bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Historic Site Content, Structure, and Function
Authors: South Stanley
Published: April 2006

Site content, structure, and function are examined using information drawn from historic sites, ethnographic observation, and modern material-culture studies in an effort to understand more about the relationship of past cultural systems to their material by-products. The elements of site content, such as artifacts, architecture, features, and strata, are examined in terms of their temporal and spatial dimensions in relation to site function.

The importance of identification of use, form, function, condition, and size in relation to spatial pattern and associations is emphasized. Given the ability to control or identify site function, those of us working on historic sites can begin to recognize the site structure correlates of site function and thereby take our place alongside experimental archaeology and ethnoarchaeology in the development of general archaeological theory.
Geoarchaeology: The Geologist and Archaeology
Authors: Hassan Fekri A.
Published: April 2006

Geoarchaeology is the contribution from earth sciences to the resolution of geology-related problems in archaeology. Its scope is wide, encompassing (1) locating archaeological sites, (2) evaluating the geomorphic landscape for site catchment activities and site location, (3) studying regional stratigraphic and microstratigraphic materials for relative dating and recognition of lateral and vertical distribution of activity areas, (4) analyzing sediments for the elucidation of site-forming processes and quantification of microarchaeological (sub-macroscopic) remains, (5) analyzing paleoenvironments, (6) studying artifacts to determine manufacturing practices, procurement range, trade, and exchange networks, (7) modeling cultural/environmental interactions, (8) conserving archaeological resources, and (9) geochronology.
A Comment on Bettinger: Problems in Archaeological Interpretation
Authors: Munday Frederick C. , Lincoln Thomas R.
Published: April 2006

Bettinger attempted to find out if change occurred in prehistoric land-use patterns in the Owens Valley, California, by comparing artifact and site distributions with those expected given Steward's ethnographic model for this area. Bettinger's conclusions are found to be faulty because they are contradictory, ignore other potential determinants of archaeological variability, and are based, in some instances, on erroneous interpretation of poorly conceived or inadequate data. We discuss additional factors that should be considered and possible interpretation of Bettinger's results.
Mortuary Behavior and Social Organization at Indian Knoll and Dickson Mounds
Authors: Rothschild Nan. A.
Published: April 2006

Two prehistoric mortuary sites, one from the Archaic and one from the Mississippian period, are compared with regard to the importance of age and sex as status-bearing variables. Statements about social organization in the two societies are examined using mortuary data, specifically, grave-good inclusions with burials. Cluster analyses at Indian Knoll in Kentucky and Dickson Mounds in Illinois show significant differences in cluster formation which can be interpreted in social organizational terms. These interpretations pertain both to the importance of age and sex and to wider principles of organization. Indian Knoll is found to be less egalitarian in organization than expected; Dickson Mounds, less hierarchical than expected.
Ceramic Depictions of Maize: A Basis for Classification of Prehistoric Races
Authors: Dunn Mary Eubanks
Published: April 2006

An investigation of ceramic models of maize is reported. Nineteen races are identified on 35 Moche jars. A review of the literature is presented. Methodological considerations and problems in the classification of archaeological maize are discussed. The maize races depicted are described and discussed in terms of their archaeological significance. The findings indicate that by A.D. 800, the north coast of Peru was a center of cultural exchange among diverse groups from a wide geographical area.
The Reduction of Maya Long Count Dates and Calendar Round Position to Their Gregorian Equivalents
Authors: Biese Leo P. , Iannuccillo Emilio
Published: April 2006

The reduction of Maya dates to their Gregorian equivalents is easily accomplished by the use of an inexpensive microcomputer. A program in the widely used basic language is presented, along with another to print a series of possible long counts for a given calendar round position.
Relationships Between Surface Area and Population Size: A Cautionary Note
Authors: Casteel Richard W.
Published: April 2006

Two models relating various measures of camp surface area to population size among !Kung Bushmen are examined. It is shown that though there does exist a significant, positive correlation between some areal measures and population size, neither of the previously published models correctly represents these relationships. Alternative regression models are presented for the !Kung Bushmen which describe surface area as a function of population size in an acceptably accurate and reasonably concise fashion.
A Preliminary Evaluation of Tooth Tartar among the Preconquest Maya of the Tayasal Area, El Peten, Guatemala
Authors: Evans David Trice
Published: April 2006

A sample of 48 burials from the Tayasal Peninsula area, El Peten, Guatemala, is used to tentatively suggest a dietary shift sometime around Middle Classic times among the Maya. This conclusion is reached through an observed variation in the amount of calculus, or tooth tartar, deposited through time.
Early Watertable Farming on the North Coast of Peru
Authors: West Michael
Published: April 2006

An archaeological example of simple watertable farming dating to the beginning of the Early Intermediate period in the Viru Valley, northern Peru, is reported. This technique was deployed by functionally differentiated segments of a single community, one stressing fishing and the other farming. Analyses of pollens indicate that Zea, Leguminosae, and Solonaceae were grown in two separate field systems.
Largo-Gallina Towers: An Explanation
Authors: Mackey James , Green R. C.
Published: April 2006

Excavation in Largo-Gallina phase sites supports the interpretation that towers were primarily defensive structures. There is some evidence that towers also had a storage use. It is interesting to note that the use of defensive and specialized, village-wide storage structures coincides temporally with a period of environmental deterioration in the American Southwest.
A Coordinate Approach to Northern Maya Prehistory: A.D. 700-1200
Authors: Ball Joseph W.
Published: April 2006

Despite almost 100 yr of research on the Yucatan peninsula, including several major archaeological and ethnohistoric projects, an organized synthesis of the pre-Late Postclassic culture history of this region has yet to appear. In the present paper, a trial coordination of the accumulated archaeological and ethnohistoric materials dealing with the eighth through twelfth centuries A.D. is presented, and a culture historic framework for this period is suggested.
Mechanical Basis of Percussion Flaking: Some Comments
Authors: Tsirk Are
Published: April 2006

Some unwarranted conclusions drawn by Speth in a recent article in American Antiquity are pointed out, and clarification of some other concepts referred to in that paper is suggested. The validity of an equation used by Speth is questioned and cautious application of some other equations is suggested.
The Archaeo-Ethnology of Hunter-Gatherers or the Tyranny of the Ethnographic Record in Archaeology
Authors: Wobst H. Martin
Published: April 2006

Many of the constructs of space, time and behavior in the ethnographic literature on hunter-gatherers may be partly determined by the severe constraints on ethnographic fieldwork. This paper discusses the genesis of some of these constructs, points out that the anthropological theory consumed by archaeologists is often based on, or developed for these constructs, and suggests that some of these constructs may be insensitive to deal with behavioral variability expressed in the archeological record, even though they can be made to fit any data. Their application to the archaeological record may merely be ethnography with a shovel in which the form and the structure of the ethnographic record are reproduced in the archaeological one.
Analogy and the Acceptance of Theory in Archaeology
Authors: Morwood M. J.
Published: April 2006

The “new archaeology,” a philosophy of archaeological research based on deductive logic, has both resolved and created problems. It has rightly stressed that the empirical content of a theory determines its acceptability; no longer must an assessment of its theoretical status be based on an appraisal of the person advancing the theory. However, a deductivist account is not satisfactory either logically or as a description of scientific processes. The basis of the problem is demonstrated by the concern of many archaeologists with ascertaining the degree to which a theory is confirmed; factual reconstruction, although of interest, is not, and should not be, fundamental to scientific work. By reexamining the basic purpose of science, I hope to demonstrate that what is required is an assessment of theoretical status based on relative empirical content.
Bone Projectile Points: An Addition to the Folsom Cultural Complex
Authors: Frison George C. , Zeimens George M.
Published: April 2006

Extinct subspecies of Bison were taken in mass kills with the aid of natural and artificial traps during Paleoindian times. A succession of chipped stone projectile points diagnostic of different cultural complexes was used. Bone projectile points can now be added to the fluted stone points of Folsom weaponry.
Two 1761 Wigwams at Niantic, Connecticut
Authors: Sturtevant William C.
Published: April 2006

Detailed drawings done by Ezra Stiles in 1761 show that Western Niantic domed wigwams were very like modern Kickapoo and other Northeastern North American aboriginal houses. Adena and Hopewell post molds are consistent with the same type of house.
Obsidian Sources in Guatemala: A Regional Approach
Authors: Mendoza Luis Hurtado de , Jester William A.
Published: April 2006

Geologic sources of obsidian are frequently treated in the archaeological literature as single, discrete flows, each being recognized as a different source as long as it can be geographically isolated. However, some recent studies show a tendency toward the correction of this misconception, and toward defining operationally the obsidian source concept on a regional basis. This work is intended to help achieve such definition for a number of obsidian sources in the central highlands of Guatemala. Geochemical characterization of samples from diverse source localities, attained by means of neutron activation analysis, is utilized for this purpose. The information thus obtained has importance to a number of fields of research in archaeology. To the now-routine studies on prehistoric trade routes, other lines of investigation can be added, namely the determination of source-specific obsidian hydration rates for dating purposes, and the reconstruction of structural features in sociocultural systems.
Improve Field Research Administration? How?
Authors: Cunningham Robert D.
Published: April 2006

An archaeological project's achievement depends on the efficiency of its management. Efficiency tends to be greater with delegation of administration to a qualified specialist. Such administration is economical for all but isolated and shoestring projects. Yet it is uncommon. Reasons and means for improvement are suggested.
Ghosts, Water Barriers, Corn, and Sacred Enclosures in the Eastern Woodlands
Authors: Hall Robert L.
Published: April 2006

Certain enigmatic prehistoric constructions in the eastern United States were possibly designed partly as barriers to restrict the movement of spirits or to protect the enclosed area from unwanted supernatural influences. Ethnographic accounts indicate that in historic times the belief was widely held in the United States that ghosts could not pass through water and that the geometry of a circle was effective in countering magic or supernatural forces. Some implications for archaeology are explored.
“Deductive” versus “Inductive” Archaeology
Authors: Salmon Merrilee H.
Published: April 2006

Disagreements among archaeologists about whether inductive or deductive methods are appropriate for establishing archaeological hypotheses are often founded in a misunderstanding of the nature of inductive reasoning. In this paper several cases of confirmation of archaeological hypotheses are examined in order to expose the logical structure of the reasoning involved. In all these cases the structure is basically inductive. In actual practice the methodology adopted by archaeologists is far more sophisticated than the account of this methodology presented by archaeologists.
Management Methods and Opportunities in Archaeology
Authors: Walka Joseph J.
Published: April 2006

Archaeological research organizations are a challenge to management since their output-research-is inherently difficult to measure and not subject to evaluation in the marketplace. The integration of business management theory and analytic techniques into the organization can assist those responsible to plan, organize, direct, and control the organization so as to improve effectiveness. Among these techniques are Gantt charts, the critical path method, and zero-base budgeting.
Boundary Conditions for Paleolithic Social Systems: A Simulation Approach
Authors: Wobst H. Martin
Published: April 2006

Pleistocene societies are viewed in this paper as manifestations of band society from which Paleolithic archaeologists can generate hypotheses about this cultural system and against which they can evaluate the validity of general cultural explanations. A general model is posited toward the isolation of Paleolithic societies in the archaeological record. Their numerical size is predicted from Monte Carlo simulations of model populations, and ways are discussed in which distinguishable equilibrium states of such societies can be predicted in time and space. Under the assumption of maximal constraints, simulations are used to predict the size and longevity of social units. The frequency of settlements produced during an equilibrium state of a society is simulated and the utility of survey for activity areas outside the settlements is demonstrated. The models developed in this paper are intended to stimulate deductive research in Paleolithic archaeology.
Construction of a Deductive Model by Simulation of a Traditional Archaeological Study
Authors: Borillo M.
Published: April 2006

This article is based on 2 observations. First, I note the quality of certain traditional archaeological studies, focusing on evaluation of results obtained and of information used. Second, I observe the incoherence of many of the constructions of "analytical" archaeologists, who sometimes naively imagine that it is possible to substitute sophisticated algorithms for analysis of the logic and archaeological meaning of problems in prehistory.

The goal of this work is twofold: (1) to set up a model for analysis of traditional archaeological works that resolves the linguistic and logical difficulties encountered during extraction of the information they contain; and (2) to give an example of the way in which "description" and "calculation" may be integrated into a logical analytical scheme, so that the problem of "interpretation" (that is, of proceeding from formalisms to meaning) is resolved without reproducing the shortcomings of traditional discourse. These shortcomings include a preponderance of personal intuition, an absence of explicit justifications, and numerous incoherences.

This paper is meant to be a contribution to efforts to reestablish the bases of archaeological reasoning in their historical continuity, beyond the mechanistic oppositions tending to mask the dialectic between "new" and "traditional" archaeology.

The paper is translated from its original French by Claudine Farrand.
A Closer Look at Clusters
Authors: White John R.
Published: April 2006

Rock clusters are among the most ubiquitous features found in prehistoric sites and, at the same time, those receiving the most casual treatment. There are at least twelve attributes that all such clusters share, including depth, dimensions, shape, density, rock size, fill, placement, and association. The differences between one cluster and the next can be explained in terms of different uses or functions, different types of sites, different groups (geographically or temporally), or differential availability of resources and/or preferential collection. Despite the wealth of information potentially attainable from these features, a literature search reveals that very few archaeologists deal with more than just a few of these attributes. The argument is made that such neglect ought to be corrected.
Short Methods for the Identification of Pigments
Authors: Littmann Edwin R.
Published: April 2006

Semi-micro methods have been devised for the identification of the metallic components comprising the pigments used in mesoamerican mural paintings. These methods are based upon samples of 10-15 mgfor each of the colors to be studied and include the reds, greens, blues, blacks and browns. The analyses are performed on individual samples for each color, thereby eliminating the need for long and tedious analytical procedures which are difficult to apply to the small amounts of material often available.
Concerning the Spatial Analysis of Occupation Floors
Authors: Clay R. Berle
Published: April 2006

Robert Whallon uses data from the Abri Pataud to develop and demonstrate methods for the analysis of artifact distributions. There are problems with the data and Whallon's use of it.
Toward the Identification of Formation Processes
Authors: Schiffer Michael B.
Published: April 2006

Research in experimental archaeology, ethnoarchaeology, geoarchaeology, and vertebrate taphonomy has appreciably increased our general understanding of the formation processes—cultural and natural—of archaeological sites. In synthesizing some of these recent advances, this paper focuses on the traces of artifacts and characteristics of deposits that can be used to identify the formation processes of specific deposits. These observational phenomena are grouped into three basic categories that structure the presentation: (1) simple properties of artifacts, (2) complex properties of artifacts, and (3) other properties of deposits. Also considered is the way in which prior knowledge can help the archaeologist to cope with the large number of processes and the nearly infinite combination of them that may have contributed to the specific deposits of interest. Several analytical strategies are proposed: (1) hypothesis testing, (2) multivariate analysis, and (3) use of published data to evaluate formation processes. This paper demonstrates that the identification of formation processes, which must precede behavioral inference and be accomplished by any research endeavor that uses evidence from the archaeological record, can become practical and routine.
A Rock Feature Complex from Northwestern California
Authors: Chartkoff Joseph L.
Published: April 2006

Six types of rock features have been identified in a northwestern California mountain range. The features, including cairns, alignments, hearth rings, stone circles, rock stacks, and semicircular enclosures (tsektsels) form a complex in association with traditional trails and mountain high points. Combined ethnographic and archaeological research reveals this complex to be associated with patterns of traditional religious activity involving power quests, ritual and medicinal training, and individual prayer among the Yurok and their neighbors. The complex can be traced from prehistoric beginnings to the present time, indicating the persistence of this ideological pattern through a period of severe cultural change associated with Euro-American settlement of northwestern California. It is not known yet whether the complex is unique to northwestern California or is manifested over a wider region.
Archaeomagnetic Dating in the American Southwest
Authors: Eighmy Jeffrey L. , Sternberg Robert S. , Butler Robert F.
Published: April 2006

Although archaeomagnetic dating seems straightforward in principle, there are practical limitations which are not generally understood. Unlike rate-dependent processes such as isotopic dating, archaeomagnetic dating requires the construction of a master record of geomagnetic secular variation. Error is inherent in such a master curve due to statistical uncertainties regarding both the magnetic directions and ages of the samples used to create the curve. The master curve itself is thus best represented as a ribbon rather than a line. Features being dated have their own error of measurement of magnetic direction, and deriving a date involves an interpretation based on the relation between the oval of confidence for the unknown and the ribbon representing the master curve. Thus a practical precision limit for archaeomagnetic dating is about ± 20 years under optimal circumstances, but the limit will generally be higher. Our pilot study revealed no major discrepancies between our work and the curves of DuBois (1975).
The Effects of Variable Site Occupation Span on the Results of Frequency Seriation
Authors: Barros Philip L. F. de
Published: April 2006

It is argued here that the effects of variable site occupation span on frequency seriation have not yet been clearly elucidated. The necessary clarification is provided by graphic models used to generate simulated data which are then seriated. After an analysis of the seriation results, it is concluded that site duration variability poses a more serious problem for frequency seriations than was once thought. Possible solutions are then discussed. It is shown that no solution is in the offing for typological seriations, although it is possible to estimate the magnitude of the errors produced. Something approaching a solution does exist, however, for attribute microseriations.
The Chronological Position of the Dalton Horizon in the Southeastern United States
Authors: Goodyear Albert C.
Published: April 2006

The chronological placement of the Dalton horizon in the southeastern United States has traditionally been between 10,000 and 8,000 B.P. (8000–6000 B.C.). A review of previous dating approaches questions the basis for that assignment and casts serious doubts about the validity of alleged associations between Dalton remains and C-14 dates in caves and shelters. The significance of two Dalton-associated C-14 dates from the alluvial terrace of the Rodgers Shelter site is discussed in regard to their age and contexts. Excavations of Dalton open sites during the 1970s revealed pure Dalton assemblages with no side-notched and corner-notched points present. Radiocarbon dates spanning the period from 9,500 to 9,000 B.P. for side-notched and corner-notched points indicate that the Dalton point had ceased to be made by that time. It is argued that the interval from 10,500 to 9,900 B.P. (8500–7900 B.C.) is the correct temporal position of the Dalton horizon. The importance of correctly estimating the age and duration of the Dalton adaptation is emphasized, particularly for relating technological and settlement strategies to the paleoenvironmental changes of the early Holocene.
The Identification of Vessel Function: A Case Study from Northwest Georgia
Authors: Hally David J.
Published: April 2006

Archaeologists now possess the knowledge and techniques necessary to identify pottery-vessel function with a reasonable degree of specificity. This article is intended to demonstrate that capability. The pottery vessel assemblage characteristic of the sixteenth-century Barnett phase in northwest Georgia consists of 13 physically and morphologically distinct vessel types. The mechanical performance characteristics of these vessel types are identified and employed in formulating hypotheses concerning the way vessel types were used. Historic Southeastern Indian food habits are reconstructed from ethnohistorical and ethnographic evidence and employed to refine the vessel-use hypotheses.
New Evidence for Early Woodland Seasonal Adaptation from Southern Ontario, Canada
Authors: Jackson L. J.
Published: April 2006

Radiocarbon dated features at the newly investigated Dawson Creek site in southern Ontario, Canada, document recurrent Amerindian occupations between the ninth and fifth centuries B.C. Artifactual, botanical, and faunal remains from six hearths evidence consistent fall season visits by task groups using Vinette 1 ceramics. Indicated reliance on nut-collecting and deer-hunting is duplicated at small Early Woodland sites elsewhere in Ontario and the Great Lakes region. Early thick ceramic types are clearly associated with scheduled seasonal activities. Possible differentiation of artifact assemblages by site function and season underscores the need for more discriminating definition of Early Woodland culture in the Northeast.
Cultural Materialism, Split Inheritance, and the Expansion of Ancient Peruvian Empires
Authors: Conrad Geoffrey W.
Published: April 2006

Archaeological and ethnohistoric data on the Chimu and Inca empires, two prehistoric Peruvian states that shared a number of organizational features, are used to test the theory of cultural materialism. Materialist explanations of Inca expansionism are evaluated; they are shown to be unconvincing in the Inca case and inapplicable to the Chimu. An alternative model is proposed that emphasizes the role of a particular legal principle, split inheritance. The presence of split inheritance in the two empires is documented. It is argued that in both cases split inheritance originated through manipulation of traditional elements of Andean ideology, was the driving force behind imperial expansion, and generated administrative and economic stresses eventually leading to imperial collapse. This model avoids the flaws of the materialist explanations it is intended to replace, and the theory of cultural materialism is rejected.
Con Manos Arriba: Tayasal and Archaeology
Authors: Chase Arlen F.
Published: April 2006

Controversy exists over the geographic placement of the ethnohistoric Itza capital called "Tayasal." At the heart of this dispute are the differences and limitations inherent in the use of either archaeological or ethnohistoric data to solve the problem. As presently understood, archaeological data do not support the traditional placement of Tayasal in Lake Peten-Itza.
Beyond Willow Smoke and Dogs’ Tails: A Comment on Binford's Analysis of Hunter-Gatherer Settlement Systems
Authors: Wiessner Polly
Published: April 2006

It is suggested that archaeologists would benefit by conceiving organizational variation in hunter-gatherer societies to be the result of both organization around resources and organization around other persons in social relations of production. This approach allows for predictions to be made about the patterning of material remains which are the products of intergroup and intragroup interaction, such as internal site structure, profiles of exchange, stylistic variation in artifacts, etc. To illustrate this point, I outline a number of social strategies for reducing risk in social and natural resources and derive hypotheses about their material correlates. While I emphasize the importance of understanding these strategies within a framework of adaptation, I question whether it is possible to predict strategies of organization from environmental variables alone.
The Origin and Spread of the Calumet Ceremony
Authors: Blakeslee Donald J.
Published: April 2006

This article refutes Turnbaugh's (1979) thesis that explains the origin and spread of the calumet ceremony by proceeding from Wallace's (1956) model of nativistic movements. It presents ethnohistoric and archaeological evidence for the origin of the calumet prior to A.D. 1634 on the Great Plains and explains its subsequent spread into the Woodlands in terms of alliances for trade and warfare.
Egregious Energetics
Authors: Webster David L.
Published: April 2006

Dickson's elaborate linear programming simulation of the agricultural carrying capacity of the Tikal sustaining area is flawed by an energetic miscalculation.
The Upper Paleolithic—However It Got Here, It's Here: (Can the Middle Paleolithic Be far behind?)
Authors: Cotter John L.
Published: April 2006

Morphological similarities in bone technology between Old World and New World Pleistocene epoch assemblages are noted, and their implications are explored.
The Numic Spread: Great Basin Cultures in Competition
Authors: Bettinger Robert L. , Baumhoff Martin A.
Published: April 2006

The rapid spread of Numic peoples into the Great Basin about 500-700 years ago is a major anomaly in the prehistory of that region because, according to current interpretations, it occurred in the absence of major adaptive change. A review of existing evidence suggests that this view is incorrect; we propose an alternative notion of important contrasts between Prenumic and Numic adaptation in terms of the relative reliance on large game and small seeds. These contrasts explain why the Numic speakers were consistently able to expand at the expense of Prenumic groups.
Errors in Vierra and Carlson's Presentation of Bartlett's Test of Significance
Authors: Healan Dan M.
Published: April 2006

Errors in Vierra and Carlson's (1981) presentation of Bartlett's test for significance of a correlation matrix are discussed and appropriate corrections offered.
A New Technique for Separating Flotation Samples
Authors: Ramenofsky Ann F. , Standifer Leon C. , Whitmer Ann M. , Standifer Marie S.
Published: April 2006

The seed blower is an instrument typically employed by seed technologists to sort seed types by density. Because of the labor intensive nature of hand separating flotation samples, the seed blower offers archaeologists a new apparatus that enhances the efficiency of initial separation. The blower is described, and initial results of its application to archaeological flotation samples from Louisiana are presented.
New Evidence for the Early Use of Cultigens in the American Southwest
Authors: Simmons Alan H.
Published: April 2006

Recent excavations near Chaco Canyon in northwestern New Mexico have yielded evidence for the use of cultigens by the early second millennium B.C. and continuing into the first millennium B.C. This information comes from four sites, all of which have been radiocarbon dated. The evidence for the oldest use of a cultigen, maize, is in the form of pollen; however, macrobotanical specimens of maize or squash were also recovered from sites dating to the Late Archaic. These data are summarized, as are their significance and implications.
Experiments in Ceramic Technology: The Effects of Various Tempering Materials on Impact and Thermal-Shock Resistance
Authors: Bronitsky Gordon , Hamer Robert
Published: April 2006

Prehistoric potters used a wide variety of materials as temper, or filler. Although temper selection has often been assumed to be the result of purely cultural factors, recent research indicates temper had technological functions as well. Impact and thermal-shock resistance data of a range of kinds, grades, and amounts of temper are presented. Test results indicate that the use of finely-ground tempers in general and burned shell temper in particular produce briquettes that are significantly more durable than briquettes incorporating other materials.
Growth and Aggregation at Canyon Creek Ruin: Implications for Evolutionary Change in East-Central Arizona
Authors: Graves Michael W.
Published: April 2006

Tree-ring data from the Canyon Creek Ruin, east-central Arizona, are analyzed to evaluate two competing interpretations of pueblo growth at this well-preserved cliff dwelling. Despite an anomalous dating pattern, a logistic model best describes pueblo growth. Room construction activity is linked to population increase, which, in turn, may be divided into two varieties: natural increase, and immigration of households into the settlement. Logistic growth also accounts for population increase within the larger area of the Grasshopper region. I review the processes promoting both local and regional population increase, as well as subsequent abandonment of the mountains of Arizona. I suggest that rapid depopulation may have occurred after A.D. 1375 because late prehistoric communities lost access to nonlocal goods that had previously allowed populations to increase beyond local resource constraints.
Oxygen Isotope Analysis and Seasonality Determinations: Limits and Potential of a New Technique
Authors: Bailey Geoffrey N. , Deith Margaret R. , Shackleton Nicholas J.
Published: April 2006

This paper presents a critical assessment of Killingley's approach to the determination of month of collection of marine molluscs by prehistoric people. The basis of the method is careful oxygen isotope measurements made in successive growth increments in the shells. We have analyzed specimens of Monodonta and Patella collected live on the coast of northern Spain, in conjunction with seasonality studies on molluscs from prehistoric sites in the neighborhood. These studies confirm the necessity of making careful analyses of each species under consideration. Given the significance both of interspecies differences and of climatic variability on timescales from a year upwards (particularly important in Killingley's area), we conclude that his apparent accuracy of ± a month is illusory.
The Formation of the Society for American Archaeology
Authors: Griffin James B.
Published: April 2006

The Society for American Archaeology officers should be commended for their efforts to celebrate the success of the Society in reaching its relative stability on the occasion of the 50th Annual Meeting to be held in Denver, Colorado in 1985. The recognized founding of the Society took place at the Hotel Roosevelt (Theodore not Franklin) in Pittsburgh, December 28, 1934 following a dinner of Section H of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Measuring Archaeological Diversity by Comparison with Simulated Assemblages
Authors: Kintigh Keith W.
Published: April 2006

A method for measuring diversity is proposed that uses an archaeologically derived underlying frequency distribution of classes of artifacts to generate theoretical expectations for the number of different classes of items that should be found in a collection of a given total size. Because sample size is controlled for, collections of different sizes can be directly compared in a simple graphical display. Because of its rigor and simplicity, this method serves to focus interpretive attention on issues of anthropological (rather than methodological) importance. Examples from the archaeological literature are used to illustrate the operation and potential applicability of this method to a wide range of archaeological problems.
Classic Maya Wells at Quiriguá, Guatemala: Household Facilities in a Water-Rich Setting
Authors: Ashmore Wendy
Published: April 2006

Studies of ancient Maya water management tend to emphasize consideration of features related either to agriculture or to the provision of communal water supplies in water-poor settings. Ceramic-lined wells in eighth-century Quiriguá, however, constituted household facilities of standardized form, distributed widely in a community where water supplies were always readily available. These wells both expand our knowledge of specialized Maya hydraulic technology and remind us that such inventions are not always the result of threats to survival.
Lowland Maya Archaeology at the Crossroads
Authors: Marcus Joyce
Published: April 2006

The Lowland Maya region has seen an enormous increase of new data over the last decade, but our progress is hampered by a tendency for cyclic return to previous theoretical positions. This results from several factors: too short a view of the discipline's history; a lack of familiarity with the rest of Mesoamerica; a lack of collaboration among archaeologists, ethnohistorians, and epigraphers; and a tendency to view alternative methodologies as competing rather than complementary. This paper synthesizes some of the major new discoveries and suggests where progress might be made if differing approaches were used in concert rather than in isolation.
Obsidian Dating in California: Theory and Practice
Authors: Meighan Clement W.
Published: April 2006

A review of the obsidian hydration rates proposed for California obsidian sources raises questions of both practical and theoretical nature about the use of obsidian dating. Obsidian hydration rates so far proposed (primarily but not exclusively by Jonathon Ericson) require careful evaluation and checking against empirical data; routine use of the preliminary rates ignores cautions raised by the investigators and can lead to inaccurate chronological determinations. Used with discrimination, however, obsidian dating does yield chronological ages in which there can be a reasonable degree of confidence.
Land-Use Changes in Owens Valley Prehistory: A Matter of Statistical Inference
Authors: Hall M. C.
Published: April 2006

In a recent exchange Munday and Lincoln (1979) and Bettinger (1979a) debate the conclusions reached by Bettinger (1977) regarding diachronic variation in the prehistoric land-use patterns of Owens Valley, California. There are several related sources of error in Bettinger's quantitative and statistical operations that were not clarified or discussed in the published arguments. An evaluation of their potential effect on the analysis conducted by Bettinger (1975) lends considerable support to the basic assertion of Munday and Lincoln that Bettinger (1977) did not fully appreciate alternative explanations of the spatial and temporal variation he observed in site and artifact distributions in Owens Valley. Two of the three "adaptive shifts" in land-use patterns proposed by Bettinger are not supported by the published data.
Prehistoric Llama Breeding and Herding on the North Coast of Peru
Authors: Shimada Melody , Shimada Izumi
Published: April 2006

There is no clear-cut consensus or reliable body of published data in the Andean literature indicating whether llamas were bred and herded on the prehistoric North Coast of Peru or periodically imported from the highlands. Based on four lines of evidence—ethnographic, archaeozoological, physiological, and ethnohistoric—we argue that llamas (and perhaps even alpacas) were successfully bred and maintained on the North Coast from the early Middle Horizon (ca. A.D. 600) and perhaps since the Early Horizon. More specifically, we discuss population structure, representation of body parts, climatic and dietary adaptability, and abundance of coastal forage. Both llamas and alpacas are physiologically well-adapted for the coastal environment and can efficiently process a wide range of forage. By the Middle Horizon, domestic camelids served a wide range of functions including transport, sacrifice, tools, and meat. Species identification, coastal herd management, effects of disease vectors, and other related issues are also discussed.
“Righteous Rocks” and Richard Gould: Some Observations on Misguided “Debate”
Authors: Binford Lewis R. , Stone Nancy M.
Published: April 2006

A response is provided to Richard Gould's account of utilitarian variables in hunter-gatherer technology, especially his recent discussions of Binford's Nunamiut data.
Architecture as Artifact—Part II: A Comment on Gilman
Authors: Wilshusen Richard H.
Published: April 2006

Can architecture be treated as an artifact worthy of archaeological analysis? This is a key question that remains unanswered in Gilman's (1987) article on southwestern pit structures and pueblos. The majority of Gilman's article is a cross-cultural ethnographic overview of pit-structure and pueblo use. Gilman takes such a "big-picture" approach that when she finally presents her archaeological data it is insufficient to test her model of architectural change. More importantly, by disregarding temporal changes in prehistoric southwestern pit-structure and pueblo designs, Gilman fails to realize that pit structures and pueblos are architecturally related phenomena during the transition period that is the focus of her research. Pit structures, rather than being independent of pueblos, actually provide the construction dirt with which many of the first pueblos are built.
A Response to Wilshusen
Authors: Gilman Patricia A.
Published: April 2006

Wilshusen has critiqued my recent research on pit structures and pueblos in the prehistoric Southwest and has suggested that the use of pit and surface structures is interrelated in that pit structures in southwestern Colorado become deeper at the same time surface structures become more common. This idea is examined further in my response, in the context of a broad and general argument, while Wilshusen examines pit-structure depth, one particular aspect of the pit-structure-to-pueblo transition.
Estimating Population at Ancient Military Sites: The Use of Historical and Contemporary Analogy
Authors: Kardulias P. Nick
Published: April 2006

Archaeologists have devised various methods to estimate the number of past site occupants. These techniques fall into a number of categories, but I will focus on two common approaches based on (1) the amount of roofed space each individual needs, and (2) the total site area and the number of persons per hectare. This report suggests that neither of these methods is fully appropriate for ancient military installations. Population estimates derived by the traditional techniques for the Byzantine fortress at Isthmia, Greece, are compared with numbers obtained by factors specific to a military camp. Through the examination of historical sources and contemporary military regulations, this paper presents a more appropriate coefficient for ancient fortresses, which had much denser populations than habitation sites. The use of such analogies, which are specific to the problem at hand, greatly increase the reliability of inferences.
Isotopic and Mortuary Variability in a Middle Mississippian Population
Authors: Schurr Mark R.
Published: April 2006

Stable-isotopic studies of prehistoric diet have usually confined discussions of isotopic variability within populations to sex-related differences in diet and have rarely considered other social or cultural sources of dietary variation. Extant data from eastern North America suggest that isotopic variation (and hence dietary variation) may have been greatest within the relatively complex Middle Mississippian societies of the late prehistoric period. Correlations between isotopic variability and mortuary variability (an indication of social position) were identified in a sample of burials from the Angel site, a Middle Mississippian (A.D. 1200-1450) civic-ceremonial center in southwestern Indiana. These correlations demonstrate how contextually informed isotopic studies can be used to examine the relations between social position and diet. This approach may be especially useful for studies of social interactions between different populations.
Old Bottle, New Wine: The Function of Chultuns in the Maya Lowlands
Authors: Dahlin Bruce H. , Litzinger William J.
Published: April 2006

Prior research on the function of shoe-shaped chultuns found in the southern Yucatan peninsula has focused on their use for household level storage of dry foodstuffs. We found that inter- and intra-site distribution patterns of chultuns do not support the household storage hypothesis. At Tikal only 20-25% of the households had chultuns, and most of these households had two or more chultuns. We believe the distributional data suggest that chultuns were associated with a cottage-level industry in the context of a vending economy. Because the internal environment of chultuns appears favorable for conducting fermentations, we propose that they were used as places to process, and for limited periods to store, fermented foods such as alcoholic beverages and pickled fruits. The greatest demand for chultun products was apparently centered around large urban sites in northeastern Peten and northern Belize where frequent civic/religious festivals encouraged a small to moderate market potential.
The Archaeology of Contemporary Landfills
Authors: Rathje W. L. , Hughes W. W. , Wilson D. C. , Tani M. K. , Archer G. H. , Hunt R. G. , Jones T. W.
Published: April 2006

The Garbage Project has excavated eight sanitary landfulls from California to Florida and analyzed 6.71 metric tons of refuse deposited between 1952 and 1988. While the ultimate goal of this continuing endeavor is to collect archaeological data on contemporary discards using a methodology that will link our society to the past, this initial report relates Garbage Project data to three issues of current public concern. This first applied archaeology of landfills has identified: (1) the contents of specific landfills and possible refinements for "national" estimates of U.S. landfill contents; (2) a link between moisture level and rate of refuse decomposition; and (3) part of the pathway of migration for heavy metals.
Ceramic Petrography as a Technique for Documenting Cultural Interaction: An Example from the Upper Mississippi Valley
Authors: Stoltman James B.
Published: April 2006

The petrographic identification of ceramic tempers has long been known to be a fruitful line of inquiry for investigating intersite and interregional cultural interaction. By applying point-counting procedures to the recording of natural as well as humanly added mineral inclusions in ceramic thin sections, considerable power can be added to this traditionally qualitative technique. The effectiveness of this more quantitative approach in discriminating local from nonlocal vessels is demonstrated through a comparative analysis of two Middle Mississippian-contact sites in the upper Mississippi Valley region-Hartley Fort in northeast Iowa and the Fred Edwards site in southwest Wisconsin.
Archaeological Visibility and the Underclass of Southwestern Prehistory
Authors: Upham Steadman
Published: April 2006

Archaeologists interpreting the patterns of prehistory in the American Southwest have been influenced dramatically by the obtrusiveness of certain kinds of archaeological remains and by the remarkable record of continuity they suggest. Low-visibility archaeological remains and discontinuous developmental sequences have been accorded only minor significance in southwestern prehistory, in spite of the fact that occupational "discontinuities" are evident in the archaeological record of many regions. In this paper, two examples are presented to show how low-visibility archaeological remains support a discontinuous model of cultural development on the Colorado Plateaus.
The Paleoindian Component at Charlie Lake Cave (HbRf 39), British Columbia
Authors: Fladmark Knut R. , Driver Jonathan C. , Alexander Diana
Published: April 2006

Charlie Lake Cave (HbRf 39) is a stratified site in northeastern British Columbia, Canada, containing a fluted-point component at the base of the excavated deposits. The small artifact assemblage includes a fluted point, stone bead, core tool, and retouched flake. A diverse associated fauna includes fish, birds, and mammals, indicating a more open environment than exists today. Radiocarbon dates suggest that the artifact assemblage was deposited about 10,500 years ago.
The Role of Resolution and Sample Preparation in Hydration Rim Measurement: Implications for Experimentally Determined Hydration Rates
Authors: Scheetz Barry E. , Stevenson Christopher M.
Published: April 2006

The role of the theoretical limit of resolution of optical microscopes is discussed in relation to obsidian rim age-date determinations. The resolution of the optics is shown to contribute an error of ± 20 percent. The error analysis identified the determination of the activation energy as the single step in the dating process that introduces the largest error.