bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
INNOVATIVE RESPONSE TECHNIQUES FOR MAJOR RIVER SYSTEMS
Authors: Teal Andrew R.
Published: January 2013

Spill response in major river systems can be hampered both technically and logistically by river width, current speed, and limitations imposed by equipment and weather. Esso, in response to challenges presented by the Mackenzie River in the Northwest Territories of Canada, developed response systems and techniques to deal with these concerns. These techniques include mid-channel response, anchoring, oil deflection, and oil recovery from under thick ice.
TRENDS IN STRANDED TANKER SALVAGE1
Authors: Clay John S.
Published: January 2013

The electronics revolution has changed many fields. Salvors have been slow to keep up with technology. Historically, salvage masters have relied almost exclusively on their subjective feel to ensure the survival of stranded vessels. Even today the analysis of stranded vessels is based primarily on static calculations. However, dynamic loads add to static loads and may be larger in many situations. This paper outlines traditional salvage calculations, new developments, and future needs. Salvage is in a state of transition, yet its future is gaining definition. Salvage of stranded tankers will be just as challenging as ever. It will still require an experienced salvage master who understands the multitude of factors involved, but dynamics will be accounted for by powerful software running in portable microcomputers at the site of strandings. Some computer inputs will be real-time data from lightweight sensors. The portable computers will provide forecasts on probability of breakup based on projected sea states during periods of high stress (low tide). These new tools will make the salvage masters' decisions more timely, confident, and accurate.
COMBUSTIBILITY AND INCINERATION OF BEAUFORT CRUDE/SEAWATER EMULSIONS
Authors: Kretschmer D. , Odgers J.
Published: January 2013

Tests on the emulsification properties of two different Beaufort crudes have shown that emulsions with up to 50 percent water content have to be expected after an oil spill. Emulsions with this water content were burned in a very simple combustor, and the resulting flames were as clean as can be expected from any fuel. Since no problems were encountered while burning these emulsions, it seems that a low pollution incineration device can be designed using well-established standard design criteria.
ASSESSMENT OF THREE SURFACE COLLECTING AGENTS DURING TEMPERATE AND ARCTIC CONDITIONS
Authors: Pope Pamela , Allen Al , Nelson William G.
Published: January 2013

Laboratory and field tests were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of using surface collecting agents in cold weather oil recovery and in situ burning operations. In a small laboratory test tank, the surface areas and equilibrium thicknesses of three Alaskan North Slope crude oils were observed before and after the application of three different surface collecting agents to each oil. Numerous small bench-top tests also were conducted to further support the observations made in the test tank. Ambient air temperatures were varied from 23° C to −17° C, while the temperatures of fresh water and laboratory-prepared sea water were varied from 15° C to 0° C.

The three surface collecting agents used (Corexit OC-5, Nalco 3WP-086, Shell Oil Herder) were equally effective in concentrating the areas of thin films by as much as 95 percent within a minute or less. The efficiencies of the surface collecting agents were observed to decrease only slightly with air temperatures below 0° C. Equilibrium thicknesses and areas before and after collectant application were determined using standard photometric techniques. In addition, two field tests were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of collecting agents on large experimental oil slicks in an onshore pit at Prudhoe Bay. In each test, approximately 1 m3 of fresh Prudhoe Bay crude oil was released and allowed to come to an equilibrium thickness. In each test, the oil was concentrated with Corexit OC-5 and Shell Oil Herder and then ignited. Winds of 4-to-6 knots (2-to-3 m/s) herded the slicks into one corner of the pit and produced an average slick thickness of 9.5 mm. The use of collectants resulted in a 5 percent reduction of the wind-herded slick areas, thus increasing the thicknesses to approximately 10 mm.
SCIENTIFIC RESPONSE TO THE BLUE MAGPIE SPILL
Authors: Pavia Robert , Payton D. L. , Galt J. A.
Published: January 2013

On November 19, 1983, the 348-foot general cargo vessel Blue Magpie grounded on the jetty at Yaquina Bay, Oregon. The Blue Magpie carried approximately 225 tons of bunker C and 30 tons of diesel fuel. Bunker C leaked from the vessel for five days as the vessel was worked against the jetty by high winds and seas.

Federal, state, and local scientists worked to support Coast Guard spill mitigation efforts by providing oil trajectory forecasts, identifying shoreline protection priorities, and determining cleanup requirements in environmentally sensitive areas.

When it became evident that the oil onboard the ship could not be safely removed and would continue to contaminate the environmentally sensitive Yaquina Bay, scientists began to evaluate plans for a controlled release of all oil remaining on the ship. Important environmental considerations in this decision were the presence of the endangered brown pelican, migrating waterfowl, shellfish beds, and harbor seals, and the imminent arrival of migrating gray whales. Oil spill trajectory forecasts were used to evaluate the optimal time of release.

The Coast Guard plans to release oil from the ship were timed to reduce environmental impacts. However, during the night of November 23 the forward section of the vessel broke, releasing most of the remaining oil. Winds and tides at that time corresponded closely to the optimal conditions for an intentional release.
SENSITIVITY MAPPING: AN AID TO CONTINGENCY PLANNING ON SOUTHERN AFRICAN SHORES
Authors: Jackson Lynette Frances , Lipschitz Steven Richard
Published: January 2013

Oil pollution poses a significant threat to the coastline of southern Africa, necessitating the development of contingency plans for the region. Since the main objective of such plans is to minimize environmental damage, the compilation of sensitivity maps detailing coastal resources and assessing them in terms of oil pollution were seen as the first steps in such a project. The sensitivity maps covering the southern African coastline have been incorporated in an atlas. Each map features a coastal strip color coded on the basis of a geomorphological classification/sensitivity index and various superimposed symbols designating natural and socioeconomic resources. Detailed notes accompanying each map provide the rationale for establishing priorities.

Experience gained during the Castillo de Bellver incident in 1983 showed that such information is invaluable in obtaining cooperation with tanker insurance representatives and is essential for preparing successful contingency plans.
REAL TIME APPLICATION OF AN OIL SPILL MOTION PREDICTION SYSTEM
Authors: Neralla V. R. , Venkatesh S.
Published: January 2013

This paper deals with the prediction in real time of the motion of experimental oil slicks. These slicks were the subject of an oil spill experiment organized by the joint Government/Industry Canadian Aerial Applications Task Force. These experiments offshore were conducted during September 1983 near Halifax on the east coast of Canada, at 44°30′ N, 63°00′ W. The primary objective of the experiments was to determine the suitability of oil spill dispersants as countermeasures. A secondary objective was the testing and verification of oil spill trajectory models and systems.

The Atmospheric Environment Service (AES) participated in the experiments to test the capability of its oil spill motion prediction system in providing real time trajectory forecasts. The AES system resident on computer facilities at the Canadian Meteorological Centre in Montreal was accessed through standard telephone lines, with appropriate output products available on a computer terminal near the experiment site.

The experiment consisted of three sets of spills. Each set had a control slick and a test slick. Sixteen barrels of crude oil were used in each spill. The test slicks were used to test the effectiveness of various dispersants, the control slicks were used to verify trajectory forecasts.

The spill trajectories and oil weathering information obtained from the system during the experiments demonstrated the relative ease with which the system could handle the required input and provide timely forecasts. The accuracy of these forecast trajectories was confirmed by observations, and their utility was demonstrated by their application in the operational decision making process.
GROUNDWATER ABATEMENT ALTERNATIVES FOR REMOVAL OF ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS
Authors: Yaniga Paul M.
Published: January 2013

Losses and spills of refined petroleum products have in some cases become a groundwater problem of major significance. The effects of fugitive volatile organics in the subsurface are various. Common concerns are the contamination of potable water supplies, long-term health problems associated with inhalation of hydrocarbon vapors and odors, and flammable concentrations of vapors in homes, utility conduits, and buildings. The sources of petroleum losses are also quite varied, ranging from small losses at homeowners' fuel storage tanks to major leaks at commercial refining, storage, transfer, and retailing facilities. Although recent years have seen marked increases in the safe handling, control, and transfer of refined organic products, inadvertent, accidental, and certainly unintentional losses of organics still occur.

When these problems occur, it is common for the smaller losses at retail outlets (service stations) to have the greater social and environmental impacts. This is true because the retail outlets are often located in close proximity, if not immediately adjacent, to commercial and residential establishments. Such facilities may rely on individual groundwater supplies that are subject to degradation by the lost hydrocarbon products, or they may be serviced by common utilities, whose backfilled pathways act as conduits for transmission of the fugitive product and associated vapors. These factors of physical proximity and reliance on groundwater, when coupled with the introduction of refined organic products to the subsurface, generate problems of local significance and sensitivity.

Cleanup programs must entail mechanisms of thorough definition, symptoms treatment, and comprehensive removal or abatement of the organic product in the subsurface. These aproaches must be technically sound, acceptable to governing regulatory agencies, physically and economically possible to enact, and acceptable to affected parties. Groundwater Technology has carried out many such programs. This paper discusses two case histories.

One case history describes the successful collection and removal of approximately 8,000 gallons of offending unleaded gasoline that had threatened closure of public buildings. This remedial action was accomplished by the application of a specially designed, sensor-controlled, two-pump recovery system that removed the product from an unconsolidated sand aquifer. The second case history shows the success of employing a program combining bioreclamation, air stripping, and granular activated carbon usage to abate contamination of a bedrock aquifer. The contamination problem involved soluble components of unleaded gasoline that affected more than 10 water supply wells.
REVEGETATION OF ARCTIC TUNDRA AFTER AN OIL SPILL: A CASE HISTORY
Authors: Brendel Judith
Published: January 2013

A comparison of revegetation techniques for arctic tundra was conducted in 1982, 1983, and 1984 on a crude oil spill that occurred January 1, 1981, about 125 miles south of Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. The oiling rate was approximately 37 L/m2, with oil contents of soil averaging 60,000 to 275,000 ppm.

The following revegetation methods were compared: cover with clean material, remove contaminated material and replace with clean material, seed and fertilize, till and seed and fertilize, and apply oil degrading bacteria. Parameters monitored in this study included oil content of soil, grass species survival, yield, and grass percentage growth.

Survival and yield of grass were best in areas of heavy application (1,000 lb/acre) of a fertilizer high in nitrogen and phosphorus (20-20-10), combined with soil tilling. Yields on control areas averaged 0.74 g/m2 and on fertilized and tilled areas 6.6 g/m2. Soil oil contents appear to be reduced by fertilization and aeration, perhaps by up to 20 percent in one year.
EFFECTS OF OIL AND CHEMICALLY DISPERSED OIL IN SEDIMENTS ON CLAMS1
Authors: Anderson Jack W. , Kiesser Steven L. , McQuerry Dennis L. , Fellingham Gilbert W.
Published: January 2013

Several field experiments with natural sediments in the intertidal zone were conducted over a two-year period to compare the effects of Prudhoe Bay crude oil and this same oil dispersed with Corexit® 9527 (1 part Corexit to 10 parts oil). The clams used were Protothaca staminea and Macoma inquinata. Exposure periods ranged from one to six months. In a one-month exposure to about 2,000 parts per million (ppm) total oil in sediments, survival of P. staminea was two to three times greater than that of M. inquinata, and both species exhibited lower tolerance to oil alone in sediment than dispersed oil at the same concentration. However, uptake of naphthalenes and phenanthrenes by M. inquinata was greater from sediments mixed with dispersed oil than oil alone. Dispersed oil in this 30-day exposure also produced a decrease (compared to field controls) in the concentration of some of the free amino acids in the tissues of M. inquinata. Four- and six-month field exposures of small P. staminea to sediment containing oil or dispersed oil (about 2,000 ppm) reduced growth in both oil treatments (four-month exposure) or in just the chemically dispersed oil treatment (six-month exposure). In the latter experiment initial petroleum concentrations in the surface sediments (top 3 centimeters) were higher (about 3,000 ppm) for the dispersed oil than for oil alone. Surface layers in both conditions were free of contamination (down to 6 cm) after six months.
OHMSETT TESTS OF THE TOSCON WEIR SKIMMER AND GRAVITY DIFFERENTIAL SEPARATOR1
Authors: Gates Donald C. , Corradino Kevin M.
Published: January 2013

An evaluation of the effectiveness of the Texas Oil Spill Control, Inc. (TOSCON) weir skimmer and gravity differential separator was conducted at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) facility in October 1982. The tests were sponsored by the OHMSETT Interagency Technical Committee (OITC). The TOSCON skimmer and separator are designed and manufactured by Texas Oil Spill Control, Inc., of Conroe, Texas. The skimmer was designed to operate at intake rates up to 227 cubic meters per hour (m3/h) alone and up to 11.4 m3/h when operated with the oil-water separator.

Recovery efficiency and oil recovery rate were the criteria used to measure the skimmer's performance with respect to oil slick thickness, propeller speed, waves, and tow speed. Separator performance was judged by its effectiveness in separating an oil and water dispersion with respect to percent water in the oil effluent and oil concentration in the water effluent samples. The independent variables used in testing the separator were flow rate and oil concentration of the influent liquid.

The separator achieved a best performance effluent oil sample containing less than 0.02 percent water. Samples taken during normal operating conditions contained an average of 2.2 percent water. The lowest concentration of oil in an effluent water sample was 65 milligrams per liter (mg/L); the average concentration for all samples was 506 mg/L of oil. Overall, the separator performed best when oil concentrations in the influent were above 40 percent.

The skimmer was tested in oil slicks from 1 millimeter (mm) to 31 mm thick. Oil recovery rates ranged from 0.5 to 8.6 m3/h; the average was 2.5 m3/h. Recovery efficiency ranged from 8 to 59 percent.

Best performance of the skimmer and separator when tested as a system occurred when the skimmer propeller was run at a speed of 620 rpm in a light oil slick of 26 mm. Under these conditions, the separator yielded effluent oil with 0.2 percent water content and effluent water containing 192 mg of oil/L.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE PERSISTENCE OF STRANDED OIL ON LOW ENERGY COASTS
Authors: Owens Edward H.
Published: January 2013

Mechanical dispersion by waves is usually considered to be the primary factor that controls the persistence of spilled oil reaching the coast. This assumption is accurate for stable coasts that are not subject to net erosion or accretion and beaches where oil would not be buried by onshore, offshore, or alongshore movement of sediments. On high energy coasts, oil can be rapidly buried or eroded, depending on the stage of beach changes. Similarly, oil stranded on coasts subject to rapid net accretion or erosion is likely to be buried or dispersed. Rapid shoreline changes can occur in areas of low wave energy, so wave energy levels cannot be used alone as an indicator of oil persistence. Sections of the North American Beaufort Sea coast are undergoing net long term changes on the order of 10 meters per year, despite the short (3 month) open water season and the small fetch areas. Beach migration or cliff retreat on these low energy coasts often has a net rate on the order of one meter per month. In these situations, the changes in shoreline location due to sediment erosion and transport reflect the integrated effect of coastal processes and the materials on which the processes act. Rates of shoreline changes can be used as an indicator to estimate the residence time of stranded oil, irrespective of the shoreline character or the wave energy levels at the shoreline. Wave energy levels alone are an inadequate basis for estimating the residence time of stranded oil.
EFFECTS OF PETROLEUM ON ALGAL BLOOMS IN LAKE MARACAIBO
Authors: Parra-Pardi Gustavo , Sutton Emery A. , Rincón Nelson E.
Published: January 2013

On the basis of a one-year program of monthly in situ bioassays and sampling at 10 stations near the incubation site, a study on the effect of petroleum on the massive algal blooms in the northeastern coastal area of Lake Maracaibo has been made. Experiments were conclusive in showing that, although crude oil by itself has an inhibitory effect on phytoplankton, in combination with other factors, mainly a nitrogen/phosphorus (NIP) ratio of 16:1, it can cause a sharp increase in the algal population, favoring Cyanophyta, particulary Anacystis, but generally inhibiting the other two divisions in the lake, Chlorophyta and Chrysophyta.

Statistically significant stimulatory interactions of three factors were observed in four experiments, the most striking one being that among oil, NIP ratio, and formation waters, the other three being oil + N/P + EDTA (ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid). True interactions between petroleum and N/P were also observed in five experiments, stimulus running to over 100 times the control assay. The composition of the algal blooms resembled much more closely that of the bioassays when the petroleum was present.

Data available supports the explanation that blue-green algae indigenous to Lake Maracaibo, mainly Anacystis, are tolerant of crude oil, while green algae and diatoms are severely inhibited by it, which gives bluegreens an effective advantage in the competition for the nutrients. It adds to the physical, chemical and biological advantages already enjoyed by Cyanophyta in the lake, contributing to an additional promotion of the lake eutrophication.
STANDARDIZING BOOM TEST PROCEDURES1
Authors: Borst M. , Lichte H. W.
Published: January 2013

The Interagency Technical Committee (OITC) of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) facility sponsored a combined series of in-tank and open-water tests on five booms. The booms selected cover the wide range of sizes and design parameters often considered appropriate for spill control. The tests were conducted at the OHMSETT facility and in nearby Sandy Hook Bay between November 1983 and May 1984. The in-tank tests measured the oil-holding performance of the boom; the open-water tests demonstrated wave conformance and survivability. The objective was to correlate the two sets of data.

The five in-tank tests for each boom used a standardized test matrix for oil-holding ability. Wave conformance and endurance were observed under controlled conditions. The results of this testing compared favorably with historical tests performed in the test task.

The five booms were deployed in the bay over an extended period. The length of deployment varied from 14 to 27 days depending on the local weather conditions. The booms were observed and videotaped to document approximate sea-state limits of the booms. The booms deployed in the bay were approximately 500 ft long. The tank tests used 100 ft lengths. Wave conformance in the two tests was similar. The five-fold increase in boom length made any lack of conformance more obvious, however. The data derived from the open-water testing were based primarily on visual observations and sea-state estimates. The in-tank endurance tests did not correlate as well as expected with the open-water testing. Determining the deterioration of a boom during long-term deployment by in-tank testing was discounted by this program.

This paper documents the results of the initial in-tank and open-water tests, emphasizing the techniques of testing, and outlines plans for the future tests.
RECENT ADVANCES IN DISPERSANT EFFECTIVENESS EVALUATION: EXPERIMENTAL AND FIELD ASPECTS
Authors: Desmarquest J. P. , Croquette J. , Merlin F. , Bocard C. , Castaing G. , Gatellier C.
Published: January 2013

Although dispersants are used in different countries, it appeared from recent international meetings that more knowledge concerning dispersant effectiveness is still needed for a better response to oil spills. Large field trials which were conducted during the past two years raised some questions as to how dispersants work at sea. Even though the results obtained in different laboratory tests are generally in good accord, significant discrepancies of practical interest may be observed because of variations in the experimental conditions.

With EEC support, an experimental program has been conducted by CEDRE and Institut Français du Pétrole (IFP), both with the already-described French middle scale field test and with different laboratory tests (U.K. and French standard tests and the recently developed dilution test). With the objective of correlating the results obtained in field tests and in laboratory tests, several parameters were investigated at sea with different dispersants: the type and viscosity of the oil, slick thickness, and oil to dispersant ratio. Based mainly on the results obtained in the laboratory with dilution tests, new aspects of dispersant behavior have been identified, relating to the nature of the oil and the energy input.
A NEW APPROACH IN ENHANCED BIODEGRADATION OF SPILLED OIL: DEVELOPMENT OF AN OIL DISPERSANT CONTAINING OLEOPHILIC NUTRIENTS
Authors: Bronchart Robert D. E. , Cadron Jan , Charlier Alain , Gillot Alain A. R. , Verstraete Willy
Published: January 2013

A research program has been set up to develop oil dispersants containing oleophilic nutrients. This new type of dispersant will not only dilute the oil slick into the sea, but also start and speed up the microbial growth around the fine oil droplets, because the nutrients remain at the oil/water interface and are not washed away in the water. Each of these newly synthesized nutrients is made of an oleophilic part (normal paraffine or olefine) and of a hydrophilic moiety (containing nitrogen and or phosphorus). This surfactant-like structure allows it to maintain a good level of dispersing efficiency.

The capacity to stimulate biodegradation of the various compounds was evaluated by measuring the microbial CO2 production (mineralization) in a gas train arrangement of 40 channels monitored by a 40-way valve. This guaranteed a constant air supply to each test vial. A practical partition coefficient of the nutrient between oil and water was determined to evaluate its ability to remain at the interphase. The influence of the following parameters on the biodegradation process was studied: Amount and chain length of the oleophilic part and type of nutrient, used as such or incorporated in a dispersant Replacement or no replacement of the water phase prior to degradation, to simulate the washing of nutrients into the sea Dispersing efficiency of HLB of the formulated dispersant

These results combined with pilot scale trials led to the formulation of a dispersant which exhibits a high dispersion efficiency and a quick-starting biodegradation of the dispersed crude oil.
A 100 TONS EXPERIMENTAL OIL SPILL AT HALTEN BANK, OFF NORWAY
Authors: Lange Rolf
Published: January 2013

The Norwegian Marine Pollution Research and Monitoring Programme organized a multidisciplinary field experiment at Halten Bank in 1982. Three research vessels, two oil recovery vessels, two airplanes, and a total of about 50 scientists took part. The main task of the experiment was to investigate the drift and spread of oil on the surface and in the water column. The drift of the slick was followed using Argos and Decca self-positioning drifting buoys and SLAR (side-looking airborne radar). The methods at present available for monitoring as well as forecasting the drift of oil on the sea surface appear to be good enough for all practical purposes.

The Continental Shelf Institute is developing a model which also tries to take the physical mixing of oil in the upper water masses into account. The experiment contributed to this work and further development opens the possibility of describing which water masses will contain damaging concentrations of oil, and how long these will remain there.

Microbial degradation of oil and associated ecological effects were also studied. Two independent methods gave values of 20 and 35 µg/L/day, respectively, for the (immediate) potential of microbial degradation of oil in water. With unlimited bacterial growth (a purely theoretical assumption) the above figures could increase by a factor of 1,000 during the experiment (one week). The amounts of nutrients, as well as oil, were not sufficient for the degradation potential to be realized. The exposure time was also relatively short. The rate of oil mineralization might have been just 10 percent of the estimated potential.

The biological studies, particularly, were designed to show possible effects on the turnover of nutrients and possible effects of oil on plankton. A daily comparison between oil-containing and clean water samples was made. The degree of similarity was measured by using multivariate (cluster) analysis on a data set of 75 different variables. The results show that any effect of oil was smaller than the natural day-to-day variations in the plankton. This is in conformation with the short exposure time and the low concentrations of oil measured.
A CASE HISTORY ILLUSTRATION OF EPA'S REGION 6 SPILL PREVENTION, CONTROL AND COUNTERMEASURES PROGRAM
Authors: Almquist Gerald L. , Forrest Robert G. , Gazda Charles A.
Published: January 2013

An inspection program addressing oil spills and spill prevention was conducted in the environmentally sensitive Caddo Lake area of Texas and Louisiana. Eighty oil storage leases were inspected in this area, and 82.5 percent of these leases were found to be out of compliance. Through EPA's Region 6 oil spill prevention program, which includes working to promote compliance with the Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasures (SPCC) regulations by the facility, all but one of the leases achieved compliance.
NATURAL RESOURCE PROTECTION IN CALIFORNIA
Authors: Simons Edward A.
Published: January 2013

On October 31, 1984, the vessel USS Puerto Rican exploded at sea off San Francisco. The disabled vessel was towed offshore and on November 3, 1984, the stern sank releasing, at least, an estimated 12,000 barrels of petroleum products. California experiences oil spills affecting natural resources every year. Rarely are these spills as large as the Puerto Rican spill, but natural resource protection minimized the losses of bird life as a result of this incident. Planning for oil spill cleanup helped prevent more losses to these natural resources. In addition, some bird cleaning and rehabilitation equipment and facilities have been provided. The equipment and facilities will remain available to reduce the effect of future spills of oil in, or offshore, California.
FIBER-OPTICAL MEASUREMENTS OF MECHANICALLY AND CHEMICALLY DISPERSED OIL IN WATER
Authors: Nilsen Jan
Published: January 2013

A new fiber optical transmittance meter has been designed to measure oil concentrations in water. No electronic components are placed in the underwater sensor housings which are made relatively small to avoid influence on the surroundings. Both the light emitting diode and the receiver are synchroned demodulated. This together with AC-linked amplifiers in both the sender and receiver electronics give appropriate noise reduction. A transmittance meter was calibrated in a 1,0000:1 laboratory tank. Results from this calibration with mechanically dispersed Ekofisk crude oil and Reginol SAE 30 water-in-oil emulsion are presented. It was found that the beam attenuation increased almost exponentially up to a certain oil concentration which was a function of the particle size distribution and length of the waterpath of the light beam.

The time changes in the concentration of dispersed oil under breaking waves in a wave tank in the laboratory have been measured at different depths below the surface. It was found that the oil concentrations decreased almost exponentially below the surface down to a depth approximately equal to the height of the breaking wave.

During a full scale field experiment with oil in the North Sea in May 1982 the oil leakage under two different oil booms was measured with a beam transmittance meter at 1.5 m depth about 5 m behind the oil booms. Two-minute mean values of the beam transmittance were recorded. The measurements showed large variations in the oil concentrations behind the oil booms. Transmittance meter measurements also were carried out during offshore full scale tests with different chemical dispersants. The instruments have been towed at different depths from small boats passing through the slicks, measuring oil concentrations continuously at different levels simultaneously under the slicks. At Frigg in June 1984, the concentration of dispersed oil at 1, 2, and 3 m depth varied from (approximately) 0 to 60 ppm under one slick.
AN EXPERIMENTAL HIGH PRESSURE WATERJET BARRIER
Authors: Meikle K. M. , Whittaker H. , Laperrière F.
Published: January 2013

A novel barrier to contain or deflect floating oil has been developed using an array of high pressure waterjets. Preliminary experiments have demonstrated that oil can be controlled effectively with this technique even in the presence of waves. Trials of an experimental prototype have established that it is stable, has good mobility, and is able to maintain position as a deflector or as a collector in currents approaching 2 knots.
MARINE POLLUTION CONTINGENCY PLANNING—RECENT CHANGES IN UNITED KINGDOM ORGANIZATION
Authors: Stacey Michael L.
Published: January 2013

The UK has recently carried out a major review of the oil pollution problem (Royal Commission Report No. 8) which has resulted in an authoritative assessment of the environmental impact of oil spills, a series of recommendations covering a wide variety of aspects of prevention and response, and government acceptance and the subsequent implementation of a number of these recommendations.

This paper summarizes the essential elements of the new environmental assessment, discusses the pros and cons of the recommendations, and describes those which government has accepted. It then goes on to deal in detail with the implications of the government's acceptance of the various recommendations and records progress in their implementation. The areas it covers in detail include: A new national organization for the central integration of sea and shore response in a single unit: the Marine Pollution Control Unit (MPCU), responsible within central government to the Department of Transport New structures and procedures to facilitate interaction between central and local government Redirection of emphasis in the R&D field, in the provision of sea and shore related response equipment, and in contingency planning in order to redress imbalances formerly existing between sea and shore related response Further development of the safe havens policy to facilitate salvage and cargo transfer operations Greater emphasis within the MPCU on the detection of violations of discharge regulations and the collection of evidence Arrangements for closer association between government and the oil industry in relation to provision of response equipment, the development of mutually supportive contingency planning, and response arrangements
COMPARATIVE COSTS OF OIL SPILL CLEANUP TECHNIQUES1
Authors: Moller T. H. , Parker H. D. , Nichols J. A.
Published: January 2013

This paper examines the costs of various cleanup techniques, drawing mainly on information from recent oil spills from ships. Analyses of the costs for dispersant application and for the use of offshore mechanical recovery equipment are compared in relation to their effectiveness and scope for reducing shoreline cleanup costs and damage from oil pollution. Spill size, oil type, coastline character, and the extent of pollution all contribute to the observed differences in shoreline cleanup and disposal costs. The influence of these factors is evaluated and criteria are proposed for selecting the most appropriate cleanup response to suit the circumstancees of a particular oil spill. On occasions, a response at sea is both necessary and worthwhile, but for most spills shoreline cleanup, including protection of sensitive resources, is likely to be the most cost-effective option.
SWEDISH COAST GUARD STARTS USING THIRD GENERATION MARITIME SURVEILLANCE SYSTEM
Authors: Fäst Olov
Published: January 2013

Since 1981, the Swedish Coast Guard has been conducting daily oil spill surveillance patrols using small aircraft equipped with a remote sensing system. During this time, the use of the aircraft has widened to include a number of Coast Guard tasks such as fishery protection and sea traffic surveillance. This has necessitated the acquisition of aircraft with greater endurance and more loading capability.

Two CASA 212 aircraft were delivered in 1986. In response to requests from Coast Guard operators, the remote sensing system has at the same time gone through a major revision. One of the main ideas in the third generation system is to give the operator computer aid in producing charts and reports for documenting routine missions, violations, and accidents. When necessary, as in the case of an accident, the charts can be immediately telecopied from the computer in the aircraft to a Coast Guard Command Center to ensure a quick and proper response.
FRENCH KNOW-HOW IN THE PREVENTION AND FIGHT AGAINST ACCIDENTAL OIL SPILLS
Authors: Marchand Guy , Bergot Gilles , Melguen Marthe , Peigne Georges
Published: January 2013

As the victim of several oil spills caused by oil tanker accidents along its coasts during the 1970s, France has created a specific organization, including a research and documentation center, and developed all necessary means to prevent further major pollution and to protect its coastline.

The French program is unique in the fact that it is first of all concerned with the prevention of accidents. In addition, French know-how is characterized by the establishment of intervention plans (POLMAR plans, sea and land) which are designed to prepare for and coordinate the fight against accidental water pollution at sea and on the coastline.

An antipollution operation also relies on the existence of the necessary means to carry it out, as well as specialized equipment which is ready to be put to work at sea as well as on the coastline by competent authorities. In the case of oil spills occurring in other countries, France is prepared to share its experience and know-how thanks to its groups of experts such as those of CEDRE and of the port of Marseilles.
OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING AT NAVY SHORE ACTIVITIES
Authors: Biggers Rebecca L.
Published: January 2013

Oil spill contingency planning at U.S. Navy shore activities focuses on the Navy oil spill contingency plan format. The format is designed to provide quick response in the event of an emergency. The plan lays out response information up front, with support information provided in appendixes. Each high-risk site has a response section with a map and corresponding text. The plan is developed under the guidance of a committee to ensure that response requirements are coordinated.
THE EFFICIENCY OF ELASTOMERS IN OIL SPILL CLEANUP
Authors: Waters Paul , Hadermann Albert F.
Published: January 2013

When ultrahigh molecular weight elastomers are dissolved in hydrocarbon liquids the resulting solutions become highly cohesive under tensile stress. The effect increases with increasing molecular weight and concentration of the polymer, decreasing temperature, and increasing viscosity of the liquid. The benefits derived from using ultrahigh molecular weight elastomers in oil spill response and removal activities are: increased resistance to spreading, automatic separation of oil and water at the skimmer, and increased capacity of skimmer devices. In general, these benefits translate into reduced labor, transportation, storage or disposal costs.
LABORATORY STUDIES ON THE CHEMICAL AND NATURAL DISPERSABILITY OF OIL
Authors: Fingas Mervin F. , Bobra Mark A. , Velicogna Ronald K.
Published: January 2013

We have reviewed the laboratory testing of the chemical and natural dispersion of oil, noting the weaknesses of the Mackay test and comparing it to other methods. Results of both chemical and natural dispersion tests show that anomalous test results are produced in the Mackay apparatus at 0° C. This is attributed to preferential viscous shearing when the oil viscosity is 30 to 200 centistokes (cs). A new test uses a small swirling flask. Dispersant effectiveness results for ten oils from the Mackay, Labofina, and swirling flask tests were compared and the correlation found to be low. Results from the new swirling flask test correlate well with physical property data, especially viscosity. Each laboratory test produces somewhat unique results, and no way has yet been found to determine which test most accurately represents reality.
BASIC STUDY REVEALS HOW DIFFERENT CRUDE OILS INFLUENCE DISPERSANT PERFORMANCE
Authors: Canevari Gerard P.
Published: January 2013

Previous research has shown that crude oils contain various amounts of indigenous surface active agents that stabilize water-in-oil emulsions. It is also known that crude oils stabilize such emulsions to different extents. One aspect of the study was to investigate the relationship between the emulsion forming tendency of the various crude oils and the level of performance of a chemical dispersant on the particular crude oil.

The results of the extensive laboratory test program indicated that dispersant effectiveness is a function of both dispersant type and the specific crude oil. However, there is no apparent correlation between the degree of emulsion-forming tendency of the crude oil, which is a function of the indigenous surfactant content, and effectiveness.

A “clean” hydrocarbon, tetradecane (C14), was also tested in order to evaluate the absence of any indigenous surfactants on performance. It was found that tetradecane exhibited a higher level of effectiveness compared to the crude oils for each of the dispersants tested.

In essence, the indigenous surfactants in the crude oil, in every instance, reduce dispersant effectiveness but to an unpredictable level. This is probably due to the fact that these agents present in crude oil promote a water-in-oil emulsion. Since the chemical dispersant is formulated to produce an oil-in-water dispersion, the interference of these crude oil surfactants is apparent. Hence, tetradecane would be an ideal test oil since the degree of dispersion of tetradecane by a particular dispersant represents the maximum dispersion effectiveness for that product.

In order to establish more definitively the role of the indigenous surfactants, this surfactant phase was successfully separated from nine crude oils representative of different emulsion forming tendencies. It was found that the amount of surfactant residue extracted from the crude oil did correlate with the emulsion forming tendency of the crude oil.

Finally, the above separated surfactant residue was added to tetradecane at the same concentrations as in the respective crude oil. As expected, in every instance, the surfactant residue decreased dispersant performance compared to “pure” tetradecane.
DATA ANALYSIS AND MODELING OF DISPERSANT EFFECTIVENESS IN COLD WATER
Authors: To N. M. , Brown H. M. , Goodman R. H.
Published: January 2013

Tests on dispersant effectiveness in cold water have been performed, for a number of years, using nonbreaking, regular waves in the Esso wave basin. Oil concentration measurements in the water column have been used to study the kinematics of oil dispersion under regular waves.

Data analysis procedures are designed to determine, based on the concentration measurements, the rate of oil dispersion in both horizontal and vertical directions into the water column. Oil dispersion rates are used in a two-dimensional, kinematic, finite difference model to simulate the diffusion and advection of oil in water. The model predicts the amount of oil that dispersed and later resurfaced from the measured concentration history. Based on the model results, a material balance of the oil is obtained. Effectiveness of the dispersant is assessed by the amount of oil remaining after each test.

Results of the data analysis provide an insight into the oil dispersion mechanism and a method of improving the accuracy of the numerical model. Effectiveness of different dispersants and different application methods may be compared using this methodology.
MEASUREMENT AND PREDICTION OF DEPOSITIONAL ACCURACY IN DISPERSANT SPRAYING FROM LARGE AIRPLANES
Authors: Lindblom Gordon P.
Published: January 2013

Aerial application of dispersants has progressed to include very large airplanes, such as the Hercules C-130, for which a portable spray unit has been developed. This unit, which can be rapidly placed in the cargo aircraft (without any mechanical alterations) was flight tested with spraying of a dispersant concentrate in 1982. The tests measured actual deposition of chemical under various conditions.

The most definitive data were collected using a “deposition track,” positioned on the ground across the flight path of the airplane. The dyed dispersant was recovered from this track and the data converted to amount per unit area, and to percent of total pumped fluid on-target. The results led to correlation of depositional accuracy in terms of the air shear experienced by the sprayed fluid. The data has been further used to develop a mathematical prediction for design of dispersant treatment procedures using high-speed airplanes. Use of these considerations in operational planning can improve dispersant dosage control by preventing both under-treatment and wasteful off-target drift.
ADVANCE PLANNING FOR DISPERSANT USE
Authors: Lindstedt-Siva June
Published: January 2013

Dispersant use is most effective in the early stages of an oil spill, yet because there is thought to be so much case-by-case variation, decisions about whether and where to use dispersants have been made only after a spill occurs. These decisions require, at a minimum, hours, and may require days. Two major efforts to shorten this decisionmaking process have recently been completed. A multidisciplinary, multiagency task force under the auspices of the American Society for Testing and Materials developed ecologically based guidelines for dispersant use in marine environments. The guidelines for 13 different marine and coastal habitat types consider dispersant use both to protect and to clean the habitat. They also identify those habitats that should be most protected in the event of a spill. These guidelines should be useful references for regional response teams and other spill response planners as they develop site-specific dispersant use plans. The second project was developed by an American Petroleum Institute task force and contractor with input from federal and state government agencies. It is a site-specific method for planning whether to use dispersants in marine environments. It divides an offshore region into “dispersant use zones” based on ecological considerations. The method was applied to selected areas offshore southern California as a test.
INJECTION OF OIL SPILL CHEMICALS INTO A BLOWING WELL
Authors: Audunson Tore , Johansen Øistein , Koines Johnny
Published: January 2013

As part of the research program Dispersion of Oil on Sea (DOOS), a subproject has been carried out to develop an all-weather method for oil spill cleanup.

The aim of the subproject was to evaluate the possibility of injecting oil spill chemicals into a blowing well. Different completion systems were studied as well as different methods for injection of chemicals. The idea behind the method is to improve the oil spill situation by reducing the response time as well as by providing a method usable in all weather conditions. The method will be of special value for wells located near the coast or in other sensitive areas (e.g., arctic regions).

The work concludes that it is possible, and with only a limited need for development of new equipment, to inject chemicals into a blowing well. The injection should be done in the annulus, or through a separate tube. From the annulus the chemical will be inserted into the tubing through a valve.
A PRELIMINARY FEASIBILITY STUDY OF IN-SITU BURNING OF SPREADING OIL SLICKS
Authors: Buist I. A.
Published: January 2013

An experimental and theoretical preliminary feasibility study was conducted on the use of in-situ burning as a countermeasure for oil spills spreading on open water. This technique theoretically has the potential to remove a considerable percentage of the oil from such spills, providing ignition can be effected within several hours of the incident.
EXPERIMENTAL SPILLS OF CRUDE OIL IN PACK ICE
Authors: Buist I. A. , Dickins D. F.
Published: January 2013

A field research program was carried out to investigate the fate of crude oil spilled in dynamic pack, or broken, ice. The presence of ice dramatically reduced the spreading of 1 m3 test spills compared with that expected on open water. Evaporation of the oil and subsequent property changes could be adequately predicted using conventional theories.