bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cooperation and Collaboration
Authors: Finkel Evgeny
Published: May 2018

This chapter examines Jewish cooperation and collaboration with the Nazis during the Holocaust. If collaboration is a collusion based on ideological premises, then by definition no Jew could have collaborated, for even the most ardent Gestapo Jewish informers did not share Adolf Hitler's worldview. Also problematic is “cooperation” defined as an “unwilling yielding to superior force,” especially with respect to the behavior and the motivations of the Jewish leadership. This chapter argues that the prewar political regimes under which the Jews of Minsk, Kraków, and Białystok lived, shaped the patterns of cooperation and collaboration in each ghetto and determined what types of people engaged in those survival strategies. It shows that those who engaged in cooperation and collaboration were driven by the desire to survive, but that survival had a different meaning for different types of cooperators and collaborators.
Resistance
Authors: Finkel Evgeny
Published: May 2018

This chapter examines resistance as a Jewish survival strategy during the Holocaust. Jewish resistance has historically been of interest to Holocaust scholars, mainly due to the desire to counter accusations that Jews were passive, complacent, and went “like lambs to the slaughter.” Holocaust historians, especially those based in Israel, have explored the Jews' resistance to Nazi persecution. They argue that armed resistance was infrequent, but equating resistance with violence is unnecessarily restrictive, and that the Jews had almost unanimously engaged in amidah (“standing up against” in Hebrew), or unarmed resistance. The chapter looks at Jewish resistance organizations in the ghettos of Minsk, Kraków, and Białystok and suggests that people with a history of pre–World War II political activism were significantly overrepresented in the resistance. It explains why some resistance groups failed early on, while others managed to put up a sustained fight.
Defining and Explaining Inclusion
Authors: Dancygier Rafaela M.
Published: May 2018

This chapter explains when and why parties will pursue exclusion, symbolic inclusion, or vote-based inclusion and discuss how each inclusion type is associated with distinct candidate and mobilization types. The inclusion of candidates belonging to minority groups is one important tool that parties can deploy when they seek to expand or reshape their electoral coalitions. The selection of candidates thus critically defines what and whom a party stands for. As such, candidate selection is directly tied to minority political inclusion. The chapter then addresses how the distribution of minority and majority preferences will influence the kind of candidates and voters that parties will seek to recruit, and specifies how variation in partisanship, electoral geography, mobilizational capacity, and political competition affects the causes and consequences of minority inclusion.
Sticking Fast
Authors: Wagner Bryan
Published: May 2018

This chapter talks about how sticking fast is the tar baby story's essence. Once the story was reduced to this one essential element, it became possible to establish connections between variants that otherwise seemed unrelated to one another. It had always been easy to follow a simple chain of substitution, in which the tortoise takes the rabbit's place, or the story begins with the theft of water rather than the theft of produce, but once one element, rather than the story as a whole, became the object of analysis, the range of potential connections increased exponentially. From Hausaland to Haiti and from Lithuania to the Philippines, collectors discovered tales that were connected to one another through the trope of sticking fast.
Say My Name
Authors: Wagner Bryan
Published: May 2018

This chapter discusses how in most cases on record, the tar baby story has a three-part narrative structure: a problem statement, concerning the competition for resources between two representative characters, or between one character and a community; an intermediate sequence in which the struggle intensifies through a scene of captivity, in which the fight between enemies becomes a struggle for recognition; and a solution, which sometimes involves punishment but more often involves an escape that resolves the problems, both material and metaphysical, dramatized in the previous scenes. By reducing this tripartite sequence to the central episode where the trickster is stuck fast to the tar baby, critics have resolved the problems presented inside the story, looking away from the story to the history of its global diffusion.
Epilogue
Authors: Wagner Bryan
Published: May 2018

This concluding chapter considers the tar baby story as the most celebrated, the most thickly documented, and the most historiographically significant case in the global trickster tradition. The established ethnographic approach to the tar baby has led people to misconstrue the ways in which the story seeks to resolve the problems it sets before them. Restored to its full range, the tar baby presents nothing less than a comprehensive philosophy of world history. The tar baby story shares both substantive concerns and narrative conventions with formative passages in natural law where labor is mixed with nature or an incorrigible rascal commits an unforgivable crime. When the tar baby is read this way, one of the things that becomes apparent is the story's capacious flexibility.
Rebellion
Authors: Cutterham Tom
Published: May 2018

This chapter recounts the story of the year that led up to the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia in the summer of 1787. In western New England, rural unrest finally reached the point of armed rebellion by the autumn of 1786, leading American gentlemen to a new pitch of anxiety about the future of the republic. In Rhode Island, the popular majority pursued an inflationary paper-money policy that quickly led to violent clashes between the regime and its opponents. A group of Connecticut poets produced The Anarchiad, a vicious satirical attack on rural insurgents and popular legislators alike. Meanwhile, in Massachusetts, Boston merchants combined with the Society of the Cincinnati to raise an army that would put down the rebellion. It was during these turbulent months that a network of leading gentlemen developed a radical strategy for reasserting control of the new nation, a last-ditch effort to establish the limits of American democracy.
Tribes and Ambiguities
Authors: Costello Bonnie
Published: May 2018

This chapter considers the role of poetry in formation and support of group identity. Poetry has often supported group identity, resisting prejudice but making calls of solidarity, developing “the language of the tribe” and emphasizing difference to maintain cultural distinctness. However, it has also worked against oppositional models of identity, not only by invoking universals but also by creating ambiguity across boundaries. “We” can be formed not only in shifting relations of “you” and “I,” but also in discovered commonalities across groups. Flexible or unassigned pronouns provide one source of that ambiguity; they allow us to enter into different subjectivities, recognize their relativity, and locate a permeable “we” beyond or between the divides.
From 1750
Authors: McNeill William H.
Published: May 2018

THE FIRST of these lectures argued that frontier conditions distorted the social pyramid of European society either by flattening it drastically toward equality and anarchic freedom or, alternatively, by steepening the gradient so as to divide frontiersmen between owners and managers, on the one hand, and an enslaved, enserfed, or debt-coerced work force, on the other. The frontier in other words was neutral as between freedom and compulsion; but the actual balance tipped toward legally sharpened hierarchy because both the need for protection and the prospect of profit pulled in that direction. Before 1750 the freedom and equality we like to associate with frontier life were marginal. The norm was enslavement since only in that way could thinly populated frontier lands participate actively in the world market, and, if need be, also sustain a costly armed establishment....
The Algebraic Tradition of Logic
Authors: von Plato Jan
Published: May 2018

This chapter explores how algebraic logic began in 1847 when George Boole presented his “calculus of deductive reasoning” in a short book titled The Mathematical Analysis of Logic. His calculus reduced known ways of logical reasoning into the solution of algebraic equations. The known ways of logical reasoning were not just accounted for but were extended to full classical propositional logic. Boole reduced Aristotelian syllogistic reasoning to calculation, which was a wonderful achievement. Encouraged by the success, he wrote a book with the bold title An Investigation of the Laws of Thought (1854). However, his logic was not able to treat relations but just one-place predicates.
Gödel’s Theorem: An End and a Beginning
Authors: von Plato Jan
Published: May 2018

This chapter discusses how Kurt Gödel found his theorem. He started to study physics at the University of Vienna in 1924, then changed to mathematics in 1926. That same year, he started attending the meetings of the Vienna Circle. These were weekly gatherings on philosophical topics that were headed by the philosopher Moritz Schlick. The philosophy of the circle came to be known as logical empiricism and had an enormous effect on the world of philosophy. Gödel later wanted to emphasize that he by no means shared all of the philosophical ideas of the circle. In the meetings, Gödel came to know the philosopher Rudolf Carnap and the mathematician Karl Menger, in whose mathematical colloquium he later presented many of his results.
The Perfection of Pure Logic
Authors: von Plato Jan
Published: May 2018

This chapter explains how Gerard Gentzen presented the general logical structure of mathematical proofs as a system of rules of proof by which a path is built from the assumptions of a theorem to its conclusion. Earlier formalizations of logic had given a set of axioms and just two rules of inference. Another essential methodological novelty in Gentzen's work was that he presented proofs in the form of a tree instead of a linear succession from the given assumptions to the claim of a proof. Each step in a proof determined a subtree from the assumptions that had been made down to that point, and these parts could be studied in isolation. Most importantly, such parts of the overall proof could be combined in new ways, contrary to the earlier linear style of proof.
Victorian Pain
Authors: Ablow Rachel
Published: May 2018

The nineteenth century introduced developments in science and medicine that made the eradication of pain conceivable for the first time. This new understanding of pain brought with it a complex set of moral and philosophical dilemmas. If pain serves no obvious purpose, how do we reconcile its existence with a well-ordered universe? Examining how writers of the day engaged with such questions, this book offers a compelling new literary and philosophical history of modern pain. The book provides close readings of novelists Charlotte Brontë and Thomas Hardy and political and natural philosophers John Stuart Mill, Harriet Martineau, and Charles Darwin, as well as a variety of medical, scientific, and popular writers of the Victorian age. The book explores how discussions of pain served as investigations into the status of persons and the nature and parameters of social life. No longer conceivable as divine trial or punishment, pain in the nineteenth century came to seem instead like a historical accident suggesting little or nothing about the individual who suffers. A landmark study of Victorian literature and the history of pain, the book shows how these writers came to see pain as a social as well as a personal problem. Rather than simply self-evident to the sufferer and unknowable to anyone else, pain was also understood to be produced between persons—and even, perhaps, by the fictions they read.
Pain, Subjectivity, and the Social
Authors: Ablow Rachel
Published: May 2018

This introductory chapter first describes two different recent approaches to the relation between pain and social life. The first position casts the pain of the other primarily as an epistemological problem—the thing we cannot, but most need to, know. The second approach emphasizes how pain is always already part of a social world. The chapter then considers some of the terms in which Victorian medical professionals, caregivers, and sufferers understood the social nature of pain. Finally, this chapter discusses what is meant by the book's title, “Victorian Pain.” The goal here is to explain why this book seeks to describe not how pain was represented or constructed, but instead how pain was used by a range of writers at a particular time.
Wounded Trees, Abandoned Boots
Authors: Ablow Rachel
Published: May 2018

This chapter explores Thomas Hardy's post-Darwinian accounts of pain that hover ambiguously between and beyond subjects, that are attributed to no malign agent, and that hold no hope of prevention or remediation. Such accounts tend to be troubling in their vividness as well as in the profundity of the sorrow they describe and convey. They can certainly be called “pessimistic” in the sense that they offer no clear path for either action or catharsis; however, this chapter argues that for that very reason they invite us to consider the disposition that might be at issue in the reading practices they encourage: affectively engaged practices that ask us to experience ourselves less as potentially responsible observers of pain than as fellow sufferers.
Immigration and the Shape of Globalization
Authors: Peters Margaret E.
Published: May 2018

This book explores two questions about immigration and globalization: why immigration, especially for those with fewer skills (low-skill immigration), is much more restricted today than it was in the nineteenth century or even in the immediate post-World War II period, and why politicians today are willing to let their constituents compete with foreign labor overseas but not at home. Restrictions on low-skill immigration are even more puzzling when compared to policies governing trade and foreign direct investment. The same wealthy countries that have put immigration restrictions in place have significantly lowered trade barriers, including those on low-skill-labor-intensive goods such as clothing, toys, and electronics. The book considers how trade and firm mobility affect the number of firms that use low-skill labor, and thus affect the level of support for low-skill immigration.
Immigration Policy and Two Eras of Globalization
Authors: Peters Margaret E.
Published: May 2018

This chapter tests the argument that trade and firm mobility affect the number of firms that use low-skill labor, and thus affect the level of support for low-skill immigration, by analyzing immigration policy across nineteen countries over 200 years. Focusing on the political dilemma that policymakers face with greater globalization, the chapter examines two of the implications of the argument. The first implication is that the increasing ability to trade should lead to greater immigration restrictions. Second, the increased ability of firms to move production overseas should also lead to increased restrictions on low-skill immigration. The chapter also shows how immigration policy has changed and compares it to the evolution of trade openness and firm mobility across two centuries.
Changing Industry Preferences in the United States
Authors: Peters Margaret E.
Published: May 2018

This chapter examines firms' willingness to support low-skill immigration by focusing on changing industry preferences in the United States. In particular, it considers preferences and lobbying on low-skill immigration by different sectors using data on which sectors testify before the US Congress on immigration and data on their lobbying behavior. The chapter first provides an overview of low-skill immigration policy in the United States before discussing the preferences of three different industries by looking at their trade associations: textile industry, steel industry, and agriculture. It analyzes how the willingness of these industries to lobby on low-skill immigration has changed with trade openness, international competition, firm mobility, productivity and technology adoption.
Immigration Policy in Small Countries: The Cases of Singapore and the Netherlands
Authors: Peters Margaret E.
Published: May 2018

This chapter examines whether increases in trade openness, firm mobility, and productivity lead to immigration restrictions, and not the other way around, by tracing the evolution of immigration policy in two small economies after World War II: Singapore and the Netherlands. In addition to addressing the reverse causality problem, the chapter considers how other states' actions affect the ability of Singaporean and Dutch firms to compete in the export markets. It shows that firms in Singapore and the Netherlands have been affected by changes that policymakers have had little control over, such as the rise of China and the entrance of Eastern European states into the European Union. These changes have led to decreasing support for open immigration.
Addicts into Citizens
Authors: Kohler-Hausmann Julilly
Published: May 2018

This chapter explores the governing problems that set the stage for the 1973 drug laws and the ways different groups struggled to interpret and respond to them. It chronicles New York's efforts to manage heroin through drug rehabilitation and looks at how the varied therapeutic approaches coexisted with criminalization. While rhetoric in the 1970s presented “addicts” and “pushers” as stable, essential identities, these terms are best understood as artifacts of the ongoing historical struggles over narcotics. Instead of objective divisions within the social body, the distinct categories of drug users were actually constituted through debates over policy.
The Public versus the Pushers
Authors: Kohler-Hausmann Julilly
Published: May 2018

This chapter examines how Nelson Rockefeller's 1973 “tough” proposal attempted to resolve the governing problems that arose from the therapeutic regime. It analyzes the ideological and political work accomplished by the proposal and the response by policymakers, opponents, drug users, and the diverse members of the general public. The drug laws were the result of the interaction between Rockefeller's personal political ambitions, diverse popular frustration with the period's social movements and political insurgency, and the persistence of heroin use and street crime in New York during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Rockefeller's dramatic and harsh proposal was built upon the premise that therapeutic programs failed to curtail drug use and street crime.
The Welfare Mess
Authors: Kohler-Hausmann Julilly
Published: May 2018

This chapter explains how lawmakers and administrators, at the state and federal levels, attempted to narrate and respond to the worsening policy conditions. The landmark welfare reforms that Ronald Reagan spearheaded as governor of California in the early 1970s constricted eligibility standards, heightened bureaucratic scrutiny, instituted work requirements, and enlisted the penal system to handle fraud and child-support collections. Restrictive welfare reforms and anti-AFDC rhetoric mobilized a host of racially charged frustrations to halt the tentative steps toward a broader economic citizenship. The tangled, dialogical (or perhaps caustic) interaction between elites and the grassroots gave these issues force and propelled their course. Animosity toward recipients intensified during the highly publicized efforts to shrink welfare rolls through work requirements, surveillance, and fraud prosecutions.
Welfare Is a Cancer
Authors: Kohler-Hausmann Julilly
Published: May 2018

This chapter analyzes the central role of criminalization and welfare fraud in degrading the civic status of welfare recipients and the declining support for the program. Politicians, such as Ronald Reagan, blamed soaring caseloads not on the economic conditions or the recent legal reforms that prohibited states from denying aid on the basis of race or morality, but on personal failings of recipients, particularly the alleged preponderance of sexually deviant welfare “cheaters.” To manage this problem, they often enlisted law enforcement and penal rituals. The press amplified politicians' narrative through sensationalized, often anomalous, tales of recipients' shiftlessness, devious scams, and extravagant consumption.
Roots and Rootlessness
Authors: Weitzman Steven
Published: May 2018

This chapter examines the use of etymology, the study of the origin of words, as a way to elucidate the prehistory of the Jews and thus their origins. Roots are particularly easy to recognize in Hebrew and other Semitic languages because they usually take the form of three consonants that carry the basic semantic meaning of the word. The chapter first provides an overview of the connection between etymology and genealogy before discussing the prehistory of the Hebrews. It then considers how the concept of prehistory reshaped the way scholars approached the question of Jewish origins by focusing on a group of proto-people known as the Habiru. It also explores Ferdinand de Saussure's critique of paleolinguistics and the implications of the turn from paleolinguistics as a means to investigate the prehistory of the Hebrews.
Thought Fossils
Authors: Weitzman Steven
Published: May 2018

This chapter examines the use of psychoanalysis to investigate the origin of the Jews. Psychoanalysis is described as a theory of the mind, a therapeutic practice, or a set of techniques used to diagnose and treat mental illness, not a way of exploring questions of ethnogenesis. The chapter considers whether a psychohistorical approach as practiced today can yield important insights about Jewish origins by focusing on the method articulated by Sigmund Freud in his book Moses and Monotheism. More specifically, it discusses a kind of “paleopsychology” that could take the search for the origin of the Jews beyond the documentary sources and beyond the material ruins into a prehistory preserved only as “thought fossils” buried deep in the most primal parts of the human mind. It also analyzes Freud's account of the origin of the Jews based on psychoanalysis and the credibility of his psychohistory of the Jews.
Disruptive Innovation
Authors: Weitzman Steven
Published: May 2018

This chapter examines the theory advanced by the Israeli historian Shlomo Sand stating that the Jews were a product of invention, and thus were an artificial people. In his book The Invention of the Jewish People, first published in Hebrew in 2008, Sand proposes an alternative account that traces Jewish origins to more recent times. The chapter considers the arguments for and against Sand's controversial theory and the distinctive conception of origin on which it depends. It discusses some of The Invention of the Jewish People's shortcomings, including Sand's treatment of conversion in relation to what is known in biology and linguistics as “polygenesis,” and the idea that the nation was a modern invention, citing the Jews as a classic example of premodern nationalism. Finally, it explains why some scholars embrace the constructivist approach to account for the invention of the nation and others choose primordialism.
Introduction
Authors: Gutfreund Hanoch , Renn Jürgen
Published: May 2018

This introductory chapter provides a brief background into the development of Albert Einstein's special and general theories of relativity. As a characteristic stage in the development of the theory, the chapter focuses on the formative years which have, remarkably, received less attention from historians than subsequent periods. It argues that a “renaissance” of general relativity had begun essentially as the result of a community-building effort turning the theory into a universally applicable framework. This revival was followed by what has been called the “golden age” of relativity, which witnessed new conceptual insights, such as those into the nature of spacetime singularities, and turned the theory into the foundation of modern astrophysics and observational cosmology.
Einstein’s First Trip to America
Authors: Gutfreund Hanoch , Renn Jürgen
Published: May 2018

This chapter sets the historical context for Einstein's visit to Princeton in 1921, during which he delivered a series of lectures on relativity. The first two lectures, attended by large audiences, were popular accounts of the special and the general theory of relativity. The other three lectures were given to smaller audiences of scientists. Einstein intended to spend most of his time in the United States promoting the cause of a Hebrew University in Jerusalem but was encouraged by Chaim Weizmann, of the German Zionist Organization, to devote part of his time to lecturing at American universities. The local newspapers reported in great detail on every aspect of Einstein's visit, often under sensationalistic headlines. They printed summaries of every lecture and highlighted specific statements and predictions by Einstein.
Terror
Authors: Heller Daniel Kupfert
Published: May 2018

This chapter details Betar's activities in the twilight years of the Second Polish Republic. With Hitler's rise to power, a surge in anti-Jewish riots across Poland, and the escalating conflict between Palestinian Arabs and Jews in Mandate Palestine, numerous Betar leaders were calling for Zionist youth, no matter their location, to turn to acts of revolutionary violence to defend Jews from attack. Some of them wondered aloud whether their potential targets could include their Jewish rivals. The chapter follows Betar's overlapping conversations about their use of violence in Poland and in Palestine. Ultimately, it reveals how right-wing Zionist debates about violence in Poland and elsewhere in Europe helped lay the groundwork for justifying acts of terrorism during the Arab Revolt in Mandate Palestine (1936–1939).
Introduction
Authors: Song Priscilla
Published: May 2018

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the book's main themes. This book is an ethnographic account of biomedical odysseys of people who have entrusted their bodies to Chinese neurosurgeons operating at the cutting edge of experimental medicine. The book follows these patients and clinicians from online discussion forums to Chinese hospital wards in order to understand the hopes, frustrations, and possibilities that experimental therapies offer those living with conditions deemed incurable. In the chapters that follow, the author develops an anthropology of transnational regenerative medicine that documents how hope is produced and troubled both online and through physical encounters with experimental therapies transpiring on the fringes of biomedicine.
Cyberanatomies of Hope
Authors: Song Priscilla
Published: May 2018

This chapter explores how the embodied dynamics of illness and chronicity shape online modes of health-seeking by comparing the experiences of people living with spinal cord injuries (SCIs) to those of people suffering from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). As diverse biological conditions become increasingly mediated by digital modes of representation, these emergent forms of “biomediation” catalyze new hopes and possibilities for those seeking to challenge orthodox prognoses and bodily limitations. While the chronic nature of SCI enables the formation of robust and stable online communities such as CareCure, the cybersociality cultivated by people living with the immediate threat of ALS is much more contingent and ephemeral. The kinds of social connections forged online in turn shape the forms of mobilization and digital pathways to experimental medicine.
Where the Virtual Becomes Visceral
Authors: Song Priscilla
Published: May 2018

This chapter follows the journey of people living with paralysis and neurodegenerative conditions as they undergo fetal cell transplantation in China. It provides ethnographic insight on how these patients have operationalized hope in Beijing hospital wards, immersing themselves in the practical details of navigating an unfamiliar medical system while circumventing existential debates over the moral status of aborted fetuses. It begins by analyzing the online surgical report threads of the first three foreigners to receive Chinese neurosurgeon Dr. Huang Hongyun's fetal cell transplantation. All three were men from the United States who had suffered cervical-level spinal cord injuries. It then incorporates the experiences of a wide range of other fetal cell recipients in order to address the key points of disjuncture that Dr. Huang's foreign patients had to negotiate during their cross-cultural encounters in Beijing: conflicting expectations about caregiving, moral qualms about the use of fetal cells, and the embodied vicissitudes of experimental surgery.
Ode to Olfactory Ensheathing Cells
Authors: Song Priscilla
Published: May 2018

A WITNESS TO HISTORY: MEDICINE’S SPLENDOR

NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS CENTER ANNIVERSARY SONG

历史的见证‎：医学的灿烂‎

神经疾病中心一周年之歌‎

BY WANG FENGMING (王凤鸣‎) (known to his foreign patients as Dr. Pain for his vigorous tuīná [推拿‎ Chinese massage techniques])
Seeking Truth from Facts
Authors: Song Priscilla
Published: May 2018

This chapter focuses on how Dr. Huang and his staff have contested international biomedical research protocols and devised new methods to assess the effectiveness of their experimental human olfactory ensheathing glial cell transplantation surgery. These strategies include developing improved measurement scales to capture post-surgical differences in bodily function and feeling; inviting foreign doctors to witness clinical procedures for themselves; conducting follow-up studies with former patients; and attempting to publish scientific reports in internationally credible journals. By examining the ways in which New Century clinicians have evaluated the effectiveness of the fetal cell transplantation procedure, this chapter raises key questions about the ethics and epistemology of clinical experimentation at the “cutting edge” of biomedical practice in contemporary China. It demonstrates how new modes of validation are emerging as viable alternatives to the hegemonic discourse of randomized controlled trials that has dominated the quest for “evidence” in experimental medicine.
On the Cutting Edge
Authors: Song Priscilla
Published: May 2018

This epilogue reflects on the ways in which the biomedical odysseys documented in the book open up important questions about the contours of experimentality and the proliferating hopes generated by transnational regenerative medicine. It returns to the metaphor of “cutting edge” in order to illuminate how the experiences of Chinese neurosurgeons and their foreign patients deepen our understanding of the multiple and material ways in which hope transforms technology, travel, and the political economies of health care and medical research in a digitally mediated world. Many of the fetal cell pioneers mentioned in the preceding chapters died during the decade that the author spent researching and writing this book. Their poignant yet grueling encounters with the experimental demand our acknowledgment of the complex ways in which hope endures online and through bodily engagements on the cutting edge of regenerative medicine.
The Psychosexual Subject
Authors: El Shakry Omnia
Published: May 2018

This chapter traces the intersection of psychoanalysis and the invention of the psychosexual subject in postwar Egypt. Following a set of discussions on Freudian theory and sexuality in Majallat ʿIlm al-Nafs, as well as a series of popular and didactic books, the chapter explores newly emerging languages of desire and ethics and their relationship to gender and sexuality. In sharp contrast to the alleged incommensurability between psychoanalysis and Islam, postwar psychoanalysis was able to breathe new life into an earlier premodern classical literature centered on desire and the appetites and on the ethical cultivation of the child. The invention of the psychosexual subject, in other words, did not necessarily entail a simple shift of pleasure and desire away from the theological pastoral toward secular science and medicine as some scholars have asserted.
Elite-Instrumentalism: Persistence and Paradox
Authors: Champion Craige B.
Published: May 2018

This chapter discusses the origins of elite-instrumentalist interpretations of Roman religion by Greek and Roman writers, and how it persists in recent scholarship. It uses a particular “time map,” spanning the period from approximately the second quarter of the third century—leading to Rome's first titanic conflict with Carthage—to the aftermath of the Gracchan revolution. The chapter first provides an overview of the so-called “polis religion,” the focus of the modern study of Roman religion, describing it as a form of elite-instrumentalism. It then considers the elite-instrumentalist interpretation/model, its history, and its paradoxical longevity in order to understand how the Roman ruling elite used religion in the Middle Republic. It also examines some of the main features of elite religion in the Middle Roman Republic. Finally, it introduces definitions, parameters, and theoretical/methodological underpinnings for the chapters that follow.
Militiae: Commanders, Elite Religion, and Fear of Military Disaster
Authors: Champion Craige B.
Published: May 2018

This chapter examines the harsh international environment in which the Middle Roman Republic existed, focusing on the exigencies of ancient warfare, the stressful independent decision-making responsibilities of generals on military campaign, and how religious ritual was practiced in the battlefield. It also considers the situation of the city of Rome itself in times of military crisis and anarchy. The chapter first provides an overview of traditional interpretations and newer developments in the study of Roman imperialism before discussing the elite's religious practices and beliefs during military campaigns. It argues that a psychological state of intense fear, uncertainty, and anxiety could have underlain many of the Roman ruling elite's religious behaviors in the military realm. Case studies of elite field-commanders' religious behaviors in warfare are presented.
Balancing Coercion and Co-optation
Authors: Simonton Matthew
Published: May 2018

This chapter focuses on oligarchic institutions that govern relations between elite and demos, designed to overcome the twin challenges of excessive repression and offensive negligence. Like modern authoritarianism, Greek oligarchy was in large part a political system initiated by an act of force against the wishes of the majority. Furthermore, the regime maintained itself after its instauration through violence, or at least the threat of it. State violence under oligarchy often take on one of two forms: either it was hidden from view, in the form of secret assassinations, nocturnal trials, and summary executions; or (more rarely) it was staged as spectacular punishments. After considering the issue of repression under ancient Greek oligarchy, the chapter examines the alternatives to outright repression within oligarchies, including the so-called “co-optation,” whose institutions are exemplified by the oligarchic use of assemblies, positions in the regime, and rewards for informants.
The Politics of Public Space
Authors: Simonton Matthew
Published: May 2018

This chapter examines the politics of public space in Classical oligarchies. The Greek elite had always claimed a special relationship with the city-center, often to the exclusion of those deemed “outsiders,” and controlled the polis's central political organs. With the introduction of a democratic constitutional alternative in the Classical period, fear replaced snobbery as the primary motivating factor behind oligarchic approaches to public space. The chapter first traces Archaic elite thinking about access to central civic space before discussing the strict division between the central spaces of the city (polis, astu), controlled by the oligarchy, and the broader countryside (chōra), in which the demos will be allowed to live. It also considers two strategies in which oligarchs responded to the threat posed by public space: expulsion and dispersal. Finally, it describes clientelism as a means of oligarchic control of civic space.
Processes of Regime Breakdown
Authors: Simonton Matthew
Published: May 2018

This chapter examines the impact of stasis, or civil war, on the different types of political regime in ancient Greece as well as the strategic dynamics of oligarchic breakdown. Stasis posed a major problem for the Greek poleis, especially during the Classical period. Although some scholars describe the polis as a place of unity and strong civic identity, the ancient evidence shows that sedition, treason, factional infighting, and all-out social conflict were common in ancient Greece. Furthermore, stasis was not confined to a particular kind of polis (large or small, rich or poor), but seems to have affected most of them. The chapter first considers examples of oligarchic overthrow that occurred in public space, along with their internal logic, before discussing the dynamics of breakdown within the ruling elite.
Noncooperative Game Theory
Authors: Hespanha João P.
Published: May 2018

This book is aimed at students interested in using game theory as a design methodology for solving problems in engineering and computer science. The book shows that such design challenges can be analyzed through game theoretical perspectives that help to pinpoint each problem's essence: Who are the players? What are their goals? Will the solution to “the game” solve the original design problem? Using the fundamentals of game theory, the book explores these issues and more. The use of game theory in technology design is a recent development arising from the intrinsic limitations of classical optimization-based designs. In optimization, one attempts to find values for parameters that minimize suitably defined criteria—such as monetary cost, energy consumption, or heat generated. However, in most engineering applications, there is always some uncertainty as to how the selected parameters will affect the final objective. Through a sequential and easy-to-understand discussion, the book examines how to make sure that the selection leads to acceptable performance, even in the presence of uncertainty—the unforgiving variable that can wreck engineering designs. The book looks at such standard topics as zero-sum, non-zero-sum, and dynamic games and includes a MATLAB guide to coding. This book offers students a fresh way of approaching engineering and computer science applications.
Zero-Sum Matrix Games
Authors: Hespanha João P.
Published: May 2018

This chapter discusses a number of key concepts for zero-sum matrix games. A zero-sum matrix game is played by two players, each with a finite set of actions. Player 1 wants to minimize the outcome and Player 2 wants to maximize it. After providing an overview of how zero-sum matrix games are played, the chapter considers the security levels and policies involved and how they can be computed using MATLAB. It then examines the case of a matrix game with alternate play and one with simultaneous play to determine whether rational players will regret their decision to play a security policy. It also describes the saddle-point equilibrium and its relation to the security levels for the two players, as well as the order interchangeability property and computational complexity of a matrix game before concluding with a practice exercise with the corresponding solution and an additional exercise.
Mixed Policies
Authors: Hespanha João P.
Published: May 2018

This chapter explores the concept of mixed policies and how the notions for pure policies can be adapted to this more general type of policies. A pure policy consists of choices of particular actions (perhaps based on some observation), whereas a mixed policy involves choosing a probability distribution to select actions (perhaps as a function of observations). The idea behind mixed policies is that the players select their actions randomly according to a previously selected probability distribution. The chapter first considers the rock-paper-scissors game as an example of mixed policy before discussing mixed action spaces, mixed security policy and saddle-point equilibrium, mixed saddle-point equilibrium vs. average security levels, and general zero-sum games. It concludes with practice exercises with corresponding solutions and an additional exercise.
Games in Extensive Form
Authors: Hespanha João P.
Published: May 2018

This chapter discusses a number of key concepts for extensive form game representation. It first considers a matrix that defines a zero-sum matrix game for which the minimizer has two actions and the maximizer has three actions and shows that the matrix description, by itself, does not capture the information structure of the game and, in fact, other information structures are possible. It then describes an extensive form representation of a zero-sum two-person game, which is a decision tree, the extensive form representation of multi-stage games, and the notions of security policy, security level, and saddle-point equilibrium for a game in extensive form. It also explores the matrix form for games in extensive form, recursive computation of equilibria for single-stage games, feedback games, feedback saddle-point for multi-stage games, and recursive computation of equilibria for multi-stage games. It concludes with a practice exercise with the corresponding solution, along with additional exercises.
Introducing Graphs
Authors: Benjamin Arthur , Chartrand Gary , Zhang Ping
Published: May 2018

This chapter provides an introduction to graphs, a mathematical structure for visualizing, analyzing, and generalizing a situation or problem. It first consider four problems that have a distinct mathematical flavor: the Problem of the Five Princes, the Three Houses and Three Utilities Problem, the Three Friends or Three Strangers Problem, and the Job-Hunters Problem. This is followed by discussion of four problems that are not only important in the history of graph theory, but which led to new areas within graph theory: the Königsberg Bridge Problem, the Four Color Problem, the Polyhedron Problem, and the Around the World Problem. The chapter also explores puzzles and problems involving chess that have connections to graph theory before concluding with an overview of the First Theorem of Graph Theory, which is concerned with what happens when the degrees of all vertices of a graph are added.
Classifying Graphs
Authors: Benjamin Arthur , Chartrand Gary , Zhang Ping
Published: May 2018

This chapter considers the richness of mathematics and mathematicians' responses to it, with a particular focus on various types of graphs. It begins with a discussion of theorems from many areas of mathematics that have been judged among the most beautiful, including the Euler Polyhedron Formula; the number of primes is infinite; there are five regular polyhedra; there is no rational number whose square is 2; and the Four Color Theorem. The chapter proceeds by describing regular graphs, irregular graphs, irregular multigraphs and weighted graphs, subgraphs, and isomorphic graphs. It also analyzes the degrees of the vertices of a graph, along with concepts and ideas concerning the structure of graphs. Finally, it revisits a rather mysterious problem in graph theory, introduced by Stanislaw Ulam and Paul J. Kelly, that no one has been able to solve: the Reconstruction Problem.
Orienting Graphs
Authors: Benjamin Arthur , Chartrand Gary , Zhang Ping
Published: May 2018

This chapter focuses on oriented graphs and their use to represent a sports tournament where assigning a direction to an edge represents the defeat of one team by another. It first considers the 1941 book What Is Mathematics?, co-authored by Herbert Ellis Robbins and Richard Courant, before discussing Robbins's Theorem in terms of graph theory. According to Robbins's theorem, it is possible to repair any one street and still be able to travel between any two points in the city discussed by Robbins if and only if it is possible to convert all streets of the city to one-way streets and travel (legally) between any two points. The chapter also examines the best known class of oriented graphs, the orientations of complete graphs, and their application to round robin tournaments. Finally, it describes the King Chicken Theorem and how various voting techniques can result in often surprising outcomes.
Synchronizing Graphs
Authors: Benjamin Arthur , Chartrand Gary , Zhang Ping
Published: May 2018

This chapter considers a new type of graph coloring known as edge coloring. It begins with a discussion of an idea by Scottish physicist Peter Guthrie Tait that led to edge coloring. Tait proved that the regions of every 3-regular bridgeless planar graph could be colored with four or fewer colors if and only if the edges of such a graph could be colored with three colors so that every two adjacent edges are colored differently. Tait thought that he had found a new way to solve the Four Color Problem. The chapter also examines the chromatic index of a graph, Vizing's Theorem, applications of edge colorings, and a class of numbers in graph theory called Ramsey numbers. Finally, it describes the Road Coloring Theorem which deals with traffic systems consisting only of one-way streets in which the same number of roads leave each location.
Introduction
Authors: Bourke Richard
Published: May 2018

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the political thoughts of Edmund Burke. Over the course of his life, Burke supported the rights of legitimate rebellion but also consistently upheld the authority of empire. He cherished the rights of British imperial sovereignty, yet vehemently opposed the standing policies of the Empire. Underlying this apparent ambivalence was a commitment to the rights of conquest accompanied by a repudiation of the “spirit of conquest.” Modern liberty for Burke was a precarious achievement that was capable of relapsing into the spirit of domination, not least in its interactions with the extra-European world. Burke analyzed the conditions of freedom in minute practical and constitutional detail, drawing on a historical vision of the character of modern politics. This book tries to capture the subtlety of that vision as it was expressed over the course of a parliamentary career.
Natural Society and Natural Religion, 1750–1756
Authors: Bourke Richard
Published: May 2018

Prior to developing his conception of the limits of natural reason, Burke had come to privilege the achievements of artificial reason. He acquired this preference during the course of his legal studies. This chapter describes how within five years of his arrival in London, Burke was extending his ideas about the limits of pure reason to contemporary debates about the mysteries of the creation and revelation. He first ventured along this path in a series of essays that he wrote in the early 1750s. His first major publication, A Vindication of Natural Society is less an exercise in political philosophy than a literary polemic concerned to expose the limits of deism. Together with his early essays, it reveals the scale and depth of his suspicion of religious skepticism as publicised by men like John Toland, Anthony Collins, Matthew Tindal, and Bolingbroke. It provides a glimpse his early debts to Tillotson, Stillingfleet, and Berkeley, as well as his enduring sympathy with the epistemologies of Locke and Butler.