bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Darby and the Origins of the Plymouth Brethren
Authors: Introvigne Massimo
Published: April 2018

The chapter describes the career of John Nelson Darby, from his early ministry in Ireland to the birth of the Brethren movement and its worldwide expansion through Darby’s international and intercontinental travels. His relationships with other Brethren pioneers, such as George Müller and those who established the first Continental Brethren communities in Italy and Switzerland, are also discussed. Although Darby has been extremely influential on the whole evangelical-fundamentalist wing of contemporary Protestantism, details of his life and career remain understudied. The chapter also asks the question whether, and in which sense, Darby may be regarded as the ‘founder’ of the Plymouth Brethren.
Retrenchment and Mainstreaming
Authors: Introvigne Massimo
Published: April 2018

This final chapter presents a case study of Brethren IV, known today as the Plymouth Brethren Christian Church (PBCC). It starts with a discussion of the legal case before the British Charity Commission, which lasted from 2006 to 2014, and finally led to the recognition of the PBCC as a bona fide religious body. The case is analysed in the context of controversies surrounding in various countries the PBCC and its schools. Some Christians accuse the PBCC of being heretic, and some secular ‘anti-cultists’ see in the PBCC a ‘cult’ harmful to its members and particularly to children. In general, these accusations fail to recognize how the PBCC is changing and evolving by adapting itself to its various host societies, without however renouncing its most distinctive (and controversial) characters, including the strict separation of believers and unbelievers.
Addressing the Limits of Coercion and Co-optation
Authors: Helfont Samuel
Published: April 2018

This chapter discusses the limits of the regime’s attempts to co-opt religious leaders in Iraq, which resulted in a dearth of trusted religious scholars. Often, religious leaders who cooperated with the regime continued to secretly hold and propagate views that the regime did not like; they were unreliable, and they often subtly resisted the Ba‘thist interpretations of Islam. This occurred most prominently with regard to sectarian views, which the regime wished to suppress, but which religious leaders in official institutions continued to promote. To address the problem, the regime created institutions to create trusted religious leaders. These included the Saddam Institute for Imams and Sermon Givers in 1985 and then the Saddam University for Islamic Studies in 1987. The regime tightly controlled who was accepted to these institutions and what they studied.
The Regime and the Shi‘is in the 1990s
Authors: Helfont Samuel
Published: April 2018

This chapter discusses the Ba’thist regime’s policies toward Shi’is and Shi’ism in Iraq during the 1990s and early 2000s. Iraqi Shi’is attempted to guard their independence; but after a decade of harsh sticks as well as some carrots, and with no end to the regime in sight, many Shi’i leaders, including Ayatollahs and Grand Ayatollahs in Najaf, acquiesced to the regime’s policies. Even former dissidents began to work with the regime’s representatives and the security services. As such, the Ba’thists were able to penetrate and control Iraq’s Shi’i landscape. The regime had to mitigate the problems associated with rising sectarianism in the wake of the Gulf War. Whereas the regime maintained a Sunni bias in its religious policies, it spent considerable time and effort fighting sectarianism within the Ba’th Party and in Iraqi society more generally.
American Misconceptions about Iraq and the 2003 Invasion
Authors: Helfont Samuel
Published: April 2018

This chapter discusses the invasion of Iraq in 2003. It argues that the war plans included assumptions about the strength of the Iraqi regime/state and the amount of control that the regime exerted over the religious landscape, which turned out to be false. The regime had shaped and demarcated the Shi‘i religious landscape in accordance with its political goals. The regime was much more robust and exerted much more control than planners of the literature on Iraq suggested. The chapter also discusses the reasons for the misperceptions. The regime hid its control over the religious landscape in attempt to show that it enjoyed un-coerced popular support. These misperceptions led the Coalition Provisional Authority, led by L. Paul Bremer, to enact policies that paved the way for the emergence of religious insurgents.
Conclusion
Authors: Helfont Samuel
Published: April 2018

This chapter concludes the book by reinterpreting Ba’thist Iraq as a counter-insurgency state. It shows that Saddam’s polies resembles those of the counter-insurgency campaign launched by the American military in Iraq during the 2000s. American counter-insurgency theory relies heavily on the ideas of David Galula, who in turn relied heavily on Mao. Saddam also relied on Mao’s ideas about insurgency and counter-insurgency. Thus, both Saddam and the Americans attempted to build a political order in Iraq from the ground up. However, there were differences between Saddam’s polices and those of the Americans. For example, Saddam resorted to much higher levels of violence. The chapter ends by stating that Iraq’s future leader will also need to build a political order from the ground up to stabilize the country. The question is if that leader will be able to do so without resorting to the violence that typified Saddam’s rule.
Agent-Based Models
Authors: Heaton Brenda , El-Sayed Abdulrahman , Galea Sandro
Published: April 2018

Agent-based modeling is a newer approach to the study of neighborhoods and health. In brief, an agent-based model is one of a class of computational models for simulating the actions and interactions of autonomous agents (both individual or collective entities, such as organizations or groups) with a view to assessing their effects on the system as a whole. Neighborhood characteristics and resources evolve and adapt as the individuals living within them change and vice versa. In this way, neighborhoods reflect a complex adaptive system. In this chapter, we introduce agent-based models as a tool for modeling these interactive and adaptive processes that occur within a system, such as a neighborhood. The chapter provides a basic introduction to this method, drawing on examples from the neighborhoods and health literature.
Deterrence and Democracy
Authors: Falkenrath Richard A.
Published: April 2018

This chapter examines strategy and deterrence and traces the shift from deterrence by ‘punishment’ to deterrence by ‘denial’ in Washington’s conduct of the Global War on Terror. The former rested on an assumption that the consequences of an action would serve as deterrents. The latter may carry messages of possible consequences, but these are delivered by taking action that removes the capabilities available to opponents – in the given context, the Islamist terrorists challenging the US. Both approaches rest on credibility, but are more complex in the realm of counter-terrorism, where the US authorities have no obvious ‘return to sender’ address and threats to punish have questionable credibility. In this context, denial offers a more realistic way of preventing terrorist attacks. Yet, the advanced means available to the US are deeply ethically problematic in liberal democratic societies. However, there would likely be even bigger questions if governments failed to act.
The Rise, Fall and Resurgence of ‘Just War’ Thinking from Cicero to Chicago
Authors: Heuser Beatrice
Published: April 2018

This chapter reviews Just War thinking from ancient times to the late twentieth century, engaging with the problematic phenomenon of the ‘judicialization’ of war. The phenomenon emerges from the application of the laws of war and international humanitarian law to the conduct of armed operations. This will limit military options, frequently eliminating the technically most effective ones. The constraints on the reasons for, and the conduct of, warfare can be traced throughout recorded European history. UK Prime Minister Tony Blair’s Chicago speech, informed by Freedman’s thinking, did not mark the end of an evolution. Rather, it was the full rediscovery of older traditions that paved the way for further developments in relation to notions of justice and human rights in international politics, and notions of humanitarian action, in particular – even if those developments were uneven and, in some cases, floundered on the rocks of realism.
Humanitarian Intervention
Authors: Caplan Richard
Published: April 2018

States – Western ones, at least – have given increased weight to human rights and humanitarian norms as matters of international concern, with the authorization of legally binding enforcement measures to tackle humanitarian crises under Chapter VII of the UN Charter. These concerns were also developed outside the UN Security Council framework, following Tony Blair’s Chicago speech and the contemporaneous NATO action over Kosovo. This gave rise to international commissions and resulted, among other things, in the emergence of the ‘Responsibility to Protect’ (R2P) doctrine. The adoption of this doctrine coincided with a period in which there appeared to be a general decline in mass atrocities. Yet R2P had little real effect – it cannot be shown to have caused the fall in mass atrocities, only to have echoed it. Thus, the promise of R2P and an age of humanitarianism failed to emerge, even if the way was paved for future development.
The Operational Legacy of the Falklands War
Authors: Thompson Julian
Published: April 2018

This chapter explores the operational legacy of the Falklands War through the lens of organizational and operational innovations. It takes Freedman’s official history of the conflict, and its assessment of the legacy of the conflict, as the point of departure. Based on the premise that the conflict was the first British naval operation in decades, it identifies a range of innovations – the establishment of a war cabinet, the appointment of an overall in-theatre commander, the requirement for an amphibious capability amongst them – that can be linked to the success of the Falklands campaign. But, the legacy of the Falklands has been lost. However, very little of the operational legacy of the Falklands War remains.
The Iraq Syndrome Revisited
Authors: Dunn David Hastings
Published: April 2018

Commencing from an observation by Freedman that Donald Rumsfeld’s legacy as US Secretary for Defense was comparable with that of Robert McNamara, and that where the latter begat the ‘Vietnam syndrome’ , the former would leave behind the ‘Iraq syndrome’. Analysis of discourse under President Obama reveals that the effects of Iraq are more profound than Freedman indicated. In the Obama era the use of force itself was ever more in doubt. In limiting US commitment to fighting for core interests and formal allies, the Obama administration broke with the main post-war tradition of US foreign policy. This made the use or threat of force more difficult, as the appetite for risk was blunted by its experience in Iraq. Obama’s position was unhelpful in embracing the implications of the limitations of American power. US ‘risk aversion’ risked failing both the US and the world.
The Essence of Strategy
Authors: Gow James
Published: April 2018

The theoretical element that runs through Freedman’s scholarship and the world of strategy is constructivist realism, the implicit theoretical mechanism that underpins Freedman’s scholarship and practice. A form of analysis that combines realism and constructivism presents a ‘distinctive and beneficial’ approach to the study of issues of war and peace – one that runs throughout Freedman’s work and is consciously present in Strategy, where social theory is favored and rational actors are demolished. The chapter discusses each concept, including the constructed character of realism, and attempts to bring them together, arguing that necessity is the quality that sits at the heart of a constructivist realist approach, where the socially generated character of issues and sober acknowledgement that power (and other empirical realities) combine to offer an approach with which flux and stasis in international society and international security can be profitably studied in policy-friendly ways.
Observations on Whitehall and Academia
Authors: Omand Sir David
Published: April 2018

This chapter explores a key facet of Freedman’s life as an academic – his work with policymakers and the scholarly connections between King’s College London and Whitehall that he developed. It explores the utility of academic research to policymakers, concluding that much of it has the potential to be of value. However, part of the problem is that the pace of life for politicians and civil servants is relentless, and the need for experts is often driven by unanticipated events. The relationship between the academy and policy makers can have genuine benefits, but isn’t always easy, particularly when evidence bases go against political will as was the case with ‘soft’ drugs. The chapter concludes by recognizing the role played by Freedman in pioneering links between Whitehall and the academy.
Reflections on the Freedman School
Authors: Gow James
Published: April 2018

This chapter considers Freedman’s contribution to scholarship and the nascent elements of a school of thought relevant to both academic and policy realms, as well as introducing a more skeptical and critical approach to the subject’s scholarship. It considers Freedman’s engagement with the policy world and why this has managed to be both extensive and successful, as well as its outcomes. It also introduces discussion of possible challenges to Freedman’s work, presenting a balancing perspective to positive appreciations of his oeuvre. The chapter concludes by indicating the weaknesses of such challenges and reaffirms the sense of a school of thought informed by a distinctive approach. This is the blend of scripturalism and constructivism, on one side, with realism, on the other, that is the hallmark of the nascent school, and the way in which it is germane in both academic and policy domains.
Cambridge Aflame with Controversy
Authors: Collier Jay T.
Published: April 2018

Chapter 2 shows how perseverance was a major topic in the debates at Cambridge University that set the context for the famous Lambeth Articles of 1595. Furthermore, the chapter looks specifically at the way perseverance was handled in the construction of the Lambeth Articles and how variant readings and receptions of Augustine factored into the version of the articles that was finally approved. Thus, it shows that readings of Augustine influenced the way bishops made policies and strictures for the University of Cambridge. It suggests the existence of a strong Reformed influence in England that was broad enough to admit diversity on perseverance due to its regard for the early church. That is, it discovers the existence of a minority opinion within the Reformed tradition that took advantage of the confessional latitude and dissented from the majority opinion regarding the perseverance of every saint.
Lingering Reluctance among Reformed Englishmen
Authors: Collier Jay T.
Published: April 2018

Chapter 6 looks at the perseverance debate started by the avowed Arminian John Goodwin, who appealed to Augustine and the early church for a denial of the perseverance of the saints. The chapter focuses on the Reformed responses among Goodwin’s Puritan counterparts, like John Owen and George Kendall, and how they challenged Goodwin’s reading of Augustine and defended the importance of perseverance for confessing the Reformed faith. It also focuses on Richard Baxter’s alternate perspective, which affirmed the doctrine of the perseverance of the saints but questioned whether it should be a confessional issue based on his reading of Augustine and the witness of church history. This chapter reveals how competing readings of Augustine on perseverance persisted among Reformed Englishmen and also how these readings influenced the way Puritans developed and used confessions so as to handle concerns of catholicity.
The Formation of Bengali Literature in Arakan (ca. 1430–1638)
Authors: d'Hubert Thibaut
Published: April 2018

This chapter sets a frame for understanding a composite literary tradition. I give a general overview of how the Bengal–Arakan continuum has been defined in terms of geographical and cultural features. I then turn to an Arakanese Islamicate idiom in official documents from the foundation of Mrauk U in 1430 up to Ālāol’s lifetime. After the study of the use of an Islamicate idiom, I identify the centers in which Bengali literature was produced in Arakan during the same period. I distinguish two trends in the Bengali literature of Arakan, one represented by the works of provincial authors and the other by texts produced and consumed by urban audiences. I highlight the features of those two corpuses, as well as what clearly allows us to distinguish one set of texts from the other; the main feature being the function of multilingual literacy in the composition and reception of the texts.
Indo-Afghan Historical Imaginaries and the Romance Genre
Authors: d'Hubert Thibaut
Published: April 2018

In Chapter 6, I take a step back using the conclusions that I reached about the background and nature of Ālāol’s poetics. I use those observations as a lens to look at cultural trends that spread eastward and southward from Hindustan during the Indo-Afghan and early Mughal periods. The Afghan rule in North India has been seen as a major moment in the making of a local Islamicate cultural ethos and development of multilingual literary cultures in South Asia. I observe the legacy in Bengal and the Deccan of the multilingual literary culture that was fashioned at the courts of the Lodis and of other regional polities during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. I come back on what constituted the multilingual literary culture of those courts and focus on the historical imaginary of Indo-Afghan authors, the nature of courtly sociability, and the development of romance as a cross-linguistic genre.
Conclusion
Authors: d'Hubert Thibaut
Published: April 2018

In the conclusion, I come back on key issues of my analysis of Ālāol’s poetics. Whereas performance and the absence of theoretical frame recorded in treatises on grammar or poetics are defining features of the vernacular tradition, we witness attempts to describe and systematize vernacular poetics in eastern South Asia. Sanskrit played a major role in this attempt at systematizing vernacular poetics to foster connoisseurship. The domain of reference of vernacular poets was not poetics per se or rhetoric, but lyrical arts and musicology. But efforts to describe vernacular poetics also display an awareness of the importance of heteroglossia and fluidity in vernacular aesthetics in contrast with Sanskrit. The opening up of the Sanskrit episteme constituted by vernacular poetics also made possible the recourse to literary models and quasi-experimental uses of vernacular poetic idioms. Old Maithili, Avadhi, and Persian were visible components of the making of vernacular poetics in Bengal.
No Taxation, No Representation?
Authors: Freer Courtney
Published: April 2018

This chapter provides an extended literature review, bringing together for the first time the strands of scholarship related to rentier state theory and to political Islam in the Middle East. In so doing, it sheds light on gaps in the scholarship, in particular the denial in rentier state theory scholarship of the political role played by Islamist groups in such states and the lack of study of the Gulf states by scholars of political Islam. The chapter then gives a brief background on definitional aspects of Islamism, as well as a description and brief history of the Muslim Brotherhood itself, as the region’s most powerful Islamist political group.
Rentier Islamism after Pan-Arabism
Authors: Freer Courtney
Published: April 2018

This chapter assesses the changing role of Brotherhood affiliates in Kuwait, Qatar, and the UAE in the first decade of the 2000s, with a view to highlighting the increased politicization of the Kuwaiti branch and heightened marginalization of the Emirati, alongside the informalization of the Qatari affiliate. It presents the differing responses of the governments in Kuwait, Qatar, and the UAE to the Arab Spring, specifically how these governments sought to manage the movement toward greater political involvement and liberties for their citizenry and how they treated Islamists involved in that movement specifically. In describing this tumultuous time, the chapter continues tracing how Islamist influence is felt inside these states and how rentier Islamism is politically adaptive.
How Remittances Prevent Social Unrest
Authors: Germano Roy
Published: April 2018

This chapter argues that the flood of remittances to the Mexican countryside has contributed to political and social stability during a string of economic crises over the years. Analyses of survey data collected in Michoacán, Mexico during the 2007–2008 food crisis show that remittances promoted income stability, reduced economic grievances, and reduced citizens’ demand for government-provided welfare. I argue that similar processes may have prevented civil unrest during Mexico’s market transition in the 1990s. Interviews with farmers, townspeople, and government officials suggest that remittances have lifted spirits in the countryside and helped to reduce the kind of suffering and anger that gave rise to the Zapatista uprising.
Optimism in Times of Crisis
Authors: Germano Roy
Published: April 2018

Using a variety of survey datasets, this chapter explores the impact of remittances in fifty Latin American, Caribbean, Middle Eastern, North African, and sub-Saharan African countries. The first part of this chapter provides an overview of trends in the flow of migrants and remittances throughout these developing regions. The remainder of the chapter uses survey data to analyze the effects of remittances on economic grievances during the global food and financial crises that struck many economies between 2008 and 2011. The results indicate that remittances are strongly associated with feelings of economic security and optimism. Remittance recipients are less likely to describe their personal economic circumstances or national economic conditions negatively. They are furthermore less likely to predict that their personal economic circumstances or the national economic conditions will deteriorate in the future.
They Came Banging Pots and Pans
Authors: Germano Roy
Published: April 2018

In 2007–2008, food and fuel prices surged in many developing countries. These crises were soon followed by the devastating impact of the global financial crisis. Food riots and political pressure followed. Sub-Saharan Africa was hit particularly hard by the crisis. This chapter asks to what extent remittances played a role in reducing the severity of civil unrest and political instability that followed from the global food crisis in sub-Saharan Africa. The chapter tests the effects of remittances on citizens’ assessments of government economic performance, the effects of remittances on political engagement, and the effects of remittances on support for incumbents. Overall, I find that remittance recipients were somewhat less critical of their governments’ economic performance and more likely to voice support for incumbents during the food crisis.
No Left Turn
Authors: Germano Roy
Published: April 2018

This chapter asks whether remittance recipients vote differently than non-recipients in elections. I focus on the 2006 Mexican presidential election, which was a particularly close contest between Felipe Calderón Hinojosa and Andrés Manuel López Obrador. Calderón, the candidate from the incumbent party, represented a continuation of status quo neoliberal economic policies. López Obrador was a populist opposition candidate who rejected neoliberalism and called for more statist economic policies. My argument is that the economic security effects of remittances left remittance recipients feeling less critical of the incumbent party and less energized by López Obrador’s populist rhetoric and proposals for change. An analysis of national survey data collected just after the vote supports this hypothesis. The data show a clear association between remittances and casting a ballot in opposition to López Obrador. The implication is that remittance recipients played an unwitting role in López Obrador’s 2006 defeat.
Conclusion
Authors: Kotzmann Jane
Published: April 2018

In this Conclusion, the implications of the research are discussed and the recommendation is made that states that are committed to achieving individual transformation, social betterment and social efficiency via the higher education system should seek to implement a human rights-based approach to higher education. The strategic obstacles to implementation of such an approach are discussed, including the competing nature of rights claims, the lack of familiarity with the idea of human rights being applied to higher education and the likely political resistance to the application of human rights in this area. Finally, the utility and benefits of this research are canvassed.
Related Topics
Authors: Foley Richard
Published: April 2018

This chapter examines Wittgenstein’s critique of philosophy’s premium on simplicity and generality. Although philosophy overlaps with the sciences, it also leans toward the humanities in the open-ended character of its core issues. Additionally, the author discusses Alasdair MacIntyre’s and Jean-Paul Sartre’s different views on the appeal of stories, and discusses as well how the insights of stories have the same features as those of the humanities in being indexical, prescriptive, and perspectival. The social sciences occupy a midpoint between the natural sciences and humanities, aiming to be descriptive, with high value on collective knowledge. But because they deal with human societies, there are constraints on efforts to minimize indexicality. And, because many issues about human societies cannot be addressed without understanding the viewpoints of individuals in the societies, there are also challenges in minimizing perspectivality and complexity.
Overview
Authors: Yamamoto Eric K.
Published: April 2018

The Overview depicts the challenge of adjudicating security and liberty disputes in the shadow of Korematsu, particularly the judge’s role in reviewing government claims of “pressing public necessity.” That challenge speaks to those committed both to safety and justice in a constitutional democracy grounded in the rule of law—policymakers, administrators, judges, government and civil liberties lawyers, legal scholars, businesses, community justice advocates and concerned members of the polity. The chapter discusses the persisting yet uncertain significance of Korematsu, including the colliding views its 1984 reopening raised. This chapter concludes by carefully summarizing the content of each ensuing chapter in the book.
The 1980s Coram Nobis Cases
Authors: Yamamoto Eric K.
Published: April 2018

This chapter describes the Korematsu, Hirabayashi, and Yasui coram nobis reopenings of the World War II curfew and exclusion cases. The mid-1980s coram nobis courts made startling findings of egregious unethical misconduct at the government’s highest levels in justifying the curfew, removal, and incarceration. A cache of previously hidden World War II government documents revealed frantic efforts by War and Justice Departments leaders to deliberately mislead the Supreme Court and American public and to alter and fabricate key evidence on national security. The chapter enfolds Acting U.S. Solicitor General Neal Katyal’s unprecedented 2012 “Confession of Error” acknowledging the World War II solicitor general’s deliberate and prejudicial misrepresentations to the Supreme Court. It closes by highlighting the outcome of pervasive government disinformation on security and court passivity: the judiciary’s legal validation of the political branches’ prolonged deprivation of a vulnerable group’s liberty on an unfounded claim of urgent need.
Jurisprudential Foundations
Authors: Yamamoto Eric K.
Published: April 2018

This chapter examines how the dissonant treatment of Korematsu plays out in still intensely competing jurisprudential views of the court’s role in high profile security and liberty disputes. It describes and critiques the underpinnings for the exceedingly deferential all the laws but one approach rooted in the government’s broad national security and war powers. And it develops the contrasting call to vigilance with roots in the Supreme Court’s seminal embrace of watchful care over fundamental liberties in its Civil War case Ex Parte Milligan. The chapter then offers a jurisprudentially nuanced conception of judicial independence, discussing works by prominent American, British, and Israeli jurists and scholars. The chapter closes by highlighting Justice Sonia Sotomayor’s observation that in recent years courts have made a “modicum of progress” in generating a better balance of security and liberty, while acknowledging Professor Own Fiss’s spotlight on the judicial penchant for backsliding.
A Workable Method
Authors: Yamamoto Eric K.
Published: April 2018

This chapter discusses the task of methodology. How might a court ascertain the appropriate mode of review in a given security-liberty case, and how might the court effectively undertake that review? The chapter suggests a calibrated judicial review method that affords the government wide latitude in most national security matters, with courts adopting a posture of substantial deference. However, when the government claims pressing public necessity to legitimate measures that curtail fundamental liberties of citizens or noncitizens, careful judicial scrutiny takes over. With Korematsu as backdrop, the method delineates the mechanics for selecting the appropriate type of review in a given case. In doing so, it speaks to a judicial review conundrum generated by a briar patch of unexplained boilerplate language in numerous case opinions—opinions that first recite “the court’s substantial deference” to the executive on security matters, then follow with “but the court is duty-bound to protect constitutional liberties,” implicating careful scrutiny.
Realpolitik Influences
Authors: Yamamoto Eric K.
Published: April 2018

This chapter identifies realpolitik influences on the implementation of the proposed method for judicial review. It dispels the formalist notion that the judicial embrace of the method—any method—will itself assure its faithful operation. The chapter acknowledges the importance of judicial methods both for case adjudication and for judicial legitimacy. But, in light of the “flux and pressure of contemporary events,” it also identifies a crucial role for legal advocates and the American populace. It posits that careful judicial scrutiny in practice often results from a ragged combination of law and politics. This chapter’s final section tightly illustrates the impact of this kind of advocacy and pressure in Dr. Wen Ho Lee’s national security prosecution debacle. Dr. Lee’s story uplifts the realpolitik insight that there “is a symbiotic relationship between politics and law, in which civil society’s appeal to law informs politics, and that politics reinforces the law’s appeal.”
Listening to Parody in the Mass in B Minor
Authors: Melamed Daniel R.
Published: April 2018

Writings about Johann Sebastian Bach’s Mass in B Minor are dominated by discussions of parody, the origin of most of the Mass in music Bach had composed for other texts and purposes. There are reasons to study parody, but it arguably has little to do with the experience of hearing the work. A focus on parody can lead to fallacious understanding, mistaking the work’s genesis for its meaning, or imagining we can divine the composer’s intent. The suspicion or knowledge of parody appears to help us understand the Mass but actually does not. Audible musical features, including those that point to particular kinds of compositions, can be informative but not because they point to parody. Some movements behave in unconventional ways. These are often related to the parody process, but we do not need to invoke parody to understand how they contribute to the work’s effect. Parody is probably overrated.
Parody and Its Consequences in the Christmas Oratorio
Authors: Melamed Daniel R.
Published: April 2018

Johann Sebastian Bach set the poetic texts in the Christmas Oratorio—everything that isn’t gospel narrative or hymn stanza—to music he had originally composed for civic occasions. This raises many questions, particularly about the relation between liturgical and secular musical styles in the early eighteenth century. Bach clearly felt able to reuse this music in the Oratorio, but the listener can hear features of that work that point to nonliturgical origins, things that tend to happen more often (or only) in nonchurch pieces. Bach and his librettist found ways to connect the two worlds, identifying religious and theological topics that resonated with textual and musical ideas in the worldly originals they adapted. Evidently motivated by a desire to make full use of the adapted compositions, they also transformed some pieces in ways that force us to consider assumptions about the relationship between text and music in Bach’s works.
Lawful War of Self-Defense
Authors: Beer Yishai
Published: April 2018

This chapter deals with the application of the suggested professionalism criterion in the other segment of the law, the ad bellum sphere. An unresolved legal issue in the self-defense context concerns its timing: When can a self-defendant state be proactive in its defense and strike preemptively? On the assumption that a self-defendant is not obliged to remain a sitting duck when confronted by an imminent threat against it, this chapter suggests that the criterion to be used in defining the legal-timing threshold, vindicating the right of self-defense, be taken from the toolbox of military professionalism. It should be the last reasonable point, according to the self-defendant’s military circumstances, at which it can, according to its military doctrine, successfully face the aggressor’s threat and still operationally defend itself—including, when necessary, by taking the initiative in its own self-defense.
Human Rights in Heaven
Authors: Moyn Samuel
Published: April 2018

This chapter inquires into the value of philosophical debates about human rights for those interested in international and transnational human rights politics. At a minimum, the goal is to insist that philosophers have an honest answer to what broader purposes they are serving when they bring their unique skills to a fraught global debate—and what risks of their own they incur given the temptation of falling back on their talents for affirming normativity and clarifying norms rather than explaining what the rest of us do with them in a complex world of passion and force. Slightly more boldly, the point is to call for an alternative version of philosophy—including an alternative philosophy of human rights—that embraces the situation that outsiders acknowledge as an unavoidable condition: caught in the rough and tumble or outright strife of politics, in a historically constituted world, that even philosophy cannot escape.
On Waldron’s Critique of Raz on Human Rights
Authors: Raz Joseph
Published: April 2018

This commentary responds to Waldron’s “Human Rights: A Critique of the Raz/Rawls Approach”. It points out that some supposed criticisms are nothing more than observations on conditions that any account of rights must meet, and that Waldron’s objections to Raz are due to misunderstanding his thesis and its theoretical goal. The short comment tries to clarify that goal.
Instrumentalism and Human Rights
Authors: Mayr Erasmus
Published: April 2018

This comment examines the impact of Buchanan’s and Sreenivasan’s critique of the mirroring view on some established theories of human rights, in particular on ‘political’ accounts like Joseph Raz’s, which consider human rights to be a subclass of moral rights. It is argued that, on the one hand, such theories are not best understood as relying on the mirroring view, and, on the other hand, that they have resources to defend the mirroring view against Buchanan’s and Sreenivasan’s criticisms.
In What Sense Should Respect for Human Rights Be Attainable?
Authors: Cruft Rowan
Published: April 2018

This chapter initially disputes Brownlee’s claim that because human rights are ideals, they cannot be subject to feasibility requirements. The chapter goes on to consider an alternative, more complex interpretation of Brownlee’s claim: that because human rights’ ideality is compatible with human rights guiding action and bearing practical importance, there is no reason for the theorist to commit herself to feasibility conditions on human rights. Assessing the plausibility of this claim draws the chapter into methodological debates relevant to the evaluation of the rival ‘political’ and ‘orthodox’ views of human rights. It shows that the ‘orthodox’ approach best supports Brownlee’s complex argument against feasibility conditions.
The Politics of Humanitarian Morality
Authors: Nesiah Vasuki
Published: April 2018

Coady speaks compellingly of the hazards of humanitarian moralism. Coady’s corrective to those hazards calls for attending to the immediate political context but neglects how human rights (HR) not only engages with a political context external to it, but is itself deploying and negotiating power. Thus his discussion of the HR/humanitarianism merger renders this confluence as background to, rather than constitutive of, those hazards. From the 1990s the international community paid less attention to routine HR, and focused increasingly on HR in the context of humanitarian crisis. This shift’s impacts include: inflecting HR in those contexts with a depoliticizing humanitarian morality; treating HR engagements as episodic injections in moments of disaster with politics displaced by the moral urgency of catastrophe, rather than as engagements with the routine and structural; translating HR into an export product with engagements activated not by our rights but “theirs” — thus intervening in, even disregarding, local populations in name of their HR. If we don’t take into account these larger stakes re. the politics of HR and humanitarianism, the prudence that modifies moralism functions to complement rather than counter, with ethics and expertise travelling hand in hand to couple moralism and prudence to rescue “better”.
Political Settlements and Economic Transformation
Authors: Gray Hazel
Published: April 2018

This chapter sets out the analytical framework of political settlements and elaborates the framework to account for the socialist experiences of Tanzania and Vietnam in the 1960s and 1970s. A political settlement, as defined by Mushtaq Khan, is a combination of power and institutions that is mutually compatible and also sustainable in terms of economic and political viability. The chapter clarifies the core building blocks of the approach and sets out the main differences between political settlements and new institutional economics. The chapter then defines a socialist political settlement where productive rights are formally held by the collective and formal institutions protect common and collectively owned assets. The attempts to construct a socialist political settlement left important institutional, political, and economic legacies. These shaped incentives and constraints which influenced a number of critical processes at the heart of economic development—related to technological learning, accumulation for investment, and political stabilization.
Corruption and Political Order
Authors: Gray Hazel
Published: April 2018

This chapter contrasts the way that the political settlement in both countries shaped the pattern of redistribution, reform, and corruption within public finance and the implications that this had for economic transformation. Differences in the impact of corruption on economic transformation can be explained by the way that their political settlements generated distinct patterns of competition and collaboration between economic and political actors. In Vietnam corrupt activities led to investments that were frequently not productive; however, the greater financial discipline imposed by lower-level organizations led to a higher degree of investment overall in Vietnam that supported a more rapid economic transformation under liberalization than in Tanzania. Individuals or small factional networks within the VCP at the local level were, therefore, probably less able to engage in forms of corruption that simply led to capital flight as happened in Tanzania, where local level organizations were significantly weaker.
The Tectonic Plates are Moving!
Authors: Livermore Roy
Published: April 2018

Written in a witty and informal style, this book explains modern plate tectonics in a non-technical manner, showing not only how it accounts for phenomena such as great earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions, but also how it controls conditions at the Earth’s surface, including global geography and climate, making it suitable for life. The book presents the advances that have been made since the establishment of plate tectonics in the 1960s, highlighting, on the fiftieth anniversary of the theory, the contributions of a small number of scientists who have never been widely recognized for their discoveries. Beginning with the publication of a short article in Nature by Vine and Matthews, the book traces the development of plate tectonics through two generations of the theory. First-generation plate tectonics covers the exciting scientific revolution of the 1960s, its heroes, and its villains. The second generation includes the rapid expansions in sonar, satellite, and seismic technologies during the 1980s and 1990s that provided a truly global view of the plates and their motions, and an appreciation of the role of their within the Earth system. Arriving at the cutting edge of the science, the latest results from studies using techniques such as seismic tomography and mineral physics to probe the deep interior are discussed and the prospects for finding plate tectonics on other planets assessed. Ultimately, the book leads to the startling conclusion that, without plate tectonics, the Earth would be as lifeless as Venus.
Introduction
Authors: Colpan Asli M. , Hikino Takashi
Published: April 2018

While business groups are a dominant and critical business organization in contemporary emerging economies and have lately attracted much attention in academic circles and business presses, interestingly their counterparts in developed economies have not been systematically examined. This chapter serves as an introduction to this volume that examines the origins, evolution, and resilience of business groups in the developed economies of Western Europe, North America and Oceania. First, it describes the major aims of the volume and argues why it focuses on business groups in developed economies. Second, it examines the categorical classifications of various types of business groups, as conceptual clarification is necessary to distinguish different varieties of this organizational model at the outset of the volume. Third, the chapter explores the varieties of diversified business groups and their comparable organizational models under the category of “multi-unit enterprises.” It concludes by giving an outline of the entire volume.
Britain
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: April 2018

This chapter explores the prevalence of business groups in Britain. It shows that during the nineteenth century British merchant houses established business groups with diversified portfolio and pyramidal structures overseas, primarily in developing countries, both colonial and independent. These business groups were resilient and successful until the late twentieth century. In the domestic economy, the business-group form had a more limited role. Large single product firms were the norm, which over time merged into large combines with significant market power. This reflected a business system in which a close relationship between finance and industry was discouraged, but there were few restrictions on the transfer of corporate ownership. Yet large and successful diversified business groups did emerge which had closely held shareholding and international businesses. Especially between the 1970s and the 1990s, large diversified conglomerates also flourished. This evidence shows that diversified business groups can add value in mature markets.
The Netherlands
Authors: Goey Ferry De , Jong Abe De
Published: April 2018

This chapter presents an introductory and exploratory overview of the history and present state of business groups in the Netherlands, with an emphasis on large business in the twentieth century. Statistical data and overviews are complemented by case studies, in order to sketch the diversity in business groups among Dutch businesses. Although business groups were present throughout modern Dutch business history, they were never the dominant organizational form. Although some large multinationals can be classified as business groups and many smaller family businesses are business groups, little attention has been paid to the organizational form in the literature. The chapter cannot document general motivations for Dutch firms to opt for a business group structure but presents several case-specific and idiosyncratic reasons.
France
Authors: cassis Youssef
Published: April 2018

This chapter discusses business groups within the context of the development of large enterprises in France. The latter have predominantly taken the form of holding companies (usually called groupes) akin to hierarchical-type business groups, undiversified or with related diversification, often of a pyramidal type. Another, more recent feature of French big business has been the continuous spread of the multidivisional structure since the 1960s. Diversified business groups have formed a small but not insignificant part of French big business. While only bank-centered business groups existed before the First World War, family-owned groups have been a persistent though minority component of French big business since the 1920s. State-owned business groups have never properly featured in France, nor have conglomerates in the 1960s and 1970s or private equity since the 1980s.
Sentencing Policy as a Force for Social Cohesion
Authors: Henham Ralph
Published: April 2018

This chapter sets out the case for adopting a normative approach to conceptualizing the social reality of sentencing. It argues that policy-makers need to comprehend how sentencing is implicated in realizing state values and take greater account of the social forces that diminish the moral credibility of state sponsored punishment. The chapter reflects on the problems of relating social values to legal processes such as sentencing and argues that crude notions of ‘top down’ or ‘bottom up’ approaches to policy-making should be replaced by a process of contextualized policy-making. Finally, the chapter stresses the need for sentencing policy to reflect those moral attachments that bind citizens together in a relational or communitarian sense. It concludes by exploring these assertions in the light of the sentencing approach taken by the courts following the English riots of 2011.