bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
CIGARETTE SMOKING AND STIMULUS SELECTION
Authors: HARTLEY L. R.
Published: April 2011

The effect of smoking tobacco upon perceptual selection, using the method of paced observing‐responses, was studied in 15 habitual smokers. Subjects sampled each channel of a three‐channel display for the presence of a signal at a rate of 1/1.5 sec. Average signal rate was 1/6 sampling epochs. Signal probability on the three channels was 0.6, 0.3 and 0.1. Subjects were tested after smoking no cigarettes, one cigarette and two cigarettes, and heart‐rate was measured. Both total number of observations made and the proportion of observations made on the channel with highest signal probability showed an effect of prior smoking. Following no smoking, both of these scores increased during the test. ***Following smoking, the increase did not occur. It is suggested that smoking lowered arousal towards the end of the test.
THE REGRESSION TO RIGHT ANGLES TENDENCY AND THE POGGENDORFF ILLUSION. III
Authors: HOTOPF W. H. N. , OLLEREARNSHAW CHRISTINE , BROWN SUSANNAH
Published: April 2011

The theory was tested that the Poggendorff illusion was due to three tendencies: (i) the regression to the right angle of the angle formed by the transversal with the ‘inducing’ figure, (ii) the tendency to see the transversal as more horizontal or vertical than it is depending upon which coordinate is nearer, and (iii) the tendency, when the ‘inducing’ figure is nearer one of these coordinates, for the transversal to be seen as nearer the other. A regression analysis showed that these tendencies were highly statistically significant and with a constant factor accounted for 93 per cent of the variability of the means for each angle.
RESPONSES TO ALTERED PICTURES
Authors: GORDON IAN E. , GARDNER CAROLINE
Published: April 2011

In Expt. I 30 transparencies of representational pictures were used. Fifteen of the pictures were projected from the wrong side to produce right‐left reversal. Thirty subjects judged the correctness or otherwise of each painting's orientation: only 53 per cent of these judgements were correct. In Expt. II details in 16 reproductions of abstract pictures were rearranged to form alternative versions. Paired original and altered versions were presented twice; on the first occasion the 60 subjects indicated which versions they preferred and on the second occasion they guessed which was the original version of each pair. Generally, the detection of original versions was low (62 per cent) and original versions were preferred on only 55 per cent of trials. Aesthetic experiments in which works of art have been deliberately altered are rare. It is argued that such alterations are technically feasible and may afford valuable ways of testing aesthetic theories.
PERSONALITY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF PERFORMANCE DECREMENT ON A MONOTONOUS TASK REQUIRING SUSTAINED ATTENTION
Authors: THACKRAY RICHARD I. , JONES KAREN N. , TOUCHSTONE ROBERT M.
Published: April 2011

A serial‐reaction task was used to study personality, as well as physiological, correlates of individual differences in performance decrement under low task‐load conditions. Sixty subjects performed the task continuously for 40 min. Extraverted subjects showed increasing lapses of attention, while introverted subjects failed to show any evidence of a decline in attention. Of the two extraversion components (impulsivity and sociability), impulsivity was the component responsible for the obtained decrement. Heart‐rate variability showed significant relationships with personality and with performance decrement, while mean heart rate did not.
CONDITIONED AFTER‐IMAGES. II
Authors: DAVIES PETER
Published: April 2011

Two experiments are described in which subjects report conditioned visual after‐images. The first is concerned with visual after‐images evoked in response to an auditory stimulus and the effects of manipulating the CS‐US ‘dynamic stereotype’. Certain aspects of the data are compared with data obtained in similar experiments in the U.S.S.R. by Bzhalava and the Popovs with which there is seen to be a considerable measure of agreement. The results obtained suggest that a light flash (the primary source of unconditioned after‐images) may, through repetition, come to acquire the status of a conditioned stimulus. The second experiment is an investigation of this latter phenomenon and evidence is presented which may be seen as supporting the view that after‐images may be conditioned to a repeated visual stimulus. Other possible interpretations of the observed results are discussed but these are rejected in favour of the conditioning hypothesis.
SOME CORRELATES OF RATED MEMORABILITY OF SENTENCES
Authors: GRUNEBERG MICHAEL M. , MONKS JOSEPH , SYKES ROBERT N. , OBORNE DAVID J.
Published: April 2011

This study examines the effect of instruction to generate memorable as opposed to grammatical sentences from letter strings of varying lengths. Results indicate that the effect of instruction is limited, but where it proves effective higher rated Memorability is associated with higher rated Sentence Simplicity and Positive Affect. Correlations between the characteristics examined in the study and Memorability fail to reveal any relationship between rated Bizarreness and Memorability, but correlations are found between rated Memorability and rated Imageability, Meaningfulness and Sentence Simplicity, characteristics found by independent research to be related to Memorability. Other interesting correlations between characteristics examined in the study are also discussed.
INSTANCES AND INFERENCES
Authors: JACKSON PAUL , WARR PETER
Published: April 2011

This paper examines parallels between the combination of particular instances of a cue trait to make a single judgement and the combination of judgements into a compound impression. Predictions derived from a differential weighted averaging model are tested and confirmed, and the implications for theories of impression formation are discussed.
REWARD SHIFT AND GENERAL ACTIVITY IN THE RAT
Authors: WOOKEY P. E. , STRONGMAN K. T.
Published: April 2011

Food‐deprived hooded rats were exposed to 50 irregular 60 sec. presentations of a CS (light) in an activity monitoring situation. For one group the onset of the CS was accompanied by the delivery of a 300 mg food pellet. A second group were not fed in the presence of the CS. During 50 subsequent test presentations of the CS, half of each group were shifted to the other reward level on a random 50 per cent of occasions. Training conditions were then reinstituted for a further 50 CS presentations. Following both reward decrease — ‘frustration’ — and reward increase — ‘elation’ — activity in the presence of the CS exceeded that of controls always receiving the to‐be‐shifted‐to reward. Results were discussed with reference to the relationship between drive and general activity and to Amsel's theory of frustrative non‐reward, and were interpreted as supporting a competing response account of reward shift phenomena.
HANDEDNESS IN THE CHILDREN OF TWO LEFT‐HANDED PARENTS
Authors: ANNETT MARIAN
Published: April 2011

Measures of hand speed in 45 children having two sinistral parents showed an equal division between children faster with the right hand and children faster with the left hand. The mean difference was very close to zero and the standard deviation was not less than that of unselected samples. These observations are compatible with the theory that the factor usually biasing handedness toward dextrality is absent in these children and that their laterality is determined mainly by accidental variation.
EXTRAVERSION AND VARIETY‐SEEKING IN A MONOTONOUS TASK
Authors: HILL A. B.
Published: April 2011

It is hypothesized on the basis of Eysenck's theory of extraversion that extraverts should build more variety into their performance at a monotonous task than introverts. The performance of a group of extraverts (n = 16) and a group of introverts (n = 16) on a simple repetitive task was compared. Comparisons were made on two measures of response variety: firstly, a simple measure of number of alternations among possible responses and, secondly, a measure of variety taken from information theory … the average entropy of the set of responses made. The hypothesis was confirmed on both measures. The results are interpreted as adding further support to Eysenck's work linking differences in extraversion to differences in arousal.
EXTRAVERSION, NEUROTICISM, AND VERBAL REASONING ABILITY AS DETERMINANTS OF PAIRED‐ASSOCIATES LEARNING
Authors: ALLSOPP J. F. , EYSENCK H. J.
Published: April 2011

Predictions based on theories of verbal learning proposed by Spence and Eysenck were compared by using a non‐competitive list of paired‐associates formed from seven synonym pairs, and a competitive list formed by pairing each of the seven S words with a R word with which it was not synonymous. Each list was presented in a 2 times 2 × 2 design to groups of primary school children differing in extraversion, neuroticism, and verbal reasoning ability. Performance on both lists was related to ability level and extraversion, and these relationships did not interact with the stage of learning. It is concluded in support of Eysenck's theory that differences in extraversion are of importance in determining performance on such tasks.
COLOURS EXPERIENCED IN DREAMS
Authors: PADGHAM CHARLES A.
Published: April 2011

Colours seen in dreams by six observers were recorded from memory and plotted on a CIE u, v, chromaticity diagram. Only about half the dreams recorded contained colour, and in those in which colour appeared the more saturated purples, blues and blue greens were absent. It is suggested that during achromatic dreams the areas of the visual cortex which seem to respond only to colour may be inoperative. The paucity of blue in dreams could be anatomically related to the small population of blue units in the colour areas of the cortex.
THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT MODES OF SUPERVISION ON VIGILANCE BEHAVIOUR
Authors: PUTZ VERNON R.
Published: April 2011

Experiment I was run to determine if a closed‐circuit television and a one‐way window mode of supervision were as effective as the direct physical presence of an experimenter in inducing enhanced levels of signal detection in a Mackworth‐type vigilance task. A control condition of complete subject privacy was also examined. The results indicated that both the television and the window conditions had a positive effect on overall performance which was similar to that observed in the experimenter‐presence condition; however, the performance decrement over the 90 min. vigil was equivalent for the four modes. A second experiment involving the variable of camera position with an addition of a fourth 30 min. period yielded no significant differences between the camera positions, but overall performance in the television condition was again better than in the control condition. This study suggested that performance can be enhanced even without the physical presence of the experimenter.
ASSIMILATIVE PROJECTION AND CONSTRUCT BALANCE IN THE REPERTORY GRID
Authors: BENJAFIELD J. , ADAMS‐WEBBER J.
Published: April 2011

The relationship between the degree to which people see others as like themselves (assimilative projection) and the frequency with which they use positive adjectives to describe people was examined in the context of changing role perspectives. The assimilative projection scores of those persons who use a preponderance of positive over negative adjectives were found to be influenced by changes in role perspectives. By contrast, the assimilative projection scores of those persons whose use of adjectives was less ‘maldistributed’ were stable across roles. These results suggest that Boucher & Osgood's (1968) ‘Pollyanna hypothesis’ applies more precisely to persons whose views of themselves are influenced more readily by changing perspectives than to persons who maintain relatively stable conceptions of their own identities in relation to others. The results also have implications for repertory grid methodology, specifically for the practice of controlling for maldistribution. The effect of this control upon the mathematical structure of grids is examined.
URIC ACID AND DIVERGENT THINKING: A POSSIBLE RELATIONSHIP
Authors: KENNETT KEITH F. , CROPLEY ARTHUR J.
Published: April 2011

An exploratory investigation of the relationship between serum uric acid levels in male university students and their scores on tests of convergent and divergent thinking was carried out. The data suggested that uric acid levels are lower in highly divergent thinkers than in less divergent. This led to the speculation that uric acid may be an important biochemical precursor of intellectual functioning. If it does affect intellectual functioning, this may result from the action of uric acid as an endogenous cortical stimulant, or possibly from its action as a facilitator of learning.
LIMITATIONS ON TEMPORAL CONTROL: GENERALIZATION AND THE EFFECTS OF CONTEXT
Authors: STADDON J. E. R.
Published: April 2011

On fixed‐interval reinforcement schedules, the time‐marker initiating each interval produces a pause before the terminal response begins (inhibitory temporal control). In four experiments on temporal control, two kinds of interaction in intercalated stimulus sequences were identified: confusion effects, reflecting similarities among stimuli, and attention (overshadowing) effects, reflecting differential memorability.
CONTEXT‐DEPENDENT MEMORY IN TWO NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS: ON LAND AND UNDERWATER
Authors: GODDEN D. R. , BADDELEY A. D.
Published: April 2011

In a free recall experiment, divers learnt lists of words in two natural environments: on dry land and underwater, and recalled the words in either the environment of original learning, or in the alternative environment. Lists learnt underwater were best recalled underwater, and vice versa. A subsequent experiment shows that the disruption of moving from one environment to the other was unlikely to be responsible for context‐dependent memory.
RECOGNIZING FACES
Authors: ELLIS HADYN D.
Published: April 2011

Following a review of the stimulus and subject factors which have been found to affect recognition of faces, the question of whether this process can be considered a special one is dealt with. Evidence from studies involving the development of face recognition, the recognition of inverted faces, and the clinical condition prosopagnosia is considered, and in each case found to be inadequate for the unequivocal conclusion that the processes underlying face recognition are qualitatively different from those employed in recognizing other pictorial material.
QUANTITY CONCEPTIONS IN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS: ANOTHER LOOK
Authors: ROWELL J. A. , RENNER V. J.
Published: April 2011

On hundred and thirty‐eight post‐graduate students enrolled in a Diploma in Education course were tested for their ability to conserve weight and volume. A methodological criticism of the earlier work of Elkind (1962) and Towler & Wheatley (1971) is offered which casts doubt on the extremely high proportion of non‐conservers of volume reported in those studies. Nevertheless, using a modified version of Elkind's methodology, 18 per cent of our sample were non‐conservers of volume, a result providing some support for the generality of Elkind's findings. The results are discussed under the four headings of horizontal décalage, sex differences, possible effects of pre‐graduate courses of study and educational implications. The importance of the individual as constructor and interpreter of his own experience is emphasized.
SOME EVIDENCE FOR ‘SPEECH’ AS AN ACOUSTIC FEATURE
Authors: MORTON JOHN , CHAMBERS SUSAN M.
Published: April 2011

Under conditions of serial recall of auditorily presented lists of digits, recall of the last item has been shown to be adversely affected by the presence of a redundant item following the list. This is known as ‘the suffix effect’ (Crowder & Morton, 1969). In a series of experiments it is shown that the size of this effect is not influenced by the phonological complexity of the suffix. Non‐speech sounds, on the other hand, produce no suffix effect even when the subjects are forced to process them. Certain speech sounds were also found to produce no effect. It is concluded that these sounds lacked properties which are characteristic of speech sounds and so were classified as ‘non‐speech’ and that as a result, these sounds are processed by a separate system from the speech sounds.
EXTRAVERSION AND REINFORCEMENT IN VERBAL OPERANT CONDITIONING
Authors: GUPTA B. S.
Published: April 2011

The present investigation was designed to study the relationship between extraversion and modes of reinforcement in verbal operant conditioning. A 4 × 2 randomized block design was replicated ten times. Eighty graduate and post‐graduate male students were individually subjected to the standard Taffel conditioning procedure. When the numbers of conditioned responses produced by introverts and extraverts were compared, it was found that: (1) under negative reinforcement (‘bad’ and electric shock), with both the female and male experimenters, and under positive reinforcement (‘good’) with the male experimenter, the introverts' score was the higher of the two; (2) under positive reinforcement (‘good’) with the female experimenter, the extraverts' score was higher than that of the introverts.
EXTRAVERSION, ACTIVATION AND THE RECALL OF PROSE
Authors: EYSENCK MICHAEL W.
Published: April 2011

Subjects were divided into four groups on the basis of their scores on the extraversion scale of the Eysenck Personality Inventory and the general activation scale of Thayer's Activation‐Deactivation Adjective Check List. A prose passage was presented to subjects who then attempted to recall it under strict instructions to avoid errors. There were significant interactions between activation and extraversion for the error data and the phrase‐correct data, with moderate levels of arousal (high activation extraverts and low activation introverts) being associated with the fewest errors and the most phrases correctly recalled. It was concluded that the study showed the importance of arousal to recall performance, possibly due to the effects of arousal on retrieval processes.
MEMORY DEFICITS IN EARLY INFANTILE AUTISM: SOME SIMILARITIES TO THE AMNESIC SYNDROME
Authors: BOUCHER JILL , WARRINGTON ELIZABETH K.
Published: April 2011

Autistic children were compared with control children on tasks in which retention was tested by different methods. In three tests of recall, using named pictures, written words and spoken words as test stimuli, autistic children were impaired in comparison with age‐matched normal children and with controls matched for verbal and non‐verbal ability. In one test of forced‐choice recognition of pictures, autistic children were impaired in comparison with ability‐matched controls. In three tests of cued recall, using named pictures, written words and spoken words as test stimuli, and acoustic, graphemic and semantic cues, autistic children were not impaired in comparison with normal age‐matched controls. In one test of paired‐associate learning using non‐related word pairs as test stimuli autistic children were not impaired in comparison with normal age‐matched controls. These experimental paradigms were similar to some that have been used to investigate the amnesic syndrome in man. Thus findings on paired‐associate learning differ in autistic and amnesic subjects, but findings on recall, recognition and cued recall are comparable. A possible parallel between autism and amnesia is discussed.
ACQUIRED SENSORY CONTROL OF SATIATION IN MAN
Authors: BOOTH D. A. , LEE M. , McALEAVEY CHRISTINE
Published: April 2011

Lean male and female subjects who had been taking their meals as usual were given a 100 ml drink of starch immediately before a sandwich lunch. In the training phase, 65 per cent starch was given before lunches which included a yoghurt‐based dessert of one flavour and 5 per cent starch was given before another flavour. Subjects who initially ate lunches of similar size following the two drinks began after several pairings to take larger lunches following dilute starch than following concentrated starch. In extinction tests, identical 35 per cent starch drinks were given before lunches including desserts of either flavour. Lunches including the flavour hitherto paired with dilute starch remained larger than lunches including the other flavour, at least initially in extinction. Some of the difference in intake occurred in the dessert itself. None was attributable to differences in the early stage of the lunches. These results extend to man recent demonstrations that the satisfying power of a foodstuff is in part acquired by association of its sensory characteristics with some consequence of ingesting the nutrients which are consistently taken with or in that food. This consequence may be rapid intestinal absorption of glucose during or shortly after sensory input. The nature of the intake‐suppressing response remains to be determined.
SYNTACTIC CONSTRUCTIONS AS RETRIEVAL PLANS
Authors: KEMPEN GERARD
Published: April 2011

Four probe latency experiments show that the ‘constituent boundary effect’ (transitions between constituents are more difficult than within constituents) is a retrieval and not a storage phenomenon. The experimental logic used is called paraphrastic reproduction: after verbatim memorization of some sentences, subjects were instructed to reproduce them both in their original wording and in the form of sentences that, whilst preserving the original meaning, embodied different syntactic constructions.

Syntactic constructions are defined as pairs which consist of a pattern of conceptual information and a syntactic scheme, i.e. a sequence of syntactic word categories and function words. For example, the sequence noun + finite intransitive main verb (‘John runs’) expresses a conceptual actor‐action relationship. It is proposed that for each overlearned and simple syntactic construction there exists a retrieval plan which does the following. It searches through the long‐term memory information that has been designated as the conceptual content of the utterance(s) to be produced, looking for a token of its conceptual pattern. The retrieved information is then cast into the format of its syntactic scheme. The organization of such plans is held responsible for the constituent boundary effect.
CONDITIONING AFTERIMAGES: A PROCEDURE MINIMIZING THE EXTINCTION EFFECT OF NORMAL TEST TRIALS
Authors: DAVIES PETER
Published: April 2011

Six subjects were trained on a conditioning schedule of ten trials a day for 25 days: a further 18 CS‐US pairings were presented on 4 subsequent days. The tone employed as the CS was put on 30 sec before the presentation of a briefly illuminated visual target (the US) and maintained until terminated by the subject when his afterimages disappeared. This procedure allowed continuous monitoring of the evolution of the conditioned response (conditioned afterimages): directly for CRs with a latency of less than 30 sec which could occur on every training trial before the US was presented; indirectly from the changes in the duration of afterimagery following the presentation of the US. As every trial yielded some evidence about the evolution of the CR, unreinforced test trials were not necessary after every block of training trials so minimizing the extinction effect attributable to the presentation of an unreinforced CS.

In the course of the experiment the mean duration of afterimagery increased almost fivefold with one subject showing a tenfold increase. Five of the subjects experienced visual images in response to the tone alone and were judged to be conditioned. The data are discussed in relation to the evolving levels of conditioning identified by Bzhalava (1958, 1965).
PARENT‐OFFSPRING RESEMBLANCES IN INTELLIGENCE: THEORIES AND EVIDENCE
Authors: McASKIE MICHAEL , CLARKE ANN M.
Published: April 2011

A review of data on parent‐offspring resemblances in intelligence is presented in the context of correlation, regression and variance predictions from the polygenic model and an environmental model. Consideration was given to reliability, test equivalence and long‐term stability of IQ scores. Results indicate that much of the difference among offspring IQ scores is not directly attributable to parental IQ, and that some is due to other between‐family variables. The magnitude of single‐parent‐offspring correlations was related to the degree of assortative mating present in samples. Evidence on whether parent‐offspring resemblances in IQ are transmitted genetically or environmentally is on the whole lacking. A single study provides evidence for some degree of genetic transmission, but it is argued that the present polygenic model is inadequate.
THE EFFECTS OF STIMULUS ATTRIBUTES UPON LATENCY OF WORD RECOGNITION
Authors: RICHARDSON JOHN T. E.
Published: April 2011

This experiment investigated the properties affecting the time taken to read individual words and to discriminate between words and non‐words. The number of letters in a word was found to affect the time taken to read it aloud, but not the time taken to discriminate it from non‐words. The frequency of a word affected the time for discrimination, but not that for reading. Non‐words which obeyed the rules of English orthography and phonology were more difficult to discriminate from words than those which violated those rules. Imageability, concreteness, and the number of syllables in a word were found not to affect performance, nor were derived nouns more difficult to process than simple nouns. It is suggested that reading aloud employs grapheme‐phoneme translation based upon a letter‐by‐letter analysis of the stimulus; that discriminating words from non‐words obeying the rules of English orthography and phonology employs a search of the lexicon based upon a holistic analysis of the stimulus; and that discriminating words from non‐words violating those rules employs a direct test of the regularity of the stimulus based upon the combinatory rules of English orthography.
SEMANTIC CODING VERSUS THE STIMULUS SUFFIX
Authors: SALTER D. , SPRINGER G. , BOLTON L.
Published: April 2011

The stimulus suffix effect is investigated when it follows an auditory memory list in which rated meaningfulness was manipulated at the final serial position. A verbal suffix disrupts the terminal list item compared with a noise suffix, but rated meaningfulness affects recall performance significantly despite the presence of a verbal suffix. With ordered recall, there is some evidence that a verbal suffix disrupts items rated low in meaningfulness to a greater extent (Expt. I); this interaction does not show when serial order recall is stipulated (Expt. II). The effect of rated meaningfulness with a verbal stimulus suffix eliminates a model in which information about the final item is retrieved exclusively from precategorical acoustic storage. The paper discusses two propositions about the preliminary stages of acoustic analysis and encoding in the absence of focal attention.
THE ELECTRODERMAL COMPONENT OF THE ORIENTING RESPONSE IN BLIND AND DEAF INDIVIDUALS
Authors: CARROLL D. , SURTEES P. G.
Published: April 2011

Skin conductance response (SCR) was monitored as an index of the orienting response (OR) to a series of 20 tones presented to blind and sighted schoolchildren. Blind children showed fewer criterion SCRs than sighted children, and significantly more of the blind sample exhibited SCR habituation. The blind group also demonstrated fewer non‐specific SCRs than sighted control subjects, but demonstrated a higher average skin conductance level (SCL). A second experiment found similar effects for deaf versus hearing children presented with simple visual stimulation, save that no significant difference was observed between these groups in SCL. These results can be explained by assuming that loss of modality results in more efficient development of a neuronal model of the salient features of stimuli impinging on the remaining intact modalities. An explanation in terms of the assessed significance of the stimulus situation can also be entertained. The atypical skin conductance activity of three of the blind group was given separate consideration.
A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EYSENCK'S P SCALE AND CHANGE IN MUSCLE ACTION POTENTIALS WITH ATTENTION TO PERCEPTUAL TASKS
Authors: HINTON JOHN , CRASKE BRIAN
Published: April 2011

An experiment is described in which an index of change in muscle tension produced by perceptual discrimination tasks, and scores on Eysenck's PEN scales, were measured on 39 university students. It was hypothesized that if P is an index of psychoticism, as has been claimed (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1968) then an index of one central feature of so called ‘psychotics’, namely attention difficulty while decision making, should correlate positively with P.

P was found to correlate significantly with a measure of increase of EMG on the perceptual discrimination tasks (r = 0.54, P < 0.001). Correlations of this index with N and E were zero. The results are considered to be particularly significant, since scores on P, E and N gave almost zero intercorrelations in the sample tested, and L scores were exceedingly low. Further evidence is provided which suggests that both P and muscle tension increase are directly related to the degree of endorsement of paranoid ideas.
EXTRAVERSION, NEUROTICISM AND STRENGTH OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Authors: FRIGON JEAN‐YVES
Published: April 2011

The hypothesized identity of the dimensions of extraversion‐introversion and strength of the nervous system was tested on four groups of nine subjects (neurotic extraverts, stable extraverts, neurotic introverts, stable introverts). Strength of the subjects' nervous system was estimated using the electroencephalographic (KEG) variant of extinction with reinforcement. Introverted subjects were found to have weak nervous systems, according to the EEG index, while extroverted subjects had strong nervous systems, thus confirming the hypothesis. It was also found that the dimension of strength of the nervous system was unrelated to differences in neuroticism. The results are interpreted as adding support to Eysenck's theory relating differences in extraversion‐introversion to differences in cortical arousal.
RATIONALIZATION IN A REASONING TASK
Authors: EVANS J. St B. T. , WASON P. C.
Published: April 2011

An experiment is presented to test the dual process model of thinking proposed by Wason & Evans (1975). One prediction of the model is that subjects' introspective justifications of their reasoning behaviour do not reflect insight into the underlying thought processes, but are essentially rationalizations. In the present experiment subjects in independent groups are given one of several different solutions to a reasoning problem as being correct, and asked to justify the solution. As predicted, subjects tend to find reasons for whichever solution is presented and express a generally high degree of confidence in the correctness of their reasons. The discussion relates both the results and the underlying theory to concepts developed by social psychologists.
VISUAL BEHAVIOUR IN SOCIAL INTERACTION: THE VALIDITY OF EYE‐CONTACT ASSESSMENTS UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS OF OBSERVATION
Authors: RIMÉ BERNARD , McCUSKER LEX
Published: April 2011

On each session of the experiment, each of five subjects was assigned to act as either gaze‐sender (GS), gaze‐receiver (GR), direct‐sight observer (DSO), TV observer (TVO) or one‐way mirror observer (OWO). The GS had to look into the GR's eyes each time he received prerecorded signal through earphones. The GR and the three observers recorded GS's eye‐gaze behaviour. Two conditions of distance between GR and GS were included. Results showed that (1) the GR, DSO and TVO presented an equivalent accuracy in their EC recordings as compared with the programmed signals, while the OWO's accuracy appeared significantly lesser; (2) as a concealed observer, OWO was also less efficient than TVO since the agreement of the former with GR's records was significantly lower than that of the DSO, which was not the case for the latter; (3) with increment of distance, OWOs recorded longer EC periods, a tendency which was not found significant among the other observers.
The role of semantic information in short‐term memory in children aged 5 to 9 years
Authors: WETHERICK N. E. , ALEXANDER JANE
Published: April 2011

A previous finding that adults recalled more words if the words were drawn from one semantic category than if they were drawn from more than one was confirmed for children down to age five. The adult tendency to store words in order of presentation (resulting in a substantial primacy effect) was however largely absent in 5–6 years olds and present only in a weaker form in 7–9 year olds. The recency effect affecting the last word in a list was as strong in 5 year olds as in adults but the rate of decline in recall backwards through the serial positions was much sharper both in 5–6 year olds and in 7–9 year olds than it was in adults.
Phrase units as determinants of visual processing in music reading
Authors: SLOBODA JOHN A.
Published: April 2011

Keyboard musicians sight‐read passages of music in which the amount of information about the presence of phrase units was systematically varied. A distinction was made between ‘physical’ unit markers, which allowed delineation of a unit prior to analysis of its component elements, and ‘structural’ unit markers, which defined a unit in terms of the sequential rules obeyed by its constituent elements. During the execution of the passages the text would be removed at a point known in advance only to the experimenter. Subjects were then required to execute all the material seen beyond this point to provide a measure of the eye‐hand span at that point. It was found that the presence of structural markers increased span, and tended to cause span to extend exactly to a phrase boundary. The presence of physical markers did not increase span, although it also tended to cause span to extend exactly to a phrase boundary. The results suggest a clear analogy between the cognition of music and language, in that knowledge of abstract structure is of importance in the organization of immediate visual processing of text.
Sex differences in the emotional behaviour of laboratory mice
Authors: ARCHER JOHN
Published: April 2011

Three laboratory strains of mice (C57, BALB/c, Porton) were tested in an open field using a number of measures taken during the initial 2 min of testing and after a loud bell had sounded. The mice were tested either in a clean field or in one containing the odour of a same‐sex conspecific. Over all three strains, several measures indicated that females showed higher levels of ‘emotional’ or ‘fear’ responses than did males. This sex difference was found in C57 and BALB/c strains but not in the Portons; it could not be attributed to activity or response‐specific sex differences. Conspecific odours did not influence the direction of the main findings.
Memory performance after arousal from different sleep stages
Authors: STONES M. J.
Published: April 2011

Learning material was presented to independent groups of subjects either after arousal from non‐Rapid Eye Movement (non‐REM) sleep, after arousal from REM sleep, or under conditions of no prior sleep. Measures of immediate and subsequent free recall were taken.

Memory performance was found to be impaired where learning took place after non‐REM arousal. This was manifest in the number of categories recalled, over both immediate and subsequent recall, and in the number of items recalled per category over subsequent recall. It was suggested that the memory performance decrement after non‐REM arousal may be understood in terms of a retrieval deficit as well as a coding deficit. It is possible that the former is consequent upon a lower general level of arousal, whereas the latter is specific to memory.
A preliminary study of alternative taste languages using qualitative description of sodium chloride solutions: Malay versus English
Authors: O'Mahony M. , Muhiudeen H.
Published: April 2011

Monolingual English and Malay speakers as well as bilinguals gave qualitative descriptions of salt solutions and their descriptive strategies were examined. Malay speakers made greater use of the modifying comparative phrase than English speakers, thus making use of a strategy that may help prevent confusions in English. Such a strategy may benefit taste panels.
A technique for converting ranks into measures
Authors: Wood Robert , Wilson Douglas T.
Published: April 2011

A method for converting ranks into measures is proposed. It should be useful whenever it is necessary to amalgamate ranked data with interval data. Being based on the ranking of differences between subjects, the method is able to utilize whatever information a judge is able to provide. Suggestions are made for dealing with data which are oddly distributed.
A psychophysiological study of paranoid hostility and defensiveness in maximum security hospital patients*
Authors: Hinton John
Published: April 2011

In this study male security hospital patients are compared against male students on L scores, and on the relationship between scores on Eysenck's P scale and an index of change in muscle tension on attending to perceptual discrimination tasks. In the student sample P score gave a significant positive correlation with the EMG index, while L scores were remarkably low. Results on the hospitalized population showed that the measure of increase in muscle tension was again very significantly correlated with P, but the correlation was negative. This switch is highly significant (P < 0.0001). Also, with patients, a significant positive correlation occurred between L and the EMG index. The results are interpreted by reference to L scores, since the deviant population had significantly higher L scores than students (P < 0.001). It is argued that many patients detained for an undefined period are highly defensive and fake socially good. It is proposed that those faking most may be the extreme paranoid and hostile types who, if they had nothing to lose by being honest, would normally endorse a large number of items on the P scale.
Tactual and name matching by blind children
Authors: Millar Susanna
Published: April 2011

The hypothesis that letters can be matched on the basis of tactual physical features was tested in three experiments with blind Braille‐reading children.

Experiment I compared simultaneous matching of pairs of normal (S) and enlarged (E) format Braille letters. Under physical match instructions latencies for SS pairs were significantly faster than for other pairs, but matching EE pairs which compared two difficult letters under physical match instructions was no slower than matching SE or ES letters which compared one easy and one difficult letter under name match instructions.

Experiment II showed that successive physical matching of SS and EE letters was significantly faster than name matching of ES and SE letters respectively.

Experiment III tested successive matching with two types of altered format (X and Y) under instructions to judge whether pairs were the same letter. Latencies did not differ between XX and YY pairs, but each was significantly faster than either XY or YX pairs. The results were deemed to support the hypothesis.
Trying to bridge some neuropsychological gaps between monkey and man
Authors: Weiskrantz L.
Published: April 2011

It is puzzling that some gross anatomical systems in the brains of monkeys and men appear to function quite differently although there is no established basis for this either in their fine‐grained anatomical organizations or, in the inherent behavioural capacities of the two species. It is suggested that in some instances the discrepancies may arise because inappropriate tests have been used with the animals, and examples are given of positive evidence for cross‐modal perception and a possible experimental basis for hemispheric specialization in the monkey. In other instances, they may derive from inadequate or inappropriate methods of testing human subjects, and attention is focused on two major examples: memory disorders associated with medial temporal lobe lesions and blindness associated with occipital lesions in man. In both examples it has been generally concluded that the human deficits are far more severe and even qualitatively different from those studied in the monkey. Evidence suggests that the discrepancies may be resolved if human subjects are tested not by means of ‘commentary’ questions (e.g. ‘do you see this?’ or ‘do you recognize this?’) but by methods that depend upon forced‐choice or identification procedures that are more closely related to those used with animal subjects. It is argued that the study of dissociations between a capacity and its acknowledgement by a human subject may suggest a type of brain organization that is consistent both with the engineering approach that Craik would have fostered and also with one that places older and newer brain structures in a single evolutionary framework.
Absolute pitch: A case study
Authors: Vernon Philip E.
Published: April 2011

The auditory skill known as ‘absolute pitch’ is discussed, and it is shown that this differs greatly in accuracy of identification or reproduction of musical tones from ordinary discrimination of ‘tonal height’, which is to some extent trainable. The present writer possessed absolute pitch for almost any tone or chord over the normal musical range, from about the age of 17 to 52. He then started to hear all music one semitone too high, and now at the age of 71 it is heard a full tone above the true pitch. Tests were carried out under controlled conditions, in which 68 to 95 per cent of notes were identified as one semitone or one tone higher than they should be.

Changes with ageing seem more likely to occur in the elasticity of the basilar membrane mechanisms than in the long‐term memory which is used for aural analysis of complex sounds. Thus this experience supports the view that some resolution of complex sounds takes place at the peripheral sense organ, and this provides information which can be incorrect, for interpretation by the cortical centres.
Constructive properties of theoretical models
Authors: Sharp Stephen A.
Published: April 2011

This paper isolates various properties of theoretical models which are conducive to the successful fulfilment of the functions of theory in the progress of scientific research. These properties are summarized in the concept of value which refers to the statistical accuracy of a given model along with its complexity which is defined in terms of the testable axioms of the model. These issues are then discussed in the context of specific examples from the psychological research literature.
Staff ratings of children's behaviour in hospital: Comparability of factor structures
Authors: Clough Fred
Published: April 2011

Behaviour‐ratings for a common sample of 108 young adolescent girls in an orthopaedic hospital situation were obtained concurrently from three independent groups of ward‐staff observers. The ratings were factor analysed both within observer groups, and across groups (using mean scale item scores), and factorial structures were analysed for comparability. It was found that the independently derived group structures were highly similar, replicating a four‐dimensional system common to a number of analyses in other social settings, and recently given prominence in a review by Howarth (1976). In particular, the separation of fearful from hostile emotional behaviours, and from a neutral sociability dimension, was predicted and confirmed. However, whilst correlations between matched factor loadings were generally high, those between matched factor scores were much lower. It is argued that the procedure of averaging judges' ratings prior to factor analysis is useful not only to increase reliability, but to improve validity by extending the range of sampling across different role situations. Hence in spite of a relatively low inter‐judge agreement, the combined solution offers a more valid composite criterion of ‘characterstic ward behaviour’ having a high multiple correlation with the independently derived predictor group observations.
Frequency and imagery in word recognition: Further evidence for an attribute model
Authors: Morris Peter E.
Published: April 2011

Murdock (1974) located the difference in recognition between common and rare words in the lower frequency of false positives to rare words. Morris & Reid (1974) have similarly located the superiority in recognition of easy to image (high I) words in their lower false positive rate. However, Gregg's (1976) explanation of the word frequency effect in terms of encoding variability and the distinctiveness of word attributes predicts more hits as well as fewer false positives to rare words. Gregg's prediction was confirmed by the experiment reported below. A subsequent survey of dictionary definitions of words differing in frequency and I‐value further supported Gregg's model and was incompatible with that of Glanzer & Bowles (1976). A model based upon the likelihood of encoding variability and the distinctiveness of the attributes defining each word meaning accounts for the differences in recognition for items varying in I‐value and frequency, and explains Galbraith & Underwood's (1973) finding that abstract words are perceived as more common than concrete words.
Cognitive style and lateral eye movements
Authors: Huang Ming‐shiunn , Byrne Brian
Published: April 2011

The lateral eye movement paradigm was employed to test the hypothesis that narrow categorizers, who are believed to be more analytic in information processing, make characteristic use of the left hemisphere, while broad categorizers, being more holistic, depend more on the right hemisphere. Data for narrow categorizers confirmed the hypothesis in that they tended to produce a majority of right shifts. Results from broad categorizers turned out to be less clear, although there was a tendency in the direction of left eye shift. Additionally, narrow categorizers made significantly more total LEMs than did broad categorizers. The results are discussed in terms of cerebral specialization underlying cognitive style.
Levels of processing: A reply to Lockhart and Craik
Authors: Eysenck Michael W.
Published: April 2011

Lockhart & Craik (1978) argue that they have proposed a framework for the study of memory rather than a testable theory, and thus they cannot be proved wrong. In addition, they claim that understanding is at present preferable to prediction. My reactions to this ex cathedra statement are mixed. My reading of the Craik‐Lockhart formulation was that some of the statements in it were potentially falsifiable and others were not. The general notion that the memory trace should be regarded as the product of cognitive‐perceptual operations is probably not directly susceptible to empirical test. However, the hypothesis that Type I processing (i.e. repetition of analyses already carried out) should not enhance memory performance could be, and has been, tested. It is probably true that psychologists attach undue importance to theories making predictions that are consistently confirmed, even if the predictions are utterly trivial. It is worth remembering that it was well known at the time that Newton published his Principia that his theory could not even explain the motion of the moon. Nevertheless, the enhanced understanding produced by Newtonian theory ensured its continued acceptance.