bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Intrusion Tolerance Techniques
Authors: Zhao Wenbing
Published: September 2018

The authors believe that the research and development of intrusion tolerant systems will gain more momentum as more and more services are offered online. The expectation of such services is high, considering their essential roles in everyday operations of businesses and individuals as well. The impact of service unavailability and security breaches will only grow more serious. In this chapter, the authors survey the state-of-the-art techniques for building intrusion-tolerant systems. They also illustrate a few of the most urgent open issues for future research. Finally, they point out that to build secure and dependable systems we need a concerted effort in intrusion prevention, intrusion detection, and intrusion tolerance.
Recognition and Management of Sepsis in the Obstetric Patient
Authors: Parfitt Sheryl E. , Hering Sandra L.
Published: September 2018

Sepsis is one of the principal causes of maternal mortality in obstetrics. Physiologic changes that occur during pregnancy create a vulnerable environment, predisposing pregnant patients to the development of sepsis. Furthermore, these changes can mask sepsis indicators normally seen in the nonobstetric population, making it difficult to recognize and treat sepsis in a timely manner. The use of maternal-specific early warning tools for sepsis identification and knowledge of appropriate interventions and their effects on the mother and fetus can help clinicians obtain the best patient outcomes in acute care settings. This article outlines the signs and symptoms of sepsis in obstetric patients and discusses treatment options used in critical care settings.
Pulmonary Edema in Obstetrics: Essential Facts for Critical Care Nurses
Authors: Cypher Rebecca L.
Published: September 2018

Pulmonary edema is an acute pregnancy complication that, if uncorrected, can result in increased maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. Although pulmonary edema is relatively rare in the general obstetrics population, pregnant patients are at increased risk for pulmonary edema because of the physiologic changes of pregnancy. The risk may be exacerbated by certain pregnancy-related diseases, such as preeclampsia. Prompt identification and appropriate clinical management of pulmonary complications is critical to prevent adverse outcomes in pregnant patients. This article reviews the collaborative treatment of pulmonary edema in pregnant women with complex critical illnesses.
Born from below: Urban regeneration through incarnational theological formation in Guatemala City and beyond
Authors: Ribbens Michael L. , Van Dyke Joel
Published: September 2018

This article sets out to describe the development of and engagement with a global training collaborative around the formation of urban ministry leadership committed to the act of loving cities and working for peace. The collaborative is an initiative of Street Psalms called the Urban Training Collaborative and each urban training hub has agreed to be shaped and formed by an Incarnational Training Framework (ITF). The ITF was constructed over a 20-year period in the midst of a global missional community made up of leaders from cities all over the world. The ITF is infused by an incarnational theology as interpreted from below and focused on the message, method and manner as exemplified in the life and mission of Jesus Christ such that messengers are free of fear and unleashed to love their cities and seek their peace. The Incarnation of Jesus Christ animates faith-based engagement around the complex issues of poverty, injustice, social inequity and violence, and shifts paradigms from scarcity to abundance, theory to practice and rivalry to peacemaking. To shed light on the practical outworking of an incarnational theology from below, we will critically reflect on Guatemala City as a case study to illustrate how the formation of a city-wide missional community was developed through engagement around the aforementioned ITF which led to the corresponding paradigm shifts and then subsequently seeding a global training collaborative
Editorial
Authors: Develing Sheila G.
Published: September 2018

No abstract available.
The penultimate deglaciation: protocol for PMIP4 transient numerical simulations between 140 and 127 ka
Authors: Menviel Laurie , Capron Emilie , Govin Aline , Dutton Andrea , Tarasov Lev , Abe-Ouchi Ayako , Drysdale Russell , Gibbard Philip , Gregoire Lauren , He Feng , Ivanovic Ruza , Kageyama Masa , Kawamura Kenji , Landais Amaelle , Otto-Bliesner Bette L. , Oyabu Ikumi , Tzedakis Polychronis , Wolff Eric , Zhang Xu
Published: September 2018

Abstract. The penultimate deglaciation (~ 138–128 thousand years before present, hereafter ka) is the transition from the penultimate glacial maximum to the Last Interglacial (LIG, ~ 129–116 ka). The LIG stands out as one of the warmest interglacials of the last 800 ka, with high-latitude temperature warmer than today and global sea level likely higher by at least 6 meters. The LIG therefore receives ever-growing attention, in particular to identify mechanisms and feedbacks responsible for such regional warmth that is comparable to that expected before 2100. Considering the transient nature of the Earth system, the LIG climate and ice-sheets evolution were certainly influenced by the changes occurring during the penultimate deglaciation. It is thus important to investigate the climate and environmental response to the large changes in boundary conditions (i.e. orbital configuration, atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations, ice sheet geometry) occurring during this time interval. A deglaciation working group has recently been set up as part of the Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project (PMIP) phase 4, with a protocol to perform transient simulations of the last deglaciation (19–11 ka). Similar to the last deglaciation, the disintegration of continental ice-sheets during the penultimate deglaciation led to significant changes in the oceanic circulation during Heinrich Stadial 11 (~ 136–129 ka). However, the two deglaciations bear significant differences in magnitude and temporal evolution of climate and environmental changes. Here, as part of the PAGES-PMIP working group on Quaternary Interglacials, we propose a protocol to perform transient simulations of the penultimate deglaciation to complement the PMIP4 effort. This design includes time-varying changes in orbital forcing, greenhouse gas concentrations, continental ice-sheets as well as freshwater input from the disintegration of continental ice-sheets. This experiment is designed to assess the coupled response of the climate system to all forcings. Additional sensitivity experiments are proposed to evaluate the response to each forcing. Finally, a selection of paleo records representing different parts of the climate system is presented, providing an appropriate benchmark for upcoming model-data comparisons across the penultimate deglaciation.
Impact of model resolution on Holocene climate simulations of the
Northern Hemisphere
Authors: Wagner Axel , Lohmann Gerrit , Prange Matthias
Published: September 2018

Abstract. This study demonstrates the dependence of simulated surface air temperatures on variations in grid resolution and resolution-dependent orography in simulations of the Mid-Holocene. A set of Mid-Holocene sensitivity experiments is carried out with the atmospheric general circulation model ECHAM5 forced with sea surface temperature and sea ice fields from coupled simulations. Each experiment was performed in two resolution modes: low (~ 3.75°, 19 vertical levels) and high (~ 1.1°, 31 vertical levels). Results are compared to respective preindustrial runs. It is found that the large-scale temperature anomalies for the Mid-Holocene (compared to the preindustrial) are significantly different in the low- and high-resolution versions. For boreal winter, differences are related to circulation changes caused by the response to thermal forcing in conjunction with orographic resolution. For summer, shortwave cloud radiative forcing emerges as the predominant factor. In summary, the simulated Mid-Holocene temperature differences (low versus high resolution) reveal a response that regionally exceeds the Mid-Holocene to preindustrial modelled temperature anomalies, and show partly reversed signs across the same geographical regions. Our results imply that climate change simulations sensitively depend on the chosen grid resolutions.
The vertical structure of precipitation at two stations in East Antarctica derived from micro rain radars
Authors: Durán-Alarcón Claudio , Boudevillain Brice , Genthon Christophe , Grazioli Jacopo , Souverijns Niels , van Lipzig Nicole P. M. , Gorodetskaya Irina , Berne Alexis
Published: September 2018

Abstract. Precipitation over Antarctica is the main term in the surface mass balance of the Antarctic ice sheet, which is crucial for the future evolution of the sea level worldwide. Precipitation however remains poorly documented and understood mainly because of a lack of observations in this extreme environment. Two observatories dedicated to precipitation have been set up at the Belgian station Princess Elisabeth (PE) and at the French station Dumont d'Urville (DDU) in East Antarctica. Among other instruments, both sites have a vertically-pointing micro rain radar (MRR) working at the K-band. Measurements are continuously collected at DDU since the austral summer 2015–2016, while they have been collected mostly during summer seasons at PE since 2010, with a full year of observation during 2012. In this study, the statistics of the vertical profiles of reflectivity, vertical velocity and spectral width are analyzed for all seasons. Vertical profiles were separated into surface precipitation and virga to evaluate the impact of virga on the structure of the vertical profiles. The climatology of the study area plays an important role in the structure of the precipitation: warmer and moister atmospheric conditions at DDU favor the occurrence of more intense precipitation compared with PE, with a difference of 8 dBZ between both stations. The strong katabatic winds blowing at DDU induce a decrease of reflectivity close to the ground due to the sublimation of the snowfall particles. The vertical profiles of precipitation velocity show significant differences between the two stations. In general, at DDU the vertical velocity increases as the height decreases, while at PE the vertical velocity decreases as the height decrease. These features of the vertical profiles of reflectivity and vertical velocity could be explained by the more frequent occurrence of aggregation and riming at DDU compared to PE, because of the colder and drier conditions at the latter. Robust and reliable statistics about the vertical profile of precipitation in Antarctica, as derived from micro rain radars for instance, are necessary and valuable for the evaluation of precipitation estimates derived from satellite measurements and from numerical atmospheric models.
Apuleyo o la magia del amor: Arquetipos e imaginario mítico para un cuento de hadas y su recepción interdisciplinar contemporánea
Authors: Escobar Borrego Francisco Javier
Published: September 2018

El presente artículo ofrece un estudio interdisciplinar y diacrónico de los principales arquetipos y mitemas que conforman el cuento de Psique y Cupido, inserto en el Asno de oro de Apuleyo, autor acusado de artes mágicas. Para ello se analizan desde la Antigüedad clásica y períodos posteriores, a modo de protohistoria, hasta su recepción contemporánea. Las disciplinas tenidas en cuenta son la literatura hispánica, con atención al contexto europeo, la antropología, la psicología, las bellas artes y la música. En esta intersección de códigos destaca, en fin, el arquetipo femenino de Psique (Alma) y su dimensión simbólica de mariposa.
Mito, fantasía y magia en Gente del mundo, de Alberto Chimal
Authors: Pérez-Amezcua Luis Alberto , Sigala Gómez Ricardo
Published: September 2018

En este artículo se explora, desde un punto de vista mitocrítico, el modo en que el escritor mexicano Alberto Chimal se vale del sermo mythicus en su libro Gente del mundo para practicar una literatura fantástica o literatura de imaginación que apela a la memoria mitológica. Se concluye que tanto dicha estrategia literaria como la del uso de un campo simbólico íntimamente relacionado con ese sermo resultan efectivas para el establecimiento, en el texto, de un estatuto mitopoético de orden restaurativo en la sociedad contemporánea.
Monsters from Myth, and Quests for a Scientific Rationale, Or, a Science Journalist’s Take on Mythological Animals. An Exploration of Matt Kaplan’s The Science of Monsters, with a Foray into Aetiologies and Cultural Uses of Medusa
Authors: Nissan Ephraim
Published: September 2018

We consider some of the chapters in Matt Kaplan’s The Science of Monsters and his rationalising conjectures (some of them rooted in hypotheses by Adrienne Mayor), and discuss or provide supplementary data, including concerning occurrence in modern art or literature.
Fenomenología de la danza: M. Merleau-Ponty versus Sheets-Johnston
Authors: López-Sáenz Mª Carmen
Published: September 2018

Esta investigación parte del núcleo de la fenomenomenología de M. Merleau-Ponty: el cuerpo vivido en relación con el cuerpo objetivo y el cuerpo habitual. De esta relación se seguirá la del espacio corporal y el espacio de las cosas, así como la del movimiento vivido –origen de la danza- y el mero cambio de lugar. Comienza contrastando dicho núcleo con la concepción de la danza de P. Valéry. Ambos la consideran el arte del movimiento corporal, pero el fenomenólogo va más allá con su concepción del cuerpo como origen de todo simbolismo y expresión creadora. Mostraremos la peculiar relación de la danza con las habilidades motoras y con la percepción. Con la ayuda de la fenomenología de la génesis, discutiremos la tesis de Sheets-Johnston de la imposibilidad de verse danzando. Concluiremos describiendo el ritmo de la danza como expresión universal del movimiento.
Draping as a technique to develop creative skills in Saudi Arabian fashion design Drapeado como una técnica para desarrollar habilidades creativas en el diseño de moda en Arabia Saudita
Authors: Nasser-Alajaji Tahani , Abdullah-Alqudairi Tahani
Published: September 2018

This study aims at studying the effect of fashion design’s draping method on a dress form in developing creative skills(Originality, Fluency, Flexibility, The details).This study followed an experimental  approach and used a variety of methods and tools to collect the scientific material of the study, The following tools were included: Pre- and post- skills tests, assessment scale to evaluate the designs and observation. The sample size of the study was 75 female students in the experimental group and 30 female students in the control group among the female students of the College of Arts and Design at PNU .The total number of designs was 150 design for the experimental group and 60 for the control group. It was presented and arbitrated by six arbitrators. The total number of questionnaires before and after the applied program was 900 questionnaires for the experimental group and the control group was 360, and they were analyzed statistically. The  study arrived at the following results: the design of a series of innovative outfits using the draping method on a dress form.  also confirmed that technical performance in dress form draping improves the designers’ creative skills development, which then helps them to implement innovative designs.
La rúbrica como herramienta de autoevaluación, proceso permanente, participativo y reflexivo para la mejora continua en la formación del alumno: un caso práctico
Authors: Nuere Menéndez-Pidal Silvia , Díaz-Obregón Raúl
Published: September 2018

La inclusión de asignaturas artístico-creativas en la titulación de Ingeniería en Diseño Industrial y Desarrollo de Producto de la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid nos induce a pensar en métodos de evaluación que puedan reforzar el concepto de objetividad. Como herramienta de evaluación se propone la rúbrica de evaluación con el fin de facilitar al alumno los conceptos que serán evaluados y el grado de adquisición que tendrán que cumplir para adquirir la mayor calificación. Al considerar la rúbrica de evaluación como una herramienta objetiva, se considera que el alumno no solo dispondrá de ella para conocer con exactitud cuáles serán los criterios de evaluación, si no también, para que sean reflexivos y realicen sus trabajos de acuerdo a los objetivos que se les demandan. Como complemento se les propone que se autoevalúen utilizando dicha herramienta. Para la realización de este caso práctico se cuenta con dos asignaturas repartidas entre el primer y segundo semestre del curso 2017-2018 del Grado en Ingeniería en Diseño Industrial y Desarrollo de Producto y el Doble Grado en Ingeniería en Diseño Industrial y Mecánica y la participación de 210 alumnos.
A Cidade E O Urbano Na Geografia Escolar: A Contribuição Do Imaginário
Authors: Domingos Silva Flávia Gabriela
Published: September 2018

A principal função da Geografia Escolar é contribuir com a formação cidadã, viabilizando que os sujeitos compreendam o espaço geográfico e suas dinâmicas, de modo a aprimorarem suas relações, atitudes e vivências. Dentre as temáticas geográficas destaca-se a cidade, que influencia significativamente o cotidiano dos alunos, sendo na maioria das vezes, o lugar onde se desenvolve a vida. Nesse sentido, é necessário compreender o espaço urbano, que se constitui de dimensões materiais, formas, estruturas, arquiteturas e dimensões simbólicas. Estas conferem significados as primeiras, evocam memórias, trazem a tona imaginários e exaltam contemplações estéticas,  fazendo da cidade e de seus sujeitos aquilo que realmente são. Assim, objetiva-se discutir a contribuição da dimensão simbólica, especificamente do imaginário, ao processo de ensino-aprendizagem da cidade no contexto da Geografia Escolar. Abordar a cidade no ensino geográfico, pela perspectiva simbólica, permite a valorização do cotidiano, da experiência e das significações dos sujeitos, o que contribui para ampliar, diversificar e aprofundar a compreensão desta temática, bem como, viabiliza a articulação dos âmbitos cognitivo, afetivo/emocional e estético na Geografia Escolar.
Educação Para Inteireza: Quem É O Eu Que Ensina?
Authors: Feijor de Andrade Izabel Cristina , Portal Leda Lisia Franciosi , De Arruda Marina Patricio
Published: September 2018

Resumo: O propósito desse artigo é de analisar características consideradas fundantes na formação de um professor que faz a diferença para seus alunos; Para tanto, foi necessário, entender como esses alunos, percebem sua constituição enquanto “Ser Professor” no que se refere ao entrelaçamento do intelecto, emoção e espírito no ofício de ensinar.  Essa pesquisa se caracterizou por uma abordagem qualitativa-compreensiva-interpretativa de cunho transdisciplinar (NICOLESCU, 2001).  Os sujeitos foram alunas do último ano do Curso de Pedagogia da PUCRS, cursantes no 1/2015. Como instrumento foram utilizados depoimento escrito na proposta de um memorial no qual o aluno descreveu seus entendimentos, enquanto formando, em relação a sua constituição enquanto Ser Professor propiciada pelo Curso de Pedagogia da PUCRS, salientando os entrelaçamentos construídos nos aspectos intelectual, social, emocional e espiritual no ofício de ensinar. Um SER sensível, amoroso, preocupado com seus alunos, com o exercício de sua profissão e orientado por uma elevada consciência espiritual, demonstrada, ao lado de entrelaçamentos autoformativos entre educador e educandos que, em suas tessituras, vão delineando e esclarecendo as justificativas do por que esses professores foram marcantes, decisivos e distinguidos por fazerem a diferença e estarem tão presentes na vida de seus alunos.
Public Debt and Economic Growth in Egypt
Authors: ElGhouty Amal Soliman
Published: September 2018

The public debt has been representing a serious problem in Egypt during recent years. The main concern of the paper is to classify the extent of the debt problem in Egypt focusing on the post -revolutionary period since 2011. In the paper, reasons for the high level of public debt will be identified. Also, the economic growth performance will be analyzed simultaneously, then the relationship between both public debt and economic growth will be determined. Some guidelines for policymakers will be presented in the last section.
The Long Run Relationship between Youth Population and Economic Growth: Evidences from Time Series Data of Bangladesh
Authors: Abdullah S M , Bidisha Sayema Haque
Published: September 2018

With the help of forty three years time series data of Bangladesh, this paper attempts to understand the long term relationship between youth population and economic growth. Despite the significance of youth population to the economy, the long run relationship between the relative share of youth population to the economy and economic growth has not been analyzed in greater detail. In this context, this paper has applied Johansen cointegration analysis where the estimation result suggests that a consequential and proportional increase in youth population will lead to a rise in GDP growth in the long run. Given the significance of demographic composition on economic growth, the estimation results emphasized the importance of policies related to greater public investment in youth development programs including those of tertiary education and skill training initiatives.
Did Smaller Firms Face Higher Costs of Credit During the Great Recession? A Vector Error Correction Analysis with Structural Breaks
Authors: Kammerer Louisa , Ramirez Miguel
Published: September 2018

This paper examines the challenges firms (and policymakers) encounter when confronted by a recession at the zero lower bound, when traditional monetary policy is ineffective in the face of deteriorated balance sheets and high costs of credit. Within the larger body of literature, this paper focuses on the cost of credit during a recession, which constrains smaller firms from borrowing and investing, thus magnifying the contraction. Extending and revising a model originally developed by Walker (2010) and estimated by Pandey and Ramirez (2012), this study uses a Vector Error Correction Model with structural breaks to analyze the effects of relevant economic and financial factors on the cost of credit intermediation for small and large firms. Specifically, it tests whether large firms have advantageous access to credit, especially during recessions. The findings suggest that during the Great Recession of 2007-09 the cost of credit rose for small firms while it decreased for large firms, ceteris paribus. From the results, the paper assesses alternative ways in which the central bank can respond to a recession facing the zero lower bound.
Pedagogy, governance and moral judgement
Authors: Nielsen Lisbeth
Published: September 2018

This article wants to show how it influences pedagogues’ judgement when models of governance are implemented in residences where children and young people are placed. Foucault’s concept of gov-ernmentality is used (Foucault, 1988) and explains how these models of governance result in peda-gogues altering their conception of what a good pedagogue is and what they do. The article then argues for the existence of a correlation between implementation of models of governance and an influence on pedagogues’ judgement.
Dom Francisco de Aquino Corrêa e a construção da identidade mato-grossense
Authors: Marin Jérri Roberto
Published: September 2018

Apresenta-se neste artigo o papel desempenhado pelo bispo e arcebispo de Cuiabá Dom Francisco de Aquino Corrêa na construção da identidade mato-grossense, entre as décadas de 1910 a 1930. Como governador de Mato Grosso, interveio na esfera cultural a fim de fortalecer as elites cuiabanas e superar as crises política, econômica e social. Para tal, arregimentou um grupo de intelectuais que se empenharam na construção da identidade regional assentada na idealização das terras e do homem mato-grossense, superando os estigmas de fronteira-sertão. Para tal, criou o Instituto Histórico e Geográfico de Mato Grosso e a Academia Mato-grossense de Letras, símbolos regionais (hino e brasão), e realizou sucessivas manifestações culturais. Como membro da hierarquia eclesiástica, empenhou-se em recuperar o prestígio da Igreja Católica, valorizar os aspectos religiosos da cultura brasileira e propagar o regionalismo, o nacionalismo e o culto à nação.
Onde estão a religião e a política? Compreensões de jovens universitários católicos, evangélicos e sem religião
Authors: Pátaro Cristina Satie de Oliveira , Mezzomo Frank Antonio
Published: September 2018

A pesquisa aqui relatada problematiza a constituição das identidades juvenis na interface com as dimensões da religião e da política, buscando discutir as influências que as vivências e aprendizagens junto à Universidade trazem às compreensões dos jovens. São analisados dados de três grupos de estudantes universitários: católicos, evangélicos e sem religião, obtidos a partir de survey com questões abertas e fechadas, referentes às temáticas da religião, da política e das vivências junto à Graduação. Os resultados evidenciam compreensões compartilhadas pelos jovens dos três grupos analisados, além de tendências e especificidades no perfil e nas concepções de cada um deles. Verificou-se a relevância que os aspectos religiosos e a vivência universitária assumem para os jovens estudantes. Além disso, identifica-se uma representação que parece reforçar a separação entre política e religião, ao mesmo tempo em que se verificam, na constituição das identidades juvenis, permeabilizações e influências mútuas entre as duas esferas mencionadas.
Die urheberrechtliche Zwangslizenz
Authors: Weber Hubertus
Published: September 2018

Copyright law prevents market failure by making intangible goods exclusive and thus marketable. Exclusivity, however, has a downside: If the right holder prohibits uses without making them himself (in a certain way), out-of-print works lie dormant, innovations are hindered, and scientific journals are made prohibitively more expensive. The remedy could be a compulsory copyright licence. This special type of obligation to contract regulated by copyright law – the right holder must grant a licence, but can negotiate the conditions – leads a shadowy existence in literature and legislation. The aim of the work is to close this gap. First, using a comparative law approach and the goal of “normative efficiency”, the author analyses whether and in which cases a compulsory copyright licence should be regulated. He then examines how the compulsory copyright licence could be designed in order to be effective and compatible with international, EU and constitutional law.
C&RL Spotlight
Authors: Kaspar Wendi
Published: September 2018

At the risk of a clichéd report on what I did this summer, I wanted to share a realization that I had at the while in San Diego (at ESRI GIS User Conference, a very practical, innovative, and diverse venue). This was the first time I have attended this conference. It is enormous with hundreds of sessions on almost any topic one could think of and has something for academic, industry, government (from local cities to federal agencies), nonprofits, and more. And, of course, there are a lot of glitzy technology and visuals.
Grants and Acquisitions
Authors: Galloway Ann-Christe
Published: September 2018

The University of North Carolina (UNC)-Chapel HillUniversity of California (UC)-Davis LibraryThe Washington University in St. Louis Libraries’ (WUSTL) Film and Media Archive
Environmental Vulnerability and Resilience
Authors: Barrow C. J.
Published: September 2018

Environmental vulnerability and resilience are concepts that play a key role in environmental management and the quest for sustainable development. Originally developed by ecology and hazards assessment, environmental vulnerability and resilience are now of interest to many disciplines, governments, companies, and enterprises. Reduction of environmental vulnerability and improvement of resilience can be a challenge given the often complex and frequently indirect and/or cumulative impacts involved. Currently global warming and sea‐level change draw most attention, but many other terrestrial and extraterrestrial environmental threats need to be considered as well.
Scale Making
Authors: Susser Ida
Published: September 2018

With the renewed emphasis on space among urban theorists since the uprisings seen from Mexico City to Paris during the 1960s, attention to scale among anthropologists has highlighted the social significance of scale at diverse levels, as well as the diversity of scale‐making processes around the world.
Hunter‐Gatherers
Authors: Barnard Alan
Published: September 2018

Hunter‐gatherers are those people who live by hunting animals, gathering wild plants, and fishing alone. They have no agriculture and therefore no experience of the domestication of crops or of animals. In recent years, though, this conventional understanding of hunter‐gatherer subsistence has been relaxed, and some whose ancestors had in the past been pure hunter‐gatherers are now thought of as maintaining a hunter‐gatherer ethos if not a mode of subsistence assuming hunting and gathering alone. Synonyms include gatherer‐hunters, foragers, and (those who live in) band societies.
Reasoning and Argumentation
Authors: Mercier Hugo
Published: September 2018

Early anthropological work suggested important cultural differences in the ability to reason. In particular, traditional populations were seen as unable to engage in abstract or hypothetical reasoning. Psychological work seemed to confirm these observations. However, it also revealed serious flaws in the logical reasoning of educated Westerners. More recent research shows that these limitations of reasoning were mostly methodological artifacts. Yet this research uncovered a consistent myside bias: reasoners mostly look for reasons that support their prior beliefs. This bias makes sense in argumentative contexts when one looks for reasons to convince others. Evidence also suggests that reasoners are appropriately convinced by strong enough arguments. Although most of this evidence comes from Western populations, the observational and limited experimental evidence available from other populations supports the same conclusion. This universal capacity for argumentation underlies a wealth of contextual and cultural variation in when and how people argue.
Cognition and Communication
Authors: Scott‐Phillips Thomas C.
Published: September 2018

Communication is a critical type of interaction for all social species, but especially so for humans. This is because it is a major means by which humans interact with one another and the main means by which cultural items propagate through a community. Humans, and likely only humans, have evolved a type of communication—ostensive communication—that has an essentially unlimited expressive potential. Canonical examples include points, shrugs, and grunts. The expressive potential of this type of communication is further enhanced by the use of words, grammars, and other communicative conventions that collectively comprise a language. The emergence of this type of communication likely had several important evolutionary consequences for the human animal.
Medical Anthropology Methods: Grounded Theory
Authors: Ecks Stefan
Published: September 2018

“Grounded theory” (GT) is an approach to research that originates in 1960s American sociology and has since been taken up by many other disciplines in the social sciences and the humanities. GT tries to show that qualitative research can be as rigorous as quantitative research and that it is better to let concepts emerge from data rather than using data to test hypotheses. Despite many scholars saying that they follow GT procedures, in practice this is not always evident.
World Music
Authors: Bithell Caroline
Published: September 2018

In its literal sense, world music encompasses all forms and styles of music produced by the world's peoples. In the music industry, it is used as a marketing category for a metagenre that encompasses classical, popular, folk, and traditional music from outside the Anglo‐American and European mainstream as well as new hybrid styles. Ethnomusicologists draw on methodologies from musicology, anthropology, and cultural studies to investigate traditional music in its original cultural context and to theorize contemporary developments linked with globalization. Critical readings focusing on issues of representation, appropriation, and exploitation have been framed in terms of cultural imperialism and the politics of consumption. These are balanced by optimistic narratives of world music as a celebration of cultural diversity, a source of empowerment, and an expression of solidarity and respect. World music scholarship and production is supported by an infrastructure that includes publications, record labels, festivals, awards, and sound archives.
Sapir,Edward (1884–1939)
Authors: Irvine Judith T.
Published: September 2018

Edward Sapir, a founder of modern linguistics in America, was also an important theorist of culture. As an early student of Franz Boas at Columbia, he is considered a core member of the Boasian school of anthropology. He is remembered today especially for his ideas about linguistic structure, his studies of North American languages, and his conception of language's role in organizing culture and cognition—the (often misrepresented) Sapir–Whorf hypothesis.
Exogamy
Authors: Dousset Laurent
Published: September 2018

Exogamy is the prescription, custom, or practice of marrying outside a certain group. Sometimes also called “outbreeding,” it is generally understood as the positive expression of the incest prohibition. There are, however, other forms of exogamic prescription or practices not related to genealogical connections, such as local, linguistic, or social exogamy. While exogamic rules and practices are generally understood as a means of maintaining and reproducing relationships between social groups through intermarriage, they are also an illustration of particular cultural and social values related to sameness and difference.
Class
Authors: Carrier James G.
Published: September 2018

Since the middle of the nineteenth century, the nature and consequences of class have been important topics and subjects of debate in the social sciences. Different scholars have approached class in different ways and have used it to address different issues, though commonly they see class in terms of people's relationships to important economic resources. This entry describes that diversity by presenting some of the changing approaches to class as they have emerged since the 1960s, the decade that saw a boom in work on class, changes that echo more general intellectual changes in anthropology and the other social sciences.
H
elman,
C
ecil (1944–2009)
Authors: Niehaus Isak
Published: September 2018

Cecil Helman was an important contributor to the development of medical anthropology. After studying medicine in South Africa and social anthropology in the United Kingdom, Helman worked as a general practitioner in London. He also pursued an interest in the arts, taught courses in medical anthropology, and researched South African and Brazilian folk healing. Helman is known for the accessibility of his writings. His textbook,
Culture, Health and Illness
(1984) alerts medical personnel to cultural variables that impact on their work. Helman's other studies explore how myth, metaphor, and medicine converge in understandings of the body. He draws on his own experiences to critique technoscientific medicine and to defend a holistic style of family practice in which physicians, much like shamans, help patients to create narratives that make sense of their sickness experiences. Helman's work built valuable bridges between medicine, the literary arts, and social sciences.
Pastoralism
Authors: Homewood Katherine
Published: September 2018

Pastoralism comprises livestock production systems based on mobile herds grazing or browsing natural vegetation across extensive rangelands. These encompass tropical and subtropical arid and semiarid lands, temperate steppe, Alpine, and high‐latitude systems. In these environments, plant growth is commonly variable, unpredictable, and patchy in time and space. Cultivation is risky, but pastoralism based on mobile herds can sustain livelihoods on low‐potential lands. Indigenous pastoralist systems emerged independently in several places around the Old and New Worlds. While the rangelands of the Americas, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand were colonized by Western‐dominated cattle and sheep ranching, this entry focuses on more locally rooted pastoralism. Despite site‐specific biophysical, social, and historical factors shaping pastoralist systems, their mobility and reliance on natural vegetation entail common correlates. This entry looks at the ecological and economic characteristics of pastoralism; its social, cultural, and political correlates; and present‐day development and change in postcolonial and post‐Soviet contexts.
Diabetes
Authors: Mendenhall Emily , Weaver Lesley Jo
Published: September 2018

Anthropological research on diabetes has paralleled the emergence of the disease in biomedicine. Most anthropological research on diabetes has attended to social inequalities among vulnerable populations with type 2 diabetes in North and Central America, with a small but increasing number of publications on diabetes emergence and experiences in low‐ and middle‐income countries. Most research on diabetes has taken a critical approach, examining explanatory models, access to care, acculturation, and structural violence. More recently, biocultural anthropologists have begun to measure diabetes within the body in clinical and epidemiological models, motivated by increasing recognition of the roles of epigenetics and social stress in disease causality. With an increasing focus on how social inequalities get under the skin, diabetes research provides future opportunities to study political–economic and health transitions, evolutionary medicine, and cross‐disciplinary perspectives on health and healing. Indeed, diabetes as a subject of scholarship provides opportunities for anthropologists to speak to those in applied fields, from policy to medicine.
Cultural Models
Authors: Kronenfeld David B.
Published: September 2018

Cultural models refer to a kind of collectively held, distributed cognitive structure that serves as a repository of cultural knowledge for a cultural community. “Knowledge” here refers not just to intellectual and verbal knowledge but also to pragmatic knowledge of how to do things, of how to behave, and of the physical and social consequences of action. “Collectively held” knowledge contrasts with individual knowledge. “Distributed” means that the knowledge is spread through a community, that individuals do not all know the same things, and that no one individual knows the whole thing. Individuals infer their knowledge of these learned structures from their interactions with members of the relevant communities. Any given individual belongs to some variety of such cultural communities.
Texture
Authors: Were Graeme
Published: September 2018

Texture is the feel, appearance, or consistency of a surface or substance. This property of objects, landscapes, bodies, and architectures is located in many diverse forms: from the grain of wood, the soft touch of silk, wind‐pitted stone, or the viscosity of porridge. In anthropology, texture is understood to stimulate the mind, body, and senses and so has been used—albeit somewhat indirectly—to emphasize a range of ideas about biography and value, classificatory systems and hierarchy, memory and knowledge, materials and materiality. This entry considers these approaches and the theoretical implications of these for progressing anthropological debate in this field.
Spirit Possession
Authors: Igreja Victor
Published: September 2018

Worldwide, spirit possession has multiple meanings which have propelled scholars to use diverse theoretical perspectives to interpret and explain it. Interpretations based on symbolism have evolved over time. Instrumental interpretations considered spirit possession as strategies used by marginalized groups to struggle for recognition. Holistic approaches moved further to consider spirit possession as ways of knowing, coping, and contesting power. Comparative studies established conceptual distinctions of trance as rooted in physiology and possession beliefs as cultural phenomenon. This distinction inspired a search for the physiological substratum of trance. Yet, the majority of scholars kept the focus on local context and local meanings of spirit possession. In war‐torn societies, the visibility of harmful spirit possession inspired the initiation of ethnographically driven epidemiological studies of its prevalence and cumulative effects on health and social problems. These studies created a further basis for current and future comparisons of community prevalence of harmful spirit possession with implications for public health.
Self‐Sufficiency
Authors: Gudeman Stephen
Published: September 2018

Economic self‐sufficiency refers to a closed loop from production to consumption to production. It is a model, sometimes an ideal, that is never achieved. It contrasts with a complete market economy, in which everything produced is traded and everything consumed is secured through trade. Economists have developed models of the latter. Anthropologists have encountered elements of the former.
Anorexia
Authors: Lester Rebecca J.
Published: September 2018

Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder identified in current Western biomedical psychiatry that is characterized by prolonged self‐starvation coupled with the fear of gaining weight or becoming fat. It was once thought to be a culture‐bound syndrome of white upper‐ to upper‐middle‐class girls in Western postindustrial societies, but phenomena that closely resemble anorexia have been identified in the historical record stretching back as far as the fifth century
bce
and have been documented in various ethnic groups and in diverse social strata around the world. Anthropologists have become increasingly interested in anorexia as both a domain of phenomenological experience and a site of epistemological production related to cultural understandings of moral personhood, intersubjectivity, and agency.
Feminism, First‐, Second‐, and Third‐Wave
Authors: Aikau Hokulani K. , Erickson Karla , Pierce Jennifer L.
Published: September 2018

The history of feminism in the West is typically divided into a “first wave,” a “second wave,” and a “third wave” to describe women's involvement in social movements that brought about dramatic transformations in their access to social, political, educational, and economic opportunities from the late nineteenth century to the present. This entry critically examines the “wave” metaphor as it has been used by academics and details the major theoretical work, epistemologies, and political practices associated with each wave of feminism, paying particular attention to the United States.
Costly Signaling in Human Culture
Authors: Shaver John H. , Sosis Richard
Published: September 2018

Evolutionary anthropologists and archaeologists have applied costly signaling theory (CST) to explain many of the apparently wasteful and ostensibly maladaptive behaviors evident across human cultures. CST suggests that costly behaviors can enable reliable communication between individuals with partially conflicting interests. To date, researchers have fruitfully applied CST to a wide range of human behaviors.
Reciprocity
Authors: Rössler Martin
Published: September 2018

Reciprocity refers to a principle according to which the recipient of a gift is obliged to return it in order to maintain social balance. Besides the economic features, reciprocity therefore implies social factors and involves ideas of mutual obligation, debt, and harmony. By demonstrating that gift exchange encompasses the key elements of giving, receiving, and reciprocating, Marcel Mauss influenced all later anthropological theories of exchange. His concept of reciprocity was expanded by Claude Lévi‐Strauss whose work focused upon the reciprocal exchange of women in marriage systems. The significance of reciprocity for the maintenance of social relations was further elaborated by a number of later approaches. The emphasis on the embeddedness of reciprocity in symmetrical arrangements has been contrasted with models focusing on individual decision making. Since it appears that exchange relations may also be governed by inequalities and asymmetries, the universal validity of Mauss's model of reciprocity has been challenged.
Extension, Communication, and Education
Authors: Bentley Jeffery W.
Published: September 2018

Agricultural extension, adult education for farmers, began in the nineteenth century in Europe and the United States. Twentieth‐century methods have included T&V (teaching and visit), videos, Farmer Field School (FFS), and demonstration plots. Extension is now maturing from a top‐down focus to one that takes farmers' knowledge and demands into account. Extension topics cover almost everything related to crop or animal production. Once largely allied with the green revolution, extension is now moving toward more environmentally friendly and socially inclusive approaches. Extension may be organized by public agencies or nongovernmental organizations. Communication methods include television, videos, radio, and written material. Most extensionists are trained at agricultural colleges, universities, or vocational secondary schools.
Medicalization
Authors: Sobo Elisa J.
Published: September 2018

Medicalization starts with a definitional process whereby some human experiences gain biomedical relevance and persons with those experiences come under biomedical as opposed to, say, religious or judicial authority. Medicalization thus entails social control; but at the same time it confers entitlements denied to those with nonmedical ailments, including rights to biomedical care as well as a release from full individual culpability for being deemed unwell. Therefore, medicalization can be sought as well as imposed. Demedicalization also occurs, and in certain cultural contexts medicalization is resisted or subverted. Originally conceptualized through the lens of structural functionalism, medicalization has since been analyzed as a manifestation of modernization: it has been discussed in regard to biomedicine's professionalization and institutionalization and to biomedicine's interest in expanding markets and increasing profits. Biomedicine's recent transformations (e.g., via managed care, biotechnology, big pharma, and health care consumerism) have implications for medicalization's use in future research and theory building.
Photography, Anthropology of
Authors: Morton Christopher
Published: September 2018

This entry charts the emergence of the anthropology of photography as a distinctive strand of recent anthropological inquiry, contextualizing the initial intellectual impetus for it and the academic contexts within which it emerged; describes the major areas of inquiry to date, as well as key areas of current research and theory, and the changing landscape of the study in the context of rapid social and technological change; and provides an overview of likely future areas of ethnographic and theoretical investigation. The two key strands of the anthropology of photography are discussed, namely the study of photographs as historical documents and as sources for new types of anthropological history writing, and the ethnographic study of indigenous photographic cultures, set within local and global visual systems of communication.
Genetically Modified Organisms
Authors: Stone Glenn Davis
Published: September 2018

Genetic modification via the creation of recombinant DNA was developed in the 1970s. It has been used to produce medicines and industrial products but its greatest impact has been in crop agriculture. Genetically modified (GM) crops are planted on a large scale in five countries and on smaller scales in many others. Impacts are contested but there appear to be a mix of positive and negative effects and controversies continue to characterize their use.