bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Pluralism and Tolerance
Authors: Krämer Gudrun
Published: November 2017

Pluralism and tolerance are considered constitutive elements of good governance, especially liberal democracy as it developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. For this reason they are widely debated among modern Muslims, including Islamists of various persuasions. This chapter focuses largely on modern debates. Pluralism and tolerance are clearly related and both cover a broad semantic field. They concern relations within the Muslim community, as well as between Muslims and non-Muslims, and are closely tied to understandings of freedom, liberty, and citizenship. However, there is a difference of emphasis between the two: Pluralism is discussed mostly with regard to the Muslim community, or umma, especially concerning the plurality of political views and interests and their institutionalization within civil society and a multiparty system. Discussions of tolerance, on the other hand, tend to focus on relations between Muslims and non-Muslims—more specifically Christians and Jews as the prime representatives of the People of the Book (ahl al-kitāb)—within a Muslim polity, or within an Islamic state.
Women
Authors: Chaudhry Ayesha S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the complex relationship between gender and Islamic political thought through a few snapshots: the Qur'an, female contemporaries of Muhammad, medieval Islamic scholarship, and modern Muslim women. Several women are mentioned in the Qur'an, some of whom demonstrate a strong independent spirit. They are held responsible for their own salvation, apart from their husbands or male relatives. The independent personalities of women who appear in the Qur'an are reflected in the stories of early Muslim women as recorded in Islamic history. Muhammad's wives played key political roles during the lifetime of Muhammad and the early generations of Islam. In the modern period, “Muslim women” as an abstract, essentialized entity has become a measuring stick for “progress” as well as an embodiment of “authentic” Islamic values.
Abjuring the Realm
Authors: Jordan William Chester
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the factors that justified kings' and administrators' resort to the exile of large numbers of the criminal population. The relationship between the medieval English law of exile and the laws addressing felons and felonies is a complicated and, by modern reckoning, an unusual one. This is especially the case because two groups of people suspected of, or implicated in, felonies in the High Middle Ages regularly avoided the punishments which would have been meted out to them if they had been convicted in a court of law. One group was composed of men and women who, though not convicted of the crimes of which they were suspected, were in such bad repute that they were obliged to abjure (foreswear) the realm. The other comprised felons who confessed their crimes in sanctuary (on which, more shortly) or in other special circumstances, who also were obliged to abjure.
Democratic Constraint, the Democratic Peace, and Conflict Initiation
Authors: Baum Matthew A. , Potter Philip B. K.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines democratic constraint, democratic peace, and conflict initiation. It begins with a time-series, cross-sectional analysis of conflict initiation in all possible pairs of countries (that is, all dyads) from 1965 to 2006. This analysis reveals the interactive relationship between media access and political opposition. Across a variety of indicators of conflict, states with media and political institutions that facilitate the flow of information between leaders and the public are less prone to initiate military conflicts. These findings suggest not only an underlying mechanism that could fuel the democratic peace proposition, but also that not all democracies are likely to be equally peaceful. Aside from conflict initiation and the extent of opposition with political parties, press freedom is also measured.
Willing and Politically Able: Democratic Constraint and Coalition Joining
Authors: Baum Matthew A. , Potter Philip B. K.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the effects of party systems and media access on public attitudes and government decisions regarding coalition joining in the periods leading up to and immediately following the initiations of two distinct multinational military conflicts: Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq and Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan. Drawing on cross-national data on public support for the Iraq War and Afghanistan invasion and the decisions of countries to contribute troops to the coalitions that the United States sought to assemble in both conflicts, the chapter shows that the quality and flow of information from whistleblowers mediates public support for intervention and leaders' responsiveness to public sentiment. Countries with more political parties were more likely to have populations opposed to the wars and to contribute fewer troops to the coalitions as their access to mass media increased. In contrast, in states with fewer parties, increased media access is associated with lower opposition to the wars and stronger troop commitments.
Downs Meets the Press: How Party Systems Shape the News
Authors: Baum Matthew A. , Potter Philip B. K.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the validity of the “Downsian Premise,” which states that democratic multiparty systems tend to engender political coverage that is more diverse, more policy-centric, and more prone to challenge the government's policy line than coverage in two-party democracies. To test this proposition, the chapter conducts content analyses of international media coverage of four recent multinational conflicts (Kosovo 1999, Afghanistan 2001, Iraq 2003, and Libya 2011). Newspapers in countries with more political parties offered relatively more policy-oriented news, more criticism of government policy, and more varied topical coverage than their counterparts in countries with fewer parties. These results lend credence to the Downsian Premise.
Conclusion: Information, Constraint, and Democratic Foreign Policy
Authors: Baum Matthew A. , Potter Philip B. K.
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter discusses the implications of the book's theory and findings for future academic research in international relations. It argues that insufficient attention to underlying mechanisms has obscured the consistent role of democratic political institutions in conflict processes. It shows that an essential ingredient for generating democratic constraint is the presence of institutional arrangements—robust opposition and broad public access to media—that minimize a leader's capacity to manipulate the policy information available to citizens. Only when such arrangements are in place can we expect democratic foreign policy to be responsive to the will of the people. The chapter also considers the policy implications of the findings in terms of conflict initiation, conflict reciprocation, and coalition joining. Finally, it offers some prescriptions for media ownership and describes the possible roles of the Internet and satellite television— media technologies that had not yet proliferated globally during much of the period under investigation.
Hypostases of Helen
Authors: Edmunds Lowell
Published: November 2017

This chapter reexamines the evidence for two cults of Helen, as part of a discussion into the origins of Helen and her myth outside of her narrative. Some scholars have posited that Helen, before becoming humanized into a heroine in Homer's epic, had originated as a goddess, and is thus hypostatized as an essential or real being who exists before and outside of myth and poetry and somehow enters the extant sources. To make matters more obscure, there are two such goddesses—two hypostases. In one, Helen is the avatar of an Indo-European goddess, who is also reflected in certain goddesses in the Rig Veda. In the other hypostasis, Helen is a goddess of cult.
Introduction
Authors: Hayes Christine
Published: November 2017

The chapters in part I explore the distinctive discourses of divine law that prevailed in the two sources of Western civilization—the Hebrew Bible on the one hand (chapter 1) and classical Greece and Rome on the other (chapter 2). Both the biblical tradition and the classical tradition feature ...
Layer Potential Techniques
Authors: Ammari Habib , Bretin Elie , Garnier Josselin , Kang Hyeonbae , Lee Hyundae , Wahab Abdul
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers some well-known results on the solvability and layer potentials for static and time-harmonic elasticity equations. It first reviews commonly used function spaces before introducing equations of linear elasticity and decomposing the displacement field into the sum of an irrotational (curl-free) and a solenoidal (divergence-free) field using the Helmholtz decomposition theorem. It then discusses the radiation condition for the time-harmonic elastic waves, which is used to select the physical solution to exterior problems. It also describes the layer potentials associated with the operators of static and time-harmonic elasticity, along with their mapping properties, and proves decomposition formulas for the displacement fields. Finally, it derives the Helmholtz–Kirchhoff identities, analyzes Neumann and Dirichlet functions, and states a generalization of Meyer's theorem concerning the regularity of solutions to the equations of linear elasticity.
Elasticity Equations with High Contrast Parameters
Authors: Ammari Habib , Bretin Elie , Garnier Josselin , Kang Hyeonbae , Lee Hyundae , Wahab Abdul
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents some recent results on the elasticity equations with high contrast coefficients. It first sets up the problems for finite and extreme moduli before discussing the incompressible limit of elasticity equations. It then provides a complete asymptotic expansion with respect to the compressional modulus and considers the limiting cases of holes and hard inclusions. It proves that the energy functional is uniformly bounded and demonstrates that the potentials on the boundary of the inclusion are also uniformly bounded. It also shows that these potentials converge as the bulk and shear moduli tend to their extreme values and that similar boundedness and convergence result holds true for the boundary value problem.
Boundary Perturbations due to the Presence of Small Cracks
Authors: Ammari Habib , Bretin Elie , Garnier Josselin , Kang Hyeonbae , Lee Hyundae , Wahab Abdul
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the perturbations of the displacement (or traction) vector that are due to the presence of a small crack with homogeneous Neumann boundary conditions in an elastic medium. It derives an asymptotic formula for the boundary perturbations of the displacement as the length of the crack tends to zero. Using analytical results for the finite Hilbert transform, the chapter derives an asymptotic expansion of the effect of a small Neumann crack on the boundary values of the solution. It also derives the topological derivative of the elastic potential energy functional and proves a useful representation formula for the Kelvin matrix of the fundamental solutions of Lamé system. Finally, it gives an asymptotic formula for the effect of a small linear crack in the time-harmonic regime.
Topological Derivative Based Imaging of Small Inclusions in the Time-Harmonic Regime
Authors: Ammari Habib , Bretin Elie , Garnier Josselin , Kang Hyeonbae , Lee Hyundae , Wahab Abdul
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces a topological derivative (TD) based imaging framework for detecting small inclusions in the time-harmonic regime. Based on a weighted Helmholtz decomposition of the TD based imaging functional, optimal resolution imaging is achieved. Its stability properties with respect to both medium and measurement noises are investigated. The chapter first considers the TD imaging functional resulting from the expansion of the filtered quadratic misfit with respect to the size of the inclusion. It shows that the imaging functional may not attain its maximum at the location of the inclusion. Moreover, the resolution of the image is below the diffraction limit. Both phenomena are due to the coupling of pressure and shear waves propagating with different wave speeds and polarization directions. The chapter concludes by presenting the sensitivity analysis of a modified imaging functional based on the weighted Helmholtz decomposition of the TD.
Capitalism’s Critics
Authors: Mulgan Geoff
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the consistent criticisms that have been made of capitalism over two centuries and that continue to be made. They have damned capitalism as a conspiracy of the powerful; as the mindless enemy of mindful reflection; as the destroyer of true value, whether in nature or culture; as the enemy of community and social bonds; and as being against life. This last point shows just how different capitalism is from the market. Where markets are full of life and social interaction, the places where capitalist power is most concentrated can be the opposite of life. Dull and soulless central business districts, automated factory production lines, or the grimly abstract headquarters of global banks embody an aesthetic that runs counter to the vibrant, variegated patterns of living things like forests or coral reefs.
New Accommodations
Authors: Mulgan Geoff
Published: November 2017

This chapter applies the theories to practice, describing the threads that may lead to radically different social and economic arrangements in the future. It shows how at decisive moments in history whole societies have remade themselves, not through violent revolutions but through rough agreements that allowed capitalism to evolve. Always these accommodations took ideas and organizations that already existed, albeit on the margins, and made them central; and always they had a strongly moral tone. Reformers, radicals, and what scholars now call social innovators provided the menus from which new deals could be cooked, and they helped capitalism to become more civilized by giving people a voice. The chapter sets out elements that can be drawn on to shape political programs in the years ahead, amplifying economic creativity and reining in predation.
Religious Engagement
Authors: Hurd Elizabeth Shakman
Published: November 2017

Since World War II, the promotion of American-friendly “free” religion abroad has been understood to benefit the rest of the world by saving it from religious and political tyranny. For decades, the United States has designed and sponsored religious reform projects to instruct religious individuals and groups abroad on how to be free, or at least freer, versions of themselves. This chapter explores the politics of US foreign religious engagement. It argues that while religious engagement does involve an attempt to strengthen US-friendly religious authorities and communities abroad, it is, at the same time, and more fundamentally, a project of religious reform, of transforming religions into what is understood to be better versions of themselves. It discusses three empirical focal points in the history of US foreign relations that illustrate this argument, beginning with American efforts to promote “global spiritual health” during the early Cold War.
Gay Rights and the Constitution of Reasons
Authors: Macedo Stephen
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the main arguments raised by conservatives against same-sex marriage and gay rights more generally. Defenders of same-sex marriage acknowledge the fact that marriage is in many ways a conservative institution. Libertarians, liberationists, and some liberals doubt that marriage is fair given the diversity of people's conceptions of meaning and value in life. Many adopt an unnecessarily critical posture toward civil marriage. This chapter offers a sympathetic account of marriage that recognizes the importance for many people of marital commitment while also honoring, and indeed helping to secure, the equal liberty and fairness prized by liberals. It shows that the debate over gay rights has been shaped by the repeated articulation of a demand for public reasons and evidence to justify the shape of the law touching on gay rights and marriage. The demand for reasons was laid down by the dissenters in Bowers v. Hardwick (1987).
The Special Status of Marriage
Authors: Macedo Stephen
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the symbolic dimension of marriage, noting that the symbolism of marriage has been most central to the very public political debates over same-sex marriage. It first examines the arguments against preserving marriage as a status relation in law and asks whether marriage as a civil institution deserves its special status in law. It then discusses the uses of marriage as a status relationship defined by law, the law and public meaning of marriage, and the idea of marital commitment. It also makes the case for marriage from the standpoint of our deepest commitments to equality and freedom and argues that retaining “marriage” as a distinctive status in law serves both justice and the public good.
Polygamy Unbound? The Kody Brown Family and the Future of Plural Marriage
Authors: Macedo Stephen
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the Kody Brown case and the issues it raised regarding polygamy. In 2013, a federal court in Utah struck down that state's criminal prohibition based on considerations altogether different from those taken into account in British Columbia. The case involved Kody Brown and his four wives. The Browns are “members of a religious group that believes polygamy is a core religious practice.” The county attorney charged with defending the Utah law in the federal district court filed a seven-page memorandum that Judge Clark Waddoups described as lacking in substance. The chapter discusses Waddoups's claim about the perceived “social harm” of Mormon polygamy and asks whether legal prohibitions against adult incest can be justified when partners avoid having children. Finally, it considers the new, “postmodern” form of plural relationship known as polyamory.
The Politics of Form
Authors: Wohl Victoria
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter sets out the book's purpose, namely to prove the very simple proposition that in Euripidean tragedy, dramatic form is a kind of political content. The project is motivated by two separate but intersecting problems. The first is the problem of Euripidean tragedy. There are eighteen extant tragedies confidently attributed to Euripides and many of them are, for lack of a better word, odd. With their disjointed, action-packed plots, comic touches, and frequent happy endings, they seem to stretch the generic boundaries of tragedy as we usually think of it. The second problem is the relation between the play and its contemporary world, the political world of democratic Athens. Tragic dramas were, almost without exception, set in the mythic past, not in the fifth-century polis, and almost never allude overtly to their contemporary moment. The remainder of the chapter discusses the meaning of politics of form by way of a brief illustration.
Beautiful Tears
Authors: Wohl Victoria
Published: November 2017

This chapter asks about the ethics of (lyric and structural) beauty and the politics of pathos in two plays, Trojan Women and Hecuba. The first, Trojan Women, presents a tale of unmitigated misery and renders it self-consciously beautiful. But how are we to watch this sublime suffering? The play won't let us maintain a safe spectatorial distance; it demands that we watch with pity, but also suggests the insufficiency of that response. Our tears do no good. The insufficiency of pity is also a central theme of the second play, Hecuba. Here pity is shown to be not only politically ineffectual, but in fact morally dangerous: the beauty of tragic suffering generates a perverse investment in that suffering itself, and our longing for the beautiful symmetry of justice makes us complicit in a vicious act of injustice. Both plays thus propose that aesthetic judgments bear ethical and political consequences, but neither takes it for granted that beauty will make us just.
Lydia Ginzburg's Prose
Authors: Van Buskirk Emily
Published: November 2017

The Russian writer Lydia Ginzburg (1902–90) is best known for her Notes from the Leningrad Blockade and for influential critical studies, such as On Psychological Prose, investigating the problem of literary character in French and Russian novels and memoirs. Yet she viewed her most vital work to be the extensive prose fragments, composed for the desk drawer, in which she analyzed herself and other members of the Russian intelligentsia through seven traumatic decades of Soviet history. This book, the first full-length English-language study of the writer, presents Ginzburg as a figure of previously unrecognized innovation and importance in the literary landscape of the twentieth century. Based on a decade's work in Ginzburg's archives, the book discusses previously unknown manuscripts and uncovers a wealth of new information about the author's life, focusing on Ginzburg's quest for a new kind of writing adequate to her times. The book provides examples of universal experiences—frustrated love, professional failures, remorse, aging—and explores the modern fragmentation of identity in the context of war, terror, and an oppressive state. Searching for a new concept of the self, and deeming the psychological novel (a beloved academic specialty) inadequate to express this concept, Ginzburg turned to fragmentary narratives that blur the lines between history, autobiography, and fiction. This full account of Ginzburg's writing career in many genres and emotional registers enables us not only to rethink the experience of Soviet intellectuals, but to arrive at a new understanding of writing and witnessing during a horrific century.
Writing the Self after the Crisis of Individualism
Authors: Van Buskirk Emily
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains the concept of post-individualist prose as a pointed departure from nineteenth-century Realism. This is a fragmentary, documentary literature that restricts itself to the realm of “fact,” while being free to range outside the conventions of established genres. The post-individualist person's primary dilemma is a crisis in values, and Ginzburg treats writing as an ethical act. The chapter considers how writing serves as an “exit from the self,” a process by which the self becomes another, leaving behind the ego. It then turns to two of Ginzburg's narratives (“Delusion of the Will” and “A Story of Pity and Cruelty”), which concern the dilemmas of moral action in response to the death of a loved one. The traumatized subject uses techniques of “self-distancing” to deal with his or her sense of self and of the past by constructing a complete and responsible self-image, embedded within a social milieu, and then trying to connect it with his or her actions. Ginzburg's techniques of “self-distancing” are examined side-by-side with Shklovsky's concept of ostranenie (“estrangement”) and Bakhtin's vnenakhodimost' (“outsideness”).
Marginality in the Mainstream, Lesbian Love in the Third Person
Authors: Van Buskirk Emily
Published: November 2017

This chapter undertakes a treatment of the rhetoric of personal pronouns in Ginzburg's writings on love and sexuality, drawing on Michael Lucey's study of the first person in twentieth-century French literature about love. It brings together questions of genre and narrative, on the one hand, and gender and sexuality, on the other. The chapter is divided into two sections, treating writings from two different periods on two kinds of love Ginzburg thought typical of intellectuals: in “First Love,” it discusses the unrequited and tragic love depicted in Ginzburg's teenage diaries (1920–23); in “Second Love,” it analyzes the love that is realized but in the end equally tragic, depicted in drafts related to Home and the World (1930s). The chapter examines the models the author sought in literary, psychological, and philosophical texts (Weininger, Kraft-Ebbing, Blok, Shklovsky, Oleinikov, Hemingway, and Proust).
Conclusion Sustaining a Human Image
Authors: Van Buskirk Emily
Published: November 2017

This chapter summarizes key themes and presents some final thoughts. This book, while drawing on Ginzburg's own theories of in-between prose, has aimed to shed light on unexpected relationships among her choice of genres, her rhetorical strategies, and her search for a so-called post-individualist self. This book has also brought to light several paradoxes attending Ginzburg's creations. The remainder of the chapter expands on a few of these paradoxes that have been only implicit until now. Ginzburg was rather skeptical about the individual writer's ability to transcend the discourses and conditions of her time—and in fact, she saw this rootedness in the present as a positive sign of the individual's connection to his or her culture. At the same time, in many ways she appears to have cultivated an alternative ethics and way of writing, strongly connected to the tradition of the intelligentsia and the literary giants of the previous century such as Tolstoy and Herzen.
Existence
Authors: M¨uhlherr Bernhard , Petersson Holger P. , Weiss Richard M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter proves that Bruhat-Tits buildings exist. It begins with a few definitions and simple observations about quadratic forms, including a 1-fold Pfister form, followed by a discussion of the existence part of the Structure Theorem for complete discretely valued fields due to H. Hasse and F. K. Schmidt. It then considers the generic unramified cases; the generic semi-ramified cases, the generic ramified cases, the wild unramified cases, the wild semi-ramified cases, and the wild ramified cases. These cases range from a unique unramified quadratic space to an unramified separable quadratic extension, a tamely ramified division algebra, a ramified separable quadratic extension, and a unique unramified quaternion division algebra. The chapter also describes ramified quaternion division algebras D₁, D₂, and D₃ over K containing a common subfield E such that E/K is a ramified separable extension.
Introduction
Authors: Pritchard Duncan
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter argues that integrating epistemological disjunctivism with Wittgenstein's radical account of the structure of rational evaluation can solve the problem of radical skepticism. On the face of it, these proposals look very different; indeed, they look antithetical and competing. Whereas the one proposal emphasizes the locality of rational evaluation, and hence rational support, the other emphasizes the strength of the rational support available to us in paradigm conditions, in that it is factive. But these differences are superficial, the chapter asserts. In fact, these proposals work very well with each other, in that they are not only compatible, but also mutually supporting and philosophically in the same spirit.
Radical Skepticism and Closure
Authors: Pritchard Duncan
Published: November 2017

This chapter articulates a version of radical skepticism which essentially trades on a closure-style principle for knowledge. It argues that, properly construed, this type of radical skepticism presents us with a putative paradox. That means that prospective anti-skeptical strategies will fall into one of two camps—either they will be undercutting anti-skeptical strategies that demonstrate that this putative paradox is not in fact bona fide, or else they will be overriding anti-skeptical strategies that grant that the paradox is genuine but nonetheless offer independent grounds for rejecting at least one of the claims that makes up this paradox. As part of this exploration of the radical skeptical paradox, the chapter examines three specific overriding anti-skeptical proposals. Along the way it also identifies a more nuanced conception of the radical skeptical paradox that focuses on rationally grounded knowledge.
Wittgenstein on the Structure of Rational Evaluation
Authors: Pritchard Duncan
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at Wittgenstein's iconoclastic account of the structure of rational evaluation, such that all rational evaluation takes place relative to essentially groundless hinge commitments and hence is inherently local. On the face of it Wittgenstein's account of the structure of rational evaluation seems to come into conflict with the kind of reasoning at issue in closure-style inferences, in that such inferences seem to license knowledge, perhaps even rationally grounded knowledge, of hinge propositions, in conflict with Wittgenstein's proposal. With this in mind, this chapter examines three ways of spelling out the Wittgensteinian account of the structure of rational evaluation.
Farewell to Epistemic Angst
Authors: Pritchard Duncan
Published: November 2017

This chapter brings together the main threads of discussion from the previous chapters to offer a unified solution—a “biscopic” proposal, as the chapter describes it—to the two formulations of the radical skeptical problem that this volume has been engaging with. To this end, this chapter first revisits some of the key points raised in the rest of the volume in order to set the scene for a resolution of radical skepticism. Once the solution has been expounded, the chapter then explores it further by considering some natural objections that might be raised for the view and comparing it with rival proposals.
Agents and Frameworks
Authors: Ferreirós José
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces a “core scheme” for the analysis of mathematical practices that can be presented in a simplified way by means of a couple dubbed Framework–Agent. Mathematics in practice will typically depend on the performance of several Framework–Agent couples, intertwined in several possible ways. The chapter first considers two different kinds of frameworks, “theoretical” and “symbolic.” before discussing the role of exemplars in mathematical knowledge. It then explains how the links between different frameworks and practices are established concretely by an agent. It also examines the cognitive abilities involved in mastering counting practice, the importance of cognition in mathematics, and Philip S. Kitcher's concept of “metamathematics” in relation to agents. The chapter concludes by expounding on the notion of “systematic links.”
Complementarity in Mathematics
Authors: Ferreirós José
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a thesis about what it regards as a crucial complementarity of elements in mathematical practice and in the configuration of mathematical knowledge: both conceptual and formalistic ingredients enter the game, both necessary, and neither reducible to the other. The approach advocates a rather natural way in which semantic considerations emerge from the interplay between agents and frameworks, in the context of mathematical knowledge and practices. As a result, the difficulties involved in postulating abstract semantic entities are avoided. The chapter first considers form and content in mathematics before discussing formal systems and intended models used in mathematics. It then explains the proposed approach, which emphasizes the coexistence of a multiplicity of practices and the centrality of their interplay, and concludes by taking a look at the case of complex numbers in order to illustrate the idea of the complementarity of symbols and thought.
Advanced Math
Authors: Ferreirós José
Published: November 2017

This chapter proposes the idea that advanced mathematics is based on hypotheses—that far from being a priori, it is based on hypothetical assumptions. The concept of quasi-empiricism is often linked with the view that inductive methods are at play when the hypotheses are established. The presence of hypotheses at the very heart of mathematics establishes an important similitude with physical theory and undermines the simple distinction between “formal” and “empirical” sciences. The chapter first elaborates on a hypothetical conception of mathematics before discussing the ideas (and ideals) of certainty and objectivity in mathematics. It then considers the modern problems of the continuum that exist in ancient Greek geometry, along with the so-called methodological platonism of modern mathematics and its focus on mathematical objects. Finally, it describes the Axiom of Completeness and the Riemann Hypothesis.
Arithmetic Certainty
Authors: Ferreirós José
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the idea that we have certainty in our basic arithmetic knowledge. The claim that arithmetical knowledge enjoys certainty cannot be extended to a similar claim about number theory “as a whole.” It is thus necessary to distinguish between elementary number theory and other, more advanced, levels in the study of numbers: algebraic number theory, analytic number theory, and perhaps set-theoretic number theory. The chapter begins by arguing that the axioms of Peano Arithmetic are true of counting numbers and describing some elements found in counting practices. It then offers an account of basic arithmetic and its certainty before discussing a model theory of arithmetic and the logic of mathematics. Finally, it asks whether elementary arithmetic, built on top of the practice of counting, should be classical arithmetic or intuitionistic arithmetic.
Mathematics Developed
Authors: Ferreirós José
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers two crucial shifts in mathematical knowledge: the natural numbers ℕ and the real number system ℝ. ℝ has proved to serve together with the natural numbers ℕ as one of the two core structures of mathematics; together they are what Solomon Feferman described as “the sine qua non of our subject, both pure and applied.” Indeed, nobody can claim to have a basic grasp of mathematics without mastery of the central elements in the theory of both number systems. The chapter examines related theories and conceptions about real numbers, with particular emphasis on the work of J. H. Lambert and Sir Isaac Newton. It also discusses various conceptions of the number continuum, assumptions about simple infinity and arbitrary infinity, and the development of mathematics in relation to the real numbers. Finally, it reflects on the link between mathematical hypotheses and scientific practices.
Objectivity in Mathematical Knowledge
Authors: Ferreirós José
Published: November 2017

This chapter proposes an idea for reconciling the hypothetical conception of mathematics with the traditional idea of the objectivity of mathematical knowledge. The basic notion is that, because new hypotheses are embedded in the web of mathematical practices, they become systematically linked with previous strata of mathematical knowledge, and this forces upon us agents (for example, research mathematicians or students of math) certain results, be they principles or conclusions. The chapter first considers a simple case that illustrates objective features in the introduction of basic mathematical hypotheses. It then discusses Georg Cantor's “purely arithmetical” proofs of his set-theoretic results, along with the notion of arbitrary set in relation to the Axiom of Choice that has strong roots in the theory of real numbers. It also explores Cantor's ordinal numbers and the Continuum Hypothesis.
Ethical Life
Authors: Keane Webb
Published: November 2017

The human propensity to take an ethical stance toward oneself and others is found in every known society, yet we also know that values taken for granted in one society can contradict those in another. Does ethical life arise from human nature itself? Is it a universal human trait? Or is it a product of one's cultural and historical context? This book offers a new approach to the empirical study of ethical life that reconciles these questions, showing how ethics arise at the intersection of human biology and social dynamics. Drawing on the latest findings in psychology, conversational interaction, ethnography, and history, the book takes readers from inner city America to Samoa and the Inuit Arctic to reveal how we are creatures of our biology as well as our history—and how our ethical lives are contingent on both. The book looks at Melanesian theories of mind and the training of Buddhist monks, and discusses important social causes such as the British abolitionist movement and American feminism. It explores how styles of child rearing, notions of the person, and moral codes in different communities elaborate on certain basic human tendencies while suppressing or ignoring others. Certain to provoke debate, the book presents an entirely new way of thinking about ethics, morals, and the factors that shape them.
Ethical Types
Authors: Keane Webb
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the problem raised by some of the psychological research, the relationship between those processes that work beyond the scope of the individual's awareness, and what it is people actually think they are doing. It shows how empirical research fleshes out the philosophical idea that people act under the guidance of certain descriptions, frames for making sense of what is going on, what kinds of people are acting, and how actions should be judged. These descriptions circulate in a public world, where part of their power derives from their availability to others. They arise in social interactions where these are demanded, accepted, and rejected; here ethics is catalyzed into forms available to other persons. At this point, they are made available for further development, criticism, adoption, or rejection within a larger community.
Making Morality in Religion
Authors: Keane Webb
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides an understanding of the demand for moral consistency that motivates a pair of thriving contemporary piety movements, one Christian (the Urapmin Charismatics), the other Muslim (the Cairene Muslims). Although they differ in their theological and moral doctrines, these movements have much in common. In particular, the participants in these movements actively and self-consciously strive to live ethically consistent lives. In both piety movements, that demand for consistency is partly explained by the inculcation of a God's-eye view, a version of the third-person perspective from which the faithful is expected to see the totality of his or her life and impose order on it.
Making Morality in Political Revolution
Authors: Keane Webb
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the case of moral revolutions that are bound up with political ones that are self-consciously atheist. One of the hallmarks of the twentieth-century socialist and communist revolutions was the effort to remake societies that were more or less dominated by religious faith on nonreligious or even militantly antireligious grounds. The chapter then focuses on some of the ethical sources and goals of Vietnam's anticolonial and communist revolution. By looking at how, in everyday practices, revolutions attempted to propagate an expanded moral sensibility, inculcate people with egalitarian values, and reconfigure their intuitions about agency and responsibility, one can see some of the links among psychology, face-to-face interaction, and social history.
Conclusion
Authors: Keane Webb
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter discusses the universal aspirations of contemporary human rights and humanitarian movements and the problems that they face. The human rights movement aims to realize the assertion in the 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights that “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.” Meanwhile, humanitarianism tends to focus on suffering and the prevention or amelioration of physical harm. Both movements, however, are predicated on ethical universality in principle and its global reach in practice. That is, since ethical values, the sentiments they should induce, and the obligations they impose pertain to all humans, so too should ethical agency be indifferent to any distinctions of culture, ethnicity, religion, gender, age, or political divisions.
Introduction
Authors: Conrad Brian , Prasad Gopal
Published: November 2017

This book deals with the classification of pseudo-reductive groups. Using new techniques and constructions, it addresses a number of questions; for example, whether there are versions of the Isomorphism and Isogeny Theorems for pseudosplit pseudo-reductive groups and of the Existence Theorem for pseudosplit pseudo-simple groups; whether the automorphism functor of a pseudo-semisimple group is representable; or whether there is a Tits-style classification in the pseudo-semisimple case recovering the version due to Tits in the semisimple case. This introduction discusses the special challenges of characteristic 2 as well as root systems, exotic groups and degenerate quadratic forms, and tame central extensions. It also reviews generalized standard groups, minimal type and general structure theorem, and Galois-twisted forms and Tits classification.
Automorphisms, isomorphisms, and Tits classification
Authors: Conrad Brian , Prasad Gopal
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers automorphisms, isomorphisms, and Tits classification. It begins by establishing a version of the Isomorphism Theorem for pseudo-split pseudo-reductive groups, along with a pseudo-reductive variant of the Isogeny Theorem for split connected semisimple groups. The key to both proofs is a technique to construct pseudo-reductive subgroups of an ambient smooth affine group. Some instructive examples over imperfect fields k of characteristic 2 are given. The chapter goes on to discuss the behavior of the k-group ZG,C with respect to Weil restriction in the pseudoreductive case. It also describes automorphism schemes for pseudo-reductive groups, focusing only on the pseudo-semisimple case because commutative pseudo-reductive groups that are not tori generally have a non-representable automorphism functor. Finally, it examines Tits-style classification, using Dynkin diagrams to express the classification theorem.
Generalization of the standard construction
Authors: Conrad Brian , Prasad Gopal
Published: November 2017

This chapter deals with “generalized standard” pseudo-reductive group over a field k. Because the notion of root field has only been defined for absolutely pseudo-simple G whose root system over ks is reduced, the first step is to remove that restriction. Thus, in the non-reduced case the focus is on the longest (equivalently, divisible) roots when defining the root field of G. For absolutely pseudo-simple k-groups of minimal type with a non-reduced root system over ks the condition that the root field coincides with the ground field is a reasonable one to impose for the purpose of a structure theorem. The chapter proves a rigidity property of generalized standard presentations involving the notion of “pseudo-isogeny.” It concludes with a detailed discussion of the structure theorem.
Secrets and Leaks
Authors: Sagar Rahul
Published: November 2017

This book examines the complex relationships among executive power, national security, and secrecy. State secrecy is vital for national security, but it can also be used to conceal wrongdoing. How then can we ensure that this power is used responsibly? Typically, the onus is put on lawmakers and judges, who are expected to oversee the executive. Yet because these actors lack access to the relevant information and the ability to determine the harm likely to be caused by its disclosure, they often defer to the executive's claims about the need for secrecy. As a result, potential abuses are more often exposed by unauthorized disclosures published in the press. But should such disclosures, which violate the law, be condoned? Drawing on several cases, this book argues that though whistleblowing can be morally justified, the fear of retaliation usually prompts officials to act anonymously—that is, to “leak” information. As a result, it becomes difficult for the public to discern when an unauthorized disclosure is intended to further partisan interests. Because such disclosures are the only credible means of checking the executive, the book claims, they must be tolerated, and, at times, even celebrated. However, the public should treat such disclosures skeptically and subject irresponsible journalism to concerted criticism.
Contracts and Global Sourcing
Authors: Antràs Pol
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the implications of weak contract enforcement for the international organization of production. With that goal in mind, the chapter starts by going back to the benchmark two-country model of global sourcing developed in Chapter 2, highlighting the contracting assumptions underlying the results of that model. It then introduces a model of contractual frictions that can shed light on the effect of contracting institutions on the intensive and extensive margins of intermediate input trade. Next, the chapter develops a series of extensions of the model that can open the door for model-based empirical tests of the effects of contracting considerations on the offshoring decisions of firms.
Contracts and Sourcing: Evidence
Authors: Antràs Pol
Published: November 2017

This chapter develops empirical tests of the global sourcing model introduced in the previous chapter by using detailed data on U.S. imports by product and source country. It first uses the import data aggregated across source countries to explore the determinants of the cross-industry variation in the extent to which U.S. firms rely on domestically produced inputs versus foreign inputs in their production processes. The chapter next exploits the cross-country dimension of U.S. import data to provide richer tests of the model. A critical challenge in the empirical analyses performed here is that the key industry characteristics that shape the differential effect of contract enforcement on the profitability of offshoring across sectors are particularly hard to measure in the data. Hence, the chapter also discusses the hurdles that one encounters when mapping these sectoral characteristics with available data.
The Transaction-Cost Approach
Authors: Antràs Pol
Published: November 2017

This chapter develops a transaction-cost model of the internalization decision of multinational firms. A key organizational decision of firms is the extent of control that firms choose to exert over the production of the different parts and components in their value chain. In many circumstances, ownership of the input producer's physical assets is the key method to enhance such control. For this reason, this decision is often dubbed “internalization.” The transaction-cost theory has arguably been the leading paradigm in the analysis of the internalization decision in international environments. In line with this theory, it is typically perceived that vertical (or lateral) integration is an effective way for firms to deal with situations of contractual incompleteness in international transactions, in which it may be hard to provide incentives to subcontracted producers.
The Property-Rights Approach
Authors: Antràs Pol
Published: November 2017

This chapter turns to the property-rights theory of the firm, which arguably constitutes the most compelling and influential theory of the firm explaining in a unified framework both the benefits as well as the costs of vertical integration. The central idea of the property-rights approach is that internalization matters because ownership of non-human assets is a source of power when contracts are incomplete. More specifically, when parties encounter contingencies that were not foreseen in an initial contract, the owner of these assets naturally holds residual rights of control, and they can decide on the use of these assets that maximizes payoff at the possible expense of that of the integrated party.