bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Copper Investment Policy in Chile 1973–1984
Authors: FORTIN CARLOS
Published: October 2009

The present Government of Chile has retained under state ownership the large‐scale copper mines nationalized by the Allende Government in 1971. At the same time it has pledged itself to open fully the Chilean economy to the free play of national and international market forces and to this end has elected to expand Chilean copper production by using foreign capital. The financial regimes created by the Government to attract such investment are described. Although the investment terms have been generous, the Government has not been as successful in attracting as much foreign investment as it had hoped. It is suggested that the Government could expand copper production more efficiently and at less cost to the nation by investing in the state‐owned copper industry.
The Development of Groundwater for Irrigation in China
Authors: WEIZHEN ZHANG
Published: October 2009

Rainfall in China is extremely seasonal and decreases from the coastal areas to the interior. The development of groundwater therefore, particularly in the drier northern regions, is essential in order to have a reliable supply of water for agriculture and for municipal and industrial use. In the 17 northern provinces approximately 10.6 million hectares (ha) are irrigated with groundwater. Generally speaking such groundwater is obtained largely from unconfined aquifers. Due to the great variety of geological and hydrogeological conditions encountered in the different regions of China, the structures used for the extraction of groundwater vary. The types of structures used and the method of their construction are described.
The Worldwide Availability of Phosphate Rock
Authors: FANTEL R. J. , PETERSON G. R. , STOWASSER W. F.
Published: October 2009

The US Bureau of Mines has investigated the resource potential of 201 phosphate mines and depositee in 28 market economy countries and 17 mines and deposits in the USSR and China. The 201 mines and deposits contain an estimated 34.2 billiong tonnes (t) of recoverable phosphate rock (at the demonstrated resource level), with Morocco and Western Sahara accounting for 61% (21 billion t) and with the USA accounting for 19% (6.4 billion t). The 17 mines and deposits evaluated in the USSR and China contain approximately 1.5 billion t of potentially recoverable phosphate rock. Potential annual capacity from low‐cost, high‐grade producing mines in the USA is estimated to decline significantly during the latter half of the next decade, and the US phosphate fertilizer industry will have to obtain phosphate rock by developing new, higher‐cost, lower‐grade mines or import phosphate rock to satisfy anticipated demand in the next century. Of the world's new production capacity that are likely to be developed over the next decade, slightly over one‐third could be produced at an estimated 1981 cost of $40/t or less, and about two‐thirds would cost in the $40 to $50 per tonne range (including a 15% rate of return). In comparison, most of the competing phosphate rock from producing mines in Morocco could be produced for less than $40/t.
Long‐term Bauxite Sales Contracts
Authors: POLLARD DUKE E.
Published: October 2009

The Long‐term Contracts (LTCs) used in international bauxite trade appeared largely as a response to changing conditions in the industry. These conditions were dictated by the spread of economic nationalism in developing countries and the growth of inflation in the world economy. These instruments are designed, on the one hand, to secure for the buyer access to feedstock on a predictable basis; on the other hand, they provide the seller with assured market access and a reliable stream of revenue. Consequently, LTCs are being used as collateral in financial transactions. Given the long duration of these agreements, the parties involved must exercise care in formulating provisions relating to prices and quantities in order to be able to make intelligent investment decisions.
Analysis of the Recent Climatic Evolution in Burkina Faso (Upper Volta)
Authors: CARBONNEL JEAN‐PIERRE
Published: October 2009

This paper analyses the recent climatic evolution in the Sahel, and more particularly in Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta). For this evolution, three stages can be recognized which go from a humid phase before 1950 to a dry phase after 1965. The main evidence of this evolution is the steady decrease in the number of rains exceeding 40 mm and the relative increase in the number of annual rains.

It is suggested that rainfall of less than 20 mm constitutes the stable component of the rainfall. An analysis of the data available does not indicate an improvement in climatic conditions in the near future.
Innovative Approach to Financing Energy Conservation Investments in Developing Countries
Authors: FISHER MICHAEL
Published: October 2009

A common barrier to undertaking conservation measures in developing countries is the limited ability or the reluctance of energy users to acquire and deploy the capital needed to develop these opportunities. Industrial firms, for example, have had frequent opportunities in recent years to benefit from the use of new, more energy‐efficient production technologies, but insufficient internal cash, combined with an ability to raise debt or equity capital under favourable terms, have often prevented firms from funding these investments.

Confronted with such impediments to mobilizing capital for conservation investments, some financiers and entrepreneurs in industrialized countries have recently implemented five innovative arrangements for financing conservation and other energy‐related investments. These five financing arrangements are discussed. For each arrangement, the structure and operation, the distribution of risk between the energy user and the creditors/external investors, and the financial benefits that accrue to the energy user are described.
Potable Groundwater Supplies and Low‐cost Sanitary Engineering — How Compatible?
Authors: FOSTER S. S. D.
Published: October 2009

Many developing countries are counting on groundwater to supply an increasing proportion of their demand for drinking. There is currently a drive, in many of these same countries, for major improvements in excreta disposal, involving the intensive use of unsewered sanitation or sewage treatment in stabilization ponds with effluent reuse. Under certain hydrogeological conditions these low‐cost technologies may be in conflict with the use of groundwater for potable supplies. The principal potential hazards are identified, discussed and illustrated. A more detailed understanding of these problems, coupled with improved design, careful siting and integrated planning of the installations involved, is required to reduce the groundwater pollution hazard.
Energy Conservation in Rapid‐Growth Economies of Asia
Authors: JAMES WILLIAM E.
Published: October 2009

Energy demand, including demand for petroleum, is expected to increase at a faster rate in the rapidly‐developing nations of East and Southeast Asia than elsewhere in the world through the turn of the century. In the aggregate, the countries of this region are heavily dependent on imported oil, coal and natural gas. Rapid industrialization, electrification and increased consumer demand for energy‐consuming durable goods and housing underlie the expected strong growth in energy consumption. Substantial scope for greater economy in energy‐use exists in the industrial and transport sectors but effects in these areas will require effective management and institutional support in addition to getting prices right. In the context of balance of payments and external debt considerations, and the continued growth of energy consumption in East and Southeast Asia, improving energy conservation will be of great importance in lessening the likelihood that future economic development will be constrained by energy problems.
Soviet Natural Resources in the World Economy
Authors: DOBOZI ISTVÁN
Published: October 2009

Soviet Natural Resources in the World Economy Editors: Robert F. Jensen, Theodore Shabad and Arthur W. Wright
Problems and Prospects for Water Reallocation in Australia
Authors: DRAGUN A. K.
Published: October 2009

The misallocation of water supplies and the pressures for reallocation in Australia are well‐recognized. Suggestions to achieve more efficient use of the very limited water supplies of the nation through pricing or through water markets have been raised. However, such approaches appear to have little chance of implementation because of established legal practice and political reality. If more efficient use of limited water supplies is a pressing social priority, a more practical approach to achieving such ends may be to consider reallocative mechanisms which will operate within the existing institutional structure. One approach which fits these criteria is the irrigation land buy‐back.
Government Ownership Versus Regulation of Mining Enterprises in Less‐developed Countries
Authors: SIMS ROD
Published: October 2009

Less‐developed government equity in mining projects has become increasingly popular, both in academic literature and in practice. Despite this, it has received surprisingly little scrutiny: this paper analyses the reasons for LDC governments taking equity in mineral projects and discusses whether equity is the most appropriate means of achieving these objectives. It concludes that equity has few unique advantages over taxation and other government powers of regulation in achieving the diverse objectives of government. It further concludes that the advantage to a government of equity participation will probably increase with the degree of development of the economy.
Oil Funding and International Financial Arrangements
Authors: MIKDASHI Z.
Published: October 2009

The traditional source of funds for exploration and development of petroleum resources has been privately‐owned petroleum companies. However, many of these same companies have recently borrowed heavily to finance their acquisitions of other petroleum companies. This may limit the ability of those companies to finance future exploration and development efforts, particularly in developing countries. Special financial arrangements may be needed if the funds required are to be available. The form of such arrangements is discussed, and emphasis is placed on the need to reconcile the differing needs of borrowers and lenders.
Oil Exploration in the Developing Countries: Poor Geology or Poor Contracts?
Authors: BLITZER C. R. , CAVOULACOS P. E. , LESSARD D. R. , PADDOCK J. L.
Published: October 2009

The present geographic pattern of investment in oil and gas exploration is skewed away from the developing countries and towards the developed countries. This paper presents statistical data relevant to this situation, analyzes its causes, and proposes solutions. The paper argues that this phenomenon is largely distributional, arising from continuing difficulties in reaching ‘equitable’ contractual agreements regarding the distribution of risks, benefits and costs, compounded by uncertainity about contract sancity. Both parties could gain if contracts were designed, on a country‐by‐country basis, to (1) take better advantage of comparative ability to assume different categories of risk; (2) ensure efficient project management; and (3) be more self‐enforcing.
Recent Evolution of Petroleum Exploration and Exploitation Agreements in Developing Countries: New Approaches to Introduce More Flexibility and Progressivity in the Contractual Terms
Authors: LEUCH H. LE
Published: October 2009

Over the last decade rather important changes have occurred in the legal and economic aspects of international petroleum agreements for exploration and exploitation. In the late nineteen seventies, as a consequence of the strong increase in oil prices, there was a general tightening of contractual terms and conditions. With the present oil market imbalance, characterized by sharp price falls, there is a tendency to ease the applicable contractual terms. In such a rapidly changing environment, the economic terms contained in a petroleum agreement should be properly designed to introduce a certain element of flexibility and progressivity in regard to the government take, without unduly complicating the fiscal package or discouraging potential investors. This is the present challenge for international petroleum negotiators.
Operating Experience with Biogas Plants in Sri Lanka
Authors: WIJESINGHE L.C.A. de S. , CHANDRASIRI J.A.
Published: October 2009

Three hundred and three biogas plants, representing a majority of the units installed in Sri Lanka up to 1984, were inspected, and it was found that 280 of these had been put into commission at some time prior to the study. Of the 280 commissioned plants, 170 (61%) were functioning satisfactorily providing biogas for cooking and/or lighting. The remaining 110 (39%) were either not functioning or were supplying very little gas owing to gas leaks, inadequate input of dung, or poor plant management. The most common plant was the 6 m3, fixed dome, household plant, and the most common raw material used was cattle dung. In the majority of household plants the cost of construction was partly or wholly subsidized.
Utilization of Shales for Power Generation and Processing: Method of Producing Power‐generation and Engine Fuels
Authors: STELMAKH G.P. , TYAGUNOV B.I.
Published: October 2009

This paper describes a method for the thermal processing of fine‐grained oil shales in order to extract from them petroleum products. The process, called the ‘Galoter’ process combines oil shale fines with a solid heat carrier and makes possible the extraction of petroleum from oil shales which cannot be processed by any other method. The Galoter process is applicable to many oil shale deposits.
Small Gold Mines — The Production and Declaration Problem: Another Dilemma for a Small Developing Country*
Authors: WALROND G.W.
Published: October 2009

The under‐reporting of gold production in small developing countries denies these countries an important source of foreign exchange. This paper examines the problem in a Guyanese context, and suggests a series of measures to deal with the problem.
Analysis of Feedstock Supply Costs for Wood‐fired Electric Power Plants in Liberia, West Africa
Authors: BARRON WILLIAM F. , PERLACK ROBERT D. , SAMUELS GARLAND
Published: October 2009

In Liberia, as in many developing countries, electrification of towns and cities throughout the country has long been a major development goal. However, fuel expenditures by the Liberian Electricity Corporation (LEC) for its rural public stations represent a major and growing burden on the financially hard‐pressed utility. In this paper we evaluate the economics of supplying wood to rural electric power plants utilizing different sources of feedstock. We also evaluate the cost implications of differences in wood supply requirements based on the use of steam or gasifier technology, and from variation in plant utilization level.

The wood supply we consider as sources are: (1) retired rubber trees; (2) the harvesting of secondary‐growth forest just before the land is returned to temporary cultivation; (3) the establishment of commercial short‐rotation wood energy plantations; and (4) adding to the system of shifting agriculture the planting of fast‐growing wood species. The results indicate that wood can probably be supplied under a wide range of supply and demand conditions for US$1.00–1.70 per GJ. We estimate that wood steam plants can generate power for about $0.09‐0.14 per kWh and gasifier plants for $0.10‐0.18 per kWh. These costs are well below the present cost of oil‐based rural electric power generation in Liberia (about $0.20–0.27 per kWh).
The Economics of Small Photovoltaic Systems for Village Energy Supply
Authors: McNELIS B.
Published: October 2009

After several years of experimentation and demonstration, photovoltaic (PV) power is now firmly established for certain applications where reliable power is required in remote locations. The technology has recently matured to the point where PV is now an appropriate, cost‐effective technology for village use. This paper reviews experience and presents economic comparisons between photovoltaic and conventional power systems. It is concluded that PV is cost‐effective for individual home lighting and small loads such as radios, when compared with kerosene lamps and batteries. For mutiple uses PV is cost‐effective compared with diesel generators for daily electricity demands up to around 20 kWh, depending on local conditions.
Legislative Approaches to Drought Management
Authors: SOLANES MIGUEL R.
Published: October 2009

Droughts are a natural scourge with extremely serious socio‐economic consequences, leading not only to human suffering and misery, but also to grave environmental deterioration. Some of the impacts of drought may be curbed through technological, economic and legal measures. This paper deals particularly with the last of these.

Legal measures are grouped according to their objectives, such as: the mitigation of drought impacts; the regulation of water use; the control of production and distribution of goods and services; the regulation of the relationship between man and the environment; and the promotion of general socio‐economic change.

While developed countries have been able to manage production factors and promote, enact and enforce regulatory legislation, most developing countries face serious restrictions either to managing drought situations or to enforcing any kind of legislation intended to deal either with the impact of drought or with the artificial situations reinforcing these impacts.
Multiobjective Assessment of Multipurpose Water Resources Projects for Developing Countries
Authors: LOUCKS DANIEL P. , SOMLYÓDY LÁSZLÓ
Published: October 2009

Multiobjective assessments of water resource projects are useful for widening the range of impacts that are considered during the process of project planning and selection. Some of the principles and problems associated with multiobjective analyses are reviewed, as are several relatively simple information display techniques and approaches found applicable to conditions in many developing countries. These techniques can be used where data and technical expertise are limited, and where it is not possible to identify and quantify all economic, environmental or social objectives and their trade‐offs during the search for the best compromise decision.
The International Law Commission and Legal Principles Related to the Non‐navigational Uses of the Waters of International Rivers
Authors: SOLANES MIGUEL
Published: October 2009

There are serious problems related to the use and conservation of international rivers. Riparian nations tend to use their waters and to transfer negative impacts, such as pollution, to other countries. This paper examines the work of the International Law Commission as it seeks to elaborate a framework convention for the use and conservation of shared watercourses. Although this task is still in progress, basic substantive principles such as ‘equitable apportionment’ and ‘prohibition against appreciable harm’ seem to be widely agreed upon. The immediate need is the development of and the agreement on, procedural systems for conflict resolution.
Hazardous Waste Generation and Disposal: Options for Developing Countries
Authors: ANANDALINGAM G. , WESTFALL MARK
Published: October 2009

The industrial harzardous waste problem is going to be explosive in developing countries as they industrialize further. This paper examines the hazardous waste problem, highlights some toxic waste types, and provides a list of industries that generate most of those wastes. Technological, economic and institutional measures that could be combined to mitigate the hazardous waste problem in developing countries are described, and recommendations for dealing with the problem are presented.
Small‐scale Mining and Development: The Case of Gold Mining in Papua New Guinea
Authors: STEWART D. F.
Published: October 2009

This paper summarizes the present status of small‐scale gold mining in Papua New Guinea and examines the extent to which it contributes to meeting the nation's development goals. It concludes that small‐scale mining makes a valuable contribution as a rural development activity, and points to aspects which should receive attention in any developing country seeking to obtain the maximum benefit from such activity.
Changing Trends in World Metal Demand: The Case of Tin
Authors: DE CASTRO SERGIO ZICA
Published: October 2009

This paper examines the changing trends in world tin demand for the period 1962–1985. In the early 1970s tin production peaked, and has since declined. The reasons for the decline are examined in terms of changes in product composition of income (i.e. mix of goods and services), changes in material composition of products, decline in gross domestic investment and the rising price of tin.
Techno‐economic Considerations for Groundwater Development in India
Authors: DUTT D. K.
Published: October 2009

India has groundwater potential of 418000 MCM. At present the bulk of groundwater use is in the agricultural sector which utilizes about 104700 MCM annually for irrigation. Initially groundwater development was at a low key with very little public outlay. However, the drought situation in the late 1960s dramatically altered public investment patterns, and the upward investment trend has continued ever since. During the VIIth 5‐year Plan (1985–1990) institutional lending in this sector is targetted at Rs 33 billion with the intention of irrigating an additional 7.1 million ha.
A Comparison of Decentralized Minigrids and Dispersed Diesels for Irrigation Pumping in Sahelian Africa
Authors: PERLACK ROBERT D. , PETRICH CARL H. , SCHWEITZER SAMUEL
Published: October 2009

A key ingredient in the expansion of agricultural output in many developing countries is the availability of reliable and cost‐effective energy supplies for irrigation. Such supplies are also fundamental to any strategy to stimulate rural economic development. This paper compares the costs of water pumping through the use of commonly‐used, small diesel‐driven pumpsets versus a decentralized generator connected to a small electrified grid. An example representative of irrigated cropping systems found in the Senegal River Basin is used to compare costs. The results show that pumping costs from a decentralized power supply and minigrid are roughly comparable with those of direct‐drive diesel pumpsets. Further, excess capacity would be available to provide power for small industries and other rural needs. In many sparsely populated rural locations where low capacity factors make central grid extension uneconomic, a minigrid with a guaranteed load of irrigation pumping can be an attractive alternative for providing power for rural development.
Institutional Aspects of Water Supply and Sanitation in Africa
Authors: AYIBOTELE N. B.
Published: October 2009

The provision of water supply and sanitation services requires a judicious balance of technological, organizational, managerial and legal measures. National policies should be spelled out and embodied in national sectoral planning, produced under the direction of a co‐ordinating central body. Implementation agencies should follow the plan and directives laid down by the sectoral plan. Planning criteria for programme and project assessment should emphasize the need to consider different alternatives for augmentation of available water supplies. Sectoral planning and organization of executing agencies must take into account the active participation and support of users. Operation and maintenance can be improved through appropriate monitoring, rehabilitation and special training. Adequate operation, maintenance and rehabilitation will reduce investment needs. Legal rules should be precise, flexible and objective‐orientated. Properly designed education campaigns are the most cost‐effective alternative for improving drinking‐water supply and sanitation programmes.
World diamond industry: 1970–2000
Authors: Johnson Charles J. , Marriott Martyn , von Saldern Michael
Published: October 2009

The diamond cartel has remained effective in controlling diamond supplies and prices for a longer period than any other major minerals cartel in the twentieth century. This paper examines the diamond pipeline from mine to the jewellery market. Particular attention is given to the characteristics of diamonds and of the industry structure that make the long‐term stability of the cartel possible. The strategies of De Beers Consolidated Diamond Mines in controlling rough gem supplies and prices are examined, and projections are made to 2000. The paper shows that in spite of a projected decrease in the share of total diamond production sold through the De Beers' cartel in the 1990s, the cartel is expected to continue effectively to control supplies and prices.
Petroleum exploitation and contract terms in developing countries after the oil price collapse
Authors: Kemp Alexander G.
Published: October 2009

In resource taxation the critical fiscal requirement is a scheme which performs the twin functions of ensuring that projects which are viable on a pre‐tax basis remain so post‐tax, and that the host government obtains a reasonable share of the economic rent. Royalty, income tax, production‐sharing and the resource rent tax are examined in the light of their efficiency at meeting these two criteria. The resource rent tax is probably the most appropriate fiscal instrument because this tax permits a threshold rate of return to be earned before the tax becomes payable. One drawback is that during the early years of a project the host government may receive little or no revenue. An advance resource rent tax can be used to eliminate this shortcoming. A further problem is the disincentive to exploration which can be produced.
From the erosion of crude oil prices to reorganization of the oil industry
Authors: Martin Jean‐Marie
Published: October 2009

Comparison of data on world energy consumption for 1986, 1987 and 1988 indicates that the consumption of all forms of energy increased during the period, but the demand for oil increased at a lesser rate than that of other energy sources. Although the pattern varies between countries, the overall picture is one of increased use of natural gas, coal, nuclear and hydropower as an energy source. Part of the reason for the low growth in oil demand is the oil conservation measures put in place when oil was much more expensive, but may partly be due to the scepticism of many people about the future movement of oil prices. The likely continuation of a low growth market for oil has led some oil exporting countries to move downstream in an effort to secure a dependable market for their oil and oil products.
Sources of funds for developing country petroleum development
Authors: Pollio Gerald
Published: October 2009

The Third World debt crisis has drastically altered the options open to Third World countries to fund petroleum development. Restricted access to international capital markets means that developing countries are having to reconsider alternative financial options to achieve a satisfactory rate of petroleum development. Of these, only foreign direct investmentis capable of compensating for the loss of more traditional sources of funds. To this end, developing countries are revising and harmonizing prior restrictive direct investment rules and tax codes, with recent financial innovations further underwriting the process.
Government fiscal strategy for mining to 2000
Authors: Kumar Raj
Published: October 2009

World Bank studies predict little or no change in mineral demand in the 1990s, and also an extended period, in real terms, of low mineral prices. In such a climate the fiscal strategy of government needs to be one which emphasizes revenue sources which are independent of mineral prices. In the 1970s, rising prices made fiscal regimes which capture economic rents attractive. In the 1990s, royalties and other duties which are dependent on the level of production and would also take advantage of any short boom in mineral prices would seem to be the best fiscal regime for a government to follow.
Advances in materials science and changes in the metal industry
Authors: Drury Robert C.
Published: October 2009

High temperature superconductivity is representative of the advances being made in the science of materials. Both the theoretical and practical understanding of materials is making great progress. The advances are changing the world in which metals producers operate. One of the major changes is that the material‐use decision is becoming more complex. The new materials have an advantage against the older materials in that they dominate the general discussions, relegating metals to a ‘has‐been’ role. Unless the metals industries become more adept at maintaining the knowledge that metals are adaptable and suitable for most uses, metals will suffer greater than necessary losses in market share to new materials.
Road transport fuel demand in the LDCs
Authors: Brochmann Bjorn
Published: October 2009

Over the last decades, oil consumption in the developing countries hus been increasing rapidly. Road transport has accounted for most of this increase in demand. It is the thesis of this paper that future growth in oil demand in developing countries will occur mainly in the road transport sector and that this growth will be surprisingly strong. Estimated income and price elasticities for several developing countries are presented and forecasts for oil consumption in road transport in the developing countries up to 2010 are given.
Understanding fuelwood
Authors: O'Keefe Phil , Munslow Barry
Published: October 2009

The fuelwood problem has been isolated as an ‘energy crisis’ issue. Interventions to date have concentrated on narrowly defined technical options for supply enhancement or demand constraint. There has been a failure to understand the fuelwood problem correctly which has led to limited success. This article reviews the experience within the southern African region to date, highlighting the reasons for the problems associated with these initiatives.
Understanding fuelwood
Authors: O'Keefe Phil , Munslow Barry
Published: October 2009

The article outlines a new approach to the fuelwood problem. The best way to ensure future fuelwood supplies and simultaneously to prevent environmental degradation is to improve the management of woody biomass within existing production systems. The knowledge and techniques being practised within farming communities should be valued and built upon. The starting point is to discover local people's priority concerns and encourage tree production to meet those needs. In this way the fuelwood problem can best be tackled indirectly to achieve the required ends.
The global greenhouse effect
Authors: Barbier Edward B.
Published: October 2009

The global warming caused by emissions of CO2 and trace gases is expected to cause shifts in climatic zones and rainfall patterns, and possibly thermal expansion of oceans. There are likely to be impacts on global agriculture and the food security of low‐income countries, as well as disruptions to major ecosystem complexes such as forests. Rising sea levels will threaten low‐lying regions, coastal zones and islands. Policy‐makers will therefore have to consider the relative costs and benefits of ‘doing nothing’, preventive measures and adaptive responses. Economics should play a key and innovative role in this analysis.
The world energy situation
Authors: Desprairies Pierre
Published: October 2009

The oil crisis has ended on a worldwide scale. Risks of excessive price rises have disappeared. Between now and the year 2000, oil resources costing less than $15/bbl (1988 dollars) will be abundant. Twenty to 25% of the oil consumed in 2000 for thermal uses will be replaced by less costly natural gas and coal. Consumption of these last two energy sources will increase if the cost of oil rises above $20/bbl (1988 dollars). The cost of oil will rise sharply when it becomes reserved for the uses for which it is irreplaceable, ie transport, petrochemicals, the Third World and non‐energy uses — probably after 2010.
Beyond ‘coverage’
Authors: Chandler Charles G.
Published: October 2009

Full integration of projects and programmes for rural water supply and sanitation has yet to take place in most developing countries, thus contributing to a situation in which long‐term success in the sector has been difficult to demonstrate. It is suggested that full integration in individual countries will require reorientation of project planning procedures, and the development of a community support programme (CSP) to provide backup to communities after project completion. Ultimately, full integration of projects and programmes is an iterative process, requiring the evaluation of past efforts in the field. Experience in the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981–90) has demonstrated that coverage alone — as the de facto indicator of success — is not sufficient (particularly in rural areas). The 1990s represent a fresh chance to modify indicators for success, and to go beyond coverage by integrating projects and programmes for rural water supply and sanitation.
The planning and management of African river and lake basin development and conservation
Authors: Mather T. H.
Published: October 2009

The success of river and lake basin development and management is rooted in the knowledge of its resources, both physical and human. Within the framework of an integrated basin plan, each economic sector depends on the adequacy of such data for its individual development. The management and conservation of the basin itself in turn depends on knowing the requirements of those sectors and their probable impact on each other and on the status of the basin's resources, its ecology and environment. The development of African river basin resources is subject to various constraints, some for physical and climatic reasons, others tied to socio‐cultural characteristics and the priorities of national economies. These are reflected in financial, manpower and institutional limitations, problems of finding technologies suited to specific local conditions and concern for human health. The scale and complexity of river basin development make it difficult to predict precise outcomes of planned proposals, but a progressive approach which links long‐term activities with achievable, shorter term production projects offers prospects for ultimate success.
The evolving structure of the European mining industry
Authors: Ericsson Magnus , Tegen Andreas
Published: October 2009

A major restructuring of the mining industry has been going on since the early 1980s. Using 11 important minerals this paper analyses the changing pattern of control in the mining industry for European based mining companies. In general, European mining companies have increased their control over mineral production worldwide while North American based companies have shown a decline in control of production. Production of European state‐owned mining companies has declined as a result of privatization.
Water supply policies and issues in developing countries
Authors: Munasinghe Mohan
Published: October 2009

The significant progress made during the UN International Water Decade is reviewed, eight years after its inception in 1981. Major issues remain, especially in rural areas. The advantages of an integrated water resource planning framework (IWRP) are explained, including the use of this process to develop a flexible strategy for the water and sewerage sector to meet national policy objectives. Economic efficiency in supply implies optimal service quality and least cost planning, while efficient pricing policy requires the implementation of long‐run marginal cost based tariffs. Better sector organization, management, accountability, options for decentralization and innovative financing methods are also discussed.
Small stand‐alone windpower systems
Authors: Fraenkel Peter L.
Published: October 2009

The main purpose of this paper is to review opportunities for the use of windpower in remote areas where there is no electricity grid, which of course is a common feature of the rural areas of many of the poorer developing countries. It should also be mentioned that similar situations arise in the remoter areas of some of the larger and richer developed countries such as the USA, Canada, Australia, the USSR and even parts of Western Europe. Hence, generally speaking the wind systems appropriate in the remoter parts of the developing countries are equally applicable in the remoter parts of the industrialized countries for similar purposes. Therefore, this paper will deal exclusively with small stand‐alone windpower systems and will also highlight one or two significant factors of special importance for the use of the technology in developing countries, such as the potential importance of local manufacture of equipment.
Mining development in sub‐Saharan Africa
Authors: Fozzard Peter M.
Published: October 2009

Mineral production from sub‐Saharan Africa is an important contributor to the economy at the country, regional and global levels. As an example, in relation to global production, the region provides 40% of diamonds, 20% of bauxite and 20% of rutile. However, with two or three notable exceptions, the region's share of mineral production has been declining compared to that of other regions. Whereas in some cases ore reserve depletion has been a factor, the most important underlying cause has been the absence of an enabling environment to attract high‐risk exploration investment and to support private sector mining development. There has also been insufficient re‐investment by the region's state dominated mining enterprises. Overall, growth is unlikely to occur unless an enabling environment is created to secure and maintain the appropriate levels of investment. The World Bank has recently initiated an African Mining Policy Study with the objective of recognizing and then introducing required adjustment processes into the region's mining industry.
Research needs for improving biofuel burning cookstove technologies
Authors: Ahuja Dilip R.
Published: October 2009

The contribution of the household biofuel cooking energy system in developing countries to anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases is significant and a potential exists to halve this contribution cost‐effectively. A review of past programmes aimed at disseminating stoves designed to reduce fuel consumption and exposures shows these programmes to have been only partially successful. If future programmes are to achieve their intended societal objectives and satisfy consumer requirements, research on designing improved stoves with lower emissions is critical. Integrated research will also be required on other related aspects, such as measurements of emissions from various stove‐biofuel combinations, and on developing improved procedures for testing, evaluation and dissemination. The multiple benefits that can accrue from these programmes makes continuing and increased investment of efforts worthwhile.
Energy consumption trends in high growth Asian economies before and after 1986
Authors: James William E. , Fesharaki Fereidun
Published: October 2009

In 1986, world oil prices declined sharply. Lower oil prices have been favourable to economic growth and price stability in Asia. However, oil consumption has also been growing rapidly in developing Asian countries including those dependent on imported oil. The increasing dependence on oil as a source of energy since 1986 is a striking reversal of the previous trend. In their pursuit of rapid industrialization, Asian countries have neglected energy conservation and diversification strategies. Unless energy policy is redirected, countries like Korea, Thailand and the Philippines could be seriously hurt by a sharp rise in oil prices. An increase in oil prices is almost inevitable in the next few years.
The pricing of water services in developing countries
Authors: Munasinghe Mohan
Published: October 2009

This paper focuses on improving efficiency in the water and sewerage sectors through long‐run marginal cost pricing, adjusted for financial needs, externalities, second best considerations, lifeline tariffs and cross subsidization within an integrated water resource planning (IWRP) framework. Supply efficiency suggests that for a given price structure, an optimal long‐run investment plan and a corresponding level of supply quality should be determined which maximizes net social benefits. Supply efficiency also requires efficient operation of the water system, including optimization of losses.
The outlook for oil
Authors: Desprairies Pierre
Published: October 2009

Between now and 2000, the demand for oil is expected to be moderate and the supply abundant. Economic growth is almost twice as slow as in 1973 and requires 25–30% less energy per unit of GNP. The demand for oil is therefore growing at a rate of two to three times slower. Meeting the demand for oil between now and 2000 is within the capability of the oil‐producing countries, in many cases with modest additional investment. Gas and coal will be very cost competitive in relation to oil and will serve as a break on future explosive price increases.
Rehabilitation of the Ghanaian mining sector
Authors: Ansah Kofi
Published: October 2009

As part of the Ghanaian government's efforts to revive the national economy a series of measures were instituted. They included devaluation of the local currency, reduction of budget deficits and the rehabilitation of basic infrastructure. The mining industry plays an important role in the national economy and special measures were also introduced to encourage its rehabilitation and development. A new licensing system was introduced and a new fiscal regime was established which inter alia allows mining companies to retain part of their export earnings offshore. The response of the private investment community to those changes has been excellent and investment in the mining industry has increased substantially.
The USSR, China, India and the world metals industry to 2010
Authors: Dorian James P. , Clark Allen L. , Jeon Gyoo J. , Snowden Daniel E.
Published: October 2009

Remarkable changes are occurring within the economies of the USSR, China and India that are influencing mineral industry activities. These three countries account for a major share of world minerals production and consumption. Their domestic reforms may ultimately have a serious impact on the global mining industry. This paper examines the present status of the Soviet, Chinese and Indian mineral industries, and forecasts conditions to 2010. Long‐term characteristics analysed include industrial production, intensity of use, consumption, mine and plant expansion and trade policy. Six metals are highlighted in the study – aluminium, copper, lead, nickel, steel and zinc.
Mine infrastructure financing and the subsidy debate
Authors: Anderson David L.
Published: October 2009

This paper examines the problems Inherent in identifying and measuring infrastructure‐related subsidies associated with ‘greenfield’ natural resource projects. The findings suggest that even if external benefits and costs are ignored, and a market‐oriented estimation process is adopted, substantial problems still face policy analysts attempting to measure the extent to which such projects have been subsidized. This conclusion is demonstrated through a detailed examination of the Canadian‐based North East British Columbia coal project.
International oil market – new directions
Authors: Constantinou Charles
Published: October 2009

This article focuses on changes in the international petroleum industry during the past 20 years and examines some major trends, especially since the oil price collapse of 1986. The resumption of rapid increases in oil demand since 1986 in the developed market economies and the developing world has already led to a pronounced production shift to OPEC member countries where output increased by 6.6 million barrels per day or, 37% since 1985. Cutbacks in petroleum investments in non‐OPEC countries are likely to result in even more dependence on the vast proved oil reserves of OPEC. However, the gap between peak output and sustainable production capacities in OPEC has narrowed and there is an urgent need for sizeable investments to expand capacities. Such investment programmes are already being implemented by transnational oil corporations in countries such as Indonesia and Nigeria where the companies had retained equity participation. In other countries such as Iraq and Venezuela where oil operations had been nationalized, transnational oil corporations are being invited to participate in new arrangements for oil production. New arrangements are also being considered in Eastern Europe and the USSR. New understandings, dialogue and cooperation between oil‐consuming and producing countries will be necessary for the security of investments, supplies and markets in this process. The unanswered question is whether such cooperation can be achieved in time in order to avoid yet another energy crisis.
Hydrocarbon exploration and production in sub‐Saharan Africa
Authors: Gadon Jean‐Luc
Published: October 2009

In 1988, sub‐Saharan Africa provided only 2.3 million bbllday of oil and 4 thousand million m3 of natural gas, representing respectively, approximately 4% and less than 1% of the world's supplies of those energy sources. This is surprising, given the extensive land area and the presence of sedimentary basins in many of the countries of the region. This paper explores the reasons for this relatively low production, details exploration efforts to date and makes recommendations for increasing investment in petroleum exploration in sub‐Saharan Africa.
Review of world sulphur demand and supply
Authors: Boonstra E. R.
Published: October 2009

Data on the sulphur market and sulphur production are presented for the period 1975–88 and projections are given for both to 2000. The largest consumer of sulphur during the period under review was the fertilizer industry. In general a surplus of sulphur is expected by 1995, but that should disappear by 2000. The validity of the prediction depends on no new environmental constraints and on the development of large sulphur deposits in Eastern Europe and the USSR.
Energy efficiency in developing countries Policy options and the poverty dilemma
Authors: Pachauri Rajendra K.
Published: October 2009

Much of the rural population of the developing countries is poor and depends on agriculture for its living. One means of improving the standard of living of such poor peoples is through the introduction of modern more intensive and therefore more productive agricultural methods. Such methods will require energy intensification. The resulting increase in energy demand particularly electrical energy, will be very large, especially because the rural areas are least able to benefit from energy saving technologies.
Can developing countries benefit from innovative pricing in the power sector?
Authors: Hill Lawrence J.
Published: October 2009

This study explores electricity pricing as a demand‐side management (DSM) strategy, looking to the developed country experience for insights into the types of approaches currently used, their effects, and the direction in which electricity pricing is headed. The discussion should be especially useful for electric utilities in developing countries that are exploring alternatives to capacity expansion to meet current and future electric power demand. For these electric utilities, demand‐side options are especially important under today's conditions in which the capital cost of new generating capacity is increasing rapidly, international funds for expanding power sectors are not expected to be sufficient for meeting projected capacity needs and environmental concerns over fossil fuel emissions have raised new questions about constructing thermal power plants.