Teaching and Learning Guide for: Culture and Biology: The Foundation of Pathways of Development
Authors: Keller Heidi 
Published: March 2009

Author's introduction

My fascination with culture goes back to my childhood when my father was writing a book about German migrants to Brazil during times of starvation in the late 18th century. I could not stop watching his slides with exotic flowers, unfamiliar landscapes, and children in school uniforms. I was attracted by every aspect of difference, including food and spices. Consequently, my first cross‐cultural publication was a cookbook, not about Brazilian kitchen, but Caribbean. I had expanded my range of action through a friend coming from Barbados. We had enjoyable moments writing the cookbook that became even translated into Dutch. My first psychological cross‐cultural study was a comparison of Costa Rican and German women's developmental timetables with respect to early development milestones – made possible by a young Costa Rican colleague who had studied psychology in Mainz, where I started my academic career. Although my fascination with culture never stopped, my next developmental stage was becoming universalist based on human ethology. The universal nature of humans and their development was my area of research that I addressed specifically with the help of the film archive that Irenäus Eibl‐Eibesfeldt had established. I was funded as part of an interdisciplinary research program with yearly meetings at a wonderful Bavarian lake. In nightlong discussions, I came across sociobiology for the first time. Sociobiology and later evolutionary psychology guided me to reconsider my thinking about culture as a differential factor on human development. Now, the conceptual framework of development as the cultural solution of universal developmental tasks could be developed. At this point, we are conducting longitudinal studies in different cultural environments with convincing evidence of different developmental pathways. The implications of this research are twofold: these findings together with the knowledge that other cultural developmental researchers have accumulated should be reflected in textbooks which still present the one and only healthy developmental pathway based on the Euro‐American worldview. Culture informed research will also help to develop cultural sensitive counseling and educational programs that are adapted to different psychologies.

Author recommends

1. H. Keller, ‘Cultures of infancy’ (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2007).

This book presents the first systematic analysis of culturally informed developmental pathways, synthesizing evolutionary and cultural psychological perspectives. It contains a large body of empirical research on early socialization strategies in multiple cultural contexts.

2. H. Keller, R. D. Yovsi, J. Borke, J. Kärtner, H. Jensen, & Z. Papaligoura. Developmental consequences of early parenting experiences: Self regulation and self recognition in three cultural communities. Child Development, 75 (2004), 1745–1760.

This paper reports a longitudinal study with samples from three cultural environments. It presents evidence that parents follow different strategies and that children's solution of developmental milestones differs accordingly.

3. H. Keller. Socialization for competence: cultural models of infancy. Human Development, 46 (2003), 288–311.

Two prototypical developmental pathways are described, aiming at different conceptions of competence: rural, low formally educated villagers, embodying interdependence and urban, highly formally educated Western families, embodying independence.

4. H. Keller, E. Hentschel, R. D. Yovsi, M. Abels, B. Lamm, & V. Haas. The psycho‐linguistic embodiment of parental ethnotheories. A new avenue to understand cultural differences in parenting. Culture & Psychology, 10 (2004), 293–330.

Different cultural models are associated with different narrative styles, which are demonstrated with examples from parent‐child conversations in different cultural environments.

5. P. M. Greenfield, H. Keller, A. Fuligni, & A. Maynard. Cultural pathways through universal development. Annual Review of Psychology, 54 (2003), 461–490.

The pathway paradigm is illustrated with research examples from different developmental stages from infancy through adolescence.

6. C. Rothstein‐Fisch, P. M. Greenfield, E. Trumbull, H. Keller, L. Suzuki, & B. Quiroz. Discovering culture in learning and development. In: Preiss & Sternberg (Eds.), Pathbreaking discoveries in learning (forthcoming).

This chapter introduces two contrasting cultural conceptions of learning and development, based on independence and interdependence, respectively. The implications of these two cultural pathways for education in a culturally diverse society are discussed with the example of the Bridging Cultures Project, a cross‐cultural training program for teachers and parents.

7. H. Keller & B. Lamm. Culture, parenting, and the development of jealousy. In: M. Legerstee & S. Hart (Eds.), Handbook of jealousy: Theories, principles, and multidisciplinary approaches (Wiley‐Blackwell, forthcoming).

In this chapter, it is argued that jealousy is an evolved emotion and belongs to the pan human behavioral repertoire. However, an evolutionary origin by no means implies that the behavioral expression is the same across different contexts. Children's differential expressions of jealousy across cultural contexts are interpreted within the frameworks of independence and interdependence.

8. H. Keller. Ontogeny as the interface between biology and culture. Evolutionary considerations. In: T. S. Saraswathi (Ed.), Cross‐cultural perspectives in human development: Theory, research and applications (New Delhi, India: Sage, 2003), 102–127.

The core assumptions of evolutionary theory are presented. Based on the conception of open genetic programs, the processing of environmental information, and thus culture, is organized to solve developmental tasks.

9. H. Keller, C. Demuth, & R. D. Yovsi. The multi‐voicedness of independence and interdependence – The case of Cameroonian Nso. Culture and Psychology, 14 (2008), 115–144.

Independence and interdependence are two universal dimensions that are present in every cultural environment. This paper demonstrates the interrelations of independence and interdependence in Nso women of different formal educational background.

10. H. Keller & R. Harwood, R. Culture and developmental pathways of relationship formation. In: A. Aksu‐Koc & S. Bekman (Eds.), Perspectives on human development, family and culture (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming).

This chapter reviews two pathways of relational development during the first years of life, demonstrating that attachment theory is representing only one cultural model. Alternative conceptions of relationship formation are discussed.

11. A. Gottlieb. The afterlife is where we come from (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2004).

This book presents an anthropological analysis of infancy among the Beng people in Ivory Coast. Although the emphasis is on the individual, striking similarities with the Nso from Cameroon are visible.

Online materials:

I have uploaded material that illustrates research concerning the different developmental pathways on the following website:

http://www.culturalpathways.uni‐osnabrueck.de

On this webpage, you can find the following material:

Set of photos: Nsoland: impressions of the area and the people

Video clips

Early mother–infant interactions in the natural surrounding

A German middle‐class mother interacting with her three months old baby

A Nso farmer woman interacting with her three months old baby

Compliance

Compliance of a 19‐month‐old German boy

Compliance of a 19‐month‐old Cameroonian boy

Mirror self‐recognition

Mirror self‐recognition of 19‐month‐old German girl

clips of the mirror self‐recognition tasks of a 19‐month‐old Cameroonian girl

Excerpts of transcripts of interviews between mothers and their 3‐year‐old children narrating about past events

Transcripts from a Nso and a German mother–child pair each

Interview with Dr. Hiltrud Otto about cultural conceptions of attachment and her field experience

Sample syllabus:

Seminar in Cultural pathways of development  Course Description

The aim of this course is to introduce students to the evolutionary foundation of development and the role of culture in shaping developmental pathways that are adapted to particular environments. Theoretical conceptions, methodology, and research will be introduced through presentations and readings as well as group projects and discussions.

Course Format and Readings

The seminar on ‘Culture and Biology: The Foundation of Pathways of Development’ consists of an introductory lecture, presentations, class discussions, and a small research project for groups of three students. There are some readings that all students should read. Topical readings should be prepared by groups of students, presenting the content and developing theses that are discussed in class.

Course Requirements and Grading

The primary requirement of the course is to actively participate in all assignments of the course (i.e. read the compulsory literature, participate actively in a literature group with Powerpoint presentation in class, and lead the discussion with the group members). Develop a research question with group members and conduct a small empirical study. Analyze the data and present the data with the group in a plenary session. Final grades will be based on the amount and quality of student participation in class discussion in general (30%), presentation of readings (30%), participation and presentation of a small study (40%).

Course Projects

Group Presentation of Readings.  Groups of three students will all read the three to four papers assigned to each topic. They will summarize the content of the readings in a Powerpoint presentation, which they will present to the class. Based on the readings, they will prepare 10 theses that they present for discussion in class. They will lead the group discussion.

Group Presentation of Empirical Study.  Groups of three students (same as reading group or others) will select a research question from the list below. Individually developed research questions from students may also be accepted. Studies consist of interviews and a questionnaire. Study projects can be started after meeting 4. The presentation should consist of a paper that includes the following: (i) a title page and a 120‐word (maximum) abstract; (ii) a brief introduction, citing relevant research; (iii) a hypothesis, stated clearly; (iv) a method section that the reader could use to replicate the study; (v) a graph of the results; (vi) a brief discussion section; (vii) a reference section. A Powerpoint presentation is presented based on this paper. The final grading should be based on a composite score of the presentation and seminar contributions.

All students should read the following articles prior to the beginning of class:

H. R. Markus & S. Kitayama. Culture and the self. Implications for cognition, emotion and motivation. Psychological Review, 98 (1991), 224–253.

C. Kağitcibaşi. Autonomy and relatedness in cultural context: Implications for self and family. Journal of Cross‐Cultural Psychology, 36 (2005), 403–422.

H. Keller. Culture and biology. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2 (2008), 668–681.

H. Keller & B. Lamm. Parenting as the expression of sociohistorical time. The case of German individualism. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29 (2005), 238–246.

Class Title:
Culture and Biology: The Foundation of Pathways of Development

Meeting 1: Introduction and overview of the lecturer based on the compulsory readings and presentation of the syllabus

Meeting 2: Group 1 – Evolutionary bases of human development

Readings:

M. Konner. Evolutionary foundations of cultural psychology. In: S. Kitayama & D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of cultural psychology (New York, NY: Guilford Press, 2007), 77–105.

H. Keller. Ontogeny as the interface between biology and culture. Evolutionary considerations. In: T. S. Saraswathi (Ed.), Cross‐cultural perspectives in human development: Theory, research and applications (New Delhi, India: Sage, 2003), 102–127.

D. F. Bjorklund & A. D. Pellegrini. Child development and evolutionary psychology. Child Development, 71 (2000), 1687–1708.

Meeting 3: Group 2 – The conception of culture

Readings:

P. M. Greenfield & H. Keller. Cultural psychology. In: C. Spielberger (Ed.), Encyclopedia of applied psychology (Oxford, UK: Elsevier, 2004), 545–553.

H. Keller (Ed.). Cultures of infancy, Chapter 3: The concept of culture (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2007).

R. A. LeVine. Anthropological foundations of cultural psychology. In: S. Kitayama & D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of cultural psychology (New York, NY: Guilford Press, 2007), 40–58.

D. Matsumoto. Culture, context, and behavior. Journal of Personality, 75 (2007), 1285–1320.

Meeting 4: group 3 – Development as the cultural solution of universal developmental tasks

Readings:

P. M. Greenfield, H. Keller, A. Fuligni, & A. Maynard. Cultural pathways through universal development. Annual Review of Psychology, 54 (2003), 461–490.

T. S. Weisner. Ecocultural understanding of children's developmental pathways. Human Development, 45 (2002), 275–281.

R. A. LeVine. Human parental care: universal goals, cultural strategies, individual behavior. In: R. A. LeVine, P. M. Miller, & M. M. West (Eds.), Parental behavior in diverse societies. New directions for child development, No. 40 (San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass, Inc, 1988), 3–12.

Meeting 5: group 4 – the first integrative developmental task: relationship formation

Readings:

M. H. van IJzendoorn & A. Sagi‐Schwartz. Cross‐cultural patterns of attachment: Universal and contextual dimensions. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment. Theory, research, and clinical applications, 2nd ed. (New York, N.Y.: Guilford Press, 2008), 880–905.

F. Rothbaum, M. Pott, H. Azuma, K. Miyake, & J. Weisz, J. The development of close relationships in Japan and the United States: Paths of symbiotic harmony and generative tension. Child Development, 71 (2000), 1121–1142.

H. Keller & R. Harwood. Culture and developmental pathways of relationship formation. In: A. Aksu‐Koc & S. Bekman (Eds.), Perspectives on human development, family and culture (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming).

Meeting 6: group 5 – the development of a categorial self

Readings:

H. Keller, R. D. Yovsi, J. Borke, J, Kärtner, H. Jensen, & Z. Papaligoura. Developmental consequences of early parenting experiences: Self regulation and self recognition in three cultural communities. Child Development, 75 (2004), 1745–1760.

H. Keller, J. Kärtner, J. Borke, R. D. Yovsi, & A. Kleis. Parenting styles and the development of the categorial self. A longitudinal study on mirror self recognition in Cameroonian Nso farming and German families. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29 (2005), 496–504.

K. A. Bard, M. Myowa‐Yamakoshi, M. Tomonaga, M. Tanaka, A. Costall, & T. Matsuzawa. Group differences in the mutual gaze of Chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes). Developmental Psychology, 41 (2005), 616–624.

Meeting 7: group 6 – the development of an autobiographical memory

Readings:

Q. Wang. ‘Remember when you got the big, big bulldozer?’ Mother–child reminiscing over time and across cultures. Social Cognition, 25 (2007), 455–471.

J. J. Han, M. D. Leichtman, & Q. Wang. Autobiographical memory in Korean, Chinese, and American children. Developmental Psychology, 34 (1998), 701–713.

R. Fivush, C. A. Haden, & E. Reese. Elaborating on elaborations: Role of maternal reminiscing style in cognitive and socioemotional development. Child Development, 77 (2006), 1568–1588.

Meeting 8: group 7: the development of a theory of mind

Readings:

A. S. Lillard. Ethnopsychologies: Variations in theories of mind. Psychological Bulletin, 123 (1998), 3–32.

P. G. Vinden & J. Astington. Culture and understanding other minds. In: S. Baron‐Cohen, H. Tager‐Flusberg, & D. Cohen (Eds.), Understanding other minds: Perspectives from developmental cognitive neuroscience, 2nd ed. (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000), 503–519.

P. G. Vinden. Children's understanding of mind and emotion: A multi‐culture study. Cognition and Emotion, 13 (1999), 19–48.

M. Naito & K. Koyama. The development of false‐belief understanding in Japanese children: Delay and difference. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30 (2006), 290–304.

Meeting 9: group 8: Information processing and cognitive styles

Readings:

R. E. Nisbett & T. Masuda. Culture and point and view. The National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 100 (2003), 11163–11170.

R. E. Nisbett, K. Peng, I. Choi, & A. Norenzayan. Culture and systems of thought: Holistic versus analytic cognition. Psychological Review, 108 (2001), 291–310.

S. Zebian & J. P. Denny. Integrative cognitive style in middle eastern and western groups. Journal of Cross‐Cultural Psychology, 32 (2001), 58–75.

Meeting 10: group presentations of study projects

Focus Questions

Why is culture fundamental to human existence?

What does ‘evolutionary basis of behavioral development’ mean?

What are developmental tasks?

Describe the impact of parents for children's development.

What are the implications of independence and interdependence for mastering developmental tasks?

Study Project Ideas:

The study project idea is to interview persons as specified below. The following steps are necessary: develop three to five open questions in order to assess socialization goals during the first 3 years of children's lives. Develop or adopt a questionnaire for assessing sociodemographic information. The questions and the questionnaire should be developed as a group task, so that all students use the same sets. Identify five persons as specified below. The participants will answer the questions in writing. Develop a coding procedure with respect to the expression of autonomy and relatedness. Analyze the interviews and write a research report. It would be favourable if one group of students would integrate the findings of all projects.

List of possible participants:

Female co‐students

Male co‐students

Women of your mother's generation

Men of your father's generation

Men of your grandfather's generation

Women of your grandmother's generation

Nannies with an interdependent cultural background

Daycare providers in middle‐class residential areas

Daycare providers in lower‐class residential areas

Six‐ to 8‐year‐old children from middle‐class families

Six‐ to 8‐year‐old children from lower‐class families