bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Biological Studies of Combustion Atmospheres
Authors: Purser D.A. , Woolley W.D.
Published: March 2007

There is evidence supported by statistical information from fire deaths that many fire fatalities occur as a result of incapacitation of the victims by the toxic products given off during the early stages of fires, thereby preventing escape from the fire, rather than from direct exposure to heat or other factors. As an essential part of understanding these problems, a study has been made of the mechanisms of incapacitation resulting from exposures to atmospheres of ther mal decomposition products from polymeric materials. Under conditions ap proved by the Home Office Inspector, individual cynomolgus monkeys were ex posed to atmospheres increasing in separate experiments from very low smoke concentrations until early signs of physiological effects were detected. Measure ments were made of two kinds of physiological parameters: vital signs (respira tion, electrocardiography and respiratory blood gases) and parameters indicating effects on the nervous system (electroencephalography, auditory evoked poten tials, nerve conduction velocity). The atmospheres generated were designed to study the effects of hypoxia, hypercapnia, carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide and thermal decomposition products from wood, polyacrylonitrile, polyurethane foam, polypropylene, polystyrene and nylon produced under pyrolytic or ox idative conditions at a range of temperatures. The main findings were that the composition and hence the toxicity of the products from individual materials could vary considerably depending upon the different conditions of temperature and degree of oxygenation under which they were decomposed. However, despite the great complexity in chemical composition of the test atmospheres, the basic toxic effects on the animals were relatively simple, and for each in dividual atmosphere the toxicity was always dominated by one of these factors; carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, or irritants. The role of each of these fac tors in causing incapacitation in real fires is discussed.
Thermochemical Response of Honeycomb Sandwich Panels
Authors: Ramohalli Kumar
Published: March 2007

A simple study aimed at predicting the Thermochemical Response of honey comb sandwich panels is presented. The overall thermal conductivity coefficient for the panel is obtained through a consideration of the convective gas move ment within the cell spaces. The earlier correlations of Catton and Edwards are used. The analytical solution for the one-dimensional approximation is quoted from an earlier study.
New Fireworthy Composites for Use in Transportation Vehicles
Authors: Parker J.A. , Kourtides D.A.
Published: March 2007

This paper presents an overview of certain aspects of the evaluation of the fire- worthiness of air transport interiors. It examines some technical opportunities that are available today through the modification of aircraft interior subsystem components, modifications that may reasonably be expected to provide im provements in aircraft fire safety.
Effects of External Radiation On Solid-Fuel Diffusion Flames
Authors: Sibulkin Merwin , Gale Tom
Published: March 2007

Results of calculations for free-convection diffusion flames are presented for the range of external radiative fluxes encountered in room fires. The specific system studied is PMMA burning in O2/N2 atmospheres. It is found that the burning rate shows a linear increase with ambient oxygen concentration at fixed external radiative flux, and shows an almost linear increase with external flux at fixed oxygen concentration. The minimum oxygen concentration required for combustion is found to decrease slowly with increasing external radiation. A criterion for estimating extinction limits based upon a parameter equivalent to a local Damkohler number is proposed.
Acute Inhalation Toxicity of the Smoke Produced By Five Halogenated Polymers
Authors: Kaplan Harold L. , Grand Arthur F. , Switzer Walter G. , Gad Shayne C.
Published: March 2007

The acute inhalation toxicity of smoke produced by five halogenated polymers used as electrical wire coatings was investigated in this study. The polymers in cluded two chlorofluoropolymers (Halar 500® and Halar 555®) and three fluoro polymers (Teflon 100® , Tefzel 200® and Kynar® ). The toxicity of each material was evaluated under flaming and nonflaming combustion using the NBS developmental protocol supplemented with measurement of incapacitation and analyses of the combustion atmospheres for HF, HCl and COF2.
Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental Burning Rates for a Laminar Wall Fire
Authors: Malary S.F. , Sibulkin M.
Published: March 2007

Laminar methyl methacrylate (MMA) wall fires were studied. The principal objective of the investigation was to obtain and compare theoretical and ex perimental burning rates. The wall fires were produced by burning MMA on a ceramic wick in an oxygen/nitrogen environment. Burning rate measurements were made for several values of ambient oxygen mass fraction, and it was found that a unique burning rate did not exist for a given ambient condition. For supply rates that were great enough to cause fuel to drip from the wick surface, the burning rate was found to increase slightly with supply rate. The burning rates in the limit of zero fuel dripping were chosen as characteristic values for comparison with theoretical results.

Diffusion flame theory for laminar burning of a vertical fuel surface was used to predict burning rates. The effects of incomplete combustion were examined (using recently measured values of the effective heat of combustion), and are found to decrease the calculated burning rates by about 5 percent. The variation in the calculated burning rates due to our lack of knowledge of the effective Lewis number and flame emissivity were considered, and found to give an uncer tainty band of ± 12 percent. Comparison of the theoretical calculations with the measured results show a similar, small increase with increasing ambient oxygen concentration. The band of theoretical results, however, predicts burning rates which are at least 10 percent greater than the measured values.
Fire Testing of Riser Cables
Authors: Przybyla L.J. , Guida T.J. , Williams J.L. , Kaufman S.
Published: March 2007

A vertical riser fire test has been developed to evaluate cables for Classifica tion in accordance with the vertical fire spread requirements of the 1984 National Electrical Code. The test simulates a cable installation in a riser shaft with exposure to a large fire source. A variety of copper conductor cables and op tical fiber cables were tested. Some cables exhibited only minor flame propaga tion and are now Classified by Underwriters Laboratories for use in riser shafts.
Modeling of Toxicological Effects of Fire Gases: V. Mathematical Modeling of Intoxication of Rats By Combined Carbon Monoxide and Hydrogen Cyanide Atmospheres
Authors: Hartzell G.E. , Switzer W.G. , Priest D.N.
Published: March 2007

Mathematical modeling methods for the intoxication of rats by carbon mon oxide and hydrogen cyanide are extended to accommodate combined at mospheres of these fire gas toxicants. Predictions using the Fractional Effective Dose model for both incapacitation and lethality show no significant differences from animal bioassay data. Use of the model is suggested as a potential substitute for live animal testing for the toxicity of smoke produced from burning materials. The model is further shown to have potential utility in the assessment of toxic hazard tenability limits using analytical data from full-scale fires.
Fire Resistant-Durable Press Fabrics with Low Formaldehyde Release
Authors: Crouch Cynthia J. , Melancon Tracy A. , Reeves Wilson A.
Published: March 2007

Formaldehyde release from fabrics with a fire resistant-durable press (FR-DP) finish was significantly reduced. The FR-DP finish was based on the simul taneous use of decabromodiphenyl oxide, antimony oxide, an acrylic binder, and 1,3-dimethylol 4,5-dihydroxyethyleneurea. Three polyols were incorporated into the FR-DP treating solution to reduce formaldehyde release from treated fabrics. 1,2-Propanediol and glycerol were found to reduce formaldehyde release to about 500 μg/g of treated fabric without severe adverse effects on appearance ratings, wrinkle recovery, oxygen index, or durability of the finish. Fire resistance of treated fabrics, with or without the polyols, decreased sub stantially after 15 launderings.
A Vortex Model for Wall Flame Height
Authors: Eklund Thor I.
Published: March 2007

A two-dimensional vortex model is developed to describe flames on burning walls. The flame is considered a region of intense vorticity generation and is modeled by an equivalent vortex filament. Flame height is predicted by match ing the induced airflow to stoichiometric requirements based on wall mass loss rate or energy release rate. The vortex model predicts the same two-thirds power law relationship that has been determined from other approaches. The quantitative predicted height is within the published limits of experimental certainty.
Comparative Rates of Heat Release from Five Different Types of Test Apparatuses
Authors: Babrauskas Vytenis
Published: March 2007

Previously reported rates of heat release using five different bench-scale test methods are compared with each other and against a limited series of large- scale tests. The materials tested were low-flammability wall lining materials, of a construction similar as might be used for aircraft cabin walls. Based on the peak values at different irradiances, three of the methods gave similar results: the Cone Calorimeter, the FMRC Flammability Apparatus, and the Flame Height Apparatus. The other data, from the OSU calorimeter in the ther mopile mode and the OSU calorimeter in the oxygen-consumption mode, gave results typically 1/2 of the first three methods. Simple techniques for predicting full-scale performance from bench-scale data are emerging. The preliminary application of these appears promising.
Thermal Stability of Fire Retardants: I, Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD
Authors: Larsen Eric R. , Ecker Ernest L.
Published: March 2007

The decomposition kinetics of hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), a flame retardant used in foamed polystyrene, were studied by monitoring the rate of HBr formed at temperatures between 180-240°C. Samples from five suppliers, and from two lots from three of the suppliers, were evaluated. There were sig nificant differences in the decomposition rates, which appeared to be related to the finishing end of the manufacturing process.
Effect of Moisture on the Thermal Protective Performance of Heat-Resistant Fabrics
Authors: Young Moo Lee  , Barker Roger L.
Published: March 2007

The effect of fabric moisture on thermal insulation properties of twelve heat resistant fabrics made with polybenzimidazole (PBI), aromatic polyamide (aramid) and blends of PBI with aramid or with flame retardant rayon fibers is investigated in several high intensity radiant and convective heat exposures. Three fabric preparations were evaluated: oven dry samples, samples condi tioned in a standard atmosphere (65% R.H., 21 ° C) and samples soaked with liquid water. This research shows that moisture enhances the thermal in sulation of all single layer protective fabrics evaluated against 2.0 cal/cm2 ·sec mixed convective exposure and against 0.48 cal/cm2 · sec radiant energy expo sure. Moisture hurts the thermal protective performance (TPP) of the same fabrics in high intensity radiant tests (i.e., 2.0 cal/cm2 · sec, 100% radiant heat). The mechanisms by which moisture acts to change the TPP of a fabric is discussed in light of fabric heating rates.
Prediction of the Toxic Effects of Fire Effluents
Authors: Hartzell Gordon E.
Published: March 2007

A major thrust in the assessment of the toxicity of fire effluents has been in the development of mathematical models for predicting toxic ef fects from appropriate data on the composition of the fire gases. The objectives of these efforts are two-fold. Assessment of smoke toxicity from analytical data could obviate much of the use of live animals in conventional bioassay method ology. Furthermore, providing that both qualitative and quantitative dif ferences in toxicological effects between laboratory animals and man are understood, such modeling methodology could also be used for estimating the time to development of a toxic hazard in either real or simulated fire scenarios. This paper presents a state-of-the-art review of the predictive modeling of tox icological effects from exposure to fire effluent atmospheres. Also included are compilations of data for individual fire gases which may be used as input for such modeling.
Room Fire Test for Fire Growth Modeling-A Sensitivity Study
Authors: Tran Hao C. , Janssens Marc L.
Published: March 2007

A room test designed according to the ASTM draft standard was used to investigate the effect of various parameters on the contribution of wall and corner fires to compartment fire growth. Location of the burner (against a wall or in a corner), power program of the gas burner ignition source, and com bination of wall linings were varied. An initial series of calibration tests were conducted on ceramic fiber blanket and gypsum board. These tests showed satisfactory instrumentation, good repeatability, and reliable data reduction techniques. The second series were wall and corner tests with Douglas-fir ply wood on the walls in contact with the burner and either ceramic fiber or gyp sum on the ceiling and remaining walls. Notably, fire growth was much faster in the tests with ceramic fiber. We conclude from the data analysis that at least for corner tests, gypsum board should be used for the ceiling and remaining walls as specified in standardized procedures. A burner program of 40 kW for 5 min followed by 160 kW for the next 5 min was the most informative program; it will be used for wall and corner tests in subsequent steps of this ongoing study.
Evaluating the Flammability of Upholstered Furniture Intended for Public Occupancies
Authors: Fesman G. , Jacobs B.A.
Published: March 2007

Government agencies and fire authorities with jurisdiction over public occupancies have been concerned over the flammability of upholstered furnishings in certain types of public assembly occupancies. Examples of re sponses to this concern have come from a country (England), a state (California) and city (Boston, Mass). From these three evolved performance standards that addressed the risk and hazard of furniture fires in public occupancies using composite testing in chair configurations namely the city of Boston Chair Test-BFD IX-10, the California Bureau of Home Furnishings TB 133 and the British Standard BS-5852 Part 2.

It is these three tests that will be discussed. Although the test methods share some similar characteristics, they do differ in their concepts of acceptability.

The three jurisdictions have several common criteria but not a common rating for furniture acceptability in public occupancies. This paper will cover these three test methods and their criteria for acceptability of upholstered fur niture and will demonstrate the range of performances in these 3 composite tests when the fabric is the composite variable with a constant, highly-rated foam cushion filler.

Companies involved that are accustomed only to component tests face ap provals that include the actual composite performances. Although minimum individual component tests may be required, it is necessary to evaluate the burn performance of the end use composite structure.

The necessity of composite testing is demonstrated by the influence of the fabric covering the chair.

While each component may be shown to perform well in individual small scale flame tests, it is the experience thru chair burn tests that illustrates sig nificant differences when foam and fabric are together.
Experimental Study on Human Emotional Instability in Smoke Filled Corridor: Part 2
Authors: Jin Tadahisa , Yamada Tokiyoshi
Published: March 2007

An experimental study was conducted in order to clarify the degree of human emotional instability under smoke conditions. Mental arith metic and walking speed were adopted as indices of emotional instability. Fur thermore, the annoyance of smoke and heat was investigated by a question naire. Emotional instability caused by a physiological factor was found to be important as well as psychological unrest under high smoke irritation. Such smoke affects thinking power and walking speed. Especially, heat with smoke was found to begin to affect thinking power in the range between 1370 kcal/m2 hr and 2030 kcal/m 2 hr. The degree of smoke annoyance decreased with the lapse of time.
Flammability Regulations Affecting Advanced Composite Materials
Authors: Nollen Dennis A.
Published: March 2007

The Forum is intended to provide for dialogue and discussion among fire experts, scientists and consultants. Contributions to The Forum will not be refereed in the conventional sense, but will be subject to review by the Journal's Editorial Board relative to appropriateness, clarity, timeliness, and scope of interest. The Editorial Board will be the sole judge of those contributions to be published. Opinions expressed, however, are those of the authors and not of the Editors or Technomic Publishing Com pany, Incorporated.
An Approximate Rate Expression for the Combustion of a Sample of Forest Litter
Authors: Jones J.C.
Published: March 2007

On the basis of experimental results reported in an earlier paper [1] together with some supplementary information from the literature, a rate expression is developed for the oxidation of a sample of forest litter comprising debris from a tree canopy of Eucalyptus pilularis. A zeroth order model in fuel is used and, by arguments based on measured diffusion coefficients of oxygen (reported for the first time), it is shown that the partial pressure of oxygen need not appear in the rate expression. Semi-quantitative comparisons with rate ex pressions for other oxidation processes are made.
The Unpiloted Ignition of Eucalyptus Leaves Treated as a Parallel Reaction System
Authors: Jones J.C. , Rahmati H. , Wake G.C.
Published: March 2007

Self-heating in the oxidation of several samples of Eucalyptus leaves is reported, and the results are fitted to a recent extension of traditional Frank-Kamenetskii treatment which takes into account parallel reactions of the two ignitable components: solid leaf material and oil. Kinetic parameters for the oxidation of each component—solid and oil—are estimated, and the con sistency of the extended theory in predicting the behaviour of different sample sizes is demonstrated.
A Critical Evaluation of the Proposed NIBS Toxicity Test
Authors: Clarke F.B. , Hirschler M.M.
Published: March 2007

The newly-developed "NIBS" smoke toxicity test uses a new measure of hazard, " IT50," the irradiation time necessary to produce sufficient smoke to kill half the animals exposed. The IT50 reflects ease of ignition and burning rate as well as the toxic potency of the smoke.
The Emission of Nitrous Oxide by Burning Forest Materials: A Kinetic Viewpoint
Authors: Jones J.C.
Published: March 2007

The Forum is intended to provide for dialogue and discussion among fire experts, scientists and consultants. Contributions to The Forum will not be refereed in the conventional sense, but will be subject to review by the Journal's Editorial Board relative to appropriateness, clarity, timeliness, and scope of interest. The Editorial Board will be the sole judge of those contributions to be published. Opinions expressed, however, are those of the authors and not of the Editors or Technomic Publishing Com pany, Incorporated.
Improvement of a Non-Dimensional Model for Smoke Emission of Materials
Authors: Kaminski A.
Published: March 2007

Equations for specific optical density vs. time and its rate of in crease have been derived from the previously developed non-dimensional equa tions using a new concept of delay time for smoke release. Tests on sixteen materials used in passenger rail vehicles confirmed the appropriateness of the equations for the non-piloted NBS smoke test.
Incapacitation in the Laboratory Rat Induced by Inhalation of Carbon Monoxide-Acrolein Mixtures
Authors: Crane Charles R. , Sanders Donald C. , Endecott B.R.
Published: March 2007

Laboratory rats were exposed to experimental atmospheres of (a) carbon monoxide (CO), (b) acrolein, and (c) to mixtures of carbon monoxide and acrolein. The toxic potency of each environment was evaluated by measure ment of time-to-incapacitation (t,) as a function of toxic gas concentrations. Regression equations were derived relating observed t,'s to concentrations of in dividual gases.

Comparison of individual gas exposure data with results obtained from com bined gas exposures indicated no evidence of synergistic action. Evidence did exist for an inhibitory effect of undefined mechanism when acrolein (in the mix ture) was at a concentration of lesser potency than the CO.

An empirical equation was derived that allowed calculation of a predicted t, for exposure to CO-acrolein mixtures at concentrations within the experimen tal exposure ranges.
Smoke Corrosivity: Generation, Impact, Detection, and Protection
Authors: Reagor Barbara T.
Published: March 2007

As a result of recent fires worldwide in telecommunications facil ities, computer centers, research facilities and naval vessels, there has been a growing realization that thermal damage may not be the most costly impact to electronic equipment. On the contrary, the real culprit may be exposure of equipment to the by-products of combustion or thermal decomposition. The short-term exposure of equipment to "fire gases" and "smoke" particulates can result in massive damage leading to extensive cleaning or replacement in order to regain service. This paper will present an understanding of the genera tion of smoke corrosivity, the impacts fire gases and particulates can have on electronic equipment, methods available for detection of these combustion products, and considerations for future protection of equipment.
Heat Release Tests of Mattresses and Bedding Systems
Authors: Damant Gordon H. , Nurbakhsh Said
Published: March 2007

In part 1 of this study, a comprehensive full-scale fire test pro gram has been conducted on a wide variety of residential and institutional mattress constructions. Innerspring, solid core, futon and jail pad mattresses were included, along with several styles of foundations. In addition several bed ding systems were tested together with a standard set of bedding components to further evaluate the effects and contribution of those items to the combus tion of the mattress/foundation combinations. The foremost objective of this work was to gather reliable test data on a wide range of bedding material com binations. It is anticipated that this information will assist bedding manufac turers in developing state-of-the-art materials and in producing bedding prod ucts with greatly enhanced fire safety.
The Effect of Cigarette Circumference on Ignition Propensity
Authors: Lewis Leslie S. , Nestor Timothy B. , Gee Julia W. , Morton Michael J. , Townsend David E.
Published: March 2007

The 1984 Cigarette Safety Act created a Technical Study Group (TSG) to determine the feasibility of developing cigarettes with a minimum propensity to ignite upholstered furniture. The TSG found that combinations of certain cigarette characteristics were important in reducing the ignition pro pensity. Through a statistically designed study, those characteristics were ranked as follows: tobacco packing density, paper permeability, and cir cumference.

The objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of cigarette cir cumference alone on ignition propensity. Cigarettes were tested by four methods: the NBS mockup method, a controlled-fabric mockup test, a flow- through mockup method, and a liquid crystal test. Results showed that while the NBS mockup test could not discriminate among the cigarettes, the other methods could, and results call into question the TSG's conclusion that smaller circumference cigarettes reduce the likelihood of ignition.
A Survey of Upholstered Furniture Fabrics and Implications for Furniture Flammability
Authors: Gandhi Sanjeev , Spivak Steven M.
Published: March 2007

Upholstery fabric and padding material play an important role in upholstered furniture flammability. As market preferences for upholstery fibers and fabrics change, there are significant implications for fire safety. Fiber consumption data and fabric surveys show an increasing usage of cotton fibers in upholstery, leading to higher ignition propensity. Of particular impor tance are the cotton fiber's alkali metal ion content, and heavier weight fabric constructions, in determining the susceptibility for smoldering ignition due to smoking materials. To realize the goal of fire-resistant upholstered furniture, while still satisfying consumer preferences for fiber, style and design, the criti cal trends and controlling factors in upholstery flammability are emphasized. A review of regulatory approaches to redress the problem is also included, in view of recent petitions by the fire marshals (NASFM) calling for mandatory Federal standards.
The Role of Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metal Ions in Cellulosic Smoldering
Authors: Ihrig Arthur M. , Smith Shirley L.
Published: March 2007

The process of smoldering plays a key role in the combustion of tobacco products and textiles. Smoldering is strongly influenced by the concen tration and nature of ions present in the material.
Flame-Retarding Plastics and Elastomers with Melamine
Authors: Weil Edward D. , Choudhary Veena
Published: March 2007

Melamine has shown broad utility as a flame retardant in plastics although its commercial use to date as a flame retardant additive has been principally in coatings and flexible urethane foams. Its mode of action appears to involve endothermic sublimation and vapor-phase dissociation, but it also undergoes conversion to non-volatile products and ammonia. Combinations of melamine with other flame retardants of all types have been reported as hav ing advantageous performance. The present review covers the patent and non- patent literature with 130 references.**
Use of a Time Constant for Designing a Smoke Control System in Car Parks
Authors: Chow W.K.
Published: March 2007

The fire environment in thirty-six car parks of volumes varying from 2,000 m3 to 50,000 m3, ceiling heights of 3 m, 4 m and 5 m are simulated using the fire zone model, CFAST version 2.0 developed at the Building and Fire Research Laboratory, NIST in U.S.A. The concept of using the space volume as a criterion to determine the requirement of smoke extraction system is reviewed. The concept of time constant in an atrium hall is proposed to be used in car parks and underground spaces. The empirical expression fitted by experimental data appearing in NFPA-92B is applied to calculate the time con stant. This is then correlated with the smoke filling time for those thirty-six car parks with and without natural horizontal ceiling vents. Design of the smoke extraction system for underground spaces is also studied.
Fire Safety Risk Analysis of a Community Centre
Authors: Björkman Jouni , Keski-Rahkonen Olavi
Published: March 2007

A systems approach to fire safety is a way to evaluate fire safety of buildings, especially large and complex buildings. One tool for building fire risk analysis is the computer programme FIRE (Fire Simulation Program) de veloped at Worcester Polytechnic Institute (WPI) in USA by Professor R. Fitz gerald and his group. The computational utility of the code was improved and adapted to the Finnish environment by Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT) and two engineering consultants, Rakennus-Ekono and LCA-Engin eering.

We simulated fires in a four-floor building where one wing (single fire com partment) was selected for simulation. We chose four representative room types in the building for which fire engineering data were selected. By simulation, we studied the impact of different design alternatives to fire risk of the total building. Fire risk in each design alternative was computed as expectation of loss. Costs caused by structural changes and active fire safety systems were taken into account. The compilations proved that it is possible to design differently from the current fire code and still reduce the fire risk level. FIRE does not yet support the evaluation of life safety, but the results can be used for that purpose indirectly.
Smoldering Potential and Characterization of Used Upholstery Fabrics
Authors: Wanna Joseph T. , Rouse Christine A. , Chen Paul L. , Henderson Geraldine E. , Greear Linda C.
Published: March 2007

To examine the effects of soiling on the smolder potential of upholstered furniture, sixty-six used upholstery fabrics were collected in the state of Georgia and sections of each fabric were determined to be either "soiled" or "unsoiled." A soiled area is an exposed surface of the upholstery fabric, whereas an unsoiled area is not exposed. Each fabric's composition (cell ulosic, synthetic, or mixed fibers) was determined, and soiled and unsoiled samples from each fabric were analyzed for pertinent chemical and physical characteristics. For the majority of fabrics, the smoldering potential of the soiled areas did not increase with respect to the unsoiled areas. In fact, more fabrics exhibited a reduced (versus increased) tendency to smolder upon soiling. Six fabrics that smoldered in the unsoiled condition did not smolder in the soiled condition. This study confirms results reported on used upholstery fabrics collected in the state of Virginia. Statistical analysis performed on data from each study and the combined data showed that smoldering potential had a statistically significant correlation to fabric, but not to soiling. Two ions that play a major catalytic role in smoldering ignitions, sodium and potassium, showed increased levels in soiled areas of the cellulosic fabrics by approx imately 700 ppm and 480 ppm, respectively. These increases did not account for the observed changes in smolder potential. The increase in sodium and potassium ion levels for all sixty-six fabrics collected in Georgia were equiva lent to those of the sixty fabrics collected in Virginia. Calcium and magnesium ions did not increase between soiled and unsoiled fabric areas. Chloride and sulfate increased in the soiled samples compared to the unsoiled. Levels of nitrate and phosphate did not change with soiling.
Performance of Sprinkler in Atria
Authors: Chow W.K.
Published: March 2007

The performance of a sprinkler installed in an atrium roof was evaluated in this paper by considering three points: possibility of activating the sprinkler head, thermal response, and water requirement. Crude analysis us ing the empirical expressions of the fire plume and the zone model CFAST 2.0 were used to study the possibility of activating the sprinkler head. Smoke spreading out from a fire shop to the atrium was discussed. The software DETACT was used to calculate the activation time for the sprinkler heads of different response time indices installed at different ceiling heights under unsteady t-squared fires. Correlation expressions of the activation time with ceiling height, response time indices of the sprinkler head, fire growth coeffi cients, and ambient temperature were derived. The water requirement at the atrium floor was discussed by calculating the trajectories of water droplets. Higher flow rate and pressure are required for discharging the same water den sity at the floor level. Results indicated that installing an ordinary sprinkler system in a high headroom atrium would not be effective in controlling a fire.
A Contribution to the Discussion of the Cabins Fire Safety Design Concept
Authors: Jones J.C.
Published: March 2007

The Forum is intended to provide for dialogue and discussion among fire experts, scientists and consultants. Contributions to The Forum will not be refereed in the conventional sense, but will be subject to review by the Journal's Editorial Board relative to appropriateness, clarity, timeliness, and scope of interest. The Editorial Board will be the sole judge of those contributions to be published. Opinions expressed, however are those of the authors and not of the Editors or Technomic Publishing Company, Incor porated.
A General Approach to Validating Evacuation Models with an Application to EXODUS
Authors: Galea E.R.
Published: March 2007

Too often, validation of computer models is considered as a "once and forget" task. In this paper a systematic and graduated approach to evacua tion model validation is suggested. This involves,
Smolder of Cellulosic Fabrics IV. Participation of Dye and Bleach Residues
Authors: Dyakonov Alexander J. , Grider David A. , Ihrig Arthur M.
Published: March 2007

The oxidative decomposition of a green-and-white checkered cel lulosic fabric, designated as FOR-1, comprised of four different yarns, was stud ied using TPR/GC and DSC techniques. Containing different alkali metal ion (AM +) and dye concentrations, these four yarns experienced directionally selec tive smolder behavior during cigarette ignition tests. Measurements were per formed on the integrated fabric and on each of the four yarns. A model explaining the anisotropic smolder and high-temperature behavior of this fabric was developed.

The decomposition of a heavily bleached, cellulosic sailcloth was also studied. The results showed an increase in the fabric degradation/cleavage rate com pared to unbleached #6 cotton duck. The DSC spectra of the sailcloth, however, did not significantly differ from that of the washed cotton duck. Similar thermochemical behavior was observed in the blue-dyed denim fabric contain ing 1500 ppm potassium; the low-temperature DSC behavior of this denim was also found to be similar to that of undyed, nicotine-treated cotton duck studied in Reference [4]. These results support a model comprising the mechanisms of smolder and combustion of colored cellulosic fabrics.
Lower and Upper Flash Points of Flammable Liquids with Flame-Suppressing Agents
Authors: Iwata Yusaku , Koseki Hiroshi , Hasegawa Kazutoshi
Published: March 2007

The lower and the upper flash points of mixtures containing non-flammable liquids were measured by a modified Seta-flash closed-cup tester. The shape of the concentration-temperature region of flash depended on the components of the mixture in solution. Concentration regions for a flash were calculated from the temperature regions of flash and compared to the flammability diagram.

We present a theoretical method for calculating both the lower and upper flash points by liquid mixture thermodynamics, and the flammability diagram. The experimental values for the methanol/water mixture agreed with calculated values, but disagreed for halogenated hydrocarbon mixtures. The difference be tween the calculated and experimental values is from a flame-suppressing effect in the gas phase, which is distinct from the thermodynamic effect on solution. We discuss the magnitude of this flame-suppressing effect exhibited by halogenated hydrocarbons in the gas phase.
Effect of Temperature and pH on the Esterase Activity of Bile-Salt-Stimulated Human Milk Lipase
Authors: O'Connor Charmian J. , Butler Paul A.G. , Sutton Bridget M.
Published: March 2007

The initial rate constants of hydrolysis of 4-nitrophenyl acetate, catalyzed by bile-salt-stimulated human milk lipase, have been measured over the tempera ture range 20 ° C to 37 ° C, in 0.1 M buffer solutions in the pH range 6-10, and in the presence of 2 mM sodium taurocholate. From these data, the values of the energy of activation have been calculated and found to be independent of pH. Analysis of the data has also led to determination of the values of the disso ciation constants, pK1 (8.20) and pK2 (8.70) (at 25°C), and heats of formation, Δ H° (40.2 and 59.4 kJ mol -1, respectively), of the essential ionizable residues of the enzyme.
Protein Binding of Macromolecular Anticancer Agent SMANCS: Characterization of Poly(styrene-co-maleic acid) Derivatives as an Albumin Binding Ligand
Authors: Kobayashi Akira , Oda Tatsuya , Maeda Hiroshi
Published: March 2007

We have studied the interaction of macromolecular anticancer agent SMANCS, a conjugate of partially half-butyl-esterified styrene-co-maleic acid polymer[butyl-SMA]- and neocarzinostatin (NCS), with various serum proteins by the fluorescence polarization method. Comparatively strong binding of FITC-labeled SMANCS (F-SMANCS) to human serum albumin (HSA) and weak binding to fibrinogen were observed, while other serum proteins did not exhibit any appreciable binding profile. From Scatchard polt analysis, the asso ciation constant of binding for F-SMANCS to HSA at 37 °C, pH 7.4 was calculated to be 2.19 × 106 M-1 and the number of moles of F-SMANCS bound to 1 mol of HSA was 3.2 Binding of F-NCS to HSA was not observed. The F-SMANCS bound to HSA was effectively displaced by butyl-SMA, but not by NCS. This evidence supports that SMANCS binds to HSA through butyl-SMA, not through NCS portion. A role of the alkyl ester groups of SMA derivatives to HSA binding was investigated by competitive inhibition using butyl-SMA, ethyl-SMA, H-SMA and short chain butyl-SMA. The degree of competitive in hibition was stronger in the following order: butyl-(n = 6) > ethyl (n = 6) = short butyl-(n = 4) > H-SMA. The number of carbons introduced by esterification and the hydrophobicity of SMA derivatives both positively in fluence the binding affinity to HSA. The binding site for SMANCS on HSA was investigated. From the competitive inhibition of known standard drugs (war farin, diazepam and digitoxin) and endogenous substance (bilirubin) in the albumin binding. The binding site on HSA appears to be in the close vicinity to the warfarin or diazepam binding site, and might partially overlap with the bilirubin binding site. These data support that the prolonged plasma half-life of SMANCS in vivo reported previously can be attributed to this albumin binding.
Selectivity of Antibody-Targeted Anthracycline Antibiotics on T Lymphocytes
Authors: Rihova Blanka , Strohalm Jiri , Plocova Dana , Ulbrich Karel
Published: March 2007

Targeted polymeric prodrugs based on N-(2-hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide were tested on human peripheral blood lymphocytes or mouse splenocytes triggered in vitro to proliferation by T cell specific (Con A) or B cell specific (S. aureus Cowan 1) mitogens. Only a selective inhibition of 3H- thymidine incorporation by T lymphocytes was observed after in vitro incuba tion with prodrugs prepared by covalent attachment of daunomycin or adriamycin and antibody (anti-CD3; anti Thy 1.2) to biodegradable oligopeptide side chains of soluble synthetic copolymer HPMA. The in vitro results were confirmed in vivo by inhibition of antibody response to thymus dependent (ARS-BGG) or thymus independent (TNP-E. coli) antigens in normal Balb/c mice and in athymic nu/nu Balb/c mice. After administration of biocompatible, antibody targeted prodrugs only the antibody response against ARS-BGG was considerably reduced.
Structure-Bioactivity Relationship of Chitin Derivatives—Part I: The Effect of Solid Chitin Derivatives on Blood Coagulation
Authors: Dutkiewicz Jacek , Szosland Lidia , Kucharska Magdalena , Judkiewicz Luba , Ciszewski Ryszard
Published: March 2007

Chemical modification of chitin led to a series of derivatives: chi tosan, N-acetylchitosan, monoacetylchitin, dibutyrylchitin, chitosan acetate, chitosan butyrate, chitosan citrate and chitosan-poly(acrylic acid) complex. These were used to coat glass surfaces and studied with respect to their wetting properties and thrombogenic characteristics. All materials had much better wetting properties than siliconized glass surface The surface tension of these chitin derivatives was calculated and found to correlate with substrate throm bogenicity. The clotting time of whole blood depended on the chemical modification of the polyaminosaccharide structure and was significantly higher than the silicone surface. Gamma radiation treatment of chitosan led to a decrease in intrinsic viscosity but a small influence on the clotting time of blood in contact with the polymer samples. Solid coatings of acetate, butyrate and citrate salts of chitosan exhibited the greatest thromboresistance of all the investigated derivatives. The kaolin clotting time of plasma shaken in tubes coated with the salts did not show any leachable substances that affected blood coagulation factors except for chitosan-poly(acrylic acid) complex.
Synthesis of Biocompatible Polymers with Aspirin-Moieties for Aspirin Delivery
Authors: Li Fu-Mian , Gu Zhong-Wei , Li Guang-Wu , Shi WAang  , Feng Xin-De
Published: March 2007

Polyacrylate and polyhydroxylate polymers with aspirin moieties were prepared. The acrylate polymers were obtained by the synthesis and poly merization of several new monomers; β-(acetylsalicylyloxy)ethy methacrylate, β-(acetylsalicylyloxy)propyl methacrylate, β-(acetylsalicylyloxy)ethy acrylate, β-hydroxy-γ-(acetylsalicylyloxy)ethyl methacrylate and β-hydroxy-γ-(acetylsali cylyloxy)propyl methacrylate. The second series of biocompatible polymers with aspirin moieties was prepared by reacting the hydroxyl group of poly(vinyl alcohol) and poly(allyl alcohol) with 1-(acetylsalicylyl)benzotriazole. Both the homogeneous and heterogeneous hydrolysis of eight biocompatible polymers and copolymer with aspirin moieties were investigated in acidic or alkaline medium at 37 ° C or 60 °C, respectively. The main hydrolysis product was aspi rin with minor amounts of salicylic acid. The release rates of aspirin and sali cylic acid were related to the hydrolysis temperature, and the length of side chain. The release rate of aspirin and salicylic acid from poly[1-(acetylsalicylyl oxy)ethyl methacrylate-co-methacrylic acid] is markedly dependent on polymer composition and the pH value of hydrolysis medium.
Improving Blood and Tissue Compatibility of Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate) by Ion Beam Treatment
Authors: Gheorghiu Mariana , Popa G. , Mungiu O.C.
Published: March 2007

Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) has desirable qualities for medical application but it is a nonpolar material (γ ps = 0.6 dyn/cm) which results in its high interfacial tension with blood plasma ( γSL = 50 dyn/cm). Modifications of the surface free energy components of PET by ion-beam treat ments were investigated. Also the surface morphology of the treated PET by scanning electron microscopy was revealed. The influence of such modifications on biocompatibility of these materials was investigated by subcutaneous im plants in rats.
Biocompatibility of the Bioelastic Materials, Poly(GVGVP) and Its γ-Irradiation Cross-Linked Matrix: Summary of Generic Biological Test Results
Authors: Urry Dan W. , Parker Timothy M. , Reid Michael C. , Gowda D. Channe
Published: March 2007

The complete series of the recommended generic biological tests for materials and devices in contact with tissues and tissue fluids and blood have been carried out by an independent testing laboratory on the elastic protein-based (bioelastic) polymer, Poly(L-Val1-L-Pro2-Gly3-L-Val 4-Gly5) with a degree of polymerization greater than 120, and its 20 Mrad γ-irradiation cross linked elastic matrix, X20-poly(VPGVG). The specific tests and the summarized results given in parentheses are: (1) the Ames mutagenicity test (non- mutagenic), (2) cytotoxicity-agarose overlay (non-toxic), (3) acute systemic tox icity (non-toxic), (4) intracutaneous toxicity (non-toxic), (5) muscle implantation (favorable), (6) acute intraperitoneal toxicity (non-toxic), (7) systemic antigenic ity (non-antigenic), (8) dermal sensitization—the Magnusson and Kligman maximization method (non-sensitizing), (9) pyrogenicity (non-pyrogenic), (10) Lee White clotting study (normal clotting time), and (11) in vitro hemolysis test (non-hemolytic). Thus, this new elastomeric polypeptide biomaterial which is based on the most striking repeating sequence in the mammalian elastic fiber exhibits an extraordinary biocompatibility. This parent bioelastic material and a wide range of component peptide variations are under development for an equally wide range of potential medical applications such as prevention of adhesions, drug delivery, and synthetic arteries.
Synthesis of Glycosylated Dextrans
Authors: Vansteenkiste Stefan , De Marre Anne , Schacht Etienne
Published: March 2007

Dextran fractions with a narrow molecular weight distribution were modified using the 4-nitrophenyl chloroformate activation method. The activated polymers were subsequently reacted with a small amount of L- tyrosinamide and a number of selected peracetylated ω-amino glycosides of D- mannose, D-galactose, L-fucose and L-rhamnose and including some cluster de rivatives. All monosaccharides were linked to the polymer chain via a carbon C-6 spacer.

The number of L-tyrosinamide units introduced could be accurately deter mined by UV absorption spectroscopy. On the other hand, the degree of substi tution by a glycoside ligand was calculated from 1H NMR data.
Modified Polyanionic Polymers. I: Grafting of Hydrophobic Group onto Poly(maleic acid-alt-3,4- dihydroxyphenylprop-1-ene) to Improve the Affinity for Cell Membranes
Authors: Suda Yasuo , Yamamoto Hitomi , Sumi Masao , Oku Naoto , Ito Fumiaki , Yamashita Shinji , Nadai Tanekazu , Ottenbrite Raphael M.
Published: March 2007

To improve the affinity of polyanionic polymers for cell mem branes, several hydrophobic groups were grafted onto poly(maleic acid-alt- 3,4-dihydroxyphenylprop-1-ene) [poly(MA- alt-DP)] which has cytotoxic activity. The effect of the degree of substitution of the grafted group to the maleic anhy dride residue was also evaluated. Grafted polymers were characterized by their partition coefficients, their affinity to liposomes and their ability to interact with rat small intestinal epithelial cells. It was found that the cell affinity of the modified polyanionic polymers could be augmented and controlled by simple grafting.
Synthesis and Physiological Genetic Effects of 1-(Methacryloyloxyethyl)- 5-Fluorouracil and Its Polymers
Authors: Chang Sik Ha  , Won Moon Choi  , Ik Sung Kim  , Won Jei Cho  , Neung Ju Lee
Published: March 2007

The monomer 1-(methacryloyloxyethyl)-5-fluorouracil (MAO EFU) was synthesized from 2,4-bis(trimethylsilyloxy)-5-fluoropyrimidine. Poly- (MAOEFU) and poly(MAOEFU-co-methyl methacrylate) were obtained by radical polymerization at 60°C. The monomer reactivity ratios, r1 and r2 were determined by the Kelen-Tüdös method; r, (MAOEFU) = 0.77 and r2(MMA) = 1.13. The physiological genetic effect of MAOEFU and its polymers in Dro sophila melanogaster was investigated and found that MAOEFU, poly- (MAOEFU) and poly(MAOEFU- co-MMA) are considerably less effective than 5- fluorouracil.
In vivo Fate of Repeat-Unit-Radiolabelled Poly(β-malic acid), a Potential Drug Carrier
Authors: Fournie Philippe , Domurado Dominique , Guerin Philippe , Braud Christian , Vert Michel , Pontikis Renee
Published: March 2007

In order to compare the fates of end-chain-radiolabelled and repeat-unit-radiolabelled poly(β-malic acid)s after intravenous injection in mice, repeat-unit 14C-radiolabelling of this biodegradable water-soluble poly carboxylic acid polymer was achieved starting from 14C-aspartic acid. The ac tivity of the resulting radioactive poly(β-malic acid) (sodium salt) ( Mw ∼ 20,000 as determined by aqueous SEC) was 4.5 μCi·g -1. Aliquots of a neutral 0.3 monoM (4.14% w/v) solution of poly(β-malic acid) (sodium salt) were given intravenously to mice through a lateral tail vein. Intravenous and intra peritoneal toxicity was checked in order to show whether injection of this polymer can affect significantly the normal behavior of experimental animals. Radioactivity was counted in liver, kidney, intestine, lung, brain, spleen, heart, muscle, urine and blood for various post-injection times up to 24 h. Data con firmed the occurrence of predominant and fast urinary excretion (70% after 1 h) already observed with the end-chain-radiolabelled homologue. Although the polymer is basically metabolizable, the fast elimination of radioactivity via urinary tract is most likely to be due to the excretion of polymeric molecules and not of metabolic by-products because end-chain- and repeat-unit-labellings led to similar excretion patterns.