bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Wrath of God
Authors: Hasel Frank M.
Published: January 2012

The wrath of God is an important, albeit somewhat neglected subject of biblical theology. Objections to the reality of the divine wrath have arisen mainly from intrusions of philosophical ideas into Christian thought. According to Neo‐Platonism divine affection and anger in every form and shape is foreign to God. God has no pathos. God is above joy and sorrow. Wrath is a sign of weakness that does not square with the divine perfection and his unchanging nature. These Greek ideas significantly influenced many of the early church fathers (Pohlenz; Miggelbrink). However, already Lactantius in his significant work
De Ira Dei
(d. c.317) has recognized that in contrast to the apathy of the divine nature in Stoicism the love of the biblical God also involves his strong objection to everything evil and thus his wrath. Some modern theologians have dismissed the notion of the wrath of God as not usable in modern theology (Helmer Ringgren). For Schleiermacher it does not have relevance for Christians and should be avoided in our preaching and teaching. Albrecht Ritschl claimed that God's wrath is without any religious worth. On the other hand Jonathan Edwards in his famous sermon, “Sinners in the hands of an angry God” (1741), used the image of the wrath of God to paint a picture of fear in the minds of people. Karl Barth and Emil Brunner, in contrast, have recognized the positive value of the biblical notion of God's wrath, which is based on God's holiness.
Anglicanism
Authors: Hefling Charles
Published: January 2012

The term “Anglican” is now used to refer to those regional or national Christian churches that have received their tradition of doctrine, discipline, and worship from the Church of England and are in communion with its chief ecclesiastical officer, the Archbishop of Canterbury. The world‐wide Anglican Communion comprises 38 such churches, often referred to in that context as “provinces,” among them the Episcopal Church in the United States. Once these formal facts have been stated, definition becomes difficult. Exactly what Anglicanism consists in has been a contentious matter since the 16th century, when
ecclesia Anglicana
, “the English church,” began to have an institutional identity of its own. The pragmatic way in which the contention has usually been dealt with is itself a notable characteristic of Anglican Christianity, and one that implies that Anglicanism is best understood concretely, in its history. An account of beginnings is especially essential.
Annunciation
Authors: Laing Jacqueline
Published: January 2012

The wordannunciationliterally means announcement. It is the title given to the announcement by the Angel Gabriel to the Blessed Virgin Mary of the birth of Christ (Luke 1:26–38). The event described by St. Luke makes reference to the name of Jesus, his greatness and eternal kingship, his reign on the throne of David, and his status as the Son of the God Most High. These numerous references are traditionally understood in the context of the Old Testament promise of a Messiah. Isaiah 7:14, for example, says “Behold a virgin shall conceive and bear a son,” a declaration that is repeated in Matthew 1:23. He would be a second David making visible God's invisible kingship (Ps. 2:6–12) and bring salvation to his people. The lady asks “how will this be done, for I know not a man.” The angel answers that the “Holy Spirit will come upon you,” and the “power of the Most High will overshadow you” and “the holy one to be born will be called the Son of God” (Luke 1:35–38). St. Elizabeth soon afterwards confirms the angel's praise, “Blessed art thou amongst women, and blessed is the fruit of thy womb” (Luke 1:42) and Mary offers the prayer known as the Magnificat harking back to the prophecies of the Old Testament and the prediction that “henceforth all generations shall call me blessed” (Luke 1:48).
Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109)
Authors: Woods Ryan T.
Published: January 2012

Born in 1033 to a declining patrician clan in the alpine village of Aosta, Italy, Anselm inhabited a world of profound cultural and political ferment: the Norman Conquest, the Crusades, the development of scholastic institutions, and the Hildebrandine pontificate punctuated his eventful life. His legacy, however, owes less to his participation in the institutional apparatus of this transformation, and more to the inner resources of his fertile intellect.
Anthem
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin
Published: January 2012

A Protestant sacred choral composition, analogous to the Roman Catholic
motet
, the anthem is sung by a church choir in English with texts based on Scripture or a religious theme. The term is derived from the same root as “antiphon.” The anthem originated with and is commonly used in the liturgy of the Anglican Communion. For the British service of coronation or other occasional service, the mass includes several anthems, some of which are commissioned particularly for the special event.
Anthropology, Christian
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Christian anthropology (from the Greek words
anthrōpos
[“human being”] and
logos
[“word” or “discourse”]) is the words or teaching concerning humanity from a biblical perspective. The term anthropology can refer generally to any study of the culture and customs of humankind, or it can refer specifically (and theologically) to the biblical teaching concerning humanity as God's creatures. In contrast to any materialistic evolutionary views, which regard chance as the origin of man, Christian anthropology bestows a preeminent foundation for man's dignity as a special creation of God. The relationship of mankind to the Creator is superior since “God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them” (Gen. 1:27). Man is created with a likeness to God; therefore, he possesses an incomparable dignity among creation. Furthermore, only humanity possesses the ability to discern and commune with God, giving humankind purpose as the result of God's remarkable design (cf. Ps. 139:14). Humankind, therefore, is morally accountable and responsible to God. Although Christian anthropology maintains that humanity is created in the image of God (
imago Dei
), the effect of sin on humanity's moral and spiritual being is total depravity. Christian anthropology also explains the nature of humanity, that is, the relationship between the immaterial (soul and/or spirit) and material (body) aspects of humankind.
Antiochene Theology
Authors: Nixon John Ashley
Published: January 2012

By the end of the 4th century a particular way of speaking and thinking about Christ was formed among a group of theologians associated with Asia Minor in general and the city of Antioch in particular. Although some scholars have tried to trace this theology back to Paul of Samosata, it took its shape from the teaching and preaching of Diodore of Tarsus, Theodore of Mopsuestia, and Theodoret of Cyrrhus. Nevertheless, Nestorius of Constantinople is perhaps its most infamous representative. Furthermore, the development of this theology should not be seen as a continuous and consistent effort. It was formed as each of these teachers faced developing questions within the life and practice of the church. In particular, this perspective was clarified in response to Arianism and Apollinarianism and took its definitive form in contrast to what modern scholars have termed “Alexandrian” theology.
Anti‐Semitism
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

The name Semite, or Shemite, means a descendant of Shem, one of the sons of Noah, whose ancestors are listed most prominently in the Table of Nations (Gen. 10:21–31). August Ludwig von Schlözer is generally credited with the origin of the name Semite in 1781. Von Schlözer derived the term from Shem, the eldest son of Noah (Gen. 5:32; 6:10; 9:18; 10:1; 1 Chron. 1:4), to describe a family of related languages. Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider coined the word “anti‐Semitism” in 1860. He added the Greek prefix
anti
(“against”) to describe anti‐Jewish sentiment. Steinschneider used the phrase
antisemitische
in a polemic against French philosopher Ernest Renan's perspective that “Semitic races” were inferior to “Aryan races.”
A
phrahat (fl. 337–345)
Authors: Amar Joseph P.
Published: January 2012

Aphrahat (Persian:
Parhat
) (fl. 337–345) is the earliest major Syriac author from whom we possess a significant collection of writings. His 23
Demonstrations
suggest that he occupied a position of leadership in the Christian church of Sasanian Persia. His self‐identification as a “disciple of the holy scriptures” is an apt one: his is a simple, Bible‐based piety. The most characteristic feature of his writing is his familiarity with Scripture and his ability to support his arguments with numerous “demonstrations” or “examples” from both Old and New Testaments. We know from Aphrahat's own dating of his work that the
Demonstrations
were written in three stages, in the years 336, 344, and 345. While he knows of Constantine's conversion to Christianity, Aphrahat betrays no awareness of the Council of Nicaea.
Apocalypticism
Authors: Lineham Peter
Published: January 2012

The theme of apocalypticism has been interpreted by various scholars either as a heretical diversion of the Christian community, a central theme in the shaping of theology, a manifestation of sectarian impulses, a sign of social strain within the Christian community, or sometimes a mixture of all of these themes. The term millenarianism or millennialism is often used in connection with these themes, but it only deals with an aspect of the Christian apocalyptic literature, although sometimes “millennialism” is used misleadingly as a term to cover all Christian interest in eschatology (the end‐time). Apocalypticism is a genre of writing and thinking in which a mood of expectation of the end is heightened. It extends beyond those movements and people who have sought to bring about the millennial reign of Christ.
Apologetics, Classical
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Classical apologetics is the foremost method of apologetics in church history. Although Protestants affirm various apologetic methods, the majority of Roman Catholics affirm this method. Vatican I affirmed “the one true God, our Creator and Lord, can be known with certainty in the natural light of human reason through the things that have been made” (Dei Filius, can. 2.1), and that miracles can be known with certainty, and prove the divine origin of the Christian religion (can. 3.4). Classical apologetics is a method that stresses natural theology to establish the existence of God through theistic verifications. The methodology of classical apologists and evidentialists is similar in many respects, but there is substantial disagreement regarding the necessity of natural theology. Whereas evidentialists employ a “one‐step” process, the classical methodology is a “two‐step” process. As opposed to employing historical arguments, the classicist argues first for the existence of God (the true theistic worldview) and then focuses upon specific historical evidences. Through various theistic arguments, the existence of God is established independent of special revelation, and then emphasis is given to evidential arguments.
Apologetics, Cumulative Case
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Cumulative case apologetics is a method that argues for the existence of God (or another complex truth claim) by demonstrating that it is the more reasonable view in correspondence with all obtainable evidence than some alternate hypothesis. As an argumentative methodology, the cumulative case would employ various arguments but none would be regarded resolutely. Each argument, however, results in clear and definite conclusions evidentially, which assert the probability of the existence of God. Various theistic arguments are intended as proofs that assert the probability of belief in the existence of God. For instance, arguments for the existence of God are not entirely formulated definitively; rather the argumentation is developed progressively, according to conditions of probability, until theism explains natural theology better than any alternative hypothesis and becomes more probable as truth than it not being true. The cumulative case is not as evidential (nor anti‐evidential) as other apologetic methods. For example, Richard Swinburne argued for the reasonableness of belief in the existence of God (i.e. “significantly more probable than not”) from the evidence of religious experience and miracles (in addition to traditional arguments).
Aquinas,Thomas
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Thomas Aquinas was born at Roccasecca, Italy, of the Aquino family, in about 1225 and died in 1274. His early education took place at the Benedictine abbey of Monte Cassino and he acquired additional education at the University of Naples. At Naples, he joined the Dominican order as a friar in 1243. In 1248, he was appointed instructor at Cologne, assistant to his master Albert the Great. After assuming this position, he began to write his philosophical and theological thoughts. Since he was greatly influenced by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, his writings reflected considerable vestiges of Aristotelian philosophy. In addition, he was influenced by St. Augustine, Dionysius the Areopagite, and Avicenna (Ibn Sina), the Islamic scholar.
Christian Archaeology in
A
sia Minor and
G
reece
Authors: Haralampidou Dimitra
Published: January 2012

Christian archaeology is a branch of the science of archaeology that examines in a systematic way works of architecture and Christian painting in order to comprehend their historical development and meaning as determined by the Christian doctrine. Christian archaeology interprets the monuments from a religious, historical, and artistic perspective. The areas of Asia Minor, Greece, and countries of the Mediterranean, such as Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, have provided the most important examples of archaeological findings of this historical period.
Armenian Christianity
Authors: Steeves Paul D.
Published: January 2012

Armenians constitute an ethnic group whose ancestral homeland lies in a largely mountainous area between the Black and Caspian seas. In the 1,700 years of the existence of Armenian Christianity, Armenians seldom have enjoyed political independence, so the national church, to which over 90 percent of Armenians, whether in the homeland or the worldwide diaspora claim adherence, regularly has united and represented the Armenian people.
Arminianism
Authors: Olson Roger E.
Published: January 2012

Arminianism is the English word generally used for the theology begun by Jacob Arminius of Holland (d. 1609) and continued by his followers known as the Remonstrants. The Remonstrants were Dutch ministers and theologians who published a document known as the Remonstrance, detailing Arminian belief.
Art (Sculpture)
Authors: Crabtree Mara Lief
Published: January 2012

Throughout the history of the Christian faith, various art forms have developed and continue to exist in the contemporary era. One of the most prominent of all the forms common to artistic expression in Christian‐themed works is sculpture. Sculpture is defined as artistic work in three dimensions. Works of art in sculpture are created using diverse materials, including, but not limited to, various forms of stone, metals — including precious metals — clay, plaster, animal bone, and ivory. Contemporarily, materials such as steel, aluminum, glass, plastic, acrylic, polymer, paper and certain fabrics have been used to create three‐dimensional artistic works.
A
sbury,
F
rancis (1745–1816)
Authors: Loyer Kenneth M.
Published: January 2012

Francis Asbury, Methodist preacher and bishop, played a crucial role in the development of American Methodism, the largest popular religious movement in America between the Revolution and the Civil War. The first bishop in American Methodism, Asbury oversaw the movement during a period of remarkable growth, from several thousand members to more than 200,000. Throughout his 45 years of leadership, he labored tirelessly in traveling, preaching, and supervising the work of Methodist preachers in America, where he arrived in 1771 after having been commissioned by John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, from his home country, England.
Ascetical Theology
Authors: Peters Greg
Published: January 2012

Ascetical theology is the branch of theology that studies the nature of Christian asceticism and Christian perfection. “Asceticism” comes from the Greek
askēsis
and literally means exercise, practice, or training. In the early Christian church
askēsis
referred to the study of the sacred scriptures (Origen,
Contra Celsus
7.60) and bodily discipline (Basil of Caesarea,
Ep.
81.1); it was also used as a technical term for the monastic life (Athanasius,
Life of Anthony
, Prologue). Jordan Aumann writes that “a Polish Franciscan named Dobrosielski introduced the word
ascetical
into the Latin usage of western theology in 1655” (Aumann 1980, 14). Roman Catholic theologians of the early 19th century began in earnest to make a distinction between ascetical theology and other areas of theology. For example, according to Adolphe Tanquerey, ascetical theology is one of the three parts of theology, the other two fields being dogmatic and moral. For Tanquerey, ascetical theology has its foundation in dogma that depends upon and completes moral theology — ascetical theology directs dogmatic truths toward practice and moves beyond moral theology in that it insists “on a higher degree of virtue than strictly obligatory. Ascetical Theology, then, is truly
the science of Christian perfection
” (Tanquerey 1932, 5). According to ascetical theology, the Christian life is often divided into three stages: the purgative, the illuminative, and the unitive. The purgative way stresses cleansing from sin, the illuminative way is growth in Christian virtue, and the unitive way focuses on union with God. In a most general sense, ascetical theology is the study of Christian discipline and the spiritual life, rooted in the study of the sacred scriptures and Christian tradition. In 1910 Pope Benedict XV established the first academic chairs in ascetical theology at the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas (the Angelicum) and the Pontifical University Gregoriana, both in Rome.
A
sian Christianity to 1500
ce
Authors: Knowles Brett
Published: January 2012

The “hidden history” of Asian Christianity up to 1500 encompasses an area bounded by Mesopotamia, Japan, and the Javanese kingdom of Majapahit. It has often been ignored, due initially to a perception that Christianity east of Antioch was heretical and — in the modern era — to a pervasive Eurocentrism. However, the oftenvigorous expansion of the Asian church prior to the arrival of European explorers in the 16th century demonstrates that it had a life of its own and that Asian materials can be neither disregarded nor dissolved within European categories.
B
abai the Great (c.551–628)
Authors: Amar Joseph P.
Published: January 2012

Babai is considered to be one of the most eminent scholars of the Syriac Church of the East, also known as the Assyrian Church. Born into a wealthy Persian family c.551, he received primary education in the Persian classics before distinguishing himself at the theological school of Nisibis. He eventually entered the monastery founded by Abraham of Kashkar on Mount Izla near Nisibis. In 604 he became the monastery's third abbot, undertaking an extensive reform of monastic life. The monastic Canons he established survive. When the patriarch, known as Catholicos of the Assyrian Church, died in 608, the Persian Shah, Khosro II, attempted to impose his own candidate. When the candidate was refused, the Shah did not allow the bishops to gather to elect a successor of their own. During this period, leadership of the church was shared by Babai, under the title “visitor of monasteries” and the deacon Aba.
Babalola, Joseph Ayodele (Apostle) (1904–1959)
Authors: Samson Adetunji Fatokun
Published: January 2012

Apostle Joseph Ayodele Babalola is one of the great African church leaders in contemporary times. He was a great prophet, evangelist, and miracle worker in African Pentecostal history. He (together with Pastors D. O. Odubanjo and J. A. Akinyele) co‐founded Christ Apostolic Church (worldwide) — one of the world's leading African independent Pentecostal churches. He was born on April 25, 1904 into a Christian family. His father was David Rotimi (the Lay President of the Anglican church in his hometown) and his mother was Marta Talabi. He hailed from Odo‐Owa, a village near Ilofa, in the present Kwara State of Nigeria, West Africa. He was a semi‐literate man — he had a primary school education (what was then called Nigerian Reader V), after which he trained as a motor mechanic and roller driver under the then Public Works Department (PWD).
Babylon asMetaphor
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

The origins of Babylon (Babel) are with Nimrod, “a mighty one [viz. ‘one who magnified himself’] on the earth” (Gen. 10:8). The beginning of Nimrod's kingdom was the establishing of Babel. The city founded by Nimrod was renowned for its pride and rebellion; its pagan worship of false gods was the beginning of the degeneration from monotheism to polytheism (Rom. 1:18–32), and reached a climax when its inhabitants sought equality with God (Gen. 11:1–9). God turned human ambition and ingenuity against him at Babel into chaos and confusion. Babylon is depicted as a mighty city throughout Scripture, and was frequently used by God in judgment upon other nations (Ps. 137:1, 8; Isa. 47:6; Jer. 21:2–10; 25:8–11; 27:1–12; 28:1–17; 51:7, 20–23; Ezek. 19:9; 23:11–35; 24:1–14). Although used by God in his sovereignty, Babylon will not be exempt from divine judgment for her immorality, pride, and wickedness. The city is both a prophecy and type of a religious system destroyed by God (Isa. 21:9; Jer. 50:24; 51:64; Rev. 16:19; 17:5; 18:2–3). Although the name “Babylon” is derived from the Akkadian wordbabilumeaning “gate of god,” it is an evident counterfeit of God's eternal city. The opposition to the rule of God by world powers or the exile of God's people from the land of blessing is conveyed properly through the metaphor of Babylon.
B
ach,
J
ohann
S
ebastian (1685–1750)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Johann Sebastian Bach was born on March 21, 1685 in Eisenach, Germany into a family of highly talented musicians. His father, Johann Ambrosius Bach, was the Duke of Eisenach's court trumpeter and taught him to play the violin and the harpsichord early. His uncle, Johann Christoph Bach, organist at St. George's Lutheran Church in Eisenach and the father of five musically gifted sons, taught him to play the organ. Music was thus a highly significant part of the Bachs' family life.
B
acon,
F
rancis (1561–1626)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Francis Bacon, who was born in 1561 in London, England, and died in 1626, did much to advance the modern scientific method. Although he is usually listed as the son of Nicolas Bacon, the Lord Keeper of the Seal of Queen Elizabeth I, some historians have argued with rather plausible evidence that he was the son of Queen Elizabeth and Robert Dudley (later Earl of Leicester) who had a secret marriage.
Baradeus,Jacob (c.500–578)
Authors: Childers J. W.
Published: January 2012

Monk, missionary, and nonresident bishop of Edessa, Jacob Baradeus was credited with organizing the Syrian Orthodox (“Jacobite”) Church. The traditional picture of Jacob as the indefatigable consolidator of the henophysite (wrongly, “monophysite”) Syrian Orthodox ecclesial establishment may be received with some tentativeness. Jacob was born near Tella (i.e. Constantina; modern Viransehir in south‐east Turkey) and as a young man entered the monastery of Fesiltha at Mount Izla near Nisibis (Nusaybin). In about 527 he and fellow monk Sergius began a lengthy sojourn in Constantinople as advocates for the oppressed henophysite churches in Syria. Importuned by the Ghassanid Arab King Harith from eastern Syria, who was seeking missionary bishops for his Christian kingdom, the henophysite sympathizer Empress Theodora (c.500–548) arranged to have Jacob ordained along with a certain Theodore. The two were consecrated in Constantinople in 542–543 by Theodosius, the exiled Patriarch of Alexandria. Theodore worked mainly in Arabia but Jacob labored throughout Asia. Although the titular bishop of Edessa (modern Urfa), Jacob never settled there but traveled instead throughout Mesopotamia, Syria, Armenia, Arabia, Sinai, Cappadocia, and many other countries, ordaining numerous bishops and priests and generally encouraging the struggling and often persecuted network of henophysite churches. He was thereby instrumental in effecting their recovery from the debilitating effects of imperial attacks on their hierarchy following the exile of Severus from Antioch in 519. He reportedly was fluent in Syriac, Greek, and Arabic. Observing austere ascetic discipline, Jacob wore ragged patchwork clothing that earned him the nicknameburd'aya(from “horse‐cloth” or “rags”; Greekbaradaios). This manner of attire was also an effective disguise enabling Jacob to evade imperial agents who were sent by Justinian to capture the resourceful bishop. Always on the move, he tended to stay in one place only a day or so before setting off again on foot to minister elsewhere, out of the reach of agents who were in hot pursuit. The last years of his life were consumed by efforts to establish peaceful relations between the rival great henophysite churches of Antioch and Alexandria. He died en route to Alexandria in 578.
B
ardaisan (152–222)
Authors: Amar Joseph P.
Published: January 2012

Bardaisan belonged to the court of King Abgar VIII of Edessa and was a friend of Julius Africanus. He is an early representative of the fact that Syriac‐speaking Christianity enjoyed a prestige that rivaled that of the dominant Greek literary culture. Although Bardaisan had a Hellenistic education (he was known in Greek as “the Aramaean philosopher”), he wrote both poetry and prose exclusively in Syriac. His association with the composition of doctrinal hymns (Syr.
madrashê
) is an indication that Syriac had established itself as a liturgical language at an early date in Edessa.
Baroque
Authors: Quantz Amanda D.
Published: January 2012

The word “Baroque” is a nebulous term derived from the Portuguese term
barroco
, which denotes the type of oddly shaped pearl discarded by fishermen. Historically it refers to the art, architecture, literature, and music of Europe that began to evolve around the year 1600 in the context of the Counter‐Reformation and which continued in several manifestations throughout the 18th century. The style developed partly in conjunction with several important decrees of the Council of Trent (1545–1563). These encouraged an affective form of devotion (13th Session, “The Holy Eucharist”), “pious, prudent catechesis” (24th Session, “Reform” c.7), and respect for the sacred in the realm of art (25th Session, “Invocation of the saints”). Its development was also dependent on the new form of popular piety promulgated by the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556), which aimed at perfecting one's devotion for the greater glory of God.
Barth,Karl (1886–1968)
Authors: Johnson Keith L.
Published: January 2012

The Swiss Reformed theologian Karl Barth was arguably the most influential theologian of the 20th century. After studying in Germany with many of the leading figures in Protestant liberalism of the day, Barth began his career as a pastor in Switzerland. The outbreak of World War I shortly afterwards led him to a personal crisis, when many of his former teachers endorsed the war policies of the German Kaiser Wilhelm. Barth responded by moving away from his teachers and rediscovering the “strange, new world” of the Bible.
L
as
C
asas,
B
artolomé
de
(1484–1566)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

“Defender of the Indians” in Spanish America, Bartolomé de Las Casas was the son of a merchant who was trained as a lawyer. He accompanied Columbus on his second journey to the New World and went to Hispaniola (Haiti) at the age of 18. He received an
encomienda
(large estate) as a grant for his services to the Spanish government. Las Casas was perhaps the first priest to be ordained in the western hemisphere and he was also the first to celebrate Mass in the New World in 1510. After taking part in the bloody occupation of Cuba along with Diego Velazquez, he received more land along with Indian serfs. It was at this time that he began to be concerned about the treatment of Indians by the Spaniards and decided to devote his energies to their defense. For this purpose he went to Spain in 1515 and won the support of Ferdinand for a bold experiment to create Indian towns, but his experiment came to naught because of poor planning, settler resistance and an Indian revolt. He was named by Cardinal Ximenes as “Protector of the Indians.” He later tried to plant a Spanish colony on the coast of Cumana in what is now Venezuela. This was destroyed by the Indians in 1521. Las Casas then joined the Dominican Order in 1523 and settled down to use his pen to defend the Indians. In 1537 his
De Unico Modo
(“The Only Way”) championed peaceful evangelization without the enslavement of Indians. His second book,
Historia Apologetica
(1537), refuted the prevalent notion that Indians were savages and described them as mature and civilized in their own way. The pamphlet
Destruction of the Indies
(1542) was his most severe attack on the greed of the Spanish settlers. His most celebrated work was the
History of the Indies
(1875) which was a historical chronicle of the enslavement of the Indians and the deliberate destruction of their culture, coupled with warnings of divine retribution.
Basel Mission
Authors: Olabimtan Kehinde
Published: January 2012

The Basel Mission (BM; Evangelische Missions‐gesellschaft in Basel) was a German Pietist missionary society established in 1815 as an ecumenical and nondenominational initiative to train prospective German missionaries for service overseas. The mission at various stages received its character and changing understanding of mission from its inspectors. The initial formation was shaped by Christian G. Blumhardt, the first inspector in 1816, who opened the seminary. It drew much of its support and students from southern Germany and German‐speaking areas of Switzerland and Austria. Blumhardt stated the organization's understanding of mission as the facilitation of “a beneficent civilization and propagation of the Gospel of peace to various areas of the pagan world” (Rennstich 1982). He clarified the implications of this, when the mission was sending out its missionaries to Africa in 1827, as courteous entry into indigenous societies with the aim to understand the peoples' language and traditions. Along with founding churches, missionaries were to work at improving the material culture of the people among whom they served.
Beliefs, Christian
Authors: Moody Joshua
Published: January 2012

The very task of writing, albeit in summary form, a relatively brief analysis of “Christian beliefs” in their entirety would be substantially absurd, were it not for the fact that Christ, around whom all Christian beliefs of course coalesce, was reportedly in the habit of summarizing his core propositions in even briefer compass. The beginning of Mark's Gospel records Jesus as proclaiming that “The time has come. The kingdom of God is near. Repent and believe the good news” (Mark 1:14). This bold call to stop believing one thing and start another is, arguably, an indication of a central core to Christian beliefs around which the massive infrastructure, raised by time and history, is built.
Benedictine Rule
Authors: Scheller Brock
Published: January 2012

The Rule of St. Benedict (
Regula Sancti Benedicti
), written in Latin in the 6th century (c.530–560), is a guide for fostering an environment of spiritual development, allowing a monastic community's members to exercise the Christian values of obedience, humility, and love.
Berlioz,Hector (1803–1869)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Leading French composer of the 19th century. Failing to find success at the Paris Opera, he turned to music criticism and undertook a number of concert tours in England, Germany, and Russia. Although he composed some noteworthy sacred music he is not generally considered a church musician because of his unorthodoxy. He made use of liturgical texts but they were not intended to be used in a worship service. His first substantial composition was aMass(1824). His monumentalRequiem Massin 1837 was commissioned not by or for the church but by the government minister for the interior. It was followed 25 years later byTe Deumwhich was performed not in a church but at the Brussels Exposition in 1855. TheRequiemwas performed on a vast scale, with eight pairs of timpani and four groups of brass, and it constituted Berlioz's vision of the Last Judgment. InTe Deum, there is a children's chorus of 600 and movements of unprecedented grandeur. His third religious work wasL'Enfance du Christ, a choral trilogy which met with great and unexpected success. It is an account of the childhood of Christ in three parts: “The Dream of Herod,” “The Flight into Egypt,” and “The Arrival in Sais.” It is devotional in style and modest in scale. Despite composing three major works, Berlioz is not part of the mainstream of Christian music.
Bible
Authors: Bruce James E.
Published: January 2012

The Bible is the most widely translated, distributed, and read book in the history of the world. Its influence is truly incalculable: certain historical periods cannot properly be understood without reference to it, e.g. the Reformation, and its influence through those it has influenced is, again, astonishing.
Bible,
A
rmenian Version
Authors: Hovhanessian Vahan
Published: January 2012

Until the first decade of the 5th century, the Bible was preached in Armenia using the existing Syriac and Greek texts. Historians of the 5th century comment on the difficulties Armenians faced in preaching the gospel and teaching Christianity in Armenia using the non‐Armenian texts of the Bible. Hearing the Bible alone was not sufficient to achieve the desired spiritual impact on the souls of the newly converted Armenians: the need for written material was urgent. This inspired an Armenian monk named Mashtots to invent the Armenian alphabet around 405. Following the invention of the Armenian alphabet, Mashtots and his disciples immediately embarked on the monumental task of translating the Bible into Armenian.
Biblical Criticism
Authors: Smith Jay E.
Published: January 2012

Biblical criticism is the term used to designate the academic discipline or field of inquiry given to the scientific investigation of the biblical documents. Its ultimate goal is a clear and accurate understanding of the biblical text in its original historical setting. Traditionally, biblical criticism has employed a variety of principles and methods to study three interrelated dimensions of the biblical text: (1)the textual(the text with respect to its transmission, corruption, and restoration); (2)the literary(the text with respect to its words, genre, structure, and meaning); and (3)the historical(the text with respect to its origin and authenticity, as well as a historical reconstruction of the events described within the text). Biblical criticism is often referred to as the historical‐critical method, and the two designations function more or less synonymously.
Biblical Theology
Authors: Finlay Timothy D.
Published: January 2012

Biblical theology as a distinct discipline was born in a 1787 lecture by J. P. Gabler. Gabler distinguished biblical theology, which has historical origins and concerns what the biblical writers thought about divine matters, from dogmatic theology, which has didactic origins and concerns what theologians philosophize rationally about divine matters. Gabler envisioned two stages in doing biblical theology: first, evaluating by careful exegesis the ideas of each biblical author; and second, analyzing these ideas to derive universal theological concepts where the biblical authors agree.
Blood of Christ
Authors: Macy Gary
Published: January 2012

The “blood of Christ” refers first and most obviously to the blood of Jesus shed during his crucifixion. Based on John 19:34, “one of the soldiers pierced Jesus' side with a spear, bringing a sudden flow of blood and water,” a belief developed that Jesus shed all his blood during the crucifixion. Christian teaching also holds that Jesus' body and blood were restored intact as the transformed and glorified body of the risen Christ when Jesus rose from the dead.
Bogomilism
Authors: Parsons William H.
Published: January 2012

The Bogomils were members of a religious group that originated in Bulgaria and spread through the Balkans in the Middle Ages. They believed in a dualism that contrasted the principles of good and evil, light and dark, the spirit and the body, that was similar to Manichaean beliefs, and like religious groups in other countries of the time, like the Cathari, the Patarines, and the Albigenses in Western Europe. They may in fact have influenced these groups. The movement was directed against the Byzantine Empire, Bulgarian serfdom, and authority of any kind. The Bogomils were attacked by the Byzantine and Holy Roman Empires and the Catholic and Orthodox Churches. They basically came to an end as an organized religion as a result of the advance of Islam into the Balkans in the 15th century.
Boniface of Mainz, St. (671–754)
Authors: Gordon Whatley E.
Published: January 2012

Boniface bears the sobriquet “apostle of the Germans” not because he was the first Christian to preach the gospel east of the Rhineland to the German‐speaking subjects and neighbors of the Franks (SS. Willibrord, Killian, and Rupert, among others, had preceded him), but because he firmly established orthodox Christian worship and church governance in important areas of central and southern Germany that were hitherto only nominally or haphazardly Christian (Thuringia, Hesse, Bavaria).
Book of Hours
Authors: Gillman John
Published: January 2012

The Book of Hours, the most popular book in the Middle Ages, was commonly used by the laity as a devotional. It is an abbreviated form of the Divine Office (Breviary), the official prayers said by the clergy and recited in monasteries. The Book of Hours served as a way for the faithful to participate in monastic life. Written in Latin (called
Horae
), and later in the vernacular (called
Primer
in English), the manuscripts are often richly illuminated with full‐page miniatures of religious, even secular scenes.
Book of Kells
Authors: Gallagher Robert L.
Published: January 2012

The Book of Kells is an ornately illustrated manuscript of the four Gospels with several historic records and a limited glossary of Hebrew names. The book was translated from Jerome's Latin Bible and named after the Columban monastery of Kells in County Meath, Ireland. Tradition holds that the work was begun on Iona, Scotland, to honor Columba (d. 597). After a violent Viking raid in 802, the Celtic monks fled to Kells and took the manuscript with them, where it was completed.
Born Again
Authors: Mullin Miles S.
Published: January 2012

Common parlance among evangelicals, the phrase “born again” originates from the translation of
anōthen
found in the King James Version (KJV, 1611) of the Bible. In particular, the third chapter of the Gospel of John describes an unusual encounter between Jesus and Nicodemus, a member of the Sanhedrin — the highest Jewish council of the 1st century. When Nicodemus recognizes Jesus as a “teacher who has come from God,” Jesus gives a puzzling response: “Except a man be
born again
[
anōthen
Gk.] he cannot see the kingdom of God” (John 3.3, emphasis added). Explaining further, Jesus connects being “born again” directly to the work of the Spirit (3.5–8) and typologically to his coming crucifixion (3:14–15). In addition, being “born again” centers on belief in him as “the only Son of God” (3.18, New Revised Standard Version, NRSV), which results in eternal life (3:16) and salvation from judgment (3.17–21). Both the New International Version and the New American Standard Bible — popular among evangelicals — follow the KJV in their choice of “born again” for
anōthen
, although the Revised Standard Version and NRSV render
anōthen
“born from above.”
Brazilian Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Brazil is the third largest Christian country in the world. The history of Brazilian Christianity begins in 1549, nearly half a century after Pedro Alvares Cabral first claimed the land in the name of Portugal in 1500. In that year the first Jesuits arrived in the country. They established cooperative Indian villages known as reductions. In 1580 three additional religious congregations arrived, followed in 1734 by three congregations of women.
Brethren of the Common Life
Authors: Beiting Christopher J.
Published: January 2012

The Brethren of the Common Life was a religious association founded in the 14th century in the Netherlands by Gerard Groote, which spread to Germany and Switzerland and endured until the 17th century. It began as a household community inspired by Groote, a canon from Utrecht, who resigned his office to serve as a preacher and religious founder. The first house of the Brethren of the Common Life was at Deventer, and was composed of Groote's friends and disciples. It was different from other religious organizations of the time in that the brethren took no formal vows, nor did they have a specific rule or ritual for community life. Rather, individuals were expected to remain in their previous state of life, lay or clerical, and devote themselves to improvement in their moral and religious lives. A parallel house for women, the Sisters of the Common Life, was also founded by Groote.
Britten,Benjamin (1913–1976)
Authors: Hamilton Mark W.
Published: January 2012

Benjamin Britten was an innovative and acclaimed composer of operas, concerti, symphonies, movie scores, and song cycles, among other forms. He studied at the Royal College of Music with Arthur Benjamin and John Ireland, graduating in 1932. After traveling and composing, he began work writing film scores in 1935 at the General Post Office Film Unit, where he met his sometime collaborator W. H. Auden. He scored two dozen movies between 1935 and 1939. From 1939 to 1942 he lived in North America with his lifelong partner, the tenor Peter Pears, continuing to compose.
L
awrence, Brother (1614–1691)
Authors: Ringenberg William C.
Published: January 2012

Few people have been as widely influential over many centuries based so completely upon only one small book as Brother Lawrence, a monk and mystic born Nicholas Herman at Herimenil, near Luneville in Lorraine, France. His parents, Dominic and Louise, provided him with Christian instruction and a humane example even if not material affluence. Converted initially and profoundly at the age of 18, he entered military service in the period of the troublesome Thirty Years War during which he was both arrested as a suspected spy by German forces and, also, later wounded during the siege of Rambervilliers (1635).
B
runner,
E
mil (1889–1966)
Authors: Werntz Myles
Published: January 2012

Emil Brunner is located most accurately within the neo‐orthodox movement within Protestantism. Colleague and occasional sparring partner of fellow Swiss theologian Karl Barth, Brunner is best known for his three‐part systematic theology and as the first expositor of the “neo‐orthodox” school in the English‐speaking world. Educated at Zurich (1913), Brunner taught primarily at the University of Edinburgh, with other posts at the International Christian University in Tokyo and Princeton Theological Seminary.
B
ryan,
W
illiam
J
ennings (1860–1925)
Authors: Rios Christopher M.
Published: January 2012

Political leader, orator, lawyer, social advocate, and religious hero, William Jennings Bryan remained one of the most prominent American figures for more than three decades. Born on March 19, 1860, in Salem, Illinois, to Silas Bryan and Mariah Jennings, William was raised in a family of strong religious and political convictions. Bryan graduated from Illinois College (Jacksonville) and from Union College of Law and married Mary Baird in 1883. In 1887, the couple moved to Lincoln, Nebraska, to pursue William's political and legal career. They had three children.
B
ulgarian Christianity
Authors: Murdzhev Pavel
Published: January 2012

The lands in what is now Bulgaria have a long Christian tradition, established at the dawn of the Christian era. The first Christian communities were formed during the missionary journeys of Apostle Paul along the Aegean Sea coast and to the towns of Macedonia and of Apostle Andrew along the Black Sea coast. The first Christian community in Philipopolis (Plovdiv) was established by St. Ermus; that of Vereya (Stara Zagora) by St. Karpus, and of Odesos (Varna) by the Holy Martyr Amplius. By the 3rd century
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episcopal sees were also established in Develtus (Debelt), Anchialos (Pomorie), Marcianopolis (Devnya), Dorostorum (Silistra), Nicopolis ad Istrum, and elsewhere. After the Edict of Milan in 313 a dense network of Christian communities flourished in Moesia, Thrace, and Macedonia, the provinces that later became the nucleus of the Bulgarian state.
Butler,Joseph (1692–1752)
Authors: Bruce James E.
Published: January 2012

Joseph Butler, a theologian, philosopher, and Anglican bishop, is best known for his work in natural theology and in ethics.
Byzantine Art and Architecture
Authors: Quantz Amanda D.
Published: January 2012

With the legalization of Christianity came imperial patronage in the realm of church art. Emperor Constantine (306–337) poured vast resources into public building projects, especially in the imperial city of Constantinople. In the western Roman Empire basilicas were oblong halls used for public gatherings, courts of law, and for meetings with the emperor. These functional spaces served as the blueprint for Christian churches beginning in the 4th century.
Byzantine Christianity
Authors: Holt Andrew
Published: January 2012

Byzantine Christianity originated in the eastern Roman Empire where it evolved concurrently with the emerging Byzantine state. It was the dominant form of Eastern Christianity throughout the Middle Ages and during this period it developed a complex theological system with unique spiritual practices. Byzantine Christianity's fortunes were in many ways tied to the Byzantine state, because when the empire experienced expansion and heightened influence so did the faith. While Byzantine Christianity formally represented the spiritual beliefs of the vast majority of the citizens of the Byzantine Empire, there were issues over which the leadership of the church and other Byzantine Christians clashed with the state. This was sometimes the case on issues of faith and practice, but also on issues concerning the role of the emperor within the church or even ecumenical efforts. Although the empire eventually fell under the weight of centuries of Islamic aggression, much of Byzantine Christianity has survived in the modern Eastern Orthodox churches.
Byzantine Orthodoxy
Authors: Gkortsilas Paschalis
Published: January 2012

The historical dependence of the Eastern Orthodox Church upon its Byzantine past makes a study of Byzantine Christianity inevitable for the proper understanding of the Orthodox tradition. The Byzantine period is considered as the golden age of the Orthodox Church and the point where Orthodox civilization reached its highest peak. We should note here that the names “Byzantium” and “Byzantine” are not to be found in the primary sources. The “Byzantines” spoke Greek and considered themselves as Roman, while their empire was considered as the Eastern Roman Empire. Approximately, the Byzantine period begins with the transfer of the capital from Rome to Constantinople in 330 and ends with the fall of Constantinople in 1453.