bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Resource Export Booms, Macroeconomic Policies and Structural Change in Nigeria
Authors: Ogun Oluremi
Published: March 2008

Abstract: This paper carries out a comparative investigation of the contributory roles of two resource export booms as well as the macroeconomic policies implemented in the boom and post boom periods, in respect of the structural change experience of Nigeria in the period 1950‐85. A combination of the ‘Dutch Disease’ model and an adapted Chenery‐Syrquin index of structural change are employed in the study. The analysis suggests that, although the relatively greater resources from the oil boom induced greater expansion in monetary and fiscal policies, most of the macroeconomic policies implemented in the relevant periods only differ in degree and not in kind. However, the notable departure from the traditional wage and exchange rate policies since the post agricultural boom period was found to be a potent contributory factor to relative sectoral growth rates in the economy.

Résumé: Ce document fait une étude comparative de la contribution de deux phases d'expansion des exportations dc ressources ainsi que des politiques macroéconomiques appliquées durant et après ces périodes, dans le cadre du changement structurel mtcrvenu au Nigeria entre 1950 et 1985. Une combinaison du modèle du “syndrome hollandais” et l'index Chenery‐Syrquin adapté du changement structurel est utilisé dans cette étude. L'analyse suggére que, bien que les rencnus importants provenant du “boom pétrolier” entrainent une expansion des politiques macroéconomiques miscs en ocuvrc au cours des périodes choisies, différent seulemcnt selon leur importance et non scion leur nature. Toutefois, il est établi que l'adoption, depuis la période ayant suivi le boom agricole, d'une orientation qui s‘écarte sensiblement des politiques traditionnelles de salaires ct de taux de change, a contribué notablement aux taux de croissance relative des secteurs de l’économie.
Export Demand and Botswana's Beef Industry: A Computable General Equilibrium Approach
Authors: Tyler Godfrey J.
Published: March 2008

Abstract: A 15‐sector Comparable General Equilibrium (CGE) model, based on 1992/93 Social Accounting Matrix (SAM), is used to simulate the effects of changes in the world price of beef on the Botswana's beef industry, employment, exports and aggregate output.

Résumé: Un modèle d'équilibre général comparable à 15 secteurs, fondé sur la matrice de comptabilité sociale (MCS) de 1992/93, est utilisé pour simuler les incidences des fluctuations des prix mondiaux de la viande bovine sur l'industrie du boeuf, l'emploi, les exportations et la production globale au Botswana.
Infrastructure and Technology Constraints to Agricultural Development in the Humid and Subhumid Tropics of Africa
Authors: Spencer Dunstan S.
Published: March 2008

Abstract: Green Revolution technologies have not been widely adopted in Africa. What are the chances that they will play a major role in the near future? This paper shows that the enabling infrastructure, especially rural roads and irrigation systems are not likely to be in place in the humid and sub‐humid tropics of Africa in the next 20–30 years. Consequently a typology of the more appropriate set of technology that is input and infrastructure efficient, has high returns to seasonal labor and is sustainable is presented. Research institutions should be geared up now to produce them for use in 10–20 years.

Résumé: Les technologies issues de la Révolution verte n'ont pas été adoptées à grande échelle en Afrique. Dans quelle mesure pourront‐elles jouer un rôle majeur dans un proche avenir? Il est démontré, dans cet article, que les infrastructures d'appui comme les routes rurales et les réseaux d'irrigation, ne seront probablement pas mises en place dans les pays de l'Afrique tropicalc humide ct subhumide avant les 20 ou 30 prochaines années. L'auteur présente, par conséquent, la typologie d'un arsenal technologique plus approprié: viable, rentable en termes de travail saisonnier, et efficace en termes d'intrants et d'infrastructures. Les institutions de recherche devraient maintenant s'atteler a produire ccs outils technologiqucs qui seront utilisés durant les 10 à 20 prochaines années.
An Alternative Development Model: A Socio‐Cultural Analysis of the Existential Conditions for Growth with Equity and Diversity in Sub‐Saharan Africa
Authors: Okonjo Kamene , Okonjo Chukuka , Okeibunor J. Chukwudi
Published: March 2008

Abstract: An analytical framework is used to review the socio‐cultural experiences of African societies with an emphasis on their organizations, interaction and action toward development as well as their demographic experiences. In this framework, the socio‐cultural setting which influences the way of life— values, beliefs systems, norms, ideas and idealogies—evolved in response to the people's existential experiences. This variable influences both the demographic experiences and the social organization (family and kinship) of a society as well as its value system. These, as intermediate variables, in turn influence the appropriate strategy to be adopted for the development of society.

Résumé: S'inspirant d'un cadre analytique, les auteurs examinent les expériences socio‐culturelles des sociétés africaines en privilégiant l'organisation de ces sociétés, leur interaction, leur action de développement ainsi que leur expérience démographique. Vu sous cet angle, le cadre socio‐culturel determinant le mode de vie—valeurs, systèmes de croyances, normes, idées et idéologies—a évolué en réponse à l'expérience existentielle des populations. Cette variable influence tant l'expérience démographique et l'organisation sociale (famille et parenté) que le système de valeurs de la société. Et en tant que variables intermédiaries, ces variables influencent à leur tour la stratégie à adopter pour le développement de la société.
A Model of Occupational Choice Applied to Rural Kenya
Authors: Mwabu Germano , Evenson Robert E.
Published: March 2008

Abstract: The paper studies occupational patterns in rural Kenya using a large cross‐sectional data collected from farm households in seven districts. Consistent with the agrarian nature of the Kenyan economy, we find that 74 per cent of rural households have farming as their principal occupation. The remaining 26 per cent are engaged in nonfarm activities. The existing rural occupational structure is shown to be a consequence of rational career decisions of households. Education and proximity to market centers are the key factors in the transformation of occupational structure in rural Kenya.

Résumé: Cet article analyse les schémas de choix professionnels dans les zones rurales du Kenya en se basant sur un vaste esnemble de données recueillies auprès des ménages ruraux de sept districts. Comme le laissait présager le caractère agricole de l'économie kényane, 74 pour cent des ménages ruraux ont l'agriculture pour activité principale; les 26 pour cent restants sont engagés dans des activités non agricoles. Il est démontré que la structure actuelle des choix de professions dans les zones rurales découle de décisions rationnelles prises par les ménages. L'éducation et la proximité des centres de commercialisation sont les facteurs prépondérants qui conditionnent la transformation des schémas professionnels dans les zones rurales du Kenya.
External Debt, Fiscal Policy and Terms‐of‐Trade Disturbances in the Dynamics of an Open Economy: A Case of Cameroon
Authors: Pene Kalulumia
Published: March 2008

Abstract: This paper examines the long‐run and dynamic effects of changes in terms‐of‐trade and government debt and deficit using a dynamic and stochastic equilibrium model of a small open economy. The model is calibrated and simulated to evaluate its ability to rationalize the observed pattern of Cameroon economic fluctuations. The results show that the model reproduces remarkably well business fluctuations of this country for the period 1967–1992 using moderate adjustment costs of labor and capital. Particularly, the decline in economic activities, observed in the last decade in Cameroon, can mainly be explained by the terms‐of‐trade deteriorations and the fiscal policy misleading. These two shocks were shown to be the most important sources of business fluctuations in this country. Both permanent and temporary terms‐of‐trade deteriorations have a more negative impact in the economy. It results in a reduction of national wealth and a more persistent recession, and induces a large increase in the country level of external indebtedness. Results of dynamic simulation also indicate that fiscal policy aimed at reducing government debt and budget deficits can dampen the negative effects of terms‐of‐trade deterioration, but the country will experience a recession in short‐run. The model forecasts a recovery of economic activities eight periods after adopting such a macroeconomic adjustment policy. The forecast of the model minimics the recent economic experience of Cameroon for the period 1985–1995.

Réesumée: Cet article analyse, àa partir d'un modéele d'éequilibre dynamique et stochastique, l'impact intertemporel des variations des termes de l'éechange extéerieur, de la dette et du déeficit publics, sur les fluctuations d'une petite éeconomie ouverte. Le modéele est calibre sur l'economie Camerounaise. Les réesultats montrent que le modéele reproduit fidéelement la conjoncture économique camerounaise pour la période de l'étude, soit de 1967 a 1992. En particulier, la récession enregistree au Cameroun au cours de la derniére décennie peut être essentiellement expliquée par la détérioration des termes de l'échange et le mésalignement de la politique fiscale. Ces deux chocs se sont avérés comme étant les plus importantes sources de fluctuations économiques dans ce pays. Une détérioration permanente ou temporaire des termes de l'échange peut être néfaste pour l'économie camerounaise. Elle entraîne une réduction de la richesse nationale, une récession persistante et une grande augmentation du niveau d'endettement extérieur du pays. Les résultats des simulations dynamiques montrent que ces effets négatifs peuvent être atténués, si le pays adopte une politique de contrainte budgétaire visant à réduire à la fois le déficit et la dette publics. Le modéle prévoit le renversement de la récession ou le regain de la croissance économique aprés environ huit périodes. Cette prévision cadre bien avec la conjoncture economique du Cameroun pour la péiode 1985–1995.
Technological Opportunities for Sub‐Sahara Africa1
Authors: Gordon Theodore Jay
Published: March 2008

Abstract: The status of sub‐Saharan African nations and their people can be affected now and even more so in the future by technology. Both the frequency and profundity of inventions that change lives have been accelerating because of the disappearance of artificial walls that separated scientific disciplines, improved and rapid communications, and the inventory of breakthrough discoveries which spawn new invention. Of particular importance in the near future are: genetics, new materials, communications and data bases, new energy systems, miniaturization of machines, and computers including smaller, cheaper PC's, big main‐frames, and new software. The article reviews these technological developments and their likely impacts.

La technologie peut influencer la situation des pays et populations de l'Afrique subsaharienne d'aujourd hui et, plus encore, de demain. La fréquence et la nature des inventions qui changent la vie des hommes connaissent une évolution rapide imputable à la disparition des murs artificiels qui séparaient des disciplines scientifiques, aux communications modernes rapides et au stock de découvertes décisives qui engendrent l'invention. Auront une importance toute particulière dans un avenir proche, la génétique, les nouveaux matériaux, les communications et bases de données, les systèmes d'énergies nouvelles, la miniaturisation des machines, les ordinateurs y compris les PC de tallies plus petites et moins coûteux, les gros ordinateurs centraux, et les nouveaux logiciels. Dans cet article, l'auteur examine ces innovations technologiques et leurs incidences éventuelles. II analyse aussi les types de technologies dont l'Afrique subsaharienne a besoin.
African Opportunities in the Transition to a Knowledge Economy
Authors: Wilson Peter
Published: March 2008

Abstract: This paper examines the future knowledge economy and the opportunities it presents for Africa. Technology, as noted in the paper, is the vehicle through which value and wealth will be created in the future. The importance of affordable access to modem technology, and creating the drive and ability to exploit the new media to add value to raw knowledge are stressed. The paper argues that future polarisation will be between knowledge rich and knowledge poor communities. Africans, therefore, need to have confidence in their own knowledge, whether formal or tacit and establish their rightful place as centres of expertise in specific knowledge domains, whilst exploiting the explosion of opportunities afforded by the global transfer and trade in knowledge.

L'auteur de cet article analyse l'avenir de l'économie axée sur la connaissance et les possibilités qu'elle ofrre à l'Afrique. La technologie, comme le dit l'article, est le véhicule par lequel la valeur et la richesse seront créées à l'avenir. L'auteur souligne l'importance de l'accès à la technologie moderne ainsi que de l'impulsion et de l'aptitude à exploiter les nouveaux media pour produire de la valeur ajoutée à la connaissance brute. Selon cet article, une polarisation future existera entre les communautés riches en connaissances et les communautés pauvres en connaissances. Les africains doivent done avoir foi en lews connaissances, de façon formelle ou tacite, et se faire leur place légitime en tant que centres d'expertise dans des domaines spécifiques de connaissance, tout en exploitant le foisonnement de possibilités offertes par le transfertet l'échange de connaissances à l'échelon mondial.
Information System Projects in Africa: Reflections on Learning and Systemic Devices
Authors: Bell Simon
Published: March 2008

Abstract: The paper examines some experiences in information technology (IT) projects in Africa. It reviews the twin contexts which IT projects in Africa bring together ‐ the experience of IT projects and the experience of projects in developing countries. It is shown that both have erratic track records but that valuable learning is contained from the experiences of each. Drawing on research experience from three developing country (two African) contexts, the paper draws out a series of lessons, which indicate good and poor practice in IT development. Finally a set of policy implications for IT projects in developing country contexts are discussed. The key lessons are: the IT professional is often a poor ‘expert’; local people must be drawn into the essentially social development process of IT systems planning; modest evolutionary systems have a better record than ambitious, multi‐sector projects; and effective monitoring and evaluation of IT projects requires a systemic assessment of qualitative and quantitative issues.

Cet article examine certaines expériences relatives aux projets de technologie de l'information (TI) en Afrique. Il analyse le contexte double des projets de TI en Afrique, à savoir l'expérience en matière de projets TI et l'expérience en matière de projets dans les pays en développement. L'expérience montre que l'un et l'autre types de projet donnent des résultats irréguliers, mais les leçons qui en découlent sont précieuses. A partir de l'expérience en matière de recherche enregistrée dans trois pays en développement dont deux africains, l'auteur de l'article tire une série de leçons qui révèlent des pratiques bonnes et mauvaises en matière de conception de technologies informatiques. Enfin, l'article analyse une série d'incidences de politiques relatives aux projets de TI dans le contexte de pays en développement. Les leçons essentielles sont les suivantes: le professionnel TI est souvent un “expert” médiocre; les populations locales doivent être associées au processus de planification des systèmes de technologie informatique essentiellement liée au développement social; des systèmes évolutifs modestes donnent de meilleurs résultats que les projets multisectoriels ambitieux; et le suivi et l‘évaluation rétrospective efficaces des projets de technologie informatique nécessitent une évaluation systémique des aspects qualitatifs et quantitatifs.
Creating the African Information and Knowledge Society
Authors: Adesida Olugbenga
Published: March 2008

Abstract: Information, knowledge and a highly developed scientific and technological base are now pre‐requisites for nations that want to compete in the new global economy. If African countries are to be able to compete, they must build the social capabilities and acquire the necessary capacity in science and technology. To build an African information and knowledge society, the paper proposes the need for African countries to formulate national strategy for science and technology, build capacity not only in hard sciences but also in the management of innovation, build a superb information infrastructure, put in place a strategic learning and early warning systems, rely more on market forces, create innovation funds, and build effective regional cooperation mechanisms.

L'Information, la connaissance et une base scientifique et technologique hautement développée sont, de nos jours, les conditions qui s'imposent aux nations qui, dans le contexte de la nouvelle économie globale, tiennent à rester dans la course de la compétition internationale. Si les pays africains veulent soutenir la concurrence, ils doivent asseoir la capacité sociale et acquérir le potentiel scientifique et technologique nécessaire. Pour la création d'une société africaine d'information et de connaissance, les pays africains, selon l'auteur de l'article, doivent formuler une stratégie nationale dans le domaine de la science et de la technologie, renforcer leur capacité non seulement dans les sciences pures mais aussi dans la gestion de l'innovation, mettre en place une infrastructure adéquate, des systèmes d'apprentissage stratégique et des dispositifs d'alerte précoce, se fier plus aux forces du marché, créer des fonds d'innovation et créer des mécanismes efficace de coopération régionale.
The Interaction of Non‐agricultural Employment, Agricultural Development and Reduced Chronic Food Insecurity: Sub‐Saharan Africa, 1970 to 1990
Authors: Rempel Henry
Published: March 2008

Abstract: Two distinct competing themes are evident in the study of development in Sub‐Saharan Africa. The dominant policy theme is the World Bank/International Monetary Fund mandated structural adjustment programs which minimise the role of employment and assume the agriculture sector will serve as the employer of last resort, absorbing most of the new entrants to the labour force. An alternative theme arises from the study of chronic food insecurity, which is seen to be located primarily in the rural areas among people who are producing food. The return to labour that was invested in agricultural activities by this sub‐set of the households is inadequate to generate either sufficient food for the household or adequate income to enable the purchase of sufficient food. In this study, macro‐level data from 42 countries is utilised to study the interaction between average caloric intake and non‐agricultural employment during the period 1970 to 1990. Given the importance of employment creation in reducing chronic food insecurity at the national level, the study calls for a re‐consideration of the failure to pursue employment creation as part of structural adjustment policies.

Deux idées antagoniques distinctes se dégagent de l'étude sur le développement en Afrique subsaharienne, L'idée dominante est que les programmes d'ajustement structurel presents par la Banque mondiale et/ou le Fonds monétaire international minimisent le rôle de l'emploi et supposent que le secteur agricole servira d'employeur de dernier recours, en absorbant la plupart des nouveaux venus sur le marché du travail. La seconde est que l'insécurité alimentaire chronique est vue comme un phénomène qui se manifeste surtout en milieu rural, au sein de populations productrices de denrées alimentaires. Le rendement de la main‐d'œuvre que ce sous‐ensemble des ménages a investi dans les activités agricoles, est insuffisant pour répondre aux besoins alimentaires des ménages ou générer des revenus adéquats qui leur permettraient d'acheter suffisamment de nourriture. L'étude présente des données globales sur 42 pays, qui permettent d'étudier la corrélation entre la ration calorique moyenne et l'emploi dans les secteurs non agricoles, de 1970 à 1990. Etant donné qu'il est important de créer des emplois pour réduire l'insécurité alimentaire chronique au niveau national, l'étude recommande de réexaminer les politiques d'ajustement structurel en raison de leur échec dans ce domaine.
The Sources of Financial Instability in Côte d'lvoire
Authors: SEKA Pierre Roche
Published: March 2008

Abstract: It has long been assumed that the main cause of financial instability in Côte d'lvoire is the deterioration in its terms of trade. The paper analyzes the effects of changes in the terms of trade on domestic savings and investments in Côte d'lvoire. It is an interesting question, especially for a country subjected to large swings in its terms of trade caused by world market fluctuations. In particular, we analyze how the waves of the terms of trade are transmitted to the budget, to consumption and saving, to investment and to income, and how in turn these variables interact in the process of adjusting to the terms of trade shocks both in the private and the public sectors. The findings show that though the terms of trade shocks are important in causing financial instability, the main cause remains the way people adjust to these shocks. In particular, from disequilibrium, absorption (consumption and investment) adjust more rapidly than saving, owing primarily to the way people react to growth and predicted rise in the terms of trade by spending more without accommodating saving. It has been shown that the public sector in particular, did impose a burden in that respect.

On a longtemps supposé que la détérioration des termes de l'échange était la principale cause de l'instabilité financière en Côte d'lvoire. Cet article analyse les incidences de l'évolution des termes de l'échange sur l'épargne intérieure et les investissements dans ce pays. Cette analyse présente un certain intérêt, notamment pour un pays où les termes de l'échange varient considérablement, en fonction des fluctuations du marché mondial. L'auteur montre, en particulier, l'effet que les ondes de distorsion des termes de l'échange ont sur le budget, la consommation, l'épargne, les investissements et les revenus, et la corrélation entre ces variables lorsqu'elles tentent de s'adapter aux chocs provoqués par les termes de l'échange tant dans le secteur public que dans le privé. Les constats réalisés montrent que, bien que ces chocs soient une cause importante d'instabilité financière, la cause plus importante reste la faculté d'adaptation des populations à ces chocs. En particulier, la capacité d'absorption (consommation et investissement) d'un pays s'adapte plus vite aux déséquilibres que sa capacité d'épargne, en grande partie parce face à la croissance et à une hausse prévue des termes de l'échange, la population réagit en dépensant plus et sans songer àépargner. Le secteur public, en particulier, s'est avéréêtre un fardeau, à cet égard.
A Neo‐Functional Examination of the African Economic Community: Lessons from the Experience of the European Union
Authors: Babarinde Olufemi A.
Published: March 2008

Abstract:In mid‐1991, members of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) signed a treaty in Abuja, Nigeria, which sought to create an African Economic Community (AEC) by the year 2031. The aim of the proposed Community, which was preceded, roughly a decade earlier, by the Lagos Plan of Action and the Final Act of Lagos (LPA) is to facilitate regional cooperation on a continental scale as a strategy for economic growth and development in Africa. At the Abuja summit, African leaders attempted to compare the proposed AEC to the European Union (EU). This article inquires the likelihood of the AEC to takeoff and eventually evolve to a level of maturity and sophistication reminiscent of the EU. To that end, the socio‐economic and political conditions of the continent are reviewed, following which the substance and the structure of the AEC treaty are evaluated against the experience of the EU.

Vers le milieu de l'année 1991, les membres de l'Organisation de l'unité africaine (OUA) ont signé un traitéà Abuja (Nigeria) relatif à la création, d'ici à l'an 2031, de la Communautééconomique africaine (CEA). L'objectif de ce projet‐dont les précurseurs ont été le Plan d'action et l'Acte final de Lagos, élaborés près d'une dizaine d'années plus tôt ‐ est de faciliter la coopération régionale à l'échelle continentale, en tant que stratégic de croissance et de développement économique en Afrique. Au sommet d'Abuja, les dirigeants africains ont cherchéà comparer la future Communautééconomique africaine à l'Union européenne (UE). Le présent article s'interroge sur les chances de la CEA d'émerger et d'arriver éventuellement à un degré de maturité et de sophistication proche de celui de l'UE. A cette fin, elle examine les conditions socioéconomiques etpolitiques des pays du continent, puis évalue le contenu et la structure du traité de la CEA en se fondant sur l'expérience de l'UE.
On Ethiopia's Economic Transition and Beyond
Authors: Naudé Willem
Published: March 2008

Abstract: Ethiopia has recently embarked on a course away from socialism towards a market oriented economy. The way in which the authorities envisage this process to take place, has been set out in a number of policy documents, some written in collaboration with the World Bank and IMF. This paper evaluates these documents, especially the New Economic Policy (NEP) document first released by the Ethiopian government in November 1991. The evaluation takes place against a discussion of the constraints created by past economic policies. Directions for future modification of economic policies are indicated.

L'Ethiopie s'est récemment engagée dans une politique qui vise à abandonner le socialisme au profit d'une économie orientée vers le marché. La méthode, par laquelle les autorités nationales envisagent d'opérer une telle évolution, a été définie dans de nombreux de documents de politique, dont certains ont étéélaborés en collaboration avec la Banque mondiale et le FMI. Le présent article examine ces documents, notammentcelui dans lequel est définie lanouvelle politique économique adoptée en novembre 1991 par le Gouvernement. Cet examen se fonde sur une analyse des contraintes des anciennes politiques économiques. L'auteur émet des principes d'action en vue d'une modification future des politiques économiques.
The Fifth Generation and training strategies*
Authors: Ennals Richard
Published: March 2008

Fifth Generation computers should not simply be regarded as an enhancement of current computer technology: the intention is that a fresh approach should be taken to computer science and to the use of computers. The argument of this paper is that the fresh approach must encompass education and training, with implications that extend far beyond the simple use of computers.
The current status of instructional design theories in relation to today's authoring systems*
Authors: O'Neil A. Fred
Published: March 2008

It is of course very difficult to accurately project important characteristics of the future state of any rapidly evolving field, and the field of authoring systems for computer‐assisted instruction (CAI) is no exception. However, strong trends in evolving CAI systems of today would seem to indicate some important characteristics of the software systems underlying tomorrow's automated instructional systems. Under the premise that form follows function, this paper will explore the functional impetus of some of the most important trends extant in terms of their roots in a powerful, emerging technology of instructional design. This technology promises to complement the advancing hardware and software technologies, by supplying that sine qua non of successful instructional materials. It is inevitable that systems of the future will make (and indeed are making) significant accommodations of this vital technology as it matures, and therefore some important characteristics of tomorrow's systems can be predicated upon what is already known of this technology of instructional design.
Understanding the past—illuminating the future
Authors: Rushby Nick , Seabrook Jan
Published: March 2008

This is the report of a project funded by the British Educational Communications and Technology Research Agency (Becta) to identify the key—but forgotten—information and communication technology research projects in the UK between 1980 and 1999 and to review the contribution that these projects can make in informing the current Becta research agenda and making future research more efficient.
AI in training (1980–2000): Foundation for the future or misplaced optimism?
Authors: Welham David
Published: March 2008

Since the beginning of the use of technology to support training and learning there has always been the belief that such new technologies would be able to add value either by reducing costs or increasing effectiveness. The 1980s and early 1990s were a period of enormous optimism as to the promise that such technology could bring. The governments of Europe and the US were generous in their funding of research in this area. In Europe research and development programmes such as ESPRIT, DELTA, RACE, ERASMUS and COMETT, to name only a few, funded a wealth of initiatives aimed at advancing the use of technology. At the margins of the early initiatives was the belief that AI must have a part to play in these developments. This paper reviews the early initiatives and suggests reasons why the potential for the use of AI in education and training has never been truly fulfilled.
A new intelligent tutoring system*
Authors: Ford Lindsey
Published: March 2008

Early in 1984, Logica started an ICAI research contract with MoD (Procurement Executive), which was to be undertaken in collaboration with the technical authority at the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment, Malvern. A prototype system, which has become known as TUTOR, was scheduled for delivery to the client later in 1985. Initially, and for evaluation purposes, the system ran on VAX 11/780 hardware under VMS. The target subject for TUTOR was the field of emergency procedures in flight safety regulations as taught to air traffic controllers. Initial development of TUTOR, however, has been aimed at the Highway Code, a domain which we, as well as the client and other observers, are familiar with. Evaluation of TUTOR would be based on both domains. Prolog was chosen as the implementation language because ICAI, as we shall see, makes use of rich data structures that can easily be expressed in Prolog.
AI in computer‐based training*
Authors: Camstra Bert
Published: March 2008

In this paper, intelligent approaches to CBT are put into several perspectives in an attempt to elucidate the concepts and give them a more realistic (and not only glamorous) footing. The role of expert systems in training is explored and possible routes towards intelligent CBT are outlined.
Fire play: ICCARUS—Intelligent command and control, acquisition and review using simulation*
Authors: Powell James , Wright Theo , Newland Paul , Creed Chris , Logan Brian
Published: March 2008

Is it possible to educate a fire officer to deal intelligently with the command and control of a major fire event he will never have experienced? The authors of this paper believe there is, and present here just one solution to this training challenge. It involves the development of an intelligent simulation based upon computer managed interactive media. The expertise and content underpinning this educational development was provided by the West Midlands Fire Service. Their brief for this training programme was unambiguous and to the point:

Do not present the trainee with a model answer, because there are no generic fires. Each incident is novel, complex, and often ‘wicked’ in that it changes obstructively as it progresses. Thus firefighting demands that Commanders impose their individual intelligence on each problem to solve it.

A suitable Educational Simulator should stand alone; operate in real time; emulate as nearly as possible the ‘feel’ of the fireground; present realistic fire progress; incorporate the vast majority of those resources normally present at a real incident; bombard the trainee with information from those sources; provide as few system‐prompts as possible.

There should also be an interrogable visual debrief which can be used after the exercise to give the trainees a firm understanding of the effects of their actions. This allows them to draw their own conclusions of their command effectiveness. Additionally, such a record of command and control will be an ideal initiator of tutorial discussion.

The simulation should be realisable on a hardware/software platform of £10 000.

The overriding importance is that the simulation should ‘emulate as nearly as possible the feelings and stresses of the command role’.
CACTUS: Command and control training using knowledge‐based simulations*
Authors: Hartley Roger , Ravenscroft Andrew , Williams R J
Published: March 2008

The CACTUS project was concerned with command and control training of large incidents where public order may be at risk, such as large demonstrations and marches. The training requirements and objectives of the project are first summarized justifying the use of knowledge‐based computer methods to support and extend conventional training techniques. The software designs are based on a world model in which crowd groups and police units are placed on a digitized map and have probabilistic rules that govern their interactive behaviour. The simulation runs as a decision‐making exercise that can include pre‐event logistic planning, incident management, and debriefing evaluation. A key feature is the flexibility of the software, for it provides not only a working simulation but also a methodology and software tools for customizing programs to suit particular circumstances and training needs.
Prospects for European research and development in training & education*
Authors: Whiting John
Published: March 2008

This paper outlines the prospects for research and development in the education and training fields offered by the European Communities. The position of the EC is explained in relation to the existing and forthcoming Framework Programmes of research and development. The 1987–91 Framework Programme has committed most of its funding to existing programmes. Only one, DELTA directly concerns R&D in the education and training technologies. This commenced in 1989 with only 20 million ECU and ends in Spring 1991. In the new Framework Programme, DELTA is expected to continue with funding of between 40 and 60 million ECU though this remains undecided at present. The earliest date for a new DELTA call for proposals in Spring 1991, meaning that work on the new four year programme will not commence until late autumn 1991 at the earliest. There will therefore be a considerable gap between the two. An outline of the likely structure and contents of a new DELTA programme is given, characterised by better liaison with other programmes and a more rational approach to the development of the advanced learning technologies. Other, non‐Framework Programmes concerned with aspects of education and training such as COMETT, LINGUA, EUROTECNET and TEMPUS are placed in context with this. The paper concludes with general advice and explanation of EC procedures for application, evaluation and approval of proposals for Framework R&D Proposals.
Project Author: Visionary training with far reaching consequences
Authors: Seabrook Jan
Published: March 2008

In the 1980s a government initiative was made to meet the need for instructional designers for the emerging Technology Based Training needs of industry and commerce. The course achieved its objectives but also sparked the development of current UK e‐learning because the course developed people who were skilled at adaptability and flexibility with ever changing technology coupled with a thorough understanding of how people learn, and these were highly motivated to use their skills. The effectiveness of the course can be seen by the number of people from Project Author who are still in the sector and in highly influential positions.
Audit Committee and Firm Value: Evidence on Outside Top Executives as Expert‐Independent Directors
Authors: Chan Kam C. , Li Joanne
Published: March 2008

Manuscript Type: Empirical

Research Question/Issue: We examine the relation between independence of audit committee and firm value with a sample of Fortune 200 companies.

Research Findings/Insights: Using a sample of Fortune 200 companies and defining top executives of other publicly traded firms as expert‐independent directors and controlling for firm specifics, board features, and individual director characteristics, we find the presence of expert‐independent directors on board and in the audit committee enhances firm value.

Theoretical/Academic Implications: We provide empirical evidence to show that by focusing on this restricted definition of independent directors (expert‐independent directors), we are able to examine independence in both the board and audit committee in a different light.

Practitioner/Policy Implications: We offer new insights to relate firm value of the composition of audit committee. When expert‐independent directors are of majority control of audit committee, finance‐trained directors improve firm value almost five times to that of firms with independent audit committee alone.
The Signals Outside Directors Send to Foreign Investors: Evidence from Korea
Authors: Rhee Mooweon , Lee Ji‐Hwan
Published: March 2008

Manuscript Type: Empirical

Research Question/Issue: This study explores a signaling role of the demographic composition of a firm's outside director by examining how the composition influences the growth of foreigners' investment in the firm.

Research Findings/Insights: Using archival data from a panel sample of 96 large Korean firms between 2000 and 2003, our analysis shows that the growth of foreign ownership is positively affected if a higher proportion of outside directors hold advanced foreign degrees, if a higher proportion of outside directors have former or current affiliations with governmental organizations, or if a higher proportion of outside directors have job experience in the same industry.

Theoretical/Academic Implications: Our theoretical perspective and supportive findings suggest that the role of outside directors is not confined to implementing the tasks stipulated as a corporate governance mechanism; they also can be signals that inform a market audience (foreign investors in our study) of the extent to which outside directors may provide a firm with a knowledge base, social status, and decision control.

Practitioner/Policy Implications: This study suggests several practical implications, prompting growing interest in the role of outside directors as one of the most effective vehicles for improving corporate governance and symbolic management. In addition, it offers insights to policy makers interested in establishing and updating guidelines that inform firms of desirable board composition according to their strategic demands.
Happiness Is a Personal(ity) Thing
Authors: Weiss Alexander , Bates Timothy C. , Luciano Michelle
Published: March 2008

Subjective well-being is known to be related to personality traits. However, to date, nobody has examined whether personality and subjective well-being share a common genetic structure. We used a representative sample of 973 twin pairs to test the hypothesis that heritable differences in subjective well-being are entirely accounted for by the genetic architecture of the Five-Factor Model's personality domains. Results supported this model. Subjective well-being was accounted for by unique genetic influences from Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Conscientiousness, and by a common genetic factor that influenced all five personality domains in the directions of low Neuroticism and high Extraversion, Openness, Agree-ableness, and Conscientiousness. These findings indicate that subjective well-being is linked to personality by common genes and that personality may form an “affective reserve” relevant to set-point maintenance and changes in set point over time.
A Double Dissociation Between Action and Perception in the Context of Visual Illusions
Authors: Ganel Tzvi , Tanzer Michal , Goodale Melvyn A.
Published: March 2008

The idea that there are two distinct cortical visual pathways, a dorsal action stream and a ventral perception stream, is supported by neuroimaging and neuropsychological evidence. Yet there is an ongoing debate as to whether or not the action system is resistant to pictorial illusions in healthy participants. In the present study, we disentangled the effects of real and illusory object size on action and perception by pitting real size against illusory size. In our task, two objects that differed slightly in length were placed within a version of the Ponzo illusion. Even though participants erroneously perceived the physically longer object as the shorter one (or vice versa), their grasping was remarkably tuned to the real size difference between the objects. These results provide the first demonstration of a double dissociation between action and perception in the context of visual illusions and together with previous findings converge on the idea that visually guided action and visual perception make use of different metrics and frames of reference.
Talking About Walking
Authors: Malt Barbara C. , Gennari Silvia , Imai Mutsumi , Ameel Eef , Tsuda Naoaki , Majid Asifa
Published: March 2008

What drives humans around the world to converge in certain ways in their naming while diverging dramatically in others? We studied how naming patterns are constrained by investigating whether labeling of human locomotion reflects the biomechanical discontinuity between walking and running gaits. Similarity judgments of a student locomoting on a treadmill at different slopes and speeds revealed perception of this discontinuity. Naming judgments of the same clips by speakers of English, Japanese, Spanish, and Dutch showed lexical distinctions between walking and running consistent with the perceived discontinuity. Typicality judgments showed that major gait terms of the four languages share goodness-of-example gradients. These data demonstrate that naming reflects the biomechanical discontinuity between walking and running and that shared elements of naming can arise from correlations among stimulus properties that are dynamic and fleeting. The results support the proposal that converging naming patterns reflect structure in the world, not only acts of construction by observers.
Implicit Attitude Generalization Occurs Immediately; Explicit Attitude Generalization Takes Time
Authors: Ranganath Kate A. , Nosek Brian A.
Published: March 2008

People are able to explicitly resist using knowledge about one person to evaluate another person from the same group. After learning about positive and negative behaviors performed by one individual from each of two different groups, participants were introduced briefly to new individuals from the groups. Implicit evaluations of the original individuals readily generalized to the new individuals; explicitly, participants resisted such generalization. Days later, both implicit and explicit evaluations of the original individuals generalized to the new individuals. The results suggest that associative links (e.g., shared group membership) are sufficient for implicit attitude generalization, but deliberative logic (e.g., individual group members are not necessarily the same) can reduce explicit generalization by association. When knowledge distinguishing who did what is unavailable, such as after forgetting, associative knowledge provides the basis of explicit evaluation. We conclude that a simple association linking one individual to another can produce implicit attitude generalization immediately and explicit attitude generalization eventually.
Can an Angry Woman Get Ahead?
Authors: Brescoll Victoria L. , Uhlmann Eric Luis
Published: March 2008

Three studies examined the relationships among anger, gender, and status conferral. As in prior research, men who expressed anger in a professional context were conferred higher status than men who expressed sadness. However, both male and female evaluators conferred lower status on angry female professionals than on angry male professionals. This was the case regardless of the actual occupational rank of the target, such that both a female trainee and a female CEO were given lower status if they expressed anger than if they did not. Whereas women's emotional reactions were attributed to internal characteristics (e.g., “she is an angry person,” “she is out of control”), men's emotional reactions were attributed to external circumstances. Providing an external attribution for the target person's anger eliminated the gender bias. Theoretical implications and practical applications are discussed.
A Motion Aftereffect From Still Photographs Depicting Motion
Authors: Winawer Jonathan , Huk Alexander C. , Boroditsky Lera
Published: March 2008

A photograph of an action can convey a vivid sense of motion. Does the inference of motion from viewing a photograph involve the same neural and psychological representations used when one views physical motion? In this study, we tested whether implied motion is represented by the same direction-selective signals involved in the perception of real motion. We made use of the motion aftereffect, a visual motion illusion. Three experiments showed that viewing a series of static photographs with implied motion in a particular direction produced motion aftereffects in the opposite direction, as assessed with real-motion test probes. The transfer of adaptation from motion depicted in photographs to real motion demonstrates that the perception of implied motion activates direction-selective circuits that are also involved in processing real motion.
Detecting the Snake in the Grass
Authors: LoBue Vanessa , DeLoache Judy S.
Published: March 2008

Snakes are among the most common targets of fears and phobias. In visual detection tasks, adults detect their presence more rapidly than the presence of other kinds of visual stimuli. We report evidence that very young children share this attentional bias. In three experiments, preschool children and adults were asked to find a single target picture among an array of eight distractors. Both the children and the adults detected snakes more rapidly than three types of nonthreatening stimuli (flowers, frogs, and caterpillars). These results provide the first evidence of enhanced visual detection of evolutionarily relevant threat stimuli in young children.