bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Nutrition.
Authors: Creasy G. L. , Creasy L. L.
Published: November 2009

This chapter deals with the macronutrients (N, P, S, K, Ca and Mg) and micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo, B and Cl) that the grapevines need to grow and produce fruit. Soil and plant tissue nutrient analysis and correction strategies are discussed.
Fruit thinning.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

Olive fruit thinning aims at reducing limb breakage, increasing fruit size, improving fruit quality and stimulating flower bud initiation for the following year's production. This chapter describes the effect of fruit thinning on leaf:fruit ratio and transport of assimilates. Different thinning methods are discussed, which include hand (removal of flowers and fruits manually), mechanical (use of hand-operated spray with high-pressure water, and use of a mechanical shaker to shake the tree trunk), and chemical (using NAA).
Propagation of olive trees.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

All aspects of olive propagation, from traditional systems to in vitro propagation and other more advanced biotechnologies, are discussed. The propagation of olive by seed, cuttings (hardwood and leafy), sphaeroblasts (ovular overgrowths of parenchymatic tissue located in the tree crown or in old wood in the upper part of the tree), suckers, grafting (cleft, bark, whip, splice, wedge, bridge, T-budding and patch) and budding are described. The in vitro culture of olive trees and other micropropagation techniques (synthetic seed production, protoplast culture and cryopreservation) for the olive are also described.
Table olives.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

Worldwide interest exists in using processing methods for olives such as brine, fermentation and salt-/heat-drying methods rather than processing with lye (caustic soda). Primary processing involves any of several operations (soaking, fermentation, lye treatment or heat). Secondary processing involves increasing the organoleptic value of the olive by, e.g. addition of herbs, spices or vegetables, de-stoning and stuffing with peppers, cheeses, almonds, garlic or onion. The most important table olive cultivars internationally are 'Kalamata', 'Conservolia', 'Manzanillo', 'Sevillana', 'Hojiblanca' and 'Ascolana tenera'. The Californian table olive industry is based on five cultivars in order of volume sales: 'Manzanillo', 'Sevillano', 'Mission', 'Ascolano' and 'Barouni'. Rules for production of high-quality table olives are given.
Olive mill products and environmental impact of olive oil production.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

Thus chapter focuses on the utilization of olive mill by-products (washing water, leaves, pomace, and mill waste water). Tabulated data are provided on the characteristics and quantities of olive pomace produced by three different extraction methods: (i) traditional pressing; (ii) triphasic decanting; and (iii) biphasic decanting. The advantages and disadvantages of using olive mill waste water as fertilizer are given. The use of olive mill waste water as a raw material for bio-hydrogen production is discussed.
Global production, supply and demand.
Authors: Erskine W.
Published: November 2009

This chapter surveys global and national production, and export and demand/consumption of lentil. It provides an update on the topic written in 1981 by Nygaard and Hawtin in 'Lentils' (Nygaard and Hawtin, 1981). The chapter is based primarily on FAOSTAT, i.e. the statistical database of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2008), which provides country-/global-level estimates of crop production, area harvested, yield, exports, imports and consumption since 1961. However, it provides no hint of the situation at the sub-national, district and importantly household level.
Genetic enhancement for yield and yield stability.
Authors: Sarker A. , Aydogan A. , Chandra S. , Kharrat M. , Sabaghpour S.
Published: November 2009

This chapter discusses lentil breeding with reference to: history; constraints to production addressable by breeding; genetic resources and their variation in key traits; breeding strategies and approaches; major agroecology and specific breeding objectives; breeding methodologies; breeding achievements in (i) broadening the genetic base in South Asia, (ii) identification and exploitation of resistance to abiotic stresses (winter hardiness, drought and salt tolerances, and mineral imbalances), (iii) gene mining and utilization to combat biotic stresses (such as diseases), (iv) construction of suitable plant type for mechanical harvest, (v) development of micronutrient-dense cultivars, and (vi) varietal releases by national programmes; and evolution of the international breeding programme. Future directions are given.
Biological nitrogen fixation and soil health improvement.
Authors: Quinn M. A.
Published: November 2009

This paper provides information on: the importance of biological nitrogen fixation and legumes; nodulation and nitrogen fixation in lentil; and the different factors affecting the contribution of lentils to soil health (i.e., abiotic soil factors, biotic soil factors, tillage, intercropping, green manures and crop rotations with lentils).
Introduction: botany and importance.
Authors: Mukherjee S. K. , Litz R. E.
Published: November 2009

This chapter on mango covers the following: tree, flower, fruit and seed morphology; polyembryony; history of cultivation; origin; domestication; geographical distribution; germplasm conservation; genetic erosion; collection and documentation of Mangifera germplasm; relevance of germplasm resources to mango improvement; cultivars; and production and uses.
Foliar, floral and soilborne diseases.
Authors: Ploetz R. C. , Freeman S.
Published: November 2009

This chapter presents the foliar and floral diseases (algal leaf spot, Alternaria leaf spot, anthracnose, apical necrosis, bacterial black spot or black canker, black-banded disease, black mildew, sooty blotch and sooty mould, blossom blight, decline disorders, galls and scaly bark, grey leaf spot, leaf blight, malformation, Phoma blight, Phoma leaf spot, pink disease, powdery mildew, scab, seca and sudden decline, and Stigmina leaf spot) and soilborne diseases (black root rot, nematode damage, Phytophthora diseases, root rot and damping off, Sclerotium rot, Verticillium wilt and white root disease) of mango that are mainly caused by pathogenic fungi and bacteria, nematodes or parasitic plants. Information on symptoms, aetiology, epidemiology and management strategies (mainly through chemical control) is provided.
Fruit processing.
Authors: Raymundo L. C. , Ombico M. T. , Villa T. M. de
Published: November 2009

This chapter discusses current trends in mango fruit processing, covering the production of dehydrated mango products, dried mango, fruit bar, fruit roll, vacuum-puffed dried mango, spray-dried mango powders, spray-dried mango fruit powder and instant mango juice, spray-dried green mango powder, and spray-dried instant green mango shake. An overview of capital investment costs and raw material requirements of mango processing is presented.
Biological control of
Liriomyza
leafminers: progress and perspective.
Authors: Liu T. X. , Kang Le Kang Le , Heinz K. M. , Trumble J.
Published: November 2009

There are more than 330
Liriomyza
species (Diptera: Agromyzidae) and many are economically important pests of field crops, ornamentals and vegetables. Given the substantial economic losses associated with various aspects of
Liriomyza
feeding as well as the ability of these insects to rapidly develop resistance to insecticides, researchers from many countries have attempted to use biological control to manage these pests. Unfortunately, progress on the science and implementation of effective
Liriomyza
biological control is hampered by the literature being scattered widely and in many different languages. A primary goal of this review is to consolidate the available information and provide an analysis of the published work. Investigations of natural enemies of
Liriomyza
have identified approximately 140 species of parasitoids, a few species of predators (including nematodes), and some entomopathogens. Some species of parasitoids and nematodes have been mass-reared and used for biological control of
Liriomyza
species under confined environmental conditions. While chemical control is still used extensively, conservation biological control and inoculative releases are being adopted as a primary strategy for
Liriomyza
suppression in select situations.
Agriculture, poverty and growth in Africa: linkages and policy challenges.
Authors: Sundberg S.
Published: November 2009

Agriculture in Africa has been neglected by African governments and donor institutions for the last two decades. In the last few years there has been a resurgence in official commitment to the agricultural sector. For the vast majority of countries in Africa, agriculture will continue to be the main engine driving overall economic growth and poverty reduction, as many country case studies demonstrate. However, one should not equate increases in agricultural production with improvements in indicators of well-being, such as poverty rates and nutritional status. Complementary interventions are needed to ensure that overall economic gains translate into improvements in the lives of the poor. Macroeconomic and trade policy reforms of the late 1980s and 1990s in Africa did not unleash a great boom in agricultural production, economic growth and poverty reduction. Even with a favourable policy environment, the efficiency of agricultural markets is constrained by a host of institutional and infrastructure factors. There is significant disagreement in the literature about the proper role of African governments in supporting agricultural markets. A substantial increase in resources devoted to agricultural research will help the sector realize its anticipated potential for productivity gains. The empirical analysis of individual country experiences with growth and poverty linkages in Africa is relatively new; future directions for research are identified.
New targets in wheat improvement.
Authors: Trethowan R. , Turner M.
Published: November 2009

Climate change, expanding regional populations, changes in consumer preferences and improved technology will influence wheat breeding objectives in the coming decades. Traits that improve productivity in drier, warmer conditions are likely to become increasingly important and wheat cultivars with perennial habit, C
4
photosynthesis, improved nutrient use-efficiency and better adaptation to conservation agriculture could improve both the sustainability and productivity of wheat farming systems worldwide. The distribution of insects and diseases is expected to change in certain regions with implications for the deployment of resistance genes. The effectiveness of resistance genes may also change with temperature and CO
2
levels. Transgenes conferring immunity to some intractable diseases may offer longer-lasting solutions to disease infection and spread. The nutritional quality of both wholemeal and refined flour is expected to improve as more is understood of genetic variability for key micronutrients, their bioavailability and expression in different seed components. As markets become increasingly sophisticated, the demand for healthier foods will increase and wheat products with low glycaemic index or more antioxidants will be sought. The distribution of processed products worldwide may also change, as western societies increasingly favour wholemeal-based products and many developing countries replace rice-based diets with wheat as incomes improve. Wheat cultivars with strong, extensible dough and short mixing time have always been an important objective in western countries as longer mixing times reduce throughput. However, mixing time will take on an additional importance as energy costs continue to increase. As the proportion of meat increases in the diets of populations in transitional economies, the demand for grain for animal feed is also expected to continue to increase. Wheat cultivars with higher grain yield, improved digestibility and higher metabolizable energy, specific to monogastric and ruminant metabolisms, will be sought.
Causes of and predisposing risk factors for leg disorders in growing-finishing pigs.
Authors: Jensen T. B. , Toft N.
Published: November 2009

This review provides an overview of common causes of leg disorders in growing-finishing pigs (30-100 kg) reared in intensive production systems. We define three overall cause categories of leg disorders in finishers: (1) infectious arthritis caused by
Mycoplasma hyosynoviae
,
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
,
Haemophilus parasuis
and
Streptococcus suis
, (2) physical injuries such as fractures of the leg and lesions to the claw and (3) osteochondrosis. Different predisposing risk factors at herd and animal level are important with regard to the occurrence of leg disorders. The construction of the pen, the floor type and the supply of straw are of primary importance for the occurrence of physical leg disorders, while anatomic characteristics, the growth rate and the feeding strategy can affect the risk of osteochondrosis. Exposing the individual pig to a stressful environment (such as mixing pigs from several herds) may alter the immune status, and hence, predispose to infectious arthritis. The review summarizes and quantifies (where possible) the effect of important predisposing risk factors for leg disorders in growing-finishing pigs.
Impacts of
Bt
crops on non-target invertebrates and insecticide use patterns.
Authors: Naranjo S. E.
Published: November 2009

The ubiquitous nature of
Bacillus thuringiensis
(
Bt
), a Gram-positive bacterium capable of producing crystal proteins with insecticidal activity during sporulation, is now being mirrored in major crops plants that have been engineered through recombinant DNA to carry genes responsible for producing these crystal proteins and providing host plant resistance to major lepidopteran and coleopteran pests. In 2007, the 11th year of commercial production,
Bt
maize and
Bt
cotton were commercially produced on a total of ∼42 million hectares in 20 countries. Assessment of environmental safety has been and continues to be a key element of transgenic crop technology. This review focuses on two environmental elements, effects on non-target invertebrates and changes in insecticide use patterns since the adoption of
Bt
maize and cotton. Meta-analyses of the extant literature on invertebrate non-target effects reveals that the pattern and extent of impact varies in relation to taxonomy, ecological or anthropomorphic guild, route of exposure and the non-
Bt
control against which effects are gauged. Hazards identified in the laboratory may not always manifest in the field and the minor negative effects of
Bt
crops demonstrated in the field pale in comparison with alternative pest suppression measures based on insecticides. The efficacy of
Bt
maize and cotton against major pest species has been associated with an estimated 136.6 million kg global reduction in insecticide active ingredient used between 1996 and 2006 (29.9% reduction). Benefits vary by country and region and are heavily weighted towards cotton production, which has historically been one of the largest users of insecticides in the world.
Dehydroascorbate reductase and salt stress.
Authors: Amako K. , Ushimaru T.
Published: November 2009

Salinity is the major environmental limiting factor of plant growth and productivity. Salt, as well as drought, chilling and extreme temperatures, increases the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Excessive levels of ROS lead to oxidative damage to cellular molecules, ageing and cell death. The antioxidative system is important for the maintenance of intracellular ROS at appropriate levels. The antioxidant ascorbate is oxidized in antioxidative reactions, and a system for the regeneration of ascorbate is critical for maintaining the antioxidative system. Dehydroascorbate (DHA) reductase (DHAR) catalyses the re-reduction of DHA to ascorbate. The transcription levels and activity of DHAR are increased in response to various abiotic stresses. Mutant plants deficient in DHAR are hypersensitive to stress. Conversely, transgenic plants that overexpress DHAR show enhanced salt tolerance. Thus, manipulation of DHAR expression is important for genetic engineering of salt-tolerant plants.
Choice of forage crops for animal production in temperate perennial pasture-based grazing systems.
Authors: Stevens D. R.
Published: November 2009

Choosing a forage crop for animal production is a broad topic with many facets. This review has chosen to concentrate on the
in situ
use of forage crops within temperate-pasture-based grazing systems. However, the principle of understanding the deficiencies of the pasture-based system before choosing a forage crop applies to any geo-climatic zone. The literature of New Zealand and Australia highlights the potential to increase both stocking rate and per animal performance and the risk associated with introducing forage crops into a perennial pasture system. Higher yields and increased efficiency of use of resources such as water and nutrients are offset by the variability of both crop yield and the time out of production that is often dictated by climatic conditions. Increases in both technical knowledge of crop agronomy and grazing and labour requirements when feeding the crop also influence farmers' decisions and crop success. The final decision to choose an appropriate forage species or cultivar is a relatively minor part of the process that is well supported by the seed retail industry in New Zealand and Australia.
Recent advances in cat genetics.
Authors: Lyons L. A.
Published: November 2009

The domestic cat has indirectly benefited from the human genome sequencing project, which has fostered new technologies and research designs that benefit all domesticated animals and breeds. Consequently, the genome project of the domestic cat has taken a significant leap forward, pouncing into the limelight. A variety of genetic tests for inherited cat diseases and phenotypic traits are now available, making genetic technologies and DNA testing common tools for cat breed husbandry and health management. Cat breeders and veterinarians can now use genetics to more efficiently breed cats, resulting in cats that also have lower risks of health concerns. As in humans, designer medicine, which is predictive, preventative, personalized and participatory, is a growing reality for the cat. The cat's own genome sequencing project is about to mature from its 'kittenhood', which will allow studies of complex diseases feasible in the near future. Common cat diseases, such as asthma, diabetes, hyperthyroidism, urinary tract syndromes and susceptibilities to infectious diseases, including feline infectious peritonitis, have some heritable component, whether found in fancy cat breeds or in the random bred house cat. Genetic resources developed from the cat genome project will assist the genetic evaluation of these traits, traits that are commonplace in the private practice clinicians' patient load. This review presents the current state of cat genetic testing, the current abilities of the feline geneticist, the expected resources, and outcomes of the cat genome sequencing project, and the role of veterinary specialists and private practice clinicians in feline genetics.
Safety and efficacy of early and high-dose parenteral amino acid administration to preterm infants.
Authors: Vlaardingerbroek H. , Goudoever J. B. van , Akker C. H. P. van den
Published: November 2009

With birth, an infant's continuous nutrient supply through the umbilical cord abruptly ends while the nutritional requirements remain high. Preterm infants do not tolerate full enteral feeding immediately after birth because of immature bowel functioning. Therefore, parenteral nutrition should be initiated as soon as possible, as a means to restrict the wasting of endogenous substrates and to maintain normal metabolism and growth. Nevertheless, many preterm infants fail to grow well, which may be related to inadequate administration of proteins, the driving force for tissue growth. Research has shown that relatively high doses of parenterally administered amino acids from birth onwards are safe for preterm infants and enhance protein accretion and thus growth. Future studies should also reveal the long-term effects of high-dose amino acid administration from birth onwards on neurodevelopment. In addition, effects of higher amounts of amino acids as well as those of early lipid infusion need to be defined.
Quality aspects of medicinal plants.
Authors: Gardner Z. E. , Craker L. E.
Published: November 2009

Medicinal plant quality can be defined as plant material and plant extracts suitable for human consumption or application and effective in treating the intended ailment. Ideally, such a definition would bring chemically consistent products, free of adulteration or contamination, to markets. The diversity within and among plant populations and the interactions of the plants with the growth environment along with both pre- and post-harvest crop management, however, can lead to significant alterations in the bioactivity of plants and plant extracts. To meet quality and safety requirements for medicinal plants, various groups have developed procedures, such as Good Agricultural and Collection Practices and Good Manufacturing Processes, to guide those responsible for producing, processing and dispensing medicinal plants to the consumer. An important aspect of these quality control measures is the identification and documentation of the plant material from field to final distribution. Education and the use of reference standards, microscopy, chromatography and other tools are helping to ensure that quality medicinal plant material reaches the market.
Biosynthesis of noble metal nanoparticles and their application.
Authors: Verma V. C. , Kharwar R. N. , Gange A. C.
Published: November 2009

Nanotechnology is one of the most significant research areas to emerge in the last decade or so. It is based on the concept of creating applications based on nanomaterials at the molecular level, thus we can describe it as the science of 'domesticating molecules'. Although it is a new tool to the scientific community, the importance and impact of this technology is already being felt. As nanotechnology evolves, we are moving beyond simple materials to the nanoscale materials to construct and redesign nanoscale solutions to large-scale problems. Such solutions help us not only in combating problems with size and sophistication but also in improving sensitivity. Synthesizing the nanomaterials is the primary step in addressing all nano needs. Besides the available chemical methods, the biosynthesis of the nanomaterials using microbial strains is now looking promising as a source for mining nanomaterials. 'Green nanomaterials' are now a major objective of research in nanotechnology. Fungal strains such as
Fusarium
,
Aspergillus
,
Verticillium
and some others are well documented for their potential to bioreduce metal ions. Bacteria and actinomycetes have also been evaluated and found promising for microbial mining of nanomaterials. Thus, the microbes may be used at an industrial scale for mining of nanomaterials in an alternative and eco-friendly manner. In this review, we emphasize the biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles from micro-organisms and to some extent from plants as alternative sources, and exploring their application in several areas such as agriculture, medicine and in pollution control. The coming era of nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize our lives, in which we can imagine sophisticated nanoscale machines that operate at atomic precision. These include molecular motors that mimic our muscles and can convert chemical to mechanical energy with extraordinary efficiency. Thus, the evolution of nanotechnology is certainly going to lead to far-reaching changes to human society, which we are just starting to feel today.
Animal models for elucidating human disease: confronting cancer and other chronic diseases.
Authors: Kuzmuk K. N. , Schook L. B.
Published: November 2009

The incidence of chronic diseases is increasing, despite advances in clinical medicine. Human diseases are often difficult to decipher because of the complexity of genetics and lifestyles. As such, appropriate biomedical models are essential, since most medical knowledge, treatment regimes, and the development of medical devices that have contributed to clinical advancement are based on robust animal models. Animal models are essential tools for studying gene-gene interactions, gene-environment effects, and for preclinical testing of therapeutic interventions. Given that mice, the most common animal model, frequently do not faithfully recapitulate human diseases, pigs and other large mammals, such as the dog, will continue to serve as important biomedical models. This review discusses animal models used for understanding human diseases and highlights the advantages and disadvantages for each.
Dietary mitigation of enteric methane from cattle.
Authors: Beauchemin K. A. , McAllister T. A. , McGinn S. M.
Published: November 2009

Enteric methane from ruminants accounts for about 11-17% of methane generated globally, or 17-30% of methane from human activity. Methane arises from the activity of methanogens in the rumen that use hydrogen to reduce carbon dioxide, thereby preventing the accumulation of reducing equivalents, which would otherwise impede ruminal fermentation. Although this process is desirable from a fermentation perspective, it is energetically costly, as cattle emit 2-12% of their gross energy intake in this potent greenhouse gas (GHG). Many production practices aimed at increasing efficiency of production, such as including grain and ionophores in diets, also lower methane emissions. These practices were adopted long before issues arose over the role of methane from livestock in climate change. Dietary inclusion of free oils or oil-rich feeds (e.g. oilseeds, distillers' grains and micro-algae), biologically active plant compounds (e.g. condensed tannins, saponins and essential oils), rumen fermentation modifiers (e.g. yeast and bacterial direct-fed microbials), as well as improvements in forage quality may allow for further reductions in methane emissions from cattle. The optimum dietary strategy will depend on the particular farm, its geographic location, the feedstuffs available and the type of animals being fed. Reductions can occur as decreased methane output per animal per day or as decreased methane output per kg of meat or milk produced, but ultimately, it seems prudent that mitigation practices be assessed on the basis of the extent to which they reduce methane emissions per kg of meat or milk produced. Furthermore, potential mitigation practices need to be assessed from the perspective of the entire life cycle, as a reduction in GHG in one sector of the production cycle can often lead to changes in GHG emissions in another sector.
Do pets influence the quantity and choice of food offered to them by their owners: lessons from other animals and the pre-verbal human infant?
Authors: Day J. E. L. , Kergoat S. , Kotrschal K.
Published: November 2009

All social animals influence each other's behaviour. One area of particular interest is the social interaction that occurs between pets and their owners. Within pet-owner dyads, food and feeding are always part of the dyadic ritual. In this review, we hypothesize that feeding can be considered to be a push-pull relationship where pets are, at least in part, able to 'negotiate' with their owner to influence 'when', 'what' and 'how much' they are fed. We examine the evidence that supports this hypothesis by appraising similar studies of other animals and the pre-verbal human infant. First, we review the differences in approaches and methodologies that exist between disciplines within the behavioural sciences. Second, the feeding behaviour of neonatal wild animals and pre-verbal infants is examined in terms of its causation, ontogeny, phytogeny and adaptation. Finally, the resulting knowledge concerning begging as honest signals of need, scramble competition, reconciliation and consolation is applied to domestic pets with the objective of understanding of how owners are influenced by the feeding behaviour of their pets.
Treatment and control of enterotoxigenic
Escherichia coli
infections in pigs.
Authors: Hodgson K. R. , Barton M. D.
Published: November 2009

Enterotoxigenic
Escherichia coli
(ETEC) are the most common bacterial cause of gastrointestinal disease and diarrhoea in the world, including travellers' diarrhoea and severe infection in some animal species, particularly calves and piglets. Many similarities exist between infections in animals and humans and extensive research has been done into the pathogenesis, prevention and treatment of ETEC infections. ETEC is an important infective agent in post-weaning diarrhoea (PWD) of piglets, leading to serious animal welfare issues and economic loss through decreased growth rate, mortality (estimated at 2-5%) and medication requirements. Virulence of ETEC strains is characterized by production of adhesins specific to intestinal receptors and potent enterotoxins that generate the disease symptoms. It is a complex multi-factorial condition with decreased passive immunity, stress induction, physiological changes in the gastrointestinal tract, genetic susceptibility, diet and viral infections all implicated in the infection. There has been a worldwide increase in incidence of PWD, most notably as a result of antibiotic-resistant strains of
E. coli
, and although the reasons for this are not fully understood it is likely that contributing factors include changes to husbandry practices, weaning at a younger age and prophylactic or growth promotional use of low-dose antibiotics. Strategies for prevention and treatment include antibiotics, vaccination, diet and supplements, prebiotics, probiotics, bacteriophage and breeding for resistance.
Microarray analyses to study plant defence and rhizosphere-microbe interactions.
Authors: Schenk P. M. , Choo JinHsien Choo JinHsien , Wong ChinLin Wong ChinLin
Published: November 2009

Plant defence responses are mediated by key regulatory proteins that affect expression of thousands of genes. Over the last decade, microarrays have played a pivotal role to elucidate the underlying networks of gene regulation that lead to a wide variety of defence responses. Undoubtedly, they provided a valuable tool to quantify and profile the expression of thousands of genes simultaneously, with two main aims: (1) gene discovery and (2) global expression profiling. The usefulness of this reverse genetics approach has been demonstrated by numerous discoveries of key regulatory genes important for defence signalling as well as valuable end-point genes whose products display direct action against pests and diseases. Several microarray technologies are currently in use; most include a glass slide platform with spotted cDNA or oligonucleotides, some of which are synthesized directly on the underlying substrate. The frequent use of microarrays has enabled the creation of powerful microarray databases that allow researchers a rapid retrieval of gene expression profiles from various treatments and tissues. While physiological pathways are in parts positively or negatively linked, the discovery of a regulatory defence signalling network by microarrays has demonstrated that ultimately genes and their products, and not pathways are controlled by regulation. Future research should focus on simultaneous time-course analyses of host cells and pathogens to fully understand the biology of disease progression. In addition, most research on plant defence responses has focused on single pathogens, pests and/or signalling compounds. However, plants in nature grow under the influence of multiple environmental stresses while interacting immensely with other organisms. Recent studies of plant-microbe interactions have revealed transcriptional responses of plants to multiple organisms. New technology has enabled a metatranscriptomics approach that will allow the analysis of plants interacting with entire microbial communities, such as those present in the rhizosphere.
Factors affecting utility of
Chilocorus nigritus
(F.) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) as a biocontrol agent.
Authors: Ponsonby D. J.
Published: November 2009

Chilocorus nigritus
(F.) has been one of the most successful coccidophagous coccinellids in the history of classical biological control. It is an effective predator of many species of Diaspididae, some Coccidae and some Asterolecaniidae, with an ability to colonize a relatively wide range of tropical and sub-tropical environments. It appears to have few natural enemies, a rapid numerical response and an excellent capacity to coexist in stable relationships with parasitoids. A great deal of literature relating to its distribution, biology, ecology, mass rearing and prey preferences exists, but there is much ambiguity and the beetle sometimes inexplicably fails to establish, even when conditions are apparently favourable. This review brings together the key research relating to factors that affect its utility in biocontrol programmes, including its use in indoor landscapes and temperate glasshouses. Data are collated and interpreted and areas where knowledge is lacking are identified. Recommendations are made for prioritizing further research and improving its use in biocontrol programmes.
Comparing impacts of plant extracts and pure allelochemicals and implications for pest control.
Authors: Opender Koul Opender Koul , Suresh Walia Suresh Walia
Published: November 2009

Many plant extracts or allelochemicals show a broad spectrum of activity against pests and such products have long been touted as attractive alternatives to synthetic chemical pesticides for pest management because they pose little threat to the environment or to human health. The studies available suggest that plant-based materials do affect arthropod pests, vectors and other pathogens, yet only a handful of botanicals are currently used in agriculture in the industrialized world, and there are few prospects for commercial development of new botanical products. Secondary allelochemicals from plants are usually commercialized as single, concentrated compounds, despite research showing that compound mixtures reduce pest resistance better than single compounds. Several factors appear to limit the success of botanicals, most notably regulatory barriers and the availability of competing products of microbial origin and fermentation products that are cost-effective and relatively safe compared with their predecessors. In the context of agricultural pest management, botanical pesticides are best suited for use in organic food production in industrialized countries but can play a much greater role in the production and post-harvest protection of food in developing countries. It is in developing countries that are rich in endemic plant biodiversity where these pesticides may ultimately have their greatest impact in future integrated pest management (IPM) programmes, given their safety to non-target organisms and the environment. However, there is a need to organize natural sources, develop quality control, adopt standardization strategies and modify regulatory mechanisms.
Advances in fowlpox vaccination.
Authors: Skinner M. A. , Laidlaw S. M.
Published: November 2009

Fowlpox virus (FWPV) is widespread, causing disease of mature poultry with significant social or economic impact and some mortality, which is higher in the diphtheritic form of the disease. Vaccines against the disease were some of the earliest developed for livestock. They are live vaccines based on attenuated isolates or passaged derivatives of FWPV, or the serologically closely related pigeonpox virus. Relying heavily on approaches developed for vaccinia virus, FWPV was developed as a live recombinant vaccine vector for use in poultry. Licensed, commercial, recombinant FWPV vaccines are available against avian influenza, Newcastle disease and infectious laryngotracheitis. Causing disease only in birds, FWPV is nevertheless able to infect mammalian cells, express proteins and induce immune responses, both humoral and cellular, which may in some circumstances be protective (a feature shared with another member of the genus, canarypox virus). Blocked during morphogenesis (or before) in mammalian cells, it has an extremely high safety profile as a live recombinant vaccine vector for use in humans and other mammals, as demonstrated in numerous clinical trials. Relatively low potency in mammals has been addressed by using prime-boost regimes and by co-expression of host cytokines (an approach also trialled in poultry) or co-stimulators. New generation vectors may involve deletion of FWPV immunomodulators to improve efficacy.
Herbaceous crops with potential for biofuel production in the USA.
Authors: Lemus R. , Parrish D. J.
Published: November 2009

World energy demand is straining energy supplies and spurring the search for alternative energy sources - especially transportation fuels. Ethanol produced from cellulosic feedstock has been called a 'second-generation' biofuel. (Ethanol made from maize and sugarcane represents a 'first-generation' biofuel.) When choosing a cellulosic species for fuel production, one must consider the type of fuel desired, the economics of producing the crop on a large scale, the system's energy balance and environmental effects. With suitable conversion technologies, cellulosic materials from maize, eastern gamagrass, giant reed (fibre cane),
Miscanthus
, reed canarygrass, sorghums, sugarcane and switchgrass might be used to produce biofuels in the USA and other non-arid, sub-tropical or temperate locations. Each of these species has characteristics that make it more or less suitable in particular situations. Because of generally reduced input requirements, perennial species might be favoured. Biofuel production systems can mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by offsetting fossil fuel use and by sequestering carbon into the soil. The amount of GHG reduction depends on crop yields, conversion efficiencies, and net energy and carbon balances associated with each feedstock source.
Homophilic adhesion and CEACAM1-S regulate dimerization of CEACAM1-L and recruitment of SHP-2 and c-Src
Authors: Müller Mario M. , Klaile Esther , Vorontsova Olga , Singer Bernhard B. , Öbrink Björn
Published: November 2009

Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)–related cell adhesion molecule 1 (CAM1 [CEACAM1]) mediates homophilic cell adhesion and regulates signaling. Although there is evidence that CEACAM1 binds and activates SHP-1, SHP-2, and c-Src, knowledge about the mechanism of transmembrane signaling is lacking. To analyze the regulation of SHP-1/SHP-2/c-Src binding, we expressed various CFP/YFP-tagged CEACAM1 isoforms in epithelial cells. The supramolecular organization of CEACAM1 was examined by cross-linking, coclustering, coimmunoprecipitation, and fluorescence resonance energy transfer. SHP-1/SHP-2/c-Src binding was monitored by coimmunoprecipitation and phosphotyrosine-induced recruitment to CEACAM1-L in cellular monolayers. We find that trans-homophilic CEACAM1 binding induces cis-dimerization by an allosteric mechanism transmitted by the N-terminal immunoglobulin-like domain. The balance of SHP-2 and c-Src binding is dependent on the monomer/dimer equilibrium of CEACAM1-L and is regulated by trans-binding, whereas SHP-1 does not bind under physiological conditions. CEACAM1-L homodimer formation is reduced by coexpression of CEACAM1-S and modulated by antibody ligation. These data suggest that transmembrane signaling by CEACAM1 operates by alteration of the monomer/dimer equilibrium, which leads to changes in the SHP-2/c-Src–binding ratio.
Quantitative analysis of chromatin compaction in living cells using FLIM–FRET
Authors: Llères David , James John , Swift Sam , Norman David G. , Lamond Angus I.
Published: November 2009

We present a quantitative Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)–based assay using multiphoton fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) to measure chromatin compaction at the scale of nucleosomal arrays in live cells. The assay uses a human cell line coexpressing histone H2B tagged to either enhanced green fluorescent protein (FP) or mCherry FPs (HeLaH2B-2FP). FRET occurs between FP-tagged histones on separate nucleosomes and is increased when chromatin compacts. Interphase cells consistently show three populations of chromatin with low, medium, or high FRET efficiency, reflecting spatially distinct regions with different levels of chromatin compaction. Treatment with inhibitors that either increase chromatin compaction (i.e., depletion of adenosine triphosphate) or decrease chromosome compaction (trichostatin A) results in a parallel increase or decrease in the FLIM–FRET signal. In mitosis, the assay showed variation in compaction level, as reflected by different FRET efficiency populations, throughout the length of all chromosomes, increasing to a maximum in late anaphase. These data are consistent with extensive higher order folding of chromatin fibers taking place during anaphase.
Ageing and yield behaviour in model soft colloidal glasses
Authors: Christopoulou C. , Petekidis G. , Erwin B. , Cloitre M. , Vlassopoulos D.
Published: November 2009

We use multi-arm star polymers as model soft colloids with tuneable interactions and explore their behaviour in the glassy state. In particular, we perform a systematic rheological study with a well-defined protocol and address aspects of ageing and shear melting of star glasses. Ageing proceeds in two distinct steps: a fast step ofO(103 s) and a slow step ofO(104 s). We focus on creep and recovery tests, which reveal a rich, albeit complex response. Although the waiting time, the time between pre-shear (rejuvenation) of the glassy sample and measurement, affects the material’s response, it does not play the same role as in other soft glasses. For stresses below the yield value, the creep curve is divided into three regimes with increasing time: viscoplastic, intermediate steady flow (associated with the first ageing step) and long-time evolving elastic solid. This behaviour reflects the interplay between ageing and shear rejuvenation. The yield behaviour, as investigated with the stress-dependent recoverable strain, indicates a highly nonlinear elastic response intermediate between a low-stress Hookean solid and a high-stress viscoelastic liquid, and exemplifies the distinct characteristics of this class of hairy colloids. It appears that a phenomenological classification of different colloidal glasses based on yielding performance may be possible.
Multiple dynamic regimes in concentrated microgel systems
Authors: Sessoms David A. , Bischofberger Irmgard , Cipelletti Luca , Trappe Véronique
Published: November 2009

We investigate dynamical heterogeneities in the collective relaxation of a concentrated microgel system, for which the packing fraction can be conveniently varied by changing the temperature. The packing fraction-dependent mechanical properties are characterized by a fluid–solid transition, where the system properties switch from a viscous to an elastic low-frequency behaviour. Approaching this transition from below, we find that the range
ξ
of spatial correlations in the dynamics increases. Beyond this transition,
ξ
reaches a maximum, extending over the entire observable system size of approximately 5 mm. Increasing the packing fraction even further leads to a second transition, which is characterized by the development of large zones of lower and higher dynamical activity that are well separated from each other; the range of correlation decreases at this point. This striking non-monotonic dependence of
ξ
on volume fraction is reminiscent of the behaviour recently observed at the jamming/rigidity transition in granular systems. We identify this second transition as the transition to ‘squeezed’ states, where the constituents of the system start to exert direct contact forces on each other, such that the dynamics becomes increasingly determined by imbalanced stresses. Evidence of this transition is also found in the frequency dependence of the storage and loss moduli, which become increasingly coupled as direct friction between the particles starts to contribute to the dissipative losses within the system. To our knowledge, our data provide the first observation of a qualitative change in dynamical heterogeneity as the dynamics switches from purely thermally driven to stress driven.
Hard spheres: crystallization and glass formation
Authors: Pusey P. N. , Zaccarelli E. , Valeriani C. , Sanz E. , Poon Wilson C. K. , Cates Michael E.
Published: November 2009

Motivated by old experiments on colloidal suspensions, we report molecular dynamics simulations of assemblies of hard spheres, addressing crystallization and glass formation. The simulations cover wide ranges of polydispersity
s
(standard deviation of the particle size distribution divided by its mean) and particle concentration. No crystallization is observed for
s
>0.07. For 0.02<
s
<0.07, we find that increasing the polydispersity at a given concentration slows down crystal nucleation. The main effect here is that polydispersity reduces the supersaturation since it tends to stabilize the fluid but to destabilize the crystal. At a given polydispersity (<0.07), we find three regimes of nucleation: standard nucleation and growth at concentrations in and slightly above the coexistence region; ‘spinodal nucleation’, where the free-energy barrier to nucleation appears to be negligible, at intermediate concentrations; and, at the highest concentrations, a new mechanism, still to be fully understood, which only requires small rearrangement of the particle positions. The cross-over between the second and third regimes occurs at a concentration, approximately 58 per cent by volume, where the colloid experiments show a marked change in the nature of the crystals formed and the particle dynamics indicate an ‘ideal’ glass transition.
Hard discs under steady shear: comparison of Brownian dynamics simulations and mode coupling theory
Authors: Henrich Oliver , Weysser Fabian , Cates Michael E. , Fuchs Matthias
Published: November 2009

Brownian dynamics simulations of bidisperse hard discs moving in two dimensions in a given steady and homogeneous shear flow are presented close to and above the glass transition density. The stationary structure functions and stresses of shear-melted glass are compared quantitatively to parameter-free numerical calculations of monodisperse hard discs using mode coupling theory within the integration through transients framework. Theory qualitatively explains the properties of the yielding glass but quantitatively overestimates the shear-driven stresses and structural anisotropies.
A model linking immediate serial recall, the Hebb repetition effect and the learning of phonological word forms
Authors: Page M. P. A. , Norris D.
Published: November 2009

We briefly review the considerable evidence for a common ordering mechanism underlying both immediate serial recall (ISR) tasks (e.g. digit span, non-word repetition) and the learning of phonological word forms. In addition, we discuss how recent work on the Hebb repetition effect is consistent with the idea that learning in this task is itself a laboratory analogue of the sequence-learning component of phonological word-form learning. In this light, we present a unifying modelling framework that seeks to account for ISR and Hebb repetition effects, while being extensible to word-form learning. Because word-form learning is performed in the service of later word recognition, our modelling framework also subsumes a mechanism for word recognition from continuous speech. Simulations of a computational implementation of the modelling framework are presented and are shown to be in accordance with data from the Hebb repetition paradigm.