bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
TESTING THE ABILITY OF CHILDREN WITH ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER TO ACCURATELY REPORT THE EFFECTS OF MEDICATION ON THEIR BEHAVIOR
Authors: Ardoin Scott P. , Martens Brian K.
Published: March 2006

Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are often treated with central nervous system stimulants, making the evaluation of medication effects an important topic for applied behavior analysts. Because assessment protocols emphasize informant reports and direct observations of child behavior, little is known about the extent to which children themselves can accurately report medication effects. Double‐blind placebo‐controlled procedures were used to examine whether 6 children with ADHD could recognize the effects of their medication. The children were given math worksheets to complete for 15 min during each of 14 sessions while on medication and placebo. Children completed a self‐evaluation form at the end of each session, and ratings were compared to observed behavior and academic performance. Results indicated that 3 children were able to accurately report their medication status at levels greater than chance, whereas the accuracy of reports by all children was related to dosage level, differences in behavior, and the presence of adverse effects. The implications of these results for placebo‐controlled research, self‐monitoring of dosage levels, and accuracy training are discussed.
TREATMENT OF COVERT FOOD STEALING IN AN INDIVIDUAL WITH PRADER‐WILLI SYNDROME
Authors: Maglieri Kristen A. , DeLeon Iser G. , Rodriguez‐Catter Vanessa , Sevin Bart M.
Published: March 2006

Covert food stealing is common among individuals with Prader‐Willi syndrome. We found that verbal reprimands, delivered contingent upon eating prohibited foods, were sufficient to decrease the food stealing of a girl with Prader‐Willi syndrome. Warning stimuli were then used to help her discriminate between permitted and prohibited foods during sessions in which food stealing was not directly observed. This procedure resulted in decreases in food stealing from containers labeled with the warning stimuli.
THE EFFECTS OF A VITAMIN SUPPLEMENT ON THE PICA OF A CHILD WITH SEVERE MENTAL RETARDATION
Authors: Pace Gary M. , Toyer Edward A.
Published: March 2006

The effects of a common multiple vitamin on the pica of a child with severe mental retardation and anemia were evaluated. A BAB design revealed that pica was decreased by the vitamin. The results suggest that pica can be effectively treated by implementation of a simple nutritional or biological intervention. Further research investigating the generality of this finding and the effects of combining biological and behavioral interventions are discussed.
THE EFFECTS OF NONCONTINGENT ACCESS TO SINGLE‐ VERSUS MULTIPLE‐STIMULUS SETS ON SELF‐INJURIOUS BEHAVIOR
Authors: DeLeon Iser G. , Anders Bonita M. , Rodriguez‐Catter Vanessa , Neidert Pamela L.
Published: March 2006

The automatically reinforced self‐injury of a girl with autism was treated by providing noncontingent access to a single set of preferred toys during 30‐min sessions. The reductive effects of the intervention waned as the session progressed. Rotating toy sets after 10 min or providing access to multiple toy sets resulted in reductions that lasted the entire 30 min.
TEACHING CHILDREN WITH AUTISM TO ASK QUESTIONS ABOUT HIDDEN OBJECTS
Authors: Williams Gladys , Donley Corrine R. , Keller Jennie W.
Published: March 2006

We taught 2 4‐year‐old children with autism to ask questions of an adult who held a closed box with a toy inside. The treatment package (modeling, prompting, and reinforcement) was evaluated with a multiple baseline design across the three question forms during training, generalization, and follow‐up evaluations. The first question form (“What's that?”) produced the name of the hidden item. The second form (“Can I see it?”) produced sight of it, and the third form (“Can I have it?”) produced the item itself. Both children learned to ask questions about hidden objects.
MOTIVATING SIGNAGE PROMPTS SAFETY BELT USE AMONG DRIVERS EXITING SENIOR COMMUNITIES
Authors: Cox Brian S. , Cox Amanda B. , Cox Daniel J.
Published: March 2006

Senior drivers are vulnerable to automobile crashes and subsequent injury and death. Safety belts reduce health risks associated with auto crashes. Therefore, it is important to encourage senior drivers to wear safety belts while driving. Using an AB design, replicated five times, we evaluated the short‐ and long‐term effects of a sign with the message “BUCKLE UP, STAY SAFE” attached to a stop sign at the exits of five different senior communities. Safety belt use was stable during two pretreatment assessments averaged across the five sites and 250 drivers (72% and 68% usage), but significantly increased following installation of these signs (94% usage). Six months after installation of the signs, the effect persisted (88% usage). Use of such signs may be a cost‐effective way of promoting safety belt use.
THE EFFECTS OF NONCONTINGENT DELIVERY OF HIGH‐ AND LOW‐PREFERENCE STIMULI ON ATTENTION‐MAINTAINED DESTRUCTIVE BEHAVIOR
Authors: Fisher Wayne W. , O'Connor Julia T. , Kurtz Patricia F. , DeLeon Iser G. , Gotjen Deidre L.
Published: March 2006

An adolescent with severe mental retardation and cerebral palsy who displayed attention‐maintained destructive behavior was exposed to noncontingent reinforcer delivery (NCR) with either a high‐preference or a low‐preference stimulus while reinforcement for destructive behavior with attention remained in effect (i.e., NCR without extinction). NCR without extinction was effective only when the high‐preference stimulus was available, suggesting that systematic assessment of stimulus quality may enhance the effectiveness of NCR with alternative stimuli.
THE EFFECTS OF ESTABLISHING OPERATIONS ON PREFERENCE ASSESSMENT OUTCOMES
Authors: Gottschalk Jennifer M. , Libby Myrna E. , Graff Richard B.
Published: March 2006

Preference assessments were conducted for 4 individuals with developmental disabilities across conditions of (a) control, allowing equal access to all stimuli prior to the preference assessment; (b) deprivation, allowing no access to one stimulus for 48 hr prior to the assessment; and (c) satiation, allowing free access to one stimulus for 10 min immediately prior to the assessment. Deprivation resulted in increased preference, whereas satiation resulted in decreased preference compared to control conditions.
FIXED‐TIME SCHEDULE EFFECTS AS A FUNCTION OF BASELINE REINFORCEMENT RATE
Authors: Ringdahl Joel E. , Vollmer Timothy R. , Borrero John C. , Connell James E.
Published: March 2006

Using an arbitrary response, we evaluated fixed‐time (FT) schedules that were either similar or dissimilar to a baseline (response‐dependent) reinforcement schedule and extinction. Results suggested that both FT schedules and extinction resulted in decreased responding. However, FT schedules were more effective in reducing response rates if the FT reinforcer rate was dissimilar to baseline reinforcer rates. Possible reasons for this difference were evaluated with data analysis methods designed to identify adventitious response‐reinforcer relations.
CORRESPONDENCE AS CONDITIONAL STIMULUS CONTROL: INSIGHTS FROM EXPERIMENTS WITH PIGEONS
Authors: Lattal Kennon A. , Doepke Karla J.
Published: March 2006

Correspondence between saying and doing, typically studied in young children and individuals with developmental disabilities, was examined as an instance of conditional stimulus control. In Experiment 1, 3 pigeons were exposed to a two‐component repeated‐trials procedure. In the first—sample or say—component, two response keys transilluminated by different colored lights were presented and the pigeon pecked one of the keys. After 1 s of darkness in the chamber, the second—choice or do—component was presented, in which the two keys again were transilluminated, one by the color selected in the first component and the second by another color. Selecting the color that matched that selected in the say component resulted in access to food. Selecting the other color produced a blackout of the chamber. After an intertrial interval (ITI), the next say component was programmed, and the procedure was repeated. Correspondence remained at chance levels through several manipulations of ITI duration and sample response requirement. When a correction procedure was added such that only the originally selected sample stimulus was re‐presented until a correct choice response occurred, reliable correspondence developed in 2 pigeons. This correspondence was eliminated by making reinforcement independent of correspondence and subsequently was reestablished when reinforcement again depended on correspondence. In Experiment 2, 3 other pigeons rapidly acquired correspondence under the final procedure used in Experiment 1. Increasing the time interval between the say and do components diminished correspondence. The results of the two experiments suggest how correspondence may be considered an instance of conditional stimulus control and that it is possible to construct a homologue of human say‐do correspondence with pigeons.
REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE THINNING FOLLOWING TREATMENT WITH FUNCTIONAL COMMUNICATION TRAINING
Authors: Hanley Gregory P. , Iwata Brian A. , Thompson Rachel H.
Published: March 2006

We evaluated four methods for increasing the practicality of functional communication training (FCT) by decreasing the frequency of reinforcement for alternative behavior. Three participants whose problem behaviors were maintained by positive reinforcement were treated successfully with FCT in which reinforcement for alternative behavior was initially delivered on fixed‐ratio (FR) 1 schedules. One participant was then exposed to increasing delays to reinforcement under FR 1, a graduated fixed‐interval (FI) schedule, and a graduated multiple‐schedule arrangement in which signaled periods of reinforcement and extinction were alternated. Results showed that (a) increasing delays resulted in extinction of the alternative behavior, (b) the FI schedule produced undesirably high rates of the alternative behavior, and (c) the multiple schedule resulted in moderate and stable levels of the alternative behavior as the duration of the extinction component was increased. The other 2 participants were exposed to graduated mixed‐schedule (unsignaled alternation between reinforcement and extinction components) and multiple‐schedule (signaled alternation between reinforcement and extinction components) arrangements in which the durations of the reinforcement and extinction components were modified. Results obtained for these 2 participants indicated that the use of discriminative stimuli in the multiple schedule facilitated reinforcement schedule thinning. Upon completion of treatment, problem behavior remained low (or at zero), whereas alternative behavior was maintained as well as differentiated during a multiple‐schedule arrangement consisting of a 4‐min extinction period followed by a 1‐min reinforcement period.
INCREASING MOTORIST COMPLIANCE AND CAUTION AT STOP SIGNS
Authors: Houten Ron Van , Retting Richard A.
Published: March 2006

This study evaluated strategies to improve motorist compliance and caution at three stop‐sign‐controlled intersections with a history of motor vehicle crashes. The primary intervention was a light‐emitting diode (LED) sign that featured animated eyes scanning left and right to prompt drivers to look left and right for approaching traffic. Data were scored from videotape on the percentage of drivers coming to a complete stop and the percentage of drivers looking right before entering the intersection. Observational data were collected on the percentage of right‐angle conflicts (defined as braking suddenly or swerving from the path to avoid an intersection crash). The introduction of the LED sign according to a multiple baseline across the three intersections was associated with an increase in the percentage of vehicles coming to a complete stop at all three intersections and a small increase in the percentage of drivers looking right before entering the intersections. Conflicts between vehicles on the major and minor road were also reduced following the introduction of the animated eyes prompt.
BEHAVIORAL ECONOMIC INFLUENCES ON TREATMENTS DESIGNED TO DECREASE DESTRUCTIVE BEHAVIOR
Authors: Perry Alicia C. , Fisher Wayne W.
Published: March 2006

In behavioral economics terms, response allocation is viewed as an exchange between the price of and the demand for reinforcers associated with various responses. In this study, behavioral economics principles were used to develop and evaluate a treatment package that reduced destructive behavior to zero while communication and compliance were increased.
ASSESSMENT AND TREATMENT OF LOW‐RATE HIGH‐INTENSITY PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
Authors: Kahng SungWoo , Abt Kimberly A. , Schonbachler Heather E.
Published: March 2006

Functional analysis of low‐rate aggression was conducted during extended observation periods and showed behavior to be maintained by positive reinforcement. Treatment consisted of variable‐momentary differential reinforcement of other behavior and was successful in reducing problem behavior throughout these extended observation periods.
ANTECEDENT MANIPULATIONS IN A TANGIBLE CONDITION: EFFECTS OF STIMULUS PREFERENCE ON AGGRESSION
Authors: Mueller Michael M. , Wilczynski Susan M. , Moore James W. , Fusilier Iantha , Trahant Dana
Published: March 2006

After a functional analysis indicated that aggression of an 8‐year‐old boy with autism was maintained by access to preferred items, antecedent manipulations involving the relative preference of restricted and noncontingently available stimuli were conducted. Restricting highly preferred items evoked the highest rates of aggression regardless of the preference level of the noncontingently available alternative items. Restricting less preferred stimuli was associated with moderate rates of aggression even when the alternative items were more preferred.
REINFORCEMENT CONTINGENCIES AND SOCIAL REINFORCEMENT: SOME RECIPROCAL RELATIONS BETWEEN BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH
Authors: Vollmer Timothy R. , Hackenberg Timothy D.
Published: March 2006

Reinforcement contingencies and social reinforcement are ubiquitous phenomena in applied behavior analysis. This discussion paper is divided into two sections. In the first section, reinforcement contingencies are discussed in terms of the necessary and sufficient conditions for reinforcement effects. Response‐stimulus dependencies, conditional probabilities, and contiguity are discussed as possible mechanisms of, and arrangements for, reinforcement effects. In the second section, social reinforcement is discussed in terms of its functional subtypes and reinforcement context effects. Two underlying themes run throughout the discussion: (a) Applied research would benefit from a greater understanding of existing basic research, and (b) basic research could be designed to specifically address some of the issues about reinforcement that are central to effective application.
REAFFIRMING THE IMPORTANCE OF ANALYSIS IN APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS: A REVIEW OF FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR: FROM EFFECTIVE ASSESSMENT TO EFFECTIVE SUPPORT, EDITED BY A. C. REPP AND R. H. HORNER
Authors: Ervin Ruth A. , Fuqua R. Wayne , Begeny John C.
Published: March 2006

In recent years, much has been written about the topics of functional assessment and functional analysis in applied settings. In their book, Functional Analysis of Problem Behavior: From Effective Assessment to Effective Support, Repp and Horner (1999) have compiled a series of essays from experts on the topic. In this article, we review their work and comment on each chapter's contribution to the relevant literature. We conclude that the book meets its primary goals of expanding our view of functional analysis as well as providing those new to the field with a stronger understanding of the topic. We do, however, note some concerns with inconsistent use of functional analysis terminology and a lack of practical guidance regarding its implementation in applied settings, but we believe these limitations are inherent in the empirical literature and are not unique to this book. Thus, we strongly endorse this book as “must reading” for behaviorally oriented researchers, students, and practitioners.
STIMULUS CHARACTERISTICS WITHIN DIRECTIVES: EFFECTS ON ACCURACY OF TASK COMPLETION
Authors: Richman David M. , Wacker David P. , Cooper‐Brown Linda J. , Kayser Krista , Crosland Kimberly , Stephens Tracy J. , Asmus Jennifer
Published: March 2006

Three experiments were conducted in an outpatient setting with young children who had been referred for treatment of noncompliant behavior and who had coexisting receptive language or receptive vocabulary difficulties. Experiment 1 studied differential responding of the participants to a brief hierarchical directive analysis (least‐to‐most complex stimulus prompts) to identify directives that functioned as discriminative stimuli for accurate responding. Experiment 1 identified distinct patterns of accurate responding relative to manipulation of directive stimulus characteristics. Experiment 2 demonstrated that directives identified as effective or ineffective in obtaining stimulus control of accurate responding during Experiment 1 continued to control accurate responding across play activities and academic tasks. Experiment 3 probed effects of the interaction between the type of directive (effective vs. ineffective) and the reinforcement contingency (differential reinforcement for attempts vs. differential reinforcement for accurate responses) on accurate task completion and disruptive behavior. Results suggested that behavioral escalation from inaccurate responding to disruptive behavior occurred only when ineffective directives were combined with differential reinforcement for accurate task completion. The overall results are discussed in terms of developing a methodology for identifying stimulus characteristics of directives that affect accurate responding.
EFFECTS OF A FIXED‐TIME SCHEDULE ON ABERRANT AND ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
Authors: Roane Henry S. , Fisher Wayne W. , Sgro Gina M.
Published: March 2006

Fixed‐time (FT) schedules of reinforcement have been used to decrease destructive behavior. However, the effects of FT schedules on acquisition and maintenance of appropriate behavior remain unclear. In this study, we present a case in which an FT schedule produced an increase in adaptive behavior and resulted in a significant decrease in destructive behavior.
DECREASING CHILDREN'S RISK TAKING ON THE PLAYGROUND
Authors: Heck Alyssa , Collins Jennifer , Peterson Lizette
Published: March 2006

Playground mishaps are some of the most common sources of injury and are the leading killer of children. The present study used a multiple baseline design across three classrooms (N = 379 children). With minimal teaching and rewards, children decreased and maintained decreased risky playground behaviors on slides. Floor effects on climbers prevented the demonstration of similar effects. The decreases seen in risky slide behavior are discussed within the context of preventive safety training for playground injuries.
SOCIAL STORIES, WRITTEN TEXT CUES, AND VIDEO FEEDBACK: EFFECTS ON SOCIAL COMMUNICATION OF CHILDREN WITH AUTISM
Authors: Thiemann Kathy S. , Goldstein Howard
Published: March 2006

This study investigated the effects of written text and pictorial cuing with supplemental video feedback on the social communication of 5 students with autism and social deficits. Two peers without disabilities participated as social partners with each child with autism to form five triads. Treatment was implemented twice per week and consisted of 10 min of systematic instruction using visual stimuli, 10 min of social interaction, and 10 min of self‐evaluation using video feedback. Results showed increases in targeted social communication skills when the treatment was implemented. Some generalized treatment effects were observed across untrained social behaviors, and 1 participant generalized improvements within the classroom. In addition, naive judges reported perceived improvements in the quality of reciprocal interactions. These findings support recommendations for using visually cued instruction to guide the social language development of young children with autism as they interact with peers without disabilities.
FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR EVOKED BY NOISE
Authors: Mccord Brandon E. , Iwata Brian A. , Galensky Tami L. , Ellingson Sherry A. , Thomson Richard J.
Published: March 2006

We conducted a four‐part investigation to develop methods for assessing and treating problem behavior evoked by noise. In Phase 1, 7 participants with developmental disabilities who were described as being hypersensitive to specific noises were exposed to a series of noises under controlled conditions. Results for 2 of the participants verified that noise was apparently an aversive event. In Phase 2, results of functional analyses indicated that these 2 participants' problem behaviors were maintained by escape from noise. In Phase 3, preference assessments were conducted to identify reinforcers that might be used during treatment. Finally, in Phase 4, the 2 participants' problem behaviors were successfully treated with extinction, stimulus fading, and a differential‐reinforcement‐of‐other‐behavior (DRO) contingency (only 1 participant required DRO). Treatment effects for both participants generalized to their home environments and were maintained during a follow‐up assessment. Procedures and results were discussed in terms of their relevance to the systematic assessment of noise as an establishing operation (EO) and, more generally, to the identification of idiosyncratic EO influences on behavior.
EVALUATING THE PREDICTIVE VALIDITY OF A SINGLE STIMULUS ENGAGEMENT PREFERENCE ASSESSMENT
Authors: Hagopian Louis P. , Rush Karena S. , Lewin Adam B. , Long Ethan S.
Published: March 2006

Most preference assessments require individuals to choose among two or more stimuli. More recently, the duration of engagement with items has been used as an index of preference. In the current study, the predictive validity of a single stimulus engagement (SSE) preference assessment was evaluated with 4 individuals. Stimuli were presented singly for a brief period while engagement with that stimulus was recorded. Although SSE preference rankings closely matched paired stimulus preference assessment rankings for only 2 of the 4 participants, relative preference rankings based on duration of engagement predicted relative reinforcer effectiveness for all participants in a subsequent concurrent‐schedule reinforcer assessment. The SSE procedure took less time to administer than the paired stimulus procedure but produced less stable preference rankings across administrations. The SSE procedure may be appropriate for individuals who have difficulty selecting one stimulus from among two or more stimuli, and it may be well suited for evaluating activities that are difficult to present in a paired stimulus format.
A METHOD FOR ANALYZING CHANGES IN RESPONSE EFFICIENCY
Authors: Camp Carole M. Van , Lerman Dorothea C. , Kelley Michael E.
Published: March 2006

Although experimental effects typically are evaluated by summarizing levels of responding across time (e.g., calculating the mean levels of problem behavior during 10‐min sessions), these data summaries may obscure important mechanisms that may be responsible for changes in responding. A case study is reported to illustrate alternative methods of data analysis when decreasing trends in responding may be due to increases in response efficiency.
CHOICES BETWEEN POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT DURING TREATMENT FOR ESCAPE‐MAINTAINED BEHAVIOR
Authors: Deleon Iser G. , Neidert Pamela L. , Anders Bonita M. , Rodriguez‐Catter Vanessa
Published: March 2006

Positive reinforcement was more effective than negative reinforcement in promoting compliance and reducing escape‐maintained problem behavior for a child with autism. Escape extinction was then added while the child was given a choice between positive or negative reinforcement for compliance and the reinforcement schedule was thinned. When the reinforcement requirement reached 10 consecutive tasks, the treatment effects became inconsistent and reinforcer selection shifted from a strong preference for positive reinforcement to an unstable selection pattern.
FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT OF BREATH HOLDING MAINTAINED BY NONSOCIAL REINFORCEMENT
Authors: Richman David M. , Lindauer Steven E. , Crosland Kimberly A. , Mckerchar Todd L. , Morse Paige S.
Published: March 2006

A functional analysis showed that breath holding exhibited by a 16‐year‐old boy with mental retardation occurred independent of social consequences. Assessment results of the existing treatment procedure—a verbal reprimand—were used to design a treatment package that reduced the behavior to low levels across 7 months.
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSES OF GENE‐BRAIN‐BEHAVIOR RELATIONS: SOME NOTES ON THEIR APPLICATION
Authors: Kennedy Craig H. , Caruso Mary , Thompson Travis
Published: March 2006

The fields of genetics and neuroscience are yielding findings useful in understanding complex behavior‐environment relations. We believe that these developments in interdisciplinary basic research are of interest to applied behavior analysts because of the long history of basic findings being used by the readership of the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis to improve everyday human activities. An awareness of contemporary developments in a range of basic research disciplines may facilitate the systematic replication of those functional relations in applied settings. In this context, we selectively review papers published in the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior and other basic research journals that relate to gene‐brain‐behavior relations.
BRIEF FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT OF BIZARRE VOCALIZATIONS IN AN ADULT WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA
Authors: Wilder David A. , Masuda Akihiko , O'Connor Caroline , Baham Melinda
Published: March 2006

Variables responsible for the maintenance of bizarre vocalizations emitted by an adult diagnosed with schizophrenia were examined via a brief functional analysis, and results suggested that the behavior was maintained by attention. A treatment consisting of extinction and differential reinforcement of appropriate vocalizations was effective in reducing bizarre vocalizations and increasing appropriate vocalizations. The use of functional analysis methodology to examine variables that maintain problem behavior in this population is discussed.
EVALUATION OF AN AWARENESS ENHANCEMENT DEVICE FOR THE TREATMENT OF THUMB SUCKING IN CHILDREN
Authors: Stricker Jason M. , Miltenberger Raymond G. , Garlinghouse Matthew A. , Deaver Cristine M. , Anderson Christopher A.
Published: March 2006

An evaluation of the awareness enhancement device (AED) described by Rapp, Miltenberger, and Long (1998) was conducted with 2 children who engaged in thumb sucking past the age at which it was developmentally appropriate. The AED effectively suppressed thumb sucking for both children. Future research evaluating the AED is discussed.
TEACHING CHILDREN WITH AUTISM TO ENGAGE IN CONVERSATIONAL EXCHANGES: SCRIPT FADING WITH EMBEDDED TEXTUAL STIMULI
Authors: Sarokoff Randi A. , Taylor Bridget A. , Poulson Claire L.
Published: March 2006

A multiple baseline across three sets of stimuli was used to assess the effects of a script‐fading procedure using embedded text to teach 2 children with autism to engage in conversation statements about the stimuli. Both students stated all the scripted statements, and unscripted statements also increased. Generalization was assessed with novel peers and with untrained stimuli.
EFFECTS OF POSTING SELF‐SET GOALS ON COLLEGIATE FOOTBALL PLAYERS' SKILL EXECUTION DURING PRACTICE AND GAMES
Authors: Ward Phillip , Carnes Michael
Published: March 2006

The effects of self‐set goals and public posting on athletic performance of 5 collegiate football players was studied. All players were linebackers on a National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics Division II football team. The dependent variables were the percentage of correct occasions when the linebacker (a) positioned himself to cover a specified area on the field during a pass or from the line of scrimmage during a run; (b) moved to the correct position in response to the positioning of the offense; and (c) tackled and stopped the progress of the ball carrier. A multiple baseline design across behaviors showed an immediate increase in the practice performance of the players and a corresponding increase in game performance following introduction of the independent variable. This study extends research using public posting in sport by demonstrating the effects of player‐determined goals and public posting of goal attainment.
THE EFFECTS OF CUMULATIVE PRACTICE ON MATHEMATICS PROBLEM SOLVING
Authors: Mayfield Kristin H. , Chase Philip N.
Published: March 2006

This study compared three different methods of teaching five basic algebra rules to college students. All methods used the same procedures to teach the rules and included four 50‐question review sessions interspersed among the training of the individual rules. The differences among methods involved the kinds of practice provided during the four review sessions. Participants who received cumulative practice answered 50 questions covering a mix of the rules learned prior to each review session. Participants who received a simple review answered 50 questions on one previously trained rule. Participants who received extra practice answered 50 extra questions on the rule they had just learned. Tests administered after each review included new questions for applying each rule (application items) and problems that required novel combinations of the rules (problem‐solving items). On the final test, the cumulative group outscored the other groups on application and problem‐solving items. In addition, the cumulative group solved the problem‐solving items significantly faster than the other groups. These results suggest that cumulative practice of component skills is an effective method of training problem solving.
USE OF A STRUCTURED DESCRIPTIVE ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY TO IDENTIFY VARIABLES AFFECTING PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
Authors: Anderson Cynthia M. , Long Ethan S.
Published: March 2006

This study evaluated a variation of functional assessment methodology, the structured descriptive assessment (SDA). The SDA is conducted in an individual's natural environment and involves systematically manipulating antecedent variables while leaving consequences free to vary. Results were evaluated by comparing the results of an SDA with results obtained from an analogue functional analysis with 4 children who exhibited problem behavior. For 3 of 4 participants, the results of the two assessments suggested similar hypotheses about variables maintaining problem behavior. Interventions based on the results of the SDA were implemented for 3 children and resulted in significant reductions in rates of problem behavior.
THE EFFECTS OF MAGNITUDE AND QUALITY OF REINFORCEMENT ON CHOICE RESPONDING DURING PLAY ACTIVITIES
Authors: Hoch Hannah , McComas Jennifer J. , Johnson LeAnn , Faranda Nicky , Guenther Shayna L.
Published: March 2006

Three boys with autism participated in a study of the effects of magnitude and quality of reinforcement on choice responding. Two concurrent response alternatives were arranged: (a) to play in an area where a peer or sibling was located, or (b) to play in an area where there was no peer or sibling. During one condition, the magnitude (i.e., duration of access to toys) or quality (level of preference) of reinforcement provided for both responses was equal. During the other condition, the magnitude or quality of reinforcement was relatively greater for choosing the play area where the peer or sibling was located than the area where the peer or sibling was not located. Results showed that after repeated exposure to the unequal magnitude or quality condition, the participant increasingly allocated his responses to the play area where the peer or sibling was located. For 2 participants, this pattern of responding was maintained in the subsequent equal magnitude or quality condition. Overall, the analysis suggests that the dimensions of magnitude and quality of reinforcement can be arranged to influence choice responding in favor of playing near a peer or sibling rather than playing alone.
DISCRETE‐TRIAL TRAINING FOR AUTISTIC CHILDREN WHEN REWARD IS DELAYED: A COMPARISON OF CONDITIONED CUE VALUE AND RESPONSE MARKING
Authors: Grindle Corinna F. , Remington Bob
Published: March 2006

Three children with autism were taught to identify pictures of objects. Their speed of acquisition of receptive speech skills was compared across two conditions. In the cue‐value condition, a compound audiovisual stimulus was presented after correct responses and again when a primary reinforcer was delivered after a 5‐s delay; in the response‐marking condition, a second stimulus was presented after both correct and incorrect responses, but not prior to the primary reinforcer. In both conditions primary reinforcement was delayed for 5 s. Although the children learned receptive speech skills in both conditions, acquisition was faster in the cue‐value condition.
VARIABLE EFFECTS OF A BEHAVIORAL TREATMENT PACKAGE ON THE PERFORMANCE OF INLINE ROLLER SPEED SKATERS
Authors: Anderson Gayla , Kirkpatrick Michael A.
Published: March 2006

We investigated the effects of a treatment package on the performance of correct relay tags with 4 inline speed skaters. The treatment package included verbal praise following correct tags, visual feedback of performance data, and instruction for improving performance. Initial gains in the frequency of correct tags were not maintained at 6‐month follow‐up when baselines were reestablished. Performance on the second intervention phase for the 3 original subjects was variable and differed from the initial phase, whereas the original findings were replicated in the 4th subject. Possible reasons for this variability and implications for future research and behavioral sport interventions are considered.
PEER‐MEDIATED REINFORCEMENT PLUS PROMPTING AS TREATMENT FOR OFF‐TASK BEHAVIOR IN CHILDREN WITH ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
Authors: Flood William A. , Wilder David A. , Flood Amy L. , Masuda Akihiko
Published: March 2006

Functional analyses revealed that peer attention was one variable maintaining the off‐task behavior exhibited by 3 students with a diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Peer‐mediated reinforcement plus prompting was then used to reduce off‐task behavior in a simulated classroom environment. Implications for future applications of this procedure with children diagnosed with ADHD are discussed.
MAINTAINING PROFICIENT SUPERVISOR PERFORMANCE WITH DIRECT SUPPORT PERSONNEL: AN ANALYSIS OF TWO MANAGEMENT APPROACHES
Authors: Green Carolyn W. , Rollyson Jeannia H. , Passante Susan C. , Reid Dennis H.
Published: March 2006

A traditional management approach using indirect feedback was compared to an approach involving direct feedback for maintaining supervisory proficiency in observing and providing feedback to staff. Three supervisors participated in each condition. The first 3 supervisors then received direct feedback. Direct feedback was accompanied by high levels of performance relative to the indirect feedback protocol. The need for maintenance procedures with supervisors is discussed.
USING THE PICTURE EXCHANGE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM (PECS) WITH CHILDREN WITH AUTISM: ASSESSMENT OF PECS ACQUISITION, SPEECH, SOCIAL‐COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
Authors: Charlop‐Christy Marjorie H. , Carpenter Michael , Le Loc , LeBlanc Linda A. , Kellet Kristen
Published: March 2006

The picture exchange communication system (PECS) is an augmentative communication system frequently used with children with autism (Bondy & Frost, 1994; Siegel, 2000; Yamall, 2000). Despite its common clinical use, no well‐controlled empirical investigations have been conducted to test the effectiveness of PECS. Using a multiple baseline design, the present study examined the acquisition of PECS with 3 children with autism. In addition, the study examined the effects of PECS training on the emergence of speech in play and academic settings. Ancillary measures of social‐communicative behaviors and problem behaviors were recorded. Results indicated that all 3 children met the learning criterion for PECS and showed concomitant increases in verbal speech. Ancillary gains were associated with increases in social‐communicative behaviors and decreases in problem behaviors. The results are discussed in terms of the provision of empirical support for PECS as well as the concomitant positive side effects of its use.
THE INFLUENCE OF THERAPIST ATTENTION ON SELF‐INJURY DURING A TANGIBLE CONDITION
Authors: Moore James W. , Mueller Michael M. , Dubard Melanie , Roberts Dannell S. , Sterling‐Turner Heather E.
Published: March 2006

This study investigated the effects of therapist attention on the self‐injurious behavior (SIB) of a 6‐year‐old girl with developmental disabilities. After results of a functional analysis indicated that SIB was maintained by attention and tangible reinforcement, tangible conditions with and without contingent verbal attention were compared. Results suggested that the inclusion of verbal attention in a tangible condition may confound functional analysis outcomes for behavior that is maintained by attention.
REINFORCEMENT MAGNITUDE AND RESPONDING DURING TREATMENT WITH DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT
Authors: Lerman Dorothea C. , Kelley Michael E. , Vorndran Christina M. , Kuhn Stephanie A. C. , LaRue Robert H.
Published: March 2006

Basic findings indicate that the amount or magnitude of reinforcement can influence free‐operant responding prior to and during extinction. In this study, the relation between reinforcement magnitude and adaptive behavior was evaluated with 3 children as part of treatment with differential reinforcement. In the first experiment, a communicative response was shaped and maintained by the same reinforcer that was found to maintain problem behavior. Two reinforcement magnitudes (20‐s or 60‐s access to toys or escape from demands) were compared and found to be associated with similar levels of resistance to extinction. The relation between reinforcement magnitude and response maintenance was further evaluated in the second experiment by exposing the communicative response to 20‐s or 300‐s access to toys or escape. Results for 2 participants suggested that this factor may alter the duration of postreinforcement pauses.
THE EFFECTS OF A PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM ON THE OFF‐TASK BEHAVIOR OF ELEMENTARY PHYSICAL EDUCATION STUDENTS
Authors: Ryan Stu , Ormond Tom , Imwold Charles , Rotunda Rob J.
Published: March 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of teacher feedback delivered via a public address system on the off‐task behavior of elementary‐school physical education students. A multiple baseline design across three classes was used in this investigation. Results indicated a consistent decline in off‐task behavior when the public address feedback system was used.
AN EVALUATION OF TWO DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT PROCEDURES WITH ESCAPE EXTINCTION TO TREAT FOOD REFUSAL
Authors: Patel Meeta R. , Piazza Cathleen C. , Martinez Cheryl J. , Volkert Valerie M. , Santana Christine M.
Published: March 2006

Consumption of solids and liquids occurs as a chain of behaviors that may include accepting, swallowing, and retaining the food or drink. In the current investigation, we evaluated the relative effectiveness of differential reinforcement of the first behavior in the chain (acceptance) versus differential reinforcement for the terminal behavior in the chain (mouth clean). Three children who had been diagnosed with a feeding disorder participated. Acceptance remained at zero when differential reinforcement contingencies were implemented for acceptance or mouth clean. Acceptance and mouth clean increased for all 3 participants once escape extinction was added to the differential reinforcement procedures, independent of whether reinforcement was provided for acceptance or for mouth clean. Maintenance was observed in 2 children when escape extinction was removed from the treatment package. The mechanism by which consumption increased is discussed in relation to positive and negative reinforcement contingencies.
EFFECTS OF STRATEGIC VERSUS TACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS ON ADAPTATION TO CHANGING CONTINGENCIES IN CHILDREN WITH ADHD
Authors: Bicard David F. , Neef Nancy A.
Published: March 2006

This study examined the effects of two types of instructions on the academic responding of 4 children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Tactical instructions specified how to distribute responding between two concurrently available sets of math problems associated with different variable‐interval schedules of reinforcement. Strategic instructions provided a strategy to determine the best way to distribute responding. Instruction conditions were counterbalanced in an ABAB/BABA reversal design nested within a multiple baseline across participants design. Experimental sessions consisted of a learning session in which participants were provided with one type of instruction, followed by a test session in which no instruction was provided. The schedules of reinforcement were subsequently reversed during test sessions. When learning and test schedules were identical, the responding of all 4 participants closely matched the reinforcement schedules. When tactical instructions were provided and schedules were subsequently changed, responding often remained under the control of the instructions. When strategic instructions were provided, responding more quickly adapted to the changed contingencies. Analysis of postsession verbal reports indicated correspondence between the participants' verbal descriptions (whether accurate or inaccurate) and their nonverbal patterns of responding.
REINFORCING EFFICACY OF FOOD ON PERFORMANCE DURING PRE‐ AND POSTMEAL SESSIONS
Authors: Zhou Liming , Iwata Brian A. , Shore Bridget A.
Published: March 2006

Assessments were conducted to identify preferred foods for 9 adults with severe to profound mental retardation. Subsequently, the reinforcing effects of each participant's most highly preferred food were evaluated during sessions conducted before and after lunch. Results showed that 4 participants' response rates were higher during premeal sessions than during postmeal sessions. By contrast, pre‐ and postmeal response rates were indistinguishable for the other 5 participants. These results indicate that the reinforcing efficacy of food may (but does not necessarily) diminish following meals and suggest that the influence of meal schedules should be examined on an individual basis when food is used as reinforcement during training sessions.
SHAPING EXHALE DURATIONS FOR BREATH CO DETECTION FOR MEN WITH MILD MENTAL RETARDATION
Authors: Rea Jerry , Williams Dean
Published: March 2006

Roll, Higgins, and Badger (1996) used a carbon monoxide (CO) detector to determine whether participants smoked in a smoking‐cessation study. We sought to replicate their work with adults with mild mental retardation. However, verbal instructions were inadequate to establish stable exhalations of sufficient durations for reliable and accurate CO evaluation. This report describes a shaping procedure that enabled 3 of 4 participants to achieve 20‐s exhalation durations.
ANALYSIS OF RESPONSE COVARIATION AMONG MULTIPLE TOPOGRAPHIES OF FOOD REFUSAL
Authors: Sevin Bart M. , Gulotta Charles S. , Sierp Barbara J. , Rosica Leigh A. , Miller Lorionna J.
Published: March 2006

This study examined the effects of sequentially introducing treatment across multiple topographies of food refusal. Treatment with nonremoval of the spoon produced an increase in food acceptance and a decrease in disruption, but expulsion of food increased. When expulsion was treated, packing of food increased. Finally, when packing was treated, all refusal behaviors remained low, and acceptance continued to occur at high and stable levels.
EVALUATION OF A TREATMENT PACKAGE TO REDUCE RAPID EATING
Authors: Wright Carrie S. , Vollmer Timothy R.
Published: March 2006

We replicated and extended treatment procedures described by Lennox, Miltenberger, and Donnelly (1987) designed to reduce rapid eating. The participant was a 17‐year‐old girl with developmental disabilities who engaged in dangerously high rates of food ingestion. The procedure involved an adjusting differential‐reinforcement‐of‐low‐rate‐responding (DRL) schedule, response blocking, and prompts. We evaluated a continuation of the treatment despite initial negative side effects that were similar to those reported by Lennox et al. Results showed that the treatment package was effective and negative side effects eventually decreased.
FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF STEREOTYPICAL EAR COVERING IN A CHILD WITH AUTISM
Authors: Tang Jung‐Chang , Kennedy Craig H. , Koppekin Amy , Caruso Mary
Published: March 2006

We studied stereotypical ear covering in a child with autism. Results of a descriptive analysis were inconclusive but revealed a correlation between ear covering and another child's screaming. An analogue functional analysis showed that ear covering was emitted only when the screaming was present.
ANALYSIS OF PRECURRENT SKILLS IN SOLVING MATHEMATICS STORY PROBLEMS
Authors: Neef Nancy A. , Nelles Diane E. , Iwata Brian A. , Page Terry J.
Published: March 2006

We conducted an analysis of precurrent skills (responses that increase the effectiveness of a subsequent or “current” behavior in obtaining a reinforcer) to facilitate the solution of arithmetic word (story) problems. Two students with developmental disabilities were taught four precurrent responses (identifying the initial value, change value, operation, and resulting value) in a sequential manner. Results of a multiple baseline design across behaviors showed that the teaching procedures were effective in increasing correct performance of each of the precurrent behaviors with untaught problems during probes and that once the precurrent behaviors were established, the number of correct problem solutions increased.
THE EFFECTS OF EXTINCTION, NONCONTINGENT REINFORCEMENT, AND DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT OF OTHER BEHAVIOR AS CONTROL PROCEDURES
Authors: Thompson Rachel H. , Iwata Brian A. , Hanley Gregory P. , Dozier Claudia L. , Samaha Andrew L.
Published: March 2006

Several techniques have been used in applied research as controls for the introduction of a reinforcement contingency, including extinction, noncontingent reinforcement (NCR), and differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO). Little research, however, has examined the relative strengths and limitations of these “reversal” controls. We compared the effects of extinction with those of NCR and DRO in both multielement and reversal designs, with respect to (a) rate and amount of response decrement, (b) rate of response recovery following reintroduction of reinforcement, and (c) any positive or negative side effects associated with transitions. Results indicated that extinction generally produced the most consistent and rapid reversal effects, with few observed negative side effects.