bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Nitrogen input by bamboos in neotropical forest: a new perspective
Authors: Padgurschi Maíra C.G. , Vieira Simone A. , Stefani Edson J.F. , Nardoto Gabriela B. , Joly Carlos A.
Published: November 2018

Background

Nitrogen (N) is an important macronutrient that controls the productivity of ecosystems and biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) is a major source of N in terrestrial systems, particularly tropical forests. Bamboo dominates theses forests, but our knowledge regarding the role of bamboo in ecosystem functioning remains in its infancy. We investigated the importance of a native bamboo species to the N cycle of a Neotropical forest.

Methods

We selected 100 sample units (100 m2each) in a pristine montane Atlantic Forest, in Brazil. We counted all the clumps and live culms ofMerostachys neesiibamboo and calculated the specific and total leaf area, as well as litter production and respective N content. Potential N input was estimated based on available data on BNF rates for the same bamboo species, whose N input was then contextualized using information on N cycling components in the study area.

Results

With 4,000 live culms ha−1, the native bamboo may contribute up to 11.7 kg N ha−1during summer (January to March) and 19.6 kg N ha−1in winter (July to September). When extrapolated for annual values,M. neesiicould contribute more than 60 kg N ha−1y−1.

Discussion

The bamboo species’ contribution to N input may be due to its abundance (habitat availability for microbial colonization) and the composition of the free-living N fixer community on its leaves (demonstrated in previous studies). Although some N is lost during decomposition, this input could mitigate the N deficit in the Atlantic Forest studied by at least 27%. Our findings suggest thatM. neesiiclosely regulates N input and may better explain the high diversity and carbon stocks in the area. This is the first time that a study has investigated BNF using free-living N fixers on the phyllosphere of bamboo.
DO EVOLUCIONISMO CULTURAL DE MORGAN, TYLOR E FRAZER AO NASCIMENTO DA ANTROPOLOGIA DA DANÇA [AULA MAGNA PROFERIDA AOS ALUNOS DO CURSO DE GRADUAÇÃO EM DANÇA DA FURB EM 13 DE ABRIL DE 2018]
Authors: Guilhon Antunes Camargo Giselle
Published: November 2018

O presente artigo, resultante da Aula Magna ministrada pela autora aos alunos do Curso de Graduação em Dança da FURB, no dia 13 de abril de 2018, tem por objetivo apresentar, cronologicamente, as principais contribuições dos primeiros antropólogos à disciplina (ou subdisciplina) Antropologia da Dança. O texto, que poderia também se chamar “A dança na Antropologia antes da Antropologia da Dança” se divide em cinco partes: 1. Evolucionismo Cultural – Lewis Morgan, Edward Tylor e James Frazer; 2. A fórmula evolucionista [derivada da escola alemã Kulturkreis] de Curt Sachs; 3. Escola Estrutural-Funcionalista Britânica – Radcliffe-Brown e Evans-Pritchard; 4. Relativismo Cultural e Particularismo Histórico – a dança como cultura em Franz Boas; 5. A Ciência da Coreologia de Gertrude Kurath – nasce a Etnologia da Dança, hoje Antropologia da Dança (ou Etnocoreologia).
МОРФОЛОГИЯ ПЫЛЬЦЕВЫХ ЗЕРЕН ВИДОВ РОДА ARTEMISIA (ASTERACEAE) ДАЛЬНЕГО ВОСТОКА РОССИИ, "Ботанический журнал"
Authors: Григорьева В. В. , Брицкий Д. А. , Коробков А. А.
Published: November 2018

С помощью светового и сканирующего электронного микроскопов исследована морфология пыльцевых зерен 31 вида рода Artemisia, произрастающих на Дальнем Востоке России. Пыльцевые зерна изученных видов почти сфероидальные, широко эллипсоидальные или слегка сплющенные, бороздно-оровые, средних размеров, от 20.0 до 36.7 мкм по максимальной оси. Подроды и секции по морфологии пыльцы не различаются. Большое сходство пыльцевых зерен разных видов этого рода не позволяет достоверно различать виды полыней по пыльце. Однако обнаруженные с помощью СЭМ детали скульптуры являются хорошими дополнительными признаками для характеристики некоторых видов или отдельных групп видов.
ФУНКЦИОНАЛЬНАЯ РОЛЬ СВЯЗИ БЕТА-РИТМА С МЕДЛЕННЫМИ РИТМАМИ У СТУДЕНТОВ С НАРУШЕНИЯМИ СНА ПРИ ФОРМИРОВАНИИ УСТАНОВКИ НА ЛИЦЕВУЮ ЭКСПРЕССИЮ, "Российский физиологический журнал им. И.М. Сеченова"
Authors: Яковенко И.А. , Петренко Н.Е. , Черемушкин Е.А. , Козлов М.К. , Дорохов В.Б.
Published: November 2018

На 23 студентах исследовали особенности взаимодействия тета-, альфа- и бета-ритмов при восприятии эмоционального выражения лица. Анализировали отрезки ЭЭГ посредством непрерывного вейвлет-преобразования на основе «материнского» комплексного Morlet-вейвлета в диапазоне 1-35 Гц. Для оценки взаимодействия бета-ритма с тета-, альфа1- и альфа2-ритмами использовали коэффициент корреляции Пирсона. У студентов с нарушениями сна при восприятии разных лиц выявлено отсутствие связей между бета-, альфа- и тета-ритмами. Студенты без нарушений сна продемонстрировали связь альфа-ритма не только с тета-, но и с бета-ритмом. При предъявлении одинаковых лиц у студентов с нарушениями сна отмечена связь бета-ритма с альфа- и с тета-ритмами, тогда как здоровые студенты продемонстрировали связь альфа2- и бета-ритмов. Высказано предположение об активирующей роли бета-ритма при его включении в работу кортикогиппокампального и таламокортикального кругов, что способствовало правильному распознаванию лицевых эмоций.
Another Pictish cross-of-arcs: an old find from Shetland re-interpreted
Authors: Ritchie Anna
Published: November 2018

A fragment of carved stone known as ‘Lerwick’ (NMS X.IB.19) is argued to have come, most probably, from the Pictish levels at Jarlshof, Dunrossness, Shetland, sometime before June 1861. The stone bears part of a Pictish crescent symbol on one side and part of a cross-of-arcs embellished with decorated lentoid forms on the other. The symbol-bearing cross-slab from which the fragment comes probably dates to the 7th century and may have stood in or near a churchyard at Jarlshof. It is compared with the cross-slabs from Papil and Bressay and with fragments of similar Shetland stones, and its place in the development of the cross-of-arcs is discussed.
Scottish Lettering of the 16th century
Authors: Harrison Aidan , Burnett Charles J
Published: November 2018

Surviving visual culture from the early modern period that can be described as particularly Scottish in style is scarce. As a result, any evidence of such artistry is of national significance. The purpose of this article is to draw attention to a form of lettering which was used for the display of short inscriptions and initials in Scotland throughout the 16th century. Surviving examples are almost exclusively carved in relief in durable wood and stone. This distinctive letterform is drawn from the transitional styles which briefly appeared at the end of the 15th century as French artists and scribes transferred their allegiance from their traditional ornate Gothic capitals to the bold, simple Roman forms of the Renaissance. While a number of experimental letterforms fleetingly appeared elsewhere across northern Europe, Scottish scholars absorbed these new influences in France and developed them into a distinctive form which persisted in Scotland for over a century. After its first known appearance at the marriage of King James IV to Margaret Tudor in Edinburgh in 1503, the evidence suggests that the use of Scottish Lettering became confined to Aberdeen and the north-east, primarily in pre Reformation ecclesiastical applications. Following the Reformation, it became largely restricted to secular and funerary inscriptions.
The artistic patronage of John Stuart, Duke of Albany, 1520–30
Authors: Coombs Bryony
Published: November 2018

The Sainte-Chapelle at Vic-le-Comte is one of the most important religious buildings surviving from the 16th century in the Auvergne. It was the last of ten French royal and ducal chapels founded, broadly following the precedent set by Louis IX’s foundation of the Parisian Sainte-Chapelle in 1248. The primary function of this, and the other Saintes-Chapelles, was to provide a dignified structure within which to house fragments of the Passion relics inherited from Louis IX. For their patrons, such foundations served as important public expressions of piety, advertised the patrons’ connections to the French crown, and simultaneously functioned as valuable diplomatic tools, encouraging important guests to venerate their relics. The Sainte-Chapelle at Vic-le-Comte has received limited scholarly attention, particularly in relation to its patron John Stuart, Duke of Albany, and his position as Regent of Scotland. This paper examines this foundation and its ambitious programme of decoration in relation to the aims and ambitions of its founder. The motivations behind the project are analysed in relation to Albany’s position in Scotland, his growing prominence in France, and his strengthening ties to the Florentine Medici family. Investigated in relation to other examples of his patronage, Albany’s foundation demonstrates how issues of ancient lineage, sacred kingship, and dynastic commemoration were of central importance.
Stevenson at Vulcano in the late 19th century
Authors: Photos-Jones Effie , Barrett B , Christidis G
Published: November 2018

This project seeks to recover and record the archaeological evidence associated with the extraction of sulfur (and perhaps other minerals as well) by James Stevenson, a Glasgow industrialist, from the volcanic island of Vulcano, Aeolian Islands, Italy, in the second half of the 19th century. This short preliminary report sets the scene by linking archival material with present conditions and by carrying out select mineralogical analyses of the type of the mineral resource Stevenson may have explored. New 3D digital recording tools (structure-from-Motion photogrammetry) have been introduced to aid future multidisciplinary research. This is a long-term project which aims to examine a 19th-century Scottish mining venture in a southern European context and its legacy on the communities involved. It also aims to view Stevenson’s activities in a diachronic framework, namely as an integral part of a tradition of minerals exploration in southern Italy from the Roman period or earlier.
Three‐Dimensional (3D) Printing and Additive Manufacturing
Authors: Galt Alistair
Published: November 2018

Additive manufacturing is a collective term for a variety of closely related techniques involving the creation of a three‐dimensional mesh file of an object's representation in the real world, known as a .stl file. Once the model is printed it may have to undergo a certain amount of post‐processing depending on the method. The three main types of additive manufacturing fall into liquid, solid, and powder printed methods, and describe what is used to print the model. A limited number of archaeological examples have used filament printing to create scale models, some from reverse‐engineered models, and to solve long‐term problems with some equipment used in archaeological fieldwork. Use of additive manufacturing is expected to continue to increase in all sectors for the foreseeable future.
Adobe
Authors: Guerrero Luis , Uviña Francisco
Published: November 2018

Several forms and typologies of earthen architecture exist throughout the world, but the most common is the mud brick construction. Adobe is the specific term that defines a mud brick in many parts of the world. Ancient mud brick technology involves the understanding of site location, natural resources, climate, and traditional building practices. Both brick dimensions and soil stabilizers are important parameters for the strength and durability of the material. Adobe is highly vulnerable to moisture and earthquakes. Therefore, the continued development of soil stabilizers, correct structural design, and the use of appropriate plasters, improves the preservation of archaeological sites, historic buildings, and modern constructions.
Anemia
Authors: Oxenham M. F.
Published: November 2018

Anemia is defined as “a condition in which the number of red blood cells (and consequently their oxygen carrying capacity) is insufficient to meet the body's physiologic needs”. The main congenital and/or acquired anemias discussed in this entry include the hypochromic (and often microcytic), macrocytic, hemolytic, and aplastic anemias. Several noteworthy, or more common, forms of these conditions are discussed, followed by a brief review of ostensibly skeletal signatures (porotic hyperostosis, cribra orbitalia) of some of the anemias that may be seen in archaeological remains.
Archaeological Classification
Authors: Read Dwight W.
Published: November 2018

A major goal of archaeological classification is to arrange artifactual material in an orderly manner that provides a “window” opening onto the lifeway of a past group of people. A classification can give the archaeologist insight into the cultural framework of a past society. To do this, a classification must be rigorous, consistent, and replicable. Methodologically, classification proceeds by replacing the heterogeneity of the excavated artifactual material with internally homogeneous data classes reflecting the implementation of cultural concepts and ideas by artisans and is implemented through analytical methods sensitive to the ways the cultural ideas of a past group of people were implemented in a material form.
Archaeological Record
Authors: Lucas Gavin
Published: November 2018

The entry begins by outlining two major theories of the archaeological record, source criticism and formation theory, and their roots in Europe and North America respectively. A brief discussion of recent theorizations of the archaeological record follows which draws primarily on the different ways the term is implicitly used but also on other words and metaphors that are commonly deployed to characterize the nature of archaeological remains. A major distinction is drawn between the two underlying ideas of incompleteness and untimeliness that inform such characterizations.
Archaeologies of Technology
Authors: Boyd Brian
Published: November 2018

This entry focuses on archaeological approaches to social technologies, rather than the myriad scientific techniques and technologies—including twenty‐first‐century digital media technologies—which archaeologists use routinely in the course of the discovery, recovery, and analysis of materials. “Social technologies,” as outlined here, are the different ways in which humans, nonhuman animals, things, and materials engage through a range of practices that are culturally and historically situated within social and political conditions and ecologies.
Archaeology
Authors: Salvatori Sandro
Published: November 2018

A synthetic account of the history of Archaeology from antiquarianism, through the Enlightenment and Positivism contributions of the eighteenth and early nineteenth century, up to the most recent developments generated by a wide number of new theoretical approaches and, finally, the advent of the systematic contribution of other sciences to field and laboratory archaeological work are outlined.
Archaeometry
Authors: Tite Michael
Published: November 2018

The term archaeometry was first used to describe the bulletin in which the early applications of the physical sciences to archaeology carried out at the Research Laboratory of Archaeology and the History of Art, established at the University of Oxford in 1955, were published. The “Bulletin” subsequently became the international journalArchaeometry, and the term was also used in the title of the International Symposium on Archaeometry. Currently, archaeometry is a more‐or‐less obsolete term, having been replaced by archaeological sciences, which embraces physical, biological, and environmental sciences.
Assemblage
Authors: Harris Oliver J. T.
Published: November 2018

Assemblages represent an alternative way of conceptualizing archaeological entities. Originating with the French thinkers Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, an assemblage approach emphasizes that things emerge out of relationships and are always changing rather than being fixed and static. These ideas have been used to think about individual objects, specific sites, whole communities, and even the nature of archaeology itself. Assemblage theory embraces archaeological science as a means of attending to the relationships from which past objects, people, and places emerged.
Augering
Authors: Tricarico Anthony R.
Published: November 2018

Augering in archaeology has often been conflated with coring, but each has distinct methodological advantages and disadvantages. Augering refers to the removal of a sediment or rock sample in discontinuous segments using two cutting bits in a helical fashion. In comparison to traditional archaeological excavations, augering is more cost effective, less time consuming, and less destructive. Augering was first used as a relative dating means to correlate archaeological deposits across the landscape. However, the development of radiometric dating corresponded with a shift in the perceived applicability and utility of augering. After 1964, augering became increasingly important in socioecological investigations. Today, augering is a cost‐ and time‐effective method for helping to evaluate the degree of human impact to a landscape on a regional scale.
Authorized Heritage Discourse
Authors: Akagawa Natsuko
Published: November 2018

Historically, the dominant understanding of what archaeology is has been central to a western concept of heritage. It thus forms part of an Eurocentric heritage discourse that continues to dominate global heritage practice. Recognizing that archaeology is a discourse and a particular way of perceiving the past highlights the importance of reexamining its discursive formation and its impact on practice.
Biological Distance
Authors: Stojanowski Christopher M.
Published: November 2018

The study of biological distance, or biodistance, uses heritable skeletal and dental data to infer evolutionary processes and identify biological relationships among past populations. The basic approach is to collect metric and nonmetric data from the cranium and dentition, subject these data to multivariate statistical analyses, and interpret patterns of relationships based on measures of similarity and measures of variation. Biological distance analysis is multiscalar, with regional and intracemetery approaches being most relevant to contemporary archaeological questions. Regional studies reconstruct patterns of migration and mate exchange, identify population boundaries, and explore temporal changes in population composition. Intracemetery studies reconstruct site formation processes, identify close genetic kin, and infer aspects of prehistoric social organization such as postmarital residence and group structure. Although an imperfect genetic proxy, biological distance is nondestructive, statistically robust, and not affected by the vagaries of DNA preservation and contamination, making it applicable anywhere in the world.
Birds
Authors: Serjeantson Dale
Published: November 2018

Birds have been significant to people throughout human history, as seen from depictions in paintings, in carvings, and on pottery. The remains of the birds themselves are also an important source of information about relationships between people and birds. Bones, and sometimes feathers and eggshell, show that birds were hunted and kept for many reasons and not just for food. This entry summarizes techniques of bird bone analysis and describes some of the more striking examples of relationships between people and birds.
Bodies and Embodiment
Authors: Büster Lindsey
Published: November 2018

Theories of the body and of embodiment explore the ways in which humans experience the world through their physical and social bodies. Arising from trends in sociology and anthropology, in response to structuralist theories which divide the world into dualistic distinctions between subject and object, these theories seek to understand how physical and social bodies are constituted and reconstituted via corporeal interactions with the material world, and other living and nonliving things. As such, they help to reveal something of the ontological and cosmological frameworks within which past societies, and past people, operated. Studies of the body and of embodiment are closely associated with considerations of personhood and materiality; phenomenological, emotional, and sensory perspectives; and entanglement and assemblage theory.
Radiocarbon Calibration and Age Estimation
Authors: Ramsey Christopher Bronk
Published: November 2018

Radiocarbon dating can be applied to archaeological materials which contain radiocarbon from the atmosphere or the oceans. In order to interpret radiocarbon measurements as dates, it is necessary to compare them against measurements on known‐age samples which have been dated by other methods. This allows calibration onto a timescale derived from either dendrochronology or uranium series dating. Multiple analyses can be interpreted through the use of Bayesian statistical methods, allowing for the incorporation of relative age constraints and the grouping of events in phases.
Cattle
Authors: Wright Elizabeth
Published: November 2018

Humans have an ancient connection with cattle, and cattle husbandry has been one of the most important economic activities across the world for many thousands of years, from prehistory until modern times. The wild form, the aurochs (
Bos primigenius
) was regularly hunted in prehistoric societies, before being domesticated in two separate events: one in the Near East (which produced
Bos taurus
), and another in India (which produced
Bos indicus
). Domestic populations have been exploited for a variety of different products in addition to meat, including the “secondary products” milk and labor. Several scientific techniques have been used to investigate the nature and evolution of human–cattle interactions. Zooarchaeological methodologies enable us to determine how important cattle were in the diet of different populations, what kind of products cattle were being exploited for, how and where cattle populations were domesticated and improved, and how cattle meat was prepared and distributed. Scientific innovations have also led to the adoption of new techniques that can be used in combination with zooarchaeology; stable isotopes have enabled us to investigate diet and geographical origin, and studies of ancient DNA have allowed us to trace domestication events.
Caves and Fissures
Authors: Mentzer Susan M.
Published: November 2018

Caves, rockshelters, and fissures are nonanthropogenic landscape features that—due to their ready functions as natural traps, shelters and raw material sources—contain archaeological sites ranging in age from Lower Paleolithic to ethnographic. Many applications of archaeological science to these settings center on reconstructing site formation processes. Some cavities may contain exceptionally deep sedimentary deposits, which serve as repositories for long sequences of archaeological materials and skeletal remains, as well as paleoenvironmental indicators. Some cave environments are also favorable for preservation of perishable materials such as bone, ash, and organic remains, as well as rock art. Conversely, caves can be difficult to excavate, they do not always function as sediment traps, and they can contain complicated sequences of sediment with histories of erosion, reworking, and postdepositional diagenesis. Applications of radiometric dating and remote sensing techniques require careful consideration of the unique aspects of the cave environment.
Characterization of Petroglyphs
Authors: Bednarik Robert G.
Published: November 2018

Forms of rock art created by a reductive process such as abrasion or impact constitute the category petroglyphs. Several criteria can be applied in their characterization, including: their purported meaning or iconic interpretation, the basic metrical variables of petroglyph motifs, their formal characteristics, the technology of their production, their taphonomy, age estimation, and their discrimination from similar natural rock markings. These various approaches are briefly considered and it is established that while most of them can meet the criteria of scientific investigation, some do not. The epistemological basis of the various methods in characterizing petroglyphs is explored.
Charcoal and Wood Analysis
Authors: Veal Robyn J.
Published: November 2018

Wood was a key ancient resource. It formed a substantial part of the agricultural economy for supply of both timber and fuel. It was also a significant part of the nonagricultural economy, as wood was used in so many trades, both directly (in carpentry to make ships, furniture, and tools), and indirectly (for example, as formwork in construction). Its greatest utility however was as fuel, both in its raw form, and processed as charcoal. Wood and charcoal were the major energy sources that fueled many trades such as iron smelting and smithing; pottery, brick, and tile making; glass making; food production; firing baths; and making lime, in relevant time periods. Fuel was also consumed in homes for cooking and heating, and for cremation. The analysis of archaeological wood and charcoal remains is thus key to understanding ancient fuel and timber economies through time.
Chemistry in Archaeology
Authors: Armitage Ruth Ann
Published: November 2018

Chemistry has long been a central link between ancient materials and understanding human behavior in the past. Analytical chemistry methods, beginning with gravimetric analyses in the eighteenth century and continuing to portable instrumentation of the modern day, can provide information about technology, sourcing of materials, and how objects may have been used. From compositional analysis to stable isotopes to oxidative processes behind surveys and diagenetic changes, chemistry influences nearly everything in archaeological science.
Chromatographic Techniques in Conservation
Authors: Newman Richard
Published: November 2018

Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC‐MS) and pyrolysis (Py) GC‐MS are common methods for the study of certain organic materials of cultural artifacts, including binding media of paints, varnishes, coatings, and modern synthetic materials (plastics). GC‐MS is also used to study deterioration processes, air quality inside closed display or storage cases and cabinetry, and performance of conservation or preservation materials and procedures. Solid‐phase microextraction (SPME) is now used to study volatile compounds released by certain cultural heritage materials or display and storage case construction materials. High‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC or LC) and LC mass spectrometry (LC‐MS) are extensively utilized to study natural and synthetic dyestuffs. Specialized variations of LC such as ion chromatography and size exclusion (SEC) or gel permeation (GPC) are also utilized.
Climate Change and Dating
Authors: Veres Daniel , Timar‐Gabor Alida
Published: November 2018

The discovery of past rapid climate variability and the likeliness of similar abrupt future changes in climate are attracting great attention. Climate change certainly played an important role in human evolution, development, and dispersal. However, causative linkages do not occur in simple and immediate ways and research efforts are further needed to fully understand these connections. The observation that current weather patterns were also strongly active during the Last Glacial Cycle supports the idea that human forcing of climate is increasing the probability of large, unexpected climatic changes, which could exceed the natural climate variability. Understanding the linkages and the roles of various components of the climate system in the generation and propagation of rapid climate variability is a pressing question in environmental research. A summary of rapid climate change as seen during the Quaternary, with a focus on rapid climate variability, such as Dansgaard–Oeschger cycles and related environmental changes, is discussed.
Companion Animals
Authors: Vigne Jean‐Denis
Published: November 2018

Dogs and cats were the first animals to be domesticated in Eurasia. Recent zooarchaeological and paleogenetic investigation indicates that dogs were first domesticated in several locations in Europe and Asia by the Upper Paleolithic hunters about 13,000–10,500 cal BP. Conversely, cats were first tamed during the Early Holocene by Southwest Asian early cultivators, then in Egypt several millennia later. Both animals might have been pets from the beginning of their common life with humans. However, their evolution within the human societies was very different from one another. Dogs were used for multiple purposes as early as Neolithic times, and specialized morphotypes were developed well before the fantastic modern diversification of pedigree breeds. Cats were mostly used for controlling rodent pests and human‐made morphotypes were not so diversified during ancient times.
Computational Photography
Authors: Miles James
Published: November 2018

Computational photography or computational imaging is a process that combines computer graphics, computer vision, and photography. The method provides a means to overcome the limitations found through standard imaging devices to create greater graphic content that better represents the real world. The application of computation within the imaging processes improves on what is possible through standard imaging. The aim of the method within archaeology is to extract extra features that are of interest, providing a greater tool for research through direct manipulation and interaction of the original captured content.
Deterioration of Vitreous Materials
Authors: van Giffen N. Astrid R. , Koob Stephen P.
Published: November 2018

Glass and other vitreous materials are found at archaeological excavations in a variety of conditions, ranging from pristine to so heavily degraded that no glass remains. Deterioration of glass during burial is generally known as weathering. The visual effects of weathering most commonly found on excavated glass are dulling, iridescence, opaque or opalescent weathering, pitting, cracking of the surface, discoloration, and a total loss of glassy nature. The weathering usually forms in many parallel microscopic layers which can be dense and secure or fragile and flaking. It is important to preserve the weathering layer as it represents the original surface of the glass. Glass can also deteriorate in the atmosphere, resulting in a phenomenon known as crizzling. The main factors that determine the rate of both atmospheric deterioration and deterioration during burial are the chemical and physical properties of the environment, especially moisture, and the composition of the glass itself.
Deterioration of Wood
Authors: Mallinckrodt Catherine S.
Published: November 2018

Wooden cultural heritage and archaeological materials contain information about human and natural history in the structures of the objects or artifacts, in the microstructures, and in the chemistry of the cells. Increasingly sensitive methods of analysis are able to harvest information including evidence of climate change, location of use or trade, and conditions of use and storage. Ethical stewardship of wooden cultural heritage requires knowledge of wood structure and the agents and mechanisms of deterioration in order to not only sustain the objects or artifacts but also assure that information latent in the cellular architecture and chemistry will be available for future analysis and interpretation. The basic anatomical and chemical characteristics of wood are presented as a foundation for understanding the primary agents and mechanisms of deterioration of ancient and historic preserved wood. Weathering, microbial agents, insect pests, and animals are described. Conditions of preservation provided by arid and waterlogged conditions are explained.
Diagenesis of Bone
Authors: Scharlotta Ian
Published: November 2018

Diagenesis of bone comprises the post‐depositional alterations that occur to skeletal materials including bones, enamel, and dentin/ivory. Understanding the processes that can alter the chemistry of skeletons is a key aspect of reconstructing information about the organism during life and subsequent burial environment. Bone diagenesis includes the post‐depositional effects experienced in multiple microscopic environments: the skeletal materials themselves, the pore spaces and cavities within those materials, and the sediments in the burial environment. Diagenetic processes include chemical alterations of organic and inorganic phases of bone, as well as microbial actions. The interplay between skeletal materials and a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic factors that affect different aspects of the skeletal structures produces highly localized diagenetic histories. Increasing use of microanalytical tools has proven useful in understanding different alterations of bone and tooth structure, post‐depositional processes including specific diagenetic changes, and the ability to recover useful information from partially degraded materials.
Diatoms
Authors: Cameron Nigel
Published: November 2018

Diatom analysis plays an important role in multiproxy paleoenvironmental investigations. The sensitivity of diatoms to water quality, including factors such as pH, salinity, and nutrients, enables the qualitative and quantitative reconstruction of past water quality. Diatoms have been used in the study of ancient boats, their sites of deposition, and associated artifacts. Diatom analysis has also been of value in interpreting water quality changes at harbor and waterfront sites and in understanding ancient burial sites. Diatoms present in clay used in the manufacture of pottery, bricks, and writing tables can provide evidence of provenance, typology, and past water quality. They can also be of value in the interpretation of semiterrestrial environments such as caves, soils, and floor deposits. Water quality changes occurring in settlements surrounded or incorporating water features, for example crannogs and moats, can be investigated through diatom analysis.
Diet and Carbon Isotopes
Authors: Bartelink Eric J.
Published: November 2018

Stable carbon isotope analysis was introduced to archaeologists in the late 1970s and provided the first chemical signature for the introduction of maize agriculture into the diet of prehistoric Native Americans from the eastern United States. Since that time, carbon isotopes have been used to discriminate between C3, C4, and CAM‐based diets, as well as marine versus terrestrial diets. Archaeologists routinely analyze carbon isotopes of bone collagen (which are biased toward the sources of dietary protein) and the carbonate in bone and tooth bioapatite (which reflect all dietary macronutrients) to reconstruct human paleodiet in a variety of contexts. Carbon isotope models have been successful in identifying the protein and non‐protein sources of the diet, providing more fine‐grained interpretations of food consumption patterns in the past. Applications mainly focus on temporal and regional dietary patterns, as well as variation linked with sex, age, status, and mortuary patterns.
Diet and Trace Elements
Authors: Dolphin Alexis E.
Published: November 2018

Trace element analyses of human bones and teeth are used to reconstruct the diets of ancient peoples. Trace elements from soils and water are absorbed by plants and animals, and are then passed along to humans whenever they eat or drink. The incorporation of these elements into bodily tissues allows researchers to comment upon the environments in which past peoples lived, the resources available to them, and the meaning of inter‐ and intragroup variation for understanding cultural change, inequality, identity, and belief systems.
Differential Diagnosis
Authors: Cook Della Collins
Published: November 2018

Differential diagnosis is used by paleopathologists to identify ancient diseases and present these findings in a rigorous format. The phrase is borrowed with appropriate modification from clinical medicine for use on ancient skeletons and mummies.
Diffraction
Authors: Artioli Gilberto
Published: November 2018

Diffraction effects are produced by a crystal lattice through the interference of waves (or particles described as waves). The effect was first observed by Laue and coworkers over 100 years ago. This seminal experiment demonstrated simultaneously that crystals are composed of periodic arrangements of atoms, and that X‐rays are electromagnetic waves. Since then crystallographic diffraction techniques based on the interference of X‐rays, neutrons, or electrons have developed rapidly and become routine tools in the analysis of materials of different natures. The information provided includes: (1) phase identification and quantification of crystalline compounds and complex polyphasic mixtures; (2) the texture and orientation of crystalline phases in a material; (3) the atomic and molecular structure of the phases involved; and (4) the physical microstructural state of the material. Diffraction techniques therefore provide a wide range of powerful tools for investigating all kinds of materials involved in archaeological issues and problems.
Distance and Data Transformation
Authors: Mucha Hans‐Joachim , Bartel Hans‐Georg
Published: November 2018

The concept of distance is about the quantification of how far apart any two objects are. Archaeological objects are usually characterized by numerous quantitative and/or categorical attributes. Various distance measures can be applied to such data. By using pairwise distances between objects, cluster analysis can find groups in data (Mucha et al. 2015). Interestingly, special pairwise distances are an essential part of multivariate methods such as correspondence analysis and principal component analysis. Data transformation is an application of a mathematical function to data such as standardization of values measured on different scales (such as percent, ppm or ppb) to a common scale. Subsequently, scale‐dependent distance measures such as the Euclidean distance can be applied to such data. Other transformations, also common in archaeometry, are logarithm and log‐ratio.
Domestication
Authors: Denham Tim
Published: November 2018

The domestications of animals and plants are major processes in human history that occurred in numerous places across the globe at different times in the past. Different pathways to domestication can be characterized for animals (for example, commensal, prey, and directed) and plants (for example, sexual and asexual). The character of domesticatory relationships between people and an animal or a plant is often complex, gradational, and nonlinear. As a result, domestication is a process that can be difficult to delineate in time and space.
Drones
Authors: Searcy Michael T.
Published: November 2018

Drones are being used increasingly in the field of archaeology as their costs decrease and as a variety of smaller sensors are being produced for unmanned aerial systems (UAS). As a form of remote sensing, drones have the advantage of mapping large areas, accessing hard‐to‐reach places, as well as providing rich visual data that can be processed in various ways useful in archaeology. Some of the common cartographic products that can be created using drones include orthomosaic photos, digital elevation models, digital surface models, topographic maps, thermographic images, and 3D models.
Dyes
Authors: Falcón Tatiana
Published: November 2018

Before the nineteenth century, colorants of natural origin were used in dying and painting various types of objects. Even though the diversity of dye sources around the world is vast, the ways in which dyestuffs were processed for the extraction of the coloring matter, in order to fix it onto a different substrate, are surprisingly similar. Some of the chemistry, dyeing methods, and lake‐pigment technologies behind the story of dyes will be revised here, along with the analytical techniques used for the identification of dyes.
Electrical Resistivity
Authors: Abrego Alexis Mojica
Published: November 2018

Electrical methods include a series of techniques based on the study of natural (self‐potential, telluric, and magnetotelluric) and artificial (electromagnetic and electrical prospecting) electrical sources, with the electrical resistivity of the subsoil being one of the basic physical properties of these methods. In electrical prospecting applied to archaeology, buried features are characterized by having different electrical resistivity values from the medium around them, which makes them potentially detectable. Thanks to more technologically advanced software and hardware, it is possible to perform non‐invasive assessment of the archaeological potential of a site using these methods. Currently, two modalities are widely used in electrical prospecting: electrical mapping and electrical resistivity tomography in two and three dimensions. The choice of which to use depends on the objectives and extent of a given archaeological project.
Electromagnetic Conductivity
Authors: Ernenwein Eileen G.
Published: November 2018

Electromagnetic conductivity is a geophysical method capable of detecting subsurface conductive archaeological features such as fortification ditches, moats, and middens, as well as the geological context of sites and landscapes by mapping prehistoric sedimentary environments. The first commercially available instrument designed to measure electromagnetic conductivity, the EM31 Ground Conductivity Meter, was released in 1976. This and many other modern electromagnetic induction instruments employ a variety of configurations to target multiple depths. Electromagnetic conductivity is often compared to its theoretical inverse: electrical resistivity. The two measurements are not directly reciprocal, however, owing to different modes of measurement and depth sensitivities of the instruments used. Advantages of electromagnetic conductivity measured by induction are that it is more sensitive to high‐conductivity features, it does not require insertion of probes into the ground, and most instruments simultaneously measure magnetic susceptibility, an indicator of prehistoric human activity on the landscape.
Electron Backscatter Diffraction (
EBSD
)
Authors: Peruzzo Luca
Published: November 2018

Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) is a technique developed in the late 1960s/early 1970s as an accessory analytical system of the scanning electron microscope (SEM). The technique is based on the principle that a crystalline lattice can diffract the primary electrons of an SEM beam, producing a pattern of dark and light intersecting lines (“Kikuchi lines”) recordable by a suitable detector. This pattern represents the geometry of the crystal lattice from which it originates, so that it can identify both the mineral phase and its crystallographic orientation with a submicron spatial resolution. Over recent decades, EBSD has become relatively common in many fields of materials science analysis. Although its application to the study of ancient art objects is relatively recent, this technique seems to have great potential also for being a powerful tool in the characterization of a large variety of materials in the archaeological field.
Elemental Analysis of Pottery
Authors: Hein Anno
Published: November 2018

Systematic elemental analysis of pottery became possible only in the beginning of the second half of the twentieth century with the development of instrumental analytical methods. The scope of the analyses can be the exploration of production technology, or the investigation of the origin of production based on the bulk composition. Because the bulk composition of pottery is essentially influenced by raw material selection and clay paste processing, every production site is assumed to present a unique chemical pattern. By studying the similarity of pottery to known reference compositions, the origin from a specific production site can be confirmed. For the assessment of similarity and dissimilarity, the compositional variation of the pottery has to be considered, which requires particular statistical approaches.
Embalming
Authors: Eppenberger Patrick , Rühli Frank
Published: November 2018

The use of embalming techniques to stabilize biological tissues against degradation by impeding enzymatic and microbiotic activity and, in some cases, to restore antemortem appearance is known since antiquity and remains, to this day, of great importance for diagnostic analysis, scientific research, and student training. Nowadays in biology and medicine, various fixation methods are applied to preserve structures of histological or anatomical specimens for further investigation, with neutral buffered formalin (NBF) solution being the most widely used fixation agent since its introduction in the 1890s. While the history of preparation and preservation of anatomical specimens is evidently linked to the history of the study of anatomy itself, the application of embalming techniques to preserve the whole human body from decay after death undoubtedly originated in the religious beliefs of various ancient cultures, where a preserved body was essential to attain eternal life, such as in the Chinchorro culture of South America and in ancient Egypt.
Embodiment
Authors: Lozada María Cecilia
Published: November 2018

It is only over the last few decades that the term “embodiment” has been incorporated into the anthropological lexicon, and only recently has this approach been applied to the past through the lenses of archaeological and bioarchaeological research. In fact, many specialized anthropological dictionaries do not include “embodiment.” This is in part because it is a relatively new term, but also because embodiment is a complex concept that has been used within different theoretical frameworks and applied in a variety of medical, philosophical, psychological, historical, anthropological, archaeological, and bioarchaeological contexts. The concept of embodiment is discussed from archaeological and bioarchaeological perspectives, and case studies from diverse geographical and temporal contexts illustrate the methodologies that have been used to test hypotheses and assess concepts of embodiment in past societies.
Environmental Management with Livestock
Authors: Hjelle Kari Loe , Kvamme Mons
Published: November 2018

Livestock have been an important food resource for people for thousands of years. Extensive grazing and fodder collection has led to the development of a range of semi‐natural habitats now in danger of disappearing. Management practices for four examples of such habitats—mountain pastures and grasslands, hay meadows, managed woodlands, and coastal heathlands—are described. Knowledge of their development through time and space is gained through palynology combined with archaeological, historical, and ecological data. Development of quantitative modeling and reconstruction methods will further aid the understanding of environmental management with livestock through time.
Environmental Archaeology
Authors: Campbell Gill
Published: November 2018

Environmental archaeology is concerned with the complex interplay between people and the environments that they inhabited in the past, from the food they ate to the landscapes they transformed by their actions. It involves the application of the natural and physical sciences to the study of biological remains and of the deposits in which they are preserved, for the purpose of understanding how people both shaped and were shaped by their environment over millennia. This entry outlines the underlying principles and concepts common to the different research areas within the discipline and considers possible future directions.
Erosion
Authors: Ayala Gianna
Published: November 2018

The study of erosion has been a key topic in a wide range of archaeological research projects across the world for the last 50 years. A combination of geology, climate, topography, and land use determines how vulnerable the landscape is to hillslope instability, weathering, and transport of soil material. The Mediterranean landscape is particularly vulnerable to erosion and many geoarchaeological studies, often in conjunction with evidence of settlement derived from archaeological survey, have investigated the role of human impact on landscape evolution. New methods of computational modeling are opening up fascinating possibilities for the study of interactions between past populations and their environment.