bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Difference Democracy: The Consciousness‐Raising Group Against the Gentlemen's Club
Authors: Dryzek John S.
Published: October 2003

Difference democrats claim that deliberation is exclusive and constraining in the kinds of voices and kinds of people that it can hear. Rational argument, in particular, is said to be coercive and exclusive. This chapter argues that deliberation across difference is possible, while admitting the alternative kinds of communication favoured by difference democracy. Deliberation across difference is conceptualized in terms of the contestation of discourses, which can be influenced by networks in civil society.
Green Democracy
Authors: Dryzek John S.
Published: October 2003

Democratic theorists are generally adamant that democracy is only for human beings. As an alternative to this arrogance, communication in ecosystems can be connected with communication within the human world. Green democracy seeks effective communication across these two worlds.
The Prehistory and Origins of the Dormition and Assumption Traditions
Authors: Shoemaker Stephen J.
Published: October 2003

Many previous interpreters have sought to locate the origins of the Dormition traditions within ancient “Jewish‐Christianity.” Although they are quite correct in identifying a number of heterodox features present in some of the narratives, Jewish‐Christianity is a highly problematic construct that does not offer the best explanation for these features. Contact with some sort of gnostic Christianity can better explain these elements. Most importantly, these traces of contact with early Christian heterodoxy very strongly suggest that the narratives in question most likely were composed by the third century at the latest. This early date, along with several other features, makes very unlikely the frequently suggested hypothesis that the origin of the Dormition traditions is somehow linked with resistance to the council of Chalcedon.
The Second Kondratiev Wave: The Age of Iron Railways, Steam Power, and Mechanization
Authors: Freeman Chris , Louçã Francisco
Published: October 2003

Major inventions and improvements in the design of high‐pressure steam engines made it possible to use them for steam‐powered locomotives as well as for steamships and a widening range of industrial machines, based on cheap coal and iron.

The highly successful demonstration trials of locomotives on the Liverpool to Manchester railway in 1831 triggered waves of railway investment in Britain in the 1830s and 1840s, amounting to ‘mania’ but leading ultimately to the creation of an efficient new transport infrastructure, first in Britain but later in many other countries.

Contrary to the views of some cliometric historians, we argue that the railroads and the telegraph were immensely important in bringing huge competitive advantages in speed and reliability of transport and communication to many American industries.

No less important were the institutional changes associated with the management of an efficient railway network and affecting many other industries in their capacity for managing stocks, forward planning, finance, personnel, industrial relations and government regulation.

The construction of a railway network in North America in the 1850s and 60s with the huge scale economies and efficiency improvements it brought to many other industries and services, enabled the US economy to overtake Britain, the erstwhile leader of the Industrial Revolution, in the second half of the nineteenth century.
Order, Justice, and Global Islam
Authors: Piscatori James
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines some of the conceptions of order and justice that are present in the Islamic world. It argues that many Islamic states have been willing to accommodate themselves to an international society based on the idea of sovereign equality. However, one of the impacts of globalization has been to shift the allegiances of some members of these states from territorially based political communities to those based on religious or cultural identity. Some of the radical Islamist groupings that have emerged in recent years and have voiced a range of grievances are seeking nothing less than the overturning of prevailing international and domestic orders. Although the outcome of this complex challenge is impossible to predict, one consequence is that it has created space for the emergence of a new and possibly transformational Islamic civil society, which directs its attention principally to the reform of Muslim societies themselves.
Virtue, Goods, and Happiness in the Laws
Authors: Bobonich Christopher
Published: October 2003

The Laws endorses a Dependency Thesis about goods: every good, other than virtue, is good for its possessor only on the condition that its possessor is virtuous. I argue that the Dependency Thesis is supported by the Philebus’ claim that wisdom is the cause of the good life. I show that the Dependency Thesis explains why the Laws holds that the proper ultimate end of the laws is to foster virtue in as many citizens as possible, and holds that the citizens should receive a true ethical account of the basis of the laws that govern them. I show how these goals are advanced by the Laws’ practice of attaching preludes to legislation.
Knowledge and Reality
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: October 2003

Knowledge and Reality brings together a selection of Colin McGinn's philosophical essays from the mid 1970s to the late 1990s, whose unifying theme is the relation between mind and reality. The essays are divided into three groups (‘Knowledge and Necessity’, ‘Thought and World’, and ‘Reality and Appearance’) and range over several topics of recent interest, including the analysis of knowledge, the a priori, necessity, possible worlds, externalism, essentialism, realism, mental representation, intentionality, and colour. While all but one essay has been previously published elsewhere, McGinn has provided a new postscript to each essay, placing it in its philosophical context by sketching the background against which it was written, explaining its relations to other notable work, and offering his current reflections on the topic. The volume thus traces the development of McGinn's ideas and their role in some central philosophical debates. Seen together McGinn's essays bear out his commitment to ‘not making the world depend upon our means of knowing about it’, offering a many‐sided defence of realism, while emphasizing the epistemological price that realism exacts.
Realist Semantics and Content‐Ascription
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: October 2003

McGinn's target is again Dummettian anti‐realism; this time he argues that Dummett's criticism of realist semantics rests on a questionable theory of content‐ascription. McGinn develops four Twin Earth cases (one of which prefigures Putnam's ‘brain in a vat’) designed to show that, contra Dummett, content is not determined by use (where ‘use’ is understood as ‘the exercise of recognitional capacities in respect of assertability conditions’). But if use does not exhaust content, McGinn argues, then from the fact that verification‐transcendent truth conditions are not present in linguistic use, it does not follow that reality cannot be represented in our sentences.
Realism in Semantics
Authors: Niiniluoto Ilkka
Published: October 2003

Semantical realism claims that truth is a semantical relation between language and reality. The view that representation is one of the functions of language can be combined with the thesis that languages as systems of symbolic signs (in the sense of Peirce's semiotics) are human‐made social conventions. This chapter defends, against Quine, the distinction between analytic and synthetic statements. Tarski's model‐theoretic approach is argued to be the best explication of the correspondence theory of factual truth. By combining the notions of truth and similarity, a comparative and quantitative concept of truthlikeness is defined for a large variety of statements.
Realism in Methodology
Authors: Niiniluoto Ilkka
Published: October 2003

Methodological realism accepts the axiological view that truth is one of the essential aims of science. Following Popper and Levi, truthlikeness as the aim of science, combines the goals of truth and information. This chapter discusses the relations between truthlikeness and other epistemic utilities like explanatory power (Hempel), problem‐solving capacity (Laudan), and simplicity (Reichenbach). While rationality in science can be defined relative to the goals accepted within scientific communities at different times, a critical realist defines scientific progress in terms of increasing truthlikeness. It is argued that progress in this sense can be assessed, relative to empirical evidence, by the notion of expected verisimilitude. An abductive argument is formulated to defend realism as the best (and even the only) explanation of the empirical and practical success of science.
Realism, Science, and Society
Authors: Niiniluoto Ilkka
Published: October 2003

Besides systematic philosophical arguments, there are various extra‐scientific reasons that have been presented for or against realism. This discussion about the relations of knowledge and happiness (good human life) started already among the ancient philosophers (Aristotle, sceptics), and has continued ever since. Such religious, moral, and political considerations do not directly speak in favour or against the truth of scientific realism, but they raise important issues about science policy that have recently been topical in the so‐called Science Wars. Against Rorty's postmodern pragmatism and Feyerabend's epistemological anarchism, it is argued that critical scientific realism, with its commitment to the ethos of science as described by Merton's ethical norms, is in many ways a desirable philosophical outlook in a free, democratic, liberal society.
Europeanization as Convergence: The Regulation of Media Markets in the European Union
Authors: Harcourt Alison J.
Published: October 2003

One of the challenges of Europeanization as an innovative research agenda is the identification of mechanisms through which domestic public policy is Europeanized. In Chapter 2, Radaelli identified two types of mechanisms, vertical (these include European Commission (EC) directives, European Court of Justice (ECJ) decisions, and EC competition decisions) and horizontal (suggestion of best practice through European level policy forums). This chapter elaborates on these mechanisms by considering the case of media market regulation in the European Union (EU), arguing that Europeanization of this policy area can be understood by looking at the interplay between the two mechanisms. An examination is made of vertical mechanisms in the section ‘The Impact of ECJ Decisions on National Regulation’, and of horizontal mechanisms in the section ‘Vertical Europeanization via EC Merger Policy’; together these sections provide an overview of ECJ and competition decisions. The section on ‘The Commission and New Modes of Governance’ overviews how policy ideas travel through European-level forums; last, the ‘Conclusion’ looks at how Europeanization has driven the convergence of national media policies.
Radical Interpretation and Philosophical Scepticism
Authors: Stroud Barry
Published: October 2003

An exploration of the possibility of drawing anti‐sceptical conclusions from Donald Davidson's discussions of radical interpretation and his accounts of belief and belief‐ascription. Stroud argues, against Davidson, that the truth of most of our beliefs cannot be derived solely from the fulfilment of the conditions of our attributing them to ourselves and others, at least not without a doubtful transcendental argument that would appear to depend on some form of idealism. However, Stroud sketches a Davidsonian anti‐sceptical strategy that demonstrates not the truth but what Stroud calls the ‘invulnerability’ of the beliefs in question.
Conventionalism and the Indeterminacy of Translation
Authors: Stroud Barry
Published: October 2003

Quine's deliberations on translation furnish the arguments for the authors’ rejection of the conception of alternative ‘conventions’, which are essential to the conventionalist characterization of logical truth.
Meaning, Understanding, and Translation
Authors: Stroud Barry
Published: October 2003

Argues that understanding cannot be merely a matter of translating certain expressions into others. It seeks to blunt the force of Kripke's sceptic, who argues that a person's intended meaning is underdetermined by all possible evidence.
StJohn Damascene and Tradition
Authors: Louth Andrew
Published: October 2003

Discussion of the late Life of St John and what it tells us about John's reputation around the turn of the millennium, when it was written. Survey of John's works, including the spurious Balaam and Josaphat, which again reveals something of John's later reputation in Byzantium. How John was both shaped by tradition and he himself came to shape it.
Defining Error
Authors: Louth Andrew
Published: October 2003

The development of Christian heresiology, and John's place in this; the way heresiology functions within a kind of sociology of knowledge. More detailed discussion of the three heresies to which John devotes extended attention: Manichaeism (to which he devoted a separate work), Messalianism, and Islam, of which he is the first Christian discussion.
Probable Reasoning: The Negative Argument
Authors: Owen David
Published: October 2003

Hume's negative argument about probable reasoning is sometimes called the problem of induction. The modern version of that argument is centrally concerned with the warrant of probable reasoning and the justification of the beliefs that result from such reasoning. It is argued here that Hume is more concerned with the mechanism that produces such beliefs, and that his problem is more one of explanation than justification. What does Hume mean by raising the question whether we are determined by reason in making the inference from a present impression to an unobserved idea? If we were determined by reason, something, such as the idea of necessary connection or the principle of uniformity, would have to serve as the intermediary via which we get from the impression to the idea. But no such idea or principle is available to us prior to our engaging in probable reasoning. So inferences or reasonings from the observed to the unobserved are not explained by an appeal to the faculty of reason. The point about not being determined by reason does not show that such inferences, or the beliefs we thus come to hold, are unreasonable. It shows that our coming to have such beliefs is not explained by an appeal to the proper functioning of the faculty of reason.
Belief and the Development of Hume's Account of Probable Reasoning
Authors: Owen David
Published: October 2003

After rejecting traditional accounts in terms of reason, Hume presents his own explanation of how we are led from a present impression directly to an idea of something unobserved by the association of ideas set up by past experience. It is this that explains our most basic probable inferences. Hume also has to explain why and how the results of such inferences are believed. What distinguishes belief from mere conception is the very same thing as that which distinguishes impressions from ideas, and ideas of memory from ideas of the imagination: force and vivacity. Once he has an account of these basic inferences and beliefs, he is able to explain how we manage to engage in more complex, reflective reasonings. Such reasonings make use of the uniformity principle and the causal maxim, and Hume is even able to explain how we get the idea of necessary connection. At the end of the story, we have an account of how we manage to perform really difficult and complex feats of reasoning. But this account requires his explanation of the simplest cases of probable reasoning as merely associative, and his account of belief as belonging more to the sensitive than the cogitative part of our natures.
The Limits and Warrant of Reason
Authors: Owen David
Published: October 2003

Two large issues dealt with here are the scope of Hume's negative arguments and the warrant of probable reasoning. What Hume means when he says that we are not determined by reason when we make inferences from the observed to the unobserved is expanded and clarified. He is claiming that such inferences cannot be explained as the result of the faculty of reason considered as one that functions only by reasoning from one idea to another via an intermediate idea. Hume's own conception of reason explains reasoning in terms of a subset of properties of the imagination. Similarly, the arguments of scepticism with regard to reason are directed against reason considered as a faculty functioning independently of those properties; it is only because of these properties that beliefs survive in the face of sceptical arguments. Concerning the second issue, a suggestion is made regarding just where in fact Hume does face the issue of warrant and an explanation is given of how he deals with it. Although Hume was not primarily concerned with issues of warrant and justification, he does, in Part 4, begin to face the issue of just why we prefer the results of reason to those of other belief‐forming mechanisms, such as superstition. Although the beginnings of Hume's answer can be found in this part of the Treatise, the answer is much better formulated and more ably presented in the first Enquiry. Hume explains our preference for reason in the same way as he accounts for our preference for virtue: the reasonable person, like the virtuous person, is more useful and pleasing to herself and others.
Moral Realism and Moral Dilemma
Authors: Foot Philippa
Published: October 2003

Argues against two articles of Bernard Williams in which he attacks moral realism. In the first (Ethical Consistency), Williams finds a disanalogy between judgements of matters of fact and moral judgements in that when two beliefs are irreconcilable one must simply cede: whereas an obligation that overrides another obligation does so only with ‘remainder.’ Foot argues that although the notion of obligation when understood in one way does indeed allow coexisting irreconcilable obligations, this no more supports anti‐realism here than the possibility of clashing social engagements supports an anti‐realistic account of judgements about them. In the second article (Consistency and Realism) Williams argues from the special case of irresolvable moral conflict, where there are as good reasons for doing a as for doing not a, suggesting that there cannot similarly be as good reasons for believing and disbelieving a proposition. Foot denies that this implies anti‐realism for propositions about reasons, suggesting an analogy in the case of propositions that are equally assertable or deniable relative to different grounds.
Aristotle's Theory of Substance
Authors: Wedin Michael V.
Published: October 2003

The Categories and Metaphysics Zeta (Book VII) are often thought to be incompatible because each posits different candidates for the title of primary substance or ousia. In the Categories, primary substance is the concrete individual thing, while in Zeta, it is the form or essence of the individual thing, which is now understood as a composite of form and matter. In this book, Wedin rejects the thesis of incompatibilism, and in its stead argues that the two treatises are concerned with different projects. Wedin argues that the theory of Metaphysics Zeta is meant to explain certain features of the theory of the Categories, and that it therefore presupposes the Categories theory of substance. The ousia of the Categories, what Wedin calls ‘c‐substance’, remains a primary substance in the Metaphysics in the sense that its ontological priority is not called into question. Aristotle focuses on form in the Metaphysics because it explains the substantiality of c‐substances: in other words, it has ‘explanatory’ primacy. Wedin's overall view of Metaphysics Zeta is that it is concerned with investigating what sort of thing form must be, given that form is the primary cause of the nature or being of a c‐substance. The treatises, then, are not incompatible, because the explananda of Zeta are the primary substances of the Categories. Showing that this is so involves, firstly, setting out the theory of the Categories (Ch. 1–3), secondly, clarifying the sense in which ‘c‐substance’ is the explanandum of Metaphysics Zeta (Ch. 4–5), and finally, examining in detail the explanatory theory of Zeta (Ch. 6—10). In the Introduction, Wedin announces his intention to consider only what he calls the ‘canonical chapters’ of Zeta, i.e. Z.1–6, 10–11, 13–17: Ch. 7–9 and 12 are mostly neglected, as Wedin believes that these chapters are not part of the original project of Zeta.
The Impact of Party Leaders in Britain: Strong Assumptions, Weak Evidence
Authors: Bartle John , Crewe Ivor
Published: October 2003

There has been a widespread belief in Britain in recent years (which appears to be corroborated by survey evidence) that leaders’ personalities strongly influence the way that people vote and therefore the results of elections, although in a parliamentary system such as Britain’s, this is less obviously correct than in presidential systems such as the United States, France and Russia. However, British political science has usually reached negative conclusions on this belief, pointing out that popular leaders have often lost elections, and that only two of the eleven elections fought since 1964 (those of 1964 and 1997) stand out as elections in which leaders’ personalities may have been decisive. This chapter looks at the 1997 election, for which three separate studies belonging to the British Election Study are available: the cross–sectional study, XBES; the campaign study, BECS; and the British Election Panel Study, BEPS. It first discusses the effect of leaders’ personalities by constructing a series of vote models, and then looks at the relationship between leaders’ personalities and the vote. Each of the three British Election Studies are then analysed; only the BEPS study (which has the least comprehensive data set) indicates that leaders’ personalities had anything other than a marginal effect on the election outcome.
Prime Ministerial Contenders in Canada
Authors: Johnston Richard
Published: October 2003

For the case of elections since 1988, this chapter looks at the suggestion made by Andre Siegfried in 1907 that Canadian elections are peculiarly vulnerable to leader effects. It begins by outlining the specifically Canadian arguments for taking leadership seriously and the evidence said to back them; the arguments are found to refer mainly to ‘indirect’ effects in the sense used by King in Chapter 1 (so that leaders are treated as embodied preferences), with the actual evidence largely silent on the content – personality or otherwise – of Canadian judgments on leaders, at least in so far as those judgments are linked to the vote. Likewise, most accounts control for competing explanations weakly, if at all, and none considers personality for its net, election–day effect. Working through each argument also reveals that each is highly contingent, generally applying more to certain parties or party sizes than others, and more to periods of flux and to new parties than to stable periods and old parties. Filling the gaps requires an account of the personality factors worth taking seriously (the analysis looks at competence and character), a basic estimation strategy setting these attributes into proper context (which is given), and based on this estimation strategy, an accounting for net aggregate effects (also given). The last two sections of the chapter discuss whether perceptions of personality can be modified over the course of a campaign, and give an account of a special sort of ‘indirect’ effect: the case where perceptions of a leader’s personality can be cashed in on perceptions of a policy option (here the proposal for a commercial union between Canada and the United States in 1988).
Introduction: European Pathways to the Future
Authors: Schmidt Vivien A.
Published: October 2003

Provides an overview of the book, introduces the main themes related to Europeanization, globalization, policy change, varieties of capitalism, and discourse, then provides an outline of the chapters, and thanks sources.
Creativity
Authors: Swanton Christine
Published: October 2003

Creativity is an important response in virtue, but neglected in moral philosophy. The chapter explores the nature of creative response and its relation to virtue as a whole.
The Title
Authors: Whitaker C. W. A.
Published: October 2003

The traditional title is an oddity. It has been explained as meaning ’On the Assertion’ (in accordance with the view that that is what the treatise is about) but the best translation is really ’On Language’. However, the title is never mentioned by Aristotle and is likely to be a later invention. ’On Contradiction’ or ’On the Contradictory Pair’ would be the most appropriate titles for the work's true preoccupations.
Chapter 5: Simple and Compound Assertions
Authors: Whitaker C. W. A.
Published: October 2003

This chapter offers two criteria for the unity of an assertion: the semantic claim that a single assertion is one which claims one thing about one thing, and the syntactic claim that an assertion may be ’one by conjunction’. After a discussion, the semantic criterion is preferred. There is also an argument that no single word can be an answer to a question, which accords with Aristotle's view of the dialectical question as the demand for the answerer to assent to one out of two assertions.
Chapter 7: The First Exception to RCP; Singular and Universal Assertions
Authors: Whitaker C. W. A.
Published: October 2003

Aristotle now begins his investigation of contradictory pairs of assertions. ’Things’ are now divided into two types, universal and singular. Assertions may be divided likewise, and it is found that ’non‐universal assertions about universals’ (such as ’Man is pale’) do not necessarily obey the Rule of Contradictory Pairs (RCP) stating that one member of a contradictory pair is true and the other false (since the universal man is both pale and not pale, both ’Man is pale’ and ’Man is not pale’ are true). This chapter is closely allied to dialectic, in which the establishment of non‐universal statements about universals is of great importance, occupying books IV, V and VI of the Topics.
Chapter 9: The Third Exception to RCP; Future Singular Assertions
Authors: Whitaker C. W. A.
Published: October 2003

The third class of exceptions introduces the famous Sea‐battle paradox, which is normally studied in isolation from the rest of the treatise. By approaching this chapter in its context, however, a new understanding of it emerges. If RCP is upheld for future contingents, Aristotle argues, then there are true statements about undecided future events, and (as a consequence of his definition of truth) if statements about the future are already true, then things will necessarily be the way the statements say they will be. Fatalism thus results. Nothing is gained by claiming predictions are not true, he says (for in this case there would be no future at all). A subtle solution is adopted, which involves acknowledging RCP but modifying it: one member of a pair of future singular assertions is true and the other false, but it is not settled in advance which is which. This chapter does not involve, as has been supposed, a modification of the Principle of Bivalence, which lays down that every assertion is either true or false.
Chapter 12: Modal Assertions
Authors: Whitaker C. W. A.
Published: October 2003

Aristotle now turns his attention to assertions involving the ideas of necessity and possibility, and examines how they should be arranged into their correct contradictory pairs. Here, he argues, the contradictory is formed not (as in other cases) by negating the copula ’is’, which unites subject and predicate, but by negating the modal word instead. Being becomes a kind of 'subject’, and the modal words are ’additions’ or copulas, thus establishing an interesting parity between the modal and non‐modal classes of assertion.
Rationalizing Persisting Opposition
Authors: Goodin Robert E.
Published: October 2003

This is the last of four chapters on belief democracy, and discusses how to rationalize persistent opposition in the light of Wollheim's paradox (how can you vote one way, and then immediately accept the majority verdict in favour of the opposite view, when voting the first way is seen as asserting that it is true and acceding to the majority verdict is seen as accepting that the opposite is true), and Bayesian considerations that make it utterly irrational for anyone ever to continue disagreeing once everyone has voted. The first section demonstrates that none of the easy and obvious ways of extending (modifying) the Bayesian framework rationalize majoritarianism without derationalizing ongoing opposition. Next, various ways of moving beyond Bayes to overcome the paradox of persisting opposition are put forward; these include repudiating Bayesian reasoning altogether, assuming that disagreement betokens unreliability, assuming that smaller groups are inherently more reliable, and assuming that each election is different; none of these produce the required result. Finally, political arguments are put forward more explicitly to see whether they can rationalize ongoing opposition; these include the crucial role of opposition in democratic politics, proceduralism, denying propositional content, biased perception, strategic voting, segmented information pools, and different interests. In the light of what has been presented overall, the author puts forward his own explanation, which suggests that what is wrong with Bayesian models that ask us to update our beliefs in the light of others’ votes is that those votes mix facts and values, and only one of these (others’ assessments of the facts) can reasonably be taken into account in updating our beliefs; thus, it is the epistemic power of majorities when dealing with shared facts that underwrites the rationality of majority rule, but their lack of epistemic authority when it comes to matters of evaluations that underwrites the rationality of persisting opposition.
Broadness
Authors: Williamson Timothy
Published: October 2003

That knowing is a mental state is inconsistent with internalism, the claim that whether one is in a given mental state depends only on what is going on inside one's head, for the truth of what one knows may involve the external environment. More familiar kinds of externalism in the philosophy of mind have concerned the content of a mental state; the present view extends externalism to the propositional attitudes to those contents. Attempts to extract belief or rational belief as the internalist, purely mental core of knowledge are refuted. The causal efficacy of knowing is upheld by a consideration of cases in which our best causal explanation of an extended action appeals to knowing rather than believing.
Evidence
Authors: Williamson Timothy
Published: October 2003

This chapter argues that one's total evidence is simply one's total knowledge. Evidence is primarily relevant to evaluating propositions of whose truth values one is ignorant. Since knowledge is not to be analysed in terms of justification, there is no circularity in using knowledge to analyse justification by evidence. Thus, the attempt to reorient epistemology towards justification rather than knowledge is a mistake. The need for evidence to be propositional is emphasized by consideration of its role in falsification, inference to the best explanation, and Bayesian confirmation.
Demonstration and Definition: Aristotle's Positive Views inPosterior AnalyticsΒ.8–10 and Β.16–18
Authors: Charles David
Published: October 2003

Aristotle seeks to resolve the problems raised in Posterior Analytics B.3–7 by arguing that our practices of definition and explanation are interdependent. It is not possible to define kinds without appeal to their causal structure, nor is it possible to single out the relevant causal structure without appeal to what is required for good definition. This is why Aristotle holds that the answer to the questions, ‘What is F?’ and ‘Why is F as it is?’ are the same. Neither definition nor explanation can be completed without assistance from the other.
Aristotle's Essentialism
Authors: Charles David
Published: October 2003

Aristotle's account of essences is distinct from that offered by Platonists (who do not give such a central role to causal explanation) and by scientific realists (for whom definitions are solely dependent on real‐world patterns of causal explanation). Further, while Aristotle's essences are part of the fabric of reality, they can be grasped only by those with certain definitional and explanatory practices. Thus, his account differs from (amongst others) that of the Platonist (for whom essences can be discovered by any mind, independently of its definitional practices). Standard criticisms of Aristotle's essentialism (such as those that are to be found in the writings of John Locke or W.V.O. Quine) are, I argue, misdirected against a Platonist Aristotle of legend and do not successfully engage with Aristotle's own account.
Institutions and Morality: An Economist's Appraisal
Authors: Hamlin Alan
Published: October 2003

Here, Alan Hamlin revisits some of his earlier work on the moral basis, scope, and evaluation of markets, and extends his analysis to a global setting by considering both the international market place and its institutional foundations. His key questions are how does the changing form and extended geographical radius of the market (for goods, services, information, and capital) affect the morality of the market and other institutions of global capitalism, and how should these considerations influence the debate on the design of the political landscape? Hamlin believes that an evolutionary, bottom‐up, and multicultural approach towards achieving more responsible and sustainable global capitalism offers the best promise, and that an upgrading of virtue to allow for moral motivations, and a more meaningful dissemination and exchange of this virtue across national boundaries (rather than the ‘economize on virtue’ market approach), is an essential prerequisite to building a more integrated global society.
The Challenge of Global Capitalism: A Christian Perspective
Authors: Griffiths Brian
Published: October 2003

Brian Griffiths sets out his interpretation of the Christian attitude and response to global capitalism. After identifying the foundations of a Christian perspective, viz. the nature of the world God created, the covenants, the moral law of the Old Testament, and the Incarnation, Griffiths identifies six distinctive components of an acceptable global economy. He then goes on to distinguish between the Christian viewpoint and that of liberal economists who tend to regard the market (as one of the critical institutions of capitalism) as an autonomous entity and independent of any reference to morality; he has little sympathy for those theologians who view capitalism ’as powered by the unremitting stimulation of covetousness’, and indeed, as a Christian, he strongly defends the moral legitimacy of the concept of private ownership, and the freedom of individuals and firms to do business in the market place. At the same time, Griffiths is in no doubt that without a vigorous and clearly enunciated moral framework that embraces Christian values, the risks of extreme poverty, social injustice, and exclusivity, and the threat to the environment (the three downsides of the present state of capitalism discussed in the chapter) will remain. Finally, he avers that individual Christians and the Christian church bear a major responsibility for advocating and promulgating their beliefs and opinions, and also for cooperating with other religious persuasions, to identify ways of upgrading the moral ecology of the constituent institutions of global capitalism.
The Challenge of Global Capitalism: An Islamic Perspective
Authors: Ahmad Khurshid
Published: October 2003

Khurshid Ahmad takes a critical view of the endemic qualities of global capitalism, which, he argues, even if it were to become more socially responsible and inclusive, would not be comfortably embraced by the Muslim world, because of its underpinning moral ethos and hegemonic character. He explains that this is partly because it contains and expresses values and behavioural norms that are specific to its historical and cultural context, and partly because it does not sufficiently endorse the ethical virtues the Islamic religion believes are essential to the well‐being of mankind. In this context, Ahmad gives an outline of the Islamic approach to economics. He submits that the global economy and society are too fractured and lacking in homogeneity to admit any one model of wealth creation and distribution. However, he believes that, with tolerance and understanding, it is possible for Western and Islamic‐style economic systems to exist side by side, with each retaining its own unique characteristics, so that the global society would be a matrix in which different cultures and systems can coexist.
A Universal Culture of Human Rights and Freedom's Habits: Caritapolis
Authors: Novak Michael
Published: October 2003

Michael Novak addresses some broad issues relating to culture, basic human values, and globalization, and how these affect both individuals and institutions as societies are transforming themselves within the framework of global capitalism (GC). In identifying the political, economic, and cultural attributes of GC, he argues that its success and acceptability depend on a supportive moral ecology, the ingredients of which he describes at some length. Novak believes that we are currently experiencing a crisis in moral ecology both at an individual and societal level; he cites as evidence, the cult of excessive self‐interest in the market place, the emphasis on power and vested interests in politics, and the widespread expression of relativism and subjectivity in culture. He then discusses four cardinal virtues, which he believes must be embraced by individuals and institutions engaged in, or influencing, the character of global economic activity, viz. cultural humility, truth, respect for human dignity and solidarity; at the same time, he believes that to reach a socially acceptable global vision, it is not necessary, nor indeed desirable, to work for univocal moral principles. The chapter concludes by referring to the Earthly City described by St Augustine in The City of God, and elaborates a modern version, which he terms ‘Caritapolis’, the City of Communion.
On the Political Relevance of Global Civil Society
Authors: Falk Richard
Published: October 2003

Richard Falk considers the changing role of civil society as an institution influencing the form and content of global capitalism (GC), particularly its goals and values. This is a critical chapter, which, after placing the whole range of NGO (non‐governmental organization) functions within a historical context, acknowledges that, as values and aspirations change, new demands are made on the organizations comprising these institutions. The implications of GC are given especial attention: how far, and in what respects, are NGOs (including global NGOs) twenty‐first century moral guardians (cf. governments and markets); and/or to what extent do they need to be injected with a new or reconfigured code of behaviour suitable to the particular needs of the global economy? Falk believes that global civil society has an important role to play in influencing the course and content of global capitalism, and its underlying ethical ethos. He particularly favours a globalization‐from‐below approach, which he believes provides a useful counter‐force to the globalization‐from‐above approach practised by large firms and governments; in elaborating this view, he makes the case for a normative democracy––which reconnects politicians with moral purpose and values. He then goes on to identify the components of normative democracy, and argues that most of these can best be served not by globalization‐from‐above mechanisms, but rather by those of civil society as it redefines its role as mediating between the logic of capitalism and the priorities of peoples.
Germany: The Mixed‐Member System as a Political Compromise
Authors: Scarrow Susan E.
Published: October 2003

Describes how the German mixed‐member electoral system arose, and shows how it developed both from interest‐based bargaining and from more widely shared concerns about political stability. Some of the features that are most characteristic of the current German arrangements—including giving citizens two ballots and the legal threshold set at 5% of the national vote—were absent in West Germany's first electoral law. These points were incorporated into the German law as the result of partisan struggles, contests whose outcomes were shaped by the shifting contours of West Germany's evolving party system. In other words, although the circumstances of total regime collapse and temporary occupation created rare opportunities to develop a political consensus for principled experimentation with new institutional designs, the German ‘model’ was as much an ad hoc creation as it was the product of theoretically inspired engineering. The different sections of the chapter are: Electoral Systems in the Federal Republic of Germany; The Origins of Germany's Mixed‐Member System; The 1949 Law—and the 1953 and 1956 laws; The German Electoral System Since 1956; and Conclusion: Accidentally Inventing a Model?
The Political Consequences of Germany's Mixed‐Member System: Personalization at the Grass Roots?
Authors: Klingemann Hans‐Dieter , Wessels Bernhard
Published: October 2003

Addresses the question of the relevance the German mixed‐member electoral system has for the party system and for candidate vote, and argues that the mixed‐member electoral system does indeed live up to its German moniker of ‘personalized proportional representation’, in that it provides at once individualized representation of geographic constituencies and proportionality. The analysis proceeds in four steps and discusses the impact of the electoral system on the interparty and intraparty dimensions. The first two sections deal with the impact of the electoral system (a) on the party system, and (b) on voting behavior, with special attention to ticket‐splitting. The third and fourth sections deal with (a) candidate selection and opportunity structures as shaped by the electoral system and the parties, and (b) the likelihood of a district performance‐based personal vote for members of parliament. Concludes with a confrontation of the normative expectations of the founding fathers and empirical reality and speculates about the future of the German party system.
School Choice and Social Justice
Authors: Brighouse Harry
Published: October 2003

Defends a theory of social justice for education from within an egalitarian version of liberalism. The theory involves a strong commitment to educational equality, and to the idea that children's rights include a right to personal autonomy. The book argues that school reform must always be evaluated from the perspective of social justice and applies the theory, in particular, to school choice proposals. It looks at the parental choice schemes in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and in England and Wales, and argues that they fall short of the requirements of justice, but that not all such schemes must do so. It elaborates an abstract voucher scheme that would combine choice with justice, and offers ways by which actual choice‐based reform can be modified to meet the requirements of justice.
Industrial Innovation and Sustainability—Conflicts and Coherence
Authors: Meyer‐Krahmer Frieder
Published: October 2003

First gives an outline of the two prevailing views on the possibilities for solving the conflict between sustainable development and technological innovation – the sceptical and the optimistic. It goes on to discuss three possible paths that industrial technological innovation can take towards environmental sustainability: more extensive use of environmentally acceptable alternatives (the traditional model), the closing and materials cycles and the integration of product policy and product use. The remaining sections of the chapter discuss sustainability and learning – the innovation strategies of firms, technology policy and environmental sustainability, and the role of regional, national, and international policies. It is concluded that an innovation policy for sustainability is still far from being conceptualized.
Organizational Innovation in European Firms: A Critical Overview of the Survey Evidence
Authors: Coriat Benjamin
Published: October 2003

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an initial synthetic analysis of the lessons to be drawn from the study of the diffusion of organizational innovations in European firms. This study is based on four major nationwide surveys that were carried out, respectively, in Germany, UK, Denmark, and France. Attention is focused on the following three series of problems: (1) the identification and nature of organizational innovations, as they stand out from the various surveys; (2) an evaluation of the scope, levels, and modes of the diffusion of organizational innovations in the European firms; and (3) some preliminary findings as regards the appraising and measuring of the performances that can be directly linked to the dissemination of innovations. In the final section, reflections are offered on the results themselves as well as on the means used to pursue the investigation on the various themes dealt with in the present study.
Innovation Policy—A Systemic Approach
Authors: Edquist Charles
Published: October 2003

Many innovations arise spontaneously as a result of the market mechanism and the actions of capitalist firms, but some, especially the more radical ones, require public intervention. The first part of this chapter discusses when such policy interventions might be necessary and why. The next section discusses selectivity in innovation policy. The last (main) section of the chapter discusses the general and specific policy implications of the new ‘system of innovation’ (SI) approach; this studies innovations as an endogenous part of the economy and has emerged only in the last decade or so. An SI can be defined as encompassing all the important factors that influence the development, diffusion, and use of innovations, as well as the relations between these factors, which can be studied in a national, regional, or sectoral context.
The Need for New Perspectives in European Commission Innovation Policy
Authors: Sharp Margaret
Published: October 2003

Considers the policy implications of the perspectives on socio–economic development in Europe opened up by work done on the globalized learning economy. It raises questions, first, about what sort of policies are needed, second, about the current focus of innovation policies in Europe, and, finally, about the changes in policy needed to face up to the challenges of the next two decades. It draws upon the research summarized in Bengt‐Åke Lundvall's and Susannah Borrás's volume The Globalising Learning Economy (1998) and also on research on industrial policy currently underway in the European Commission's Targeted Socio–Economic Research (TSER) project, ‘Science, Technology and Broad Industrial Policy’ (SOEl‐CT97‐1053), and on the author's own work on the EU's research and technological development (RTD) policies summarized in the book published in 1998 with John Peterson (Peterson and Sharp, 1998).
The Material Conditional: Jackson
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Discussion of Jackson's view that indicative conditionals are material conditionals, and his attempt to explain away apparent counter‐evidence by appeal to the notion of conventional implicature. His good explanation of the latter as a general phenomenon shows many respects in which it is not applicable to indicative conditionals.