bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Bilanguaging Love: Thinking in between Languages
Authors: Mignolo Walter D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on current disarticulations of one of the major beliefs in the imaginary of the modern/colonial world system: the complicity between language, literature/culture, and nation. If such disarticulation is taking place for various historical reasons, including massive migrations from the former Third World to the industrialized North Atlantic countries, and technoglobalism, there have been—since the 1970s—a number of literary experiences and practices responding to such disarticulation. At the same time, and since the 1970s, one of the major cultural revolutions of the time has been the coming into being of communities claiming they write to participate in the making of planetary civilization.
Homology, Genes, and Evolutionary Innovation
Authors: Wagner Günter P.
Published: November 2017

Homology—a similar trait shared by different species and derived from common ancestry, such as a seal's fin and a bird's wing—is one of the most fundamental yet challenging concepts in evolutionary biology. This book provides the first mechanistically based theory of what homology is and how it arises in evolution. The book argues that homology, or character identity, can be explained through the historical continuity of character identity networks—that is, the gene regulatory networks that enable differential gene expression. It shows how character identity is independent of the form and function of the character itself because the same network can activate different effector genes and thus control the development of different shapes, sizes, and qualities of the character. Demonstrating how this theoretical model can provide a foundation for understanding the evolutionary origin of novel characters, the book applies it to the origin and evolution of specific systems, such as cell types; skin, hair, and feathers; limbs and digits; and flowers. The first major synthesis of homology to be published in decades, this book reveals how a mechanistically based theory can serve as a unifying concept for any branch of science concerned with the structure and development of organisms, and how it can help explain major transitions in evolution and broad patterns of biological diversity.
A Conceptual Roadmap to Homology
Authors: Wagner Günter P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter proposes a conceptual roadmap to homology, with the goal of supporting the research program of developmental evolution that seeks to explain the patterns of phenotypic diversity. It offers a mechanistic developmental and evolutionary explanation of the evolution of body plans and the origin of character identities. It also examines the difference between the origin of homologs (that is, novelties) and their modification by natural selection (that is, adaptation); the limits of homology, focusing on the lack of individuality of body parts; homologous genes; characters and character states; variational modalities; character identity and repeated body parts; and character swarms. Finally, it considers alternative conceptualizations of homology, conceptual liberalism, and how to sort patterns of morphological variation.
Evolutionary Novelties: The Origin of Homologs
Authors: Wagner Günter P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the evolutionary processes that led to the origin of body parts, with particular emphasis on the concept of “novelties.” It first considers the distinction between the evolution of adaptations and the origin of novelties, and more specifically innovations, before proposing a perspective of what evolutionary novelties are. To this end, a definition of morphological novelty is given, followed by a discussion of phenomenological modes for the origin of Type I novelties such as the differentiation of repeated elements. The chapter also describes how natural selection creates character individuality and concludes with an analysis of modularity, functional specialization, and robustness and canalization.
The Genetics of Evolutionary Novelties
Authors: Wagner Günter P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the molecular genetics of evolutionary novelties. In particular, it investigates which molecular mechanisms might be involved in the origination of novel gene regulatory networks (and, thus, character identity networks) and what these mechanisms imply for the origin of novel characters. The chapter begins with a discussion of the complex problem of the evolution of transcriptional regulation by focusing on the evolution of cis-regulatory elements (CREs) and the evolution of transcription factor proteins. It then asks whether novel pigment spots, such as the Drosophila wing spots, are novelties. It also explores an evolutionary novelty known as sex comb and the role of transposable elements in the origin of novel CREs. Finally, it considers the role of gene duplications, the evolution of micro-RNAs (miRNAs), and the possibility of a mechanistic difference between adaptation and innovation.
Cell Types and Their Origins
Authors: Wagner Günter P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the developmental evolution of cell types, the lowest level of biological organization for which questions of identity (that is, cell identity) play a major role. Higher organisms consist of functionally specialized cells ranging from muscle cells to liver cells. These cells have been classified according to their function and their phenotype into cell types, such as striped and smooth muscle cells, neurons and glial cells. The chapter discusses the developmental genetics of cell types and reviews examples showing that cell type identity is subscribed by gene regulatory networks, focusing on the role of transcription factors, embryonic stem cells, and mammalian motor neurons in cell fate determination. It also considers the evolutionary origin of cell types and presents case studies of cell typogenesis. It suggests that the evolution of cell types is a critical proving ground for any theory of character identity and homology.
Skin and a Few of Its Derivatives
Authors: Wagner Günter P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter deals with amniote skin characters such as scales, feathers, and hair. One of the key novelties of vertebrates is their skin. Vertebrate skin is unique among metazoans in at least two respects. First, vertebrates are the only phylum for which the body is completely covered by a multilayered epidermal cover. Second, the vertebrate skin is a composite structure comprising the epidermis and the dermis. The chapter first examines the developmental evolution of skin and skin appendages in amniotes before discussing mammalian skin derivatives including hairs and breasts. It then considers the evolution of bird skin from scales into feathers and concludes by explaining the origin of feathers.
Perception: Sensory, Conceptual, and Cognitive Dimensions
Authors: Audi Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers how perception is central in epistemology, and the concept of perception is among the most important in philosophy. If the psychological authority of perception—chiefly, its power to compel belief under varying conditions—is not in general contested, its epistemic authority—chiefly, its power to yield knowledge and justified belief—is often taken to be limited to certain realms and to hold for descriptive rather than normative propositions. Paradigms of the former are propositions ascribing observable properties, such as color and shape, to macroscopic objects. Whereas paradigms of normative propositions are those ascribing obligations to persons, wrongness to actions, or intrinsic goodness or badness to states of affairs.
Perceptual Grounds, Ethical Disagreement, and Moral Intuitions
Authors: Audi Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter studies disagreements involving moral intuitions and other kinds of moral cognitions. In understanding disagreements of any kind, it is essential to ascertain whether the disputants differ regarding the same proposition. Sometimes a person rejects what another says without seeing just what that is, perhaps because the language used seems threatening, as where one can tell that one is being accused of something but does not see exactly what it is. The chapter calls this kind of disagreement illocutionary, since the disagreement is focused on the other's speech act and not its content. Ultimately, moral knowledge rests on perception, on intuition regarding ethical questions about actual or envisaged action, or on intuitions concerning hypothetical cases that helps one decide what is right or wrong.
Introduction
Authors: Teegarden David A.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the book's main themes. This book examines one peculiar, but apparently quite popular, means by which pro-democrats in ancient Greece facilitated large-scale mobilization in defense of their democracy: the promulgation of tyrant-killing legislation— the promulgation, that is, of laws and decrees that explicitly encouraged individuals to “kill a tyrant.” The Athenians promulgated the earliest known tyrant-killing law—called the decree of Demophantos—in June 410, immediately after the democracy, which had been overthrown in the coup of the Four Hundred, had been reestablished. That decree required all Athenians to swear an oath both to kill “whoever overthrows the democracy at Athens or holds any office while the democracy is overthrown” and to reward anybody who kills such a man.
The Decree of Demophantos
Authors: Teegarden David A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter accounts for the successful mobilization in defense of Athens' democracy. It begins by exploring the collective response by citizens in Athens to the coup of the Four Hundred (411), an experience that taught the Athenians important lessons about mobilization in defense of their democracy. Two significant points emerge from that discussion. First, individuals in Athens did not respond to the coup initially because they had a so-called “revolutionary coordination problem”: many wanted to oppose the coup, but, because of the great risk that that involved, each individual waited for others to act before he did. Second, the conspicuous assassination of Phrynichos, a prominent figure in the regime of the Four Hundred, set in motion a “revolutionary bandwagon” that enabled previously quiescent individuals to mobilize en masse against the regime of the Four Hundred. The chapter then examines the consequence of the fact that all Athenians swore the oath of Demophantos. The final section demonstrates that the successful mobilization against the Thirty Tyrants should be attributed, in part, to the fact that all Athenians swore the oath of Demophantos.
The Law of Eukrates
Authors: Teegarden David A.
Published: November 2017

In the spring (or summer) of 336 an Athenian named Eukrates successfully proposed a law against tyranny and subversion of the Athenian democracy. Eukrates's law has two peculiar aspects. The first is the date of its promulgation: the ninth prytany in the archonship of Phrynichos (spring/summer 336). The second is its focus on the council of the Areopagos. This chapter has two related objectives, each of which addresses one of the two aforementioned peculiar aspects of Eukrates' tyrant-killing law. The first is to identify the tyrannical threat that the Athenians faced in the spring of 336. It shows that the nature of the threat largely accounts for the fact that Eukrates proposed his law later than one might have expected. The second objective is to explain how the promulgation of Eukrates' law would neutralize the tyrannical threat that confronted the Athenians. The law's sharp focus on the council of the Areopagos played an important role, but so too did the process by which Eukrates's law was ratified and the placement of the two stelai upon which it was inscribed.
The Ilian Tyrant-Killing Law
Authors: Teegarden David A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the Ilian tyrant-killing law. The law is long and complex, its extant portions alone contain roughly twice the number of words as the Eretrian tyrant-killing law and 4.5 times as many words as the law of Eukrates (Ilion: 1,078; Eretria: 534; Eukrates: 227). This chapter first examines the provisions in order to ensure that we know what the Ilian pro-democrats actually promulgated. The second section presents the law's likely historical context. It considers both the circumstances within which the law was promulgated and the nature of tyrannical threat that confronted the Ilians at that time. The third and final section determines whether or not the law was effective.
Conclusion
Authors: Teegarden David A.
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter provides a simple conceptual framework within which to interpret the long and complex history of tyrant-killing legislation. The framework has two parts. The first focuses on the dynamics of learning and innovation in Athens. The second briefly explores the likely dynamics of learning and adoption outside Athens. Tyrants, ancient as well as modern, fear the collective power of their people perhaps more than anything else. They have accordingly devised and implemented sophisticated practices that work to atomize the population—to prevent the people from doing what they actually want to do. Over 2,400 years ago, however, the Athenians invented a tool—tyrant-killing law—that enabled pro-democrats to draw upon their collective strength and mobilize against nondemocratic regimes despite whatever anti-mobilization practices they might have implemented. And like great technological innovations throughout history, it spread as the citizens of other poleis adopted it in order to gain control of their own political destiny. That helped secure the world's first democratic age.
Introduction
Authors: Shatzmiller Joseph
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter discusses the cultural exchange between Jews and Christians in the High and Late Middle Ages. Members of each group contributed to the other's culture, even to their religious practices. Jews would often have in their possession artistic objects from the surrounding society. Even if held for a limited time, these objects were most likely influential in shaping the possessors' own art. The idea of looking at the Christian environment when studying Jewish ritual objects was raised in 1960 by Mordechai Narkiss, then the director of the Bezalel Art Museum in Jerusalem. In studying the shape of a Jewish ritual box known in Hebrew as a besamim box, Narkiss observed that originally these boxes were similar in shape to Christian reliquaries labeled in German as Monstranz. To support this hypothesis he provided a dozen references showing how medieval Jews accepted Christian liturgical articles as securities.
German Jews and Figurative Art
Authors: Shatzmiller Joseph
Published: November 2017

This chapter briefly reviews the art history from 1230–1450 CE in order to better understand the cultural profile of the rabbi, and to evaluate the contribution of the wall paintings in his house as indications of the artistic horizons of German Jews of the fourteenth century. It also shows how Jews had to abandon the art that they cherished for generations, yet they found ways to keep alive their fascination with the beautiful and to nurse their aesthetic needs. The interior synagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca of Toledo and that of the recently reconstructed Sinagoga Mayor of Segovia manifest a profound attachment to Islamic public architecture. Jews showed great appreciation for the decorative value of their Hebrew alphabet. They also learned to paint inanimate or geometric images in miniature letters on the covers of their Bibles.
Conclusions
Authors: Shatzmiller Joseph
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter explains how it was no surprise that Christian artisans did not shy away from decorating Jewish objects for devotional purposes. When exceptional situations like the movement of the artisans' services back and forth are observed, instances of peaceful exchange and probably even friendly coexistence, even if ephemeral, do emerge. Such “moments of grace” did not occur only among members of the artistic community. While a mass of documentation records the hostility and violence that marked Christian–Jewish relationships during these centuries, instances of tolerance surface in the documents as well, if only occasionally. The chapter contends that in the future, more rich archives are sure to reveal information about cordial Jewish relationships between Jews and Christians in past centuries.
Envoi
Authors: Bonner John Tyler
Published: November 2017

This chapter summarizes key themes and presents some final thoughts. It argues that randomness is necessary to counteract the tremendous power of natural selection. There could be no natural selection without randomness, for it is the foundation upon which natural selection is built. The most interesting aspects of biological randomness is the effect size has on it. Small organisms are more likely to be involved in randomness than large ones. Because internal selection will play little or no role in their short development, they will produce adult morphological variants in large numbers, and there will be an increased chance that some of them are untouched by natural selection. The big problem is that their neutrality cannot be proved, a difficulty that ignites the passions of many committed adaptationists.
A Thinker-Based Approach to Freedom of Speech
Authors: Shiffrin Seana Valentine
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the foundational connection between the grounds for the moral prohibition on lying and the moral and political protection of freedom of speech. Both the prohibition on lying and the prohibition on wrongful deception work aim to protect the ability of listeners to rely on speech to develop understandings of one another and of the world. These understandings are essential for our mutual flourishing, for the apprehension and discharge of our moral obligations to one another as individuals, and to enable us to pursue our collective moral ends. The chapter draws some connections between these values and freedom of speech. It argues that the connection between discursive communication and moral agency also provides the foundations for what it calls a “thinker-based approach” to freedom of speech, which affords free speech theory a more natural way to represent the unity between freedom of thought and freedom of communication.
Introduction and Overview
Authors: Prewitt Kenneth
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter discusses how there was a racial classification scheme in America's first census (1790), as there was in the next twenty-two censuses, up until the present. Though the classification was altered in response to the political and intellectual fashions of the day, the underlying definition of America's racial hierarchy never escaped its origins in the eighteenth-century. Even the enormous changing of the racial landscape in the civil rights era failed to challenge a dysfunctional classification, though it did bend it to new purposes. Nor has the demographic upheaval of the present time led to much fresh thinking about how to measure America. The chapter contends that twenty-first-century statistics should not be governed by race thinking that is two and a half centuries out of date.
The Compromise That Made the Republic and the Nation’s First Statistical Race
Authors: Prewitt Kenneth
Published: November 2017

This chapter demonstrates how assumptions of racial superiority and inferiority tightly bound together statistical races, social science, and public policy. The starting point of this is constitutional language. The U.S. Constitution required a census of the white, the black, and the red races. Without this statistical compromise there would not have been a United States as it is today. In the early censuses slaves were counted as three-fifths of a person, a ratio demanded by slaveholder interests as the price of joining the Union. A deep policy disagreement at the moment of founding the nation was resolved in the creation of a statistical race. Later in American history the reverse frequently occurred. Specific policies—affirmative action, for example—took the shape they did because the statistical races were already at hand.
How Many White Races Are There?
Authors: Prewitt Kenneth
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at how America continually readjusted its color line when the economy's need for workers resulted in immigration-driven population growth but the polity required a monopoly of power in the hands of the “right” whites—that is, European Protestants. In the half century starting with the Civil War, the social sciences entered the scene, which gradually displaced the biologically based race science popular earlier in the nineteenth century. The social sciences embraced the statistical races as a key to informing policy makers across a broad range of issues including stopping the flow of the “wrong” European immigrants—Catholic and Jewish—without interfering with immigration from the ancestral Protestant Europe.
Racial Justice Finds a Policy Tool
Authors: Prewitt Kenneth
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses how there were four national statistical races as of the twentieth century: European White, African Black, American Indian Red, and Asian Yellow. They were put to policy work in restricting immigration in the 1920s and for racial segregation more generally until the civil rights challenge dramatically arrived in the 1960s. The chapter traces how a policy instrument used to politically, economically, and socially exclude since the nation's founding made a 180-degree turn and was used to include the racial groups historically sent to the back of the bus—both literally and figuratively. It is a story of how proactive policies of racial justice were shaped with racial statistics never intended for the policy uses to which they were put.
When You Have a Hammer: Statistical Races Misused
Authors: Prewitt Kenneth
Published: November 2017

This chapter uses the metaphor “when you have a hammer” to underscore how racial statistics can be misused by converting an issue or policy that is not about race into one inappropriately racialized. The first example is a census strategy to improve measurement of hard-to-count population groups. The second example, the case of genetic medicine, is more complicated and substantially more consequential. The statistical races now deeply embedded in American politics and culture are convenient shorthand for asking whether better health might be provided if treatment and medicines are targeted to the government's official race groups, thereby treating those groups as biological and not just statistical realities.
The Problem of the Twenty-first Century Is the Problem of the Color Line as It Intersects the Nativity Line
Authors: Prewitt Kenneth
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that the center of gravity is shifting because of an intricate interplay between America's color line and its nativity line. It uses the color line concept to ask whether America has the right policy tools to fully erase the line that separated whites and racial minorities throughout America's history. If they merge—if immigrants are racialized—the future sadly repeats America's past. If, instead, America's population becomes so diverse and multiracial that the color line disappears, an altogether different future is in store, perhaps the promised postracial society. However, it is not certain whether this social process will strengthen or weaken a color line inherited from the eighteenth century, strengthened across the next century and a half, and then challenged but not fully erased by the civil rights movement of the mid-twentieth century.
On the Muslim Question
Authors: Norton Anne
Published: November 2017

In the post-9/11 West, there is no shortage of strident voices telling us that Islam is a threat to the security, values, way of life, and even existence of the United States and Europe. For better or worse, “the Muslim question” has become the great question of our time. It is a question bound up with others—about freedom of speech, terror, violence, human rights, women's dress, and sexuality. Above all, it is tied to the possibility of democracy. This book demolishes the notion that there is a “clash of civilizations” between the West and Islam. What is really in question, the book argues, is the West's commitment to its own ideals: to democracy and the Enlightenment trinity of liberty, equality, and fraternity. In the most fundamental sense, the Muslim question is about the values not of Islamic, but of Western, civilization. Moving between the United States and Europe, the book provides a fresh perspective on iconic controversies, from the Danish cartoon of Muhammad to the murder of Theo van Gogh. It examines the arguments of a wide range of thinkers—from John Rawls to Slavoj Žižek. It also describes vivid everyday examples of ordinary Muslims and non-Muslims who have accepted each other and built a common life together. Ultimately, the book provides a new vision of a richer and more diverse democratic life in the West, one that makes room for Muslims rather than scapegoating them for the West's own anxieties.
Freedom of Speech
Authors: Norton Anne
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the Muslim question has been linked to the question of freedom of speech. A clash of civilizations that saw the West as the realm of enlightenment, and Muslims in the realm of religion, custom, and tradition, has long been part of spectacles in the Western public sphere. Ayatollah Khomeini gave new life to these civilizational theatrics when he issued a fatwa calling for the assassination of Salman Rushdie, whose The Satanic Verses became the center of a controversy that cast freedom of speech as a Muslim question. However, the martyr to free speech was not Rushdie but Theo van Gogh, the murdered producer of the film Submission. The chapter shows how the dramas surrounding Rushdie, van Gogh, the Danish cartoons and the satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo's copycat cartoon provocations mark Muslims as the enemies of free speech.
Equality
Authors: Norton Anne
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the Muslim question intersects with the question of equality. In The Law of Peoples, John Rawls outlined a plan for justice among peoples. The Law of Peoples focuses primarily on one difference and division, that between Islam and the West. Rawls gives an imagined example of a non-liberal Muslim people he calls Kazanistan. In Rawls' account, Muslims are the antithesis of liberalism. The chapter considers how the identification of Islam with hierarchy (albeit “decent” hierarchy) in Rawls' Kazanistan forecloses one of the most powerful critical challenges raised by the Muslim question: the question of equality. It also discusses Sayyid Qutb's views, articulated in Social Justice and Islam.
The Devil's Tabernacle
Authors: Ossa-Richardson Anthony
Published: November 2017

This is the first book to examine in depth the intellectual and cultural impact of the oracles of pagan antiquity on modern European thought. The book shows how the study of the oracles influenced, and was influenced by, some of the most significant developments in early modernity, such as the Christian humanist recovery of ancient religion, confessional polemics, Deist and libertine challenges to religion, antiquarianism and early archaeology, Romantic historiography, and spiritualism. The book examines the different views of the oracles since the Renaissance—that they were the work of the devil, or natural causes, or the fraud of priests, or finally an organic element of ancient Greek society. The range of discussion on the subject, as he demonstrates, is considerably more complex than has been realized before: hundreds of scholars, theologians, and critics commented on the oracles, drawing on a huge variety of intellectual contexts to frame their beliefs. A central chapter interrogates the landmark dispute on the oracles between Bernard de Fontenelle and Jean-François Baltus, challenging Whiggish assumptions about the mechanics of debate on the cusp of the Enlightenment. With erudition and an eye for detail, the book argues that, on both sides of the controversy, to speak of the ancient oracles in early modernity was to speak of one's own historical identity as a Christian.
Demons
Authors: Ossa-Richardson Anthony
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes in some detail the place of the oracles in Christian theology. In the sixteenth century, the pagan oracles became anchored firmly in Christian demonology, whose foundation had changed little since Aquinas. That demonology had two aspects of relevance: the physical problem of possession, and the moral and epistemological problem of divination. As the oracles became rooted in theory, their symbolic value, always there in the background, grew much more significant. At the end of the century the Pythia of Alessandro and Rhodiginus was posited, almost universally, as the antithesis of the biblical prophets and, by extension, of holy truth. She had become involved in the learned construction of Christian identity.
Nature
Authors: Ossa-Richardson Anthony
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers reactions against the conventional view of the oracles as they appear in theories of natural causation. Natural cause is defined as one that does not depend on created spirits. Two such causes in particular cover the great majority of positions on the pagan oracles: inflamed melancholy and terrestrial exhalations. Very few early modern writers claimed unequivocally that natural causes alone could account for the oracles. The claim, when it was made, turned on a notion of natura that extended across the entire field of apparent marvels and came into close contact with the divinity, since it was unmediated by the activity of demons. This posed a serious problem to the intellectual edifice sketched in the previous chapter: since natura is always the same, a naturalist account of divination was intrinsically unable to distinguish between the pagan oracles and Christian prophecy—a distinction on which the Christian narrative depended. This is why the oracles of the natural philosophers were rather abstract and lifeless entities, and why those who argued against the picture increasingly invoked particular facts about the oracles, as they were known from Christian or pagan history.
The Conceptual Autonomy of Babylonian Epistemology
Authors: Van De Mieroop Marc
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the conceptual autonomy of Babylonian epistemology. Babylonian literate culture survived for a very long time and exerted an enormous influence on people with a multitude of cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Although it was the creation of the Babylonian heartland and scholars there worked with it the longest, others outside that region actively participated in its preservation and elaboration. Babylonian literate culture was cosmopolitan, and at times, for example in the mid-second millennium non-Babylonians may have been the guardians of its traditions. The chapter argues that we need to consider the individuality of Babylonian intellectual history in areas other than language, with particular emphasis on the Babylonian use of script.
Small-Town America
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: November 2017

More than thirty million Americans live in small, out-of-the-way places. Many of them could have joined the vast majority of Americans who live in cities and suburbs. They could live closer to more lucrative careers and convenient shopping, a wider range of educational opportunities, and more robust health care. But they have opted to live differently. In this book, we meet factory workers, shop owners, retirees, teachers, clergy, and mayors—residents who show neighborliness in small ways, but who also worry about everything from school closings and their children's futures to the ups and downs of the local economy. Drawing on more than 700 in-depth interviews in hundreds of towns across America and three decades of census data, the book shows the fragility of community in small towns. It covers a host of topics, including the symbols and rituals of small-town life, the roles of formal and informal leaders, the social role of religious congregations, the perception of moral and economic decline, and the myriad ways by which residents in small towns make sense of their own lives. It also tackles difficult issues such as class and race, abortion, homosexuality, and substance abuse. The book paints a rich panorama of individuals who reside in small communities, finding that, for many people, living in a small town is an important part of self-identity.
Washington Is Broken
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how a new populism took root in small towns. In particular, it considers the ways that residents of small towns show antipathy toward big government, such as concerns about the scale of big bureaucracy, its inability to adapt to the norms and practices of small towns in which people know one another, and government's unresponsiveness to the needs of small communities in comparison with its attentiveness to problems in cities. The chapter first provides an overview of small-town politics before explaining how antipathy toward government is further reinforced by negative opinions about people on welfare. It also discusses the reasons for the popularity of Republicans in small towns and concludes by assessing the possibilities present in small towns for grassroots activism.
Introduction
Authors: Shapiro Jacob N.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter discusses the importance of having a clear understanding of the organizational side of terrorism. Understanding why the managerial problems of terrorists resemble those of other conventional groups helps make sense of how terrorist groups are organized, and is crucial for efficiently dealing with them. Policy makers who are aware of the dilemmas terrorists face are better equipped to choose counterterror policies that target group-specific vulnerabilities, while taking into account how organizations are likely to adapt to these policies. Seeking to understand the terrorists' dilemmas does not imply sympathy for their goals or an acceptance of their means. Rather, understanding the very banality of terrorist organizations can serve as an important corrective to the natural tendency to view these political organizations as something unique and exceptionally threatening.
Organizing Al-Qa’ida in Iraq’s Operations and Finances
Authors: Shapiro Jacob N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines one of the most prominent terrorist groups in the last twenty years, al-Qa'ida in Iraq (AQI), using a host of the group's internal documents to study its financial and operational management. As the AQI materials so richly demonstrate, in any organization made up of thinking human beings, the level of control terrorist leaders actually exercise depends on the specific internal dynamics of a group. Terrorist operatives have their own ideas about what to do and these ideas do not always coincide with those of their leaders. A group's solution to its fundamental dilemma depends on the outcomes of the strategic interactions between terrorist leaders and their operatives.
Uncertainty and Control in Russia
Authors: Shapiro Jacob N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the organization of pre-Revolutionary Russian terrorist groups in the 1880s and 1900s. Understanding these groups is useful in many ways. First, and most important, many of the organizational pathologies of terrorism are starkly illustrated by the travails of what were really the first modern terrorist organizations. Second, comparing these groups offers an opportunity to test hypotheses about the relationship between uncertainty and control. Third, the history of these groups is extremely well developed, in part because the archives of the Tsarist secret police were preserved, giving historians a rich set of investigative and interrogation reports to work with. Finally, the scale of violence in Russia was much greater than in Northern Ireland or Palestine. Examining this case thus complements the al-Qa'ida in Iraq case study in confirming that organizational dynamics described in preceding chapters are not unique to small-scale conflicts.
Discrimination and Control in Ireland
Authors: Shapiro Jacob N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter studies the three most prominent terrorist groups operating in Northern Ireland from the 1960s through 2003: the Provisional IRA, the Ulster Defense Association (UDA), and the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF). Because the history of terrorism in Northern Ireland is so well known, the case provides an excellent venue for testing hypotheses about the relationship between discrimination and control. The history of the groups fighting in Northern Ireland also provides a critical illustration of the policy importance of this kind of organizational analysis. From 1987 on, leaders on both sides of the Northern Ireland conflict understood the broad contours of a negotiated settlement, but it took them many years to work the internal politics of their organizations to the point at which ceasefire orders were obeyed.
Preference Divergence and Control in Palestine
Authors: Shapiro Jacob N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter turns to the Middle East, assessing the organizational evolution of the main Palestinian terrorist groups from 1989 through 2005. In addition to testing hypotheses about the relationship between preference divergence and control, the Palestinian case allows one to compare an Islamist group (the religious-nationalist Hamas) to a secular nationalist one (the secular-nationalist Fatah), helping to illuminate what may or may not be unique about Islamist terrorism. Not surprisingly, there is some evidence that one Islamist group, Hamas, is substantially different in terms of how severe a problem it had with operatives, but the group clearly faced similar organizational challenges to its secular compatriots.
Who Has Authority to Take the Country to War?
Authors: Zeisberg Mariah
Published: November 2017

This chapter first sets out the book's purpose, which is to demonstrate that the constitutional politics of war powers can be meaningfully assessed in terms that are congruent, rather than repugnant, to their animating conditions. Constitutional theory need not be disabled in its confrontation with an interpretive politics that is shot through with vagueness, underdeterminacy, structured interbranch conflict, and partisan and policy rivalries. We can generate standards for assessing interpretive fidelity that capture, track, and engage this constitutional politics rather than resist, ignore, and condemn it. The remainder of the chapter discusses insularist conceptions of war authority, structural conditions of war powers, interbranch deliberation and the relational conception, and the relational conception and constitutional authority.
Legislative Investigations as War Power
Authors: Zeisberg Mariah
Published: November 2017

This chapter returns to Congress to scrutinize another legislative discretionary power, that of investigations. While the investigatory power is normally conceived as a retrospective power of judgment, it construes investigations as both a war power and as a forward-looking tool for developing legislative war authority. The chapter compares the Munitions Investigation of 1934–36 with the Iran-Contra Investigation of 1989, arguing that the former developed far more constitutional authority for the legislature and war-making system than did the latter. The reasons may be surprising: counterintuitively, it is argued that Congress' insufficiently developed partisanship undermined the authority of its Iran-Contra Investigation as a challenge to presidential power.
Labor Instability and Community Mental Health
Authors: Han Clara
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores how the local destiny of Chile's national program for depression was forged through pharmaceuticals. How and when women use antidepressants reflect both their practical knowledge of everyday afflictions and the shifting affective configurations of their domestic lives. In La Pincoya, psychopharmaceuticals distributed by the local primary care center in the framework of community mental health are absorbed into domestic relations. As material substrates, they can manifest care among neighbors and kin when shared in a variety of ways. They have entered a local formulary of medications informed by practical knowledges of the bodily symptoms and afflictions that are often reactions to labor instability, kinship relations, and economic indebtedness. The chapter examines how these knowledges work in relation to “health,” experienced locally, and how these knowledges—in tandem with institutional failures—can obscure rare disease processes.
Reflections on the Musical Mind
Authors: Schulkin Jay
Published: November 2017

What's so special about music? We experience it internally, yet at the same time it is highly social. Music engages our cognitive/affective and sensory systems. We use music to communicate with one another—and even with other species—the things that we cannot express through language. Music is both ancient and ever evolving. Without music, our world is missing something essential. This book offers a social and behavioral neuroscientific explanation of why music matters. Its aim is not to provide a grand, unifying theory. Instead, it guides the reader through the relevant scientific evidence that links neuroscience, music, and meaning. It considers how music evolved in humans and birds, how music is experienced in relation to aesthetics and mathematics, the role of memory in musical expression, the role of music in child and social development, and the embodied experience of music through dance. It concludes with reflections on music and well-being. The book is a tour through the current research on the neuroscience of music.
Introduction
Authors: Schulkin Jay
Published: November 2017

This book traces the origins of music, from the appearance of the relevant anatomical features, to the development of diverse forms of biological systems that figure in musical expression. It considers how music reflects our social nature and is tied to other instrumental expression in the adaptation to changing circumstances. It shows that expectancy and violations of those musical expectations linked to memory and human development are critical features in the aesthetics of musical sensibility (like other avenues of human experience). The book also examines how music is connected to movement and dance. This introduction provides an overview of the “cognitive revolution” and the emergence of a discipline called “social neuroscience,” as well as Leonard Meyer's theory of music drawn from a pragmatism based in C. S. Peirce and John Dewey's notion of inquiry. It also explains how action and embodied cognition are related to music.
Music and the Brain
Authors: Schulkin Jay
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how music fits into the evolution of human cognitive capabilities and how the auditory system, larynx, motor systems, and cephalic expansion underlie musical expression as well as the evolution of social contact. The specific adaptation for decoding facial responses, and the more general aptitudes such as applying numerical capabilities to diverse problems, pervade a biological understanding of cognitive adaptation. Cognitive systems are distributed across neural systems that traverse the brain stem to the forebrain. The chapter first provides an overview of some of the core features of problem solving and human expression before discussing the concepts of time and calculations that are embedded in our cognitive capabilities. It also explores the importance of hearing and vocal expression for music and concludes by suggesting that the roots of music may be in the inherent shared features of our social brain.
A Brief Semantic History of Securitas
Authors: Hamilton John T.
Published: November 2017

What does the term “security” express? What are or have been its semantic functions: its shifting cultural connotations and its divergent discursive values? This chapter examines the figures and metaphors that have been deployed to think about security across the ages. It outlines the main stations along the word's complex itinerary through historical usage. It begins with a cursory overview that marks the major turning points of this history, beginning with ancient Rome and concluding with seventeenth-century Europe. Among the topics covered is the positive sense of security that established its position as a central topic in political philosophy in the work of Thomas Hobbes. Throughout, the affirmation of security as a good is fundamentally connected with the power of sovereignty to alleviate the cares and concerns of its subjects. The state emerges as an institution that protects its citizens from all varieties of existential threats, from external aggression as well as from internal discord.
Tranquillity, Anger, and Caution
Authors: Hamilton John T.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers ancient conceptions of securitas. It argues that Although Cicero never provided a sustained, comprehensive account of securitas, one can nevertheless determine the term's import by attending to its functions within the context of his arguments, explanations, and illustrations. Essentially, securitas numbers among those technical terms that Cicero selected to transmit Greek concepts for a Roman audience. Its initial significance, therefore, cannot be considered apart from a highly complex network of philosophical speculation and schemas, above all, Stoic theories of selfhood. In order to ascertain what the term securitas denotes in this early usage, one must consider the inner core of one's being that moral precepts attempt to secure. That is, one must interrogate the constitution of the self: its composition, its relation to an individual's physiology, emotions, or passions; its performative roles in society, and so forth—questions that are far from simple to resolve.
Rethinking Private Authority
Authors: Green Jessica F.
Published: November 2017

This book examines the role of nonstate actors in global environmental politics, arguing that a fuller understanding of their role requires a new way of conceptualizing private authority. It identifies two distinct forms of private authority—one in which states delegate authority to private actors, and another in which entrepreneurial actors generate their own rules, persuading others to adopt them. Drawing on a wealth of empirical evidence spanning a century of environmental rule making, the book shows how the delegation of authority to private actors has played a small but consistent role in multilateral environmental agreements over the past fifty years, largely in the area of treaty implementation. This contrasts with entrepreneurial authority, where most private environmental rules have been created in the past two decades. The book traces how this dynamic and fast-growing form of private authority is becoming increasingly common in areas ranging from organic food to green building practices to sustainable tourism. It persuasively argues that the configuration of state preferences and the existing institutional landscape are paramount to explaining why private authority emerges and assumes the form that it does. In-depth cases on climate change provide evidence for the book's arguments. The book demonstrates that authority in world politics is diffused across multiple levels and diverse actors, and it offers a more complete picture of how private actors are helping to shape our response to today's most pressing environmental problems.