bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
‘H Two O’ to ‘O Two H’
Authors: Wothers Peter
Published: November 2020

It was not until the late eighteenth century—over a hundred years after the discovery of phosphorus—that it was appreciated that both phosphorus and sulfur were actually elements. Prior to this time, it was thought that all matter was made up of four so-called elements: earth, air, fire, and water. The realization that this was not so centred on understanding that the air is actually composed of a number of different gases, and in particular, understanding what happens when things burn. The discovery that water could be broken down into, or indeed synthesized from, two simpler elementary substances started a chemical revolution in France. The fruits of this revolution are embodied in the very names we now use for these two components, hydrogen and oxygen. However, the path to enlightenment was tortuous, lasting over 200 years. At its peak at the end of the eighteenth century, chemists fell into two distinct camps—those for the new French chemistry, and those against it. Several different names were given to the gases before ‘hydrogen’ and ‘oxygen’ triumphed. As it turns out, one of these names is still based on an incorrect theory, and it might have been more appropriate if the names hydrogen and oxygen had been swapped around. From the sixth century BC, the ancient Greek philosopher Thales taught that water was the primary matter from which all other substances were formed. Perhaps this idea came from water’s ready ability to form solid ice, ‘earth’, or vapours and mists, ‘airs’. Other philosophers thought the primary substance was air; others still, fire. It was less common for earth to be thought of in this way, possibly, as Aristotle later wrote, because it was too coarse-grained to make up these fluids. In the fifth century BC Empedokles brought the four ‘elements’ together—earth, air, fire, and water—and for many centuries it was thought that these made up everything around us.
Regional Monumental Landscapes (3700–2500 BC)
Authors: Bradley Richard , Haselgrove Colin , Vander Linden Marc , Webley Leo
Published: November 2020

By about 3700 BC every region of the study area had been settled by farmers (Fig. 3.1), although there must have been local differences between the areas that were colonized by immigrants and those where the indigenous population had changed its way of life. The expansion of agriculture would extend little further and, when it did so, it would be mainly a feature of Fennoscandia. In some of the regions discussed here farming had already been practiced for between a thousand and fifteen hundred years. That was certainly true in the Rhineland, the southern Netherlands, and parts of France, but in other areas it had been adopted only recently. Such was the case in the northern Netherlands, Jutland, Britain, and Ireland, but by the period considered in this chapter the process was virtually complete. Not only did these parts of the study area have different histories, there were significant contrasts in the roles played by local monuments. For the most part such structures were not a feature of the earliest Neolithic period, although even here there were significant contrasts. In the Rhineland, the earthwork enclosures of the LBK were associated with the last settlements in that tradition, and in certain cases may even have taken the place of houses that had been abandoned. In Brittany, on the other hand, the first stone monuments seem to be closely related to the oldest evidence of farming. There was a significant difference between developments in those two regions. From the beginning, the LBK had been associated with enormous longhouses, but on the Atlantic coast of France early settlers may not have occupied such impressive structures. Here stone monuments, especially menhirs, could have been erected from the outset. A similar contrast was found in other regions studied in Chapter 2, but it is even more apparent in the phase considered now, for this was a time when enclosures and mounds were built at an increasing pace. There is little evidence of houses except in Scandinavia, Ireland, and the Northern Isles of Scotland.
Transition, Resilience, and Reconstruction
Authors: Dryzek John S. , Norgaard Richard B. , Schlosberg David
Published: November 2020

In the long run, responding to the challenge of climate change is going to require a de-carbonized economy with different energy systems and reconceptualized social-ecological relationships. Given the magnitude of the task, quite how to move in this direction remains a matter of some contention. In this chapter we examine several potentially complementary approaches, though nobody has yet identified the key to transition, and we do not resolve all the big questions about how to proceed. This coverage of a variety of innovations also makes sense in light of the failure to date of established centers of power—be they the global economic system, UNFCCC negotiations, or national governments—to craft effective responses. We group innovations under social resilience, new thinking about economics, new movements that embody this thinking, and new governance. Some developments are incremental, some more radical. These developments give us something more upbeat to end on, showing that transition is already being lived, if only, so far, on the margins of societies. In Chapter 4 we looked at the importance of adaptation, especially in light of current global failure to advance on the mitigation front. Adger et al. (2011a: 757) point out that “adaptive responses are not equal in terms of the sustainability of resource use, energy intensity, reduction of vulnerability, or in the distribution of their benefits.” While the international community has had difficulty in coming to terms with adaptation (even by 2011 the Green Climate Fund adopted at the Durban meeting of UNFCCC covered adaptation but omitted any clear definition of the term), it does hold significant potential. Adaptation does not have to be defeatist, and indeed can be linked to empowerment— we adapt by recognizing “that human beings can protect themselves from damage by living harmoniously with their atmospheric environment” and reduce their vulnerability to climate change (Burton, 1994: 15). In this section we consider how adaptation might contribute to transition. On the academic side, adaptation to environmental change is increasingly understood in terms of the concept of resilience. According to the multinational Resilience Alliance (2013), “A resilient ecosystem can withstand shocks and rebuild itself when necessary.
Explaining the consumption paradox— why aren’t people (more) satisfied?
Authors: Alvesson Mats
Published: November 2020

Given an average of 2 per cent economic growth and a doubling of the material standard of living every 30–35 years, one would assume that most people would be more than satisfied by now, experience saturation, and not be particularly interested in greater consumption. However, this is hardly the case. Few, except a handful of ‘green’ activists portrayed as naïve and development- hostile, doubt the value of growth and increased consumption. Economic growth is broadly viewed as a self-evidently rational and positive objective, and any stagnation, or a mere 1 per cent growth, is viewed as problematic. This is partly a matter of securing employment, of course, but equally if not more important is the increase of consumption. Why is there no satiation? Why these continual complaints that many groups in society are not getting sufficient increases in pay or grants to have a satisfactory material standard of living? Such questions are addressed in a review of a number of theories and themes that cast doubt on the great consumption project: Why does higher consumption, on the whole, not lead to greater satisfaction in life? Among other things, I touch on the need problem, the difficulty of making wise decisions, and the role played by consumption propaganda in forming and, perhaps, distorting the priorities in life and driving up expectations and claims. All these create considerable ambiguity and uncertainty around wants and consumption as a way of meeting these. I also address the significance of fashion and brands, making consumer satisfaction temporal and contingent upon living up to rising standards for what is acceptable. Finally, I discuss the time aspect and how people with increased consumption possibilities run into time constraints. One could talk here about the time limits of growth. I will also be returning to this book’s principal thesis about the social limits of growth and the problem of much consumption in post-affluent societies being of a positional character and leading to zero-sum games about benefits and satisfaction. The concept of ‘need’ is tricky. It is certainly true that we need food, water, oxygen, warmth, and sensory stimulation.
Common Gastrointestinal Worms
Authors: Colbert Dom
Published: November 2020

Helminthiasis is rampant in poorer tropical countries, in fact one is surprised if a patient’s stool is clear of ova or parasites when working in such places. Travellers are also liable to acquire helminthiasis from contaminated food or water, as well as via the faeco-oral route. In the latter case it may be unfair to blame poor personal hygiene since washing and sanitation facilities are often below standard. Nonetheless, the helminth load in travellers is considerably less than that in indigenous people, so the ultimate ill-effects are usually less marked in the visitor.
Protecting the Skin
Authors: Colbert Dom
Published: November 2020

Dermatosis is one of the top four problems that affect travellers. Sunburn is high on the list, especially, but not exclusively, in those who travel to sun resorts. Occasionally medicationrelated photosensitivity dermatitis occurs and travellers should be warned to immediately stop taking the suspected allergen when this occurs. For example, should photosensitivity occur when taking doxycycline, a failure to stop the drug immediately together with persistent exposure to the sun can result in a serious exfoliative dermatitis that may need hospitalization. Apart from those dermatoses that are found in temperate climates, there are a number of tropical and parasitic-related skin conditions with which the travel medicine practitioner should be familiar.
Psychological Treatment and Psychotherapy
Authors: Caglar Esra
Published: November 2020

Psychological therapies are often the first-line treatments for psychi­atric disorders, depending on their nature and severity. In many cases they work best in conjunction with medication. The UK government is encouraging improved and timely access to psychological treatments in both primary and secondary care services. Psychological treatments can be carried out in community mental health services, specialist psycho­therapy services, and the private sector. Psychological therapies have a rich history. Today a number of evidence-based, innovative treatments are available. There is advanced research in psychotherapy, which comes with its own challenges. Psychotherapies can be delivered to individuals, families, couples, or groups. They can be as short as a few sessions or can last for more than a year, depending on the modality. The focus may be varied, such as anxiety symptoms, specific phobias, relationship problems, mood distur­bances, or difficult life events. Psychodynamic psychotherapy gives people a fixed time to think—and talk—about the feelings we all have about ourselves and other peo­ple such as family or close ones. CBT focuses on how we think about the things going on in our life—thoughts, images, beliefs, and attitudes (cognitive processes)—and how this impacts the way we behave and deal with emotional problems. Family therapy looks at the family as a system and works on each individual’s relationship with others and involvement with the problem.
Psychiatry of Old Age
Authors: Wadlow Clare
Published: November 2020

This chapter of practice exam questions aims to put you, albeit briefly, in the seat of an old age psychiatrist dealing with important aspects of psychiatric disease in older adults. Our population is ageing and this, in addition to wider public understanding and earlier diagnoses of dementia, is leading to an increasing burden of disease. Furthermore it is acknowledged that the incidence of affective and psychotic disorders unexpectedly peaks again as we reach old age and can be devastating if not recognized and managed effectively. The unique challenge of psychiatry of old age is the need for a sound grasp of general medicine and neurology to tackle unusual presentations of illness and possible multiple co-morbidities, in addition to a ground­ing in psychiatric theory. There remains a great need for lateral think­ing, particularly in liaison work on the medical and surgical wards where delirium is rife and can masquerade as everything psychiatric. Within the specialty, true collaboration exists as allied health professionals and psy­chiatrists work together at problem solving to improve patients’ quality of life beyond simply offering medication. An understanding of the pathology, epidemiology, diagnosis, and treat­ment of mental illness and dementia in older adults is an essential skill for any doctor at the coalface. Working with older adults is incredibly rewarding and never stops being educational to the clinician. These patients and their carers will continue to challenge and impress you throughout your career. As you manage to feel more confident with the facts, the practicalities and benefits of talking to and helping older adults become clearer. There is nothing that surpasses learning on the job, with many opportunities through attachments in psychiatry, GPs, ED, and geriatric wards. There are excellent resources available with regard to dementia, including NICE guidelines and the Alzheimer’s Society website. The aim of the following questions is to touch on a range of areas throughout the subject, taking us from first principles to practical applica­tion, through effective management, and support of older adults’ mental health and wellbeing.
Maternal depression and child health: The case for integrating maternal mental health in Maternal and Child Health (MCH) Programmes
Authors: Rahman Atif
Published: November 2020

While the physical health of women and children is emphasized in international policy guidelines, the mental dimensions of their health are often ignored, especially in developing countries. However, recent and strong evidence suggests that the mental and physical health of mothers and children is inextricably linked, and the one cannot be possible without the other (Prince et al. 2007). This chapter reviews the evidence and suggests directions for policy and research in this area. Depression is the fourth leading cause of disease burden and the largest cause of nonfatal burden, accounting for almost 12% of all total years lived with disability worldwide. Depression around childbirth is common, affecting approximately 10–15% of all mothers in Western societies (O’Hara and Swain 1996). Epidemiological studies from the developing world have reported increasingly high rates of postnatal depression in diverse cultures across the developing world. An early pioneering study by Cox (1979) in a semirural Ugandan tribe found rates of 10% based on the ICD-8 criteria. Two decades later, a community study by Cooper et al. (1999) in a periurban settlement in South Africa, found rates of 34.7%, an increase of over threefold. Hospital-based studies have found rates of 23% in Goa, India (Patel et al. 2002), 22% in eastern Turkey (Inandi 2002) and 15.8% in Dubai, United Arab Emirates (Goubash and Abou-Saleh 1997). A rural-community study in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, reported over 25% women suffering from depression in the antenatal period and 28% in the postnatal period (Rahman et al. 2007). Over half these women were found to be still depressed a year later (Rahman and Creed 2007). A recent meta-analysis shows that the rates in low- and middle-income countries (LAMIC) are higher than high income countries, ranging from 18–25% (Fisher et al. 2012). Risk factors identified include previous psychiatric problems, life events in the previous year, poor marital relationship, lack of social support, and economic deprivation. Female infant gender was found to be an important determinant of postnatal depression in India, but not in South Africa. Importantly, postnatal depression was found to be associated with high degrees of chronicity, disability and disturbances of mother–infant relationship.
Defi nitions of health
Authors: Daly Blánaid , Batchelor Paul , Treasure Elizabeth , Watt Richard
Published: November 2020

In any discussion of public health, it is necessary to be able to define what is meant by the term ‘health’. The promotion and maintenance of health should be a goal of health services and thus a clear definition is essential. At a personal level we can distinguish the difference between feeling well and feeling ill, but converting this to an index that measures health and illness in a population is far more complex (Hart 1985). Health, disease, and disability mean different things to different people at different times, and providers of health care may hold very different views compared to the users of health care. Definitions of what constitutes health and illness ‘will vary within cultures, subcultures and communities and even within households’. The different ways in which people think about health influences what they do to protect their health, when they decide to use health services, and how they use health services. How health is defined also affects health care professionals’ attitudes to patients and how health care is organized. Different disciplines such as psychology, sociology, and epidemiology, for example, also construct health in different ways and they use different approaches and methods to study and understand health (Naidoo and Wills 2008). This chapter will briefly review the commonly used definitions of health, disease, illness, ill health, and disability. It will consider some of the implications these differences have for the measurement of health, the assessment of need, and how health care is delivered and used. Health can be defined objectively as normal functioning of the body systems and processes. It can be measured objectively, e.g. at an individual level the measurement of blood pressure against a ‘normal’ level, or in populations as the prevalence of people with or without a condition, for example the proportion of 5-year-olds who are caries free. Health may also be defined subjectively by age, gender, or social class. For example, young people may talk about health in terms of being physically fit and being able to participate in sport; older people may talk about health in terms of ability to undertake normal daily activities and tasks.
Overview of epidemiology
Authors: Daly Blánaid , Batchelor Paul , Treasure Elizabeth , Watt Richard
Published: November 2020

How tall is the human race? What is meant by being short? Walking down the street, one will see people of various heights and a degree of variation exists. Some people are shorter than others, but when is someone abnormally so? How is it possible to make this judgement? By recording the height of everyone it is possible to start to produce a picture of people as a whole. Such terms as minimum, maximum, and mean give an indication of the distribution of heights. The science used to collect and examine data in this way is known as epidemiology. Epidemiology is defined as: . . . The orderly study of diseases and conditions where the group and not the individual is the unit of interest. . . . Mausner and Kramer ( 1985 ) state that epidemiology is concerned with the frequencies of illnesses and injuries in groups of people as well as the factors that influence their distribution. By investigating differences between subgroups of the population and their exposure to certain factors it is possible to identify causal factors and consequently to develop programmes to alleviate the problems. The critical issue is that knowledge is gained by studying patterns in groups as opposed to concentrating solely on the individual. This chapter gives an overview of the uses of epidemiology in dentistry and describes the main principles of this subject. Epidemiology in dentistry operates in three broad fields. These are: . . . 1 the measurement of dental disease among groups within the population in order to understand factors that influence the distribution; . . . . . . 2 identification of factors that cause conditions; . . . . . . 3 evaluation of effectiveness of new materials and treatment in clinical trials and assessment of needs and requirements for dental services within the community. . . . Undertaking epidemiological investigations requires a series of standards and procedures; measures must be made to an agreed common standard, in a methodological manner, and, when necessary, using an appropriate random sample.
Fluoride and fi ssure sealants
Authors: Daly Blánaid , Batchelor Paul , Treasure Elizabeth , Watt Richard
Published: November 2020

Fluoride has made an enormous contribution to declines in dental caries (Kidd 2005; Murray and Naylor 1996). Fissure sealants are a proven preventive agent. This chapter provides a brief overview of the history of fluoride and presents a brief synopsis of the mode of action, method of delivery, safety, and controversies in the use of fluoride. A public health perspective on fissure sealants will also be presented. An account of the history of fluoride can be found in Kidd (2005) and Murray et al. (2003) and is summarized in this section (see Box 12.1 for key dates). In 1901, Frederick McKay, a dentist in Colorado Springs, USA, noticed that many of his patients, who had spent all their lives in the area, had a distinctive stain on their teeth known locally as ‘Colorado stain’. McKay was puzzled and called in the assistance of a dental researcher G.V. Black. They found that other communities in the USA had the characteristic mottling. Their histological examination of affected teeth showed that the enamel was imperfectly calcified, but that decay in the mottled teeth was no higher than in normal teeth. McKay suspected that something in the water supply was producing the brown stain, and more evidence came from Bauxite, a community formed to house workers of a subsidiary of the Aluminium Company of America (ALCOA). A local dentist noticed that children in Bauxite had mottled teeth, whereas children in nearby Benton did not. McKay investigated the problem but was unable to find a cause for the staining when the water supply was tested. In 1933, Mr H.V. Churchill, Chief Chemist for ALCOA (anxious that aluminium would not be blamed for the mottling), analysed the water and found that the fluoride ion concentration in the water supply of the Bauxite community was abnormally high (13.7 ppm). He tested other communities affected by mottling which had been previously identified by McKay and found that they too had high levels of fluoride present in the water supplies.
Prevention of periodontal diseases
Authors: Daly Blánaid , Batchelor Paul , Treasure Elizabeth , Watt Richard
Published: November 2020

During the last 20 years our understanding of periodontal disease has been dramatically changed. Findings from clinical and epidemiological research have challenged the traditional progressive disease model and questioned the extent of destructive periodontal diseases within the population (Baleum and Lopez 2003; Petersen and Ogawa 2005; Sheiham and Netuveli 2002). Although gaps in our knowledge still exist about the precise nature and full extent of the condition, it is critically important that preventive and public health approaches to periodontal disease are based upon current scientific understanding of the condition (Baleum and Lopez 2003). This chapter will present an overview of current clinical and epidemiological research findings on periodontal disease. This will be followed by a critical review of the various options for prevention of the condition, with particular emphasis on the public health strategies required. Before considering the options for the prevention of periodontal diseases it is important to highlight the main epidemiological features of the condition. Although most adults have some gingivitis and calculus deposits, epidemiological surveys indicate that only approximately 10–15% of the adult population suffer from progressive periodontitis (Albandar 2005; Papapanou 1999; Petersen and Ogawa 2005; Sheiham and Netuveli 2002). The extent and severity of periodontitis increases with age and is more common among men than women. Stark socioeconomic inequalities exist, with lower-income and less-educated groups having significantly worse periodontal health than their more affluent and educated contemporaries (Petersen and Ogawa 2005; Sheiham and Netuveli 2002). As with other chronic diseases, a consistent social gradient exists in the distribution of periodontal diseases within a defined population (Borrell et al. 2006; Lopez et al 2006; Sabbah et al. 2007). The social gradient indicates that socio-economic differences in periodontal measures do not just occur at the extremes of the social spectrum between the rich and poor in society, but across the entire social hierarchy in a graded stepwise fashion. Trend data suggest that in high- and middle-income countries, oral hygiene levels have steadily improved in all age groups and there has been a decline in the extent of gingivitis (Hugoson et al 1998; Morris et al. 2001).
Phasing methods for powder data
Authors: Giacovazzo Carmelo
Published: November 2020

Powder diffractometry plays (and will probably continue to play in the near future) a central role in research and technology, because it allows us to investigate materials which are not available as a single crystal of adequate size and quality. Therefore, recently, much effort has been devoted to the development of powder diffraction. Improvements include the design of better instruments (e.g. optimized synchrotron radiation lines, time-of-flight technology at pulsed neutron sources, optics, generators, detectors), as well as more sophisticated methods for data analysis. As a result, in favourable cases, high quality powder patterns of proteins may be collected which contain sufficient information to allow identification of the unit cell and of the space group, a result unthinkable 30 years ago. This has opened the way for qualitative analysis and study of the polymorphism of macromolecules (Margiolaki et al., 2005; Collings et al., 2010). Advances in the experimental and the theoretical aspects of powder crystallography have been able to reduce losses of information from a powder pattern with respect to single crystal data, and have made ab initio crystal structure solution from powder experiments possible. The reader may deduce the increasing popularity of powder techniques from: (i) Table 1.11, where, among the CSD (Cambridge Structural Database), entries on 1 January 2012, 2354 powder diffraction studies were counted; (ii) Figure 12.1, where the cumulative statistics (up to the year 2006) on the number of structures solved via powder diffraction data is shown (SDPD database); (iii) Figure 12.2, where the statistics on the number of studies in the ICDD (Inorganic Crystal Structure Database) (to the year 2005) for different types of data is given. For the powder case, 21 472 cases are counted for which powder data have been used, mostly for refinement purposes. In this chapter, we will neglect experimental aspects, unless unrelated to the phasing problem. We will describe in Sections 12.2 to 12.5, the basic features of powder pattern diagrams, and in Sections 12.6 and 12.7, the procedures for full pattern indexing and space group determination. Ab initio phasing will be treated in Section 12.8 and non-ab initio methods in Section 12.9. The combination of anomalous dispersion techniques with powder methods is postponed to Section 15.9.
Aseptic Non-Touch Technique (ANTT)
Authors: Caballero Catherine
Published: November 2020

During the aseptic technique simulated examination students may be asked to demonstrate a clinical skill, usually a wound dressing, using an aseptic technique. This is becoming increasingly common in all universities as it has been identified as a mandatory simulated assessment in the essential skills clusters (NMC 2007). This skill is probably one of the most complex skills assessed during simulation and it is vital that students understand the principles of aseptic non-touch technique and are able to demonstrate application of these principles throughout the examination. Revision of this key material will enable the student to understand and apply the key principles of aseptic non-touch technique throughout the examination. This is defined as an infection acquired in hospital at least 72 hours after admission to hospital caused or precipitated whilst the patient is in hospital. Health care acquired infections (HAIs) have become a serious concern over recent years, costing the NHS an estimated £1 billion a year and contributing to some 5,000 deaths a year (Aziz 2009). One factor that has been identified as impacting on the increase in HAIs is the variation of techniques used in wound care. Two of the most common HAIs of recent times are MRSA (methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus) and C. Diff (Clostridium difficile). MRSA is a species of bacterium commonly found on the skin and/or in the noses of healthy people. Although it is usually harmless at these sites, it may occasionally get into the body (e.g. through breaks in the skin such as abrasions, cuts, wounds, surgical incisions or indwelling catheters) and cause infections. These infections may be mild (e.g. pimples or boils) or serious (e.g. infection of the bloodstream, bones or joints). C. Diff is a species of bacterium that causes diarrhoea and other intestinal disease when competing bacterium are wiped out by antibiotics. This bacterium can have major consequences for patients once contracted. However, a number of less profiled infections are contributing to the rise in HAIs e.g. urinary tract infection. Aspetic non-touch technique (ANTT) is the term given to carrying out procedures which require attention to minimizing the risk of cross contamination that could potentially lead to an infection.
Administration of Oral Medication
Authors: Creed Fiona
Published: November 2020

Medication administration is a key skill and it is vital that you are able to demonstrate safety in all aspects of the medication administration process in order to avoid harm or death to your patient. The NMC (2004, 2010) reiterates this point, highlighting that the administration of medicines is an important aspect of a nurse’s professional practice. They argue that it is not simply a mechanistic task, but one that requires thought, exercise and professional judgement. Studies suggest that medicine administration is one of the highest risk processes that a nurse will undertake in clinical practice (NPSA 2007b; Elliot and Lui 2010). Medication administration errors are one of the most common errors reported to the National Patient Safety Agency (NPSA). Indeed in a 12-month period in 2007, 72,482 medication errors were reported with 100 of these causing either death or severe harm to the patient (NPSA 2009). The frequency of these errors has led to a number of changes in the medication administration process. Alongside these important recommendations, most higher education establishments will want to ensure safety of medicine administration and may test this vital skill using an OSCE to ensure that you are adequately prepared for safe administration of medication in practice. There are a number of important laws and key documents that relate to the administration of medication and it is important that you understand these as they all impact upon your practice when administering medication to a patient. You may also be tested on your knowledge in relation to these areas so it is important that you have read these. Important documents you will need to know include: ● The laws that relate to medication in the UK, ● NMC Standards for Medicines Management (2010) (www.nmc-uk.org), ● Local policies related to hospital/Primary Care Trust (PCT) regulation of medication (refer to local guidance). There are a number of laws that influence the manufacturing, prescription, supply, storage and administration of medication. Whilst you will not need to study the intricacies of these laws you will need to understand the main issues each law covers.
My Computer Made Me Cry
Authors: Bentley Peter J.
Published: November 2020

When a tool can be used for everything, how do we design that tool so that we can use it most effectively? The cleverest machine in the world will do nothing for us if we cannot interact with it. We need interfaces to the digital minds we create. Physical interfaces that turn our movements into input. Visual interfaces that enable us to interrelate, turning images into two-way communication. When those interfaces are good enough, we may become immersed into the digital universes of our machines, giving us amazing new experiences. Or they may allow computers to become seamlessly integrated into our lives, as ordinary as a pair of glasses. When the interface is emotional, perhaps they will give us joy, motivate us when we are fearful, or comfort us when we are sad. But how far do we want our integration with technology to go? We are already becoming cyborgs – fusions of human and machine. If computers know our every secret, how can we protect ourselves from being influenced in ways we do not want? . . . A black and white face fades into view on the screen. A slim middleaged man with neatly combed-back hair is talking with a stiff 1960s Oregon accent. Hooked over his right ear he wears a modern-looking earpiece with microphone attached. He is speaking about his programme of research at Stanford. ‘If in your office you, as an intellectual, were supplied with a computer display, backed up with a computer that was alive all day and was instantly responsible…’ He pauses, looks up and smiles. ‘Responsive. Instantly responsive to every reaction that you have—how much value could you derive from that?’ You can tell he is excited and nervous to be speaking in front of a thousand people, but the years of lecturing has given his voice the tone of a practised speaker. ‘Well this basically characterizes what we’ve been pursuing for many years in what we call the Augmented Human Intellect Research Centre at Stanford’s Research Institute. ‘Fortunately the products of this programme, the technology of it, lends itself well to an interesting way to portray it for you.
Infectious disease
Authors: Emmett Stevan R. , Hill Nicola , Dajas-Bailador Federico
Published: November 2020

Antibiotics include an extensive range of agents able to kill or prevent reproduction of bacteria in the body, without being overly toxic to the patient. Traditionally derived from living organisms, most are now chemically synthesized and act to disrupt the integrity of the bacterial cell wall, or penetrate the cell and disrupt protein synthesis or nucleic acid replication. Typically, bacteria are identified according to their ap­pearance under the microscope depending on shape and response to the Gram stain test. Further identification is obtained by growth characteristics on various types of culture media, based on broth or agar, biochemical and immunological profiles. Further testing on broth or agar determines antibiotic sensitivity to guide on anti­biotic therapy in individual patients. This process can take 24– 48 hours to culture and a further 24– 48 hours to measure sensitivities. Increasingly, new technology, e.g. Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization— Time of Flight (MALDI- TOF) and nucleic acid amplification as­says, are being used to provide more rapid identification. The Gram classification, however, is still widely referred to as it differentiates bacteria by the presence or absence of the outer lipid membrane (see Figure 11.1), a fundamental characteristic that influences antibiotic management. Antimicrobial agents rely on selective action exploiting genetic differences between bacterial and eukaryotic cells. They target bacterial cell wall synthesis, bacterial protein synthesis, microbial DNA or RNA synthesis, by acting on bacterial cell metabolic pathways or by inhibiting the ac­tion of a bacterial toxin (see Table 11.1). Both Gram- positive and Gram- negative bacteria possess a rigid cell wall able to protect the bacteria from varying osmotic pressures (Figure 11.1). Peptidoglycan gives the cell wall its rigidity and is composed of a glycan chain of complex alternating carbohydrates, N- acetylglucosamide (N- ATG), and N- acetylmurcarinic acid (N- ATM), that are cross- linked by peptide (or glycine) chains. In Gram-positive bacteria, the cell wall contains multiple peptido­glycan layers, interspersed with teichoic acids, whereas Gram- negative bacteria contain only one or two peptido­glycan layers that are surrounded by an outer membrane attached by lipoproteins. The outer membrane contains porins (which regulate transport of substances into and out of the cell), lipopolysaccharides, and outer proteins in a phospholipid bilayer. For both Gram- negative and Gram-positive bacteria, peptidoglycan synthesis involves about 30 bacterial enzymes acting over three stages. Since the cell wall is unique to bacteria, it makes a suitable target for antibiotic therapy.
Divorce and Reconciliation: Radical Recombination
Authors: Atkins Peter
Published: November 2020

In Reaction 3 you saw that a radical is a species with at least one unpaired electron. An ‘unpaired electron’ is a single electron that is present in the molecule but not playing a role in bonding. The French word celebataire conveys the sense of the electron’s forlorn loneliness very well. However, it is capable of joining forces with another unpaired electron on another radical to form a bond. Two examples of radicals are ·OH (1, a hydroxyl radical), and ·CH3 (2, a methyl radical). The dot denotes the unpaired electron. In most cases, radicals are highly reactive and aggressively attack other species in order to use their unpaired electron to pair with an electron on the second species and so form a bond. The most primitive type of radical reaction is simply the clunking together of two radicals, each donating its unpaired electron to the formation of an electron-pair bond, as in the combination of two ·CH3 radicals to form ethane, CH3–CH3, 3. Some species might have more than one unpaired electron that they can use for biting into other molecules. If they are double-fanged, the most common case after ordinary single-fanged radicals, then the species is known as a ‘biradical’. To continue the partnering analogy: the two electrons cohabit but are platonic in their relationship. A very important example is an oxygen atom, O, which is a biradical. For the purposes of this section I shall write it ·O· with two dots for its two relevant electrons. An O2 molecule is also a sort of biradical, so when I want to emphasize its radical nature I shall denote it ·O–O·. There are a lot of reasons why you should be interested in radical reactions. One is that, as I explained in Reaction 3, they take part in the combustion reactions of the everyday world. Combustion reactions include the reactions that take place inside internal combustion and jet engines and move us around the world. Radical reactions occur wherever there is fire. Because fire is sometimes unintended, if the reactions that contribute to it are understood, then better ways to control and quench it can be devised.
Networking Opportunities: The Friedel Crafts Reaction
Authors: Atkins Peter
Published: November 2020

In the final reaction of this part I am going to help you extend your ability to use our toolkit to build a network of carbon atoms. The reaction I talk about here is one of many that I could have chosen and will give you some insight into the way that organic chemists go about building their intricate constructions. It was devised in 1877 by the French chemist Charles Friedel (1832–1899) and the American chemist James Crafts (1839–1917). There are two kinds of Friedel–Crafts reaction: I shall call them Type 1 and Type 2. The latter is more important, but the former is a bit simpler and I shall deal with it first. In a Type 1 Friedel–Crafts reaction, the aim is to attach a group of C atoms, such as 1, to a benzene ring or a related molecule. The strategy is to generate a powerful electrophile (Reaction 16), one characteristic of the group of atoms you want to attach, which will seek out regions of dense electron cloud in the target benzene molecule. The tactics involve taking the group you want to attach in combination with a chlorine atom, Cl, as in 2, and then finding another dentist-like compound that will extract the Cl atom as a chloride ion, Cl–. That extraction will leave a positively charged hydrocarbon ion hungry for opposite charge and thus able to act as the electrophile. The Friedel–Crafts procedure uses aluminium chloride, 3, to act as this dentist compound. It gets regenerated in the reaction, so it is present as a catalyst (Reaction 11). When you examine this molecule you see that although its Cl atoms are rich in electrons, the aluminium atom, Al, has a very skimpy share in them and the positive charge of its nucleus shines through. Moreover, the molecule is flat, and there is plenty of room for the Cl atoms to bend away from any incoming intruder atom and so make room for its attachment to the Al atom.
History of Hillfort Studies
Authors: Harding Dennis
Published: November 2020

Popular perception polarizes opinions, and archaeology is no exception. Instead of complexities and paradoxes, we instinctively prefer simplification and certainties, even if this distorts the truth, except, of course, where academic compromise affords the comfort zone of indecision. Accordingly, Stukeley and the early antiquarians are regarded as eccentrics, concerned only with druids and ancient Britons painted with woad, whilst General Pitt-Rivers has been portrayed as the pioneer of modern, scientific archaeology in an era of dilettante barrow diggers. In Scotland, Daniel Wilson has been acclaimed for his first use in English of the term ‘prehistoric’, yet as far as hillforts were concerned he was scathingly dismissive of their significance. David Christison is widely cited as the excavator whose work at Dunadd on behalf of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland so appalled Lord Abercromby that he misguidedly transferred his bequest, originally in favour of the Society, to the University of Edinburgh for the foundation of the Abercromby Chair of Prehistoric Archaeology. Yet Christison's Early Fortifications in Scotland of 1898 was an authoritative survey of hillforts that was acknowledged as a model in Hadrian Allcroft's Earthwork of England (1908). Every generation likes to imagine that it has advanced the frontiers of knowledge to a degree that allows it to look upon earlier achievements with the benefit of better informed if slightly self-satisfied hindsight, but progress is seldom without its setbacks and sidetracks. Each generation hopefully builds upon the advances of its predecessors, and the questions posed by pioneers will necessarily appear facile to later researchers. Early antiquarian investigations had to address fundamental issues of basic site identification and dating, and it is salutary to recall that even Pitt-Rivers’ initial investigation of Sussex hillforts (Lane–Fox 1869) was primarily designed to advance the case for their being pre-Roman. We might also note that he was in no doubt that their function was as defensive sites, against one alternative view, current even then, that they were used for ritual purposes. Serious study of hillforts, notwithstanding the dilettantish curiosity evinced by landed gentry or leisured clerics, began effectively with the topographic descriptions and surveys of sixteenth-century antiquaries like William Camden, whose Britannia was published in 1586. This monumental work was revised and re-issued in several editions over a period of two hundred years, and was notably extended in Gough's edition of 1789.
Hillforts in the Landscape
Authors: Harding Dennis
Published: November 2020

Landscape in common usage refers to the physical landforms of hills, valleys, rivers, and lakes, together with vegetational cover that may have changed significantly over the centuries depending upon environmental factors as well as the impact of human settlement. It may also refer to the man-made landscape of buildings and settlements, roads and boundaries made by human occupation over the centuries. Although field archaeologists tend to focus their attention upon ‘sites’, it has long been recognized that individual settlements cannot have functioned in isolation from their environment, nor from their neighbours in the landscape. Equally important, although at the limits of archaeological inference, is how later prehistoric people viewed their own environment, which can hardly have been a matter of ignorance or indifference. The fact that a Neolithic long barrow extends down the spine of the hillfort at Hambledon Hill, or that a causewayed enclosure lies concentrically within the circuit at the Trundle in Sussex, may not have determined the hillfort's location, but it is hardly likely that Iron Age builders were unaware of their antiquity and significance. Landscape archaeology is often wrongly regarded as a recent contribution to field archaeology. Following the long-term excavations at Danebury of the 1970s and 1980s, the Danebury Environs Project still stands as one of the most significant advances in hillfort studies, together with landscape surveys around Maiden Castle, Dorset, and Cadbury Castle among others. A pioneer in this field was Christopher Hawkes, encouraged from the 1920s by O. G. S. Crawford. In the St Catharine's Hill report, Hawkes had stated explicitly that his purpose was to show ‘the place occupied by the hill settlement in the life of the contemporary countryside’ (Hawkes et al. 1930: 6), and in his Hampshire hillfort excavations of the 1930s he demonstrated this principle, notably at Quarley Hill (Hawkes 1939), where his excavation was designed to elucidate the relationship between hillfort and those linear features that physically linked it to its surrounding landscape. The Danebury excavation was the ultimate sequel to Hawkes’ Hampshire hillfort campaign, and with its Environs Programme, extended the study of the hillfort in its landscape context on a scale never previously practicable. This entailed a study of documentary sources and air photographs as well as field survey with selective excavation.