bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Waksman Steve
Published: June 2022

Beyoncé’s 2018 performance at Coachella serves as a potent medium to reflect on the ways that live music has evolved in the twenty-first century. The terms of Beyoncé’s breakthrough represent the continued limits that have been faced by African American artists and other artists of color, and especially by women of color. Beyoncé loudly highlights and commemorates her achievement as the first black woman to headline Coachella to draw attention to the fact that such events have followed the pattern long entrenched in the live music industry, wherein black artists are too often assigned a marginal or secondary place. Beyoncé’s performance further commanded attention because festivals have become so central to US musical life and the music economy in the twenty-first century. Behind the rise of music festivals designed on the model of Coachella is a larger transformation in the organization of the live music industry signaled by the domination of a clutch of global corporations: Live Nation, AEG Live, and Ticketmaster. Many of the largest and most successful festivals in the US are owned by either Live Nation Entertainment or AEG Live. Coachella is owned by the latter but did not begin that way. The story of Coachella’s evolution from an independent festival produced by a regionally based promoter to a signpost of the new live music economy can be taken as an allegory for the ways that live music has evolved in the age of consolidation.
Introduction
Authors: Miller Scott A.
Published: June 2022

As the title indicates, this chapter provides an introduction to the chapters that follow. The chapter begins with a discussion of an issue that is central to the book’s premise: the distinction between first-order theory of mind and advanced theory of mind. As part of this discussion, the chapter introduces the two most often used measures of each construct: the first-order false belief task and the second-order false belief task. The chapter then moves to an overview of the major theories of theory of mind, noting that each was initially devised solely to explain first-order developments. The chapter concludes with a preview of what is to come in each of the book’s remaining chapters.
Consequences: Social Development
Authors: Miller Scott A.
Published: June 2022

Consequences of theory of mind are not limited to the cognitive domain. The present chapter discusses a range of social outcomes for which theory of mind, again including advanced theory of mind, has been shown to be a contributor. Relatively good theory of mind is associated with a number of positive social outcomes, including prosocial behavior, positive relations with peers, cooperation, moral reasoning, and moral emotions. Conversely, relatively poor theory of mind is a predictor of negative outcomes, the most often studied of which is aggression. There is also intriguing evidence that theory-of-mind skills may sometimes be used for negative purposes; bullying is one proposed example, and Machiavellian traits are another.
Aging
Authors: Miller Scott A.
Published: June 2022

Possible declines in cognitive functioning as people age have long been a topic of the basic aging literature. In recent years theory of mind has assumed a prominent role in such research. As with cognition in general, declines in theory of mind are by no means inevitable as people age. They are fairly common, however, and they become both more likely and more pronounced with increased age. Declines are especially likely for the developments considered throughout this book: namely advanced forms of theory of mind. Although such problems are by no means limited to cases of dementia, they are especially severe in such cases, and Alzheimer’s disease is discussed as an example. The chapter concludes with a return to the topic of neuroimaging, in this case with a focus on changes in brain anatomy and brain functioning as people age.
Clinical Conditions
Authors: Miller Scott A.
Published: June 2022

The study of theory of mind in clinical conditions can provide two important kinds of information. One kind is information about the condition itself and possible forms of treatment or prevention. The other is about theory of mind. This chapter discusses what is known about theory of mind in five clinical syndromes: autism spectrum disorder (by far the most thoroughly studied condition), deafness, specific language impairment, depression, and schizophrenia. In each instance, theory of mind is impaired, often severely so, and in each instance impaired theory of mind is a contributor to the adjustment and behavioral problems that accompany the disorder. The chapter concludes, as did the preceding one, with studies of brain structure and brain functioning, in this case with respect to two of the conditions discussed earlier in the chapter: autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia.
Setting the Stage for the Second Symphony
Authors: Bernstein Lawrence F.
Published: June 2022

This chapter summarizes Mahler’s early biography, concentrating on his musical activities in Leipzig in 1888 and on his earlier studies at the Conservatory and University of Vienna. The impact upon him of the reading circles in Vienna of which he was a member and of his intellectual bond with Sigfried Lipiner is explored. Several early works are discussed—the A Minor Piano Quartet, Das klagende Lied, and the First Symphony—characterizing the emergence of his musical style and of his transformative ideas about what he called the New Symphony. The conservative side of Mahler’s musical training at the Vienna conservatory is contrasted to the influence on him of the music of composers like Anton Bruckner and Richard Wagner. Adam Mickiewicz’s dramatic poem about mourning rituals, Dziady (entitled Todtenfeier in Lipiner’s German translation), is discussed in anticipation of linking it to the music of the first movement in subsequent chapters.
“Ararat” and Armenia in the Bible and Associated Traditions
Authors: Stone Michael E. , Topchyan Aram
Published: June 2022

The references in the Bible to Ararat and the interpretations and location of the Mountains of Ararat are carefully considered in light of evidence from the Greco-Roman world, the Bible versions, Josephus, Byzantine Chronicles, and the Armenian sources, particularly P‘awstos. Jubilees and Qumran evidence on Mount Lubar is discussed. Other biblical passages that have been taken to refer to Armenia and the Caucasus are analyzed, including Isaiah 37:38 and Jeremiah 51:27 as they are interpreted in the Greek and Aramaic translations. The tradition of the city built after the exit from the Ark in Jewish and Armenian sources is presented, the reference to “Land of Ararat” in 4 Ezra, and the competing tradition of the Ark in Apamea.
Other Armenian-Jewish Connections
Authors: Stone Michael E. , Topchyan Aram
Published: June 2022

Pilgrimage to the Holy Land was another channel of Armenian-Jewish relations. This chapter discusses its antiquity and character, the relations between Armenia and the Holy Land, the pilgrimages in the fourth through seventh centuries, the pilgrim graffiti as evidence for antiquity, and the oldest Armenian writing in Nazareth and the Sinai. In this view, noteworthy information is found in the Armenian History by Sebēos (seventh century) who reports on correspondence between high ecclesiastical authorities in Jerusalem and Armenia. The chapter also examines the references to Armenians and Armenia in Ancient Jewish literature (the Talmud, mediaeval and later sources, the Judeo-Arabic Geniza sources) and Khazar letters.
Multiple Sources of the Social Investment Perspective
Authors: Jenson Jane , Mahon Rianne
Published: June 2022

From the mid-1990s, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the World Bank played key roles in the development, diffusion, and evolution of social investment perspectives. While hewing to a common core, these knowledge organizations’ differing interpretations of social investment reflected in large part their organizational mandates and different starting points of problem definition. As evidence accumulated that their economistic paradigms promoted in the 1980s were failing to achieve their announced goals, both promoted the policy instruments of social investment, especially early interventions for children. After the 2008 financial crisis and as evidence of mounting economic inequalities accumulated, analysts within both organizations promoted an “inclusive growth” approach. This macroeconomic paradigm includes the goal of reducing social inequalities because they hinder growth and contribute to political instability. The OECD and the World Bank repurposed several of the policy instruments from their social investment perspectives as they became advocates for new forms of universality in social interventions.
The Politics of European Union’s Social Investment Initiatives
Authors: Porte Caroline de la , Palier Bruno
Published: June 2022

This chapter focuses on why and how social investment has developed at the European Union level. The chapter identifies five main sequences in the development of the European social investment strategy. The perspective proposed by the EU institutions started with a focus on labor market participation (hence focusing on the skill mobilization function of social investment) before being broadened in 2000 to a perspective that included skill creation as much as skill mobilization and preservation. It then changed again toward a return to workforce mobilization and experienced a specific “social investment moment” with the Social Investment Package, before being embedded within a broader pillar of social rights. Two main dynamics explain the metamorphoses of the EU’s approach to social investment. First, there is an “internal” dynamic, consisting of internal battles within the European institutions between European “economically oriented” actors and “socially oriented” ones. Second, the changes in emphasis on social investment in the EU over time reflect political priorities in member states. The higher the number of left-leaning governments within the EU, the more inclusive and broad are the proposed social investment perspectives. Conversely, the higher the number of right-leaning governments, the more concentration on stratified and targeted social investment, focused merely on workforce mobilization.
Social Investment and Social Assistance in Low- and Middle-Income Countries
Authors: Barrientos Armando
Published: June 2022

Social investment figures prominently in the recent expansion of social assistance in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). This is grounded on an understanding that poverty is primarily a consequence of low productive capacity. To be effective, social assistance must be designed to support human development and economic inclusion. Relying on a new data set of social assistance in LMICs, this chapter assesses the social investment orientation of recent social assistance expansion. Classifying programs according to their design enables the development of appropriate measures of social investment globally and across regions. Their analysis throws light on correlates of social investment reforms, their political salience, and the role of legacies and institutions.
Social Investment and Neoliberal Legacies in Latin America
Authors: Huber Evelyne , Dunn Claire , Stephens John D.
Published: June 2022

This chapter argues that Latin American governments have expanded social investment policies but that one cannot really speak of a turn to social investment and away from the passive welfare state as the need to expand the net of social protection to the large sectors that previously were excluded has remained strong. To the extent that social investment has been adopted, it has been with the aim to create human capital and reduce vast inequality of opportunity. The emphasis has been on education and healthcare, linked to efforts at poverty reduction. The authors analyze the main protagonists of these reforms; the institutional structures that shaped them, particularly policy legacies and presidential partisan control over legislatures; and the power of antagonists of inclusive reforms. In addition to documenting general trends, they provide a number of brief comparative analyses of different reforms.
Justice and International Order
Authors: Lebow Richard Ned , Zhang Feng
Published: June 2022

Justice and International Order: East and West compares Western and Chinese conceptions of justice, ancient and modern. The book argues that most conceptions can be reduced to the principles of fairness and equality, although they are developed and expressed quite differently in the two cultures. In the modern era there has been a noticeable shift in both cultures in giving equality priority over fairness. In ancient and modern times there is greater variation regarding justice within each culture than there is between them. This overlap, and arguably in some ways convergence, provides the basis for restructuring Sino-American relations along lines that could prove acceptable to leaders and peoples of both countries. The book extends its argument to international order and asks how it could be made more effective and consensual. Building on our principles of justice, it identifies some of the pathways that would lead to a more peaceful world, one in which the weak and poor as well as the rich and powerful would feel included and rewarded.
The Problem of Order
Authors: Lebow Richard Ned , Zhang Feng
Published: June 2022

The Introduction provides an overview of the argument that lays out the importance of justice for orders at every level of social aggregation and develops a strategy for comparing Western and Chinese conceptions of justice. It uses these shared understandings as the foundation for restructuring regional and international orders. It provides overviews of the chapters that follow on Western conceptions of justice, Confucianism, other Chinese schools of thought, comparison of Western and Chinese understandings of justice, a critique of the current international order, and pathways toward restructuring Sino-American relations and the global order.
International “Order”
Authors: Lebow Richard Ned , Zhang Feng
Published: June 2022

This chapter documents the long-term shift from fairness and to equality as the preferred principle of international justice and the tensions it has created because hegemony and hierarchy are rooted in the principle of fairness. The current order, whether described as the US-dominated liberal order, or also as a kind of minimal great power condominium, satisfies only one condition of a fairness-based order. It provides special privileges to the powerful, and does so at expense of weaker actors. The chapter reviews critiques of the liberal order and tacit great power concert, concluding with an assessment of what would have to be done to reorder international relations to promote peace and development and reduce current sources of tension and conflict, or at least mitigate their effects. This analysis forms the basis for the next two chapters that explore different possible orders.
Justice and Order between America and China
Authors: Lebow Richard Ned , Zhang Feng
Published: June 2022

This chapter develops a framework for Sino-American relations based on mutually acceptable formulations of the principles of fairness and equality. It documents how policies at odds with these principles have intensified mistrust and exacerbated conflict between the two countries. It argues for the importance of fairness and equality in managing disputes and show how this might work in six major areas of contention: status, ideology, security, economy, technology, and society. Key to the argument is a tragic understanding of politics, and its emphasis on the dangers of viewing the world entirely through the lenses of one’s values and goals and of emphasizing the benefits of conflict over those of cooperation. Altering the trajectory of Sino-American relations, let alone transforming it, depends on process as much as it does on reframing the goals each country seeks. Reciprocity in its several dimensions must be made a central feature of process, and the chapter illustrates several ways in which this might be implemented. Rethinking how long-standing goals can be achieved in a less confrontational manner and restructuring dialogue and diplomacy have the potential to reduce tensions and mistrust. They might even transform an increasingly acute confrontation into a relationship of benign competition and sector-specific cooperation.
Developing Virtue in Emerging Adults
Authors: Williams Brian A.
Published: June 2022

This chapter argues that universities should acknowledge their unavoidable role in the moral and social formation of undergraduate students, most of whom are “emerging adults” in the middle of ongoing neurological, psychological, and sociological development. Contemporary emerging adults are delaying entrance into social institutions like marriage, parenthood, career, and home-owning that in earlier eras compelled them to adopt more stable patterns of behavior. The implication is that emerging adults tend to take their moral cues from other emerging adults, and universities are one of the few remaining formative institutions that emerging adults experience. To help students reach full adulthood unencumbered by serious emotional, physical, and moral harm, universities should consider instituting both explicit and implicit practices and programs that assist students in becoming integrated and virtuous moral adults. Otherwise, the university risks becoming complicit in exacerbating and prolonging the suboptimal behaviors to which emerging adults are disposed.
Can Theology Help?
Authors: Biggar Nigel
Published: June 2022

Universities have always been motivated by private and public purposes, as well as the sheer amor scientiae. Their public raison d’être should include the explicit formation of students in intellectual virtues, which have broader civic application. This is because the civic costs of not cultivating these virtues are very high, and because academics do in fact promote virtues (or vices) in the classroom, even if they tend to be morally tongue-tied about owning up to it. Universities need to overcome their moral reticence and become self-conscious about their role in virtue formation so as to make it less haphazard and more available for critical reflection and development. Christian theology, where virtue-talk is perfectly at home, can make a valuable contribution by giving stronger voice to the unacknowledged moral formation already underway in colleges and universities and offering resources for the critical reflection that might improve present practice.
Introduction
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: June 2022

This chapter introduces the life of John Leland (1754–1841), the colorful Baptist preacher and political agitator of early America. Though most famous for delivering a “mammoth cheese” to Thomas Jefferson’s White House, Leland is well worth remembering for other reasons, too: he was a tireless Baptist itinerant and religious freedom advocate, an antislavery spokesman in colonial Virginia, an ardent promoter of religious individualism in the Baptist church, and an influential party whip for the Jeffersonian Democrats. He leveraged his influence with Baptist voters to convince James Madison to include a bill of rights in the Constitution. Over the course of his remarkably long public life, Leland witnessed, participated in, and contributed to vast changes in American culture.
“High-Flying, Separate New Light”
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: June 2022

This chapter explores John Leland’s earliest years, from his birth to the beginning of his preaching career at the age of twenty, and his development as a religious individualist. Leland grew up in a day of religious tumult in Grafton, Massachusetts—a New England community still experiencing the after-tremors of George Whitefield’s Great Awakening revivals. As a boy, Leland gravitated to the radical revivalistic faith of his mother, a Separate Congregationalist. He questioned traditional religious authorities, insisting on the right to think, and to seek God for himself. Leland’s privatized religious quest led to his personal conversion to evangelical Christianity, his acceptance of the Separate Baptist faith, and his decision to become an itinerant preacher. The rest of Leland’s life would demonstrate a fierce commitment to the religious individualism he learned in his early years.
“I Dare Not Pull Up Stakes”
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: June 2022

The Second Great Awakening at the beginning of the nineteenth century is associated with the decline of the Calvinistic theology that had traditionally held sway in American religion. For many reasons, the old doctrines of divine determinism and human inability seemed at odds with the popular religious mood in early America, and many of the era’s most successful preachers either openly scorned Calvinistic theology or modified it in significant ways. As one of the era’s most popular revivalists, John Leland is often associated with the rejection of Calvinism, or at least with a growing indifference about doctrinal specificity common among populist communicators. This chapter demonstrates that Leland was in fact very engaged with the theological discussions of his day, and defended a popular version of traditional five-point Calvinism in his writing and preaching, indicating the persistent appeal of Calvinism among many ordinary people in early America.
“Consistent with the Principles of Good Policy”
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: June 2022

John Leland’s long public life involved a long journey with slavery. He was a leading antislavery voice among white Virginians in the 1780s, and his powerful statements from this era have commonly earned him the reputation as an early abolitionist. Yet a closer look at his words then, as well as the trajectory of his remaining five decades in the public eye, reveal a more complex story. Like many white Baptists at the dawn of the nineteenth century, Leland was antislavery, but not an abolitionist. He held instead to a “conditional termination” of slavery, like his hero Thomas Jefferson. He advocated for emancipation in theory, but at an unspecified future date, when conditions were more favorable. As Leland identified more closely with the Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democratic parties, he further muted his antislavery speech, emphasizing instead the individual rights and responsibilities of slave owners.
The Legacy of Medieval Credulitas
Authors: Tutino Stefania
Published: June 2022

This chapter provides a brief account of the theological and juridical meaning of credulitas through the Middle Ages and up to the early modern times. It starts with an examination of the nature and implications of the Augustinian-Thomist theological notion of credulitas. Contrary to the Roman pagan authors, for whom this word meant “credulity,” Augustine and Aquinas understood credulitas as our natural capability to believe, and therefore as a faculty that, if used properly, allows us to form fundamental and necessary bonds of trust with each other as well as with God. This chapter also puts this theological tradition in conversation with medieval jurisprudence and canon law, showing how premodern jurists thought about the meaning and legal implications of credibility and belief as opposed to knowledge.
Credibility, Faith, and Obedience
Authors: Tutino Stefania
Published: June 2022

Emphasizing credibility brought a measure of confusion concerning the relationship between knowledge and faith; in turn, this caused tensions between theological and epistemological authority. This chapter investigates how these tensions manifested in the debate over the immortality of the soul. In the seventeenth century, this debate did not concern whether or not the soul was mortal, but rather the epistemological nature of the belief in the immortality of the soul. Should early modern people believe that the soul is immortal solely as a consequence of having embraced the Catholic faith, or must they also find the immortality of the soul to be philosophically reasonable and credible? This chapter explores the debate over these questions and shows the difficulties that Catholic theologians faced when trying to find an equilibrium between credibility and truth.
Managing the Flock
Authors: Tutino Stefania
Published: June 2022

To examine the wider and deeper role that credibility plasyed in early modern Catholicism, this chapter presents a selection of case studies that show the kinds of problems that the Roman Inquisitors had to deal with when the Catholic flock used credibility too much. This chapter tells the story of the interactions between the Roman Inquisitors and several Catholic laymen and clergymen who, in their attempt to use their reason to validate the credibility of religious dogmas, became prey to all sorts of doubts and anxieties concerning the limits of reason, the role of the intellect in the process of embracing faith, and the extent to which Catholic doctrine had to be credible in order to be believed.
Economic Transition in the Workplace
Authors: Rothstein Sidney A.
Published: June 2022

Chapter 3 traces how workers were able to mobilize against layoffs at an IBM facility in Burlington, Vermont, because they recoded management’s discourse. The chapter shows how digital transformation unfolds in the workplace through shifts in management’s discursive techniques for control. While executives attempted to establish market fundamentalism as hegemonic at IBM, managers at Burlington clung to the normative discourse that had defined the firm for decades. Workers recoded management’s normative discourse to demonstrate that collective action could be effective in protecting their jobs, which motivated a broad swath of workers to pursue a collective legal case against IBM. The chapter illustrates that, despite the ascendance of market fundamentalism, workplaces are always characterized by multiple discourses, providing organizers an opportunity to develop counterhegemonic tactics and build worker power.
Market Power Is Not Enough
Authors: Rothstein Sidney A.
Published: June 2022

Chapter 4 shows that building worker power requires discursive creativity. Workers at IBM San Jose, in the heart of Silicon Valley, possessed considerable market power, but this was not sufficient to protect them against layoffs. Moreover, while workers at IBM San Jose had access to the same resources as workers at IBM Burlington, they did not mobilize. Just like at Burlington, multiple discourses remained relevant at San Jose, but organizers failed to engage them. As a result, organizers did not develop the counterhegemonic tactics necessary for collective action, and their framing of layoffs did not resonate with workers. Instead, workers clung to management’s discourse of market fundamentalism and their justification that job cuts were an unavoidable response to market challenges. Believing that mobilizing would do nothing to save their jobs, workers chose to acquiesce.
The Greek War of Independence
Authors: Katsikas Stefanos
Published: June 2022

This chapter explores the conditions leading to the emergence of Greek nationalism. Emphasis is given to the change of the political conditions in the Ottoman Empire and in Europe after the seventeenth century, leading to power shifts among Christian Orthodox, to the emergence of Greek diaspora communities in non-Ottoman Europe as well as of an economically robust new entrepreneurial class. Both the Greek diaspora and the new entrepreneurial class supported the Greek education and contributed to the advancement of a “Hellenic self-consciousness” among many Christian Orthodox in the Ottoman Empire and abroad who sought political emancipation from the Ottoman Empire. The chapter analyzes the connection between the rise of Greek nationalism and outbreak of the Greek War of Independence (1821–1832). It discusses the beginning, the evolution, the international dimension, shifting political and military loyalties by the fighting sides and the outcome of the war. The chapter also examines atrocities committed by the Ottomans against the rebels as well as by Greek insurgents against Muslims and Jews living in the rebellious areas. Finally, the chapter explores the close relationship between Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Greek nationalism, as well as the role of Christian Orthodoxy as a mobilizing factor against the Ottomans among the Christian Orthodox during the war. The war paved the way for Orthodox Christianity to become the dominant religion, legally, of the newly established Kingdom of Hellas in 1832, which in itself reset the living conditions for Orthodox and non-Orthodox Christians, leading many Muslims and Jews to embrace Orthodox Christianity.
Neophytes in the Kingdom of Hellas
Authors: Katsikas Stefanos
Published: June 2022

This chapter analyzes the economic and social profile as well as the legal, economic, and social status of converts in the Kingdom of Hellas during the Regency (1832–1835) and the reign of King Otto (1835–1862). The chapter explores the Regency’s and King Otto’s policies toward the converts. It also discusses gender aspects of conversion: why the overwhelming majority of Muslim converts were women, and the correlation of conversions to Orthodox Christianity with incidents of abduction of Muslim women by Orthodox Christian men, who intended to marry them by force and increase their assets by controlling the properties of their neophyte spouses, or by getting generous dowries from their spouses’ (Muslim) families. This and the previous chapter are mostly narrative and expository, and the analysis for both follows in the conclusion at the end of the book.
Conclusion
Authors: Katsikas Stefanos
Published: June 2022

The conclusion draws on the analysis in previous chapters, mainly Chapters 3 and 4, to address some theoretical questions about religious conversions and nation-building in Modern Greece. It argues that in Modern Greece of the nineteenth century religious conversions, including Muslim conversions, to Christian Orthodoxy were often a ticket to Greek national identity. By converting to Orthodox Christianity the converts often aspired to become Hellenes (i.e., Greek nationals). In so doing, Greece and the age of nationalism that Greece introduced in the Balkans set a pattern for religious conversions, including Muslim conversions to Christianity, in the region: Muslim converts often aspired to become nationals of the post-Ottoman country in which they lived. The conclusion also argues that Muslim conversion to Christian Orthodoxy was often facilitated by the weakness or lack of Ottoman institutions and the political, economic and social fluidity or havoc of the nineteenth century. It also discusses the reliability or lack thereof of Greek official documents concerning the conditions under which these conversions took place. What do these documents suppress, and what can be read between their lines, especially concerning neophyte child and adult slavery, molestation, sexual slavery, and concubinage?
The Four Ages of American Foreign Policy
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael
Published: June 2022

In the 250 years between 1765 and 2015 American foreign policy passed through four stages, each defined by the extent of American power. From 1765 to 1865 the United States was a weak power; from 1865 to 1945 a great power; from 1945 to 1990 a superpower; and from 1990 to 2015 the world’s hyperpower. Throughout each period, American foreign policy had three characteristic features: it was unusually ideological, seeking to promote the nation’s values abroad; it had a strong economic component, using trade and investment as instruments to try to achieve foreign policy goals; and it was distinctively democratic, with American society as a whole and particular groups within that society having a greater influence over the nation’s foreign policy than was the case in other countries.
Great-Power Debut, 1865–1914
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael
Published: June 2022

In the five decades after the Civil War the American economy became the largest in the world and the country took part in the first great age of globalization. Its population grew rapidly, especially through immigration from Europe, and Americans in large numbers settled the lands acquired before 1861. All this gave the United States the basis for becoming a great power in the world. During that time America established a sphere of influence in Central America and the eastern Pacific Ocean. It also began to act as a great power in East Asia: American warships opened Japan to international commerce and American merchants pursued commercial opportunities in China, taking advantage of Britain’s victory in the Opium War. The American government issued the “Open Door” note in 1899 in order to preserve these opportunities. The United States acquired a formal empire in the Philippines and an informal one in Cuba through its victory in a war against Spain in 1898. In the early years of the twentieth century two presidents presented contrasting visions of America’s great-power foreign policy. Theodore Roosevelt, like Alexander Hamilton before him, put sustaining a stable balance of power at the center of his outlook. Woodrow Wilson, following in the footsteps of Thomas Jefferson, emphasized the need to transform international politics so as to make them more peaceful.
The Offshore Balancer, 1914–1933
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael
Published: June 2022

At the outset of World War I the United States sought to remain neutral but because of Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare ultimately entered the conflict on the side of Great Britain and France. American troops contributed to the Allied victory in 1918. At the postwar Paris Peace Conference the American president Woodrow Wilson orchestrated the creation of an international peace-keeping organization, the League of Nations, but the United States Senate rejected American membership in it. In the postwar period the United States attempted to support peace through naval arms control in the Pacific and to stabilize the European economies by adjusting Germany’s reparations payments to France and Great Britain, but the Great Depression brought severe economic hardship to Europe and North America and in East Asia Japan seized part of China despite American protests.
The Arsenal of Democracy, 1933–1945
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael
Published: June 2022

The German leader Adolf Hitler’s aggressive policies in Europe, and Japanese imperial conquests in China, brought the post–World War I peace to an end. After the outbreak of war, President Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to keep the United States out of the fighting while providing assistance to Great Britain and China. With the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, America was drawn into active combat. Allied with Britain and the Soviet Union, American forces made a dramatic landing at Normandy in France and proceeded to defeat and occupy Germany. American forces also defeated Japan, with the Pacific war culminating in the attacks on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by American atomic bombs.
Back to the Future, 2001–2015
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael
Published: June 2022

Terrorist attacks on New York City and Washington, D.C., on September 11, 2001, launched the United States into three wars: a global war on terror; a war in Afghanistan; and a war against Saddam Hussein’s regime in Iraq. In both Afghanistan and Iraq American efforts to install stable, democratic, friendly governments encountered opposition, and the United States found itself fighting against insurgencies in both places. In 2008, a severe financial crisis struck America, which led to a prolonged global recession. By the end of this period, Russia, China, and Iran had begun to mount serious challenges to American interests in Europe, East Asia, and the Middle East, respectively. This brought an end to the fourth age of American foreign policy.
From Concept to Movement
Authors: Caradonna Jeremy L.
Published: June 2022

This chapter moves up to the 1980s and beyond and explores how sustainability became fully integrated into politics and international policy. Special attention is placed on the institutional history of sustainability within the United Nations and other international organizations and accords. The key documents reviewed include the Rio Declaration and the Brundtland Report (Our Common Future). The chapter also explores the contested nature of sustainability, between those advocating for market-based solutions and those critical and sceptical of growth and the private sector.
Sustainability Today
Authors: Caradonna Jeremy L.
Published: June 2022

This chapter looks at sustainability as it has existed since the year 2000. Special attention is placed on growing aware of and concerns about climate change and how it has made the sustainability movement more urgent, mainstream, and impactful. The chapter takes an episodic look at how sustainability has affected different social and economic sectors, including the built environment, transportation, business and economics, food, academia, energy (focusing on the shift to renewables), and public policy. The chapter also includes a comprehensive analysis of the key metrics, measures, and methods that are used within the diverse fields of sustainability.
The Good Hegemon
Authors: Park Susan
Published: June 2022

Powerful international development organizations like the World Bank recognized that they contributed to ecosystem destruction and a loss of land and livelihoods for people in developing countries in the 1990s. Pressure from activists and the United States led the World Bank to give affected people recourse through an inspection panel. Within a decade other similar multilateral development banks would follow suit. This book argues that these accountability mechanisms embody a norm of “accountability as justice,” which has now spread globally. It makes three arguments for why the norm was created, how the accountability mechanisms operate, and whether they hold the banks to account. First, the United States promoted this norm during debates over how to maintain the efficiency and effectiveness of the multilateral development banks in the 1990s. As the banks’ premier shareholder, the United States built on its history of using “accountability as control” to establish the “accountability as justice” norm of for all the banks even when pressure from activists was absent or muted. It was able to do so using its “power of the purse,” its “vote,” and its “voice” in the banks. Second, the banks resisted the norm, leading the United States to invoke the same practices to demand the banks reformulate the mechanisms in egregious cases. Finally, the book shows how the accountability mechanisms have become more accessible, transparent, independent, responsive, and effective. Despite these gains, the banks adhere to the accountability as justice norm as a corrective to their operations rather than to preempt harm.
US Hegemony for What?
Authors: Park Susan
Published: June 2022

This chapter examines how providing recourse to people harmed by MDB financed projects was promulgated by donor shareholders, pivotally the United States. It traces how the demand for accountability resulted from dissatisfaction with MDB performance and activist campaigns revealing large-scale harm. The US history of using accountability as control for the MDBs is articulated, to which concerns of justice were added. The design of the World Bank’s Inspection Panel reflected US demands for accountability as justice. The United States used its power of the purse, vote, and voice to press for the accountability as justice norm in the Inter-American Development Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the World Bank Group, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the African Development Bank. The banks sought to compromise over the norm. Outside the high-profile campaigns against the World Bank and World Bank Group, the MDBs designed accountability mechanisms with limited independence.
Accountability as Justice in Practice
Authors: Park Susan
Published: June 2022

This chapter analyzes how the accountability as justice norm has been enacted since the mechanisms were created. The chapter provides an overview of the operations of the mechanisms to demonstrate the difficulties of achieving justice through problem-solving and compliance investigations. The mechanisms are part of the internal accountability processes of the banks to check their behavior and are “last resorts” for project-affected people. Yet projects generally continue during an investigation, and remedies such as stopping the harm and rectifying damage remain with bank management. It then documents the banks’ ongoing resistance to the norm that limits the provision of recourse.
Changing the Banks and Strengthening Accountability as Justice?
Authors: Park Susan
Published: June 2022

This chapter outlines how the accountability mechanisms have improved in providing recourse over time and how the norm has strengthened: The mechanisms have become more independent, transparent, and accessible. It then turns to examine how the operations of the accountability mechanisms have had a piecemeal effect on the banks’ operations, policies, and procedures. This reveals how little the norm affects bank operations, given that it was created to provide recourse as a corrective to harm rather than to prevent it. The accountability as justice norm does not interfere with the bank’s technical and apolitical lending culture.
Norm Diffusion within the MDBs and Insights beyond the Banks
Authors: Park Susan
Published: June 2022

This chapter recounts the main findings of the book to make three points: First, that the banks used a range of strategies for resisting a norm that threatened their autonomy and lending-imperative culture. This included compromise over the design of the accountability mechanisms, acquiescence to periodic accountability mechanism reviews, avoidance in designing the mechanisms and responding to investigations, defiance in rejecting allegations of wrongdoing, and manipulation over the process, staff, and project affected people. Despite bank (and sometimes board) resistance, the norm is now a feature of the banks’ governance structures. Second, that persistent efforts by the United States using the power of the purse, voice, and vote may be used to shape the practices of other international organizations but ideas remain paramount to their likely success. Third, that once a process had been instituted to establish and oversee the accountability mechanisms, the review process enabled other actors like the accountability officers and activists and consultants to help strengthen the norm. This demonstrates a powerful state not just pushing for a norm but also enabling others to work to improve it over time.
Introduction
Authors: Radnitz Scott , Mylonas Harris
Published: June 2022

The Introduction provides a theoretical framework to investigate the politics of fifth columns and lays the groundwork for the remainder of the book. Fifth-column politics refers to public statements, state policies, or collective action targeting domestic actors on the purported basis of their acting nefariously in cooperation with external rivals of the state against the national interest. Based on this understanding, the chapter situates the investigation of fifth-column politics among previous studies of similar topics. It then introduces several conceptual interventions, including problematizing ideological versus ethnic claims; distinguishing subversive from collusive fifth columns; and differentiating between private state actions and public discourse. Finally, it previews the subsequent chapters and situates their contributions to the volume.
The Geopolitics of “Fifth-Column” Framing in Xinjiang
Authors: Kuo Kendrick , Mylonas Harris
Published: June 2022

What accounts for a government’s framing of its fifth-column claims? This chapter focuses on the relationships between geopolitical environment, discourse, and policy, arguing that geopolitical shifts can have significant consequences for how governing elites frame non-core groups as fifth columns, which in turn can shape and justify policy changes. Real or imagined links between the non-core group and the purported external backer have a significant constitutive impact on how the state frames the goals and nature of the relevant non-core group. The state’s reaction to a perceived threat, in turn, can reinforce the constitutive impact. The chapter explores the plausibility of this framework as applied to China’s Xinjiang region. The Chinese government has treated its Uyghur minority as a subversive element at least since the late 1950s. Government framing, however, changed over time, ranging from depictions of Uyghurs as counterrevolutionaries to ethnonational separatists to objects of indoctrination by transnational jihadist groups. These changes correlate with important shifts in the geopolitical environment—the Sino-Soviet split, the fall of the Soviet Union, and 9/11. Geopolitics, perceived external linkages, and fifth-column framing changed in lockstep from 1949 to the present.
“Sellers of the Homeland”
Authors: Crews Robert D.
Published: June 2022

This chapter examines fifth-column politics in modern Afghanistan. It explores how Afghan elites and non-elites alike have resorted to a language of treason and fidelity to make sense of the interplay of internal and external political challenges and of the recurrence of horrific violence and the breakdown of social trust. Ranging across a spectrum encompassing what Radnitz and Mylonas in this volume call “subversive” and “collusive” claims, such narratives have targeted state elites and their rivals as well as whole communities who stand accused of “selling the homeland” to foreigners. In a country whose past has been stamped by repeated foreign interventions and, since 1978, decades of traumatic violence and physical displacement, conspiracy narratives about fifth columns have operated as a way to make sense of—and to navigate—a precarious political landscape.
Security Threats or Citizens?
Authors: Frost Lillian
Published: June 2022

When and why do political elites publicly frame groups as fifth columns? While some argue that geopolitical factors explain when states identify groups as fifth columns, others emphasize domestic political concerns. This chapter finds that, although geopolitical dynamics are central in defining groups as fifth columns, the decision to frame groups in this way tends to reflect domestic political interests. This chapter unpacks these interests and argues that political elites can frame groups, whether citizens or not, strategically as fifth columns to securitize and avoid introducing new policies. However, when political elites favor a new policy, they will avoid securitizing it and engaging fifth-column frames—even when these frames are easily accessible. This chapter unpacks these arguments by examining variations in Jordan’s framing of Palestinians as fifth columns over time by using process tracing to examine two cases of nationality law reform in Jordan in 1954 and 2014.
Outsourcing Repression
Authors: Ong Lynette H.
Published: June 2022

How do states coerce citizens into compliance and minimize backlash at the same time? Outsourcing Repression portrays state engagement of nonstate actors—violent street gangsters and nonviolent grassroots brokers—to coerce and mobilize the masses for state pursuits in a manner that reduces resistance. This book draws on more than 200 interviews from ethnographic research conducted annually over a decade (2011‒2019) from the era of Hu Jintao to Xi Jinping, a unique and original event dataset, and a collection of government regulations to study everyday land grabs and housing demolition in China. Outsourcing Repression theorizes a counterintuitive form of state repression that reduces resistance and backlash. Everyday state power is quotidian power acquired through society by penetrating nonstate territories and mobilizing the masses within. This book uses China’s urbanization scheme as a window of observation and explains how the arguments can be generalized to other country contexts.