bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Mitochondrial ATP-sensitive K+ channels influence force development and anoxic contractility in a flatfish, yellowtail flounderLimanda ferruginea, but not Atlantic codGadus morhuaheart
Authors: MacCormack Tyson J. , Driedzic William R.
Published: April 2021

The influence of ATP-sensitive K+ channels (KATPchannels) on cardiac performance during anoxia and reoxygenation was investigated in two species of fish showing different cardiac responses to anoxia. Force production in isometrically contracting ventricular muscle preparations from yellowtail flounder is potentiated at the onset of anoxia,while force immediately declines in Atlantic cod preparations. Glibenclamide,a general KATP blocker, impaired oxygenated force development in yellowtail flounder heart but was without effect on cod preparations. The mitochondrial KATP (mKATP)-specific blocker 5-hydroxydecanoic acid (5HD) improved oxygenated force production in yellowtail flounder heart without influencing contractility during anoxia or reoxygenation. The specific mKATP agonist diazoxide preserved resting tension and eliminated anoxic force potentiation in yellowtail flounder heart preparations. Neither 5HD nor diazoxide affected contractility in cod ventricle preparations. Results indicate that KATP channels can modulate contractility in yellowtail flounder heart and are potentially important in cardiac hypoxia survival in this species.
The aerodynamics of revolving wings I. Model hawkmoth wings
Authors: Usherwood James R. , Ellington Charles P.
Published: April 2021

Recent work on flapping hawkmoth models has demonstrated the importance of a spiral `leading-edge vortex' created by dynamic stall, and maintained by some aspect of spanwise flow, for creating the lift required during flight. This study uses propeller models to investigate further the forces acting on model hawkmoth wings in `propeller-like' rotation (`revolution'). Steadily revolving model hawkmoth wings produce high vertical (≈ lift) and horizontal (≈ profile drag) force coefficients because of the presence of a leading-edge vortex. Both horizontal and vertical forces, at relevant angles of attack, are dominated by the pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces; separation at the leading edge prevents `leading-edge suction'. This allows a simple geometric relationship between vertical and horizontal forces and the geometric angle of attack to be derived for thin, flat wings. Force coefficients are remarkably unaffected by considerable variations in leading-edge detail, twist and camber. Traditional accounts of the adaptive functions of twist and camber are based on conventional attached-flow aerodynamics and are not supported. Attempts to derive conventional profile drag and lift coefficients from `steady' propeller coefficients are relatively successful for angles of incidence up to 50° and, hence, for the angles normally applicable to insect flight.
The aerodynamics of revolving wings II. Propeller force coefficients from mayfly to quail
Authors: Usherwood James R. , Ellington Charles P.
Published: April 2021

High force coefficients, similar to those observed for revolving model hawkmoth wings in the accompanying paper (for which steady leading-edge vortices are directly observed), are apparent for revolving model (mayfly,bumblebee and quail) and real (quail) animal wings ranging in Reynolds number(Re) from 1100 to 26000. Results for bumblebee and hawkmoth wings agree with those published previously for Drosophila(Re≈200). The effect of aspect ratio is also tested with planforms based on hawkmoth wings adjusted to aspect ratios ranging from 4.53 to 15.84 and is shown to be relatively minor, especially at angles of incidence below 50°.

The normal force relationship introduced in the accompanying paper is supported for wings over a large range of aspect ratios in both `early' and`steady' conditions; local induced velocities appear not to affect the relationship.
Regulation of cardiac contractility in a cold stenothermal fish, the burbotLota lotaL.
Authors: Tiitu Virpi , Vornanen Matti
Published: April 2021

In the present study, burbot (Lota lota L.) was used as a model to study the effects of acute temperature changes on cardiac contractility in a cold stenothermal fish. The burbot were captured in the breeding season(February) and were maintained for 4 weeks at 1-2 °C in the laboratory before the contractile properties of the heart were measured. Both isometric force and the pumping capacity of in vitro perfused hearts were maximum at the acclimation temperature (1 °C) and declined markedly when the temperature increased. At 1 °C heart rate was 25 beats min-1 and increased to a maximum of 72 beats min-1 at 18°C, above which atrio—ventricular block was observed. Ryanodine (10μmol l-1), an inhibitor of sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)Ca2+ release channels, reduced the maximum developed force of paced atrial and ventricular preparations at 1 °C by 32±8 % and 16±3 %, respectively. At 7 °C, ryanodine-induced inhibition of force increased to 52±3 % and 44±5 % in the atrium and ventricle, respectively. At 1 °C, ryanodine abolished rest-potentiation and turned it into rest-decay in both atrial and ventricular muscle. Ryanodine, however, had no effect on the mechanical refractory period or on the rate constants of mechanical and relaxation restitution in either preparation at 1 °C. The activity of myofibrillar Ca2+Mg2+-ATPase was higher in atrial than ventricular muscle and the temperature optimum of the ATPase in vitro was approximately 10 °C in both preparations. Our results indicate a significant dependence on SR Ca2+ stores for contractile activation in the burbot heart at temperatures that are known to inhibit SR function in mammalian heart. This suggests that the ryanodine receptors of the teleost heart, unlike those of the endotherms, are not leaky as temperatures approach 0 °C. Reliance on SR Ca2+ stores in both cold stenothermal burbot and cold-acclimated eurythermal teleosts suggests that enhanced SR Ca2+-release is a common characteristic of cold-living fish and may improve cardiac contractility in the cold.
Mammalian spinal biomechanics: postural support in seated macaques
Authors: Gal Julianna
Published: April 2021

The aim of this study was to investigate whether the ligamentous lumbar vertebral column of a macaque could potentially provide passive mechanical support to the weight of the head, upper body and forelimbs during upright sitting. The seated flexed curvature of the lumbar spine of Macaca sylvana was estimated from a photograph and was partitioned equally among the lumbar—lumbar intervertebral joints. This flexed curvature was compared with the hyper-extended profile of the unloaded excised ligamentous spine of a related species (Macaca fascicularis) and used to calculate changes in intervertebral angle from the unloaded excised state to the loaded in vivo state. Changes in intervertebral angle were then used to calculate the net flexion moment required to bend the spine from the unloaded curvature to the seated curvature. The moment arm of the ventrally displaced weight of the head, upper body and forelimbs was estimated and used to calculate a corresponding net force. It was found that this force corresponded to approximately 18 % of the total body weight of the 2.34 kg sample animal. This compares with a likely fractional body weight of approximately 30-40 % for the head, upper body and forelimbs of these primates. Therefore, approximately half of the ventral flexion moment associated with the combined weight of the head, upper body and forelimbs during sitting in these animals may be supported by the passive mechanical properties associated with the ligamentous lumbar spine. This represents a potential means of relieving muscular effort and saving metabolic energy.
High feeding costs limit dive time in the largest whales
Authors: Acevedo-Gutiérrez A. , Croll D. A. , Tershy B. R.
Published: April 2021

Large body size usually extends dive duration in air-breathing vertebrates. However, the two largest predators on earth, the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) and the fin whale (B. physalus), perform short dives for their size. Here, we test the hypothesis that the foraging behavior of these two species (lunge-feeding) is energetically expensive and limits their dive duration. We estimated the cost of lunge-feeding in both species using an approach that combined attaching time/depth recorders to seven blue whales and eight fin whales and comparing the collected dive information with predictions made by optimality models of dive behavior. We show that the rate at which whales recovered from a foraging dive was twice that of a non-foraging dive and that the cost of foraging relative to the cost of travel to and from the prey patch was 3.15 in blue whales (95 % CI 2.58-3.72) and 3.60 in fin whales(95 % CI 2.35-4.85). Whales foraged in small areas (<1 km2) and foraging bouts lasted more than one dive, indicating that prey did not disperse and thus that prey dispersal could not account for the limited dive durations of the whales. Despite the enormous size of blue whales and fin whales, the high energetic costs of lunge-feeding confine them to short durations of submergence and to areas with dense prey aggregations. As a corollary, because of their limited foraging time under water, these whales may be particularly vulnerable to perturbations in prey abundance.
Orientation and lateralized cue use in pigeons navigating a large indoor environment
Authors: Prior Helmut , Lingenauber Frank , Nitschke Jörg , Güntürkün Onur
Published: April 2021

The pigeon's use of different visuo-spatial cues was studied under controlled laboratory conditions that simulated analogous aspects of a homing situation. The birds first learned the route to a goal that was not visible from the starting location, but became visible as it was approached. Birds could orientate within a mainly geometric global reference frame, using prominent landmarks within their range, or by `piloting' along local cues. After learning the route, the birds were tested from familiar and unfamiliar release points, and several aspects of the available cues were varied systematically. The study explored the contribution of the left and right brain hemispheres by performing tests with the right or left eye occluded. The results show that pigeons can establish accurate bearings towards a non-visible goal by using a global reference frame only. Furthermore, there was a peak of searching activity at the location predicted by the global reference frame. Search at this location and directedness of the bearings were equally high with both right and left eye, suggesting that both brain hemispheres have the same competence level for these components of the task. A lateralization effect occurred when prominent landmarks were removed or translated. While the right brain hemisphere completely ignored such changes,the left brain hemisphere was distracted by removal of landmarks. After translation of landmarks, the left but not the right brain hemisphere allocated part of the searching activity to the site predicted by the new landmark position. The results show that a mainly geometric global visual reference frame is sufficient to determine exact bearings from familiar and unfamiliar release points. Overall, the results suggest a model of brain lateralization with a well-developed global spatial reference system in either hemisphere and an extra capacity for the processing of object features in the left brain.
A comparison of propagated action potentials from tropical and temperate squid axons: different durations and conduction velocities correlate with ionic conductance levels
Authors: Rosenthal Joshua J. C. , Bezanilla Francisco
Published: April 2021

To determine which physiological properties contribute to temperature adaptation in the squid giant axon, action potentials were recorded from four species of squid whose habitats span a temperature range of 20°C. The environments of these species can be ranked from coldest to warmest as follows: Loligo opalescens>Loligo pealei>Loligo plei>Sepioteuthis sepioidea. Action potential conduction velocities and rise times,recorded at many temperatures, were equivalent for all Loligospecies, but significantly slower in S. sepioidea. By contrast, the action potential's fall time differed among species and correlated well with the thermal environment of the species (`warmer' species had slower decay times). The biophysical underpinnings of these differences were examined in voltage-clamped axons. Surprisingly, no differences were found between the activation kinetics or voltage-dependence of Na+ and K+currents. Conductance levels, however, did vary. Maximum Na+conductance (gNa) in S. sepiodea was significantly less than in the Loligo species. K+ conductance (gK) was highest in L. pealei, intermediate in L. plei and smallest in S. sepiodea. The time course and magnitude of gK and gNa were measured directly during membrane action potentials. These data reveal clear species-dependent differences in the amount of gK and gNa recruited during an action potential.
Effects of temperature, epinephrine and Ca2+ on the hearts of yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares)
Authors: Blank Jason M. , Morrissette Jeffery M. , Davie Peter S. , Block Barbara A.
Published: April 2021

Tuna are endothermic fish with high metabolic rates, cardiac outputs and aerobic capacities. While tuna warm their skeletal muscle, viscera, brain and eyes, their hearts remain near ambient temperature, raising the possibility that cardiac performance may limit their thermal niches. We used an in situ perfused heart preparation to investigate the effects of acute temperature change and the effects of epinephrine and extracellular Ca2+ on cardiac function in yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares). Heart rate showed a strong temperature-dependence, ranging from 20 beats min-1 at 10 °C to 109 beats min-1 at 25 °C. Maximal stroke volume showed an inverse temperature-dependence,ranging from 1.4 ml kg-1 at 15 °C to 0.9 ml kg-1 at 25 °C. Maximal cardiac outputs were 27 ml kg-1 min-1at 10 °C and 98 ml kg-1 min-1 at 25 °C. There were no significant effects of perfusate epinephrine concentrations between 1 and 100 nmoll-1 at 20 °C. Increasing extracellular Ca2+ concentration from 1.84 to 7.36 mmoll-1 at 20°C produced significant increases in maximal stroke volume, cardiac output and myocardial power output. These data demonstrate that changes in heart rate and stroke volume are involved in maintaining cardiac output during temperature changes in tuna and support the hypothesis that cardiac performance may limit the thermal niches of yellowfin tuna.
The relationship between heart rate and rate of oxygen consumption in Galapagos marine iguanas (Amblyrhynchus cristatus)at two different temperatures
Authors: Butler Patrick J. , Frappell Peter B. , Wang Tobias , Wikelski Martin
Published: April 2021

To enable the use of heart rate (fH) for estimating field metabolic rate (FMR) in free-ranging Galapagos marine iguanas Amblyrhynchus cristatus, we determined the relationships between fH and mass-specific rate of oxygen consumption(sV̇O2) in seven iguanas before and during exercise on a treadmill and during the post-exercise period. The experiments were conducted at 27 and 35°C, which are the temperatures that represent the lowest and highest average body temperatures of these animals in the field during summer. There were linear and significant relationships between fH and sV̇O2 at both temperatures (r2=0.86 and 0.91 at 27°C and 36°C,respectively). The slopes of the two regression lines did not differ, but there were significant differences in their intercepts. Thus, while heart rate can be used to predict FMR, the effects of temperature on the intercept of the regression must be taken into account when converting fH to sV̇O2. On the basis of our data, this can be achieved by applying the following formula: \batchmode \documentclass[fleqn,10pt,legalpaper]{article} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amsmath} \pagestyle{empty} \begin{document} \[\mathrm{s}{\dot{V}}_{\mathrm{o}_{2}}=0.0113f\mathrm{H}-0.2983\mathrm{Q}_{10}^{\frac{(T_{\mathrm{b}}-27)}{10}}.\] \end{document}The increase in sV̇O2 with elevated body temperature results from an increase in fH, with no significant change in mass-specific oxygen pulse (sO2 pulse;cardiac stroke volume times the difference in oxygen content between arterial and mixed venous blood). However, during exercise at both temperatures,increases in fH are insufficient to provide all of the additional O2 required and there are also significant increases in the sO2 pulses. This creates the situation whereby the same fH at the two temperatures can represent different values of sV̇O2.
Hypaxial muscle activity during running and breathing in dogs
Authors: Deban Stephen M. , Carrier David R.
Published: April 2021

The axial muscles of terrestrial vertebrates serve two potentially conflicting functions, locomotion and lung ventilation. To differentiate the locomotor and ventilatory functions of the hypaxial muscles in mammals, we examined the locomotor and ventilatory activity of the trunk muscles of trotting dogs under two conditions: when the ventilatory cycle and the locomotor cycle were coupled and when they were uncoupled. Patterns of muscle-activity entrainment with locomotor and ventilatory events revealed (i)that the internal and external abdominal oblique muscles performed primarily locomotor functions during running yet their activity was entrained to expiration when the dogs were standing, (ii) that the internal and external intercostal, external oblique thoracic and transversus abdominis muscles performed both locomotor and respiratory functions simultaneously, (iii) that the parasternal internal intercostal muscle performed a primarily respiratory function (inspiration) and (iv) that the deep pectoralis and longissimus dorsi muscles performed only locomotor functions and were not active while the dogs were standing still. We conclude that the dual function of many hypaxial muscles may produce functional conflicts during running. The redundancy and complexity of the respiratory musculature as well as the particular pattern of respiratory—locomotor coupling in quadrupedal mammals may circumvent these conflicts or minimize their impact on respiration.
Accumulation of the mitochondrial form of the sulphydryl oxidase Erv1p/Alrp during the early stages of spermatogenesis
Authors: Klissenbauer Monika , Winters Silke , Heinlein Uwe A. O. , Lisowsky Thomas
Published: April 2021

In this study, we investigated the expression of the mammalian FAD-dependent sulphydryl oxidase Erv1p/Alrp in the rat and mouse and during mouse spermatogenesis. Up to three forms of Alrp were identified in protein extracts from different tissues and organs, but very little enzyme was present in blood samples. The three forms of Alrp represent the full-length protein of 23 kDa and fragments of 21 kDa and 15 kDa. All forms of Alrp were assembled into dimers in vivo. In contrast to samples from other organs, the protein analysis of mouse testis identified predominantly full-length 23 kDa Alrp. This finding prompted us to investigate in more detail the expression of Alrp during spermatogenesis. Testis samples of individual mice from postnatal days 13-29 were probed with an antibody specific for mammalian Alrp. In addition, cells from whole testis preparations were fractionated on a bovine serum albumin column gradient. Protein expression of mouse Alrp was compared with those of testis-specific cyritestin, the cytoskeleton marker actin and mitochondrial subunit Vb of cytochrome oxidase and cytochrome c. These studies demonstrated a specific accumulation of full-length mouse Alrp during the early stages of spermatogenesis. The highest levels of Alrp were found in spermatogonia and primary spermatocytes. Levels of expression of Alrp did not correlate with the synthesis of components of the respiratory chain,indicating that full-length Alrp in the mitochondria of spermatogonia and spermatocytes has another function in addition to its role in oxidative phosphorylation.
Functional morphology of proximal hindlimb muscles in the frogRana pipiens
Authors: Kargo William J. , Rome Lawrence C.
Published: April 2021

Musculoskeletal models have become important tools in understanding motor control issues ranging from how muscles power movement to how sensory feedback supports movements. In the present study, we developed the initial musculotendon subsystem of a realistic model of the frog Rana pipiens. We measured the anatomical properties of 13 proximal muscles in the frog hindlimb and incorporated these measurements into a set of musculotendon actuators. We examined whether the interaction between this musculotendon subsystem and a previously developed skeleton/joint subsystem captured the passive behavior of the real frog's musculoskeletal system. To do this, we compared the moment arms of musculotendon complexes measured experimentally with moment arms predicted by the model. We also compared sarcomere lengths measured experimentally at the starting and take-off positions of a jump with sarcomere lengths predicted by the model at these same limb positions. On the basis of the good fit of the experimental data, we used the model to describe the multi-joint mechanical effects produced by contraction of each hindlimb muscle and to predict muscle trajectories during a range of limb behaviors (wiping, defensive kicking, swimming and jumping). Through these analyses, we show that all hindlimb muscles have multiple functions with respect to accelerating the limb in its three-dimensional workspace and that the balance of functions depends greatly on limb configuration. In addition, we show that muscles have multiple, task-specific functions with respect to the type of contraction performed. The results of this study provide important data regarding the multifunctional role of hindlimb muscles in the frog and form a foundation upon which additional model subsystems (e.g. neural) and more sophisticated muscle models can be appended.
Effect of increased calcium concentration in sea water on calcification and photosynthesis in the scleractinian coralGalaxea fascicularis
Authors: Marshall Alan T. , Clode Peta L.
Published: April 2021

The relationship between calcification and photosynthesis in coral was investigated using standard sea water with enhanced calcium concentration. In standard sea water at 23°C with the calcium concentration increased by 2.5 mmol l-1, incorporation of calcium into the skeleton increased by 30-61 %, depending on the method of data normalisation, and photosynthesis, measured as 14C incorporation into the tissues, also increased by 87 %. At 29 °C, calcium incorporation into the skeleton increased by 54-84 % and 14C incorporation increased by 32 % when sea water calcium concentration was increased by 5 mmol l-1. However, photosynthesis measured as net photosynthetic oxygen production did not increase. Similarly there was no change in respiration rate when coral polyps were incubated in high-calcium sea water. It is conjectured that an increase in photorespiration may be responsible for the latter observations. Bisphosphonate has been considered to inhibit calcification but not photosynthesis in corals. We show that bisphosphonate may not inhibit formation of amorphous calcium carbonate and that the inhibition of calcification is possibly illusory. The data are consistent with the trans-calcification model, which suggests that calcification is a source of CO2 for photosynthesis in corals.
Etruscan shrew muscle: the consequences of being small
Authors: Jürgens Klaus D.
Published: April 2021

The skeletal muscles of the smallest mammal, the Etruscan shrew Suncus etruscus, are functionally and structurally adapted to the requirements of an enormously high energy turnover. Isometric twitch contractions of the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and soleus muscles are shorter than in any other mammal, allowing these muscles to contract at outstandingly high frequencies. The skeletal muscles of S. etruscus contract at up to 900 min-1 for respiration, up to 780 min-1 for running and up to 3500 min-1 for shivering. All skeletal muscles investigated lack slow-twitch type I fibres and consist only of fast-twitch type IID fibres. These fibres are optimally equipped with properties enabling a high rate of almost purely oxidative metabolism: they have a small diameter,their citrate synthase activity is higher and their lactate dehydrogenase activity is lower than in the muscles of any other mammal and they have a rapid shortening velocity. Differences in isometric twitch contraction times between different muscles are, at least in part, probably due to differences in cytosolic creatine kinase activities.
Supercontracting muscle: producing tension over extreme muscle lengths
Authors: Herrel Anthony , Meyers Jay J. , Timmermans Jean-Pierre , Nishikawa Kiisa C.
Published: April 2021

Muscle mechanics dictates a trade-off between the ability of a muscle to generate isometric force and its length. This intrinsic trade-off is the result of the need for overlap between thick and thin filaments upon extension of the sarcomere and of the limitations imposed by the physical interference between the thin filaments and the thick filaments with the Z-disk upon contraction. However, previously published data indicate that chameleons are able to produce a nearly constant tongue retraction force over a wide range of tongue extension lengths, made possible by the presence of supercontracting muscle in the tongue retractors. Investigation of the length/tension properties and ultrastructure of the tongue retractor in a closely related agamid lizard (Pogona vitticeps) indicates that the ability to generate tension at extreme elongation is probably a derived feature for chameleons. Whereas chameleons are unique among vertebrates in possessing supercontracting muscle, this seems to be a common phenomenon in invertebrates. However, the presence of supercontracting muscle in chameleons and in several invertebrate groups seems to be coupled to the need to generate tension over large changes in muscle length and might be a more general solution for this problem.
Phylogenetic implications of the superfast myosin in extraocular muscles
Authors: Schachat Fred , Briggs Margaret M.
Published: April 2021

Extraocular muscle exhibits higher-velocity and lower-tension contractions than other vertebrate striated muscles. These distinctive physiological properties are associated with the expression of a novel extraocular myosin heavy chain (MYH). Encoded by the MYH13 gene, the extraocular myosin heavy chain is a member of the fast/developmental MYH gene cluster on human chromosome 17 and the syntenic MYH cluster on mouse chromosome 11. Comparison of cDNA sequences reveals that MYH13 also encodes the atypical MYH identified in laryngeal muscles, which have similar fast contractile properties. Comparing the MYH13 sequence with the other members of the fast/developmental cluster, the slow/cardiac MYH genes and two orphan skeletal MYH genes in the human genome provides insights into the origins of specialization in striated muscle myosins. Specifically, these studies indicate (i) that the extraocular myosin is not derived from the adult fast skeletal muscle myosins, but was the first member of the fast/developmental MYH gene cluster to diverge and specialize, (ii) that the motor and rod domains of the MYH13 have evolved under different selective pressures and (iii) that the MYH13 gene has been largely insulated from genomic events that have shaped other members of the fast/developmental cluster. In addition, phylogenetic footprinting suggests that regulation of the extraocular MYH gene is not governed primarily by myogenic factors, but by a hierarchical network of regulatory factors that relate its expression to the development of extraocular muscles.
Lift and power requirements of hovering flight inDrosophila virilis
Authors: Sun Mao , Tang Jian
Published: April 2021

The lift and power requirements for hovering flight in Drosophila virilis were studied using the method of computational fluid dynamics. The Navier-Stokes equations were solved numerically. The solution provided the flow velocity and pressure fields, from which the unsteady aerodynamic forces and moments were obtained. The inertial torques due to the acceleration of the wing mass were computed analytically. On the basis of the aerodynamic forces and moments and the inertial torques, the lift and power requirements for hovering flight were obtained.

For the fruit fly Drosophila virilis in hovering flight (with symmetrical rotation), a midstroke angle of attack of approximately 37°was needed for the mean lift to balance the insect weight, which agreed with observations. The mean drag on the wings over an up- or downstroke was approximately 1.27 times the mean lift or insect weight (i.e. the wings of this tiny insect must overcome a drag that is approximately 27 % larger than its weight to produce a lift equal to its weight). The body-mass-specific power was 28.7 W kg-1, the muscle-mass-specific power was 95.7 W kg-1 and the muscle efficiency was 17 %.

With advanced rotation, larger lift was produced than with symmetrical rotation, but it was more energy-demanding, i.e. the power required per unit lift was much larger. With delayed rotation, much less lift was produced than with symmetrical rotation at almost the same power expenditure; again, the power required per unit lift was much larger. On the basis of the calculated results for power expenditure, symmetrical rotation should be used for balanced, long-duration flight and advanced rotation and delayed rotation should be used for flight control and manoeuvring. This agrees with observations.
Respiratory airflow in a wingless dung beetle
Authors: Duncan Frances D. , Byrne Marcus J.
Published: April 2021

The sealed subelytral cavity of many flightless beetle species is widely acknowledged to be an adaptation to water saving in arid-habitat species. However, this hypothesis relies on the acceptance of two largely untested assumptions: (i) that the movement of respiratory gases is unidirectional from anterior to posterior and (ii) that the coordinated action of the spiracles directs this flow. We tested these assumptions by simultaneously measuring CO2 and O2 exchange at the anterior mesothorax,independently of gas exchange in the posterior body, which included the subelytral cavity, of a large apterous beetle, Circellium bacchus. Flow-through respirometry revealed a marked discontinuous gas-exchange cycle(DGC) pattern from the anterior half of the body. Very little CO2was released from the posterior body, where the DGC was not apparent. Labelled air was shown to flow forwards from the posterior to the anterior body. Individual sampling from the mesothoracic spiracles revealed that the right mesothoracic spiracle, lying outside the elytral cavity, is the primary route for respiratory gas exchange in C. bacchus at rest. This discovery necessitates a reassessment of the currently assumed role of the subelytral cavity in water conservation and is, to our knowledge, the first demonstration of forward airflow associated with the unilateral use of a single thoracic spiracle for respiration in an insect.
View-based navigation in insects: how wood ants (Formica rufaL.) look at and are guided by extended landmarks
Authors: Graham Paul , Collett Thomas S.
Published: April 2021

Bees, wasps and ants learn landmarks as views from particular vantage points, storing the retinal positions of landmark edges. By moving so as to minimise the difference between their stored and current view, they can return to the vantage point from which a view was taken. We have examined what wood ants learn about a laterally placed, extended landmark, a wall, while walking parallel to it to reach a feeder and how they use this stored information to guide their path. Manipulation of the height of the wall and the ant's starting distance from it reveals that ants maintain a desired distance from the wall by keeping the image of the top of the wall at a particular retinal elevation. Ants can thus employ image matching both for returning to a place and for following a fixed route.

Unlike many flying insects, an ant's direction of motion while walking is always along its longitudinal body axis and, perhaps for this reason, it favours its frontal retina for viewing discrete landmarks. We find that ants also use their frontal retina for viewing a laterally placed wall. On a coarse scale, the ant's path along the wall is straight, but on a finer scale it is roughly sinusoidal, allowing the ant to scan the surrounding landscape with its frontal retina. The ant's side-to-side scanning means that the wall is viewed with its frontal retina for phases of the scanning cycle throughout its trajectory. Details of the scanning pattern depend on the scene. Ants scan further to the side that is empty of the wall than to the side containing the wall, and they scan further into the wall side when the wall is of a lower apparent height. We conclude that frontal retina is employed for image storage and for path control.
Conserved tyrosine-147 plays a critical role in the ligand-gated current of the epithelial cation/amino acid transporter/channel CAATCH1
Authors: Stevens Bruce R. , Feldman Daniel H. , Liu Zhilin , Harvey William R.
Published: April 2021

CAATCH1 functions both as an amino-acid-gated cation channel and as a cation-dependent, proline-preferring, nutrient amino acid transporter in which the two functions are thermodynamically uncoupled. This study focuses on the ionic channel aspect, in which a Tyr147 (wild type) to Phe147 (Y147F) site-directed mutation was investigated by steady-state electrophysiological measurements in the Xenopus laevisoocyte expression system. This tyrosine residue is conserved within the third transmembrane domain in members of the Na+:neurotransmitter transporter family (SNF), where it plays a role in binding pharmacological ligands such as cocaine to the serotonin (SERT), dopamine (DAT) and norepinephrine (NET) transporters. Epithelial CAATCH1 is a member of the SNF family. The results show that amino acid ligand-gating selectivity and current magnitudes in Na+- and K+-containing media are differentially altered in CAATCH1 Y147F compared with the wild type. In the absence of amino acid ligands, the channel conductance of Na+,K+ and Li+ that is observed in the wild type was reduced to virtually zero in Y147F. In the wild type, proline binding increased conductance strongly in Na+-containing medium and moderately in K+-containing medium, whereas in Y147F proline failed to elicit any cation currents beyond those of N-methyl-D-glucamine- or water-injected oocytes. In the wild type, methionine binding strongly inhibited inward Na+ currents, whereas in Y147F it strongly stimulated inward currents in both Na+ and K+-containing media. Indeed, in Na+-containing medium, the relative potency ranking for inward current inhibition in the wild type(Met>Leu>Gly>Phe>Thr) was similar to the ranking of ligand-permissive gating of large inward currents in Y147F. In Na+-containing medium, current/voltage relationships elicited by ligands in the wild type were complex and reversing, whereas in Y147F they were linear and inwardly rectifying. In K+-containing medium,current/voltage relationships remained non-linear in Y147F. Both wild-type and Y147F currents were Cl--independent. Together, these data demonstrate a critical role for Tyr147 in ligand-binding selectivity and modulation of the ionic channel conductance in CAATCH1. The results support the argument that inhibition of the CAATCH1 conductance by free methionine shares some properties in common with ligand inhibition of DAT, SERT, NET and the γ-aminobutyric acid transporter (GAT1).
Mutations in theDrosophilaglycoprotein hormone receptor,rickets, eliminate neuropeptide-induced tanning and selectively block a stereotyped behavioral program
Authors: Baker James D. , Truman James W.
Published: April 2021

Adult insects achieve their final form shortly after adult eclosion by the combined effects of specialized behaviors that generate increased blood pressure, which causes cuticular expansion, and hormones, which plasticize and then tan the cuticle. We examined the molecular mechanisms contributing to these processes in Drosophila by analyzing mutants for the rickets gene. These flies fail to initiate the behavioral and tanning processes that normally follow ecdysis. Sequencing of rickets mutants and STS mapping of deficiencies confirmed that rickets encodes the glycoprotein hormone receptor DLGR2. Although rickets mutants produce and release the insect-tanning hormone bursicon, they do not melanize when injected with extracts containing bursicon. In contrast, mutants do melanize in response to injection of an analog of cyclic AMP, the second messenger for bursicon. Hence, rickets appears to encode a component of the bursicon response pathway, probably the bursicon receptor itself. Mutants also have a behavioral deficit in that they fail to initiate the behavioral program for wing expansion. A set of decapitation experiments utilizing rickets mutants and flies that lack cells containing the neuropeptide eclosion hormone, reveals a multicomponent control to the activation of this behavioral program.
Rapid patterning and zonal differentiation in a two-dimensionalDictyosteliumcell mass: the role of pH and ammonia
Authors: Sawai Satoshi , Hirano Takashi , Maeda Yasuo , Sawada Yasuji
Published: April 2021

Recently it was demonstrated that a rapidly forming, self-organizing pattern that emerges within two-dimensional Dictyostelium discoideumcell cultures could later give rise to stripes of distinct zones, each comprising different cell types. Here we report physiological aspects of the initial rapid patterning and its relationship to cell differentiation. We found that as the temperature is lowered the characteristic length of the pattern increases. From this we estimated the activation energy of the patterning kinetics. Fluorescence of fluorescein-conjugated dextran revealed that the cytosolic pH of cells in the inside zone becomes lower than that in the outer zone facing the air. The patterning could be inhibited by addition of the plasma-membrane proton pump inhibitors diethystilbestrol (DES) or miconazole. Preincubation of cells with weak acid delayed the timing of the patterning, whereas weak base hastened it. A pH-indicating dye revealed localized accumulation of ammonia in the extracellular space. These results suggest that gradients of secreted metabolites may be directly responsible for the rapid patterning and its consequence on cell differentiation in a confined geometrical situation. Possible diffusible candidate molecules and a reaction scheme coupled to the imposed oxygen gradient are discussed.
Dynamic stabilization of rapid hexapedal locomotion
Authors: Jindrich Devin L. , Full Robert J.
Published: April 2021

To stabilize locomotion, animals must generate forces appropriate to overcome the effects of perturbations and to maintain a desired speed or direction of movement. We studied the stabilizing mechanism employed by rapidly running insects by using a novel apparatus to perturb running cockroaches (Blaberus discoidalis). The apparatus used chemical propellants to accelerate a small projectile, generating reaction force impulses of less than 10 ms duration. The apparatus was mounted onto the thorax of the insect, oriented to propel the projectile laterally and loaded with propellant sufficient to cause a nearly tenfold increase in lateral velocity relative to maxima observed during unperturbed locomotion. Cockroaches were able to recover from these perturbations in 27±12 ms(mean ± S.D., N=9) when running on a high-friction substratum. Lateral velocity began to decrease 13±5 ms (mean ± S.D., N=11) following the start of a perturbation, a time comparable with the fastest reflexes measured in cockroaches. Cockroaches did not require step transitions to recover from lateral perturbations. Instead, they exhibited viscoelastic behavior in the lateral direction, with spring constants similar to those observed during unperturbed locomotion. The rapid onset of recovery from lateral perturbations supports the possibility that, during fast locomotion, intrinsic properties of the musculoskeletal system augment neural stabilization by reflexes.
Intensity control during target approach in echolocating bats;stereotypical sensori-motor behaviour in Daubenton's bats,Myotis daubentonii
Authors: Boonman Arjan , Jones Gareth
Published: April 2021

When approaching a prey target, bats have been found to decrease the intensity of their emitted echolocation pulses, called intensity compensation. In this paper we examine whether intensity compensation in the echolocation of bats is flexible or stereotyped. We recorded the echolocation calls of Daubenton's bats (Myotis daubentonii) while the animals attacked targets of different dimensions. Myotis daubentonii reduced the peak sound pressure level emitted by about 4dB for each halving of distance,irrespective of the target presented (mealworms and two different sizes of spheres). The absolute sound pressure level emitted by the bat is not or only a little affected by target strength. Furthermore, the decrease in emitted intensity over distance shows less scatter than the same intensity over time for the last 20 cm of target approach. The bats matched the emitted intensity to target distance equally well for the spheres (aspect-invariant target strength) as for the mealworms (aspect-dependent echo strength). We therefore conclude that intensity compensation does not rely on feedback information from received intensity, but instead follows a stereotyped pattern.
Swimming in needlefish (Belonidae): anguilliform locomotion with fins
Authors: Liao James C.
Published: April 2021

The Atlantic needlefish (Strongylura marina) is a unique anguilliform swimmer in that it possesses prominent fins, lives in coastal surface-waters, and can propel itself across the surface of the water to escape predators. In a laboratory flow tank, steadily swimming needlefish perform a speed-dependent suite of behaviors while maintaining at least a half wavelength of undulation on the body at all times. To investigate the effects of discrete fins on anguilliform swimming, I used high-speed video to record body and fin kinematics at swimming speeds ranging from 0.25 to 2.0 Ls-1 (where L is the total body length). Analysis of axial kinematics indicates that needlefish are less efficient anguilliform swimmers than eels, indicated by their lower slip values. Body amplitudes increase with swimming speed, but unlike most fishes, tail-beat amplitude increases linearly and does not plateau at maximal swimming speeds. At 2.0 Ls-1, the propulsive wave shortens and decelerates as it travels posteriorly, owing to the prominence of the median fins in the caudal region of the body. Analyses of fin kinematics show that at 1.0 Ls-1 the dorsal and anal fins are slightly less than 180° out of phase with the body and approximately 225° out of phase with the caudal fin. Needlefish exhibit two gait transitions using their pectoral fins. At 0.25 L s-1, the pectoral fins oscillate but do not produce thrust, at 1.0 L s-1 they are held abducted from the body,forming a positive dihedral that may reduce rolling moments, and above 2.0 L s-1 they remain completely adducted.
Differential scaling of locomotor performance in small and large terrestrial mammals
Authors: Iriarte-Díaz José
Published: April 2021

It has been observed that the relationship between locomotor performance and body mass in terrestrial mammals does not follow a single linear trend when the entire range of body mass is considered. Large taxa tend to show different scaling exponents compared to those of small taxa, suggesting that there would be a differential scaling between small and large mammals. This pattern, noted previously for several morphological traits in mammals, has been explained to occur as a result of mechanical constraints over bones due to the differential effect of gravity on small and large-sized forms. The relationship between maximum relative running speed (body length s-1) and body mass was analysed in 142 species of terrestrial mammals, in order to evaluate whether the relative locomotor performance shows a differential scaling depending on the range of mass analysed, and whether the scaling pattern is consistent with the idea of mechanical constraints on locomotor performance. The scaling of relative locomotor performance proved to be non-linear when the entire range of body masses was considered and showed a differential scaling between small and large mammals. Among the small species,a negative, although nearly independent, relationship with body mass was noted. In contrast, maximum relative running speed in large mammals showed a strong negative relationship with body mass. This reduction in locomotor performance was correlated with a decrease in the ability to withstand the forces applied on bones and may be understood as a necessary stress reduction mechanism for assuring the structural integrity of the limb skeleton in large species.
Altitudinal variation in parental energy expenditure by white-crowned sparrows
Authors: Weathers Wesley W. , Davidson Charisse L. , Olson Christopher R. , Morton Martin L. , Nur Nadav , Famula Thomas R.
Published: April 2021

We used the doubly labeled water technique to measure daily energy expenditure (DEE) during the incubation and feeding nestling stages in two populations of white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys)— one montane and migratory, the other coastal and sedentary —that differ in thermal environment and clutch size. We assessed the birds'thermal environment by continuously monitoring (among other variables)operative temperature and wind speed both in the open and within bushes and willow thickets occupied by sparrows. From these measurements, we derived several estimates of the birds' thermal environment, including standard operative temperature (Tes). Shade air temperature and Tes averaged 6.6 and 10.3°C lower, respectively, at the montane study site during DEE measurements. The montane population's DEE averaged 24% higher than that of the sea-level population (103.6±12.2 versus 83.7±9.6 kJ day-1; means ± S.D., N=31 and 22, respectively), reflecting both its larger brood size(3.7 versus 2.9) and the colder environment. The DEE:BMR ratio was lowest in the sea-level population (2.1 versus 2.6), but neither population worked to their physiological capacity to produce young. DEE was significantly correlated with temperature across populations, with Tes explaining 42% of the variation in DEE. Statistically removing the effect of temperature by adjusting DEE to a common temperature reduced the difference in DEE between populations by 34% to 87.7 and 100.8 kJ day-1, respectively, for sea-level and montane populations. Basal and resting metabolic rates were similar in both populations, implying that greater activity in the montane population accounted for its higher temperature-adjusted DEE. Our results indicate that the thermal context within which behavior occurs can significantly affect interindividual variation in DEE. Attempts to assess reproductive effort by measuring DEE should therefore account explicitly for the effect of temperature.