bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Can Political Conflict Be Resolved by Social Change?
Authors: McAllister Ian , Rose Richard
Published: March 2007

Each of the social sciences provides a different explanation of conflict about the very existence of a political regime. This article reviews a variety of theories hypothesizing that such conflicts are caused by social conditions such as religion, absence of modernity, class relations and material prosperity, and generational differences. Implicitly each suggests that political conflicts may be reduced or removed as a byproduct of social changes involving secularization, modernization, economic change, or generational change. The theories are tested with two sets of survey evidence from Northern Ireland, a society of particularly intense political conflict. The tests show that support for political conflict about the regime cannot be reduced to an explanation in terms of social conditions. Containing or resolving the political conflict requires explicitly political actions.
Cypriot Patriotism and Nationalism
Authors: Doob Leonard W.
Published: March 2007

Most Cypriots before and since independence in 1960 experienced a double patriotism that contributed to the prolongation of the conflict between the two communities in their country. They identified with the island on which they lived as well as with the nation, Greece or Turkey, from which their ancestors had come. These patriotisms changed after the landing of the Turkish troops in 1974 when Cyprus was split into two distinct sections clearly based upon Turkish and Greek ethnicity. An attempt is made here to describe the resulting insecurity that played a significant role in preventing a resolution of the conflict in 1984-1985. For inductive, theoretical reasons a deliberate effort is also made to isolate ensuing “consequences” and hence to salvage old and slightly new generalizations that perhaps transcend this particular conflict.
Ingroup Bias as a Function of Competition and Race
Authors: Taylor Dalmas A. , Moriarty Beatrice F.
Published: March 2007

The present experiment investigated factors that enhance the salience of group membership and consequent ingroup bias. Subject dyads, who were always white, were either competitive or interdependent with either white or black confederate dyads. Ingroup bias was assessed as a function of attraction toward the outgroup (experimental confederates) relative to the ingroup (naive subjects). The greater the difference between ingroup and outgroup attraction, the greater the ingroup bias. Results demonstrated that ingroup bias was greater when groups were competitive than when they were interdependent, and greater when the outgroup was black than when the outgroup was white. The findings suggest an improved methodology for studying interracial conflict.
The Role of Caucusing in Community Mediation
Authors: Welton Gary L. , Pruitt Dean G. , Mcgillicuddy Neil B.
Published: March 2007

A theory is presented about the functions of caucusing (private meetings between the mediator and disputant) in mediation. Empirical results that confirm and extend a number of propositions from the theory are also presented. Two coders, content analyzing both mediator and disputant behavior, observed 51 hearings at the Dispute Settlement Center of Western New York. Results indicated that disputants in caucus sessions employed less direct hostility, provided more information, and proposed more new alternatives than in joint sessions. Mediators, in parallel fashion, were more likely to request information and to challenge the disputants to come up with new alternatives. Mediators also exhibited more freedom to violate the neutrality norms during caucus sessions, giving greater support to the side that originally filed the complaint. These results support the use of caucusing as a route to issue identification and problem solving. However, other results showed that disputants were especially likely to boost their own position and put the other party down during caucus sessions, suggesting that mediators must be wary of what they learn from one party when the other is out of the room.
Modeling Deterrence and International Crises
Authors: Langlois Jean-Pierre P.
Published: March 2007

The continuous Prisoner's Dilemma is a reasonable model for nuclear crises (usually represented by “Chicken”), and for the arms race. This article addresses the existence of credible deterrence strategies that promote cooperation as a dynamically stable steady state. Decisions made repeatedly in time are the selection by each side of a level of hostility. Assessment of the resulting situation is represented by a utility function for each player. As the game proceeds, players are concerned with the current situation as well as with the future consequences of their present decisions. Thus each side must formulate intentions and expectations of each other's future behavior and use them to infer their own present optimal decisions. A formal concept of deterrence strategy is introduced: It promises the other side retaliation in kind to prevent any gain from aggressive play, and it inflicts increasing losses as a result of escalation. If one side adopts such a deterrence strategy, the other side cannot do better than acting similarly, and when both sides adopt it, they both enjoy optimal decision rules that confirm intentions and expectations. The resulting dynamical system endows cooperation with asymptotic stability provided the threats of retaliation contain a fair mix of firmness and restraint.
Explicating Cognitive Conflict through Photo-Communication
Authors: Dinklage Rosemarie I. , Ziller Robert C.
Published: March 2007

Separation of groups is associated with differential meaning of crucial concepts, negative attributions of the separated parties arising from cognitive differences, and an accompanying increase in the probability of conflict. Here, the crucial concepts examined are “war” and “peace.” Eighty children from Germany and the United States were asked to take one photograph that represents war and another that represents peace. A content analysis of the photographs in conjunction with photo-focused interviews showed German children in comparison with American children depicted more destruction and negative consequences associated with war and more person-related photographs associated with peace. These differences in orientation may be irreconcilable because they are below the level of awareness of the group members.
Exit Threats and Cooperation under Anonymity
Authors: Schuessler Rudolf
Published: March 2007

A strategy contest in an iterated Prisoner's Dilemma with an exit option after each game is developed. The whole model is assumed to represent the conditions for egoistical cooperation in a large and anonymous society, which is based mainly on exchange relationships and voluntary cooperation between individuals; therefore, it is appropriate for studying the social stability of free markets. The strategies have no memory, effects of reputation do not exist, and defectors cannot be identified, traced, and held responsible for their actions. This scenario abandons the preconditions usually regarded as necessary for establishing cooperation. Nevertheless, egoistical cooperation may emerge in this model. It turns out that egoistical cooperation is much more robust than realized by most game-theoretical and sociological analyses.
Power Transitions and Critical Points as Predictors of Great Power War
Authors: Houweling Henk W. , Siccama Jan G.
Published: March 2007

Recently two putative causes of great power war - power transitions (as identified by Houweling and Siccama 1988) and critical points (as identified by Doran 1989) - have confronted each other. In subsequent publications Doran changed the dating of several of his critical points. The authors will demonstrate that these changes have the effect of increasing the positive association between nations passing through a critical point interval on their relative capability trajectory and their involvement in war. Doran correctly observes that power transitions in dyads do not increase the probability of fighting in these dyads when none of their members is simultaneously passing through a critical point interval. However, the authors show that the association between a major power passing through a critical point interval and its war involvement is much stronger in transition dyads than in nontransition dyads. A power transition in a dyad, in which at least one of its members is also passing through a critical point is a sufficient condition of war in that dyad. On the other hand, the mere occurrence of a critical point is but a necessary condition of war involvement.
A Conflict-Cooperation Scale for WEIS Events Data
Authors: Goldstein Joshua S.
Published: March 2007

The problem of aggregating WEIS events data, coded as discrete events, into a continuous time series representing conflict or cooperation between two nations is discussed. Past literature on the subject reveals continuing confusion and controversy regarding such a conflict-cooperation scale. A new scale based on a small panel of international relations faculty is presented. Replication of several past studies of great power reciprocity, using the new scale, shows a slight increase in the statistical significance of relationships.
Good Times, Bad Times, and the Diversionary Use of Force
Authors: Richards Diana , Morgan T. Clifton , Wilson Rick K. , Schwebach Valerie L. , Young Garry D.
Published: March 2007

It is commonly asserted that state leaders, when faced with poor domestic political conditions, have an incentive to engage in diversionary foreign policy behavior. The standard view is that an aggressive foreign policy benefits the executive by leading the public to ignore domestic problems and to “rally around the flag” to meet the foreign threat. In this article, the authors formalize the diversionary argument as a principal-agent problem in which the state executive is an agent under contract to a public whose choice to retain or dismiss the executive is based on whether the agent is judged to be competent. The authors assume that the competence of the executive is private information and that the public makes Bayesian updates of the probability of executive competence based on domestic and foreign policy outcomes. Several implications are derived from the model. First, the competence of executives and their attitudes toward risk are central in the decision to engage in diversionary foreign policy. Second, an executive often can improve her or his chances of being retained only by altering the public's perception of the difficulty of the foreign operation. Third, the model points to the need to distinguish between short-term rally-around-the-flag effects of diversion and the public's long-term assessment of executive competence.
The Social Context of Negotiation
Authors: Kramer Roderick M. , Pommerenke Pamela , Newton Elizabeth
Published: March 2007

The present research investigated the effects of social identification and interpersonal accountability on negotiator judgment and decision making. Using arguments derived from social identity theory, the authors hypothesized that salience of a common or shared social identity will heighten negotiators' concern about the other party's outcomes, resulting in a preference for greater equality. Extrapolating from recent research on the effects of accountability on judgment and decision making, they also argued that preference for equality of outcomes will be stronger when interpersonal accountability between negotiators is high. To investigate these hypotheses, the authors conducted a laboratory study. The study employed a 2 × 2 design, in which the salience of individuals' level of social identification (low versus high) and degree of interpersonal accountability (low versus high) was varied. The results supported both of the major hypotheses. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for a social contextualist account of negotiator cognition and behavior. The authors argue that a social contextualist account sheds light on why negotiators' outcomes often deviate from those predicted by normative or rational models of bargaining.
Reinventing Governments
Authors: Bertram Eva
Published: March 2007

The United Nations has assumed a prominent post-cold war role as an agent of democratic transitions in Third World states long torn by civil strife. Called “postconflict peace building” by the secretary general, this new brand of UN peacekeeping mission has seen notable success in countries such as El Salvador, Mozambique, Cambodia, and Namibia. But the record is mixed. The United Nations faces serious challenges in peace building because of dilemmas generated by deep tensions between the practices of peace building and long-standing UN principles of sovereignty, neutrality, and securing a democratic peace. Even when these dilemmas can be resolved, the United Nations confronts three constraints that fundamentally limit its capability to build the peace: the political will of UN member-states, the will and ability of local actors, and the capacity of local institutions. The long-term success of the United Nations' foray into peace building will depend in part on how skillfully UN officials are able to draw and apply lessons from the first 5 years of UN peace building and to address these conflicts of principle and practice.
The Effects of Within-Group Communication on Group Decision and Individual Choice in the Assurance and Chicken Team Games
Authors: Bornstein Gary , Mingelgrin Danny , Rutte Christel
Published: March 2007

Two team games are introduced: a game of assurance and a game of chicken. The games were operationalized as a competition between two teams, with three players on each team, and were compared either with or without the opportunity for a within-team discussion. The authors found that the vast majority of the teams in both game types chose to compete, and almost all individual players abided by the group's decision. However, the rationale for choosing the competitive team strategy (as coded from group discussions) and the beliefs of individual team members following discussion (as reflected in the postdecision questionnaire) differed systematically as a function of game type.
When Is Universal Contribution Best for the Group?
Authors: Frohlich Norman , Oppenheimer Joe
Published: March 2007

Social scientists from a variety of disciplines have long been captivated by the simplicity and elegance of the two-person, binary choice prisoners' dilemma (2 × 2 PD). Over the years, the domain of the research has been extended and applied to events that are neither two person nor binary. We use a defining characteristic of the 2 × 2 PD to identify situations under which full levels of contribution are suboptimal. We propose, on the basis of that characteristic, an extended definition and categorization of prisoners' dilemmas to n-person and nonbinary situations. The new distinction is shown to point to differing normative and strategic imperatives for the different categories of games.
Japanese Community and Organizational Mediation
Authors: Callister Ronda Roberts , Wall James A.
Published: March 2007

This study investigated community and organizational mediation in Japan. Initially, hypotheses about community mediation were developed from a review of Japanese history and culture. These predictions were compared to data from interviews with Japanese students and subsequently with data collected in Japan. The comparisons yielded revised predictions about organizational conflict resolution, which were strongly supported by data collected in Japan. Specifically, it was found that the Japanese in their organizations, as in the community, infrequently use assertive mediation techniques such as criticism, education, and disputant separation. They are more apt to rely on nonassertive techniques such as gathering information from the disputants, listening to opinions, and relaying these between disputants. Such an approach is significantly less assertive than that used by the Chinese or the South Koreans.
Three's Company
Authors: Carment David , Rowlands Dane
Published: March 2007

In the aftermath of the cold war, intrastate conflicts have emerged to challenge international stability and security. Although some authors have attempted to identify strategies for bringing these conflicts to a peaceful conclusion, these recommendations have not been formally grounded. In this study, the authors develop a game-theoretic model based on the mission's intensity, the salience of the conflict to the intervener, the capabilities of the belligerent, and the belligerent's expected gains from continued fighting. On the prescriptive side, the model focuses on optimal behavior rather than just mission success. On the descriptive side, the model can be used to help explain the success and failures of some past missions.
Human Rights and the Democratic Proposition
Authors: Davenport Christian
Published: March 2007

Autocratization is expected to worsen human rights conditions; democratization is frequently heralded as a means for improving them. Unfortunately, neither relationship has been subjected to empirical investigation. The causal linkage between regime change and state repression is examined in the current study with a pooled cross-sectional time-series analysis of 137 countries from 1950 to 1982 ( N=4,521). Four aspects of change are considered: (1) direction, (2) magnitude, (3) “smoothness” of the transition, and (4) duration of time at particular regime types. The results support the anticipated escalatory effect of autocratization for the magnitude variable, revealing influences that persist for 4 years. Additionally, there is support for the pacifying effect of democratization with regard to magnitude for the same 4-year time period. Direction, smoothness, and duration are found to be unimportant, but regime change does matter.
Value Socialization in Families of Israeli-Born and Soviet-Born Adolescents in Israel
Authors: Knafo Ariel , Schwartz Shalom H.
Published: March 2007

The authors examine impacts of immigration on parent-adolescent value similarity, consistency of parents’ value messages, and the value transmission process. Thirty-four former Soviet immigrant families to Israel and 68 matched Israeli families participated. Group mean comparisons revealed generational effects for openness and conservation values: adolescents resembled one another more than their own parents. Immigration further increased adolescent-parent value distance. For self-transcendence and self-enhancement values, there were no effects. Correlations between parent and adolescent group means, across 11 values, suggest that immigration reduces parent-adolescent similarity in value priorities. Within-family analyses showed no immigration effects on parent-adolescent value similarity or on accuracy in perceiving parents’ values, and greater acceptance of parental values in immigrant families. Value messages of immigrant parents were less consistent. Inconsistency undermined value transmission, differently in immigrant and veteran families. The authors discuss why group versus within-family analyses can yield contradictory results and why findings depend on the specific values studied.
Reactions to Environmental Stressors
Authors: Ruback R. Barry , Begum Hamida A. , Tariq Naeem , Kamal Anila , Pandey Janak
Published: March 2007

Male and female residents of four slums in Dhaka, Bangladesh, and four slums in Islamabad, Pakistan, were interviewed about household and environmental stressors and about their mental distress and physical health. Within each city, the slums differed in terms of household-level variables (e.g., number of people and number of rooms per house) and contextual variables (e.g., number of families sharing a water source). Although there were gender differences in both cities, there were more gender differences and the gender differences were stronger in Islamabad than in Dhaka, consistent with the Islamic influence in the two countries.
Perceived Parent-Child Relationships: A Comparison between Amish and Non-Amish Young Adults
Authors: Wittmer Joe
Published: March 2007

This study compared the perceived parental behavior characteristics of 25 Amish and 25 non-Amish youth using the Parent-Child Relations Questionnaire (PCR). The Amish group's perception of their fathers, behavioral characteristics, as compared to the perception of behavioral characteristics for non-Amish parents, differed significantly on several measures of the parent-child relationships. The Amish mothers and fathers were perceived as being less rejecting, less neglecting, less casual, less likely to reward directly and less likely to use symbolic methods of punishment. And, further, the Amish fathers were perceived as being more loving than the non-Amish fathers and the Amish mothers were viewed as being less likely to reward symbolically when compared to the non-Amish mothers. The results were discussed in light of the Amish culture.
Traditional Interpretation and Treatment of Mental Illness in an Arab Psychiatric Clinic
Authors: El-Isla M. Fakhr , Ahmed Samia A.
Published: March 2007

Traditional interpretations of beliefs commonly entertained and rituals commonly practiced among a sample of 153 Arab psychiatric patients were studied. Ritual practice associated significantly with illiteracy and with the presence of observable disorders of behaviour. The interpretations-ritual relationship is not, however, of a one-to-one nature. The belief that general physical weakness is the cause of psychogenic symptoms is exposed and its implications for therapy are discussed from the traditional and medicopsychological angles.
Non-Random Sampling of Individualsin Cross-Cultural Research
Authors: Brislin Richard W. , Baumgardner Steve R.
Published: March 2007

Although true random samples are necessary for the successful completion of some research projects, studies using non-random samples can also be valuable. Research using non-random samples can be improved, however, and our recommendation is for a more careful description of them, to appear in methodology sections of published research. This practice has three purposes: (1) It will allow other researchers to choose their samples with more precision. (2) Careful description allows others to combine various sets of data into a functional relation. (3) It allows others to evaluate the plausible rival hypotheses that may threaten a study's validity. Suggestions for the content of a sample description are given.
A Cross-Cultural Study of Geocentrism
Authors: Whittaker James O. , Whittaker S. J.
Published: March 2007

College students in the United States, Argentina, Fiji, India, and New Zealand were asked to draw a map of the world in 10 minutes, putting in as much detail as possible. Maps were examined for number of countries noted, accuracy in shape and placement of continents and countries, and other details. Geocentrism seems to be reflected in the fact that one's own country is almost always disproportionately large, and it also seems to be reflected in the fact that neighboring countries virtually always tend to be drawn on the maps.
Cognitive Styles among Three Generations of Mexican American Children
Authors: Buriel Raymond
Published: March 2007

It was hypothesized that the cognitive styles of Mexican American children would become increasingly more field independent from the first to the third generation. In addition, a decline in sex differences vas expected to follow a similar pattern. A comparison group of Anglo American children was also included in the study. Results were not in line with the original hypotheses: Anglo American children were the most field independent and showed the smallest sex difference followed, respectively, by second, first, and third generation Mexican American children. Results are discussed as the possible outcome of selective migration and community acculturation processes.
The Nonsocial Behavior of Young Kpelle Children and the Acquisition of Sex Roles
Authors: Erchak Gerald M.
Published: March 2007

Further evidence of the close relationship between aspects of child training and behavior and later adult economic role suggested by previous researchers is presented. An analysis of the nonsocial behavior of 20 Liberian Kpelle 1-to-6-year-olds and the responses of adults to that behavior as these relate to the acquisition of sex roles are included. Nonsocial behavior is behavior that is individual, self-initiated, and egocentric. The methods of systematic behavior observation and coding developed by the Whitings are described and were employed. Because of the greater importance of women than men in Kpelle subsistence activities, girls become more self-reliant and responsible than boys at an earlier age. The nonsocial behavior of boys reflected their greater free time and lack of responsibilities. The responses of adults were inconclusive, but consistent with the findings on children's behavior.
An Exploration of Multicorrelates of Ethnic Group Choice
Authors: LeVine Elaine S. , Ruiz Rene A.
Published: March 2007

A critical sociocultural question today is: "Under what experimental and environmental conditions do ethnic subjects select stimuli of their own group?" To assess patterns of ethnic choice, Anglo, Black, and Chicano second- and fifth-grade children were asked to relate 12 statements to ethnic cues presented in a photographic and sociometric modality. After sex and ethnicity of examiners; relative attractiveness of photographs used; and sex, age, and socioeconomic level of subjects were controlled, results indicate that Blacks show higher own-group choice than Anglos. Patterns of ethnic choice were influenced by age and sex of the children and ethnicity of examiner.
Locus-of-Control Attribution
Authors: Munro D.
Published: March 2007

Although considerable evidence has accumulated from studies in North America that locus of control is multifactorial, little cross-cultural confirmation has emerged, particularly from Africa. Anthropological data suggest that African subjects should be influenced by supernatural beliefs in making attributions about reasons for events, but in a complex way involving powerful others in their social environment. A questionnaire with systematically balanced combinations of event type and explanations for the events was presented to male and female black and white students in Zambia and Zimbabwe-Rhodesia. The scale performed well psychometrically and partly confirmed the hypotheses, though the factorial structures were remarkably similar across cultures. Two orthogonal factors provided the optional simple structure for both blacks and whites; they comprised items referring to (I) personal effort and attributes, and (II) chance and the supernatural. The roles of interpersonal and societal influences were unclear, and there was ambiguous support for the hypothesis of greater importance of supernatural attributions for blacks.
Artisan Training in Kenya
Authors: Vant James H.B.
Published: March 2007

In the mid 1950s test material developed by the National Institute for Personnel Research in South Africa was adapted for the selection and classification of individuals for trade training in Kenya. The environmental background and problems encountered are summarized and the validation procedure utilized is outlined. In the course of the review the original data are examined.
Cooperation-Competition and Self-Esteem
Authors: Kagan Spencer , Knight George P.
Published: March 2007

Several empirical studies have demonstrated that among Black and White U.S. children high self-esteem is associated with competitiveness. To test the generality of that relationship, the correlation of self-esteem and cooperation-competition was assessed among two generations of Mexican-American children and an Anglo-American comparison group. Among second-generation Mexican-American children, who display a cultural norm of cooperativeness, high self-esteem was significantly correlated with cooperativeness; among Anglo-American children, who display a cultural norm of competitiveness, high self-esteem was associated with competitiveness; among third-generation Mexican-American children, who do not demonstrate clear cooperation-competition norms, no clear relationship between self-esteem and cooperation-competition was found. Results do not support the generality of a self-esteem cooperation-competition relationship; rather, they are consistent with the interpretation that self-esteem is partially a function of the extent to which children live up to their cultural norms.
Self-Concept in American Indian and White Children
Authors: Rotenberg Ken J. , Cranwell Ford R.
Published: March 2007

Seventy-one American Indian and 149 White children from grades 3 through 6 were tested on an open self-description measure and a transformational measure of self-concept. American Indian children referred more frequently to kinship roles, traditional customs and beliefs, and moral worth in their open self-descriptions than did White children. Developmental changes in the organization of self-concept were found in White as well as in American Indian children; external orientation decreased with age, whereas internal orientation increased with age on the transformational measure only. In comparison to White children, however, American Indian children showed (a) greater external orientation on both measures, and (b) greater and lesser internal orientation on the open self-description and transformational measures, respectively. This latter discrepancy was interpreted as reflecting American Indian children's competent reference to psychological characteristics but their limited ability to use those in judging change.
An Empirical Scale to Measure Type and Degree of Acculturation in Mexican American Adolescents and Adults
Authors: Mendoza Richard H.
Published: March 2007

This article describes a self-report instrument designed to measure type and degree of acculturation in Mexican-American adolescents and adults. The proposed instrument can be used to measure levels of acculturation on five relatively orthogonal dimensions: intrafamily language usage, extrafamily language usage, social affiliations and activities, cultural familiarity and activities, and cultural identification and pride. The inventory can also be used to generate separate estimates of cultural resistance, cultural incorporation, and cultural shift, and to identify dominant or nondominant cultural lifestyle tendencies. Empirical data concerning the content and construct validity, temporal stability, internal consistency, and equivalence of the Spanish and English versions of the scale are presented and discussed.
"Love" and "Like" Relationships among Married Couples with and without a Child with Disability
Authors: Florian Vicior
Published: March 2007

This article hypothesizes that "love" and "like" relationships among couples with and without a child with disability differ according to the couples' cultural affiliation -Arab versus Jewish. One hundred and fifty-two Israeli married couples completed the Love and Like Questionnaire. The most significant findings were that on both the Love and Like Scales, Arab couples with a child with disability scored lower as compared to the Arab control group, whereas Jewish couples with a child with disability scored higher as compared to the Jewish control group. In addition, Arab husbands scored higher on the Like Scale and lower on the Love Scale as compared to their wives, and no significant differences were found between Jewish husbands and wives on either scale.
Occupational Mobility, Length of Residence, and Perceived Maternal Warmth among Korean Immigrant Families
Authors: Rohner Ronald P. , Hahn Byungchai C. , Koehn Uwe
Published: March 2007

In a sample of 44 Korean immigrant families, the hypothesis was tested that children in Korean-American families who had been at a middle-class occupational level in Korea but who subsequently dropped to working-class status after immigrating to the United States (downward mobile) tend to perceive their mothers as less warm and accepting than do children in Korean-American families that maintained their prior middle-class occupational status after moving to the United States (middle class). 'Two prior studies suggested the likelihood of this hypothesis. Contrary to expectation, however, children in the downward mobile families of this sample-at all years of U.S. residence perceived significantly more maternal warmth and affection than did their middle-class counterparts. Results of this research also show that children in both occupational strata experienced increasing maternal warmth and overall acceptance-and accordingly, decreasing maternal hostility, neglect, and undifferentiated rejection -the longer their parents lived in the United States.
Burnout among Nurses
Authors: Schaufeli Wilmar B. , Janczur Beata
Published: March 2007

Results are presented of a cross-national study on burnout among 200 Polish and 183 Dutch female nurses. The reliablity and the factorial validity of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) is satisfactory in both countries. However, evidence for the content validity of the MBI is likewise equivocal in both samples. Polish nurses are significantly more burned out than their Dutch colleagues, even after controlling for differences in work situations in both countries. Subjective work stressors (i.e., uncertainty and a perceived imbalance between investments and outcomes in relationships with patients) contribute most strongly to bumout in Polish as well as in Dutch nurses. Personality characteristics and aspects of the work situation play a less prominent role. Although the work situation of Polish and Dutch nurses differs considerably, psychological variables-notably, experienced job stress-are likewise crucial in understanding burnout among nurses of both countries.
World Views of Whbite American, Mainland Chinese, Taiwanese, and African Students
Authors: Sodowsky Gargi Roysircar , Maguire Kenneth , Johnson Patricia , Ngumba Wanjiru , Kohles Robert
Published: March 2007

Using an existential perspective, world views of White Americans, mainland Chinese, Taiwanese, and Africans were investigated. Mainland Chinese, Taiwanese, and African international students differed from White American students in perceiving human relationships as lineal-hierarchical and collateral-mutual, human nature as evil, nature as controllable, and the doing modality as valuable. White Americans gave primacy to individual goals in interpersonal relationships and preferred the being modality. Some international students' world views were also different from traditional values of their respective cultures, reflecting possibly the changing perceptions of modernizing societies with changing political situations. Suggestions are made for a modernization model of world views across cultures. Implications for applied psychology are discussed.
Listener Age Estimates of Elderly African American and Caucasian Male Speakers
Authors: Moran Michael J. , McCloskey Laurie , Cady Barbara
Published: March 2007

Speech samples were obtained from 28 male speakers between the ages of 65 and 85 years. Half the speakers were African American and half were Caucasian. The taperecorded speech samples were presented to groups of African American and Caucasian listeners who estimated the age of each speaker in a forward and backward play condition. Both African American and Caucasian listeners tended to underestimate the ages of the Caucasian speakers. Fundamental frequency, frequency range, reading rate, and number and length of pauses were determined. African American speakers demonstrated slower reading rates and longer and more frequent within-sentences pauses. Age estimates were significantly correlated with reading rate in the forward speaking condition.
Cultural Familiarity and Language Factors in the Structure of Category Knowledge
Authors: Lin Pei-Jung , Schwanenflugel Paulaj.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the influence of cultural familiarity and language factors in producing cross-cultural variations in typicality gradients. Thirty Chinese speakers living in Taiwan and 30 English speakers from the United States rated the proto typicality of exemplars from 10 super ordinate categories. Another 30 persons from each culture rated the relative familiarity in their experience of each exemplar. Strong cross-cultural variations were found in typicality gradients. Cultural familiarity was found to be correlated with typicality structures in both cultures but was more strongly related to the typicality gradients of American than Taiwanese-Chinese participants. However, for Chinese speakers, super ordinate category classifiers tended to be correlated with typicality gradients, particularly for those categories in which the familiarity and typicality relationships were low. It is concluded that language structure may moderate the influence of other important variables in producing cross-cultural variation in category structures.
Comparing Emotion Words between Languages
Authors: Russell James A. , Sato Kaori
Published: March 2007

In words such as happy, sad, angry, and afraid, the English language provides a taxonomy of emotional states. But to what extent is this taxonomy language or culture bound? This article describes a method that compares emotion words in different natural languages. Translations for 14 emotion words in English were obtained for Chinese and Japanese. Native speakers rated the extent to which each emotion named was expressed by each of a standard set of facial expressions. The correlation between the resulting profiles for any two words is the index of their similarity. The method proved sensitive in revealing both overall similarity and specific differences in what had been thought to be translation equivalents.
Every Picture Tells A Story—Or Does It?
Authors: Liddell Christine
Published: March 2007

In a previous study by the author, it was reported that South African children in Grades 2 and 3 used very different picture interpretation skills than did a group of British children and showed different patterns of change as they progressed through school. The present study replicates the South African results but uses a larger sample and investigates the picture interpretation skills of South African children more fully in their own right. Results replicated those of the previous study in every detail. In addition, the effects of schooling were more notable than were those of age, and achievement in home language held significant predictive power with regard to all of the categories examined. However, these effects were generally in the opposite direction from those reported for children in the developed world, consolidating and extending the view that children from different cultures may use pictures in rather different ways.
Indigenous Personality Measures
Authors: Cheung Fanny M. , Leung Kwok
Published: March 2007

This article reviews the Chinese historical context of personality testing. Issues of interpretation and methodology related to initial adaptations of English-language personality tests are discussed. The deficiencies of the imposed-etic approach are addressed by the recent development of indigenous personality measures. Three large-scale indigenous personality inventories developed for the Chinese people are introduced and evaluated: Ko's Mental Health Questionnaire, Multi-Trait Personality Inventory, and Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI). Research with indigenous Chinese instruments has provided relevant personality measures for use in local cultures. In addition, it has offered a means to examine the broader theoretical question of the universality and relevance of current Western personality theories, as illustrated by research with the CPAI.
Personality and Filial Piety among College Students in Two Chinese Societies
Authors: Zhang Jianxin , Bond Michael Harris
Published: March 2007

The present study examines the relationships between the endorsement of filial piety and both universal and indigenous personality trait factors among Chinese subjects. Two groups of college students from Hong Kong and Beijing participated in the study and completed a questionnaire composed of the Filial Piety Scale, the Five Factor Inventory (FFI), and five facets selected from the Chinese Tradition factor of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI). The results showed that (a) the indigenous CPAI facets can significantly contribute to predicting filial piety scores over and above the universal FFI factors, and (b) among the five factors of the FFI, Neuroticism and Openness significantly predicted filial piety, whereas among the five facets of Chinese Tradition, Harmony and Renqing (relation orientation) were the two significant predictors. Thus, whether filial piety is universal or culture-specific, improved prediction requires using indigenous measures in addition to the FFI.
Domain-Specific Allocentrism-Idiocentrism
Authors: Lay Clarry , Fairlie Paul , Jackson Sandra , Ricci Tamra , Eisenberg Jacob , Sato Toru , Teeaar Aivo , Melamud Alina
Published: March 2007

Concerned with individual differences in allocentrism-idiocentrism with reference to the family, Study 1 describes the assessment of an initial item pool of statements. Selection of good items was based on several criteria met by both an "Eastern" cultural group and a "Western" cultural group, thereby providing cross-cultural comparability at the item selection stage of test development. Scores on the Family Allocentrism Scale were positively related to a measure of norm-oriented identity style in both "Western" and "Eastern" samples (Study 2). With a "Western" sample (Study 3), individuals with higher levels of family allocentrism exhibited a greater sense of relatedness to their ethnic origins. In Study 4, with a group of Vietnamese immigrant university students, family connectedness moderated the relation between daily hassles and depression. In Study 5, with Russian immigrants, the relation between family allocentrism and depression depended on the level of bicultural competence. Future research plans and needs are considered.
Differences between Americans and Chinese in the Circumstances Evoking Pride, Shame, and Guilt
Authors: Stipek Deborah
Published: March 2007

College students in the United States and in the People's Republic of China completed a set of questions related to the circumstances in which they would feel pride, shame, and guilt. Both Chinese and Americans claimed that they would feel more guilty and ashamed if they were caught cheating on an examination than if their brother were caught, with the intensity of guilt and shame less for Chinese than for Americans. Chinese claimed that they would feel more proud if their child were accepted to a prestigious university than if they were accepted themselves, whereas Americans claimed they would feel equally proud in these two circumstances. Americans had more positive attitudes toward expressing pride in personal accomplishments, and Chinese were more likely to claim that pride should only be experienced for outcomes that benefit others. The findings extend the notion of collectivism to include shared self-related emotions.
Planning and Problem Solving
Authors: Strohschneider Stefan , GÜss Dominik
Published: March 2007

In cognitive psychology, there is an increasing interest in problem solving and planning processes in complex and ill-defined situations. To examine cultural differences in planning processes, two instruments are used both with Brazilian and German university students ( n = 38 each) as participants: the Planning Inventory, which consists of everyday problem scenarios, and the Coldstorage, which is a computer-simulated dynamic problem. In the Planning Inventory, Brazilian participants accept the given descriptions and are more optimistic about the results of their efforts. German participants tend to inquire more about the background of the problems and take a more active approach but are less optimistic. In the Coldstorage simulation, the Brazilian participants have more difficulties in controlling the system. This is attributed to their presence orientation, which makes it difficult to detect developmental patterns. The results are discussed following a functional perspective that interprets cognitive processes within their ecocultural context.
The Existential and the Interpersonal: Ludwig Binswanger and Harry Stack Sullivan
Authors: Frie Roger
Published: March 2007

The Swiss psychiatrist Ludwig Binswanger is commonly known as the founder of “existential analysis.” The purpose of this article is to introduce the larger scope and relevance of Binswanger’s work by drawing, above, all on untranslated texts. The author shows how Binswanger developed a contemporary perspective on self-other interaction with important clinical implications for our understanding of the therapeutic process. The article examines the interaction between the psychotherapist and patient that forms the therapeutic matrix, and argues that Binswanger used elements of Martin Heidegger’s thought and Martin Buber’s dialogical philosophy to develop an original approach to psychotherapy that has considerable parallels with the work of Harry Stack Sullivan and more recent interpersonal and relational theory.
Toward an Entheogen Research Agenda
Authors: Roberts Thomas B. , Hruby Paula Jo
Published: March 2007

The word entheogen was coined to denote psychedelic chemicals and botanicals that engender the experience of god within. Drawing on William James, Charles Tart, and Ken Wilber, the authors claim that a complete study of religion must include entheogens, and they propose topics leading toward an entheogen research agenda:(a) the spiritual nature of the human mind, (b) the dispute over the authenticity of entheogen-assisted religious experiences, (c) pastoral counseling, (d) experimental mysticism, (e) entheogenic origins of religion, and (f) policy issues in freedom of conscience and freedom of religion. The authors conclude with seven recommendations to churches, religious orders, seminaries, and scholarly and scientific professional groups for actions they can take to promote entheogenic research.
The Real Self and Mystical Experiences
Authors: Rowan John
Published: March 2007

The concept of self-actualization is central to humanistic psychology. But what is this self that is to be actualized? Maslow, who introduced the term, thought that it belonged to the realm of Being, most easily accessed through peak experiences. It was essentially something transcendent, and to contact it was to partake of something like a mystical experience. But Maslow, in company with many earlier and later writers, took it that there was just one mystical experience, which might be described as unitive consciousness or cosmic consciousness. There are, however, at least seven quite separate and distinct mystical experiences, and I outline these with references to the literature of mysticism. The practice of meditation is then looked at in the light of these considerations, and criticized for its ambiguity. The spiritual path is then discussed in the context of the preceding argument, and I show that the practice of personal growth and humanistic psychotherapy offer a safe and sound basis for starting on the spiritual path. This may lead to a clean mysticism free from mystification, and a real religion with an aware psychology. "Through therapy or personal growth, we learn how to open up to our own inner process. Through mysticism, we learn how to carry on with that same process, into the deepest depths of all."