bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Musculoskeletal dysfunction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): An observational study
Authors: Heneghan Nicola , Adab Peymane , Jackman Sarah , Balanos George
Published: March 2015

Background/Aims:

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is widely recognised as a multi-system disease that extends beyond the lung and can further impair functional capacity, including that of the musculoskeletal system. While it has been reported that these changes may contribute to exercise limitation and disability, there has been little research to describe the nature and extent of changes in the musculoskeletal system. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine differences in posture, joint mobility and muscle sensitivity in subjects with COPD compared with a matched group of healthy subjects. A secondary aim was to explore whether a relationship exists between pulmonary function and musculoskeletal changes. Finally, the data were used to evaluate whether an association exists between cervicothoracic posture, joint mobility and muscle sensitivity, and having diagnosed COPD.

Methods:

A prospective observational study was reported in accordance with Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines. Participants with stable COPD (n=33; mean±SD age: 67 ± 9 years; FEV1% predicted: 50.94 ±19.40%) and age-matched controls (n=55; mean±SD age: 67 ± 6 years; FEV1% predicted: 104.53 ±16.86%) were recruited from primary and secondary care sources. Pulmonary function and performance-based outcome measures (predictors) included posture, spinal joint mobility, and accessory respiratory muscle sensitivity. Sociodemographic data and confounding variables were assessed using questionnaires and performance-based measures.

Results:

Reduced thoracic (p<0.001, 95%CI −21.64, −8.86) and cervical spine rotation (p=0.01, 95%CI −25.57, −3.33), altered cervicothoracic posture and heightened sensitivity in accessory muscles (p=0.01, 95% CI −601.81,−97.31) of respiration were found in the COPD population. Reduced thoracic axial rotation and altered neck posture were associated with poorer pulmonary function (p<0.05) and having diagnosed COPD, with odds ratios of 0.90 (0.84, 0.97) and 1.15 (1.02, 1.29), respectively.

Conclusions:

This is the first study to examine musculoskeletal changes in patients with COPD. The results show that musculoskeletal changes are evident in the cervicothoracic region and may contribute to exercise limitation and disability reported in this patient population.
Temporospatial analysis: Gait characteristics of young adults and the elderly in turning while walking
Authors: Bovonsunthonchai Sunee , Hiengkaew Vimonwan , Vachalathiti Roongtiwa , Said Catherine M , Batchelor Frances
Published: March 2015

Background/Aim:

Turning can be a difficult activity for the elderly and has been shown to contribute to a high incidence of falls. While earlier studies have shown differences between age groups in the segmental biomechanics used during turning, a comparative study into the temporospatial parameters during turning is needed to help us to understand how these mechanisms change with age. This study aimed to describe and compare movement characteristics that serve as indicators of difficulty in turning while walking in young adults and the elderly.

Methods:

Two groups of participants were assessed: young adults (n=20; age range: 18–25 years) and elderly adults (n=20; age range: 60–74 years). A Vicon motion capture system was used to collect data from both groups. Participants were instructed to perform a turn at both 45º and 90º, making each turn first on their right limb and then on their left limb. Three characteristics were used to identify difficulty in turning: i) step length; ii) the time taken to accomplish the turn (step time); iii) the number of steps taken during the turn (step speed). The main effects and interactions of age group (young adults vs elderly), degrees turned (45° and 90°) and ipsilateral limb (i.e. the limb on the side of the turn, left or right) on the step variables (length, time and speed) were assessed using a three-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). A t-test was also carried out, with significant values adjusted according to the Bonferroni correction.

Results:

Findings demonstrated significant main effects for age, degrees turned and ipsilateral limb, as well as a significant two-way interaction between degrees turned and ipsilateral limb for step length. Main effects for age, degrees turned and ipsilateral limb were found for step speed. Both age groups demonstrated a significant decrease in step speed when turning at 90º compared with 45º, as well as when turning on the left limb compared with the right limb. A comparison between both age groups showed that the elderly participants demonstrated the following characteristics when turning: i) significant decrease in step length; ii) increase in step time; iii) decrease in step speed.

Conclusions:

Different turning characteristics were expressed between age groups, degrees turned and ipsilateral limb. In general, the elderly participants turned with shorter step length, longer step time and slower step speed than the young adults. We believe these changes observed in the three characteristics in the elderly group are indicators of difficulty in turning while walking.
Mirror therapy for the alleviation of phantom limb pain following amputation: A literature review
Authors: Timms Jason , Carus Catherine
Published: March 2015

Background/Aim:

Phantom limb pain (PLP) is a debilitating condition that affects 50–85% of patients following an amputation and significantly diminishes their quality of life. Mirror therapy has been reported to have potential success for the alleviation of PLP. However, due to a lack of understanding of the mechanisms underlying PLP and the fact that no current consensus as to the effectiveness of mirror therapy exists, guidelines for treatment protocols are lacking. This review aimed to assess the current best evidence for using mirror therapy to treat PLP in patients with amputation.

Methods:

The authors conducted a systematic review of original research papers specifically investigating the use of mirror therapy in populations of patients experiencing PLP after unilateral limb amputation. Literature was sourced from PubMed, AMED, CINAHL and Google Scholar. The following search terms were used in combination: ‘phantom pain’; ‘PLP’; ‘phantom limb’; ‘phantom limb pain’; ‘mirror’; ‘mirror treatment’; ‘mirror therapy’; and ‘virtual limb’. All available studies were marked against predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Results:

Seven primary articles met the inclusion criteria, all of which reported significant PLP alleviation after using mirror therapy, with a trend for achieving phantom limb movement prior to pain relief.

Conclusions:

Mirror therapy is a promising intervention for PLP. Regular sessions of mirror therapy are required to maintain treatment effects. Causes of PLP and treatment pathways may be multifactorial; therefore, further well-conducted randomised controlled trials are required to identify best practice.
Predicting and Correlating the Strength Properties of Wood Composite Process Parameters by Use of Boosted Regression Tree Models
Authors: Carty Dillon M. , Young Timothy M. , Zaretzki Russell L. , Guess Frank M. , Petutschnigg Alexander
Published: March 2015

Predictive boosted regression tree (BRT) models were developed to predict modulus of rupture (MOR) and internal bond (IB) for a US particleboard manufacturer. The temporal process data consisted of 4,307 records and spanned the time frame from March 2009 to June 2010. This study builds on previous published research by developing BRT models across all product types of MOR and IB produced by the particleboard manufacturer. A total of 189 continuous variables from the process line were used as possible predictor variables. BRT model comparisons were made using the root mean squared error for prediction (RMSEP) and the RMSEP relative to the mean of the response variable as a percent (RMSEP%) for the validation data sets. For MOR, RMSEP values ranged from 1.051 to 1.443 MPa, and RMSEP% values ranged from 8.5 to 11.6 percent. For IB, RMSEP values ranged from 0.074 to 0.108 MPa, and RMSEP% values ranged from 12.7 to 18.6 percent. BRT models for MOR and IB predicted better than respective regression tree models without boosting. For MOR, key predictors in the BRT models were related to “pressing temperature zones,” “thickness of pressing,” and “pressing pressure.” For IB, key predictors in the BRT models were related to “thickness of pressing.” The BRT predictive models offer manufacturers an opportunity to improve the understanding of processes and be more predictive in the outcomes of product quality attributes. This may help manufacturers reduce rework and scrap and also improve production efficiencies by avoiding unnecessarily high operating targets.
High-Stakes Testing & Student Learning
Authors: Amrein Audrey L. , Berliner David C.
Published: March 2015

A brief history of high-stakes testing is followed by an analysis of eighteen states with severe consequences attached to their testing programs. These 18 states were examined to see if their high-stakes testing programs were affecting student learning, the intended outcome of high-stakes testing policies promoted throughout the nation. Scores on the individual tests that states use were not analyzed for evidence of learning. Such scores are easily manipulated through test-preparation programs, narrow curricula focus, exclusion of certain students, and so forth. Student learning was measured by means of additional tests covering some of the same domain as each state's own high-stakes test. The question asked was whether transfer to these domains occurs as a function of a state's high-stakes testing program.
Restructuring Teachers' Work
Authors: Kirtman Lisa
Published: March 2015

Despite repeated attempts to reform schools, teachers' work has remained surprisingly stable. The purpose of this study was to investigate implementation of a state-funded restructuring initiative that intended broad changes in teachers' professional roles. Sponsors of the founding legislation reasoned that changes in teachers' roles would contribute to higher student achievement. This study examined the question of whether and how this program of comprehensive whole-school change promoted changes in teachers' roles in school governance, collegial relations, and the classroom. Further, the study traced the relationship of these changes to one another, and weighed the likelihood that they had the capacity to affect core educational practices. Theoretically, this study is situated in the available literature on teachers' collegial relations; participation in shared decision making; and classroom roles, relationships and practice. Three elementary schools served as the sites for intensive qualitative data collection completed over a two-year period. The schools differed in geographic location (two urban, one rural), but all enrolled a racially, ethnically and linguistically diverse population of students, and more than half of the students in each school qualified for free or reduced price lunch. The study resulted in multiple types and sources of data on teachers' professional roles, including: observations in classrooms, collegial interactions, and governance situations; interviews with teachers (including teacher leaders), parents, administrators, and students; and documents pertaining to the restructuring plans and process. Findings show that changes in the three areas were achieved unevenly in the three schools. All three schools introduced changes in classroom practice and roles, ranging from the adoption of multi-age classrooms to more modest innovations in curriculum or instruction. In only one case were changes in professional roles outside the classroom organized to support and sustain classroom changes. Two of the three schools introduced changes in staff organization (teacher teams) and leadership (governance committees), but under-estimated the professional development and other supports that would in turn support changes in classroom practice. Altogether, it appears unlikely that the observed changes in professional roles were sufficiently well established and connected to affect core educational practice in the long run.
Research and Rhetoric on Teacher Certification
Authors: Darling-Hammond Linda
Published: March 2015

In October, 2001, the Baltimore-based Abell Foundation issued a report purporting to prove that there is "no credible research that supports the use of teacher certification as a regulatory barrier to teaching" and urging the discontinuation of certification in Maryland. The report argued that large inequities in access to certified teachers for poor and minority students are not a problem because research linking teacher education to student achievement is flawed. In July, 2002, the U.S. Secretary of Education cited the Abell Foundation paper in his Annual Report on Teacher Quality as the sole source for concluding that teacher education does not contribute to teacher effectiveness. The Secretary's report then recommended that requirements for education coursework be eliminated from certification standards, and attendance at schools of education and student teaching be made optional. This article documents the many inaccuracies in the Abell Foundation paper and describes the actual findings of many of the studies it purports to review, as well as the findings of other studies it ignores. It details misrepresentations of a number of studies, including inaccurate statements about their methods and findings, false claims about their authors' views, and distortions of their data and conclusions. The article addresses methodological issues regarding the validity and interpretation of research. Finally, the article presents data challenging the Abell Foundation's unfounded claims that uncertified teachers are as effective as certified teachers, that teacher education makes no difference to teacher effectiveness, that verbal ability is the most important determinant of teaching effectiveness, that private schools staffed by uncertified teachers are more effective than public schools, and that untrained teachers are more qualified than prepared teachers. It concludes with a discussion of the policy issues that need to be addressed if all students are to be provided with highly qualified teachers.
The Effectiveness of "Teach for America" and Other Under-certified Teachers
Authors: Laczko-Kerr Ildiko , Berliner David C.
Published: March 2015

The academic achievements of students taught by under-certified primary school teachers were compared to the academic achievements of students taught by regularly certified primary school teachers.  This sample of under-certified teachers included three types of under-qualified personnel: emergency, temporary and provisionally certified teachers.  One subset of these under-certified teachers was from the national program "Teach For America (TFA)."  Recent college graduates are placed by TFA where other under-qualified under-certified teachers are often called upon to work, namely, low-income urban and rural school districts. Certified teachers in this study were from accredited universities and all met state requirements for receiving the regular initial certificate to teach.  Recently hired under-certified and certified teachers (N=293) from five low-income school districts were matched on a number of variables, resulting in 109 pairs of teachers whose students all took the mandated state achievement test. Results indicate 1) that students of TFA teachers did not perform significantly different from students of other under-certified teachers, and 2) that students of certified teachers out-performed students of teachers who were under-certified.  This was true on all three subtests of the SAT 9reading, mathematics and language arts.  Effect sizes favoring the students of certified teachers were substantial.  In reading, mathematics, and language, the students of certified teachers outperformed students of under-certified teachers, including the students of the TFA teachers, by about 2 months on a grade equivalent scale.  Students of under-certified teachers make about 20% less academic growth per year than do students of teachers with regular certification.  Traditional programs of teacher preparation apparently result in positive effects on the academic achievement of low-income primary school children.  Present policies allowing under-certified teachers, including those from the TFA program, to work with our most difficult to teach children appear harmful.  Such policies increase differences in achievement between the performance of poor children, often immigrant and minority children, and those children who are more advantaged.
Technical and Ethical Issues in Indicator Systems
Authors: Fitz-Gibbon Carol Taylor , Tymms Peter
Published: March 2015

Most indicator systems are top-down, published, management systems, addressing primarily the issue of public accountability. In contrast we describe here a university-based suite of "grass-roots," research-oriented indicator systems that are now subscribed to, voluntarily, by about 1 in 3 secondary schools and over 4,000 primary schools in England. The systems are also being used by groups in New Zealand, Australia and Hong Kong, and with international schools in 30 countries. These systems would not have grown had they not been cost-effective for schools. This demanded the technical excellence that makes possible the provision of one hundred percent accurate data in a very timely fashion. An infrastructure of powerful hardware and ever-improving software is needed, along with extensive programming to provide carefully chosen graphical and tabular presentations of data, giving at-a-glance comparative information. Highly skilled staff, always learning new techniques, have been essential, especially as we move into computer-based data collection. It has been important to adopt transparent, readily understood methods of data analysis where we are satisfied that these are accurate, and to model the processes that produce the data. This can mean, for example, modelling separate regression lines for 85 different examination syllabuses for one age group, because any aggregation can be shown to represent unfair comparisons. Ethical issues are surprisingly often lurking in technical decisions. For example, reporting outcomes from a continuous measure in terms of the percent of students who surpassed a certain level, produces unethical behavior: a concentration of teaching on borderline students. Distortion of behavior and data corruption are ever-present concerns in indicator systems. The systems we describe would have probably failed to thrive had they not addressed schools' on-going concerns about education. Moreover, data interpretation can only be completed in the schools, by those who know all the factors involved. Thus the commitment to working closely and collaboratively with schools in "distributed research" is important, along with "measuring what matters"... not only achievement. In particular the too-facile interpretation of correlation as causation that characterized much school effectiveness research had to be avoided and the need for experimentation promoted and demonstrated. Reasons for the exceptionally warm welcome from the teaching profession may include both threats (such as the unvalidated inspection regime run by the Office for Standards in Education) and opportunities (such as site based management).
Educational Aspirations and Postsecondary Access and Choice
Authors: Hu Shouping
Published: March 2015

Using data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS: 88), this study examines educational aspirations and postsecondary access and choice by students in urban, suburban, and rural schools. In addition, this study raises issues with the methods in postsecondary educational research by using students in different grades (8th, 10th, and 12th grades) as baseline populations to compare educational outcomes. The results indicated that students in urban schools were comparatively disadvantaged in the early years in schooling in terms of postsecondary access but appeared to be enrolled in postsecondary institutions at similar percentages as their suburban counterparts, if they made it to later years in K-12 schooling. For those students in urban schools who went to college, higher percentages were enrolled in private institutions and four-year colleges. Students in rural schools were consistently disadvantaged in postsecondary aspirations and enrollment, compared to students in other schools.
A National Crisis or Localized Problems? Getting Perspective on the Scope and Scale of the Teacher Shortage
Authors: Murphy Patrick , DeArmond Michael , Guin Kacey
Published: March 2015

Despite the considerable attention the popular press has devoted to the question of teacher shortages, there have been surprisingly few attempts to systematically measure the size and nature of the problem. This article attempts to estimate the size and nature of the celebrated teacher shortage of the late 1990s by using data from the U.S. Department of Education’s 1999-00 School and Staffing Survey. While limitations of the SASS data do not allow us to directly estimate the absolute size of the shortage, they do allow us investigate its relative impact. An examination of the data shows that the problem was distributed unevenly: urban schools and those with relatively high populations of minority and low-income students bore the brunt of the shortage; southern and western states had more problems filling teaching slots than other regions did. These findings suggest that state and local officials should keep distributional concerns in mind when they design policies to improve teacher recruitment and retention.
Re-analysis of NAEP Math and Reading Scores in States with and without High-stakes Tests: Response to Rosenshine
Authors: Amrein-Beardsley Audrey , Berliner David C.
Published: March 2015

Here we address the criticism of our NAEP analyses by Rosenshine (2003). On the basis of his thoughtful critique we redid some of the analyses on which he focused. Our findings contradict his. This is no fault of his, the reasons for which are explained in this paper. Our findings do support our position that high-stakes tests do not do much to improve academic achievement. The extent to which states with high-stakes tests outperform states without high-stakes tests is, at best, indeterminable. Using 1994-1998 NAEP reading and 1996-2000 NAEP math data and accounting for NAEP exemption rates for the same years, we found that states with high-stakes tests are not outperforming states without high-stakes tests in reading in the 4th grade or math in the 8th grade at a statistically significant level. States with high-stakes tests are, however, outperforming states without high-stakes tests in math in the 4th grade at a statistically significant level. Our findings also support our earlier stance that states with high-stakes tests are exempting more students from participating in the NAEP than are states without high-stakes tests. This is more prevalent the more recent the NAEP test administration. This is illustrated in the tables below.
The Limits of Sanctions in Low-Performing Schools
Authors: Mintrop Heinrich
Published: March 2015

The article reports on a study of 11 schools that were labeled as low-performing by the state accountability systems of Maryland and Kentucky, nationally known for complex performance-based assessments. The study shows that putting schools on probation only weakly motivated teachers because the assessments were largely perceived as unfair, invalid, and unrealistic. Administrators responded with control strategies that rigidified organizations, forestalling dialog and learning processes. Instructional reform developed only feebly. On the other hand, some schools remedied inefficiencies and were able to "harvest the low-hanging fruit." The schools struggled with severe problems of teacher commitment.
Wanted, A National Teacher Supply Policy for Education:The Right Way to Meet The "Highly Qualified Teacher" Challenge
Authors: Darling-Hammond Linda , Sykes Gary
Published: March 2015

Teacher quality is now the focus of unprecedented policy analysis. To achieve its goals, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) requires a “highly qualified teacher” in all classrooms. The concern with teacher quality has been driven by a growing recognition, fueled by accumulating research evidence, of how critical teachers are to student learning. To acquire and retain high-quality teachers in our Nation’s classrooms will require substantial policy change at many levels. There exists longstanding precedent and strong justification for Washington to create a major education manpower program. Qualified teachers are a critical national resource that requires federal investment and cross-state coordination as well as other state and local action. NCLB provides a standard for equitable access to teacher quality that is both reasonable and feasible. Achieving this goal will require a new vision of the teacher labor market and the framing of a national teacher supply policy. States and local districts have vital roles to play in ensuring a supply of highly qualified teachers; however, they must be supported by appropriate national programs. These programs should be modeled on U.S. medical manpower efforts, which have long supplied doctors to high- need communities and eased shortages in specific health fields. We argue that teacher supply policy should attract well-prepared teachers to districts that sorely need them while relieving shortages in fields like special education, math and the physical sciences. We study the mal-distribution of teachers and examine its causes. We describe examples of both states and local school districts that have fashioned successful strategies for strengthening their teaching forces. Unfortunately, highly successful state and local program to meet the demand for qualified teachers are the exception rather than the rule. They stand out amid widespread use of under-prepared teachers and untrained aides, mainly for disadvantaged children in schools that suffer from poor working conditions, inadequate pay and high teacher turnover. The federal government has a critical role to play in enhancing the supply of qualified teachers targeted to high-need fields and locations, improving retention of qualified teachers, especially in hard-to-staff schools, and in creating a national labor market by removing interstate barriers to mobility.
Constraining Elementary Teachers' Work:Dilemmas and Paradoxes Created by State Mandated Testing
Authors: Mathison Sandra , Freeman Melissa
Published: March 2015

There are frequent reports of the challenges to teacher professionalism associated with high stakes and mandated testing (McNeil, 2000). So, we were not surprised in this year-long study of two elementary schools in upstate New York to hear teachers talk about the many ways the 4th grade tests in English Language Arts, Mathematics and Science undermine their ability to do their jobs with integrity. We came to understand in more nuanced ways the ongoing tension created by teachers' desires to be professionals, to act with integrity, and at the same time to give every child a chance to succeed. What we found in these schools is that the high stakes tests continually forced teachers to act in ways they did not think were professional and often resulted in creating instructional environments that teachers did not think were conducive to student success. The teachers at these elementary schools are not radicals. They do not seek complete autonomy, they do not eschew the need for accountability (even bureaucratic accountability), they find some virtue in state mandated tests, they are content within centralized systems that proscribe some aspects of their work. But, they also perceive themselves as professionals with both the responsibility and capability of doing their jobs well and in the best interests of their students. New York State's outcomes based bureaucratic accountability system tests their resolve, makes them angry or frustrated, and requires unnecessary compromises in their work.
Communities of Practice and the Mediation ofTeachers' Responses to Standards-based Reform
Authors: Gallucci Chrysan
Published: March 2015

This paper evaluates the usefulness of a sociocultural approach for analyzing teachers’ responses to the professional learning demands of standards-based reform policies. A policy-oriented case study of the practice of six elementary teachers who worked in two high poverty schools in a demographically changing district in the state of Washington is summarized. Key findings of that study conclude that communities of teaching practice are sites for teacher learning and are mediators of teachers’ responses to standards-based reform. Characteristics of the communities of practice, including their relative strength and openness (to learning), influence the degree to which teachers work out negotiated and thoughtful responses to policy demands. The present paper discusses the efficacy of Wenger’s (1998) theory of learning for the study of policy to practice connections.
Systems of Practice: How Leaders Use Artifacts to Create Professional Community in Schools
Authors: Halverson Richard R.
Published: March 2015

This article explores how local school leaders construct the conditions for professional community in their schools. This paper argues that professional community is a special form of social capital that results, in part, from the design and implementation of facilitating structural networks by instructional leaders in schools. The structural aspects of a school community can be conceived as a system of practice, that is, a network of structures, tasks and traditions that create and facilitate complex webs of practice in organizations. Systems of practice are composed of networks of artifacts, such as policies, programs and procedures, which can be seen as powerful tools used by local leaders to influence local instructional practices. The system of practice framework suggests that leaders use artifacts to establish structures that facilitate the closure of professional networks among teachers, which in turns builds professional community. The leadership practices of an urban elementary school are used to illustrate how professional community has been developed through the selective design and implementation of artifacts in order to reshape the local system of practice.
An Exploration of the Pay Levels Needed to Attract Students with Mathematics, Science and Technology Skills to a Career in K-12 Teaching
Authors: Milanowski Anthony
Published: March 2015

In an exploratory study (Note 1) of the role of salary level and other factors in motivating undergraduate math, science, and technology majors to consider a career as a K-12 teacher, the salary level students said would motivate them to consider a career in teaching was related to the salary expected in their chosen non-teaching occupation, but not to three of the Big 5 personality dimensions of extroversion, agreeableness, and openness, nor concern for others or career risk aversion. An annual starting salary 45% above the local average would attract 48% of the sophomore students and 37% of the juniors. Focus group results suggested that low pay was an important reason for not considering K-12 teaching, but that perceived job demands and abilities and interests were also important reasons for not being attracted to a teaching career.
Case Studies ofEmerging Ethnocentric Charter Schools in Hawai'i
Authors: Buchanan Nina K , Fox Robert A.
Published: March 2015

The fast growing charter school movement may be impeded if charter schools are perceived as a vehicle for stratifying, segregating, and balkanizing an already ethnically, socio-economically divided population. This article defines ethnocentric schools and describes three Native Hawai'ian charter schools. While they are very different in curricula and in emphasis on the Hawai'ian language and other features, they all have strong community support and a high degree of parental involvement and have access to funds available only for Native Hawai'ian programs. It may be easy to support the expenditure of public funds for ethnocentric charter schools in areas like Hawai'i where ethnic minorities have traditionally been underserved. The issues raised in this study may have broader implications for the evolution of American public education. The question is not what criteria to apply to distinguish schools of "good" choice from schools of "bad" choice. In final analysis we must ask, are schools of choice truly schools of choice, or not?
Reconsidering the Impact of High-stakes Testing
Authors: Braun Henry
Published: March 2015

Over the last fifteen years, many states have implemented high-stakes tests as part of an effort to strengthen accountability for schools, teachers, and students. Predictably, there has been vigorous disagreement regarding the contributions of such policies to increasing test scores and, more importantly, to improving student learning. A recent study by Amrein and Berliner (2002a) has received a great deal of media attention. Employing various databases covering the period 1990-2000, the authors conclude that there is no evidence that states that implemented high-stakes tests demonstrated improved student achievement on various external measures such as performance on the SAT, ACT, AP, or NAEP. In a subsequent study in which they conducted a more extensive analysis of state policies (Amrein & Berliner, 2002b), they reach a similar conclusion. However, both their methodology and their findings have been challenged by a number of authors. In this article, we undertake an extended reanalysis of one component of Amrein and Berliner (2002a). We focus on the performance of states, over the period 1992 to 2000, on the NAEP mathematics assessments for grades 4 and 8. In particular, we compare the performance of the high-stakes testing states, as designated by Amrein and Berliner, with the performance of the remaining states (conditioning, of course, on a state’s participation in the relevant NAEP assessments). For each grade, when we examine the relative gains of states over the period, we find that the comparisons strongly favor the high-stakes testing states. Moreover, the results cannot be accounted for by differences between the two groups of states with respect to changes in percent of students excluded from NAEP over the same period. On the other hand, when we follow a particular cohort (grade 4, 1992 to grade 8, 1996 or grade 4, 1996 to grade 8, 2000), we find the comparisons slightly favor the low-stakes testing states, although the discrepancy can be partially accounted for by changes in the sets of states contributing to each comparison. In addition, we conduct a number of ancillary analyses to establish the robustness of our results, while acknowledging the tentative nature of any conclusions drawn from highly aggregated, observational data.
Reform Ideals and Teachers' Practical Intentions
Authors: Kennedy Mary M.
Published: March 2015

Reformers have been trying for decades to alter the fundamental character of classroom instruction in the United States, but have repeatedly been unsuccessful in fostering significant change in teaching practice. Several hypotheses have been put forward to account for this problem–that teachers lack sufficient knowledge (hence we need more professional development), that they lack sufficient will (hence we need accountability systems) or that they disagree with reform ideals or find other agendas to be more compelling in their classrooms. This paper addresses the third hypothesis by trying to ascertain what teachers care about when they respond to specific classroom situations. Numerous authors have suggested that teachers’ beliefs, values, and perceptions influence their practices, but most papers in this area focus on just one teacher or a small handful of teachers and show how these particular teachers’ ideas influence their practice. We still have little idea what kinds of concerns and intentions tend to be pervasive in teachers’ thinking, and how these ideas differ from those embodied in reform ideals. The paper begins by reviewing reform
literature and outlining its main themes. It then describes a study of teachers’ interpretations of classroom situations and their intentions for specific things they did in those situations. From teachers’ discussions of their practices, the author identifies the primary areas of concern that dominated teachers’ thinking as they constructed their practices and shows where these concerns are similar to, and different from, reform ideals.
What predicts the mobility of elementary schoolleaders? An analysis of longitudinal data in Colorado
Authors: Akiba Motoko , Reichardt Robert
Published: March 2015

While many studies have reported the predictors of teacher attrition, we know little about what predicts the attrition of school leaders. Using the Colorado state data on elementary school principals’ and assistant principals’ career paths from 1999 to 2001 and school achievement-level data, we addressed two research questions: 1) How do the age-specific attrition rates differ by gender and race? and 2) What other conditional factors are associated with the attrition of school leaders? We found that female and minority groups generally had higher attrition rates at age 40 or younger and at age 56 or older than male and non-minority groups. Our data also indicated that school size and salary increase were associated with the attrition of both male and female leaders. Large schools were more likely to have higher rates of school leader attrition, and the leaders who expected relatively higher salary increases by transferring were more likely to leave their schools. Lower school achievement predicted higher attrition of female leaders only. These findings have important implications for policy-makers when they plan and implement strategies for preventing high attrition rates of school leaders.
High-Stakes Testing in the Warm Heart of Africa:The Challenges and Successes of the Malawi National Examinations Board
Authors: Chakwera Elias , Khembo Dafter , Sireci Stephen G.
Published: March 2015

In the United States, tests are held to high standards of quality. In developing countries such as Malawi, psychometricians must deal with these same high standards as well as several additional pressures such as widespread cheating, test administration difficulties due to challenging landscapes and poor resources, difficulties in reliably scoring performance assessments, and extreme scrutiny from political parties and the popular press. The purposes of this paper are to (a) familiarize the measurement community in the US about Malawi’s
assessment programs, (b) discuss some of the unique challenges inherent in such a program, (c) compare testing conditions and test administration formats between Malawi and the US, and (d) provide suggestions for improving large-scale testing in countries such as the US and Malawi. By learning how a small country instituted and supports its current testing programs, a broader perspective on resolving current measurement problems throughout the world will emerge.
Modeling school choice: A comparison of public, private-independent, private-religious and home-schooled students
Authors: Belfield Clive R.
Published: March 2015

U.S. students now have four choices of schooling:
public schooling, private–religious schooling, private–independent schooling, and home-schooling. Of these, home-schooling is the most novel: since legalization across the states in the last few decades, it has grown in importance and legitimacy as an alternative choice. Thus, it is now possible to investigate the motivation for home-schooling, relative to the other schooling options. Here, we use two recent
large-scale datasets to assess the school enrollment decision: the first is the National Household Expenditure Survey (1999), and the second is micro-data on SAT test-takers in 2001. We find that, generally, families with home-schoolers have similar characteristics to those with children at other types of school, but mother’s characteristics – specifically, her employment status – have a strong influence on the decision to home-school. Plausibly, religious belief has an important influence on the schooling decision, not only for Catholic students, but also those of other faiths.
The Relationship Between State and District Content Standards:Issues of Alignment, Influence and Utility
Authors: Dutro Elizabeth , Valencia Sheila
Published: March 2015

At the core of standards-based reform are content standards--statements about what students should know and be able to do. Although it is state standards that are the focus of much public attention and consume substantial resources, many local school districts have developed their own content standards in the major subject areas. However, we know very little about the role state standards have played in local standards efforts. In this article we report on a study of the relationship between state and local content standards in reading in four states and districts. Through interviews with key personnel in each state, and district and analyses of state and local content standards in reading, we explored the alignment between state and district content standards, the path of influence between the two, and the role of high-stakes tests in state and districts reform efforts. Our findings suggest that alignment had multiple meanings and that state standards had differential utility to districts, ranging from helpful to benign to nuisance. This wide variability was influenced by the nature of the standards themselves, the state vision of alignment and local control, districts’ own engagement and commitment to professional development, and student performance on high-stakes tests. We explore implications for the future of content standards as the cornerstone of standards-based reform and argue that states must promote district ownership and expand accountability if state content standards are to have any relevance for local efforts to reform teaching and learning.
National Board Certified Teachers andTheir Students' Achievement
Authors: Vandevoort Leslie G. , Amrein-Beardsley Audrey , Berliner David C.
Published: March 2015

Contemporary research on teaching indicates that teachers are powerful contributors to students’ academic achievement, though the set and interrelationships of characteristics that make for high-quality and effective teaching have yet to be satisfactorily determined. Nevertheless, on the basis of the extant research and a vision of exemplary teaching, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards stipulated a definition of a superior teacher. The Board did this without empirical evidence to support their claim that teachers’ who meet the standards set by the Board were superior in promoting academic achievement to those who did not meet those standards. In the 17 years since the founding of the National Board, only a few empirical studies have addressed this important issue. In this study we compare the academic performance of students in the elementary classrooms of 35 National Board Certified teachers and their non-certified peers, in 14 Arizona school districts. Board Certified teachers and their principals provide additional information about these teachers and their schools. Four years of results from the Stanford Achievement Tests in reading, mathematics and language arts, in grades three through six, were analyzed. In the 48 comparisons (four grades, four years of data, three measures of academic performance), using gain scores adjusted for students’ entering ability, the students in the classes of National Board Certified Teachers surpassed students in the classrooms of non-Board certified teachers in almost threequarters of the comparisons. Almost one-third of these differences were statistically significant. In the cases where the students of non-Board certified teachers gained more in an academic year, none of the differences found were statistically significant. Effect size, translated into grade equivalents, informs us that the gains made by students of Board Certified teachers were over one month greater than the gains made by the students of non-Board certified peer teachers. Teachers identified through the assessments of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards are, on average, more effective teachers in terms of academic achievement, one of the many outcomes of education for which teachers are responsible. This study does not address whether other, cheaper, or better alternatives to the National Boards exist, as some critics suggest. On the other hand, the results of this study provide support for the policies in many states that honor and provide extra remuneration for National Board Certified Teachers.
After exit: Academic achievement patterns of former English language learners.
Authors: De Jong Ester J.
Published: March 2015

With few exceptions, accountability systems for programs for English language learners (ELLs) have focused on the achievement patterns of ELLs who are still considered “limited English proficient” and program evaluations have been unable to answer the question whether ELLs actually catch up with English proficient peers after attending a bilingual or English as a Second Language (ESL) program. Disaggregating data for former ELLs can therefore provide important information for long-term district and program accountability. The study was concerned with the achievement patterns in English language arts, Math, and Science of former ELLs who attended a bilingual and a English as a Second Language (ESL) program. It also explored whether length of program participation and grade level exited played a significant role in predicting academic achievement patterns for these exited students. Results indicate that 4th grade students more closely paralleled non- ELL students’ achievement patterns than 8th grade students, particularly for the BE students. While length of program participation is not a significant predictor of former ELLs’ academic success, exit grade does emerge as an important variable to take into consideration in setting exit guidelines.
Music education for the 21st century: Epistemology and ontology as bases for student aesthetic education.
Authors: Aróstegui José Luis , Stake Robert , Simons Helen
Published: March 2015

We seek to understand why persons develop their musical preferences by identifying with a particular cultural group and social background. This identification is greatly shaped by experience in their environment. Resources employed for this identification are mostly different from those employed in schools to foster academic knowledge. We argue that there needs to be renewed attention to the epistemological and ontological bases of education to examine how we can most effectively educate for the 21st Century in a relativistic and globalized world. Our focus is on music education but with the entire curriculum near at hand, together seeking to bring about a better intellectual, sociological, and aesthetic process of education. Our interest in music stems from a perceived necessity that persons trained in the arts will have special answers to the challenges of this so-called postmodern world. We offer: (1) elements of epistemology, discussing how education and music education have traditionally been focused on propositional rather than interpretive knowledge; (2) a particular perspective on ontology, making evident the ways that individuals construct meanings, interacting with their cultural environment in the shaping of social identity; and (3) the need, today more than ever, for a music curriculum fostering aesthetic experiences that develop interpretive understanding of reality and personal self. Characteristics of postmodernism in cultural studies will be employed throughout the paper.