bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
FATE AND EFFECTS OF CRUDE OIL ON AN ESTUARINE POND
Authors: Lytle Julia S.
Published: January 2013

Crude oil spilled in an estuarine marine environment caused short term, acute effects on salt marsh plants. Drastic changes in both diversity and numbers in the fish population were observed immediately after the spill. Initially zooplankton populations dropped, accompanied by phytoplankton blooms. As the oil dissipated, the zooplankton population increased rapidly. Long-term effects on fauna and flora were being studied. Migration of the oil via benthic animals and tidal percolations was observed as much as 42 cm beneath the sediment surface. The sediments acted as an organic sink preserving the crude oil. Gas chromatographic analyses of sediment core sections indicate slow degradation of the crude oil with loss only of the lower molecular weight hydrocarbons after twelve months.
AN OIL POLLUTION CONTROL OFFICER TRAINING COURSE
Authors: Cormack D. , Jeffery P. G.
Published: January 2013

Warren Spring Laboratory (WSL) has recently run a number of training courses for oil pollution control officers. This paper describes these courses and relates activities to the responsibilities of the officers attending and the functions of the range of organisations concerned with oil pollution clearance. The nature of these activities has been explored and the underlying philosophy developed. Ultimately, the aim is to equip oil pollution officers with as wide an appreciation and understanding of available techniques and practices as possible within the limits imposed by a 10-day residential course. The training programme consists of lectures, films, demonstrations, and practical work in the use of proven techniques, and members are required to produce written assessments and comparisons of a number of commercially available devices. Topics include nature and source of oil spills, beach protection and cleaning, and the recovery of oil from water surfaces.
STREAM PRESERVATION TRAINING
Authors: Detroit William W. McMillan
Published: January 2013

Training techniques will vary with the type organization, the geographical location, the subject area, and the organizational involvement.

This paper is concerned with the control and containment training techniques evolved by a manufacturing facility, located on an inland stream, for its operating personnel This facility, with an oil storage capacity of over 22 million liters (6 million gallons), improves its oil handling and storage abilities by providing stream preservation training for some 200 persons. (Stream preservation training denotes a positive attitude towards oil spill cleanup.) Trainees were maintenance, powerhouse, oil stores, and plant engineering personnel. The objectives were to provide background information and training in techniques needed for spill cleanup. The specific employee behavioral objectives were to make proper notification of an oil spill, to select and use the proper methods of containment and collection, and to learn on-site public relations response. Training was by lecture, including management overview, by demonstration, and by field practice, including oil removal from a test pool, communications, and small boat handling. Evaluation was designed to stress important points covered and to provide feedback on the degree behavioral objectives were achieved.
PHOTOMICROGRAPH TECHNIQUES FOR CHARACTERIZATION AND MONITORING OILY WASTE STREAMS
Authors: Churchill R.J.
Published: January 2013

Physical and chemical characteristics of waste streams influence the ease with which oil emulsifies in water and also the stability of the resulting emulsion. The interrelationships of these parameters and their impact on emulsion stability via imposed mixing energy is examined. Electrokinetic aspects of phase stability for several crude oil-in-water emulsions are presented as well as other conventional stability factors and their interrelationship. Photomicrograph techniques and how they can be utilized for in situ surveys of oily waste streams are presented. Use of this technique yields data to assess the efficacy of existing facilities for waste handling or treatment in terms of emulsion destabilization-coalescence efficiency, waste stream characterization, or troubleshooting of operational problems. By sampling and analysis at several stations in a system, more specific data can be generated. The applicability of photomicrograph techniques to provide rational design data for oil-water separation systems is given in several practical examples. Performance in the majority of oil removal devices depends to some degree on the driving force which exists to separate the two phases. For conventional gravity separators, this driving force is expressed in terms of Stoke's Law which incorporates oil droplet diameter. Oil removal efficiencies for gravity separation systems can be accurately estimated if the influent oil droplet size distribution is known. Examples of wastewater characterization for process wastewaters, tanker ballast, and storm-water runoff are given as well as their respective treatment system performance.
IDENTIFICATION OF PETROLEUM OILS BY FLUORESCENCE SPECTROSCOPY
Authors: Frank Uwe
Published: January 2013

A simple and rapid method for the identification of weathered petroleum oils (passive tagging) by fluorescence spectroscopy is described. The approach used takes advantage of the three-dimensional character of the oil fluorescence spectra. Oil identification methods of other investigators that use fluorescence spectroscopy are also reviewed within the context of the three-dimensional system. Our method involves excitation of the oils at 15 wavelengths, between 220–500 nanometers (nm), at 20-nm intervals. The emission monochromator is rapidly scanned at each excitation wavelength to obtain an emission spectrum. The maximum emission intensities are then plotted versus the excitation wavelengths to derive silhouette profiles. These are used as fingerprints for passive tagging petroleum oils. The influence of weathering, quenching, and solvent effects on our method are also examined.
MULTIELEMENT TRUE BOILING POINT GAS CHROMATOGRAPH FOR MONITORING OIL POLLUTION
Authors: Davis C. E. , Krc A. E. , Szakasits J. J. , Hodgson R. L.
Published: January 2013

A true boiling point gas liquid Chromatograph (GLC) has been designed to measure simply and conveniently GLC data for all types of petroleum streams, including crude oils and residual fuels which contain considerable portions of high-boiling materials. The instrument generates simultaneous carbon and sulfur boiling point profiles up to 538°C (C42). A quantitative measure of the nonvolatile organic portion of the sample is achieved by backflushing and combusting the material remaining in the inlet. Thus, identification of oil pollution samples is facilitated by obtaining data on the carbon and sulfur distribution and the amount of residue in a single, rapid analysis. Under certain circumstances, the total recovery capability also permits the extent of weathering of oil pollution samples to be determined directly from the chromatographic results.
TECHNICAL SUPPORT OF SPILL CONTROL OPERATIONS
Authors: Marum James P. , Quanstrom Walter R. , Will Robert G.
Published: January 2013

Standard Oil Company (Indiana) has established a corporate technical support group to strengthen its response to oil spills and their after-effects. The primary function of this group is to advise and provide consultation to line management of the Amoco companies in dealing with the environmental problems resulting from a spill. Specialists in the group include personnel skilled in control and cleanup techniques, a terrestrial ecologist, a marine biologist, an aquifer specialist, a soils engineer, an experienced water chemist and several others. One or more members of the group proceed to the scene of a spill upon request as provided for in the contingency plans of the various Amoco subsidiaries. On arriving at the scene, the techical support group surveys the spill situation, makes an environmental damage appraisal, evaluates the spill control measures underway, and then makes recommendations on spill control priorities and techniques. Members of the group also document the immediate and subsequent environmental effects of the spill. Line management has found it especially valuable to have their own experts at the scene to meet with various governmental and private experts. Two case histories describing the involvement of the corporate technical support group in control of gasoline spills are presented.
A WORKSHOP FOR DEFINING THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENTS IN OIL SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Putnam W. H.
Published: January 2013

In 1970, the National Oil and Hazardous Substance Pollution Contingency Plan was introduced. This plan, which imposed a planning sequence that flowed downward from the federal government, caused considerable confusion at local levels because of its failure to fully explain how local governments were to participate. To amplify the plan and overcome this shortcoming, the California Department of Fish and Game, the U.S. Coast Guard and the petroleum industry joined in 1974-75 to sponsor a series of oil spill workshops for local governments. The goal was to define the role of local jurisdictions in the planning process and illustrate through simulated problems how this role was to be carried out. The workshop described in this paper and a subsequent workshop in Santa Barbara dispelled the confusion of local governments over their roles in oil spill action and resulted in enthusiastic acceptance of the plan itself. A similar technique could be used in any other broadscale planning effort that is committed to seeking knowledgeable local participation.
THE SPILL TRAINING AND EDUCATION PROGRAM AT TEXAS A&I - CORPUS CHRISTI
Authors: Gilchrist Ralph E.
Published: January 2013

The object of the week-long Spill Training and Education Program at Texas A&I at Corpus Christi is to enable the student to accomplish the following for the home community.Recognize the exposure to oil spill of the home community.Determine the equipment and techniques necessary to clean up an oil spill.Prepare a contingency plan to meet the needs of the community.Recommend the vehicle needed to carry out the contingency plan.
LIGHT SCATTERING TECHNIQUES FOR DISCRIMINATING BETWEEN OIL AND PARTICULATES IN CONTAMINATED WATER
Authors: Friedman Bruce
Published: January 2013

Light scattering techniques are used in several oil-in-water monitors, proposed or in existence. Particulate matter which may interfere with these monitors is also frequently found in oily wastes. An analysis is made of the potential of using measurements of the angular intensity distribution of scattered light in conjunction with determination of the state of polarization of the scattered light for discriminating between oil and particulates. The size conditions which apply to the oil droplets and particulates relative to the incident light allow the scattered light angular intensity distribution to be treated as a consequence of a combination of classical diffraction and of geometrical refraction and reflection. The state of polarization of the scattered light for oil droplets is investigated using expressions for the electric field which are approximations to the expressions of the Mie theory. For the particulate matter, the state of polarization is probed on the basis of light reflected from a plane. It is found that it would be difficult to discriminate between oil and particulates using measurements of the angular intensity distribution of scattered light even in conjunction with the determination of the state of polarization of the scattered light in a real life situation.
DEVELOPMENT AND TEST OF A SHIPBOARD, CONTINUOUS, ON-LINE OIL-IN-WATER CONTENT MONITOR USING FORWARD (LASER) LIGHT-SCATTERING TECHNIQUES
Authors: Batutis Edward F. , Skewes Robert L.
Published: January 2013

This paper describes the procedures and results of a U.S. Coast Guard funded program (Contract No. DOT-CG-32370-A) to evaluate the capabilities of a shipboard oil-in-water content monitoring approach developed by General Electric Company. The operating principles and possible engineering model designs will be described. The results of a demonstration test program evaluating the detection principle against a wide variety of parameters will be presented. The parameters include varied concentrations of different oil types and mixtures, effects of dirt and detergent, and oil droplet sizes, as well as varied salinities and temperatures.

The results of this program will show that the concept used has been able to detect 0-100 ppm of a wide variety of oils and mixtures with a response time of less than 10 seconds with each step change in the flowing stream. The response was linear and repeatable in spite of most interferences. The signal intensity was affected by certain interferences which have been isolated and for which solutions are given. Current status of the development of the forward light-scattering principle as applied to oil-in-water detection will be presented.
BIOGENIC HYDROCARBONS IN INTERTIDAL COMMUNITIES
Authors: Zsolnay Adam , Maynard Nancy G. , Gebelein Conrad D.
Published: January 2013

The biogenic hydrocarbon content was monitored from October 1974 through April 1976 at six different sites on Bermuda. Organisms from both the intertidal area and from tide pools were collected. Samples were extracted with Sohxleth, saponified, cleaned up with liquid-solid chromatography, and injected into a gas-liquid Chromatograph (GLC). Hydrocarbons that produced peaks on the GLC that were considerably greater than the general background of petrogenic peaks were considered to be biogenic.

A total of 84 samples of macro-algae and algal mats were analyzed. An overall mean of 33.5 μg/g of biogenic hydrocarbons to wet weight of organisms was found. From the invertebrate fauna, a total of 133 samples were taken. The barnacle, Chthamalus stellatus, had the very high mean value of 108.0 μg/g (wet weight). However, the other invertebrates had a significantly lower mean of 10.5 µ/g. It was not yet possible to ascertain from the data whether the fauna was synthesizing its own hydrocarbon material or whether it was simply incorporating the material from its food source.

Of the biogenic hydrocarbons, 21 occurred five or more times. Their Kovat's Indices for an OV-101 column are given. N-penadecane and n-heptadecane were the most abundant. Pristane was never present as a possible biogenic compound.
FEASIBILITY OF CONTINUOUS MONITORING FOR OIL POLLUTION ACROSS CHANNELS AND RIVERS
Authors: Rambie Guy S. , Morgan Richard H. , Jones Donald R.
Published: January 2013

Hydrocarbon-on-water monitors are useful to help control surface water pollution. The bistatic active infrared scanning oil sensor which is described could increase point monitoring (typical of most contemporary monitors) to a narrow area that can be about 900 ft long when the transmitter and receiver are mounted on towers 100 ft tall and separated by 1,500 ft. The dimensions can be scaled down with consequent improvements in performance.

A modified production model of an active infrared mono static oil sensor was used in laboratory tests to determine the spectral reflectance signatures of hydrocarbons and water at 3.4 and 3.8 micrometers wavelengths as a function of bistatic angle, with and without water waves. It was found that the signatures of all the hydrocarbons (six different types) were almost identical and uniquely different from water at bistatic angles up to 85 degrees with respect to the water surface normal. Proper operation of the scanning oil sensor requires that water have a wavy surface. The theoretical requirements for waves and the experimental results were in close agreement.
THE DETECTION AND MAPPING OF OIL ON A MARSHY AREA BY A REMOTE LUMINESCENT SENSOR1
Authors: McFarlane Craig , Watson Robert D.
Published: January 2013

Airborne remote sensing can be a cost-effective method for monitoring pollutants in large areas such as occur in oil spills. An opportunity to test a particular method arose when a well ruptured and for 23 days spewed a 90-meter fountain of oil into the air, dispersing the oil over a wide area. The method tested was an airborne luminescence detector with a Fraunhofer Line Discriminator (FLD) which was flown over the affected area 41 days after the well was capped to obtain a map of the deposition pattern. To calibrate the system, samples of Spartina (wire grass) and Phragmites (common reed) were collected from the contaminated area and the oil residues were eluted in cyclohexane and quantitatively analyzed in a fluorescence photometer. Good correlation was observed between the remote sensor (FLD) and the laboratory analysis. Isopleths defining the deposition pattern of oil were drawn from the remote sensing information. A discussion will be presented on the feasibility of using this instrument for similar contamination incidents for cleanup and damage assessment.
COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF REAL AND SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADARS FOR THE DETECTION OF OIL POLLUTION IN THE SANTA BARBARA CHANNEL
Authors: Kraus Steven P. , Estes John E. , Vollmers Russell R.
Published: January 2013

The Coast Guard, in cooperation with the U.S. Army, Motorola Government Electronics Division, Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), and University of California, Santa Barbara Geography Remote Sensing Unit (GRSU), conducted a series of controlled tests off southern California during May 1976 to evaluate the oil detection and surface target sensing capabilities of two Motorola developed side-looking radars—a real aperture AN/APS-94D and a synthetic aperture coherent-on-receive (COR). Targets imaged during the coincident overflights included: natural oil seepage, NRL induced simulated oil spills, oil production platforms, piers, mooring buoys, commercial boats and barges, small pleasure craft, and coastal kelp beds. These overflights represented one of the few recorded instances where real and synthetic aperture radars were flown together and perhaps the first time two such systems had operated concurrently over water. Based on an analysis of imagery from the 10 coincident radar runs, COR provided better detection of natural and man-made oil slicks, while the APS-94D consistently exhibited higher surface target resolution results.
BIOLOGICAL CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF CLEANUP TECHNIQUES IN SALT MARSHES
Authors: Westree Barbara
Published: January 2013

During the removal of oil spills in salt marshes, intensive application of manpower and/or equipment may result in physical abuse and injury to the salt marsh far in excess of that caused by the oil itself. Physical characteristics of a salt marsh dictate the distribution and behavior of oil in the marsh. The salt marshes of the United States were grouped into categories based on their physical characteristics. The biological features of each marsh category most sensitive to oil contamination and state-of-the-art cleanup technology were identified. Types and degrees of effect of oils were similarly categorized. Techniques for cleanup were compared to the behavior of uncontained oil in the marsh and the potential for damage evaluated. Degrees of damage were compared and least damaging cleanup strategies selected.
AN OFFSHORE MECHANIZED SORBENT OIL RECOVERY SYSTEM USING VESSELS OF OPPORTUNITY
Authors: Brunner Donald E. , Der James J. , Hall Donald
Published: January 2013

An experimental prototype offshore oil recovery system for use on vessels of opportunity has been developed by the Civil Engineering Laboratory under the sponsorship of the Navy's Supervisor of Salvage. The system is based on the concept of mechanized broadcasting, harvesting and recycling of polyurethane sorbent chips.

A two-component, drop-type sorbent broadcaster was designed to uniformly distribute the sorbent in the high wind and wave conditions expected in the open ocean. Theoretical analyses of vessel motion indicated the harvester can be rigidly mounted to a barge-type vessel but that at least vertical articulation is required when mounted on an offshore work boat.

The experimental prototype was functionally tested at sea without oil. The tests indicated that the waves and surface currents generated by the vessel can increase the interaction between the sorbent and the oil and enhance the sorption process. The tests also aided in identifying the characteristics of the sorbent required for use in a system of this type.
EFFECTIVELY RECOVERING OIL SPILLS TO GROUNDWATER
Authors: Dennis David M.
Published: January 2013

Oil spills which do not reach surface waters are often given little consideration. These spills are frequently the most difficult to clean up and pose a threat to human health and well-being by virtue of contamination of potable water supplies and release of explosive vapors in houses or commercial establishments. The cleanup is nearly always more time consuming and expensive. Three methods have been used successfully for recovering hydrocarbons from groundwater.

Recovery wells. The area of contamination must first be established by use of observation wells. The recovery wells consist of 12-to-16 in wells pumped to waste to create a cone of depression and cause the hydrocarbons to accumulate in that cone. A skimmer pump located either within the drawdown well or directly adjacent to it pumps the product to storage.

Recovery trench method. In areas of high groundwater (less than 10 ft to water), a recovery trench may be used to recover product from groundwater. This method employs a trench dug into the groundwater with an impervious barrier to prevent movement of hydrocarbons beyond the trench. A tile laid in a bed of stone in the trench leads to a pumping system; the product is then pumped to storage.

Crock recovery system. In areas of little groundwater movement and high groundwater (less than 12 ft to water), a crock recovery system can be used. This system consists of concrete dry well sections with holes in the wall. These sections are placed in the ground in the area of heaviest concentration of product. The system can be used most effectively by pumping water at a rate which will lower the groundwater about 12 in and placing a skimmer pump in the crock, or by periodic removal of product with a vacuum truck.
PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR OIL SPILL DEBRIS DISPOSAL
Authors: Farlow J. S. , Ross D. E. , Landreth R.
Published: January 2013

Many oil spill cleanup efforts include the disposal of a significant quantity of unusable oily organic and inorganic debris. Because spills are emotion-charged events, debris disposal is often impeded by the somewhat exaggerated fears of local inhabitants. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency retained SCS Engineers, Inc. to prepare a detailed, practical how-to-do-it manual for oil spill debris disposal and to make an accompanying film for state and local officials. The work included a literature search, interviews with both researchers and practitioners, and limited field studies in California, Utah and Rhode Island. Because aerobic conditions result in relatively rapid microbial degradation of the bulk of the hydrocarbons, the land-spreading process is recommended where debris size characteristics and access to suitable land permit. Anaerobic disposal in individual burial sites or existing sanitary landfills is acceptable, though definitely less desirable because of the greatly extended period for groundwater pollution potential and monitoring.
DEBRIS HANDLING SYSTEM FOR NAVY HARBOR OIL SPILL CLEANUP OPERATIONS
Authors: Nadeau Paul F.
Published: January 2013

Harbor debris, such as seaweed, discarded wood, and trash, can severely hamper harbor oil spill cleanup operations. Conventional harbor oil skimmer systems are not designed to handle oily debris, and therefore lose much of their utility when confronted with debris situations.

To combat this operational problem, the U.S. Navy initiated the development of a debris handling system for installation on Navy harbor oil skimmers. The final system design consists of a comminutor/grinder to process the collected oil & debris into a pumpable slurry, a positive displacement, progressive cavity pump to transfer the slurry to storage, and a one-half ton electric crane and air actuated clam-shell bucket to remove unprocessed debris from the skimmer. The grinder and bucket can process 1,200 to 1,800 pounds of oily debris per hour, depending on the mode of operation being utilized. The complete system has been thoroughly tested and evaluated, and is now operational on several Navy harbor skimmers. The system has enhanced the operational flexibility of these skimmers, and improved the overall cost effectiveness of oil spill cleanup operations.

This paper traces the development of the debris handling system, specifically discussing: the harbor debris problem; various approaches for handling oily debris; system selection, design, and evaluation; and final system installation and operation. The system components are discussed in sufficient detail to provide a basis for incorporating similar debris handling systems on future harbor oil skimmers.
OIL SLICK SPREADING BENEATH A UNIFORM ICE COVER IN THE PRESENCE OF A CURRENT
Authors: Weiskopf F. B. , Uzuner M. S.
Published: January 2013

Previous studies of oil spreading rates conducted in still water or on solid ice cover predicted several different spreading phases which involved gravity, inertia, viscous and surface tension forces. The purpose of this study was to analyze the effects of a steady current of water on the movement of an oil slick beneath a smooth uniform ice cover. The analysis of these tests, which were conducted on both a crude oil and No. 2 fuel oil, indicated that an additional spreading phase occurs in the presence of a current. This additional spreading phase was controlled by a balance between the drag of the water on the oil slick and the retarding force of the ice sheet on the oil slick. Based on the data obtained in the test program, equations were developed for predicting the spreading of these oils beneath a uniform ice cover in the presence of a current. The results of this investigation are applicable to natural underwater oil seepage, oil well leakage, underwater pipeline leakage, and vessel rupture in oceans or rivers having ice cover.
PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES IN RECOVERY OF OIL POLLUTION REMOVAL COSTS1
Authors: Norris William H. , Johnston Hugh N.
Published: January 2013

The paper examines Sections 311(f), and (i) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA) and discusses the statutory scheme for the recovery of clean-up costs by both the government and private persons. Legislative intent then is compared with actual practice and experience as reflected in statistics developed from the Coast Guard's Pollution Incident Reporting System (PIRS) data and the records used in administering the revolving fund. Actual case histories are used as a means of discussing the legal problems involved in administering sections 311(f) and (i). Government practice and case law are examined wherever appropriate, including recovery under 311(f) when government liability is at issue; recovery when both an owner/operator and a third-party are involved; recovery by the government from CRISTAL and TOVALOP; and practice in the Court of Claims under section 311(i). The paper concludes with a brief comment concerning the comprehensive oil spill liability bill (H.R. 14862), introduced in the 94th Congress, which would provide for an unlimited, readily accessible cleanup fund by imposing a per-barrel fee on oil as it is received at the refinery or transport terminal.
FRENCH OIL SPILL POLICY: THE RECOVERY PHASE
Authors: Guerin Philippe , Pichon Jacques
Published: January 2013

Mechanical recovery and chemical dispersion are the two basic techniques available to countries concerned with the oil spill problem. France has placed its emphasis on recovery, and uses dispersion for occasional polishing only. The containment, recovery and storage equipment is based at strategic points along the coast to permit effective intervention at short notice. Details are provided concerning this recovery equipment, which includes floating booms, skimmers (dynamic and static), and towable, floating, flexible storage containers.
SOCK—AN OIL SKIMMING KIT FOR VESSELS OF CONVENIENCE
Authors: Ayers R. R. , Barnett A. V.
Published: January 2013

An oil spill sweep skimmer kit is under development for emergency use in the Gulf of Alaska. The Spilled Oil Containment Kit (SOCK) is containerized oil containment and removal equipment to be deployed on either side of a vessel of convenience, making the vessel an emergency sweep skimmer. Frame-supported nylon/nitrile rubber socks are tied alongside the vessel to provide a sweep width of 50 ft plus the vessel beam. Pumps and storage are also included. The sock is unlike containment booms used previously in that both wave damper and oil recovery means are integral parts of the design. Based on model tests, the skimmer performance is expected to approach that of state-of-the-art skimmers. The major advantage of this kit will be a low capital outlay since no vessel must be built. Outfitting 10 vessels of convenience will perhaps equal the capital outlay for one special purpose skimming vessel, so that SOCK should provide a cost-effective means of supplementing dedicated skimmers used in an offshore spill.
DISPERSANT FIELD TRIALS IN CANADIAN WATERS
Authors: Gill Shawn D.
Published: January 2013

During the summer of ‘75 and the winter of ‘76, the Canadian Coast Guard Marine Emergency Organization conducted field trials on a number of commercial oil dispersants using the Warren Springs type of testing apparatus. These field trials, part of an ongoing programme, were undertaken to gain a better appreciation of the effectiveness of dispersants in both warm and cold water. The results of tests conducted on the five products reported hereunder indicate that the new concentrates represent a considerable improvement over the more conventional oil dispersants with the implication of improved application logistics. Data obtained from the work done in colder weather suggests that oil dispersant performance deteriorates somewhat under colder conditions.
UTILIZATION OF DISPERSANTS IN OFFSHORE AREAS
Authors: Fitzgerald Daniel E.
Published: January 2013

The use of dispersants to control marine oil spills is common practice in many areas throughout the world. In the United States, the use of dispersants has been discouraged up to this time by federal regulations. A Task Force was appointed by the American Petroleum Institute to make recommendations on the utilization of dispersants based on studies of current information on dispersants and mechanical recovery equipment. The use of dispersants should be encouraged where it is justified. The Task Force believes that the use of dispersants can at times be the most effective and biologically sound method of controlling offshore oil spills. For this reason, we would like to see the National Contingency Plan revised so that the responsible On-Scene Coordinator (OSC) has more authority over the use of dispersants. The OSC should be able to decide to use dispersants to control offshore oil spills that threaten to move into sensitive environmental or commercial areas. If the plan is revised, then oil spill cleanup organizations would be encouraged to have stocks of low toxicity dispersant, and suitable spraying systems.
FAST SURFACE DELIVERY SYSTEM FOR POLLUTION RESPONSE EQUIPMENT1
Authors: Larrabee Richard M. , Ward Russell
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Coast Guard has undertaken the development of a Fast Service Delivery System in order to provide an efficient means to deliver pollution response equipment to the scene of a high seas oil spill. A planing hull sled, towable by surface vessel or helicopter, was designed by the U.S. Naval Coastal Systems Laboratory as the transportation vehicle. The all-aluminum sled has a 15-foot beam and is 45 feet long and weighs 10,000 pounds. The system can deliver a 20,000-pound payload and can be unloaded at sea manually. Test results have shown that the equipment-loaded sled can be safely and efficiently towed by an HH3F helicopter at speeds up to 50 knots and by a Coast Guard 82-foot WPB at speeds up to 17 knots in sea state 3 or less.

The empty sled, at rest in the water, lies with the aft end submerged. Sled-mounted hand winches are used to inhaul and secure the floating payload. After the sled is underway, the water drains, the stern comes up, and the sled hydroplanes. At the deployment site, quick-release hooks on the lines securing the equipment to the sled are tripped and the stern submerges, leaving the payload floating free.
A COMPUTER SIMULATION TECHNIQUE FOR OIL SPILLS OFF THE NEW JERSEY-DELAWARE COASTLINE1
Authors: Lissauer I. M. , Bacon J. C. , Miller M. C.
Published: January 2013

Predictions of the trajectories of oil slicks and their impact locations along the shoreline of New Jersey and Delaware were determined for two potential deepwater ports and two potential drilling sites. A hydrodynamical-numerical model for the New York Bight area was coupled with a wind generating model to produce temporal patterns of concentration of oil. The wind model employs pressure distributions and storm movement to produce hourly patterns of the wind field produced by any storm for a predetermined grid area. Shoreline impact determinations were made for the four spill sites for the average winter storm conditions and average summer high pressure systems generated by the models. Winter storms moving through the study area do not pose a high risk to the shoreline should a spill occur. The maximum transport from the four sites toward the shore was 18 miles. This left the slick well offshore so that the ensuing wind shift from the frontal passage would rapidly transport the oil seaward. During a stagnant summer high pressure system, spills occurring within fifty miles of the shoreline have a high probability of impacting the shoreline if the spill should occur at the beginning of the period in which the system affects the area.
“SLIKTRAK”—A COMPUTER SIMULATION OF OFFSHORE OIL SPILLS, CLEANUP, EFFECTS AND ASSOCIATED COSTS
Authors: Blaikley D. R. , Dietzel G. F. L. , Glass A. W. , van Kleef P. J.
Published: January 2013

The reasons are introduced for the development of a simulator sufficiently simple to enable weather data normally acquired for E & P operations to be used. “SLIKTRAK,” developed by Shell, applies a slick description and combat concept, developed within the E & P Forum for well blowouts in the North Sea, but applicable to other areas. This concept includes costs for cleanup, damages and the effect of phenomena such as evaporation and natural dispersion. These factors are based on industry experience and vary primarily with sea conditions.

The computer programme simulates the continued creation of an oil spill and applies weather data to predict movements of each day's spillage for successive days at sea and quantities of oil left after each day until the oil either disappears or reaches a coastline.

Cumulative probability curves for the oil volumes cleaned up, oil arriving at specified shores, total costs, etc., are produced by random selection of input variables such as well location, weather data, the possibility of well bridging etc., and repetition of simulated spill incidents over a large number of cycles. Trace-plots of individual spills may also be generated.

In association with the E & P Forum's position as technical advisers to the North West European Civil Liability Convention for Oil Pollution Damage from Offshore Operations, a study based on the North Sea areas has been made. These results and further developments of the program are discussed.
FATE OF CRUDE OIL SPILLED IN A SIMULATED ARCTIC ENVIRONMENT
Authors: MacGregor C. , McLean A. Y.
Published: January 2013

A simulated Arctic crude oil spill was investigated by monitoring physical and chemical changes in a laboratory spill of Guanipa (Venezuelan) crude. The spill consisted of one gallon of crude on 100 gallons of synthetic seawater contained in a fiberglass tank fitted with a wave generator and a controlled radiation system, all located in an environmental chamber held at 2°C. Changes in oil composition were monitored using a gas liquid Chromatograph. Evaporation removed the largest quantity of material from the spill, the rate varying directly with the exposure time to solar radiation. Solution or sinking removed only minimal quantities of oil although the influence of these factors increased with time. The most notable physical change was the rapid formation of stable emulsions. These emulsions formed discrete lumps commonly referred to as “tarballs.” The formation of tarballs occurred within a few days after the spill and they remained stable over the four-month duration of the experiment. Their formation drastically reduced weathering effects by removing the bulk of the oil from contact with the air/seawater interface.

It was concluded that a crude oil spill in the Arctic could contribute significantly to tarball pollution of northern oceans. Tarball formation is not limited, therefore, to warm waters and occurs independently of weathering processes. It would appear that tarball formation depends more on the chemical composition of the oil and the rate of formation depends upon the available wave mixing energy. The ultimate fate of oil spilled in Arctic regions could be in the form of persistent tarballs.
SUBSURFACE PERSISTENCE OF CRUDE OIL SPILLED ON LAND AND ITS TRANSPORT IN GROUNDWATER
Authors: Duffy J. J. , Mohtadi M. F. , Peake E.
Published: January 2013

The persistence of water-soluble hydrocarbons from crude oil spills on land was investigated as a source of groundwater contamination by means of theoretical models, percolation experiments, and the analysis of core samples from spill sites. Examination of a one-dimensional flow model of convection, dispersion, biodegradation, and adsorption of an oil-water solution beneath a water table revealed that under certain conditions adsorption has no effect on the maximum oil concentration reached at any given distance from a spill. Chemical analysis of water percolated through an oil spill zone in a sand trough and also through soil cores taken at spill sites revealed that it may take the equivalent of much more than 100 times the average annual rainfall of Calgary to diminish the water-soluble components in the leachate to a level acceptable in drinking water. Measurements of the amount of alkanes and isoprenoids as functions of depth in field cores at spill sites of various ages and locations indicated that biodegradation rates are much lower in the anaerobic zone than above. Theoretical predictions indicate that contaminated groundwater may extend in the direction of flow from less than one meter to several thousand meters from a spill depending primarily on biodegradation rates and pore velocities. It is concluded that oil in the subsoil resulting from spills on land has the potential to pose very long-term threats to groundwater quality and, by the mechanism of resurfacing, to vegetation.
A REVIEW OF SOME COMMONLY USED PARAMETERS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF OIL POLLUTION
Authors: and Michael Gruenfeld , Frank Uwe
Published: January 2013

A state-of-the-art review is provided describing specific parameters of petroleum oils that are used by various investigators to demonstrate the presence of oil pollution in water, sediments, and biological tissues. Several representative publications are discussed with regard to the techniques used for distinguishing between petroleum hydrocarbons and organics that are of recent biological origin. The techniques include chromatographic procedures using alumina and silica gel for separating hydrocarbons from other organics, followed by instrumental methods such as gas chromatography, fluorescence spectroscopy, ultraviolet absorption spectroscopy, et al. The various oil parameters that are used to demonstrate the presence of petroleum oils are discussed, and the most effective ones are recommended. In addition, a recent study is also described in which several of the parameters were used to demonstrate the presence of oil pollution in sediments from a mangrove swamp in Puerto Rico.
RESPONSES OF THE CLAM MACOMA BALTHICA TO PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL
Authors: Shaw D. G. , Paul A. J. , Smith E. R.
Published: January 2013

The responses of the bivalve mollusk Macoma balthica to crude oil have been studied under laboratory conditions designed to simulate the stranding of oil on intertidal sediments in which this animal resides. The relationship of dry tissue weight to shell length, an indirect indicator of general health and fitness, was not significantly altered by exposure to oil at a level which did result in significant mortalities. This suggests that death is caused by a metabolically specific mode of poisoning rather than by a general weakening of the animal. In a second experiment, animals were subjected to two temporarily separated oiling events. Neither in mortalities nor in gas chromatographic analysis of tissues for hydrocarbons were cumulative effects observed. It was also found that a previously-reported tendency of M. balthica to burrow to the sediment surface in the presence of oil increases with decreasing depth of available sediment. We suggest that this behavior may be used as a convenient indicator of oil pollution.
EFFECTS OF THE CHESAPEAKE BAY OIL SPILL ON SALT MARSHES OF THE LOWER BAY
Authors: Hershner Carl , Moore Kenneth
Published: January 2013

A study to determine the effects of the Chesapeake Bay oil spill of February 1976, and of the subsequent cleanup operations was conducted on the eastern shore of the Bay. The primary objective was to assess the biological impact on the marshes at the population level. Populations of intertidal mussels, Modiolus demissus, and oysters, Crassostrea virginica, showed no significant short-term effects. The population of the snail, Littorina irrorata, was significantly reduced, but appears to be recovering well. The dominant marsh grass Spartina alterniflora showed increased net productivity as measured by standing crop, increased density, decreased mean height, and increased flowering success. Hypotheses to explain these observations are discussed. The impact of the spill on the marshes is thought to have been minimized by virtue of the relatively low toxicity of the oil, the time of year the spill occurred, and the comparatively high energy environment of the shoreline. (VIMS contribution number 718)
SPCC PLANNING: GOOD MANAGEMENT PRACTICE
Authors: Clark David A.
Published: January 2013

The Oil Spill Prevention Program of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requires Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure (SPCC) plans for facilities with oil storage capacity above certain minimum amounts. The object of this paper is to discuss the additional beneficial effects of a good SPCC plan beyond the obvious reduction in spill hazard. A good spill prevention plan includes many fundamental good management practices. Cleaner, more attractive facilities, accurate inventories, and safer working conditions, are some of the improvements that may go along as part of a good spill prevention program. Specific examples are drawn from experiences in SPCC planning for a variety of facilities such as home heating oil distributors, truck stop operations, and large manufacturing facilities. Facilities required to have an SPCC plan have more to gain than mere compliance with federal regulations when they put their plan into effect. With a good spill prevention plan, the facility will operate more effectively and more profitably.
THE SUBLETHAL EFFECTS OF NATURAL CHRONIC EXPOSURE TO PETROLEUM ON MARINE INVERTEBRATES
Authors: Straughan Dale
Published: January 2013

Comparative field studies were conducted in an area of natural chronic exposure to petroleum (Coal Oil Point) and at control sites between 1972 and 1974. Studies of the larger (mesh 2 mm) benthic infaunal invertebrates in shallow water (20-35 m) revealed organisms living in sediments with total CCl4 extractables higher than 10,000 mg/l at Coal Oil Point. These sediments contained petroleum hydrocarbons. The total CCl4 extractables in sediments from control sites which did not contain petroleum hydrocarbons were generally less than 100 mg/l.

Petroleum hydrocarbons were recorded in tissues of abalone, mussels, and stalked barnacles from Coal Oil Point, although it is notable that all detected petroleum hydrocarbons were in the viscera and not in the foot of abalone. Data obtained in these studies did not reveal a significant change in reproduction, growth, or distribution that could be related to presence of petroleum in the tissues. However, there was a decrease in reproduction in stalked barnacles due to a “black body” effect of surrounding tar. There was no evidence of malformations in organisms living in the area of natural chronic exposure to petroleum. Petroleum hydrocarbons levels were higher in sediment and mussel tissues from Coal Oil Point than from the area around two producing oil rigs in the Santa Barbara Channel.
EXTRACTABLE ORGANICS AND NONVOLATILE HYDROCARBONS IN NEW YORK HARBOR WATERS
Authors: Searl Thomas D. , Huffman Hugh L. , Thomas James P.
Published: January 2013

In conjunction with the Marine Ecosystem Analysis program in the New York Bight, selected stations in New York Harbor were sampled during November 1974, and March and June 1975, for carbon tetrachloride-extractable organics and nonvolatile hydrocarbons. The extractable organics ranged from 64 to 840 µg/l with a mean value for the Harbor of 158 μg/l. The standard deviation, 2?, of the test method, based on duplicate samples, was 26 μg/l. The nonvolatile hydrocarbons ranged from 14 to 270 μg/l with a mean of 39 μg/l. The standard deviation, 2?, was 5 μg/l. The highest concentration of organics and hydrocarbons was found in Newtown Creek; the lowest at the entrance to Ambrose Channel. The average concentrations are about a factor of ten above those reported for the open ocean. The concentrations obtained on the three sampling dates did not differ widely.

To help establish distribution patterns, ammonia, salinity, turbidity, and other measurements were made. In Arthur Kill, ammonia was constant at 50 μg-atoms N/l while the ratio of hydrocarbons to organics dropped from 0.29 at Newark Bay to 0.12 at Raritan Bay. This suggests that oxidation and/or adsorption of hydrocarbons onto particulates with subsequent settling took place.
MICROORGANISMS AND HYDROCARBONS IN THE NORTH SEA DURING JULY-AUGUST 1975
Authors: Oppenheimer C. H. , Gunkel Wilfried , Gassmann G.
Published: January 2013

The 1975-1976 North Sea Oil Ecology Investigation is designed to determine the dynamics of oil pollution in the North Sea and to serve as a baseline study at the start of the rather extensive oil exploitation of the seabed of the North Sea. In designing the experiment, particular attention has been paid to the 1974-1975 research effort of the Gulf Universities Research Consortium directed towards determining the effect, if any, of offshore oil exploitation in Louisiana on the area's ecology. As a result, both projects address the distribution of hydrocarbons and their possible concentration in the water, sediment, and living organisms, and the determination of the rates of degradation and effect of hydrocarbons on the food web. Preliminary analyses and study of cruise data taken in the North Sea during July-August 1975 indicates that there appears to be a tendency for higher numbers of microorganisms to be associated with the most active oil field, “Ekofisk;” there is also some indication of microbial response to outflow from the Elbe River. The uniform low levels of hydrocarbons in the sediment suggest that microorganisms are active as shown by ratios of higher hydrocarbon bacteria to heterotrophs in the “Ekofisk” area.