bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Noninvasive assessment of seasonal hormone profile in captive bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)
Authors: Bercovitz Arden Bryan , Collins Jan , Price Paul , Tuttle Dale
Published: June 2005

The hypothesis was to test whether a ratio of estrogen:androgen in eagle feces would reflect gonadal activity, and whether our procedure for noninvasive hormone analysis of fecal steroids could be applied to assess seasonal reproductive function in four captive bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). Total immunoreactive excretory estrogens (E) and testosterone (T) were analyzed and compared as an E/T ratio from ad libitum monthly stool collections during the 1980–81 breeding season of birds maintained in an artificial insemination (AI) project. Since active male gonads are known to secrete a preponderance of androgens into the peripheral circulation and that renal clearance filters steroid metabolites into the urine, it was reasonable to assume that a lowered excretory E/T profile would mimic major changes in male seasonal steroidogenesis; analogously, active female gonads would result in an increased excretion of urinary estrogens, in turn reflected by a seasonal elevation of E/T ratios. A serial profile of excretory E/T ratio data for two male bald eagles approximated unity values except for a midseason low (x < 0.4) in February, one month prior to semen collections, followed by a significant end‐of‐breeding season rise in E/T values (x > 2.5, P < 0.01). The average E/T profile from data of two female eagles were two‐ to sixfold higher than males except for a significant mid‐breeding season peak in E/T values during March (x > 13.5, P < 0.01). Despite the absence of nest building or egg production by either female, these preliminary observational data indicated seasonal patterns of gonadal activity in both female eagles that were synchronous with semen availability from adjacent males.
Evaluation of secondary infertility in the gorilla
Authors: O'Grady John Patrick , Esra Gerald N. , Yeager Caroline H. , Thomas Warren D.
Published: June 2005

Reproductive failure in two female gorillas in the Los Angeles Zoo led to evaluation for secondary infertility. Male factor was excluded by noting routine conceptions in other individuals in the same group, and by behavioral observations of coital activity with the infertile females. Biochemical evidence of ovarian function was obtained by urinary sex steroid analysis. Continuity of the reproductive tract of the infertile apes was then studied by hysterosalpingography and laparoscopy while their general health was evaluated by ultrasonography and physical examination. Progressive, multiorgan involvement with Echinococcus vogeli was documented and mebendazole therapy begun. The investigation of secondary infertility in great apes by combined methods is safe and accurate, but requires special equipment and experienced personnel.
Environmental influences on the activity of captive apes
Authors: Wilson Susan F.
Published: June 2005

Forty‐one zoological gardens in seven European countries were visited to investigate activity level in captive environments for great apes. Forty‐three groups of gorillas and 68 groups of orangutans were observed. The seven factors quantified for each of the environments were size of the enclosure, usable surface area, frequency of feeding, number of animals, and number of objects (stationary, temporary, and movable). Activity level of each group was measured by instantaneous scan sampling for one hour on two consecutive days. For both species, the factors most highly related to activity level were number of animals, and stationary, temporary, and movable objects. The usefulness of these variables for predicting group activity level was different for the two species, however. Factors important for gorillas were stationary and temporary objects, while stationary and movable objects were significant for orangutans. These findings suggest that objects within environments may be more important for captive apes than the size or construction of the enclosure. Also, the types of objects that need to be included in environments may be related to the natural behavior of the individual species.
A note on the structure of tail hairs from a pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis)
Authors: Kranz Karl R.
Published: June 2005

The pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis), like the Nile hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), defecates by backing into vertical objects while making a series of rapid, propellerlike tail movements that spread a mixture of urine and feces in a wide swath. Split hairs from the distal ventral surface of the pygmy hippopotamus tail were studied with the scanning electron microscope to determine whether the splitting was a normal character of the hair or was due to damage. The results suggest that splitting is a normal feature of the hair that may facilitate the dispersal of urine and feces.
Strike‐induced chemosensory searching in old world vipers and new world pit vipers at San Diego Zoo
Authors: O'Connell Barbara , Greenlee Robin , Bacon James , Chiszar David
Published: June 2005

Rattlesnakes (Crotalus unicolor, C vegrandis) and Russell's vipers (Vipera russelli) at San Diego Zoo exhibited sustained high rates of tongue flicking after striking mice (Mus musculus) but not after seeing, smelling, and/or detecting thermal cues arising from mice. Called strike‐induced chemosensory searching (SICS), this phenomenon contributes to poststrike trailing of envenomated prey. Because these zoo‐raised snakes had always been offered dead rodents, and because these prey were usually ingested without first being struck, the present snakes had rarely exercised their innate predatory repertoire (ie, ambush tactics including striking, releasing, and trailing). Indeed, most specimens had never before struck a mouse and, hence, had never exhibited SICS. The occurrence of SICS in the present study clearly indicates that this important aspect of the predatory repertoire had not been degraded as a consequence of long‐term captive husbandry.
Application of noninvasive techniques to monitor reproductive function in a brown hyena(Hyena brunnea)
Authors: Ensley P. K. , Wing A. E. , Gosink B. B. , Lasley B. L. , Durrant B.
Published: June 2005

Estrus in a 10‐yr‐old brown hyena was described by monitoring urinary steroid metabolites. These studies were repeated the succeeding year and combined with ultrasonography, vaginal cytology, and laparoscopy to further aid in identifying natural and induced estrus. Collection of semen from a 14‐yr‐old male brown hyena was accomplished by electroejaculation. Use of frozen semen once during natural estrus and again during estrus induced with follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) did not result in pregnancy. Further studies with this animal indicate that stimulation with gonadotropin releasing hormone (GNRH), rather than FSH, may be the more appropriate treatment for stimulating ovulation in canids or related species.

While this study did not result in conception, a significant step toward that end was realized by utilizing urinary estrogen to monitor the estrus cycle.
Early functional maturity of captive male northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris)
Authors: Spotte Stephen , Schneider Jack
Published: June 2005

A male northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris) that was conceived in captivity was stillborn February 14, 1981, at Mystic Marinelife Aquarium in Mystic, Connecticut. Either of two males in the exhibit could have sired the pup. Both were only 3 yr at the time of conception.
Urine‐marking during agonistic encounters in the bush dog (Speothos venaticus)
Authors: Biben Maxeen
Published: June 2005

During staged encounters, bush dogs of the same sex showed a high level of aggressive‐defensive behaviors and a higher than normal frequency of urine‐marking. Where dominance was established during encounters, dominant individuals marked more than subordinates. Where dominance was not clearly established, both participants remained aggressive and showed higher than normal levels of marking. Urine‐marking appears to communicate aggressiveness and may be used to compensate for the otherwise relatively inconspicuous aggressive and dominance displays of this species.
Preliminary observations on reproduction in the Central American agouti, Dasyprocta punctata
Authors: Meritt Dennis A.
Published: June 2005

Two adult male and three adult female agoutis have been reproducing at the Lincoln Park Zoo since 1978. Agoutis of the species D. punctata and D. fuliginosa are capable of breeding and producing offspring in every month of the year in captivity. The minimum interbirth interval of captive punctata is 127 days, and its gestation period is apparently less than 127 calendar days. In captivity, agoutis are likely to produce multiple offspring.
Renesting and brooding in the Caribbean flamingo
Authors: Brown Susan G. , Shannon Peter , Farnell Guy
Published: June 2005

Caribbean flamingos were observed during the 1981 breeding season at the Audubon Zoological Garden in New Orleans, Louisiana. Two floods occurred during the breeding season, causing the flock to nest three times. At each new nesting there was a significant decline in the number of birds laying eggs. One pair brooded a chick during the final nesting. Immediately after hatching, the female usually brooded while the male defended the nest area; however, over the three‐day period that the chick remained on the nest, the male began to spend more time brooding and less time defending the nest area. Thus there appeared to be some division of labor in this flamingo pair.
Herpetological research in zoos: A literature survey, 1977–1981
Authors: Sajdak Richard A.
Published: June 2005

Herpetological zoo research published in three journals between 1977 and 1981 was surveyed. Fifty‐three of 1,084 published papers involved zoos. Research for 30 papers was conducted in zoos. Just under three fourths of zoo papers involved behavioral research. Sixteen zoos were involved in research in this survey.
Cost effectiveness in captive management
Authors: Rutledge Brian A.
Published: June 2005

The purpose of this paper is to encourage recognition that economic constraints are of paramount importance to all management decisions. An early acceptance of this fact minimizes the disastrous effects of those constraints. Each decision considered, whether research, conservation, education, or management, must be approached with cost effectiveness as a primary component of its developmental phases.
Reproduction of Asian chipmunks (Tamias sibiricus) in captivity
Authors: Blake Barbara H. , Gillett K. Elizabeth
Published: June 2005

Factors affecting reproduction in captive Asian chipmunks, Tamias sibiricus, were examined by means of a survey of chipmunk breeders in Great Britain. Sixteen breeders were asked about the conditions under which their chipmunks were kept and their success in breeding them. Results covered 205 female‐years of pairing. Breeding was promoted by large cage size and early weaning of young, and inhibited by the presence of other rodent species nearby and by extended photoperiod. A diet of seeds and nuts, with some fresh fruits and vegetables, appeared to be adequate for breeding. Breeding occurred in 80–91& of female‐years when neither extra lighting nor other rodents were present, irrespective of cage size. Weaning age affected the occurrence of second litters in a year. Second litters were born less often (0–13&) of breeding (female‐years) if young of the first litter remained with the mother 8 weeks or longer. Second litters were more frequent (14–45& of breeding female‐years) if first litters were removed by 6.5 weeks of age, and this frequency increased with cage size. Litter size also increased with cage size (means ranged from 3 to 7). Overall breeding success increased with cage size and decreased with the presence of other rodents. In most colonies without other rodents near, mean success rate ranged from 3.1 to 8.5 young/female‐year. In colonies with other rodents present mean success rate varied from 0 to 3.3 young/female‐year. It is suggested that the mechanisms that control population size in the wild also act to inhibit or promote breeding in captivity.
Survival of captive‐born Ovis canadensis in North American zoos
Authors: Sausman Karen A.
Published: June 2005

The survival rate of North American bighorn sheep, Ovis canadensis, housed in several zoological gardens was analyzed. Complete herd histories, including birth and death data as well as causes of mortality, were collected from seven institutions. Lambs were divided into inbred and noninbred animals, with lambs being considered inbred if they had an inbreeding coefficient greater than zero. The rate of survival of inbred and noninbred lambs was compared using “survival equalling one year” and “survival equalling six months.” Another analysis compared the survival rate of male and female inbred lambs and male and female noninbred lambs. Age at death was also compared in inbred and noninbred lambs. The analysis of the data for the seven collections, located in various geographic areas and housing various subspecies, indicates that inbreeding depression is a mortality factor in the captive management of North American bighorn sheep. Therefore, long‐term survival of captive or isolated wild populations will depend on maintaining genetic diversity within the herds through careful selection of breeding stock in captive populations and introduction of nonrelated animals into isolated wild populations.
Selected aspects of collared peccary (Dicotyles tajacu) reproductive biology in a captive texas herd
Authors: Lochmiller Robert L. , Hellgren Eric C. , Grant W. E.
Published: June 2005

Collared peccaries (Dicotyles tajacu) from 32 litters were born in captivity during the period from September, 1981 through July, 1983. Incidence of singleton, twin, and triplet litters was 28%, 66%, and 6%, respectively. Mean (± SE) weight of young from singleton, twin, and triplet litters was 751 (± 35) gm, 698 (± 17) gm, and 612 (± 74) gm, respectively. Sex ratio among all litters was 56:44 (M:F). Neonatal mortality amounted to 9% of the young born. Mean duration of estrus was 2.60 days and mean length of gestation was 145.6 days. Evidence indicated that multiple copulations increased ovulation rate and the chance for conception.
Growth and feeding relationships of a hand‐reared lowland gorilla infant (Gorilla g gorilla)
Authors: Kawata Ken , Elsen Kay M.
Published: June 2005

A captive‐born female lowland gorilla that was being hand‐reared by a group of surrogate mothers in a public zoo was observed for her first 6 mo. Caloric intake and weight gain, along with feeding bias of surrogate mothers, were examined. Caloric intake was highest during early morning and late at night. The weekly caloric intake and weight gain fluctuated with no established pattern. Although the gorilla's caloric intake did not increase with age, her total weight increased with a slower growth rate in the latter part of the study period, indicating a decreased caloric intake/weight ratio. It became evident that each surrogate exhibited an “overfeeding” and “underfeeding” tendency; calories given by the surrogates varied considerably, reflecting the interaction between the infant and the surrogates.
Two cases of interspecific hybridization among captive Australian boid snakes
Authors: Banks Chris , Schwaner Terry D.
Published: June 2005

A comparative study of external morphology and electrophoresis of blood proteins showed that two broods of Australian boid snakes, conceived and born in captivity, were the progeny of interspecific and intergeneric matings. Unequivocal identification of parents of the Python spilotes × P amethistinus cross was possible; evidence suggested that a P amethistinus female found coiled about the clutch of eggs was not the snake that laid them. The cross between P spilotes × Liasis mackloti was consistent with other evidence suggesting a close relationship between species of Python and Liasis in the Australian‐Papuan region.
GP2 medium is an artificial seawater for culture or maintenance of marine organisms
Authors: Spotte Stephen , Adams Gary , Bubucis Patricia M.
Published: June 2005

A new four‐part artificial seawater called GP2 Medium is described. It provides a balanced solution for routine maintenance of fishes and invertebrates but is also suitable for axenic culture of phytoplankton. Mixing instructions for phytoplankton culture are given. Instructions for mixing large volumes for routine maintenance of animals are the same as those previously published. The formula is described chemically in terms of ionic and salt concentrations.
Nipple contact in captive black‐faced chimpanzees (Pan t troglodytes [Blumenbach, 1779])
Authors: Muñiz Rafael S.
Published: June 2005

Three chimpanzee (Pan t troglodytes) mother‐infant dyads were studied from months 3 to 11 of the infants' lives in order to obtain data on nipple contact. Three conclusions were obtained: (1) There were fluctuations in the time spent in nipple contact. (2) Both female offspring were in nipple position for less time than the male offspring. (3) Grooming of the infants by their mothers during nipple contact was observed more frequently in the mother‐female offspring pairs.
Hormone levels and overt social behaviors, including signed output, in a captive lowland gorilla
Authors: Watson Lyna M.
Published: June 2005

An investigation into the relationship between a 10‐yr‐old captive female gorilla's hormonal fluctuations and her overt behaviors was conducted for a 6‐mo period during daily, 30‐min, midday sample sessions. During each session a urine sample was collected from the gorilla and a total immunoreactive estrogen assay (Et) was performed to obtain combined levels of estrone, estradiol, and estriol. Additionally, 38 behavioral variables were recorded on check sheets. Nearly 50% of these variables were significantly (P ≤ .05) correlated with the ape's hormone levels, thus suggesting that non‐sexual overt behaviors may act as indicators of an ape's reproductive status.
Strategies for maintaining genetic diversity in captive populations through reproductive technology
Authors: Ballou Jonathan D.
Published: June 2005

The maintenance of genetic diversity in captive populations is a primary goal of captive breeding plans, and it is becoming increasingly apparent that reproductive technology has much to offer captive breeding programs in attaining this goal. Reproductive technology can best assist captive breeding programs in this task by developing strategies that effectively increase the genetic contribution of new wild founders to a population as well as increase the reproductive life span of existing founders and their close descendents. This will act to reduce genetic drift and inbreeding effects in the population and thereby minimize the loss of genetic diversity.

Considering only one aspect of reproductive technology, semen collection, this paper examines some of the genetic considerations that might be used for choosing which males in a population to collect semen from, assuming the goal of the captive breeding program is the preservation of genetic diversity. It is shown that semen collection and preservation, with future intent of artificial insemination, can make significant contributions to the maintenance of genetic diversity if careful consideration is given to the selection of donor males. Finally, the pedigree of the captive population of Asian lions (Panthera leo persica) is used to illustrate some of these genetic concepts that might be important in selecting males as semen donors.
Toward the brave new zoo: Species program planning for reproductive technology development
Authors: Wharton Danny C.
Published: June 2005

This article outlines some of the advantages inherent in domestic animal reproductive technology development and compares them to the disadvantages in such development in wildlife species. Species program planning (as proposed by the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums' Species Survival Plan) is offered as an important first step in organizing appropriate research toward reproductive technology development in wildlife species.
Considerations for cryopreservation of semen
Authors: Marshall C. E.
Published: June 2005

The development of a semen storage program at a zoo will be difficult since the factors involved with freezing semen and insemination procedures that apply to one species will not in all probability apply to another. Animal management influences both the initial quantity and quality of semen. Semen collection methods used on domestic species can be applied to wildlife. Many methods of semen evaluation of fresh or frozen semen are available, but in some species only one may be significant—a live offspring from an insemination of a female. Many variables and their interactions in semen processing must be considered when working with each species: extender, glycerol levels, cell numbers per package, cooling rates, thawing rates, and equilibration time. Periodic communication and cooperation among the people directly involved will be paramount enhancing the advancement of semen cryopreservation in exotic species.
Oviducal development in a Krefft's river turtle, Emydura krefftii gray (Chelonia: Chelidae)
Authors: Banks Chris B.
Published: June 2005

A clutch of Emydura krefftii eggs hatched 20 days after oviposition, in contrast to the normal incubation period of 45–50 days for this species. This shortened incubation and the presence of stage 20–21 embryos at oviposition indicates facultative oviducal development in E krefftii.
Predatory behavior in captive Lemur spp
Authors: Jolly Alison , Oliver William L. R.
Published: June 2005

Lemur fulvus mayottensis, L catta, and L mongoz mongoz at the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust readily catch and consume proffered crickets and locusts. Lf mayottensis and L m mongoz also readily catch and consume small birds and mice, whilst these are ignored by L catta and L variegatus. These differences probably reflect real differences in the predatory behavior of these species, though they may also relate to cage specifications or to the history of the particular groups. These captive lemurs are either perpetuating previously unsuspected wild habits or else innovating in captivity. Observed Lemur predation resembles that of other primate species in being primarily accomplished by dominant individuals (in lemurs, generally adult females), and involving group excitement, as well as snatching and begging by subordinates, which could lead to traditions of predatory behavior.
Incorporation of new founders into captive populations
Authors: Jones Karen Gay Cronquist , Flesness Nathan R. , Foose Thomas J.
Published: June 2005

This report describes preliminary studies intended to develop generalizations for the optimal incorporation of newcomers into breeding pools. Small populations, which grow from four to a stable size of 16 animals per generation, were simulated on a computer. New founders were introduced and various breeding schemes tried and evaluated for their effect on inbreeding coefficients and founder representation. Two variables were examined for their effects on inbreeding and founder representation: number of progeny produced by crossing new founders with the established population, and number of mates the new founder had from the established population. Increasing the value of these variables to the point at which new‐founder representation was equal to the original founders' representations decreased inbreeding. Beyond this point, inbreeding increased.
Increasing activity in captive orangutans: Provision of manipulable and edible materials
Authors: Tripp J. K.
Published: June 2005

The purpose of this research was to explore the impact of the provision of manipulable and edible materials on the activity level of captive orangutans. The effects of three environmental conditions—bare exhibit, manipulables present, and manipulables plus edibles present—on the gross motor activity of four captive orangutans were compared using a multielement design. Results indicated that activity increased under the enriched conditions with increases in activity type specific to the environmental change. In addition, zoo visitors rated the exhibit more favorably on days the enriched conditions were in effect than on bare exhibit days.
The composition of milk from captive aardvark (Orycteropus afer)
Authors: White J. M. , Williams G. , Samour J. H. , Drury P. J. J. , Cheeseman P.
Published: June 2005

Evidence indicates that hand‐rearing of exotic species may require specialized milk formulae. Milk samples collected from a captive aardvark (Orycteropus afer) between days 3 and 32 postpartum have been analysed for fat, protein, lactose, and minerals. The level of nutrients determined may be at variance with those of a normal lactating aardvark because of the low volumes of milk removed. The analysis indicates that the commercial preparations may be inadequate in protein and provide high levels of energy in the form of lactose. The energy level from fat appears to be similar to that of other species, but it is unlikely that the commercial formulae would provide the level of the long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids found in aardvark milk. It is clear that the energy available from the milk protein is significant.
Development of young in the kowari Dasyuroides byrnei spencer, 1896
Authors: Meißner Karin , Gansloßer Udo
Published: June 2005

In captivity, female Dasyuroides byrnei (kowari) raise their young in the presence of a male and other adult females. The development of D byrnei can be staged as follows: gestation period of 35 days; firmly attached to the teat for about 56 days; eyes open after about 74 days; beginning of play‐fighting at 86 days; running play and beginning to eat solid food at about 95 days; sexual maturity at 10–11 months. Kowaris display a high degree of social tolerance between adults and young as well as adults and juveniles.

Weibliche Tiere von Dasyuroides byrnei ziehen in Gefangenschaft ihre Jungen regelmäßig in Gegenwart des Männchens und anderer adulter Weibchen auf. Die Entwicklung von D. byrnei verläuft in folgenden Stadien: Tragzeit 35 Tage; permanenter Zitzenkontakt 56 Tage; Augenöffnen nach etwa 74 Tagen; Beginn des Spielkampfes mit 86 Tagen; Laufspiele und Aufnahme von fester Nahrung nach etwa 95 Tagen; Geschlechtsreife mit 10–11 Monaten. Bemerkenswert ist die hohe soziale Toleranz zwischen Adulten und Jungtieren bzw. Heranwachsenden.
The development and application of an enzyme immunoassay for urinary estrone conjugates
Authors: Czekala N. M. , Gallusser S. , Meier J. E. , Lasley B. L.
Published: June 2005

An enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for estrone conjugates is described and applied to urine samples from a female Indian rhinoceros, a female gorilla, and a female lion‐tailed macaque. Concomitant measures of estrone conjugates in the same sample are compared to the values obtained with radioimmunoassay. High correlation coefficients for values obtained from each assay indicate that EIA measurements provide information that is comparable to values obtained by radioimmunoassay. EIA methods for urinary steroid conjugates can provide a practical tool to evaluate female reproductive status of zoo species without the need for a traditional endocrine laboratory.
Microbiology of captive white‐beaked dolphins (Lagenorhynchus albirostris) with comments on epizootics
Authors: Buck John D. , Spotte Stephen
Published: June 2005

In March 1983 six female white‐beaked dolphins (Lagenorhynchus albirostris) were rescued from an ice‐clogged bay in Newfoundland, Canada, and transported to Mystic Marinelife Aquarium in Mystic, Connecticut. Anal and blowhole samples (swabs) were collected at frequent intervals for bacteriological analysis. One dolphin died of neurogenic shock syndrome in transit. The others died at intervals of 1–101 days during the period of captivity. Staphylococci were implicated in the deaths of three of the five dolphins that remained alive after capture. Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae probably caused the death of the fourth, and infection by unidentified Gram‐negative bacteria was responsible for death of the fifth dolphin. Bacteriophage typing of several Staphylococcus isolates showed three separate strains. Bacteria recovered from anal and blowhole samples before the white‐beaked dolphins were introduced into the aquarium water system included enterobacteria (Edwardsiella, Escherichia, Klebsiella), Plesiomonas, Aeromonas, Citrobacter, Pseudomonas, and Staphylococcus. The two dolphins that survived the longest (44 and 101 days) showed a predominance of species of Proteus, Morganella, and Pseudomonas. Several genera of potential significance to humans also were found (e.g., Vibrio alginolyticus, V. fluvialis, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae).
Penetration of zona‐free hamster ova by Siberian tiger sperm
Authors: Post G. S. , Hensleigh H. C. , Byers A. P. , Seal U. S. , Kreeger T. J. , Reindl N. J. , Tilson R. L.
Published: June 2005

Sperm from the electroejaculate of captive Siberian tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) penetrated zona pellucida‐free hamster ova in vitro, evidenced by a decondensation reaction. This assay, when used in conjunction with semen analysis, may be useful in assessing the fertility potential of males of this and other related felids. Such information is an important step in developing successful long‐term management strategies for captive and wild populations of this severely endangered species.
Play frequencies in captive and free‐ranging bighorn lambs (Ovis canadensis canadensis)
Authors: Bennett Beth , Fewell Jennifer H.
Published: June 2005

Behavioral observations on captive animals are frequently extrapolated to provide species‐typical descriptions of a given behavior. Comparative studies of free‐ranging and captive animals are critical to substantiate this practice. We compared play frequencies in two populations of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis). Play was significantly more common in the free‐ranging group than in zoo animals. Reasons for this difference are discussed.
Comparative gastrointestinal morphology of the Kori bustard and secretary bird
Authors: Maloiy G. M. O. , Warui C. N. , Clemens E. T.
Published: June 2005

Two secretary birds and three Kori bustards were studied to determine differences between their body size and gastrointestinal morphology. Body measurements were made on captive, live birds and gastrointestinal measurements on fresh postmortem specimens. For predator species, such as the Kori bustard and secretary bird, body size is a function of their ability to capture and destroy prey. While the secretary bird was clearly the taller of the two species, superior body weight, wing length, and therefore body size was noted for the Kori bustard. The size and length of the gastrointestinal tract varied between species. The secretary bird had the shorter, less complex digestive tract, with a foregut well adapted for consumption of large quantities of flesh. The large intestine was devoid of ceca. The gastrointestinal tract of the Kori bustard was markedly different from that of the secretary bird. The foregut was less complex and the large intestine possessed large, voluminous ceca.
Electrocardiography of the short‐tailed, leaf‐nosed bat Carollia perspicillata
Authors: Cook Robert A. , Halpern David , Tast Janet , Dolensek Emil P.
Published: June 2005

Thirty‐three bats of the genus Carollia were anesthetized for routine physical exams with ketamine HCl. Each animal was placed in dorsal recumbency, and a six‐lead electrocardiogram (ECG) was performed. ECG parameters were measured and intervals and deflections calculated. In addition, mean electrical axes in the frontal plane were calculated.
Variability of uterine cervical anatomy in the white‐tailed gnu (Connochaetes gnou)
Authors: Stover J.
Published: June 2005

Examination of the reproductive anatomy of six female white‐tailed gnu revealed duplex uterus with varying degrees of cervical division. The division ranged from 36 to 100% of the length of the cervix, with one animal exhibiting double external ossa. This variability in reproductive anatomy could be important in artificial insemination or embryo transfer procedures in this species.
Behavioral development in the red‐crowned crane (Grus japonensis)
Authors: Horwich Robert H.
Published: June 2005

A male and a female red‐crowned crane were observed on a weekly basis from hatching until 7 months of age. The levels for 12 classes of activity were averaged and displayed. Weekly weights and weight gains were also displayed. Developmental profiles are discussed. These include (1) cyclic profiles, (2) single developmental peaks, and (3) behaviors with a high initial level reducing to a later low level. The chicks seemed to display alternating passive and active periods. The cyclic nature of development is discussed in relation to similar cycles in other species of birds and mammals.
Cage design attenuates display patterns of male chimpanzees
Authors: Rumbaugh Duane M.
Published: June 2005

Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) males are well known for their frequent displays toward viewers who approach and stand in front of their cages. If the front of the chimpanzees' cage is vertical and is constructed of bars or chain link framed by steel, the display includes “pant‐hooting,” then lunging onto the cage's front, followed by a series of vigorous attempts to shake the entire structure. The display is intimidating and can include spitting and throwing of materials. Also, displays can incur substantial damage to the cage over time. By sloping the front of the cage toward the center of the cage, the display pattern is profoundly attenuated both in frequency and form. Additionally, it serves to make the males more tranquil. No adverse effects on their health and well‐being over a 2‐year period have been noted.
Functions and social consequences of infant–adult male interaction in a captive group of lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)
Authors: Mitchell Robert W.
Published: June 2005

The functions and social consequences of infant‐adult male interaction in a captive group of lowland gorillas were evaluated. The two males repeatedly attempted to interact with the infant, the infant sometimes attempted to interact with the males, and the mother usually interrupted interactions between male and infant. Infant‐directed actions by the two males frequently showed their interest in the infant and infrequently showed care giving toward her; their other infant‐directed actions occurred near the time of excitement or of playful actions between adults. Male‐directed actions by the infant frequently showed its interest in one male and infrequently showed care seeking from him. All infant‐adult male interactions but one occurred in the less stimulating of the gorillas' two enclosures. Boredom and the mother's frequent thwarting of contact between a male and infant are suggested as influences on the males' interest in the infant. The data suggest that availability of interesting objects alleviated the boredom of captivity for males and thus dissuaded them from seeking stimulation which sometimes resulted in harmful behaviors toward the infant.
Scent‐marking in captive red pandas (Ailurus fulgens)
Authors: Conover Greta K. , Gittleman John L.
Published: June 2005

Three male and three female captive red pandas (Ailurus fulgens) were observed during and outside of the breeding season to examine changes in scent‐marking behavior. Variation in scent‐marking was analyzed with respect to site preferences, sex differences, onset of breeding, behavioral correlates, and environmental factors. Both males and females exhibited significant preferences for particular marking sites, those being prominent points in the enclosures. Males showed significantly higher scent‐marking frequencies than females, except in one enclosure where increased marking behavior was associated with the presence of young. Sexual dimorphism in the pattern of marking was also observed, with males showing a bidirectional mark and females a unidirectional mark. Female marking was greater during the breeding season. Sniffing and number of waddles per mark were associated with scent‐marking. Temperature change was not related to frequency of scent‐marking. These results are compared with scent‐marking behaviors in other species of carnivores and functional explanations are suggested.
Homage to Niko Tinbergen and Konrad Lorenz: Is classical ethology relevant to zoos?
Authors: Robinson Michael H.
Published: June 2005

A personal account of the impact of the founders of ethology is presented. Niko Tinbergen and Konrad Lorenz profoundly affected the attitudes of people toward animals, showing people, for the first time, the sophistication of animal behavior. Also presented is a personal memoir of working with Tinbergen, and speculation on how zoos might benefit from a closer look at the lessons of animal behavior in both the care of the animals and the education of the public.
Digestibility of timothy hay by African elephants
Authors: Roehrs J. M. , Brockway C. R. , Ross D. V. , Reichard T. A. , Ullrey D. E.
Published: June 2005

Two juvenile, female African elephants (Loxodonta africana) were used in summer and winter trials to determine the apparent digestibility of timothy (Phleum pratense) hay. After 12–14 days of dietary adjustment, dry matter intake and fecal excretion were quantitatively measured for 7 days. Dry matter of timothy hay contained 8.6 and 7.7% crude protein, 57.3 and 44.0% acid detergent fiber, and 6.5 and 6.4% ash during the summer and winter trials, respectively. Estimates of apparent digestibility during summer and winter, respectively, were 39 and 35% for dry matter, 43 and 32% for gross energy (GE), 45 and 30% for crude protein (CP), and 36 and 24% for acid detergent fiber (ADF). While GE and CP digestibility estimates tended (P < .09) to be greater in the summer trial, only the digestibility of ADF was different (P < .05) between summer and winter. Dry matter intake was 1.4–1.6% of body weight (BW), providing an average of 144 kcal of digestible energy per kg BW0.75. This value is similar to that (155 kcal per kg BW0.75) used for estimating digestible energy requirements for maintenance of light‐breed horses.
Nutritional considerations in the pathogenesis of hepatic veno‐occlusive disease in captive cheetahs
Authors: Gosselin Sylvie J. , Setchell Kenneth D. R. , Harrington George W. , Welsh Mary‐Beth B. , Pylypiw Harry , Kozeniauskas Raymond , Dollard Denis , Tarr Melinda J. , Dresser Betsy L.
Published: June 2005

Veno‐occlusive disease (VOD) of the liver has been diagnosed in a large number of captive cheetahs. Some ingredients or contaminants present in the diet were suspected as possible causes for this noninfectious disease with high incidence. Eight different diets fed to cheetahs kept in North American zoos were analyzed for vitamin A levels and the presence or absence of plant estrogens, nitro‐saminines, nitrites, and aflatoxins. Three of the eight diets were considered to contain toxic amounts of vitamin A. In humans and rats, hypervitaminosis A has been associated with hepatic vascular lesions, mainly perisinusoidal fibrosis, which progress eventually to occlusive lesions similar to VOD. Plant estrogens were detected in appreciable amounts only in one of the exotic carnivore diets. The role of plant estrogens in the pathogenesis of VOD in captive cheetahs is not clear at this time and needs further investigation. Based on the liver pathology and diet analyses, nitrosamines or their dietary precursors and aflatoxins can be excluded as possible causes of VOD in cheetahs kept in North American zoos.
Manifestations of vitamin D deficiency in chicks reared under different artificial lighting regimes
Authors: Bernard Joni B. , Watkins Bruce E. , Ullrey Duane E.
Published: June 2005

A problem observed with zoo animals that normally do not consume vitamin D‐containing foods and that are not exposed to natural sunlight is a deficiency of vitamin D. This study was conducted to determine whether the amount of ultraviolet light emitted by certain commercially available lights is sufficient to promote vitamin D3 synthesis as indicated by weight gain and various measures of skeletal calcification. Seventy‐four, day‐old male leghorn chicks were randomly assigned to six treatment groups for a 6‐week trial. All groups were exposed to a cool white fluorescent light. In addition, group 1 was supplemented with 400 IU of vitamin D3/kg diet, group 2 was supplemented with 100 IU of vitamin D3/kg diet, group 3 served as the negative control, group 4 was exposed to a Vita‐Lite for 12 hr per day, group 5 was exposed to a Sylvania sun lamp for 15 min twice daily, and group 6 was exposed to a Sylvania black light for 15 min twice daily. Groups 3 through 6 were not provided with dietary supplements of vitamin D3. At termination of the experiment, groups 1, 2, and 5 all showed healthy beaks and ribs, the highest weight gain, and greatest percentage of bone ash. Group 4, in contrast, had the poorest calcification and lowest bone ash. This finding indicates that supplemental artificial lighting does affect vitamin D3synthesis in chicks and presumably in other species but that certain lights that were presumed to be appropriate for this purpose proved to be unsuitable under the conditions of this study.
Infanticide in captive collared peccaries (Tayassu tajacu)
Authors: Packard Jane M. , Babbitt Kimberly J. , Hannon Patricia G. , Grant William E.
Published: June 2005

Housing animals in groups that are typical of the normal social system can be very important to the success of captive husbandry. Collared peccaries normally live in mixed‐sex territorial groups of 13–40 individuals with little evidence for movement between groups. We recorded 21–30 cases of infanticide in a captive group composed of animals from several wild groups. In five observed cases, the attacker was a female unrelated to the mother, but related females helped defend neonates. Victims did not differ in sex ratio or size from individuals that survived. We recommend that peccaries be housed as related female lineages.
Cage location effects on visitor attendance at three Sacramento Zoo mangabey enclosures
Authors: Mitchell G. , Obradovich Stephanie , Sumner Diana , DeMorris Kristine , Lofton Lisa , Minor Jonathan , Cotton Latrece , Foster Todd
Published: June 2005

Research on the effects of enrichment would do well to consider carefully location and/or visitor habituation effects on animal behavior. In the present series of studies, 19,847 visitors to the Sacramento Zoo were counted and categorized by age and sex as they appeared at each of three mangabey cages having only slightly different locations within the zoo. A cage nearest the exit/entrance received significantly more visitors (had greater attracting power) than did a cage away from the exit but on the main path, while the latter cage had more patronage than a cage that was only a few feet off the main walkway.

These effects persisted through both subtle and complete changes in the animal inhabitants of the cages. These very strong effects, which are similar to those described by Melton's (Pychological Bulletin 30:720, 721, 1983; Museum News 14(3):6–8, 1936) classic “exit gradient” as well as to other possible effects of simple location (e.g., visitor habituation) are particularly important for species that are behaviorally responsive to visitors.
Review of medical literature of great apes in the 1980s
Authors: Janssen Donald L. , Bush R. Mitchell
Published: June 2005

The medical problems of great apes including gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), orangutans (Pongo pymaeus), and chimpanzees (Pan sp.) published during the last decade are reviewed. Anesthetic techniques, diseases or organ systems, neoplasia, infectious diseases, and reproductive problems are reviewed. Gonadal tumors and atherosclerosis in great apes appear frequently in the literature. Diseases with suspected viral etiology include papillomas in chimpanzees, retrovirus‐associated lymphomas in gorillas, and various herpesvirus disease. Technology developed for human medicine has expanded the diagnostic opportunities for clinicians working with great apes.
Chromosomal distinction between the red‐faced and black‐faced black spider monkeys (Ateles paniscus paniscus and A. p. chamek)
Authors: de Boer L. E. M. , de Bruijn M.
Published: June 2005

The two subspecies of the black spider monkey, Ateles paniscus paniscus and A. p. chamek, can be distinguished by their chromosome number, 2n = 32 in the former and 2n = 34 in the latter. This difference most probably is the result of a tandem fusion between chromosomes 4 and 13 of the original Ateles karyotype (2n = 34) to form a unique metacentric chromosome in A. p. paniscus. Further differences between the subspecies concern the presence of additional interstial or terminal C‐bands in chromosomes 3, 5, and 12 of A. p. paniscus. A third difference is that chromosome 12 is metacentric in A. p. paniscus but is submetacentric in A. p. chamek. A. p. chamek shows dimorphisms caused by pericentric inversions in pairs 1, 5, 6, and 7 as well as in the Y chromosome. Since the dimorphisms in pairs 5 and 7 are only found in homozygous condition, they may indicate the existence of geographic variation within this subspecies. Differences in external characteristics possibly reflect these chromosomal difference. The necessity to lend A. p. paniscus full specific status should be considered, since karyologically this is the most distinct one of all forms of Ateles. In captive breeding A. p. paniscus should evidently be treated as a separate population, as hybridization with A. p. chamek may result in offspring with reduced fertility. The intra‐subspecific karyological variation in A. p. chamek and its possible consequences for taxonomy and captive breeding require further investigation.
Role of cytogenetics for breeding management of squirrel monkey colonies
Authors: Fogle Thomas
Published: June 2005

Breeding colonies of squirrel monkeys in zoos are often a mix of Saimiri taxa, which leads to the possibility of hybridization, loss of classification features, and possible reduction of fertility among hybrids. Two zoos, Potawatomi and Brookfield, were used to assess chromosomal composition of colonies. Chromosomes were analyzed from lymphocyte cultures and animals were classified into cytogenetic types. At both zoos there was a predominance of Peruvian types, but hybrids (Peruvian/Colombian) at Potawatomi and (Peruvian/Colombian and Peruvian/Guyanan) at Brookfield were also identified. Analysis of the Brookfield lineage (three generations) revealed karyotypic Peruvians derived from hybrid parents. The Gothic versus Roman arch of periocular white hair shows intermediate or quite variable expression in hybrids and offspring derived from hybrids. Given the relative length of both pericentric inversions and the segments distal to each, a detectable reduction in fertility is predicted when compared with similar‐sized inversions in humans. Somatic segregation of inversion heterozygotes, which would reconstitute homozygosity and elevate fertility, was not detected.
Survey of parasite control programs used in captive wild ruminants
Authors: Isaza Ramiro , Courtney Charles H. , Kollias George V.
Published: June 2005

The purpose of this study was to document, through a mailed questionnaire survey, the methods of parasite control currently used in captive wild ruminants. There was a 69% overall response to the survey. The majority of respondents indicated that they used parasite surveillance and identification techniques similar to those used for domestic ruminants. Of the four major anthelmintic drug classes, the benzimidazoles and ivermectin were used most commonly. Many of the parasite control programs had high treatment frequencies which were similar to dosing frequencies reported to result in anthelmintic resistance in domestic animals. Lack of effectiveness by benzimidazoles was perceived to be a problem by many respondents.