bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Critical Theory
Authors: Harney Brian
Published: January 2015

Critical theory is a school of thought which challenges dominant ways of exploring and explaining organizational phenomenon. It has its origins in the so‐called “Frankfurt School” and includes the work of scholars such as Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, and Jürgen Habermas. The core of critical theory involves exposing existing modes of domination and oppression and offering alternative possibilities which emancipate those once excluded and silenced.
Group Norms
Authors: Harvey Sarah , Peterson Randall S.
Published: January 2015

Norms provide group members with invaluable information about how to behave during social interactions with one another. The precise effect of those norms on individuals and groups, however, depends on their content. We review how norms develop and some alternative ways that may have an impact on group life.
Human Relations Movement
Authors: Kelly John
Published: January 2015

This body of theory and practice is popularly associated with the sociologist Elton Mayo (1880–1949), whose basic idea was that workers had strong social needs which they tried to satisfy through membership of informal social groups at the workplace.
Learning Organization
Authors: Burgoyne John G.
Published: January 2015

The concept of the learning organization became popular around 1990 with the publication in the USA of Senge's (1990)
Fifth Discipline
and in the UK of Pedler, Burgoyne, and Boydell's (1991)
Learning Company
.
Levels of Analysis
Authors: Dawson Jeremy F.
Published: January 2015

Thelevel of analysisis where, in a hierarchy of units, the analysis of data occurs. This entry defines levels of analysis typically found within organizational behavior, demonstrating how they are linked more to theory than they are to measurement, an illustrates how data may be aggregated from one level to another in order to answer a relevant research question. It also introduces issues of multilevel and cross‐level theory, data, and analysis.
Networking
Authors: Burke W. Warner
Published: January 2015

At its most basic, networking is the process of (i) contacting and being contacted by people in one's social or technical/professional world and (ii) maintaining these linkages and relationships.
Psychological Contract Theory
Authors: Montes Samantha D. , Rousseau Denise M. , Tomprou Maria
Published: January 2015

The theory's core idea that an understanding of the beliefs individual parties hold regarding their exchange relationship is important in fostering successful exchanges, particularly as applied in employment.
Rationality
Authors: Carroll Stephen J.
Published: January 2015

Rationality and rational models for decison‐making have been advocated for use in human decision‐making since the time of Aristotle. This has been especially true of managerial decison‐making. However empirical studies of managers indicate that such rationality approaches are typically limited by the contex of the decision‐making process. More recent empirical studies have indicated that there are always some emotional aspects in the decision‐making process and also that decision‐makers typically make various systematic errors when making decisions.
Resistance to Change
Authors: Coetsee Wilhelm J.
Published: January 2015

This article introduces and discusses the reasons of why people may resist change. Furthermore, the concept of change readiness and its antecedents are explored and it is highlighted that resistance to change can be regarded as (i) a multidimensional attitude and (ii) as a source of improving the quality of change decision‐making.
Trust
Authors: Pillutla Madan M.
Published: January 2015

Trust can be defined as a psychological state comprising the intention to accept vulnerability based upon positive expectations of the intentions or behavior of another (Rousseau
et al
., 1998).
Boundary Spanning
Authors: Burke W. Warner
Published: January 2015

To define this term we must first understand the idea of boundary.
Complexity Theory
Authors: Ganco Martin
Published: January 2015

Complexity theory is a loosely related body of research explaining emergent patterns in behavior or structures that cannot be explained by studying the individual building blocks in isolation but, rather, emerge from their interactions. Complexity theory focuses on the study of the system as a whole. This is particularly important when the interactions are nonlinear and nonadditive. Such interactions make extrapolation from the behavior of individual parts to the system's behavior problematic and require a holistic approach. The main tool of complexity theory is an agent‐based simulation. Within the context of organizations, complexity theory is predominantly based on the agent‐based model called the NK model. The key construct of the model is interdependence. Interdependence between two decisions exists when one decision influences not only its own performance contribution but also the performance contribution of another decision. The key relationship predicted by the NK model is that the decision‐makers face a more complicated search as the density of interdependencies increases.
Consensus
Authors: Murnighan J. Keith
Published: January 2015

Consensus is an informal process that many groups use for making decisions. Its informality makes it vulnerable to political influence. It can also result in far less than optimal results.
Executive Derailment
Authors: Harvey Sarah , Peterson Randall S.
Published: January 2015

Despite demonstrating promise early in their careers, some executives struggle to adapt to more senior managerial roles. We review some reasons why this derailment occurs and its importance for managers and organizations.
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
Authors: Hennessey Beth , Moran Seana , Altringer Beth , Amabile Teresa M.
Published: January 2015

Intrinsic motivation is the motivation to do something for its own sake, for the sheer enjoyment of a task. Extrinsic motivation is the motivation to do something in order to attain some external goal or meet some externally imposed constraint. Feelings of self‐determination, control, and satisfaction have long been linked to an intrinsically motivated state. Environmental constraints such as the imposition of time limits, an expected reward, or an impending evaluation can undermine feelings of self‐determination engendering an extrinsic orientation. However, under some circumstances, certain forms of reward may enhance intrinsic motivation through a process of motivational synergy. Intrinsic motivation has been linked to creativity of performance, longer‐lasting learning, and perseverance. The fostering of intrinsic motivation in adults is especially important given the emergence of the knowledge economy. Managing knowledge workers means building a community of employees who have positive emotions, a favorable view of their company, their job, and their colleagues, and strong intrinsic motivation. More work needs to be done to understand the determinants of motivation in the workplace, including studies focused on the link between affect and motivation, interpersonal intrinsic motivation among collaborators, and commonalities and differences across cultures.
Family Firms
Authors: Nicholson Nigel
Published: January 2015

Defining the family firm is not straightforward, although the general consensus is that they are businesses where families have a controlling interest, which may be quite a modest ownership share in a large publicly quoted business.
Creativity
Authors: Amabile Teresa M. , Pillemer Julianna
Published: January 2015

Creativity is the generation of novel and appropriate ideas or products. Innovation is the successful implementation of creative ideas within an organization. Individual creativity, which can vary from modest to “genius” levels, depends on three components within the individual and one external component. The intra‐individual components are domain expertise, creativity skill, and intrinsic motivation (the drive to do the work out of interest, enjoyment, satisfaction, or personal challenge). The external component is the work environment which, to a large extent, arises from managerial behavior. Work environments most conducive to creativity include clear goals, autonomy in achieving the goals, sufficient resources and time, support from coworkers and managers at all levels, open idea flow across the organization, and mechanisms for learning from problems and developing ideas. Recent research suggests intriguing neurological processes and cross‐cultural differences in creativity.
Accountability
Authors: Tetlock Philip , Henik Erika
Published: January 2015

Accountability refers to the implicit or explicit expectation that one may be called on to justify one's beliefs, feelings, or actions to others.
Agency Theory
Authors: Zajac Edward
Published: January 2015

This theory examines the problems – and partial contractual solutions (
see
Contracts) – that exist when a principal delegates Decision‐Making responsibility to an agent who is paid a fee, but whose own objectives may conflict with those of the principal.
Aptitude
Authors: Hogan Joyce
Published: January 2015

Aptitude is the capacity to acquire Skill – potential for talent.
Authority
Authors: Deephouse David L.
Published: January 2015

The nature of authority as legitimate power in a social system is presented.
Behaviorism
Authors: Luthans Fred , Youssef Carolyn , Luthans Brett
Published: January 2015

Behaviorism is a theoretical foundation in psychology that emphasizes observable, measurable behavior as the primary unit of analysis and scientifically investigates the relationships between behavior and its environmental contingencies.
Bias
Authors: Koput Kenneth W. , Podsakoff Nathan P.
Published: January 2015

Bias, or the systematic deviation of a statistical estimator from its true value, is a critical topic in all fields of science, as it inhibits our ability to draw appropriate inferences from empirical research. This entry discusses three potential sources of bias common in management research: (1) omitted variables (such as unaccounted for predictors or sample selection bias); (2) model misspecification (often occurring when data is aggregated across observations or time periods); and (3) common method variance (as a function of source, item characteristic, item context, and/or measurement context effects). The authors provide examples of when and where these biases may be prevalent within specific research domains.
Communication
Authors: Poole Marshall Scott
Published: January 2015

Communication is a central process in the constitution of organizations. Formal and informal communication serves several important functions including command and control, linking, innovation, interorganizational linkage, ideation, and ideology.
Congruence
Authors: Cameron Kim
Published: January 2015

The term congruence refers to a condition in which elements match, fit with, or are in harmony with one another. Congruence in organizations refers to consistency among various elements in an organization such as subcultures, structures, strategy, values, systems, and vision. The basic assumption is that when these elements are congruent, the organization is more effective.
Contingency Theory
Authors: Freeman John
Published: January 2015

Contigency theory denotes a body of literature that seeks to explain the structure of organizations by analyzing their adjustment to external factors, particularly changing circumstances that introduce uncertainty in
D
ecision‐
M
aking.
Continuous Improvement
Authors: Ledford Gerald E.
Published: January 2015

Continuous improvement is an approach to organizational change that is closely linked to the quality and lean systems movement, as well as Japanese management practices. It challenges common theories of organizational change that treat change as a threat to the system, which attempts to return to a state of dynamic equilibrium; continuous improvement suggest that the organization can be chronically unfrozen. Proponents of continuous improvement have developed a rich toolkit for implementing this approach. Employee reactions to continuous improvement can be positive or negative, depending on such factors as whether continuous improvement threatens job security and whether employees receive rewards for continuous improvement. Continuous improvement challenges theories of organizational change that imply that radical change must be sudden, dramatic, and discontinuous.
Contracts
Authors: Pillutla Madan M.
Published: January 2015

Contracts are collections of commitments, duties, and rights, which establish specific obligations and entitlements for each party.
Diversity Management
Authors: Jackson Susan E.
Published: January 2015

After briefly describing the meaning, importance and nature of workplace diversity, this article explains the different types and structure of diversity present in modern organizations, summarizes the known consequences of workplace diversity, and discusses the managerial consequences of diversity. Diversity management requires implementing organizational changes that are grounded in a careful diagnosis of the types of diversity present, a clear statement of objectives, and a means for holding managers accountable for results.
Employee Involvement
Authors: Fenton‐O'Creevy Mark
Published: January 2015

The term
employee involvement
(
EI
) has been used to denote a wide range of practices in organizations, which increase employees' influence over how their work is carried out, or increase employees' influence over other areas of organizational policy and practice.
Enactment
Authors: Nicholson Nigel
Published: January 2015

This concept was first developed by Weick in his influential and innovative monograph,
The Social Psychology of Organizing
, to connote an organism's adjustment to its environment by directly acting upon the environment to change it.
Entrepreneurship
Authors: Cooper Arnold C.
Published: January 2015

Entrepreneurship
is a term that has been used in different ways.
Evolutionary Perspectives
Authors: Murmann Johann Peter
Published: January 2015

Evolutionary perspectives contend that complex structures in the social and the biological world have developed over time through causal processes that require little or no foresight but considerable trial and error. Evolutionary thought in organizational analysis comprises two distinct intellectual lines. The first, concerned with organizational change, relies to a considerable extent on a selection logic in which change comes about through the birth and death of individual entities that make up a population of similar things. This account of change contrasts sharply with theories in which omniscient actors perfectly transform individual entities to meet new environmental conditions. The second line of evolutionary thought draws on evolutionary psychology to explain the behavior of human beings in organizational settings in terms of the evolved nature of the human mind and body
Game Theory
Authors: Murnighan J. Keith
Published: January 2015

Game theory uses formal mathematics to analyze all kinds of social and conflictual interactions between rational, well‐informed individuals and groups. It has been incorporating empirical observations into its analyses, which have been more and more applicable to organizational strategies.
Gatekeepers
Authors: Burke W. Warner
Published: January 2015

Gatekeepers are those people who occupy positions, formal or informal, who facilitate or impede information flow.

Examples include, in particular, middle managers in organizations, editors, admission officers in colleges and universities, and interviewers for job applicants.
Group Roles
Authors: Harvey Sarah , Peterson Randall S.
Published: January 2015

Roles help group members understand what behavior a group expects from them and how they can contribute to the group. We review alternative ways of conceptualizing roles and suggest ways that can both benefit and challenge groups.
Groupthink
Authors: Whyte Glen
Published: January 2015

Groupthink has been the leading explanation for crucial group decision failure ever since Irving Janis first proposed it in the early 1970s.
Halo Effect
Authors: Robertson Ivan
Published: January 2015

This is said to occur when people are assigned the same or similar ratings on different characteristics, (i.e., the ratings between the different characteristics are correlated).
H
awthorne Effect
Authors: Ilgen Daniel R.
Published: January 2015

As a result, the researchers may falsely attribute the observed effects on behavior to the variables manipulated rather than the attention. The effect gets its name from the research studies in which it was identified and labeled.
Identity, Personal
Authors: Ashforth Blake E.
Published: January 2015

Identity refers to one's self‐definition (“who I am”) and situates one in a given context. The levels of identity include personal, interpersonal, and collective. Research on personal identity in organizations has attempted to answer the questions, “how do work identities develop and change?” and “how and to what extent is one's identity controlled by the organization?”
Impression Management
Authors: Rosenfeld Paul , Edwards Jack E. , Thomas Marie D.
Published: January 2015

Impression management has gained increased popularity in the organizational behavior literature. It refers to the display of behavior with the aim of modifying one's image to others in order to gain their social, moral, or financial support. Such actions are visible in a wide range of organizational situations such as selection interviews, letters of recommendation, performance appraisal, and career strategies. Impression management is rife with negative connotations as it is viewed to represent the self‐conscious deception of others. However, deviating from this negative view, impression management is also viewed as a product of overlearned habits and a sincere portrayal of behavior. With the rise of racial/ethnic minority groups associated with international business, it is believed that impression management will gain even further prominence and applicability as a vehicle for overcoming communication problems and ensuring smoother interactions in organizations.
Interorganizational Relations
Authors: Ingram Paul
Published: January 2015

Interorganizational relations are nontransitory interactions between two or more organizations.
Interlocking Boards
Authors: Lincoln James R.
Published: January 2015

Interlocking boards refer to ties formed among organizations when the same individuals serve as directors on multiple boards.
Job Enrichment
Authors: Oldham Greg R. , Baer Markus
Published: January 2015

Job enrichment involves expanding a job's content to provide increased opportunities for employees to experience personal responsibility and meaning at work, and to obtain more information about the results of their work efforts.
Job Rotation
Authors: Oldham Greg R. , Jimeno‐Ingrum Diana
Published: January 2015

This article discusses the effects of job rotation (i.e., an employee moving at regular intervals from one job assignment to another) on employee reactions. Early research suggests that job rotation often enhances employee skill acquisition and reduces fatigue. However, it has been shown to have little impact on employee job performance or boredom. More research is needed to examine other consequences of job rotation.
Learning, Individual
Authors: Bailey James R. , Kayes D. C.
Published: January 2015

Human learning is the acquisition of knowledge and/or Skill that serve as an enduring platform for adaptive development.
Loose Coupling
Authors: Jelinek Mariann
Published: January 2015

Relationships that are not well‐specified or frequently monitored, but nevertheless persist, simultaneously characterized by responsiveness and autonomy, are “loosely coupled.” Loose coupling is a metaphoric description of association (and can be applied to links between or among individuals, units, hierarchical levels, organization and environment, intention and action, IT systems, plans and action, and cause and effect among others) rather than a precisely measured, unidimensional variable.
Management by Objectives (
MBO
)
Authors: Earley P. Christopher
Published: January 2015

One of the most fundamental aspects of the management process is called management by objectives, or MBO.
Managerial and Organizational Cognition
Authors: Porac Joseph
Published: January 2015

The study of organizations as cognitive phenomena was stimulated by Simon's (1955; March and Simon, 1958) argument that managerial interpretations of organizational environments are influenced by managerial cognitive capacities and predilections.
Matrix Organization
Authors: Anand N.
Published: January 2015

Matrix refers to a form of organization design in which two or more distinctive departments are operationally and administratively integrated into one subunit.
Minority Group Influence
Authors: West Michael A.
Published: January 2015

Minority group influence is a process whereby a numerical or Power minority within a group or organization brings about enduring change in the attitudes and behavior of those in the majority through persistent repetition of their minority position.
Negotiation
Authors: Bazerman Max H.
Published: January 2015

When two or more parties need to reach a joint decision but have different preferences, they negotiate.
Non‐Work/Work
Authors: Stroh Linda K. , Dunn‐Jensen Linda M.
Published: January 2015

Non‐work/work refers to the relationship between one's work and non‐work life.
Organizational Ecology
Authors: Ruef Martin
Published: January 2015

Organizational ecology is a research paradigm that explains organizational outcomes in terms of the demographic composition – size and distribution – of organizational populations.
Perception
Authors: Martinko Mark J.
Published: January 2015

Perception can be defined as the psychological process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret sensory information.
Persistence
Authors: Audia Pino G.
Published: January 2015

Persistence is defined by organizational scholars as the continuation of an existing course of action.
Personal Initiative
Authors: Frese Michael , Fay Doris
Published: January 2015

Personal Initiative (PI) is a behavior characterized by its self‐starting nature, its proactive approach, and by being persistent in overcoming difficulties that arise in the pursuit of a goal.
Personality
Authors: Judge Timothy A. , Miliffe Kevin
Published: January 2015

Defining something as abstract as personality has proven difficult, and the literature contains multiple definitions of the construct.
Politics
Authors: Kramer Roderick M. , Gavrieli Dana A.
Published: January 2015

Politics are a ubiquitous and significant feature of organizational life. This entry provides a brief definition of the concept of organizational politics, as well as an overview of the current state of knowledge regarding the antecedents and consequences of political processes in organizations.
Power
Authors: Kramer Roderick M. , Gavrieli Dana A.
Published: January 2015

Power is a central concept in the field of management sciences and the study of organizational behavior. In this article, we define the concept of power and review the state of current research on its antecedents or bases, as well as its consequences. We conclude by addressing its ongoing significance for understanding important organizational processes and outcomes.
Power, Need for
Authors: Nicholson Nigel
Published: January 2015

The need for power is one of a trio of needs, along with achievement and affiliation, extensively studied by David McClelland and followers.
Practical Intelligence
Authors: Wood Robert
Published: January 2015

Practical intelligence is the ability of individuals to solve real world problems, including being able to size up situations and to determine effectively how to achieve goals.
Promotion/Prevention Focus
Authors: Higgins E.T.
Published: January 2015

Regulatory focus theory assumes that Self‐Regulation operates differently when serving fundamentally different needs, such as the distinct survival needs of nurturance versus security.
Punishment
Authors: Arvey Richard D.
Published: January 2015

This review provides an overview of the definition and nature of punishment in organizations as well as the features that influence whether punishment is effective or not effecting in changing the way in which employees feel, think, and behave in their jobs).
Quasi‐Experimental Design
Authors: Cook Thomas D.
Published: January 2015

Quasi‐experiments usually test the causal consequences of long‐lasting treatments outside of the laboratory. But unlike “true” experiments where treatment assignment is at random, assignment in quasi‐experiments is by self‐selection or administrator judgment.
Reciprocity
Authors: Murnighan J. Keith
Published: January 2015

Reciprocity is a strong, pervasive, and ancient norm that can be represented by three sayings: one negative (“An eye for an eye; a tooth for a tooth”), one positive (“You scratch my back, I'll scratch yours”), and one general (“Do unto others as you would have others do unto you”).
Regression Toward the Mean
Authors: Audia Pino G.
Published: January 2015

Regression toward the mean is a statistical phenomenon that occurs when two quantities are related but imperfectly.
Reputation
Authors: Fombrun Charles
Published: January 2015

Companies rely on both tangible and intangible resources to gain competitive advantage against rivals.
Research Design
Authors: Rogelberg Steven G. , Olien Jessie L.
Published: January 2015

Kerlinger defines research design as “the plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to research questions.”
Risk Taking
Authors: Bromiley Philip
Published: January 2015

The terms risk, risk taking, uncertainty, and ambiguity have been used in a variety of ways.
Role
Authors: Polzer Jeffrey T.
Published: January 2015

A role is a delineation of the set of recurrent behaviors appropriate to a particular position in a social system.
Role Distancing
Authors: Polzer Jeffrey T.
Published: January 2015

This is behavior undertaken by the occupant of a Role with the intent of communicating to others that the individual's actions should be attributed to the role rather than to the individual.
Role Over/Underload
Authors: Riordan Catherine
Published: January 2015

Role overload occurs when an individual experiences excessive role demands.
Role Taking
Authors: Riordan Catherine
Published: January 2015

Role taking or “taking the role of the other” is a process in which individuals develop an empathetic understanding of other people's roles.
Role Transitions
Authors: Ashforth Blake E.
Published: January 2015

Role transitions refer to psychological and (if relevant) physical movements between positions in a social system(s), including disengagement from one role and subsequent engagement in another role. Macro‐role transitions encompass sequentially held roles (e.g., a promotion to a new job), whereas micro role transitions encompass simultaneously held roles (e.g., commuting from one's family role to one's work role). Most research has focused on macro role transitions, under such topics as socialization and turnover, but recent research on micro transitions shows much promise.
Satisficing
Authors: Miller Susan
Published: January 2015

Satisficing decisions in organizations may occur when environments are complex and uncertain and when decision‐makers are limited by cognitive capacities and constraints of time, meaning that they operate within a bounded rationality. Satisficing decisions are broadly satisfactory and therefore suffice, although they may not be optimal choices.
Self‐Esteem
Authors: Spector Paul E.
Published: January 2015

Self‐esteem is a person's self‐view of himself or herself as good and worthwhile. Individuals high in self‐esteem are generally better adjusted and perform better in school than individuals who are low.
Self‐Managing Teams
Authors: Cordery John
Published: January 2015

Self‐managing teams are work groups who have been empowered to make a range of decisions regarding the execution of team tasks. In this article, the key features of such teams are outlined and their benefits and disadvantages are discussed.
Social Comparison
Authors: Albert Stuart
Published: January 2015

The theory of social comparison, developed by Leon Festinger in 1954, is a set of hypotheses, corollaries, and deviations concerned with why, with whom, and to what effect people compare themselves with other people.
Socialization
Authors: Wanous John P.
Published: January 2015

Organizational socialization involves Role Taking related to important transitions.
Sociotechnical Theory
Authors: Clegg Chris W.
Published: January 2015

Sociotechnical theory is concerned with the analysis and design of work organizations and proposes the need for the joint optimization and concurrent design of their social and technical subsystems.
Stakeholders
Authors: Wood Donna J.
Published: January 2015

A stakeholder is “any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of [an organization's] objectives”.
Structuration
Authors: Barley Stephen R.
Published: January 2015

The term “structuration” was coined to refer to the dynamic articulation between structure and action (which Giddens called “agency”).
Surveys
Authors: Rosenfeld Paul , Edwards Jack E. , Thomas Marie D.
Published: January 2015

A survey is a method used to obtain self‐reported information about the attitudes, behaviors, or other characteristics of a population or sample (seeStatistical Methods).
Systems Theory
Authors: Cummings Thomas G.
Published: January 2015

Systems theory explains the structure and behavior of complex wholes called systems. It provides a basic framework for studying organizational systems at different levels, such as individual, group, organization, population of organizations, and nation. It draws attention to the constituent parts of organizational systems and examines how well they coordinate with each and regulate their behavior to achieve system effectiveness. Systems theory views organizational systems as open systems that exchange information and materials with their environments. It examines how well organizational systems interact with their environments and adapt to changing conditions. Systems theory defines the role of management in organizational systems as sustaining a dynamic balance between stable efficient performance and flexible innovative responses to change.
Tournament Theory
Authors: Weigelt Keith
Published: January 2015

The vast majority of incentive schemes (
see
Incentives) in organizations are based on tournament theory.
Turnover
Authors: Youngblood Stuart A. , Williams Charles R.
Published: January 2015

Turnover can be defined as voluntary cessation of membership in an organization and is one of several forms of organizational withdrawal such as Absenteeism and tardiness.
Validity
Authors: Klimoski Richard
Published: January 2015

In the context of organizational research, validity is defined as the appropriateness of the inferences drawn from an observation, test score(s), a study, or a set of studies.
Validity Generalization
Authors: Klimoski Richard
Published: January 2015

One goal of science is to produce generalizable knowledge; validity generalization is seen as a tool for doing so.
Values
Authors: Ravlin Elizabeth C.
Published: January 2015

Values are individually held core beliefs that indicate how, in general, one should or ought to behave from an ideal standpoint. Individuals learn values as children in an absolute fashion which makes these beliefs difficult to change in adults. Values may adapt as they stop being functional for the actor, or when the individual is immersed in a different values‐based system through new organizational or cultural socialization. Values are socially desirable, and therefore are often studied as intra‐individual belief systems. A limited number of values has been identified cross‐culturally. They influence perceptions, other cognitions, attitudes, and behavior, although they must be seen as relevant to the situation to have a strong influence. Shared values within a team or organization reduce conflict and increase positive attitudes. However, such value congruence may also limit the deep‐level diversity available within an aggregate for creative problem solving.
Behavioral Decision Research
Authors: Bazerman Max H.
Published: January 2015

The rational model of Decision‐Making is based on a set of assumptions prescribing how a decisionshouldbe made rather than describing how a decisionismade.
Perceived Organizational Support
Authors: Conway Edel
Published: January 2015

Perceived organizational support (POS) represents the degree to which employees believe that their organization values their contributions and cares for their wellbeing (Eisenberger
et al
., 1986). It stems from organizational support theory (Blau, 1964), which posits that both parties in the employment relationship engage in various mutual exchanges that give rise to felt obligations. Such exchanges may take the form of rewards or other forms of recognition offered by the organization in return for high levels of employee commitment or performance. These exchanges give rise to performance‐reward expectations, which when fulfilled in future exchanges improve the quality of the employment relationship. Various forms of support have been identified including participation in decision making, training and promotion opportunities, and job security. Supervisors are regarded as key agents in delivering the organization's side of the exchange, and offer various forms of discretionary support including mentoring and growth opportunities. POS has been positively associated with outcomes including organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and performance, and negatively associated with outcomes such as absenteeism and turnover intentions. Future research directions include longitudinal assessments of POS, broader exchange relationships (e.g., between coworkers and teams), and potentially negative influences on POS (e.g. work intensification).
Leader–Member Exchange
Authors: Conway Edel
Published: January 2015

Leader‐member exchange (LMX) represents the dyadic relationship between leaders and followers. It posits that leaders form differential relationships with their followers based on the exchange of resources and support between both parties (Graen and Uhl‐Bien, 1995). Those employees with high quality relationships experience more challenging work, better training and promotion opportunities, and better access to resources. Those who experience low quality relationships fulfil the basic requirements of their role, but are less likely to experience such opportunities and resources. This quality of the exchange relationship has been linked to outcomes such as commitment, job satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behavior. Much less research attention has been devoted to exploring the antecedents of LMX compared to its outcomes. However, some evidence suggests that antecedents include relationship tenure, leaders' time, span of leadership, follower competence and dependability, and perceived similarity. Other research suggests that the link between LMX and outcomes is mediated by factors such as perceptions of justice, personality differences, and both individual and group performance. Future research should focus on exploring a wider range of possible intervening variables that influence the outcomes of LMX. In addition, a better understanding of the concept of team‐member exchange (TMX) is needed.
McKinsey 7S model
Authors: Channon Derek F. , Caldart Adrián A.
Published: January 2015

The McKinsey 7S model was developed during the late 70s by the McKinsey & Co. as a conceptual framework “useful in diagnosing the causes of organizational malaise and in formulating programs for improvement”. The model constituted an attempt to provide a response to the widespread frustration experienced by executives at the time of dealing effectively with general management problems related to strategic and organizational factors. The framework surpasses the classic simplistic notion that “structure follows strategy” as it links strategy not only with structure but also with other five elements. In addition to Strategy and Structure, the other elements or variables of the framework that we discuss below are the following: shared values, skills, staff, systems and style.
Capabilities and Capability Analysis
Authors: Caldart Adrián A.
Published: January 2015

The capabilities of the firm are the set of resources and competences that it relies on in order to survive and prosper.

Resources are often classified in tangible (such as plants, money and employees) and intangible ones (reputation, brand image, and customer relationships).

Competences refer to the skills and abilities that enable the firm to deploy its resources effectively through the organization's activities and processes.

The portfolio of capabilities of the firm may be divided between those capabilities that are necessary in order to operate in a market (threshold capabilities) and those that enable the firm to obtain a competitive advantage leading to superior performance (unique resources and core competences).
Green Strategies
Authors: Verbeke Alain
Published: January 2015

This article studies green strategies, and assesses the content thereof. Investments in five distinct resource domains are critical to develop higher order capabilities in greening. However, not all firms should engage in these investments. In some cases, buying green technologies may be better than developing these internally. The opportunity cost of investments in green capabilities must also be considered: in some cases, not investing in greening may be superior to the greening option. Hence, a contingency approach is always required before embarking on a green strategy.
Managing International Firms
Authors: Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya
Published: January 2015

The environment of international firms calls for a sophisticated set of competencies to navigate different markets, resources, and economic environments. Managers need a global mindset to understand the complexities of strategic planning, implementation, politics, the economy, regulation, technology, corporate social responsibility (CSR), culture, and human resources. International firms exhibit four types of predispositions to strategic management: ethnocentric, regiocentric, geocentric, or polycentric. Strategy formulation starts with the review of political, economic, social, and technological factors, followed by the definition of strategic objectives. Implementation of strategic activity at an international level calls for strong leadership and corporate governance across the different countries where the firm operates. The control and evaluation of strategic activity in international operations takes place through the monitoring of revenues, market shares, profits, costs, return on investment, new product development, and overall management performance. Risk management plays an important role. Strategic planners have to be conscious of environmental risks and shifts in stability that can negatively affect the performance of the firm. CSR in an international context requires sensitivity to the local socioeconomic effects of commercial activity. The management of international human resources includes recruitment, retention of high performers, management of real and virtual teams, compliance with local legislation, and labor relations. Effective cross‐cultural communication must take into account whether the receiver is from a country with a monochronic or a polychronic time system.
Case Study
Authors: Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya , McGee John
Published: January 2015

Case studies involve the documented history and comprehensive analysis of a situation concerning subjects such as industries, organizations, and markets. The distinguishing factor of the case‐study methodology is that it aims to bring out unique characteristics and interesting differences in the situation under observation. The case‐study approach is typically used for idiographic research, which means it focuses on atypical circumstances and distinctive outcomes as a subjective phenomenon. Another application of case studies is for nomothetic research aimed at building new theory, typically through the analysis of multiple cases and large sets of data within each case. The main types of case studies are unique, revelatory, critical instance, longitudinal, and comparative. Rich case studies employ both qualitative and quantitative data. The strong point of case studies is the depth of analysis that they offer. The narratives in case studies offer detailed, rich descriptions of situation and their context. More experienced researchers have shown that multiple‐case methodologies can be used to build theory via replications logic. Each case serves as a separate experiment that stands on its own as a discrete unit of analysis. Multiple cases can be viewed as distinct experiments, very much like a series of laboratory experiments, which meet the criteria of reliability and generalizability of emerging theory.
Delayering
Authors: Campbell Andrew
Published: January 2015

There are lots of forces that encourage organisations to add layers of management. Sometimes they are necessary. But often they are not. Delayering is a way of reducing the number of management layers. It is a necessary activity every few years in large companies and there are an increasing number of tools to help managers delayer.
Corporate Styles
Authors: Campbell Andrew , Smith Chris
Published: January 2015

Goold and Campbell (1987) researched large corporations and discovered that different parent companies behaved in very different ways. They examined the extent to which management styles varied along the dimensions of planning influence (i.e., the extent to which the corporate level became involved in the strategic and operating planning of the business) and control influence. Three styles seemed to stand out. In financial control companies (e.g., BTR and GE), the center allowed a high degree of strategic and operational autonomy to the businesses (low planning influence). The budget, however, was sacrosanct and any slippage from planned performance needed swift correction, if it were not to mean the curtailment of the career of the responsible GM (tight financial controls). At the other end of the continuum, strategic planning companies (e.g., BP and BOC) involved themselves on an ongoing basis in the strategic planning and management of the businesses (high planning influence). But they were more flexible if performance did not meet targets. As one chief executive explained, “when a business is in trouble, controls should become more friendly not more fierce” (flexible control influence). In between these two extremes were the strategic control companies, such as ICI and Imperial Group.
Corporate Transformation
Authors: Masih Anwar
Published: January 2015

Corporate transformation is a term spawned from the relentless technological, competitive, and legal changes that have taken place over the last thirty years or so. It refers to the complete and often dramatic change for one state to another of radically different form in a short time period. Transformations programs have for the most part been unsuccessful with much of the blame being attributed to a lack of strategic and people focus. Guidelines for successful transformation programs are included.
Cartel
Authors: Avgeropoulos Stephanos
Published: January 2015

Producers in almost every sector face risks and uncertainties that have an adverse impact on profitability.
Industrial Organization
Authors: Meilak Chris , Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya
Published: January 2015

The industrial organization (I/O) view of strategy assumes that the external environment determines the actions a firm can deploy. The implication of the I/O model for strategic management is that firms identify and seek to operate in environments that provide the best opportunities for competitiveness and profitability. The main concerns of the I/O model are the four industry structures of perfect competition, monopoly, monopolistic competition, and oligopoly. The strategic conduct of the firm revolves around policies (such as maximization or optimization of profit levels, growth, sales, and marginal utility), pricing objectives (e.g., cost‐plus, marginal cost, entry‐deterring price, collusive pricing, price leadership, and price discrimination), marketing strategies and advertising, and the extent of innovation and technical change. When measuring performance, strategists and economists focus on profitability, efficiency, product quality, and technical progress. The limitations of the I/O model arise from the occurrence of the four underlying assumptions of the theory regarding the effects of the environment of strategy, the homogeneity of resources, capabilities, and strategic intent. The assumptions of I/O theory have been challenged by the opposing view of strategy, the resource‐based view of the firm.
Strategy Process
Authors: Paroutis Sotirios
Published: January 2015

Strategy process is a term used to describe: causal relationships between independent and dependent variables, the actions of individuals or organizations, or the sequence of events over time. The strategy process school of research views strategy as the product of three distinctive processes: cognitive, social and organizational, and political.
Organizational Structure
Authors: Smith Chris
Published: January 2015

The key internal dynamic that enables or disables the strategy of the organization is embedded in how the various functions and systems that make up the organization are divided, integrated, and controlled. The shorthand expression that covers this complex decision and management focus is “organizational structure” and from the earliest writings on business strategy its importance has been highlighted and stressed.
Core Business
Authors: Smith Chris
Published: January 2015

At the heart of any business strategy is the fundamental value proposition that the firm offers to society. This is the core business of the firm and one in which it must excel in comparison to competitors and on which it must focus its resource development and investment. While other more peripheral, operational activities can be outsourced to other more specialized partners or suppliers the core business must remain the strategic and operating focus of the organization's management.
Functional Structure (
U
‐Form)
Authors: Smith Chris
Published: January 2015

The splitting of a business unit into separate components of its value chain such as manufacturing and marketing is the most intuitive and common way to structure an organization. This functional structure enables economies of specialization and focus and ensures that problems in specific areas are managed by experts in that area. Off‐setting the advantage of focus is the tendency for functions to lose sight of their interdependencies with other departments and their role in the overall performance of the firm.