bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ARTIFICIAL FOOD COLORS AND HYPERACTIVITY
Authors: Rose Terry L.
Published: March 2006

The presence of a functional relationship between the ingestion of artificial food colors and an increase in the frequency and/or duration of selected behaviors that are representative of the hyperactive behavior syndrome was experimentally investigated. Two eight‐year‐old females, who had been on the Feingold K‐P diet for a minimum of 11 months, were the subjects studied. The experimental design was a variation of the BAB design, with double‐blind conditions. This design allowed an experimental analysis of the placebo phases as well as challenge phases. Data were obtained by trained observers on Out of Seat, On Task, and Physically Aggressive behaviors, as they occurred in the subjects' regular class setting. Results indicated (a) the existence of a functional relationship between the ingestion of artificial food colors and an increase in both the duration and frequency of hyperactive children.
RELAXATION EXERCISE WITH CEREBRAL PALSIED ADULTS SHOWING SPASTICITY
Authors: Ortega Deems F.
Published: March 2006

A method for improving the muscle incoordination associated with cerebral palsy was empirically tested. Relaxation exercises, involving the successive tensing and relaxing of the major muscle groups of the body, were performed by four adults with spastic quadraplegia. All four subjects were sheltered workshop employees. Their IQs ranged from normal to mentally deficient. Testing consisted of two timed‐trials of both the Placing Test and the Turning Test from the Minnesota Rate of Manipulation Tests. These tests measured the amount of time required to complete various manual manipulations involving pegs and pegboard. A multiple baseline across subjects design was employed to provide experimental control. All subjects showed significant improvement over baseline performance on the tests following the relaxation training. Limitations of this preliminary investigation and implications of these results for future research were noted.
FINDERS, KEEPERS?: AN ANALYSIS AND VALIDATION OF A FREE‐FOUND‐AD POLICY
Authors: Goldstein Richard S. , Minkin Bonnie L. , Minkin Neil , Baer Donald M.
Published: March 2006

A survey of Lost and Found classified sections in metropolitan and smaller newspapers revealed disparate rates between Lost ads and Found ads: Lost ads greatly outnumbered Found ads, probably because newspapers usually require the finders of lost personal property to pay for Found advertisements. The effect of a Free‐Found‐Ad policy on the rate of Found advertisements placed in the Lost and Found sections of three community newspapers was investigated using a multiple‐baseline design. The results suggested that the Free‐Found‐Ad policy was effective in increasing the rates of Found ads in all three newspapers. To determine whether increases in Found ads resulted in increases in recovered property, a sample of individuals who placed Found ads were surveyed in both baseline and treatment conditions and asked if the found items had been claimed by their owners. The Free‐Found‐Ad policy appeared to be effective in increasing the amount of personal property returned. The study concluded that community newspapers can provide incentives to increase such help‐giving or altruistic behaviors. The implications of this study for a general policy‐research strategy are discussed.
A METHOD FOR COMBINING OCCURRENCE AND NONOCCURRENCE INTEROBSERVER AGREEMENT SCORES
Authors: Harris Francis C. , Lahey Benjamin B.
Published: March 2006

Various statistics have been proposed as standard methods for calculating and reporting interobserver agreement scores. The advantages and disadvantages of each have been discussed in this journal recently but without resolution. A formula is presented that combines separate measures of occurrence and nonoccurrence percentages of agreement, with weight assigned to each measure, varying according to the observed rate of behavior. This formula, which is a modification of a formula proposed by Clement (1976), appears to reduce distortions due to “chance” agreement encountered with very high or low observed rates of behavior while maintaining the mathematical and conceptual simplicity of the conventional method for calculating occurrence and nonoccurrence agreement.
GENERALIZATION OF PARENT‐TRAINING RESULTS1
Authors: Koegel Robert L. , Glahn T. J. , Nieminen Gayla S.
Published: March 2006

Two experiments were conducted to assess the generalized effects of several different parent/teacher training programs. In Experiment I it was found that a brief demonstration of how to teach an autistic child new behaviors was sufficient to teach parents how to teach those children those behaviors. However, generalization to new child‐target behaviors did not take place. Another parent training program, which did not demonstrate how to teach any one specific child behavior, but was based on teaching the use of general behavior‐modification procedures, was effective in teaching the parents how to teach new child‐target behaviors. Experiment II then provided analyses of the individual effects of several components of the generalized training program. The results showed that videotape illustrations of the procedures, without the presence of a master teacher, were sufficient to teach the adults. However, sub‐parts of the videotapes produced highly specific training results, with each component changing corresponding areas of the adults' behaviors. Viewing of the entire package was necessary before the adults were able to improve the autistic children's behaviors. The study as a whole suggests the importance of obtaining multiple measures of the effects of parent and teacher training programs, including measures of acquisition and generalization of both adult and child behaviors.
BIOFEEDBACK AND RATIONAL‐EMOTIVE THERAPY IN THE MANAGEMENT OF MIGRAINE HEADACHE
Authors: Lake Alvin , Rainey Joseph , Papsdorf James D.
Published: March 2006

Twenty‐four migraine patients were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: (a) self‐monitoring of headache activity (waiting list), (b) frontalis EMG biofeedback, (c) digit temperature biofeedback, and (d) digit temperature biofeedback plus Rational‐Emotive Therapy (RET). Bidirectional control over the target physiological response was assessed through a reversal design in each session. Following at least a four‐week baseline, the three biofeedback groups received 8 to 10, 30‐minute sessions of bidirectional biofeedback training, scheduled twice a week. Subjects in the combined digit temperature biofeedback plus RET group received three 40‐minute sessions of RET as an addition to the third, fifth, and seventh biofeedback sessions. Records of daily home practice were kept throughout treatment and three‐month followup. Subjects on the waiting list monitored headaches for at least five months, corresponding to “baseline”, “treatment”, and three‐month followup. Digit temperature biofeedback alone and in conjunction with RET did not prove to be more effective than the control conditions. All the EMG subjects reduced headache activity to two‐thirds or less of the baseline level by the third month of followup. Bidirectional digit temperature performance did not improve with training, was demonstrated in only 33% of the biofeedback sessions, was not maintained over time, and was unrelated to improvement in headache activity. EMG subjects reported biofeedback performance to be an easier task and met the performance criterion on 85% of the sessions. The frequency of home practice contributed over 55% of the variance in retrospective estimates of headache improvement but was not related to changes in daily records of headache activity.
WITHDRAWAL OF CHRONIC CHLORPROMAZINE MEDICATION: AN EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
Authors: Marholin David , Touchette Paul E. , Stewart R. Malcolm
Published: March 2006

Approximately 50% of all institutionalized, mentally retarded adults receive psychotropic medication to control inappropriate behavior. In this study, behaviors exhibited by five retarded adults were formally observed while they were on and off medication. Each subject had been receiving chlorpromazine for six or more years prior to the start of the study. The drug was withdrawn and readministered using a double‐blind B‐A‐B (drug‐placebo‐drug) design. Effects were highly individualized. Some desirable behavior emerged when chlorpromazine was discontinued.
EFFECTS OF SELF‐MONITORING AND FEEDBACK ON RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION
Authors: Winett Richard A. , Neale Michael S. , Grier H. Cannon
Published: March 2006

Prior research has indicated that frequent feedback could reduce residential electricity consumption by 10% to 15%. However, because feedback was primarily given in written form, this procedure might not be practical. The present study evaluated a potentially more practical feedback procedure during peak‐use periods with high electricity consuming households. The study was conducted during the winter in an upper‐middle class neighborhood of almost identical, all‐electric townhouses (N = 71) that averaged about 170 KWH per day per household for a monthly bill of over $200. Twelve households received daily written feedback. Sixteen households (self‐monitoring) were taught to read their outdoor electricity meter and to record KWH used every day. A comparison group was composed of 14 households that had volunteered to participate and 29 others that had only given permission to have their meters read. During a 1‐month period that the procedures were in effect, the feedback group reduced consumption by 13% and the self‐monitoring group by about 7%. These reductions, relative to the comparison group, were maintained during an early spring 1‐month follow‐up period and, to a lesser extent, during a 6‐week warm spring period. Self‐monitoring participants were highly reliable and persistent meter readers. Reductions in electricity use were reported by households to be largely attributable to lowering of the heat thermostat, and large monetary and KWH savings were found. Techniques to make self‐monitoring cost‐effective important components of the self‐monitoring procedure, methods to apply self‐monitoring more broadly, and plans to combine behavioral procedures with physical technology are discussed.
SUPPRESSION OF SELF‐STIMULATION: THREE ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES
Authors: Harris Sandra L. , Wolchik Sharlene A.
Published: March 2006

Four boys with autistic‐like behavior were treated for self‐stimulatory behavior with three different treatment procedures—time‐out, differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO), and overcorrection. All four boys showed a rapid response to the overcorrection procedure. Three boys demonstrated some evidence of decrement in responding with time‐out. During the DRO procedure, one showed a modest decrease, two showed no change, but one exhibited a consistent increase in responding under this condition. A multiple baseline applied to one of the subjects failed to reveal any generalization of suppression from one setting to another. A strong but not perfect relationship was found between a frequency and a duration measure of self‐stimulation. There was some evidence of negative side effects for one boy during overcorrection and for another during time‐out. None of these negative side effects was enduring. There was also some indirect evidence that overcorrection facilitated appropriate play.
ALTERNATING TREATMENTS DESIGN: ONE STRATEGY FOR COMPARING THE EFFECTS OF TWO TREATMENTS IN A SINGLE SUBJECT
Authors: Barlow David H. , Hayes Steven C.
Published: March 2006

A little used and often confused design, capable of comparing two treatments within a single subject, has been termed, variously, a multielement baseline design, a multiple schedule design, and a randomization design. The background of these terms is reviewed, and a new, more descriptive term, Alternating Treatments Design, is proposed. Critical differences between this design and a Simultaneous Treatment Design are outlined, and experimental questions answerable by each design are noted. Potential problems with multiple treatment interference in this procedure are divided into sequential confounding, carryover effects, and alternation effects and the importance of these issues vis‐a‐vis other single‐case experimental designs is considered. Methods of minimizing multiple treatment interference as well as methods of studying these effects are outlined. Finally, appropriate uses of Alternating Treatments Designs are described and discussed in the context of recent examples.
GENERALIZATION BY AUTISTIC‐TYPE CHILDREN OF VERBAL RESPONSES ACROSS SETTINGS
Authors: Handleman Jan Sheldon
Published: March 2006

Generalization of verbal behavior by autistic‐type children across physically different settings was assessed. Four boys learned responses to common questions in two settings at school and were probed to determine transfer of learning to home. Three of the children demonstrated little generalization to home when trained in a cubicle. Greater generalization was indicated when they received training at varied locations. The fourth child generalized most responses to his home regardless of training setting. Simple manipulations of the school environment to more closely simulate home conditions may facilitate transfer of training to the natural environment.
PROVIDING A LESS RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENT FOR PROFOUNDLY RETARDED PERSONS BY TEACHING INDEPENDENT WALKING SKILLS
Authors: Gruber Barbara , Reeser Richard , Reid Dennis H.
Published: March 2006

A basic right of all handicapped persons is to live in the least restrictive environment possible. In this investigation, procedures were evaluated for teaching four institutionalized males with profound retardation necessary skills to increase their individual freedom of movement. Following baseline, a travel training program with a backward chaining format was implemented to teach each person to walk independently from his living area to school. Travel training included instructions, practice, praise, feedback, verbal reprimands, prompts, and edible reinforcers. Each resident began walking the entire distance to school independently during training and also began walking back to the living area, although the latter set of skills was not specifically trained. Following termination of the formal investigation, follow‐up measures of 1 to 8 weeks showed the residents continued going to school independently. A survey of residential facilities in 43 states provided social validation for the seriousness of the problems associated with transporting seriously retarded persons to school. Also, time efficiency measures indicated that training independent travel resulted in reductions of staff time required in school transportation. Results were discussed in light of the potential contributions of behavior analysis in providing less restrictive environments for seriously handicapped persons.
PERCENTAGE AGREEMENT AND PHI: A CONVERSION TABLE
Authors: Lewin Lewis M. , Wakefield James A.
Published: March 2006

Studies in applied behavior analysis have used two expressions of reliability for human observations: percentage agreement (including percentage occurrence and percentage nonoccurrence agreement) and correlational techniques (including the phi coefficient). The formal relationship between these two expressions is demonstrated, and a table for converting percentage agreement to phi, or vice‐versa, is presented. It is suggested that both expressions be reported in order to communicate reliability unambiguously and to facilitate comparison of the reliabilities from different studies.
ENURESIS CONTROL THROUGH FADING, ESCAPE, AND AVOIDANCE TRAINING
Authors: Hansen Gordon D.
Published: March 2006

A twin‐signal device that provides both escape and avoidance conditioning in enuresis control is described involving a procedure documented by two case studies. In addition, a technique of fading as an adjunct to the process is utilized with one subject. The results indicate that a combination of operant and respondent conditioning involving escape and avoidance training may be an improvement over the more traditional conditioning procedure.
TRANSFER BETWEEN RECEPTIVE AND PRODUCTIVE LANGUAGE IN DEVELOPMENT ALLY DISABLED CHILDREN
Authors: Keller Martha Freese , Bucher Bradley D.
Published: March 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between receptive and productive language acquisition in developmentally disabled children. A single‐subject operant methodology was employed to evaluate the effect of training in one mode on performance in the other mode. Noun labels for pictured objects were used as the unit of analysis. Six children with severe language deficits participated in the experiment. Each subject learning to identify a different set of five pictures in each of four successively administered training conditions. In the first condition, a set of pictures was trained in the productive mode. In the second condition, a different set was trained in the receptive mode. These training conditions were then repeated using two additional sets of pictures. Training was done using reinforcement for correct responses and prompting for incorrect responses. Nonreinforced probes were conducted throughout training to assess performance in the untrained mode. The pictures in each set were trained successively so that transfer across the language modes could be studied separately for each response trained. All subjects successfully met the criteria for learning each picture set in both the receptive and productive training conditions. The probe data showed that opposite‐modality performance improved as a function of both types of training, although performance levels differed. After productive training, five of six subjects' performance was highly accurate on receptive probes. By contrast, receptive training resulted in limited correct productive performance. Transfer from receptive training was negatively related to subjects' use of extra‐experimental labels on productive probe trials. In addition to these competing response errors, subjects frequently made articulation errors. The findings suggest that for retarded children similar to those studied here, productive training will be sufficient to establish accurate receptive performance on vocabulary tasks. However, receptive training does not appear to be either a necessary or a sufficient condition for productive performance. The results do not support the reception‐then‐production training sequence based on normal language development.
THE EFFECTS OF FEEDBACK ON BLOOD PRESSURE DISCRIMINATION
Authors: Cinciripini Paul M. , Epstein Leonard H. , Martin John E.
Published: March 2006

Discrimination of blood pressure in the natural environment as a function of feedback was assessed. Seventeen normotensives screened for blood pressure lability were randomly assigned to two groups. These subjects were then asked to estimate their systolic and diastolic blood pressure values two times per day over a 4‐week period. Feedback for accuracy of blood pressure discriminations was implemented across the two groups in a multiple baseline fashion, using a feedback withdrawal condition in Group I to assess maintenance effects over time. Results showed improvement in discrimination accuracy for subjects in both groups when feedback was used, and no decrement in performance over a 2‐week period after feedback was removed for subjects in Group I. Discrimination of systolic pressures improved at a slightly faster rate than discrimination of diastolic pressures.
USE OF A SELF‐RECORDING AND SUPERVISION PROGRAM TO CHANGE INSTITUTIONAL STAFF BEHAVIOR
Authors: Burg Matthew M. , Reid Dennis H. , Lattimore Jennifer
Published: March 2006

The use of a self‐recording and supervision program to increase interactions between direct care staff and profoundly retarded persons in a state residential facility was investigated. Following baseline, staff were provided with instructions regarding what to self‐record, criteria for how many interactions to record, and a prepared card on which to make the recordings. Throughout the study, the staff supervisor monitored intermittently staff‐client interactions. Observations indicated that when the staff recorded their interactions with clients in a loosely structured dayroom setting, the rate of interactions increased noticeably for each staff person. Behavioral ecology measures indicated that other staff responsibilities, such as maintaining the cleanliness of residents and the physical area, were not affected detrimentally when social interactions increased and actually showed small improvements. Additionally, small decreases in resident self‐stimulatory and disruptive/aggressive behaviors occurred when the rate of social interactions from staff persons increased. Follow‐up measures indicated that the rate of staff self‐recording was variable, but when staff did self‐record, the increased rate of staff‐client interactions maintained.
TIME DELAY: A TECHNIQUE TO INCREASE LANGUAGE USE AND FACILITATE GENERALIZATION IN RETARDED CHILDREN
Authors: Halle James W. , Marshall Ann M. , Spradlin Joseph E.
Published: March 2006

Institutional breakfast‐serving procedures were manipulated to assess what effect changes in that aspect of the environment would have on requests for food. During baseline, six severely retarded children were required to pick up their food trays and return to their seats. The first manipulation, delaying the giving of the food tray for 15 seconds, served as a cue to evoke meal requests by three of the six children. Two of the remaining three required a model of an appropriate meal request (i.e., “Tray, please.”) at the end of the 15‐second delay before they began requesting their meals. To evoke meal requests from the sixth child, an intensive training procedure, consisting of massed trials of delay and modeling, was required. Three different probes were administered to assess generalization across the people serving the meals, across mealtimes, and across both people and mealtimes. Typically, generalized responding in these new situations could be prompted by use of the 15‐second delay procedure. Functional aspects of the delay procedure and its potential usefulness for evoking speech and facilitating generalization are discussed.
THE NATURE OF BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT: A COMMENTARY
Authors: Nelson Rosemery O. , Hayes Steven C.
Published: March 2006

This special issue of the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis provides the reader with a sample of current work in behavioral assessment. The purpose of this paper is to present an overview of behavioral assessment and to place the other articles in context of this developing area.
ISSUES IN MULTIVARIATE ASSESSMENT OF A LARGE‐SCALE BEHAVIORAL PROGRAM
Authors: Filipczak James , Archer Margaret B. , Neale Michael S. , Winett Richard A.
Published: March 2006

Several social and research issues directly affected the development and implementation of multivariate assessment in a large community‐based applied research program. Examples are drawn from experiences of the Preparation through Responsive Educational Programs Project for disruptive and skill deficient adolescents in suburban, rural, and urban junior high school settings, focusing on the assessment of academic and social skill development and long‐term skill maintenance. The social context altered both project treatment and follow‐up plans, requiring assessment of potentially unintended effects and decreasing consistency across sites. Future community acceptance of such programs may depend on the investigators' adaptation to diverse community pressures for program conduct and assessment and the measurement of phenomena that are not always directly observable.
PROGRAM EVALUATION RESEARCH: AN EXPERIMENTAL COST‐EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS OF AN ARMED ROBBERY INTERVENTION PROGRAM
Authors: Schnelle John F. , Kirchner Robert E. , Galbaugh Frank , Domash Michelle , Carr Adam , Larson Lynn
Published: March 2006

An armed robbery alarm system was implemented in 48 different stores in two separate geographical areas for 6 months and 12 months, respectively. The alarms were placed in the two separate areas at different times and all alarms were eventually removed. Thus, multiple baseline and reversal strategies were used to evaluate program impact. A device planted in a cash drawer was triggered whenever “bait” money was removed from the drawer sending an alarm signal directly to police cars and headquarters. Onscene apprehensions of armed robbers within target stores were greatly increased even though the armed robbery systems did not deter robbery incidents nor influence the court disposition of the cases. There was also no crime deterrence, crime displacement, or increased apprehensions in either the immediate neighborhoods of target stores or on a city‐wide basis. The cost effectiveness of the program was calculated to be poor even though the program is being maintained because of the absence of an alternative robbery apprehension technology.
ASSESSMENT OF SMOKING BEHAVIOR
Authors: Frederiksen Lee W. , Martin John E. , Webster Jeffrey S.
Published: March 2006

The nature of smoking risk is first reviewed and a classification of procedures for assessing smoking behavior is presented. Areas requiring assessment include not only the traditionally measured smoking rate, but also the substance used and topography of consumption. Each of these areas may be assessed through a variety of self‐report, observational, or indirect techniques. These techniques as well as some of their advantages and disadvantages are presented. Recently published (1975 to mid‐1978) data‐based smoking research appearing in four journals (Addictive Behaviors, Behavior Therapy, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, and Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology) is then reviewed with respect to measurement reliability and the use of multiple measures. Results show a strong tendency to assess only the risk area of smoking rate and a low frequency of appropriate measurement reliability checks, especially during baseline and treatment phases. Some of the implications of these results are discussed.
MULTIVARIATE EFFECTS OF DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS ON THE ANALOGUE ASSESSMENT OF HETEROSOCIAL COMPETENCE
Authors: Martinez‐Diaz Jose A. , Edelstein Barry A.
Published: March 2006

The present study assessed the effects of a contextual demand manipulation (pretreatment assessment versus experiment) and an instructional demand manipulation (high demand for competent behavior versus neutral demand) on the analogue assessment of heterosocial competence. Also assessed was the interaction between each demand manipulation and subject characteristics (high‐frequency dating/low heterosocially anxious versus low‐frequency dating/high heterosocially anxious college males). Students were assigned randomly to one of four groups receiving differential information and instructions. Students completed a battery of five standard paper‐and‐pencil questionnaires, responded out loud to 10 taped social situations, and conversed with a female confederate while being videotaped for five minutes. Multivariate analyses revealed highly significant differences between subject groups and between contextual manipulation groups. Univariate analyses revealed that only 3 of the 16 dependent measures, including 2 of the self‐reports, were significantly affected by the contextual demand. Results are discussed in light of previous studies of phobic behavior and social skills. Various avenues for future research were presented.
BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT FOR PEDIATRIC INTENSIVE CARE UNITS1
Authors: Cataldo Michael F. , Bessman Cindee A. , Parker Lynn H. , Pearson Joyce E. Reid , Rogers Mark C.
Published: March 2006

Two studies were conducted to analyze behaviors of staff and patients on a Pediatric Intensive Care Unit (PICU). In the first study, behavioral observation procedures were employed to assess patient state, physical position, affect, verbal behaviors, visual attention and activity engagement, and staff verbal behavior. On the average, one‐third of the patients were judged to be conscious and alert but markedly nonengaged with their environment. In the second study, a member of the hospital staff provided alert patients with individual activities to determine whether a simple environmental manipulation could positively affect behavior of children in intensive care. Employing a reversal design, the activity intervention was found to increase attention and engagement and positive affect, and to decrease inappropriate behavior. Both studies demonstrate that behavioral assessment procedures can provide an empirical basis for designing PICU routines affecting children's psychosocial status, and, thus, complement current procedures designed to provide quality medical care.
IN VIVO EFFECTS OF PEER MODELING ON DRINKING RATE
Authors: DeRicco Denice A. , Niemann Joan E.
Published: March 2006

One female subject drank beer with four female confederate models and two participant observers in a small town tavern. A single subject repeated measures reversal design was used. Condition 1 indicated subject baseline drinking rate. For the first intervention one confederate modeled at a rate 50% less than the subject's baseline rate. Interventions II and III were identical to Intervention I except that two confederates modeled at a rate 50% less than the subject's baseline rate for Intervention II and four confederates modeled at a rate 50% less than the subject's baseline rate for Intervention III. Interventions were separated by returns to baseline. The study was concluded with a final return to baseline. There was no change in subject drinking rate as a function of either one or two confederates modeling the 50% rate. However, when four models drank at the lower rate, subject drinking rate matched that of the four confederate models. Implications and suggestions for further research on modeling are presented.
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERPERSONAL SKILLS TRAINING ON THE SOCIAL SKILL ACQUISITION OF MODERATELY AND MILDLY RETARDED ADULTS
Authors: Bates Paul
Published: March 2006

Sixteen moderately and mildly retarded adults were selected from a group residential facility and randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. The experimental group received a 12‐session interpersonal skills training program consisting of instruction in the following areas: (1) Introductions and Small Talk, (2) Asking for Help, (3) Differing with Others, and (4) Handling Criticism. The social skills instructional package included verbal instruction, modeling, role playing, feedback, contingent incentives, and homework. As a result of this training program, moderately and mildly retarded adults acquired new social skills as evidenced by performance on a situation role play assessment. These gains generalized to untrained role play situations but did not result in significant group differences when assessed in a more natural setting (i.e., local grocery store).
GENERALIZATION AND TRANSFER BETWEEN COMPREHENSION AND PRODUCTION: A COMPARISON OF RETARDED AND NONRETARDED PERSONS
Authors: Cuvo Anthony J. , Riva Maria T.
Published: March 2006

The study compared the acquisition, generalization, transfer, and maintenance of language comprehension and production responses by persons at two IQ levels: mentally retarded (N = 10) and nonretarded (N = 10). The two levels of the IQ Level factor were combined factorially with two levels of a Training Condition factor: Comprehension‐Production and Production Only. Participants in the former groups were trained sequentially to (a) comprehend coin labels by pointing, and then (b) produce verbally the correct coin label. Participants in the Production Only groups were trained on the latter response only. A three‐factor mixed design with one repeated measure plus a multiple baseline across coin responses was employed. Results indicated that both mentally retarded and nonretarded subjects attained a high level of acquisition and maintained their performance on 1‐ and 4‐week follow‐up tests. No difference occurred between mentally retarded and nonretarded participants in magnitude of acquisition, but the mentally retarded groups took approximately three times as many trials to complete training. Data also suggested, contrary to past research, that generalization from comprehension to production was bidirectional, with no difference in magnitude between mentally retarded and nonretarded subjects. Transfer from comprehension to production occurred in both nonretarded and retarded subjects; comprehension training facilitated a savings of trials in production training. These results show that language differences between retarded and nonretarded persons are quantitative rather than qualitative as some past research may have suggested.
THE EXPERIMENTAL MODIFICATION OF SONOROUS BREATHING
Authors: Josephson Stephen C. , Rosen Raymond C.
Published: March 2006

Loud snoring is a noxious habit and potential personal health risk. We are reporting the first experimental study of simple behavioral techniques for the modification of chronic snoring. Twenty‐four volunteers participated in a repeated measures, randomized group design over 2 weeks of intervention and one‐month follow‐up. Treatment groups included a contingent‐awakening and breathing retraining (self‐control) condition. Both treatment groups were compared to a no‐treatment control. Despite considerable intrasubject variability and the lack of an adequate attention‐placebo control group, objective assessment indicated a substantial reduction in snoring amplitude and frequency in both treatment groups. Follow‐up assessments further demonstrated maintenance of change. This study has implications for modification of sleep habit disorders and learning without awareness.
METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS IN THE USE OF PARTICIPANT OBSERVERS
Authors: Hay Linda Rudin , Nelson Rosemery O. , Hay William M.
Published: March 2006

A multiple baseline design across observed students and teachers was used to investigate the relationship between observations by participant observers and changes in the behavior of those observed (“observee” reactivity) and the observers (observer‐mediator reactivity). Two teachers recorded consecutively the appropriate student verbalizations of four students and two teachers recorded the inappropriate student verbalizations of four students. Independent observers simultaneously recorded student verbalizations (appropriate and inappropriate) as well as teacher behaviors (positive, negative, and instruction) throughout all phases of the study. The results substantiated the prediction of “observee” reactivity and observer‐mediator reactivity in one of four classrooms. The results of the present study suggest that in some instances, observations by participant observers may result in changes in the behavior of those being observed (“observee” reactivity) and/or the observers (observer‐mediator reactivity).
GENERALIZATION OF NAMING RESPONSES TO OBJECTS IN THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT AS A FUNCTION OF TRAINING STIMULUS MODALITY WITH RETARDED CHILDREN
Authors: Welch Steven J. , Pear Joseph J.
Published: March 2006

Picture‐cards, photographs, and real objects were compared as training stimuli in order to determine which best facilitated the generalization of naming responses learned in a special training room to real objects in the natural environments of four retarded children. The amount of transfer of naming behavior between the three stimulus modes and the average amount of training time required per stimulus mode were also assessed. Three of the four children displayed considerably more generalization to the real objects in the natural environment when they were trained with real objects. The fourth child displayed substantial generalization regardless of the training stimulus mode. No particular training stimulus mode clearly facilitated the transfer of naming responses to other modes or greatly reduced training time. The results of two supplementary procedures conducted with one child showed that: (1) training in several environments facilitated generalization to real objects in the natural environment when real objects were used as training stimuli but not when picture‐cards were used, and (2) transfer from picture‐cards to real objects was facilitated by training other picture‐cards and the real objects portrayed by them at the same time.
BEHAVIORAL SELF‐CONTROL OF STUTTERING USING TIME‐OUT FROM SPEAKING
Authors: James Jack E.
Published: March 2006

Research has shown that stuttering may be attenuated by a variety of response‐contingent consequences. To date, however, few attempts have been made to develop comprehensive clinical procedures based on the operant manipulation of stuttering. The present research examined the efficacy of self‐initiated response‐contingent time‐out from speaking in two exeperiments involving a single subject. Multiple baseline designs were used in which the subject's speech was monitored in a variety of laboratory and community settings. In Experiment 1, the time‐out procedure produced reliable reductions in disfluency across all observational settings. Experiment 2 combined a response‐cost contingency with time‐out in an attempt to increase the reliability with which the subject timed himself out, and to increase further the effectiveness of the procedure. Increases in reliability were produced, and the associated improvements in fluency were maintained at 6‐ and 12‐months' follow‐up.
ASSESSMENT AND TREATMENT OF CLINICAL FEARS IN MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN
Authors: Matson Johnny L.
Published: March 2006

Three moderately mentally retarded females ranging from 8 to 10 years of age were treated for long‐standing fears. These children had refused to talk with or be in the same general vicinity of adults other than their parents, a few close family members, and to a lesser degree, their teacher. To establish an accurate criterion for successful performance on dependent measures, participants were matched on age, sex, and level of mental retardation with children having “normal” amounts of fear. Dependent measures included approaching and talking to strange adults as well as child ratings of overall fear. Participant modeling was given by the mother who provided a sufficient amount of physical and verbal prompts to ensure that an acceptable greeting of adults specified by the mother were made. These prompts were gradually faded out as treatment progressed. Treatment, which was given in a multiple baseline format across subjects, proved effective and gains in the reduction of fears were maintained at the six month follow‐up.
SETTING EVENTS IN APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS: TOWARD A CONCEPTUAL AND METHODOLOGICAL EXPANSION
Authors: Wahler Robert G. , Fox James J.
Published: March 2006

The contributions of applied behavior analysis as a natural science approach to the study of human behavior are acknowledged. However, it is also argued that applied behavior analysis has provided limited access to the full range of environmental events that influence socially significant behavior. Recent changes in applied behavior analysis to include analysis of side effects and social validation represent ways in which the traditional applied behavior analysis conceptual and methodological model has been profitably expanded. A third area of expansion, the analysis of setting events, is proposed by the authors. The historical development of setting events as a behavior influence concept is traced. Modifications of the basic applied behavior analysis methodology and conceptual systems that seem necessary to setting event analysis are discussed and examples of descriptive and experimental setting event analyses are presented.
REINFORCER VARIATION: IMPLICATIONS FOR MOTIVATING DEVELOPMENTALLY DISABLED CHILDREN
Authors: Egel Andrew L.
Published: March 2006

Motivating developmentally disabled children to participate in educational activities can be very difficult. This is especially true for children diagnosed autistic. Because there is some evidence to suggest that stimulus variation may influence motivation, the present study investigated the effects of constant vs. varied reinforcer presentation on correct responding and on‐task behavior. Results from a reversal design showed declining trends in both correct responding and on‐task behavior when the same reinforcer was consistently presented, whereas, varying the reinforcers produced significantly improved and stable responding. The results are discussed in relation to the literature on stimulus variation and its effects on responsivity.
SELF‐SELECTION OF STANDARDS BY CHILDREN: THE RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF PUPIL‐SELECTED AND TEACHER‐SELECTED STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE
Authors: Dickerson E. Anne , Creedon Carol F.
Published: March 2006

This study examines the effects of contingent reinforcement under conditions of pupil‐selected and teacher‐selected performance standards upon pupils' academic response rates. The academic response rate was measured by the number of correct responses emitted per session. Thirty pupils (15 second‐graders and 15 third‐graders) were randomly assigned to one of three experimental groups, based on matched triplets. One group worked under pupil‐selected standards; the second group worked under standards selected by the experimenter with each pupil yoked to a member of the pupil‐selected standards groups. Both groups participated in the calculation of their daily earnings. The third group served as a no‐contingency control group. Baseline academic response rates on writing and math tasks were determined. During the experimental sessions reinforcement was provided in the form of points which were later traded for tangible rewards. The pupil‐selected standards group showed a significantly greater number of correct responses in the writing and math tasks than the externally selected standards group.
THE EFFECTS OF REARRANGING WARD ROUTINES ON COMMUNICATION AND EATING BEHAVIORS OF PSYCHOGERIATRIC PATIENTS
Authors: Melin Lennart , Götestam K Gunnar
Published: March 2006

Several aspects of ward routine were changed to study the effects of environmental manipulation on the behavior of 21 psychogeriatric patients. Furniture was rearranged to be more conducive to conversation (i.e., grouped around tables instead of along corridor walls), and mealtime routines were changed to allow patients more time to eat, more freedom in choosing the composition of the meal, and more pleasant surroundings. Patients were divided into experimental and control groups, and data were collected on the frequency of verbal and tactile communication and degree of skill in eating behavior. Following baseline, environmental changes were introduced across behaviors. Results show that the frequency of communication increased for the experimental group, as compared to both baseline and the control group. Eating behavior also improved significantly for the experimental group. The study shows that minor changes in the physical environment can promote therapeutic change in the behavior of patients diagnosed as senile dementia.
THE EFFECTS OF INSTRUCTIONS AND CALCULATION PROCEDURES ON OBSERVERS' ACCURACY, AGREEMENT, AND CALCULATION CORRECTNESS
Authors: Boykin Ronald A. , Nelson Rosemery O.
Published: March 2006

Although the quality of observational data is generally evaluated by observer agreement, measures of both observer agreement and accuracy were available in the present study. Videotapes with a criterion protocol were coded by 16 observers. All observers calculated agreement scores both on their own and their partner's data and on a contrived data set misrepresented as data collected by other observers. Compared with agreement scores calculated by the experimenter, observers erroneously inflated their own agreement scores and deflated the agreement scores on the contrived data. Half of the observers (n= 8) had been given instructions emphasizing the importance of accuracy during observation while the other half had been given instructions emphasizing interobserver agreement. Accuracy exceeded agreement for the former group, whereas agreement exceeded accuracy for the latter group. The implications are that agreement should be calculated by the experimenter and that the accuracy‐agreement relationship can be altered by differential observer instructions.
ADOPTION OF INNOVATIONS FROM APPLIED BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH: “DOES ANYBODY CARE?”
Authors: Stolz Stephanie B.
Published: March 2006

Applied behavioral researchers develop useful innovative technologies experimentally, and yet few of these technologies enjoy widespread adoption by our society. This paper analyzes several instances in which government agencies adopted behavioral technology, identifies 10 manipulable variables that could increase the rate of adoption of such technological innovations, and relates them to the field of knowledge diffusion. Unifying theory and experimental analysis are lacking in that field, yet an implicit technology may exist.
EVALUATING A SUPERVISION PROGRAM FOR DEVELOPING AND MAINTAINING THERAPEUTIC STAFF‐RESIDENT INTERACTIONS DURING INSTITUTIONAL CARE ROUTINES
Authors: Ivancic Martin T. , Reid Dennis H. , Iwata Brian A. , Faw Gerald D. , Page Terry J.
Published: March 2006

This study evaluated a program to teach and maintain language training interactions between institutional staff and profoundly handicapped children during a routine care task. Following baseline observations of bath sessions, staff were sequentially taught in multiple baseline fashion to vocalize more during the bath, praise child vocalizations, imitate sounds, and provide sound prompts. Procedures included a brief in‐service meeting followed by a series of supervisory prompts and feedback. Results indicated that staff acquired the interaction skills in the bath sessions and that the skills generalized to another direct care task, dressing. The number of days on which components of supervision were implemented decreased from 47% of all days during the experimental conditions to 19% of the days during a 19‐week maintenance period with no decrease in staff behavior. The interactions were shown not to interfere with the quality of the direct care task nor to increase the amount of time necessary to complete it. Also, some increases were noted for child vocalization frequencies. The advantages of providing therapeutic interactions during care routines are discussed along with the need for staff management techniques with long‐term maintenance value.
CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN SAYING AND DOING: SOME THOUGHTS ON DEFINING CORRESPONDENCE AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR APPLICATION
Authors: Karlan George R. , Rusch Frank R.
Published: March 2006

Israel (1978) evaluated and discussed research on positive and negative verbal‐nonverbal correspondence. In the present report we attempt to delineate the relationship of correspondence training to two major intervention goals—producing (increasing) behavior and inhibiting (decreasing) behavior. The concepts of noncorrespondence and generalized positive correspondence are introduced. Past research relating to the correspondence analyses offered for the two intervention outcomes and possibilities for future research are discussed. The relationship of verbal correspondence training to the issues of response maintenance and response generalization is also examined.