bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
What's new about the Semantic Web?
Authors: Jones Karen Sparck
Published: January 2007

It is not completely clear what the Semantic Web (SW) is meant to be. Statements about it differ or, rather, the interpretations of statements about it differ. The grand view is that the SW is the core model of the way the world is, expressed in a manner that supports reasoning about this world. The modest view is that the SW is the minimal apparatus of shared generic terminology that can be used to send some carrier pigeon messages from one universe of discourse to another. The 'authorised' view presented in Berners-Lee, Hendler and Lassila (2001) might be regarded as intermediate. It treats the key notion of ontology as a structure of well-defined, i.e. unambiguous, concepts standing for objects, properties, relations etc, which has an accompanying logic allowing inference about the concepts. This is much like the terminological and assertional components familiar from AI knowledge representation. There is indeed no claim that everything that users may want to talk about (or all information) can be captured in this way, either descriptively or inferentially, But the belief is that, even with restricted conceptual coverage and limited inference, it will be possible to throw a large semantic net over the Web, that does far more to catch the information fish than purely syntactic hooks and with much less effort for the human fisherman. This large net can, conveniently, be made by combining many little nets with a few well-made loops. The whole rests upon a proper formal language syntactic apparatus (XML, RDF).
Third edition of the "XML and information retrieval" workshop first workshop on integration of IR and DB (WIRD) jointly held at SIGIR'2004, Sheffield, UK, July 29
th
, 2004
Authors: Baeza-Yates Ricardo , Maarek Yoelle S. , Roelleke Thomas , de Vries Arjen P.
Published: January 2007

The morning session was dedicated to the third edition in the series of XML and Information Retrieval workshops that were held at SIGIR'2000 (Athens, Greece, see SIGIR Forum Fall 2000 issue) and SIGIR'2002 (Tampere, Finland, see SIGIR Forum Fall 2002 issue). The goal of the workshop, co-chaired by Baeza-Yates and Maarek, was to complement the INEX (Initiative for the Evaluation of XML Retrieval) meetings that have been organized for the last two years, by providing researchers a useful forum for discussing (before implementing) and evaluating their models at INEX in the second half of the year. Our intent was twofold: first encourage the exchanges of ideas between researchers who are now active in this "sub-field" and, second, attract new interests. Our focus, like in previous editions of the workshop, was to address issues related to the application of IR methods to XML data for querying, retrieval, navigating, etc. We have gone a long way since the first edition in 2000, when XML was entirely dominated by the DB community. However, it seems that the expected breakthrough has not occurred yet, and it is not clear whether it is for lack of XML data, of appropriate technology, or simply of real needs in the marketplace.
The SIGIR peer-to-peer information retrieval workshop
Authors: Callan Jamie , Fuhr Norbert
Published: January 2007

Peer-to-peer (P2P) systems have emerged as a popular way to share huge volumes of data. The P2P paradigm holds many promises: it fits naturally with the Internet, the universal knowledge and service exchange medium; it favors scalability, by allowing the seamless plugging of data, services and computational resources into the global system; it increases system resilience, by avoiding unique points of failures; and it can speed up global access by distributing the indexing and query processing tasks to multiple computing nodes. However, retrieval methods for P2P systems are still in their infancy. P2P networks are prone to congestion when messages are not routed intelligently. Many of the most effective routing or data placement methods developed recently rely on relatively simple retrieval methods and homogeneous network environments.
Workshop on geographic information retrieval, SIGIR 2004
Authors: Purves Ross , Jones Chris
Published: January 2007

Geographic Information Retrieval is fast emerging as an interdisciplinary hot-topic, both in an academic and commercial sense. Retrieving data based not only on conceptual key words, but some notion of the locational relevance of the information requires research of a range of techniques, for example• the extraction of geographic terms from structured and, more challengingly, unstructured data;• the identification and removal of ambiguities in such extraction procedures;• methodologies for sffeciently storing information about locations and their relationship;• development of search engines and algorithms to take advantage of such geographic information;• the combination of geographic and contextual relevance to give a meaningful combined relevance to documents; and• techniques to allow the user to interact with and explore the results of queries to a geographically-aware IR system.
Exploiting markup structure for intelligent search
Authors: Kruschwitz Udo
Published: January 2007

Collections of digital documents can nowadays be found everywhere in institutions, universities or companies. Examples are Web sites or intranets. But searching them for information can still be painful. Searches often return either large numbers of matches or no suitable matches at all.
Do disk arms move?
Authors: Lynch W. C.
Published: January 2007

Measurement of the lengths of disk arm movements in a 2314 disk storage facility of an IBM 360/67 operating under the Michigan Terminal System yielded the unexpected data that the arms need not move in 63% of the accesses and need move for an average of only 30ms. in the remaining 37% of the cases. A description and analysis of a possible mechanism of action is presented. The predictions of this model do not disagree with the measured data.
A quantitative study of the addition of extended core storage
Authors: Snyder Rowan
Published: January 2007

In evaluating computer systems it is necessary to identify the prime determinants of system performance, and to quantify a performance metric. The purpose of this paper is to present a quantitative study of the effects of a significant hardware reconfiguration on some measures of system performance, and thereby demonstrate the effectiveness of Kiviat graphs in performance analysis.
Experimental evaluation of a multiprogrammed computer system
Authors: Reddy Y. V.
Published: January 2007

This paper reports on the design and analysis of a statistical experiment conducted on a "live" job stream to determin the effect of segment size used for storage allocation on the system performance. Performance measures selected are turnaround time, total cost and CPU utilization. The experiment consists of one factor, the segment size, at five levels. Uncontrolled factors such as EXCP's (number of I/O starts) and core usage are included as covariates in the analysis of variance. This experiment is part of a continuing activity of Measurement, Evaluation and Simulation. It is designed to provide data for improving performance incrementally. The results of the experiment provided an optimal segment size for the given classing/scheduling algorithm and core-layout. Design objectives and details of the analysis are also presented.
Performance improvement of the CP-V loader through use of the ADAM hardware monitor
Authors: Collins John P
Published: January 2007

The ADAM hardware monitor can be used to localize and identify several types of performance-impairing behavior in user programs. This paper presents a case study for such an improvement carried out on the CP-V overlay loader. Through measurement of the execution behavior and the subsequent analysis of the resulting data, problems of three basic types were identified: 1. The presence of inefficiently coded routines in areas of high execution intensity; 2. The use of overly general routines along heavily-used program paths; and 3. The use of inefficient algorithms for processing the large amounts of data with which the loader deals. The subsequent redesign and recoding of the problem areas have resulted in a significant performance improvement: the time required to load a program has been reduced by a factor of between two and ten, dependent upon the nature of the program and the loader options specified.
Deficiencies in computer pricing structure theory
Authors: Giammo Thomas
Published: January 2007

A computer facility, when attempting to derive a charging algorithm from scratch, is under the best of circumstances faced with a formidable task. Even after the basic structure of the pricing algorithm has been determined, a substantial amount of work remains in estimating the volume of future workloads in terms compatible with the algorithm structure, determining the anticipated direct and indirect costs, relating algorithm elements with accounting data, implementing billing mechanisms, etc. In the face of the overall amount of work involved, there appears to be a general tendency to treat the determining of the general structure of the pricing algorithm itself as being a relatively straight-forward process which can be worked out using generally accepted principles, in contrast to the choice and calculation of the algorithm's various coefficients which of course must be executed using the specific parameters pertinent to the given installation.
Combination of an optimization model for hardware selection with data determination methods
Authors: Scheer A.-W.
Published: January 2007

The selection of an EDP configuration often fixes a firm to a single manufacturer for a long time and the capabilities of the chosen computer will continually influence the firm's organization. Only few approaches exist to give assistance to the investors by developing useful decision models based on the investment theory /11, 12/. The hardware selection methods /4, 13/ used up to now, like benchmark tests, don't meet these demands. In this paper an investment model based on mathematical programming is developed which considers the aspects of investment for hardware selection.Nevertheless, the present methods stay valid because their output can be used as dalta input for the optimization model. Therefore, a concept is proposed which combines these methods with an optimization model.
An analytical model of a teleprocessing system
Authors: Berinato Terence
Published: January 2007

A queuing model has been developed to study the performance and capacity of a casualty insurance teleprocessing system. This paper presents the salient features of the system itself, relates those features to basic queuing theory algorithms, outlines the basic model construction, and discusses the validation results.
Transactional terminal system on micro-processor
Authors: Sarzotti Alain
Published: January 2007

A typical banking, financial and administrative system involves specific characteristics: a large number of devices around a processor, with several different kinds of work stations (displays, keyboards, printers, badge and document readers...), a heterogeneous workload (by linkage of specialized micro-transactions using local or remote files), versatile operating facilities on displays for untrained administrative personnel (form-loading on the display, selecting key words, spotting errors, generating operational messages...), and working with several sets of typical functions (savings operations, cheque accounting, fund transfer, deposits, withdrawals, and mainly data entry).In this case it was mandatory to approach the system performance evaluation study by first building and observing a typical workload model in the forecast operating enwironment. Measurement steps were then scheduled from outside to inside operating procedures to get analysis from the user's point of view (a bank teller's operations, for example).Then, overall performance results were derived by direct measurement, which established relationships between throughput, response time, processor overhead, and space and time parameters related to system behavior.That was done by progressively increasing the number of terminals and exercising the workload on two levels of technical and functional saturation.Simultaneously, a simulation model used the same description of the workload, and after validation with the preceding direct measurement results, was used to extend the previous relationships on various systems. (The full range of Erlang distribution parameters is assumed with unknown servers; the trace-driven method was not possible.)The final results are shown in tables and charts which exhibit system boundaries, providing useful guidelines for designing network stations and performing workload forecasting.
Use of modelling in performance evaluation of computer systems
Authors: Bazewicz Mieczyslaw , Peterseil Adam
Published: January 2007

There is a number of models of user behaviour applied in modelling studies on computer system performance predictions.The models in most cases can be called "resources-demands models", where users are only considered as resources consumers. Some authors build more sophisticated models - concerning user psychological features.The paper discusses some of the users' models and their applicability in modelling and design of operating systems for computers. Some examples being the result of the research carried in the Technical University of Wroclaw, concerning complex users' model and performance evaluation of operating systems by simulation are presented.
Human performance evaluation in the use of federal computer systems
Authors: Underwood Mark A.
Published: January 2007

There has been increased awareness in recent years of the high cost of non-hardware items in the Federal ADP budget in contrast with decreasing costs for much of the hardware. More attention is being given to software development costs, systems design practices, automatic program testing, and the like. Particular commercial and military systems effectiveness and life cycle costs now take into consideration such factors as part of the planning process. It is suggested that not enough attention has been given to measurement of human performance variables as part of the systems procurement and systems evaluation phases of Federal ADP programs. Recommendations are made for the incorporation of such measures along with conventional hardware/software performance measurement.
Data path analysis
Authors: Honig Howard P.
Published: January 2007

As data centers grow in complexity and size, vast amounts of data (I/O) is transferred between peripherals and CPU's. Data Path Analysis (DPA) is a technique developed to report the utilization of CPU's, channels, control units, and disks during data transfer. Simply put, the technique analyzes data paths.
NBS network measurement methodology applied to synchronous communications
Authors: Abrams Marshall D. , Neiman Dorothy C.
Published: January 2007

This paper focuses on the application of the NBS Network Measurement Instrument (NMI) to synchronous data communication. The suitability of the underlying Stimulus - Acknowledgement - Response (SAR) model to support the implementation of this methodology permitting quantitative evaluation of interactive teleprocessing service delivered to the user is described. The logic necessary to interpret SAR components and boundaries depends on character time sequence for asynchronous data communications traffic but entails protocol decomposition and content analysis for character synchronous data traffic. The decomposition and analysis rules necessary to evaluate synchronous communications are discussed and the level of protocol violation detection which results as a byproduct is cited. Extensions to the utility of the Network Measurement Instrument (NMI), deriving from additional workload profiling measures desirable for character synchronous communications, are also presented.
A highly parameterized tool for studying performance of computer systems
Authors: Hughes Herman D.
Published: January 2007

A highly parameterized simulation model is described which allows experiments to be performed for computer performance evaluations studies. The results of these experiments can be used to evaluate the effect of changing the hardware configuration, the workload, the scheduling policy, the multiprogramming level, etc. The model is constructed to function either as a batch or time-sharing system, or as a combination of both. This simulation model also has the potential of providing dynamic feedback for the scheduler. A discussion of the design, implementation, and use of the model is presented. Examples are provided to illustrate some possible uses of the model and verifications of the results obtained from the model.
An update on economies-of-scale in computing systems
Authors: Clark Jon D.
Published: January 2007

It is often assumed that the principle of economies-of-scale can be applied to almost every productive process. Occasionally this leads us into difficulty when we least expect it. This paper will identify three classes of computers based on word size and will determine if the principle applies.
Data, definition, deduction
Authors: Cox Springer
Published: January 2007

The theoretical aspects of operational analysis have been considered more extensively than matters of its application in practical situations. Since its relationships differ in their applicability, they must be considered separately when they are applied. In order to do this, the foundations of three such relationships are examined from an empirical point of view.To further demonstrate the intimate connection between data, definitions, and performance models, the problem of measurement artifact is considered.
A computer performance evaluation operational methodology
Authors: Knudson Michael E.
Published: January 2007

A method suggesting how to organize and operate a Computer Performance and Evaluation (CPE) project is presented. It should be noted that the suggested principles could apply to a modeling or simulation effort.
A note on the cost-performance ratios of IBM's 43XX series
Authors: Clark Jon D. , Richards Thomas C.
Published: January 2007

Pricing policies of computers with various performance capabilities are usually assumed to be non-linear due to economies-of-scale. This article analyzes the cost-performance ratios of a single IBM product line, the 43XX series and found this performance characteristic to be surprisingly linear but with great deal of individual variation.
Speeding up computer system simulations using hierarchical modeling
Authors: Thomasian Alexander , Gargeya Kameshwar
Published: January 2007

Hierarchical modeling has been applied with great success in analyzing queueing network models of computer systems, where a direct solution is not possible. A primary example is a memory-constrained timesharing (MCT) system. In a typical two-level model, the analysis of the higher level model is carried out using performance parameters, which are obtained by analyzing the lower-level model. The higher-level model can be usually represented by a multi-dimensional Markov Chain (MC), which is generally very expensive to solve due to the large number of its states. Also the transition probabilities among the states of the MC cannot be obtained or are difficult to obtain in most cases (e.g., models for concurrency control performance). Approximate (iterative) solution methods have been adopted to alleviate the cost of solving linear equations, but the accuracy of such solutions is less predictable than decomposition. In this paper, we discuss the use of simulation for solving the higher level model. This method termed hierarchical simulation is applied to the solution of MCT systems. The accuracy of this technique is checked against direct simulation results for a set of test cases reported in the literature. We then compare the cost of hierarchical simulation against that of direct simulation and comment on its applicability.
A survey of techniques for the modeling of serialization delays in computer systems
Authors: Hác Anna
Published: January 2007

The problem of exclusive access to shared resources was solved using critical sections that are accessed by controlling the values of the synchronization primitives (e.g., semaphores) [4]. In [5] it is shown that a queueing network model can be constructed to represent spin lock behavior. That model may be used to predict the performance degradation due to locking. The results of extensive simulations of systems with static and dynamic locking to study the effects of the granularity of locks in a database system are presented in [8,9].
A complexity measure based on selection and nesting
Authors: Gong Huisheng , Schmidt Monika
Published: January 2007

Many concepts concerning the quantification of program complexity have been developed during the last few years. One of the most accepted and easy-to-apply complexity measures, McCabe's cyclomatic number, has been discussed and improved in several studies. The cyclomatic number only considers the decision structure of a program. Therefore, this paper proposes a new method for calculating program complexity, the concept of postdomination. This takes into account the degree of nesting of a program. Combining this method and the cyclomatic number, a new complexity measure will be defined.
A simple measure of software complexity
Authors: Ejiogu Lem O.
Published: January 2007

Every science mast have its own method of investigation built on a sound foundation that is empirical, justifiable and verifiable. Software metrics, too, can benefit from this principle. A complex aggregate of tools, ideas, methodologies, programming languages, and varieties of applications go into the development, design, manufacture and maintenance of sofcware. The combinations impose another level of complexity on software.
An investigation of several mathematical models of queueing systems
Authors: Turner Rollins
Published: January 2007

A number of simple mathematical models were used to predict average response time of a timesharing system. The target system was a very simple trace driven simulation model, but the workloads were trace files obtained from a real system in normal operation. As such, the workloads were characterized by very high coefficients of variation in resource demands and think times. Mathematical models of the system included independent arrival models (M/M/1 and M/G/1, closed network models) admitting product from solutions, and a more general Markov model. Only the final model produced reasonable accuracy.A number of experiments were performed, in an effort to determine what properties of the system being modeled were responsible for the failure of all the simple mathematical models. The large variance in CPU time and the fact that the system was a closed network were found to be critical factors, and appeared to be the major causes for failure of models that do not take them into account.
Confidence intervals for queueing simulations of computer systems
Authors: Sauer Charles H.
Published: January 2007

Simulation models of computer systems may be formulated as queueing networks. Several methods for confidence interval estimation for queueing simulations are dicussed. Empirical studies of these methods are presented.
Simulating working sets under MVS
Authors: Petrella Arthur , Farrey Harold
Published: January 2007

The concept of a "working-set" of a program running in a virtual memory environment is now so familiar that many of us fail to realize just how little we really know about what it is, what it means, and what can be done to make such knowledge actually useful. This follows, perhaps, from the abstract and apparently intangible facade that tends to obscure the meaning of working set. What we cannot measure often ranks high in curiosity value, but ranks low in pragmatic utility. Where we have measures, as in the page-seconds of SMF/MVS, the situation becomes even more curious: here a single number purports to tell us something about the working set of a program, and maybe something about the working sets of other concurrent programs, but not very much about either.This paper describes a case in which the concept of the elusive working set has been encountered in practice, has been intensively analyzed, and finally, has been confronted in its own realm. It has been trapped, wrapped, and, at last, forced to reveal itself for what it really is. It is not a number! Yet it can be measured. And what it is, together with its measures, turns out to be something not only high in curiosity value, but also something very useful as a means to predict the page faulting behavior of a program running in a relatively complex multiprogrammed environment.The information presented here relates to experience gained during the conversion of a discrete event simulation model to a hybrid model which employs analytical techniques to forecast the duration of "steady-state" intervals between mix-change events in the simulation of a network-scheduled job stream processing on a 370/168-3AP under MVS. The specific "encounter" with the concept of working sets came about when an analytical treatment of program paging was incorporated into the model. As a result of considerable luck, ingenuity, and brute-force empiricism, the model won.Several examples of empirically derived characteristic working set functions, together with typical model results, are supported with a discussion of relevant modeling techniques and areas of application.
Performance of a virtual memory
Authors: Rajaraman M. K.
Published: January 2007

This paper reports the results of simulation experiment of a model of a virtual memory computer. The model consists of three major subsystems: Program Behavior, Memory Allocation and Secondary Storage. By adapting existing models of these subsystems an overall model for the computer operation is developed and its performance is tested for various design alternatives. The results are reported for different paging devices, levels of multiprogramming, job mixes, memory allocation scheme, page service scheduling and page replacement rate.
Measurement of computer user satisfaction
Authors: Pearson Sammy W. , Bailey James E.
Published: January 2007

This paper presents the development and evaluation of a questionnaire designed to quantitatively measure computer user satisfaction. The administration, scoring, and interpretation of the questionnaire are also addressed.
Scoring methods, multiple criteria, and utility analysis
Authors: Kleijnen J. P. C.
Published: January 2007

Scoring methods are popular in computer selection, and try to combine different attributes into an overall performance measure. Related is the multi-criteria evaluation of computerized information systems. The scoring method is criticized in the context of more general utility models, popular in economics. Scoring provides simplistic choice models, and should not be used as predictive, causal models. Many references for further study are included.
A PROLOG-based expert system for tuning MVS/XA
Authors: Domanski Bernard
Published: January 2007

This paper will discuss some of the issues involved in building an Expert System that embodies tuning rules for IBM's MVS/XA operating system. To understand the components of an Expert System and their functions, PROLOG on an IBM PC (Turbo-PROLOG from Borland International) was chosen as the development environment. The paper will begin by defining the key concepts about Expert Systems, Knowledge Engineering, and Knowledge Acquisition. The reader will be given a brief overview of PROLOG, from which we can explain how an inference mechanism was developed. Finally, the paper will describe the Expert System that was developed, and additionally will provide a set of key issues that should be addressed in the future. It is our overall objective to provide new insight into the application of AI to CPE.
Some thoughts on paper notes and electronic messages
Authors: Scragg Greg W.
Published: January 2007

At two institutions, with which I am familiar, there are two very noticeable differences in the ways in which people communicate. One has to do with the use of the computer mail system. The other with a far more mundane communication device: pregummed notepads. A brief look at similarities and differences between these two media and their use at two different locations may be illuminating with respect to design criteria for message systems. While some of the extrapolations seem to give silly or dull results, others seem to be very suggestive. Most important is the suggestion of a broader definition of message recipient.
A methodology for evaluating interactive system usage
Authors: Penniman W. David
Published: January 2007

A study of transaction logs from NLM's ELHILL system provided data on system feature usage and user search behavior. Several hypotheses were tested regarding the use of a pattern analysis methodology to represent and evaluate user behavior. Different classes of users (frequent, moderate, infrequent) were compared. The methodology is such that findings across different user groups (and different systems) can be compared.
Introduction to artificial intelligence
Authors: Jackson Philip C.
Published: January 2007

"Are we intelligent enough to understand intelligence? One approach to answering this question is "artificial intelligence," the field of computer science that studies how machines can be made to act intelligently. This book is intended to be a comprehensive introduction to the field of artificial intelligence, written primarily for the student who has some knowledge of computers and mathematics (say, at the junior or senior levels of college). In general, this book is addressed to all persons who are interested in studying the nature of thought, and hopefully much of it can be read without previous, formal exposure to mathematics and computers.
AI in the media
Authors: Coles Steve
Published: January 2007

Warner Bros. has recently released "The Terminal Man" starring George Segal as Harry Benson, an artificial intelligence researcher suffering from psychomotor epilepsy. Produced and directed by Mike Hodges, who also wrote the screenplay based on Michael Crichton's novel, this movie will probably not rank as highly in the film world as Crichton's novel did in the book world. Nevertheless, its fast-paced adventure will probably have wide appeal and place it in the realm of respectable commercial success.
Ten criticisms of parry
Authors: Colby Kenneth Mark
Published: January 2007

Much of the Artificial Intelligence community is now aware of a computer simulation of paranoid processes developed by the Colby group at Stanford. The model (called PARRY) has been available for interviewing on the ARPA network and thousands of interviews have been conducted with several versions of the model. During the long period of development of the model, we have been aware of the limitations of various alternative programming approaches to designing an algorithm capable of conducting useful non-trivial dialogue in natural language. Colleagues, associates, and students have volunteered a number of criticisms of the model. Since criticisms can be endless, I shall restrict the discussion to only those which we consider serious, reasoned, and well-founded.
Scene segmentation
Authors: Potter Jerry
Published: January 2007

The purpose of this communication is to present a slight restructuring of the segmentation and interpretation tasks. This restructuring enables the segmentation of a scene with a limited amount of general information. The interpretation aspect of a scene segmented by the method proposed here is very dynamic and flexible.
Research resource in AI and biomedicine at Rutgers University
Authors: LeFaivre Rick , Walker Adrian
Published: January 2007

The fundamental purpose of the Rutgers Research Resource on Computers in Biomedicine is to develop a computer-based framework for significant research in the biomedical sciences and for the application of research results to the solution of important problems in health care. The focal concept is to introduce advanced methods of computer science -- particularly in artificial intelligence -- into specific areas of biomedical inquiry. The computer is used as an integral part of the inquiry process, both for the development and organization of knowledge in a domain and for its utilization in problem solving and in processes of experimentation and theory formation.
General-purpose models
Authors: Zucker Steven W. , Rosenfeld Azriel , Davis Larry S.
Published: January 2007

How can computer vision systems be designed to handle unfamiliar or unexpected scenes? Many of the current systems cope quite well with limited visual worlds, by making use of specialized knowledge about these worlds. But if we want to expand these systems to handle a wide range of visual domains, it will not be enough to simply employ a large number of specialized models. It will also be important to make use of what might be called "general-purpose models." Such models can be used to suggest reasonable descriptions for a given scene, e.g., in terms of features or regions or groups of these, in the absence of specific context.
Some considerations for the implementation of knowledge-based expert systems
Authors: Shortliffe Ted , Davis Randy
Published: January 2007

The MYCIN System is a large INTERLISP program designed to assist physicians with the selection of antibiotic therapy for patients with bacterial infections. The nature of this clinical problem, the details of the program's design, and its methodology have been described elsewhere <1-8>. In this communication we discuss some problems of 'real-world' implementation for this kind of system. Although we are dealing with the problem of designing a high-performance AI program for the somewhat atypical world of clinical medicine, a number of the issues we have addressed may be common to other task domains in which expert systems are to be used by individuals who are not necessarily computer sophisticates.
A computer model of conversation
Authors: Allen James , Cohen Phil , Cohen Robin , Perrault C. R. , Reason Corot , Horrigan-Tozer Mary
Published: January 2007

This project is concerned with the modelling of language use in a conversation. The aim is to develop techniques for making a machine a more helpful conversant. We are examining problems that have essentially been ignored in current AI natural language research. For instance, our model will have strategies for deciding what to say, for inferring a speaker's intentions, and for being helpful. In order to do this, the system maintains an explicit model of the user's beliefs which includes the user's model of the system's beliefs, etc. This technique is implemented by using Hendrix' partitioned semantic nets.
Natural language projects at IBM research
Authors: Heidorn George
Published: January 2007

At IBM Research there are currently six projects dealing with natural language, each of which is described in this issue. These projects are diverse both technically and administratively, as can be seen from the following summary.
Access to relational data bases for a casual user
Authors: Codd E. F.
Published: January 2007

The goal of the RENDEZVOUS Project is to enable a casual user to access relational data bases in natural language without a preliminary training period. The system will, if necessary, engage in an English dialogue with the user in order to arrive at an unambiguous statement of his query. This dialogue serves the triple purpose of aiding the user in his problem specification, of clarifying ambiguities inherent in the English language and of enabling the system to overcome incomprehensible features of the users query. The conversation must constantly narrow the scope of inquiry, resorting to menu selection if necessary until the user and system come to an agreement as to what information has been requested. At any moment during the dialogue, the system must be capable of expressing its current understanding of the user's query in clear and unambiguous English. In particular, the system must be able to rephrase the user's query for approval before execution.
ROBOT
Authors: Harris Larry R.
Published: January 2007

The ROBOT project is to develop an English interface to data base management systems (DBMS). Our approach calls for mapping English language questions into a language of data base semantics that is independent of the content of the data base. In this way we work in a "movable miniworld" since the semantic primitives are fixed, but the area of discourse varies with the content of the data base. Thus, by making only dictionary changes we have interfaced a student grade file and employee file and a data dictionary.
An interactive information retrieval of biographical data
Authors: Zarri Gian Piero
Published: January 2007

Formed to provide medievalists with an interacting method of processing biographical data, RESEDA is an attempt to combine with the techniques of information retrieval certain instruments taken from the field of Artificial Intelligence. RESEDA uses, for the description of information in natural language, methods of the "case systems" type which lead to the organization of the coding in interlocking groups of three elements. Each section of the coding, called "plane" in our system, is the translation of a logical unit in which is stated an event in reference to one or several characters and in accordance with a pre-determined scope of place and time. The aim of the system is to put the elements contaned in the planes in relation with each other by inference operations which we can characterize according to two levels; the first one makes it possible to answer user's questions with simple generalization procedures which use, for example, that part of the "lexicon" which has a tree structure. The "second level" inferences on the other hand, are based upon a functional definition of "predicates" expressed in the form of programs (cf. Winograd).
Natural language processing research at the University of Delaware
Authors: Weischedel Ralph
Published: January 2007

A fundamental problem of natural language systems is to aid a user whose input is not understood by the system. Linguistic knowledge and world knowledge must be represented and organized in a way that the system can inform the user of what it did understand and hypothesize reasons for its not understanding the rest.
SAM
Authors: Cullingford Rich
Published: January 2007

At Yale we have developed a natural-language text understander called SAM (Script Applier Machanism), which applies knowledge about events and event-sequences in the world, arranged in a data structure called a Script, as it reads. Over the past two years, SAM has progressed from reading simple made-up stories to newspaper reports about vehicle accidents, visiting dignitaries and several other knowledge domains. SAM demonstrates its comprehension of a story by summarizing or paraphrasing it, and by answering questions about it. Since we believe that understanding is basically language-independent, provided the requisite world knowledge is shared by different language groups, it should be as easy to generate output in one language as in another. Accordingly, SAM has been given the capability of expressing its results in several languages. Here is an example illustrating the level of "understanding" of which SAM is currently capable. (This example is a slightly modified version of a car accident report from the New Haven Register. The understanding phase of SAM consist of a Conceptual Analyzer programmed by Chris Riesbeck and Anatole Gershman, a Memory module set up by Mal Selfridge, and the Script Applier, programmed by the author. SAM's outputs are expressed by various versions of Goldman's generator: the English was provided by Jerry DeJong; the Spanish by Jaime Carbonell. The summarizer was programmed by DeJong, and the Question-answering results were obtained from Wendy Lehnert's program by Carbonell.)
FRUMP...FRUMP...FRUMP...
Authors: de Jong Gerald
Published: January 2007

One of the newest A.I. projects at Yale is a program called FRUMP (Fast Reading, Understanding and Memory Program). It is designed to skim newspaper stories rather than reading them in detail and is an attempt to augment the reading abilities of SAM. The goal of the FRUMP project is to develop a program that will understand the most important points in a newspaper article and incorporate them with facts it previously learned from reading other articles.
A Farsi (Persian) business AID
Authors: Taylor Richard L.
Published: January 2007

I am writing a Farsi (Persian) interpreter which uses a subset of Farsi personal-reference verb equivalents to cause changes in CPU activity. Any physically possible command to the computer is executed, according to the constraints implied by the command.
Natural language graphics
Authors: Brown D. C. , Buttelmann H. W. , Chandrasekaran B. , Kwasny S. C. , Sondheimer N. K.
Published: January 2007

The Natural Language Graphics Project (NLG) at The Ohio State University is concerned with natural language programming in an interactive graphics environment. Natural interaction between men depends on a combination of both graphical and linguistic modes of communication [1]. The goals of the project are to study the relationships between graphical and linguistic processing in a programming environment. To achieve these goals, associated practical and theoretical issues in man-machine interaction, computer graphics, computational linguistics, and knowledge representation will be investigated.
Artificial intelligence meets natural stupidity
Authors: McDermott Drew
Published: January 2007

As a field, artificial intelligence has always been on the border of respectability, and therefore on the border of crackpottery. Many critics ,  have urged that we are over the border. We have been very defensive toward this charge, drawing ourselves up with dignity when it is made and folding the cloak of Science about us. On the other hand, in private, we have been justifiably proud of our willingness to explore weird ideas, because pursuing them is the only way to make progress.
Planning techniques for rule selection in deductive question-answering
Authors: Klahr Philip
Published: January 2007

Deductive planning techniques are described for rule selection in question-answering systems. Rules typically represent inferential knowledge applicable to a given domain of discourse. Given a question-answering system containing a large number of such rules, a crucial problem arises in selecting those rules that are relevant and needed to answer particular input queries. A planning process has been implemented to find chains of rules that deductively infer the desired conclusions. The processes of forward chaining from assumptions and backward chaining from goals are combined to form middle-term chains which provide the basis of the planning mechanism. The applicability and generality of these techniques for use in other rule-based systems is also discussed.
Knowledge-directed inference in believer
Authors: Sridharan N. S. , Schmidt C. F.
Published: January 2007

The BELIEVER theory is an attempt to specify an information processing systenn that constructs intentional interpretations of an observed sequence of human actions. A frame-based system, AIMDS, is used to define three domains: the physical world; the plan domain, where interpretations are constructed using plan structures composed from plan traits; and the psychological description of time actor. The system achieves a shift of representation from propositions about physical events to statements about beliefs and intentions of the actor by hypothesizing and attributing a.plan structure to the actor.
Use of production systems for modeling asynchronous, concurrent processes
Authors: Zisman Michael D.
Published: January 2007

Because of the event-driven, nature of asynchronous, concurrent processes, production systems (PS's) are an attractive modeling tool. The system of interest can be modeled with a large number of independent states, with independent actions, and tile knowledge base can be conveniently encoded declaratively. However, asynchronous, concurrent processes normally have strict requirements for inter-process communication and coordination; this requires a substantial degree of inter-rule communication in the PS. The result of this is that a complex control structure is embedded in the short term memory (STM); this is generally considered unattractive for a number of reasons. This paper proposes a separate, explicit control structure for modeling asynchronous, concurrent processes With PS's. Specifically, the use of a Petri net is addressed. A system of asynchronous, concurrent processes can be modeled using 'PS's to model the individual processes or events and using a Petri net to model the relationships between the processes. Furthermore, a hierarchy of such networks is proposed; an allowable production rule action is the instantiation of another network. This is supported with a structured, hierarchial STM.
APRIL
Authors: Smith M. J. , Sleeman D. H.
Published: January 2007

A general purpose Production System interpreter, APRIL, has been developed to model aspects of students problem solving in a CAI environment. APRIL incorporates most of the facilities common to earlier interpreters and also includes several additional features. One new feature allows "high-level" routines, such as those used by the interpreter itself in the matching and cycling phases, to be actions in production rules: hence it is possible for the user to "create" an interpreter which is suitable for his particular domain. However, the most important features of APRIL are that: 1) memory is handled uniformly (Production Rules and data both being stored as
states
) and 2) APRIL allows Production Rules to retrieve and modify
any
state. Together these latter features allow
adaptive
systems to be implemented.
Inductive inference of VL decision rules
Authors: Larson J. , Michalski R. S.
Published: January 2007

The problem considered is a transformation of a set of user given decision rules into a set of new rules which are more general than the original ones and more optimal with regard to a user defined criterion. The decision rules are expressed in the VL
21
logic system which permits a more general rule format than typically used, and facilitates a compact and easy to understand expression of descriptions of different degrees of generality. The paper gives a brief descriFtion of methodology for rule induction and of a computer program.
Production systems with feedback
Authors: Zucker Steven W.
Published: January 2007

Production systems provide a methodology for using knowledge embedded in (condition A action) pairs. An action is performed when its conditions match the state of a current data base. When multiple conditions match the data base simultaneously, however, the problem arises of which productions should be executed. Such multiple matches can derive from ambiguity and uncertainly in the data base and condition patterns. One solution to this multiple matching problem is to extend the production system with a form of feedback. This paper describes the implementation of feedback directed toward global data base consistency. Specific examples are chosen from a low-level vision system.
Review of "Computers and the Cybernetic Society by Michael A. Arbib"; Academic Press, New York, 1977
Authors: Cooprider Lee W.
Published: January 2007

Courses on computers and society are usually intended for students who have not necessarily ever learned to program a computer. The author of a textbook must therefore spend a lot a time teaching about the technical details of computing (the important issues of the course are usually met about the midterm point!), and then proceed on that half-semester intuitive basis to discuss data banks, electronic fund transfer, digital watches, automated warfare, and calculators. Most of these books are written by computer scientists rather than social scientists and therefore tend to have a passable technical half and an awful to mediocre social half.