bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Lewis on Intentionality
Authors: Stalnaker Robert
Published: November 2023

David Lewis’s account of intentionality is a version of what he calls ‘global descriptivism’. The rough idea is that the correct interpretation of one’s total theory is the one (among the admissibleinterpretations) that come closest to making it true. I give an exposition of this account, as I understand it, and try to bring out some of its consequences. I argue that there is a tension between Lewis’s global descriptivism and his rejection of a linguistic account of the intentionality of thought. I distinguish some different senses in which Lewis’s theory might permit, or be committed to, a kind of holism about intentional content, and I consider the sense in which Lewis’s account might be said to be an internalistaccount, and the motivation for this kind of internalism. David Lewis’s account of intentional states and intentional content is an internalistone, in a sense: he is a proponent of narrow content. His strategy for solving the problem of intentionality is the most explicit and well developed internalise strategy that I know of, and I think it helps to bring out some consequences that any internalise account will have. Lewis’s constructive proposals along with his criticisms of alternative strategies also throw light on a range of issues that keep recurring in the debates about intentionality, questions about the relation between language and thought, about holism, about the relation between internal and external perspectives on the content of speech acts and propositional attitudes.
Transworld Similarity and Transworld Belief
Authors: Taylor Barry
Published: November 2023

Relations of trans world similarity play an essential role in Lewis’s system. Analysis reveals that they involve the possibility of detailed trans world belief. Such belief is problematic within Lewis’s framework. He has an answer to the problems raised, but it relies on a dubious distinction between natural and mere properties. Replacing that distinction with a respectable one undermines an essential part of his case against one of his chief opponents, the linguistic ersatzist. David Lewis’s untimely demise leaves a legacy which is a jewel in the crown of 20th Century analytical philosophy-a systematic metaphysical system, with its core doctrines in the theory of possible worlds meticulously detailed, and their implications carefully traced, through semantics and the philosophy of mind, even unto the realms of value theory. It is, then, natural that the lengthy, more-or-less annual visits to Australia, made following his first visit in 1971 as a Gavin David Young Lecturer to the University of Adelaide, should have made a weighty impact on the Australian philosophical community. After all, part of the attraction of the place for him was that its philosophical climate was already predisposed to systematic metaphysics; moreover, even in this age of easy access and communication, Lewis’s contact with the Australian philosophical community as a whole far exceeded that of any comparable external influence over the past twenty years.
The Popularity of Bureaucracy: Involvement in Voluntary Associations
Authors: Savage Mike
Published: November 2023

Much of the engagement with Weber’s theory of bureaucracy since the 1950s has been concerned with whether it really delivers the kind of rational and efficient administration that it purports to (Blau 1956; Crozier 1964; Albrow 1970). It is increasingly clear, however, that for Weber, such arguments miss the point. Weber developed his concept of bureaucracy to differentiate modern forms of organization from those in earlier historical periods. Although Bauman (1988) reminds us (in true Weberian manner) that the ensuing differentiation of means from ends permits bureaucracy to promote all manner of evil, it is this historical focus which explains Weber’s guarded support for bureaucracy (on which see du Gay 2000). Compared with older forms of administration, bureaucratic organizations did not belong to particular social classes, groups, institutions, or entities.1 The inherent differentiation between bureaucratic organizations and their officers allowed the potential for bureaucracies to sustain democratic modes of governance. Although this in no way guaranteed that bureaucracy would lend itself to democracy, Weber’s theory insisted on posing the counter­factual.
The Road To Fairness And Beyond
Authors: Folger Robert
Published: November 2023

Like the realtor’s ‘‘location, location, location’’ mantra, surely ‘‘colleagues, col-leagues, colleagues’’ is key to research and theory building. My debts of that kind are legion. Indeed, one of my concerns about this chronicle is that I might inadvertently omit some names among the friends, relatives, and colleagues who’ve helped me in intellectual quests. For that reason, this preface notes my apologies to those who remain unnoted.
Managing Organizational Knowledge Theoretical And Methodological Foundations
Authors: Nonaka Ikujiro
Published: November 2023

It has been more than ten years since a series of papers on knowledge creation was published (Nonaka, 1991, 1994; Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995), and we have seen a significant amount of publication concerning knowledge in the management science Weld since then. As one of the most important resources for a Warm, knowledge has been researched and discussed in every aspect of management science, such as strategy, marketing, accounting, organizational science, organizational learning, and economics.
The Experience Of Theorizing Sensemaking As Topic And Resource
Authors: Weick Karl E
Published: November 2023

The experience of theorizing is much like the experience of sense making. Both consist of actions that are explicative, evocative, equivocality reducing, exegetical, transient, narrative, embedded in paradigms, and meaningful. It is this correspondence that supplies both the topic and the resources for this chapter. And it is respect for this correspondence that is characteristic of the actual process of theory development that will be described. This correspondence is noteworthy since it is often neglected in polished prescriptions for steps to follow when trying to develop theory (e.g., Donaldson, 2003).
The Word Made Flesh: Dualism, Physicalism, and the Incarnation
Authors: Merricks Trenton
Published: November 2023

The Incarnation is beautiful and mysterious, awe-inspiring and humbling. The metaphysics of “embodiment” is, in comparison, drab and petty. And so a paper on the Incarnation that focused on God the Son’s relation to his body would be like a paper on the history of music that focused on the kazoo. Nevertheless, I shall ask: “How is the incarnate God the Son related to his body?”
‘Aarhus Environmental Rights’ in Eastern Europe
Authors: Stec Stephen
Published: November 2023

The Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision making, and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (the Aarhus Convention) has been in force since 30 October 2001. Upon entry into force, a disproportionate number of the initial sixteen parties came from the Eastern part of Europe, including accession countries that joined the European Union (EU) in May 2004. Of the current 30 parties, their status vis-a-vis the EU are as follows: six out of fifteen ‘old’ Member States, nine out of ten New Member States, two out of four candidate countries, two out of four pre-accession countries. Other parties include ten out of twelve countries of the Commonwealth of lndependent States, and Norway.
Ewe Serial Verb Constructions in their Grammatical Context
Authors: Ameka Felix K
Published: November 2023

Serial verb constructions (SVCs) have long been recognized in West African languages (e.g. Christaller 1875; Westermann 1907, 1930) and have been investigated in various frameworks (e.g. Bodomo 2002; Dechaine 1993). Nevertheless, there is very little understanding of their place in the overall grammatical architecture of individual languages (Delplanque 1998). This chapter seeks to describe the features of SVCs in Ewe and to situate them in the grammatical profile of the language. Although Ewe is said to have ‘uncontroversial cases’ of SVCs (Creissels 2000: 240), there is some confusion concerning which structures fall under SVCs (Lord 1993: 2; Co1lins 1997; Agbedor 1994). Another aim of the chapter is therefore to clarify, for Ewe, the relationship between SVC stricto sensu and other multiverb constructions whose functional equivalents may be SVCs in other languages.
Introduction to 1987 Edition
Authors: Hampshire Stuart
Published: November 2023

The interpretation of a great philosopher cannot be altogether independent of the philosophical interests of the interpreter, and any interpretation will always to some degree reflect the predominant arguments in the philosophy of its time. Iri Britain, as else where, philosophical discussion has opened up several new perspectives and new areas of interest since 1951, when this study was first published, in the aftermath of logical positivism and in the first high enthusiasm of the new analytical philosophy. There fore some amplifications and corrections are now needed to do justice to those aspects of Spinoza’s thought which I did not sufficiently stress or develop in 1951, and which seem to me more important now than they did at that time.
Editorial Foreword
Authors: Hampshire Stuart
Published: November 2023

Professor Stuart Hampshire’s study of the philosophy of Spinoza is one of a series of philosophical works which are to appear in a similar form. In the main this series is devoted to the history of philosophy; it will contain original studies of the work of a number of outstanding philosophers from Plato to Peirce; but it is also to include books on more general topics, such as logic, the theory of knowledge, political philosophy, ethics and the philosophy of science.
Freedom and Morality
Authors: Hampshire Stuart
Published: November 2023

Man is part of Nature, and therefore the moralist must be a naturalist; no moral philosopher has stated this principle of method more clearly, or adhered to it more ruthlessly, than Spinoza. The actual servitude and unhappiness of man, and his ideally possible freedom and happiness, are both to be impartially deduced and explained as the necessary consequences of his status as a finite mode in Nature; exhortation and appeals to emotion and desire are as useless and as irrelevant in moral as in natural philosophy.
The Nature of Metaphysics
Authors: Hampshire Stuart
Published: November 2023

There are many ways in which a great metaphysical system such as Spinoza’s may be studied and enjoyed; one may appreciate its rigour and consistency very much as a theory in pure mathematics may be appreciated: as a piece of intellectual architecture of which the various parts fit together to form an imposing fabric of abstract concepts. This is certainly not how he himself would have wished his system to be regarded; and such an approach would not bring out its permanent importance as a contribution to philosophy.
Spinoza and the Idea of Freedom
Authors: Hampshire Stuart
Published: November 2023

I believe that everyone who has ever written about Spinoza, and who has tried to interpret his thought as a whole, either has been, or ought to have been, uneasily aware of some partiality in his interpretation, when he turns once again from his own words to the original. Certainly this is my own position. When the study of Spinoza is reviewed historically, one sees that each commentator, unconsciously faithful to his own age and to his own philosophical culture, has seized upon some one element in Spinoza’s thought; he then proceeds to develop the whole of the philosophy from this single centre.
Ramsey on Universals
Authors: Macbride Fraser
Published: November 2023

Is there a fundamental division of objects into two classes, particulars and universals? This was the question that Ramsey set out to address in his 1925 Mind paper ‘Universals’. After considering a variety of different arguments in favour of a fundamental division he came to the sceptical conclusion that there was no reason to suppose such a division between particulars and universals obtained. The theory of universals, Ramsey declared, was ‘nothing but a muddle’ (1925c: 30).
What does subjective decision theory tell us?
Authors: Mellor D H
Published: November 2023

By ‘subjective decision theory’, or ‘SDT’ for short, I shall here mean the common core of the subjective decision theories of Ramsey (1926c), Savage (1972), Jeffrey (1983), and others, ignoring differences of detail. This core theory bases an assessment of decisions to act on two features of the possible outcomes of alternative actions: how probable they are and how valuable they are—or rather, how probable and valuable we think they are as we make our decisions. For the probabilities and values which SDT invokes are not objective chances or values, if such there be. They are measures of how strongly, while deciding how to act, we believe in and desire various possible outcomes of our actions.
Introduction
Authors: Misak Cheryl
Published: November 2023

As Robert Westbrook, our best intellectual historian of pragmatism, notes, pragmatists have always disagreed amongst themselves about the content of the position. Charles Sanders Peirce, the founder of the doctrine, quickly denied paternity of the child James had adopted and announced he would henceforth refer to his own doctrine as ‘pragmaticism’, a word ‘ugly enough to be safe from kidnappers’. John Dewey, though deeply indebted to James’s thinking, nonetheless took care to distinguish his own ‘instrumentalism’ from what he took to be James’s more tender-minded efforts to use pragmatism to secure religious belief. Peirce, in turn, responded to Dewey’s praise of his essay on ‘What Pragmatism Is’ (1905) with a puzzled letter noting that Dewey’s instrumental logic ‘forbids all such researches as those which I have been absorbed in for the last eighteen years’. (Westbrook 2005: 1)
Forty Years of Experience with Epilepsy in Africa
Authors: King David
Published: November 2023

Temperatures are rising. Last year we experienced the warmest recorded day ever in the UK; over the past hundred years, average global temperatures have risen by 0.6°C, and the ten warmest years on record have occurred since 1990. In summer 2003, an unprecedented heatwave swept across Europe causing up to 30,000 deaths and 13.5 billion euros worth of damage (UNEP/DEWA∼Europe, 2004) and was more than 2 degrees hotter than the previous record. The consensus among climatologists is that we are now experiencing the first effects of global warming, and that more extreme events could well be on their way. I believe that global warming is the most serious threat facing our world today. In this chapter, I discuss the evidence for this bold statement, and describe the current attempts by the UK government to try to combat this menace both as an individual nation and as part of a concerted international effort. How do we know that we are now experiencing the effects of global warming, rather than a natural blip in the climate cycle? After all, Europe experienced a ‘mini ice age’ lasting from the thirteenth to the nineteenth century; could this latest trend simply be part of a natural ‘mini warm age’? The evidence strongly suggests otherwise. There has been a widespread retreat of mountain glaciers in non-polar regions, many dating back 12,000 years, during the twentieth century; this ice evidence for global warming over the past century corroborates global measurements of temperature.
Uncertainty and Climate-change Policy
Authors: Ingham Alan , Ulph Alistair
Published: November 2023

One of the major issues in climate-change policy is the considerable uncertainty that surrounds many of the elements needed, in terms of the scientific understanding of the processes driving climate change, for example the risk of possible catastrophic effects of climate change, the impacts of any such changes on society and the economy, for example, the extent of adaptation that might take place, and the economic values to be attached to these impacts, for example the appropriate social discount rate or equity weights. This raises the obvious first question of how such uncertainties should affect decisions about the current level of abatement of greenhouse-gas emissions and hence about the correct current value of the social cost of carbon (SCC). What would be the difference in policy if explicit account is taken of uncertainties, as opposed to ignoring such uncertainties? This question is addressed in section 2 of this chapter. However, the issues surrounding uncertainty are considerably more complex than just comparing policy outcomes with uncertainty with policy outcomes when uncertainties are ignored. For some of these uncertainties will be resolved through the process of further research, for example as exemplified in the reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). This process of learning raises a crucial timing question.
Modal Fictionalism and Analysis
Authors: Kim Seahwa
Published: November 2023

Modal fictionalism was proposed as an attempt to keep the possible worlds framework but avoid the ontological commitment of this framework. While the modal realist analyzes modal claims by means of non-modal claims about possible worlds, the modal fictionalist takes this framework as a fiction, and analyzes modal claims in terms of the content of this fiction, calling it PW. Then, when P is an arbitrary modal claim, and P* is the realist’s translation of P, the modal fictionalist will assert every instance of the following schema: P iff according to PW, P*.
Moral Fictionalism
Authors: Joyce Richard
Published: November 2023

On the very last page of his book Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong, John Mackie (1977) suggests that moral discourse-which he has argued is deeply error-laden-can continue with the status of a ‘useful fiction’. I presume that most people will agree, for a variety of reasons, that morality is in some manner useful. The problem, though, is that its usefulness may depend upon its being believed, but if we have read the earlier stages of Mackie’s book and have been convinced by his arguments, then surely the possibility of believing in morality is no longer an option. Even if we somehow could carry on believing in it, surely we should not, for any recommendation in favor of having false beliefs while, at some level, knowing that they are false, is unlikely to be good advice.
Elections And Electoral Systems In The Americas: North America, Central America, and the Caribbean
Authors: Nohlen Dieter
Published: November 2023

This data handbook on Elections in the Americas is part of a wider project covering electoral data worldwide. While political scientists have been accustomed to finding information on elections ordered by country based on their economic, social and political levels of development (for example Mackie/ Rose 1991), the collection of data in this handbook follows continental lines. This is the third installment in the series, following volumes focusing on Africa in 1999 and on Asia and the Pacific (two volumes) in 2001.
Telling Pictures: The Place of Narrative in Late Modern ‘Visual Art’
Authors: Davies David
Published: November 2023

Helen Chadwick’s Viral Landscapes (1988 – 9) consists of five photographs, each three metres wide, in enamelled frames. The photographs are of the Pembrokeshire coastline, with a monochromatic rectangle to the left of each image and with smearings of paint and of what looks to be cellular matter superimposed over the entire manifold. This much one can tell by looking at the objects hanging on the gallery wall and the appended labels. However, if one reads Mark Sladen’s commentary (2004) on Chadwick’s work in the catalogue for the recent retrospective at the Barbican Gallery, one learns that the cells are samples taken from the artist’s own body, that the images of smeared paint were produced by pouring paint onto the sea and dragging a canvas through the waves, and that the various elements were merged using computer-imaging technology.
Emergency Conditionals Art & Language
Authors: Goldie Peter , Schellekens Elisabeth
Published: November 2023

We were surprised to be invited to speak at the conference on Philosophy and Conceptual Art. In fact the invitation was made to Charles Harrison. He is sometimes an academic. But he felt (a) that it would be inappropriate to respond as such, and (b) that together we would probably represent our relations with philosophy (whatever that is) to greater practical purpose; that’s to say that we might be able to represent our practice — as something that absorbs or spits out ‘philosophy’ — in such a way as to reflect the thirty-odd years of our conversation.
Vagueness and Personal Identity
Authors: Hossack Keith
Published: November 2023

If someone journeys by matter transfer booth, or undergoes a brain fission, it can seem unclear whether he himself will survive the adventure. The well-known thought-experiments about personal identity raise questions which we cannot see clearly how to answer.
Guilt, Bad Conscience, and Self-punishment in Nietzsche’s Genealogy
Authors: Janaway Christopher
Published: November 2023

The Second Treatise of On the Genealogy of Morality, entitled ‘ “Guilt,” “Bad Conscience,” and Related Matters’, has been comparatively poorly served by extended commentary. The essay admittedly follows a winding path even by Nietzsche’s standards, but I hope to reveal a central train of thought from which its many byways branch off. The central train of thought is that having a bad conscience or feeling guilty is a way in which we satisfy a fundamental need to inflict cruelty. This is achieved by turning the exercise of cruelty inwards, upon the self rather than others, and by interpreting such cruelty as a legitimate form of punishment of oneself.
Identifying The Contracting Entities
Authors: Trepte Peter
Published: November 2023

In considering the application of the Public Procurement Directives, it is necessary to determine whether the purchaser in question is a ‘contracting entity’ for the purposes of those Directives. If the purchaser does not fall within the definition of the Directives, its procurement will not be subject to the procedural requirements set out in those Directives even if, in the case of a privileged private undertaking, it remains subject to a residual observation of the principle of non-discrimination. Similarly, the voluntary application of the Directives by a body not falling within the deﬁnition does not mean that, in the event of what would be a breach of their provisions, those breaches would be open to challenge under the Directives.
Contract Award Procedures
Authors: Trepte Peter
Published: November 2023

The rules on advertising and award procedures are similar in both the public and utilities sectors. However, in view of the special characteristics of the utilities sector, the presumption in favour of open or restricted tendering found in the case of the public sector is replaced with a more fixable approach and permits the contracting entities a free choice regarding the procedures they will employ.
Rational Self-Commitment
Authors: Verbeek Bruno
Published: November 2023

After a long day at the office in Troy, Ulysses passes his favorite bar, the Sirens. From far away he can hear the laughing and singing of his friends. Back home, in the suburb of Ithaca, Penelope is waiting with dinner and he could really use a good night’s sleep. Right now, all things considered, he would prefer to go home and leave beer and Sirens for another night. However, if he comes closer to the bar, his friends will notice him and call him over to have a beer or two with them.
Xenophon at his Most Socratic (Memorabilia 4. 2)
Authors: Johnson David M
Published: November 2023

Xenophon’s Socratic writings are both more conventional and more derivative than those of Plato. But the differences are not due solely to Xenophon’s literary and philosophical shortcomings. Xenophon’s Socrates is more conventional than Plato’s because Xenophon’s intentions were different. He was more consistently concerned with defending Socrates, and he appears to have written for a wider audience than Plato. The better to defend Socrates, Xenophon argues that he was not only innocent but beneficent, and as Xenophon’s Socrates benefits others by teaching, he must be more didactic than Plato’s Socrates.
The Unity of Virtue In Plato’s Protagoras
Authors: Manuwald Bernd
Published: November 2023

After Protagoras’ great speech in the Platonic dialogue named after him, Socrates has just one ‘small point’ he would like to have explained: since Protagoras has talked about justice, temperance, and piety and called them all ‘virtue’, Socrates now enquires whether virtue is one thing and justice, temperance, and piety (etc.) are parts of it or whether all these qualities are (merely different) names of one and the same thing (329 b 5–d 1). This question (together with two further ones developed from it) forms the starting-point for a long discussion by the two interlocutors of the unity of virtue; in this part of the dialogue the disjunctive pair just outlined, as well as some others, play a significant role, but no explicitly stated result is achieved. Interpreters of the Protagoras, however, have long been trying to attribute one of the positions sketched in the dialogue to the Platonic Socrates.
Matter, Medicine, and the Mind: Asclepiades vs. Epicurus
Authors: Polito Roberto
Published: November 2023

Asclepiades of bithynia (fl. second century Bc) was not only an eminent physician, but also a philosopher. As Antiochus of Ascalon puts it, he was ‘second to none in the art of medicine and acquainted with philosophy too’. The several traces he left in philosophical literature suggest that he was more than merely acquainted with it. Nevertheless, while the principles of his physiology have been recently investigated in depth, his ‘acquaintance’ with philosophy has never been pursued as I believe it deserves.
Caring, Reflexivity, and the Structure of Volition
Authors: Wallace R Jay
Published: November 2023

Among the significant legacies of Harry Frankfurt’s work on agency and personhood is the attention he has drawn to fascinating but neglected complexities in the structure of the will. Personhood is not exhausted by the capacity for intentional action, but involves additional resources of interest and concern that help to define who we are. Thus not everything that a person does intentionally is something that the person fully identifies with. Some of the actions we perform are ones that we are estranged from in a certain sense, insofar as they do not reflect our values, priorities, and sense of what is really important in life. It thus emerges that there can be internal as well as external obstacles to the autonomous realization of our ends.
Introduction
Authors: Lepore Ernie , Ludwig Kirk
Published: November 2023

Donald Davidson’s philosophical program, one of the most influential of the second half of the twentieth century, can be seen as organized around two connected projects. The first is that of understanding the nature of human agency. The second is that of understanding the nature and function of language, and its relation to thought and the world. After a brief overview of Davidson’s life and the intellectual background of his work, we will develop these two themes in the context of the present selection of essential papers from Davidson’s corpus.
A Theistic Argument against Platonism (and in Support of Truthmakers and Divine Simplicity)
Authors: Bergmann Michael , Brower Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

Predication is an indisputable part of our linguistic behavior. By contrast, the metaphysics of predication has been a matter of dispute ever since antiquity. According to Plato—or at least Platonism, the view that goes by Plato’s name in contemporary philosophy—the truths expressed by predications such as ‘‘Socrates is wise’’ are true because there is a subject of predication (e.g. Socrates), there is an abstract property or universal (e.g. wisdom), and the subject exemplifies the property. This view is supposed to be general, applying to all predications, whether the subject of predication is a person, a planet, or a property.
The Politics of Central Banking in the United States and in the European Union
Authors: Jabko Nicolas
Published: November 2023

The US Federal Reserve was created in 1913 and has become one of the most established and well-respected public institutions in America. It is arguably the only example of a Weberian bureaucracy in the US federal government. In Europe, the protracted birth of Europe’s EMU created turmoil for central bankers through the advent of the euro in 1999. Yet the newborn ECB has quickly adapted to its role and has become the staunchest defender of the new institutional order around the European Union’s official currency.
The Intellectual Contribution of the Selfish Gene to Evolutionary Theory
Authors: Grafen Alan
Published: November 2023

A phenomenon such as Dawkins’ The Selfish Genecan be seen from many points of view and set in many contexts. Its popular success, its influence on generations of students and scholars, and its permeation of the intellectual life of many countries could all be taken as starting points. Instead, this article will begin by focusing very narrowly on the originality and intellectual significance of the ideas in The Selfish Gene, and how they stand up today in the light of further research. I will consider the book’s reception, and give reasons for the variability of esteem in which it is held.
Neoliberalization at Work: The Long Transition from Welfare to Workfare
Authors: Peck Jamie
Published: November 2023

The welfare state has been on of the key battlegrounds of the neoliberal offensive, the state-assisted ‘market revolution’ that has been unevenly ascendant for more than two decades now. In neoliberalizing countries, entitlement programs have been eroded, beneflts and eligibilities have been cut back, welfare systems and welfare recipients have been subjected to sustained political attack, and recurrent waves of reform have sought to strengthen ‘work incentives’ (see Handler 2005). In the process, welfarist rationalities, like the decommodiflcation of wage labor for designated social groups, the provision of limited shelters from labor market competition, and the standardization of services in the context of legally embedded entitlements, have progressively given way to an emergent set of workfarist logics, based on the selective recommodiflcation of wage labor, the marketization of the labor market’s boundary institutions, the activation and socialization of welfare recipients for contingent employment, and the replacement of entitlements with obligations.
Introduction to WordNet: An On-line Lexical Database
Authors: Miller George A , Beckwith Richard , Fellbaum Christiane , Gross Derek , Miller Katherine J
Published: November 2023

Standard alphabetical procedures for organizing lexical information put together words that are spelled alike and scatter words with similar or related meanings haphazardly through the list. Unfortunately, there is no obvious alternative, no other simple way for lexicographers to keep track of what has been done or for readers to find the word they are looking for. But a frequent objection to this solution is that finding things on an alphabetical list can be tedious and time-consuming. Many people who would like to refer to a dictionary decide not to bother with it because finding the information would interrupt their work and break their train of thought. In this age of computers, however, there is an answer to that complaint. One obvious reason to resort to on-line dictionaries – lexical databases that can be read by computers – is that computers can search such alphabetical lists much faster than people can. A dictionary entry can be available as soon as the target word is selected or typed into the keyboard. Moreover, since dictionaries are printed from tapes that are read by computers, it is a relatively simple matter to convert those tapes into the appropriate kind of lexical database. Putting conventional dictionaries on line seems a simple and natural marriage of the old and the new. Once computers are enlisted in the service of dictionary users, however, it quickly becomes apparent that it is grossly inefficient to use these powerful machines as little more than rapid page-turners. The challenge is to think what further use to make of them. WordNet is a proposal for a more effective combination of traditional lexicographic information and modern high-speed computation.
Exporting the Silicon Valley to Europe: How Useful is Comparative Institutional Theory?
Authors: Casper Steven
Published: November 2023

This chapter explores the link between national systems of innovation and country performance in the new economy, focusing on small entrepreneurial technology firms and the Silicon Valley model. The Silicon Valley model is a template of company organization in industries characterized by rapid technological change, high returns for new product innovators, and, typically, strong intellectual property regimes. These characteristics prompt races among large numbers of entrants to invent, patent, and commercialize new technologies successfully. Firms competing in new technology markets must engage in a common set of activities, including accessing novel technologies from universities, recruiting and motivating highly skilled scientists and engineers, and obtaining high-risk finance.
Reasons Against the Selection of Life: From Japan ‘s Experience of Prenatal Genetic Diagnosis
Authors: Shimazono Susumu
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I describe the Japanese resistance to genetic selection in the form of prenatal diagnosis and selective abortion. I explain the reasons for this and the implications for the debate about enhancement and whether human nature should be improved. I contrast the Japanese resistance to enhancement and genetic selection with Western arguments against these practices. Japan provides a new perspective, I will argue, on why we should resist genetic selection and enhancement. Japanese resistance is based not on the sanctity of human life or feminist concerns, but rather on skepticism about scientific intervention in nature and the human body, on values which place primacy on interpersonal relationships and bonds rather than autonomy and dominance, and the inclusion of all people regardless of disability.
Analysis and Experience
Authors: Grosholz Emily R
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I explain what I mean by analysis and mathematical experience, variously invoking Leibniz, Locke, Hume, Peirce, and Cavaille`s as well as some of my contemporaries. Two figures are conspicuously absent from this historical line-up, Descartes and Kant; my objections to their doctrines in this context have been set forth elsewhere and recur throughout this book, so I won’t pause to rehearse them here.
Chemistry, Quantum Mechanics, and Group Theory
Authors: Grosholz Emily R
Published: November 2023

The mid-twentieth-century account of theory reduction, like the deductive-nomological model of explanation, served the useful function of providing a simple model of an important kind of scientific reasoning expressed in a certain symbolic language, the theories of predicate logic. However, I have been arguing that philosophers of science were carried away by their enthusiasm for predicate logic as an instrument of philosophical analysis, as were philosophers of mathematics a generation earlier, an enthusiasm that limited their ability to address several important features of scientific and mathematical rationality, and indeed of predicate logic itself as a vehicle of that rationality.
Leibniz on Transcendental Curves
Authors: Grosholz Emily R
Published: November 2023

When Louis Couturat and Bertrand Russell enlisted Leibniz as the champion of logicism, in the search for a single perfect idiom for the truths of mathematics and science, they dismissed at the same time much of his writing on theology and metaphysics. This was of course a brutal triage that generations of scholars throughout the twentieth century have critically examined and rejected, but in the Anglophone world we have only recently begun to assess properly how it distorts our understanding of Leibniz’s account of mathematics and science.
Logic and Topology
Authors: Grosholz Emily R
Published: November 2023

Logic is usually presented as a canon of argument, a codification of the rules of thought. It formalizes the ways in which we move from premises that present evidence to the conclusions they support, and exhibits the ways that are most reliable because they transmit truth, or perhaps high probability. Understood in this way, logic has no special subject matter; thinking can be thinking about anything.
The Oxford of Peel and Gladstone, 1800-1833
Authors: Brock M G
Published: November 2023

The reforms adopted by Oxford University and its colleges between 1790 and 1 8 ro have been described in The Eighteenth Century, and further detail is added in the chapters which follow.’ Most of the reforms came in a piecemeal way, as one college after another improved its practices. Oriel and Balliol, which were relatively free from ‘locality’ and other restrictions in their fellowships, led the way in making academic promise a decisive consideration in fellowship elections. Oriel’s fellowship examinations soon became something of a model. Corpus held rigorous scholarship examinations from the turn of the century and in 1816 Trinity followed suit. Increasing care was taken, by some heads at least, in the appointment of tutors; and the number of undergraduates left in complete idleness was reduced. The system of college tests and progress reports, named ‘collections’, long in force at Christ Church, was adopted elsewhere. Oriel introduced written work into its collections in 1828. College statutes could sometimes be invoked to impede crucial changes; but, where there was a will to effect reforms, a way could usually be found.
The Examination System
Authors: Curthoys M C
Published: November 2023

The undergraduate honours course, occupying three or four years’ study of a single subject, culminating in a series of three-hour written examinations and a published class list, became an established institution in many English universities during the twentieth century. For most of the nineteenth century these features were peculiar to Oxford and Cambridge: the Oxford system originated in 1800; the Cambridge Senate House examination and tripos lists had rather earlier, eighteenth-century, origins.2 Brought into being at a time when the influences most strongly felt in the universities were clerical and aristocratic, the examinations came to assume functions unforeseen by their creators. Later notions of credentialism did not form a significant element in the original arrangements. The award of a written certificate or diploma was never an element in the Oxford degree ceremony; under the new system the much sought-after testamurs, on which the examiners certified that a candidate’s performance had been satisfactory, were printed on scraps of blue paper inferior to contemporary tradesmen’s bills. Those who gained ‘honorary’ distinction appeared in a class list originally published on paper of the grade used for packaging tea.
The Beginnings of Greats, 1800-1872
Authors: Jenkyns Richard
Published: November 2023

‘It doesn’t seem to me that one gains the quintessence of the University unless one reads Greats,’ says Michael Fane, the hero of Compton Mackenzie’s Sinister Street (1913-14); this is the admission of one who, like his creator, has read modern history.’ Greats is one of the noblest monuments of Victorian education, and in the definitive form which it reached in 1850- language and literature up until the first public examination; history and philosophy thereafter-it seems so lucid and logical in its construction that it might be thought to have sprung fully grown from the head of Zeus. In reality it was the product of an evolutionary process, and that evolution is marked by two characteristics: separation and enlargement. An analysis of this development is one of the keys to understanding the place of classical literature and language in nineteenth-century Oxford.
Back to Aristotle? Happiness, Eudaimonia, and Relational Goods
Authors: Bruni Luigino
Published: November 2023

Contemporary economics is a badly equipped discipline for understanding the nexus between happiness and genuine, not instrumental, sociality. The intuition that inspired this chapter is the conviction that if economics accepts once again to consider non-instrumental interpersonal relations, that is, relational goods, it will profit by a rediscovery of its link with the Aristotelian tradition.
Capability, Happiness, and Opportunity*
Authors: Sugden Robert
Published: November 2023

For much of the twentieth century, there was a consensus in economics that normative analysis should use the “welfarist” (or “ordinal utilitarian”) approach. In welfarism, the concern is with social welfare—the overall good of a society. Social welfare is taken to be an aggregate of the welfare of individuals; each person’s preferences (treated as given) provide the standard by which his or her welfare is assessed. Recently, however, two different approaches to normative analysis have begun to gain ground—the “capability” approach and the “happiness” approach.
Gymnosperms
Authors: Renner Susanne
Published: November 2023

Gymnosperms, also called Acrogymnospermae (1), are a group of seed-bearing plants (spermatophytes) with ovules on the edge or blade of an open sporophyll or ovuliferous scale (Fig. 1). 7eir closest extant relatives are the angiosperms, which have ovules enclosed in a carpel. Gymnospermae is a problematic name because, when fossils are included as is usually the case, the name is widely understood to apply to a paraphyletic group of seed plants from which the angiosperms also arose (1). 7ere are just over a 1000 living species of gymnosperms in the taxa Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, Coniferophyta, and Gnetophyta. Here, the relationships and divergence times of families in these phyla are reviewed.
Eudicots
Authors: Forest Félix , Chase Mark W
Published: November 2023

Much attention and effort have been devoted to the understanding of the early evolution of eudicots, a group comprising a large proportion of the angiosperm total species number (75%, 1). 7ey are characterized by the presence of tricolpate pollen grains (or derived from this type), a type of pollen grain with three pores set in apertures called colpi (Fig. 1). Eudicot taxa at the basal nodes of the tree consist of several small to medium-sized lineages in which the two most important groups of angiosperms, rosids and asterids, are nested. thesetwo groups account for almost two-thirds of all angiosperm species (88% of eudicot species; 1). In this chapter, relationships and divergence time estimates of early-diverging eudicots as well as the smaller lineages of core eudicots are reviewed. therosid and asterid groups are discussed elsewhere in this volume. Ranunculales is the Arst diverging group in eudicots, followed successively by Proteales, Sabiaceae, Buxaceae + Didymelaceae, and Trochodendraceae (2–6). Relationships in this sequence are not well supported, and other studies have proposed slightly diBerent topologies (7–9). theremainder of the eudicots form a group principally characterized by strong support in various molecular phylogenetic analyses and has been labeled “core eudicots” (10).
Monocots
Authors: Andersona Cajsa Lisa , JanßEn Thomas
Published: November 2023

The monocots are a strongly supported monophyletic group comprising about 25% of the angiosperm diversity. 7ey number 59,300 species (1) and are classiAed in 81 families and 10 orders by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APGII) (2). A number of morphological characters are shared by most monocots, although these may have been (secondarily) lost in some lineages. thesingle cotyledon, leaves with linear venation, a basal meristem, scattered vascular bundles in the shoots and a lack of secondary growth of xylem and phloem, and sieve cell plastids are among the most obvious shared-derived morphological characters. Monocots usually possess trimerous Powers and uniaperturate pollen, which is most commonly monosulcate. Monocot characters also appear in other angiosperm groups. For example, sieve cell plastids occur in some Aristolochiaceae, scattered vascular bundles in Nymphaeaceae and some Piperaceae, and trimerous Powers with two perianth whorls are present in Nymphaeaceae and some magnoliids. Several monocots from diBerent orders and families do have reticulate venation. 7is is, however, a derived condition thought to represent an adaptation to shaded habitats such as the forest understorey.
Frogs and toads (Anura)
Authors: Bossuyt Franky , Roelants Kim
Published: November 2023

Anura (Fig. 1) (“tail-less amphibians”) represent the largest living order of amphibians, and currently include 5400 described species (1). Most of them undergo the typical amphibious life history and are dependent on the presence of water for their reproduction and development. Multiple lineages, however, show an evolutionary trend toward increased terrestriality in larval or adult frog stages. Despite an evolutionarily conserved body plan, anurans have diversiAed into a myriad of ecomorphs and have adapted to life in habitats as distinct as rainforest canopies, mangroves, and sand dune burrows. In addition, anurans have attained a subcosmopolitan distribution and are currently only absent in extreme northern latitudes, Antarctica, and most oceanic (noncontinental) islands (2). The independent occupation of similar ecological niches by frog taxa in different geographic regions has resulted in extraordinary cases of evolutionary convergence. The consequent high levels of morphological homoplasy have complicated anuran systematics for decades. However, a major ongoing upsurge of molecular phylogenetic studies is now leading to an increasingly resolved consensus for the anuran tree.
Crocodylians (Crocodylia)
Authors: Brochu Christopher A
Published: November 2023

Crocodylia includes the alligators, caimans, crocodiles, and gharials found throughout the world’s tropics (Fig. 1). Twenty-three living species are currently recognized (1), though some probably represent cryptic species complexes (2–4). thefossil record of the group extends to the early part of the Campanian (84–71 Ma) and includes over 150 known species, with many more awaiting description (5). 7ey are semiaquatic ambush predators and include the largest living reptiles. Some of these species are used in the exotic leather industry and, as such, are important economic resources for impoverished nations; others are critically endangered. Crocodylians are central to research in developmental biology, osmoregulation, cardiophysiology, paleoclimatology, sex determination, population genetics, paleobiogeography, functional morphology, and reptile genomics. 7eir dense fossil record, with Arst appearance data throughout the clade’s stratigraphic range, gives us an excellent opportunity to empirically test methods used to estimate divergence times from molecular data (6). In this paper, I discuss divergence times within Crocodylia based both on the fossil record and on the nucleotide sequence data.