bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Preparation of ITO/SiOx/n-Si solar cells with non-decline potential field and hole tunneling by magnetron sputtering
Authors: Du H. W. , Yang J. , Li Y. H. , Xu F. , Xu J. , Ma Z. Q.
Published: March 2015

Complete photo-generated minority carrier's quantum tunneling device under AM1.5 illumination is fabricated by depositing tin-doped indium oxide (ITO) on n-type silicon to form a structure of ITO/SiOx/n-Si heterojunction. The work function difference between ITO and n-Si materials essentially acts as the origin of built-in-field. Basing on the measured value of internal potential (Vbi = 0.61 V) and high conversion efficiency (9.27%), we infer that this larger photo-generated holes tunneling occurs when a strong inversion layer at the c-Si surface appears. Also, the mixed electronic states in the ultra-thin intermediate region between ITO and n-Si play a defect-assisted tunneling.
Graphene self-switching diodes as zero-bias microwave detectors
Authors: Westlund A. , Winters M. , Ivanov I. G. , Hassan J. , Nilsson P.-Å. , Janzén E. , Rorsman N. , Grahn J.
Published: March 2015

Self-switching diodes (SSDs) were fabricated on as-grown and hydrogen-intercalated epitaxial graphene on SiC. The SSDs were characterized as zero-bias detectors with on-wafer measurements from 1 to 67 GHz. The lowest noise-equivalent power (NEP) was observed in SSDs on the hydrogen-intercalated sample, where a flat NEP of 2.2 nW/Hz½ and responsivity of 3.9 V/W were measured across the band. The measured NEP demonstrates the potential of graphene SSDs as zero-bias microwave detectors.
Optical pumping of deep traps in AlGaN/GaN-on-Si HEMTs using an on-chip Schottky-on-heterojunction light-emitting diode
Authors: Li Baikui , Tang Xi , Chen Kevin J.
Published: March 2015

In this work, by using an on-chip integrated Schottky-on-heterojunction light-emitting diode (SoH-LED) which is seamlessly integrated with the AlGaN/GaN high electron mobility transistor (HEMT), we studied the effect of on-chip light illumination on the de-trapping processes of electrons from both surface and bulk traps. Surface trapping was generated by applying OFF-state drain bias stress, while bulk trapping was generated by applying positive substrate bias stress. The de-trapping processes of surface and/or bulk traps were monitored by measuring the recovery of dynamic on-resistance Ron and/or threshold voltage Vth of the HEMT. The results show that the recovery processes of both dynamic Ron and threshold voltage Vth of the HEMT can be accelerated by the on-chip SoH-LED light illumination, demonstrating the potentiality of on-chip hybrid opto-HEMTs to minimize the influences of traps during dynamic operation of AlGaN/GaN power HEMTs.
Myosin VI deafness mutation prevents the initiation of processive runs on actin
Authors: Pylypenko Olena , Song Lin , Shima Ai , Yang Zhaohui , Houdusse Anne M. , Sweeney H. Lee
Published: March 2015

Significance

A number of molecular motors transport cargoes long distances on their cellular tracks as single, dimeric (two-headed) molecules. This processive movement requires specialized kinetic properties (high duty ratio) to ensure that each head of the dimeric motor spends most of its time tightly bound to its track. Additionally, processive motors exhibit intramolecular communication between the heads, called gating, whose importance is less clear. By examining a mutation in the reverse-direction myosin motor, myosin VI, that causes deafness, we provide evidence that the mutation destroys the initiation of processive runs under physiological ATP concentration. We further demonstrate that this defect may be amendable to correction by small-molecule therapeutics.
Structure of bone morphogenetic protein 9 procomplex
Authors: Mi Li-Zhi , Brown Christopher T. , Gao Yijie , Tian Yuan , Le Viet Q. , Walz Thomas , Springer Timothy A.
Published: March 2015

Significance

Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) activity is regulated by prodomains. Here, structures of BMP procomplexes reveal an open-armed conformation. In contrast, the evolutionarily related, latent TGF-β1 procomplex is cross-armed. We propose that in the TGF-β and BMP family, conversion between cross-armed and open-armed conformations may regulate release and activity of the growth factor.
EpIC: a rational pipeline for epitope immunogenicity characterization
Authors: Marciniuk Kristen , Trost Brett , Napper Scott
Published: March 2015

Summary: Efforts to develop peptide-based vaccines, in particular those requiring site-specific targeting of self-proteins, rely on the ability to optimize the immunogenicity of the peptide epitopes. Currently, screening of candidate vaccines is typically performed through low-throughput, high-cost animal trials. To improve on this we present the program EpIC, which enables high-throughput prediction of peptide immunogenicity based on the endogenous occurrence of B-cell epitopes within native protein sequences. This information informs rational selection of immunogenicity-optimized epitopes for peptide vaccines.

Availability and implementation: EpIC is available as a web server at http://saphire.usask.ca/saphire/epic.

Contact:  kdm449@mail.usask.ca
Motivation and participation in multi-stakeholder innovation platforms in the Great Lakes Region of Africa
Authors: Mulema Annet Abenakyo , Mazur Robert Edward
Published: March 2015

The relationship between motivation and participation in five agricultural research and development innovation platforms (IPs) in Africa's Great Lakes Region is examined. We analyze data from surveys and in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions. Although farmers prioritized new knowledge and skills, these were not sufficient to consistently foster active participation. Anticipated economic (markets, income, and credit) and material (agricultural inputs) livelihood benefits did encourage active farmer participation. Few actors mentioned social incentives (network connections and status) as motivating factors. Participation of local policy makers and the private business sector was limited. Overall, participation was curtailed by unfulfilled expectations of tangible immediate benefits, limited understanding of the IP concept, lack of resources, and prior commitments.
US Outpatient Antibiotic Prescribing Variation According to Geography, Patient Population, and Provider Specialty in 2011
Authors: Hicks Lauri A. , Bartoces Monina G. , Roberts Rebecca M. , Suda Katie J. , Hunkler Robert J. , Taylor Thomas H. , Schrag Stephanie J.
Published: March 2015

Background.  Appropriate antibiotic prescribing is an essential strategy to reduce the spread of antibiotic resistance. US prescribing practices have not been thoroughly characterized. We analyzed outpatient antibiotic prescribing data to identify where appropriate antibiotic prescribing interventions could have the most impact.

Methods.  Oral antibiotic prescriptions dispensed during 2011 were extracted from the IMS Health Xponent database. The number of prescriptions and census denominators were used to calculate prescribing rates. Prescription totals were calculated for each provider specialty. Regression modeling was used to examine the association between socioeconomic and population health factors and prescribing rates.

Results.  Healthcare providers prescribed 262.5 million courses of antibiotics in 2011(842 prescriptions per 1000 persons). Penicillins and macrolides were the most common antibiotic categories prescribed. The most commonly prescribed individual antibiotic agent was azithromycin. Family practitioners prescribed the most antibiotic courses (24%). The prescribing rate was higher in the South census region (931 prescriptions per 1000 persons) than in the West (647 prescriptions per 1000 persons; P < .001); this pattern was observed among all age groups, including children ≤2 and persons ≥65 years of age. Counties with a high proportion of obese persons, infants and children ≤2 years of age, prescribers per capita, and females were more likely to be high prescribing by multivariable analysis (adjusted odds ratio, >1.0).

Conclusions.  Efforts to characterize antibiotic prescribing practices should focus on the South census region and family practitioners. Further understanding of the factors leading to high prescribing among key target populations will inform appropriate prescribing interventions.
Working in the UK without a Default Retirement Age: Health, Safety, and the Oldest Workers
Authors: Barrett Brenda , Sargeant Malcolm
Published: March 2015

This article is prompted by the abolition in the UK of the default retirement age; in particular, it will consider the impact on individuals seeking, or in continuing work, and on organisations needing to manage older workers. Underpinning the article is the hypothesis that as the removal of a compulsory retirement age allows an increasing number of people to work beyond their 65th birthday, organisations will need to develop policies to cope with increasing numbers of workers in their late 60s, 70s and beyond. Here, we focus on the need for employers to plan for an ageing workforce in respect of the health and safety issues which will result from employing increasing numbers of older workers. Firstly, the article considers what evidence exists as to whether there will be an increase in the number of older workers. Secondly, it examines decisions of the European Court of Justice and the Supreme Court in relation to retirement age and the possibility of an employer justified retirement age. Finally, it focuses on the occupational health and safety issues faced by older workers and those for whom they work.
15 Years of Whistleblowing Protection under the Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998: Are We Still Shooting the Messenger?
Authors: Ashton Jeanette
Published: March 2015

In the wake of high-profile scandals such as the catastrophic failings of the Mid-Staffordshire National Health Service Trust, this article contributes to the debate on the role of the Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998 (PIDA), now 15 years in force, in promoting increased transparency in the workplace. The article briefly discusses legal protection for whistleblowers prior to the PIDA before proceeding to evaluate the development of the provisions through judicial decisions. The article considers the implications of the amendments effected by the Enterprise and Regulatory Reform Act 2013, namely the public interest and good faith requirements, protection from detriment by a co-worker and extension of the ‘worker’ category. In drawing on quantitative and qualitative data, the article highlights the frequent disparity between an organisation’s ‘party line’ and the cultural reality of the workplace. The article explores the difficulties inherent in evaluating the success of legislation, which essentially aims to change attitudes in the workplace, but contends that the PIDA continues, albeit incrementally, to move towards its intended purpose.
New Approaches to Territoriality in Employment Law
Authors: Merrett Louise
Published: March 2015

A key question is when British employment rights can be relied on by workers whose employment is also connected in some way with another country. The crucial touchstone has traditionally been whether the employee is working in Great Britain. This article examines the notion of territoriality applied in recent cases, particularly in the context of the territorial scope of employment legislation. Courts have tended to be generous in allowing those working abroad to rely on British employment rights if there are other strong connections with Great Britain based on a consideration of a wide variety of factors. By focusing on the connection which an employee has not just to Great Britain, but also to British employment law, there has been a move away from attaching sole importance the place where an employee physically works. This article focuses on the question of whether this approach is appropriate for employees who are working in Great Britain. In particular, if an employee is working in Great Britain, when, if at all, should it be possible to displace the territorial application of British employment law.
Free Speech Rights at Work: Resolving the Differences between Practice and Liberal Principle
Authors: Wragg Paul
Published: March 2015

ACAS reports increasing disciplinary action against employees over expression that employers dislike. Given the prominence of social media in contemporary life, this is a significant current legal issue yet one which has attracted relatively little academic comment. This article examines the compatibility of unfair dismissal doctrine in this context with traditional liberal principle. Arguably, doctrine provides only flimsy protection. Although the common law recognises the importance of individual autonomy generally when determining rights claims, this well-established liberal value appears to have little influence on unfair dismissal doctrine. The dominant academic view on realising greater workplace human rights protection through greater application of the proportionality principle is unlikely to address this problem; reconceptualisation of the substantive free speech right at stake is required. This article offers a strategy on how this might be achieved—and so how differences between practice and principle might be reconciled—through a sympathetic reading of the Strasbourg and UK jurisprudence and potential policy-maker intervention.
Susceptibility in vitro of canine methicillin-resistant and -susceptible staphylococcal isolates to fusidic acid, chlorhexidine and miconazole: opportunities for topical therapy of canine superficial pyoderma
Authors: Clark S. M. , Loeffler A. , Bond R.
Published: March 2015

Objectives

Increasing multidrug resistance amongst canine pathogenic staphylococci has renewed interest in topical antibacterial therapy for skin infections in the context of responsible veterinary prescribing. We therefore determined the activity in vitro of three clinically relevant topical agents and synergism between two of them against Staphylococcus pseudintermedius and Staphylococcus aureus.

Methods

The MICs of fusidic acid (n = 199), chlorhexidine (n = 198), miconazole (n = 198) and a 1:1 combination of miconazole/chlorhexidine (n = 198) were determined for canine isolates [50 MRSA and 49 methicillin-resistant S. pseudintermedius (MRSP), 50 MSSA and 50 methicillin-susceptible S. pseudintermedius (MSSP)] collected from the UK and Germany using an agar dilution method (CLSI VET01-A4). Fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) indices were calculated to assess the interaction of miconazole with chlorhexidine.

Results

MICs of each drug/combination were significantly (P < 0.0005) higher for S. aureus when compared with S. pseudintermedius. Most strains (n = 172) had an MIC of fusidic acid of ≤0.03 mg/L (MIC ≥64 mg/L, n = 5 MRSA). All strains had MICs of chlorhexidine of 0.5–4 mg/L, except for one MRSA (MIC = 8 mg/L). All but four strains had MICs of miconazole of 1–4 mg/L (MIC = 16 mg/L, n = 3; MIC = 256 mg/L, n = 1). Miconazole/chlorhexidine (1:1 ratio) had a synergistic effect against 49/50 MRSA, 31/50 MSSA, 12/49 MRSP and 23/49 MSSP.

Conclusions

Since the majority of these staphylococci, including methicillin-resistant isolates, had MICs that should be readily exceeded by topical skin application of these agents, their therapeutic efficacy for canine superficial pyoderma should be assessed. The synergistic interaction shown in vitro supports further clinical evaluation of miconazole/chlorhexidine combination therapy for staphylococcal infection.
Rapid Improvement in Passive Tuberculosis Case Detection and Tuberculosis Treatment Outcomes After Implementation of a Bundled Laboratory Diagnostic and On-Site Training Intervention Targeting Mid-Level Providers
Authors: Manabe Yukari C. , Zawedde-Muyanja Stella , Burnett Sarah M. , Mugabe Frank , Naikoba Sarah , Coutinho Alex
Published: March 2015

Background.  Tuberculosis (TB) control is a public health priority with 3 million cases unrecognized by the public health system each year. We assessed the impact of improved TB diagnostics and on-site training on TB case detection and treatment outcomes in rural healthcare facilities.

Methods.  Fluorescence microscopy, Xpert MTB/RIF, and on-site training were introduced at 10 healthcare facilities. Using quasi-experimental methods, these 10 intervention healthcare facilities were compared with 2 controls and their own performance the previous year.

Results.  From January to October 2012, 186 357 and 32 886 outpatients were seen in the 10 intervention and 2 control facilities, respectively. The intervention facilities had a 52.04% higher proportion of presumptive TB cases with a sputum examination (odds ratio [OR] = 12.65; 95% confidence interval [CI], 5.60–28.55). After adjusting for age group and gender, the proportion of smear-positive patients initiated on treatment was 37.76% higher in the intervention than in the control facilities (adjusted OR [AOR], 7.59; 95% CI, 2.19–26.33). After adjusting for the factors above, as well as human immunodeficiency virus and TB retreatment status, the proportion of TB cases who completed treatment was 29.16% higher (AOR, 4.89; 95% CI, 2.24–10.67) and the proportion of TB cases who were lost to follow-up was 66.98% lower (AOR, 0.04; 95% CI, 0.01–0.09). When compared with baseline performance, the intervention facilities had a significantly higher proportion of presumptive TB cases with a sputum examination (64.70% vs 3.44%; OR, 23.95; 95% CI, 12.96–44.25), and these facilities started 56.25% more smear-positive TB cases on treatment during the project period (AOR, 15.36; 95% CI, 6.57–35.91).

Conclusions.  Optimizing the existing healthcare workforce through a bundled diagnostics and on-site training intervention for nonphysician healthcare workers will rapidly improve TB case detection and outcomes towards global targets.
Specific Behaviors Predict Staphylococcus aureus Colonization and Skin and Soft Tissue Infections Among Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Persons
Authors: Crum-Cianflone Nancy F. , Wang Xun , Weintrob Amy , Lalani Tahaniyat , Bavaro Mary , Okulicz Jason F. , Mende Katrin , Ellis Michael , Agan Brian K.
Published: March 2015

Background.  Few data exist on the incidence and risk factors of Staphylococcus aureus colonization and skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) among patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

Methods.  Over a 2-year period, we prospectively evaluated adults infected with HIV for incident S aureus colonization at 5 body sites and SSTIs. Cox proportional hazard models using time-updated covariates were performed.

Results.  Three hundred twenty-two participants had a median age of 42 years (interquartile range, 32–49), an HIV duration of 9.4 years (2.7–17.4), and 58% were on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Overall, 102 patients (32%) became colonized with S aureus with an incidence rate of 20.6 (95% confidence interval [CI], 16.8–25.0) per 100 person-years [PYs]. Predictors of colonization in the final multivariable model included illicit drug use (hazard ratios [HR], 4.26; 95% CI, 1.33–13.69) and public gym use (HR 1.66, 95% CI, 1.04–2.66), whereas antibacterial soap use was protective (HR, 0.50; 95% CI, 0.32–0.78). In a separate model, perigenital colonization was associated with recent syphilis infection (HR, 4.63; 95% CI, 1.01–21.42). Fifteen percent of participants developed an SSTI (incidence rate of 9.4 cases [95% CI, 6.8–12.7] per 100 PYs). Risk factors for an SSTI included incident S aureus colonization (HR 2.52; 95% CI, 1.35–4.69), public shower use (HR, 2.59; 95% CI, 1.48–4.56), and hospitalization (HR 3.54; 95% CI, 1.67–7.53). The perigenital location for S aureus colonization was predictive of SSTIs. Human immunodeficiency virus-related factors (CD4 count, HIV RNA level, and HAART) were not associated with colonization or SSTIs.

Conclusions.  Specific behaviors, but not HIV-related factors, are predictors of colonization and SSTIs. Behavioral modifications may be the most important strategies in preventing S aureus colonization and SSTIs among persons infected with HIV.
The birth of the electric machines: a commentary on Faraday (1832) ‘Experimental researches in electricity’
Authors: Al-Khalili Jim
Published: March 2015

The history of science is filled with examples of key discoveries and breakthroughs that have been published as landmark texts or journal papers, and to which one can trace the origins of whole disciplines. Such paradigm-shifting publications include Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543), Isaac Newton's Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) and Albert Einstein's papers on relativity (1905 and 1915). Michael Faraday's 1832 paper on electromagnetic induction sits proudly among these works and in a sense can be regarded as having an almost immediate effect in transforming our world in a very real sense more than any of the others listed. Here we review the status of the subject—the relationship between magnetism and electricity both before and after Faraday's paper and delve into the details of the key experiments he carried out at the Royal Institution outlining clearly how he discovered the process of electromagnetic induction, whereby an electric current could be induced to flow through a conductor that experiences a changing magnetic field. His ideas would not only enable Maxwell's later development of his theory of classical electromagnetism, but would directly lead to the development of the electric dynamo and electric motor, two technological advances that are the very foundations of the modern world. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
Learned modesty and the first lady's comet: a commentary on Caroline Herschel (1787) ‘An account of a new comet’
Authors: Winterburn Emily
Published: March 2015

Long before women were allowed to become Fellows of the Royal Society, or obtain university degrees, one woman managed to get her voice heard, her discovery verified and her achievement celebrated. That woman was Caroline Herschel, who, as this paper will discuss, managed to find ways to fit comet discoveries into her domestic life, and present them in ways that were socially acceptable. Caroline lived in a time when strict rules dictated how women (and men) should behave and present themselves and their work. Caroline understood these rules, and used them carefully as she announced each discovery, starting with this comet which she found in 1786. Caroline discovered her comets at a time when astronomers were mainly concerned with position, identifying where things were and how they were moving. Since her discoveries, research has moved on, as astronomers, using techniques from other fields, and most recently sending experiments into space, have learned more about what comets are and what they can tell us about our solar system. Caroline's paper marks one small, early step in this much bigger journey to understand comets. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
.
Newton shows the light: a commentary on Newton (1672) ‘A letter … containing his new theory about light and colours…’
Authors: Fara Patricia
Published: March 2015

Isaac Newton's reputation was initially established by his 1672 paper on the refraction of light through a prism; this is now seen as a ground-breaking account and the foundation of modern optics. In it, he claimed to refute Cartesian ideas of light modification by definitively demonstrating that the refrangibility of a ray is linked to its colour, hence arguing that colour is an intrinsic property of light and does not arise from passing through a medium. Newton's later significance as a world-famous scientific genius and the apparent confirmation of his experimental results have tended to obscure the realities of his reception at the time. This paper explores the rhetorical strategies Newton deployed to convince his audience that his conclusions were certain and unchallengeable. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
A harbinger of plate tectonics: a commentary on Bullard, Everett and Smith (1965) ‘The fit of the continents around the Atlantic’
Authors: Dewey John F.
Published: March 2015

In the 1960s, geology was transformed by the paradigm of plate tectonics. The 1965 paper of Bullard, Everett and Smith was a linking transition between the theories of continental drift and plate tectonics. They showed, conclusively, that the continents around the Atlantic were once contiguous and that the Atlantic Ocean had grown at rates of a few centimetres per year since the Early Jurassic, about 160 Ma. They achieved fits of the continental margins at the 500 fathom line (approx. 900 m), not the shorelines, by minimizing misfits between conjugate margins and finding axes, poles and angles of rotation, using Euler's theorem, that defined the unique single finite difference rotation that carried congruent continents from contiguity to their present positions, recognizing that the real motion may have been more complex around a number of finite motion poles. Critically, they were concerned only with kinematic reality and were not restricted by considerations of the mechanism by which continents split and oceans grow. Many of the defining features of plate tectonics were explicit or implicit in their reconstructions, such as the torsional rigidity of continents, Euler's theorem, closure of the Tethyan ocean(s), major continental margin shear zones, the rapid rotation of small continental blocks (Iberia) around nearby poles, the consequent opening of small wedge-shaped oceans (Bay of Biscay), and misfit overlaps (deltas and volcanic piles) and underlaps (stretched continental edges). This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
.
Gases, God and the balance of nature: a commentary on Priestley (1772) ‘Observations on different kinds of air’
Authors: McEvoy John G.
Published: March 2015

Historians of chemistry usually associate the eighteenth century with the Chemical Revolution, but it could just as readily be called ‘the century of gases’ (or ‘airs’, as they were called in the eighteenth century). In the early part of the century, the British pneumatic chemists struggled to replace the traditional notion ‘Air’, understood as an inert chemical element, with the concept of ‘air’, regarded as the third state of matter, encompassing a wide variety of chemical species. These developments constituted a necessary condition for the Chemical Revolution, which occurred in the latter part of the century. In ‘Observations’, Priestley took pneumatic chemistry to a new level, with the discovery of eight simple inorganic gases. Motivated by his belief in a benevolent God and a pious utilitarianism, Priestly explored the role of the atmosphere in the balance of nature and the politics of the state, which he linked to the movement of Rational Dissent. He styled himself an ‘aerial philosopher’ to signal the interdisciplinary nature of his inquiries, which he regarded not as a branch of ordinary chemistry, but as a mode of thought that encompassed physics, chemistry and natural theology. Priestley saw it as a source of principles and secrets of nature more extensive than that of ‘gravity itself’. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
How does your crystal grow? A commentary on Burton, Cabrera and Frank (1951) ‘The growth of crystals and the equilibrium structure of their surfaces’
Authors: Woodruff D. P.
Published: March 2015

The key ideas presented in the classic paper ‘The growth of crystals and the equilibrium structure of their surfaces’ by W. K. Burton, N. Cabrera and F. C. Frank, published inPhilosophical Transactions Ain 1951, are summarized and put in the context of both the state of knowledge at the time of publication and the considerable amount of work since that time that has built on and developed these ideas. Many of these developments exploit the huge increase in the capabilities of computer modelling that complement the original analytic approach of the paper. The dearth of relevant experimental data at the time of the original publication has been transformed by the application of increasingly sophisticated modern methods of surface science. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
First steps in modelling turbulence and its origins: a commentary on Reynolds (1895) ‘On the dynamical theory of incompressible viscous fluids and the determination of the criterion’
Authors: Launder Brian E.
Published: March 2015

Reynolds' paper sought to explain the change in character of flow through a pipe from laminar to turbulent that his earlier experiments had shown to occur when the dimensionless group that today bears his name exceeded approximately 2000. This he did by decomposing the velocity into mean and fluctuating components and noting how the average kinetic energy generation and dissipation rates changed with Reynolds number. The paper was only grudgingly accepted by two very distinguished referees and initially raised little external interest. As years went by, however, the averaged form of the equations of motion, known as the Reynolds equations (which were an intermediate stage in Reynolds' analysis) became the acknowledged starting point for computing turbulent flows. Moreover, some 50 years after his paper, a refinement of his strategy for predicting transition was also successfully taken up. For some engineering problems, the continual rapid growth of computing resources has meant that more detailed approaches for computing turbulent flow phenomena can nowadays be employed. However, this growth of computing power likewise makes possible a Reynolds-averaging strategy for complex flow systems in industry or the environment which formerly had to adopt less comprehensive analyses. Thus, Reynolds' approach may well remain in use throughout the present century. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
There ain't nothing like a Dame: a commentary on Lonsdale (1947) ‘Divergent beam X-ray photography of crystals’
Authors: Glazer A. M.
Published: March 2015

Prof. Dame Kathleen Lonsdale was one of the two first female Fellows of the Royal Society, having originally been a student of that great British scientist and Nobel Laureate William Henry Bragg. She came to fame initially for her solution of the crystal structure of hexamethyl benzene, thus demonstrating that the benzene ring was flat, of considerable importance to organic chemistry, where it had been proposed before but without proof. This was at a time when the solution of crystal structures was in its infancy, and in its day this work was considered a triumph. As a rare example then of a female physicist, Lonsdale became interested in various aspects of the diffraction of X-rays, and in particular published an important paper on a form of diffraction in which a strongly divergent source was used rather than the usual highly collimated beam. The photographs thus obtained showed a series of arcs and circles, whose positions were so sensitive that they could be used to determine the quality of crystals such as diamond, and even to calculate their lattice dimensions, and hence carbon–carbon bond lengths, to hitherto extraordinary precision. Lonsdale also became known not just as a scientist but as a peace activist and an active member of the Society of Friends. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
.
Tactics for mechanized reasoning: a commentary on Milner (1984) ‘The use of machines to assist in rigorous proof’
Authors: Gordon M. J. C.
Published: March 2015

Robin Milner's paper, ‘The use of machines to assist in rigorous proof’, introduces methods for automating mathematical reasoning that are a milestone in the development of computer-assisted theorem proving. His ideas, particularly his theory of tactics, revolutionized the architecture of proof assistants. His methodology for automating rigorous proof soundly, particularly his theory of type polymorphism in programing, led to major contributions to the theory and design of programing languages. His citation for the 1991 ACM A.M. Turing award, the most prestigious award in computer science, credits him with, among other achievements, ‘probably the first theoretically based yet practical tool for machine assisted proof construction’. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
.
Deep questions about the nature of early-life signals: a commentary on Lister (1673) ‘A description of certain stones figured like plants’
Authors: Brasier Martin
Published: March 2015

In 1673, Martin Lister explored the preservation of ‘St Cuthbert's beads’ plus other fossil crinoid remains from approximately 350 Ma Carboniferous limestone in northern England. He used taphonomic evidence (transport, disarticulation, burial and cementation) to infer an origin as petrified plant remains, in contrast with his views expressed elsewhere that fossil mollusc shells could have formed abiogenically, by ‘plastic forces’ within rock. Lister also observed pentagonal symmetry, now seen as characteristic of living echinoderm skeletons. A postscript from John Ray supports Lister's ‘taphonomic’ observations and accepts the biogenicity of these fossil ‘vegetables’. Ray then concluded with a prophecy, predicting the discovery of comparable living fossils in remote ocean waters. These early discussions compare with current debates about the character of candidate microfossils from the early Earth and Mars. Interesting biomorphs are now tested against the abiogenic null hypotheses, making use of features such as those pioneered by Lister, including evidence for geological context, rules for growth and taphonomy. Advanced techniques now allow us to extend this list of criteria to include the nanoscale mapping of biology-like behaviour patterns plus metabolic pathways. Whereas the science of palaeobiology once began with tests for biogenicity, the same is now true for geobiology and astrobiology. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
Sir Humphry Davy and the coal miners of the world: a commentary on Davy (1816) ‘An account of an invention for giving light in explosive mixtures of fire-damp in coal mines’
Authors: Thomas John Meurig
Published: March 2015

In the period between 1815 and 1818, Sir Humphry Davy read four papers to the Royal Society and published a monograph dealing with a safety lamp for coal miners, all of which record in detail the experimental work that he carried out, with his assistant Michael Faraday, so as to determine how to prevent catastrophic accidents in coal mines by the explosion of fire-damp (methane) in the presence of a naked flame. This article describes the key experiments that he performed at the Royal Institution and some of the subsequent trials made in the coal mines of the north of England. It begins, however, with an account of Davy's prior achievements in science before he was approached for help by the clergymen and doctors in the Gateshead and Newcastle upon Tyne areas. There is little doubt that the Davy lamp, from the 1820s onwards, transformed the coal industry worldwide. It also profoundly influenced the science of combustion, and in the words of a pioneer in that field, W. A. Bone, FRS, ‘There is no better model of logical experimental procedure, accurate reasoning, philosophical outlook and fine literary expression.’ It is a remarkable fact that it took Davy essentially only two weeks from the time he was given samples of fire-damp to solve the problem and to devise his renowned miner's safety lamp. A brief account is also given of the contemporaneous invention of a safety lamp by George Stephenson, and of some of Davy's subsequent accomplishments. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
.
An amateur's contribution to the design of Telford's Menai Suspension Bridge: a commentary on Gilbert (1826) ‘On the mathematical theory of suspension bridges’
Authors: Calladine C. R.
Published: March 2015

Davies Gilbert's work on the catenary is notable on two counts. First, it influenced Thomas Telford in formulating his final design for the Menai Strait suspension bridge (1826); and second, it established for the first time the form of the ‘catenary of equal strength’. The classical catenary is a uniform flexible chain or cable hanging freely under gravity between supports. The ‘catenary of equal strength’ is the form of a cable whose cross-sectional area is made proportional to the tension at each point, so that the tensile stress is uniform throughout. In this paper I provide a sketch of the lives and achievements of Gilbert and Telford, and of their interaction over the Menai Bridge. There follows a commentary on Gilbert's 1826 paper, and on his two related publications; and a brief sketch of the earlier history of the catenary. I then describe the development of the suspension bridge up to the present time. Finally, I discuss relations between mathematical analysts and practical engineers. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
.
Heat, work and subtle fluids: a commentary on Joule (1850) ‘On the mechanical equivalent of heat’
Authors: Young John
Published: March 2015

James Joule played the major role in establishing the conservation of energy, or the first law of thermodynamics, as a universal, all-pervasive principle of physics. He was an experimentalist
par excellence
and his place in the development of thermodynamics is unarguable. This article discusses Joule's life and scientific work culminating in the 1850 paper, where he presented his detailed measurements of the mechanical equivalent of heat using his famous
paddle-wheel
apparatus. Joule's long series of experiments in the 1840s leading to his realisation that the conservation of energy was probably of universal validity is discussed in context with the work of other pioneers, notably Sadi Carnot, who effectively formulated the principle of the second law of thermodynamics a quarter of a century before the first law was accepted. The story of Joule's work is a story of an uphill struggle against a critical scientific establishment unwilling to accept the mounting evidence until it was impossible to ignore. His difficulties in attracting funding and publishing in reputable journals despite the quality of his work will resonate with many young scientists and engineers of the present day. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
.
‘…a paper …I hold to be great guns’: a commentary on Maxwell (1865) ‘A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field’
Authors: Longair Malcolm
Published: March 2015

Maxwell's great paper of 1865 established his dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field. The origins of the paper lay in his earlier papers of 1856, in which he began the mathematical elaboration of Faraday's researches into electromagnetism, and of 1861–1862, in which the displacement current was introduced. These earlier works were based upon mechanical analogies. In the paper of 1865, the focus shifts to the role of the fields themselves as a description of electromagnetic phenomena. The somewhat artificial mechanical models by which he had arrived at his field equations a few years earlier were stripped away. Maxwell's introduction of the concept of fields to explain physical phenomena provided the essential link between the mechanical world of Newtonian physics and the theory of fields, as elaborated by Einstein and others, which lies at the heart of twentieth and twenty-first century physics. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
.
Forging patterns and making waves from biology to geology: a commentary on Turing (1952) ‘The chemical basis of morphogenesis’
Authors: Ball Philip
Published: March 2015

Alan Turing was neither a biologist nor a chemist, and yet the paper he published in 1952, ‘The chemical basis of morphogenesis’, on the spontaneous formation of patterns in systems undergoing reaction and diffusion of their ingredients has had a substantial impact on both fields, as well as in other areas as disparate as geomorphology and criminology. Motivated by the question of how a spherical embryo becomes a decidedly non-spherical organism such as a human being, Turing devised a mathematical model that explained how random fluctuations can drive the emergence of pattern and structure from initial uniformity. The spontaneous appearance of pattern and form in a system far away from its equilibrium state occurs in many types of natural process, and in some artificial ones too. It is often driven by very general mechanisms, of which Turing's model supplies one of the most versatile. For that reason, these patterns show striking similarities in systems that seem superficially to share nothing in common, such as the stripes of sand ripples and of pigmentation on a zebra skin. New examples of ‘Turing patterns' in biology and beyond are still being discovered today. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
.
Every inch a finch: a commentary on Grant (1993) ‘Hybridization of Darwin's finches on Isla Daphne Major, Galapagos’
Authors: Bell Graham
Published: March 2015

One of the most familiar features of the natural world is that most animals and plants fall into distinct categories known as species. The attempt to understand the nature of species and the origin of new species was the enterprise that drove the early development of evolutionary biology and has continued to be a major focus of research. Individuals belonging to the same species usually share a distinctive appearance and way of life, and they can mate together successfully and produce viable offspring. New species may evolve, therefore, either through ecological divergence or through sexual isolation. The balance between these processes will depend on the extent of hybridization, especially in the early stages of divergence. Detecting and measuring hybridization in natural populations, however, requires intensive, long-term field programmes that are seldom undertaken, leaving a gap in our understanding of species formation. The finch community of a small, isolated island in the Galapagos provided an opportunity to discover how frequently hybridization takes place between closely related species in a pristine location, and Peter Grant's paper, published inPhilosophical Transactions Bin 1993, reports the observations that he and his collaborators made during the first 20 years of what is now one of the classical studies of evolution in action. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
How mathematical epidemiology became a field of biology: a commentary on Anderson and May (1981) ‘The population dynamics of microparasites and their invertebrate hosts’
Authors: Heesterbeek J. A. P. , Roberts M. G.
Published: March 2015

We discuss the context, content and importance of the paper ‘The population dynamics of microparasites and their invertebrate hosts’, by R. M. Anderson and R. M. May, published in thePhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Societyas a stand-alone issue in 1981. We do this from the broader perspective of the study of infectious disease dynamics, rather than the specific perspective of the dynamics of insect pathogens. We argue that their 1981 paper fits seamlessly in the systematic study of infectious disease dynamics that was initiated by the authors in 1978, combining effective use of simple mathematical models, firmly rooted in biology, with observable or empirically measurable ingredients and quantities, and promoting extensive capacity building. This systematic approach, taking ecology and biology rather than applied mathematics as the motivation for advance, proved essential for the maturation of the field, and culminated in their landmark textbook of 1991. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
Focusing by shape change in the lens of the eye: a commentary on Young (1801) ‘On the mechanism of the eye’
Authors: Land Michael
Published: March 2015

In his Bakerian Lecture paper of 1801, Thomas Young provided the best account up to that time of the eye's optical system, including refraction by the cornea and the surfaces of the lens. He built a device, an optometer, for determining the eye's state of focus, making it possible to prescribe appropriate correction lenses. His main contribution, however, was to show that accommodation, the eye's focusing mechanism, was not the result of changes to the curvature of the cornea, nor to the length of the eye, but was due entirely to changes in the shape of the lens, which he described with impressive accuracy. He was wrong, however, in believing that the reason the lens bulges when focusing on near objects was because it behaved as a contracting muscle. Half a century later, Helmholtz showed that the lens bulges not by its own contraction, but when it is relaxed as a result of contraction of newly discovered circular muscles in the ciliary body. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
The beginning of connectomics: a commentary on Whiteet al.(1986) ‘The structure of the nervous system of the nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans’
Authors: Emmons Scott W.
Published: March 2015

The article ‘Structure of the nervous system of the nematodeCaenorhabditis elegans' (aka ‘The mind of a worm’) by Whiteet al., published for the first time the complete set of synaptic connections in the nervous system of an animal. The work was carried out as part of a programme to begin to understand how genes determine the structure of a nervous system and how a nervous system creates behaviour. It became a major stimulus to the field ofC. elegansresearch, which has since contributed insights into all areas of biology. Twenty-six years elapsed before developments, notably more powerful computers, made new studies of this kind possible. It is hoped that one day knowledge of synaptic structure, theconnectome, together with results of many other investigations, will lead to an understanding of the human brain. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.