bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Polyandry
Authors: Blume Amelia , Abrutyn Seth
Published: March 2016

Polyandry is the marital practice of one woman taking multiple husbands. Most commonly practiced as fraternal polyandry or as a marriage between a woman and a set of brothers, polyandry creates a solution to kinship problems, especially in societies where an uneven sex ratio has negatively impacted mate selection. While this system has been commonly considered rare, recent research has questioned whether it may be more prevalent than previously assumed. Within the resurgence of the study of polyandry, the term has also been reconceptualized to apply more broadly in terms of behavioral ecology or adaptive patterns. Within this framework, polyandry is argued to hold a degree of importance in terms of the formation of the nature of human sexuality.
Family Systems Theory
Authors: Johnson Benjamin E. , Ray Wendel A.
Published: March 2016

Family systems theory places primary focus on exchanges of behavior that take place in a given moment of interaction between members of the family. The theory maintains that patterns of interaction between family members call forth, maintain, and perpetuate both problem
and
nonproblematic behavior. Nonpathology‐oriented, family system theory seeks to identify and bring forth reconstitutive behavioral exchanges between family members. Emphasis is placed on identifying and interrupting repeating sequences of behavioral exchanges of which the problem behavior is a part. When these problem‐perpetuating patterns are successfully interrupted, the problem behavior dissipates and treatment is complete.
Childlessness, Involuntary
Authors: Olmer Ruth M. , Brown Kristina S.
Published: March 2016

Involuntary childlessness can be caused by a number of physical and situational factors. For those who choose to pursue medical treatments in the hope of becoming pregnant, it is an expensive and frequently disappointing journey. Couples and individuals living with involuntary childlessness have to face the stigma of not having children in today's society and to create new goals and plans for their future. Couples experiencing infertility are at greater risk of divorce, affairs, suicide, and a number of other negative consequences. Therapy can assist individuals and couples to grieve while discovering and forming their new childfree identity and to work toward a different but still fulfilling future.
Mothering, Intensive, in theUnitedStates
Authors: Walls Jill K.
Published: March 2016

Sharon Hays was the first to describe intensive mothering ideology as a set of beliefs about appropriate caregiving and the responsibility of mothers. As part of an intensive mothering ideology, mothers are assumed to be primary caregivers who prioritize their children's needs and invest all of their energy and resources in the mothering role. Feminist scholarship expanding on the work of Hays has shown how mothers vary systematically in their endorsement of intensive mothering beliefs. Mothers' education seems to play a significant role in shaping their endorsement of intensive mothering beliefs. Related studies have examined aspects of intensive mothering beliefs such as attitudes toward maternal employment and child care. The personal and relational consequences for endorsing intensive mothering beliefs have not been examined empirically. Future research is needed to understand fathers' mothering beliefs and links between intensive mothering beliefs and mothers' intersecting background characteristics.
Intermarriage in theUnitedStates
Authors: Noam Kris R.
Published: March 2016

Intermarriage occurs when two people from different backgrounds form a marital bond. Intermarried partners can differ in their race, religion, nationality, ethnicity, or a combination of these characteristics. Since the 1960s, there has been a growth in the number of people who intermarry. This growth can be attributed to an increasingly heterogeneous society, progressively positive attitudes toward marrying the other, and closing gaps between “us” and “them.” In addition to structural changes and explanations of intermarriage, several individual‐based theories aim to explain the phenomenon, such as hypergamy theory and assimilation theory. Intermarriage can bring populations together that may not have had any contact otherwise, which may increase the overall harmony in a diverse society such as the United States.
Endogamy in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Still Darla , Loftus Jeni
Published: March 2016

Endogamy is the practice of marrying within one's group in regard to race or ethnicity, education, religion, caste, a certain range of kin, geographic location, or other characteristics. The practice of endogamy in various forms occurs in many places in the world; however, this entry will focus on endogamy primarily in the United States. Although endogamy has previously governed mate selection in the United States, scholars find that the overall practice of endogamy has declined.
Gender and Aging
Authors: McCandless N. Jane
Published: March 2016

Growing older is not the same for women as it is for men. Women's and men's early socialization has very real consequences in the later years of life. Seeing as women are consistently, and over the course of their lives, defined as caring, emotional, and domestic, it is not surprising to find that they enter the later years of life with unique values, attitudes, behaviors, and circumstances. Like women, when men are consistently, and over the course of their lives, defined as ambitious, competitive, and independent, it is not surprising to find that they enter the later years of life with different unique values, attitudes, behaviors, and circumstances. Indeed, gender has an impact upon the aging process for both women and men.
Intergenerational Households
Authors: Piontak Joy Rayanne
Published: March 2016

Intergenerational households have been on the rise since the early twenty‐first century. Contrary to popular belief, most are formed to allow elderly parents to provide assistance to adult children and/or grandchildren. Minority families are more likely than white families to live in intergenerational households, and low‐income families are more likely to live in intergenerational households than are affluent families. Households consisting only of grandparents and grandchildren have even higher rates of poverty. Intergenerational households, and when and why they form, are affected by public policies, both those aimed at mothers and families and those aimed at the elderly, and by changes in economic conditions.
Cohabitation, Nonmarital
Authors: Rougeaux‐Burnes Gaston , Spray Beverly J. , Brown Kristina S.
Published: March 2016

Traditionally, couples have exhibited their commitment to each other through marriage. Couples have expanded upon their typical demonstrations of commitment to include the practice of nonmarital cohabitation. In nonmarital cohabitation, two individuals in a romantic relationship live together without being married. Reasons for cohabiting can differ between males and females, as well as by race. Research generally shows that cohabitation correlates strongly with later marital dissatisfaction, but research since 2000 has determined that not all cohabiting couples are alike and that couples who are engaged before cohabitating are exempt from this effect primarily due to the couple's level of commitment before cohabitation. Commitment also informs the ways in which couples decide to cohabit, which is often referred to as the process of “sliding versus deciding.” Cohabitation tends to have worse outcomes for those who continually move into and out of cohabiting.
Caregiving Experience
Authors: Wendel Carrie , Landry Sarah Terrebonne
Published: March 2016

In the United States and in many other countries worldwide, the demand for caregivers is rising as the population ages, at the same time that the supply of family caregivers is declining. Caregiving is a holistic activity, encompassing numerous tasks and emotions, and therefore can be difficult to define and quantify. Most caregivers are women providing unpaid care to family members, although male caregivers and the formal caregiving workforce is growing. Feminist scholars on caregiving have pointed to the ways in which caregiving is devalued by many societies. Although many caregivers take pride in fulfilling this responsibility, they also often experience negative health and financial consequences. The United States has some social policies to support caregivers.
Children's Literature and Family Diversity
Authors: Miller Bobbi J. , Mitchell Stephen W.
Published: March 2016

The representation of diversity in children's literature has expanded from a focus on individual identities to representation of increasingly complex and diversified family structures. Children's ability to see themselves and their families mirrored in the stories they read impacts their development of a healthy identity. In addition, seeing families that are different may increase sensitivity and the ability to interact cross‐culturally. Research and theoretical work since the early 2000s have focused on barriers that prevent existing literature from being more widely distributed, thereby limiting and narrowing children's exposure to diverse family structures, particularly in representations of gay‐ and lesbian‐headed households.
Grief
Authors: Lapierre Tracey A. , Leszko Magdalena
Published: March 2016

Grief encompasses emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and physical responses to a loss. Western notions of grief have been heavily influenced by a medical model that views grief as a form of illness in need of intervention, although no clear consensus exists on what constitutes normal versus abnormal grief. Societal norms and rules prescribe how a bereaved individual is expected to feel, think, and behave, shaping individual experiences of grief. Culturally based grieving rules govern what losses can be legitimately grieved, by whom and for how long, and how others should respond. Experiences falling outside these rules are disenfranchised. The type of loss experienced and the social characteristics of the bereaved also influence the experience of grief. A plethora of theories on grief exist with notable shifts over time. Collective experiences of grief are also investigated at the family and community level.
Moldova, Families in
Authors: Bodrug‐Lungu Valentina , Kostina‐Ritchey Erin
Published: March 2016

Family dynamics in Moldova reflect a balance between traditional and modern societal demands. The transformation of the family institution has been influenced by population shifts including negative demographic growth, the deterioration of socioeconomic structures, and external migration. To meet the changing demands of modern society, family policy should not only be limited to government programming aimed at increasing fertility but should also be expanded to other comprehensive measures, addressing family issues connected to family and work–life balance, job creation, and broader gender equality issues.
Lesbian Relationships
Authors: Harder Brittany M.
Published: March 2016

Lesbian relationships are complex and unique in many ways. The creation and maintenance of relationships begins with unique bonds and highly valued friendship networks that involve social support, trust, and shared experiences. A host of factors contribute to the overall quality of lesbian relationships and the degree of relationship satisfaction. Some of these factors include the disclosure of sexual orientation, external social support, role conflict, quality of alternatives, investment, and differences based on race/ethnicity, social class, and age. Lesbian couples face various societal and legal barriers that limit their options, such as being excluded from the institution of marriage and discrimination in raising children. Everyday experiences of discrimination, prejudice, stigma, and management of a lesbian identity also contribute to the vulnerability of lesbians and lesbian relationships.
Homeschooling in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Hughes Teresa Shehan
Published: March 2016

Learning at home is not a new phenomenon in the United States. Throughout American history, parents have assumed the responsibility of teaching their children practical skills to assist them with daily life. The advent of public school codes during the mid‐1800s instituted compulsory education and required children to attend school at designated institutions of learning. These mandatory attendance laws caused the decline of learning at home as American families began to rely on public schools to educate their children. It was not until educational reform movements of the 1970s and 1980s called for school improvement that parents once again began to consider homeschooling as an option.
Decision‐Making in Families
Authors: Weber Kirsten M.
Published: March 2016

Due to changes in the role of women in society and in the structure of families, in the United States decision‐making practices within families have moved from being primarily driven by husbands to collaborative experiences among all family members. In particular, joint decision‐making has flourished in marital dyads, and family‐centered decision‐making, which includes the input of children, is on the rise. These more inclusive family decision‐making patterns have received increased attention in the medical field as family members are being called upon to help make a variety of health‐related decisions.
Lesbian Parents
Authors: Gilmore Denise L. , Esmail Ashraf , Eargle Lisa A.
Published: March 2016

For lesbians parenting is not a new occurrence. Just like their male gay counterparts, lesbians have been raising children for decades. Children enter lesbian parent households in a multiplicity of ways. These children are often the result of the blending of families from lesbians' previous heterosexual relationships; they may also be birthed by means of surrogacy; one of the lesbians in the relationship may become impregnated through in vitro fertilization; or the lesbian couple may decide adoption is the best method for them. According to the US Census Bureau American Community Survey on Same‐Sex Couples in the year 2009, of the identified 581,300 total unmarried same‐sex households (male–male/female–female) in the United States, approximately 23.9 percent of the female–female households (300,890) contained children who were being reared by lesbian parents.
Civil Unions
Authors: Solernou Daniel J.
Published: March 2016

A civil union is the legal recognition of a domestic partnership and is typically reserved for same‐sex couples who are denied the legal status of a marriage. The registration of the union provides the partnership with some legal rights, obligations, and benefits that are similar to or approaching those of a marriage. Same‐sex domestic partnerships challenge the traditional marriage paradigm, which has placed civil unions amid heated legal debate. Some countries and some US states have legalized same‐sex unions. Civil unions have not been legalized in many states in the United States, nor in any countries in the Middle East or Africa (with the exception of South Africa).
Health Disparities in Families in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Latham Kenzie
Published: March 2016

In the United States, the family is a powerful social institution and as such it contributes to health disparities in multiple ways. The family shapes health over the entire life course – from childhood to the end of life. Understanding health disparities in families requires a close examination of family structures and family processes (or social patterns of interaction and behavior) that influence health. As diversity in family forms continues to increase in the United States, it is valuable to consider the implications of these various family structures on US health disparities and to gain a better understanding of how family processes confer health advantages or disadvantages on family members.
Genocide and Families
Authors: Manoogian Margaret M.
Published: March 2016

Genocide has long been a feature of civilizations. For families, genocide causes significant losses including the death and suffering of family members, interruption and termination of cultural practices, destruction of communities, and forced relocation of survivors. Gender influences how genocide occurs and has similar yet distinctly different outcomes for women and men. Genocide leaves an indelible mark on family rituals, communication between family members, and intergenerational transfers over time. Services that address the physical, social, psychological, and legal needs of genocide survivors are critical and these needs often surpass available resources.
Chronic Illness and Families
Authors: Latham Kenzie
Published: March 2016

Chronic illness describes the experience of living with a chronic disease or condition. Chronic illness not only affects the individual with the chronic condition but his/her family as well. Equally, the family shapes the lived experience of an individual with chronic illness. The majority of research examining the experience of families coping with chronic illness focuses on families living with childhood chronic illness. In general, childhood illness places large demands on the family system. Similarly to childhood chronic illness, chronic illness among adults impacts the entire family.
Families in Middle Life
Authors: Alphonso Carla
Published: March 2016

Middle life is a time of changing social roles and relationships. In industrial countries, families in middle life may face competing demands associated with raising children, caring for aging parents, maintaining a marriage, and employment. These families may be a part of the “sandwich generation,” with continued responsibilities and frequent interactions with both younger and older generations. Thus, these families, and wives in particular, may experience a double caregiving obligation. Families in middle life may have co‐resident children, some of whom may be “boomerang kids.” Work–family conflict and life balance may be concerns for the middle‐aged. These varying trends further may impact marital satisfaction. For many, grandparenting begins in middle adulthood. Middle adulthood is a time of generativity that often manifests itself in family relations of the middle‐aged.
Female Circumcision
Authors: Schubert Katie A.
Published: March 2016

Female circumcision, or female genital mutilation, has become a global concern since the 1980s. This entry explores the types of female circumcision that are practiced as well as where the majority of circumcisions occur. The theories as to why female circumcision has continued as a custom will be addressed. The United States' response to the practice will also be explored, as will America's history with female circumcision.
Guest Worker Families inEurope
Authors: Bilecen Başak
Published: March 2016

The large‐scale, state‐led movement of labor migrants in Europe has raised questions regarding their family life and integration into their host societies. Family reunification and family‐forming migration have heralded chain migration and increased labor migrant populations across western European countries. Most of the research on labor migration focuses on trends and dynamics of family formation, religion, intergenerational transmissions, care, gender, and transnational relations.
P
ortugal, Families in
Authors: Amaro Fausto , Neves Barbara Barbosa
Published: March 2016

Portugal is a European country located on the Iberian Peninsula and has been a member of the European Union since 1986. Portugal is a semipresidential constitutional republic, a democratic state based on the rule of law. It has a population of 10.5 million (2012), 48 percent male and 52 percent female. As are most developed countries, in the early twenty‐first century Portugal is experiencing an aging population trend based on low birth, fertility, and mortality rates and high life expectancy rates. Most Portuguese families are nuclear or conjugal, followed by couples without children and single‐person families. The average number of people per family has been decreasing, from 4.2 in 1920 to 2.6 in 2011. After the 1974 revolution, which ended a long‐term dictatorship, the Portuguese Constitution expressed the principle of equal gender rights. Compared to other European countries, Portugal has a high rate of full‐time female employment, in part because low salaries created the need for dual‐earner households.
Ecological Approach
Authors: Tomasetti Deanna C.
Published: March 2016

The ecological approach to family studies is broadly inclusive, and is centered around the idea that humans exist in ecosystems that entail reflexive interaction between humans and environments. A systems‐based perspective is important to the ecological approach, and families serve as a subsystem through their adaptation to and negotiation with their particular environments. The ecological approach is useful for an array of policymaking endeavors, and offers a nuanced view of the relationship between “nature” and “nurture” in its analysis of the family and social problems.
Iran, Families in
Authors: Chubin Fae
Published: March 2016

Iran has undergone major social, political, economic, and cultural changes since the early twentieth century, and these changes are likely to substantially transform key institutions, including family. Alongside Iran's complex mosaic of individual and family change (including a dramatic fall in fertility, and later marriage), certain societal aspects of family life have remained nearly constant (such as marriage with relatives, family support and control of individuals, and the taboo of sexual relations outside marriage). Family remains one of the most influential institutions in Iran, with every major decision or action of individuals in their life course being evaluated and discussed within the larger network of the family.
Noncustodial Parents
Authors: Nixon Elizabeth
Published: March 2016

Noncustodial parents are parents who live apart from their children. The majority of noncustodial parents are fathers. Research on noncustodial parents has focused on frequency of noncustodial parent–child contact, the effect of noncustodial parent involvement on children's development, and factors that affect noncustodial parents' involvement. The quality of noncustodial parent–child relationships and the extent to which noncustodial parents are warm and responsive and monitor and set limits for their children influences children's well‐being. Factors that influence noncustodial parents' involvement with their children include the nature of the relationship between the parents, payment of child support, geographic distance between households, and parents' marital status.
Circumplex Model of Marital and Family Systems
Authors: Gerhardt Clara
Published: March 2016

The circumplex model of marital and family systems is anchored in family systems theory. This model illustrates the reactions and adaptations of families to the stressors they experience developmentally. The model represents the interaction of dimensions of cohesion (emotional bonding) and flexibility (stability of a system). Importantly, a system is not fixed in a static point as families constantly adjust. The original circumplex model as it applies to family systems is attributed to the work of David H. Olson. Olson and coworkers also developed a program used in marriage and family counseling contexts called the PREPARE/ENRICH program. The family assessment tool that was developed in conjunction with the circumplex model is the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale.
Puberty
Authors: Stockburger Stephanie J. , Omar Hatim A.
Published: March 2016

Puberty is the transition between childhood and adulthood. A number of physical, cognitive, and emotional changes take place during this time. Both the physical and the cognitive changes proceed in a predictable manner. Physical changes are evaluated using sexual maturity rating, based on breast, pubic hair, and male genital growth. Cognitive and behavioral changes are classified into early, middle, and late adolescence. There is concern that puberty is occurring earlier than in years past. The role of endocrine‐disrupting chemicals is being investigated as a potential cause of earlier puberty. Puberty that occurs earlier or later than expected can have negative psychological consequences on the individual.
Menarche
Authors: Stockburger Stephanie J. , Omar Hatim A.
Published: March 2016

Menarche is a female's first menstrual period and a landmark event for females during puberty. Historically, menarche has been thought of as a time when women were “unclean.” However, cultural acceptance and scientific knowledge of menarche have greatly increased. Menarche occurs as part of the typical progression of puberty caused by rises in luteinizing hormone, follicle‐stimulating hormone, and estrogen. The achievement of menstruation is associated with reproductive capability. Menarche that occurs earlier or later than expected should be evaluated by an experienced clinician and may signal a serious underlying problem. Researchers are evaluating whether menarche is occurring earlier than in years past. An area of concern is whether environmental chemicals are affecting the timing of puberty.
Teen Sexuality
Authors: Stockburger Stephanie J. , Omar Hatim A.
Published: March 2016

Sexuality is a complex phenomenon that involves interactions between one's biological sex, core gender identity, and gender role behavior. The development of one's sexuality begins in infancy and proceeds in a continuum throughout adulthood. For appropriate development of healthy adult sexuality, one must successfully and healthily complete each stage. During adolescence, many physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes are occurring and proceed in a predictable pattern. Throughout the course of puberty, one's body and mind grow from those of a child to those of an adult. Teens are at risk for pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections, and dating violence during this tumultuous time. Teens who identify as GLBT are at increased risk of violence, depression, and substance abuse.
Premarital Dating Relationships in
I
ran
Authors: Rahbari Ladan
Published: March 2016

Premarital relationships are legally banned and culturally rejected in Iran. A very low percentage of Iranian families with high incomes and educational levels hold liberal views about dating. However, almost half of Iranian teenagers start dating at high school. Since the beginning of the twenty‐first century, cultural changes, alterations in perceptions of sexual identity, and increasing intercultural interactions due to technological transformations and the emergence of alternative methods of communication have generated a wave of virtual dating by the use of Internet. Cultural and religious taboos on sexual activity diminish the possibility of having vaginal sexual intercourse in dating relationships but alternative forms of sexual activity are practiced. Girls are vulnerable and prone to abuse by their partners in dating relationships due to lack of social support and a patriarchal ideology.
Cost of Raising Children
Authors: Bartek Jennifer
Published: March 2016

The cost of raising a child is determined by many factors such as the age of the child and any other children, how many parents are in the household, where the family lives, and the family's annual income. These factors then determine the amount of money spent on housing, food, transportation, clothing, healthcare, child care and education, and miscellaneous expenses. When children grow older, the expenses of raising them increase. There are theories that have been used in determining the cost of raising a child, such as the life cycle theory and the theory of consumption.
I
taly, Families in
Authors: Santoro Monica
Published: March 2016

The Italian family is conspicuous for its long‐standing wide variety of family structures. The process of nuclearization was slow and only accomplished after World War II. In the European setting, as of the mid‐2010s Italy is one of the countries with the lowest marriage and fertility rates and with the highest percentage of young people aged 18–34 who still live at home. With regard to the emergence of new family forms, premarital cohabitation has only become widespread since the end of the 1990s, particularly among the young generations of the center‐north, and since the year 2000 extramarital births have risen in number. The fertility rate decline and increase in life expectancy have raised the issue of how families will cope with the demands of an aging family network and its increasing caregiving needs, where welfare policies aimed at the elderly and families are scarce.
Maternal Instinct
Authors: Plevinski Chelsea C.
Published: March 2016

Maternal instinct has been viewed in various ways. Some consider it a biological concept, involving neocortical stimulation, while others consider it a psychological or learned concept. It has been defined by some as a reaction to certain stimuli that are preprogrammed within us. It is also sometimes defined as an impulse or drive. Others argue that what is referred to as maternal “instinct” is the bond that can exist between a mother and a child, which is reflected in caring behaviour.
Child Brides
Authors: Wang Cheng‐Tong Lir , Bolzendahl Catherine
Published: March 2016

The term “child bride” refers to a girl under the age of 18 who is involved in a formal marriage or informal union. Child marriage with young girls is prevalent in several developing regions of the world, and the practice is regarded as a violation of human rights. The practice is related to adverse health, social, and economic consequences. Many intervention programs have been pursued to curb the practice, albeit with uncertain effectiveness. Girls' access to education, alongside socioeconomic development, is believed to be the most important means to end the practice.
Gender and Health
Authors: Mixson‐Perez Nicole
Published: March 2016

The role of gender is a key focus of researchers studying a number of social, economic, political, and cultural factors on overall health, well‐being, healthcare, access to healthcare, treatment of illness and disease, and rates of particular diseases and health conditions. The ways in which men and women and individuals of other gender groups experience and are impacted by various factors tied to health can give us great insight into gender differences in areas such as health status and other health outcomes. The multidisciplinary literature demonstrates analyses ranging from the social sciences to public health that examine gender inequalities and their relationships to health factors from multiple theoretical and methodological perspectives, emphasizing both biological and social characteristics.
Cenogamy
Authors: Foster John D.
Published: March 2016

Cenogamy, sometimes referred to as group marriage, is a type of marital union commonly associated with the most primitive human societies. Theorists have posited that such unions were necessary for these societies to survive. However, cenogamy is such a rare form of marriage that some analysts argue it has never truly existed, at least not for an extended period of time. Due to its instability, cenogamy is both rare and temporary.
Family as a Social Institution
Authors: Demir Tuba , Drentea Patricia
Published: March 2016

This entry examines the family as a social institution. It explores the dynamics of family, the definitions of social institution, and family's various components. Finally, it explores why family is considered a social institution, and how this perception has the potential to be harmful.
Descent Rules
Authors: Foster John D.
Published: March 2016

The reckoning of descent is important in how people see the world and themselves in it. Descent rules have also been critical in determining familial inheritance. Interest in the practice of recalling one's kinship descent had dissipated by the end of the twentieth century, but interest has since been renewed.
Companionate Marriage
Authors: Hunt Andrea N.
Published: March 2016

Companionate marriage refers to marriages based on affection, friendship, and sexual gratification. In the development of forms of marriage in the west, companionate marriages represent a shift away from institutional marriages, which were based on economic terms. The ideals of companionate marriage influenced conceptions of childhood and created new childrearing patterns with more emphasis on nurturing and love. Companionate marriage later gave way to individualized marriages, which further challenged the notion of separate spheres, or the breadwinner–homemaker model, within families.
Remarriage
Authors: Garneau Chelsea
Published: March 2016

Remarriages are those in which at least one of the adult partners has prior marital experience such that the remarriage represents at least a second marriage. Some but not all remarriages form stepfamilies, wherein one or both adults bring a child from a previous relationship into the current union. Remarriage has become increasingly common, and the resulting family experiences have important implications for the adults and children when remarriages form stepfamilies. The demography of remarriage in the United States, the implications of remarriage for adults and children, and the history and current state of research are discussed.
Life Course Perspective
Authors: Fobes Catherine , McCullen Megan M.
Published: March 2016

The life course perspective is a theoretical approach to understanding how social factors shape individual and familial lives from birth to death. It emerged in the mid‐twentieth century and emphasizes the interrelationships between age, cohort, and historical and social contexts in the trajectory of an individual's life. Over the duration of one's life, earlier transitions and turning points shape later life outcomes, accumulating advantages and disadvantages over the life course. As societies have entered the age of the postnuclear family, scholars have recognized how social marginalization and a variety of family structures play a major role in understanding the life course. The life course perspective has been particularly useful for linking lives and families to the institutional, historical, social, and economic contexts in which they are situated.
D
efense of
M
arriage
A
ct (
DOMA
)
Authors: Jackson Joseph S.
Published: March 2016

The Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) was enacted by the US Congress in 1996, in response to concerns that Hawaii and other states might recognize same‐sex marriage. The act contains two substantive provisions. Section 2 provides that no state is required to recognize or treat as valid a same‐sex marriage entered into in any other state. Section 3 provides that, for purposes of federal law, only marriages between one man and one woman are recognized and treated as valid. However, this provision was declared unconstitutional by the US Supreme Court in
United States v. Windsor
(2013). Many states have enacted laws and constitutional provisions similarly providing that only marriages between one man and one woman shall be recognized and treated as valid in that state. In
Obergefell v. Hodges
(2015), the US Supreme Court held that these provisions violate the Fourteenth Amendment, that states must allow same‐sex marriage, and that states must recognize same‐sex marriages performed in other states. Thus, DOMA is no longer valid in any respect.
Crime and Families
Authors: Betz‐Hamilton Axton E.
Published: March 2016

Crime has an impact on families of victims as well as families of perpetrators. Additionally, perpetrators can commit crimes against their family members. Types of crime where this occurs include physical assault, sexual assault, child abuse, and financial crimes.
Reproduction
Authors: Franzese Alexis T. , McCurdy Amy L.
Published: March 2016

Popularized during the 1950s, the notion of the “traditional” nuclear family consisting of a heterosexual married couple and their biological children was considered the ideal. Accordingly, reproduction has historically signifiedbiologicalfamily expansion. As the late twentieth century and the early twenty‐first have seen the rise of alternative family forms, the chances of children being born and raised in nontraditional family forms have increased. In parallel have arisen alternative methods of reproduction (e.g., adoption and the use of reproductive technologies), which may be defined by nonbiological means. Within this context, alternative forms of family‐building give parents greater freedom in their reproductive decisions. Conversely, development of alternative contraceptive methods has increased choices when individuals seek to prevent pregnancy. All of the mentioned biomedical advances facilitate greater autonomy in the reproductive arena. Alternative household structures discussed include single‐parent families, families composed of LGBT members, families built through adoption, “blended” families created by divorces and remarriages, and families constituted by unmarried cohabitating couples.
Native
A
merican Families
Authors: Olmer Steven D. , Brown Kristina S.
Published: March 2016

The Native American family has faced many difficulties since the beginning of the development of Euro‐American culture, including the forced removal of children from families during the 1960s by the US government. As a result of the pressure to accept capitalistic traditions, many Native American families have been forced to adapt despite their typically interdependent heritage. As of 2010 there were 5.2 million individuals within the United States who identify as having American Indian or Alaskan Native origin. In the same year there were 565 federally recognized tribes throughout the United States to which these individuals belonged. Native Americans have been identified as the most impoverished ethnic group in the United States, which has resulted in many families seeking employment off the reservations, putting strain on the traditional values of tribes and influencing the current roles and obligations of many Native American families.
Polygyny
Authors: Blume Amelia , Abrutyn Seth
Published: March 2016

Polygyny is the practice of one man marrying multiple women. While it is not the most commonly practiced marital union, it is practiced to some extent in at least 75 percent of societies worldwide. There are numerous theories about the causes and functions of polygyny. Sociobiological explanations focus on men's sexual desires and reproduction, while explanations based on behavioral ecology turn to the environmental factors that shape marital choices. Economic explanations have suggested that men gain more wealth through the acquisition of more wives, due to female sustenance contributions. However, the evidence surrounding economic theories proves to be weak. Demographic explanations explain polygyny through imbalanced sex ratios that are the result of high male mortality. Looking beyond the causes of polygynous unions, research also focuses on the lived experiences of those involved in such marriages, especially women's quality of life.
Sati
Authors: McKendry‐Smith Emily
Published: March 2016

Sati (or suttee) refers to the practice of a widow's immolation on her husband's funeral pyre. This practice has typically been associated with India but has also historically been found in Bali, Java, and Nepal. Although sati is extremely rare in contemporary India, public and scholarly attention on the topic was renewed in 1987 with the sati of Roop Kanwar. While some claim that sati is an Indian tradition, others contend that the practice increased under British colonization and has been adopted as a symbol by social and political groups. Research also considers possible economic motivations behind sati, including both those of the deceased husband's family and those of the broader community or village.
Wife Capture
Authors: McKendry‐Smith Emily , Jenkins Tiffany
Published: March 2016

Wife capture (also referred to as capture marriage, bride kidnapping, bride theft, and bride abduction) refers to the process where a man, possibly with the assistance of relatives or friends, forcibly kidnaps a prospective bride. This may occur with the bride's collusion, as a form of elopement, but is also perpetrated without the woman's consent. While the specific process varies among different cultures, women typically initially resist capture but often choose to remain in the marriage once their virginity has been lost.
Gambia, Families in
Authors: Ebere Charles
Published: March 2016

The family is an important unit of social life in the Gambia. It is male dominant in nature and is sustained mainly through the extended family system. The patriarchal structure of the family and family's influence and role in the fabric of society are gradually changing to ways that are inconsistent with its traditional role. The broader sociopolitical and economic environments provide the contexts for understanding these changes in the Gambia.
Structural Functional Theory
Authors: Kitchen Deeb Paul
Published: March 2016

Structural functional theory is a sociological paradigm that was once dominant within the discipline of sociology. As of the early twenty‐first century, it is most relevant in the study of families, where its influence is still guiding and shaping scholarship and inquiry. As a theory, it explains institutions, practices, and social structures by focusing on how they help address societal needs. The most influential functionalist scholars were G. P. Murdock and Talcott Parsons, who reached the height of their influence in the middle of the twentieth century. As a theoretical framework, functionalism has been criticized for universalizing and normalizing social structures that can be seen as problematic or oppressive.
Elopement
Authors: Solernou Daniel J.
Published: March 2016

Elopement is a term that is used to describe the act of two lovers running away secretly for the purpose of getting married, often without parental consent. Individuals who consider using this form of solemnizing their commitment to each other face a nuanced decision. In some cases couples who elope do so in response to social pressures that are adverse to their union. Conversely, some people choose to elope out of personal choice because it is their preference to avoid the traditional marriage ceremony. In the United States and other comparable countries, elopement is typically met with very few penalties.
Caregiving, Child
Authors: Aransiola Joshua O.
Published: March 2016

Caregiving roles are assumed to be primarily the responsibilities of the adult members of a society. Since the early 2000s, some researchers have begun to understand the intricacies surrounding family conditions that lead to children taking over these adult roles and their positive as well as negative effects on such children. Despite these studies, this category of child caregivers remains hidden to policymakers. There are no reliable statistics and limited government interventions on caregiving children across the globe. The adverse effects of caregiving roles for children are particularly numerous and are inimical to the physical and mental development of children.
Media Representations of Family in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Weinbrenner Donald , Fernandez‐Baca Daniel
Published: March 2016

American media portrayals of family are tied to social, historical, and economic factors often overlooked in the contemporary debate about family ideals. Emerging out of a period of growth in the post‐World War II era, the nuclear family and its characteristics have been imbued into the daily discussions about the subject. The effect on gender, race, sexuality, and class in media portrayals has been studied by a range of scholars. Within gender, women seek to bridge the private and public spheres while men rarely find themselves represented at home. Minorities struggle for accurate portrayals that will destigmatize them. Meanwhile, LGBT families strive to be seen at all. Class finds itself commonly used to segment viewers, allowing them to identify both by behavior and spending habits. Mass media can provide both a repetitive and a hegemonic view of family, and a medium to challenge notions of family and create a societal discussion.
Trailing Partners
Authors: Christ Stephen R.
Published: March 2016

With the increased prevalence of dual‐income households and the emergence of a global marketplace in which ideas, goods, and people are exchanged on a constant basis, it is common in the twenty‐first century for men and women to be assigned to a job or relocated for a position in a different city, region, or even country. In this situation, one of the members of the relationship must give up his/her studies, job, or career to follow, or “trail,” the significant other in an attempt to maintain the relationship.
Common‐Law Marriage
Authors: Solernou Daniel J.
Published: March 2016

Common‐law marriage is a type of marriage that takes legal effect, without license or ceremony, when two people capable of marrying live together as husband and wife, intend to be married, and hold themselves out to others as a married couple. There is no standardized terminology when referring to a common‐law marriage and various different terms are used. Common‐law marriages have been at the center of the same‐sex marriage debate in the United States and will be an important part of American culture for decades to come.
Cuba, Families in
Authors: Ellis Glenn
Published: March 2016

The Cuban family in the early twenty‐first century bears little resemblance to families in other Latin American countries, as one might expect. The impact of the revolution in Cuba in 1959, along with several other key factors in the country's history, has helped to shape the family in Cuba. From Spanish colonialism to the slave trade to the revolution to the LBGT rights movement, Cuban families are continuing to evolve.
Engagement
Authors: McGuire Molly , Betz‐Hamilton Axton E.
Published: March 2016

Engagement refers to a period of time between when two individuals decide to get married and the actual marriage. There is no set time limit for an engagement; this is contingent upon the wishes of the two individuals getting married. A primary activity that occurs during engagement is wedding planning.
Judaism and Families
Authors: Train Kelly Amanda
Published: March 2016

Judaism, as a patriarchal religion, traditionally had gender relations that revolve around men's superiority and women's inferiority. Under Jewish law, men's role in the community was traditionally to devote themselves to religious study. From ancient times through the nineteenth century, Rabbinic scholars rationalized to women that they were “exempted” from the “burden” of having to perform the duties and obligations of Jewish law, and women were relegated to the roles of homemaker, mother, and breadwinner. During the Industrial Revolution, Jewish men in many societies embraced middle‐class values and the role of the breadwinner and thereby Jewish male intellectualism became associated with secular higher education and material success. Many Jewish families became less religious, yet Jewish women continued to keep holiday traditions within the home.
Families in Later Life
Authors: King Mary E.
Published: March 2016

As the average age of individuals is ever increasing, families now entering later life are faced with challenges and joys often unique to their generation. Faced with caring for children and caring for elderly parents, and with new relational and health challenges, families in later life carry their own special importance in the family life cycle.
Pool of Eligibles
Authors: Walker Laquitta M.
Published: March 2016

Within the field of demography and population studies, the pool of eligibles is the pool of potential mates in a given population who share similar characteristics, especially race/ethnicity, social class, and educational level. Other characteristics, such as religion and age grouping, play a role. The pool of potential mates is a critical factor in the mate selection process and has implications for many social and demographic factors such as fertility, poverty, and family formation.