bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Musical Notation as the Externalization of Imagined, Complex Sound
Authors: Sinding-Larsen Henrik
Published: August 2019

Henrik Sinding-Larsen analyzes how new tools for the visual description of sound revolutionized the way music was conceived, performed, and disseminated. Early on, the ancient Greeks had described pitches and intervals in mathematically precise ways. However, their complex system had few consequences until it was combined with the practical minds of Roman Catholic choirmasters around 1000 ce. Now, melodies became depicted as note-heads on lines with precise pitch meanings and with note names based on octaves. This graphical and conceptual externalization of patterns in sound paved the way for a polyphonic complexity unimaginable in a purely oral/aural tradition. However, this higher complexity also entailed strictly standardized/homogenized scales and less room for improvisation in much of notation-based music. Through the concept of externalization, lessons from the history of musical notation are generalized to other tools of description, and Sinding-Larsen ends with a reflection on what future practices might become imaginable and unimaginable as a result of computer programming.
Sonic Materialism
Authors: Voegelin Salomé
Published: August 2019

Salomé Voegelin contributes to current ideas on materiality, reality, objectivity, and subjectivity as they are articulated in recent texts on New Materialism. In particular she engages in the writings of Quentin Meillassoux and his fiction of an ancestral world, and expands on this with a focus on sound, since sound, she argues, supports the reimagination of material relations and processes. In order to qualify and substantiate her notion of sonic materialism, Voegelin presents listenings to works by Toshiya Tsunoda, Aura Satz, and Anna Raimondo, focusing “on the inexhaustible nature of sound that exists permanently in an expanded and formless now that I inhabit in a present that continues before and after me.”
Anticipated Sonic Actions and Sounds in Performance
Authors: Wōllner Clemens
Published: August 2019

Clemens Wöllner investigates sonic actions in music performance. He argues that musicians construct sonic images in the act of playing that are based on timbral qualities of the sounds as well as on timing details that allow them to anticipate sonic actions. In this way, they can perform without auditory feedback, for instance, when sound is switched off or otherwise not available during a performance. Wöllner discusses the construction of sonic images in the context of performances with both traditional and controller-driven instruments, and he shows how a performer’s anticipated sonic actions may differ according to the type of instrument. Furthermore, the level of detail of imagined sound qualities involved in auditory imagery is explored, and Wöllner considers the mappings between gesture and sound that are required in order for audiences to be able to imagine the sound as emerging from the performer’s actions.
Bioacoustics
Authors: Vallee Mickey
Published: August 2019

Through an exploration of the use of technology within bioacoustics and the interpretation of the resultant data in order to assess human acoustic impact on nonhuman species, Mickey Vallee introduces the term “transacoustic community” in order to illustrate the nefarious and transgressive means these data are put to. Vallee makes the charge that the bioacoustics community hears without listening, having a different imagination of sound to other sound-based researchers. This imagination springs not only from the specific aims of that community but also from the audio technology used (that ultimately relies on visualization for its data access), and this leads to a visually biased interpretation rather than a refined aurality.
Classical-Hellenistic Carthage Before the Punic Wars (479–265 bce)
Authors: Hoyos Dexter
Published: August 2019

Carthage in 479–265 bce reached a size and prosperity equaling any leading Greek city-state. Despite its defeat in Sicily in 480 bce, its economic reach across the Mediterranean grew, and so did its indirect hegemony over North Africa’s coasts almost to Cyrenaica in the east and the edges of Numidia in the west. Carthaginians’ openness to external cultural influences—Greek, Egyptian, and native Libyan—made them effectively a multicultural society, as archaeological and historical evidence makes clear. Although little written evidence from Carthaginian sources survives, the probably genuine Periplus of Hanno the King, composed around 500–450 and extant in a perhaps shortened Greek translation, throws light on the city’s readiness to extend its reach even beyond the Straits of Gibraltar (a reach confirmed by Herodotus and others), while the three treaties with Rome preserved in Greek by Polybius, dating probably between ca. 500 and 279, illuminate Carthaginian interstate relations in the central and western Mediterranean. The physical city spread beyond its archaic limits, with residential housing appearing between the hill of Byrsa and the shoreline (in place of artisanal workshops), as well as another residential quarter to Byrsa’s west and a massive seawall built along the eastern shoreline as far as the swampy lagoons that much later became the city’s famous hidden ports. One of these newer sectors may be the “New City” in Diodorus’s account of the abortive coup of Bomilcar in 308. During the fifth century, Carthaginian hegemony was imposed on neighboring Libyan communities, and by 310, the fertile Cape Bon peninsula was intensively cultivated by Carthaginian proprietors, as Agathocles’s invading forces noted. Even renewed and repeated conflicts with Syracuse and other Siceliot states from 410 onward rarely set back Carthage’s prosperity and power.
The Language
Authors: Amadasi Guzzo Maria Giulia
Published: August 2019

Phoenician is the conventional name (from Greek) of a language belonging to the Canaanite group of the Semitic languages, spoken in a group of cities of the Lebanese coast and by inhabitants of their settlements abroad, established in the western Mediterranean since about the early eighth century bce. The western language, from about the sixth century bce, is usually called Punic, with a Late Punic phase. The Phoenician language is written from right to left, in a consonantal alphabetic script, and is attested from the beginning of the Iron Age until the second century bce; several dialects were probably used, but only some of them can be identified, particularly the Byblian dialect. In the West, in the Roman period, a group of inscriptions in the Latin alphabet, called Latino-Punic, attest the latest phase of the language (from the second until the fourth–fifth centuries ce). The grammar of the Phoenician language is based almost only on inscriptions; consequently it is still incomplete in several respects. The chapter summarizes the main features of the language, mainly in regard to phonology and morphology; some specific features of syntax are described, too.
Inscriptions
Authors: Richey Madadh
Published: August 2019

The corpus of Phoenician and Punic inscriptions encompasses approximately ten thousand texts distributed primarily throughout the Mediterranean during the period between the tenth century bce and the first century ce. The vast majority are incised or inked on durable metal and stone supports. These inscriptions are generally either formulaic and have dedicatory or funerary content or they are very short—for example, a personal name sufficing to mark ownership of an object. A few inscriptions, however, stand out for their religious, economic, or even magical content. In this chapter, the author surveys the discovered examples, with special emphasis placed on such uniquely illuminating inscriptions, as well as on recent discoveries.
Phoenician Literature
Authors: López-Ruiz Carolina
Published: August 2019

There was, without a doubt, a Phoenician and Punic literature. Very little of it is extant, but we have enough of it to gauge the great loss. Lacking the advantage of its own manuscript tradition and later cultures devoted to it, Phoenician literature was not systematically preserved, unlike that of the Greeks, Romans, and Israelites. What we have are small pieces that surface among the Classical literary corpus. Despite these unfavorable conditions, an impressive range of literary genres is attested, concentrated in particular genres. Some of this literature aligned with broader ancient Near Eastern tradition: cosmogony, foundation stories, historical records, and other areas that correspond with Phoenician expertise (travel accounts or itineraries, agricultural treatises). Other genres were likely adopted through Greek influence (narrative histories, philosophy). Moreover, from Hellenistic times onward, works by Phoenician authors had to be written and transmitted in Greek in order to survive. Nonetheless, the chapter cautions that we should not lightly categorize them as merely “Greek” literature, at least in the cases in which we know the authors are Phoenicians (including Carthaginians) writing about Phoenician matters.
The Levant
Authors: Lehmann Gunnar
Published: August 2019

Although the Phoenicians are foremost associated with maritime trading in the Mediterranean, their economy was also firmly connected with their immediate neighbors in the Levant. With only few exceptions, the Phoenicians did not politically expand into their neighboring territories and confined their involvement to economic exchange. Their interactions with the Levant intensified after the late tenth century bce and culminated in the eighth and seventh centuries bce. This extraordinary development was followed by a devastating crisis in the neo-Babylonian period during the sixth century bce. The Phoenician economy of Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, and Arwad emerged from this nadir in a remarkable rise during the Achaemenid period, regaining and even surpassing its earlier economic growth and cultural influence in the region.
Cyprus
Authors: Fourrier Sabine
Published: August 2019

This chapter concentrates on the Phoenician presence in the island of Cyprus in the Iron Age (from the eleventh until the end of the fourth century bce). After a brief overview, it addresses the question of identification of the Cypriot Qarthadasht and the issue of a supposed Phoenician colonization in Cyprus. The political and cultural history of the Cypro-Phoenician kingdom of Kition also receives particular attention. At the same time, the widespread and multifaceted aspects of Phoenician presences on the island are underlined: Phoenician presence was not confined to Kition and Phoenician influence did not exclusively spread in the island from Kition.
The Aegean
Authors: Stampolidis Nikos
Published: August 2019

This chapter concerns the presence of the Phoenicians and Near Easterners in the Aegean, with a special focus on the Early Iron Age and dealing sporadically with later periods. Divided into two parts, the chapter discusses first the picture that emerges from the written sources in antiquity regarding the Phoenicians (or more generally, easterners) and what we can reconstruct through the tangible, archaeological data we have today. Especially in relation to the material evidence, definitions of exotica and Phoenician artifacts are offered in a short introduction and then the chapter discusses the possible direct or indirect presence of Phoenicians in the Aegean regions, starting from Crete, the eastern Aegean, and the Cyclades, Attica and Euboea, and ending in the northern Aegean. The picture suggested by excavations and the interpretation of the finds to date show that the dynamics of the circulation of Phoenicians in the Aegean, at least in the earliest stages, passed through Cyprus and the Cypriots, as well as through Euboeans and the Cycladians.
The Italian Peninsula
Authors: Hayne Jeremy Mark
Published: August 2019

The Phoenicians never built settlements on the Italian mainland, and the evidence of a Phoenician presence on the Italian peninsula is based mainly on the discovery of luxury items and material found from excavations of indigenous communities, mostly graves. This evidence has often been studied in isolation from the local context. Recent studies have shown, however, that they were part of a larger cross Mediterranean network alongside Greeks, Etruscans, and Sardinians. This chapter examines evidence from the earlier first millennium bce, demonstrating the importance of seeing the material culture in context and concluding that Phoenician influence was a significant strand in the various influences that led to the development of first millennium bce Italian communities.
Sicily
Authors: Vincenzo Salvatore de
Published: August 2019

Thucydides reports that the Phoenicians were present throughout Sicily and traded with the Sicels. A tangible Phoenician presence in Sicily, as expressed by pottery, is attested only at the end of the eighth century bce. The earliest hypothetical Phoenician settlements of Solunt and Panormus are still almost unknown. This earliest phase is associated in particular with the city of Motya, where pottery and a few other finds testify to it. The Punic phase of the island is much clearer, with almost all indications coming from Motya and Selinus, which were not built over in Roman times. The Pfeilertempel, as emerged from Motya, could be regarded as the prototype for the Phoenician temple in Sicily. In turn, it is possible to recognize a characteristic type of temple of Punic Sicily, as particularly shown at Selinus, These shrines, as well as other elements of the Punic settlements like the houses, the fortifications, or the necropoleis, in particular from the fourth century bce onwards, are evidence of an advanced degree of Hellenization, framed within a Mediterranean koine.
North Africa
Authors: Martín Alfredo Mederos
Published: August 2019

The Phoenician presence in modern-day Morocco and Algeria started no later than the beginning of the eighth century bce, with the city of Lixus on the Atlantic and its temple of Melqart, one of the oldest in the Phoenician diaspora. There was a process of intensification during the second half of the seventh century bce, with sites springing up along the main river valleys or on small islands close to the coast, such as Mogador and Rachgoun. These sites were founded to control the agricultural and cattle industries, as well as the trade in exotic goods such as ivory, purple dye, and luxury citron wood. This process continued during the first half of the sixth century bce, when for the first time less important rivers were occupied as ports of call. It is difficult to identify a Carthaginian colonial presence, since a large part of the evidence for a “Punic” presence on the Algerian coast belongs to the period of the Numidian kings, beginning in the third century bce. However, these must have been tributary cities which also obligatorily sent mercenaries to the Carthaginian army.
Phoenician Identity in Modern Lebanon
Authors: Doumet-Serhal Claude
Published: August 2019

This chapter looks at the influence of Phoenician culture on the identity of modern Lebanon. Legitimizing identity through archaeology has generally been a popular approach to celebrate power and identity. Lebanese generations have made use of Phoenician history, archaeology, and myths to foster a proud and unique identity after the fall of the Ottoman Empire, and the various ongoing cultural movements reflect a symbiotic relationship between practical behavior and the symbolic realm. While Phoenician identity is embedded in modern Lebanese culture, current sectarianisms are sweeping through the region, as the search for a historical and philosophical basis for the historical Lebanese character continues.
Presbyterians in Asia
Authors: Sunquist Scott W. , Lim Peter
Published: August 2019

Presbyterians established many churches during the West’s imperialist expansion in various parts of Asia from the seventeenth century to the nineteenth century. Presbyterian missionaries founded churches in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines, China, Taiwan, Japan, and Korea. Key missionaries, as well as national workers, participated in establishing and leading those churches. This chapter narrates and highlights significant historical events in this early development country by country, paying special attention to Korea, where Presbyterianism has flourished most in Asia. The chapter discusses the state of Presbyterian churches in those areas in general, their involvement with social, political, educational, and charitable activities, and the problems with which they have dealt. It concludes by analyzing the contextual challenges Presbyterians are facing in twenty-first-century Asia.
Presbyterianism in the Middle East
Authors: Carpenter Kaley M.
Published: August 2019

American Presbyterian missionaries in the Middle East, through their linguistic, educational, and religious activities combined with similar European efforts in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, transformed sociocultural and political conditions in the native Christian and surrounding communities where they worked. By introducing faith alternatives where traditionally few had existed, Presbyterians separated religious identity from ethnicity, creating a way for Assyrians in Persia, Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, Egyptian Copts, and other ethnic groups to view themselves through the lens of nationalism, or as entities within their own countries with distinct legal-political status. This was an unintended effect of Middle Eastern missions, which were originally directed toward the dominant but largely resistant Muslim population and later revised to focus on renewing the ancient Christian churches that had been established earlier by minority groups instead of on planting new churches. Nationalism contributed to, but did not cause, ancient rivalries between religions and ethnic groups, which became more heated and violent amid larger imperial contests (such as “Christian” Russia or Britain against “Muslim” Egyptians, Ottomans and Turks, or Persians). Although the Presbyterian missions failed to convert large numbers of Muslims or to transform ancient Christian sects, they did eventually facilitate the formation of independent Middle Eastern denominations and the emigration of Christian refugees to America. Descendants of both groups are now challenging Western narratives of religion and culture, while the number of Muslim converts in the Middle East is growing. They are proliferating through “new media” missions, forming underground house churches in Iran and seeking the help of American Presbyterians to establish congregations in Turkey, modeling for their Western brethren culturally sensitive evangelism in Islamic cultures, and reversing the historical trajectory of missional agency from the West to the East.
Presbyterian Polity
Authors: McDonald Jeffery S.
Published: August 2019

This chapter primarily analyzes the history of American Presbyterian polity from the eighteenth to twenty-first centuries, but it also gives some attention to Presbyterian polity outside the United States. It examines the Adopting Act of 1729 along with various denominational disputes and schisms. Presbyterianism was greatly affected by the First and Second Great Awakenings, which led to polarization. The schism between New Side and Old Side Presbyterians was the result of differing attitudes to conversion and issue of creedal assent. Presbyterians relationship with the Congregationalists also led to a weakening of Presbyterian polity and to differing attitudes toward evangelism. In 1837, Presbyterians split into Old School and New School parties, and thereafter Presbyterians became more reflective about their polity. The relationship between polity and theology has been a source of tension for Presbyterians, and in the twentieth century, polity was in the ascendency in American mainline Presbyterianism. Several significant twentieth-century PCUSA events reveal the dominance of polity and the resulting fracturing of American Presbyterianism.
The Doctrine of the Word of God
Authors: Horton Michael S.
Published: August 2019

Focusing on the doctrine of the Word of God as it emerged especially from the Protestant Reformation, this chapter explores the distinct accents and emphases of the Reformed and Presbyterian tradition. It begins with the definition of the Word of God as, first and foremost, Jesus Christ and the proclaimed and canonical speech that creates and provides norms for the church’s faith and practice. Sharing with the Lutheran tradition, a concern to distinguish the two types of God’s speech—law and gospel—Reformed and Presbyterian churches also attended closely to the distinct covenants in Scripture that reveal Christ and the covenant of grace. The chapter then traces the development of the doctrine of Scripture in the Reformation and post-Reformation era, especially as reflected in Reformed confessions, and Presbyterian debates over Scripture in the modern era to the present day.
The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit
Authors: Burnett Richard
Published: August 2019

The history of Presbyterianism is more but not less than a history of the interpretation of the work of the Holy Spirit. It is a history of actions and reactions, movements and countermovements in response to the work (or presumed work) of the Holy Spirit, or, more specifically, a history of efforts to redress perceived excesses and or deficiencies in its own teachings and in the teachings of others on the Holy Spirit. That the Holy Spirit has played a prominent role in Presbyterian history is not surprising. John Calvin not only systematically expounded the work of the Holy Spirit but also emphasized it as much if not more than any theologian before him, leading Benjamin B. Warfield to call him “pre-eminently the theologian of the Holy Spirit.” This chapter traces developments of Presbyterian pneumatology from the sixteenth century to the twentieth century, highlighting conflicts over the Spirit’s role as a seed of spiritual birth and renewal, source of moral development and social reform and personal and communal empowerment, and force for social and political change.
Neo-Orthodoxy and Presbyterianism
Authors: Burgess John P.
Published: August 2019

Since the 1930s, neo-orthodoxy has been a major theological trajectory in worldwide Presbyterianism, alongside the Reformed orthodoxy of the Westminster Confession of Faith and a theological liberalism (informed by theologies of liberation) that interprets Scripture and traditional church teaching to advance a progressive social and political program. While neo-orthodoxy historically refers to a broader theological movement, the Swiss Reformed theologian Karl Barth became its leading exponent (although he rejected the label), and his monumental Church Dogmatics strongly influenced twentieth-century Presbyterian confessions, especially the Confession of 1967 in the United States, and the Confession of Belhar in South Africa. Nevertheless, Barthian theology never became the dominant theological influence among Presbyterians denominations worldwide, nor has it succeeded in mediating between Reformed Orthodoxy and theological liberalism. In the United States, the Orthodox Presbyterian Church, the Evangelical Presbyterian Church, and the Presbyterian Church in America hold exclusively to the Westminster Standards, as do many Presbyterian churches founded by North American missionary efforts in other parts of the world. Theological liberalism continues to be dominant in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A), the Scottish Presbyterian Church, and the United Church of Canada. Barth’s theology nevertheless remains influential and interacts with other theologies today in new and fruitful ways.
Theology of Worship
Authors: Long Kimberly Bracken
Published: August 2019

Presbyterian worship is trinitarian and centered around the Word of God. Worship is guided by a directory for worship, and liturgical books are recommended but not required. The form of Presbyterian worship has varied in different times and places, but the proclamation of scripture and the celebration of the two sacraments of baptism and communion have been constants. A part of the Reformed family of churches, Presbyterians first began worshiping in the British Isles in the sixteenth century. When Scots-Irish and English Presbyterians emigrated to America, they soon established a Presbyterian church. Missionary movements took Presbyterian worship to various parts of the globe during the nineteenth century. Although various cultural contexts continue to change the sound and look of Presbyterian worship, the focus remains on proclamation of the Word and celebration of the sacraments.
Hymnody and Liturgy
Authors: Hehn Jonathan
Published: August 2019

This chapter outlines the history of Presbyterian worship practice from the sixteenth century to the present, with a focus on North American Presbyterians. Tracing both their hymnody and their liturgy ultimately to John Calvin, Presbyterian communions have a distinct heritage of worship inherited from the Church of Scotland via seventeenth-century Puritans. Long marked by metrical psalmody and guided by the Westminster Directory, Presbyterian worship underwent substantial changes in the nineteenth century. Evangelical and liturgical movements led Presbyterians away from a Puritan visual aesthetic, into the use of nonscriptural hymnody, and toward a recovery of liturgical books. Mainline North American and Scottish Presbyterians solidified these trends in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries; however, conservative North American denominations and some other denominations globally continue to rely heavily on the use of a worship directory and metrical psalmody.
Presbyterian Preaching
Authors: Long Thomas G.
Published: August 2019

Presbyterian preaching grew from roots in the Reformation, particularly the Calvinist wing. The fullest early expression of the character of Presbyterian preaching is in the Westminster Standards, documents produced in England by an assembly of Calvinist clergy and laymen in the mid-seventeenth century. These documents described the key qualities of Reformed, and thus Presbyterian, preaching: sermons grounded in the Bible, containing significant doctrinal content, and aimed at teaching and edifying congregants.The authors of the Westminster Standards prescribed preaching that was substantive and lively, filled with biblical and doctrinal content, and touched the hearts of hearers. Throughout the history of Presbyterian preaching, however, these twin goals were often difficult to attain. This tension between intellectual, content-centered preaching and more emotional, experience-centered preaching among Presbyterian is evident in such events as the Old Side–New Side controversy in the mid-1700s and the Old School–New School conflict from 1837 to 1869 (both in America), in Scottish Presbyterian preaching in the early nineteenth century, and in Korean Presbyterian preaching during the end of the twentieth and the beginning of the twentieth century.Today as many Presbyterian preachers use digital media and conversational-style sermons, a strong desire continues for preaching that is clear, deeply theological and biblical, impassioned, and relevant.
Presbyterians and Ethics
Authors: Douglas Mark
Published: August 2019

The history of ethics in the Presbyterian Church has been shaped by the theological commitments of Reformed theology, the church’s ecumenical and interreligious encounters, its interactions with the wider cultures in which it functions, and its global scope. Consequently, Presbyterian ethics have become increasingly diverse, culturally diffused, ecumenically directed, and frequently divisive. That said, its history can helpfully be divided into three lengthy periods. In the first (roughly from the church’s origins in 1559 to the Second Great Awakening in the early nineteenth century), theology, ethics, and politics are so interwound that distinguishing one from the others is difficult. In the second (roughly from the Second Great Awakening to the end of World War II), moral concerns emerge as forces that drive the church’s theology and polity. And in the third (for which proclamation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 might be a heuristically helpful starting point), ethics increasingly functions in ways that are only loosely tethered to either Reformed theology or polity. The strength of the church’s social witness, the consistency of its global engagements, and the failings of its internecine strife are all evident during its five-hundred-year history.
Central Banks’ New Macroprudential Consensus
Authors: Taylor Michael W. , Arner Douglas W. , Gibson Evan C.
Published: August 2019

The traditional central bank consensus is designed around two mandates: monetary and financial stability. Following the Great Stagflation of the 1970s, central banks’ policy objective became biased toward maintaining a low and stable rate of inflation or monetary stability. This was based on the presumption that a stable price level would achieve both monetary and financial system stability. The deemphasis on financial stability remained until the global financial crisis, when the prevailing consensus was exposed for being thoroughly inadequate. A new consensus has emerged that broadens central banks’ financial stability mandate to include macroprudential supervision. This chapter analyzes the new central bank consensus, how this has resulted in institutional redesign, and the effectiveness of discharging postcrisis financial and monetary stability mandates.
Interorganizational Collaboration and Start-Up Innovation
Authors: Aggarwal Vikas , Wu Andy
Published: August 2019

This chapter presents an overview of the literature on collaborative relationships between start-ups and incumbent firms, focusing on the implications of these relationships for start-up innovation and performance. Value creation in such relationships occurs when assets are exchanged by the parties involved. Collaboration allows for passive knowledge flows and active knowledge creation. In addition, collaboration provides start-ups with access to the complementary assets of the incumbent. At the same time, value creation presents opportunities for value capture by either party, where value capture by the start-up is a consequence of the broader knowledge appropriation regime and the start-up’s own social capital. The form in which the start-up appropriates value has implications for the assets that enable value creation. The framework for value creation and capture in bilateral start-up–incumbent collaborations extends to start-up–incumbent collaborations in a platform and ecosystem context, where there are fruitful future research opportunities.
Collaboration and Intellectual Property
Authors: Heeley Michael B. , King David R.
Published: August 2019

The number of options owners of intellectual property confront in how best to exploit the inherent value of an innovation has expanded. New strategies for exploitation have developed in response to the greater fragmentation and overlap of the property rights needed to successfully commercialize new innovations. Although acting independently (go it alone) remains an option and can be enhanced with stealth, collaboration strategies are becoming the norm. The success of a selected collaborative strategy depends largely on a firm achieving or gaining the necessary freedoms to exploit its IP. This chapter reviews the different strategic options and develops a decision framework that can be used to help determine the conditions under which different collaborative strategies are optimal in dealing with fragmented property rights. It concludes by discussing the implications for management practice and research.
Collaborating for Innovation
Authors: Klein Peter G. , Packard Mark D. , Schnatterly Karen
Published: August 2019

This chapter looks inside the firm at how organizational design affects collaboration in pursuit of corporate entrepreneurship or “intrapreneurship.” It shows how the intrafirm “marketplace” of ideas, employees, and resources can be strategically configured to encourage or inhibit collaborative innovation. The chapter focuses on the key structural dimensions of autonomy, sponsorship, and incentives. Complementarities between these dimensions create spillover effects that produce unique innovation outcomes by mitigating barriers to collaboration such as knowledge problems, resource constraints, and employee motivation. Illustrating configurations of these dimensions with company examples, the chapter shows how organizational design affects intrapreneurship and offers suggestions on how firms might strategically align their organizational structure with their intrapreneurial strategy.
The Communicative Constitution of Entrepreneurship
Authors: Kuhn Timothy , Marshall Dana
Published: August 2019

This chapter pursues a novel conception of communication to highlight the collaborative processes associated with entrepreneurship. In contrast to a representational stance in which information dissemination is emphasized, this chapter presents a constitutive/dialogic approach to communication. This latter orientation portrays communication as an ongoing process that creates, recreates, and transforms meanings—and, in so doing, constitutes individuals, organizations, and the social worlds they inhabit. Though the representational stance has dominated entrepreneurship scholarship, this chapter presents three foci of research on entrepreneurship and collaboration to illustrate the constitution of contemporary entrepreneurs’ identities, entrepreneurial ecosystems, and entrepreneurial ventures. Based on the review, the chapter suggests that future entrepreneurship and collaboration research both engages with communication as constitution of organization (CCO) theorizing and explores the increasingly globalized character of entrepreneurial organizing.
Collaborating With Larger Partners
Authors: Lechner Christian , Soppe Birthe , Heggli Karolina
Published: August 2019

Although interfirm collaborations between entrepreneurial firms and established partners have become ubiquitous in organizational and business life, academic research on collaborations between start-ups and large industry leaders has only received limited attention. Such collaborations are also known as “asymmetric” or “unbalanced” relationships. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a systematic literature review of the current state of research on collaborations between entrepreneurial and large firms. In particular, the chapter identifies several benefits and risks involved for entrepreneurial firms and uses the findings of the literature review as a springboard to provide a roadmap for future research on this timely topic.
Why Do Small Firms Benefit Less From Alliances Than Large Firms?
Authors: Leiblein Michael J. , Macher Jeffrey T. , Ungureanu Tiberiu S.
Published: August 2019

Recent academic and practitioner research suggests that small firms are disadvantaged in strategic alliances. However, relatively little work explores the potential sources of these disadvantages. Using the comparative approach of transaction cost economics and the capability emphasis of the resource-based view, this chapter develops a framework that explores the extent to which differences in the partners available to small firms, the forms of governance chosen by small firms, the types of problems examined by small firms, and other firm attributes affect alliance organization decisions and subsequent performance across small and large firms.
Types of Spin-Out Firms and Collaborations With Parent Organizations
Authors: Chila Vilma , Martin Xavier
Published: August 2019

This chapter provides a framework for understanding the diverse types of spin-outs and how they collaborate with the parent organizations from which their founders came. It organizes the still-growing literature on types of spin-outs based on (a) the previous employment sector of spin-out entrepreneurs and (b) the parental involvement in the spin-out process. Both factors affect employee entrepreneurs’ motives for creating spin-outs, the spin-outs’ inheritance of capabilities, and subsequent performance. The chapter also relates the types of spin-outs with the variety of collaborative relationships between a spin-out firm and its parent organization at both the interorganizational and interpersonal levels. It describes research directions based on the subtle yet conceptually and managerially significant differences between the types of spin-outs, and based on the corresponding variety in their patterns or modes of collaborative relationships with parents.
An Intentions-Based Model of Entrepreneurs’ Prosocial Behavior
Authors: Baron Robert A. , Hmieleski Keith M.
Published: August 2019

Entrepreneurs are widely known for their generosity—voluntarily helping others through financial donations, mentoring, and various forms of community involvement. Such contributions are of great social and economic importance, yet little is known about the reasons that entrepreneurs engage in these actions and what factors may influence the occurrence and magnitude of such behavior. To help fill this gap, this chapter draws upon the theory of planned behavior to develop a model that considers both “why” and “when” entrepreneurs are likely to engage in prosocial behavior. Overall, this work extends the study of entrepreneurs’ efforts to generate value in ways that go beyond that which is directly connected to their activities as founders and leaders of their firms. Several avenues for future research on entrepreneurs’ prosocial behavior are suggested.
Coordination Frictions in Venture Capital Syndicates
Authors: Nanda Ramana , Rhodes-Kropf Matthew
Published: August 2019

An extensive literature on venture capital has studied asymmetric information and agency problems between investors and entrepreneurs, examining how separating entrepreneurs from the investor can create frictions that might inhibit the funding of good projects. It has largely abstracted away from the fact that a start-up typically does not have just one investor, but several venture capital investors that come together in a syndicate to finance a venture. This chapter therefore argues for an expansion of the standard perspective to also include frictions within venture capital syndicates. Put differently, what are the frictions that arise from the fact that there is not just one investor for each venture, but several investors with different incentives, objectives, and cash flow rights who nevertheless need to collaborate to help make the venture a success? The chapter outlines the ways in which these coordination frictions manifest themselves, describes the underlying drivers, and documents several contractual solutions used by venture capital firms to mitigate their effects. The chapter’s broader perspective provides several promising avenues for future research.
Asymmetric Partnerships
Authors: Bian Jiang , Katila Riitta
Published: August 2019

Asymmetric partnerships—partnerships between small entrepreneurial and large established firms—are categorically distinct from large–large firm partnerships but have received considerably less scholarly attention. This chapter provides an overview of the literature on asymmetric partnerships by reviewing studies in the fields of organizational theory, strategy, and entrepreneurship. It identifies three literature streams: antecedents of asymmetric partnership formation, process dynamics and management of asymmetric partnerships, and the performance consequences on firms involved in asymmetric partnerships. The chapter reviews each stream’s major studies, summarizes and synthesizes the empirical findings and theoretical insights, and identifies future directions. To advance the literature, the chapter discusses research opportunities, highlighting fertile avenues such as field-based research to examine the evolving nature of asymmetric partnerships and the organizational black box of partnership management, and quantitative research to strengthen causal identification.
Collaboration in Entrepreneurial Finance
Authors: Cumming Douglas , Johan Sofia , Zhang Yelin
Published: August 2019

An important topic in some areas of finance involves syndication, which refers to more than one investor in an investee firm. Investment syndication involves collaboration, particularly where investors are value-added active investors, and there are potential agency problems among syndicated investors. This chapter reviews the literature on collaboration across different sources of entrepreneurial finance. In particular, it considers angel investors, crowdfunding, technology parks, and venture capital and private equity funds. The chapter identifies cases when different types of investors work well together, as well as cases where the evidence indicates collaboration has been less than fruitful. The chapter concluded by identifying avenues for future research.
Entrepreneurship Through Mergers and Alliances
Authors: Gomes-Casseres Benjamin
Published: August 2019

This chapter synthesizes ideas from the fields of entrepreneurship and collaboration. It builds on Joseph Schumpeter’s definition of entrepreneurship as the “making of new combinations.” This view is extended with modern concepts from the resource-based view of the firm, from organizational economics, and from industrial organization. The chapter explores three broad questions: how joint value is created in business combinations, how collaboration is governed, and how value created jointly is shared. These questions define the “remix strategy,” defined as the use of mergers, alliances, and joint ventures to create value. Suggestions for future research are noted throughout.
Amphibious Entrepreneurs and the Origins of Invention
Authors: Sandholtz Kurt , Powell Walter W.
Published: August 2019

This chapter examines entrepreneurs who carry ideas, technologies, values, and assumptions between previously unrelated spheres of economic or cultural activity and, in the process, change the existing order of things. The chapter labels such individuals amphibious entrepreneurs and explores their characteristics via four case studies. Their stories suggest a distinct species within the genus of entrepreneur: more pragmatic than heroic, and as likely to invent by not knowing any better as by calculative creation. The chapter discusses their role in creating interstitial spaces, contrasts them with other boundary-spanning actors, and identifies directions for future research at the intersection of social history and entrepreneurship.
Collaboration Among Silicon Valley Venture Capitalists
Authors: Bigelow Lyda , Kuan Jennifer , Mayer Kyle
Published: August 2019

Regional differences among industry clusters have long been a puzzle, especially when performance differences are significant. This chapter examines the case of venture capital investing, in which Silicon Valley differs from the rest of the world despite attempts to imitate its model. The point of entry in this chapter is the contract between venture capitalist and entrepreneur. Although such contracts have been analyzed in other research, this chapter argues that the psychological effects of different contract styles are of primary importance to innovative outcomes of entrepreneurial ventures. Thus, it argues that regulatory focus theory, which considers the psychological effects of contracting, is essential to understanding differences in practice and outcomes in venture capital clusters.
social relations and the performance of different start-up types
Authors: Greenberg Jason
Published: August 2019

There is significant and growing interest in entrepreneurship. Notwithstanding this interest, sizable barriers limit understanding of the phenomenon and, by implication, understanding of who is most likely to succeed in it. One fundamental challenge researchers face is the confounded language employed: “Self-employment,” “business ownership,” and various conceptualizations of “entrepreneurship” have often been used interchangeably. This chapter argues that a potentially fruitful basis for predicting the probable form and performance of various start-ups (or newly established business entities) is offered by attending to the social relational characteristics of the individuals or teams engaged in them, including their advisers and investors. Using this approach, novel propositions are proposed that draw and define boundary conditions.
Twin Studies and Politics
Authors: Littvay Levente
Published: August 2019

As recently as 2005, John Alford and colleagues surprised political science with their twin study that found empirical evidence of the genetic transmission of political attitudes and behaviors. Reactions in the field were mixed, but one thing is for sure: it is not time to mourn the social part of the social sciences. Genetics is not the deterministic mechanism that social scientists often assume it to be. No specific part of DNA is responsible for anything but minute, indirect effects on political orientations. Genes express themselves differently in different contexts, suggesting that the political phenomenon behavioral political scientists take for granted may be quite volatile; hence, the impact of genetics is also much less stable in its foundations than initially assumed. Twin studies can offer a unique and powerful avenue to study these behavioral processes as they are more powerful than cross-sectional (or even longitudinal) studies not only for understanding heritability but also for asserting the direction of causation, the social (and, of course, genetic) pathways that explain how political phenomena are related to each other. This chapter aims to take the reader through this journey that political science has gone through over the past decade and a half and point to the synergies behavioral political science and behavioral genetics offer to the advancement of the discipline.
Native American Realism
Authors: Schweninger Lee
Published: August 2019

This chapter argues that American Indian realist writings provide glimpses into cultures essentially unknown to mainstream readers of literary realism by writers outside the mainstream realist canon. It thus takes as one of its points of departure arguments for canon expansion. It also argues for widening the parameters of realism to include genres other than the novel, because so many of the writers during this era are mixed-genre writers. Basing its argument on a variety of genres, then, the chapter places several American Indian writers and their writings in social-historical contexts, such as resistance to mainstream culture, compulsory boarding school, allotment of Indian lands, coerced assimilation, and the 1890 Massacre at Wounded Knee.
African American Realism
Authors: Wooley Christine A.
Published: August 2019

Critical accounts of American literary realism have often focused on how realism is an intervention in, rather than a simple representation of, reality. Truth, however, remains a powerful referent for realists and a particularly complex one for postbellum African American writers whose works exemplify, but also interrogate, realism as a mode of representation. This chapter argues that linking African American writers such as Paul Laurence Dunbar and Charles Chesnutt to the realism of William Dean Howells reveals how for these writers, realism itself becomes a way to interrogate the power of stories to define what is true and to intervene in such assumptions. At the same time, these authors’ works increasingly show the limits of such interventions in relation to the intractability of racialized and racist discourse—and the racial disparities such discourse reinforces—at the turn of the twentieth century.