bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Commercial Vehicle – Drive Cycle Development and Validation Using GT-RealDrive & 1D GT-SUITE Electric Vehicle Models
Authors: Saxena Sparsh , Kudachi Bharat , Pasupathi Santhosh , Bergsieker Gerald
Published: April 2023

The paper presents an approach used to generate a customer-oriented drive cycle using the MATLAB-based drive cycle generation tool for EVs developed by Isuzu Technical Center of America. The drive cycle generation tool extracts important features from the customer vehicle data and compares it with the globally used pre-existing candidate cycle to generate a representative drive cycle. The tool can read multiple file formats of preprocessed data or raw data from the vehicle telematics systems. This data is then processed using a unique and efficient algorithm developed by the Isuzu engineers, calculating seven important vehicle dynamic parameters. These selected parameters are compared with the pre-existing candidate cycles used across the globe in multiple iterations to generate a custom representative drive cycle that best fits real-world customer driving behavior. The generated drive cycles are then validated using the 1D vehicle model in the GT-POWER tool, resulting in a fidelity of more than 95% [1] concerning the governing criteria and seven key parameters. The tool provides high flexibility and control over the process of generating a drive cycle. The seven key parameters selected in this tool are prominent parameters used globally to evaluate vehicle performance. By altering one of these parameters, one can simulate vehicle operation under various use scenarios. The tool gives users authority over the parameter weightage for drive cycle development. The drive cycle that is ultimately created using it will be a combination of varied proportions of the candidate cycles employed in the automotive sector [1]. This paper focuses on the usage of the tool, and the development of the tool has been explained. In this paper, the tool is utilized to analyze the 7 key parameters from customer driving patterns and these 7 parameters are used to develop a real-world drive cycle(routes) with the help of GT-RealDrive. The key parameters of these driving routes are then compared and judged based on correlation with the customer driving parameters and the best-suited iteration is finalized.
Multi-Objective Optimization of the Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Powertrain for a Class 8 Heavy-Duty Truck
Authors: Salek Farhad , Abouelkhair Eyad , Babaie Meisam , Cunliffe Frank , Nock William
Published: April 2023

To decarbonize heavy-duty vehicles solely through electrification with batteries is challenging as large batteries are required for a meaningful range, severely impacting payload. Employment of hybrid electric powertrains where fuel cells are integrated with batteries can deliver increased range and payload. However, the energy balance between the fuel cell and the battery needs to be analyzed to optimize the sizing of the powertrain components. This study has performed a multi-objective optimization using genetic algorithm to obtain the optimum range and hydrogen consumption for a DAF 44 tons heavy-duty truck. The proposed truck powertrain has been numerically modelled in AVL CRUISE M software. The electric drive from Involution Technologies Ltd and Bramble Energy Ltd’s printed circuit board fuel cell (PCBFC) are used in the model. The model considers the main powertrain control system variables, and the optimization is performed using AVL real road driving cycle, which is based on high altitude climb for a truck with average power requirement of the motors of 300 kW. From the results of the optimization, five design points were recommended in pareto domain, and the transient results were plotted for these operating points to decide the optimum scenario. At the selected design point the size of the H2 storage tank, fuel cell and battery packs equals to 65 kg H2 on-board storage, 270 kW fuel cell and 257 kWh respectively. The proposed fuel cell truck running the highly demanding AVL drive cycle has a 570 km range, compared with 211 km range for battery-electric only (with battery total capacity of 516.16 kWh) and hydrogen consumption of 12.46 kg/100km at fully laden payload (44 tons).
TREMEC gen1 EDU – Double The Power!
Authors: De Landtsheere Jannick
Published: April 2023

With the transition of vehicles to electric drivetrains comes also the need to find solutions for fun-to-drive high performance vehicle variants. These will require dedicated performance-oriented electric drive units. TREMEC is developing a first generation of such EDU. Key attributes for this 600 kW EDU are: two motors in the space of an OEM single motor unit, excellent efficiency in WLTP and performance drive cycles, thermal robustness. Extensive analysis has been performed to find the right technological ingredients to fit the design brief. Rather than claiming a one fits-all solution, a customer project optimized solution is proposed making use of a set of key ingredients: planetary and layshaft gear sets, IPM and SPM motors, SiC inverter and integrated disconnect clutch. Full system simulations are key in the design and development process at TREMEC. Efficiency models have shown that both IPM and SPM technology can offer excellent efficiency, around 90 % in the WLTP and 95 % peak system efficiency. For an AWD vehicle, the integrated disconnect option enables up to 2 kWh/100 km gain in WLTP driving range by disconnecting the rear drive units. Thermal simulations show that the EDU with its advanced cooling concepts is capable of sustained high performance driving. Prototype testing to confirm all simulations is ongoing in Q4 2022.
Development of Charging System for bZ4X
Authors: Motohira Akito , Tsutsumi Daisuke
Published: April 2023

In 2022, Toyota launched new battery electric vehicle (BEV), the Toyota bZ4X. Unlike gasoline-powered vehicles, BEVs require charging. Users want increased range and shorter charging times. bZ4X's charging system increased range and shortened AC/DC charging time compared to the Lexus UX300e launched in 2020. A new unit called Electricity Supply Unit (ESU) was developed that integrated a DCDC converter, on-board charger, DC relays, and a branch box for power distribution function into a single unit. The design moved the branch box out of the battery pack to make room for the battery capacity, and it integrated the power conversion function into a single unit, making it more compact than if each unit were mounted separately. A 7 kW or 11 kW on-board charger is included with the vehicle. The 7 kW on-board charger is inside ESU; the 11 kW charger is external to the ESU. By building separate on-board chargers for easier integration, this allowed the ESU and peripheral components to be standardized. Each ESU unit supports a DC charging system with a maximum DC charging power of approximately 150 kW (maximum 400 A). Measures were taken against heat generated by DC relays due to the increased current, and a maximum 400 A charging with indirect water-cooling was achieved. A new protector was developed to fix the DC inlet wire harness(W/H) which is 70 mm2 for 400 A. With these developments, increased range and shortened AC/DC charging time was achieved.
Application of 48V Mild-Hybrid Technology for Meeting GHG and Low NOx Emission Regulations for MHD Vehicles
Authors: Fnu Dhanraj , Bustamante Oscar , Joshi Satyum , Koehler Erik , Franke Michael , Tomazic Dean
Published: April 2023

Vehicle OEM’s for MHD applications are facing significant challenges in meeting the stringent 2027 low-NOx and GHG emissions regulations. To meet such challenges, advanced engine and aftertreatment technologies along with powertrain electrification are being applied to achieve robust solutions. FEV has previously conducted model-based assessments to show the potential of 48V engine and aftertreatment technologies to simultaneously meet GHG and low NOx emission standards. This study focuses on evaluating the full potential of 48V electrification technology through addition of 48V P3 hybrid system to the previously developed 48V advanced engine and aftertreatment technology package.

Previously, a model-based approach was utilized for selection and sizing of a 48V system-enabled engine and aftertreatment package for class 6-7 MHD application. The advanced engine and aftertreatment technology package comprised of engine downspeeding, exhaust VVT, close-coupled SCR, and 48V system components such as ETurbo , EGR pump, and catalyst heater. The performance of the advanced engine and aftertreatment package was compared to that of the baseline engine over engine certification cycles.

To assess the full potential of the 48V technology, the advanced engine and aftertreatment package was integrated with a 48V P1P3 hybrid powertrain. The performance of the baseline and the advanced vehicle were compared over the 3 Bin Moving Averaged Method instituted by CARB under omnibus regulation. The critical parameters compared were fuel economy, tailpipe NOx emissions, aftertreatment system temperature, and payback period. The analysis showed the potential offered by the 48V hybrid system for meeting future low NOx and GHG emission regulations.
A Review of Coated Metallic Bipolar Plates for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
Authors: Chauhan Shiv , Ponkshe Shripadraj
Published: April 2023

The sunrise vision for hydrogen economy lies in efficient, lightweight and durable devices which can convert hydrogen energy into electrical energy. Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is a key hydrogen energy conversion system for transport sector. The efficiency and durability of PEM fuel cell largely depends on cathode electrode and membrane and Bipolar plates (BP Plates) plays an important role in it. BP plates perform the important functions of transporting fuel gases to reactive sites, collecting charges and thus conducting electricity from cell to cell, moisture adjustment of membrane, transport of produced water and provides essential mechanical strength to fuel cell stack. It makes BP plates the backbone of PEM Fuel cell power stack. For BP plates to perform intended functions, it is highly desirable BP plates to possess excellent properties on corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, water wettability, weldability and formability. There is a conventional wisdom to use graphite plates as BP plates for the obvious advantages of high electrical conductivity and corrosion resistance. However, the unavoidable disadvantages, durability against shock and vibrations, cost and weight, machinability and limited design flexibility associated with Graphite BP plates shifted the focus to metallic BP plates. In recent times, numerous metallic BP plates are being developed. However bare metallic BP plates lack the basic performance requirements of corrosion resistance and surface/contact electrical conductivity. In order to improve these properties, specifically corrosion resistance in fuel cell environment, multiple coating systems and coatings processes are being developed. The development in BP plates coatings is primarily focused on reducing or eliminating Interfacial Contact Resistance (ICR) and improving corrosion and oxidation resistance. This paper reviews numerous coating systems, which are being developed for metallic BP plates including the process for coating deposition and key characterization techniques to evaluate the performance of metallic bipolar plate.
A Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Concept with Fuel Cell Range Extender for Urban Delivery Transport – Vehicle Application
Authors: Stoll Tobias , Kulzer Andre , Berner Hans-Juergen
Published: April 2023

The electrification of vehicle fleets for urban delivery transport is becoming increasingly important due to ever stricter legal requirements and the high public pressure on companies. In this paper, a converted 3.5 t light-duty vehicle with a maximum gross weight of 7.5 t is presented. The vehicle has a serial hybrid electric powertrain with a maximum electric traction power of 150 kW and a 60 kW fuel cell range extender, and uses a 46 kWh battery with 400 V mean voltage level, resulting in a full electric range of 120 km. The electric drive is realized with an induction motor and a lithium-manganese-iron-phosphate (LMFP)-battery as well as a 2-speed gearbox. The fuel cell system has a fuel tank with 100 l volume and 700 bar pressure level, resulting in a total mass of around 4.2 kg of hydrogen. This enables an overall vehicle range of 400 km. For the fuel cell system, a newly developed concept with a rated power of 1.0 W/cm2 and an electrically assisted turbocharger is introduced [1]. To reach optimal results for the electric and the hydrogen energy consumption, the vehicle applies an operating strategy based on the Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS). This operating strategy uses a global optimization algorithm in combination with the local optimized hydrogen consumption provided by the ECMS, to calculate the minimum possible energy consumption for the vehicle. This is achieved by using a reference drive cycle in charge sustaining mode. The vehicle is afterwards simulated with two additional drive cycles. The first drive cycle is a low load urban driving scenario with an overall range 7.85 km, the second a medium load urban delivery scenario simulating a vehicle day tour of 150 km and an overall duration of around 6 h and 45 min. Both drive cycles are simulated in charge-depleting mode. Finally, the operation of the different powertrain components as well as the electric energy and hydrogen consumption is presented.
Design and Structural Parameters Analysis of the Centrifugal Compressor for Automotive Fuel Cell System Based on CFD Method
Authors: mao Haoyu , Zhao Rongchao , Hang Chaodong , Xu Sichuan
Published: April 2023

Electric centrifugal air compressor is one of the most important auxiliary components for the fuel cell engine, which has great impacts on the system efficiency, cost and compactness. However, the centrifugal compressor works at an ultra-high speed for a long time, which poses a great challenge to the lives of motor, bearing and seal. Therefore, reducing the rotating speed of the impeller and maintaining high pressure ratio and high efficiency are important issues for aerodynamic design of the compressor.

In this paper, a centrifugal compressor rotor for a 100kW fuel cell system is designed. Aiming at reducing the rotating speed, the influences of three key structural parameters including inlet blade angle, outlet blade angle and blade outlet radius on performance are investigated. The aerodynamic performance of the compressor is predicted using the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations with computational fluid dynamic (CFD) tools. The numerical simulation and experiment showed good agreement. Results show that the inlet blade angle has little impact on the pressure ratio. However, it significantly influences the compressor operation range. Impeller with a smaller inlet blade angle is more suitable for a fuel cell system. At the design point, the pressure ratio and isentropic efficiency are increased by 3.30% and 5.56% respectively with reduced inlet blade angle. Both the outlet blade angle and radius have great impacts on the pressure ratio. With increased outlet blade angle and radius, the rotating speed of the impeller can be reduced by 27.83% at the design pressure ratio, while the efficiency is almost kept the same.
Experimental and Numerical Insights on Battery Venting during Thermal Runaway
Authors: Garcia Antonio , Gil Antonio , Golke Diego , Micó Carlos
Published: April 2023

Lithium-ion batteries have a well-documented failure tendency under abuse conditions with a significant release of gases and heat. This failure originated from the decomposition reactions within the battery’s electrochemical components, resulting in gas generation and increased internal pressure. To optimize battery safety, it is crucial to understand their behaviors when subjected to abuse conditions. The 18650 format cell incorporates a vent mechanism within a crimped cap to relieve pressure and mitigate the risk of rupture. However, cell venting introduces additional safety concerns associated with flammable gases and liquid electrolyte that flow into the environment. Experiments were performed with two venting caps with well-known geometries to quantify key parameters in describing the external dynamic flow of battery venting and to validate a CFD model. Thus, the jet of pure CO2 was measured on a dedicated experimental bench using Schlieren’s optical technique and the jet shape and penetration were calculated. The CFD model was validated by comparing the experimental results with those obtained from the CFD model. Furthermore, emissions data from two different cathode chemistries, LFP and NCA, for three distinct SOC´s were collected from the literature [1,2] and simulated using the two venting caps to obtain insights on the spatial and temporal species (CO, CH4, H2) distribution. Considering results, species distribution was more dependent on the design of the venting cap, but also on the SOC of the battery.
Development and Validation of Cycle and Calendar Aging Model for 144Ah NMC/Graphite Battery at Multi Temperatures, DODs, and C-Rates
Authors: Panchal Satyam , Pierre Vinicius , Cancian Massimo , Gross Oliver , Estefanous Fadi , Badawy Tamer
Published: April 2023

As compared with other batteries, lithium-ion batteries are featured by high power density, long service life, high energy density, environmental friendliness and thus have found wide application in the area of consumer electronics. However, lithium-ion batteries for electric and hybrid electric vehicles (EVs and HEVs) have high capacity and large serial-parallel numbers, which, coupled with such problems as safety, durability, cost and uniformity, imposes limitations on the wide application of lithium-ion batteries in the EVs and HEVs. The narrow area in which lithium-ion batteries operate with safety and reliability necessitates the effective control and through the use of management of battery management system. Battery state of health (SOH) monitoring has become a crucial challenge in EVs and HEVs research, as SOH significantly affects the overall vehicle performance and life cycle. This paper presents both cycling and calendar aging at high and low temperatures. In the proposed model the calendar aging is represented as a function of time, storage temperature and state-of-charge (SOC). On the other hand, cycle aging is represented as a function of energy throughput, cell temperature and C-rate. The cycling and calendar aging models are later combined to formulate an empirical cell-level aging model. The performance of the cell-level empirical aging model is validated by comparing it with the aging test data for different driving scenarios. The aging prediction from the empirical aging model shows very good agreement with the test data with a maximum normalized root mean squared error (RMSE) of 0.85%
Performance Evaluation of Lithium-ion Batteries under Low-Pressure Conditions for Aviation Applications
Authors: El Idrissi Faissal , Ramesh Prashanth , D'Arpino Matilde , Canova Marcello
Published: April 2023

Electrification is getting more important in the aviation industry with the increasing need for reducing emissions of carbon dioxide and fuel consumption. It is crucial to assess the behavior of Li-Ion batteries at high-altitude conditions to design safe and reliable battery packs. This paper aims at benchmarking the performance of different formats of battery cells (pouch cells and cylindrical cells) in low-pressure environments. A test setup was designed and fabricated to replicate the standard procedure defined by the RTCA DO-311 standard, such as the altitude test and rapid decompression test. During the test voltage, current, temperature, and pressure were monitored, and the evaluation criteria is based on the capacity retention, along with the structural integrity of the cell. From preliminary tests, it was observed that cylindrical cells do not show a significant change in performance at low-pressure conditions thanks to their steel casing. Failure has been observed in pouch cells due to the absence of a rigid enclosure.
A Novel Methodology for the Definition of an Optimized Immersion Cooling Fluid by Means of a Lumped Electro-Thermal Battery Pack Model
Authors: Broatch Alberto , Olmeda Pablo , Margot Xandra , Agizza Luca
Published: April 2023

This article proposes a novel methodology for the definition of an optimized immersion cooling fluid for lithium-ion battery applications aimed to minimize maximum temperature and temperature gradient during most critical battery operations. The battery electric behavior is predicted by a first order equivalent circuit model, whose parameters are experimentally determined. Thermal behavior is described by a nodal network, assigning to each node thermal characteristics. Hence, the electro-thermal model of a battery is coupled with a thermal management model of an immersion cooling circuit developed in MATLAB/Simulink. A first characterization of the physical properties of an optimal dielectric liquid is obtained by means of a design of experiment. The optimal values of density, thermal conductivity, kinematic viscosity, and specific heat are defined to minimize the maximum temperature and temperature gradient during a complete discharge of the battery at 2.5C. Through a statistical analysis, it is also possible to recognize which effects among those previously mentioned are statistically relevant for this analysis. With the optimized fluid, a second design of experiment is carried out to define an optimized design of the module (in terms of distance between cells, and staggered angle), in relation to the operating conditions (volumetric flow and discharge rate). Once the optimal design has been identified, a final comparative study is carried out between different fluids used in immersion cooling systems, whose characteristics have been found in the literature, to find which of the fluids analyzed comply with the maximum temperature and maximum gradient conditions set for this study.
Fractional Thermal Runaway Calorimetry: A Novel Tool to Assess Battery Thermal Runaway Energy
Authors: Yen May , Kossolapov Artyom , Mendoza Sergio , Colella Francesco
Published: April 2023

The use of Lithium-ion batteries in the transportation sector has its own unique set of requirements such as high-power demands, cooling challenges, and risk of mechanical failure due to crashes. Active and passive components of thermal management systems in battery-powered products are designed to mitigate the effects of thermal runaway events and prevent cell-to-cell propagation. Designing safe battery-powered systems requires an understanding of how the battery pack will behave while undergoing thermal runaway, including critical data such as total energy yielded, rate of energy generation, as well as venting patterns and directions. Details such as thermal runaway energy fractions associated with the cell casing as well as vent gas and ejecta can be used to inform and optimize battery pack designs and the product as a whole. The NASA Fractional Thermal Runaway Calorimeter (FTRC) was created to measure these values. In this work, the FTRC technology is reviewed along with examples of experimental data sets collected using this methodology. Two sets of FTRC tests are presented. In the first set of FTRC results, tests of three 18650 battery cells charged to 100% state of charge (SOC) are conducted using nail penetration failure. The second set of FTRC results are from thermal runaway tests of four 18650 battery cells initiated by external heating failure, each charged to a different SOC, ranging from 25%-100%.
Progressive Meta-Model Based Design Optimization for Lithium-ion Battery Pack to Improve Cell Cycle Life
Authors: Choi Yong-Hwan , Suh Junho , Kang Yoonhyuk , Yoon Hyunwoo , Choi Hyunhee
Published: April 2023

Lithium-ion battery has advantages of high energy density and cost effectiveness than other types of batteries. However due to the low mechanical stability, their performance is strongly influenced by environmental conditions. Especially, external pressure on a cell surface is a crucial factor because an appropriate force can improve battery cycle life, but excessive force may cause structural failure. In addition, battery pack is composed of various components so that uncertainties in dimension and material properties of each component can cause a wide variance in initial pressure. Therefore, it is important to optimize structural design of battery pack to ensure initial pressure in an effective range. In this paper, target stiffness of module structure was determined based on cell level cycle life test, then structural design has been optimized for weight reduction. Cell cycling tests were performed under different stiffness conditions and analyzed with regression model. Based on that model, target stiffness of module structure was set to 12,000kgf/mm to achieve cycle life requirements. For weight reduction of module structure, various design optimization techniques were conducted and compared. Deterministic design optimization (DO), reliability-based design optimization (RBDO) and progressive meta-model (PMM) based optimization methods were used and the reliability analysis was performed with Monte-Carlo simulation, First- and Second- order reliability method (FORM and SORM). Weight and reliability (SORM) of initial design were have been improved from 1.062kg and 48.6% to 0.746kg and 50.2% with DO, and 1.015kg and 99.9% with RBDO. With PMM method, the weight can be reduced to 0.926kg with the lower computation cost. Validation test was performed on pack level with optimized module structure and 2/3C cycling. Optimized battery pack showed capacity fade of 12.7% at EOL which is 39.6% of improvement compare to initial designed pack. By adopting proposed reliability analysis and design technique, the cycle life and weight compatibility of the battery system can be improved.
Analytical Failure Modeling of Thermal Interface Material in High Voltage Battery Modules in Electric Vehicle Crash Scenario
Authors: Seshadri Sriram , bhavsar Tejas , R Narayana , GH Shivaprakash
Published: April 2023

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) are becoming more competitive day by day to achieve maximum peak power and energy requirement. This poses challenges to the design of Thermal Interface Material (TIM) which maintains the cell temperature and ensure retention of cell and prevent electrolyte leak under different crash loads. TIM can be in the form of adhesives, gels, gap fillers. In this paper, TIM is considered as structural, and requires design balance with respect to thermal and mechanical requirements. Improving structural strength of TIM will have negative impact on its thermal conductivity; hence due care needs to be taken to determine optimal strength that meets both structural and thermal performance. During various crash conditions, due to large inertial force of cell and module assembly, TIM is undertaking significant loads on tensile and shear directions. LS-DYNA® is used as simulation solver for performing crash loading conditions and evaluate structural integrity of TIM. Prior literature discuss usage of MAT138 (Cohesive mixed mode), MAT169 (Arup adhesive) for modeling TIM adhesive failure. To generate such material models, there is extensive coupon level testing needs to be performed. In early development of battery module design, such sophisticated failure models are not feasible to implement. To overcome this challenge, TIE BREAK contacts in LS-DYNA® are leveraged to define interface failure for quick turnaround. TIE BREAK is penalty-based contact definition which allows to model both tensile and compressive forces until failure on adhesive/glue. Variation studies could be performed in short time for designing the required TIM strength before generating detailed material models. Various techniques available in TIE BREAK contacts such as failure initiation (force based/stress based), shell offset and critical parameters are iterated to arrive at more appropriate modeling considerations. In this paper, contact-based failure is compared with various material-based failure models to gain confidence and simplify design iterations for selection of appropriate TIM.
Rotor Durability Optimization by Means of Finite Element Multiphysics Analysis for High-Speed Surface Permanent Magnet Electric Machines
Authors: Manikandan Akshay , Abdalmagid Mohamed , Pietrini Giorgio , Goykhman Mikhail , Emadi Ali
Published: April 2023

Transport electrification is pushing the automotive and aerospace industries to enhance the power density of their powertrains further and further. One of the technologies currently pursued by some companies is high-speed electric motors. For instance, the new Model S Plaid motor by Tesla has a carbon-fiber wrapped IPM (Interior Permanent Magnet) rotor which can exceed 20,000rpm. The SPX88-120 made by Helix company shows a power density of about 18kW/kg at 50,000rpm. However, such high rotating speeds result is huge mechanical stresses in the entire rotating assembly, thus making the structural design of these parts extremely challenging. The primary goal of this paper is to provide a scientific rationale for the effective Finite Element Modeling (FEM) and integration strategies to maximize the rotating assembly durability of a 150kW radial flux SPMSM (surface-mounted permanent magnet synchronous motor) considered as a case-study. A non-linear simulation requires the input of a stress-strain curve and modified power law hardening study is conducted. The secondary goal of the paper is to analyze the thermal stress risers for multiphysics optimization of components. An analytical methodology to estimate the fatigue life for fully reverse cyclic loading is expressed. An extensive study on the eigen mode shape and frequency was performed to understand the dominant frequency of the system. A comparative performance study is conducted on shaft critical speeds, modal analysis, and stiffness interaction between components. Multiphysics optimization of topology is undertaken, the principal stresses in significant load-bearing components are reduced by 10 to 33%.
Thermal Analysis of an Electric Motor in an Electric Vehicle
Authors: Raja Selvakumar , Nandagopal Sasikumar , Muthiya S Jenoris , R Sathish Kumar , R. S PhD Nakandhrakumar , JOHN Bilu , Umar Abdul , Sankar Aadithian , Raju Karri Tyaga , Balasubramaniam Kaviarasan
Published: April 2023

Parametric thermal analysis of permanent magnet synchronous motor by considering real time driving cycle is presented. As driving motors of electric vehicle, permanent magnet motors exhibit high efficiency and high power density. However, they are susceptible to suffer irreversible demagnetization and insulation failure of coils under severe thermal condition. Therefore, it is essential to precisely predict heat losses and temperature distribution in driving motors under real time driving cycle. The thermal behavior of the driving motor is analyzed by means of thermal parametric methods. Here we are using simulation software to measure the temperature distribution and heat losses in the Driving motor, when an electric motor is operated for a certain amount of time the motor produces heat because of the Heat produced by the motor the performance, efficiency and reliability of the motor is affected.

Performing the Analysis method on the Motor that is designed according to the parameters such as power output, Torque, Efficiency, Reliability, and Sustainability. Design Required Cooling System for the Electric Motor for EV application. By Designing an Appropriate Cooling System we can Easily Dissipate the Heat that is produced by the motor and we can also see improvement in performance, Sustainability, Torque Efficiency and other parameters that are affected by the Heat produced by the Electric motor.
Noise Reduction Method of Induction Motor Based on Periodic Signal-Based Modulation Considering Frequency Band Characteristics of Electromagnetic Force
Authors: Zuo Shuguang , Yin Bin , li Fan , Liu Panxue
Published: April 2023

This paper aims at the problem that the sideband vibration noise of induction motor caused by inverter pulse width modulation (PWM). The frequency distribution characteristics of the induction motor with 36 stator slots and 32 rotor slots (36/32 IM) are analyzed. Based on that, a frequency width selection method for the periodic signal-based modulation considering the characteristics of sideband electromagnetic force. Results show that this method can effectively reduce the peak value of the sound power level (SWL) of sideband noise of IM at different speeds. This method is also applicable to IMs with different pole-slot match.
MRAS-Based Sensorless Vector Control of Wheel Motors
Authors: Qian Kai , Wang Tao , Zou Xiaojun , Song Wei , Yuan Liukai , Wang Liangmo
Published: April 2023

Traditional vector control needs the installation of mechanical sensors to gather rotor position and speed information in order to enhance the control performance and dynamic quality of electric vehicle wheel motors, which increases system cost and reduces system reliability and stability. On the basis of Popov's super-stability theory, an appropriate adjustable model and reference model are constructed, and the system's reference adaptive law is determined. Furthermore, to solve the problem of the standard PI regulator's poor anti-interference capabilities in speed controllers, the approach of utilizing a sliding-mode speed controller in the speed loop is presented. Finally, a MATLAB/SIMULINK simulation model is created to simulate the motor in three scenarios: no-load start, abrupt speed change, and sudden load change, and a permanent magnet synchronous motor experimental platform is created to validate the control approach. The findings demonstrate that this technique can estimate speed and position data accurately and fast, with strong immunity to interference and robustness, and that it can fulfill the demands of actual wheel motor control performance.
Moments of Power: Statistical Analysis of the Primary Energy Consumption of a Vehicle
Authors: Steffen Thomas , Jegede Temi , Knowles James
Published: April 2023

The energy consumption of a vehicle is typically determined either by testing or in simulation. While both approaches are valid, they only work for a specific drive cycle, they are time intensive, and they do not directly result in a closed-form relationship between key parameters and consumption. This paper presents an alternative approach that determines the consumption based on a simple analytical model of the vehicle and statistical parameters of the drive cycle, specifically the moments of the velocity. This results in a closed-form solution that can be used for analysis or synthesis.

The drive cycle is quantified via its moments, specifically the average speed, the standard deviation of the speed as well as the higher order moments skewness, and the kurtosis. A mixed quadratic term is added to account for acceleration or aggressiveness, but it is noticeably distinct from the conventional metric of positive kinetic energy (PKE). The vehicle is quantified using a polynomial model of the traction force and of the primary energy consumption of the powertrain. This model form fits both conventional and electrified powertrains, including all the component efficiencies.

Through a statistical analysis of the model, the primary energy consumption can be related to both the model parameters and the statistical properties of the drive cycle. This result can be useful for the analysis of a drive cycle, for the analysis of a powertrain, for economy optimization, and for control purposes. An example of a Nissan LEAF powertrain is presented over different cycles.
MPC-Based Downhill Coasting-Speed Control Method for Motor-Driven Vehicles
Authors: Sun Yongzheng , Han Zhiyu , Zhao Shuiping
Published: April 2023

To improve the maneuverability and energy consumption of an electrical vehicle, a two-level speed control method based on model predictive control (MPC) is proposed for accurate control of the vehicle during downhill coasting. The targeted acceleration is planned using the anti-interference speed filter and MPC algorithm in the upper-level controller and executed using the integrated algorithm with the inverse vehicle dynamics and proportional-integral-derivative control model (PID) in the lower-level controller, improving the algorithm’s anti-interference performance and road adaptability. Simulations and vehicle road tests showed that the proposed method could realize accurate real-time speed control of the vehicle during downhill coasting. It can also achieve a smaller derivation between the actual and targeted speeds, as well as more stable speeds when the road resistance changes abruptly, compared with the conventional PID method. The coasting-speed overshoot of the two-level control algorithm at the initial speed of 40 km/h, 60 km/h, and 80 km/h was only 45%, 26%, and 25% of that of the PID method, respectively. In addition, the proposed method can improve the driver's speed control expectation and, simultaneously, increase the braking energy recovery and hence reduce vehicle energy consumption, compared with the control method currently used in mass-production vehicles. The regenerative braking energy of the proposed method was increased by 33%, 11%, and 8% at the initial speed of 40 km/h, 60 km/h and 80 km/h, respectively.
Mitigating Unintended Acceleration and Deceleration Hazards by Defining Drive Torque Command Tolerance Criteria for Commercial Truck Electric Motor Propulsion Control Systems
Authors: Jones Darren Keith , Srivastava Prakhar , Rivera Ruiz Luis , Gangadhar Pavankumar , McGrail Randall
Published: April 2023

A commercial truck electric motor propulsion control system may require hundreds of inputs to optimize the drive torque command. As a safety-related signal, the drive torque command requires protections ensuring its integrity. Similarly, the inputs used by the control system to determine the drive torque command also require protections. To define these protections, the ISO 26262:2018 series of standards prescribe the development of safety requirements and associated Automotive Safety Integrity Levels (ASILs). Safety requirements ensure safe system output, in part, by protecting system inputs. Satisfying these safety requirements to their ASILs adds complexity and cost to commercial truck electric motor propulsion control systems. The greater the safety-related signal count, the greater the complexity and cost added.

This paper introduces a standardized 5-step approach to defining tolerances for the drive torque command within which drive torque causes neither unintended acceleration nor unintended deceleration hazards. First, derive a simplified drive torque calculation (SDTC) as the basis for the tolerance. The SDTC utilizes only a small subset of the inputs used to determine the optimized drive torque command (ODTC). Second, determine the maximum difference between optimized and simplified drive torque during un-faulted truck operation using model-in-the-loop (MIL) simulations. Third, determine the ODTC error required for the onset of unintended acceleration and unintended deceleration hazards using vehicle-level simulations. Fourth, express the drive torque command tolerance formulaically using results from steps 1 through 3. Fifth and finally, validate the drive torque command tolerance by determining truck acceleration and deceleration during vehicle-level fault insertion testing. Using the simplified drive torque calculation as the basis for drive torque command tolerance supports ISO 26262 compliance while reducing the number of safety-related input signals. Thereby, this standardized method reduces the complexity and cost for implementing safe commercial truck electric motor propulsion control systems.
Development and Calibration of the Large Omnidirectional Child ATD Head and Neck Complex Finite Element Model
Authors: Yang Peiyu , Katangoori Divya Reddy , Noll Scott
Published: April 2023

The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has developed the Large Omnidirectional Child (LODC) Anthropomorphic Test Device (ATD) to improve the biofidelity of the currently available Hybrid III 10-year-old (HIII-10C) ATD. The improvements of the LODC over the HIII-10C include changes in sub-assemblies such as the head and neck, where the LODC head is a redesigned HIII-10C head with pediatric mass properties and the neck has a modified atlanto-occipital joint to replicate observations made from human specimens. The current study focuses on developing a dynamic, nonlinear finite element (FE) model of the LODC ATD head and neck complex. The FE mesh is generated using HyperMesh based on the three-dimensional CAD model. The material data, contact definitions and initial conditions are defined in LS-PrePost and converted to LS-Dyna solver input format. The initial and boundary conditions are defined to replicate the neck flexion experimental tests. Next, an inverse method is used to identify the in-situ material parameters primarily for the highly compliant viscoelastic components and the lumped torque-moment characteristics of the occipital condyle (OC) joint. Material parameters of the viscoelastic components and the coefficients of joint stiffness models are identified by minimizing objective functions based upon the difference between experimental test and the simulation results. The approach is applied to the LODC ATD head-neck complex to improve the predictive capability of the finite element model.
Optimal Torque-Vectoring Control Strategy for Energy Efficiency and Vehicle Dynamic Improvement of Battery Electric Vehicles with Multiple Motors
Authors: Manca Raffaele , Castellanos Molina Luis MIguel , Hegde Shailesh , Tonoli Andrea , Amati Nicola , Pazienza Luigi
Published: April 2023

Electric vehicles comprising multiple motors allow the individual wheel torque allocation, i.e. torque-vectoring. Powertrain configurations with multiple motors provide additional degree of freedom to improve system level efficiencies while ensuring handling performances and active safety. However, most of the works available on this topic do not simultaneously optimize both vehicle dynamic performance and energy efficiency while considering the real-time implementability of the controller. In this work, a new and systematic approach in designing, modeling, and simulating the main layers of a torque-vectoring control framework is introduced. The high level control combines the actions of an adaptive Linear Quadratic Regulator (A-LQR) and of a feedforward controller, to shape the steady-state and transient vehicle response by generating the reference yaw moment. A novel energy efficient torque allocation method is proposed as a low level controller. The torque is allocated on each wheel by solving a quadratic programming problem. The latter is solved in real-time to guarantee the desired yaw moment and the requested driver power demand while minimizing the system losses. The objective function of the quadratic problem accounts for the efficiency map of the electric machine as well as the dissipations due to tire slip phenomena. The torque-vectoring is evaluated in a co-simulation environment. Matlab/Simulink is used for the control strategy and VI-CarRealTime for the vehicle model and driver. The vehicle model represents a high performance pure electric SUV with four e-motors. The performance of the proposed controller is assessed using open loop maneuvers and in closed loop track lap scenarios. The results demonstrate that the proposed controller enhances the vehicle’s performance in terms of handling. Additionally, a significant improvement in energy saving in a wide range of lateral acceleration conditions is: presented. Moreover, the control strategy is validated using rapid control prototyping, thus guaranteeing a deterministic real-time implementation.
Modular Domain Controller Design Approach: A Key Enabler for ADAS and Automated Driving Functionality
Authors: Mansour Iyad , Singh Sanjay
Published: April 2023

Ensuring the safety of vehicle occupants has always been the primary focus of automakers. To achieve this goal, they have invested in the development of active safety features, which are designed to prevent accidents from occurring in the first place. These innovations are driven by a desire to save lives and reduce the risk of injury or death on the road. The implementation of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving functions requires a high level of complexity and coordination between various subsystems. To meet these challenges, modular design of the domain controller has emerged as a promising approach. By separating the controller into smaller, specialized modules, it is possible to more efficiently and effectively manage the various functions needed for ADAS and automated driving. In this paper, we present a summary of our research on the use of the modular design approach for the domain controller in the context of implementing ADAS and automated driving end-to-end functions. Testing at different levels is also a key factor in ensuring that the overall system is robust, and all functions perform as intended. We use the Automatic Parking Assist (APA) function as a case study to demonstrate how the APA function was implemented on our developed domain controller and to discuss the benefits of this approach. Through this case study, we provide insight into the potential of the modular design approach for the domain controller to support the development of advanced ADAS and automated driving systems and identify the key considerations that need to be addressed in order to effectively implement this approach, including the importance of testing at different levels
LiDAR-Based Fail-Safe Emergency Maneuver for Autonomous Vehicles
Authors: Alrousan Qusay , Alzu'bi Hamzeh , Tasky Tom , Varasquim Juliano
Published: April 2023

Although SAE level 5 autonomous vehicles are not yet commercially available, they will need to be the most intelligent, secure, and safe autonomous vehicles with the highest level of automation. The vehicle will be able to drive itself in all lighting and weather conditions, at all times of the day, on all types of roads and in any traffic scenario. The human intervention in level 5 vehicles will be limited to passenger voice commands, which means level 5 autonomous vehicles need to be safe and capable of recovering fail operational with no intervention from the driver to guarantee the maximum safety for the passengers. In this paper a LiDAR-based fail-safe emergency maneuver system is proposed to be implemented in the level 5 autonomous vehicle. This system is composed of an external redundant 3600 spinning LiDAR sensor and a redundant ECU that is running a single task to steer and fully stop the vehicle in emergency situations (e.g., vehicle crash, system failure, sensor failures, vehicle pile-up, etc.) by creating a map and occupancy grid of the LiDAR PointClouds, plan a path and follow the path to full stop in a short time and safe manner.