bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Juror Responses to Direct and Mediated Presentations of Expert Testimony1
Authors: Jacoubovitch M.‐Daniel , Bermant Gordon , Crockett Geraldine T. , McKinley William , Sanstad Alan
Published: August 2006

One hundred twenty‐one King County (Washington) jurors viewed one of four videotaped versions of medical testimony relevant to the determination of a claim for damages against an employer in an industrial accident case. Two versions presented the claimant's physician (direct testimony), and two presented an attorney reading the physician's testimony verbatim (mediated testimony). Two professional actors (one female, one male) portrayed the physician in one version and the attorney in the other. Videotape presentations were introduced by written material and followed by a questionnaire in which Ss answered a number of legal, attitudinal, and factual questions. Responses to direct testimony differed from those to mediated testimony on several dimensions: number of items listed as significant to the determination of a cash award, estimates of sufficiency of material presented to determine an award, estimates of physician's competence, estimates of confidence in ratings of physician's competence, and number of correct items in a factual retention test. Significant correlations were found between scores on some of these dimensions and number of dollars awarded as compensation. Differences between the actors produced no significant effects, nor were there any significant interactions. It is concluded that, ceteris paribus, direct testimony is to be preferred to mediated testimony.
Changing from Fault to No‐Fault Divorce: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis
Authors: Mazur‐Hart Stanley F. , Berman John J.
Published: August 2006

The removal of fault as a criterion for the distribution of justice in domestic relations represents a major innovation in jurisprudence. Such innovations provide opportunities to evaluate the effects of legal changes on behavior. This research investigated the effects of no‐fault divorce on divorce behavior in Nebraska. An interrupted time series quasiexperimental design was employed to test the hypothesis that no‐fault divorce leads to an increase in the number of divorces granted. Results showed that the new law had no reliable effect on the overall divorce rate. Separate analyses were performed for urban and rural counties, black and white couples, marriages of various lengths, and people of various ages. No effects of the law were found in most of these analyses. However, no‐fault divorce did appear to have significantly increased the number of divorces among blacks, among people over 50 years old, and among couples married longer than 25 years, although in the latter two cases the effect seemed short‐lived. The implications of this study for the current debate surrounding no‐fault divorce are discussed.
The Induction of Self‐Reliance: An Experimental Study of Independence in the Face of Failure*
Authors: Harris Anthony , Tessler Richard , Potter Joanne
Published: August 2006

The development of dependency, rather than autonomy, in professional and paraprofessional helping relationships represents a practical and theoretical problem. In the present research an attempt is made experimentally to examine this issue from the viewpoint of the self‐perception hypothesis. From this perspective, immersion in the successful helping dyad was expected to foster an increased belief in self as other‐reliant, and, through cognitive balance, a lessened belief in self as self‐reliant. The fiidings indicate that such different dimensions of help as intensity, duration, and choice variously affect these attributions to self, and that these attributions in turn affect the strength of behavioral independence when failure is encountered outside the helping dyad. Some practical and theoretical implications are discussed concerning the role of induction from self‐performance in mapping self‐related beliefs.
Attitude Comparison: Is There Ever a Bandwagon Effect?1
Authors: Myers David G. , Wojcicki Sandra Brown , Aardema Bobette S.
Published: August 2006

Will exposure to others' attitudes merely stimulate conformity to the observed norm? We predicted‐and observed in an opinion polling experiment‐that learning others' attitudes can effect a small, but significant, intensification of attitude responses.
Environmental Attention, Affect, and Altruism1
Authors: Sherrod Drury R. , Armstrong Donald , Hewitt Jeffrey , Madonia Ben , Speno Steven , Teruya Darryl
Published: August 2006

Three experiments were conducted concerning the effect of attention to positive or negative images of the physical environment on altruistic behavior: I. Some subjects listed and described aspects of their residential environments that were particularly pleasant while others described particularly unpleasant aspects. II. Subjects were exposed to slides of either attractive or unattractive outdoor environments. III. Subjects viewed slides of either attractive or unattractive environments while adopting an attentional set that focused only on positive or negative aspects of the slides. After these manipulations, subjects in each experiment encountered an ostensibly unrelated confederate who sought their assistance as a favor. Experiment I subjects who had thought about pleasant environments spent significantly more time helping than those who thought about unpleasant enviornments. Experiment II subjects who saw slides of attractive environments offered significantly more aid for a longer time period than subjects who saw slides of unattractive environments. Experiment III subjects who focused on positive aspects of attractive enviornments gave more help than subjects who focused on negative aspects of attractive environments, though overall differences were not significant. Attentional set produced no differential helping effects in subjects who had viewed unattractive environments. In all three experiments mood or affect was discussed as mediating the impact of environments on behavior.
Teacher Beliefs, Classroom Interaction and Personal Causation1
Authors: Koenigs Sharon S. , Fiedler Martha L. , Decharms Richard
Published: August 2006

The study reports relationships between teachers' belief systems (Harvey), a teacher‐pupil interaction measure of classroom influence, pupils' perception of the dimate of the dassroom, and pupils' academic achievement. Results demonstrate that more complex teachers encourage more pupil influence, and are perceived as having a more origin climate. In classrooms of high pupil influence and perceived origin climate, the pupils have higher academic achievement. These results are discussed in terms of the theory of personal causation and are cited as evidence for the value of the study of action sequences as related to verbal‐utterances of the actors.
Commitment to Justice in Conflict between Unequal Status Persons
Authors: Tjosvold Dean
Published: August 2006

Possible determinants of a high‐status person's conformity to the norm of justice and the consequences of this conformity on conflict resolution were explored. Ninety‐six college students were induced to be high‐status bargainers. Subjects believed that their partner was committed either to their group's self‐interest or to justice in the conflict. Subjects negotiated with an opposing low‐status bargainer who made a self‐advancement appeal, an appeal based on an equity concept of justice, or an appeal based on a responsiveness to needs concept of justice. As predicted, subjects who believed that their partner was committed to justice as compared to the group's self‐interest agreed more often to the low‐status person's request for improved outcomes and indicated that they had a higher level of motivation to be just, more seriously considered the low‐status person's position and situation, and were more willing to compromise. Contrary to expectations, subjects who were targets of the justice appeals did not agree significantly more often to the low‐status person's request nor did targets of the self‐advancement appeal. The data suggest that the norm of justice may elicit conformity when invoked by a group member, though it may induce little conformity when invoked by an opposing bargainer. Results were also interpreted as suggesting that seeking to do justice induces compromises toward the other bargainer's position by reducing egocentric biases.
Situational Cues and Crime Reporting: Do Signs Make a Difference?1
Authors: Bickman Leonard , Green Susan K.
Published: August 2006

Two field studies were conducted to assess the effect of signs describing how to report a shoplifting on bystander intervention to a staged theft. In the first study, signs providing directions and one of three rationales for reporting had a small effect on attitudes toward reporting and no effect on intervention. In the second study, a definition of the situation as a shoplifting by a confederate had a strong influence on subjects reporting, but presence or absence of signs describing how to report had no impact. Differences between interpersonal and nonpersonal influences are described, and implications for informational campaigns to increase crime reporting are discussed.
An Ecological Analysis of the Impact of the U.S. Supreme Court's 1973 Abortion Decision
Authors: Richards James M.
Published: August 2006

The ecological characteristics of states were correlated with measures of the distribution of abortions among states before and after the Supreme Court's abortion decision. Techniques of path analysis were used to separate these conelations into direct effects and effects mediated through state abortion laws. The Court decision produced a gradual decrease in the effect of abortion laws on the distribution of abortions, and in the indirect effects of ecological variables. The major trend in the direct effects of ecological variables was a gradual increase in the relationship between population size and number of abortions. Differences reflected in state laws continued to influence abortion rates per 1,000 women of reproductive age and abortion ratios per 1,000 live births.
Nonverbal Mediators of Expectancy Effects in Black and White Children1
Authors: Chaikin Alan L. , Derlega Valerian J.
Published: August 2006

Seventy‐two white undergraduates of both sexes taught a lesson “What is psychology?” to a 10‐year‐old male confederate. Four confederates, two white and two black, alternated in the three conditions of induced expectancy: Subjects were told the child was bright, dull, or were given no information. Unknown to subjects, their nonverbal behavior during the lesson was videotape recorded. Results indicated that induced expectancy affected subject nonverbal behavior only when the confederate was white. Subjects smiled more, looked more, and nodded more at the white “bright” confederates than the white control or “dull” confederates. However, expectancy had no effect, positive or negative, when the confederate was black. In addition, white confederates received more positive nonverbal behavior overall than did black confederates.
Moral Norms and Environmental Behavior: An Application of Schwartz's Norm‐Activation Model to Yard Burning1
Authors: Van Liere Kent D. , Dunlap Riley E.
Published: August 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine some conditions under which moral norms, i.e., respect for the health of others, would be expected to influence environmentally related behavior. In particular, using a model developed by Schwartz, the study was conducted to determine whether variation in awareness of consequences (AC) and ascription of responsibility (AR) were associated with yard‐burning behavior. It was expected that respondents who were aware of the negative consequences which burning could have for other people, and who accepted responsibility for their burning and its consequences, would be less likely to burn yard or garden wastes than those who were unaware of these conditions. It was found that AR was significantly related to burning behavior, while AC had only a weak association with burning. Further, as expected from Schwartz's model, a significant interaction between AR, AC, and burning behavior was found. These findings are discussed and the usefulness of this type of model for understanding other environmental behaviors is considered.
Fertility Preferences and Social Exchange Theory1
Authors: Beckman Linda J.
Published: August 2006

Interviews with 583 married women aged 18 to 49 revealed that a summary index of motivation for additional children was positively related to preference for a/another child and negatively related to future employment intentions. Desire for children, once formed, had an effect on employment intentions; however, neither employment intentions nor satisfaction with employment affected desire for children. Satisfaction with parenthood and the general rewards of parenthood were positively related to present number of children while motivation for an additional child was negatively related to present number of children. Little evidence was found to indicate that a “rational” social exchange model of fertility choice is more applicable for some sociodemographic groups than for others. In general, however, results provided support for the social exchange model expounded.
The Waffle Phenomenon: Negative Evaluations of Those Who Shift Attitudinally1
Authors: Allgeier A. R. , Byrne Donn , Brooks Barbara , Revnes Diane
Published: August 2006

The past two presidential campaigns have been filed with charges that the Democratic nominee “changed his mind” on various issues. The present research explored the possibility that negative evaluations may be produced by attitude change per se. In the first experiment, subjects responded to a stranger whose attitudes remained stable or who changed his attitudes over a period of two months vs. one year. Individuals who changed their attitudes were generally evaluated more negatively than those whose attitudes remained stable; the amount of time over which the change occurred produced no effect. A second expcriment sought to determine if the direction of change (toward increased or decreased similarity with subjects) influenced evaluations of a stranger. Attitude change which resulted in decreased similarity was rated most negatively. Even when a stranger changed his attitudes in the direction of greater similarity with subjects, however, he was still regarded as less decisive, less reliable, and a worse leader than was an individual with stable attitudes. This negative evaluation of attitude change was labeled the “waffle phenomenon”, and the implications for political candidates were discussed.
Attributional Bias in Counselors' Diagnoses: The Effect of Resources1
Authors: Batson C. Daniel , Jones Craig H. , Cochran Pamela J.
Published: August 2006

Three experiments were conducted to test a model of attributional bias in counseling diagnosis. The model predicted that (a) available helping resources influence diagnostic attributions and (b) this effect is mediated by the effect resources have on the diagnostician's perception of his or her helping role. In each experiment, undergraduates served as diagnosticians in a simulated referral agency. Referral resouces for half of the subjects were oriented toward dealing with personal problems; resources for the other half were oriented toward dealing with situational problems. In referring each client, subjects indicated whether they perceived the problem to lie with the client (a dispositional atrribution) or with his social environment (a situational attribution). As predicted, subjects with person‐oriented resources were more likely to perceive clients' problems to be dispositional than were subjects with situation‐oriented resources. Results of Experiment 3 indicated that this effect was mediated by the influences resources had on subjects' perception of their helping role.
Belief and Values in the Nuclear Debate1
Authors: Eiser J. Richard , Van der Pligt Joop
Published: August 2006

A questionnaire was administered to 47 participants attending a workshop on nuclear energy shortly after publication of a report on a proposed nuclear fuel reprocessing plant. Supporters and opponents of the proposed development differed markedly in their estimates of its possible consequences, and of the relative importance of these consequences. They also differed in their endorsement of pro‐ and anti‐nuclear lobbies, and the factors which they felt contributed most to the “quality of life”. Overall, pro‐nuclear subjects appear to place emphasis on the economic benefits of nuclear energy, while anti‐nuclear subjects appearad more concerned with social and political risks, and regraded alternative energy sources as more viable. It is concluded that an analysis of such attitudinal differences requires a consideration not only of differences in beliefs, but also of differences in belief salience.
A Comparison of Nonverbal Compensatory Behaviors Within Direct Face‐to‐Face and Television‐Mediated Interviews1
Authors: Goldberg Myron L. , Wellens A. Rodney
Published: August 2006

A study was performed to compare direct face‐to‐face and television‐mediated interviews with regard to a hypothesized compensatory relationship between intimacy level of conversation topic and individuals' looking and smiling behaviors. Thirty‐two male subjects were randomly assigned to one of two communication settings and asked a series of questions that varied according to topic intimacy. Subjects' looking, smiling, talking, and listening times were scored from videotapes made of the interviews. In support of predictions derived from Argyle and Dean's (1965) affiliative‐conflict theory, it was observed that a shift in topic intimacy from low to high resulted in a decrease in the percent of time subjects spent looking at the interviewer. Further, the results of the present study replicated those reported by other investigators, indicating that a shift in topic intimacy (1) primarily affects subjects' looking while talking and not looking while listening and (2) does not affect subjects' smiling behavior. With the exception that more looking while listening occurred in the television‐mediated interviews than in the direct face‐to‐face interviews, no differences were found in subjects' behaviors between the two communication conditions. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed from the perspective of affiliative‐conflict theory and its application to social interactions conducted via two‐way television.
Perceived Responsibility and Blame for Economic Success and Failure: Social Class and Employment Status Comparisons
Authors: France Marianne , Cicchetti Carmen
Published: August 2006

The present study tested the proposition that social class and employment status would differentially affect attributions of responsibility and blame concerning positive and negative economic outcomes. The hypothesis here is that subjects will not blame a person who fails to get a job after taking a retraining program. The hypothesis is based upon the assumption that individuals on the lower rung of the economic ladder are aware of the external circumstances operating against economic security. As predicted, the person experiencing failure was neither held responsible nor blamed for his outcome. Also social class and employment status affected perceptions of the reasons for the successful outcome.
Juror Selection: A Comparison of Two Methods In Several Criminal Cases1
Authors: Horowitz Irwin A.
Published: August 2006

Ethical and constitutional issues have been raised by critics concerning the intervention of social science methods in the voir dire, pretrial, screening of prospective jurors. An experiment was conducted to compare the effectiveness of conventional jury selection methods utilized by attorneys (past experience, intuition, folklore) vs. systematic social science methods (systematic identification of predictive relationships among personality, demographic, and attitudinal variables). The comparison was made over four separate criminal cases. The data indicated that in cases in which the predictive relationships used by the systematic social science methods were relatively strong, this method is superior to the conventional method in predicting favorable jurors' responses. The more intuitive conventional niethod was superior when the critical predictive relationships were weak or absent. Overall, the systematic social science method was not superior to the conventional method. Issues of ecological validity and pretrial discovery rules were discussed.
Pygmalion Effects Among Blacks: When and How Expectancies Occur1
Authors: Derlega Valerian J. , McAnulty Michael , Strout Sally , Reavis Charles A.
Published: August 2006

Data were obtained in two areas dealing with expectancy effects: When are tutors susceptible to expectancy effects and do expectancies inevitably lead to discrimination against low ability students? We arranged for 76 black undergraduates to teach a lesson dealing with Eire safety in the home to a 10‐year‐old boy. Two black males and two white males served as confederates. Subjects were told that a child had either high I.Q., low I.Q., or were given no information (the control group). Subjects' knowledge about the black confederates' alleged I.Q. did not influence expectancies or subsequent teaching behavior toward low I.Q. children. On the other hand, subjects rated white confederates in the high I.Q. condition as more intelligent than children in the low I.Q. condition. White confederates in the low I.Q. (or low expectancy) condition were asked more questions and given fewer expressive gestures than white confederates in the control condition. In addition, subjects maintained more physical distance with white than black confederates. The present results were compared to earlier research on white subjects dealing with nonverbal mediators of expectancy effects. It was suggested that an adequde model of expectancy effects must consider the contribution of cognitive mediators to understand when and how the phenomenon occurs.
Designing Political Campaigns to Elect a Candidate: Toward A Social Psychological Theory of Voting Behavior
Authors: Jaccard James , Knox Richard , Brinberg David
Published: August 2006

A social psychological theory of voting behavior was developed in the context of designing political campaigns to elect a candidate. This theory was tested in the context of a presidential, senatorial, and congressional election. In general, the data were consistent with the theory across all three elections and individual difference variables. Implications for the design and evaluation of political campaigns were developed.
Bargaining Toughness: A Qualification of Level‐of‐Aspiration and Reciprocity Hypotheses1
Authors: Lawler Edward J. , MacMurray Bruce K.
Published: August 2006

This research examined the interaction of initial bargaining stance and later concession strategy in dyadic bargaining. Experimental procedures pitted subjects against a programmed opponent and manipulated thrcc variables: initial stance ot the opponent across the first two bargaining rounds (tough vs. soft), deadlock vs. no deadlock, and subsequent concession strategy (tough, matching, soft). The results revealed that: (a) with a tough initial stance, a matching strategy produced greater yielding than tough or soft strategies; while in the context of a soft initial stance, a tough concession strategy produced more yielding than a matching or soft concession strategy; and (b) a prior deadlock reduced later concession making but did not specify or alter the effects of concession strategy. The research qualifies prior work based on level of aspiration and reciprocity theories by indicating that certain postures which mix toughness with softer stances are the most effective bargaining tactics.
Psychological Sense of Community Among Treatment Analogue Group Members1
Authors: Compas Bruce E.
Published: August 2006

The present study investigated the construct of psychological sense of community among individuals in a treatment analogue context. Specifically, sense of community among group members was examined as a function of three variables which have received extensive attention in the experimental social psychology literature and are central characteristics of many treatment settings: (a) perceived similarity with others in a group, (b) perceived freedom of choice in selecting a group, and (c) salience of membership in a category or group. As hypothesized, a main effect was found for valence of perceived similarity, with greater sense of community among those with a positive as contrasted to a negative shared characteristic. The hypothesized main effect for perceived freedom of choice received partial support, with greater sense of community among individuals high in perceived choice. The hypothesized salience by perceived similarity interaction also received partial support. In the high choice condition, high salience decreased sense of community among respondents sharing a negative attribute.
The Effects of Opening Statements on Mock Jurors' Verdicts in a Simulated Criminal Trial1
Authors: Pyszczynski Thomas A , Wrightsman Lawrence S.
Published: August 2006

Twenty‐nine male and 37 female adults served as mock jurors in a simulated criminal trial in which the amount of preview offered in both the prosecution's and defense's opening statements was factorially varied. It was found that the effects upon verdicts of guilt of the amount of preview in either side's opening statement depended on that in the other side's opening statement. Extensive prosecution opening statements led to more guilty verdicts only when the de fense's opening statement was also extensive; when the defense's opening statement was brief, participants tended to find the defendant guilty regardless of the amount of preview in the prosecution's opening statement. Extensive opening statements from the defense led to more not‐guilty verdicts only when the prosecution's opening statement was brief. Results from a series of mid‐trial measures indicated that opening statements predisposed jurors to favor one side or the other very early in the trial, and that jurors tended to maintain this predisposition throughout the course of the trial. It was suggested that opening statements serve to create thematic frameworks which the jurors use to assist them in their processing of trial information. Implications for legal practice were also discussed.
Perspectives on Psychology and Law
Authors: Loh Wallace D.
Published: August 2006

The past decade saw an explosive growth in psychological research on law (particularly the judicial process) that continues unabated. This article presents an intellectual history of this research and a critical assessment of its contemporary developments. It begins by tracing four stages in the relations between psychology and law that serve to place present scholarship in perspective. Then follow two sections consisting of conceptual, methodological, and jurisprudential critiques of two topics, respectively, that traditionally have been and still remain at the center of research attention: the pretrial phase of the criminal process (eyewitness identifications) and the criminal trial itself (jury selection, jury decision making, and presentations of evidence and law to the jury). Finally, some themes are culled from past and present experience that capture the mood, difficulties, and prospects of applying psychology to the law. The purpose of this theoretical overview of the field is to suggest some insights into two recurrent questions: why has psychological research not had more of an impact on the judicial process, and what can be done about it?
Social Density and Affiliative Tendency as Determinants of Dormitory Residential Outcomes
Authors: Miller Stuart , Rossbach Jeanine , MUNSON Robert
Published: August 2006

The questionnaire responses of both high social density and low social density dormitory residents, divided into high and low groups on affiliative tendency, were examined. Although both high and low affiliates experienced more satisfaction living in low social density dorms, which were associated with higher levels of social interaction than high social density dorms, levels of reported stress varied as a function of both social density and affiliation. High affiliates experienced more, while low affiliates experienced less, stress in the low social density dorm than in the high social density dorm. Results were discussed in terms of the possession of differential coping skills with respect to achieving independence (in the low social density dorm) and dealing with overload from strangers (in the high social density dorm).
Fear‐Arousing and Empathy‐Arousing Appeals to Help: The Pathos of Persuasion
Authors: Shelton Mary Lou , Rogers Ronald W.
Published: August 2006

An experiment tested the proposition that the components of a fear appeal which persuade us to protect ourselves are the Same components that persuade us to protect others. The results confirmed this hypothesis for the two components examined: noxiousness of the threatened danger and efficacy of coping response. Films showing noxious scenes of industrial whaling and films showing a pro‐environmental action organization successfully saving whales from whalers strengthened intentions to help this endangered animal species. Taken together, available data indicate that fear appeals can persuade us to protect ourselves, other people, and even infrahuman animals. The social psychological paradigm used to investigate attitude change was merged with a paradigm employed to examine prosocial behavior. As predicted, an empathy‐arousing appeal facilitated attitude change. Three implications for promoting ecological actions were discussed. First, empathy‐arousing appeals can be applied to mass media campaigns. Second, the concept of response‐efficacy in persuasive appeals can be extended from direct, individual action to activity requiring the mediation of social organizations. Finally, pro‐environmental campaigns can be effective when the potential beneficiaries are not the ones shown, but who symbolize the many others in the same plight.
Social Costs of Smoking: Effects of Tobacco Smoke on Hostile Behavior1
Authors: Zillmann Dolf , Baron Robert A. , Tamborini Ron
Published: August 2006

Male and female undergraduates interacted with a same‐sex experimenter and a same‐sex assistant of the experimenter. Either the experimenter or the assistant smoked. Subjects were provoked or not provoked by the experimenter and then smoked. Subjects were provoked or not provided by the experimenter and then provided with an opportunity to treat him or her in a hostile manner. Additionally, subjects were classified as smokers or nonsmokers and as supporting or opposing smoking in public places. Tobacco smoke was found to facilitate hostile behavior whether or not subjects were independently annoyed and whether or not it originated from the annoyer or a bystander. No sex differences were observed in this effect. Also, no appreciable difference was observed in the hostile behavior of smokers and nonsmokers. Persons opposed to public smoking reacted more strongly to the provocation than persons supportive of public smoking, but this effect was independent of the presence or absence of smoke.
A Note on Tax Evasion as a Function of the Quality of Information about the Magnitude and Credibility of Threatened Fines: Some Preliminary Research
Authors: Friedland Nehemia
Published: August 2006

In a pame‐simulation context, tax evasion behavior of 13 subjects was observed. The probability that tax evasion will be detected and fined appears to be a more effective deterrent than the size of such fines, although both the magnitude of finm and their probability affect tax evasion. Vague information about the probability that fines will be imposed enhances the deterrent power of low probability audits and small fines.
Health Beliefs and Intentions: Predictors of Return Compliance in a Tuberculosis Detection Drive1
Authors: Wurtele Sandy K. , Roberts Michael C. , Leeper James D.
Published: August 2006

A prospective design was employed to study the ability of various factors to predict return compliance in a tuberculosis detection drive. Five hundred fiftythree participants in the drive were asked to complete a questionnaire tapping their views of TB (based on the Health Belief Model) and their intentions to return for the recommended skin test reading. Behavioral intention was found to be an important predictor of return rates, and the inclusion of the HBM variables aided in the classification noncompliers. Practical and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.
Lay Explanations of Wealth: Attributions for Economic Success1
Authors: Forgas Joseph P. , Morris Susan L. , Furnham Adrian
Published: August 2006

The explanations people give for wealth, or financial success, are not only of considerable political importance, but also offer an opportunity to assess some of the implications of attribution theory in a real‐lie setting. In the present study, 324 subjects from all walks of life and a variety of socioeconomic and demographic backgrounds were asked to anonymously complete an extensive questionnaire assessing their (a) free response explanations of the most common sources of wealth, (b) estimates of necessary income levels for “wealth” and “a decent life,” and (c) attribution judgments for likely causes of wealth in five target categories of people. The target categories were manipulated in terms of social class and ethnicity, to include native born and migrant, and middle‐ and working‐class characters, as well as attributions to an unspecified other. Results showed that judges used four major attributional categories in explaining wealth (external‐social, internal/individual, family background, and luck‐risk factors), and that both the target persons' class and ethnicity significantly influenced the attribution strategies used. In addition, the judges' socioeconomic background, demographic position, and voting preferences also significantly affected preferred attributions and estimates of income levels. These results are discussed in terms of the role of social, political, and ideological factors in everyday explanations, and their implications for some assumptions of attribution research are considered.
The Effects of Sex, Status, and Ability on Helping Behavior1
Authors: Dovidio John F. , Gaertner Samuel L.
Published: August 2006

Protests against affirmative action articulate the concern that qualified white males will be subordinated to less qualified women and minorities. To examine the possibility that the reversal of traditional status relationships rather than competence inequity underlies resistance to affiimative action, a study was conducted in which subjects interacted with a male or female who was introduced as their supervisor or subordinate and as either higher or lower in ability than themselves. The results indicate that status, not ability, influences the frequency of helping women, whereas ability, not status, primarily influences helping behavior toward men. Specifically. female subordinates were helped more than females supervisors, regardless of ability, while high‐ability males elicited more help than low‐ability males, independent of status. Subsequent ratings revealed that although subjects acknowledged the greater competence of high‐ability males, they did not evaluate high‐ability females as more competent than themselves.
Physicians' H]ead and Body Positions as Determinants of Perceived Rapport
Authors: Harrigan Jinni A. , Rosenthal Robert
Published: August 2006

The relationship between physicians' b]ody movement and judgments of rapport was examined in this study. One‐hundred eighteen observers rated physicians' b]ehavior on 14 bipolar scales assessing dimensions of empathy. Physicians' n]onverbal behavior was manipulated so that there were three levels of trunk angle (forward, straight, backward), two levels of arm position (open, folded), two levels of leg position (open, crossed), and two levels of head attitude (nodding, not‐nodding). Significant effects were found for trunk angle, head attitude, and arm posture; physicians who leaned forward with open arm positions and nodded their head were judged more positively. Discussion focuses on the reinforcing valuc of nodding, judges' p]erceptions of physicians' a]ccessibility conveyed by trunk and arm postures, and expressions of dominance in physician‐patient encounters.
Predicting Contraceptive Behavior Among University Men: The Role of Emotions and Behavioral Intentions1
Authors: Fisher William A.
Published: August 2006

This research employed two theories to predict contraceptive behavior (condom use) among university men. The sexual behavior sequence (Byrne, 1977, 1983) hypothesizes that erotophobia‐erotophilia (negative to positive emotional response to sexuality) will generalize and mediate avoidance or approach of contraception. The theory of reasoned action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) hypothesizes that condom use behavior (B) is a function of behavioral intentions (BI) to perform this act; BI is hypothesized to be a function of attitudes towards the act (Aact) and relevant subjective norms (SN), and Aact and SN in turn have hypothesized basic determinants (). In addition, the theory of reasoned action holds that variables external to this model (i.e., erotophobia‐erotophilia) may only affect behavior indirectly, by affecting the model's components. To test these assumptions, 145 undergraduate males completed measures of erotophobia‐erotophilia and BI, Aact, SN, and and with respect to condom use in the coming month; a one month follow‐up measure of B was also obtained. Results confirmed each of the hypothesized relationships and showed that for subjects who had sex during the month under study (N= 44), erotophobia‐erotophilia and behavioral intentions were related to condom use (r= .33, r= .44, p < .05). Moreover, in contrast to the assumption of the theory of reasoned action, erotophobia‐erotophilia and intentions independently predicted condom use; the linear combination of these factors predicted condom use significantly better (R= .57, p < .001) than either factor taken singly. Conceptual and applied implications of these findings are discussed.
Hierarchy as a Mediator of Fairness: A Contingency Approach to Distributive Justice in Organizations1
Authors: Lansberg Ivan
Published: August 2006

Employees of one organization were asked to indicate the fairness of six different ways of allocating a hypothetical lump sum. As expected, the results suggest an overall preference for equity‐based allocations. However, the employee's level in the hierarchy was found to mediate perceptions of fairness: upper managers viewed organization‐wide equity as being most fair; middle managers saw intra‐departmental equity as fairest; and clericals, unable to differentiate between equality and equity, perceived both these principles as being fairest. The results were interpreted in terms of a “contingency” approach to distributive justice which aims at integrating institutional, situational, and individual determinants of fairness.
The Interaction of Psychosocial and Biological Determinants of Tobacco Use: More on the Boundary Model1
Authors: Kozlowski Lynn T. , Herman C. Peter
Published: August 2006

We refine our Boundary Model of the regulation of drug intake and apply it to several examples from cigarette smoking. Our model demands the simultaneous consideration of biological and psychosocial controls. The biological factors include the physiological demand to maintain minimum levels of nicotine, direct rewarding effects of tobacco, and toxic effects of excessive smoking. The psychosocial factors include “voluntary”, self‐initiated controls as well as situational influences. In light of the model, we review and consider the problems with techniques commonly used to control smoking, and we discuss the inferential confusions faced by smokers and researchers.
Perceived Symbols of Authority and Their Influence on Compliance1
Authors: Bushman Brad J.
Published: August 2006

There are many variables that influence compliance. With regard to individuals making requests of others, Bickman (1974) found that the apparel of the person making the request significantly influenced whether another person complied with the request. This study evaluates other factors such as sex, age, and altruism in compliance. Subjects were involved in a replication of Bickman's dime and parking meter study. Results showed that the dress of the perceived authority not only affected the number of subjects who complied but also the type of compliance, the type of noncompliance, and the latency between request and compliance. Also, older subjects complied significantly more often than younger subjects in the role authority condition.
The Psychology of Restaurant Tipping1
Authors: Lynn Michael , Latané Bibb
Published: August 2006

Since its origins in 18th‐century English pubs, tipping has become a custom involving numerous professions and billions of dollars. Knowledge of the psychological factors underlying tipping would benefit service workers, service managers, and customers alike. Two studies were conducted to provide such knowledge about restaurant tipping. The percent tipped in these studies was related to group size, the customer's gender, the method of payment (cash or credit), and in some cases, the size of the bill. Tipping was not related to service quality, waitperson's efforts, waitperson's gender, restaurant's atmosphere, or restaurant's food.
Effects of Soliciting Opinions on Contributions to a Public Good1
Authors: Allison Scott T. , Messick David M. , Samuelson Charles D.
Published: August 2006

In a field study, subjects were mailed a request for a monetary contribution toward the maintenance of a public good. One half the subjects received only this request, while the other half received the request along with a short questionnaire that asked for subjects' opinions regarding how their contributions might be best put to use. It was predicted that subjects to whom questionnaires were sent, through enhanced perceptions of efficacy and ingroup identity, would contribute more money than subjects not given the opportunity to communicate their opinions The results, however, indicated that the manipulation had the reverse effect: subjects in the questionnaire condition contributed less money than subjects in the nequestionnaire condition. A post hoc explanation for the data based on the notion of “symbolic” helping actions is provided, and implications for solicitation programs and for research on social dilemmas are discussed.
Subjective Expected Utility, Locus of Control, and Behavior1
Authors: Bauman Karl E. , Fisher Lynn A.
Published: August 2006

Although a fundamental assumption of behavior decision theory is that individuals must generally believe they can control their fate if their behavior is to be influenced by subjective expected utility (SEU), the hypothesis that the positive relationship between SEU and behavior is stronger for those with internal locus of control had not been directly tested. That hypothesis was assessed in two separate longitudinal studies of adolescents. The behavior studied in one sample was the initiation of cigarette smoking, and in the other it was the onset of drinking alcohol. The hypothesis received weak support in both studies.
Two Politicians in a Realistic Experiment: Attraction, Discrepancy, Intensity of Delivery, and Attitude Change1
Authors: Wiegman O.
Published: August 2006

The leader of the Socialists in the Dutch Parliament and his Liberal opponent participated in this realistic experiment. Identical TV interviews with the two politicians were recorded and shown to subjects of both parties. The intensity of delivery was also varied: emotional versus rational. Our findgins indicated that the experimental interveiw changed the attitude of the subjects. In addition, support was found for a second hypothesis: Attitude change was greater for the attractive source from the same party than for the less attractive source from the opposite party. Furthermore, our expectations were confirmed that attitude change would be greater with high than with low discrepancy. Although the intensity of delivery did have an effect on the credibility of the source–the emotional delivery scored lower–no effect on attitude change was found.
Why Do People Save? Attitudes to, and Habits of Saving Money in Britain
Authors: Furnham Adrian
Published: August 2006

This study investigates the relationship between demographic (age, sex, education, vote, and income), psychological beliefs (alienation, Protestant Work Ethic, and conservatism), and attitudes toward, as well as habits of, saving money, in Britain. Over 250 people from a variety of backgrounds completed a number of standardized self‐report measures. A factor analysis of the attitude toward saving scale revealed five clearly interpretable factors, which were later computed into five subscale scores. Analysis of variance showed that age and education most differentiated subjects' attitudes toward saving. A canonical correlational analysis showed age, vote, income, and alienation were clearly related to various attitude toward saving factors. Analysis of the saving habits questionnaire showed that sex, age, and income were among the most important discriminators of saving habits. These results are discussed in terms of economic socialization and various social policy decisions are considered.
Effects of Perceived Group Effectiveness and Group Role on Attributions of Group Performance1
Authors: Adams Jeffrey B. , Adams Jerome , Rice Robert W. , Instone Debra
Published: August 2006

Cadets at the U.S. Military Academy completed a questionnaire describing their experiences in Cadet Basic Training (CBT) and Cadet Field Training (CFT). Analyses of variance examined the impact of Group Role (Leader vs. Follower) and Perceived Group Effectiveness (High vs. Low) on group member perceptions of the extent to which each of six factors affected group performance. Significant main effects for Perceived Effectiveness were interpreted in terms of the egodefensive bias. Role main effects indicated that leaders tended to make stronger dispositional attributions than did followers. There were no signifcant Group Role × Perceived Effectiveness interaction effects. Findings support, in part, hypotheses concerning the operation of an attributional bias within the leader‐member relationship.
Some Effects of Reduction of Extra‐Classroom Crowding in a School Environment
Authors: McCain Garvin , Cox Verne C. , Paulus Paul B. , Luke Ann , Abadzi Helen
Published: August 2006

The effects of reduced enrollment were studied by examining two architecturally identical schools. One school experienced a 43% reduction in enrollment while the other's enrollment remained constant. Reduction in enrollment had a number of positive benefits, including improved attitudes about the school environment and reduced faculty absenteeism. Findings regarding academic performance were less clear.