bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Stress Training Enhances Pilot Performance During a Stressful Flying Task
Authors: McClernon Christopher K. , McCauley Michael E. , O'Connor Paul E. , Warm Joel S.
Published: January 2012

This study investigated whether stress training introduced during the acquisition of simulator-based flight skills enhances pilot performance during subsequent stressful flight operations in an actual aircraft. Thirty participants with no previous flying experience were assigned either to a stress-trained treatment group or a control group. Stress training consisted of pairing skill acquisition in a flight simulator with stress coping mechanisms in the presence of a cold pressor. Control participants received identical skill acquisition training but without stress training. Performance was then compared between groups during flight in a Piper Archer aircraft. Participants who received flight simulator stress training demonstrated better performance in a stressful flying task than those in the control group. The results of this study indicate that stress training during the acquisition of flight skills may enhance pilot performance in stressful operational flight and therefore, might mitigate the contribution of pilot stress to aircraft mishaps.
Training Effectiveness of Wearable and Desktop Simulator Interfaces
Authors: Taylor Grant S. , Barnett John S.
Published: January 2012

The availability of increasingly advanced simulation interfaces has led researchers to question whether these newer interfaces provide a more effective means of providing simulation-based training. An empirical evaluation was conducted comparing the knowledge gained from training with three different systems: narrated computer animations (Flash videos) that are currently in use in the U.S. Army, an interactive virtual environment presented on a standard desktop PC, and the same virtual environment presented on a wearable simulator with head-mounted display. Results indicated no difference in the knowledge gained from any of the training methods, although the Flash videos were deemed less engaging, enjoyable, and elicited less presence than both of the virtual environment training methods. The wearable simulation interface was also found to cause greater levels of simulator sickness than either the desktop PC or Flash video training methods. The results of the current study show no evidence of a benefit of using the wearable system over more traditional desktop systems.
A Game-Based Training Application to Support the Development of Commanders' Skills in Counterinsurgency Operations
Authors: Spain Randall D.
Published: January 2012

This paper is a companion piece for a presentation to be given as part of a panel discussion on “Training Issues in Military and Defense.” Specifically, it describes: the establishment of a game-based training tool designed to develop Commanders' skills for planning, directing, and assessing actions in urban counterinsurgency (COIN) environments; several of the evaluation efforts; and some challenges moving forward. The prototype is currently being used at multiple U.S. Army school houses and operation institutions to provide trainees an opportunity to plan, direct, and assess COIN operations within a simulated micro-world. Challenges moving forward include: creating reliable measurement tools that are sensitive to changing levels of expertise and higher-order skill development, embedding automated assessment tools that critic performance and skill development within gaming platforms, and improving adaptive training capabilities in order to deliver tailored training.
Distributed Team Training: Effective Feedback
Authors: Oden Kevin B.
Published: January 2012

Mission success in military operations is determined by team actions and is dependent on effective team training. Training has the potential to strengthen or weaken a team, and feedback during training is cited as a cornerstone for effective training. The Army currently employs an after-action review (AAR) process to provide post-action feedback to teams. Traditional AAR dynamics, with teammates and a facilitator in the same room, are being disrupted by the growing frequency of geographically-distributed teams; thus, distributed AARs are becoming necessary. However, past research has not determined the optimal techniques for conducting distributed AARs. This research compared no AAR, teleconference AAR, and teleconference AAR with visual feedback. Results show that teleconference with visual feedback condition was the best, followed by no AAR, followed by teleconference AAR. This research should be considered when designing distributed military training and feedback, as well as other domains that use distributed training and feedback.
Instance-based Learning Models of Training
Authors: Gonzalez Cleotilde , Dutt Varun
Published: January 2012

The IBL theory (IBLT) was developed to demonstrate the cognitive processes and mechanisms involved in dynamic decision making. IBLT has been implemented in several ACT-R cognitive models that showcase a variety of training effects and generate predictions resulting from several training manipulations. Particular implementations of IBLT-based models of training may depend on the task representation, the cues that are important for that task, and the particular decision actions involved, but the cognitive processes followed are generic. Here, we summarize different cognitive models for a diverse set of tasks relying on the IBLT. We also present an initial implementation of an IBL modeling tool that will help researchers develop their own IBL models without a need to program in ACT-R.
Team Performance as a Function of Task Difficulty in a Computer Game
Authors: Proaps Alexandra , Bliss James
Published: January 2012

Specialized military field training can be expensive, time-consuming and dangerous. Computer games provide a safe, cost effective, and controlled method for geographically dispersed military units to develop decision-making skills while rehearsing a specific task. Military units can rehearse building clearing, search and rescue, or navigation using computer games. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between task difficulty and team task performance during a team search task using a modified version of a popular video game. Results showed that task difficulty decreased the speed with which the task was completed. The present research demonstrates successful manipulation of task difficulty in a virtual environment. There were performance differences based on the sex composition of the teams. Same sex teams performed better than opposite sex teams. This research suggests researchers and trainers can modify game characteristics, such as task difficulty, to design and implement training programs within the military.
How Much Should You Pay for that Box?
Authors: Hopkins Charles O.
Published: January 2012

Captain Rhodes noted that all his aircraft fly like aircraft. 707s, for example, fly like 707s. His simulators do not fly like aircraft and my simplistic answer is that the reason they do not fly like aircraft is they are not aircraft. The simulator is fundamentally a box sitting on the ground (Tait, 1972).
Task Analysis of Anesthesia for Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery: Can Computers Help?
Authors: Kennedy Peter J. , Wiener Earl L. , Feingold Alfred
Published: January 2012

Anesthesiologists function as system monitors and controllers during surgery, with extreme fluctuations in task demand. This study poses a question: can a digital computer, operating in real-time in the surgical environment assist the anesthesiologist with monitoring, data-logging and bookkeeping; and thereby improve patient care? To answer this question, an extensive task analysis of the work of anesthesiologists during coronary artery bypass procedures was undertaken, employing time-lapse cinematography. Activity analysis revealed the extent to which total task demand, as well as particular duties, fluctuate during three phases of the surgery. The feasibility of computer assistance and recommendations for future studies are discussed.
Task Analysis and Reinforcement Strategies for the Mentally Disturbed: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Behavioral Engineering
Authors: Silverstein Leonard
Published: January 2012

An analysis of tasks in a vocational training program was performed by a human factors specialist. Mentally disturbed patients enrolled in the program rated the tasks for importance, difficulty, and frequency of performance. Subsequent to the rating, tasks were assigned a numerical value or points. Individuals then selected tasks based on their own goals and standards. A daily log of the selected work samples was kept by patient self-report. This procedure was conceptualized as a self-reinforcement which was intrinsicallly related to the log keeping process.

In addition, multiple generalized reinforcers were used such as need for approval and increased pay for productivity. When patients did well, i.e., made a high score, they were given higher wages and approval. Conversely, when they did poorly, i.e., made a low score, disapproval and criticism were expressed. In either case, daily feedback was provided along with a series of tasks graduated in difficulty, importance and frequency. This patterning of tasks was made possible by the “a priori” usuage of learning principles described by B.F. Skinner. Task analysis and work measurement techniques provided the means to set goals at the start of treatment. This systematic rendering of behavioral engineering in a work setting provided an interdisciplinary approach for changing coping processes in the mentally disturbed.
Computer Compatibility with Decision Style: Eddies in a Bit Stream
Authors: Strub Michael H. , Levit Robert A.
Published: January 2012

The concept of decision style, while rooted in cognitive and personality theory, finds application in computer system design as a basis for decision aiding. As used in an information system context, decision style may be defined as the characteristic and self consistent way an individual uses information in the decision making process. A model of decision style is presented which uses three dimensions to classify eight types of decision styles. Each dimension of decision style corresponds to variability observed in three aspects of decision making. A methodology for the assessment of decision style, and its relationship to the concept of adaptive decision aiding is presented. The concept of decision support as complex of decision aids designed with reference to a decision situation provides the context for the discussion of adaptive aiding.
Pilotage Error in Area Navigation: Effects of Approach Procedural Complexity
Authors: Jensen Richard S.
Published: January 2012

Sixteen pilots of two widely different expedience levels were tested on an area navigation task involving approaches with two levels of navigation procedural complexity. Two types of displays were used for leveloff at MDA, command leveloff and an altimeter. The four recorded performance measures were vertical steering, horizontal steering, airspeed control, and procedural accuracy. The less complex approach procedures (Simplified) resulted in better performance on all four recorded measures than the more complex procedures (Standard). However, no reliable performance differences were evident between levels of pilot experience and types of leveloff displays. In comparison with previously assumed values of flight technical error, Standard Procedures generally yielded larger errors, and Simplified Procedures generally smaller errors.
A Computer Simulation Model to Analyze Occupational Safety and Health Problems and Countermeasures
Authors: Diehl Alan E.
Published: January 2012

Systems Dynamics models have been used to study various complex socio-technical problems. The author modified a model of a hypothetical firm to analyze the interrelationships among a multitude of factors affecting worker safety and health. These factors interact with each other in various ways via numerous feedback relationships. Modified policies which might be too protracted, risky, or expensive to experiment with in the real system can be readily explored using the model. Two such experiments with the model are presented here. This modeling technique offers an efficient method for management and Government officials to study the socio-economic costs and benefits of potential safety and health standards.
General Solutions to Nurses Travel in Linear and Circular Nursing Units
Authors: Lippert Stanley
Published: January 2012

The hospital literature of the 1960's contains about a dozen reports or articles pertaining to the relative merits of circular vs. conventional (chiefly linear corridors flanked by patient rooms on both sides). The claims included items other than nurses travel, for example, patient visibility to nursing staff, subjective impressions, and building costs. This article is concerned only with general but quantitative comparisons of these two classes of nursing units with respect to nurses travel.

Mathematical models have been developed which permit practically instant evaluation of nursing units where all patient rooms are for a single occupant or where all rooms are for two occupants. The model reflects changes in room size and internal arrangement. Examination of the architect's preliminary sketches permits the determination of superior ority of one layout over another in terms of travel.

The fact that this is but one of hundreds of determinations to be made in hospital designs does not diminish its importance. The literature contains various claims to “efficiency” based on no objective criteria. The model provides a simple and objective determination of nurses travel, for any number of patients typically visited and for any pattern of randomness or orderliness in their assignments.
Large Space Telescope and Human Factors
Authors: Fisher H. T.
Published: January 2012

Early in the 1980's NASA plans to orbit a Large Space Telescope using Space Shuttle as the launch platform. This orbiting telescope will permit scientists to observe the universe with a clarity never before attained through ground systems inhibited by the Earth's atmosphere. Current design goals indicate that the Telescope is to be designed for a fifteen year life span with the capability for on-orbit maintenance and, if required, earth return for servicing and refurbishment. Thus, NASA has decided to design a spacecraft for on-orbit EV manned maintenance thereby anticipating significant overall program cost savings. The design for orbital EV maintenance reaches across nearly every subsystem providing an excellent opportunity for complete human factors (crew systems) participation from system concept through design, integration, test, and ultimate operation.

This shift in approach to on-orbit maintenance has resulted in major challenges such as designing for suited astronaut access to all subsystem equipment elements, minimization of contamination, handling of extremely sensitive instruments and their transfer through and within minimum volumes, development of translation techniques, incorporation of built-in crew work aids recognizing weight/volume limits and accomplishing the maintenance cycle within timelines imposed by mission, suit, and changeout constraints. These and other considerations will be discussed, alternative solutions presented, and recommendations made with particular reference to those factors which must be undertaken early to assure a timely and fundamentally sound crew systems program.
Skylab's Astronaut Maneuvering Unit (Experiment M509) — A Comparison of Six Degree of Freedom Simulation and on-Orbit Flight
Authors: Ray A. M.
Published: January 2012

A test bed type astronaut maneuvering unit was designed and evaluated with the assistance of Martin Marietta's six degree of freedom simulator. Four different control modes were developed for this unit for test and evaluation inside Skylab's 22 foot diameter orbital workshop. The orbital tests have provided the experience and technology base necessary for space Shuttle and space station astronaut maneuvering unit design requirements. This paper is an overview of the M509 experiment hardware, procedures, and results with emphasis on the comparison between on-orbit test results and the six degree of freedom simulator. The simulator was used to develop the unit's design requirements, evaluate the control logic parameters, and for developing maneuvers and training the crew. The simulator will also be flown by the Skylab crews in May for post flight evaluation and simulator calibration. (Films of the simulations and on-orbit flight are available as part of this presentation.)
A Methodology for Child Safety Seat Design
Authors: Meyer Robert P. , Laveson Jack I.
Published: January 2012

Government legislation, with greater emphasis on product safety especially in children's products, has brought about a need for a better understanding of the product development cycle. The distinctions among the disciplines in product design no longer have relevance when a product such as a children's safety seat for automobiles must meet both federal safety requirements and consumer acceptance. In using a systems approach not only was the anatomy and well being of the child considered, but the driving and seating habits of the parents were also studied. This information coupled with an anthropometric survey of children provided significant design information. The results of this design process was a single child's safety seat which can accommodate children from six months to forty-two months as opposed to current models which can accommodate only a portion of this age span.
Systems Performance Tests Ltc
Authors: Kavanaugh Richard D.
Published: January 2012

The US Army Human Engineering Laboratory has initiated a series of field experiments to determine the weaknesses of current generation materiel in the Army inventory. These tests are called Systems Performance Tests and were begun in 1969. Their objectives were (a) to determine the actual performance of our present generation weapon systems in the field using appropriate troops in their operation, (b) to isolate the source of error in weapon systems performance, and (c) to seek methods to reduce the largest sources of human error and, thereby, make these systems more effective. Systems performance tests have been conducted in the area of armor, artillery, aviation, and infantry systems. In addition to the aforementioned tests, future systems performance tests will be expanded to include mortars and helicopter/armor engagements.
Control - Display - Stability Augmentation System
Authors: Rolek Evan P.
Published: January 2012

Helicopters cannot currently use their unique capabilities under low or zero visibility conditions because they lack the necessary avionics. Rather than pursuing a fully automatic system, several systems (e.g. 3 axis flight director) were developed which were almost totally under manual control. This study used objective and subjective data to evaluate these systems under simulated zero visibility conditions for cruise and approach flight profiles. The data indicated that for almost all cases these systems increased performance and decreased workload when compared to using situation-only displays.
The Ten Commandments for Organizational Effectiveness
Authors: Parsons Stuart O.
Published: January 2012

The role of the human factors specialist in designing organizations for people vs. designing equipment for people is discussed. Ten principles for organizational behavior are presented which maximize the human resources along with examples and quantitative data based upon Lockheed experience and other industrial applications. Particular emphasis is devoted to TEAM, a worker participation program initiated six years ago at Lockheed and still evolving in form; Upward Performance Evaluation results; and new communication techniques.
The Vocational Opinion Index: Developed to Measure Attitudes toward Work
Authors: Benson Stephen D. , Whittington Marna C.
Published: January 2012

Successful transition from trainee status to worker status is dependent on three factors: (1) Adequate skill training; (2) Adequate placement opportunities; and (3) Appropriate job readiness posture. This study evaluated a psychometric instrument, the Vocational Opinion Index (VOI), designed to measure the job readiness posture component of the Transition process.

Data was collected from over 3,000 people. The sample consisted of active trainees and graduates and dropouts of MDTA programs across the country.

The results of this study showed that the JRP met the standard psychometric criteria for reliability and validity. A multidiscriminant analysis of the data yielded three multidiscriminant equations which correctly discriminated the worker status of over 80 percent of the sample.
A Theoretical and Empirical Comparison of Two Mixed-Factor Central-Composite Desicns
Authors: Clark Christine
Published: January 2012

This paper provides a brief review of the application of Central-Composite Designs (CCD) in human performance research. Particular mention is made of the mixed-factor CCD, which allows simultaneous consideration of within-subject and between-subjects factors. The current paper details the construction of two alternative versions of such a design. After the two versions have been compared on theoretical grounds, an empirical investigation is proposed to determine the relative predictive accuracy and validity of prediction equations derived from data collected in accordance with each design version.
Models of Response Time to Peripheral Stimuli
Authors: Kochhar D.S. , Fraser T.M.
Published: January 2012

The variable contribution of peripherally presented stimuli in a A sensory motor task has been explored in terms of stimulus and environmental variables. A simulated driving task was chosen as being a representative compensatory tracking task.

Empirical models have been developed using response surface methodology, statistical design and data collected on a simulator with a 240° wrap-around screen and projection systems very much like cinerama. In this research, seven factors were isolated for a study of their effects on detection latency to peripherally presented stimuli when the subject was ‘driving’. These factors were stimulus size (circular stimuli between 18′ and 60′), stimulus color (red, white and green), stimulus-background contrast (background luminance 1ft.L and stimulus luminance of 30, 60 and 90 ft.L), stimulus location along the horizontal (between ± 90°) and vertical meridians (between ± 26°), intensity of continuous white noise (between 52 and 100 dbA), and complexity of the continuous central tracking task measured in terms of the simulated driving speed. Three levels of each variable were selected in a 7 factor Box-Behnken design. Twenty undergraduates between the ages 19 and 26 participated in the experiment.

It was found that, in this multivariable environment when all seven factors were simultaneously varied, the effects of noise, stimulus location in the visual field and stimulus size were the more important determinants of response latency. In addition, marked differences for the left and right visual fields were observed for the right-handed subject population.

Four models have been developed: two for the left visual field, with and without the continuous central task (CCT), and two for the right visual field for the same conditions. The response was found to be of the form 1/Yr = f (xi); i= 1,2,… 7 for both the left and right visual fields in the presence of the CCT. In the absence of the CCT the model was of the form Yr = f (xr) for the left and 1/2 = f (xi) for the right visual field where Yr = response time in millisec. and Yr xi = variables in equations.

Response curves have been presented to illustrate the variation of response time with each of the seven variables for regions where response time may be expected to be a minimum. The implications of these curves and the models on which they are based have been examined from the design point of view.
Manipulating the Number and Type of Adaptive Variables in Training
Authors: Gopher Daniel , Williges Beverly H. , Williges Robert C. , Damos Diane L.
Published: January 2012

To investigate the effectiveness of various types and numbers of adaptive variables, 48 subjects performed a two-dimensional pursuit tracking task for five three-minute training sessions. In the factorial design resulting in eight experimental conditions, three variables (frequency of the forcing function, ratio of acceleration to rate control, and the amount of gain in the control stick) were either fixed or adaptive. A transfer and retention task in which the tracking situation changed periodically was used to evaluate the ability of subjects to adjust to change. Each adaptive variable in training was analyzed separately. With gain more adaption occurred when gain was associated with another adaptive variable. In frequency the highest rate of adaption occurred with frequency alone. In acceleration the rate of adaption was greater early in training when frequency also adapted. During transfer subjects trained adaptively generally showed more stable performance in the changing task situation. No reliable differences among conditions appeared in retention. Results are discussed in terms of stimulus and response similarity, the optimum number of adaptive variables, and the appropriateness of a changing task to evaluate adaptive training.
Human Effectiveness and Evaluation
Authors: Grace Gloria Lauer
Published: January 2012

Human effectiveness has recently become an issue of social and economic concern. If the goal of increased effectiveness is to be achieved, programs designed to improve human effectiveness must be successfully implemented. Evaluation is the process by which needed program improvements can be identified, and program impact assessed. Example derived from two areas–the Emergency School Aid Act (ESAA) programs and the Navy Career Counseling Program–are presented to show how largescale evaluations are conducted.
Dimensions of Interpersonal Communication
Authors: Wish Myron
Published: January 2012

We report some results from a study whose primary aim was to explore the conceptual structures people implicitly use in comparing and describing different kinds of interpersonal communication. The focus of this research is on two variables that are likely to affect the way people communicate and interact with each other – the relationship between them and the particular situational context. The part of the study which is reported here is based on ratings of hypothetical communication episodes on numerous bipolar scales. Multidimensional scaling analyses of the data revealed five dimensions interpreted as “Cooperative and Friendly vs. Competitive and Hostile,” “Intense vs. Superficial,” “Autocratic vs. Democratic,” “Formal vs. Informal,” and Task Oriented vs. Non-task Oriented. The relative importance of the interpersonal relation and the situational context for evaluations of the communication episodes on each dimension are discussed.
General Solutions to Nurses' Travel in Linear and Circular Nursing Units
Authors: Lippert Stanley
Published: January 2012

Models of rectangular and circular nursing units are compared over a range of the number of patient beds to determine if one is absolutely superior to the other, or only relatively so, in terms of nurses' travel.
A Motor Vehicle Accident Causal System: The Human Element
Authors: Fell James C.
Published: January 2012

A motor vehicle accident causal system, from a human factors viewpoint, is presented. The system, or model, is based upon a cause and effect relationship: the “effect” being the primary failure or behavior which led directly to the collision situation; the “cause” being the reasons for the failure or behavior. Effects are described as information processing failures of four types: (1) perception, (2) comprehension, (3) decision, and (4) action failures. The reasons for these information processing failures are categorized as (a) physical or physiological failures, (b) driver conditions or states, (c) experience or exposure factors, (d) conflicting behaviors or preoccupation, and (e) risk-taking behaviors. A causal reporting system for utilization by accident research groups is discussed in terms of primary or principal causes, severity increasing factors, and relevant conditions. Two recent studies which used similar causal systems are described and findings are presented. A discussion of the possible benefits of such a system as results emerge is related to driver education and training techniques.
Subject-Media Interactions in Learning Spatial Relations
Authors: Blake Tyler
Published: January 2012

The study was designed to test the hypothesis that motion in visual media can be differentially effective in enhancing the learning of complex spatial relations as a function of the viewer's spatial aptitude. Eighty-four (42 males and 42 females) of high and low spatial aptitude (as measured by the Guilford-Zimmerman Test of Spatial Visualization) were taught the movement patterns of 5 chessmen with 1 of 3 instructional films: (1) A “Stills” condition which simulated a slide presentation, (2) A “Partial Motion” condition which was identical to the “Stills” condition except for the addition of an animated cueing arrow, (3) A “Full Motion” condition which followed a standard motion picture format. High aptitude subjects showed no differences between instructional modes. Low aptitude subjects performed better with both motion conditions but no differences were found between the two motion conditions.
Guidelines for Reducing Human Errors in the Use of Coded Information
Authors: Caplan Stanley H.
Published: January 2012

This paper presents code design and display guidelines intended to make it difficult to generate a code-related error and easy to detect errors that still occur. Principles governing immediate memory and rules for making erroneous codes easily recognizable combine to form guidelines for code design. Design factors include various dimensions of code configuration-length, the kind of characters, their location and grouping. These guidelines minimize the common errors of substitution, transposition, omission, and addition of characters. Besides the code itself, errors are also affected by the way the code is displayed. To further enhance reliability, additional guidelines are included for the size, style, and contrast of characters.

A reliable code system requires a structure which is compatible with human recognition and short-term memory capabilities. These abilities have been extensively explored in the experimental psychology literature. The particular studies used as a basis for the code guidelines in this paper are those where recall follows perception by only a few seconds and no intervening information is processed in the interim. These experimental conditions correspond to usual transactions in which transcription or keypunching closely follows visual perception of the code.
Typing Speed, Keying Rates, and Optimal Keyboard Layouts
Authors: Kinkead Robin
Published: January 2012

Many variations on the standard typewriter keyboard have been proposed to save finger motion and speed up input. An analysis of keying times during touch typing showed that the standard layout is operated at near-maximum speeds. These times applied to the Dvorak layout showed that it would be no faster than the standard layout, and an imaginary “optimal” layout using higher percentages of fast keystrokes would be only 8% faster. Larger keying speed increases are possible through eliminating keystrokes than through rearranging the current layout.
Behavioral Data in the Design of Aircrew Training Devices
Authors: Cream B.W. , Eggemeier F.T. , Klein G.A.
Published: January 2012

Attention has recently been focused on the use of ISD behavioral data for specifying aircrew training requirements. However, behavioral data are not sufficient for the actual specification of design of equipment, which frequently represents the major dollar investment for training programs. The paper presents a methodology for designing training equipment. This methodology in some ways goes beyond the collection of behavioral data, and in other ways ayoids the weaknesses of the behavioral data approach. The emphasis is on ensuring that device fidelity requirements are specifically correlated with training requirements. Four critical areas are addressed: (1) acquisition of behavioral data; (2) determination of training capabilities; (3) performance measurement; and (4) special requirements for crew coordination training.
SAT Revisited — A Critical Post-Examination of the Systems Approach to Training
Authors: Sugarman Robert C. , Johnson Steven L. , Hinton William M. , Buckenmaier Chester C.
Published: January 2012

A unique application of the Systems Approach to Training (SAT) was carried out for the design of the B-1 aircrew instructional system. A preliminary report was presented at the 1975 Human Factors Society Meeting by Johnson, et aI, (1974) and Sugarman, et aI, (1974). Based on the additional experience, this presentation will share with the training community a look at some of the strengths and weaknesses of the SAT process. The particular application provided a harsh test of the process since the B-1 air vehicle is still in the developmental stages. This resulted in many opportunities to be faced with missing or incomplete data whose criticality to the analysis became more than apparent. The genral state-of-knowledge within Instructional System Development (ISD) itself is incomplete, which also became apparent when applying a highly structured (i.e., internally consistent and documented) SAT process. The major strength of the SAT process is the capability it provides for the justification of many decisions that were hitherto prone to hand-waving. This particular strength comes from the internal documentation for each decision process which is an important feature of SAT. The adequacy of the assumptions underlying the decision processes then becomes subject to scrutiny. The power of the documentation is enhanced by the use of computer aids in data management and economic analysis which facilitate the documentation. Within the present paper, problem areas which weaken the SAT process are also discussed. These include the data bases for the task analysis and economic/policy data, the media selection process, and the development of instructional strategies.
Performance Evaluation of Experienced Headlamp Inspectors
Authors: Plummer Ralph W. , Gochenour Donald L. , Toothman Allen L.
Published: January 2012

This investigation evaluated the performance of six experienced inspectors of automobile headlamps. The study was conducted in the normal manufacturing environment by supplying the regular final inspection position with a controlled sample of headlamps.

Two inspectors were selected from each of the three shifts. The inspectors independently inspected each sample lot. The independent variables of the experiment were sample defect levels (three levels), percent of shift completed (four levels), shift (three levels) and inspectors (six levels). Three sample lots of 100 lamps were developed for defect levels of 0%, 10%, and 20%. The tests were conducted after 20% of the inspector's shift had expired, then after 40%, 60%, and 80%. This was done to monitor inspector performance which was measured in terms of incorrectly rejected or accepted lamps to determine if fatigue or boredom effects were critical.

The most striking result of the study showed that 72 percent of the lamps the inspectors rejected were good. This resulted from a combination of insufficient training, vague standards and inspector overloading.
Predicting the Effectiveness of Auditory Warning Signals in Industrial Environments
Authors: Trucks Louis B. , Adams S. Keith
Published: January 2012

A method is presented whereby the effectiveness of auditory warning devices in a given acoustical background can be predetermined and the most effective signal selected. In developing the methods, eight complex, variable pitch acoustically engineered horn-type signals were used. Four spectrally representative industrial noise backgrounds plus white noise were used to provide test environments. A predictive model involving octave-band analysis, signal-noise ratios and reaction time was developed.
Television Systems for Remote Manipulation
Authors: Crooks William H. , Freedman Larry A. , Coan Paul P.
Published: January 2012

An analytical and experimental study was conducted to specify a video system for remote manipulation in space. An operator function analysis identified two basic characteristics, work volume and element relationship, which define four manipulation tasks chosen for examination. A visual function analysis developed a set of elemental scene parameters which grouped the visual dimensions into major areas of influence. Simulation testing was conducted with a four degree-of-freedom motion frame which allowed an operator to perform the manipulation tasks. Four video systems were included in the simulation testing: a black and white and a color mono-scopic system, a stereoscopic system, and a black and white two-view system. A sequential experimental plan first provided an overall analysis of the effects of tasks, scene parameters, and video systems. This was followed by a detailed experimental examination of the critical dimensions identified in the first experiment. Results are discussed in terms of a recommended TV system.
Human Performance Validation of Simulators: Theory and Experimental Verification
Authors: Leonard James J. , Wierwille Walter W.
Published: January 2012

A theory of simulator validation employing a human performance correspondence approach is developed. The theory is based on the viewpoint that simulator validation is a problem of obtaining parallel measures in full-scale and in simulation and bringing these two sets of measures into correspondence. The approach taken is to adjust the simulator experimental conditions to obtain matching measure values between full-scale and simulation. Standard experimental design techniques can be used, but must be supplemented by additional discrimination techniques such as methods of correlation in repeated measure designs or confidence limit error measures in completely randomized designs. It is shown that the concept of performance validation is both α-level and sample size dependent, indicating that careful preliminary consideration should be given to the size of experiment to be performed.

The theory was experimentally tested through the use of an instrumented full–scale test vehicle and a driving simulator. Data were collected on thirteen subjects in the full-scale vehicle and on seventy–four subjects in the simulator. Eight adjustment conditions in the simulator were used; they were obtained by varying two independent variables, random disturbance level and lateral display gain. Five driver performance measures for each condition in the simulator were compared to the same measures from the full–scale results. The simulator conditions which most closely matched the full–scale system were then determined. The results showed that for each performanc measure at least one simulator condition produced corresponding valid results. Overall, the results indicated that it is definitely possible to obtain performance validation through proper simulator adjustment.
Ergonomics in a World of New Values
Authors: Chapanis Alphonse
Published: January 2012

Our perceptions of the world have changed dramatically since the International Ergonomics Association was founded in 1959. In the last 17 years, we have come to realize that our energy and mineral resources are exhaustible, that environmental pollution may annihilate us, and that we have to be protected against the technology that we have created for our own benefit. Those 17 years have also seen a marked decrease in satisfaction with the quality of life, and an increase in expectations that life can and should be made safer, richer, and generally better. In many countries, these rising expectations have led to the enactment of laws governing conditions of work, opportunities for employment, and consumer product safety. Most important of all, society is finally beginning to understand that the world constitutes one enormous system, and that changes proposed anywhere have to be evaluated in terms of their long-term effects on that system. This old world with its new values offers important opportunities and challenges for ergonomics–many of which are elaborated here.
Ergonomics — Where have we been and Where are we going?
Authors: Christensen Julien M.
Published: January 2012

The history of ergonomics in the United States is traced. Areas are identified in which further research and development are needed. At the same time, a body of knowledge exists in the behavioral and biological sciences that would be immediately useful if but made available in suitable form. Technologies should be developed or expanded immediately in such areas. Feedback from designers who apply the information, from those who operate and maintain systems and from those otherwise affected by them should provide positive direction for future endeavors in ergonomics.
Ergonomics — Where we have been and Where we are going
Authors: Singleton W. T.
Published: January 2012

It is suggested that the future of Ergonomics for the next twenty years is best predicted as a linear extrapolation of the past thirty, a steady growth with gradually increasing influence and responsibility. Because of the increased responsibilities more attention will need to be paid to ethical problems. There will be changes of orientation reflecting changes in society generally, in particular less emphasis on productivity and human energy conservation and more on improved quality of products with consequent economy of materials and physical energy. There will also be greater attention to machines as specialised servants of the individual rather than individuals as components in massive man-machine systems. More detailed future trends are considered under the separate aspects of research, application, teaching and documentation. The importance of better documentation is particularly emphasised.
Ergonomische Ausbildung Von Handgerät
Authors: Preuschen G.
Published: January 2012

In der landwirtschaftlichen Arbeit aller Länder werden noch viele Handgeräte verwendet. In den Entwicklungsländern werden die Handgeräte auf Jahrzehnte das meistbenutzte Arbeitswerkzeug sein. An einigen Beispielen wird gezeigt, wie durch ergonomische Griff- und Stielgestaltung dafür gesorgt werden kann, dass landwirtschaftliche Arbeiten mit weniger Kalorienaufwand, damit weniger Ermüdung und mit höherer Produktionsleistung durchgeführt werden können. Je weniger Kalorien in der Landwirtschaft für die Produktion von Nahrungsmitteln verbraucht werden, um so mehr Kalorien stehen für die nichtlandwirtschaftliche Bevölkerung zur Verfügung, um so wohlhabender wird auch die landwirtschaftliche Bevölkerung.
Subjective Work Measurement for Nurse Staffing
Authors: Freund Louis E. , Wagner Barry L.
Published: January 2012

Human Engineering can be viewed as a method of achieving “optimal” output from a man-machine system by engineering the requisites for achieving output to the constraints imposed by the human component. Operations Research is concerned with the “optimal” allocation of resources. When the resource becomes some property of human beings, difficulty is encountered in the measurement of human attributes over which optimization is to take place. This paper describes a staffing methodology which attempts to “optimize” personnel utilization in job performance in terms of the workload, the objective being to minimize worklod while maintaining performance and quality. The methodology is differentiated from time based methodologies in that it employe a technique called constant sum paired comparisons to establish subjective measures of workload. This subjective technique has its origins in the psychophysical methods previously applied in Human Engineering. This subjective technique allows perceptions of workload to include not only the time required for activity performance but also the individuality of the worker, his concept of work scope, responsiblity, and methods used, conditions of the working environment and the individuality of the work required. An application to the staffing of nursing units in acute adult hospitals is presented where staffing recommendations specific to each unit and shift (working situation) and which reflect the distribution and census of patients, capacities of nursing personnel, and goals for care delivery in terms of skill levels and quality of care are computed.
Health Care in the Emergency Room: An Analysis of Patient and Staff Attitudes
Authors: Zajkowski M. M. , Afimiwala D.
Published: January 2012

The purpose of the investigation was to identify and analyze problems and attitudes which may contribute to the perceived quality of health care in the emergency room.

To assess the extent of these problems a 51-item questionnaire was administered in the emergency rooms of two major hospitals. Questionnaires were distributed to Physicians, Nurses, Technicians, and Patients.

Results revealed significant differences between patients and staff attitudes toward the emergency status of most patients, the types of illnesses appropriate to the emergency room, treatment for belligerents (in no serious danger), special training of M.D.'s for emergency room duty, the types of patients treated as teaching cases, the major causes of waiting time, types of patients who receive the most and least time in actual treatments, waiting time for various services, types of patients who receive the most and least care, and time spent in treatment and its association with quality of care.

Similarities in patient and staff attitudes were found in attitudes towards sources of referral, availability of personal physician, appropriate patient behavior at various stages of diagnosis and/or care, role of the receptionist, ordering of treatment as a function of urgency of the illness, role of communication between doctor and patient, acceptable waiting time before seeing physician, costs associated with care, evaluation of care provided by physicians and nurses, and reimbursement of costs as a function of source of payment.
Knowledge and Skill Measures of Emergency Medical Technicians
Authors: Czaja S. J. , Zajkowski M. M. , Drury C. G.
Published: January 2012

The role of the ambulance attendant in the emergency medical care delivery system has changed considerably over the past ten years. The major emphasis has changed from transportation to on-scene and in-vehicle care well beyond the traditional first aid level. A nationally established 81 hour curriculum is now the basic minimum requirement in many states and many thousands of Emergency Medical Technicians (EMTs) have completed this course since 1970.

Measurement of the effectiveness of this training through improved survival rates is difficult to measure because of simultaneous changes in equipment and organization within the system, and hence training effectiveness measures are needed. Currently, methods have been devised for measuring knowledge using a 300 item multiple choice questionnaire and measuring skill using physician - observers in emergency departments to rate appropriateness of diagnosis and treatment by the EMT.

This research represents the first simultaneous use of these two measures on the same sample. It was found that knowledge in the EMT community tested was high in relation to other areas and well distributed, with no company, age or sex related differences reaching significance. Ratings of performance were high but did not correlate significantly with knowledge - in fact a small negative correlation was found. It was found however that knowledge correlated significantly with supervisory ratings.

Measures of inter and intra - rater reliability among the physician observers showed that lack of perfect reliability was one major explanation of the lack of relationship between knowledge and skill. Recommendations for improvements in the training program content and organization are given as well as a critique of currently available evaluation tools.