bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Thomas Szasz and the language of mental illness
Authors: Pies Ronald W.
Published: February 2019

Szasz famously declared mental illness a “myth” and a “metaphor,” arguing that psychiatry’s diagnostic categories are only temporary stops on the road to “real” and “legitimate” bodily diseases. He argued that conditions once regarded as “mental illnesses” would rightly be reclassified as “brain diseases,” insofar as scientific investigations would uncover their neuropathology. Based on a critique of six foundational claims in Szasz’s writings, the author of this chapter argues that psychopathology and neuropathology are complementary rather than contradictory or disjunctive. Just as some mental illnesses may be considered brain diseases, some brain diseases may manifest as “mental illness.” The locution, “mental illness,” remains useful, albeit imperfect, shorthand to describe a particular kind of suffering and incapacity, usually affecting cognition, emotion, reasoning, or behavior. Even if all mental illnesses were conclusively and causally linked to specific brain abnormalities, we would still need “mental language” in both ordinary discourse and the vocabulary of clinical work.
The myth and reality of mental illness
Authors: Frances Allen
Published: February 2019

There are points of reconciliation between the uncompromising libertarian philosophy of Szasz and what he refers to as “real-world psychiatry” (i.e., problems that clinicians face in helping the so-called “mentally ill”). Szasz’s principled stance against the abuses of psychiatry advocates an antipaternalistic approach. He performed great service, exposing the risks of coercive psychiatry, fighting for patient empowerment, freedom, and dignity. The system no longer exists where there are several thousand patients in state hospitals—many inappropriately admitted into “snake pits”—but we now have to fight the criminalization of mental illness, with the mentally ill in jails and the homeless living in streets. It would be wonderful to have Szasz still alive to lead the movement to free the severely ill from prisons, just as he helped to free them from hospitals.
Reform and revolution in the context of critical psychiatry and service user/survivor movements
Authors: Potter Nancy Nyquist
Published: February 2019

Among the outcomes of Szasz’s work on mental illness as “myth” is the development of critical psychiatry, which seeks to bridge an apparent chasm between psychiatry as social control and as a necessary psychopharmacological intervention. Some central tenets of critical psychiatry emerged from 1960s’ challenges to authoritative bodies. One aspect of its networks is patients’ narratives, which highlight how psychiatry has both harmed and helped them, and provide more nuanced and complex understandings of critiques than antipsychiatry activists generally offer. Patients’ experiences present deep challenges to Szasz’s individualism, particularly with respect to epistemic and ethical practices in psychiatry. Evidence of what it means to be a subject/agent undergirds a less idealized understanding than Western individualism typically theorizes. We are all always socially situated. In psychiatric practice, patients’ voices and social situatedness require a particular approach to being epistemically and ethically responsible.
Epilogue
Authors: Haldipur C.V.
Published: February 2019

This epilogue summarizes and interconnects the chapters of the book, particularly with regard to Thomas Szasz’s views on the insanity defense and the concept of mental illness. The epilogue’s author knew Szasz personally and shared an office with him for nearly a decade, thus gaining many opportunities to discuss ideas with him.
Arthrogryposis
Authors: Clark Robin D. , Curry Cynthia J.
Published: February 2019

This chapter reviews the incidence, risk factors, genetics, recurrence risk, and epidemiology of arthrogryposis. The most common and clinically recognizable type among the congenital contractures is amyoplasia, and treatment options are improving the quality of life for these patients. The distal arthrogryposes are mostly autosomal dominant and caused by an increasing number of genes including variants in PIEZ02 and MYH3 among several others. The lethal contracture syndromes have an expanding number of causes many of which are autosomal recessive. The majority of these conditions are recognized on US. In viable syndromes the early and intensive use of physical therapy is critical and can result in significant joint mobilization. The clinical case presentation features an infant with lethal multiple pterygia syndrome.
Skin
Authors: Clark Robin D. , Curry Cynthia J.
Published: February 2019

This chapter reviews the various types of congenital ichthyoses that can present in the newborn with erythroderma, hyperkeratosis, scales, or fissures. The presenting symptoms frequently overlap in these conditions. Erythroderma is a finding frequently seen in the ichthyoses but as well in infection, atopy, immunodeficiency and some metabolic disorders. Common ichthyoses include Harlequin ichthyosis, lamellar ichthyosis, epidermolytic ichthyosis and X-linkedLinked ichthyosis. Important syndromes include Sjogren Larsson, trichothiodystrophy, CHILD syndrome and Gaucher Disease type II. Lethal ichthyosis syndromes include Neu Laxova and Restrictive Dermopathy. Harlequin ichthyosis is also frequently lethal. Gene panels increasingly should be the first line diagnostic test. The clinical case presentation features an infant with Netherton syndrome.
Skin
Authors: Clark Robin D. , Curry Cynthia J.
Published: February 2019

This chapter reviews vascular malformations including the common vascular birthmark, nevus flammeus that is usually isolated, fades with time, and is of no clinical significance. The vascular birthmarks associated with complex segmental overgrowth are reviewed including Klippel Trenaunay syndrome, CLOVES, and the PIK3CA associated disorders. These disorders may sometimes not be evident in newborns although macrocephaly, apparent cutis marmorata, and limb asymmetry may suggest these diagnoses early. Cranial imaging and chronologic follow up help to establish the correct diagnosis. PHACES and SACRAL (LUMBAR) syndromes are distinctive but lack a known genetic cause. New treatment options for the PIK3CA disorders are emerging. The clinical case presentation features an infant with megalencephaly–capillary malformation–polymicrogyria syndrome (MCAP).
The Animal and African American History
Authors: Boisseron Bénédicte
Published: February 2019

From the Middle Passage to the Black Lives Matter movement today, the animal carries a long-standing tradition of intersecting with African American life in American history. The proximity between the animal and the African American subject, which points back to the chattel (etymologically affiliated with cattle) status of the slave in America, carries modern ramifications that are increasingly being addressed in scholarships and publications. The “animal turn,” which refers to the fast-growing interest in human-animal relationships across the humanities and social sciences, has opened a new platform for questions of race and the nonhuman within the context of an America impacted by slavery. This article retraces the itinerary of the animal presence alongside the black subject in American history and includes key concepts and authors related to animal studies and black studies. The resources are divided into five parts. The first focuses on Intersectionality, the theoretical apparatus that has enabled scholars to establish connections among gender, racial, and species discrimination. The intersectional approach initially appeared within a litigious legal framework in the United States, as it was used to address the combination of racism and sexism. The concept has since expanded to include other forms of oppression, including so-called speciesism, a form of discrimination against animals said to be analogous to sexism and racism. The second part focuses on the literature that has addressed, and at times questioned, the practice of analogizing animals with blacks. Though it is not new—it was part of a 19th-century scientific racism discourse that justified slavery—the analogizing practice has more recently been used to compare the condition of black slaves then with the modern exploitation of animals. The third segment revisits the historical role of watchdogs used as a repressive tool against blacks in American history from the plantation era in the American South to the race riots and demonstrations of the 20th and 21st centuries. The fourth part centers on the relation between breed specific legislation and institutionalized racism in America, specifically on pit bulls and African Americans. The fifth part deals with the prominent contribution of blacks in the history of horse managing and horse racing in the American South, first, as slaves and, following the Civil War and into the Jim Crow Era, as trainers.
Jerusalem
Authors: Pioske Dan
Published: February 2019

Jerusalem is the most important location in the Bible and the most researched within the realm of biblical studies. Already a Canaanite city of some standing by the Middle Bronze Age period (c. 2000–1550 bce), Jerusalem’s significance for the biblical writers begins in earnest with the portrayal of the city’s acquisition by David around 1000 bce. Jerusalem functions in the Hebrew Bible as the royal center for the House of David and the divine sanctuary for Yahweh, the God of Israel, for the next four centuries until, in 586 bce, the location is conquered and destroyed by the Babylonians. Around 515 bce the Second Temple is constructed and Jerusalem becomes a modest temple-city within the Persian Empire (c. 550–330 bce), during which time a number of biblical texts are written and revised. A century and a half after Alexander the Great’s conquest of the region, a Jewish group called the Maccabees revolted against the Greek rulers of the time (c. 167 bce) and established an autonomous kingdom with Jerusalem as its capital. The independent status of this kingdom ends, however, when the Roman general Pompey took control of Jerusalem in 63 bce and incorporated it and the region of Judea into the Roman Empire. During the reign of Herod the Great (37–4 bce), a client-king of the Romans, the temple in Jerusalem is extensively renovated and a number of other impressive building measures are carried out in the city’s precincts. This large, Roman city is the one referred to at various moments in the Gospels and in the Book of Acts, and it is the location where Jesus of Nazareth is said to have been crucified around 33 ce. Though Jerusalem is destroyed by the Romans in 70 ce after the First Jewish-Roman War, a new, heavenly Jerusalem is depicted in the later writings of the Book of Revelation.
Cities of Refuge
Authors: Spencer John R.
Published: February 2019

Within the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament there is a provision for six cities of refuge (“cities of intaking” [ערי מקלט]), where someone who has unintentionally committed murder can go and not be subject to blood revenge (Exodus 21:12–14; Numbers 35:9–34; Deuteronomy 4:41–43, 19:1–13; Joshua 20; 1 Chronicles 6). This practice has been described as refuge, asylum, and sanctuary, and the cities have been given all three of these labels, which has resulted in differing understandings of the intention of these cities. The basic legal issue is the distinction between intentional and unintentional killing. For most societies in the ancient Near East, including ancient Israel, the idea of “blood revenge” (an “eye for an eye”; lex talionis) was the way in which the killing of a member of your clan or family was avenged (Exodus 21:23). The distinction made in association with the cities of refuge/asylum was how to deal with an individual who accidentally, without intention, killed another (Exodus 21:12–14; Number 35:16–28). Also associated with this idea is the nature of sanctuary or asylum that one can obtain when one reaches a cultic center with an altar (1 Kings 1:50–53; 2:23–24). One should also note that all the cities of refuge are also Levitical Cities (1 Chronicles 6), but it is not clear what the role of the Levites was in such a city of refuge. Among the issues associated with these cities are the following: Did they actually exist, or were they simply a fiction created at a later period of time? If they were real, what was their historical context? Was it premonarchic, the time of David and Solomon, related to the centralization of Josiah, or postexilic? When were the texts composed (a question associated with the previous issue and raising wonderings about different hands in the composition of the texts associated with the idea of asylum cities)? What is the connection between altars of sanctuary and the cities of refuge, and why the apparent replacement of altars with cities? Who and how was the validity of the claim of unintentional killing (Numbers 35:24–25; Joshua 20:4) decided, even if the killer was a “sojourner” (gēr) (Joshua 20:9) (see Oxford Bibliographies in Biblical Studies article Sojourner)? What was the consequence of the death of the high priest (Numbers 35:27; Joshua 20:6), and how it was related to some concept of atonement? What was the relationship between the different biblical presentations of refuge or asylum? What was the connection with the Levites (See Oxford Bibliographies in Biblical Studies articles Levi/Levites) and Levitical Cities (see Oxford Bibliographies in Biblical Studies article Levitical Cities)? Finally, what is the relevance to today’s society with its issues of sanctuary for immigrants and sojourners?
Rabindranath Tagore
Authors: van Bijlert Victor , Bangha Imre
Published: February 2019

Rabindranath Tagore (in Bengali: Rabīndranāth Ṭhākur; b. 1861–d. 1941) was born in Calcutta, the capital of British India at the time. From the late 18th century onward, his extremely large family played an important role in the economic and cultural activities of the city and the whole of Bengal. Thus Rabindranath’s life and work was intimately connected to the urban humanist Bengali culture of which he was himself to become the prime representative. He was primarily known as a Bengali poet, perhaps the first really modern one. He published his earliest volumes when he was still a teenager. His very last poems he dictated in 1941 when on his deathbed. Composing poetry was his prime literary urge but by no means the only one. He successfully tried his hands at novels, short stories, plays, songs, literary essays, philosophy and liberal Hindu theology, introductory courses for Bengali grammar, travelogues, and an autobiography. Singlehandedly he created a complete modern universe of Bengali literature. Late-19th- and early-20th-century Bengali literature is dominated by the towering figure of Rabindranath. He was also an accomplished musical innovator, the creator of the so-called Rabindra-sangit: songs and dance dramas for which he also composed the music. Late in life he became known as an artist. He experimented with humanist forms of education for schoolchildren and university students. At Santiniketan (about 150 km from Calcutta in rural West Bengal) he founded a school (in 1901) and later the eponymous university (in 1921). Tagore’s global fame came as if by chance in 1913 when he was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature. This was on the basis of Gitanjali, a small English volume of prose poems. The booklet appeared in 1912 and knew overwhelming success; at that point Tagore was launched as an international writer and Indian prophet in one, a cult figure with a global impact. In order to live up to his Nobel Prize fame he began to bring out English poetry, essays, and drama. Much of this was based on or inspired by his Bengali originals. It has often been remarked that Tagore did not do his literary reputation a good service with his English translations. In the 1920s his international fame was withering away. Translations made directly from Bengali done by William Radice in 1985 caused a resurgence of global interest in Tagore as an important writer.
Brazilian Foreign Policy
Authors: Lessa Antônio Carlos , Søndergaard Niels
Published: February 2019

Brazilian foreign policy is internationally recognized, in comparative terms, for its stability, continuity, and a high degree of predictability, which can be observed throughout the different periods in which it has been categorized. The country’s international engagement from its independence in 1822 to the proclamation of the republic in 1889 was guided by a coherent behavioral pattern in liberal-conservative molds. In the subsequent period, which was initiated with the overthrow of the monarchy and extended until 1930, the interests that nurtured the country’s engagement abroad became strongly intertwined with those of the agro-exporting elite. With the hegemonic transition in this period, Brazil shifted from the British and toward the North American sphere of influence. The period that began in 1930 and extended to the end of the Cold War constituted a new model of international insertion. Within this model, the country’s international engagement assumed a supplementary character in relation to the national strategy for economic development, and its foreign policy thereby became conceived and formulated with a high degree of instrumentality as part of the aspirations for furthering the process of industrialization. Brazil’s adaption to the international post–Cold War context was a complex process, yet it is possible to detect a relatively homogenous strategy during these decades that informed the foreign engagement of governments marked by otherwise different ideologies. The growth of specialized academia from the 1990s on has spurred scientific production concerning international issues in general, and regarding foreign policy in particular. It is also important to emphasize the idea that the stability and coherence of Brazilian foreign policy is part of a narrative produced by both diplomats and scholars, and this has been reproduced intensively in the specialized literature over the years. This narrative facilitated the emergence of a certain notion of Brazilian foreign policy exceptionalism and the proposition of analytical axes that have been used in different traditions of foreign policy analysis to justify the notion of perenniality and continuity of the country’s international actions. It is possible to verify from this narrative the proposition that there are principles, ideas, and values that organize the strategies of international insertion and that give coherence to an international identity. It is important to emphasize that an important group of scholars has tried to problematize this question, discussing what would be the mythological nature of foreign policy in order to explain its continuity.
Brexit, British Politics, and European Integration
Authors: Matthijs Matthias , Toenshoff Christina
Published: February 2019

The June 2016 referendum vote in the United Kingdom to leave the European Union was both the result of a perfect storm and a long time in the making. On the one hand, many events had to occur in the lead-up to the vote for it to end with this particular outcome. These included Cameron’s decision in January 2013 to call a referendum if his party were to win the next general election, the unexpected victory of the Conservatives in the May 2015 election, and the coincidence of the vote with a continent-wide refugee and migration crisis while the aftershocks of the euro crisis had still not been fully digested. On the other hand, from the very beginning of its membership in the European Community in 1973, the United Kingdom has featured as an awkward and reluctant partner while a uniquely Euroskeptic tabloid press has been systematically critical of anything coming out of “Brussels.” The reasons why 52 percent of the United Kingdom electorate voted “leave” were therefore complex and multifaceted. The pro-leave coalition constituted of strange bedfellows, including people who yearned for Britain’s imperial greatness and favored low regulation and free trade as well as voters who wanted to put a halt to the country’s openness to immigration and hoped leaving the European Union would allow the UK government to protect British industry and jobs. Prime Minister David Cameron’s resignation the day after the vote and succession by Theresa May, who made implementing Brexit the main goal of her new government, have set in motion various dynamics. They will have far-reaching consequences for British politics, and the constitutional balance between England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. Brexit has reignited fears in Ireland of a return to “the troubles” in Ulster that had been put to rest by the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. It also brought back the thorny issue of Scottish independence. Furthermore, the referendum result has laid bare divisions that cut across political party lines, and exposed deep societal cleavages between young and old, North and South, urban and rural areas, educated elites and less educated citizens, and the winners and losers of globalization. Brexit is also part of larger phenomena in European and world politics. It is only one symptom of a deeper malaise in European integration, in addition to intractable problems regarding Eurozone reform in the North, migration in the South, security in the East, and the backsliding of liberal democracy in the center. Finally, Brexit is also a peculiarly British (or English) expression of rising populism and anti-elite politics that have swept the globe since 2016.
Effects of the 9/11 Terrorist Attacks on American Public Opinion and Behavior
Authors: Crisanti Carlin , Merolla Jennifer
Published: February 2019

The September 11th attacks were the deadliest international terrorist attacks to have occurred on US soil, and have had profound effects on American public opinion. Ever since that day, researchers from various fields have been investigating the ways in which these highly traumatic events have affected the American public. As we are interested in chronicling the multitude of public responses to these attacks, we draw not only from the field of political science, but also from other fields such as sociology, economics, psychology, and medicine. Although this is a vast literature, we have identified seven broad categories that capture how the American people reacted in the aftermath of the attacks, and given reminders of the attacks. The seven fields are as follows: (1) risk perceptions, emotions, and disorders; (2) attitudes toward outgroups and the policies which affect them; (3) trust and patriotism; (4) ideology; (5) policy preferences; (6) evaluations of leaders and voting behavior: and (7) media coverage. We also note that all of the studies in this review deal specifically with 9/11 or reminders of 9/11 in the US context. There is a much richer literature that explores the effects of terrorist attacks more generally both within and outside of the United States.
Standards-Based Education
Authors: Nasser-Abu Alhija Fadia
Published: February 2019

Educational standards are precise, written descriptions of what students are expected to know and be able to do at a specific stage of their education. Educators and policymakers have realized and acknowledged the need to develop and implement various complementary types of standards such as content, instruction, performance, and assessment in order to accomplish the learning standards. Hence, standards-based education is a broad concept referring to systems of instruction, assessment, grading, and academic reporting based on students’ unveiling the expected mastery of the knowledge and skills as they proceed through their education. Standards shape teaching goals and guide teachers what and how to teach students to help them to meet the learning expectations defined in the standards. In recent times, the broad concept of standards based or outcome based has been driven by a neoliberal approach to education reform, and governments worldwide have launched standards- or outcomes-based initiatives in response to poor rankings on international tests (e.g., PISA, TIMSS, and PRLIS, etc.). The trigger for the birth of standards and the accompanying accountability reform in the United States in the 1980s was the alarming reports on school quality such as “Nation at Risk.” The extensive policies of the “No Child Left Behind” legislation in the early 2000s boosted the establishment of accountability systems by which the implementation of standards has been monitored. Standards were initiated to improve students’ achievement and to advance the standing of American students in global economic competition. However, to this day, the debate over standards-based education is still alive and kicking as supporters and opponents continue to provide arguments and evidence that reinforce their positions. Standards and standards-based education are not unique to the American education system; they have been developed and are being implemented in several countries in which the educational systems are not necessarily similar to the American one. Over time, mainly content, instruction, and assessment standards have been tailored to different subjects and attempts to meet the needs of different groups have been made. However, the success in aligning different types of standards to each other and to teaching practices has been doubtful. Furthermore, implementation of standards- and standards-based education has proved to be challenging due to vague policies, lengthy, unfriendly standards documents, and vague guidelines. Furthermore, the premise of the standards, outcomes, and accountability reform to improve education for all students and promote equity and social justice, is far from reaching satisfaction.
Virtual Reality and Communication
Authors: Markowitz David , Bailenson Jeremy
Published: February 2019

Virtual Reality (VR) is a communication medium that makes virtual experiences feel real and appear unmediated. Since the 1960s, VR has been used by the military and medicine for training and simulations, but VR has also become fertile ground to evaluate social and psychological dynamics in academic settings. For example, journalists use VR to situate their readers within stories, educators use virtual technologies for experiential learning, and psychiatrists leverage VR to mitigate the negative effects of psychological traumas. What can an experience in VR reveal about people and communication processes? This article provides a multidimensional view of VR by dissecting its historical, technical, and psychological underpinnings that reveal unique characteristics about human behavior. We close with a commentary on the future of VR as tensions between academia and industry emerge.
Music of Puerto Rico
Authors: Quevedo Marysol
Published: February 2019

This entry focuses on scholarship on music from Puerto Rico of all genres and time periods. Over the last four decades, research and publications on the music of Puerto Rico have increased dramatically. As the reader will notice, many of these sources have been published since the mid-1990s. This is in great part due to the growing number of music scholars from Puerto Rico conducting ethnographic and archival research in both Puerto Rican and US mainland institutions. One institution in particular, the Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños, has produced several music scholars specializing in music from Puerto Rico. One cannot speak of a native born and bred tradition of Puerto Rican musicology, but rather of a group of sociologists, historians, ethnomusicologists, and musicologists trained in the United States who returned to Puerto Rico after their studies; only recently (since about 2005) have we seen more concerted efforts by university professors in Puerto Rico (at the Universidad de Puerto Rico, the Conservatorio de Música de Puerto Rico, and the Universidad Interamericana de Puerto Rico) to train students in the various methodologies of music research. This bibliography aims to present the most important sources available today on classical, popular, and folkloric music from Puerto Rico and by Puerto Ricans in the diaspora, spanning from the colonial period (beginning in the early 16th century) to contemporary times. Some genres have received more attention than others; such is the case of the Puerto Rican danza, recognized as the national classical genre of Puerto Rico, which is the subject of several monographs and articles. Other time periods and genres have received less attention because of availability or lack of documentation; for example, little is known about the music in Catholic church services during colonial times, because most materials have been lost in fires or natural disasters. And other musics and genres have only recently received more attention because of racialized identity politics, such as the plena and bomba, which for many years were not considered representative of all of Puerto Rico, but only of its Afro-descendant community.
US Army
Authors: Kruszyński Bartosz
Published: February 2019

The tradition of the US Army dates back to the era of patrimony of the Continental army, which was established on June 14, 1775. Topics related to land troops of the US Army are very complex and involve many substantial threads from the 18th to the 21st century. Publications on this subject can be divided into articles published in scientific journals, popular-science articles, and books. The books on the army can be further divided into synthesis (general overviews), anthologies, encyclopedias and dictionaries, autobiographies and biographies (personal and collective), journalistic reports, and monographs. In terms of thematic monographs, there are monographs of individual battles, campaigns, wars, intervention units, doctrines, and weapons. Autobiographies and biographies relate specifically to leaders of the US Army, and in doing so highlight related topics of the US Army’s evolution and history. Encyclopedias and dictionaries of armed conflicts focus on concepts or people. Journalistic reports apply to individual campaigns. These publications represent the achievements of military institutions connected with the US Army, analytical centers, think-tanks, and independent researchers. The most valuable publications, in terms of the merit, are those issued by the US universities and research institutions associated with the US Army, including the official US Army Center of Military History.
Sailing Warships
Authors: Lambert Andrew
Published: February 2019

Purpose-built sailing warships, designed and constructed specifically for war rather than modified from existing commercial vessels, were used for more than three hundred years. Over time they evolved from relatively simple craft with limited capabilities and low endurance into highly sophisticated world-girdling vessels setting vast, complex sailing rigs and working through mass-produced rigging blocks, armed with standardized cannons, firing solid shot and exploding shells. This process of constant evolution was driven by international rivalries, strategic requirement, and the experience of numerous wars. Sailing warships dominated the imperial conflicts of 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. After three hundred years as a dominant weapon system, the emergence of paddle wheel steam warships in the 1830s, armed with shell-firing cannons, called into question the future of the large sailing warship. They remained dominant in fleet warfare and oceanic cruising until the 1850s, when the installation of steam machinery driving a submerged screw propeller enabled wooden warships to combine strategic mobility under sail with tactical agility under steam. Within a decade, not only had the wooden screw steam warship rendered the sailing warship obsolete, but also it had been, in turn, overtaken by iron-hulled armored warships. Studies of sailing warships, as opposed to the wars and battles in which they were used, have been dominated by design and technical histories, which could undervalue the importance of political, economic, cultural, and strategic issues, while works in the latter fields tend to assume that the sailing warships underwent little technical development and that those of different nations were effectively identical. Initial interest in the early 1900s, when many of the remaining sailing warships were disposed of, focused on a few iconic vessels, the technology of construction, and the compilation of ship lists. Interest renewed after 1947, when the Trafalgar veteran French 74 Duguay-Trouin, which became HMS Implacable in November 1805, was scuttled. Part of the ship, the stern galleries, and the figurehead were saved and are on display at the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich. Research in this field began with older studies of naval design penned by contemporary naval architects, anxious to establish their professional status, record their successes, or teach the rising generation. This information was used by naval historians seeking accurate details of ships engaged in battle to ascertain the strength the opposing forces; this led to the compilation of lists, which became increasingly detailed as historian asked more searching questions.
Mindfulness and Education
Authors: Weare Katherine , Huppert Felicia
Published: February 2019

This article focuses on the literature on mindfulness and mindfulness meditation with children and young people in schools and in higher education. It touches on mindfulness for adult educators including teachers and on the overlapping field of contemplative education in higher education. This is a selective guide to the theoretical, research, and practice-based literature in a rapidly evolving field and aimed at those unfamiliar with the territory. Work with young people cannot be understood in isolation, so the article begins by going back to first principles, looking at issues of definitions and origins of mindfulness from within ancient wisdom traditions, most particularly, but not exclusively, its Buddhist origins. It then contextualizes work with young people within the rapid rise of secular mindfulness for adult populations since the late 1970s, explores modern scientifically based definitions, and the domination of the therapeutically based model of mindfulness as an “intervention,” touching on some concerns and critiques, and outlining how mindfulness is currently being measured in adults and young people. It moves on to an account of overviews of mindfulness in education, citing the best of the plethora of guidance on how mindfulness might be implemented in schools, universities, and classrooms. It outlines the key literature on the rapidly expanding world of contemplative education, which is asking rather different questions to those raised by the model of mindfulness as an “intervention,” being more firmly based in philosophical and educational approaches. The world of classroom curricula is a burgeoning and lively one, and the article cites some of the best evidenced and most positively reviewed resources. There is a growing and promising evidence base to guide the field, and the last part of the article outlines the main reviews, which between them suggest there is a small to moderate impact of mindfulness when well taught and implemented. The article concludes by looking in more detail at the core literature in main areas in which mindfulness appears to be showing impact, including: psycho-social well-being and mental health; social and emotional skills including compassion and kindness; cognition, executive function, learning, and academic attainment; and physical health. See also the Oxford Bibliographies article in Education, “Mindfulness, Learning, and Education,” which has overlaps with this article, but explores in more detail definitions, overviews and websites and the implications for learning, while this article has a stronger focus on psychological mechanisms, measurement, and the empirical evidence base. They are probably best consulted together for a full understanding.
Metamemory
Authors: Rhodes Matthew G.
Published: February 2019

Metamemory is a subdiscipline of the study of metacognition—those processes involved in monitoring (assessing) cognition so as to modify and control behavior. Accordingly, research in metamemory is concerned with how individuals monitor and control learning and memory. Although thinking and writing about memory dates back to the ancient Greeks, formal scientific study of metamemory is a comparatively young endeavor that started to gain impetus in the 1960s. Much of the earliest work was concerned with children’s understanding of memory. Research on children’s metamemory has continued unabated, but mainstream cognitive psychologists became increasingly interested in metacognitive processes in the 1980s, with a steady increase in the volume of work on metamemory since that time. Modern research in metamemory is guided by a fundamental assumption that one’s understanding of one’s own memory guides behavior. For example, a student who believes that he or she has fully mastered the content covered by an upcoming exam may cease further study. Given the presumption of a strong relationship between monitoring and self-regulation (control) of learning, researchers have focused on the accuracy of metamemory and proposed a number of accounts of judgment. Such theories have been informed by a diversity of methodological approaches and measures, many of which reflect the specific memory process being studied. Findings from research on metamemory have significant implications for theoretical approaches to learning and understanding of consciousness and self-regulation. They also have applications in a variety of field settings, such as within education and eyewitness memory. Recent developments have sought to better situate research in metamemory within such applied contexts and to consider more complex experimental and statistical models of metamemory to better understand how multiple sources of information are integrated to inform judgment. These developments underscore a central theme in the field, as new theoretical approaches are driven by refinements in methodology and measurement.
Compensation, Rewards, Remuneration
Authors: Zhou Xiang , Shaw Jason D.
Published: February 2019

Employee compensation costs organizations about 70 percent of their average total costs (see Overview), so practitioners and scholars are constantly searching for the more effective programs among various compensation schemes. Compensation and pay plans are developed and implemented based on cultural norms and preferences but also subject to legislation. The dimensions of compensation systems include, but are not limited to, base pay, individual incentives, deferred pay, and team- and organization-based pay. The articles cited focus on recent pay-related theories regarding antecedents and outcomes of pay levels, pay changes, pay structures, and pay administrations.
Latent Profiles of Cognitive Control, Episodic Memory, and Visual Perception Across Psychiatric Disorders Reveal a Dimensional Structure
Authors: Smucny Jason , Iosif Ana-Maria , Eaton Nicholas R , Lesh Tyler A , Ragland J Daniel , Barch Deanna M , Gold James M , Strauss Milton E , MacDonald Angus W , Silverstein Steven M , Carter Cameron S
Published: February 2019

Although meta-analyses suggest that schizophrenia (SZ) is associated with a more severe neurocognitive phenotype than mood disorders such as bipolar disorder, considerable between-subject heterogeneity exists in the phenotypic presentation of these deficits across mental illnesses. Indeed, it is unclear whether the processes that underlie cognitive dysfunction in these disorders are unique to each disease or represent a common neurobiological process that varies in severity. Here we used latent profile analysis (LPA) across 3 distinct cognitive domains (cognitive control, episodic memory, and visual integration; using data from the CNTRACS consortium) to identify distinct profiles of patients across psychotic illnesses. LPA was performed on a sample of 223 psychosis patients (59 with Type I bipolar disorder, 88 with SZ, and 76 with schizoaffective disorder). Seventy-three healthy control participants were included for comparison but were not included in sample LPA. Three latent profiles (“Low,” “Moderate,” and “High” ability) were identified as the underlying covariance across the 3 domains. The 3-profile solution provided highly similar fit to a single continuous factor extracted by confirmatory factor analysis, supporting a unidimensional structure. Diagnostic ratios did not significantly differ between profiles, suggesting that these profiles cross diagnostic boundaries (an exception being the Low ability profile, which had only one bipolar patient). Profile membership predicted Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale and Young Mania Rating Scale symptom severity as well as everyday communication skills independent of diagnosis. Biological, clinical and methodological implications of these findings are discussed.
Characterization ofFusariumandNeocosmosporaSpecies Associated With Crown Rot and Stem Canker of Pistachio Rootstocks in California
Authors: Crespo Maria , Lawrence Daniel P. , Nouri Mohamed T. , Doll David A. , Trouillas Florent P.
Published: February 2019

California produces 99.1% of pistachios grown in the United States, and diseases affecting pistachio rootstocks represent a constant challenge to the industry. Field surveys of fungi associated with pistachio rootstocks with symptoms of crown rot and stem canker in three central California counties followed by phylogenetic analyses of translation elongation factor 1-α and second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II gene fragments identified three Fusarium species (Fusarium equiseti, Fusarium oxysporum, and Fusarium proliferatum) and two Neocosmospora species (Neocosmospora falciformis and Neocosmospora solani). F. oxysporum and N. falciformis were the fungal species most frequently recovered from symptomatic pistachio trees. Inoculations of detached twigs of cultivar Kerman pistachio Pioneer Gold I and clonal University of California, Berkeley I (UCBI) rootstocks showed that all five species could colonize pistachio wood and cause vascular discolorations. Pathogenicity tests in potted pistachio trees completed Koch’s postulates and confirmed that F. oxysporum, F. proliferatum, N. falciformis, and N. solani were capable of producing rot and discoloration in stems of clonal UCBI rootstocks, the most widely planted pistachio rootstock in California. To our knowledge, this study is the first to present insights into the biodiversity and biology of Fusarium and Neocosmospora species associated with pistachio trees in California.
Population Structure of Phytophthora plurivora on Rhododendron in Oregon Nurseries
Authors: Carleson Nicholas C. , Fieland Valerie J. , Scagel Carolyn F. , Weiland Jerry E. , Grünwald Niklaus J.
Published: February 2019

Phytophthora plurivora is a recently described plant pathogen, formerly recognized as P. citricola. Recent sampling of Pacific Northwest nurseries frequently encountered this pathogen, and it has been shown to be among the most damaging Phytophthora pathogens on ornamentals. We characterized the population structure of P. plurivora in a survey of four Oregon nurseries across three different counties with focus on Rhododendron hosts. Isolates were identified to the species level by Sanger sequencing and/or a PCR-RFLP assay of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. We used genotyping-by-sequencing to determine genetic diversity. Variants were called de novo, resulting in 284 high-quality variants for 61 isolates after stringent filtering. Based on Fst and AMOVA, populations were moderately differentiated among nurseries. Overall, population structure suggested presence of one dominant clonal lineage in all nurseries, as well as isolates of cryptic diversity mostly found in one nursery. Within the clonal lineage, there was a broad range of sensitivity to mefenoxam and phosphorous acid. Sensitivity of the two fungicides was correlated. P. plurivora was previously assumed to spread clonally, and the low genotypic diversity observed within and among isolates corroborated this hypothesis. The broad range of fungicide sensitivity within the P. plurivora population found in PNW nurseries has implications for managing disease caused by this important nursery pathogen. These findings provide the first perspective into P. plurivora population structure and phenotypic plasticity in Pacific Northwest nurseries.
Effect of Seed Treatment and Foliar Crop Protection Products on Sudden Death Syndrome and Yield of Soybean
Authors: Kandel Yuba R. , Bradley Carl A. , Chilvers Martin I. , Mathew Febina M. , Tenuta Albert U. , Smith Damon L. , Wise Kiersten A. , Mueller Daren S.
Published: February 2019

Sudden death syndrome (SDS), caused by Fusarium virguliforme, is an important soilborne disease of soybean. Risk of SDS increases when cool and wet conditions occur soon after planting. Recently, multiple seed treatment and foliar products have been registered and advertised for management of SDS but not all have been tested side by side in the same field experiment at multiple field locations. In 2015 and 2016, seed treatment fungicides fluopyram and thiabendazole; seed treatment biochemical pesticides citric acid and saponins extract of Chenopodium quinoa; foliar fungicides fluoxastrobin + flutriafol; and an herbicide, lactofen, were evaluated in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, South Dakota, Wisconsin, and Ontario for SDS management. Treatments were tested on SDS-resistant and -susceptible cultivars at each location. Overall, fluopyram provided the highest level of control of root rot and foliar symptoms of SDS among all the treatments. Foliar application of lactofen reduced foliar symptoms in some cases but produced the lowest yield. In 2015, fluopyram reduced the foliar disease index (FDX) by over 50% in both resistant and susceptible cultivars and provided 8.9% yield benefit in susceptible cultivars and 3.5% yield benefit in resistant cultivars compared with the base seed treatment (control). In 2016, fluopyram reduced FDX in both cultivars by over 40% compared with the base seed treatment. For yield in 2016, treatment effect was not significant in the susceptible cultivar while, in the resistant cultivar, fluopyram provided 3.5% greater yield than the base seed treatment. In this study, planting resistant cultivars and using fluopyram seed treatment were the most effective tools for SDS management. However, plant resistance provided an overall better yield-advantage than using fluopyram seed treatment alone. Effective seed treatments can be an economically viable consideration to complement resistant cultivars for managing SDS.
MRI reveals unrecognized treatment failures after application of Fettweis plaster in children with unstable hip joints
Authors: Kubo Hannes , Pilge Hakan , Holthoff Jan-Philipp , Westhoff Bettina , Krauspe Ruediger
Published: February 2019

We evaluated the success of treatment of unstable hip joints with the Fettweis plaster followed by MRI to detect potential treatment failures. A total of 132 ultrasound-detected unstable hips of type D, III, or IV according to Graf were treated with closed reduction and Fettweis plaster, followed by MRI. We examined 19 type D, 55 type III, and 58 type IV. Mean age at diagnosis was 84.5 days (SD: ± 55.4). Treatment period was 63.2 days (SD: ± 22.2). In 13 cases, the MRI showed a poor reduction. After repetition of this treatment, all 13 showed a concentric reduction. The use of MRI detects 9.8% of treatment failures. We recommend an MRI examination after each closed reduction to ensure the success of the therapy.