bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Review of Oil-field Corrosion Problems for 1929
Authors: Bignell L.G.E.
Published: June 2014

Surveying what was done in 1929 in meeting problems of oil-field equipmentcorrosion, one is struck by the fact that fewer meetings were held fordiscussion of these problems and fewer papers written than in any year sincethe subject engaged the attention of petroleum engineers. This does not meanthat progress has not been made, for a great deal actually has beenaccomplished. Recommendations that accompanied field reports have been put intoactual trial and some results obtained are gratifying.

The type of papers prepared also has undergone a change, for they now deal withthings accomplished rather than recite damages and suggest possible remedies.Some of the most notable work pointing the way for future solution of many pipeline problems is that done for the U. S. Bureau of Standards by Dr. K. H. Loganand Dr. Gordon N. Scott, dealing with tests of pipe coatings and reports onsoil conditions. Many facts of great importance have been isolated and definedby these two men, not only indicating what may be done in some instances toretard corrosion, but showing that things formerly considered of importancehave little bearing apparently upon the practical results.

All-Aluminum Storage Tanks

In April, 1928, an all-aluminum 500-bbl. field storage tank was put into actualfield use in Crane County, Texas, together with another tank of the samecapacity but made with steel bottom and lower section of side sheets andaluminum upper ring of side sheets and deck. In April,

1929, after a little over one year's use these tanks were opened and examinedby a group of engineers and chemists. The results of the test wereenlightening.

Other tanks made entirely of steel and used in the same battery with the twotest tanks had some of their side and bottom sheets destroyed by corrosion insix to nine months, but the all-aluminum tank was in actual use for 18 monthsbefore holes were found corroded through the bottom, when the tank was examinedfor a second time in September, 1929.
Compulsory Unit Operation of Oil Pools
Authors: German W.P.Z.
Published: June 2014

Some attention should be given to definitions. The term "unitoperation" may have at least two meanings. One meaning is the merging oftitles and the development and operation of the unitized area, as if it wereone tract of land held under a single oil and gas lease, according to adefinite program intended to accomplish a maximum recovery from the pool as awhole at a minimum of cost. It is incomplete when the royalty owners do notalso merge their titles to their oil and gas rights in the area, and iscomplete when they do. The other meaning is not accompanied by any merger oftitles, but the development and operation of the area is in accordance, asnearly as reasonably practicable, with such a program. This second conceptionmay be nothing more than a cooperative development and operation plan, but inthis paper it is regarded as more than that. If there cannot be unit operationwithout a merger of titles, it would seem that the state cannot require unitoperation, for it cannot require a merging of titles; but if it may consist inrequiring each and all of the leaseholders to develop and operate or to submitto a development and operation according to some such common plan as isreferred to above without at the same time requiring a merger of titles, itwould seem that unit operation may be required by the state. Whether the stateshave this power is the subject to be herein considered. If the state can sobind the several lessees, it also can so bind the several lessors.

The writer does not know what would be an ideal plan for the development andoperation of a pool; but it takes into account the fact that the accumulationof gas and oil is not uniform throughout the formation; that often free gas, highly compressed, occupies the upper portions of the reservoir, the oil withcompressed gas in solution coming next in order; that at places oil is notoverlain by free gas, and sometimes there are peaks where free gas is notimmediately underlain by any oil; and the fact that these substances are heldunder a uniformly distributed pressure, generally referred to as "rockpressure."
Effect of Proration on Decline, Potential and Ultimate Production of Oil Wells
Authors: Power H.H. , Pishny C.H.
Published: June 2014

When an oil operator becomes a party to a proration agreement he may wonder, with good cause, whether production prorated today is merely deferred untiltomorrow or whether oil might be lost. Various types of evidence obtained fromproduction records when studied quantitatively are of great assistance inarriving at definite conclusions. A study of individual examples cited in thispaper leads towards some solution of the problem, particularly when they areconsidered in the aggregate.

Many production curves on various pay horizons were studied. A disappointinglylarge number of these were of contributory value, but inconclusive. However, there were enough curves of similar type from the Wilcox sand at Earlsboro, Bowlegs, Seminole City, the Cromwell horizon at Little River, and the Simpsondolomite at Valley Center, Kansas, from which reasonably definite conclusionswere drawn.

Assuming that deferred production is later made up with no increase in ultimaterecovery, a curve (Fig. 1) shows the normal flowing and pumping life of acomposite well, constructed by the family curve method. The initial productionof the well shown is 1700 bb1. daily and the allowed production is 25 per cent.On this basis the average daily allowed rate for the first month is 425 bbl., or the area BCDE, which is equivalent to the area AFDG under the normal declinecurve. The potential production for the second month is 1500 bb1. and theallowed production 375 bb1. daily By this procedure a potential curve for eachsucceeding month is obtained (points A, H, I, J and K). If the well is openedit should produce somewhere near its potential curve for a short period andthen decline at a more rapid rate than the potential curve. This theoreticalanalysis is basic. Actual examples exhibiting all points raised by the idealcurve are rare.
Production Engineering in 1930
Authors: Whiteford W.K.
Published: June 2014

Unitl the beginning of the year 1930, conditions in the oil industry weresuch that the production engineer was chiefly concerned with improving theefficiency of development and production technique. Good engineering practicehad been adopted to devise and improve methods and materials better suited todrilling for and producing oil and gas. These efforts reduced the hazard andexpense of deeper drilling, increased the ultimate recovery from reservoirs andlowered production costs. Equipment was of better design and materials werebetter suited for the work and were more permanent. These improvementsnaturally have contributed their share toward increasing the volume of crudeoil produced each year.

The industry is now faced with a need for preventing a waste of this naturalresource; waste which came as a result of continued reckless drilling of newreservoirs. To make a careful study of this economic problem and to devisemethods for correcting these conditions was a logical problem for theproduction engineer. Much time and study have been devoted to the question, andremedial plans have been suggested during the last year and a half. Theprinciples of unit operation have attracted the engineer's attention, as theypresent ideal conditions for the most scientific and economical development ofan oil field.

Unitization

During 1930 unitization of producing and potentially producing areas has madereal progress, and as each new unitized development is agreed upon theobjections that loomed so large at the inception of the idea fade intocomparative insignificance. Undoubtedly the outstanding example of the efficacyof unitization is the Kettleman Hills project in California. Unitizing thisstructure, with its almost incredible reserve, is an important step forward inthe industry's concerted effort toward conservation.
Effect of Edge Water on the Recovery of Oil
Authors: Wright H.H.
Published: June 2014

In many fields edge water is one of the most important factors governing theproduction of oil. Possibly this fact is not appreciated by many producersexcept in so far as it may bring about a loss in production from wells drilledon the flanks of structures. In the light of artificial flooding as practicedin New York and Pennsylvania, and of the beneficial effect of naturalwater-flooding on many wells and leases in the Mid-Continent and elsewhere, itseems reasonable to suppose that very few phases of the petroleum industry holdgreater promise for future benefit than the study and control of the naturalwater drive.

Rate Of Water Encroachment

The rate of movement of water in artificially flooded areas has been referredto as so many feet per unit of time, usually from an injection well towardsurrounding producing wells. This definition is vague when used in reference tothe movement of natural edge water, inasmuch as such factors as sand thickness, steepness of dip and horizontal extent are not considered. In the ultimateanalysis, only the vertical component of movement affects the production of oilin the natural drive, and in order to define the rate of water encroachmentmore exactly, such a term as acre-feet per unit time might be used. Thus, whereone well is located to each 10 acres a vertical movement of 5 ft. in the waterlevel in a year would be defined as an encroachment of 50 acre-feet per year, and where one well is located to each 20 acres, as 100 acre-feet per year. Sucha definition as this is entirely arbitrary, but it takes into consideration toa certain extent the influence of well spacing, and consequent sand drainage, on the rate of water movement.

The rate of movement is considered to be an important function of waterencroachment, for it is believed that the efficiency of recovery by naturalwater flood depends a good deal upon the rate of movement. In general, rapidencroachment is thought to effect a poor recovery because of the differentialin favor of the movement of water through a sand body and the consequenttendency to trap oil in the sand.
Preliminary Report on an Investigation of the Bureau of Mines Regarding the Solubility of Natural Gas in Crude Oil
Authors: Lindsly Ben E.
Published: June 2014

Petroleum engineers generally are familiar with the investigations of Dowand Reistle, Beecher and Parkhurst, and Dow and Calkin, relative to thesolubility of natural gas in crude oil. Since the publication of the results ofthose investigations and the work of Mills and Heithecker little additionalknowledge on this interesting and important subject has appeared in thepetroleum engineering literature.

The reports of Beecher and Parkhurst and Dow and Calkin agree substantially.The data from both investigations showed that, under the conditions of thetests, the solubility of natural gas in crude oil increased in directproportion to the pressure at which the gas was put into solution, and thesolubility decreased to a considerable extent with increased temperature. Thesefacts, and others relating to the changes in viscosity, surface tension andspecific gravity of the crude caused by the solution of gas in the oil, havebeen given due consideration in the petroleum industry, and the recognition ofthese facts has resulted in a great improvement in the technique of producingoil.

However, in these first experiments, various grades and types of weatheredcrude oil were contacted at various pressures up to 500 lb. per sq. in. gagewith gases deficient to a considerable degree in the heavier hydrocarbons, ascompared with the gas that was originally in solution in the oil in its naturalunderground reservoir. The amount of dissolved gas that was liberated uponreducing the pressure to 1 atm. was measured. For these reasons, the completesignificance of the effect of dissolved gases in crude oil, as it occurs innature, cannot be determined directly from the data obtained under theconditions of the tests as described.
Practical Interpretation of Core Analysis
Authors: Panyity L.S.
Published: June 2014

The inception of this paper may be traced directly to the variousdiscussions of another paper by the writer wherein certain indefinite beliefsand opinions were emphasized as to the relative importance of total sandporosity and the actual size of the openings between the grains. Sincepublication of that paper it has been possible to study various methods of sandanalyses and results that have been obtained under different conditions andactual operations in the field.

The purpose of this paper is to indicate the value of screen analysis, especially in areas where repressuring by means of water-flood, air or gas isbeing used in the partly depleted fields. Sand samples have been analyzed forporosity, saturation and grain size. They are mainly from the Bradfordwater-flood area, where a great reliance has been put upon such analyses, andwhere many data are available. A few sand studies are included from fieldsother than the water-flood area, in order to indicate the possibilities ofscreen analysis in any field.

Examples of various conditions are given in Figs. 1 to 7, which show theporosity, saturation and grain-size analyses of submitted cores or drillcuttings. The generally accepted methods of delineating such sand studies oncross-section paper, known as "core charts" has been employed; with theexception that a method of representing grain size has been evolved which isbelieved to be the best adapted for this purpose. It differs from the blockdiagrams generally used, in the employment of a linear section. Percentage ofgrain-size is represented by the subdivision of a given distance, where thetotal length represents the whole sample of rock chunk, while the subdivisionsindicate the percentages of grains of the different sizes that will passthrough the various sieves, through which the samples of crushed sand aresorted to determine the size and amount of the components that make up theaggregate. Thus, on Fig. 1, under the heading of Grain Size, the first samplesare composed of grains of the following sizes: 16 per cent. through 120-meshsieve; 33 per cent. through 150-mesh; 25 per cent. through l50-mesh; 26 percent. through 200 mesh; a total of 100 per cent.
Permeability Studies of Pennsylvania Oil Sands
Authors: Fettke Charles R. , Copeland W.A.
Published: June 2014

The permeability of an oil or gas sand is its capacity for transmittingfluids, either liquids or gases, under pressure. The permeability of a sanddepends upon the size and shape of the openings in it and the extent to whichthese communicate with one another, as well as upon the ratio of their volumeto the total volume of the sand.

The apparatus employed and the method of procedure used by the authors inconducting the permeability tests have been described in a previouspublication. 1 For the tests described here 72-in. cubes were used. They wereset in the lower end of a 1-in. union, inserted in a square hole cut in a hardrubber stopper which fitted into the lower end of the union. In the tests withair, volumes were measured with a wet American gas meter of 100 cu. ft.capacity. In those with water, distilled water at room temperature wasemployed, unless otherwise noted.

Description Of Sands Tested

The tests described in this paper were performed upon 18 samples representingtypical oil and gas sands from 7 localities in northwestern Pennsylvania. Forpurposes of identification, the cores from which the samples came have beendesignated by capital letters, the sequence of the samples in the cores bynumerals, and the individual cubes by small letters. All cubes from the samesamples came from adjacent portions parallel to the bedding.

Core A of the Bradford sand came from the north central part of the Bradfordfield, from an area where water-flooding operations have proved highlysuccessful. Core B of the same sand was obtained from the southern part of thefield. This core contained a so-called "loose streak," 7.5 ft. thick, in the middle portion of which B2 is a representative sample. The "loosestreak" has given trouble in water-flooding but responded favorably to anair-drive, using a pressure of 300 lb. The natural production was increasedapproximately five times over a period of three years in which the air-drivewas in operation.
Microscopic Study of California Oil-field Emulsions and Some Notes on the Effects of Superimposed Electrical Fields
Authors: Fisher Harmon F.
Published: June 2014

In the course of a comprehensive investigation for the development of theelectrical process for the dehydration of oil-field emulsions, the writer hashad an unusual opportunity to direct and execute a number of related, parallelstudies concerning crude oil emulsions and extending over a period of nearlysix years. Among these was an investigation utilizing the microscope forstudying both the general characteristics of crude oil emulsions, the nature oftheir electrical charge and the action of an alternating current field incausing coalescence of the finely dispersed, more or less permanentlysuspended, emulsion particles into larger droplets of such mass that subsequentdehydration would follow by the ordinary process of settling, furtheragglomeration of the water droplets and, finally, separation into commerciallydry, pipe line oil and a clean water discharge.

It is not the purpose of this paper to enter into a detailed discussion of thehighly specialized subject of microscope technique, nor into a theoreticaldiscussion concerning the origin of the electrical charge on the emulsionparticle or concerning the mechanism of the electrical phenomena occurringduring the electrical treatment of oil-field emulsions. In a short paper ofthis character one can hope to touch on only a very limited discussion of thetheoretical aspects of crude oil emulsions. The subject of emulsions andcolloids is comprised in a comparatively young science in which, however, veryrapid progress is being made and consequently it is undergoing many changes; atentative conclusion valid today may be overthrown tomorrow. Nor would it be asimple science even if it were no longer undergoing this rapid progress; athorough study of emulsions is based upon a knowledge of such fundamentalsubjects as molecular structure, ionization and other electrical phenomena, surface chemistry, surface and interfacial tension phenomena, viscosity andother factors too numerous to discuss here and the fundamental theories ofwhich are still undergoing more or less change.
What is the Policy of the Mineral Industry?
Authors: Leith C.K.
Published: June 2014

I apologize for attempting to talk in a field in which I am by no means aspecialist, but some of the problems brought up have much in common with otherminerals. It touches the field in which we are all interested and it is a fieldin which our Mineral Inquiry has been giving special attention during the lasttwo years. While it is the primary business, of course, of this Institute toconsider the physical facts and technology of minerals, we now face thenecessity of considering the mineral industry in its broader economic, social, and political relationships. We have run into a traffic jam-as though a load ofhay had been spilled on the road. It makes no difference whether we are driversor passengers, technical or nontechnical men, we have to get the load off theroad before we can go farther. We are conscious of very many difficulties whichare outside of the ordinary range of cost accounting or methods of mining orthe usual thing with which we concern ourselves. We have extensivereadjustments to make in our social and economic and political contacts. It isup to us to find out what is the matter.

As a matter of fact, we do not know what is the matter in any comprehensiveway. We have many suggestions as to difficulties here and there. Many peopleare working on the problem, but when the mineral industry as a whole is askedwhat is a reasonable course of procedure, what is its program, what would be areasonable state or national policy, I think you will agree with me that wehave no spokesman able to outline even a semblance of such a generalpolicy.

We sit back and criticize when somebody else steps in, as Governor Murraystepped in, and as many others of our state governors and legislators arestepping in, to do things which we do not think are reasonable. When they say, "What is a reasonable program?" we find ourselves caught napping. Wehave not agreed on a program. The other day in talking with one of the leadersof the western radical movement, I was twitting him on having no sound andcomprehensive conservation program.
Economics of Proration
Authors: Pogue Joseph E.
Published: June 2014

Proration in the petroleum industry has come to mean a method for curtailingthe production of crude petroleum by artificial effort, and it is in this sensethat the term is employed throughout this paper. Although a contrived curb onsupply has been invoked at various times in the past in particular fields andto meet specific situation's, it is not until the past few years that thisprocedure has become general and assumed a dominant role in the oil business.In the sense that we now understand it, proration had its inception in theSeminole area of Oklahoma in 1927, from which time and place the practicespread to include practically all the flush oil fields of the country, especially those of California, Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas.

At present there is perhaps no phase of the oil business that commands moreattention than proration, nor one that engages more time and effort on the partof executives in the business. The practice of proration, indeed, has not onlybecome an integral part of the policy of most companies and operators, but ithas also taken on the aspects of a "movement" involving two schools ofthought with considerable feeling, and at times some bitterness, on both sides.In this atmosphere it is difficult to find calm, dispassionate consideration ofproration, for most discussions are either vigorous exhortations by itsproponents, or else sharp condemnations by its opponents; although it appearsthat the majority of the industry is clearly "in favor of" proration.It is hoped that this analysis will be taken as an attempt to appraise themovement as an economic force, without bias and without regard to the incidenceof the conclusions upon any preconceptions that the industry mayentertain.

Evolution Of Proration

To appreciate the causes that brought proration into being, it is necessary toview briefly the development of the petroleum industry over the past twentyyears, approximately the span of the gasoline era.
Proration in Texas in 1931
Authors: Donoghue David
Published: June 2014

Efforts made in the year 1930 and in previous years restricted productionmost of the fields of Texas to a point that was satisfactory, at the beginningof 1931, to the majority of producers and buyers. In the Panhandle, North Texasand West Central Texas districts, a few operators with refinery affiliations orcontracts either ignored, or by virtue of injunction suits, did not comply withthe Railroad Commission's orders, and there was some oil sold at less thanposted prices, which with the Oklahoma City difficulties, caused the firstgeneral price reduction. More could have been done perhaps to help thesituation on the Gulf Coast and in Laredo district, but natural advantages arenot readily surrendered.

East Texas

Proration troubles in 1930 were insignificant when compared with those of 1931. In January, 1931, efforts were begun to convince the producers and citizens ofEast TExas of the necessity of curtailment. Opposition quickly developed andmeetings were held in the downs of the region and proration denouncedvigorously. Notwithstanding a strenuous campaign for additional legislationwaged by many producers, the regular session of the State Legislature refusedto strengthen the conservation laws and passed out the Marginal Well Bill, designed to prevent the Commission from prorating small wells.

The Railroad Commission held a heated hearing on EastTexas in the latter part of March. During April the Commission issued threeorders based on the Yates plan for the proration of the East Texas field. Eachsucceeding order raised the allowable for the field. In June opposition heldmore mass meetings at which a plan based on acreage was endorsed. Apparently onthe theory that any plan was better than none, the Commission issued an orderon July 2 embodying some of the features of the proposed plan, limitingproduction to 250,000 bbl. per day, and dividing the producing area into20-acre units participating equally in the outlet. Owing to the bringing in ofmany wells and the many violators of the Commission's orders, productionincreased to such an extent that prices went as low as 5 cents per barrel.
Production Engineering in 1931
Authors: Griswold E.H.
Published: June 2014

The efforts of petroleum production engineers during the past year havelargely concentrated upon ways and means of reducing operating investments andexpenses in order that the industry may survive a period of low crude oilprices. Major progress was made in outlining and solving the technical problemspertinent to unit operation in order that executives and legal staffs mayactually arrange operating contracts to effect unit operation. Consequentsavings in development and operating costs, accompanied by increased recovery, will thus be obtained.

Well spacing has received considerable constructive thought and study, fromwhich practical results are assured in the near future.

The control of edge and bottom waters has advanced in technique through theengineering work done in Yates) Hobbs and East Texas, and there is evidence ofgreater cooperative efforts between engineers to increase recovery from poolsby mutual gas conservation. The use of pressure control by surface andbottom-hole chokes has become general practice to reduce gas-oil ratios.

The study of bottom-hole pressures has led to new conceptions of properutilization of reservoir energy and maintenance of pressure by natural means. Pressure gradients of flowing wells have been measured in practice and stridesmade to develop workable formulas for the flow of oil and gas mixtures throughvertical pipes. The information thus obtained will permit the intelligentdesign of flow tubing combinations.

Gas-lift and repressuring advancements have been few, due to overproductionfrom naturally flowing wells. Satisfactory unloading valves for gas-lift wellshave been developed and consistent progress made in gas-lift displacementpumps.

The necessity for producing wells at high rates of flow while producing largequantities of sand has resulted in radical changes in Christmas tree andseparator designs for the Oklahoma City pool.

The opening of wells to obtain potential production for proration purposes hasbeen eliminated in the Yates and Hobbs pools by the application of engineeringprinciples.
The East Texas Oil Field
Authors: Lahee Frederic H.
Published: June 2014

After abandoning two dry holes, on the Mrs. Daisy Bradford land, C. M. Joiner finally completed his No.3 on Sept. 8, 1930, at a total depth of3592 ft. This well is 7 ? miles somewhat north of west of the town ofHenderson, in Rusk County. Between Oct. 2 and Oct. 6, this well made numerousheads which indicated that it would produce about 300 bbl. daily. By Nov. 27, two dry holes, completed near the Joiner well, taken in conjunction with thesmall production from this well, served to dampen any enthusiasm among thosewho hoped for a major pool; but by December 18 three other producers had beencompleted.

On Dec. 28, 1930, E. W. Bateman's Lois Della Crim No.1 drilled itself in withan estimated daily yield of between 10,000 and 15,000 bbl. from a depth of 3650ft. This well, 10 miles north of the Joiner well, also in Rusk County, initiated the leasing campaign that led to the later orgy of drilling. On Jan.25, 1931, Moncrief, Farrell and others completed their J. K. Lathrop 1 asanother big producer, 7 miles east of Gladewater in Gregg County and 14 milesN. 200 E. from the Bateman Crim well. The Lathrop well, 3574 ft. deep, flowed320 bbl. in 1 hr. through a 1/2-in. choke. The first well completed in SmithCounty was Cook No.1, drilled by Guy Lewis et al. in the Jaffies Jordan Survey,4.7 miles west of the Joiner discovery well. On Mar. 30, 1931, it flowed 137bbl. in 33 min, through a 3/4-in. choke. The top of the pay sand was found at3672 ft. Finally, in Upshur County, on May 5, the Mudge Oil Co. et al. completed the Richardson No.1, which flowed 274 bbl. through a 42/64 -in. chokein 2 hr. This well is 4 miles northwest of the Lathrop producer.

Development

It is unnecessary to give a lengthy description of the rapid development of thearea discovered in these five far-separated wells, or to discuss thespeculations offered as to whether there were several pools or only one.
Control of Gas-oil Ratios in the Yates Field, Pecos County, Texas
Authors: Albertson M. , Schaeffer W.A.
Published: June 2014

Its productive area is about 15,000 acres. Production is chiefly fromlimestone of Permian age. Depths of wells vary from 1100 to 1800 ft. Initialproductions range from a few barrels to 8000 bbl. per hour. The field outlethas always been prorated. Gas-oil ratios originally varied from less than 100cu. ft. up to 8000 cu. ft. per barrel at allowable production rates. Theaverage ratio was about 500 cu. ft. Fig. 1 shows the structure of the field andthe location of the Tippett lease, on which the original experimental tubingwork was done.

Before the latter part of the year 1929, little actual effort in practice hadbeen given to determination of the conditions under which the highestefficiencies may be realized in naturally flowing wells. For the preceding fewyears attention had been given to gas-oil ratios and their possible reductionby maintenance of back-pressure by choking at the well head. Some attempts hadbeen made toward reduction of ratio by bottom-hole choking.

In late 1929, the Shell Petroleum Corp. started the experimental installationof specially designed flow columns adapted to high-pressure flowing conditionsin the Yates field. The objectives in view were the attainment of low gas-oilratios at low rates of flow and the maintenance of high bottom-hole pressures.All naturally flowing wells should be provided with a suitable eductor stringimmediately upon completion of the well, so that the benefits of efficient flowwill be derived from the beginning. This paper presents a method of tubing forefficient flow and a discussion of some complex factors which influence wellbehavior.

Factors Influencing Gas-oil Ratios

Many factors influence the production of gas from naturally flowing wells. Thewriters believe that in some instances gas control is effected mainly in thereservoir itself, in others in the well bore, and in still others both sets offactors may be significant.
Experimental Study of Pressure Conditions within the Oil Reservoir Rock in the Vicinity of a High-pressure Producing Well
Authors: Uren L.C. , Bradshaw E.J.
Published: June 2014

This paper presents the results of a group effort by a number of Universityof California students and faculty members, and the authors attach their namesprimarily in the capacity of editors and interpreters of the data thusassembled. In addition to the writers, the following individuals have madesubstantial contributions in time and effort in the conduct of this research:Dr. A. J. Carlson, Associate Professor of Petroleum Engineering;J. E. Gosline, University Research Assistant;C. F. Bedford, G. W. Mikulasek and H. S. Conder, senior and graduate petroleum engineering students;H. Bachman, G. Spencer and G. W. Gard, mechanicians in the Department of Mining and Metallurgy.

Acknowledgment is also due the Research Board of the University, the Departmentof Mining and Metallurgy, and Prof. F. H. Probert, Dean of the College of Mining, for continued cooperation in securing mechanical assistance and fundsfor the purchase and assembly of apparatus.

Significance Of The Pressure Gradient

The expulsion of petroleum from its reservoir sand doubtless is due toexpanding natural gas intimately associated with the oil, to the hydrostaticpressure of encroaching edge waters, and to gravitational influences. Theseforces may operate independently or collectively. In any case they subject thefluids stored within the reservoir sands to elevated pressures, thus causingmovement of oil and gas through the productive formations toward the lowerpressure of the well outlets. This movement is opposed by pore friction, capillarity and adhesion: resisting influences brought to bear by the reservoirsand on the moving fluids. The magnitude of the resisting force is influenceddirectly by the viscosity, surface tension and density of the oil, as well asby the properties of the gas. The more rapid the rate of flow, the greater willbe the resistance offered, and the greater will be the energy consumed.
Some Experiments on the Behavior of Natural Gas III an Oil-sand Reservoir
Authors: Gardescu Ionel I.
Published: June 2014

In connection with some of the experiments carried out by the writer on the behavior of gas and oil in a sand reservoir, an interesting phenomenon wasobserved which may throw some new light on the problem of recovery of oil froma natural reservoir. The experiments are intended to show the effect of the surface area of the occluded gas masses, originally present in a reservoir, on the further evolution of gas from the oil and its consequent effect upon therate of production of oil.

The apparatus used in the experimental work is shown in Fig. 1.

It consists primarily of a sand reservoir R and a displacement chamber D, whichis used to induce small variations in volume. The reservoir and displacementchamber form a unit, and a lowering of the plunger D is equivalent toincreasing the volume occupied by the oil and gas in the reservoir.

The reservoir was first filled with dead oil and maintained under pressureuntil it was ascertained that most of the free gas had gone into solution. Thevolume of free gas present in the reservoir was computed from the coefficient of compressibility of the fluids by means of the displacement chamber D, reading to 0.005 c.c. and a special gage J reading to 0.02 lb. per sq. in. The oil was saturated with gas under pressure in reservoir S by circulating the oilfor a long period of time through the gear pump B. Subsequently, the saturated oil was circulated through the sand reservoir following the circuit S6, B, S5, R4, the sand reservoir R, R1, R2, F4, F1, back to reservoir S.

In the following experiments the sand reservoir R was filled with gas-saturatedoil at a pressure of 415 lb. per sq. in. with no free gas present. This wasascertained by closing off all the outlet valves and determining thecoefficient of compressibility of the system by means of the displacementchamber D.

Much difficulty was encountered in eliminating all of the free gas masses fromthe oil reservoir.
Reservoir Energy: Its Source, Ownership and Utilization in the Production of Petroleum
Authors: Umpleby Joseph B.
Published: June 2014

Introduction By Doctor Umpleby

The oil industry is at the parting of the ways in relating fundamentalengineering concepts to legal interpretations and field practices. The oldconcept, based on an erroneous analogy to wild game, that oil and gas aremigratory substances and belong to him who reduces them to possessionregardless of their point of origin in the reservoir, has come to be quitegenerally recognized as the basis of many of the serious ills and extravagancesof the industry. The chain of consequences resulting from this' erroneousconception has been traced elsewhere and need not be recounted here. Theimportant problem at this stage in the development of the industry, when lawsare being revised by legislative action and modified by court decisions; whenadded powers are being exercised by voluntary committees and officialregulatory bodies; and when the need for control of output has forced itself tothe forefront, is to see to it that new law and action are based on soundengineering concepts.

Reservoir Energy Common Property

Since the study of gas instituted by the Marland committee of the AmericanPetroleum Institute in 1927, a great mass of information has accumulatedconcerning the function of gas in the development and production of oil. Thiswealth of data leads to the conclusion that every oil pool contains threeresources: Oil, gas and reservoir energy. I take it that the central problem ofthis symposium is the ownership of these three resources and that"source" and "utilization" are involved because of theirbearing on ownership through the demands of equity and conservation. In orderto facilitate the discussion, permit me to state categorically, that: The oiland gas in a particular tract should belong to the owners of the mineral rightsin that particular tract, but the reservoir energy should be common property ofall owners of mineral rights in the pool.
Selection and Use of Screened Pipe
Authors: Wilson Clifford S.
Published: June 2014

Screened pipe is designed with the view of restraining the fine, freerunning sands of the production zone from entering oil wells. Its successfuluse is dependent on a number of factors. The nature and effects of some ofthese factors can be determined through experiment and observation, but some ofthe elements that have a distinct bearing on the use of screened pip can beevaluated only by estimate.

The important subsurface conditions which affect theuse of screened pipe are:Depth of production zone.Extent of production zone.Reservoir pressure.character and relative quantity of oil andgas.Character of sediments:Consolidation of beds.Variations in beds.Grain-size gradation of sands.Free-running characteristics of sand from different levels.

Aside from the use of mechanical equipment and tools, the measures to be takenin the installation of screened pipe involve:Size of liner.Length of liner.Design and mesh of screen.Portion of liner to be screened.Manner of setting liner.Preparation of or washing the well before or duringthe setting of the screen.Manner of bringing in the well.Manner of flowing well.

Values applicable to the actual subsurface conditions that exist at any wellcan only be approximated.
Reservoir and Bottom-hole Producing Pressures as a Basis for Proration
Authors: Millikan C.V.
Published: June 2014

Allocation of allowed production in a prorated field by the use ofbottom-hole pressures is a method which is sound in theory. Thus far it has hadlimited application because the experience in correlating bottom-hole pressureswith the depletion of wells or fields is not sufficient to interpret all thepressure changes. With additional data and more general knowledge ofbottom-hole pressures their use in proration will probably become common.

Bottom-hole pressure is the pressure at or near the bottom of a well.

It is usually determined at the face of the producing horizon. Bottomholepressure measured while the well is producing, may be called the bottom-holeproducing pressure or bottom-hole flowing pressure. If the well has been shutin or shut down long enough for the pressure in the producing horizon withinthe drainage area of the well to equalize, it may be called the reservoirpressure.

The allowable production from a prorated field may be allocated to theindividual wells or leases by three methods:Bottom-hole producing or flowing pressures. (a) The potential capacity of awell to produce. (b) A uniform differential pressure while producing at theallowed rate.Reservoir pressures.A combination of bottom-hole producing pressures and reservoirpressures.

In most prorated fields the allowed production is allocated to the individualwells or leases in proportion to their individual potentials. This method isbased on the theory that there is a direct relationship between thepermeability and the porosity of the reservoir. More directly stated it meansthat there is a direct relationship between the amount of oil in the reservoirand the rate at which it will move through the reservoir. While in general thisrelationship is true, it may vary considerably in different wells. Furthermore, in many wells the capacity of the reservoir to deliver oil to the well isgreater than the capacity of the flow string to deliver oil to the surface. Itis especially true where the potential is determined by flowing through tubingor by pumping.
Calculation of Pressure Drops in Flowing Wells
Authors: Moore T.V. , Schilthuis R.J.
Published: June 2014

In a previous paper, the results of some experimental work on themeasurement of slippage in the flow of oil and gas mixtures through verticalpipes were presented. The data obtained were correlated and equations werededuced from which the performance of the experimental gas-lift could bepredicted with reasonable accuracy. However, attempts to apply the equations tothe calculation of pressure drops in actual flowing wells yielded erroneousresults. At the time the results of the experimental work were published, nosatisfactory explanation could be offered for the failure of the empiricalequations to express properly the performance of wells. However, recent workhas led to the development of a new hypothesis which presupposes certainconditions affecting the flow of oil and gas in wells. When the proposedequations are corrected to allow for these conditions, an agreement between theobserved and calculated performance of the actual wells is obtained which inmost cases is quite satisfactory, although it is subject to certainlimitations. In this paper, the method of calculating the pressure drop inactual wells is considered, and the application of the method to the design oftubing is discussed. (For nomenclature used in this discussion, see Table1.)

Factors Affecting Slippage And Efficiency

At the outset, a few of the principle factors affecting slippage and efficiencyin the gas-lift discussed in the previous paper will be reviewed. In the flowof the mixture of oil and gas in a vertical pipe, slippage is the phenomenon ofgas moving upward with a linear velocity greater than that of the oil. Understeady conditions, if given quantities of oil and gas enter the tubing per unitof time, the same quantities of oil and gas per unit time must, on the average, pass every section of the tubing; otherwise, there would be accumulation ordepletion of the oil or gas at some sections, and the flow would beunsteady.
Some Studies on the Porosity and Permeability of Rocks
Authors: Tickell Frederick G. , Mechem O.E. , McCurdy R.C.
Published: June 2014

The behavior of fluids in the voids of a rock is fundamental to the study ofmany of the problems of oil-field development and production. For it is byvirtue of these openings between grains that oil and. gas are able to movethrough the rock, to be contained by the rock, and to pass from the rock intothe well.

The capacity to contain fluids is measured by the porosity of the rock, and theease of fluid movement is governed by the permeability. When the engineerwishes to estimate the amounts of oil and gas in an underground reservoir he isoften concerned with the porosities of the rocks and, when dealing withproblems relating to rate of production, he is more likely to be interested inthe permeabilities of the rocks.

Rocks are permeable because they are porous, but they may be porous withoutbeing permeable. Clays are very porous, and yet they are impermeable from apractical standpoint.

Attempts have been made to correlate permeability with porosity for certainrock members but, where a definite relationship between these two properties isfound to hold, it is purely fortuitous and local. Porosity and permeability donot necessarily bear any quantitative relationship to one another.

The porosity of a substance is the percentage of void volume to bulk volume.The petroleum engineer is usually interested only in the intergranular voidsthat are accessible to fluids. In measuring porosity he does not wish toinclude sealed openings. The measurement he desires is one of "availableporosity," otherwise called" apparent porosity."

The porosity of a natural aggregate of solid grains, such as a sandstone orclay, is governed by:Grain-size distribution,angularity of grain,colloidal content,degree of compaction.

It is not difficult, forunconsolidated rocks, to measure the effect of anyone of these when it alone isvaried, and then to predict what the effects on porosity will be for suchsingle variables.
Petroleum Stabilization in 1933
Authors: Oliver Earl
Published: June 2014

The major development in stabilization of the oil industry during 1933 wasthe transition in the United States from state control to federal control inmany of the functions that government is presumed to exercise. A brief reviewof the influences leading to that transition is given here to suggest itssignificance and to assist in forecasting its further development.

Bitumens were known to the ancients and have been applied to minor uses sinceearliest historic times, but it was not until after the discovery of oil inconsiderable quantities near Titusville, Pennsylvania, in 1859 that it was madethe basis of extensive commercial undertakings.

In 1859 little was known about the origin of oil and gas, the nature of thesedeposits, and the physical laws that controlled their accumulation. Scientistssoon began to study them, but 50 years or more of active oil-field developmenthad elapsed before sufficient geological information had been accumulated topoint the way toward efficient recovery of these products. In fact, only withinthe past five years has the function of reservoir energy become widelyunderstood, yet it is a primary factor in oil recovery.

In the meantime, during the 75 years that have elapsed since the discovery nearTitusville, this infant industry has developed into an industrial giant. Incomplete ignorance of their destructive effect, wasteful development methodswere initiated in Oil Creek and these became industrial habits. These habits inturn became oil and gas law. Under that law vast sums of money have beenexpended, rights have become vested and development methods fastened on a greatindustry that not only bring upon it periodic demoralization but cause ruthlessdestruction of the nation's reserves of these important natural resources. Thisis occurring in the midst of a petroleum era when oil is essential to thenation's security, its industrial supremacy, and the personal convenience ofevery citizen. Its conservation, therefore, has become a question of gravenational concern.
A New Contribution to Subsurface Studies by Means of Electrical Measurements in Drill Holes
Authors: Schlumberger C. , Schlumberger M. , Leonardon E.G.
Published: June 2014

Last year the authors presented a paper that discussed the various electrical measurements they perform in drill holes, which they name "electrical coring."1 The object of the present paper is to give a brief account of the points of scientific interest that have been elucidated by further field work and laboratory research, as well as the economic results that have been attained recently.

The practical examples given in this paper are drawn, for the most part, from the field work performed in Russian oil fields during the years 1931 and 1932. This is due to the fact that, thanks to the comprehensive cooperation of the Russian geologists and scientists, the authors are allowed to make public a large amount of recant information. In other countries in which the authors are engaged in similar work, the competition between private companies makes it imperative, for a considerable lapse of time, to avoid publication of the results obtained.

The following points will be discussed successively, under separate headings:Electrochemical phenomena in drill holes.Stratigraphic correlations and tectonic studies.Relations between the productivity of oil horizons and their electrical resistivity.Location of coal seams.Summary and conclusions.

1 The term "electrical coring" is probably not the best expression that might have been chosen. "Electrical logging," for instance, would be more appropriate. However, "electrical coring" is now more or less in common use in technical literature. therefore the expression is retained.