bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Narcotics Addicts: Effect of Family and Parental Risk Factors on Timing of Emancipation, Drug Use Onset, Pre-Addiction Incarcerations and Educational Achievement
Authors: McCarthy William J. , Anglin M. Douglas
Published: November 2015

The family background characteristics of 756 male heroin users were examined to determine the effects of selected family risk factors on the timing of onset of emancipation and drug use, on pre-addiction incarcerations and on educational attainment. These risk factors included family size, birth order, socioeconomic status, family drug use, parental history of alcoholism, parental absence, and family history of incarceration. The two measures of age of emancipation were age on leaving school and age on leaving home. Age of onset of regular use was measured for the following drugs: tobacco, alcohol, marijuana and heroin. Incarceration measures included the occurrence of juvenile detention and the time spent in prison prior to first addiction. Educational attainment was a score on a California State achievement test. Larger family size, higher birth order, parental alcoholism and parental absence were found to have a cumulatively negative effect on how young the respondents were when they first left home and when they first used particular drugs regularly, on their level of tested academic achievement, and on their probability of juvenile detention. Implications for social policies designed to prevent drug abuse are discussed.
It's Easier for the Bulls Now: Official Statistics and Social Change in a Canadian Heroin-Using Community
Authors: Stoddart Kenneth
Published: November 2015

The notion that official statistics have an unknowable relationship to the “actual” volume and morphology of criminal activity is now part of sociology's conventional wisdom. This article examines a seldom-addressed element in the repertoire of possibilities that official statistics might reveal — the nature of the deviant community itself. Using qualitative data, it suggests community solidarity has eroded and certain adaptive practices have been abandoned. These changes have facilitated enforcement.
The Construction, Validation and Use of a Guttman Scale of Adolescent Substance Use: An Investigation of Family Relationships
Authors: Andrews Judy A. , Hops Hyman , Ary Dennis , Lichtenstein Edward , Tildesley Elizabeth
Published: November 2015

A Guttman scale of substance use was constructed from the self-report data of adolescents' substance use. The properties of this scale were excellent indicating that substance use is unidimensional and cumulative. A prospective analysis over two years indicated that the temporal sequence of substance use implied by the Guttman scale represents stages in substance use – adolescents transition from alcohol use, to cigarette use, to marijuana use, and finally, to hard drugs. Relations between adolescent stage of substance use and adolescent “deviancy” validated the order of substances in the scale. Concurrent and prospective relations between the family environment and stage of substance use demonstrated the usefulness of the scale in research on adolescent substance use.
Needle Use and Sexual Practices: Differences in Perception of Personal Risk of HIV among Intravenous Drug Users
Authors: Sibthorpe Beverly , Fleming David , Tesselaar Helen , Gould Jeanne
Published: November 2015

Of 161 out-of-treatment intravenous drug users interviewed in Portland, Oregon, where syringes and needles can be purchased without prescription, 52% reported sharing needles with others in the preceding year and 55% reported practicing unsafe sex. There was a high level of knowledge of the HIV transmission risk associated with both needle sharing and sexual practices. However, while those with unsafe needle use perceived their risk of contracting HIV as greater than those with safer needle use, those practicing unsafe sex did not see their risk as greater than those practicing safer sex. Unsafe needle use and unsafe sex require different approaches to intervention and sexual risk reduction education needs to be specifically targeted at helping IVDUs better understand their sexual relationships in terms of their risk of contracting HIV.
Attributional Shifts in Smokers as a Consequence of Clinical Classification
Authors: McAllister Pamela O. , Davies John B.
Published: November 2015

Twenty female smokers were interviewed on two occasions. At the first interview their consumption was estimated using a retrospective diary technique, and they were asked to rate a number of attributions in terms of their applicability for their present smoking. On the basis of their consumption they were then divided into two groups, a “heavy” smoking group and a “light” smoking group. Their consumption classification was made clear to subjects prior to, and during the second interview, which took place five to seven weeks later. At the second interview subjects were asked to rate the same explanations for their smoking, as well as to respond to other items. While there were no significant differences in the attributional ratings of the two groups at the first interview, there were significant differences in the “heavy” and “light” groups' ratings of the “addiction” attribution in the second interview, during which they were aware of their classification. These differences were significant in terms of both the subjects' ratings of the “addiction” attribution, and in the derived dimensional scores obtained from all the attributional items. The finding that being aware of consumption classification can affect attributions for addictive behavior may have clinical implications.
The Role of the Federal Trade Commission in Regulating Non-Prescription Drug Advertising and Promotion
Authors: Watts Marianne R. , Wilkenfeld Judith D.
Published: November 2015

The article focuses on the manner in which the Federal Trade Commission regulates advertising in general and over-the-counter drug advertising in particular. It also highlights the cooperation that exists between the Commission and the Food and Drug Administration in both food and drug matters.
HIV Infection and Injecting Drug Use in Australia: Responding to a Crisis
Authors: Wodak Alex
Published: November 2015

Multiple data sources indicate low levels of HIV infection among injecting drug users (IDUs) in Australia despite a high prevalence of behaviours associated with considerable risk of transmission of infection in this population and a high prevalence of HIV infection among homosexual/bisexual males. The containment of HIV infection among IDUs in Australia in the 1980s, a remarkable public health achievement by national and international standards, probably represents the most important national accomplishment in the alcohol and drug field during the past decade. A number of factors can be identified which have probably been responsible for the early adoption and vigorous implementation of multiple complementary prevention strategies. Complacency and supply restriction drug policy are now among the most critical factors limiting further containment efforts. Progress in implementing strategies to reduce HIV transmission among IDUs in prisons proceeds far slower than all other areas associated with control of HIV infection in this population.
Ethnography and Understandings of Aboriginal Drinking
Authors: Brady Maggie
Published: November 2015

Qualitative and ethnographic accounts of Aboriginal drinking tend to focus on the social meanings and uses of alcohol within particular groups. Such studies avoid a preoccupation with ‘causes' and instead examine the social milieu within which, sometimes excessive, drinking occurs without disapprobation. This article outlines the work of Australian social analysts of Aboriginal drinking who have documented the process of learning how to drink, the uses of drinking as a marker of equality, sociability and in exchanges, and the beliefs and meanings attached to alcohol use among Aboriginal people. Through such approaches, we can “make sense” of the persistence of what often seem to be dysfunctional styles of drinking among certain groups.
Enhancing Criminal Justice Based Treatment through the Application of the Intervention Approach
Authors: Siegal Harvey A. , Cole Phyllis A.
Published: November 2015

The innovative, successful and widely replicated Weekend Intervention Program (WIP) has been highly effective in identifying and intervening with persons charged with alcohol (and other drug) related driving offenses. WIP's model approach allows a high degree of specificity in assigning individuals to the most appropriate treatment setting and successfully prepares the offender for the substance abuse services to be received, therefore, addressing a major impediment to successful treatment — early drop out. Expanded utilization of a program such as WIP can greatly enhance the therapeutic and cost effectiveness of criminal justice system treatment efforts and help establish a viable productive partnership between the criminal justice system and the substance abuse treatment community. In this article the authors describe WIP, its clinical approach and evaluation, and comment upon the benefits of its wider use.
Quantitative Methods for Estimating the Size of a Drug-Using Population
Authors: Wickens Thomas D.
Published: November 2015

The author describes several of the most important quantitative procedures for estimating the size of an unobserved or partially observed population, with specific application to the estimation of the prevalence of drug use. The methods discussed include synthetic estimation, truncated Poisson estimates, multiple-capture surveys in both closed populations (the capture-recapture model and log-linear models) and open populations (the Jolly-Seber model and Markov models), and, more briefly, system dynamics models.
Prevalence Estimation: Policy Needs, Current Status, and Future Potential
Authors: Anglin M. Douglas , Caulkins Jonathan P. , Hser Yih-Ing
Published: November 2015

Prevalence estimations of drug-related phenomena, including numbers of users, extent of consequences, and levels of consumption and expenditures, can provide information useful in assessing the scope of the problem, identifying patterns and trends in consumption, evaluating the effectiveness of intervention programs, and allocating resources. The authors summarize the policy needs for, the current status of, and recent developments in prevalence estimation, as described in the preceding articles. Implications raised in the collective work and specific recommendations to improve prevalence estimation in the service of policy are discussed.
Risk Factors for Drug Use in Urban Adolescents: A Three-Wave Longitudinal Study
Authors: Farrell Albert D.
Published: November 2015

A three-wave longitudinal panel design was used to examine the relationship between risk factors and drug use in a sample of 1,375 middle school students in an urban school system. The total number of risk factors was significantly related to subsequent initiation of use for beer, wine, hard liquor, cigarettes, and marijuana. Comparison of several path models relating risk factors to the frequency of drug use across three time points between the seventh and eighth grades indicated that a reciprocal model provided the best fit to the data. Within this model, drug use was predicted by previous levels of drug use and risk factors, and the risk factor index was predicted by previous levels of risk factors and drug use. These findings provide further support for the utility of a risk factors approach to identifying variables associated with drug use among adolescents.
Legal Attitudes, Permissive Norm Qualities, and Substance Use: A Comparison of American Indian and Non-Indian Youth
Authors: Sellers Christine S. , Winfree L. Thomas , Griffiths Curt T.
Published: November 2015

Youthful drug use violates both formal law and informal norms for conventional behavior. Analyses of influences on permissive drug attitudes and behaviors among adolescents should, therefore, focus on both attitude toward the law and the informal normative climate of these youths. Legal attitude and norm qualities, however, can vary depending on the cultural and situational context. We examine the effect of legal attitude and norm qualities on drug permissiveness attitudes, as well as actual alcohol and marijuana use of 196 adolescents comprising three cultural groups: American Indian residents of a rural community, non-Indian residents of the same community, and transient Indians attending a job-training program in the community. In general, for all three groups, legal attitude primarily affects permissiveness toward drug use, while norm qualities of peers and personal permissiveness influence actual substance use. However, the three cultural groups vary in the relative salience of these variables.
Exploring the Direct and Indirect Family Effects on Adolescent Drug Use
Authors: Hoffmann John P.
Published: November 2015

Research exploring the development of adolescent drug use has focused much attention on family and peer influences. Most of this research has concentrated on the direct effects of family structure, parent-child relations, or peer associations on marijuana and other illicit drug use. Peers typically have the greatest impact, followed by family relations, and finally family structure. However, research has failed to explore the potential indirect effects of family variables on adolescent drug use. The author develops and evaluates empirically several models that examine the direct and indirect effects of family structure and family relations on marijuana and polydrug use. The results suggest that peers have the strongest effect on adolescent drug use, yet parent-child involvement and family structure also have a direct effect. The indirect models indicate that family factors influence peers, and family structure affects family relations. These findings suggest that the family effects on adolescent drug use are complex and in need of greater attention.
Whatever Happened to ICE? The Latest Drug Scare
Authors: Lauderback David , Waldorf Dan
Published: November 2015

A potent form of methamphetamine — “ice” — gained national notoriety in 1989. Smoked in a pipe, the high from ice was said to last from four to twenty-four hours, and prolonged use led to paranoid schizophrenia. Its reputed popularity in the state of Hawaii led a host of local, state, and federal officials to issue grave warnings about the threat this drug posed to a nation already weary from the ravages of crack. Although federal officials in early 1990 backed away from this portent of doom, such claims were tenuous at best given a complete lack of evidence. A small sample of eighteen ice users in San Francisco revealed significant impediments to the adoption of this drug there. Variable drug use patterns and user preferences were the two most significant factors inhibiting the widespread acceptance of ice into the San Francisco drug-using scene.
The Experiences of Women Who Sell Crack: Some Descriptive Data from the Detroit Crack Ethnography Project
Authors: Mieczkowski Tom
Published: November 2015

The author examines the role of women in various crack sales venues. He reports basic sociodemographic data on women crack sellers derived from a convenience sample obtained in Detroit, Michigan. He also reports various descriptive experiences of these women and develops a series of role typologies that characterize the various experiences of the subjects. The article also describes a variety of role type transitions experienced over time by the subjects. Finally, he examines various coping strategies employed by the subjects in dealing with the challenges and dangers that are an aspect of drug selling, and contrasts these strategies with male crack sellers.
Drug Use among Female Arrestees: Onset, Patterns, and Relationships to Prostitution
Authors: Graham Nanette , Wish Eric D.
Published: November 2015

This study presents extensive life history information for a sample of 164 female arrestees in Manhattan who were interviewed and provided anonymous and voluntary urine specimens in 1984–85. It provides a unique opportunity to explore drug use and crime relationships in a sample that is similar to offenders currently being studied as part of the national Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) program. Over one-half of the females tested positive for a drug at arrest by urinalysis. Sixty percent tested positive for cocaine and twenty-seven percent for opiates. The female arrestees tended to be high school dropouts and to have come from broken homes. The majority were unmarried and had one or more children living with them. Approximately one-half of the arrestees had a history of prostitution, and these persons were more likely to be currently dependent on heroin or cocaine. Analyses examine personal backgrounds of the females, their pattern of onset of drug use, and the temporal sequence of drug use and prostitution.
The Dutch Cannabis Debate, 1968–1976
Authors: de Kort Marcel
Published: November 2015

Today's Dutch drug policy has acquired the reputation of standing outside the international mainstream of drug control. One of the most eye-catching aspects of the revision of the Dutch Opium Act in 1976 has been the de facto decriminalization of cannabis in small amounts. Nowadays the use of and small-scale dealing in cannabis has become normalized. This process of normalization is widely seen as a “model” for a revision of European drug policies. However, in this article the conclusion is reached that this process should not be considered as a “model.” When we examine the arguments, points of contention, and policy alternatives discussed within the Dutch ministries between 1968 and 1976, it becomes clear that the de facto decriminalization of soft drugs was more the result of the absence of policy, and of a belated adaptation to already existing circumstances, than of any rational, well-considered action.
Strategies for Improving Coordination between Enforcement and Treatment Efforts in Controlling Illegal Drug Use
Authors: Greenwood Peter W.
Published: November 2015

Improved coordination between law enforcement, prevention, and treatment efforts is a goal articulated by almost all policymakers concerned with reducing the use of illegal drugs. This paper reviews what is currently known about interactions between these alternative intervention strategies and identifies a number of problems that impede better coordination between them — including organizational incentives, differences in philosophy, and differences in the timing of impacts. Programmatic strategies suggested for overcoming these impediments include particular forms of training, the use of joint task forces, and the assignment of liaison personnel.
The Validity of Self-Reported Data on Drug Use
Authors: Harrison Lana D.
Published: November 2015

Surveys of drug use are continually criticized on the premise that respondents underreport the extent of their drug use. Validation studies conducted prior to the mid-1980s involving known samples of drug users or urinalysis techniques showed that drug use was fairly accurately reported in self-report surveys. However, more recent validation studies conducted with criminal justice clients using improved urinalysis techniques suggest less concordance between urinalysis and self-report. This paper reviews these studies and their implications for the validity of self-report in epidemiological drug surveys. Some general conclusions can be drawn from various validation studies. Valid self-reporting of drug use is a function of: 1) the recency of the event, 2) the social desirability of the drug, and 3) nuances of data collection methodology. The paper discusses methods used to improve the validity and quality of self-report data on drug use.
Stigma, Conflict, and the Approval of Aids Drugs
Authors: Hansen Robert W. , Ranelli Paul L. , Ried L. Douglas
Published: November 2015

A preliminary report questioning the efficacy of zidovudine (AZT) in the early treatment of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) implicitly questions the expedited process by which AZT was approved. While the public historically has influenced drug policy, recent changes were brought about by activists threatening civil insurrection to expand access to unapproved treatments. Turner's social conflict theory is used to explain the recent structural changes in the drug approval process in terms of the overt struggle for control over access to potentially life-saving drugs. This passion for change is shown to be a result of the stigma of the disease itself. Challenging the hegemony of the FDA was a mechanism by which activists coped with the imputed stigma of AIDS. While controversial, activism has increased access to new drugs and will have a far-reaching impact on how future drugs are approved.
Using Retrospective Behavioral Data to Determine HIV Risk Factors among Street-Recruited Drug Injectors
Authors: Dasgupta Sathi , Friedman Samuel R. , Jose Benny , Neaigus Alan , Rosenblum Andrew , Goldsmith Douglas S. , Kleinman Paula H. , Des Jarlais Don C.
Published: November 2015

This paper investigates whether the time period during which retrospective behavioral data are collected affects the results of studies of HIV risk factors. In particular, we address the concern that questionnaires probing behaviors in the recent past may not isolate the risk behaviors involved at the time of actual HIV infection. During 1987 and 1988, 278 street-recruited injecting drug users (IDUs) in New York City were interviewed about their sexual behaviors, medical history, drug-injection behaviors in the prior ten years, and specific needle-use behaviors during 1985–86 and thereafter. Among the 278 subjects, 52% were HIV-seropositive. In univariate analysis, serostatus was significantly related to: a) total drug-injection frequency during 1983–84 and 1985–86; b) mean monthly total drug-injection frequency during 1977 to 1987; c) cocaine injection frequencies during 1983–84 and 1985–86, and during the last thirty days; and d) injecting in shooting galleries and using previously used cookers during 1985–86. Significant predictors of seroprevalence in stepwise logistic regression were total drug and cocaine injection frequencies during 1983–84, years of injection, residence in the Bronx, not being Hispanic and history of any sexually transmitted disease. The data confirm previous reports on behavioral risk factors for HIV serostatus. Re-analysis using drug-injection frequency data for different time periods indicates that in the context of an “older” HIV epidemic like that in New York City, analysis of risk factors may be less sensitive to time periods than had previously been feared, although it may be true that data for behaviors in “the last thirty days” cover a sufficiently atypical period as to produce misleading results.
Supervisor Referrals to Employee Assistance Programs: A Social Learning Perspective
Authors: Capece Michael , Akers Ronald
Published: November 2015

The purpose of this study is to locate the important variables in the decisions by supervisors to refer employees troubled by alcohol, drug or emotional problems to “employee assistance programs.” A self-administered questionnaire was given to a sample of 90 supervisors in two general hospitals in the southeast. Social learning theory guided the research. Data were analyzed by discriminant function analysis.

The discriminant function analysis was performed to determine if variables derived from social learning theory could explain why some supervisors refer employees with drug, alcohol or emotional problems to the employee assistance program and others do not. The social learning variables explained 42% of the variance in the dependent variable, (referring and non-referring behavior of the supervisors). Also, the discriminant function with the social learning variables was able to successfully classify 78% of the cases into the referring and non-referring groups.
Gender Differences in Collegiate Alcohol Use
Authors: Lo Celia C.
Published: November 2015

Using a survey of 808 male and female college students at a medium-sized state university in the Deep South, this study compared the drinking behavior of, and the social mechanisms leading to alcohol use, in the two gender groups. The results show that males are more likely than females to drink to intoxication. Three main factors can account for this difference. First, males are more likely than females to be associated with others who present prodrinking norms and drinking models. Second, females are more likely to be affected by their parents, and association with parents' more restrictive norms results in less favorable alcohol-use definitions among females, and, in turn, a lower level of alcohol use. Third, peer drinking norms, which are more permissive, exert a stronger impact on male definitions of alcohol use and level of intoxication than on female definitions.
Images of the Twelve-Step Model, and Sex and Love Addiction in an Alcohol Intervention Group for Black Women
Authors: Saulnier Christine Flynn
Published: November 2015

The Alcoholics Anonymous twelve-step model was developed to help a specific population of white, middle-class, heterosexual men with a specific problem: alcoholism. As the program is applied to a wider variety of issues, with diverse populations, the model's generalizability has been called into question. Its applicability to outgroups is, at best, uncertain. At worst, the addiction model and its notion of powerlessness could have serious negative consequences. Until now, there has been scant research on the effect of using the program with marginalized people. Because of difficulties accessing these populations, the present study used innovative qualitative research methods to answer questions about the consequences of membership in twelve-step programs for a marginalized group: African-American women. This paper documents some of the problems that can occur when a program designed to solve a specific problem among a hegemonic group is used to address everyday activities of marginalized people.
Fantasy Island: An Ethnography of Alcohol and Gender Roles in a Latino Gay Bar
Authors: Cáceres Carlos F. , Cortiñas Jorge I.
Published: November 2015

Marginalities around gender/sexuality, ethnicity, migration status, and alcohol use tend to coalesce and construct hidden populations which develop their own subcultures. Social science is becoming increasingly aware of the need to better understand the norms and meanings constituting such subcultures, particularly in the era of AIDS and other health risks, if more effective social programs are to be implemented. We report on a qualitative study on the roles of gender and alcohol use in a Latino gay bar with transvestites in a large urban area of the United States. Participant observation and in-depth interviews were carried out. We found that the bar, as a leisure space, provided a social setting where gender and sexuality as social categories are being reconstructed and where alcohol use, besides its legitimized use in so-called social drinking, is part of several rites related to the very disruption and dispersion of the gender/sexuality structure. In terms of other meanings the bar holds for its patrons, it is at the same time a “fantasy island” (i.e., a surrealistic space where “reality” is suspended and other conditions of feasibility and meaning emerge), and a “home away from home,” where family-like interaction and care determine a feeling of belongingness and an interest to conserve the privileges of a liberated and safe surrogate home.
Etiological Theories and the Primary Prevention of Drug Use
Authors: Gorman D.M.
Published: November 2015

Since the early 1980s, the social influence model has dominated the field of primary prevention research. Social influence programs generally take the form of standardized curricula, aimed at all members of broadly defined target populations. Evaluative research has employed a fundamentally inductive methodology, the goal of which is to generate successive “confirming instances” of program effectiveness among these broad populations. As a result, prevention research has largely stagnated, and has not availed itself of recent findings from basic research such as those reported in this issue. This research tells us that the relationship between peer group affiliation and drug use is reciprocal and not unidirectional as assumed in most social influence programs, that the scope of intervention efforts must be broadened because the processes involved in the initiation of drug use are far more complex than suggested by the theories on which current prevention efforts are based, and that programs should be targeted rather than universal as some individuals are at greater risk of developing a problem with drugs than others.
Patterns of Substance Abuse among Rural Black Adolescents
Authors: Albrecht Stan L. , Amey Cheryl , Miller Michael K.
Published: November 2015

Adolescent substance abuse continues to be a major health-related problem in this country. Although substantial information is available on the overall incidence of use, comparatively little attention has been given to use patterns among minority adolescents or those who reside in nonmetropolitan areas. Using data from the most recent Monitoring the Future survey, we examine the role of race and residence in affecting substance abuse patterns. Overall, our findings are consistent with previously reported research in indicating that residence differences are modest. Additionally, compared with Whites, Black youth are much less likely to report drug use. In the bivariate analysis, major correlates of use include gender, family structure, religious attendance, grade point average (GPA), and the availability of unearned income. In the multivariate analysis, race, family structure, religious attendance, GPA, and unearned income remain significant. The potential protective role played by family and church in the rural, Black context is discussed.
A Tale of Two Countries: Attempts to Control HIV among Injecting Drug Users in Australia and the United States
Authors: Wodak Alex , Lurie Peter
Published: November 2015

Prevalence of injectable drug use is surprisingly similar in Australia and the United States. HIV prevalence among injection drug users (IDUs) is less than 5% in Australia and about 14% in the United States. IDUs accounted for 2.5% of AIDS cases in Australia in 1994 and 28% in the United States in 1993. Harm reduction was officially adopted in Australia in 1985 but has been explicitly rejected by the U.S. government. In 1994, needle programs exchanged over 10 million syringes from over 4,000 outlets in Australia while 55 needle exchange programs in the United States exchanged almost eight million syringes. Since 1985, methadone maintenance expanded almost ten-fold in Australia but barely increased in the United States. Timely and vigorous adoption of harm reduction strategies in Australia and the relative lack of such programs in the United States is the most plausible explanation for the good control of HIV among IDUs in Australia and poor control in the United States.
Strategies for Improving Methadone Treatment Process and Outcomes
Authors: Simpson D. Dwayne , Joe George W. , Dansereau Donald F. , Chatham Lois R.
Published: November 2015

Major findings are summarized for a program of research focused on therapeutic enhancements to methadone treatment. Cognitive, behavioral, and psychoeducational strategies for improving client engagement and counseling services are described. Evaluations focused on during-treatment performance and follow-up outcomes collected 1 year after discharge, with an emphasis on the impact of services delivered as well as client and counselor perceptions of one another. Interrelations were examined between treatment process components: therapeutic relationship between clients and counselors, service intensity and type, behavioral compliance of clients during treatment, and length of stay. Results showed enhanced counseling and length of time spent in treatment were related to treatment outcomes.
High Risk Pregnancies: Teenagers, Poverty, and Drug Abuse
Authors: Waters Judith , Roberts Albert R. , Morgen Keith
Published: November 2015

The real problem is not teenage pregnancy alone, but the destructive combination of single motherhood, poverty, and drug abuse. The consequences of being a poor, inner-city, single mother with an expensive drug habit may include prostitution, drug dealing, dependency upon welfare and/or extra support from an already overwhelmed family system, and neglected children. Almost inevitably, the children exhibit cognitive deficits and behavioral problems, may turn to drugs at a young age, and may have an early involvement with the criminal justice system. To design effective prevention programs it is essential to understand the myriad complex risk factors that affect the lives of these vulnerable young women. As the first stage in a larger study of motivation and readiness for change and the development of self-protective health practices, interview data were collected from 30 participants. Sixteen were residents and staff who had graduated from a drug treatment program and 14 were undergraduate and graduate students, all of whom had been pregnant as teenagers. The results yielded a surprising commonality of experiences for both groups that included childhood physical and sexual abuse, coercive adolescent sexual relationships, early first sexual contact, early first pregnancies (often as a function of rape or incest), abortions, and chemical dependency, especially during pregnancy.
Alcohol-Related Problems in Young People: How are Such Problems Linked to Gender, Drinking Levels, and Cannabis Use?
Authors: Hammer Torild , Pape Hilde
Published: November 2015

This paper focuses on problems related to drinking, including interpersonal aggression, accidents and injuries, trouble with the police, and problems at school or work. The data stem from a representative, longitudinal survey of Norwegian youth aged 19 to 22 years at the first assessment and 25 to 28 at the last. Men reported more problems due to drinking, in both alcohol consumption and general problem proneness, than women. Furthermore, early age at first intoxication seemed to be a male-specific predictor of negative consequences of drinking. Cannabis users reported more alcohol-related problems than others. There was a substantial reduction in problems attributed to drinking between late adolescence and early adulthood, implying that little individual stability in such problems was found. Even so, multivariate analyses showed that alcohol-related problems before ages 19 to 22 were the most powerful predictor of similar problems 6 years later. Registered criminality, cannabis use, and low self-esteem also had a predictive power, but only for men.
Effects of Cannabis Decriminalization in the Australian Capital Territory on University Students' Patterns of Use
Authors: McGeorge Jill , Aitken C.K.
Published: November 2015

Prohibition has been the fundamental tenet of drug policy in most countries throughout much of this century, despite mounting evidence of its ineffectiveness in reducing production, trafficking, and consumption. Proposals for policies that favor relaxation of criminal penalties for drug use are frequently defeated with the argument that decriminalization will lead to increased use. However, this effect has not been observed in the few countries and states which have decriminalized cannabis. The most recent instance of cannabis decriminalization occurred in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) in 1992. To evaluate the effect of decriminalization on cannabis use in the ACT, a sample of students at the Australian National University were surveyed to determine their patterns of use before and since enactment of the legislation. A control group was recruited from students at the University of Melbourne. Patterns of cannabis use were found to be very stable over time, with no significant changes discernible for either sample.
The Love of Speed: An Analysis of the Enduring Attraction of Amphetamine Sulphate for British Youth
Authors: Klee Hilary
Published: November 2015

Amphetamine sulphate has been a popular drug choice for British youth since the 1960s. The reasons for its persistence are explored in this paper, highlighting the alluring nature of its psychoactive effects that can influence social development in the adolescent years. The potential hazards in using the drug are identified and an attempt made to anticipate future trends. The 1960s saw the start of a strong association with music that continues today, and the rave scene has adopted Ecstasy, an amphetamine-type stimulant, as its drug of choice, yet the use of amphetamine sulphate shows no sign of decreasing. Recent international developments in production and trafficking suggest that this is a growing market. The idea that we are faced with an epidemic that could burn itself out is challenged. Support for these arguments derives from several research projects on drug misuse conducted in the northwest of England and the accounts of respondents are used to illustrate key points.
Drug Misuse in Scotland: Policy, Prevalence, and Public Health
Authors: McKeganey Neil
Published: November 2015

The paper outlines the nature and extent of illegal drug use in Scotland. The paper provides a detailed discussion of the impact of HIV among injecting drug users in Scotland. It is shown that although HIV remains a major public health concern within parts of Scotland, most notably in Edinburgh and Dundee, HIV infection remains low elsewhere within Scotland. Although concern in relation to HIV has receded in light of the continuing low prevalence, there has been growing concern over the marked increase in drug-related deaths among drug users within parts of Scotland. Within the policy sphere greater attention is now being given to topic of drug prevention and the impact of drug use on community well being.
Reluctant Partners: Trends in Approaches to Urban Drug-Taking in Contemporary Britain
Authors: MacGregor Susanne
Published: November 2015

This paper reviews recent trends in drug policy in Britain. It identifies the influence of American perspectives in encouraging greater attention to prevention and a stress on partnership. Receptivity to these influences is explained by reference to restructuring of contemporary cities and to wider developments in British urban policy.
The Economics of Substance Abuse in Context: Can Economics Be Part of an Integrated Theory of Drug Use?
Authors: Rasmussen David W. , Benson Bruce L. , Mocan H. Naci
Published: November 2015

This introductory essay examines the issues and perspectives that separate the economics literature from the work of scholars in other social sciences who share a concern about problems of substance abuse. The economic perspective is summarized and the ways in which it is complementary to the other social sciences is explored. Sociological theories of drug abuse are reviewed to assess the extent to which they implicitly incorporate economic ideas. Microeconomics, the theoretical core of economics, is the study of choice under constraints. It is argued that economists bring to the theory of deviance vast experience in modeling choices in a variety of institutional settings. Economics, therefore, may significantly contribute to an integrated social science model of deviance.
Religiosity, Sensation Seeking, and Alcohol/Drug Use in Denominational and Gender Contexts
Authors: Forthun Larry F. , Bell Nancy J. , Peek Charles W. , Sun Sheh-Wei
Published: November 2015

Well documented though they may be, the linkages between religiosity and risk behaviors such as substance use are not well understood. Arousal theory contends that these linkages are due to selective factors in religious participation rather than to religious influences: those most likely to engage in risk behaviors—sensation seekers—are less likely to have church affiliations. Issues addressed in this research were: (a) the importance of sensation seeking, and the interaction of sensation seeking and religiosity, in explaining the relationships between religiosity and the use of both legal and illegal substances; and (b) the variations in these relationships as a function of denominational and gender contexts. Employing a sample of 526 college student respondents, we found no support for arousal theory predictions nor for moderating effects of denominational and gender contexts. Religiosity, sensation seeking, denominational affiliation, and gender were relatively independent predictors of substance use, with their importance varying dependent upon type of substance and specific indicator of use (amount versus grade of first use).
Drug Use, Workplace Accidents and Employee Turnover
Authors: Hoffmann John , Larison Cindy
Published: November 2015

A number of studies presume that illicit drug use and heavy alcohol use increase the risk of work-related accidents and employee turnover. The results of these studies are inconsistent, however, with several reporting a significant association between employee drug use and accidents, and others finding no association. A more consistent result is that drug use is associated with employee turnover, especially an increased risk of termination and resignation. A significant limitation is that most of this research has relied on regional or industry-specific samples. Thus, whether their results generalize to the U.S. workforce is unknown. Using data from a large, representative sample of the U.S. population, we provide a detailed analysis of the relationships among drug use, work-related accidents, and employee turnover. The results indicate that various measures of drug use are not associated with work-related accidents. However, several types of drug use are related to the risk of being fired or resigning from a job in the previous year. Moreover, the risk of being fired varies by occupation.
Dutch Drug Policy in a European Context
Authors: van Solinge Tim Boekhout
Published: November 2015

The increased cooperation between European Union member states in many policy areas has made it increasingly difficult for individual countries to pursue national policies on issues like drugs. The drug policies of the Netherlands, which center squarely on harm reduction, were under severe attack in recent years. Yet a good look at the actual practices in many other countries leaves no doubt that the predominant tendency is towards a harm reduction approach. Debates are also underway in many countries on drug policy reform, and everything from the decriminalization or legalization of cannabis to the legal prescription of heroin have been advocated. Although it is not yet clear just what future policies will look like, the current wave of pragmatism in many European countries has made the liberal Dutch approach less of an isolated case than it was a decade or more ago.
Tracking New Trends in Drug Use
Authors: Diemel Steven , Blanken Peter
Published: November 2015

The Netherlands has developed a broad range of information systems and other data sources that focus on various aspects of illicit drug use. Researchers can put these to use for the early detection, tracking, and understanding of changes in drug consumption patterns in various populations. This article first assesses the suitability of existing data sources for this purpose in a series of case studies including (1) the emergence of ecstasy; (2) changing routes of heroin administration; and (3) the introduction of crack cocaine. It then discusses how to develop an effective model for tracking new trends in drug use. In this model, the suitability of different data sources depends on the topic, the population, and the stage in the diffusion process of the trend. Because each data source has its own strengths and weaknesses, changes can only be detected, tracked, and understood by continuously comparing information from various sources.
Illicit Drug Use, Urbanization, and Lifestyle in the Netherlands
Authors: Abraham Manja
Published: November 2015

National drug use prevalence figures represent average rates of use among the general population. Such prevalence figures are often used to make cross-national comparisons and to evaluate the effectiveness of different national drug policies. It is argued here that these national-level numbers mask interesting and important differences between local areas. In 1997, researchers asked approximately 22,000 respondents, selected from five categories of distinct address density municipalities throughout the Netherlands, about their lifestyles and use of licit and illicit drugs. The data collected indicated divergence between drug use prevalence in urban and rural municipalities, whereas other drug use indicators, such as age of first use, seemed unaffected by address density. The survey data also revealed distinctions between drug use prevalence in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, and Utrecht, although the cities occupy the same level of address density. This paper addresses some of these discrepancies in prevalence rates and offers an explanation in terms of the differential “lifestyles” of the various cities represented by sample respondents.
Medical Co-Prescription of Heroin to Chronic, Treatment-Resistant Methadone Patients in the Netherlands
Authors: van den Brink Wim , Hendriks Vincent M. , van Ree Jan M.
Published: November 2015

This paper begins with a brief description of the epidemiology of heroin addiction in the Netherlands and an overview of the current treatment system, with special emphasis on oral methadone maintenance. It is followed by a short history of the debate over the prescription of heroin to addicted patients. This history reveals that alternatives to methadone have been viewed as essential in the Netherlands since the early 1980s. Earlier experiments with intravenous morphine, intravenous methadone and oral dextromoramide (PalfiumR) were not as successful as had been hoped and precluded their introduction in daily practice. Finally, recent experiences in Switzerland with the medical prescription of heroin facilitated the decision to initiate a scientific study of the medical co-prescription of heroin in the Netherlands. The paper provides a detailed description of the randomized clinical trial regarding the effectiveness of co-prescribed heroin that is now underway in the Netherlands. It concludes with a brief discussion of the likely consequences for future treatment options of different study outcomes.
Immunocytochemical Localization of Shc and Activated EGF Receptor in Early Endosomes After EGF Stimulation of HeLa Cells
Authors: Oksvold Morten P. , Skarpen Ellen , Lindeman Birgitte , Roos Norbert , Huitfeldt Henrik S.
Published: November 2015

After binding of epidermal growth factor (EGF), the EGF receptor (EGFR) becomes autophosphorylated via tyrosine. The ligand-activated receptor is internalized by endocytosis and subsequently degraded in the lysosomal pathway. To follow EGFR activation after EGF stimulation, we generated antisera to the EGFR phosphotyrosine sites pY992 and pY1173. The SH2 region of Shc binds to both these sites. Both antisera identified EGFR after EGF binding and did not crossreact with the unactivated receptor. The intracellular distribution of phosphorylated EGFR after ligand binding was traced by two-color immunofluorescence confocal microscopy and immunoelectron microscopy. Before EGF stimulation EGFR was primarily located along the cell surface. When internalization of activated EGFR was inhibited by incubation with EGF on ice, Y992- and Y1173-phosphorylated EGFR were located along the plasma membrane. Ten minutes after internalization at 37C, Y992- and Y1173-phosphorylated EGFR were almost exclusively located in early endosomes, as shown by co-localization with EEA1. Immunoelectron microscopy confirmed that phosphorylated EGFR was located in intracellular vesicles resembling early endosomes. After EGF stimulation, the adaptor protein Shc redistributed to EGFR-containing early endosomes. Our results indicate that EGFR activation of Shc via tyrosine-phosphorylated Y992 and Y1173 occurred in early endocytic compartments, and support a role for membrane trafficking in intracellular signaling.