bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Dynamics of the Shoulder and Elbow Joints of the Throwing Arm during a Baseball Pitch
Authors: Feltner Michael , Dapena Jesús
Published: August 2016

Fastball pitches of eight intercollegiate varsity baseball pitchers were filmed using the direct linear transformation (DLT) method of three-dimensional cinematography. Coordinate data were obtained, and the resultant joint forces and torques at the shoulder and elbow joints were calculated. Various kinematic parameters were also calculated to help describe the motions of the shoulder and elbow joints throughout the pitch. At the instant of stride foot contact, a horizontal adduction torque was present at the shoulder joint, and the shoulder was externally rotating. After the onset of the horizontal adduction torque, abduction and internal rotation torques were also present at the shoulder joint and a varus torque was present at the elbow joint. After the instant of maximum external rotation (30 ms prior to ball release), the upper arm started to internally rotate, but it was still in a position of external rotation at the instant of release. This paper discusses the roles of the torques in producing the observed motions of the throwing arm.
A Three-Dimensional Cinematographic Analysis of the Tennis Serve
Authors: Elliott Bruce , Marsh Tony , Blanksby Brian
Published: August 2016

Three dimensional (3-D) high-speed photography was used to record the tennis service actions of eight elite tennis players. The direct linear transformation (DLT) method was used for 3-D space reconstruction from 2-D images recorded from laterally placed cameras operating at 200fps. Seven of the eight subjects initially positioned their center of gravity toward the front foot during the stance phase. When the elbow reached 90° in the backswing, the knees of the eight subjects were at or near their maximum attained flexion, and the upper arm was an extension of a line joining both shoulder joints. A mean maximum vertical shoulder velocity of 1.7ms−1 during the leg drive produced a force at the shoulder that was eccentric to the racket-limb, thus causing a downward rotation of this limb as measured by a mean velocity of the racket of −5.8ms−1 down the back. This leg drive increased the angular displacement of the loop and therefore provided a greater distance over which the racket could be accelerated for impact. All subjects swung the racket up to the ball, and all but one hit the ball with the racket angled slightly backward (M = 93.9°). An effective summation of body segments was apparent because resultant linear velocities showed an increase as the more distal segment endpoint approached impact, although all subjects decelerated the racket immediately prior to impact. Mean resultant ball velocities of 34.4ms−1 for the female subjects and 42.4ms−1 for the male subjects were achieved.
Coefficients of Restitution of Balls Used in Team Sports for the Visually Impaired
Authors: McGrain Peter , Van Dyke James , Mastro James
Published: August 2016

This study examined the coefficients of restitution (e) of selected balls used in team sports for the visually impaired: beep baseball and goal ball. Specifically, a basketball was compared to two men's standard goal balls, and a softball was compared to three different types of beep baseballs. The e for all balls was calculated by dropping each ball five times from heights of 6 ft (1.83 m) and 19.25 ft (5.88 m). A Sony reel-to-reel videotape recorder was used to record rebound heights on a background scale for each ball dropped. Reliability tests of the procedures yielded correlation coefficients (r) of 0.996 and 0.998 for the 6 ft (1.83 m) and 19.25 ft (5.88 m) drops, respectively. Two two-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests yielded significant differences across ball type and height of drop for the basketball and goal balls and for the softball and beep baseballs, respectively (p < 0.001). The es for the more recently developed beep baseballs are close to that of the standard softball, indicating a possible danger to visually impaired participants in beep baseball.
Considerations for Predicting Individual Muscle Forces in Athletic Movements
Authors: Herzog Walter
Published: August 2016

Linear and nonlinear optimal designs have been used abundantly to predict the forces exerted by individual muscles for everyday movements such as walking. Individual muscle force predictions for athletic movements, those involving large ranges of motion and fast velocities of muscle contractions, are almost nonexistent. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate some of the design characteristics that must be considered for predicting individual muscle forces in athletic movements. To do this, the load sharing between two muscles, derived from nonlinear optimal designs, is considered in two ways: (a) in hypothetical experiments of muscle contractions, and (b) in real experiments of knee extension movements performed by one subject. The results suggested that additional design considerations must be made when predicting forces in athletic movements compared to everyday movements.
Effects of Different String Tension Patterns and Racket Motion on Tennis Racket-Ball Impact
Authors: Groppel Jack L. , Shin In-Sik , Spotts Julie , Hill Barbara
Published: August 2016

Much study has been done to examine the various aspects of tennis racket performance including racket materials, shape, balance, and flexibility, but recently the string in the frame has come to interest scientists. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of varying string tension patterns on the mechanical behavior of racket, string, and ball during and immediately after impact. Two separate experiments were conducted; one examined 12 rackets strung differently with a string lock system by filming the impacts at 3,500 frames per second, and the other quantitatively evaluated the forehand drive results of a skilled player who experimented with the rackets. Differences were found in the various impacts examined, and these differences were attributed to the various characteristics of the string, racket, and ball. In addition, larger coefficients of restitution than those found in previous literature were also calculated.
A New Bicycle Design Based on Biomechanics and Advanced Technology
Authors: Monte Antonio Dal , Leonardi L.M. , Menchinelli C. , Marini C.
Published: August 2016

Advanced technology and biomechanics were applied in the development of a new bicycle. Factors investigated included the position of the cyclist, geometry of the bicycle, transmission system, and the drag characteristics. Several wind tunnel tests were conducted to determine the minimum drag conditions for bicycle configurations and positions of the athlete. The results showed a clear advantage for nonspoked disc wheels of high composite material without discontinuity between the tire and the wheel. The conventional bicycle frame was redesigned and the optimum body position of the cyclist was determined. These findings were utilized in the development of the bicycle ridden by Francesco Moser in establishing a new 1-hour world record in 1984, and also in aiding the gold-medal-winning 4 × 100 km Italian team in the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games.
Methodological Problems in Optimization of the Flight Phase in Ski Jumping
Authors: Denoth Jachen , Luethi Simon M. , Gasser Hans H.
Published: August 2016

The flight distance in ski jumping depends largely on the initial conditions immediately after leaving the ramp, the aerodynamic position of the athlete during the flight, and his kinematic behavior during the landing phase. However, these variables are not mutually independent. An attempt to maximize the jumping length means that one is faced with the problem of optimization. This paper discusses the difficulties in the optimization of some of the influencing factors with respect to maximization of performance. Although a ski jump may be divided into distinct phases (approach run, takeoff, flight, and landing) the results of the study suggest that a relevant procedure in optimizing a jump must include all phases, since every stage of the jump has its consequences on the subsequent phases. The major problems occur when looking at the transitions during takeoff and landing, due to the wide variety of possible kinematic behaviors of the athletes.
The Snatch Technique of World Class Weightlifters at the 1985 World Championships
Authors: Baumann Wolfgang , Gross Volker , Quade Karl , Galbierz Peter , Schwirtz Ansgar
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was (a) to describe the snatch technique in terms of kinematic and external and internal kinetic parameters, and (b) to compare the results for athletes of different groups and weight categories. By means of three-dimensional film analysis and measurements of ground reaction forces during the 1985 World Championships in Sweden, it was possible to analyze the spatial movements and to calculate joint moments of force in each leg. Concerning the kinematics, a snatch technique starting with a strong pull toward the lifter could be established. The most interesting kinetic results are that the knee joint moments are relatively small (one third of the hip joint moments of force) and do not correlate very well with the total load. The best lifters seem able to limit the knee joint moment by precise control of the knee position with respect to the ground reaction force. Altogether, the results concerning the internal kinetic parameters question the logic of the classical division of the lifting technique into phases according to external kinetic parameters.
Drag Area of a Cross-Country Skier
Authors: Spring Erik , Savolainen Sauli , Erkkilä Jari , Hämäläinen Tuomo , Pihkala Pekka
Published: August 2016

The drag area CDA of three male cross-country skiers as a function of their velocity was determined from their retardation when they were gliding on roller-skis over a horizontal smooth asphalt surface in a subway. The results show that CDA is a slightly decreasing function of the skier’s velocity in the velocity range 5–11 m/s. The drag area of a skier was found to be 0.27 ± 0.03 m2 in a semi-squatting posture and 0.65 ± 0.05 m2 in an upright posture for an average size skier (weight 80 kg, height 1.75 m). The difference in the drag area between a normal outdoor suit and a tight-fitting ski suit was found to be as much as 30%. A skier keeping pace with a skier ahead will gain a reduction in drag of about 25 %. The leading skier in this study was found to have his drag reduced by approximately 3 % compared to what it would be if there were no skier pacing up with him. The skier behind hinders the skier ahead from generating to a full extent the vortexes behind himself or herself. These reductions are of course strongly dependent on the distance between the skiers.
Use of Spline-Functions in the Smoothing of Film Data for Slalom Ski Racers
Authors: Förg-Rob Wolfgang , Nachbauer Werner
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to present a spline-function routine for smoothing film data, and consequently to identify the biokinematic performance parameters of the line in slalom skiing. For this reason 34 world class racers were filmed. The results show several parameters that influence the performance and suggest the various interrelations between these parameters, in particular their cause and effect relationship.
Computer Simulation of Head Impact: Estimation of Head-Injury Risk during Soccer Heading
Authors: Schneider Klaus , Zernicke Ronald F.
Published: August 2016

With a validated mathematical model of the head-neck consisting of nine rigid bodies (skull, seven cervical vertebrae, and torso), we simulated head impacts to estimate the injury risk associated with soccer heading. Experimental data from head-linear accelerations during soccer heading were used to validate the nine-body head-neck model for short duration impact loading of the head. In the computer simulations, the mass ratios between head mass and impacting body mass, the velocity of the impacting body, and the impact elasticity were varied. Head-linear and angular accelerations were compared to standard head-injury tolerance levels, and the injury risk specifically related to soccer heading was estimated. Based on our choice of tolerance levels in general, our simulations showed that injury risk from angular head accelerations was greater than from linear head accelerations, and compared to frontal impacts, lateral impacts had greater angular and less linear head accelerations. During soccer heading, our simulations indicated an unacceptable injury risk caused by angular head accelerations for frontal and lateral impacts at relatively low impact velocities for children, and at medium range impact velocities for adults. For linear head accelerations, injury risk existed for frontal and lateral impacts at medium range to relatively larger impact velocities for children, while no injury risk was shown for adults throughout the entire velocity range. For injury prevention, we suggest that head-injury risk can be reduced most substantially by increasing the mass ratio between head and impacting body. In soccer with children, the mass of the impacting body has to be adjusted to the reduced head mass of a child, that is, it must be clearly communicated to parents, coaches, and youngsters to only use smaller soccer balls.
A Biomechanical Comparison of the Multisegment and Single Unit Topspin Forehand Drives in Tennis
Authors: Elliott Bruce , Marsh Tony , Overheu Peter
Published: August 2016

Three-dimensional (3-D) high-speed photography was used to compare different forehand techniques of high performance players. Subjects, who hit a topspin forehand drive with the hitting limb moving almost as a single unit (Gs: single-unit group), were compared with players whose individual segments of the upper limb moved relative to each other (Gm: multisegment group) when playing the same stroke. The Direct Linear Transformation method was used for 3-D space reconstruction from 2-D images recorded from laterally placed phase-locked cameras operating at 200 fps. A third Photosonics camera operating at 100 fps filmed from overhead. Significant differences between the groups were recorded at the shoulder and elbow joints at the completion of the backswing. Maximal elbow joint angular velocities occurred 0.06 sec prior to impact, with the Gm group recording a significantly higher mean value for elbow extension than the Gs group. At impact, however, the Gm group recorded a significantly higher level of elbow flexion than the Gs group and achieved a higher mean angular velocity at the wrist joint than the Gs group. The Gm group recorded a higher racket tip linear velocity at impact and higher postimpact ball velocity when compared to the Gs group. The Gm technique of racket movement produced higher racket and ball velocities for this group of high performance players.
Three-Dimensional Interactions in a Two-Segment Kinetic Chain. Part II: Application to the Throwing Arm in Baseball Pitching
Authors: Feltner Michael E.
Published: August 2016

Fastball pitches of eight collegiate baseball pitchers were filmed using the Direct Linear Transformation (DLT) method of three-dimensional (3D) cinematography. Coordinate data were obtained, and the model developed by Feltner and Dapena (1989) was used to fractionate the 3D angular acceleration of the upper arm and distal segment (the forearm, the hand, and prior to release, the baseball) of the throwing arm into terms associated with the joint torques exerted on the segments and the kinematic variables used to define the motions of the segments. The findings indicated that the extreme external rotation of the upper arm during the pitch was due mainly to the sequential actions of the horizontal adduction and abduction muscles at the shoulder. The study also found that the rapid elbow extension prior to ball release was due primarily to the counterclockwise angular velocity of the upper arm and trunk (viewed from above) that occurred during the pitch, and not to the elbow extensor muscles.
Twisting Techniques Used in High Bar Dismounts
Authors: Yeadon Maurice R. , Lee Sung-Cheol , Kerwin David G.
Published: August 2016

At the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games, eight full twisting somersault dismounts from the high bar were filmed using two cameras during the compulsory exercises of the Men’s High Bar competition. Angles describing body configuration and orientation were determined and were input into a computer simulation model of aerial movement. The deviations between simulation and film were less than 2.5° for tilt angles and less than 0.07 revolutions for twist angles. The twisting techniques employed were quantified using the tilt angle as a measure of twisting potential. Contributions to the maximum tilt angle were determined using simulations based on modifications of the film data. Each of the eight competitors obtained most of the tilt using aerial rather than contact techniques. In general, the majority of the aerial contributions arose from asymmetrical arm and hip movements.
A Comparison of Maximal Power Outputs between Elite Male and Female Weightlifters in Competition
Authors: Garhammer John
Published: August 2016

Films taken at the first Women’s World Weightlifting Championship were analyzed to determine the average power output during the total pulling phase, and the second pull phase, for the heaviest successful snatch and clean lift of gold medalists in each of nine body-weight divisions. Comparisons were made with previously published data on power output by male lifters in World and Olympic competition. Average relative power output values were one and a half to two times greater for both men and women when only the second pull phase of each lift was analyzed. Results show that women can generate higher short-term power outputs than previously documented, but lower than for men in absolute values and relative to body mass. Male/female comparisons in other high power sport events and basic strength measures are discussed. The high power outputs suggest the value of including the types of lifts analyzed in training programs to improve short-term power output.
Functional Asymmetries and Lateral Dominance in the Lower Limbs of Distance Runners
Authors: Vagenas George , Hoshizaki Blaine
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the phenomenon of lower extremity functional asymmetries in a group of competitive male distance runners (N= 29). Bilateral measurements were taken to assess selected variables of the talocalcaneal flexibility (goniometry) and of the isokinetic knee strength (Cybex II). Data analysis revealed significant asymmetries for both lower extremity functional parameters. The subjects were symmetric in the total range of motion of the subtalar joint and inversely asymmetric in the range of motion of calcaneal eversion and calcaneal inversion. The laterality patterns of functional asymmetries were found to be consistent and independent of the conventional upper and lower extremity lateral preferences. It was theorized that asymmetries in the lower extremities are characterized by joint-specific trends of bilateralism.
An On-Water Analysis System for Quantifying Stroke Force Characteristics during Kayak Events
Authors: Aitken David A. , Neal Robert J.
Published: August 2016

A system was developed to quantify the on-water forces, impulse, and power generated by a kayak paddlet. The system is lightweight (<1 kg), portable (i.e., it can be used in single [Kl], double [K2], and fours [K4] boats), and does not affect the integrity of either the kayak paddle or the boat. Changes in the strain on the kayak paddle were measured by force transducers attached to the shaft of the paddle, and these signals were then recorded on an FM tape recorder located in the boat. The data were then analyzed by the Kayak Data Acquisition and Analysis System software which graphically presented the paddlers' force time curve as well as a printed tabular report on the paddlers' average force, impulse, work, power, and the instantaneous boat velocity.
Blocking and Postflight Techniques of Male Gymnasts Performing the Compulsory Vault at the 1988 Olympics
Authors: Takei Yoshiaki
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to identify the mechanical factors that are crucial to successful performance of blocking and body control for salto forward and kickout in the handspring and salto forward tucked vault. A 16-mm camera operating at 100 Hz was used to record the performances. The subjects were 51 male gymnasts participating in the 1988 Olympic Games. It was hypothesized that some mechanical factors identified in the model were significantly correlated with successful performance of blocking and body control for salto forward and kickout as rated by the judges. Significant correlations indicated that a large horizontal velocity at touchdown on horse is an important prerequisite for effective blocking and subsequent performance of postflight. The results also indicated that the body’s moment of inertia should be minimized by assuming the full tuck position just before or near the peak of flight, which maximizes the time and height available for executing the kickout in midair. The small angular speed of body rotation due to early kickout and the long-held extended body position as it travels a large horizontal distance are not only effective in the expression of artistic amplitude for virtuosity points but are also crucial for control in landing.
Champions, a Celebrity Crossover, and a Capitulator: The Construction of Gender in Broadsheet Newspapers’ Narratives About Selected Competitors at Wimbledon
Authors: Vincent John , Crossman Jane
Published: August 2016

This study compared the narratives of 3 broadsheet newspapers of selected female and male tennis players competing in the Wimbledon Championships. From Canada, The Globe and Mail; from Great Britain, The Times; and from the United States, The New York Times were examined. Dominant narratives were identified from 161 articles taken from 44 newspaper editions during the 16-day period coinciding with the Wimbledon Championships fortnight. Drawing on Connell’s (1987, 1993, 2005) theory of gender power relations, textual analysis was used to examine the gendered narratives and, where it was applicable, how the gendered narratives intersected with race, age, and nationality. The results revealed that although the gendered narratives were at times complex and contradictory, they were generally consistent with dominant cultural patriarchal ideology and served to reiterate and legitimize the gender order.
Superpowers on the Olympic Basketball Court: The United States Versus China Through Four Nationalistic Lenses
Authors: Billings Andrew C. , MacArthur Paul J. , Licen Simon , Wu Dan
Published: August 2016

Media renderings of the Olympics continue to offer opportunities for hypernationalism. This study analyzes the same basketball game (U.S. vs. China in men’s basketball at the 2008 Summer Olympics) through the lens of 4 different telecasts in the United States, China, Slovenia, and Canada. Results illuminate us/them and collectivist/individualist dichotomies, differing themes of redemption and expectation, and stark contrasts in network style and content in game coverage. Ramifications for theory, fans, and network gatekeepers are postulated.
International Sports Commentary Frame and Entertainment: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Commentary Differences in World Series Broadcasts
Authors: Woo Chang Wan , Kim Jung Kyu , Nichols Cynthia , Zheng Lu
Published: August 2016

Numerous studies examining the portrayals of gender, race, and nationality in sports commentary have been conducted through the years; however, comparative analyses of commentaries from different countries have been rare. This study examined commentary from 3 different countries (the U.S., Chinese Taipei, and South Korea) during a Major League Baseball (MLB) World Series. An entertainment theory schema was adopted and the 3 countries were categorized based on dispositional relativity (affiliation) with MLB. Findings indicate that South Korean broadcasts, which had the lowest affiliation with MLB, were biased toward the Boston Red Sox and presented the most evaluative commentaries; U.S. commentaries were generally positive and contained the largest portion of informative comments; and Chinese commentaries were unbiased and also provided a large number of informative comments. This implies that sports games using the same visual images can be framed differently by commentators based on the disposition (affiliation) level of audiences.
Spectacularized Sport: Understanding the Invention of a Nostalgic, Commodified Sporting Event
Authors: Andon Stephen P. , Houck Davis W.
Published: August 2016

This analysis examines the commodification of the 2009 National Hockey League (NHL) Winter Classic, a professional outdoor hockey game staged in Chicago, IL, at Wrigley Field. Given the dynamic relationship between sports and corporate sponsorship, ratings, merchandise, and broadcast-rights contracts, it is critical to understand how the principles of late capitalism influence both the sport and fans in increasingly controlling ways. As a result, this study combines an understanding of the principles of production and consumption, examining how economic principles manifested themselves in the commodification of nostalgic elements and made the NHL Winter Classic the sport’s most lucrative event in decades.
Framing With Family: Examining Online Coaches’ Biographies for Heteronormative and Heterosexist Narratives
Authors: Calhoun Austin Stair , LaVoi Nicole M. , Johnson Alicia
Published: August 2016

Sport scholars have connected heteronormativity and heterosexism to the creation of privilege for the dominant group. They also contend that the coverage and framing of female athletes and coaches promote heteronormativity across print, broadcast, and new media. To date, research examining heteronormativity and heterosexism on university-sponsored athletics Web sites is scarce. Using framing theory, online biographies of NCAA intercollegiate head coaches of 12 conferences (N = 1,902) were examined for textual representations of heteronormativity and heterosexism. Biographies were coded based on the presence or absence of personal text—and the presence or absence of family narratives. The data demonstrate a near absence of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered coaches, suggesting that digital content of intercollegiate athletic department Web sites reproduces dominant gender ideologies and is plagued by homophobia in overt and subtle ways.
Sporting Facebook: A Content Analysis of NCAA Organizational Sport Pages and Big 12 Conference Athletic Department Pages
Authors: Wallace Laci , Wilson Jacquelyn , Miloch Kimberly
Published: August 2016

Social-media Web sites provide a strategic means for college and university athletic departments to build and maintain a strong brand presence when cultivating relationships with Facebook users. The purpose of this study was to examine the use of social media as a brand-management tool in college athletics. Specifically, this study examined the use of Facebook in the NCAA (N = 10) and in the Big 12 Athletic Conference (N = 12) by content posted throughout the 2010–11 season. These Facebook pages were examined to determine how major college sport organizations were using communication tools, types of brand-management factors, and marketing coverage. The data revealed statistically significant differences in content posted by season, type of communication tools, and fan interaction. The results from this content analysis were used to conceptualize branding, marketing, and Facebook user behavior.
Six Degrees of Information: Using Social Network Analysis to Explore the Spread of Information Within Sport Social Networks
Authors: Hambrick Marion E.
Published: August 2016

Sport industry groups including athletes, teams, and leagues use Twitter to share information about and promote their products. The purpose of this study was to explore how sporting event organizers and influential Twitter users spread information through the online social network. The study examined two bicycle race organizers using Twitter to promote their events. Using social network analysis, the study categorized Twitter messages posted by the race organizers, identified their Twitter followers and shared relationships within Twitter, and mapped the spread of information through these relationships. The results revealed that the race organizers used their Twitter home pages and informational and promotional messages to attract followers. Popular Twitter users followed the race organizers early, typically within the first 4 days of each homepage’s creation, and they helped spread information to their respective followers. Sporting event organizers can leverage Twitter and influential users to share information about and promote their events.
Cards, Dice, and Male Bonding: A Case Study Examination of Strat-O-Matic Baseball Motives
Authors: Spinda John S.W. , Wann Daniel L. , Sollitto Michael
Published: August 2016

In this case study analysis, we explored the motives for playing Strat-O-Matic Baseball (SOMB), a baseball simulation played as a board game or online, from the perspective of the uses-and-gratifications theory. In phase I of the study, SOMB manager narratives (N = 50) were analyzed for motive statements. In phase II, an online survey asked SOMB managers (N = 222) to respond to motive items as well as four measures of Major League Baseball (MLB) and SOMB identification. Overall, eight motives for playing SOMB emerged from the 64-item pool of motive items. These eight motives were nostalgia, knowledge acquisition, social bonding, enjoyment, vicarious achievement, game aesthetics, convenience, and escape. Our findings suggest these motives predicted measures of MLB and SOMB identification in significantly different ways. Theoretical implications, future research, limitations, and discussion questions are presented in this analysis.
The Positives and Negatives of Twitter: Exploring How Student-Athletes Use Twitter and Respond to Critical Tweets
Authors: Browning Blair , Sanderson Jimmy
Published: August 2016

Twitter has become a popular topic in sport communication research. Little research to date, however, has examined Twitter from the perspective of student-athletes. This research explored how student-athletes at an NCAA Division I university used Twitter and reacted to critical tweets from fans. Semistructured interviews with 20 student-athletes were conducted. Analysis revealed that student-athletes used Twitter in 3 primary ways: keeping in contact, communicating with followers, and accessing information. With respect to critical tweets, student-athletes reported various perceptions about them and diverse strategies for responding to them. The results suggest that Twitter is a beneficial communicative tool for student-athletes but also presents challenges, given the ease with which fans attack them via this social-media platform. Accordingly, athletic departments must be proactive in helping student-athletes use Twitter strategically, particularly in responding to detractors.
Publishing for Paydirt: A Case Study of an Athletic Department Writer
Authors: Yanity Molly
Published: August 2016

Since 2010, major college athletics departments have expanded a trend of hiring former beat writers to the hybrid position of sportswriter/public relations (PR) practitioner. This case study explored the routines and roles of a former sportswriter in his PR position at the University of Washington. After observing how he moved through social and professional settings and occupational routines, the author identifies 3 themes surrounding his routines. The themes are sport journalist, PR practitioner, and subordinate. Given the historic antagonism between journalists and PR practitioners, the routines are sometimes at odds with one another. The results indicate that the routines affect content while engaging stakeholders.
Effects of Chromium Picolinate Supplementation on Body Composition, Strength, and Urinary Chromium Loss in Football Players
Authors: Clancy Stephan P. , Clarkson Priscilla M. , DeCheke Michael E. , Nosaka Kazunori , Freedson Patty S. , Cunningham John J. , Valentine Bruce
Published: August 2016

The effects of 9 weeks of daily chromium supplementation (200μg Cr as picolinate) were investigated in a double-blind design in football players during spring training. Testing was done pre-, mid-, and postsupplementation on the following criterion measures: urinary chromium excretion, girth and skinfold measures, percent body fat and lean body mass, and isometric and dynamic strength. With the exception of 2 variables (of 65 variables analyzed), no significant group by trials interactions were found (based on a repeated measures ANOVA). The two exceptions were unrelated and inconsequential. For 27 of the 38 subjects, average urinary chromium loss at pre was 0.36 μg/24 hr, whereas it was undetectable (< 0.1 μg/24 hr) for 10 subjects and excessive in 1 subject (2.4 μg/24 hr). Subjects receiving chromium supplements demonstrated urinary chromium losses five times greater than those in the placebo group at mid and post. Chromium picolinate supplementation was ineffective in bringing about changes in body composition or strength during a program of intensive weight-lifting training.
The Prevalence and Consequences of Subclinical Eating Disorders in Female Athletes
Authors: Beals Katherine A. , Manore Melinda M.
Published: August 2016

A growing body of evidence suggests that the prevalence of eating disorders and excessive concerns regarding body weight in certain subpopulations of female athletes are increasing. The pressure on female athletes to improve their performances and physiques, coupled with the general sociocultural demand placed on all women to be thin, often results in attempts to achieve unrealistic body size and body weight goals. For some female athletes the pressure to achieve and maintain a low body weight leads to potentially harmful patterns of restrictive eating or chronic dieting. This paper seeks to further delineate the characteristics of a recently identified subclinical eating disorder in female athletes: anorexia athletica. Research studies that support the existence of subclinical eating disorders will be reviewed. In addition, the possible physiological and psychological consequences of subclinical eating disorders will be explored.
Postexercise Energy Expenditure in Response to Acute Aerobic or Resistive Exercise
Authors: Gillette Cynthia A. , Bullough Richard C. , Melby Christopher L.
Published: August 2016

Postexercise energy metabolism was examined in male subjects age 22-35 years in response to three different treatments: a strenuous bout of resistive exercise (REx), a bout of stationary cycling (AEx) at 50% peak , and a control condition (C) of quiet sitting. Resting metabolic rate (RMR) was measured the morning of and the morning following each condition. Recovery oxygen consumption (RcO2) was measured for 5 hr following each treatment. Total 5-hr was higher for the REx treatment relative to both AEx and C, with the largest treatment differences occurring early during recovery. There were no large treatment differences in postexercise respiratory exchange ratio values, except for the first hour of recovery following REx. RMR measured 14.5 hr postexercise for the REx condition was significantly elevated compared to C. These results suggest that strenuous resistive exercise results in a greater excess postexercise oxygen consumption compared to steady-state endurance exercise of similar estimated energy cost.
Body Fat Percentage and Gender: Associations with Exercise Energy Expenditure, Substrate Utilization, and Mechanical Work Efficiency
Authors: Keim Nancy L. , Belko Amy Z. , Barbieri Teresa F.
Published: August 2016

Energy expenditure (EE) was measured at specific steady-state work rates to determine if body fat percentage or gender was associated with exercise EE, substrate oxidation, or work efficiency. Body fat percentage (leaner vs. fatter men, 9-15% vs. 20-25% fat; leaner vs. fatter women, 16-24% vs. 32-48% fat) was not related to work efficiency or submaximal EE. Fatness affected substrate oxidation in men but not in women. Compared to fatter men, leaner men had higher fat oxidation (6.7 ± 1.6 vs. 1.4 ± 2.0 mg · kg fat-free mass · ; p < .01) and lower carbohydrate oxidation (26.6 ± 4.2 vs. 39.3 ± 5.0 mg ⋅ kg ⋅ ; p< .01) at 60% . When men and women of similar fatness and relative aerobic capacity were compared, men had higher EE measured as kilojoules per minute but similar rates of EE and substrate oxidation per kilogram of FFM at 40-60% . It was concluded that body FFM, not fatness, is a determinant of exercise EE, whereas fatness is associated with differences in exercise substrate oxidation in men. Along with aerobic fitness, gender and fatness should be considered in future studies of exercise substrate oxidation.
Effect of Acute Resistance Exercise on Postexercise Oxygen Consumption and Resting Metabolic Rate in Young Women
Authors: Osterberg Kristin L. , Melby Christopher L.
Published: August 2016

This study determined the effect of an intense bout of resistive exercise on postexercise oxygen consumption, resting metabolic rate, and resting fat oxidation in young women (N = 7, ages 22-35). On the morning of Day 1, resting metabolic rate (RMR) was measured by indirect calorimetry. At 13:00 hr, preexercise resting oxygen consumption was measured followed by 100 min of resistive exercise. Postexercise oxygen consumption was then measured for a 3-hr recovery period. On the following morning (Day 2), RMR was once again measured in a fasted state at 07:00. Postexercise oxygen consumption remained elevated during the entire 3-hr postexercise recovery period compared to the pre-exercise baseline. Resting metabolic rate was increased by 4.2% (p < .05) from Day 1 (morning prior to exercise: 1,419 ± 58 kcal/24 hr) compared to Day 2 (16 hr following exercise: 1,479 ± 65 kcal/24 hr). Resting fat oxidation as determined by the respiratory exchange ratio was also significantly elevated on Day 2 compared to Day 1. These results indicate that among young women, acute strenuous resistance exercise of the nature used in this study is capable of producing modest but prolonged elevations of postexercise metabolic rate and possibly fat oxidation.
Iron Status and Resting Immune Function in Female Collegiate Swimmers
Authors: Braun William A. , Flynn Michael G. , Carl Daniel L. , Carroll Kathy K. , Brickman Todd , Lambert Charlie P.
Published: August 2016

Iron deficiency may lead to anemia and may result in compromised endurance exercise performance. Iron deficiency has also been reported to adversely affect the immune system and has been associated with attenuation of natural killer cell (NK) activity. This study was conducted to examine the relationship between iron status and NK activity in highly conditioned female athletes. Ten collegiate female swimmers (SWM) and 9 inactive females (SED) participated in this investigation. Resting blood samples were obtained and analyzed for serum iron and ferritin. NK activity (% lysis) was determined using a whole blood method (51Cr release assay). No significant relationship was found between iron and NK activity (r = 0.55, p = .09), nor between serum ferritin and NK activity (r = 0.33. p = .35) for SWM. ANOVA revealed significantly greater NK activity for SWM (51.63 ± 15.79%) versus SED (30.34 ± 13.67%). Serum ferritin levels were not significantly different between SWM (20.38±8.62Ƞg · ml−1) and SED (16.79±10.53Ƞg · ml−1), nor were iron values different between groups (16.54 ± 2.17 μmol · L−1 SWM; 11.92 ± 2.61 μmol · L−1 SED). A significant relationship between iron status and resting immune function could not be established. Exercise training may affect NK activity; however, the influence of iron status on immune function requires further evaluation.
Pre-Exercise Carbohydrate Status and Immune Responses to Prolonged Cycling: I. Effect on Neutrophil Degranulation
Authors: Bishop Nicolette C. , Walsh Neil P. , Haines Donna L. , Richards Emily E. , Gleeson Michael
Published: August 2016

Ingesting carbohydrate (CHO) beverages during heavy exercise is associated with smaller shifts in numbers of circulating neutrophils and attenuated changes in neutrophil functional responses. The influence of dietary CHO availability on these responses has not been determined. Therefore, the present study investigated the influence of pre-exercise CHO status on circulating neutrophil and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated neutrophil degranulation responses to prolonged cycling. Twelve trained male cyclists performed a glycogen-lowering bout of cycling and were randomly assigned to follow a diet ensuring either greater than 70% (HIGH) or less than 10% (LOW) of daily energy intake from CHO for the next 3 days. On day 4, subjects performed an exercise test that comprised cycling for 1 hour at 60% Wmax immediately followed by a time-trial (TT) ensuring an energy expenditure equivalent to cycling for 30 min at 80% Wmax. Subjects repeated the protocol after 7 days, this time following the second diet. The order of the trials was counterbalanced. At TT completion, the HIGH compared with the LOW trial was associated with higher plasma glucose concentration, lower plasma cortisol concentration, and lower circulating neutrophil count. LPS-stimulated neutrophil degranulation per cell fell similarly on both trials. These findings suggest that pre-exercise CHO status influences neutrophil trafficking but not function in response to prolonged cycling.
Aging and the Osteogenic Response to Mechanical Loading
Authors: Kohrt Wendy M.
Published: August 2016

The osteogenic response to mechanical stress is blunted with aging. It has been postulated that this decline in responsiveness is related to (a) a limited ability to engender the strain necessary to reach the bone modeling threshold, due to decreased muscle mass and strength, and/or (b) a decline in certain hormones or growth factors that may interact with mechanical signals to change the sensitivity of bone cells to strain. There is reason to believe that both of these factors contribute to the reduced ability to increase bone mass through exercise with advancing age. Weight-bearing endurance exercise and resistance exercise have both been found to increase bone mass in older women and men. However, exercise training studies involving older individuals have generally resulted in increased bone mineral density only when the exercise is quite vigorous. There is also evidence that the osteogenic response to mechanical loading is enhanced by estrogens. Whether age-related changes in other factors (e.g., other hormones, growth factors, cytokines) also contribute to the reduced responsiveness of the aged skeleton to mechanical loading remains to be investigated.
Disorders of the Female Athlete Triad among Collegiate Athletes
Authors: Beals Katherine A. , Manore Melinda M.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the prevalence of and relationship between the disorders of the female athlete triad in collegiate athletes participating in aesthetic, endurance, or team/anaerobic sports. Participants were 425 female collegiate athletes from 7 universities across the United States. Disordered eating, menstrual dysfunction, and musculoskeletal injuries were assessed by a health/medical, dieting and menstrual history questionnaire, the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), and the Eating Disorder Inventory Body Dissatisfaction Subscale (EDI-BD). The percentage of athletes reporting a clinical diagnosis of anorexia and bulimia nervosa was 3.3% and 2.3%, respectively; mean (±SD) EAT and EDI-BD scores were 10.6 ± 9.6 and 9.8 ± 7.6, respectively. The percentage of athletes with scores indicating “at-risk” behavior for an eating disorder were 15.2% using the EAT-26 and 32.4% using the EDI-BD. A similar percentage of athletes in aesthetic, endurance, and team/anaerobic sports reported a clinical diagnosis of anorexia or bulimia. However, athletes in aesthetic sports scored higher on the EAT-26 (13.5 ± 10.9) than athletes in endurance (10.0 ± 9.3) or team/anaerobic sports (9.9 ± 9.0, p < .02); and more athletes in aesthetic versus endurance or team/anaerobic sports scored above the EAT-26 cut-off score of 20 (p < .01). Menstrual irregularity was reported by 31% of the athletes not using oral contraceptives, and there were no group differences in the prevalence of self-reported menstrual irregularity. Muscle and bone injuries sustained during the collegiate career were reported by 65.9% and 34.3% of athletes, respectively, and more athletes in aesthetic versus endurance and team/anaerobic sports reported muscle (p = .005) and/or bone injuries (p < .001). Athletes “at risk” for eating disorders more frequently reported menstrual irregularity (p = .004) and sustained more bone injuries (p = .003) during their collegiate career. These data indicate that while the prevalence of clinical eating disorders is low in female collegiate athletes, many are “at risk” for an eating disorder, which places them at increased risk for menstrual irregularity and bone injuries.
Nutritional Supplement Use among College Athletes and Their Sources of Information
Authors: Froiland Kathryn , Koszewski Wanda , Hingst Joshua , Kopecky Lisa
Published: August 2016

A survey was conducted to examine the source of information and usage of nutritional supplements in 115 male and 88 female varsity athletes at a Division I university. The survey asked each athlete to define supplement, and report supplement use and type, source of information, and reasons for use. Supplement use frequencies were determined, and comparisons were made between gender and sport. Eighty-nine percent of the subjects had or were currently using nutritional supplements. Many athletes did not consider sports drinks and calorie replacement products as supplements. Females were more likely to take calcium and multivitamins, and males had significant intake for ginseng, amino acids, glutamine, hydroxy-methyl-buterate (HMB), weight gainers, whey protein, and Juven. The most frequently used supplements overall were energy drinks (73%), calorie replacement products of all types (61.4%), multivitamin (47.3%), creatine (37.2%), and vitamin C (32.4%). There was also significant supplement use noted per sport. Females were more likely to obtain information from family members regarding supplementation, and males from a store nutritionist, fellow athletes, friends, or a coach. Female athletes were more likely to take supplements for their health or because of an inadequate diet, while men reported taking supplements to improve speed and agility, strength and power, or for weight/muscle gain.
Patterns of Ephedra and Other Stimulant Use in Collegiate Hockey Athletes
Authors: Bents Robert T. , Marsh Erik
Published: August 2016

This study examined trends in stimulant use and attitudes towards use among American collegiate hockey athletes. All 139 players in one college hockey conference completed a comprehensive questionnaire. Over half of the athletes (51.8%) confrmed stimulant use before a hockey game or practice. About half of the respondents (48.5%) reported having used ephedra at least one time to improve athletic performance. Additionally, 17.4% reported using pseudoephedrine to improve performance in the 30 days prior to survey administration. Over half (55.4%) were aware of the recent national ban on ephedra. Fifty-nine% stated the national ban made them less likely to use ephedra products. The majority of athletes began use prior to college. Coaches, athletic trainers, and team physicians should be aware of athletes’ patterns of stimulant use. Improved educational efforts directed at younger athletes are necessary to deter abuse of metabolic stimulants.