bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Population structure and dynamics of sympatric Apodemus species (Rodentia: Muridae)
Authors: Montgomery W. I.
Published: August 2009

This paper describes the population biology of sympatric populations of Apodemus sylvaticus and A. flavicollis in western England. Annual changes in population siie closely resembled those seen in allopatric populations such that simultaneous peaks in number occurred only in autumn and early winter. Numbers of A. sylvaticus were low and stable in early summer increasing rapidly in late summer and autumn and remaining high throughout winter before a sharp decline in spring. Numbers of A. flavicollis increased after the start of reproduction and continued to rise throughout summer and autumn. The period of major decline of this species was during early winter. Densities of A. sylvaticus and A. flavicollis were comparable with those cited in allopatric studies. Spring populations of both species consisted of cohorts first appearing in the late summer and autumn of the previous year. Few individuals present in spring survived the summer. Reproduction of A. flavicollis commenced four to six weeks before that of A. sylvaticus. Seasonal variation in mean weight of adult males and females also indicates that those changes, due to the acquisition of secondary sex characteristics and reproductive maturity, occur earlier in A. flavicollis than in A. sylvaticus. Data presented contain no evidence of interspecific competition and it is concluded that interspecific differences, chiefly asynchrony in reproduction and annual population cycles, contribute to their stable coexistence.
Spatial organization in sympatric populations of Apodemus sylvaticus and A. flavicollis (Rodentia: Muridae)
Authors: Montgomery W. I.
Published: August 2009

The spatial organization and relationships of Apodemus sylvaticus and A. flavicollis in mixed deciduous woodland were examined using live‐trapping techniques. Each population was aggregated and contagion was greatest during early summer. Aggregation in A sylvaticus varied inversely with density so that at high densities this species was randomly dispersed. In A. flavicollis aggregation increased with increasing density. This interspecific difference may result from differing annual population cycles. Adult males, adult females and juveniles had different patterns of dispersion and association in A. sylvaticus and A. flavicollis suggesting differences in their social behaviour. Intraspecific associations, particularly among males and between males and females, made a major contribution to overall contagion in the populations. A. sylvaticus and A. flavicollis were segregated throughout the year except for late summer and they were also prevalent in different cover types. The behaviour which determined the spatial segregation of the species may be acquired since juvenile A. sylvaticus were associated more frequently with A. flavicollis and juvenile A. flavicollis were associated less frequently with A. sylvaticus than their respective adult conspecifics. Comparing sympatric with allopatric populations of A. sylvaticus, and observing inter‐specific behaviour, suggest that the spatial segregation in sympatry results from A. sylvaticus avoiding the competitively superior A. flavicollis.
The reproductive biology of Theromyzon tessulatum (Glossiphoniidae: Hirudinoidea), with comments on Theromyzon rude
Authors: Wilkialis JOZEF , Davies Ronald W.
Published: August 2009

The reproductive biology and behaviour of Theromyzon tessalatum is described from the commencement of copulation to the release of the young and the death of the parent. Copulation occurs several times over a10–20 day period with either the same or different partners. Eggs were laid6–14 days after copulation in usually four cocoons each containing approximately 100 eggs. The cocoons were brooded by the parents and the young, on development of the embryonic attachment organ and later by the posterior sucker, attached to the ventral surface of the parent's abdomen. The young detached from the parent either on contact with a suitable host for a blood meal or after approximately five months just prior to the parent's death.
Some aspects of the biology and functional morphology (including the presence of a ligamental lithodesma) of Montacutona compacta and M. olivacea (Bivalvia: Leptonacea) associated with coelenterates in Hong Kong
Authors: Morton Brian
Published: August 2009

The leptonacean genus Montacutona is represented by a number of species, mostly recorded from Japan and known only from type specimens. An Australian species, M. ceriantha, has been more adequately described but still in insufficient detail. This study reports upon the Japanese species, M. olivacea. Both M. ceriantha from Australia and M. olivacea from Hong Kong and Japan inhabit the tubes of species of the burrowing anemone Cerianthus. M. compacta inhabits the surface apertures and crevices of coral heads in Hong Kong, apparently not in association with any of the other inhabitants, but probably with the coral itself.
A serological investigation of the diet of Helobdella stagnalis (Hirudinea: Glossiphoniidae) in British lakes
Authors: Young Johnstone O.
Published: August 2009

The food of Helobdella stagnalis living in unproductive and productive British lakes has been determined using the precipitin test. Antisera were produced against each of ten potential prey groups. Correction factors were applied to basic data to compensate for differences in leech size and seasonal changes in field temperatures. In both types of lake, Oligochaeta followed by Chironomidae were most heavily utilized, whilst Trichoptera, Cladocera and Tricladida were least favoured. More Mollusca were eaten in productive than unproductive lakes, reflecting availability. In productive lakes, Asellus and Amphipoda together constituted the same proportion (about 25%) of the overall diet as Ephemeroptera and Plecoptera in unproductive lakes. Diet did not vary much during the course of a year, though diversity was lower in winter. Feeding activity varied seasonally being lowest in winter. Prey category utilization by small, medium and large leeches did not differ significantly.
Stereoscan studies of phylactolaemate bryozoan statoblasts including a key to the statoblasts of the British and European Phylactolaemata
Authors: Mundy S. P.
Published: August 2009

The stereoscan electron microscope has been used to study morphological features of the statoblasts of nine phylactolacmate species. Pores present in the walls of annulus chambers of floating statoblasts are fully described for the first time. The taxonomic significance of surface patterning is assessed, and a key to the species found in Britain and Europe is included.
Hole boring of crustacean prey by the octopus Eledone cirrhosa (Mollusca, Cephalopoda)
Authors: Boyle P. R. , Knobloch Daniela
Published: August 2009

Eledone cirrhosa has been found to make a borehole in the carapace of a high proportion of its crustacean prey. This is the first account of drilling in crustaceans by octopus. The frequency of incidence of the boring behaviour varied between prey species from 17 to 93% of those killed. The incidence of boreholes was higher in crabs killed by small octopuses. Using crabs mainly of the genera Cancer, Carcinus, Corystes and Macropipus, the distribution and orientation of the boreholes was recorded. The boreholes occurred in any part of the carapace but the great majority were found close to the mid‐line and in the posterior half. The long axis of the oval penetration was usually aligned with the anteroposterior axis of the crab. The Mediterranean species Eledone moschata was also found to bore crabs, and newly hatched juveniles of this species are capable of boring as early as their second killing of a live crab. No evidence was found that Octopus vulgaris normally bores the carapace of crabs.
The evolution of the premaxillary protrusion system in some teleostean fish groups
Authors: Gosline William A.
Published: August 2009

Changes in the acanthopteran (acanthopterygian) system of premaxillary protrusion are traced from its incipient representation in the iniomous (myctophiform) genus Aulopus to its fully evolved form in the percoids. Two complementary components of the system are differentiated. One is the protrusion of the premaxillary, brought about primarily by the anteroventral movement of a ligament attached to the rostral cartilage. The second, which distinguishes the acanthopteran system from other types of jaw protrusion, is the emplacement of a bony maxillary wedge between the skull and the protruded premaxillary.

The acanthopteran type of protrusion appears to have evolved in large‐mouthed fishes, with the lateral expansion of the gape that occurs in such forms a fundamental element of this system's mechanics. The modifications that occur in small‐mouthed fishes with little or no lateral expansion of the gape are discussed.

Premaxillary protrusion was investigated in available fish groups sometimes placed between the iniomous fishes and the percoids in classifications. Of these groups, the beloniform and cyprinodont fishes have developed protrusion systems of non‐acanthopteran types.
Development of pigment in the echiuran worm Bonellia viridis
Authors: Agius Loranne , Jaccarini V.
Published: August 2009

An account is given of the development of green pigment in the early larval stages of the echiuran worm, Bonellia viridis. The green pigment first appears in scattered epidermal cells of the gastrula, before the development of the trochal rings. It is contained in spherical vacuoles (0.5‐1.0 μm in diameter). As the gastrula develops into the trochophore there is an increase in total pigment content, as well as an increase in number of pigment cells and size of pigment vacuoles. The increase in pigment cell number in the trochophore results from the proliferation of the pigment cells of the gastrula. The pigment content increases rapidly before the trochophores hatch but shows little relative increase after hatching whilst the trochophores remain undifferentiated. We suggest that the pigment may have a protective role in the free‐living trochophore for camouflage or chemical defence. In trochophores that undergo male differentiation the pigmentation is lost. Since the males do not lead a free‐living existence but live as commensals inside the uterus of the female camouflage or chemical defence would be unnecessary. In trochophores undergoing female differentiation there is an increase in pigment content of the preoral lobe which develops into the proboscis. Following the enlargement of the coelom, clusters of coelomic cells accumulate green pigment whilst still in the coelom and then migrate to the integument of the body wall.
Effects of light on pigment development in the echiuran worm, Bonellia viridis
Authors: Agius Loranne , Jaccarini V.
Published: August 2009

In rhe echiuran Bonellia viridis the green pigment first develops in the gastrula, before the formation of the trochal rings, and the trochophores acquire a deep green pigmentation before hatching. Eggs that were cultured under continuous illumination (2000–4000 lx) did not develop any green pigment, and although the trochophores hatched normally, they lacked pigment entirely. The unpigmented trochophores that were kept under continuous illumination developed into unpigmented males and females. The far‐blue (380–400 nm) and red (620–640 nm) regions were more effective in preventing pigment development than the blue, green and yellow regions of the spectrum. Illumination of the eggs before the gastrula stage did not affect the development of pigment when these were subsequently returned to the dark. When unpigmented trochophores, that had been cultured in the light, were placed in the dark they acquired a slight pigmentation, but this was much less intense than that of trochophores that had been cultured in the dark throughout. Pigmented trochophores were more vulnerable to high light intensities than unpigmented ones.
The biology and functional morphology of Periploma (Offadesma) angasai (Bivalvia: Anomaiodesmata: Periplomatidae
Authors: Morton Brian
Published: August 2009

The extremely rare Periploma (Offadesma) angasai Crosse & Fisher 1864 is a member of the widely distributed Periplomatidae (Anomalodesmata) occurring on surf‐protected beaches in New Zealand and Australia. The species is low intertidal‐sublittoral in distribution, living 7–8 cm below the sand surface on its left valve with separate siphons projecting to the sand‐water interface above. The shell is sharply inequivalve (the right deeply, the left shallowly convex) and inequilateral, the posterior rostrate and truncate and covered by thick periostracum densely studded with sand grains. These are attached to the periostracum by a sticky secretion produced from radial mantle glands in the middle mantle fold. Similar glands have been reported for members of the Lyonsiidae and Verticordiidae. Offadesma angasai is adapted for a life in which large amounts of fine sediment may enter the mantle cavity. Thus the ciliary rejection currents are powerful, the labial palps are extremely long and the sediments are bound up in mucus produced by an extensive gland, particularly in the right mantle lobe, in the posterior region of the mantle cavity. A gland with a similar structure but different staining reactions also lines the visceral mass and the mantle of the supra‐branchial chamber and probably consolidates particles penetrating the ctenidial filter. Such glands are similar in structure and function to the primitive molluscan hypo‐branchial gland.

In many respects, especially with regard to the secondary ligament of fused periostracum, a ctenidial structure with type E ciliation, the presence of a 4th pallial aperture, extensive mantle fusions and simultaneous hermaphroditism, Offadesma is clearly similar to the majority of the Anomalodesmata. As in many other anomalodesmatans also, large, yolky, encapsulated eggs are produced; these are thought to be an adaptation facilitating survival by a sparsely distributed species occupying a narrow niche.

Many other features of Offadesma, notably the structure of the ligament and shell clearlyally it and the Periplomatidae with the Laternulidae and the Thraciidae in a separate line of evolution from the other families of the Pandoracea, and probably deserving of super‐family status—the Thraciacea Stoliczka 1870.
A new species of land planarian from Northern Ireland (Platyhelminthes: Turbellaria)
Authors: Jones H. D.
Published: August 2009

The anatomy of Kontikia andersonisp. nov. is described, compared to other species of the genus, and its taxonomic position briefly discussed.
Changes in mass of eggs of softshell turtless (Trionyx spiniferus) incubated under hydric conditions simulating those of natural nests
Authors: Packard Gary C. , Taigen Theodore L. , Packard Mary J. , Boardman Thomas J.
Published: August 2009

Rigid‐shelled eggs of softshell turtles (Trionyx spiniferus) incubated at 29d̀C under hydric conditions simulating those at the interior of natural nests (i.e. eggs not contacting the substrate) declined in mass during incubation owing to the continuous escape of water vapour to air trapped inside the chambers, with eggs incubated in relatively dry chambers declining more in mass than eggs held in relatively wet chambers. Eggs held under hydric conditions approximating those at the periphery of natural nests (i.e. eggs partly buried in the substrate) also declined in mass during incubation, but at lower rates than characterized eggs not contacting the substrate, indicating that absorption of liquid water from the substrate compensated for part of the water vapour escaping to the air inside the chambers. There was no relationship between hatching success and either the position of eggs in the chambers or the wetness of substrates, nor was there any variation among experimental groups in the size of hatchlings. Thus, development of embryos of Trionyx spiniferus seems not to be closely coupled with the hydric environment of the nest, a situation contrasting with that of embryos of those species of turtles producing pliable‐shelled eggs.
Diets and feeding ecology of Great skuas Catharacta skua during the
Authors: Furness R. W. , Hislop J. R. G.
Published: August 2009

Great skuas feed their young largely on sandeels. Breeders take more sandeels than non‐
Adaptation to altitude in two West Indian anoles (Reptilia:
Authors: Hertz Paul E.
Published: August 2009

Anolis roquet, the only iguanid lizard on the Lesser Antillean island of Martinique, exhibits
Spatial distribution pattern of Octopus vulgaris
Authors: Guerra Angel
Published: August 2009

The problem of spatial distribution pattern of Octopus vulgaris in the northwest coast of
Growth response of testis tissue to partial castration in toads, Bufo bufo bufo
Authors: Guha Kallol , Jørgensen C. Barker
Published: August 2009

The growth response of the remaining intact testis or testis fragments to partial castration was studied as a function of the duration of the postoperative period, the amount of testis mass excised, as well as the functional state of the testes at the time of operation. Excision of about 90% of the testis mass caused a growth response that increased from slight after eight weeks to pronounced after 14 weeks. After 14 weeks the growth response was slight tounilateral excision of 75% of a testie and pronounced to bilateral excision of 75% of each testis. Subtotal castration caused formation of new seminiferous tubules within the remaining testis tissue when the operation was performed early in the annual testis cycle, whereas the growth response late in the cycle was primarily caused by increased spermatogenetic activity within existing tubules. Partial castration stimulated oocyte formation within fragmented testes, but not in a remaining intact testis. Oocyte formation within a testis fragment was independent of the presence of the Bidder's organ.
Zonation and distribution of the beach mysid, Gastrosaccus psammodytes (Crustacea: Mysidacea)
Authors: Wooldridge T.
Published: August 2009

During the day the sand burrowing mysid Gastrosaccus psammodytes is confined to the intertidal and surf zone. There is a clear pattern of intraspecific zonation with adult males, immatures and juveniles furthest offshore. Females move progressively inshore as the brood develops, with young‐bearing females occupying a zone closest inshore. At night G. psammodytes is present in the plankton when part of the population moves into deeper water and away from the area occupied during the day. Zonation appears to be related to the degree of planktonic activity. Loss or mortality of developing embryos is high in G. psammodytes and inshore movement of brooding females is interpreted as a movement away from excessive turbulence and sand movement in the area of breaking waves.
Life‐cycle and feeding strategies of freshwater triclads: a synthesis
Authors: Calow P. , Davidson A. F. , Woollhead A. S.
Published: August 2009

Absract

A relationship is discovered between feeding and life‐cycle strategies in triclads which explains why closely related and coexisting species may either be semelparous (annual) or iteroparous (perennial). Semelparous species feed on active food and in so doing adopt a sit and wait feeding strategy whereas iteroparous species feed on sluggish food and have to seek it out. The semelparous species therefore tend, because of their lower metabolic costs in foraging, to be more efficient converters of food to tissue than the iteroparous species. This efficiency, which allows more rapid growth rates and some immunity to disturbances in food supply, means that in the field semelparous juveniles are likely to have better survival chances (relative to parents) than iteroparous juveniles. Hence sit and wait feeders can “afford” to invest more in reproduction and usually have more to invest than seek‐out feeders.
Further observations on the development and destruction of lamprey blood cells
Authors: Percy Lord Richard , Potter I. C.
Published: August 2009

Supravital preparations of blood and haemopoietic tissues have been studied by interference contrast, phase contrast and conventional light microscopy to help identify the different categories of the smaller blood cells of lampreys. These methods were also used in conjunction with an examination of sectioned material and fixed blood films, to investigate macrophage activity by the blood cells and the liver Kupffer cells. The diameter of the smallest living blood cells was 4–5 |mUm. When these produced extensive clotting fibres, particularly in the presence of foreign substances, they were obviously thrombocytes, whereas others, some of which contained prominent nucleoli, were considered to represent small lymphocytes and stem cells. Slightly larger cells (5–6 |mUm), in which the nuclearcytoplasmic ratio was slightly lower and granules were being formed, represented the first stage in the formation of neutrophilic and eosinophilic granulocytes. The early members of the erythrocyte lineage could be distinguished from these early progranulocytes by their greater thickness under interference contrast microscopy and by their much more rapid degeneration and lack of amoeboid movement in blood films. All blood cells, apart from erythrocytes and differentiating cells of the erythrocyte series, showed amoeboid movement and many were capable of phagocytosing small particles. There was no evidence that, except for macrophages derived from lymphocyte‐like cells, any free blood cells were capable of engulfing whole erythrocytes. During metamorphosis, phagocytic activity was very conspicuous in both blood cells and Kupffer cells, the latter of which exhibited pronouncedn erythrophagocytosis.
An immunological assessment of the phylogenetic position of New World coral snakes
Authors: Cadle John E. , Sarich Vincent M.
Published: August 2009

The New World coral snakes (micrurines), genera Micrurus and Micruroides have recently been seen as derived from a lineage of South American colubrids, rather than from a common lineage with Old World elapids and sea snakes as traditionally accepted. We compared serum albumins of representative coral snakes, Old World elapids, sea snakes, and neotropical colubrids immunologically. Phylogenetic analysis of the biochemical data unambiguously allies the micrurines with the family Elapidae as it is currently understood. Using the albumin molecular clock calibration derived from other terrestrial vertebrates. we suggest a late Oligocene‐early Miocene separation between the New and Old World elapid lineages. This requires a movement of elapid stocks from Asia into North America, and supporting evidence for this model is derived from several paleontological sources. We suggest that a number of extant micrurine lineages have had long independent histories.
Studies on the distribution, food, breeding biology and relative abundance of the Pygmy and Common shrews (Sorex minutus andS. araneus) in upland areas of northern Engl and.
Authors: Butterfield Jennifer , Coulson J. C. , Wanless Sarah
Published: August 2009

The distribution and relative abundance of the Pygmy and Common shrews were investigated over two years at 42 sites across northern England and at a further seven sites in one year. Most of the sites were in upland areas above 250m in altitude. At almost all sites, the Pygmy shrew was more abundant than the Common shrew, often by a considerable

A correlation exists between the numbers of shrews captured at a site and the abundance of invertebrates revealed by pitfall trapping. I t is recorded that Common shrews fed on earthworms (which are almost completely absent on peatlands) whilst Pygmy shrews did
A comparison of the feeding biology of Mink Mustela vison and otter Lutra lutra
Authors: Wise M. H. , Linn I. J. , Kennedy C. R.
Published: August 2009

The feeding habits and prey selectivity of Mink Mustela vison and otters Lutra lutra were compared in two localities in Devon: a eutrophic lake and a moorland river, in which both species occurred and had access to the same prey populations. The effects of prey availability on the predators' diets were assessed by comparing prey consumed, as revealed by scat analysis, with estimates of prey abundance and size range. Otters specialized in fish at all times of year but showed seasonal variation in species taken. Selection for slow‐moving fish and seasonal changes in behaviour of some fish species were the probable causes of this variation. Otters diversified more into non‐fish food in summer, when fish availability was reduced. The main alternative prey in the lacustrine habitat was waterfowl, but in the riverine habitat, rabbits. Mink were more generalized carnivores, taking a variety of fish, waterside and terrestrial prey in all seasons. These three prey categories were taken to an almost equal extent in the lake but terrestrial prey dominated in the riverine habitat. Fish were taken most frequently in winter and birds and mammals in summer. Neither predator showed selection in respect of prey size. In each area, about one third of the otter and Mink diets was common to both species. Fish was the principal group of the shared component, and dietary overlap in respect of them was greatest in autumn and winter. In view of the dietary preferences of each predator, the existence of alternative prey items and limited degree of dietary overlap, it is considered unlikely that the two species competed for food to any extent. Other factors must therefore be responsible for the spread of feral Mink and the decline in otter populations in many parts of Britain.
A simple mechanical device for recording the diel activity pattern of small burrowing mammals in their natural habitats
Authors: Goyal Surendra P.
Published: August 2009

A mechanical device for monitoring the diel activity pattern of small burrowing mammals under natural conditions is described. The device has been used to estimate the time spent by the Indian gerbil, Tatera indica indica Hardwicke in foraging above ground and in an underground nest which is a part of the device. Activity patterns recorded with this device have confirmed observations that Tatera i, indica is nocturnal. The average time spent by this rodent outside the nest during an eight day study period was 318 min/24h. These rodents are generally active between 1900–0300 hrs, apparently with two peaks of activity, one between 2100–2200 hrs and the other between 0100–0200 hrs.
Observations on the rhinoceros cardiac receptor system
Authors: Cave A. J. E.
Published: August 2009

First‐time observations are submitted on the anatomy of the rhinoceros cardiac receptor apparatus. This is shown to comprise chemoreceptors in the form of canonical aortic and carotid glomera and mechanoreceptor areas essentially similar to those established for certain other mammalian forms. A description is given of the cardiac adventitial nerves

(aortic nerves) which provide a guide to receptor areas. The structure of the rhinoceros aortic glomus is detailed.
A note on the mandible length of Red deer, Cervus elaphus, from Lyme Park, England
Authors: Goldspink C. R.
Published: August 2009

The relationship between mandible length and body weight of a small population of Red deer in Lyme Park, Cheshire, is described. The mandibles are the largest so far recorded

From the British Isles which is further evidence for a N‐S gradient in this character. Stags have smaller mandibles than hinds, an anomally which may be an adaptive consequence of their higher growth rate and larger body size.
Aggression and sexual activity of male Southern elephant seals, Mirounga leonina
Authors: McCann T. S.
Published: August 2009

The agonistic and sexual activity of individual male Southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) was studied during the breeding season at South Georgia. Harem bulls were older and larger than non‐harem bulls and, although size and age are related, harem bulls were also larger than non‐harem bulls of the same age. Large body size conferred advantages in fighting and the agonistic relationships of the bulls gave rise to a dominance hierarchy with access to harems and activity within harems, being determined by rank. Vocalizations were the most highly rank‐related aggressive behaviours. The most common vocalization, the roar, probably functioned in both individual recognition and size assessment. Over 90% of encounters of high‐ranked bulls were “walkovers” and only 4% of 4003 agonistic interactions nvolved physical contact.
The histochemistry and ultrastructure of the glandular vas deferens of Tubifex tubifex (Annelida: Oligochaeta)
Authors: Fleming T. P.
Published: August 2009

The ultrastructure and histochemistry of the atrium, prostate gland and penis of Tubifex tubifex are described. The prostate gland, which forms a discrete structure alongside the atrium, consists of club‐shaped gland cells with narrow cell processes that converge onto the junction with the atrium, Prostate perikarya contain abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) and active Golgi cisternae and function in the synthesis of secretion granules. Prostate cell processes, characterized by a peripheral band of microtubules linked to an electron lucent cisterna derived from the perikaryon rER, penetrate the atrium and ramify between the atrial epithelium and musculature. The atrial epithelium consists of interstitial ciliated cells and anucleate glandular clements packed with secretion granules. Prostate cell processes ultimately open into the bases of the atrial glandular elements which therefore constitute the expanded apices of prostate cells. The morphological differentiation of prostate atrial gland cells into distinct zones concerned with the production, translocation and storage of secretion granules is discussed in relation to sperm transmission. The presence of a conventional peritoneum surrounding the prostate gland indicates that the gland cells originate from the atrial epithelium.

The prostate‐atrial gland cells are of two types characterized by the ultrastructure and histochemistry of their secretion granules. Type I granules are uniformly electron dense and are composed of neutral mucopolysaccharide with vic glycol groups and basic protein containing tyrosine, tryptophan and cystine. Type I1 granules are heterogeneous and consist of electron dense subunits of basic protein within a microfibrillate matrix composed of carboxylated acid mucopolysaccharide. The possible function of prostatic secretion is discussed.

The penis is composed of a simple tubular extension of the epithelial, muscular and peritoneal cells of the male duct‐body wall junction and is enclosed within a double foldin the epidermis. The penis lumen is plugged by secretion derived from the prostate‐atrial gland cells.
Locomotor behaviour of the walrus (Odobenus)
Authors: Gordon Kenneth R.
Published: August 2009

The aquatic and terrestrial locomotion of the walrus are described using the frame‐by‐frame analysis of 16 mm cine film and the manipulation of bone‐muscle preparations. The

hind limbs of the walrus are the major source of aquatic propulsion; the forelimbs are used for manoeuvring as well as for propulsion.
Behavioural interactions between the Carangidae (Pisces) and their prey on the fore‐reef slope of Aldabra, with notes on other predators
Authors: Potts Geoffrey W.
Published: August 2009

The behavioural interactions of carangids with their prey have been examined on the forereef slope of Aldabra Atoll, Indian Ocean. From underwater observations and from fishing data, Caranx melampygus and C. ignobilis are shown to be predominately piscivores. Slight differences in the sex ratios occurred when compared with earlier work, although length distribution of trolled specimens match very closely. By contrast underwater observations indicate that many more small C. melampygus occur on the reef slope than are caught by trolling and suggest this method of capture is highly selective. The literature ascribes the association of small predatory fish to larger ones with a scavenging role, but present observations suggest that it provides a mechanism whereby small fish can approach and exploit the disorientation of prey during hunting episodes. Other types of predator association are discussed.
Solitary and social play in wild Mus musculus (Mammalia)
Authors: Wolff Robert J.
Published: August 2009

Play behaviour was observed in wild caught Mus musculus housed in a semi‐natural environment. The behaviour of interest (1) is very exaggerated and jerky in appearance. (2) occurs almost exclusively in highly enriched areas of the observation room, (3) disappears under stressful conditions and (4) occurs primarily in juveniles. Solitary and social play were observed. Aggressive and pouncing play were the two major types of social play seen. Juveniles were found to play with littermates significantly more often than with non‐littermates but did not show a significant preference with respect to the sex of their play partners.
Biochemical relationships of the Galápagos Giant tortoises (Geochelone elephantopus)*
Authors: Marlow Ronald William , Patton James L.
Published: August 2009

Genetic relatedness was estimated among seven of the extant races of Giant tortoises (Geochelone elephantopus), of the Galapagos Archipelago and between these forms and mainland South American taxa, by starch gel electrophoresis. Genetic similarity among the island races is unrelated to carapace shape, suggesting that the latter was independently derived several times on separate islands. The Galapagos species shares no greater similarity with any mainland species than the latter do among themselves. Thus, the most direct common ancestor of the Galapagos forms is undoubtedly extinct.
An analysis of canine size and jaw shape in some Old and New World non‐human primates
Authors: Lucas P. W.
Published: August 2009

An analysis of the relationship between the height of canine teeth, the length of the jaw and the height of the jaw joint above the occlusal plane was undertaken in catarrhine primates and some cebids. An inverse relationship was found in males between the angle

the jaw must be opened to clear the canine teeth and the height of the jaw joint above the occlusal plane, divided by the length of the lower jaw. A theoretical model is presented which can account for this phenomenon and which presumes selection pressure for alignment of the canine teeth when in use. In females, the angle the jaw must be opened to clear

the canine teeth was in most cases very small though in certain species elongated canines

were found.
Photoperiod and larval body size: integrated factors controlling onset of the moulting cycle in Heliconius melpomene (Lepidoptera)
Authors: Wright Sheila , Clarke Kenneth U.
Published: August 2009

In Heliconius melpomene, ecdysis to each stadium is asynchronous in continuous light, but is synchronized with respect to the time of day in an LD 12:12 photoperiod regime‐generally occurring during the early part of the photophase. This is a consequence of synchronism in the time of day of onset of the moulting cycle, which occurs approximately 24 hours before ecdysis. There is variation in the number of days taken to complete an instar, however. Onset of the moulting cycle is gated by photoperiod, and occurs at the first gate following attainment by the larvae of a certain threshold size, indicated by weight. By depriving larvae of food, the time at which threshold size is obtained can be delayed; this results in a delay in the time of onset of the moulting cycle. Possible biological advantages in the wild of the existence of a threshold size for onset of the moulting cycle, and of synchronism in the time of day of ecdysis, have been suggested.
A new species of harvestman of the genus Mitopus in Britain
Authors: Jennings Amanda L.
Published: August 2009

A new species of Mitopus, found in upland regions of Britain, is described. It occurs sympatrically with M. morio in the upper altitudinal parts of the latter's range. The two species are distinguished by their differences in morphology, biometrics and phenology. The new species of Mitopus is larger and longer‐legged than M. morio, and develops faster, reaching maturity at an earlier date.
Factors affecting group size and territory size of the Brown hyaena, Hyaena brunnea in the southern Kalahari
Authors: Mills M. G. L.
Published: August 2009

The paper describes how the dispersion pattern of food affects group size and territory size in the brown hyaena in different ways. Territory size is affected by the distribution of the food, group size by the quality of the food in the territory.
New distributional records of bats from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Mammalia: Chiroptera)
Authors: Nader Iyad A.
Published: August 2009

Hipposideros caffer (Sundevall, 1846) and Miniopterus schreibersi (Kuhl, 1819) are recorded for the first time from Saudi Arabia. Additional information and second records in addition to measurements are reported for six other bats: Rhinopoma m. microphyllum, Taphozous n. nudiventris, Rhinolophus clivosus, Rhinolophus hipposideros minimus, Tadarida midas and Eptesicus nasutus. Distribution maps of Rhinolophus clivosus and Eptesicus nasutus are included.
Predation by Tawny owls (Strix aluco) on Bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and Wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus)
Authors: Southern H. N. , Lowe V. P. W.
Published: August 2009

During 1954–56 we made a study of the numerical relationships between a population of Tawny owls (Strix aluco) and populations of their main prey species, the Bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus) and the Wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus), in a 48.6‐ha area of mainly deciduous woodland near Oxford. The owls were censused by plotting their territorial challenges (hooting), the rodents by the capture‐mark‐recapture technique. Since the rodents were marked with numbered monel metal leg rings, we were able to recover a proportion of these in the pellets of undigested material cast by the owls.

The results for Bank voles, which were the more numerous of the two prey species, indicated that 20–30% of the standing crop was removed by owls in any two‐month period. We also made an independent estimate of predation rate from the number of rings recovered from owl pellets in relation to the number of ringed rodents released into the population each two months. This coincided with the limits indicated by the first method for voles (20‐30% removed of the standing crop each 2 months).

Wood mice were scarcer than Bank voles and were not amenable to satisfactory capturemark‐recapture analysis but, when treated on the system of recovery of rings in owl pellets, we found that they were preyed upon relatively more heavily than were the voles. Of the latter 18–46% of the marked animals were recovered in the owl pellets compared with 28–70% of the marked mice. Either the mice were preferred prey or they were more vulnerable to owl predation by reason of their preference for more open habitats.
Dynamics of oviposition in Danaus plexippus (Insecta: Lepidoptera) on milkweed, Asclepias spp
Authors: Zalucki M. P. , Kitching R. L.
Published: August 2009

Where a butterfly chooses to lay an egg will influence the subsequent survival of her offspring. In this paper we report on the effect of a number of variables which influence the choice of oviposition site in Danaus plexippus L. Experiments were conducted under both flight cage and field conditions. The field observations consisted of recording the within and between plant egg dispersions across different patch sizes. Laboratory experiments looked at egg laying preferences as affected by plant species, age and condition. Butterflies were selective in their choice of oviposition site. Eggs were laid singly on the underside of medium sized leaves towards the top of a plant. More eggs were laid per plant on single isolated plants than on plants within a patch. The number of eggs per plant increases with plant height but decreases with plant age. Females preferred young plants or plants with fresh regrowth of leaves. These characteristics could override species preferences which were, in decreasing order, Asclepias curassavica. A. fruticosa and A. physocarpa. Species preferences varied between butterflies and with female age. Neither the presence of eggs nor larvae on a plant deterred oviposition. These results are compared with previous observations of egg laying in this species.
Patterns of breeding behaviour and plasma levels of hormones in a free‐living population of Pied flycatchers,Ficedula hypoleuca
Authors: Silverin Bengt , Wingfield John C.
Published: August 2009

Plasma levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and steroid hormones were measured by radioimmunoassay in a series of plasma samples collected from a free‐living population of Pied flycatchers,Ficedula hypoleuca.Both males and females have similar circulating levels of LH and testosterone when they arrive in the breeding area. However, as territories and pair bonds are established, and as courtship and nest‐building ensue, the plasma levels of testosterone in males become elevated over those of females, although a lesser peak also occurs in females. As the egg laying phase and incubation begin, plasma levels of LH and testosterone decline sharply in both sexes. On the other hand polyterritorial males, that establish secondary territories, maintain higher levels of LH and testosterone than males remaining in the home‐territory, at least until they return to the home‐territory, usually at the middle part of the incubation period. By this time polyterritorial males also have basal levels of these hormones. Curiously, females on home‐territories show a small, but significant, rise of circulating LH and testosterone at the time the males return.

In males, plasma levels of corticosterone are elevated from the time of arrival on the breeding grounds until the end of the nest‐building period. Thereafter corticosterone levels decline in males staying on the home‐territory but remain elevated in polyterritorial males until the latter return to the home‐territory. In contrast, circulating levels of corticosterone in females are only elevated for brief period during egg laying.
The digestive physiology of three East African herbivores: the elephant, rhinoceros and hippopotamus
Authors: Clemens E. T. , Maloiy G. M. O.
Published: August 2009

Studies were conducted to compare structural and physiological differences in the digestive functions of three species of large ungulates; the elephant (Loxodonta africana), the Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) and the Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius). Major differences were noted in the composition of ingesta and the sites of bacterial fermentative activity. Comparisons are also made as to the influence of feeding behaviour on digestive functions, and as to the similarities of their digestive systems to that of domestic animals.
Voice‐printing of the Nightjar, Caprimulgus europaeus
Authors: Collyer Anthony A. , Beadman John , Hill Thomas H.
Published: August 2009

The usual way of analysing bird‐song is by use of a conagraph, which produces a plot of frequency as a function of time, for perods of up to about 2.5 s. This method is fully described by Catchpole (1979), Jellis (1977) and Thorpe (1961). In the present work, a Brüel and Kjaer Narrow Band Spectrum Analyser was used to analyse up to two minutes of bird‐song. This instrument produces a fast Fourier analysis of the input in the form of a spectrum of sound pressure level against frequency. Studies of seven Nightjars. Caprimulgus europaeus. show that each individual produces its own characteristic voice spectrum enabling individual birds to be identified with much greater ease than from a sonagram.
The biology of Dysdera crocata (Araneae, Dysderidae): Intraspecific interactions
Authors: Jackson Robert R. , Pollard Simon D.
Published: August 2009

Previous descriptions of the courtship of Dysdera crocata, a cosmopolitan short‐sighted hunting spider, as “swift and unelaborate” are inappropriate. Male‐female interactions were observed usually to last in the laboratory (n= 119) for several minutes (median 3–13 min; maximum 135 min). Previous to mating about a dozen distinct elements of behaviour occur in discernable sequences which seem comparable in complexity to those of many web‐building and long‐sighted hunting spiders. The functions of these behaviours are discussed; and the notion that the predatory behaviour of females is the key to understanding the ultimate causation of male courtship is questioned. Males perform different behaviours depending on whether the female is inside or outside her nest. Females and juveniles display also and different combinations of displays occur during interactions depending on the sex/age classes of the spiders involved. Experiments in which spiders were blinded showed that vision is not necessary during intraspecific interactions, and experiments with dead spiders indicated that tactile and/or chemotactic stimuli are sufficient to elicit lengthy courtship from males and brief responses from females. Experiments with vacant nests indicate that silk alone is sufficient to elicit responses from both males and females and permit discriminations between nests of conspecifics and other arthropods. Since washing in ether rendered nests and dead females ineffective in eliciting responses from conspecifics, contact pheromones are suggested.
Effects of lactation on feeding behaviour and habitat use in wild Red deer hinds
Authors: Clutton‐Brock T. H. , Iason G. R. , Albon S. D. , Guinness F. E.
Published: August 2009

In many mammals, the energetic costs of lactation double a female's daily energy requirements on her activity budgets, food choice and ranging behaviour–but the effects of lactation have rarely been documented. In this paper, the ecological consequences of lactation in free‐ranging Red deer (Cervus elaphus) hinds on the lsle of Rhum is examined by comparing the feeding behaviour, habitat use and ranging behaviour of hinds that were supporting calves (milk hinds) with hinds that did not have calves (yeld hinds). In summer, milk hinds graze for approximately two hours longer per day then yeld hinds. This difference has disappeared by the latter half of the winter, when the grazing budgets of milk and yeld hinds are similar. Both in summer and winter milk hinds spend more time grazing on the most strongly selected plant communities (short, herb‐rich greens) where standing crops are low but food quality is comparatively high. Inter‐year variation in habitat use by milk hinds is also closely related to variation in rainfall—while this is not the case among yeld hinds. Both in summer and winter, yeld hinds range more widely than milk hinds.
Seasonal variations in infestations of parasites in a Wood mouse Apodemus sylvaticus population in the West of Ireland
Authors: Langley R. , Fairley J. S.
Published: August 2009

Seasonal variation in most of the metazoan parasites of a Wood mouse population was investigated by a statistical analysis of their frequencies in 11 samples of about 30 mice trapped regularly over one year. Numbers of the flea Ctenophthalmus nobilis, most mesostigmatid mites and the beetle Leptinus testaceus were correlated with breeding in the mouse population and may have been directly linked with it as all ofthese arthropods are common in Wood mouse nests. The tick Ixodes ricinus was abundant over the summer but scarce in winter. Its preponderance on male hosts is doubtless because they cover more ground than females. Flukes were commonest in summer, probably as a result ofthe period of intensive feeding on invertebrates by the mice which usually occurs in early summer. Female mice were more heavily infected, perhaps because of their increased food requirements in the breeding season. Abundance of flukes declined with the turnover in the mouse population in autumn. The infestation pattern of the nematode Capillaria muris sylvatici is similar and the possibility of an invertebrate vector is discussed. While older mice were generally more heavily infected with helminths than were young, this was least marked in the tapeworm Cataenotaenia lobata (which most likely has a mite as an intermediate host and may be picked up as soon as juveniles start grooming) and the roundworm Syphacia stroma (eggs of which are almost certainly transferred by body contact between hosts)