bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Identifying Metaphor
Authors: Denham A. E.
Published: October 2011

The reliability of one's moral judgements depends on his/her ability to conceive of others' inner lives sympathetically, where sympathy is a matter of appreciating others' thought and experience as from their own point of view, and doing so in a way which features, in varying degrees, not only the content but the phenomenology of their relevant psychological states. This chapter examines whether metaphors have cognitive significance — that is, whether they are properly assessed as true or false, and whether they can stand as proper objects of knowledge. It argues that a metaphor often expresses cognitively significant judgements, and that many metaphors are ‘conceptually autonomous’ in the sense that their truth conditions cannot be expressed in non-figurative terms. It also explains why figurative language has played a prominent role in the cultivation and articulation of normative judgements.
Before and After
Authors: Vallance J. T.
Published: October 2011

The Ascelepiadean corpuscular hypothesis can be related quite closely to certain aspects of Erasistratean physiology. A series of reports also suggest that Asclepiades and Erasistratus adopted a similar type of approach to pathological explanation. The background is highly complex, the origins and development of a typical disease followed a pattern even more involved than the Asclepiadean. Even the Methodists seem to have the same theory and the question is asked as to why the Methodists adopted such theory in the first place when they criticised Asclepiades for falling into the trap of speculating about the nature of man? However, looking closely, the motivations of Asclepiades may not have been wholly dissimilar which thus explains the similarity in belief system influencing their approach and practice.
The Completeness Issue
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan
Published: October 2011

Completeness, as a property of certain deductive systems, may be viewed as a limiting-case of probabilistic complementationality. It follows that proof criteria for incomplete systems generate probabilities that do not conform to the mathematical calculus of chance. Such probabilities measure what Keynes called ‘weight’ and have a non-complementational negation principle. One such probability is that which the consequent of any generalized conditional has on the truth of its antecedent, if this probability is equated with the level of inductive support that exists for the generalization. This concept is shown to play an important part in the way in which lay juries are expected to assess proofs of fact in Anglo-American lawcourts.
The Difficulty about Conjunction
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan
Published: October 2011

In most civil cases, the plaintiff's contention consists of several component elements. So the multiplication law for the mathematical probability of a conjunction entails that, if the contention as a whole is to be established on the balance of mathematical probability, there must either be very few separate components in the case or most of them must be established at a very high level of probability. Since this constraint on the complexity of civil cases is unknown to the law, the mathematicist analysis is in grave difficulties here. To point out that such component elements in a complex case are rarely independent of one another is no help. Therefore, a mathematicist might claim that the balance of probability is not to be understood as the balance between the probability of the plaintiff's contention and that of its negation, but as the balance between the probability of the plaintiff's contention and that of some contrary contention by the defendant. However, this would misplace the burden of proof. To regard the balance of probability as the difference between prior and posterior probabilities is open to other objections. To claim that the plaintiff's contention as a whole is not to have its probability evaluated at all is like closing one's eyes to facts one does not like.
The Difficulty about Inference upon Inference
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan
Published: October 2011

This chapter explores the difficulty about inference upon inference. Where a proof in a civil case involves several tiers of inference, the courts normally insist that each tier prior to the final one should rest on proof beyond reasonable doubt. However, a mathematicist analysis would permit many multi-tier inferences to go through even though each tier was proved merely on the balance of probabilities. So this kind of analysis has to suppose that the courts' requirement here springs from a special legal rule. But the rationale of such a rule is obscure if the mathematical analysis is correct. On the other hand, the courts' requirement here does jibe with common-sense ideas about chains of inference.
The Difficulty about a Criterion
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan
Published: October 2011

This chapter explores the difficulty about a criterion. It first introduces the inapplicability of Carnapian criteria. No familiar criterion of mathematical probability is applicable to the evaluation of juridical proofs. Statistical criteria have already been shown to be inapplicable. Carnapian criteria require a unanimity about range-measure, which cannot be assumed. To suppose that jurors should evaluate proofs in terms of a coherent betting policy is to ignore the fact that rational men do not bet on issues where the outcome is not discoverable otherwise than from the data on which the odds themselves have to be based. In addition, the point here is not that there is anything intrinsically and universally wrong with evaluating mathematical probabilities in terms of statistical frequencies, range-overlap or betting odds. So the onus is on the mathematicist to propose some other criterion, which is not excluded by any of the special circumstances of judicial proof.
Resolution of Six Difficulties for a Mathematicist Account of Judicial Proof
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan
Published: October 2011

This chapter shows the resolution of six difficulties for a mathematicist account of judicial proof. It first reports the difficulty about conjunction. It also addresses the difficulty about inference. The non-complementational negation principle for inductive probability ensures that, on an inductivist account, the standard of proof in civil cases does not officially condone a positive probability of injustice. Proof beyond reasonable doubt is proof at the level of inductive certainty. The inductivist analysis elucidates why ordinary juries are competent to assess judicial proofs. Moreover, convergence and corroboration, and their appropriate independence conditions, can be readily explained in terms of inductive probability, with no difficulty arising about prior probabilities.
Criteria of Rational Belief
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan
Published: October 2011

This chapter begins by providing the problem of the detachment conditions for dyadic judgements of probability. The study of criteria for rational belief is very largely the study of the detachment conditions for dyadic judgements of probability. The deductive closure condition and the logical consistency condition present difficulties for any acceptance-rule formulated in terms of mathematical probability. The proposals for dealing with these difficulties that have been put forward by Hintikka and Hilpinen, by Kyburg, by Levi, and by Lehrer, are all, for different reasons, unsatisfactory. But a rule of acceptance formulated in terms of inductive probability does not encounter any of these difficulties. Mathematical probability can provide a basis for decision-theoretic strategies, but not for rational belief.
An Epistemological Corollary
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan
Published: October 2011

This chapter begins by presenting the prevailing scepticism in the philosophy of science. If a fact that is provable beyond reasonable doubt is inductively certain, the legal assumption that proof beyond reasonable doubt is possible conflicts with the sceptical thesis that knowledge of general truths about the world is impossible. But if it is possible to know that one hypothesis is inductively more reliable than another, it is certainly possible to know also that a hypothesis is fully reliable. Prevalence of the sceptical error is due partly to unawareness of the systematic analogy between the structure of inductive support and the structure of logical truth, partly to a confusion between truth-conditions and justification-conditions, partly to an over-reaction to certain shattering events in the history of science, partly to the mistaken view that a correct assessment of how much one proposition supports another must be regarded as an analytic truth, and partly to the mistaken view that any inductive assessment presupposes certain untestable metaphysical assumptions. When all these points are borne in mind, it becomes clear that on issues of fact proof beyond reasonable doubt, and scientific knowledge, is at least in principle possible.
Divine Commands and Moral Requirements
Authors: Quinn Philip L.
Published: October 2011

The view that morality in some way depends, at least in part, upon the will of God is an important theme in the history of philosophy. In recent times this idea has not been taken very seriously by prominent moral philosophers. It is often assumed that the view has been refuted or can be shown to be quite implausible in the light of accepted modern doctrine about morality. Based on the belief that this assumption is mistaken, this book takes a fresh look at this issue. It asks whether some version of the claim that human morality depends upon divine commands can be defended against serious and sustained philosophical criticism. It explores whether significantly different versions of divine command theory can be formulated. And, finally, it attempts to discover whether divine command theories are consistent with or can be grafted on to other recent theories of the logic of some of the moral concepts.
Introduction
Authors: Hinckfuss Ian
Published: October 2011

This book addresses the philosophical problems of space and time. Roughly speaking, Chapters 1, 2, and 3 deal with space, and Chapters 4, 5, and 6 deal with time. These problems perhaps arise merely by virtue of the way in which the language is constructed. The business of providing means for the elimination of certain expressions from the descriptions of the world is often called reduction. Thus, relationalism is a reductionist programme. Moreover, an overview of the chapters included in the book is provided.
Temporal Asymmetry
Authors: Hinckfuss Ian
Published: October 2011

This chapter provides an investigation into the reasons, apart from the intuitions, for believing that the temporal dimension exhibits any asymmetry. It is specifically concerned with the theory that time is fundamentally asymmetrical in some sense that guarantees a profound difference between the past and the future. The chapter argues that even if the notions of ‘cause’ and ‘effect’ are stripped of their directional bias, there is no evidence to suggest that the resulting causal relation is always exemplified asymmetrically in time. It also claims that there is an important difference between knowledge of the past and knowledge of the future, but further argues that this difference is in no way indicative of a qualitative difference between the direction of time from earlier to later and the direction of time from later to earlier. The second law of thermodynamics is addressed. The local and accidental asymmetries within time are then outlined.
The Philosophy of Nature in 1803 and 1804
Authors: Harris H. S.
Published: October 2011

The first section of this chapter discusses Hegel's materialism. The second section discusses matter conceived as motion. The third section discusses the fluidity of matter. Hegel called the self-transforming continuity of matter ‘absolute fluidity, the truly real earthy matter’. The fourth section examines terrestrial ‘physics’, an approach detailing the process of the Earth's own life. The last section discusses Hegel's theory of organism.
The Natural Philosophy of 1805/6
Authors: Harris H. S.
Published: October 2011

The first section of this chapter describes mechanics, or the theory of matter. The physical model of the logic of Understanding was the Newtonian theory of the Solar System. Hegel identified his logic of ‘simple connection’ as the ‘logic of understanding’. But the direct transformation of the aether into space at the beginning of the Philosophy of Nature reflects the simplicity of the connection between understanding and its object. The second section deals with shape and chemism. The third section deals with physics. Much of Hegel's discussion was required for the understanding of the Earth's shaping and chemism. In ‘physics’, he advanced to a higher level of conceptual complexity, and descended to a more immediate level of phenomenal observation. The fourth section deals with the organism. The last section deals with plants and animals.
The Syriac Versions
Authors: METZGER BRUCE M.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the introduction of Christianity into Syria and the translation of the New Testament in that region. Of all the early versions of the New Testament, those in Syriac have raised more problems and provoked more controversies among modern scholars than any of the others. This chapter examines several Syriac versions with the earliest translation of the Gospels. These versions include Tatian's Diatessaron, a harmony of the four gospels prepared about AD 170, the Old Syriac version, the Peshitta Syriac version, and the Philoxenian version. In addition to these several versions, all of which are in the ‘classical’ Syriac dialect of Aramaic used generally throughout Syrian communities, there is also the so-called Palestinian-Syriac version which makes the use of a form of western Aramaic similar to that used by Galilean Jews in the Old Testament Targums.
Enigmatic Hebrews: A Rhetorical Appeal for Steadfast Faith in our Great High Priest and in the Better Covenant
Authors: Reumann John
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses some scribes who in later centuries made copies of the epistle called ‘To Hebrews’. They added in a note at the conclusion of the text that the letter had been written by Paul from Italy. These opinions became traditional. Yet, everyone of these points—Paul's authorship, the place of writing, the identity of those addressed, and even whether Hebrews is a letter—has been widely denied in subsequent study. This most rhetorically elegant of all New Testament writings has for good reasons been termed, to paraphrase Winston Churchill, a riddle within a puzzle wrapped up in an enigma. Indeed, all three terms have been used by commentators to describe the book. The major emphasis in Hebrews’ depiction of Jesus is in terms of priesthood and indeed as high priest. No other New Testament writing develops so extensive a Christology along such lines.
Holy Scripture in the Qumran Commentaries and Pauline Letters
Authors: Lim Timothy H.
Published: October 2011

What was the ancient exegetes’ attitude to the biblical texts? Did they consider them ‘sacred’ in the sense that the words were the inviolable utterances of God? Alternatively, did they when necessary modify and adapt holy writ for their own purposes? This book examines the question of exegetical modifications from the post-Qumran perspective of textual pluriformity of literalism that runs through ancient exegeses and translations. The Qumran Commentators and Paul complemented their fulfilment-exegeses by paying close attention to the verbal formations of the biblical texts. The hermeneutical principles underlying their exegeses involved a multiplex of competing forces that at the same time sought to make scripture relevant while guarding it from changes. In so far as the label ‘post-biblical exegesis’ describes a clear separation between the written, authoritative texts and its interpretation, the distinction is overdrawn, for the ancients were not merely commentators, but also in some sense authors of the biblical texts.
‘Gathered Under Apostles’
Authors: Flegg Columba Graham
Published: October 2011

This book presents the history and theology of a remarkable body of Christians, formed as a result of the revival of interest in the prophetic Scriptures stimulated by the events of the French Revolution. Here is an example of a charismatic renewal within the mainstream Churches, which was rejected by them, and which hence led to a worldwide body, governed by ‘restored apostles’, with its own structure, liturgy, doctrine, and hierarchy of ministers. It was a movement directed towards the reunion of the Churches, uncompromising in its adherence to Scripture, its typological interpretation of the Old Testament, and in its longing for the Parousia. It sought to bring together all that was best in the various Christian traditions, Eastern as well as Western, in preparation for the return of the Church's Bridegroom in glory. The strong ecumenical purpose of this body; its approach to the reunification of Churches and clergy; the breadth and beauty of its liturgy; its resolution of internal tensions between the charismatic and established hierarchical ministries; and its emphasis on eschatology: all these are of especial relevance to Christians today.
Beauty and Revelation in the Thought of Saint Augustine
Authors: Harrison Carol
Published: October 2011

This book places Saint Augustine's theology in a new context by considering what he has to say about beauty. It demonstrates how a theological understanding of beauty revealed in the created, temporal realm enabled Augustine to form a positive appreciation of this realm and the saving power of beauty within it. It therefore reintroduces aesthetics alongside philosophy and ethics in Augustine's treatment of God. The book shifts emphasis away from Augustine's early and most theoretical treatises to his mature reflections as a bishop and pastor on how God communicates with fallen man. Using his theory of language as a paradigm, it shows how divine beauty, revealed in creation and history, serves to inspire fallen man's faith, hope, and most especially his love – thereby reforming him and restoring the form or beauty he had lost.
Clement of Alexandria
Authors: SCOTT ALAN
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the views of Clement of Alexandria, who had a similar theological approach to Origen. Clement was an uncompromising opponent of the Hellenistic religion of the heavens, particularly in his Protreptikos, which is addressed to pagans. In this, he attacked Alcmaeon of Croton for believing that the stars are gods and alive, and Xenocrates for suggesting that the planets are in fact eight gods. Many Coptic gnostic texts, which have survived both persecution and time, confirm the power of gnostic speculation in early Christian Egypt. This influence was evident in Clement, who habitually used gnostic terminology and called himself a ‘gnostic’ more than any other Christian writer of his era. Most importantly, he saw the opportunity to incorporate contemporary lore on the stars into the Christian doctrine of life after death.
The Background to the First Proposal of the Prelapsarian Covenant in Reformed Theology
Authors: Weir David A.
Published: October 2011

Previous Reformed theologians had spoken of the doctrine of the covenant as one doctrine among many. With the rise of the federal theology historians have noted how the idea of covenant began to have a controlling influence in the systematic ordering of doctrine. The importance of the Fall is again emphasized in this schema. However, there was one controversy agitating the Reformed theology which serves as the backdrop against which the idea of a prelapsarian covenant developed: the problem of reconciling God's providential sovereignty and the Fall of Adam. It is the contention of this book that the doctrine of a foedus with Adam developed in response to this problem as a ‘milder’ orthodox elaboration and explanation of the seemingly harsh decretal doctrines of Theodore Beza.
Introduction
Authors: LYMAN J. REBECCA
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the early Christian cosmologies. It begins by describing the ancient theological and philosophical perspectives. The traditional opposition between biblical voluntarism and philosophical rationality contrasts not only different cultural world-views, but also the distinct approaches to reality found in religious and philosophical reflection. The philosophical effects on Justin's theology have been studied extensively. As a philosopher and a Christian, Justin's account of divine immanence and power rests on the activity of the Son as Logos. The originality and integrity of Christian responses to religious issues of transcendence and fatalism in the 2nd century lay in a reworking of both scriptural and philosophical categories. The Christian world-view was distinguished by the shape and confidence in divine power accessible through the incarnate Logos, Jesus Christ, the Son of God.
Early Christian Cosmologies
Authors: LYMAN J. REBECCA
Published: October 2011

The purpose of this study is to reconstruct the religious significance of various ancient models of divine activity and soteriology by re-examining the transitions of Logos Christology in the 3rd and 4th centuries. It also employs a particular social and ecclesiastical setting to help illuminate the force, challenges, and intention of his work. The examination of three Alexandrian theological models may thereby help to sharpen the understanding of ancient Christian identity and thought in light of both answers and unresolved questions regarding the nature and shape of salvation.
Eusebius of Caesarea: Power and Progress
Authors: LYMAN J. REBECCA
Published: October 2011

The most recurrent description of Eusebius' theology is ‘old-fashioned’; it is usually summarized as a mixture of biblical exegesis, simplified Origenism, and uncritical Platonism. From his earliest apologies to his final summation, The Theophany, Eusebius celebrated the miraculous will of God in history, which, through the teaching and incarnation of the Logos, altered human society and life for ever. Discussion on Eusebius as apologist is provided. Theologically, Eusebius organized his historical and literary defence around a fundamental conviction of God's power as active and discernible at all levels of reality. Eusebius uses a combination of terms from Scripture, Judaeo-Christian Platonism, and contemporary philosophy in order to describe divine being and activity. He also modifies the traditional images of generation from Wisdom so as to accentuate the choice of the Father, rather than implying any sort of automatic causality. As an apologist, Eusebius presents an optimistic and universal account of divine power and human progress founded on the historical evidence of Jesus' life and the triumph of the church.
Festivities, Reform, and Tension in Tradition
Authors: Johansen Julian
Published: October 2011

The Arabic mawlid denotes the general celebrations at the actual or supposed birthdate of a Saint. It is one of the most immediate and outwardly obvious of the controversial issues which is discussed, and is a good point of introduction to more theological and speculative questions. The questions of celebration, levity, dignity, public order, and reputation are treated in various combinations. The samā' polemic is illustrated. There is no Islamic legal debate over the legitimacy of the more colourful practices about which al-Jabartī is so forthright and to which Sheikh Muṭammad merely alludes. The contribution of al-Ghazālī is reported. It also emphasizes the main ṭaḍra of the Ḥusayniyya at the mawlid of al-Ḥusayn and the private session (majlis) which immediately followed it. The classical perspective of al-Ghazālī on the variables of time, place and participants, and the Muṭammadiyya Shādhiliyya and the Ḥusayniyya Orders are reviewed as well.
The Prophet
Authors: Johansen Julian
Published: October 2011

Muslims look to the Prophet Muṭammad as the supreme example of human dignity, temperance, fortitude, and wisdom. Broadly speaking, there are two conflicting views to consider in this chapter. The first is that the Prophet, although undoubtedly the supreme example of great human qualities, was fallible in his judgement and possessed an incomplete knowledge of worldly affairs. The second view is that the Prophet was infallible in his judgement and preserved from error (ma'sūm), as the only human vessel completely to contain the definitive ‘gathering together’ of truth which is the Qur'ān. Taking up a position against the infallibility of the Prophet has definite implications. A discussion on Aṭmad Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn 'Aṭā Allāh al-Sikandarī is provided.
Temporal Ordering in Genesis 41
Authors: Goldfajn Tal
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the temporal ordering of the biblical Hebrew (BH) narrative text in chapter 41 of the Book of Genesis. It attempts to show that there are two basic temporal sets underlying the more general temporal organization of the BH narrative text. It analyses the distribution of the verb forms within each set and concludes that the primary function of the BH verb forms is to establish the specific temporal relations that exist between the sentences in the text.
Anthropology
Authors: Behr John
Published: October 2011

An understanding of Clement's comments on Adam's character helps to establish the orientation of Clement's anthropology. According to Clement, man is a ‘heavenly plant’, a constitution of nature with fellowship with God. Clement also looks into the ‘innate original communion between men and heaven’. Clement stresses how Adam, or man in general, has to grow and realize his full potential to achieve ‘salvation’. Clement sees how living in obedience to the divine Logos is similar to living according to reason and nature; he claims that ‘nature’ is the same as ‘God’. With an anthropocentric viewpoint, Clement also claims that humans act in a way that complies with their moral uprightness or righteousness. This chapter also points out how Clement uses ‘image’ and ‘likeness’ in different ways, making his vocabulary somewhat unstable.
The Higher Christian Life: gnōsis, apatheia, agapē
Authors: Behr John
Published: October 2011

One of the main themes of Stromateis is the maturity of a bonafide Gnostic compared with the immaturity of a simple believer. Clement gives emphasis on a twofold faith wherein one believes in the dependence of faith and gnōōsis while developing a common faith. This chapter discusses Clement's view on gnōsis on God and how it functions. Clement also presents the importance of prayer, how this separates the soul from the world, and how this is paralleled with the thankful use of the world. The chapter discusses apatheia and provides a culmination of gnōsis and apatheia. It is said that man cannot attain apatheia without God's help; Clement establishes the asceticism where man makes himself worthy to receive God's grace. Clement's asceticism shows that there is no engagement with man's bodily reality nor with his dependence on God; Clement want his readers to focus on what is under their own control.
Periphrastic Tense Forms
Authors: Evans T. V.
Published: October 2011

Periphrastic tense forms are a recognized feature of the Greek verbal system from the language of Homer through to the Modern period. Yet their analysis involves both major theoretical difficulties and an inescapable element of subjectivity. The Pentateuchal periphrases are of special interest for their relationship to the underlying Hebrew. This chapter treats the theoretical debate, in particular the contribution of Porter, and establishes the definition of periphrasis which guides the present analysis, before moving to detailed discussion of actual examples. Verbal periphrasis is defined here as the combination of auxiliary verb plus participle or infinitive as near equivalent to or replacement for a synthetic tense form. According to this definition, there are total of sixty-eight examples in the entire Greek Pentateuch. This small quantity displays both independent Greek usage and Hebrew interference. Over 57% of examples closely imitate similar Hebrew expressions.
Principles and Sympathies
Authors: Miller William L. , Timpson Annis May , Lessnoff Michael
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the public’s commitment to a range of microprinciples that seem to reflect attitudes towards what Cranston called ‘political and civil rights’. It then moves on through attitudes towards social conformity and tolerance; and finally looks at attitudes towards micro-principles that seem to reflect what Cranston called ‘economic and social rights’.
Partisanship and Ideology
Authors: Miller William L. , Timpson Annis May , Lessnoff Michael
Published: October 2011

This chapter looks at the way in which attitudes to civil and political rights relate to partisanship and self-assigned ideology. The causal implications of that relationship may be ambiguous. It recognizes that a general left-wing or right-wing, Labour or Conservative, orientation may help people to decide their position on new issues as they arise, yet, at the same time, it is the constellation of existing issues and attitudes that gives meaning to such ideological labels as ‘left’ and ‘right’. For most people, the contemporary meaning of such terms as ‘left’, ‘right’, and ‘centre’ is defined by the attitudes and behaviour of those who accept such labels now — or who have these labels thrust upon them.
The Men at the Top
Authors: BURNS TOM , STALKER G. M.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the role of the managing director and examines how he defines the organizational structure and degree of commitment in the working organization. It is concerned with the extent to which the managing director can interpret technical and commercial situations and adapt the working organization and elicit the individual commitment to it which the situation calls for. These two aspects of the director's task are related to the two dimensions of the working situation of all subordinate members of the concern: the ‘framework of organization’ and the ‘framework of decision’. Visible power, seniority, and the pressure for limiting commitment and mechanizing the working organization are all focused on the managing director.
The Shaping of Work Relationships
Authors: BURNS TOM , STALKER G. M.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the work relationships between workers and the management system. It presents an extreme case of the principle by which each individual strives to shape the working organization according to his own conception of his needs and duties. For the individual himself, this could be done most economically by limiting ‘the others’ involved in each working occasion — each case for decision — to one. A form of management was therefore adhered to which consisted in the main of a system of relationships involving two people, with one always the head of the firm.
Two Phases of American Environmentalism: A Critical History
Authors: Guha Ramachandra
Published: October 2011

Since John Muir articulated the plea for implementing measures that would advocate the protection of the Western wilderness, the United States has been able to allocate resources for creating and managing a system of national parks that would prove to be one of the most, if not the most, extensive systems in the world. Various literatures on such environmental movements in America are predominantly celebratory in tone. Since this movement was able to successfully protect several components of the wilderness from the side effects and threats imposed by ‘development’, it then shifted its focus to monitoring and controlling the hazardous by-products resulting from modern means of industrialization. Despite this alleged success, it has been realized that such measures have brought about immense negative effects to other ecosystems. This chapter looks into the moral argument raised by the scientific claim for the universality attributed to environmentalist ideals.
Global Commons: Can They Be Managed?
Authors: Hollick A. L. , Cooper R. N.
Published: October 2011

The chapter discusses the global commons and attempts to answer the question of their manageability. The chapter states that the term resource implies either realized or potential scarcity which results from a situation of actual crowding or potential competition. It explains that the opportunities for managing global commons are diminished by the absence of community. The problem of management is made more complex by the fact that states are technologically and economically disparate, yet the international system retains the legal fiction of sovereign equality for all states. This results in the use of global commons resources being an ongoing source of dissension among nations. The chapter talks about global commons like oceans, from which topics of fishing, navigation, pollution, and the deep sea bed are explored, as well as Antarctica, outer space, the atmosphere, and global climate change.
Palliative care and chaplaincy
Authors: Speck Peter W.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses palliative care and chaplaincy, which is also known as spiritual care. To provide spiritual care that is meaningful, relevant, and supportive to the patient requires a process of discernment of what the person's needs might be, an exploration of the options appropriate to meeting those needs, and then engaging together in the relevant ritual or activity. The chapter presents a research perspective of a study that aimed to discover whether there was any link between the strength of a person's belief and the quality of life in old age in a group of elderly spouses. It also provides several accounts that describe the parallels for spiritual care provision.
The Philosophy of Palliative Care
Authors: Randall Fiona , Downie R S
Published: October 2011

The idea of a philosophy of palliative care emerged with Cicely Saunders' vision for ‘a good death’, and was developed further with the World Health Organization (WHO) definition of palliative care. It is now being applied not only to cancer patients, but to all patients in end-of-life situations. As this palliative care approach advances, it is important to pause and comment on its effectiveness. It is a philosophy of patient care, and is therefore open to critique and evaluation. Using the Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine, 3rd edition as their basic reference, the authors present their argument that the palliative care approach has become too busy and over-professionalised, and that it therefore has significant weaknesses. They examine the framework of the specialty – quality of life, autonomy, dignity, patient-centredness, and the priority assigned to relatives in the remit of care – and the moral problems associated with implementing such a philosophy. The resource implications of various healthcare policies are also discussed in relation to the WHO definition. Whilst the authors defend the achievements of palliative care and those who work in the profession, they present suggestions for an alternative philosophy that prompts many ethical and philosophical questions about the future of palliative care.
Resilient families
Authors: Zaider Talia , Kissane David
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines a model of family resilience it applies to the setting of palliative care. It attempts to address a question about the characteristics of resilience in families and describes a recently developed model for understanding families in palliative care. It explains the concept and the underlying principles of so-called Family Focused Grief Therapy. It also suggests that the developmental life cycle of the family and its functioning as a group are key parameters in the conceptualization of family resilience.
Resilience and paediatric palliative care
Authors: Marston Joan
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines resilience in the paediatric palliative care setting. Children facing life-threatening illness, whether in themselves or a close family member, and children experiencing loss, are made especially vulnerable by external factors and situations over which they have little or no control. Children's resilience can be developed or improved through skilled and compassionate holistic care, involving a multidisciplinary approach.
Resilience and bereavement: Part 2
Authors: Silverman Phyllis R.
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines how a public health approach might be adopted in a community-based response to the grief people experience after a death of someone important in their lives. It explains that the goal of this intervention is not only to prevent serious problems from developing but to enhance people's ability to cope with grief and bereavement and improve their resilience. It suggests that a different use of language in this type of intervention could lead to a population of people being helped to cope more competently, empowering them to act on their own behalf in a manner that also supports mourners' ability to help each other.
Resilient organizations: Part 1
Authors: Speck Peter
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the resilience of organizations in a palliative care setting. It explains that if resilience relates to an ability to be flexible and responsive in the face of difficult circumstances then it also relates to the ability to remain on task or to return to it when knocked off-task by a variety of influence. This chapter discusses the factors that contribute to off-task activity of staff and provides suggested measures to prevent them.
Resilient organizations: Part 2 Organizational resilience within the National Health Service and cancer care
Authors: Jackson Timothy
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines organizational resilience within the National Health Service and cancer and palliative care in Great Britain. It explains that organizational resilience can be considered as the characteristic of managing the organization's activities to anticipate and circumvent threats to its existence and primary goals and this is shown in an ability to manage severe pressures and conflicts between safety and the primary production or performance goals of the organization. It provides an evaluation of the resilience of the NHS in the various aspects of its operation.
Resilience in resource-poor settings
Authors: Bingley Amanda , McDermott Elizabeth
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the resilience of palliative care providers working in resource-poor settings. Health professional working in these areas face many challenges including the negative impact of globalization, political and military conflicts, and environmental hazards. This chapter investigates the strategies and limits of individual and community responses in attempting to deliver palliative care when challenged by poor levels of education, long-term conflict, and chronically under-resourced healthcare systems.
Proposals for a Convention to Safeguard Europe from Tyranny and Oppression?
Authors: Bates Ed
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the origins and first proposals for a European Convention on Human rights, as well as the origins of the Council of Europe. It discusses the first proposals for a European Court of Human Rights, as advocated by the European Movement and proceeds to address the drafting of the ECHR by the Consultative Assembly of the Council of Europe. It is argued that the first proposals for the Convention were for a type of European collective pact against totalitarianism. However, the proposals for the Convention that emerged from the Consultative Assembly were such that there was a potential for the Convention to become a European Bill of Rights.
The Strasbourg Court ‘Comes of Age’ (The Judgments of the Late 1970s)
Authors: Bates Ed
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines several key judgments from the late 1970s. It begins with an overview which emphasizes the importance of the contribution made by the Court of the late 1970s to the Strasbourg jurisprudence overall. It considers the teleological approach to interpretation, Strasbourg law on positive obligations, the law relating to evolutive interpretation and the living instrument doctrine, and the approach taken by the Court to restrictions on Convention rights. The remainder of the chapter examines four key cases in which the Court first developed, or made vital contributions to its understanding of the above doctrines: Tyrer v United Kingdom; Marckx v Belgium; Airey v Ireland; and Sunday Times v United Kingdom. The last-mentioned case was particularly important for the development of the margin of appreciation doctrine.
Mercantile Theatres: British Commodities and American Consumers
Authors: Berg Maxine
Published: October 2011

Developing markets abroad was crucial to the success of new consumer goods. This was achieved by aggressively making British commodities fashionable, a form of branding with British national identity. The new goods were endowed with a British style, and this style was sold abroad. British goods dominated the consumer cultures of the American and Caribbean colonies. Consumers in Europe, enthusiastic in the first three-quarters of the 18th century, were thwarted in the later parts of the century by high tariff barriers, war, and blockades. But the taste for English goods was well entrenched; the goods were imitated in their turn. The large middling-class markets at home and in the American colonies combined with Britain's advanced technologies to give those British goods the edge in Europe as well, as soon as trade barriers were relaxed in the years following the Napoleonic Wars.
Material Constitution and the Trinity
Authors: Brower Jeffrey E. , Rea Michael C.
Published: October 2011

This chapter starts with a precise statement of the problem of the Trinity. It then examines the Aristotelian notion of numerical sameness without identity, explains how it solves the problem of material constitution, and defends it against the most obvious and important objections to it. It also distinguishes numerical sameness without identity from two superficially similar relations. The chapter shows how the Aristotelian solution to the problem of material constitution can be developed into a solution to the problem of the Trinity, and highlights some of the more interesting consequences of the solution. Applying the analogy to the case of God, the chapter suggests that Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are to be understood as doing something analogous to sharing the same matter.
Defending the Consistency of the Doctrine of the Trinity
Authors: Hughes Christopher
Published: October 2011

This chapter surveys a variety of different views, but focuses the majority of its critical attention on relative identity solutions. It considers four different strategies for defending the consistency of the doctrine of the Trinity. The first of the strategies is logically conservative, in that it does not depart from any of the assumptions philosophical logicians typically make about identity, sameness, and counting. By bringing out problems for the first strategy, it aims to motivate consideration of two nonconservative strategies. However, it argues that both nonconservative strategies are problematic. It concludes with a consideration and partial defence of a fourth strategy which, in spite of resembling the third strategy in certain ways, is logically conservative.
Divination and the Disciplines of Knowledge according to Augustine
Authors: Klingshirn William E.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses divination and the disciplines of knowledge, looking at a sermon preached by Augustine in Hippo shortly before he became bishop, in which he provides a comprehensive survey of all the modes of divine communication with humankind. Augustine's views on divination are a revealing index of his changing sense of disciplines, including the discipline of biblical interpretation. In effect, the pagan art of divination becomes a kind of definitive ‘anti-discipline’ for the purposes of Augustine's theory. Thus he begins his critical review of traditional forms of learning in Book 2 of De Doctrina Christiana with an inventory of superstitious practices, among which examples from technical divination are to the fore.
Introduction: Nature and Function
Authors: Price Carolyn
Published: October 2011

This introductory chapter explains the objective of this book, which is to offer a theory of intentional content and to provide an account of what it is meant when people say that a person is musing about something. This book attempts to develop a theory of biological functions and an account of how we ascribe content to intentional systems. It also discusses a more sophisticated intentional system called a doxastic system and it also looks at simple system referred to as special-purpose systems.
The Core Account
Authors: Price Carolyn
Published: October 2011

This chapter attempts to develop a theory of functions that meets the challenge of being able to reconcile the normative character of function statements with their explanatory force. This proposed account of the theory of functions is based partly on both the aetiological theory and dispositional theory. This chapter suggests that this proposed account is capable of accommodating both the normative character and explanatory force of the function statements.
Neo-Hegelianism, Sovereignty, and Rights
Authors: Jones Charles
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the prospects for reconciliation between cosmopolitanism and communitarianism in international political ethics. A promising means to this end is the neo-Hegelian or constitutive theory defended by Mervyn Frost and Chris Brown. The promise of this approach lies in its ability to defend the ethical value of the state while retaining a commitment to the moral importance of the individual. This chapter agrees with the judgement of Brown that the most central of all issues addressed by normative international relations theory is the question of the moral value to be assigned to state autonomy. On the other hand, the purpose of assessing neo-Hegelian international theory is to judge the worth of a promising approach to this issue.
The Determinants of the Adoption of Information Technology: A Case Study of the Indian Garments Industr
Authors: LAL KAUSHALESH
Published: October 2011

In the last two decades, microelectronics, specifically information technology (IT), has brought about significant contributions to the innovative efforts of both developed and developing countries in terms of how it enables improvements of quality and the cutting down of costs. In all industries, microelectronics-based innovations (MBI) have proved to be one of the integral elements in promoting technological upgradation. Because of how IT is able to accommodate much information at high speeds with low unit costs and how microelectronic devices may be programmed in such a way that is suitable for a particular industry, IT can be adopted by almost all industrial activities. This chapter looks into the case of garment manufacturing firms in India. It analyzes both quantitative and qualitative variables in terms of entrepreneurial activities, performance variables, and conduct variables.
Introduction
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: October 2011

Hobbes's anti-scholastic rhetoric reveals his ignorance of the Patristic origin of the phrase ‘union in/according to hypostasis’, or ‘hypostatic union’ (the union of divine and human natures in the second person of the Trinity). But thinkers of considerably greater metaphysical sophistication than Hobbes have found medieval accounts of the hypostatic union wanting. The problem, as seen through modern eyes, lies in the common medieval claim that we should understand the human nature united to the second person of the Trinity to be a thing or (in some sense) a substance. This chapter explains how this medieval understanding arose, and how it relates to the standard expression of orthodox Christology in the creed of the Council of Chalcedon. It also shows that there may be good — or at any rate defensible — philosophical reasons for wanting to make the sort of claim about the assumed nature that the medievals accepted.