bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
On the induction of electric currents.
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

The discovery by Örsted of the magnetic action of an electric current led by a direct process of reasoning to that of magnetization by electric currents, and of the mechanical action between electric currents. It was not, however, till 1831 that Faraday, who had been for some time endeavouring to produce electric currents by magnetic or electric action, discovered the conditions of magneto-electric induction. The method which Faraday employed in his researches consisted in a constant appeal to experiment as a means of testing the truth of his ideas, and a constant cultivation of ideas under the direct influence of experiment. In his published researches we find these ideas expressed in language which is all the better fitted for a nascent science, because it is somewhat alien from the style of physicists who have been accustomed to establish mathematical forms of thought.
General equations of the electromagnetic field.
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk
Published: November 2023

In our theoretical discussion of electrodynamics we began by assuming that a system of circuits carrying electric currents is a dynamical system, in which the currents may be regarded as velocities, and in which the coordinates corresponding to these velocities do not themselves appear in the equations. It follows from this that the kinetic energy of the system, in so far as it depends on the currents, is a homogeneous quadratic function of the currents, in which the coefficients depend only on the form and relative position of the circuits. Assuming these coefficients to be known, by experiment or otherwise, we deduced, by purely dynamical reasoning, the laws of the induction of currents, and of electromagnetic attraction. In this investigation we introduced the conceptions of the electrokinetic energy of a system of currents, of the electromagnetic momentum of a circuit, and of the mutual potential of two circuits.
Lattice Bhatnagar–Gross–Krook
Authors: Succi Sauro
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter, we have learned how to cut down the complexity of the LBE collision process by formulating a discrete scattering version of the collision operator. This scattering version is de-facto a multi-relaxation model equation in which, owing to the discreteness of velocity space, it becomes possible to analyze the spectrum of the scattering operator in full depth. This analysis delivers an exact expression for the fluid viscosity via the single eigenvalue associated with the slowest non-conserved quantity, namely the momentum flux tensor. In light of this, it is natural to wonder whether the scattering operator can be simplified further and brought down to a single-time relaxation form. The idea is again patterned after continuum kinetic theory, in particular after the celebrated Bhatnagar–Gross–Krook (BGK) model Boltzmann introduced as early as 1954. Its transcription to the discrete lattice world proves exceedingly fruitful, and it leads to a hydrodynamic-compliant kinetic equation of great simplicity and efficiency. In this chapter we shall describe the Lattice Bhatnagar–Gross–Krook scheme, LBGK for short, the ultimate LBE model in terms of simplicity and effectiveness. The main lesson taught by the self-standing LBE of the previous chapter is that the scattering matrix and local equilibria can be regarded as free parameters of the theory, to be tuned to our best purposes within the limits set by the conservation laws and numerical stability. Within this picture, the viscosity of the LB fluid is entirely controlled by a single parameter, namely the leading nonzero eigenvalue of the scattering matrix Aij . The remaining eigenvalues are then set so as to minimize the interference of non-hydrodynamic modes (ghosts) with the dynamics of macroscopic observables. This spawns a very natural question: since transport is related to a single nonzero eigenvalue, why not simplify things further by choosing a one parameter scattering matrix? The point, raised almost simultaneously by a number of authors [54], is indeed well taken.
Lbe In The Framework Of Computational Fluid Dynamics
Authors: Succi Sauro
Published: November 2023

The LBE lies at the crossroad between two distinct lines of thought, one that views it as an appealing method to compete with numerical fluid mechanics and the other that sees it rather as a sort of ‘telescope’ of molecular dynamics. This ‘dual’ nature of LBE is a potential source of richness and of some confusion too. Therefore, after having covered the basic theory of LBE and a set of representative fluid dynamics applications, it is now time to try to put LBE in a critical perspective within the broader framework of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD).
Microsatellites and other simple sequences: genomic context and mutational mechanisms
Authors: Hancock John M
Published: November 2023

'Microsatellite' is now the commonest term used to describe tandem repeats of short sequence motifs (no more than six bases long). Microsatellites have been found in every organism investigated so far. They may be highly polymorphic, especially if long and uninterrupted, and they are therefore useful genetic markers. Microsatellite-like sequences made up of concentrations of specific motifs that are not tandemly repeated are known as cryptically simple, and such sequences are also widespread, although generally more common in organisms with large genomes. The functional significance of such sequences is still unknown although they are sometimes found within exons and have been associated with diseases. Microsatellites appear to be more or less uniformly distributed across eukaryotic genomes, but are under-represented in coding regions, and perhaps telomeres. Repeats of poly(A)/poly(T) are the most common microsatellites in all genomes, but beyond that different genomes show subtly different frequency distributions. Genetic and other studies suggest that slipped-strand mispairing during replication is the predominant mechanism of mutation of microsatellites, but recently an increasing amount of circumstantial evidence has also implicated recombination.
Trinucleotide expansion mutations cause diseases which do not conform to classical Mendelian expectations
Authors: Rubinsztein David C
Published: November 2023

Trinucleotide repeat diseases are caused by expansions of normally polymorphic trinucleotide repeat sequences in various genes. These diseases are associated with the clinical phenomenon of anticipation, where the age-at-onset tends to decrease in successive generations. This phenomenon can be explained by a tendency for mutant alleles to increase repeat number when transmitted through the germline and by the inverse correlation between age-at-onset and repeat number. This review will introduce the clinical and molecular characteristics of these diseases and consider the mutation processes of both normal and mutant alleles at these loci.
Using microsatellites to measure the fitness consequences of inbreeding and outbreeding
Authors: Pemberton J M , Coltman D W , Coulson T N , Slate J
Published: November 2023

Due to the practical difficulties of measuring inbreeding in the field, the fitness consequences of inbreeding and outbreeding have been poorly documented in natural populations. In this chapter we explore the use of microsatellite variation as a tool for measuring how inbred or outbred an individual is. We first point out that average heterozygosity of an individual measured from microsatellite data should more closely reflect inbreeding than previous estimates using allozymes. Second, assuming the stepwise mutation model for microsatellite mutation, we propose that allele lengths can be used to estimate an individual internal distance measure, mean d2, which represents the average time to coalescence for the microsatellites carried by the two gametes giving rise to an individual. Using two vertebrate data sets, we show that mean d2 explains variation in neonatal fitness-related traits which is not explained by individual heterozygosity. We speculate that the most likely source of allele-length variation in natural populations is migration between diverged populations, and that individuals with high mean d2 are fitter because
Riemann surfaces and integrable systems
Authors: Hitchin Nigel
Published: November 2023

To do so requires using the basic language of Riemann surfaces and the first two sections will be taken up with a rapid treatment of the subject. In lectures three and four we shall look at the perhaps less standard material of vector bundles on Riemann surfaces. The fifth lecture is on Lax pairs and their relation to line bundles. In the final lecture we shall look at algebraically completely integrable Hamiltonian systems—a general context of which many of these Lax pair equations form part.
Quantifying Surprise in the Data and Model Verification
Authors: Bayarri M J , Berger James O
Published: November 2023

P-values are often perceived as measurements of the degree of surprise in the data, relative to a hypothesized model. They are also commonly used in model (or hypothesis) verification, i.e., to provide a basis for rejection of a model or hypothesis. We first make a distinction between these two goals: quantifying surprise can be important in deciding whether or not to search for alternative models, but is questionable as the basis for rejection of a model. For measuring surprise, we propose a simple calibration of the p-value which roughly converts a tail area into a Bayes factor or ‘odds’ measure. Many Bayesians have suggested certain modifications of p-values for use in measuring surprise, including the predictive p-value and the posterior predictive p-value. We propose two alternatives, the conditional predictive p-value and the partial posterior predictive p-value, which we argue to be more acceptable from Bayesian (or conditional) reasoning.
Nested Hypothesis Testing: The Bayesian Reference Criterion
Authors: Bernardo José m.
Published: November 2023

It is argued that hypothesis testing problems are best considered as decision problems concerning the choice of a usejul probability model. Decision theory, information measures and reference analysis, are combined to propose a non-subjective Bayesian approach to nested hypothesis testing, the Bayesian Reference Criterion (BRC). The results are compared both with frequentist based procedures, and with the use of Bayes factors. The theory is illustrated with stylized examples, where alternative approaches may easily be compared.
Bayesian Models for Spatially Correlated Disease and Exposure Data
Authors: Best Nicola G , Arnold Richard A , Thomas Andrew , Waller Lance A , Conlon Erin M
Published: November 2023

The study of geographical patterns of disease has a long tradition in epidemiology and is useful for generating and refining aetiological hypotheses. Area-specific incidence/mortality rates or relative risks are estimated using count data on the number of cases of disease and the population at risk in each area within the study region. When the disease of interest is relatively rare and/or the geographical areas are small, the counts tend to be low and associated sampling variation is high. Such data also often exhibit spatial correlation, possibly due to the influence of unmeasured or unknown risk factors which themselves vary systematically in space. Analysis of such data presents a number of statistical problems which have recently been addressed using Bayesian hierarchical models with Markov random field (MRF) priors. These models extend naturally to allow inclusion of area-level covariates, thus facilitating geographical correlation studies. However, the sensitivity of these MRF models to the assumed form of the spatial covariance function, the choice of neighbourhood structure over which the Markov random field extends, and the specification of the hyperprior distributions, is poorly understood. In this paper, we address some of these issues by investigating the properties of a variety of MRF models applied to simulated data on cancer incidence in Scottish districts. We also address some of the convergence problems associated with the Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithms used to implement such MRF models, and discuss methods for model comparison and diagnostics in this context.
Simulated Sintering: Markov Chain Monte Carlo With Spaces of Varying Dimensions
Authors: Liu Jun S , Sabatti Chiara
Published: November 2023

In an effort to extend the tempering methodology, we propose simulated sintering as a general framework for designing Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithms. To implement sintering, one identifies a family of probability distributions, all related to the target one and defined on spaces of different dimensions. Then, a Markov chain is constructed to move across these spaces, with the hope that the fast mixing of transitions in lower-dimensional spaces facilitates the simulation from the target distribution. Two types of sintering are discussed: conditional sintering, which is motivated by the multigrid Monte Carlo idea and can be regarded as a generalization of the Gibbs sampler; and marginal sintering, which can be achieved by reversible jump MCMC. To help mixing in a reversible jump MCMC algorithm, we suggest incorporating the dynamic weighting method proposed by Wong and Liang. Examples in graphical modeling and computational biology illustrate how these techniques can be applied.
Computationally Efficient Methods for Selecting Among Mixtures of Graphical Models
Authors: Thiesson B , Meek C , Chickering D M , Heckerman D
Published: November 2023

We describe computationally efficient methods for Bayesian model selection. The methods select among mixtures in which each mixture component is a directed acyclic graphical model (mixtures of DAGs or MDAGs), and can be applied to incomplete data sets. The model-selection criterion that we consider is the posterior probability of the model (structure) given data. Our model-selection problem is difficult because (1) the number of possible model structures grows super-exponentially with the number of random variables and (2) missing data necessitates the use of computationally slow approximations of model posterior probability. We argue that simple search-and-score algorithms are infeasible for a variety of problems, and introduce a feasible approach in which parameter and structure search is interleaved and expected data is treated as real data. Our approach can be viewed as the combination of (1) a modified Cheeseman-Stutz asymptotic approximation for model posterior probability and (2) the Expectation-Maximization algorithm. We evaluate our procedure for selecting among MDAGs on synthetic and real examples.
A Bayesian Proposal for the Analysis of Stationary and Nonstationary AR(1) Time Series
Authors: Marinucci Domenico , Petrella Lea
Published: November 2023

Default Bayesian analysis for the AR(1) model is considered and an improper prior is suggested, the choice being motivated by consideration of the functional relationship between the autoregressive parameter ρ and the variance of the process in a time series framework. We discuss the initialization issue under both stationarity and nonstationarity, and we propose a procedure that avoids discontinuities in statistical inference. We present numerical evidence, based on frequentist criteria, on the performance of the suggested prior and of the fractional Bayes factor when comparing stationary versus nonstationary models.
Bayes Sequential Decision Theory in Clinical Trials
Authors: Qian Wendi , Brown Philip J
Published: November 2023

We give a Bayesian analysis of the group sequential clinical trial to compare an experimental treatment with the standard treatment. Survival time is modelled as exponential. The trial is monitored at specified time points, either after fixed time intervals or after a fixed number of failures. The group sequential trial may consequently be modelled as a straightforward sequential trial in which survival time is the sum of exponential random variables, that is it has a gamma distribution. We use Bayes sequential decision theory to analyse the trial. The feature of this which is technically demanding is the need, after each observation, to look forward to see whether or not to continue sampling or to stop and make a terminal decision. This typically requires the nested sequence of integrations and minimisations. We provide two approximations: firstly taking the logarithm ofthe gamma random variable as normal; secondly making a reduction to logrank statistics. Monte Carlo simulations show both approximations to be comparable with respect to frequentist and Bayesian characteristics and to have good robustness with respect to prior specifications.
The evolution of many-celled organisms
Authors: Maynard Smith John , SzathmáRy EöRs
Published: November 2023

An animal’s body is composed of many millions of cells, of many different kinds—muscle cells, nerve cells, blood cells of various kinds, and so on. Organisms of this kind have evolved independently on three occasions, giving rise to animals, plants, and fungi. The third of these groups is less complex than the other two, but a mushroom is still a fairly elaborate structure. There are in addition many kinds of simpler multicellular organisms, with only a few types of cells: Volvox, a hollow green sphere of ciliated cells, with germinal cells inside, is a charming example.
Animal societies
Authors: Maynard Smith John , SzathmáRy EöRs
Published: November 2023

Animal societies with a complex division of labour between the members are of three kinds, and have evolved by three different routes. In this chapter we discuss insect colonies—ants, bees, wasps, and termites—and, more briefly, the colonies formed by some marine invertebrates, which also consist of individuals specialized to perform different roles. In the next chapter we discuss human societies. Apart from the division of labour, and the economic advantages that follow, the three kinds of society have one other thing in common. In all cases, the different kinds of individual are genetically similar: the differences between queen and workers in a bee colony, or between farmer, teacher, and shop-keeper in a human society, arise not from genetics but from the response of similar genotypes to different social circumstances. What a biologist has to explain is how a genotype could have evolved that can respond so differently to different environmental influences.
Connectivity of the rat amygdaloid complex
Authors: Pitkanen Asia
Published: November 2023

The rat amygdala is a nuclear complex composed of 13 nuclei and cortical regions and their subdivisions. Recent anterograde and retrograde studies demonstrate that each nucleus, and even each nuclear subdivision is uniquely interconnected with other amygdaloid nuclei or brain areas. A view emerging from anatomical studies proposes that functional studies of the amygdala, including lesion and imaging studies, would benefit from analyses at the nuclear and subdivisional levels. This review summarizes the principles of amygdala neuronal wiring, and based on that attempts to predict the functional consequences when some of the amygdala nuclei or subdivisions are damaged.
Covalent derivatization of myosin
Authors: Sellers James R
Published: November 2023

Vertebrate skeletal muscle myosin has been covalently modified by many reagents on a limited number of defined residues (Table 14). The most commonly modified residue is Cys 707, termed SH1, which is highly reactive with a variety of sulfhydryl directed compounds (Table 14). The second most commonly modified residue is the nearby Cys 697 which is called SH2. Most studies that have modified these two residues have not confirmed the specificity of labelling with sequence or peptide analysis. Instead, their modification is usually monitored by changes in the high salt, nonphysiological ATPase activities [2909]. Modification of SH1 inhibits the K+EDTA ATPase activity while activating the ca2+ATPase activity. In addition, the actin-activated MgATPase is inhibited and the MgATPase in the absence of actin is activated.
Magnetic microstructures — a paradigm of multiscale problems
Authors: Moran Bill , Avdonin Sergei
Published: November 2023

Ferromagnetic materials display a complex microstructure of magnetic domains, walls, Bloch lines and singular points ranging from 100 pm down to a few nm and beyond (see Fig. 1). Understanding the formation and the overall effects of these structures is crucial for a number of key technology applications. At the same time the rich source of experimental data and the simple mathematical formulation makes the analysis of magnetic microstructures an excellent model problem to develop new mathematical tools for the understanding of multiscale problems, which are ubiquitous in science.
Advancing interfaces: level set and fast marching methods
Authors: Sethian J .A
Published: November 2023

In this article, we review past work on Level Set Methods, introduced by Osher and Sethian in [20], and Fast Marching Methods, introduced by Sethian in [25], for tracking propagating interfaces in two and three space dimensions. Both sets of techniques are based on a partial differential equations view of interface motion, and rely on the use of the theory of viscosity solutions, upwind finite difference schemes for hyperbolic conservation laws, and the theory of curve and surface evolution developed in [23]. Both sets of techniques require an adaptive methodology to obtain computational efficiency. We briefly review some of these methods, and show some examples of some applications.
Cardiovascular Flow Modelling and Measurement with Application to Clinical Medicine
Authors: Nash G B
Published: November 2023

This book is collection of papers on the main topics of cardiovascular modelling and measurements. Some of the results show how to calculate many non-linear aspects of fluid flow and the turbulence in the arteries and the bifurcation junctions of the cardiovascular system. There are three themes to the papers: first, the fundamental concepts of fluid dynamics and turbulence in the system; the second theme is the flow modelling in arteries and bypass graft; the third section is about haemorheology and haemodynamics and explores the factors that play a role in coronary circulation using data from patients with ischaemic heart disease and acute myocardial infarction.
Concluding Philosophical Remarks
Authors: Dummett Michael
Published: November 2023

As Kreisel has emphasized, the intuitionistic philosophy of mathematics comprises two theses: a positive one and a negative one. The positive one is to the effect that the intuitionistic way of construing mathematical notions and logical operations is a coherent and legitimate one, that intuitionistic mathematics forms an intelligible body of theory.
From Kant to Hilbert: A Source Book in the Foundations of Mathematics
Authors: Ewald William
Published: November 2023

Immanuel Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason is widely taken to be the starting point of the modern period of mathematics while David Hilbert was the last great mainstream mathematician to pursue important nineteenth century ideas. This two-volume work provides an overview of this important era of mathematical research through a carefully chosen selection of articles. They provide an insight into the foundations of each of the main branches of mathematics-algebra, geometry, number theory, analysis, logic and set theory--with narratives to show how they are linked. Classic works by Bolzano, Riemann, Hamilton, Dedekind, and Poincare are reproduced in reliable translations and many selections from writers such as Gauss, Cantor, Kronecker and Zermelo are here translated for the first time. The collection is an invaluable source for anyone wishing to gain an understanding of the foundation of modern mathematics.
Julius Wilhelm Richard Dedekind (1831-1916)
Authors: Ewald William
Published: November 2023

Dedekind is known to philosophers for his work in the foundations of mathematics, and especially for his two essays on the real and the natural numbers essays which were a major contribution to the arithmetization of analysis, to set theory, and to the axiomatic study of arithmetic.
Georg Cantor (1845-1918)
Authors: Ewald William
Published: November 2023

Ever since Newton mathematicians have grappled with the problem of infinity as it arises in the foundations of the calculus and in the theory of the real numbers.
Leopold Kronecker (1823-1891)
Authors: Ewald William
Published: November 2023

Kronecker appears here somewhat out of chronological sequence: although he belonged to an earlier generation than Dedekind and Cantor, the selections reproduced here were written in reaction against their work. Earlier selections, in particular those from Berkeley, d’ Alembert, Bolzano, Gauss, and Cantor, have confronted the problem of the infinite in mathematics, especially as it occurs in the foundations of the calculus.
Ernst Friedrich Ferdinand Zermelo (1871-1953)
Authors: Ewald William
Published: November 2023

After studying at the universities of Berlin, Halle, and Freiburg, Zermelo was granted a doctorate from the University of Berlin in 1894 with a dissertation on the calculus of variations. In 1896 he published a famous paper in thermodynamics which applied the Poincare recurrence theorem to show that the kinetic theory of gases can allow no irreversible processes (Zermelo 1896), and he then engaged in a celebrated discussion with Boltzmann on the nature of these processes. He became a Privatdozent at Gottingen in 1899 with a Habilita- tionsschrift on hydrodynamics.
Exact models
Authors: Janse van Rensburg E J
Published: November 2023

In this chapter a variety of directed models of walks, polygons and animals will be studied. These models include the partition polygons encountered in Chapter 3, as well as directed and partially directed walks. The fact that the models in this chapter are called “exact models “ implies that the generating function can, in may cases, be explicitly written down, often as an infinite product or a q-analogue of a special function, and in this way an “exact solution “ of the model is found. Careful analysis is then required to extract the free energies and other critical properties from the exact solutions of these models; this can be a challenging procedure. It is not possible to give more than an introduction to this active and vast area in a single chapter; instead, I shall focus on a few specific models which are directed versions of models considered elsewhere in this monograph, and whose solution will illuminate the general comments made in Chapters 2 and 3, as well as being related to models considered in later chapters.
Special Functions
Authors: Slavyanov Sergei yu. , Lay Wolfgang , Seeger Alfred
Published: November 2023

The subject of this book is the theory of special functions, not considered as a list of functions exhibiting a certain range of properties, but based on the unified study of singularities of second-order ordinary differential equations in the complex domain. The number and characteristics of the singularities serve as a basis for classification of each individual special function. Links between linear special functions (as solutions of linear second-order equations), and non-linear special functions (as solutions of Painlevé equations) are presented as a basic and new result. Many applications to different areas of physics are shown and discussed. The book is written from a practical point of view and will address all those scientists whose work involves applications of mathematical methods. Lecturers, graduate students and researchers will find this a valuable text and reference work.
Disruption of Visual Evoked Potentials Following a Vi Lesion: Implications for Blind Sight
Authors: Rao Anling , Nobre Anna C
Published: November 2023

Some patients with field defects caused by destruction of striate cortex (V1) can still localize and discriminate visual stimuli presented within their field defect. This is called blindsight if the subject has no visual awareness and responds by forced-choice guessing (Weiskrantz et al., 1974). Some of these patients do have awareness of an event when physically salient, and especially fast-moving, stimuli are used but without having a visual percept (blindsight type 2, Weiskrantz, 1997), whereas other patients have weak but real visual percepts, which is residual vision and not blindsight. It has been suggested that the residual visual sensitivities in blindsight are mediated by spared visual pathways that circumvent the geniculate-striate circuit. Visual information is thought to be processed from eye to midbrain to pulvinar to extrastriate visual cortex (for review, see Stoerig. and Cowey, 1997). Sensitivity is greatest for stimuli with high luminance contrast and fast speeds, of around 20 °/s (Zeki, 1998).
The building-blocks of DNA and RNA
Authors: Neidle Stephen
Published: November 2023

Chemical degradation studies, in the early years of this century, on material extracted from cell nuclei established that the high molecular-weight ‘nucleic acid’ was actually composed of individual acid units, termed nucleotides. Four distinct types were isolated guanylic, adenylic, cytidylic, and thymidylic acids. These could be further cleaved to phosphate groups and four distinct nucleosides. The latter were subsequently identified as consisting of a deoxypentose sugar and one of four nitrogen-containing heterocyclic bases. Thus, each repeating unit in a nucleic acid polymer comprises these three units linked together a phosphate group, a sugar, and one of the four bases.
DNA structure as observed in fibres and crystals
Authors: Neidle Stephen
Published: November 2023

The fibre diffraction method for determining the structures of polymeric DNA (and RNA) molecules has been outlined in Chapter 1. Examination of X-ray diffraction photographs of oriented fibres obtained from them enables the basic parameters defining the dimensions of the repeating helix, to be calculated. Measurement of the spacing between the layer lines directly gives the reciprocal of the helical pitch P,defined as the distance, parallel to the helix axis, between successive nucleotide units per complete turn of the helix (Fig. 3.1).
Principles of small molecule-DNA recognition
Authors: Neidle Stephen
Published: November 2023

The recognition of a DNA molecule can, on the one hand, be general for any individual nucleotide or sequence. At the other extreme, it can be highly specific, solely recognizing a defined sequence within a genome. This can be performed very effectively by DNA itself, as has been seen in Chapter 4, with DNA-DNA recognition being governed in large part by base-base hydrogen-bonding.
The RNA structural world
Authors: Neidle Stephen
Published: November 2023

The preceding chapters have illustrated the structural variability displayed by DNA. Virtually all of this is within the boundaries imposed by the over-riding structural requirements of double, triple or four-stranded helices. RNA molecules are not subject to these limitations, and consequently their structural variety is in striking contrast to the relative predictability of most DNA tertiary structure. It is perhaps unsurprising (at least in retrospect!) that the ability of many RNAs to fold into compact tertiary structures, analogous to the folding of polypeptides into proteins and enzymes, is paralleled in some instances, by the possession of catalytic activity.
Magnetoresistance in three-dimensional systems
Authors: Singleton John
Published: November 2023

Magnetoresistance is a general term for the changes in the components of the resistivity and conductivity tensors of materials caused by the application of magnetic field. We are going to treat the magnetoresistance of metals in a quite general and simple manner.1 First, however, the Hall effect in a system with more than one type of carrier will be described, as it helps to illuminate the more general discussion of metals that will follow, and gives a clue as to the origins of magnetoresistance.
Measurements of nitric oxide and peroxynitrite
Authors: Ichimori Kohji
Published: November 2023

Although there is much interest in NO and per oxy nitrite, their measurement in biological media is difficult because of their short lifetimes and low concentrations. Here, the use of an NO-sensitive electrode is first described for direct real-time measurement of NO in endothelial cells. A method for detecting peroxynitrite produced by the macrophage is also given. Brief references to other methods are included in the comments sections.
Chemiluminescence
Authors: Nakano Minoru , Kambayashi Yasuhiro
Published: November 2023

Inflammatory cells such as neutrophils, eosinophils, and macrophages produce a multitude of reactive oxygen species when they are activated. Of the reactive oxygen species, superoxide anion (O2·  -), a precursor of several oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
ROS-generating systems in mitochondria, microsomes and peroxisomes
Authors: Kang Dongchon , Takeshige Koichiro
Published: November 2023

Put fresh bovine heart obtained from a slaughter house in a vinyl bag and keep on ice during transfer. 2. Remove fat and endothelium, cut into 2-3-cm cubes and keep on ice in a vinyl bag until mincing.
Vitamin C
Authors: Ogihara Tohru
Published: November 2023

Although several indirect methods are available for measurement of ascorbic acid (AA), the specificity is generally poor. Tn addition, for accurate evaluation of vitamin C status, dehydroascorbic acid (DHAA), the oxidation product of AA should also be measured simultaneously.
Myeloperoxidase
Authors: Nakamura Masao
Published: November 2023

Myeloperoxidase (MPO), a haemoprotein present at high concentrations in polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs), plays a role in the microbicidal activity of PMNs (1). MPO reacts with H2O2 to form Compound I, which catalyses two-electron oxidations of halogens (CP, Br, I-) (Fig. 1, Path 1) or a consecutive one-electron oxidation of substrates (AH2) through Compound II (Fig. l,Path 2) (2, 3).
4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal in plasma
Authors: Quinlan G J , Gutteridge J M C
Published: November 2023

4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE) is a peroxidation product of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, which probably requires traces of catalytic iron for its formation.
Plasma transferrin
Authors: Gutteridge J M C , Mumby S
Published: November 2023

1. Open plates and leave to dry for 5 min. 2. Add plasma (0.05 mL) to each well. 3. Include human transferrin standards. 4. Close plates and leave at room temperature for 48 h. 5. Carefully measure the diameter of each precipitation ring around the well (opaque-white zone). 6. Read the concentration of transferrin from a calibration standard curve.
Speciation of ferrous ions in biological fluids
Authors: Gutteridge J M C
Published: November 2023

When plasma transferrin is fully iron-loaded and LMrFe is present (see Chapter 51) such iron would be kept in the ferric state by the ferroxidase activity of caeruloplasmin (see Chapter 31). If, however, ascorbate concentrations are high and caeruloplasmin levels low, plasma ferroxidase activity will be inhibited and LMrFe will be converted to the ferrous form.
Expression of bcl-2
Authors: Eguclll Yutaka , Tsujimoto Yoshij-Iidf
Published: November 2023

Human bcl-2 gene was isolated from the analysis of t(14;l8) (q32;q21) chromosomal translocation frequently found in follicular lymphoma (1). Overexpression of Bcl-2 prevents apoptosis induced by a variety of stimuli in various cell lineage (2). Apoptosis is often inhibited by expression of SOD or glutathione peroxidase, suggesting involvement of ROS in apoptosis, although recent analysis of anti-apoptotic activity of Bcl-2 under very low oxygen conditions (3) provided some evidence against the sole function of Bcl-2 as an anti-oxidant (4). Here we describe the over-expression system for Bcl-2, and the quantitation of apoptosis.
Peroxynitrite damage to DNA
Authors: Gutteridge J M C
Published: November 2023

Peroxynitrite (ONOO ) is a powerful oxidant formed by the reaction of superoxide with nitric oxide. Its decomposition at acid pH also gives rise to an aggressive oxidant with properties similar to those of the hydroxyl radical. When peroxynitrite oxidises a DNA base (2, 3) it leaves behind a nitrated footprint, such as 8-nitroguanine (1). The use of HPLC and GC-MS to profile base damage to DNA has been reviewed elsewhere (4).
Carbonyl assay for oxidative damage to proteins
Authors: Quinlan G J , Gutteridge J M C
Published: November 2023

Free radical damage to proteins (radiation or Fenton chemistry) was shown in the 1950s to leave carbonyl functions that reacted with 2,4-dinitrophenyl-hydrazine (1). The technique has been widely introduced into free radical biology and medicine by Professor Stadtman and his colleagues (2, 3). Techniques for cells and fluids are given elsewhere (3, 4). Here we describe a spectrophotometric method for use with plasma.
Myocardial ischaemiareperfusion models ln VlVO
Authors: Hoshida Shiro
Published: November 2023

To determine the role of active oxygen species on the progression of myocardial injury, many investigators use a coronary occlusion-reperfusion model, but not a permanent occlusion model, in vivo in dogs, cats, pigs, rabbits, and rats. A different protocol is needed to clarify a different end point of myocardial injury such as limitation of infarct size, alteration of cardiac function, and occurrence of cardiac arrhythmia. In this section, we focus on the limitation of infarct size by use of a coronary artery occlusion-reperfusion model in dogs. (1, 2)
Atherosclerosis (oxidized LDL): preparation of oxidized LDL/ detection of cholesterol accumulation in macrophages
Authors: Yokode Masa Yuki , Kita Toru
Published: November 2023

A characteristic feature of atherosclerotic lesions is macrophage-derived foam cells in the intima filled with cholesteryl esters. Recent studies have shown that macrophages take-up oxidatively-modified low density lipoprotein (LDL) (oxidized LDL) by the scavenger receptor and are converted into foam cells. Thus, it is important to understand how oxidized LDL is produced in the body. Here we describe a method for isolating LDL and inducing its oxidation with a copper salt
Iron-overload model
Authors: Toyokuni Shiny A
Published: November 2023

Redox cycling is a characteristic of transition metals such as iron. Iron is an essential metal in mammals for oxygen transport by haemoglobin and for the function of many enzymes including catalase and cytochromes. However, the ‘free’ or ‘catalytic’ form of iron mediates in the production of reactive oxygen species via the Fenton reaction and induces oxidative stress. ‘Free’ iron is quite cytotoxic, as well as mutagenic and carcinogenic. There is an increasing number of reports of an association between increased body iron stores and increased risk of cancer. Intraperitoneal injection of an iron chelate, ferric nitrilotriacetate (Fe-NTA), induces renal proximal tubular necrosis associated with lipid peroxidation and oxidative DNA damage that finally leads to a high incidence of renal cell carcinoma after repeated administration in rodents (1, 2).
Doppler-free laser spectroscopy
Authors: Foot C J
Published: November 2023

Doppler broadening is usually the dominant contribution to the observed width of lines in atomic spectra, at room temperature. The techniques of Doppler-free laser spectroscopy overcome this limitation to give much higher resolution than, for example, a Fabry Perot etalon analyzing the light from a discharge lamp, as shown in Fig. 1.7(a). This chapter describes three examples that illustrate the principles of Doppler-free techniques: the crossed-beam method, saturated absorption spectroscopy and two-photon spectroscopy.
Expansions for likelihood quantities
Authors: Andrews D F , Stafford J E
Published: November 2023

Returning to the likelihood example of Section 4.5, we assume that Y is a ran dom variable with a density or probability function fn, indexed by an unknown parameter θ of length p.
Introduction
Authors: Carbone Alessandra , Semmes Stephen
Published: November 2023

A fundamental method for making implicit descriptions is provided by the notion of an algorithm(typically formalized as a Turing machine[HU79, Pap94]). A given algorithm might describe a particular object, or instead a function when inputs are allowed. To obtain the result explicitly one must execute the algorithm, and in general one may not even know whether the execution of the algorithm will halt in a finite number of steps.
Exponential Processes And Formal Proofs
Authors: Carbone Alessandra , Semmes Stephen
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we look at some basic examples of formal proofs in propositional logic. In particular, we shall indicate some simple ways in which exponential complexity can arise.

In this discussion of formal proofs, we shall use sequent calculus, as reviewed in Appendix A.
Stronger Forms Of Recursion
Authors: Carbone Alessandra , Semmes Stephen
Published: November 2023

So far in this book, we have mostly considered only modest amounts of “implicitness”, corresponding roughly to at most one level of exponential expansion in the passage to explicit constructions. In terms of formal proofs, we have been working in the realm in which only propositional rules of inference are used. In this chapter, we shall look at combinatorial structures whose behavior is more like that of formal proofs in which quantifier rules are allowed.
The Virtual Astronaut
Authors: Park Robert L
Published: November 2023

I reluctantly took my place at the witness table before the House Subcommittee of Space and Aeronautics on April 9, 1997, to testify about the International Space Station. I would be about as popular at this hearing as a skunk that wandered into a garden party. Seated between the head of NASA’s human spaceflight program on my left and a former astronaut on my right, I had been invited as the token critic. I had testified on the space station before congressional committees many times in the past, but there had always been some hope that Congress might be persuaded to cancel the project. But in 1997, although the space station was years behind schedule and several times over budget, its support in Congress and particularly in the Space Subcommittee was stronger than ever. With the much-delayed launch of the first module now
Passive approaches to detection in distance sampling
Authors: Lukacs P M , Franklin, A B , Anderson D R
Published: November 2023

Most distance sampling methods require active detection of animals from a line or point. Sometimes, active detection of animals is impractical or even impossible. Consider estimating abundance of a species of salamander. The species is small, cryptic, and spends much of the time under litter on the forest floor, so that active detection is not feasible, yet the salamander can be trapped in a pitfall trap. This example provides the impetus for considering passive approaches to distance sampling. These approaches are passive in that the animal detects itself by entering a trap whose distance from the sample point or line is known.
Analytical Mechanics
Authors: Fasano Antonio , Marmi Stefano
Published: November 2023

Analytical Mechanics is the investigation of motion with the rigorous tools of mathematics. Rooted in the works of Lagrange, Euler, Poincaré (to mention just a few), it is a very classical subject with fascinating developments and still rich of open problems. It addresses such fundamental questions as: Is the solar system stable? Is there a unifying ‘economy’ principle in mechanics? How can a point mass be described as a ‘wave’? And has remarkable applications to many branches of physics (Astronomy, Statistical Mechanics, Quantum Mechanics). This book was written to fill a gap between elementary expositions and more advanced (and clearly more stimulating) material. It takes up the challenge to explain the most relevant ideas (generally highly non-trivial) and to show the most important applications using a plain language and ‘simple’ mathematics, often through an original approach. Basic calculus is enough for the reader to proceed through the book. New mathematical concepts are fully introduced and illustrated in a simple, student-friendly language. More advanced chapters can be omitted while still following the main ideas. Anybody wishing to go deeper in some direction will find at least the flavour of recent developments and many bibliographical references. The theory is always accompanied by examples. Many problems are suggested and some are completely worked out at the end of each chapter. The book may effectively be used (and has been used at several Italian Universities) for undergraduate as well as for PhD courses in Physics and Mathematics at various levels.
One-Dimensional Motion
Authors: Fasano Antonio , Marmi Stefano
Published: November 2023

In Section 2.4 of the previous chapter, we mentioned the problem of the motion of a point particle P of mass m along a fixed smooth curve. We now want to consider the problem of determining the time dependence s = s(t), and hence of integrating equation (2.25); this equation has the form to which one has to associate initial conditions s(O) = s0, s(O) = v0. In two special cases, the problem is easily solvable: when the force depends only on the position of the particle f = f (s) or only on the velocity of the particle f = f (s). The first case is the most interesting, and we will consider it in detail in the following sections. Recall that when the force f (s) is associated with a potential U(s) it is possible to write down the energy integral (2.28).
Rigid Bodies: Geometry And Kinematics
Authors: Fasano Antonio , Marmi Stefano
Published: November 2023

It is clear that having fixed the configuration of the triangle AP2P3with respect to , the coordinates of every other point in the system are automatically determined as functions of the six prescribed parameters. From this follows the well-known property stating that a rigid system containing at least three points, not all lying on the same line, has six degrees of freedom. In the case of a rigid body with all points lying on the same line, the number of degrees of freedom is five (it is sufficient to determine the configuration of the segment AP2 with respect to ), while for a rigid body in the plane the degrees of freedom are three.
Lagrangian Formalism In Continuum Mechanics
Authors: Fasano Antonio , Marmi Stefano
Published: November 2023

The model of a continuum relies on the hypothesis that we can describe the distribution of mass through a density function p(P, t), in such a way that the mass of each measurable part D of the system under consideration is representable in the form A continuum can be three-dimensional, two-dimensional (plates or membranes) or one-dimensional (strings and beams). The following is a way to represent the configurations of a continuum with respect to a frame S = (0,x1,x2,x3). We choose a reference configuration C * and we denote by xi, x2,x3 the coordinates of its points. Any other configuration C is then described by a diffeomorphism:
A Cognitive Neuropsychology of Alzheimer’s Disease
Authors: Morris Robin G , Becker James T
Published: November 2023

This chapter provides a brief introduction to the issues that surround the cognitive neuropsychology of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The manner in which AD is considered determines the approaches taken for research and hence conclusions reached. Hence, the chapter briefly reviews issues such as the diagnosis of AD, where AD can be seen as a homogeneous illness, and how the framework and techniques derived from cognitive neuropsychology are best used in furthering our understanding of the nature of the disease.