bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Encapsulation of hydrophobic drugs in a copolymer: Glass transition behavior and miscibility evaluation
Authors: Babu R. Jayachandra , Brostow Witold , Fasina Oladiran , Kalogeras Ioannis M. , Sathigari Sateeshkumar , Vassilikou‐Dova Aglaia
Published: March 2011

The knowledge of glass transition temperatures Tg in drug + polymer systems is indispensable for drug encapsulation. Tg values as a function of composition make possible the determination whether a given polymer is miscible or compatible with the drug and whether the polymer will provide release of the drug into organism within an acceptable rate range. We have used differential scanning calorimetry and Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy to evaluate miscibility in solid dispersions of the drugs carvedilol, itraconazole, nevirapine, and nimodipine in the pharmaceutical grade copolymer poly(vinyl pyrrolidone‐co‐vinyl acetate) (PLS‐630 Copovidone). Successful drug encapsulation is discussed in terms of thermophysical behavior (suppression of crystallization, negative excess volumes of mixing) and intermolecular interactions (concentrations of proton donating/accepting groups) in drug + polymer systems. Several equations were applied to the complex s‐shaped Tg(ϕ) patterns obtained (ϕ being the mass fraction of the drug). The best agreement of calculations with experiment is achieved using a recently proposed three‐parameter equation, symmetric with respect to the equal concentration of both components. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 2011. © 2011 Society of Plastics Engineers
Extrusion of linear polypropylene–clay nanocomposite foams
Authors: Chaudhary Amit Kumar , Jayaraman Krishnamurthy
Published: March 2011

This work presents new results on using organoclay with an appropriate polymeric compatibilizer as rheology‐modifying additives for extrusion foaming of a linear polypropylene (PP), which by itself does not display strain hardening in extensional flow of the melt. The uniaxial melt‐extensional viscosity behavior of several nanocomposites prepared with varying ratio of bound maleic anhydride to clay as well as varying compatibilizer molecular weight was investigated. A chemical‐blowing agent was used at a fixed concentration for foaming these nanocomposites in a single‐screw extruder. Among nanocomposites with similar levels of clay dispersion or intercalation, the ones that displayed significant strain hardening in the melt state along with slower crystallization led to extruded PP nanocomposite foams with smaller cell sizes and greater cell density by reducing cell coalescence. This was achieved with as little as 3 wt% organoclay and a high‐molecular weight PP‐g‐MA compatibilizer in linear PP. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 2011. © 2011 Society of Plastics Engineers
Highly reversible and repeatable PTCR characteristics of PMMA/Ag‐coated glass bead composites based on CTE mismatch phenomena
Authors: Kar Prativa , Khatua Bhanu B.
Published: March 2011

Positive temperature coefficient of resistivity (PTCR) behavior of poly(methyl methacrylate) PMMA/silver (Ag)‐coated glass bead composites has been investigated with reference to the conventional PMMA/carbon black (CB) composites. The PMMA/CB composites showed a sudden rise in resistivity (PTC trip) at 115°C, close to the glass transition temperature (T
g, 113°C) of the PMMA. However, the PTC trip temperature (92°C) of PMMA/Ag‐coated glass bead composites was appeared well below the T
g of PMMA. The room temperature resistivity and PTC trip temperature of the composites were also very much stable upon thermal cycling. Addition of 1 phr of nanoclay increased the PTC trip temperature of PMMA/CB composites to 120°C, close to the T
g (118°C) of PMMA/clay nanocomposites, while PMMA/clay/Ag‐coated glass bead nanocomposites showed the PTC trip at 98°C. We proposed that the mismatch in coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) between PMMA and glass beads played a key role that led to a disruption in continuous network structure of Ag‐coated glass beads even at a temperature well below the T
g of PMMA. The decrease in dielectric permittivity of PMMA/Ag‐coated glass bead composites on increasing frequency indicated possible use of the PTC composites as dielectric material. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 2011. © 2011 Society of Plastics Engineers
One‐dimensional photogeneration profiles in silicon solar cells with pyramidal texture
Authors: Baker‐Finch Simeon C. , McIntosh Keith R.
Published: March 2011

The key metric of surface texturing is the short‐circuit current Jsc. It depends on front surface transmittance, light trapping and the spatial profiles of photogeneration G and collection efficiency ηc. To take advantage of a one‐dimensional profile of ηc(ζ), where ζ is the shortest distance to the p–n junction, we determine G(ζ) via ray tracing. This permits rigorous optical assessment of common pyramidal textures for various cell designs. When ζ is small, G(ζ) is largest beneath regular inverted pyramids, upright pyramids (regular or random) and planar surfaces, respectively. This higher G(ζ) results in superior collection of generated carriers in front‐junction cells. In simulations of a conventional screen‐print cell, 92.0% of generated carriers are collected for inverted pyramids, compared to 91.4% for upright pyramids, and 90.0% for a planar surface. Higher efficiency and rear junction devices are analysed in the paper. Despite differences in G(ζ) beneath textures, inverted pyramids achieve the highest Jsc for all cell designs examined (marginally so for high‐efficiency rear‐contact cells) due to superior front surface transmittance and light trapping. We assess a common one‐dimensional model for photogeneration beneath textured surfaces. This model underestimates G(ζ) when ζ is small, and overestimates G(ζ) when ζ is large. As a result, the generation current determined is inaccurate for thin substrates. It can be computed to within 3% error for 250 µm thick substrates. However, errors in G(ζ) can lead to 7.5% inaccuracy in calculations of Jsc. Errors are largest for lower efficiency designs, in which collection efficiency varies through the substrate. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Analysis and Modeling of Gas‐Phase Processes in a CHF3/Ar Discharge
Authors: Barz Jakob P. , Oehr Christian , Lunk Achim
Published: March 2011

The present work deals with the diagnostics of fluorocarbon plasmas by different experimental methods and complementary numerical analysis of the plasma. The plasma diagnostics were performed with non‐invasive methods. In this paper, we present results obtained by laser‐induced fluorescence and UV absorption measurements. The complementary numerical simulations accounted for the electron–neutral interactions, discharge dynamics, and chemical reactions. Several insights were obtained from the combined experimental and numerical approaches, especially concerning the conclusiveness of the results and previous observations from the literature. As important initial neutral species, CF3 and H originate from electron collisions with CHF3. The atomic hydrogen is responsible for fluorine abstraction reactions which result in the formation of hydrofluoric acid as well as in unsaturated carbon bonds. It was found from the simulations that in the examined discharges, this reaction is the most important channel for the high‐rate production of the CF molecule in the gas phase via ${\rm CF}_{2} + {\rm H}\to {\rm CF} + {\rm HF}$. For this molecule, no anisotropy in the density was found and the production solely occurs in the gas phase. Contrary to that, the production of CF2 via the abstraction of fluorine from CF3 in the gas phase was found to be of less importance for the overall concentration of this molecule. Instead, chemical reactions at the chamber walls which release CF2 were identified experimentally as major sources. According to the simulations, the unsaturated fluorocarbon molecules react to oligomers, such that the net reaction can be roughly described by $n{\rm CHF}_{3} \to {\rm (CF}_{{\rm 2}} {\rm )}_{n} + n{\rm HF}$. A good agreement between the simulated and the experimentally observed densities and rates was obtained, which confirms the interpretation of the ongoing plasma‐chemical processes as well as the underlying physical discharge parameters consistently.

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Functionalization of Fluropolymers and Polyolefins via Grafting of Polyelectrolyte Brushes From Atmospheric‐Pressure Plasma Activated Surfaces
Authors: Neuhaus Sonja , Padeste Celestino , Spencer Nicholas D.
Published: March 2011

ETFE, PE, and PP surfaces were functionalized by a procedure involving the activation of the substrates with cold, atmospheric‐pressure helium plasma, formation of surface‐bound peroxides in air, and subsequent grafting of polymer brushes from these initiators by means of free‐radical polymerization. Strategies for obtaining weak and strong polyelectrolyte brushes are presented and the applicability of the method to the different polymer substrates is evaluated. The wettability of the modified surfaces was found to be increased on all three polymers, resulting in a decrease of contact angle from 100° in the unmodified state to about 10° after modification with the most hydrophilic brushes. Examples of surfaces with strong wettability contrast or with reversibly switchable wettability are shown.

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Signature of n→π* interactions in α‐helices
Authors: Choudhary Amit , Raines Ronald T.
Published: March 2011

The oxygen of a peptide bond has two lone pairs of electrons. One of these lone pairs is poised to interact with the electron‐deficient carbon of the subsequent peptide bond in the chain. Any partial covalency that results from this n→π* interaction should induce pyramidalization of the carbon (C′i) toward the oxygen (Oi−1). We searched for such pyramidalization in 14 peptides that contain both α‐ and β‐amino acid residues and that assume a helical structure. We found that the α‐amino acid residues, which adopt the main chain dihedral angles of an α‐helix, display dramatic pyramidalization but the β‐amino acid residues do not. Thus, we conclude that Oi−1 and C′i are linked by a partial covalent bond in α‐helices. This finding has important ramifications for the folding and conformational stability of α‐helices in isolation and in proteins.
Computational protein design with a generalized born solvent model: Application to asparaginyl‐tRNA synthetase
Authors: Polydorides Savvas , Amara Najette , Aubard Caroline , Plateau Pierre , Simonson Thomas , Archontis Georgios
Published: March 2011

Computational Protein Design (CPD) is a promising method for high throughput protein and ligand mutagenesis. Recently, we developed a CPD method that used a polar‐hydrogen energy function for protein interactions and a Coulomb/Accessible Surface Area (CASA) model for solvent effects. We applied this method to engineer aspartyl‐adenylate (AspAMP) specificity into Asparaginyl‐tRNA synthetase (AsnRS), whose substrate is asparaginyl‐adenylate (AsnAMP). Here, we implement a more accurate function, with an all‐atom energy for protein interactions and a residue‐pairwise generalized Born model for solvent effects. As a first test, we compute aminoacid affinities for several point mutants of Aspartyl‐tRNA synthetase (AspRS) and Tyrosyl‐tRNA synthetase and stability changes for three helical peptides and compare with experiment. As a second test, we readdress the problem of AsnRS aminoacid engineering. We compare three design criteria, which optimize the folding free‐energy, the absolute AspAMP affinity, and the relative (AspAMP‐AsnAMP) affinity. The sequences and conformations are improved with respect to our previous, polar‐hydrogen/CASA study: For several designed complexes, the AspAMP carboxylate forms three interactions with a conserved arginine and a designed lysine, as in the active site of the AspRS:AspAMP complex. The conformations and interactions are well maintained in molecular dynamics simulations and the sequences have an inverted specificity, favoring AspAMP over AsnAMP. The method is not fully successful, since experimental measurements with the seven most promising sequences show that they do not catalyze at a detectable level the adenylation of Asp (or Asn) with ATP. This may be due to weak AspAMP binding and/or disruption of transition‐state stabilization. Proteins 2011; © 2011 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Pool fire extinction by remotely controlled application of liquid nitrogen
Authors: Levendis Yiannis A. , Delichatsios Michael A.
Published: March 2011

This article presents a technique for effective remote‐controlled application of liquid nitrogen to fires. Application of the cryogen from a distance, by spraying through a nozzle, proved challenging as evaporation along the trajectory path of the jet reduces the quantity of the liquid reaching the fire. To the contrary, use of a remotely guided unmanned robotic vehicle to carry the hose to the fire and discharge the cryogen in the fire proved to be more effective. Upon contact with a pyrolyzing/burning surface or the ground, abrupt vaporization of the cryogen generated cold vapors that spread by gravity and blanketed the burning area. The pyrolyzing gases were inerted, the surface was cooled, air was separated from the fuel, and the fire was extinguished. To demonstrate this technique, experiments were conducted with pool fires of isopropanol. Fire extinction in these feasibility tests was fast and effective. © 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Process Saf Prog 2011
Dealing with midair collisions in dense collective aerial systems
Authors: Leven Severin , Zufferey Jean‐Christophe , Floreano Dario
Published: March 2011

The idea of creating collective aerial systems is appealing because several rather simple flying vehicles could join forces to cover a large area in little time in applications such as monitoring, mapping, search and rescue, or airborne communication relays. In most of these scenarios, a fleet of cooperating vehicles is dispatched to a confined airspace area and requested to fly close to a nominal altitude. Moreover, depending on the task each vehicle is assigned to, individual flight trajectories in this essentially two‐dimensional space may interfere, resulting in disastrous collisions. This paper begins by introducing a probabilistic model to predict the rate of midair collisions that would occur if nothing is done to prevent them. In a second step, a control strategy for midair collision avoidance is proposed, which is interesting because it requires only local communication and information about flight altitudes. The proposed strategy is systematically analyzed in theory and simulation as well as in experiments with five physical aerial vehicles. A significant reduction in collision rates can be achieved. Statistically, values close to zero are possible when the swarm's density is below an application‐dependent threshold. Such low collision rates warrant an acceptable level of confidence in collision‐free operation of a physical swarm. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
It really does matter how you normalize the branch distance in search‐based software testing
Authors: Arcuri Andrea
Published: March 2011

The use of search algorithms for test data generation has seen many successful results. For structural criteria like branch coverage, heuristics have been designed to help the search. The most common heuristic is the use of approach level (usually represented with an integer) to reward test cases whose executions get close (in the control flow graph) to the target branch. To solve the constraints of the predicates in the control flow graph, the branch distance is commonly employed. These two measures are linearly combined. Since the approach level is more important, the branch distance is normalized, often in the range [0, 1]. In this paper, different types of normalizing functions are analyzed. The analyses show that the one that is usually employed in the literature has several flaws. The paper presents a different normalizing function that is very simple and does not suffer from these limitations. Empirical and analytical analyses are carried out to compare these two functions. In particular, their effect is studied on commonly used search algorithms, such as Hill Climbing, Simulated Annealing and Genetic Algorithms. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Energy‐efficient human probes for high‐resolution sensing in urban environments
Authors: Thepvilojanapong Niwat , Konomi Shin'ichi , Tobe Yoshito
Published: March 2011

Portable sensory devices carried by humans—which are referred to as Human Probes—facilitate easy‐to‐use sensing and monitoring of urban areas. However, when each Human Probe individually senses and transmits information, the sensing activity is inefficient in terms of energy consumption. In this paper, we propose Aquiba protocol in which the sensing activities carried out by the Human Probes are adjusted autonomously under different conditions. Aquiba involves cooperative sensing that helps in efficiently maintaining the desired sensing resolution, while minimizing overall energy consumption. To validate Aquiba protocol, we have conducted comprehensive simulations by including small‐scale and large‐scale scenarios along with applying three movement patterns of human. The simulation results demonstrate that Aquiba protocol is capable of providing high sensing resolution and reducing energy consumption substantially. © 2011 Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Is PIXE still a useful technique for the analysis of atmospheric aerosols? The LABEC experience
Authors: Lucarelli F. , Nava S. , Calzolai G. , Chiari M. , Udisti R. , Marino F.
Published: March 2011

At the 3‐MV Tandetron accelerator of LABEC (INFN) an external beam facility is fully dedicated to particle‐induced X‐ray emission (PIXE) and particle‐induced γ‐ray emission (PIGE) measurements of atmospheric aerosol elemental composition. All the elements with Z > 10 are simultaneously detected by PIXE in a few minutes and an automatic system for positioning, changing and scanning of the samples allows the analysis of the aerosol collected by different kinds of devices: long series of daily PMX samples can be measured in short times, as well as size‐segregated and high time‐resolution aerosol samples. Thanks to the capability of detecting all the crustal elements, PIXE‐PIGE analyses are unrivalled in the study of mineral dust: as a consequence, they are very effective in the study of natural aerosols, like, for example, mineral dust archived in polar ice cores (for environmental and paleoclimatic studies) and Saharan‐dust intrusions. Among the detectable elements, there are also important markers of anthropogenic sources, which allow effective source apportionment studies in polluted urban environments. Examples regarding recent monitoring campaigns, performed in urban and remote areas, both on a daily basis and with high‐time resolution (hourly samples), are presented to evidence how PIXE can still provide unique information in aerosol studies or can play a complementary role to X‐ray fluorescence or induced coupled plasma mass spectroscopy analysis. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
New Tungsten Chloride Cluster Compounds Containing Iron or Cobalt: MW2Cl10 and MW6Cl14 (M = Fe, Co)
Authors: Ströbele Markus , Meyer H.‐Jürgen
Published: March 2011

The reduction of tungsten hexachloride with iron powder or cobalt powder resulted in the formation of MW2Cl10 (M = Fe and Co) in fused silica tubes at 250 °C and 225 °C, respectively. Crystal structures of the new compounds were refined isotypically from X‐ray powder diffraction patterns [C2/c, Z = 4, a = 6.1226(1) Å, b = 16.7943(1) Å, c = 12.3737(1) Å, and β = 108.99(1)° for FeW2Cl10, and a = 6.111(1) Å, b = 16.696(1) Å, c = 12.384(1) Å, and β = 108.97(1)° for CoW2Cl10]. The structures of Fe1/5W2/5Cl2 and Co1/5W2/5Cl2 can be considered as a cation‐deficient CdI2‐type structure, in which bioctahedral [W2Cl10]n– anions with n ≈︁ 2 introduce significant distortions. The compounds MW6Cl14 (M = Fe and Co) were prepared following the same procedure at 475 °C. Their crystal structures were refined isotypically [Pn3, Z = 4, a = 12.567(1) Å for FeW6Cl14, and 12.525(1) Å for CoW6Cl14] to the structure of PbMo6Cl14 from X‐ray powder diffraction patterns.
Epoxidizable Fatty Amide–Phenol Conjugates
Authors: Zerkowski Jonathan A. , Haas Michael J.
Published: March 2011

This paper reports the synthesis of a series of novel compounds where carboxylic acids have been linked to a phenol through amidomethyl units. For instance, one, two, or three fatty acids have been selectively appended to the phenol in yields above 75%. The fatty acid used was oleic acid, which was subsequently epoxidized. Other functional groups, such as amino acids, can be incorporated in these compounds. Examples of monomers that are suitable for polymerization were also prepared: one acrylamide, one styrene derivative, and two types of AB2 diamino acids, all of which contain oleic units that are sites for epoxidation and crosslinking. Fatty acid aryl ethers were prepared using hydroxy fatty acids. These molecules are intended to serve as augmented analogues of epoxidized vegetable oil. Their amide groups should lead to intermolecular aggregation through hydrogen bonding, and the option to covalently include other functional groups may permit tuning of the macroscopic materials properties of films, coatings, or solids constructed from them.
REVIEW OF SEASONAL CLIMATE FORECASTING FOR AGRICULTURE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
Authors: HANSEN JAMES W. , MASON SIMON J. , SUN LIQIANG , TALL ARAME
Published: March 2011

We review the use and value of seasonal climate forecasting for agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with a view to understanding and exploiting opportunities to realize more of its potential benefits. Interaction between the atmosphere and underlying oceans provides the basis for probabilistic forecasts of climate conditions at a seasonal lead-time, including during cropping seasons in parts of SSA. Regional climate outlook forums (RCOF) and national meteorological services (NMS) have been at the forefront of efforts to provide forecast information for agriculture. A survey showed that African NMS often go well beyond the RCOF process to improve seasonal forecast information and disseminate it to the agricultural sector. Evidence from a combination of understanding of how climatic uncertainty impacts agriculture, model-basedex-anteanalyses, subjective expressions of demand or value, and the few well-documented evaluations of actual use and resulting benefit suggests that seasonal forecasts may have considerable potential to improve agricultural management and rural livelihoods. However, constraints related to legitimacy, salience, access, understanding, capacity to respond and data scarcity have so far limited the widespread use and benefit from seasonal prediction among smallholder farmers. Those constraints that reflect inadequate information products, policies or institutional process can potentially be overcome. Additional opportunities to benefit rural communities come from expanding the use of seasonal forecast information for coordinating input and credit supply, food crisis management, trade and agricultural insurance. The surge of activity surrounding seasonal forecasting in SSA following the 1997/98 El Niño has waned in recent years, but emerging initiatives, such as the Global Framework for Climate Services and ClimDev-Africa, are poised to reinvigorate support for seasonal forecast information services for agriculture. We conclude with a discussion of institutional and policy changes that we believe will greatly enhance the benefits of seasonal forecasting to agriculture in SSA.
CLIMATE- AND LAND USE-INDUCED RISKS TO WATERSHED SERVICES IN THE NYANDO RIVER BASIN, KENYA
Authors: GATHENYA MWANGI , MWANGI HOSEA , COE RICHARD , SANG JOSEPH
Published: March 2011

Climate change and land use change are two forces influencing the hydrology of watersheds and their ability to provide ecosystem services, such as clean and well-regulated streamflow and control of soil erosion and sediment yield. The Soil Water Assessment Tool, SWAT, a distributed, watershed-scale hydrological model was used with 18 scenarios of rainfall, temperature and infiltration capacity of land surface to investigate the spatial distribution of watershed services over the 3587 km2 Nyando basin in Western Kenya and how it is affected by these two forces. The total annual water yield varied over the 50 sub-basins from 35 to 600 mm while the annual sediment yield ranged from 0 to 104 tons ha−1. Temperature change had a relatively minor effect on streamflow and sediment yield compared to change in rainfall and land surface condition. Improvements in land surface condition that result in higher infiltration are an effective adaptation strategy to moderate the effects of climate change on supply of watershed services. Spatial heterogeneity in response to climate and land use change is large, and hence it is necessary to understand it if interventions to modify hydrology or adapt to climate change are to be effective.
A Survey of Bibliographies on Southern Asia
Authors: Wilson Patrick
Published: March 2011

This list is intended as a selective guide to bibliographies which deal exclusively or primarily with Southern Asia.1 A complete list of such bibliographies would be very long indeed; and of course no selection can be guaranteed to contain all or only bibliographies of permanent and general utility. It seems to the compiler likely, however, that a large proportion of the bibliographies which the student of Southern Asia will find most useful are listed here.
Association of bovineCD4andSTAT5bsingle nucleotide polymorphisms with somatic cell scores and milk production traits in Chinese Holsteins
Authors: He Yanghua , Chu Qin , Ma Peipei , Wang Yachun , Zhang Qin , Sun Dongxiao , Zhang Yi , Yu Ying , Zhang Yuan
Published: March 2011

CD4+T cells play a key role in the immune response of pathogen-induced mastitis in dairy cattle. Mammary gland factor STAT5b is involved in the regulation of CD4+T cell differentiation during inflammatory response and milk production. Little is known about the genetic variation effects of bovineCD4andSTAT5bgenes on somatic cell score (SCS) and milk production traits in dairy cattle. The aim of the study was to investigate the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of bovineCD4andSTAT5bin Chinese Holsteins and to analyse their association with estimated breeding values (EBVs) for SCS and milk production traits. In the present study, SNPs ofCD4(NC_007303 g.13598C>T) andSTAT5b(NC_007317 g.31562 T>C) were identified and genotyped in Chinese Holstein population. The results showed that both SNPs were significantly associated with the EBVs for milk yield and protein yield in Chinese Holstein cows, and the SNP inCD4was associated with the EBV for SCS (P<0·01). The additive effect ofCD4SNP on protein yield was significant (P<0·05), and the dominant effect ofSTAT5bSNP was significant on milk yield and protein yield (P<0·01). Cows with combination genotype C7 (CCTT:CD4g.13598C>T andSTAT5bg.31562 T>C) had the highest SCS EBV but lower milk yield, while cows with C2 (TTTC) produced more milk, fat and protein than the other eight combination genotypes. These results suggested that the SNPs inCD4andSTAT5bmay be potential genetic markers for SCS and milk/protein yields selecting and warrant further functional research.
Topological analysis of separation phenomena in liquid metal flow in sudden expansions. Part 1. Hydrodynamic flow
Authors: MISTRANGELO C.
Published: March 2011

Numerical simulations are performed to study three-dimensional hydrodynamic flows in a sudden expansion of rectangular ducts. Separation phenomena are investigated through the analysis of flow topology and streamline patterns. Scaling laws describing the evolution of the reattachment length of the vortical areas that appear behind the cross-section enlargement are derived. The results discussed in this paper are required as a starting point to investigate the effects of an applied homogeneous magnetic field on separation phenomena in a geometry with a sudden expansion.
The rapid advance and slow retreat of a mushy zone
Authors: GEWECKE NICHOLAS R. , SCHULZE TIM P.
Published: March 2011

We discuss a model for the evolution of a mushy zone which forms during the solidification of a binary alloy cooled from below in a tank with finite height. Our focus is on behaviours of the system that do not appear when either a semi-infinite domain or negligible solute diffusion is assumed. The problem is simplified through an assumption of negligible latent heat, and we develop a numerical scheme that will permit insights that are critical for developing a more general procedure. We demonstrate that a mushy zone initially grows rapidly, then slows down and eventually retreats slowly. The mushy zone vanishes after a long time, as it is overtaken by a slowly growing solid region at the base of the tank.
Information stored in Faraday waves: the origin of a path memory
Authors: EDDI ANTONIN , SULTAN ERIC , MOUKHTAR JULIEN , FORT EMMANUEL , ROSSI MAURICE , COUDER YVES
Published: March 2011

On a vertically vibrating fluid interface, a droplet can remain bouncing indefinitely. When approaching the Faraday instability onset, the droplet couples to the wave it generates and starts propagating horizontally. The resulting wave–particle association, called a walker, was shown previously to have remarkable dynamical properties, reminiscent of quantum behaviours. In the present article, the nature of a walker's wave field is investigated experimentally, numerically and theoretically. It is shown to result from the superposition of waves emitted by the droplet collisions with the interface. A single impact is studied experimentally and in a fluid mechanics theoretical approach. It is shown that each shock emits a radial travelling wave, leaving behind a localized mode of slowly decaying Faraday standing waves. As it moves, the walker keeps generating waves and the global structure of the wave field results from the linear superposition of the waves generated along the recent trajectory. For rectilinear trajectories, this results in a Fresnel interference pattern of the global wave field. Since the droplet moves due to its interaction with the distorted interface, this means that it is guided by a pilot wave that contains a path memory. Through this wave-mediated memory, the past as well as the environment determines the walker's present motion.
Do dyslexics have auditory input processing difficulties?
Authors: POULSEN MADS
Published: March 2011

Word production difficulties are well documented in dyslexia, whereas the results are mixed for receptive phonological processing. This asymmetry raises the possibility that the core phonological deficit of dyslexia is restricted to output processing stages. The present study investigated whether a group of dyslexics had word level receptive difficulties using an auditory lexical decision task with long words and nonsense words. The dyslexics were slower and less accurate than chronological age controls in an auditory lexical decision task, with disproportionate low performance on nonsense words. The finding suggests that input processing difficulties are associated with the phonological deficit, but that these difficulties may be stronger above the level of phoneme perception.
La experiencia de los Tribunales Penales Internationales para ex Yugoslavia y para Ruanda
Authors: Tavernier Paul
Published: March 2011

La jurisdicción penal international es un antiguo sueño que se va haciendo poco a poco realidad. Ya en el tratado de Versalles de 1919 se prevé —artículo 227— el enjuiciamiento del emperador de Alemania, Guillermo II, por un tribunal international para responder a la acusación de «ofensa suprema contra la moral international y la autoridad sagrada de los tratados». Pero, tras haber rehusado los Países Bajos entregar al acusado, el juicio nunca tuvo lugar y Guillermo II había de morir en el exilio neerlandés, el año 1941. En los artículos 228 y 229 se estipula la organización del enjuiciamiento de los criminales de guerra, pero su aplicación fue decepcionante en el proceso de Leipzig. En los juicios de Nuremberg y de Tokio, tras la Segunda Guerra Mundial, se registró indudablemente un progreso hacia una verdadera jurisdicción penal international. No obstante, estos procesos, que transparentaban demasiado su origen, simbolizaron más la aplicación de la ley y de la justicia de los vencedores que la de una comunidad universal de Estados.
La protección a los niños en el derecho internacional humanitario
Authors: Plattner Denise
Published: March 2011

La protección jurídica a los niños se introdujo en el derecho international humanitario tras la Segunda Guerra Mundial. De hecho, la experiencia adquirida en esa guerra evidenció la apremiante necesidad de un instrumento de derecho international público para la protección de la población civil en tiempo de guerra. El resultado de la labor del CICR en este ámbito fue la aprobación del IV Convenio de Ginebra de 1949, relativo a la protectión de personas civiles en tiempo de guerra. A partir de entonces, los niños, como miembros de la población civil, tienen derecho a beneficiarse de la aplicación de este Convenio.
La protección debida a los niños en situaciones de conflicto armado
Authors: Singer Sandra
Published: March 2011

A lo largo del siglo XX, la protección del niño ha sido una constante preocupación para la comunidad internacional. Pero, sobre todo a partir de 1979, Año Internacional del Niño, ha aumentado mundialmente el interés a este respecto.

Se han constituido nuevas organizaciones que dedican todo su tiempo y todos sus esfuerzos a la defensa de los intereses del niño. Tanto a nivel mundial como a nivel zonal (Europa), se están preparando nuevos instrumentos jurídicos a fin de reforzar la protección debida a la infancia.
Las minas terrestres y su eliminación
Authors: Williams Jody
Published: March 2011

No es nueva la preocupación suscitada por los efectos de determinadas armas convencionales, especialmente de las minas terrestres no es nueva. Si no hubiera existido tal preocupación, no se habría elaborado la Convención de 1980 sobre Armas Convencionales (CAC). Tampoco habrían realizado algunos de los estudios previos sobre esta cuestión organismos de las Naciones Unidas. Lo que sí es nuevo, es el acrecentado interés por los problemas que originan las minas terrestres, particularmente en el contexto postbélico. Sin embargo, toda una serie de factores obliga cada vez más a reconocer que, a pesar de la existencia de la CAC, ésta no ha servido para encarar el deterioro de este tipo de situaciones sobre el terreno desde que fue formulada (el Ejército estadounidense calcula que, de los 400 millones de minas terrestres sembradas desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial, 65 millones se han colocado en los últimos 15 años)
El proyecto suizo de Protocolo sobre Sistemas de Armas de Poco Calibre — Actualización de la proscripción (1899) de las balas dum-dum
Authors: Prokosch Eric
Published: March 2011

En agosto de 1994, en el tercer período de sesiones del grupo de expertos gubernamentales para preparar la Conferencia de 1995 de Examen de la Convención de las Naciones Unidas de 1980 sobre Prohibiciones o Restricciones del Empleo de Ciertas Armas Convencionales que Pueden Considerarse Excesivamente Nocivas o de Efectos Indiscriminados, Suiza presento una propuesta de agregar un nuevo Protocolo a la Convencion. Segun el proyectó suizo de Protocolo sobre Sistemas de Armas de Poco Calibre, se prohibiría el empleo de armas y municiones de poco calibre que, a distancias iguales o superiores a 25 metros, transfirieran a los tejidos humanos más de 20 julios de energía por centimetro, a lo largo de los 15 primeros centímetros de su paso por el cuerpo.
El Instituto Internacional de Derecho Humanitario—Veinticinco años de diálogo humanitario
Authors: Patrnogic Jovića
Published: March 2011

El Congreso Internacional sobre Derechos Humanos como Base del Derecho Internacional Humanitario, que tuvo lugar, el mes de septiembre de 1970, en la Villa Nobel, San Remo (Italia), aprobó la propuesta del «comité promotor» de fundar un Instituto Internacional de Derecho Humanitario. Desde entonces han transcurrido más de 20 años y, actualmente, cabe hacerse las siguientes preguntas: ¿Con qué fines se funda un Instituto del Derecho Humanitario? ¿Cuáles son sus logros? ¿Cómo se presenta su futuro?
Promoción de normas para limitar la violencia en situación de crisis: un reto, una estrategia, alianzas
Authors: Harroff-Tavel Marion
Published: March 2011

En Somalia, un grupo de jóvenes actores, músicos y guionistas decidió crear una obra teatral que será representada y filmada en vídeo para su distribución en todo el país: en una de las escenas se confrontan un joven miliciano, que se jacta de sembrar el terror, y la mujer a la que ama, que describe el sufrimiento que engendran esos actos y que rehúsa casarse con un hombre que se ha olvidado del código del honor de su clan. Esta representación artística es un mensaje dirigido a los jóvenes milicianos sobre los efectos que conlleva la violencia descontrolada tanto para la víctima como para quien la desata.
Institución de un tribunal penal internacional permanente: Expectativas del CICR con respecto a la Conferencia Diplomática de Roma
Authors: Pfanner Toni
Published: March 2011

Las violaciones del derecho intemacional humanitario no son un fenómeno reciente. Tampoco lo es la idea de establecer un tribunal penal intemacional para reprimir esas violaciones. El primer proyecto que creó un vínculo entre las violaciones de un tratado humanitario —a saber, el Convenio de Ginebra de 1864 para el mejoramiento de la suerte de los militares heridos en los ejércitos en campaña— y una sanción penal por un cuerpo judicial internacional permanente fue trazado por Gustave Moynier, uno de los fundadores del CICR. Sin embargo, como muchos otros proyectos, éste no se materializó.
La restauración de un orden de justicia en las situaciones postconflictivas a la luz de la enseñanza social de la iglesia católica
Authors: Filibeck Giorgio
Published: March 2011

Ante todo, cabe señalar que, aun hoy, no todas las situaciones post-conflictivas se caracterizan por la restauración de una verdadera paz. A menudo, se trata de un estado en que el conflicto continúa de manera más o menos larvada, que va desde actos hostiles aislados, a veces terroristas, hasta operaciones militares que, a pesar de ser beneficiosas, mantienen un clima de beligerancia. En tal contexto, resulta difícil garantizar la seguridad que es indispensable para el funcionamiento de la justicia. Este funcionamiento está, pues, condicionado por un factor de índole esencialmente política: sin un consenso real para poner término a la lucha armada es imposible restablecer un orden en que la justicia pueda ser considerada como un objetivo tangible.
La mujer, los derechos humanos y el derecho internacional humanitario
Authors: Gardam Judith
Published: March 2011

Durante los últimos 50 años, la evolución de los principios de los que forman parte los derechos humanos ha tenido importantes repercusiones en el derecho international humanitario y en el derecho international en general. En los últimos añios, el movimiento en favor del reconocimiento de la igualdad de derechos de las mujeres ha ejercido, con cierto resultado, su propia influencia en los derechos humanos. En 1979, por ejemplo, la comunidad international aprobó la Convención sobre la Eliminación de Todas las Formas de Discriminación contra la Mujer, de la que son Partes actualmente 155 Estados. Se está examinando la aprobación de un protocolo facultativo en el que se prevería la posibilidad de presentar quejas ante la Comisión para esa Convención. Las organizaciones gubernamentales y no gubernamentales nan centrado cada vez más su atención en los derechos humanos de la mujer y, como resultado, hay una amplia gama de estudios, informes y recomendaciones sobre varios aspectos de la cuestión. Así pues, el tema de la mujer es un punto firmemente establecido en el orden del día international de los derechos humanos.
La lucha contra la tortura
Authors: Kälin Walter
Published: March 2011

En los últimos cincuenta años, la lucha contra la tortura ha sido uno de los principales temas de interés del derecho relativo a los derechos humanos. El primer texto jurídico internacional para prohibir específicamente la «tortura» fue la Declaratión Universal de Derechos Humanos (artículo 5). El primer tratado para prohibir la tortura, el Convenio Europeo de Derechos Humanos (artículo 3), se aprobó poco después, en 1950. El año 1984, la Convención contra la Tortura de las Naciones Unidas se convirtió en el primer instrumento internacional vinculante exclusivamente dedicado a la lucha contra una de las violaciones de derechos humanos más graves y frecuentes de nuestro tiempo.
El enfoque de la Comisión y del Tribunal Europeos de Derechos Humanos sobre el derecho internacional humanitario
Authors: Reidy Aisling
Published: March 2011

Con toda seguridad, el creciente número de miembros del Consejo de Europa y el consiguiente aumento del número de Estados Partes en el Convenio Europeo de Derechos Humanos (CEDH) plantearán desafíos adicionales al nuevo Tribunal Europeo de Derechos Humanos único, cuya sede permanente estará, a partir del 1 de noviembre de 1998, en Estrasburgo. Las hipótesis relativas al tipo de desafíos que deberá afrontar el nuevo Tribunal varían, pero conviene tener en cuenta la gran probabilidad de que aumente la cantidad de casos debidos a situaciones de conflicto que tal Tribunal deba dirimir.
El derecho de la Cruz Roja
Authors: Bugnion François
Published: March 2011

El Comité Internacional es una institutión de Cruz Roja; participa en las deliberaciones de las Conferencias Internacionales y de otros órganos del Movimiento Internacional de la Cruz Roja y de la Media Luna Roja, del cual es el fundador, pero también puede ser el destinatario de normas aprobActas por los órganos de la Cruz Roja Internacional.
THE MOVING BLOCKS BOOTSTRAP FOR PANEL LINEAR REGRESSION MODELS WITH INDIVIDUAL FIXED EFFECTS
Authors: Gonçalves Sílvia
Published: March 2011

In this paper we propose a bootstrap method for panel data linear regression models with individual fixed effects. The method consists of applying the standard moving blocks bootstrap of Künsch (1989, Annals of Statistics 17, 1217–1241) and Liu and Singh (1992, in R. LePage & L. Billiard (eds.), Exploring the Limits of the Bootstrap) to the vector containing all the individual observations at each point in time. We show that this bootstrap is robust to serial and cross-sectional dependence of unknown form under the assumption that n (the cross-sectional dimension) is an arbitrary nondecreasing function of T (the time series dimension), where T → ∞, thus allowing for the possibility that both n and T diverge to infinity. The time series dependence is assumed to be weak (of the mixing type), but we allow the cross-sectional dependence to be either strong or weak (including the case where it is absent). Under appropriate conditions, we show that the fixed effects estimator (and also its bootstrap analogue) has a convergence rate that depends on the degree of cross-section dependence in the panel. Despite this, the same studentized test statistics can be computed without reference to the degree of cross-section dependence. Our simulation results show that the moving blocks bootstrap percentile-t intervals have very good coverage properties even when the degree of serial and cross-sectional correlation is large, provided the block size is appropriately chosen.
Pacing in older people
Authors: Thomas Honey E , Cunnington Michael S , McComb Janet M
Published: March 2011

The vast majority of cardiac pacemakers are implanted in older people. Pacing is a safe and effective treatment for patients with symptomatic bradyarrhythmias. This review provides a clinician's guide to the essential aspects of modern pacemaker therapy in older patients, including aetiology and epidemiology of bradycardia. We discuss some barriers to access to pacing. We review indications for pacemakers, and describe pacing system function, including the different types of pacemakers used. We also review clinical outcomes following pacing, follow-up requirements and problems encountered in clinical practice. Finally, we discuss ethical and end of life considerations with these devices.
Traces for coalgebraic components
Authors: HASUO ICHIRO , JACOBS BART
Published: March 2011

This paper contributes a feedback operator, in the form of a monoidal trace, to the theory of coalgebraic, state-based modelling of components. The feedback operator on components is shown to satisfy the trace axioms of Joyal, Street and Verity. We employ McCurdy's tube diagrams, which are an extension of standard string diagrams for monoidal categories, to represent and manipulate component diagrams. The microcosm principle then yields a canonical ‘inner’ traced monoidal structure on the category of resumptions (elements of final coalgebras/components). This generalises an observation by Abramsky, Haghverdi and Scott.
Equational presentations of functors and monads
Authors: VELEBIL JIŘÍ , KURZ ALEXANDER
Published: March 2011

We study equational presentations of functors and monads defined on a category that is equipped by an adjunction F ˧ U : → of descent type. We present a class of functors/monads that admit such an equational presentation that involves finitary signatures in .

We apply these results to an equational description of functors arising in various areas of theoretical computer science.
Ensuring Adequate Human Medical Resources during an Avian Influenza A/H5N1 Pandemic
Authors: Mitani Satoko , Ozaki Etsuko , Fujita Naohisa , Hashimoto Tsukuru , Mori Isao , Fukuyama Takeshi , Akatsuka Takefumi , Nishi Takashi , Morishita Sachiko , Nomoto Sinichi , Watanabe Yoshiyuki
Published: March 2011

Introduction:When countermeasures are taken against an avian influenza (AI) pandemic in a hospital, it is essential to know the potential number of staff who would choose to be absent. The purpose of this study was to clarify how many medical staff would be willing to work during a pandemic, and requirements to secure adequate human resources.

Methods:From September to December 2008, a total of 3,152 questionnaires were sent to five private hospitals and one public hospital, which represent the core hospitals in the regions of Kyoto, Osaka, and Hyogo Prefectures. Participants consisted of hospital staff including: (1) physicians; (2) nurses; (3) pharmacists; (4) radiological technologists (RTs); (5) physical therapists (PTs); (6) occupational therapists (OTs); (7) clinical laboratory technologists (CLTs); (8) caregivers; (9) office clerks; and (10) others. They were queried about their attitude toward pandemics, including whether they would come to the hospital to work, treat patients, and what kinds of conditions they required in order to work.

Results: A total of1,975 persons (62.7%) responded. A total of 204 persons (10.6%) would not come to the hospitals during a pandemic, 363 (18.8%) would perform their duties as usual, unconditionally, 504 (26.1%) would come to hospitals but not treat AI patients, and 857 (44.5%) would report to the hospital and treat AI patients with some essential conditions. These essential conditions were: (1) personal protective equipment (PPE) (80.0%); (2) receipt of workmen's compensation (69.3%); (3) receipt of anti-virus medication (58.2%); and (3) receipt of pre-pandemic vaccination (57.8%).

Conclusion:During a pandemic, all types of health professionals would be lacking, not only physicians and nurses. This study indicates that ensuring sufficient medical human resources would be difficult without the provision of adequate safety and compensation measures.