bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Alcohol Use, Abuse, and Dependency in West Germany: Lifetime and Six Month Prevalence in the Munich Follow up Study
Authors: Wttichen Hans Ulrich , Bronisch Thomas
Published: October 2023

Despite many regional differences, central European countries including Austria, West Germany, East Germany, and some German-speaking parts of Switzerland have shared for almost 2 centuries quite similar patterns of alcohol consumption. This holds true not only for the amount of alcohol consumed and drinking habits, but also for attitudes towards alcoholism. Moderate drinking is encouraged, even demanded, and alcoholism is condemned as manifest “lack of will power.” Consumption patterns were strongly influenced in the first half of the nineteenth century by the humanistic and puritanical ideals of a strong temperance movement. It was at this time that the first inpatient facilities for the treatment of alcoholics (“Trinkerheilstatte” or drinkers’ sanatoria), were The authors would like to thank Dipl. Inf. Hildegard fister for the statistical analyses and her advice on an earlier draft of this paper.
The Measurement and Movement of Human Thought
Authors: Cloninger C Robert
Published: October 2023

An adequate psychology of self-awareness requires a more precise description of the basic concepts of gifts, listening to the psyche, and the path of the psyche than has been given by transcendentalists. Furthermore, we need to develop the scientific psychology of well-being in more detail to be able to describe and analyse the American transcendentalist movement. All three concepts are interrelated, so I will focus on the path of the psyche and describe the other two concepts in relation to it. I began the development of a fuller description of the path of conscious ness by extending the work of Hegel, who had given the most detailed previous description of the path of consciousness in psychological terms.
The American Foreign Policy Style in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Gaddis John Lewis
Published: October 2023

At the beginning of his 1895 novel, The Time Machine, H. G. Wells has his main character, the otherwise unnamed “Time Traveller,” point out to his friends that any physical object has to have four dimensions: “It must have Length, Breadth, Thickness, and-Duration.” The first three were obvious, but, “through a natural infirmity of the flesh,” most people tended to overlook the fourth.’ Infirmities of the flesh-and of the intellect-are real enough, and one of their effects is to limit the capacity of individuals and nations for self analysis. It is never easy, whether in the realm of interpersonal or international relations, to “see ourselves as others see us.” Just as individuals (at least those who can afford it) expand self-awareness through psychoanalysis, so nations tend to rely on perceptive outsiders for the clinical detachment that produces insights into their own character. Infirmities-whether of energy, imagination, or honesty-keep them from achieving this themselves. The problem has been greater for Americans than for most other people, because the very pervasiveness of this country’s influence throughout the world has prohibited the use of distance-the great advantage of foreign observers-to gain detachment. One liability of living in the “American century is that Americans who move through space so often encounter their own culture in its transplanted forms. And, whether for better or for worse, American culture has, rather like kudzu, transplanted very well indeed.
Intelligence, Espionage, and Cold War History
Authors: Gaddis John Lewis
Published: October 2023

We have learned a great deal over the past two decades about the impact of the “intelligence revolution” on World War II strategy.’ That knowledge has led, in turn, to a reassessment of the role of intelligence in earlier periods, and to the emergence of intelligence “studies” as a distinct sub-discipline, complete with its own newsletters, journals, organizations, scholarly meetings, and university courses. But this proliferation of scholarship thins out with the conclusion of the war. It is as if the possibilities for serious research on intelligence end with September, 1945, in a manner almost as decisive as President Harry S. Truman’s when in that same month he abolished with the stroke of a pen the first full-scale intelligence organization the United States had ever had, the Office of Strategic Services. The two phenomena are not, of course, unrelated: the very fact that OSS did not survive into the postwar era has made possible the declassification of most of its records. There is little reason to expect comparable openness anytime soon for the records of the Central Intelligence Group, which Truman created only four months after dismantling OSS, or for those of its more famous successor, the Central Intelligence Agency, whose official existence dates from July, 1947.4 Nor does documentation on code breaking activity in Great Britain and the United States-documentation that for the wartime years has largely sparked scholarly interest in intelligence matters-seem likely to be made available soon for the early postwar era.
The Essential Relevance of Nuclear Weapons
Authors: Gaddis John Lewis
Published: October 2023

It is not given to many generations to witness a completely unprecedented event. The collapse of empires, the overthrow of dynasties, the outbreak of plagues, the onset of revolutions, and even the improvement of the human condition itself-all of these are categories of events, which means that they have happened before and will almost certainly happen again. There are very few occurrences of which it can be said that nothing like them has ever taken place; there are not very many true points of departure in human affairs, after which nothing can be even remotely similar again. But what took place in the New Mexico desert on July 161 19451 surely qualifies as such an occurrence. The first test explosion of an atomic bomb-together with the actual use of that weapon three weeks later against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki-was as sharp a break from the past as any in all of history. Theory had intersected reality to produce a weapon that was regarded at the time as unlike any other that had ever been invented, and that is still so regarded today, almost half a century later. The result, it now appears, has been a fundamental-and possibly permanent change in human behavior.
Of Steps and Their Authorship
Authors: Aloff Mindy
Published: October 2023

The Dying Swan (Le Cygne) This famous ballet solo, created in St. Petersburg in 1905 by Michel Fokine for the young Anna Pavlova, has been danced by many ballerinas around the world, each of whom has changed or adjusted the choreography to her technique and temperament. Indeed, as early as the mid-1920s, Fokine, by then permanently transplanted to the West, published an official version of the choreography, a “detailed description of the dance,” accompanied by thirtysix photographs of Vera Fokina demonstrating the ballet’s key sequential poses (J. Fischer and Brother, New York, ca. 1925). This document would not have been available to the Soviet ballet companies that preserved the solo as a ballerina vehicle, which would account for Kirov-trained Natalia Makarova’s assertion below that Fokine had really provided only a sketch of the steps for Pavlova, when, as his description makes clear, he had also set specific poses and a dramatic throughline—elements from which Pavlova herself may have departed over time. Still, Makarova’s account of learning the dance (which she performed beautifully on her own terms) and of its tradition in Soviet Russia conveys an excellent example of how choreography is transmuted—and, sometimes, radically altered—in order to serve the varying gifts of individual performers:
Dancing and Related Theatrical Professions
Authors: Aloff Mindy
Published: October 2023

Rope Dancing Alexander Placide (1750–1812) was an eighteenth-century pantomimist and the scion of the Placide theatrical family. He had trained in London with Philip Astley (commonly thought of as the father of the modern circus) and had become, among other things, a virtuoso at rope dancing—that is, at dancing on a tightrope, which was popular in the Colonies and the United States during much of the century. Early American musical theater historian Julian Mates reports that “Boston’s Exhibition Room opened, in 1792, with ‘Tight and Slack-Rope Performances,’ and Rickett’s second Philadelphia circus featured tight-rope performers who doubled in pantomime and ballet.” Henry J. Colton was one eyewitness to Placide: The first time I saw him was at Charleston . . . dancing the tight rope. At that period it was considered a great and graceful feat of address and always drew crowded houses. Placide had with him a pantomime dancer.
Dancing and the Movies
Authors: Aloff Mindy
Published: October 2023

The Red Shoes I am often asked why The Red Shoes [1948], of all our films, became such a success in every country of the world. More than a success, it became a legend. Even today, I am constantly meeting men and women who claim that it changed their lives. This is natural enough, for women who were girls at the time, and who were growing up in countries that had been wracked by war. But my friend Ron Kitaj, who was thinking of becoming an art student at the time, has told me the same thing. “It changed my direction,” he said. “It gave art a new meaning to me.” These are personal reactions, but I think that the real reason why The Red Shoes was such a success was that we had all been told for ten years to go out and die for freedom and democracy, for this and for that, and now that the war was over, The Red Shoes told us to go and die for art. —Powell, p. 653 Akira Kurosawa, ca. 1945 During the war [World War II] I had been starved for beauty, so I rushed headlong into the world of traditional Japanese arts as to a feast. I may have been motivated by a desire to escape from the reality around me, but what I managed to learn despite the motive was nevertheless of great value to me. I went to see the Noh for the first time. I read the art theories the great fourteenth-century Noh playwright Zeami left behind him.
Enter Miss Brice
Authors: Goldman Herbert G
Published: October 2023

Frank Keeney had interests in two other Brooklyn theaters be­sides the one he owned on Fulton Street, and Fanny’s next amateur night appearance was at one on Flatbush Avenue. This time, she did not pick her money up until she finished singing. The result was that she missed the laughs she had gotten at Keeney’s. Fanny soon went back to picking up the money.
Shubert Sonata
Authors: Goldman Herbert G
Published: October 2023

The Ziegfeld Follies was and remains the ultimate in theatrical glamor. It was Broadway at its finest-the most gorgeous sets and costumes, the most beautiful women, the greatest use of lights and color, and the greatest comedians in theatre history. Being in the Follies was a source of pride and great success to all the performers especially to the teen-aged girls.
Nick Arnstein
Authors: Goldman Herbert G
Published: October 2023

He was born Julius Wil ford Arndstein in Norway on July 1, 1879, the son of a German Jew named Moses Arndstein and his Dutch wife, Thekla Van Shaw. Brought to the United States in babyhood, he received a good education and worked as a contractor for a time. But Nick was like French Charlie; he quickly became bored. Only certain women called him “Jules,” an Anglicization that he much preferred to “Julius.” To friends, acquaintances, and “business” partners, he was Nick, a diminutive of “Nickelplate,” the nickname he had gotten in his teens because the wheels of his bicycle had nickel-plated spokes.
What Every Woman Nose
Authors: Goldman Herbert G
Published: October 2023

The Fourteenth Annual Production of the Ziegfeld Follies opened at the New Amsterdam Theatre on Tuesday night, June 22, 1920. Advance reports from Atlantic City, where the show had its usual pre-Broadway tryout, said that this particular edition needed much more work than usual-reports that were confirmed when the show reached New York. Sime Silverman said the 1920 Follies “was in bad shape in comedy when starting off at the New Amsterdam. It was badly off in all other departments as well, other than production. Ziegfeld never falls down on the producing end. But comedy is sadly missed in a great big long time running show like the Follies, especially when there is no decided musical hit, also happening in this season’s performance.”
Life Without Roses
Authors: Goldman Herbert G
Published: October 2023

Fanny’s whole life changed when she moved out to California. “Back in New York,” she told one interviewer, “I get up at noon, maybe one o’clock. Out here I get up at 8 A.M. Back east I never ate breakfast. Since I’ve been in pictures I’ve had my first bowl of oatmeal in a third of a century.”
Inventing the Artisanat, 1900-1925
Authors: Zdatny Steven M
Published: October 2023

By reputation and fact, France has been the pre-eminent nation of small manufacture and skilled craftsmen. “There is no doubt,” wrote Andre Siegfried, “that the type most representative of French qualities is that of the artisan; thus it is necessary to defend him, to encourage him, to permit him to survive.”1 It may therefore seem paradoxical to say that France had no “artisanat” before the World War I, at least none aware of its own existence and organized accordingly.
Vichy: The Broken Promise
Authors: Zdatny Steven M
Published: October 2023

In June 1940 the Third Republic voted itself out of existence. Artisans, like a majority of their compatriots, waved farewell, not too sadly, and got on the bandwagon to Vichy. Albert Paulin, the socialist champion of artisanal causes in the Chamber of Deputies, cast his vote for Marshal Petain and was rewarded with a place on Vichy ‘s new National Council. Albert Coustenoble, president of the APCMF, was also asked to join the Council and accepted. Indeed, the bulk of the artisanal movement greeted Petain ‘s National Revolution with optimism.
Primate Paternalistic Investment: A Cross-Species View
Authors: Taub David , Mehlman Patrick
Published: October 2023

The keystone of mammalian evolution is intrauterine gestation and the attendant physiological adaptations of females that allow them to provide all nourishment to neonates after parturition. These adaptations have had revolutionary consequences on the evolution of diverse social systems and mating patterns (Trivers, 1972; Brown, 1975; Maynard-Smith, 1977; Wittenberger and Tilson, 1980; Williams, 1966; Gubernick and Klopfer, 1981) as well as intensifying the mother-offspring bond (Trivers, 1972), which is the central configuration of all mammalian social systems.
Male Sexual Behavior: Monkeys, Men, and Apes
Authors: Nadler Ronald D , Phoenix Charles H
Published: October 2023

As was stated in the introductory chapter, the objective of the remaining individual chapters is to describe results of research on nonhuman primates from which we have learned something of significance about human behavior. If we hope to map the specifics of behavior, anatomy, and physiology, it is of course true that we cannot learn about one species by studying another. Nonetheless, if we take a wider, and perhaps more meaningful, view, it is possible to learn something about one species that is generally applicable to others.
The Anatomy of a Patriotic Society
Authors: Coetzee Marilyn Shevin
Published: October 2023

Founding an association like the Army League demanded careful planning and coordination; maintaining it over a period of time as an influential association was another matter. The Army League’s commitment to securing a larger and more efficient army was apparent in the relentless crusade it waged for the passage of the 1912 and 1913 army bills. Its effectiveness as an association, however, cannot be judged solely by the adoption of these measures. To survive it had to balance the attainment of its goals with the maintenance of a relatively consistent degree of participation and interest in those goals. Accordingly, associations such as the Army League sought to establish a broad and durable network of branches as the medium of popular participation, and to supplement ideological appeals with a variety of social or economic incentives.
Judicial Intervention and Social Control
Authors: Rhine Edward E
Published: October 2023

In classic studies by Gresham Sykes, Richard Cloward, and others, it was found that prison officials governed largely by entering into informal bargains with inmates.1 Well into the 1960s, prison officials could rely on a shared convict code of conduct and tacit cooperative arrangements with inmate leaders to ensure a modicum of order and stability behind bars.

Recent studies indicate that informal accommodations and tradeoffs between inmates and staff remain a key tool of prison gover The views presented herein are those of the author and are not those of the Administrative Office of the Courts or the Judiciary of New Jersey.
Crain: Nonreformist
Authors: Reform Prison
Published: October 2023

The West Virginia Penitentiary in the state’s northern panhandle was, for many years, an ancient living paradox. This artifact of Civil War-era construction was just the sort of prison thought to “breed violence.” Conditions were terrible. Sewage leaked into the tiny cells, and the entire edifice was infested with rats and lice. In poorly ventilated and heated cells, inmates sweltered in the summer heat and huddled under mounds of blankets in the cold of winter. Critics, including some state legislators, said that the penitentiary must be replaced-before the inmates’ anger boiled over.
May Guarding the Atlantic Line
Authors: Heinrichs Waldo
Published: October 2023

At dawn on April 6 the German army burst from Bulgaria into Yugoslavia and Greece, preceded by air attacks that destroyed the command and communication center of the Yugoslav army in Belgrade and 41,000 tons of shipping at Piraeus. This was blitzkrieg in its most stunning form carried on by fast, powerful, elite units-no less than six armored divisions, the Adolf Hitler and Das Reich SS Divisions, two other motorized divisions, and two mountain divisions-besides infantry.
The Building of a Garden City, 1899-1920
Authors: Buder Stanley
Published: October 2023

Not surprisingly, To-morrow was dismissed cavalierly by reviewers. They found it a moderately interesting and well-done instance of a type of utopian thinking spurred by the commercial success of Edward Bellamy’s Look ing Backward. The reviewer for the Times described Howard’s garden city as “ingenious” and snidely noted: “The only problem is to create it; but that is a small matter to utopians.” Edward Pease in the Fabian News reflected: “proposals for building new [cities] are about as useful as arrangements for protection against visits from Mr. Wells’ Martians.” According to Pease, the problem was to learn to make the best of existing cities. Behind his opinion was a strong and important ideological stance.1
The International Movement, 1900-1940
Authors: Buder Stanley
Published: October 2023

Howard believed the Garden City’s appeal universal. “To solve the great problem of the city for England,” he wrote in 1901, “is to solve it for all of Europe, America, Asia, and Africa.” Many outside England heard his mes sage, but its ambiguity left much room for misunderstanding. The Garden City movement abroad attracted diverse groups and types. Prominent among early supporters were enthusiasts interested in the Gar den City concept as a middle path between state socialism and unbridled individualism, as well as Anglophiles entranced by visions of tasteful cottages in picturesque English settings. Urban critics found in it a comprehensive means to lessen congestion, while those desiring a more humane capital ism hoped to reconcile the classes by way of model industrial villages and tenent copartnership.
British New Towns, 1945-1980
Authors: Buder Stanley
Published: October 2023

Britain’s passage of the New Town Act of 1946 made the building of new cities for the first time in modern Western history a concern of long-term national planning. Once again, Britain led the way in a planning experiment which received much attention, especially in the period from 1960 to 1975 when other nations appeared eager to emulate the British example. Writing in the late 1980s, the future of the New Town program remains in question, as indeed does the “modern welfare state” with which it is closely identified. Yet while awaiting history’s final verdict, it would be useful to appraise the enthusiasm for new towns after World War II and what happened to Howard’s vision once it became an instrument of government policy.
The Future of the Garden City
Authors: Buder Stanley
Published: October 2023

Many nations planned new communities after World War II. Differing greatly in intention, design, and scale, they ranged from monumental capitals for Brazil and India to modest development towns by Third World nations seeking to modernize-but all fell under the professional rubric of “new-town planning” as the term “garden city” retreated from use. In most urbanized Western nations, however, new-town interest was principally channeled into schemes to decongest the central city and restructure metro politan land use. Despite great attention given the “British experiment,” efforts elsewhere rarely followed its example closely, though a borrowing of ideas inevitably occurred.
Prelude: Why a Quest for Legitimacy?
Authors: Franck Thomas M
Published: October 2023

In the international system, rules usually are not enforced yet they are mostly obeyed. Lacking support from a coercive power comparable to that which provides backing for the laws of a nation, the rules of the international community nevertheless elicit much compliance on the part of sovereign states. Why do powerful nations obey powerless rules? That is the subject of this excursion into power: more precisely, the power which rules exert on states, both the weak and, more remarkably, the strong. A series of events connected with the role of the U.S. Navy in protecting vessels in the Persian Gulf brings this question to life.
The Irrelevance of Law and Non—Law
Authors: Franck Thomas M
Published: October 2023

Authority is a word on everybody’s lips today. The young attack it and the old demand respect for it. Parents have lost it and policemen enforce it. Experts claim it and artists spurn it, while scholars seek it and lawyers cite it. Philosophers reconcile it with liberty and theologians demonstrate its compatibility with conscience. Bureaucrats pretend they have it and politicians wish they did. Everyone agrees that there is less of it than there used to be. In their external relations, sovereigns are bound by no law; they are like our ancestors before the recognition or imposition of the social contract. A prerequisite of law is a superior authority whether delegated from below or imposed from above-where there is no recognized authority, there is no law.
Determinacy and the Sophist Rule-Idiot Rule Paradox
Authors: Franck Thomas M
Published: October 2023

The preceding chapter has attempted to introduce the relationship of the legitimacy of a rule and its degree of determinacy. The aspects of determinacy examined in that chapter are: 1) the transparency of the standard established in the rule text; and 2) the extent to which the rule is accessible to legitimate clarifying procedures. These two aspects have been designated, respectively, the substantive (or textual) and the procedural (or institutional) sides of determinacy. The present chapter examines a number of other, related aspects of determinacy. As in the preceding chapter, central to the discussion of determinacy will be the hypothesis that the formal literary structure of a rule text is one of the several elements affecting the degree to which a rule is perceived to be legitimate.
Commerce, Manufactures, and the West
Authors: Tucker Robert W , Hendrickson David C
Published: October 2023

When the american states achieved their independence in 1783, they secured a peace treaty from Great Britain much more generous than seemed reasonable to expect only a few years before. Hoping to reconcile the disaffected colonies to their mother country, the Shelburne ministry decided not to contest the American claim to the great interior, bounded on the east by the Appalachian Mountains, on the north by the Great Lakes, on the south by the 31st parallel, and on the west by the Mississippi River Shelburne, hoping that the settlement of the interior would allow the United States to accept British manufactures in ever greater numbers, believed that it might be possible to enjoy again the substance of empire even while sacrificing the form.
The Abortive Peace Settlement
Authors: Tucker Robert W , Hendrickson David C
Published: October 2023

The envoys charged with negotiating the issues dividing England and the United States — James Monroe and William Pinkney — faced an enormously difficult task. Madison framed his instructions in such a manner as to preclude-if not with the intention, then certainly the effect-the possibility of a successful negotiation.
The Isolationist Impulse
Authors: Tucker Robert W , Hendrickson David C
Published: October 2023

For most of his life, Jefferson championed a policy of isolation for the new nation. In doing so, he joined his voice to those of many others. The desire to pursue a political destiny separate from Europe enjoyed a virtual consensus among the founding generation of American statesmen. It was given repeated expression in the period immediately preceding the War of Independence.
Introduction
Authors: Snyder Jack
Published: October 2023

The domino theory, in one form or another, has been the central organizing concept behind American containment strategy. America's two major wars since 1945 have been fought under the banner of the domino theory. Neither Korea nor Vietnam was thought to have great economic, military, or cultural value to the United States. Rather, they were thought to be worth fighting for primarily because defeats there might create precedents for areas of greater intrinsic value. Insufficient resistance would embolden aggressors to hunt for bigger game, shake major allies' faith in American backing, and cause smaller states and popular movements to jump on the aggressors' bandwagon.1
Alliance Formation in Southwest Asia: Balancing and Bandwagoning in Cold War Competition
Authors: Walt Stephen M
Published: October 2023

When will states form alliances, and what determines their choice of allies? This question is important for at least two reasons. First, from a policy perspective, competing hypotheses about the causes of alignment lie at the heart of many recurring debates in U.S. foreign policy. As Deborah Larson (Chapter 4) reveals in this volume, the belief that states tend to bandwagon (i.e., to ally with the strongest or most threatening power) was an important motive behind the“globalization” of containment in the early years of the cold war.
The Soviet Decision to Withdraw from Afghanistan: Changing Strategic and Regional Images
Authors: Herrmann Richard
Published: October 2023

In 1988 the Soviet Union decided to withdraw its troops from Afghanistan. One question addressed in this chapter is why. But more fundamentally this chapter is about how we interpret superpower behavior in countries along the Asianrimland and about how perceptions of global strategies are translated into the images of regional conflicts.
Russian and Soviet Strategic Behavior in Asia
Authors: Hauner Milan
Published: October 2023

To understand more fully the contemporary Soviet strategic behavior along the rim lands of Asia, it might be helpful to examine certain lessons of the past, especially since the essential geostrategic parameters delineating the Russian and Soviet Eurasian superpower have not changed fundamentally since the political genius Halford Mackinder described it in 1904 as uniquely endowed with“a correlation between natural environment and political organization and unlikely to be altered by any possible social revolution
International Aspects of the Development of German Banking
Authors: Tilly Richard
Published: October 2023

The leading characteristic of the German banking system as it evolved in the second half of the nineteenth century was certainly not its international orientation. Like the German economy itself during this period, German banks were dominated by the financial opportunities created by domestic social overhead and industrial investment. Many ways exist for demonstrating the primacy of Germany’s domestic financial needs, but the most convenient one for present purposes is to cite figures collected by Walther Hoffmann in his book on German economic growth and by Raymond Gold smith in one of his earlier comparative studies (Table 4-1 ).
The Role of International Factors in the Formation of the Banking System in Russia
Authors: Bovykin V I , Anan’ich B V
Published: October 2023

The formative stage of the Russian banking system was the I 860s and l 870s,-a--period when capitalist relations were being significantly strengthened in the country. Previously, the country lived under serfdom (not abolished until 1861), which fettered and deformed the growth of production, commerce, and credit. Faced with the threat of a revolutionary overthrow of the out dated feudal regime, Russian landowners sacrificed serfdom and embarked upon a gradual bourgeois transformation of the agrarian system and adaptation of the landowner stage to burgeoning capitalism. As a result, capitalist relations in Russia arose under conditions where landowners retained political dominance in the state and a monopoly of a considerable (and the best) part of the country’s land resources.
Foreign Banks and Foreign Investment in Russia
Authors: Anan’ich B V , Bovykin V I
Published: October 2023

A key dynamic in the industrial development of capitalist countries was the diffusion of advanced technology. The process of technological modernization, synchronous with the construction of railway networks, generated an exceptionally high demand for capital, which in most cases was supplied largely by foreign investments. Russia was no exception. Calculation of just how important a role foreign capital played has been an object of continuing controversy; the problem is complex in the extreme and re quires further study and analysis, but two aspects seem clear.
Extra-Regional Banks and Investment in China
Authors: King Frank H H
Published: October 2023

The opening of the Yangtze River to foreign trade and the extension of the Treaty Port* system of open ports consequent to provisions of the 1858 Treaty of Tientsin created a network of foreign-initiated intraregional trade at a time when refugees from the Taiping rebels inflated the demand for real estate protected by the provisions for “foreign settlements” in the larger ports, especially Shanghai. The consequent boom was fueled in part by India-based banks with branches in Shanghai and the British Crown Colony of Hong Kong.
The Oil Industry
Authors: Fursenko A
Published: October 2023

The oil concerns that emerged in the late nineteenth century were the products of a profitable and rapidly growing business. The development of the petroleum industry constantly required new capital investments, and for the most part that took the form of reinvested profits, i.e., self-financing. Most of the large oil corporations, even if not averse to accepting credit from banks, nevertheless operated primarily with their own money. At the same time growth in the oil industry changed the companies’ scale of operation: The expansion of foreign operations and rapid internationalization of the oil business turned national companies into transnational ones. Although such developments occurred in many branches of industry and trade, this process proceeded with particular intensity in the oil industry.
Iron and Steel
Authors: Wengenroth Ulrich
Published: October 2023

There were not so many true multinational iron and steel companies with plants and operations in more than one country before World War I, at least not if one has in view the manufacture of iron and steel proper. Production was still heavily centralized, and foreign subsidiaries of steel companies were mostly engaged in the acquisition of raw materials and kept under tight control by their headquarters. On the other side, quite a few steel companies, especially in Eastern Europe, were promoted by or with the help of foreign capital, including major European steel makers. It is difficult, however, to regard all these new companies as subsidiaries, since the Western parents did not seem to have had much influence on their policy-at least not in the long run.
International Harvester and Its Competitors
Authors: Carstensen Fred V
Published: October 2023

On May 1, 1851, the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations opened in London’s Crystal Palace. In the midst of the thinly populated American exhibition sat Cyrus McCormick’s “huge, unwieldy, unsightly and incomprehensible” mechanical grain harvester.1 But in two demanding field trials McCormick’s machine demon strated its virtue-it offered farmers the first effective mechanical means for harvesting wheat, oats, and other grains, a machine that both reduced the labor requirement by four-fifths and cut the loss of grain from handling; the exhibition jury awarded McCormick its highest award, the prestigious Council Medal. McCormick used this signal victory as a cornerstone for American advertising for years afterwards and established a pattern of using victories in such European field trials to enhance the McCormick reputation.
Communications Intelligence in World War I
Authors: Headrick Daniel R
Published: October 2023

War brings with it a great urge to communicate. Armies on the move and fleets of ships soon disappear from the line of vision of their commanding officers. Before the twentieth century, this was one of the frustrations of command, part of what Clausewitz called “the fog of war,” which prevented even Napoleon and Nelson from engaging in battles covering more than a few square miles. With the industrial age, all that changed. The telegraph, the telephone, and especially the radio finally allowed commanders to control enormous forces spread over hundreds of square miles.
Conflicts and Settlements, 1919–1923
Authors: Headrick Daniel R
Published: October 2023

No sooner did the guns go silent on the Western Front than the old conflicts over world communications reappeared. Great Britain, still dominating the world’s information flow, was once again challenged by nations that resented its power. Yet in communications, as in every other field, the postwar world differed radically from the prewar. The changes were of three kinds: political, economic, and technological. Defeat had eliminated Germany from world communications, and the Allies were determined not to let Britain’s erstwhile competitor return to the field.
The Dual Nature of Causation in Biology
Authors: Goldsmith Timothy H
Published: October 2023

These contrasting remarks, the first by an evolutionary biologist, the second two by citizens who have been active in efforts to influence the content of biology textbooks used in secondary schools, point to a sad and disturbing problem: More than a century after Charles Darwin called attention to one of the most exciting and unifying concepts in the whole of science, the teaching of evolution continues to be greeted with formidable resistance. In the entire sweep of scientific knowledge, only evolutionary biology is the object of political regulation in the public schools, justified by tireless and tiresome repetition of the words of William Jennings Bryan that, after all, evolution is “only a theory.” Moreover, that after a half a century has passed a President of the United States can still utter the same phrase with conviction is testimony to the fact that the lay public’s understanding of evolution remains in a primitive condition.
Introduction
Authors: Joekes Susan P
Published: October 2023

The emphasis in studies of women in society has shifted in the past forty years. Early writings revolved around women’s traditional roles and centered on their position in the family in “primitive” societies. Anthropologists hailing from other countries produced descriptions of kinship, marriage, and local customs in small communities and examined women’s lives in those settings. Men’s and women’s roles were considered essentially complementary. Narrow in focus as they were, such works were not intended to investigate the broader social and economic milieu nor even to consider economic aspects of different types of social organization.
The Position of Women in a Changing World
Authors: Joekes Susan P
Published: October 2023

Has the quality of life improved for the citizens of the world in the forty years since the establishment of the United Nations? The founding pur pose of the United Nations was to promote peace and prosperity throughout the world, on the basis of a “faith in fundamental human rights” that included “the equal rights of men and women.” Did this aim come at all close to fruition? Have all the aid, investment, and commitment to development devoted to these ends been in vain? Have economic changes, whatever the causal role of the United Nations it self, brought about any diminution in the disparities in wealth and well being between whole peoples and between men and women within and between countries?
Toward Innovative Development Policies
Authors: Joekes Susan P
Published: October 2023

The present international economic climate is fundamentally inimical to development. Employment prospects in general and particularly for the younger generation and for women have deteriorated drastically since 1980. Real interest rates are unprecedentedly high; the flow of external finance for development investment has almost dried up; and prices of commodities have either fluctuated widely or fallen in a sustained way. Instability and uncertainty are the order of the day for the majority of countries. With unemployment at record levels, industrialized countries have pursued nationalistic trade and monetary policies, which only worsen the situation. Heavily indebted developing coun tries and those still dependent on exports of primary commodities are struggling through times of domestic austerity, which are damaging to their productive capacity in the long run as well as immediately harmful to the standard of living of their populations.
The “ Effeminate” Style
Authors: Jamieson Kathleen Hall
Published: October 2023

History has many themes. One of them is that women should be quiet. By the turn of the century when humorist Ambrose Bierce defined a woman as an “animal” which “can be taught not to talk,”1 many of the instructional methods used to elicit her silence had been lost to memory. Among them were the ducking stool, the gag, and the gossip’s bridle.
The Memorable Phrase, The Memorable Picture
Authors: Jamieson Kathleen Hall
Published: October 2023

The cover of The New Republic of October 17, 1983, pictured the Reverend Jesse Jackson, his right hand raised, his left on the Bible, swearing the presidential oath of office. The headline read “ ‘I have a scheme . . President Jesse Jackson?” By playing on our associations with Martin Luther King’s “I have a dream,” “I have a scheme” telegraphs a powerful indictment. If Jackson would substitute a scheme for King’s dream, then he is unworthy to be president. The New Republic is engaging here in the sort of concise, memorable phrasemaking that is now demanded of those who wish to speak to a mass audience. In this chapter we explore the form and function of memorable phrases and pictures in political eloquence.
Mating the Best of the Old and the new
Authors: Jamieson Kathleen Hall
Published: October 2023

“Were it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers, or newspapers without a government,” wrote Thomas Jefferson two centuries ago, “I should not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter. But I should mean that every man should receive those papers and be capable of reading them.” What Jefferson did not envision was a literate reader dispatching the newspaper to the bottom of the birdcage, its political news unread even by the bird. Nor could he suppose that his great-grandchildren’s great-grandchildren would search some major newspapers in vain for an instance of extended political argument, a transcribed speech, for example, or a published debate.
Two Ambassadorships
Authors: Mayers David
Published: October 2023

Kennan ’s leave of absence from the Foreign Service beginning in autumn 1950 lasted through the spring of 1952, when he succeeded Alan Kirk as ambassador to the Soviet Union. During the interim Kennan conducted research on what he termed the utopian tendencies in US foreign policy, wrote articles about current political issues, and delivered lectures to civic and university groups on a variety of historical and international topics. It was a productive period for Kennan and foreshadowed the prolific and distinguished scholarly career that awaited him.
Diplomacy and the Politics of Amelioration
Authors: Mayers David
Published: October 2023

To this point, we have examined Kennan ’s explicit ideas about the diverse issues with which he has dealt as diplomat, policymaker, and critic. Yet over the course of his long career, he has also evolved a set of underlying concepts and assumptions that in their totality suggest a theory of politics and international relations-his impatience with academic social science and his skepticism about most formal philosophy notwithstanding.1 In evaluating what might be construed as Kennan ’s theory, or what we can at least label as his philosophical precepts, we can also draw some broad conclusions about his overall contribution to US foreign policy.
Outlaws
Authors: Conley Carolyn A
Published: October 2023

The jury must not attach too much importance to the consideration of the crimes being charged being first offenses, because it might well be that they had been in the company of bad characters and that though they happened to escape from the law they might not really belong to what might be called the innocent part of the community.1Chairman, west Kent quarter sessions, January 1871 To the merchants, artisans, and farmers who sat on Kentish juries there was a clear distinction between the innocent part of the community to which they belonged and the “criminal class”persons who lived outside the bounds of respectable society and were inherently guilty. Such people were not necessarily criminals in a legal sense, _that is, they might never have been convicted of violating the law, but they were always suspect and were in a sense outlaws. The term “outlaw” had originally referred to persons who had been expelled from the community for criminal behavior. Outlaws were those who lived outside the law-they neither obeyed it nor were protected by it. In the nineteenth century the legal status of outlaw was no longer recognized, but policemen, judges, and juries still responded quite differently to persons who were accepted as members of the innocent part of the community and to those who were perceived as being outside that community. The outlaws were “the criminal, vagrant and suspected classes.” 2
Trout in Milk and Imaginary Toadsin Real Gardens
Authors: Sultan Stanley
Published: October 2023

It was pointed out in the second chapter (pp. 39-40) that only one of Eliot’s early poems is a direct verbal enactment of the process itself of consciousness, and that the poem rendering J. Alfred Prufrock’s uninterrupted thought anticipated the most sensational, and famous, instance of the use of a special narrative method to represent the events of psychological reality. In both “Prufrock “ and Molly’s soliloquy, the verbal “stream “ portrays an inner conflict, and in both cases, the conflict is crucial-because its issue is fundamental to the character’s destiny. Finally, as in most persuasive attempts to represent consciousness, in both cases the process of the character’s consciousness is associational.
Tradition and the Individual Talent in “Prufrock “
Authors: Sultan Stanley
Published: October 2023

“The best known English poem since the Rubaiyat “ it was called in 1959 and probably both was so and is.1 Certainly, no other poem is more likely to be included in a collection of poetry of our century; and two generations of teachers have introduced it to secondary-school seniors and college freshmen. Long before 1959, “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock “ had achieved special canonical status. One cause of its status was high regard for the poem itself. But I believe another was historical, and that the vantage afforded by the quarter-century since 1959 reveals this particular one of Eliot’s early poems to be a most eloquent cultural artifact-both as harbinger of Modernism and as paleomodernist specimen. I also believe its special status persists; its pertinence to the present debate in criticism will be addressed in the last section of the book. But my concern here is Eliot’s created harbinger and specimen as an event in literary history.
An Old-Irish Ghost in Ulysses
Authors: Sultan Stanley
Published: October 2023

One of the most dramatic contrasts between Eliot and Joyce was their relative candor about relations with predecessors/precursors. The previous chapter mentioned Joyce’s questionable attribution of the origin of the inner monologue to Edouard Dujardin. In the next chapter, I infer major relations he never intimated, of Ulysses and an antecedent, equally famous novel not normally associated with it: fundamental characteristics it seems to share uniquely with Crime and Punishment. This chapter concerns a minor ghost in Ulysses, an apparition raised subsequently-although subtly-by the author himself. Joyce raises the Old-Irish ghost in Finnegans Wake I.
Arrests Move South
Authors: Neely Mark E
Published: October 2023

As the number of military arrests of civilians in the North fell from the for bidding heights of August 1862, the most important new developments occurred not in Washington cabinet meetings but in the field. The president and his advisors appeared to view suspension of the writ of habeas corpus as a means of enforcing the odious draft in the North, but the military prisons filled with civilians from the South arrested for other kinds of offenses.
Lincoln and the Constitution
Authors: Neely Mark E
Published: October 2023

The Democratic depiction of Lincoln as a tyrant was to have more influence on history than it merited, but like many political caricatures, it contained a certain element of truth. To be sure, there was nothing of the dictator in Lincoln, who stood for reelection in 1864 and, until General Sherman captured Atlanta, genuinely feared that he would lose the presidency. But he did not by habit think first of the constitutional aspect of most problems he faced. His impulse was to turn to the practical.
Productivity, Competitiveness, and the Socialist System
Authors: Ofer Gur
Published: October 2023

In the march of nations along the road of economic modernization and growth, the natural place of the countries of eastern and southern Europe is following their neighbors to the west and north. With the establishment of socialist regimes in Russia following World War I and in eight other eastern European countries in the aftermath of World War II, the general assumption in both the East and the West was that these countries would not only join the march but also move fast to catch up and possibly even surpass some of the leading market economies over a relatively short period. And indeed this assumption had been supported by the early record of growth of most of these countries. However, both the assumption and the record have been put into serious doubt for some time now as the pace of catching up has slowed down considerably since the I 960s and has been completely halted more recently.
An International Comparison of the Multisectoral “Production Structure of the United Stat s, West Germany, and Japan
Authors: Saito Mitsuo , Tokutsu Ichiro
Published: October 2023

The main purpose of this chapter is to make an empirical estimation of the same multi sectoral production model for the United States, West Germany, and Japan and to make a comparison of their competitiveness in the world market on the basis of the results.