bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Attempt to Minimize the Cost of Extracting Lithium from Boron Clays Through Robust Process Design
Authors: Büyükburç Atil , Köksal Gülser
Published: May 2005

In this study a robust design method is developed for extracting Li from boron (B) clays with the aim of minimizing cost and maximizing productivity. Lithium is commercially extracted from brines and certain minerals. Its extraction from clays has previously been found to be expensive, a major part of the extraction cost being attributed to the raw materials used. In this study, raw materials from lower-cost resources are used without applying any standardization to them and this might increase variation in the results. To minimize the variation, and achieve high extraction levels, robust design, statistical design and analysis of experiments, and response surface methodologies are utilized. As a result, consistently higher extraction levels have been achieved compared to previous studies. The experiments were conducted using the Bigadiç boron clay fields in Turkey. However, the method is generally applicable to other cases also.
TEACHING ANTHROPOLOGY AT THE COLLEGE LEVEL
Authors: Moore Dward A.
Published: May 2005

It is with some anticipation that I begin the responsibilities as editor of this section of the Quarterly. I have been concerned for some time with the methods we use as teachers of anthropology. Correspondence with other anthropologists in the past year or so has proven to me that there is a great deal of interest in teaching across the country. This section of the Quarterly will be devoted to an exchange of ideas on the teaching of anthropology. Course descriptions, philosophical statements, reactions, and comments are welcome. Persons with material to contribute are requested to send them to the editor, Jamestown Community College, Jamestown NY 14701.
Educational Anthropologists in Non‐Academic Settings: Reports from the Field
Authors: Eddy Elizabeth M.
Published: May 2005

In November of 1974, CAE sponsored a Job Clinic at the annual meetings in Mexico City. The Clinic was planned by Robert Textor and 1 chaired it. The purpose of the Clinic was to provide an opportunity for interested anthropologists to learn more about the types of work being undertaken by anthropologists who are employed by educators as researchers and practitioners in non‐academic settings. In addition, the reports indicate some of the adaptations necessary in making the transition from the traditional roles of anthropologists in academe to those that are newly emerging in public school systems, community action agencies, private consulting firms, and curriculum development organizations.

Following the annual meetings, four of the panelists agreed to prepare written statements for the CAE Quarterly. Two of these statements are presented below with the hope that they will be useful in stimulating thought and discussion among CAE members about the development of strategies for opening up new opportunities for anthropologists and ways of preparing anthropologists for new roles in the contemporary world.
SINGARA
Authors: Salamone Frank
Published: May 2005

This is my first column as editor of the Singara department. The article by Claudia Lewis is superb but not the only kind of material I'd like to receive for the column. In it, she has presented more than an outline of a course syllabus; she has presented the context in which the course was taught as well as its purpose. Finally, she has presented an evaluation of the course by students and her response to their evaluation. I would appreciate readers' comments on her article, some of which may be printed, for I'd like to turn the column into a constructive exchange of viewpoints.
ASSESSING RACE RELATIONS IN THE CLASSROOM
Authors: Crain Robert L.
Published: May 2005

Court‐ordered busing of students in order to achieve equal educational opportunity has dramatically altered the classrooms of inner‐urban America. Forced together and expected to learn are disparate groups of children, each with differing cultural backgrounds and expectations for schooling. Within such a mixed‐group context, what is “disadvantaged” for one culture may not be “disadvantaged” for another. Understanding the effects of schooling under such circumstances can be enhanced by understanding intergroup relations, in particular between children and teachers of different races. How can we best assess race relations in the classroom and their effect on schooling?
THE COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF ETHNOGRAPHIC DATA IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Authors: Flenberg Stephen E.
Published: May 2005

Educational research has long attended to quantifying dependent variables as a way of describing learning outcomes. It is in the domain of the independent variable, or the interactions and characteristics of the classroom and the teaching‐learning participants as a casual factor, that we have been weakest. Techniques are emerging which can help to identify independent variables. What are some of these, and how can they be applied to gathering the qualitative data important to the identifications of such variables?
THE ROLE OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN MAINTAINING A POPULAR STEREOTYPE
Authors: Morris Martha Binford
Published: May 2005

Professional anthropologists should be concerned with, and willing to combat, popular concepts of human nature derived from the works of Ardrey, Morris, and others. Student responses to a questionnaire indicate that students have a hypothesis of human nature which leads them to expect the worst from their fellows. A continued lack of concern about this belief may have disastrous social, political, and economic consequences. The introductory classroom can provide a forum for correcting these imbalanced perceptions.
COGNITIVE CONSEQUENCES OF TRADITIONAL APPRENTICESHIP TRAINING IN WEST AFRICA
Authors: Lave Jean
Published: May 2005

By combining intensive ethnographic work with formal experiments, it is possible to demonstrate that a traditional form of education—apprenticeship training—does teach general problem‐solving skills. An arithmetic test, anchored with problems drawn directly from tribal tailors' apprenticeship training, was administered to a sample of Vai and Gola tailors in Liberia. The tailors differ on tailoring experience and formal schooling characteristics. Both tailoring experience and schooling contribute strongly to arithmetic problem‐solving success on unfamiliar problems.
SEPARATE EDUCATION AS AN ETHNIC SURVIVAL STRATEGY: THE FINLANDSSVENSKA CASE1
Authors: Paulston Rolland G.
Published: May 2005

This study addresses three questions: i.e., (1) under what conditions do ethnic movements create separate schools; (2) what influences the development of their pedagogical components; and (3) why is ethnic education more or less effective? Types of formal and non‐formal ethnic education are typologized regarding degrees of ethnic control and degree of change sought. The Swede‐Finn Movement is then examined as a “defensive‐” type case with, presently, high ethnic control and low change orientation. It suggests the need to study further how ethnic‐movement education programs—as “transforming experiments”—have contributed to change in social relations, movement ideology, and individual values in various movement configurations and settings.
TEACHING PRE‐COLLEGIATE ANTHROPOLOGY: THE RESULTS OF A SURVEY AND RECOMMENDATIONS1
Authors: Rice Marion J.
Published: May 2005

To identify teachers of pre‐college anthropology, a questionnaire was published in the October 1976 issue of Social Education. Only 50 useable replies were received. The questionnaire therefore did not serve the purpose of Identifying teachers of pre‐college anthropology which might serve as a point of contact for the Committee on Materials and Methods for the Teaching of Anthropology of the Council on Anthropology and Education.

Replies of respondents indicate that anthropology is perceived primarily as an upper grade secondary subject, taught as a one‐semester cultural or survey course with regional concentration in the Pacific coast, upper mid‐west, northeast, and Florida. A great variety of materials are used, the most frequently reported materials being those developed by the Anthropology Curriculum Study Project. All teachers responding except one indicated some previous course work in anthropology. Thus the teaching of anthropology appears to be related to teacher preparation in anthropology. The inclusion of anthropology in the preparation program of teachers is recommended.
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION: AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Authors: Rosen David M.
Published: May 2005

This paper examines how the concept of multicultural education is translated into action within an inner city preschool. School policy, classroom organization, and the classroom experience of the children are analyzed. The data suggests that the concept of culture as used by teachers and staff has negative implications for program success. More importantly, the social relationships among school participants remain derivative of socioeconomic class distinctions in the larger society and consequently severely hamper the implementation of the goals of cultural pluralism embedded in the multicultural idea.
Theoretical Approaches to the Study of Sex‐Role Culture in Schools
Authors: Goetz Judith Preissle
Published: May 2005

Major findings from the psychological and educational literature pertinent to the study of sex‐role culture in schools are identified and discussed. Four commonly used sociocultural theories are presented: functionalism, cultural ecology, ethnoscience, and symbolic interactionism. Applications of each to research on sex‐role culture in schools are demonstrated, integrating generalizations from the psychological and educational literature. The use of explicit theoretical paradigms and interdisciplinary approaches should facilitate the development of more rigorous explanations in this area.
Social Control and Schooling: Power and Process in Two Kindergarten Settings
Authors: Borman Kathryn
Published: May 2005

This microanalysis of the social organization of the school investigates the processes of schooling as they make power relations in the classroom explicit. Of focal interest are effects of both teacher social‐control techniques and classroom environmental features upon the socialization of urban American kindergarten children in open and traditional classroom settings. The major independent variable assessed is the set of verbal social‐control strategies and appeals employed by kindergarten teachers in establishing and maintaining social structure. The intervening variable is seen as the context in which socialization occurs, the “milieu‐with‐program.” The primary dependent variable examined is the set of control strategies and appeals employed by kindergarten children in each of the two settings.

Measures of variables of interest were taken at the beginning and middle of the 1975‐76 school year. The bulk of the data was gathered in the classroom during the natural course of the school day and includes the following measures: (1) teacher strategies and appeals taken from audiotaped and transcribed protocols and analyzed using socioiinguistic markers, (2) classroom environment measured by analyses of the milieu‐with‐program, (3) children's strategies and appeals taken from protocols and analyzed using socioiinguistic markers.

The research provides a sociolinguistic analysis of the impact of educational settings upon the development of children's social control skills, an important subset of communicative skills and one little analyzed in natural settings. The power of the kindergarten classroom teacher to determine amount and type of interaction has been documented; however, very little is known about the sociolinguistic character of such interactions or about the possible effect these interactions might have upon children's interactions with their teacher and peers in the classroom.
Anthropology of the Young1
Authors: Burton Anthony
Published: May 2005

This article has a double‐barreled purpose: to raise some important questions and to sketch out a conceptual framework for an anthropology of the young. The first part of the article raises the question: Is anthropology of education, through an emphasis on such themes as school ethnography, observational methodology, curricular development, and the schooling of native peoples, moving towards narrowness and specialization? Or to turn the question around: To what extent is the field still based in an anthropology that is general, pan‐human, and evolutionary in scope? The main thesis of the paper is that an anthropology of the young might be a useful move in the latter direction.

In the second part of the paper, a conceptual framework for an anthropology of the young is sketched out, in terms of four points: defining the young, describing their cultural patterns, understanding their cultural dependence, and coping ethnographically with the problems of development. The article closes with a brief attempt to argue the advantages of such an approach to professional educators and anthropologists of education.
Equal Educational Opportunity and Quality Education
Authors: Asa G. Milliard III
Published: May 2005

This article presents a reconceptualization of the role of culture in the attainment of equality of educational opportunity, and a discussion of how the use of culture in education can be a vehicle of either liberation or oppression. It shifts the focus of educational problem solving from that of victim analysis or the analysis of minority deficits to an examination of the forces of racism and oppression as they have been and are reflected in education. The use of culture as a tool for liberation is discussed.
Reflections on Anthropology and the Black Experience1
Authors: Drake Clair
Published: May 2005

The author discusses the forces that operated before World War II in the United States to limit the number of black anthropologists and the factors that ultimately led to increased participation of black students and professors in the discipline. As one of the less than a dozen “pioneers,” the author uses his own career as an atypical case study to illuminate certain significant facets of the history of anthropology. He discusses the image that anthropology had among Afro‐Americans as well as its role in the early development of race relations theory and multicultural practice. Mainstream anthropology is viewed as an institutional subsystem of an educational subsystem within a political‐economic system that conditions its approach to race and ethnicity.
On Anthropology and Education: Retrospect and Prospect1
Authors: Comitas Lambros , Dolgin Janet
Published: May 2005

This essay deals with aspects of the historic and contemporary linkages between the discipline of anthropology and the domain of education. An historic contextualization of the development of educational anthropology provides the frame from within which extant theoretical and methodological issues are critically delimited. Possibilities for future areas of activity and concern are explored, and specific recommendations for future directions are presented.
Navajo and Caucasian Children's Verbal and Nonverbal‐Visual Behavior in the Urban Classroom1
Authors: Guilmet George M.
Published: May 2005

A formal observation technique was used in an urban classroom context to assess the verbal and nonverbal‐visual behavior of 17 Navajo and 7 Caucasian children. Two statistical techniques revealed significant intergroup differences in verbal and nonverbal‐visual style. A four‐stage adaptation model is offered to show the differential adjustment of Navajo children to the urban classroom. Finally, the four behavioral types attributed to Navajo children in the urban classroom are related tentatively to Navajo households, representing four stages of acculturation to urban life.
Beyond a Differential: An Inquiry into Southern Paiute Indian Experience with Public Schools
Authors: Knack Martha C.
Published: May 2005

This paper examines the hypothesis that public school education increases the employability and income of Southern Paiute Indians, a minority group in southwestern Utah. Because they are a small group and the population is scattered over a large area, their educational problems are not highly visible. But the compiled statistics show that they have far fewer years of schooling than the general population. Alternate educational facilities available to Paiutes are considered. Further, there is shown to be no relationship between years of schooling and earnings. The problems facing Paiutes today are seen to be not restricted to schools, nor can the solution be achieved by education alone. Rather, the problem has roots in the larger social context of the region, and the solution must involve the entire social system.
The Rhetoric of Concern: Trust and Control in an Urban Desegregated School
Authors: Slawski Edward J. , Scherer Jacqueline
Published: May 2005

Various sets of actors in an urban desegregated high school are found to use a rhetoric of concern in discussing events in the school and the operation of the school. This rhetoric is based upon the accepted understanding that schools do “what's best for kids.” Since the rhetoric appeals to diverse segments of the Pawnee community, it enables school officials to manage the conflicting demands of maintaining control and gaining the confidence of the community. The rhetoric of concern allows school people to talk about control in ways that build trust. Although this kind of language is useful in gaining a consensus, it is dysfunctional for dealing with the persistent problems of race relations in this desegregated high school.
Modeling Social Relations in Cross‐Color Play
Authors: Polgar Sylvia Knopp
Published: May 2005

Patterns of social interaction between black and white sixth graders in free play peri‐ods are examined in an observational study. Using the idea of play as a model of so. cia/ relations, two patterns of play are described: competition between black and white teams and play in mixed‐color teams. The differences in the process of play in these two contexts are discussed and their implications for cross‐color relationships considered.
School Desegregation in Racially Stratified Communities—A Problem of Congruence:
Authors: Ogbu John U.
Published: May 2005

This article is a comment on the rest of the issue. The papers in this volume were originally Symposium Papers presented at the 76th Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, November 30, 1977. They all have to do with the topic, Informal Social Organization in Desegregated Schools: Patterns and Processes of Adaptation and Realignment.
Schooling and Intergroup Relations: A Comparative Analysis
Authors: LaBelle Thomas J.
Published: May 2005

At present it is popular for educators in the United States and elsewhere to develop school programs that promise greater tolerance for cultural differences. This multicultural emphasis accompanies the long‐held expectation by social and cultural groups that school success is a vehicle for achieving positions of political and economic power. Based upon a review of the literature on educational practice and intergroup relations in several nations, this article argues that the implicit goals of public school practice are, first, to persuade or compel subgroup members to adapt to the cultural and structural interests of one or more of a society's dominant groups and, second, to limit the dominant group's own need for altering the status quo. This suggests that dominant groups are likely to permit school programs to reflect greater cultural rather than structural diversity as long as the existing social structure and balance of power among groups are not threatened.
A Program for Disadvantaged Youth in an Israeli Development Town: An Evaluation
Authors: Goldberg Harvey E.
Published: May 2005

The problems of evaluation research on a program tor disadvantaged youth in a development town in Israel are discussed. The program was initiated by an outside agency which did not mesh easily with local politics. Personnel who matched the requirements of the program were not easily found. The distance between the steering committee and the actual organization left important areas of management poorly defined. These same problems were reflected in the research which through self‐criticism helped illuminate processes within the larger project.
1977 Presidential Address
Authors: Herzog John D.
Published: May 2005

An Anthropological Framework for Community Education: Towards a Proactive Anthropology
Education in a Luba Secret Society
Authors: Studstill John D.
Published: May 2005

Analysis of the educational role of a sodality in a nonliterate horticultural society helps point up that an overly reified paradigm of traditional education has developed among many social scientists. In the Bumbudye association of the Luba of Zaire, the formal instruction, the initiations, and a unique educational device which could be termed a book of history and symbols were studied. The specialized educational functions of the Bumbudye served to help create and maintain an educated power elite. This evidence should help correct simplistic or idealized views of education in nonindustrial cultures, point up the modern traits in traditional African cultures with respect to education, and remind educational theorists and planners of the tenacity of structures of inequality maintained by schooling. It should also remind us all of the potential for creative reform in education and in voluntary associations.
Necessary Directions for Anthropological Research on Child Care in the United States
Authors: Zimmer Richard
Published: May 2005

There has been little qualitative research done by anthropologists and sociologists on formal and informal American child‐care arrangements. This paper suggests directions for research in ways that are useful for theory and relevant to policy and program. Research topics should include: ascertaining informal child‐care arrangements such as babysitting and sibling care; comparative ethnographies of different types of centers; eliciting the ways in which center operations affect the experience of the child; analyzing staff‐parent mediation practices; and ascertaining the ways in which government and agency, through supervision and intervention, affect center operations. Results would help in the development of appropriate policy for each of the participants involved. EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION, SOCIALIZATION, UNITED STATES, POLICY AND PROGRAM RESEARCH, LOCAL POLITICS.
Stop and Freeze: The Negotiation of Social and Physical Space in a Kindergarten/First Grade Classroom1
Authors: Shultz Jeffrey , Florio Susan
Published: May 2005

Going to school involves more than the mastery of academic content. Children learn as well to become socially competent members of the classroom community. Classroom interaction is a social activity comprised of the verbal and nonverbal behaviors which students and teachers manifest and interpret in face‐to‐face encounters. This study uses microethnographic techniques to discover and describe important aspects of the social competence acquired by children in a kindergarten/first grade classroom. ETHNOGRAPHY OF CLASSROOM INTERACTION, ACQUISITION OF SOCIAL COMPETENCE, KINDERGARTEN/FIRST GRADE CHILDREN, FACE‐TO‐FACE INTERACTION.
Mere Ethnography: Some Problems in its Use in Educational Practice1
Authors: Erickson Frederick
Published: May 2005

This article is the text of the Past Presidential Address delivered at the Annual Business Meeting of the Council on Anthropology and Education, Los Angeles, California, November 17, 1978.
American Indian Education: A Rite that Fails1
Authors: Riner Reed D.
Published: May 2005

Comprehensive analysis of attitudes toward formal education among teachers, American Indian parents and students in six High Plains communities reveals eight household types and associated attitude sets. Schooling, considered as a rite of passage, provides differential reinforcement to these attitude sets resulting in attitude erosion and high dropout rates among students and high teacher attrition. System models are used to identify optimum intervention points and strategies. AMERICAN INDIAN EDUCATION, NATIONAL STUDY OF(NSAIE) 1968‐69; BLACKFEET; NAVAJO; SIOUX; HOUSEHOLD TYPES AND ATTITUDES
Instructor Reaction to Verbal and Nonverbal‐Visual Styles: An Example of Navajo and Caucasian Children1
Authors: Guilmet George M.
Published: May 2005

The extent to which instructors attended differentially to thirteen Navajo and seven Caucasian children was assessed in an urban classroom using a formal observation technique. Significant differences in instructor attention were experienced by the two groups. These differences were attributed to the contrasting verbal and nonverbal‐visual styles displayed by the Caucasian and Navajo children. An evaluation program is offered which attempts to offset the tendency of instructors to attend differentially to children displaying diverse behavioral styles in the classroom. NAVAJOS, CLASSROOM, VERBAL BEHAVIOR, NONVERBAL‐VISUAL BEHAVIOR.
When Worldviews Collide: Gearing vs. Alien Epistemology
Authors: Knight Vernon J.
Published: May 2005

The theory of cultural transmission, as applied to education, lacks an adequate account of principles of interpretation. Hermeneutics, the philosophy of interpretation, has much to offer toward meeting this need. As a specific example, the philosophy of Michael Polanyi is used to critique recent theoretical work by Frederick O. Gearing. While many of Gearing's ideas are fundamentally sound, several inadequacies are identified. An expansion of Gearing's model of transaction is offered and education is redefined in a new light.
Educational Ethnology1
Authors: Hymes Dell H.
Published: May 2005

The term “educational ethnology” is useful to suggest the nature of a truly anthropological approach to schools. Such an approach would engage in research that was cumulative with regard to individual schools; comparative with regard to the similarities and differences among schools; cooperative in the mutual participation in research of anthropologists and members of the group (schools) studied. Such an approach might remedy serious limitations of much educational research.
Fieldwork and the Research Process1
Authors: Wax Murray L. , Wax Rosalie H.
Published: May 2005

In the course of fieldwork, investigators gain cultural insight and identify social processes. In this process they must interact with themselves and gain knowledge of themselves and their native culture. The task of writing is facilitated when it is viewed as a process which begins with the composition of the research proposal and is then continued via dialogue with the fieldnotes, providing the investigator has a proper vision of the audience for the report.
Teaching Participant‐Observation Research Methods: A Skills‐Building Approach
Authors: Levine Harold G. , Gallimore Ronald , Weisner Thomas S. , Turner Jim L.
Published: May 2005

In spite of long‐standing interest among social scientists in participant‐observation field methods there is little published material on how to teach these methods. In this paper the authors discuss a course they have offered at UCLA for the past six years. The course features experiential‐learning, simulation of fieldwork, and both student and teacher reflexivity. These teaching strategies are meant to facilitate student learning in five essential skill domains felt to be applicable to most types of participant‐observation field research. A detailed description of course content and learning activities is included.
Participation Structures in a Reading Lesson with Hawaiian Children: Analysis of a Culturally Appropriate Instructional Event1
Authors: Au Kathryn Hu‐pei
Published: May 2005

It was hypothesized that the reading achievement of a group of young Hawaiian children was increased because the participation structures in their reading lessons had become more similar to those of talk story, a major speech event in Hawaiian culture. A sample reading lesson was analyzed to test this notion. The lesson was found to contain nine types of participation structures, some found in conventional classroom settings but others much like those in talk story. More than half the sequences in the lesson were conducted in this second type of structure and involved a high degree of joint performance among the children.
The Symbolic Aspects of Educational Innovation1
Authors: Everhart Robert B. , Doyle Wayne J.
Published: May 2005

This paper examines educational innovations in their symbolic aspect—the degree to which innovations convey meanings that differ from their ostensible purpose and the degree to which such other meanings are understood by participants. Using the concepts of slogans and slogan systems to better understand these symbolic aspects, a particular educational innovation is examined over its life history. The organization and use of slogans is discussed, followed by an examination of the evolution of slogan systems. The utility of this perspective is discussed vis a vis parallel concepts in other areas of social policy.
The Competent Student
Authors: Mehan Hugh
Published: May 2005

The question asked in this paper, “What do students need to know in order to participate effectively in the classroom?” is answered in terms of the synchronization of students' behavior with interactional contexts and the interactional work in the display of academic knowledge, where “social contexts” consist of mutually ratified and constructed environments, and “competence for interaction” is assembled in concert with others. Teachers and students are shown to contribute cooperatively to the social organization of classroom events. This conception of mutual engagement is used to recommend substitution of mutually constitutive, reflexive conceptions for autonomous, undirectional conceptions, in theories of socialization.
The Submerged and the Seers: Adult Literacy in Peru, 1973–1974
Authors: Burton Anthony
Published: May 2005

During 1973‐74, the author was a consultant to ALFIN, a national literacy program organized by the Peruvian Ministry of Education and intended to operate in many areas of the Andes and coastal regions of Peru. ALFIN was developed as part of the revolutionary reform of education in Peru and was largely based on the teachings of Paulo Freire. This article explains and describes ALFIN, and recounts the author's role as participant.
Workers' Education and the Reproduction of Working Class Culture in Sheffield, England
Authors: Hakken David
Published: May 2005

This article examines the role of selected educational institutions in reproducing the distinctive cultural practice of a socially subordinate class in a complex society. Industrial and public service workers in the city of Sheffield, England, participate in a broad range of educational activities that contribute positively to the extended reproduction of a working class culture. Why this contribution is positive and the comparative relevance of the Sheffield data are examined also.
Learning Sexual Identity: Parents and Children in Northern Afghanistan
Authors: Shalinsky Audrey C.
Published: May 2005

The urban milieu in northern Afghanistan, as in other areas of the Middle East, is marked by the public separation of the sexes and the wearing of the veil by women. The inculcation of appropriate identity in boys and girls and the development of “proper” behavior patterns are among the primary tasks of each household. The mechanisms of the process, particularly the influence of the mother on children of both sexes, are analyzed as are implications for adolescent behavior and marital relationships.
Becoming a Blacksmith in Gbarngasuakwelle
Authors: Lancy David F.
Published: May 2005

In analyzing the processes involved in becoming a blacksmith in a Kpelle town in West Africa, the paper highlights the failure of simple typologies to account for the contrast between formal schooling and out‐of‐school or informal learning. The blacksmith is shown to carry three subroles: skilled worker, big‐man, and medicine man. Each involves different skills and each requires different training processes. These processes are described and attention is paid to their forma/and informal characteristics.
School Ethnography: A Multilevel Approach1
Authors: Ogbu John U.
Published: May 2005

Ethnography is increasingly used by researchers in education. Among nonanthropologists, however, it is often misconceived and superficially applied; among anthropologists there is a strong bias toward a narrow application of the technique to the study of education. The present paper argues for the application of traditional anthropological ethnography in the study of formal education and for broadening the scope of such studies. It also suggests a framework—an ecological framework—that permits a multilevel application of ethnography in formal education. SCHOOL ETHNOGRAPHY; EDUCATION; MINORITY EDUCATION; EDUCATIONAL ANTHROPOLOGY; ETHNOECOLOGY.
Minority Education in Sharonia, Israel, and Stockton, California: A Comparative Analysis
Authors: Lewis Arnold
Published: May 2005

In this paper, ethnographic data from Stockton, California and Sharonia, Israel are brought to bear on the question, In what way do dominant‐minority group relations affect the educational careers of poor black American and Oriental Jewish youth? Organizing the data in reference to two key concepts, power relationships and symbolic formations, it is shown that Stockton and Sharonia exhibit congruent structures of social inequality. This impinges on the organization of educational environments in each society. In both settings, minority youth must compete for educational credentials in social situations in which power relationships and symbolic formations are heavily weighted against their interests. Nevertheless, in confronting similar social situations, black American and Oriental Jewish youth have adopted divergent strategies of behavior. It is argued that alternative responses to similar educational situations can best be explained in reference to the world view and corresponding strategy for social advancement of black Americans and Oriental Jews. MINORITY EDUCATION; SOCIAL INEQUALITY; ISRAEL; BLACK AMERICANS; ORIENTAL JEWS; ETHNOGRAPHY.
Ethnographic Research and the Problem of Data Reduction1
Authors: Goetz Judith Preissle , LeCompte Margaret D.
Published: May 2005

Choices of strategies for analyzing records or transcripts of human behavior in everyday, naturalistic settings are affected by a variety of external and internal design constraints. Among the most common techniques identified are analytic induction, the constant comparative method, typological analysis, enumerative systems, and standardized observational protocols. Each of these is described and analyzed along multiple dimensions of design considerations. SCHOOL ETHNOGRAPHY; OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH; QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS; RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.
New Perils for the Contract Ethnographer
Authors: Fetterman David M.
Published: May 2005

The conditions of contract research may lead some workers to ignore publication rights of colleagues whose reports are of limited circulation. This type of activity may occur and be downplayed when it does occur because contract research is conducted outside the traditional academic environment. The businesslike environment, “inhuman” deadlines, and pressures to “produce” may generate abuses. Contract research, however, must be bound by the same rigorous ethical standards as research done in the traditional academic environment if free exchange of ideas and information is to occur. ETHNOGRAPHIC EVALUATION; ETHICS; CONTRACT RESEARCH; PUBLICATION PROTOCOL; SCHOOL ETHNOGRAPHY.
Supporting or Subverting Learning: Peer Group Patterns in Four Tracked Schools1
Authors: Schwartz Frances
Published: May 2005

Why do proeducational peer patterns emerge in one classroom and anti‐educational relationships in another? Focusing on the school's role in generating these differences, this paper argues that peer group academic orientation is a reaction to the expectations and constraints of a specific educational structure. It analyzes the impact of one structur—tracking—on the peer group and speculatively explains the emergence of contrasting high‐ and low‐track patterns.
The Epistemic Discourse of Teachers: An Ethnographic Study
Authors: Young R. E.
Published: May 2005

Despite its obvious relevance and importance, the nature of teachers' images of knowledge, their ‘epistemologies’, has not been extensively studied. In particular, there appears to exist no ethnographic study which attempts to discover the nature of these views. Through semantic taxonomy interviews, written replies to questions, a classification (or category formation) task and participant observation, the epistemologies of several groups of secondary teachers were explored. Analysis and interpretation of the data so obtained indicated that teachers' epistemologies were complex and diverse but that the major issues for the majority of teachers centered around whether science in its logical‐empirical or positivist guise was the epitome of human knowledge or whether some more personal, intuitive access to knowledge was as important or even more important. Teachers' discourse about knowledge could be described in terms of the nature of the set of epistemological rules which they expressed and a model which appeared to allow further analysis of these rules was developed and applied to the data.
Observations in Pittsburgh Ghetto Schools
Authors: Williams Melvin D.
Published: May 2005

This is a descriptive account by a black anthropologist of observations in some Pittsburgh ghetto schools. It illustrates variations in life‐styles and in educational milieu. The paper describes some of the impacts of these on the educational experiences of the students. The author discusses the possible pedagogical incorporations of the subcultural variations as one approach to learning experiences in these ghetto public schools.
The Consequences of Literacy in Pragmatic and Theoretical Perspectives
Authors: Akinnaso F. Niyi
Published: May 2005

Drawing on resources from anthropology, linguistics, psychology, and education, this paper examines critically the effects of literacy on cultural traditions, linguistic behavior, socio‐economic organization, cognitive processes, and child development. Attention is given to the question of whether literacy causes new cognitive capabilities or only promotes the deployment of preexisting ones. The paper also considers the implications for anthropological, psychological, and linguistic theories of the increased attention given to the study of literacy and its effects on language, thought, and society. Suggestions are offered about how school curricula and general educational policies could make use of relevant findings in devising literacy programs that are socially and culturally relevant.
Researching Pupil Attending Behavior within Naturalistic Classroom Settings
Authors: Brooks Douglas M. , Rogers Constance J.
Published: May 2005

The study investigated pupil visual attending behavior toward the teacher within naturalistic classroom settings. Eight teachers in traditional classroom settings were asked to select four pupils, subsequently labeled accepted, indifferent, concerned, and rejected. Both teacher lecturing behavior time and pupil visual attending behavior toward the teacher were recorded. Significant differences were found on pupil visual attending behavior between pupil categories, and a significant two‐way interaction was found for visual attending behavior with pupil sex and category as main effects. The importance of contextually designed studies of teacher‐pupil behavior exchange is discussed.
Social Economic Status and Educational Achievement: A Review Article1
Authors: Bond George Clement
Published: May 2005

This paper provides a preliminary review of concepts and studies related to social class, educational achievement and learning styles. An attempt is made to survey the literature pertaining to the complex relationships between social economic status and educational achievement and to set out the main arguments. It is primarily intended for the educator and the interested layman. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION, SOCIAL CLASS, EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT, LEARNING STYLES, THE INDIVIDUAL.
Socialization and the Symbolic Order of the School1
Authors: Kapferer Judith L.
Published: May 2005

Comparatively little research in western education has focused upon the way in which ritual and ceremonial practices achieve their effects in the socialization process. This paper, in analyzing two private secondary school rituals, essays a partial answer to two questions: Why do private schools appear to be so much more successful than state schools in committing their clientele to the advancement of the school project and in socializing students into acceptance of and support for the culture of the school? And what is the socializing role of ritual practice in such schools? SOCIALIZATION, RITUAL, SCHOOL CULTURE, SCHOOL ETHNOGRAPHY, SOCIAL CLASS.
Search for a Theory of Cultural Transmission in an Anthropology of Education: Notes on Spindler and Gearing
Authors: Funnell Robert , Smith Richard
Published: May 2005

Since its inception as a subdiscipline, the anthropology of education literature has been characterized by the volume and richness of descriptive ethnographies. Periodic review papers have commented on the lack of conceptual clarity in the key areas of cultural transmission and acquisition, but the theoretical challenges of such papers have been addressed infrequently. This paper attempts to clearly focus on the conceptual dilemmas that are inherent in the theories most widely adopted in the subdiscipline. By an analysis of the intrapsychic and interpsychic models of cultural transmission that underlie the influential work of Spindler and Gearing, it is shown that there is a mismatch between the culture theory of mainstream contemporary anthropology and the subdiscipline. The continuity of certain forms of instrumentalism in particular is shown to have unfortunate consequences for the anthropology of education insofar as the theoretical nexus between personal identity, culture, and institutionalized meanings is inadequately formulated. CULTURAL TRANSMISSION, ANTHROPOLOGY OF EDUCATION, CULTURE THEORY, EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, SOCIALIZATION.
Socioeconomic Factors in Bilingualism in Two Guatemalan Indian Communities1
Authors: Wilhite Margaret
Published: May 2005

Problems of effectiveness of programs of bilingual education point to the need for understanding factors outside the educational system that can determine the impact of such programs. This study presents data from two Guatemalan Indian communities that show the effect of different types of marketing on the incidence and degree of bilingualism among women. Four factors are isolated that influence the amount and kind of interaction that takes place between Indian women and non‐Indians. The influence of these patterns of interaction on bilingualism is examined. BILINGUALISM, MARKETING, CULTURE CHANGE, CAKCHIQUEL.
Do Anthropologists Need learning Theory?1
Authors: Spindler George , Spindler Louise
Published: May 2005

After a flurry of attention to and use of explicit learning theory by anthropologists in the 1940s, few direct citations of it appear in anthropological work. This paper explores current psychological learning theory, including social learning; resolution of dissonance, coercive persuasion, compliance, latent learning, discovery learning, guided learning, and information‐processing models to see what might be useful to anthropologists. LEARNING THEORY, SOCIAL LEARNING, ACQUISITION OF CULTURE, INITIATION, CRITICAL LEARNlNC PERIODS.
Community and Hominid Emergence1
Authors: KimbaII Solon T.
Published: May 2005

Speculation about the factors contributing to the evolution of Homo sapiens has generally neglected the influence of the social context. it is argued here that an incipient human community was a necessary requirement for hominid emergence. LEARNING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATlON, EVOLUTION Of HOMOSAPIENS, COMMUNITY.
Taught Cognitive learning in its Immediate Environments: A Neglected Topic in the Anthropology of Education1
Authors: Erickson Frederick
Published: May 2005

Through ethnographic inquiry into “taught” cognitive learning, the anthropology of learning can provide analytically descriptive narrative accounts of the reflexive calibration between individual teachers and learners as they construct learning environments for each other. Levels of organization comprehended in such study should include individual cognitive functioning, together with the social, political, and cultural factors in which the learning environment is embedded, but it is the pedagogical encounter itself‐the adaptive transaction between the individual and the immediate learning environment‐that should occupy the center of analytic attention. This requires a shift in research focus since to date the anthropology of education has shown rather little concern for cognitive learning that has been deliberately taught. COGNITIVE LEARNING, LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS, TEACHING, TEACHER‐LEARNER INTERACTION, MANIFEST CURRICULUM.
From Background to Foreground: Toward an Anthropology of Learning
Authors: Hansen Judith Friedman
Published: May 2005

A “new” anthropology of knowledge transmission must expand its focus beyond traditional concerns with child development, schooling, and cultural continuity. Equally, it should probe the relationship between cultural knowledge‐as artifact and event, as analytic concept, and as empirical phenomenon‐and scientific knowledge and inquiry, moving us toward an anthropology of knowledge. Included in analysis should be processes of knowledge construction and transmission, structural variables, cultural values and assumptions, biophysiological variables, diachronic and synchronic contexts, and learning outcomes. EDUCATIONAL ANTHROPOLOGY, ANTHROPOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE, KNOWLEDGE TRANSMISSION, LEARNING, STRUCTURE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY.
Education, Religion, and Social Structure in Zaire
Authors: MacGaffey Wyatt
Published: May 2005

This paper is an analysis of the relationship of indigenous and western systems of education in lower Zaire during the period of the transformation of the lineage mode of production prevailing in precolonial times to a form of dependent capitalism. The paper also explores the relationship of these two educational systems to the religion, social structure, and patterns of social stratification of populations of lower Zaire placing special emphasis on the Bakongo.
Education and Social Stratification in Northern Zambia: The Case of the Uyombe
Authors: Bond George C.
Published: May 2005

This paper explores the relationship between formal western style education and developing patterns of social stratification in a community of northern Zambia. It examines the manner in which a capitalist productive mode has affected indigenous occupational structures transforming millet cultivators into peasants and wage earners.
Whose School? Conflicts over School Management in Sefwi Wiawso, Ghana
Authors: Roberts P.A.
Published: May 2005

This paper examines the role of the primary school teacher within the setting of a community in western Ghana. It explores the types of problems that teachers confront as the consequence of the conflicts that arise between national institutions and local community expectations.
Sex Roles, Education, and Development in Africa
Authors: Sudarkasa Niara
Published: May 2005

This paper provides a general discussion of the effects of colonial rule on patterns of indigenous African education, division of labor, and social stratification. It explores changing patterns of sex roles and occupational structures giving special attention to the changing position of women.