bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
On Chemical Changes in Marine Muds
Authors: Irvine Robert , Murray John
Published: June 2019

On 16th December 1895 a paper written by Professor W. N. Hartley, F.R.S., Royal College of Science, Dublin, was read before this Society “On the Cause and Nature of Chemical Changes occurring in Oceanic Deposits,” in which he criticised and took exception to certain conclusions we had arrived at, which formed the basis of a paper read by us in March 1892, and published in the Transactions of the Society, Vol. xxxvii., Part ii., No. 23, under the title “On the Chemical Changes which take place in the Composition of Sea-water associated with Blue Muds on the Floor of the Ocean.”

At the time of writing his paper Professor Hartley had not seen ours, and was only in possession of the necessarily curtailed notice of it which appeared in Nature of January 24, 1895, from which he appears to have drawn inferences that a fuller knowledge would have altered. Practically, with the exception of one or two of our experimental results, Professor Hartley is in accord with us so far as the principal results are concerned. In taking exception to the formulæ by which we endeavour to explain the decomposition of sulphates in sea-water in the presence of organic matter and ferric-hydrate, or ferruginous clay, he assumes the equations we use to mean the same as that which would occur in a black ash furnace under the influence of great heat. Our object in adopting the explanation of the reaction which appeared in our paper was to render it as simple as possible; and occurring as it does in mud saturated with water, we did not think it necessary to specially refer to the hydrous condition of the salts.
Demonstration of the Acoustic Turbine or Sound Mill of Alfred M. Mayer and V. Dvořák
Authors: McKendrick John G.
Published: June 2019

Dr M'Kendrick showed this apparatus as made by Dr R. Koenig. It consists of four small and light cylindrical resonators, made of aluminium, tuned to Ut4 = 512 vibs. p. sec., attached to the ends of four light bars forming a cross. The cross, carrying the resonators, is balanced on a fine pivot placed vertically. When the fork is sounded (by an electro-magnet between the limbs) the cross carrying the four resonators begins to rotate. The motion arises from the greater pressure at the node at the closed end in the interior of the resonator nearest the source of sound than on the outer surface of this end. If the mouth of the cylinder is directed towards the source of sound, the resonator is repelled by the greater pressure within. The next resonator is slightly attracted, but it is brought within the sphere of greater pressure mainly by the inertia of the first resonator, and so on.
On the Electrolysis of Potassium Ethyl-Sulphone-Acetate
Authors: Brown Crum , Bolam Herbert W.
Published: June 2019

Ethyl-sulphone-acetic acid, C2H5SO2 – CH2 – COOH, was prepared by Claesson's method. Fourteen grams of the potassium salt were dissolved in 20 c.c. of water, and the solution electrolysed for 30 minutes under following conditions:—Volts, 12; ampères, 3·4; temperature, 30°–35° C.

Carbonic anhydride and hydrogen were given off, and a white solid substance separated. This was collected on a filter and washed with cold water. The product, when dry, weighed 1·7 gram. It was purified by recrystallisation from chloroform.

It forms needles, melting at 136°–137°.
Note on an Analysis of Human Gastric Juice
Authors: Lang W. R.
Published: June 2019

In the autumn of 1895 I received from Professor M'Ewen several samples of gastric juice marked “Chalmers' Gastrostomy.” The samples were obtained under most favourable circumstances, being drawn off through an aperture made in the abdomen and stomach of the patient; the juice was almost pure, and nearly free from suspended matter. My analysis was mainly directed towards ascertaining whether or not free hydrochloric acid was a constituent of the fluid, and the following were the reactions I employed:—

(1) With methyl violet the sample gave a distinct blue coloration, showing the presence of a mineral acid. Supposing the acidity to be due to lactic acid, this reaction would not take place, as on trying a dilute solution of lactic acid with this reagent no blue colour was produced.

(2) On treating an alcoholic solution of phloroglucin and vanillin (1 grm. of the former and ½ grm. of the latter made up with 50 cc.'s rectified spirits) with the gastric juice and evaporating slowly on a water-bath, a red colour was produced. Dilute hydrochloric acid gave the same result; lactic acid none.

In the opinion of some authorities the presence of free hydrochloric acid is attributed to the decomposition on evaporation of the chlorides present in the gastric juice by free lactic acid. With a view to ascertain whether this could happen or not, I evaporated solutions of chloride of calcium and lactic acid with both of the above reagents with a negative result.
On the Eliminant of .
Authors: Muir Thomas
Published: June 2019

1. In a paper “On the Existence of a Root of a Rational Integral Equation,” published in the Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., xxv. pp. 173–184, the author, Professor E. B. Elliott, says (p. 184) that it is unfortunate, for the simplicity of the argument of his paper, that a proof of a certain property of this eliminant, viz., that when two linear factors have been withdrawn from it, there is left a perfect square—“is one which direct algebraical methods have not yet supplied.”

In the course of the following year the want referred to received attention, a demonstration being given by Mr W. W. Taylor, in a paper entitled “Evolution of a certain Dialytic Determinant,” which was read before the same Society (see Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., xxvii. pp. 60–66).

I purpose here giving another demonstration, which I think has the merit of bringing out more clearly the character of the constitution of the eliminant, and in which is followed, at the same time, that direct and expeditious course most likely to be taken by a student familiar with the theory of determinants.
On the Resolution of Circulants into Rational Factors
Authors: Muir Thomas
Published: June 2019

(1) If we think of the circulant C(a1, a2,…., an−1, an) as the result of the elimination of x from the equations

it is readily apparent that, corresponding to every rational factor of xn – 1, there must be a rational factor of the circulant. Thus the circulant of the 6th order

must have four rational factors, viz., the factor

corresponding to the solution x = 1 of the equation x6 = 1, the factor

corresponding to the solution x = − 1, and two other factors corresponding to the partial equations

x2+x+1 = 0, x2−x+1 = 0.
Leakage from Electrified Metal Plates and Points placed above and below Uninsulated Flames
Authors: Kelvin Lord , Maclean Magnus
Published: June 2019

§ 1. In § 10 of our paper “On Electrical Properties of Fumes proceeding from Flames and Burning Charcoal,” communicated to this Society on 5th April, results of observations on the leakage between two parallel metal plates with an initial difference of electric potential of 6·2 volts between them, when the fumes from flames and burnings were allowed to pass between them and round them, were given. The first part (§§ 1–4) of the present short paper gives results of observations on the leakage between two copper plates 1 centimetre apart, when one of them is kept at a constant high positive or negative potential; and the other, after being metallically connected with the electrometer-sheath, is disconnected, and left to receive electricity through fumes between the two.

The method of observation (see fig. 1) was as follows:—Two copper plates were fixed in a block of paraffin at the top of a round tinned iron funnel 96 centimetres long and 15·6 centimetres internal diameter. A spirit-lamp or a Bunsen burner, the only two flames used in these experiments, was placed at the bottom of the funnel, 86 centimetres below the two copper plates. One terminal of a voltaic battery was connected to one plate, B, and the other terminal was connected to the sheath of a Kelvin quadrant electrometer. The other copper plate was connected to one of the pair of quadrants of the electrometer in such a way that by pulling a silk cord with a hinged platinum wire at its end, this copper plate and this pair of quadrants could be insulated from the sheath of the electrometer and the rest of the apparatus.
Note on the Action of Hydroxylamine Hydrochlorate
Authors: Brodie W. Brodie
Published: June 2019

Hydroxylamine, NH2OH (oxyammonia), is an unstable substance only to be had in weak solutions. It forms many salts, two of which, the sulphate, 2(NH2OH.)H2SO4, and the hydrochloride, NH2OH.HCl, are to be found in commerce.

My attention was first directed to this substance, hydroxylamine, by seeing a reference to the work of Loew and Bokorny on the chemical constitution of protoplasm, and to their theory that there is present in it a group of atoms of the nature of an aldehyde. To this group of atoms they attribute the energy of living protoplasm, and state, in support of this, that hydroxylamine, which is said to have a strong affinity for aldehyde, rapidly kills protoplasm in algæ and the young shoots of plants.

My intention was to use both hydroxylamine and its salts upon some forms of animal protoplasm, but so far the hydrochlorate is, the only preparation that has been available. This salt is easily soluble in water and is extremely acid. It is difficult to neutralise it exactly, as at a certain point it reacts to both red and blue litmus simultaneously. Solutions of 1 per cent, strength were employed almost entirely.
On Thermodynamics founded on Motivity and Energy
Authors: Kelvin Lord
Published: June 2019

§ 1. In a verbal communication to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1876, under the title “Thermodynamic Motivity,” I suggested the name motivity to express energy, whether thermal or of any other kind, available to generate velocity in molar matter, or to move molar matter against resisting force. By molar matter I mean matter as we know it, consisting, as we believe, of vast numbers of atoms or molecules. Only the title of this communi- cation was published in the Proceedings of tlie Royal Society. a short report of it was published in the Philosophical Magazine for May 1879, in which it was pointed out that a “very short and simple analytical method of setting forth the whole non-molecular theory of thermodynamics” might be founded on the consideration of Motivity and Energy as two functions of all the independent variables specifying a body, or a system of bodies, or some definite apparatus under consideration:—apparatus, as I shall call it for brevity, to include every case, even such as a single crystal. The object of the present communication is to carry out this proposal.

§ 2. Let the apparatus be given all at one temperature t. Denote by g1, g2, g3, etc, the other variables by which its condition is specified. These will in many cases be geometrical, specifying elements or co-ordinates, such as strain-components, expressing change of bulk or shape of a piece of crystal or other elastic solid under stress; or positions of pistons in a pneumatic apparatus; or area, or curvature, of a free liquid surface in an application to theory of capillary attraction; or positions of electrified bodies, or electrostatic capacities, in an electrostatic system.
The Freezing-Point of Aqueous Solutions of Sodium Mellitate
Authors: Taylor W. W.
Published: June 2019

As is well known, the molecular depression of the freezing-point of aqueous solutions of electrolytes is greater than 1·87, van't Hoff's constant, with which the molecular depressions of nonelectrolytes have been found to agree extremely well. This is in accordance with the dissociation theory; and for binary electrolytes the molecular depression may approximate to 1·87 × 2, for ternary electrolytes to 1·87 × 3, etc., but cannot exceed these values.

Substances such, as potassium ferrocyanide, which, according to the dissociation theory, might be expected to give values approximating to 1·87 × 4 or 1·87 × 5, have not been found to give molecular depressions greater than 1·87 × 3. This has been held to be an objection to the dissociation theory.
On the Reflexion and Refraction of Solitary Plane Waves at a Plane Interface between two Isotropic Elastic Mediums—Fluid, Solid, or Ether
Authors: Kelvin Lord
Published: June 2019

§ 1. “Elastic solid” includes fluid and ether; except conceivable dynamics of the mutual action across the interface of the two mediums. Maxwell's electro-magnetic equations for a homogeneous non-conductor of electricity are identical with the equations of motion of an incompressible elastic solid, or with the equations expressing the rotational components of the motion of an elastic solid compressible or incompressible; but not so their application to a heterogeneous non-conductor or to the interface between two homogeneous non-conductors.

§ 2. The equations of equilibrium of a homogeneous elastic solid, under the influence of forces X, Y, Z, per unit volume, acting at any point (x, y, z) of the substance are given in Stokes' classical paper “On the Theories of the Internal Friction of Fluids in Motion, and of the Equilibrium and Motion of Elastic Solids,” p. 115, vol. i. of his Mathematical Papers; also in Thomson and Tait's Natural Philosophy [§ 698 (5) (6)].
Contributions to the Craniology of the People of the Empire of India. Part I.—The Hill Tribes of the North-East Frontier and the People of Burma
Authors: Turner Wm.
Published: June 2019

The author contributes the first of a series of memoirs on the craniology of the natives of the countries comprising the Empire of India. The skulls of the hill tribes were from the Lushai-Chin hill tracts, the Nágá Mountains near Manipur, and Nepaul. The author was indebted for the majority of the specimens to former pupils engaged in the public service in India. A short account of the geographical position and of the external characters of the tribes is given, compiled from the writings more especially of Captain Butler, Colonel Lewin, Colonel Woodthorpe, Surgeon-Colonel Reid, General Sir James Johnstone, and from notes furnished to the author by Surgeon-Captain D. Macbeth Moir, Dr C. L. Williams, Surgeon-Major D. H. Graves, Surgeon-Major Bannerman, and Surgeon-Colonel F. W. Wright.

Eleven adult skulls from the Lushai-Chin hill tracts were examined—nine of which were those of men, two of women. Their characters and measurements were described in detail. Four specimens were dolichocephalic, index below 75; five were between 75 and 77·5, and two from the South Lushai hill tracts were above 80; the mean of the series was 76·l. When the two brachycephalic skulls are excluded the mean index was 74·6, so that the people are in the main dolichocephalic. As regards the relation of length to height the mean of the series was 73·8, and as a rule the breadth exceeded the height. Generally speaking the face was orthognathous and chamæprosopic, the nose was mesorhine, the orbit was megaseme, and the palato-alveolar arch was brachyuranic. The mean cubic capacity of the skulls of nine men was 1353 c.cm., the range being from 1270 to 1480.
The Propagation of Earthquake Vibrations through the Earth
Authors: Knott C. G.
Published: June 2019

The history of seismological research and discovery may be conveniently divided into three great epochs. 1. We have the recording of earthquakes in the popular significance of the term, with an enquiry into their character, based almost entirely upon the (usually) destructive results of their visitation. 2. We find investigators beginning to appeal to experiment to elucidate some of the effects noticed, with a growing appreciation of the necessity of recording all palpable earthquakes, whether destructive or not. One of the most honoured names in this connection is that of Mallet, whose two volumes on “The Great Neapolitan Earthquake” form a classic in the literature of the subject. Most of the developments of recent times will be found in embryo in the pages of this monumental work. 3. The introduction of instruments for recording earthquakes, and, as a natural consequence, the recognition of pulsations and tremors and the various kinds of earthquake too feeble to be detected by our senses.

At every stage in this history, geological and physical problems of intrinsic difficulty have been encountered; and it is to the discussion of some of the most recent of these that this address is devoted.

From the days of Mallet and Hopkins, numerous reports on earthquakes and seismological phenomena have been prepared and published by the British Association; and the last of these, from the industrious pen of J. Milne, F.R.S., formerly Professor of Mining in the Imperial University of Japan, has a surpassing wealth of detailed facts and of suggested theories.
II. Dualisme en philosophie, dualisme en religion
Authors: Febvre Lucien
Published: June 2019

Dualisme : c'est la croyance religieuse non point à deux dieux, celui du Bien et celui du Mal, égaux et opposés, en lutte perpétuelle l'un contre l'autre (une lutte dont résulte l'histoire même du monde), mais bien à deux principes dont l'un est divin, ou du moins plus divin que l'autre : l'autre, un démon. Si bien que les dualistes, en matière de religion, sont habituellement des monothéistes. Mais leur Dieu n'est pas la cause de tout. Par la cause du Mal en tout cas : le Mal, ce principe complètement étranger au Bien, cette substance étrangère à Dieu, dans laquelle gnostiques et manichéens reconnaissent la matière, de sorte que leur dualisme paraît être, non pas l'opposition de deux dieux, mais celle de Dieu et de la matière, et le refus de croire que cette matière soit venue de Dieu.
II. Alleu contre féodalité
Authors: Febvre Lucien
Published: June 2019

Quand, il y a bien longtemps, je ramassais les documents qui devaient me permettre d'écrire les chapitres d'histoire économique et sociale de Philippe II et la Franche-Comté, — et d'abord mon chapitre sur la Seigneurie, — je butais parfois sur des mentions d'alleux qui me laissaient un peu déconcerté. L'alleu ? on ne m'en avait jamais parlé, ou presque. Sauf pour me raconter, naturellement, l'historiette du Roi d'Yvetot. Mais voilà que je trouvais des « franc-alleux nobles » pour employer la terminologie des juristes comtois : « Terres et seigneuries en haute justice, dont le détenteur n'était tenu à aucun devoir de fief envers un autre seigneur » — sauf, bien entendu (mon juriste, Dunod, est du XVIIIe siècle), « la soumission au roi et à la justice souveraine ». Or, je rencontrais, chemin faisant, des contestations sur telle seigneurie que ses détenteurs prétendaient allodîale, mais leurs contradicteurs féodale ; je tombais, surtout, sur des « chevances allodiales » qui semblaient fort recherchées des acquéreurs.
The Paleontological Society Papers, a new series published by The Paleontological Society
Authors: Babcock Loren E. , Ausich William I.
Published: June 2019

This Volume marks the inaugural issue of the Paleontological Society Papers. This series, established by The Paleontological Society in 1996, replaces the Paleontological Society Short Course Notes, which ceased to be published in November 1995, and the Paleontological Society Special Publications, which ceased to be published in June 1996. Most of the contributions in the new series are invited papers presented at the Short Courses on Paleontology sponsored by the Society at the annual meetings of the Geological Society of America.
A molecular perspective on the evolution of scleractinian corals
Authors: Romano Sandra L.
Published: June 2019

The evolutionary history of scleractinian corals, based on morphological taxonomy and inferences from the fossil record, has been poorly understood. Molecular techniques developed over the past ten years are now being used to gain a new perspective on scleractinian phylogeny. DNA sequences, mitochondrial genome structure, and morphological characters support a basal position for the Anthozoa in the phylum Cnidaria. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences suggest a relatively derived position of the order Scleractinia within the class Anthozoa. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences have provided a new hypothesis for evolution within the Scleractinia that is different from hypotheses based on morphological characters of extant and fossil taxa. Groupings within the two major lineages defined by molecular data do not correspond to morphological suborder groupings although groupings of genera within families do correspond to traditional taxonomy. This new molecular hypothesis suggests that the Scleractinia are represented by two major lineages that diverged from each other before the appearance of the scleractinian skeleton in the fossil record. This divergence time supports the hypotheses that the Scleractinia are not related to the Rugosa of the Paleozoic and that the scleractinian skeleton has evolved more than once. These two major lineages may represent two architectural strategies within the Scleractinia that have led to their great morphological diversity.
Genetics and Molecular Systematics of Brachiopods
Authors: Cohen Bernard L.
Published: June 2019

When Charles Darwin wrote that “Our classifications will come to be, as far as they may be so made, genealogies…we have to discover and trace the many diverging lines of descent in our natural genealogies by characters…which have long been inherited” (Darwin, 1859), he presciently laid down aims and objectives of systematics that have become attainable only since the development of genetics and of molecular approaches to systematics. Genetics elucidates the heredity of characters; molecular systematics measures the degrees of relationship between diverging lineages (Griffiths et al., 1993; Page and Holmes, 1998; Graur and Li, 2000). This article attempts to review these essential aids to the art and science of brachiopod classification as they stand today. Every step so far taken to promote molecular approaches to brachiopod systematics has yielded new, unexpected, and valuable information, but there remains massive scope for new work and new workers.
Functional Morphology and Biomechanics of Articulate Brachiopod Shells
Authors: Alexander Richard R.
Published: June 2019

In the first Paleontological Society short course dealing with functional morphology of extinct brachiopod taxa, Grant (1981, p. 127) emphasized analogy with living species in reconstruction of life habits, but then cited many pitfalls of taxonomic uniformitarianism. The present is hardly the key as to how brachiopod shells functioned in the past, given the plethora of morphologic structures that have vanished since the Paleozoic diversity climax of articulates. Although direct observations (Table 1), such as clasping spines encircling a blastoid columnal (Grant, 1963), or biomechanical tests (e.g., Thayer, 1975a) and flume experiments (e.g., LaBarbera, 1978) on living articulate brachiopods, enable convincing assertion of a morphologic structure's function, indirect methodologies (Savazzi, 1999)(Table 1) have supplanted mere analogies with living brachiopods. Indirect methodologies (Savazzi, 1999, p. 6) reconstruct and infer the function of skeletal structures from theoretical (morphospace) and actual scaled models of extinct taxa, hydrodynamic and biomechanical tests on empty shells, commensal associations with fossilized epibionts, clinal variations in structures over paleogeographic and paleobathymetric gradients, and post-mortem, post-burial orientational evidence. The common denominator of indirect methodologies is that inferences are made on dead shells usually, but not always, from extinct taxa. Although such inferences of skeletal function of extinct taxa vary in the rigor by which they are deduced, indirect methodologies have been increasingly refined over the last 20 years (Table 1).
Ecology of Articulated Brachiopods
Authors: Peck Lloyd S.
Published: June 2019

Ecology is the study of the relationships between organisms and their environments. For brachiopods living in marine habitats the main external factors of interest are temperature, water chemistry, light characteristics, and oxygen availability. However, organisms also modify their environments and in many cases the biotic environment may dictate changes or organism responses. Factors of importance here for animals are resources consumed (usually food items), predators that consume the species under study, organisms that compete for resources, organisms that provide benefits such as symbiotic arrangements or new habitat for colonisation, and those organisms which reduce the quality of the environment such as pathogens or parasites.
Paleozoic Brachiopod Biogeography
Authors: Harper David A. T. , Sandy Michael R.
Published: June 2019

Over two hundred years ago the Swedish scientist Carl Linnæus (1781), in an analysis of the biogeographic patterns of living organisms, suggested that all species originated in Paradise. Although there has been considerable progress in the understanding of biogeographical patterns during the intervening two centuries, modern debate has focused on the general applicability of the concept of faunal realms together with the relevance of dispersal, panbiogeographic, and vicariance models (Nelson and Platnick, 1981). To date, studies of Paleozoic brachiopod biogeography have no strong theoretical base; rather the various numerical techniques available, including both cladistic and phenetic methodologies, have helped organize the growing amount of distributional data into recognizable and useful structures.
Biogeographical Barriers
Authors: Stock Carl W.
Published: June 2019

Biogeographical barriers serve to limit the geographic range of a species, be it in the ocean or on land. Land barriers to marine migration and marine barriers to land migration are the most easily determined from the geological record; however, temperature can be invoked in both situations. Physiographic features such as mountain ranges can restrict land organisms, and shallow marine organisms may not be able to cross oceans of great depth. Barriers can allow the passage of organisms by three means, in order of greater restriction to migration: 1) corridors; 2) filters; and 3) sweepstakes routes. Examples from the fossil record and recent are given of barriers to marine and continental organisms and their means of overcoming those barriers.
Analysis of Molecular Biomarkers Covalently Bound Within Neoproterozoic Sedimentary Kerogen
Authors: Love G. D. , Stalvies C. , Grosjean E. , Meredith W. , Snape C. E.
Published: June 2019

Catalytic hydropyrolysis (HyPy) is a powerful analytical technique for fragmenting macromolecular organic matter, such as kerogen (insoluble sedimentary organic matter), and releasing covalently-bound molecular constituents including branched and cyclic biomarker hydrocarbons. Here we illustrate our molecular approach to paleobiology with lipid biomarker data collected from rock bitumens and kerogens hosted within sedimentary units of the Neoproterozoic Huqf Supergroup, South Oman Salt Basin, Sultanate of Oman. We emphasize that parallel analyses offreeandboundbiomarker pools affords more confidence that we have correctly identified syngenetic compounds. One enigmatic class of compounds that is prominent in many late Proterozoic and Cambrian sedimentary rocks and oils, including from the Huqf Supergroup, is a series of C14-C30mid-chain methylalkanes which were originally denotedX-peaks. Despite their abundance in the Precambrian rock record, little is known about the organisms responsible for their biosynthesis. Here we propose a possible origin of X-peak methylalkanes from colorless sulfur bacteria (a very heterogeneous group of chemolithotrophic γ-proteobacteria). In modern marine settings, these bacteria are abundant mat formers wherever a sedimentary sulfide-rich horizon intersects the seafloor producing a steep geochemical redox gradient. This condition may have been met more commonly on shallow marine shelves in late Neoproterozoic basins and these benthic mats may have acted as environmental buffers consuming hydrogen sulfide. If our hypothesis is correct, proliferation of sulfide-oxidizing benthic microbial mats, commencing in the late Cryogenian in South Oman Salt Basin, implies unique and specific benthic conditions during the evolution of the earliest metazoans.
Tracking Species in Space and Time: Assessing the Relationships Between Paleobiogeography, Paleoecology, and Macroevolution
Authors: Stigall Alycia L.
Published: June 2019

In all species, geographic range is constrained by a combination of ecological and historical factors. Ecological factors relate to the species' niche, its environmental or biotic limits in multidimensional space, while historical factors pertain to a species' ancestry, specifically the location at which a species evolved. Historical limitations are primary during speciation, while ecological factors control the subsequent expansion and contraction of species range. By assessing biogeographic changes during the lifespan of individual species, we can assess the relationship between paleobiogeography, paleoecology, and macroevolution. Quantitative paleobiogeographic analyses, especially those using GIS-based and phylogenetic methods, provide a framework to rigorously test hypotheses about the relationship between species ranges, biotic turnover, and paleoecology. These new tools provide a way to assess key questions about the co-evolution of life and earth. Changes in biogeographic patterns, reconstructed at the species level, can provide key information for interpreting macroevolutionary dynamics–particularly speciation mode (vicariance vs. dispersal) and speciation rate during key intervals of macroevolutionary change (biodiversity crises, widespread invasion events, and adaptive radiations). Furthermore, species ranges can be reconstructed using ecological niche modeling methods to examine the effects of environmental controls on geographic range shifts. Particularly fruitful areas of investigation in future paleobiogeographic analysis include (1) the relationship between species ranges and speciation events/mode, (2) relationship between shifting ecological regimes and range expansion and contraction, (3) the impact of interbasinal species invasions on both community structure and macroevolutionary dynamics, (4) the mechanics of transitions between endemic to cosmopolitan faunas at local, regional, and global scales, (5) how ecology and geographic range impacts species extinction during both background and crisis intervals.

Three case studies are presented to illustrate both the methods and utility of this theoretical approach of using paleobiogeographic patterns to assess macroevolutionary dynamics. The first case study examines paleobiogeographic patterns in shallow marine invertebrates during the Late Devonian Biodiversity Crisis. During this interval, speciation by vicariance declined precipitously and only species exhibiting expanding geographic ranges survived the crisis interval. Patterns of biogeographic change during the Late Ordovician Richmondian invasion (Cincinnati Arch region) reveal similar patterns; speciation rate declines during invasion intervals and widely distributed endemic species are best able to survive in the new invasive regime. Phylogenetic biogeographic patterns during the Miocene radiation of North American horses suggest climatic parameters were important determinants of speciation and dispersal patterns.
Late Neoproterozoic Metazoa: Weird, Wonderful and Ghostly
Authors: Lipps Jere H. , Valentine James W.
Published: June 2019

The Late Neoproterozoic or Ediacaran biota contains a variety of enigmatic fossils of uncertain, but likely metazoan, affinities. The protistan group Choanoflagellata and Metazoa share a common ancestor predating the first fossils by perhaps 100's of millions of years. Sponge choanocytes closely resemble choanoflagellates, establishing a morphologic similarity as well. Fossils in the late Neoproterozoic may represent stem or early groups of cnidarians, while others resemble eumetazoans and bilaterians. These organisms occurred on all continents except Antarctica, and occupied four major habitats from prodeltaic to deep slope environments in each area. Their paleoecology was complex but similar to modern soft-bodied slope organisms. Ediacaran trophic structures were complex as well and included a wide variety of feeding types from detritovores, herbivores on microbial mats, filter-feeders, and predators. Ediacaran assemblages thus constitute the evolutionary and ecological precursors of later Phanerozoic and modern biotas.
Biogeography and the nature and timing of the Cambrian radiation
Authors: Lieberman Bruce S. , Meert Joseph G.
Published: June 2019

Biogeographic patterns from early Cambrian trilobites are used to evaluate the nature and timing of the Cambrian radiation. Results from a phylogenetic biogeographic analysis reveal that patterns of vicariance are compatible with a vicariant distribution of trilobites across what were originally joined elements of the supercontinent Pannotia; further, there is limited evidence for coordinated range expansion or geo-dispersal by these trilobites. As Pannotia had split apart sometime between 550-600 Ma this suggests that trilobites, and by extension several other metazoan taxa, had begun to diversify by this interval. This result suggests that there may have been some period of cryptic diversification by metazoans prior to the Cambrian radiation, though the inferred length of this interval is not as long as that invoked by some molecular studies. Perhaps trilobites existed at low population densities in marginal environments before they became paleontologically emergent. Even though the results suggest some apparent gap in the fossil record, the evolutionary signature of this gap is still preserved in the paleobiological patterns from the fossil record, indicating that the fossil record is still the one best source of data on the nature of key episodes in the history of life, like the Cambrian radiation.
Tackling the 99%: Can We Begin to Understand the Paleoecology of the Small and Soft-Bodied Animal Majority?
Authors: Sperling Erik A.
Published: June 2019

Not all organisms have an equal chance of entering the fossil record. Previo—us attempts to quantify this percentage suggest that for megascopic marine organisms (megafauna), ∼30% would be predicted to leave no identifiable fossils. Here, that exercise is repeated for marine macrofauna, for which ∼80% are predicted to leave no identifiable fossils. The percentage will be far higher for meiofauna, the numerically most dominant marine animals. The organisms which are often most abundant in marine sediments, such as small polychaetes and nematodes, have essentially no fossil record. Yet such organisms are ecologically important in the modern oceans, and almost certainly were in ancient environments as well, so it is useful to consider the roles they play in different ecosystems. Insight into the evolution and paleoecology of these groups can be gained by using molecular divergence estimates to infer temporal origins combined with modern distributional and ecological data. As a case study, this approach is applied to the small and soft-bodied early animal fauna living under low levels of atmospheric oxygen that likely characterized the Precambrian.
The Exceptional Preservation of Interesting and Informative Biomolecules
Authors: Summons Roger E.
Published: June 2019

Organic carbon compounds record key aspects of the processes of their formation and mechanisms of preservation and are foci for research into the nature of life on the early Earth and the search for life beyond Earth. Prime in this respect are lipids preserved in sediments and sedimentary rocks that reveal much about the evolutionary trajectory of life on our planet. Lipids, predominantly derived from photoautotrophic microbes, dominate hydrocarbon records in the Precambrian. The rise to prominence of the Metazoa in the late Neoproterozoic, metaphytes in the Paleozoic, and modern plankton in the Mesozoic, can also be seen in the occurrences of distinctive molecular fossils. Organic matter of all types is optimally preserved in environments and sediments where radiation (solar and ionizing) and oxygen are excluded. In the marine realm, anoxic water bodies will often become sulfidic (euxinic) due to the activity of sulfate-reducing bacteria. Phototropic sulfur bacteria thrive in such environments, and the presence of their characteristic carotenoid pigments goes hand-in-hand with the enhanced preservation of all organic matter, driven by the reducing power of sulfide. The deleterious effects of radiation and oxygen on the preservation of organic matter are amply demonstrated by the results of ongoing searches for carbon compounds on the surface of Mars. The production of highly oxidizing substances through radical chemistry operating in the Martian atmosphere has resulted in environmental conditions that virtually assure destruction of much of the organic matter produced in situ or carried there on meteorites and interplanetary dust particles.
Fossilization and Adaptation: Activities in Paleontology
Authors: Breithaupt Brent H.
Published: June 2019

As the concepts of time, past life, and fossils are often difficult for children to comprehend and as many of the National Parks and Monuments have important paleontological resources, Fossil Butte National Monument developed a fossil education curriculum guide designed to aid teachers presenting these principles to students in the second and third grades. The following activities are modified from that guide (Leite, M. B. and Breithaupt, B. H., 1994, Teaching Paleontology in the National Parks and Monuments: A curriculum guide for teachers of the second and third grade levels: National Park Service, Fossil Butte National Monument, Kemmerer, WY 103 p.). For more information on this curriculum guide distributed though the National Park Service, please contact Ms. Marsha Fagnant, Fossil Butte National Monument, P.O. Box 592, Kemmerer, WY 83101.
Understanding Other Minds from the Inside
Authors: Heal Jane
Published: June 2019

Can we understand other minds ‘from the inside’? What would this mean? There is an attraction which many have felt in the idea that creatures with minds, people (and perhaps animals), invite a kind of understanding which inanimate objects such as rocks, plants and machines, do not invite and that it is appropriate to seek to understand them ‘from the inside’. What I hope to do in this paper is to introduce and defend one version of the so-called ‘simulation’ approach to our grasp and use of psychological concepts, a version which gives central importance to the idea of shared rationality, and in so doing to tease out and defend one strand in the complex of ideas which finds expression in this mysterious phrase.
Externalism and Norms
Authors: Macdonald Cynthia
Published: June 2019

We think that certain of our mental states represent the world around us, and represent it in determinate ways. My perception that there is salt in the pot before me, for example, represents my immediate environment as containing a certain object, a pot, with a certain kind of substance, salt, in it. My belief that salt dissolves in water represents something in the world around me, namely salt, as having a certain observational property, that of dissolving. But what exactly is the relation between such states and the world beyond the surfaces of our skins? Specifically, what exactly is the relation between thecontentsof those states, and the world beyond our bodies?
Mind, World and Value
Authors: Morris Michael
Published: June 2019

Naturalism is the dominant philosophy of the age. It might be characterized as the view that the only real facts are facts of natural science, or that only statements of natural science are really true. But perhaps this scientistic formulation underestimates the depth and everydayness of the dominance of naturalism. More informally, we might say that naturalism is the view that the world is a world of natural objects and natural phenomena, that the only properties of these objects are natural properties, and the relations between them are all natural relations – in short, there are only natural facts, natural truths.
Explanation in Psychology: Functional Support for Anomalous Monism
Authors: Edwards Jim
Published: June 2019

Donald Davidson finds folk-psychological explanationsanomalousdue to the open-ended and constitutive conception of rationality which they employ, and yetmonistbecause they invoke an ontology of only physical events. An eliminative materialist who thinks that the beliefs and desires of folk-psychology are mere pre-scientific fictions cannot accept these claims, but he could accept anomalous monism construed as ananalysis, merely, of the ideological and ontological presumptions of folk-psychology. Of course, eliminative materialism is itself only a guess, a marker for material explanations we do not have, but it is made plausible by,inter alia, whatever difficulties we have in interpreting intentional folk-explanations realistically. And surely anomalous monism does require further explanation if it is to be accepted realistically and not dismissed as an analysis of a folk-idiom which is to be construed instrumentally at best. Some further explanation is needed ofhowbeliefs, desires, etc. can form rational patterns which have ‘no echo in physical theory’ and yet those beliefs, desires etc. be physical events. To this end I propose to graft on to anomalous monism a modest version of functionalism.
Explanation and Scientific Realism
Authors: Gasper Philip
Published: June 2019

A few years ago, Bas van Fraassen reminded philosophers of science that there are two central questions that a theory of explanation ought to answer. First, what is a (good) explanation—when has something been explained satisfactorily? Second, why do we value explanations? (van Fraassen, 1977, 1980, ch. 5). For a long time, discussions of explanation concentrated on technical problems connected with the first of these questions, and the second was by and large ignored. But, in fact, I think it is the second question which raises the more fundamental and interesting philosophical issues. I shall offer reasons for thinking that the answer to the first question requires acceptance of the sort of fullblown notion of causation that only a scientific realist can love, and that the answer to the second question requires a realist construal of scientific theories and scientific methodology. My argument will be mainly negative, surveying the problems facing some major alternative accounts of explanation. A full elaboration of the realist perspective will have to await the completion of work in progress.
How Do Scientific Explanations Explain?
Authors: Kinoshita Joyce
Published: June 2019

My title question as it stands is ambiguous, and is in want of some initial clarification. Does the question ask how the explanandum is logically related to the explanans? Or does it ask about the details of the dynamics of the explanation speech-act? Or does it ask how the linguistic ambiguities of explanation questions and answers should properly be unpacked? Or does it ask yet some other question?

The ways of studying explanation, like the ways of understanding the world, are many and varied. By this, I mean more than that the phenomenon of explanation can be studied as it arises in the different disciplines of biology, physics, the social sciences, and the like. Rather, I mean that there are varied disciplines of explanation-study itself. For example, the Hempelian tradition has largely focused on the logic of explanation, and others have focused on the linguistic, psychological, social, and epistemological angles of explanation. Thus, it is not appropriate for me to begin by arguing that explanation is a set of logically related statements or a speech-act (just as one does not begin by arguing ‘the world’ is a sociological or physical phenomenon), but appropriate instead to begin by specifying the explanatory discipline within which I ask my title question.
How we do Ethics now
Authors: Griffin James
Published: June 2019

By far the most common form of argument in ethics nowadays is what can be called piecemeal appeal to intuition. Any reader of philosophy will know the kind of thing I mean. ‘On your principle, it would be all right to do such-and-such. But that's counter-intuitive. So your principle is wrong.’ The word ‘intuition’ here is not used, as it was in earlier times, to refer to a special way of knowing; instead it is used to mean merely a moral sentiment or belief that persons have independently of the moral theory or philosophy or stance that they might adopt.
Value and idealism
Authors: Gardner Sebastian
Published: June 2019

This paper is concerned with the attempt to base a general theory of value on an idealist metaphysics. The most explicit and fully developed instance of this approach is, of course, found in Kant, on whom I shall concentrate, though I will also suggest that the account I offer of Kant has application to the later German idealists. While the core of the paper is devoted to commentary on Kant, what I thereby wish to make plausible is the idea that Kant's endeavour to base a general conception of value on an idealist metaphysics is of contemporary, not merely historical, interest. Specifically, my suggestion will be that a correct understanding of what is demanded by our ordinary, pre-philosophical grasp of value shows there is reason to think that something along the lines of Kant's transcendental idealism (or, like absolute idealism, developed from it) is required for a fully adequate metaphysics of value. Essential to the case I will make is a distinction between Kant's moral theory and his broader account of value, my claim being that, whether or not Kantian moral theory is ultimately dependent on any metaphysics, the broader conception of value to be found in Kant cannot be detached from his doctrine of transcendental idealism.
Quantum Technology: Where to Look for the Quantum Measurement Problem
Authors: Cartwright Nancy
Published: June 2019

This paper, I am afraid, advocates the philosophy of technology without actually doing it. It can best be seen as a plea for the philosophical importance of technology; in this case, importance to one of the most widely discussed problems in philosophy of physics—the measurement problem in quantum mechanics. What I want to do here is to lay out a point of view that takes the measurement problem out of the abstract mathematical structure of theory, where we discuss questions about unitary operators or conditions for the disappearance of certain inner products supposed to represent interference terms, and locate it elsewhere. Where is the measurement problem? Answer: It had better be found in the quantum technology or it is not to be found at all. My view in many respects follows ideas I have learned from Willis Lamb.
“Consequentialism and Preference Formation in Economics and Game Theory”
Authors: Hausman Daniel M.
Published: June 2019

When students first study expected utility, they are inclined to interpret it as a theory that explains preferences for lotteries in terms of preferences for outcomes. Knowing U($100) and U($0), the agent can calculate that the utility of a gamble of $100 on a fair coin coming up heads is U($100)/2 + U($0)/2. Utilities are indices representing preferences, so in calculating the utility of the gamble, one is apparently giving a causal explanation for the agent's preference for the gamble.
“Preference, Deliberation and Satisfaction”
Authors: Pettit Philip
Published: June 2019

In his famous lecture on ‘The Concept of Preference’ Amartya Sen (1982) opened up the topic of preference and preferencesatisfaction to critical, philosophical debate. He pointed out that preference in the sense in which choice reveals one's preference need not be preference in the sense in which people are personally better off for having their preferences satisfied. And on the basis of that observation he built a powerful critique of some common assumptions in welfare economics.