bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Do Proper Accommodation Assignments Make a Difference? Examining the Impact of Improved Decision Making on Scores for English Language Learners
Authors: Kopriva Rebecca J. , Emick Jessica E. , Hipolito‐Delgado Carlos Porfirio , Cameron Catherine A.
Published: September 2007

Does it matter if students are appropriately assigned to test accommodations? Using a randomized method, this study found that individual students assigned accommodations keyed to their particular needs were significantly more efficacious for English language learners (ELLs) and that little difference was reported between students receiving incomplete or not recommended accommodations and no accommodations whatsoever. A sample of third and fourth grade ELLs in South Carolina (N = 272) were randomly assigned to various types of test accommodations on a mathematics assessment. Results indicated that those students who received the appropriate test accommodations, as recommended by a version of a computerized accommodation taxonomy for ELLs (the selection taxonomy for English language learners accommodations; STELLA), had significantly higher test scores than ELLs who received no accommodations or those who received incomplete or not recommended accommodation packages. Additionally, students who were given no test accommodations scored no differently than those students that received accommodation packages that were incomplete or not recommended, given the students' particular needs and challenges. These findings are important in light of research and anecdotal reports that suggest a general lack of systematicity in the current system of assigning accommodations and a tendency to give all available accommodations regardless of individual child characteristics. The results also have important implications for how future accommodation research should be structured to determine the benefits of particular accommodations and accommodation packages. This study would suggest that control and treatment groups should be assembled based on specific student needs in order for direct comparisons to be made.
Children Left Behind in AYP and Non‐AYP Schools: Using Student Progress and the Distribution of Student Gains to Validate AYP
Authors: Choi Kilchan , Seltzer Michael , Herman Joan , Yamashiro Kyo
Published: September 2007

The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2002) establishes ambitious goals for increasing student learning and attaining equity in the distribution of student performance. Schools must assure that all students, including all significant subgroups, show adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward the goal of 100% proficiency by the year 2014. In this paper, we illustrate an alternative way of evaluating AYP that both emphasizes individual student growth over time and focuses on the distribution of student growth between performance subgroups. We do so through analyses of a longitudinal data set from an urban school district in the state of Washington. We also examine what these patterns tell us about schools that have been designated as meeting their AYP targets and those that have not. This alternative way of measuring AYP helps bring to light potentially important aspects of school performance that might be masked if we limit our focus to classifying schools based only on current AYP criteria. In particular, we are able to identify some schools meeting Washington state's AYP criteria in which above‐average students are making substantial progress but below‐average students making little to no progress. In contrast, other schools making AYP have below‐average students making adequate progress but above‐average students showing little gains. These contrasts raise questions about the meaning of “adequate” progress and to whom the notion of progress refers. We believe that closely examining the distribution of student progress may provide an important supplementary or alternative measure of AYP.
Important Changes in Biochemical Properties and Function of Mutated LLP12 Domain of HIV‐1 gp41
Authors: Zhu Yun , Lu Lu , Chao Lijun , Chen Ying‐Hua
Published: September 2007

The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp41 possesses an unusually long and conserved cytoplasmic region. Mutations in the LLP12 domain in this region have been shown to significantly affect viral competence. It is likely that the impaired infectivity of this mutated virus involves certain biochemical aspects of the peptide LLP12. To test our assumptions, some important biochemical properties and functions of LLP12 domain were studied. The recombinant peptide LLP12 (LLP12 domain on gp41, including LLP1 and LLP2 domains) was prepared via bacterial expression system. Biochemical analysis directly demonstrated its multimeric potential and membrane‐binding ability. Several arginine residues in this domain were observed to be extremely highly conserved. Interestingly, the LLP12 mutants constructed by substitution of these arginine residues with alanine (separate mutations in LLP1 or LLP2 or both) showed apparent decreases in their multimeric potential and membrane‐binding ability. Comparing our results with independent data on human immunodeficiency virus from other researchers, it appears that both the multimeric state and the membrane affinity of the LLP12 domain of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp41 could be involved in viral competence and in the mechanism of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Env‐mediated cell fusion.
Injury and Illness Costs in the Certified Safe Farm Study
Authors: Donham Kelley J. , Rautiainen Risto H. , Lange Jeffrey L. , Schneiders Sara
Published: September 2007

ABSTRACT: 
Context:

The Certified Safe Farm (CSF) intervention program aims to reduce occupational injuries and illnesses, and promote wellness to reduce health care and related costs to farmers, insurers, and other stakeholders.

Purpose:

To evaluate the cost effectiveness of CSF.

Methods:

Farms (316) located in a 9‐county area of northwestern Iowa were recruited and randomized into intervention and control cohorts. Intervention farms received occupational health screenings, health and wellness screening, education, on‐farm safety reviews, and performance incentives. For both cohorts, quarterly calls over 3 years were used to collect self‐reported occupational injury and illness information, including costs to the farmers and their insurers.

Findings:

Annual occupational injury and illness costs per farmer paid by insurers were 45% lower in the intervention cohort ($183) than in the control cohort ($332). Although out‐of‐pocket expenses were similar for both cohorts, combined costs of insurance and out‐of‐pocket expenses were 27% lower in the intervention cohort ($374/year per farmer) compared to the control cohort ($512/year per farmer). Within the cohort of intervention farmers, annual occupational injury and illness cost savings were directly associated with on‐farm safety review scores. Reported health care costs were $237 per farmer in the safest farms (those farms scoring in the highest tertile) versus $485 per farmer in the least safe farms (lowest tertile).

Conclusions:

Results suggest that farmers receiving the intervention had lower health care costs for occupational injuries and illnesses than control farmers. These cost savings more than cover the cost of providing CSF services (about $100 per farm per year).
Urban‐Rural Flows of Physicians
Authors: Ricketts Thomas C. , Randolph Randy
Published: September 2007

ABSTRACT: Context:Physician supply is anticipated to fall short of national requirements over the next 20 years. Rural areas are likely to lose relatively more physicians. Policy makers must know how to anticipate what changes in distribution are likely to happen to better target policies.Purpose:To determine whether there was a significant flow of physicians from urban to rural areas in recent years when the overall supply of physicians has been considered in balance with needs.Methods:Individual records from merged AMA Physician Masterfiles for 1981, 1986, 1991, 1996, 2001, and 2003 were used to track movements from urban to rural and rural to urban counties. Individual physician locations were tracked over 5‐year intervals during the period 1981 to 2001, with an additional assessment for movements in 2001‐2003.Findings:Approximately 25% of physicians moved across county boundaries in any given 5‐year period but the relative distribution of urban‐rural supply remained relatively stable. One third of all physicians remained in the same urban or rural practice location for most of their professional careers. There was a small net movement of physicians from urban to rural areas from 1981 to 2003.Conclusions:The data show a net flow from urban to rural places, suggesting a geographic diffusion of physicians in response to economic forces. However, the small gain in rural areas may also be explained by programs that are intended to counter normal market pressures for urban concentrations of professionals. It is likely that in the face of an overall shortage, rural areas will lose physician supply relative to population.
The Experience of Rural Independent Pharmacies With Medicare Part D: Reports From the Field
Authors: Radford Andrea , Slifkin Rebecca , Fraser Roslyn , Mason Michelle , Mueller Keith
Published: September 2007

ABSTRACT: 
Context: The Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act of 2003 (MMA) created prescription drug coverage for Medicare beneficiaries through a new Part D program, the single largest addition to Medicare since its creation in 1965. Prior to program implementation in January 2006, concerns had been voiced as to how independent pharmacies, which represent a higher proportion of all retail pharmacies in rural areas, would fare under the new program. Purpose: This article describes first‐hand reports from rural pharmacist‐owners about their experiences with Medicare Part D plans in the first 7 months of 2006 in order to gain a more thorough understanding of the challenges faced by rural independent pharmacies as a result of program implementation. Methods: A semi‐structured interview protocol was utilized in telephone interviews with 22 pharmacist‐owners of rural independent pharmacies in 10 states. Findings: The rural independent pharmacists interviewed are experiencing major changes in payment, administrative burden, and interaction with patients as a result of the shift of patients into Medicare Part D plans. While administrative burden has greatly increased, payment and clinical interaction have decreased. Conclusion: Actions should be considered that would help rural independent pharmacists adjust to the new circumstances of having Medicare patients mirror, for administrative and payment purposes, commercially insured patients. Long‐term modification of existing policies and regulations may be necessary to assure reasonable access to pharmaceuticals for rural populations. Further study is needed to determine how best to target these modifications to essential pharmacies.
Pharmacy Access to Emergency Contraception in Rural and Frontier Communities
Authors: Bigbee Jeri L. , Abood Richard , Landau Sharon Cohen , Maderas Nicole Monastersky , Foster Diana Greene , Ravnan Susan
Published: September 2007

ABSTRACT: Context:Timely access to emergency contraception (EC) has emerged as a major public health effort in the prevention of unintended pregnancies. The recent FDA decision to allow over‐the‐counter availability of emergency contraception for adult women presents important rural health implications. American women, especially those living in rural and frontier areas, have one of the highest rates of unintended and teen pregnancy among developed countries.Purpose:This study, conducted prior to the recent FDA ruling, evaluated the participation among California pharmacies in the pharmacy access program in December 2005, specifically comparing rural/frontier and urban pharmacies.Methods: The sample consisted of 862 California pharmacies, including 50 in rural/frontier areas, which were randomly selected and surveyed by telephone.Findings:The results indicated that similar proportions of rural/frontier pharmacies and urban pharmacies provided direct pharmacy access services (28% vs 22%, P = 0.32). However, of the 13 rural/frontier counties included in the survey, eight (62%) had no emergency contraception pharmacies. The rural/frontier pharmacies that provided emergency contraception services tended to be small, independent pharmacies in the most remote areas of the state. Among rural/frontier pharmacies that did not participate in the program, the primary reasons included lack of training or demand for emergency contraception. Only one rural/frontier pharmacist cited moral or religious opposition to providing emergency contraception.Conclusions:In light of the current limited over‐the‐counter status of emergency contraception, the role of rural and frontier pharmacies in ensuring access to emergency contraception will increase in the future.
Variations in Financial Performance Among Peer Groups of Critical Access Hospitals
Authors: Pink George H. , Holmes George M. , Thompson Roger E. , Slifkin Rebecca T.
Published: September 2007

ABSTRACT: 
Context:

Among the large number of hospitals with critical access hospital (CAH) designation, there is substantial variation in facility revenue as well as the number and types of services provided. If these variations have material effects on financial indicators, then performance comparisons among all CAHs are problematic.

Purpose:

To investigate whether indicators of financial performance and condition systematically vary among peer groups of CAHs.

Methods:

Suggestions from CAH administrators, a literature review, expert panel advice, and statistical analysis were used to create peer groups based on whether a CAH: (1) had less than $5 million, $5‐10 million, or over $10 million in net patient revenue; (2) was owned by a government entity; (3) provided long‐term care; and (4) operated a provider‐based Rural Health Clinic.

Findings:

Significant differences in financial performance and condition exist among CAH peer groups.

Conclusions:

CAHs should ensure that they use appropriate peer comparators when assessing their financial performance and condition. If quality, outcome, safety and access are affected by financial performance and condition, it may also be important for research in these areas to control for peer group differences among CAHs.
Starting a General Surgery Program at a Small Rural Critical Access Hospital: A Case Study From Southeastern Oregon
Authors: Doty Brit Cruse , Heneghan Steven , Zuckerman Randall
Published: September 2007

ABSTRACT: 
Context:

Surgical services are frequently unavailable in rural American communities. Therefore, rural residents often must travel long distances to receive surgical care. Rural hospitals commonly have difficulty providing surgical services despite potential economic benefits.

Purpose:

The purpose of this project was to identify the key challenges and describe the initial outcomes experienced by Harney District Hospital (HDH), a rural critical access facility in Oregon, as it develops a surgical program. Since few models exist, this information will be valuable for those considering offering surgical services in a rural setting.

Methods:

This project employed a single case study design. Qualitative information was gathered from semi‐structured interviews, a focus group, reviews of historical documents, and informal observations. Quantitative data sources included HDH financial and utilization records, US Census records, and economic and demographic statistics from the state of Oregon, Harney County, and the city of Burns.

Findings:

HDH is learning that initiating a change such as expanding surgical services within an organization is a challenging process requiring collaboration among the administration, staff, and community. Preliminary findings indicate that the new surgical program has resulted in significant financial gains for the hospital.

Conclusions:

While starting a rural surgery program is a complex undertaking, there are benefits for the hospital. If a rural hospital is to be successful in this mission, collaboration and adaptability must be key components of the process.
Rural, Suburban, and Urban Variations in Alcohol Consumption in the United States: Findings From the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions
Authors: Borders Tyrone F. , Booth Brenda M.
Published: September 2007

ABSTRACT: Context:Alcohol consumption is a major public health problem nationally, but little research has investigated drinking patterns by rurality of residence.Purpose:To describe the prevalence of abstinence, alcohol use disorders, and risky drinking in rural, suburban, and urban areas of the United States.Methods:Analyses of the 2001‐2002 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC) were conducted to estimate prevalence rates for abstinence, a current alcohol use disorder, and exceeding recommended daily and weekly drinking limits. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to test for rural and urban versus suburban differences after adjusting for potential confounders. Additional analyses were stratified by Census Region.Findings:Nationally, the odds of abstinence and, among drinkers, the odds of a current alcohol disorder and exceeding daily limits were higher in rural than suburban areas. Stratified analyses revealed differences in the associations between rurality of residence and drinking across Census Regions. Rural residents of the Northeast, Midwest, and South and urban residents of the Northeast had higher odds of abstinence than their suburban peers. Among drinkers, rural and urban residents of the Midwest had higher odds of a current alcohol disorder and exceeding daily limits; urban residents of the Midwest had higher odds of exceeding weekly limits.Conclusions:Abstinence is particularly common in the rural South, whereas alcohol disorders and excessive drinking are more problematic in the urban and rural Midwest. Health policies and interventions should be further targeted toward those places with higher risks of problem drinking.
Impact of a Health Promotion Nurse Intervention on Disability and Health Care Costs Among Elderly Adults With Heart Conditions
Authors: Meng Hongdao , Wamsley Brenda R. , Eggert Gerald M. , Van Nostrand Joan F.
Published: September 2007

ABSTRACT: 
Context:

Patients with heart conditions in rural areas may have different responses to health promotion‐disease Self‐management interventions compared to their urban counterparts.

Purpose:

To estimate the impact of a multi‐component health promotion nurse intervention on physical function and total health care expenditures among elderly adults with heart conditions and to examine the impact of rural residence on the intervention effect.

Methods:

We analyzed data on 281 community‐living Medicare beneficiaries with heart conditions from the Medicare Primary and Consumer‐Directed Care Demonstration (a randomized controlled trial). We estimated ordinary least squares (OLS) models to determine the effect of the intervention on the change in functional status and log‐linear models to determine the impact of the intervention on total health care expenditures over a 2‐year period.

Results:

The OLS models showed that the nurse intervention resulted in fewer impairments in Activities of Daily Living (ADL) (–0.307 on 0‐6 scale, P = .055) at the end of 2 years. The effect of the intervention on ADL appeared to be stronger for rural than for urban participants (–0.490 vs –0.162, respectively). However, the difference was not statistically significant (P = .150). The effect of the intervention on Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL) was not significant (P = .321). Average total health care expenditures were 6.5% ($1,981, 95% CI: –$8,048, $4,087) lower in the nurse group.

Conclusions:

The nurse intervention led to better physical functioning and has potential to reduce total health care expenditures among high‐risk Medicare beneficiaries with heart conditions.
Ethnic and Sex Differences in Ownership of Preventive Health Equipment Among Rural Older Adults With Diabetes
Authors: Bell Ronny A. , Arcury Thomas A. , Stafford Jeanette M. , Golden Shannon L. , Snively Beverly M. , Quandt Sara A.
Published: September 2007

ABSTRACT: 
Context:

Diabetes self‐management is important for achieving successful health outcomes. Different levels of self‐management have been reported among various populations, though little is known about ownership of equipment that can enhance accomplishment of these tasks.

Purpose:

This study examined diabetes self‐management equipment ownership among rural older adults.

Methods:

Participants included African American, American Indian, and white men and women 65 years of age and older. Data included equipment ownership overall and by ethnicity and sex across diabetes self‐management domains (glucose monitoring, foot care, medication adherence, exercise, and diet). Associations between equipment ownership and demographic and health characteristics were assessed using logistic regression.

Findings:

Equipment ownership ranged from 85.0% for blood glucose meters to less than 11% for special socks, modified dishes, and various forms of home exercise equipment. Equipment ownership was associated with ethnicity, living arrangements, mobility, poverty status, and formal education.

Conclusions:

Rural older adults with diabetes are at risk because they lack equipment to perform some self‐management tasks. Providers should be sensitive to and assist patients in overcoming this barrier.
Characteristics of Crashes With Farm Equipment That Increase Potential for Injury
Authors: Peek‐Asa Corinne , Sprince Nancy L. , Whitten Paul S. , Falb Scott R. , Madsen Murray D. , Zwerling Craig
Published: September 2007

ABSTRACT: 
Context:

Crash fatality and injury rates are higher on rural roadways than other roadway types. Although slow‐moving farm vehicles and equipment are risk factors on rural roads, little is known about the characteristics of crashes with farm vehicles/equipment.

Purpose:

To describe crashes and injuries for the drivers of farm vehicles/equipment and non‐farm vehicles involved in an injury crash. Passengers are not included in this analysis.

Methods:

Injury crashes were included that involved a farm vehicle/equipment and at least one non‐farm vehicle reported in Iowa Department of Transportation crash data from 1995 to 2004. Odds ratios were calculated through logistic regression to identify increased odds for injury among drivers of non‐farm vehicles and farm vehicles/equipment. We examined frequently occurring crash characteristics to identify crash scenarios leading to the highest odds for injury.

Findings:

Non‐farm vehicle drivers were 5.23 times more likely to be injured than farm vehicle/equipment drivers (95% CI = 4.12–6.46). The absence of restraint use was a significant predictor of injury for both farm vehicle/equipment drivers (OR = 2.85; 95% CI = 1.14–7.13) and non‐farm vehicle drivers (OR = 2.53; 95% CI = 1.54–4.15). Crash characteristics increasing the odds of injury for non‐farm vehicle drivers included speeding, passing the farm vehicle/equipment, driving on a county road, having a frontal impact collision, and crashing in darkness. Ejection was the strongest predictor of injury for the farm vehicle/equipment driver.

Conclusion:

Non‐farm vehicle drivers were much more likely to be injured than farm vehicle/equipment drivers, suggesting that farm vehicle/equipment crash prevention should be a priority for all rural road users. Prevention strategies that reduce motor vehicle speed, assist in safe passing, increase seat belt use, and increase conspicuousness of the farm vehicle/equipment are suggested.
The Impact of Drought on the Emotional Well‐Being of Children and Adolescents in Rural and Remote New South Wales
Authors: Dean John , Stain Helen J.
Published: September 2007

ABSTRACT: 
Context and Purpose:

Between 2002 and 2006 New South Wales was in the grip of the worst drought for more than 100 years. Financial hardships have led governments to declare “Exceptional Circumstances.” Little social research has investigated the impact of drought on children. For this study, children from rural and remote regions of New South Wales were asked for their interpretations of the impacts of drought on their lives.

Methods:

A multi‐strategy approach combining qualitative and quantitative approaches was used to reveal deeper understanding of the impacts of drought. Students in Years 5 through 12 from six Central Schools in the rural southwest of New South Wales participated in focus groups and completed self‐report questionnaires.

Results:

Quantitative self‐reports indicated these students were not significantly more distressed than Australian norms. However, the themes that emerged from the students' statements indicated that the drought had been a very significant event for them. This qualitative information also indicated connections for these students to their families, schools, and communities.

Conclusions:

The emotional impacts of changes to family and community life appear to have been moderated by these students' positive attitudes toward their country lifestyle. These students have discussed the impact of drought on their environment, their livestock, financial resources, and their families. In the face of declining rural community networks, children should be supported through programs that maintain resilience in the face of recurring environmental stressors.
REPETITIVE SHALLOW DIVES POSE DECOMPRESSION RISK IN DEEP‐DIVING BEAKED WHALES
Authors: Zimmer Walter M. X. , Tyack Peter L.
Published: September 2007

Abstract

The impact of naval sonar on beaked whales is of increasing concern. In recent years the presence of gas and fat embolism consistent with decompression sickness (DCS) has been reported through postmortem analyses on beaked whales that stranded in connection with naval sonar exercises. In the present study, we use basic principles of diving physiology to model nitrogen tension and bubble growth in several tissue compartments during normal diving behavior and for several hypothetical dive profiles to assess the risk of DCS. Assuming that normal diving does not cause nitrogen tensions in excess of those shown to be safe for odontocetes, the modeling indicates that repetitive shallow dives, perhaps as a consequence of an extended avoidance reaction to sonar sound, can indeed pose a risk for DCS and that this risk should increase with the duration of the response. If the model is correct, then limiting the duration of sonar exposure to minimize the duration of any avoidance reaction therefore has the potential to reduce the risk of DCS.
Skanda in Epic and Puranic Literature: An Examination of the Origins and Development of a Hindu Deity in North India
Authors: Mann Richard
Published: September 2007

This article explores the origins and development of the Hindu deity Skanda in North India from approximately the fourth centurybceto the seventh centuryce. The author suggests that previous scholarship on this deity has located his origins in two sources: the Indus Valley and in an amalgamation of related deities. The article questions the Indus Valley hypothesis and develops the amalgamation hypothesis by examining a variety of textual and non‐textual sources. The author also argues that a shift occurs in the representation of Skanda and in his cult base over time. The article suggests that his cult begins in propitiation cults for Grahas and warrior deities in the north of India and shifts to one based in royal propaganda and military emblems. The cult of Skanda is also absorbed into the broader Śaivite cult during this time. These shifts, the author argues, result in the diminished popularity of Skanda in North India by the seventh centuryce.
Religion, Identity and the Origins of Ancient Israel
Authors: Sparks K. L.
Published: September 2007

According to the Bible, early Israel originated as a group migrant slaves who escaped from Egypt, spent an extended time in the wilderness as pastoral nomads, and then fought their way into the highlands of Palestine. Because these events are not wholly confirmed by the archaeological and historical evidence, modern scholars are attempting to reconstruct Israel's early history on the basis of the archaeological evidence, ancient textual evidence, and a critical reading of the Bible. Scholars agree that the Israelites, or their ancestors, first appeared in the highlands of Palestine around 1200bce. The key question is where these early highland settlers came from. At present, the most popular theory among scholars is that the settlers migrated into the highlands from the Canaanite lowlands, so that the earliest Israelites were essentially Canaanites. But that theory is now being questioned vigorously by scholars who accentuate the role of nomadic pastoralists in the highland settlements. In important ways, our understanding of Israelite religion and identity hinges on these important debates.
Diblock Copolymer Micelles Deliver Hydrophobic Protoporphyrin IX for Photodynamic Therapy
Authors: Li Buhong , Moriyama Eduardo H. , Li Fugang , Jarvi Mark T. , Allen Christine , Wilson Brian C.
Published: September 2007

Polymeric micelles are emerging as an effective drug delivery system for hydrophobic photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy (PDT). The objective of this study was to investigate the formulation of hydrophobic protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) with MePEG5000‐b‐PCL4100 [methoxy poly (ethylene glycol)‐b‐poly (caprolactone)] diblock copolymers and to compare their PDT response to that of free PpIX. The photophysical and photochemical properties of the polymeric PpIX micelles were studied by measuring absorbance and fluorescence spectra, PpIX‐loading efficiency and stability, the micelle particle size and morphology, as well as singlet oxygen luminescence and lifetime. The spherical micelles have a high PpIX‐loading efficiency of 82.4% and a narrow size distribution with a mean diameter of 52.2 ± 6.4 nm. The cellular uptake of PpIX in RIF‐1 cells using PpIX micelles was approximately two‐fold higher than that for free PpIX. Free PpIX and PpIX formulated in micelles exhibited similar subcellular localization in or around the cellular plasma membrane, as demonstrated using fluorescence microscopy. In vitro PDT results showed that the PpIX micelles have markedly increased photocytotoxicity over that with free PpIX, by nearly an order of magnitude at the highest light dose used. The micelles alone had no evident phototoxicity or dark toxicity. These findings suggest that MePEG5000‐b‐PCL4100 diblock copolymer micelles have great potential as a drug delivery system for hydrophobic photodynamic sensitizers.
Synthesis and Photophysical Characterization of Porphyrin, Chlorin and Bacteriochlorin Molecules Bearing Tethers for Surface Attachment
Authors: Muthiah Chinnasamy , Taniguchi Masahiko , Kim Han‐Je , Schmidt Izabela , Kee Hooi Ling , Holten Dewey , Bocian David F. , Lindsey Jonathan S.
Published: September 2007

The ability to tailor synthetic porphyrin, chlorin and bacteriochlorin molecules holds promise for diverse studies in artificial photosynthesis. Toward this goal, the synthesis and photophysical characterization of five tetrapyrrole compounds is described. Each compound bears a surface attachment group. One set contains three meso‐substituted porphyrins that differ only in the nature of a surface‐binding tether—isophthalic acid, ethynylisophthalic acid or cyanoacrylic acid. The other set includes a porphyrin, chlorin and bacteriochlorin each of which bears an ethynylisophthalic acid tether. The ester derivative of each compound was prepared for solution photophysical characterization studies. The photophysical studies include determination (in toluene or acetonitrile) of the electronic absorption and fluorescence spectra, fluorescence yield and lifetime of the lowest excited singlet state. The excited‐state lifetimes range from 1 to 5.6 ns for the five compounds. The radiative rate constant for the excited‐state decay was estimated from the photophysical data (fluorescence yield and excited‐state lifetime) and from Strickler–Berg analysis of the absorption and fluorescence spectra. The synthesis and characterization of the tetrapyrrole compounds underpin their use as sensitizers in molecular‐based solar cells.
Flavin‐based Blue‐light Photosensors: A Photobiophysics Update
Authors: Losi Aba
Published: September 2007

This review deals with the biophysical aspects of flavin‐based photosensors, comprising cryptochromes, LOV (Light, Oxygen and Voltage) and BLUF (Blue Light sensing Using FAD) proteins. Special emphasis is given to structural issues, photocycle quantum yields and energetics, mechanism of the light‐triggered reactions, early stages in signal transduction and oligomeric states of the light sensing protein modules. For BLUF and LOV domains important parallels are emerging, despite their different α/β fold arrangement, whereas there is increasing evidence for a mechanicistic and functional splitting of the cryptochrome family.
La sécurité sociale dans un monde en voie de mondialisation
Authors: Kannan K. P.
Published: September 2007

Le but principal de cet article est de plaider pour l'élargissement à la fois du concept et de la couverture de la sécurité sociale, notamment dans les pays en développement, afin d'aborder le double problème des «carences» et de l'«adversité». Les deux composantes de ce concept élargi de la sécurité sociale sont la sécurité sociale élémentaire (SSE) et la sécurité sociale parade (SSP). Pour renforcer cette thèse, des enseignements ont été tirés de l'expérience historique des pays occidentaux, où l'Etat a joué un rôle de premier plan. Après avoir plaidé en faveur de l'extension de la SSE, l'article traite également de l'extension de la SSP. C'est dans le cadre de l'économie informelle, qui emploie une grande majorité des travailleurs des pays en développement, que celle‐ci connaît son plus grand essor. Tout en ayant mis en lumière la primauté de l'Etat, l'article élabore une typologie des différents modèles de sécurité sociale qui pourraient être utilisés pour étudier et comprendre les dispositifs existants ainsi que les possibilités d'extension.
L'extension de la sécurité sociale: concepts, grandes tendances et problèmes de politique générale
Authors: Van Ginneken Wouter
Published: September 2007

Cet article montre comment un certain nombre de pays, à bas revenu, à revenu intermédiaire ou à haut revenu, sont parvenus àélargir le champ de la sécurité sociale ou ont entrepris de le faire, ce qui ne se révèle possible que sous l'égide d'un Etat fort et compétent. L'article décrit les indicateurs susceptibles d'être utilisés pour mesurer l'étendue de la protection sociale et orienter l'action nationale ou internationale dans ce domaine. Il met en évidence l'importance croissante des régimes de retraite sociaux financés par l'impôt et évoque diverses questions de politique générale concernant la place et le rôle respectifs des régimes contributifs et des régimes financés par l'impôt.
Les conséquences de l'Etat providence pour l'économie
Authors: Mares Isabela
Published: September 2007

Quelles sont les conséquences pour l'économie et l'emploi de programmes d'assurance sociale plus vastes? Les Etats providence plus importants détournent‐ils des ressources de l'activitééconomique et faussent‐ils les décisions des entreprises en matière d'investissements? J'étudie ici les travaux de recherche théorique et expérimentale sur le sujet. Cette étude montre que les prédictions de rapport négatif entre un niveau supérieur de protection sociale et la croissance n'ont pas été confirmées par les données. Les programmes d'assurance et les autres politiques qui augmentent les investissements dans le capital humain ou la productivité globale des travailleurs donnent lieu à d'importantes externalités économiques qui l'emportent sur les distorsions éventuelles qui peuvent résulter d'une fiscalité plus lourde. Les études empiriques ne parviennent pas non plus à mettre au jour une relation négative systématique entre des Etats providence plus importants et le niveau de l'emploi. Les conséquences de l'Etat providence pour l'emploi passent par les institutions et les politiques existantes, comme le niveau de centralisation du système de négociation salariale, qui influent sur la redistribution du coût d'un relèvement des impôts entre les salariés et les entreprises. Les conséquences pour l'emploi d'Etats providence plus importants ne sont donc pas linéaires.
Etendre la mutualisation des risques en matière de santé dans les pays en développement: les défis d'une évolution vers un financement par le budget de l'Etat
Authors: Baeza Christian C. , Packard Truman G.
Published: September 2007

Accroître la participation dans les dispositifs effectifs de mutualisation des risques de santé dans les pays en développement est un élément essentiel des ensembles de mesures visant à protéger les ménages vulnérables des conséquences de l'appauvrissement dû aux aléas en matière de santé. Les personnes pauvres, celles présentant des risques élevés et les travailleurs indépendants et les employés à titre informel constituent trois catégories qui soulèvent des questions particulières dans la formulation d'une politique de mutualisation des risques de santé. Cet article examine les grandes options pour l'extension de la mutualisation des risques dans les pays en développement. Il met particulièrement l'accent sur les avantages et les inconvénients à remédier aux insuffisances d'une assurance financée par l'impôt sur la masse salariale à travers un rôle accru du financement du secteur de la santé par le budget de l'Etat.
Le rôle de la sécurité sociale financée par l'impôt
Authors: Barrientos Armando
Published: September 2007

Cet article procède à une réévaluation du rôle de la sécurité sociale financée par l'impôt. Il expose les tendances pertinentes dans les pays développés et en développement et analyse les changements qualitatifs dans le rôle et l'approche de la sécurité sociale financée par l'impôt. Il évalue ensuite les formes émergentes de sécurité sociale financée par l'impôt dans les pays en développement. Il étudie en particulier leur orientation, leur étendue, leur conception et leur dynamique. Il estime en conclusion que les formes émergentes de sécurité sociale financée par l'impôt dans les pays en développement sont de nature à avoir un impact sur la pauvreté et la vulnérabilité mondiales, et le principal défi est de faire en sorte que cela contribue à la mise en place de systèmes généraux de sécurité sociale.
Le rôle actuel et future des normes de l'OIT dans la mise en œuvre du droit à la sécurité sociale
Authors: Kulke Ursula
Published: September 2007

Le droit à la sécurité sociale est reconnu dans la Déclaration universelle des droits de l'homme et dans le Pacte international relatif aux droits économiques, sociaux et culturels. Néanmoins, les instruments et les mécanismes de contrôle relatifs aux droits humains internationaux sont restés muets pour la plupart sur sa définition. A l'intérieur de la famille des Nations Unies, c'est à l'OIT qu'a été laissé le soin de concrétiser ce droit dans le cadre de la convention internationale du travail no 102. La communauté internationale a reconnu l'influence positive de la convention en tant que mécanisme contribuant à orienter le développement progressif de la sécurité sociale. Toutefois, la convention n'a pas réussi à imposer des obligations minimales en vue de l'établissement d'un socle social de base. L'article examine d'une part si les normes de l'OIT en vigueur peuvent aider les Etats à mettre en œuvre le droit universel à, au moins, un ensemble de prestations de base de sécurité sociale. D'autre part, il suggère la nécessité pour l'OIT d'élaborer de nouveaux mécanismes complémentaires. Ces derniers pourraient également contribuer à la réalisation des Objectifs du Millénaire pour le développement et à la réduction de la pauvreté mondiale.
Une sécurité sociale dynamique: orienter le changement et élargir la protection
Authors: McKinnon Roddy
Published: September 2007

L'histoire des institutions de sécurité sociale les montre comme des organisations qui se sont généralement adaptées, de façon graduelle mais régulière, pour améliorer leur fonctionnement et promouvoir les objectifs de la sécurité sociale. Avec le vieillissement des sociétés et la mondialisation, l'évolution actuelle les oblige à s'adapter encore, toujours plus rapidement. Cet article propose dans cette optique un modèle unificateur qui devrait les aider à progresser davantage dans les deux voies indiquées. Ce modèle de «sécurité sociale dynamique» vise à coordonner plus étroitement les objectifs et l'action des institutions de sécurité sociale avec ceux de la société et de l'économie. Le but est de garantir un meilleur résultat et au minimum une protection de base à tous.
Modifier le modèle de politique de développement: investir dans un socle de sécurité sociale pour tous
Authors: Cichon Michael , Hagemejer Krzysztof
Published: September 2007

Le présent article examine brièvement le degré de protection sociale atteint dans le monde et résume les avantages économiques et sociaux d'un système de sécurité sociale. Il soutient ensuite que les systèmes de sécurité sociale sont un élément nécessaire du cadre institutionnel de toute économie de marché efficace et qu'ils créent — entre autres choses — la cohésion sociétale qui est nécessaire au développement économique durable. Il soutient que l'instauration d'une protection sociale de base dans les pays en développement constitue un investissement dans leur développement social et économique qui est à la fois souhaitable et économiquement accessible. Il fournit une estimation du coût d'investissement minimum nécessaire pour assurer une sécurité sociale de base au plan mondial et suggère enfin un certain nombre d'instruments internationaux pour instaurer un socle de sécurité sociale à l'échelle mondiale.
Soziale Sicherheit in einer Welt mit fortschreitender Globalisierung
Authors: Kannan K. P.
Published: September 2007

Um vor allem in Entwicklungsländern den beiden Problemen des “Mangels” und der “Widrigkeiten” entgegenzuwirken, plädiert der Verfasser für die Erweiterung des Konzepts der sozialen Sicherheit und die Ausweitung ihres Erfassungsbereichs. Die beiden Komponenten dieses erweiterten Konzepts sind eine soziale Grundsicherung (Basic Social Security — BSS) und soziale Sicherheit als Schutz vor sozialen Risiken (Contingent Social Security — CSS). Um die Argumentation zu untermauern, werden Erfahrungen aus der geschichtlichen Entwicklung westlicher Länder angeführt, in denen der Staat eine führende Rolle spielte. Abgesehen von der Ausweitung der sozialen Grundsicherung wird auch für die Ausweitung der sozialen Sicherheit als Schutz vor sozialen Risiken geworben. Diese erfolgt am besten durch die informelle Wirtschaft, in der in den Entwicklungsländern die überwiegende Mehrheit der Erwerbstätigen arbeitet. Nachdem die Vorrangstellung des Staates hervorgehoben wurde, wird eine Typologie verschiedener Modelle der sozialen Sicherheit entwickelt, die verwendet werden könnte, um die bestehenden Organisationsformen und die Ausweitungsmöglichkeiten zu untersuchen und zu verstehen.
Ausweitung der Abdeckung in der sozialen Sicherheit: Konzepte, globale Trends und grundsatzpolitische Fragen
Authors: Van Ginneken Wouter
Published: September 2007

Dieser Artikel gibt einen Überblick über die Erfahrungen einiger wichtiger Länder mit niedrigem, mittlerem und hohem Einkommen, die erfolgreich die Abdeckung in der sozialen Sicherheit ausgeweitet haben oder Anstrengungen unternehmen, dies zu tun. Er zeigt, dass ein starker und kompetenter Staat die erste Voraussetzung für die Ausweitung der sozialen Sicherheit ist. Untersucht wird ferner eine Reihe von Indikatoren für die Abdeckung, die Entscheidungsträgern auf der nationalen und internationalen Ebene helfen können, ihre Anstrengungen auf die Ausweitung der sozialen Sicherheit zu konzentrieren. Zum Abschluss wird dokumentiert, dass Länder zunehmend auf steuerfinanzierte Sozialrenten setzen, und es wird auf einige grundsatzpolitische Fragen in Bezug auf die Verknüpfung zwischen steuerfinanzierten und beitragspflichtigen Systemen der sozialen Sicherheit eingegangen.
Die wirtschaftlichen Folgen des Wohlfahrtsstaats
Authors: Mares Isabela
Published: September 2007

Was sind die wirtschaftlichen und Beschäftigungsfolgen größerer Sozialversicherungsprogramme? Stimmt es, dass ein größerer Wohlfahrtsstaat Ressourcen von wirtschaftlichen Aktivitäten abzieht und die Investitionsentscheidungen von Unternehmen verzerrt? Ich untersuche theoretische und empirische Forschungsarbeiten zu den wirtschaftlichen Folgen des Wohlfahrtsstaats. Diese Sichtung zeigt, dass die Daten die Vorhersagen einer negativen Beziehung zwischen einem höheren Niveau des Sozialschutzes und dem Wachstum nicht bestätigen. Sowohl Versicherungs‐programme als auch andere Maßnahmen, die die Investitionen in Humankapital oder die Gesamtproduktivität der Arbeitnehmer steigern, erzeugen wichtige externe wirtschaftliche Effekte, die die potenziell verzerrenden Effekte höherer Steuern ausgleichen. Empirische Untersuchungen können auch keine durchgängig negative Beziehung zwischen einem größeren Wohlfahrtsstaat und dem Beschäftigungs‐niveau aufdecken. Die Folgen des Wohlfahrtsstaats auf die Beschäftigung werden von bestehenden Institutionen und Maßnahmen — wie dem Grad der Zentralisierung des Systems für Tarifverhandlungen — bestimmt, die einen Einfluss auf die Verteilung der Kosten höherer Steuern zwischen Arbeitnehmern und Unternehmen haben. Infolgedessen sind die Beschäftigungsfolgen eines größeren Wohlfahrtsstaats nicht linear.
Erweiterung des Risikopools in der Gesundheitsversorgung von Entwicklungsländern: Probleme beim Übergang zur Steuerfinanzierung
Authors: Baeza Cristian C. , Packard Truman G.
Published: September 2007

“Mit dem Begriff ‘Versicherung’ bezeichnen unterschiedliche Menschen unterschiedliche Dinge: ein Instrument, das Individuen Schutz vor Risiken bietet, oder einen versicherungsmathematischen Mechanismus. Im ersten Fall wird Versicherung in Bezug auf ihre Ziele de finiert, im zweiten mit Blick auf einen Mechanismus, mit d em dieses Ziel erreicht werden könnte. Selbst dort, wo Institutionen keine Versicherung im zweiten Sinne sind, können sie insofern immer noch als Versicherung betrachtet werden, als sie Schutz vor Risiken bieten.”
Die Rolle einer steuerfinanzierten sozialen Sicherheit
Authors: Barrientos Armando
Published: September 2007

Dieser Beitrag beurteilt die Rolle der steuerfinanzierten sozialen Sicherheit neu. Er verfolgt die wichtigsten Entwicklungen in den Industrie‐ und Entwicklungsländern und erörtert qualitative Veränderungen in Funktion und Konzept einer aus Steuermitteln finanzierten sozialen Sicherheit. In der Folge werden ihre neu entstandenen Formen in Entwicklungsländern untersucht, wobei insbesondere Zielgruppen, Gestaltung und Entwicklungstendenzen betrachtet werden. Er kommt zu dem Schluss, dass diese neuen Formen einer steuerfinanzierten sozialen Sicherheit in Entwicklungsländern ihr Versprechen halten, die weltweite Armut und Schutzlosigkeit zu bekämpfen, und dass das Hauptproblem darin besteht, den Beitrag dieser neuen Formen zur Entwicklung umfassender Systeme der sozialen Sicherheit zu garantieren.