bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Honorifics
Authors: Hasegawa Nobuko
Published: November 2017

Japanese is one of the rare languages that exhibit syntactically conditioned honorifics that interact with other syntactic processes. This chapter concentrates on such phenomena, and the following three honorific processes of Japanese are taken up: Subject Honorification (SH), where the subject is a target of the speaker's respect; Non‐Subject Honorification (NSH), in which the respect is paid to a non‐subject (i.e. an object, an indirect object, or the possessor of a(n in)direct object); and Hearer Honorification (HH), whose target of respect is the hearer. Although they have often been discussed and analyzed individually as different processes, this chapter, in addition to a concise description of the characteristics of these honorific processes and a review of representative previous analyses, provides an analysis of all three processes in terms of syntactic agreement between the honorific marking on the predicate and the nominal (DP) that is a target of respect.

The following claims are particularly notable: (i) the locus of agreement is an honorific prefix (HP), which makes it possible to analyze not only verbal honorification but also nominal and adjective honorification basically as the same process. (ii) The case of multiple honorific marking of SH, involving the aspectual–such as(te)i(ru)‘progressive, perfective’ andhazime(ru)‘begin’ – is accounted for. (iii) NSH crucially involves Applicative Phrase (ApplP), which is equivalent to what takes place in the benefactive construction in Japanese, thereby capturing the phenomena observed in both constructions. The postulation of ApplP for NSH, furthermore, explains why the same HP on a predicate unambiguously agrees with a subject for SH, which does not involve ApplP, or a non‐subject for NSH. And (iv), by adopting the recent proposal that a matrix clause involves an extended clausal layer (e.g. a speech‐act layer), HH can be accounted for as a syntactic agreement process that involves this layer.
Temporal Reference
Authors: Giorgi Alessandra , Pianesi Fabio
Published: November 2017

The purpose of this chapter is to stimulate a critical attitude toward issues of temporal reference in linguistic theory, keeping in mind that the concepts oftemporal referenceandtenseare not one and the same notion, though strongly connected. Temporal reference can be defined as the relation between the time of the utterance and the time the utterance is about. Tense is just one of the means available to language to attain temporal reference, other means are temporal adverbs/adverbials and aspectual properties. Hence, according to this perspective, a theory of temporal reference is ametatheoreticalspace, in which the various theories of tense and aspect are located. Recall also that some languages, such as for instance Mandarin Chinese, do not have tenses, and therefore the way in which temporal reference is attained is very different from languages with tenses, such as for instance English. Moreover, languages differ considerably in the richness of their morphological system for expressing temporal and aspectual relations. For instance, languages such as Spanish and Italian have a much richer temporal and aspectual morphology than English. Issues such as subordination and temporal adverbs, will be considered in details – though not exhaustively – to show how the general system might work. In this chapter we provide first a cursory review of the basic tenets of the tense‐logical approaches. These approaches exemplify many of the problems non‐referential views have to address. The shortcomings of tense‐logical theories have been taken to provide support for fully referential views, which will be considered here by analyzing phenomena such as the syntax of tenses, sequence of tense, and temporal locating phrases. Special emphasis will be placed on the Reichenbachian and on the neo‐Reichenbachian view. Finally, we will also briefly consider the non‐referential, tensed view.
Inverse Linking
Authors: May Robert , Bale Alan
Published: November 2017

In this chapter, we will consider a phenomenon known as
inverse linking
, a term coined by May (1977) to describe the most salient readings of sentences such as
Someone from every city despises it
. What is of interest about this sort of sentence is a particular “quirk” in its interpretation, in that the embedded quantifier phrase preferentially receives a wide‐scope interpretation. Our aim here is to explore the influence the inverse linking phenomenon has had on syntactic theory, especially with respect to the syntactic representation of quantifier scope, focusing largely on research conducted during the 1970s and 1980s motivating Quantifier Raising (QR). We also explore later work on QR that appears incompatible with inverse linking phenomena.
(Past) Participle Agreement
Authors: Belletti Adriana
Published: November 2017

The chapter offers an overview of the analysis of past participle agreement, a central phenomenon in Romance, addressed here in a comparative perspective, with special reference to Italian and French. The theoretical issues raised by the phenomenon are at the core of the chapter, from the influential account first developed by Kayne (1989) in terms of Spec–Head agreement, to the more recent implementations through the Agree relation inspired by minimalist assumptions. With the aim of accounting for the complex empirical manifestations of the phenomenon, the locality of the relation implemented in past‐participle agreement is highlighted in some long‐distance dependencies.
Adjectival and Analytic Passives
Authors: Emonds Joseph Embley
Published: November 2017

Analytic adjectival passives are common in Indo‐European. The participle around which they are constructed has a stative or property interpretation, unlike verbal (“eventive”) passives (whether analytic or synthetic). Like verbal passives, their defining characteristic is that their surface subject does not have the same thematic role θ (often agent) as subjects of corresponding actives (section 1). Other notable properties are that, unlike verbal passives, a noun phrase with this role θ is usually not structurally present, even covertly, and certain other complement choices allowed with verbs are also excluded, possibly due to the Case Filter (sections 2 and 5).

Adjectival passives can be further divided into those which have the exact distribution and modification of lexical adjectives, and a more syntactic type with some verbal properties, lacking some interpretive and modificational characteristics of adjectives. The difference is illustrated clearly in, for example, Modern Greek. These two types may well result from different levels of derivational insertion of the participial morpheme (section 3).

The similarities of adjectival and (analytic) verbal passives are pervasive, especially evident in Indo‐European morphology. In some non‐Indo‐European synthetic passives, such as Hebrew and Hungarian, the differences between adjectival and verbal passives seem more salient. What is apparent in Indo‐European is the distinction in which verbs select passive participles. Many verbs select adjectival passives, but only a few, so‐called auxiliaries, select verbal passives (section 4). For Indo‐European, earlier literature seems to have overstated the structural distinction, and it is plausible to argue that both types involve movement of object noun phrases to subject position. The differences between analytic adjectival and verbal passives are then possibly due to whether participial inflection is respectively interpreted as a property in Logical Form, or not interpreted at all, that is, inserted only in Phonological Form (sections 6 and 7).
Weak Crossover
Authors: Safir Ken
Published: November 2017

Weak crossover (WCO) effects may be described as arising in a syntactic configuration where pronouns cannot be interpreted as co‐construed with certain kinds of displaced or quantified antecedents. If it is correct to say that (i) the blocking of this co‐construal does not seem logically required, (ii) the effect is syntactically conditioned, (iii) the effect is widespread in the world's languages, and (iv) it does not appear to arise from instruction, then it is reasonable to assume that the WCO effect is a peculiar consequence of the human language capacity and a clue to the structure of that capacity. This chapter reviews and compares the history and prospects of syntactic theories that have been proposed as accounting for weak crossover, while setting certain thresholds of what any explanatory theory should account for. Issues concern theories about the nature of binding relations, in particular the distinction between A‐ and A'‐binding and bound variable interpretation, as well as attempts to reduce the WCO effect to principles that do not directly refer to the phenomenon. The role of c‐command, of constraining vs. licensing conditions, syntactic and semantic dependency, obviation, and the distribution of effects (or non‐effects) deemed related to WCO – such as weakest crossover, strong crossover, inverse linking, reconstruction, resumption, superiority, and functional readings of multiple quantifier sentences – are all considered. The explanatory force of several sorts of theories are explicated and compared.
VSOWord Order in the Celtic Languages
Authors: Rouveret Alain
Published: November 2017

What makes Celtic languages particularly attractive to both formal syntacticians and typologists is that they rigidly instantiate a particular linguistic type in Greenberg's classification, namely VSO. The various proposals discussed in this chapter have attempted to integrate this hallmark of Celtic syntax into the scope of syntactic theorizing. Recent analyses of Celtic clausal structure, based on the VP‐internal subject hypothesis, the split‐Infl proposal, and the cartographic approach to the left periphery, represent a huge improvement over the previous accounts. Beside the verb–subject order, other dimensions must be taken into account for a proper characterization of the VSO phenomenology: agreement phenomena and the Complementarity Effect; the syntax of copular constructions, which present significant differences across Celtic, but are never V1; the existence of V2 structures in a V1 language, namely Breton. All these issues bear upon major theoretical questions, such as the nature of structure‐building processes, the status of head movement, the motivation for DP‐raising, the relation of syntax to morphology, the relevance of adjacency to morphological phenomena at PF, the nature of microparametric and macroparametric variation, and the potential connection between V1 and V2.
Subject–Auxiliary Inversion
Authors: Bruening Benjamin
Published: November 2017

In subject–auxiliary inversion in English, the typical declarative word order subject–auxiliary‐verb is instead realized as auxiliary‐subject‐verb. This inversion occurs in a number of environments, namely, matrix questions, conditionals, blessings and curses, comparatives, exclamatives, negative imperatives, and in environments where certain elements have been fronted (so/as/nor, negative phrases, phrases withonly, and certain others). Most theoretical analyses of subject–auxiliary inversion treat all of these instances uniformly, but some recent work indicates that there are actually two distinct types of inversion, one which can affect multiple auxiliaries and one which cannot. The most prominent theoretical account of subject–auxiliary inversion, head movement of Infl (or T) to C, accounts best for the type that can only invert one auxiliary, but is incompatible with the type that inverts multiple auxiliaries. This type may involve a lower‐than‐usual position for the subject, instead. Subject–auxiliary inversion is subject to a strict adjacency requirement, which requires that the fronted auxiliary be adjacent to the subject it has inverted with. Many theoretical proposals struggle to account for this requirement, as well as for the possibility of subject–auxiliary inversion in embedded clauses. Subject–auxiliary inversion is also one of the contexts fordosupport, and any theoretical account needs to explain why this is so and howdosupport comes about. Finally, subject–auxiliary inversion has figured prominently in debates regarding learnability (the “poverty of the stimulus” argument), and it is also important for the question of whether grammatical roles like “subject” are primitive notions of grammar, or not. It appears that subject–auxiliary inversion refers only to structure, and not to notions like “subject,” suggesting that grammatical roles are not primitives.
Radical Non‐Configurationality
Authors: Bliss Heather
Published: November 2017

Originally conceived of as a large‐scale macroparameter, non‐configurationality was thought to delimit languages lacking in hierarchical phrase structure (Chomsky 1981). However, non‐configurationality can be defined instead as a cover term for languages in which there is hierarchical phrase structure, but the evidence for such structure is obscured. In the narrow sense, non‐configurational languages are those that meet three criteria: (i) free word order, (ii) extensive null anaphora, and (iii) discontinuous expressions (Hale 1983). In the broad sense, non‐configurational languages are those that fail a variety of tests for asymmetric c‐command between the subject and the object, and/or tests for VP constituency. These languages are genetically, geographically, and typologically diverse, and they cannot be classified as a single language type. There have been various attempts to reduce non‐configurational properties to a single grammatical source or macroparameter: the Dual Structure approach (e.g., Austin and Bresnan 1996), the Pronominal Argument approach (e.g., Baker 1996), and the Computational Relevancy approach (Pensalfini 2004) All of these approaches focus on the paradoxical nature of non‐configurational languages: they exhibit subject/object asymmetries in some domains, but not others. However, these approaches, which treat non‐configurationality as a macroparameter, are neither theoretically nor empirically motivated. Other work on non‐configurational languages such as Warlpiri, Mohawk, the Salish languages, and the Algonquian languages have paved the way for a microparametric view of non‐configurationality, in which various diverse and independently motivated grammatical principles can conspire to yield a non‐configurational profile.
Long
NP
‐Movement
Authors: Lasnik Howard , Boeckx Cedric
Published: November 2017

It has been known since the earliest days of generative grammar that NP‐movement (typically movement into subject position, later called A‐movement) obeys very strict locality conditions. By “long NP‐movement,” we mean movement in violation of these conditions. Chomsky reformulated the traditional clause‐mate constraint on such movement into the Tensed‐ Sentence Condition (TSC, barring movement out of a finite clause) and the Specified‐Subject Condition (SSC, barring movement across a subject). He later assimilated these locality conditions on A‐movement to constraints on anaphoric relations, under the hypothesis that A‐movement leaves a trace that has properties of an anaphor. Then he combined the two conditions into one: Condition A of the Binding Theory (stating that an anaphor must be bound in its Governing Category, where the GC is extensionally almost equivalent to the local domains given by TSC and SSC). Especially under the influence of Rizzi, it became clear that the blocking effect of a subject was a special case of a much more general constraint forbidding movement to a position X across a position Z of the same type, later dubbed by Rizzi “Relativized Minimality.” Some such cases, going back to Chomsky, have been dubbed “superraising.” Raising across an experiencer has also been particularly widely investigated, especially because its possibility seems to be subject to substantial parametric variation. Another instance of “long NP‐movement,” descriptively partially overlapping with TSC, is a ban on A‐movement from a Case position, apparent violations of which are sometimes called “hyperraising.” In this chapter we will explore the historical development of ideas about all of these constraints.
Noun‐to‐Determiner Movement
Authors: Carstens Vicki
Published: November 2017

During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the hypothesis of N‐to‐D movement played a prominent role in approaches to word order within the nominal domain. In particular, where N precedes all its arguments and modifiers, N‐to‐D movement was proposed to be the cause. Over time, descriptive and explanatory limitations of such accounts were discovered, and questions arose about the theoretical plausibility and desirability of head movement in general. Alternative approaches in terms of raising small NPs/XP were proposed to overcome these problems. In this chapter I trace the history of N‐to‐D movement: its empirical motivations, the bases for seeking phrasal movement alternatives, and flaws that have been pointed out in this latter kind of approach. I argue that XP movement competitors to head movement suffer from logical and explanatory problems themselves. I then make a case for N‐to‐D movement in the Shona language, where the word‐order effects that it can capture correlate with inclusion of grammatical gender in all clause‐level agreement. I argue that this is a result of adjoining N to D, and so is some loosening of the typical constraints on A‐movement when N‐to‐D makes N's (uninterpretable) gender feature accessible to clause‐level probes as an “activity” feature. An XP‐movement approach does not connect these DP‐internal and clause‐level effects. I show also that a strict antisymmetric approach fails to capture simple regularities of word order in Shona DPs: DPs are noun‐initial unless a demonstrative precedes N; otherwise, all modifiers are freely ordered postnominally. Symmetric base‐generation options for modifiers is key to explaining this pattern, and N‐to‐D does the rest.
Gerundive Nominalizations
Authors: Pires Acrisio , Milsark Gary
Published: November 2017

The properties of gerunds, formed with the morpheme ‐ingin English, have been the object of significant interest in generative linguistics, largely because they seem to be hybrid categories, in that their projections can exhibit sentential or verbal internal structure but are found in positions normally occupied by nominal projections. There have been proposals for the existence of two types of structures broadly referred to as gerundive nominalizations, nominal gerunds and verbal gerunds. Nominal gerunds appear to have unambiguously nominal syntactic properties. Verbal gerunds, despite distributional evidence for their nominal constituency, which is shared by nominal gerunds, show internal properties of regular clauses or verbal domains, in an apparent contradiction with their nominal category properties. For many years, gerundive nominalizations were investigated nearly exclusively on English, but their seemingly idiosyncratic properties regarding case, control, phrasal projection, and movement have been identified as having counterparts in the properties of similar nominalizations in languages as diverse as Basque, Finnish, Navaho, Portuguese, Quechua, and Turkish. Lexical and null subjects may occur in verbal gerunds, and overt subjects with genitive and accusative case can alternate in the position under unclear conditions, in contrast to what is found in nominal gerunds, where only overt subjects can appear, in the genitive case. Another enduring puzzle of English syntax is that there seem to be several affixes with the phonological shape ‐ing, which raises questions about how many distinct morphological elements they actually represent and how they are introduced into the syntactic structure. Much of the research on gerunds and gerundive nominalizations has been couched in theoretical frameworks spanning the development of generative syntax from its early days up to the minimalist program, in which different approaches to topics such as syntactic derivation, phrasal projection, movement, case, control, and empty categories have taken substantial explanatory weight.
Artifact Analysis
Authors: Norris Martin Kelly
Published: November 2017

Artifacts are considered important for rigorous analysis because they can reflect the aesthetic taste, values, motivations, and rhetorical decisions within a particular culture. Artifacts can also express a range of human experience and motivations sometimes ambiguously articulated or unavailable in verbal discourse. This entry describes some common questions for artifact analysis as well as commonly used frameworks including cultural studies, semiotics, material rhetoric, and design.
Canonical Correlation Analysis
Authors: Pelzer Elena , Woelke Jens
Published: November 2017

Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) represents the most general linear model (GLM) and subsumes all other univariate and multivariate methods as special cases. CCA explores the linear relationship between multiple predictor and criterion variables. Hence, CCA as a multivariate technique honors the complexity of a reality in which variables interact simultaneously. Although being a standard tool in statistical analysis where canonical correlation has been applied—for example, in biometrics, economics, and meteorology—it is surprisingly unknown in the field of communication studies. This entry provides an overview of CCA to increase awareness and appropriate use of it in communication studies.
Description and Explanation
Authors: Baden Christian
Published: November 2017

Scientific description is a systematic effort to selectively represent a complex reality in order to highlight patterns and specific phenomena that can be subjected to scientific explanation. Specific representations enable different kinds of explanations. An explanation consists of a demonstration that a set of conditions is present for which there is a rule predicting that the explained phenomenon should follow, and a theoretical account that elucidates why these conditions are sufficient. The conditions and rules sustaining the explanation can themselves be described and explained, resulting in substantial overlap between description and explanation.
Ethnomethodology
Authors: Monteagut Lorraine E.
Published: November 2017

Ethnomethodology is a research orientation that focuses on the microprocesses of actors in everyday interaction in an attempt to understand human behavior as it is actually “enacted.” It emerged from the tradition of phenomenology, initially developed by Harold Garfinkel in the late 1960s in response to structural functionalism, which stressed causal and exogenous explanations of human behavior. Ethnomethodology rejects sweeping theories of society, honing in on specific human actions as the objects of analysis, rather than attributing the causes of behavior to structures and institutions.
Evaluation Research
Authors: Wippersberg Julia
Published: November 2017

Evaluation is an instrument to generate data empirically for a distinctive purpose; the data is rated and used as the basis for further decisions. Therefore, a set of research methods is utilized.

The concordant general goal of evaluation is to provide “useful feedback” on programs and policies to different audiences based on the systematic acquisition and assessment of information to reduce uncertainty and to inform and influence decision‐making and policy formulation. Four fundamental purposes can be stated: advocacy, accountability, analysis, and allocation. In addition, there are two main types of evaluation: formative and summative. The acquisition of data needed for an evaluation should be done using a variety of methods, either quantitative or qualitative.
Facial Electromyography (
EMG
)
Authors: Read Glenna L.
Published: November 2017

Facial electromyography (EMG) is a psychophysiological technique used to measure electrical potential generated by facial muscles. As the activity of certain facial muscles have been associated with emotional expression, facial EMG can be used to index variance in the valence of emotional expression. This entry aims to provide context and support for the use of facial EMG in media research and to briefly describe recording practices.
Field Notes
Authors: Paxton Blake A.
Published: November 2017

Field notes are written artifacts that represent research data in ethnographic projects. Researchers, after gaining entrée into their fields, will record written observations either while directly observing social interaction or shortly thereafter. These notes are then analyzed in order to develop cultural themes about the social interactions and communities observed and, in some instances, also make sense of the researcher's own reflexive processes and emotions.
Inductive Model
Authors: Myers Jade
Published: November 2017

The inductive model, often referred to as grounded theory, allows communication scholars to develop new theoretical frameworks. This is done through careful data collection and analysis. By focusing on specific instances of a communication phenomenon, scholars can find patterns and generate theoretical explanations; this is the process of working from specific occurrences to add to general knowledge.
Interaction Effects
Authors: Zerback Thomas
Published: November 2017

An interaction effect exists when the influence of an independent variable
X
on an outcome variable
Y
depends on the level of a third variable
Z
. Procedures to detect, probe, and test interaction effects within ANOVA and regression models are described and common pitfalls as well as recommendations are addressed.
Item Response Theory
Authors: Sun Shaojing , Fan Xitao
Published: November 2017

Item response theory (IRT) provides an alternative perspective, in comparison to classical test theory, on measurement reliability and validity. This method has been widely applied in designing, implementing, and evaluating instruments in social and behavioral sciences. This entry introduces the basics of IRT, along with its applications and statistical software.
Measurement, Levels Of
Authors: Matthews Nicholas L.
Published: November 2017

Levels of measurement describe the relationship between the numeric values researchers assign during measurement. The most popular typology, developed by Stevens in 1946, identifies four levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. Each level identifies a different relationship between values and the appropriate corresponding descriptive and inferential statistics one may use. Nevertheless, there is not universal subscription to Stevens' typology. Some academics suggest that the lower levels of measurement are not actually measurement. Likewise, others suggest that the lower levels may be too poor of approximations to aid humans in scientifically understanding reality.
Median Split
Authors: Hüsser Andreas Philippe
Published: November 2017

Splitting a quantitative variable into two categories by the median value is widely used to examine potential moderator effects or to improve statistical power, for example. However, dichotomizing a continuous variable by the median value can have negative consequences. This entry briefly discusses the three most important consequences associated with dichotomizing a quantitative variable by the median value, including a loss of information, a loss of effect size and power, and the risk of spurious significance.
Nonparametric Analysis
Authors: Fahr Andreas
Published: November 2017

Parametric statistics assume that the analyzed data come from a certain type of probability distribution, mostly a normal distribution. Nonparametric statistics are a class of procedures that do not rely on assumptions about the shape or form of the probability distribution from which the data were drawn. They were developed to be used when researchers know nothing about the parameters of the variable of interest in the population. Because nonparametric tests make fewer assumptions, their applicability is wider than is the case with parametric statistics. They maintain their statistical properties even when assumptions are not entirely met; hence, they are
robust
. However, nonparametric procedures are also statistically less
powerful
. Moreover, when the dataset is large, it often makes little sense to use nonparametric statistics because of the implications of the
central limit theorem
. That is, the means of a sufficiently large number of samples will follow approximately the normal distribution, even if the respective variable is not normally distributed in the population. Hence, nonparametric statistics should be considered when the sample sizes are small and the underlying distribution is not clear. If it is important to detect small effects in small sample sizes, one should be cautious about one's choice of test statistics.
Objectivity
Authors: Fritz Niki
Published: November 2017

Objectivity, as applied to science, is an epistemological and ontological view that emphasizes the use of rigorous and unbiased scientific tools to empirically measure observable data.
Phronetic Iterative Data Analysis
Authors: Tracy Sarah J. , Hinrichs Margaret M.
Published: November 2017

Phronetic iterative qualitative data analysis is a qualitative method that tags between grounded analysis of qualitative data (such as interviews, participant observation field notes, documents, and visuals) on the one hand, and existing literature and theory on the other. It is phronetic because the researcher begins by identifying a practical problem, dilemma, or curiosity in the field. The analysis process contrasts from a grounded approach because of the continual and intermittent attention paid to past literature for framing and shaping the emerging analysis. The process unfolds by creating guiding research questions, considering past literature that frames the emerging study, reading and analyzing the data—by creating first‐level descriptive and second‐level analytic codes that attend to the research question—and then turning to more advanced qualitative interpretive approaches (such as metaphor or exemplar analysis) when needed to make interesting claims that impact practice.
Radio Research Methods
Authors: Schramm Holger
Published: November 2017

Research on radio uses standard methods like content analyses, surveys, and experimental reception studies as well as radio‐specific methods like observations by portable electronic devices and—most important—different forms of music testing research, mainly callouts and audience tests. Most commercial and public service broadcasting stations consider results from this music research to be the most important source to create their daily music program. However, from a methodological point of view, this research can be criticized in terms of validity.
Stata (Software)
Authors: Abreu Alberto Ardèvol
Published: November 2017

Stata is statistics software suited for managing, analyzing, and plotting quantitative data, enabling a variety of statistical analyses to be performed. The program is suitable for processing time‐series, panel, and cross‐sectional data. Researchers in a variety of fields, including social science, biostatistics, health sciences, epidemiology, psychology, and economics, use Stata.
Theoretical Saturation
Authors: Faulkner Sandra L. , Trotter Stormy P.
Published: November 2017

Theoretical saturation is an overarching assessment made about the quality of qualitative research after data have been collected, analyzed, and represented. Saturation means that researchers have done a comprehensive examination of the phenomena being studied and have actualized the depth and breadth of social theory to achieve thorough descriptions, explanations, and interpretations of their research. The determination that saturation has been reached often occurs when the research design is adequate for the purposes and goals of the research.
Time‐Series Analysis
Authors: Scheufele Bertram
Published: November 2017

Time‐series analysis is a statistical procedure for longitudinal data characterized by time‐ordered measures of sufficient length (at least
t
= 30) for each variable under study. Usually, a univariate, a bivariate, and a multivariate perspective can be distinguished. From a univariate perspective, time‐series analysis explores the characteristics of a single time series by comparing it to familiar statistical processes. Most time series in social sciences can be characterized by (seasonal)
ARIMA
process models. In a bivariate approach, cross‐lagged correlations between two time series (both being
ARIMA
modeled in advance) are estimated in order to identify which time series shifts first and which follows. In a multivariate approach, multiple relationships between several time series are modeled. Univariate and multivariate approaches also allow forecasting: In the first case, the future course of one time series is predicted, in the second case the future relationship between two or more time series is forecasted.
Validation
Authors: Hannawa Annegret F.
Published: November 2017

Validity and validation are essential concerns when it comes to the development, evaluation, and use of measures, assessments, tests, or scales. While validity refers to the quality of the inferences or claims that are drawn from the scores of an instrument,
validation
is a process in which various sources of validity evidence are accumulated and synthesized to support the appropriateness, meaningfulness, and usefulness (i.e., validity) of inferences that are drawn from instrument scores. Without validation, any inferences made from an instrument are meaningless. This entry discusses the historical emergence of validation practices, elaborates five standard forms of validation, and closes with a reflection on the importance of the level of analysis in contemporary validation studies.
Value of the Routine Assessment of Patient Index Data 3 in Patients With Psoriatic Arthritis: Results From a Tight‐Control Clinical Trial and an Observational Cohort
Authors: Coates Laura C. , Tillett William , Shaddick Gavin , Pincus Theodore , Kavanaugh Arthur , Helliwell Philip S.
Published: November 2017

Objective

To analyze the Routine Assessment of Patient Index Data 3 (RAPID3), a patient‐reported, composite index, designed initially for feasibility in clinical care. RAPID3 was developed in rheumatoid arthritis, but has been found useful in many rheumatic diseases. We analyzed RAPID3 in patients with psoriatic arthritis (PsA).

Methods

Post hoc analyses were performed on 2 independent data sets, the Tight Control of Psoriatic Arthritis (TICOPA) clinical trial, and the Long‐Term Outcome in Psoriatic Arthritis Study (LOPAS II), an observational cohort. RAPID3 (range 0–30) is the total of three 0–10 scores for the Health Assessment Questionnaire disability index (recalculated from 0–3), pain visual analog scale (VAS), and global VAS. RAPID3 scores were compared to the Psoriatic Arthritis Disease Activity Score (PASDAS), the Disease Activity in Psoriatic Arthritis (DAPSA), and other available clinical measures, according to Spearman's correlation coefficients, standardized response mean, SEM, smallest detectible difference, minimally important difference (in patients who improved), and receiver operating characteristic curves. RAPID3 remission was compared to criteria for both standard minimal disease activity (MDA) and very low disease activity (VLDA).

Results

RAPID3 was correlated significantly with PASDAS in TICOPA (r = 0.79, P < 0.01) and with DAPSA in LOPAS II (ρ = 0.59, P < 0.01), and with most other measures in both data sets. RAPID3 discriminated between tight control and standard care in TICOPA at 48 weeks at levels comparable to DAPSA and the PASDAS (P < 0.01). RAPID3 remission discriminated treatment groups in TICOPA intermediate between MDA and VLDA criteria.

Conclusion

RAPID3 appears comparably informative to PASDAS and DAPSA in PsA, with greater feasibility for routine clinical care.
Construction of a Biomimetic Magnetosome and Its Application as a SiRNA Carrier for High‐Performance Anticancer Therapy
Authors: Zhang Fan , Zhao Longjian , Wang Shumin , Yang Jun , Lu Guihong , Luo Nana , Gao Xiaoyong , Ma Guanghui , Xie Hai‐Yan , Wei Wei
Published: November 2017

Precisely delivering siRNA to its target site in cancer cells is a high‐demanding but challenging task. Herein, a biomimetic magnetosome is developed using magnetic nanocluster (MNC) as the core and Arg–Gly–Asp (RGD) decorated macrophage membrane as the cloak, which is achieved via a combination of MNC synthesis, azide‐membrane engineering, electrical assembly, and click chemistry. Such a feature‐packed magnetosome enables us to gain the success of high‐performance siRNA delivery through superior stealth effect, magnetic resonance imaging, magnetic accumulation, RGD targeting, and favorable cytoplasm trafficking. As a result, target gene expression can be significantly suppressed and tumor growth is effectively inhibited, while the systemic toxicity is not notable. These results together vote the biomimetic magnetosome as a promising siRNA delivery system for anticancer therapy.
Robust Hydrophobic Rare Earth Oxide Composite Electrodeposits
Authors: Tam Jason , Palumbo Gino , Erb Uwe , Azimi Gisele
Published: November 2017

Inspired by the lotus leaf, nonwetting surfaces have drawn widespread attention in the field of surface engineering due to their remarkable water repelling characteristics. There are many applications for these surfaces, for instance, self‐cleaning walls and windows, anti‐icing surfaces, or low drag microfluidic channels. However, the adoption of nonwetting surfaces in large scale industrial applications has been hampered by synthesis techniques that are not easily scalable and the limited long term stability and wear robustness of these surfaces in service. This study demonstrates a simple, low cost, and scalable electrochemical technique to produce robust composite coatings with tunable nonwetting properties. The composite coatings are composed of an ultrafine grain nickel matrix with embedded hydrophobic cerium oxide ceramic particles. A comprehensive characterization is performed, including wetting property measurements, electron microscopy, focused ion beam analysis, hardness measurements, and abrasive wear testing to establish the structure–property relationships for these materials. The ultrafine grain structure of the nickel matrix contributes to the high hardness of the composites. As a result of the bimodal CeO2 particle size, hierarchical roughness is present on the surface of the composite, leading to remarkable nonwetting properties, even after 720 m of abrasive wear.
Development of an Emergency Medicine Wellness Curriculum
Authors: Williamson Kelly , Lank Patrick M. , Lovell Elise O. ,   the Emergency Medicine Education Research Alliance (EMERA)
Published: November 2017

Burnout, the triad of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and low personal accomplishment, begins early in medical education and the prevalence continues to increase over time among U.S. physicians. The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) now requires that programs and sponsoring institutions have the same responsibility to address well‐being as they do other aspects of resident competence. Yet, there are no studies published in the emergency medicine (EM) literature that discuss the development and institution of a formal wellness curriculum. The authors conducted a needs analysis among EM residents with the aim of creating a multifaceted 12‐month wellness curriculum. The needs analysis determined that residents are not comfortable with their knowledge of wellness principles. In response, the authors developed a curriculum by integrating components of published non‐EM wellness curricula and online academic wellness programs with commonly accepted domains of wellness. The curriculum was subsequently introduced at five EM residencies. This curriculum represents an example of successful multi‐institution collaboration to meet an ACGME Common Program Requirement.
A comparative kinetics study of CO2 absorption into aqueous DEEA/MEA and DMEA/MEA blended solutions
Authors: Jiang Wusan , Luo Xiao , Gao Hongxia , Liang Zhiwu , Liu Bin , Tontiwachwuthikul Paitoon , Hu Xiayi
Published: November 2017

The kinetics of CO2 absorption into aqueous solutions of N,N‐diethylethanolamine (DEEA), and N,N‐dimethylethanolamine (DMEA), and their blends with monoethanolamine (MEA) have been studied in a stopped‐flow apparatus. The kinetics experiments were carried out at the concentrations of DEEA and DMEA varying from 0.075 to 0.175 kmol/m3, respectively, and that of MEA ranging between 0.0075 and 0.0175 kmol/m3, over the temperature range of 293–313 K. Two kinetics models are proposed to interpret the reaction in the blended amine systems and the results show that the model which incorporates the base‐catalyzed hydration mechanism and termolecular mechanism resulted in a better prediction. Furthermore, the kinetics behaviors of CO2 absorption into two blended systems are comprehensively discussed according to their molecular structures. It can be concluded that the interaction between tertiary amines and primary amines as well as the alkyl chain length of tertiary amines have a significant influence on the kinetics. © 2017 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 64: 1350–1358, 2018
Dual Functionalization of White Phosphorus: Formation, Characterization, and Reactivity of Rare‐Earth‐Metal Cyclo‐P3 Complexes
Authors: Du Shanshan , Yin Jianhao , Chi Yue , Xu Ling , Zhang Wen‐Xiong
Published: November 2017

The [3+1] fragmentation reaction of rare‐earth metallacyclopentadienes 1 a–c with 0.5 equivalents of P4 affords a series of rare‐earth metal cyclo‐P3 complexes 2 a–c and a phospholyl anion 3. 2 a–c demonstrate an unusual η3 coordination mode with one P−P bond featuring partial π‐bonding character. 2 a–c are the first cyclo‐P3 complexes of rare‐earth metals, and also the first organo‐substituted polyphosphides in the category of Group 3 and f‐block elements. Rare‐earth metallacyclopentadienes play a dual role in the combination of aromatization and Diels–Alder reaction. Compounds 2 a–c can coordinate to one or two [W(CO)5] units, yielding 4 a–c or 5 c, respectively. Furthermore, oxidation of 2 a with p‐benzoquinone produces its corresponding phospholyllithium and regenerated P4.
Selective Functionalization of Aromatic C(sp2)−H Bonds in the Presence of Benzylic C(sp3)−H Bonds by Electron‐Deficient Carbenoids Generated from 4‐Acyl‐1‐Sulfonyl‐1,2,3‐Triazoles
Authors: Miura Tomoya , Zhao Qiang , Murakami Masahiro
Published: November 2017

A rhodium(II)‐catalyzed reaction of newly prepared 4‐acyl‐1‐sulfonyl‐1,2,3‐triazoles with benzene, and its derivatives, is investigated. Acceptor/acceptor carbenoids generated from 4‐acyltriazoles undergo selective insertion at aromatic C(sp2)−H bonds in the presence of benzylic C(sp3)−H bonds to produce N‐sulfonylenaminones.
Processability‐enhanced bimodal high‐density polyethylene with comb‐branched high‐density polyethylene
Authors: Tsou Andy H. , Doufas Antonios K. , Atienza Crisita Carmen H. , Passino Hillary L.
Published: November 2017

Two solution reactors in series were utilized to synthesize comb‐branched high‐density polyethylene (HDPE), cbHDPE, where the first reactor prepares vinyl‐terminated HDPE macromers catalyzed by an organometallic catalyst favoring beta hydride transfer and the second reactor copolymerizes HDPE macromers with ethylene using a different organometallic catalyst capable of incorporating macromers. A bimodal HDPE, biHDPE with bimodalities in molecular weight, and hexene content of the desired composition distribution was also prepared in a gas phase reactor using silica supported dual organometallic catalysts. By blending 3% solution‐made cbHDPE into the gas‐phase biHDPE, the resulting trimodal HDPE preserves the excellent stiffness and toughness of the bimodal HDPE while having exceptional melt strength and processability. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2018, 135, 45755.
Perceptions of first‐year medical students towards learning anatomy using cadaveric specimens through peer teaching
Authors: Agius Andee , Calleja Neville , Camenzuli Christian , Sultana Roberta , Pullicino Richard , Zammit Christian , Calleja Agius Jean , Pomara Cristoforo
Published: November 2017

During the last decade, global interest in the multiple benefits of formal peer teaching has increased. This study aimed to explore the perceptions of first‐year medical students towards the use of peer teaching to learn anatomy using cadaveric specimens. A descriptive, cross‐sectional, retrospective survey was carried out. Data were collected using an online questionnaire which was administered to all medical students who were in their second year of their medical school curriculum and who had participated in sessions taught by their peers during their first year. Peer teaching was perceived as an effective method of learning anatomy by more than half of the participants. Analysis of mean responses revealed that the peer teachers created a positive, non‐intimidating learning environment. Overall, participants gave positive feedback on their peer teachers. Six categories emerged from the responses given by participants as to why they would or would not recommend peer teaching. Ways of improvement as suggested by the respondents were also reported. Variables found to be significantly associated with the perceived benefits of the peer teaching program included sex differences, educational level and recommendations for peer teaching. This study brings to light the merits and demerits of peer teaching as viewed through the eyes of the peer learners. Peer teaching provides a sound platform for teaching and learning anatomy. Further discussions at higher levels are encouraged in order to explore the feasibility of introducing formal peer teaching in the medical curriculum. Anat Sci Educ 11: 346–357. © 2017 American Association of Anatomists.
Real Progress in Cellulosic Biofuel
Authors: Merritt Matt
Published: November 2017

Developing new technology is never a smooth process. For every victory there is a whole new set of challenges to overcome. Dave Bushong, Senior Vice President of Research at POET‐DSM shares his experience of Advanced Biofuels' work to commercialize cellulosic biofuel development, and what he thinks makes this process so rewarding © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
A general framework for constraint approaches to adjusted risk differences
Authors: Tang Yuanyuan , Xia Michelle , Sun Liangrui , Spertus John A. , Jones Philip G.
Published: November 2017

The risk difference is an intelligible measure for comparing disease incidence in two exposure or treatment groups. Despite its convenience in interpretation, it is less prevalent in epidemiological and clinical areas where regression models are required in order to adjust for confounding. One major barrier to its popularity is that standard linear binomial or Poisson regression models can provide estimated probabilities out of the range of (0,1), resulting in possible convergence issues. For estimating adjusted risk differences, we propose a general framework covering various constraint approaches based on binomial and Poisson regression models. The proposed methods span the areas of ordinary least squares, maximum likelihood estimation, and Bayesian inference. Compared to existing approaches, our methods prevent estimates and confidence intervals of predicted probabilities from falling out of the valid range. Through extensive simulation studies, we demonstrate that the proposed methods solve the issue of having estimates or confidence limits of predicted probabilities out of (0,1), while offering performance comparable to its alternative in terms of the bias, variability, and coverage rates in point and interval estimation of the risk difference. An application study is performed using data from the Prospective Registry Evaluating Myocardial Infarction: Event and Recovery (PREMIER) study.