bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
"Something of Interest about Ourselves": Natural History and the Evolutionary Hierarchy at Taronga Zoological Park
Authors: Lloyd Natalie
Published: March 2007

Sherbourne Le Souef, a director of Sydney's Taronga Zoological Park during the first part of the twentieth century, utilized his observations of nonhuman animals living in captivity to write on the "actions, reactions and traits common to [humans] and animals" (Le Souef, 1930, p. 598). Le Souef's writings reflect his search beyond the human will for "the genesis of man's actions and reactions" (p. 598) and his appreciation of evolutionary theory where the idea of hierarchy was maintained. Similar to William T. Hornaday, a director of the zoological gardens in New York, Le Souef sought the moral improvement of zoo audiences through encouraging observation of nonhuman animals. More broadly, he argued for the relevance of his own observations to the general progress of the peoples of the new world. This paper identifies how notions of animal behavior were understood to indicate social, cultural, spiritual, and species hierarchies.
Endorsement of the New Ecological Paradigm
Authors: Vikan Arne , Camino Cleonice , Biaggio Angela , Nordvik Hilmar
Published: March 2007

Results from 240 students (120 each from Brazil and Norway) on the 15-item revised New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) show higher endorsement of the ecological paradigm from the Brazilians; suggestions are that this relates to cultural variables rather than to technological development variables. There is no consistent relationship between scores on the NEP and scores from tests of justice based and care based morality, gender roles, or cultural orientation. Alphas, inter-item correlations, and factor analysis show much variation between the samples, but the relative ranking of items show very high agreement.
Mystery of Environmental Mystery
Authors: Stamps Arthur E.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this article is to estimate the strengths of the relationships between judgments of mystery and amount of light, depth of view, and occlusion, whether visual and locomotive occlusion or just visual occlusion. Three experiments were conducted with totals of 145 respondents and 33 scenes. Light had the largest effect on mystery, followed by occlusion of both vision and locomotion and occlusion only of locomotion. Mystery might be a function of vision, not of locomotion. Overall, depth of view had a very small effect on mystery, but effect of depth on mystery was higher at shorter ranges than at longer ranges, suggesting that distance from observer to occluding boundary might be an influential covariate in environmental mystery.
Defense Economics: 1776 to 1983
Authors: Kanter Herschel
Published: March 2007

Economists and political leaders alike have discussed defense economics for more than two centuries. Issues have included the economic causes and consequences of war; the financing of armies and navies; and the acquisition of manpower, arms, supply, and transport. One can trace these issues from the early years of the Republic through the wars (and industrialization) of the nineteenth century to the two world wars. Since the 1950s two new aspects of defense economics have emerged: first, peacetime defense spending levels have exerted a major and permanent impact on the economy; and, second, economists have contributed to a full range of defense decisions. During the 1960s economists achieved a major influence over such decisions, if only by their rising to senior levels in the Defense establishment. That influence, however, has declined since the 1960s. Nevertheless, defense economics has taken on an added significance as the country has-since the mid-1970s-increased defense spending by substantial amounts and signaled an intent to pursue a number of defense initiatives that are meant to influence the way major sectors of the economy will conduct business in the future.
Military Withdrawal From Government Responsibility
Authors: Sundhaussen Ulf
Published: March 2007

Typically, military coups occur in crisis situations. No matter whether the resulting military regimes can solve the problems which provided them the opportunity to intervene, or fail to do so, they will-almost inevitably-suffer legitimacy crises over periods of time. This dilemma forces them either to broaden the basis of their regime by sharing power with nonmilitary circles, or to retreat to the barracks with or without reserve powers to control the civilian successor regimes. Which option to select is a question determined by a mixture of exogenous and endogenous reasons and preconditions for withdrawal, as well as a variety of superstructural factors. While reintervention is not only possible but-depending on circumstances-even likely in all options, military regimes basically are seen incapable of finding lasting solutions; their usefulness will, therefore, be increasingly questioned.
Seizing Control: Latin American Military Motives, Capabilities, and Risks
Authors: Reif Linda L.
Published: March 2007

Institutional level factors involved in Latin American militaries' decision to seize control of civilian governments are analyzed, including military motivations, capabilities, and risks. Motives behind intervention present unresolved issues for social science research. The utility of "motivation" is discussed; an alternative approach, "strength of motivating factors," may function as a better predictor of behavior. Military assessments of capability seem unrelated to strength in numbers or weapons. Rather, consideration of precoup internal support and postcoup ruling ability is critical. Two types of risk include those involved in the intervention process itself, and those by failing to intervene. The latter contribute to the strength of the motivating factors; the former are dependent on perceived capabilities. A closed model of decision making is presented. A coup equation is ultimately reducible to motivational strength and perceived capabilities.
The Cost Of High-Quality Recruits
Authors: Baildwin Robert H. , Dauia Thomas V.
Published: March 2007

Qn the AVF period, military manpower planners and political leaders have been concerned with the "quality" of Army soldiers, as measured by Armed Forces Qualification Test scores and educational achievement. Statistical research has shown that high school graduates with above-average AFQT scores are "better" soldiers, but analytical methods employed have not allowed decision makers to gauge how much more the nati thould these better troops. Econometric estimation of the 'recruit survival function"'llows for a conceptually simple quantitative measos useful to force planners. The econometric results show that the cost of manning the Army with highquality recruits is considerably lower than simple consideration of the enlistment bonuses and pay levels required to attract them would indicate.
Military Detente In Central Europe
Authors: Schmidt Peter , Jung Matthias
Published: March 2007

This article analyzes the views of the West German security policy elite on the MBFR (mutual balanced force reduction) talks in Vienna; it is based on the results of the SIPLA survey of 1980/81. The survey asked how the elite members' attitudes toward the talks in Vienna are influenced by their suppositions about the goal of the talks (overcoming vs. stabilizing deterrence), their view of arms control (technical vs. political), their preference for offensive vs. defensive negotiation strategies, and their differing images of the Soviet Union. Additionally, the article discusses the impact of the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan, as well as the growing Soviet lead in armaments.
A Profile Of the Soviet Soldier
Authors: Tarasulo Yitzhak
Published: March 2007

Drawing on personal experience, extensive interviews with former Soviet conscripts, and close readings of the Soviet military press, Tarasulo describes the life of a modern Soviet soldier-with special emphasis on social life in the army and collective education. In his discussion of alcoholism, he disputes the thesis that the Soviet army suffers from widespread drunkenness. His description of army political indoctrination programs contrasts sharply with official Soviet accounts. He argues that despite austere living conditions, the Soviet soldier is a loyal, strong fighter and a formidable opponent.
Women Graduates of the U. S. Coast Guard Academy: Views from the Bridge
Authors: Rottman Myrna
Published: March 2007

The presence of women at the service academies and on ships has resulted in a growing body of literature. Since the admission of women to the U.S. Coast Guard Academy in 1976, researchers have measured and evaluated attitudes toward the new women cadets and agree that acceptance and integration present problems. Because of the small number of women, these studies have investigated only male perceptions and attitudes. This study, based primarily on interviews, examines the experiences of women who graduated from the academy and received Coast Guard commissions in 1980, 1981, and 1982, the first integrated classes.
Alliance Participation And Foreign Policy Influence: The Military's Role
Authors: Danopoulos Constantine P.
Published: March 2007

This article assesses the impact of defense alliances on the foreign policy attitudes of the military of member states. The study employs as examples two NATO members (Greece and Portugal), two Warsaw Pact participants (Poland and Czechoslovakia), and two neutral states (Egypt and India). After examining these states' foreign policies-and the role of the military in shaping them-it was concluded that professional needs, such as training, sophisticated equipment, support, and general security considerations result in a close relationship between the military of the participating states and the defense alliance to which they belong. In turn, this close relationship influences the attitudes of the military and causes them to advocate foreign policies that may be beneficial to the alliance, but not always to the best interests and aspirations of their own nation. In short, defense alliances have a significant influence on the attitudes of the military of member states and correspondingly on their foreign/security policies, though not necessarily on the leading member of the alliance.
Populist Military Regimes In West Africa
Authors: Bienen Henry
Published: March 2007

Recent events in three West African states-Ghana, Liberia, and Upper Volta-raise questions as to whether there has been a change in the nature of military coups and military regimes in Africa. All three regimes started off as "populist'"; that is, leaders tried to have direct contact with followers, attacked established institutions, and showed impatience with formal legality and established hierarchies. But in Upper Volta and Ghana, the caste nature of the military was itself called into question. This did not happen in Liberia, and the country quickly moved back toward a personalistic, conventional-type military regime. This essay explores the limits of the innovations which have occurred in Ghana and Upper Volta; it also assesses the meanings of these experiments for the possible evolution of African regimes by making comparisons among the three cases, as well as between them and Afro-Marxist regimes.
Illness and Health Of the U.S. Battalion In The Sinai MFO Deployment
Authors: Rothberg Joseph M. , Harris Jesse J. , Jellen Linda K. , Pickle Richard
Published: March 2007

The deployment of the U.S. Battalion to the Sinai as part of the first wave multinational force and observers was a physical and psychosocial stress on the involved soldiers from the 82d Airborne Division. This paper examines the medical care utilization associated with the six-month move to the Sinai and the base-camp and outpost duty rotations. The frequency and the reasons given for requesting medical service, as well as their timing in relation to the military mission, provide a detailed example of the use of health care as a stress coping mechanism. The potential for monitoring health care utilization as an indicator of the stressful aspects of policy decisions is also discussed.
Literacy Instruction In the Military
Authors: Duffy Thomas M.
Published: March 2007

Literacy instruction in the armed forces has evolved from an educational opportunity to a training requirement. With the recognition that literacy skills are needed on the job came increasing emphasis on specifying job literacy requirements. Initially this focused on the "level" of literacy skill required, reflecting the unitary concept of general literacy. However, this has changed to a recognition of the multiplicity of literacy skills and of the role of domain knowledge in effective literacy performance. These changes have occurred largely because information processing concepts and instructional systems design (ISD) principles have been applied to the analysis of literacy tasks. This article traces the evolution of the concept of literacy at the policy, instructional program, and research levels. It describes several recently developed programs that reflect trends in ISD and cognitive analysis, along with additional programs involving the innovative use of technology. Finally, it discusses requirements for the future development of literacy programs.
Military Role Expansion in India
Authors: Elkin Jerrold F. , Ritezel W. Andrew
Published: March 2007

Military role expansion in India, though not self-initiated, may have weakened constraints on the officer corps in regard to domestic political undertakings. New Delhi's tasking the army with administering governmental affairs in the state of Punjab clearly falls within the sphere of political activity. The Indian military increasingly functions as a guardian of the ruling elite. Thus, the country is approaching a critical threshold in the evolution of its civil-military relations. However, it is doubtful that usurpation of the civil leadership's authority will occur in India. Significant controls on the military's actions will likely restrict its involvement in domestic political affairs.
The Military's Role In Political Regimes
Authors: Hanneman Robert A.
Published: March 2007

Variations in the degree and form of military incorporation into political executives are explored in the cross section of nations at 1980. Utilizing block-clustering methods, a hierarchical typology of regime types is constructed. Three major and two smaller groupings of cases emerge on the basis of similarity in the forms of military and civilian participation. It is found that qualitative types of regimes may be broadly arrayed from greater to lesser military roles similar to several existing typologies. Differences in the form, as well as the degree, of military participation, however, are found significant. The resulting classification may be useful in clarifying the diverse results on the causes and consequence of military intervention in government, in addition to explaining the relationship between qualitative and quantitative approaches to understanding the military role in governance.
Forever MAD: Essence and Attributes
Authors: Cimbala Stephen J.
Published: March 2007

Mutual assured destruction has been the victim of its own successes. Understood in the context of changed technology and plausible scenarios, MAD contributes important insights pertinent to the issues of crisis and arms race stability. Adaptation to new environmental conditions will guarantee the survival of MAD; that adaptation will require some reconsideration of it as a sufficient condition, as well as a necessary one, for strategic stability.
New Zealand and ANZUS
Authors: Rowling Sir Wallace
Published: March 2007

ANZUS originated in 1951 as a broad defensive agreement among New Zealand, Australia, and the United States. The treaty came to provide the context in which the three countries cooperated militarily, but it has never been invoked by New Zealand. The Labour government elected to office in New Zealand in July 1984 had a mandate to make New Zealand nuclear-free. The policy is a statement of concern in the face of the threat posed by nuclear weapons. New Zealand is not turning its back on the Western world, nor do New Zealanders believe they are buying immunity from nuclear conflict.

The policy has affected access by U.S. naval vessels to New Zealand ports; however, New Zealand cannot accept that occasional visits should be the litmus test of the Alliance. The U.S. measures taken as a consequence can only weaken New Zealand's ability to support Western interests in the South Pacific. The relationship between New Zealand and the United States has been diminished. We must set about rebuilding it.
Culture, Ceremonialism, and Stress: American Indian Veterans and the Vietnam War
Authors: Holm Tom
Published: March 2007

Posttraumatic stress disorder is apparently widespread among veterans of the Vietnam War. Moreover, minority veterans seem to have higher levels of stress than their white counterparts. Although there are no extensive studies of American Indian Vietnam veterans, they also show signs of PTSD. Some Indian veterans, however, apparently are working through the problems associated with PTSD for two reasons. They have been helped by traditional tribal ceremonies, and they have been given some recognition for participating in the war by their communities. Culture and ceremonialism are probably important aspects of veteran readjustment and deserve further examination.
Flexible Targeting, Escalation Control, And War in Europe
Authors: Cimbala Stephen J.
Published: March 2007

U.S. declaratory and employment policies have been modified toward escalation control and flexible targeting for war in Europe. These efforts, however useful in principle, are unlikely to make much difference given political constraints within which targeting and war plans must operate. Europeans fear the possibility of a general nuclear, regional nuclear, or conventional war. No U.S. declaratory policies can reassure them that NATO/Warsaw Pact war in Europe can be controlled, should deterrence fail. European emphases upon deterrence and detente will continue to contrast with American interest in defense and credible, controlled war-fighting capabilities.
Conscientious Objection in Israel During the War in Lebanon
Authors: Linn Ruth
Published: March 2007

The Lebanon war (June 1982 to June 1985) is the first one in the history of Israel that gave rise to the phenomenon of conscientious objection. Given the particularity of this phenomenon to this war, this article addresses those sociomoral factors that may have contributed to the decision of 36 reserve soldiers to dissociate themselves from their fighting units during the first year of the war. It is suggested that the main factors were the objectives of the war, its moral reality, the aftermath of the soldiers' experience in the occupied territories, the general atmosphere of protest, and the inability in battle to differentiate between terrorists and innocent civilians.
The Military And the Family As Greedy Institutions
Authors: Segal Mady Wechsler
Published: March 2007

This paper analyzes military families as the intersection of two societal institutions, both of which make great demands on individuals in terms of commitment, loyalty, time, and energy. It shows the increasing conflict between these two "greedy institutions' due to various trends in American society and military family patterns. The demands that American armed forces make on members and their families are described, including the risk of injury or death, geographic mobility, family separations, residence in foreign countries, and normative constraints on the behavior of spouses and children. Also discussed are trends that are increasing the potential military/family conflict, including general changes in women's roles in society (especially labor force participation) and specific changes in military family patterns, such as increases in the number of married junior enlisted personnel, sole parents, active duty mothers, and dual-service couples. Actual and potential military adaptations to these changes are considered, with particular attention to their implications for institutional and occupational trends in the military.
The Belgian Defense Policy Domain In the 1980s
Authors: Manigart Philippe
Published: March 2007

This paper presents a structural analysis of the Belgian national defense policy domain. It offers two sets of findings: (1) It shows that among organizations involved in formulating defense policy in Belgium in the 1980s, governmental agencies and political parties were considered the most prominent. (2) Through the use of multidimensional scaling techniques and cluster analysis, it identifies five "issue publics." Such issue publics are groups of organizations concerned with similar kinds of issues-one with comparatively general interests; three concerned respectively with manpower, procurement, and general defense policies; and a marginal manpower public.
Bangladesh: Anatomy Of an Unsuccessful Military Coup
Authors: Khondker Habibul Haque
Published: March 2007

Little attention has been given to the subject of failed coups. This article contends that knowledge of unsuccessftd coups can shed valuable light to better understand successful coups. To this end, a short-lived coup in Bangladesh on 3 November 1975 is analyzed. The paper draws a distinction between legality and legitimacy, suggesting that although all coups are illegal, they vary in the degree of legitimacy, and the question of legitimacy is crucial to a coup's success. It is pointed out that the failure of the 3 November coup can be largely attributed to the failure of advancing legitimacy claims by the coup leaders-with fatal consequences.
Self-Selection, Socialization, And Distinctive Military Values: Attitudes of High School Seniors
Authors: Bachman Jerald G. , Sigelman Lee , Diamond Greg
Published: March 2007

It has long been accepted that military personnel share a set of beliefs, sometimes characterized as promilitary values, which are distinctive from those of civilians. This report focuses on whether such differences arise because of socialization processes involved in military training and service, or because of prior differences in values and beliefs among those who select to enter military service. Data from large-scale questionnaire surveys of high school seniors in 10 classes (1976-85) clearly support the self-selection interpretation; those expecting to serve-and especially those expecting military careers-were consistently more promilitary than their classmates. The largest differences involved perceptions of military job opportunities; views on military supremacy, intervention, and obedience also differed, but less sharply. These findings among seniors closely replicate earlier research comparing soldiers, sailors, and civilians; taken together, the data suggest that self-selection is the dominant factor and that actual service may not substantially enhance prior attitude differences. The paper briefly explores implications for a "separate military ethos," given an all-volunteer force containing growing numbers of careerists.
The Military and Politics In Turkey
Authors: Brown James
Published: March 2007

Kemal Ataturk entrusted the safety of Turkey's future to her youth. In effect, however, it has been the armed forces who have been the protectors of the state. In the past 64 years since the founding of the republic in 1923, there have been three major instances of intrusion, albeit reluctantly, by the military in the political arena. In every instance withdrawal to the barracks was undertaken by the officer corps themselves. This article examines two critical factors as they pertain to the role of the Turkish military in politics. One factor is a historical review of civil-military relations and how the armed forces interpret the sanctity of civilian rule. The other examines officer corps' recruitment patterns that might provide clues as to the perceptions of the corps' role in the Turkish political arena.
Congress and Defense Policy: 1961 to 1986
Authors: Lindsay James M.
Published: March 2007

Congressional decision making on defense policy has evolved through three distinctive styles since 1961 because of changes in the opportunities, incentives, and freedom for lawmakers to address defense issues. In the 1960s, decision making in Congress was an "inside game": the most senior members of the defense committees-the two Armed Services committees and the two Appropriations Defense subcommittees-dominated the debate. In the 1970s, the congressional reform movement dispersed power in Congress and ushered in a decentralized variant of the inside game. Finally, in the 1980s an "outside game" emerged as congressional activity increasingly has bypassed the traditional channels of power within the defense committees. This new decision-making style has made the defense debate on Capitol Hill more representative of the views of its members and encouraged debate on a broader range of defense issues. Notwithstanding, the outside game also has produced delays in the budgetary process, an erosion of the committee system, and increased micromanagement of the defense budget. Congress is not likely to adopt reforms that will remedy these problems.
Military Skill Training: Some Evidence Of Transferability
Authors: Mangum Stephen L. , Ball David E.
Published: March 2007

The question of military-provided training and its transferability to civilian employment has received much media attention lately. Using data from the National Longitudinal Surveys-Youth Cohort, this paper documents sizable amounts of skill transfer and compares the transferability of military-provided training to that of nonmilitary-provided postschool occupational training. When other factors are controlled, the probability of transferring military-provided training does not differ significantly from that of non-military training obtained from providers such as proprietary business colleges and vocational/technical schools. On the other hand, the probability of skill transfer for military-provided training is found to be significantly lower than that of apprenticeship and employer-provided training for both sexes, and of nursing and beauty-school training for females; however, these differences can be attributed to institutional linkages between training provider and employer along internal labor-market lines.
SDI and Organizational Politics Of Military R&D
Authors: Steinberg Gerald M.
Published: March 2007

While the Reagan administration's decision to pursue the Strategic Defense Initiative was not the result of organizational or bureaucratic pressures, these factors are becoming increasingly important in determining the nature of the program. The creation of the SDI Organization as an independent office within the Department of Defense has provided promoters of this effort with a bureaucratic base from which to increase budgets and power in the decision-making process. Being highly centralized and independent, however, the SDIO can serve as the focus for congressional opponents and critics of SDI. In addition to diplomatic and technological developments, these organizational and bureaucratic factors will contribute significantly to determining the level of funding and the direction of the program in the "post-Reagan" period.
Equipping the Armed Forces
Authors: Sapolsky Harvey M.
Published: March 2007

Since World War II we have felt compelled for the first time in our history to maintain large standing forces. It is technology though, not numbers, that provides our edge in the continuing military competition with the Soviet Union. Acquiring advanced weapons is a complex process greatly complicated by our governmental system, which intentionally fragments political power. Mechanisms for improving the efficiency of the weapons acquisition process, however, threaten the very values that we seek to protect with our military power.
Waging War: Structural vs. Political Eficacy
Authors: Clark Asa A. , Pious Richard M.
Published: March 2007

How does the structure of America's constitutional system affect the process and quality of U.S. war making? Ambiguities in the U.S. Constitution have long served as an "invitation to struggle" over executive and congressional war making powers. How should these powers be shared between the executive and legislative branches to structure policy processes for both effective and legitimate war making? This age old problem is compounded by the fact that the United States is in a state of semi-war in today's tumultuous and conflict-ridden world. Never have the threats confronting the United States been more complex, lethal, omnipresent, and insoluble-ranging from the potential for nuclear holocaust to small wars of unprecedented variety, complexity, and intractability. In addition to the current checks-and-balances system, three alternative regimes of executive-legislative war-making roles-presidential supremacy, parliamentary, and congressional supremacy-are analyzed. Although structurally flawed in terms of its inefficiencies and political frictions, the existing checks-and-balances system is better than its alternatives in terms of its appropriateness for shaping effective and legitimate war making in today's international environment.
Civil-Military Relations In Poland Between The Wars: 1918-1939
Authors: Korbonski Andrzej
Published: March 2007

This examination of the military's role in Polish politics and society between the two world wars attempts to fill a gap in our knowledge of civil-military relations across systems. Despite considerable literature on that subject in advanced industrial societies. (.ommunist states, and the less-developed or Third World countrics, an analytical treatment of civil-military relations in the so-called authoritarian svstems, of which prewar Poland is a prime example, has been conspicuously missing. This research was conducted with the help of two analytical frameworks that are frequently referred to as forming the developmental model. The purpose was not so much to test the use of Western social science methodology but mostly to investigate the possibility of making meaningful cross-systemic and longitudinal comparisons. The conclusion that emerged wxas that prewar Poland represents a textbook case of "oligarchical praetorianism" which suggests in turn the possibility of comparing it with other countries falling under similar and/or different systemic rubrics. Such systemic comparisons should add to our knowledge of civil-militarv relations in a global setting.
Deng Xiaoping And Modernization Of the Chinese Military
Authors: Dreyer June Teufel
Published: March 2007

While China's military modernization program has brought improvements in the country's military preparedness, the rate of modernization has been slower than hoped for. The lack of consensus on certain crucial matters, combined with continued factionally based frictions and ongoing financial constraints, indicates that the outlook for significant near-term improvements in the People's Liberation Army's fighting capabilities relative to those of the United States and the Soviet Union is not encouraging. Nonetheless, even after major cuts in size, the PLA will remain the world's largest military, and it can draw on the world's largest pool of reservists. Hence China's military potential against other Asian states remains substantial, and may even increase somewhat.
Comparing Success Rates In Simulated Combat: Intelligent Tactics vs. Force
Authors: Hart Roland J. , Sulzen Robert H.
Published: March 2007

Bakan categorized military tactics according to their reliance on "force" or "intelligence" suggesting that tactics that rely on the latter are more effective. Intelligence refers to an emphasis on local creativity, surprise, stealth, and adaption, while force relates to an emphasis on central direction, direct power, and hierarchical structure. Bakan's hypothesis was tested in realistic field exercises (n = 237) that employed tactical engagement simulation of weapons to simulate casualties and record events. The field exercises consisted of platoon-level, light infantry offensive operations. Intelligence was defined in terms of the extent of previous training (in stealth); force was defined by the personnel force ratio, reflecting the degree of numerical predominance on offense. Training in intelligent tactics increased the odds of the offense winning in simulated battle by 30 to 1, compared with the force ratio, which only increased these odds by 3 to 1-highlighting the importance of intelligent tactical training.
Mad Dogs and Englishmen: British Rearmament, Deterrence, and Appeasement, 1934-35
Authors: Post Gaines
Published: March 2007

Historical accounts of appeasement have underestimated the British government's attempts to develop a comprehensive strategy of deterrence, one that resembles recent theories of conventional deterrence. The decisions of 1934-35 to increase British armaments were based on these assumptions: that appeasement and military deterrence were compatible in a dual policy of conciliating and confining Germany and Japan; that the attainment of adequate levels of peacetime strength constituted the best deterrent, although the simultaneous demonstration of force and the will to rearm might restrain the dictators. While British defense policy had not anticipated the possibility of conflict with Italy, the British used a show of force in the Mediterranean in 1935 both to protect their interests and to support the League of Nations against Italy's invasion of Ethiopia. The failure either to prevent or to limit Italian aggression in this crisis convinced most British policymakers that threatening force before completing rearmament would not deter a Fascist regime from territorial expansion, and that deterrence should be defined more narrowly.
South Korea's Participation in the SDI
Authors: Rhee Kang Suk
Published: March 2007

This article illuminates a serious concern about South Korea's participation in the Strategic Defense Initiative. There is a perception that it may adversely affect the strategic environment in Northeast Asia, in which a most precarious military balance is maintained. The author advises that the Republic of Korea's participation might destabilize the area. Also, it is in South Korea's security interests not to aggravate the Soviet Union, which is most likely to use its proxy, North Korea, to disturb this region. The author proposes that South Korea should participate in a regional version of SDI-a Northeast Asian defense initiative (NADI) initiated by Japan-as an alternative to its commitment to the U.S. SDI. Since Japan is a nonnuclear weapons state, Moscow may accept a Japanled NADI as a genuine defensive system.
Economic Determinants Of Latin American Defense Expenditures
Authors: Looney Robert E. , Frederiksen Peter C.
Published: March 2007

This article examines the economic determinants of military spending levels in developing countries through a time-series analysis of 10 Latin American countries. The paper integrates a number of main themes in the defense economics literature. The results indicate that a large proportion of the observed variability in military budgets can be explained by one of four alternative models that include either economic variables (gross domestic product and either government revenues or government expenditures) or military budget levels lagged one year, or both. A major conclusion is that it is difficult to predict which of the four models is most appropriate for each country; a priori knowledge of a state's oil exports, regime type, indigenous weapons production, or relative resource constraints is of little help. Since no common model was found, forecasts that use economic variables should be done on a case-by-case approach, also considering the timing of fiscal impacts.
The Imperial Japanese Army and Politics
Authors: Nakamura Yoshihisa , Tobe Ryoichi
Published: March 2007

Much available literature on the military and politics in the imperial Japanese army has explained the various motives that led to the military's intervention in politics. The primary assumption of these previous analyses is that the soldiers were very conscious of their intervention. On the contrary, this article contends that the soldiers of the imperial Japanese army did not realize that their activities constituted intervention in politics, per se. They regarded only those activities that were specifically prohibited by their code as political. This is an alternative view of the imperial army and politics; it might help non-Japanese readers to understand the extremely apolitical attitude of present-day Japanese Self-Defense Force officers.
Force Development In the Warsaw Pact: The Soviet-East German Connection
Authors: Macgregor Douglas A.
Published: March 2007

This article examines the impact of Soviet-controlled force development in the German Democratic Republic on the Soviet approach to command, control, and tactical organization in the Warsaw Pact's northern tier. After reviewing the evolution of Soviet East German military cooperation, the analysis suggests that Soviet control of the internal and external political factors that position the GDR and the USSR in the world arena has resulted in an unusually close relationship between the two countries' militaries. On the basis of these findings, the essay proceeds to develop a broader analytical framework for the future study of Soviet-controlled force development in the Pact's northern tier, particularly in Poland.
Women Veterans' Exposure to Combat
Authors: Dienstfrey Stephen J.
Published: March 2007

Using data collected in the Veterans Administration's Survey of Female Veterans, this article describes the characteristics of women veterans who were exposed to combat situations while serving in the armed forces. The definition of combat exposure ranges from "service in a war zone," such as in England during World War II, to being "shot at or being a POW." Slightly over 5 percent of the respondents met the definition. Particular attention is paid to those female veterans who served during World War II, the Korean conflict, and the Vietnam era. No attempt is made to enter the debate concerning whether women should be allowed to work in combat or near-combat (support) military occupations. Such a discussion is beyond the purpose of this paper and study from which it came.
Conscription and Socialization: Four Canadian Ministers
Authors: Harbour Frances V.
Published: March 2007

This paper investigates the role of adult experience in the development of elite attitudes about defense. Specifically, the study traces the effect of differing experiences in World War I on the attitudes toward conscription held by four key Canadian ministers during World War II. W. L. Mackenzie King and C. G. Power opposed compulsory service both in World War I and in November 1944 during a crisis that came within hours of bringing down the administration of Prime Minister Mackenzie King. J. L. Ralston and T. A. Crerar, on the other hand, supported conscription both during World War I and in November 1944. During World War I, personal attachment to the anticonscriptionist head of the federal Liberal party and to parents who opposed compulsory service seemed to influence the two who opposed conscription. Firsthand exposure to opposition and a prior inclination to be sympathetic to Quebec also apparently contributed to negative attitudes.
Military Spending, Economic Growth, and the Time Factor
Authors: Babin Nehama
Published: March 2007

Few empirical analyses of the relationship between military expenditures and economic performance in less-developed countries include the time factor. It has not yet been determined how long, or how many years, it takes for military spending to have an effect on economic growth or whether the nature of the relationship changes as the time lengthens. In this study the time factor is incorporated into the analyses by examining the relationship between expenditures and growth and by successively changing the number of years between the two variables. Two-wave panel regression models are employed that accommodate the analysis of relationships over time by measuring the dependent variable at two points in time while controlling for its initial level. The longitudinal analyses indicate that as the number of years between military expenditures and economic growth increase, the relationship, although null in the short run, is positive in the long run. That is, over time, an increase in military expenditures is related to an upturn in economic growth. This finding both supports previous research and provides additional information about the relationship. It is suggested that time is a critical factor when studying macrostructures and economic systems. At the national level it is necessary to allow for sufficient time for a chain of events to occur in order to discern both shortand long-term effects.
Who Stays Who Leaves? Attrition Among First-Term Enlistees
Authors: Hosek James R. , Antel John , Peterson Christine E.
Published: March 2007

Typically, 30 percent of an enlisting cohort leave before completing the first term, and attrition rates remain near this level even though over 90 percent of recent cohorts are high school graduates. This paper uses individual-level data to analyze attrition among high school graduates who enlisted in spring 1979. To control for selectivity bias, enlistment is analyzed jointly with attrition. Three variables observable at the time of enlistment are found to have a strong negative effect on attrition: positive expectations of further education, months in the Delayed Entry Program, and employment stability. As a set, these variables discriminate a wide range of attrition likelihood. No evidence of selectivity bias is found for this cohort; hence, results are applicable not only to enlistees but also to prospects. Policy implications are discussed.
Military Influence And the Post-Vietnam Use of Force
Authors: Petraeus David H.
Published: March 2007

The caricature of America's military leaders as cigar-chomping, table-pounding warmongers reflects a common assumption that during crises, the military, in Pavlovian fashion, urge the use of arms. Such stereotypes, however, have seldom held true; they are particularly unsupported by the evidence in the post-Vietnam era. An examination of the cases since 1973 in which the use of force was considered reveals that the military's voice in presidential counsels of war has been neither the most bellicose nor the most commanding. On the other hand, America's senior soldiers have not been doves in uniform or of insignificant influence. The military frequently have influenced intervention decisions-even when they have sought to avoid the issue of whether force should be used. And when the discussion has turned to consideration of how to use force in a particular situation, senior military leaders have exerted considerable influence.
Mitigating West Germany's Strategic Dilemmas
Authors: Borinski Philipp
Published: March 2007

This article identifies three strictly strategic dilemmas concerning West Germany's defense in the late eighties: the defense-protection dilemma, the arms control-security dilemma, and the strategy-resource dilemma. It briefly explains each dilemma and critically examines the major approaches to change under debate today, focusing on the contribution made by the "alternative defense" school. Concluding that none of these approaches can substantially alleviate West Germany's strategic dilemmas, the discussion turns to the idea of "structural incapability of attack," or "nonprovocative defense," as a possible basis for a solution. Having criticized this idea in its current form, the article ends by suggesting a strategically feasible way for both blocs to move toward force postures structurally incapable of attack at the conventional theater level in Europe.
The Warsaw Pact: Changes in Structure And Functions
Authors: Volgyes Ivan
Published: March 2007

The article traces the evolution of the various instruments used by the Soviet military and political leadership to control the armed forces of the Warsaw Pact states. It concludes that the Soviet leadership at first tried to use Soviet military advisers to control Pact forces. This tool proved to be unsuccessful and was later replaced with the concept of integration of these units into a multinational socialist army. When in the early 1980s this instrument also proved to be inadequate, the Soviet elite began the incorporation of these units into the Soviet army through their direct subordination to Soviet commands and operational desiderata. Through a case study of the Bulgarian and Hungarian armed .forces, the article then proceeds to examine the concept of reliability of Warsaw Pact armies and evaluates the extent of their reliability in terms of the dual instruments of integration and subordination to Soviet military needs.
The Case For Mobile Missiles
Authors: Curtis Willie
Published: March 2007

The logic of nuclear deterrence suggests that the most important criteria for strategic force structuring are enhanced survivability potential and retaliation reliability. This paper argues that (1) the survivability potential of land-based ICBMs may be enhanced through deployment of mobile missiles, specifically the single-warhead Midgetman missile on hard mobile launchers; (2) deployment of Midgetman will increase crisis and arms race stability and should be assessed within this context, not on the narrow criterion of cost-effectiveness; and (3) the pace of technological innovations in weapons technology suggests that (given tactical warning) the Midgetman mobile missile is superior to the rail garrison MX, providing for both enhanced survivability and retaliatory reliability.
Why Military Regimes Fail: The Perils of Transition
Authors: Barkey Henri J.
Published: March 2007

This article argues that in industrializing democratic (or semidemocratic) societies, where military interventions have been viewed as solutions to increasingly complex economic and political problems, the return to civilian rule is a frustrating experience for the military leaders. Even under the best of circumstances-when soldiers withdraw willingly-the transition process rarely produces the results desired by the military. The shortcomings of the transition are imbedded in the dynamics of the process, which include the officers' own miscalculations and, more importantly, civilians' need to demonstrate independence and resistance. This article demonstrates the perils of transition in the case of post-1980 Turkey, where the military undertook a well-planned and thought-out process of disengagement under very favorable conditions. There was almost no civilmilitary conflict or opposition from external sources. Yet the final outcome disappointed the generals.
The Last American Draftees
Authors: Sinaiko H. Wallace
Published: March 2007

In 1973 the United States ended a 33-year-old practice of manning its military forces by conscription. The shift to a policy of using only volunteers followed a debate-as old as the nation itself-about the best way to maintain the force. And the debate continues. Opponents of conscription argue that draftees tend to serve only the minimum time required, usually two years, while volunteers are more likely to remain in the force for much longer periods. Length of service is important because more experienced people are needed to fill positions of supervision and leadership and, depending on their occupational specialties, to provide important technical expertise as well. This article provides a 15-year record of two cohorts that entered the Army during the last year of the draft: 157,797 volunteers and 32,288 conscripts. For each group there is evidence about tenure and performance as measured in terms of voluntary and involuntary departures from the Army. (Comparative data for the other three services are also shown.) Some policy implications are discussed.