bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Harlan Wilbur Fisk, 1869–1932
Authors: Harradon H. D.
Published: February 2008

The science of terrestrial magnetism has sustained a serious loss in the sudden death, December 26, 1932, of Professor Harlan Wilbur Fisk, chief of the Section of Land Magnetic Survey, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington. During his long period of service with this organization extending over more than a quarter‐century, he contributed much to the success of the world magnetic survey, first as an observer in the field and later in planning and supervising the work at repeat‐stations with a view of obtaining data where most urgently required for advancing the investigations on which he was chiefly engaged. Readers of this JOURNAL are already acquainted with certain aspects of this work through a number of his papers which have from time to time appeared in these pages.

Professor Fisk was born at Geneva, Kansas, September 25, 1869, of sturdy New England parentage. In 1875 his family moved to Freeborn, Minnesota, where he attended the district schools and later fitted himself for collegiate studies in the Preparatory Department of Carleton College at Northfield. At Carleton (1889–96) he received his fundamental scientific training and here his interest and enthusiasm for mathematics and astronomy were stimulated by association with such inspiring professors as W. W. Payne and H. C. Wilson. While still a student he spent his summers doing survey‐work for the Engineering Department of the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railway. After completing his course at Carleton College, he served for three years (1896–99) as principal of the high school at Grand Meadow, Minnesota. In 1899 he was appointed professor of mathematics at Fargo College (North Dakota) where he remained until 1906, serving as dean of the faculty during the last three years. It was here that the problems of terrestrial magnetism first engaged his attention and he devoted his summer vacations (1904–06) to magnetic observational work for the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in the north central and western states. His interest in this field grew so rapidly that in October 1906 he adopted it as his life work when he became associated with the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, then in the third year of its existence.
MAGNETIC RESULTS OF THE UNITED STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITION, 1838–1842, LIEUTENANT CHARLES WILKES, COMMANDER
Authors: Ennis C. C.
Published: February 2008

A century seems a long lapse of time between the execution of a magnetic survey and the publication of its results. This contribution, containing a considerable number of magnetic results of the United States Exploring Expedition, 1838‐42, under the command of Lieutenant Charles Wilkes (1798‐1877), United States Navy, is offered not merely from a historical standpoint, but with the hope that it may supply some additional foundational material for investigations of the secular changes in the Earth's magnetism.

HISTORICAL

This Expedition was materialized as the result of an act of the Congress passed May 18, 1836. The act of authorization directed that comprehensive and detailed surveys be made of the multitudinous island‐groups of the Southern Pacific Ocean, the Hawaiian Group, and portions of the old ”Oregon Territory,” besides an investigation of the extreme southern limits of the Antarctic Ocean between the approximate limits of 90° and 160° east longitude. In addition to the hydrographic work entailed by these duties, directions were given for magnetic, meteorological, oceanographic, and graviometric observations, as well as in other branches of science. The Expedition was also instructed to obtain information concerning the social and economic conditions among the natives of the many regions to be visited.
WATHEROO MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY JANUARY TO MARCH, 1934
Authors: Parkinson W. C.
Published: February 2008

(Latitude 30° 19′.1 S.; longitude, 115° 52′.6 or 7h 43m.5 E. of Gr.)

March 4‐8—A moderate disturbance began March 4 at 13h 19m G.M.T., with sudden small oscillations in all three elements, the declination showing a sudden decrease of 1′ of westerly declination, the horizontal intensity an increase of 3γ, and the vertical intensity a decrease of about 3γ. These small oscillations continue for about 20 minutes of time, after which the traces show leisurely movements of larger amplitude. The minimum value of horizontal intensity occurred March 5 at 8h 08m when the force was about 100γ below its normal value. The leisurely movements continued until 16h on March 8, a period of small sharp oscillations being noteworthy, especially on the horizontal‐intensity trace, between 8h 50m and 9h 20m on March 6.
Provisional sunspot‐numbers for June to August, 1934
Authors: Brunner W.
Published: February 2008

(Dependent alone on observation at Zürich Observatory and its station at Arosa).
Provisional solar and magnetic character‐figures, Mount Wilson Observatory, April, May, and June 1934
Authors: Nicholson Seth B. , Sternberg Elizabeth E.
Published: February 2008

A magnetic storm began May 11 at 20h 8m, G.M.T., and ended May 12 at about 8h; the range in the horizontal intensity (II) was 75γ. The only sunspot‐group observed on May 11 was very near the west limb of the Sun. Although the small group which crossed the central meridian on May 10.6, 9° north of the center of the disc, was not seen on May 11, its position was marked by bright hydrogen flocculi. Small bright hydrogen flocculi had been observed in this group on May 9 also; clouds prevented observations on May 10.

A magnetic storm in which the range in II was 116γ began May 18 at about 3h, G.M.T., and ended May 19 at about 2h, A sudden increase in II was recorded on May 18 at 4h 06m, G.M.T. Bright; hydrogen flocculi were observed on several days in the group of spots which, on May 18, was 19° east. This group crossed the central meridian on May 19,6, 29° south of the center of the solar disc. Bright hydrogen flocculi were also observed in another group which was 27° north and 65° east on May 18.
Huancayo Magnetic Observatory, April to June 1934
Authors: Cairns J. E. I.
Published: February 2008

(Latitude 12° 02′.7 S., longitude, 75° 20′.4 or 5h 01m.4 W. of Gr.)
Terrestrial‐magnetic activity in the year 1933 and at Huancayo
Authors: Bartels J.
Published: February 2008

The measures u and u1 of magnetic activity in the year 1933 were computed from the daily means of horizontal intensity at six stations, with the following conversion‐factors k: Watheroo, 1.30, Honolulu, 1.14, San Juan, 1.24, Tucson, 1.44, Cheltenham, 1.55, and De Bilt, 1.75. To insure statistical conformity with the former series, in which always only one station with values of k over 1.50 was included, half weight was given to the results of Cheltenham and De Bilt. For Cheltenham, which appears for the first time in this series, k = 1.55 was obtained by direct comparison of the interdiurnal variability of H at Cheltenham and Seddin for the eight years 1919 to 1926. The data for the four American stations were kindly supplied, in advance of publication, by the Director of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.
Application of alternating‐current methods of detection to Earth‐inductors for marine and land observations
Authors: Johnson E. A.
Published: February 2008

The limiting sensitivity of earth‐inductors is discussed from a theoretical and experimental point of view for the case of direct‐current and alternating‐current methods of detecting the output. The effect of parasitic voltages is discussed and it is concluded that the alternating‐current detector may be made as much as one thousand times as sensitive as the direct‐current detector. The particular advantage of alternating‐current methods of detection for marine observations is pointed out and it is shown that such observations can be made with greatly increased accuracy.
Notes on radio fade‐out of August 25, 1936
Authors: Fleming J. A.
Published: February 2008

An extensive fade‐out of radio signals in the Western Hemisphere occurred between 18h and 20h GMT, August 25, 1936. R. L. Garrison, Chief of Communications for Pan‐American‐Grace Airways, Inc., reported that communication was disturbed along the entire western coast of South America between these hours. P. D. Boothroyd, operator for the Mackay Radio Telephone and Telegraph Company at Seattle, Washington, sets the time of the fade‐out as from 18h 25m to 19h 20m GMT. Other reports indicate that the fade‐out was experienced from New York to Honolulu.

The magnetic and earth‐current records at the Huancayo Magnetic Observatory of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington also exhibited disturbed conditions during the fade‐out according to reports received from O. W. Torreson and W. E. Scott. Reproductions (see Fig. 1) of magnetic record from the Huancayo Observatory and also from that of the Cheltenham Magnetic Observatory of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey (by courtesy of Director Patton) show departures identical in time with the radio phenomenon. At Huancayo a marked change of some 70 gammas occurred in horizontal intensity, while at Cheltenham a marked change of 6′—equivalent there to about 35 gammas—occurred in declination. There was no marked change in vertical intensity at either station which indicates that the magnetic effects associated with the fade‐out induced currents within the Earth of sufficient magnitude to neutralize the vertical component of the field‐change.
Terrestrial‐magnetic and ionospheric effects associated with bright chromospheric eruptions
Authors: McNish A. G.
Published: February 2008

Magnetic changes occurring at a large number of stations simultaneously with bright chromospheric eruptions reveal that the effect is an augmentation of the normal diurnal variation supposedly due to increased atmospheric ionization by ultraviolet light from the eruption. Radio fade‐outs occurring at the same time indicate that this increase of ionization takes place at the base of or below the E‐layer while the upper layers are unaffected. These facts are adduced in support of the Stewart‐Schuster theory which attributes the diurnal variations to dynamo‐currents in the ionosphere, since the lower ionosphere is the region in which these currents are likely to flow. The upper regions of the ionosphere are most favorable for the operation of the drift‐current and diamagnetic theories. Absence of typical features of magnetic disturbance immediately after and for several days after the more intense eruptions is contrary to the effects predicted by the ultra‐violet theory of magnetic storms.

Examination of the processes of ionization indicates that the solar eruptions are adequate causes of the effects observed. These eruptions must produce very large increases in ionizing radiation. It is suggested that normal radiation from the Sun in the extreme ultra‐violet is much greater than that calculated on the assumption that the Sun is a black‐body radiator at a temperature between 6000° and 7000° K.

Statistical examination of the phenomena suggests that differences in intensity may be adequate explanation for the production of magnetic effects and radio fade‐outs by some eruptions, only fade‐outs by others, and absence of noticeable terrestrial effects in numerous cases. Fade‐outs reported when no eruptions occurred seem attributable to causes of a different nature.
Intensity‐measurements of the cosmic radiation in Capetown during 1933, 1934, and 1935
Authors: Schonland B. F. J. , Delatizky B. , Gaskell J.
Published: February 2008

This paper presents an analysis of the results of three years' photographic registration of the ionizing power, briefly called the intensity, of the cosmic radiation in Capetown, South Africa. The measurements, which were made at hourly intervals, have been undertaken as part of an international scheme under the general direction of Dr. E. Steinke of the University of Königsberg. The instrument used is one of a number of identical construction and mode of operation made under Dr. Steinke's supervision. The data obtained from this and the other stations of the group are to be collated and compared in a forthcoming publication. They have already been utilized in a joint report upon the intensity of the radiation at the time of the appearance of Nova Herculis.

No long‐continued observations of this nature have yet been made in the Southern Hemisphere and as the Capetown station is the only one of the group situated below the Equator its results are of special interest.
The effect of overcast sky upon the local diurnal variation of the Earth's electric field
Authors: Brown Joseph G.
Published: February 2008

In a previous paper a method of obtaining the local diurnal variation of the Earth's electric field was adopted and a theory to account for the local variation was proposed. In a later paper it was shown that the greatest amplitudes of the local variation occur in clear weather with calm nights and only gentle variable winds during the daytime. Under these conditions, according to the theory, the processes of turbulence, convection, and subsidence have their maximum effect in varying the density of nuclei of condensation in the lower atmosphere. On the other hand, continuous wind was shown to be associated with much smaller amplitudes of the local variation.
Terrestrial magnetism at Tsingtao during the solar eclipse of June 19, 1936
Authors: Liu Chao‐Yang
Published: February 2008

The solar eclipse which occurred June 19,1936 was total, but the phase seen at Tsingtao was only partial (being 0.56 of the solar diameter). The calculated times for this eclipse referred to 120° east meridian time were: Beginning of the eclipse, 12h 48m 59s; maximum eclipse, 14h 07m 26s; ending of the eclipse, 15h 18m 29s.

The sky unfortunately was very cloudy on June 19. No astronomical work could be done. The only photograph we could get was densely overcast. It was taken at 14h 32m.
Aurora of April 26 to 30, 1937, at Alexandria Bay, New York
Authors: Manning Douglas F.
Published: February 2008

The aurora was observed at Alexandria Bay, New York (latitude 44° 20' north, longitude 75° 55' west) on the nights of April 26, 27, 28, 29, and 30, 1937. The following notes describe the displays on each of these nights.

April 26—A few streamers were visible around 20h 30m, eastern standard time. A faint whitish glow covered the northern sky extending upward about 30°. Occasional rays or streamers appeared.
Seventh General Assembly of the Association of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity at Washington, D.C., September 4–15, 1939
Authors: Fleming J. A. , Harradon H. D. , Joyce J. W.
Published: February 2008

The Seventh General Assembly of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics was held at Washington D.C., September 4–15, 1939. The American Organizing Committee, through its numerous subcommittees, had made adequate preparations for the reception and entertainment of some 800 delegates and guests but, unfortunately, the war in Europe which broke out just before the Assembly convened prevented the attendance of a large number of foreign delegates and guests who had signified their intention of being present at the meetings. However, despite these adverse conditions, there was a total registration of 537 delegates and guests, including 116 from foreign countries, representing over 26 nations; thus the Assembly was one of the largest of the seven so far held. It was greatly regretted that there were no French or Italian delegates at the meetings, although several of the former came to Washington only to be recalled by their Government before the opening of the Assembly.
The vertical distribution of ionization in the upper atmosphere
Authors: Pekeris C. L.
Published: February 2008

Some transformations are given of the de Groot‐Appleton formula to facilitate its use for determining the distribution of ionization with height from equivalent‐height data. The method is applied to data published by Appleton for noon conditions in England in April and May, 1933, and the results are shown in Figures 2, 3, and 4. The scale‐height in the F2‐layer on these days was of the order of 20 to 30 km. In the last section, a formula is derived for determining the vertical distribution of electron‐collision frequency from simultaneous measurements of the reflection‐coefficient as a function of frequency.
Wide‐range magnetograph at Cheltenham Magnetic Observatory
Authors: Nelson J. H.
Published: February 2008

On June 18, 1940, installation of insensitive declination (D) and horizontal‐intensity (H) variometers was completed at the Cheltenham Magnetic Observatory. Briefly, the la Cour H‐variometer uses a magnet whose moment is between 3.5 and 4.0 units with a la Cour type quartz‐fiber suspension of such size that the scale‐value is about 30 gammas per mm at a recording distance of 128 cm. The la Cour D‐variometer uses a magnet whose moment is between 0.8 and 0.9 unit with a quartz fiber of a size to give a scale‐value of about 4′.6 per mm (24 gammas per mm) at a recording distance of 175 cm. The recorder uses paper 19.8 by 53 cm in size, and has a time‐scale of 20 mm per hour.
Systematic ionospheric changes associated with geomagnetic activity
Authors: Berkner L. V. , Seaton S. L.
Published: February 2008

Systematic changes of maximum electron‐density associated with geomagnetic disturbance have been difficult to isolate owing to the lack of sufficient homogeneous data. It is well known that intense magnetic storms are associated with marked ionospheric changes. The purpose of this investigation is to determine the nature of systematic changes of maximum ion‐density of F2‐layer which accompany geomagnetic disturbance of all ranges of intensity at several latitudes.

Appleton, Naismith, and Ingram [see 1 of “References” at end of paper] have shown that at Tromsö and at Slough there are, associated with geomagnetic disturbance, characteristic variations in F2‐1ayer which change with season. Similar changes have been observed at the Kensington (Maryland) Experimental Station and described qualitatively [2]. In the present investigation we consider about two years of continuous observations made at the Watheroo and Huancayo magnetic observatories of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism utilizing automatic multifrequency technique described elsewhere [3, 4]. A convenient quantitative measure, namely, deviation of daily average maximum electron‐density from normal, has been derived and compared to associated geomagnetic activity for each day.
On the Analysis of Surface Magnetic Fields by Integrals, Part I
Authors: Vestine E. H.
Published: February 2008

This paper forms Part 1 of a series presenting a very general method of analyzing surface geomagnetic fields by means of surface‐integrals. In geophysical applications the method is free from some of the limitations usual to spherical harmonic analysis. A practical means is afforded for separating a magnetic field observed over a closed regular surface into parts originating inside and outside the surface. Relations between the potential and its space‐derivatives in the immediate neighborhood of a closed surface are developed, especially for spherical and plane surfaces. The method of surface‐integrals may be used for complicated magnetic fields, such as those of magnetic storms, and in magnetic geophysical prospecting. It is naturally adapted to numerical and possibly machine procedures. The calculation of the field and current‐systems in regions of free space adjacent to a closed surface is considered in Part 2 (to appear subsequently), along with certain applications of the method in Part 3.
Cheltenham Magnetic Observatory, October to December, 1940
Authors: Ludy Albert K.
Published: February 2008

October 1—A mild disturbance began at 01 h 13 m GMT, October 1, and ended at 21 h the same day. It was characterized by an increase in the value of Z. Ranges: D, 20′; H, 122 gammas; Z, 156 gammas.

October 7–8—A moderate storm began at 05 h GMT, October 7, and continued until 11 h, October 8. Ranges: D, 32′; H, 118 gammas; Z, 169 gammas.
Tucson Magnetic Observatory, October to December, 1940
Authors: White Roland F.
Published: February 2008

October 6–8—A moderate storm began at 09 h 51 m GMT, October 6, with a small but sharp increase in H followed by a bay in H starting at about 21h, October 6, and a short bay in D from 01 h to 11 h, October 7. The storm ended at about 10 h, October 8.

October 25–26—A period of small but rapid variations in H and D began between 14 h and 15 h GMT, October 25, and lasted until about 23 h, October 26.
Alibag Magnetic Observatory, July to September, 1940
Authors: Rangaswami M. R.
Published: February 2008

July 13—A moderate storm began at 08 h 01m GMT, July 13, with a sudden increase of 0′.6 in westerly D and of 18 gammas in H, and a fall of 4 gammas in Z. H reached its maximum at 08 h 06 m and began to fall gradually till 10 h when the oscillations became more pronounced. The minimum in H was attained at 14 h 07 m. The conditions became less disturbed after 18 h and the storm practically ended at 23h.5.
The Ionosphere at Watheroo, Western Australia, July to September, 1940
Authors: Parkinson W. C.
Published: February 2008

This report is a continuation of those already published in this Journal1 and gives monthly mean hourly values of the heights and penetration‐frequencies of the ionosphere as obtained by means of automatic multifrequency ionospheric recording apparatus located near Watheroo, Western Australia, in latitude 30° 19′.1 south, longitude 115° 52′.6 east of Greenwich, which operates over the frequency‐range 0.516 to 16.0 Mc/sec.

Table 1 gives the monthly mean hourly values of the height of maximum electron‐density (hmax), uncorrected for retardation in lower regions2, and the minimum virtual height (hmin) for both the F1‐ and F2‐regions, the penetration‐frequencies for the E‐, F1‐, and F2‐regions, and the lowest frequency at which echoes were observed when that frequency was higher than 0.516 Mc/sec.
Solar and Magnetic Data, October to December, 1940, Mount Wilson Observatory
Authors: Nicholson Seth B. , Mulders Elizabeth Sternberg
Published: February 2008

A series of four magnetic disturbances in September and October were associated with a large active sunspot:group, Mount Wilson No. 6965. The first disturbance, too slight to be called a storm, occurred on September 1 when the group crossed the central meridian for the first time. The second disturbance, reported previously in the December 1940 issue of this Journal, occurred on September 26‐28 while the group, which had returned as a large stable spot (now No. 6991), was crossing the central meridian the second time. The third disturbance occurred on October 1 when the spot was 56° west of the central meridian.
Notes on Isomagnetic Charts: VI—Earth‐Air Electric Currents and the Mutual Consistency of the H and D Isomagnetic Charts
Authors: Chapman Sydney
Published: February 2008

Summary—Atmospheric‐electric observations indicate that the electric currents crossing the Earth's surface are too weak to have an observable effect on the distribution of the geomagnetic field, which should therefore (to a high degree of accuracy) be derivable from a scalar potential. This question has been examined in various ways: By means of line‐integrals of the horizontal magnetic intensity; by drawing magnetic parallels; by spherical harmonic analysis; and (by Schuster) by calculating the vertical component of the curl of the field at particular points. A discussion of these various methods leads to the conclusion that the curl method is the most generally useful. A new formula is given for calculating the curl directly from the isomagnetic charts for declination (D) and horizontal intensity (H), the elements that are most usually observed and charted. The new process is applied to the 1922 Admiralty charts. The error of estimation of the curl, or of the resulting inferred vertical curren‐tintensity i, is also examined.

The non‐zero values of i are due partly to errors of estimation; but the larger values are ascribed mainly to a lack of mutual consistency between the D and H charts in particular localities, due to errors in one or both charts. It is suggested that when new charts of D and H are constructed, the value of i should be taken as zero (on the atmospheric‐electric evidence), and the mutual consistency of the charts should be tested, and ajusted, by the methods here developed.
Watheroo Magnetic Observatory, December, 1941
Authors: Parkinson W. C.
Published: February 2008

(Latitude 30° 19′.1 S., longitude 115° 52′.6 or 7h 43m.5 E. of Gr.)

December 1–2—This moderate disturbance began with a well‐defined sudden commencement at 05h 59m GMT, December 1, when horizontal intensity suddenly increased 25 gammas, the numerical value of vertical intensity decreased 19 gammas and declination moved easterly 2′.6. The traces immediately became active, the fluctuations being rapid and of moderate amplitude. These conditions prevailed until about 14h, after which the movements were more leisurely. Between 16h 00m and 16h 10m there were large and fairly sudden changes in all three elements but after that time the disturbance gradually subsided and the traces resumed their normal character at 07h, December 2. Ranges: D, 28′.8; H, 147 gammas; Z, 202 gammas.
Electrical resistance of a vertical column of air over Watheroo (western Australia) and over Huancayo (Peru)
Authors: Wait G. R.
Published: February 2008

For the first time, strictly simultaneous atmospheric‐electric data on sea and land have been compared. Such comparisons make it possible, on the basis of reasonable assumptions, to compute the total resistance of a vertical air‐column of unit cross‐section at the station on land. A total of 42 complete fair‐weather days during November and December, 1928, and January and February, 1929, from the Pacific Ocean and from the Watheroo Magnetic Observatory have been utilized. The data were formed into two groups, (1) smoky days (when smoke was in the air at Watheroo) and (2) non‐smoky days (air without smoke). The computed resistance of the vertical air‐column at Watheroo has a pronounced diurnal variation with a minimum shortly before noon for both types of days. This is accounted for on the basis of two stratified horizontal layers of air, assuming that the resistivity of the upper layer is constant through the day, and that of the lower layer is giyen by the conductivity‐measurements near the ground. Half of the total resistance lies in the upper and half in the lower layer. The resistance of the lower layer varies with the resistivity; hence the effective height to which the layer extends is constant, amounting to about 1.5 km. Gish and Sherman concluded from stratosphere conductivity‐measurements that between this height and the ground in the free atmosphere almost half of the total resistance is normally encountered, in good accord with the present results.

Comparison of data from Huancayo Magnetic Observatory with those from the Pacific Ocean taken during October, 1929, indicates that the total resistance at Huancayo is independent of variations in resistivity of the lower layer, thus indicating a very small thickness for the lower layer. The computed resistance for Huancayo is over three times that expected from consideration of the altitude of the station (3.3 km). This and other observed facts in atmospheric electricity at Huancayo are explainable on the assumption that a permanent bank of condensation‐nuclei exists in the air a short distance above the ground.
ON THE RADON‐CONTENT OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND THE RADIUM‐CONTENT OF RIVER‐WATER
Authors: Hess Victor F.
Published: February 2008

In the past two years the author had the opportunity of determining the radon‐content of the air in New York and of testing the radium‐content of river‐water samples taken from the Susquehanna River. War conditions made it necessary to discontinue these measurements, but the results so far obtained, are deemed of sufficient interest to report here.

(I) Radon‐content of the atmosphere

Measurements of the radon‐content of outdoor air in America have been made only in Montreal, by A. S. Eve in 1907‐08, and in Chicago, by C. S, Ashman in 1908. These two authors reported an average content of 60 and of 95×10−18 curie/cc, respectively.
A New Cosmic‐Ray Recorder and the Air‐Absorption and Decay of Particles
Authors: Duperier A.
Published: February 2008

A new photographic recorder registering cosmic‐ray threefold coincidences without any screen is described. The analysis of the first data obtained shows that the partial correlation of the daily means with the heights corresponding to a pressure‐level in the atmosphere is greater the higher the selected pressure‐level from the ground, up to about 16 km. Supposing that the mesons are generated at the layer of 75 mm Hg., the true absorption‐coefficient and the mean rate of decay can be calculated. For the absorption‐coefficient it is found that μ = 1.68 × 10−3 cm2/g, and for the rate of decay μ′ = 0.054 per km. From the value of μ′ it results that for the mean range of the meson before disintegrating spontaneously L = 18.6 km, and for the mean life of a meson of 3 × 109‐ev energy, when at rest, τ0 = 1.6 × 10−6 sec. Finally, for the temperature‐coefficient the value −0.35 per cent per 0C was obtained.
Solar and Magnetic Data, April to June, 1944, Mount Wilson Observatory
Authors: Nicholson Seth B. , Mulders Elizabeth Sternberg
Published: February 2008

The only magnetic storm recorded at Mount Wilson during April, May, and June began suddenly on April 1 at 23h 25m GCT, and ended on April 3 at about 09h. The range in H was 180γ. No sunspots were observed from March 31 to April 6.

A slight disturbance began suddenly on April 24 at 01h 15m and ended at about 13h. The range in H was 60γ. No sunspots were observed from April 18 to 25.
Watheroo Magnetic Observatory, April to June, 1944
Authors: Parkinson W. C.
Published: February 2008

(Latitude 30° 19′.1 S., longitude 115° 52′.6 or 7h 43m.5 E. of Gr.)

April 2—A violent disturbance of short duration began at 05h 00m GMT, April 2, with a series of peaks and bays in all three elements followed by a rapid decrease of H and westerly D and by an increase in the numerical value of Z. Between 09h and 10h the motions of the H‐ and Z‐spots were too rapid to record continuously and the Z‐spot exceeded the limits of registration. After 10h, H gradually increased and Z decreased so that by 20h they were approximately at their normal values, although some small rapid fluctuations persisted until 24h. Ranges: D, 27′.4; H, 320 gammas; Z, 184 gammas.
Calculation of Vertical Component (Z) for Potential Fields from Observed Values of Declination (D) and Horizontal Intensity (H)
Authors: Davids Norman
Published: February 2008

If a vector field F(r, θ, ϕ) is known to be derivable from a scalar potential, and if it is known how much of the field originates from sources inside the Earth, then the values of its three components D, H, Z, or X, Y, Z over the surface of a sphere r = a are not independent; that is, there exists a functional operator which enables any one of the functions to be determined from the other two of the group. In practice, D and H are usually known with much greater accuracy than Z, so that an operator which enables Z to be calculated from D and H could be useful in determining Z in uncertain regions, or in testing the consistency of the Z‐charts against the others. The method, however, requires the knowledge of D and H over the whole Earth—although local or regional inaccuracies are likely to neutralize each other in the final results.

Sources inside the Earth account for at least 95 per cent of the main field, so that the method can be applied to testing of the world‐charts; it can be extended to some of the variation‐fields as well.
A Table of Secular Variations of the Solar Cycle
Authors: Gleissberg W.
Published: February 2008

The aim of the present paper is to provide workers on phenomena which are allied to solar activity with a new table on sunspot‐frequency in addition to the tables published by Brunner in the September 1939 issue of this JOURNAL. Brunner's Table 1, which contains the observed relative sunspot‐numbers for all months from January, 1749, to December, 1938, shows that the variations of the spot‐frequency through the eleven‐year cycle are disturbed by secondary short variations. On the assumption that these short variations are of an accidental character (this assumption is supported by the fact that investigations of the curve of observed spot‐numbers by periodogram‐analysis have revealed no persistent periods shorter than the eleven‐year cycle), they can be eliminated by smoothing the observed spot‐numbers. The method of smoothing used by the Zürich astronomers consists in forming the average of every 12 consecutive values of the observed monthly relative numbers and in taking the average of two consecutive averages; this latter is taken as smoothed relative sunspot‐number for the central of the 13 consecutive months whose observed sunspot‐numbers have been used for forming the average.
A preliminary study of the relation between geomagnetism and the circulatory motions of the air in the atmosphere
Authors: Wulf Oliver Reynolds
Published: February 2008

Comparison is made of different forms of the daily traces of the geomagnetic elements with large‐scale atmospheric pressure‐patterns near the base of the stratosphere over an area in which the magnetic observatory lies, in a preliminary study along lines suggested by the considerations in an earlier article. Illustrations are given of a few daily examples, but the comparison is made by obtaining the averages of the magnetic elements and of certain characterizing features of the pressure‐patterns for two groups of days equal in number for all of the days of each of 14 months. Comparison is also made of the daily values of magnetic disturbance (K‐sums) with a measure of the change of pressure‐pattern over the day for the days of the same interval. It is concluded that the data, at least as presented in this preliminary study, do not afford reliable indication of a relation between geomagnetism and the circulatory motions of the air in the atmosphere.
A sporadic F‐layer
Authors: Burkard O.
Published: February 2008

It has long been known that the critical frequency of the ionospheric F‐layer shows a small but clear maximum at some observatories during the night. This phenomenon is remarkably distinct during winter nights and at observatories situated in middle geographical latitudes. It must be assumed that at these times some still unknown cause of ionization is working, producing a transitory increase of the electron‐density within the F‐layer. But it is difficult to separate this additional ionization from the regular F‐layer, because we know too little of the laws concerning the decrease of the ionization in the F‐layer during the night.
Cheltenham Magnetic Observatory October to December, 1947
Authors: Genhardt Robert E.
Published: February 2008

(Latitude 38° 44′.0 N.; Longitude 76° 50′.5 or 5h 07m.4 W. of Gr.)

October 9–16—A prolonged period of moderate magnetic disturbance was ushered in with long‐period oscillations, at 01h GMT, October 9. Short‐period oscillations began in all three elements at 11h, October 9, and continued until 19h, October 11, with the exception of a few hours. The remainder of the storm continued with irregular oscillations. Between 00h 09m and 0lh 15m, October 10, D rapidly decreased 32′, and reached its extreme easterly value at 01h 58m. Z decreased 185 γ from 00h 57m to 09h 00m, October 10, where it reached its minimum value. H reached its minimum value of 18,099 γ at 16h 09m, October 11. From 0lh 44m to 02h 26m, October 12, oscillations of large amplitude occurred in all three elements, and double peaks occurred in D and H. Minor disturbance continued until the end of the storm at 17h, October 16, The highest K‐sum of 35 occurred on October 10, with a 6 being recorded for the first three‐hour interval.
Chloride displacement in Panoche clay loam in relation to water movement and distribution
Authors: Miller R. J. , Biggar J. W. , Nielsen D. R.
Published: February 2008

The manner in which chloride, applied to the soil surface as KCl, moves through Panoche clay loam was investigated under field conditions. Three soil water treatments were established: (1) continuous ponding, (2) intermittent ponding with 6 inches of water, and (3) intermittent ponding with 2 inches of water. Frequent measurements of the chloride concentration in the soil solution at 1‐foot depth intervals to a depth of 5 feet were used to ascertain the redistribution of the surface‐applied chloride relative to the movement of soil water. The experiment revealed that chloride movement results from a dynamic process that may be altered or controlled with the method of water application.
Evaluation of some practical methods of estimating evapotranspiration in arid climates at low latitudes
Authors: Brutsaert Wilfried
Published: February 2008

A comparison is presented of monthly evapotranspiration data obtained by various methods for the valley of the Ruzizi (Eastern Congo Republic). Best agreement was noted for evaporation, as measured with a pan and calculated with Penman's equation. The Blaney‐Criddle and the Thornthwaite methods did not have an adequate response to changes in evaporation potential, since temperature and day length varied little. Some improvement was observed with the Blaney‐Morin method, which includes a humidity factor.
Soil wettability: A neglected factor in watershed management
Authors: Krammes J. S. , Debano L. F.
Published: February 2008

Uneven penetration of soil moisture has been observed after several southern California wildfires. This condition seems to be associated with an organic coating on soil particles that makes the soil hydrophobic. Field sampling shows the ‘nonwettable’ condition to be wide‐spread in chaparral watersheds.
The use of unit‐Source watershed data for runoff prediction
Authors: Amerman C. R.
Published: February 2008

The conceptual model upon which studies of hydrologic relations between unit‐source and complex watersheds are based is discussed. Comparisons of measured storm runoff from two complex watersheds with that predicted by combining storm runoff of representative unit‐source watersheds in accordance with the conceptual model revealed that the measured values were different from those predicted. Within the framework of the present model, unit‐source watersheds cannot be used to predict the effects of land use changes on complex watersheds. If the unit‐source concept is to find effective application, an improved model must be developed. Three phenomena that seem necessary in a more realistic model are discussed: (1) Interflow, (2) partial area runoff production, and (3) the influence upon downslope runoff production of runoff from upper slopes.
Pressure distributions in layered sand columns during transient and steady‐state flows
Authors: Behnke Jerold J. , Bianchi William C.
Published: February 2008

In operational groundwater recharge activities uniform soil profiles are the exception rather than the rule. Accurate pressure distributions in layered profiles are needed to define the mechanics of flow to underground aquifers at the high soil moisture contents normally present. This study showed that pressure distributions were similar in layered sand systems composed of different grain sizes during steady‐state flow at different surface heads. Positive pressures occurred near the top of the layered column and negative pressures developed with depth, reaching a maximum at or near the layer interface. Then a zone of unit gradient occurred followed by a zone where tensions decreased approaching zero or atmospheric at the column base. There was no significant head loss at the layer interfaces for the grain sizes studied. Entrapped air had a considerable effect on the hydraulic conductivities of the sand systems. Pressure distribution profiles in layered sands during transient flow (drainage conditions) prior to air entry were similar to those described for steady‐state flow. As the surface head was dissipated and air entered the column the pressure profile changed to an approximate straight line, with maximum tension near the surface of the sand column and atmospheric pressure (zero), at the column base. Drainage rate curves for the layered systems studied were not continuous power functions when entrapped air was in the sands. The expansion of entrapped air in response to increasing tensions during drainage caused more water to be removed from storage and the discharge rate to remain constant for a short time interval.
Glacier mass budget measurements by hydrologic means
Authors: Tangborn Wendell V.
Published: February 2008

Ice storage changes for the South Cascade Glacier drainage basin were determined for the 1957–1964 period using basin runoff and precipitation measurements. Measurements indicate that evaporation and condensation are negligible compared with the large runoff and precipitation values. Runoff, measured by a stream discharge station, averaged 4.04 m/yr; precipitation, determined by snow accumulation measurements at a central point on the glacier and by storage gages, averaged 3.82 m/yr, resulting in a basin net loss of about 0.22 m/yr. During the same period, South Cascade Glacier net budgets were determined by ablation stakes, snow density‐depth profiles, and maps. The average glacier net budget for the period was −0.61sol;yr of water. This amount is equivalent to −0.26 m of water when averaged over the drainage basin (43% glacier‐covered), which is in fair agreement with the net storage change measured by hydrologic methods. Agreement between the two methods for individual years is slightly less perfect. (Key words: Glaciers; water balance.)
Resistance of selected clay systems to erosion by water
Authors: Grissinger Earl H.
Published: February 2008

Rates of erosion of selected clay systems were determined by subjecting molded samples to a uniform erosive force. Increased concentrations of clay minerals generally induced greater stability. Increased bulk densities, however, had little influence on stability. The influence of clay particle orientation and antecedent water content (water content at the start of the test) was not consistent but varied depending upon the clay mineral mixture. Stability increased with increased antecedent water for the Grenada silt loam and for illitic, montmoril‐lonitic, and oriented kaolinitic samples. Stability decreased with increased antecedent water for unoriented kaolinitic samples. Increased orientation of the Grenada silt loam reduced stability but did not change the influence of antecedent water. Greater erosion rates occurred as the temperature of the eroding water was increased. (Key words: Erosion; soil; clay minerals.)
A regional interbasin groundwater system in the White River Area, southeastern Nevada
Authors: Eakin Thomas E.
Published: February 2008

A regional interbasin groundwater system including thirteen valleys in southeastern Nevada is generally identified on the basis of preliminary appraisals of the distribution and quantities of the estimated groundwater recharge and discharge within the region, the uniformity of discharge of the principal springs, the compatibility of the potential hydraulic gradient with regional groundwater movement, the relative hydrologic properties of the major rock groups in the region, and, to a limited extent, the chemical character of water issuing from the principal springs. The principal findings are: (1) Paleozoic carbonate rocks are the principal means of transmitting groundwater in the interbasin regional system—the regional transmissibility provisionally is estimated to be about 200,000 gal/day/ft; (2) estimates of recharge and discharge show wide discrepancies in individual valleys, but hydrologic balance with recharge and discharge estimates of about 100,000 acre‐ft/yr obtains within the thirteen‐valley region; and (3) the discharge of the Muddy River Springs, the lowest of the three principal spring groups, is shown to be highly uniform, which is consistent with their being supplied from a large regional groundwater System. The relation between this regional system and others in eastern and southern Nevada is now under study by the Geological Survey. (Key words: Hydrologic systems; hydrology (limestone); springs; groundwater.)
Use of unit‐source watersheds for hydrologic investigations in the semiarid Southwest
Authors: Kincaid D. R. , Osborn H. B. , Gardner J. L.
Published: February 2008

The unit‐source watershed is an intermediate step between plots, in which certain runoff generative processes can be isolated, and large watersheds, the yields of which are controlled by the hydraulics of their complex channel systems. Several unit‐source watersheds have been instrumented within the Walnut Gulch experimental watershed in southeastern Arizona. Their comparative data indicate some basic hydrologic relationships between net runoff and size of drainage area, the significance of storm patterns, the relation of runoff and sediment yield to vegetational cover, and hydrograph characteristics.
Salinity variations in the Connecticut River
Authors: Meade Robert H.
Published: February 2008

Salinity distributions in the lower Connecticut River, measured during the years 1934 through 1939, show the influence of at least three factors: river discharge, tide, and wind. Salinity near the mouth is rather sensitive to changes in upland discharge; discharge events recorded at a gage 101 km upstream are followed a day or two later by markedly equivalent changes in salinity at the mouth. During average or greater‐than‐average discharge conditions the lower river has the characteristics of a ‘salt‐wedge’ estuary: the water on the bottom of the river may contain 15 parts of chloride per thousand at high tide, whereas the water in the same section of the river at low tide may be almost completely fresh. The effects of winds on salinity are uncertain, but such effects can be either local or related to regional effects of winds on the tides at the river mouth. (Key words: Estuaries; sea water; Connecticut; tides)
A note on the asymmetry between fees and payments
Authors: Bramhall David F. , Mills Edwin S.
Published: February 2008

In his recent book [Kneese, 1964], Kneese compares the use of fees and payments to induce the abatement of water discharges to bodies of water. The choice is between a fee that depends on the amount of waste discharged and a payment that depends on the amount by which waste discharges are less than they would otherwise have been.

He concludes that in theory the choice between fees and payments is one of equity and not efficiency. He says, ‘Strictly from the point of view of resource allocation, it would make no difference whether an effluent charge was levied on the discharger or a payment was made to him for not discharging wastes.’ [Kneese, 1964, p. 57.] A similar statement appears on page 92. Kneese goes on to emphasize the administrative difficulties with the payments scheme. These difficulties relate primarily to the determination of what discharges would have been in the absence of the payments scheme and are particularly severe when entry and exit of waste producers are involved.