bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
How Many Minds?
Authors: Schechter Elizabeth
Published: June 2018

The previous chapters argued that within a split-brain subject there are two subjects of conscious experience and intentional agents, R and L. This chapter explains who these two thinking beings are and how it is possible for two thinkers to be co-embodied. The basis of the 2-thinkers claim is, naturally, that R and L think, feel, decide, and so on, independently of each other. Of course, this does not mean that they do not causally interact; since they are co-embodied, they interact all the time. What split-brain experiments show, however, is that R’s mental activities interact with L’s largely only indirectly: one of them acts or reacts in some way, and the other senses or perceives this re/action. Mental activities are causal activities whose psychological kinds are defined by their powers to interact directly. Thus the thinking things in the split-brain case are R and L, and only derivatively S.
Self and Other in the Split-Brain Subject
Authors: Schechter Elizabeth
Published: June 2018

This chapter concerns self-consciousness in split-brain subjects. I argue, first, that R and L are both capable of thinking I-thoughts: thoughts containing the mental or conceptual analogue of the English word “I.” On the other hand, R’s and L’s self-consciousness differs, in its operative dynamics, from self-consciousness in, say, my sister and me. First of all, neither R nor L recognizes the existence of a second thinker sharing its body. I call this lack of mutual recognition. Second, L seems to assume that its I-thoughts refer to S, and R seems to assume the same of its I-thoughts. I call this (subjective) co-identification as S. I then argue that lack of mutual recognition and co-identification as S are explained by the fact that R and L lack the capacity for self-distinction: neither can first-personally distinguish itself from the other.
Duality Myths
Authors: Schechter Elizabeth
Published: June 2018

This chapter addresses the intuitive fascination of the split-brain phenomenon. According to what I call the standard explanation, it is because we ordinarily assume that people are psychologically unified, while split-brain subjects are not psychologically unified, which suggests that we might not be unified either. I offer a different interpretation. One natural way of grappling with people’s failures to conform to various assumptions we make about them is to conceptualize them as having multiple minds. Such multiple-minds models take their most dramatic form in narrative art as duality myths. The split-brain cases grip people in part because the subjects strike them as living embodiments of such myths.
Virtuous Emotions
Authors: Kristjánsson Kristján
Published: June 2018

Aristotelian virtue ethics has gained momentum within latter-day moral theorizing. Many people are drawn towards virtue ethics because of the central place it gives to emotions in the good life; after all, Aristotle says that emotions can have an intermediate and best condition proper to virtue. Yet nowhere does Aristotle provide a definitive list of virtuous emotions. In the Rhetoric, Aristotle does analyse a number of emotions. However, many emotions that one would have expected to see there fail to get a mention, and others are written off rather hastily as morally defective. Whereas most of what goes by the name of ‘Aristotelian’ virtue ethics nowadays is heavily reconstructed and updated Aristotelianism, such exercises in retrieval have not been systematically attempted with respect to his emotion theory. The aim of this book is to offer a revised ‘Aristotelian’ analysis and moral justification of a number of emotions that Aristotle either did not mention (such as awe, grief, and jealousy), relegated, at best, to the level of the semi-virtuous (such as shame), made disparaging remarks about (such as gratitude) or rejected explicitly (such as pity, understood as pain at another person’s deserved bad fortune). It is argued that there are good ‘Aristotelian’ reasons for understanding those emotions either as virtuous or as indirectly conducive to virtue. The book begins with an overview of Aristotle’s ideas on the nature of emotions and of emotional value, and it ends with an account of Aristotelian emotion education.
Pity
Authors: Kristjánsson Kristján
Published: June 2018

Chapter 4 offers a mitigated moral justification of the much maligned emotional trait, pity, in the Aristotelian sense of ‘pain at deserved bad fortune’. It lays out Aristotle’s taxonomic map of pity and its surrounding conceptual terrain and argues that this map is not anachronistic with respect to contemporary conceptions. It then offers a revisionary ‘Aristotelian’ moral justification of pity, not as a full virtue-component intrinsically related to eudaimonia but as a positive moral quality that has instrumental value in developing and sustaining a certain intrinsically valuable state of character—namely compassion (eleos). The justification offered is mitigated in the sense that it does not elevate pity fully to a virtuous disposition, constitutive of eudaimonia; yet it does offer a crucial counterweight to Aristotle’s own denunciation of pity.
Grief
Authors: Kristjánsson Kristján
Published: June 2018

Chapter 7 has three interrelated aims. The first is to analyse the concept of grief; the second is to argue for the putative rationality of grief; and the third is to offer a moral justification of grief along broadly Aristotelian lines as an intrinsically virtuous trait of character. With regard to this third and ultimate aim, the chapter argues not only that grief plays an unappreciated positive role in our moral experiences but fleshes out a case for what exactly that positive moral role is. More precisely, it is argued that grief is best justified as an Aristotelian desert-based emotional trait, incorporating two distinct desert-motivated desires, one specifically directed at the memory of the dead person as deserving of homage, the other more cosmically focusing on the general undeservingness of good people passing away. The argument goes against the grain of most previous instrumental justifications of grief.
Educating Emotions
Authors: Kristjánsson Kristján
Published: June 2018

Chapter 9 rehearses Aristotle’s somewhat unsystematic remarks about emotion education. Moreover, the chapter subjects to critical scrutiny six different discourses on emotion education in addition to Aristotle’s: care ethics; social and emotional learning; positive psychology; emotion-regulation discourse; academic-emotions discourse; and social intuitionism. Four differential criteria are used to analyse the content of the discourses: valence of emotions to be educated; value ontology; general aims of emotion education; and self-related goals. Possible criticisms of all the discourses are presented. Subsequently, seven strategies of emotion education (behavioural strategies; ethos modification and emotion contagion; cognitive reframing; service learning/habituation; direct teaching; role modelling; and the arts) are introduced to explore how the seven discourses avail themselves of each strategy. It is argued that there is considerably more convergence in the practical strategies than there is in the theoretical underpinnings of the seven discourses.
Locke and Compassion
Authors: Marshall Colin
Published: June 2018

This chapter presents the core thought behind the larger argument of the book by appealing to John Locke’s theory of ideas, according to which some ideas have the distinctive epistemic goodness of resembling qualities in their objects. While Locke believed that only ideas of certain physical qualities had this goodness, it is argued here that Locke’s views imply that it is also had by certain compassionate states. The moral significance of this is illustrated using a case in which one person is pained by the suffering of an injured wombat while another person is amused. The former person intuitively seems morally better and also, on the Lockean view, has a reaction that resembles a quality in its object, since pain resembles pain. It is shown that the Lockean view can help address some potential objections to this conclusion about compassion.
Beyond the Present
Authors: Marshall Colin
Published: June 2018

This chapter argues that subjects can be in touch with things outside their immediate environment, and applies this conclusion to compassion. Three cases of being in touch with spatial properties are considered, in which subjects “see in their mind’s eye,” episodically remember, and vividly anticipate properties of objects. Though none of these states are perceptions in the familiar sense, it is argued that they share some of perception’s irreplaceable epistemic goodness. Differences in being in touch are then found to coincide with intuitive moral distinctions in cases in which agents are or are not pained by spatially distant, past, and future pains. Finally, a potential objection is addressed about agents becoming ineffective through getting caught up in some thought of distant pain.
The Scope of Compassion and Impartiality
Authors: Marshall Colin
Published: June 2018

This chapter considers the ultimate ideal range of compassion as well as the issue of whether partiality can be part of being morally good. An infinite moral ideal being is considered, who would be proportionately moved by all creatures’ pains, pleasures, and desires. This ideal being’s moral goodness would coincide with her being proportionately in touch with all creatures’ affective states. Turning to finite agents, two limitations that generate partiality are identified: limitations of representational capacities and limitations of abilities to act. While those forms of partiality seem only morally excusable, other forms intuitively seem morally admirable. Appealing to being in touch is able to vindicate this intuition, by showing how one can be in touch with agent-directed desires, of the sort that are typically part of personal relationships. This connects the present approach to views in care ethics.
The Hardest Cases
Authors: Marshall Colin
Published: June 2018

This chapter considers three groups of cases that seem to threaten the connection between being in touch and paradigmatic moral goodness. It is argued that, more carefully considered, an appeal to being in touch produces an intuitively acceptable answer in each case. The first group of cases are those in which a compassionate agent encounters a flawed agent such as a sadist, where one might worry that compassion would then amplify or expand those flaws. The second group of cases involve issues where compassion seems insufficient for general moral goodness, or even points in the wrong direction—such as a case in which an agent might compassionately plug other beings into Robert Nozick’s experience machine to make them happy. The third group of cases concerns whether the epistemic importance of compassion is undermined by the possibility of being in touch with other things such as mere objects.
Knowing that Pain is Bad
Authors: Marshall Colin
Published: June 2018

This chapter shows how moral knowledge is possible according to Compassionate Moral Realism, and how that view is able to sidestep the two most influential worries about moral realism’s ability to account for moral knowledge. First, an analogous case of knowledge is considered: knowing that two color experiences are similar in comparison to some third. The latter form of knowledge is hard to deny, and can be naturally explained in terms of a conceptual analysis of comparative similarity and reflection on conscious experiences. A parallel explanation, it is argued, can be given of moral knowledge of the badness of pain according to Compassionate Moral Realism. It is then shown that this explanation is not threated by considerations concerning the evolution of our capacities and concerning moral disagreement—in part because of the view’s compatibility with judgment pluralism.
Empirical Pessimism
Authors: May Joshua
Published: June 2018

Scientifically informed theories of ordinary moral thought and action are on the rise but trend toward pessimism. Many theorists argue that ordinary moral judgment involves little reasoning or not enough to yield justified belief, while others argue that we rarely act for the right reasons. This chapter describes such sources of empirical pessimism (sentimentalism, debunking, egoism, Humeanism, and situationism). It then outlines the remaining chapters that defend the alternative, optimistic rationalism, which allows for more virtue by according reason a central role in moral psychology. While the science doesn’t suggest that moral knowledge and virtuous motivation come easily, there is no reason to reject ordinary moral psychology as fundamentally flawed. This chapter also discusses some preliminaries, such as the reason/emotion dichotomy, non-cognitivism, and how to draw on empirical research.
Defending Moral Judgment
Authors: May Joshua
Published: June 2018

Wide-ranging debunking arguments aim to support moral skepticism based on empirical evidence (particularly of evolutionary pressures, framing effects, automatic emotional heuristics, and incidental emotions). But such arguments are subject to a debunker’s dilemma: they can identify an influence on moral belief that is either substantial or defective, but not both. When one identifies a genuinely defective influence on a large class of moral beliefs (e.g. framing effects), this influence is insubstantial, failing to render the beliefs unjustified. When one identifies a main basis for belief (e.g. automatic heuristics), the influence is not roundly defective. There is ultimately a trade-off for sweeping debunking arguments in ethics: identifying a substantial influence on moral belief implicates a process that is not genuinely defective. We thus lack empirical reason to believe that moral judgment is fundamentally flawed. Our dual process minds can yield justified moral beliefs despite automatically valuing more than an action’s consequences.
Beyond Self-Interest
Authors: May Joshua
Published: June 2018

This chapter introduces the long-standing idea that inappropriate motives, such as self-interest, can militate against virtuous motivation (acting for the right reasons). Some theorists have tried to show that we are universally egoistic by appeal to empirical research, particularly evolutionary theory, moral development, and the neuroscience of learning. However, these efforts fail and instead decades of experiments on helping behavior provide powerful evidence that we are capable of genuine altruism. We can be motivated ultimately by a concern for others for their own sake, especially when empathizing with them. The evidence does not show that empathy blurs the distinction between self and other in a way that makes helping behavior truly egoistic or non-altruistic. Whether grounded in Christian love (agape) or the Buddhist notion of no-self (anātman), such self-other merging proposals run into empirical and conceptual difficulties.
The Motivational Power of Moral Beliefs
Authors: May Joshua
Published: June 2018

Even if we can rise above self-interest, we may just be slaves of our passions. But the motivational power of reason, via moral beliefs, has been understated, even in the difficult case of temptation. Experiments show that often when we succumb, it is due in part to a change in moral (or normative) judgment. We can see this by carefully examining a range of experiments on motivated reasoning, moral licensing, moral hypocrisy, and moral identity. Rationalization, perhaps paradoxically, reveals a deep regard for reason, to act in ways we can justify to ourselves and to others. The result is that we are very often morally motivated or exhibit moral integrity. Even when behaving badly, actions that often seem motivated by self-interest are actually ultimately driven by a concern to do what’s right.
Freeing Reason from Desire
Authors: May Joshua
Published: June 2018

The previous chapter showed that our beliefs about which actions we ought to perform frequently have an effect on what we do. But Humean theories, holding that all motivation has its source in desire, insist on connecting such beliefs with an antecedent motive. However, reason needn’t be a slave to the passions. We can allow moral (or normative) beliefs a more independent role to generate intrinsic desires by developing an anti-Humeanism (distinct from internalism) that is empirically sound. Since an anti-Humean theory provides perfectly ordinary and intelligible explanations of actions, Humeans have a burden to justify a more restrictive account. However, they cannot discharge this burden on empirical grounds, whether by appealing to research on neurological disorders (acquired sociopathy, Parkinson’s, and Tourette’s), the psychological properties of desire, or the scientific virtue of parsimony.
Complicating the Moral Case of Responsibility to Protect
Authors: Zunes Stephen
Published: June 2018

This chapter examines the military interventions in Kosovo and Libya (often advanced as successful humanitarian interventions), and argues that they did more harm than good. They escalated the level of killings (by regime and rebels), fanning nationalism in the first and sectarian militias in the second. The general explanations underpinning this analysis are that intervening powers are rarely neutral or impartial, and that military intervention changes the strategies of the target regime and of the rebelling parties. The chapter argues for the efficacy of strategic non-violent action internally and preventive diplomacy externally, as alternatives to military intervention. It notes the successes of non-violent movements in both case studies, and critical moments at which they could have been supported by preventive diplomacy but were not. A second theme is sensitivity to broader ramifications of military intervention for international affairs.
Humanitarian Intervention and Non-Ideal Theory
Authors: Das Ramon
Published: June 2018

This chapter argues that the philosophical debate around humanitarian intervention would be improved if it were less ‘ideal-theoretic’. It identifies two ideal-theoretic assumptions. One, in target states where humanitarian intervention is being considered, there are two distinct and easily identified groups: ‘bad guys’ committing serious human rights abuses, and innocent civilians against whom the abuses are being committed. Two, external to the target state in question, there are suitably qualified ‘good guys’—prospective interveners who possess both the requisite military power and moral integrity. If the assumptions hold, the prospects for successful humanitarian intervention are much greater. As a contrast, some possible non-ideal assumptions are that (i) there are many bad guys in a civil war, and (ii) the good guy intervener is itself supporting some of the bad guys. If these non-ideal assumptions hold, prospects for successful humanitarian intervention are small.
Responsibility to Protect, Polarity, and Society
Authors: Murray Robert W. , Keating Tom
Published: June 2018

Robert Keating and Tom Murray argue that the implementation of R2P has failed despite the rhetorical consensus around R2P over the last decade. They suggest that the behaviour of the US and its NATO allies are partly to blame. These powers ignored the UN Security Council over Kosovo, which other world powers such as the BRICs took as an affront and a challenge. Normative defiance to the liberal world order was the reaction: Russia in particular became less willing to support humanitarian intervention than it had been throughout the 1990s. Similarly, in Libya, NATO refused to conform to the limitations on the intervention imposed by UNSC Resolution 1973. This weakened confidence in the Security Council’s ability to manage interventions, further undermining support for such operations generally. Thus the manner in which Western powers have sought to implement R2P has alienated the emerging powers on whose support successful R2P implementation depends.
Introduction
Authors: Byers Mark
Published: June 2018

Whatever the outcome of the war will be, the arts will have to contribute to the rebuilding of men or else their function will degrade to an ornament in a degrading society.

Alfred Neumeyer, ‘The Arts and Social Reconstruction’ (1944)1

We have come together as American modern artists because we feel the need to present to the public a body of art that will adequately reflect the new America that is taking shape today and the kind of America that will, it is hoped, become the cultural center of the world....
Uninhabited Kingdoms, New Worlds of Space
Authors: Byers Mark
Published: June 2018

The third chapter asks how these developments informed the making of American art in the immediate postwar years. The first section attends to contemporary announcements that modernism had reached a formal impasse. Drawing on a number of unpublished lectures on space and the Italian painter Corrado Cagli, the second section reveals Olson to have imagined a ‘spatial modernism’ that sought to solve the problem of a formal ne plus ultra whilst actively imagining a more ‘modest’ postwar ethic. In following sections this new spatial ethic and aesthetic is shown not to have been unique to Olson but to have informed contemporary projects by Pollock, Newman, the sculptor David Smith, and Cage.
Rights and Demands
Authors: Gilbert Margaret
Published: June 2018

This book is the first extended treatment of demand-rights, a class of rights apt to be considered rights par excellence. Centrally, to have a demand-right is to have the standing or authority to demand a particular action from another person, who has a correlative obligation to the right-holder. How are demand-rights possible? Linking its response to central themes and positions within rights theory, Rights and Demands argues for two main theses. First, joint commitment, in a sense that is explained, is a ground of demand-rights. Second, it may well be their only ground. The first thesis is developed with special reference to agreements and promises, generally understood to ground demand-rights. It argues that both of these phenomena are constituted by joint commitments, and that this is true of many other central social phenomena also. In relation to the second thesis it considers the possibility of demand-rights whose existence can be demonstrated by moral argument without appeal to any joint commitment, and the possibility of accruing demand-rights through the existence of a given legal system or other institution construed without any such appeal. The relevance of the book’s conclusions to our understanding of human rights is then explained. Classic and contemporary rights theorists whose work is discussed include Wesley Hohfeld, H. L. A. Hart, Joel Feinberg, Immanuel Kant, Thomas Scanlon, Judith Thomson, Joseph Raz, and Stephen Darwall.
Introduction
Authors: Gilbert Margaret
Published: June 2018

Rights have long played a role in human thought. This can be argued by reference to everyday agreements and the familiar phenomenon of acting together. Those with rights of the kind involved therein have the standing to demand actions that respect their rights. Such rights are valuable possessions. Among other things, they provide a way to bring back on track those who fail to do their parts in cooperative ventures whose success is crucial to the well-being of all. This point is connected to revolutionary appeals to rights, to invocations of natural and human rights, and to the proliferation of contemporary debates invoking rights. Rights of the kind in question will be labeled “demand-rights” in this book. The overall trajectory of the book is outlined.
Some Central Distinctions from Rights Theory
Authors: Gilbert Margaret
Published: June 2018

Four relations distinguished by rights theorist Wesley Hohfeld are introduced: claims, liberties (privileges), powers, and immunities. A broader conception of powers and immunities than is standard is discussed and adopted. Hohfeld maintained that claims were rights “in the strictest sense.” Several arguments for the primacy of claims are outlined, and the idea that the assertion of a claim has a certain forcefulness is noted. Hohfeld argued that “correlative and equivalent” to anyone’s claim is someone’s duty to that person. The nature of a duty to a person or, in other terms, a directed duty, will be further probed in later chapters.
A Theory of Agreements and Promises
Authors: Gilbert Margaret
Published: June 2018

This chapter provides an explanation of the demand-rights associated with promises and agreements, presenting and defending novel accounts of both as a species of joint decision, where a joint decision as such is constituted by a joint commitment to endorse as a body a certain plan of action. Given their appeal to a particular explicit way of arriving at the joint commitment in each case, these accounts can accommodate both the kinship and distinctness of promises and agreements. Notably, the primary obligations at issue are not moral requirements but directed obligations of joint commitment, the equivalents of the associated demand-rights. Further, these obligations are inevitable given the promise or agreement, irrespective of its content, circumstances, or consequences.
Human Rights in Light of the Foregoing
Authors: Gilbert Margaret
Published: June 2018

This chapter discusses the implications of the argument of this book for our understanding of human rights. On one common conception human rights are conceived of as moral rights, on another as legal or more broadly institutional rights. Within either conception, they may be conceived of as demand-rights. The argument of this book implies that if they are then conceived of as moral rights existing independently of human commitments, their possibility is moot. If they are conceived of as institutional rights, they are, as such, normatively inert. The outcome of the discussion is this: the way to gain the standing to demand actions to which one is understood to have a human right on either conception is by way of an appropriate joint commitment. Human rights theorists whose work is discussed include Henry Shue, Alan Buchanan, and Charles Beitz.
Introduction
Authors: Bailkin Jordanna
Published: June 2018

The Introduction explores the origins of the term “refugee,” and shows how the various groups in this book—Belgians, Basques, Jews, Poles, Hungarians, Anglo-Egyptians, Ugandan Asians, and Vietnamese—adapted or rejected this term. International laws and conventions that defined “the refugee” did not always encompass the distinctiveness of Britain’s relationship to displaced peoples, all of whom had different relationships to the wartime and imperial pasts. Strikingly, many of the actors in this book denied that they were “refugees,” just as the state denied that the places they were housed were “camps.” This chapter also looks at the ways that British camps differed from camps in other parts of the world. Finally, it considers how Britons were also displaced over the course of the twentieth century, and how their own experiences of alienation, dislocation, and homelessness brought them into contact with refugees.
Making Camp
Authors: Bailkin Jordanna
Published: June 2018

This chapter surveys the diverse spaces that refugees inhabited in Britain, from military bases to stately homes to prisons. It traces the varied prehistories of the refugee camp, from detention camps in South Africa to plague and famine camps in India, and internment camps in Europe. Specific elements of camp architecture—from barbed wire to the Nissen hut—gave rise to unique physical and social experiences. The built environment of refugee camps was also deeply connected to narratives about British mobility and displacement. Shifting expectations about homes and homelessness for Britons shaped refugee housing. Refugee camps were a largely unseen, unrecognized element in crafting the physical environment in which Britons and others lived.
Epilogue
Authors: Bailkin Jordanna
Published: June 2018

This chapter explores the diverse fates and futures of refugee camps. What happened to the camps after the refugees left? What remains of these camps today? This chapter charts the chaotic and incomplete process of camp closures. It considers how these camps have been remembered (or forgotten), and reflects on the multiple—and massive—uses of encampment today. Although refugee camps in Britain were supposed to plan their own obsolescence, they were never as fully out of date as their creators might have hoped. For some, encampment never came to an end at all. The realignments of politics, feeling, and place that Britain’s camps prompted are ongoing, and continue to shape the politics of encampment in our contemporary world. This chapter explores the transformation of the refugee camp into one of the most characteristic institutions of aid and confinement in contemporary Britain: the immigration detention center.
Applying Mathematics
Authors: Bueno Otávio , French Steven
Published: June 2018

What has been called ‘the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics’ sets a challenge for philosophers. Some have responded to that challenge by arguing that mathematics is essentially anthropocentric in character whereas others have pointed to the range of structures that mathematics offers. Here a middle way is offered that focuses on the moves that have to be made in both the mathematics and the relevant physics in order to bring the two into appropriate relation. This relation can be captured via the inferential conception of the applicability of mathematics which is formulated in terms of immersion inference and interpretation. In particular the roles of idealizations and of surplus structure in science and mathematics respectively are brought to the fore and captured via an approach to models and theories that emphasizes the partiality of the available information: the partial structures approach. The discussion as a whole is grounded in a number of case studies drawn from the history of quantum physics and extended to contest recent claims that the explanatory role of certain mathematical structures in scientific practice supports a realist attitude towards them. The overall conclusion is that the effectiveness of mathematics does not seem unreasonable at all once close attention is paid to how it is actually applied in practice.
Approaching Models
Authors: Bueno Otávio , French Steven
Published: June 2018

This chapter considers the framework needed in order for mathematical and physical structures to be examined and related, in philosophical terms. We contrast the structuralist account associated with Joseph Sneed, Wolfgang Stegmüller, and others with the models-focused account of Ron Giere. The former, we claim, is heavy on formalism at the expense of a consideration of practice, whereas the latter draws on a number of case studies but omits the crucial formal framework. We suggest rejecting both these extremes in favour of an approach that is appropriately formal, while retaining the ability to represent science as actually practised. We maintain the partial structures account we present here constitutes such an approach. In particular, this framework can accommodate the heuristic role of surplus mathematical structure, as described by Michael Redhead. The exploitation of such structure is a crucial feature of scientific practice that we return to throughout the book.
Unifying with Mathematics
Authors: Bueno Otávio , French Steven
Published: June 2018

In this chapter, we examine a different case study, where the aim was to unify apparently unrelated domains, such as quantum states, probability assignments, and logical inference. This is John von Neumann’s development of an alternative framework to the Hilbert space formalism he pioneered: one articulated in terms of his theory of operators and what we now call von Neumann algebras. This allowed him to accommodate probabilities in the context of systems with infinite degrees of freedom. Here we find, in addition to ‘top-down’ moves from the mathematics to the physics, ‘bottom-up’ developments from empirical features, to a particular logic and thence to mathematical structures. Through a combination of such moves, crucially involving exploration of the structural relations that hold between the mathematical and the physical domains, von Neumann articulated the kind of unification across such domains that represents a further important aspect of the application of mathematics.
Introduction
Authors: Thorsteinsson Runar M.
Published: June 2018

The Introduction presents the purpose and aim of the study, and describes its structure and content (under the heading ‘The Purpose and Aim of the Study’). It is explained exactly what is addressed in the study and what is not: the study addresses the Synoptic Gospels’ characterization of Jesus, but not that of the Gospel of John; it addresses the characterization of Jesus as it is presented in the Synoptic Gospels, but it is not concerned with the so-called historical Jesus (‘What Is Addressed and What Is Not? Jesus of the Gospels and the Historical Jesus’). Finally, the chapter describes classical virtue theory and explains how it relates to the subject under discussion (‘Moral Character, Classical Virtue Theory, and Early Christianity’).
On the null-subject phenomenon
Authors: Cognola Federica
Published: June 2018

This chapter offers an up-to-date discussion of the multiple issues raised by the null-subject phenomenon and the theoretical analyses put forth within Generative Grammar, situating the volume’s chapters within current scholarship. Starting from Rizzi’s (1986a) original formulation of the null-subject phenomenon in terms of the pro-drop parameter and the identification of two types of pro-drop languages (consistent and radical), this chapter demonstrates that the notion of a pro-drop parameter with an associated cluster of properties is still a useful tool to capture the empirical and theoretical properties of null-subject languages. The chapter considers the state-of-the-art on (i) the cluster properties correlated with pro-drop, focusing on the mutual correlation between the null-subject character of a language and the absence of expletives, (ii) the types of null categories possibly involved in null-subject phenomena and their identification mechanisms, and (iii) the typology of null-subject languages, focusing on partial null-subject languages.
Pro-drop and emergent parameter hierarchies
Authors: Biberauer Theresa
Published: June 2018

This chapter considers the extent to which it is still meaningful to conceptualize pro-drop phenomena in parametric terms, introducing a three-factors model in which parameters are emergent, not UG-given. Within this model, it seems possible to distinguish macro, meso, and micro pro-drop systems. The attested systematic variation in even the most familiar instantiations of these putative types, however, raises questions about existing parametric accounts of the acquisition and typological relationship between these systems. Drawing on parallels with a neo-emergentist account of word-order variation, the chapter argues for an approach assuming interdependent parameters (a parameter-hierarchy) where the ‘size’ and precise formal specification of pro-drop in individual grammars is determined by the way the model’s three factors interact, with different formal features playing potentially parallel roles in different systems. The typological picture is thus more variation-rich than previously assumed, but this variation exhibits the kind of cross-linguistic systematicity a parametric approach predicts.
Wordsworth’s Ecclesiastical Heritage
Authors: Fay Jessica
Published: June 2018

Ecclesiastical Sketches (1822) is an attempt to promote national ecclesiastical unity at a time when Wordsworth considered the Anglican Establishment to be threatened by the prospect of Catholic Emancipation. In preparation for this sonnet series, Wordsworth engaged closely with the work of the Anglo-Saxon scholar, St Bede. This chapter explores the importance of Bede’s eighth-century Ecclesiastical History of the English People as both a model for Wordsworth’s sonnets and as a channel through which he became particularly aware of his heritage as a descendent of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria. In this light, the chapter argues for an expanded view of what constitutes Wordsworth’s ‘local’ region, noting that Grasmere was once part of a powerful Kingdom that stretched across the breadth of England. In order to balance his local attachments and appreciation for monasticism with his political opinions, Wordsworth shifts the sonnet form towards the loco-descriptive inscription.
Epilogue
Authors: Fay Jessica
Published: June 2018

Drawing together themes from Chapters 1–5, the epilogue suggests that the poetry and prose Wordsworth produced between 1806 and 1822 might be seen, in retrospect, to anticipate the work of groups such as the Oxford Tract Movement and the Cambridge Camden Society. The widespread Victorian revival of enthusiasm for monasticism and ruined abbeys, antiquarianism, and ecclesiology makes sense of the Victorian ‘taste’ for poems such as The White Doe and The Excursion. And yet, as the book has shown, Wordsworth resists conventional medievalist and antiquarian activity in deference to the silence of the landscape.
Relation
Authors: Tollefsen Torstein Theodor
Published: June 2018

The concept of relation, first defined by Aristotle and then treated by the Neoplatonist commentators on his Categories, serves as a basic notion in Theodore’s defence of the icons. The chapter treats different terms for the relation between image and prototype and certain illustrations that Theodore adduces in order to highlight his position. He argues that if there is such a thing as a human being, then there must also be an image of it, since every entity is the prototype of its image. He has to modify this position, however, and says eventually that an entity is at least potentially a paradigm of its image. What connects the two relata is the likeness that plays a major role in Theodore’s doctrine. This chapter also treats the topic of why the Byzantines considered the icons as ‘lifelike’.
True Image or Idol of Deceit
Authors: Tollefsen Torstein Theodor
Published: June 2018

This chapter reaches the conclusion that it is possible to paint a true image of Christ. Theodore’s understanding of the Old Testament prohibitions of images is treated and the usefulness of material elements in order to present the essence of faith is discussed. The likeness that is the connecting link between the prototype and the image is again brought into focus. In this chapter the icon is seen as contributing to the Christian memory or recollection of the basics of faith. It is shown how the icon serves contemplation and that the veneration of the image and the prototype is one and the same.
Introduction
Authors: Lombardi Elena
Published: June 2018

This chapter explores a more concrete and historicized figure of the woman reader. It explores the forces that make her appear and disappear, and surveys the state of knowledge on medieval female literacy, and the documentary evidence on women readers. It investigates typically female modes of reading (such as the educational, the devotional, and the courtly) and the visual models that were available to vernacular authors to forge their imagined textual interlocutor. It shows how the protagonist of this book is the product of two cultural events within the history of reading and the material culture of the book: the raise of literacy among the laity and women in the years under consideration, and a changed scenario insofar as theories and practices of reading are concerned.
Bea(ta Lec)trix
Authors: Lombardi Elena
Published: June 2018

This chapter looks at Dante’s great textual invention, Beatrice, as both the empowered beloved turned addressee as discussed in Chapter 2 and a powerful textual construct as seen in Chapter 3. I argue that Beatrice’s unique trait is what I call her ‘lyric irreducibility’—a rather resistant aspect of her character, which follows her all the way to the vision of God. Such a trait is posited already in a figure that lays in the archaeology of Beatrice, the unsteady joining of the lyrical and the doctrinal in Dante’s first and failed rendition of his woman interlocutor: the donna gentile-Lady Philosophy, who complexly negotiates the ending of the Vita Nova and the beginning of the Convivio. The chapter follows Beatrice in her development as a non-silent lyric addressee (in Inferno), as textual construct that talks back (in Purgatorio), and as glossator and lector (in Paradiso).
Pre-Rehearsal Questions of Performance Tradition and Play-Selection
Authors: Jeffs Kathleen
Published: June 2018

This chapter asks the questions: ‘what is the Spanish Golden Age and why should we stage its plays now?’ The Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC) Spanish season of 2004–5 came at a particularly ripe time for Golden Age plays to enter the public consciousness. This chapter introduces the Golden Age period and authors whose works were chosen for the season, and the performance traditions from the corrales of Spain to festivals in the United States. The chapter then treats the decision taken by the RSC to initiate a Golden Age season, delves into the play-selection process, and discusses the role of the literal translator in this first step towards a season. Then the chapter looks at ‘the ones that got away’, the plays that almost made the cut for production, and other worthy scripts from this period that deserve consideration for future productions.
Rehearsal and Translation
Authors: Jeffs Kathleen
Published: June 2018

This chapter discusses the degree to which the texts in the RSC’s Spanish Golden Age season accomplished Boswell’s goal for these to be ‘accurate translations’ and ‘not adaptations’. Despite both theoretical and practical problems presented by using a ‘literal’ translation as part of the translation process of the comedia, it is a valuable step in translating plays of the Golden Age for English audiences. The wider purpose of this chapter is to develop a vocabulary and a vision of how the literal-to-performance-text transmission process might be improved. This allows for a more symbiotic relationship between the work of scholars, critics, and translators on the one hand, and that of theatre professionals on the other, in order to create a more robust comedia performance tradition and a model which will be useful for other foreign translations.
Metatheatrical Staging
Authors: Jeffs Kathleen
Published: June 2018

Over the course of the RSC season of Spanish Golden Age plays, metatheatre emerged as a common element of all four productions, one that challenged and bolstered the company at all phases of the plays’ translation, rehearsal, and performance processes. Using the varieties of metatheatre established by Richard Hornby, this chapter shows how the RSC capitalized on the metatheatrical devices in the four plays, and in doing so made direct contact with their audiences, drawing them in by linking multiperspectivism endemic to Golden Age playwriting styles with an audience living in an age characterized by self-consciousness on and off the stage.
The Impact of the RSC’s Spanish Golden Age Season
Authors: Jeffs Kathleen
Published: June 2018

The RSC’s groundbreaking 2004–5 season had a tremendous impact on the development of the comedia within the English-speaking theatrical landscape in the years that followed the performances. All through the process, the model of collaboration between the directors, translators, and academic consultants grew and continued to bear fruit. This chapter, written over ten years after the close of the RSC Spanish Golden Age season, examines that season’s influence on the subsequent productions it inspired. The model of collaboration between the team members took on various guises throughout the new productions that have come and gone since the close of the RSC season, and looking back through the lens of experience of that season gives a unique perspective on the work as it has evolved.
The Fame of C. S. Lewis
Authors: Derrick Stephanie L.
Published: June 2018

This book considers the history of British literary scholar, author and Christian apologist C. S. Lewis’s fame from the 1940s through the present and compares his contrasting patterns of reception in Britain and America. Lewis was both an esteemed literary figure and a divisive personality among his colleagues at Oxford and Cambridge Universities, who recognized his penchant for projecting a persona. It took the outbreak of the Second World War and invitations from Christian leaders to draw Lewis into crafting popular Christian apologetics. Yet Lewis’s reasons for writing books that were accessible to a broad audience, including his children’s books, were rooted in a literary theory informed by his early reading life in Edwardian Belfast and his objections to literary modernism. The reception of Lewis’s popular works in America was shaped by the fact that American readers did not appreciate Lewis’s literary and cultural context. His posthumous fame, furthermore, should be accredited in part to factors independent of the qualities of his work: e.g. the publishing history of his books, the rise of visual media, the history of evangelicalism, and the manipulation of his legacy by the C. S. Lewis Estate. The evolution of rival portraits of Lewis as a Christian apologist and a children’s author is equally part of this story. Lewis’s platform as a contrarian Christian resisting modernity and his reactions to the intellectual, social, and religious changes of his day made the critical difference to his disparate transatlantic receptions.
Lewis’s Popular Reception in Mid-Century Britain and America
Authors: Derrick Stephanie L.
Published: June 2018

From the time of his BBC broadcasts and The Screwtape Letters the name of C. S. Lewis was trusted by many. In both Britain and America the public knew him as an Oxford don, Christian apologist, and fiction writer. He was a sensation during the war and his Christian writings continued to find a market during his lifetime. Mid-century British and American Christians praised much of the same things in Mere Christianity and used it in similar ways. In both countries, Lewis benefited from a thriving periodical and print culture. Thousands of Americans responded enthusiastically to Lewis. However, shallow knowledge of British intellectual and cultural life meant that his works were less critically engaged; his person and books were made to fit American expectations. He was understood to be the contrarian persona he presented, and his embattled self-presentation was taken up with gusto by American critics.
Conclusion
Authors: Derrick Stephanie L.
Published: June 2018

The emphasis of this monograph has been on the historical, cultural, religious, and social factors that shaped C. S. Lewis and his reception. Until recently those who have considered the subject have attributed his popularity to virtues of the man himself. The fact that Lewis, in effect, was an image, a mitigated commercial product, a platform, has largely been overlooked. A critical component of Lewis’s reception is the opportunities that education provided the middle classes for social mobility in the twentieth century and the social divisions and anxieties attendant upon those evolutions. Of equal importance is the timing of Lewis’s life and publications with print history and the rise of mass media and entertainment. Lewis’s platform as a contrarian Christian resisting modernity and his reactions to the intellectual, social, and religious changes of his day made the critical difference to his transatlantic receptions.