bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The effects of the use of activities of sapa on the oral communication skills of disadvantaged kindergarten children
Authors: Huff Phyllis , Languis Marlin
Published: October 2006

The study investigated the effects of participation in the activities of Science‐A Process Approach (SAPA) on the oral communication skills of disadvantaged kindergarten children. Experimental‐control group, pretest‐posttest research design was employed. The investigator designed the Test of Oral Communication Skills (TOCS) to measure students' oral communication skills. Two experimental groups (one morning and one afternoon, N = 52) and two control groups (one morning and one afternoon, N = 48) were randomly assigned from two kindergarten classrooms (morning and afternoon classes in each) in an inner‐city school in Columbus, Ohio. The investigator provided the science instruction to all students. Experimental subjects received 22 half‐hour lessons from exercises a through k of Part A, SAPA. Control subjects received 22 lessons from Springboards to Science, a teacher demonstration, class discussion type of kindergarten curricuoum used in the school system. The treatment period spanned 12 academic weeks.

Analysis of variance of TOCS pretest scores showed no significant differences among any of the means of the four groups. Analysis of covariance of TOCS posttest scores revealed differences significant at .05 or beyond in the mean scores of the experimental groups and control groups for total oral and total receiving skills and for six of the eight subskills measured by TOCS. Application of the Tukey (b) test revealed that experimental group mean scores exceeded control group mean scores in every TOCS skill and subskill area and that in total oral transmitting subskills both experimental group mean scores were significantly greater at .05 level or beyond than corresponding mean scores for both control groups.

Within the parameters of this study, it may be concluded that when the activities and teaching strategies of SAPA curriculum are presented to disadvantaged kindergarten children, their oral communication skills, especially the transmitting (speaking) skills, are clearly enhanced.
An analysis of the assumptions underlying the taxonomy of educational objectives: Cognitive domain
Authors: Stedman Carlton H.
Published: October 2006

The assumption that the first four cognitive levels of the taxonomy of educational objectives are arranged hierarchically and that this hierarchy is cummulative was evaluated. Mental ability and motivation scores were used to divide 144 high school biology students into six blocks. A 93‐frame program in genetics was administered, and at the completion of the program the subjects took a 28‐item posttest that had subscores for the cognitive levels of knowledge, comprehension, application, and analysis. Results indicated that no significant differences were found between knowledge and comprehension or application and analysis. A significant difference was found beyond the .0005 level, however, between comprehension and application. These results indicate that the cognitive processes at work at each level of the taxonomy may not be equitable, and that the previously mentioned assumptions are at least questionable.
The effects of a structured learning sequence on Children's correlative thinking about biological phenomena
Authors: Nous Albert , Raven Ronald
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine if the achievement on correlational thinking tasks could be enhanced by a set of structured training exercises. The exercises were based on Piaget's analysis of the development of correlative thinking in adolescents. The achievement of the ninth grade students was greater than the achievement of the fifth and seventh grade students. However, some of the ninth grade students exhibited difficulty with the equivalence and reciprocal exclusion operations that were necessary for the solution of the correlation tasks. The results of the study suggest that the ninth grade students may be in the transition zone for this particular operation.
The unintentional consequences of science teaching
Authors: Power Colin N.
Published: October 2006

In this study the possibility that variations in the nature and extent to which individual students interact with the teacher may, in fact, produce unintentional consequences is examined. A battery of tests measuring pupil cognitive, motivational, and personality characteristics was administered to 150 students in four classes prior to instruction. The nature and frequency of each student's interaction in a sample of five lessons was then determined. Canonical analysis was used to determine how these antecedent pupil characteristics and communication pattern variables were related to science achievement, attitudes towards science and socio‐metric measures. Four independent relationships were found and appear to represent “syndromes” some of which lead to undesirable consequences if allowed to run their full course.
Application of cluster analysis to the study of piagetian stages of intellectual development
Authors: Deluca Frederick P.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to reexamine Piagetian stages by way of the application of cluster analysis and to seek information concerning the occurrence of stages and the influence of different tasks and gender on cluster patterns. Six Piagetian tasks were administered to 182 males and 176 females ages 9 through 18 years old. Analysis and interpretation of the data suggested the following conclusions: (1) Piagetian stages exist as a general sequence through which intellectual development progresses; however, the males in the study conformed more to Piagetian stages than did the females; (2) deviation from Piagetian stages was influenced by gender and the type of task; (3) lack of synchronization of substages across several tasks suggested that Piagetian tasks were more situation‐specific than indicated by Piaget, and it also helped to explain why strong, correlations among tasks at a given level have been difficult to obtain; (4) for the males, the greatest discontinuity occurred between substages IIIA and IIIB, not between IIB and IIIA as stated by Piaget; and (5) the group of 13‐year‐old females tended to cluster with the 17‐ and 18‐year‐old female groups, but it was not known why.
Effect of an environmental science curriculum on students' leisure time activities
Authors: Blum Abraham
Published: October 2006

Cooley and Reed's active interest measurement approach was combined with Guttman's Facet Design to construct a systematic instrument for the assessment of the impact of an environmental science course on students' behavior outside school. A quasimatched design of teacher allocation to the experimental and control groups according to their preferred teaching style was used. A kind of dummy control curriculum was devised to enable valid comparative evaluation of a new course which differs from the traditional one in both content and goal. This made it possible to control most of the differing factors inherent in the old and new curriculum. The research instrument was given to 1000 students who were taught by 28 teachers. Students who learned according to the experimental curriculum increased their leisure time activities related to the environmental science curriculum significantly. There were no significant differences between boys and girls and between students with different achievement levels.
The effectiveness of science supervisors and their membership status within a faculty
Authors: Ritz William C. , Cashell Jane G. , Felsen Martin F.
Published: October 2006

…Teachers tend to say they find their supervision of little value. Supervisors say their work has a lot of value. Supervisors seem to be saying that they want to spend more time doing what their clients (the teachers) consider to be relatively useless.
The effect of retesting on end‐of‐semester performance in high school chemistry at three levels of previous science achievement
Authors: Deboer George E.
Published: October 2006

To determine the effect of retesting on student learning in chemistry, three questions were addressed by means of a 3 × 2 (achievement level X treatment) factorial design: (1) Does retesting affect differently the end‐of‐semester mastery of course objectives of students who are grouped according to their previous achievement in science? (2) Do students who are given an opportunity to take retests merely delay their studying and perform at a lower level on initial tests than nonretested students? (3) Is the procrastination of retested students (if it exists) affected by their achievement level? The results showed that for one of four units low ability students who were retested demonstrated greater learning gains than low ability students who were not retested, and that procrastination, if it was present, did not have significant effects on student learning at any achievement level. Results were discussed in terms of the students' room for improvement, motivation to improve, and ability to improve.
Age and developmental level as antecedents of science learning
Authors: Boulanger F. David , Kremer Barbara K.
Published: October 2006

Over the past decade, developmental theory has occupied a central role in science education instructional theory and empirical research. The purpose of the present study is to quantitatively synthesize studies relating age (or grade) and developmental level to science learning among grade 6‐12 students over the 1963‐1978 period. Twenty‐seven studies were reviewed. Annual increments observed in measures of developmental level were consistent with current theory, and annual increments in cognitive achievement were relatively constant over the grade 4‐9 interval. Measures of student ability were found to be better predictors of cognitive achievement than developmental measures; age and grade level were weakly related to developmental level and cognitive achievement, showing only significant correlations across grade levels.
Correlates of formal reasoning: Content and problem effects
Authors: Linn Marcia C. , Pulos Steven , Gans Adrienne
Published: October 2006

Piaget's structural theory of formal thought suggests that a general construct of formal reasoning exists. The content of the task and type of problem employed are often ignored in Piagetian based studies but are important for generalizing findings to other studies and to educational problems. The study reported here examines content and problem effects of formal thought in 13‐year‐old adolescents. Specifically, three controlling variables tasks with different content and two question type tests (analysis and controlling questions) were administered to 120 seventh graders. Ability measures and personality dimensions associated with formal reasoning in the literature are used to clarify what formal reasoning is and how content and problem type are involved in formal reasoning. Significant main effects were found for problem and content effects (p = 0.001), and a significant interaction was found between the two (p = 0.001). Across the three tasks general ability, field dependency, and locus of control were consistently and significantly related to the controlling questions. However, only measures of field dependency were related to the analysis questions. Combinations of ability and personality factors were found to be uniquely related to each task, within each question type. Results have implications for a theory of formal thought and the teaching of the controlling variables strategy.
Pictorial presentation and review strategies in science learning
Authors: Alesandrini Kathryn Lutz , Rigney Joseph W.
Published: October 2006

To test the effects of pictorial presentation and a pictorial review task on science learning, all‐verbal or verbal‐pictorial presentation conditions were followed by either pictorial practice or a control task. The 96 undergraduate participants were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions presented on a computer‐assisted instruction terminal. The groups differed significantly on a pictorial recognition test but not on a verbal posttest. The results favored the pictorial presentation with review condition. Experiment Two tested the effectiveness of the pictorial review task compared to a read‐twice control. The same all‐verbal presentation condition was given to 50 undergraduates who were then randomly assigned to the pictorial review task or to the re‐read condition. The pictorial review condition facilitated performance on the pictorial posttest relative to the re‐read condition and produced more favorable attitudes as well.
Effects of academic ability, time allowed for study, and teacher directedness on achievement in a high school science course (ISIS)
Authors: Burkman Ernest , Tate Richard L. , Snyder William R. , Beditz Joseph
Published: October 2006

The simultaneous effects of the two instructional variables of degree of teacher direction (student‐directed versus teacher‐directed) and time allowed for study and the student variable of general ability are described for student achievement in three life‐science instructional modules covering approximately three months. The instructional variables were controlled in this study; that is, high school teachers were randomly assigned to one of six combinations of the student‐directed versus teacher‐directed method variable and the allowed time variable with three levels. Between‐class, within‐class, and between‐student analyses of data for 912 students in 43 classes resulted in a description of effects complicated by the presence of interactions among the three independent variables. For example, there was a disordinal interaction between instructional method and allowed time, so that statements about the relative superiority of the student‐directed and teacher‐directed approaches must be qualified by specification of allowed time. In any event, the estimated differences were modest, suggesting that the factor of possible achievement differences should not be dominant among the many factors considered in selecting an approach. A very modest ordinal aptitude (ability)‐treatment‐interaction (ATI) was also found, although the main effect of ability was quite strong. The allowed time effect suggested the possibility of decreased achievement under some circumstances when allowed time is increased, due perhaps to increased misuse of time and associated disruption.
The development of the image of science and scientists scale
Authors: Krajkovich Joseph G. , Smith Jeffrey K.
Published: October 2006

The Image of Science and Scientists Scale was developed to assess students' attitudes toward science. The instrument items are based on the 1957 summaries presented by Margaret Mead and Rhoda Metraux. The reliability of the instrument, using coefficient alpha, ranged from 0.76 in the pilot to 0.86 in the second phase of the study. Construct validity was obtained by comparing a science‐oriented group versus a random sample to determine if the instrument could discriminate between the groups. With IQ controlled, the science group performed significantly higher (t = 2.58 −p < 0.012). Furthermore, scores in ISSS contributed significantly to the prediction of science grades as determined by multiple regression analysis.
A developmental analysis of certain Piagetian concepts among some Nigerian children
Authors: Ehindero O. J.
Published: October 2006

The concepts of distance, area, and the coordinate reference systems were investigated in relation to the displacement volume task among 300 randomly selected primary and high school children in Nigeria. Piaget and Inhelder (1971) theorized a developmental progression in the acquisition of these concepts among Genevan children, and a number of studies have confirmed pancultural stability in the acquisition of these concepts. Four tasks were used to investigate the acquistion of these concepts developmentally, and the data obtained were analyzed by the chi‐square, Pearson correlation coefficient and the 50% success criterion suggested by Laurendea and Pinard (1962, 1970). The data confirmed Piaget's theorizing but when compared with similar studies in Europe and America (Lovell (1971), Dasen (1972), & Karplus et al. (1977), a “developmental lag” of about two years was observed among the Nigerian Ss. The concept of horizontal decalages was discussed in relation to the data including some implications for science teaching particularly in developing countries.
Student achievement and attitudes in astronomy: An experimental comparison of two planetarium programs
Authors: Mallon Gerald L. , Bruce Matthew H.
Published: October 2006

Of the 1100 planetariums in the U.S., approximately 96% are smaller facilities. The majority of these use a program type called the “Star Show”, whereas some have advocated a different type called the “Participatory Oriented Planetarium.” The purpose of this study was to investigate the following question: “In a smaller educational planetarium, with a capacity of between 15–75 people, is a traditional ‘Star Show’ planetarium program, or a ‘Participatory Oriented Planetarium’ program the most effective method of instruction and attitude change?” A large scale investigation was conducted in Pennsylvania, with four smaller replications in Texas, Minnesota, California, and Nevada. In each planetarium, a group of 8–10 year old students were identified and randomly assigned to groups. 556 students were tested. The testing instruments included a paper‐and‐pencil content test and a Likert‐style science opinionnaire. The instructional programs were chosen from existing scripts to avoid bias in their construction. Both programs dealt with constellation study. Correlated t tests were used to compare pretest to posttest scores and two‐way factorial analyses of variance were used to compare the groups' posttest scores. It was concluded that, “The Participatory Oriented Planetarium program, utilizing an activity‐based format and extensive verbal interaction, is clearly the more effective utilization of a small planetarium facility for teaching constellation study and possibly for improving students' attitudes towards astronomy and the planetarium”.
Development and validation of a group test of integrated science processes
Authors: Tobin Kenneth G. , Capie William
Published: October 2006

The paper describes the development and validation of a group test of integrated process skills. The test assesses student performance on a set of twelve objectives related to the generic objective: planning and conducting an investigation. Evidence of content validity, construct validity, and reliability are presented in the paper. A range of generalizability coefficients from 0.77 to 0.98 is reported for specific uses of the 24‐item test. Since the items measure performance on objectives that can be readily translated into classroom activity, the test has direct applicability to classroom based research, and evaluation of instruction. In addition to sound psychometric properties, the Test of Integrated Science Processes is distincitve because it includes a set of interrelated, cumulative objectives which reflect autonomous problem solving.
Relationship between cognitive preferences and achievement in chemistry
Authors: McNaught Carmel
Published: October 2006

In this report the relationships between cognitive preferences and patterns of achievement in chemistry for grade 12 students in Australia are investigated. The results of the study are consistent with the following two general propostions:

Students who develop the cognitive preferences consistent with those implied or stressed by the Higher School Certificate chemistry course tend to perform better on an end‐of‐course achievement examination than do students whose cognitive preferences are not consis tent with these implied preferences.

Higher cognitive preference for a particular preference is positively correlated with performance on the sorts of cognitive tasks implied in that preference.
Information processing psychology: A promising paradigm for research in science teaching
Authors: Stewart James H. , Atkin Julia A.
Published: October 2006

Three research paradigms, those of Ausubel, Gagné and Piaget, have received a great deal of attention in the literature of science education. In this article a fourth paradigm is presented—an information processing psychology paradigm. The article is composed of two sections. The first section describes a model of memory developed by information processing psychologists. The second section describes how such a model could be used to guide science education research on learning and problem solving.
Effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning on students' achievement in science class
Authors: Humphreys Barbara , Johnson Roger T. , Johnson David W.
Published: October 2006

The effects on students' achievement and attitudes of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic instruction were compared in ninth‐grade physical science classes. Forty‐four students were included in the study. Students were randomly assigned to conditions stratifying for sex. The results indicate that cooperative learning experiences promoted greater mastery and retention of the material being taught as well as more positive attitudes toward the experience than did competitive and individualistic learning experiences.
Career education attitudes and practices of K‐12 science educators
Authors: Smith Walter S.
Published: October 2006

A random sample of 400 K‐12 science educators who were members of the National Science Teachers Association were surveyed regarding their attitude toward and practice of career education in their science teaching. These science teachers rejected a narrowly vocational view, favoring instead a conception of career education which included self‐perception, values analysis, and vocational skills objectives. The science educators affirmed the importance of career education for a student's education, asserted career education ought to be taught in their existing science courses, and expressed a willingness to do so. Fewer than one‐third of the science teachers, however, reported incorporating career education at least on a weekly basis in their science lessons. The major impediment to including more career education in science teaching was seen to be their lack of knowledge of methods and materials relevant to science career education, rather than objections from students, parents, or administrators; their unwillingness; or their evaluation of career education as unimportant. Thus, in order to improve this aspect of science teaching, science teachers need more concrete information about science career education applications.
The interdependence of language and translational math skills among bilingual hispanic engineering students
Authors: Mestre Jose P. , Gerace William J. , Lochhead Jack
Published: October 2006

The performance of 43 Hispanic engineering and science majors on a task that consists of reading a sentence describing a mathematical relationship between two variables, and then writing an equation describing the relationship, is investigated in both English and Spanish. Results are compared with grade point average and with language proficiency. Comparison of the bilingual group to a monolingual group consisting of 52 engineering and science students shows that performance, as measured by either the mathematical translation task or grade point average, is more strongly correlated with language proficiency for the bilingual group. Clinical interviews conducted with samples from each group reveal large differences in the interpretation of the mathematical task between Hispanics and monolinguals. Suggestions are made for the improvement of the technical education of Hispanics.
More on time series designs: A reanalysis of mayer and Kozlow's data
Authors: Willson Victor L.
Published: October 2006

A recent article by Mayer and Kozlow introduces a time series experiment to science education researchers. This article examines in greater detail design considerations and reanalyzes their data using time series analysis.

The first applications of time series experimental methodology to science education research were reported by Mayer and Lewis (1979) and by Mayer and Kozlow (1980). This article discusses Mayer and Kozlow's work and presents a reanalysis of their data which is intended to be heuristic, not critical. (All data were supplied by Dr. Mayer and permission was granted to use the data.) Both design and analysis will be examined. It is important to distinguish time series experimental design from time series analysis. The former, as presented by Campbell and Stanley (1966) and detailed by Glass, Willson, and Gottman (1975), is concerned with structuring treatment conditions and observations over time to make causal inferences. Time series analysis is a set of statistical techniques from which an appropriate technique can be selected to analyze collected data in the framework of a time series design. Just as data from in a randomized experiment might be analyzed using a one‐way analysis of variance or a Kruskal‐ Wallis H‐test, data from a time series design may be subjected to several alternative analysis techniques.
Studies on attitude toward teaching science and anxiety about teaching science in preservice elementary teachers
Authors: Westerback Mary E.
Published: October 2006

These studies examined attitude toward teaching science (ATTS) using an adaptation of the Bratt Attitude Test (M‐BAT); anxiety about teaching science (ANX‐TS), as measured by the State‐Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI A‐State); and selected demographic variables in preservice elementary teachers for the 1977–1978 and 1978–1979 academic years and a follow‐up of those students who completed their student teaching in May 1979. The M‐BAT and STAI were administered in September at the beginning of Science 6 (earth science and biology course), in December on the next to last day of Science 6, in May on the next to the last day of Science 5 (physical science), and in May 1979 after student teaching. In the two academic years, both ATTS and ANX‐TS became more positive during the sequence Science 6‐5. Both changes in ATTS and ANX‐TS continued to change in a positive direction after completion of Science 6‐5, after student teaching. There were differences in the times that the greatest changes in ATTS and ANX‐TS occurred. In both studies, the greatest change in ATTS took place between September and December, during Science 6. The greatest change in ANX‐TS, however, took place during Science 5 between December and May in the 1977–1978 study. In the 1978–1979 study, the greatest changes in ANX‐TS occurred in Science 6, between September and December. The delayed reduction of ANX‐TS in the 1977–1978 study may be explained by differences in teaching patterns. In 1977–1978, two teachers taught only their academic specialty, biology or earth science, to students who switched teachers midsemester. In 1978–1979, the same two instructors taught both biology and earth science to the same students. Correlation coefficients for successive and corresponding administrations of both the M‐BAT and STAI suggest these variables are related. Students with more positive ATTS tended to have reduced ANX‐TS. Neither the number of high school or college science and math courses completed nor the level of enjoyment of these courses appears to be related to ATTS or ANX‐TS for the initial administration of the M‐BAT and STAI. Closer examination of data, however, indicates that students with negative ATTS and high ANX‐TS were fairly evenly divided in their enjoyment of mathematics, while students with positive ATTS and low ANX‐TS enjoyed math in a 3:1 like/dislike ratio. The relationship between both ATTS and ANX‐TS and achievement is reasonalbly consistent for Science 6. In Science 5, however, the relationship between ATTS and achievement is inconsistent and there is no indication of a relationship between achievement and ANX‐TS.
Criterion‐referenced tests in science: An investigation of reliability, validity, and standards‐setting
Authors: Lang Harry G.
Published: October 2006

Science teachers regularly find themselves confronted with the problem of determining the present level of performance of a student with respect to the course content. Those who approach the assessment of ability and/or achievement within a criterion‐referenced measurement framework need to know how accurate and consistent the decision‐making procedures are likely to be. In the present study, reliability, validity, and a standards‐setting procedure for a criterion‐referenced test were examined for use within a science curriculum. The results indicate that there are a number of factors influencing the reliability and validity of the test and that science teachers involved with criterion‐referenced measurement need to be aware of these factors to enhance the accuracy of their judgments.
Theoretical and practical significance of formal reasoning
Authors: Linn Marcia C.
Published: October 2006

Piaget's theory has profoundly influenced science education research. Following Piaget, researchers have focused on content‐free strategies, developmentally based mechanisms, and structural models of each stage of reasoning. In practice, factors besides those considered in Piaget's theory influence whether or not a theoretically available strategy is used. Piaget's focus has minimized the research attention placed on what could be called “practical” factors in reasoning. Practical factors are factors that influence application of a theoretically available strategy, for example, previous experience with the task content, familiarity with task instructions, or personality style of the student. Piagetian theory has minimized the importance of practical factors and discouraged investigation of (1) the role of factual knowledge in reasoning, (2) the diagnosis of specific, task‐based errors in reasoning, (3) the influence of individual aptitudes on reasoning (e.g., field dependence‐independence), and (4) the effect of educational interventions designed to change reasoning. This article calls for new emphasis on practical factors in reasoning and suggests why research on practical factors in reasoning will enhance our understanding of how scientific reasoning is acquired and of how science education programs can foster it.
Analyzing arguments in science classroom discourse: Can teachers' questions distort scientific authority?
Authors: Russell Thomas L.
Published: October 2006

Teaching commonly involves asking questions, in sequences that enable a teacher to control the direction and duration of subject‐matter discussion, while also maintaining attention and order. The form of questions and their role as means of instruction have received more study and discussion than the function of questions and their role in achieving particular ends of instruction. This study examines qualitatively the function of questions in developing arguments that establish scientific knowledge claims on the basis of reasons and evidence, and thereby suggest a rational attitude toward authority. Peters' (1966) distinction between a teacher's (rational) authority of knowledge and (traditional) authority of position is linked with Toulmin's (1958) pattern for rational arguments to establish a qualitative framework for judging the function of questions in arguments. Episodes from three science lessons are presented in verbatim transcription and analyzed to reveal three different ways in which teachers did not achieve the standard of suggesting a rational attitude toward authority. Question sequences such as these have a clear potential for distorting student understanding of the nature of scientific authority, with possible negative consequences for students' attitudes toward science.
A comparison of actual and preferred classroom environments as perceived by science teachers and students
Authors: Fisher Darrell L. , Fraser Barry J.
Published: October 2006

This study of perceptions of classroom environment is distinctive in that, first, it made use of two instruments (the Individualized Classroom Environment Questionnaire and Classroom Environment Scale) which have had very little use in prior science education research and, second, it involved assessment not only of student perceptions of actual environment, but also of student perceptions of preferred environments and teacher perceptions of actual environment. Administration of these instruments to a sample of 2175 junior high school students in 116 classes revealed that the environment scales exhibited satisfactory internal consistency reliability and discriminant validity in each of the three forms (student actual, student preferred, and teacher actual), and that there were some fascinating systematic differences between the profiles of environment scale scores obtained for the different forms. In particular, it was generally found that students preferred a more favorable classroom environment then was perceived as being actually present and that teachers perceived the environment of their classes more favorably than did students in the same classrooms.
Development of a test of experimental problem‐solving skills
Authors: Ross John A. , Maynes Florence J.
Published: October 2006

The emphasis given to experimental problem‐solving skills in science curriculum innovation has not been matched by the development of comparable assessment tools. Multiple‐choice tests were constructed for seven skills using learning hierarchies based on expert‐novice differences. The instruments were refined in three phases of field testing. The reliabilities of the tests are sufficient for making judgments of group performance, but are insufficient in a single administration for individual assessment. Evidence of the validity of the tests is presented and their worth is discussed within the framework of a theory of instruction.
The myth of equality in science classrooms
Authors: Kahle Jane Butler , Lakes Marsha K.
Published: October 2006

An analysis of the 1976‐1977 NAEP survey of science attitudes showed that, by age nine, females, although expressing similar or greater desires to participate in science activities, had consistently fewer experiences in science than boys of the same age. Science activities surveyed included use of common experimental materials and instruments, observation of scientific phenomena, and field trips. At ages 13 and 17, girls again reported fewer classroom and extracurricular science activities than boys. Their responses indicated narrow perceptions of science and of the usefulness of scientific research. In addition, they displayed generally negative attitudes toward science classes and careers. Suggestions to eliminate the inequalities found are offered.
Thirty studies involving the “scientific attitude inventory”: What confidence can we have in this instrument?
Authors: Munby Hugh
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study is to show how conceptual analysis may be used to investigate the validity of a research instrument. The instrument chosen here, the Scientific Attitude Inventory (SAI), is by far the most popular of its type, yet the studies in which it has been used give reason to question its validity. Using the conceptual perspectives developed in the study, it is possible to show that many of the items which might be thought to tap attitudes can be interpreted quite differently. In this way, the discrepant results obtained by using the SAI in quantitative research can be explained. The report concludes that we can be less than certain of what is measured by the SAI, and that it needs reworking before it can be used with confidence. The report ends with some general concerns about attitude measurement and its place in science education research.
The comparative effects of different museum tours on children's attitudes and learning
Authors: Stronck David R.
Published: October 2006

Various studies contradict each other on the value of field trips and museum visits to improve learning and attitudes. This study concluded that students of grades, 5, 6, and 7 had significantly greater cognitive learning when they participated in a more structured tour, i.e., one led by a museum docent. Students of grades 5, 6, and 7, however, had significantly more positive attitudes when they participated in the less structured tour, i.e., one guided only by their classroom teacher. The study involved 816 students in 31 tours of the Natural History Gallery of the British Columbia Provincial Museum in Victoria.
An inquiry approach to science and language teaching
Authors: Rodriguez Imelda , Bethel Lowell J.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of an inquiry approach to science and language teaching to further develop classification and oral communication skills of bilingual Mexican American third graders. A random sample consisting of 64 subjects was selected for experimental and control groups from a population of 120 bilingual Mexican American third graders. The Solomon Four‐Group experimental design was employed. Pre‐ and posttesting was performed by use of the Goldstein‐Sheerer Object Sorting Test, (GSOST) and the Test of Oral Communication Skills, (TOCS). The experimental group participated in a sequential series of science lessons which required manipulation of objects, exploration, peer interaction, and teacher‐pupil interaction. The children made observations and comparisons of familiar objects and then grouped them on the basis of perceived and inferred attributes. Children worked individually and in small groups. Analysis of variance procedures was used on the posttest scores to determine if there was a significant improvement in classification and oral communication skills in the experimental group. The results on the posttest scores indicated a significant improvement at the 0.01 level for the experimental group in both classification and oral communication skills. It was concluded that participation in the science inquiry lessons facilitated the development of classification and oral communication skills of bilingual children.
A framework for conceptualizing research in natural history museums and science centers
Authors: Koran John J. , Longino Sarah J. , Shafer Lynn D.
Published: October 2006

Natural History Museums, Science Centers, Zoos, and Aquaria contribute considerably to out‐of‐school science experiences for visitors of all ages and characteristics. With birth rates and school age populations declining, it is likely that people will be looking to these settings for rest, recreation, stimulation, and learning. Science educators can play a leadership role in research, development, and in utilization of these settings to achieve learning and motivational objectives which support, supplement, and extend school science learning. But what is the current “state of the art” in this area? This article reviews relevant past studies, proposes a taxonomy of exhibits in museum settings, and focuses attention on factors which should be considered when studying learning in these settings. In addition, it presents some potentially productive methods of conceptualizing research, and suggests possible future lines of research for the science educator.
The effect of inquiry teaching and advance organizers upon student outcomes in science education
Authors: Lott Gerald W.
Published: October 2006

Two areas of research were explored in this meta‐analysis: comparison of inductive versus deductive teaching approachs, and the use of advance organizers. This study involved the coding of 128 characteristics for 39 studies which spanned the period from 1957 through 1980. The coding variables included 57 which were concerned with features of the treatment while 12 were concerned with outcome attributes. Aspects such as research methodology, sample characteristics, and instructional experiences were examined quantitatively in terms of their relationships to the treatment effects through the use of a common metric for all studies. Mean effect sizes were calculated and reported.
The importance of terminology in teaching K‐12 science
Authors: Yager Robert E.
Published: October 2006

Several recent reports concerning the status of science education in K‐12 classrooms have emphasized the centrality of textbooks to instruction. Some initial investigations of the nature of textbooks have suggested that typically more new words and terms are introduced than one would expect to find in a similar time frame as foreign languages are studied. This is a review of these initial studies, a review of the studies of mastery of vocabulary in foreign languages, and a review of general research concerning the vocabulary development, especially as it pertains to reading. Twenty‐five of the most commonly used textbooks in K‐12 science classrooms are analyzed in terms of the occurrence of special/technical words. The number of words introduced at every level is considerable‐often more than would be required if a new language were being introduced. In addition, the number of new words in science often approaches the total number that could be expected in terms of total vocabulary increase at a given grade level for a given student. There is strong evidence that one major fact of the current crisis in science education is the considerable emphasis upon words/terms/definitions as the primary ingredient of science‐at least the science that a typical student encounters and that he/she is expected to master.
A neuromathematical model of human information processing and its application to science content acquisition
Authors: Anderson O. Roger
Published: October 2006

The rate of information processing during science learning and the efficiency of the learner in mobilizing relevant information in long‐term memory as an aid in transmitting newly acquired information to stable storage in long‐term memory are fundamental aspects of science content acquisition. These cognitive processes, moreover, may be substantially related in tempo and quality of organization to the efficiency of higher thought processes such as divergent thinking and problem‐solving ability that characterize scientific thought. As a contribution to our quantitative understanding of these fundamental information processes, a mathematical model of information acquisition is presented and empirically evaluated in comparison to evidence obtained from experimental studies of science content acquisition. Computer‐based models are used to simulate variations in learning parameters and to generate the theoretical predictions to be empirically tested. The initial tests of the predictive accuracy of the model show close agreement between predicted and actual mean recall scores in short‐term learning tasks. Implications of the model for human information acquisition and possible future research are discussed in the context of the unique theoretical framework of the model.
Credibility and persuasion: A sociopsychological approach to changing the attitudes toward energy conservation of preservice elementary school science teachers
Authors: Koballa Thomas R. , Shrigley Robert L.
Published: October 2006

Tested was the effect of two persuasive messages presented by a credible communicator on the attitudes toward energy conservation of 180 preservice elementary teachers. The study asked the following questions: (1) Can attitudes toward energy conservation be positively changed with a brief, belief‐laden communication? (2) Do positive attitude gains between pre‐ and post‐tests, if any, dissipate within three weeks following the treatment? (3) Do the integrated and the nonintegrated communications affect energy attitudes of three subgroups (abstract, concrete differentiator and concrete thinkers) of the sample differently? The important finding was that both experimental treatments, integrated and nonintegrated, were equally effective and significantly more effective in attitude change than the control. Secondly, the finding that neither experimental treatment dissipated in effect, at least for three weeks, suggests some duration of brief treatment periods. And finally, the attitude changes are as likely to occur when concrete differentiators are presented with a nonintegrated as an integrated treatment, but abstract thinkers exposed to the integrated treatment and concrete thinkers exposed to the nonintegrated treatment sustain a changed attitude to a greater degree than other combinations of treatment and cognitive processing styles.
Identifying mediating factors of moral reasoning in science education
Authors: Zeidler Dana L. , Schafer Larry E.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this research was to examine how science content knowledge, moral reasoning ability, attitudes, and past experiences mediate the formation of moral judgments on environmental dilemmas. The study was conducted in two phases using environmental science majors and nonscience majors of college age. Phase One determined if environmental science majors exhibited higher levels of moral reasoning on nontechnical environmental social issues than on general social issues and examined the extent to which possible mediating factors accounted for differences in moral reasoning. Phase Two was qualitative in nature, the purpose of which was to observe and identify trends in conversations between subjects as to how certain mediating factors are revealed as people form moral judgments. The framework on which this study was constructed incorporates a progressive educational position; a position that views science education as being interdisciplinary, and a social means to a social end.
Science choices and preferences of middle and secondary school students in Utah
Authors: Baird J. Hugh , Lazarowitz Reuven , Allman Verl
Published: October 2006

This research sought to answer two questions: (1) What are Utah junior and senior high school students' preferences and choices regarding science subjects? (2) Could preferences and choices be related to the type of school, age or gender? Two thousand students from grades six through twelve participated in this study. Findings show that zoology and human anatomy and physiology were most preferred. Ecology was least prefered. Topics in the physical sciences were also low. There was a trend among girls to prefer natural sciences such as botany while boys tended to prefer the physical sciences. Generally, students' choices were limited to those subjects presently taught in the formal school curriculum. They appeared unaware of the many science related subjects outside the texts or the approved course of study.
Individual differences: A third component in problem‐solving instruction
Authors: Ronning Royce R. , McCurdy Donald , Ballinger Ruth
Published: October 2006

Present research in problem solving appears to be primarily concerned with problem‐solving methods and with degree of knowledge acquisition. A brief argument is advanced that this conceptualization is incomplete because of failure to consider individual differences among problem solvers (other than in problem‐solving methods and extent of knowledge). A viable theory of problem‐solving instruction must take into account all three areas. Evidence for the argument is presented in the form of data on problem‐solving success in junior high school students with extreme scores on Witkin's field independence‐field dependence measure of cognitive style. Problem‐solving protocols are examined as a second source of data. Field independent students significantly out‐performed field dependent students on the problems. Examination of protocols revealed consistent performance patterns favoring field independent students.
A study of gender effects in the science and mathematics course‐taking behavior of a group of students who graduated from college in the late 1970s
Authors: Deboer George E.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the high school and collegiate science and mathematics participation and performance of a group of students who graduated from a single highly selective liberal arts college in the late 1970s. It was found that women took fewer science and mathematics courses than men but performed at a higher level both in high school and college. It was also found that students took fewer mathematics and science courses in college than in high school and that college performance and participation were related to performance and participation in high school.