bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Social Construction of Data: Methodological Problems of Investigating Learning in the Zone of Proximal Development
Authors: Smagorinsky Peter
Published: March 2008

Educational researchers have traditionally drawn on procedures and metaphors from the hard sciences to guide their thinking about methodological issues. One frequently invoked metaphor is that of the purity of data, which a researcher can contaminate through the process of investigation. This article questions the appropriateness of the purity metaphor, using a perspective provided by Vygotsky’s notion of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) and its emphasis on a genetic method in which development is mediated by cultural tools and signs. Methodological problems emerging from this conception of the ZPD—including problems of defining research, identifying an appropriate unit of analysis, considering the relationship between evidence and telos (an optimal sense of development), and accounting for the mediational role of assessment—are reviewed. Finally, the work of Luria (1976) is examined from the neo-Vygotskian perspective developed in this article.
Mexican American Students and Classroom Interaction: An Overview and Critique
Authors: Losey Kay M.
Published: March 2008

The failure of U. S. schools to successfully educate Mexican American students has been well documented. In this article, studies of Mexican American students and classroom interaction are reviewed and critiqued from a Vygotskian perspective. Four traditional approaches to the study of Mexican American classroom interaction were found. The research reviewed suggests that teachers can better ensure Mexican American student involvement in classroom interaction through collaborative learning techniques, acceptance and appreciation of student language use, and presentation of challenging material related to student interests. Researchers may expand our understanding of this topic through the descriptive study of Mexican American students in the mainstream, English-only secondary or college-level classroom. Topics in need of further research are identified.
Percent: A Privileged Proportion
Authors: Parker Melanie , Leinhardt Gaea
Published: March 2008

Why is percent, a ubiquitous mathematical concept, so hard to learn? This question motivates our review. We argue that asking the question is worthwhile because percent is universal and because it forms a bridge between real-world situations and mathematical concepts of multiplicative structures. The answer involves explaining the long history of the percent concept from its early roots in Babylonian, Indian, and Chinese trading practices and its parallel roots in Greek proportional geometry to its modern multifaceted meanings. The answer also involves specifying what percent is: its meaning (fraction or ratio) and its sense (function or statistic). Finally, the answer involves understanding the privileged language of percent—an extremely concise language that has lost its explicit referents, has misleading additive terminology for multiplicative meanings, and has multiple uses for the preposition of. The answer leads to speculation, in light of previous research, concerning what can be done to teach percent—and other multiplicative mathematical concepts—more effectively.
Narrative Versus Meta-Analytic Reviews of Race Differences in Motivation: A Comment on Cooper and Dorr
Authors: Graham Sandra
Published: March 2008

Some of the benefits and shortcomings of a meta-analytic approach to reviewing race differences in need for achievement ( Cooper & Dorr, 1995 ) are examined and compared to the narrative approach that I adopted in a previous review on this topic ( Graham, 1994 ). Among the benefits of meta-analysis are the calculation of effect sizes for race differences (compared to the box score method of my narrative review) and the presentation of replicable and objective procedures for organizing, describing, and comparing study characteristics. Among the perceived limitations are the meta-analyst’s reluctance to distinguish between low- and high-quality studies and an overemphasis on quantitative comparisons of substantively disparate literatures. The implications for studying race as a psychological variable are also discussed.
Revisiting the Writing-Speaking Connection: Challenges for Research on Writing and Writing Instruction
Authors: Sperling Melanie
Published: March 2008

Both research in the field of writing and writing pedagogy have been built to a large extent on the premise that, as a fundamental discourse process, writing has critical connections to speaking. What those connections are has been debated by both researchers and teachers. This article reviews writing research that implicates writing-speaking relationships by constructing two contrasting positions for organizing the research and understanding the relationships: (a) that writing differs from speaking, and (b) that writing is similar to speaking. Research issues regarding integrating these positions are raised, and on the basis of the review a guideline is offered for future writing research, implicating the field of writing in concerns about teaching and learning in different academic and sociocultural contexts.
Univariate and Multivariate Omnibus Hypothesis Tests Selected to Control Type I Error Rates When Population Variances Are Not Necessarily Equal
Authors: Coombs William T. , Algina James , Oltman Debra Olson
Published: March 2008

When independent random samples are selected from normal (multivariate normal) populations with equal variances (covariance matrices) to test the equality of population means (mean vectors), the choice at each level of the omnibus hypothesis is clear: independent samples t, ANOVA F, Hotelling’s T2, or MANOVA. Population variances (covariance matrices) that are not necessarily equal, however, cloud the picture. In terms of maximizing power while adequately controlling Type I error rates over the widest variety of conditions, empirical literature suggests use of (a) the Wilcox (1992) H to test the univariate H0: μ1 = μ2, (b) the Wilcox (1993a) Z to test the univariate H0: μ1 = μ2 = ... = μG,(c) either the Kim (1992) , the James (1954) second-order, or the Johansen (1980) procedure to test the multivariate H0: μ1 = μ2, and (d) either the Coombs-Algina U* (Coombs & Algina, in press-a), the James (1954) second-order, or the Johansen (1980) procedure to test the multivariate H0: μ1 = μ2 = ... = μG.
Teaching Students to Generate Questions: A Review of the Intervention Studies
Authors: Rosenshine Barak , Meister Carla , Chapman Saul
Published: March 2008

This is a review of intervention studies in which students have been taught to generate questions as a means of improving their comprehension. Overall, teaching students the cognitive strategy of generating questions about the material they had read resulted in gains in comprehension, as measured by tests given at the end of the intervention. All tests were based on new material. The overall median effect size was 0.36 (64th percentile) when standardized tests were used and 0.86 (81st percentile) when experimenter-developed comprehension tests were used. The traditional skill-based instructional approach and the reciprocal teaching approach yielded similar results.
The Quest for α: Developments in Multiple Comparison Procedures in the Quarter Century Since
Authors: Hancock Gregory R. , Klockars Alan J.
Published: March 2008

In a highly regarded work, Games (1971) presented state-of-the-art multiple comparison procedures (MCPs) for a variety of research scenarios and sought to bring order to the seemingly chaotic array of MCPs being used at that time. The current article is a sequel of sorts, placing Games’s insights in the context of many of the major developments in simultaneous and sequential inference since his article’s publication. Specifically, we address the common MCP scenarios of orthogonal contrasts, nonorthogonal contrasts, comparisons against a reference group, all possible pairwise comparisons, and exploratory post hoc contrasts, all under the assumed conditions of independent scores, normality, and homogeneity of variance. In addition, discussions of the philosophical issues surrounding the control of Type I error rates are presented.
“Simply No Worse and Simply No Better” May Simply Be Wrong: A Critique of Veenman’s Conclusion About Multigrade Classes
Authors: Mason DeWayne A. , Burns Robert B.
Published: March 2008

Although Simon Veenman’s (1995) synthesis of research on multigrade and multi-age classes contributes important definitions and findings to the literature, his assessment of the effects of multigrade classes—the more common of these classroom structures—ignores two key factors: (a) selection bias and (b) lower-quality instruction. The omission of these two key factors and Veenman’s implicit advocacy of multi-age classes and cross-grade grouping render his no-difference conclusion problematic. In this article, we critique Veenman’s conclusion and explanations, and argue that selection bias and lower-quality instruction should be included as part of the explanation for his no-difference finding. We conclude that multigrade classes have at least a small negative effect on achievement as well as potentially negative effects on teacher motivation. We suggest that researchers examine more carefully the conditions under which student achievement and affect may be fostered in this classroom structure.
Effects of Multigrade and Multi-Age Classes Reconsidered
Authors: Veenman Simon
Published: March 2008

In response to “Cognitive and Noncognitive Effects of Multigrade and Multi-Age Classes: A Best-Evidence Synthesis” ( Veenman, 1995 ), Mason and Burns (1996) report that their research and review of the literature has led them to conclude that multigrade classes have a slightly negative effect on student achievement. They argue, moreover, that multigrade classes generally have better students and perhaps better teachers and that this selection bias masks the negative effects of less effective instruction in multigrade classes. In this rejoinder, a reanalysis, based on meta-analytic procedures, of the available multigrade and multi-age studies shows the average weighted effect sizes to be essentially zero or close to zero. For all analyses, the confidence intervals around the average effect sizes included zero. These results provide little support for the assumption that the quality of instruction in multigrade classes is lower than in single-grade classes. Between-study differences revealed that favorable conditions for classroom instruction, the country of publication, the locality and socioeconomic status of the school, the grade level of the students, and the number of years spent in multigrade classes need the attention of investigators in future research into the effects of multigrade classes.
Interpreting Research on School Resources and Student Achievement: A Rejoinder to Hanushek
Authors: Greenwald Rob , Hedges Larry V. , Laine Richard D.
Published: March 2008

Hanushek’s (1996) comment illuminates some of the ways in which he differs from us in approach and interpretation. Hanushek misunderstands the interpretation of meta-analytic results when (as in the present case) studies produce a range of different, but positive effects. We disagree with Hanushek on the role of statistical independence. While we do not regard multiple analyses of data on the same individuals to be as informative as analyses of independent data sets, Hanushek treats the two as equivalent. While publication bias remains a concern in research, we show that even overcompensating for its likely effects does not substantially influence our results. While disagreements persist, scholarly debate should not obscure the fact that the best evidence, upon close inspection and the application of appropriate statistical methodology, demonstrates that student achievement is related to resource availability.
On the Complex Relation Between Cognitive Developmental Research and Children’s Science Curricula
Authors: Metz Kathleen E.
Published: March 2008

My earlier article (Metz, 1995 ) identified several assumptions about elementary school children’s scientific reasoning abilities that have frequently been used for the purpose of framing “developmental appropriate” science curricula. That article traced the origin of those assumptions to an interpretation of a segment of Piaget’s writings and then critiqued those assumptions of the basis of Piaget’s corpus, as well as the contemporary cognitive developmental research literature. Given that developmental research constituted the primary base on which I critiqued these assumptions and formulated alternative recommendations, lam surprised by Deanna Kuhn’s ( 1997 ) contention that the article could be read as suggesting that the developmental literature has “failed” science educators and that they would be advised to look elsewhere to inform their curricular design. Nevertheless, I do consider the relation between cognitive developmental research, as embodied in the contemporary research tradition, and children’s science curricula as fundamentally complex. This essay examines three interrelated characteristics of the cognitive developmental research tradition that contribute to the complexity of this relationship: (a) its tendency to attribute shortcomings in performance to the child’s stage, with the assumption that these shortcomings will disappear with sufficient advancement of cognitive development; (b) the frequent confounding of weak knowledge with developmentally based cognitive deficiencies; and (c) the emphasis of robust stage-based constraints on children’s thinking, to the neglect of variability and change.
Social Competence and Affective Characteristics of Students With Mild Disabilities
Authors: Gresham Frank M. , MacMillan Donald L.
Published: March 2008

Empirical research examining the social competence and affective functioning of children with mild disabilities was reviewed. Mild-disability groups included children variously classified as having specific learning disabilities, mild mental retardation, behavior disorders, and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Social competence was conceptualized as a multidimensional construct that included social skills, adaptive behavior, and peer relationship variables. Children with mild disabilities were shown to have difficulties in negotiating both peer-related and teacher-related adjustments in school settings. Consistent with previous reviews, this review showed that children with mild disabilities had poorer social skills, exhibited more interfering problem behaviors, and were poorly accepted or rejected by peers. Conflicting evidence in the literature exists as it relates to the general self-esteem levels of various groups of students with mild disabilities. These findings were interpreted in terms of social comparison theory. The review concludes with a discussion of the methodological issues that should be addressed before the social competence and affective characteristics of children with mild disabilities can be understood more fully. These issues include sampling designs, heterogeneity of samples, influences of demographic variables, nosological error, and the paucity of available longitudinal research on these and related questions.
Debating Inclusion in Synecdoche, New York: A Response to Gresham and MacMillan
Authors: Ferguson Dianne L. , Ferguson Philip M.
Published: March 2008

Gresham and MacMillan review what the research says about the comparative development of socialization skills in children with disabilities placed in inclusive or noninclusive educational programs. Our article responds by arguing that a comprehensive review of the inclusion debate needs to cast a bigger net than the one used by Gresham and MacMillan. We briefly refer to some of the additional research and interpretive perspectives that seem relevant to considerations of inclusion and diversity in America’s schools.
Using Ideology: Cases of Nonrecognition of the Politics of Research and Practice in Special Education
Authors: Brantlinger Ellen
Published: March 2008

This critical review focuses on 13 articles and 5 book chapters by prominent special education scholars. These authors write in support of a continuum of special education services and recommend that only the results of empirical research should inform special education practice. They also express wariness about the concept of inclusion and the direction of the inclusion movement. In touting the superiority of their own scholarship, they accuse inclusion supporters of being political, subjective, and ideological. This article challenges the supposed neutrality of the special education status quo and the moral grounding of the reviewed authors’ position. Drawing from the insights of theorists who study ideology, the analysis sheds light on the ideological nature of the reviewed authors’ own writing. The major recommendation put forth in this article is that scholars and other professionals need to think seriously about the impact of their educational preferences on the least powerful members of society if equity in schooling is to be realized.
The Impending Demise of the Discrepancy Formula
Authors: Aaron P. G.
Published: March 2008

This article calls into question the validity and utility of classifying poor readers into learning disability (LD) and non-learning disability (non-LD) categories on the basis of the discrepancy between their IQs and reading achievement scores (the Discrepancy Model). This form of classification of poor readers is based on two premises. First, the etiologies of these two forms of reading disabilities are different; therefore, there are qualitative differences in the cognitive makeups of these two groups of poor readers. Second, and consequently, the two categories of poor readers require different kinds of remedial treatment. The present review of research indicates that neither of these two premises is valid. In contrast, many research studies indicate that instructional methods which have disregarded the LD-non-LD distinction and focused their remedial efforts on the cause of the reading problem are generally successful in improving reading achievement. It is suggested that the practice of utilizing the discrepancy formula to classify poor readers into the LD and non-LD categories be abandoned and that a pragmatic approach which identifies the source of the reading problem for all children and focuses remedial efforts on that source be adopted (the Reading Component Model). The impact of the adoption of such a model on the learning disability field is discussed.
Effects of Instruction in Deriving Word Meaning from Context: A Meta-Analysis
Authors: Fukkink R.G. , de Glopper K.
Published: March 2008

A meta-analysis of 21 instructional treatments aimed at enhancing the skill of deliberately deriving word meaning from context during reading shows a medium effect size of 0.43 standard deviation units (p < .000). An exploratory multilevel regression analysis shows that clue instruction appears to be more effective than other instruction types or just practice (β = 0.40). Effect size correlates negatively with class size (β = .03). Implications for instruction and future research are discussed. Future studies should investigate the effect of instruction on both the skill of deriving word meaning from context and incidental word learning to evaluate its contribution to vocabulary growth.
Chapter 4: Education of Early Adolescents
Authors: Braddock Jomills Henry , McPartland James M.
Published: March 2008

For many youth 10 to 15 years old, early adolescence offers opportunities to choose a path toward a productive and fulfilling life. For many others, it represents their last best chance to avoid a diminished future. ( Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989 )
New Faces of Validity of Educational Tests
Authors: Schutz Richard E
Published: March 2008

Validity is no longer applicable only to the psychometric community. Today the school community, the courts, the news media, government, and special interests have at least an equal hand in the matter. The paper updates the concept of test validity to match the current educational scene. The new conception entails a set of 10 categories yoked together in pairs: curriculum and instructional validity, statutory and forensic validity, media and journalistic validity, political and legislative validity, and partisan and activist validity.
Evaluation, Policy Analysis, and Multiple Case Studies: Aspects of Focus and Sampling
Authors: Sadler D Royce
Published: March 2008

Two specific criticisms of the relation between multiple case studies and policy analysis, namely the uncertain focus of qualitative research as a means for evaluating policy and the hazards of using nonrandom samples, are challenged in this article. The issue of relevance is answered in general terms by showing why it is that qualitative research is especially appropriate to analytic inquiry into policy. Then a set of definite foci is proposed. The second criticism is answered, again in general terms first, by showing that strictly random sampling does not fit the requirements of the proposed form of policy inquiry. Several guidelines for tailored sampling are then made explicit.
Principles of Data Storage and Retrieval for Use in Qualitative Evaluations
Authors: Levine Harold G.
Published: March 2008

In spite of increased interest in recent years in the mechanics of qualitative evaluation, few evaluators or other qualitative researchers have addressed the related issues of qualitative data storage-retrieval and data reduction-analysis. Generalized procedures for these tasks, which are generally known within the field of anthropology, have never been systematically examined or codified. This paper borrows from developments in information and library science to construct general principles of data storage and retrieval for the field-based investigator. The five principles that are examined are formatting, cross-referral, indexing (including thesauri design and cross-referencing), abstracting, and pagination. The principles are illustrated with examples from evaluations of school-based programs in the United States. Although the emphasis here is on techniques for manual data manipulation, the paper also explores the advantages of, and considerations for, computerized data storage and search. Finally, the paper also includes a discussion of the more obvious implications of decisions about data storage and retrieval for data reduction and analysis.
The Educational Policy Consequences of Economic Instability: The Emerging Political Economy of American Education
Authors: Guthrie James W
Published: March 2008

Recent U.S. economic instability has had a significant but unanticipated policy consequence for education. Unusually high rates of inflation in the late 1970s and a subsequent recession did not lead to serious erosion nationally in resources allocated for education. The decentralized manner in which education is financed in the United States and enrollment declines buffered schools and colleges more than most other social service sectors. By 1985 both K–12 grade school systems and postsecondary institutions had generally recouped financial support. However, persistent economic uncertainty fueled by continuing conditions such as high federal deficits, nagging unemployment, foreign trade imbalances, and growing overseas borrowings has evoked intensified public faith in education as a means for regaining U.S. economic vitality. Current reform efforts intended to make education more rigorous and productive are one of the outcomes.
The Shortage of Mathematics and Science Teachers: A Review of the Evidence
Authors: Rumberger Russell
Published: March 2008

Many people believe that one major problem currently confronting American education is a severe shortage of mathematics and science teachers. This paper develops alternative ways of measuring shortages and reviews the evidence based on these alternative measures. Evidence from other studies as well as new evidence presented here suggests that shortages do exist, but that they are much Jess severe than previous studies have claimed. In addition, comparisons with earlier studies suggest that shortages of qualified mathematics and science teachers have existed at least since the 1960s. The present analysis reveals that two factors contributing to such shortages are the placement of recent qualified graduates outside of teaching and the misassignment of certified graduates who go into teaching.
Is There a Conflict Between Equity and Excellence?
Authors: Strike Kenneth A.
Published: March 2008

This paper addresses the question posed by A Nation at Risk: Is there a conflict between the pursuit of equality and the pursuit of excellence? It argues that this question disguises another and more fundamental conflict between the economic and political goals of education. Concepts of equity and excellence are developed within the contexts of human capital theory and of “the Jeffersonian ideal.” It is argued that these conflicting concepts of equity and excellence cannot be simultaneously realized and that the tendency to link educational reform to the goals of human capital theory threatens the Jeffersonian ideals of democratic participation
Accountability in California Public Schools
Authors: Fetler Mark
Published: March 2008

The California Department of Education has adopted a school accountability program with three main components: a statewide summary report, individual school performance reports, and local school self-reports of effectiveness. This article discusses implementation of the accountability program, its structure and function, selection of performance indicators, and recognition of schools. A survey of school officials found strong support for the concept of accountability, but weak agreement on the specific means used to implement it. Comparisons with other state and federal programs are drawn.
Legal Education as a Model for the Education of Evaluators
Authors: Caulley Darrel N , Dowdy Irene
Published: March 2008

While the skills of quantitative analysis are commonly a part of an evaluator’s training, the skills of logical analysis and argumentation are little emphasized. For example, an evaluator needs to argue from evidence to conclusions or recommendations. Such skills typically are taught to lawyers during their training. There are two parts to this paper. The first part is a discussion of legal education, which uses the Socratic method of pedagogy and the study of case histories. The second part examines what aspects of legal education might be used as a model for the education of evaluators. There is a discussion of what information an evaluation case history might contain.
A Comparison of Methods for Measuring Achievement in Basic Skills Program Evaluation
Authors: Hanson Ralph A , Schutz Richard E
Published: March 2008

Standardized achievement tests continue to be used as the primary criterion measures in the evaluation of basic skills programs despite explicit recommendations against this practice by many testing and evaluation experts. A major issue behind this criticism is examined in this comparative study of three types of tests. These tests represent three points on a content validity continuum which references their correspondence to the instructional program being evaluated. Data are examined on these tests at two levels in eight groups of elementary school students receiving instruction on various basic skills. The results show why and how standardized tests provide different information from other tests that are more closely matched to program instruction. They also show why out-of-level standardized test results often correspond more closely to the results of instructionally referenced tests as compared to at-level tests. The implications of this research for basic skill program evaluations are discussed.
Adaptive Organizational Behavior of School Organizations: An Exploratory Study
Authors: Koberg Christine S
Published: March 2008

Although school administrators continually have to introduce internal organizational changes that allow them to cope with changes in their environments, little research on the adaptive organizational behavior of school organizations is available. This study collected exploratory data on a group of organizational adjustment variables (procedural, personnel, process, structural, and strategic) among a group of schools and school districts. The results provide a preliminary basis for suggesting that the adaptive organizational behavior of schools and school districts may be influenced by perceived environmental uncertainty and, to a lesser extent, by organization size. School administrators appeared to choose courses of actions or adjustments that solve their problems with minimum cost to the organization. Adaptation as a factor essential to organizational performance is discussed.
The Effect of Mode Discourse on Student Writing Performance: Implications for Policy
Authors: Kegley Pamela H.
Published: March 2008

To determine the reliability of evaluation decisions about student writing competency across modes of discourse, a large sample of students was randomly assigned a writing task in one of four modes of discourse. Analysis of the data revealed significant differences between the mean score of narrative writing and scores for descriptive, expository, and persuasive writing. The decision consistency analysis also found that on the average, 30% of the students were misclassified across the modes of discourse. It follows from these results that modes of discourse do not appear to be interchangeable for making decisions about the overall writing competency of either groups of, or individual, students.
Gifted and Talented Education: A National Test Case in Peoria
Authors: Fetterman David M.
Published: March 2008

This article presents a study of a program in Peoria, Illinois for the gifted and talented that serves as a national test case for gifted education and minority enrollment. An analysis of the program, and the referral, identification, and selection mechanisms, was conducted. This case study concludes that low minority enrollment need not suggest that the local school district engages in discriminatory practices or that low enrollment is explained by genetic differences between races. Instead, the study points to the impact of the community’s socioeconomic characteristics on gifted enrollment. Fundamentally, the study addresses the issues of equal opportunity, ability, and achievement in American education.
An Evaluation Model of Training Outcomes for Higher Education
Authors: Osigweh Chimezie AB
Published: March 2008

A performance evaluation model is presented to address the need for measuring the effectiveness of educational training programs in institutions of higher learning. Described as value-added, this model is pioneering and yet practical; it is based on an award-winning experiment at Northeast Missouri State University. It emphasizes outcomes by assessing the quality of change that occurs in individual and program performance. The model may be adapted to other educational and noneducational settings.
The Convening Process: A New Technique for Applying Knowledge to Practice
Authors: Klein Susan S , Gold Norman , Stalford Charles
Published: March 2008

U.S. Department of Education staff created and evaluated a Convening Process to help educational administrators and policymakers make sound decisions based on practical experience, research, and evaluation in short periods of time. This article describes the background and rationale for the Convening Process and its relation to other efforts to increase the use of research and evaluation information. Convening Process experiences with the District of Columbia Public Schools and the State of Mississippi Department of Education are summarized and the impact of each experience is discussed. To guide future uses of the Convening Process, situational and procedural differences are analyzed. This analysis provides the basis for specific advice on replicating the Convening Process by explaining the operation of the key elements: (a) the identification of practical problems that can be resolved with currently available knowledge; (b) the use of consultant colleagues with appropriate expertise; and (c) the use of consultant groups to acquire, analyze, and exchange information with local stakeholders to arrive at recommendations based on consensus.
Report Length: A Factor Influencing Audience Perceptions of an Evaluation Study
Authors: Osborne Joan M
Published: March 2008

Findings from an evaluation study can be effectively communicated in a summary form. In this empirical study, the length of the summary report influenced responses of audience members to the summary. Respondents reading either a 13-page “Abridged Summary” or a shorter, 5-page “Executive Summary” favored the longer version. The Abridged Summary was better received, as evidenced by audience ratings of overall quality and worth of the report.
The Determinants of Public Revenues for Higher and Lower Education: A Thirty-Year Perspective
Authors: Garms Walter I.
Published: March 2008

This longitudinal study examines the determinants of higher education revenues per capita, lower education revenues per capita, and the ratio of the two over a 30-year period. Demographic variables (percentage of population in the appropriate age group, education of the adult population, etc.) are unimportant, as is personal income per capita. The most important variables are a historical one and two political variables. The historical variable, density of population in 1860, measures the propensity of states to develop private higher education before passage of the Morrill Act. The fact that the two political variables (percentage of taxes raised at the state level and taxes as a percentage of income) are important implies that the dependent variables are capable of being manipulated by the political process.
Long-Term Trends in Youth Conduct and the Revival of Traditional Value Patterns
Authors: Wynne Edward A. , Hess Mary
Published: March 2008

A considerable body of data disclosed a long-term deterioration in the conduct of typical adolescents. In the last 5 to 8 years, some of these trends have changed slightly for the better. After presenting the relevant data, the authors examine and assess diverse explanations for the trends and improvement, propose their interpretation, and discuss its implications for education policy.
The Jury Is In: Use of a Modified Legal Model for School Program Evaluation
Authors: Wood Kit C. , Peterson Sarah E. , DeGracie James S. , Zaharis James K.
Published: March 2008

The Judicial Evaluation Model or the Adversary Model of Evaluation has been used in a number of educational settings. This article examines the use by a local education agency of a modified judiciary model: the Advocacy-Judiciary Model. The model was used to investigate programs specifically directed toward the academic needs of the gifted and talented student population. This article presents the development of the model as well as the results of using the model in a local school setting.
Blackwell’s Commentaries, Engineering’s Handbooks, and Merck’s Manuals: What Would a Teacher’s Equivalent Be?
Authors: Gideonse Hendrik D.
Published: March 2008

The intensified discussion over knowledge bases for teaching ought to be reflected not only in teacher education programs but also in the resources directly available to teachers in the daily performance of their tasks. Microcomputers married to the interactive video disk are the likely technology. Handbooks might be developed in such domains as curriculum; instructional strategies and techniques; student, classroom, and behavior management; instructional technology; developmental stages of learning; and teacher education. Issues to be addressed and/or solved include defining the organization and content of the handbooks, avoiding the danger of premature rejection, coping with multiplistic values and frames of reference, and organizing the effort to create them.
Levels of Evaluation
Authors: Beer Valorie , Bloomer Anne C.
Published: March 2008

The formative-summative paradigm is useful in that it draws attention to the importance of process and outcome measures in evaluation. The paradigm is not helpful in practical evaluation planning, however, because it unnecessarily separates qualitative and quantitative methods, and because it does not differentiate among various types of formative evaluation. The article presents a strategy for organizing the evaluation effort into three levels. Each level combines aspects of formative and summative evaluations and includes a variety of methods for addressing the evaluation questions. Resources and skills needed by evaluators at each level are recommended, and a plan for implementing the strategy is suggested.
Funds Allocation and Expenditures Under the Education Block Grant
Authors: Apling Richard N. , Padilla Christine
Published: March 2008

Chapter 2 of the Education Consolidation and Improvement Act is a centerpiece of the Reagan Administration’s education policy. The enactment of Chapter 2 consolidated funding from 32 categorical programs into an educational block grant that is distributed to state educational agencies and from the states to local school districts. The funds may be used for any of the purposes supported by the antecedent program. 1 Based on nationally representative data collected for a study of local operations under Chapter 2, this paper examines three topics related to the block grant: the distribution of Chapter 2 funds among school districts, the patterns of local uses of these funds, and possible explanations for the spending patterns for the first 3 years of the block grant (school years 1982–83, 1983–84, and 1984–85).
Confronting Reform in Teacher Preparation: One State's Experience
Authors: Bull Barry L.
Published: March 2008

This paper summarizes recent proposals for the reform of teacher preparation in the state of Washington and reports the results of a study designed to test the justification of those proposals. The study shows that the three premises on which those proposals are based—the academic competence of teaching candidates is suspect; teacher preparation programs are academically undemanding; and those programs involve little practical work in schools—are erroneous for the state of Washington. The proposed reforms, therefore, are not justified.
Whose Fault is Default? A Study of the Impact of Student Characteristics and Institutional Practices on Guaranteed Student Loan Default Rates in California
Authors: Wilms Wellford W. , Moore Richard W. , Bolus Roger E.
Published: March 2008

Since its inception as part of the Higher Education Act of 1965, the Guaranteed Student Loan (GSL) program has become perhaps the leading federal initiative in helping to equalize educational and occupational opportunities. However, the GSL program has come under heavy criticism in recent years. High default rates, fueled by an all-time high loan volume, have generated public demands for increased accountability. In response, policymakers have cracked down on defaulters and their schools to protect a highly popular student aid program. However, little empirical evidence exists as to the correlates of student default rates, making the development of financial aid policy difficult in such stormy political conditions. This study, the first of its kind, examines default behavior among a large sample of students attending California proprietary schools and community colleges in 1982–83. It assesses the relative impact of student and institutional characteristics, and administrative practices thought to help curb loan defaults. Results indicate that, within the limits of the data, default rates stem chiefly from students' background characteristics, rather than characteristics or administrative practices of the institutions they attend. The paper concludes with a discussion of these findings and recommendations for policy and further research.
The Chart Essay: A Strategy for Communicating Research Findings to Policymakers and Practitioners
Authors: Haensly Patricia A. , Lupkowski Ann E. , McNamara James F.
Published: March 2008

The greatest impact of research stems from clearly communicating research findings to policymakers and practitioners. Chart essays are an effective communication technique for this purpose. They (a) link specific research questions to real policy decisions and practical applications and (b) arrange the answer to each question in a chart that highlights actual research data gathered in the field. A study on extracurricular activities is used to illustrate how this technique translates the methods-oriented report into a form that can be readily understood and implemented by practitioners and policymakers.
Public Education’s Last Hurrah?: Schizophrenia, Amnesia, and Ignorance in School Politics
Authors: Boyd William̀ Lowe
Published: March 2008

Success in the current reform movement is critical because support for American public schools is endangered by fundamental demographic and value shifts. However, reformers have been handicapped by an inadequate understanding of the politics and organizational character of schools. Consequently, their reform strategies often are incongruent with the realities of changing schools. This paper examines these propositions and outlines an approach for achieving more realistic and promising strategies for reinvigorating public schools.
Improving Education Indicators and Economic Indicators: The Same Problems?
Authors: Murnane Richard J.
Published: March 2008

Attempts to improve indicators of the performance of the educational system encounter three core problems: How to measure performance? How to report the results? and How to interpret the results? This paper explores these problems by comparing the U.S. experience in developing educational indicators with the experience in developing indicators of the performance of the economy in providing jobs. Central questions that run through the paper concern the extent to which the problems faced in improving indicators of the performances of the two sectors are the same, and the reasons for the differences that are present. One theme is that many of the problems in improving social indicators are generic; that is, they are not restricted to particular sectors. A second theme is that some of the problems in improving educational indicators stem from the nature of the governance of American public education, and for that reason, differ from the problems in improving economic indicators.
Getting the Job Done: Alternative Policy Instruments
Authors: McDonnell Lorraine M. , Elmore Richard F.
Published: March 2008

A major challenge for the next generation of policy research will be to apply the lessons of past implementation studies in building a more powerful conceptual framework and at the same time, in producing more useful information for policymakers. This article begins to build such a framework by focusing on the notion of alternative policy instruments, or the mechanisms that translate substantive policy goals into concrete actions. It examines four different types of instruments and attempts to specify key relationships among problem definition, instrument choice, organizational context, implementation, and effects.
Education Reform and Services to Poor Children: Can the Two Policies be Compatible?
Authors: Odden Allan
Published: March 2008

This article discusses the interaction between comprehensive state education reform and curricular services for special needs students—mainly economically disadvantaged students eligible for state and federal compensatory education services. The interaction between education reform and categorical programs fuses several central issues related to federal and state educational program implementation: (a) can top-down mandates for change work, (b) what rules and regulations are needed to insure faithful implementation of key programmatic goals, (c) what local discretion is needed to insure local commitment to substantive program elements, and (d) what central government strategies are needed to produce high program quality? California addressed these issues by adopting a mix of top-down and bottom-up tactics, regulations and assistance mechanisms as the key to education improvement for both regular and categorical program students. Data from eight schools in three California districts provide encouraging evidence that the strategies seem to be taking hold at the school level, including the intended services for students in compensatory education programs. Evidence suggests that excellence and equity are not necessarily incompatible. Whether student performance improves is as yet unclear.
The Impact of Scottish National Surveys of Achievement on Policy and Practice
Authors: Dockrell W. B.
Published: March 2008

Information from national surveys may take some time to have any impact on a decentralized educational system where, as in Scotland, responsibility for most matters is devolved to the local educational authorities. Surveys carried out as long ago as 1953 and 1963, however, have had sufficient time to influence policy and practice. These technically sound surveys were reported in detail with explicit recommendations arising from them but they seem to have had very little effect. The article concludes that to have influence on policy, research must speak to contemporary issues and be relevant to particular local circumstances. Surveys have curricular implications though it is rarely clear what they are for a particular teacher. Survey findings will inevitably tend to imply centralized control of the curriculum.
Educational Improvement Under the Education Block Grant
Authors: Knapp Michael S.
Published: March 2008

This paper reviews what the federal education block grant, Chapter 2 of the Education Consolidation and Improvement Act, has contributed to local educational improvement. In particular the block grant has helped to expand the use of educational technology, bolstered curriculum and staff development, and provided seed funding for local improvement initiatives among large numbers of districts. The scale of improvements, however, is modest at best, due to the low levels of funding and the tendency for districts to disperse, rather than concentrate, the funds among activities and beneficiaries. In addition, not all districts or segments of the student population benefit. In general, the block grant appears to trade depth of impact for breadth, which raises questions about the longterm viability or usefulness of this policy mechanism.
Big Business as a Policy Innovator in State School Reform: A Minnesota Case Study
Authors: Mazzoni Tim L. , Clugston Richard M.
Published: March 2008

Case study findings on the 1985 session of the Minnesota Legislature, particularly the “open enrollment” controversy, are used to analyze the Minnesota Business Partnership as a policy innovator in state school reform. This role is examined in relation to three processes: agenda setting, alternative formulation, and authoritative enactment. Pluralist involvement, not elite dominance, characterized Partnership efforts, with its chief impact being on agenda setting by the Governor’s office. Despite impressive power resources, Partnership influence was modest, a result partly of issue, arena, and organizational constraints. More fundamentally, Partnership influence was mediated through elected officials, contested by established subsystem interests, and conditioned by public acceptability. Increasingly, the Partnership has adapted to the demands of incremental politics in seeking policy innovation in Minnesota K-12 education.