bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Digital Electron Micrograph Recording And Basic Processing
Authors: Peng L -M , Dudarev S L , Whelan M J
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we will discuss the recording and basic processing of digitized electron micrographs, including electron microscope images or diffraction patterns. The major advantage associated with using digitized images is that they may be readily processed with computers and compared with theoretical calculations. The commonly used electron recording media include photographic film, TV cameras, charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras (Mooney et al., 1990), and image plates (IP) (Ogura et al., 1994). Ideally an electron recording device should be able to record electron images without degrading their resolution and adding appreciable noise, and to have a large number of pixels, wide dynamic range, and excellent linearity. An ideal electron recording device should also be of the on-line type, i.e. it should be able to display images simultaneously or within seconds of the moment when they are recorded. Photographic film and IP are off-line recording media and are not suitable for the majority of on-line applications.
Image Formation And The Retrieval Of The Electron Wave Function
Authors: Peng L -M , Dudarev S L , Whelan M J
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we discuss the process of image formation in a transmission electron microscope. For electron microscopes fitted with either a tungsten or LaB6filament the illumination may be regarded as perfectly incoherent, while for fieldemission gun (FEG) electron microscopes the illumination is partially coherent.
General concepts of parameter estimation
Authors: Cowan Glen
Published: November 2023

In this chapter some general concepts of parameter estimation are examined which apply to all of the methods discussed in Chapters 6 through 8. In addition, prescriptions for estimating properties of p.d.f.s such as the mean and variance are given.
Chemistry in the Winds of Young Stellar Objects
Authors: Glassgold A E
Published: November 2023

The realization that powerful winds accompany the formation of stars has played an important role in understanding how stars form (e.g. Shu, Adams and Lizano 1987; Lada and Shu 1990). Although considerable evidence for mass loss from young stellar objects (YSOs) existed before 1980, the discovery of bipolar molecular outflows (Snell, Loren and Plambeck 1980; the review by Lada 1985; Snell 1987; Fukui et al. 1993; Bachiller 1996) was a turning point in star formation research. Some of the striking phenomena related to the bipolar outflows are forbidden lines with asymmetric lineshapes, Herbig-Haro objects (cf. Chapter 10), and jets (reviewed by Edwards, Ray and Mundt 1993). When we also consider that low-mass stars (our primary concern here), form in dense cloud cores (cf. Chapter 5) and that much of the matter is transferred to one through an accretion disc, we can appreciate that the formation of a star involves a number of interacting systems with different size scales and physical properties.
Shock Chemistry
Authors: Hartquist T W , Caselli P
Published: November 2023

The winds and jets of young stellar objects, the outflows of evolved stars, super-novae in normal galaxies and in starburst galaxies, and the winds and jets of the central objects of active galactic nuclei drive shocks into ambient gas. Thus, shock heated molecular gas exists in many types of sources.
Photon-dominated Regions
Authors: Sternberg Amiel
Published: November 2023

Photon-dominated regions (PDR.s) are produced in dense neutral hydrogen clouds exposed to far-ultraviolet (FUV) radiation fields (6–13.6 eV). PDR.s are present at the edges of HII regions, in reflection and planetary nebulae, and are pervasive inside clumpy star-forming molecular clouds illuminated by direct and scattered stellar FUV radiation. PDR.s are present in starburst galaxy nuclei and active galactic nuclei.
Introduction to Stellar Evolution
Authors: Schonberner Detlef , Blocker Thomas
Published: November 2023

Stars are an important constituent of galaxies and are exclusively responsible for the production, reprocessing and dissemination of the heavier elements. The existence of these elements provides the necessary prerequisite to establish chemical reactions under suitable conditions which then ultimately lead to the formation of organic molecules. Hence, it is of considerable importance to acquire a comprehensive and precise knowledge of all the complex physical processes that occur deep inside the stars, in their envelopes and also in the flow of matter from their surfaces into the interstellar medium.
Dust Formation in Novae
Authors: Rawlings Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Dust is a ubiquitous and vital component of the interstellar medium. Its formation in the hot winds ejected during the outburst of novae is a well-established phenomenon. However, the mechanisms by which dust is formed and the criteria which determine the efficiency of that process are very poorly understood. Central to these problems is the fact that the chemistry of dust grain nucleation and growth exists on the periphery of our understanding of interstellar chemical processes (cf. Chapters 12, 13). It bridges the microscopic world of molecules and chemical kinetics and the macroscopic world of bulk grain solid-state chemistry and thermodynaµiics. The intermediate regime is complex and largely unknown. To illustrate this point we should bear in mind that even, a relatively simple organic intermediate based on a few tens of carbon atoms may have many millions-of isomers. It is quite clear that for the most general case we- have neither adequate data, nor the requisite computational power to be able to model ,the chemical kinetics of these chemical intermediates. In this chapter we investigate the mechanisms that lead to dust formation in the ejecta of novae, and how the apparently hostile environment of a nova still manages to be conducive to molecular processes. The harshness of the environment has both beneficial and complicating effects on the chemical modelling. Although novae may seem to be a somewhat specialized test bed for dust grain nucleation theory, the general conclusions that can be drawn have relevance to all studies of astrophysical dust formation.
Beyond silicon:the rise of compound semiconductors
Authors: O’Donnell Kevin P
Published: November 2023

This is a book about gallium nitride and its alloys. To those physicists, chemists, materials scientists, and technologists who are fortunate enough to be working with these materials at the present time, there can be no doubt that the nitrides are the most fascinating of all semiconductors. At the same time, the nitrides are the materials most likely to be exploited commercially in the years leading up to the millennium. Perhaps our degree of fascination is closely related to the marketability? After all, researchers are as aware as anyone of the commercial realities embedded in scientific activity. The purpose of this introductory chapter is to provide an answer to some basic questions concerning the place of nitrides among the families of semiconductors that lie beyond silicon.We should begin by noting that silicon is the prime semiconductor, accounting for an estimated 99% of commercial production, in terms of raw material (this is only an estimate: you could probably beat me down to 95% on a bad day) and some 90% of research and development costs. Silicon is an elemental semiconductor, from Group IV of the periodic table.
Convergence of the Energy for the Thomas-Fermi-Von Weizs ä.Cker Model With Yukawa Potential
Authors: Catto Isabelle , Bris Claude Le , Lions Pierre-Louis
Published: November 2023

This chapter is devoted to the proof of the existence of a limit for the energy per unit volume in the setting of the TFW model with Yukawa potential, and in the setting of some related models. Let us first recall in this introduction the setting of the TFW problem with Yukawa potential, that we have introduced above in Section 1.5 of Chapter 1. We denote by
Convergence of the density for the Thomas-fermi-von weizsäcker model with yukawa potential
Authors: Catto Isabelle , Bris Claude Le , Lions Pierre-Louis
Published: November 2023

Whereas in Chapters 2 and 3 we were interested in the behaviour of the energy per unit volume when the molecular system asymptotically approached an infinite crystal, we begin with this chapter our investigation on the behaviour of the electronic density. Let us recall that the main questions on this density, that we introduced in Chapter 1, are: Does the electronic density go to a limit, and does this limit share the same periodicity as the infinite lattice of the crystal?
Vortices in Superconductors
Authors: Pismen L M
Published: November 2023

A superconductor is a charged superfluid where dissipationless superflow manifests itself as supercurrent. The order parameter in the macroscopic theory of superconductivity is a complex scalar that expresses, as in the Ginzburg·Landau theory of superfluids, the wave function of the Bose condensate, formed in this case by Cooper pairs ·- electron pairs combining into quasiparticles with zero spin (Landau and Lifshitz IX, 1987; Tinkham, 1994). Since the Bose condensate is charged, the energy functional should include an interaction with the electromagnetic field.
Ecological speciation in postglacial fishes
Authors: Schluter Dolph
Published: November 2023

The ecological processes that drive speciation are poorly understood. The topic has received only sporadic attention over the past few decades, confined largely to a fraction of literature devoted to the possibility of speciation in sympatry (Rice and Hostert 1993; Bush 1994). Progress in identifying environmental mechanisms has been slow regardless of the putative geographic mode of speciation. By ‘speciation’ I mean the evolution of reproductive isolation. ‘Ecological processes’ are the interactions between individual organisms and their environment that cause natural selection and that drive population establishment, growth, and decline.
How ‘molecular leakage ‘ can mislead us about island speciation
Authors: Clorkc Bryan , Johnson, M S , Murray James
Published: November 2023

It is often supposed that to reconstruct the true phylogeny of organisms we should use characters or sequences that are, as nearly as possible, selectively neutral. Those under selection are thought to be unsatisfactory because different lineages can converge when they are exposed to similar environments. Here we report evidence that, in groups of sympatric species, neutral sequences may be seriously misleading about evolutionary relationships, while genes under selection may yet contain valid phylogenetic information.
Quantum mechanics of the atom-radiation interaction
Authors: Loudon Rodney
Published: November 2023

The calculations of the preceding chapter display some of the inadequacies of the Einstein theory of interaction of light with atoms. The theory itself gives no prescription for computing the values of the A and B coefficients appropriate to a given atomic transition. For this one must look to the quantum-mechanical theory of transition probabilities. As light beams are generated by emission from atoms and measurements on light beams ultimately depend on the absorption of light by atoms, it is essential to cover the theory of the atomic interaction processes, even though the main interest of the book is the quantum nature of the light itself. More seriously, the Einstein theory is applicable only for broad-band illumination of the atom, where the energy in the incident light is distributed smoothly across the frequencies within the linewidth of the atomic transition. By contrast, many experiments with laser sources use light beams whose frequency distributions are much narrower than atomic transition linewidths.
Classical theory of optical fluctuations and coherence
Authors: Loudon Rodney
Published: November 2023

The study of the classical theory of optical fluctuations and coherence is an important preliminary to the development of the corresponding quantum-mechanical theory. The classical theory is useful for a physical understanding of the various effects and many of the classical concepts carry over into the quantum theory. In addition, a knowledge of the classical theory is useful for identification of the nature of the specifically quantum properties that some light beams may exhibit. Thus it is shown in Chapter 5 that the classical and quantum theories yield the ame predictions for chaotic light, but that there exist other kinds of light that elude any satisfactory classical description. The nature of such ‘nonclassical’ light i5, of course, more sharply appreciated by contrast with the limitations on the possible kinds of light inherent in the classical theory.
Quantization of the radiation field
Authors: Loudon Rodney
Published: November 2023

The present chapter is devoted to a description of the procedure by which quantum mechanics is applied to the electromagnetic field. We obtain expressions for the operators that represent the field observables and we examine some of their properties. The quantization introduces characteristic quantum-mechanical effects into the properties of the radiation field, for example field operators that do not commute with each other and thus represent incompatible measured quantities. The Hamiltonian of the coupled radiation-atomic system is expressed wholly in terms of quantum-mechanical operators. We show that the full quantum theory of the interaction between the radiation field and atoms produces the same transition rates for absorption and stimulated emission as does the semiclassical theory. The rate of spontaneous emission confirms that obtained from the phenomenological Einstein theory. The treatment of absorption of radiation by atoms also identifies the quantum-mechanical operator that represents a measurement of the energy or intensity of a light beam, and this has important consequences for the descriptions of the experiments that can be performed in practice.
Marine Resource Use
Authors: Monk Kathryn A , Fretes Yance de , Reksodiharjo-Lilley Gayatri
Published: November 2023

Indonesia is extremely rich in marine resources. The diverse marine ecosystems in NT&M and the physical environment which supports a variety of different habitats make this region highly diverse in marine resources. The upwelling phenomenon in the Banda Sea and Arafura Sea during the east monsoon in May to August further add to the increase of these resources.
Drawing graphs in the plane
Authors: Matoušek Jiří , Nešetřil Jaroslav
Published: November 2023

Often it is advantageous to draw graphs. As you can see, most of the graphs in this book are specified by a picture (instead of a list of vertices and edges, say). But so far we have been studying properties of graphs not related to their drawings, and the role of drawings was purely auxiliary. In this chapter the subject of analysis will be the drawing of graphs itself and we will mainly investigate graphs that can be drawn in the plane without edge crossings. Such graphs are called planar. From the numerous pictures shown so far and from the informal definition given in Section 3.1, the reader might have gained a quite good intuition about what is meant by a drawing of a graph. Such an intuition is usually sufficient if we want to show, say, that some graph is planar-we can simply draw a suitable picture of the graph with no edge crossings. However, if we want to prove, in a strictly logical way, that some graph is not planar, then we cannot do without a mathematical definition of the notion of a drawing, based on other exact mathematical notions. Today’s mathematics is completely built from a few primitive notions and axioms of set theory-or at least the majority of mathematicians try to ensure it is.
The Jordan normal form
Authors: Kaye Richard , Wilson Robert
Published: November 2023

If a linear transformation f : V → V is not diagonalizable, we may still ask for a basis with respect to which the matrix of f is as ‘nice as possible’. It turns out that we can always obtain such a basis where this matrix is in Jordan normal form; that is, a special upper triangular form where the only nonzero entries off the diagonal are entries equal to 1 just above repeated eigenvalues. Such forms will enable us to solve a much greater variety of simultaneous difference and differential equations.
Genetic diversity in natural populations
Authors: Harwood John , Amos William
Published: November 2023

The Convention on Biological Diversity requires signatories to protect diversity at all levels from the genome to the ecosystem. This acknowledgement of the importance of genetic diversity within species is only right and proper, since this diversity is the base material on which all variety ultimately depends. Genetic diversity (whether measured by levels of heterozygosity or number of alleles per locus) is usually correlated with fitness (Mitton and Grant 1984; Allen doff and Leary 1986), and populations which are genetically diverse should be moreable to respond to parasites, predators, and environmental change than their genetically impoverished counterparts. However, levels of genetic variability differ markedly between major taxonomic groups (Ward et al.1992), and even between closely related species within the same taxon. Some species which are predicted to be genetically impoverished are not, while others harbour much less variability than expected. Similarly, there are exceptions to the rule that high levels of genetic variability equate to evolutionary health: some populations with low genetic diversity are increasing exponentially and others are declining, although they possess great variability.
Explosive speciation of African cichlid fishes
Authors: Turner George F
Published: November 2023

Lakes can be considered as inverted islands, as far as freshwater organisms are concerned, and the great lakes of East Africa, clustered in and around the African Rift valley, can be considered an archipelago where a single family of fishes, the Cichlidae, has radiated to produce more than 1500 species. Even though they were only known from a small and unrepresentative collection of preserved material, the unusual diversity of these fishes came to the attention of major figures in the modern synthesis of evolutionary biology in the first half of the twentieth century (Huxley 1942; Mayr 1942). The cichlid fishes rapidly became established as a textbook example of ‘adaptive radiation ‘ or ‘explosive speciation ‘. Recent studies are only now revealing that the number of species has been greatly underestimated, while the radiations in individual lakes may be much younger than has been suspected. The mechanisms underlying this extraordinary radiation are still unclear, but a combination of field studies, laboratory breeding experiments and application of molecular techniques has already overturned a number of theories.
From genes to individuals: developmental genes and the generation of the phenotype
Authors: Tautz Diethard , Sclmzid Karl
Published: November 2023

The assumption that the understanding of ontogeny should also be the basis for understanding phylogeny can be traced back into Darwin ‘s times and has become commonplace today. However, developmental and evolutionary disciplines have followed very different routes during the past decades and have generated their own paradigms. Often, these do not provide much room for overlap. This situation is currently changing. The progress in molecular genetic methods is starting to unite the two fields. We are beginning to understand how an organism is built at the molecular level and many of the genes involved in these processes appear to be highly conserved in evolution. This provides an immediate access to comparative studies in diverse organisms and is starting to create a new discipline: molecular comparative embryology. The early results from this discipline do already shed some light on the course of the major cladogenic events. Yet, since most of the developmental genetic approaches were not designed to solve evolutionary questions, their outcomes provide only a patchy picture of the possible routes of evolution of the organisms. The genes that are most heavily studied are those involved in early embryonic decisions, rather than those required for the differentiation of the adult morphology. Evidently, evolutionary biologists would be particularly interested in the latter class of genes, as these are the ones that should be most relevant for ecological adaptations and speciation. Characterizing such genes will therefore be a major task of the future for biologists working at the interface of development and evolution.
Geographic range size and speciation
Authors: Gaston Kevin J , Chown Steven L
Published: November 2023

No species is distributed ubiquitously across the Earth. Indeed, the sizes of global geographic ranges vary by at least 12 orders of magnitude (Brown et al.1996). At one extreme lie those species constrained, by ecology or by history, to occupy small, isolated islands of habitat or very scarce sets of environmental conditions. At the other extreme lie those species which are distributed across multiple biogeographic regions. This interspecific variance in geographic range sizes has stimulated a host of investigations of the constraints on the occurrences of more narrowly distributed species, and of the mechanisms which enable the more widely distributed to become so (e.g. for references and reviews see Woodward 1987; Hengeveld 1990). On the contrary, little interest has been directed toward broad interspecific patterns in the determinants and consequences of this variation (for reviews see Kunin and Gaston 1993, 1997; Gaston 1994a; Brown 1995).Perhaps the most basic summary of, and pattern in, the variation of geographic range sizes exhibited by a taxonomic assemblage is the species-range size distribution and its associated statistics. The frequency distribution of the geographic range sizes of species in a taxonomic assemblage tends to be unimodal with a strong right-skew.
Rates of speciation 1n the fossil record
Authors: Sepkoski J John
Published: November 2023

A rate of speciation is a measurement of how many new species appear in an interval of time within a given taxon and a given habitat, region, or ecosystem. A rate of speciation can also be a comparative measure, less dependent on time, relating to how one taxon seems to diversify relative to another. The principal processes of speciation remain inadequately understood, despite a huge literature of field, laboratory, and theoretical studies. Still, this does not preclude empirical studies of the magnitude of speciation and the variation of rates observed in historical records. In this contribution, I briefly examine empirical rates of speciation, and of origination of taxa above the species level, from a paleontological perspective. 1 first consider the average global rate of speciation and then discuss several sources of variation in rate at scales ranging from the whole of the Phanerozoic down to individual taxa and climatic fluctuations.
A short bibliography of Newtons writings published before 1800
Authors: Hall A Rupert
Published: November 2023

This list is not exhaustive; it does not always note all editions of every work, nor include all Newton’s currency reports and other minor writings. The names of publishers are normally omitted. 1744 Castiglione, G. F. M. M. Salvemini di (ed. and trans.), lsaaci Newtoni ... Opuscula mathematica, philosophica et philolog ica ... Lausanne and Geneva, three volumes. 1779-85 Samuel Horsley (ed.), Isaaci Newton Opera quae exstant omnia. London, five volumes.
Negotiating “the world’s slippery path”
Authors: Parshall Karen Hunger
Published: November 2023

During the course of his life, James Joseph Sylvester repeatedly experienced a sense of sliding on “the world’s slippery path” (letter 7), but his footing seemed perhaps most unsure in the years prior to 1850 as he sought to establish himself professionally while pursuing his mathematical interests. The balance proved difficult to strike for a number of reasons. First and foremost, the twentiethcentury concept of a “professional mathematician” as someone who earns a living by proving theorems did not exist in Victorian Britain. The universities had mathematics chairs, fellows, and tutors, but undergraduate teaching exclusively defined these positions. Moreover, as a Jew and thereby a non-Anglican, Sylvester could not subscribe to the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England and so was ineligible for any degree from or post associated with an Anglican institution. How, then, could he make his way doing what he did best, namely, mathematics? The answer was unclear, and he took a number of false steps in trying to find it.
Functional analysis
Authors: Pier Jean-Paul
Published: November 2023

The study of collections of functions has been going on for 40 years. One may now have a look backwards and appreciate the accomplished results, the role played by this theory and its influence on the development of modem analysis.
Harmonic analysis
Authors: Pier Jean-Paul
Published: November 2023

After the fundamental achievements by D. Bernoulli, Fourier, and Dirichlet, the history of trigonometric series came to a turning point at the beginning of the XXth century (Pier 1990).
Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations
Authors: Pier Jean-Paul
Published: November 2023

Analysis, and actually all parts of mathematics that bear our physical image of the world, are grounded on the field of rational numbers.
Introduction
Authors: Richards E G
Published: November 2023

Modern man has been around for some roo ooo years or so. By 15 ooo BC he had spread into most of the habitable world; by about ro ooo BC he had invented agriculture. We only know of the people of these remote times by their graves, their artefacts, their rock paintings, and their buildings that have survived. If they had a calendar, we can only surmise its nature from the few traces that remain.
ThCealendars of India
Authors: Richards E G
Published: November 2023

In India (or what is now Pakistan), the Indus Valley civilizations at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and elsewhere, flourished in about 2500 BC.However, their writing has not yet been deciphered, so we know nothing of their calendar. Later, Aryan invaders from the North initiated new developments in many parts oflndia.
ThReoman and Julian Calendars
Authors: Richards E G
Published: November 2023

Many people have some knowledge of Rome and Roman civilization; the following are just a few landmarks in the history of Rome: Our knowledge of the history of the Roman calendar is largely based on the works of Censorinus, who wrote in AD 238 on the division of time in his De die natali; ofMacrobius, a grammarian and antiquarian who wrote his Saturnalia.
ThJeewish Calendar
Authors: Richards E G
Published: November 2023

The Bible is the main source of our knowledge of early Jewish history. For events reported before about rooo BC it is difficult to disentangle fact from myth, dates are very uncertain, and corroboration from other sources rare. Thus, biblical figures such as Adam, Abraham, Moses, and Samuel remain potentially mythical.
ThWeeek
Authors: Richards E G
Published: November 2023

You and I may have to refer to a calendar to find out today’s date, but a person who does not know what is the day of the week is sometimes thought to be on the verge of mental disintegration. However, in the absence of newspapers, the radio, and other cultural clues, keeping track of the day of the week is diffi cult--as Robinson Crusoe discovered. In fact, his bout of fever caused him to miss a day from his tally, as he realized on his eventual rescue: Man Friday should indeed have been named Man Saturday.
ThMeayan Calendar
Authors: Richards E G
Published: November 2023

The Mayan people reckoned dates in two ways: by the calendar round and by the long count. The former allowed them to specify a date within a period of about 52 years; the latter was a direct measure of the number of days elapsed since the start of a great cycle in the remote past. We take this day to be the epoch of the long count and, following many scholars, take this to be the Julian date 8/9/3n4 BC, which has aJulian day number of 584285.
Energy sources
Authors: Chan C C , Chau K T
Published: November 2023

The mission of all EV energy sources is to supply electrical energy for propulsion.
Ill-Conditioned Toeplitz Systems
Authors: Ng Michael K
Published: November 2023

In Chapters 4 and 5, we considered preconditioners for Toeplitz matrices that are generated by positive functions. These are the nice cases as the Toeplitz matrices are well-conditioned and the preconditioned systems will converge superlinearly. In this chapter, we study Toeplitz matrices that are generated by nonnegative functions with a finite number of zeros. These matrices will be ill-conditioned and new preconditioners have to be found. The results we developed in Chapter 4 will be useful here.
Towards the Infinite Universe
Authors: Silk Joseph
Published: November 2023

If the universe is flat, it is infinite. That at least is what the textbooks tell us. The concept of an infinite universe, or at least of one that is virtually infinite, has received support from the cosmology of inflation. Our universe underwent a phase of exponential growth. There is every reason to expect that it underwent an expansion in scale by many powers of ten within a fraction of a second. Prior to inflation, all the matter within the visible universe spanned less than the size of a pea. Even if the entire universe had begun as a finite space, its present dimension is likely to be at least ten to the power of one hundred times larger than our visible horizon.
Into the Infinite Future
Authors: Silk Joseph
Published: November 2023

It is apparent that the matter density is below the critical value required to halt the expansion. Utilizing the current value of Hubble’s constant, one finds that the critical density is 1029 grams per cubic centimeter. This is equivalent to 0.00001 hydrogen atoms per cubic centimetre. This may seem a small value, but we have already seen that the density of luminous matter, when averaged over all of space, is a negligible fraction of the critical density. Since the total density of dark and luminous matter amounts to a third of the critical density, the universe is destined to be always dominated by its kinetic energy: it will expand forever. This is because if an expanding shell is not being decelerated by the effect of the gravity of matter in its interior, its gravitational potential will decrease as the radius of the shell increases. The gravitational potential energy forms a smaller and smaller fraction of the kinetic energy as the shell expands. The universe will become a colder and darker place as galaxies recede from one another.
Synchrotron radiation
Authors: Wille Klaus
Published: November 2023

According to the fundamental laws of classical electrodynamics, a charge under- going acceleration will radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. This is of course also true of any charged particle moving in an accelerator. As we shall see in what follows, this radiation plays an important role for electrons of sufficiently high energy, while for protons and all other heavy particles it can in general be neglected. Our aim in this chapter is to understand the key physical principles of this synchrotron radiation. A full theoretical treatment of the physics of this radiation and its properties may be found in Jackson [29] and Hofmann [30].
Linear beam optics
Authors: Wille Klaus
Published: November 2023

When an accelerator is constructed, the nominal trajectory of the particle beam is fixed. This trajectory may simply be a straight line, as is the case in linear accelerators. In circular machines such as storage rings, however, it may have a very complicated shape consisting of numerous curves connected by straight sections of various lengths. The particles follow the resulting closed path over and over again and so cover an extremely large total path length within the accelerator. On the other hand, the trajectories of individual particles within a beam always have a certain angular divergence, and without further measures the particles would eventually hit the wall of the vacuum chamber and be lost. It is therefore necessary first of all to fix the particle trajectory, in general an arbitrary curve, and then to repeatedly steer the diverging particles back onto the ideal trajectory.
The free electron laser (FEL)
Authors: Wille Klaus
Published: November 2023

In a laser, a wave travels through an energy reservoir (which may be a solid, liquid, or gas) and induces stimulated emission, so that when it leaves the reservoir it has the same frequency but has been amplified.
Rheology
Authors: Weaire Denis , Hutzler Stefan
Published: November 2023

Amusons-nous. Sur la terre et sur l’onde

Malheureux, qui se fait un nom!

Richesse, Honneurs, faux eclat de ce monde,

Tout n’est que boules de savon.

written underneath an engraving entitled ‘La Souffleuse de Savon’

Pierre Gilles de Gennes devoted his 1994 Nobel Prize Lecture to ‘soft matter’, including the soft material which is our subject here. He concluded his lecture ironically with the above poem, to which we offer a revised translation.
Fundamental Concepts and Equations
Authors: Feistauer M , Felcman J , Straskraba I
Published: November 2023

In this book we shall be concerned with the motion of compressible fluids, i.e. gases. They will be considered as continuous media or, simply, continua. This means that we assume that each point of the domain occupied by the fluid represents exactly one fluid particle. Moreover, we assume that functions describing the behaviour and motion of the fluid are continuous or even, according to the mathematical means used, sufficiently smooth. These assumptions are used mainly for the derivation of the equations and relations of fluid dynamics. In further considerations the strong assumptions are removed in the so-called weak formulations.
Magnetism in metals
Authors: Blundell Stephen
Published: November 2023

We begin our discussion of the magnetism of itinerant electrons by reviewing the free electron model. In this model, the periodic potential due to the lattice is ignored, and the electrons fill states up to the Fermi wave vector kp.
Spectral analysis
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar
Published: November 2023

Many pulse EPR experiments are performed by directly or indirectly detecting the free evolution of coherence. The resulting time-domain data contain information on the transition frequencies as we have seen in §§2.2 and 4.2.3. In this chapter we explain how a spectrum is obtained from such time-domain data by FT. For the case of direct detection of the FID after a single pulse it is demonstrated from linear response theory that the spectrum is equivalent to a c.w. EPR spectrum, and the interconversion between these two types of spectra is discussed. Quantum-mechanical response theory provides analogous results for multiple pulse experiments. Two-dimensional FT is introduced as a method for the data analysis of experiments which correlate the frequencies of different transitions in a spin system by using two variable time intervals. Both the ID and 2D FTs of discrete time-domain data are discussed with particular emphasis on artifacts due to experimental imperfections and methods for their suppression. The chapter concludes with a survey of alternatives to the FT for the analysis of time-domain data.
Two-level dynamics
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we describe a number of pulse EPR experiments carried out with an ensemble of non-interacting electron spins. Such a simple two-level system is completely characterized by the rotating-frame electron Zeeman Hamiltonian H0 = ΩSSz, a homogeneous linewidth rhom, and an inhomogeneous linewidth ┌inh+. In particular we will discuss how FIDs and echoes manifest themselves for two situations, the narrow-line case where ┌inh+ is much smaller than the field strength ω1 of the m.w. pulses, and the more common broad-line case with ┌inh+ » ω1.Many experiments on multi-level systems described later in this monograph are based on pulse sequences described in this chapter.
Application aspects
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar
Published: November 2023

Most chapters of this monograph are concerned with theoretical and experimental concepts for separating and determining parameters of the spin Hamiltonian or isolating a certain relaxation pathway and measuring the corresponding relaxation time. Application of pulse EPR spectroscopy, on the other hand, starts with a set of open questions concerning the structure and dynamics of the system under investigation. We wish to find out if these questions can be answered by pulse EPR and what is the most efficient approach.
Diabetes and atherosclerosis
Authors: Eaton John W , Dean Roger T
Published: November 2023

This brief review addresses a topic of considerable public health importance - the greatly increased incidence of vascular disease in patients with diabetes. Because the great majority of patients with diabetes have so-called type 2 diabetes (also variably known as adult onset or non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)), unless otherwise noted we have restricted our coverage to this form of diabetes. The literature is both vast and inconclusive, and we have no doubt failed to mention a number of potentially important pathophysiologic mechanisms involved in atherogenesis in diabetes (not to mention numerous important publications by important investigators). This review represents an attempt to highlight possible contributory factors other than the obvious risk factors which typically coincide with the diabetic condition. The reader should be warned, however, that the involvement of many of these suggested factors will eventually be disproven. This is the natural course of science.
Futures: Diagnosis and therapy of atherosclerosis
Authors: Kritharides Leonard , Adams Mark R , Celermajer David S , Kelly David T , Dean Roger T
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we will discuss briefly and speculatively the diagnosis and therapy of atherosclerosis. Many of the issues raised here are discussed in more detail elsewhere in the book, in a different context, so references are only provided here when they are not available in other chapters.
Introduction
Authors: Ellis George F R , Williams Ruth M , Carfora Mauro
Published: November 2023

The aim of this book is to demonstrate the unifying power of the concept of a space-time in understanding the nature of the physical world. It will do so firstly by giving a good understanding of the nature and meaning of the flat space-time of the special theory of relativity, and features of that theory such as length contraction, time dilation, and the twin paradox. Secondly it will provide an introduction to the nature and meaning of the curved space-times of the general theory of relativity, including the concept of the expanding universe and the nature of black holes. Both of these theories of relativity are due to Albert Einstein (Fig. 0.1), the special theory being completed in 1905 and the general theory in 1916.
Fundamentals of measurement
Authors: Ellis George F R , Williams Ruth M , Carfora Mauro
Published: November 2023

To build a proper foundation for understanding relativity theory we need to consider in turn the bases of measurement of time, distance, and instantaneity, because these are the fundamentals on which other kinematic measurements, such as velocity measurements, depend.
Curved space-times
Authors: Ellis George F R , Williams Ruth M , Carfora Mauro
Published: November 2023

Our discussions so far have all been concerned with flat space-times, where we can choose physical coordinates so that all the light cones are parallel to each other. This is possible because, in a flat space-time, initially parallel light rays remain parallel to each other. In curved space-times, the situation is radically different. According to Einstein’s general theory of relativity, in which gravitational fields are represented through space-time curvature, the gravitational fields of massive objects not only curve the paths of other massive objects but also bend light rays (Fig. 5.1); in fact, observation of this effect gave the first experimental verification of the correctness of general relativity (in 1919). This feature affects the causal and observational properties of curved space-times in intriguing ways.
Simple cosmological models
Authors: Ellis George F R , Williams Ruth M , Carfora Mauro
Published: November 2023

In this final main chapter, we look at curved space-time models of the large-scale geometry of the universe. These explain our observations of the systematic redshifts of distant galaxies in terms of expansion of the universe from a hot initial state, preceded by a space-time singularity (the ‘Big Bang’) which is the origin of the universe and indeed of space-time itself.
Thermodynamics and Lattice Dynamics
Authors: Dove Martin T
Published: November 2023

The harmonic theory of lattice dynamics developed in the previous chapter has allowed us to determine the distribution of vibrational frequencies in a crystal structure, but it has given no information about the amplitudes of the vibrations, or equivalently about the sizes of the atomic displacements. The vibrations will be excited by the effects of temperature, with higher temperatures leading to large amplitudes, but the theory does not yet include temperature. The theory has been firmly based in classical mechanics, but we might expect that a proper treatment that includes temperature will necessarily incorporate quantum mechanics. This is the main point of this chapter.
Easy Applications of Renormalization Group to Simple Models
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

We start with a one-dimensional magnet, in which the individual, microscopic magnets either point up or down but not in any other direction. In physics this is known as the one-dimensional Ising model. The problem it poses is something of a “cheat,” because not only can it be solved exactly but the approximate RG method is readily converted to an exact solution! Nevertheless, it is a nice introduction to how one may calculate the partition function recursively.
Classical Nonlinear Systems Driven by Random Noise
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we at last make use of the formal perturbation theory as presented in Section 1.3.5. We apply it to the study of classical nonlinear systems such as fluid turbulence. It has been recognized since the 1950s that turbulence theory has a similar structure to quantum field theory and this idea has proved beneficial to research in turbulence.
Dynamical Renormaliz Ation Group Applied to Classical Nonlinear Systems
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

In Chapters 9 and 10, we have discussed the application of renormalization group (RG) to static problems involving continuous fields. Now we extend the concept to dynamical systems governed by nonlinear Langevin equations, as discussed in Chapter 5.
Testudinata (turtles, terrapins, and tortoises)
Authors: Lever Christopher
Published: November 2023

According to Bartlett and Bartlett (1999), the status of this predatory African turtle in Florida is not known with certainty, as it is so secretive and aquatic that its presence can be easily overlooked. It is believed to be only tenuously established in a single man-made lake in Dade County, into which it was reputedly released by a local animal dealer. The turtles, said to be of the nominate race, have apparently not spread outside the lake, despite its connections to permanently flooded nearby canals.
Squamata
Authors: Lever Christopher
Published: November 2023

‘It has been suggested that the Fijian Banded Iguana was deliberately introduced to the island of Efate in Vanuatu [formerly the New Hebrides] by a disgruntled herpetologist. It has now established a significant population on the island’. (H. Cogger, personal communication 1996).
Anura
Authors: Lever Christopher
Published: November 2023

In 1919, in the course of an address to the South London Entomological and Natural History Society, G. A. Boulenger said: ‘The midwife toad has established itself, no one knows how, in a former nursery garden in Bedford; it has been there for many years, and a friend of mine found it still in plenty last summer’.
A topologist’s view •Of perfect and acyclic groups
Authors: Berrick A J
Published: November 2023

Perfect groups, and in particular non-abelian .simple groups, are important objects of study in finite group theory in their own right. In contrast, for a topologist or geometer, perfect groups tend to be those that arise in certain interesting situations, for example via the study of fundamental groups.
Nature of Contact Between Colliding Solids [A]
Authors: Bowden F P , Tabor D
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we shall consider briefly the nature of contact between colliding surfaces. This is of general interest in a number of fields involving resistance to deformation under impact. For example, it is of importance in the dynamic hardness of metals and in lubrication problems where vibrations in the moving parts may produce rapid changes in the normal force between the rubbing surfaces. The processes involved in the impact of solids are also of importance in other problems such as the initiation of explosives by impact.
Evolutionary aspects of bird migration in the future
Authors: Berthold Peter
Published: November 2023

Chapters 6-8 discussed regular bird migration in detail, especially seasonal return migration, which is largely controlled by genetic factors. In general, migratory activity and orientation performance are largely population-specific, quantitative genetic traits that can rapidly be transmitted even to descendants of non-migratory individuals.
Outlook
Authors: Berthold Peter
Published: November 2023

Contemplating research on migrants and bird migration we, like the students of so many other areas of nature, now find ourselves in a paradoxical situation. We have gained so much insight into migrants during the last few decades through examinations of the course of bird migrations by means of modern technical equipment, worldwide travel, bird-ringing, and so forth, as well as through investigations into the control of migratory behaviour and orientation mechanisms using ever more refined methods.
Coming to light
Authors: Gregory Jane
Published: November 2023

Schooldays and scientific ambition; undergraduate life at Cambridge; becoming a mathematician; graduate studies; marriage to Barbaras autumn turned into the bitter, fog-bound winter of 1930, a small volume of thoughts on astronomy was selling fast in the book- shops of Britain. Its author, Sir James Jeans, a distinguished and well-known mathematician, had abandoned Cambridge University for the Surrey countryside to commit himself to two passions: music, and the popularization of science. His little book,
Fighting for space
Authors: Gregory Jane
Published: November 2023

Ryle ‘s press conference and the defeat of steady-state theory filled the newspapers over the weekend. By Monday 13 February ,Hoyle and Ryle had reportedly spoken on the telephone and apologized to each other: however, the Daily Express noted, ‘the big bang row is still on. ‘1 Now, the controversy was between the two men. Several newspapers published photographs of Hoyle and of Ryle – no one seems to have been able to capture them both in the same photograph – all of which show Ryle looking elegant and composed, while the Daily Express published a ten-year-old photograph of Hoyle at the height of his radio fame, and three different photographers managed to catch him scratching his head.