bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ruling Class Strategies and Citizenship
Authors: Mann Michael
Published: September 2003

Marshall's theory of citizenship is criticized for being Anglocentric and evolutionist. Comparative historical analysis of industrial societies reveals not one but at least five viable strategies for the institutionalization of class conflict, here called liberal, reformist, authoritarian monarchist, Fascist and authoritarian socialist. In explaining their origin and development emphasis should be placed upon the strategies and cohesion of ruling classes and anciens régimes rather than upon those of the rising bourgeois and proletarian classes (as has been the case in much previous theory). In explaining their durability emphasis should be placed upon geo-political events, especially the two world wars, rather than on their internal efficiency. If Marshall's third stage of citizenship is a reasonably accurate description of contemporary Europe, this is primarily due to the military victories of the `Anglo-Saxon' powers.
Policing the Dead: A Sociology of the Mortuary
Authors: Prior Lindsay
Published: September 2003

This paper focuses upon the nature of the mortuary as a socio-medical institution and the discourse of pathology which operates within it. More specifically, by examining the manner in which pathology is operationalised in Belfast it demonstrates: (i) how medical interests are frequently fused with those of the wider politico-technological system within which they are ensconced; (ii) how the assumptions and investigative principles of pathology are grounded in social rather than specifically clinical concerns, and (iii) how the subject population on which pathology concentrates is selected in accordance with social as well as clinical characteristics.
In the Absence of the Minister: Structures of Subordination in the Role of Deaconess in the Church of England
Authors: Aldridge Alan
Published: September 2003

The order of deaconesses, which survived in western Christianity until the beginning of the eleventh century, was revived in the Church of England in 1862. The role of deaconess has been systematically compounded of anomalies which express the otherness of women and their subordination to men. That deaconesses are subordinate to clergy and dependent on their goodwill is evident from analysis of the formal structures and informal networks within which their respective roles are located. Deaconesses depend on clergy for task allocation, for the settlement of grievances, for participation if any in decision-making, for career development and even for their sense of identity, since it is not other women but clergy who typically serve as role models. During interregna, when a parish lacks an incumbent priest, the restricted nature of the deaconess's role is manifest. Interviews with deaconesses and women lay workers in one English diocese reveal the depth of frustration many of them feel. The recent decision to ordain women not as deaconesses but as deacons will expand their role only slightly, will not resolve their anomalous status and will merely confirm their subordination to the clergy.
Assessing the Socio-Economic Status of Families
Authors: Osborn Albert F.
Published: September 2003

Occupational classifications have long been the conventional method of assigning individuals, families and household to social class or socio-economic status positions. This practice has been subject to mounting criticism in recent years, either because of doubts about the validity of scales such as the OPCS Classification of Occupations or because of objections to the use of husbands' occupations to assign their wives and families to a class position. This article reviews this debate, and proposes an alternative method of assessing the socio-economic status of families by means of a composite Social Index comprising seven social indicators: occupation and education of the heads of household, housing tenure, type of accommodation, persons per room, car and telephone ownership. The construction and rationale of the Index are described and its special advantages explained. These include the capability of providing an assessment of the socio-economic status of single-parent families having no relevant occupational information, and increased sensitivity and reliability compared with OPCS social class.
Measuring the Quality of Life: A Sociological Invention Concerning the Application of Economics to Health Care
Authors: Mulkay Michael , Ashmore Malcolm , Pinch Trevor
Published: September 2003

The paper which follows takes the form of a dialogue between a sociological voice and an unidentified, questioning voice. The two voices explore some of the tasks involved in, and difficulties generated by, the attempt to apply social science to practical issues. The discussion focuses on the area of health economics and, particularly, on recent efforts to provide measures of the quality of life that can be used to solve administrative problems within the NHS. Beginning from close examination of a particular text, the sociological voice claims to reveal some of the background assumptions of health economics as a social practice and to identify some of the ways in which the production and application of economic knowledge are socially contingent. The sociological voice also contrasts the textual form of the present paper with the `scientific' format normally employed by economists and most other applied social scientists. S/he may be read as asserting that the dialogic character of the present text is in some way more suited to a more collaborative use of social science expertise in the realm of practical action.
Rational Equitarian Democracy Minimax Class and the Future of Capitalist Society: A Sketch towards a Theory
Authors: Abell Peter
Published: September 2003

The logical structure of class theory is described in terms of a number of correspondence principles. The theory of class depends upon a concept of exploitation (and justice). The Marxian concept of exploitation is but one possible example of a more general conception. Class boundaries drawn in terms of the Marxian concept (i.e. labouring time and positions in the relations of production) apply when the line between capital and labour is relatively unambiguous. Where this is not the case a new concept is needed, formulated in terms of unequal choices in the relations of production, exchange and consumption. The new concept emerges in minimax class society where class boundaries derive from an individual's status as a provider of labour and capital and as a consumer.
Theories of Family Development and the Experience of being Brought Up
Authors: Jamieson Lynn
Published: September 2003

A remarkable variety of academic treatments of family life are in broad agreement as to the processes of development and change occurring within families in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. A wide range of authors regard the following as a set of interconnected changes: family household members increasingly come to have a sense of themselves as a distinctive and sacrosanct unit, `the family', which is separated from the wider social world; emotional relationships within the family household become very intense; gender divisions become more acute, with the sharp demarcation between a housewife/mother role and an earner/father role; respect for the rights of the individual is increased - loyalty to oneself may take precedence over loyalty to the family. My aim in this paper is to confront this `classical' corpus of historical and sociological analysis with a particular set of experiential data - oral accounts of growing up in urban Scotland in the early 1900s gathered by me in 1975 - 77 (Jamieson 1983). As we shall see, these data cast into doubt several of the generalisations contained in the `classical' corpus.
Straw Men: A Note on Ann Oakley's Treatment of Textbook Prescriptions for Interviewing
Authors: Malseed Joanna
Published: September 2003

In this research note, I examine Oakley's treatment of the traditional textbooks' recommendations for interviewing. Oakley criticises these as a basis for data collection `which cannot and does not work in practice' (Oakley 1981:31). An examination of textbook prescriptions for data collection suggests that Oakley's objection to them is a product of her misleading characterisation of them. Her criticism is therefore misplaced, and her proposed alternative rather less original than has been assumed.
Competence and Culture in the Police
Authors: Fielding Nigel
Published: September 2003

Assessments of the achievement of competence in organisations often obscure the relationship between external or formal criteria of competence and those of members. Efforts to reform police practice may founder on the lack of fit between the terms in which outsiders and members construe `competent' practice. In order to approach this matter it is initially necessary to specify the terms in which members attribute competence to practice at incidents, and to examine the formal and informal constraints and goals which influence their action. This article pursues the issue in the context of ethnographic research into policing in American and British urban settings.
Women and Equality: The Acquisition of Equal Pay in the Post Office 1870-1961
Authors: Grint Keith
Published: September 2003

While gender-related inequalities at work remain common, examples of their elimination, though rare, do exist. This paper provides an empirical examination of the acquisition of equal pay by women in the Post Office between 1870 and 1961. Using the dual theoretical axes of strategic action and structural constraint, it focuses upon the collective action of social groups, and the structural constraints within which they acted. Arguing that structure and action cannot be isolated from each other except for heuristic purposes, it concludes that men were the primary inhibitors of equal pay, and politically buttressed market forces its crucial promoter.
The Effect of Auspices, Style and Layout on Response Rates to Mailed Questionnaires
Authors: Harvey Lee
Published: September 2003

The research reported in this paper assesses the impact of auspices, style of question and layout of questionnaire on response rates, using an experimental design.
Employers, Labour Markets, and Redistribution Under State Socialism: An Interpretation of Housing Policy in Hungary 1960-1983
Authors: Pickvance C. G.
Published: September 2003

This paper seeks to explain the evolution of housing policy in Hungary in order to throw light on the character of redistribution under state socialism, and on the conditions under which employers intervene in the housing sphere. Changes in housing policy are explained by a model which emphasizes developments in the Hungarian economy, such as the rise of the second economy, changes in labour market competition, and the changing power of large firms, and their consequential effects on employer motivation and capacity to intervene in housing to recruit, motivate and retain their labour force. Whereas for Szelényi state socialist redistribution is inherently regressive, the model advanced here both draws attention to variations in the regressiveness/progressiveness of housing policy and offers an explanation of these changes in terms of the changing balance of forces acting on the state, and in particular the importance of large employers and the opportunities open for them to use housing to resolve their labour problems. The greater role of employers in the housing sphere in Hungary is linked to the `resource-constrained' nature of state socialist economies and to the interpenetration of economic and political spheres, and is hence argued to be a structural feature of state socialism.
On the Interactional Management of Defeat
Authors: Emmison Mike
Published: September 2003

Victories and defeats at sports events generate contrasting interactional consequences for the respective parties, and accordingly are accounted for in different ways. This paper is an examination of the strategies employed by defeated players together with commentators and audiences to successfully manage the status of loser at the subsequent ceremonial presentation, interview or press conference. There are a number of constraints which are operative during the delivery of and response to commiserations, and a variety of strategies for accounting for a defeat are discussed. In general defeat talk is organised in such a way as to reaffirm the particular logic of the sporting order, a belief that effort, dedication and determination will eventually be rewarded.
Class Structuration and Patterns of Social Closure in Australia and New Zealand
Authors: Jones F. L. , Davis Peter
Published: September 2003

On the basis of patterns of intergenerational mobility and class endogamy in Australia and New Zealand, we develop models of exchange between the generations. Data on intergenerational change in terms of social mobility (father-to-son mobility) and class endogamy (the social origins of spouses) reveal considerable stability in patterns of exchange in each country and across age cohorts.

The analysis shows that, while considerable social interchange occurs, it does so at different rates depending on social distance and class background. The barriers that inhibit exchange are grounded in institutions of structured inequality, and they operate selectively within the class structure.
Profit Sharing and the Cycle of Control
Authors: Bougen P. D. , Ogden S. G. , Outram Q.
Published: September 2003

Profit sharing has recently returned to public prominence and is becoming increasingly popular in British industry. Although it is commonplace to view the previous incidences of profit sharing in terms of the cycle of control thesis, this perspective cannot explain the present enthusiasm. This paper re-examines the cycle of control theory's ability to predict the timing, the contextual conditions and the managerial motives for the introduction of profit sharing. Two case studies are presented in order to show ways in which management have used profit sharing; these studies raise serious doubts about the explanatory value of the cycle of control thesis.
In Search of `the Spirit of Capitalism': Weber's Misinterpretation of Franklin
Authors: Dickson Tony , McLachlan Hugh V.
Published: September 2003

Weber's Protestant Ethic essays are remarkably short of hard evidence for the existence of `The Spirit of Capitalism'. Instead, Weber relies mainly on selected extracts from the writings of Benjamin Franklin to illustrate this attitude. Indeed, Weber seems to regard Franklin's writings as an archetypical example of `The Spirit of Capitalism'. However, a detailed examination of Franklin's life and works reveals a very different story. Far from illustrating `The Spirit of Capitalism', as Weber conceives it, Franklin's life shows that his attachment to capitalist values of profit accumulation was wholly pragmatic rather than being linked to, or deriving from his religious beliefs. If confirmation of the existence of `The Spirit of Capitalism' is to be sought, it has to be elsewhere than by reference to Benjamin Franklin.
Men: The Forgotten Carers
Authors: Arber Sara , Gilbert Nigel
Published: September 2003

The extent to which men are the primary carers of infirm elderly people and the amount of support men carers receive from the statutory and voluntary services relative to women carers is examined using data from the 1980 General Household Survey. It is shown that men make a larger contribution to caring than is often recognised.
The Means of Management Control: A Reply to Friedman
Authors: Storey John
Published: September 2003

Andrew Friedman has responded to my article `The Means of Management Control' by criticising its treatment of the labour process literature. He also contends that my alternative formulation is flawed in three regards: it is simultaneously functionalist and empiricist and is allegedly dismissive of the concept of `managerial strategy'. But Friedman's critique is built on an assemblage of misinterpretation and distortion. He repeatedly reconstitutes the elements in the article until they resemble for him more familiar targets. These are then subjected to a series of routine objections.
Unemployment and Family Formation among Young Men
Authors: Payne Joan
Published: September 2003

The relationship between domestic life and employment, clearly of great importance for women, has received little attention from sociologists as far as men are concerned. The paper investigates one aspect of this, namely the relationship between family formation and unemployment among young men. Using longitudinal data from the National Child Development Study, it provides evidence for the existence of direct causal links between family formation events and unemployment. After controlling for a variety of factors, marriage appears to reduce the probability of unemployment, and this is true even if the husband is in his teens when he marries. In contrast, marital breakdown and fathering one child raises the chances of unemployment. However fathers of two or more children have a higher probability of unemployment than childless men even before their first child is born, and this is even more marked for men with three or more children. This implies that by no means all of the correlation between family size and unemployment is explained by the fact that welfare benefits are related to the number of children: part at least appears to be due to prior unobserved factors which explain both high fertility and a raised probability of unemployment.
Theorising Patriarchy
Authors: Walby Sylvia
Published: September 2003

The concept `patriarchy', while being vital for feminist analysis, has been criticised for not being able to deal with historical and cross-cultural variation in the forms of women's subordination. This paper presents a new way of theorising patriarchy to meet these objections; one which is flexible enough to take account of its various forms, but rigorous enough to be an effective tool for analysis. It leaves behind base-superstructure models of patriarchy in which there is only one base, which have led to many of the rigidities which have been identified, arguing instead for a model of patriarchy as six partially-interdependent structures. The paper concludes with a discussion of the different forms of patriarchy in recent British history.
Urban Sociology: A Trend Report
Authors: Mellor Rosemary
Published: September 2003

The paper reviews the disintegration of urban sociology as a recognisable domain of study in the early 1980s and its development as urban studies - an interdisciplinary research field with global reference and infinite scope. At the same time there was a re-entry of the `local' and more specifically the `urban' into the sociological mainstream as there was greater awareness of uneven development, the particularity of local experience and the possibilities of mobilisation around local issues. In particular there was awareness that `race' politics was also an `urban' politics. The problematic of the slumghetto sharpened in focus and there was increasing recourse to American research and policy initiatives in regenerating the cities. Increasingly, it is argued, sociology will have to be alert to the issues of urbanisation, in particular the everyday appreciation that monopoly of locations, symbolically or otherwise, confers power.
Quality and Quantity: Tackling Non-Contact Attrition in a Longitudinal Survey
Authors: Dodds Suzanne , Furlong Andy , Croxford Linda
Published: September 2003

This research note describes some of the methods of reducing non-contact attrition used in the Scottish Young People's Surveys, and suggests that the type of attrition reduction method used can affect the quality of the survey sample.
Class and Party in Britain, 1964-83
Authors: Weakliem David
Published: September 2003

This paper analyzes changes in class voting in Britain by applying models for the analysis of ordered categories to data from the British General Election Surveys. The findings support Heath, Jowell and Curtice's (1985) claim that there has been no general class dealignment. In addition, changes in class voting are unrelated to changes in the overall performance of Labour relative to Conservatives, although the Liberals do appear to benefit when class voting declines. The analysis also reveals distinctive behaviour in one class (`foremen and technicians') which had not been previously noticed.
Sexism and Psychiatry
Authors: Busfield Joan
Published: September 2003

Two main approaches concerning the relation between sexism and psychiatry have been developed in the feminist literature. One, now less fashionable, follows Phyllis Chesler's influential Women and Madness (1972) in emphasising the centrality of sexism within psychiatry and its constructs of mental illness. The other, emphasising the sexism within Society as a whole and the way it generates mental suffering and disturbance, suggests the potential of psychiatry and the mental health professions to ameliorate that suffering. This paper looks once more at the second approach to see whether it should now be abandoned. It analyses the role gender plays within psychiatry, distinguishing three levels of definition and identification - official definition, the delineation of `normal cases', and the identification of individual cases. It points to the way in which issues of gender impinge on all three levels and argues that there is little evidence of the increasing marginalisation of the dimension of gender within psychiatry.
On Speaking about Computing
Authors: Bloomfield Brian P.
Published: September 2003

This paper explores the connection between language and our thought and beliefs about computers. In particular it considers how certain features of language - such as verbal habits, or the traces in language due to social interests and power - help to shape particular reports and interpretations of the behaviour of computer programs and thereby sustain or reinforce beliefs about the organisational role of computers and even their status vis-a-vis human beings. It is contended that when computers and computer-related practices are introduced into an organisation users become members of computer cultures where new or reshaped ways of thinking and speaking are acquired in order subsequently to discuss or operate the technology. It is suggested that these cultures and their language be made the focus of sociological scrutiny.
Gender and the Gift: The Case of the Family Clothing Economy
Authors: Corrigan Peter
Published: September 2003

Distribution patterns within the family have received some recent emphasis, particular attention being paid to money and food. This paper contributes to this discussion through looking at the intra-familial flows of one particular good into which money can be converted: clothing. It is shown that clothing can circulate in six different modes within the family, five being variations on the gift relationship. Different ages and genders are characterised by different combinations of modes. Special attention is paid to those mediating between mothers and teenage daughters, and the impact of the attainment of independent daughterly sartorial theoreticity on mothers is discussed. The literature is then reconsidered in the light of our findings.
Power and Subjectivity at Work: From Degradation to Subjugation in Social Relations
Authors: Knights David , Willmott Hugh
Published: September 2003

The paper presents a critical exploration of the treatment of subjectivity and power in sociology through an examination of recent developments in labour process theory. This is introduced through a discussion of dualism and the study of power. It is then argued that the exposure of the neglect of subjectivity in the response to Labour and Monopoly Capital has not been matched by effort to remedy this deficiency. Originating in Marx, the intellectual history of this neglect is explored through a review of key contributions to the post-Braverman literature. Our argument draws upon the work of Foucault to suggest a more adequate appreciation of processes of subjugation in which subjectivity is fetishised in identity. This thesis is articulated and illustrated through a critique of the influential empirical studies of Burawoy and Cockburn.
Schooling the Discouraged Worker: Local-Labour-Market Effects on Educational Participation
Authors: Raffe David , Willms J. Douglas
Published: September 2003

This paper tests the hypothesis of a `discouraged worker' effect, whereby local unemployment discourages 16 year-olds from leaving school, among a recent sample of young people in Scotland. The analysis supports the hypothesis: ceteris paribus young people were more likely to stay on at school, the higher the local unemployment rate. Local unemployment was also associated with lower school attainment: its positive direct effect on staying on may have been partly offset by a negative indirect effect mediated by attainment, although the direct effect was stronger and the evidence for the indirect effect was more tentative. The discouraged worker effect applied to staying on at school but not to college, whose courses (in Scotland) tend to be vocationally specific. The discouraged worker effect was similar for girls and boys; it was strongest for 16 year-olds with attainments slightly above the average, who were typically on the margins of the decision to stay on or leave. Staying on tended also to be encouraged by high proportions of local employment in service industries and in higher-level occupations; controlling for these factors increased the observed discouraged worker effect. The paper suggests that the design of most area-based studies of education and the youth labour market is inadequate to explain area differences, given the multi-dimensionality of the effects revealed by the Scottish data. Given the economic `need' for higher levels of educational participation, the paper provides further evidence of the distorted market signals generated by the labour-market `context' of education.
From `Welfare Capitalism' to `Market Capitalism'; A Comparative Review of Trends towards Employment Flexibility in the Labour Markets of Three Major European Societies
Authors: Lane Christel
Published: September 2003

The article adopts a systematic historical and cross-national perspective to examine changes in employment policy and practice from a period of welfare capitalism to the current period of market capitalism. The trends towards employment flexibility in Britain, West Germany and France are documented in some detail, and both the role of the state and the practices of employers are examined. An attempt is made to assess the significance of the flexibility trends in the three societies and to explain their emergence/intensification in the 1980s. Finally, the article considers the impact of flexible employment practices on the quantity and quality of employment of various social groups.
From Orientalism to Global Sociology
Authors: Turner Bryan S.
Published: September 2003

Although in sociology and anthropology the debate over `understanding alien belief systems' is well known, in the last decade the problem of orientalism has become particularly prominent, partly as a consequence of global political changes. This article outlines the main features of the debate and suggests various lines of analytical development which may help to resolve a number of remaining conceptual issues. Orientalism has been defined as a discourse which produces the orient as an object of power and knowledge. The discourse has a number of major themes: it provides an explanation of oriental stagnation, offering covertly a legitimation of western supremacy and colonial power; by categorizing oriental politics as despotic, because the orient excludes individualism, it offered a critique of mass democracy; and it contrasted the rationality of the occident with the sensual irrationalism of the orient. While the critique of orientalism in the 1970s was intellectually and morally important, there are some basic problems of epistemology in this tradition which are unresolved. The anti-foundationalist epistemology of the critique of orientalism often covertly relies upon a notion of the `real' orient, but it cannot offer an alternative discourse to conventional perspectives. The article argues that cultural globalism may challenge rather than support cognitive relativism because the idea of separate and different cultural traditions cannot be maintained. The conclusion examines possible developments in the sociology of Islam which may avoid the privileged stance of conventional perspectives on other cultures.
Perspectives on Consumer Culture
Authors: Featherstone Mike
Published: September 2003

Three accounts of consumer culture are discussed in this paper. The first one, the production of consumption perspective, presents the culture which develops around the accumulation of commodities as leading to greater manipulation and control. The second, the mode of consumption perspective, focuses upon the way in which goods are variably used to create distinctions and reinforce social relationships. The third perspective examines the emotional and aesthetic pleasures, the desires and dreams generated within particular sites of consumption and by consumer culture imagery. In addition the paper discusses the alleged tendencies towards cultural disorder and de-classification within consumer culture which some refer to as postmodernism.
The `Consumption' of Tourism
Authors: Urry John
Published: September 2003

This paper provides an analysis of a relatively unusual topic, namely, the social divisions surrounding the consumption of tourist-related services. In the first section a number of points are made which suggest that the topic is both important and difficult to analyse. Some attention is paid to the features of the tourist gaze. In the second main section the problems brought up by various economists of congestion and positionality are analysed. It is suggested that there is an important distinction to be drawn between the romantic and the collective tourist gaze which makes the issue of congestion/positionality more complex than economists have suggested. Some sociological implications of this distinction are developed in the final concluding section.

`Tourists are vulgar, vulgar, vulgar' (Henry James, quoted Pearce and Moscardo 1986:21)
Privatization and the Consumer
Authors: Saunders Peter , Harris Colin
Published: September 2003

`Privatization' has taken many different forms over recent years, and different kinds of privatization have very different sociological implications for consumers of state services. The paper develops a typology of privatization and considers how each type might change the relationship between producers and consumers. It is argued that consumer powerlessness is endemic in many areas of state provision, but that privatization does not necessarily affect this. Indeed, the story of privatization in Britain over the last ten years suggests that those forms of privatization which most empower consumers relative to producers have been precisely those forms which are least developed.
Sectoral Divisions in Consumption: The Case of Medical Care
Authors: Busfield Joan
Published: September 2003

A number of writers have argued that social divisions associated with consumption are replacing social classes as the key dimensions of social stratification. In particular, using the example of housing, they have argued that there is a major social divide between public and private sector consumers. This paper examines the possibility and value of identifying consumption sector divisions in the field of medical care, arguing that no clear divisions can be drawn between public and private consumers. It explores the possible bases for such divisions and provides evidence to show that most individuals, even if they have private medical insurance, are consumers of both state and private medicine. It argues that those who purchase private medicine secure little in the way of long-term medical advantage and that private medicine does not maximise consumer choice. It concludes by calling into question the importance that has recently been attached to consumption.
The Consumption Sector Debate and Housing Mobility
Authors: Savage Mike , Watt Paul , Arber Sara
Published: September 2003

This paper argues that in order to assess whether consumption sectors form meaningful social collectivities it is essential to consider patterns of housing mobility. Just as Goldthorpe has argued that a process of `class formation' occurs when individuals tend to belong to the same class as their parents, so we argue that it is important to examine whether there is a process of `tenure formation' where individuals have the same tenure as their parents. Only in this case is it likely that tenure forms a basis for social identity and collective action.

We argue that existing studies on housing mobility fail to systematically address this issue. We draw on survey research on council tenants in Guildford, Surrey to describe patterns of housing mobility. We show that there are high rates of housing mobility which suggests that housing tenure is not an axis of social closure. We therefore conclude that, at least in this area of the South East, a consideration of housing mobility casts considerable doubts on the view that consumption sector cleavages are becoming more significant in social and political life.
Household Spending, Personal Spending and the Control of Money in Marriage
Authors: Pahl Jan
Published: September 2003

Patterns of spending within a household reflect not only the sources and amount of the household's income, but also who controls money within the household. This idea is explored using data from a study of 102 married couples, who were interviewed both together and separately. Three areas of spending are examined: food and daily living expenses, leisure expenditure, and domestic rates or poll tax. The results suggest that though in absolute terms men contribute more to the domestic economy than do women, in relative terms women contribute a higher proportion of their income. Compared with men, women hold less back, both absolutely and relatively, for their personal expenditure.
Outline of a Theory of Citizenship
Authors: Turner Bryan S.
Published: September 2003

The problem of citizenship has re-emerged as an issue which is central, not only to practical political questions concerning access to health-care systems, education institutions and the welfare state, but also to traditional theoretical debates in sociology over the conditions of social integration and social solidarity. Citizenship as an institution is thus constitutive of the societal community. These sociological debates typically start with an analysis of the conceptual framework of citizenship in the work of T.H. Marshall. This article reviews the standard objections to Marshall's concept of citizenship and the hyphenated society, and develops a critique of the unitary character of the concept of citizenship in the Marshallian tradition. There are in fact, as the etymological development of the concept itself demonstrates, several distinct forms of citizenship. In reply to a recent contribution by Michael Mann to the theory of citizenship, the article contrasts the history of citizenship in Germany, France, Holland, England and the United States; on the basis of this overview, we can identify two crucial variables. The first concerns the passive or active nature of citizenship, depending on whether citizenship is developed from above ( via the state) or from below (in terms of more local participatory institutions, such as trade unions). The second dimension is the relationship between the public and the private arenas within civil society. A conservative view of citizenship (as passive and private) contrasts with a more revolutionary idea of active and public citizenship. By combining these two dimensions, it is possible to produce a historically dynamic theory of four types of democratic polities as societal contexts for the realization of citizenship rights.
Social Class and Social Identity: A Comment on Marshall et al.
Authors: Emmison Michael , Western Mark
Published: September 2003

The continuing persistence of strong class identification is one of the findings highlighted by Marshall, Rose, Vogler and Newby in their recent (1988) enquiry into class processes in Britain. In this comment we examine critically the methodological techniques deployed by them in the elicitation of this information. We argue that the finding is questionable and the conclusions drawn from it are unwarranted. Data from our own survey of class processes in Australia suggests, in contrast, that the discursive salience of class for identity is almost minimal.
On the Disorder of Things: Sociology, Postmodernity and the `End of the Social'
Authors: Smart Barry
Published: September 2003

The feasibility, relevance and value of modern sociology is in question in a number of analyses which have identified possible limits to the project of modernity. Through a discussion of the works of a number of theorists, consideration is given to (i) the effect of transformations of modernity upon sociology and (ii) the question of postmodernity and sociology. Although a preoccupation with the state of the discipline is longstanding, the current debate over modernity and postmodernity raises a number of fundamental issues for sociological investigation.
Coping with a `Perforated Life': A Case Study in Managing the Stigma of Petit Mal Epilepsy
Authors: Iphofen Ron
Published: September 2003

Using Erving Goffman's analysis of stigma as a springboard, this paper presents and comments on a case history of one individual to illustrate how relationships are managed in controlling the stigma of petit mal epilepsy. Particular attention is given to the `discreditable' nature of petit mal which has subtle overt physical manifestations and subtle consequences for social conduct but may have serious psychic consequences for the sufferer. Techniques for stigma management become acute at times of change in the sufferer's social contexts—due to problems associated with controlling personal information about a `minor' condition which can have major consequences for life chances.
Strategy and Social Process: Military Context and Sociological Analysis
Authors: Shaw Martin
Published: September 2003

It is argued that the discussions of the concept of strategy in papers by Crow (1989) and Morgan (1989) ignore the military origins of strategic thinking, and that more attention needs to be given to its diffusion from military to general social usage, as well as to specifically sociological uses. The paper then outlines a critique of strategic studies derived from the sociology of war. It argues that sociologists can learn, from the problems and current controversies of strategic studies, some of the limitations of strategic analysis as an approach in sociology.
The Concept of Strategy in Sociology: A Note of Dissent
Authors: Knights David , Morgan Glenn
Published: September 2003

This paper takes up the debate on strategy initiated by Crow (Sociology 23). It argues that the concept of strategy has been uncritically appropriated by sociology. It has been treated as though it were an unproblematic concept, whereas in fact it is embedded within specific discourses and has particular social effects. In particular, Crow fails to consider the explicit use of the concept of strategy in two key areas of social life - the military and business organisation. Had he considered these areas, he would have noted that the concept of strategy needs understanding in terms of its role in reproducing specific sets of hierarchically organised social relations. We argue that utilising the concept of strategy in other areas of social life has similar power effects. In our view, strategy must be treated as a topic of sociological analysis, not as a resource for explaining social life.
Strategy, Rationality and Inference: The Possibility of Symbolic Performances
Authors: Watson William
Published: September 2003

Crow's recent article concerning strategy assimilates the concept almost entirely to the more or less rational (Crow 1989). Beginning with an example of a strategy taken from Weber, an argument is advanced suggesting that this suppresses important forms of `inference' that may be typical elements in the production of strategies. Specifically, these concern symbolic or figurative relations that can be held to obtain between a strategy and the ends to which it is addressed. Two further examples are discussed which suggest that this form of symbolic relation may be present in widely divergent situations in which the concept of strategy can be utilised. It is argued that an analysis based on this principle would enhance the development of sociological understanding and critique.
What's Wrong with Ethnography? The Myth of Theoretical Description
Authors: Hammersley Martyn
Published: September 2003

This paper questions the commitment of ethnography to the goal of producing theoretical descriptions of particular settings, groups or organisations. It is argued that both the concepts of theory and description assumed by this goal are misconceived. Various interpretations of the concept of theory embedded in ethnographic work are examined, revealing some serious difficulties. It is also argued that the concept of ethnographic description, as currently conceived, obscures the role of values and purposes in structuring descriptions. The conclusion reached is that the goals of ethnographic research need rethinking.
The Revised Cambridge Scale of Occupations
Authors: Prandy Ken
Published: September 2003

The article describes the revision of the original Cambridge scale, a measure of similarity of life-style and therefore of generalised advantage/disadvantage, and compares this new version in a number of areas with other occupation-based measures of social stratification.

The revision has been carried out using a much larger dataset, with respondents from a wide range of occupations. Female occupations have been specifically incorporated. Data from several previous studies are reanalysed using the Cambridge score and other measures or class categorisations. Areas considered include income and education, friendship, the occupations of husbands and wives and of fathers and children, and voting. In all cases it is shown that the Cambridge scale gives relationships at least as strong as, and in the great majority of cases stronger than, those found with the alternatives. The significance of this for the issue of the existence of discrete class categories and for the distinction between class and status is briefly raised.
Talking about Danger: The RUC and the Paramilitary Threat
Authors: Brewer John D.
Published: September 2003

Ethnographic research on routine policing has shown how danger is a prominent feature of the self-image of members of many police forces, even though the degree of danger faced is not proportional to its centrality. However, members of the RUC face very real life-threatening dangers at work and home. Based on ethnographic research, this paper addresses the question of how policemen and policewomen in the RUC make accountable their feelings about being targets. Three discrete forms of talk about danger were used by them, and the paper identifies the contextual factors which help to occasion and sustain these vocabularies. It concludes by suggesting that these vocabularies are highly structured ways of making accountable feelings about the threat in an occupational culture which otherwise inhibits the expression of emotion; they make reportable the common sense notions, ideas and patterns of behaviour which normalize the threat; and make accountable the manageability of the threat in order thereby to continue with routines which would otherwise be rendered difficult.
Patriarchy and Professions: The Gendered Politics of Occupational Closure
Authors: Witz Anne
Published: September 2003

The relationship between gender and professionalisation is a neglected one, and female professional projects have been overlooked in the sociology of professions. The generic notion of profession is also a gendered notion as it takes what are in fact the successful professional projects of class-privileged male actors at a particular point in history and in particular societies to be the paradigmatic case of profession. Instead, it is necessary to speak of `professional projects', to gender the agents of these projects, and to locate these within the structural and historical parameters of patriarchal-capitalism. Professional projects are projects of occupational closure, and a model of occupational closure strategies is needed which captures both the variety of strategies that characterise these projects and the gendered dimensions of these strategies. Such a model is set out and distinguishes between exclusionary, demarcationary, inclusionary and dual strategies of closure. This model is substantiated with material drawn from the emerging medical division of labour in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
Biology and Social Science: Why the Return of the Repressed should be given a (Cautious) Welcome
Authors: Benton Ted
Published: September 2003

This paper is programmatic in its intent. I have avoided extensive literature-citations and, in some areas, resorted to rather tendentious assertion rather than thorough argumentation. My purpose is to `place on the table' a project for re-conceptualising the relationship between sociology (together with related social science disciplines) and the biological sciences. Of course, this relationship has a lot of history behind it, some of it not at all pleasant. Necessarily, therefore, I will have to preface my positive proposals with a brief account of that history, and my own interpretation of its significance. Before I try even to do that, however, I will say something about our present situation in the social sciences, and what seem to me the pressures within it towards a recasting of the established division of labour between biology and the social sciences.
The Concept of Caring in Feminist Research: The Case of Domestic Service
Authors: Graham Hilary
Published: September 2003

Over the last decade, a significant body of feminist research has developed which has home-based reproduction as its focus. Strategically placed at the interface of sociology and social policy, this literature has had a significant impact on wider debates about everyday social reproduction. Yet, it has remained largely uncritiqued. Recognising the lack of critical debate, the paper reviews the way in which the concept of caring has been theorised within British feminist research. It suggests that caring has been typically defined by feminist researchers as the unpaid work of kin within the private domain of their family. Gender is seen as the dominant system of social relations which shapes the organisation of such care. Thus, rather than a broad structural analysis of everyday reproduction within families, most feminist research on caring has been restricted to one form of care (unpaid care by relatives) and one structural division (gender). The way in which racial and class divisions are embedded in everyday reproductive work has been largely eclipsed. Drawing on the critiques of Black women writers, the paper highlights forms of, and divisions within, home-based reproduction obscured in past and present feminist research on caring. It takes domestic service as a case-study which highlights how the social divisions of `race' and class, as well as gender, have been constituted through women's experiences of looking after families.