bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Single‐stranded
DNA
‐binding Proteins
Authors: Shamoo Yousif
Published: September 2006

Single‐stranded DNA binding proteins bind specifically to single‐stranded DNA. That specificity relates to
in vivo
functions in DNA replication, recombination and repair.
Crystallization of Protein–
DNA
Complexes
Authors: Batchelor Adrian H , Piper Derek E , Wolberger Cynthia
Published: September 2006

A well‐ordered crystal of the complex in question is a prerequisite for the determination of the three‐dimensional structure of a protein–nucleic acid complex by X‐ray crystallography. Techniques of crystallizing macromolecules remain essentially empirical and a trial‐and‐error approach is typically used. Protein–DNA complexes pose even more problems than pure proteins, but accumulated experience from many investigations makes it possible to offer basic guidelines for procedure.
Phase Problem in
X
‐ray Crystallography, and Its Solution
Authors: Cowtan Kevin
Published: September 2006

X‐ray crystallography can provide detailed information about the structure of biological molecules if the ‘phase problem’ can be solved for the molecule under study. The phase problem arises because it is only possible to measure the amplitude of diffraction spots: information on the phase of the diffracted radiation is missing. Techniques are available to reconstruct this information.
Beaumont, William
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1785

–

1853

American

surgeon

who

pioneered the study of the physiology of the human stomach

.
Berg, Paul
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1926

–

American

molecular biologist

who pioneered recombinant DNA technology.
Black, James Whyte
Authors: Quirke Viviane
Published: September 2006

1924

–

British

pharmacologist

who

developed the beta blocker propranolol and the anti‐ulcer drug cimetidine

.
Calvin, Melvin
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

1911

–

1997

American

biochemist

who used

radiocarbon tracers to elucidate the chemical pathways of photosynthesis

.
Chain, Ernst Boris
Authors: Quirke Viviane M
Published: September 2006

1906

–

1979

German

(naturalized as a

British

subject in 1939)

biochemist

who in 1945 shared the Nobel Prize for Medicine with Howard Florey and Alexander Fleming for his contribution to the

development of penicillin

.
Cohen, Stanley
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1922– American biochemist and Nobel Prize winner who works on growth factors.
Cormack, Allan Macleod
Authors: Spargo PE
Published: September 2006

1924

–

1998

South African

/

American

physicist

who jointly

invented the medical diagnostic technique known as computer‐assisted tomography (CAT)

.
Cornforth, John Warcup
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

1917

–

Australian

chemist

, noted for his

contributions to chirality in the enzymatic syntheses of biological compounds

.
Cram, Donald James
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1919

–

American

physical organic chemist

who is a pioneer in the

study of mechanisms of molecular recognition

.
Hodgkin, Dorothy Mary Crowfoot
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1910

–

1994

British

chemist

and

crystallographer

who

used X‐ray crystal analysis to determine the structure of complex biological molecules.
Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de
Authors: Lynn Michael R
Published: September 2006

1656

–

1708

French

doctor

,

botanist

and

taxonomist

who helped develop the

modern notion of the genus

.
Deisenhofer, Johann
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1943

–

German

biochemist

and

biophysicist

who solved the

crystal structure of a membrane‐bound protein essential to photosynthesis

.
Delbrück, Max Ludwig Henning
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1906

–

1981

German‐born

physicist

, later an American citizen, and founding father of

molecular biology

.
Diderot, Denis
Authors: Power Helen J
Published: September 2006

1713

–

1784

French

philosopher

who

promoted science and whose views and writings on materialism were influential in Enlightenment thought

.
Diels, Otto Paul Hermann
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1876

–

1954

German

organic chemist

and Nobel Prize winner who

discovered the Diels–Alder reaction used in diene synthesis.
Doisy, Edward Adelbert
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1893

–

1986

American

biochemist

who

successfully isolated the K vitamins

.
Dulbecco, Renato
Authors: Board Suzanne
Published: September 2006

1914

–

Italian

‐born

American

virologist

who

showed how tumour viruses can transform normal cells into cancer‐like cells

.
Eigen, Manfred
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1927

–

German

physical chemist

and Nobel Prize winner who

developed techniques for measuring rapid chemical reactions

.
Enders, John Franklin
Authors: Sankaran Neeraja
Published: September 2006

1897

–

1985

American

microbiologist

known for his work in

cultivating viruses in tissue culture, notably the poliovirus, which led directly to the development of vaccines for poliomyelitis as well other diseases such as mumps, measles and rubella

.
Ernst, Richard Robert
Authors: Sutton Michael A
Published: September 2006

1933

–

Swiss

spectroscopist

whose innovative nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques

revealed three‐dimensional structures of proteins

, and assisted the

development of medical NMR scanning

.
Fischer, Hans
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1881

–

1945

German

organic chemist

who

determined the structures of haemin and chlorophyll.
Ford, Edmund Brisco
Authors: Cain Joe
Published: September 2006

1901

–

1988

English

entomologist

and

ecological geneticist

who was a

driving force in modernization of British natural history and the convergence of ecology, genetics and modern evolutionary theory, and also an influential mentor of British lepidopterists

.
Gajdusek, Daniel Carleton
Authors: Sankaran Neeraja
Published: September 2006

1923

–

American

physician

and

medical researcher

, whose pioneering

research led the way to understanding the mechanisms underlying neurodegenerative diseases

such as kuru, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease and scrapie.
Goldstein, Joseph Leonard
Authors: Witkowski JA
Published: September 2006

1940

–

American

scientist

who, with Michael Brown,

elucidated the molecular mechanisms of cholesterol synthesis and the clinical consequences of their abnormalities

.
Grignard, François Auguste Victor
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1871

–

1935

French

organic chemist

who discovered the versatile organomagnesium compounds known as Grignard reagents.
Hardy, Godfrey Harold
Authors: Power HJ
Published: September 2006

1877

–

1947

English

mathematician

whose

equilibrium formula, published simultaneously with that of Wilhelm Weinberg in 1908 and known as the Hardy–Weinberg formula, provided a mathematical basis for the study of population genetics

.
Harrison, Ross Granville
Authors: Witkowski JA
Published: September 2006

1870

–

1959

American

embryologist

who

devised the method of tissue culture

.
Haworth, Walter Norman
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1883

–

1950

English

pioneer of carbohydrate chemistry

and the

first scientist to synthesize vitamin C

.
Henderson, Lawrence Joseph
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1878

–

1942

American

biochemist

,

philosopher

and

sociologist

concerned with the relationship between organisms and the environment.
Hershey, Alfred Day
Authors: Smith C Christopher
Published: September 2006

1908

–

1997

American

bacteriologist

who

demonstrated that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is foundational for cellular reproduction

.
Edelman, Gerald Maurice
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

1929

–

American

molecular biologist

;

pioneer in the study of the molecular structures of antibodies

.
His, Wilhelm
Authors: Olry Régis
Published: September 2006

1831–1904 Swiss anatomist and embryologist who introduced the principles of developmental mechanics and laid the foundations of embryology as a modern discipline.
Hitchings, George Herbert
Authors: Quirke Viviane
Published: September 2006

1905–1998 American pharmacologist who, together with his long‐standing collaborator Gertrude Elion, introduced many new drugs, including 6‐mercaptopurine and azathioprine, and developed a rational approach to drug design.
Holley, Robert William
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1922–1993 American biochemist and Nobel Prize winner who developed techniques for determining the structure of nucleic acids.
Hounsfield, Godfrey Newbold
Authors: Sutton Michael A
Published: September 2006

1919–Britishphysicist who pioneered computed axial tomography (CAT) scanning, using computer analysis of X‐ray data to produce three‐dimensional body images.
Houssay, Bernardo Alberto
Authors: Long Diana E
Published: September 2006

1887–1971 Argentine medical scientist prized for his research on the endocrine control of carbohydrate metabolism and his advocacy of democracy, education and scientific research in Argentina.
Joliot, Frédéric
Authors: Power HJ
Published: September 2006

(1900–1958) French nuclear physicist, who with his wife, Irène Joliot‐Curie, discovered artificial radioactivity. They shared the 1935 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Kossel, Karl Martin Leonhard Albrecht
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1853–1927 German biochemist who investigated nuclein.
Leidy, Joseph
Authors: Warren L
Published: September 2006

1823–1891 US anatomist, microbiologist, helminthologist, parasitologist, natural historian and palaeontologist.
Leloir, Luis Federico
Authors: Barrios‐Medina A
Published: September 2006

1906–1987 Argentine biochemist who discovered the sugar nucleotides and their function in the biological synthesis of carbohydrates.
Lipmann, Fritz Albert
Authors: de Duve Christian
Published: September 2006

1899–1986 German ‐born American biochemist who discovered coenzyme A.
Lwoff, André Michel
Authors: Board Suzanne
Published: September 2006

1902–1994 French microbiologist who studied the phenomenon of lysogeny in bacterial cultures, leading to important contributions to the understanding of the biology of viruses.
Martin, Archer John Porter
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

1910– British biochemist, pioneer of partition chromatography.
McCarty, Maclyn
Authors: Sankaran Neeraja
Published: September 2006

1911– American medical microbiologist whose work on the transforming principle of the pneumonia‐causing bacteria led to the discovery that DNA was the chemical basis of genetic information.
Merrifield, Robert Bruce
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1921– American biochemist who developed the process of solid‐phase peptide synthesis.
Milne‐Edwards, Henri
Authors: Lagueux Olivier
Published: September 2006

1800

–

1885

Belgian

‐born

French

zoologist and physiologist

who first

described the principle of the physiological division of labour

.
Mulliken, Robert Sanderson
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1896–1986 American chemical physicist who developed molecular orbital theory.
Natta, Giulio
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1903–1979 Italian polymer chemist who developed the theory and technology of stereospecific polymerization.
Norrish, Ronald George Wreyford
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

1897–1978 British physical chemist whose investigations of fast reactions laid the foundations for later studies in photosynthesis and the mechanisms of enzyme action.
Ochoa, Severo
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1905–1993 Spanish‐born American biochemist and Nobel prize winner who synthesized RNA.
Ostwald, Friedrich Wilhelm
Authors: Shorter John
Published: September 2006

1853–1932 German chemist who, with van't Hoff and Arrhenius, established physical chemistry as a discipline.
Palade, George Emil
Authors: Sankaran Neeraja
Published: September 2006

1912– Romanian ‐born American cell biologist who discovered the structures and functions of many cellular organelles.
Pregl, Fritz
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1869–1930 Austrian/ Hungarian analytical chemist and Nobel Prize winner who developed techniques of microanalysis.
Prelog, Vladimir
Authors: Bostanci Adam
Published: September 2006

1906–1998 Bosnian natural products chemist and the leading stereochemist of the twentieth century.
Reed, Walter
Authors: Power Helen J
Published: September 2006

1851–1902 American doctor and pathologist who conclusively demonstrated that female
Aedes aegypti
mosquitoes transmit yellow fever.
Reichstein, Tadeus
Authors: Benedek Thomas G
Published: September 2006

1897–1996 Polish ‐born Swiss chemist who identified the compounds cortisone and hydrocortisone.
Robinson, Robert
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

1885–1975 British organic chemist who synthesized many natural substances and was a pioneer of the electronic theory of organic chemistry.
Rubner, Max
Authors: Lohff B
Published: September 2006

1854–1932 German physiologist and hygienist who worked on biological conservation of matter and energy.

Max Rubner (1854–1932).

image
Samuelsson, Bengt Ingemar
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1934– Swedish biochemist and Nobel Prize winner who isolated and characterized the prostaglandins.
Stein, William Howard
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1911–1980 American biochemist who automated techniques for amino acid analysis.
Sumner, James Batcheller
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1887–1955 American biochemist and Nobel Prize winner who first crystallized enzymes.
Svedberg, Theodor
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1884–1971 Swedish physical chemist who invented the ultracentrifuge and devised its application to the study of proteins.
Synge, Richard Laurence Millington
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

1914–1994 British biochemist who, with A. J. P. Martin, developed the techniques of partition chromatography.
Tatum, Edward Lawrie
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1909–1975 American biochemical geneticist and Nobel Prize winner who confirmed that genes regulate specific chemical processes.
Taube, Henry
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1915–Canadian‐born American chemist who pioneered work on the mechanisms of inorganic oxidation–reduction reactions.
Temin, Howard Martin
Authors: Sankaran Neeraja
Published: September 2006

1934–1994 American virologist who made fundamental contributions to the understanding of oncogenic or tumour‐inducing viruses and was also one of the first scientists to isolate the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
Tonegawa, Susumu
Authors: Sankaran Neeraja
Published: September 2006

1939– Japanese immunologist who discovered the process through which a relatively small number of gene segments could give rise to a vast number of antibodies with different specificities.
Varmus, Harold Elliot
Authors: Sankaran Neeraja
Published: September 2006

1939– American virologist and 14th Director of the National Institutes of Health, whose discoveries helped establish the mechanisms underlying the development of viral‐induced tumours.
Virtanen, Artturi Ilmari
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1895–1973 Finnish biochemist and Nobel Prize winner who showed the function of cozymase in lactic and propionic acid fermentation.
von Brücke, Ernst Wilhelm Ritter
Authors: Lohff B
Published: September 2006

1819–1892 German and Austrian physiologist who worked in many fields of organic physics and on the theory of protoplasm.
Euler‐Chelpin, Hans Karl August Simon von
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1873–1964 German‐ born Swedish biochemist who clarified the role played by enzymes in alcoholic fermentation.
Haller, Albrecht von
Authors: Lynn Michael R
Published: September 2006

1708–1777 Swiss physiologist, anatomist and writer who developed the principle of irritability.
Wallach, Otto
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1847–1931 German organic chemist and Nobel Prize winner who worked on terpenes.
Wheeler, William Morton
Authors: Winther Rasmus G
Published: September 2006

1865–1937 American myrmecologist interested in evolution, ethology, taxonomy, embryology, morphology and philosophy.
Whipple, George Hoyt
Authors: Power HJ
Published: September 2006

1878–1976 American pathologist and physiologist who developed a successful therapy for anaemia.
Wiesel, Torsten Nils
Authors: Sankaran Neeraja
Published: September 2006

1924– Swedish‐American neurophysiologist who made fundamental contributions to our understanding of how the brain processes the information it receives from the eyes and enables us to perceive images.
Wolff, Caspar Friedrich
Authors: Wellmann Janina
Published: September 2006

1734–1794 German naturalist and originatorof the modern epigenetic theory of development who also advanced study in human malformations and their heredity.
Wright, Almroth Edward
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1861–1947 English bacteriologist who pioneered the technique of inoculation against typhoid.
Wright, Sewall
Authors: Ruse Michael
Published: September 2006

1889–1988 American geneticist and one of the most important theoreticians of evolution of the twentieth century.
Yersin, Alexandre
Authors: Board Suzanne
Published: September 2006

1863–1943 Swiss‐born French bacteriologist who characterized the diphtheria exotoxin, identified the plague bacillus, and developed anti‐plague serum.
Oculomotor System
Authors: Delgado‐García José M
Published: September 2006

The oculomotor system is composed of six extraocular muscles attached to the orbit and to the eyeball, of extraocular motor neurons located in three different brainstem motor nuclei, and of premotor centres and circuits involved in the generation and control of the different types of eye movement. Its precise functional design and robust biomechanics have allowed this motor system to survive almost unchanged across the different trends in vertebrate evolution.
Ultracentrifugation
Authors: Völkl Alfred
Published: September 2006

High‐speed (ultra)centrifugation for fractionation of organelles and molecular components of tissues permits the elucidation of fundamental cellular processes such as oxidative phosphorylation, intracellular digestion, protein synthesis, bulk transport or biogenesis of organelles. Preparative centrifugation allows isolation of specific particles such as subcellular organelles, and analytical centrifugation differentiates the properties of particles and allows study of interactions between macromolecules.
Phosphorimager
Authors: Robertson Daniel J , Freeman Willard M , Vrana Kent E
Published: September 2006

Phosphorimaging is a form of solid state liquid scintillation where radioactive material can be both localized and quantified. Though similar to traditional autoradiographic techniques (in that it relies on high‐energy particle decay) phosphorimaging is more sensitive and has a greater dynamic range than X‐ray film which has made it an increasingly popular choice for several applications in molecular biology.
Hydrophobic Effect
Authors: Herzfeld Judith , Olbris Donald J
Published: September 2006

The hydrophobic effect refers to the relatively poor solubility of nonpolar substances in water. The effect is seen in the organization of biomolecules such that nonpolar portions are largely sequestered from the aqueous environment. The origin of the effect lies in the response of the three‐dimensional hydrogen bonding network of water to different types of solutes.
Hydrophobic Interactions in Proteins
Authors: Matthews Brian W
Published: September 2006

Proteins fold spontaneously into complicated three‐dimensional structures that are essential for biological activity. Much of the driving energy for this folding process comes from the hydrophobic effect, i.e. the removal of nonpolar amino acids from solvent and their burial in the core of the protein.
DNA
Structure: Sequence Effects
Authors: Frank‐Kamenetskii Maxim D
Published: September 2006

DNA sequence significantly affects the local stability of the DNA double helix. In addition, depending on their particular sequence, different DNA sites are capable of adopting various unusual structures.
Fluorescence Spectrophotometry
Authors: So Peter TC , Dong Chen Y
Published: September 2006

Fluorescence spectrophotometry is a class of techniques that assay the state of a biological system by studying its interactions with fluorescent probe molecules. This interaction is monitored by measuring the changes in the fluorescent probe optical properties.
Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer
Authors: Remedios Cristobal G dos
Published: September 2006

Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) is a valuable tool for determining intramolecular and intermolecular distances in the range 10–100 Å. It is particularly valuable for measuring changes in molecular distance such as conformational changes in proteins.
Sedimentation
Authors: Laue Thomas Maxon
Published: September 2006

Sedimentation is a classic method of biochemistry that provides first‐principle hydrodynamic and thermodynamic information about the size, shape, molar mass, association energy, association stoichiometry and thermodynamic nonideality of molecules in solution.
Protein Structure Design and Engineering
Authors: Lu Yi , Berry Steven M
Published: September 2006

Protein structure design and engineering is a research endeavour in which proteins with predicted structure and function are constructed in the laboratory through rational design and/or through combinatorial selection.
X‐ray Absorption Spectroscopy
Authors: Penner‐Hahn James E
Published: September 2006

An absorption ‘edge’ is the abrupt increase in absorbance that occurs when the energy of the incident light (typically light in the X‐ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum) exceeds the binding energy of a core electron. X‐ray absorption spectroscopy uses the structured absorption on the high‐energy side of an absorption edge to determine the local structure of the X‐ray‐absorbing atom.
Mass Measurements by Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy
Authors: Parry David AD
Published: September 2006

The image of an unstained specimen observed by scanning transmission electron microscopy is a two‐dimensional representation of the distribution of the mass of the specimen projected onto a plane, since elastic scattering of the electrons depends on the electron density, which, in turn, is related directly to the mass density of the object being viewed. If the contribution of the sample support is subtracted and comparison is made with an appropriate mass standard, mass or mass density determinations can be derived.
Two‐photon Fluorescence Light Microscopy
Authors: So Peter TC
Published: September 2006

Two‐photon fluorescence microscopy allows three‐dimensional imaging of biological specimens
in vivo
. Compared with confocal microscopy, it offers the advantages of deeper tissue penetration and less photodamage but has the disadvantage of slightly lower resolution.
Deconvolution Fluorescence Light Microscopy
Authors: Swedlow Jason R
Published: September 2006

Deconvolution microscopy is a computational technique that deblurs fluorescence images using knowledge of the optical path of the microscope.
Polarized Light Microscopy
Authors: Finzi Laura , Dunlap David D
Published: September 2006

Polarization microscopy may be used for quantitative measurement of optical properties of biological specimens and to reveal dynamic structural details without exogenous stains.
Light Microscopy – Brightfield and Darkfield Illumination
Authors: Oldfield Ronald J
Published: September 2006

The microscope image, especially its contrast, is profoundly influenced by the way that light is directed on to the specimen. The essential controls required are of intensity, evenness, area of illumination and angle of illumination.
Transmission Electron Microscopy: Preparation of Specimens
Authors: Slayter Henry S
Published: September 2006

Manipulation of objects so as to reveal resolvable detail remains a challenge. There are in general four requirements of any technique: (1) avoidance of collapse of structures in dehydrated specimens; (2) production of a sample sufficiently thin to avoid multiple scattering; (3) minimization of damage by the electron beam; (4) maximization of contrast. The relative importance of each constraint varies with the type of specimen and with the level of resolution sought.
Electron Cryomicroscopy
Authors: Dubochet Jacques , Stahlberg Henning
Published: September 2006

Electron cryomicroscopy makes it possible to observe hydrated material, especially biological samples, in a close to native state, preserving the structural integrity down to atomic resolution. It is best combined with image processing for three‐dimensional reconstruction, taking advantage of all possible symmetries in the object.
Protein Denaturation and the Denatured State
Authors: Hammarström Per , Jonsson Bengt‐Harald
Published: September 2006

Protein denaturation experiments are routinely used to determine protein stability and to elucidate structural and dynamic effects of mutations, cofactors and ligands. Denatured states of proteins have gained wide interest in recent years owing to their fundamental importance in a wide variety of phenomena such as deciphering the protein folding problem and the molecular understanding of many diseases.
Amino Acid Side‐chain Hydrophobicity
Authors: Chan Hue Sun
Published: September 2006

Hydrophobicity is the unfavourable energetics of dissolving nonpolar compounds in water. The hydrophobicities of the 20 amino acid side‐chains are currently described by hydrophobicity scales derived primarily from solubility studies; these scales have provided semiquantitative rationalizations of some properties of native (folded) proteins.
DNA Structure Changes Coupled to Protein Binding
Authors: Dlakic Mensur , Kerppola Tom K
Published: September 2006

Protein‐induced DNA distortions facilitate the interactions between proteins bound to non‐adjacent sites on DNA. Correct assembly of these macromolecular complexes is necessary for DNA transcription, recombination, repair and replication.
Calorimetry
Authors: Murphy Kenneth P
Published: September 2006

In isothermal titration calorimetry, the heat produced or absorbed when a ligand binds to a biological macromolecule is measured and is used to characterize the energetics of the interaction. All of the thermodynamic quantities that characterize the binding reaction can be determined, and additional information on changes in protonation, and thus pH dependence, can also be studied.
Protein Structure: Unusual Covalent Bonds
Authors: Scott Nancy L , Lecomte Juliette T J
Published: September 2006

Amendments to a protein's covalent structure occur frequently
in vivo
. These modifications may be spontaneous or enzymatic and are consequential to cellular function and the integrity of the organism. Here we present a broad array of such modifications from a physicochemical perspective, along with their biological relevance.
Peptidylproline
cis
–
trans
‐Isomerases
Authors: Fischer Gunter , Schmid Franz‐Xaver
Published: September 2006

Peptidylproline
cis
–
trans
‐isomerases are ubiquitous enzymes that bind to Xaa‐Pro peptide bonds in proteins and catalyse their isomerization. In addition to their role as folding helpers they are involved in multiple functions including cellular regulation.
Protein Disulfide Isomerases
Authors: Schwaller Melissa D , Gilbert Hiram F
Published: September 2006

Protein disulfide isomerase is a multifunctional protein that facilitates the formation of disulfide crosslinks between cysteine residues during the early stages of protein folding and secretion. It is a member of a large family of oxidoreductases that catalyse exchange reactions between thiols and disulfides.
Genome Databases
Authors: Carroll Marion L , Nguyen Son V , Batzer Mark A
Published: September 2006

Genome databases are repositories of DNA sequences from many different species of plants and animals. They are linked electronically to supportive databases to aid in interpretation of the sequence data.
Genome Sequence Analysis
Authors: DeAngelis Margaret M , Batzer Mark A
Published: September 2006

The human genome has an estimated 40 000–100 000 genes dispersed throughout 3.5 billion nucleotides of sequence. DNA sequences are inherently complex and a number of computational tools are required to analyse the genomic sequences of eukaryotic, bacterial and model organisms.
Protein Sequence Databases
Authors: Barker Winona C
Published: September 2006

The comprehensive, annotated and curated protein sequence databases – the PIR‐International Protein Sequence Database and SWISS‐PROT – support genome annotation, protein functional and structural analysis, proteomics, and phylogenetic studies. The databases are widely available, either free or by subscription, and are augmented by a variety of useful tools and related databases.
Primary Protein and Nucleic Acid Three‐dimensional Structure Databases
Authors: Bourne Philip E
Published: September 2006

All the publicly accessible three‐dimensional structures of proteins, DNA, RNA and complexes thereof, which have been determined experimentally by X‐ray crystallography or nuclear magnetic resonance, are maintained in the Protein Data Bank (PDB).
Protein Design
Authors: Lacroix Emmanuel , Serrano Luis
Published: September 2006

Protein design is the engineering of natural amino acid sequences to modify and/or create desired protein structures or functions.
Optical Tweezers
Authors: Greulich Karl Otto
Published: September 2006

Infrared lasers focused with high numerical aperture into a microscope are used to exert and measure forces in the piconewton range. They can be used to work in the interior of unopened living cells to support cell fusion and to stimulate specificity in interaction of immune cells.
Protein Tertiary Structures: Prediction from Amino Acid Sequences
Authors: Zhang Hongyu
Published: September 2006

Protein tertiary structures contain key information for the understanding of the relationship between protein amino acid sequences and their biological functions. A large collection of computational algorithms has been developed to predict protein tertiary structures from their sequences in computers.
Hydrophobicity Plots
Authors: Sansom Mark SP
Published: September 2006

Hydrophobicity plots are used to identify sequences of amino acids in proteins that form transmembrane helices – parts of the protein that span the lipid membrane. This information can be used to aid determination of the structure of membrane proteins.
Time‐resolved X‐ray Crystallography
Authors: Stoddard Barry L
Published: September 2006

Time‐resolved crystallography is a collection of methods whereby biological reactions proceed in crystals of a macromolecular catalyst, and structures of intermediates formed on the reaction pathway are determined using X‐ray crystallography. Such experiments allow investigators to visualize directly the mechanism of enzyme‐catalysed reactions or other biological processes.
Molecular Dynamics
Authors: Meller Jaro⋅aw
Published: September 2006

Molecular dynamics is a technique for computer simulation of complex systems, modelled at the atomic level. The equations of motion are solved numerically to follow the time evolution of the system, allowing the derivation of kinetic and thermodynamic properties of interest by means of ‘computer experiments’. Biologically important macromolecules and their environments are routinely studied using molecular dynamics simulations.
NAD(P)+Binding to Dehydrogenases
Authors: Weiner Henry , Hurley Thomas D
Published: September 2006

Each NAD‐dependent dehydrogenase binds its coenzyme in a unique manner. Virtually all possess a highly conserved binding domain called the Rossmann fold that is involved in this interaction and dictates the specificity of hydride transfer.
Protein Family Databases
Authors: Henikoff Steven , Henikoff Jorja G
Published: September 2006

The rapid expansion of biological sequence databanks and the utilization of protein sequence homologies to draw functional inferences has led to a proliferation of databases aimed at organizing protein homology information. Databases differ in how families are defined and in how family information is depicted.
Ageing Genes: Gerontogenes
Authors: Rattan Suresh IS
Published: September 2006

The term ‘gerontogenes’ refers to an altered state of those genes that influence ageing and longevity, the vitagenes. The idea of gerontogenes is in line with the evolutionary explanation of the ageing process as being caused by the absence of maintenance and repair, rather than an active, evolutionarily selected process.
Glaucocystophytes
Authors: Schenk Hainfried EA
Published: September 2006

The glaucocystophytes are a small group of photosynthetic, unicellular algae that possess cyanobacteria‐like plastids with prokaryotic peptidoglycans, coded in the cell nucleus; they are located on the base of the evolutionary tree towards higher plants.
Inherited Retinal Diseases: Vertebrate Animal Models
Authors: Baehr Wolfgang , Frederick Jeanne
Published: September 2006

Animal models are powerful tools with which to investigate the aetiology of human retinal degenerations, especially retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and allied diseases. Gene defects identified in some animal models were later discovered in orthologous genes in human RP families.
Luciferases and Light‐emitting Accessory Proteins: Structural Biology
Authors: Hastings J Woodland , Krause Kurt L
Published: September 2006

Luciferases are enzymes that catalyse reactions in living organisms that result in light emission. There are many different luciferases, different in the sense that the genes and proteins involved are unrelated in evolution, and evidently originated and evolved independently.
Hall, Marshall
Authors: Manuel Diana E
Published: September 2006

1790–1857 British physician who through his private research made significant contributions to the development of physiology, especially the concept of reflex action.
Bell, Charles
Authors: Manuel Diana E
Published: September 2006

1774–1842 Scottish anatomist and artist associated with the elucidation of sensory and motor functions of spinal nerve roots and renowned for his anatomical drawings.
Flavonoids
Authors: Ibrahim Ragaï K
Published: September 2006

Flavonoids represent an important class of plant natural products that are known for their ubiquitous occurrence and structural diversity. They are found in almost all parts of vascular plants, display a wide range of functions, and have an important impact on mammalian biology.
RNA Editing: Evolutionary Implications
Authors: Gray Michael W
Published: September 2006

The term ‘RNA editing’ describes a variety of mechanistically unrelated biochemical activities that alter RNA molecules after transcription by addition, deletion or substitution of nucleotides. A three‐stage model, illustrated by specific examples, can explain in a general way how RNA‐editing systems might arise and become fixed.
History of Parasitology
Authors: Power Helen J
Published: September 2006

Traditionally parasitology has been concerned with the harmful effects of organisms living and feeding inside or on another living organism. Although parasites may belong to any of the following groups – bacteria, yeast, fungi, algae, viruses, protozoa, helminths and arthropods – in effect parasitologists have focused on the internal zooparasites. Bacteria, viruses and fungi of plant origin are the provenance of microbiologists. Before the discovery of unicellular parasites c. 1880s onwards, worms or helminths were the major focus of attention.
History of Virology
Authors: Wilkinson Lise
Published: September 2006

A brief history of the development of virology as an academic, scientific discipline, and the influence of this development on the means of control of some of the world's major viral epidemic diseases.
History of Biochemistry
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

A history of biochemistry from the eighteenth to the late twentieth century, revealing some of the problems faced by biochemists seeking chemical explanations for biological phenomena and introducing some origins of modern biochemistry.
History of Immunology
Authors: Silverstein Arthur M
Published: September 2006

Immunity to disease has long been recognized, but only during the late nineteenth century, thanks to Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, Elie Metchnikoff and Paul Ehrlich, did immunology become a true science able to explain mechanisms and to develop preventive vaccines. Originally medically oriented (1880–1910), the field passed through a stage of chemical domination (1910–1960) and then became biologically and, once again, medically oriented.
History of Developmental Biology
Authors: Horder Tim
Published: September 2006

Embryology – now known as developmental biology – is a somewhat ill‐defined subject discipline but its history is remarkable for the long list of distinguished scientists and philosophers who have contributed to it from antiquity up to the current era. Recent molecular techniques have prompted a resurgence in its popularity as a research field and may provide the long hoped‐for definitive account of embryogenesis.
History of Ecology
Authors: Jax Kurt
Published: September 2006

Although there have been ‘ecological’ ideas and investigations over many centuries, the history of ecology as a self‐conscious science started only in the last decades of the nineteenth century. A description of the development of ecology since then shows both the plurality of approaches and subjects and the desire to arrive at unifying theories.
History of Classical Anatomy
Authors: Cosans Christopher E
Published: September 2006

Anatomy was developed in ancient Greece by physicians and natural philosophers who used dissection and vivisection to investigate the nature of the body. Throughout classical antiquity different techniques were advanced as anatomists debated various theories.
History of Palaeontology
Authors: Donovan Stephen K
Published: September 2006

Although shells in ancient deposits were accepted as preserved remnants of ancient organisms by Greek philosophers, this fundamental idea was essentially lost until the seventeenth century, and the science of palaeontology was not truly established until the nineteenth century. The progression of life demonstrated in the fossil record led to many advances in geology, most notably in biostratigraphy and delineation of the geological column. However, the contribution that palaeontology makes to the understanding of biological evolution by natural selection continues to be refined.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy: Structural Analysis of Proteins and Nucleic Acids
Authors: Werner Milton H
Published: September 2006

Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) enables the determination of the three‐dimensional structure of proteins and nucleic acids in solution. A set of NMR experiments identifies the residues in the molecule and determines the order of residues that comprises the primary structure. Distance and angular relationships are subsequently measured and utilized as input to the structure calculation.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (
NMR
) Spectroscopy of Proteins
Authors: Wüthrich Kurt
Published: September 2006

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy enables the determination of three‐dimensional protein structures at atomic resolution under near‐physiological conditions in solution. In structural biology, NMR complements X‐ray crystallography, which provides similar information on proteins in single crystals.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (
NMR
) Spectroscopy for Monitoring Molecular Dynamics in Solution
Authors: Lee Andrew L , Wand A Joshua
Published: September 2006

Biological macromolecules exhibit a wide range of dynamic motions. Analysis of relaxation rates of NMR signals allows these motions to be characterized throughout a macromolecule at an atomic level of detail.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (
NMR
): Solid State
Authors: Opella Stanley J , Marassi Francesca M
Published: September 2006

Solid‐state NMR spectroscopy can determine the structures of membrane proteins in lipid bilayers and other supramolecular assemblies. High‐resolution spectra can be obtained from stationary, oriented samples and from unoriented samples with magic‐angle sample spinning.
Pulsed‐field Gel Electrophoresis
Authors: Maule John C
Published: September 2006

Pulsed field gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate large DNA molecules. It is used in a variety of situations including electrophoretic karyotyping, long‐range physical mapping and the analysis of DNA and chromosome structures.
Fourier Transform
IR
Authors: Orphal Johannes
Published: September 2006

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is an experimental technique used primarily for qualitative and quantitative analysis of organic compounds, providing specific information on molecular structure, chemical bonding and molecular environment. For many years, FTIR has been successfully employed for studying a wide variety of proteins, enzymes, nucleic acids, lipids and glycolipids, and photobiological systems.
Resonance Raman Spectroscopy
Authors: Mukerji Ishita
Published: September 2006

Resonance Raman spectroscopy is a vibrational spectroscopic technique that utilizes the electronic absorption bands to enhance dramatically the magnitude of the signal. It has been used effectively to study protein structure and function.
Water: Structure and Properties
Authors: Sharp Kim A
Published: September 2006

Water is a major component of all living things. It is anomalous in many of its physical and chemical properties. Some are essential for life while others have profound effects on the size and shape of living organisms, how they work, and the constraints within which they must operate. Many of water's basic physical properties can now be explained, at least semiquantitatively, in molecular and structural terms, although in spite of intense study it remains incompletely understood.
Protein–DNA Interactions: Techniques Used
Authors: Strauch Mark A
Published: September 2006

A plethora of biochemical and biophysical techniques are used to investigate various aspects of protein–DNA interactions. Some of the more common and useful of these are filter binding, the gel mobility shift assay, a large group of related techniques broadly categorized as footprinting, high‐resolution microscopy and spectroscopy.
Nucleic Acid Structure: Peptide Nucleic Acids and Other Backbone Variations
Authors: Nielsen Peter E
Published: September 2006

Synthetic analogues and mimics of the natural genetic material deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) are potential gene therapeutic (antisense or antigene) drugs. Some of these mimics, peptide nucleic acids (PNAs), are chemically closer to peptides and proteins than to DNA, but nonetheless have retained many of the structural properties of DNA.
Base Pairing in RNA: Unusual Patterns
Authors: Hou Ya‐Ming
Published: September 2006

Ribonucleic acids (RNAs) consist of linear arrays of bases, some of which have the hydrogen‐bonding capacity to interact with others to form base pairs. In addition to the standard Watson–Crick base pairings, RNAs have unusual base pairings that give rise to the many tertiary structures that are now known to be important for a variety of biological functions.
RNA Structure: Tetraloops
Authors: Cheong Chaejoon , Cheong Hae‐Kap
Published: September 2006

An RNA tetraloop structure is composed of a Watson–Crick base‐paired stem and four loop nucleotides. The structure is compact and stable and is found frequently in RNAs.
Proteins: Affinity Tags
Authors: Chong Shaorong
Published: September 2006

Specific interaction between a protein (or a protein domain) and a ligand allows the protein (or domain) to be linked to a recombinant protein as a fusion partner (affinity tag). This enables the recombinant protein to be purified by affinity chromatography even if it does not naturally have a specific ligand suitable for this process.
DNA Sequencing
Authors: Hardin Susan H
Published: September 2006

DNA sequencing is the determination of base order in a DNA molecule. Methods for determining base order involve either chemical degradation or, more commonly, enzymatic synthesis of the region that is being sequenced. Automation of the DNA sequencing process is accelerating the progress of the Human Genome Project.
Parasitoids
Authors: West Stuart A
Published: September 2006

Parasitoids are insects whose larvae develop by feeding on the bodies of other arthropods, usually insects, but also spiders and centipedes.
Competition
Authors: Keddy Paul A
Published: September 2006

Competition is the all‐pervasive interaction between organisms in which each reduces the performance of the other, either by depleting mutually required resources or by directly inflicting damage. It has been a potent force driving natural selection, and is a major factor (along with stress, disturbance, predation and mutualism) in shaping the structure of biological communities.
Community Ecology: An Introduction
Authors: Villa Ferdinando , Ceroni Marta
Published: September 2006

Communities are assemblages of individuals of different species living and interacting together in a contiguous environment. Community ecology studies how communities are structured and how their structure changes in time and space, spontaneously or as a result of natural and human‐induced events.
Hot Deserts
Authors: Ezcurra Exequiel , Mellink Eric
Published: September 2006

In spite of their apparent barrenness, the hot deserts of the world harbour unique and rare biotas with impressive biological adaptations. As a result of evolution in isolation from each other, the world's deserts have high levels of endemism and harbour rare and unique life forms, a fact that makes them ecologically fragile and highly vulnerable to biological extinction.
Experimental Systems in Aquatic Ecology
Authors: Sommer Ulrich
Published: September 2006

A classification of experiments in aquatic ecology according to temporal and spatial scale, discussing the inevitable trade‐offs between realism and control.
Ecosystem Concepts: Introduction
Authors: Camill Philip
Published: September 2006

Ecology is the study of the interactions among organisms in the context of their environment. The ecosystem concept in ecology provides a framework for understanding the flows of energy and elements between organisms and their abiotic surroundings.
Soils and Decomposition
Authors: McClaugherty Charles
Published: September 2006

Soils are dynamic, complex systems of inorganic, organic and biotic components that have the capacity to support plant life. Soils are classified on the basis of their chemical and physical properties. Decomposition of organic matter is the principal process in soils that recycles plant nutrients and produces humus.
Nitrogen Budgets
Authors: Kätterer Thomas
Published: September 2006

The compilation of inputs and outputs of nitrogen across the boundaries of a system defined in time and space comprises a nitrogen budget. This budget contains information about internal nitrogen fluxes within the system and can be used as an efficiency indicator or policy instrument.
Lake Ecosystems
Authors: Hairston Nelson G , Fussmann Gregor F
Published: September 2006

Lakes are discrete, largely isolated ecosystems in which the interplay between physical, biogeochemical and organismal processes can be studied, understood, and put to use in effective management.
Energy, Radiation and Temperature Regulation in Plants
Authors: Jones Hamlyn G , Rotenberg Eyal
Published: September 2006

The temperature of any plant organ depends on the balance between incoming energy and energy loss. The energy balance comprises radiative transfer, sensible heat transfer, latent heat transfer and transfer to and from storage. Various biophysical mechanisms are available to plants, through manipulation of the energy balance terms, for temperature regulation.