bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ground‐Water Quality Modelinga
Authors: Gelhar Lynn W. , Wilson John L.
Published: July 2006

A generalized lumped parameter ground‐water model is developed based on simultaneous water and solute balances for a phreatic aquifer. The basis for the lumped parameter approach is established by comparison with theoretical analyses of water and solute dynamics in a distributed aquifer model. The basic behavior of the model is characterized by two response times, one associated with the hydraulics and the other with the solute.

The model is applied to simulate the impact of highway deicing salts on ground‐water quality in eastern Massachusetts. The results, obtained by digital computer simulation, are found to be in reasonable agreement with observed trends over a 15‐year period. The effects of various highway deicing alternatives are simulated and the dependence on the aquifer parameters is demonstrated.

The application of this basin‐wide modeling technique to the case of highway deicing salts demonstrates that this procedure can provide a reasonable basis for long‐term evaluation of ground‐water pollution. With adequate data on the inputs and aquifer parameters for a given locality, this general technique can be used to guide regulatory procedures and land use decisions which can be applied at the local, regional or State level to protect ground‐water resources.
Bacteriological Criteria for Ground‐Water Qualitya
Authors: Allen Martin J. , Geldreich Edwin E.
Published: July 2006

Although more than 60 million individuals rely upon the absence of microbial pathogens in their marginally‐treated or untreated ground‐water supplies, an analysis of reported waterborne disease outbreaks for the period 1946‐1970 shows that contaminated ground‐water supplies were responsible for over 50 percent of the outbreaks. Completed ground‐water studies indicate: (1) coliforms and fecal coliforms are present in a significant percentage of improperly located or inadequately protected private supplies, and (2) the apparent absence of coliforms due to the insensitivity of currently available bacteriological methods does not preclude pathogen occurrences. Excessive bacterial populations, normally not encountered in finished water, can suppress coliform detection. For this reason, it is essential that improved bacterial detection methods be developed and other criteria for untreated ground water be explored by comprehensive field investigations and laboratory analysis of ground‐water supplies for a variety of bacterial parameters.
Investigation and Rehabilitation of a Brine‐Contaminated Aquifera
Authors: Fryberger John S.
Published: July 2006

Faulty disposal of oil field brine through an “evaporation” pit and later through a faulty disposal well resulted in the contamination of one square mile of an alluvial aquifer in southwestern Arkansas. The physical parameters of the contamination are defined, and some of the chemical changes that occur as the brine moves through the aquifer are explained.

In addition, alternate methods of aquifer rehabilitation are explored, and the costs of rehabilitation are compared with potential benefits. It is concluded that rehabilitation is not now economically justified.
Ground‐Water Quality Beneath Solid‐Waste Disposal Sites at Anchorage, Alaskaa
Authors: Zenone Chester , Donaldson D. E. , Grunwaldt J. J.
Published: July 2006

Studies at three solid‐waste disposal sites in the Anchorage area suggest that differences in local geohydrologic conditions influence ground‐water quality. A leachate was detected in ground water within and beneath two sites where the water table is very near land surface and refuse is deposited either at or below the water table in some parts of the filled areas. No leachate was detected in ground water beneath a third site where waste disposal is well above the local water table.
Monitoring Regional Effects of High Pressure Injection of Industrial Waste Water in a Limestone Aquifera
Authors: Faulkner Glen L. , Pascale Charles A.
Published: July 2006

More than 10 billion gallons (38 × 106 m3) of acid industrial liquid waste has been injected in about 11 years under high pressure into a saline‐water‐filled part of a limestone aquifer of low transmissivity between 1,400 and 1,700 feet (430 and 520 m) below land surface near Pensacola, Florida. A similar waste disposal system is planned for the same zone at a site about 8.5 miles (13.7 km) to the east. The injection zone is the lower limestone of the Floridan aquifer. The lower limestone is overlain by a confining layer of plastic clay about 220 feet (67 m) thick at the active injection site and underlain by another confining layer of shale and clay. The upper confining layer is overlain by the upper limestone of the Floridan aquifer.

The active injection system consists of two injection wells about a quarter of a mile (0.4 km) apart and three monitor wells. Two of the monitor wells (deep monitors) are used to observe hydraulic and geochemical effects of waste injection in the injection zone at locations about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) south and 1.9 miles (3.1 km) north of the center of the injection site. The third well (shallow monitor), used to observe any effects in the upper limestone, is about 100 feet (30 m) from one of the injection wells. Since 1972 the injection zone has also been monitored at a test well at the planned new injection site. Three more monitor wells in the injection zone were activated in early 1974 at sites 17 miles (27 km) northeast, 22 miles (35 km) east and 33 miles (53 km) northeast of the injection site. The six deep monitors provide a system for evaluating the regional effects of injecting wastes. No change in pressure or water quality due to injection was, by mid‐1974, evident in the upper limestone at the injection site, but static pressures in the lower limestone at the site had increased 8 fold since injection began in 1963. Chemical analyses indicated probable arrival of the diluted waste at the south monitor well in 1973. By mid‐1974 waste evidently had not reached the north monitor well.

Calculations indicate that by mid‐1974 pressure effects from waste injection extended radially more than 40 miles (64 km) from the injection site. By mid‐1974 pressure effects of injection were evident from water‐level measurements made at the five deep monitor wells nearest the active injection site. No effects were recognized at the well 33 miles (53 km) away. Less than 20 miles (32 km) northeast of the active injection site, the lower limestone contains fresh water. Changes in the pressure regime due to injection indicate a tendency for northeastward movement of the fresh‐water/salt‐water interface in the lower limestone.
Survey of Ground‐Water Protection Methods for Illinois Landfills
Authors: Clark Thomas P.
Published: July 2006

The City of Champaign, Illinois, began controlled landfilling of its municipal refuse as early as 1904. Since that time, the disposal of solid wastes by sanitary landfilling has developed from a desirable concept, seldom utilized, to a science, carefully implemented and regulated. Illinois is typical of an area of humid continental climate whose citizens and industries depend heavily on ground‐water supplies developed from both nearsurface and bedrock aquifers. Seasonal water‐table fluctuations may be large in some parts of the State, but ground water is seldom far below the surface. Special problems are often encountered in design of protective systems and development of monitoring programs for solid waste disposal sites in this area to safeguard valuable ground‐water resources. Critical decisions, often involving considerable time and expense to the disposal site operator, must frequently be made by regulatory agencies responsible for licensing and surveillance of solid waste disposal sites in such a hydrogeologic environment. These problems have been compounded by the fact that State regulatory agencies have only recently realized the importance of hiring hydrogeologists, soil scientists, chemists and engineers to effectively implement and enforce their environmental control programs relating to solid waste disposal.

This paper summarizes the experience in Illinois of development of a rational program for protection of the State's ground and surface water from the indiscriminant disposal of solid wastes. Classes of solid waste sites recognized in the State and their position in terms of the hydro‐geologic environment are presented. Means of controlling landfill leachate, either by natural renovation in subsurface materials or by engineered collection and treatment are discussed. Examples are presented which illustrate the in‐field implementation of protective systems and monitoring devices for ground water in Illinois, which should be generally applicable to other areas of the country of similar geology and climate.
Chloride Contamination in Alum Creek, Central Ohio
Authors: Pettyjohn Wayne A.
Published: July 2006

Periodically, Alum Creek at the Westerville water treatment plant contains excessive concentrations of chloride, producing a salty taste. The chloride is not removed during the water treatment process. Uncontaminated surface water and ground water throughout Alum Creek basin contain less than 25 mg/l of chloride. Larger concentrations are related to man's activity in the basin, particularly oil production.

The chloride content in samples of contaminated surface water ranged from 26 to nearly 28,000 mg/l while samples from oil‐field brine pits ranged between 3,000 and 57,000 mg/l.

Even a brief examination of the data indicates that most of the chloride contamination in Alum Creek is due to (1) the discharge of oil‐field brines directly into the mainstem or its tributaries in the upper reaches of the basin or (2) to the discharge of contaminated ground water into streams. In many areas, the highly mineralized ground water that is now seeping into the streams may have been contaminated a decade ago.
Hexavalent Chromium in the Ground Water in Paradise Valley, Arizona
Authors: Robertson Frederick N.
Published: July 2006

Hexavalent chromium (Cr+6) of natural origin has been found in the ground water in Paradise Valley, Maricopa County, Arizona. The concentrations exceed 0.05 milligrams per liter, the U.S. Public Health Service's upper limit for Cr+6.

Paradise Valley is a northwest‐trending, down‐faulted basin of about 225 square miles that is located in the semi‐arid Basin and Range physiographic province. The accumulation of fine‐grained sediments (in part gypsiferous) near the center of the basin indicates that the material was deposited in a playa‐type sedimentary environment.

The Cr+6 is present in the ground water in a 75‐square mile area and forms an elongate northwest‐trending pattern in the southern part of the basin. The largest Cr+6 concentrations are located in the approximate center of this pattern and decrease toward the margins. The Cr +6 distribution in the ground water corresponds to the location of the fine‐grained part of the alluvial deposits; the highest Cr +6 concentrations are associated with the finest‐grained sediments. Evidence indicates that the Cr+6 is fairly evenly distributed vertically in the ground water, at least throughout the finer‐grained part of the aquifer system.

Thermodynamic calculations and Eh and pH measurements of the ground water indicate that the water containing Cr +6 is oxidizing and alkaline enough to account for the observed concentrations. An alkaline environment, largely a result of primary silicate hydrolysis in the fine‐grained sediments, allows chemical oxidation of the trivalent chromium to the soluble Cr+6
A Simple Computer Program for the Determination of Aquifer Characteristics from Pump Test Data
Authors: Holzschuh Joseph C.
Published: July 2006

A computer program, based on the Hantush inflection method and designed for “desk top” computers is presented. The method assumes a leaky, isotropic, homogeneous aquifer of infinite areal extent. The language employed is BASIC, an interactive language used on the Wang Model 2200 programmable calculator. The program can be easily adapted to FORTRAN IV for use on larger machines.
Environmental Effects of Highway Deicing Saltsa
Authors: Roth D. , Wall G.
Published: July 2006

The application of deicing salts is usually a highly successful strategy in improving driving conditions but the environmental impact of such actions may be a cause for concern. Since cheap, harmless and efficient alternatives to salt are not currently available it is suggested that moderation and regulation of salt applications are necessary if harmful side‐effects of deicing salts are to be minimized.
Quality of Ground Water in the Coastal Aquifer Near Visakhapatnam, India
Authors: Sarma V. V. Jagannadha , Krishnaiah N.
Published: July 2006

A study of the quality of ground water from 250 open wells in the coastal aquifer of Kaniti‐Paravada near Visakhapatnam, India brings out the fact that the occurrence of highly brackish waters in certain localized pockets is due to the hydrogeological processes going on in the area and not due to the influence of the sea. The phenomenon is verified by determining standard ratios of tracing sea‐water contamination like Ca/Mg, Cl/HCo3’and TA/TH. Conductivity and sodium adsorption ratio are also determined for finding out the alkali hazard, to supplement the observations.
Hydrology and Chemistry of Ground Water a in Puna, Hawaiia
Authors: Druecker Michael , Fan Pow‐foong
Published: July 2006

Presented is an analysis of the hydrology and chemistry of the ground water of the Puna District, Hawaii, based on data from 16 drilled wells, ten test wells, two shafts and four exploratory thermal wells. Ground water occurs as (1) perched water located north of Mountain View; (2) dike water located along the east rift zone of Kilauea, and (3) basal water occurring throughout most of the district, except where dike water is present. The east rift zone serves as a barrier to ground‐water movement, as demonstrated by the difference in basal water‐table levels on the two sides of the rift zone. Salinity and temperature of the basal ground water varies greatly north and south of the rift zone due to differences in precipitation, sea‐water intrusion, volcanic activity, flow rates, permeability, and discharge.

Basal ground‐water type is predominantly sodium chloride. Water samples taken from thermal test well no. 3 showed dissolved silica values two to three times higher than the 49 mg/l average for the rest of the island. Hydrologic and geologic conditions in and around Kilauea's east rift zone support the possibility of accumulations of superheated ground water. The mixing of waters of different composition at depth proved to be the most difficult problem encountered in estimating deep groundwater temperatures.
Wastewaters in the Vadose Zone of Arid Regions: Hydrologic Interactionsa
Authors: Mann John F.
Published: July 2006

In truly arid regions there is essentially no direct penetration of rainfall. Recharge to ground water is not only infrequent, but extremely localized, occurring only where surface runoff has been channelized or ponded. Over those vast desert areas covered by sparse xerophytic vegetation, the scant rainfall has little or no chance of becoming ground‐water recharge. Such water is quickly dissipated by capillarity‐assisted evaporation, or through rapid evapotranspiration by short‐lived annuals. Where perennial xerophytes cover the ground surface, the extensive shallow root systems quickly utilize all of the rainfall stored in the soil. Beneath the infrequently moistened soil zone is the lower part of the vadose zone, extending to water tables which are usually at depths of tens to hundreds of feet. Almost always these vadose zones have moisture contents well below field capacity.

Regardless of the cause, these dry vadose zones are capable of holding additional water, at least up to field capacity. And no water‐carried pollutants can reach the water table from the ground surface until a pre‐wetted path has been formed for the entire vertical distance. A practical use of this water‐holding capacity can be made in the design of wastewater tailings ponds, with predictable safety and with great economic benefit. However, only in predictable geologic conditions, and in limited amounts can the use of this water‐holding capacity be recommended. On the other hand, to make no use whatsoever of these great natural dry sponges would be an economic waste.
Ground‐Water Pollution Aspects of Land Disposal of Sewage from Remote Recreation Areasa
Authors: Johnson Nils , Urie Dean H.
Published: July 2006

Local ground‐water pollution problems are often associated with disposal of sewage from remote recreational areas. Ground water in these areas is routinely used for domestic purposes without treatment. Sewage treatment facilities are often prohibitively expensive. Transporting sewage to municipal sewage treatment facilities is often equally costly, or adequate facilities are not available.

A soil incorporation method was tested at two field sites in Michigan's Upper Peninsula to evaluate its impact on ground‐water quality; Liquefied campground sewage was injected at 15 cm (6 in.) depths using a liquid manure system. Average dosage levels were 2.7 metric tons per hectare (1.2 ton/acre) of dry sewage solids. The application rate was equivalent to a fertilization rate of 116 kg/ha (104 Ib/a) of total nitrogen. Field tests were conducted on adjacent strips of Kalkaska sand soils in 1973, 1974, and 1975.

Changes in ground‐water quality in the zone immediately beneath the water table were evaluated by analyzing samples from randomly located wells. Test wells were located directly beneath the treated area and up to 30.5 m (100 ft.) away in the direction of ground‐water flow. Nitrate levels in ground water at 3.6 m (12 ft.) depths were higher than control levels from the treated zone to the limit of the test well sampling. Levels of nitrate did not exceed the limits for potable water (10 mg/1 NO3‐N). No fecal coliform organisms were detected in ground‐water samples. Laboratory tests of the filtration capability of the A and B horizons indicated a high level of filtration of polio virus.

Fertilization with sewage increased the biomass of native herbaceous vegetation by 410 percent. Nitrogen content of the treated vegetation was 63 percent above controls. Approximately 48 percent of the added nitrogen fertilizer was incorporated in herbaceous foliage at the end of the first growing season.

Site selection guidelines for use by National Forests include remote location of incorporation sites, no potable‐water sources within one‐half mile downgradient from the site, infiltration rates between 5 and 25 inches per hour, slopes less than 5 percent, and dosage rates which will not exceed 50 kg/ha (56 lb/a) of mineralized nitrogen per year. Injection depths should provide complete soil coverage but sewage should be placed above the B horizon for maximum use of nutrients by plants.

The soil incorporation method has been approved for selected sites by the Michigan Department of Natural Resources and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, with ground‐water monitoring required at each site.
The Contribution of Fertilizer to the Ground Water of Long Islanda
Authors: Baier Joseph H. , Rykbost Kenneth A.
Published: July 2006

In 1973, the Suffolk County Department of Environmental Control in cooperation with Cornell University began a study on nitrogen (N) fertilization of potatoes and turfgrasses. The research and demonstration project has shown that current practices result in substantial N losses; and, in many cases, excessive use of N reduces crop yields and turf quality. Annual N losses of 50 lbs. per acre (55.5 kg‐N/ha) are sufficient to cause a concentration in the aquifer's surface layer of 10 mg/1 nitrate‐N (New York State Drinking Water Standard).

The eastern portion of Long Island supports a productive agricultural industry whose main crop is potatoes. Ground‐water surveys have shown that the aquifer system of this area is contaminated with nitrate nitrogen. The average potato grower applies 200 to 250 lb‐N/a (222 to 278 kg‐N/ha) at planting time; and depending upon a number of factors, N recovered in harvested tubers varies from 75 to 150 lb‐N/a (83 to 167 kg‐N/ha). Losses to the ground water could vary from 50 to 175 lb‐N/a (55.5 to 194 kg‐N/ha). The study has shown that the application of 150 lb‐N/a (167 kg‐N/ha) can still maintain maximum potato yields and keep the N loss to ground water below 50 lb‐N/a (55.5 kg‐N/ha) by improving nitrogen‐use efficiency. This is done through splitting N applications so that one‐third to one‐half is applied at planting and the remainder is applied prior to the period of rapid crop growth and nutrient uptake. On‐farm demonstration plots are being used to convince growers to reduce N rates and adopt more efficient application methods.

The western portions of Long Island are highly urbanized and turfgrasses may be fertilized at rates up to 350 lb‐N/a (389 kg‐N/ha). Potential leaching losses are high for turfgrass as N is not recovered in harvested plant materials. Experiments are underway to establish rates of biomass N buildup under several fertilization regimes. Preliminary results indicate that N‐use efficiency increases with more frequent but smaller N applications. Encouraging the use of low maintenance turf species appears to be the best long‐term solution.
Design and Optimization of Ground‐Water Monitoring Networks for Pollution Studiesa
Authors: Pfannkuch H. O. , Labno B. A.
Published: July 2006

The successful design and operation of a ground‐water monitoring and surveillance system are based on a stepwide process of obtaining hydrogeologic information.

Because of the inherent uncertainty and inhomogeneity of natural hydrogeological systems, the true monitoring network cannot be specified before some basic knowledge about system configuration and dynamics is known.

Forethought, planning and incorporation of design criteria as part of the initial phase of project management establishes the monitoring network strategy. Optimization of the monitoring network takes place through the completion of the following five phases: (1) preliminary network design and information gathering, (2) initial installation and testing, (3) completion and verification, (4) operational, and (5) project termination.

Experience gained from monitoring the conditions at the University of Minnesota's chemical and special waste disposal site resulted in the design and optimization procedure. Concern for possible ground‐water contamination led to analysis of surface and subsurface, physical and chemical conditions. Subsequently a monitoring system was established to meet project objectives. No degradation of the ground water was found during the five‐year study.
Transient Spherical Flow to a Cavity Well of Finite Diametera
Authors: Jaiswal C. S. , Chauhan H. S. , Ghildyal B. P.
Published: July 2006

The system of flow into a nonpenetrating well with hemispherical bottom of finite radius in a finite deep artesian aquifer of infinite radial extent is analyzed. The solution is obtained in terms of error function. A method has been suggested for determination of transmissivity, storage coefficient and depth of aquifer from pump‐test data of such wells discharging at constant rate. For small values of radial distance to aquifer depth ratio and for small duration test, only a few terms are required in the present solution as compared to the solution of Hantush (1957) developed for such wells.
Phosphate Removal by Sands and Soils
Authors: Tofflemire T. J. , Chen M.
Published: July 2006

Phosphate retention by soils is especially important for tile fields and rapid infiltration systems near lakes where eutrophication is a problem. The use and application of the phosphate adsorption isotherm test to estimate a soil's phosphate removal ability will be discussed. In New York State, the till soils had a greater phosphate retention ability than the outwash soils. Within the tills and within the outwashes, the more acid soils had a greater phosphate retention than the more basic or calcareous soils. The B horizon of many of the soils had a high phosphate capacity. However, this is often neglected in rapid infiltration systems because the waste water is discharged below the B horizon. The phosphate removal in column studies and field studies in rapid infiltration systems was found greater than predicted by the rapid isotherm test. Intermittent sand filters with two feet sand and underdrains were found to have a limited ability to remove phosphate. Methods to predict and design for phosphate retention by sands and soils are described.
Cambrian Stratigraphic Nomenclature and Ground‐Water Prospecting Failures on the Hualapai Plateau, Arizona
Authors: Huntoon Peter W.
Published: July 2006

The best potential aquifers underlying the 600 mi 2 Hualapai Plateau of northwestern Arizona are (1) the Cambrian Rampart Cave Member of the Muav Limestone and (2) interbedded Tertiary sedimentary and volcanic rocks that locally fill old canyons on the plateau. These target aquifers have been identified on the basis of spring locations on the flanks of the plateau, primarily along the walls of the Grand Canyon to the north and east. Total ground‐water discharge from springs along the plateau is approximately 4 ft3/sec.

To date the largest production from a test well on the plateau is 120 gal/min from Tertiary rocks. The Cambrian rocks have frustrated development in part because of small permeabilities, small recharge (0.1 in/yr minimum), and the fact that the rocks are well drained.

The complex stratigraphic nomenclature used to describe the Cambrian rocks in the region has inadvertently contributed to prospecting failures. The Cambrian section is characterized by thick interbedded limestones and shales, with the basal limestone being the principal target aquifer. These relationships have not been adequately conveyed to managers and drillers, with the result that critical test holes have been terminated in shales that overlie the target aquifer. Dry holes have been the result.
Appropriate Technology for Artificial Aquifers
Authors: Helweg Otto J. , Smith George
Published: July 2006

This paper suggests a labor‐intensive water‐supply technique that may be classified as appropriate technology in that it conserves energy and capital (scarce inputs in developing countries) and utilizes labor (an abundant input in these same countries). The problem of collecting rain during the wet season for use during the rest of the year is compounded by evaporation and infiltration losses. Lining a shaped reservoir in a slough or gully can eliminate the infiltration losses; filling the same reservoir with uniform sand and a gravel mulch can greatly reduce the evaporation losses. Thus one creates an artificial aquifer with an appropriate technology which can supply filtered water under gravity flow with minimal maintenance.
Use of Tracers to Confirm Ground‐Water Flowa
Authors: Aulenbach Donald B. , Bull Jeffrey H. , Middlesworth Bradford C.
Published: July 2006

Both rhodamine WT and tritium were found to be satisfactory tracers to determine the direction and velocity of flow of the secondary treated effluent from the Lake George Village Sewage Treatment Plant which is applied to natural delta sand beds by the rapid infiltration technique. The average vertical velocity in the unsaturated portion of the sand bed was approximately 0.85 m/day (2.8 ft/day). The horizontal flow in the saturated aquifer reached between 10 and 12 m/day (33–40 ft/day). The velocity appeared to decrease with distance from the sand infiltration beds, although this may have been the result of a change in direction of the major portion of the ground‐water flow with the observation well not being in direct line of the direction of flow. Unfortunately, the dye could be traced only slightly less than half the distance from the sand infiltration beds to the seepage area adjacent to West Brook. Thus, a positive determination that the seepage consists primarily of sewage effluent and the ultimate time of flow to the seepage could not be determined in this study.
A Model Aquifer System for Biological Compatibility Studies of Proposed Deep Well Disposal Systemsa
Authors: Horvath E. , Elkan G. H.
Published: July 2006

A model system was developed for the purpose of studying the biological compatibility of aqueous industrial waste and subterranean disposal zones for injected waste. The model design incorporated devices for; anaerobic, aseptic compositing of effluent samples; collection of gases generated in the model elements; isolation of model elements against downstream contamination; and imposition of a normally‐distributed waste concentration profile in the feed stream. The finished model was, with the exception of operating pressure, physically and chemically similar to an existing waste disposal aquifer, and waste degradation and population growth data obtained on the model correlated with observations of the same parameters made in the real aquifer.
The Winters Doctrine: Historical Perspective and Future Applications of Reserved Water Rights in Arizona
Authors: Foster Kennith E.
Published: July 2006

Like many States in the American West, Arizona is flooded with conflicting claims to water, a very scarce resource. Conflicts arising from water‐rights claims by mining, agricultural and municipal entities are a traditional part of life in Arizona. Indian water‐rights claims, however, are a relatively recent development which introduce a significant and troublesome new factor into an already delicate water‐supply‐and‐demand management matrix. These claims are the topic of this paper.

Any discussion about legal bases of Indian water‐rights claims must begin with an understanding of the U.S. Supreme Court's 1908 decision in the Winters case. In that decision the Court ruled that the U.S. government impliedly reserved water rights for the Indians of the Fort Bethold Reservation in Montana when it withdrew the lands from public domain. The Winters case and subsequent Indian water‐rights litigation are reviewed and the impacts on Arizona water‐rights claims are projected.

Finally, the author suggests that the federal government must develop substitute water sources or augment water supplies for Indians if it is to fulfill its trustee role as defined in Winters doctrine adjudication. Five recommendations are presented for review in considering the possibilities of the two alternatives for government action relevant to solving complex water‐rights conflicts in Arizona, recommendations which may be applicable to similar problems in other water‐poor regions in the American West.
Aquifer Storage of Heated Water: Part II — Numerical Simulation of Field Results
Authors: Papadopulos S. S. , Larson S. P.
Published: July 2006

Numerical simulation models of the simultaneous transport of water and heat in porous media offer a useful technical tool for the evaluation of aquifers for the storage of heat energy. During the past several years, such models have been developed in the U.S. Geological Survey and in other institutions and have been tested by comparing computed results with analytical solutions. To more completely assess the performance of these simulation models, the U.S. Geological Survey and the Energy Research and Development Agency co‐funded Auburn University to conduct a field experiment of heat storage in an aquifer near Mobile, Alabama. The data collected during the experiment were analyzed, and a simulation model of the aquifer system was constructed. Simulation of the experiment history indicates that the model can satisfactorily reproduce the observed behavior of the system. Heat capacity of the aquifer matrix and anisotropy of the aquifer permeability were found to be significant system parameters. An extensive evaluation of parameter sensitivity was not possible because experimental problems resulted in some unreliable data, but the utility of numerical models for simulating thermal energy storage in aquifers was clearly demonstrated.
Ground‐Water Lake Relationships and Ground‐Water Quality in the Sand Plain Province of Wisconsin—Nepco Lake
Authors: Karnauskas Robert J. , Anderson Mary P.
Published: July 2006

Nepco Lake is a 494‐acre impoundment in the sand plain province of central Wisconsin, an area characterized by a close relationship between ground water and surface water. A study of the ground‐water flow pattern and ground‐water quality in the vicinity of Nepco Lake was conducted for an 11‐month period from June 1976 to April 1977.

The ground‐water flow system around Nepco Lake is different from systems for natural lakes previously reported in the literature, in that there are no strong vertical head gradients in the nearshore areas. This phenomenon may be typical for impounded lakes. Other aspects of the study included a survey of the water quality within the watershed and the calculation of water budgets for the lake. Variations in water quality can be related to changes in the texture of the aquifer or the nature of the flow system or both. Water budget calculations indicate that direct ground‐water discharge into the lake is relatively small compared to surface‐water contributions. Nevertheless, ground water in the Nepco Lake Watershed should be carefully managed because of the close relationship between ground water and surface water in this area.
Type‐Curve Analysis of Time‐Draw down Data for Partially Penetrating Wells in Unconfined Anisotropic Aquifers
Authors: Lakshminarayana V. , Rajagopalan S. P.
Published: July 2006

With the aid of a computer, and using an iterative alternating‐direction implicit method, a numerical solution is sought for the unsteady‐state radial flow to partially penetrating wells pumping at a constant rate from an unconfined anisotropic aquifer. These solutions are used to generate a series of theoretical type curves valid for individual aquifer‐test situations characterized by particular combinations of two constants Q = (Pr/Pz) (m/rw)2 and C2= (Sy/Ssm) and particular well penetration. The aquifer‐test data requirements are the time‐drawdown data and at least two pairs of observation wells, one of the pair tapping well‐screen depths and the other tapping water‐table depths. The parameters that are identified are the lateral permeability, vertical permeability, specific storage and specific yield of the aquifer. The use of the type curves is illustrated by an example.
Fossil Ground‐Water Gradients in Arid Regional Sedimentary Basins
Authors: Lloyd John W. , Farag Mohamed H.
Published: July 2006

The hypothesis that present‐day ground‐water gradients in arid regional sedimentary basins are a decay feature of very old recharge mounds is examined using a resistance network analogue. A longitudinal section model of a conceptual basin with some specific control of aquifer permeability and ground‐water age is used.

With reasonable combination of aquifer permeability and specific yield it is shown that an acceptable head decay could have occurred over the past 10,000 years to produce the present‐day gradient. In the model adopted, decreasing permeability with depth was found to be required to accord with 14C ground‐water age data.

Although the model is not considered to be definitive for any particular aquifer the results show that fossil gradient conditions could exist in the regional basins for long periods and should be taken account of in ground‐water resources assessments.
Waste Injection into a Two‐Phase Flow Field: Sand‐Box and Hele‐Shaw Models Study
Authors: Peterson Frank L. , Williams John A. , Wheatcraft Stephen W.
Published: July 2006

Sand‐box and Hele‐Shaw models were used to study waste water injection into two‐phase ground‐water bodies. Two types of experiments were conducted: “static” experiments in which there was no movement of the fresh ground‐water body with respect to the underlying salt water prior to waste injection, and “dynamic” experiments in which a fresh ground‐water flow field was present prior to and during waste injection. During every experiment conducted in this study, buoyant plumes of injected effluent, which were clearly distinct from the resident aquifer liquids, formed and migrated upward into the lower portion of the fresh‐water body. Three injection parameters exerted significant control on the movement of the injection plumes; the rate of effluent injection and the strength of the ambient fresh‐water flow field significantly influenced both the vertical and lateral migration of the plumes, and the depth of effluent injection (with respect to the salt/ fresh‐water interface) influenced the over‐all shape of the plumes as well as the lateral migration of the plumes. The principal means of plume movement in these experiments appears to be by fluid displacement processes, rather than by dispersion processes.
Hydrology of Small Oceanic Islands — Influence of Atmospheric Pressure on the Water Table
Authors: Vacher H. L.
Published: July 2006

There is a spectrum of sea‐level fluctuations that affect the water table of a small, permeable oceanic island. At the high‐frequency end of the spectrum are the semi‐diurnal and diurnal components of the astronomical tides. Also affecting sea‐level elevation are atmospheric pressure and the temperature and salinity (hence density) of the ocean column.

Changes in atmospheric pressure cause sea‐level changes on the order of up to about 30 cm, by what oceanographers call the “inverted barometer effect.” As a result, pressure changes, like tides, generate waves that migrate across the water table. Amplitudes of the resultant pressure‐related water‐table fluctuations diminish inland. However, owing to the relatively long period of the pressure‐related fluctuations, their inland attenuation is far less than that of the hydraulically analogous tides. In fact, in Bermuda for example, the pressure‐related water‐table fluctuations completely dominate water‐table statistics that reflect day‐to‐day changes in elevation.

Because a drop in pressure and corresponding rise in the water table accompanies passage of a storm front, which also brings a rainfall, there is commonly a coincidental, and very misleading, correlation between rainfalls and water‐table rises. In island and coastal settings, non‐tidal sea‐level changes and their effect on the water table must be taken into account, if recharge is to be correctly evaluated from water‐table data.
Model Aids Planners in Predicting Rising Ground‐Water Levels in San Bernardino, Californiaa
Authors: Hardt William F. , Hutchinson Craig B.
Published: July 2006

The city of San Bernardino is in a semiarid inland valley about 60 miles (100 kilometers) east of Los Angeles. The southern part of the city is traversed by the San Jacinto fault. Adjacent to the upgradient (northeast) side of the fault is a 10 square mile (26 square kilometers) area which contains a zone in the alluvial ground‐water basin that formerly was under artesian pressure and consisted of swampy lands with a history of flowing wells, springs, and ground‐water discharge to Warm Creek.

Since about 1945, water levels have declined more than 100 feet (30 meters), and the swampy lands have dried up and are now highly urbanized. Basin replenishment by artificial recharge of imported northern California water at the base of the San Bernardino Mountains may cause ground‐water levels to rise again in the area that was formerly swampy land. If this should happen, building foundations and basements could be subjected to structural damage and flooding by renewed flowing of unplugged artesian wells.

The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the San Bernardino Valley Municipal Water District, is developing a two‐layer digital model to aid in predicting the rate and extent of the rise in water levels. The solution to the mathematical equations used in the model was approximated numerically by the Galerkin finite‐element method. The water district desires to evaluate water management alternatives, such as varying location, distribution, amounts of recharge, and pumping centers, to avoid excessive water level rises that could indicate an overfilling of the basin and could cause damage.
FLOATATION OF FRESH WATER ON SEA WATER, A HISTORICAL NOTE
Authors: Davis Stanley N.
Published: July 2006

Abstract. W. Badon Ghyben and A. Herzberg are commonly credited with the first scientific description of fresh ground water floating on deeper saline water along coastal areas of the world. As C. W. Carlston has pointed out, J. DuCommun should receive the credit for the first quantitative statement of the “Ghyben‐Herzberg principle,” DuCommun's work having antedated publications by both Badon Ghyben and Herzberg by more than 60 years. Moreover, two well‐known scholars, Pliny the Elder and Charles Darwin also wrote on the topic long before Badon Ghyben and Herzberg.
Ground‐Water Pollution — A Limited Problema
Authors: Clark D. Theodore
Published: July 2006

Few would argue that ground‐water pollution is a problem and that serious ground‐water pollution problems do exist. As serious as some isolated ground‐water pollution problems are, regionally and nationally, it is only a limited problem. An industrial landfill may result in a leachate plume contaminating ground water over an area of up to several square miles downgradient from the disposal site. Municipal landfills or chemical/petroleum spills can result in polluted ground water over areas measured in square miles. Surrounding these areas of ground‐water pollution, however, are tens and hundreds of square miles of area where the ground water moving through the aquifers maintains its natural good quality. The ratio of good quality to contaminated water is such that ground‐water pollution can really only be considered as a limited problem.

The problem will most likely remain limited as existing and future regulations continue to restrict the poor disposal practices that have been responsible for much of the past and existing pollution problems. Technology has advanced to the point that with proper management and sound governmental regulations, control, isolation and cleanup of contamination sources and areas of polluted ground water can be so effective that migration of the pollution front can be stopped and actually reversed with time.

The same technology that provided us with the new chemicals and the wastes that show up in water analyses, has also provided us with the means of detecting many more contaminants at much lower levels of concentration in a water sample than was possible 50, 25 or even 10 years ago. One must thus ask, has ground‐water pollution really become a national crisis, or do we just know more about an old problem made apparently more complicated by our own technological advances?
The Federal Ground‐Water Protection Program — A Reviewa
Authors: Kimm Victor J.
Published: July 2006

The Nation's ground‐water resources constitute a vast and often unprotected resource. The Environmental Protection Agency is about to launch a number of programs designed to protect what is, in many cases, a virtually non‐renewable resource. Separate regulatory activities mandated under the Safe Drinking Water Act, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and the Clean Water Act must be carefully coordinated if they are to be effective.

The current implementation efforts within the agency are being framed in view of our major principles which will be the focus of public comment in the months ahead. These principles are:

First, the administration of the related programs will be a cooperative effort involving Federal, State and local governments, all of which must participate in formulating the program if it is to be effective.

Second, the focus of the programs will be on the prevention of contamination rather than on its treatment at the point of withdrawal.

Third, the applicable standards will be based primarily on technology rather than ambient ground‐water quality considerations since the effects of discharges upon ambient quality are complex, difficult to predict, and of long duration.

Fourth, there is a need to balance environmental protection, energy development and continued economic prosperity objectives so that the resulting programs fully protect public health while being realistically implementable.

All of us—government, industry and citizens, through acts of commission or omission—have contributed to the potential problem. We must work together if we are to get on with the important task of protecting the quality of the Nation's ground‐water resources.
The Federal Ground‐Water Protection Program — Today's Hopea
Authors: Sever Charles W.
Published: July 2006

The necessary administrative mechanisms for protection of our underground drinking water sources, and coordination of natural resource and energy development and environmental quality programs, should be provided by a federal ground‐water control program, else today's underground contaminant disposal activities will be tomorrow's undoing. Federal regulations, however, must provide flexibility to States and industry to find the least costly means of meeting national environmental goals.

A growing body of literature clearly documents cases of underground drinking water source contamination, sometimes severe, from a large variety of conditions and practices. Existing studies also indicate that this problem is pervasive: aquifers have been adversely affected in every region of the country.

A federal ground‐water protection program which (1) reflects consideration of total long‐range natural resource protection and environmental quality benefits, (2) regulates in a manner so that the benefits to the environment generally exceed the regulatory costs and (3) encourages more efficient ways of meeting environmental goals in the least costly manner can and must be developed by the Environmental Protection Agency. Without an effective Federal ground‐water protection program, the underground contamination problem will likely worsen.
State Ground‐Water Protection Programs — A National Summarya
Authors: Bartelt Richard E.
Published: July 2006

In order to discuss the adequacy or inadequacy of State ground‐water protection programs, it is helpful to establish a base line which may be used as a frame of reference for the discussion. To provide that frame of reference, the 50 States were contacted and representatives were questioned as to the nature and extent of their existing ground‐water programs. The survey of States produced a wealth of information relative to the structure of various State programs and this information is presented graphically in the neutral presentation. The subject of multiple agency involvement is addressed.

In addition to looking at the structure of State programs, information was collected regarding the nature of existing State statutes and regulations. Tabulation and interpretation of this information is provided to illustrate how the institutions are providing for the protection of our ground‐water resources. In addition to evaluating the various types of statutes, existing enforcement mechanisms were researched and are presented for review. Graphic presentations of the national data base are used and again several States’procedures are reviewed in detail. The topic of ground‐water quality standards was specifically addressed during interviews in order to note the extent of this developing regulatory technique.