bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
“Or” in a Group Insurance Policy
Authors: Shuy Roger W.
Published: May 2008

This chapter describes the case of a university professor who lost vision in one eye after a surgical procedure. His insurance company refused payment based on its interpretation of the words in the exclusion section of the university's group insurance policy. Semantic, pragmatic, and discourse analyses show that the policy's use of “or” conveyed to the reader that this conjunction referred to two different things rather than one, favoring the policyholder, not the insurance company.
Competing Conveying System Advertisements
Authors: Shuy Roger W.
Published: May 2008

A manufacturer of a product that transports, processes, and packages bulk materials with a pneumatic process sued a competing manufacturer that uses a screw process using the latter company's advertising, which compared and evaluated the two methods, and charged that these advertisements constituted a deceptive trade practice. The plaintiff claimed that in these advertisements the defendant not only made false, misleading, and disparaging comments but also failed to reveal the industry data, studies, statistics, and other information that might substantiate its claims. Syntax analysis of these advertisements revealed that in these advertisements the verb tenses indicated that the defendant did not claim that comparisons with other types of conveyors were based on studies or tests. Semantic analysis of the word “ratings” conveys that this word indicates a subjective estimate or comparison, one not requiring research or tests. It also showed that the terms used in the comparisons (best, good, fair, poor, worst) are used regularly to indicate attitudes, beliefs, or dislikes, as opposed to the numerical, statistical measures of qualities that are used in reporting research findings.
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
Authors: Shuy Roger W.
Published: May 2008

Shortly after a family of traveling carnival workers bought a new trailer, they woke up one morning ill and vomiting and found their young son was unconscious. The hospital's diagnosis was carbon monoxide poisoning, and this poisoning caused the son to have permanent brain damage. The family brought a product liability suit against the manufacturer of the trailer's generator. The linguistic analysis extensively compared the hazard statements put forth by the American National Institute (ANZI) with the owner's manual that came with their generator and also with a comparable owner's manual of a generator that they did not choose to purchase. The analysis included discourse topics and discourse sequencing on the topics of sleeping while the generator is running, the need to install a CO detector, the need for an exhaust fan, and the dangers of obstructing the generator's exhaust system.Other comparisons focused on the ambiguity of certain hazard statements, the speech act of warning, advice about how to avoid risks, and the relative clarity of style and format.
Toxic Shock Syndrome from Tampons
Authors: Shuy Roger W.
Published: May 2008

This case focused entirely on the warning label on the package insert of a tampons product used by a young woman who subsequently suffered from toxic shock syndrome (TSS). One side of the tightly folded insert contained instructions about how to use the product. The other side was labeled “Important Information About Toxic Shock Syndrome (TSS).” The “Important Information” side was compared with the Federal Drug Administration's guidelines for wording on tampon packages and inserts, focusing on the speech acts of warning and on the discourse requirements of prominence and legibility. Linguistic analysis was made concerning the semantics of “association,” “attention,” “alert,” and “warning”; the discourse analysis of topic; topic sequencing; the application of Grice's maxims of quantity, relation, and manner; and the importance of directness rather than indirectness in communications of this type, including an analysis of the lack of prominence and effective document design.
Age Discrimination
Authors: Shuy Roger W.
Published: May 2008

A mid-level manager in his fifties was dismissed by a large company that provided no reasons for dismissal concerning his performance or attitude. He then brought an age discrimination case against that company, which subsequently defied a court order to turn over all relevant company files related to this employee. Nevertheless, electronic searches were then made for media articles about the company, toward the effort of finding evidence of discrimination in quoted statements of company officials and spokespersons. The search turned up thirty-two documents including four public speeches by the president of the company. Research on age-related language stereotyping provided clues to age bias. This was compared with the quotations of company executives that enabled the creation of taxonomies of the lexicon and expressions of the company's view of desirable managers, older employees, and younger employees, all of which indicated age bias against older workers in the selection, retention, and promotion of managers.
Battle over Antifreeze
Authors: Shuy Roger W.
Published: May 2008

A large manufacturer of antifreeze named its new product LongLife 460, while a smaller competitor had already marketed its product under the name LongLife. The smaller company sued the larger one, charging that consumers would likely be confused. The major issue to be resolved was whether the name was generic, which could open it to use by others, or whether it was suggestive, which could mean that the original user could protect its use. The language data in this case consisted of dictionary entries, product labels, press releases, and media references. Because no dictionary listed “long life” as a single entry, the defendant tried to cite the words separately to show that the meaning was generic. It also cited “long-lived,” which was shown to be grammatically nonequivalent, and cited the only one of the eighteen dictionary senses of “life” that referred to inanimate life, the one that suited its case best. But this example actually showed the metaphoric nature of the expression, indicating that it was suggestive. The defendant also argued that the expression “long life” was the generic term for a class of antifreeze products, concluding that both products had generic names that were not protectable. Electronic searches showed this not to be the case, with the most common reference to the class of products being “extended life products,” not “long life products.”
APPENDIX
Authors: Shuy Roger W.
Published: May 2008

This chapter summarizes the important requirements of linguists and lawyers who work together on the seven types of corporate cases discussed in the book. First, the linguist needs to have complete and adequate data from the lawyer. The linguist should have a toolbox complete with the theory and tools of linguistics, including phonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, speech acts, discourse analysis, historical language change, and a good sense of how language is comprehensible. The linguist's presentation of reports and testimony must be effective and understandable, following Grice's maxims: be informative, be relevant, be clear.
Introduction
Authors: Satia Priya
Published: May 2008

The introduction provides an overview of the historical questions at stake in the book: the relationship between culture and how a state sees; the relationship between colonial violence and metropolitan culture; between orientalism and colonial administration; the distinction between covert empire versus indirect rule; the place of the world war in the story; the place of paranoid politics in British history. It explains the uniqueness of British intelligence–gathering in the Middle East as compared to other regions and the usefulness of this subject in understanding the workings of modern empire more generally. Finally, it explains the author's methodology and the periodization of the book with reference to both British and Middle Eastern history and defines key terms.
Introduction
Authors: Borgman Paul
Published: May 2008

“Who is David?” asks a wealthy and churlish land‐owner, Nabal, in a belittling manner (I Samuel, 25:2). “Whose son is this man?” asks Israel's first king, Saul, as David goes out to fight Goliath—in spite of the narrative fact that David has already been introduced to Saul. “Who am I, O Lord God?” asks David later in the story, after Saul's death and his own rise to power: “who am I….that you have brought me this far?” (II, 7:18). Uncovering and solving this story's implicit questions—and explicit, as above—depends on close attention to the dozen or so broad patterns of repetition governing the narrative's progress. The ancient storyteller relied on techniques of repetition geared for skilled listeners, and within these various kinds of repetition were discovered the story's embedded meaning, its mysteries of character, action, and moral vision.
Who Is David? Multiple Introductions
Authors: Borgman Paul
Published: May 2008

The story's multiple introductions of David consist of four brilliantly clear vignettes that do not add up to any apparent coherence of character. The resulting complexity yields a mystery that contrasts sharply with what is an economically achieved clarity of character for Saul. First, the audience meets David, whom only God knows (1, 16.1‐13); again we meet David, brought before a troubled King Saul as a musical therapist (1, 16:14‐23); a third time for the audience—and second for Saul, David is introduced as a talkative warrior who is simultaneously pious and political (1, 17:1‐54); and finally, we find Saul asking who David is! (I, 17:55‐18:5). The first introduction to David sets the narrative tone: prophet Samuel is sent to anoint David—under the ruse of a sacrifice—but the seer sees wrongly in the selection process. Then, King Saul meets two very different Davids: a quiescent, responsive David followed by a politically ambitious and overtly pious David. Finally, a confused Saul asks David about his identity.
Saul and David—Fear; Sword and Spear
Authors: Borgman Paul
Published: May 2008

Immediately following the slaying of Goliath and Saul's mystifying query about who that young slayer was, David becomes the object of Saul's fear and murderous jealousy, a mini‐drama of cat‐and‐mouse that takes up the last half of I Samuel and Saul's suicide. The contrast between David and Saul continues to be spelled out, implicitly but surely, through various repetitions of narrative detail, most conspicuously the motifs of fear and of sword‐and‐spear use. Still another and striking pattern, to be taken up in the following chapter, occurs in the middle of David's fleeing from Saul, when twice David spares the king's life—and spares, as well, the life of a common fool. The two motifs of this chapter plus the triadic pattern of the next serve to further illustrate just what distinguishes David from Saul. Such advancing clarity, of course, functions also to explain better the mind of God in fastening on David rather than Saul.
The Ark, Communal Well‐being, and Women
Authors: Borgman Paul
Published: May 2008

The ark makes a significant appearance in five major sequences within the broader David story. Taken together, these five sequences involving the ark indicate the centrality of communal concerns in David's story, and the role of leaders in the presence or absence of communal well‐being. The two ark appearances involving David, in the context of the ark pattern, bring David's qualifications as Israel's greatest king into increasingly sharp focus. The first of five ark instances (Israel At Its Worst; Ineffectual Ark, Judges 19:1‐21:25) serves as a frame; a woman‐in‐trouble is featured. The second instance (Communal Disaster, Lost Ark, I, 4:1‐7:2), repeats the woman‐in‐trouble motif. The third instance (Communal Glory: The Ark Returns to the Heart of Israel, II, 6:1‐23) again evidences the woman motif, this time the woman‐making‐trouble. The fourth instance (Communal Disaster, Ark Stays, David Goes II, 15:7‐16:14) reveals women‐in‐trouble, while the fifth and final instance, a frame (Israel At Its Best; Ark As Centerpiece, 1 Kings 7:51‐8:1) demonstrates the ark at its best, with no women singled out.
7 The Overlapping Distribution of Personal and Demonstrative Pronouns
Authors: Byron Donna K. , Brown-Schmidt Sarah , Tanenhaus Michael K.
Published: May 2008

This chapter explores pragmatic distinctions between personal pronouns such as ‘it’ and demonstrative pronouns such as ‘that’ in English. These two categories of pronoun are typically employed in contexts that vary based on how attentionally prominent the pronoun's referent is; however, many authors have observed that they are occasionally used by speakers in contexts where the other pronoun would have been predicted. This chapter analyzes such cases using data from two studies, and concludes that the attentional salience is only one of a set of factors that comes into play when a speaker chooses which pronominal form to employ. Conceptual structures used by the addressee in interpretation can override the normal implication of salience signaled by the pronoun's category.
14 Engaging the World
Authors: Langacker Ronald W.
Published: May 2008

Because it unfolds through time, conceptualization (and hence linguistic meaning) is inherently dynamic. There are numerous natural paths that it tends to follow, and which tend to coalign in linguistic structure. In one kind of path, a salient reference point provides mental access to a target. Certain basic grammatical phenomena are analyzed in terms of reference point relationships, including possessives, pronominal anaphora, topic constructions, and trajector/ landmark organization (subject and object). A subject differs from a discourse topic by being structurally internal to a clause and conceptually intrinsic to the clausal process. Trajector and landmark are characterized dynamically as the first and second reference points evoked in building up to the full conception of a profiled relationship. This explains their general grammatical accessibility as well as their role in certain specific constructions. The mental world we construct is grounded in our experience as creatures with bodies who engage in motor and sensory interactions (embodiment). In constructing it, we transcend direct experience through abstraction, conceptual integration, and subjectification: the application of mental operations immanent in certain conceptions to situations for which their occurrence is extrinsic. Examples include fictive motion, fictive change, and the covert invocation of imagined scenarios. Mental simulation is a fundamental aspect of conception and linguistic meaning. Subjectification is an important factor in grammaticization (the evolution of grammatical elements from lexical sources). Many grammatical notions are subjective counterparts of basic aspects of everyday experience. Grammar reflects the means of disengagement through which we transcend immediate experience and construct our mental world. It is thus a key to conceptual analysis.
The Necessity of Theater
Authors: Woodruff Paul
Published: May 2008

The Necessity of Theater examines the whole art of theater, which teaches us how best to watch and be watched, and is as necessary to human life as language. We practice the art of theater on the formal stage, but also in sports events, weddings, and ceremonies of all kinds. The book begins by defining the art in a broad way, so as to include as many kinds of theater as possible across world cultures. After defining theater, The Necessity of Theater examines in turn each of the main elements of its two main components: the art of watching and that of being watched. Performers practice the art of making their actions worth watching. This means that they should pay attention to such elements as action, choice, plot, character, mimesis, and the sacredness of performance space. All of these are covered in the book. Audiences practice the art of paying attention to the actions before them. To do that they need to know how to find events worth watching. A good audience is emotionally engaged through one of the many forms of empathy that are distinguished in this book, one of which leads to human wisdom. Plato's ancient attack on theater is right in that theater cannot teach us transcendent truths, but theater does each us about ourselves.
FOUR Staging Choices
Authors: Woodruff Paul
Published: May 2008

Theater puts actions on view, and actions are events that proceed from human choice. If choice is not possible for humans, or if it cannot be presented to public view, then theater will not be possible. But we do present oaths in public, most commonly at weddings, and we take them to proceed from choice, by free will. The events of a tragedy, however, seem often to be determined by fate; yet great tragic plays, such as Sophocles' Oedipus at Colonus, show heroes choosing their fates, so that ancient playwrights were hard compatibilists. To help an audience believe that Oedipus makes choices, Sophocles presents him as a coherent character—that is, as someone who credibly takes action, rather than passively submitting to fate. Factors that would defeat choice (such as insanity or divine intervention) also defeat character; that is why choice follows character.
TEN Laughter
Authors: Woodruff Paul
Published: May 2008

Laughter tends to undermine caring, emotion, and empathy; therefore unmixed comedy would seem to work against the aims of the art of theater. But comedy is rarely unmixed. Although comedy and tragedy engage audiences in different ways, they both depend on the art of theater. Laughter, when it is not the laughter of exclusion, promotes empathy and a shared recognition of the absurdity that dogs the human condition.
The Daode Jing in Practice
Authors: DeAngelis Gary D. , Frisina Warren G. , Wong Eva
Published: May 2008

The contemporary Daoist practitioner, Eva Wong, explains that many of the DDJ 's most puzzling passages make perfect sense when seen in the light of Daoist activities and exercises. Specifically, she argues that phrases like “quieting the mind,” “nourishing the soul”, “infant breathing,” and “cleaning the subtle mirror” point toward particular kinds of actions which early (and in many cases contemporary) Daoists believed would lead one to live a life more nearly in accord with the Dao.
Imagine Teaching the Daode Jing!
Authors: DeAngelis Gary D. , Frisina Warren G. , Berling Judith , Foy Geoffrey , Thompson John
Published: May 2008

This collaborative effort between an experienced teacher/scholar and two (then) graduate students presents three “overlapping” strategies for teaching the DDJ. The first emphasizes situating the DDJ within the context of Zhou Chinese intellectual struggles and then proceeds by student led discussions about thematically grouped chapters. The second contrasts contemporary expectations regarding gender language with the DDJ 's own use of feminine metaphors in order to help students uncover what the text may mean when it uses those metaphors in the way that it does. The third aims to turn the DDJ 's notorious ambiguity to the teacher's advantage by leading students through a series of re‐readings of the text from different points of view. This third strategy helps students to see how their understanding of the text changes with each re‐reading, and that all interpretations are context‐dependent.
Hermeneutics and Pedagogy: Gimme That Old‐Time Historicism
Authors: DeAngelis Gary D. , Frisina Warren G. , LaFargue Michael
Published: May 2008

Michael LaFargue aims to cultivate in students a capacity to see the DDJ from the point of view of its many literary forms and implied interlocutors. By exploring the structures of proverbial sayings he leads students away from the tendency to take its statements too literally, a tendency that typically makes the DDJ seem more obscure and mysterious than it is. LaFargue encourages students to ask: What “pragmatic implications” of the DDJ's statements can we reasonably attribute to the early Daoist practitioners who both produced and made use of this text? This leads to a historicist understanding of the DDJ that is rooted in questions quite different from those that a contemporary western reader would typically bring to the text.
4 Modern Warfare
Authors: Nock-Hee Park Josephine
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the legacy of high modernism in the work of avant‐garde Asian American artists at the end of the 20th century. Returning to a history of transpacific alliances in their work, Theresa Hak Kyung Cha and Myung Mi Kim explore the costs of such ties in formal terms by newly invoking modernist forms. This chapter argues that their experimental poetry dissects modernist aesthetics in order to interrogate U.S.‐East Asian alliances.
The Cross in Early Renaissance Theology and Art
Authors: Viladesau Richard
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the place of the cross in the theology and preaching of the century leading into the Protestant Reformation. The writings of Vincent Ferrer and Girolomo Savonarola provide examples of the stress placed in preaching on an emotional identification with the sufferings of Christ and of Mary. The theology of Gabriel Biel exemplifies the nominalist approach to soteriology. The art of Frà Angelico, the young Michelangelo, and other early Renaissance painters shows the effect of humanism on the portrayal of the Passion.
Ambiguity, Ambivalence, and Boundaries
Authors: Seligman Adam B. , Weller Robert P. , Puett Michael J. , Simon Bennett
Published: May 2008

This chapter turns to the capacities of the human mind that allow for the construction of the “as if” world of ritual, and begins to explore the ways such worlds allow us to deal with ambiguities and ambivalences. The material in this chapter, unlike most work on ritual, links individual psychology to ritual's broader social work. It looks at the development of “as if” worlds and ritual-like behaviors in children, from things like repeated bedtime rituals to the capacity for invention and deceit. Another stream of the analysis examines more unusual and exotic behaviors like fetishism or extreme examples of lying. These two lines of discussion converge around the ways they allow us to deal with ambiguity, with examples taken from Greek tragedy and from the social role of deception and craftiness in certain social contexts.
Before Words Were Signs
Authors: Cary Phillip
Published: May 2008

To see what is new about Augustine's theory of signs, it is useful to notice that Greek semiotics was concerned with the epistemology of empirical inference and included no theory of language or expression. This is illustrated in Plato, in Aristotle's On Interpretation (where an Augustinian semiotics is often read into the text anachronistically), in the treatises on physiognomics in the Aristotelian corpus (where bodies are signs of the soul), in the semiotics and theory of language developed by Stoicism, and in the scepticism of Sextus Empiricus. The recurrent problem, emphasized by the more sceptical side in philosophical debates, is that signs are ambiguous whenever they are “common” to more than one thing signified. Augustine's theory of signs resembles Sextus's sceptical concept of “reminding signs,” which are both indispensably useful and epistemically inadequate.
Music's Empire
Authors: Agnew Vanessa
Published: May 2008

In examining the status of music in the cross-cultural encounter, this chapter focuses on Captain Cook's second voyage (1772-5) and the role played by Burney's son James and the German naturalist Georg Forster in transcribing and commenting on Polynesian music. It shows that the discovery of part singing in New Zealand and Tonga conflicted with Rousseauvian assertions about polyphony as an exclusively European invention. Music scholars like Charles Burney, Johann Nicolaus Forkel, Eduard Hanslick, and August Wilhelm Ambros subsequently played down the polyphonic and affective character of Polynesian music so as to uphold theories about music's universal progress and its hierarchical ordering. The chapter argues that this move, and others like it, had lasting implications for the development of western musicology and ethnomusicology, which would come to be predicated on a series of radical distinctions between the European and non-European. Where Orpheus had once signified the harmonizing powers of music, he would now be transformed into a cautionary tale about musical difference and the dangers of music's instrumentality.
Conclusion
Authors: Agnew Vanessa
Published: May 2008

Disagreeing with contemporary scholarship that posits an aesthetic break c.1800, this chapter argues that the ancient discourse on musical utility did not come to an end with end of the 18th century. It shows that music's instrumentality is preserved within Romantic and later conceptions of aesthetic autonomy. Writers and music scholars adopted Orphic claims about the power of music in order to promote serious music, professionalize music scholarship, and advance various social, cultural, and political agendas. The parts played by E. T. A. Hoffmann, Karl Philipp Moritz, and Immanuel Kant are mentioned in the chapter. This came at the price of both other kinds of music and other forms of musical knowledge making. The book concludes with an appeal for disciplinary reconciliation within the present study of music. It also makes a case for broad and dangerous listening.
The Festival of the Goddess Vatsalā
Authors: Michaels Axel
Published: May 2008

This chapter explores the main festival of Deopatan, the Vatsalājātrā, i.e. the rituals and processions that celebrate the goddess Vatsalā who is regarded as both an independent deity and the consort of Śiva. The climax of the festival is a ritual clash between both deities because Śiva rejects Vatsalā because she accepted animal sacrifices and great amounts of alcohol. The rituals also provide indications of former human sacrifices.
The Goddess of the Secret and Her Procession (Guhyeśvarījātrā)
Authors: Michaels Axel
Published: May 2008

This chapter deals with the history and mythology of Guhyeśvarī, the Goddess of the Secret and her procession (Guhyeśvarījātrā). The focus of the chapter is on the various (Hindu, Buddhist, Folk) identities of Hindu goddesses.
The Great Night of Śiva (Mahāśivarātri)
Authors: Michaels Axel
Published: May 2008

This chapter deals with the Great Night of Śiva (Mahāśivarātri), the main festival of the Smārta Hindus in Deopatan, celebrated by pilgrimage and night vigils. It discusses the calendrical, historical and mythological problems of the festival. As it seems, the Śāha kings of Nepal have strongly supported it by attracting pilgrims and revered ascetics from India in order to promote the pure, vegetarian religiosity in Nepal.
8 Pelléas et Mélisande
Authors: Antokoletz Elliott
Published: May 2008

This chapter looks at Act V — a room in the castle — which begins with wounded Mélisande in bed and closes the opera with Mélisande's forgiveness of Golaud and her death.
10 Duke Bluebeard's Castle
Authors: Antokoletz Elliott
Published: May 2008

This chapter looks at Doors II (Armoury), III (Treasure Chamber), and IV (Garden) and develops Judith's “Fate” motif and the leitmotif of Stefi Geyer, including the transformation between Judith's (Stefi's) motif of the seventh-chord and the chromatic motif of “Blood”. Descending third transpositions of variant seventh chords produce chromatic collisions as an implication of the “Blood” motif. Interaction of diatonic and whole-tone spheres produce dissonance and the move toward ultimate fate.
The Children‘s Chant
Authors: van der Merwe Peter
Published: May 2008

The foundation of melody — psychologically, historically, and theoretically — is the children's chant, a little tune confined to three pitches (together making a minor third with a superimposed major second) that children in all cultures begin to sing at the age of about three. It is not confined to children, or to musically primitive cultures, but underlies all melody. This chapter looks at its relation to the major triad and its development into more complex patterns, and introduces three fundamental properties of music, all present in this chant: (1) chordality, or the bonding together of the intervals within the major triad; (2) melodic consonance, or the relative lack of tension between the same notes (the only entirely consonant interval is the octave); and (3) ambiguity, or multiplicity of relationships between melodic notes or rhythmic values.
Romanticism
Authors: van der Merwe Peter
Published: May 2008

This chapter deals with those strains in 19th-century music that would seem to be furthest removed from the vernacular discussed in the previous chapter. It begins with a general discussion of musical nationalism and its relation to Romanticism, then proceeds to the mainly Teutonic symphonic tradition, which was generally at odds the tendencies of the time but sometimes in harmony with them. Finally, Wagner's musical language and its relation to the vernacular is analyzed.
1 Concepts in Resource Property Rights
Authors: Scott Anthony
Published: May 2008

This opening chapter explains how the ‘completeness’ of a property right is measured by the extent to which it has all of six ‘characteristics’. These are exclusivity, duration, flexibility, quality of title, transferability, and divisibility. Each set of chapters, dealing with rights over a particular resource: water, fisheries, minerals, or forest, examines the amount and types of characteristic with which its rights are equipped. Rights are distinguished from the ‘powers’. The chapter presents ‘demand’ and ‘supply’ for characteristics as holders interact. ‘Demand’ has flowed from owners who in the course of disputes have found their rights' characteristics to be inadequate. The chapter examines sources of ‘supply’ in detail: the courts — hearing cases in property, tort or contract law; government — legislating rights and taxes directly or making rules for public-land disposal; manorial custom; and military invasion.
Before the State
Authors: Osiander Andreas
Published: May 2008

This book challenges the habit of conventional historiography of taking the ‘essential’ state – a ‘bounded entity’ equipped with a ‘sovereign’ central power — for granted in any period and of not taking period political terminology seriously. It refutes the idea, current both in historiography and in International Relations theory (in particular Realism), that the fundamental nature of ‘international’ politics is historically immutable. Nothing akin to what we call the ‘state’ existed before the 19th century: it is a recent invention and the assumption that it is timeless, necessary for society, is simply part of its legitimating myth. The development over the past three millennia of the political structures of western civilization is shown here to have been a succession of unrepeatable but path-dependent stages. In examining structural change, the book adopts a constructivist approach based on the analysis of period political discourse. This approach both reflects and illuminates the evolution of western political thought: on the one hand, political thought is a vehicle of the political discourse of its period. On the other hand, the assumption that political theory must in any age somehow be centred on the ‘state’ has forced our understanding of it into a straight-jacket: abandoning this assumption permits fresh and unexpected insights into the political thinking of earlier eras. Close attention, however, is also paid to the material constraints and opportunities (e.g., ecological and economic factors, or military technology) impacting on the evolution of society.
Introduction
Authors: Tracy James D.
Published: May 2008

If William of Orange's grand strategy for the Revolt was, as has been argued, frustrated by fractious provinces, wealthy Holland should get the blame. Yet Holland had a rival strategy, more workable than Orange's. Militarily, the priority was to defend Holland's borders first, and only then extend protection to neighboring towns. The States of Holland kept control of the purse strings (limiting the authority of the States General), and the eighteen towns represented in the provincial parliament managed to preserve consensus on the aims of the war. It was thus a province that gave birth to a nation, the United Provinces; this is why foreigners (not Dutch people) commonly refer to the whole country as “Holland”.
The Habsburg Netherlands, 1549–1567
Authors: Tracy James D.
Published: May 2008

In the forty years between 1520 and 1559, the Habsburg and Valois dynasties were at war for twenty years. This struggle for hegemony in Europe entailed not just recurring warfare along the Franco‐Netherlandish frontier, but also a leapfrogging competition in military technology (artillery, and fortresses built to withstand bombardment) and military organization (building mercenary armies from specialized units recruited in different nations). In the 1540s and especially the 1550s, French attacks came by sea as well as by land, forcing the Netherlands government, for the first time, to think about how to control the North Sea. At sea and on land, commanders who acquired up‐to‐date military skills by fighting for the Habsburgs in the 1550s would in the 1570s fight one another.
Holland as a Body Politic, I: The Habsburg Era, to 1567
Authors: Tracy James D.
Published: May 2008

Was Holland a mere collection of towns? Or was it a body politic? Clearly it was both. Towns were divided not just by local rivalries but by repeated clashes over the inland waterway: while cities tied to decaying industries (Leiden, Gouda) clung to the traditional route, those profiting from the growth of maritime trade (Amsterdam, Rotterdam) incessantly cut new channels. Yet outside forces pushed the towns to make common cause. Holland's vital Baltic trade was threatened by the Hanseatic League (Lübeck), supported by the populous county of Flanders. Attacks from the duchy of Guelders, a French ally, gave all of Holland a common foe. Finally, the government's anti‐heresy campaign, setting aside cherished legal privileges, roused universal opposition, as if all the provinces made up a single country. As iconoclast rioters moved from town to town and province to province (1566), the government faced its worst crisis.
Holland as a Body Politic, II: Seeds of Discord
Authors: Tracy James D.
Published: May 2008

Holland's Baltic trade flourished as never before, and skilled immigrants helped revive local industries. But prosperity raised a political issue: should Holland trade with provinces loyal to Spain? The more Holland's leaders pushed for free trade, the more confederates in the Union of Utrecht saw them as selling out the cause to boost profits. Meanwhile, Holland upheld the public supremacy of the Reformed religion. Yet Reformed religion embraced two theologies. One, based in Geneva, required a church free of state control; the other, based in Zurich, sanctioned governance of the Church by magistrates. Most Holland clergy preferred the former view, while magistrates favored the latter. Thus several towns had major conflicts over appointment of preachers; at the provincial level, each side ignored the other's pronouncements on church governance.
Holland's Pyramid of Credit
Authors: Tracy James D.
Published: May 2008

As Holland's “common means” became the chief revenue of the confederate provinces, the Lords States managed to fend off efforts, by Orange and then by Leicester, to impose centralized control on these precious cash receipts. To cover the gap between income and war expenses, Holland continued borrowing, using burgher loans organized by the magistrates. To pay off enough debt to keep the loans coming, the states raised the rates for real property taxes (underline verpondingen); magistrates used receipts to repay their burghers. But still more was needed for debt settlement; in 1586 the states revised the use of long‐term underline renten, now to be issued by the towns, in the name of the Lords States. Holland's war debt thus rested on a pyramid of credit, with the states at the top, burgher‐lenders at the bottom, and town magistrates playing the crucial role of fiscal intermediation.
PHASE-CONTRAST AND HOLOGRAPHIC TOMOGRAPHY
Authors: Peele Andrew G. , Nugent Keith A.
Published: May 2008

This chapter reviews how X-ray phase contrast can be applied to tomographic imaging. Topics discussed include propagation of light and phase contrast, interferometry for phase tomography, differential interferometry, Zernike phase contrast for tomography, diffraction-enhanced imaging, coherent diffractive imaging, and polychromatic phase imaging.
SCANNING TOMOGRAPHY
Authors: Simionovici Alexandre , Bleuet Pierre , Golosio Bruno , Schroer Christian
Published: May 2008

In cases where the effect of interest changes the direction of the incoming radiation, the image pixels are no longer decoupled and the sample has to be scanned sequentially using a small focused beam to avoid the information from different regions of the sample being convoluted irreversibly. This chapter describes such scanning methods. Three examples are presented: tomography using fluorescent X-ray radiation, tomography exploiting the absorption fine structure near the absorption edges, and tomography utilizing small-angle scattering from mesoscopic structures within the sample.
NEUTRON-REFRACTION AND SMALL-ANGLE SCATTERING TOMOGRAPHY
Authors: Treimer Wolfgang
Published: May 2008

Refraction and small-angle scattering can provide unique imaging signals in situations where absorption- or other attenuation-based effects are insufficient. Attenuation contrast is low in cases where either the absolute values of the attenuation coefficients of the individual components of the object are low, or the differences between the various components are small. In such cases, other contrast mechanisms have to be employed for imaging such as the phase contrast described in the previous chapter. This chapter discusses two additional contrast mechanisms: refraction tomography and small-angle scattering tomography. Experimental results for both techniques are presented.
Introduction
Authors: Percy Sarah
Published: May 2008

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the norm against mercenary use. It then discusses existing literature on mercenaries. It argues that the anti-mercenary norm has restricted state use of mercenaries at the same time it has influenced, and often constrained, the opportunities available for mercenaries themselves. An overview of the succeeding chapters is presented.
1 Norms, Their Influence, and How They Can Be Studied
Authors: Percy Sarah
Published: May 2008

This chapter sets out the theoretical framework of the book. It adopts a constructivist approach, which explains how norms influence behaviour and how their impact can be studied. The first section explains what a norm is, and defines proscriptive norms. It moves on to explain the three main theoretical approaches to defining norms, and argues that a constructivist approach is the most appropriate for capturing the influence of the norm against mercenary use. The third section outlines the relationships between norms and the related concepts of law, morality, and interests. In the fourth section, the ways in which norms influence politics and state behaviour are examined. The fifth section argues that a narrative methodology is most appropriate to describe and explain the influence of norms on state behaviour. The chapter concludes by addressing some of the challenges inherent in a study of norms.
4 Competing Explanations for the Nineteenth-Century Shift Away from Mercenary Use
Authors: Percy Sarah
Published: May 2008

This chapter focuses on the three arguments that seek to explain why states stopped using mercenaries in the 19th century. The first argument is largely realist, making the case that material changes pressured states to adopt citizen armies. The second argument is based more on the role of ideas, arguing that the developing relationship between states and citizens and the increasing role of neutrality in international law combined to render the use of mercenaries obsolete. The third argument suggests that while ideas and material pressures are important antecedent conditions, the change to a citizen army is best explained by domestic politics and path dependency.
6 The Norm against Mercenary Use and International Law
Authors: Percy Sarah
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the absence of an effective international regulatory regime for mercenaries. The first section examines the argument, made most forcefully by the international lawyer Antonio Cassese, that the international law on mercenaries, particularly the definition found in Article 47 of Protocol I of the Geneva Conventions, is full of loopholes intentionally left by states, who were uninfluenced by any moral dislike of mercenaries and who could and did pursue the creation of law that was more about preserving advantage than enshrining concern over mercenaries. The second section of this chapter takes a close look at the argument that only states directly affected by mercenaries, those in Africa, had any interest in dealing with mercenaries through the creation of international law. The third section examines a different facet of the argument that anti-mercenary sentiment was not universal.
Conclusion
Authors: Percy Sarah
Published: May 2008

This chapter presents a synthesis of the discussions in the preceding chapters. It shows that the norm against mercenary use has explained four different puzzles in international history. First, anti-mercenary feeling can help illustrate why states gained control over the independent mercenary and established a controlled international trade in mercenaries. Second, it can help explain why, even though the controlled trade in private fighters was effective, it was abandoned in favour of citizen armies across Europe in the 19th century. Third, it is impossible to understand why international law on mercenaries is so flawed without understanding that states were attempting to adhere to a very strong norm against mercenary use which was difficult to translate into law, and was simultaneously supported by the norms of national self-determination and undermined by the norms of state responsibility and freedom of movement. Fourth, the growth of PMCs, their disappearance, and the rise of PSCs cannot be understood without understanding the normative obstacles modern-day mercenaries face, and the international community's response to the emergence of PMCs is likewise impossible to understand without attention to widespread normative discomfort with the use of private force.
6 Historical Perspectives in the Mind of Joseph Priestley
Authors: Kennedy Alison
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines Priestley's different perspectives as a historian. The discussion is divided into three parts: the first is concerned with Joseph Priestley the historian, the second with Priestley the theologian as historian and Biblical critic, and the third with the importance of his legacy in this latter respect. A brief comparison is made between Priestley's approach to the relationship between religion and history and that of David Hume and Edward Gibbon, two great historians of the 18th century. Two works by Priestley are analyzed: Lectures on History and General Policy, delivered at Warrington Academy in the late 1760s and revised and finally published in 1788, which deals with his secular approach to history; and An History of the Corruptions of Christianity, published six years earlier, in 1782. The latter reveals a different approach to historical understanding within a theological context.
Structural Chemistry of Group 13 Elements
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung
Published: May 2008

About 80% of this chapter is devoted to the particularly rich structural chemistry of boron. There are sections on elemental boron, metal and non-metal borides, boranes and carboranes, boric acids, and borates. In the section on boranes and carboranes, electron-counting rules are introduced to account for the relationship between the bonding and structures of these compounds. For the remaining Group 13 elements, there are sections on their organometallic compounds with novel features (such as bridged structures, M-M bonding, π bonding, etc.) and on naked anionic metalloid clusters.
Metal–Metal Bonds and Transition-Metal Clusters
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung
Published: May 2008

This chapter summarizes developments in the study of (transition) metal clusters held by metal-metal bonds. Similar to the case of boranes and carboranes, electron-counting rules have been devised to correlate the bonding and structure of metal clusters. Three sections are devoted to clusters with two to seven metal atoms, followed by a section on iso-bond valence and iso-structural series. The final section covers selected areas of metal-metal interaction, including aurophilicity, argentophilicity, metal string molecules, and metal-based infinite chains and networks.
Supramolecular Structural Chemistry
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung
Published: May 2008

This chapter on supramolecular chemistry is the longest one in the book. According to J.-M. Lehn, who shared the 1987 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with D. J. Cram and C. J. Pedersen, supramolecular chemistry is the study of organized entities of higher complexity (supermolecule) resulting from the association of two or more chemical species consolidated by intermolecular forces. Fundamental concepts such as the nature of intermolecular interactions, molecular recognition, self-assembly, crystal engineering, and supramolecular synthon are systematically introduced. Several examples are presented to shed light on this fascinating and ever-evolving research area.
After Adlington: Apuleius in England (1566–1660)
Authors: Carver Robert H. F.
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses Apuleian influences in England. Topics covered include George Gascoigne's Apuleian sonnets, Apuleian allusions in the works of Ben Jonson, and the Greene-Nashe-Harvery controversy.
The Arcadian Ass: Sir Philip Sidney and Apuleius
Authors: Carver Robert H. F.
Published: May 2008

This chapter explores Apuleian influences in Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia. Upon his death in 1586, Sidney left behind two versions of Arcadia: the so-called Old Arcadia, a pastoral tragicomedy ‘in five books or acts’ completed in about 1581; and a so-called New Arcadia, a much revised and expanded version in two and a half books which was abandoned in 1584. It is argued that the revision manifests contradictory impulses — an attempt to Heliodoreanize the work, to render it more serious, edifying, and stable, coupled with a centrifugal tendency to explore more dynamic possibilities of narrative and characterization (including those provided by The Golden Ass). The paradox is that the very qualities — the moral and imaginative dynamics — which invest the New Arcadia with such interest, also account for its formal failure. But that failure was as productive as it was inevitable. The Arcadia is one of the earliest examples of comparative criticism of the ancient novels and it serves as a case study of the sorts of tensions and possibilities facing early-modern writers of fiction.
Happiness Quantified
Authors: van Praag Bernard M. S. , Ferrer-i-Carbonell Ada
Published: May 2008

This book deals with satisfaction analysis, that is, the way humans evaluate many aspects of their situation. It focuses on that which precedes decision taking (i.e., judgements and evaluations, likes and dislikes) on which preference orderings are based. Although written by two economists, the book covers many fields in the social sciences in the broadest sense, including psychology, sociology, and political science, with the aim of promoting discussion between the disciplines. It presents methodologies by which satisfaction can be analysed.