bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Hermeneutics
Authors: Hilton‐Morrow Wendy , Harrington Austin
Published: September 2017

Hermeneutics is a branch of sociology concerned with human understanding and interpretation. Originally applied solely to texts, sociologists have applied hermeneutics to social events by examining participants' understandings of the events from the standpoint of their specific historical and cultural context. Hermeneutics is opposed to the view that social phenomena can be grasped adequately by reference to invariant laws of cause and effect or statistical regularities, as with positivist and behaviorist approaches and some elements of functionalist theory. Hermeneutics is one among a range of approaches to meaning, symbolization, and representation in social life that includes semiotics, structuralism, deconstruction, and discourse analysis.
Heterosexual Imaginary
Authors: Ingraham Chrys
Published: September 2017

Culture installs meaning in our lives from the very first moment we enter the social world. Our sexual orientation or sexual identity is defined by the symbolic order of that world through the use of verbal as well as nonverbal language. How we come to understand what it means to be heterosexual is a product of a culture's symbolic order and its organizing practices. Heterosexuality as a
social
category is much more than the fact of one's sexual or affectional attractions. What we think of when we talk about heterosexuality or refer to ourselves as heterosexual is a product of a society's meaning‐making processes. In reality, heterosexuality operates as a highly organized social institution that varies across culture, history, region, religion, ethnicity, nationality, race, lifespan, social class, and ability.
Heterosexuality
Authors: Jackson Stevi
Published: September 2017

Before we can even discuss heterosexuality, we need some terminology clarification. The words “sex” and “sexual” can be used to refer to the erotic (e.g., “having sex,” “sexual fantasies”) or to denote differences between men and women (as in “the two sexes” or “the sexual division of labor”). This semantic confusion reflects some of the taken‐for‐granted assumptions underpinning everyday understandings of sexuality: that to be born with a particular set of genitals (“sex organs”) defines one as a member of a particular “sex” (male or female) and as destined to be erotically (“sexually”) attracted to and to “have sex” with the other “sex.” The introduction of the concept of gender, which emphasized the social character of the division between women and men, and the emergence of social constructionist perspectives on sexuality have made it possible to demystify the relationship between genitals, gender, and heterosexuality. Some confusion, however, persists in that some theorists continue to use “sex” to denote what sociologists generally term “gender.” In what follows, unless otherwise stated, gender refers to all aspects of the division and distinction between women and men, while the words sex, sexual, and sexuality are reserved for erotic aspects of life.
Hidden Curriculum
Authors: Hamilton Laura , Powell Brian
Published: September 2017

The hidden curriculum refers to the unofficial rules, routines, and structures of schools through which students learn behaviors, values, beliefs, and attitudes. Elements of the hidden curriculum do not appear in schools” written goals, formal lesson plans, or learning objectives although they may reflect culturally dominant social values and ideas about what schools should teach. Of the three major approaches to the hidden curriculum, the functionalist orientation is most concerned with how hidden curricula reproduce unified societies, the conflict perspective focuses on the reproduction of stratified societies, and symbolic interactionism more fully incorporates interactional context to our understanding of the hidden curriculum.
Hierarchical Linear Models
Authors: Roberts J. Kyle
Published: September 2017

The history of hierarchical linear modeling (also called multilevel modeling) can be linked to the seminal work of Robinson (1950) in recognizing contextual effects. The theory that Robinson illustrated is also sometimes referred to as the “frog/pond” theory and bears discussion here. Suppose that a biologist has two frogs lying on an examination table that both weigh 500 grams and are both 1 year old. Consider further that Frog A was drawn from Pond A where it was the largest 1‐year‐old frog in the pond, and Frog B was drawn from Pond B where it was the smallest 1‐year‐old frog in the pond. The possible disregard of the contextual effect of the frogs' habitat could lead to some erroneous conclusions about frog development if the two frogs were considered outside of the pond from which they were drawn.
High School Sports
Authors: Rees C. Roger
Published: September 2017

High school sports, arguably the most popular extracurricular activity in American schools, have been inextricably linked to the ideology of modernity. Conventional wisdom has it that participants in interscholastic athletics learn educational skills necessary for success in higher education and positive cultural values upon which they can draw as they develop into productive and well‐balanced adults. In short, there is widespread public faith that participation in sports “builds character” in the broadest sense of the term. This faith has, for the most part, remained unshaken despite three decades of sociological research from diverse theoretical perspectives that has produced mixed findings about the effects of interscholastic athletic participation.
High‐Speed Transportation Pollution
Authors: Hasegawa Koichi
Published: September 2017

High‐speed transportation pollution refers to a type of environmental pollution consisting of high levels of noise, vibration, and air pollution brought about by high‐speed transportation systems such as the airplane and airport, the “bullet” (super‐express) train, or the traffic expressway. These disturbances cause damage to daily life such as sleep deprivation or the disturbance of conversation at home, as well as stress‐related health issues like heart disease or gastrointestinal disease. Bullet trains, jet airplanes, and high‐speed expressways are essential to highly industrialized modern urban life. They are basic conditions for developing efficient modern economies, greatly reducing the time and cost of moving goods and people over large distances. In most countries, high‐speed transportation pollution is serious along the train line, the expressway, or the area surrounding the airport. It is especially serious in metropolitan areas and in high population density countries like Japan.
Hinduism
Authors: Madan T. N.
Published: September 2017

Use of the English term “Hinduism” (and its equivalents in various European languages) to designate certain aspects of the cultural traditions of Hindus anywhere is commonplace, but it is relatively recent and not wholly unproblematic. The idea that the Hindus must have a “religion” comparable to Christianity and worthy of study originated with British administrators and scholars in India in the last quarter of the eighteenth century. These scholars, known as the Orientalists, devoted themselves to the study and translation of textual materials, mainly in Sanskrit, some of which they identified as religious and others as secular texts. By the time the British parliament allowed proselytization among the “natives” of India in 1813, the word Hinduism had come into use. Christian missionaries also devoted themselves to the study of religious texts and the observation of religious practices, but unlike the admiring Orientalists their primary aim was to expose the “wickedness” of polytheistic and idolatrous religions and to highlight the “perfection” of Christianity.
Hirschfeld, Magnus (1868–1935)
Authors: Plummer Ken
Published: September 2017

Magnus Hirschfield was a pioneering German sex researcher and reformer at the center of many controversies. His work changed thinking on homosexuality, the “third sex,” and transvestism. He organized the Scientific Humanitarian Committee and was widely influential, but his work was much attacked from different angles and his Institut für Sexualwissenschaft closed down. Recently his work has been reclaimed as important.
HIV
/
AIDS
and Population
Authors: Brown Lisanne F. , VanLandingham Mark
Published: September 2017

As we enter the fourth decade of the global human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic, the dramatic demographic impacts seen in the first 30 years are finally moderating in those countries where treatment of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is widespread and effectively implemented. Antiretroviral therapy was not introduced on a wide scale in sub‐Saharan Africa until 2004. And it took a decade of scaling up and improvement for treatment to begin to show a significant effect on population size and structure in some regions.
Hobhouse, L. T. (1864–1929)
Authors: Sanderson Stephen K.
Published: September 2017

Leonard Trelawney Hobhouse was born in 1864 in Cornwall, England. His father was rector of the local parish church, and his grandfather had been a distinguished barrister and public servant (Owen 1974). Educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, he became a tutor there in 1887. In 1907 he became the first person to hold the Martin White Chair of Sociology at the University of London. In addition to his academic career, Hobhouse spent time as a journalist, working for the
Manchester Guardian
between 1897 and 1902. Later he spent time as a journalist in London (Owen 1974).
Holocaust
Authors: Emil Katz Fred
Published: September 2017

The stark facts of the Holocaust can be summarized. When Adolf Hitler and his National Socialist Party came to power in Germany in 1933, they initiated measures against Germany's Jews. Before their rise to power the Nazis, under Hitler, had openly and vehemently blamed Jews for all of Germany's ills in the years following the country's loss of World War I (1914–18). After they gained power, the Nazi anti‐Jewish measures included use of the existing legal machinery of the German state to devise and implement increasingly restrictive measures against Germany's Jewish population. These measures incrementally but inexorably deprived Jews of more and more rights of citizenship and capacity of living their daily lives. The legal measures were augmented by sporadic brutal attacks by organized thugs that molested and terrorized individuals and communities of Jews. The most extreme of these occurred on the night of November 9, 1938, theKristallnacht, where a nationwide attack on Jews took place. Yet all of these eventually turned out to be preliminaries to an active and focused program to actually exterminate all Jews who came within Germany's reach during World War II – the war of 1939 to 1945. During the early years of that war Germany had overrun and conquered most of continental Europe, a land mass that included millions of Jews who had been living in the various countries now under German control. The actual extermination of Jews relied, at first, on the direct execution of individuals by individual German soldiers and paramilitary functionaries of the state – most notably the SS. Although this took place on a huge scale, the extermination plan was so grandiose that more elaborate systems of mass murder were devised, most notably a system of concentration camps that served as extermination factories, using lethal gas and the burning of bodies on a mass scale never before seen. The Auschwitz concentration camp, located in Poland, was the most notorious but not the only camp of this kind. Murdered at Auschwitz were some 2 million innocent persons, most of them Jews, but also others whom the Nazi ideologues regarded as unworthy of living in their utopian vision of the superstate dominated by pure Nordics. It is estimated that the Nazis managed to murder some 6 million Jews before their rampage was stopped by the victory of the Allies that ended the war. This genocide, this deliberate and systematic murder of 6 million humans beings, is doubtless the largest effort of its kind in all of human history.
Homophobia
Authors: Dean James J.
Published: September 2017

Three important areas of research have emerged on homophobia over the last 30 years. Since Weinberg (1972) first popularized the term homophobia in his book
Society and the Healthy Homosexual
, where he defined it as “the dread of being in close quarters with homosexuals,” we have seen the emergence of sophisticated psychological instruments, a vast array of surveys, qualitative ethnographies, and interview studies that explore the attitudes, feelings, and social practices that constitute homophobia.
Homophobia and Heterosexism
Authors: Adam Barry D.
Published: September 2017

Homophobia is perhaps the most widely understood term to refer to anti‐homosexual attitudes and practices, but comparison of such terms as homophobia, heterosexism, and heteronormativity reveals how these terms rely on different ideas of what homosexual means, and where opposition to same‐sex relations originates. Homophobia typically denotes, like other phobias, an irrational fear or a set of mistaken ideas held by prejudiced individuals; its alleviation therefore likely comes through therapy or education. Popularized through George Weinberg's 1973 book,
Society and the Healthy Homosexual
, homophobia is a concept with strong roots in psychology. Its use tends to focus attention on individuals, to locate its origins in childhood socialization, and to conceive of it as a prejudice directed against homosexual persons. Heterosexism tends to be used less widely, but it offers a more sociological notion of practices that are embedded in social structures and reinforced by ideology. Use of a term like heterosexism shifts analysis to the ways in which the social institutions of government, workplace, religion, family, and media are organized to exclude or disadvantage same‐sex relations. Resolving heterosexism implies reforming or reorganizing social institutions in ways that allow and support same‐sex relationships. Finally, heteronormativity is a term used most often in literary studies, which see both homosexuality and anti‐homosexuality as effects of binary distinctions made in language. Textual deconstruction typically seeks to find how and why such distinctions as heterosexual–homosexual arise and are reproduced. If distinctions of this kind were not made at all, or least were of little significance, then presumably anti‐homosexuality could scarcely come about either. For queer theory, the issue is not one of appealing for tolerance or acceptance for a quasi‐ethnic, twenty‐first‐century urban community of lesbians and gay men, but of shaking up or transgressing the entire heterosexual–homosexual binary that fuels the distinction in the first place.
Homosexuality
Authors: Hekma Gert
Published: September 2017

Homosexuality refers to sexual behaviors and desires between males or between females.
Gay
refers to self‐identification with such practices and desires. Gay and homosexual are both terms mostly used only for men. Lesbian is its female counterpart. Such definitions have run into major problems, and nowadays the concept
queer
is used to indicate the fluency of sexual practices and gender performances.
Hospitals
Authors: Potter Sharyn J.
Published: September 2017

Hospitals are institutions where people in need of medical care receive medical and surgical treatment from trained professionals. The discovery of antiseptics and medical technological advances transformed the American hospital from the death and poor houses of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to the cornerstone of today's medical care (Starr 1982). The twenty‐first century American hospital provides the sick, injured, and healthy with a myriad of diagnostic, medical, and surgical treatment options. The federal government helped solidify the modern hospital as a local institution when the 1945 Hill Burton Act provided federal money for every community to build or expand their existing hospital (Stevens 1989). Hospitals ranging in size from 10–1,000 beds now dot the American landscape. In urban areas hospitals resemble small cities, complete with gourmet restaurants and banking services.
Human‐Non‐Human Interaction
Authors: Sanders Clinton R.
Published: September 2017

Human interaction with non‐human animals is a central feature of contemporary social life. The majority of households include at least one companion animal, more people visit zoos each year than attend professional sporting events, people are more likely to carry photographs of their pets than of their children, married women report that their pets are more important sources of affection than are their husbands or children, and more money is spent on pet food than on baby food (Arluke 2003). Despite the fact that human interactions with animals are so commonplace, they have, until fairly recently, been virtually ignored within sociology. This prosaic disregard of human–animal exchanges is based on a variety of core assumptions. Sociology is conventionally seen as the study ofhumansocial structures and relationships. Sociologists also hold to the Cartesian liguacentric assumption that because animals lack the ability to employ spoken language they are consequently mindless and selfless. And, as Arluke (2003) has observed, sociologists who specialize in the investigation of inequality and oppression tend to be suspicious of the study of non‐human animals because it may be seen as trivializing their focal concerns.
Human Resource Management
Authors: Hogan John , Martínez Lucio Miguel
Published: September 2017

Human resource management (HRM) has various definitions, but in the main there are two general approaches. The first descriptive approach states that HRM is the managing of employees and human assets at work and within the organization in an integrated and coherent manner. The second approach elaborates this further by stating that HRM is distinct to previous forms of personnel administration in being proactive and therefore strategic: it concerns itself with soliciting higher forms of employee commitment and motivation. It is therefore both a relationship with organizations and a dedicated field of academic enquiry that has developed under this heading since the early 1980s.
Hyperconsumption/Overconsumption
Authors: Schulz Jeremy
Published: September 2017

Social critics and social scientists, on observing the transformations of American and Western European societies throughout the twentieth century, have relied on terms such as “overconsumption,” “consumptionism,” “new consumerism,” and “hyperconsumption” to convey the increasingly central role played by the acquisition and consumption of goods and services in the lives of individuals, the shaping of cultural forms, and the dynamics of social organization.
Hyperreality
Authors: Ryan Michael T.
Published: September 2017

The capitalist mode of production has gone through some significant changes in the twentieth century (according to Henri Lefebvre, a mutation). A number of French social theorists inspired by Marx have attempted to grasp this process with new concepts and theories, especially in relation to new cultural forms and processes (e.g., media technologies) that are no longer treated as epiphenomenal superstructures that are reducible to the economic substructure of capitalism as orthodox Marxists have traditionally conceptualized this relation. Cultural phenomena have become critical forces in the moments of distribution, exchange, and consumption of commodities in late capitalism. The heroic age of the revolutionary bourgeoisie ended around 1910 with the decline of all of the referentials of classic capitalism: clock time, the vanishing point in art, the work ethic and productive values, history, proletarian revolution, etc. Class strategy has shifted from the organization of production to the bureaucratic organization of consumption and everyday life. The age of simulation begins with the liquidation of referentials, according to Jean Baudrillard. Signs and signifiers have become detached from their referents, from reality, and now only refer to each other. For example, according to Mark Gottdiener, Las Vegas casinos have a variety of themes and constitute a structure of differences that have nothing to do with the gambling and profit‐taking that goes on in them. What is the social and historical relation between a simulated pyramid and the gambling, entertainment, and profit‐taking that takes place there? If fantasies connected to ancient Egypt do not do anything for the consumer, there are a number of other fantasies with which to play (e.g., tropical paradise, the Wild West, simulated urban environments, etc.). For Umberto Eco, in themed environments like wax museums “[absolute] unreality is offered as real presence … The sign aims to be the thing, to abolish the distinction of the reference.” For Baudrillard, hyperreality “is the generation by models of a real without origin or reality.” The production and reproduction of the real or the hyperreal is what material production is all about in our postmodern society. Simulations, signs, and codes now structure social relations and social practices rather than the capital/labor production relations of classical capitalism. Modern men and women have been set adrift in a sea of signifiers and simulations.
Ford, Henry (1863–1947)
Authors: Crowley Martha
Published: September 2017

Recognized for revolutionizing automobile production with improvements in efficiency, stimulating consumption via price reductions, and stemming worker resistance first with high wages, then through repressive anti‐union tactics, Henry Ford left an indelible imprint on production, the nature of work, and industrial relations in the twentieth century. His highly profitable techniques also diffused widely, paving the way for economic expansion following World War II.
Ford, Henry (1863–1947)
Authors: Crowley Martha
Published: September 2017

Henry Ford (1863–1947) incorporated assembly lines, interchangeable parts, division of labor, and other innovations, enabling the Ford Motor Company to mass produce automobiles and dominate the automobile market for several years in the early twentieth century. Although highly productive, Ford's manufacturing process came at a considerable cost to workers. Ford instituted the famous “Five‐Dollar Day” in 1914 to stem the resulting high rates of absenteeism and turnover. Following economic recession and increases in worker activism, he reverted to more repressive and violent measures to quell resistance and thwart unionization.
Hope
Authors: Amsler Sarah
Published: September 2017

Hope most generally refers to a desire for positive futures that are considered possible, either theoretically or in practice, but not guaranteed. Whether “open” and “absolute” or “goal‐directed” and “ultimate,” hope is the expression of a belief in the possibility of possibility (Webb 2007). Beyond this generality, however, the term signifies a contested terrain of understandings of future‐oriented thought, feeling, and action. While there have been some recent attempts to systematize these definitions (for example, see Crapanzo 2003; Webb 2007), the concept remains discursively diverse. In sociology, hope is commonly associated with problems of subjectivity, agency, social and political change, and utopianism; however, in other fields it is also related to ontology and epistemology (philosophy), religious faith (theology), cognitive and affective expectation (science, bioscience, and technology), well‐being and health (medicine), cultural adaptation and survival (anthropology), motivation and self‐esteem (psychology), imagination (creative arts), and pedagogy (education). It has been variously described as an element of human nature, experience, way of knowing, form of action or behavior, learned orientation to the future, discourse, and state of consciousness.
Hurricane Katrina
Authors: Peek Lori , Erikson Kai
Published: September 2017

“Katrina” was initially the code‐name given to a powerful hurricane that gathered force out in the Atlantic in the summer of 2005, moved across the southern tip of Florida, and then landed with a vengeance on the US Gulf Coast. The reason “Katrina” has become a prominent name in modern history and has earned a place in this encyclopedia, however, has to do with its aftereffects.
Hurricanes
are measured by the velocity of their winds, the height of their storm surges, and other similar properties. But
disasters
are measured by their impact on the human environment, and on that scale Katrina will be remembered as the most destructive disaster in the American experience.
Identity Control Theory
Authors: Burke Peter J.
Published: September 2017

Identity control theory explains the nature of identities, and how people develop, maintain, and change the multiple identities they hold as role incumbents (e.g., father, student, truck‐driver), as group or social category members (e.g., member of a church, family, race or gender category), or as unique individuals (e.g., dominant, intellectual). This entry describes these different types of identities, the process of identity verification through which these identities are maintained or changed, as well as the consequences of the verification process for the individual and for society.
Identity Politics/Relational Politics
Authors: Wasson Leslie
Published: September 2017

Human society is no stranger to exercises of interpersonal power and identity politics. The annals of political history are replete with descriptions of these exercises. Power is the ability to get what you want with or without the consent or cooperation of others. Effects of deployed power are observable at the structural and institutional levels of society, and in face‐to‐face interactions. A discussion of identity politics (sometimes also called relational politics) may focus on either the class or group level or the level of personal interactions. The subject of interpersonal politics rests within a set of related concepts, such as the distribution of social power, social location and status, and a stratified system in which these interpersonal resources may be valued and utilized for purposes of individual or group advantage over other individuals or groups.
Identity, Sport and
Authors: Stevenson Chris
Published: September 2017

Identity is a rather loose concept which has various degrees of currency in a number of different disciplines. For example, Bosma et al. (1994) have argued that there is little consensus in the field of psychology about the phenomena to which the term identity might refer. They go on to suggest that, as a result, different definitions of identity not only have led to the development of different schools within psychology, each with its own theoretical and empirical traditions, but that scholars appear to know little about, or prefer to ignore, what is happening beyond the boundaries of their own school.
Ideology
Authors: Henning Christoph
Published: September 2017

An ideology is a system of shared beliefs that is relevant for social action, integration, and social stability, though it is not necessarily true. Ideologies are very important for sociology: if there was no ideology, we would not need sociology. Because people's opinions of how society works differ from how society actually works, a science of society is necessary in the first place. It is not necessary for society to function that people have true beliefs about society. Rather, every social group holds its own beliefs to be true. If one group of people believes another group of people's set of beliefs to be false, they will call this belief system an ideology. Implicit in this denunciation is the claim of the first group to possess a more accurate theory of society. But such claims have become rare nowadays – at least, the term ideology is hardly used any more. After the cultural turn, this term lost its former prominence, for a simple reason: today, the claim to possess the one and only “true” theory of society is highly discredited. It was replaced by postmodernist pluralism. Here you can only investigate different discourses, without claiming that they are false. All of them are part of a certain culture, whether we like them or not. Nevertheless, in current public discourse there are many sentiments that could very well be called ideological from a sociological point of view.
Illness Behavior
Authors: Angel Ronald
Published: September 2017

While the phrase health behavior refers to behaviors that individuals engage in to maintain health, the phrase illness behavior has been used to refer to the responses that individuals engage in after they become ill, presumably in an effort to get well. Many classic theoretical attempts to understand this process focused on what was conceived of as the illness career or the sick role. These theories (and later approaches) attempted to understand how an individual's perceptions, experience, and expression of symptoms, as well as their decisions concerning the appropriate course of action, are influenced by and interact with professional models of illness, provided primarily by physicians, to determine how the illness career is structured. Indeed, one of the most intriguing and important aspect of illness behavior models has to do with understanding compliance and the identification of those individual, cultural, and social factors that lead individuals to ignore or to follow medical advice.
Imanishi, Kinji (1902–1992)
Authors: Asquith Pamela J.
Published: September 2017

Kinji Imanishi was an ecologist, anthropologist, and founder of primatology in Japan. His basic view emphasized cooperation rather than competition in the natural world. This view held that “lifestyle partitioning” (sumiwake) among coexisting species explained the origin, or differentiation, of species. His concept of “species society” (specia) likewise focused on members of a species as a whole and their interactions with one another that maintain an equilibrium, rather than on the morphological differences and reproductive fitness of individual members of the species. He returned to these views many times in the course of his critiques of the predominance of natural selection theory to explain evolution.
Induction and Observation in Science
Authors: Tudor Andrew
Published: September 2017

One of the most persistent commonsense accounts of science is that in which scientists are understood to assemble observations systematically and to arrive at reliable generalizations based on them. Sometimes, wrongly, this simple inductive‐empiricist view is laid at the door of Francis Bacon (1561–1626) and dubbed “Baconian inductivism.” In fact, Bacon's views were considerably more complex than this, but the hare that he set running – inductive inference as the heart of scientific method – has subsequently been pursued by all manner of hounds. The Scottish Enlightenment philosopher David Hume (1711–1776) was pre‐eminent among the early pursuers, and to this day “Hume's problem” continues to preoccupy the philosophy of science. In the mid‐twentieth century, there was a period when the seemingly more powerful hypothetico‐deductive model of scientific inquiry appeared to have run inductivism and Hume's problem to exhaustion. However, it rapidly became apparent that the issues surrounding inductive inference had a peculiar capacity to re‐emerge from the coverts of deductive certainty, not least where the nature of observation itself was questioned. Into the space thus created have hastened newer, more relativistic epistemologies and, in full cry, the sociology of science.
Industrial Relations
Authors: Hogan John , Nolan Peter
Published: September 2017

The material origins of industrial relations, both in practice and in research, can be traced to the movement from early to advanced capitalism. The rise of capitalism, centering on the purchase and sale of labor power, ushered in a new structure of relations between the direct producers and their controllers. Workers were brought together in centralized work stations and subjected to an authority relationship and hierarchical division of labor. The bosses had the right to hire and fire their charges, set their wages, and dictate the hours and intensity of work. The detailed division of labor was entrenched and reinforced in the factories, thus rendering worker solidarity and collective organization difficult. But the unbridled authority of bosses eventually came to be challenged. Workers formed embryonic unions and relations between workers and their masters became increasingly fraught.
Industrial Revolution
Authors: Nielsen François
Published: September 2017

The Industrial Revolution (IR) is the rapid increase in the use of machines powered by inanimate forms of energy (such as waterfalls, steam engines powered by coal, or electricity) that began in England in the later part of the eighteenth century. There are two perspectives on the scope of the subject. The IR may be viewed both as (1) a well‐defined historical episode, delimited in time and space, or (2) a much broader phase of sociocultural evolution that is continuing to this day. In the first approach there is much agreement about the place (England) and time (the late 1700s). The year 1750 can be taken as a reasonable nominal date for the beginning of the IR (Nolan & Lenski 2004), although it might be considered early by some historians. The second approach is more encompassing, as it views the economic and social transformations of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries as all part of the unfolding of the IR.
Inequality and the City
Authors: Elliott James R. , Haney Timothy J.
Published: September 2017

Urban sociology emerged from the fertile ground of US cities during the early 1900s as a means of understanding social problems and the processes that produce them. Central to the field's conceptualization and analysis of these social problems was, and remains, the idea of inequality, defined loosely as the uneven distribution of social resources and actors relative to one another. As such, the term “inequality and the city” is best understood as a conceptual umbrella that spans a broad range of subtopics and research traditions within urban sociology, rather than as a single subfield in its own right. For heuristic purposes, we can organize this material into two subject matters: inequalityamongcities and inequalitywithincities.
Inequality, Wealth
Authors: Wilterdink Nico
Published: September 2017

In all human societies beyond a certain minimum size, material possessions (such as land, animals, houses, tools, and consumption goods) are distributed unequally among individuals and groups. In so far as these possessions have a monetary or exchange value, this unequal distribution can be expressed as inequality of wealth. Besides, and related to, income inequality, wealth inequality is an aspect of economic inequality which in turn is a dimension of social inequality in the wide sense. Wealth can be defined as the monetary value of the sum total of assets or goods belonging to a certain unit. This unit may vary from a national society (national wealth) to an individual person (individual wealth). Personal wealth is the wealth owned by an individual person or a multiperson consumption unit, a household or family. Wealth inequality is usually understood as the unequal distribution of personal wealth.
Interaction Order
Authors: Jacobs Mark D.
Published: September 2017

The interaction order, produced by systems of enabling conventions that emerge to manage social situations of co‐bodily presence, is the central concept of Erving Goffman's sociology. It is analytically distinct from both macro‐ and microstructures. As a theoretical construct, it is a Simmelian–Durkheimian hybrid. Its influence extends directly over a broad and diverse range of contemporary theorists.
Intergenerational Mobility: Core Model of Social Fluidity
Authors: Breen Richard
Published: September 2017

The analysis of intergenerational social mobility is usually carried out using log‐linear or log‐multiplicative statistical models applied to a contingency table which cross‐classifies individuals’ current class (usually called “class destination”) with the class in which they were brought up (“class origin”). An important distinction is between absolute and relative mobility (sometimes called “social fluidity”). Absolute mobility refers to the distribution of cases in the mobility table. Social fluidity refers to the inequality between individuals from different classes in their chances of coming to occupy one rather than another destination class. It is captured by odds ratios which are measured as the proportion of cases that originate in class A and are found in destination class X rather than class Y, divided by the proportion of cases from origin class B which are found in destination X rather than Y. An odds ratio of one indicates that the chances of being in destination class X rather than in Y are the same for those originating in both A and B, while an odds ratio greater than one shows that those born in A are more likely than those born in B to be in X rather than Y, and conversely for an odds ratio less than one. An important feature of odds ratios is that they are unaffected by any scalar multiplication of one or more rows and/or columns of a table: thus, inequalities in access to particular class destinations can be compared across mobility tables, despite the fact that they differ in their distributions of origins and destinations.
Intergenerational Relationships and Exchanges
Authors: Biblarz Timothy J. , Bengtson Vern L. , Silverstein Merril
Published: September 2017

The study of intergenerational relationships and exchange is about the structure and process of sharing that occurs in the linked lives of grandparents, parents, and children (and sometimes extended kin) as they move along the life course. Like the discipline of sociology, this subfield emerged in the wake of rapid industrialization, urbanization, and expansion of the state's role in families (e.g., the education of children and caring for the elderly), and is concerned with how these major social changes altered extended family ties, the role of grandparents, and parent–child relationships. Middletown researchers in the 1920s, for example, observed challenges to parental control as children's individualistic aspirations began to compete with family obligations. In the US, parents' relationships with children have since shifted from an emphasis on obedience and strict conformity to developing children's autonomy and independence. In Japan, South Korea, and other countries, the significance of filial piety seems to be diminishing, raising new questions about who should care for the old and young.
Interracial Unions
Authors: Roberts Alison
Published: September 2017

Interracial unions refer to romantic relationships between people of different racial categories. Generally, the term indicates married (and hence, heterosexual) status, as it is more feasible to identify and carry out social research on this population than non‐married, non‐cohabiting, and/or same‐sex interracial couples. Sociological inquiry of racial intermarriage stems from the study of assimilation and understanding the social evolution of societies with significant immigration. Researchers employ both qualitative and quantitative methods to study interracial unions: a macro‐level perspective involves examining demographic data to identify cultural patterns, and a micro‐level approach focuses on the cultural meaning – derived from social interaction – of an interracial relationship to the couple and to their family, friends, and community. In recent years more attention has been devoted to the study of the identity of the offspring of interracial unions, but the study of interracial marriage remains sociologically relevant – the rate of interracial marriages can be an indicator of levels of proximity or distance across racial lines, tolerance or prejudice of different groups, and the malleability of the boundaries of racial categories. Interracial unions are studied by sociologists with an interest in racial and ethnic relations as well as those interested in the family.
Intervention Studies
Authors: Boruch Robert F. , Scull Janie
Published: September 2017

This entry covers the idea of intervention studies in various disciplines and the empirical questions that such studies entail. It includes illustrative studies and describes standards that have been developed by government agencies and professional groups to judge the quality of evidence generated by the studies.
Invasion‐Succession
Authors: Lee Barrett A.
Published: September 2017

Invasion‐succession (hereafter IS) has enjoyed considerable popularity among social scientists as a framework for understanding community change. In its simplest form, IS refers to the replacement of one population group or land use by another within a particular geographical environment. Due to mounting awareness of the complexities surrounding the process of change, however, the IS model no longer occupies the status of conventional wisdom that it did throughout much of the last century.
International Monetary Fund
Authors: Lee Susan Hagood
Published: September 2017

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a multilateral financial organization that provides short‐term lending to governments, promotes free trade and fiscal austerity policies, and collects financial data on the world economy. Its 186 member states agree to follow fiscal and monetary policies conducive to international financial stability and to allow IMF supervision of their national policy regimes. IMF membership is a precondition for membership in its sister organization, the World Bank, the world's leading source of development funding, and IMF loans typically open access to bilateral and commercial loans. The IMF thus serves as gatekeeper to the international financial system. IMF loans typically carry policy conditions such as reductions in government spending, lower trade barriers, elimination of subsidies, and higher interest rates. Critics have charged that these policies hurt the poor, precipitate financial crises, and protect the interests of western financial institutions at the expense of impoverished nations.
Institutional Ethnography
Authors: Grahame Peter R. , Grahame Kamini Maraj
Published: September 2017

Institutional ethnography (IE) is an approach to sociological inquiry associated with the work of the internationally recognized Canadian social theorist Dorothy E. Smith. Studies in institutional ethnography involve developing a problematic that explores how individuals' experiences in the everyday world are shaped by wider social relations. Local experience serves as the point of departure for studying relations of power within institutional complexes. IE's innovations are concerned with developing an ethnographic approach to studying phenomena of ruling that are more conventionally considered to be the province of macrosociologies. A key facet of this approach is the study of the role of texts in coordinating social relations.
James, William (1842–1910)
Authors: Page Frank J.
Published: September 2017

William James (1842–1910) was the son of a theologian and brother of the novelist Henry James. He taught psychology and philosophy at Harvard University. HisPrinciples of Psychology(1890) is the foundation for much of modern psychology. An annotated version,On Psychology: Briefer Course, was published in 1892. Other major works includeThe Will to Believe(1897),Human Immortality(1898),The Varieties of Religious Experience(1902),Pragmatism(1907), andThe Meaning of Truth(1909). Along with Charles S. Peirce, John Dewey, and others, he was instrumental in establishing American pragmatism, which had a strong influence on symbolic interactionism, American educational practices, and contemporary epistemological issues. His conceptions of psychology, consciousness, cognition, self, self‐esteem, stream of consciousness, and habit have a profound relevance for many sociological assumptions regarding the nature of society and its influence on human conduct.
Judaism
Authors: Lavender Abraham D.
Published: September 2017

Judaism is one of the world's oldest religions, characterized by a belief in one God (monotheism), a belief that the Torah is the source of divine knowledge and law, and that the Jews, because the Torah was given to them after other peoples turned it down, have an obligation to be a light unto the world. The Torah is also referred to as the holy scriptures. It is the first five books (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy) of what Christians refer to as the Old Testament. In Hebrew, the word
Torah
means “teaching.” In a larger sense the Torah consists not only of the five books, but includes all of Jewish tradition. The belief in monotheism is affirmed in the Shema, the first line and essence of which comes from Deuteronomy 6:4, and is translated as “Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is One.” Judaism does not claim to be the only true religion, but rather teaches that there are different ways of reaching God.
Juvenile Delinquency
Authors: Maahs Jeff
Published: September 2017

Juvenile delinquency refers to behaviors of children and adolescents that violate the legal code. Some jurisdictions further distinguish “delinquent offenses,” those that violate criminal law, from “status offenses” (e.g., curfew violation, truancy) that apply only to minors. The legal status of “juvenile delinquent” is relatively new. The concept of delinquency is rooted, however, in an ancient debate over when children can form criminal intent and bear criminal responsibility for their actions, and whether/how they should be officially sanctioned. Some of the earliest written legal codes make distinctions in the punishments available for children and adult offenders. By the seventeenth century, English common law adopted a classification system where children under 8 years of age were immune from criminal prosecution. For youth aged 8 to 13 years, the state had the burden of proving that the youth possessed criminal intent (Butts & Mitchell 2000). In the United States, Progressive‐era reformers went a step further and created an entirely new system to respond to juvenile offenders. The first juvenile court, created in Cook County, Illinois in 1899 and modeled thereafter by other states, was markedly different from criminal courts. The new court was quasi‐civil and informal in nature, and under the doctrine of
parens patriae
(the state as parent), aspired to act in the best interests of the child. The new philosophy and procedures required a new language. Thus, rather than finding juveniles guilty of a criminal offense and sentencing them to a sanction, youths were “adjudicated delinquent” and received a suitable “disposition.”
Jacobs, Jane (1916–2006)
Authors: Orum Anthony
Published: September 2017

By training Jane Jacobs was not a sociologist. Yet, she penned some of the twentieth century's most compelling and influential sociological accounts about the workings of cities. And her major achievement,
The Death and Life of Great American Cities
, now stands as a classic.
Japan Sociological Society
Authors: Shun Inoue
Published: September 2017

The Japan Sociological Society (JSS) is the nationwide organization for sociologists in Japan, with a membership of over 3,600 as of 2008. Sociology in Japan has a history of well over 100 years, since the first chair of sociology was established in 1893 at the Tokyo Imperial University (today's University of Tokyo). During the 1920s there was a steady increase in empirical research, and the JSS was founded in 1924. The first general meeting was held the following year, and meetings have been held annually since, except during the last stage of World War II. The 80th general meeting was held in 2007. The society's journal was first published in 1924 as
Shakaigaku Zasshi
(
Journal of Sociology
), and since 1950 the present
Shakaigaku Hyoron
(
Japanese Sociological Review
) has been published quarterly.