bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Moving Beyond Law: Interdisciplinarity and the Study of Evidence
Authors: TWINING WILLIAM
Published: August 2013

This chapter examines critically both the idea of ‘a multidisciplinary field’ or ‘an integrated science’ of evidence, and scepticism about and resistance to this idea from the standpoint of a jurist who has been involved with interdisciplinary work on evidence in law for many years. The chapter is organized as follows. Part I presents an overview of the intellectual history of the academic study of evidence in law in the Anglo‐American tradition and shows how important aspects of the field came to be recognised as inherently multidisciplinary. Part II identifies some limitations of legal perspectives on evidence, especially when the focus is on contested trials. It recounts the story of attempts to move beyond law in the direction of constructing a general field of evidence that formed part of the background of the UCL programme. Part III examines some of the reasons for suspicion of and resistance to the idea of ‘an integrated science of evidence’. Part IV restates the case for recognition and institutionalisation of evidence as a special focus of attention at the present time and puts forward a personal agenda of general questions that still need to be tackled.
Inference Networks: Bayes and Wigmore
Authors: DAWID PHILIP , SCHUM DAVID , HEPLER AMANDA
Published: August 2013

Methods for performing complex probabilistic reasoning tasks, often based on masses of different forms of evidence obtained from a variety of different sources, are being sought by, and developed for, persons in many important contexts including law, medical diagnosis, and intelligence analysis. The complexity of these tasks can often be captured and represented by graphical structures now called inference networks. These networks are directed acyclic graphs (DAGs), consisting of nodes, representing relevant hypotheses, items of evidence, and unobserved variables, and arcs (arrows) joining some of the nodes, representing dependency relations among them. This chapter describes and comments on two different approaches to inference network construction. In the first approach, a DAG network structure is explicitly constructed as a vehicle for probabilistic analyses. Since the associated computations can be regarded as generalising the use of Bayes' rule, such networks are commonly called Bayesian networks. The second approach stems from the work of the American jurist John H. Wigmore who was the very first person to attempt a systematic study of inference networks.
Thinking about Evidence1
Authors: LAGNADO DAVID
Published: August 2013

This chapter argues that people reason about legal evidence using small-scale qualitative networks. These cognitive networks are typically qualitative and incomplete, and based on people's causal beliefs about the specifics of the case as well as the workings of the physical and social world in general. A key feature of these networks is their ability to represent qualitative relations between hypotheses and evidence, allowing reasoners to capture the concepts of dependency and relevance critical in legal contexts. In support of this claim, the chapter introduces some novel empirical and formal work on alibi evidence, showing that people's reasoning conforms to the dictates of a qualitative Bayesian model. However, people's inferences do not always conform to Bayesian prescripts. Empirical studies are also discussed in which people over-extend the discredit of one item of evidence to other unrelated items. This bias is explained in terms of the propensity to group positive and negative evidence separately and the use of coherence-based inference mechanisms. It is argued that these cognitive processes are a natural response to deal with the complexity of legal evidence.
Are there Universal Principles or Forms of Evidential Inference? Of Inference Networks and Onto-Epistemology
Authors: TILLERS PETER
Published: August 2013

This chapter discusses the limitations of approaches to modelling and handling evidential issues using hierarchical network representations. Such models of evidential inference rest on the compound proposition that real-world evidential inference usually or always consists of propositional ‘atoms’ (i.e. relatively granular propositional statements about states of the world) that are linked together by nomological entities of some kind, entities that are often — but not always — called ‘generalisations’. These sorts of models or representations of evidential inference are referred to as ‘network-and-generalisation’ models of evidential inference. It is argued that for certain important problems, especially where these concern meaning and human understanding, these need to be complemented by other methods.
Rhetoric, Evidence and Policymaking: a Case Study of Priority Setting in Primary Care*
Authors: RUSSELL JILL , GREENHALGH TRISHA
Published: August 2013

This chapter describes a study undertaken as part of the UCL Evidence programme to explore how policymakers talk about and reason with evidence. Specifically, researchers were interested in the micro-processes of deliberation and meaning-making practices of a group of people charged with prioritising health care in an NHS Primary Care Trust in the UK. The chapter describes how the research study brought together ideas from rhetorical theory and methods of discourse analysis to develop an innovative approach to exploring how evidence is constituted at the micro-level of social interaction and communication. It presents empirical data to illuminate the representation and meaning of evidence within one particular policymaking forum, and to highlight contrasting constructions of the policymaking process.
What the Ravens Really Teach Us: the Intrinsic Contextuality of Evidence
Authors: CHANG HASOK , FISHER GRANT
Published: August 2013

This chapter advances a contextual view of evidence, through a reconsideration of Hempel's paradox of confirmation (the ‘ravens paradox’). The initial view regarding Hempel's paradox is that a non-black non-raven does confirm ‘All ravens are black’, but only in certain contexts. The chapter begins by reformulating the paradox as a puzzle about how the same entity can have variable evidential values for a given proposition. It then offers a three-stage solution to the reformulated paradox. (1) The situation makes better sense when we reach a deeper propositional understanding of evidence, recognising that each entity can be represented in multiple observational propositions. (2) Some anti-contextualist intuitions can be defused by distinguishing two different senses of the word ‘evidence’, one applying to objects or events and the other applying to propositions; only the latter is relevant to inference. (3) A fuller understanding comes from analysing the constitution and use of evidence in terms of epistemic action. These reflections on the ravens paradox suggest a general philosophical framework more suitable for understanding the function of evidence in scientific and everyday practices.
What Would a Scientific Economics Look Like?
Authors: JOFFE MICHAEL
Published: August 2013

This chapter compares biology with the practices of economics to determine the extent to which mainstream economic theory can be regarded as ‘scientific’. This survey of practice in the two disciplines shows that biological theory is derived from description and experimentation. In contrast, the ideal in mainstream economics is to derive theory from axioms. When economic theory is compared with the available evidence, a disjunction is found between the empirical findings and conventional theory. The disjunction is explained by a fundamental mismatch between the evidence and the basic theoretical categories and structure. The central issue is the relationship of evidence to theory: to put it simply, which should come first? The conclusion is that regularities that emerge from a comparative historical perspective, including use of econometric, statistical, and qualitative studies, could provide the type of evidence that could form a secure foundation for theorising in economics.
The Schweich Lectures
Authors: Davies Graham
Published: August 2013

The first series of Schweich Lectures were delivered in the spring of 1908 by Canon S. R. Driver, Regius Professor of Hebrew at Oxford and one of the founding Fellows of the British Academy. But the process which led to this began some eighteen months earlier, when at a Council meeting on 31 October 1906 the Secretary of the Academy, Israel Gollancz, read out a letter dated 10 October offering a gift of £10,000 ‘for the furtherance of research in the Archaeology and art, the history, languages, and literature of Ancient Civilization, with reference to Biblical Archaeology’. In all sixty-seven series of Schweich Lectures have been given so far. Sixty-six of these were given by men, and only one by a woman (Kathleen Kenyon in 1963). The shortfall in the total number is due to the fact that in 1951 Council decided, for financial reasons, that the lectures should be biennial and in 1976 that they should be triennial, as they are now. The chapter includes appendices with a copy of the Trust Deed and a list of the Schweich Lectures 1908–2007, with details of their publication.
On determinacy or its absence in the brain
Authors: ATMANSPACHER HARALD , ROTTER STEFAN
Published: August 2013

This chapter analyzes the different ways to describe brain behaviour with the goal to provide a basis for an informed discussion of the nature of decisions and actions that humans perform in their lives. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 outlines a number of concepts exhibiting how many subtle details and distinctions lie behind the broad notions of determinacy and stochasticity. These details are necessary for a discussion, in Section 3, of particular aspects relevant for the characterization of brain states and their dynamics. The descriptions of brain behaviour currently provided by neuroscience depend on the level and context of the descriptions. There is no clear-cut evidence for ultimately determinate or ultimately stochastic brain behaviour. As a consequence, there is no solid neurobiological basis to argue either in favour of or against any fundamental determination or openness of human decisions and actions.
Substance dualism and its rationale
Authors: ROBINSON HOWARD
Published: August 2013

Substance dualism is the view that humans are essentially immaterial souls, and that conscious events are events in that soul. This chapter considers the arguments for and against this view. It argues that such questions as ‘Would I have existed if my mother's egg had been fertilized by a different though genetically identical sperm from my father?’ must have a sharp yes-or-no answer, but that they would not have a sharp answer if being me consisted simply of being made of similar genetic material and having a similar conscious life.
Frank Barlow 1911–2009
Authors: BATES DAVID
Published: August 2013

Frank Barlow (1911–2009) was Professor Emeritus of History at the University of Exeter. His numerous publications include fifteen books and scholarly editions, of which many have turned out to be of quite exceptional long-term importance. Barlow was a Fellow of the British Academy. Obituary by David Bates.
Human freedom and human capital*
Authors: Langille Brian
Published: August 2013

This book examines the role of labour standards in sustainable development and this chapter addresses this issue at a fairly abstract level. It argues that if we could have clear thinking about labour standards and clear thinking about sustainable development, then we would say that there is an intimate connection and profound overlap between labour standards and development. This is because, first, there is an intimate and profound connection between human freedom on the one hand, and human capital on the other. Second, development is the process of the removal of obstacles to real human freedom conceived of as the real capacity to lead lives which we have reason to value. Third, labour law is that part of our law which structures and mobilises the deployment of human capital, that is, which structures and mobilises the ‘exploitation’ (in the best sense of the word) of human capital, which is at the core of human freedom. Thus, if development is about human freedom and labour law is about human capital, then labour law is a key to development.
The political economy of women’s human rights*
Authors: True Jacqui
Published: August 2013

The chapter examines the question of whether there is a relationship between women's poor access to productive resources such as land, property, income, employment, technology, credit, and education, and their likelihood of experiencing gender-based violence and abuse. It begins with a discussion of the feminist political economy method, which seeks to comprehend broader, global political-economic structures that underpin gender inequality and women's vulnerability to violence. It then illustrates with specific examples how the feminist political economy method might be used to analyse violence against women in four strategic sites: (i) neo-liberal economic restructuring and men's reaction to the loss of secure employment; (ii) economic destabilisation and transition; (iii) the growth of a sex trade around the creation of free trade zones; and (iv) the transnational migration of women workers.
Promoting equality through social inclusion*
Authors: Bell Mark
Published: August 2013

This chapter explores how equality is pursued, comparing two approaches. In Europe, legal responses to inequality have tended to focus on anti-discrimination legislation. This approach attempts to bring about equality by giving individuals a right to challenge discrimination through litigation before courts or other adjudicatory bodies. In contrast, the promotion of social inclusion has been more typically linked with policy-based mechanisms, not amenable to judicial enforcement. A dichotomy thus arises between two pathways for advancing equality: antidiscrimination and social inclusion. The chapter begins by reviewing in more detail the characteristics, strengths, and pitfalls of each of these two approaches. It then seeks to explore whether these approaches might be brought together and, to this end, it examines the European Social Charter, which appears to marry some of the qualities of both approaches. It is an instrument of international law, yet it has a holistic outlook on social rights and their implementation in practice. In order to make a more concrete assessment of the Charter's potential to promote equality, two discrete case studies are considered, focusing on the social situation of Travellers in Ireland and Roma in Italy.
The Pleasures of Tudor Horror: Popular Histories, Modernity and Sensationalism in the Long Nineteenth Century
Authors: MELMAN BILLIE
Published: August 2013

This chapter discusses Tudorism in popular historical culture during the nineteenth century. First, it briefly delineates the apparent streamlining of the Tudor era into a broadly Whig and liberal-radical culture of progress and improvement and the confident interpretation of history. It then focuses on the evolution of popular Tudorism with its emphasis upon, and uses of, horror and its relations to modernity and urbanisation: what Dickens described as the ‘attraction of repulsion’ in horror. It traces developments in representations, meanings, and uses of Tudor horror, mainly by concentrating on the Tower of London, which during the nineteenth century evolved into an embodiment of the history of England, and the site of continuous debate and contest over access to, and ownership of, the Tudors.
Through Several Glasses Darkly: Historical and Sectarian Perceptions of the Tudor Church
Authors: COLLINSON PATRICK
Published: August 2013

This chapter surveys the perceptions of the Tudor Church since the sixteenth century. It argues that the history of the Tudor Church has been punctuated, bisected, fractured, and forever complicated by the Reformation, which meant different things to different people. One of the visions of the Tudor Church seen through very dark if rose-tinted glass was that enjoyed by Anglicans in the century or so following the recatholicising Oxford Movement of the 1830s and 1840s. In this perspective, what happened to the Tudors was sensible and non-revolutionary. The Anglo‐Catholic version of the Tudor Church was a reaction against the story of British Christianity which had been told between the 1560s and 1580s by John Foxe in Acts and Monuments of the Church, or its more familiar title, ‘The Book of Martyrs’.
‘A Great Guy with His Chopper’?: The Sex Life of Henry VIII on Screen and in the Flesh
Authors: WALKER GREG
Published: August 2013

This chapter analyzes how the cinema and television have rendered Henry VIII. It considers films such as The Private Life of Henry VIII (1933) and Anne of the Thousand Days (1969), and television shows such as The Six Wives of Henry VIII and The Tudors. It suggests that Henry has generally been the protagonist in the dramas in which he has appeared, and it has been his experiences and his emotional journey, that are spectators' principal concern.
Introduction
Authors: Washbrook Sarah
Published: August 2013

This book analyzes production and modernity in pre-revolutionary Mexico, focusing specifically on the relationship between labour, race, and the state in Chiapas during the Porfiriato. The thirty-five-year dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz (1876–1911) was a key period in the history of modern Mexico. Following upon fifty years of political turmoil and economic stagnation after independence, the regime oversaw an unprecedented period of growth and political modernization, which ended in the ‘first social revolution of the twentieth century’ (1910–20). In order to understand the twin processes of state formation and market development that took place in Mexico during these years, the book examines changing political, economic, and social relations in the southern state of Chiapas between Díaz's seizure of national power in the Tuxtepec rebellion of 1876 and the arrival of revolutionary troops in the state capital, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, in 1914. In this period Chiapas was subject to the same processes and tendencies that took place throughout the Mexican republic, which centred on rapid export-led development and growing political centralization. However, the state's distinct regional characteristics — notably its majority Mayan Indian population, polarized ethnic relations, strong historical and administrative links to Central America, and poor communications with the rest of Mexico — also contributed to the particular quality of modernization and modernity in Chiapas.
Post-independence politics and land: from the community to agrarian servitude
Authors: Washbrook Sarah
Published: August 2013

When Mexico declared independence in September 1821, Chiapas, along with the rest of Central America, joined the new nation. Then, in 1823, precipitated by the collapse of Iturbide's Mexican Empire, the other former Central American provinces broke away to form the Central American Union. Chiapas, though, chose permanent annexation to the Mexican republic the following year. This chapter is organized as follows. The first section reviews the historiography of other regions of Mexico and Central America during these years in order better to understand the way that history and geography may have influenced political and agrarian relations in Chiapas during the half-century after independence. The second section looks at politics and state-building in Chiapas between 1824 and 1855, focusing on the relationship between regional elites in the central valley and the central highlands, national governments, and Indian communities. The third section provides an overview of commercial agriculture, population, and labour, and analyzes the agrarian laws which were passed in the state in the post-independence period. The fourth section examines the process of land privatization in different regions of Chiapas and the relationship between the alienation of public and communal lands and the spread of agrarian servitude — both labour tenancy (known as baldiaje) and debt peonage. The fifth section addresses the question of why, despite the growing dispossession of communal land, no peasant rebellion emerged in Chiapas during these years, while the next section examines the Labour Tenancy Law of 1849, a short-lived attempt to regulate baldiaje and limit the role of servile labour in commercial agriculture. Finally, the last section looks at the impact in Chiapas of the laws of the Reform and civil conflict between liberals and conservatives in the period 1855–67, and highlights the way in which local political factionalism contributed to Chiapas's Caste War of 1869–70.
‘Disguised slavery’: debt peonage in Chiapas, 1876–1914
Authors: Washbrook Sarah
Published: August 2013

This chapter analyzes the institution of debt peonage in Chiapas during the Porfiriato. The first section examines Porfirian debates regarding the relationship between debt peonage, slavery, and market development in Chiapas. The second section addresses the economics and economic rationality of debt peonage. The third section focuses on the legal foundations of rural peonage and domestic servitude in the state. The fourth section tackles the issue of coercion and consent and the ‘popular legitimacy’ of debt peonage. The final section looks at the issue of debt peonage in Chiapas after the resignation of President Díaz, comparing the legislative proposals of local politicians with those of the Constitutionalists who descended on the state in 1914, and underlining the significance of the institution during the years of Mexico's armed Revolution (1910–20).
Debt peonage and regional export development: Pichucalco, Chilón, Palenque and Soconusco, 1876–1914
Authors: Washbrook Sarah
Published: August 2013

This chapter examines the relationship between debt peonage and regional export development between 1876 and 1914 in four departments of Chiapas: Pichucalco, Chilón, and Palenque in the north of the state and Soconusco on the Pacific coast. All of these departments underwent considerable commercial development during the Porfiriato based on the production of tropical agricultural commodities such as coffee, cacao, rubber, and hard woods, and Soconusco, Palenque, and Chilón were recipients of significant foreign capital. However, the impact of market development on labour relations was not uniform: whereas in Soconusco plantation agriculture tended to undermine labour coercion, in the other departments these years saw the intensification and spread of servile peonage. The chapter shows that such changes were principally the product of regional market conditions and the capacity of the state to intervene in the process of labour contracting.
Time Urgency, Sleep Loss, and Obesity
Authors: Whybrow Peter C.
Published: August 2013

Advancing technology and global commerce have created a 24-hour society where the natural constraints on human activity of geography and distance are dissolving. The competitive challenge of this world offers excitement and opportunity, but also chronic stress, which is frequently experienced by individuals as anxiety and time urgency. Sleep deprivation is commonplace and often self-imposed. The cascade of physiological disruption so engendered has unintended health consequences including cardiovascular disease and obesity. In the latter, there is growing evidence that, together with reduced exercise, short sleep may help drive weight gain by disrupting the bi-directional communication among the body's autonomic, endocrine and immune systems and the brain. The homeostasis of the pro-inflammatory cytokines, and the appetite-modulating peptides, ghrelin and leptin, in each instance is disturbed by sleep debt. This biology is reviewed, together with a discussion of its implications within the broader social context.
The History of the Obesity Epidemic in Denmark
Authors: Sørensen Thorkild I. A. , Rokholm Benjamin , Ajslev Teresa A.
Published: August 2013

The prevailing interpretation of the global epidemic of obesity is that it is a consequence of changes in societies toward more so-called obesogenic environments, changes which involve the emergence of living conditions that promote persisting positive energy balance. A critical implication of this contention is that the development of the epidemic has followed the corresponding development of the obesogenic environment. This chapter focuses on the history of the obesity epidemic in Danish children and young adult men since the interwar period. Surprisingly, the epidemic has developed in sharply delineated phases closely linked to year of birth, a pattern that is not concordant with the presumed obesogenic changes, which are also problematic for other theoretical and empirical reasons. These findings suggest that the drivers of the epidemic are some changes in the perinatal environment, perhaps even before conception, increasing risk of obesity later in life. Identification of these drivers of the epidemic may offer strong preventive tools to combat obesity.
Archaeology and Language in the Andes: Some General Models of Change
Authors: RENFREW COLIN
Published: August 2013

This chapter discusses the role of general models for language change and considers four such classes of model. The farming/language dispersal model is a frequent case for language replacement. But problems of chronology frequently obscure the relationships between archaeological and linguistic data.
Modelling the Quechua‐Aymara Relationship: Structural Features, Sociolinguistic Scenarios, and Possible Archaeological Evidence
Authors: MUYSKEN PIETER
Published: August 2013

This chapter explores various sociolinguistic scenarios of language contact which may be potentially invoked to account for the complex relationship between Quechua and Aymara. The evidence for the Quechuan and Aymaran language families having separate origins, but engaging in intensive borrowing, is stronger than that supporting common origin. One language may be assumed to have been ‘modelled’ on the other. It is argued here on linguistic grounds that it was most likely Aymara that provided the model for Quechua. The precise nature of their contact remains to be established, however. The chapter describes and evaluates eight scenarios, not necessarily mutually exclusive, that might be invoked to account for it. All are drawn from the literature on language contact studies, illustrating how results from such work can bear on deep-time historical linguistics. Finally, the chapter speculates on what might constitute archaeological evidence for these scenarios.
Middle Horizon Imperialism and the Prehistoric Dispersal of Andean Languages
Authors: ISBELL WILLIAM H.
Published: August 2013

The dispersal of the Romance language family by the Roman Empire is an attractive model for examining the spread of Quechua. Wari and Tiwanaku are often considered the first Andean empires, during the Middle Horizon (cal. ad 650–1050). Despite being contemporaries sharing the same religious iconography, they were unlikely to have spoken and dispersed the same language. Tiwanaku material culture rather implies ethnic and linguistic diversity, not least in its best-documented colonization in Moquegua. Wari, meanwhile, appears culturally and administratively unified, colonizing and controlling a territory across southern Peru, from Cuzco to Nasca. If Wari was responsible for a language dispersal, then this should represent its core territory; and it is indeed the heart of Southern Quechua. In northern Peru, Wari presence seems less intense, its rule more complex and indirect. The Moche region remained essentially beyond Wari influence, while for the central coast and distant Aguada culture more research is needed.
Unravelling the Enigma of the ‘Particular Language’ of the Incas
Authors: CERRÓN-PALOMINO RODOLFO
Published: August 2013

Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century chroniclers call attention to the Incas having had a ‘particular language’, used exclusively by members of the court. The sparse linguistic material attributed to it consists of barely a dozen proper names which ‘El Inca’ Garcilaso de la Vega, unable to explain through his Quechua mother tongue, assumed must belong to the purported secret language. On closer inspection most of these words do turn out to be explicable in terms of either a Quechua or an Aymara origin. Nevertheless, a small amount of extant onomastic material — mostly Inca institutional names — cannot be traced back to either, and points to a third language instead. This chapter makes the case that this could have been Puquina, once a major language of the Titicaca Basin, whence the mythical Incas set out on their journey to Cuzco. Linguistic, mythohistorical, and archaeological evidence are offered support of this hypothesis.
Accounting for the Spread of Quechua and Aymara between Cuzco and Lake Titicaca
Authors: SILLAR BILL
Published: August 2013

This chapter explores broad social changes that may account for how Quechua and Aymara entered the Lake Titicaca and Cuzco regions so that they eventually replaced all other native languages. It starts with a brief overview of the topography and ecology of the area that provides the landscape upon which people developed their subsistence base and over which they moved. It then reviews what is known about the distribution of Aymara, Quechua, and Puquina in the region at the start of the colonial period. Based on this, the chapter presents a broad overview of the archaeological evidence for social development and change from the Formative to the early colonial period, in order to consider the social processes that led to the pattern of language use encountered by the Spanish. It is argued that the scale of social change wrought by the Wari Empire in the Vilcanota Valley is commensurate with the introduction and uptake of a new language, which is most likely to have been Quechua. But documentary evidence suggests the llama herders of the Lupaca, Canas, and Collagua were well-established Aymara speakers by the time of the earliest Spanish records. The social processes surrounding llama herding must be considered to account for the spread of Aymara into the Titicaca Basin.
The Herder–Cultivator Relationship as a Paradigm for Archaeological Origins, Linguistic Dispersals, and the Evolution of Record-Keeping in the Andes
Authors: URTON GARY
Published: August 2013

This chapter explores an alternative proposal for the linguistic impact of Wari expansion: that it could in fact have been two-fold, dispersing both Quechua and Aymara simultaneously. To this end, it invokes the distinctive Andean institutions of ‘complementary asymmetric dualism’, to explore whether they might not have linguistic correlates too. Specifically, it looks to the wari–llaqwash dyadism between mid-altitude, maize-cultivating wari, hypothesized as speaking Quechua, and higher-altitude, camelid-herding llaqwash speaking Aymara.
How did Quechua Reach Ecuador?
Authors: HOCQUENGHEM ANNE MARIE
Published: August 2013

The question of the antiquity of Quechua in Ecuador and how it arrived there remains a matter of debate among linguists. This chapter attempts, from an ethnohistorical and archaeological perspective, to disprove the theory of a pre-Inca seaborne spread from the southern coast of Peru, proposed by the linguist Alfredo Torero in El quechua y la historia social andina (1974). Rather, it supports a spread by land during the period of Inca rule.
Conclusion: A Cross-Disciplinary Prehistory for the Andes? Surveying the State of the Art
Authors: HEGGARTY PAUL , BERESFORD-JONES DAVID
Published: August 2013

This chapter sums up the new state of the cross-disciplinary art in Andean prehistory, as collectively represented by the foregoing chapters. Progress and new perspectives are explored first on key individual questions. Who, for instance, were the Incas, and whence and when did they come to Cuzco? How and when did Quechua, too, reach Cuzco, as well as its furthest-flung outposts in north-west Argentina, Ecuador, and northern Peru? The scope is then broadened to overall scenarios for how the main Andean language families might correlate in time and space with archaeological horizons that could best account for their dispersals. Four basic hypotheses have emerged, whose respective strengths and weaknesses are assessed in turn: a traditional ‘Wari as Aymara’ model, revised and defended; alternative proposals of ‘Wari as both Aymara and Quechua’, or ‘both Chavín and Wari as Quechua’; and the most radical new departure, ‘Wari as Quechua, Chavín as Aymara’.
Jerusalem under Siege: Marino Sanudo’s Map of the Water Supply, 1320
Authors: Edson Evelyn
Published: August 2013

The map of Jerusalem, which appeared in 1320 in Marino Sanudo's book, Liber secretorum fidelium crucis, has no obvious precursor, though it draws on textual sources from the works of Josephus to the thirteenth-century description of the Holy Land by Burchard of Mt. Sion. Surrounded by an irregular polygon of walls, the city is mapped in a style similar to the other maps in the book, drawn by the sea-chart maker Pietro Vesconte. These maps emphasize the contemporary, physical reality of an area, the Holy Land, often seen through a romantic veil. Sanudo's book was a plea for the revival of the crusading movement and a programme of practical suggestions for its success. Of special interest on the map is the depiction of the city's water resources, important to future Crusaders.
Seduction and Spirituality: The Ambiguous Roles of Music in Venetian Art
Authors: PATRICIA FORTINI BROWN
Published: August 2013

This chapter examines the tensions between the sacred and profane in attitudes towards the art of music as manifested in Venetian Renaissance painting. Choirs of pious music-making angels playing a variety of musical instruments were a notable feature of Venetian altarpieces from the fourteenth century on. And yet, by the early years of the sixteenth century, these concerts of sacred music were eclipsed by secular images of flute-playing shepherds and lute-strumming youths. While household inventories tell us that musical instruments played a central role in family congeniality, paintings of the time also associate musical performance with ladies of dubious respectability. Thus, while music was treasured for its spiritual enlightenment and contribution to refined domesticity, it was also suspect because of its seductive sensuality.
When is a Room a Music Room? Sounds, Spaces, and Objects in Non-courtly Italian Interiors
Authors: DENNIS FLORA
Published: August 2013

Although never an easy feat, tracing the connections between sounds, spaces and objects becomes easier the higher up the social scale one goes in the Early Modern period. The survival of documentary and material evidence helps to identify musical repertories that were known to have been performed in specific spaces on particular instruments. Given the lack of comparative sources at lower social levels, is it possible to establish relationships between these three elements in non-courtly contexts? This chapter considers non-courtly ‘music-rooms’, addressing how practical material and conceptual motivations forged links between music and domestic space in this period. It goes on to examine broader, perhaps unexpected, connections between musical sound and the material culture of the Early Modern domestic interior.
Spaces for Musical Performance in the Este Court in Ferrara (c. 1440–1540)
Authors: MORETTI LAURA
Published: August 2013

The aim of this chapter is to identify the spaces most commonly used for musical performance in the residences of the court of Ferrara in the period between 1440 and 1540. Various types of musical performance accompanied court life during state and dynastic events, public and private festivities, banquets, religious services, theatrical representations and occasional entertainments within the private circles of the princes and rulers. Proceeding from the analysis of these events, it has been possible to identify certain locations – chapels, large halls, salotti, small chambers and studioli – in various spaces in the court residences, in which musical performances are known to have taken place. From this evidence, the chapter attempts to characterise the architecture of these rooms, as well as performance practices, the types of repertoire and other relevant details needed to paint the picture of the places used for music-making in these courtly settings.
Epigraphy and Roman Religion
Authors: Scheid John
Published: August 2013

An abundance of Latin votive inscriptions adds much to the knowledge of religious belief in the Roman World. Several major cults of Roman (e.g. emperor worship) and foreign (e.g. Mithras) origin, and the identification of local deities with classical gods, would be little understood were it not for the survival of inscriptions. Similarly, inscriptions alone furnish many details of the ritual and ceremonial of sacrifice, most notably in the case of the archival dossier of the Arval Brethren near Rome, not mentioned in any literary source. The hopes and fears of ordinary folk are revealed in the inscribed prayers and curses addressed to the many oracular shrines in the Greco-Roman world.
Greek Epigraphy and Ancient Economics
Authors: Bresson Alain
Published: August 2013

After initial comments on the role of Greek inscriptions as ‘archives’, this chapter reviews the drastic changes that have occurred since Finley's book of 1973 in the picture of the ancient economy, both by acknowledging development and growth, and by adopting new concepts, not least New Institutional Economics with its emphasis on transaction costs. The methodological impact of such new approaches is sketched in four fields, each of which is illustrated with epigraphic documentation: (1) production and growth, instancing technological advance, land exploitation and textile production; (2) finance, taxes, trade and prices, with emphasis on the need and opportunities for quantification; (3) money and coinage; and (4) the transformation of uncertainty into an assessment of risk, illustrated in respect of farming practices and recourse to consultation of oracles and curse-tablets.
Listening to Stones
Authors: Chaniotis Angelos
Published: August 2013

This chapter explores how the gamut of responses to the presence of an inscription has to include not just sight and touch but also imagination and vocalisation. Being meant to be read aloud, they convey a reader's voice as well as that of the inscription itself or that of the dead person commemorated on a gravestone. Even more immediate is the potential impact when a person's actual words are preserved and displayed. They may be in direct speech, illustrated by letters and confessions, or in indirect speech as records of manumissions, minutes of meetings, or jokes. They may alternatively be performative speech, in the form of acclamations, formal declarations, oaths, prayers or hymns; and can equally be reports of oral events such as meetings or even public demonstrations. They can also be couched in various forms of emotional language, whether uttered by individuals (graffiti, prayers or the edicts of angry rulers) or more collectively and formally in secular or religious acclamations, and even in decrees of state. A final section emphasises the need for practitioners of the discipline of epigraphy to be missionaries — to spread the word about the value of visible words.
A Motley Company: Differing Identities among Euro-Africans in Eighteenth-Century Elmina
Authors: EVERTS NATALIE
Published: August 2013

Euro-Africans along the Gold Coast figure as a somewhat obscure minority in contemporary European literature. Perhaps this can be attributed to the kinship system of the coastal Akan that dominated the structure of Gold Coast society and accounted for the integration of Euro-Africans into the local lineages. In Akan culture, children belonged to the abusua or matrilineal family of their mothers, either as free members or as slaves. A different recruiting mechanism was also in operation in the other fundamental institution of the southern Akan polities, the asafo companies. Elmina boys were recruited by their father's asafo, and as a rule, male Euro-Africans had to do without the patrilineal affiliation to these prestigious power associations. The dearth of these ties encouraged a certain minority of Euro-Africans to initiate their own ‘company’, which might be considered a kernel in the development towards a Euro-African identity.
The Emergence of a Mixed Society in Cape Verde in the Seventeenth Century
Authors: GREEN TOBY
Published: August 2013

This chapter illuminates how a mixed cultural framework developed in the 17th century on Cabo Verde. Following commercial and ecological collapse at the end of the 16th century, the island Creole class broke decisively from metropolitan control and created a new economy. Based on subsistence and also on trading with passing maritime trade, this led to different influences in different islands depending on the accent of the trade – English salt trade from the island of Maio to Newfoundland, for instance. By the end of the 17th century, differing identities in the differing islands of Cabo Verde were emerging, based on balancing the internal agency and influences with the priorities of external global demand. The mixed Creole world that emerged, transcending the polar hierarchies of race common elsewhere in the Atlantic world, became a fundamental constituent of the hybrid Creole identity of Cabo Verde to this day.
Colour and Race in Brazil: From Whitening to the Search for Afro-Descent
Authors: ALFREDO GUIMARÃES ANTÓNIO SÉRGIO
Published: August 2013

The purpose of this chapter is to clarify the way in which Brazil has developed a system of colour classification with regard to Afro-descendants in the period since abolition. The intention is not only to show how this system developed over time, but also how it has been shaped by the mobilisation of the black population around the notion of race: as a group sharing solidarity and common experiences of subordination and discrimination. The strategy is to trace the terms ‘colour’ and ‘race’ and their meanings through time, as used or systematised into classifications by the state, social movements and social scientists. This study is both preliminary and incomplete, but it is hoped that it can serve as a guide for future and more systematic research on specific periods, places and social agents.
Mulattos in Brazil and Angola: A Comparative Approach, from the Seventeenth to the Twenty-First Century
Authors: ALENCASTRO LUIZ FELIPE DE
Published: August 2013

Portuguese enclaves in Brazil and Angola maintained bilateral trade and cultural exchanges from the sixteenth to the middle of the nineteenth century. While in Brazil the growth of the mulatto population appears as a key feature of Luso-Brazilian colonialism, and Afro-Brazilians have come to constitute the majority of the current Brazilian population, mulattos never exceeded 2 per cent of the Angolan population prior to the 1970s. And yet Luso-Brazilian miscegenation eventually became the bedrock of ‘lusotropicalism’, an essential component of Portugal's colonial ideology in the second half of the twentieth century. To understand these paradoxes, beyond the demographic figures, this chapter examines the historical processes concerning mulattos as a group on both sides of the South Atlantic. Among its conclusions is that miscegenation is a necessary but insufficient condition for the growth of a mulatto population.
Gilberto Freyre and Brazilian Self-Perception
Authors: PALLARES-BURKE MARIA LÚCIA G.
Published: August 2013

The idea of Brazil as a ‘racial democracy’ and a mixture of peoples and cultures became a central part of its national identity following the publication of Gilberto Freyre's Casa-grande e senzala in 1933. This chapter argues that the idea of racial democracy cannot be understood without taking into account the dialogue, dating from much earlier than 1933, between Brazilians and North Americans, based (in the former case) on an emphasis on the mixture of black and white, and (in the latter) on the ‘one drop rule’ and the segregation that came with it.
The New Christian Divide in the Portuguese-Speaking World (Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries)
Authors: PAIVA JOSÉ PEDRO
Published: August 2013

This chapter intends to offer a general, synthetic and long-term survey of the impact of New Christian segregation throughout the Portuguese empire, between the late fifteenth and the eighteenth centuries.
Pope’s Ethical Thinking: Passion and Irony in Dialogue
Authors: Tilmouth Christopher
Published: August 2013

This lecture examines Alexander Pope's depictions of passion and sentiment in a range of early writings, including his ‘Prologue’ to Addison's Cato, Eloisa to Abelard and An Essay on Man. It then shows how often Pope belittled his own forays into affectivity and relates that tendency to a wider interest in ‘sceptical perspectivism’. The presence of the latter is traced in other works such as John Gay's Trivia, Bernard Mandeville's Fable of the Bees and the 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury's Characteristics, all of which – the last especially – are invoked to explain the dialogic methods employed in Pope's Rape of the Lock and his Dunciad Variorum. Finally, the argument suggests that, despite suffering a loss of self-confidence in the mid-1730s (evident in the Epistle to Arbuthnot), Pope was able to recover his satirical idiom precisely by fusing his passionate and dialogic concerns in the Epilogue to the Satires of 1738.
Between One and Many: Multiples, Multiplication and the Huayan Metaphysics
Authors: Shen Hsueh-Man
Published: August 2013

Modern art history practice often treats Buddhist icons or ritual objects as unique objects, focusing on their originality and uniqueness. This text investigates how the paradoxical Buddhist doctrine of ‘the one and the many’ was translated into visual language through manipulation of the relationship between copies and the original. It analyses the different tactics and strategies formulated around given socio-historical frameworks to visualise the notion of infinity, and ultimately the structure of the universe, and suggests that multiple copies of a single design were more potent a vehicle than single objects in expressing ideas related to the Buddhist metaphysics.