bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Networks with Semiflexible Chains and Networks Exhibiting Strain-Induced Crystallization
Authors: Erman Burak , Mark James E.
Published: November 2020

Classical theories of rubber elasticity are based on models of flexible polymer chains that are sufficiently long to exhibit Gaussian behavior as described in chapter 1 and in appendix F. Additionally, the chains are phantomlike in the sense that they do not interact with one other along their contours. The theories described in chapter 2 were based on this picture of the individual chain. In this chapter, we describe the elasticity of networks that depart substantially from those addressed in the classical theories. The departures may result from two sources: (1) the chains may be only semiftexible, as a result of which the segments of neighboring chains compete for space in the deformed network, and choose preferentially oriented configurations, and (2) the chains may form crystallites, upon deformation, as a result of which the homogeneous structure of the classical network model may be transformed into a nonhomogeneous one having microphases of crystalline and amorphous regions. The subject of crystallization under deformation, for networks in general, is relatively old, and has been treated in some detail in previous studies. For this reason, crystallization and some of its effects will be reviewed only briefly at the end of this chapter. The main emphasis will be given to networks with semiflexible chains. Examples of networks with semiflexible chains are those in which the chains have rodlike segments separated by flexible spacers, or those where the chains have bond angles appreciably larger than tetrahedral. Incorporation of these chains into a network structure results in materials that exhibit segmental orientations significantly larger than those shown by classical networks. Specific examples would include networks prepared from aromatic polyamide chains or from chains containing liquid-crystalline sequences along the direction of the backbone. Because of their unique chain structures, these networks are easily orientable, at the molecular level, by macroscopic deformations. The orientational transitions may easily be controlled by application and removal of anisotropic strains, and are therefore of great technological interest for use in optical devices. Other examples of networks with easily orientable chains are those with rigid sequences in the side groups.
Geographic Variation and the Microevolution of Avian Migratory Behavior
Authors: Berthold Peter
Published: November 2020

The study of migratory behavior is, at a fundamental level, the study of geographic variation in behavior. This is necessarily the case when residency grounds at either end of the migratory route differ in spatial extent, because different directional movement patterns will be required of individuals from different parts of the two ranges. As many migratory animals are widespread, substantial differences in migratory routes exist among populations of single species (examples in Dadswell et al. 1987, Baker 1991, Dingle 1991, Groot and Margolis 1991, Berthold 1993). Because the individuals that migrate often have not done so before and often do not have older migration-experienced individuals to follow (e.g., Baker 1991, Berthold 1996), the study of navigational mechanisms and their genetic underpinnings is essential to understanding migratory behavior. Naturalists have long been captivated by the problem of control mechanisms in migratory behavior. As early as 1702, von Pernau suggested that birds were “driven at the proper time by a hidden drive.” In modern terms, this amounted to suggesting that migratory behavior was triggered by innate or genetically programmed stimuli, rather than by environmental factors alone. This speculation was supported by the discovery of endogenous annual cycles more than 260 years later (see Gwinner 1986 for a review). Our understanding of the control mechanisms of migratory behavior has expanded rapidly during the last 90 years. Research in the field has elucidated, for example, genetic and endocrine control mechanisms and their interface with environmental cues such as photoperiod, relationships between environmental conditions, such as weather and food availability and the timing of migration, and unique physiological and morphological correlates of migratory behavior (for reviews, see Berthold and Terrill 1991, Berthold 1996). Birds, fishes, and insects have proven especially valuable subjects for the study of migratory behavior, and all show substantial population differentiation in migratory patterns within species (Dadswell et al. 1987, Dingle 1991, Groot and Margolis 1991, Berthold 1993). In this chapter I focus on migratory behavior in birds, especially that in the blackcap, Sylvia atricapilla, an Old World warbler that has been the subject of extensive research in my laboratory since the early 1970s.
Central Greco-Roman Cities
Authors: Crouch Dora P.
Published: November 2020

Argos, situated in the southern peninsula of Greece called the Peloponnese, lies on the northwest side of the Argos Plain, backed by hills to the north and west that are the eastern edge of an extensive region of mountains and intermountain basins. A road runs northward through the valley and over the hills to Nemea and Corinth. Eastward beyond the capricious rivers lie the old Mycenaean cities of Mycenae and Tiryns on their knolls, with the port of Nauplia closing the circuit to the southeast. Beyond Nauplia is the Argolid peninsula with the ancient pilgrimage and health center of Epidauros. (The term “Argolid” as used in the literature sometimes means all the area near Argos and sometimes means only the peninsula south and east of Nauplia. Herein, we will use Argolid for the latter and Argive Plain for the former.) Between Argos and the gulf about 6 km south is the marshy area of Lerna, remnant of a lake that once reached nearly to the outskirts of Argos, while the southeast part of the plain was until recently a series of lagoons (Piérart 1992). To the southwest, skirting the mountains, runs the road to Sparta. The advantages for Argos of being situated at the center of gravity in the triangular plain (Runnels 1995) continued throughout all the periods studied herein. Argos is unusual among ancient cities because we have ample modern geological investigations of regional structure, morphology, karst geology, and hydrogeology, literary evidence from antiquity, and archaeological data from decades of investigation. These materials contribute to a detailed understanding of how human settlement built on and responded to local resources. We will therefore describe the regional setting of the city before turning to an examination of the urban core. Below its mountains, the city of Argos stands on a shelf overlooking a plain of extensive fertile agricultural land that curves around the site from north to southwest. The stratigraphy is as follows, beginning with the topmost modern layers: . . . Higher plateau and mountains are Tripoli limestone. Tripoli plateau sits amid karstic mountains. (Older) Triassic and Jurassic limestones to the northeast. . . .
1988
Authors: Franklin John Hope
Published: November 2020

As I began the task of putting the pieces together that would describe how I moved from one stage of intellectual development to another, I was reminded of a remark that Eubie Blake made as he approached his ninety-ninth birthday. He said, “If I had known that I would live this long I would have taken better care of myself.” To paraphrase him, if I had known that I would become an historian and the Haskins Lecturer for 1988 I would have kept better records of my own pilgrimage through life. I may be forgiven, therefore, if I report that the beginnings are a bit hazy, not only to me but to my parents as well. For example, they had no clear idea of when I learned to read and write. It was when I was about three or four, I am told. My mother, an elementary school teacher, introduced me to the world of learning when I was three years old. Since there were no day-care centers in the village where we lived, she had no alternative to taking me to school and seating me in the rear where she could keep an eye on me. I remained quiet but presumably I also remained attentive, for when I was about five my mother noticed that on the sheet of paper she gave me each morning, I was no longer making lines and sketching out some notable examples of abstract art. I was writing words, to be sure almost as abstract as my art, and making sentences. My mother later said that she was not surprised much less astonished at what some, not she, would have called my precocity. Her only reproach—to herself, not me—was that my penmanship was hopelessly flawed since she had not monitored my progress as she had done for her enrolled students. From that point on, I would endeavor to write and through the written word to communicate my thoughts to others. My interest in having some thoughts of my own to express was stimulated by my father who, among other tasks, practiced law by day and read and wrote by night.
Triggered Substorms
Authors: Kennel Charles F.
Published: November 2020

Do events in the solar wind “trigger” substorms, or do substorms occur independently? Is there a difference between triggered and untriggered substorms? What kinds of events trigger onsets? Expansions? Can we learn about their physics from the things that do and do not trigger them? Does the switch from expansion to recovery phase require external prompting? Even if it is not required, can the recovery be prompted anyway? If conditions in the solar wind are steady, can we still have substorms? In this chapter, we review studies that have addressed questions like these. “Pseudoexpansions” resemble the first several minutes of development of the dipolarization and westward surge, but later fail to sustain an expanding current wedge or auroral bulge (Section 15.2). They may be triggered by minor dayside reconnection events that occur before the threshold condition for the full substorm is reached. Interplanetary shocks can trigger a substorm within minutes of their arrival at earth, provided they are sufficiently strong and a growth phase is already in progress (Section 15.3). Other compressional solar wind discontinuities also can trigger substorms, but rarefactions cannot. Northward turnings of the interplanetary field can also trigger substorms after a growth phase has already started (Section 15.4). During intervals of steady southward interplanetary field, either quasisteady convection bays or quasiperiodically recurring substorms can occur (Section 15.5). An inkling of pseudoexpansion behavior has been around since before the auroral substorm existed (Elvey, 1957), and in his original paper Akasofu (1964) not only had taken them into account but suggested that they occur on other than the most equatorward arc. Later, Davis and Hallinan (1976) and Untiedt et al. (1978) pointed out that pseudoexpansions are brief activations of local small-scale auroral spirals to the ground observer. Now it appears that pseudoexpansions are attenuated versions of complete expansions in several important respects: brightening of an auroral arc, Pi 2 pulsation bursts, and enhancements of the auroral electrojet, (McPherron, 1991). In this section, we show the auroral pseudoexpansion has a counterpart in geostationary orbit, and present evidence that both may be responses to variations in the dayside reconnection rate.
Introduction
Authors: Aldenderfer Mark
Published: November 2020

Although spatial thinking has long been a part of anthropological inquiry, it has waxed and waned in its perceived utility and centrality to the field. Although the papers in this volume attest to a vigorous tradition of spatial thinking in anthropology and further suggest that, for at least some branches of the field, spatial thinking and analysis are truly central to their definition and mission, it is nevertheless clear that this has not always been the case. Further, despite differences in historical trajectories of development between the two major subfields of anthropology—cultural anthropology and archaeology— in terms of the way space has been used, it is also clear that the two subfields share a number of common interests and themes that deserve discussion and exploration. This exploration is not only interesting from a purely historical perspective, but also has a very practical, down-to-earth dimension. The literature on the history of science is replete with cases of communication failures both within and between scientific disciplines. While in many cases this is merely annoying (different terms used to describe the same procedure, for instance), there are occasions when these failures lead to the creation of a highly idiosyncratic jargon used by small cliques of investigators, which clearly offers the opportunity to inhibit scholarly communication. This, in turn, can lead to redundancy of effort, failure to learn from the mistakes of others, and wasted time and money. By providing a forum in which similarities and differences can be examined, the natural tendency of scientific disciplines to form these cliques can be overcome. I intend this paper to be such a forum for an exploration of the ways in which geographic information systems (GIS) have been employed by anthropologists and archaeologists as represented by the authors of the papers presented in this volume. I will briefly describe the GIS for those readers unfamiliar with it and then turn to a review of the history of spatial thinking and the kinds of tools used to implement this thinking for each of the subdisciplines.
Two Basic P-Complete Problems
Authors: Greenlaw Raymond , Hoover H. James , Ruzzo Walter L.
Published: November 2020

We have now provided sufficient machinery to address the question posed in the introduction: Does every problem with a feasible sequential solution also have a highly parallel solution? We begin by asking the dual question. . . . Are there any inherently sequential problems?. . . We will try to develop some intuition for the answer to this question by closely examining two basic P-coraplete problems: the Generic Machine Simulation Problem and the Circuit Value Problem, both introduced below. The canonical device for performing sequential computations is the Turing machine, with its single processor and serial access to memory. Of course, the usual machines that we call sequential are not nearly so primitive, but fundamentally they all suffer from the same bottleneck created by having just one processor. So to say that a problem is inherently sequential is to say that solving it on a parallel machine is not substantially better than solving it on a Turing machine. What could be more sequential than the problem of simulating a Turing machine computation? If we could just discover how to simulate efficiently, in parallel, every Turing machine that uses polynomial time, then every feasible sequential computation could be translated automatically into a highly parallel form. Thus, we are interested in the following problem. (See also Problem A.12.1 in Part II for related problems and remarks.) Definition 4.1.1 Generic Machine Simulation Problem (GMSP)
Greedy Algorithms
Authors: Greenlaw Raymond , Hoover H. James , Ruzzo Walter L.
Published: November 2020

We consider the selection of two basketball teams at a neighborhood playground to illustrate the greedy method. Usually the top two players are designated captains. All other players line up while the captains alternate choosing one player at a time. Usually, the players are picked using a greedy strategy. That is, the captains choose the best unclaimed player. The system of selection of choosing the best, most obvious, or most convenient remaining candidate is called the greedy method. Greedy algorithms often lead to easily implemented efficient sequential solutions to problems. Unfortunately, it also seems to be that sequential greedy algorithms frequently lead to solutions that are inherently sequential — the solutions produced by these algorithms cannot be duplicated rapidly in parallel, unless NC equals P. In the following subsections we will examine this phenomenon. We illustrate some of the important aspects of greedy algorithms using one that constructs a maximal independent set in a graph. An independent set is a set of vertices of a graph that are pairwise nonadjacent. A maximum independent set is such a set of largest cardinality. It is well known that finding maximum independent sets is NP-hard. An independent set is maximal if no other vertex can be added while maintaining the independent set property. In contrast to the maximum case, finding maxima? independent sets is very easy. Figure 7.1.1 depicts a simple polynomial time sequential algorithm computing a maximal independent set. The algorithm is a greedy algorithm: it processes the vertices in numerical order, always attempting to add the lowest numbered vertex that has not yet been tried. The sequential algorithm in Figure 7.1.1, having processed vertices 1,... , j -1, can easily decide whether to include vertex j. However, notice that its decision about j potentially depends on its decisions about all earlier vertices — j will be included in the maximal independent set if and only if all j' less than j and adjacent to it were excluded.
The Kinematics Of Paleo Landforms
Authors: Craig R.G.
Published: November 2020

Reconstructions of past, climates and other applications of global models require specification of landforms arid geomorphic systems as boundary conditions. As general circulation models become more sophisticated and comprehensive and the range of applications for reconstructions grows, there will be an increasing demand for valid geomorphic boundary conditions throughout the Phanerozoic. Geomorphologists have not yet, developed the tools and expertise needed to produce reconstructions, so a major gap in understanding of global change now exists. A strategy to fill that gap is presented here. If geomorphology is the study of the form of the land, and if the form of the land can be described by a set of numbers (digital elevation models), then whither geomorphology? Do we become numericists, mathematicians, and statisticians? If geomorphology is the study of the processes shaping the land, and if the form is completely explained by a set of processes and an initial condition (i.e., landform at some earlier time), then two "knowns," current form and current processes, are essential. But if processes themselves change through time and there is an infinite set, of initial conditions, one set for each point in time, then the job becomes overwhelmingly complex. As the geomorphic community has become painfully aware of the difficulties of deep reconstructions, we have withdrawn into the Quaternary, a period during which many simplifying assumptions can be made which allow solution of geomorphic problems. Hence the Geological Society of America lumps "Quaternary Geology" and "Geomorphology" into one division. We have become so comfortable with the notion that, geomorphology and Quaternary geology are synonymous that we have lost sight of the goals of founders of the science such as William Morris Davis and John Wesley Powell who strove to unearth the landforms of the distant past. Of course there is plenty to keep us busy in the good ol’ Quaternary; but we shouldn't ignore the enormous challenges and opportunities that await those who would reconstruct landforms of earlier times.
Parallel Prefix Algorithms On Arrays
Authors: Lakshmivarahan S. , Dhall Sudarshan K.
Published: November 2020

In the parlance of the design and analysis of algorithms, it is now common knowledge that the type of operations used and the overall efficiency of an algorithm critically depend on the organization of the input data for the given problem. Most of the parallel algorithms for prefix computations exploit one of two different types of data organizations, namely, arrays and linked lists. This chapter examines parallel prefix algorithms based on the shared memory models when the input data is in an array. Corresponding algorithms for linked lists are described in Chapter 4. Let N = 2", for some n ≥ 1. For definiteness, consider the semigroup of real numbers with the usual addition operation.
Expert Claims and Social Decisions: Science, Politics, and Responsibility
Authors: Hollander Rachelle D.
Published: November 2020

Concern for relationships among ethics, values, policy, and science and engineering is prominent in modern society. The existence of a program called Ethics and Values Studies in an agency of the U.S. government, the National Science Foundation, provides some evidence of this (Hollander 1987a, 1987b; Hollander and Steneck 1990). The bills introduced in the U.S. Congress to support bio(medical) ethics centers through the National Institutes of Health also provide evidence (U.S. Senate 1988). New initiatives support research and related activities in areas of biomedical ethics in the National Center for Nursing Research and the Office of Human Genome Research in the National Institutes of Health. In July 1988, the Board of Radioactive Waste Management of the National Research Council devoted one day of a four-day retreat to considering the ethical and value aspects of that issue (BRWM 1988). In this chapter I shall attempt to show why such issues occupy particular attention now. My thesis is that a new acknowledgment of our collective moral responsibility is needed because of the political and social context in which science now operates. This context requires more sophisticated scientific and ethical analysis, as well as scientists, engineers, policymakers, interested scholars, and others working together to determine not just acceptable risk but also acceptable evidence. To provide perspective on these matters, we should note that interactions of science, technology, and society have raised these kinds of problems for a long time. A play by Henrik Ibsen, An Enemy of the People, written in 1882, raises all these concerns. An Enemy of the People is a story about the possibility of contamination in the water supply that feeds a town's new mineral baths. The baths attract the summer visitors that have rejuvenated the community. A Dr. Thomas Stockmann has investigated and discovered the problem; he has documented it, and he is delighted to have made the discovery. He, after all, had warned the town fathers about the problem when they designed the water supply, and they did not listen. Now he presents the truth as he sees it—and he sees it in the worst possible light—to his brother Peter, the mayor, who had organized the efforts to construct the baths.
Sociological Versus Metascientific Views of Risk Assessment
Authors: Mayo Deborah G.
Published: November 2020

In this chapter I shall discuss what seems to me to be a systematic ambiguity running through the large and complex risk-assessment literature. The ambiguity concerns the question of separability: can (and ought) risk assessment be separated from the policy values of risk management? Roughly, risk assessment is the process of estimating the risks associated with a practice or substance, and risk management is the process of deciding what to do about such risks. The separability question asks whether the empirical, scientific, and technical questions in estimating the risks either can or should be separated (conceptually or institutionally) from the social, political, and ethical questions of how the risks should be managed. For example, is it possible (advisable) for risk-estimation methods to be separated from social or policy values? Can (should) risk analysts work independently of policymakers (or at least of policy pressures)? The preponderant answer to the variants of the separability question in recent riskresearch literature is no. Such denials of either the possibility or desirability of separation may be termed nonseparatist positions. What needs to be recognized, however, is that advocating a nonseparatist position masks radically different views about the nature of risk-assessment controversies and of how best to improve risk assessment. These nonseparatist views, I suggest, may be divided into two broad camps (although individuals in each camp differ in degree), which I label the sociological view and the metascientific view. The difference between the two may be found in what each finds to be problematic about any attempt to separate assessment and management. Whereas the former (sociological) view argues against separatist attempts on the grounds that they give too small a role to societal (and other nonscientific) values, the latter (metascientific) view does so on the grounds that they give too small a role to scientific and methodological understanding. Examples of those I place under the sociological view are the cultural reductionists discussed in the preceding chapter by Shrader-Frechette. Examples of those I place under the metascientific view are the contributors to this volume themselves. A major theme running through this volume is that risk assessment cannot and should not be separated from societal and policy values (e.g., Silbergeld's uneasy divorce).
The Productivity of Privatization
Authors: Lehmann Scott
Published: November 2020

If we agree that resources should be employed as efficiently as possible, then the case for privatizing public lands can be reduced to two issues: (1) Would privatization make resources more productive? (2) If so, is it worth the trouble? None of the improvement standards that give definite content to (1) appear to advance the argument for it. Judged by the Pareto standard, it’s clearly false: someone is going to prefer what federal land management delivers. Understood in terms of one of the net-gain standards, (1) may be true, but these standards are so hard to apply that we’re going to have trouble justifying a belief that it is. They are too closely tied to facts about individuals (or what we hope are facts) that are inaccessible to the analyst. So we must either find a way to apply them indirectly or develop some other standard. The indirect approach involves seeking to correlate productivity with some measurable feature of allocation systems. Were such a feature P to be identified, we could determine whether II was more productive than I simply by comparing their P-values. Unfortunately, if there’s something about an improvement standard that makes it hard to decide whether II is productively superior to I, then it’s also going to be hard to establish that systems with higher P-values are more productive, at least for any measure P we can easily ascribe to them. Now we could propose replacing the problematic standard with whatever index is developed: “II uses resources more productively than I” just means that II has a higher P-value than I. The problem here is arguing that systems with higher P-values direct resources to uses that better satisfy the desires of consumers. The net-gain standards derive from analyses of this notion. If we abandon them because they are difficult to apply, we may at the same time break the connection between greater productivity and better satisfying desires. Some of the arguments of privatization advocates can, I think, be construed as appealing indirectly to net-gain standards or directly to other notions of productivity.
Theoretical Approaches to the Reaction Dynamics of Clusters
Authors: Conzález-Lafont Angels , Truhlar Donald G.
Published: November 2020

The theoretical treatment of cluster kinetics borrows most of its concepts and techniques from studies of smaller and larger systems. Some of the methods used for such smaller and larger systems are more useful than others for application to cluster kinetics and dynamics, however. This chapter is a review of specific approaches that have found fruitful use in theoretical and computational studies of cluster dynamics to date. The review includes some discussion of methodology; it also discusses examples of what has been learned from the various approaches, and it compares theory to experiment. A special emphasis is on microsolvated reactions—that is, reactions where one or a few solvent molecules are clustered onto gas-phase reactants and hence typically onto the transition state as well. Both analytic theory and computer simulations are included, and we note that the latter play an especially important role in understanding cluster reactions. Simulations not only provide quantitative results, but they provide insight into the dominant causes of observed behavior, and they can provide likelihood estimates for assessing qualitatively distinct mechanisms that can be used to explain the same experimental data. Simulations can also lead to a greater understanding of dynamical processes occurring in clusters by calculating details which cannot be observed experimentally. One interesting challenge that reactions in van der Waals and hydrogenbonded clusters offer is the possibility of studying specifically how weak interactions or microsolvation bonds affect a chemical reaction or dissociation process. In that sense, theoretical studies of weakly bound clusters have proved to be useful in learning about the "crossover" in behavior from that of an isolated nonsolvated molecule in the gas phase to that for a molecule in a liquid or solid solvent. It is very common to begin reviews with a disclaimer as to completeness. Such a disclaimer is, we hope, not required for this chapter because it is not a comprehensive review but a limited-scope discussion of selected work that illustrates some issues that we perceive to be especially important. The chapter is divided into three parts. Section 1.2 discusses collisional and statistical theories for cluster reactions.
Learning from the Land Otter: Religious Representation of Traditional Resource Management
Authors: Anderson E. N.
Published: November 2020

Throughout the forests of the Northwest Coast of North America— those few forests that have not been logged—one finds cedar trees from which long strips of bark have been removed. These strips were taken, at various times in the recent or distant past, by local Native American peoples, to use for a wide variety of reasons. The trees were never cut for their bark; only one long, narrow strip was removed. The process made it necessary for someone to climb high up in the tree to cut the top of the strip. This difficult and dangerous climb was economically reasonable; cutting a cedar is a long job, and would, in any case, eliminate the chance of future bark. But the climb was required for a more immediate and compelling reason: the cedar is sacred, and its indwelling spirit must be respected. Wanton cutting of a cedar is unthinkable. Before a cut is made, prayers and apologies are made to the tree. The cutter explains that he or she really needs the bark, and often adds that he or she will take as little as possible, in the most careful way. In spite of two centuries of contact with, and borrowing from, the outside world, this reverence for the cedar continues today. It is part of a wider religious involvement with the landscape—with water, mountains, plants, and animals— that incorporates environmental management rules as part of sacred ethics. Across the Pacific from China, the Native American peoples of the Northwest Coast maintained, until recently, a way of life based on fishing. While the Chinese changed from foragers to farmers, and slowly built the world’s most populous civilization, the Northwest Coast Indians developed more and more sophisticated ways of harvesting the abundant fish and shellfish resources of their cold and rainy coastlines and rivers. Although they built no cities and wrote down no literature, they created a brilliant, complex culture that had an extremely finetuned adjustment to its environment.
The Disenchanted: Religion as Ecological Control, and Its Modern Fate
Authors: Anderson E. N.
Published: November 2020

Conservation must be rationally planned, but inevitably it becomes a political issue. Policies and plans must be debated in the political arena and decided there. Politics is the art of managing passions and conflicts— either to control or resolve them, or to whip them up for selfish reasons. It is necessary for environmental management to minimize conflict and achieve specific social contracts. This involves playing the highly impassioned game of politics, as well as appealing to truth and reason. Neither of those two things can be separated from the other. Politics without rationality soon degenerates into mindless conflict. Reason without passion carries no political appeal. Politics thus conies to rely on wider and more personally compelling belief systems. Religion is notable among these. It has been shown that traditional societies use religion to sanction their resource management strategies, and that this appears to be a successful strategy. This point has long been argued. More recently, it has become a cornerstone of one branch of cultural ecology theory. Roy Rappaport has expanded his argument that religion can encode wise management strategies to include a more general theory of religion, encoding information and involving human emotions. Lansing has provided a classic test case. Victor Toledo has incorporated Rappaport’s observations in a wider theory of what he calls “ethnoecology.” The folio-wing discussion takes off from their insights, and draws some further conclusions. The advantage of religion in traditional societies where religion is still a major force is that it involves emotion in moral codes. A moral code based only on emotion or only on practical reason will not sell. To succeed, a moral code must have something to do with reality, but it must be strongly believed—people have to have a lot of emotion invested in it. Belief, in this sense, does not mean dogmatism. One can be open and reasonable about a belief. The difference between a belief—in this sense—and an ordinary bit of knowledge is the emotional investment.
Archaeogeophysical Exploration
Authors: Herz Norman , Garrison Ervan G.
Published: November 2020

Geophysical techniques are a commonplace tool in today's archaeology as a result of an extensive collaboration between scientists and archaeologists on both sides of the Atlantic. This "cross-fertilization" has produced growing subdisciplines, of which archaeological geophysics is one example. As may be recalled from our introductory chapter, K. Butzer defined geoarchaeology as archaeology done using a geological methodology. G. Rapp and J. A. Gifford describe archaeological geology as the use of geological techniques to solve archaeological problems. Fagan has called geoarchaeology a "far wider enterprise than geology," involving (1) geochemical and geophysical techniques to locate sites and features; (2) studies of site formation and spatial context; (3) geomorphology, palynology, paleobotany; (4) absolute and relative dating procedures; and (5) taphonomic studies. Archaeological geophysics is a major aspect of archaeological geology. The application of geophysical exploration techniques in archaeology is also known as archaeogeophysics. Geophysical methods of potential usefulness to archaeological geology fall within the following classes: 1. seismic: reflection/refraction 2. electrical & electromagnetic: resistivity and conductivity 3. magnetic 4. radar 5. microgravity 6. thermography All have been used on a variety of archaeological problems. The application of geophysical techniques has grown as (1) the access to the instruments and (2) the methodological understanding of the users have increased. Access to geophysical instrumentation has been made easier by the steady development in solid-state design and computerization, which has reduced size and costs as it has in almost every technical field. The beneficiaries are the geologists and archaeologists. The first to recognize the applicability of geophysical methods to archaeology were the geologists—more specifically, the geophysicists. Working in association with their archaeological colleagues, the earth scientists translated the objectives of the archaeologists into practice. Such cooperation was very productive but suffered from the same kinds of problems that dogged the early usage and acceptance of radiocarbon dating. The archaeologists' untutored enthusiasm, coupled with their lack of a true understanding of the physics and atmospheric chemistry inherent in that technique, led to a backlash of skepticism when dates reported by the first radiocarbon researchers were found to be in error.
Soil Phosphate in Archaeological Surveys
Authors: Herz Norman , Garrison Ervan G.
Published: November 2020

It has long been recognized that human activity chemically modifies the composition of the soil. This is especially true around ancient settlements that were occupied for relatively long periods of time. In areas that humans have inhabited, soil fertility is higher than in uninhabited areas because of an increase in plant nutrients derived from human and animal waste. Deep dark soils that contrast with neighboring lighter colored soils can define areas of intensive occupation with great precision. Phosphate (PO4-3), an important plant nutrient, is highly concentrated at ancient sites and makes for an increased soil fertility. Arab farmers in the Near East have been known to use soils excavated from archaeological sites to fertilize their agricultural land. The soil phosphate has been derived from animal and human excreta and bones and dead bodies. Phosphate will be especially concentrated where animals have been enclosed. Phosphate found in the soil can be bound chemically in a variety of ways. Since the soil is a dynamic system, its physical and chemical nature will constantly alter over time depending on local and temporal equilibria conditions. The first studies of soil phosphate were by agronomists as a tool for agriculture. The observation that human occupation increased the phosphate concentration was noted at least by 1911 in Egypt as a result of agronomic studies. O. Arrhenius, a Swedish agronomist, made the first attempt to apply phosphate studies to archaeology, in a series of papers beginning in 1929. He concluded that phosphate concentrations could be used to locate abandoned settlement sites, even where no visible evidence remained. Thus, the initial application of soil phosphate analysis to archaeology was as a geochemical exploration tool to locate ancient settlements. Human occupation should increase not only the phosphate found in the soil but also the nitrogen and carbon. These additions result from the decomposition of organic matter, principally human and animal remains and excreta. In desert or agricultural land, phosphorus in the soil ranges from 0.01% to 0.2% in the uppermost 10 cm and nitrogen ranges from 0.1% to 1%.
Introduction
Authors: Emery K. O. , Neev David
Published: November 2020

The thrilling biblical saga of Sodom and Gomorrah leaves a deep impression on the spirit of its readers, especially the young. Basic ethical concepts such as right and wrong were dramatically portrayed by that simple and cruel, yet humane, story. Memories of even more ancient disastrous geological events apparently were interwoven into the saga. A geologist cannot remain indifferent when investigating the Dead Sea region and observing stratigraphical and structural evidence of past and continuing similar events. Forceful dynamics indicated by vertically tilted beds of rocksalt layers that have penetrated upward through the ground and by later processes that have shaped some beds into pillars trigger association with the ancient story. Such features are abundant and clearly recognizable along the foot of the diapiric structure of Mount Sedom (Arabic Jebel Usdum). A gas blowout during the drilling of a water well near the Amazyahu fault in 1957 only by good luck failed to produce a gush of fire and smoke. Such an event could have happened in ancient times as a natural result of faulting. Knowledge of the regional geological background permits translation of the biblical descriptions into scientific terms, which suggests that the sagas of Sodom, Gomorrah, and Jericho described real events that occurred during ancient times before much was known about geology. Thirty-five years of the authors' professional experience in the Dead Sea region encompasses many geological aspects of the basin: deep and shallow stratigraphy, structural history, seismology, sedimentological processes, and the physical and chemical properties of the water. Archaeological studies in the region are reviewed. Although most of these studies are applicable to exploration for oil and gas or extraction of salts from brines, their results illuminate the role of changing paleogeography and paleolimnology on human environments. Climate changes and lake-level fluctuations have occurred since Mid-Pleistocene, especially during the past 50,000 years. Studies of sediments from shallow core holes delimit coastal areas that when exposed by drops in the level of the Dead Sea, quickly developed soils that could be used for agriculture.
Experimental Techniques
Authors: Thomas Michael E.
Published: November 2020

This chapter presents basic experimental techniques and various apparatus for measuring the complex index of refraction and related quantities. Generally, measurements of transmittance, reflectance, and emittance are made using spectrometers or lasers. Other important techniques, which measure directly the real refractive index, n, the absorption coefficient, βabs , and the scattering coefficient, βsca, such as interferometry, ellipsometers, calorimetry, and scatterometers, are also introduced. Ultimately, experimental procedures must be taught in the laboratory. Thus, devoting only one chapter to experimental technique and five to theory is not indicative of the importance of this fundamental topic. By discussing the measurement of basic optical parameters, it is intended that the concepts developed in the first five chapters will be reinforced. All of the theoretical models developed in the previous chapters contain measurable parameters. Basic theory often helps guide the design of a good experiment. Once data is available, it can be used to check the assumptions of the theory. This interplay between experiment and theory is an essential part of definitive work. The chapter has two main parts; the first covers measurements of the real and imaginary parts of the complex index of refraction and the second covers measurements of scattering. As established in Chapter 2, the characterization of bulk absorption mechanisms on optical propagation is accomplished by the complex index of refraction. Considerable effort was expended in Chapters 3, 4, and 5 to obtain models of the complex index. Thus, at this point, we wish to find ways to experimentally measure the complex index of refraction for various media. The broad-band spectral response of a medium is commonly measured by a spectrometer. There are two main types of spectrometers, dispersive and interferometric. Generally, spectrometers make broad-band transmission, emission, and reflection measurements, and therefore indirectly measure, n̄. Interferometric measurements, are the exception. Lasers, which feature narrow-band, high-intensity, highly directional light are often used to complement and calibrate broad-band spectrometer measurements. The highest accuracy measurements of the absorption coefficient are obtainable by laser techniques, which can directly measure the components of the complex index.
Propagation Background and Noise
Authors: Thomas Michael E.
Published: November 2020

Noise from the detector and source is always considered in a system design study. However, as an optical field propagates, it acquires additional noise and background radiance from the path defined by the source and by the field of view of the detector. This is typically in the form of propagation path emission and background emission, and bulk scattering within the propagation medium and surface scattering at the propagation medium boundaries of hot-object radiation (e.g., the sun) into the sensor field of view. In many cases this severely limits system performance. Also, in a passive system when no source is present, the background radiance is the signal of interest. Path emission can be modeled by the radiation transfer equation given by Eq. 2.85a. The source function, ℘+(s), must now be given an explicit representation. Figure 11.1 illustrates the incremental emittance per incremental length and bandwidth along an optical path in thermal equilibrium.
Diverging Worldviews, Converging Policies
Authors: Norton Bryan G.
Published: November 2020

This book began with an anecdote, my encounter with an eight-year-old with hundreds of living sand dollars. While I knew what I wanted the little girl to do—I wanted her to put most of the living sand dollars back in the lagoon—I felt in a quandary when I tried to explain why she should do so. I had no objection if the little girl took a couple home, to watch them in her aquarium or even to dissect them to learn their structure. But the family’s actions showed no respect for life or living systems. I wanted to make a moral point not expressible in the language of economics. I hesitated to introduce, however, without serious qualifications, the moral language of rights. Rights have an individualistic ring about them; if sand dollars have rights, then surely the family should put them all back. One language said too little, the other said too much. This original intuition, that the environmentalists’ dilemma is mainly a dilemma of values and explanations, more than preferred actions, has been borne out by the considerations of the second part of this book. An examination of major areas of environmental policy has reinforced the hypothesis that a consensus on the broad outlines of an intelligent policy is emerging among environmentalists, even though there remain significant value differences that affect the explanations and justifications they offer for basically equivalent policies. Environmentalists of different stripes, as far back as the days of Pinchot and Muir, have often set aside their differences to work for common goals. But those traditional cooperations were, it seemed, almost accidental collaborations originating in temporary political expediency. My hypothesis about the current environmental scene asserts a more than accidental growth in cooperation: In spite of occasional rancorous disputes, the original factions of environmentalism are being forced together, regardless of their value commitments. For example, a growing sense of urgency led soil conservationists and preservationist groups to work together to pass the 1985 Farm Bill, even though they suffered some ill feelings along the way. Similarly, the National Wildlife Federation, a collection of sportsmen’s organizations, and Defenders of Wildlife advocate similar wetlands protection policies.