bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Rome at a gallop: Livy, on not gazing, jumping, or toppling into the void*
Authors: Spencer Diana
Published: November 2023

Getting a sense of perspective on Rome, whether temporal or spatial, is a recurrent concern of this collection. Modelling the chronological filters and processes of layering of the spaces from which, and into which, one gazes, is central to understanding how and why Rome’s multiple pasts continue to obsess us. It also allows us to tease out correspondences and conflicts between ongoing urges to recuperate ‘Classical’ Rome, and a succession of simultaneous penchants—from antiquity onwards—for rewriting it in our own image. Chronological perspective (or, in Bakhtin’s terms, the chronotope) Wgures as one underlying concern in this essay—the versions of us and them, then and now, that Rome and Livy invoke are never culturally neutral. Equally signiWcant, however, is the perhaps more straightforward trick of creating a textual ‘reality eVect’ by deploying a whole range of vertical and horizontal perspectives, both spatial and temporal. My essay is interested in particular in how one deWnes place, moves through space, and comprehends up and down in Livy’s early Rome; in the consequences of this for Augustan Rome; and Wnally, in the * David Larmour, Indra McEwen, and Gideon Nisbet signifycantly improved various drafts of this essay, for which many thanks are due.
Victim and voyeur: Rome as a character in Tacitus’ Histories 3*
Authors: Ash Rhiannon
Published: November 2023

In ancient literature, the device of personifying any city, whether to articulate moralism, to trigger pathos or to celebrate imperial or personal achievements, has rich potential. Rome above all repeatedly becomes a focal point for creative personification along such lines, particularly in genres such as epic, oratory, satire, and historiography.1 Of course, the scale and degree of an author’s elaboration naturally varies: personifications range from pithy instances encapsulated by a single word, such as Juvenal’s depiction of Rome enslaved * I would like to thank the editors, Diana Spencer and David Larmour, both for their invitation to contribute an article to this volume and for their helpful feedback on my piece. I am also grateful for the thoughtful questions and comments from the jovial audiences who attended my talks based on this paper, which were delivered at Glasgow University and the Oxford Philological Society in 2006. 1 See Fantham (1972: 128–30).
Ordering three kingdoms, 1649–1651
Authors: Morrill John
Published: November 2023

Over the next four years Cromwell combined the demanding business of war with the demanding business of sustaining a fragile political system and of seeking to develop viable long-term political and institutional forms. He was away from London, campaigning in Ireland and in Scotland, from July 1649 to mid-September 1651. But he kept in close touch with events there during his absences, and after 12 September 1651 he never left the environs of the capital (except for two brief excursions into Kent in May 1652) for the rest of his life, moving flrst to the Cockpit and then, early in 1654, into the royal palaces at Whitehall and Hampton Court.
Cartesian Trialism
Authors: Cottingham John
Published: November 2023

Why does Descartes’s mind– body dualism have so little appeal for most philosophers nowadays? There are many problematic aspects of the theory, but two seem especially troublesome. (1) The first may be labelled the ‘non-corporeality dogma’: by insisting on the essential non-corporeality of the mind, Cartesian dualism is committed to a thesis that modern advances in neurophysiology have made less and less plausible. The claim, made by Descartes, that an act of thinking or doubting ‘does not require any place or depend on any material thing’ (e.g. requires no brain) seems in the light of today’s knowledge to be simply a non-starter. (2) The second troublesome aspect of dualism may be labelled the ‘mental or physical?’ dilemma.
Descartes and the Voluntariness of Belief
Authors: Cottingham John
Published: November 2023

In a much admired paper Bernard Williams once observed that ‘there is not much room for deciding to believe’. This is because beliefs are ‘things which we, as it were, find we have’, though of course we can decide whether to express them or not. That we cannot decide to believe something on command is not, Williams goes on to say, just a brute empirical fact about our makeup: it is not a mere contingent aspect of our nature, like, for example, our inability to blush just by willing it. The fact that we cannot decide to believe something, just like that, depends, rather, on a feature that is analytically connected to the very concept of belief, namely that beliefs aim at truth. So if I could acquire a belief at will, presumably I could decide to acquire it, as it were, whether it was true or not. ‘If, in full consciousness, I could will to acquire a “belief” irrespective of its truth, it is unclear that before the event I could seriously think of it as a belief, i.e. as something purporting to represent reality’.
Descartes as Sage: Spiritual Askesis in Cartesian Philosophy
Authors: Cottingham John
Published: November 2023

In one of his earliest surviving writings Descartes says that just as actors put on masks (personam induunt), so he himself will enter the theatre of the world masked: larvatus prodeo. ‘Mask’ was, of course, the original meaning of the Latin term persona—in Greek prosōpon: the false face of clay or bark that actors in the ancient world donned in order to come on to the stage. It is an odd figure of speech for a philosopher to adopt: both in Classical philosophical thought (from Plato’s famous strictures against acting and role-playing), and also in the Christian gospels (from Jesus’ denunciation of those whose outward display did not match their inner thoughts), the connotations of the term ‘actor’ (hypocrites) were far from favourable.
An Independent Commission with Political Input: New Zealand’s Electoral Redistribution Practices
Authors: McRobie Alan
Published: November 2023

If the democratic objective of “one person, one vote—one vote, one value” is to be sustained, mechanisms must exist in law to ensure that regular and frequent adjustments to existing electoral districts are carried out. Equally important is the requirement that those redistributions are seen to be both fair and impartial. If voters are to have confidence in the outcome of an election they must be satisfied that those who stand to gain most from the electoral outcome—the politicians and political parties—have not influenced the determination of the electoral district boundaries within which the election is contested, either overtly or covertly.
Delimitation in India
Authors: McMillanm Alistair
Published: November 2023

The Indian Constitution, which was ratified in 1949 and came into force in 1950, set down the framework for the democratic system, including provisions for periodic delimitations. After each national census, a process of delimitation would take place in order to ensure that constituencies for the Lok Sabha (the House of the People) and the Vidhan Sabhas (State Legislative Assemblies) were roughly the same size in terms of population. In this way, the framers of the Constitution aimed to ensure that the principle of one person, one vote, one value was maintained.
The Design of Ethnically Mixed Constituencies in Fiji, 1970–2006
Authors: Fraenkel Jon
Published: November 2023

The Pacific Island state of Fiji has witnessed an unusual series of changes in both constituency boundaries and the principles underlying these since independence in 1970. Fiji is an ethnically divided society, with roughly equal-sized indigenous Fijian and Indo-Fijian populations, the latter being descendants of migrant laborers originally brought from the Indian subcontinent. Fijians and Indo-Fijians seldom inter-marry, speak distinct languages, have different religions, and have tended to vote for dissimilar, ethnically identified, parties. All three postindependence constitutions allowed citizens to vote in separate communal constituencies. Two of these constitutions allowed them also to cast votes in “common roll” constituencies—where citizens of all ethnic groups voted together.
A Comparative Survey of Structures and Criteria for Boundary Delimitation
Authors: Handley Lisa
Published: November 2023

Countries that delimit electoral districts must designate an entity to carry out this task and a set of rules for this body to follow when engaged in the delimitation process. The task assigned to the boundary authority is the same in all countries: divide the country into electoral districts (constituencies) for the purpose of electing legislative representatives to office. The type of boundary authority established and the rules this authority is obliged to follow, however, vary markedly across countries.
On the rise of recursion
Authors: Heine Bernd , Kuteva Tania
Published: November 2023

There is an abundant literature on what distinguishes human languages from forms of animal communication, and there is considerable disagreement on what does and what does not (see e.g. Pinker and Jackendoff 2005; Givón 2002a, 2005). But what surfaces in some of the recent literature on language evolution is that if there is one property that is really unique to human languages then that is recursion (Hauser, Chomsky, and Fitch 2002; see also Coolidge and Wynn 2006). It is widely held that recursion belongs to the basic universals of language and that there do not appear to exist analogs in non-human communication in the wording of Bicker ton (2005: 9): Syntax without recursion and movement is about as viable as Hamlet without the Prince of Denmark.
Introduction
Authors: Hanna Robert , Maiese Michelle
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this book is to provide the rudiments of a unified treatment of three fundamental philosophical problems: the mind– body problem, the problem of mental causation, and the problem of intentional action. As we are construing it, the mind– body problem is this: What explains the existence and specific character of conscious, intentional minds like ours in a physical world? Correspondingly, the problem of mental causation is this: What explains the causal relevance and causal efficacy of conscious, intentional minds like ours in a physical world? And finally the problem of intentional action is this: What explains the categorical difference between the things we consciously and intentionally do, and the things that just happen to us? Whether there are minds significantly unlike ours— ghostly minds, non-spatiotemporal minds, infinite minds, omniscient minds, omnipotent minds, etc.— and if so, what their nature is, are questions we will not seriously consider here. Our fundamental interest lies in trying to understand precisely what it is to be a creature with a conscious, intentional mind like ours, and then in working out the most salient implications of this understanding for a unified treatment of the three fundamental problems.
ConsciousnessƖ௦ and Essential Embodiment II: Types and Structures
Authors: Hanna Robert , Maiese Michelle
Published: November 2023

Similarly, Chalmers says that ‘‘a mental state is conscious if it has a qualitative feel — an associated quality of experience.’’ So phenomenal consciousnessƖ௦ is the subjective qualitative feel of a mental state. We agree with Chalmers and Nagel that subjective qualitative feel is a necessary and sufficient condition of consciousnessƖ௦. But we also strongly disagree with Chalmers and Nagel if they are further claiming, or at least implying, that phenomenal consciousnessƖ௦ is the solely or uniquely necessary and sufficient condition of consciousnessƖ௦ — for we hold that subjective qualitative feel is only one aspect of subjective experience, and indeed an aspect that is fully embedded, in the sense that it cannot be either neurophenomenologically or metaphysically detached from a much larger and essentially richer set of factors.
Essentially Embodied Agency II: Guidance and Trying
Authors: Hanna Robert , Maiese Michelle
Published: November 2023

Second, in Section 4.2 we look at Brian O’Shaughnessy’s conception of trying in order to help us make sense of the synchronous mental activity of active guidance that causes intentional action. But while O’Shaughnessy correlates successful tryings with corresponding overt intentional body movements that are temporally separated from trying events, by contrast we take trying to be a conscious, intentional process, grounded in desirebased emotion, that begins as incarnated by the neurobiological processes of the agent’s living organismic body, occurs synchronously with those neurobiological processes, and also extends throughout the entire duration of the overt intentional body movements that arise from and accompany those trying-informed neurobiological processes. Finally, in Section 4.3, we respond to a serious challenge to our theory from contemporary cognitive science.
The Metaphysics of Agency I: The Problem of Mental Causation
Authors: Hanna Robert , Maiese Michelle
Published: November 2023

The mind– body problem, as we understand it, is the problem of explaining the existence and specific character of conscious, intentional mindsƖ௦ in a physical world. But since the physical world is also a world of causally efficacious events in spacetime, any attempt to solve the mind– body problem leads directly to another, even deeper problem: How can we explain the causal relevance and causal efficacy of conscious, intentional mindsƖ௦ in a physical world? That is the problem of mental causation, and it obviously relates directly to the problem of action. Comprehensively and ultimately, then, what we really want to know is this: How can we explain the existence, specific character, causal relevance, and causal efficacy of conscious, intentional mindsƖ௦ in a physical world, insofar as these minds are engaged in intentional actions? According to our Essential Embodiment Thesis, conscious, intentional mindsƖ௦ are necessarily and completely neurobiologically embodied.
The Nation and its Ruins: Antiquity, Archaeology, and National Imagination in Greece
Authors: Hamilakis Yannis
Published: November 2023

This innovative, extensively illustrated study examines how classical antiquities and archaeology contributed significantly to the production of the modern Greek nation and its national imagination. It also shows how, in return, national imagination has created and shaped classical antiquities and archaeological practice from the nineteenth century to the present. Yannis Hamilakis covers a diverse range of topics, including the role of antiquities in the foundation of the Greek state in the nineteenth century, the Elgin marbles controversy, the role of archaeology under dictatorial regimes, the use of antiquities in the detention camps of the Greek civil war, and the discovery of the so-called tomb of Philip of Macedonia.
Government and Administration c.1815–1830
Authors: McCord Norman , Purdue Bill
Published: November 2023

Britain has often been seen as a unitary state with the ‘King in Parliament’ being able to legislate for anything that was ‘not impossible’ by Acts of Parliament.1 In practice and in law things were not so simple. Scotland retained its own laws and its own religious settlement, even if its political life was increasingly one with the United Kingdom as a whole, while the constitutional settlements of 1688 for both England and Scotland could not be easily overturned. In addition a code and a host of unwritten assumptions helped maintain the relative autonomy of counties and cities within a national framework.
Political Developments 1852–1880
Authors: McCord Norman , Purdue Bill
Published: November 2023

The general election of 1852 produced a House of Commons without a clear majority. The minority Conservative government which had been cobbled together after the collapse of Russell’s ministry made some gains, but the allegiance of other newly elected members remained unclear. Optimistic calculations of Conservative strength put them at over 300. There were about 120 Whigs and 150 radicals on the opposition benches, although these terms were not very precise. A crucial balancing position was held by the Irish nationalists and the Peelites, both numbering 40 or slightly fewer.1
Political Developments 1880–1914
Authors: McCord Norman , Purdue Bill
Published: November 2023

The general election in the spring of 1880 replaced an overall Conservative majority of about 50 seats with a slightly larger Liberal majority. The Conservative defeat was comprehensive (see pp. 303–4 above).1 Altogether the Conservatives lost, and the Liberals gained, more than 100 seats. The Scottish, Irish, and Welsh results were especially striking. In Scotland the Conservative victories fell from 19 to only 7; in Wales the Conservatives held only 2 seats. In Ireland the Home Rule Party consolidated its position, winning 61 seats, 10 more than in 1874. Yet in some respects the Conservative defeat was less crushing than appears at first sight. It had been a hard-fought contest, marked by a sharp drop in the number of uncontested returns from 188 in 1874 to 109 and the Conservatives took nearly 44 per cent of the overall popular vote (only some 2,000 votes behind the Liberal total). There was, though, no gainsaying the result in terms of seats in the House of Commons.
Economy and Society c.1880–1914
Authors: McCord Norman , Purdue Bill
Published: November 2023

Whether monarch’s reigns and the associations we attribute to them are helpful means of dividing the past into periods is debateable but there can be little doubt that ‘Victorian’ remains a term redolent in its expression of a cultural unity. The Queen died in 1901 but it can be argued that Victorian attitudes long outlived her and a recent study has conceived of the last Victorians and many of their attitudes dominating British society until after the Second World War;1 this rather sidelines ‘Edwardian’ or ‘Edwardianism’. Clearly the period 1880–1901 is objectively late-Victorian or even high-Victorian but the question of a discernible break with a new century and a new monarch in 1901 is a matter of interpretation while, save in the narrow literary sense of a school of poetry, few use the term Georgian to describe the last years before 1914.
The Stanzaic Architecture of Early Greek Elegy
Authors: Faraone Christopher A
Published: November 2023

In this study of poetic form in early Greek elegy, Christopher A. Faraone argues against the prevailing assumption that it was a genre of stichic poetry derived from or dependent on epic verse. Faraone emphasizes the fact that early elegiac poets composed their songs to the tune of an aulos (a kind of oboe) and used a five-couplet stanza as a basic unit of composition. He points out how knowledge of the elegiac stanza can give us insight into how these poets alternated between stanzas of exhortation and meditation, used co-ordinated pairs of stanzas to construct lengthy arguments about excellence or proper human government, and created generic set pieces that they could deploy in longer compositions. Faraone's close analysis of nearly all the important elegiac fragments will greatly enhance understanding and appreciation of this poetic genre.
Detecting: Hyenas, Frogs, Zebra Fish, and Assorted Farm Animals
Authors: Harré Rom
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we turn to the use of animals, birds, and plants, and their parts and extracts as instruments for detecting the presence of specific materials such as noxious gases, scientifically important states of the local environment such as electric charges as the intangible sources of electrical phenomena, and many other significant aspects of the natural world. We cannot perceive electric Welds by their effects on our senses, perhaps a mild tingling at best, but we can create instruments that are visibly affected by them. Instruments can also be used to scrutinize the observable properties of things more closely than the human senses. A human being can detect the presence of acids, alkalis, and other distinctive substances in solutions by taste or smell.
Once We Were Not Alone
Authors: Finlayson Clive
Published: November 2023

IN the previous chapter I suggested that it was strange that small-brained proto-humans had reached all the way down to South Africa from the Ethiopian heartland, but apparently had not made it into the Middle East which was so much closer. Until very recently the prevalent view was that it was Homo erectus who first managed to break out of Africa and disperse across Eurasia. We saw in the Prologue how the strict political division of continents, a distinction that has never existed other than in our minds, complicated our understanding of how early primates and apes got to where they did. The same simplistic distinction has been widely applied in the human origins debate. I think that this way of carving up the Afro-Eurasian land mass has held back progress in our understanding of what really happened, and how it happened, by more than two decades. We are only now just starting to recover from the negative effects of ‘out-of-Africa migration’ dogma and see human origins in a different light. I was lecturing in Cambridge when the news of the discovery of the Hobbit (Homo floresiensis) was released in 2004. The anthropological community was in shock as nobody could have predicted that humans of any description, other than us, could have managed to survive on the planet until so recently. Most people were trying to find an explanation. As usual, others sat on the fence to wait to see which way the wind would blow, while the predictable staunch minority was doing every-thing possible to debunk the new claim. When something does not fit a long-established scheme, the usual response is disbelief, which rapidly turns into ridicule.
Failed Experiments
Authors: Finlayson Clive
Published: November 2023

IN 1932 human remains were excavated in the cave of es-Skhul (Mount Carmel). The finds were part of a joint expedition by the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem and the American School of Prehistoric Research. Dorothy Garrod from Cambridge University was the director but she was away from the site when her assistant,>T. D. McCown (from the American School), made the discoveries. Garrod had been the prize pupil of the great French prehistorian and priest L’Abbé Henri Breuil and had successfully excavated, at his instigation, the site of Devil’s Tower in Gibraltar where she found the fragmented skull of a Neanderthal child in 1926. It was a decisive moment in her career and she soon turned her attention to the Middle East. Garrod was to become the first female professor at Cambridge, in 1939, holding the Disney Chair in Archaeology, although her appointment was not without its problems. The university’s Vice Chancellor noted that she would have to be an ‘invisible’ professor as the university’s statutes did not take women into account. The situation was eventually changed after the Second World War, in 1948, by which time Garrod was already one of the leading pre-historians of her time.
Being in the Right Place at the Right Time
Authors: Finlayson Clive
Published: November 2023

THE arrival of the Ancestors in Australia around 50 thousand years ago was the result of a coincidence of events and of people being in the right place, in this case India, at the right time. When a cooling and drying climate began to desiccate their savannah homeland, a new belt of savannah opened up to the south-east; the same climate change that was turning savannah into arid bad lands in one place was reducing the domain of the rain forest and replacing it with lush grasslands, where tall trees no longer prevented light reaching the ground, in another. In came the grazers and predators, including people, soon followed. We can speculate about the impact of these people on existing populations of Homo erectus that would have been around at the time of the arrival (Chapter 2). The last populations of H. erectus, if the dates are correct, may have survived in Java as recently as 25 thousand years ago which would suggest that the arrival of the Ancestors after 50 thousand years ago did not overwhelm them overnight. The many islands of south-east Asia may have acted as refuges for populations of archaic people and some seem to have survived until well after the arrival of the Ancestors. Homo floresiensis did so on Flores until 12 thousand years ago (Chapter 2). An even more remarkable discovery was reported early in 2008 from the island archipelago of Palau, north of New Guinea and east of the Philippine Islands. Around 25 skeletons of very small people were excavated and the stunning results revealed that they had lived as recently as somewhere between 2,890 and 940 years ago. These results reopened the debate on the status of the Flores people and posed the question whether dwarfism was indeed a common feature of humans that became isolated on remote islands.
Introduction
Authors: Smith Quentin
Published: November 2023

The nature of consciousness has proved as elusive, ambiguous, and question¬ able as the nature of intentionality, sensory qualities, and mentality. Two extremes of theories of consciousness, from a form of dualism to a form of physicalism, may be identified, one occupied by Brentano’s theory and the other by Paul Churchland’s theory.
Transparent Experience and the Availability of Qualia
Authors: Loar Brian
Published: November 2023

Two strong intuitions about visual experience seem to conflict radically. One is that visual experiences have discernible qualitative features, often called qualia. They are aspects of what it is like to have particular visual experiences, subjective or felt aspects of experiences. They present themselves as intrinsic and non-relational properties of visual experience, and they come in great detail. Almost all qualiphiles think of qualia as introspectable. The competing intuition is that visual experience is transparent: when you attend to a visual experience as it is going on, you will notice its objects, i.e. the things you see or apparently see, including their apparent properties and relations, and you will notice your (diaphanous) visual relation to those external objects and properties;1 and, representationists say, that is all.
Consciousness and the Quantum World: Putting Qualia on the Map
Authors: Lockwood Michael
Published: November 2023

Let me begin by nailing my colours to the mast. I count myself a materialist, in the sense that I take consciousness to be a species of brain activity. Having said that, however, it seems to me evident that no description of brain activity of the relevant kind, couched in the currently available languages of physics, physiology, or functional or computational roles, is remotely capable of capturing what is distinctive about consciousness. So glaring, indeed, are the shortcomings of all the reductive programmes currently on offer, that I cannot believe that anyone with a philosophical training, looking dispassionately at these programmes, would take any of them seriously for a moment, were it not for a deep-seated conviction that current physical science has essentially got reality taped, and accordingly, something along the lines of what the reductionists are offering must be correct.
Religion, Agency, Restitution
Authors: Little Wood Roland
Published: November 2023

Professor Littlewood's lectures marshal arguments that help us understand more clearly how we interactively use religion and science/healing to come to terms with the world around us. The lectures draw in part on the author's clinical work as a psychiatrist with patients from religious movements in the West, but are primarily based on his earlier anthropological fieldwork with a new African-Caribbean religion in Trinidad, and more recently with ethical transformations in the older Caribbean cults and among the ultra-Orthodox Jewish Hasidim. There exists a close relationship between the explanations of misfortune, reconciliation, and restitution in the historical - and other - religions and in therapeutics. Professor Littlewood believes that cosmological and redemptive assumptions exist in any type of healing, whether physical or psychological. Spiritual and healing theories interact in surprising ways, and he examines the religious aspect in systems of therapeutics as well as the appearance of healing practices within social institutions that are generally regarded as religious.
The Syntax of Silence
Authors: Merchant Jason
Published: November 2023

A primary goal of contemporary theoretical linguistics is to develop a theory of the correspondence between sound (or gesture) and meaning. This sound-meaning correspondence breaks down completely in the case of ellipsis, and yet various forms of ellipsis are pervasive in natural language: words and phrases which should be in the linguistic signal go missing. How this should be possible is the focus of Jason Merchant's investigation. He focuses on the form of ellipsis known as sluicing, a common feature of interrogative clauses, such as in 'Sally's out hunting - guess what!'; and 'Someone called, but I can't tell you who'. It is the most frequently found cross-linguistic form of ellipsis. Dr Merchant studies the phenomenon across twenty-four languages, and attempts to explain it in linguistic and behavioural terms.
Wives, Pets, and Affines: Marriage among the Jivaro
Authors: Taylor Anne-Christine
Published: November 2023

In his celebrated work on marriage among the Trio (1969a), Peter Riviere drew attention to an intriguing trait of this group’s system of kin relations: the proximity between conjugal and brother-sister relations (Riviere 1969a: 190-1). This feature is also characteristic of the pattern of kin relations among the Jivaro, a set of sub-tribes entirely distinct from the Trio, although they too—at least some of them—possess a ‘two-section’ or, to use the now more commonly used expression, Dravidian-type kinship terminology, coupled with a stated preference for close cross-cousin marriage.
From Longhouse to Village: Structure and Change in the Colombian Amazon
Authors: Århem Kaj
Published: November 2023

Change has always been a recalcitrant topic to students of society. Constantly challenging, frequently puzzling, historical process—change, diachrony, transformation-refuses to be neatly conceptualized or easily explained. A review of some recent statements on the subject reveals three salient and recurrent themes. The first is the relationship between event and structure (Moore 1987, 1994; Ohnuki Tierney 1990; Sahlins 1981, 1985, 1994); the second is the articulation between local social formations and external forces, or what Sahlins refers to as the ‘structure of the conjuncture’.
Medical Charlatanism in Early Modern Italy
Authors: Gentilcore David
Published: November 2023

From the mid-sixteenth century onwards, the Italian Protomedicato tribunals, Colleges of Physicians, or Health Offices (jurisdiction varied from state to state) required charlatans to submit their wares for inspection and, upon approval, pay a licence fee in order to set up a stage from which to perform and sell them. The licensing of charlatans became an administrative routine. As far as the medical magistracies were concerned, charlatans had a defineable identity, constituting a specific trade or occupation. This book studies the way charlatans were represented, by contemporaries and by historians, how they saw themselves and, most importantly, it reconstructs the place of charlatans in early modern Italy. It explores the goods and services charlatans provided, their dealings with the public and their marketing strategies. It does so from a range of perspectives: social, cultural, economic, political, geographical, biographical and, of course, medical. Charlatans are not just some curiosity on the fringes of medicine: they offered health care to an extraordinarily wide sector of the population. Moreover, from their origins in Renaissance Italy, the Italian ciarlatano was the prototype for itinerant medical practitioners throughout Europe. This book offers a different look at charlatans. It is the first to take seriously the licences issued to charlatans in the Italian states, compiling them into a 'charlatans database' of over 1,300 charlatans active throughout Italy over the course of some three centuries. In addition, it makes use of other types of archival documents, such as trial records and wills, to give the charlatans a human face, as well as a wide range of artistic and printed sources, not forgetting the output of the charlatans themselves, in the form of handbills and pamphlets.
Introduction
Authors: Gentilcore David
Published: November 2023

We all know what a ‘charlatan’ is: ‘a pretender to medical skill ‘, or ‘one making usually showy pretences to knowledge or ability’ (Merriam-Webster ‘s Collegiate Dictionary); ‘an empiric who pretends to possess wonderful secrets, especially in the healing art’, and by extension, ‘an assuming empty pretender to knowledge or skill’ (Oxford English Dictionary). Quite simple, really. When I began this project I did not have in mind the actuation of my favourite dictum concerning the historian ‘s craft: ‘why make things simple when one can make them complicated?’ And yet that is how it turned out.
Licensing
Authors: Gentilcore David
Published: November 2023

The surviving licence requests, petitions, or applications (called suppliche) from charlatans suggest that there was a standard approach if one was to meet with success. The procedure, in no way unique to aspiring charlatans, resulted (if successful) in the issuing of the document as a ‘favour ’. The charlatan ’s petition took the following form. With all due modesty, one had to stress the originality of one ’s remedy, but not that it was so new that it went against the accepted rules of pharmacy. One had to remark on its proven efficacy, exemplified by numerous cures.
Fractionating the Intentional Control of Behaviour: A Neuropsychological Analysis
Authors: Humphreys Glyn W , Riddoch M Jane
Published: November 2023

Neuropsychological studies have played an important role in guiding our understanding of cognitive function. For example, studies of selective deficits in particular tasks, following brain lesions, provide constraints on models of cognition, demonstrating functional modularity between processes underlying the tasks. In many instances, the deficits reflect impairments to specific forms of stored representation or in gaining access to those stored representations-even when the representations are normally accessed automatically (examples here would include deficits in object recognition and in the recognition of printed and auditory words; see Humphreys, 1999; Coltheart et al., 1980; Hall and Riddoch, 1997). In other cases, though, the deficits do not reside in automatic processes but rather in control processes that either modulate access to stored representations or that modulate the consequences of the access process. A classic illustration of this is so called ‘utilization behaviour’, following damage to the frontal lobes.
On Knowing One’s Own Actions
Authors: O’Brien Lucy
Published: November 2023

Given the recent debates about self-knowledge and first-person authority it is surprising that there has not been more discussion about our knowledge of our actions.1 It is surprising because our knowledge of our own actions seems, prima facie, to share many of the features of our knowledge of beliefs and perceptions that have given rise to these debates.2 At least this is what I want to suggest in this chapter. Indeed, perhaps the main motivation for this chapter is to place discussion of our knowledge of our own actions firmly alongside our knowledge of other psychological phenomena. I will outline what seem to be intuitively plausible features of our knowledge of our actions, and consider what account we might give of such knowledge that respects those features. A suggestion as to what form an account of our knowledge of our actions should take will be offered.
Henry Sidgwick
Authors: Raphael D D
Published: November 2023

Sidgwick’s book,The Methods of Ed1ics,first published in 1874, is the most comprehensive and the best-argued version of classical utilitarianism. Its discussion of justice is a little disappointing because it does not face the special difficulty that justice poses for utilitarianism. Nevertheless its admirable analysis of the concept marks a clear advance on earlier treatments.

Before proceeding to details of Sidgwick’s account of justice, I shall say something of the general plan of the book. What does Sidgwick mean by themethodsof ethics? He writes of three methods, egoist, intuitionist, and utilitarian. You could say that they are three theories of ethics, three different accounts of moral judgement. Egoism says that actions are properly judged to be right for their contribution to the interest of the agent. Intuitionism says that the judgement of an action as right does not depend on some other consideration; it stands on its own ground as a direct awareness. Utilitarianism says that a proper judgement depends on the contribution of the action to the general interest. Why does Sidgwick not write of them as theories? Because they have a practical as well as a theoretical purpose. They are not simply positive explanations, w1der a w1ifying formula, of what moral judgements have in common; they are also normative justifications that serve to recommend the formula as a guide to resolve practical dilemmas. Each of the theories describes a method of thinking that tends to take place without deliberate design, and also prescribes it for deliberate use when we are uncertain.
The Justinianic Dialogue On Political Science and its Neoplatonic Sources
Authors: O’Meara Dominic
Published: November 2023

This chapter concerns the fragments of an anonymous dialogue in Greek ‘On political science’ discovered by Angelo Mai in a Vatican palimpsest (Vat. gr. 1298) and first published by him in 1827. A more complete edition of the fragments was published in 1982 by Carlo Mazzucchi, together with an Italian translation. Mai identified the author of the dialogue as Peter the Patrician, a high official in the court of Justinian. Although this particular identification is fairly speculative, there is at least agreement that the anonymous dialogue dates to the Justinianic period, given its references, as if to a recent past, to the Persian King Peroz (459-484) and to the Frankish King Clovis (481-511). Mazzucchi thinks that the dialogue was written in the earlier part of the Justinianic reign, before 535, deriving from the higher circles of Justinian’s administration, whereas Averil Cameron prefers to place it towards the end of the reign (565) and considers it as voicing the interests of a senatorial elite. The later dating seems more plausible, since, as will be seen below, the two speakers in the dialogue appear to represent high officials active in Justinian’s administration in 528-9 and it seems unlikely that the dialogue, in portraying them, would have been written close to the time of their activity.
John of Damascus on Human Action, the Will, and Human Freedom
Authors: Frede Michael
Published: November 2023

It is not surprising that John of Damascus should assume that there is such a thing as the will, and that it is in virtue of having such a will that we are responsible for what we are doing. By John’s time this was a standard assumption which could be taken for granted. Though not originally a Christian doctrine, but of Stoic origin, it had become a standard view in Christian authors from the end of the second century onwards. But we also do have to keep in mind that Aristotle, for instance, on whom John of Damascus, directly or indirectly, relies a good deal for his account of human behaviour, does not in his account appeal to a will. Aristotle, too, assumes that human beings will ( ) things and that they do things, because they will to do them. And Aristotle, too, of course, must assume that, if human beings do will things, it is possible for them to will things, they can will things, they are able to will things. But to assume that human beings have a will is to assume more than that human beings can, or are able to, will things in this weak, trivial sense, in the sense in which quite generally possibility follows from actuality. It is rather to assume that they have the ability to will things in the sense of a basic, distinct, positive ability, comparable to the ability to discriminate perceptual features or the ability to understand things.
Psellos’ Paraphrasis on Aristotle’s De interpretatione
Authors: Ierodiakonou Katerina
Published: November 2023

There recently has been a lot of interest in Greek commentaries on Aristotle’s works. It has become clear that they not only reveal unsuspected subtleties of difficult Aristotelian passages and provide information concerning otherwise unknown doctrines, they also put forward original philosophical views. However, the period usually studied covers only the commentaries from Aspasius and Alexander of Aphrodisias in the second century to Simplicius in the sixth or Stephanus in the seventh century. What I think has not yet been sufficiently acknowledged is that in the East, even after the sixth century, the tradition of commenting on Aristotle’s treatises continues uninterrupted until the fifteenth century or even beyond the fall of Constantinople in 1453. In the case of Aristotle’s logical works, in particular, the significant number of manuscripts with Byzantine scholia on the Organon confirms that Aristotelian logic constitutes a focus of great attention throughout the Byzantine era. Following the tradition of the ancient commentators, but especially that of the Christian commentators of the Alexandrian school, Byzantine scholars such as Photios, Arethas, Michael Psellos, John Italos, Michael of Ephesus, Leo Magentinos, Nikephoros Blemmydes, George Pachymeres, John Pedia- simos, Isaak Argyros, Joseph Philagrios, John Chortasmenos, and others produce logical commentaries, paraphrases, compendia, and short treatises on selected logical topics. But in most cases these logical works have not been edited, let alone been closely studied, and so their importance for the development of logical theory in Byzantium has not yet been adequately assessed.
‘To Every Argument there is a Counter-Argument’: Theodore Metochites’ Defence of Scepticism (Semeiosis 61)
Authors: BydÉn BÖrje
Published: November 2023

The ontological and epistemological framework of the cogitations set forth in Theodore Metochites’ Semeioseis gnomikai (c.1326)1 could be described as a rough-hewn Platonist torso with a somewhat mismatched Christian head. On the pattern of the simile of the Divided Line (in Plato’s Republic), spatiotemporal things are conceived of as somehow flawed representations of the entities of a higher order, which alone are really real and which alone can be truly known. I do not propose to discuss here the ontological status ascribed to these higher-order entities within this framework.
Byzantine Commentators on the Chaldaean Oracles: Psellos and Plethon
Authors: Athanassiadi Polymnia
Published: November 2023

The Chaldaean Oracles are a divine revelation—or so they were believed to be by their Neoplatonic commentators—of a cosmological and soteriological system and of a set of moral and ritual rules and instructions. What survives of them is a total of some 350 lines in Greek hexameter verse divided into 190 fragments of unequal length, the overwhelming majority of which have reached us through two channels: Proclus and, to a lesser extent, Damascius. In Byzantine times, however, Damascius’ testimony as transmitter and interpreter of the Chaldaean material was flatly ignored, while Proclus remained an influential figure as exegete of both Plato and the Oracles. It is true that, unlike Damascius, he had produced a systematic and voluminous commentary on the Chaldaean revelation, a commentary which was indeed deemed worthy of a refutation by Procopius of Gaza. Yet this pious act was not enough to prevent the Commentary from traversing the so-called dark ages so as to reach men like Arethas and Psellos. The latter in particular was a confessed admirer of Proclus, whom he proclaimed to be at the pinnacle of all science and wisdom.
Endurance and Endeavour
Authors: Westwood J N
Published: November 2023

In Russia, both rulers and ruled long endeavoured to transform their country, each in their own forcible way. Their efforts never quite seemed to bring the results hoped for, and despite reform and revolution some things changed very little. This book sets out to relate Russian tradition and circumstances to the events of history and to encourage readers to seek their own explanation of the country’s paradox. For this fifth edition of Endurance and Endeavour J. N. Westwood has completely revised the text and bibliography to incorporate recent research and findings from formerly closed archives, and has added a new chapter covering the Yeltsin years.
The Civil War
Authors: War The Civil
Published: November 2023

In the days and months following October the Bolsheviks abandoned many of the aims which had been professed by generations of Russian revolutionaries, including themselves, and they reintroduced, often in a more repressive form, long-reviled tsarist practices which had been abolished after the February Revolution. The period following October 1917 was a period when the Bolsheviks were driven to pile contradictions on top of paradoxes, and all too often temporary expedients became basic and seemingly eternal principles.
The Khrushchev Revival
Authors: Westwood J N
Published: November 2023

Rumours that Beria had arranged Stalin’s death seem highly improbable, even though he had the means and may have feared he was next on Stalin’s shopping list. That both Khrushchev and Stalin’s daughter later wrote that Beria drove off from the death scene with a wicked smile on his lips raises the question ‘He would, wouldn’t he?’ as well as ‘They would, wouldn’t they?’ Stalin certainly did not get prompt attention after suffering a stroke at his country dacha after a late night spent bingeing with his colleagues. When first seen lying on the floor, he was assumed to be in a state of hangover.
Ever-Present Memories?
Authors: House Jim , Macmaster Neil
Published: November 2023

This final chapter examines how and why the politics of memory regarding 17 October occupied a central place in media and political debate in France between 1997 and 2001, and assesses the impact of such debates on the memorial dynamics within the Algerian migrant communities in particular. It also reflects upon the relevance of the 17 October events to a deeper understanding of colonial and post-colonial power relations.
Calvet’s Web
Authors: Brockliss L V B
Published: November 2023

Calvet’s Web is a study of the correspondence network of an Avignon physician in the period 1750–1810. Esprit Calvet was an antiquarian, natural historian, and bibliophile, and was at the centre of a circle of like-minded intellectuals from various backgrounds, chiefly based in the Rhone valley. Laurence Brockliss explores for the first time in detail the intellectual interests and relationships of a representative sample of the French Republic of Letters. He traces the destruction of the Republic during the Revolution, and its reconstruction, in different guise, under Napoleon. Calvet’s Web is an important contribution to our understanding of the social construction of knowledge, the history of collecting, and the history of the book. In addition, by examining the circle’s attitude to the philosophes and their programme of material and moral progress, it offers a new picture of the relationship between the Republic of Letters and the Enlightenment.