as happenings, installation art, and other unscripted performance art pieces increasingly challenged the logic and legitimacy of traditional theatrical productions, and film acting became one of many types of mediated performance, the parallels between stage and screen acting grew more visible. Observers could see that, in the same way stage performances reflect the diversity of theater practice over time and across the globe, film performances are best understood when considered in light of conventions specific to different time periods, genres, aesthetic movements, production regimes, and national cinemas. Scholars attentive to acting manuals and interviews recognized that performance details in film acquire dramatic significance the same way they do on stage: through their interrelationships with other formal elements in the production, the dramatic facts established by previous scenes, and audiences’ extra-textual associations. Taking the lead from early theorists like Sergei Eisenstein, film scholars have long understood that audience interpretations are based in part on the selection and combination of filmic elements. Today, it is more widely recognized that performance details are elements in that selection and combination process, and that audiences encounter film/media details and the connotatively rich gestures that belong to an actor’s “performance montage” as interrelated components of sign–complexes.
D.W. Griffith
Authors: Merritt Russell
Published: February 2012

David Wark Griffith (b. 1875–d. 1948) continues to generate a broad range of critical reaction. Although acknowledged as America’s seminal director of narrative film (and certainly the most influential), he is also perceived as being among the most limited. Praise for his mastery of film technique is matched by repeated indictments of his moral, artistic, and intellectual inadequacies. At one extreme he is hailed as a modernist who, especially in his early films, redefined melodrama and the way we perceive time and space; at the other he is attacked for his fervid moralizing and vulgarity. As one critic says of him, “He was an explorer, and he was lost.” Griffith became a famous filmmaker before anyone knew his name. As the anonymous director for the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company (later called the Biograph Company), he made over 450 one- and two-reelers in five years and won both critical and popular acclaim. Griffith was best known for pioneering and refining the mechanics of film form, especially those related to editing, mise-en-scène, and camera composition. His Biographs also became the original showcase for actors like Mary Pickford, Lillian Gish, and other Hollywood film stars. He reached the peak of his popularity and influence in features. Between 1915 and 1920, he released The Birth of a Nation, Intolerance, Broken Blossoms, and Way Down East. He also directed Hearts of the World, a World War I propaganda epic, alone among his early spectacles ignored today. But in 1918 it was the country’s most popular war film, and it rivaled The Birth of a Nation and Way Down East as the most profitable of all Griffith’s features. Griffith also made a much different sort of movie—the pastoral romance. Made on small budgets, Griffith’s pastorals have also received serious critical attention, especially among modern critics. Set in rural towns, Romance of Happy Valley, True Heart Susie, and The Greatest Question are notable for a near-absence of action sequences and overt physical struggles. The main figures (played by Lillian Gish and Bobby Harron) appeared to emerge independent of story line. Even his final rural drama, The White Rose, made with Mae Marsh and set in the Louisiana bayous, has attracted latter-day admirers. He lost his audiences in the mid-1920s and never regained them, although several of his late films—especially “Isn’t Life Wonderful?”Battle of the Sexes, and The Struggle—have been used to argue against the conventional notion of Griffith’s “decline.” Filmmakers ranging from Eisenstein and Abel Gance to Renoir, John Ford, Alfred Hitchcock, and Akira Kurosawa have acknowledged their debt to Griffith, but characteristic of his topsy-turvy reputation, in 1999 the Directors Guild of America removed Griffith’s name from their D. W. Griffith Award for fear of offending recipients.
Frederick Wiseman
Authors: Grant Barry Keith
Published: February 2012

A major figure in American documentary cinema, Frederick Wiseman (b. 1930) began making his extraordinary series of films during the Direct Cinema movement of the 1960s. From the beginning of his impressive and prolific forty-year career, Wiseman developed a distinctive style and approach that set his work apart from that of his contemporaries. Wiseman’s films focus on institutions of various kinds, ranging from those concentrated within individual buildings (High School, 1968) to those international in scope (Sinai Field Mission, 1978), from institutions set up and maintained by government (Juvenile Court, 1973, Public Housing, 1997) to those less tangible ones organized by principles of ideology and culture (Canal Zone, 1977, Model, 1980). Many of his films ferret out the gaps between institutional theory and practice, demonstrating the shaping force of institutions themselves, which dictate to, as much as they serve, both clients and administrators. Wiseman is also interested in these institutions as social microcosms and as interwoven parts of the larger social fabric, and through a variety of stylistic techniques he encourages a reading of each institution as a synecdoche of American society generally. More dialectical than didactic, Wiseman’s films assume a spectator attentive to film form. Though at first glance his films may seem to resemble the fly-on-the-wall approach of Direct Cinema, they often rely more heavily on elements of cinematic style such as editing and framing to express a consistent vision of how institutions operate.
Jane Campion
Authors: Fox Alistair
Published: February 2012

Since Jane Campion (b. 1954) was first recognized as a filmmaker of exceptional talent, with the screening of her early short film Peel—An Exercise in Discipline (1982) at the Cannes Film Festival in 1986, she has become acknowledged as one of the most important woman directors of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Especially following the success of The Piano (1993), which won the Palme d’Or at Cannes, and subsequently three Oscars awarded by the American Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Campion’s films have been the object of a rapidly expanding body of scholarly appraisals. These studies are clustered around a number of key preoccupations: Campion’s status as an auteur; her representation of a distinctive feminine sensibility in films by a woman, about women, and for women; her relations to feminism; her treatment of sexuality; and the issue of her national and international affiliations. In pursuing these topics, scholars have adopted a variety of approaches, ranging from feminist and psychoanalytic interpretations to industry studies and appraisals grounded in postcolonial theory. Predictably, given her singularity and “quirkiness,” Campion has polarized opinion, with some scholars seeing her as one of the greatest of all filmmakers, while others dismiss her as having sold out to commercial concerns in her later films. Irrespective of the controversies regarding her work, Campion is indisputably a filmmaker of singular genius on account of her harnessing of the arts of cinematic representation to reveal unique and deep insights into female subjectivity. While to New Zealanders and Australians her films open windows to an understanding of the dynamics and effects of their cultural formation, her films appeal equally to international audiences because of their perceived transnational applicability.
Music and Cinema, Classical Hollywood
Authors: Neumeyer David
Published: February 2012

Commercial film production in the United States developed rapidly after World War I. Theater programs focused on full-length narrative feature films along with secondary one-to-two-reel films such as newsreels, comedy shorts, travelogues, and (by the late 1920s) cartoons. Industry consolidation favored efficient large-scale production practices. Performance practices with respect to sound and music remained quite diverse until the introduction of recorded sound (which happened first in newsreels and shorts, then moved to feature films by 1926 and 1927), the rapid development of sound technology in the period 1927–1932 (the latter date being when reliable post-production re-recording became possible), and the establishment of a consistent soundtrack aesthetic (between 1935 and 1938). Thus, the period of classical Hollywood film—or what is often called the “Studio Era” or the “Golden Age of Hollywood Cinema”—encompasses the radically different sound practices of live performance and recorded sound. Typically in the literature, however, “Classical Hollywood Film” means the sound-film era stretching from roughly 1930 to 1960 (though the end date can reasonably be pushed as far as 1972, when Dolby stereo was introduced, and the contemporary era of sound design began in earnest). The silent era is covered in a separate article; the sound era is the topic of the present article. The aesthetic of the integrated monaural soundtrack that was developed by the mid-to-late 1930s and whose priorities were immediacy (Rick Altman’s “for-me-ness”) and narrative clarity, not acoustic realism, prevailed throughout this period, despite changes in production and exhibition structures in the late 1940s, the introduction of widescreen ratios in the 1950s, and the increasing use of popular music as underscore (background music) in the 1960s. The establishment of studio music departments in the late 1920s, combined with the conventionalizing pressures of intense production (the major Hollywood studios together were releasing more than 500 feature films a year by the mid-1930s), produced an identifiable “classical practice” for music in the context of feature film narrative and its soundtrack aesthetic. Although many people wrote about theoretical and practice-related issues from the earliest years of the cinema, film studies in a disciplinary sense only came into being with the French filmologues in the 1950s, after which it moved into American college literature and communications departments in the 1960s and early 1970s. Film music studies came later (Gorbman 1987 being the establishing document), and sound studies later still (only in the first decade of the 21st century).
Behavioral Genetics
Authors: DiLalla Lisabeth , Jamnik Matthew , Marshall Riley , Pali Emily
Published: February 2012

Behavioral genetics is the study of genetic and environmental influences on behaviors. By examining genetic influence, more information can be gleaned about how both genes and the environment operate to affect behavior. Almost all behaviors studied by psychologists are affected by our genetic makeup, and so the question is not whether genes are important, but how do they affect these behaviors? The old nature–nurture debate has been laid to rest. We know, from thousands of studies using many different methodologies, that both genes and environment are important to understand if we hope to untangle the mysteries of virtually any behavior. Among the interesting questions to be asked now: How do genes and environments work together to influence behaviors? What specific genes might be responsible for various types of behaviors and what is their mechanism of action? The field of behavioral genetics is moving forward and changing so rapidly that many of the articles included here are from relatively recent work. Some essential mainstays are included that all students of behavioral genetics should read and that both help to explain the history of this field and also represent seminal papers that still hold true. However, a large number of the articles are representative of many comparable articles. This selection is intended to get the reader started on a foray into the area. It should be noted that most research articles in this field are quantitatively quite complicated. A reading knowledge of path analysis and structural equation modeling would be beneficial. However, even readers without this knowledge can glean sufficient information from these articles by skimming the results sections and concentrating instead on the literature reviews and discussion summaries.
Defensive Processes
Authors: Winer E. Samuel , Newman Leonard , Sargent Rikki H.
Published: February 2012

Defensive processes may be defined as an underlying series of mental operations, occurring primarily outside of a person’s awareness, that result in either (1) an experience being recorded in memory in such a way that it is remembered as being more pleasant or less threatening than it actually was, or (2) threatening experiences becoming inaccessible to future conscious recall. Defensive processes were initially conceptualized by Freud as basic unconscious mechanisms serving to shield the conscious mind from painful truths. Today, research on defensive processes focuses more on the social and cognitive processes that are associated with defensiveness, as well as on whether particular individuals are more likely to engage in defensive behaviors. The first section of this article, Defense Mechanisms, describes the initial Freudian origins of the concept of defensiveness, introduces some general reviews of the literature, discusses the scientific basis for defense mechanisms, and reviews critiques and controversies that have surrounded these concepts. The next section, Information Processing, describes research on perceptual defense, which has examined what cognitive processes play a role in the speed and accuracy with which emotional information is processed. The section Defensiveness in Relation to Anxiety, Social Desirability, and Terror Management describes extant research on individual differences in anxiety and social desirability, and highlights the defensive processes underlying terror management. These programs of research emphasize both universal tenets of defensiveness and defensiveness as as something that varies between people. Those individual differences are then used to predict differences in the way persons behave. The article concludes with a summary of research on Defensive Repressors, individuals who demonstrate high levels of defensiveness and low levels of anxiety; Vigilance-Avoidance Theory, a framework for understanding how these individuals process information; and Terror Management Theory, a theory positing that defensive processing stems from an awareness and fear of death and dying.
Personality Disorders
Authors: Verona Edelyn , McKinley Sean , Finy M. Sima
Published: February 2012

Personality disorders (PDs) are defined in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5; published by the American Psychiatric Association in 2013) as “an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual’s culture, is pervasive and inflexible, has an onset in adolescence or early adulthood, and leads to distress or impairment” (p. 645). Although broad in scope, this definition is meant to distinguish PDs from other psychological disorders that are less clearly related to enduring personality. Indeed, as of 1980, in DSM-III, PDs were introduced in a different “axis” from other disorders, such as mood or anxiety disorders, ensuring that clinicians pay attention to acute disorders as well as personality-based problems in living. The former were classified under Axis I, or “Clinical Disorders,” representing acute manifestations of illness (e.g., schizophrenia, panic disorder), whereas PDs were classified under Axis II (along with mental retardation) in order to capture inflexible personality traits that have become problematic and that require psychological attention. However, with the publication of DSM-5, the multi-axial system has been eliminated in favor of a general scheme that places all disorders (clinical and personality) on the same diagnostic plane. In DSM-5, ten distinct PDs are listed, organized into three clusters: odd or eccentric (paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal); dramatic, emotional, or erratic (antisocial, borderline, narcissistic, histrionic); and anxious or fearful (avoidant, obsessive-compulsive, dependent) disorders. Individuals who show broad dysfunctions in personality that warrant treatment but who do not meet criteria for any specific PD are often classified as “Unspecified Disorder,” which is not in itself a personality disorder, but instead used to enhance specificity of an existing disorder or as a means of attaching a diagnosis to an individual for treatment purposes. Furthermore, a dimensional model of personality disorder, in which symptoms would be identified on a gradient scale of severity rather than a diagnostic checklist, was proposed during the DSM-5 revision process; however, this model was not approved to replace the categorical schema and was instead placed in section III of the manual (entitled “Emerging measures and models”). As of the early 21st century the etiology for PDs is unclear and multidetermined, but specific temperamental (e.g., neuroticism, disinhibition), environmental (e.g., childhood abuse), and biological (e.g., prefrontal cognitive control systems) factors have been most implicated. Specific etiological factors studied in regard to the three PD clusters as well as treatment approaches are reviewed in subsequent sections, with a focus on empirical and scientifically grounded publications.
Aggression
Authors: Deckman Timothy , Pond Richard S. , DeWall C. Nathan
Published: February 2012

Violence and aggression are prevalent across human cultures and daily life. One merely has to turn on the television or open an Internet browser to quickly gain access to violent images. For our early human ancestors, aggressive behavior had considerable adaptive value. For instance, aggression is useful for gaining access to precious resources, including food and shelter, and then protecting those resources once they are obtained. Aggression is also useful in gaining access to mates and protecting offspring. Therefore, aggression proved to be a good behavioral strategy for passing on one’s genes to subsequent generations. However, not all acts of aggression are adaptive. Humans depend on social groups for survival, therefore people must negotiate between antisocial and pro-social impulses. Aggression is particularly destructive in modern times, especially since it appears to be so ubiquitous in our everyday interactions. Thus, it remains a large area of study within the social sciences, especially among social psychologists. Psychologists employ a variety of research methodologies to study the causes and consequences of aggression, which groups are most at risk for aggressing against others, and how aggression can be reduced. In the following bibliography, we present general overviews on aggression, which introduce the prevailing psychological theories of aggression and review the research literature on the causes and consequences of aggression. We next present the research methods used by psychologists to study aggressive behavior. The remainder of the bibliography focuses on the major areas of research on aggression, with emphases on genetic and environmental correlates of aggression, as well as self- and emotion-processes that increase or reduce aggressive behavior.
LMA Supreme™ vs i‐gel™– a comparison of insertion success in novices
Authors: Ragazzi R. , Finessi L. , Farinelli I. , Alvisi R. , Volta C. A.
Published: February 2012

Two new supraglottic airway devices, the LMA Supreme™ (LMA) and the i‐gel™, offer potential benefits when inserted by inexperienced operators. This study compared the insertion success rate and ventilation profile between the LMA Supreme and the i‐gel when inserted by operators without previous airway management expertise. Following a short lecture and manikin training, airway novices were randomly allocated to insert either the LMA Supreme or the i‐gel into 80 patients undergoing breast surgery. The primary outcome was first‐time success rate, and secondary outcomes were overall success rate, insertion time, airway leak pressure, tidal volume during pressure controlled ventilation at 17 cmH2O, and adverse events. First‐time insertion success rate was significantly higher for the LMA Supreme than the i‐gel (30/39 (77%) vs 22/41 (54%); p = 0.029). Significantly more placement failures occurred with the i‐gel (6 vs 0, p = 0.025). Mean (SD) leak pressure (29 (8) vs 23 (11) cmH2O, p = 0.007) and expired tidal volume (PCV 17 cmH2O) (785 (198) vs 654 (91), p = 0.001) were significantly greater with the LMA Supreme than with the i‐gel, respectively. More patients complained of pharyngolaryngeal pain with the LMA Supreme than with the i‐gel (17/39 (44%) vs 8/41 (20%); p = 0.053). We found better first time success rate, fewer failures, and a better seal with the LMA Supreme compared with the i‐gel, indicating that the LMA Supreme may be preferable for emergency airway use by novices.
Endogenous circadian regulation of carbon dioxide exchange in terrestrial ecosystems
Authors: de Dios Víctor Resco , Goulden Michael L. , Ogle Kiona , Richardson Andrew D. , Hollinger David Y. , Davidson Eric A. , Alday Josu G. , Barron‐Gafford Greg A. , Carrara Arnaud , Kowalski Andrew S. , Oechel Walt C. , Reverter Borja R. , Scott Russell L. , Varner Ruth K. , Díaz‐Sierra Rubén , Moreno José M.
Published: February 2012

It is often assumed that daytime patterns of ecosystem carbon assimilation are mostly driven by direct physiological responses to exogenous environmental cues. Under limited environmental variability, little variation in carbon assimilation should thus be expected unless endogenous plant controls on carbon assimilation, which regulate photosynthesis in time, are active. We evaluated this assumption with eddy flux data, and we selected periods when net ecosystem exchange (NEE) was decoupled from environmental variability in seven sites from highly contrasting biomes across a 74° latitudinal gradient over a total of 36 site‐years. Under relatively constant conditions of light, temperature, and other environmental factors, significant diurnal NEE oscillations were observed at six sites, where daily NEE variation was between 20% and 90% of that under variable environmental conditions. These results are consistent with fluctuations driven by the circadian clock and other endogenous processes. Our results open a promising avenue of research for a more complete understanding of ecosystem fluxes that integrates from cellular to ecosystem processes.
Size/density compensation in Chloris gayana Kunth cv. Fine Cut subjected to different defoliation regimes
Authors: Martínez Calsina L. , Agnusdei M. G. , Assuero S. G. , Pérez H.
Published: February 2012

The study evaluated the plasticity of Chloris gayana Kunth cv. Fine Cut to defoliation in terms of tiller size/density compensation (SDC). Twelve mini‐swards were grown in a greenhouse under non‐limiting water and nutrient availabilities for 188 d. Four defoliation treatments were applied as a factorial arrangement of two defoliation frequencies and intensities: 80L, 80H, 100L and 100H (80 and 100 denote percentage of photosynthetically active radiation intercepted at defoliation; L and H denote stubble LAIs of 0·6 and 1·75, respectively). Tiller density, demography, dry weight, leaf area and volume were determined over the final 77 d of the experiment. SDC was observed across 80H and both 100 treatments. The estimated slope of the relationship between tiller size and density was close to −5/2, the deviation from the −3/2 line proposed for undefoliated swards being related to changes in LAI and tiller leaf area/volume ratio. The most severe defoliation regime, 80L, resulted in a lower tiller population density relative to the compensation line, suggesting that this defoliation management shifted the species beyond its range of phenotypic plasticity. Cumulative herbage production was significantly reduced in 80L. Despite the similar herbage production of 80H and both 100 treatments, the former was the most favourable defoliation regime for optimizing leafiness and productivity.
Evolutionary insight from whole‐genome sequencing of experimentally evolved microbes
Authors: DETTMAN JEREMY R. , RODRIGUE NICOLAS , MELNYK ANITA H. , WONG ALEX , BAILEY SUSAN F. , KASSEN REES
Published: February 2012

Experimental evolution (EE) combined with whole‐genome sequencing (WGS) has become a compelling approach to study the fundamental mechanisms and processes that drive evolution. Most EE‐WGS studies published to date have used microbes, owing to their ease of propagation and manipulation in the laboratory and relatively small genome sizes. These experiments are particularly suited to answer long‐standing questions such as: How many mutations underlie adaptive evolution, and how are they distributed across the genome and through time? Are there general rules or principles governing which genes contribute to adaptation, and are certain kinds of genes more likely to be targets than others? How common is epistasis among adaptive mutations, and what does this reveal about the variety of genetic routes to adaptation? How common is parallel evolution, where the same mutations evolve repeatedly and independently in response to similar selective pressures? Here, we summarize the significant findings of this body of work, identify important emerging trends and propose promising directions for future research. We also outline an example of a computational pipeline for use in EE‐WGS studies, based on freely available bioinformatics tools.
A mixed double negative feedback loop between the sRNA MicF and the global regulator Lrp
Authors: Holmqvist Erik , Unoson Cecilia , Reimegård Johan , Wagner E. Gerhart H.
Published: February 2012

Roughly 10% of all genes in Escherichia coli are controlled by the global transcription factor Lrp, which responds to nutrient availability. Bioinformatically, we identified lrp as one of several putative targets for the sRNA MicF, which is transcriptionally downregulated by Lrp. Deleting micF results in higher Lrp levels, while overexpression of MicF inhibits Lrp synthesis. This effect is by antisense; mutations in the predicted interaction region relieve MicF‐dependent repression of Lrp synthesis, and regulation is restored by compensatory mutations. In vitro, MicF sterically interferes with initiation complex formation and inhibits lrp mRNA translation. In vivo, MicF indirectly activates genes in the Lrp regulon by repressing Lrp, and causes severely impaired growth in minimal medium, a phenotype characteristic of lrp deletion strains. The double negative feedback between MicF and Lrp may promote a switch for adequate Lrp‐dependent adaptation to nutrient availability. Lrp adds to the growing list of transcription factors that are targeted by sRNAs, thus indicating that perhaps the majority of all bacterial genes may be directly or indirectly controlled by sRNAs.
Crinkly4 receptor‐like kinase is required to maintain the interlocking of the palea and lemma, and fertility in rice, by promoting epidermal cell differentiation
Authors: Pu Cui‐Xia , Ma Yun , Wang Jiao , Zhang Yong‐Cun , Jiao Xue‐Wen , Hu Yu‐Hong , Wang Ling‐Ling , Zhu Zheng‐Ge , Sun Daye , Sun Ying
Published: February 2012

The palea and lemma are unique organs in grass plants that form a protective barrier around the floral organs and developing kernel. The interlocking of the palea and lemma is critical for maintaining fertility and seed yield in rice; however, the molecules that control the interlocking structure remain largely unknown. Here, we showed that when OsCR4 mRNA expression was knocked down in rice by RNA interference, the palea and lemma separated at later spikelet stages and gradually turned brown after heading, resulting in the severe interruption of pistil pollination and damage to the development of embryo and endosperm, with defects in aleurone. The irregular architecture of the palea and lemma was caused by tumour‐like cell growth in the outer epidermis and wart‐like cell masses in the inner epidermis. These abnormal cells showed discontinuous cuticles and uneven cell walls, leading to organ self‐fusion that distorted the interlocking structures. Additionally, the faster leakage of chlorophyll, reduced silica content and elevated accumulation of anthocyanin in the palea and lemma indicated a lesion in the protective barrier, which also impaired seed quality. OsCR4 is an active receptor‐like kinase associated with the membrane fraction. An analysis of promoter::GUS reporter plants showed that OsCR4 is specifically expressed in the epidermal cells of paleas and lemmas. Together, these results suggest that OsCR4 plays an essential role in maintaining the interlocking of the palea and lemma by promoting epidermal cell differentiation.
HLA‐A*02:07:02, a new allele identified by sequence‐based typing in a Korean individual
Authors: Cho D. , Won E. J. , Yoon C. E. , Kwon O. J. , Shin M. G.
Published: February 2012

The new allele A*02:07:02 shows a single nucleotide substitution compared with A*02:07:01 at codon 233 (ACC → ACT) without any amino acid change.
Malignant transformation of exophytic Schneiderian papilloma of the nasal cavity
Authors: Terada Tadashi
Published: February 2012

Schneiderian papilloma (SP) is classified into three types: inverted, oncocytic, and exophytic. Malignant transformation occurs in 10% of SP; most are inverted and oncocytic types. Malignant transformation of polypoid exophytic SP is exceptional; only two cases have been reported in the English literature. A 58‐year‐old man consulted our hospital because of nasal obstruction. Nasal endoscopy and imaging modalities showed a polyp in the right nasal cavity. Biopsy findings showed compatibility with SP. However, since fludeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG‐PET) showed signals, polypectomy was performed. Grossly, the polyp was reddish white and measured 2 cm. Histologically, the polyp consisted of a non‐invasive squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) component (70%), a mature squamous component (20%), and Schneiderian epithelium (10%). Vague koilocytosis was present in the SCC component. The three components were arranged in an exophytic papillary pattern. Immunohistochemically, the non‐invasive SCC component was positive for cytokeratins (AE1/3, CAM5.2, CK5/6), p63, p53, and Ki67 (labeling 50%). The mature squamous component was positive for cytokeratins (AE1/3, CAM5.2 and CK5/6), p63, and Ki67 (labeling 6%). The Schneiderian component was positive for cytokeratins (AE1/3, CAM5.2, and CK5/6), p63, and Ki‐67 (labeling 4%). The tumor was HPV negative in the three components. The polyp was diagnosed as exophytic Schneiderian carcinoma arising from exophytic SP. The patient is now free from tumor 4 years after the operation.