bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Physician‐Assisted Death: the State of the Debate
Authors: Dworkin Gerald
Published: September 2009

The essential outlines of the debate over voluntary euthanasia have not changed very much since Glanville Williams and Yale Kamisar debated the issues almost fifty years ago. On the one hand, there is an appeal to considerations of autonomy and the relief of suffering: individuals should be able to choose the timing and mode of their dying and they should not have to suffer from pain and other modes of indignity such as incontinence, paralysis, muscular wastage, and mental deterioration. So far these would only generate a right or permission to take one's own life, but when we consider the problems in the context of end-of-life medical care and the uncontroversial duty of physicians to relieve the suffering of their patients we get a claim to assistance in dying.
Abortion Revisited
Authors: Marquis Don
Published: September 2009

The three major classical accounts of the morality of abortion are all subject to at least one major problem. Can we do better? This article aims to discuss three accounts that purport to be superior to the classical accounts. First, it discusses the future of value argument for the immorality of abortion. It defends the claim that the future of value argument is superior to all three of the classical accounts. It then goes on to discuss Warren's attempt to fix up her personhood account and David Boonin's attempt to fix up Tooley's desire account. Warren claims that her updated version of a personhood account is superior to any potentiality account, such as the future of value account. The article evaluates her claim. Boonin argues that his improved desire view both deals adequately with the apparent counterexamples to Tooley's original account and also is superior to the future of value account. The article evaluates his views as well.
Genetic Interventions and The Ethics of Enhancement of Human Beings
Authors: Savulescu Julian
Published: September 2009

There has been considerable recent debate on the ethics of human enhancement. A number of prominent authors have been concerned about or critical of the use of technology to alter or enhance human beings, citing threats to human nature and dignity as one basis for these concerns. Frances Kamm has given a detailed rebuttal of Sandel's arguments, arguing that human enhancement is permissible. Nicholas Agar, in his book Liberal Eugenics, argues that enhancement should be permissible but not obligatory. He argues that what distinguishes liberal eugenics from the objectionable eugenic practices of the Nazis is that it is not based on a single conception of a desirable genome and that it is voluntary and not obligatory. This article takes a more provocative position. It aims to argue that, far from its being merely permissible, we have a moral obligation or moral reason to enhance ourselves and our children. Indeed, we have the same kind of obligation as we have to treat and prevent disease. It begins by considering the current interests in and possibilities of enhancement. It then offers three arguments that we have very strong reasons to seek to enhance.
Clinical Equipoise: Foundational Requirement or Fundamental Error?
Authors: London Alex John
Published: September 2009

Any view of equipoise faces perhaps the most radical and far-reaching objections from moral foundations. These objections hold that the equipoise requirement conflates the ethics of medical research and the ethics of clinical medicine. Once this conflation is recognized, this position holds, research can be given a new foundation on the imperative to avoid exploiting research participants. This article argues that what is novel in this critique is not as successful as its proponents claim and that the ultimate success of this approach actually hinges on a version of the objection from utility. Nevertheless, this criticism highlights the limited scope of applicability of the equipoise requirement. The article concludes, therefore, by describing the outlines of what the article calls an ‘integrative approach’ to clinical trials. This approach represents one way in which the normative requirements of equipoise and the non-exploitation approach might be unified under a single, broad framework.
Research on Cognitively Impaired Adults
Authors: Karlawish Jason
Published: September 2009

The preeminence of informed consent in human subjects protections reflects Western democratic societies' ethical and political commitments to secure each citizen against both coercive and paternalistic influences of other people. Society permits adults extensive personal discretion in choices such as where to live, what to eat, how to dress, and whether to be in research. In short, individuals are afforded extensive discretion in choosing what to do and what is in their own best interests. Informed consent to enroll in research is especially important because research necessarily involves procedures such as randomization and blinding that are done to assure that the project will produce generalizable knowledge.
Historical Enquiry and Comparative Politics
Authors: Mahoney James , Villegas Celso M.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses historical enquiry, which has always been central to the field of comparative politics. It examines the various methods of causal analysis and temporal analysis, and shows how historical analysts properly use historical data. This article shows that historical analysis embodies a distinctive set of techniques for the assessment of causal hypotheses, for the analysis of data, and for the study of temporal processes.
Field Research
Authors: Wood Elisabeth Jean
Published: September 2009

This article addresses ‘why leave the office’ questions, primarily through a discussion of exemplary works that draw on field research. The first section focuses on James Scott's Weapons of the Weak, which is a classic work of field research in comparative politics. It then turns to some recent works that explore several related topics, using a combination of surveys, participant observation, and interviews. Other field research methods, trends toward natural and field experiments, and combinations of field methods and non-field methods are also discussed. The last portion of the article concentrates on the challenges that field researcher's encounter, irrespective of the particular method they use.
From Case Studies to Social Science: A Strategy for Political Research
Authors: Bates Robert H.
Published: September 2009

This article presents a strategy for political research. It first explores the ways people comprehend and briefly discusses the forms of comprehension. The next section introduces the author's fieldwork in the coffee zones of East Africa. This reveals that the first step of the strategy is immersion, and the second is a movement from insight to explanation, which is marked by the production of theory. Finally, it shows that the resultant explanation may be logically coherent, faithful to the original intuition, and consistent with the observations that inspired it.
Mass Beliefs and Democratic Institutions
Authors: Welzel Christian , Inglehart Ronald
Published: September 2009

This article summarizes why political culture studies have been hesitant to analyze the aggregate effect of mass beliefs on democracy. It determines that this has much to do with the widespread assumption that the impact of mass beliefs on democracy can be inferred from individual-level findings. It also illustrates that this assumption actually represents an ‘individualistic fallacy’. It considers an argument that the impact of mass beliefs on democracy can only be analyzed at the aggregate level, because democracy only exists at this level. The article ends with a report of the findings from recent studies, which show that mass beliefs have indeed an aggregate effect on the emergence and survival of democracy.
Democracy and Civic Culture
Authors: Sabetti Filippo
Published: September 2009

This article attempts to take stock of the state of research on democracy and culture by providing answers to several sets of questions. It seeks to improve the understanding of the relationship between culture and action, and between political culture and democratic outcomes. The article begins by exploring the way the literature has dealt with the possible meaning of culture and political culture and their relationship to action. It also suggests why there has been little contribution to democracy derived from political culture research, and identifies how the efforts to rethink how and why the subject matter is approached in certain ways led many analysts to break out of established epistemological demarcations. This eventually led to the reinvigorated tools of investigation and research on democracy and civic culture. The article concludes with a discussion on the implications of improved tools of investigation for future research.
Mechanisms of Globalized Protest Movements
Authors: Lichbach Mark I. , de Vries Helma G. E.
Published: September 2009

This article examines the mechanisms of globalized protest movements. It tries to draw together intellectual resources on this field, and offers a survey of theories of contentious politics. These theories aim to explore their applicability to the new phenomenon of global protest movements (GPMs). The article also suggests that the differences between GPMs may be attributed to their differential use of mobilizational mechanisms. A comparison of these mechanisms involved in different GPMs and contentious politics allows for the redefinition of an understanding of how these mechanisms work in explaining globalized collective action as well as other forms of contention.
Voters and Parties
Authors: Wren Anne , McElwain Kenneth Mori
Published: September 2009

This article studies voters and parties, beginning with realignment or dealignment in the party-voter nexus. It discusses changes in the policy preferences of voters and even organizational changes to the party-voter linkage. Electoral competition, performance of traditional parties, and organizational change are discussed as well. This article determines that there are two parallel trends in the linkage between parties and voters. The first is that voters are showing weaker partisan identification with political parties, and a widening gap between the policy preferences of voters and the electoral manifestos of parties is apparent. The second trend is that improvements in educational attainment and innovations in media technology are strengthening the political capability of both parties and voters.
Political Activism: New Challenges, New Opportunities
Authors: Norris Pippa
Published: September 2009

This article discusses political activism and provides an overview that highlights four key themes that have emerged during the last ten years. The first two themes are the growing recognition of the importance of the institutional context of formal rules for electoral turnout and the widespread erosion of party membership in established democracies and questions about its consequences. The last two themes, on the other hand, are the substantial revival of interest in voluntary associations and social trust spurred by theories of social capital and the expansion of diverse forms of cause-oriented types of activism. After briefly illustrating some of the literature which has developed around these themes, the article concludes by considering the challenges for the future research agenda in comparative politics.
Aggregating and Representing Political Preferences
Authors: Powell G. Bingham
Published: September 2009

This article talks about aggregating and representing political preferences. It presents the challenge of social choice analysis and identifies the conditions for representative democracy and preference aggregation. Multiple issue congruence, vote correspondence, and single dimensional issue congruence, which are the three major approaches to the comparative study of preference aggregation, are discussed as well.
Electoral Systems
Authors: Taagepera Rein
Published: September 2009

This article discusses electoral systems. It starts with a review of the typology and comparative study of electoral systems, and focuses on the rise of the ‘Duvergerian agenda’. One section presents the recent advances in the macroscopic dimension of the agenda, while another section discusses the advances in the broader agenda of electoral studies.
Federalism
Authors: Beramendi Pablo
Published: September 2009

This article provides a partial but necessary review of the dominating themes, evolution, and pending tasks that await the comparative politics of federalism. The basic premise of this article is taken from rational choice institution-alism. The article fist delimits federalism as an institution, before it pays attention to the impact of federalism on democracy and the workings of the economy. An analysis of federalism as an endogenous institution is provided. The article also mentions a number of methodological considerations on the comparative study of the origins and consequences of federalism. It ends with a discussion of the various challenges that lie ahead of the field.
Coalition Theory and Government Formation
Authors: Strøm Kaare W. , Nyblade Benjamin
Published: September 2009

This article tries to show how bargaining theory has helped people understand key aspects of government formation. It also shows how people's understanding of coalition bargaining has slowly moved past the simplistic assumptions of the first generations of such theories. The article examines three specific questions in detail, and then considers the factors that influence whether specific parties or types of parties obtain government membership.
The Poor Performance of Poor Democracies
Authors: Keefer Philip
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the poor performance of poor democracies. The article points to recent literature on political market imperfections as a way to explain anomalies in the relationship between economic performance and regime type. The first section looks at the poor countries and their respective policies, while the second section attempts to explain the ambiguity in the democracy-growth relationship. It studies the political market imperfections and the heterogeneous democratic performance, and discusses democratization, the role of history, and puzzles in the literature on democracy. The article ends with a discussion of incomplete information, which is one imperfection of the political market.
Accountability and the Survival of Governments
Authors: Maravall José María
Published: September 2009

This article considers accountability and the survival of governments. A government is considered to be accountable when its citizens can hold it responsible for its actions and punish or reward it with their vote during the elections. The article begins with a look at the elections and the retrospective control of politicians. Some empirical evidence that has been gathered from retrospective models of elections is presented, and the limits of accountability are identified. Finally, non-electoral threats are discussed.
Magnetostatics of the uniformly polarized torus
Authors: Beleggia Marco , De Graef Marc , Millev Yonko T.
Published: September 2009

We provide an exhaustive description of the magnetostatics of the uniformly polarized torus and its derivative self-intersecting (spindle) shapes. In the process, two complementary approaches have been implemented, position-space analysis of the Laplace equation with inhomogeneous boundary conditions and a Fourier-space analysis, starting from the determination of the shape amplitude of this topologically non-trivial body. The stray field and the demagnetization tensor have been determined as rapidly converging series of toroidal functions. The single independent demagnetization-tensor eigenvalue has been determined as a function of the unique aspect ratio
α
of the torus. Throughout the range of values of the ratio, corresponding to a multiply connected torus proper, the axial demagnetization factor
N

z

remains close to one half. There is no breach of smoothness of
N

z

(
α
) at the topological crossover to a simply connected tight torus (
α
=1). However,
N

z

is a non-monotonic function of the aspect ratio, such that substantially different pairs of corresponding tori would still have the same demagnetization factor. This property does not occur in a simply connected body of the same continuous axial symmetry. Several self-suggesting practical applications are outlined, deriving from the acquired quantitative insight.
Assessment of the pharmacokinetics of co‐administered maraviroc and raltegravir
Authors: Andrews Emma , Glue Paul , Fang Juanzhi , Crownover Penelope , Tressler Randall , Damle Bharat
Published: September 2009

WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ABOUT THIS SUBJECT

• Maraviroc is a CCR5 receptor antagonist, while raltegravir is a HIV‐1 integrase inhibitor.

• Based on the known metabolic pathways (CYP3A4 for maraviroc and UGT1A1 for raltegravir), interaction between the two drugs is unlikely. However, unexpected interactions have been reported for other antiretroviral drugs.

• As both these drugs are likely to be used in combination, this study evaluated the pharmacokinetic interaction between them.

WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS

• Relative to individual monotherapy, co‐administration resulted in a 20% and 33% decrease in mean Cmax, and 14% and 37% decrease in mean AUC of maraviroc and raltegravir, respectively.

• Co‐administration was generally safe and well tolerated in healthy subjects.

• These changes are not likely to be clinically relevant, thus no dose adjustment is necessary.

AIMS To assess the two‐way pharmacokinetic interaction between maraviroc and raltegravir.

METHODS In this open‐label, multiple‐dose, fixed‐sequence study, 18 healthy, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)‐seronegative subjects received the following: days 1–3 raltegravir 400 mg q12h, days 4–5 washout, days 6–11 maraviroc 300 mg q12h, and days 12–14 raltegravir 400 mg q12h + maraviroc 300 mg q12h. Serial 12‐h blood samples were collected on days 3 (raltegravir), 11 (maraviroc) and 14 (raltegravir + maraviroc). Plasma samples were assayed by validated liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry assays. Test/reference ratios and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were determined for pharmacokinetic parameters.

RESULTS For maraviroc, the test/reference % ratio (95% CI) for AUCτ was 85.8 (78.7, 93.5), for Cmax was 79.5 (64.8, 97.5) and for Cmin was 90.3 (84.2, 96.9). For raltegravir, the test/reference % ratio (95% CI) for AUCτ was 63.3 (41.0, 97.6), for Cmax was 66.8 (37.1, 120.0) and for Cmin was 72.4 (55.1, 95.2). In all subjects, maraviroc average concentrations (AUCτ divided by 12) were >100 ng ml−1, the threshold value below which there is an increased risk of virological failure. Based on clinical experience for raltegravir, mean Cmin decreases >60% are considered to be clinically relevant for short‐term activity; however, in the present study mean changes were only 28% and thus not considered to be of clinical relevance.

CONCLUSIONS Co‐administration of maraviroc and raltegravir decreased systemic exposure of both drugs; however, these are not likely to be clinically relevant. Safety and efficacy studies may help in understanding the role of this combination in the treatment of HIV infection.
Adherence level of antihypertensive agents in coronary artery disease
Authors: Perreault Sylvie , Dragomir Alice , Roy Louise , White Michel , Blais Lucie , Lalonde Lyne , Bérard Anick
Published: September 2009

WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ABOUT THIS SUBJECT

• Non‐adherence is probably an important source of preventable cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

• However, until now there have been very few large effectiveness studies assessing the relationship between adherence levels to antihypertensive medication and major cardiovascular outcomes for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease.

WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS

• The study results suggest that there is an association between better adherence to antihypertensive agents and a relative risk reduction of coronary artery disease.

• Adherence to antihypertensive agents needs to be improved so that patients can benefit from the full protective effects of antihypertensive therapies.

AIMS Antihypertensive (AH) agents have been shown to reduce the risk of cardiovascular events, including coronary artery disease (CAD). Previous surveys have shown that a substantial number of patients with diagnosed hypertension remain uncontrolled. Non‐adherence to AH agents may reduce the effectiveness. The aim was to evaluate the impact of better adherence to AH agents on the occurrence of CAD in a real clinical setting.

METHODS A cohort of 83 267 patients was reconstructed using the Régie de l'assurance maladie du Québec databases. Patients were eligible if they were between 45 and 85 years of age without indication of cardiovascular disease, and had been newly treated with AH agents between 1999 and 2004. A nested case–control design was used to study the incidence of CAD. Every case of CAD was matched for age and duration of follow‐up to up to 15 randomly selected controls. The adherence level was measured by calculating the medication possession ratio. Cases' adherence was calculated from the start of follow‐up to the time of the CAD (index date). For controls, adherence was calculated from the start of follow‐up to the time of selection (index date). Rate ratios of CAD were estimated by conditional logistic regression adjusting for covariables.

RESULTS The mean patient age was 65 years, 37% were male, 8% had diabetes and 18% had dyslipidaemia. High adherence level (96%) to AH therapy compared with lower adherence level (59%) was associated with a relative risk reduction of CAD events (rate ratios 0.90; 0.84, 0.95). Risk factors for CAD were male gender, diabetes, dyslipidaemia and developing a cardiovascular condition disease during follow‐up.

CONCLUSION Our study suggests that better adherence to AH agents is associated with a risk reduction of CAD. Adherence to AH agents needs to be improved so that patients can benefit from the full protective effects of AH therapies.
Regulatory challenges for new drugs to treat obesity and comorbid metabolic disorders
Authors: Heal David J. , Gosden Jane , Smith Sharon L.
Published: September 2009

Obesity is a major cause of morbidity and mortality through cardio‐ and cerebrovascular diseases and cancer. The metabolic consequences of obesity include dyslipidaemia, hypertension, proinflammatory atherogenesis, pre‐diabetes and Type 2 diabetes. For a significant proportion of patients, pharmacotherapy to tackle obesity is required as adjunctive support to diet, exercise and lifestyle modification. To this end, the pharmaceutical industry is pursuing many novel drug targets. Although this view is probably not justified, the recent tribulations of rimonabant have created a perception that the regulatory bar for the approval of antiobesity drugs has been raised. Although >5% of placebo‐subtracted weight loss maintained over 1 year is the primary efficacy end‐point, it is improvements in cardiovascular risk factors that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Medicines Agency (EMEA) require to grant approval. Safety aspects are also critical in this indication. Many companies are now switching development of their antiobesity drug candidates into other metabolic disorders. Type 2 diabetes is accepted by the industry and FDA, but not EMEA, as the most appropriate alternative. On the other hand, improvements in plasma lipids produced by antiobesity drugs are moderate compared with established therapies, suggesting dyslipidaemia is not a viable development option. Metabolic Syndrome is not accepted by FDA or EMEA as a discrete disease and the agencies will not licence antiobesity drugs for its treatment. The regulatory environment for antiobesity drugs and the spectrum of indications for which they can be approved could change dramatically if positive data for sibutramine emerge from the SCOUT outcome trial.
New central targets for the treatment of obesity
Authors: Sargent Bruce J. , Moore Nicholas A.
Published: September 2009

The review focuses on the central neuronal circuits involved in energy homeostasis and the opportunities these offer for pharmacological intervention to decrease feeding behaviour and reduce weight. This article is based on the presentation ‘New central targets for the treatment of obesity’ (Sargent, British Pharmacological society, Clinical Section Symposium, December 2008).

Central neuronal substrates controlling weight offer numerous opportunities for pharmacological intervention. These opportunities range from non‐specific enhancement of monoamine signalling (triple reuptake inhibitors) to targeting specific monoamine receptor subtypes (5‐HT2c and 5‐HT6). The data reviewed suggest that these approaches will lead to weight loss; whether this is sufficient to produce clinically meaningful effect remains to be determined. Combination therapy targeting more than one mechanism may be a means of increasing the magnitude of the response. Preclinical studies also suggest that novel approaches targeting specific neuronal pathways within the hypothalamus, e.g. MCH1 receptor antagonism, offer an opportunity for weight reduction. However, these approaches are at an early stage and clinical studies will be needed to determine if these novel approaches lead to clinically meaningful weight loss and improvements in co‐morbid conditions such as diabetes and cardiovascular disorders.
The impact of SLCO1B1 polymorphisms on the plasma concentration of lopinavir and ritonavir in HIV‐infected men
Authors: Kohlrausch Fabiana B. , De Cássia Estrela Rita , Barroso Paulo F. , Suarez‐Kurtz Guilherme
Published: September 2009

WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ABOUT THIS SUBJECT

• There is large interindividual variability in the pharmacokinetics of protease inhibitors (PIs) among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)‐infected individuals under highly active antiretroviral therapy.

• Protease inhibitor have been recently reported to be substrates of the SLCO1B1/OATP1 drug transporter.

• A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the SLCO1B1 gene (521T→C) was associated with plasma levels of lopinavir in HIV‐infected individuals.

WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS

• Data on the impact of three SLCO1B1 SNPs (521T→C, 388A→G, 463C→A) on the trough plasma concentration of lopinavir and ritonavir in a cohort of 99 adult HIV‐infected Brazilian men under stable highly active antiretroviral therapy.

• Evidence that carriers of the 521C allele display significantly higher lopinavir, but not ritonavir plasma concentrations relative to the wild‐type TT genotype.

• No effect of either 388A→G or 463C→A SNPs on lopinavir or ritonavir plasma concentrations.

• Further studies are required to confirm the clinical significance of the association between the SLCO1B1521T→C polymorphism and lopinavir pharmacokinetics.

AIMS To investigate possible associations between three SLCO1B1 single nucleotide polymorphisms (388A→G, 463C→A, 521T→C) and lopinavir/ritonavir plasma concentrations.

METHODS The study included 99 human immunodeficiency virus‐infected men on stable highly active antiretroviral therapy containing lopinavir/ritonavir. Trough concentrations of lopinavir and ritonavir in plasma were quantified using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Genotyping of SLCO1B1388A→G, 463C→A and 521T→C polymorphisms was performed by allelic discrimination using real‐time polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS The trough concentration of lopinavir in plasma is significantly associated with SLCO1B1521T→C genotypes (P= 0.03). There is a significant trend for increasing concentrations of lopinavir from TT to TC to CC genotypes (P= 0.02). Carriers of the 521C allele display significantly higher lopinavir plasma concentrations relative to the wild‐type TT genotype (P= 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS Reduced uptake of lopinavir by hepatocytes in carriers of the 521C allele may account for these results, but further studies to confirm the clinical importance of SLCO1B1 polymorphisms in lopinavir pharmacokinetics are warranted.
Soil metaproteomics: a review of an emerging environmental science. Significance, methodology and perspectives
Authors: Bastida F. , Moreno J. L. , Nicolás C. , Hernández T. , García C.
Published: September 2009

Soil is a dynamic system in which microorganisms perform important tasks in organic matter transformations and nutrient cycles. Recently, some studies have started to focus on soil metaproteomics as a tool for understanding the function and the role of members of the microbial community. The aim of our work was to provide a review of soil proteomics by looking at the methodologies used in order to illustrate the challenges and gaps in this field, and to provide a broad perspective about the use and meaning of soil metaproteomics. The development of soil metaproteomics is influenced strongly by the extraction methods. Several methods are available but only a few provide an identification of soil proteins, while others extract proteins and are able to separate them by electrophoresis but do not provide an identification. The extraction of humic compounds together with proteins interferes with the latter's separation and identification, although some methods can avoid these chemical interferences. Nevertheless, the major problems regarding protein identification reside in the fact that soil is a poor source of proteins and that there is not enough sequence‐database information for the identification of proteins by mass spectrometric analysis. Once these pitfalls have been solved, the identification of soil proteins may provide information about the biogeochemical potential of soils and pollutant degradation and act as an indicator of soil quality, identifying which proteins and microorganisms are affected by a degradation process. The development of soil metaproteomics opens the way to proteomic studies in other complex substrates, such as organic wastes. These studies can be a source of knowledge about the possibility of driven soil restoration in polluted and degraded areas with low organic matter content and even for the identification of enzymes and proteins with a potential biotechnological value.
An inverse abundance approach to separate soil nitrogen pools and gaseous nitrogen fluxes into fractions related to ammonium, nitrate and soil organic nitrogen
Authors: Stange C. F. , Spott O. , Müller C.
Published: September 2009

The soil nitrogen (N) cycle exhibits a variety of complex biochemical reactions in which N species such as NO2−, NO and N2O are produced and consumed by co‐existing processes that respond differently to the local environmental conditions. Key to understanding the soil N cycle in its full complexity is the development and application of methods that allow a quantification of individual pathways and processes that are responsible for the build‐up and/or emission of N compounds. Triplet 15N tracer experiments (TTE) have been developed and applied to allow a source‐related quantification of N species such as NO2−, and N2O by different biochemical pathways (e.g. ammonia oxidation and nitrate reduction) that are related to multiple N sources (NH4+, NO3− and Norg). An analysis of a TTE requires the application of either a numerical or analytical model. Because of the ease of application it is desirable to use analytical models. However, available analytical solutions suffer from serious drawbacks concerning the quantification of N fluxes related to soil organic N. In this paper we describe the development and application of a new inverse abundance approach (IAA) to analyse a TTE. Theoretical and experimental data sets of soil N2O release were analysed by the new method. The IAA was also applied to an already existing data set to identify fractions of the soil nitrite pool related to NH4+, NO3− and Norg. We show that the IAA provides a reliable and comprehensive data evaluation of a TTE.
Land use and climatic factors structure regional patterns in soil microbial communities
Authors: Drenovsky Rebecca E. , Steenwerth Kerri L. , Jackson Louise E. , Scow Kate M.
Published: September 2009

Aim Although patterns are emerging for macroorganisms, we have limited understanding of the factors determining soil microbial community composition and productivity at large spatial extents. The overall objective of this study was to discern the drivers of microbial community composition at the extent of biogeographical provinces and regions. We hypothesized that factors associated with land use and climate would drive soil microbial community composition and biomass.

Location Great Basin Province, Desert Province and California Floristic Province, California, USA.

Methods Using phospholipid fatty acid analysis, we compared microbial communities across eight land‐use types sampled throughout the State of California, USA (n= 1117).

Results The main factor driving composition and microbial biomass was land‐use type, especially as related to water availability and disturbance. Dry soils were more enriched in Gram‐negative bacteria and fungi, and wetter soils were more enriched in Gram‐positive, anaerobic and sulphate‐reducing bacteria. Microbial biomass was lowest in ecosystems with the wettest and driest soils. Disturbed soils had less fungal and more Gram‐positive bacterial biomass than wildland soils. However, some factors known to influence microbial communities, such as soil pH and specific plant taxa, were not important here.

Main conclusions Distinct microbial communities were associated with land‐use types and disturbance at the regional extent. Overall, soil water availability was an important determinant of soil microbial community composition. However, because of the inclusion of managed and irrigated agricultural ecosystems, the effect of precipitation was not significant. Effects of environmental and management factors, such as flooding, tillage and irrigation, suggest that agricultural management can have larger effects on soil microbial communities than elevation and precipitation gradients.
Motivations for Conserving Urban Biodiversity
Authors: DEARBORN DONALD C. , KARK SALIT
Published: September 2009

Abstract: In a time of increasing urbanization, the fundamental value of conserving urban biodiversity remains controversial. How much of a fixed budget should be spent on conservation in urban versus nonurban landscapes? The answer should depend on the goals that drive our conservation actions, yet proponents of urban conservation often fail to specify the motivation for protecting urban biodiversity. This is an important shortcoming on several fronts, including a missed opportunity to make a stronger appeal to those who believe conservation biology should focus exclusively on more natural, wilder landscapes. We argue that urban areas do offer an important venue for conservation biology, but that we must become better at choosing and articulating our goals. We explored seven possible motivations for urban biodiversity conservation: preserving local biodiversity, creating stepping stones to nonurban habitat, understanding and facilitating responses to environmental change, conducting environmental education, providing ecosystem services, fulfilling ethical responsibilities, and improving human well‐being. To attain all these goals, challenges must be faced that are common to the urban environment, such as localized pollution, disruption of ecosystem structure, and limited availability of land. There are, however, also challenges specific only to particular goals, meaning that different goals will require different approaches and actions. This highlights the importance of specifying the motivations behind urban biodiversity conservation. If the goals are unknown, progress cannot be assessed.
Vigabatrin but not valproate prevents development of age‐specific flexion seizures induced byN‐methyl‐d‐aspartate (NMDA) in immature rats
Authors: Kubová Hana , Mareš Pavel
Published: September 2009

In immature rats,N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate (NMDA) induces several seizure types: flexion seizures (FS; in rats younger than 3 weeks), clonic seizures (in animals older than 3 weeks), and clonic–tonic seizures (CTS; in rats of all ages). FS represent a model of human infantile spasms. Effects of vigabatrin and valproate against all types of NMDA‐induced seizures were studied in rats at postnatal days 12 (P12) and 25 (P25). NMDA (60 or 300 mg/kg) was injected to animals pretreated with vigabatrin (300–1,200 mg/kg; 24 h before NMDA) or valproate (100–400 mg/kg; 15 min before NMDA). Vigabatrin suppressed FS in P12 rats, but was ineffective against CTS in both age groups. Valproate suppressed CTS in P12, but not in P25 rats. Clonic seizures were rare in NMDA‐treated P25 rats, but valproate pretreatment increased their incidence significantly. Neither drug decreased NMDA‐induced mortality, which occurred within ∼15 min after NMDA administration and reached almost 100% in all groups.
Does concurrent renin‐angiotensin‐aldosterone blockade in (older) chronic kidney disease patients play a role in the acute renal failure epidemic in US hospitalized patients?—Three cases of severe acute renal failure encountered in a northwestern Wisconsin Nephrology practice
Authors: ONUIGBO Macaulay A. C.
Published: September 2009

Following the publication of several large multicenter randomized placebo‐controlled trials showing reno‐protection with renin‐angiotensin‐aldosterone (RAAS) blockade, the last 2 decades have witnessed an escalating use of the angiotensin‐converting enzyme inhibitors and the angiotensin receptor blockers. Simultaneously, we continue to experience an increasing epidemic of acute renal failure (ARF) both in community‐based and in hospital‐based studies. Even though other factors would be contributing to this ARF epidemic, recent published data have raised concerns of a plausible connection between increased use of the RAAS blocking agents and this ARF epidemic. In our 4‐nephrologist northwestern practice, we have, in recent years, anecdotally encountered an increasing number and severity of ARF, often with hyperkalemia, sometimes requiring dialysis intervention, in patients concurrently on these agents. Over the 3‐day Christmas weekend in 2007, we treated 3 cases of severe ARF (peak serum creatinine of 7.0 (3.3–9.2) mg/dL), all on RAAS blockade. Renin‐angiotensin‐aldosterone blockade was promptly discontinued. All patients received intravenous fluid repletion. Kidney function rapidly normalized in 2 within 1 week. One patient required hemodialysis for 14 days before his serum creatinine returned to normal after 5 weeks. All 3 patients have continued to maintain baseline serum creatinine several months later, still off RAAS blockade. The mean baseline eGFR for the 3 patients was 46 (41–51) mL/min/1.73 m2 body surface area. This phenomenon of ARF exacerbation, which may have implications for chronic kidney disease progression to ESRD especially in the elderly, merits further study. We support the recommendation that (older, >65 years old) chronic kidney disease patients on RAAS blocking agents should have the medications temporarily suspended during any acute illness, before major surgical procedures, and before iodinated contrast or oral phosphate sodium administration.
A New Synthesis Method of α‐Silicon Nitride Powder‐Reductive Combustion Synthesis from Silicon and Silicon Dioxide
Authors: Jiang Jiuxin
Published: September 2009

A new synthesis method of Si3N4 powder with a high α‐phase content, namely reductive combustion synthesis, was pioneered in the present work. Some fundamental experiments were carried out and the result indicated that the content of α‐Si3N4 increases with the addition of SiO2 and C, which considerably enhances the efficiency and drastically reduces the cost. The new method not only confers the advantage of carbothermal reduction and nitridation technology, but overcomes the shortcomings of a conventional combustion synthesis process.
The Effects of Growth Temperature on the Field‐Emission Properties of ZnO Nanoneedle Arrays
Authors: Park Jae Young , Oh Chang Won , Choi Sun‐Woo , Kim Sang Sub
Published: September 2009

Field‐emission properties of ZnO nanoneedle arrays (NNAs) grown on Pt‐coated Si (001) substrates by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition at various growth temperatures were investigated. Growth temperature determines the morphology and alignment of NNAs and hence their field‐emission properties. The ZnO NNAs grown at 550°C demonstrated better emission properties compared with ones grown at higher temperatures. ZnO NNAs grown at higher temperatures had sharper tips but were relatively less aligned, resulted in inferior field‐emission properties. Optimization of the shape and alignment of ZnO nanoneedles is important to obtain better emission properties.
Secondary breast cancer: a 5‐year population‐based study with review of the literature
Authors: KLINGEN TOR AUDUN , KLAASEN HERMAN , Aas HANS , CHEN YING , AKSLEN LARS A.
Published: September 2009

Secondary tumours in the breast are rare. Based on literature, an incidence of 0.4–2% is reported. In this population‐based study, secondary breast tumours from a 5‐year period (2001–2005), not including metastasis from contralateral breast carcinoma, were reviewed (Vestfold County, Norway). A total of 722 patients with breast malignancies were found in this population (89.3% from Vestfold County Hospital). Ten of these, approximately 1.4%, were metastatic tumours, representing four cutaneous melanomas, three pulmonary carcinomas and three malignant lymphomas. The tumours were often solitary, palpable and close to the skin. Radiologically, the lesions mostly resembled primary carcinomas by mammography and ultrasound, which differs from other studies. Comparison with a known primary tumour and use of immunohistochemical profiling is of crucial importance. Melanoma markers (Melan‐A, HMB‐45, S‐100 protein), lung cancer markers (Cytokeratins, TTF1, Chromogranin, Synapthophysin) and lymphoid markers (CD3, CD20) usually help to confirm a secondary breast tumour diagnosis. This approach is especially indicated in diffusely growing tumours with lack of glandular structure and high‐grade cytological features, and staining for ER and GCDFP15 may be helpful. Thus, the diagnosis of a breast metastasis may be suspected by careful mammography and ultrasound imaging, although some cases have atypical radiological features, and histological examination might be necessary to ensure a correct diagnosis and appropriate treatment.
Characterization of a mouse model overexpressing beta‐site APP‐cleaving enzyme 2 reveals a new role for BACE2
Authors: Azkona G. , Amador‐Arjona A. , Obradors‐Tarragó C. , Varea E. , Arqué G. , Pinacho R. , Fillat C. , De La Luna S. , Estivill X. , Dierssen M.
Published: September 2009

BACE2 is homologous to BACE1, a β‐secretase that is involved in the amyloidogenic pathway of amyloid precursor protein (APP), and maps to the Down syndrome critical region of chromosome 21. Alzheimer disease neuropathology is common in Down syndrome patients at relatively early ages, and it has thus been speculated that BACE2 co‐overexpression with APP would promote the early neurodegenerative phenotype. However, the in vivo function of BACE2 has not yet been elucidated. The aim of the present work has been to analyse the impact of in vivo BACE2 overexpression using a transgenic mouse model. Our results suggest that BACE2 is not involved in the amyloidogenic pathway, cognitive dysfunction or cholinergic degeneration. However, TgBACE2 animals showed increased anxiety‐like behaviour along with increased numbers of noradrenergic neurones in locus coeruleus, thus suggesting an unexpected role of BACE2 overexpression.
Constitutional reform after the expenses crisis
Authors: Bogdanor Vernon
Published: September 2009

The expenses crisis has shattered the UK public's confidence in our politics. But constitutional reform can only help rebuild trust if the political class are prepared to hand real power over to the people, says Vernon Bogdanor
The biofuel potential of municipal solid waste
Authors: SHI ALLEN ZIHAO , KOH LIAN PIN , TAN HUGH T. W.
Published: September 2009

The world in the 21st century is facing a dual crisis of increasing waste and global climate change. Substituting fossil fuels with waste biomass‐derived cellulosic ethanol is a promising strategy to simultaneously meet part of our energy needs, mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and manage municipal solid waste (MSW). However, the global potential of MSW as an energy source is as yet unquantified. Here, we report increasing trends of MSW generation, and waste biomass‐derived cellulosic ethanol potentials in relation to socio‐economic development across 173 countries, and show that globally, up to 82.9 billion litres of waste paper‐derived cellulosic ethanol can be produced worldwide, replacing 5.36% of gasoline consumption, with accompanying GHG emissions savings of between 29.2% and 86.1%.
Porcine Circovirus Type 2 and Porcine Circovirus‐Associated Disease
Authors: Gillespie J. , Opriessnig T. , Meng X.J. , Pelzer K. , Buechner‐Maxwell V.
Published: September 2009

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) belongs to the viral family Circoviridae and to the genusCircovirus. Circoviruses are small, single‐stranded nonenveloped DNA viruses that have an unsegmented circular genome. PCV2 is the primary causative agent of several syndromes collectively known as porcine circovirus‐associated disease (PCVAD). Many of the syndromes associated with PCVAD are a result of coinfection with PCV2 virus and other agents such asMycoplasmaand porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. PCV2 infection is present in every major swine‐producing country in the world, and the number of identified cases of PCVAD is rapidly increasing. In the United States, the disease has cost producers an average of 3–4 dollars per pig with peak losses ranging up to 20 dollars per pig. The importance of this disease has stimulated investigations aimed at identifying risk factors associated with infection and minimizing these risks through modified management practices and development of vaccination strategies. This paper provides an overview of current knowledge relating to PCV2 and PCVAD with an emphasis on information relevant to the swine veterinarian.