bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conformance Control of CSS and Steam Drive Process With a Carbamide Surfactant
Authors: Zhang X. , Zhang Y. , Yue Q. , Gao Y. , Shen D.
Published: March 2010

Based on physical modelling, this paper discusses the feasibility of injecting additives to control the conformance of the cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) and steam drive processes in the Biquan 10 Block of the Henan Oil Field. The lab test results show that waterflooding with the addition of a carbamide surfactant can decrease residual oil saturation by 4.7% and that steam drive with the addition of this same surfactant can improve the sweep volume and increase the oil recovery factor by 17.5%. Also, field application results confirmed that injecting this surfactant in the CSS and steam drive processes can increase oil production, lower steam-oil ratio (SOR) and improve the economic benefitssignificantly.

Introduction

The CSS process has been applied in developing the heavy oil reservoirs in the Henan Oil Field since the late 1980s. It has been clearly demonstrated that with increasing the cycles of steam stimulation, the oil production rate decreases and SOR can rapidly reach the economic limit. For improving the oil production rate and recovery factor, the steam drive process needs to be applied as a subsequent technology. However, the reservoir in the Henan Oil Field is thin and interbedded so it is a challenge to operate the conventional steam drive process. To reduce the steam channeling effect, a number of high temperature resistant plugging surfactants have been tested, but they could not achieve ideal and persistent results(1). This paper discusses the development of a new kind of conformance control agent ? carbamide surfactant. The lab testing results and field applications of the steam drive process with the addition of a carbamide surfactant in Well Group 577, Biqian 10 Block, Henan Oil Field, are described in detail below.

Mechanism and Physical Modelling

When the carbamide surfactant is injected into the reservoir with steam, carbamide decomposes into CO2 and NH3 under high temperatures. The decomposition can be expressed as follows:

Equation (available in full paper)

The physical modelling shows that, with increasing temperature and pressure, the carbamide decomposes even faster but its concentration does not affect the decomposition speed. The produced CO2 dissolves in heavy oil and NH3 can react with some acid in the oil. As a result, the heavy oil volume expands and viscosity decreases. At 50 °C, when the oil-carbamide solution (30 wt% carbamide) ratio is 4 to 1, the oil viscosity can be reduced by 73% to 80%. The single tube displacement efficiency test shows that adding carbamide solution (30 wt% carbamide) into hot water will increase the displacing efficiency by 6.5%.

Field Application and Discussion

Reservoir Geology and Production History

Well pattern 577 in the east of Biqian 10 block was selected for the field test. The well pattern is an inverted 9-spot with injector-producer spacing of 70 m and 100 m. The pay zone is the IV-9 layer of the H-3 interval in the Hetaoyuan Formation. The basic reservoir parameters are as follows:
Considerations in Bank Financing of Producing Oil Properties
Authors: Humphries R.G.
Published: March 2010

The chartered banks in Canada play an important part in the oil and gasindustry by providing a large source of funds through oil and gas productionloans, and these loans permit a number of advantages to producers in borrowingagainst production.

Production loans are self-liquidating in that repayment of the loan isobtained from the proceeds of the sale of production from the same propertythat provides security for the loan.

The development of engineering reservoir techniques and the practice ofproration has permitted forecasts of production and income under relativelystable marketing conditions which provide a sound basis for the loan.

Three principal elements considered in a production loan are:

1. The factors which determine whether the borrower can be described as a"good borrower."

2. The engineering report and economic and loan evaluation of theproperties.

3. The legal documentation and registration of security.

A number of criteria are used by the banks in determining the amount of aloan which can be advanced against a given property. These criteria relate tothe projected net income, reserves, and fair market value of the property.

When all of the requirements have been satisfied and the amount of the loanagreed upon, security is taken by a very simple document which is provided forby Section 82 of the Bank Act.

Oil payment loans are widely used in the United States for oil propertyfinancing. Canadian tax laws differ from those in the United States and thesedifferences, particularly the absence of a provision for cost depletion, haveprevented the application of oil payment transactions in Canada.

Although the chartered banks in Canada provide loans to all phases of theoil and gas industry, from exploration through marketing and distribution, thepurpose of this paper is to discuss only those loans which are made to theproducing segment of the industry against the security of oil and gas in theground and retired from the sale of production of the same oil and gas -the socalled production loans. It is intended to describe the criteria generally usedby the bank to determine the amount which it can safely lend against thesecurity of an oil or gas property, in order to provide a guide for theevaluation engineer. He should be able to make a reasonable estimate of theamount which can be borrowed so that he can advise his management properly ofthe economic and engineering feasibility of any project. This is especiallyimportant where a decision between alternative investments must be made and allof the economic factors must be considered.
An Approximate Practical Correlation of the Effect of Pressure on the Dew Point Temperature of Pipeline Natural Gases
Authors: Govier G.W. , Aziz K.
Published: March 2010

The dew point temperatures of normal pipeline gases are influenced not onlyby the hydrocarbon composition of the gas but also by the presence of traces ofcontaminants such as hydrate depressants and compressor oil. For this reasondew point temperatures calculated from gas analyses are frequently lower thanobserved dew points and the effect of pressure on dew point temperature is notthe same as for a pure hydrocarbon gas.

Actual dew point measurements on 16 gases were compared with calculated dewpoints and differences up to 50°F were observed. Notwithstanding these seriousdifferences the shape of the actual and the calculated dew pointtemperature-pressure curves were similar. This similarity has permitted thedevelopment of a practical correlation of the effect of pressure on the dewpoint temperature of the gases.

The correlation permits the estimation of the dew point temperature at anypressure within the range of 100 to 800 psi from its knowledge at anyonepressure within this range. The accuracy is about ±5°F for pressures in therange of 400 to 800 psi. The correlation, along with calculations of thetheoretical dew point, may also be used to estimate the degree of contaminationof pipeline gases.

Introduction

The contracts for the pipeline transportation of natural gas usually limitthe higher hydrocarbon content of the gas by specifying a maximum hydrocarbondew point. In Alberta contracts specify that the hydrocarbon dew point belimited to 15°F. up to the maximum operating pressure of the pipeline. In orderstrictly to comply with this specification the dew point temperature must bemeasured directly at the maximum operating pressure, Usually, however, thegases are available only at pressures below the maximum pipeline operatingpressure and a direct measurement is not practical. Under these conditions theengineer must either

(a) calculate the dew point at the desired higher pressure directly from theavailable gas analysis, or

(b) estimate the dew point at the higher pressure from dew pointmeasurements at some lower pressure.

A companion paper by Aziz and Govier has presented a semi-theoreticalcorrelation which facilitates the calculation. from gas analysis, ofhydrocarbon dew points of clean pipeline gases. The measured dew pointtemperatures of normal pipeline gases arc influenced not only by thehydrocarbon composition of the gas but also by the presence of traces ofcontaminants such as hydrate depressants and compressor oil. For this reason.dew point temperatures calculated from gas analyses are frequently lower thanthe observed dew points and the effect of pressure on the dew point temperatureis not the same as for a natural gas composed entirely of hydrocarbons.
Chemical-Tracer Method For Testing Segregation in Multiple - Completion Wells
Authors: Morrison A.G. , Bombardieri C.C.
Published: March 2010

As a means of testing segregation in multiple-completion wells, pressuremeasurements have a number of drawbacks and efforts to develop alternativeeffective methods have been generally unsuccessful. This paper presents achemical-tracer method which has shown good results in three field tests and isnow being patented. Its main advantages are that it:

Introduction

Development wells in oil fields having overlying, vertically spacedproducing zones are generally completed so that each zone can be producedindependently. However, these multiple-completion wells often present certaindifficulties. Faulty cementing of the casing in the well bore, failure of theproduction packers, corrosion of the well-bore tubing or the development ofvertical fractures adjacent to the well bore may permit substantial quantitiesof oil to flow between zones When this happens, any zone may be producingconsiderably more or less oil than the production figures would show.

Such erroneous production data may result in the adoption of inefficientrecovery programs. Moreover, conservation regulations restrict the amount ofoil which can be produced from each zone of a multiple-completion well andimpose penalties in cases of over-production. This means that, to ensureaccurate production records, multiple-completion wells must be tested often todetermine whether adjacent zones are segregated from one another. Obviously, then, a reliable and practical method for making these tests is essential.

Methods for Testing Segregation

Pressure Method

Multiple - completion wells are usually tested for segregation by varyingthe production rate from one zone and recording the pressure in another. Anypressure variation in the second zone generally means that the two zones arenot completely segregated. This method is reliable and satisfactory in mostcases. However, it is difficult to use where the zones have large productivityindices, because then even large quantities of oil may flow from one zone toanother without producing any significant pressure change.
A Study of Low Temperature Cementing
Authors: Thorvaldson W.M.
Published: March 2010

Since 1957 Dowell of Canada has been conducting a survey, in the field andin the laboratory, of temperatures and cementing strengths encountered drillingin Western Canada. In an attempt to rectify the seemingly inadequate cementstrengths, several different corrective measures have been developed, testedand evaluated. This paper is designed to acquaint the industry with theinvestigation from the initial surveys to the successful cementing of a stringof casing wholly in perma frost.

Introduction

Well temperatures exert a profound effect on the setting properties ofcement slurries. Consequently, cements must be carefully formulated so thatadequate thickening times are obtained for a proper placement of the slurry, yet WOC times are not unduly prolonged. In the Canadian oil fields, especiallyduring the winter months, low temperatures present a formidable problem, especially in setting surface casing, where the formation temperature is belowthe freezing point of water. Oddly enough, very few data are available onformation temperatures in the depth range of surface casing, or the effectsthat these temperatures have upon cementing practices.

The range of surface temperatures encountered is shown in Figure 1, whichshows the mean temperatures characteristic of this area. Assuming a liberaltemperature gradient of 2°F. per 100 feet and an average surface pipe depth of600 feet, it may be seen that the B.H.T. varies from approximately 50°F. in thesouth to 17°F. in the north. These temperatures, although modified by thepenetration of drilling fluids, are dangerously close to and often below theminimum temperature necessary for the setting of commonly used cements.

As an example of the formation temperatures usually encountered Figure 2shows the temperature profiles of two wells surveyed under static conditions.One of these wells was located at Resolute Bay, N.W.T., the other in northernAlaska. Both of these wells are in the continuous Perma-frost zone, indicatingfrom 1000 to 1500 feet of Perma-frost.
A Report on Gas Flow Measurement
Authors: Cleland N.A. , Aziz K.
Published: March 2010

Preface

The Edmonton Study Group on Gas Flow Measurement was formed in February,1961, by the CIM-AIME Petroleum Engineering Section, Edmonton, to study gasmeasurement problems encountered during oil and gas production in Alberta. Thisstudy was specifically concerned with problems related to oil and gasproduction, and these problems are seldom experienced in gas plant and gasutility operations.

A number of groups had been considering various solutions to the problem ofgas measurement in automated oil and gas production facilities. In most caseseach group was considering a different solution so it was felt that aco-ordinating body, such as this study group, could do much to clarify theproblems associated with the project and provide a forum for the exchange ofopinions, ideas and field results.

At the inaugural meeting of the group, sixteen organizations concerned withgas measurement were represented. These included fourteen companies engaged inoil and gas production, gas transmission and gas utility operation. Theproducing companies, represented in the group, produce in the order of 50% ofall the oil in Western Canada. In addition, the University of Alberta and the Oil and Gas Conservation Board felt the project of sufficient value toparticipate. Mr. N. A. Cleland of Hudson's Bay Oil and Gas was appointedchairman at the group.

The objectives of the group were:To review all methods of gas flow measurement suitable for use in theoil and gas industry.To evaluate the instruments employing these methods.To determine who has tested and/or accepted these instruments.To determine the accuracy and dependability of these instruments underspecified conditions.To determine the relative economics of the use of these instruments.To draw up a list of criteria which could be used for determining thesuitability of methods and instruments tor gas flow measurement.
The Rimbey Gas Plant
Authors: Chmilar M.M.
Published: March 2010

The Rimbey Gas Plant was designed and constructed to serve two fields, theWesterose South (Dick Lake) field and the Homeglen Rimbey field. This is one ofthe largest gas plants in Canada, having a design capacity of 326 MM SCF perday of inlet gas. The layout and process design together with the uniquefeatures incorporated in this plant are presented. These include high pressuredemethanization for the reduction of recycle gas compression, centrifugalcompressors for propane refrigerant compression, and a hydraulic turbine forpower recovery from the rich high pressure amine solution.

Introduction

The Rimbey Gas Plant was designed and constructed to serve two fields, the Westerose South (Dick Lake) field and the Homeglen-Rimbey field. It is locatedbetween these two fields in Section 5, Township 44, Range 1, West of the 5th Meridian. This is one of the largest gas processing plants in Canada having adesign capacity of 326 MMSCFD of inlet gas - 200 MMSCFD from the WesteroseSouth field and 126 MMSCFD from the Homeglen-Rimbey field. At these designrates the plant will produce:

The plant is jointly owned by twenty-seven companies. The design, quantityand quality of gas to be processed from the respective field was used as abasis in determining the plant ownership between the two fields. The ownershipby the individual companies is based on their participation in the units ofeither or both fields. The California Standard Oil Company is the operator ofthe Homeglen-Rimbey Unit, while The British American Oil Company Limited is theoperator of the Westerose South Unit and of the Rimbey Gas Plant.
The Technical and Economic Aspects of Helium Production in Saskatchewan
Authors: Lee H.
Published: March 2010

The demand for helium in North America is expected to increase from thepresent rate of 600 million cubic feet per year to over two billion cubic feetper year by 1980. At the present time the United States Government virtuallycontrols all the production and distribution of helium and consumes over 75% ofthe helium produced in the free world.

The recent discovery of helium in Saskatchewan represents the firstsignificant find of this valuable gas outside of the United States. This studyindicates that development of these recently discovered reserves is bothcommercially feasible and desirable.

Once a helium industry is established in Saskatchewan, and hence, Canadianavailability and control of a valuable resource, it is expected that productioncan be increased considerably to meet both the demands of Canada and those of asizeable overseas export market. Output from the proposed helium plant wouldprobably have an initial capacity of 10 million cubic feet per year, withproduction increasing to upwards of 20 million cubic feet or more per year oncethe consumers realize that a reliable source of supply is assured.

Introduction

Considerable attention is currently focused on the recent discoveries ofhelium in Saskatchewan. In recognition of this keen interest both within Canadaand elsewhere, the Department of Mineral Resources' engineering division hascarried out a study regarding the technical and economical aspects ofestablishing a plant for the production of helium in this province.

In addition to investigating the low temperature helium extraction process, data are also presented on the promising, but comparatively new"diffusion-through-glass" process. Both processes have advantages anddisadvantages. The low temperature process has been tried and proven by manyyears of operation, but the latter process has the advantage of being veryflexible and possibly lower in capital cost. However, this process has not beenproven beyond the experimental stage.
A Computer Model for Evaluating the Impact of Fossil Fuel Transportation Research
Authors: Hodgson G.W. , Mansfield R.J.
Published: March 2010

The distribution of fossil fuels in a large country such as Canada where thesources of coal, gas and oil are remote from the principal thermal energymarkets poses many complex problems, most of which centre upon the matter oftransportation. Even the matter of transportation of such competing fuelspresents a remarkably complex inter-play of a large number of major and minorvariables. In the present study, a computer model was devised to examine theeffect of the principal variables, on-site costs, growth rates and time, and tointerpret these in terms of the results which would be expected to arise fromscientific and technological advances over and above those to be expected inthe ordinary year-to- year developments in the transportation industry. To dothis, a reference distribution for the three competing fuels was established byselecting specific values for the several variables on the basis of pasthistory and considered judgment. This was then projected three decades into thefuture. The effect of the several variables was examined, and apparently themost significant were the on-site cost of crude oil and natural gas, and thegrowth rates for the same costs. The reference picture indicated a Steadytakeover of the thermal energy market by coal, with the coal market extendingover a 2,000-mile radius within about twenty years. Evaluation of hypotheticalresearch advances over and above the normal year-to-year advances indicatedthat only in the field of coal transportation was there likely to be a markedresponse to these advances. Therefore, special funds and energies might well bedirected toward this area of transportation research, but only on the clearunderstanding that successful research would only hasten the establishment ofan energy market pattern which is likely to come about in due course, in anycase.
Recent Achievements With the Formation Tester in Canada
Authors: Banks K.M.
Published: March 2010

Since its introduction in Canada, the wire-line Formation Tester has provento be valuable in evaluating prospective oil- and gas-bearing formations. Inthis paper, firstly, the procedures presently used in interpreting FormationTester results will be reviewed. Then, a method will be discussed fordetermining formation permeability from Formation Tester recovery and log data.For both of these, illustrative field examples are given.

In addition, an empirical technique is proposed for estimating gasproduction rates in gas wells. Field examples are presented which illustratethe procedures involved and show some typical results that have beenobtained.

Introduction

The wire-line Formation Tester is used extensively throughout Western Canadafor the evaluation of prospective oil- and gas-bearing formations. Since itsintroduction in Canada, approximately 1,300 successful tests have been made.The primary purpose of these tests is to determine the fluid content andpressure of the formation. The information derived has allowed refinements ofthe existing interpretation techniques.

Some present techniques for interpreting formation fluid content are coveredin this paper. In addition, methods are discussed whereby Formation Tester dataare used to determine formation permeability and to estimate gas productionrates.

Interpretation of Recovery

Field experience with the wire-line Formation Tester run on logging cable, and comparison of recoveries obtained with production data, have furnished thebasis for several methods of determining formation fluid content. Althoughthese interpretation techniques may vary somewhat from area to area, dependingupon local conditions, they are basically the same. Fundamentally, allwire-line Formation Tester interpretations depend upon the amounts and thenature of gas, oil, and water that are recovered. Recovery of free gas and/oroil usually indicates a good probability that the tested zone will producehydrocarbons upon completion.
The Role of Technology in the Conservation of Oil and Gas
Authors: Hocott C.R.
Published: March 2010

Among enlightened citizens, conservation of the nation's natural resourcesis a patriotic obligation. The great stakes of the nation in a continuous, ample supply of oil and gas make it imperative that the various groups of oursociety work cooperatively to promote and to maintain a sound, vigorous policyof oil conservation. One difficulty in maintaining effective conservationprogrammes derives from the different connotations of the word "conservation"itself. To many people, conservation means simply the act of hoarding orpreserving. Although Webster gives this as a common definition, the very natureof a natural resource obviates such a meaning when applied to it. In naturalresource industries, conservation has come as a matter of course to meanefficient, non-wasteful operating practices. This principle is readilyunderstood in the realm of human resources. For instance, we know that a mancannot conserve his strength through inactivity. Under such a condition hisstrength will atrophy. It is only by careful use and frequent exercise thatstrength is conserved. Somewhat similarly, the health and vigour of a naturalresource industry is promoted by efficient development and production of theresource. Wasteful practices not only decrease the quantity of a resourceavailable for public consumption but also increase unit costs. Cost increasesin turn tend to discourage consumption. The over-all effect, then, of thefailure of an industry to practice sound conservation policies strikes at thevery heart of the industry itself as well as at the public interest.

The nature of conservation varies quite widely among different resourceindustries. For instance, an industry dealing in a replenishable resource maywell attempt to perpetuate the supply. Gigantic reforestation programmesprovide one outstanding example of how the far seeing lumber industry has metthis problem of maintaining a continuous supply.
Distribution and Behaviour of Oil and Water in Mississippian Limestone Reservoirs, Southeastern Saskatchewan
Authors: Edie Ralph W.
Published: March 2010

In the Mississippian of southeastern Saskatchewan, variations in performanceof individual wells or segments of limestone oil fields commonly result frommarked lateral variations in the amount and type of porosity together with thepresence of numerous impermeable barriers within the reservoir unit.

Porosity in limestones is classified asinterparticulate,vuggy andfracture.

Interparticulate porosity includes intergranular (characteristicof calcarenites) and intercrystalline (typical of secondary dolomites). Vugsare cavities that are distinctly larger than the size of particles comprisingthe rock matrix.

Unfractured, well sorted calcarenites finer than the Wentworth fine grainsize invariably have insufficient permeability for an effective oil reservoir.In contrast, the minimum crystal size for an effective unfractured sucrosicdolomite reservoir falls in the Wentworth very fine size range.

Interstitial water content of Mississippian limestone oil reservoirs ofsoutheastern Saskatchewan exhibiting good interparticulate porosity commonlyrange from 20 to 40%. However, where the limestone is characterized by vugsassociated with dense lime mudstone matrix, interstitial water saturations aregenerally much higher despite the presence of relatively good permeability. Thehigh interstitial water content of such vuggy rocks is due to inability of oilacting under much of the water, as many vugs are not connected from beneath.Water trapped in the bottom of such vugs is free to move laterally duringdrillstem and production tests.

Interstitial water is commonly at a minimum along the axes ofanticlinal noses and increases markedly along the flanks even where thereservoir bed is structurally above the free oil-water contact. The increasedwater saturation along flanks of anticlinal structures is believed due tonatural oil flooding which, at the time of oil accumulation, proceeds from thecrests of the anticinal nose laterally down the flanks and has an efficiencysomewhat similar to that of induced water flooding, as considerable water isby-passed in the reservoir.
Geochemical Studies of Natural Gas Part III. Inert Gases in Western Canadian Natural Gases
Authors: Hitchon Brian
Published: March 2010

In natural gases, the stratigraphic and geographic variations in thecontents of both nitrogen and helium are of geochemical interest, although onlyhelium is of commercial importance. Nitrogen may originate from a great varietyof sources, including air, either originally trapped in the sediments orintroduced dissolved in percolating groundwaters, the denitrification ofnitrogenous compounds or the decay of certain radioactive minerals.

In contrast, there exist radioactive sources for all natural helium, andthus the problem of the migration and accumulation of helium in rocks differsfrom that of the other components of natural gases. Helium owes its originmainly to the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium, and its accumulation tothe differential rates of upward diffusion through the sedimentary strata fromthe basement rocks. The geochemical evidence gives credence to a mathematicalmodel of the diffusion process, with special reference to helium.

Contents of nitrogen ranging from about 8 per cent to 85 per centcharacterize natural gases in southern Alberta from strata ranging in age fromUpper Devonian to Lower Cretaceous. In strata of the Middle Devonian Elk PointGroup, the amount of nitrogen in natural gases increases to a maximum of nearly20 per cent as the depositional edge in the Peace River region is approached.Elsewhere, in other stratigraphic units, concentrations are generally less than10 per cent. Concentrations of helium generally over 0.1 per cent are foundpredominantly in natural gases from the Peace River arch, the Sweetgrass archand the hinge belt of the Alberta basin. Contents in the range of 1.0 to 1.9per cent helium have been found in the commercial gas occurrences in UpperCambrian strata in southern Saskatchewan.

Introduction

This paper is the third and final part of a series concerned with thegeochemistry of natural gas in Western Canada.
Depletion, Gas Conservation, Cycling and Pressure Maintenance Performance - Harmattan East Rundle Pool, Alberta
Authors: Fehlberg E.L. , Nielsen W.M.R. , Taylor R.L.
Published: March 2010

The Harmattan East Rundle oil and associated gas-cap accumulation iscontained in a stratigraphic trap limited downdip on the oil leg by anerosional channel and updip in the gas cap by truncation of the Turner Valleyformation of the Rundle group. A total of 178 million barrels of stock tank oiland 1,100 Bcf of associated gas-cap gas were estimated to be originally inplace. The gas cap is shut-in pending reasonable depletion of the oil column. Agas-cap cycling scheme was engineered to increase and accelerate recovery ofgas-cap liquids and to partially maintain oil-column pressure during cycling. Anumerical solution to the differential equation for two-dimensional horizontalsteady-state flow was used to determine the location, production and injectionrates for each well in the cycling scheme. The expanded material balance, unsteady-state flow and gas displacement equations were combined for predictingthe performance of this combination-drive reservoir.

Introduction

The Harmattan East reservoir, discovered in 1956, is located approximately50 miles north-northwest of the city of Calgary (Figure1), in theProvince of Alberta. Oil production is obtained from the Mississippian TurnerValley formation at an average depth of 8,500 feet. The Turner Valley erosionalremnant is underlain by impermeable shales and sandstones of Jurassic andCretaceous age. Reservoir development within this formation occurs in zones ofporous dolomite with associated beds of dense limestone.

The east, south and west productive limits of the field have been fairlywell established. The northern limit, however, has yet to be defined.Development of the oil column is nearly complete and, as of January 1, 1963, there were ninety producing oil wells on 80-acre spacing. Gas-cap developmenthas resulted in sixteen gas-condensate wells. In December of 1961, a scheme forconserving casinghead gas was initiated.
Use of Direct Electrical Current for Increasing the Flow Rate of Reservoir Fluids During Petroleum Recovery
Authors: Amba S.A. , Chilingar G.V. , Beeson C.M.
Published: March 2010

Synthetic cores containing various percentages of different clay mineralswere flooded with water which contained different types of salts in variedamounts, and the flow rate was measured during the application of directelectrical current at varying current density. Kerosene also was used as theflowing fluid, and some chemical additives, such as sodium acid pyrophosphate, were tested in conjunction with the application of electrical current.

The experimental results indicated that the increase in the flow rate ofliquids was due not only to the electroosmotic effect but also to some changesin the pore structure. These changes in the pore configuration took placeduring the electrochemical treatment and generally resulted in higher finalhydrodynamic permeability. As a result of the physicochemical changes in theclay properties, the tendency of the clay to swell and absorb water wasmarkedly decreased. In these systems, the electrical or electrochemicaltreatment appeared to be an irreversible process. The extent to which theseelectrochemical changes were produced depended in general on the amount ofcurrent passed, the magnitude of potential gradient imposed, the amount andtype of clay minerals present, and the type and concentration of electrolyticsolution used.

Introduction

The increasing importance of either primary or secondary recovery of oilfrom tight, clayey formations, and the difficulties encountered in suchrecovery due to clay swelling, suggested the possibility of utilizing directelectrical current to augment reservoir energy. The effective permeability tooil, especially around the borehole, greatly affects the productivity of an oilzone. A decrease in the relative oil permeability around the well can be causedby infiltration of the mud cake filtrate. This suggested the use ofelectrochemical treatment as a method for well stimulation.
LPG - A New Element in Canadian Energy
Authors: Getgood John
Published: March 2010

It is a genuine pleasure to be here this evening and to participate in thisseries of talks sponsored by the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.As one who has worked all his business life in the petroleum industry, Iespecially appreciate an opportunity to associate with this highly respectedorganization. As many of you know, we oilmen were for a long time regarded asrank-outsiders to the serious profession of mining. Some of the moreconservative, hard-rock members of this Institute looked upon us as meredabblers in the business of exploring the earth's crust and, I suppose, theythought none of us had any more claim to being mining men than a gravedigger ora fisherman who goes spading for worms in his back yard.

Fortunately, here in Alberta, that antiquated idea was buried some years agoand a special petroleum section of the Institute was formed. The record provesthat it has been a valuable association for all concerned. Our mutual interestsare clearly shown in this series of talks in which uranium, coal, natural gasand oil men are getting together to discuss their common roles as suppliers ofenergy to the Canadian Nation.

As I stand here tonight, with the uncomfortable chore of trying to make aspeech, I just wonder if the Institute did not have an ulterior motive inadmitting oilmen to membership. Perhaps they had heard that story about theloud-mouthed young recruit who showed up at the army training camp. Thesergeant listened as long as he could stand it, then turned to the corporal andsaid: "What makes this kid talk so much?" "He can't help it," said thecorporal, "his mother was a woman and his father was an oilman."
An Investigation Concerning the Material Balance Equation Part One: The Linear Form of the Equation
Authors: Nader W.
Published: March 2010

The Material Balance Method, as applied to petroleum reservoirs, isinvestigated in this paper. Using less restrictive assumptions than are usuallyemployed, a Material Balance Equation is derived which is linearin theunknown reservoir parameters - initial oil, free gas, interstitial water androck material in place, and water encroachment factor. Both systematic andrandom errors are discussed. The elimination of random errors by the use of the Principle of Least Squares and the detection of systematic errors, althoughonly mentioned at this time, will be shown in detail in the second part of thestudy.

Introduction

The solution of specific problems in petroleum engineering often dependsupon the successful application of ideas, methods, techniques and tools, originally developed in other branches of engineering or the sciences.Consequently, every year, new ideas are introduced into petroleum engineeringfrom other disciplines. Recently, for instance, the expanding usage ofelectronic computer devices has drawn attention to the mathematical methods of Linear Algebra. Naturally, it is now realized that the application of thismethod need not be restricted to computer usage.

In general, the introduction of a new technique will necessitate areappraisal of present methods. This action may result in some modification inthe approach to and the formulation of certain problems. Such alterations mayormay not require modifications of the original principles involved.

This investigation presents the case of the ‘Material Balance Principle’ andthe ‘Material Balance Equation’ in view of the above-mentioned Linear Algebra.The original form of the Equation and several of its modifications suffer fromtheir non-linear character, which severely restricts their usefulness, whenconsidering modern requirements. Thus, the application of the Principle of Least Squares - another one of the more recently acquired tools - is found tobe an awkward task. For example, the use of the Principle may lead to atrial-and-error search for the ‘best’ numerical values of certain reservoirparameters.
Radial Motion of a Surface Between Fluids Within a Porous Medium
Authors: Perrine R.L. , Gay G.M.
Published: March 2010

Economic use of solvent flooding for secondary recovery of oil requires thelimitation of miscible solvent. In turn, solvent requirements depend onspreading from dispersion; reservoir heterogeneity, viscous fingering, and thetendency for low-density solvent to rise above oil, or to override.

This paper considers miscible displacement outward from a central well in alarge cylindrical system. Under appropriate conditions, initial viscous fingersmay become damped out as they are spread in several directions by gravity anddispersion. Mathematically, displacement behaviour is represented by theradially outward motion of a free surface, representing the "interface" betweenfluids, from injection well toward producing wells. The equivalent linearproblem has been reported by several authors, but extrapolation to thecylindrical case is not justified.

An approximate equation of motion for the free surface is deduced. Solutionsof the nonlinear equation are obtained by finite difference methods. For thelimiting case of a small density difference, just enough to cause fluidsegregation, a simple analytical solution describes the motion of the endpoints of the surface. Comparison with numerical results shows that the simplesolution provides a useful measure of the anticipated overrideforessentially all practical conditions.

Introduction

The injection of a miscible solvent to displace oil from a reservoir is apotentially valuable secondary recovery method. Field application has shownvarying degrees of success, however. Economic use of the process places a limiton the quantity of miscible solvent that may be used. In turn, the solventrequirement depends on the spreading initiated by viscous fingering (1), dispersion (2), pattern effects which cause incomplete sweepout, reservoirheterogeneity which leads to rapid breakthrough in portions of the reservoir,an d on the tendency for the solvent to override the oil. The latter is causedby a combination of density and viscosity differences.
Formation Evaluation in Heavy Oil Sands
Authors: Brown James S.
Published: March 2010

"Formation evaluation" comprises correlation, reservoir detection andreservoir evaluation. In the Chauvin, Wainwright and Lloydminster areas, theprincipal heavy oil reservoir is the Sparky sand. The oil sand pools are surrounded by halos or "channels" of shale. Correlation is more difficult inthe Lloydminster area than in the Wainwright area or the Chauvin area becausethe sand distribution is more complex. Reservoir detection is more difficult at Wainwright and Chauvin because the oil sands are thin and apparent resistivities are low; at Lloydminster, the oil sands are thick and apparent resistivities are high. At Wainwright and Chauvin, a resistivity log, aporosity log and often a drill stem test are necessary for a decision to set pipe; at Lloydminster, all that is required is an electrical log. Productivity varies considerably from pool to pool, probably because of changes in sand permeability and oil viscosity. As these changes cannot be detected by the electrical log prior to setting pipe, the present practice is to determine productivity by production testing after setting, pipe. Transmissibility(kh)/u, as derived from drill stem test data, may provide a means of estimating productivity prior to setting pipe.

Introduction

The techniques used for formation evaluation vary from area to area, as each area has problems which are peculiar to it. The purpose of this paper is to discuss some of the problems peculiar to the heavy oil reservoirs of the Lloydminster, Chauvin and Wainwright areas, and to mention certain techniques which provide the necessary data simply and economically. In the following, the Lloydminster area will be discussed first; this will be followed by adiscussion of the Wainwright and Chauvin areas. The geology of each area willbe commented on, but only insofar as it bears on the problem of correlation andreservoir identification.
Design of Hot Water Tracer Systems to Prevent Hydrate Formation in Gas Gathering Lines
Authors: Lukacs J. , Leith H.E. , Nader W.
Published: March 2010

This paper is a follow-up to a similar paper, presented at the C.I.M.Petroleum and Natural Gas Division's Annual Technical Meeting in Calgary in1962, on the method for transporting wet natural gases utilizing hot watertracing. In this paper, this new approach in gas gathering is examined in lightof two years' operating history, with special emphasis on the heat transferbetween pipes and the soil. Solutions for the steady-rate heat transfer fromsingle pipes and parallel buried pipes are presented in the paper.

Practical soil conductivities were calculated, using these equations, fromsix months of test data. It was found that the over-all thermal conductivity inthe Wildcat Hills field varies only between 0.4 and 0.65 Btu/(hr.) (sq. ft.)(°F/ft.), in spite of the wide variety of soil types.

Based on the experience gained from the operation of the Wildcat Hillstracer system, and from heat transfer studies, a suggested design procedure ispresented in the paper.

Introduction

Natural gases form hydrates in the presence of free water at temperatures higher than the freezing point of water. The temperature of hydrate formationis a function of the pressure and the composition of the gas. One way to prevent hydrate formation is to maintain the gas temperature above the hydrate formation temperature. A tracer system can be defined as a means of hydratecontrol by heating gas gathering lines with hot water lines. The application ofthis method to gas gathering systems was proposed by Mr. T. Nitescu, president of Canadian Fina Oil Limited. The basic principle of the tracer system is thatby maintaining the soil around the gas pipe at or above the temperature of thegas, there would be no heat loss from the gas to the soil. The soil around the gas line is heated by a hot water line or, as generally referred to in this paper, the "tracer line."
Basic Contrasts Underlying Petroleum Land Policies of the United States and Canada
Authors: Thompson A.R.
Published: March 2010

The early policies and legislation under which petroleum was developed onthe "public domain" lands in the United States and on the "Dominion lands" in Canada are examined to reveal some important contrasts. The most importantcontrast is found in mineral reservation policies, which in Canada reservedmost petroleum lands for public ownership – first federal and then provincial. The author finds differing emphasis in these policies and legislation, which hecharacterizes as individualistic in the United States and paternalistic in Canada. The paternalistic emphasis in Canada has historical roots in indigenouspetroleum legislation uninfluenced by the free-miner tradition from the very beginning in Alberta; in the authoritarian nature of government in the Canadian West under the regime of the Hudson's Bay Company, and later of the Canadian Pacific Railway and the federal Department of the Interior; and, finally, in aconstitutional setting enabling a more pervasive public interest tocharacterize petroleum lands legislation in Canada.

Introduction

It is hardly necessary to remind an audience of petroleum geologists and engineers that the Crown-owned petroleum rights in Western Canada are of majorsignificance. However, it is well to set the stage for this paper by statingthat Crown-owned lands and minerals exceed one billion acres in Alberta, Manitoba and Saskatchewan and in the Northwest and Yukon Territories, includingthe Arctic Islands, that they encompass the Athabasca oil sands, andthat, from conventional oil fields, they account for more than two-thirds of Canada's petroleum reserves and production.

The purpose of this paper is to study the background of these publicly-owned lands and to compare this background with the history of the public domain lands in the United States for what light can be shed on modern-day developments.

I do not intend to review the history of the inception of the Crown-ownedlands in Western Canada. This subject has been dealt with by other speakers onother occasions, notably by Mr. Somerville, the deputy minister of Mines and Minerals. I shall merely refer to some highlights.
Application of Computer Technology to Reservoir Studies in Canada
Authors: Irby T.L. , Arps I.H.
Published: March 2010

Three-dimensional block models of petroleum reservoirs can be mathematicallyconstructed and solved by high-speed digital computers. Machine programs havebeen written which will solve a reservoir model consisting of more than 5,000 blocks. This permits the effect of areal variations of thickness, porosity and permeability to be studied in much more detail than was formerly possible. Themodels are particularly applicable in pressure maintenance and secondary recovery studies, but are also useful for optimizing well spacing during development operations.

Introduction

In the oil-producing areas of Canada, the use of mathematical model studies performed by high-speed computers is feasible for more major fields and wouldproduce more advantageous information than in any comparable oil-producing areaof the world today. This is primarily because the Canadian oil industry is ayoung one; most fields have been developed since the importance of applyingreservoir engineering principles to production was realized. Also, thedevelopment has taken place during a period when advanced technology permitted the acquisition of adequate data on reservoir and formation characteristics.That is, diamond coring and methods of regular and special core analysis were available, and modern logging methods, with logs which would give quantitative information, were offered. During the major development period, members of both industry and the Conservation Board recognized the need for obtaining sufficient reservoir data, not only from cores and logs but also from performance, so that well production tests, pressure surveys and build-up or drawdown data are usually available. Also, the importance of early pressure maintenance projects to obtain maximum recovery, and cooperation in the unitization of fields to obtain this end, has been well recognized.

Maximum use of the available data for reservoir performance studies and predictions can be made today through numerical models designed for modern computers. We have used these models successfully in a number of large fields, and their value has been proved.