bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Relative humidity FOS design using spherical hydrogel on no-core multimode fiber
Authors: Nasiri A. , Makouei S. , Rezaii T. Y.
Published: February 2020

In this paper, the design and simulation of a new optical fiber-based relative humidity (RH) sensor formed by spherical hydrogel droplets over the no-core fiber is stablished. The introduced sensor is capable of detecting humidity changes based on Evanescent waves and splice losses. Refractive index of PEGDMA hydrogel sphere changes with variation of humidity which can cause intensity changes in fiber. The sensor structure includes a no-core fiber in the length of 4 mm connected to two multimode fibers which performs sensing by three hydrogel spheres with diameter of 1 mm. The sensor operation wavelength is adjusted at 631nm. The results show that the designed structure has linear response for humidity in the range of 20 to 95%RH. In the meantime, the obtained sensitivity is about 0.13643 mW /% RH. The simulated sensor has some useful advantages in addition to having some associated with the two primary sensors including the simplicity of the structure and the sensor's function which can be explained by reduction of the length of sensing portion and increase in the sensitivity and range of humidity detection.
The systematics of the Cervidae: a total evidence approach
Authors: Heckeberg Nicola S.
Published: February 2020

Systematic relationships of cervids have been controversial for decades. Despite new input from molecular systematics, consensus could only be partially reached. The initial, gross (sub) classification based on morphology and comparative anatomy was mostly supported by molecular data. The rich fossil record of cervids has never been extensively tested in phylogenetic frameworks concerning potential systematic relationships of fossil cervids to extant cervids. The aim of this work was to investigate the systematic relationships of extant and fossil cervids using molecular and morphological characters and make implications about their evolutionary history based on the phylogenetic reconstructions. To achieve these objectives, molecular data were compiled consisting of five nuclear markers and the complete mitochondrial genome of 50 extant and one fossil cervids. Several analyses using different data partitions, taxon sampling, partitioning schemes, and optimality criteria were undertaken. In addition, the most extensive morphological character matrix for such a broad cervid taxon sampling was compiled including 168 cranial and dental characters of 41 extant and 29 fossil cervids. The morphological and molecular data were analysed in a combined approach and other comprehensive phylogenetic reconstructions. The results showed that most Miocene cervids were more closely related to each other than to any other cervids. They were often positioned between the outgroup and all other cervids or as the sister taxon to Muntiacini. Two Miocene cervids were frequently placed within Muntiacini. Plio- and Pleistocene cervids could often be affiliated to Cervini, Odocoileini or Capreolini. The phylogenetic analyses provide new insights into the evolutionary history of cervids. Several fossil cervids could be successfully related to living representatives, confirming previously assumed affiliations based on comparative morphology and introducing new hypotheses. New systematic relationships were observed, some uncertainties persisted and resolving systematics within certain taxa remained challenging.
Taxonomic revision ofDasydorylasSkevington, 2001 (Diptera, Pipunculidae) in the Middle East
Authors: Motamedinia Behnam , Skevington Jeffrey H. , Kelso Scott
Published: February 2020

Species of the distinctive and cosmopolitan genusDasydorylasSkevington, 2001 in the Middle East are revised. Seven species are documented, and three new species,Dasydorylas dactylossp. nov.,D. forcipussp. nov. andD.parazardoueisp. nov., are described, and one synonym,D. derafshaniMotamedinia & Kehlmaier, 2017, syn. nov. is proposed, based on sequence information from the mitochondrial COI barcoding gene and morphological parameters. Diagnoses, illustrations and distributional data are provided for all studied species. Descriptions of new species as well as an identification key to all known species in the Middle East are also provided.
Broad similarities in shoulder muscle architecture and organization across two amniotes: implications for reconstructing non-mammalian synapsids
Authors: Fahn-Lai Philip , Biewener Andrew A. , Pierce Stephanie E.
Published: February 2020

The evolution of upright limb posture in mammals may have enabled modifications of the forelimb for diverse locomotor ecologies. A rich fossil record of non-mammalian synapsids holds the key to unraveling the transition from “sprawling” to “erect” limb function in the precursors to mammals, but a detailed understanding of muscle functional anatomy is a necessary prerequisite to reconstructing postural evolution in fossils. Here we characterize the gross morphology and internal architecture of muscles crossing the shoulder joint in two morphologically-conservative extant amniotes that form a phylogenetic and morpho-functional bracket for non-mammalian synapsids: the Argentine black and white teguSalvator merianaeand the Virginia opossumDidelphis virginiana. By combining traditional physical dissection of cadavers with nondestructive three-dimensional digital dissection, we find striking similarities in muscle organization and architectural parameters. Despite the wide phylogenetic gap between our study species, distal muscle attachments are notably similar, while differences in proximal muscle attachments are driven by modifications to the skeletal anatomy of the pectoral girdle that are well-documented in transitional synapsid fossils. Further, correlates for force production, physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA), muscle gearing (pennation), and working range (fascicle length) are statistically indistinguishable for an unexpected number of muscles. Functional tradeoffs between force production and working range reveal muscle specializations that may facilitate increased girdle mobility, weight support, and active stabilization of the shoulder in the opossum—a possible signal of postural transformation. Together, these results create a foundation for reconstructing the musculoskeletal anatomy of the non-mammalian synapsid pectoral girdle with greater confidence, as we demonstrate by inferring shoulder muscle PCSAs in the fossil non-mammalian cynodontMassetognathus pascuali.
Fasciola gigantica, F. hepatica and Fasciola intermediate forms: geometric morphometrics and an artificial neural network to help morphological identification
Authors: Sumruayphol Suchada , Siribat Praphaiphat , Dujardin Jean-Pierre , Dujardin Sébastien , Komalamisra Chalit , Thaenkham Urusa
Published: February 2020

Background

Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica cause fascioliasis in both humans and livestock. Some adult specimens of Fasciola sp. referred to as “intermediate forms” based on their genetic traits, are also frequently reported. Simple morphological criteria are unreliable for their specific identification. In previous studies, promising phenotypic identification scores were obtained using morphometrics based on linear measurements (distances, angles, curves) between anatomical features. Such an approach is commonly termed “traditional” morphometrics, as opposed to “modern” morphometrics, which is based on the coordinates of anatomical points.

Methods

Here, we explored the possible improvements that modern methods of morphometrics, including landmark-based and outline-based approaches, could bring to solving the problem of the non-molecular identification of these parasites. F. gigantica and Fasciola intermediate forms suitable for morphometric characterization were selected from Thai strains following their molecular identification. Specimens of F. hepatica were obtained from the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine (UK). Using these three taxa, we tested the taxonomic signal embedded in traditional linear measurements versus the coordinates of anatomical points (landmark- and outline-based approaches). Various statistical techniques of validated reclassification were used, based on either the shortest Mahalanobis distance, the maximum likelihood, or the artificial neural network method.

Results

Our results revealed that both traditional and modern morphometric approaches can help in the morphological identification of Fasciola sp. We showed that the accuracy of the traditional approach could be improved by selecting a subset of characters among the most contributive ones. The influence of size on discrimination by shape was much more important in traditional than in modern analyses. In our study, the modern approach provided different results according to the type of data: satisfactory when using pseudolandmarks (outlines), less satisfactory when using landmarks. The different reclassification methods provided approximately similar scores, with a special mention to the neural network, which allowed improvements in accuracy by combining data from both morphometric approaches.

Conclusion

We conclude that morphometrics, whether traditional or modern, represent a valuable tool to assist in Fasciola species recognition. The general level of accuracy is comparable among the various methods, but their demands on skills and time differ. Based on the outline method, our study could provide the first description of the shape differences between species, highlighting the more globular contours of the intermediate forms.
Soil Physicochemical Properties Variation in Black Soil after the Long-term Application of Different Organic Amendments
Authors: Opoku-Kwanowaa Yaa , Wu Jinggui , Chen Xiaodong , Sharaf Ahmed , Attipoe Sonny Gad
Published: February 2020

Aims: This research aimed to assess how the physicochemical properties of black soil respond to different organic amendments after 10 years of application.

Study Design: The experiment was established in 2010 and followed a randomized block design consisting of 24 plots (5 m × 5 m) 25 m2 with eight treatments in three replicates.

Place and Duration of Study: The study site was located at the Jilin Agricultural University Research Farm, Northeast China (43°48′ N, 125°23′ E; km).

Methodology: The treatments for the study included an annual input of chemical fertilizer and organic amendments at the surface of the soil. The treatments were: Control (CK), chicken manure (JM), fodder grass (FG), mushroom (MS), maize straw (MZ), tree leaf (TL), pig manure (PM) and cow manure (CM). Chemical fertilizers were added at the rate of 165 kg of N, 82.5 kg of P and 82.5 kg of K ha_1 per year. Application rates of organic materials were adjusted to similar amounts of organic matter (2000 kgha−1). In June 2019, soil samples were collected from each of the amended fields. In each field, three sampling points were randomly selected. Soil samples were collected from the 0 – 20 cm depth using a core sampler then taken to the laboratory for soil physicochemical properties analysis.

Results: Comparing the results of the organic treatments with CK, bulk density decreased by 5.6-18.0% while porosity, EC, pH, total N and SOC significantly increased in the organic treatments by 6.0-25.9%, 8.3-25.0%, 0.52-1.7%, 2.7-54.7% and 1.3-18.4% respectively. The textural class of soil under the different treatments did not change however, the distribution of soil particle size varied among the treatments, where high clay and silt content were recorded in the amended fields. Moreover, the application of different organic materials significantly affected the soil aggregate stability and this was attributed to the increase in organic matter content which accelerated important microbial activities in the soil to improve aggregation. At higher suction potentials, higher water contents were recorded in the organic amended fields mainly due to the improved physical properties of the soil.

Conclusion: The study results showed that the application of organic amendments greatly improves the physical and chemical properties of black soil. Therefore, using these organic amendments can serve as an effective strategy to enhance soil quality and fertility.
Phytochemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Balanites aegyptiaca, Securidaca longepedunculata and Acacia gourmaensis Used against Seed-borne Fungi in Burkina Faso
Authors: Nitiema Léon W. , Sombié Pierre A. E. D. , Koala Moumouni , Fiore Antonella Del
Published: February 2020

Aims: Hydro-ethanolic extracts of Balanites aegyptiaca, Securidaca longepedunculata and Acacia gourmaensis from Burkina Faso were investigated for their phytochemical composition and their antioxidant activities.

Methods: High-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) method was used for phytochemical screening. The total phenolic, total flavonoid and anthocyanin contents of extracts were assessed. The antioxidant potentials of the extracts were also evaluated using 2,2-diphenyl-l­picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP).

Results: Phenolic compounds, flavonoids and anthocyanins were present in all these plant extracts. Tannins were only found in Acacia gourmaensis extract. Acacia gourmaensis extract exhibited the highest total phenolics ( mg GAE/g), total flavonoids ( mg QE/100 g), total anthocyanins () contents and had the highest antioxidant activity by DPPH ( and FRAP methods). Balanites aegyptiaca and Securidaca longepedunculata showed the lowest phenolic compounds ( mg GAE/g and 76.69±1.84 mg GAE/g respectively); total flavonoids ( mg QE/100 g and  mg QE/100 g respectively), anthocyanins (24.49±1.43 µg/g and 24.57±0.52 µg/g respectively) contents and had the lowest antioxidant activity for DPPH method ( and  µg AAE/g respectively) and FRAP method ( and  µg AAE/g respectively).

Conclusion: Balanites aegyptiaca, Securidaca longepedunculata and Acacia gourmaensis represent natural sources of phenolic antioxidant compounds that can be used as a bio-fungicide.
An Overview of Cholera Epidemiology: A Focus on Africa; with a Keen Interest on Nigeria
Authors: Ebob Tarh, Jacqueline
Published: February 2020

Cholera is still a problem in the world today. A huge population of deaths due to cholera disease still occur in Sub-Saharan Africa (Nigeria most especially), Asia, the Americas and other developing countries, where approximately 1.7 billion inhabitants are still served by faecally polluted water sources. Approximately, 2.4 billion inhabitants of these areas of the world lack the majorly required sanitary conditions of living. Legros, asserts that, as of 2019, about forty-seven countries of the globe, are still affected by cholera. Raw or undercooked, contaminated seafood, serves as a vehicle for the transmission (especially to non-endemic areas). A Case Fatality Rate of 4.87% was recorded from 34 Local Government Areas of Bauchi, Borno, Kaduna, Kano and Zamfara state in Nigeria by the 34th week, in 2018, while 298 confirmed cases and 38 deaths (CFR 1.5%) were recorded from three Local Government Areas in two States (Adamawa & Borno) by Epidemiological week 41 in 2019. Cholera in some cases is regarded as a “disease of the poor” because the populations most affected are those that cannot afford to provide the basic health facilities for themselves. For example, waste management systems, and good accommodation with toilet facilities (the living and health conditions of the people) are wanting. In 2017, A Global Roadmap to 2030 was launched by the Global Task Force on Cholera Control (GTFCC Ending Cholera) to decrease the death rate due to cholera by 90%. By so doing, the disease can be eradicated from at least half of the 47 cholera-affected countries. The objectives of this roadmap are: to fortify health systems, water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), and to coordinate different ways by which cholera can be controlled in these countries by 2030 (ensuring early detection and prompt response to contain outbreaks). This review aimed to understand the epidemiology of cholera in Nigeria, Africa and the world at large, to access the level of spread, management and preventive measures so far implemented in the endemic regions.
People and their monuments in the Upper Clyde Valley:a programme of survey, field walking and trial excavation in the environs of the Blackshouse Burn Neolithic enclosure, South Lanarkshire, 1989--99
Authors: Donnelly Mike , Barrowman Chris , Hamer Jerry , Lelong Olivia , Sharpe Lorna , Ballin Torben , Evans Caitlin , Arthur John
Published: February 2020

This report sets out the results of a programme of topographic survey, geophysical survey, field walking and trial excavation, carried out in 1998-99 and funded by Historic Scotland, in and around an extensive upland prehistoric landscape in the Upper Clyde Valley. It was designed to build on the results of limited excavation of a large, late Neolithic enclosure at Blackshouse Burn, South Lanarkshire (centred at NGR NS 9528 4046) and preliminary survey of nearby monuments undertaken in the 1980s, and to identify and characterize prehistoric settlement in the adjacent valleys through field walking. Topographic survey of the enclosures at Blackshouse Burn, Meadowflatts and Chester Hill, and of hut circles, clearance cairns and a possible ring cairn on Cairngryffe and Swaites Hills, recorded a complex ritual and domestic landscape: evidence of the longstanding prehistoric occupation of the Pettinain Uplands. The geophysical survey of Chester Hill enclosure found traces of internal structures and quarry scoop, while geophysical survey of part of the large Blackshouse Burn monument and smaller adjacent enclosure found evidence for a curvilinear feature in the large enclosure and a possible screen in its entrance. The systematic examination of ploughed fields in the valleys to the west and south-west of the upland monument complex discovered several concentrations of lithics, most notably evidence of late Mesolithic tool production and late Neolithic to early Bronze Age tool production and domestic activity. Trial trenches excavated over a late Mesolithic cluster at Carmichael found a knapping floor and several structural features.
Archaeological excavations in St Giles' Cathedral Edinburgh, 1981-93
Authors: Collard Mark , Lawson John , Holmes Nicholas , Hall Derek , Haggarty George , Graves Pamela , Murdoch R , McCullagh Roderick , Franklin Julie , Addyman Thomas , Henderson David
Published: February 2020

The report describes the results of excavations in 1981, ahead of development within the South Choir Aisle of St Giles' Cathedral, and subsequent archaeological investigations within the kirk in the 1980s and 1990s. Three main phases of activity from the 12th to the mid-16th centuries were identified, with only limited evidence for the post-Reformation period. Fragmentary evidence of earlier structural remains was recorded below extensive landscaping of the natural steep slope, in the form of a substantial clay platform constructed for the 12th-century church. The remains of a substantial ditch in the upper surface of this platform are identified as the boundary ditch of the early ecclesiastical enclosure. A total of 113 in situ burials were excavated; the earliest of these formed part of the external graveyard around the early church. In the late 14th century the church was extended to the south and east over this graveyard, and further burials and structural evidence relating to the development of the kirk until the 16th century were excavated, including evidence for substantive reconstruction of the east end of the church in the mid-15th century. Evidence for medieval slat-bottomed coffins of pine and spruce was recovered, and two iron objects, which may be ferrules from pilgrims' staffs or batons, were found in 13th/14th-century burials.
Excavation of a Bronze Age funerary site at Loth Road, Sanday, Orkney
Authors: Sharman Paul , Clarke Ann , MacSween Ann , Roberts Julie , Alldritt Diane , Photos-Jones Effie
Published: February 2020

Excavations in 1991 beside Loth Road, Sanday, revealed a funerary site, including two cists, which contained cremated human bone, and several pits. The cremation burial in one of the cists was contained in a soapstone vessel. These features presented evidence for the sorting, selection and differential deposition of pyre remains. The cists and pits were surmounted by a kerbed cairn of unusual construction. Radiocarbon dates from the pits placed the site in the Early to Middle Bronze Age.
Gazetteer of Arran Pitchstone Sources: presentation of exposed pitchstone dykes and sills across the Isle of Arran, and discussion of the archaeological relevance of these outcrops
Authors: Ballin Torben , Faithfull John
Published: February 2020

The main element of the present paper is a gazetteer of exposed pitchstone sources across the Isle of Arran. In the paper's final chapter, the archaeological relevance of these outcrops is discussed. The gazetteer includes approximately 100 pitchstone sources, and the authors hope that it will become a useful tool to prehistorians working on and outwith Arran, thus adding to our understanding of how pitchstone was perceived, exchanged and used in northern Britain. In general terms, the gazetteer should provide a more rigorous basis for archaeological and geological assessment of pitchstone artefacts and sources.
Neolithic domesticity and other prehistoric anomalies: excavations at Laigh Newton, East Ayrshire
Authors: Toolis Ronan , Bacon Jo , McSwan Gillian , Shearer Ingrid , Ballin Torben Bjarke , Smith Beverley Ballin , Carruthers Martin , Francoz Charlotte , James Heather , McLellan Kirsteen , Ramsay Susan , Somerville Joe , Swan Dave
Published: February 2020

A series of archaeological evaluations and excavations at Laigh Newton in East Ayrshire revealed evidence for intermittent occupation of this valley terrace between the Mesolithic and the Late Iron Age. The plough-truncated archaeology included the remains of a rectangular building and associated features of the mid-late fourth millennium BC, a more ephemeral structure and related pits of the mid third millennium BC, a charcoal-burning pit of the mid-first millennium AD and two other rectilinear structures of indeterminate date.
Surface Active Sites and Textural Features of Bleaching Clays
Authors: Naik Sajo P. , Brooks David D.
Published: February 2020

Vegetable oil refining process involves a bleaching stage wherein clay mineral is commonly used to promote “bleaching” or removal of contaminants from oil treated at higher temperature and under vacuum. Clay minerals have unique properties including high surface area, porosity, and presence of surface active sites. These important features help the mineral promote adsorption and catalysis of organic contaminants/pigments during bleaching of vegetable oils. Essentially, the process of bleaching is aimed at removing contaminants and undesired components from raw oils to preserve taste and impart quality to the oil. As such, clays have been extensively used in bleaching of vegetable oils and fats. The performance of natural clay mineral is dependent on their physical and chemical processing including steps like grinding, screening, acid activation, pillaring, thermal processing, and addition of functional active ingredients. Bleaching efficacy is also dependent on oil processing variables (including time, temperature, atmosphere, humidity, and agitation) maintained during bleaching process. To this end, classical and mild acid activation and addition of functional additives are the most commonly applied methods in the oil and fats industry. This article will briefly review the nature of active sites and textural properties impacting the robustness of natural and modified bleaching clays.
Canola Oil
Authors: Eskin Michael N.A. , Aladedunye Felix , Unger Ernie H. , Shah Saleh , Chen Guanquin , Jones Peter J.
Published: February 2020

The high quality, positive nutritional aspects and heat stability, along with advancements in plant breeding enhancements of canola has resulted in canola oil becoming the third largest vegetable oil of choice for human consumption globally. Given the trend to provide shelf‐stable oils without hydrogenation and the nutritional concerns of trans fatty acid production during the hydrogenation process, canola oil, especially the high oleic canola oils, are ideally suited to be used as liquid oil and can replace hydrogenated oils in many applications. Processing techniques and processing equipment used in the processing of canola continue to evolve providing higher efficiency, environmentally friendly, reliable, and more stable canola oil products. This article covers the background, composition, processing techniques, and nutritional properties that have firmly established canola oil as a safe and healthy oil for human consumption as well as its use in biofuels and other nonfood applications.
Oils from Microorganisms
Authors: Ratledge Colin , Wynn James P.
Published: February 2020

All microorganisms, bacteria, yeasts, fungi, and algae, produce lipids. The range of fatty acids that can be sourced from the lipids produced by the microbial world is vast. Some microbial species (described as oleaginous species) produce large amounts – sometimes up to 70% of the cell mass – of triacylglycerol oils, which can be produced in large volumes, be extracted and processed using techniques similar to those used for conventional and commercially produced plant seed oils. These microbial products are known as the single cell oils (SCO). They have, on occasion, been considered as alternative sources to plant‐based oils. However, because of the high costs of fermentation technology needed to cultivate these microorganisms at a large scale, replacing commodity plant oils with SCO is uneconomical in the foreseeable future and only the highest valued microbial oils can be considered commercially viable. This article gives a brief background to microbial technology and gives examples of how SCOs were pioneered, as sources of gamma‐linolenic acid, as alternatives to evening primrose oil and borage oil, and for the production of cocoa butter equivalent oils for use in chocolate confectionery. Current commercial productions of arachidonic acid (20:4,n−6) using the filamentous fungus,Mortierella alpina, and of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6,n−3) by the marine dinoflagellate,Crypthecodinium cohnii, and by various chytrids, for exampleSchizochytriumspp., are described. The potential future microbial lipid production of oil rich in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5,n−3) using a photosynthetic microalga,Nannochloropsisspp., is also described. The article also covers the current developments for the production of EPA + DHA as facsimile fish oils and also for the production of SCO or oil‐rich microbial biomass to support the continued expansion of the aquaculture industry. The article also gives a brief discussion of the economic impossibility of using microorganisms, whether phototrophs or heterotrophs, for the production of biodiesel.
Flavor Components of Fats and Oils
Authors: Wang Xiaoqi , Ho Chi‐Tang , Shahidi Fereidoon
Published: February 2020

Most of the flavor compounds in fats and oils are produced by the oxidation reaction of unsaturated fatty acids in triacylglycerols or polar lipids. The development of objectionable flavor compounds by oxidation has significant detrimental effects on consumer acceptability of edible oils. The mechanisms for the formation of major flavor compounds in fats and oils are discussed in this article. The important desirable and undesirable flavor compounds in butter, cocoa butter, lard, soybean oil, olive oil, fish oil, and sesame oil are reviewed.
Flax Oil and High Linolenic Oils
Authors: Marambe Harsha , Purdy Sarah , Tse Timothy , Reaney Martin J.T.
Published: February 2020

The fatty acid composition of plant oils varies greatly among plant species. Plant sources with high omega‐3 fatty acid content, including those rich in α‐linolenic acid (ALA), have recently received special attention due to the beneficial effects of these oils on human health. Many of the commercially available plant oils and fats are good sources of oleic and linoleic acids, but fewer offer substantial amounts of ALA. This article discusses oils high in ALA from the seeds of flax, perilla, camelina, and chia. All of these seed oils contain above 70% polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and the ALA contents are above 50% of the total oil content. Oils from these crops are produced on an industrial scale and the processes are outlined in this article, along with pretreatment and refining techniques to acquire food and industrial products from seed. Chemical composition, physical properties, and typical oil parameters for these oils are reviewed here.
Polymorphism of Triacylglycerols and Natural Fats
Authors: Bayés‐García Laura , Sato Kiyotaka , Ueno Satoru
Published: February 2020

This article reviews the polymorphism of the principal triacylglycerols (TAGs) in single and binary mixture states. In the first section, the basic concepts of fat polymorphism, namely, thermal stability, subcell structure, and chain‐length structure are explained together with the phase equilibria of binary mixture systems. Then, the polymorphic behavior of the principal TAGs is described. The phase behavior of the mixture systems of the principal TAGs and natural fats is discussed with an emphasis on the influence of the polymorphism.
Cottonseed Oil
Authors: Shahidi Fereidoon , Oh Won Young , Wan Peter J. , Wakelyn Phillip J.
Published: February 2020

Cottonseed oil, America's original vegetable oil, dominated the United States vegetable oil market for over a century. Cottonseed is a by‐product of cotton and difficult to process and refine due to its unique seed structure and high content of natural pigment. Through research and experimentation, chemists have developed a clear, odorless, bland‐flavored cottonseed oil and a creamy, white shortening that set the standards for edible fats and oils worldwide. The scientific and technical advances developed to process cottonseed and cottonseed oil became the cornerstones of the edible fats and oils industry as it is known today. Numerous processes were developed or perfected especially for cottonseed oil and cottonseed which later found application for other oils and oilseeds. These processes include screw press extraction, prepress solvent extraction, and direct and expander‐solvent extraction for the crude oil; caustic and miscella refining; fractionation via winterization; deodorization; bleaching; hydrogenated basestock system; blending and formulating with various basestocks to achieve the desired performance and characteristics, etc. Today, vegetable oil processors worldwide have a wide range of raw materials to choose from, but cottonseed pioneered the American vegetable oil industry.
Glycerin
Authors: Schroeder Keith , Oh Won Young
Published: February 2020

Glycerin is a coproduct of fat splitting (hydrolysis), soap making, and transesterification of fats and oils. The history of glycerin and its economic value as an industrial chemical provide an introduction to its importance in our society in recent times. Two distinct types of glycerol are processed, soap lye crude, which contains significant levels of sodium chloride, and sweetwater crude, which has little to no sodium chloride contamination present. Processing glycerol into high‐purity refined grades requires pretreatment steps followed by evaporation to concentrate the glycerol solution into crude glycerin. The removal of sodium chloride requires specialized equipment. Refining crude glycerin into finished USP‐grade glycerin requires distillation equipment, which operates under a high vacuum. The final step of the process is carbon adsorption to remove any colored particles of high molecular weight. Storage of finished and unprocessed glycerin requires special considerations. The effect of processing on glycerin odor and color is critical to final product quality. Processing plants require special considerations in terms of layout, materials of construction, instruments and controls, and piping. Overall considerations in glycerin processing include physical properties, quality and testing, grades and test methods, losses and waste management. A discussion of glycerin usage and future considerations provides reference for the current glycerin industry.
Dietary Lipids and Health
Authors: Morzelle Maressa C. , Watkins Bruce A. , Li Yong , Hennig Bernhard , Toborek Michal
Published: February 2020

Lipids are essential components of living organisms and support multiple biological and physiological functions in the human body. They serve as the structural building material of all membranes of cells and organelles. Lipids and their derivatives also serve as signaling molecules that facilitate a variety of physiological functions. In addition, lipids are recognized as important biomarkers of disease and are involved in several pathological conditions. Individual fatty acids can influence biological processes, such as membrane‐associated receptors and signal transduction systems, and ion channels. Recent literature also demonstrates a specific role of fatty acids in gene modulation and protein expression to influence risk of chronic disease. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are the focus of substantial research interest in this area mainly because of their ability to be converted to various bioactive regulatory molecules, such as prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes. Arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4n‐6) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n‐3) are two major players in the regulation and production of these bioactive molecules. In addition, an absolute requirement of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is necessary for normal neural and retinal development in the infant and young child. Besides the study of these PUFA molecules, numerous animal and human studies also suggest that other dietary lipids, such as cholesterol and saturated fatty acids, increase serum cholesterol as well as LDL‐cholesterol concentrations. In summary, this article provides a contemporary understanding of food lipids in nutrition and health, especially the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms of the actions of these bioactive dietary lipids.
Deodorization
Authors: De Greyt Wim
Published: February 2020

Palm oil is consumed in over 150 countries worldwide. It plays a pivotal role in the socioeconomic development of Asian, Latin American, and African regions. Of all the palm oil and palm kernel oil entering global trade, Malaysia and Indonesia account for more than half the market share, dominating the international trade in palm oil. The increasing importance of palm oil has naturally led to a steady buildup of scientific, technical, and trade data and information.

The success of the palm oil industry in Malaysia and Indonesia, in particular, has never been easy. It has been wrought with obstacles and has gotten harder in recent years. The industry has been inundated with issues of mistrusts and misconceptions about the oil, its composition, and its nutritional benefits. Other issues that have garnered attention include its trade and traceability, new process contaminants, environmental management, and other issues relating to the sustainable development of the palm oil industry.

This article overviews the role of palm oil industry in the international oils and fats market, the technology involved in oil extracting and processing, palm oil quality parameters as well as applications of palm oil in food and nonfood products. We have also included issues that are becoming relevant, namely, the existence of process contaminants such as 3‐monochloropropane‐1,2‐diol (3‐MCPD) esters and glycidol esters, trade and traceability, together with other issues related to a sustainable development of the palm oil industry.
Antioxidants: Regulatory Status
Authors: Shahidi Fereidoon , Zhong HYing Joy , Ambigaipalan Priyatharini
Published: February 2020

Oxidation of unsaturated lipids is a major cause of food quality deterioration by giving rise to the development of off‐flavor compounds and loss of nutritional value of food products. Antioxidants are substances that, when present in foods at low concentrations compared with that of an oxidizable substrate, markedly delay or prevent the oxidation of the substrate by quenching free radicals or scavenging oxygen, among others. Antioxidants that fit in this definition include free radical scavengers, inactivators of peroxides, and other reactive oxygen species (ROS), chelators of metal ions, and quenchers of secondary lipid oxidation products that produce rancid odors. Antioxidants have also been used in the health‐related area because of their ability to protect the body against damage caused by ROS, reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and those of reactive chlorine species (RCS). The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates the claim of antioxidants in nutrient labeling. According to FDA, the antioxidant claim is possible only if there is an established reference daily intake (RDI) and a scientific evidence of antioxidative effect after absorption in the gastrointestinal tract.
Margarines and Spreads
Authors: Chrysan Michael M. , Hwang Hong‐Sik
Published: February 2020

This article discusses margarines and spreads, which were developed as butter substitutes. Trends of historical production, consumption, and constituents, as well as regulatory status in the United States including standards of identity and labeling, label claims, and regulations for trans‐fats are discussed. Product characteristics such as spreadability, oil separation, and melting and ingredients including oils, oil blends, milk products, proteins, emulsifiers, preservatives, and coloring agents are also covered. In addition, processing and other specialty spreads are discussed in this article.
Butter
Authors: Hettinga David , Van Nguyen Lanh , Shahidi Fereidoon
Published: February 2020

Butter is one of the oldest forms of preserving fat components of milk. Its manufacture dates back to some of the earliest historical records.

The evolution of the art of buttermaking has been associated with the development and use of equipment. The construction of creaming and buttermaking equipment in the eighteenth century led to the appearance of the barrel churn. Creaming was at first done by a method called shallow pan. This was followed by a deep‐setting system. This shortened process time and produced a better quality cream. In 1879, cream separators for fully continuous operation were produced. The Babcock test assisted in the development of the butter industry. This test determines the percentage of fat in milk and cream. Other developments included the use of pasteurization, the use of pure cultures of lactic acid and bacteria, and the use of refrigeration.

Multiple butterfat products include butter oils, anhydrous butterfat, butterfat–vegetable oils, and fractionated butterfats. Preservation of butterfat today involves the processing of butterfat to anhydrous butter oil. Shelf life is improved because the butter oil is hermetically packaged under nitrogen.

Recent times have seen a decline in the consumption of butter but this situation is being somewhat reversed more recently. This decline contradicts all historical patterns for butterfat consumption. Reasons for decline are noted. This article provides data on chemical composition, marketing, technology, processing, quality, legal restrictions, and uses.
Fatty Acids and Derivatives from Coconut Oil
Authors: Gervajio Gregorio C. , Withana‐Gamage Thushan S. , Sivakumar Mahesh
Published: February 2020

Coconut oil and palm kernel oil are import feedstocks in the oleochemical industry. Oleochemicals are defined as chemicals made from oils. Coconut oil is well positioned because it has the unique advantage of having its fatty acid composition falling within the carbon‐chain spectrum desired for the production of oleochemicals. C12–C14 fractions are highly sought after. The caproic to capric (C6–C10) fatty acid fractions are good materials for plasticizer range alcohol and for polyol esters. The latter are used in high‐performance oil for jet engines and for a new generation of lubricants. These fractions are also basic to the preparation of medium‐chain triglycerides, a highly valued dietary fat. The C12–C18 fractions are the primary raw materials for detergent‐grade fatty alcohols.

Coconut fatty acids can be converted to other derivatives. Principles and methods in the manufacture of various oleochemicals are discussed.

Detailed information is given for the following: fatty acids and fat‐splitting procedures; methyl esters and their advantages; fatty alcohols, which are gaining favor as surfactants because they are biodegradable and a renewable resource; glycerine; monoalkyl phosphates, which are used for fireproofing, foam inhibitors, in extreme pressure lubricants, and for cosmetic preparations; and alkanolamides, used as nonionic surfactants. Preparation of other surfactants prepared from vegetable oils is discussed. These surfactants find broad use in all industries, for example, as the main ingredients in detergents, emulsifiers, and sanitizers in the food industry, and as flotation agents in the mining industry. Tertiary amines are used as starting materials for the manufacture of quaternary ammonium compounds and in the preparation of amine oxides. These oxides are used in cosmetic preparation.
Leather and Textile Uses of Fats and Oils
Authors: Liu Cheng‐Kung , Brown Eleanor , Kronick Paul , Kamath Yashavanth K. , Erhan Sevim
Published: February 2020

This report is a review of recent research progress and newly developed technology for the utilization of fats and oils in leather and textiles. Fatliquors, oils applied as aqueous emulsions to leather while it is still wet from tanning, are available in a variety of ionic and anionic forms. Fatliquors soften leather by preventing the formation of adhesions between fibers during drying. Recent research on the effects of fatliquors on the fibrous structure and resultant physical properties of leather has concluded that the concentration of fatliquor applied was more important to the outcome than the type of fatliquor. In addition, the sound‐suppressing effect of fat in leather under test conditions supports acoustic emission testing as a way to monitor the degree of lubrication, and potentially optimize fatliquor usage. Oils and fats are important additives in the fiber spinning and fabric manufacturing stages of textile fiber processing. While fatty acids from natural oils still play a role in textile processing, oxidatively stable synthetic oils have superseded their natural counterparts. The textile industry is under pressure to reduce the amounts of or eliminate these additives, because of the environmental implications of the effluents. Recent developments to reduce the environmental impact of textile auxiliaries include the bio‐scouring process, which utilizes enzymes to catalyze hydrolysis of warp sizes and impurities in cotton; specialty surfactants developed to allow combining of desizing and scouring without the use of amylase; a biodegradable stabilizer incorporated into a hydrogen peroxide bleach bath to reduce the load on wastewater treatment facilities; and reformulated surfactants to replace alkyl phenol products that biodegrade to materials that are toxic to aquatic life.
Soybean Oil
Authors: Gerde José A. , Hammond Earl G. , Johnson Lawrence A. , Su Caiping , Wang Tong , White Pamela J.
Published: February 2020

Soybeans are one of the most important crops in terms of volume and applications of the products obtained from them. Grown for oil and protein production, soybeans are feedstock for food, feed, fuel, and biobased products. Today, soybean oil can be found in most food products, as a result of its availability and positive nutritional and functional properties. The extensive scientific research and development conducted by both industry and academia on soybean oil is a main contributor to its important positioning among oils. This article provides a comprehensive review of this work, including information on the composition of soybeans, soybean oil, and other soybean lipids, especially as affected by environment, variety, and genetic modification; the physical properties of soybean oil, grading of soybeans, oil extraction, and the effect of various extraction techniques on oil quality and the various soy protein ingredients; basic refining and processing of soybean oil and soybean refinery co‐products; the major uses of soybean oil; trading rules for soybean oil; and the oxidative quality of soybean oil along with its health aspects.
Packaging of Fats, Oils, and Fat‐Containing Foods for Quality Assurance and Shelf Life
Authors: List Gary R.
Published: February 2020

Packaging of edible oils and fat‐containing foods represents a key factor to ensure that a myriad of products reach the consumer in fresh, stable, and nutritious conditions. Fats and oils may undergo deterioration from chemical, microbiological, and physical processes. Bulk oils are prone to oxidation while components of fat‐containing foods may be subject to both oxidation and moisture/water/water activity. Technologies to minimize deterioration during processing and packaging are reviewed. They include inert gas blanketing and sparging, use of moisture, and oxygen barriers to preserve the shelf life of a wide variety of fat‐containing foods including cereals, baked, fried, and snack foods.
Germ Oils from Different Sources
Authors: Dunford Nurhan T. , Shahidi Fereidoon
Published: February 2020

Plant germ oils of high nutritional quality may be procured from cereal grains. Germ oil processing presents a challenge because of the high content of biologically active heat‐labile components. Physical refining methods improve retention of these compounds in the final product. Currently, plant seed germ oils, except corn germ oil, are produced for specialty markets in the United States. However, increasing consumer demand for healthy food products may change the market trends in the future.

Several reviews have been published on wheat, corn, and rice bran oils over the years. Therefore, this article, with sufficient background information, will emphasize the latest literature on composition, nutritional characteristics, and processing methods of plant germ oils.
Metathesized Vegetable Oils for the Production of Polyurethane Polymers
Authors: Pillai Prasanth K.S. , Bouzidi Laziz , Narine Suresh S.
Published: February 2020

Polyurethanes (PUs) produced by the polycondensation reaction of polyols and diisocyanates are an important class of polymers with a wide variety of applications. Traditionally, these materials are derived from petroleum feedstocks. Presently, vegetable oils are attracting attention as an alternative to petroleum for the development of bio‐based polyols and PUs. To mitigate the inherent limitations of the triacylglycerol (TAG) structures of the natural oil in PUs, new strategies have been developed for the transformation of the natural feedstocks. Olefin metathesis is a versatile and powerful modification approach used on vegetable oil to produce fine chemicals and novel metathesized triacylglycerol (MTAG) structures including TAG‐like structures with terminal functionality and oligomers of TAGs. The present article reports on the recent development in the application of the product of metathesis‐modified natural oils for the preparation of polyols and PUs. It focuses on the role of the unique structures of the polyols obtained from MTAG on the final PU properties.
Storage, Handling, and Transport of Oils and Fats
Authors: List Gary R. , Wang Tong , Shukla Vijai K.S.
Published: February 2020

This article deals with problems involved in treating the vegetable oils at every aspect of production and highlights the sources of errors and how to rectify these with proper management. All attempts should be made to produce the final product with extremely limited destruction, thus keeping the active ingredients and still providing the freshness of the product to be used as ingredient in the food chain. Modern processing technologies provide foods with consistent quality and hygiene. Newer technologies will help to create much cleaner raw materials, thus avoiding the application of complicated processing methods. Thus, foods should be manufactured with simple, greener technologies rather than the complicated chemical technologies as used in the early days.