bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ultracentrifugation
Authors: Atkins Peter , Ratcliffe George , Wormald Mark , Paula Julio de
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers ultracentrifugation, which provides methods for the characterisation of the sizes and shapes of macromolecules and macromolecular assemblies. Ultracentrifugation is used in three ways: velocity sedimentation, equilibrium sedimentation, and density-gradient sedimentation. Gravitational fields interact with mass, but the Earth's gravitational field is weak and so has little or no effect on the sedimentation of molecules in a solvent. The force of gravity can be emulated and greatly enhanced by using the rapid rotation of an ultracentrifuge. The rate of sedimentation of a macromolecule in the centrifugal field, or the equilibrium distribution of the sediment, can be interpreted in terms of its mass and in some cases its size.
Mass spectrometry
Authors: Atkins Peter , Ratcliffe George , Wormald Mark , Paula Julio de
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses mass spectrometry. It illustrates how the mass of a charged molecule can be determined by accelerating it to high speeds and then either measuring the time it takes to move a certain distance or deflecting its path with an electric field. As this chapter shows, very high precision can be achieved and isotopologues can be distinguished. The principal challenge is to get fragile macromolecules into the gas phase. That has been achieved with the two major techniques described in this chapter: matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) and electrospray ionization (ESI). The gas-phase ions can then be characterized using either a time of flight (TOF) or a quadrupole mass analyser.
Fitness to practise
Authors: Glencross Hedley
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) and the Institute of Biomedical Science (IBMS). It considers how their respective, but complementary, approaches to fitness to practise differ, and explores their contributions to the training and career development of biomedical scientists. The work of the HCPC is designed to safeguard the public from being harmed by the actions or inactions of healthcare professionals. To remain on the HCPC register, an individual registrant is required to sign a personal declaration every two years confirming that they continue to meet the HCPC Standards of Conduct, Performance and Ethics, and their Standards of Proficiency. Meanwhile, the IBMS or the Institute is the professional body for biomedical scientists in the UK. It promotes and develops biomedical science and those who practise biomedical science, and is therefore principally concerned with professional matters and issues related to its members.
Samples and sample collection
Authors: Overfield Joyce
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes the range of samples and the procedures for their collection. Blood and other tissues, and body fluids can be tested in clinical laboratories to aid in preventing, diagnosing, and treating diseases and disorders. A variety of analytical techniques are used, which are being continually developed and improved in terms of accuracy and ease of use by biomedical scientists. Samples for clinical testing include whole blood, plasma, serum, urine, and faeces for chemical and cellular analyses; tissues and curettings, which are scrapings of tissues, for histological examination to identify pathological changes; and swabs may be taken from various parts of the body for microbiological culture. The quality assurance in obtaining samples for testing by clinical laboratories includes correctly identifying patients, obtaining samples using correct procedures, meticulous labelling of samples and request forms, adhering to health and safety procedures, and being aware of standard operating procedures (SOP) for sample processing.
Chromatography
Authors: Wang Qiuyu , Ahmed Nessar , Smith Chris
Published: September 2023

This chapter studies chromatography, which is the collective term for a family of analytical techniques used to separate the components of mixtures of molecules for their identification and possible estimation of their concentrations in the original mixture. All chromatographic techniques are based on differences in the relative affinities of the molecules in a mixture of two different and immiscible phases, one of which is mobile and the other stationary. The basis of all forms of chromatography is the partition or distribution coefficient, which describes the way in which a substance distributes at equilibrium between two immiscible phases. Most types of chromatography are used in biomedical science laboratories to assist in analysing and purifying analytes from a variety of clinical samples. The chapter then looks at planar chromatography, column chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, and gas-liquid chromatography.
Immunological techniques
Authors: Yates Christine , Wang Qiuyu
Published: September 2023

This chapter begins by outlining the principles of the immune system and the fundamentals of immunoassay, which are essential to the understanding of routine immunological diagnostic assays. Immunological techniques largely depend upon the visualization of antibody–antigen reactions, detecting the formation of immune complexes or the attachment of labelled antibodies to cells or an artificial surface by a variety of methods. A range of immunological techniques have been developed to detect and measure the concentrations of cellular and humoral elements of the immune system in health and disease and, in some cases, assess their biological activities. They have also been used to raise antibodies to other analytes, such as hormones and tumour markers, increasing the range of immunoassays available to biomedical scientists. The chapter then looks at the uses of polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies in the clinical laboratory.
Quality assurance and management
Authors: Moore Elaine
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses quality assurance and management in clinical laboratories. The necessity to provide services of appropriate quality in medical laboratories, as well as the need to satisfy the users of laboratory services, has led to increasing numbers of regulations governing their operations and assessment. Indeed, medical laboratories are subjected to inspection and assessment by a number of different bodies, namely the United Kingdom Accreditation Service (UKAS), the Human Tissue Act (HTA), the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA), and the Care Quality Commission (CQC). A variety of techniques, such as audit, can be used by the laboratory to assess internally their compliance to set standards. Ultimately, following good laboratory practices ensures the integrity of the sample audit trail in the laboratory and allows the cycle of continual improvement to be embedded into the laboratory culture.
Introduction to supramolecular chemistry
Authors: Beer Paul D. , Barendt Timothy A. , Lim Jason Y. C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter provides an overview of supramolecular chemistry, which broadly comprises of two main themes: host–guest chemistry and self-assembly. The control of intermolecular interactions codified through concepts of supramolecular chemistry underpins every aspect of modern chemistry today. The concepts of preorganization and host–guest complementarity govern the design of many supramolecular synthons capable of interacting with one another via a wide range of non-covalent interactions. The chapter notes how the design of receptors for target guest species needs to take into account the nature of the solvent in which the host–guest association takes place, which can be exploited to influence guest affinity and selectivity. Of the numerous techniques used to study supramolecular host–guest complexes, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is the most versatile and can offer a wealth of structural, kinetic, and thermodynamic information on recognition processes in solution.
Mechanically interlocked molecules
Authors: Beer Paul D. , Barendt Timothy A. , Lim Jason Y. C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores mechanically interlocked molecules (MIMs), which belong to a category of structures containing two or more molecular sub-components that, despite not being chemically bonded, are inextricably connected due to the inability of bonds to pass through one another. This type of molecular entanglement is described as a mechanical bond. The chapter begins by outlining the formidable challenges presented in the syntheses of MIMs and the key strategies that have been developed to overcome them. It then considers cases in which the influence of the mechanical bond on chemical and physical properties, including supramolecular properties, delivers applications in sensing, catalysis, and materials. The control of molecular motion is one of the most prominent attributes of the mechanical bond. The chapter discusses how this facet serves as the foundation of modern-day molecular machinery and how dynamic MIMs are critical to future applications in nanotechnology.
Inflammation, infection, and the microbiome
Authors: Pecorino Lauren
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the molecular mechanisms of chronic inflammation that enable carcinogenesis. It highlights that chronic inflammation is an enabling characteristic of cancer. Inflammation is part of the immune response against infectious agents and injury, and is a consequence of wound healing. The chapter reveals that lingering chronic inflammation plays an important role in both cancer initiation and promotion. The chapter also identifies infectious agents that are considered to be carcinogens, and describes several modes of action of these infectious agents, including the induction of inflammation. Finally, the chapter presents an examination of how alterations of the microbiome may play a role in cancer. The microbiome is an ecological community of commensal, symbiotic, and pathogenic microorganisms that share our body space. The chapter concludes with a report on the major therapeutic applications of this knowledge.
Kinetics and Dynamics
Authors: Jenkins Stephen J.
Published: September 2023

Introduction

The picture we have thus far painted amounts to a 'still life' of the surface. In the last chapter, the behaviour of electrons was explored subject to the implicit assumption that their environment could be considered stationary on the time-scale appropriate to their motion....
Periodicity in the properties and structures of the elements
Authors: Norman Nicholas C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter evaluates the general features of s- and p-block element compounds. These include trends in common oxidation states and the effect of atomic size on coordination numbers, which, together with properties such as electronegativity, will form the basis of the understanding of the structure, properties, and reactivity of s- and p-block element compounds. The chapter begins by reviewing the terms 'oxidation state' and 'valence' and how they are used. It then looks at trends in bond strengths, as well as some general observations regarding compound types using the so-called van Arkel–Ketelaar triangle. In the van Arkel–Ketelaar triangle or element triangle, the vertices are labelled metallic, covalent, and ionic in such a way that the vertical and horizontal axes represent electronegativity difference and absolute electronegativity, respectively.
An Introduction to Mammalian Synthetic Biology
Authors: Davies Jamie A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes various features of mammals that set them apart from other animals and looks at five features of mammalian synthetic biology. It covers the structure, function, behaviour, development, and evolution of mammals. The chapter also provides an overview of the two broad classes into which work in mammalian synthetic biology can be divided: in vitro and in vivo. It also elaborates on the difficulties that mammalian systems pose for synthetic biology projects. The chapter reviews recent developments that have seen the genetic alteration of mammals in terms of moving from making destructive interventions to test theories to constructive projects that confer an ability it did not have before on a mammal.
Teaching Mammalian Cells to Make New, Useful Things
Authors: Billington Jamie , Mastela Anna , Rosser Susan J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter clarifies why some medicines and compounds are produced in mammalian cells rather than in bacteria or yeasts. It provides examples of biologics that can be produced in mammalian cells and lists challenges associated with producing them that are unique to mammalian cells. It also describes some of the most commonly used mammalian cell types for the bioproduction of proteins and viruses. The chapter presents a workflow on how to generate a recombinant CHO cell line and compares how biopharmaceutical companies engineer a mammalian cell line. It examines how smart cells implanted into the body might be able to help treat diseases and talks about the advantages and drawbacks of producing products in whole animals rather than in cell culture.
Genetics in Medicine
Authors: Jennings Barbara , Thalange Nandu , Willis Gavin
Published: September 2023

Genetics in Medicine examines nucleic acids, genes, and genomes. It also discusses mutations and genetic variations. Next, it considers laboratory techniques and the sequencing revolution. The application of genetic medicine in childhood is also taken into consideration. Then, the text examines genetic medicine for adult onset disease. The book ends with a discussion of pharmacogenetics and personalized medicine.
Mutations and Genetic Variation
Authors: Jennings Barbara , Thalange Nandu , Willis Gavin
Published: September 2023

This chapter introduces mutations and genetic variation. It looks at how mutations could alter DNA sequences. A mutation is a rare heritable change in the nucleotide sequence. The chapter then notes the functional impact of mutations on phenotypes like genetic nomenclature, before comparing the impact of germline and somatic mutations on health and diseases. In addition, it presents key terms of genetic variants such as private mutation, rare variant, and polymorphism. It then examines the application of human genetic variation in medical practice. The chapter also considers genetic counselling and presents it as the communication of information and advice about inherited and other genetic conditions, which include taking a family history and constructing a pedigree diagram.
The Application of Genetic Medicine in Childhood
Authors: Jennings Barbara , Thalange Nandu , Willis Gavin
Published: September 2023

This chapter explains the application of genetic medicine in childhood. It notes how patients and families with a family history of genetic disorders are identified with the help of genetic data. Moreover, the chapter looks at modes of inheritance by referencing Mendelian inheritance, autosomal recessive inheritance, and autosomal dominant inheritance. It also includes the underlying mutations linked with single gene disorders. The chapter then explores aneuploidy, the loss or gain of one or more whole chromosomes, alongside its structural chromosomal rearrangements. Finally, it tackles the clinical and ethical guidelines to genetic counselling and genetic testing as well.
Isolation and Structure Determination of Proteins
Authors: Lesk Arthur
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the isolation and structure determination of proteins. The study of a protein begins with isolating it from a natural source containing the target protein as a component of a mixture. The methods for protein purification include ammonium sulphate precipitation; size-exclusion chromatography; ion-exchange chromatography; affinity chromatography; and specific expression, often in E. coli. Meanwhile, the major experimental methods for determining protein structures are X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and cryo-electron microscopy. Computational methods for protein structure prediction from amino-acid sequence have recently shown very great improvements. The chapter then looks at the Critical Assessment of Structure Prediction (CASP) programme, homology modelling, and a priori structure prediction. Ultimately, a truly general and reliable method of structure prediction will revolutionize research on proteins.
Thermochemistry
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses thermochemistry, which is the study of energy released or absorbed as heat during chemical reactions and how it depends upon the conditions. Thermochemistry is a branch of thermodynamics because a reaction vessel and its contents form a system, and chemical reactions result in the exchange of energy between the system and the surroundings. The chapter begins by looking at enthalpies of physical and chemical changes. It explains Hess's law, according to which the standard reaction enthalpy is the sum of the values for the individual reactions into which the overall reaction may be divided. The chapter then considers the standard enthalpy of formation, as well as the temperature dependence of reaction enthalpies. It also discusses differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC).
Entropy
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the property called ‘entropy’, which is central to the formulation of the ‘Second Law of thermodynamics’. Entropy is the concept on which almost all applications of thermodynamics in chemistry are based: it explains why some physical transformations and chemical reactions are spontaneous and others are not. A change in entropy is defined in terms of reversible heat transactions. The Carnot cycle is used to prove that entropy is a state function. Meanwhile, the efficiency of a heat engine is the basis of the definition of the thermodynamic temperature scale and one realization of such a scale, the Kelvin scale. The chapter then looks at the Clausius inequality, which is used to show that the entropy of an isolated system increases in a spontaneous change and therefore that the Clausius definition is consistent with the Second Law.
Phase diagrams of pure substances
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses phase diagrams, which summarize the behaviour of substances under different conditions, and identify which phase or phases are the most stable at a particular temperature and pressure. Such diagrams are important tools for understanding the behaviour of both pure substances and mixtures. The thermodynamic criterion for phase stability leads to a very general result, the ‘phase rule’, which summarizes the constraints on the equilibria between phases. The chapter expresses this rule in a general way that can be applied to systems of more than one component. It then develops the concept of ‘chemical potential’, a property that is at the centre of discussions of mixtures and chemical reactions. The chapter also describes the interpretation of the phase diagrams of a representative selection of substances: carbon dioxide, water, and helium.
The properties of solutions
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter applies the concept of chemical potential to the discussion of the effect of a solute on certain properties of a solution. These properties include the lowering of the vapour pressure of the solvent, the elevation of its boiling point, the depression of its freezing point, and the origin of osmotic pressure. It is possible to construct a model of a certain class of non-ideal solutions called ‘regular solutions’, which have properties that diverge from those of ideal solutions. The chapter then looks at the colligative properties, which all stem from the reduction of the chemical potential of the liquid solvent as a result of the presence of solute. A colligative property depends only on the number of solute particles present, not their identity.
Wavefunctions
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the interpretation of the wavefunction, and specifically what it reveals about the location of a particle. In quantum mechanics, all the properties of a system are expressed in terms of a wavefunction, which is obtained by solving the equation proposed by Erwin Schrödinger. Indeed, wavefunctions provide the essential foundation for understanding the properties of electrons in atoms and molecules, and are central to explanations in chemistry. The chapter then considers how, according to the Born interpretation, the probability density at a point is proportional to the square of the wavefunction at that point. A wavefunction is normalized if the integral over all space of its square modulus is equal to 1. Ultimately, a wavefunction must be single-valued, continuous, not infinite over a finite region of space, and have a continuous slope. The quantization of energy stems from the constraints that an acceptable wavefunction must satisfy.
Valence-bond theory
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the valence-bond theory. The language introduced by valence-bond theory is used throughout chemistry, especially in the description of the properties and reactions of organic compounds. The chapter elaborates on the concept of σ and π bonds, promotion, and hybridization. It also highlights the significance of resonance that acts as the superposition of wavefunctions representing different electron distributions in the same nuclear framework. While promotion is the notional excitation of an electron to an empty orbital allowing the formation of additional bonds, hybridization is the blending together of atomic orbitals on the same atom to achieve the appropriate directional properties and enhanced overlap.
Shape and symmetry
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers how to classify any molecule according to its shape and symmetry. It elaborates on how symmetry arguments can be used to make immediate assessments of the properties of molecules. A symmetry operation is an action that leaves an object looking the same after the action has been carried out. The systems of notation for symmetry elements (point, line, or plane) include the Schoenflies system which is common for individual molecules and the Hermann-Mauguin system which is almost exclusively used for crystal symmetry. The chapter then details some immediate consequences of symmetry which involve the identification of polarity and chirality.
General features of molecular spectroscopy
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter covers the general features of molecular spectroscopy. It starts detailing the types of radiation found in emission spectroscopy, absorption spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy. Sources of radiation are either monochromatic which spans a very narrow range of frequencies around a central value or polychromatic which involves a wide range of frequencies. The underlying idea of a selection rule on transition lies in possessing, at least transiently, an electric dipole oscillating at a recommended frequency. The chapter looks into the Beer-Lambert law in formulating the transition with empirical results. It considers several examples of detectors and spectrometers in an effort to understand the conversion of radiation into an electric signal for processing and display.
Vibrational spectroscopy of polyatomic molecules
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks into the vibrational spectroscopy of polyatomic molecules. Due to the range of bond lengths and angles that can change in polyatomic molecules, the vibrational motion of the molecule is very complex. However, some orders can be brought to the complexity through normal modes. The chapter also considers that a normal mode is infrared active if it is accompanied by a change of electric dipole moment, while A normal mode is Raman active if it is accompanied by a change in polarizability. The chapter notes the exclusion rule that no mode can be either of the active normal modes if the molecule has a centre of inversion.
Symmetry analysis of vibrational spectra
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter provides a symmetry analysis of vibrational spectra. It explains how the analysis of vibrational spectra corresponds to the relationship between the symmetry of the molecule, its normal modes, and the selection rules that govern the transitions. Each normal mode can be classified as belonging to one of the symmetry species of the irreducible representations of the molecular point group. Moreover, a normal mode is infrared active if its symmetry species is the same as the symmetry species of x, y, or z. On the other hand, A normal mode is Raman active if its symmetry species is the same as the symmetry species of a quadratic form.
Electronic spectra
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the concept of electronic spectra. Electronic spectra arise from transitions between the electronic energy levels of molecules, which may also be accompanied by simultaneous changes in vibrational energy. The chapter then looks into the Laporte selection rule and the Franck-Condon principle in correlation with the electronic transition in a nuclear framework. It also considers the vibrational fine structure and rotational fine structure as the structures in a spectrum that arises from changes in vibrational energy and rotational energy respectively. Moreover, as the chapter shows, charge-transfer transitions typically involve the migration of electrons between the ligands and the central metal atom.
Derived functions
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the derived functions of thermodynamics. It looks into how classical thermodynamics extensively uses various derived functions, referencing the power of chemical thermodynamics originating from its deployment of varying derived functions, particularly the enthalpy and Gibbs energy. The thermodynamic functions, such as the Helmholtz energy and Gibbs energy, can be calculated from the canonical partition function. Additionally, the equilibrium constant is defined in terms of the partial pressures of the reactants and products, such as instances of gas-phase reactions. Meanwhile, the physical basis of chemical equilibrium can be inferred under the terms of competition between energy separations and densities of states.
Diffraction techniques
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter talks about diffraction techniques that enable the structures of solids. It considers the basic principles of X-ray diffraction and describes how the diffraction pattern can be interpreted in terms of the distribution of electron density. It also explains the diffraction of electrons and neutrons that adds to the information that can be obtained about the structures of individual molecules and atoms in solids. The chapter accounts for the properties of solids by describing their detailed structures and how they are determined by a variety of diffraction techniques. It reviews the regular arrangement of the atoms in periodic crystals, which can be determined by techniques based on diffraction.
Bonding in solids
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the constituents of solids that are held together by a variety of interactions, which impart characteristic properties. It discusses the properties and structures of solid materials and introduces the type of bonding that holds together the atoms, ions, and molecules. It also focuses on broad types of bonding that result in metals, ionic solids, covalent solids, and molecular solids, which are characterized by the nature of the bonding between the constituents. The chapter considers a close-packed layer is a layer of spheres arranged so there is maximum utilization of space. It mentions the nearly free-electron approximation, wherein the valence electrons are assumed to be trapped in a box with a periodic potential energy and low energy corresponding to the locations of cations.
The electrical properties of solids
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers the ability to transport an electric current as one very important property of a solid. It explores how solids are classified according to their electrical conductivity and how the different classes can be rationalized by using the ‘band theory’ of electronic structure. It also shows how the introduction of low concentrations of impurities can have a profound effect on the properties of semiconductors and how this effect is exploited in making semiconductor devices that are ubiquitous in modern electronics. The chapter highlights the electrical properties of solids that underlie numerous technological applications on which the infrastructure of the modern world depends. It emphasizes that electrons in solids occupy bands that determine the electrical conductivities of various types of solid.
The Arrhenius equation
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses how rate constants of most reactions increase with increasing temperature. It introduces the ‘Arrhenius equation’, which captures this temperature dependence by using two parameters that can be determined experimentally. It also reviews the exploration of the dependence of reaction rates on temperature that leads to the formulation of theories that reveal the details of the processes that occur when reactant molecules meet and undergo reaction. The chapter looks at the temperature dependence of the rate of a reaction that depends on the activation energy and the minimum energy needed for reaction to occur in an encounter between reactants. It emphasizes how chemical reactions usually go faster as the temperature is raised, which is almost always due to the increase of the rate constant with temperature.
Reaction mechanisms
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews the study of reaction rates that leads to an understanding of the mechanisms of reactions and the analysis into a sequence of elementary steps. It demonstrates how to construct rate laws from a proposed mechanism. It also outlines the elementary steps for simple rate laws that can be combined into an overall rate law: invoking the concept of the rate-determining step of a reaction, making the steady-state approximation, and supposing the existence of a pre-equilibrium. The chapter discusses the process of constructing the rate law for a reaction that takes place by a sequence of steps provides insight into chemical reactions at the molecular level. It focuses on chemical reactions that occur as a sequence of simpler steps and corresponding rate laws that can be combined into an overall rate law by applying a variety of approximations.
The dynamics of molecular collisions
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses the highest level of sophistication in the theoretical study of the rates of chemical reactions in terms of potential energy surfaces and the motion of molecules on these surfaces. It points out how this approach gives an intimate picture of the events that occur when molecules collide and provides a basis for studying them by using molecular beams. It talks about the rates of reactions in the gas phase that can be investigated by exploring the trajectories of molecules on potential energy surfaces. The chapter builds on the concept of rate constant and uses the concept of partition function. It highlights the dynamics of the collisions between reactant molecules, which is the most detailed level of the examination of the factors that govern the rates of reactions.
Heterogeneous catalysis
Authors: Atkins Peter , de Paula Julio , Keeler James
Published: September 2023

This chapter explains how the chemical industry relies on the use of efficient catalysts to facilitate a wide variety of transformations, noting that the majority of these catalysts involve reactions at surfaces. It describes how certain concepts relating to adsorption and desorption can be extended to provide a way to model surface reactions. It also points out that the chemical industry relies on heterogeneous catalysis for many of its most important large-scale processes. The chapter highlights heterogeneous catalysis, which commonly involves chemisorption of one or more reactants and a consequent lowering of the activation energy. It builds on the discussion of reaction mechanisms and uses the Arrhenius equation and adsorption isotherms.
Maintaining a Metabolic Balance
Authors: Bowater Richard , Bowater Laura , Husband Tom
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the importance of a balanced diet, which should include correct proportions of macronutrients, vitamins, and trace elements. Starches provide fuel in the form of glucose, which powers cellular processes around the body. Dietary proteins and fats form building blocks for our own proteins and lipids, as well as an alternative fuel supply. Meanwhile, vitamins and trace elements are often cofactors which enable proteins to do their jobs. Levels of glucose are homeostatically regulated by the hormones insulin, glucagon, and adrenaline. When glucose is abundant, it is stored in the form of glycogen; when glucose is in demand, such as during exercise, glycogen is broken down. The chapter then considers inborn errors of metabolism, which result from genetic mutations. It also looks at starvation, obesity, over-eating, and diabetes.
Functional Groups and ‘R’ Groups
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

Introduction

Functional groups are the parts of an organic compound that lead to its reactivity. There are many different functional groups. They all have names. The important thing is to know what each functional group is, what it is called, and not to confuse different...
Naming Organic Compounds
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

We have to have clear and understandable names for chemicals. We have already used some of these names. You will find that in most instances you learn the names of compounds as you progress through the book. We will reinforce this...
Isomerism in Organic Chemistry—Constitutional Isomers
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

What is Isomerism?

The concept of isomerism is a very important one in all areas of chemistry. There are quite a few different types of isomer, so first of all, let’s state clearly what we mean by isomers.

Isomers are compounds that have the...
Identifying When a Formula is Possible
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

Let’s start with something obvious. You cannot draw a structure for the formula ‘CH6’. This is because there are too many hydrogen atoms. Carbon can only form four bonds.

It’s always good to reduce an idea to a simple and obvious example. Now...
Double Bond Equivalents
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

The Purpose of The Exercise

An organic chemist might have determined the molecular formula of something they have made, but they don’t know the structure. Knowing how many double bonds or rings are present is useful information in determining the outcome of a reaction.

Beyond...
Formulae, Functional Groups, and Double Bond Equivalents
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

Here is the structure of lysergic acid diethylamide, LSD.

What is the molecular formula of this compound?

Watch Video Tutorial 1.8 for more guidance...
Bonding in Organic Compounds
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

We need to cover the basics of bonding and molecular orbitals here, to give you the tools you need to describe bonds and their reactivity.

We are going to discuss the overlap of orbitals to form σ (sigma) and π (pi) bonds. Before we do...
Hybridization
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

The Purpose of The Exercise

Most of the time, when an organic chemist states the hybridization of a carbon (or nitrogen or oxygen) atom in an organic compound, they are really describing the number of bonded atoms and the geometry. Stating the hybridization (it will...
Elimination Reactions
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

Introduction

The very first thing we need to do is define what we mean by an elimination reaction. The second thing we need to do is get to grips with the electron flow and curly arrow drawing. We will look at these together.

First of...
Curly Arrows
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

Curly arrows represent the ‘flow’ of electrons. The start of the curly arrow has to be somewhere that there are electrons. The end of the curly arrow has to be something that can accept electrons.

Here are the main issues. Remember, every scheme in this...
Conjugation and Resonance
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

There are few concepts in organic chemistry more important than conjugation.3 With practice, it is fairly easy to recognize conjugated systems by their alternating double and single bonds. In the two isomers below, the upper isomer is nonconjugated—there is a CH2...
Introduction to Carbocations, Carbanions, and Free-Radicals
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

We are going to start this with some facts and explanations, and then start discussing ‘how to succeed’. We will discuss aspects of carbocation and carbanion stability together in order to show the common themes.
Carbanions 2—Stability and pKa
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

We are still at the stage of building patterns and habits, so I want to focus primarily on relating carbanions to other systems that you know, and build on the theme of drawing and understanding resonance forms.

We are going to discuss the stability of...
A Scale for Carbocation Stability
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

Here is another ‘Perspective’ chapter. They tend to go a little bit beyond what is usually covered in textbooks at this level, so you can dip in and out. I like you to have the information, as long as it doesn’t confuse you.

Let’s identify...
What Defines a Transition State?
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

A Comment, Before We Start

I find that most students are happy to accept that a transition state is the ‘thing’ at the highest energy point along the reaction profile. If you think about an SN2 substitution reaction, such as the one shown...
Representing Stereochemistry— Flying Wedge and Newman Projections
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

We need conventions that allow us to see the shape of molecules. Flying wedge projections, in which atoms not in the plane of the page are drawn with either a wedged (coming out of the plane of the page) or a dashed (going into the...
Getting Used to Stereoisomers
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

The Purpose of The Exercise

Up to now, some of the exercises have been a little bit artificial, in the sense that I am asking you to do ‘something’ in order to get you to practise the basic skills. Now, it is getting a bit...
Assigning Stereochemistry
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

The Point of The Exercise

During various chemical transformations, the stereochemistry of a given stereogenic centre may change. If it does, you need to know about it. The labels are very useful for keeping track.

Let’s not have any illusions about this. If you give...
Selectivity in Organic Chemistry—Chemoselectivity
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

Chemoselectivity

Chemoselectivity is observed where one outcome is preferred in a reaction.

There are actually two definitions that we need to consider.

A chemoselective reaction is one in which one functional group reacts preferentially to another in a particular reaction.

A chemoselective reaction...
Stereochemical Definitions Relating to Reactions
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

Introduction

There are a number of terms that are associated with the stereochemical outcome of reactions. If a reaction is chemoselective or regioselective, we can simply state which products are formed, and in what yield. For stereoselective reactions, we tend to talk about the excess...
Isomerism in Organic Chemistry—Conformational Isomers
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

I deliberately wanted to keep the drawing of structure separate (in the first instance) from energetics. For conformational isomers, the whole point is that they have differ‑ ent energies, so we need to talk about the energy differences between the conform‑ ers now!
Conformational Analysis
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

The Point of The Exercise

A flexible molecule will spend more time in its lowest energy conformation. Sometimes, a molecule has to adopt a particular conformation in order to undergo reaction. You need to be able to identify the most stable conformer of a given...
Introduction to Cyclohexanes
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

Introduction

This is cyclohexane. The problem is, it’s not actually a hexagonal molecule. Each carbon atom is tetrahedral, so there is no way all six carbon atoms can be in the same plane.
Quantifying Conformers of Cyclohexanes
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

We covered the basics of cyclohexanes in Basics 31. Most of what you do with cyclohexanes concerns the relative stability of two conformational isomers. In Applications 1, we saw that it isn’t just the size of a substituent that affects conformational...
A Continuum of Mechanisms
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

So far, much of the discussion of substitution and elimination mechanisms has focused on whether a reaction is SN1, SN2, E1, E2, or E1cB. This encourages you to think in absolute terms about particular mechanisms.

The reality is at once more...
More Substituted Alkenes Are More Stable
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

Introduction

It is an accepted fact that a more substituted alkene is more stable. That is to say, ΔH for the formation of the more substituted alkene from the elements is more favourable.

We will look at why this is the case.

But, it is...
Stereochemistry of Elimination Reactions
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

We already considered some aspects of the stereochemistry of elimination reactions in Reaction Detail 4. As these were stereochemical aspects that were dictated by electronic factors (orbital overlap), we call these ‘stereoelectronic aspects’. It’s another hybrid word that means what it sounds like....

This...
Allylic Substitution
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

Introduction

An adjacent double bond can influence the outcome of a substitution reaction in several ways. The purpose of this chapter, as always, is to explore fundamental principles. Therefore, we will establish, and then build on, what we know.
Competing SN1 Substitution and E1 Elimination
Authors: Elliott Mark C.
Published: September 2023

Introduction

Here is the reaction scheme from the previous chapter. Now it’s time to add more depth to our analysis.
Cell Signalling Disorders; Cancer And Apoptosis
Authors: Hancock John T.
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines why cells need to proliferate and die and talks about some mechanisms that control cell development. It discusses how epigenetics can influence cell signalling and how cell signalling dysfunction can lead to tumour development. It also points out the importance of apoptosis and the mechanisms that control it, such as mitochondrial-dependent and mitochondrial-independent pathways. The chapter highlights that while all the encoding that is needed to make a human from a single cell is held in the genome and the same in every cell, there is also a need for cell specification. In this context, it is of great importance that the control of cell growth and development is both accurate and ongoing to ensure that cells are in the right place and carrying out the correct jobs.
Organs, Systems, and Surgery
Authors: Fullick William , Fullick James
Published: September 2023

Organs, Systems, and Surgery covers the anatomy and physiology of the key organ systems in the human body. It provides an overview of the anatomical details and physiological principles of the organ systems of the body and discusses the pathophysiology of common diseases that can affect them. It also considers how surgical approaches can be used to manage commonly presenting diseases of these systems. In addition, the primer explores surgery and anaesthesia both in an historical and contemporary context, examining how surgical and anaesthetic approaches have advanced over the centuries and how they continue to evolve to make surgery safer and more effective.
A Brief History of Surgery
Authors: Fullick William , Fullick James
Published: September 2023

This chapter provides a brief history of surgery, and highlights the importance of understanding the anatomy and physiology of the human body. It details how technological advances have affected the development of surgery. In early human history, surgery was crude and possibly performed for magico-religious reasons. As anatomical knowledge advanced, surgeons were able to learn how they could safely operate on various parts of the body. The chapter explains that the horrifying casualties of the First and Second World Wars resulted in significant improvements in trauma surgery and reconstructive surgery. Moreover, post-war innovations allowed more adventurous surgical procedures and higher survival rates from more routine procedures.
The Bones of the Body
Authors: Fullick William , Fullick James
Published: September 2023

This chapter explains the basic physiology of the musculoskeletal system, key muscle groups, and their joints. It shows that the musculoskeletal system offers both protection for people's organs, and a means of locomotion, which involves moving to gather resources or escape from danger. In trauma, the nature of an injury is intrinsically linked to the physical forces exerted on the body. Thus, physicians must have a deep understanding of anatomy, physiology, and physics when considering trauma sustained. The chapter also mentions various changes to the musculoskeletal system as humans age, which then result in a greater risk of damage.
The Human Story So Far: the Fossil Record
Authors: Ingram Neil , Andrews Sylvia Hixson , Still Jane
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks into the fossil record of the ancestor of humans. It examines the evidence for the genus Homo across the world. It argues that Homo erectus was the first hominin to engage in hunting in Africa. The chapter shows that studying the development of early technologies provides clues to humans' evolutionary journey. Examples of recovered human fossils include the discovery of evidence of Neanderthals in a cave site in the Neander Valley in France in 1856. According to DNA, interbreeding took place between Neanderthals and modern humans. Moreover, DNA, X-rays, computer statistical analyses, and dating techniques have furthered the studies into the origins of humans and the theory of human evolution.