bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Blaise Cendrars, Documentaires(1924)
Authors: Scott Clive
Published: October 2011

This chapter analyses Blaise Cendras' Documentaries and the prosody of photography found in his poetry. The chapter looks into the aesthetic of plagiarism found or believed to be present in Cendrars's poetry, particularly in his Documentaries.
Introduction: Ain't I a Fluctuating Identity?
Authors: Hoffmann Ary A.
Published: October 2011

There is a growing recognition, reflected in this book, that gender has to be viewed against the public spheres where political and national identities are inextricably bound together with gender ideology. Even though the categories and strategies are fraught with contradiction and difficult exclusions, there is still much to be gained by focusing not only on gender production and gender subversion as a force majeure in the formation of subjectivities, but on the relation between gender, race, and class. This book discusses the historical foundation of the instability of sexual categories, as well as the discursive formations that either establish or question the naturalism of sexuality. The book looks at a period in Spanish history and its cultural history when the boundaries of gender were shifting and redefining themselves.
Inquiétude
Authors: Hammond Nicholas
Published: October 2011

Inquiétude is used in all cases as a singular noun either with no accompanying article or with a definite article of the eleven times it appears in the Pensées. Although the influence on particular fragments where inquiétude appears is not as strikingly discernible, a brief examination of some uses of the word in the Essais and in De la sagesse should throw light on the term in the Pensées. This chapter looks to the Pensées to perceive the importance which Blaise Pascal assigns to it. In the course of the chapter, it examines three categories into which inquiétude falls: the anxiety of man's fallen state, inquiétude as linked directly to fallen man's spiritual teaching, and within the context of the Christian's continued spiritual endeavours.
Repos
Authors: Hammond Nicholas
Published: October 2011

Repos also functions on its own terms in the dialectical process of the Pensées. Bernard Beugnot and Domna Stanton have studied repos during the seventeenth century. This chapter shows the particular role of repos. On another level, repos is viewed as synonymous with the words paix and tranquillité. It is therefore necessary to consider the different applications of these two terms as they appear in the Pensées, especially with the connotation of spiritual repos. The chapter turns to the central fragment on divertissement, L136, for the use of repos, and shows here the many extensions of the term as it appears throughout the Pensées. It strongly recalls the Stoic notion of repos, of which Lucius Annaeus Seneca was the principal exponent. The Senecan ideal of repos was one which influenced and shaped many interpretations of the term in the seventeenth century.
Bonheur/Félicité
Authors: Hammond Nicholas
Published: October 2011

The interchangeability of bonheur and félicité which one finds in the dictionaries informs the use of both terms in the Pensées. As far as this chapter can ascertain, they are completely synonymous, with neither word, moreover, being used exclusively in an immanent or transcendental context. Their appearances in Sur la conversion du pécheur best introduce the different levels on which they operate in the Pensées. Blaise Pascal details the problems of the soul, however, although any happiness which relies solely on earthly things is necessarily false, man can attain a happiness which in itself is perceived as positive, but which is essentially temporary. The three forms of happiness determine the chapter's analysis of bonheur/félicité in relation to the fragments concerning imagination. The chapter then moves to the notion of happiness and divertissement.
Justice
Authors: Hammond Nicholas
Published: October 2011

The complexities of the vernacular use of justice can be seen in the thirteen pages of the 1757 edition of the Encyclopédie devoted to the term. Justice is divided into two sorts, ‘commutative’ justice and ‘distributive’ justice. Both kinds of justice are placed on a specifically human level, and a distinction is made between that justice which is natural and that which is necessary to curb those people who contravene natural laws. The definition of different types of justice offered by the dictionaries acts as an outline to the different categories into which it is convenient to divide the different usages of the word ‘justice’ in the Pensées. This chapter applies symbols to designate the different forms of justice. In addition, the chapter briefly discusses injustice.
Playing with Truth
Authors: Hammond Nicholas
Published: October 2011

Divertissement is directly related to the notion of play in the Pensées. The term emanates from man's corrupt nature and acts as an impetus to redirect him towards spiritual perfection. However, there still remains the question why play and divertissement should be so central to the human condition in the first place. Blaise Pascal is not unique in the seventeenth century in the importance which he attached to the notion of play. Although man is condemned to play on earth, this game is finite. Death puts an end to all games of chance. It is in this context that this chapter views L418, the Wager fragment. By opting out of a game in which he is a player, he is in effect wagering against the existence of God. The positive function of searching which is implicit within the movement associated with divertissement points towards the possible attainment of an eternal truth.
Principles of Public Service Broadcasting
Authors: Tracey Michael
Published: October 2011

In a public system, television producers acquire money to make programmes. In a commercial system, they make programmes to acquire money. However simple, this little epigram articulates the divergence of basic principles, the different philosophical assumptions, on which broadcasting is built. History and experience fashioned inside public broadcasting a definable canon, a set of principles and practices which came to constitute its purpose. They are the core theses around which the institution has been formed and shaped, which have guided its performance, and which powerfully suggest its potential worth. This chapter focuses on the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) in the early 1960s, a key figure from which years was Sir Arthur Fforde. The canons were also seen as a way of protecting ‘standards’, one more difficult concept to define and yet one which lay and lies at the very heart of the idea of public service broadcasting.
Cognitive Identification and Empathy
Authors: Grodal Torben
Published: October 2011

This chapter demonstrates that emotional empathy and cognitive identification play a crucial role in the reception of visual fiction, and also that cognition and emotion are two different aspects of one information system. It uses an example from Psycho to illustrate the means by which cognitive identification causes empathy, because cognition is intimately linked to motivation. It analyses the intersubjective status of emotions and describes the cognitive labelling of emotions as a narrative strategy. It also discusses the way in which narrative processes can be described as homeostatic systems, that is, as an alternative to the psychoanalytic description of narration as driven by ‘narrative desire’. The chapter examines the applicability of two concepts of homeostasis — telic and paratelic motivation — as tools for describing visual fiction and entertainment.
Crime and Horror Fiction
Authors: Grodal Torben
Published: October 2011

Crime fiction is a subgenre of canonical narratives. As a result of its narrative structure, it has a characteristic strong emphasis on cognitive control, compared with the typical canonical narrative in which cognitive control is more closely integrated with physical acts. This chapter considers the way in which crime fiction relates to canonical narratives, metanarratives, and horror fiction, the means by which it modifies empathic relations, and that by which thrillers and horror fiction furthermore rely on cognitive dissonance for creating effect.
‘A Devil on’t, the Woman Damns the Poet’: Aphra Behn's Fictions of Feminine Identity
Authors: Ballaster Ros
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the fiction of Aphra Bren. It argues that a properly historicist and feminist account of Behn's prose writing must cease to view Behn's texts as mere sources for biographical investigation, and recognize the fictional nature of the figure of the female writer, Apha/Astrea, who surfaces repeatedly in her narratives. The figure of the female artist in Behn's writing releases a meditation upon, and an unsettling of, the nature of the poetic and authorial identity. This in turn leads to an exploration of the women writer's capacity to produce meaning against the interpretative will of the reader, as well as the potential to capitalize upon the erotic and seductive effects of the text upon the reader for political purposes.
King Lear: Organized Incoherence
Authors: Fisch Harold
Published: October 2011

This chapter explores the view that King Lear is to a certain degree incoherent. It argues that the play is both strongly Christian and strongly Pagan, and that the two are not harmonized. However, having found himself and his play thus impaled on the horns of a dilemma, Shakespeare exploited that very situation for all it was worth, lighting up for us the discontinuities to which the dilemma gave rise and creating a super-agon which overshadows the agon enacted between the characters on the stage. This super-agon may be expressed in shorthand form as a contest between Job and Prometheus.
Love-Mad Women and the Rhetoric of Gentlemanly Medicine
Authors: Small Helen
Published: October 2011

John Mason Cox, John Conolly, Henry Maudsley, and Alexander Morison have had considerable influence on the way in which other disciplines, literary criticism, in this case, have thought about relations between medical science and wider English culture in the period. Conolly and Maudsley are frequently cited as men whose medical theories were aided and prejudiced by literary stereotypes. Morison's highly influential work on the physiognomy of the insane has been seen as strong evidence of Victorian medicine's attachment to literary models of female insanity and to a coercively normative concept of femininity. On closer reading, far from simply confirming narrow nineteenth-century ideals of femininity, each of their works exhibits considerable ambivalence towards the most pervasive stereotype of female insanity, the love-mad woman; and rather than indicating unproblematic continuities between medical and literary culture, their use of literary allusion more generally is shaped by highly specific professional pressures.
Love-Mad Women and Political Insurrection in Regency Fiction
Authors: Small Helen
Published: October 2011

The themes of love-madness and war were clearly coming together in fiction of the early 1810s, albeit often in little more than an attempt to enliven otherwise jaded material. Lady Charlotte Bury's Self-Indulgence: A Tale of the Nineteenth Century and Louis Sidney Stanhope's Madelina: A Tale, Founded on Facts (1814) both fended off evident anxieties about the freshness of the convention by placing their love-mad women against the background of contemporary Anglo–French politics. The desire both to entertain and to disown the spectacle of rebellion is evident in the most notorious novel of the 1810s, showing interest in the madwoman as a symbol of Irish rebellion. Lady Caroline Lamb's Glenarvon was a kiss-and-tell account of her affair with Lord Byron. Meanwhile, Ivanhoe overturns the determining features of the love-madness convention, rewriting them in colours of violence.
Exiles in the Promised Land
Authors: Ekirch A. Roger
Published: October 2011

Chesapeake society saw many troubles after the arrival of large number of convicts into Virginia and Maryland. Soon these white convicts turned servants dominated the ranks of black-workers on the plantations. During the third quarter of the 17th century, these white labourers started a civil war in the province. Many masterless men, servants, landless freemen, and scattered slaves started threatening the big planters. The province saw a series of uprisings during 1660 and 1670 which was followd by Bacon's Rebellion in 1676. Virginia also experienced an uprising when the convicts raised their voice against the Governor and the provincial authorities. Most convicts were young, male, experienced criminals and their past crimes and reports about their shipboard uprisings also showed that they were desperate to pose a threat and make themselves free.
Coming Home
Authors: Ekirch A. Roger
Published: October 2011

Despite harsh punishments, during the 18th century a large number of convicts ran away from their masters in America without serving their time in employment as servants, and this became very common practice. Newspapers in Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania were often published with notices of runaway convicts urging their capture. From the period 1746 to 1775 the Maryland Gazette published notices of around 993 separate Maryland convicts, an average of thirty-three runaways per year. A large portion of these runaways were male, out of 1401 Maryland and Virginia runaways during the mid-18th century nearly 95% were men and boys. Males comprised around 80% of all convicts and their masters were more likely to advertise for their male servants to be captured due to their greater value, while female servants were less willing to choose the runaway option.
Blood v. Blood Separation for cruelty, 1686–1704
Authors: Stone Lawrence
Published: October 2011

This chapter narrates the ill-treatment meted on Elizabeth Blood by her husband, Holcroft Blood, and analyzes the legal procedures involved in the ensuing law suit. As a result of the new and plausible-seeming evidence of adultery by Elizabeth, her suit for separation with Holcroft Blood was rejected by the Consistory Court. Despite this serious set-back, Elizabeth was obstinate enough to appeal her case to the Court of Arches. There she turned the tables on her accusers by having them summoned to an identification line-up. She appeared with six other women, and, when asked to pick her out, the three key witnesses to her alleged adultery with Brome all failed the test. Moreover, Mrs Boteler and her maid swore that Elizabeth never slept out of the house a single night during all the period she was supposed to have been living with Brome.
‘We’re all Rhodesians’
Authors: Godwin Peter , Hancock Ian
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on the existence of the national identity in Rhodesia. George Kay explains the formation of Rhodesian identity in terms of a confluence of the two distinct — southern African and British — traditions. Barry Schutz stresses that the Europeans arriving in Rhodesia before 1921 carried the attitudes and expectations of British South Africans rather than those of residential British nationals into their new settlement. Work provided one focus of identification and division. The 1969 census classified 102,741 Europeans as ‘economically active’, of whom one-quarter were employed in the government service.
‘Fourteen great years’
Authors: Godwin Peter , Hancock Ian
Published: October 2011

The war and the associated political change had an immense though varied impact on families and individuals. The effect on communities and institutions was mixed and wide ranging. There were obvious and profound differences between the wartime experiences of rural and urban Rhodesia. Contacts between the two Rhodesias were certainly close. A number of rural districts were emptied by the war.
Conclusion
Authors: Godwin Peter , Hancock Ian
Published: October 2011

There are three concluding observations to be made about the Rhodesian experience of the war years. First, the White minority could not for long have withstood the combined pressure of the war and economic sanctions as they were applied in the late 1970s. Secondly, a combination of factors weakened Rhodesian resistance in the 1970s by creating or fostering tensions and uncertainties. Thirdly, the society which claimed to stand for certain principles was composed of peoples whose common interest was that they came, and stayed, for a good material existence. Rhodesia simply dispersed as the Whites left the country in their thousands.
The Urban Setting
Authors: Price J. L.
Published: October 2011

The towns represented in the states of Holland were the fundamental source of political power in the province, as they were throughout the history of the Dutch Republic from the first days of the revolt to the French invasion in 1795. These eighteen — the stemhebbende or voting — towns were the dominant element in the representative body, the states, which controlled the government of Holland. The nobility also had a voice in the states and was regarded in theory as representing not only its own interests, but those of both the countryside in general and of the towns which were not members of the states in their own right. The unrepresented towns and the countryside were governed by their own local institutions, and enjoyed a considerable amount of autonomy in local affairs, but they had no influence on the political life of the province outside their own areas.
The Stadhouder
Authors: Price J. L.
Published: October 2011

The stadhouder was the other pole of political power and leadership in Holland apart from the provincial states, and was the main moving force in the political life of the province for a good part of the century. However, the office was formally a subordinate one: the stadhouder was appointed, empowered, and instructed by the states. In this sense, and in perhaps only this sense, there is a parallel with the position of the raadpensionaris, who was also a subordinate official of the states capable of attaining supreme political leadership. No more than in this latter case is the formal constitutional position an adequate account of the strength of the stadhoudership in the practical politics of the 17th century. Before the revolt, the stadhouder was the representative, or viceroy, of the sovereign within Holland.
Religion and Politics in Holland
Authors: Price J. L.
Published: October 2011

Of all the factors affecting the way in which politics operated in Holland in the 17th century, the religious environment, if not necessarily the most important, is perhaps the one that is most difficult to evaluate and to understand. It is a truism to say that religion and politics could not be separated in 17th-century Europe, but one of the most interesting aspects of the history of Holland during this century is the extent to which a significant change in this respect was already becoming apparent. In short, the process of secularisation was beginning, but within an overall situation in which the influence of religion was still strong. It is not enough to look merely at the Reformed Church, for the religious diversity and relatively high degree of toleration that existed within the province were just as important in their political ramifications, though perhaps in less obvious ways.
Land Use and Distribution on the Pampas
Authors: ADELMAN JEREMY
Published: October 2011

Unlike the Canadian west, the Argentine pampas were already host to considerable commercial activity by the 1880. For much of the 19th century landowners had dedicated themselves to the production of pastoral products. This chapter describes the political economy of the settlement, land use and rapid expansion of pastoral production, land tenure, and land distribution. The emerging cattle-ranching sector in Argentina offered great promise, since pastoral expansion was less circumscribed by the shortage of labour. The regime of property relations that emerged in the late 19th century had repercussions that were obvious once the phase of frontier expansion come to a close.
Agricultural Finance on the Frontier
Authors: ADELMAN JEREMY
Published: October 2011

Creating a credit system to encourage the flow of resources to the frontier posed an enormous challenge to frontier expansion. Without credit, rapid commercialization for credit helped finance the procurement of technology and livestock necessary to run a farm. This chapter describes agricultural finance on the pampas and the prairies. The structure of rural finance on the pampas and the prairies differed markedly. The variance, conditioned by existing property relations, had to do with both the demand and supply of finance. The confluence of supply and demand for finance reinforced the property relations regime: ample finance allowed prairie farmers to spread across the grasslands to become the dominant class in the west, while exiguous finance kept tenants in an underclass position, and enhanced the power of the estancia, which enjoyed a better position to exploit financial resources.
Conclusion: The Frontier Legacy
Authors: ADELMAN JEREMY
Published: October 2011

The differenciae specificae of prairie and pampean development lay in their property relation regimes. The distribution and use of land, labour, and capital established the context in which individuals — landowners, landless, tenants, and wage labourers — forged their strategies of material advancement. Property relations implied unforeseeable consequences in the long run: by buttressing property relations based on owner-occupation of the means of production, individuals undermined the financial stability of the regional economy of the prairies; and by enhancing the estancia-dominated pampas, individuals inhibited the development of technology or the forces of production.
Marriage, Property, and Law in Late Imperial Russia
Authors: Wagner William G.
Published: October 2011

This book provides a systematic study of civil law in late Imperial Russia. It shows that efforts to adjust family, property, and inheritance law to changing social and economic conditions often became intertwined with attempts to shape society in accordance with competing ideological ideals. Through a restructuring of the family's legal basis, members of the growing educated and professional strata of society in particular endeavoured to promote conflicting conceptions of authority, individuality, gender, and law. Legal reform also served for members of the emerging legal and medical professions as a way to establish their authority, often at the expense of the state administration and the Orthodox Church. Civil law in late Imperial Russia therefore constituted both an important medium for ideological redefinition and a field of battle for those seeking to reform, to overthrow, or to defend the ancient regime. Because this battle extended into the state bureaucracy, legislative change proved extremely difficult. Newly empowered by the 1864 judicial reform, the judiciary responded to legislative inaction by not merely adapting the law, but also by promoting an ideal of the family whose values and principles challenged those underlying the autocracy.
The Limits of Legislative Revision
Authors: Wagner William G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses how revisions to property and inheritance law became intertwined with social, political, ideological, and institutional principles. This relationship yielded more disputes and greater challenges in initiating changes to the law. The Civil Code Commission thus worked on a balancing act in editing the civil code.
Local Government, Parliament, and the Problem of Poverty 1795–1819
Authors: Eastwood David
Published: October 2011

The realities of power within English rural counties were shaped more by the dynamics of local politics than by the formal instruments of statutory authority. In this sense the power of the magistracy as an institution rested as much on the recognized status of justices and the constantly elaborated machinery of the Quarter Sessions. This chapter discusses the role of the local government and parliament in addressing the problem of poverty. Poor-law policy was grounded in statute, but magistrates claimed considerable autonomy in shaping policy on the ground. Poverty and policy in the eighteenth century, the crisis of 1795 and changing the attitudes towards poverty, and the beginnings of reform are described.
Police, Punishment, and the Maintenance of Order
Authors: Eastwood David
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the problem of police reform and punishment and prison in rural England. Central government acknowledged the logic of central funds being deployed to help finance centrally imposed policies when in 1846 grants-in-aid — inaugurated in 1845 and substantially extended in 1865 — gave central government much more leverage over local policy than it had enjoyed in the immediate aftermath of the 1835 Act.
The Danube Crossing and Gothic War
Authors: Heather P. J.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the crossing of the Tervingi and the Greuthungi across the Danube, which unexpectedly led to the Gothic War, after Emperor Valens refused to bring the Greuthungi across the river. The war also led to the death of Valens, who was killed on a plain outside the city of Hadrianople. Based on the petitions of the Tervingi and the Greuthungi, these Goths came to the Danube because the Huns had destroyed their hold on lands north of the river. The chapter attempts to answer the question: why did peaceful co-operation degenerate into violence?
Alaric and the Move to Gaul
Authors: Heather P. J.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the instability in Gotho-Roman relations. The revolt of Alaric, which led to the sacking of Rome and the Goths' move to Gaul, exploited imperial disunity and is usually seen as a general rising of Goths settled under the 382 treaty. The chapter also looks at the effects of Alaric's success, such as uniting the Tervingi and the Greuthungi, and forcing the Roman Empire to recognize any Gothic leaders as pre-eminent.
Central Places and Urban Networks
Authors: Scott Tom
Published: October 2011

In the 1930s, German economic geographer Walter Christaller systematized the links between market centres of different sizes into a rank-order based on a predictable dispersion of central places and recognized the possibility of urban networks stretching along perceived lines of communication. In order to discover how well these theoretical approaches explain the rank-order of communities on the Upper Rhine, this chapter looks at four variables to illustrate the range of central functions and the intensity of relations with the surrounding countryside. They are: population size; the principal economic activity within the town and its diffusion through exports and at fairs and markets; the range of economic activity beyond the town which was controlled entirely and in part by the town's businessfolk (the extent of outwork, and share-cropping); and the provision of merchant capital in credit and banking.
Country Crafts and Regional Guilds
Authors: Scott Tom
Published: October 2011

The two metropolises, Strasbourg and Basel, faced no sustained challenge to their ascendancy, even if they competed for commercial control of the southern stretch of the Upper Rhine. Rather, the centrality of the regional ‘county’ and lesser market towns was repeatedly challenged by economic competition in their own backyard. That competition took three principal forms: the towns resented the rise of craft production in the countryside, which eroded the traditional function of urban centres; they objected to the establishment of rural salt-chests, which infringed the lucrative urban monopoly on stapling salt; and they feared competition from new rural markets, some in franchised villages, others held informally at church-ales or at weddings, which undermined the autonomy of borough markets. The very existence of territorial guilds placed urban craftsmen on almost the same footing as rural artisans, thereby diluting the function of the lesser or district towns as central places. This chapter examines the grievances concerning country crafts and staples, and the possible countermeasures open to towns or territorial rulers.
Village Markets and Informal Marketing
Authors: Scott Tom
Published: October 2011

Both the spread of handicrafts and of salt-chests to the countryside testify to the growing commercialization of the Upper Rhine economy in the later Middle Ages. Nowhere was this transformation more vividly apparent than in the proliferation of village markets which challenged the autonomy of long-established urban central places, particularly when the former encroached upon the town's privileged market area or precinct. Since market franchises appertained to the regalian rights of the emperor, new foundation charters were diplomas of great significance and value to the recipient. By the same token, any infringement of market rights or precincts was a matter of legal as well as economic import, so that conflicts between town and country markets have left a substantial archival deposit. This chapter analyses village markets and informal marketing in the Upper Rhine and the proliferation of central places with overlapping hinterlands as the prime cause of competition faced by established chartered markets.
The Faltering of a Regional Economy
Authors: Scott Tom
Published: October 2011

Strasbourg, the regional metropolis of the Upper Rhine, was severely shaken by the collapse in 1559 of the French financial consortium, the Grand Parti, in which its merchants had invested heavily. In its wake many of Strasbourg's merchant families tumbled into bankruptcy in a domino effect over the next two decades, at a time when the city's wine trade was also being exposed to the winds of competition. In the case of Switzerland, the downturn can be measured by the decrease in toll receipts from the 1560s in places such as Schaffhausen, Lucerne, or Olten, with textile manufacturing languishing at the same time in major centres such as Zürich and St. Gallen. To the economic recession of the later sixteenth century were soon to be added the calamities of the Thirty Years War. This chapter investigates whether the decline in the economic vitality of the Upper Rhine during the sixteenth century can be attributed to a waning sense of regional economic solidarity.
‛Vereint sind wir alles’? Socialist Unity in a Divided Germany
Authors: Major Patrick
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands' (KPD) policy of encouraging unity of action with the Social Democrats in Germany. In post-war Germany, the Iron Curtain cut across the politics of the united from. And in light of this event, the relations between Communists and Social Democrats in West Germany reached a new low. To address this problem, other western European Communist parties undertook movements towards what later became known as Eurocommunism, but the KPD remained notoriously loyal to its eastern big brother.
Rolling Back the KPD Communism on Trial in the Federal Republic, 1950–1956
Authors: Major Patrick
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses anti-communism in West Germany during the period from 1950 to 1956. It suggests that anti-communism was being used by some groups to legitimize rearmament and to undermine coexistence with the Eastern Bloc. The West German anti-communism was symptomatic of the general crisis of bourgeois ideology, which represented a last ditch effort to paper over the socio-economic contradictions of capitalism. The virulence of anti-communism was thus taken as an indication of the desperate plight of capitalism.
Comparisons and Contrasts (Ii): Marxism, Modernism, and the Doctrine of ‘Deep Battle’
Authors: Gat Azar
Published: October 2011

While fascism was undecided and ‘Janus-faced’ or two-faced in its stand on modernity, Marxism meanwhile was the excellent modernist ideology directed towards the future and regards itself as the ultimate conclusion of the era of the machine and industrial society. Several of European fascist leaders had arrived at their leftist stand by developing their viewpoint from Marxist assumptions. In fact, several of the leaders hold these two movements at close hand, without seeing the need to choose between the two. This chapter distinguishes the differences and similarities of the two movements, their line of convergence and their line of deviation. This chapter aims to clarify the presumption that if Marxism as an ideology was so thoroughly modernist, then why were the pioneering visionaries of machine warfare before, during, and after the First World War mostly associated with proto-fascism and fascism rather that with Marxism. This chapter focuses on the newly formed radical ideas of mechanized warfare wherein the old concept of war were absorbed into the advanced and innovative conception of ‘deep battle’ ‘deep operations’.
Roman Primacy and the Legal Vindication of Reform
Authors: Cushing Kathleen G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the idea of primacy and the legal vindication of reform. In Anselm’s vision, the framework for ecclesiastical society took reference directly from Rome. His blueprint involved a narrow chain of obedience that bound various clerical orders in a vertical, hierarchic structure. The idea of primacy, the centralisation under Rome, advocated by Anselm, was not so much the consequence of a particular religious ideal or strategy, but rather, an institutional necessity. Therefore, he evinced a legal and institutional awareness of the need for the Church to be guided by a single authority to do what was needed. This person, the Roman pontiff, would be the unchallengeable figure who would be able to discipline, order, and reform the ranks of the Church from within. In the end, Anselm provided a vindication for Gregory VII’s revolution based on both moral and legal tradition.
Cardinal’s Hat or Archbishop’s Gauntlet? The ‘Papal Aggression’: The Ecclesiastical Titles Act and Ireland
Authors: KERR DONAL A.
Published: October 2011

Before Roman negotiations got under way, and while the paper war on the colleges was still raging, a new development occurred in England that was to have profound repercussions for the situation in Ireland up to the end of Russell’s administration. The year and a half from the calling of the synod of Thurles to the resignation of the government in February 1852 witnessed an unexpected but bitter and prolonged dispute between the Whig government and the Catholic Church. During this period, the Whigs' religious policies appeared to become less liberal, while the Catholic Church in Britain and Ireland moved towards Ultramontanism. The public dispute between the Irish bishops on the colleges, which had continued after the closure of the synod, saw appeals and counter-appeals to Rome. It was suddenly overshadowed by an event that had little to do with Ireland and her affairs: ‘the papal aggression’.
Variations: Carabinieri
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the transformation of the Piedmontese Carabinieri in Italy into the Italian Carabinieri as the peninsula was transformed into a united nation state. Dealing with bandits was a traditional problem especially when some members of the Carabinieri were infected with the liberal aspirations fostered by the French Revolution and Napoleon.
‘The Man Praising Order’
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on the gendarmeries and some of the broader changes in rural Europe during the 19th century. It offers some comparative conclusions about the gendarmes, their experience of their work, as well as their attitudes and behaviour. The 19th century is commonly seen as a major period of modernization in the European countryside.
Levelling Quakers?
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses evidence on how the Quaker creed was a levelling one. These include the dismissal of social conventions and the supposition that Quakers disapproved of the ownership of property or the payment of rents. Moreover, some former Levellers joined the sect.
A Community of Worship
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the effects of membership upon individual followers of the Quaker faith. It examines the informal social and economical relations which developed among ordinary Friends as a result of membership. It explains the Quakers' gradual development of alternative administrative structure which is as much concerned with order as the church and secular courts it displaced.
A Suffering People
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the type of suffering which Friends experienced. The effort is limited to the period between 1655 and 1684, when a series of new laws was used by the State in order to crush dissent. It analyses the pattern of prosecutions of Quakers which suggests that the peaks match the periods of acute national political tension during which the State was most worried about the activities of dissenters.
The Moral Science of John Cassian
Authors: Leyser Conrad
Published: October 2011

The Lérinians were not the only face of the Gallic monastic movement. Closely associated with them, and well known to Pope Celestine, was John Cassian, an ascetic teacher who had gone to great lengths to ensure that he could not be accused of traducing the moral authority of his position. In his capacity as mentor to ascetics in southern Gaul, Cassian was as fierce as any critic of the ascetic movement in his determination to curb its tendency towards scandal. His response, however, was not to distrust the ascetic project itself, but to make all the more exacting and precise the means of assessing a person's integrity. Where Augustine of Hippo had come to doubt the possibility or value of achieving such a moral science, Cassian strove to establish secure grounds for the expert use of authority in the Church. His intervention was crucial in restoring public credibility to the ascetic movement. He argued that to speak as a trained ascetic was in itself a means of exerting moral authority.
A Language of Power
Authors: Leyser Conrad
Published: October 2011

Gregory the Great made his own the insight sketched by Julianus Pomerius in his handbook for bishops and developed by Benedict of Nursia in a monastic context: that the speech of the ruler, when properly applied, can bind up all divisions within the body of the faithful. Gregory pursued a language of authority that would carry all before it with a degree of concentration undreamt of by earlier writers. Augustine of Hippo had denied that the quantification of the ways of power was possible; his subsequent readers had tentatively moved to reverse his verdict, but only with Gregory does one find a writer prepared to stake all on the performance of the moral ruler, and to enumerate in detail how this might be possible. Gregory was prepared to take the risk of claiming to be morally qualified to lead, to shoulder all the burdens of the faithful, to act as the servant of the servants of God.
The Writing of Saints’ Lives in Medieval Ireland
Authors: Sharpe Richard
Published: October 2011

Medieval Ireland produced a great quantity of hagiographical documents. Today, more than one hundred Latin Lives of about sixty Irish saints are known. Some of these survive only in Continental manuscripts, but the majority are known from three great compilations of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. This book investigates the sources available to the compilers of the three collections and the use they made of them. The Latin Lives were written in Ireland, as attested in some early manuscripts, mostly Continental, and in these three collections, range in date from the seventh century to the fourteenth. The latest item in any of the three collections is probably a text translated from Irish for the compilers of the Salmanticensis, the Life of St Cuanna. Saints' Lives form a very large part of the Latin literature of Ireland, and a significant part of Irish literature. They are also important as historical evidence. These biographies and other acta of saints make up one of the most extensive classes of material relating, ex prima facie, to the early history of Ireland.
Applying the Paradigm: St Patrick and St Maedóc
Authors: Sharpe Richard
Published: October 2011

The table of contents in M shows that D began with a Life of St Patrick, now lost from both M and T. The Life of St Brigit is also lost from both manuscripts, but with the help of Archbishop James Ussher and Recension C of Fr. Henry FitzSimon's Catalogus, it proved possible to recover the text. It may not be a waste of effort to try and identify among the many Lives of St Patrick one which contains those features that we know to be the habits and style of the redactor of D. If the Dublin text survives anywhere, one should find it, eventually. But one can shorten the search by first considering what Lives of St Patrick were known to those who had access to the Dublin collection. A version of St Maedóc's Latin Life was known in Wales and was included in a collection of the Lives chiefly of Welsh saints, assembled around the end of the twelfth or the beginning of the thirteenth century.
The Collection in the Codex Salmanticensis
Authors: Sharpe Richard
Published: October 2011

The Codex Salmanticensis was presumably sent to Fr. Heribert Rosweyde between 1607 and his death in 1629. The Bollandists published a number of texts from this volume, and continued to use it into the eighteenth century. The habit of removing leaves for the benefit of the Irish Fathers at Louvain was fortunately given up. Although as late as October 1634, Fr. Hugh Ward seems not to have been apprised of the full contents of this volume, John Colgan must have had a copy of the manuscript as a whole, or at least as much of it as still exists. From it, he published several Lives, most of them unique to this collection, and he refers to it repeatedly in other contexts, though not as often as one might have expected. A number of colophons indicate that texts had been borrowed by the compilers of the Codex Salmanticensis.
The Value of the Textual Evidence
Authors: Sharpe Richard
Published: October 2011

The body of texts under examination is so large that it is not possible to attempt an item-by-item analysis of the textual evidence for the whole of the three collections. As each Life is studied, new points will perhaps emerge about the textual relationships between the different recensions for particular texts. Although Revd Charles Plummer discussed his comparisons of the several versions, Life by Life, it is not possible to learn from that discussion to what extent the different compilers copied their sources verbatim. For a large number of Lives, a comparison of the various versions shows only how a source text was manipulated in the hands of the redactors of D and O. While each individual vita has still to be fitted into its place in the history of hagiography in Ireland, the study of the compilers will allow us to improve on the previous very sketchy outline of Latin hagiography in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
Introduction
Authors: Christian David
Published: October 2011

Since the 16th century, vodka has not merely been a source of pleasure and even of spiritual and religious experience, but has also circulated vast quantities of wealth through the long-suffering body of Russian society. But vodka was never just a drink: like all alcoholic drinks, it was also a social, economic, and political 'institution', in the sociologist's sense of the word. Viewed like this, alcohol appears as one of many different means of redistributing wealth, as one more expression of class conflict — that constant petty skirmishing by which the power and privilege of ruling elites are sustained. This book surveys the early history of vodka in Russia, its role in the distribution of wealth, and the overthrow of tax farming in Russia, including the emergence of upper-class opposition to the system, the popular protests of 1859, and the bureaucratic politics that led to the reform of 1863. The book argues that the abolition of tax farming should be treated as one of the more important of Russia's ‘Great Reforms’ of the l860s.
Traditional and Modern Drinking Cultures
Authors: Christian David
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the uses of vodka in Russian society during the 19th century — the needs it satisfied in working class life, and the ways in which these shaped the level of demand. These questions are of interest, first, for what they reveal of working class life in Russia during this period. But they were also important to the government, for if Russians had not drunk vodka in reasonably predictable ways, the government could not have got into the bad habit of relying on their thirst to satisfy its own thirst for revenues. Further, the government itself influenced the pattern of demand in significant ways through the methods it used to tax the trade. Clearly, vodka's role as an object of utility was in fact inseparable from its role as bearer of wealth. This chapter looks at consumption statistics, the impact of the tax farm on vodka trade, vodka consumption and popular drinking cultures, the economic impact of the drinking of vodka in ceremonies, and drinking cultures and the economics of monopoly.
Selling Vodka: The Tax Farmers
Authors: Christian David
Published: October 2011

What was the nature and influence of the tax farm ‘interest’ in Russia during the 19th century? This chapter looks at the tax farmers themselves as a group of entrepreneurs and explores the extent and limitations of their influence. Altogether, in 1859 there were 216 tax farmers throughout the Empire, owing the government a total sum of 127,769,488 rubles a year, or more than 590,000 rubles each. However, as some individuals owned several tax farms, the actual number of tax farmers was less than the number of distinct tax farms. As a group, the tax farmers were ultimately responsible for mobilizing the huge concentrations of wealth funnelled through the liquor trade. The first step in entering the business was to mobilize the capital necessary to bid at the tax farm auctions. In order to understand the attitudes, milieu, and political influence of the Russian tax farmers more fully, it would be valuable to look at the career of Vasilii Aleksandrovich Kokorev (1817–1889) in tax farming.
Judicial Separation
Authors: Stone Lawrence
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses judicial separation. Suits for judicial separation in the ecclesiastical courts had three purposes. Most suits launched by a wife were blackmail devices in order to improve the financial terms of a separation, where the main issue was the alimony to be paid by the husband. Most suits brought by the husband were in order to obtain a separation from an adulterous wife without having to pay her alimony. Uncontested suits brought by a husband were usually part of a collusive arrangement by which both parties conspire together to prepare for parliamentary divorce. The second section examines the different types of suits such as nullity, jactication, separation form bed and board, and restitution of conjugal rights. The third section considers the procedure for launching a suit. The last two sections explore the relationship between servants and masters, and servants in court.
Parliamentary Divorce
Authors: Stone Lawrence
Published: October 2011

By the late sixteenth century, England stood out as the only Protestant country without some form of legalised divorce. The reasons lay partly in the torturous path by which it moved from the Catholic into the Protestant camp, in disputes among the English Protestants about which new divorce code to adopt, and in the sensitivities towards marriage of Queen Elizabeth. Parliamentary divorces started in the 1690s as a series of individual exceptions to the principle of the indissolubility of marriage. The divorce became a convenient collusive agreement between a rich husband and his wife in order to remarry, the objective being the pursuit of happiness and the replacement of lost marital comfort.