bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Detecting Predictive Bias: The WISC-R vs. Achievement Scores of Mexican-American and Non-Minority Students
Authors: Valdez R. Stephen , Valdez Cheryl
Published: April 2006

This study takes issue with the conventional application of regression analysis to the problem of detecting predictive bias of IQ tests toward minorities. Jensen (1968, 1980) and Reynolds (1982) rejected the hypothesis that IQ tests are unfair. However, the statistical techniques employed by these and other researchers in the analysis of this problem are of questionable sensitivity to predictive bias. In the present study, the predictive relationship between the WISC-R and PIAT and WRAT achievement scores of 125 Mexican-American and 125 non-minority students was analyzed using four separate methods of analysis. Conventional methods were found to be insensitive to and inappropriate for the detection of predictive bias. An alternative means of detecting predictive bias is proposed.
A Longitudinal Follow-Up of Graduates from a Rural Special Education Program
Authors: Schalock Robert L. , Holl Cary , Elliott Barb , Ross Irv
Published: April 2006

This article summarizes the post-graduation outcomes of 298 students verified as either specific learning disabled or mentally handicapped who graduated from a rural special education program between 1979 and 1988. The following outcome measures were analyzed: current (1989) employment environment, employment outcomes, work-related benefits, primary reported source of income, and living arrangement. Results are discussed relative to comparable published studies, implications for staff training, and the continued need for program analysis and evaluation.
Effects of two Error-Correction Procedures on Oral Reading
Authors: Rose Terry L. , McEntire Elizabeth , Dowdy Carol
Published: April 2006

An alternating-treatments design was used to investigate the relative effectiveness of two error-correction procedures, word supply and phonic analysis, on the oral reading performance of five elementary-school learning disabled students, four boys and one girl. All subjects had deficient oral reading skills. Results indicated that (a) increased oral reading rates were related to systematic correction procedures, and (b) the word-supply procedure was relatively superior to the phonic analysis method. Possible reasons for these findings are discussed, as are suggestions for future investigations and implications for instruction.
Differential Effects of Four Comprehension-Facilitating Conditions on LD and Normal Elementary-School Readers
Authors: Pflaum Susanna W. , Pascarella Ernest T. , Auer Carol , Augustyn Linda , Boswick Mary
Published: April 2006

Ninety-nine elementary-school learning disabled and normal children were assigned to one of four comprehension-facilitating conditions (word identification and meaning aids, sentence aids, purpose-setting aids, and prior-knowledge aids) to determine their effects on comprehension. Controlling for age, intelligence, prior reading achievement, and pretest comprehension levels, sentence aids were found to be significantly more effective than prior knowledge for both learning disabled and similarly achieving, but younger readers. Moreover, for the same two groups of subjects the average effect of words and sentences (micro-level aids) was significantly higher than the average effect of purpose setting and prior knowledge (macro-level aids). No significant differences were found among the four types of comprehension facilitators for normally achieving readers who were the same age as the learning disabled group.
Getting Ready to Read: Guided Probing for Poor Comprehenders
Authors: Idol-Maestas Lorna
Published: April 2006

An advance organizer, TELLS Fact or Fiction, was used to orient students to stories prior to reading them. The steps represented by the acronym were: (T) study story titles, (E) examine and skim pages for clues as to what stories were about, (L) look for important words, (L) look for hard words, (S) think about the story settings, and (Fact or Fiction) decide whether stories were factual or fictional. Teachers used the probing technique to guide 4 LD elementary students and 2 secondary students from general special education classes.

Analysis of performance on comprehension questions showed that, in general, students' average performance on factual, sequential, and inferential questions improved when they used the technique. The two older students maintained acceptable performance on inferential questions when the technique was removed; the remainder of the subjects were unable to maintain their improved performance after teacher-guided assistance was removed.
Strategy Training and Teacher- vs. Student-Controllled Study Conditions: Effects on LD Students' Spelling Performance
Authors: Graham Steve , Freeman Sally
Published: April 2006

This study examined learning disabled students' spelling performance in response to strategy training and variations in study conditions. After training in the use of a five-step study strategy, subjects studied spelling words under one of three conditions: (a) directed study; (b) student-controlled; and (c) teacher-monitored. Students assigned to a control group studied words in any manner they chose. Results indicated that students who were taught the five-step study strategy recalled the correct spelling of more words than controls who devised their own study method. However, the spelling performance of students who received strategy training was not differentially affected by variations in study conditions. Results were interpreted to suggest that learning disabled students' spelling difficulties are associated with problems in self-regulation of organized, strategic behavior.
Two Methods of Adapting Science Materials for Learning Disabled and Regular Seventh Graders
Authors: Lovitt Thomas , Rudsit James , Jenkins Joseph , Pious Constance , Benedetti Dina
Published: April 2006

Two methods for adapting a seventh-grade physical science text were investigated. In one approach, Precision Teaching (PT), specially designed see-to-say and see-to-write practice sheets were used featuring the important words and definitions of a chapter. For the other method, Study Guide (SG), sheets emphasizing the sequenced main ideas of a chapter were developed. Experimental, control, and contrast groups were formed in seven science classrooms at one school to assess the effects of the adaptations. PT was scheduled in four sections, SG in three. Gain scores on a multiple-choice test indicated that the two adaptations were equally effective. Youngsters who received either treatment did better than those who did not. Further, positive changes were noted for pupils at all achievement levels, including LD children.
A Longitudinal Study of LD Children's Self-Evaluations
Authors: Kistner Janet , Osborne Mary
Published: April 2006

Developmental patterns of school-identified learning disabled (LD) and normally achieving (NA) students' responses to the Perceived Competence Scale for Children (PCSC) were investigated in this longitudinal study. Relative to the NA group, LD children were more negative about themselves; however, their self-evaluations did not become more negative over a two-year interval. Analysis of response patterns across PCSC subscales suggested that most of the LD sample was not appropriately characterized by persistent, globally negative self-evaluations. A subgroup of LD children who were very negative about themselves at both test administrations was identified. The characteristics of this subgroup were subsequently examined.
The Methodological Content of Teacher Education Programs in Learning Disabilities: A Problem of Duplication
Authors: Pugach Marleen , Whitten M. Elizabeth
Published: April 2006

This article features the results of a national survey of the methodological content of the largest teacher education programs in learning disabilities/mild handicaps. The data describe the relative emphasis of an array of methodologies for remediation taught in major required methods courses. Results indicate that many of the dominant methodologies are those that are commonly included in programs of general teacher education. Further, within a given course, the range of methodologies stressed include those that have proven effective, as well as those proven to be ineffective for remediating learning problems. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of these results for preparation of teachers of learning disabled and mildly handicapped students.
Attribution Patterns of Learning Disabled Adolescents
Authors: Tollefson Nona , Tracy D.B. , Johnsen E.P. , Buenning Meridith , Farmer A. , Barké C.R.
Published: April 2006

This study compared the general self-esteem and attributions of LD and non-LD junior high-school students and the general attributions and task-specific attributions of LD students. Subjects were 35 LD students and 99 non-LD students. All subjects completed the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Scale (IAR). LD students also completed a spelling task and gave reasons for their success or failure on the task. Mean scores for the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Scale were not significantly different for LD and non-LD students. However, LD students' internal responses to the IAR were not mirrored on the spelling task. LD students gave internal responses to the general attribution measure, but not to the task-specific attribution measure. It was concluded that LD students' attribution patterns help explain why LD students may verbalize a desire to do well in school, but fail to expend the effort necessary to complete work and, consequently, appear to be poorly motivated.
Classroom Behavior of Learning Disabled Children
Authors: McKinney James D. , McClure Susan , Feagans Lynne
Published: April 2006

Teacher ratings and observational data were gathered on 22 pairs of LD and non-LD children in the second and fourth grades in an effort to compare their task-oriented, social, and affective behavior patterns in regular class settings. Results indicated that task orientation was the primary dimension of adaptive behavior discriminating the groups for both measures. While LD and non-LD students were observed performing similar classroom activities during the same periods of the day, data on contextual settings suggested that LD students were more often placed in small groups than in individual or large-group settings. The consistency of findings across previous observational studies was noted as well as the importance of considering ecological factors of the classroom in future research and program planning.
Effects of Self-Instruction and Self-Correction Procedures on Handwriting Performance
Authors: Kosiewicz Marianne Myron , Hallahan Daniel P. , Lloyd John , Graves Anne W.
Published: April 2006

A reversal design with multiple-baseline features was used to assess the efficacy of self-instructions, self-correction, and a combination of the two on an LD boy's handwriting performance. The boy's presenting problem was very poor handwriting skills. Results indicated that a set of self-instructions designed to provide the student with a strategy for writing appropriately was highly effective, as was a self-correction condition and a condition combining the two treatments. A “booster” was employed to maintain treatment effects.
Language Characteristics of a Purposive Sample of Early Elementary Learning Disabled Students
Authors: Hessler Gary L. , Kitchen Dale W.
Published: April 2006

The Test of Language Development (Newcomer & Hammill, 1977) was administered to a purposive sample of early elementary learning disabled students in an effort to analyze their language performance. Statistically significant differences were indexed between receptive and expressive language skills for this sample. The subjects scored at the lower limits of the normal range on two subtests requiring verbal reception. Further, they scored below average on three subtests requiring verbal expression, as well as on the total language quotient. Variable functioning within the sample was noted, however.
Reading as a Function of Visual and Auditory Process Training
Authors: Cook J. Michael , Welch Michael W.
Published: April 2006

The effects of visual and auditory process training on reading achievement are explored. Twenty-four subjects identified as learning disabled were assigned to three treatment groups: (a) Auditory Training and Reading group, (b) Visual Training and Reading group, and (c) Reading Only group. The subjects received at least forty hours of process training in the assigned groups. All three groups received equal amounts of academic training; reading was taught on an individual diagnostic-prescriptive basis. Metropolitan Achievement Test scores for Word Knowledge, Reading, and Arithmetic were dependent variables for academic achievement. Several tests from the Goldman-Fristoe-Woodcock Auditory Skills Test Battery were used as dependent variables measuring improved process skills. The results of ANOVA indicate that there were no significant differences between the three treatment groups for improvement in process skills. ANOVA achieve-achievement scores indicated significant differences for the Word Knowledge and Reading variables, but not for Arithmetic. Duncan's Multiple-Range Test indicated that the Visual Training and Reading group was superior to both other groups for Word Knowledge. Both the Visual Training and Reading and the Reading Only group were significantly different from the Auditory Training and Reading group for the reading variable. The results of this study indicate that the process-training model remains essentially nonvalidated.
Developing Mental Images of Mathematical Processes
Authors: Dunlap William P. , Brennan Alison H.
Published: April 2006

The use of manipulative aids is a common teaching practice for learning disabled students with deficits in mathematics. Dunlap and Brennan support this practice but caution that the selection and application of a manipulative aid should not be a haphazard process. This article specifies a set of guidelines for using manipulative aids in teaching students who are experiencing difficulty in mastering mathematical concepts.
Written Language Instruction for Students with Mild Handicaps: Is There Enough Quantity to Ensure Quality?
Authors: Christenson Sandra L. , Thurlow Martha L. , Ysseldyke James E. , McVicar Rosemary
Published: April 2006

Full-day classroom observations of learning disabled, emotionally disabled, educable mentally retarded, and nonhandicapped students ( N = 122) were conducted. A 10-second interval recording system was used to document tasks and student responding during written language instruction in regular and special education settings. Regardless of categorical designation, extreme variability was found in the amount of time individual students spent in writing activities or in receiving written language instruction. Implications for improving written language instruction for students with mild handicaps include increasing allocated time, teaching written language as an integrated process, and coordinating written language activities with different content areas. Collaborative problem solving between regular and special educators is needed to accomplish these changes.
Process Testing: Is The Detroit the Answer?
Authors: Olson Judy , Mercer Cecil , Paulson Dan
Published: April 2006

The relationship between performance on selected subtests of the Detroit Test of Learning Aptitude (DTLA) and academic performance as measured by the Wide Range Achievement Test was analyzed for a group of 65 learning disabled adolescents. An examination of the results found only one significant correlation between the Oral Direction subtest and arithmetic performance. It was concluded that use of the DTLA seems unwarranted as a measure for predicting academic achievement variables underlying process disorders in adolescents.
Learned Helplessness and Attribution Theory: Redefining Children's Learning Problems
Authors: Grimes Lynn
Published: April 2006

This article explores attribution theory and the concept of learned helplessness in teaching learning disabled individuals. Giving up after failure is characteristic of the learned-helplessness syndrome. This overreaction to failure may be related to individuals' perceptions that personal outcomes are independent of the response. Suggestions are given for areas of future research with learning disabled populations. The discussion includes current teaching techniques which may be related to the self-regulatory behaviors and perception of personal control over one's life.
Evaluating Instructional Interactions: How Do We Begin Teaching?
Authors: Schworm Ronald W. , Abelseth Janet L.
Published: April 2006

In most evaluations of learning disabled children little effort is made to determine the degree of interaction needed between the child and a task to promote correct or effective responding. Most judgments of a child's learning ability are based on data collected by procedures that do not manipulate or extend on initial test performances. This article describes an evaluation procedure that observes the child's ability to use specific learning strategies. By extending on and manipulating initial responses the procedures help determine the amount of interaction needed to influence a child's performance and identify the kinds of instructional interactions that exercise control over the child's responses. Two examples, a copying task and a reading task, are used to illustrate the procedures. The results are purported to have an impact on various instructional and educational decisions.
Learning Disabilities Identification: Do Researchers Have the Answer?
Authors: Olson Judy L. , Mealor David J.
Published: April 2006

One hundred and thirteen studies were reviewed to determine how researchers identify their LD samples. Populations were compared on academic, process, intelligence, exclusion, and discrepancy components as well as the demographic characteristics of age, sex, and grade. Researchers were found most often to select the academic and intelligence components and the demographic characteristics of age and sex to identify their populations. However, these components were described in a variety of ways. Less than half of the researchers used the process or exclusion components or included a description of grade placement. The article includes suggestions for obtaining more generalizability of research findings based on results of the review of existing research studies.
WISC-R Arithmetic Subtest Performance of Mathematically Handicapped and Non-Mathematically Handicapped LD Students as a Function of Presentation/Response Behaviors and Vocabulary Interactions
Authors: Levy William K.
Published: April 2006

This investigation examined the effectiveness of the WISC-R Arithmetic Subtest in identifying an arithmetically learning disabled population from a larger population of learning disabled sixth graders. Specifically investigated were the influences of presentation/response behaviors and vocabulary levels. The purpose of the investigation was to examine: (1) any significant differences between groups on the subtest; (2) the effects of vocabulary level upon performance; (3) the effects of presentation/response behaviors upon performance; and (4) the effects of the interaction of vocabulary and presentation/response behaviors upon performance. Three areas of significant difference emerged. The results are discussed relative to their implications for instructional options and assessment methodologies. Directions for further research are suggested.
Activating the Inactive Learner: Advance Organizers in the Secondary Content Classroom
Authors: Lenz B. Keith , Alley Gordon R. , Schumaker Jean B.
Published: April 2006

The success of current mainstreaming efforts for LD adolescents is dependent, in part, on the environmental supports available in regular secondary classrooms. The present study investigated the effects of the regular teacher's delivery of an advance organizer prior to each lesson on LD students' retention and expression of information from a given lesson. The results indicated that teaching techniques used by regular secondary teachers can benefit handicapped students in their classrooms, but, in the case of advance organizers, only when students are taught to make use of such techniques.
Peer Status of Children with and without Learning Disabilities — A Multimethod Study
Authors: Hoyle Sally G. , Serafica Felicisima C.
Published: April 2006

This study examined the social relations of third-grade children with (LD) and without learning disabilities (nonLD). Two sociometric measures (peer nominations and ratings of “liking”) and a questionnaire on social networks outside of school were employed. Results on the former indicated that LD children were less accepted but not more rejected by peers than nonLD children. Differences were found in the functions and contexts -but not the size or composition - of LD and nonLD children's social networks. To test different hypotheses for LD children's social status, three possible determinants were studied: behavior problems as rated by teachers, conceptions of friendship, and ecological factors. Teachers of LD students did not observe these children to be more disruptive though they rated them as demonstrating more personality problems than nonLD peers. Significant group differences in friendship conceptions were found: the LD group's mean stage score for conceptions of friendship and their mean levels of reasoning about friendship formation and conflict resolution were significantly lower than those of the nonLD controls. Theoretical and methodological implications of the results are discussed.
Specialists' Use of Tests and Clinical Judgment in the Diagnosis of Learning Disabilities
Authors: Davis W. Alan , Shepard Lorrie A.
Published: April 2006

The purposes of this study were to determine (a) which tests are most frequently used in the identification of learning disabilities, (b) how knowledgeable specialists are about the technical properties of the tests, (c) how knowledgeable professionals are about interpreting discrepancy scores, and (d) what practices are used to safeguard valid diagnoses when psychometrically inadequate tests are used clinically. A representative sample of learning disabilities teachers (n = 542), school psychologists (n = 130), and speech/language teachers (n = 179) in Colorado was selected and surveyed by questionnaire. Although subjects generally preferred tests with higher reliability and validity, poor tests were still used frequently even when superior substitutes were available. All groups of specialists tended to overrate the tests they used, and generally indicated a lack of familiarity with the psychometric properties of commonly used tests. Although a majority of specialists valued clinical judgment over test scores for diagnosis, substantial numbers appeared to lack knowledge of procedures to ensure the validity of such judgments. One-third to one-half of each specialist group could not correctly interpret ability-achievement score discrepancies.
Classifying Students by Inferred Motivation to Learn
Authors: Adelman Howard S. , Taylor Linda
Published: April 2006

Motivational factors play a key role in learning disabilities and other school problems, yet the major formal classification schemata tend to ignore such factors. This paper reports on a schema for categorizing inferred motivation to learn and discusses the importance of such a schema for placement and treatment decisions. Data are reported on the schema's reliability and its concurrent and potential predictive validity.
Current Assessment and Decision-Making Practices in Model LD Programs
Authors: Thurlow Martha L. , Ysseldyke James E.
Published: April 2006

Data from questionnaires completed by 44 Child Service Demonstration Centers were analyzed. Information was provided on the number of children served, the LD definition used, the kinds of assessment data collected and the purpose for which they were used, the specific assessment devices used to collect data and the purpose for which they were used, the typical composition of the placement team, and the major sequential steps in the assessment/decision-making process. Results suggested that assessment and decision making in the field of learning disabilities are characterized by variability and inconsistency. The implications of the findings for current assessment practices are summarized.
Standardized Achievement Tests Used with Learning Disabled and Non-Learning Disabled Adolescent Boys
Authors: McCullough B. Claire , Zaremba Barbara A.
Published: April 2006

The characteristics of the KeyMath Diagnostic Arithmetic Test and the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test were examined and compared among samples of learning disabled and non-learning disabled boys. The Woodcock was found to be quite similar for both the learning disabled and the non-learning disabled samples with high reliability and a unidimensional factor structure. The KeyMath also was quite similar for the two samples. It was found to have very high reliability, although the assumption of a unidimensional math achievement was found to be less defensible for the learning disabled sample.
The Hierarchical Factor Structure of the WISC-R for Learning Disabled Children
Authors: Blaha John , Vance Hubert
Published: April 2006

A Wherry and Wherry (1969) hierarchical factor solution was performed on the 12 WISC-R subtest intercorrelations for a sample of 85 learning disabled children. A hierarchical ability structure similar to, though not congruent with, Vernon's (1950) paradigm was obtained. The hierarchy included a general (g) factor and three subgeneral factors consisting of an intact spatial-perceptual-mechanical (k:m) factor, a verbal comprehension factor, and a freedom-from-distractibility factor. The factor structure of learning disabled children was somewhat more fractionated and complex than that for normals, but not as complex as the structure of reading disabled children. This suggests that the more severe a learning disability, the greater the difference between the hierarchical factor structure for that group and the factor structure of normals.
Immediate Impressions of LD Children by Female Adults
Authors: Bryan James H. , Perlmutter Barry
Published: April 2006

While considerable evidence has been reported concerning peer rejection of the learning disabled child, much less study has been carried out of adult attitudes toward LD children. This study was designed to investigate adults' immediate impressions of LD children with whom they were unfamiliar and to analyze the relative contributions of the LD child's verbal and nonverbal behaviors upon such impressions. The results of this study suggest that considerably more attention needs to be given to the role of LD children's nonverbal behaviors in affecting others' impressions of them. The increasing concern in the field regarding the social relationships of LD children is addressed, in part, through investigations such as the one presented in this article.
Self-Monitoring of On-Task Behavior by Adolescents with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Prater Mary Anne , Joy Rebecca , Chilman Beth , Temple Joan , Miller Sidney R.
Published: April 2006

The results of five single-subject studies showed that adolescents with learning disabilities can successfully implement self-monitoring procedures in special and regular education settings and correspondingly improve their on-task behavior. Graduate students in special education implemented the procedures with junior-high and high-school students with learning disabilities. Improvements were seen regardless of whether the classmates' percentage of on-task behavior was as high as or as low as the subject's on-task behavior. In some of the studies, reinforcement was coupled with self-monitoring; however, results indicated that both can be effectively faded and withdrawn without affecting students' on-task behavior.
Learning Disabled and Nondisabled Children's Strategy Analyses under High and Low Success Conditions
Authors: Pearl Ruth , Bryan Tanis , Herzog Allen
Published: April 2006

Learning disabled and nondisabled children were asked to explain their high and low scores on a bowling game under conditions of either high or low success. Nondisabled children experiencing a low degree of success made more specific analyses of their performances than did nondisabled children experiencing a high degree of success; however, learning disabled children's explanations did not differ over the two conditions. In addition, the children's perceptions of and attributions about their performances were assessed. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for the widely reported strategy-production deficits of learning disabled children.
Assessing Social Perception Abilities in Learning Disabled Students
Authors: Maheady Larry , Maitland George E.
Published: April 2006

According to clinical observations and experimental investigations of learning disabled students, these individuals experience more difficulty than their nondisabled peers in accurately recognizing and interpreting social cues. It has been suggested that such social perception deficits may be responsible for many of the problems which learning disabled children experience in their everyday social encounters with peers and teachers. For this reason, many special educators have advocated the development of specific remedial activities to ameliorate these deficits. Prior to any widespread implementation of remedial efforts, the data base upon which the deficits were identified must be carefully evaluated. The purpose of this article is to: (a) review experimental attempts at assessing the social perception skills of learning disabled children, (b) discuss methodological concerns relative to these experiments, and (c) suggest possible directions for future social perception research.
The Effects of an LD Student's Treatment Choice on Handwriting Performance
Authors: Kosiewicz Marianne Myron , Hallahan Daniel P. , Lloyd John
Published: April 2006

An 11-year-old LD boy was taught two different strategies, both of which markedly improved his handwriting performance on a paragraph-copying task. The first strategy involved a review of typical rules just prior to copying the paragraph. The rules included reminders about punctuation, staying on the line, and the correct proportioning of letters. The second strategy involved circling quality work on the paper immediately following the handwriting task. Results for the first 72 days of the 81-day study indicated that allowing the student his choice of strategies produced better performance than did teacher-determined choices.
Children's Social Desirability Ratings of Ingratiation Tactics
Authors: Bryan James H. , Sonnefeld L. Joseph
Published: April 2006

Fifty-eight children drawn from schools in Pennsylvania and Illinois were administered a questionnaire made up of scenarios depicting ingratiation tactics directed toward three types of targets (parents, teachers, or peers). The children, 22 of whom were diagnosed as learning disabled, were asked to rate the social desirability of each tactic. Learning disabled and nondisabled children judged the social desirability of the items similarly. The children's judgments were then compared with adult judgments of the social desirability of the same items obtained in a previous study. It was found that children and adults both judged tactics in the context of target or setting, and that they appeared to agree about the desirability of particular tactics directed toward particular targets.
WISC and WISC-R Profiles of Learning Disabled Children: A Review
Authors: Dudley-Marling Curtis C. , Kaufman Nancy J. , Tarver Sara G.
Published: April 2006

It has been widely assumed that learning disabled children exhibit a characteristic WISC or WISC-R profile. This paper reviews 24 studies investigating the performance of disabled learners on these instruments. Three questions were addressed in the review of these studies: 1) Is high Performance IQ-low Verbal IQ characteristic of learning disabled children? 2) Do learning disabled subjects exhibit more WISC (or WISC-R) subtest scatter than normal learners? and 3) Do learning disabled subjects exhibit a characteristic WISC(-R) profile? The evidence regarding the first two questions was inconclusive although Verbal-Performance IQ discrepancies and subtest variability may not be uncommon in normal children. The evidence does suggest that LD children, as a group, exhibit a characteristic WISC(-R) profile whereas few individual LD children actually conform to this pattern. It was concluded that WISC(-R) profiles may not be useful for differential diagnosis of learning disabled students.
Dyadic Verbal Communication Abilities of Learning Disabled and Normally Achieving Fourth- and Fifth-Grade Boys
Authors: Spekman Nancy J.
Published: April 2006

This study examined the dyadic verbal communication skills of learning disabled and normally achieving 4th- and 5th-grade boys. The performances of 12 learning disabled children paired with 12 normally achieving children were compared with those of 12 dyads composed only of normally achieving children. The children exchanged information regarding a pattern of blocks under conditions varying the channels available for communication and feedback. All children performed the tasks in both Speaker and Listener roles. A measure of dyadic success was determined. In addition, the language used by the children was examined to obtain information on such variables as information content, response to questions, questions asked, and amount and efficiency of interactions. Dyads involving learning disabled children were found to be less successful and less efficient than those consisting of only normally achieving children. Further, the learning disabled children performed less successfully in certain aspects of the Speaker and Listener roles. Implications for assessment, class performance, and training are discussed.
Characteristics of Third-Grade Learning Disabled Children
Authors: Cullen Joy L. , Boersmam Frederic J. , Chapman James W.
Published: April 2006

The Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, the Wide Range Achievement Test, and the Student's Perception of Ability Scale were administered to 70 learning disabled and 73 normally achieving grade-3 children who had been stratified on full-scale WISC-R IQ scores. WISC-R Verbal-Performance differences, Wide Range Achievement Test, and Student's Perception of Ability scores all differentiated between the two groups, but significant differences were not obtained for visual-motor integration skills. The results are discussed in terms of conducting research with samples matched on IQ and the importance of remedial procedures focusing on verbal, cognitive, and affective development.
Defining Reading and Writing Disabilities with and without IQ: A Flexible, Developmental Perspective
Authors: Berninger Virginia , Hart Teresa , Abbott Robert , Karovsky Penelope
Published: April 2006

We compared three approaches to defining disabilities on predictor developmental measures related to reading and writing and on criterion reading and writing measures in an unreferred sample of 300 first, second, and third graders. For each measure, the children who fell in the lowest 5% of the normal distribution (based on the mean and standard deviation for grade) were assigned to the low-functioning group; those children who, based on the Mahalanobis statistic (.05 level, one-tail test), were significantly different from and below their VIQ were assigned to the underachieving group; finally, children who met the criterion for both underachieving and low functioning were assigned to the learning disabled group. Of the low-functioning group, 44% were learning disabled (also discrepant from their VIQ). Of the underachievers, 36% were learning disabled (also very low functioning). Thus, elimination of IQ in the definition of learning disabilities (as Siegel [1989] and Stanovich [1991] have recommended) would dramatically affect who is identified as learning disabled.

We argue for a two-stage assessment model (cf. Leong, 1987) in which (a) absolute criteria without IQ are first used by classroom teachers to identify children who are low functioning in orthographic coding, phonological coding, word finding, fine motor, and visual-motor integration and who would benefit from early intervention to prevent reading and writing disabilities; and (b) relative criteria with IQ are subsequently used in more comprehensive psychoeducational assessment for learning disabled children whose problems persist despite early intervention. Based on our findings, we recommend that, in future research on reading and writing disabilities, investigators differentiate among low-functioning, underachieving, and learning disabled (low-functioning and underachieving) children and among component reading and writing skills.
The Please Strategy: A Metacognitive Learning Strategy for Improving the Paragraph Writing of Students with Mild Learning Disabilities
Authors: Welch Marshall
Published: April 2006

This study investigated the effectiveness of a metacognitive strategy, the PLEASE strategy, for teaching students with learning disabilities to write paragraphs. The investigation examined (a) students' metacognitive knowledge about prewriting planning, composition, revision, and parts of the paragraph; (b) student writing samples; and (c) student attitudes toward writing paragraphs. Results suggest that, compared to the traditional language arts curriculum used with a comparison group, the experimental treatment was significantly more effective in developing the metacognitive abilities of 6th graders with learning disabilities for prewriting planning, composition, and revision. Findings also suggest that students' attitude toward writing and writing instruction improved significantly following the experimental treatment.
Diagnostic Classification of LD: Research and Ethical Perspectives as Related to Practice
Authors: Adelman Howard S.
Published: April 2006

This is the second in a two-part series focusing on the major purposes and concerns related to diagnostic practices. Part 1 discussed the importance and necessity of diagnostic procedures and the difficulties of arriving at a valid diagnosis. In the second article, the author (a) highlights research relevant to LD diagnostic practices, (b) offers a case study of current diagnostic practices related to learning-problem referrals, and (c) contrasts three ethical perspectives used in judging the appropriateness of such activity.
Advocacy for Parents of the Handicapped: A Professional Responsibility and Challenge
Authors: McLoughlin James A. , McLoughlin Robert , Stewart William
Published: April 2006

PL 94–142 and research on parent involvement encourage new parent roles in programs for their handicapped children. A high level of parental participation requires that professionals become active advocates for parents. In addition to a specific set of behaviors, such advocacy also encompasses cognitive awareness and moral commitment. This article describes behaviorally an advocacy approach. There are two dimensions to parent advocacy, internal and external. The external type involves strategies for individuals outside the institution or system, e.g., demonstrations. The internal kind of advocacy accounts for the special educator working within a school system or agency. In this article a distinction will be made between external and internal parent advocacy, as well as illustrations of how internal advocacy is appropriate for special educators. Specific suggestions for parent advocacy are included.
Is Earlier Better? Reading Achievement and WISC-R Stability in Earlier Vs. Later Identified Students with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Weltner-Brunton Susan L. , Serafica Felicisima C. , Friedt Gary R.
Published: April 2006

This study compared earlier identified (grades 2–4) to later identified (grades 5–8) students with learning disabilities on Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests (WRMT) and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Revised scores upon identification and over time in special education. Test-retest stability of WISC-R scores was also examined. No significant between-group differences were found at identification on WRMT scores, Wechsler IQ scores, Kaufman factors, or Bannatyne recategorized scores. Overall, results showed significant group mean increases in reading achievement and decreases in verbal ability. Moderate correlational stability was noted for all scores.
The Impact of Effort and Strategy Use on Academic Performance: Student and Teacher Perceptions
Authors: Meltzer Lynn , Katzir-Cohen Tamar , Miller Lynne , Roditi Bethany
Published: April 2006

This study was designed to examine academic self-perceptions in adolescents with learning disabilities as part of a two-year intervention project. The major objective was to compare students' perceptions with their teachers' judgments of their level of effort, strategy use, and academic performance in reading, writing, spelling, and math. The sample consisted of 308 students with learning disabilities, 355 average achievers, and their 57 teachers. Findings indicated that the students with learning disabilities viewed themselves as motivated, hard-working, appropriately strategic, and academically competent, thus reflecting positive academic self-concepts. Teachers' judgments were significantly more negative and they rated the overall group of students with learning disabilities as below average in their strategy use, academic performance, and organization. The most interesting finding occurred when the results were analyzed for students whose overall academic achievement was in the high-average range. Teachers rated the effort and strategy use of students with and without learning disabilities as above average, indicating that their perceptions were influenced by students' academic success and were not negatively impacted by the existence of a learning disability. In contrast, teachers judged low-achieving students with learning disabilities more negatively than their low-achieving peers without learning disabilities. Thus, teachers' perceptions of students' effort and strategy use were influenced by students' academic success and their learning disabilities did not interfere negatively with this perception. Lastly, findings indicated that hard work, in combination with efficient strategy use, can lead to success in the classroom.
Spelling Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities: Implications for Research and Practice
Authors: McNaughton David , Hughes Charles A. , Clark Karen
Published: April 2006

We reviewed 27 published studies on spelling instruction for students with learning disabilities (LD) and coded them for the following variables: (a) student characteristics, (b) instructional activities, (c) nature of materials to be learned, and (d) criterial tasks (Jenkins, 1979). Most of the studies investigated the impact of instructional activities on the production of targeted spelling items by elementary-grade students with LD. We interpret the results of this review as suggesting that the following activities may enhance learning for some students with LD: (a) limiting the number of new words introduced each day, (b) facilitating student-directed and peer-assisted instruction, (c) directing students to name letters aloud as they are practiced, (d) including instruction in morphemic analysis, (e) providing immediate error imitation and correction, (f) using motivating reinforcers, and (g) providing periodic retesting and review. Only limited information is available on interventions that promote generalization of spelling knowledge to untrained words, use of trained vocabulary in a variety of writing activities, and maintenance of vocabulary across time. We discuss current research issues and future research directions in spelling instruction for students with learning disabilities.
The New Science of Life and Learning Differences
Authors: Grobecker Betsey
Published: April 2006

In the study of learning differences, attention has recently been given to holistic, dialectical concepts of development and learning such that cognitive processes are defined and investigated relative to their dynamic, transforming, hierarchically organized systems of energy. Such a point of view is consistent with the new science of life in which matter has, as its essence, active, dynamic forms of hierarchically organized energy that are bound within fields. The hierarchical nature of energy forms is due to their organization into distinct systems of order with varying levels of complexity. Openings for energy exchanges within and between individual energy systems are created from perturbations as systems interact with the environment and result in the reorganization and expansion of activity that give birth to more complex structures. Piaget's description of cognitive processes as dynamic, transforming, hierarchically organized systems of energy that evolve in interaction with the environment calls into question the validity of current reductionist assumptions regarding learning differences. At the same time, Piaget's insights (and those of similar progressive thinkers) provide a foundation upon which to build an understanding of learning differences consistent with the principles of the new science of life.
Effects of Integrated Picture Mnemonics on the Letter Recognition and Letter-Sound Acquisition of Transitional First-Grade Students with Special Needs
Authors: Fulk Barbara M. , Lohman Dee , Belfiore Phillip J.
Published: April 2006

The effects of an integrated picture mnemonic strategy on the letter-sound acquisition of three transitional first-grade students with special needs were investigated using a multiple-baseline-across-students design. Following a baseline period, 20 consonant letters were presented using integrated picture mnemonics. Data were also collected on letter recognition, and students were questioned to determine if they were aware of their strategy use. Results indicated that integrated picture mnemonics were an effective instructional technique for increasing letter-sound acquisition and letter recognition. Followup data collected at two-week and four-week delay intervals demonstrated that results maintained over time.
Risk, Resilience, and Adjustment of Individuals with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Morrison Gale M. , Cosden Merith A.
Published: April 2006

This article uses the concepts of risk and resiliency to frame our understanding of how having a learning disability affects nonacademic outcomes such as emotional adjustment, family functioning, adolescent problems of school dropout, substance abuse and juvenile delinquency, and adult adaptation. The presence of a learning disability is viewed as a risk factor that, in and of itself, does not predict positive or negative outcomes. Rather, other risk and protective factors, as highlighted in the literature, interact with the presence of a learning disability to facilitate or impede adjustment. These risk and protective factors may be internal characteristics of the individual or external characteristics of the family, school and community environments. Implications for the development of proactive interventions and areas for future research are discussed.