bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Activation and Use of Racial Stereotypes in Personnel Decisions: A Test of Two Theories1
Authors: Collier Cherry A. , Shaffer David R.
Published: August 2006

This research tested contrasting predictions about activation and use of racial stereotypes in personnel decisions. Devine's (1989) theory' holds that stereotyped inferences should be apparent when decisions are time constrained and judges have little opportunity to suppress automatically activated stereotypes. Gilbert & Hixon's (1991) busy‐ness model implies that stereotypes are unlikely to be activated and to influence the decisions of judges unless these decisions are not time‐constrained. Participants were allowed 90 s or 180 s to evaluate Black and White candidates for football managerial positions requiring aggressiveness (linebacker coach) or cognitive prowess (general manager). Only when decisions were not time constrained did participants show stereotyped judgments by favoring Whites for the general manager's position and overranking Blacks for linebacker coach. This pattern was consistent with Gilbert & Hixon's busy‐ness model and contrary to Devine's theory of automatically activated stereotypes.
Assessing Organizational Behavior Models: A Comparison of Linear and Nonlinear Methods1
Authors: Valentine Sean
Published: August 2006

This study highlights the use of nonlinear statistic techniques in a behavioral model that incorporates dispositional and situational variables. When ordinary least squares and log‐linear/logit results were compared, various unique associations were found between job satisfaction, job complexity, locus of control, and the number of available benefits. Overall, the findings prove that more nonlinear modeling is needed in the behavioral sciences.
Students' Views of Business Ethics: An Analysis
Authors: Parsa Faramarz , Lankford William M.
Published: August 2006

This study investigates the difference in perceptions between undergraduate business and MBA students regarding selected ethical issues facing employees and managers of today's businesses. Furthermore, the study investigates the intergroup (i.e., at each educational level) and intragroup (i.e., between undergraduates and MBAs) differences in terms of the “situation”; that is, their position as an employee or a manager of the company. A sample of 104 undergraduate and MBA students was used. The results indicate that undergraduate students tend to act more ethically than do MBA students, and both groups tend to be more ethically oriented the higher their professional corporate position is. The findings have direct implications for business practitioners and for educators.
The Impact of Leadership Style on Global Management Practices1
Authors: Church Allan H. , Waclawski Janine
Published: August 2006

A study was conducted to explore the impact of differences in leadership style on the practice of global leadership and management. Data were collected from 391 senior managers from a global organization and 1,701 of their direct reports, 358 straight‐line supervisors, and 266 dotted‐line supervisors. ANOVA results indicate that transformational leaders were rated significantly higher on all behaviors by their direct reports than were transactional leaders. Straight‐line supervisors rated transformational leaders significantly higher on managing change‐ and relationship‐management behaviors, whereas dotted‐line supervisors rated transformational leaders higher on learning orientation. Finally, transformational leaders were significantly more self‐aware (greater congruence in self vs. direct reports' average ratings) regarding the practice of these behaviors. implications for future research are discussed.
Construction and Validation of a Conflict Communication Scale1
Authors: Goldstein Susan B.
Published: August 2006

A series of studies was conducted in order to construct and validate a measure of interpersonal conflict communication style, the Conflict Communication Scale (CCS). CCS items were designed to reflect variability in approach to conflict situations and to gather information relevant to conflict‐related interventions, such as mediation. The measure is comprised of 5 subscales: (a) confrontation, (b) public/private behavior, (c) emotional expression, (d) conflict approach/avoidance, and (e) self‐disclosure. Psychometric assessment of the CCS focused on test‐retest reliability, social desirability influences, convergent and discriminant validity, discrimination between known groups, concurrent validity, and factor analysis. The resulting scale was found to have high reliability levels, minimal social desirability bias, sensitivity to some cultural differences, and its validity was supported by the majority of validation studies.
Social Identity and Perceptions of Media Persuasion: Are We Always Less Influenced Than Others?1
Authors: Duck Julie M. , Hogg Michael A. , Terry Deborah J.
Published: August 2006

People typically perceive negative media content (e.g., violence) to have more impact on others than on themselves (a third‐person effect). To examine the perceived effects of positive content (e.g., public‐service advertisements) and the moderating role of social identities, we examined students' perceptions of the impact of AIDS advertisements on self, students (in‐group), nonstudents (out‐group), and people in general. Perceived self‐other differences varied with the salience of student identity. Low identifiers displayed the typical third‐person effect, whereas high identifiers were more willing to acknowledge impact on themselves and the student in‐group. Further, when influence was normatively acceptable within the in‐group, high identifiers perceived self and students (us) as more influenced than nonstudents (them). The theoretical and practical implications of this reversal in third‐person perceptions are discussed.
Potential Bone‐Marrow Donors and Their Spouses: The Effects of Volunteerism on Distress Levels1
Authors: Stukas Arthur A. , Dew Mary Amanda , Switzer Galen E. , Simmons Roberta G.
Published: August 2006

The current study sought to provide a better understanding of the reactions of bone‐marrow volunteers to the possibility of donating by examining these volunteers in the context of their closest relationships. Using Tesser's (1988) self‐evaluation maintenance (SEM) model as a guide, we examined the influence of spouses who are also volunteers on each member of the couple's distress levels and on the marrow volunteer's ambivalence about donating. We also examined the independent effects of known risk factors for donation‐related distress and the combined effects of spouse volunteer status and these risk factors on distress levels. Questionnaire data were collected from 278 couples selected from 39 bone‐marrow donor centers. Results demonstrated that when spouses of potential donors were engaged in any type of volunteer activity, members of the couple felt greater anxiety than when spouses were not volunteers. Additionally, other variables were found to have a conjoint effect with spouse volunteer status on volunteer and spouse anxiety levels.
Teacher Burnout and Lack of Reciprocity1
Authors: van Horn Joan E. , Schaufeli Wilmar B. , Enzmann Dirk
Published: August 2006

Results are presented of a study on burnout among 249 Dutch elementary and secondary school teachers. The current study considers burnout in terms of the exchange of investments and outcomes at interpersonal (teacher‐student) and organizational (teacher‐school) levels. In addition, demographic (age and gender) and work‐related factors (school type, teaching experience, number of hours employed) are included. Findings show that when teachers invest more than they get back from their school, they report higher levels of emotional exhaustion. As expected, at the interpersonal level, low outcomes from students are related to higher burnout levels; whereas at the organizational level, low investments are related to higher burnout levels. These findings are discussed in terms of the extent to which psychological contact is more intimate or impersonal in both types of relationships.
Influences of Parental and Best Friends' Smoking and Drinking on Adolescent Use: A Longitudinal Study1
Authors: Engels Rutger C. M. E. , Knibbe Ronald A. , Vries Hein De , Drop Maria J. , van Breukelen Gerard J. P.
Published: August 2006

Many studies have dealt with the relative impact of parents and peers on adolescent substance use. However, only a few studies have explored the role of adolescents themselves in social relationships. Homogeneity in behavioral patterns within friendships can also be generated by selective association. Acknowledgment of selection processes might shed new light on the debate on the influences of parents and friends. This paper examines the impact of parental and best friends' smoking and drinking on adolescents' use, using data (N= 1,063) from a 3‐wave, 5‐year longitudinal study. The results show that friends' smoking did not affect adolescent smoking over time. Only in early adolescence did friends' drinking exert an influence on subjects' alcohol use. On the other hand, parental use had a small but significant impact on their offspring. Furthermore, support was found for processes of selective association.
The Effects of Sex and Power Schemas, Attitudes Toward Women, and Victim Resistance on Rape Attributions1
Authors: Ong Andy S. J. , Ward Colleen A.
Published: August 2006

This study examined the effects of attitudes toward women, rape schemas, and victim resistance on rape attributions in a hypothetical rape scenario. One hundred twenty‐eight female subjects participated in the investigation. In line with the hypotheses, a 2 × 2 × 2 (Traditional vs. Nontraditional Attitudes × Sex vs. Power Schemas × Presence vs. Absence of Resistance) ANOVA demonstrated a significant interaction effect between rape schemas and victim resistance for rape attributions. As predicted, those who held sex schemas of rape attributed less fault and responsibility to resisting, compared to nonresisting, victims. In addition, they attributed more fault and responsibility to the nonresisting victim than did those who held power schemas. Rape schemas and victim resistance exerted an interactive influence on perpetrator attributions. Although attitudes toward women did not affect victim attributions, traditional women attributed less fault and responsibility to perpetrators than did nontraditional women.
The Effect of Perceived Control on Risk Taking1
Authors: Horswill Mark S. , McKenna Frank P.
Published: August 2006

The experiment investigates the effect of perceived control on risk taking in a dynamic, everyday task. Using established and validated video simulation techniques, the risk‐taking preferences for 96 drivers were measured for a range of driving activities (speed choice, following distance, gap acceptance, and overtaking). The perceived control manipulation was as follows: Half of the participants were told to imagine they were driving the vehicle, and the other half were told to imagine they were passengers. Those who were told to imagine they were driving chose significantly faster speeds than did those who were told to imagine they were passengers. Differences for the other risk‐taking measures were not significant. For speed choice, it could be argued that an illusion of control was in operation, such that those who were in control (i.e., drivers) were comfortable with a higher level of risk than those who were not in control (i.e., passengers).
The Effects of Feedback Equivocality on Escalation of Commitment: An Empirical Investigation of Decision Dilemma Theory1
Authors: Hantula Donald A. , DeNicolis Bragger Jennifer L.
Published: August 2006

The effects of feedback equivocality on escalation of commitment were examined in a laboratory study. Subjects had multiple opportunities to allocate money to market a software product. During the initial phase, subjects received feedback that was of either low or high equivocality. Half of the subjects in each equivocality level were given a standard by which to judge the feedback. In the second phase, all subjects received negative feedback. Consistent with Bowen's (1987) decision dilemma theory, subjects who received low equivocality feedback did not escalate allocations, and subjects who received high equivocal feedback escalated allocations. The presence of a standard or goal attenuated escalation. These results are consonant with a dynamic, temporally based account of escalation and are discussed in a synthesis of the literatures in behavior analysis, economics, forecasting, and psychology.
The Role of Psychological Characteristics in the Relation Between Socioeconomic Status and Perceived Health1
Authors: Cohen Sheldon , Kaplan George A. , Salonen Jukka T.
Published: August 2006

Separate analyses of United States and Finnish samples demonstrate a graded (almost linear) relation between socioeconomic status (SES) and risk of poor perceived health. In both studies, positive psychological factors (greater social support; less anger, depression, and perceived stress) and beneficial health practices (nonsmoking; drinking and exercising moderately) were associated with both higher levels of SES and better self‐reported health. Psychological and health practice variables were both able to account for some of the SES and poor health gradient. However, contrary to expectations, these factors did not play a more important role in explaining decreased risk at the middle and highest levels of SES, and instead may be most important at lowest levels.
Double Denial in Attitude Formation1
Authors: Sjöberg Lennart , Montgomery Henry
Published: August 2006

While expressing their attitude toward an object, people sometimes deny both the probability of attributes that would speak against the attitude and the value of these attributes. We term this kind of functioning double denial. Double denial is incompatible with expectancy‐value models of attitude formation. In eight studies of attitudes, values, and beliefs, there was clear evidence for double denial. The evidence was particularly strong for items measuring salient beliefs and for items and groups of participants yielding belief ratings that strongly correlated with attitudes. The results are interpreted in terms of the social functions of values and beliefs in the construing of arguments pro or con an attitude object. It is concluded that beliefs and values are dynamic entities, continually shaped in argumentation, and that expectancy‐value models of attitude are inadequate to account for the relationships among attitudes, beliefs and values.
Managerial Self‐Efficacy, Outcome Expectancies, and Work‐Role Salience as Determinants of Ambition for a Managerial Position1
Authors: Vvan Vianen Annelies E. M.
Published: August 2006

Based on research involving a sample of 1,030 employees in three different organizations, the determinants of ambition for a managerial position were examined using LISREL analyses. The analysis provided support for the model derived from social cognitive career theory. Ambition for a managerial position was mainly explained by managerial self‐efficacy, which was influenced by performance attainment, physiological arousal, and verbal persuasion. Outcome expectancies and work‐role salience had a direct as well as an indirect relationship with ambition for a managerial position, mediated by managerial self‐efficacy. Although the structural model was supported in the three samples, the estimated parameters in the model differed. Contrary to what was expected, vicarious experience did not contribute to self‐efficacy in management tasks.
Gender, Socialization, and Money1
Authors: Newcomb Michael D. , Rabow Jerome
Published: August 2006

We examine the familial experiences of 605 university students surrounding money, and their current beliefs and attitudes about money. A survey examined parental practices regarding money, gender beliefs about equal and unequal earnings, money as it relates to assessments of the self and others, current financial practices, and plans and expectations regarding future financial earnings. Gender comparisons of 12 factors revealed separate and distinct money socialization tracks for men compared to women. Parents were described as having a very different set of practices and expectations for sons and daughters, and the male and female students also sharply differed in a number of ways on their attitudes and behaviors regarding money. For males, money was positively valued. Females had a negative value for money. These money tracks were more sharply differentiated and positively associated among students from higher social classes.
Considering Personal Strengths: The Effect of Three Different Methods on Mood, Arousal, and Self‐Esteem1
Authors: Sia Tiffiny L. , Czuchry Michael L. , Dansereau Donald F.
Published: August 2006

One hundred twenty‐eight college students were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 strength consideration conditions: (a) open‐ended generation of strengths, (b) cued generation of strengths using 7 Divisions of Self (social, cognitive, behavioral, physical, emotional, motivational, spiritual; Dees, Dansereau, Peel, Boatler, & Knight, 1991) as cues, and (c) selection of strengths using the Tower of Strengths Activity (Sia & Czuchry, 1997). After all 3 conditions, students showed an increase in specific aspects of self‐esteem and positive mood, and a decrease in global self‐esteem. Students’ arousal decreased after both open‐ended generation and cued generation, whereas after the selection of strengths, students’ arousal remained the same. Applications of the strength consideration activities are discussed.
Attributional and Symbolic Predictors of Abortion Attitudes1
Authors: Zucker Gail Sahar
Published: August 2006

Attributional and symbolic politics approaches were used to develop a model relating symbolic predispositions, perceptions of responsibility for unwanted pregnancy, affects, and attitudes toward abortion. In Study 1, a taxonomy of 12 distinct causes of unwanted pregnancy was identified. College‐student subjects in Study 2 rated these causes on importance, controllability, blame, pity, anger, and judgments in favor of abortion. A regression analysis revealed that abortion approval in this student sample is negatively related to conservatism, religiosity, and blame. In Study 3, a more extensive path mode) is offered indicating that abortion approval in a nonstudent sample is linked negatively to religiosity and moral traditionalism, and positively to sympathy. Results of the study demonstrate the utility of applying social psychological theory to abortion attitudes.
Effectiveness of Impression Management Tactics Across Human Resource Situations1
Authors: Mlchele Kacmar K. , Carlson Dawn S.
Published: August 2006

An experimental study was undertaken to explore the effectiveness of impression management tactics in various situations. To manipulate the variables of interest, 6 different scenarios were created by crossing 2 independent variables: impression management tactics (self‐focused or other‐focused) and situation (employment interview, performance appraisal, or training session). Respondents, 178 human resource professionals, were mailed a survey that contained 2 of the 6 scenarios. In each scenario, respondents rated the person described in the scenario on performance, provided their affective impressions, and determined the appropriateness of the impression management cues given the situation. Results indicated a significant interaction between the use of impression management and the situation. These findings are compared to past research, and suggestions for future directions for the study of impression management are outlined.
Gay Identity and the Experience of Gay Social Stress1
Authors: Vincke John , Rycke Lieven De , Bolton Ralph
Published: August 2006

The hypothesis that identity commitment affects the experience of identity‐related stressors brings identity theory and social stress research together. Research findings are not yet conclusive regarding this hypothesis. Part of the contradictory research findings stem from inadequate knowledge about the causal direction of the relationship between depression and commitment. The authors analyze if identity commitment interacts with social stress in its impact on mental well‐being. Only chronic stress has a moderate impact on the experience of depression. Commitment toward the gay identity did not buffer the experience of stress. The authors also use a nonrecursive model to establish the causal relationship between depression and commitment. They show that it is depression that lowers identity commitment. It is concluded that identity commitment cannot act as a buffer against identity‐related stress because commitment is affected by the resulting distress.
The Impact of Job Level and Prior Training on Sexual Harassment Labeling and Remedy Choice1
Authors: Wilkerson James M.
Published: August 2006

Supervisors, managers, and executives (N= 118) comprised the sample for this field study of persons’ labeling of sexual harassment and endorsement of various remedies for sexual harassment. The research method involved questionnaires issued in conjunction with 2 videotaped sexual harassment scenarios of differing severity. Results support predictions of participants’ ability to distinguish harassment severity, the effect of job level, and prior training's effect. Implications for qualifying the concept of work environment sexualization (Gutek, 1985) with consideration of job levels are discussed. Implications for sexual harassment awareness training and management practice are also discussed.
Alcohol Consumption and the Theory of Planned Behavior: An Examination of the Cognitive Mediation of Past Behaviorid
Authors: Conner Mark , Warren Rachel , Close Stephen , Sparks Paul
Published: August 2006

This study examined the predictive power of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) in explaining alcohol consumption in 3 prospective samples of students (Ns= 178. 176. and 159). Generally, the TPB performed well. with attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control (PBC) explaining between 28% and 46% of the variability in intentions. Intentions and PBC explained between 12% and 50% of the variability in behavior. Measures of self‐identity as a “drinker” and past behavior contributed to predictions of intentions over and above the contribution of attitudes. subjective norms. and PBC. Measures of past behavior but not self‐identity consistently contributed to predictions of behavior over and above the contributions from intentions and PBC. The direct relationship between past behavior and intention and between past behavior and behavior (independent of the TPB variables or self‐identity) could not be attributed to common method variance.
Political Ideologies and Support for Censorship: Is It a Question of Whose Ox Is Being Gored?
Authors: Fisher Randy , Lilie Stuart , Evans Clarice , Hollon Greg , Sands Mary , Depaul Dawn , Brady Christine , Lindbom David , Judd Dawn , Miller Michelle , Hultgren Tim
Published: August 2006

Two studies are described. one of 381 university students and the other a statewide survey of 295 adults, both of which examine the relationship between attitudinal support for censorship and political ideologies. The results of these studies are interpreted as challenging the view of Suedfeld, Steel, and Schmidt (1994) that support for censorship is a function of both the works in question and the political ideologies of the respondents. In both studies we find that support for censorship is somewhat consistent across messages and images of differing political content. and that support for censorship is generally greater among those with conservative political attitudes, regardless of the content of the works in question. A model of political attitudes (Maddox & Lilie. 1986) that conceptualizes American political idcologies as consisting of two relatively independent dimensions, rather than a single left‐right dimension. is proposed as a more effective means of conceptualizing this issue.
Sampling the Reluctant Participant: A Random‐Sample Response‐Rate Study of Men and Sexual Coercion1
Authors: SENN CHARLENE Y. , DESMARAIS SERGE , VERBERG NORINE , WOOD EILEEN
Published: August 2006

Past research has documented the difficulty associated with mail surveys in general, and with the rates of male participation, especially if the topic involves sensitive materials. Our study varied incentive value and whether participants received a letter of introduction. We adopted most of the stringent survey‐design characteristics recommended by Dillman (1991). The results suggest that a letter of introduction significantly increased the response rate. Additionally, a smaller monetary incentive did as well as did a larger one. Despite a maximum participation rate of only 22%, the sample was successful in representing men across the age span. Some important differences from men in the general population were found on demographic and attitudinal variables, however, the generalizability was still improved well beyond the college male.
Do Work Values Predict the Use of Intraorganizational Influence Strategies?
Authors: BLICKLE GERHARD
Published: August 2006

It was the purpose of this paper to analyze the relationships between work values and the use of intraorganizational influence strategies. Given sufficient discretional space, it was assumed that work values either function as higher order goals or as individual constraints A prediction study with a I‐year time interval was executed. At the first wave, work values were measured with the Work Values Inventory (Super, 1970). At the second wave, 4 intraorganizational influence strategies (rational persuasion, ingratiation, pressure. upward appeals) of 137 job beginners were measured. The data support the idea that work values function both as higher order goals and as individual constraints of influence behavior. The implications for the vocational career are discussed.
Community Research: The Lost Art of Unobtrusive Methods1
Authors: Page Stewart
Published: August 2006

The use of unobtrusive methods, with special reference to community‐oriented research, is a lost art, despite their strong recommendation by Webb, Campbell, Schwartz, & Sechrest (1966) as means of supplementing reactive measures. The decline of unobtrusive measures seems to be related to the increased popularity and adherence to the doctrine of informed consent, the decrease in use of deception as a method, and the effort to conceptualize research subjects as cooperative participants. While the distaste for unobtrusive methods seems to reflect increased sensitivity toward ethics in research, the collection of partially reliable and partially valid knowledge continues, with considerable reliance on reactive measures.
Evaluating Gender Biases on Actual Job Performance of Real People: A Meta‐Analysis1
Authors: Bowen Chieh‐Chen , Swim Janet K. , Jacobs Rick R.
Published: August 2006

This study examined gender bias on job performance in work settings where confounding variables (e. g., organizational level, experience, education) were cautiously taken into consideration to ensure fair comparisons. Although previous meta‐analyses examined gender biases on evaluations, findings in tightly controlled laboratory environments may differ from those in highly complicated field studies. We found little evidence of overall gender bias in performance appraisals in nonconfounded field studies. However, there were significant pro‐male biases when only men served as raters. Measure‐specific gender stereotypicality, instead of genera! stereotypicality about the job, produced gender bias in performance appraisal. Masculine measures produced pro‐male bias, and feminine measures produced pro‐female bias.
Encouraging People With Mood Disorders to Attend a Self‐Help Group1
Authors: Powell Thomas J. , Warner Lynn , Hill Elizabeth M. , Yeaton William , Silk Kenneth R.
Published: August 2006

Using an intervention based on referent power, self‐help sponsors sought to encourage attendance at self‐help meetings. They encouraged patients with major depression or bipolar disorder to attend self‐help meetings following their hospitalizations. The intervention successfully increased the attendance of the experimental group compared to those in the control group. Implications for practice are discussed.
Safer Sex in Social Context: Individualistic and Relational Determinants of AIDS‐Preventive Behavior Among Gay Men1
Authors: de Vroome Ernest M. M. , Stroebe Wolfgang , Sandfort Theo G. M. , de WIT John B. F. , van Griensven Godfried J. P.
Published: August 2006

This longitudinal study of gay men examined safer sex within steady relationships and assessed whether relationship quality influenced safer sex with casual partners. The theoretical frameworks of Rusbult's (1980) investment model of romantic relationships and of Ajzen's (1988, 1991) model of planned behavior were used. Unprotected intercourse with a steady partner was practiced significantly more often when both partners in a steady relationship were seronegative and had an explicit agreement to keep it safe with casual partners. However, there was no indication that explicit agreements reduced the occurrence of unsafe extrarelational sex. Both the investment model of romantic relationships and the model of planned behavior were successful in accounting for sexual risk behavior outside the relationship.
Mindful Deliberation About Exercise: Influence of Acute Positive and Negative Thinking1
Authors: Gyurcsik Nancy C. , Brawley Lawrence R.
Published: August 2006

The purpose was to examine if the acute thoughts that individuals have as a function of deciding whether to exercise influence subsequent motivated behavior. Two questions based on self‐efficacy theory were tested. Are immediate, retrospective, or anticipated thoughts predictive of self‐efficacy to adhere to regular exercise? Does self‐efficacy influence exercise intention and behavior? Participants were 82 healthy adults (M age = 24 years) enrolled in a 10‐week exercise program. Social cognitive measures were assessed after 1.5 months of experience, and 3 weeks of exercise were tracked. Multivariate analyses showed that participants who were more positive in their acute retrospective or anticipated thinking exhibited significantly higher self‐efficacy and attendance than did negative‐thinking counterparts. Multiple regression analyses revealed that acute retrospective and anticipated thoughts were predictors of self‐efficacy. In addition, self‐efficacy was predictive of future intention and exercise attendance.
The Effect of Target's Physical Attractiveness and Dominance on STD‐Risk Perceptions
Authors: Dijkstra Pieternel , Buunk Bram P. , Blanton Hart
Published: August 2006

Utilizing a 2 × 2 design, the present study examined the effect of a female's physical attractiveness and dominance on men's sexual motivation and sexually transmitted disease (STD) risk perceptions in a sample of 72 heterosexual male college students. As predicted. participants were more motivated to have sex with more physically attractive women. Nonetheless, they also believed that the more physically attractive women had been more promiscuous in the past, and believed that unprotected sex with a physically attractive woman implied a relatively somewhat higher risk of contracting an STD. In contrast, the more socially dominant women were perceived as having practiced safer sex more regularly and as having had less risky sexual partners in the past. Practical implications of this study are discussed.
Self‐Favoring Bias for Physical Activity in Middle‐Aged and Older Adults1
Authors: Wilcox Sara , King Abby C.
Published: August 2006

A self‐favoring bias for physical activity (PA) was examined in a community‐based sample of middle‐aged and older adults (N= 3,211). Participants' actual level of PA relative to peers was compared with their perceived PA relative to peers. It was estimated that 38% were realistic, 46% self‐favoring, and 16% other‐favoring in their perceptions. Among participants whose actual PA level was similar to peers, increasing age was associated with a self‐favoring bias. Among less and more physically active participants, however, age was not associated with this bias. Better self‐rated health and being male were also associated with a self‐favoring bias. These results suggest that a self‐favoring bias for PA exists in a significant proportion of middle‐aged and older adults, and it is more pronounced with increasing age, among those with better self‐rated health, and among men.
Changes in Feeling States Following Aquatic Exercise During Pregnancy
Authors: Lox Curt L. , Treasure Darren C.
Published: August 2006

Forty‐four pregnant women participated in water aerobics 2 times per week for a period of 6 weeks, with each session lasting approximately 45 min. The hypothesis that participants would report greater feelings of positive well‐being and less psychological distress and fatigue during the 6‐week program as compared to preprogram reports was supported. Also supporting our hypothesis, similar improvements were noted following a single bout of exercise during each week of the program. Taken together, the results of the present study suggest that regular engagement in an aquatic exercise program is associated with improvements in positive feeling states and reductions in negative feeling states and fatigue for women during pregnancy.
The Social Goals of Excuses: Self‐Serving Attributions or Politeness Strategies1
Authors: Fraser Christopher O.
Published: August 2006

Participants provided examples of explanations given as excuses, or withheld in favor of a false excuse, both for failing to keep a social contract and for rejecting a social invitation. Results show that the likelihood of an explanation being given in social‐contract situations was best predicted by intentionality and controllability; while in social‐rejection situations, the most important factor was to avoid personal reasons (related to the recipient). Excuse‐givers were even willing to blame themselves to do this. These results are discussed in terms of the need to extend attributional categories beyond traditional self‐serving functions to include social goals. such as the recipient saving face, to provide an adequate account of how excuse‐making varies across different types of social predicaments.
Whose Hands Reach Out to the Homeless? Patterns of Helping Among High and Low Communally Oriented Individuals
Authors: Bryan Angela D. , Hammer Jill C. , Fisher Jeffrey D.
Published: August 2006

The communal orientation construct (Clark & Mills, 1979), may be useful in determining why people choose to help the homeless. Participants were presented with videotapes (Study 1) or transcripts (Study 2) of interviews with homeless people who were portrayed as having sad or neutral affect. Participants higher on communal orientation were more likely to display attitudes, empathy, and intentions supportive of helping the homeless. Portraying homeless people as being sad had a negative effect on attitudes and intentions to help them. In Study 2, communal orientation interacted with sadness such that for those high in communal orientation, sadness increased positive attitudes; while for those low in communal orientation, sadness decreased positive attitudes.
Alcohol Consumption, Outcome Expectancies, and Victimization Status Among Female College Students
Authors: Marx Brian P. , NICHOLS‐ANDERSON CINDY , MESSMAN‐MOORE TERRI , Miranda Robert , Porter Chebon
Published: August 2006

The present study examined differences in the extent of alcohol consumption and endorsement of alcohol‐related outcome expectancies between victims of alcohol‐ or drug‐related sexual assault, victims of non‐alcohol‐ or non‐drug‐related sexual assault, and nonvictim controls. The alcohol consumption patterns alcohol outcome expectancies and victimization status of 176 female college students were assessed. Results indicated that relative to nonvictims and victims of non‐alcohol‐ or non‐drug‐related sexual assault, victims of alcohol‐ or drug‐related sexual assault reported more frequent and greater alcohol consumption and a greater extent of endorsement of alcohol outcome expectancies. Furthermore. extent of alcohol consumption was associated with different alcohol expectancy outcomes for each group. Implications for the prevention of sexual assault and directions for future research are discussed.
Magnitude: An Important Dimension of Self‐Efficacy1
Authors: Cecil Heather , Pinkerton Steven D.
Published: August 2006

According to Bandura (1977a. 1977b). self‐efficacy for a particular task varies along 3 dimensions: magnitude, strength, and generality. Although the magnitude of a task influences one's degree of self‐efficacy, researchers have seldom tapped this dimension. We explicitly examined the magnitude dimension, and whether magnitude and confidence represent operationally distinct dimensions. A sample of undergraduates (n= 221) rated how confident they were that they could perform 22 behaviors comprising 3 domains of protective sexual behaviors (refusing sexual intercourse, questioning potential sexual partners, using condoms). Each participant also rank‐ordered the difficulty of performing each item within each domain. Data analyses revealed considerable overlap between the dimensions of confidence and magnitude, but also substantial differences. Thus, researchers may want to include this dimension when including self‐efficacy.
Effect of Beliefs About Future Weather Conditions on Restaurant Tipping
Authors: Rind Bruce , Strohmetz David
Published: August 2006

Research has shown that favorable weather is associated with increased tipping and that beliefs that weather is favorable can produce higher tips. In the current study, the possibility that beliefs about future weather conditions would affect tipping was experimentally examined. A server in a midscale restaurant wrote on the back of customers’ checks either nothing, that the weather would be good the next day, or that the weather would not be so good the next day. Compared to writing nothing (M= 18.73%) or giving an unfavorable forecast (M= 18.18%), giving a favorable forecast (M= 22.21%) resulted in significantly higher tip percentages. The power of beliefs, irrespective of their veridicality, regarding the state of atmospheric conditions in affecting human response is discussed.
Choice Models of Deterrence: Another Look
Authors: Ward David A. , Stafford Mark C. , Gray Louis N.
Published: August 2006

Choice models of deterrence emphasize the importance of including rewards and costs for both crime and noncrime in capturing the process whereby criminal decisions are made. A review of the literature indicates that these models also include probabilities as well as magnitudes for both rewards and costs of crime, but exclude probabilities for law‐abiding behavior, treating rewards for noncrime as opportunity costs while eschewing their chance of occurrence. Here we provide experimental data comparing the explanatory power of 2 choice models, one that includes probabilities for rewards and costs for noncrime and another that omits these probabilities altogether. Findings show that the more inclusive model explains approximately twice as much variation in the dependent variable, thereby providing additional support for earlier findings.
From Thought to Deed: Understanding Abortion Activism1
Authors: Kaysen Debra , Stake Jayne E.
Published: August 2006

Many people have opinions on abortion, but relatively few contribute a substantial amount of time and effort to actively support their causes. This study investigated factors associated with level of activism in the abortion movement. The issue was addressed from a cost‐benefit framework based on theory and research from other social movements. In a sample drawn from pro‐life and pro‐choice organizations, activism was related to attitude salience, attitude polarization, social ties to abortion activists, and agentic self‐esteem. Potential constraint variables (e.g., employment) and social approval from important others showed little relation to activism. Factors affecting activism were similar for pro‐choice and pro‐life activists. Findings were generally consistent with studies of political activism for other social causes.
Punishment Without Cause: Regression and the Effects of Leader Attribution Errors1
Authors: Notz William W. , Boschman Irvin , Bruning Nealia s.
Published: August 2006

Kahneman and Tversky (1973) observed that failure to understand simple regression to the mean could cause leaders to falsely learn that punishment was more effective than reward in shaping subordinate performance. This fundamental hypothesis and other attribution theory hypotheses were tested in a field experiment in which subordinate performance was entirely random. The basic hypothesis was partially supported, but leader belief about subordinate ability was found to moderate leader reinforcement behavior. Leaders who believed that their subordinates had high ability subjected them to increasing amounts of punishment over time, while reward amounts remained relatively unchanged. The opposite pattern was evident but not statistically significant for leaden who believed that their subordinates were of low ability. Rewards were decreased over time, while punishments were left unchanged.
Predicting the Use of Complementary Medicine: A Test of the Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior1
Authors: Furnham Adrian , Lovett Joanna
Published: August 2006

The present study employed the theory of reasoned action (TRA) and its extension, the theory of planned behavior (TPB), to investigate the factors underlying intentions and actual use of homeopathy over a 1‐month period. The study was prospective in design; 349 respondents completed a TPB questionnaire during the first phase of data collection, and 139 respondents were contacted (by telephone) in Phase 2 to provide information regarding their use of homeopathy. The findings provided support for the TPB as a predictor of intentions and use of homeopathy, and demonstrated that the model significantly enhanced the predictive utility of the TRA. Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control emerged as significant predictors of intention (R2= .49), while intention predicted behavior (R2= .56). In addition, past behavior significantly contributed to the prediction of intention and behavior.
Pursuing Academic Interests: The Role of Implicit Theories
Authors: Zuckerman Miron , Gagne Marylene , Nafshi Iris
Published: August 2006

Students can believe that their academic interests are fixed (entity theory) or malleable (incremental theory). A measure of implicit theories of academic interests was developed to examine how such theories influence students’ decisions to retain or change their majors. As hypothesized, entity theorists who believed that they were not doing well in their majors were more likely to choose a new major than were all other groups. This result is consistent with previous findings that entity theorists tend to give up in the face of adversity.
Training the Scientists and Engineers of Tomorrow: A Person‐Situation Approach1
Authors: Cross Susan E.
Published: August 2006

The United States may face a shortage of well‐trained scientists and engineers in the near future. This prospective study examined the issue of women's low rates of participation in these fields from a Person × Situation perspective, focusing on the early years of graduate school. Although men and women were similar in many respects (e.g., in Graduate Record Exam scores and grades), women evaluated their abilities related to intelligence lower than did men. There were no gender differences in students’perceptions of the academic climate. Longitudinal analyses revealed that students’ self‐evaluations and gender moderated the effects of perceived supportiveness of their academic departments on changes in well‐being from the end of their first year to the end of their second year.
Applying Schema Theory to Intimate Aggression: Individual and Gender Differences in Representation of Contexts and Goals1
Authors: Mouradian Vera E.
Published: August 2006

This study addressed individual and gender differences in the availability and content of memory representations of contexts and goals for physical aggression use in intimate relationships among university students. The contribution of victimization by one's partner to such representations was examined as well. Interaction effects in both quantitative and qualitative results indicated that perpetrator men differed from nonviolent men in measures of accessibility, providing more responses faster, and from nonviolent subjects and perpetrator women in their most frequently supplied categories of explanation for intimate aggression. Findings also provided indirect support for women's defensive uses of aggression, and evidence for the influence of emotion on memory access and content, including suppression of response time among female victims and male nonviolent victims.
Child‐Witness and Defendant Credibility: Child Evidence Presentation Mode and Judicial Instructions1
Authors: Eaton Tania E. , Ball Peter J. , O'Callaghan M. Gemma
Published: August 2006

Child‐witness presentation mode, judicial instructions, and deliberation stage effects on juror ratings of child witness and defendant were investigated Perceptions of the impact of presentation mode on witnesses, juror task, and justice also were explored. Participants (N= 108) viewed a simulated child sexual abuse trial videotape. Overall child‐witness credibility was significantly more positive with videodeposition or court‐given child evidence than with videolink. The defendant was seen as more definitely guilty when child testimony was court given than by videodeposition or videolink. Presentation mode also significantly influenced perceived impact on child witness, defendant case, and juror task. Judicial instructions interacted with presentation mode to affect perceptions of impact on child witness and juror task. Findings are discussed in relation to previous research, and implications for future research and practice are outlined.
Interrupting the Cycle of Moral Exclusion: A Communication Contribution to Social Justice Research1
Authors: Leets Laura
Published: August 2006

This research broadly maps the territory of moral exclusion to include communication within its boundaries. Communicative strategies may provide the means for the interruption or even the reversal of the moral‐exclusion cycle. While the current studies do not provide empirical verification of the reversal mechanism, they do prepare the theoretical groundwork through the use of a contemporary example: Romanian orphans. The first study is a survey of 225 Romanian students designed to reveal how they analyze the social issue of orphans and whether it is possible to differentiate between those who have and those who have not excluded orphans from their scope of justice. The second study consists of 2 focus‐group discussions conducted in Bucharest: one with project managers from nongovernment organizations working with children in crisis, and the other with ordinary citizens. The results and discussion concentrate on the implications and practical applications for potentially countering moral exclusion.
The Effects of a List of Food Items on Motivations to Eat in Dieters and Nondieters
Authors: Oakes Michael E. , Slotterback Carole S.
Published: August 2006

A major health problem in our society is obesity, which is frequently caused by overeating or eating inappropriate foods. It has been suggested that the prevalences of food and food‐related cues contribute to overeating and that dieters are particularly sensitive to food stimuli. In the present study, the influence of dieting was examined in a representative sample of college students who were exposed to a list of written food cues or who served as controls. The list of food cues increased motivation to eat in nondieting subjects, but did not appear to influence the appetites of dieters. It may be that dieters are more resistant to the effects of more subtle food cues, even when many cues are presented sequentially.