bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sense and Avoid: Systems and Methods
Authors: Orefice Martina , Di Vito Vittorio , Torrano Giulia
Published: December 2015

Sense‐and‐avoid systems assumed increasing relevance in the last decade due to the ever‐increasing use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for multiple applications. This implies the need of ensuring suitable level of safety of these platforms, where no pilot is onboard; therefore, first of all, the vehicle should be provided with the capability of seeing and being seen and also the capability of avoiding loss of separation and collision with respect to surrounding traffic. Many efforts have been made worldwide in order to study these aspects and to develop suitable technological solutions, taking into account several constraints that sense‐and‐avoid systems for UAVs have to comply with. Main components of these systems are the sense function, aimed to perform detection and tracking of the surrounding traffic, and the avoid function, aimed to provide early identification of possible conflicts (i.e., loss of separation and collision threats) and to elaborate suitable maneuvers to be performed by the UAV in order to resolve the identified conflicts. In this chapter, an extensive review is provided on the state of the art of the sense‐and‐avoid systems and methods, starting from the consideration of regulatory aspects, which are relevant for the technology development, then illustrating the main technologies available to perform the sense function, and, finally, describing the typical architectures of the sense‐and‐avoid systems proposed in literature and in the main related international projects.
Low‐Cost Spacecraft
Authors: Fleeter Rick
Published: December 2015

An overview of small and simple space systems is presented. They have constituted the fastest evolving and growing segment of space activity since the late 1980s because of their much lower cost and shorter development time compared to their conventional, large, and complex counterparts. Low‐cost spacecraft are capable of applications, although more limited in traditional performance metrics, not possible or practical with conventional architectures. We discuss the overall motivation for the growth of low‐cost spacecraft, the new horizons they open for space activity, and guidelines and practices for development and use of smaller, lower cost systems. Finally, we discuss a few specific systems developed for a range of missions that exemplify these principles.
Human Trafficking
Authors: Reid Joan A.
Published: December 2015

Human trafficking is a complex crime of profit‐driven exploitation facilitated by force, fraud, or coercion. Human trafficking manifests in many forms, including sex trafficking, labor trafficking, and child sex tourism. While many victims of human trafficking are moved across international borders, others are victims of domestic human trafficking within their home country. Traffickers often prey on the vulnerabilities of individuals distressed by poverty, economic upheaval, war, abuse, or marginalization. International and national antitrafficking laws enable law enforcement to protect victims and prosecute traffickers. Nevertheless, in the majority of cases traffickers continue to accumulate large profits with little risk of detection or punishment.
Family Violence
Authors: Hayden Theresa C.
Published: December 2015

Family violence theories are evolving among the disciplines of criminal justice, social work, mental health, and health care as an interdisciplinary approach to the problem. Violence in families was perceived to be a private matter until the late 1970s when researchers began to examine the factors related to harming those we love. Federal and state legislation has changed the paradigm of thinking about families and intimate violence. Along with this major transformation, specialized agencies for serving and protecting family members are emerging.
Art and Crime
Authors: Mackenzie Simon
Published: December 2015

The relationship between art and crime can be analyzed under two major headings, representing the current trends in criminological research on the topic. First, there are crimes against or involving non‐archaeological artistic works, such as the theft or faking of paintings. Works of art can be extremely attractive as targets for crime, given their sometimes very high financial value and relative portability. Theft of art is a regular occurrence, ranging from thefts from private residences and smaller galleries all the way up to very high‐value thefts from major institutions. Faking of art is also common, and passing off fakes as originals is a type of fraud. Second, there is the hot contemporary debate around archaeologically important cultural objects, looted from temples and tombs and trafficked to international markets to be sold as artworks. This is a global issue which involves a range of crimes along the supply chain including theft, smuggling, and handling stolen goods.
Validity and Reliability
Authors: Robinson Rhissa Briones
Published: December 2015

The assessment of the reliability and validity of instruments is fundamental in social sciences research because the concepts under investigation are abstract. Classical test theory provides a useful framework to assist researchers and test developers in the construction of reliable and valid instruments. One of the assumptions of test theory is the endemic presence of error which is introduced in the measurement process. Measurement error affects the reliability and validity of instruments. The methods of assessing reliability include test‐retest, alternate‐form, and split‐half. The major types of validation include content, criterion‐related, and construct. The reliability and validity of the instruments are required if we aim to produce meaningful results.
Victim–offender Overlap
Authors: Jennings Wesley G.
Published: December 2015

Traditional investigations into crime often are derived from analyses that focus on one distinct type of individual, for example, either the victims or the offenders. Although early criminological research noted an observed relationship between victimization and offending, only recently have studies begun to delve deeper into unpacking the nature of this relationship and its associated risk factors. In this vein, this entry reviews the historical approaches to examining the victim–offender overlap phenomenon, but places more emphasis on the more recent and methodologically rigorous evaluations of the victim–offender overlap. Directions for future victim–offender overlap research are also discussed.
School Discipline and Crime
Authors: Stokes Ethan C. , May David C.
Published: December 2015

This entry focuses on the definition, history, and categories of school discipline in the United States. Trends in school discipline and characteristics of those most likely to receive discipline are also discussed. The entry concludes with suggestions for future research to better track incidents of school discipline.
Quasi‐Experimental Research Methods
Authors: Kopak Albert M.
Published: December 2015

Quasi‐experimental research methods encompass a wide variety of research designs that, compared to true experiments, do not involve randomized selection of research participants. This wide variety of designs can include single group assessments, treatment and control group comparisons, assessments of behavior change over time, and observations of direct effects of exposure to social stimuli. There are many advantages and disadvantages to quasi‐experimental methods that must be taken into account by researchers. These designs can be effectively used in the study of complex behaviors, policies, programs, and other factors related to crime and deviance.
Survey Research
Authors: Tomsich Elizabeth A.
Published: December 2015

Survey research is predominant in the social sciences and permits researchers to examine the attitudes, goals, experiences, and behaviors of individuals within large populations through self‐report. Survey research has continuously adapted to changes in survey participation, technological advances, and the body of literature on research methods. Survey researchers rely on cognitive process theories and evaluations of survey research methods to minimize sampling and nonsampling error.
Fear of Crime
Authors: Barrett Kimberly L.
Published: December 2015

Fear of crime has evolved into a specialty area within criminology. Once an area which relied predominantly on studies using single‐item indicators to establish who reported being fearful of crime, now the fear‐of‐crime literature has grown to encompass more complex understandings of fear of crime, included information on causes and consequences of fear of crime. Studies have also examined the structural and contextual factors that are associated with fear. This entry briefly explores the roots of the fear‐of‐crime literature, definitional and methodological issues with respect to fear of crime, and some of the developments in this area of study.
Routine Activities Theory
Authors: Branic Nicholas
Published: December 2015

Routine activities theory is an environmental, place‐based explanation of crime, where the behavioral patterns and intersections of people in time and space influence when and where crimes occur. Introduced by Cohen and Felson, routine activities theory suggests that when motivated offenders and suitable targets meet in the absence of capable guardians, crime is likely to happen. Conversely, the absence of any of these three conditions might be enough to prevent a crime from occurring. The authors also emphasize how overarching social conditions contextualize and define the everyday activities of people. Situated within the broader framework of environmental criminology, routine activities theory suggests that reducing criminal opportunities serves a key role in reducing the prevalence of crime.
Vandalism
Authors: Ceccato Vania
Published: December 2015

This entry presents the complexity of the term vandalism as an action and a criminal offense. It begins by defining vandalism from ancient Roman times to the internet era. Then, the motivation behind this damaging behavior is presented followed by a discussion of the typical sites and the temporal patterns of vandalism. Particular attention is given to the impact of vandalism on the quality of neighborhoods and on the housing market. This entry also reviews current interventions for tackling vandalism as well as some emerging future avenues for research.
National Crime Victimization Survey
Authors: Powers Ráchael A.
Published: December 2015

The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is the largest continuing self‐reported victimization survey in the United States. It provides national estimates concerning both property and violent crime, including sexual assault, robbery, aggravated assault, simple assault, theft, burglary, and automobile theft. These estimates are consistently higher than those derived from official data sources such as Uniform Crime Reports. The NCVS also includes details on incidents of victimization that allow for multivariate analysis in exploring the causes, correlates, and consequences of victimization. Since its inception in 1972, the survey has undergone a number of revisions and redesigns that have broadened the types of victimization included (e.g., hate‐crime) and have improved on the survey's ability to capture victimization.
School Violence
Authors: Fetzer Matthew D.
Published: December 2015

School violence
can be defined as violent acts or aggressive behaviors that take place in the school environment. These behaviors range from acts of fatal violence to aggressive behaviors that may be precursors for violence. Research has identified both risk and protective factors that influence the likelihood of youth engaging in school violence. Many different programs and strategies have been developed to prevent school violence, with some showing greater effectiveness than others.
Crime and Punishment in
C
hile
Authors: Mertz Catalina
Published: December 2015

Chile's main data sources on crime show that crime has fallen in recent years, and that most common crimes are nonviolent property crimes committed in public spaces, with concentration patterns related to places, victims, and offenders. Homicides are lowest in Latin America, a third of which are committed with fire arms. In every major city there are neighborhoods where urban violence is concentrated, the estimate being 80 neighborhoods in the Metropolitan Area. Crimes and offenses are established in a Penal Code, dating from 1874, based on a rational proportional system. Both adult and juvenile justice systems have been recently reformed. The most common judicial outcome was the suspension of the procedure (18.3%) and condemnatory sentences (13.5%), and the adult prison population is 266 per 100,000 citizens. Drug consumption and crime are correlated, and drug addiction is the main psychiatric disorder of both juveniles and adults serving sentences.
Computer Science and Crime
Authors: Losavio Michael M. , Keeling Deborah G. , Pastukhov Pavel , Polyakova Svetlana
Published: December 2015

Computational systems and data analytics are powerful tools for the administration of criminal justice, from investigation to corrections. Computational forensics is a discipline for judging the reliability of computational conclusions so as to make efficient, effective, and just decisions from them. The forensic standards for evidence under US law offer a template that may be applied to the use of powerful computer systems and data analytics of large heterogeneous data sets to evaluate their appropriate and effective use under US law and traditions.
Cultural Criminology
Authors: Frederick Brian J. , Larruskain Paula
Published: December 2015

Cultural criminology is a distinct criminological orientation that draws upon a mélange of theoretical perspectives (cultural studies, postmodern theory, critical theory, interactionist sociology, etc.) when explaining phenomena such as crime, deviance, resistance, transgression, and even crime control. This entry provides a brief review of cultural criminology.
Sociology of Law
Authors: Alvesalo‐Kuusi Anne , Tombs Steve
Published: December 2015

Although there are various definitions of the
sociology of law
, fundamentally, it explores relationships between law and society. Rejecting the primacy of the state as a source of law and not limiting itself to formal legal rules, the sociology of law focuses on various forms of social ordering processes. A sociological focus on the centrality of law can be traced back to classic social theory, variations of which see law as a key index and motor of societal change. The sociology of law draws upon a range of disciplines from the social sciences and beyond. Seeking to understand how “law” is constructed in and through a highly fragmented and multifaceted set of structures, institutions and practice, it studies “law in action” across a variety of research areas and via a wide range of methods.
Prison Reform
Authors: Kelly Dominic
Published: December 2015

Prison reform is the aim and process of improving conditions inside prisons in order to maintain the humanity of its occupants and achieve a more effective penal system. Prison reform is said to have been originated by philanthropic activists such as John Howard and Elizabeth Fry, and intellectuals such as Jeremy Bentham and Cesare Beccaria, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Contemporary prison reform movements are initiated through projects and programs advocated by religious groups, academics, voluntary‐sector organizations, and prisoners.
Deterrence Theory
Authors: Eassey John M. , Boman John H.
Published: December 2015

Deterrence theory's central hypotheses are that crime can be prevented when punishment is certain, severe, and quick. Whether explicitly or implicitly, deterrence‐centric philosophy serves as the foundation for many criminal justice systems. The wide application of deterrence theory in practice and policy, however, is alarming for some since most research on deterrence theory concludes that the three general principles of deterrence theory – certainty, severity, and celerity – do not significantly reduce crime. Drawing on the question of whether deterrence is an effective method of crime control, this entry reviews the history behind deterrence theory and early and contemporary research on the theory and offers important questions that policymakers, practitioners, and researchers must ask as deterrence research progresses into the future.
Juveniles
Authors: Dembo Richard
Published: December 2015

Youth having contact with the justice system often are experiencing multiple problems, such as drug use, mental health issues, and STD/HIV risk. This entry discusses these issues, and highlights the need for front‐end justice system services for youth, to prevent or reduce their flow into the delinquency system. Several innovative front‐end services are presented, followed by an appeal for a national commitment to expand resources to help troubled youth and their families.
Hate Crime
Authors: Valcore Laura
Published: December 2015

Hate crime is a relatively new category of criminal law and still developing field for criminological research. Scholars have debated the purpose and efficacy of hate crime laws since their introduction in the late 1970s, but research has found that hate crimes vary from non‐hate crimes in important ways. Unique characteristics of the crimes, the impact upon victims and society, the symbolic importance of the laws, and the difficulties faced when enforcing them all make hate crimes an important and interesting area for scholars to study and for the criminal justice system to implement.
Crime and Punishment inGermany
Authors: Zimmerman Jeff
Published: December 2015

Crime and punishment in Germany, related to the historical development of criminal justice [the “interdisciplinary academic study of the police, criminal courts, correctional institutions – e.g. prisons – and juvenile justice agencies, as well as of the agents who operate within these institutions” (“Criminal justice,” n.d.)], criminal law [which is “the body of law that defines criminal offenses, regulates the apprehension, charging and trial of suspected persons, and fixes penalties and modes of treatment applicable to convicted offenders” (“Criminal law,” n.d.)] and their practice/application within what is currently known as the Federal Republic of Germany.
Historical Responses to Crime
Authors: Campagna Michael F.
Published: December 2015

Historical responses to crime in Western society have involved brutal corporal and capital punishment. Given that definitions of crime undoubtedly change over time and place, sometimes crimes are seen as going unpunished. This entry will chronologically describe key features of different periods of responses to crime in the West, and particularly in the United States. While most responses to crime have been formal, informal responses have been common. Types and intensity of formal and informal responses continue to change with our changing perceptions of crime and justice. Contemporary responses typically utilize scientific methodology and national databases to determine what works best to reduce crime rates.
Drug Crime
Authors: Toman Elisa L.
Published: December 2015

Drug crimes have become prevalent within the United States since the early 1980s when President Ronald Reagan declared a War on Drugs. These types of crimes are generally those that are committed by individuals who possess, manufacture, or distribute drugs that have a potential for abuse. Nearly $20 billion are spent on the prohibition of drugs, and include tactics such as treatment, prevention, interdiction, domestic law enforcement, and international law enforcement. Additionally, over half of today's prison population has had some form of substance abusive behavior in their background, thus making the relationship between crime and drugs especially salient.
Crime and Punishment in
I
ndia
Authors: Kethineni Sesha
Published: December 2015

India has historically relied on both formal and informal systems of crime control. The formal system of crime control was based on the concept of
Dharma
(rules of right conduct), a Hindu religious concept applied by kings to render justice. During British rule, the British relied on formal agencies such as police, judiciary, and correctional administration to maintain order, deter crime, and punish those who violated laws. Prior to and during British rule, informal crime control existed side by side with the formal system. Instead of approaching the police to file complaints, families, neighbors, and the communities settled disputes and maintained community cohesiveness. The first part of this entry provides a historical overview of justice in India; the second part covers crime in India; the third section explains laws and punishments; and the final section provides a conclusion.
Social Class and Crime
Authors: Lee Miller Bryan
Published: December 2015

Social class and crime are connected in a magnitude of ways. Those from lower economic strata are more likely to be arrested, convicted, and incarcerated for crimes than are more affluent individuals. Prisoners in the United States are more likely to be unemployed and earn less than the general population. Although criminal activity by the wealthy may pose a greater financial cost to society, affluent individuals are less likely to be caught and convicted of crimes. Additionally, white‐collar crimes have traditionally been treated less severely by the criminal justice system than street crimes. Many criminological theories have explored the relationship between economic factors and crime including looking at the effects of poverty on strain, the impact of coming from a disadvantaged neighborhood, the culture of poverty, and the very structure and enforcement of laws and the legal system.
Criminal Justice System
Authors: Friedmann Robert R.
Published: December 2015

The phrase “criminal justice system” (CJS) describes the formal governmental institutions that aim to regulate human behavior and human morality in order to achieve social control through criminal legislation, law enforcement, courts, corrections, pardons and parole, and rehabilitation and treatment programs – as well as by understanding, predicting and managing the occurrence of crime. The CJS is examined here from a system perspective, and a historical review of its components is offered.
Crime and Punishment in theEuropeanUnion
Authors: Piatkowska Sylwia J.
Published: December 2015

Although crime rates in the European Union are experiencing an overall downward trend in recent years, the levels of punitiveness are increasing in most EU member states. Interestingly, however, there appear to be no common patterns underlying the rise of punishment across member states. Countries differ in their definitions and reporting of crime, their levels and modes of punishment, their policing and law enforcement systems. A key theme over the last decade has been the Europeanization of criminal law and criminal procedures. Two supranational institutions – the European Union and the Council of Europe – have been especially influential in triggering this shift and creating a common area of freedom, security, and criminal justice among the member states.
Gender and Crime
Authors: Restivo Lauren , Richards Tara N.
Published: December 2015

Gender is arguably the most central organizing factor in human society: important differences exist regarding socialization and social expectations for males and females across all cultures, and in every community, throughout history. This entry outlines the relationship between gender and crime in the context of both offending and victimization. In addition, it highlights recent innovations in criminal justice programs that consider the role of gender in the lives of offenders and victims and provides suggestions for future advancements in gender responsive criminal justice system policies.
Drug Use and Crime
Authors: Caudy Michael S.
Published: December 2015

The relationship between drug use and offending is complex. While the high prevalence of recent substance use by individuals who become involved in the criminal justice system has been well documented, the true nature of the relationship between substance use and crime remains uncertain. Research on the causes of drug use and offending has found that there are a variety of different pathways into both behaviors. For some individuals, drug use precedes crime, for others, crime precedes drug use, and for others, drug use and crime originate around the same time as part of a more general antisocial lifestyle. The drug–crime relationship is best characterized as heterogeneous. It varies across demographics, types of drugs, types of crime, stages of the life‐course, clinical diagnoses, and many other individual and societal factors. Given the complexity of the drug–crime relationship, no single explanation fully accounts for the commonly observed association between drug use and crime.
Crime and Punishment in
B
razil
Authors: Beattie Peter M.
Published: December 2015

The Portuguese courts sentenced convicts to penal transportation, which was an integral part of Brazil's early settlement. After independence, Brazil devised different punishments for slave and free convicts despite its liberal constitution and penal code. Brazil's emperor Pedro II brought about a de facto end to the death penalty in 1876 followed by a de jure abolition of capital punishment in 1890. In the late twentieth century new criminal organizations emerged from Brazil's overcrowded prisons where guerrilla insurgents influenced common criminals to form new more highly organized criminal organizations. The rapid growth of Brazil's prisons sped the growth of these organizations that have members in and outside prisons.
Social Disorganization Theory
Authors: Porter Jeremy R. , Capellan Joel , Chintakrindi Sriram
Published: December 2015

Throughout its history, social disorganization theory has been one of the most widely applied ecological theories of criminal offending. At the root of social disorganization theory is the explanation of variations in criminal offending and delinquency, across both time and space, as a product of institutional disintegration. These institutions (family, school, church, friendship, etc.) are historically responsible to the establishment of organized and cooperative relationships among groups within the local community. This organization is then linked to the bond or “sense of belonging” one might feel in regards to their community, which decreases the likelihood of their involvement in criminal or delinquent behaviors that might negatively affect that community. The theoretical approach is not without its detractors as the theory has been critiqued from being “wholly negative,” too structural in nature, and centered on specific privileged orientations of “organizations.” This entry attempts to summarize these points while introducing the historical development and contemporary applications of the theoretical approach.
Workplace Violence
Authors: Harper Dee Wood
Published: December 2015

What is workplace violence? According to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) “Workplace violence is any act or threat of physical violence, harassment, intimidation, or other threatening disruptive behavior that occurs at the work site. It ranges from threats and verbal abuse to physical assaults and even homicide. It can affect and involve employees, clients, customers and visitors. Homicide is currently the fourth‐leading cause of fatal occupational injuries in the United States.” A related definition is provided by the International Labor Organization of the United Nations which defines workplace violence in the following manner: Any action, incident or behavior that departs from reasonable conduct in which a person is assaulted, threatened, harmed, injured in the course of, or as a direct result of, his or her work. In their book
Safeguarding the Organization against Violence and Bullying
, Paul McCarthy and Claire Mayhew suggest that a growing interest in workplace aggression has created a body of scientific publications that has led to “a vocabulary more often applied in naming hitherto normalized negative actions as ‘bullying’ and ‘violence.’” So while the definition of workplace violence has expanded, its frequency appears to have contracted in recent years, as we will learn in this entry.
Defense Attorneys
Authors: Lu Ruibin
Published: December 2015

Defense attorneys are lawyers who advise and represent persons accused of or convicted of criminal charges. They serve a unique and important role in the US adversarial system. Despite their significant role in the criminal justice system, the right to counsel is a relatively new concept and has been developed gradually. As most of the criminal defendants in the United States are indigent and cannot afford to retain a private counsel, the right to counsel is largely relying on the public defense system, which contains assigned counsel, contracted counsel, and public defender offices. Although many public defenders consistently face overload of cases and limited resources, research has shown that government‐appointed attorneys generally do as good a job as private attorneys.
Police Discrimination
Authors: Lowery Patrick G.
Published: December 2015

Police discrimination can manifest itself in a number of ways: against racial/ethnic minorities; against women; against LGBT individuals in their community. Police officers may also discriminate against fellow officers who belong to one of these minority groups. Whether these accusations of discrimination are actual or perceived, widespread or minor, police officers and managers need to be cognizant of the feelings of minority groups in order to improve levels of police satisfaction and legitimacy.
Crime Mapping
Authors: Zuchowski Robert , Khey David N.
Published: December 2015

The use of geographic information systems (GIS) has seen a boom in the past several decades, and this trend is projected to continue. For all its benefits, however, GIS has encountered numerous criticisms, particularly emanating from social science researchers. This entry will examine some of the issues of GIS and address how researchers can confront those perceived methodological shortcomings through comprehensive analysis. As a technology that presents reality in the form of computer and geographic representations, GIS is highly suggestive of accurate knowledge. This concern about its accuracy is analogous to the general concern about statistics and empiricism, whose apogee has characterized the 1970s. Another topical issue concerning GIS is the perception that its primary use is to provide visually compelling descriptive information rather than as a tool that enables inferential and predictive analysis. Both of these criticisms can be allayed by exploring the capabilities of confirmatory analysis that uses GIS, as they are depicted in recent scholarship across several disciplines. Despite its perceived pitfalls, GIS has been assimilated into the social sciences and appears as a mainstay due to its underlying principle that
place and time
matter in understanding social institutions and people.
Crime and Punishment inCanada
Authors: Bucerius Sandra M. , Urbanik Marta‐Marika
Published: December 2015

Maintaining a relatively stable imprisonment rate since the 1960s, Canadian incarceration rates have long been exceptional and stood in stark contrast to those of its comparators, most notably the United States and England and Wales. More recently, however, it appears as though Canada has been taking a punitive turn, as imprisonment rates are growing rapidly, despite continued decreases in reported crime. Whether or not this shift in Canada's penal approach will have a long‐term impact on Canadian corrections remains to be seen. We fear that the current shift might further marginalize Canada's Aboriginal population as well as other racial minorities, given their vast over‐incarceration and mounting allegations of racial discrimination within the justice system.
Anthropology and Crime
Authors: Bryan Page J.
Published: December 2015

When cultural anthropologists report on the offenses committed by people in the cultural contexts they have studied, their training in cultural relativism militates against their calling these offenses “crimes.” Consequently, most of the anthropological literature on offenses and sanctions avoids using that word to characterize behaviors associated with conflict and perhaps punishment. Even extensive texts on law in non‐Western societies appear to avoid attributing criminality to these behaviors. Two exceptions to this general principle have emerged in anthropology since the mid twentieth century: forensic anthropology and ethnography of drug use. Forensic anthropology brings to bear anthropological understanding of human behavior with highly developed technology to investigate deaths in which only bones remain. Ethnography of drug use attempts to define the forms and consequences of illegal drug use in cultural contexts, including marginalized neighborhoods, interpersonal networks, and intimate environments of drug consumption.
Employment Theft
Authors: Hollinger Richard C. , Davis Jason L.
Published: December 2015

Employee theft is considered the most common nonviolent crime committed against businesses. Employee theft is also responsible for billions of dollars' worth of loss each. Such enormous losses undermine the viability of companies and at the same time have a deleterious impact on consumers and the overall economy. In order to implement effective prevention measures, it is therefore important to understand factors that contribute to employee theft. To this end, managers and social science researchers have identified various theoretical explanations to explain employee theft. This entry offers a comprehensive overview of employee theft.
Poverty and Crime
Authors: Oliver Kira Marie
Published: December 2015

The exploration of the overrepresentation of the poor and poor minorities in both the juvenile and criminal justice systems has been the center of several experimental and empirical investigations. Researchers, policy makers, criminologists, and advocates are well aware of the implications that differential offending, bureaucratic bias, and the various social disparities depicted among social control policies and ecological settings have on impoverished minority populations. These disparities have various disadvantaging effects on future life outcomes, life trajectories, and involvement in criminal activity. Although much is known about the overrepresentation of impoverished minorities in both the criminal and juvenile justice systems, little has been done to address the many concerns. Rather, numerous efforts in the forms of both legal and extralegal factors have been enacted to concentrate segmented populations. These effects further disadvantage minority and poverty‐stricken populations, making any upward mobilization almost impossible. The key issues surrounding the overrepresentation of poor and poor minorities in crime statistics include the importance of understanding community‐level perspectives, which entrench the disadvantaged. Also, it is necessary to identify theoretical approaches that outline bias within the juvenile and criminal justice systems. Furthermore, the information will collaboratively exemplify differences in increased social control policies among poor minorities.
Crime and Punishment in
I
ran (Islamic Republic of)
Authors: Alasti Sanaz , Bronson Eric
Published: December 2015

Following the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1979, the modern criminal justice system of Iran was replaced by an Islamic criminal justice system based on the
Shi'ite
version of
Sharia
law. This system of law formed in the early 1980s, during the tenure of the Ayatollah Ruhullah Musavi Khomeini. It replaced the secular system that two Pahlavi monarchs established in Iran during their consecutive reigns. The first Penal Code of Iran was ratified in 1926. Following the revolution, in 1983, the first Islamic Penal Statute was ratified (Statute of Retaliation and Prescribed Punishments). In 1984, the Discretionary Punishment Statute was ratified, and finally the new Islamic Penal Code of Iran was ratified in 1926.
Arrest
Authors: Holleran David
Published: December 2015

Arrest constitutes the primary entry point for an individual into the juvenile justice system or criminal justice system. Official estimates of arrest come from the Federal Bureau of Investigation's Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), though with the advent of the National Incident‐Based Reporting System (NIBRS) data government officials, policy makers, and academicians have been provided with an improved ability to understand the trends and correlates of arrest without some of the data limitations of the UCR. NIBRS data and arrest data from police agencies also continue to be used to understand the potential role of demographic characteristics such as citizen race in police–citizen encounters, the role of citizen demeanor in police–citizen encounters, and the influence of arrest on domestic violence offenders.
Criminal History
Authors: Hester Rhys
Published: December 2015

Criminal history refers to a criminal offender's prior conviction record, particularly in the context of sentencing that offender for a new offense. Judges in all jurisdictions have long used prior record as one of the primary determinants of an offender's punishment, and sentencing guidelines now formally build prior record into sentencing outcomes. However, the theoretical justification for enhancing sentences on the basis of prior convictions is disputed, and scholars are increasingly recognizing that prior record premiums may have negative impacts on important policy outcomes such as racial disparities, the aging prison population, proportionality in sentencing, and optimal prison resource allocation. An examination of how guidelines in various jurisdictions formulate prior record enhancements and how those formulations vary highlights ways in which criminal history enhancements may be modified to balance sentencing goals.
Forensics and Crime
Authors: Anastario Michael P. , Strom Kevin J.
Published: December 2015

The forensic investigation of crime includes the use of the scientific method to study past events for legal purposes, often to reconstruct unknown events associated with a crime scene. Over time, a highly specialized set of applied scientific sub‐specialties have evolved for use in the forensic investigation of crimes, including biology, latent fingerprints, ballistics, trace evidence, document analyses, anthropology, and toxicology. While forensic disciplines are used to inform the investigation of different types of crimes, most of these disciplines are organized within crime laboratories that are utilized by public institutions for legal purposes. In this entry, the major forensic disciplines will be reviewed, the role of the crime lab in forensic investigations will be discussed, and current challenges and the future directions of forensic science will be reviewed.
Dating Violence
Authors: Hartman Jennifer L.
Published: December 2015

Dating violence (or relationship abuse) is a pervasive public health problem in the United States that has serious long‐term and short‐term effects. At increased risk are those in secondary and postsecondary schooling. This entry reviews correlates of dating violence as evidenced by extant research and also suggests best practices of how to eliminate dating violence.
Crime and Punishment inAsia
Authors: Wang Yumin R.
Published: December 2015

The evolution of policing in Taiwan is analyzed from the perspectives of political and criminal justice. Participant observation is the research method employed. It is observed that the country's national police system is centralized in command but decentralized in operation. The administration of city and county police departments is independent of the influence of local politics. Police practice transformed from an autocratic to a democratic pattern as a result of the political democratization movement initiated in 1988. Civilians enjoy equal opportunity to join the force, and they are fairly compensated for taking on the job. Community policing, the proactive strategy the national police force historically employs, effective curbs crimes as well as provides services to citizens. Autocratic policing was exercised when the country was at war against the Chinese Communists during Cold War Era, and democratic policing came to being when the tension across the Taiwan Straits turns eased.
Prescription Drug Use
Authors: Palacios Wilson
Published: December 2015

Diversion and abuse of controlled prescription drugs (CPDs) represent a threat to both public health and safety. CPD abuse has increased according to all key sentinel drug measures assessing both public health and safety, and a major component of this abuse centers around pharmaceutical opioids. This entry provides a brief review of prescription drug use.
International Crime Statistics
Authors: Kakar Suman
Published: December 2015

International crime statistics are statistical measures of crime in societies at the international level. International crime statistics are gathered and reported by countries across the globe using various methods. These statistics serve significant purposes such as providing a fundamental overview of the extent and nature of crime at the international level in countries around the world. These statistics also demonstrate the level of effectiveness of various criminal justice administration systems and policies in member states. These crime statistics are used for crime comparison across time, between sources within one nation, as well as within and between other nations.
Cigarette Smoking and the Risk of Incident Gout in a Prospective Cohort Study
Authors: Gee Teng Gim , Pan An , Yuan Jian‐Min , Koh Woon‐Puay
Published: December 2015

Objective

Cigarette smoking is shown to reduce serum urate. However, its impact on risk of gout is unknown. We prospectively examined the relationship between cigarette smoking and gout risk in this Asian cohort.

Methods

We analyzed the data from the Singapore Chinese Health Study, a cohort of 63,257 Chinese ages 45–74 years at recruitment in 1993–1998. Information on cigarette smoking and other lifestyle factors was collected through in‐person interviews at recruitment. This analysis included 53,213 participants who took part in either the first followup (1999–2004) and/or the second followup interviews (2006–2010). Cox proportional hazards models were used to assess the relationship between cigarette smoking and gout risk.

Results

A total of 2,244 incident cases of physician‐diagnosed gout were identified after a mean followup of 11.1 years. Among men, compared to never smokers, the risk of gout in current smokers was decreased by 27% (hazard ratio [HR] 0.73 [95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0.63–0.84]). This risk reduction was greater in lean male smokers (HR 0.69 [95% CI 0.57–0.83]) than overweight smokers (HR 0.87 [95% CI 0.67–1.13]) (P = 0.09 for interaction). This inverse association with smoking was rapidly attenuated to become null even in former smokers who had recently quit smoking. Conversely, there was no association between smoking and gout risk in women. In a companion cross‐sectional study, current smokers had significantly lower levels of serum urate than former and never smokers, and this observation was present in men and not women.

Conclusion

Current smoking is associated with lower risk of gout in men in this Asian cohort.
Sensitivity to Change of Patient‐Preference Measures for Pain in Patients With Knee Osteoarthritis: Data From Two Trials
Authors: Parkes Matthew J. , Callaghan Michael J. , O'Neill Terence W. , Forsythe Laura M. , Lunt Mark , Felson David T.
Published: December 2015

Objective

In osteoarthritis (OA) clinical trials, a pain measure that is most sensitive to change is considered optimal. We compared sensitivity to change of patient‐reported pain outcomes, including a patient‐preference measure (where the patient nominates an activity that aggravates their pain).

Methods

We used data from 2 trials of patients with confirmed (American College of Rheumatology criteria) knee OA: a trial of brace treatment for patellofemoral OA, and a trial of intraarticular steroids in knee OA. Both trials reported an improvement in pain following treatment. Participants rated pain on a 100‐mm visual analog scale (VAS), in the activity that caused them the most knee pain (VASNA), as well as completing questions on overall knee pain and the Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS) questionnaire. Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC) scores were also calculated from the KOOS. Standardized changes in each outcome were generated between treatment and control after 6 weeks intervention in the BRACE trial, and 1–2 weeks following intervention in the steroid trial.

Results

The VASNA produced standardized changes following treatment that were at least as large as other pain outcomes. In the BRACE trial, the between‐groups standardized change with the VASNA was −0.63, compared with the KOOS pain subscale change of −0.33, and pain in the last week VAS change of −0.56. In the steroid study, within‐group change following treatment in the VASNA was −0.60, compared to the last week VAS change of −0.51, and KOOS pain subscale change of −0.58.

Conclusion

Pain on nominated activity appears to be at least as, and in some cases more, sensitive to change than the KOOS/WOMAC questionnaire.
Utility of Urinary Protein‐Creatinine Ratio and Protein Content in a 24‐Hour Urine Collection in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis
Authors: Medina‐Rosas Jorge , Yap Kristy S. , Anderson Melanie , Su Jiandong , Touma Zahi
Published: December 2015

Objective

To systematically review literature on the utility of spot urinary protein‐creatinine ratio (PCR) as a screening test for proteinuria and its ability to accurately measure proteinuria compared with 24‐hour urine collection (24H‐P) in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).

Methods

We conducted a literature search (1900–2015) for articles comparing PCR and 24H‐P in SLE patients in the databases Medline, Web of Science, and Embase. Included studies and their results were critically appraised and analyzed.

Results

Thirteen studies (1,001 patients; 84.01% women) were included. Ten studies reported on Pearson's correlation (range 0.67–0.94), and 3 studies reported on Spearman's correlation (range 0.78–1.00). The meta‐analysis of studies with Pearson's correlation showed a high overall correlation of 0.80 between 24H‐P and PCR, yet with high heterogeneity (I2 = 97.2%). Correlation analysis is not sufficient to evaluate the utility of a new test against the gold standard test, and analysis on agreement is required. Seven studies reported on agreement: 3 studies analyzed concordance correlation coefficient (0.48–0.94), 3 analyzed intraclass correlation coefficient (0.66–0.95), and 1 analyzed kappa coefficient (0.58). These results confirmed that the agreement between 24H‐P and PCR was inappropriate. Three studies included Bland‐Altman plots, and the results also demonstrated poor agreement between both tests.

Conclusion

The PCR has a utility as a screening test for proteinuria in SLE patients. The studies' results of 24H‐P and PCR showed poor agreement between both tests, signifying that PCR should not be a substitute for the gold standard test (24H‐P) to accurately measure proteinuria.