bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Using phylogenetic trees to reconstruct the history of infectious disease epidemics
Authors: Holmes Eddie C , Bollyky Paul L , Nee Sean , Rambaut Andrew , Garnett Geoff P , Harvey Paul H
Published: November 2023

Phylogenetic analysis of molecular sequence data gives insights into the spread of infectious diseases. During an epidemic, mutations accumulate in the genomes of pathogens and particularly in viruses, because many lack fidelity during replication. Some of these mutations confer phenotypic differences, such as allowing the virus to infect different cell types, to evade host immune responses, or to be transmitted by different routes, while others can be used to document the history of transmission events. Molecular epidemiology aims to recover this information in order to reconstruct the history of a pathogen’s spread through host populations and to make predictions about its future progress.
Relating geographic patterns to phylogenetic processes
Authors: Malhotra A , Thorpe R S , Black H , Daltry J C , Wüster W
Published: November 2023

Studies of geographic variation within species have provided many insights into evolutionary processes. These include the importance of natural selection for locally varying conditions and the role of allopatric differentiation in the divergence of lineages. Until recently, the majority of studies on geographic variation were concerned with morphology, but this may be influenced by both processes and their relative importance is difficult to assess.
Community evolution in Greater Antillean Anolis lizards: phylogenetic patterns and experimental tests
Authors: Losos Jonathan B
Published: November 2023

The use of phylogenies in all manner of comparative studies has increased remarkably in recent years. Five years ago, few would have predicted the integral role that phylogenetic approaches play today in fields as disparate as epidemiology. population genetics, and macroevolution, as this volume attests. The goal of this chapter is two-fold: first. to illustrate the importance of a phylogenetic approach to another field. community ecology, and, second, to discuss an important new use to which phylogenies have been put recently: rather than being used to test previously derived hypotheses, phylogenies arc now being used to derive hypotheses which can be tested subsequently using data from extant taxa.
Humans and Human Habitats: Reciprocal Influences
Authors: Hinde Robert A
Published: November 2023

Professor Robert Hinde, CBE, FRS, spent four years of the Second World War serving as a Coastal Command pilot in the RAF and then took a first degree at Cambridge. He obtained his DPhil in 1950 at Oxford’s Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology. Robert Hinde then returned to Cambridge as Curator of the Ornithological Field Station (later sub-Department of Animal Behaviour) at Madingley and soon after was elected to a Research Fellowship of his old College, St John’s. The College and Madingley have been his academic homes ever since. He served at different times as Steward, Tutor, and Master ( 1989-1994) in his College and conducted research on animal and human behaviour at Madingley. For the last twenty years his main interest has been in human personal relationships. He is an Honorary Foreign Associate of the (US) National Academy of Sciences, an Honorary Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford and of the Royal College of Psychiatry. His contributions have been recognized by academic bodies concerned with anthropology, developmental psychology, ethology, ornithology, personal relationships, primatology, and psychiatry; he holds a number of honorary doctorates. In addition to his scientific interests, Robert Hinde has written with authority on issues of peace and war and on nuclear disarmament.
Emotion and Reason in the Future of Human Life
Authors: Damasio Antonia R
Published: November 2023

Antonio Damasio is Van Allen Distinguished Professor and Head of the Department of Neurology at the University of Iowa; and Adjunct Professor at the Salk Institute in La Jolla, California. He received both his MD and his doctorate in his native Portugal, at the University of Lisbon. His research team in Iowa has made outstanding contributions to the understanding of memory, language, emotion, and decision-making; with his wife, Dr Hanna Damasio, he has created at the University of Iowa one of the world’s leading centres for the investigation of the neural basis of cognition. Professor Damasio is a member of the National Academy of Sciences’ Institute of Medicine, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Advisory Council on Neurological Diseases and Stroke, and the European Academy of Sciences and Arts. His most recent book, Descartes’ Error: Emotion and Reason in the Human Brain, has been published worldwide.
Perceiving Social and Physical Environments
Authors: Young Andy
Published: November 2023

Professor Andy Young, B.Sc, PhD, DSc, holds a special appointment at the Medical Research Council's(MRC) Applied psychology Unit at Cambridge and is an Honorary Professor in the School of Psychology at the University of Wales,Cardiff.
Mental Health and the Urban Environment
Authors: Freeman Hugh
Published: November 2023

Professor Hugh Freeman, DM, FRCPsych, has been Honorary Consultant Psychiatrist to the Salford Health Authority and to the Medical School of Manchester University since 1988. He took his first degree, in medicine, at the University of Oxford and was subsequently commissioned in the Royal Army Medical Corps. He then held appointments as Registrar at the Bethlem Royal and Maudsley Hospitals in London and at Littlemore Hospital in Oxford before taking up the post of Consultant Psychiatrist at Salford Royal Hospital. This began a long association with the Departments of Health and Social Services in Salford which continued until 1988. Professor Freeman has chaired or served on numerous public committees, panels, and working parties in the fields of mental health and psychiatry and is the author of a wide range of publications in these fields. He was Editor of the British Journal of Psychiatry and of Current Opinion in Psychiatry; he edited and contributed to Mental Health and the Environment, which was published in 1985.The relationship between mental health and the environment is a surprisingly neglected subject in spite of the greatly increased importance of the environment as a political and scientific issue in recent years. As a result, it is a scientific area that still lacks both adequate data and rigorously defined concepts. The problem was well expressed by the great environmentalist, Rene Dubos (1972): ‘The study of man as an integrated unit and of the ecosystems in which he functions is grossly neglected because it is not in the tradition which has dominated science since the seventeenth century’. As a result, there is now an urgent need to examine those aspects of people’s physical and social surroundings which are likely to influence mental health.
Introduction
Authors: Gadian David G
Published: November 2023

There are clear attractions in using non-invasive methods for the study of living systems. The use of such methods to image the human body has obvious importance in diagnostic medicine. More generally, there are many areas of biomedical research where non-invasive studies can add significantly to the information provided by more traditional, invasive techniques. For example, if we wish to study the metabolic basis of disease, then the analysis of body fluids, biopsy samples, and model systems (e.g. cultured cells) can only provide an incomplete picture of the abnormalities occurring within diseased tissue; ultimately it is important to measure directly and non-invasively the metabolic state of the tissue itself.
MRS and tissue biochemistry
Authors: Gadian David G
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we discuss the role of magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the investigation of tissue biochemistry. While the focus is on applications of MRS in humans, we also describe some of the ways in which studies of body fluids, cell cultures, tissue extracts, isolated tissue, and animal models of disease can complement and aid interpretation of clinical observations. rapidly growing field in a single chapter; instead, we focus on some of the major research themes that are being addressed with MRS. For example, many of the studies described in this chapter relate to the metabolic pathways whereby glucose (or glycogen) is converted by non-oxidative reactions to lactate, or oxidatively to carbon dioxide and water (see Fig. 3.1). The breakdown of glucose generates metabolic fuel in the form of ATP (36 molecules of ATP per molecule of fully oxidized glucose, but just two molecules of ATP if the glucose is broken down as far as lactate). MRS provides a non-invasive means of monitoring metabolites that play central roles in these pathways, measuring the rates at which reactions within the pathways take place in vivo, and investigating how these rates are controlled in such a way that metabolic fuel is provided according to demand. These non-invasive studies complement the large amount of information that is available from more traditional invasive approaches to the study of tissue biochemistry. They also offer a number of important advantages, as illustrated by the first of the themes that we consider, namely the use of 31P MRS for the investigation of tissue energetics.
Measurement of accurate Bragg intensities
Authors: Seiler Paul
Published: November 2023

The accuracy of atomic parameters obtained by X-ray crystal structure analysis depends on many factors: the measuring procedure and the treatment of the measured intensities, the scattering power of the crystal at high Bragg angles, the methods used to refine the atomic parameters, and others. This chapter will deal mainly with the problems of measuring accurate integrated intensities on a standard four-circle diffractometer and of correcting these intensities for various factors to derive the kinematic Bragg intensities. The collection of a complete set of accurate X-ray intensities to high resolution with a standard diffractometer is very time consuming, even for small unit cells. For example for the structure analysis of Li BeF at 81 K (Seiler and Dunitz 1986) more than 40 000 X-ray intensities were measured over a period of about three months.
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and accurate molecular geometry
Authors: Diehl Peter
Published: November 2023

The phenomenon of nuclear magnetic resonance, NMR (see, for example, Harris 1983), is based on the intrinsic spin angular momentum P of atomic nuclei such as, for example, 1H, 2H, 13C, 14N, 15N, etc.:(where I is the spin quantum number of the nucleus, and ħ = h/2 π r), which is quantized with respect to the direction of an applied magnetic field Bz,(where m1 = I, I - 1, ... , − I is the magnetic quantum number). As a consequence of angular momentum and nuclear charge the nuclei have magnetic dipole moments:
Activated forms of oxygen
Authors: Bensasson R v. , Land E J , Truscott T G
Published: November 2023

Elements present in sedimentary rocks, 3-4 thousand million years old, are in their reduced forms, such as Fe2+. The oxidation of iron and other elements is observed in rocks laid down later, 2 to 3 thousand million years ago, indicating the period of oxygen formation which probably occurred via the decomposition of water by photosynthetic systems. An ozone layer, produced from this oxygen in the upper atmosphere, protected the surface of our planet from UV radiation and allowed evolution towards more complex aerobic forms of life.
Melanogenesis and melanoma
Authors: Bensasson R v. , Land E J , Truscott T G
Published: November 2023

Current interest in melanin is growing, in particular because of the dramatic increase during the last three decades in the incidence of malignant melanoma, possibly through increased exposure to UV radiation (see, for example, MacKie 1983; Bagnara 1988). A rational chemotherapeutic control of melanoma may be possible because of the unique localization of large amounts of the pigment synthesizing enzyme, tyrosinase, in malignant melanocytes.
Iron valence states and ligands
Authors: Symons M C R , Gutteridge J M C
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 4 we reach iron, at last. We use simple, pictorial molecular orbital theory to describe the way in which iron complexes are built up from iron atoms and ligands.
Bubbly and Plug Flow
Authors: Whalley P B
Published: November 2023

If bubbles are very small, surface tension makes them spherical. Then, if the Reynolds number is low enough, the drag on the bubble can be calculated from Stokes’ law. The criterion for Stokes’ law to apply is that the Reynolds number Re ( = ρ1Dub/µ1) should be much less than unity. The drag force is then equal to 3:,rDubµ1. Here: ρ1is the liquid density (kg/m3); µ1is the liquid viscosity (N s/m2); Dis the bubble diameter (m); and uh is the bubble velocity (m/s) through stagnant liquid.
Annular Flow
Authors: Whalley P B
Published: November 2023

The main features of annular flow are shown in Fig. 4.1. Here only vertically upwards annular flow is considered; both the liquid and the gas phases are travelling upwards. The liquid flows partly as a thin liquid film on the channel walls and partly as drops entrained into the gas core. Annular flow occurs over a wide range of qualities. At low pressures (approximately 1 bar) annular flow is found when the quality is only a few percent.
Detailed Phenomena in Annular Flow: Wave Behaviour, Deposition, and Entrainment
Authors: Whalley P B
Published: November 2023

Chapter 4 looked at annular flow in an overall manner, but few of the details of the flow were considered. Here, the detailed phenomena of wave behaviour and droplet behaviour are reviewed. Droplet behaviour, in particular the rate at which droplets are formed and destroyed (entrainment and deposition), enables a detailed physical model of annular flow to be constructed (see Chapter 10).
Two-Phase Flow in Pipe Fittings
Authors: Whalley P B
Published: November 2023

Two-phase flow in pipe fittings such as bends, enlargements, contractions T junctions, and valves, is very complicated and has not been much studied. The overall subject can be divided into a number of smaller topics: flow patterns, pressure drop, and flow splitting. The information on each of these topics is, however, very incomplete and only a few general comments can be made.
Calculation of Boiling Heat Transfer Coefficients and Critical Heat Flux Using an Annular Flow Model
Authors: Whalley P B
Published: November 2023

From earlier chapters, it will now be evident that we are in a position to calculate: (a) boiling heat transfer coefficients in convective boiling using information about the velocity profile in the liquid film and the analogy between heat and momentum transfer; and (b) critical heat flux by calculating the variation of the liquid film flow rate along the tube due to entrainment, deposition, and evaporation. When the film flow rate is equal to zero, then dry out is assumed to occur (see Hewitt 1978). Here, it is assumed that the critical heat flux is of the high quality type (see § 17.1). It is, of course, not possible to calculate subcooled critical heat flux using an annular flow view of the flow structure.
Post-Burnout Heat Transfer
Authors: Whalley P B
Published: November 2023

Heat transfer after the critical heat flux has been exceeded (post-burnout heat transfer) is relatively poor compared with pre-burnout heat transfer. At the critical heat flux point, the heat transfer coefficient may fall by a factor of up to 100. The general post-dry out heat transfer regime can be divided into two general types: (a) film boiling which occurs, for example, in pool boiling or after the subcooled type of flow-boiling critical heat flux has occurred, (see§ 17.2), and (b) post-dry out flow boiling, which occurs after the high quality dry out type of flow-boiling critical heat flux has occurred (see§ 17.3).
Condensers
Authors: Whalley P B
Published: November 2023

There are many different types of condensers, (see Butterworth 1982 for details), but only two main types are considered here: (a) process industry shell and tube condensers which can be divided into tube-side and shell-side condensers; and (b) power industry turbine exhaust condensers which are often called surface condensers, but which are a specialized form of shell and tube heat exchanger.
Void Fraction And Pressure Drop In Subcooled Boiling
Authors: Collie John G , Eng F R S F , John R , Phil Thome D
Published: November 2023

In describing the process of subcooled boiling in forced convective flow of liquid in a confined channel it has been noted that vapour in various amounts is generated at the heated surfaces in the channel. A knowledge of the amount of vapour present in the channel is required to enable the accelerative and static head components of the pressure gradient to be calculated. In the particular case of the design of liquid cooled nuclear reactors information on the void fraction under subcooled conditions is often required because of its influence upon the reactivity of the system. As a result of this latter requirement the majority of experimental data is with water as the liquid.
Geometric Modelling for Numerically Controlled Machining
Authors: Marciniak Krzysztof
Published: November 2023

Numerically controlled (NC) machine tools (lathes and milling machines) are commonly encountered in modern manufacturing processes. They offer the advantages of automation and the production of finished or nearly-finished articles in one operation. The design of these machines, and particularly the software that drives them, is of great importance. In the first part of this book, written principally for the software designers, the differential geometry of parametric curves and surfaces is reviewed. The second part shows how this can be applied in various novel ways to the programming of NC machinery. Throughout the book many detailed illustrations help demonstrate theoretical and practical considerations.
Multisegment curves
Authors: Marciniak Krzysztof
Published: November 2023

The degree of the segment should be as small as possible. In the case of n = 1 we have a straight line. For n = 2 (a parabolic segment) each point of the segment is a convex combination of Bezier points B0, B1, B2 and hence the segment is contained in the triangle B0, B1, B2 and thus is flat. When an inflection point or a smooth three-dimensional curve is to be defined, polynomials of degree n 3 have to be used. If one wants to define polynomial segments which, at their ends, interpolate predescribed points and vectors of the first and second derivative, polynomials of degree n 5 should be used. Curves of a complicated shape may be defined in two different ways. The segment degree n may be increased or, alternatively, the consecutive segments may be joined smoothly together.
Tool positions tangential to a surface
Authors: Marciniak Krzysztof
Published: November 2023

Sculptured surfaces machining is usually defined as a tool movement tangential to a surface. In this chapter definitions of how to measure and calculate a distance between the tool and a surface will be presented. The method of approximating a region machined within a predefined tolerance is also shown. Finally, the relationship between the velocity of a tool centre and the motion of the contact point along the curves (on the part surface and on the tool surface) is presented. Velocity equations are derived under the assumption that the axis direction of a tool is constant (3C movements). A more general case of 5-axes machining will be described in Chapters 12 and 13.
Basic relationships for solid continua
Authors: Mohr G A
Published: November 2023

This chapter first introduces some of the basic equations relating the stresses, strains, and displacements in elastic continua and discusses the concept of a continuous domain arbitrarily divided into finite-sized elements. Discussion of energy techniques for the formation of matrix equations for such elements is then taken up in Chapter 3.
Thin plate bending elements
Authors: Mohr G A
Published: November 2023

Finite thin plate bending elements generally differ from plane stress or threedimensional elements in that, rather than separate displacement functions for displacements parallel to orthogonal axes, it is customary to choose a single function for the lateral displacement. As the nodal freedoms it is frequent practice to allow lateral displacement and its first derivatives (or slopes) at each node, giving three degrees of freedom per node. Considering elements with corner nodes this leads to triangular and rectangular elements with nine and twelve freedoms, respectively. These and many other thin plate elements are discussed in this chapter.
Curved shell elements
Authors: Mohr G A
Published: November 2023

Several curved finite elements are described, beginning with an arch element and an axisymmetric thick shell element which is an extension of this. Rectangular finite elements for the analysis of cylindrical shells are then discussed, in particular the strain element of Ashwell and Sabir. Finally two triangular doubly curved shell elements are discussed, the second of which includes transverse shearing effects but is able to be used for thin shells with the application of penalty factors.
Variational and weighted residual methods
Authors: Mohr G A
Published: November 2023

In preceding chapters a wide range of solid mechanics problems was solved using the principle of minium potential energy or an equivalent virtual work argument. In subsequent chapters attention turns to the field and fluid flow problems introduced in Chapter 16. Minimum principles for some of the simplest of these can be constructed by energy or virtual work arguments but they can be solved more expeditiously by direct attack upon the governing differential equation using the method of weighted residuals, most commonly the Galerkin method. These methods and an equivalent virtual work approach are discussed in this chpater.
Pseudoharmonic field problems
Authors: Mohr G A
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 16 we introduced the concept of continuity (or more strictly conservation) equations for a variety of flow problems for heat, fluids and so on. This chapter deals principally with diffusion problems the governing equations for which are continuity equations. In steady state one-dimensional diffusion problems the velocity of diffusion u per unit area per unit time of a substance of concentration c per unit volume is given by Fick’s first law of diffusion,
Transition-In-Wake State
Authors: Zdravkovich M M
Published: November 2023

All laminar flows eventually become unstable above a certainRe and undergo transition to turbulence. The flow in a wake does not become fully turbulent as soon as it ceases to follow the laws of laminar flow. There is a finitetransition region characterized by the random initiation and growth of irregularities. The transition in periodic laminar wakes is further complicated by the viscous diffusion and mutual interaction of laminar eddies.
Boundary Layer Approximation
Authors: Zdravkovich M M
Published: November 2023

In a historic paper ‘Fluid motion with very small friction’ read at the Mathematical Congress in Heidelberg, Prandtl (1904P, 1961B) proposed that the flow around a body can be divided into two regions:
Surface roughness and change in diameter
Authors: Zdravkovich M M
Published: November 2023

It is customary to regard a surface as smooth when it is so even that no roughness or points are perceptible to the touch. It is known, however, that an examination of such a surface under a microscope would reveal the presence of small excrescences and undulations, that is the surface would appear ‘rough’. The smoothness or roughness of a surface is a relative quantity expressed as the ratio of the mean size of excrescences K to the diameter of a cylinder, D. In Fluid Mechanics, the surface of a cylinder can be regarded as smooth when the excrescences and undulations are small, and of such a character that they do not affect to any measurable extent the flow around the cylinder. Fage and Warsap (1929P).
Boundary layer control
Authors: Zdravkovich M M
Published: November 2023

Prandtl’s (1961B) historical lecture on the concept of boundary layer was given in the same year as the concept of its control was initiated. He started his renowned flow visualization tests and filming of a circular cylinder with a slot on one side where suction was applied. The flow remained attached up to the suction slot at 9S = 140°, see Fig. 24.54. The second method of boundary layer control, a rotating cylinder, followed in 1906, see Fig. 24.1. The surface moving in the same direction as the flow postponed separation in proportion to the rotational velocity. A flow pattern analogous to that produced by suction was also produced by the rotating cylinder.
Cylinder clusters
Authors: Zdravkovich M M
Published: November 2023

Cylinder clusters may be found in a wide range of engineering applications, such as a group of chimney stacks in civil engineering, multiple marine risers in offshore engineering, joint stranded conductors in electric transmission lines, etc. Chimney stacks, marine risers, and stranded conductors will be discussed under the common name cylinders in this book.
Geometrical aspects of plane autonomous systems
Authors: Jordan D W , Smith P
Published: November 2023

In this Chapter we discuss several topics which are useful for establishing the structure of the phase diagram of autonomous systems. The •index’ of an equilibrium point provides supporting information on its nature and complexity in strongly nonlinear cases, where the linear approximation is zero.
Determination of stability by solution perturbation
Authors: Jordan D W , Smith P
Published: November 2023

Stability or instability of nonlinear systems can often be tested by an approximate procedure which leads to a linear equation describing the growth of the difference between the test solution and its neighbours. By Theorem 8.9 the stability or instability of the original system resolves itself into the question of the boundedness or otherwise of the solutions of the linear equation. This variational equation’ often turns out to have a periodic coefficient (Mathieu’s equation) and the properties of such equations are derived in this Chapter. The fact that the solutions to be tested are themselves usually known only approximately can also be assimilated into this theory.
Arrival and change
Authors: Whittaker Robert J , Fernández-Palacios José María
Published: November 2023

Island forms of the same species [of birds] show every gradation from extremely small differences in average size to differences as great as those which separate some of the species. The differences tend to be greater the greater the degree of isolation. Some of them are adaptive and others seem non-adaptive. In the island ecology section we explored patterns and processes while treating species as standard and unchanging units of analysis. This is a useful simplifying assumption, but, as we know, species are not fixed, nor are they homogenous entities. In this section of the book we consider the special insights into evolutionary change that islands have provided.
‘Music’ and the ‘action song’ in infant development: An interpretation
Authors: Eckerdal Patricia , Merker Bjorn
Published: November 2023

After more than a century of study, the newborn’s developmental path to maturity is still imperfectly understood. For example, the use of song and musical play in adult–infant interaction is cross-culturally ubiquitous (Trehub and Trainor 1998; Unyk et al. 1992; Falk 2004), yet the question of what functional role this common form of interaction with infants has in their emotional, social and cognitive development is only in the process of being formulated (Papousek et al. 1991; Papaeliou and Trevarthen 1994; Trevarthen 1999; Malloch 1999; Mozgot 2003). Motivated by an interest in gathering descriptive material as an aid to thought on this functional issue, we decided to record mother–infant interaction in the home setting in a collaborative project with Colwyn Trevarthen.
The improvised musicality of belonging: Repetition and variation in mother–infant vocal interaction
Authors: Gratier Maya , Apter-Danon Gisèle
Published: November 2023

In their spontaneous interactions, mothers and infants build repertoires of communicative motifs based on repetition and variation of expressive units that carry meaning. This shared repertoire grows as it is performed, and brings a sense of pride in mutual understanding and a sense of belonging. We offer a description of the ‘feeling of belonging’ between mothers and infants as a subtle and dynamic balance between sameness and novelty, between well-known trajectories and adventurous detours. This is at the essence of communicative musicality.
Spontaneity in the musicality and music learning of children
Authors: Bannan Nicholas , Woodward Sheila
Published: November 2023

Developments in educational philosophy question the view that music is in any way an artificial activity that has to be taught. As the innate skill of infants’ participation in musical games with their parents has become better appreciated, spontaneous music-making by the young child has been given greater significance (Bjørkvold 1992; Dissanayake 2000 a, b; Flohr and Trevarthen 2007). At the same time a new ‘world music culture’ is animated by a democratization of musical participation in rock music, garage bands and karaoke.
Intimacy and reciprocity in improvisatory musical performance: Pedagogical lessons from adult artists and young children
Authors: Custodero Lori A
Published: November 2023

Through music, we learn about ourselves and about our relatedness to the world; our engagement with melodies and rhythms provides opportunities for appreciating sound, people and ideas. Such sympathetic understanding is a product of interaction, a connection (or collision) between perception and experience, between social context and individual disposition. We make meaning through shared experiences of musical time and space; we find personal solace and inspiration from our own and others’ individual interpretations within those dimensions. Through the compelling qualities of organized sound and the rewards of making such sound, we are drawn to others through revelations of our common humanity, and drawn to artistry through realizations of uncommon accomplishments.
Bodies swayed to music: The temporal arts as integral to ceremonial ritual
Authors: Dissanayake Ellen
Published: November 2023

The primary context for the temporal and performative arts in small-scale societies is in ceremonial ritual, where these activities—or this activity, since they occur together—appears to be essential and universal. The temporal arts—singing, playing instruments, expressive gesture, movement (clapping hands, marking time, dancing, performance)—are the behavioural means for conveying the message of the ceremony: they mark its importance and may even be used to provide some kind of fundamental change in individuals’ consciousness (Alcorta and Sosis 2005; Nettl 2000, p. 468).
Musical communication: The body movements of performance
Authors: Davidson Jane , Malloch Stephen
Published: November 2023

The role of body movement in creating and communicating music, and in conveying extra-musical meaning during performance, has attracted academic attention. Beyond the obvious need for a body to interact with a musical instrument in order to create musical sounds, the idea has been explored that musical meaning itself originates in the body, that music is experienced as movement (for example, Cox 2001, 2006; Davidson and Correia 2002; Malloch 2005; Cross and Morley, Chapter 5, Lee and Schögler, Chapter 6, and Panskepp and Trevarthen, Chapter 7, this volume).
Alzheimer‘s Disease As A Neurotransmitter Disease
Authors: Lai Mitchell K P , Ramfrez Marfa J , Tsang, Shirley W Y , Francis Paul T
Published: November 2023

Since the first reports of a profound loss of basal forebrain acetylcholine-synthesizing neurons and associated neurochemical perturbation of pre-synaptic cholinergic markers (Whitehouse et al. 1982; Wilcock et al. 1982), neurotransmitter system dysfunction and synapse loss have been recognized as hallmarks of Alzheimer‘s disease (AD) along with senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (Terry et al. 1991).
Molecular And Biological Markers For Alzheimer‘s Disease
Authors: Zetterberg Henrik , Blennow Kaj
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we review the biochemistry and clinical usefulness of the most established cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) protein markers for Alzheimer‘s disease (AD) and how to interpret their results with emphasis on early and differential diagnosis. Scientific bene fits of using biomarkers as additional inclusion and exclusion criteria in the design of clinical trials and as surrogate markers for drug effects are considered. Further, the ability of CSF biomarkers to reveal AD in its preclinical stage, when novel disease-modifying drugs are likely to be the most effective, is discussed. Finally, we present an updated list of novel possible biological markers which may prove useful in the diagnostic work-up of patients with subtle memory disturbances in the clinical routine.
Manipulating Microbe Proceedings Cytoplasmic Bacteria That Cause Parthenogenesis
Authors: Stouthamer Richard
Published: November 2023

I have to admit that Bill had little to do with the actual research that was reported in this paper but, his work formed the inspiration for this study and without his help—both editorial and conceptual—this paper would not have been published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Here I will describe how Bill got involved.
Further Homage To Santa Rosalia Discovery at last of the elusive females of a species of Myrmecolacidae (Strepsiptera: Insecta)
Authors: Kathirithamby Jeyaraney
Published: November 2023

I first met Bill at Imperial College, London, and he struck me as a quiet but very hard-working scientist. I was researching leafhoppers then, which are not strange and unusual insects, so other than polite greetings we did not engage in long conversations. However, when Bill came to Oxford in 1984 we met often to talk about Strepsiptera, as I had begun working seriously on this group in 1979. Bill was curious about all things strange—hence his interest in these bizarre entomophagous parasites. He regularly stopped by my room to chat about the latest find in Strepsiptera. It was just after Christmas 1999 that I last saw him, before his trip to the Congo in January 2000. He wanted to photocopy something to send Naomie Pierce, and had forgotten his copying key, so I lent him mine.
Between Shoreham And Downe: Seeking The Key To Natural Beauty
Authors: Hamilton William Donald
Published: November 2023

People divide roughly, it seems to me, into two kinds, or rather a continuum is stretched between two extremes. There are people people and things people. I undoubtedly fall on the side of the things. From the earliest childhood I can remember I was content to be making objects, looking at things, playing in silence with no one near. Yet I don ‘t think I was an asocial child. I certainly enjoyed games with others, slap stick, practical jokes, and the making up and enacting of stories which, of course, always involved people or else the objects or animals that were people surrogates. But in the games with others somehow it turned out that I was usually the one out of step and the slowest to pick up the rules, I the most apt to miss my move because day dreaming of something else. Likewise in the stories I made up I laid great emphasis on what I considered an exciting landscape setting, less on the human relations and complexities.
Life, evolution and development in the Amazonian floodplain
Authors: Henderson Peter
Published: November 2023

Our paper Evolution and Diversity in Amazonian Floodplain Communities was in part an essay on the biological wonders and inspirational diversity of the Amazon Rainforest. It was written expressly for a conference held in Cambridge, England in 1998, but it is far more than a quick paper stitched together to justify attendance at a meeting. Bill and I had come to suspect that tropical wetlands were the most important generators of biological innovation on the planet.
Circles and triangles
Authors: Bradley Christopher J
Published: November 2023

Some of the sections in this chapter are concerned with these circles that are associated with a triangle. Fig. 2.1 shows a triangle with its circumcircle and its incircle. There are also sections that are concerned with the special quadrilaterals associated with a circle, such as a cyclic quadrilateral, which is inscribed in a circle, so that the circle passes through its vertices, and an inscribable quadrilateral, which circumscribes a circle, so that the circle touches its sides and lies wholly within the quadrilateral. For problems concerning these circles a familiarity with the elementary circle theorems, such as the intersecting chord theorem, is assumed.
Rational points on curves
Authors: Bradley Christopher J
Published: November 2023

This chapter is concerned with the identiFB01cation of integer points and rational points on curves of degree two and three. Elliptic curves have been studied extensively throughout the twentieth century and they are at the centre of a deep and profound theory. My intention is to provide a reader new to such ideas with a readable account of the elementary theory, and at the same time to give enough examples to give a student a working knowledge of the subject. It is necessary, therefore, to explain how to classify singularities on curves, and to explain why it is necessary to embed curves in the projective plane.
Solids
Authors: Bradley Christopher J
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we consider, rather brieﬂy, some problems associated with solids. The FB01rst of these is the analogue in three dimensions of the problem of the Heron triangle in the plane. If we are given a tetrahedron with integer edge lengths, can these lengths be chosen so that the tetrahedron has integer volume? The answer, as one might guess, is that there are an inFB01nite number, but none that are regular or semi-regular. We then look at the various types of tetrahedra with integer edges and ask for which of them is it possible for the circumscribing sphere to have integer radius. In the course of Section 9.2 we prove two curious and little-known theorems.
Frege and the Role of Historical Elucidation: Methodology and the Foundations of Mathematics
Authors: Beaney Michael
Published: November 2023

Without the concepts, methods and results found and developed by previous generations right down to Greek antiquity one cannot understand either the aims or achievements of mathematics in the last 50 years. (Hermann Weyl, 1951.)
From Kant to Hilbert: French philosophy of concepts in the beginning of the twentieth century
Authors: Sinaceur Hourya Benis
Published: November 2023

The legacy of the Kantian theory of knowledge was very much alive among French philosophers of science at the beginning of the twentieth century. To adopt, not the letter of the Kantian system, but its spirit of critique, seemed a good perspective from which to undertake a rational study of science in general, and of mathematics in particular. The critical attitude does indeed invite us to turn away from things in themselves, inaccessible to the human mind, and to keep at arm’s length metaphysical questions, examining instead the defining conditions of knowledge.
The basics
Authors: Sivia D S
Published: November 2023

Mark Twain (1924) probably had politicians in mind when he reiterated Disraeli ‘s famous remark. Scientists, we hope, would never use data in such a selective manner to suit their own ends. But, alas, the analysis of data is often the source of some exasperation even in an academic context. On hearing comments like ‘the result of this experiment was inconclusive, so we had to use statistics ‘, we are frequently left wondering as to what strange tricks have been played on the data.

The sense of unease which many of us have towards the subject of statistics is largely a reflection of the inadequacies of the ‘cook-book ‘ approach to data analysis that we are taught as undergraduates. Rather than being offered a few clear principles, we are usually presented with a maze of tests and procedures; while most seem to be intuitively reasonable individually, their interrelations are not obvious. This apparent lack of a coherent rationale leads to considerable apprehension because we have little feeling for which test to use or, more importantly, why.

Fortunately, data analysis does not have to be like this! A more unified and logical approach to the whole subject is provided by the probability formulations of Bayes and Laplace. Bayes ‘ ideas (published in 1763) were used very successfully by Laplace (1812), but were then allegedly discredited and largely forgotten until they were rediscovered by Jeffreys (1939). In more recent times they have been expounded by Jaynes (1983, 2003) and others. This book is intended to be an introductory tutorial to the Bayesian approach, including modern developments such as maximum entropy.
Experimental design
Authors: Sivia D S
Published: November 2023

We have now seen many examples of how probability theory can be used to make quantitative inferences based on all the (new) empirical information, and (past) prior knowledge, that is available. While this is the central task of data analysis, we have so far assumed that there is little choice in the actual conduct of the experiments. Let us turn our attention to this question, and consider how issues such as optimal instrumental design, and procedure, can be addressed.
Least-squares extensions
Authors: Sivia D S
Published: November 2023

Least-squares is probably the most widely used data analysis procedures in the physical sciences, and we saw how it could be justified from a Bayesian viewpoint in Chapter 3. The deeper understanding provided by the latter leads naturally to powerful extensions of the basic recipe. A consideration of the uncertainties in the characteristics of the implicit Gaussian likelihood, for example, yields simple prescriptions for dealing with ‘outliers ‘ and suspected noise correlations.
Introduction to the Cellular and Molecular Biology of Cancer
Authors: Knowles Margaret A , Selby Peter J
Published: November 2023

“This new edition of Introduction to the Cellular and Molecular Biology of Cancer provides a concise yet comprehensive overview of cancer biology, covering the current status of both research and treatment. For the student or new researcher the breadth of cancer research can appear daunting, yet a broad understanding is essential for translation of laboratory findings into the clinic. Within the broad scope of the book, each topic is reviewed authoritatively by experts in the field, and the accompanying bibliographies allow rapid access to the relevant current literature. The book covers topics extending from the molecular alterations found in cancer cells and their causes to the current range of approaches to treatment. Since the publication of the previous edition in 1997 there has been unprecedented progress in cancer research: this is reflected by an extensive revision of all the material, and the addition of eight new chapters, covering DNA repair, epigenetic events, the cell cycle, cell immortalisation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, animal models, the genome, transcriptome and proteome, radiotherapy and molecular radiotherapy, immunotherapy, and gene therapy. The fourth edition of this popular book will serve as a text for both undergraduate and postgraduate use and also as an introduction for clinicians and scientists new to the field.”
Hormones and cancer
Authors: Bevan Charlotte L
Published: November 2023

Hormone-dependent cancer is increasingly a major concern. In the United Kingdom, breast and prostate cancer are the commonest cancer and the second leading cause of cancer death in women and men respectively, and their incidence is increasing (Cancer Research UK, 2003). They are also both tumours which arise in hormone-responsive tissues and which themselves require steroid hormones for growth, at least in the initial stages. Thus, the study of hormone action in cancer is of utmost importance. The fact that these tumours depend on hormones also means that manipulation of the hormonal environment should allow control of tumour growth.
Tumour angiogenesis
Authors: Tahtis Kiki , Bicknell Roy
Published: November 2023

It is now some 20 years since it became widely appreciated that the growth of solid tumours requires a functional vasculature and that dis- ruption of this functional vasculature could lead to novel anti-cancer therapies. This has led to the development of many anti-angiogenic drugs, the first of which are now completing clinical trial. The purpose of this chapter is to review our current understanding of tumour angiogenesis and what the prospects are for anti-angiogenic therapies.
Chemotherapy
Authors: Camidge D Ross , Jodrell Duncan I
Published: November 2023

The term chemotherapy, under its broadest definition, covers any therapeutic intervention utilizing chemicals and includes the use of any pharmaceutical compound. However, in common oncological parlance, the term is taken to relate to the administration of cytotoxic drugs, often with significant side effects, to patients as part of the treatment of malignant disease. This chapter will concentrate on the scientific and clinical basis of using these traditional cytotoxic drugs to ‘kill’ malignant cells. Newer agents will also be dis- cussed briefly to highlight the very significant changes in cancer drug discovery, development, and administration that are underway.
Radiotherapy and molecular radiotherapy
Authors: Kiltie Anne
Published: November 2023

Radiotherapy is the use of ionizing radiation (IR) to treat malignant diseases, by damaging and killing tumour cells, for tumour cure or palliation of symptoms. Radiotherapy may also be used in cer- tain benign conditions such as keloid scars, hyper- ostotic new bone formation, and hyperthyroidism. Treatment with radiotherapy has different aims in different clinical situations. Radical radiotherapy, as in head and neck cancer or bladder cancer, involves using radiotherapy to cure the tumour. It may be combined with chemotherapy before, dur- ing, or after radiotherapy as in lymphoma, rectal cancer, and anal cancer. Adjuvant radiotherapy, for example, following surgery in breast cancer or soft tissue sarcoma, is given to eradicate residual microscopic disease usually at a slightly lower than radical dose. Palliative radiotherapy is administered in short courses with lower doses, for example, for bone metastases to treat pain or spinal cord compression, to shrink tumour masses or relieve symptoms such as bleeding.
Constructive learning in the modeling of psychological development
Authors: Shultz Thomas R
Published: November 2023

Although many computational models of psychological development involve only learning, this paper examines the advantages of allowing artificial neural networks to grow as well as learn in such simulations. Comparisons of static and constructive network simulations of the same developmental phenomena bring this issue into clear focus. Constructive algorithms are found to be better at learning and at covering developmental stages and stage sequences. The relatively new sibling–descendant cascade-correlation algorithm (SDCC) decides whether to install each newly recruited hidden unit on the current highest layer or on a new layer.
Social learning and social cognition: The case for pedagogy
Authors: Csibra Gergely , Gergely György
Published: November 2023

We propose that humans are adapted to transfer knowledge to, and receive knowledge from, conspecifics by teaching. This adaptation, which we call ‘pedagogy’, involves the emergence of a special communication system that does not presuppose either language or high-level theory of mind, but could itself provide a basis for facilitating the development of these human-specific abilities both in phylogenetic and ontogenetic terms. We speculate that tool manufacturing and mediated tool use made the evolution of such a new social learning mechanism necessary.