bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Natural Reason, Natural Rights, and Governmental Neutrality Toward Religion
Authors: Audi Robert
Published: September 2009

This article explores the normative basis of church-state separation and of some separationist principles that apply to the conduct of individual citizens. It states institutional principles for the guidance of governmental policy toward religious institutions; it articulates citizenship standards for political conduct on the part of individuals; and it explores the case for affirming these two kinds of standards on the basis of what, historically, has been called natural reason. A major question for the article is whether natural reason may be properly considered to be secular, in a sense that implies normative authority that is not dependent on religion or theology and is also sufficient to justify affirming natural rights, such as rights to freedom of action, religious liberty, and equal treatment under the law. The article argues that natural reason may be viewed as secular in this sense and that, as has not been generally noticed, this poses a challenge to liberal political theory. On the plausible assumption that democracies may not properly assume that natural reason cannot—independently of religious premises—establish theism, they lack an adequate basis for a robust separation of church and state and cannot justify the far-reaching governmental neutrality toward religion endorsed by liberal political theory. The article assesses this challenge to liberal political theory, sketches a kind of governmental neutrality consistent with a strong conception of natural reason, and proposes a principle of toleration that supports both a desirable balance between an appropriate secularity in government and a high degree of religious liberty in society.
Plotinus on the Generation of Matter
Authors: Phillips John
Published: September 2009

This study reconsiders Denis O’Brien’s controversial thesis that it was Plotinus’ position that the ‘partial’ soul generates matter. O’Brien relies principally on two core texts, 3.4 (15).1 and 3.9 (13).3, where he finds convincing evidence for his thesis. In the present study I take two approaches. First, I demonstrate that if we accept O’Brien’s thesis, then we are compelled to accept as well that Plotinus is guilty of self-contradiction in his doctrine of soul’s descent. Secondly, I offer a different interpretation of what Plotinus has in mind as the source of matter’s generation in 3.4.1 and 3.9.3. In several passages Plotinus states that the product of the partial soul’s creative activity is the “trace” of soul that, in turn, combines with matter to form the ‘qualified body.’ I argue that it is this trace-soul, not matter, that Plotinus is referring to in these texts.
On The Necessity of Individual Forms in Plotinus
Authors: Sikkema James
Published: September 2009

Each particular possesses its own form by virtue of its rational principle by which it expresses its universal in its unified and intelligible individuality. Logos is able to express its form uniquely because of the infinite possibilities inherent within and among the perfect, immutable Forms (eidos); all of the possibilities of formal expression exist within the intelligible cosmos. Insofar as this is the case, particular forms can be identified qua individual, by virtue of their intrinsic unity; the oneness of each individual thing, by which it is distinguished from all others, is owing to the One, in which and by which all things have their being and intelligibility.
Initial Development and Genesis of Hurricane Dolly (2008)
Authors: Fang Juan , Zhang Fuqing
Published: September 2009

Based on a successful cloud-resolving simulation with the Weather Research and Forecasting Model, this study examines key processes that led to the early development of Hurricane Dolly (2008). The initial development of Dolly consisted of three stages: (i) an initial burst of convection; (ii) stratiform development, dry intrusion, and thermodynamic recovery; and (iii) reinvigoration of moist convection and rapid intensification. Advanced diagnosis of the simulation—including the use of vorticity budget analysis, contour frequency analysis diagrams, and two-dimensional spectral decomposition and filtering—suggests that the genesis of Dolly is essentially a “bottom-up” process. The enhancement of the low-level vorticity is mainly ascribed to the stretching effect, which converges the ambient vorticity through stretching enhanced by moist convection. In the rapid intensification stage, smaller-scale positive vorticity anomalies resulting from moist convection are wrapped into the storm center area under the influence of background convergent flow. The convergence and accompanying aggregation of vorticity anomalies project the vorticity into larger scales and finally lead to the spinup of the system-scale vortex. On the other hand, although there is apparent stratiform development in the inner-core areas of incipient storm after the initial burst of convection, little evidence is found to support the genesis of Dolly through downward extension of the midlevel vorticity, a key process in the “top-down” thinking.
A Last Saturation Analysis of ENSO Humidity Variability in the Subtropical Pacific
Authors: Hurley John V. , Galewsky Joseph
Published: September 2009

Water vapor tracers of last saturation were used in an atmospheric tracer transport model to evaluate ENSO variability in the generation of the dry air that defines the subtropical middle troposphere over the North Pacific. Fifteen Northern Hemisphere winters, including El Niño, La Niña, and ENSO-neutral seasons, were evaluated using both Northern Hemisphere and global last saturation water vapor tracer configurations. During El Niño northern winter, the free troposphere over the subtropical North Pacific is both drier and warmer than during La Niña.

The probability distributions of the last saturation position for the dry air in the middle troposphere were evaluated over the subtropical North Pacific and were found to be further poleward, at a higher altitude, and more westerly in their components during the warm phase compared to the cold phase. During warm phase (cold phase) northern winter, 57% (49%) of the air at 20°N and 633 hPa over the North Pacific was last saturated poleward of 20°N and above 500 hPa. Coherency was demonstrated between tropical sea surface temperatures, extratropical atmospheric saturation, and subtropical aridity of the middle troposphere. The stronger westerly component of last saturation during the warm phase ties ENSO-variable subtropical aridity to midlatitude westerlies when there is enhanced baroclinicity and an equatorward migration of the Pacific storm track.

Humidity reconstructions from the water vapor tracers capture observed ENSO humidity variability and demonstrate that it can be explained in terms of changes in the location of last saturation, and not by changes in the temperature field. This study shows how teleconnections between the tropical ocean and the extratropical upper troposphere can impact the humidity of the middle troposphere of the subtropical dry regions.
Jet Formation and Evolution in Baroclinic Turbulence with Simple Topography
Authors: Thompson Andrew F.
Published: September 2009

Satellite altimetry and high-resolution ocean models indicate that the Southern Ocean comprises an intricate web of narrow, meandering jets that undergo spontaneous formation, merger, and splitting events, as well as rapid latitude shifts over periods of weeks to months. The role of topography in controlling jet variability is explored using over 100 simulations from a doubly periodic, forced-dissipative, two-layer quasigeostrophic model. The system is forced by a baroclinically unstable, vertically sheared mean flow in a domain that is large enough to accommodate multiple jets. The dependence of (i) meridional jet spacing, (ii) jet variability, and (iii) domain-averaged meridional transport on changes in the length scale and steepness of simple sinusoidal topographical features is analyzed.

The Rhines scale, ℓβ = 2πVe/β, where Ve is an eddy velocity scale and β is the barotropic potential vorticity gradient, measures the meridional extent of eddy mixing by a single jet. The ratio ℓβ /ℓT, where ℓT is the topographic length scale, governs jet behavior. Multiple, steady jets with fixed meridional spacing are observed when ℓβ ≫ ℓT or when ℓβ ≈ ℓT. When ℓβ < ℓT, a pattern of perpetual jet formation and jet merger dominates the time evolution of the system. Zonal ridges systematically reduce the domain-averaged meridional transport, while two-dimensional, sinusoidal bumps can increase transport by an order of magnitude or more. For certain parameters, bumpy topography gives rise to periodic oscillations in the jet structure between purely zonal and topographically steered states. In these cases, transport is dominated by bursts of mixing associated with the transition between the two regimes. Topography modifies local potential vorticity (PV) gradients and mean flows; this can generate asymmetric Reynolds stresses about the jet core and can feed back on the conversion of potential energy to kinetic energy through baroclinic instability. Both processes contribute to unsteady jet behavior. It is likely that these processes play a role in the dynamic nature of Southern Ocean jets.
Southern Ocean Response to Relative Velocity Wind Stress Forcing
Authors: Hutchinson David K. , Hogg Andrew Mc C. , Blundell Jeffrey R.
Published: September 2009

An eddy-resolving quasigeostrophic model of the Southern Ocean coupled to a dynamic atmospheric mixed layer is used to compare the performance of two different wind stress parameterization schemes. The first is the standard quadratic drag law, based on atmospheric velocity alone, whereas the second (more exact) formulation is based on the difference between ocean and atmosphere velocities. The two different schemes give very similar magnitudes of mean stress; however, the relative velocity scheme has substantially lower power input, resulting in a weaker eddy field, and consequently, greater circumpolar transport. These results are explored in terms of the existing theories of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (including eddy saturation and eddy damping) and the implications for modeling the Southern Ocean are discussed.
Local Contexts, Social Risks and Social Spending Preferences
Authors: Sevä Ingemar Johansson
Published: September 2009

In this article, I analyse the relationship between local context and individuals’ social spending preferences in Sweden. The contextual unit studied is the municipality and the analyses are based on both individual-level survey data ( n = 5,324) and municipal-level data. Multi -level modelling is used to handle data at both levels simultaneously. It is suggested that the presence of social risks in the local community affects whether individuals are willing to support high social spending. It is argued that the interdependent nature of certain social risks, such as local unemployment rates, depopulation and labour market structure, is an important factor explaining contextual influence on social spending preferences. The results indicate that the prevalence of social risks in a municipality affect the willingness of local inhabitants to support high social spending. Support for high social spending tends to be greater, taking individual-level determinants into account, in municipalities suffering from unemployment, ill health, depopulation, a low tax base and an industry sector dominated by agriculture and manufacturing. This finding also indicates that contextual influence on political attitudes might not be restricted to interpersonal interaction, as often suggested in past research.
Impediments and Imperatives in Restructuring Higher Education
Authors: Benjamin Roger , Carroll Stephen J.
Published: September 2009

There are ominous signs that America's higher education sector is declining. However, why have higher education institutions and their leaders had such difficulty in addressing the problems the sectorfaces? We argue that basic assumptions built into the governance of higher education obstruct an effective response. After presenting the assumptions, we make a case for redesigning the structure of higher education governance.
Humanizing the Comprehensive High School: A Proposal for Reform
Authors: McQuillan Patrick J.
Published: September 2009

Adopting a problem-centered approach to school reform, this article contends that restructuring American secondary schools first requires understanding the “inhumane” nature of the comprehensive high school, a structure that promotes neither healthy relations between students and teachers, nor the academic development of students, nor the professional growth of teachers, nor the engagement of students as democratic citizens. In contrast, humanizing the comprehensive high school requires that teachers have the opportunity to do what is expected of them, that is, to know their students so that they can both provide support and hold them to expectations that encourage growth and maturity. In addition, to counter the inauthentic learning so many students experience, it is argued that schools “personalize” students 'education by creating structures and promoting teaching practices that allow students to know one another better, that allow teachers and students to know one another better, and that accord students a voice in school matters.
The Concept and Practice of a School-Based Management Contest: Integration of Leadership Development and Organizational Learning
Authors: Devos Geert , Broeck Herman Van den , Vanderheyden Karlien
Published: September 2009

Since 1993, he Vlerick School of Management at the University of Ghent (Belgium) has developed and tested the concept of a school-based management contest that facilitates individual and organizational learning in schools. The management contest introduces a comprehensive approach of the professional development of principals and the organizational learning of schools. This article describes the conceptual framework, the development process and the evaluation of the program.
The Equifinality of War Termination
Authors: Stanley Elizabeth A. , Sawyer John P.
Published: September 2009

The authors’ theory contributes an alternative domestic politics pathway to traditional bargaining models of war termination. In bargaining models, the rational updating process that produces an overlapping bargaining space can develop a significant lag, which extends the war beyond a logical ending point. The authors posit that a change in the domestic governing coalition is often necessary to kick-start this updating process once it has become bogged down through preference, information, and entrapment obstacles. The authors demonstrate that domestic coalition shifts are a critical path to peace, using survival analysis techniques on Bennett and Stam’s (1996) war-level data set of wars (1862-1990) and a new belligerent-level data set of wars (1945-2006). These tests show that because war policies can become institutionalized over time, there is a very strong link between coalition shifts and war termination.
Characterizing, Measuring, and Validating the Temporal Consistency of Live—Virtual—Constructive Environments
Authors: Hodson Douglas D. , Baldwin Rusty O.
Published: September 2009

A distinguishing characteristic of interactive live—virtual—constructive (LVC) environments is the relaxation of data consistency to improve the performance and scalability of the underlying distributed simulation. Relaxing data consistency improves the interactive performance of the environment because autonomous distributed simulation applications can continue executing and responding to local inputs without waiting for the most current shared data values. Scalability also improves since live and simulated entities from distant geographic locations can be interconnected through relatively high-latency networks. We introduce a temporal consistency model to formally define consistency for the dynamic shared state of a LVC environment for both continuous and discrete data objects. The level of inconsistency tolerated by a LVC is found to be a function of the accuracy and timeliness requirements for the distributed data objects. These requirements are mapped to specific time intervals for which data objects are considered valid. We also develop a real-time algorithm to compute the temporal consistency of individual data objects within the LVC.
Asset Value Enhancement of Singapore’s Public Housing Main Upgrading Programme (MUP) Policy: A Real Option Analysis Approach
Authors: Ho David Kim Hin , Hui Eddie Chi-man , Ibrahim Muhammad Faishal Bin
Published: September 2009

The main upgrading programme (MUP) is a major policy implemented by the Singapore Housing Development Board (HDB) since the 1990s. This heavily subsidised policy is highly targeted in order to enhance the social and economic value of public housing in Singapore. It benefits HDB households residing in the older HDB housing estates in terms of both an enhanced asset value of the household’s flat and a quality living environment. An HDB flat owner whose precinct is selected for upgrading under the MUP policy is envisaged to be holding a call option to upgrade his flat, as this option to upgrade is valuable and it has an opportunity to command a higher price in the HDB resale market. This paper estimates the option premiums for upgrading by utilising the intuitive and explicit numerical method solution of the binomial real option pricing model and the Samuelson—McKean closed-form solution. The embedded real option premiums under the MUP policy are estimated at S$10 300 and S$2 000 for the popular three-room HDB flat and four-room HDB flat respectively. It is also found that government subsidies have a significant impact on the option premiums.
Does Basic Services Privatisation Benefit the Urban Poor? Some Evidence from Water Supply Privatisation in Thailand
Authors: Zaki Saeed , Nurul Amin A.T.M.
Published: September 2009

Access to safe water and sanitation has been a development priority for decades. This is also included in the millennium development goal targets. Meanwhile, privatisation of water supply continues to be a subject of intense debate, particularly as to its effects on the urban poor. The arguments for and against often reflect the intellectual divide between socialist ideals and neo-liberal pragmatism. Key issues are access, quality and price. This paper reports findings from an investigation of Thailand’s first water supply privatisation scheme implemented in 1998. Household-level data for the poor, defined by community and income status, show a significant improvement in access to piped water despite an increase in the connection cost and monthly charges. The associated benefits from access include improved water quality and service. A promising plus is the prospect of improvement in tenure status for the households living in informal settlements.
Diffuser spacing simplified
Authors: Dickson D. J.
Published: September 2009

An approach is suggested for simplifying the choice of correct spacing for ceiling diffusers. The method depends on satisfying an air change rate condition and a throw condition simultaneously. The air change rate condition is defined by the diffuser layout and ceiling height, expressed as a graph of diffuser spacing versus air flow per diffuser. The throw condition is the criterion for satisfactory air movement in the occupied space expressed as a relationship between throw and the distance to the next diffuser. It is envisaged that air change rate graphs could be drawn up for common diffuser layouts and ceiling heights. Diffuser throw data could then be made available as an overlay on transparent film so that the consequences of differing diffuser options would easily be ascertained by superposition of the throw condition onto graphs of constant air change rate.
Accumulation and separation of gases in central heating systems
Authors: Jelinek J. , Chapman N. R.
Published: September 2009

Gas accumulating in central heating systems consists mainly of nitrogen and hydrogen. The mechanisms of air entering the systems, gas transport and distribution are discussed. General conditions for effective separation and removal of the gas are postulated. These were applied to designing in principle and successful testing of a gas separating device.
An investigation of some errors due to the use of finite difference techniques for building heat transfer calculations
Authors: Waters J. R.
Published: September 2009

Errors in the application of finite difference methods to the solution of the heat conduction equation in building thermal models are examined. The discussion covers methods for treating multi-layer walls, and the effect of surface heat transfer on stability. Results are reported which show the effect of varying the size of the time and space increments in a typical finite difference building model.
The use of flux temperatures in thermal design
Authors: Davies M. G.
Published: September 2009

The term ‘flux temperature’ is used here to denote a quantity with the status of a driving temperature made up as the sum of another temperature and a heat flow term. The flux temperature so formed exemplifies Thévenin's theorem in a thermal situation. Some examples are given of its use in relation to building thermal design procedures.
Air conditioning for a rehabilitated London landmark
Authors: Smith Tom
Published: September 2009

The remodelling and modernisation of the 160-year old headquarters of Coutts Bank at Charing Cross, London, provided an opportunity for an original and creative air conditioning design to contribute to the high quality environment that was desired. Heat reclamation involving the use of a heat pump was an essential part of the design. A detailed description is given of the design considerations, system selection, equipment installed, and controls, all from the standpoint of energy conservation.
The organisational flexibility of building services contractors
Authors: Lansley Peter
Published: September 2009

In the mid 1970s, following major changes in economic conditions, many building services contractors experienced difficulty in applying their previously successful approaches in business. There was a need for increased flexibility in organisation and management to meet a range of unfamiliar and threatening issues. Those factors identified as important to achieving this flexibility challenge many traditional assumptions about the effective organisation and management of the building services firm.
Thermal performance in practice of cavity walls insulated with urea-formaldehyde foam
Authors: Siviour J. B.
Published: September 2009

Measurements show that in practice urea-formaldehyde insulated cavity walls have U-values of about 0.65 W/m2K instead of the conventionally calculated value of about 0.5 W/m2K.
The simulation of a heat pump heating a highly insulated dwelling
Authors: Henderson W. D.
Published: September 2009

The dynamic thermal behaviour of a highly insulated dwelling and a monovalent air to water heat pump heating system have been simulated in combination. The building model employs the finite difference method to predict time and spatially dependent energy flows resulting from meteorological stimuli, ventilation and occupancy. Heat pump behaviour is simulated using static performance expressions and also two dynamic models with similar steady state output but different transient characteristics. The dynamic models are intended to represent the range of transient heat pump performance observed in experimental studies. Simulations of the building and heating system have been performed over a range of meteorological conditions by sampling a real weather data set at regular intervals throughout a heating season. Results indicated wide variations in the continuous heating energy demand pattern for a highly insulated dwelling. This caused the heating system to operate at low load for most of the heating season and placed greater importance on the dynamic behaviour of the heat pump at part load. The predicted fall in seasonal performance caused by the cycling of the heating system at part load was between 3 and 7 per cent, depending on the assumed dynamic behaviour of the heat pump.
Users' understanding of thermostats
Authors: Dale H. C. A. , Smith P.
Published: September 2009

This brief study examined the idea that the misunderstanding of thermostats is related to prior experience of direct heating systems. We therefore tested young persons from a well-to-do area who had been brought up with central heating. A substantial proportion of them failed to understand either (1) how secondary inputs would affect the system, or (2) that the thermostat did not control power. Curiously, those with operating experience showed less understanding than those without.
The prediction of long term monthly mean daily solar gains through vertical single and double clear glazing at sites distributed throughout the UK
Authors: Rodgers G. G. , Page J. K. , Colquhoun I. D. , Thompson J. L.
Published: September 2009

A simple approximate method has been developed for estimating long term monthly mean daily solar heat gains per unit area for vertical windows for sites within the UK. The method enables the monthly mean solar gains through vertical single and double glazing of any orientation to be estimated for each of the Department of Energy degree day regions, using a simple desk calculator in conjunction with the tables provided. The window solar heat gain prediction method is also suitable for computer modelling and has been incorporated in the University of Sheffield, Department of Building Science interactive computer program ENGY which estimates the total monthly heating energy requirements of buildings and the associated energy costs, for different Department of Energy degree day regions taking account of mean monthly heat gains through windows. In the development of the prediction method, extensive use was made of existing solar energy computer programs developed with support from the Science and Engineering Research Council. These models had been extensively validated against European data, and, in a modified form, are being adopted as a standard EEC recommended calculation procedure. These more complex programs for estimating hourly heat gains take full account of glazing angle of incidence effects. They were used as the tool with which to develop the simplified solar gain methodology presented in this paper. The predictions of mean solar heat gains are based on long term observed means of sunshine in the UK between 1941–1970. Therefore, the method must not be used for the study of short term variations from place to place in any particular year. The method provides such a simple technique for accurately estimating average solar heat gains for clear single and double glazing across the UK that it becomes unnecessary for UK designers to rely any longer solely on the Kew solar design data, which is not representative of the whole country. The gains estimated are the gains based on 100 per cent utilisation of the transmitted energy. Preliminary procedures for estimating actual utilisation are provided. The utilisation will depend on the weight of the building.
Practical energy conservation in sheltered housing
Authors: Fox David
Published: September 2009

No information appears to be published by building owners regarding energy consumption perhaps because it would be related to one particular building and therefore of little interest. There is no doubt however that their fuel costs for heating and hot water could be reduced considerably if some of the factors affecting consumption such as the overall plant efficiency and the shape of the building could be identified. The Anchor Housing Association has the largest stock of sheltered housing in the country and the paper shows how the fuel records of these buildings can be used to save energy, to demonstrate the effectiveness of various conservation measures and to illustrate the considerable variation in consumption between them.
Domestic heating systems and their selection
Authors: Randell J. E.
Published: September 2009

Current trends in domestic heating practice are reviewed and the effects of higher standards of building insulation on heating system selection and performance are considered. Characteristics of the basic types of heating system are examined in the light of increased energy consciousness. Alternative design philosophies are identified and the practical implications of low energy buildings in the selection and design of heating systems are discussed. The arguments are illustrated by reference to experimental low energy houses constructed in Salford and the results of investigative experiments on the houses are considered from a practical viewpoint.
Weather and solar data: A review of information in the CIBS Guide Section A2 (1982)
Authors: Petherbridge P. , Oughton D. R.
Published: September 2009

A review is made of the weather and solar data in Section A2 (1982) of the CIBS Guide, resulting from the greater availability of information since the 1970 (IHVE) Guide was written and of the development of computer-based analytical techniques whereby coincident weather parameters can be conveniently studied. UK cold and warm weather data, wind and precipitation are summarised. Daylight availability is much better understood as the result of a new analysis applied to more recent measurements of diffuse (sky) illuminances. The principles adopted to analyse ‘coincident weather’ are discussed. These have led to new “design maxima” of solar irradiances for SE England together with their coincident dry-bulb temperatures. Monthly weather data for Kew have been divided into ten bands' for use where a thermal computer program cannot handle weather tapes. The simulation of hourly solar irradiances using newly-introduced direct and diffuse radiation factors is described. Revised sol-air temperatures reflect a slightly different treatment of long-wave loss' and radiation maps give the availability of solar energy over the UK.
Lumping radiant and convective exchange in a room
Authors: Davies M. G.
Published: September 2009

The convective heat exchange between the air in a room and one of its bounding surfaces at Tw can be described in terms of mean air temperature Tai, (which can be estimated from a single observation), together with the convective heat transfer coefficient hc. A radiation heat transfer coefficient hr can be written down for a simple system, but the transfer of heat by radiation from the several surfaces of a room to one of them cannot be described exactly in terms of a single temperature (to be estimated from a single observation), and hr as it stands. Yet for design purposes it is useful to postulate the existence of such a mean surface or radiant temperature Ts and to treat a weighted mean of Ts and Tai as a room index temperature, Ti. The heat flux from the room as a whole to a bounding surface at Tw is then computed in a design context as (Ti—Tw)hi, where hi is an equivalent heat transfer coefficient based on hc and hr. An account is given of the development of the ideas relating to this heat flow. The earliest work simply considered the mechanisms separately. Later the heat flow was treated as driven by the air temperature Tai but with a coefficient hi = hc + ∊hr. (∊ is surface emittance). The workers at the UK Building Research Establishment, on the basis of a simple model of radiant heat exchange, generalised this so that Ti became 1/3 Tai + 2/3 Ts and hi became hc + 6/5 Ehr. (E is a function of emittance). In the CIBS 1970 Guide, hi appears as hc + Ehr. The present author, using the full expression for radiant exchange, has demonstrated optimal versions for this expression; they are based on solutions which minimise the differences between the consequences of the exact model for radiant exchange, and the simplified model needed for design calculations. The emittance for each surface is introduced explicitly. Attention is drawn to the temperature node at which longwave radiation from a hot body heat source is introduced, and also to the difference in concept of an index temperature and a mean observable temperature.
Window-opening behaviour in office buildings
Authors: Warren P. R. , Parkins L. M.
Published: September 2009

In countries such as the United Kingdom that possess a temperate climate, the majority of buildings are not air-conditioned but depend upon natural ventilation and relatively simple heating systems. Openable windows are used to reduce the incidence of summertime overheating. Studies on housing have indicated, however, that window opening also occurs extensively through the heating season, resulting in substantial heat loss and consequent energy consumption. This paper describes the results of an initial investigation to determine whether the same phenomenon occurs in office buildings. Observations were made of the use of windows in five office buildings over a three-month period, covering a range of weather conditions. The proportion of windows open was found to be closely correlated with external air temperature and to be affected, also, by solar gain and wind speed. A more detailed analysis suggested two modes of window use, one related to the need to maintain adequate indoor air quality and the second to the need to control indoor air temperature. The results, although only for a limited range of office buildings, indicated that the heat loss resulting from the use of windows, rather than other forms of heating control, could make a significant contribution to thermal performance and energy consumption. It is concluded that further work is required to develop methods for taking window use into account in building design and performance calculations.
Influence of heat metering on district heating scheme consumption
Authors: Fisk D. J. , Jebson D. A.
Published: September 2009

The effect on a UK district heating scheme's energy consumption of charging by flat rate and by evaporative radiator meters has been estimated. Data drawn from three sites gave a conservative estimate of a 12 per cent reduction in boilerhouse consumption. The average figure observed was 21 per cent, with a possible reduction at design conditions in average weekly load of around 20 per cent. The sites consisted of largely three and four bedroom accommodation. The applicability of the conclusions to other sites will of course depend on local site circumstances.
The CIBS Guide: A personal view
Authors: Holmes M. J.
Published: September 2009

The CIBS Guide is the main reference source for most engineers in the industry. It contains a wealth of knowledge; unfortunately it is not perfect. There is confusion between the need for a ‘textbook’ type of presentation, and standard reference data. This paper presents a biased view of the Guide, and attempts by means of selected examples, to suggest how an ideal (in the Author's eyes) Guide might be structured.
Peak heating loads in houses
Authors: Hitchin E. R.
Published: September 2009

The results of a series of computer simulations show how peak heating load varies with changes of building structure, insulation level and period of heating. It is shown that timber-frame houses have inherently lower total heating requirements but higher peak loads, and that higher plant size ratios are needed in highly insulated houses for a given preheat period. A sizing equation has been derived from the simulations. A simple method of evaluating two parameters is needed to enable it to be easily used as a design tool. The paper also discusses the importance of the assumed characteristics of heating systems and the choice of external design temperatures.
Appraisal techniques for methods of calculating the thermal performance of buildings
Authors: Bloomfield D.
Published: September 2009

This paper gives a summary of the work on validation of thermal calculation methods being performed at the Building Research Establishment (BRE) and of a collaborative project being conducted with the Science and Engineering Research Council (SERC). Related work within the International Energy Agency (IEA) Task VIII is also discussed. The BRE and SERC work encompasses examination of the theoretical basis of the physical model underlying a calculation method, numerical analysis aspects of the solution techniques employed, analytical tests, inter-model comparisons, sensitivity analyses and comparisons with experimentally derived results. Emphasis is placed upon a modular approach, building up from simple test conditions. Comparison with experiments is seen as the final and essential stage in the process, and emphasis is placed upon the need to establish levels of accuracy in the data obtained and to identify the consequences of these on the parameters being compared. Some preliminary results are presented.
Computers in buildings, building and building research
Authors: Wright Richard N.
Published: September 2009

Advances in technologies of electronic computation are revolutionising practices in all phases of building including design, on-site construction and end use. These advances have potential for increasing the usefulness, safety and economy of buildings. However, vigorous, well-focused research is required to achieve these potential benefits and to avoid potential problems. Some current research, development and applications are cited to illustrate the advances in building practices that electronic computation can provide. Expectations are presented for computer-integrated building practices. Research, in traditional and in new areas, required to realise these expectations is described. The International Council for Building Research, Studies and Documentation can help the worldwide building community realise the potential of electronic computation for the improvement of buildings and building practices.
The analysis of the factors affecting energy use in the commercial buildings of the Wellington CBD
Authors: Baird George , Donn Michael R. , Pool Frank
Published: September 2009

This paper describes the methods used and the results obtained during a study of energy consumption in the commercial buildings of the Central Business District of Wellington, the capital city of New Zealand. Data was collected on the energy consumption, floor area and occupancy of 1,107 buildings, together with their design and operational characteristics. Analysis of the data demonstrated that both floor area and number of occupants provide useful bases for comparison of the intensity of energy use in buildings. Categorising premises within buildings into activity groups produced significantly different mean energy intensities for each activity. The factor most often associated with energy use for all activity groups, and apparently, therefore, the major determinant of energy use in these buildings, was the complexity and degree of centralisation of the HVAC services. The information derived from this data constitutes the most comprehensive picture yet produced for a major collection of New Zealand's commercial buildings. It provides a basis for comparisons with other centre's data and for the eventual production of a national data base.
Strategy for measuring infiltration rates in large, multicelled and naturally ventilated buildings using a single tracer gas
Authors: Perera M. D. A. E. S. , Walker R. R.
Published: September 2009

Large, multicelled and naturally ventilated buildings pose many inherent problems for the measurement of overall infiltration rates using tracer gases. Considering a single tracer gas decay technique, the most obvious problems are: (a) local variations in infiltration, (b) imperfect internal mixing of the air, and (c) practical difficulties in distributing (i.e. seeding) the tracer gas and subsequently obtaining air samples. This paper proposes a relatively simple technique which avoids these problems and which, if successful, makes a breakthrough in the measurement of infiltration rates in large and complex buildings. By considering a multicell model, it is shown that it can be sufficient to seed part of a building with a single tracer gas in order to measure the overall infiltration rate to a good approximation.
The measurement of airflows using a rapid response tracer gas technique
Authors: Edwards R. E. , Howarth A. T.
Published: September 2009

The multiple tracer gas technique of I'Anson et al.1 has been improved, in order to increase the rate at which samples can be taken. Using parallel gas chromatographic separation columns, in conjunction with an electron capture detector, it is now possible to take an air/tracer gas sample every 30 seconds in the case of a 2-zone ventilation and air movement test. Rapid sampling enables a new, simplified analysis of the air movement between two connected zones to be employed. This analysis derives ventilation rates and intercell airflows simultaneously. A specimen set of results for 2 cell ventilation/air movement is given.
Energy requirements for space and water heating in a group of public-sector houses—appraisal of field trials
Authors: Rosell Joan , Morgan Roger
Published: September 2009

The energy consumption for space and water heating is computed for a group of seven public-sector houses, over a particular period of time. The results are compared with measured solid fuel and electricity consumption for the same period. Good agreement is obtained except in cases where the heating system allows the occupiers to use very intermittent heating. The efficiency of solid fuel heating in three of the houses, taking both the appliance and the heat transfer system into account, is deduced from the results, and is found to be between 52 and 54.5 per cent.
The SERC Meteorological Database
Authors: Page J. K. , Gibbons C. J. , Lowe R. J.
Published: September 2009

This note describes the SERC Meteorological Database, developed to meet the needs of building scientists and architects for a set of easily accessible long-term hourly weather data for the UK. The database contains data for seven weather stations for a period of about eight years. The raw data has also been summarised to produce daily, monthly and yearly figures. Both raw and summary data can be assessed using the SERC computer network SERCNET, the latter interactively. Future developments of the system include increased accessibility for users, more user-friendly literature and software and the addition to the database of Bracknell vertical surface radiation measurements.
Air infiltration and ventilation in relation to the thermal performance of dwelling houses in Poland
Authors: Nantka M. B.
Published: September 2009

This paper describes part of a research programme on energy consumption in the Polish building sector. The work, carried out from 1980 to 1985, aimed at developing methods for measuring air flows and their influence on heat consumption in typical Polish dwelling houses. It began by establishing both experimental and theoretical methods to determine air flows in buildings. The basic measurements were done in a large number of buildings characteristic of the products of the Polish building industry and located in the Silesia region; both single-family housing and eighteen-storey apartment blocks were considered. The basic aims were to define air flow mechanisms and estimate the influence of air flow on heat consumption. The results verified previous theoretical models. The paper begins by presenting and comparing results of measurements in existing buildings. Theoretical methods are then presented, including the limitation of tightening building envelopes. The choice of ventilation systems with regard to the thermal balance of buildings is discussed.
Diurnal thermal energy storage in gas-fired central heating systems
Authors: Cohen R. R. , Tanton D. M. , Probert S. D. , Nevrala D. J.
Published: September 2009

This paper describes the benefits of interposing a thermally insulated heat store in the circuit between a central heating boiler and a hydronic heat distribution network. These include the energy savings attainable through less frequent switching on and off of the boiler each day and the possibility of using a smaller boiler to satisfy the heating demands of the building. Cranfield Institute of Technology (CIT) and the British Gas Corporation (BGC) have undertaken a collaborative programme of research into heat storage in central heating systems; a field trial at a London school is described. The installation was monitored from November 1984 to May 1985, and a description of its operation is given. A preliminary analysis of the experimental data reveals the effectiveness of this new hybrid system.
The choice of vapour resistivity values in calculations of condensation risk
Authors: Letherman K. M.
Published: September 2009

For calculations to predict the condensation risk in building structures it is necessary to assume suitable values of the thermal and vapour resistivities of the materials. For many materials, reference sources quote values of vapour resistivity, in particular, as a range rather than a single figure. This paper shows that the assumption of mean values may be inappropriate and that it is better to use extreme values from the ranges. Simple rules are stated to guide the choice of values from the range. An example is given, to demonstrate the application of the rules.
Moisture factors and thermal conductivity of concrete
Authors: Stuckes Audrey D. , Simpson A.
Published: September 2009

The results of thermal conductivity (Λ) measurements at several moisture contents on two types of aerated concrete in the density range 391 to 892 kg/m3, and four types of lightweight aggregate concrete in the density range 1144 to 1424 kg/m3, have been analysed to find a simple mathematical relationship between moisture content and Λ. The only measurements which have been taken into account were made since the British Standard was amended and since the British Calibration Accreditation scheme came into operation. It is shown that experimental results can be represented with reasonable accuracy by a linear relationship between Λ and moisture content by weight.
Thermal conductivity of porous materials: I Theoretical treatment of conduction processes
Authors: Simpson A. , Stuckes Audrey D.
Published: September 2009

The theoretical background relating to thermal conduction in porous materials is discussed and extended to interpret these processes more rigorously. It has been shown that most conventional models can be derived from a set of general equations adapted from electrical theory. The general model takes into account the shape and orientation of pores (or inclusions) as well as the thermal conductivities and volume fractions of the component phases. The effect of shape and orientation has been examined and shown to be a major influence on the conductivity of composite materials. Improvement of the performance of thermal insulants by entraining suitably shaped inclusions is discussed.
Airflow through perforated screens at small pressure differences
Authors: Baker P. H. , Heap R. D. , Sharples S.
Published: September 2009

At small pressure differences, the airflow through small perforations is reduced due to frictional effects. A relation between velocity and pressure drop is presented which has been verified by experiment for a limited range of geometries.