Remote sensing of energy dissipation by individual oceanic whitecaps using above-water digital imagery
Authors: Callaghan Adrian 
Published: March 2021

&lt;p&gt;Breaking waves are an important physical feature of the ocean surface and play a fundamental role in many air-sea interaction processes. Sufficiently energetic breaking waves can entrain enough air that they appear as whitecaps on the ocean surface and these are the focus of this work. Phillips (1985) presents a statistical description of the length of breaking wave crest per unit area within a breaking speed interval &amp;#923;(c), often referred to as the &amp;#8220;lambda distribution&amp;#8221;. Many field studies have measured &amp;#923;(c) using digital image remote sensing of the ocean surface, corroborating the theoretical work of Phillips. In conjunction with the so-called breaking strength parameter, b, defined by Duncan (1981), the fifth moment of &amp;#923;(c) has been used to quantify the energy dissipation rate of the surface breaking wave field. Within the Duncan framework, many numerical and experimental laboratory studies have shown that b is not constant but depends on the spectral and physical slope of the breaking waves, and it can vary by several orders of magnitude.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Significant effort has been made to estimate the average value of the breaking strength parameter for populations of breaking waves observed in the field, &lt;b&gt;. This can be achieved with measurements of &amp;#923;(c), an estimate of the wind to wave energy flux and assumptions of a stationary wave field. While several recent field studies have estimated &lt;b&gt; to be O(1 X 10&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt;), independent estimates of &lt;b&gt; derived from averaging values of b estimated for individual whitecaps in a given sea state have not yet been reported.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Here digital images of the sea surface are analysed and the volume-time-integral (VTI) method presented in Callaghan et al (2016) is used to estimate b on a whitecap-by-whitecap basis. The VTI method uses the time-evolving surface foam area of a whitecap together with a laboratory-determined average turbulence intensity inside a breaking wave crest, to estimate the total energy dissipated by an individual whitecap. This total energy loss can then be used to calculate the average energy dissipation rate of an individual whitecap, from which b can be estimated.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The dataset presented here consists of approximately 500 whitecaps and the range of b values estimated is distributed between 1 X 10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; to 1 X 10&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;, with average values lying close to 1-2 X 10&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt;. This range of b values agrees well with laboratory results amassed over decades of experimental research. Furthermore, the average values of 1-2 X 10&lt;sup&gt;-3 &lt;/sup&gt;agree very well with two recent &lt;b&gt; values reported in Zappa et al. (2016) and Korinenko et al. (2020). These results suggest that the VTI method can be a useful tool to remotely estimate the energy dissipation, and its rate, of individual whitecaps in the field using above-water digital image remote sensing.&lt;/p&gt;