bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Division and Cohesion in the Working Class: Artisans and Wage Labourers in Ecuador
Authors: Middleton Alan
Published: February 2009

It is through the organisation of labour that class interests and class antagonisms become manifest. A major problem with recent debates about the informal sector, petty commodity producers or the marginalised labour force is that their structural positions in the economy have not been translated into class analysis, whereby the social position of the sector of the labour force under discussion is clearly identified in relation to other groups in society. As a result, conflicting interests are not fully discussed and the capacity of the urban poor for organising and working towards the amelioration of their condition is ignored.
The Failure of Democracy in Argentina 1916–1930: An Institutional Perspective
Authors: Potter Anne L.
Published: February 2009

This article draws attention to the importance of institutional structures to the stability opf demoratic regimes through an examination of the failure of democracy in the case of Argentina between 1912 and 1930. The analysis of a single case does not make a theory. but it seems clear that a focus on the Argentine case does force one to look at institutional factors that have largely been neglected in recent research.
Secularization, Integration and Rationalization: Some Perspectives from Latin American Thought
Authors: Williams Edward J.
Published: February 2009

For the past couple of decades the Latin Americans, like their brethren in Africa and Asia, have been hell-bent in search of ‘development’ or ‘modernization’. While the Latin Americans were on the firing line, scholars and policy-makers in both the rich nations and the poor nations were involved in setting out an intellectual framework for analyzing the developmental process. New concepts to explain the meaning of development were devised; innovative measurements to gauge the level of development were proposed; a new vocabulary to capture the nuances of development was put forth.
Pardos, Indians, and the Army of New Spain: Inter-Relationships and Conflicts, 1780–1810
Authors: Archer Christon I.
Published: February 2009

Historians have long grappled with the problem of defining the precise nature of eighteenth-century Mexican society. Not only was the confused tangle of racial types which resulted from the three centuries of miscegenation vitally important in establishing social status, but special corporations further divided the population into privileged groups and jurisdictions. Society was split into three general categories: ethnic whites,criollo(American-born) andgachupín(European-born); Indians; and finally thecastas(castes) who belonged to the many racial permutations.
Foreign Finance in Argentina for the First Half-Century of Independence
Authors: Platt D. C. M.
Published: February 2009

Extreme nationalism and a web of conspiracy theories make it particularly difficult to distinguish history from myth for the experience of foreign finance in Argentina. Julio Irazusta agrees with Raúl Scalabrini Ortíz that the London Loan of 1824 (the Baring Loan) was part of a system of spoliation, on a continental scale, by which Britons and their Government exacted full payment for the recognition of the newly independent Republics. Ortega and Duhalde report a gentleman’s agreement between London bankers in the mid-1802s; Hispanic America was to be partitioned into spheres of influence and Baring Brothers were left with the River Plate. The British loans of the 1820s were intended to tie the new Republics firmly to Britain; default was welcome, since ‘guarantees’ could then be enforced by Britain's armed might. Baring Brothers are condemned for failing to pay up the full proceeds of the 1824 loan to Buenos Aires, for plotting to overthrow Juan Manuel de Rosas, for negotiating a harsh settlement of the debt in 1857, and for intervening in one way or another at every stage in the politics and economics of Argentina, even to the extent of promoting the Paraguayan War.
New Economic Thinking in Latin America
Authors: Ocampo José Antonio
Published: February 2009

It is difficult to state positively whether truly ‘autonomous’ economic thinking has ever existed in Latin America. Nevertheless, even if this reservation is correct, some ‘autonomy’ has existed in such currents as structuralism and the dependency school. In both there are undeniable outside influences. In the first, there is a clear association with the Keynesian school which took over economic thought in the developed countries in the 1930s and led to aggressive state interventionism. In the second, the additional influence of Marxism is also evident. However, these currents in regional thought, together with the external influences mentioned, produced an interpretation of economic and social developments in the region which gave them a very autonomous character. They also demonstrated a great capacity to influence currents of thought outside Latin America. They were, in fact, one of the most important foundations of Third World thought, which developed and spread in the 1960s, and they have had a very noticeable impact on academic ideas in the northern hemisphere, although more especially in social sciences other than economics.
Mexican Junkers and Capitalist Haciendas, 1810–1910: The Arable Estate and the Transition to Capitalism between the Insurgency and the Revolution
Authors: Miller Simon
Published: February 2009

According to Barrington Moore ‘the process of modernization begins with peasant revolutions that fail’.1Most historians of Mexico would agree that the nineteenth century opened with such an agrarian insurrection – the Insurgency – and yet it is indisputable that modernisation was a long time coming. Indeed, for many years the conventional view was that it took another such agrarian rising, the Mexican Revolution of 1910–20, to finally break the ‘feudal’ hold on the countryside and usher in a belated phase of modernisation.
Industrial Transformation and Labour Relations in Puerto Rico: From ‘Operation Bootstrap’ to the 1970s
Authors: Caban Pedro A.
Published: February 2009

During the 1950s and 1960s Puerto Rico's industrial transformation was accompanied by social stability and relatively peaceful labour relations, which were essential for a development programme dependent upon foreign investments. The state took a central role in this process, as it guided economic activity and mobilised vital human and material resources. However, by the late 1960s profound changes in the island's political economy threatened this state-guided development programme. This essay traces the history of Puerto Rican economic change and the relationship between industrial transformation and the state's capacity to manage the operation of the economy, particularly industrial relations up to the late 1970s. Four features of this process will be examined: (1) labour relations during the early phase of industrialisation; (2) the changes in the economy resulting from the expansion of capital-intensive industrial sectors; (3) the impact of these changes on the state's capacity to manage the political economy, particularly its fiscal policy; and (4) how these changes altered the nature of state-labour relations.
Rebels Without a Cause? The Politics of Entrepreneurs in Chihuahua
Authors: Mizrahi Yemile
Published: February 2009

On 13 July 1992, the Partido Acción Nacional (PAN) scored an important victory in the northern state of Chihuahua, winning not only the gubernatorial election, but also the most important cities of the state and a majority in the local Congress. As in the previous elections of 1986, one of the characteristics of this electoral process was the overt participation of entrepreneurs in the opposition, particularly small and medium-size entrepreneurs.
The Chilean Socialist Party: Prolegomena to its Ideology and Organization
Authors: Pollack Benny
Published: February 2009

It is common knowledge that, prior to the military coup of 1973, Chile was the only Latin American country to have strong workers' political parties of the European type. Many reasons have been given for this phenomenon, but it is clear that Chile has been the only country in Latin-America to allow the development of Marxist parties with strong appeal and a strong following, within the framework of what could be called liberal, democratic processes. Up to 1970, the electoral force of the Socialist and Communist Parties in Chile oscillated between 20 and 30 per cent of the total national electorate. This rose to more than 40 per cent during 1975.
The Myth of a Central American Dictators' League
Authors: Grieb Kenneth J.
Published: February 2009

A series of military dictators came to power in the four nothern republics of Central America during the Great Depression of the 1930s and perpetuated themselves in office through continuismo tactics until roughly the conclusion of the Second World War: General Jorge Ubico, the first and strongest of these caudillos, ruled Guatemala from 1931 to 1944; General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez governed El Salvador from December 1931 to 1944; General Tiburcio Carías Andino dominated Honduras from 1933 to 1946; and General Anastasio Somoza García controlled Nicaragua from 1936 to 1956.
Sugar and Social Change in Oriente, Cuba, 1898–1946
Authors: Hoernel Robert B.
Published: February 2009

During the first decades of the present century, in that area of eastern Cuba which lies beyond a boundary formed by the Rio Cabreras in the north and the Rio Jobabo in the south, a unique social transformation took place which is of particular interest and importance. More than simply a transition from the traditional to the modern, Oriente's society underwent revolutionary change as a result not only of foreign influence but also of foreign control and design calculated to produce both modernization and ‘Americanization’. As it became increasingly apparent that these twin objectives could not be easily accomplished, a third consideration, economic, advantage, quickly emerged and rose to a position of dominance. Capital accumulation and the profit motive catalyzed a process of change produced by the reaction of two dissimilar cultures: one comparatively inert and native, the other highly dynamic and foreign, to produce sugar and a mutated society. Perhaps all societies which were once heavily engaged in sugar culture have developed mutations in some sense of the word, but in Oriente's case the term is particularly apt.
Carlos Pellegrini and the Politics of Early Argentine Industrialization, 1873–1906
Authors: Guy Donna J.
Published: February 2009

Until the 1870s, Argentina was principally a pastoral nation totally depenlent upon trade with more advanced nations to provide basic necessities. Yet, within a brief span of about thirty years, it became a major producer of livestock products, cereals and flour for export, and of a wide variety of foodstuffs and other consumer goods for internal consumption. Most of this had been achieved by the application of protective tariffs to nascent industrial activities, and by the importation and use of new machinery and technology to process available raw materials. Thus, unlike other Latin American nations which had not yet begun the arduous process of modernization, Argentina had already embarked on a program of import substitution and State-encouraged industrialization in the late nineteenth century.
The Military Institution Revisited: Some Notes on Corporatism and Military Rule in Latin America
Authors: Philip George
Published: February 2009

Does political science advance or do fashions merely change? There can be no doubt that this past decade has seen a major change in the ways in which the nature of military rule in Latin America has been examined. To a large extent, this has been due to changes in the nature of Latin American governments themselves and, more particularly, to the emergence of the long term military-bureaucratic (sometimes called bureaucratic-authotitarian) government.
Juscelino Kubitschek and the 1960 Presidential Election
Authors: Maram Sheldon
Published: February 2009

Brazilian specialists have long recognised the importance of the 1960 presidential elections, which set in motion a process that culminated in a 21—year military dictatorship. Only in 1989 did Brazilians witness once again the direct election of a president. Nonetheless, scholarly literature on this event is sparse and often tends toward the ahistorical view that the election of Jânio Quadros in 1960 was part of an inexorable process. Almost entirely ignored are the reasons why Brazil's largest political party, the Partido Social Democrático or PSD, nominated for president a weak candidate, Marshal of the Brazilian Army Henrique Teixeira Lott.1

Clearly, Lott himself was not part of a praetorian guard that imposed his candidacy. Indeed, the Marshal was a reluctant candidate, who offered to withdraw in October 1959 in favour of a ‘national unity candidate’.2In my view Lott's nomination had much more to do with a complex series of manoeuvres carried out by Brazil's president Juscelino Kubitschek (1956–61) than with his own actions. For Kubitschek, the political parties and presidential aspirants in 1960 were merely pawns in his highly personalistic vision of the political process. Constitutionally barred from seeking immediate re—election, Kubitschek initially manoeuvred to induce his party, the PSD, not to run its own presidential candidate. When this effort failed, he displayed, at the very least, ambivalence regarding the fate of the party's candidate.

An analysis of Kubitschek's actions and motivations presents methodological challenges to the historian. Historians traditionally rely heavily on written documentation to support their analysis of actions and motivations.
Inflation and Social Pacts in Brazil and Mexico
Authors: Roxborough Ian
Published: February 2009

The politics of inflation in Latin America

In recent years inflation has accelerated in Latin America to become a seemingly intractable problem. In many countries, even when high inflation or hyperinflation has been brought down, the inflationary ‘floor’ has remained high, with all the appearance of a series of upward and irreversible steps. The underlying average annual rate of inflation has tended to rise steadily, as can be seen in the table overleaf.

The reasons for persisting high inflation and for the seeming inability of government policy to bring inflation down in a lasting manner are complex and controversial. Moreover, as a number of authors have noted,1 the reasons for the failure of anti-inflationary policy are often, in some measure, political as well as purely economic. For one thing, inflation, and efforts to control inflation, involve a redistributive struggle the political costs of which the government may be unable or unwilling to bear. In addition, the government simply may not have the administrative capacity to implement certain measures effectively. For example, one way of restoring fiscal balance may be to increase taxes on wealth-holders, but this may not be a politically feasible option for many governments. Central governments may have limited control over the spending of regional and local governments, or over state-owned corporations, and may therefore have difficulty in controlling expenditure. Moreover, effective anti-inflationary policy may require political conditions that may simply not be present in many Latin American political systems. For example, in September 1989, towards the end of the Sarney government in Brazil, inflation was running at 38% per month.
Un problème de linguistique appliquée: une graphie phonologique pour le français
Authors: Martinet André
Published: February 2009

Tous les efforts qui se sont poursuivis depuis le début de ce siècle pour tenter de simplifier l'orthographe du français ont paru sombrer dans l'indifférence générale et se solder par autant d'échecs. On pourrait donc croire que les Français et les francophones en général sont satisfaits de leur orthographe ou qu'en tout cas, ils ne désirent pas que soit reposé le problème de la graphie de leur langue. Or, il semble bien qu'il n'en soit rien. Si l'opinion publique, inconsciente de l'existence d'un problème parce que ne distinguant pas entre langue et graphie, n'est pas touchée, le monde des éducateurs, aussi bien ceux de l'enseignement du second degré que les instituteurs, s'est montré ces dernières années fort sensible aux critiques dont l'orthographe a été l'objet. Dans les contacts qui se multiplient et s'intensifient, à l'heure actuelle, entre linguistes professionnels et enseignants avides de “recyclage”, la question de l'orthographeest celle qui paraît susciter l'intérêt le plus vif. Sensibilisés par l'insuffisance flagrante des résultats obtenus par tous les efforts faits pour inculquer l'orthographe à leurs élèves, instituteurs et professeurs prennent conscience du fait que l'orthographe française est inadaptée aux conditions du monde d'aujourd'hui, à supposer que le système graphique du français, qui doit tant de ses traits à l'intervention de beaux-esprits, ait jamais, depuis quatre cents ans, été adapté aux besoins réels de la société française. Pour être sûr que l'ensemble de la population scolaire qui doit poursuivre des études au-delà des éléments ait acquis un maniement simplement satisfaisant de l'orthographe, il faudrait probablement que, pendant cinq ans, la moitié du temps disponible à, l'école soit consacré à, des exercices visant à, ce but.
Arse and ass
Authors: de Camp L. Sprague
Published: February 2009

Anglo-Saxon had a word œrs, meaning ‘rump, podex, buttocks,’ which evolved into Early Modern English arse, pronounced approximately [aɹs]. Normally, this evolution would have eventually produced a word spelled arse and pronounced [ɑːs] in Southern British and [ɑɹs] in General American. In Southern British, this development followed its normal course. In Anglophone North America, however, the word developed differently. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, a tendency appeared in America to level the combination ar = [aɹ], when followed by a voiceless lingual in certain combinations, with ‘short a’ = [æ]. Hence, for cartridge, hearth, parcel, appeared the pronunciations [ˈkætrιdƷ, hæθ, ].
Suggestions for a Golfball Typing-Head with Phonetic Symbols
Authors: Geršić Slavko
Published: February 2009

The photographic production of scientific publications is on the increase. Consequently manuscripts which are fit for reproduction in this manner are necessary. Phonetic and linguistic papers often call for a mixed script, i.e. both the typemes of one (or more than one) language and the transcription symbols (phonetic and phonemic) are used. The preparation of a typescript of this sort is laborious even with the aid of a phonetic tandem-typewriter.
Stockport revisited
Authors: Lodge K. R.
Published: February 2009

1. In Lodge (1966), the data presented for the dialect of Stockport, Cheshire, did not show up the possible contrastive opposition in the vowels mentioned by Wells (1970: 238; in Wells' transcription, /e/: /ε̌/). It concerns the reflexes of ME ā, as in name, and ME e + gh (= voiceless palatal or velar fricative), as in eight, which have fallen together in RP. In the North of England, however, including part of the N.W. Midlands, the retension of [ç] and [x] longer than elsewhere in the country has caused differences in phoneme allocation and distribution. In the light of further evidence from Stockport and further experience of dialectal reflexes of Middle English, it seemed worthwhile re-assessing the phonemic interpretation of the Stockport data and comparing a few features of the phonology with older forms of speech from around the same area. We shall restrict our attention mainly to the vowel systems, with particular reference to the distinction mentioned above.
The changing sound pattern of a German dialect
Authors: Smith J. B.
Published: February 2009

The subject of these notes is the dialect of Mudau, a small market-town in the south-eastern Odenwald, 18 km N.E. of Eberbach (Neckar) and 19 km S.S.W. of Miltenberg (Main). The population numbers around 1700 and the main means of livelihood are shop-keeping, agriculture and local light industry.
The undesirability of length marks in EFL phonemic transcription
Authors: Lewis J. Windsor
Published: February 2009

In ‘Another note on RP notation’ (1974) Gordon Walsh of the Longman Materials Development Unit made some comments on the 1972 JIPA article of mine, on the notation of the British English segmental phonemes, which had offered an explanation of the symbol choices embodied in my Concise Pronouncing Dictionary and also used by me in the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English (1974).
Some additions to the phonetic alphabet
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N.
Published: February 2009

The following suggestions emerge from my paper read at the Eighth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences and recapitulate proposals made at the meeting of the International Phonetic Association held in connection with that Congress.
Four low-level pronunciation rules of Northern States English
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N.
Published: February 2009

Before presenting the facts and discussions with which this writing is concerned, it may be helpful to clarify a few concepts, items of terminology, and transcriptional practices with which some readers may not be familiar. Much of my point of view depends on a prejudice that seems obvious to me, but is probably not shared by every reader: The difference between a phonological transcription (which employs underlying segments, partially altered, and accents written over syllabic peaks) and a phonetic transcription in square brackets (which employs symbols for actual sounds and uses ticks to indicate stress onsets—which vary in English with the tempo) is that the latter is as close to the sounds spoken and heard as possible. Although phonological analyses may and do eliminate redundancies (including complementarities), this seems to me inappropriate for transcriptions claiming to be phonetic—those that result from the output of the latest-ordered sound rules. Admittedly, one has to abstract somewhat (every utterance of a sound is slightly different), but I do not think we ought to abstract redundancies from phonetic transcriptions beyond those that are more or less inevitable and universal—the different forms of [k] in [ɑka, uku, ukɑ, ɑku] or the devoicing of sonorant consonants after tautosyllabic fricatives. A few compromises have to be made for the sake of practical utility, but I would say that they should be no more redundancy-free than is minimally necessary, and that they should represent the output of the latest low-level rule. Otherwise, they are, to some degree, phonological, not phonetic transcriptions.
Dysarthria – a case study
Authors: Lott Bernard
Published: February 2009

In February 1977, at the age of 54, I was admitted to hospital suffering from acute supraventricular tachycardia. The attack had perhaps been brought on iatrogenically, by side effects of medication for raised diastolic blood pressure. Four days later, while still in hospital, I suffered a cerebro-vascular accident (stroke) causing a left hemiplegia which resulted in total dysphagia and dysarthria as the most notable symptoms.
Differences between Modern Standard Cantonese and the Xiantang sub-dialect in terms of phonological oppositions
Authors: Kiu K. L.
Published: February 2009

The term ‘modern standard Cantonese’ (hereafter referred to as MSC) as used in this paper refers to the language spoken by the majority of people in Guangzhou (Canton) and in nearby places such as Macau and Hong Kong. It is well known that many varieties (or sub-dialects) of Cantonese are found in the various counties and districts of the Guangdong (Kwantung) province. The sub-dialect under discussion (hereafter referred to as XSD) is spoken in a village called Xiantang (‘fairy pond’) in the commune of Longjiang of the Shunde county. This paper is based on field work done during a visit to the village and material gathered from interviews with informants in Guangzhou and Hong Kong. As a speaker of MSC trying to communicate with speakers of XSD I found that the main obstacle to intelligibility is the fact that certain phonological oppositions in MSC do not exist in XSD. Once this hurdle is cleared there is not much communication problem. I have decided to use MSC as a sort of basis in this purely synchronic study mainly because it would facilitate discussion, as a lot of work has been done on this dialect already.
Phonetic rarities in Pirahã
Authors: Everett Daniel Leonard
Published: February 2009

Pirahã is interesting from both a phonetic and a phonological perspective. While possessing an apparently simple phonemic inventory (consisting of eight consonants, three vowels and two tones) it demonstrates a great deal of variation at the phonetic level. It is the purpose of this paper to document two phonetic rarities in Pirahã, one of which, [i] has been recorded for no other language, to the knowledge of the present writer.
On some phonetic characteristics of the Cantonese sub-dialect spoken by the boat people from Pu Tai island
Authors: Kiu K. L.
Published: February 2009

It is well known that Hong Kong has a floating population consisting mostly of fishermen. These fisherfolk call themselves the ‘boat people’ (shuishang ren literally, ‘people on water’), and upon being asked their native county, they would usually reply, “We're boat people” instead of naming a particular county in the Guangdong Province as is the usual custom. The boat people, of course, are not a homogeneous group as far as speech is concerned. The informants interviewed for the present study came from the Pu Tai Island (a small island to the southeast of Hong Kong). The children went to school on Pu Tai, while the grownups went out to sea to work for their living. About eight years ago the family gave up their boats and settled on land. The speech of this family and that of some friends who were also formerly boat people exhibit certain phonetic characteristics which are interesting departures from Modern Standard Cantonese (hereafter referred to as MSC), the dialect spoken by the majority of people in Guangzhou, Hong Kong and Macau.
The initials of Chengdu speech as compared with Standard Chinese
Authors: Fengtong Zhang
Published: February 2009

Chengdu speech is the received pronunciation among the various Sichuan dialects spoken by ten million people in Southwest China. In this short paper, I intend to discuss the characteristics of the initials of Chengdu speech as compared with Standard Chinese. The following abbreviations and conventions are used: CDH = Chengduhua, i.e. Chengdu speech of Chinese. PTH = Putonghua, Standard Chinese based on Beijing pronunciation. CPA = the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet. Chinese characters are transliterated into CPA first when they are cited as examples. A phonetic transcription of CDH pronunciation follows, in square brackets. Tone symbols are placed before the CDH syllable: [̄] High Level, [̖] Low Falling, [̀] High Falling, [̬] Fall-rise. For PTH the tone symbol is placed above the CPA nuclear vowel letter e.g. mā High Level, má High Rising, mǎ Fall-rise, mà High Falling.
“Le zed à ventre” or A functional approach to phonetic notation
Authors: Martinet André
Published: February 2009

An international or, better, a universal phonetic alphabet is a set of conventions where each letter is equated with a physically well-identified speech sound. In scientific practice, the use of such an alphabet is imperative when an auditory or mechanical recording of vocal utterances is to be given a visual rendering. It must be kept in mind that the latter, a succession of discrete symbols, cannot be considered the exact equivalent of the former, a continuous flux.
Something about the perception of rhythm
Authors: Uldall Elizabeth
Published: February 2009

In 1972 (Uldall (1972)) I measured the durations of all the two-syllable rhythmic feet in Professor David Abercrombie's reading of ‘The North Wind and the Sun’, to see how they fitted his three types of two-syllable feet (Abercrombie (1964)), A short-long, B equal-equal, and C long-short (with a word-boundary between the syllables). I measured all the segments in the words, on broad band spectrograms. The text had been marked for stress by Professor Abercrombie while listening to the tape.
Production and perception of sibilant fricatives: Shona data
Authors: Bladon Anthony , Clark Christopher , Mickey Katrina
Published: February 2009

This research began out of two overlapping motives. First, we have been observing what have impressionistically been termed ‘whistling’ fricatives in Shona (and also, though not reported here, in another language, Jibbali); we felt that there was room for a fuller analysis of some aspects of their production characteristics. Second, sibilance in general offers plenty of scope for what Delattre called the ‘quest of the Holy Grail’ in phonetics: the search for features of relevance to perception. More background to both the production and the perception issues will be given as we proceed.
The revision of the IPA
Authors: Canepari Luciano
Published: February 2009

In response to the report by Ladefoged and Roach on the future of the International Phonetic Association, I would like to offer some comments to the debate which is taking place in this Journal on the proposed revision of the IPA chart (including prosodic signs). This revision is, in the main, an articulatory and auditory task. I would like to draw your attention to my book Phonetic Notation / La Notazione Fonetica (1983), in which I have provided a complete revision and expansion of the International Phonetic Alphabet. The charts summarizing my list of symbols, adapted from pp. 35–37 of the book, appear below (Figure 1).
Educational phonetics
Authors: Jenner Bryan
Published: February 2009

The first Educational Phonetics section of JIPA shows a preoccupation with the theory, practice and results of language teaching. Clearly this area of professional interest will continue to occupy the interests of phoneticians as it has done ever since the Association was founded. Windsor Lewis's note addresses the perennial question of which phonological varieties of English should be set up as models for the non-native learner of English, while Jenner's article offers an alternative approach to the description of non-native accents which may suggest a novel basis for the organisation of pronunciation teaching. Contributions have been promised in other areas of professional interest, but did not materialise in time to be incorporated in this issue.
6. Past successes and failures of the IPA
Authors: Macmahon Michael
Published: February 2009

Ideally, we want to be able to state authoritatively which of the IPA's stipulations meet with acceptance, which are regarded as controversial, and which appear to have failed to make any impact at all. Account will have to be taken of the work not only of phoneticians, but also of colleagues in any discipline which uses phonetic terminology and notation.
The Representation of Stress-Patterns in Pronunciation Dictionaries: ‘Morse-Code’ vs. Orthographic Marking
Authors: Stromberg Karen , Roach Peter
Published: February 2009

The marking of stress in English phonetics has traditionally used a small vertical bar placed before the stressed syllable, though some dictionaries which provide an indication of pronunciation have used other conventions such as bold or italic typeface to denote the primary stressed syllable. In all the editions of the English Pronouncing Dictionary (e.g. Jones 1988), including the current one (hereafter referred to as EPD14), the vertical bar has been used, in superscript position for the primary stressed syllable and in subscript position for the secondary stressed syllable.
Modifications of the IPA chart
Authors: Laufer Asher
Published: February 2009

As the IPA chart is published in so many places, and is used also by non-phoneticians, I suggest that we should revise it rarely and, when it is revised, try to make only minimal changes in the chart. Nonetheless, I think that the 1993 revision of the chart resulting from the most recent Council vote (IPA 1993) is not ideal, and a few minor changes are needed. When the time comes, I suggest that the Council should discuss the following six proposals.
Domains of assimilation: alveolars and velars in English
Authors: Lodge Ken
Published: February 2009

Assimilation phenomena involving lexical alveolars and velars are examined in a Stockport accent. It is suggested that the segment is too narrow a domain of investigation for clues to the differentiation of pairs such as leg kept and lead kept. The vowels either side of the consonantal sequence are involved in any kind of assimilation process that takes place, in many cases producing slight differences in dorsal contact between the alveolars and the velars.
A formal analysis of the intonation of modern colloquial Russian (Part II)
Authors: Baldwin J. R.
Published: February 2009

With the corpus organized in the way described in the first part of this article (JIPA 4.2, December 1974) it was possible to move on to the main objective, namely the extraction of a system of intonation from the corpus. In the present work it was a fundamental requirement of the eventual system of intonation that it should account for all the intonation patterns observable in the corpus. It is suggested that this system provides a very adequate means of describing the intonation of modern colloquial Russian in the broader context, although it is not, of course, possible within the limits of this article to test that proposition. If the system is to be descriptive of the intonation of Russian in the widest sense it seems essential that as few assumptions as possible should be made about what is and what is not functional in an intonation system. The problems involved in setting up and testing hypotheses about the function of intonation are considerable, and the only assumption made in this work is that perceivably different intonation patterns could have different functions in the conversational situation—the definition of those functions is not a necessary part of the task here. Given this approach it follows that an intonation system is not regarded as comparable to a phonemic system, in which a relatively small set of functional units will be realized in a very large number of different but not necessarily contrastive ways. Rather it is viewed here as a very much larger set, graded in terms of probability of occurrence.
Notes on some graphetic aspects of RP vowel notation
Authors: James Allan R. , Westney K. J. P.
Published: February 2009

The dominance within the EFL world of the Jones transcription system (DJ), as in the EPD (Jones, 1967), has been seriously challenged by the adoption of the new Windsor Lewis system (WL) in the Concise Pronouncing Dictionary (Lewis, 1972a) and the new edition of the ALD (Hornby, 1974). This issue (recently discussed in, e.g., Lewis, 1972b, and Walsh, 1974) is likely to remain a lively one at least until the appearance of the simplified Gimson system in the next edition of the EPD ; meanwhile there are other systems that have some claim to use in EFL teaching, e.g. those in Gimson (1970) (G), Abercrombie (1964), and the Edinburgh Course in Applied Linguistics (Allen and Corder, 1974/1975).
Making a transcription: The evolution of A. J. Ellis's Palaeotype
Authors: Local John K.
Published: February 2009

A. J. Ellis's encyclopaedic work On Early English Pronunciation (henceforth EEP) now receives remarkably little serious attention from linguists. This has not always been the case. As long ago as 1877 Sweet hailed EEP as a ‘great work’ which ‘inaugurated the scientific historical study of English pronunciation.’ (viii) Other commentators admittedly have not been so complimentary. Wright, discussing the transcription of dialects in Part V of EEP, was prompted to write that ‘If his rendering … of other dialect speakers is as inaccurate as that of the Windhill dialect, the value of these tests for phonetic and philological purposes is not very great.’ (1892: 174) Orton (1949) found the work ‘defective and unreliable’. Dieth (1946) was equally critical.
IPA Phonemic Transcription Using an IBM PC and Compatibles
Authors: Jassem Wiktor , Łobacz Piotra
Published: February 2009

We have designed special IPA characters for IPA phonemic transcriptions of the following languages: E[nglish—RP and GA], F[rench], G[erman], I[talian], P[olish], R[ussian], Sp[anish] and Sw[edish], using two different programs which can be run under MS-DOS (BIOS) on an IBM PC or compatible. One, the ChiWriter—henceforth CH—is a complete word processor whilst the other, the LETTRIX—henceforth L—has to be combined with a word processor, such as WordStar, which we have used. In either case, we have designed our characters for a 9-pin dot-matrix printer, though CH also allows font design for a 24-pin or a laser printer. A Quality option has to be chosen, which reduces the printing speed by a factor of two with L and four with CH.
Computer Coding of the IPA: Extensions to the IPA
Authors: Ball Martin J.
Published: February 2009

Esling (1990) reports on the computer coding of the IPA as amended to 1989. The coding system consists of three-digit numbers, divided into groups for consonants, vowels, and diacritics by the first digit. The set of coding numbers in the series 6nn was reserved for the symbols for voice quality and pathological speech listed in the Extensions to the IPA drawn up by the Group working on these symbols at the Kiel IPA Convention.
More on German [ç] and [x]
Authors: Jassem Wiktor
Published: February 2009

The two notes in JIPA 20(2) by Kohler (1990) and Ladefoged (1990) concerning the phonemic status of present-day Standard German ç] and [x] are one of many pieces of evidence that distributional (‘taxonomic’) phonemics has happily survived the thirty-year war with Generative Phonology and its offspring. But it is common knowledge among linguists that even half a century after Bloch's (1948) classic paper there is still no fixed and exhaustive set of postulates for phonemic analysis. Such questions as partial overlapping or neutralization or—especially important—‘grammatical prerequisites’ (Pike 1947, 1952) are still open issues, and it is quite probable that, at least for the last-named problem, there is no single, universal solution. In fact, it may very well be that languages differ inherently in this respect, and that for some of them the decision cannot be made in categorial terms. In nonextreme cases there may be at least two different solutions, each valid within its respective framework, one based on the assumption of the analytical primacy of grammatical (or part-grammatical) analysis, and the other on the reverse assumption of pure phonetic distribution. But even with juşt one of these alternatives, one given phonetic-environmental description may lead to a number of different solutions, as exemplified with particular conspicuity by Łobacz (1973). Admitting the alternative of primacy of morphemic analysis vs. pure phonetic distribution, she demonstrated that 504 (sic) different phonemic interpretations of one kind of Standard Polish are possible.
Jewish Christianity in Post-Apostolic Times
Authors: Munck J.
Published: February 2009

The words ‘Jewish-Christian’ and ‘Jewish Christianity’ are used in several different senses within the field of New Testament research. Some scholars—no doubt oneself included on occasion—use them with varying significance in the same article or book, so that the reader is either led astray, or discovers that the words do not have the same meaning every time they occur. The aim of the following is to draw attention to this fact, of which perhaps not everyone is aware, and to attempt to reach a clearer usage of the term Jewish Christianity; and I shall therefore now try to formulate and answer certain questions that may throw light on the conditions described by the terms in question, and on the use of these terms.
The Destination and Purpose of St John's Gospel
Authors: Robinson J. A. T.
Published: February 2009

For whom and for what, to what audience and to what purpose, were the four Gospels written? This is one of the most elementary questions of New Testament study, and one might think that by now the answers could be given with some degree of certainty and consent. And of the first three Gospels I think this is broadly true. Naturally there will always be room for fresh lines of development and approach, but they are unlikely to modify very radically the conclusions which can be found set out in any text-book. If one had to reduce these conclusions to their barest summary, one could say, without immediate fear of contradiction, that St Matthew's Gospel was evidently written for a Jewish-Christian community, and that its overall purpose was broadly speakingcatechetical; that St Mark's Gospel was composed for a predominantly Gentile community and that its primary purpose waskerygmatic, setting out, for the use of the Church, a summary of its proclamation; and that St Luke's Gospel, as he himself indicates, was again addressed, though more generally, to the Graeco-Roman world, and that its purpose wasinstructional, with the defence and confirmation of the Gospel as a dominant motif.
The Holy Name of the God of Moses and the Prologue of St John's Gospel
Authors: Hayward C. T. R.
Published: February 2009

It is now over twenty years since Alejandro Dez Macho announced his discovery of a complete text of the Palestinian Targum contained in the Codex Neofiti I of the Vatican Library. Even before the first volume of the editio princeps was published, the importance of Neofiti 1(N) and its marginal and interlinear glosses (Ngl) was apparent not only to specialists in the Aramaic language, Old Testament studies, and Jewish Literature of the Second Temple, Mishnaic and Talmudic times, but also to New Testament scholars. A particular feature of N which was bound to attract attention sooner or later is its frequent use of the formula Memra (utterance, word) of ahweh in the first chapter of Genesis in place of the Ἐlohim of the Massoretic Text, a feature encountered otherwise only in the Fragmentary Targum (FT). As we shall see presently, the exact significance of the term Memra was once a matter for keen scholarly debate, some asserting that it represented an entity separate from God, an intermediary between God and the created order, others roundly denying that it was any such thing, and regarding it only as a reverent means of avoiding pronunciation of the Holy and Ineffable Name. For reasons shortly to be described it was the latter opinion which finally prevailed and which is now generally accepted as established fact; but in the days before the scholarly debate on Memra was concluded it had been quite common for New Testament scholars to argue that, as an hypostasis and intermediary between God and the world, Memra had formed either the single antecedent, or one of the antecedents, to the Logos of the prologue of St John's Gospel. The presence of Memra in the text of N to Gen. i, and its frequent appearance in the Ngl, has led to renewed scholarly interest in the relationship of Memra to St John's Logos, so much so that A. Dez Macho, McNamara, and Domingo Muoz are all prepared to consider Memra a key concept in any discussion of St John's prologue. With the results of previous scholarship in mind, and in the light of new evidence, it would appear that the time is now right for a critical evaluation of these recent claims.
Worship in the Jerusalem Temple after A.D. 70
Authors: Clark Kenneth W.
Published: February 2009

One of the best known facts of ancient history is the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in A.D. 70. Yet another, and related, historical datum, although known, has been greatly slighted: the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple in A.D. 135. Between the First Revolt and the Second Revolt there lies a history of the Jewish State of sixty-five years which has come to be treated as something less than an epilogue. This period in the State's continued existence is an important lacuna that requires to be filled in, and to that end we here raise a single question: ‘Did Jews worship on the holy mountain until the final destruction in A.D. 135?’
Erwägungen zur synoptischen Textkritik
Authors: Greeven Heinrich
Published: February 2009

In der weiten Landschaft der Textkritik gibt es zweifellos ein hochinteressantes Gebiet, so interessant, daß es gelegentlich sogar die Augen einer breiteren Öffentlichkeit auf sich zieht: die Handschriftenfunde. Dort nämlich warten vielleicht noch die größten Überraschungen; von da aus können seit langem anerkannte Ergebnisse wieder fragwürdig werden. Gerade die letzten Jahrzehnte haben gezeigt, wie wenig Grund zu der Annahme besteht, daß die Erde, daß verstaubte Klosterbibliotheken, oder was es sonst an Schlupfwinkeln geben mag, bereits alle Schätze preisgegeben, alle Geheimnisse verraten hätten. Aber mit so aufregenden Dingen haben es die Erwägungen leider nicht zu tun, die ich hier anstellen möchte. Sie wollen vielmehr einladen zu einem Blick in die staubige Werkstatt, wo das seit Generationen gesammelte Material nun geprüft und verarbeitet wird. Es ist ein ungeheures Material, and man muß sagen, daß die Verarbeitung mit den Funden auch nicht entfernt Schritt halten konnte. Umso dringlicher ist uns diese stets neue Aufgabe der Verarbeitung gestellt.
The Son of Man Again
Authors: Schweizer E. D.
Published: February 2009

In the Old Testament, ‘son of man’ means (1) man in general, (2) the prophet, (3) the eschatological Israel. (1) appears, for example in Ps. viii. 5, is referred to in Heb. ii. 6 and is still present in the background of I Cor. xv. 27 and Eph. i. 2. (2) reflects the usage of Ezechiel. One should never forget that the term occurs here about eighty-seven times: the prophet is addressed as the son of man, filled with God's Spirit (ii. i ff.; iii. 24 f.; xi. 4 f.), watchman of Israel (iii. I7 xxxiii. 7), sent to a rebellious nation (ii. 3). The word of God is his food (ii. 8), but he lives among those who have eyes to see and yet do not see, ears to hear and yet do not hear (xii. 2), who talk about him and run after him, and yet do not do what he says (xxxiii. 30–2), because they think that God's judgement is still far off (xii. 27), so that his message remains riddles and parables for them (xvii. 2, cf. xxi. ). He must not only announce disaster (vi. i ff. etc.), but pronounce God's judgement over Israel (xx. xxii. xxiii. 36), even to kill them (xi. 4, 13; xxi. 19 ff.).
La Signification Christologique d'Eph. IV. 7-10
Authors: Cambier J.
Published: February 2009

On salt que la liturgie latine de la fête de l'ascension, faisant unlégitime usage de la typologie, utilise le ps. lxviii (lxvii). 19a et y insère le nom Christus pour faire exprimer clairement au texte l'événement de l'ascension du Seigneur Jésus; elle fait chanter à làEglise: ‘Ascendens Christus in altum, alleluia, captivam duxit captivitatem, alleluia!’ Le même verset du psaume est cite en Eph. iv. 8, mais avec des transformations intentionnelles qui pourralent bien signifier une application du psaume différente de celle de la liturgie.
Abfassung Und Geschichts Theologie Der Apokalypse Nach Kap. XVII. 9–12
Authors: Strobel A.
Published: February 2009

Die Versuche, auf Grund von Apok. xvii. 9–12 über die Abfassung der Schrift Klarheit zu gewinnen, sind überaus zahlreich. Viele Ausleger haben an diesem Text ihren Scharfsinn erprobt. Trotzdem ist man über plausible und vorzuziehende Lösungen nicht hinausgekommen.1Die Schwierigkeit liegt bekanntlich darin, daß die Reihenfolge der römischen Kaiser nur mit Mühe den einzelnen Aussagen angepaßt werden kann. Sie lauten: