bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Social Skills Deficits and Subsequent Depressed Mood in Students
Authors: Wierzbicki Michael
Published: March 2007

A total of 65 undergraduate students were administered the Beck Depression Inventory and two measures of social skill: the College Self-Expression Scale and the Means-Ends-Problem-Solving Test. Two months later, depression was reassessed using the D30 Depression Scale. It was found that social skills measures were significantly correlated with currently assessed depression. It was also found that the best single predictor of future depression was current depression (r = .70). A stepwise regression analysis indicated that, after partialling out the influence of current depression scores, two measures of social skill, CSES assertiveness scores and relevancy ratio on the MEPS, provided incrementally significant contributions to the prediction of future depression scores. This provides modest correlational evidence for Lewinsohn's social skills deficit model of depression. That is, social skills, independent of current depression, significantly increased the predictability of future depression.
Further Appraisal of Correspondent Inference Theory
Authors: Howard Judith A.
Published: March 2007

Jones and McGillis (1976) present a revision of correspondent inference theory (Jones & Davis, 1965) and articulate the relationship between this revised theory of correspondent inference and the covariational model of causal attribution (Kelley, 1967). The multiple definitions of correspondence used in this revision lead to problems in the proposed interface between the two theories. The present article reconsiders the concept of correspondence and extends the revisions proposed in the original theory of correspondent inference. The implications of these changes for the relationship between the theory of correspondent inference and the covariational model of causal attribution are discussed.
The Freezing and Unfreezing of Impressional Primacy
Authors: Freund Tallie , Kruglanski Arie W. , Shpitzajzen Avivit
Published: March 2007

Three constructive replications were executed to test the hypotheses that primary effects in impression formation are more pronounced when the individual feels (1) high versus low need for cognitive structure and (2) low versus high fear of invalidity. The experiments differed partially among themselves in the particular operational definitions of the structure and validity needs. In the first experiment need for structure was manipulated via demands for unidimensional (hence, global and undifferentiated) versus multidimensional judgments; and the fear of invalidity, via potential costs to the target person of subject's judgmental mistake. In the second experiment fear of invalidity was manipulated as in the first experiment and need for structure, via degrees of time pressure. In the third experiment need for structure was manipulated as in the first experiment and fear of invalidity, via degrees of evaluation apprehension. The research hypotheses were strongly confirmed in all three experiments. These results crossvalidate the findings of Kruglanski and Freund (1983) in which need for structure was operationalized via time pressure, and fear of invalidity, via evaluation apprehension.
Loneliness, Social Skills, and Social Perception
Authors: Wittenberg Mitchell T. , Reis Harry T.
Published: March 2007

Previous studies have investigated loneliness from primarily one of three traditions: social skills, perceptions of others, and sex-role orientation. How do these variables affect loneliness? Past research addresses their independent effects, making it impossible to know if there are any single or multiple pathways to loneliness. The present study was concerned with the conceptual interdependence of these factors; that is, whether they have unique or joint efforts. Two other issues were also of interest. First, because as previously shown, lonely persons hold negative perceptions of new acquaintances and people in general, we sought to extend this phenomenon to close others. Second, we assessed a wider range of social skills than have formerly been examined in order to specify which particular social skills are most relevant to loneliness. First-year college roommate pairs participated in the study. Individuals completed questionnaires assessing themselves and their roommate. Results showed that lonelier subjects were more deficient in relationship formation and maintenance skills, and held more negative perceptions of their roommates. Social skills inadequacies and negativity produced both unique and joint efforts, making them both important in loneliness. Finally, androgynous subjects were less lonely and appeared to possess two sets of traits both valuable in avoiding loneliness-namely social assertion and acceptance and responsiveness to others.
Cooperative Choice in Decomposed Social Dilemmas
Authors: Komorita Samuel S.
Published: March 2007

In a study by Pruitt (1967) two-person decomposed prisoner's dilemma games (DPDs) were constructed from a 2 X 2 prisoner's dilemma game. Pruitt showed that some DPDs evoked greater cooperation than others, despite the fact that the payoffs were identical in all of the games. Pruitt's findings were interpreted in terms of Hamburger's (1973) "take-some" and "give-some" games, and it was hypothesized that DPDs in which the cooperative choice rewards the other members of the group would evoke greater cooperation than DPDs in which the competitive choice punishes the other members. This hypothesis was tested with three-person DPDs with college students as subjects. The results support the hypothesis and several explanations of the findings are discussed.
Physical Attractiveness and Skill at Detecting Deception
Authors: DePaulo Bella M. , Tang John , Stone Julie I.
Published: March 2007

Are physically attractive people more skilled than unattractive people at distinguishing truth from deception? To address this question, we showed videotapes of truthful and deceptive messages to 102 males and females classified as low, medium, or high in attractiveness. The speakers shown on the tapes were telling truths and lies to attractive or unattractive listeners of the same or opposite sex. The lies that the speakers told to attractive listeners were generally easier to detect than were the lies that they told to unattractive listeners. The lies told to attractive listeners were even more accurately identified by subjects who were themselves of average or high attractiveness (as defined by the ratings made by their peers) than by those who were unattractive. Conversely, the lies told to unattractive listeners were relatively more accurately detected by subjects who were unattractive than by those who were moderately attractive or very attractive. These findings are consistent with a skill-specificity formulation. The role of practice and experience in the development of skill at detecting deception is discussed.
Attributions in the Advice Columns
Authors: Fischer Karla , Schoeneman Thomas J. , Rubanowitz Daniel E.
Published: March 2007

This study assessed the attributional dimensionality of explanations, largely for interpersonal problems, that occur naturally in the newspaper advice columns. We applied two definitions of controllability, along with stability, locus, and actor observer ratings, to 145 attributions extracted from the "Ann Landers" and "Dear Abby" columns by Schoeneman and Rubanowitz (1985). Controllability by subject (the person whose behavior is being explained) was confounded with locus, although controllability by anyone was independent of locus. Actors attributed their own problems to the enduring, willful behaviors of others (external, stable, controllable attributions). Observers did not attribute actors' problems to uncontrollable personality; they showed no attributional tendencies except a preference for stable attributions. We discuss the convergence of actor-observer effects with current research on interpersonal attributions and implications for future ratings of controllability.
Women's Vocal Reactions to Intimate and Casual Male Friends
Authors: Montepare Joann M. , Vega Cynthia
Published: March 2007

To further our understanding of the impact of social factors on women's vocal behavior, women's vocal reactions to different male friends were examined. Specifically, subjects listened to women talking to intimate and casual male friends on the telephone, made ratings about women's vocal qualities and psychological traits, and identified with whom they thought the women were speaking. Several baby-talk-related aspects of the women's speech were also assessed by two independent judges. Results revealed not only that subjects could identify women's conversation partners at better than chance levels but also that subjects perceived women as more approachable, sincere, submissive, and scatterbrained when talking to intimate than to casual friends. Women manifested more feminine and babyish paralinguistic vocal qualities when talking to intimate versus casual friends; however, no differences were found in the linguistic features of women's speech coded by judges. As well, no differences in perceptions of speakers were found in a second group of subjects who read transcripts of the women's conversations. The present findings suggest that paralinguistic rather than linguistic features or content of women's vocal reactions influence perceptions of them when they are conversing with different male friends. Possible social functions served by women's vocal reactions to intimate versus casual friends are discussed, and hypotheses are offered to explain impressions created by differences in women's vocal behavior.
Children's Television-Viewing Frequency
Authors: Tangney June Price , Feshbach Seymour
Published: March 2007

Previous research has indicated that a number of demographic factors, particularly ethnicity and socioeconomic status, are significantly related to children's use of television. Yet these factors are often not integrated into research relating television-viewing behavior to psychological and social variables of interest. In the present study of three samples of upper elementary school students, ethnicity was found to be a strong determinant of the amount of television viewed. Black children viewed nearly twice as much television as White children, independent of parents' level of education, which itself was inversely related to viewing frequency. No clear relationship was found between viewing frequency and sex, birth order, or number of siblings. Among White subjects, however, there were modest indications that children who live with one natural parent and one stepparent may watch more television than children from households with either two natural parents or one natural parent only. The correlations of individuals' viewing frequency over 1- and 2-year time periods, both among the total sampled and among selected demographic subgroups, were highly significant. Thus not only demographic differences in viewing frequency were found to be stable over time. For the individual child, viewing frequency was a stable behavioral trait, regardless of the fluctuations of the networks' offerings from year to year. Methodological implications of these results for research on television and other aspects of human behavior are discussed.
Smith and Ellsworth's Appraisal Model of Emotion
Authors: Tesser Abraham
Published: March 2007

The present study is intended to replicate, extend, and test Smith and Ellsworth's appraisal model of emotion. Twenty-six subjects were asked to recall eight different situations that varied in the closeness of another coacting person, the relative performance of self and other, and the relevance of the performance to the self For each of these situations, subjects filled out scales tapping each of Smith and Ellsworth's situational appraisal dimensions, the 15 emotions previously used by Smith and Ellsworth, and 3 new emotions: jealousy, envy, and pride in other's accomplishments. The Smith and Ellsworth dimensions replicated quite well. For the most part, they were reliable and orthogonal; the dimensions showed a patterning across emotions and the emotions showed a patterning across dimensions that was similar to what Smith and Ellsworth reported. In extending the model to the new emotions, the dimensions accounted for a moderate level of variance in jealousy and envy but not in pride-in-other. The Smith and Ellsworth model assumes that emotions are mediated by the appraisal of situations. One strong implication of this mediational assumption is that the situational manipulations should control little of the variance in emotions after the effects of the appraisal dimensions are controlled. This implication was met for some but not all of the emotions studied.
The Relationship of Heterosexuals' Attributions for the Causes of Homosexuality to Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men
Authors: Whitley Bernard E.
Published: March 2007

Attribution theory suggested the hypothesis that heterosexuals' attitudes toward persons bearing the social stigma of homosexuality would be more negative when homosexuality was attributed to controllable than to uncontrollable causes. It was further hypothesized that groups that have been found to express more favorable attitudes toward lesbians and gay men -persons rating other-sex gay people and those who know a gay person-would attribute homosexuality to less controllable causes. Data from 193 female and 173 male heterosexual college students supported the first, but not the second, hypothesis. In addition, heterosexual women were more likely to report knowing a lesbian than heterosexual men were to report knowing a gay man, and among respondents who reported knowing a gay man, women reported closer acquaintanceship than men did. The implications of these findings for changing antigay attitudes are discussed.
Good Samaritans—-or Priests and Levites?
Authors: Batson C. Daniel
Published: March 2007

Guided by the spirit of William James, a research strategy is outlined for addressing the question whether the motivation to help associated with a devout, intrinsic, end orientation to religion is altruistic or egoistic. Conceptual analysis of the distinction between altruism and subtle forms of egoism suggests two egoistic motives to help that could easily be associated with intrinsic, end religion: (a) avoidance of social and self-punishment in the form of shame or guilt; (b) acquisition of social and self-rewards in the form of praise or esteem. Three research procedures are described that have been used to determine whether the motivation to help associated with intrinsic, end religion is directed toward one of these egoistic goals or whether the motivation is truly altruistic.
Mood and the Endorsement of Egalitarian Macrojustice Versus Equity-Based Microjustice Principles
Authors: Sinclair Robert C. , Mark Melvin M.
Published: March 2007

Prior research has shown that mood state affects liking for others, categorization breadth, and processing strategy. Proceeding from such work, it was hypothesized that mood state would affect the relative endorsement of egalitarian macrojustice and equity based microjustice principles. Male and female subjects were assigned to one of three mood inductions (elation, neutral, and depression). In an apparently unrelated second study, subjects indicated their level of endorsement of microjustice and macro justice principles. As predicted, elated subjects showed more endorsement of egalitarian macrojustice principles than depressed subjects. Further, elated subjects differentiated least between equity-based microjustice and egalitarian macrojustice principles; depressed subjects differentiated most. Results are discussed in terms of a model of the processes through which mood influences perceived justice.
Groups Under Stress: The Influence of Group Structure and Environment on Process and Performance
Authors: Worchel Stephen , Shackelford Susan L.
Published: March 2007

The study examined how group structure affects group process and performance in stressful and nonstressful environments. Research suggests that clear structure should facilitate group process and performance, but reactance theory suggests that prearranged group structure may reduce individual freedom, thereby reducing group satisfaction and performance. A 2 x 4 factorial design involved groups that were either given structure or left unstructured before working on a task. Groups worked in either positive, crowded, or noisy environmental conditions. A perceived negative environment condition in which subjects were informed that the environment would inhibit performance was also included. The results indicated that the predetermined structure facilitated interpersonal relations and performance in the positive environment and the perceived negative environment. However, the predetermined structure had a negative effect when the groups faced a stressful environment (crowded or noisy). The results suggest that the environmental setting influences the type of group structure that will be most effective in promoting process and performance.
Moderator Variables in Personality Research: The Problem of Controlling for Plausible Alternatives
Authors: Hull Jay G. , Tedlie Judith C. , Lehn Daniel A.
Published: March 2007

Alternative variable problems are common in personality research. Given a restriction to correlational designs, it is always possible that a particular personality variable is related to a particular behavior because both are related to some third, unmeasured construct. This being the case, researchers often use designs that involve the measurement of potential alternatives and analysis of covariance or multiple regression to statistically "control" their influence. Unfortunately, when using these techniques to control for the moderating influence of an alternative variable, some rearchers appear to use the wrong covariate. These researchers enter a linear covariate when in fact the postulation of an alternative moderator requires the entry of a covariate interaction. The authors elaborate the logic of this argument and provide an empirical example.
Physical Attractiveness Contrast Effect: Implications for Self-Esteem and Evaluations of the Social Self
Authors: Thornton Bill , Moore Scott
Published: March 2007

Three studies examined the impact of a physical attractiveness contrast effect on self-evaluations. Self-ratings of attractiveness by men and women exposed to highly attractive same-sex stimulus persons (negative contrast) were lower than those of peons not so exposed; attractiveness self-ratings were enhanced by exposure to unattractive stimulus persons (positive contrast). Global self-esteem was not influenced by a negative contrast effect; however, an adverse affect was observed on a more specific assessment of social self-esteem based on interpersonal competence. Corresponding increases in public self-consciousness occurred. 77e positive contrast effect was associated with marginally increased social self-esteem but not with heightened public self-consciousness. The potential role of public self-consciousness in mediating the attractiveness contrast effect is considered
The Use of Trait Conceptions to Identify Other People's Behavior and to Draw Inferences about their Personalities
Authors: Trope Yaacov , liberman Akiva
Published: March 2007

According to Trope's model, dispositional judgment results from two stages, behavior identification and dispositional inference. This article first reviews research on factors affecting behavior identification-behavior ambiguity, the order of situational and behavioral information, and awareness of alternative meanings of behavior-and then develops the dispositional inference stage theoretically. At this stage, perceivers evaluate the hypothesis that a target's disposition corresponds to his or her identified behavior by assessing an identified behavior's diagnosticity and integrating it with prior information. Diagnosticity derives from causal models of how situations affect individuals of differing dispositions; dispositional hypotheses may be evaluated systematically or heuristically. 7he analysis is then applied to intrinsic and extrinsic inducements, to state and trait inference, and to causal and noncausal (descriptive) inference.
The "Acquisition Principle": How Beliefs about a Behavior's Prolonged Circumstances Influence Correspondent Inference
Authors: Higgins E. Tory , Winter Laraine
Published: March 2007

People may function like 'naive Thondikeans" whose willingness to make a correspondent inference is increased when they believe that the repeated or prolonged circumstances of a type of behavior facilitate acquiring a disposition to perform that behavior-the acquisition principle In Study 1, subjects' willingness to infer a corresponding trait from an instance of a type of behavior was greater for behaviors believed to be consistent with situational forces and to have desirable consequences. In Study 2, subjects' beliefs that the actor's immediate circumstances (a liberal or conservative audience) facilitated producing a liberal or conservative statement were negatively related to their correspondent inferences about his real attitude. Subjects' beliefs that the speaker's prolonged circumstances (a liberal or conservative upbringing) facilitated producing the statement were positively related to their correspondent inferences. Three types of dispositional judgment are identified that take circumstances into account in different ways-enduring, " 'distinctive, "and 'natural" disposition judgments.
Behavioral Experience and Trait Judgnents about the Self
Authors: Klein Stanley B. , Loftus Judith
Published: March 2007

How do people determine whether a trait is self-descriptive? The authors recently proposed and tested a "mixed" model of the trait self-judgment process that asserts that two types of self knowledge abstract trait summaries and specific behavioral exemplars-are used to make trait judgments about the self, and that the relative importance of each is determined by the amount of behavioral experience one has with the trait being judged. The present article addresses a potential limitation in previous tests of this model. Findings offer strong support for a mixed-model interpretation of trait self-judgments.
Evolution and Social Cognition: Contrast Effects as a Function of Sex, Dominance, and Physical Attractiveness
Authors: Kenrick Douglas T. , Neuberg Steven L. , Zierk Kristin L. , Krones Jacquelyn M.
Published: March 2007

Previous research indicates that males, compared with females, evaluate their relationships less favorably after exposure to physically attractive members of the other sex. An evolutionary model predicts a converse effect after exposure to opposite-sex individuals high in dominance, which should lead females to evaluate their current relationships less favorably than males. Women and men rated their current relationships after being exposed to opposite-sex targets varying in both dominance and physical attractiveness. Consistent with earlier research, males exposed to physically attractive, as compared with average, targets rated their current relationships less favorably. Males' relationship evaluations were not directly influenced by the targets' dominance, although the effect of physical attractiveness was significant only for men exposed to women low in dominance. However; females' evaluations of their relationships were unaffected by exposure to physically attractive males but were lower after exposure to targets high in dominance. These data support predictions derived from an evolutionary model and suggest that such models can be used to generate testable hypotheses about ongoing social cognition.
On the Peculiarities of Loyalty: A Diary Study of Responses to Dissatisfaction in Everyday Life
Authors: Drigotas Stephen M. , Whitney Gregory A. , Rusbult Caryl E.
Published: March 2007

Research on exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect suggests an enigma: Whereas responding to dissatisfying incidents with exit or neglect is generally harmful-and whereas voice is generally beneficial loyalty does not reliably yield favorable consequences. A diary study of dating partners' responses to dissatisfying incidents revealed results consistent with two explanations of the unreliable payoffs of loyalty. First, loyalty is less "visible" than the other responses: Partners exhibited less agreement about the occurrence of loyalty than other responses; individuals reported greater frequencies of loyalty for themselves than for their partners; and there were greater discrepancies between perceived frequencies of voice relative to loyalty for partner than for self: Thus, when an individual behaves loyally, this response frequently remains unnoticed (or is misinterpreted). Second, because acts of loyalty operate in an indirect manner; they frequently produce less extreme outcomes: Although loyalty responses were judged to yield more constructive consequences than exit and neglect, loyalty was judged less constructive than voice.
Strange Couples: Mood Effects on Judgments and Memory about Prototypical and Atypical Relationships
Authors: Forgas Joseph P.
Published: March 2007

Do feelings have a disproportionate impact on the way we perceive and remember unusual, atypical people? Based on the author's recent Affect Infusion Model (AIM), four experiments found that extended processing recruited by atypical targets significantly enhanced both negative and positive mood effects on judgments (Experiment 1) as well as on memory (Experiment 2). Furthermore, the degree of a typicality was directly related to the size of mood effects (Experiment 3), and a path analysis showed that these greater mood effects were consistently mediated by longer processing latencies (Experiment 4). Consistent with the AIM, these counterintuitive results suggest that longer and more elaborate processing elicited by atypical targets facilitates the infusion of mood primed associations into judgments. The findings are discussed in terms of the role of processing strategies in mood effects on judgments, and the implications for everyday social judgments and memory are considered.
The Answer is in the Question: The Effect of Verb Causality on Locus of Explanation
Authors: Semm Giun R. , Rubinm Monica , Fiedler Klaus
Published: March 2007

Two studies investigated how verb causality in question formulation affects the locus of causal origin for answers. It was hypothesized that questions formulated with action verbs (join, help, cheat) cue the logical subject of a question sentence as the causal origin for answers. The reverse tendency was expected for answers to questions formulated with state verbs (like, hate, abhor), where the logical object of the question was expected to be the causal origin. The experiments provide support for the hypothesis and also show that choice of verb type in question formulation affects respondents' answers in a way that modfies the expected differences between actors' and observers' viewpoints. The influence of the causality implicit in interpersonal verbs on methodological issues in applied and theoretical settings is discussed.
Approach Versus Avoidance Goals: Differences in Self-Evaluation and Well-Being
Authors: Coats Erik J. , Janoff-Bulman Ronnie , Alpert Nancy
Published: March 2007

Proceeding from a model of feature-positive goal monitoring, two studies tested hypothesized associations between approach goals and positive self-evaluations and between avoidance goals and negative self-evaluations. The existence of feature-positive searches in goal monitoring was expected to bias self-evaluations toward perceiving success for approach goals and failure for avoidance goals. Study 1 established the existence of a relationship between goal framing and global self-evaluations, or psychological well being, subjects with more avoidance goals evaluated themselves more negatively on measures of self-steem, optimism, and depression. Study 2 confirmed the causal role of goal framing in this relationship, for self perceptions of success and satisfaction differed as a function of manipulated approach versus avoidance goals.
On Doing the Decision: Effects of Active versus Passive Choice on Commitment and Self-Perception
Authors: Cioffi Delia , Garner Randy
Published: March 2007

Two studies demonstrate that making a volunteer decision by doing something results in more commitment to it than making the identical decision by doing nothing. Undergraduates were asked to volunteer for a university committee (Study l a) or a sex and AIDS awareness education project (Study 2) and indicated their choice either by affirming it on two items or by skippping two items that affirmed the opposite choice. Subjects who responded actively were more extreme in the degree of their decision than passive respondents. This effect persevered over 6 weeks (Study lb) and had behavioral consequences (Study 2). Attributional analyses in both studies suggest that active and passive choice may result in unique construals of oneself and of the decision: Active agreement results in citing more types of reasons for one's decision, and active refusal heightens one's perceived resistance to social influence.
Negativity in Impressions of Presidential Candidates Revisited: The 1992 Election
Authors: Klein Jill Gabrielle
Published: March 2007

This research tests the hypothesis that the negativity effect characterized impressions of Bill Clinton and George Bush in the 1992 presidential election. Both aggregate-level and idiographic-level analyses revealed negativity: Personality weaknesses were more important than personality strengths in the American public's evaluations of the candidates and in voting decisions. The 1992 campaign provided an important test of the negativity effect in that Clinton's greatest perceived shortcoming-integrit was one of the most positive aspects of Bush's personality. As the negativity effect predicts, integrity was of greater importance in appraisals of Clinton than Bush. A second study showed that people view political leaders positively, supporting the figure-ground explanation for negativity, which proposes that negative candidate characteristics are weighted heavily in contrast to generally positive views of leaders.
The Role of Motivated Reasoning in Optimistic Time Predictions
Authors: Buehler Roger , Griffin Dale , MacDonald Heather
Published: March 2007

The authors explore the well-documented tendency for people to predict that they will finish tasks earlier than they actually do. Whereas previous research has tied this optimistic bias to the operation of specific cognitive processes, the present studies examine the interplay between motivation and cognition. Two studies supported the hypothesis that incentives to finish tasks quickly exacerbate the optimistic bias. An initial field study using a naturally occurring incentive manipulation demonstrated that individuals who expected an income tax refund were more (overly) optimistic in predicting when they would complete their income tax forms than those who did not expect a refund. A laboratory experiment using a word generation task replicated this general effect and identified mediating cognitive mechanisms: Monetary incentives for early completion led to optimistic predictions, increased attention to detailed future plans, and reduced attention to relevant past experiences.
The Sweet Smell of... Helping: Effects of Pleasant Ambient Fragrance on Prosocial Behavior in Shopping Malls
Authors: Baron Robert A.
Published: March 2007

In a preliminary study, passersby in a large shopping mall were significantly more likely to help a same-sex accomplice (by retrieving a dropped pen or providing change for a dollar) when these helping opportunities took place in the presence of pleasant ambient odors (e.g., baking cookies, roasting coffee) than in the absence of such odors. Participants also reported significantly higher levels of positive affect in the presence of pleasant odors. In a second study, the order in which passersby were exposed to a helping opportunity and rated their current mood was systematically varied. Results similar to those of the first study were obtained; order of task had no effect on either mood or helping, but helping was significantly greater in the presence of pleasant fragrances than in their absence. In addition, there was some evidence that fragrance-induced increments in helping were mediated by increments in positive affect.
Adult Attachment and Personality: Converging Evidence and a New Measure
Authors: Carver Charles S.
Published: March 2007

Study 1 presents the development of a measure of adult attachment qualities (the Measure of Attachment Qualities [MAAQJ). Three further studies relate self-reports of adult attachment qualities to broader aspects of personality. Results indicate that avoidant attachment is inversely related to extraversion and agreeableness but relatively unrelated to manifest anxiety or neuroticism. Qualities of ambivalence (reflecting both worry and desire for merger) are related to both manifest anxiety and neuroticism but unrelated to extraversion. An affirmatively secure attachment quality that emerged in the MAQ (i.e., as a separate factor, rather than by default as low scores on avoidance or ambivalence factors) was related positively to extraversion and agreeableness but generally unrelated to anxiety or neuroticism. The final study also permitted comparison of the MAQ to a measure derived from a four-component model of attachment. Although there was considerable convergence, the data also provided challenges to both models.
Implementation Intentions and the Theory of Planned Behavior
Authors: Orbell Sheina , Hodgkins Sarah , Sheeran Paschal
Published: March 2007

This study concerns the implications of Peter Gollwitzer's concept of implementation intentions for Icek Ajzen's theory of planned behavior. Attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and intentions were assessed before an intervention that required subjects to make implementation intentions concerning when and where they would perform breast self-examination during the next month. Behavior was assessed by self-report 1 month later. Results supported Gollwitzer's contention that goal intentions that have been supplemented by implementation intentions concerning where and when the behavior is to be performed are more likely to be enacted. Evidence suggested that implementation intentions were effective because they provided a mechanism that facilitated the retrieval of intentions in memory. Implementation intentions also reduced the capacity of past behavior to predict future behavior, suggesting that implementation intentions mimic the effect of habit in human action. Implications for applications of models of attitude-behavior relations are outlined.
Leadership Style and the Discussion of Shared and Unshared Information in Decision-Making Groups
Authors: Larson James R. , Foster-Fishman Pennie G. , Franz Timothy M.
Published: March 2007

This study found that during group decision-making discussions, shared information (i.e., information held by all group members) was brought into discussion earlier, and was more likely to be mentioned overall, than was unshared information (i.e., unique information held by just one member or another). These results are consistent with a dynamic information sampling model of group discussion. It also was found that groups with a participative leader discussed more information (both shared and unshared) than groups with a directive leader, but that directive leaders were more likely to repeat information (especially unshared) than participative leaders. Finally, it was found that leadership style and the information held by the leader prior to discussion interacted to influence group decision quality. The relevance of these findings for existing contingency theories of leadership is discussed.
An Empirical Study of the Accuracy of Corrections for Restriction in Range Due to Explicit Selection
Authors: Greener Jack M. , Osburn H.G.
Published: March 2007

An empirical study of the corrections for restric tion in range due to explicit selection resulted in the following conclusions. (1) The corrected sample correlation was no more accurate than the uncor rected sample correlation for low unrestricted popu lation correlations in the range .10 to .25. (2) For large unrestricted population correlations in the range .60 to .80, the corrected sample correlation was always more accurate than the uncorrected sample correlation. (3) For moderate (.30 to .55) unrestricted population correlations, the corrected sample correlation was typically more accurate than the uncorrected sample correlation. (4) The cor rection was very sensitive to moderate departures from linearity but was quite robust in the face of rather substantial departures from homoscedasti city.
Validation and Comparison of Homogeneous and Occupational Interest Scales
Authors: Reilly Richard R. , Echternacht Gary J.
Published: March 2007

Occupational interest scales and homogeneous scales were developed and compared in a double cross-validation design. A sample of 3,072 Air Force personnel was randomly divided for study purposes. Homogeneous scales were developed in each half-sample using a backward item selection procedure. Occupational scales were developed by selecting items which discriminated satisfied per sonnel within a career field from a "men-in- general" group. A Bayesian classification procedure was then used to cross-validate the scales developed in each half-sample. The results indicated that the occupational scales were slightly superior in cor rectly classifying satisfied personnel versus men-in- general. However, correlations between all interest scales and job satisfaction indicated generally higher validity for relevant homogeneous scales than for occupational scales. It was concluded that where prediction of group membership or occupa tional choice is desired, occupational keying should probably be the preferred approach. However, when concern is with a broader range of criteria, homo geneous scales may offer more general utility.
The Causal Influence of Anxiety on Academic Achievement for Students of Differing Intellectural Ability
Authors: Heinrich Darlene L.
Published: March 2007

The present study examined the relationship be tween anxiety and learning within the context of drive theory and trait-state anxiety theory. It was hypothesized that trait anxiety (A-trait) would in fluence state anxiety (A-state), which in turn would influence academic achievement. The subjects were 86 students enrolled in a graduate education course for whom measures of A-state, A-trait, and achieve ment were obtained concurrently at three times during the course. GRE scores were used as mea sures of intellectual ability. Data were analyzed using the frequency-of-change-in-product-moment technique (Yee & Gage, 1968), a causal analysis statistic which permits the determination of source and direction of causal influence in lagged correla tional data. Results showed that A-trait influenced A-state and achievement, but the relationship be tween A-state and achievement was ambiguous. When intellectual ability was considered, A-trait was found to influence A-state and achievement, but only for high-ability students.
Limitations of Additive Conjoint Scaling Procedures: Detecting Nonadditivity When Additivity Is Known to Be Violated
Authors: Nygren Thomas E.
Published: March 2007

Two sets of three-outcome gambles were construc ted to vary factorially along the factors Amount to Lose, Amount to Win, Probability of Losing, and Probability of Winning. Single stimulus ratings of attractiveness and risk were obtained for each of the constructed gambles from 19 subjects. In addi tion, paired comparison strength of preference and difference in risk judgments were obtained for a subset of these gambles. Two additive conjoint scal ing procedures, Carroll's (1972) MDPREF and Johnson's (1975) NMRG, were used to generate pre dicted paired comparison preference and risk judg ments from the single stimulus ratings for each subject. These predictions were then compared with the observed paired comparison judgments. Results indicated that although the goodness-of-fit mea sures associated with each of the scaling models in dicated that the subject's data were being fit very well by the additive models, additivity among the payoff and probability factors was clearly violated. A procedure for detecting nonadditivity is outlined and illustrated with the data. The limitations of using these additive conjoint scaling procedures as predictive techniques when additivity is violated are shown and their implications are discussed.
Testing the Normal Approximation and Minimal Sample Size Requirements of Weighted Kappa When the Number of Categories is Large
Authors: Cicchetti Domenic V.
Published: March 2007

The results of this computer simulation study in dicate that the weighted kappa statistic, employing a standard error developed by Fleiss, Cohen, and Everitt (1969), holds for a large number of k cate gories of classification (e.g., 8 < k ≤ 10). These data are entirely consistent with an earlier study (Cicchetti & Fleiss, 1977), which showed the same results for 3 ≤ k ≤ 7. The two studies also indicate that the minimal N required for the valid ap plication of weighted kappa can be easily approxi mated by the simple formula 2 k2. This produces sample sizes that vary between a low of about 20 (when k = 3) to a high of about 200 (when k = 10). Finally, the range 3 ≤ k ≤ 10 should encompass most extant clinical scales of classification.
Facilitation of Performance on a Divergent Measure of Creativity: A Closer Look at Instructions to "Be Creative"
Authors: Evans Ronald G. , Forbach Gary B.
Published: March 2007

Research has suggested that instructing subjects to "be creative" enhances performance on alternate uses creativity tasks. However, previous research has con founded the effect of instructions to "be creative" with the effects of guidelines defining response quality criteria. These factors were separated by providing one of four instructions to 132 college students: creativity (C/NG), creativity plus guidelines (C/G), guidelines only (S/G), or standard alternate uses instructions (S/NG) that do not mention creativity or provide guidelines. Results indicated that males performed best in the C/G condition and females did so in the C/NG condition; standard instructions were least beneficial in eliciting maximal creative performance. The role of instructions in improving valid assessment of creativity is discussed. Suggestions for further research on the observed sex differences in response to instructions are presented.
An Application of Latent Class Models to Assessment Data
Authors: Haertel Edward
Published: March 2007

Responses of 17-year-olds to selected 1977-78 Na tional Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) mathematics exercises were analyzed, using latent class models. A single model was fitted to data from five independent samples of examinees, each of which responded to a different set of six algebra or prealge bra exercises. Four categories of items were found, defining five levels of content mastery, ranging from examinees unable to solve any of the exercises (43%) through those able to solve all the exercises (19%). The methods demonstrated are broadly applicable to assessment data, including matrix-sampled data, and provide an aggregate description of examinee abilities independent of the specific characteristics of individual exercises administered.
A Sixty-Year Perspective on Psychological I Measurement
Authors: Guilford J.P.
Published: March 2007

Based upon experiences with most kinds of meth ods of psychological measurement, this article presents comments on a variety of uses, including psychophys ics, scaling, testing, and factor analysis. Some diffi culties are pointed out, some faults are mentioned, and a variety of applications are discussed, some of them unusual.
Detection of Invalid Response Patterns on the California Psychological Inventory
Authors: Lanning Kevin
Published: March 2007

When faced with the task of responding to a per sonality questionnaire, an individual may respond with a number of strategies or test-taking attitudes. Among these, deceptive (fake) and disengaged (random) atti tudes are of particular interest, for these can poten tially mislead and misinform test users. A two-stage model was devised to detect deceptive and disengaged protocols on the California Psychological Inventory. Using parameters from signal detection theory, this model is found to be highly sensitive in detecting in- validity. Index terms: California Psychological In ventory, expected utility, faking on personality inven tories, personality assessment, random response patterns, signal detection theory.
Methods and Models for the Construction of Weakly Parallel Tests
Authors: Adema Jos J.
Published: March 2007

Several methods are proposed for the construc tion of weakly parallel tests [i.e., tests with the same test information function (TIF)]. A mathematical programming model that constructs tests containing a prespecified TIF and a heuristic that assigns items to tests with information func tions that are equal are important components of these methods. Numerical examples demonstrate that tests can be constructed quickly and that the heuristic produces good results. However, the heuristic is not applicable for every set of practical constraints (e.g., constraints with respect to test administration time, test composition, or depend encies between items).
Computerized Mastery Testing With Nonequivalent Testlets
Authors: Sheehan Kathleen , Lewis Charles
Published: March 2007

A procedure for determining the effect of testlet nonequivalence on the operating characteristics of a testlet-based computerized mastery test (CMT) is introduced. The procedure involves estimating the CMT decision rule twice—once with testlets treated as equivalent and once with testlets treated as nonequivalent. In the equivalent testlet mode, the likelihood functions (LFS) estimated for specific number-correct (NC) scores are assumed to be con stant across testlets and a single set of cutscores is estimated for all testlets. In the nonequivalent testlet mode, the LFS estimated for specific NC scores are allowed to vary from one testlet to another and a different set of cutscores is estimated for each permutation of testlet presentation order. Small differences between the estimated operating characteristics of the equivalent testlet decision rule and the nonequivalent testlet decision rule indicate that the assumption of equivalent testlets was war ranted. This procedure is demonstrated with data from the Architect Registration Examination.
Sensitivity of the Linear Logistic Test Model to Misspecification of the Weight Matrix
Authors: Baker Frank B.
Published: March 2007

Under the linear logistic test model, a weight is assigned to each cognitive operation used to respond to an item. The allocation of these weights is open to misspecification that can result in faulty estimates of the basic parameters. The effect on root mean squares (RMSS) of the differ ence between the parameter estimates obtained under misspecification conditions and those obtained under correct specification conditions was examined. Six levels of misspecification and four sample sizes were used. Even a small number of errors in the weight specifications resulted in large RMS values. However, weight matrices with a high proportion of nonzero elements tended to yield RMSs that were approximately half as large as those with a small number of nonzero elements. Although sample size had some effect on the RMS values, it was quite small compared to that due to the level of misspecification of the weights. The results suggest that because specifying the elements in the weight matrix is a subjective process, it must be done with great care.