Qing's Demand for Repatriation for Warka and Joseons's Response Before 1644
Authors:   HUFS Institute of History and Culture, Kim YoungJin 
Published: June 2023

At the end of the 16th century, Nurhaci of the Jianzhou Jurchen began to focus on the Donghai Jurchen of eastern Manchuria for manpower in the Jurchen unification process. At that time, the Jianzhou Jurchen referred to the Jurchen of the Tumen and Ussuri Rivers as Warka among the Donghai Jurchen. Among the Warka, those who lived in Hamgyong Province and the Tumen River area are referred to as Boundary Jurchen (藩胡), and they either lived in the area between Joseon and Manchuria or they came into Joseon and became naturalized. Nurhaci also claimed homogeneity over the Warka based on historical and linguistic affinities with the Donghai Jurchen faction during the conquest of Donghai Jurchen. During the struggle with Bujantai over the Warka, Nurhaci relocated the Warka who lived near Joseon to the center of Jianzhou Jurchen and even asserted a homogeneous initiative over the Warka who entered Joseon's interior. Meanwhile, the Joseon court tacitly agreed to Nurhaci's control of the Warka along the Tumen River, but was not cooperative in its demands for the repatriation of Warka living near Joseon's change. In 1609, the Nurhaci organized large-scale repatriation of the Warka living in the Joseon area, thus establishing their absolute dominance over the numbers in the Tumen River basin. However, Later Jin did not actively demand the repatriation of Warka from the Joseon interior during the Tianming Era(1616-1626), conscious of their concentration on the Donghai Jurchen expedition and their diplomatic isolation. Even during the Tiancong Era(1627-1636), the Hong Taiji period, Later Jin asserted a position of homogeneity and leadership over the Warka in Joseon. In particular, based on establishing a formal relationship with Joseon, Later Jin began to demand the repatriation of Warka in Joseon in the mid-Tiancong Era. At that time, the repatriation demand was carried out by identifying the status of Warka in Joseon based on the testimonies of Warka, who moved from Joseon to Later Jin, compiling a list based on the status, and demanding repatriation from Joseon. Similar to the motivation behind the Donghai Jurchen expedition during the Hong Taiji period, Later Jin's demand for the repatriation of Warka in Joseon during the Tiancong period is thought to have been to fill up a vacancy in the Eight Banners that had arisen during the foreign wars. Demanding the repatriation of Warka may have been a viable option for Later Jin, as it was less burdensome than an expedition. However, Later Jin's information on the Warka in Joseon was very sketchy, so it had to rely on Joseon for specific information on the Warka needed for repatriation. Furthermore, the relationship between Later Jin and Joseon during the Tiancong Era was equal, so Later Jin could not force Joseon to repatriate the Warka. The demand for Joseon's repatriation of Warka resurfaced during the breakdown of Qing-Joseon relations following Hong Taiji's ascension to the emperorship. Hong Taiji cited Joseon's lack of Warka repatriation as the reason for the relationship breakdown. Eventually, after the 1637 Qing Invasion of Joseon(丙子胡亂), the Qing explicitly imposed an obligation on Joseon to repatriate Warka due to its superiority in the relationship. In response, Joseon sporadically repatriated Warka, which continued until Emperor Shunzhi exempted Warka from repatriation after the Qing entered the Shanhai Pass(入關) in 1644. Regarding the Warka repatriation obligation imposed on Joseon in the Chongde era, this article focuses on the case of the Kang Ch'undang(姜春堂) family, the first Warka repatriation case in the Chongde era. After the 1637 Qing Invasion of Joseon, The Joseon Court understood that among the naturalized Warka(向化人), those who had naturalized themselves (起身向化) would be repatriated to Qing. In 1638, However, Qing demanded the repatriation of the Kang Ch'undang family, most of whom had been naturalized more than three generations earlier.