bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Recovery of National Health Service Treatment Costs
Authors: Lewis Richard
Published: November 2023

Strictly speaking, this chapter has no place in a book confined to the deduction of benefits from damages. There is no question of a compensator being able to make a deduction from damages to take account of the free NHS treatment received as a collateral benefit. This is because, as we have already seen, an injured person can- not obtain damages for the free treatment. Nor, until recently, did those hospitals and others providing the treatment seek to recover in an organized way from the compensator anything like the full costs involved. The policy solution tradition- ally adopted by the law was therefore that of reduction: the free treatment meant that no damages could be paid for it and yet led to no requirement to reimburse the state, or the NHS bodies, as the providers of the collateral benefit.
EC Competition Law and Intellectual Property Rights
Authors: Anderman Steven D
Published: November 2023

This book is concerned with a dynamic area of European law: the tension between intellectual property and EC competition law. It demonstrates how, both under the EC Treaty and as a matter of economic policy, EC competition law must provide a set of outer limits to, and a framework of rules which regulate, the exploitation and licensing of intellectual property rights (IPRs). It provides a template of the EC competition law rules as they relate to IPRs and explores how such a template can be applied to existing IPRs and adapted to new technologies such as telecommunications and information technology. This new paperback edition now makes it accessible to individual academics and students and will have appeal throughout Europe.
General Introduction
Authors: Anderman Steven D
Published: November 2023

EC Competition law in recent years has quite dramatically demonstrated its capacity to regulate the exercise of intellectual property rights (IPRs). In Magill, the Court of Justice confirmed that the European Commission has the power to end an abusive refusal to licence by imposing a compulsory copyright license. In other recent cases, the Court of Justice has held that the competition rules in the Treaty may be used as the basis to prevent IPR owners from acquiring competitor firms with similar technology, using aggressive discounting and pricing schemes, and engaging in ‘product bundling’. Moreover, the European Commission has developed an array of block exemptions, including the new Technology Transfer Regulation,s which provide a detailed regulation of the clauses in intellectual property licensing agreements.
Introduction: Intellectual Property Right Licensing and Competition Policy Generally
Authors: Anderman Steven D
Published: November 2023

To the parties to intellectual property right (IPR) licensing agreements, the case for the licensor’s entitlement to pass on the exclusivity enjoyed under the statutory grant seems unanswerable. Many inventors who have invested in R&D find themselves unable to exploit the full commercial potential of their investment. Either they cannot enter and manufacture in all territories in the EC or they cannot manufacture all possible technical applications of the invention. In such situations, a licence may be the only acceptable way in which a reward to invention can be obtained. The restrictions on the field of technical application or geographical territory in the licence appear to be merely subdivisions of the original right conferred by legislation; they seem to have no adverse effects on third parties who would otherwise be subject to the exclusive rights of the original right owner.
The Development of the Concept of Restriction of Competition and Intellectual Property Right Licensing
Authors: Anderman Steven D
Published: November 2023

The application of the two steps of the test of restriction of competition to intellectual property right (IPR) licensing has required modification in two respects. The first test has been modified by the concept of scope of the patent. The second test of appreciability gives greater weight to the fact that exclusive IPR agreements are licences of manufacturing processes and require protection from the risks of competition if licensees are not be be deterred from investing in the risky costs of entering the markets of other member states. Let us examine each of these factors in turn.
The Development of the Commission’s Block Exemption Policy for Technology Licensing Agreements
Authors: Anderman Steven D
Published: November 2023

The process of formulating block exemptions requires a translation of the balancing test in Article 85(3) into specific lists of acceptable and unacceptable clauses for particular categories of agreements. In principle, the Commission is supposed to build the block exemption on the basis of experience with those categories of agreement. In designing block exemptions, the Commission has had to strike a difficult balance between two different objectives: the need to create wide enough exemptions for legitimate exclusive technology transfers to receive the legal certainty of qualifying for block exemption, since this will encourage and facilitate investment in technology licensing, and the need not to create exemptions which are too wide that anticompetitive licensing agreements can slip through.
Introduction
Authors: Anderman Steven D
Published: November 2023

The role of Article 86 in the system of EC competition law is to regulate undertakings which have been found to occupy dominant positions on particular markets, i.e. those firms with extensive market power, such as near monopolies. In common with Article 85, its aim is to prohibit the use of market power to damage effective competition in markets by preventing access to markets or driving out existing competition, as well as to fix prices at higher than competitive levels.
The Relevant Market and Intellectual Property Rights
Authors: Anderman Steven D
Published: November 2023

In principle, an assessment of dominance is meant to be a measure of the market power of a firm on a particular product market in a particular location. Hence before measuring dominance, it is first necessary to define the market. As the Court put it in United Brands v. Commission: The opportunities for competition under Article 86 of the Treaty must be considered having regard to the particular features of the product in question and with reference to a clearly defined geographic area in which it is marketed ... for the effect of the economic power of the undertaking concerned to be evaluated.
Excessive Pricing and Intellectual Property Rights
Authors: Anderman Steven D
Published: November 2023

Under Article 86(a), a dominant firm is prohibited ‘directly or indirectly imposing unfair purchase or selling prices or other unfair trading conditions.’ From an early stage, the Court of Justice has held that in principle, a particularly high price, unjustified by any objective criteria, may be an abuse of a dominant position. The Court at one stage described the abuse as attempting to reap trading benefits which are higher than an undertaking would have reaped if there had been normal and sufficiently effective competition in the market.
The Treaty of Amsterdam: Synthesis of EC Law and Private International Law
Authors: Rammeloo Stephan
Published: November 2023

Put bluntly, there is no tangible freedom of establishment for legal persons under EC law as it now stands. The ECJ even observed that article 52 of the EC Treaty (i.e. before the entry into force of the Treaty of Amsterdam) ‘does not attempt to solve any of the problems that the co-existence of these two theories (the ‘incorporation’ theory and the ‘real seat’ theory) might create, but the Community has managed to live with this situation from the outset.’ A short reminder first: for a considerable period of time, the drafters of the EC Treaty were not at all troubled by the constant ‘trench war’ between the ‘incorporation’ and the ‘real seat’ theorists:
Squaring The Square
Authors: Ball John , Welsh Dominic
Published: November 2023

This book is about “Graph Theory as I have known it”. This means that I propose to make my task easier by discussing mainly my own work and the parts of Graph Theory that have most interested me.
Unsymmetrical Electricity
Authors: Ball John , Welsh Dominic
Published: November 2023

The first part of this book described some work on squared rectangles by four undergraduates at Cambridge, who published it in the Duke Mathematical Journal in 1940 [11]. At the end of their paper there is a remark on “Triangulations of a triangle”. It is about dissections of an equilateral triangle into equilateral triangles. It says there is a theory of such figures analogous to that of squared rectangles, but it does not go into details. There is more information in later papers, for example in one published by the four researchers in the Philips Research Reports of 1975. That one is entitled “Leaky electricity and triangulated triangles” [12].
Algebra In Graph Theory
Authors: Ball John , Welsh Dominic
Published: November 2023

I learned a little Combinatorial Topology at Cambridge. That subject dealt with structures called “n-complexes”. These were made by fitting together units called “n-simplexes”, n-dimensional analogues of the point, the segment, the triangle and the tetrahedron. The graphs of Graph Theory appeared as the case n = 1, and by combinatorial topologists they were usually looked upon as trivialities. However O. Veblen devoted part of a textbook to them and to their associated maps on surfaces [108]. The topological textbook then favoured at Cambridge was that of Seifert and Threlfall [52].
Graphs On Spheres
Authors: Ball John , Welsh Dominic
Published: November 2023

Graph Theory, it is said and written, began in 1736. But 3-connected graphs drawn on the sphere are combinatorially equivalent to the convex polyhedra, whose study goes back much further. What are the Platonic solids but highly symmetrical spherical graphs?
The Cats Of Cheshire
Authors: Ball John , Welsh Dominic
Published: November 2023

Looking back on the activities of the Team of Four at Cambridge I note a tendency to put their work into algebraic form. It was Smith who led in this process of algebraicization.
The Chromatic Eigenvalues
Authors: Ball John , Welsh Dominic
Published: November 2023

In 1946 an important paper appeared in the Transactions of the American Mathematical Society. It was “Chromatic polynomials” by G.D. Birkhoff and D.C. Lewis, referenced here as [8]. It has served as a source and a textbook for students of chromatic polynomials ever since.
In Conclusion
Authors: Ball John , Welsh Dominic
Published: November 2023

I write this commentary on the preceding chapters some years after the lectures were delivered. For some chapters, especially the first, there are things I would like to add, since the amount of information that can be imparted in a single lecture is limited.
Discourse analysis and social representations
Authors: McKinlay Andy , Potter, Jonathan , Wetherell Margaret
Published: November 2023

In a number of recent publications, the theory of social representations has been criticized on analytic, operational, and theoretical grounds. Nevertheless, the perspective embodies certain important features which we see as being a crucial part of an effective and radical social psychology. In this chapter we will overview these problems and qualities and argue that a discourse analytic approach (Potter and Wetherell 1987), although being somewhat more qualified in its theoretical objectives, captures many of the best features of the theory while avoiding its central problems. The final part of the chapter will illustrate, using practical examples, how discourse analysis develops a social approach to the phenomenon of representation.
The problems of investigating social representations: linguistic parallels
Authors: Good David
Published: November 2023

The conceptual and practical difficulties which face those who take on the empirical challenge of studying social-representations theory arise from one of the few definite things that one can say about it. For all workers in this field, it is axiomatic that a social representation (SR henceforth) can only exist where there are social relationships between the members of a society. These interactions and relationships may take many forms, and do not necessarily depend on face-to-face contact. SRT is the study of the ‘thinking society’, and social interaction is the sine qua non of society. SRs must, therefore, pervade every interaction, but saying how is the heart of the problem. Consider, for example, the case of just two members of a society interacting with one another on one occasion where they are discussing the recent psychiatric breakdown of a colleague. In their discussion, the SR of psychiatric disorder will necessarily figure, but where is it located? There will be both private and public processes and products enabling, or deriving from, this engagement, and each of these can be seen as related to, or part of, the SR of psychiatric disorder.
Multidimensional scaling as a technique for the exploration and description of a social representation
Authors: Purkhardt S Caroline , Stockdale Janet E
Published: November 2023

MDS analyses are not usually applied or interpreted within the frame work of social representations. However, by examining the application of MOS in other contexts and its relationship with the theory of social representations, it is argued that MDS is a suitable technique for exploring and describing a social representation. This is illustrated by a detailed example in which the social representation of mental disorders within a student population was examined. Methodological problems and theoretical limitations arising from the use of MDS in social-representations research are discussed. Finally, a major theme throughout this chapter is the need to adopt a multimethod approach and to employ complementary methods of research.
The meaning of work for young people: the role of parents in the transmission of a social representation
Authors: Mannetti Lucia , Tanucci Giancarlo
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we shall present some results of our current research programme on the social representation of work among young Italians still at school. The topic of our study-work-has been addressed directly or indirectly by at least two traditions of psychological research, first in the context of vocational choice and guidance (see, for example, Abramson et al. 1979; Holland 1973; Super 1957) and more recently in studies on the development of economic concepts (for example Berti and Bambi 1988; Jahoda 1979; Stacey 1978, 1982). The perspective of our research, however, is different from both of these traditions.
Chemical modulation of sodium channels
Authors: Narahashi T
Published: November 2023

Although voltage-clamp techniques were originally developed by Cole (1949) and extensively utilized by Hodgkin, Huxley and Katz (Hodgkin and Huxley 1952 a,b,c,d; Hodgkin et al. 1952) to establish the ionic basis of nerve excitation, it was not until 1959 that the techniques were applied to the study of ion channel pharmacology. Shanes et al. (1959) and Taylor (1959) found that cocaine and procaine blocked both sodium and potassium currents in squid giant axons. Although these studies have established the basis for the mechanism of local anaesthesia, the effects were neither specific for one type of ion channel, nor very potent.
The biophysical basis of K+ channel pharmacology
Authors: Soria B
Published: November 2023

K+ channels are found in all cells, where they have an important role in maintaining transmembrane potential. Closure of these channels leads to membrane depolarization, which can be followed by cell-specific activity such as the contraction of vascular smooth muscle, or secretion of insulin from pancreatic β-cells.
Peptide toxins interacting with Potassium channels
Authors: Garcia M L , Knaus H -G , Leonard R J , McManus O B , Munujos P , Schmalhofer W A , Slaughter, R S , Kaczorowski. G J
Published: November 2023

Potassium channels are integral membrane proteins that allow the transmembrane movement of ions at high rates through aqueous-pores with high selectivity for K+. This family of proteins controls electrical excitability, as well as the resting membrane potential, in many different cell types. Gating of these channels occurs through conformational changes that are controlled by membrane potential and/or ligand binding.
Intracellular channels in muscle
Authors: Jaimovich E
Published: November 2023

It is now widely accepted that distinct channel activities are present on intracellular organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, the nuclear envelope, and synaptic vesicles. However, we know very little about these channels because, as a result of their intracellular localization, they are not readily accessible to conventional electrophysiological techniques.
Mitochondrial membrane channels and their pharmacology
Authors: Campo M -L , Tedeschi H , Muro, C , Kinnally K W
Published: November 2023

Mitochondria are the primary energy providers of most eukaryotic cells because of their role in oxidative phosphorylation. It is therefore not surprising that mitochondria have been the focus of important studies for the past 40 years. These organelles are enclosed by an outer and an inner membrane. The outer membrane has important permeability properties and a probable regulatory role that is just beginning to be recognized. Aside from its role as a permeability barrier and in the translocation of solutes, the inner membrane containing the components responsible for electron transport and the ATP-synthase is closely associated with energy transduction.
Modulation of a large-condudance K+ channel from chromaffin granule membranes by adrenergic agonists and G proteins
Authors: Arispe N , Mazancourt P De , Pollard, H B , Rojas E
Published: November 2023

Ion channels occur in the membrane of secretory granules from adrenal chromaffin cells (Picaud et al. 1984), neurohypophyseal granules Lemos et al. 1989; Stanley et al. 1988, and synaptic vesicles from Torpedo electric organ (Rahamimoff et al. 1988, 1989). Anion (Cl¬ channels were found to occur in rat neurohypophysis (Stanley et al. 1988), and fused Torpedo secretory vesicles (De Riemer et al. 1987; Rahamimoff et al. 1988).
Cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels: physiology, pharmacology, and molecular biology
Authors: Matthews G
Published: November 2023

Ion channels that are directly gated by cyclic nucleotides represent a class of ligand-gated channel whose ligand binding site is on the intracellular side of the channel, rather than the extracellular side. Channels of this type were first described in the outer segments of vertebrate rod photoreceptors by Fesenko et al. 1
A unified theory of antidepressant action: evidence for adaptation of the NMDA receptor following chronic antidepressant treatments
Authors: Layer R T , Popik P , Nowak G , Paul I A , Trullas, R , Skolnick P
Published: November 2023

Clinically effective antidepressants (AD) include drugs with a remarkable structural diversity as well as non-pharmacological interventions such as electronconvulsive shock (ECS). These therapies produce a variety of in vitro effects (e.g. blockade of monoamine reuptake) that cannot be causally related to antidepressant efficacy.
The Role of Cingulate Cortex in Central Neuropathic Pain: Functional Imaging and Cortical Model of Allodynia
Authors: Jones Anthony K P , Kulkarni Bhavna
Published: November 2023

Central neuropathic pain (CNP) may result from damage anywhere in the central nervous system. The focus of this discussion is on CNP rather than peripheral neuropathic pain because at present, although there are likely to be important central mechanisms that contribute to peripheral neuropathic pain, the explanatory mechanisms emphasize peripheral and/or spinal cord mechanisms rather than cortical mechanisms. However, in terms of symptoms and clinical signs there are many similarities between the two types of pain and therefore, where relevant, information about peripheral neuropathic pain will be used. It is not the intention to provide an exhaustive review of the clinical presentation and epidemiology of CNP which has been done elsewhere (Hansson, 2004, 2005). However, there are certain key clinical features that distinguish CNP from other types of pain, although these are quite variable.Neuropathic pain in general is characterized by its unpleasantness and is often described as being unlike any pain previously experienced (Jones et al., 2004). Because of the unfamiliar nature of the sensation, patients will often have difficulty describing it. When given time, a sensation that is initially described as a pain may be further described as just a very unpleasant burning, numbness or cold sensation that is not really painful. It is likely that a number of published findings will include such very aversive or dysaesthetic but non-painful sensations, as patients will often call them pain for lack of a better word. CNP may occur after any kind of damage to the central nervous system such as stroke, demyelinating disease such as multiple sclerosis and syringomyelia (Hansson, 2005).
Cingulate Neuropathological Substrates of Depression
Authors: Vogt Brent A , Fountoulakis K Nikos , Samaras Dimitrios , Kövari Enikö , Vogt Leslie J , Hof Patrick R
Published: November 2023

Since antiquity, mood disorders were considered to be among the most common diseases. Hippocrates (460–357 BC) was the first to describe melancholia (‘black bile’); Aretaeus of Cappadocia (ca. 150 AD) described manic-depression (bipolar disorder—BD), and Robert Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy published in 1621 was the first modern text on mood disorders. Cartesian thinking separated mind from body, and in this way it provided medicine with autonomy over the body, free from interference by the Church, but this had profound consequences on the way mental disorders were conceptualized in the centuries that followed. This situation was changed by Adolf Meyer (1866–1950) who introduced the term ‘psychobiology’ to emphasize that both psychological and biological factors are relevant for the etiopathogenesis of mental disorders. Depression is still viewed as a major health problem with nearly 20% of women and more than 10% of men suffering from at least one mood disorder episode during their lives. Depression was ranked as the fourth most urgent health problem worldwide by the World Health Organization (Murray & Lopez, 1996). Although effective treatments exist for decades now, the disability induced by mood disorders is comparable with and often exceeds those of pain, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and coronary artery disease (Wells et al., 1989).
The Role of Cingulate Cortex Dysfunction in Obsessive– Compulsive Disorder
Authors: Saxena Sanjaya , O’Neill Joseph , Rauch Scott L
Published: November 2023

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a common neuropsychiatric illness that affects 2–3% of the population worldwide (Weissman et al., 1994). It can cause significant disability and functional impairment (Murray & Lopez, 1996) and is characterized by intrusive, repetitive thoughts and ritualistic behaviors that cause marked distress. Although standard diagnostic classifications consider OCD to be a single entity, it has become clear that several different OCD symptom factors exist (Baer, 1994; Leckman et al., 1997). Large factor analyses of OCD symptoms (Cavallini et al., 2002; Leckman et al., 1997; Summerfeldt et al., 1999) have usually yielded four principal symptom factors: (1) aggressive, sexual, and religious obsessions with checking compulsions; (2) symmetry obsessions with ordering, arranging, and repeating compulsions; (3) contamination obsessions with washing and cleaning compulsions; and (4) hoarding, saving, and collecting symptoms. These symptom factors appear to show different inheritance patterns. Despite this phenotypic heterogeneity, the vast majority of prior neurobiological and treatment studies of OCD have grouped patients with diverse symptom patterns together. Effective treatments for OCD include serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI) medications (Greist et al., 1995) and cognitive–behavioral therapy (CBT) (Marks, 1997). Because OCD symptoms tend to be chronic, relatively consistent over time, and reliably reproducible, it has been possible to study them with a variety of neuroimaging techniques to determine how the brain mediates their expression (Silbersweig & Stern, 1997).
Mild Cognitive Impairment: Pivotal Cingulate Damage in Amnestic and Dysexecutive Subgroups
Authors: Johnson Julene K , Head Elizabeth , Vogt Brent A
Published: November 2023

Advancing age is associated with a wide variation of cognitive functioning. While some individuals experience little to no change in their thinking abilities, others develop significant cognitive decline and dementia. Cognitive impairment in the absence of dementia in individuals over the age of 65 is common. Several large epidemiological studies suggest that cognitive impairment without dementia is two to five times more common than dementia and is present in 11-27% of the population (Hanninen et al., 1996; Graham et al., 1997; Schroder et al., 1998; Di Carlo et al., 2000; Unverzagt et al., 2001; Lopez et al., 2003). The prevalence of cognitive impairment increases with age. Unverzagt et al. (2001) reported that 29% of individuals between 65 and 74 years of age and as many as 55% of individuals over the age of 84, exhibited symptoms of cognitive impairment without dementia. Neurodegenerative disorders are proposed to account for the majority of cognitive decline in later adulthood, but cognitive decline can also occur in other conditions, such as depression, medical illness, and to some degree, aging (Ritchie et al., 2001; Unverzagt et al., 2001).‘Mild cognitive impairment’ (MCI) is a clinical term that refers to a decline in cognition in older adults that does not meet the criteria for dementia. The term MCI was popularized by Petersen et al. (1999) who argued that MCI is a transitional stage between healthy aging and dementia (Petersen et al., 2001).
Population Origins In Papua New Guinea-A Human Biological Overview
Authors: Kirk Robert L
Published: November 2023

The origins and population relationships of the peoples of New Guinea provided a fertile field for speculation by physical anthropologists during the latter part of the last and earlier part of the present century. Affinities with ‘negro’, ‘negrito’, ‘dravidian’, ‘hindoo’, ‘caucasian’, and ‘malay’ racial types and varying degrees of intermixture were canvassed and supported by subjective anthroposcopic reports and, more rarely, anthropometric data. Reviews of these earlier speculations have been given by Bijlmer (1922) and Heyerdahl (1952).
The Epidemiology Of Intestinal Parasites In Papua New Guinea
Authors: Barnish Guy
Published: November 2023

Hookworm infections are indigenous throughout the country. The predominant species is Necator americanus, which has the highest prevalence in the coastal areas, but can still attain 70 per cent in the higher altitude regions. Ancylostoma duodenale has been found in a few coastal areas and at Kaiapit in the Markham Valley but has never been recorded from the highlands. It is possible that the relatively few reported cases are of zoonotic origin.
Medical Anthropology In Papua New Guinea: A Challenge
Authors: Jenkins Carol
Published: November 2023

Compared with other aspects of anthropology (reviewed by Gardner and Weiner, Chapter 5), medical anthropology is very underdeveloped in Papua New Guinea. Although a large body of information regarding health and disease which is relevant to the interests of medical anthropology has been collected, the data often lack cultural descriptions. Ethnographers, on the other hand, often make observations of importance to medical anthropology, but do so tangentially to their main topics of study.
Shock Waves on Earth and in Space
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P
Published: November 2023

The term ‘shock wave’ is in wide usage today in both the figurative and the literal sense. We read of it in the daily press when some romance or exploit occurs which ‘sends shock waves around the world’. Fortunately, in such cases, the instantaneous physical damage may be small compared to that wrought by shock waves occurring in nature—such as lightning, volcanic explosions, meteor impacts, and earthquakes—or those created by man with chemical and nuclear weapons.
Brushless Electric Machines and Drives: Comparison Criteria and Results
Authors: Boldea I
Published: November 2023

Applied motion control is performed mostly by electric drives. Motion control is defined as torque, speed and position control.
Field Distribution and Inductance Computation
Authors: Boldea I
Published: November 2023

Electromagnetic field distribution in reluctance synchronous machines (RSMs) is paramount to their analysis. It is the basis for the computation of concentrated parameters - mainly inductances.
Cageless-Rotor Rsms: Identification and Performance
Authors: Boldea I
Published: November 2023

To assess RSM performance it is very important to identify it, that is, to introduce a realistic mathematical circuit model.
Driving Control Without Motion Sensors
Authors: Boldea I
Published: November 2023

In many applications a 10/1 up to 100/1 speed control ratio is sufficient. For such cases the elimination of motion (position and speed) sensors would render the drives less expensive and more reliable. For sinusoidal current mode, under steady state, the primary frequency of the stator w  1 is equal to the rotor speed ωro(ω1 = ωro)·.
Generator Mode
Authors: Boldea I
Published: November 2023

The high performance reluctance machines presented so far may also be used as autonomous electric generators. When electronically assisted, we may distinguish three main situations. One refers to the d.c. output voltage controlled reluctance generator when the PWM inverter with capacitor d.c. link filter (used for driving) turns into a controlled rectifier which also provides for machine self-excitation.
Machine Design Aspects
Authors: Boldea I
Published: November 2023

The design of reluctance synchronous machines refers to electromagnetic, thermal (heating-cooling), and mechanical aspects. As the thermal and mechanical design aspects are very similar to those of other electric motors with stator-only electrical losses, they will not be treated here.
Thin films
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

Thin-film structures provide an important technology for making optical components with a desired surface reflectivity, either highly reflecting for such applications as laser mirrors, or minimally reflecting for the surfaces of a lens. The physics of operation and design is, of course, that of interference. There are also very insightful links with the transmission lines of §1.8. Consider Fig. 6.1, which is a miniature version of Fig. 6.4 on p. 137. A stack consisting of several thin layers of transparent dielectric has been deposited on a glass substrate. Light is incident from the left; some is reflected, some is transmitted. Within each of the thin layers there will be two waves, one travelling to the right, one travelling to the left. The amplitudes of all these waves are determined physically by Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations, and in particular by the boundary conditions: E  tangential and H  tangential are continuous.
Image formation: diffraction theory
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 1, we gave ray-optics descriptions of the process by which a lens or mirror forms an image of some object. Additionally, in Chapter 3, we learned how diffraction affects the resolution of such an optical system, resolution meaning its ability to form a fine-detailed image. In these previous treatments, we assumed that all points on an object radiated incoherently (relative to each other), though this assumption was not always drawn attention to. Such an assumption is reasonable if the object is self-luminous, or if it is illuminated by light from ‘all directions’, thereby giving a coherence area of order λ on the object. There is, however, an obvious opposite limit: where the object is illuminated with complete transverse coherence across its area. The physics of image formation must be different for this case, at least in its details. This is the central theme of the present chapter.
Introduction: Italy and the Renaissance
Authors: Najemy John M
Published: November 2023

Italian history between 1300 and 1550 is ineluctably tied to the Renaissance. Yet each is in a sense larger than the other. Italy’s history encompasses more than the cultural Renaissance, and the Renaissance similarly extends beyond Italy in its ramifications and influences. But neither can be understood without the other. The chronological parameters of this volume coincide with a broad definition of the Renaissance in Italy, and one of our purposes is to raise the question of how the one is related to the other. In introducing the politics, society, religion, culture, economy, and intellectual history of Italy in these centuries, we seek to depict the environment in which the Renaissance occurred and some of its chief manifestations. But this is a history of Italy in the period of the Renaissance, not a history of the Renaissance. Knowing however that many readers will come to these pages from an interest in the Renaissance, it seems appropriate in this introduction to sketch a broad interpretation of the larger connections between Italian history and the Renaissance over these two and a half centuries.
The popolo
Authors: Zorzi Andrea
Published: November 2023

In the thirteenth century political regimes were established in many Italian communes in which the ‘popolo’ participated for the first time. Until then power had been the prerogative of nobles and the knightly aristocracy, but the advent of the popolo would affect the political development of Italy for a long time and make it distinctive. What was the popolo? Broadly speaking, it consisted of the middle ranks of urban society and of families that were not as old as the aristocratic lineages. It is more difficult to mark them off from those lower on the social ladder. ‘Popolo’ should not be given the modern connotations of the ‘people’. It did not include groups at the bottom, or on the margins, such as unskilled workers, hired labourers, peasants, or the poor. The base of the popolo consisted of self employed artisans organized in occupational guilds, skilled workers, masters and foremen, small traders and entrepreneurs, small property owners, notaries, teachers, and doctors. But the political leadership was usually taken by merchants, some of whom engaged in long-distance trade and banking, others in regional and local commerce. In short, the popolo was a heterogeneous group drawn from different social and occupational classes with varying levels of wealth and culture and sometimes divergent interests. Its two key components were the merchants and the artisans, and the shifting relations between them determined the political fate of popular movements and governments.
The South
Authors: Abulafia David
Published: November 2023

The aim of this chapter is to examine the history of the Italian South in the context of the Italian peninsula as a whole. Reference to most standard histories of Renaissance Italy, whether concerned with culture, politics, economy, or society, reveals a chasm in the writing of Italian history: the South, which nowadays claims with some reason to have been neglected by modern politicians and industrialists, has also suffered neglect at the hands of historians. It was not always so. Jacob Burckhardt saw in Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, king of Sicily and Holy Roman Emperor, the precursor of the princes of Renaissance Italy who owed much in his methods of rule and cultural interests to the model of ‘despotism’ provided by formerly Islamic Sicily.
Introduction
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: November 2023

Religions take shape in particular human cultures and they come to have distinctive social forms. Indeed, it is part of the belief-structure of most religions that there should be a particular society which protects and sustains their basic values and beliefs, within which one may pursue the ideal human goal, as defined within the society.

As religions become embodied in social forms of life, a number of tensions, polarities, and ambiguities arise which are important and perhaps in eliminable features of the phenomenon of religion. One polarity is the very fundamental one between the religious belief-system and the culture in which it is embodied. There are a number of possible relations between religion and culture, all of which have probably been exemplified in every fairly long-lasting religion, but each of which can be primarily associated with a specific religious tradition.
Judaism and the Nation of Israel
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: November 2023

In the tribal societies in which all religions arose it would be difficult to separate out a religious belief component from the social practices of the tribe. Rituals centered on annual events of hunting, planting, and major seasonal changes, and would have involved attempted communication with the spirit powers which controlled such things, and rites to ensure fertility and success in the hunt. Rites often continue after such beliefs die out: many people bring trees into their homes at Christmas and decorate them, without believing that they are dressing and feeding the tree god and invoking his power to bring Winter to an end.
Islam and the Universal Umma
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: November 2023

Islam is like Judaism in seeing the appropriate way to human fulfillment in obedience to a divinely revealed law, the Shari ‘a. It is unlike Judaism in positing this law as given to be followed by all humanity, and not just by one special community. The Qur’an accepts that the Hebrew Bible was the result of genuine prophetic revelation, but maintains that it contains misunderstandings and errors, due to tahrif,or corruption of the Scriptures, which the revelation given to Muhammad sets out to correct. One of these misunderstandings is the unique role given to the descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob by the Hebrew Bible. The Qur’an maintains that the prophetic revelation is universal, and the laws of God are meant to apply to all people without exception. Consequently, Islam aims to set out a law which can be the basis of all human social life. The way to true relationship with God is a way of living righteously in the divinely guided, just society. If one lives thus, one may be assured that God will raise one from death and welcome one into Paradise—the ultimate reward for the servants of God who freely and gladly submit to the divine will. It has often been claimed that Islam is more a religion of law than of theology. The way to fulfilment is the way of obedience to divine law, which is the way of obedience to God’s will.
Hinduism and the Sampradaya
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: November 2023

Judaism theoretically tries to construct a society which lives under the revealed law of a merciful Creator God, and can thereby be an exemplary pattern to the rest of the world. Islam theoretically attempts to create a global society living under the law of God, which will make it easier for people to achieve that fellowship with God that Muslims see as the Creator’s purpose. Buddhists theoretically form a Community of monks and nuns who renounce the world and its concerns, and pursue the path of final liberation from sorrow.

In practice, things are not quite like that. Israel is a secular state, and religious (rabbinic) Judaism is a set of very diverse groups scattered throughout the world, almost the only common feature of which is a strong commitment to ethical monotheism, and some sort of commitment to simply being Jewish. The umma of Islam is in fact identifiable with a particular group of national states, and with many minority groups of Muslims throughout the world. Attitudes within that umma vary considerably, and again the only common commitment is obedience to a God who commands social justice, mercy, and potentially universal fellowship among human beings. The Buddhist sangha is involved in a number of different ways with the governments of South-East Asian countries, and interrelates with lay organizations which are committed to varying programmes of social action and with encouraging greater compassion and sensitivity in the wider human society.
The Secular State
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: November 2023

In 1789 the American Revolution introduced to the world in a formal way the idea of a secular state. The first amendment to the constitution of the United States of America, drafted two years later, laid down that there would be ‘no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof’. The idea of a secular state was born.

In primal societies ‘religion’ is hard to distinguish from the general rituals and festivals of the tribe. Ancient Hebrew religion was a primal religion, in which the lives of the people were governed by laws that were inextricably religious, social, and political. Inevitably, however, religious and political leadership became separated. The ‘judges’ of Israel might have been religio-political leaders, but in a later age the kings and the prophets were different and often at odds with each other. The religious became partly supportive of, and partly critical of, the state. But there remained a close connection between political rule and religious practice. Rulers would no more claim to be neutral with regard to religious matters than they would with regard to moral and social matters. It is natural for there to be a generally agreed, state-supported religion, just as there is a general social agreement on modes of conduct and moral practices. This practice entered into the constitution of the states of modern Europe, and a principle almost universally accepted among the European nations after the Reformation was ‘Cujus regio, ejus religio’—let the religion of the people be that of the ruler.
The Church as a Teaching Community
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: November 2023

Whereas Judaism and Islam seek, generally speaking, to bring the world under the law of God, and Buddhism and Hinduism seek, on the whole, to renounce the world, it is typical of Christian faith to set up a tension between the religious community and the world which is both critical and putatively transformative. There have, it is true, been many attempts to set up a Christian state, but a key part of the tradition is that ‘the world’ is fallen, that ‘you cannot serve both God and Mammon’, and that the kingdom of Christ is not of this world.2 There have been Christian attempts to renounce the world, but the central doctrine of incarnation gives a value to earthly life that is hard to gainsay, and the hope for a renewal of the world by the Spirit of God is at the heart of Jesus’ teaching.

So, on the one hand, the world is corrupt, and the faithful are called out of the world to live in Christ, whom the world crucified.’ On the other hand, the world is created, indwelt, and redeemed by God, and the faithful are called to a ministry of reconciling the world to God.’1 This ambiguity enters into the heart of the Christian community itself. The faithful remain as part of the world, so that their community is one of sinners who stand before God to plead forgive ness. Yet the community of faith is called to be a community of saints, of those who are sanctified by the Spirit, and commanded to be a light to those in darkness.
The Church as a Charismatic Community
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: November 2023

I have suggested that the church can best exercise its proper teaching role by faithfully proclaiming its normative discernment of the divine nature and purpose, recorded in the Bible witness to the life of Jesus Jesus sent out the apostles to preach, exorcize, and heal, and the proclamation of the Word is perhaps the primary role of the church. This proclamation, however, is more than the presentation of a set of factual truths. What is proclaimed is the actual presence of the kingdom,’ the divine Spirit breaking into the world as an image and foreshadowing of the fulfillment of human potentiality in a community of love which God promises to all who respond in trust. The proclamation is the coming of God to a humanity in bondage, in the power of the Holy Spirit, to liberate from egoism and implant a new life of creativity, responsiveness, and love, to forgive, renew, and raise to eternal life in God. Through this proclamation, God gives new birth, as hearers respond in faith—or if they turn away, to that extent they remain in sin.
The Church as a Sacramental Community
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: November 2023

The Christian church is a distinctive religious society, in that it is a sacramental community. It is not, like Judaism, to be closely associated with a particular socio-political state. Despite the fact of the church’s historical ties to the Byzantine and Holy Roman Empires, and the attempt of some popes to assert political supremacy, the church is truly ‘catholic’, an international community, existing in many different political frameworks and cultures. It is not, like Islam, a society of obedience to divine law. It has no detailed code of divine law, but seeks to pattern its life on that of Jesus, empowered by the Spirit which was fully manifest in him. It seeks to live by an inward and personal union with Christ, as an organic unity (a ‘body’) which mediates Christ’s life to the world. It is not, like Buddhism, centered on a community of renouncers, leaving the world to attain nirvana. Despite the fact that there have always been groups of Christians who have cut themselves off from the secular world, the church as a whole is a community that seeks not to leave but to transform the world, liberating it from all that separates it from God, and shaping it to express the divine beauty. It is not, like some main forms of Hinduism, a society that seeks a way of individual release from the wheel of rebirth; it is a society that delineates the way to eternal life, life in conscious, communal, and continuing personal relationship to a Creator God who wills the fulfillment of creation.
Christian Theology in a Comparative Context
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: November 2023

Comparative theology is a co-operative enterprise. It is a way of doing theology in which scholars holding different world-views share together in the investigation of concepts of ultimate reality, the final human goal, and the way to achieve it. Naturally, each scholar will have a particular perspective. One might expect it to develop and deepen in the many conversations of comparative theology, but it will most probably remain the same in its fundamental elements, especially if the scholar is a member of a religious community.

The series of four books which this volume completes are intended to form a contribution to comparative theology. But the conversations upon which they are founded have taken place outside the text, and a proper comparative theology would need to include written responses and original contributions from members of many traditions. So one might best see these four books as a systematic Christian theology, undertaken in a comparative context.