bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Obligation to Negotiate Access to the Pacific Ocean (Bolivia v. Chile): Preliminary Objection (I.C.J.)
Authors: Ku Julian G.
Published: April 2016

On September 24, 2015, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) released its judgment on the preliminary objection filed by Chile in Obligation to Negotiate Access to the Pacific Ocean.1 Chile had objected to the ICJ’s jurisdiction arguing that Bolivia’s application raises a dispute that had already been settled by the 1904 Peace Treaty Between Bolivia and Chile. The ICJ, however, rejected this jurisdictional objection and agreed to consider the merits of Bolivia’s claim that Chile has an obligation to negotiate in good faith the issue of Bolivia’s sovereign access to the Pacific Ocean.
Using Student Success Skills to Address ASCA Behavior Standards in Grades K-3
Authors: Abel Nicholas R. , Oliver Brandie M. , Keller Thomas J. , Mcaulay Andrew , Piatek Lisa
Published: April 2016

This study evaluated relationships between a school counselor's implementation of the Student Success Skills (SSS) program with 203 students in grades K-3 and teacher ratings of student competency on five learning behaviors from the ASCA Mindsets & Behaviors for Student Success (American School Counselor Association, 2014). Using a paired samples t test, the authors discovered significant increases in all five behavior variables. The most substantial results were related to Coping Skills, Listening Skills, and Positive/Supportive Relationships.
Flint—Guess What? It's International News
Authors: LaFrance David B.
Published: April 2016

For water professionals, lead in water is – of course – a significant concern. But now after Flint, it is evidently also an international worry. Water customers have a heightened awareness of water issues and will naturally look to their water utility for trusted leadership, simple explanations, and timely help in determining their risks. It is important that utilities use robust communications strategies and multiple customer service approaches to ensure that customers understand the issues associated with lead in the water, what the utility is doing to protect them today and in the future, and what they can do themselves.
Following A Glittering Trail: Geo-Chemical and Petrographic Characterization of Micaceous Sherds Recovered from Dismal River Sites
Authors: Trabert Sarah , Eiselt Sunday , Hill David V. , Ferguson Jeffrey , Beck Margaret
Published: April 2016

Protohistoric Ancestral Apache Dismal River groups (A.D. 1600–1750) participated in large exchange networks linking them to other peoples on the Plains and U.S. Southwest. Ceramic vessels made from micaceous materials appear at many Dismal River sites, and micaceous pottery recovered from the Central High Plains is typically seen as evidence for interaction with northern Rio Grande pueblos. However, few mineral or chemical characterization analyses have been conducted on these ceramics, and the term “micaceous” has been applied to a broad range of vessel types regardless of the form, size, or amount of mica in their pastes. Our recent analyses, including macroscopic evaluation combined with petrography and neutron activation analyses (NAA), indicate that only a small subset of Dismal River sherds are derived from New Mexico clays. The rest were likely manufactured using materials from Colorado and Wyoming. Seasonal mobility patterns may have given Dismal River potters the opportunity to collect mica raw materials as they traveled between the Central Plains and Front Range, and this has implications for the importance of internal Plains social networks during the Protohistoric and Historic periods.
Apport démographique de l’immigration étrangère en France depuis 1960
Authors: Tribalat Michèle
Published: April 2016

Les discours sur les besoins d’immigration des pays occidentaux pour corriger les effets du vieillissement ne se sont pas toujours embarrassés de quantifier l’efficacité de ce remède. Si des simulations prospectives ont été réalisées, on a moins souvent tenté de mesurer rétrospectivement quelle avait été l’ampleur de l’apport démographique de l’immigration étrangère et ses effets sur la natalité et la structure par âge de la population d’un pays. Cet article réitère en 2011 une estimation de l’apport démographique de l’immigration étrangère en France, après celle réalisée en 1999, pour donner une idée de l’impact démographique des flux d’immigration étrangère qui se sont produits depuis 1960, par vague décennale d’immigration. Cet apport, tout en étant très important — 9,7 millions, soit l’équivalent de la croissance démographique de la France sur un peu plus de trente ans — n’a que très modérément rajeuni la pyramide des âges, sans avoir vraiment d’impact sur le rapport de soutien réel en raison des taux d’emploi encore trop faibles en France et encore plus faibles dans la population apportée par l’immigration. L’impact sur la démographie française a été avant tout quantitatif : il a fait s’accroître la population.
Réflexions sur l’évolution du discours démolinguistique de Jacques Henripin
Authors: Termote Marc
Published: April 2016

Cet article traite de la contribution de Jacques Henripin à l’étude des groupes linguistiques au Québec et au Canada. Les travaux de ce dernier en matière démolinguistique peuvent être répartis en trois périodes. Après avoir manifesté, au cours des années 1960 et 1970, sa préoccupation quant à la pérennité du groupe francophone au Québec, il a par la suite soutenu que l’avenir de ce groupe était assuré à long terme. Ses derniers écrits témoignent cependant d’un retour à une vision plutôt « pessimiste » de l’évolution future du poids démographique des francophones au Québec.
Inégalités des ménages face à la réception de transferts informels. Quelques leçons issues de Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso)
Authors: Moussa Soufianou , Kobiané Jean-François
Published: April 2016

En Afrique de l’Ouest, la crise macroéconomique persistante empêche tout développement d’une protection sociale institutionnelle volontariste. Les plus vulnérables ne peuvent compter, en termes de soutien, que sur les transferts qu’ils reçoivent de leur entourage familial. C’est dans ce contexte que nous traitons de l’architecture des aides reçues par les ménages dans cinq quartiers suivis par l’Observatoire de la Population de Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). Nous analysons d’une part les différences de profils entre les ménages aidés et ceux qui ne le sont pas et d’autre part les caractéristiques des appuis reçus en fonction du degré d’urbanisation des quartiers, grâce à des analyses en composantes multiples. Nos résultats montrent que si une faible part des ménages reçoit une assistance informelle, les ménages des quartiers formels en sont les plus dépendants. Le sexe du chef de ménage apparaît comme plus déterminant pour la réception d’une aide informelle que son âge, et les ménages dirigés par une femme, malgré leur forte diversité sociale, sont les plus assistés. D’autres facteurs jouent un rôle très important, comme l’état matrimonial du chef de ménage. En revanche, les ménages les plus pauvres ne constituent pas les plus aidés. De même, le niveau de vie de la famille d’origine du chef de ménage ne joue que très faiblement sur la probabilité pour un ménage de recevoir une aide, ce qui sous-entend une architecture des transferts informels basée davantage sur la proximité géographique que familiale. Enfin, dans l’ensemble, nous avons observé que l’assistance informelle est plus aléatoire dans les quartiers urbanisés alors que, dans les quartiers informels, l’assistance en espèces est jugée comme la moins utile par les bénéficiaires.
Vivre et travailler plus longtemps au Canada : la réalité des baby-boomers
Authors: Carrière Yves , Légaré Jacques , Purenne Jonathan
Published: April 2016

Le financement des régimes publics de retraite est au coeur des préoccupations reliées au vieillissement démographique. Confrontés à cette problématique, plusieurs pays ont d’ailleurs relevé l’âge ouvrant droit à une pleine rente de retraite. Toutefois, on note un report relativement important de l’âge effectif de la retraite au Canada depuis le milieu des années 1990, sans modifications importantes apportées au système public de retraite. Cette tendance aura comme effet, entre autres, de pallier une épargne-retraite insuffisante chez plusieurs travailleurs ; problématique qu’avait déjà soulevée Jacques Henripin. Cette étude présente d’abord certaines tendances qui pourraient faire en sorte que ce report se poursuive chez les cohortes du baby-boom. La deuxième partie montre qu’une projection de la durée de vie en emploi à 50 ans, avec l’hypothèse de taux de retraite volontaire constants à leur niveau observé en 2011, conduit à une augmentation plus rapide de la durée anticipée de vie en emploi à 50 ans que celle prévue pour l’espérance de vie au même âge. L’effet de la retraite involontaire pourrait toutefois nuancer cette tendance, surtout chez les femmes. La discussion soulève, dans un tel contexte, certains enjeux importants reliés à la nécessité ou non de relever l’âge ouvrant droit à une pleine rente de retraite, qui est fixé à 65 depuis la fin des années 1960.
Shipboard Ballast Water Treatment Systems on Seagoing Ships
Authors: Vorkapić Aleksandar , Komar Ivan , Jelić-Mrčelić Gorana
Published: April 2016

This review paper summarizes the legislative framework and the available technologies for ballast water treatment with regard to the approval process and relevant issues. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) sets the limits of organism concentration in ballast water allowed to be discharged into the sea. The 2004 International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships Ballast Water and Sediments is the first international document that introduced obligatory ballast water management and control. Even though ballast water treatment systems are not 100 % effective, they significantly reduce the risk of spreading of invasive species through ballast water exchange. An increased manufacturer interest in the system’s approval or development of new technologies is not expected in future because the procedure is time-consuming and expensive. The final choice of optimal ballast water treatment system depends on the ship owner or operator taking into account the price, type of the ship, whether it is a newbuilding or an existing ship, ballast system capacity and the seas where ships ply as well as harbours at which they call.
Enhancement of performance of AlGaN/GaN high-electron-mobility transistors by transfer from sapphire to a copper plate
Authors: Hiroki Masanobu , Kumakura Kazuhide , Yamamoto Hideki
Published: April 2016

We transferred AlGaN/GaN high-electron-mobility transistors (HEMTs) from a sapphire substrate to a copper plate using the hexagonal boron nitride epitaxial lift-off technique. After transfer, the negative slope in the drain current I
d decreased owing to the suppression of the self-heating effect. The significant increase in I
d and the negative shift of threshold voltage indicate an increase in two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) density. The increase in 2DEG density is at least partially caused by the reduction in compressive stress in the GaN layer after the transfer, which is revealed from the E
2 peak shifts of −1.3 cm−1 in Raman spectroscopy measurements. We also estimated the temperature in the active region of HEMTs by micro-Raman spectroscopy. For the transferred HEMT, the temperature at the gate edge on the drain side was 100 °C at a power dissipation of 0.9 W. In contrast, the temperature reached 240 °C at a power dissipation of only 0.7 W for the HEMT on the sapphire substrate. This indicates that the transfer technique can enhance the performance of AlGaN/GaN HEMTs.
Thermal summation model and instar determination of all developmental stages of necrophagous beetle,Sciodrepoides watsoni(Spence) (Coleoptera: Leiodidae: Cholevinae)
Authors: Jakubec Pavel
Published: April 2016

Necrophagous beetles are underrepresented in forensic entomology studies despite their undeniable utility for the field. In the present article, information is presented regarding the developmental biology and instar determination ofSciodrepoides watsoni(Spence, 1813), a very common species occurring across the Holarctic region. Wild collected beetles were kept in climate chambers at constant temperature (12, 15, 18, 21 and 28 °C) and their development was regularly documented. Parameters of thermal summation models and standard errors were calculated for each developmental stage. These models may be used for an estimation of post-mortem interval in legal investigations after further validation on local populations ofS. watsoni. An additional methodology is introduced for future studies of size-based characteristics, addressing instar identification bias. The methodology provided estimations (mean, standard error and standard deviation) ofS. watsonilarval head capsule width for preliminary larval instar determination. The methodology may be used with other morphological features to improve instar determination accuracy.
Growth and physiological responses of submerged plantVallisneria natansto water column ammonia nitrogen and sediment copper
Authors: Zhu Zhengjie , Song Siyuan , Li Pengshan , Jeelani Nasreen , Wang Penghe , Yuan Hezhong , Zhang Jinghan , An Shuqing , Leng Xin
Published: April 2016

Background.The decline of submerged plant populations due to high heavy metal (e.g., Cu) levels in sediments and ammonia nitrogen (ammonia-N) accumulation in the freshwater column has become a significant global problem. Previous studies have evaluated the effect of ammonia-N on submerged macrophytes, but few have focused on the influence of sediment Cu on submerged macrophytes and their combined effects.

Methods.In this paper, we selected three levels of ammonia-N (0, 3, and 6 mg L−1) and sediment Cu (25.75 ± 6.02 as the control, 125.75 ± 6.02, and 225.75 ± 6.02 mg kg−1), to investigate the influence of sediment Cu and ammonia-N on submergedVallisneria natans. We measured the relative growth rate (RGR), above- and below- ground biomass, chlorophyll, non-protein thiol (NP-SH), and free proline.

Results and Discussion.The below-ground biomass ofV. natansdecreased with increasing Cu sediment levels, suggesting that excessive sediment Cu can result in significant damage to the root ofV. natans. Similarly, the above-ground biomass significantly decreased with increasing ammonia-N concentrations, indicating that excessive water ammonia-N can cause significant toxicity to the leaf ofV. natans. In addition, high ammonia-N levels place a greater stress on submerged plants than sediment Cu, which is indicated by the decline of RGR and chlorophyll, and the increase of (NP-SH) and free proline. Furthermore, high sediment Cu causes ammonia-N to impose greater injury on submerged plants, and higher sediment Cu levels ($\mathrm{Cu}\geq 125.75$ mg kg−1) led to the tolerant values of ammonia-N forV. natansdecreasing from 6 to 3 mg L−1. This study suggests that high sediment Cu restricts the growth of plants and intensifies ammonia-N damage toV. natans.
Winter diet and food selection of the Black-necked CraneGrus nigricollisin Dashanbao, Yunnan, China
Authors: Dong Hao Yan , Lu Guang Yi , Zhong Xing Yao , Yang Xiao Jun
Published: April 2016

The Black-necked CraneGrus nigricollisis a globally vulnerable species whose food is the factor determining its long-term survival. Understanding dietary habits, food preferences, and related factors will facilitate the development of effective conservation plans for the protection of this vulnerable species. For this purpose, we used video recordings and sampling of food availability to examine the dietary composition and temporal variation in food selection of Black-necked Cranes wintering in the Dashanbao National Nature Reserve, China. The Black-necked Crane’s diet consists primarily of domestic food crops such as grains (74%) and potatoes (8%), in addition to invertebrates (14%). A much smaller proportion of the diet was comprised of turnips and wild herbaceous plants and tubers. There was monthly variation in food selection, partially related to food availability. Grains were most available in November and decreased through the winter, whereas invertebrates were more available in November and February than in December and January. Grain consumption was lowest in November but higher from December through February. Invertebrate consumption was highest in November and February. The cranes preferred to eat grains throughout winter months, while they mainly selected invertebrates in November and February. We suggested invertebrate populations sharply declined in December and January due to the low temperature. In addition, grain consumption was negatively associated with invertebrate availability. In November, when invertebrates were most abundant, and despite a concomitant peak in grain abundance, we suggested cranes exhibited a preference for invertebrates over grains. We recommend that the protection administration provide appropriate supplemental foods for cranes during freezing weather.
Elastographic Strain Index in the Evaluation of Focal Lesions Detected With Transrectal Sonography of the Prostate Gland
Authors: Hwang Sung Il , Lee Hak Jong , Lee Sang Eun , Hong Sung Kyu , Byun Seok-Soo , Choe Gheeyoung
Published: April 2016

Objectives

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the value of elastography in evaluating focal lesions detected by transrectal sonography and to suggest a reference strain index.

Methods

Sixty‐nine patients with focal lesions on transrectal sonography were referred to our department for prostate biopsy. Focal lesions were classified as either highly or less suspicious lesions by our criteria. A strain index from elastography was calculated for the focal lesions. Systematic 12‐core randomized biopsies plus 2 targeted biopsies were performed. The mean strain indices for malignant and benign focal lesions were compared, and a cutoff strain index was attained to maximize the sensitivity and specificity for prostate cancer. Strain indices were correlated with Gleason scores.

Results

The mean strain index ± SD for malignant focal lesions (3.26 ± 1.77) was significantly higher than that for benign focal lesions (2.16 ± 1.52; P = .008). The sensitivity, specificity, and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for diagnosing cancer were 66.7%, 71.1%, and 0.701, respectively, at a strain index cutoff value of greater than 2.4. The strain index showed a moderate linear correlation with the Gleason score (r = 0.441; P = .013).

Conclusions

Any focal lesion on transrectal sonography with a strain index of greater than 2.4 is at risk for prostate cancer.
Sonographic Detection of Accessory Adrenal Tissue in Neonates
Authors: Ben-Mordechay Daniel , Ben-Shlush Aviva , Raviv-Zilka Lisa , Jacobson Jeffrey M. , Soudack Michalle
Published: April 2016

Objectives

The purpose of this study was to describe the incidence and appearance of accessory adrenal tissue in neonates, as diagnosed by high‐resolution sonography, and increase the awareness of this entity.

Methods

We examined the adrenal glands in 153 neonates referred for renal and urinary tract sonography at our institution between January 2014 and January 2015. All kidneys and adrenal glands, except for ectopic kidneys, were scanned with the neonate prone and a linear array transducer with frequency of 11 or 14 MHz.

Results

In 9 neonates (5.9%), sonography showed a round, well‐defined structure adjacent to the adrenal gland with a hyperechoic center and hypoechoic periphery, similar to the echogenicity of the normal adrenal medulla and cortex, respectively. The largest diameter of the structure measured 2.9 to 4.5 mm. On follow‐up studies, which were available for 7 neonates, the structure was not evident, and the suprarenal area was normal.

Conclusions

Accessory adrenal tissue can be identified in the suprarenal area in neonates with high‐resolution sonography. Radiologists and sonographers caring for neonates should be aware of this finding and not confuse it with disease.
WDR26 is a new partner of Axin1 in the canonical Wnt signaling pathway
Authors: Goto Toshiyasu , Matsuzawa Junhei , Iemura Shun‐ichiro , Natsume Tohru , Shibuya Hiroshi
Published: April 2016

The stability of β‐catenin is very important for canonical Wnt signaling. A protein complex including Axin/APC/GSK3β phosphorylates β‐catenin to be degraded by ubiquitination with β‐TrCP. In the recent study, we isolated WDR26, a protein that binds to Axin. Here, we found that WDR26 is a negative regulator of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway, and that WDR26 affected β‐catenin levels. In addition, WDR26/Axin binding is involved in the ubiquitination of β‐catenin. These results suggest that WDR26 plays a negative role in β‐catenin degradation in the Wnt signaling pathway.
The influence of obliquity in the early Holocene Asian summer monsoon
Authors: Wu Chi‐Hua , Lee Shih‐Yu , Chiang John C. H. , Hsu Huang‐Hsiung
Published: April 2016

The early Holocene climatic optimum is associated with perihelion precession and high obliquity, though most studies emphasize the former over the latter. Asian monsoon proxy records only decisively show the precessional impact. To explore the obliquity effect, four climate simulations are conducted by fixing orbital parameters of present‐day (0K), early Holocene (11K), the lowest obliquity (31K), and 11K's precession and eccentricity with 31K's obliquity (11Kp31Ko). We show that high obliquity significantly augments the precessional impact by shifting the Asian monsoon farther north than present. By contrast, the present‐day monsoon seasonality can still be identified in the simulations with low obliquity. We argue that the upper tropospheric (South Asian) and lower tropospheric (North Pacific) high‐pressure systems are affected by the subtropical atmospheric heating changes responding to obliquity. As a consequence, associated with the changes in meridional gradients of geopotential height and temperature made by the heating, midlatitude transient eddies and monsoon‐midlatitude interactions are modulated.
Appreciation of peer reviewers for 2015
Authors: Ghan Steven , Russell Lynn , Crawford James , Langematz Ulrike , Li Zhanqing , Steiner Allison , Zhang Chidong , Leung L. Ruby
Published: April 2016

Key Points

Journal reviewers perform a valuable service
Immigration and Gender
Authors: Remennick Larissa
Published: April 2016

International migration is one of the key processes shaping contemporary societies and affecting the lives of millions of people in sending and receiving countries. Driven by the needs of the global economy, opportunity gaps between Global North and South, ethnic conflicts, wars, and displacement, millions of men and women leave their homelands and resettle in countries promising greater personal and economic security and better futures for their children. Men and women experience migration differently due to their unequal statuses and personal resources; migration, in turn, affects the roles men and women have in every society. Destination countries are typically developed market economies with high living standards that allow immigration to meet their labor needs and comply with the moral norms of humanitarian aid and family unification. While settler societies of the New World (United States, Canada, Australia, and others) have always used immigration as their main nation‐building resource, European countries became migration hubs more recently and rather unwillingly, still struggling to realign their national identity with new multicultural reality. This entry traces the evolving field of study embracing migration and gender, documenting its expanding agenda and geographic scope, and offers two case studies that typify gender‐based problems in migrant incorporation.
Gender Wage Gap
Authors: Jacobsen Joyce
Published: April 2016

Among full‐time workers, the gender wage gap is around 15 percent on average across a range of countries. Explanations for the gender wage gap fall into three categories: differences in human capital; differences in working conditions; and discrimination in pay, employment, and promotion. While pay discrimination can happen, discrimination can also occur in many subtle ways, leading to glass ceilings and crowding into particular occupations.
Arranged Marriages (inSouthAsia)
Authors: Zaidi Arshia U.
Published: April 2016

There has been internationally growing concern about the cultural practice and custom of arranged marriages. With the rise in detraditionalization or modernization of the South Asian family's collectivistic cultural norms, values, and practices, this way of marriage has ignited new dialogue between generations. This is most prevalent for those born and raised in individualistic (host) societies in the West (i.e., Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom). While youth in the heritage country are also engaged in this conversational exchange about arranged marriages, this occurs to a much lesser degree, as confirmed by recent cross‐cultural and/or ethnic studies. Despite modernization, there are still immigrant South Asian families in the West who hold strong beliefs in favor of the practice. Thus, arranged marriages persist as a major social institution across much of Asia and among ethnic minorities in Western countries and are perceived as the sociocultural norm in South Asian families.
Sisterhood
Authors: Vivienne Sonja
Published: April 2016

Sisterhood is a multivalent term. Literally, it connotes the relationship between sisters. More broadly it has come to signify a feeling of closeness or affinity among a group of women or all women. The group may be affiliated around common interests, political or spiritual beliefs, race, class, sexuality or employment. While some groups affirm a clearly articulated identity, other groups may be more fluid or resistant to categorization. The term gained eminence at the peak of second‐wave feminism and prevails in texts of that era. In recent times, poststructuralist analyses of identity focus less on essentialist similarities and more on the constitutive influence of performativity and orientation to social contexts. Digitally mediated iterations of identity (especially online) further destabilize the implied coherence of sisterhood by making inconsistent fragments and voices more apparent. Thus, while sisterhood may still evoke affinity, it may equally be used ironically, with an assumed understanding of unstable and evolving social allegiances.
Feminist Epistemology
Authors: van der Tuin Iris
Published: April 2016

Feminist epistemology refers to the feminist engagement with questions of truth, objectivity, method, and the knowing subject. Under its remit fall the theoretical foundations of women's and gender studies, and sexuality and queer studies. There is overlap with African‐American, black, and postcolonial studies. The key question of feminist epistemology as a field of inquiry involves the epistemic status of the knowledge produced by privileged and marginalized subjects. Where to draw the line between knowledge and prejudice? In sum, feminist epistemology pertains to the intersection of knowledge and power. An appropriate starting point for a discussion of feminist epistemology is Sandra Harding's seminal book
The Science Question in Feminism
(1986). This book introduced the threefold progressive classification of feminist epistemology, a classification consisting of the strands of “feminist empiricism,” “feminist standpoint theory,” and “feminist postmodernism.” More recent discussions move beyond Harding's triad. Next to establishing the necessity of doing self‐reflexive research, one of the most important methodological innovations of feminism has been the distinction between “studying up” and “studying down.” Studying down implies that asymmetrical power relations are reconfirmed easily in research. The alternative, studying up, is the standpoint theoretical model of researching from the lives of marginalized subjects.
Femocrat
Authors: Sawer Marian
Published: April 2016

The term “femocrat” was invented in Australia as a derogatory term to describe feminists entering women's policy positions in government. Subsequently it has been used more neutrally to describe feminists in government, whether in women's policy agencies or elsewhere, and whether at national, subnational, or transnational levels of governance. There is now a significant comparative literature on “state feminism” and continuing scholarly debate over whether the institutionalising of feminism weakens autonomous women's movements or whether femocrats should be conceptualized as women's movement actors in their own right.
Androcentrism
Authors: Baker Joanne
Published: April 2016

The androcentric worldview is shaped and upheld by an array of cultural mechanisms that systematically disadvantage women and girls. Following a definition of androcentrism, the means by which it is reproduced are discussed, as well as the ways in which it acts to subordinate the female. Finally, the feminist critique and response to androcentrism is outlined.
Feminist Christology
Authors: Ruether Rosemary Radford
Published: April 2016

Christology has traditionally been defined in a way that excluded women from ordination and representation of Christ. Yet the New Testament defined redemption in Christ as gender inclusive. Some form of Christianity, such as the Shakers, created visions of the return of Christ as female. A gender‐inclusive Christology better suits Jesus' own teaching.
Monstrous‐Feminine
Authors: Creed Barbara
Published: April 2016

The monstrous‐feminine celebrates woman's potential to disrupt the patriarchal symbolic order through a focus on her terrifying and abject powers. Historically, patriarchal discourses have represented woman as monstrous through the depiction of her reproductive bodily functions as abject. Rather than accept this negative stereotype, women artists, filmmakers, writers, and theorists have used the idea of the monstrous‐feminine to create art and texts that cut against the grain. This entry examines the history of the term with a discussion of the theories that have informed the concept.
Lookism
Authors: Granleese Jacqueline
Published: April 2016

Lookism is a form of discrimination based on an individual's physical appearance. Lookism occurs when individuals are compared to stereotypes which reflect society's conceptions of what is considered physically attractive, either to their detriment or advantage. Lookism is a growing area of research interest in employment law and economics, termed “pulchronomics,” where physical characteristics such as beauty, hair color, obesity, and height are linked to labor market outcomes such as pay. Physical attractiveness has been found to be a pay premium for both genders, while obesity has been found to be detrimental to employment and promotion prospects. Throughout the world, only one US state, Michigan, plus a few cities, and one Australian state, Victoria, have legal remedies for employees who experience detrimental lookism. With companies increasingly aligning employees to their brands, especially in the retail sector, lookism has been called the “new frontier” of employment discrimination.
Gender and Development
Authors: Basiliere Jenna
Published: April 2016

Gender and development (GAD) is classified as a series of policies used by governments, funding agencies, and non‐governmental organizations in international development. GAD is characterized by an interest in addressing both social and economic inequality, an awareness of the variety of gendered differences that exist in the developing world, and an investment in coalition building. This marks a shift away from previous development policies (including women in development or WID), which either classified women solely as wives and mothers or focused exclusively on economic disparities between the sexes.
International Women's Day
Authors: D'Amico Francine J.
Published: April 2016

Progressive civil society groups first observed International Women's Day in Europe on March 19, 1911. The day provides a platform for strikes, rallies, and protests for women's rights, development, and peace. Today, the official observance of International Women's Day focuses government, public, and media attention on ending gender‐based discrimination and violence and expanding women's political, economic, social, and cultural rights. Since 1975, the United Nations has observed International Women's Day annually on March 8 as part of its official calendar. UN representatives and government officials often use the spotlight of International Women's Day to announce policy initiatives.
Sex Difference Research and Cognitive Abilities
Authors: Miller David I.
Published: April 2016

Overall, research finds no evidence for a smarter sex. However, sex differences in some specific cognitive tasks are found such as mental rotation (male advantage) or writing (female advantage). Males and females also perform similarly on many other tasks, suggesting that focusing on differences may ignore the many ways in which the sexes are similar. These sex differences describe groups, not individuals (e.g., many women excel in mental rotation tasks, many men excel in writing tasks). Sex differences in average mathematics test performance tend to be small, although males outnumber females among high scorers in most nations. Some spatial tasks such as mental rotation demonstrate remarkably robust and large male advantages; however, many other spatial tasks show no sex difference or, in one case, female advantage. Female advantages in reading and writing are moderate, global, and not decreasing. Both biological and environmental factors are necessary to explain these findings.
Gender Inequality in Education
Authors: Hendley Alexandra , Charles Maria
Published: April 2016

Two main dimensions of educational gender inequality, “attainment” and “segregation,” have followed distinct historical trajectories since the middle of the twentieth century. On the one hand, long‐standing male–female gaps in enrollment and completion have been shrinking, and have even reversed in many societies. On the other hand, segregation across fields of study has persisted, even strengthened, in many of the world's most affluent democracies. These divergent trends, along with sociological explanations for them, are discussed.
Feminist Family Therapy in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Silverstein Louise Bordeaux
Published: April 2016

This entry presents a historical overview of the development of feminist family therapy in the United States from 1978 to 2013. The feminist critique was at its strongest in the 1980s and early 1990s. By identifying the way that gendered power differences in the larger society constructed intimate relationships within the family, it transformed family therapy and contributed to the social deconstruction of traditional gender roles. Since the mid‐1990s, feminist family therapy has disappeared from most mainstream journals, becoming marginalized into specialized journals and books. Most recently, the field has been plagued by the failure of white feminists to embrace an intersectionalities perspective, and the failure of the evidence‐based practice community to address gender and race. In contrast to these trends, some therapists are focusing on a social justice perspective, examining how multi‐institutional inequalities in US society constrain family relationships.
Eurocentrism
Authors: Mazama Ama
Published: April 2016

This entry examines Eurocentrism as a system of domination, imposed on people of color throughout the world via conquest and colonialism.
Gender Mainstreaming
Authors: Lombardo Emanuela
Published: April 2016

Gender mainstreaming is the strategy that aims to incorporate a gender perspective into all policies so that they counter gender bias and produce gender equality in politics and society. Pioneered by feminists in development, it aims at challenging androcentric policy norms and structures by transforming policymaking processes, mechanisms, and actors. United Nations, European Union, and many governments have committed to it, but have ineffectively implemented it. Although policymakers' resistance to change hinders implementation, mainstreaming has also created opportunities for advancing gender equality through the creation of equality machinery and legislation, the gender impact assessment of policies, gender budgeting, and training. The participation of feminist and other civil society groups in policymaking processes could foster more transformative framings of mainstreaming.
Transsexuality
Authors: Zimman Lal
Published: April 2016

Transsexuality is a concept that evokes a medico‐scientific history aimed at repairing gender dissonance through physiological transformation. It occupies a volatile space in scientific, humanistic, and activist discourses about gender and sex, at once offering legitimacy to those who seek to modify their bodies even as it attracts acrimony as a symbol of gender normativity and assimilation. The focus on corporeality built into theories of transsexuality, however, has brought into being a new intellectual focus on the possibility of accounting for gendered embodiment as a culturally contingent product of both discursive and material processes.
Animality and Women
Authors: Basnett Kattie
Published: April 2016

Through symbolic animalization, by way of speciesism, women are subjected to forms of social, political, and physical violence normally associated with non‐human animals. Women and non‐human animals have been equated on the grounds of limited intellectual capacity and sexual character, and have undergone similar forms of social and political disenfranchisement. The ideological continuity between the marginalization of women and animals is a topic of interest in posthumanism, feminist theory, animal theory, and ecocriticism, and scholarship on the topic has received interdisciplinary attention from the humanities and from social and hard sciences.
Global Care
C
hain
Authors: Todaro Rosalba
Published: April 2016

The analysis of global care chain work highlights the role of women's migration in the social reorganization of caregiving in countries of origin and destination as well as the transnational links of a personal, family, social, working, and financial character that are generated around care and domestic work. Global care chains are based on unequal power relationships of gender, social class, ethnicity, place of origin, and migratory status. The intersection of these diverse inequalities is expressed in the conditions of life and work, and in the biographies of the women who are employed in caring for others.
Female Orgasm
Authors: Levin Roy J.
Published: April 2016

The human female orgasm bestows the greatest pleasure without recourse to drugs. Despite numerous studies there are many aspects of the activity that are poorly understood. These include its neurophysiology and pharmacology, while even its typology, induction, and function(s) are contentious issues. It can be induced by a variety of agencies that include genital and non‐genital sites and even by exercise. While there are similarities with the male orgasm, there are a few differences, the major one being that women can have repeated multiple orgasms while males cannot. Despite recurrent speculative claims in the literature, it does not mediate or facilitate sperm transport through its uterine contractions. Brain imaging that measures cerebral regional blood flow has revealed that there is no single orgasm center, but rather specific areas are either activated, inhibited, or unaffected during orgasm. However, no consensus has yet been achieved due to experimental procedural differences and data handling by researchers.
Feminist Film Theory
Authors: Smelik Anneke
Published: April 2016

Feminist film theory criticizes classical cinema for its stereotyped representation of women. Its aim is to adequately represent female subjectivity and female desire on the silver screen. During its heyday in the 1970s and 1980s a poststructuralist perspective domineered the approach to cinema, claiming that cinema is more than just a reflection of social relations in that it actively constructs meanings of sexual difference and sexuality. The semiotic study of woman as image and the psychoanalytic study of the male gaze had a lasting impact not only in film studies, but also within the wider fields of visual culture and cultural studies. In the 1990s feminist film theory moved away from a binary understanding of sexual difference to multiple perspectives, hybrid identities, and possible spectatorships, which resulted in an increasing concern with questions of “race” and ethnicity, masculinity and queer sexualities.
Nationalism and Gender
Authors: Nagel Joane
Published: April 2016

This entry examines the role of gender in nationalism. The central questions asked here are: In any country or national community, what is the definition of manhood, womanhood, and nationhood? What are the similarities in the defined proper role of women and men across nations? What is the role of male and female sexuality in national systems?
Sexual Harassment Law
Authors: Cochran Augustus Bonner
Published: April 2016

This entry surveys the emergence of sexual harassment as a social problem and the way that common law courts interpreted statutes against sex discrimination to prohibit sexual harassment in employment and education. Evolving legal issues and standards are examined, with an emphasis on the rules for employer and school district liability.
Psychological Theory, Research, Methodology, and Feminist Critiques
Authors: Capdevila Rose , McAvoy Jean M.
Published: April 2016

Conventional psychology has conceptualized the normative subject as the white heterosexual able‐bodied male. This perspective has shaped the development of theory, research, methods, and findings within the discipline. Traditionally, feminist critiques have pointed to the ways in which this approach has disadvantaged women through invisibility and pathologization. Latterly, these critiques have extended to include constructionist analyses of the production and institutionalization of psychological knowledge.
Gender, Definitions of
Authors: Chrisler Joan C. , Lamer Sarah A.
Published: April 2016

Gender is a term, borrowed from grammar, to describe individuals' social identity (woman/girl, man/boy) and personality or behavioral tendencies (e.g., masculine, feminine, androgynous, transgender). Gender as a social identity is usually (but not necessarily) related to an individual's biological sex. Feminists and most behavioral science researchers prefer to use gender, rather than sex (male, female), to describe humans in order not to imply that any differences between the groups are directly, essentially, or solely related to biological influences.
Eugenics Movements
Authors: Sabatello Maya
Published: April 2016

This entry considers the historical roots and main programs of the eugenics movement as developed at the beginning of the twentieth century. It discusses its appeal and resonance with emerging public health and sociopolitical goals concerning the collective good and family planning, as well as its demise in the aftermath of World War II. Finally, it reflects on the arguable revival of eugenics ideology given contemporary developments in the study of human genetics and biotechnology, especially in the realm of assisted reproductive technologies, and its relevance for upholding disability and human rights.
H
induism
Authors: Amirtham Metti
Published: April 2016

Perhaps more than any other religion, Hinduism esteems sexuality as one of the great delights of human existence and perceives it as a means for spiritual development. From prehistoric times, there are texts that promote freedom for both men and women to exercise their autonomy with regard to sexuality. Nonetheless, Hinduism also promotes a strict married life and a good dose of sexual self‐restraint is considered essential for the attainment of
moksha
. Therefore, despite Hinduism's openness toward sexuality, in reality most Hindus are reluctant to address anything openly related to sexuality. Similarly, in the case of women's sexuality, it would be wrong to think that the social realm perfectly mirrors the divine realm. There is more subtle expression of patriarchy and social conditioning through legends highlighting the self‐sacrificing and self‐effacing image of women as faithful wives and devout mothers. Moreover, societal norms about sex and sexuality do not apply similarly to men and women in Hinduism. Nevertheless, like any other society, Hindu society has been influenced continuously down the centuries. By the arrival of postmodern feminist thinking, Indian women are beginning to reclaim their sexuality.
Boys' Peer Cultures
Authors: Plummer David
Published: April 2016

Traditional rites of passage have largely disappeared in the modern world. In their place is adolescence. Social change has led to a diminution of the role of older mentors and the growth of the role of peer groups in overseeing the transition to manhood. In the absence of traditional sources of guidance, peer groups are resorting to the biological changes of maturation as a “source of truth” about what “real men” should be. At the same time, classroom education is increasingly stigmatized as unmasculine and many boys are stepping back from intellectual prowess as a way of establishing their reputation. The result in many communities, especially those under pressure, is a “retreat to the body” and the “rise of hard masculinity,” where the codes of hard manhood shared by youth peer groups are destined to become the standards for hegemonic masculinity of the future.
Family Planning
Authors: Stehlik Daniela
Published: April 2016

Family planning is central to ideologies of population growth primarily focused on more vulnerable groups in societies. Despite the modern family continuing to adapt and change, family planning or limiting family growth remains central to state policies and programs and is influenced by historical and cultural factors, thereby often creating political conflict.
Gender Bias
Authors: Cook Kay
Published: April 2016

Gender bias is the favoring of one gender over another, usually with negative implications for women. Gender bias, as opposed to sexism, is referenced to normative gendered expectations regarding appropriate roles, values, and behaviors for men and women. Therefore, within patriarchal society, these expectations still exist and are evident in the institutions that govern daily life.
Post‐Traumatic Stress Disorder
Authors: Palmary Ingrid
Published: April 2016

Post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a diagnostic category detailed in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM) produced by the American Psychiatric Association. It describes symptoms that some people develop after experiencing a traumatic event. PTSD was first described in 1980 in the DSM‐III. Since that time there have been a number of critiques of the notion of PTSD, which are detailed in this entry.
Sexual Identity and Orientation
Authors: Houston Lola D.
Published: April 2016

Sexual identity and sexual orientation are two different terms used to define, categorize, and understand specific facets of the sexuality of an individual. There has been considerable research for both of the terms. Clinical, social, and medical research and study have not reached a clear consensus on how best to define either term. Sexual identity is often understood as the means by which an individual may choose to self‐identify as a sexual being to others. Sexual orientation is often seen as forming early in life, remaining relatively unchanged, and defining the sexual and romantic attractions of the individual. The absence of clarity in the question of sexual orientation and identity presents a challenge in numerous fields. For the clinician, understanding a client hinges upon a review of existing research and reported data. For the epidemiologist, accuracy in results depends on the ability to draw accurate answers around these terms. For the social scientist, gaining access to particular populations is made more challenging in the absence of a clear understanding of either term.