bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Influence of Self-Generated Emotions on Physical Performance: An Investigation of Happiness, Anger, Anxiety, and Sadness
Authors: Rathschlag Marco , Memmert Daniel
Published: August 2016

The present study examined the relationship between self-generated emotions and physical performance. All participants took part in five emotion induction conditions (happiness, anger, anxiety, sadness, and an emotion-neutral state) and we investigated their influence on the force of the finger musculature (Experiment 1), the jump height of a counter-movement jump (Experiment 2), and the velocity of a thrown ball (Experiment 3). All experiments showed that participants could produce significantly better physical performances when recalling anger or happiness emotions in contrast to the emotion-neutral state. Experiments 1 and 2 also revealed that physical performance in the anger and the happiness conditions was significantly enhanced compared with the anxiety and the sadness conditions. Results are discussed in relation to the Lazarus (1991a, 2000a) cognitive-motivational-relational (CMR) theory framework.
Dispositional Coping, Coping Effectiveness, and Cognitive Social Maturity Among Adolescent Athletes
Authors: Nicholls Adam R. , Perry John L. , Jones Leigh , Morley Dave , Carson Fraser
Published: August 2016

It is accepted among scholars that coping changes as people mature during adolescence, but little is known about the relationship between maturity and coping. The purpose of this paper was to assess a model, which included dispositional coping, coping effectiveness, and cognitive social maturity. We predicted that cognitive social maturity would have a direct effect on coping effectiveness, and also an indirect impact via dispositional coping. Two hundred forty-five adolescent athletes completed measures of dispositional coping, coping effectiveness, and cognitive social maturity, which has three dimensions: conscientiousness, peer influence on behavior, and rule following. Using structural equation modeling, we found support for our model, suggesting that coping is related to cognitive social maturity. This information can be used to influence the content of coping interventions for adolescents of different maturational levels.
Does Priming Really Put the Gloss on Performance?
Authors: Winter Stacy , Collins Dave
Published: August 2016

Priming has recently emerged in the literature as offering advantages in the preparation for skilled performance. Accordingly, the current study tested the efficacy of imagery against a priming paradigm as a means of enhancing motor performance: in essence, contrasting a preparation technique primarily under the conscious control of the performer to an unconscious technique promoting automaticity. The imagery intervention was guided by the PETTLEP model, while the priming intervention took the form of a scrambled sentence task. Eighteen skilled field-hockey players performed a dribbling task under imagery, priming, skill-focus, and control conditions. Results revealed a significant improvement in speed and technical accuracy for the imagery condition as opposed to the skill-focus, control, and priming conditions. In addition, there were no significant differences in performance times or technical accuracy between the priming and control conditions. The study provides further support for the efficacy of imagery to elicit enhanced motor skill performance but questions the emerging emphasis on priming as an effective tool in preparation for physical tasks.
“Coveting Thy Neighbour’s Legs”: A Qualitative Study of Exercisers’ Experiences of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Goal Pursuit
Authors: Sebire Simon J. , Standage Martyn , Gillison Fiona B. , Vansteenkiste Maarten
Published: August 2016

Goals are central to exercise motivation, although not all goals (e.g., health vs. appearance goals) are equally psychologically or behaviorally adaptive. Within goal content theory (Vansteenkiste, Niemiec, & Soenens, 2010), goals are adaptive to the extent to which they satisfy psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. However, little is known about what exercisers pursuing different goals are feeling, doing, thinking, and paying attention to that may help to explain the association between goal contents and need satisfaction. Using semistructured interviews and interpretative phenomenological analysis, we explored experiences of exercise among 11 adult exercisers who reported pursuing either predominantly intrinsic or extrinsic goals. Four themes emerged: (a) observation of others and resulting emotions, (b) goal expectations and time perspective, (c) markers of progress and (d) reactions to (lack of) goal achievement. Intrinsic and extrinsic goal pursuers reported divergent experiences within these four domains. The findings illuminate potential mechanisms by which different goals may influence psychological and behavioral outcomes in the exercise context.
The Influence of Referees’ Expertise, Gender, Motivation, and Time Constraints on Decisional Bias Against Women
Authors: Souchon Nicolas , Livingstone Andrew G. , Maio Gregory R.
Published: August 2016

The influence of player gender on referees’ decision making was experimentally investigated. In Experiment 1, including 145 male handball referees, we investigated (a) the influence of referees’ level of expertise on their decisional biases against women and (b) the referees’ gender stereotypes. Results revealed that biases against women were powerful regardless of the referees’ level of expertise and that male referees’ stereotype toward female players tends to be negative. In Experiment 2, including 115 sport science students, we examined the influence of the participants’ gender, motivation to control bias, and time constraints on gender bias. Results indicated that participants’ gender had no impact on gender bias and that participants were able to reduce this bias in conditions in which they were motivated to control the bias.
Sport Management: Past, Present, Future
Authors: Zeigler Earle F.
Published: August 2016

The author argues that present conditions justify an analysis of sport management, broadly interpreted, from the standpoint of its historical background, its present status, and its possible future. Three reasons are given: A new North American Society for Sport Management has just been established; serious criticism has been leveled at both professional sport and so-called educational sport; and management theory and practice has become an increasingly complex subject. Several questions are considered: What has been the historical background of sport management? What is its present status? What plan should be followed for the finest sort of progress in the years ahead? And what may be reasonably concluded from this analysis? The author concludes that (a) the field still has an opportunity to relate significantly to the developing social science of management but time is running short; (b) the vast enterprise that is sport must relate more effectively to the urgent need for qualified managers; (c) the new North American Society for Sport Management can make a significant contribution to this development; and (d) such development should be carried out in full cooperation with the National Association for Sport and Physical Education within the AAHPERD and the Canadian Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation.
Organizational Structure
Authors: Jackson John J.
Published: August 2016

Sport has a multitude of organizations, which are social systems organized for the attainment of particular types of goals. Organizations are characterized by divisions of labor, power, and communication responsibilities through which regularities such as task allocation, supervision, and coordination are developed. Such regularities constitute the organization’s structure, which is described here in terms of formal relations and communication.
Journal of Sport Management Readership Survey
Authors: Danylchuk Karen E. , Judd Michael R.
Published: August 2016

A readership survey of Journal of Sport Management (JSM) subscribers was conducted to investigate the journal's readership and usage. A secondary purpose was to examine the usage of other journals for teaching, research, and publication. A total of 178 respondents answered the survey for a return rate of 44.5%. General satisfaction with the journal was reflected in the positive comments ascribed to the journal as well as in the high ratings for readership and value of each section of the journal. The most frequently mentioned suggestions/comments for the journal were as follows: (a) Make it more practically oriented, (b) increase the number of issues, (c) provide some focus for job positions/openings and contacts for graduates seeking employment, (d) maintain or increase the theoretical orientation, and (e) provide more international contributions. JSM was considered the most important journal for the sport management profession by 76% of the respondents.
Telecasts and Recruiting in NCAA Division I Football: The Impact of Altered Property Rights
Authors: Fizel John L. , Bennett Randall W.
Published: August 2016

In 1984, the Supreme Court altered the property rights to college football telecasts by granting individual schools the right to negotiate contracts for telecasts, a privilege previously held by the NCAA. This paper provides an empirical analysis of the impact of that decision on recruiting success in college football. The results suggest that the recruiting success of traditional football powers improved relative to that of nonpowers following the court decision. Such results support the NCAA contention that restrictions on television appearances are needed to achieve recruiting equity.
Factors Considered Important for Evaluating Canadian University Athletic Coaches
Authors: MacLean Joanne , Zakrajsek Dorothy
Published: August 2016

Evaluating coaching performance based on the use of job-specific assessment criteria has been particularly problematic for college athletic departments. The purpose of this study was to assess the importance attached to six dimensions of criteria rated by administrators (n = 87) and coaches (n = 532) in the Canadian Interuniversity Athletic Union. The six dimensions were team products, personal products, direct task behaviors, indirect task behaviors, administrative maintenance behaviors, and public relation behaviors. The results of Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MÁNOVA) and repeated measures ANOVA showed that, in general, administrators and coaches held similar beliefs about the criteria important for coaching evaluation, but they had some differences in the order of importance of the dimensions. Both groups rated direct task behaviors—that is, the specific abilities or skills used directly in the day-today practice of coaching—as the most important dimension of grouped evaluation criteria.
Professional Baseball Management and Playoffs: The Impact of the Wild Card Round
Authors: Boronico Jess S.
Published: August 2016

Professional baseball has witnessed radical reform over the past few years, partially due to management's increasing concern with a diminished public image. One such reform involves the format of baseball playoffs, which is expected to impact on the level of interest in the game through an extended playoff format and closer pennant races. The new playoff structure includes a wild card entrant and one additional tier of playoff games in each league. The analysis here suggests that this format increases the likelihood that upsets will occur. It is also shown that given a fixed number of games within which to conduct multitiered playoffs, allocation rules may be determined so that the distribution of games to each tier may be set in order to maximize the probability that the team with the highest winning percentage advances through all tiers successfully.
The Impact of Public Mass Transit on the Operating Income of Professional Sports Franchises in the United States: A Preliminary Analysis for the NFL, MLB, and NBA
Authors: Cebula Richard J. , Austin Richard , Wildener Kimberly , Belton Willie J.
Published: August 2016

This study finds that, due to the timing of games and excess capacity considerations regarding public mass transit, a more functional/usable mass transit system may benefit NFL franchise-operating income but may be nonbeneficial to NBA and MLB franchise incomes. The empirical results were obtained using ordinary least squares estimates for 1993 and allow for a variety of factors, including ticket prices, population size, win/loss records, and stadium/ arena size.
Validating an Instrument to Assess the Motivation of Athletics Donors
Authors: Verner M. Elizabeth , Hecht Jeffrey B. , Fansler A. Gigi
Published: August 2016

This paper describes the development of a survey instrument to assess athletics donor motivation. An extensive literature review, followed by interviews with athletics donors, identified 14 dimensions of donor motivation. Expert review and field testing of potential survey items reduced the number of dimensions of athletics donor motivation to 12. The final instrument, Motivation of Athletics Donors (MAD-1), was pilot tested with a sample of donors from 10 NCAA Division I athletics programs. Eleven scales were validated using confirmatory factor analysis, scale reliabilities (Cronbach's alpha), and item-to-total correlations. These results (a) provide the foundation necessary for systematic study of athletics donor behavior utilizing social cognitive theory as the theoretical framework, and (b) support the use of the MAD-1 as a practical instrument for assessing the specific motivations of any particular donor group.
Sport, Gender, and Cultural Diversity: Exploring the Nexus
Authors: Taylor Tracy , Toohey Kristine
Published: August 2016

Our research investigated the sporting experiences of women from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, a subpopulation excluded from most mainstream sport scholarship in Australia. The information was collected via surveys, focus groups, and individual interviews with women. Sporting, local government, community, and ethnic organizations were also surveyed about their current policies and practices regarding sport for women from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. The interviews resonate with a strong sense of frustration about current sport policy and provision. For many sport providers, the low levels of sport participation of women from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds is a perplexing issue. The comments of many of the women interviewed reflect extreme dissatisfaction with the current lack of consideration given to them by sports providers, but a hope that the situation will improve for the better if the two groups can work together to improve their understanding of the issues.
The Role of Football Profits in Meeting Title IX Gender Equity Regulations and Policy
Authors: Agthe Donald E. , Billings R. Bruce
Published: August 2016

A conceptual model was developed to measure the influence of football profits on meeting Title IX gender equity requirements in athletic aid and participation at NCAA Division I-A institutions. Teams in Division I-A of the NCAA play intercollegiate sports at the highest level of competition. Football profits are the largest source of fan based revenue at most Division I-A institutions. An empirical version of the model including football profit, other men's sports profits, conference membership, undergraduate enrollment, endowment, and the existence of the state funding was estimated for 93 institutions. These factors, except undergraduate enrollment and other men's sports profits, significantly influenced meeting the athletic aid standard. Endowment, state funding, and conference membership significantly influenced compliance with participation standard. In addition to the quantitative analysis, responses to an original survey of Division I conference commissioners added a qualitative dimension to this study.
African-American Students' Responses to Race as a Source Cue in Persuasive Sport Communications
Authors: Armstrong Ketra L.
Published: August 2016

Sport managers and marketers strategically include individuals with specific characteristics as spokespersons in their persuasive communications (i.e., advertisements, promotional messages, development campaigns, and announcements) to appeal to and influence the attitudes and behaviors of their intended audience. This study was designed to examine African-American students’ responses to race (when moderated by the students' ethnic identification) as a salient characteristic of the person featured in a persuasive sport communication. It sought to examine the role of race in the communication process as: (a) a heuristic/peripheral cue for inducing message responses and evaluation, and (b) a variable that influenced the students' tendency to engage in biased or objective strategies to process the information presented. The results offer an illustration of how sociological variables such as race and ethnicity influence the communication process in general and the means of communicating sport related issues to African-American students in particular.
Recruiting Student Athletes: A Means-End Investigation of School-Choice Decision Making
Authors: Klenosky David B. , Templin Thomas J. , Troutmam Josh A.
Published: August 2016

This paper reports the results of an empirical study that draws on a means-end perspective to examine the factors influencing the school choice decisions of collegiate student athletes. A sample of 27 NCAA Division I collegiate football players were questioned to identify the attributes that differentiated the school they selected from the others they had considered attending. The interviewing technique known as laddering was then used to link the salient attributes of the chosen school to the consequences and personal values important to the athlete. An analysis of the resulting data provided unique insight into the means-end relationships that underlie students' selection of competing athletic programs. A discussion of the study findings outlined the implications of this investigation and the means-end approach for future recruiting and research efforts.
Differential Association and Role-Set Configuration: The Impact of Significant Others upon the Perception of Ethical Climate in a Sports Organization
Authors: Malloy David Cruise , Agarwal James
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence that significant others have upon the perception of ethical climate in a Canadian provincial nonprofit sport federation. The study was theoretically based upon the concepts of differential association and role-set configuration as well as the ethical climate dimensions developed in a non-profit context by Agarwal and Malloy (1999). The results demonstrate some support for the earlier empirical and theoretical findings that suggest that members of non-profit organizations may not be influenced by internal strategies of control and conformity. While this study was based upon a single provincial sport federation, the authors cautiously draw attention to the implications that the results may have for other non-profit organizations.
Sport in the Third Millennium: A Retrospective and Perspective on 1990s and 2000-Era Sport
Authors: Cuneen Jacquelyn , Schneider Ray
Published: August 2016

Sports, Inc., a popular 1980s-era sport business weekly, addressed eight elements of sports business/management in a January 2,1989 issue entitled “Sports in the 90's: The Spiral Goes On.” The Sports, Inc. issue provided selected writers a forum in which to disseminate their practical forecasts for 1990s sport enterprise. This special issue of the Journal of Sport Management provides established and/or rising scholars with a forum to reflect on several of Sports, Inc.'s predictions and share their own scholarly assessments of sport's past and current business and managerial status.
An Exploration of Audience Demographics, Personal Values, and Lifestyle: Influences on Viewing Network Coverage of the 1996 Summer Olympic Games
Authors: McDaniel Stephen R.
Published: August 2016

This study uses a two-stage telephone survey method, involving a stratified random sample (n = 248) of American adults (18+), to examine the implications of audience demographics, personal values, lifestyle, and interests to sport marketing and media, in the context of the 1996 Summer Olympic Games. Three hypotheses were tested using stepwise multiple regression and independent group t-test analyses and all received at least partial support. Male respondents' levels of interest in the Olympic Games were significantly related to their patriotic values and lifestyle. Those most interested in this event reported significantly higher levels of patriotism and religiosity than those less interested; likewise, the high event interest group reported enjoying advertising at a significantly greater level than their low event interest counterparts. Demographics, lifestyle, and event interest levels significantly influenced total amount of exposure to the event telecast.
Mentoring in Intercollegiate Athletic Administration
Authors: Weaver Margie A. , Chelladurai Packianathan
Published: August 2016

Associate/Assistant athletic administrators from Division I (139 males, 123 females) and Division III (130 males, 123 females) universities of the NCAA responded to a questionnaire consisting of (a) items eliciting background information, (b) perceived and preferred mentoring functions measured by the Mentor Role Instrument (Ragins & McFarlin, 1990), (c) perceived barriers to mentoring measured by Perceived Barriers Scale (Ragins & Cotton, 1991), and a scale of satisfaction developed for the study. Factor analysis yielded three facets of satisfaction: Work Group, Extrinsic Rewards, and Intrinsic Rewards. The results of MÁNOVA showed that an equal proportion of males and females had experienced mentoring relationships, and mentored individuals were more satisfied with work than their non-mentored counterparts. Respondents from Division I received significantly higher salaries, and they were more satisfied with their extrinsic rewards than the respondents from Division III. Finally, correlational analyses showed positive but weak relationships between mentoring functions and the satisfaction facets.
Increasing Response Rates among Coaches: The Role of Prenotification Methods
Authors: Kent Aubrey , Turner Brian
Published: August 2016

This study determined whether, in a population of intercollegiate head coaches, prenotification had a significant influence on the return rate of mailed questionnaires. Acknowledging the growing use of e-mail and the Internet for survey distribution, the current study evaluated the effectiveness of e-mail as a prenotification technique, Response rates of Intercollegiate Head Coaches to mailed questionnaires from two separate samples were analyzed. Comparisons were made based upon the categorization of coaches into groups of prenotification by e-mail, formal letter, and a non-prenotified control group. Results indicated that prenotification of the survey recipients significantly increased response rates, with the group receiving e-mail prenotification having the highest response rate among the three groups. In addition to being cost effective for researchers, e-mail prenotification was an effective way to increase both the number and variety of contacts with survey recipients.
The Role of Self-Esteem in Initiating Physical Activity in Consumption Situations
Authors: Kang Joon-Ho
Published: August 2016

This study investigates how self-esteem moderates decision-making processes for initiating physical activity in a consumption situation. Kang (2002) developed a structural model that integrates self-participant image congruency (SIC), attitudes, and intentions. This model was used to examine the moderating effects of self-esteem on individual decisions regarding consumption for physical activity. College students (N = 215) completed a questionnaire that included measures of SIC, attitudes, and intentions for joining a private health club, as well as a self-esteem scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991). Multiple group analyses using LISREL 8 were conducted between relatively high and low self-esteem participants for physical, performance, and social self-esteem dimensions. The results indicated that the direct influence of SIC on intentions is stronger for participants with high physical self-esteem than for those with low physical self-esteem, whereas the direct impact of attitudes on intentions is greater for low- than for high physical self-esteem participants. Performance self-esteem and social self-esteem, however, did not moderate decision-making processes. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.
Tracking Generation Y: A Contemporary Sport Consumer Profile
Authors: Stevens Julie , Lathrop Anna , Bradish Cheri
Published: August 2016

In response to the recent impact of Generation Y in the sport marketplace, this researach article examines the association between consumer behavior preferences and two segmentation variables, gender and physical activity level, for an adolescent segment (ages 14-17 years) of Canadian Generation Y youth. Questionnaire results from a sample of 1,127 respondents yielded data related to various consumer preferences for sporting goods purchases. These factors include purchase decision making, price, frequency, location, and product features. Results indicate an association among Generation Y, gender, and physical activity level with respect to a number of consumer preferences related to sport footwear, apparel, and equipment. Discussion and implications address how sport marketers might interpret the consumer profile results according to both age and cohort perspectives.
Feminist and Gender Research in Sport and Leisure Management: Understanding the Social–Cultural Nexus of Gender–Power Relations
Authors: Aitchison Cara Carmichael
Published: August 2016

This article aims toward developing a critical theory that can further advance feminist research in sport management. I seek to offer a critical analysis of gender relations in sport and leisure management by developing a theoretical critique of gender (in)equity that integrates both social theory and cultural analyses. The original empirical data was gathered in a national study of Gender Equity in Leisure Management conducted by the author in 1998/99 and secondary data was drawn from comparative studies undertaken in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the U.S. (Aitchison, Brackenridge, & Jordan, 1999; Henderson & Bialeschki, 1993, 1995; Mckay, 1996; Shinew & Arnold, 1998). The research cited demonstrates that women’s experience of sport and leisure management is shaped by both structural and cultural factors. My findings highlight the need for new epistemological perspectives as much as new methodological approaches and techniques. This new perspective acknowledges the complexities of gender–power relations in the workplace and recognizes the interconnectedness and mutually informing nature of structural and cultural power, thus opening the way for more sophisticated analyses and understandings of gender equity in sport and leisure management.
A Typology of Approaches to Comparative Analysis of Sports Policy
Authors: Henry Ian , Amara Mahfoud , Al-Tauqi Mansour , Lee Ping Chao
Published: August 2016

This article provides a four-fold typology of comparative sports policy studies: Type 1, Seeking Similarities, is a nomothetic approach seeking law-like generalization; Type 2 is Describing Difference, an ideographic approach seeking to capture the specificity of policy systems; Type 3, Theorizing the Transnational, goes beyond the nation-state as the unit of analysis to fuse global and local levels of explanation; and Type 4, Defining Discourse, seeks to analyze ways in which policy discourse defines the reality of the policy problems it seeks to address. The authors underline the ontological and epistemological assumptions of such approaches that are often only implicit, and they employ selected examples to illustrate the contribution to knowledge of the different approaches.
Personal Style and Administrative Behavior in Amateur Sport Organizations
Authors: Olafson Gordon A. , Hastings Dennis W.
Published: August 2016

This paper examines the effect of personal style on the administrative behavior of executive directors of sports governing bodies. Seventy-two executive directors from the National Sport and Recreation Centre in Ottawa and the Ontario Sport Administrative Centre in Toronto completed surveys designed to describe personal style (Personal Style Inventory) and administrative behavior (Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire). Statistical analysis revealed significant differences in behavior based on personal style. The best model of prediction included the behavioral variables of representation, reconciliation, structure, tolerance of freedom, consideration, and predictive accuracy. The results of this study support the hypothesis put forward by Kilmann and Herden (1976) that a person’s behavior in a decision-making role may be a reflection of personal style. These findings suggest that it may be important to understand the contribution of personal style to the decision-making process. Further, this may be a helpful exercise in understanding administrators in many organizations and, particularly as it pertains to this study, in volunteer sport organizations.
Designing Control and Information Systems in Sport Organizations: A Cybernetic Perspective
Authors: Haggerty Terry R.
Published: August 2016

This paper suggests cybernetic strategies for improving organizational control and information systems. The suggestions are based on the postulates of Beer’s cybernetic Viable System Model (VSM). The VSM was based on the way the human body’s neural control system successfully manages the high degree of complexity it regularly faces. The model identifies five linked control subsystems and specifies propositions concerning their information-processing behavior. The five systems are responsible for the following key tasks: policy development, environmental matters, internal control, coordination of basic units, and the basic work of the system. The information-handling propositions focus on providing requisite capacities in (a) the communication channels linking the five control systems, (b) the transducers that carry information across system boundaries, and (c) the complexity of linked pairs of control systems. The suggested management strategies focus on designing organizations to satisfy the task differentiation, communication channel capacity, transducer capacity, and requisite complexity postulates of the model.
Developing National Sport Policy through Consultation: The Rules of Engagement
Authors: Sam Michael P. , Jackson Steven J.
Published: August 2016

This study illustrates how the rules and practices of a task force inquiry shaped the formulation of its policy. Adopting an institutional approach, it analyzes New Zealand’s Ministerial Taskforce on Sport, Fitness and Leisure (2001). Specifically, this article investigates the role of institutional arrangements (including public consultation and submission procedures) in shaping, delimiting, and circumscribing that task force’s findings and recommendations. The investigation consists of a critical analysis of available texts—including recorded observations of public consultations, written submissions, committee notes—and interviews with task force members. Two features of this task force are described and analyzed: (1) its terms of reference and operative assumptions and (2) its rules and procedures that guided the public participation processes. It is shown that the institutional arrangements can channel debates and thereby recast political relations among interests.
Bush-Whacked: A Legal Analysis of the Unauthorized Use of Sport Organizations’ Intellectual Property in Political Campaign Advertising
Authors: McKelvey Steve , Moorman Anita M.
Published: August 2016

Many 2004 presidential-election campaign advertisements were strategically targeted to appeal to viewers of sporting event telecasts. The Bush–Cheney campaign’s unauthorized use of the term Olympic in advertisements that aired throughout the 2004 Summer Olympic Games telecasts raised novel legal issues at the intersection of trademark law and constitutionally protected political speech. This article provides an analysis of the legal issues surrounding the Bush–Cheney campaign’s unauthorized use of the term Olympic. This article first examines the viability of trademark, unfair competition, and misappropriation-based claims potentially available to the United States Olympic Committee and other sport organizations. The article then examines some state-based regulations and case law regarding false and deceptive political campaign advertising that suggests a possible legal challenge to future political advertising campaigns that use sport organization trademarks without authorization. In addition to providing implications for sport managers, this article suggests that Congress may need to revisit latitudes afforded political speech to prevent a dangerous trend of political candidates’ misrepresenting their association with sport organizations.
A Model of Volunteer Retention in Youth Sport
Authors: Kim May , Chelladurai Packianathan , Trail Galen T.
Published: August 2016

Volunteers in sport are indispensable, but there is a dearth of systematic research in volunteer retention. The focus of this study was to investigate three different volunteer-retention models incorporating person–task fit (P–T fit), person–organization fit (P–O fit), managerial treatment (MT), empowerment, and intention to continue volunteering. Using structural equation modeling, data from 515 volunteers in the American Youth Soccer Organization (AYSO) were compared across a fully mediated model, a partially mediated model, and a direct-effects model. The results of the fully mediated model, in which empowerment mediated the relationship between P–T fit, P–O fit, MT, and intention to continue volunteering, fit well and better than the other two models. P–T fit, P–O fit, and MT jointly explained 46.8% of variance in empowerment, and empowerment explained 13.5% of variance in intention to continue. Volunteer organizations need to focus on empowering their volunteers through the fit of the volunteer to the task, organization, and appropriate managerial treatment.
Weight Discrimination, Hiring Recommendations, Person–Job Fit, and Attributions: Fitness-Industry Implications
Authors: Sartore Melanie L. , Cunningham George B.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of weight discrimination on perceived attributions, person–job fit, and hiring recommendations. Three experiments were undertaken to investigate these issues with people applying for positions in fitness organizations (i.e., aerobics instructor and personal trainer). In all three studies qualified people who were overweight, relative to their qualified and sometimes unqualified thin counterparts, were perceived to have less desirable attributes (e.g., lazy), were thought to be a poorer fit for the position, and were less likely to receive a hiring recommendation. These relationships were influenced by applicant expertise and applicant sex in some cases. Implications for the fitness industry are discussed.
Variable Ticket Pricing in Major League Baseball
Authors: Rascher Daniel A. , McEvoy Chad D. , Nagel Mark S. , Brown Matthew T.
Published: August 2016

Sport teams historically have been reluctant to change ticket prices during the season. Recently, however, numerous sport organizations have implemented variable ticket pricing in an effort to maximize revenues. In Major League Baseball variable pricing results in ticket price increases or decreases depending on factors such as quality of the opponent, day of the week, month of the year, and for special events such as opening day, Memorial Day, and Independence Day. Using censored regression and elasticity analysis, this article demonstrates that variable pricing would have yielded approximately $590,000 per year in additional ticket revenue for each major league team in 1996, ceteris paribus. Accounting for capacity constraints, this amounts to only about a 2.8% increase above what occurs when prices are not varied. For the 1996 season, the largest revenue gain would have been the Cleveland Indians, who would have generated an extra $1.4 million in revenue. The largest percentage revenue gain would have been the San Francisco Giants. The Giants would have seen an estimated 6.7% increase in revenue had they used optimal variable pricing.
The Valuation of Athletes as Risky Investments: A Theoretical Model
Authors: Kedar-Levy Haim , Bar-Eli Michael
Published: August 2016

The desire to hire the best athletes and coaches in order to maximize team performance necessitates generous compensation contracts, which in turn increase the risk of financial distress or even bankruptcy for team owners. Indeed, one of the largest expense items in the budget of professional sport teams is the remuneration of players and coaches. Yet an investment made today in a given team yields an uncertain income in the future because team profitability depends on the uncertain performance of each player and the synchronization among players—both influenced by the coach. We present a formal theoretical model that assesses athletes’ valuation and accounts for the aforementioned factors. The optimal compensation schedule is determined empirically by regressing expected performance measures of each player with the aggregate team performance. Once the optimal schedule has been determined, the expected rate of return for the owner is earned at the lowest possible risk.
Brand Image and Fan Loyalty in Professional Team Sport: A Refined Model and Empirical Assessment
Authors: Bauer Hans H. , Stokburger-Sauer Nicola E. , Exler Stefanie
Published: August 2016

This study highlights the importance of brand image for fan loyalty in team sport. A parsimonious 4-factor, 20-indicator structure effectively represents brand image. In contrast to Keller’s proposed model, relationships between the brand image’s components were discovered. Thus, in line with means-end theory, a brand-image model should incorporate causalities among brand attributes, benefits, and attitudes. Fan loyalty is positively influenced by a fan’s brand attitude. Relationships among the brand-image dimensions and loyalty are confirmed via structural equation modeling. The non-product-related brand attributes (i.e., logo or tradition) have a particularly large impact on attitudes and behavior. They represent promising starting points for a successful and differentiating team brand strategy.
Incentives and League Structure in Minor League Baseball
Authors: Medcalfe Simon
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this article is to analyze the effect of different ways of organizing sports leagues on team effort. Double A minor league baseball in the United States is organized either as geographical leagues or as split season leagues. The evidence presented in this article suggests that teams in geographical leagues reduce their effort for longer periods of time (up to twice as long) than their counterparts in split season leagues. However, more teams give up trying to catch the leader in split season leagues than in geographical leagues. In fact, up to one third of teams in the split season league give up whereas no teams give up in the geographical league. This information will be of use to owners, managers, and coaches of sports teams because they will be able to identify periods of time when extra incentives to win may be required.
The Role of Psychological Contract in Intention to Continue Volunteering
Authors: Kim May , Trail Galen T. , Lim Jon , Kim Yu Kyoum
Published: August 2016

Retaining volunteers is a critical issue for sport organizations utilizing volunteer labor. Based on the theory of planned behavior, the theory of work adjustment, psychological contract theory, two frameworks (person-environment fit and empowerment), and previous empirical results, we proposed and tested three models to explain intention to continue volunteering with 224 volunteers from the Special Olympics State Summer Games. We accepted a model in which Empowerment fully mediated the relationship between Person-Environment Fit and Intention to Continue Volunteering. We also found that Psychological Contract Fulfillment moderated the relationship between Fit and Empowerment.
Determinants of Corporate Social Responsibility in Professional Sport: Internal and External Factors
Authors: Babiak Kathy , Wolfe Richard
Published: August 2016

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has become an area of increasing importance for many companies. Professional sport teams, also, are increasingly engaging in socially responsible activities (Irwin, Lachowetz, Cornwell, & Clark, 2003; Kern, 2000; Robinson, 2005). The research described in this article identifies, and determines the relative importance of, the drivers—both internal and external—of socially responsible activities by professional sport teams. Using a qualitative approach, interviews were conducted with sport executives, and organizational documents were analyzed. The data showed that external drivers of CSR, in particular key constituents, the interconnectedness of the field, and pressures from the league were more important determinants of CSR initiatives than the internal resources available to deliver CSR efforts (i.e., attention, media access, celebrity players, coaches, facilities). Based on these preliminary findings, we propose a framework of CSR adoption in professional sport that predicts the types of CSR initiatives a sport organization is likely to adopt depending on its internal and/or external orientation and present a research agenda based on the framework.
The Meaning and Measurement of a Sport Event Experience Among Active Sport Tourists
Authors: Kaplanidou Kyriaki , Vogt Christine
Published: August 2016

Destinations use sport events to attract participants and spectators, who then hold perceptions of both the sport event and destination. This research aimed to a) understand how active sport tourists perceive the meaning of a sport event experience and b) develop a scale for that meaning. Both aims are studied in a post trip context as evaluative research. Two focus groups were used to understand the meaning of the sport event experience among active sport tourists. Results from the focus groups suggest participants attribute meanings related to organizational, environmental, physical, social, and emotional aspects of the sport event experience. Next, semantic differential items were developed to measure the meaning of a sport event experience in the post trip phase. The items were tested with two different sport event participant samples using surveys. A uni-dimensionsal scale of 11 semantic differential items emerged. These items provide a measure for the evaluative meaning of a sport event experience.
The Factors Influencing Churn Rates Among Season Ticket Holders: An Empirical Analysis
Authors: McDonald Heath
Published: August 2016

Season ticket holders (STHs) are vital to professional sport club revenue and are purported to be the most loyal and involved of fans. Nonrenewal (churn) rates among STHs, however, often exceed 20%. Low member satisfaction, poor on-field performance and low game attendance have all been posited as explanations of high churn rates, but rarely empirically examined. The research reported here employed a unique study of over 4,500 STHs, incorporating both survey research and measures of actual behavior, to determine which variables best explain and predict churn within two professional sport teams. A variety of analytical techniques all suggest that the key variables predicting churn are length of relationship and the number of games attended. New, low attending STHs are over five times more likely to churn than long-term, frequent attendees. Typical management practice is to run reward schemes designed to increase attendance and encourage renewal. The results of this study suggest that fundamental differences in the way new, low attending members evaluate the season ticket product may render those schemes ineffective. Shifting the focus of these STHs toward the intangibles of the product, such as stronger feelings of involvement, a sense of community and increased patron worth, could be more effective at reducing churn.
The Role of Sport Fan Curiosity: A New Conceptual Approach to the Understanding of Sport Fan Behavior
Authors: Park Seong-Hee , Mahony Daniel , Kim Yu Kyoum
Published: August 2016

Most literature on sport fan behaviors has focused on highly identified or loyal sport fans. While the literature has found that factors influencing current sport fans and their behaviors are related to, and based on, various psychological, social, and cultural factors, only a limited number of studies have investigated what factors initially attract individuals to consume sport. Curiosity has been found to be one of the crucial motivators that initially influence human exploratory behaviors in many domains. Using theories of curiosity, the present review aims to shed light on the role of curiosity in explaining various sport fan behaviors.
Stock Market Reactions and Formula One Performance
Authors: Schredelseker Klaus , Fidahic Fedja
Published: August 2016

Due to the global financial crisis, the investments of car manufacturers are going to be revised as never before; especially this is the case for any kind of commitment in sport sponsoring. In Formula One on the one hand costs are exploding, on the other hand money becomes shortened. That is why it becomes interesting to know to what extent a manufacturer’s involvement in this sport is worth it. We use an event study methodology analyzing the stock market response after race performances from 2005 to 2007. Our main results: McLaren- Mercedes and Fiat-Ferrari generate positive abnormal returns after wins for DaimlerChrysler and Fiat, and significantly weaker abnormal returns after losses. Conversely, returns for Renault change in an opposite way.
Serious Sport Tourism and Event Travel Careers
Authors: Getz Donald , McConnell Aaron
Published: August 2016

This article seeks to advance theory pertaining to serious sport tourism, through the application of serious leisure and ego-involvement theory and the analysis of a survey of participants in the TransRockies Challenge mountain-bike event. Participants were questioned postevent about their motives, involvement in their sport, event-related travel, and destination and event preferences. Analysis revealed that most respondents were highly involved in competitive mountain biking, and were primarily motivated by self development through meeting a challenge. Many respondents also participated in a portfolio of other competitive sport events that provided similar personal rewards. Results suggest that many serious sport tourists develop travel careers centered on competitive events. A hypothetical framework for assessing six dimensions of event travel career trajectories is developed, leading to consideration of practical management implications and research needs.