bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Bringing language construction from the classroom to the community
Authors: Gillon Carrie , Delmonico Edward , Martinez Randi , Morrell Spencer
Published: October 2020

This chapter discusses the connection between constructed language courses and opportunities to connect with the wider community. Conlang courses are a fruitful way to engage and attract students into linguistics, but they can also be used to bring linguistics into the world at large. The focus of this chapter is a Special Topics in Linguistics class at Arizona State University. This chapter describes the course structure, discusses the pros and cons of this particular structure, and provides examples of the languages created in the class. This course also led to unexpected opportunities to bring linguistics into the larger community, in the form of panels at two different fan conventions. During each panel, the students described their own languages, and the choices they made in creating them. This chapter provides example slides from these panels and discusses the process of creating the panels, the outcomes, and the resulting interactions with the public.
Extraterrestrial message construction
Authors: Wells-Jensen Sheri , Spallinger Kimberly
Published: October 2020

This chapter presents a set of exercises ready for use in the classroom, in which students use basic pattern recognition skills to solve an “alien” message that includes both numbers and other elements. The other elements define relations among the numbers, and students determine how those relations can be mapped to words in a human language—whatever the language of instruction. Rationale for the utility of this approach is discussed, as are ways to modify the instructions to present the exercises to student populations with different levels of sophistication in math and computation, and different levels of linguistic training. The exercise and rationale exemplify one way in which constructed languages can be used to introduce key concepts in linguistics for students from a variety of academic disciplines.
Artistry in language invention
Authors: Peterson David J.
Published: October 2020

Courses in language construction are often taught with an eye to generating interest in the linguistics major from undergraduate students who might otherwise be uninterested in taking an introductory course. With the focus primarily on linguistics, the artistry of language invention is often lost. This chapter lays out a method of teaching and evaluating language construction that is rigorous, informed by linguistics, and takes language creation seriously as an art form. Specifically, this chapter argues for the importance of instruction in naturalistic language creation. Two forms of naturalism are introduced and contrasted: weak naturalism (based on statistical typological patterns) and strong naturalism (based on simulating natural linguistic evolution). The chapter closes with an extended example of a homework assignment employing some of the ideas introduced in the chapter, plus a word of caution about the use of linguistic theory in a course on language construction.
The ecology and biogeography of endemism
Authors: Thompson John D.
Published: October 2020

Endemism is a primary characteristic of the Mediterranean flora. The Mediterranean region contains several zones rich in endemic species. These hotspots of endemism also have a high diversity of total species. The recurrent conjunction of endemism and high species diversity in different parts of the region represents the cornerstone of Mediterranean plant biodiversity. The causes and origins of patterns of diversity and endemism, on both a biogeographic and local scale, are the main subjects of this chapter, which will first invoke the diverse origins of the flora, a premier cause of the patterns we now observe. A major theme this chapter will then develop is the examination of correlated patterns of diversity and endemism in relation to the historical biogeography of islands and mountains that are rich in endemic plants. As the chapter advances it will become more and more apparent that the history of mountain formation is a key element in the high rates of endemic plants both in continental areas and on islands. Finally, the ecological and biological correlates of endemism are treated, in particular the niche in which endemic plants have evolved and persisted.
The evolution of a cultural heritage
Authors: Thompson John D.
Published: October 2020

The origins of the cultivation and domestication of many fruit, legume, and cereal crops can be traced to the eastern fringe of the Mediterranean region where the ‘Fertile Crescent’ blends into the western steppe zones of the Irano–Turanian floristic province. This chapter describes this early cultivation and domestication and the traces of migration of domesticated species across the Mediterranean in the hands of human populations. The evolution of Mediterranean crops, flowers, and fruit trees during the process of domestication has involved an amazing diversity of species. Their patterns of differentiation across the Mediterranean often resemble those of wild species treated in chapter 3. This chapter also discusses the important links between human populations and plants and the growing interdependencies of these links.
Plant traits and ecological dynamics
Authors: Thompson John D.
Published: October 2020

This chapter examines the multiple facets of trait variation and ecological dynamics in the contemporary Mediterranean landscape. Climatic constraints and transitions are paramount here. Diverse functional traits and strategies have evolved to avoid or tolerate the summer drought and the irregularity of spring rainfall. Annual plants do their best to avoid such constraints, and the role of functional traits in the regeneration niche and life-history strategy is undeniable. Perennial plants face the challenge of surviving their first summer and from then on illustrate a demographic persistence strategy. Dispersal and establishment generate interactions among species across a mosaic landscape where transitions between positive and negative interactions characterize successional dynamics. The study of two main features of the Mediterranean flora, its response to fire, and the diversity of aromatic plants illustrate well the importance of plant traits in the ecological dynamics of populations and communities in the mosaic landscape.
Science and nature in a changing Mediterranean world
Authors: Thompson John D.
Published: October 2020

The Mediterranean world is changing, perhaps faster than we realize and faster than it ever has before. As scientists, our role here is to provide information to help integrate such changes into political decision for nature conservation. This chapter is focused on issues and approaches that allow us to perform this role and bring science and nature conservation together, and promote this venture to enhanced political will to preserve the capacity for species to evolve. The historical triptych of factors that have conditioned plant evolution in the Mediterranean presented in previous chapters is replaced here by a triad of ecological interdependencies that ultimately provide a framework to develop an ecological solidarity to conserve evolutionary potential. The chapter leads to the conclusion of this book that it is in the construction of this ecological solidarity that our true responsibility as scientists can be revealed.
Changes of regulatory models
Authors: Gellert Raphaël
Published: October 2020

Chapter 4 explains the rationale for changing regulatory models from the standpoint of regulation theory. A newer model of regulation known as meta regulation is sought as a solution to the main issues plaguing command and control regulation. Namely, the effectiveness of deterrence strategies has often been deceiving, and linear processes of standard setting and the safeguards associated thereto have not always managed to properly address the harms stemming from data processing practices. Therefore, evolutions in regulation models have sought to address these two issues by resorting to more collaborative models of regulation. Following collaboration between regulators and regulatees, enforcement will cease to be sought through punishment, but rather, through collaboration and dialogue between the regulator and the regulatee; the object of such dialogue being a problematisation of how best to achieve regulatory goals. Simultaneously, in terms of standard setting and safeguards, new regulation models will consist in endowing regulatees with regulatory responsibility (in terms of implementing or even devising standards and safeguards), and enabling regulators to assess their performance. Particular emphasis is put on the responsibilisation of the regulatees. The latter is the necessary condition for any collaborative model of regulation. Meta regulation is the collaborative model of regulation at stake. It does bestow regulatory tasks (ie standard setting, monitoring, and behaviour control) upon regulatees, and it underpins the risk-based approach to data protection. Such responsibility, however, also entails a re-coding of the regulatees activities as a matter of risk management.
Linguistic intuitions
Authors: Gross Steven
Published: October 2020

Linguistic intuitions are a central source of evidence across a variety of linguistic domains. They have also long been a source of controversy. This chapter aims to illuminate the etiology and evidential status of at least some linguistic intuitions by relating them to error signals of the sort posited by accounts of online monitoring of speech production and comprehension. The suggestion is framed as a novel reply to Michael Devitt’s claim that linguistic intuitions are theory-laden “central systems” responses rather than endorsed outputs of a modularized language faculty (the “Voice of Competence”). Along the way, it is argued that linguistic intuitions may not constitute a natural kind with a common etiology and that, for a range of cases, the process by which the intuitions used in linguistics are generated amounts to little more than comprehension.
A defense of the Voice of Competence
Authors: Rey Georges
Published: October 2020

Michael Devitt has argued against the view that the intuitive verdicts on which linguists routinely rely result from a special “Voice of Competence” (VoC) whereby the spontaneous intuitions of native speakers provide special evidence of their internal representation of the phonology and syntax of their I-language. This chapter defends VoC by analogizing it to the spontaneous reactions of subjects in vision experiments that provide special evidence of the representations in their visual systems, an analogy for which there is substantial experimental evidence but that requires a number of distinctions that Devitt overlooks, e.g. between a grammar and a parser and between conceptual and non-conceptual content. Moreover, it is argued that his alternative model of speakers’ reactions in terms of sentences merely “having” rather than representing properties fails to explain how those properties might be integrated into a speaker’s psychology so that that speaker ineluctably “hears” her language as language, with all the constraints that language imposes.
Do generative linguists believe in a Voice of Competence?
Authors: Brøcker Karen
Published: October 2020

For more than a decade, there has been lively debate on the question of why we are justified in using acceptability judgments as evidence in linguistics. More surprisingly, there has also been extensive debate over what the received view on this issue is among generative linguists. This second question has received as much attention as the justification question, if not more; yet no agreement has been reached so far. The voices of generative linguists themselves have been largely missing in these debates. Do generative linguists in fact believe in a Voice of Competence, as Devitt suggests? This chapter presents the results of a study that surveyed generative linguists to answer just that question. These results, overall, offer evidence against the hypothesis that VoC is the received view in current generative linguistics.
Intuitions about meaning, experience, and reliability
Authors: Drożdżowicz Anna
Published: October 2020

Speakers’ intuitive judgments about meaning are commonly taken to provide important data for many debates in philosophy of language and pragmatics. The chapter presents two strategies that aim to explain and justify the evidential role and methodological utility of such judgments. The first strategy is inspired by the so-called perceptual view on intuitions, a view that emphasizes the experience-like nature of intuitions. The second strategy is a reliabilist one and derives the evidential utility of speakers’ judgments about meaning from the reliability of the psychological mechanisms underlying their production. What are the merits of the two strategies? Is one of them more fundamental than the other? It is argued that we have reasons to prefer the reliabilist view. This claim is supported in the chapter by three parameters on which the reliabilist strategy fares better than the experience-based one.
Experiments in syntax and philosophy
Authors: Schindler Samuel , Brøcker Karen
Published: October 2020

Within Chomskyan syntax, linguistic intuitions have traditionally been gathered informally from small samples of linguists. Since the mid-1990s, however, several linguists have called for more “scientific” methods, including the use of larger sample sizes of ordinary speakers and the use of statistics. The first part of this chapter discusses whether such an “experimental approach” to obtaining syntactical intuitions is really methodologically superior to the informal approach, as is sometimes claimed. The answer is thought to be: not always. In the second part our attention turns to another academic field in which intuitions arguably play an evidential role, namely philosophy. Here, too, critics have demanded that intuitions be harvested more systematically; they have even appealed to experimental syntax in order to support their cause. However, given our assessment, experimental methods in syntax can be a model for the promotion of experimental methods in philosophy only under certain conditions.
Good Result or Bad Deal?
Authors: Wall Stephen
Published: October 2020

Poised to begin negotiations for EEC accession, Prime Minister Wilson called a snap general election and lost to Edward Heath’s Conservative Party. Heath was a life-long pro-European but there were opponents of EEC entry, led by the disgraced rebel, Enoch Powell, within Tory ranks. The Conservatives adopted the Labour government’s accession strategy. But, out of government, the Labour Party turned against membership. Pro-EEC Labour rebels, led by former Chancellor of the Exchequer Roy Jenkins, voted with Heath to secure parliamentary approval for accession. To prevent the Labour Party voting to take the UK out of the EEC, Wilson promised that he would renegotiate the terms agreed by Heath and put them to the electorate. The EEC countries, especially France, struck a hard deal with the UK and Heath was obliged to accept disadvantageous terms for UK accession.
Accession, Renegotiation, Referendum, 1973–1975
Authors: Wall Stephen
Published: October 2020

The first year of Britain’s EEC membership did not run smoothly. The Americans unilaterally declared it ‘the Year of Europe’. Heath was accused by Kissinger of destroying the special relationship. The Arab–Israeli war caused an oil crisis in which the UK, relatively unscathed, did not help her partners. Early in 1974, Heath lost a General Election and was replaced by Wilson. Wilson and Foreign Secretary Callaghan faced a divided Cabinet and Labour Party as they set about renegotiating the terms of Britain’s EEC membership. The improvements they secured, after a second General Election in October 1974, were slight but enough to get the deal through the Cabinet. Labour Ministers campaigned in the referendum on opposite sides, but support for remaining from all the main Party leaders and the Press helped secure a significant majority for staying.
One Foot In and One Foot Out, 1990–1997
Authors: Wall Stephen
Published: October 2020

John Major had none of Thatcher’s reservations about German reunification and wanted to put Britain at the heart of Europe. But he faced growing Euroscepticism inside the Conservative Party. At Maastricht, Major secured for the UK the right to opt out or, later to opt in, to the proposed European single currency. The significance of this opt out for the longer term British sense of detachment from the rest of the EU was not then obvious. The ratification of the Maastricht Treaty in the UK, and the Major government, both nearly foundered, when the UK was forced out of the Exchange Rate Mechanism in 1991. Europe became a toxic issue in the Conservative Party. Mad Cow Disease triggered a policy of non-cooperation by the UK with the rest of the EU. Major championed the enlargement of the EU to include the newly freed countries of eastern and central Europe.
Brown and Cameron
Authors: Wall Stephen
Published: October 2020

As Prime Minister, Gordon Brown practised a form of muscular inter-governmentalism, often creating largely invented conflicts with EU partners to demonstrate toughness. He played a positive role in the EU in the 2008 financial crisis. His successor, David Cameron, had hoped to stop the Conservative Party from ‘banging on about Europe’, but the issue of Europe rose in prominence as immigration from the EU became a part of the UKIP threat. The Cameron-led coalition changed the law to provide for referendums on major treaty transfers of powers to the EU. By 2012, Cameron had become convinced of the need for an ‘in’ or ‘out’ referendum. He was caught between insisting that the EU needed to reform and his simultaneous argument that the UK had a vital national interest in remaining a member. His renegotiation was discounted in the Press and by the public.
The Social Views of Michael Attaleiates
Authors: Krallis Dimitris
Published: October 2020

The historian Michael Attaleiates was a judge and well-connected political agent active in eleventh-century Byzantium. The opinions he expressed in his historical work, but also in the synopsis of Roman law he dedicated to Michael VII and the monastic charter he produced to organize a privately owned pious foundation, become here entry points for the study of his take on the social and political reality around him. This chapter offers a short biographical sketch of our protagonist, who emerges as a patriotic Roman, who casts a sympathetic eye on popular political action. It then studies Attaleiates as a social and economic agent, looking at his active participation Byzantium’s economy only to reveal a confident investor and builder of a personal fortune. Here is also examined the ways in which Attaleiates’ take on foreign mercenaries outlines a readiness to accommodate others in a Roman polity. Finally, a study of his social circles considers how intellectual affinities and friendships developed, while serving the state and the emperor allowed for the development of a fluid and ever-adjustable politics of accommodation. All in all, we have here an updated portrait of an important figure in eleventh-century intellectual circles.
Before and After the Eleventh Century AD in the Territory of Sagalassos
Authors: Kaptijn Eva , Waelkens Marc
Published: October 2020

This chapter discusses the settlement evolution in the territory of Sagalassos (south-west Turkey) from the start of the Byzantine period until the thirteenth century when Sagalassos was ultimately abandoned and habitation moved to new locations in and around the modern village of Ağlasun. Problems regarding the archaeological recognition characterize the Byzantine material culture of the region. Recent excavations at Sagalassos together with focused ceramic studies and ongoing intensive surveys are changing this and providing insights into a history of habitation that is not uniform within the territory and that is sometimes at odds with processes occurring in Anatolia at large.
New Light on the Society of Byzantine Italy
Authors: Noyé Ghislaine
Published: October 2020

In the tenth century, Byzantium still had substantial possessions in southern Italy: the Catepanate kept its own private law and its Latin language and rite, while the theme of Calabria was thoroughly Hellenized. They developed a strong sense of independence, due to bad government and the failure of the Empire to defend them against Arab raids, except by paying tribute. In the eleventh century, written sources and archaeology reveal a multiplication of fortified settlements and refuges, built by public and religious authorities, and also by the aristocracy, but the increased presence of professional military units increased local dissension. The only large estates belonged to a few Calabrian bishoprics. The main difference between the two provinces lay in the syncopated chronology of their evolution. The Apulian economy grew in the tenth century, with the development of the ports on the Adriatic and the Mediterranean oil trade, which enriched notables, at a time when Calabria was being devastated by the Arabs. After a fortification campaign and some fiscal and military measures provided by Byzantium, the Calabrian economy prospered, exporting wheat, raw silk, iron, and gold. The Arabs moved their attacks north, targeting Apulia, which was in the grip of civil war: in each city the anti-Byzantine faction revolted with the support of Lombards and local conterati troops. In Calabria, administration and defence fragmented and were taken over, in the case of towns, by virtually autonomous kastra, and, in the countryside, by the aristocracy.
Exploitation of deep-sea fishery resources
Authors: Watling Les , Victorero Lissette , Drazen Jeffrey , Gianni Matthew
Published: October 2020

Deep-sea fisheries occur at depths between 200 and 1800 m, using bottom trawls, long lines, and occasionally pots and gillnets. These fisheries were of minor interest and value until the mid-1980s when large stocks of fish were discovered, mostly on high-seas seamounts. However, because of the life-history characteristics of deep-dwelling fish, most seamount fish stocks were soon overfished, and few have recovered. Total deep-sea fish catch since 1950 represents about 3 per cent of the global catch, yet the environmental harm caused to deep-sea bottom communities by bottom trawling is extensive and long lasting, far exceeding the value of the fishery. In response, the United Nations has passed several resolutions since 2004 requiring the establishment of regional fisheries management organisations (RFMOs) who would be responsible for setting catch limits for the target species and requiring actions that would limit the damage to the habitat by fishing gear. To date, the latter of these two requirements, at least, has not been successfully met.
The natural capital of offshore oil, gas, and methane hydrates in the World Ocean
Authors: Bernardino Angelo F. , Cordes Erik E. , Schlacher Thomas A.
Published: October 2020

Over half of the global energy consumption is based on fossil fuels that are now mainly extracted from ocean depths below 150 m. These hydrocarbon reserves are thus a significant natural capital from deep oceans that support human well-being. Technological advances have guided the offshore deep-sea explorations to virtually all major ocean basins with thousands of wells being drilled on the deep seafloor to reach reserves that now support a significant part of the global markets. However, the environmental footprint of the oil and gas industry is significant and arises from regional impacts of regular operations on deep-sea ecosystems, from major disasters, or day-to-day accidents that spill millions of gallons of oil into the oceans each year, and from a significant contribution to greenhouse gas emissions and its climate effects globally. This is despite the general compliance with a wide array of environmental and political regulatory frameworks globally. The contrast from energy and market demand for fossil fuels against a background of environmental costs and impacts into the deep sea as exploration advances has not previously been examined. Here we apply the natural capital concepts of stock value of hydrocarbon reserves and contrast their financial and human value to the social and economic costs of their exploration and social costs from impacts on ecosystem services. We suggest that the economic value of hydrocarbon resources is very limited when compared to its vast environmental costs, supporting the global transition to a green energy strategy.
A holistic vision for our future deep ocean
Authors: Ramirez-Llodra Eva , Baker Maria , Tyler Paul
Published: October 2020

Healthy oceans are essential to maintain a healthy planet, but the ocean is facing many challenges that need urgent attention. Robust scientific data and innovative technological, policy, and industrial solutions are essential to support sound management of the deep-ocean natural capital, both within and beyond national jurisdiction, to ensure future healthy and productive oceans. As with many systems on Earth, there is a delicate ecological balance in the deep ocean that must be maintained. Understanding the interactions of the different components of natural capital in the deep sea is complex, as many of the variables are interlinked and many have cumulative and synergistic effects on the ecosystem. Add to this the global and changing effects of climate change and ocean acidification, and legislators and managers have a tough job ahead to account for all of these issues when designing appropriate conservation measures. It is important that scientists work hand in hand with multiple stakeholders to identify issues and research needs that contribute to enhancing knowledge and the science needed for decision-making to help towards securing a healthy future for our deep-ocean ecosystems and their long-term natural capital.
Introduction
Authors: Raydugin Yuri G.
Published: October 2020

A roadmap of the book is developed to expedite a fundamental upgrade to the traditional Monte Carlo methodology. Traditionally risks are seen as standalone noninteracting events. As noninteracting risks are attributes of simple project systems, the traditional Monte Carlo methodology can be adequate in simple projects only. As the vast majority of the project is complex, a more sophisticated methodology that takes interacting risks into account is required. Two types of interactions—intra-risk (amplification of standalone risks due to ‘chronic’ project system issues) and inter-risk (knock-on and compounding interactions among risks)—are taken into account. These stem from various imbalances inside and between two fundamental project subsystems—project structure and project delivery subsystems. The methodology developed in this book is labelled ‘non-linear Monte Carlo methodology’. In parallel, system dynamic modelling of project risks exposure is undertaken. Besides the technical aspects, political aspects of risk modelling and project decision-making are reviewed including various realizations of bias. The notorious Hiding Hand concept is challenged by a newly introduced Revealing Hand approach based on the non-linear Monte Carlo methodology. This book has four target auditoria—all project practitioners who are not involved in Monte Carlo modelling, Monte Carlo modellers, students and instructors of various project management programmes, and specialists involved in project claims and dispute resolutions. The content of this book is organized in a way that serves specific needs of the target auditoria members.
Overview of Unconventional Risk Quantification Methods
Authors: Raydugin Yuri G.
Published: October 2020

Unconventional risk quantification methods focused on risk assessments only are reviewed. It is shown that all unconventional methods are actually not risk quantification methods being aimed at evaluation of overall project durations and costs. Three methods are reviewed—parametric, artificial neural networks (ANN), and system dynamics. Reasons for high systematic errors and low accuracy of parametric methods are uncovered. They stem from using biased sampling—convenience and judgement samples—as well as from mathematical shortcomings of parametric methods. ANN methodology is positioned as a possible fundamental upgrade for parametric methods. It is shown that the ANN method also depends on quality of used samples. The system dynamics method is introduced to reveal non-linear interactions in project systems based on implications of project rework cycles. It is pointed out that if identified and addressed project risks are factored into the system dynamics modelling the latter could be requalified as a conventional methodology.
Project System Maturity Evaluation
Authors: Raydugin Yuri G.
Published: October 2020

The purpose of this chapter is to combine the two frameworks developed for the project structure subsystem (PSS) and the project delivery subsystem (PDS). When the three PSS categories (simple, complicated, and complex) are combined with the three PDS categories (robust, passable, and weak), the project system maturity evaluation framework emerges. As a result, project system maturity gets three categories: mature, ordinary, and immature. This framework is developed at the project level to characterize the project system at large based on the high-level PSS–PDS mismatch. In practice this framework and the maturity characterization can be applied ‘locally’ for particular project disciplines or even individual project risks. As the nature of PSS–PDS mismatches could be either static (due to ‘chronic’ project system issues) or dynamic (due to occurred risks and their interactions), the project system maturity evaluation framework can be used to distinguish the nature of the mismatches too.
University
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: October 2020

The chapter describes Dieter Grimm’s university years in Frankfurt, Freiburg, and Berlin (West), the study of law and political science, his teachers, student life, friendships, exam.
Max Planck Institute and Habilitation
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: October 2020

The chapter describes the first job as a researcher in legal history in the newly founded Max-Planck-Institut for the History of European Private Law in Frankfurt, his work on the relationship between constitutional and private law in the nineteenth century, his Habilitation on the same subject, the novelty and importance of the subject. The year 1968, student protest movement, his involvement in two reform movements in connection with 1968, one concerning the Cusanuswerk (scholarship fund of the Catholic Church), the other the Max-Planck-Society.
Karlsruhe: From Scholarship to Practice
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: October 2020

In 1987 Dieter Grimm was elected justice of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany. The chapter describes the background of the election, the moving from Bielefeld to Karlsruhe (the residence of the Court), the subject matters for which he became responsible as judge rapporteur (esp. freedom of speech, freedom of press, freedom of radio and TV, freedom of association), the additional subject matters he acquired over time (esp. privacy, data protection), criticism of the Court’s jurisprudence in these fields, his very influential and widely discussed separate opinion in the case “Riding in the Forest.”
Experiences on the Court
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: October 2020

The chapter contains more about the internal business of the Court, the interaction among the judges, the role of the judge rapporteur, the influence of the Court’s president, the cooperation with the law clerks, the value of oral arguments. Furthermore, it describes the position of the Court within the system of separation of powers. End of the term as justice.
Europe
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: October 2020

The chapter deals with the impact of European interpretation on the national constitution and the national constitutional courts. It reflects Dieter Grimm’s position on a European constitution, his controversy with Jürgen Habermas, his thesis of the “over-constitutionalization” of the EU as one of the most important, but at least noticed causes of the diminishing acceptance of the EU.
Berlin and the Institute for Advanced Study
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: October 2020

After the end of his term as justice, Dieter Grimm moved from Karlsruhe to Berlin where he joined the Faculty of Law of Humboldt University and became permanent fellow and a year later rector of the Wissenschaftskolleg, Institute for Advanced Study. This chapter is devoted to the six years where he directed the Kolleg, the selection of forty fellows from all disciplines and continents for each academic year, the priorities that he set, the recruitments of legal scholars, and the role and impact of legal science in general among the various disciplines.
Conclusion
Authors: Torrance Alexis
Published: October 2020

The Conclusion is written in two parts. The first offers a twelfth-century Byzantine Christological debate as a lens through which to understand the varied findings of the preceding chapters. This is the little-studied ‘my Father is greater than I’ controversy, one which it is argued ultimately revolves around the nature of Christ’s humanity. The discussion of this controversy is in turn related to the results of earlier chapters. The second part brings the cumulative findings of the book into conversation with the Christocentric theological anthropology of the contemporary Orthodox patrologist and theologian John Behr, identifying areas of agreement but also disagreement. The Conclusion ends with a reiteration of the book’s central claim regarding the importance of the doctrine of Christ’s humanity for the articulation of an Orthodox theological anthropology that is faithful to its Byzantine inheritance.
Character, Content, and Reference
Authors: Kulvicki John
Published: October 2020

Pictures are profitably understood as having character, content, and referents. All of these are kinds of meaning. Following Kaplan (1989), character is a function from a context to a content, and in different contexts, pictorial characters yield different pictorial contents. Content is a function from circumstances of evaluation to extensions. Pictorial content is purely attributive, in that it does not include particular individuals, and in that sense, it is like the content of a description. It is neither definite nor indefinite, but communicative uses of pictures can determine definiteness. Pictures can thus refer in the manner of definite or indefinite descriptions. This constitutes a semantic frame within which the rest of the book investigates varieties of pictorial meaning.
Pictorial Dthat
Authors: Kulvicki John
Published: October 2020

Though pictorial content is purely attributive, in some contexts of use pictures have singular contents. One way in which this can happen is akin to Kaplan’s (1978) dthat operation. The attributive content of a picture can denote something in context, and that denotation can become a new pictorial content under the right circumstances. So, the pictorial content becomes a character, which, in context, delivers a new, singular content. Police sketches, postcard pictures, photo rosters, and some portraits illustrate this phenomenon. As with cases in the philosophy of language, these interpretations are established by considering cases of reasonable and unreasonable interpretation of different communicative acts. They show that in some cases pictures are used to deliver individuals, rather than to say this or that about some individual.
Historical Overview of Japanese Society, Health, and Health Inequalities from the Nineteenth to the Twenty-first Century
Authors: Hiyoshi Ayako , Kondo Naoki
Published: October 2020

In the previous century, Japan rose from poverty and destruction. High levels of social inequalities before World War II were greatly equalized in the 1960–1980 period. Population health, indicated by life expectancy, height, mortality, and self-rated health, improved. Health inequalities were reduced in line with these improvements. In the past 30 years Japan has experienced low economic growth, rapid ageing, and resource constraints, with some widening of income inequalities. All are indicators of a challenging population health situation. However, health inequalities narrowed for a period in the 1990s and the early 2000s. Limited evidence suggests health inequalities have widened in recent years. Narrowing health inequality after 1990 was partly the result of worsening health in high socioeconomic groups. In the past, the combination of social structure, economic growth, culture, and social policies resulted in remarkable health development and limited health inequalities. Increased research and monitoring is needed to understand these trends, and to support policy development to reduce health inequalities as Japan changes.
Geographic Disparities in Health
Authors: Nakaya Tomoki , Hanibuchi Tomoya
Published: October 2020

This chapter highlights the geographical aspects of health disparities in Japan at different levels, from the 47 prefectures nationally to the neighbourhood level. In the post-war period, Japan has successfully attained the longest life expectancy in the world. At the same time, it has substantially reduced geographical disparities among the prefectures. This indicates that reducing such disparities in living standards may also be related to improving the health of a country’s entire population. However, disparities of health have appeared among populations living in socially segmented areas in large neighbourhoods of metropolitan regions. Such neighbourhood-scale disparities in health are associated with a number of environmental characteristics of Japanese neighbourhoods reflecting socioeconomic segregation and development histories of residential areas. In the era of a super-aging society that contains the threat of re-widening social inequalities, Japan faces challenges to build health-supportive environments for tackling multi-scale disparities.
Japan in Long View
Authors: Brunner Eric , Cable Noriko , Iso Hiroyasu
Published: October 2020

This book brings together the work of leading researchers in the fields of epidemiology and public health in Japan. Authors reflected on the evolution of health in the population since the first Tokyo Olympic/Paralympic Games. Content is organized according to (1) stages of the life course, (2) major chronic diseases and risk factors, and (3) some significant institutional or geographical connections of Japan to the planet. This chapter summarizes a number of messages and research questions for further discussion. The array of evidence confirms a fundamental idea in social epidemiology: the importance of living conditions—economic, social, institutional, cultural—as the main determinants of the health of populations. More specifically, the official statistics and epidemiological studies based on the Japanese population provide a detailed account of the transitions from a young middle-income country to a super-ageing high-income country. Over this period of transition, including recent years of economic slowdown, Japanese health and longevity has not stopped improving.
Introduction
Authors: Frazer Elizabeth
Published: October 2020

This chapter introduces the concepts and problems of political conduct, political power, statecraft, and resistance that Shakespeare treats in his dramas, discussing how they are put into relationship with other forms and kinds of conduct and power: military distinction, intimate and interpersonal connections, religious authority, economic exchanges and circulations. Diverse meanings of ‘politic’ and associated terms—in particular the question of the extent to which political conduct must be open, and the extent to which it is associated with occult or tricky strategy and secrecy—are also dramatized by Shakespeare. The book’s method—which consists of readings of Shakespeare’s dramas in a way that highlights how political power structures plots, and is articulated in texts—is set out, including discussion of the political theory context for Shakespeare’s dramatic art, and its continuing relevance in political thought.
Violence and Political Authority
Authors: Frazer Elizabeth
Published: October 2020

This chapter explores how Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet explicitly dramatizes civil city life threatened by civil violence. These two competing forms of power—civil city life and civil violence—are further juxtaposed, in the plot, with inter-personal erotic intimacy, which is figured, in the language and in the action of the play, as potentially transcendent of material relations; with the norms and social logic of commerce and exchange; and with the aspiration to finality of sovereign authority. The play demonstrates how violence and an economy in which everything is for sale are as destructive of civic republican politics as they are of intimate love.
Sovereignty, Justice, and Political Power
Authors: Frazer Elizabeth
Published: October 2020

King Lear intertwines two family stories: one of disinheritance and the consequent crisis of sovereignty that follows on the division of territory and political authority; the other of legitimacy, illegitimacy, resentment, and revenge against a father. The political plot of King Lear puts sovereign authority, patriarchal authority, political strategy, and violence into juxtaposition with the claims of social justice. The play puts into question the idea of a ‘sovereign body’, in particular in its treatment of economic and social transformations in attitudes to value and exchange, and in its meditation on the way sovereign power destroys human and social bodies. These themes can be reflected in interpretations of the drama that emphasize loneliness and meaninglessness. The drama also focuses on forms of violence which track social status, and instantiate forms of authority, including sovereignty.
Politics and Magic
Authors: Frazer Elizabeth
Published: October 2020

The idea that politics and magic are intertwined is both preposterous and commonsensical. Macbeth and Tempest both tell stories of the uses of magic power for political purposes—to undermine rule or to maintain dominance. The relationship between supernatural power and political power can both be seen as a metaphorical comment on an ineffable, mysterious quality of political power, and as an evaluative comment on the identification of politics with sleight of hand and trickery. The problems of discrimination between appearances and reality, between manipulation and authority, are dramatized in both these plays; and raise the question of the theatricality of political power and conduct, as well as raising evaluative questions about the evils of authoritarianism, colonial domination and exploitation.
Mechanisms of External Public Spectacle
Authors: Tanasoca Ana
Published: October 2020

What others think matters for internal deliberation. Perceptions of public opinion—of the distribution of opinions across the entire community—are important for the same reason. Informal networked deliberation can give citizens only a partial view of the support any opinion or claim enjoys community-wide. This chapter discusses one important deliberative contribution mass media can make to citizens’ internal deliberations: providing information about the incidence of opinion and stakes in society at large. I discuss different ways in which the media can more accurately convey frequency information through its design of public spectacles. The selection of arguments and opinions they feature, how they feature them, as well as the selection of public speakers to voice them, all matter in this respect.
Networked Deliberation across Political Difference
Authors: Tanasoca Ana
Published: October 2020

Chapter 7 explores one important obstacle to informal networked deliberation: polarization. If citizens exclude differently-minded people from their networks or refuse to deliberate with them on political matters, then informal networked deliberation cannot fulfil its full potential. Drawing extensively on empirical research, the chapter points out that citizens’ networks are heterogenous, and citizens do deliberate with differently-minded others. They may not completely change their minds in response, but in any case opinion change is not a good indicator for genuine deliberation and its reflective processes of internal deliberation. Finally, this chapter discusses how organized group deliberations can be used as ‘network interventions’ and valued instrumentally for what they can achieve at the community level. By selecting participants with the help of network mapping, organized deliberation can leverage the diffusion capacity of people’s social networks to scale up important deliberative effects across the entire community.
Instrumental Virtues
Authors: Tenenbaum Sergio
Published: October 2020

Chapter 7 argues that (non-trivial) principles of rationality cannot fully capture the nature of our instrumentally rational powers. A fully rational agent not only complies with the principle of instrumental rationality but also exhibits a number of instrumental virtues of character. An agent suffers a defect of rationality insofar as she fails to have one of these virtues, or insofar as she manifests one of its corresponding vices. However, an agent can manifest instrumental vices without violating any principle of rationality. This chapter proposes that courage is one of the instrumental virtues, and shows how one of its corresponding vices, cowardice, must be understood as a defect of our rational powers.
Understanding and Inference1
Authors: Boghossian Paul , Williamson Timothy
Published: October 2020

The chapter challenges the inferentialist account of concept possession on which Boghossian relies in Chapter 2 in his account of the transmission of justification by deductive reasoning. Unorthodox speakers who reject the inferences in alleged possession condition can still have the concept by understanding a word for it. In that sense, the inferences are not analytic. Inferentialist accounts of logical constants, theoretical terms (using the method developed by Frank Ramsey, Rudolf Carnap, and David Lewis), and pejorative expressions such as ‘Boche’ are examined and rejected. It is suggested that epistemological questions cannot be reduced to questions in the theory of thought and meaning.
Reply to Williamson on Intuition, Understanding, and the A Priori1
Authors: Boghossian Paul , Williamson Timothy
Published: October 2020

This paper argues that Williamson fails to produce successful counterexamples to the existence of understanding–assent links, in particular because he fails to show that the expert in his cases has lost underived dispositions to assent. The paper gives grounds for rejecting Williamson’s argument that intuitions, supposing them to exist, cannot be the source of distinctively a priori justification. Finally, it is argued that Williamson’s argument against the existence of intuitions (understood as sui generis states of intellectual seeming) flounders because it rests on a misguided and naïve dichotomy between ‘introspectable’ and ‘postulated’ mental states.