bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Aberdeen Offshore Oil Industry: Core and Periphery
Authors: Gasteen Anne , Sewell John
Published: November 2023

During the last decade several commentators have pointed to profound changes in the nature of product markets, which are taking place on an international scale. There has been a movement away from the supply of mass markets and price competition to the development of market niches and non-price competition (Hayes and Wheelwright 1984; Schonberger 1982) and a complementary shift from mass-production techniques to batch (small-scale) production (Piore and Sabel 1984).
Towards a Phenomenology of Skill
Authors: Francis Brian , Penn Roger
Published: November 2023

As we can see from the Introduction to this volume, there is considerable debate amongst social scientists about the concept of skill. Labour economists generally see skill as a property of an individual, made up of various combinations of education, training, and competence (Phillips and Taylor, 1980). Industrial sociologists, on the other hand, have normally regarded skill as an aspect of jobs themselves, derived from the imperatives of industrial and technological organization, without giving much attention to the relation between the skill of jobs and the skill of people (Braverman, 1974; Martin, 1988). This issue is examined further by Rose in the next chapter. Social historians have focused predominantly on the skilled divide within the manual working class and particularly on the role of apprenticed crafts-men in the development of trade unionism (Turner, 1962; More, 1980; and Penn, 1985). There is, therefore, no shared conception of skill amongst social scientists. The concept is both multi-valent and complex. The present chapter took this situation as its starting-point in an attempt to probe the phenomenology of skill.
Skill and Samuel Smiles: Changing the British Work Ethic
Authors: Rose Michael
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines how skill and occupation affect the work ethic. The evidence presented suggests that the work ethic is not declining because of social change, as many observers have claimed, but rather that the strength of the work ethic reflects skill levels, and rises amongst groups that attain higher skill. It may therefore be possible to strengthen the work ethic by improving skills training amongst the less skilled. As in other chapters in this book the findings will be analysed in the light of previous research in the sociology of work and neighbouring fields of study. Previous research and debate on the work ethic, however, and the relevance of this research to skill issues, are perhaps less well known than the other problematics discussed in this book. Some of this earlier work will therefore be briefly examined in the first section of this chapter. (A full review can be found in Rose, 1988a.) The discussion will also refer to some problems and con troversies in social and economic policy in the 1980s in Britain.
Practising Nichiren’s Buddhism
Authors: Wilson Bryan , Dobbelaere Karel
Published: November 2023

THE core activity for Sōka Gakkai members and for Nichiren’s Buddhism is, as members refer to it, ‘practising’. They more readily refer to someone as having started to practise, or as having ‘stopped practising’, than as having become, or ceased to be, a member. Practising is vital to the movement, and, as we have seen, it is normally undertaken as a household or as a purely individual activity. Whilst members appreciate the occasions of group practice at their various meetings, it is individual practice, morning and evening, which is, above all, the basic, staple activity.
Japanese Companyism and the End of the Cold War*
Authors: Hiroji Baba
Published: November 2023

Social scientists cannot experiment to test their theories. Nevertheless, society spontaneously provides continuously repeating experiments through the process of change. At times gradual change provokes sudden transformation of social structures and challenges prevailing views of society. Social scientists can use such instances of social change to test and refine their theories. Change is becoming ever more rapid and complex, forcing us to continuously review our theories.
The Internationalization of the Japanese Firm: Japanese Working Practices and Indigenous Asian Workplaces*
Authors: Kazuo Koike
Published: November 2023

The theme of this chapter is the internationalization of the Japanese firm. The particular issue of inquiry here is the extent to which the working prac¬tices of Japanese firms are transferable to workplaces in other Asian coun¬ tries, or whether a basic modification of practices is essential. There are two significant reasons why this issue, which may at first appear to be mundane, can be viewed as the main qualitative appearance of internationalization.
The Feminization of the Labour Market*
Authors: Mari Osawa
Published: November 2023

In this essay, I would like to articulate the following ideas: (1) Japan’s extremely high economic growth springs out of the society’s distinctive ‘corporate¬ centred nature’ (kigyo chushin shakai); and (2) the most fundamental and vital element of this corporate-centred society is a patriarchal system that controls women’s labour both in the workplace and in the home.
Facts and Figures: A Profile of Religion in Modern Europe
Authors: Davie Grace
Published: November 2023

BROADLY speaking this chapter falls into two sections. The first examines the characteristics of religious life in Western Europe taken as a whole. In other words, it concentrates on what Europe has in common, not least its shared religious heritage. The second section adopts a rather different focus. It looks at the way in which such common patterns have been differently refracted across a variety of European nations. A whole range of factors comes into play in this section, the differing combinations of which account for the religious diversities of Western Europe rather than its unity.
Mediated Memory: Religion and the European Media
Authors: Davie Grace
Published: November 2023

THE relationship between the media and reality is inevitably complex, and nowhere more so than in questions of religion. Do the media reflect the realities of religious life or are these necessarily distorted if projected by the media—even to the point of becoming themselves an alternative source of symbols? (Arthur 1993; Stout and Buddenbaum 1996; Hoover 1998) This chapter will assume a symbiotic relationship. The media feed on the realities of life in order to exist at all; at the same time they inevitably create alternative images which not only dominate agendas, but may become, at least in part, a replacement for reality itself. The funeral of Princess Diana (already discussed in Chapter 4) illustrates all these tendencies: the funeral could not have been broadcast had it not taken place in Westminster Abbey; it attracted a truly global audience; it will, moreover, be the television images that are remembered in the years to come, rather than the reality itself—and within this, particular moments chosen for their mediatic appeal (Davie and Martin 1999).
Managerialist and Marxist Perspectives
Authors: Scott John
Published: November 2023

Power in the contemporary business enterprise rests upon the legal form of the joint stock company or corporation. It was through this legal form that enterprises were able to increase in size, to merge with or to acquire other enterprises, and to establish extensive internal hierarchies of authority. At the heart of the dispute between the theory of industrial society and the theory of capitalist society is a disagreement over the social consequences that are assumed to follow from this legal form. In the theory of industrial society, the corporate form allows a separation of ownership from control to emerge; and this in turn results in an enhancement of the power of the managers of the enterprises.
Managers, Networks, and Hierarchies
Authors: Scott John
Published: November 2023

D1scuss10Ns of corporate strategy have often taken a rather simplistic view of markets, seeing enterprise behaviour in terms of the interaction of supply and demand. Very little attention has been given to the role of ‘non-market’ factors in structuring commercial relations. The capitalist developments that I have documented in this book, however, have meant that both the nature of the market and the causal impact of market forces have altered in directions that were unforeseen by most managerialists.
The Corporation and Capitalist Classes
Authors: Scott John
Published: November 2023

The changing structure of ownership and control, no matter how misunderstood it has been, has been widely seen as leading to the disappearance of the class of capitalist property-owners whose personal wealth and power were produced by the business conditions of nineteenth-century liberal capitalism. One of the earliest formulations of this idea was that of Burnham, a former Marxist, who held that the orthodox Marxist theory of capitalist society had been undermined by the economic transformations that had taken place between the 1880s and the 1930s.
The Family Cycle and the Growth of Part-Time Female Employment in France: Boon or Doom?
Authors: Coutrot Laurence , Fournier Irene , Kieffer Annick , Lelievre Ev A
Published: November 2023

Since the early 1980s, a number of public policies have been implemented in France to develop part-time work. Although political debate did not focus explicitly on part-time work, it treated work-sharing as a way of fighting unemployment and attempted to improve the status of homekeep¬ ers, as illustrated by the current debate on a maternal salary. Surprisingly, this debate did not refer to gender, even though women form the majority of part-time workers, as well as of adults who are outside the labour force. In this chapter, we analyse the role played by part-time employment both from the labour supply and labour demand viewpoints. The ris in part-time work reflects women’s attachment to paid work.
Female Labour-Market Participation in the Netherlands: Developments in the Relationship between Family Cycle and Employment
Authors: Graaf Paul De , Vermeulen Hedwig
Published: November 2023

In the Netherlands, female labour-market participation increased enor¬ mously between 1960 and 1990. Until the 1960s, only one out of five women between the ages of 15 and 64 was active in the labour market; this proportion increased to one in two by the early 1990s. To a large extent, this increase has been the result of married women entering the labour market in the 1970s and 1980s. Until the 1960s, only women who were not (yet) married or who were active in their husband’s firm went to work.
Women’s Employment and Part-Time Work in Denmark
Authors: Leth-S0rensen Soren , Rohwer Gotz
Published: November 2023

In Denmark, as in most industrialized Western societies, there have been major changes in the employment structure in the last three decades. First, we have witnessed the trend to a post-industrialized society, characterized by the primary and secondary sector having less significance, while the ser¬ vice sector has expanded. Second, female labour-force participation has grown, especially among married women, and at the same time, the pub¬lic sector has expanded with almost the same number of employees. Against this background, it is interesting to investigate what kinds of job have been created by these developments-one sceptical argument being that the job structure in post-industrialized society will to a higher degree consist of ‘junk’ jobs, that is, temporary, part-time jobs with low pay. The other more positive argument is that we will see new upgraded jobs, replac¬ ing the hard and unhealthy physical work that is now disappearing.
Growing Up in Stepfamilies
Authors: Gorell Barnes Gill , Thompson Paul , Daniel Gwyn , Burchardt Natasha
Published: November 2023

The growth of stepfamilies has been one of the most dramatic changes in British family life in recent decades. Britain today has the highest divorce rate in Europe, and by the early 1990s one in twelve children in Britain were already living in stepfamilies. Stepfamilies formed by remarriage after death were once a common experience, but in the first half of this century, as parental death became more unusual, they became unfamiliar rarities, and much of the common understanding of their dynamics was lost. The recent very rapid growth in divorce and remarriage has exposed millions of adults and children to life situations which are surprisingly little understood, either at the level of common wisdom, or through research. It is widely assumed that children referred to social and health professionals come above all from broken or reconstituted families, and until recently the interpretation of stepfamilies was dominated by analyses of clinical data. However, in large scale sample based studies it has been found that the experiences of children in stepfamilies and those growing up in 'intact' families are not as different as had previously been assumed. This study of fifty children born in 1958 is the first in Britain to examine these long-term differences using evidence gleaned from such a large and reliable sample. The key themes around which the research has been structured are gender, communication and discipline within families, the role of the extended family, the absent parent, and, above all, the factors which help or hinder stepchildren in the long-term. The authors emphasise how change is possible not only in childhood, but also in adulthood. Drawing together sociological and social historical interpretations through the life story method with clinical experience in child and adolescent psychiatry and the family systems approach used in family therapy, this important new study makes a unique contribution to our understanding of the long-term impact of stepfamily life in Britain.
What Do We Know about Stepchildren?
Authors: Gorell Barnes Gill , Thompson Paul , Daniel Gwyn , Burchardt Natasha
Published: November 2023

It is incontestable that the number of stepfamilies in Britain has increased dramatically over the last fifty years. The exact figures are surprisingly elusive, partly because until recently the census did not publish statistics either of stepfamilies by remarriage or of unmarried couples living together. But we do know that the rate of divorce is higher than in any previous period, twice as high as in any other European country, and that in 1991 alone 170,000 children under 16 experienced a parental divorce, while the rate of marriage has increased fourfold over the last twenty years. By the early 1990s one child in twelve was already living in a step family in Britain, and in the United States one in six. And the numbers were predicted to climb further.
Looking Back and Looking Forward: Legacies and Narratives
Authors: Gorell Barnes Gill , Thompson Paul , Daniel Gwyn , Burchardt Natasha
Published: November 2023

Even today, despite the rapid rise of divorce, three out of every five children grow up with both of their original parents, and expectations of normal childhood are still seen in terms of intact nuclear families. For those whose experiences were different, how do memories of transition through death, divorce, and remarriage create a remembered story of childhood, whether happy or unhappy? How far do stepchildren perceive themse1ves as a devi ant and disadvantaged minority group? Do transitions and new experiences also offer new definitions of self that can serve in positive ways in adult life? How, in particular, do memories of childhood affect children’s sense of what is important in family life; what is good or bad and what values are worth holding on to for themselves and their own children?
The Perception Of Profit Before The Leasing Of Demesnes
Authors: Postles D
Published: November 2023

One of the critical questions of the agrarian economy of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, is the performance of the seigneurial economy. From the late twelfth century, lords had begun to résumé their demesnes in hand, to exploit them directly, rather than to continue to lease them to Jirmarii. Direct exploitation persisted into the later fourteenth century, when there was a return in many cases to the leasing of demesnes.
The Scottish Enlightenment And The Development Of Accounting
Authors: Mepham M ].
Published: November 2023

The ‘Scottish Enlightenment ‘ is the name given in recent years to the remarkable epoch which Dugald Stewart described as a ‘sudden burst of genius ‘ (1854: 551). Although it is difficult to give firm dates, it is commonly considered that the Enlightenment extended from the Act of Union (1707) to the death of Sir Walter Scott (1832) with the peak of its achievements occurring in the second half of the eighteenth century.
Accounting In English Local Government From The Middle Ages To C.1835
Authors: Jones R H
Published: November 2023

The historical accounting literature significantly underemphasizes the persistence and pervasiveness of non-commercial non-double-entry bookkeeping in England. Attention has typically been focused on the Exchequer pipe rolls and manorial accounting in the Middle Ages, whereas, in fact, noncommercial non-double-entry bookkeeping persisted for over 700 years. In addition, it pervaded the economy throughout this time: it was not only adopted in the pipe rolls from 1130 until 1832 but also by the organs of government in the localities,1 namely the counties, boroughs, and parishes. These covered the whole country and at the end of the eighteenth century they were represented by over 15,000 separate organizations. To varying extents they collected money, paid money over, borrowed and repaid money, spent money, made rates, produced accounts and had them audited; their use of double entry was not common until the nineteenth century.
The End Of A Familiar Inflation Accounting Cycle
Authors: Mumford M J
Published: November 2023

With the modest recommendations of the Hyde Report, persuasive m nature rather than mandatory and clearly a compromise version of earlier statements, we appear to be heading for the end of a five-year cycle of events in British accounting which mirror very closely events which occurred about twenty-five years ago. The similarity is so marked, and the steps so predictable, that they are described below as a blueprint for the next surge of inflation.
Surveillance by Design: Public Networks and the Control of Consumption
Authors: Samarajiva Rohan
Published: November 2023

As human interactions increasingly shift from face-to-face, proximate, and synchronous forms, to electronically mediated, distant and/or asynchronous forms, of interaction it is not surprising that elements of control found in all social relations are becoming apparent in electronically mediated interactions. What is noteworthy is that many electronically mediated interactions are being subject to stronger forms of control. Increasingly, the very medium of electronic interaction is being designed as a pervasive surveillance instrument serving control purposes.
Standards for Communication Technologies: Negotiating Institutional Biases in Network Design
Authors: Hawkins Richard
Published: November 2023

Communication systems cannot function without standards. Even the most trivial face-to-face exchange is difficult or impossible except in the presence of linguistic codes and semiotic points of reference that are mutually available to the communicating parties and mutually understood by them. Communication as a human act has been mediated by technology since at least the invention of writing. As a consequence, it also has been linked closely to technical standards. Alphabets, codes, systems of numbers, units of measurement, and so forth are basic communication technologies, but they are of little use unless they are standardized to a degree such that they can be applied and understood amongst a collectivity of potential communicators.
Institutional Arrangements For Setting Directors ‘ Compensation In Uk Companies
Authors: Conyon Martin f.
Published: November 2023

The compensation received by top directors has recently attracted much media attention. Many commentators have been critical of the large increases in compensation received by some directors of leading UK companies. It is important in the circumstances to provide a detailed review of the issues involved, based on our existing knowledge of company policy in the United Kingdom. In particular, we aim to document some of the existing institutional arrangements for setting directors ‘ compensation in the light of the policy recommendations by, inter alia, the Cadbury (1992) and Green bury (1995) committees.
Corporate Governance In The Privatized Utilities: The Case Of The Water Industry
Authors: Ogden Stuart
Published: November 2023

There has been much criticism of recent corporate governance practices, particularly in relation to the pay and reward packages awarded to chairmen and executive directors of companies. Nowhere has this been more pronounced than in the case of the privatized utilities. The recent controversy over the salary increase of Cedric Brown, the chief executive of British Gas (e.g. Observer, 27 Nov. 1994) has been one of numerous occasions when newspaper headlines have characterized salary increases in the privatized utilities for senior managers in terms of pay bonanzas, and share options as examples of unconstrained greed through which executives ‘make personal fortunes at the consumers ‘ expense ‘ (Observer, 14 May 1995). Typical of this calibre of condemnation is the Independent on Sunday ‘s (12 December 1995) criticism of share options for the directors and some executives of the privatized regional electricity companies, which appeared under the headline ‘Privatised power bosses give themselves £72m in shares ‘.
Armchair Applied Philosophy and Business Ethics
Authors: Sorell Tom
Published: November 2023

IN this paper I shall consider some of the difficulties posed by writing and speaking as a philosopher about business ethics, especially in the UK in the 1980s and 1990s. Some of these difficulties are local and perhaps temporary; others arise whenever one tries to apply philosophy; and still others crop up when philosophy is applied in the wrong way. I am very far from clear about the solutions to these problems; but I have been trying to confront them in my own writing and speaking over a number of years, and I can at least explain why I have written or spoken in one way rather than another. To make my discussion manageable, I am going to restrict it in three ways. First, I am going to concentrate on applied ethics, ignoring the very wide range of non-moral questions that belong to applied philosophy.
Business Groups in the German Electrical Industry
Authors: Feldenkirchen Wilfried
Published: November 2023

The international debate on the phenomenon of big business has been linked directly for several decades to research into American business his tory and to the name of Alfred D. Chandler, who produced the first com prehensive hypotheses on the development of large corporations. The empirical content of these hypotheses constituted a challenge to produce an international and intertemporal comparison, as they claimed, expressis verbis, not only to be applicable to the USA but also to the highly industrialized states of west and central Europe and Japan.
The Organizational Logic of Business Groups: Evidence from the Zaibatsu
Authors: Gerlach Michael L
Published: November 2023

Every economy faces an ongoing set of decisions concerning the optimal organization of its business activities. Firms acquire other firms, they sell corporate assets, they form strategic alliances, and they spin off their factories and divisions as independent enterprises-all in response to changing technological and market opportunities. In so doing, they help to establish boundaries around business units and define the interrelation ships among those units.
Learning to Work Together: Adaptation and the Japanese Firm
Authors: Fruin W Mark
Published: November 2023

After we enter the world, we adapt to it. Indeed, after creation, adaptation is the most basic fact of life for organizations no less than individuals. As soon as organizations are founded and for as long as they exist, they adapt and continue to adapt. Given this imperative, it is also evident that organizational learning is the primary means whereby both large and small adaptation, planned and unplanned change, take place in firms. Yet, in spite of the significance of adaptation and learning, it is surprising how little attention has been paid to these concepts in most theories of the firm. This oversight may be particularly unfortunate with respect to studies of the Japanese firm. The large Japanese firm, with its personnel policies favouring long-term employment and seniority-weighted remuneration, its patterns of stable shareholding and relational contracting, and its operational interdependency with groups of related firms, subsidiaries, and affiliates, as discussed throughout this volume as corporate clusters and groups, may be among the best examples of the need to ‘adapt or fail ‘. All of these organizational features tend to shield Japanese firms from market forces, especially in factor markets but also in product markets, and to reinforce emphases on adaptation and learning, so much so that many scholars have argued for a distinctive pattern of corporate organization in late-industrializing Japan based on these features (Levine and Kawada
Conclusion
Authors: Kiernan Kathleen , Land Hilary , Lewis Jane
Published: November 2023

As we said at the end of Chapter 1, the major division among policy-makers in regard to lone motherhood is whether or not the clock can be put back and ‘the traditional’ two-parent family restored. In terms of demographic and behavioural change, our findings make this seem unlikely. The changes have been dramatic and rapid, but to date they have been all in one direction: the numbers of lone mothers have increased. Indeed, the immediate post-war years, which were characterized by the prevalence of male breadwinner families and full employment, may increasingly appear the ‘odd years out’ as our historical perspective increases. Similarly, in terms of the behaviour of lone mothers themselves, a much higher proportion of lone mothers lived with their families of origin and went out to work in the 1950s and 1960s, but this was at a time when their visibility was low and they were highly stigmatized, matters that changed rapidly thereafter.
Private Sector Business Contracts: The Text Between the Lines
Authors: Lyons Bruce , Mehta Judith
Published: November 2023

‘Never sign a contract with someone you don’t trust’: this is the advice given to his managers by one leading British industrialist whom we interviewed for our study of private sector contractual relations. At first glance, this seems good advice, but reflect a little further and a paradox becomes apparent. If you trust your trading partner, then why do you need a formal written contract to support the arrangement? And why not trade with someone even if you don’t trust them, as long as everything that has been agreed appears in writing? The answer to the second question lies in the cost of enforcing a contract should the trading partner act opportunistically, together with the uncertainty attached to the outcome of the legal process. But the answer to the first question is less obvious, and lies in understanding the different meanings which trading partners ascribe to their ‘contracts’.
Commercial Co-operation, International Competitiveness, and EC Competition Policy
Authors: Gutterman Alan
Published: November 2023

From its earliest origins, EC competition policy has been consciously shaped by the aim of helping to achieve the integration of member states into a single market as well as preserving workable competition in individual markets. The commitment to integration is set out in the Treaty of Rome which lists ‘the institution of a system ensuring that competition ... is not distorted’ (Article 3(g)) as one of the principal activities to be used to establish the objective of ‘a common market’ (Article 2).
Education and Occupation in Britain
Authors: Heath Anthony , Cheung Sin Yi
Published: November 2023

Over the course of the twentieth century, the character of educational stratification in Britain has gradually evolved from one primarily based on type of school to one based on academic certificates. In the early part of the century, for example, the major distinctions were between elementary, technical, grammar, and independent schools. Allocation to these types of school was partly financial and partly scholastic. Once pupils had entered these schools they were, to use Turner’s terminology, ‘sponsored’ for dif ferent educational and occupational careers (Turner 1960).
From High School and College to Work in Japan Meritocracy through Institutional and Semi-Institutional Linkages
Authors: Kariya Takehiko
Published: November 2023

It is a well-known fact that educational qualifications have a great impact on first job placement, and that the higher an individual’s level of educational attainment, the more likely he or she is to acquire a ‘good’ job higher salary and fringe benefits, training and promotion opportunities, and prestige. In fact, in industrialized countries, higher educational qualifications are often a precondition for entry to a ‘good job’.
The Transition from School to Work in the United States
Authors: Arum Richard , Hout Michael
Published: November 2023

Human-capital theory approaches educational stratification from the point of view of investments and returns: young people invest in themselves and their futures by enrolling in school, and reap the returns on those invest ments in the labour market (Becker 1972). While the key issue for theo rists is the return to this investment over the individual’s whole lifetime, many young people have a much shorter planning horizon. They want to know about the immediate returns to their education. In particular, they want to know if staying in school will ‘pay-off with a good job right after leaving. Theory has begun to catch up with this reality. Manski (1993) proposes a model that explicitly addresses the ‘stay in school or go to work now’ choice that young people make. In particular, he notes that students assess their prospects and choose according to what they know about those prospects, their sense of their academic ability, and how much they enjoy school.
A Differentiated Part-Time Workforce: Marginal Jobs, Half-Time Jobs and Reduced Hours Jobs
Authors: Hakim Catherine
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to present a new classification of working hours which was developed through iterative analyses of the SAR files, and to show that it differentiates usefully between subgroups within the so-called part-time workforce, thus helping us to make sense of puzzles in crossnational comparisons of part-time work.
Socio-Political and Community Dynamics of Arab Christians in Jordan, Israel, and the Autonomous Palestinian Territories
Authors: Pacini Andrea
Published: November 2023

In a society where Muslims constitute 95 per cent of the population, Christians number around 150,000 in Jordan, or 4.2 per cent of the total population. They are divided among several Churches, the most important and the largest of which are the Greek Orthodox Church, with about 81,000 members, the Melkite Church, with 22,100 members, the Roman Catholic (or Latin) Church, with 35,000, and the various Protestant communities, with about 5,000 adherents. In addition to these are the other, smaller communities which make up the mosaic of the Christian community in Jordan. These include members of the Armenian Apostolic Church (3,500), the Syrian Orthodoxes (2,200), the Copts (1,200), and the Syrian Catholics (about 400).
Supply-Side Influences on the Development of SGI-USA
Authors: Hammond Phillip E , Machacek David W
Published: November 2023

CURRENT sociological wisdom suggests that three factors influence the destiny of a religion entering a new social environment: ( l) the degree to which that environment is religiously unregulated and thus open to religious competition, (2) decisions made and actions taken by a religious organization itself regarding how it will deliver its message, and ( 3) the degree to which that message is an appealing alternative to the religions already available to the society’s members. The first and second factors combined form what is called the “supply-side” theory of the organizational growth and decline of religions. What flexibility is a religious organization allowed, and what does it do with that flexibility?
Obligations and Autonomy in Social Welfare
Authors: Millar Jane
Published: November 2023

Looking to the post-war future, in which the British state would take on responsibility for the welfare of citizens from the ’cradle to the grave’, William Beveridge was very clear that this meant quite different things for men and for women. Full employment would mean that men would always be able to support at least ’a wife and one child’ and it would be their responsibility to do so. Women would withdraw from the labour market on marriage to take up their other duties as mothers to the new generation. The provisions of the postwar British welfare state thus rested on a very strongly genderdifferentiated model of family life, in which men were full-time workers and women were full-time carers.
The Restructuring of Gender Relations within the Medical Profession
Authors: Crompton Rosemary , Feuvre Nicky Le , Birkelund Gunn Elisabeth
Published: November 2023

In all European countries, women are increasingly qualifying for, and practising, professional occupations. Medicine, law, accountancy, pharmacy, and a host of other occupations requiring degreeand postgraduate-level training and qualifications have all seen an increase in their female complement. In this chapter we will argue that this ongoing restructuring within the higher levels of the occupational hierarchy has a number of implications for our thinking about gender, as well as for the long-established ’sociology of the professions’ itself. We will be developing these arguments through an analysis of the medical profession in Britain, France, and Norway. In all of these countries the medical profession is in a process of feminization, and women now make up more than a half of students in training for medicine.
Rational Choice Theory
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: November 2023

ALTHOUGH the secularization case made in the previous chapter is widely accepted by historians and social scientists, a number of small and specific criticisms have been made. The relative weight of various causes has been much debated, as has the extent to which we can generalize from the past of the Western industrial world to other societies. There has also long been one general reason for rejecting the whole approach. Despite the strong evidence of declining interest in religion, some scholars, usually philosophers and theologians, have argued that enduring secularization is impossible because there is something about the human condition that persistently leads us to ask spiritual questions. If nothing else, our mortality leads us to hope that there is more to life than meets the eye and causes us to search for a ‘meaning’ to life.
Perspectives on Cooperative Strategy
Authors: Faulkner David O , Rond Mark de
Published: November 2023

Cooperative strategy became a very fashionable area of intellectual debate in the 1990s, rather as competitive strategy was in the 1980s following the publication of works by Porter (1980, 1985). The reasons for this have been far more profound than mere fashion. Markets have become increasingly global during this period, tastes have converged, technologies have shown a disturbing tendency not to endure for long before being replaced by others, and product life cycles have become ever shorter in a society driven by the restless energy of the advertiser. All this has meant the need for greater capital investment than one firm, however big, can regularly cope with, and the need for allies who span the major markets of the globe and have between them the necessary competencies to meet the demands of the global market (cf. Murray and Mahon, 1993; Ohmae, 1989).
National Differences in Acquisition Integration
Authors: pitkethly Robert , Faulkner David O , child john
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with the highest level of firm interdependence short of outright total integration of the wholly owned and internally developed subsidiary, namely the merger or acquisition. Appropriate behavioural attitudes of a cooperative nature are as vital in these circumstances as in a partly owned joint venture, if the respective cultures and competences of the two companies are to be married effectively together. The chapter thus concentrates on the key issue of integrating acquisitions, drawing on a study of acquisitions of UK companies by firms from the USA, Japan, Germany, and France. Four major aspects are considered: the overall level of integration; the control mechanisms adopted; the communication methods; and the strategic philosophy pursued by the new parent in relation to its acquisition.
Local Social Capital: Making it Work on the Ground
Authors: Macgillivray Alex , Walker Perry
Published: November 2023

WE are the country mice in this collection of town mice, wondering if our wellington boots look out of place amidst the soft black shoes and the academic gowns. For our interest is in measuring the social capital created by some very practical regeneration projects. We do this despite believing that no exact measure is possible, since how we do so affects the results. We do this because we know that such measures act as flags, drawing attention to aspects of regeneration previously invisible. We want these flags to be available to policymakers, but also to the residents affected by these projects. How we have tried to do this, and the dilemmas we faced, is the subject of this chapter.
Neutron interactions and coherent scattering lengths
Authors: Rauch Helmut , Werner Samuel A
Published: November 2023

Scattering lengths are the relevant quantities for the description of the neutron-nuclear interaction at low energies and they are of substantial interest for the understanding of the basic nucleon-nucleon interaction. Related investigations are directly connected to the elementary hadron-hadron interactions, namely neutron-proton, neutron-neutron, and proton-proton scattering, and to the problems of charge dependence and charge symmetry of nuclear forces (Henley 1966; Slaus et al. 1989). Quantum chromodynamics is the fundamental theory of hadronic structure and interaction, but a rigorous evaluation of low-energy nuclear data is still not possible. The observed interactions between hadrons are influenced by direct and indirect electromagnetic effects due to Coulomb interaction, magnetic interaction, and effects due to the finite charge and magnetic moment distribution and due to the mass differences between charged and neutral pions producing different nuclear forces. Various aspects of fundamental properties of the neutron and its interaction are summarized in the books by Gurevich and Tarasov (1968), Byrne (1994a) and Alexandrov (1992). In the low-energy regime the scattering length is the only parameter necessary to describe the neutron-nuclear interaction, whereas at higher energies the effective range and the shape parameter must be included to account properly for the scattering cross-section data. As neutron physics moved more and more toward condensed matter research, the precise values for scattering lengths of all the elements and many isotopes became quite important, because they determine the strength of the elastic and inelastic scattering signal from structurally complex samples. A collection of all measured neutron scattering length data and recommended values for the elements and most of the isotopes are given in a review by Koester et al. (1991) and in Sears (1992) and Rauch and Waschkowski (2000).
Spinor symmetry and spin superposition
Authors: Rauch Helmut , Werner Samuel A
Published: November 2023

The spinor calculus can be regarded as applying a deeper level of structure of space-time than that described by the standard quantum mechanics. It makes transparent some of the subtler properties of space-time phenomena. The essential reason is that the basic spin space is two-dimensional (but complex) rather than the four-dimensional (real) space-time structure. Spinor properties have profound links with the complex numbers that appear in quantum mechanics (Penrose and Rindler 1984).
Perfect-crystal neutron optics
Authors: Rauch Helmut , Werner Samuel A
Published: November 2023

The classical Mach –Zehnder and Michelson interferometers operate on the principle of coherent division of the amplitude of an incident electromagnetic wave by partially reflecting partially transmitting objects, called beam splitters. The perfect silicon crystals in the neutron interferometer are the beam splitters and mirrors. Their operation depends upon the dynamical diffraction of neutrons having a de Broglie wavelength in the range of 1 −5 Å. Although the results and basic physics of most of the experiments discussed in this book can be understood without a detailed knowledge of the wave fields inside the perfect-crystal slabs of the interferometer, it has been found that the successful fabrication and utilization of this device requires a rather advanced analysis of the dynamical diffraction process occurring within each of the single-crystal elements. The main goal of this chapter is to provide the reader with a focused description of the physics of dynamical diffraction in perfect-crystal media that is necessary to understand the interferometer in its essential details. In addition, there are a number of neutron physics experiments that do not use the interferometer, but are directly based upon the exquisite coherent wave fields accompanying the diffraction of neutrons in the perfectly periodic structure of silicon. The theoretical description follows the early development of X-ray dynamical diffraction theory (Darwin 1914; Ewald 1916, 1928; von Laue 1931). Here we will describe the first observation of the oscillation of the integrated reflectivity of silicon crystals as a function of thickness by Sippel et al. (1965), and the observation of the Pendellosung fringe structure by Shull (1968, 1973). The related, more recent ‘effective inertial mass’ experiments of Zeilinger et al. (1986), Raum et al. (1997), which also use dynamical diffraction effects inside perfect crystals, have already been discussed in Section 7.2.3.
Interpretational questions
Authors: Rauch Helmut , Werner Samuel A
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapters we have shown many successful applications of quantum mechanics, and it would be a major problem not having this excellent theory available. Despite these successes, however, the basic conceptual framework has been considered by many scientists to be unsatisfactory. In this chapter we will outline the standard Copenhagen –G öttingen interpretation and some of the alternative approaches. Quantum mechanics has to be seen as a major part of more basic quantum field theories. Inevitably, many of the questions that arise are matters of opinion rather than of fact, and therefore many physicists consider that they belong more properly to philosophy than to physics. However, the conceptual basis of quantum mechanics is so fundamental to our understanding of nature that it should surely be important to physicists as well. The conception of determinism differs substantially from classical physics because quantum theory predicts only the relative probabilities of different outcomes. The feature of non-locality is another new concept which makes space-like separated events instantaneously entangled.
Mathematical Logic
Authors: Cori René , Lascar Daniel
Published: November 2023

Logic forms the basis of mathematics, and is hence a fundamental part of any mathematics course. In particular, it is a major element in theoretical computer science and has undergone a huge revival with the explosion of interest in computers and computer science. This book provides students with a clear and accessible introduction to this important subject. The concept of model underlies the whole book, giving the text a theoretical coherence whilst still covering a wide area of logic.
Introduction
Authors: Cori René , Lascar Daniel , Pelletier Donald H
Published: November 2023

There are many who consider that logic, as a branch of mathematics, has a some what special status that distinguishes it from all the others. Curiously, both its keenest adversaries and some of its most enthusiastic disciples concur with this conception which places logic near the margin of mathematics, at its border, or even outside it. For the first, logic does not belong to ‘real’ mathematics; the others, on the contrary, see it as the reigning discipline within mathematics, the one that transcends all the others, that supports the grand structure.
Energy sources
Authors: Alexander R McNeill
Published: November 2023

Life on earth is supported by energy from the sun. This chapter is mainly about the sun ‘s radiation and how it is captured by plants. A short section at the end describes an alternative energy source used by a few exceptional orgamsms.The light from the sun is its most obvious radiation, but is just part of a broad spectrum. The visible spectrum ranges from violet light, with wavelengths of about 0.4 micrometres (μm), to red, with about 0.7µm. We cannot see shorter or longer wavelengths. Ultraviolet radiation, with wavelengths less than 0.4µm, causes suntanning and skin cancer. Infrared radiation, with wavelengths greater than 0.7µm, is also invisible, but we can feel its warming effect on our skin.All objects emit radiation. Cold bodies emit only a little, but as you heat a body up it emits more and more radiation, at shorter and shorter wavelengths. A piece of iron at room temperature emits only infrared, with wavelengths much longer than 0.7µm, but as a blacksmith heats it, its radiation increases and moves into the visible spectrum. A red-hot bar is emitting red light (and plenty of infrared as well). A white-hot bar emits the whole range of visible wavelengths. The sun emits the range of wavelengths that anybody would emit at its temperature of about 5500°C. About 40 per cent of its energy is conveyed as light (0.4-0.7µm), 40 per cent as near infrared (0.7-1.5µm) and the rest as shorter or longer wavelengths. Ultraviolet is known for its harmful effects but amounts to only 8 per cent of the energy.
Basic requirements
Authors: Alexander R McNeill
Published: November 2023

Having looked at the sources of energy for animal life, we now start to ask how much energy animals need. In this chapter we are concerned only with the energy used by resting animals; later chapters consider the energy needed for activities such as feeding and travelling from place to place, and also for growth. In this first section of the chapter we are concerned with methods for measuring the energy used by animals.This energy is derived from food, so we are going to need to know how much energy is available from different kinds of food. Animals oxidize food to make the energy available, and we can find out how much energy is available by burning foodstuffs and measuring the heat that is produced. It does not matter that the food is oxidized in the animal by a series of enzyme-catalysed reactions, and in the experiment by burning; if the initial materials and the final products are the same, the same amount of energy will be released.The heat produced when food is burned is usually measured by means of a bomb calorimeter (Fig. 2.1(a)). A weighed specimen of the food is put into a thick walled metal container (the ‘bomb ‘) which is then filled with oxygen under pressure. The bomb is enclosed in an insulated container, then the specimen is ignited electrically.