bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An English Businessman in Sicily, 1806–1861
Authors: Neu Irene D.
Published: April 2006

This account of the activities of an energetic, highly diversified mercantile capitalist illustrates in some detail the world-wide flow of commodities and capital in the early nineteenth century. Aggressive merchandising and sophisticated administration were involved, and one by-product was a rich reservoir of investment capital for developing American industries.
The Decline of Railroad Commutation
Authors: Hilton George W
Published: April 2006

This article traces the economic factors in the decline of the railroad commuter business and examines the recent public-policy issues. The author is extremely skeptical of the rebirth of railroad commutation under any institutional arrangements and predicts further decline and possibly eventual extinction.
Multiple-Level Organization of a Great Railroad
Authors: Jenks Leland H.
Published: April 2006

Concluding his sophisticated analysis of the Pennsylvania Railroad's organizational structure (cf. BUSINESS HISTORY REVIEW, Summer, 1961), the anonymous reporter for the RAILROAD GAZETTE described in a supplementary article, reproduced here following Professor Jenks' interpretative comments, the decentralized management of the Pennsylvania's western divisions.
The Merchant and the Muse: Commercial Influences on American Popular Music before the Civil War
Authors: Stone James H.
Published: April 2006

In what ways and to what extent has business exerted an influence on cultural development? The question has had many answers. Most of these have dealt with the diversion of business wealth to specific cultural ends — the accumulation of great art collections, the importation of Italian villas, the subsidization of noted performers and craftsmen. Considerable attention has also been paid to the direct aesthetic contributions of businessmen who manufactured objects of art, or who were successful in imparting artistic attributes to objects of utility. The present article probes a more subtle but quite possibly more basic kind of business influence. Available evidence suggests that American musical tastes and talents were directly and forcefully molded by the commercial environment itself. Market characteristics of the music publishing trade, pricing policies, associationist activities, and other purely economic circumstances helped determine the nature of musical America. This case study involves a capsule in time and a small segment of the total culture, but its implications are broad and merit further investigation.
Engineering Education as Preparation for Management: A Study of M.I.T. Alumni
Authors: Rae John B.
Published: April 2006

The processes whereby technical know-how is translated into business decisions are not widely understood; neither is there much definitive information about the role the engineer historically has played in administration. The data upon which this paper is based suggests that management of modern enterprise has been increasingly dependent upon graduates of engineering schools. The facts and implications are of interest not only to historians, but to businessmen and educators.
Over the Counter
Authors: Milczewski Marion A.
Published: April 2006

Like the financial mart from which it derives its name, OVER THE COUNTER is designed for the types of exchanges not handled elsewhere. This feature has its origin in a demand among readers of business history for a place to compare ideas, voice comments on published articles and reviews, and publish research essays. Contributions are invited. The Editor and Advisory Board reserve the right to decide whether, on the basis of general interest, pertinence, and merit, such contributions will be published. OVER THE COUNTER will appear as often as the volume of contributions may dictate.
China and the Erie Canal
Authors: Hanyan Craig R.
Published: April 2006

China's Imperial Canal excited the imagination of a succession of travelers. While American and British canal promoters were interested in the technological details, the true importance of the Chinese precedent lay in the breadth of concept — a gigantic, state-supported geophysical manipulation in the interests of interregional trade.
New England Journalist: Highlights in the Newspaper Career of Charles H. Dow
Authors: Bishop George W.
Published: April 2006

A major accomplishment sometimes overshadows the background that made accomplishment possible. The creator of Wall Street's most famous investment formula was, in fact, a journalist and entrepreneur of note. His total contribution to the financial community was far larger than the theory for which he is remembered today.
The Beginnings of the Money-Back Guarantee and the One-Price Policy in Champaign-Urbana, Illinois, 1833–1880
Authors: Tonning Wayland A.
Published: April 2006

The widespread advent of money-back guarantees and one-price policies were symptomatic of a major transition in merchandising history. As trade grew and retail stores multiplied, standardization of terms and practices became apparent. Before 1864 Champaign-Urbana merchants had made little progress in developing a policy of standard prices. The postwar years brought increasing competition at the retail level, and the use of the money-back guarantee spread. When this practice became widespread, a one-price-to-all policy became essential. Some old-time merchants continued to haggle with customers, and barter trade in country produce created complications, but by the early 1870's the integration of one-price policies and money-back guarantees had been generally accomplished and the way paved for the advent of mass distribution.
New Perspectives on the Disposal of Western Lands in Nineteenth Century America
Authors: McClelland Peter D.
Published: April 2006

Professor McClelland reviews two book on land speculation, a traditional historical study by Malcom J. Rohrbough and another which falls in the category of “new economic history” by Robert Swierenga.
Business, Antitrust Policy, and the Industrial Board of the Department of Commerce, 1919
Authors: Himmelberg Robert F.
Published: April 2006

A mass of rhetoric proclaimed the Industrial Board as a Progressive measure to forestall a post-World War I depression through governmental price manipulation. After a closer look at the personalities and policies involved, Professor Himmelberg argues that the Board was, actually, an effort by organized business groups to force antitrust revision upon the Wilson administration.
Business and Workers' Welfare in the Progressive Era: Workmen's Compensation Reform in Massachusetts, 1880–1911
Authors: Asher Robert
Published: April 2006

Of all business-supported reform in the early twentieth century, none was more significant or widely accepted than workmen's compensation for industrial accidents. Using the experience of Massachusetts as a case study, Mr. Asher reveals the unique consensus of management and labor which produced “the first victory for the idea of the modern welfare state in the United States.”
Woodrow Wilson's Missionary to American Business, 1914–1915: A Note
Authors: Cuff Robert D.
Published: April 2006

In the manner of the Creole tradesmen of Louisiana, whose lagniappe to their patrons is legendary, the Editor offers a similar bonus to readers of the Review. Instead of trifling presents added to a purchase, however, our lagniappe will be notes and documents illustrative of the evolution of business enterprise.
Government and Business: A Case Study of State Regulation of Corporate Securities, 1850–1933
Authors: Nash Gerald D.
Published: April 2006

One of the aims of the States has continually been to provide a favorable legal framework for the work of responsible entrepreneurs and corporations issuing stock and to protect them both against illegitimate competition. This paper illustrates this relationship of government and business through a general survey of State administrative practices in executing corporate securities legislation and a closer study of the single State of California.
Fashion: Its Sense of History — Its Selling Power
Authors: Klein Adolph I.
Published: April 2006

A former Chairman of the New York Couture Group and now a Director of Affiliated Dress Manufacturers Inc., Mr. Klein demonstrates the modern businessman's awareness of the role of fashion in the history of business.
The Dark Tobacco Growers Cooperative Association, 1922–1926
Authors: Erwin Carl C.
Published: April 2006

After World War I, federal policy toward American farmers encouraged them to help themselves through cooperative action. This summary of the aspirations and failure of one of the resultant agri-business organizations provides better understanding of one commercial farm group's eventual appeal for government aid.
Notes on Commercial Travelers in Eighteenth-Century France
Authors: Taylor George V.
Published: April 2006

It has been widely held that the traveling salesman was a product of the railroad era. In the following paper, Professor Taylor shows that, at least in France, the commis voyageur played a role as early as the second half of the eighteenth century. These findings, important as they are for the history of marketing, pose new questions: Was France ahead of other countries in developing this form of sales organization? If France really led, did the other countries follow suit under French influence? Is it perhaps telling, for instance, that in Germany until late in the nineteenth century the Reisende was still called by its French name?
The Civil Aeronautics Board and the All-Cargo Airlines: The Early Years
Authors: Schary Philip B.
Published: April 2006

Following World War II, the American Civil Aeronautics Board was able to develop the highly uncertain air-cargo market at little risk to itself or to the Federal government. Professor Schary suggests this was because it delayed its regulatory action until after the pattern of competition in the industry had been naturally established.
Gresham's Law and the Suffolk System: A Misapplied Epigram
Authors: La Force J. Clayburn
Published: April 2006

In rejecting the traditional identification of the Suffolk System with Gresham's Law, this article uses economic theory to sharpen our perspective on historical business reality.
International Business Finance and Monetary Policy in Western Europe, 1384–1410
Authors: van der Wee Herman
Published: April 2006

Professor van der Wee reviews Raymond de Roover's important new study of medieval business history, The Bruges Money Market around 1400.
Individualism and Association in French Industry, 1820–1848
Authors: Stearns Peter N.
Published: April 2006

The difficult reconciliation of individualism with economic and social pressures toward cooperation is the focus of this study of French businessmen.
Canadian National Railway Records
Authors: Andreassen John C. L.
Published: April 2006

A progress report on the attempts being made to organize the records of a major North American transportation corporation so that they will be available and useful to historians.
Plan For the Establishment of a War Industry in the Imperial Dominions During the Thirty Years' War
Authors: F.R.
Published: April 2006

In the manner of the Creole tradesmen of Louisiana, whose lagniappe to their patrons is legendary, the Editors offer a similar bonus to readers of the Review. Instead of trifling presents added to a purchase, however, our lagniappe will be documents illustrative of the evolution of business enterprise. It is hoped thus to provide a wider availability of the raw materials of business history to teachers and researchers.
Factory Legislation and Management Modernization during Japan's Industrialization, 1886–1916
Authors: Taira Koji
Published: April 2006

Faced with a labor shortage at a crucial point in the industrialization of Japan, tradition-oriented businessmen reacted not by raising wages but by longing for the authority-ordered labor relations of the past. Given this situation, the Meiji government moved to improve working conditions through non-economic means. Professor Taira shows that the debate over proposed factory legislation, along with the coming-of-age of a new generation of entrepreneurs, produced a “conversion” to modern management among businessmen of the late-Meiji generation.
Management Aims and Development Needs in Latin America
Authors: Lauterbach Albert
Published: April 2006

As Latin American businessmen assess their historical experience, how do they characterize their progress and future?
The Business Archivist: Problems and Perspectives
Authors: Ernst Joseph W.
Published: April 2006

A leading business archivist provides insights into the difficulties of selecting, organizing, and preserving corporate records. Dr. Ernst reflects on the future needs and responsibilities of the business archivist in a changing economic and social environment.
Structural and Labor Productivity Patterns in United States Manufacturing, 1849-1899
Authors: Niemi Albert W.
Published: April 2006

Professor Niemi formalizes the existing body of census data for detailed analysis of structural and labor productivity patterns in American manufacturing in the last half of the nineteenth century.
Oil and Antitrust: The Oil Cartel Case and the Cold War
Authors: Kaufman Burton I.
Published: April 2006

Nowhere was the postwar growth of multinational corporations more dramatic than in the petroleum industry. The major oil companies of the western nations were soon banded together in a complex of joint exploration, producing, refining, and marketing organizations. But efforts to advance criminal prosecution of the American companies under the antitrust laws soon ran head-on into overriding considerations of national security. The hardening of the Cold War, complicated by internal political weaknesses in Iran, persuaded both President Truman and President Eisenhower to soft-pedal litigation. In the end, criminal prosecution of joint production enterprises became civil suits against marketing and pricing agreements, which were settled by consent decree. This, according to Professor Kaufman, amounted to attacking “the tail but not the head or body of the energy tiger.”
Reflections on George Rogers Taylor's The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860: A Twenty-five Year Retrospect
Authors: Scheiber Harry N. , Salsbury Stephen
Published: April 2006

“All books are dead in twenty-five years,” Mr. Justice Holmes wrote to Sir Frederick Pollock. An example of Holmes’ mastery of the art of over-statement, the dictum has its notable exceptions, as even a relatively young discipline such as economic and business history reveals. Professors Scheiber and Salsbury make the case for the permanent impact of one such exception. At the Editor's discretion, communications like the following may be published in the future about other milestones.
American Wholesale Hardware Trade Associations, 1870–1900
Authors: Becker William H.
Published: April 2006

Hardware wholesalers organized trade associations in the late nineteenth century in an effort to achieve stability and uniformity in prices and profit margins. These organizations, like those of manufacturers in the same industry, met with some success.
Industrial Concentration and World War II: A Note on the Aircraft Industry
Authors: Reichardt Otto H.
Published: April 2006

Although some scholars argue that the United States government's procurement policies in World War II resulted in greater industrial concentration, this study indicates that such was not the case in the aircraft industry.
Brandeis and Lamont on Finance Capitalism
Authors: Abrahams Paul P.
Published: April 2006

Professor Abrahams edits a record of a 1913 conversation between reformer Louis Brandeis and Thomas W. Lamont of J. P. Morgan & Co. In the wake of the Pujo investigation of the “money trust,” the two discussed the nature and extent of economic power wielded by investment bankers as well as some specific issues such as interlocking directorates, competitive bidding for security issues, and greater publicity about securities transactions. This document reflects the long-run, fundamental conflict between social critics fearful of the concentration of economic power in America and businessmen who disclaim power because they believe their behavior is controlled by objective business considerations which operate for the good of society as a whole.
Marketing Patterns in the Antebellum American Iron Industry
Authors: Livesay Harold C.
Published: April 2006

Professor Livesay describes the prevailing marketing patterns in the various branches of the iron manufacturing industry in the United States before the Civil War. Iron products, like most antebellum manufactured goods, were distributed by independent merchants who played a dominant role in many aspects of economic life. The coming of integrated rail mills, however, foreshadowed the merchants' eventual decline later in the nineteenth century.
Management Accounting in an Early Integrated Industrial: E. I. duPont de Nemours Powder Company, 1903-1912
Authors: Johnson H. Thomas
Published: April 2006

The appearance of large, integrated industrial firms at the turn of the century encouraged the introduction of innovative accounting practices. Professor Johnson examines the centralized management accounting system that made it possible for one such firm, the DuPont Powder Co., to plan its long-term development and to avoid the internal inefficiency that sometimes accompanies enormous size.
Government Regulation and the Rise of the California Fruit Industry: The Entrepreneurial Attack on Fruit Pests, 1880–1920
Authors: Seftel Howard
Published: April 2006

Sensing the opportunity to reap great profits by selling fruit to hungry urban consumers back East, nineteenth-century entrepreneurs flocked to California to establish commercial orchards and citrus groves. Invasions of fruit pests, however, threatened years of investment and patient cultivation, and made the public wary of the uneven quality of California fruit. In this article, Mr. Seftel describes how fruit growers organized and called on government to check the menace. Between 1880 and 1920, orchard owners created an elaborate regulatory network, linking local, state, federal, and academic institutions with their enterprise. These fruit-growing capitalists came to believe that only compulsory compliance with government-enforced pest control regulations could ensure their success. During these four decades, the growing horticultural bureaucracy helped transform California fruit growing from an entrepreneurial venture of uncertain promise into the state's second largest industry.
The Federal Courts, Localism, and the National Economy, 1865–1900
Authors: Freyer Tony A.
Published: April 2006

It is a truism of American constitutional history that the federal judiciary was expected to facilitate interstate commerce. The right of individuals to remove cases to a federal court from locally prejudiced state courts was recognized under a wide range of circumstances. But it seemed less and less natural, as more and more of the nation's business came to be transacted by the “trusts” on a national basis, for corporations to be accorded the same rights. Professor Freyer shows that a major campaign, which had some success in the 1880s, was mounted to deny corporations the right of escape to federal courts. In the end, however, the nation's lawmakers recognized that the problem of the growing concentration of capital would have to be solved by something more sophisticated than frontier justice.
Government Support of Private Claims to Public Minerals: Western Mineral Rights
Authors: Libecap Gary D.
Published: April 2006

“Gold is where you find it,” said the old prospector. It has long been recognized, in one way or another, that it belongs to him who can find it and extract it, and that the rules of land tenure and use formed in an agrarian society would serve poorly to define legal rights. In the middle of the nineteenth century, the demand for gold was particularly high. Its vital significance to American economic growth is revealed in the fact that the chronic foreign trade deficit of the United States in these years was balanced by two main elements: capital imports and gold exports. Professor Libecap shows just how pragmatic Americans could be about the impact of economics upon law under such circumstances, and draws a picture of a land use code that proved as malleable as the glittering metal it called forth.
The Profitability of Antebellum Manufacturing: Some New Estimates
Authors: Vedder Richard K. , Gallaway Lowell E.
Published: April 2006

Will the lack of hard data forever preclude firm conclusions about the impact of industrialization upon antebellum America? Whether it does or not, it seems unlikely to prevent continuation of one of the liveliest debates in American economic history. Professors Vedder and Gallaway contribute their findings to the controversy, and conclude that the rate of profit on manufacturing capital before 1860 was much lower than recent work has suggested.
The New York Cotton Exchange and the Development of the Cotton Futures Market
Authors: Lipartito Kenneth J.
Published: April 2006

The development of a national market was one of the key features of the nineteenth-century economy. In this process, innumerable institutions played a role, some large and well-known, others neither so large, nor quite so well-known, at least to the public at large. One such organization was the New York Cotton Exchange. It evolved in the aftermath of the Civil War, and over the years grew from an informal, even ad hoc organization into a formalized institution that served both public and private functions. This article by Mr. Lipartito explores the development of the Exchange and its place in the shifting national market for cotton.
The Expansion of the New York Securities Market at the Turn of the Century
Authors: Smiley Gene
Published: April 2006

Since the landmark article of Thomas Navin and Marian Sears on the rise of the market for industrial securities in the Business History Review (XXIX, June 1955), there has been an active interest in the causal relationship between the remarkable upsurge in corporate mergers of industrial companies early in this century, and the greater activity of the securities markets. Professor Smiley adds to this literature with a study of interest rates and the growth of activity in what contemporaries called “financial banking” (lending money for transactions in securities) as opposed to commercial banking. There are limits to the inference of cause and effect relations from financial activity, however, and historians must continue to study these phenomena merger by merger in order to draw conclusions as to the reasons for them.
Entrepreneurial Dominance in Businesses Large and Small, Past and Present
Authors: Livesay Harold C.
Published: April 2006

Reiterating and broadening a theme broached by its author over a decade ago, this article seeks to redirect the attention of business historians to the central role of the individual entrepreneur in American economic history. In both giant corporations and small start-up firms, in the late twentieth century and the early nineteenth, it argues, the presence—or absence—of intelligent, organized, and creative entrepreneurs has determined the success or failure of companies much more clearly than has the nature of their organizational charts.
The Entrepreneurial Spirit in Colonial America: The Foundations of Modern Business History
Authors: Perkins Edwin J.
Published: April 2006

This wide-ranging discussion of the extent of entrepreneurship in colonial America surveys the recent historiography of the field and offers a reconceptualization. The article advances the view that a society “with pervasive entrepreneurial values” existed from the first years of English settlement in North America, and it examines the activities and goals of the primary occupational groups to demonstrate that thesis.
The Decline of U.S. Whaling: Was the Stock of Whales Running Out?
Authors: Davis Lance E. , Gallman Robert E. , Hutchins Teresa D.
Published: April 2006

Re-emerging from the disruption caused by the Revolution and the War of 1812, the American whaling industry grew to dominate the seas between 1820 and 1860, only to suffer a severe decline during and after the Civil War. In the following article, Professors Davis, Gallman, and Hutchins examine the hypothesis that the U.S. whaling industry collapsed because the stock of whales was being depleted. After investigating the size of the original whale populations, their breeding habits, and the estimates of whales taken during the nineteenth century, the authors conclude that the overfishing of whales of various species occurred either not at all or too late to have been a contributing factor in America's whaling decline.
Postal Subsidies for the Press and the Business of Mass Culture, 1880–1920
Authors: Kielbowicz Richard B.
Published: April 2006

Low second-class postage made it easy for national magazines and regional newspapers to reach their readers in the late nineteenth century. But the Post Office and some members of Congress questioned the wisdom of a policy that enabled advertising-filled publications to circulate at subsidized rates. This article traces the efforts to reform the postal policy governing periodicals, which became enmeshed in Progressive Era debates about the value of mass culture and government's role in promoting it.
The New Wave, the Old Guard, and the Bank Committee: William J. Grede at J. I. Case Company, 1953–1961
Authors: Miner Craig
Published: April 2006

J. I. Case Company in the late 1950s and early 1960s was a long-established business faced with the challenge of rapid technological and market change in the agricultural equipment industry. The contrasting styles and policies of Marc B. Rojtman and William J. Grede, Case's two presidents during this period, represented the management tension between the desire for radical experiment and the hope of maintaining the Case traditions of quality and character. Professor Miner's study, based on interviews and on Grede's extensive papers, concentrates on Grede as director and as president. It illuminates the impact of personality on management and illustrates the complexities of adapting an old company to a new industrial world.
“The Rusty Ribbon”: John Herbert Orr and the Making of the Magnetic Recording Industry, 1945–1960
Authors: Morton David L.
Published: April 2006

John Herbert Orr (1911-84) was an Alabama entrepreneur who formed Orradio Industries, Inc., a pioneering hightechnology firm that made magnetic recording tape. In 1945, Orr was among the U.S. Army Intelligence officials who investigated this technology, which was originally developed in Germany during the 1930s. Orr's early knowledge allowed him to establish Orradio in 1949 on a shoestring budget and to make it competitive with larger firms. When, after some uncertainty, tape became the standard medium for magnetic recorders, and as other uses such as data storage and videotape appeared, Orradio's sales expanded rapidly in the late 1950s. The company was purchased by a larger competitor, the Ampex Corporation, in 1959. The history of Orradio illustrates some of the technological, organizational, and locational problems associated with the establishment of a small high-technology firm in a new industry.
Kellogg's Six-Hour Day: A Capitalist Vision of Liberation through Managed Work Reduction
Authors: Hunnicutt Benjamin Kline
Published: April 2006

Historians have recently tried to explain why the century-long work-reduction movement ended in the 1940s. A history of Kellogg's Six-Hour day program reveals that the loss of business and management support contributed to this demise. Mainstream corporations such as Kellogg's once thought that managed work reduction would save capitalism, and they developed a capitalist vision of freedom from work remarkably similar to recent socialist writings. But Kellogg's management reversed course and ultimately opposed the Six-Hour day. Instead they developed more conventional corporate views: that industrial progress is defined by more work for more people, that increasing the number of jobs is a primary economic goal (but not the responsibility of the individual firm), and that work can be perfected to become the most satisfying part of life.
Intellectual Property Protection in the American Chicken–Breeding Industry
Authors: Bugos Glenn E.
Published: April 2006

The capture and protection of returns from research investments have always been issues in business; in the modern era, they have most often been dealt with through copyright and patent registration. In the chicken–breeding industry, however, the laws of nature served to safeguard the hybridization process and to provide a biological “lock” on specific strains. As new techniques of genetic manipulation came into play, chicken breeders, like others in bio–technology industries, had to reassess their use of intellectual property protection. The following article provides a history of the interplay among the tools for such protection, genetic research, and industry structure.
Physiological Science and Scientific Management in the Progressive Era: Frederic S. Lee and the Committee on Industrial Fatigue
Authors: Derickson Alan
Published: April 2006

This article explores the first attempt by American physiologists to assist employers with the stubborn problem of tired workers. It examines the work of Frederic Lee and the Committee on Industrial Fatigue, which was set up to increase productivity in the face of the long hours deemed necessary for war readiness. Despite the biomedical investigators' strenuous efforts and their incisive critique of Taylorism, however, corporate management found few practical uses for their findings and remedial proposals. Instead, industrial physiology helped to pave the way for rival consultants from psychology.
Church Archives in the United States
Authors: Sweet William Warren
Published: April 2006

Church archives in the United States have been a long time in receiving any serious consideration. The reason for the delay in giving attention to this subject is due largely to the fact that until recent years church archival materials were considered of slight importance on the part of the recognized historian. There have been, from the beginning of our history as a separate people, an abundance of materials bearing upon the development of organized religion. But any systematic attempt to gather church archival materials as such for the purpose of making them available for the historian and research worker was practically unheard of until more or less recent years. Among the influences which have been responsible for creating a live interest in church archives has been the fact that within the last twenty-five years the universities throughout the country have been turning out an ever increasing number of master's and doctor's theses on American church history subjects.
The Establishment of the Church of England: Its Constitutional and Legal Significance
Authors: Buckler F. W.
Published: April 2006

Among American churchmen and statesmen, there has been a tendency to regard the Establishment of the Anglican Church entirely in the light of a privilege conferred by the State on one church to the exclusion of others. Where the idea of the Establishment has been derived from the sight of the immunities and official endowment enjoyed by the church of the colonial governor, this point of view is natural. It determined the early statesmen of the young republic to dispense with a luxury which appeared to them to be pregnant with oppression and arrogance. Externally there is little to criticize in the view for it represents fairly accurately the relative position of the Anglican Church both in colonial and English history in the eyes of non-Anglican communions. Internally, however, the case is not as simple, as the Free Churchman, whether within or without the Anglican fold, has been ready to detect, and Cartwright here is in complete accord with Newman. The conflict was brought to an issue when the House of Commons rejected the proposals for the revision of the Book of Common Prayer of 1662 in two consecutive years, 1927 and 1928.
Berdyaev and Origen: A Comparison
Authors: Spinka Matthew
Published: April 2006

Canon Raven of the University of Cambridge, in his recently published book, expressed a significant, if somewhat startling, judgment regarding the historical trend of Western theology:

The first adequate theology, still perhaps the noblest ever formulated, [was] the Logos theology of the Greek Apologists, which had its fullest expression in the Christian Platonism of Clement of Alexandria and Origen. … It is one of the tragedies of history that the work of this brilliant succession of Christian thinkers was allowed not merely to come to an end, but to fall into neglect, oblivion and condemnation. If we are to handle effectively the task of elucidating a Christian theology for the twentieth century, we must, I think, ignore all the elaborate structures of later orthodoxy, Catholic and Protestant, which for today are literally irrelevant, and return to the point at which Origen was removed.
Conservative Versus Progressive Orthodoxy in Latter 19th Century Congregationalism
Authors: Swift David Everett
Published: April 2006

During the 19th century a concept, in itself neither religious nor anti-religious, modified the thought of a great number of Americans. This was the concept of gradual development. One application of this concept, which had a profound effect upon Congregational thought, was the assumption that insight into religious truth comes only gradually. This view seemed to threaten all formulations of tradition and all embodiments of revelation which had been assumed to be final and complete. Another concept, closely related to that of development, also gravely disturbed the New England theology of the latter 19th century. There was a revival of stress on the immanence of God within the created world. For certain Congregationalists, divine influence upon man came to be viewed as working wholly through the channels of natural law and natural growth, rather than by sudden invasion from without. To conservatives, this stress seemed to blur a central truth in evangelical theology, the perilous chasm between sinful men and the holy, judging God.
Religious Background of Russian Culture
Authors: Fedotov George P.
Published: April 2006

In the minds of many Americans Russia was born in the Revolution of 1917. Many Russians who first awakened to cultural life after that Revolution share this misconception. Yet Russia has a thousand-year-old past: she is one of the oldest nations in Europe. Her literature, her arts, particularly her music, had won the attention and the admiration of the world long ago. At the same time, the primitivity or backwardness of Russia in certain respects is undeniable. How can the highly refined civilization of a cultured few be reconciled with the barbarism of large strata of the people? And, on the other hand, what bridge can be thrown over the gulf created by the Revolution between the Russia of the past and the Russia of today? Radical and ruthless as any revolution may be, it is unable to destroy completely the continuity of life. After the waters of the flooded river recede into their shores the natural, permanent contours of the land reappear. A historically trained observer recognizes in Boishevist Russia the features of days long gone by.
Democratic Freedom and Religious Faith in the Reformed Tradition
Authors: Hudson Winthrop S.
Published: April 2006

During recent years there has been an interesting shift in the attitude of many historians with regard to the relationship of Calvinism to the development of democracy. A generation ago, the contention that modern democracy was a daughter of Calvinism was eminently respectable in academic circles. The fact that modern democracy arose and put down its strongest roots in lands most deeply influenced by the Reformed faith—in England, Scotland, Holland, America and Switzerland—was regarded as self-evident confirmation of this contention.
Abraham Kuyper and the Rise of Neo-Calvinism in the Netherlands
Authors: van der Kroef Justus M.
Published: April 2006

Few men in modern Dutch history have played such a significant role as Abraham Kuyper. A theologian of European renown, a church reformer whose activities lastingly changed the existing church order in his country, a statesman who during five decades of an active political career combined his religion with a unique theory of government, and last but not least, a journalist and outstanding man of letters, Kuyper, during the course of his long life, placed a stamp upon the civilization of the Netherlands which it never was to lose. The immense breadth of his intellect, sustained by a tremendous energy, allowed him to speak with authority on subjects ranging from Calvin's concept of grace, through Islamic architecture, to the future of colonial reform, and earned him the epithet of Abraham de Geweldige (Abraham the Magnificent). His greatest achievement, however, was the foundation of a system of religious dogma upon which he erected a political and social philosophy which in the Protestant Netherlands since 1850 was the only one of lasting influence.1
Church and State in Protestant Germany Before 1918
Authors: Drummond Andrew Landale
Published: April 2006

In the castle of Coburg there is a singular emblematic fresco of the seventeenth century. It depicts the wedding procession of Duke John Casimir, which is led by knights, falconers, and musicians. Then, drawn by the nuptial car, defile two sets of attendants—four councillors for civil affairs and three for ecclesiastical. So the Duke sets forth for Cythera, the isle of Venus. Here is a graphic symbol of the twin bureaucracy at the service of every German prince.1The principle ofcujus regio, ejus religioinevitably made pleasure, convenience, and power the motive of administration, sacred as well as secular.
St. Augustine's Conception of the State
Authors: Loetscher Frederick W.
Published: April 2006

In his celebrated lecture on the Confessions of St. Augustine the late Professor Adolf von Harnack declared: “Between St. Paul the Apostle and Luther the Reformer, the Christian Church has possessed no one who could measure him- self with Augustine; and in comprehensive influence no other is to be compared with him.” Not only was this North African bishop the chief luminary of Western Christendom in his own generation, but through his writings he fairly dominated the philosophy, the theology, and the ethics of the Middle Ages; he stimulated the medieval mystics, alike those who accepted and many of those who rejected the traditional dogmas; he inspired both the so-called forerunners of the Reformation and the leading humanists of the Renaissance; and in large measure he moulded the evangelical faith and piety of the Lutheran and especially of the Reformed churches from the days of their founders down to our own times. But in no realm of thought or life was his influence more potent or historically more significant than in that characteristic development of the relations of church and state that marked the millenial period beginning, less than half a century after his death, with the fall of the Western Empire in the year 476. He was the weightiest authority to whom emperors and popes could and did appeal for support in their age-long contest for the supreme power: the former to vindicate their independence in secular affairs, and the latter to prove their lordship over all other earthly potentates, whether temporal or spiritual.
Post-War Eastern Orthodox Churches
Authors: Spinka Matthew
Published: April 2006

From the downfall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the center of Eastern Orthodoxy slowly shifted from the Byzantine church, which suffered a tragic deterioration under the rule of the Turk, to the Empire of the Russian Orthodox tsars. Before the World War, the predominant rôle in numbers and resources as well as in spiritual and theological leadership was played by the church of Russia. Out of the total of some 144 millions of Orthodox adherents, the Russian membership comprised about 110 millions. By reason of its wealth and of the generous financial aid which it freely dispensed to the rest of the needy Orthodox communions, Russia exercised a far reaching, in some instances controlling, influence among them. Moreover, the Russian Slavophil theologians and publicists have been largely instrumental in the modernization of Orthodox theology which they have restated in modern philosophico-religious terms. In turn, the Russian thought has affected all Orthodox communions and has exercised a dominant theological influence over them.
Calvin's Conception of the “Communio Sanctorum”
Authors: Petry Ray C.
Published: April 2006

The year 1936 marks the four hundredth anniversary of the Institutes of the Christian Religion In that work is contained the mature expression of Calvin's religious thought. Attention may well be centered, at this time, upon one of the most procreative conceptions contained in the Institutes—a conception still rich in suggestions for our community of Christian life. The conception is that of the “societas fidelium” or the “communia sanctorum.” In the following study the “communia sanctorum” is considered in relation to its concept and to predestination, cult, discipline, and social service.
Friends of Humanity: A Quaker Anti-Slavery Influence
Authors: Fisher Miles Mark
Published: April 2006

The humanitarianism of the eighteenth century gave added impulse to the members of the Society of Friends to practice the gospel of love for all mankind. Since at first “they were in derision called Quakers,” it is most likely that all of their interests were sneered at. Nevertheless, they influenced other denominations by their anti-slavery appeals and popularized the idea of a “society” for humanitarian purposes as they gave full meaning to the words friends and humanity. The English Quakers were called “Friends of Thieves” because they worked for prison reform in London, and the American Quakers appear to be the first persons who were known as “Friends of Humanity” primarily because they opposed Negro slavery vehemently.
Luther and the War Against the Turks
Authors: Forell George W.
Published: April 2006

Modern psychoanalysis tells us that disease is the touchstone of the healthy mind. What is true in the realm of psychology is not less true in the realm of ethics. The most terrible disease in the realm of human relations is war and so we can say that war is the touchstone of a healthy ethical system. In its attitude toward war the weakness of an ethical system is revealed. In the war situation an ethical system is revealed as basically unrealistic if it proves unwilling to face the actual situation and therefore uses the escape of absolute pacifism. It is revealed as basically immoral if it condones any war to such an extent that it loses sight of sin and injustice and makes of that war a holy war or a crusade.
Protestantism and Capitalism in Pre-Revolutionary England
Authors: Charles  , George Katherine
Published: April 2006

It has become a truism of historical thought that some degree or kind of positive relationship exists between the ideology of Protestantism and the psychology of early capitalists. Statements of the nature of this relationship have varied, however, and have been often based upon inadequate sampling of the relevant literature or inexact analysis of Protestant social theory.
Menno Simons Research
Authors: Krahn Cornelius
Published: April 2006

Research in the realm of Mennonite thought, history and biography has been increasing since the beginning of this century and particularly since World War II. Approximately 120 doctoral dissertations alone were written in Europe and America since World War II dealing with some aspect of Anabaptism-Mennonitism. Numerous factors could be given as reasons. In Europe some confessional and denominational prejudices are disappearing because of the changing pattern of the European religio-cultural and political life. Some liberal Protestant theologians have become interested in the Left Wing Reformation and stimulated research in this field. On the other hand, the more tradition- bound scholars also have inspired the younger generation to investigate Anabaptism. The improved status of the Free Church in Europe has, since the great upheavals resulting from World Wars I and II, stimulated research. The old notion that the state church is the church and the splinter groups are sects is on its way out in European thinking. In America the theological and denominational atmosphere has more or less been of the nature of “to believe and let believe.” Anabaptism, as a Left Wing of the Reformation, has found more attention in the realm of research than any other group of its size since World War II.
A Layman Proposes Protestant Union: Robert Hales and the Helvetic Churches, 1700–1705
Authors: Bultmann William A.
Published: April 2006

In the early years of the eighteenth century the fear of French power fused into alliance nations and individuals who under other circumstances would have stood suspiciously apart. During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1713) the Protestant Circle of Princes fought for and with a Roman Catholic emperor; England recognized a would-be king of Spain, Charles III, and repudiated the would-be king of England, James III; Dutchmen and Englishmen accepted one another's aid, gracelessly, but to some purpose. Monarchs at the time, and historians later on, insisted that the war was not one of religion; nevertheless, a vast number of men then living viewed it as such.
Paganism and Christianity in Procopius
Authors: Downey G.
Published: April 2006

The great historian of the reign of Justinian (A. D. 527–565) was Procopius of Caesarea in Palestine. He wrote a history of the wars of Justinian, an account of the Emperor's building activities, and a slanderous Secret History, designed to be published after his own death, in which he made a vicious attack on Justinian and Theodora.
Pontius of Cluny, theCuria Romanaand the End of Gregorianism in Rome
Authors: White Hayden V.
Published: April 2006

Scholarly opinion is generally agreed that the order of Cluny reached its apogee during the abbacy of St. Hugh, who ruled from 1049 to 1109, and began its decline as a result of the misrule of his successor, Pontius of Melgueil, abbot from 1109 to 1122. The rule of Pontius' successor, Peter the Venerable (1122–1157), is generally regarded as an attempt to realize two aims: justification of Cluniac monasticism before the criticism of St. Bernard of Clairvaux and reparation of the damage done to the spiritual life at Cluny by Pontius. It is the purpose of this article to subject the accepted view of Pontius' career to scrutiny and to present an alternative interpretation of the known facts. This alternative view will be based upon the demonstration that the available evidence concerning Pontius' disgrace and condemnation can be properly understood only if it is set into the context of events which transpired in the Roman Curia from 1112 to 1130.3
The Rule of the Saints in American Politics
Authors: Brauer Jerald C.
Published: April 2006

It has been observed that in America the preachers act like politicians and the politicians talk like preachers. Recent developments in American politics have given renewed support to this observation. There are a number of possible explanations as to why the American public is so concerned, at this particular time in history, to appear as a godly people and nation. However, the question that immediately presents itself to the historian is why the American public so quickly responds to the religious motif in political life.