bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Shifting the Iron Curtain of Kantian Peace : NATO Expansion and the Modern Magyars
Authors: Oas Ian
Published: November 2020

As the head of Latvia’s minute military, Colonel Raimanos Graube, notes, the ascension of the Latvian state into NATO is part of a much larger process than military security alone: “This means we are moving to our goal, which is to be a firm and permanent part of the West.” Though such a viewpoint is common among the populaces of ascending member states, it helps raise numerous questions as to several inherent contradictions in the reasoning behind NATO expansion. To begin with, why are numerous states that just over ten years ago regained their sovereign independence from the Soviet empire so suddenly willing to join a new, hegemonic-backed Western empire? Furthermore, what are the true reasons that underlie NATO members’ interest in expanding their military alliance into nation-states with military forces comprised of only 5,500 members (e.g., Latvia)? There is more at play in NATO expansion than simple geopolitical security as defined by the international relations (IR) field. Indeed, it will be argued that above and beyond security for central Europe, contemporary NATO expansion is a moment in the cycle of the U.S. rise to world power. Moreover, it will be illustrated that ascension of central and Eastern European states into NATO may represent the final surrender of the socialist modernity as global competitor to the West. In this historical battlefield between Eastern and Western modernities, the socialist modernity that dominated during much of the region’s twentieth-century history is now reviled by these civil societies and viewed as the antithesis of modernity. In the meantime, the Western lifestyle of mass consumption and suburbanism, as well as other dominant core processes from Western Europe in general, raised the flag of market capitalism and democratic institutions in these states and filled the power vacuum just as quickly as the Soviet red stars came down. In this way, NATO is becoming increasingly synonymous with a “zone of peace” wherein all members ascribe to democracy, free trade, and interdependent relations. By joining NATO, new member states are making a political effort to shed the yoke of the failed Soviet modernity and join the hegemonic-led “Western” world (i.e., become “part of Europe”).
Modeling and Optimizing Analytical Methods
Authors: Hibbert D. Brynn
Published: November 2020

I asked a professor, visiting from a nation well regarded for its hardworking ethos, whether in his search for ever better catalysts for some synthesis or other, he used experimental design. His answer was, “I have many research students. They work very hard!” Many people believe that an infinite number of monkeys and typewriters would produce the works of Shakespeare, but these days few organizations have the luxury of great numbers of researchers tweaking processes at random in order to make them ever more efficient. The approach of experimental scientists is to systematically change aspects of a process until the results improve. In this chapter I look at this approach from a statistical viewpoint and show how a structured methodology, called experimental design, can save time and effort and arrive at the best (statistically defined) result. It may be a revelation to some readers that the tried-and-trusted “change one factor at a time” approach might yield incorrect results, after requiring more experiments than is necessary. In the sections that follow, I explain how experimental design entails more than just having an idea of what you are going to do before beginning an experiment. Optimization is the maximizing or minimizing a response by changing one or more input variables. In this chapter optimization is synonymous with maximization, as any minimization can be turned into a maximization by a straightforward transformation: Minimization of cost can be seen as maximization of profit; minimization of waste turns into maximization of production; minimization of f(x) is maximization of 1/f(x) or -f(x). Before describing methods of effecting such an optimization, the term optimization must be carefully defined, and what is being optimized must be clearly understood. There are some texts on experimental design available for chemists, although often the subject is treated, as it is here, within a broader context. A good starter for the basics of factorial designs is the Analytical Chemistry Open Learning series (Morgan 1991). Reasonably comprehensive coverage is given in Massart et al.’s (1997) two-volume series, and also in a book from the Royal Society of Chemistry (Mullins 2003).
Monitoring Agricultural Drought in the West Indies
Authors: Anthony Chen Abraham , Falloon Trevor
Published: November 2020

The core of the West Indies consists of the archipelago of islands that stretches southeast from the Yucatan and Florida peninsulas to Venezuela. Generally the term “West Indies” is synonymous with the “Antilles” and is therefore often used to refer to the islands that compose the Greater and Lesser Antilles. The islands of the Greater Antilles include Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Jamaica—all located in the north Caribbean Sea—while the Lesser Antilles encompasses the smaller islands found to the south and east. In total, the West Indies embraces about 25 island territories. There are complex mountain ranges in the Greater Antilles, such as the Blue Mountains (2257 m) in central Jamaica and the Pico Duarte (3175 m) in the Dominican Republic, smaller volcanic peaks in the northeast island arc, and low-lying islands composing the remainder of the Lesser Antilles. The variation in local topography contributes significantly to the general rainfall pattern across the West Indian islands, as the windward sides of the larger and more mountainous islands are rainy and windswept, while the leeward sides are drier. In comparison, the low-lying eastern islands receive much less rainfall due to their lack of topographic relief and are much more dependent on seasonal rains. It is, however, the location of the West Indian islands between the permanent high pressure zone of the subtropical north Atlantic (the Azores high) and the equatorial trough of low pressure that gives rise to the mean monthly West Indian rainfall depicted in figure 11.2. Early in the year (December through March) and for a brief period in July, the Caribbean is dominated by subsidence from the inner zone of the Azores high and is at its driest. Rainfall during this period (barring July) is largely from the intrusion of fronts from North America. By the onset of the rainy season, however, the Azores high drifts farther north, resulting in weakened trade winds. At the same time, the Caribbean Sea warms up.
Agricultural Drought in Vietnam
Authors: Viet Nguyen van , Boken Vijendra K.
Published: November 2020

Vietnam is located between 8°22'N and 23°22'N latitude and between 102°10'E and 109°21'E longtitude. The country has a geographical area > 333,000 km2 and a coastline > 3000 km long. Vietnam is situated in the typhoon center of the East Sea (Bien Dong), which is one of the five largest typhoon centers of the world, and it has a complicated topography ranging from narrow, low plains to steep, high mountains. Floods occur with high frequency, and drought occurs with medium frequency in Vietnam. If monthly rainfall is less than 50 mm, drought is considered to have occurred during the month. The climate of Vietnam is strongly influenced by mountainous terrain and by the northeast and southeast monsoons. The rainfall season, which usually begins in May–June and ends in November–December, accounts for about 75–85% of the total annual rainfall. The period from November– December to April–May is usually dry and is prone to droughts. Vietnam has been divided into seven agricultural regions: (1) north mountain and midland region, (2) northern delta region (Red River delta), (3) north-central region, (4) south-central region, (5) central highland region (Taynguyen platour), (6) southeast region, and (7) southern delta region (Mekong River delta). The rainfall distribution is uneven due to complex terrain conditions. While some places (in the north mountain, central, and central highland regions) receive 3000–4000 mm of rainfall annually, other places (such as Phanthiet and Phanrang of the south-central region) receive only 750–800 mm in a year. Rice and maize are the major crops in Vietnam, whose regional distributions are given in table 27.1. Table 27.2 shows rice area lost due to droughts during 1980–99 in different regions of Vietnam. The north mountain and midland region is not prone to droughts. Only moderate droughts occur at some places in this region. Droughts rarely occur for consecutive years, except the droughts that occurred during the summer season of 1988 and 1989. The northeast part of this region is more prone to drought than the rest of the region.
Nature of Ultramafics
Authors: Alexander Earl B. , Coleman Roger G. , Keeler-Wolfe Todd , Harrison Susan P.
Published: November 2020

The earth is divided into three layers: the crust, the mantle, and the core. There are two principle regions within the crust: continents and ocean basins. The rocks that make up these layers differ from one another in chemical composition and density. The mantle is composed of dense ultramafic rocks, rich in magnesium-iron silicate minerals such as olivine and pyroxene. Ultramafic rock is the main source of serpentine soil in the continental crust. Most of the lighter crustal rocks are made up of silicate minerals that are enriched in the lighter elements sodium, calcium, and potassium, which have large cations, rather than magnesium (also a light element) and iron, which have smaller cations (table 2-1, appendix A). Over geological time living organisms have evolved on continents or in oceans with elemental concentrations dependent more on the crust than on the mantle. In the oceanic realm, new oceanic crust forms at spreading centers between active plates where hot, decompressed mantle rock rising toward the surface partially melts to form basaltic magma. The spreading centers develop at mid-ocean ridges, behind volcanic arcs (back-arc basins), in front of volcanic arcs (forearc basins), or as continents rift apart, as with the Red Sea. Cracks formed between the spreading plates are intruded by basaltic magma that forms thin vertical sheets (sheeted dikes). New cracks and dikes are continually forming as the plates spread apart. Some of the magma rising into the cracks reaches the ocean floor and, as the hot lava is quenched by ocean water, it solidifies to form distinctive rounded, pillowlike structures. As magma above the partially melted mantle cools, some of the first crystals to form settle to the bottoms of liquid magma chambers, producing layered gabbros—a process called differentiation. The layered sequence of pillow lava, diabase dikes, and gabbro built upon the ultramafic mantle is typical of new ocean crust. New crust formed at spreading centers slowly migrates away from the spreading center and cools into a rigid oceanic crust that ranges in thickness from 6 to 12 km.
Nitrogen Fixation, Agriculture, and the Environment
Authors: Leigh G. J.
Published: November 2020

This book tells the story of how humans have used their ingenuity throughout history to maintain soil fertility and to avoid famine through productive agriculture. The struggle to provide sufficient food has been a preoccupation of humanity since the earliest times. As circumstances have changed and as lifestyles have changed, the way in which the food supply has been ensured has also changed. The story of how different peoples have developed solutions to what is essentially the same problem tells us much about human beings of all kinds and in all ages. It shows us how humans have optimised the opportunities available to them by using the resources, both physical and intellectual, that have been available to them. It shows us the similarity amongst human beings of every era. It also demonstrates how one generation builds upon the knowledge of its predecessors to provide a solution that is appropriate to the new conditions, and it also illustrates the way in which science is gradually and painfully built by generations of researchers in a cooperative undertaking that slowly refines the models of reality used to analyse nature. Traditionally, agriculturalists have tended to be conservative, and this is very understandable. It is stupid to experiment with questionable new methods if you know that the old techniques work and that not using them will risk a year of famine. The Egyptian and the Britons depicted ploughing with very similar implements in figure 1.1 would probably have shared many ideas on how best to raise crops. A survey of how some ancient civilisations attempted to solve the problems of maintaining soil fertility is given in chapter 2. Many of their techniques are still applied somewhere in the world to this day. The main focus of this book will be on the story of the essential nutrient nitrogen because nitrogen is often the element whose supply limits the agricultural productivity of many food systems. Nitrogen is an element that many people know a little about. Nitrogen gas comprises about 80% of Earth’s atmosphere, though this was not known 250 years ago, nor would such a statement have made much sense then.
Plate Tectonics Now and in the Past
Authors: Rogers John J. W. , Santosh M.
Published: November 2020

The concepts known as plate tectonics that began to develop in the 1960s built on a foundation of information that included: • The earth’s mantle is rigid enough to transmit seismic P and S waves, but it is mobile to long-term stresses. • The earth’s temperature gradient is so high that convective overturn must occur in the mantle. • The top of the mobile part of the mantle is a zone of relatively low velocity at depths of about 100 to 200 km. This zone separates an underlying asthenosphere from a rigid lithosphere, which includes rigid upper mantle and crust. • Seismic activity, commonly accompanied by volcanism, occurs along narrow, relatively linear, zones in oceans and along some continental margins. • The zones of instability surround large areas of comparative stability. • Ocean lithosphere is continually generated along mid-ocean ridges and destroyed where it descends under the margins of continents and island arcs. This causes oceans to become larger, but shrinkage of oceans can occur where lithosphere is destroyed around ocean margins faster than it is formed within the basin. • Some of the belts of instability are faults with lateral offsets of hundreds of kilometers. • Some continental margins are unstable (Pacific type), but others are attached to oceanic lithosphere without any apparent tectonic contact (Atlantic type). • Different areas containing continents and attached oceanic lithosphere move around the earth independently of each other. Most of this chapter consists of a summary of plate tectonics in the present earth, including processes along plate margins and the types of rocks formed there (readers who want more detailed information are referred to Rogers, 1993a; Kearey, 1996; and Condie, 1999). We also briefly discuss plumes and then finish with a word of caution about interpreting the history of the ancient and hotter earth with the principles of modern plate tectonics. Starting from the body of continually expanding information summarized above, numerous earth scientists in the 1960s and 1970s began to establish a conceptual framework that would organize scientific thinking about the earth’s tectonic processes. This required a new terminology, and it arrived rapidly (Oreskes, 2002). Geologists decided to call the stable areas “plates” and the unstable zones around them “plate margins.” Thus, the concept became known as “plate tectonics.” Plates are essentially broad regions of lithosphere, although the failure to detect low-velocity zones under many continents leaves unresolved questions.
Assembly and Dispersal of Supercontinents
Authors: Rogers John J. W. , Santosh M.
Published: November 2020

Supercontinents are assemblies that contain all, or nearly all, of the earth’s continental blocks. The concept arose with the recognition of Gondwana in the late 1800s (chapters 1 and 8), and it has been greatly expanded since then. In this chapter we build on the ideas developed in chapters 2 through 5 to discuss the origin and dispersal of supercontinents. The first section considers various mechanisms for the accretion of supercontinents, and the second section considers the reasons for their assembly. The last two sections consider evidence that former supercontinents have broken up and the reasons for their dispersal. We emphasize that the processes of accretion and dispersal overlap, with rifting of some parts of a supercontinent occurring at the same times as suturing in other areas. This overlapping produces a time when the supercontinent has its largest coherent area, which we refer to as the time of “maximum packing.” All supercontinents contain the same types of terranes that occur in individual continents (chapter 4). All models of assembly recognize that some terranes accreted as small individual blocks and some as continental-sized masses that contained several individual blocks that had been previously sutured together. Differences between models involve the area of the supercontinent that consisted of previously sutured large blocks and the area formed by accretion of small individual blocks. Resolution of this problem requires an understanding of the nature of orogenic belts developed during assembly, and we discuss this issue first. All orogenic belts have many similarities. They all underwent lateral compression that led to rock deformation and crustal thickening. Thickening pushed some rocks down into realms of higher temperature and pressure, causing metamorphism, and magmatic intrusion locally raised temperatures even higher in some areas. Almost all orogens contain magmatic rocks from various sources, including rocks partially melted within the orogen and magmas from subducted lithosphere and mantle below the deformed belt. Despite these similarities, different orogens contain features that enable us to distinguish different environments of formation.
Mental Health Services
Authors: Bloom Scott
Published: November 2020

Mental health problems in children are a major deterrent to learning. Yet the President’s New Freedom Commission on Mental Health in 2002 pointed out that mental health services for children are so fragmented as to be ineffective in major ways. The commission’s report emphasizes the importance of using the school system as the means of delivering such services. The school-based approach to mental health helps accomplish several goals: • Minimizing barriers to learning • Overcoming stigma and inadequate access to care • Providing comprehensive on-site counseling services • Creating a school climate that promotes students’ social and emotional functioning • Promoting healthy psychological and social development This chapter will describe the mental health services at the Children’s Aid Society (CAS) community schools, focusing on staffing, structure, and strategies and describing the clinic at one school in greater detail. Questions of space, accountability, and funding will be explored, and some conclusions based on our work will be discussed. CAS’s school-based clinics, located in elementary and middle schools, provide individual and family counseling, group therapy, in-depth assessments and referrals, and crisis intervention for students and their family members. Referrals to the clinic are made by students, teachers, and parents. Assessment and intervention plans include the active participation of the child, his or her family, school staff, and anyone else who can help in understanding the child’s needs. Based on the assessment, the child and/or family are engaged in shortor long-term individual, group, or family counseling aimed at ameliorating the problems that precipitated the referral. An in-depth psychosocial assessment is the first step in developing a comprehensive treatment plan that includes short- and long-term goals. Psychological and psychiatric evaluations are scheduled as appropriate. Clinicians (social workers with M.S.W. or C.S.W. degrees) generally have caseloads of 18–22 students, with enough room in their schedules to see walk-ins and emergencies. Problems that have been successfully treated include suicide ideation, physical and sexual abuse, drug and alcohol use, disruptive school behaviors, academic delays, hyperactivity, family and peer conflicts, and depression.
Why a Comprehensive Handbook on Pediatric Psychosocial Oncology/Hematology
Authors: Brown Ronald T.
Published: November 2020

Over the past 25 to 30 years, monumental strides in national policy have been made in the management, treatment, and prevention of cancer. Rowland (2005) summarized these accomplishments, including legislation that provides for revenues and resources for research in cancer prevention and control. In addition, other pertinent policy issues have emerged from the Institute of Medicine, the National Cancer Institute, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the Lance Armstrong Foundation, all of which have served to increase the awareness of cancer, prevent the occurrence of cancer, and address cancer survivorship. Cancer policy issues have been models for increased resources and revenues for patient care, research, and quality-of-life enhancement. Nowhere is the success that we have had with policy more evident than in pediatric psychosocial oncology. The enormous advances in the prevention, medical treatment, medical management of late effects, and quality-of-life issues in children and adolescents surviving cancer have spawned a host of research in pediatric psychosocial oncology. These investigations likely surpass most research efforts for other chronic diseases. In fact, Bearison and Mulhern (1994) observed that there are more studies related to psychosocial oncology than perhaps there have been children with the disease. In my role as editor of the Journal of Pediatric Psychology, I conducted an informal survey of manuscripts; it indicated we process more submissions related to cancer than any other disease or chronic illness. Bearison and Mulhern also noted that psychological studies in the area of pediatric oncology have permeated most psychology and pediatric journals. Even the most dedicated scholar in psychosocial oncology and hematology has a difficult time keeping up with the everburgeoning literature body. Bearison and Mulhern published the last handbook on psychosocial issues in pediatric hematology/oncology in 1994. Since then, a proliferation of literature in the field has been concomitant with major developments in pediatric oncology, including increased use of chemotherapy, the evolution of bone marrow transplantation as a means of treating children and adolescents who have been refractory to chemotherapy and radiation therapy, and intensive investigation of survivorship and the late effects that many of these children endure.
Maximizing School, Academic, and Social Outcomes in Children and Adolescents With Cancer
Authors: Katz Ernest R. , Madan-Swain Avi
Published: November 2020

Medical advances incorporating intensive and difficult multimodal therapies have resulted in improved rates of survival in childhood cancer (Institute of Medicine, 2003). With improvements in disease management and survival, maintaining and enhancing maximal quality of life in young people living with cancer is the accepted psychosocial goal of comprehensive care (Armstrong & Briery, 2004; Institute of Medicine, 2003; Madan-Swain, Katz, & LaGory, 2004). As the primary venue for academic, cognitive, social, and emotional development during childhood and adolescence, ongoing participation and success in school are essential for positive health outcomes in young people (Brown, 2004; Madan- Swain et al., 2004). Actively engaging in school activities is an opportunity for the young person living with cancer and its often-difficult treatment to normalize an otherwise-disrupted life experience. School participation enhances quality of life and provides youths with hope for the future (Katz, 1980; Katz, Dolgin, & Varni, 1990; Katz, Kellerman, Rigler, Williams, & Siegel, 1977; Madan-Swain, Fredrick, & Wallender, 1999). Cancer and its treatment have been associated with multiple school-related difficulties, including attendance problems, fatigue, pain, teasing and social isolation from peers, neurocognitive impairments, and academic deficiencies (Armstrong, 2003; R. Butler & Copeland, 2002; Katz, 1980; Katz et al., 1977; Katz, Rubinstein, Hubert, & Blew, 1988; Keene, 2003; Madan-Swain et al., 1999; Mitby et al., 2003; Spinetta & Deasy-Spinetta, 1986). Psychosocial factors such as singleparent families, high levels of maternal distress, and non-English-speaking immigrant families each may further negatively impact a family’s ability to manage school and social difficulties experienced by their children (Madan-Swain et al., 2004; Madan-Swain, Katz, LaGory, 2004; Kazak et al., 1998; Mulhern, Wasserman, Friedman, & Fairclough, 1989; Sahler et al., 2005; Varni, Burwinkle, Katz, Meeske, & Dickinson, 2002). School and social difficulties in children and adolescents with cancer can best be understood within the disability, stress, and coping theoretical model of pediatric chronic physical disorders proposed by Varni and Wallender (Varni & Wallender, 1988; Wallender & Varni, 1989). Cancer produces chronic strains for both children and parents. Strains are defined as persistent objective conditions that require continual readjustment, repeatedly interfering with the adequate performance of ordinary role-related activities such as school and social relationships.
Health Promotion and Primary Prevention of Cancer
Authors: Wilson Dawn K. , Griffin Sarah F.
Published: November 2020

There are a number of important preventable risk factors that have been associated with the prevalence and incidence of various types of cancers. These risk factors include sedentary lifestyle, poor diet, obesity, sun exposure, and tobacco use (Friedenreich & Orenstein, 2002; Healthy People 2010, 1998; Pappo, 2003; Slattery, Schumacher, West, Robison, & French, 1990). These risk factors are modifiable, and early prevention in childhood may reduce the likelihood of developing cancers such as melanoma and lung, colon, breast, prostate, and endometrial cancers (IARC Working Group, 2002). For example, according to the International Agency for Research on Cancer, between one fourth and one third of cancer cases may be attributed to the combined effects of obesity and physical inactivity (IARC Working Group, 2002), thus promoting both weight control and physical activity in youths may be beneficial for preventing cancer. Therefore, the identification of multiple risk factors that may be linked to cancer prevention that could be incorporated into prevention programs may be an effective approach for cancer prevention in youth. A social ecological model is presented in this chapter as a framework for understanding multilevel strategies for promoting healthy lifestyles to prevent cancer in youths (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1992; Wilson & Evans, 2003). According to the ecological model, health behavior is affected by intrapersonal, social, cultural, and physical environmental variables. A social ecological framework (McLeroy, Bibeau, Steckler, & Glanz, 1988) conceptualizes health behavior (e.g., physical activity) as affected by multiple levels of influence. Based on this social ecological model, five levels of influence are specified: (a) individual influences (e.g., biological and psychosocial); (b) interpersonal influences (e.g., family, peers); (c) institutional factors (e.g., school, work sites); (d) community factors (e.g., relationship among organizations, institutions, and social networks); and (e) public policy (e.g., laws and policies at the local, state, national, and international levels). In this model, health behaviors such as physical activity, nutrition, sun exposure, and tobacco use are conceptualized as a function of the interaction of individual, family, and peer influences and school, community, mass media, and public policy influences.
Introduction
Authors: Pawlowsky-Glahn Vera , Olea Richardo A.
Published: November 2020

Geological data, notably geochemical data, often take the form of a regionalized composition. The concept of regionalized composition combines the concepts of composition and coregionalization. A composition, also known in the literature as a closed array (Chayes 1962), is a random vector whose components add up to a constant. A coregionalization is a set of two or more regionalized variables defined over the same spatial domain, which is modeled as a realization of a vector random function. Here the term regionalized composition is used both for the vector random function used to model a composition and for the realization that we can observe. A regionalized composition can be, for example, a heavy-mineral suite along a river valley. The minerals are quantitatively determined through frequency counts and represented as percent-proportions of the entire heavy-mineral occurrence. Another example is the set of grades in a lead-copper-zinc deposit. In this instance, all components of each specimen are not quantitatively recorded and the grades are also not expressed as proportions of the whole of the measured components: only a small fraction of the composition in ppm is accounted for in each specimen. The problem with the statistical analysis of compositions has been stated historically in terms of correlations: the covariances are subject to essential nonstochastic controls, i.e., distortions which are due to the constant-sum constraint. These numerically induced covariances and correlations arise also with regionalized compositions and are called spurious spatial correlations. They falsify the picture of the spatial covariance structure and can lead to misinterpretations. This problem arises not only when the whole regionalized composition is analyzed, but also when interest lies only in a subvector. A second problem, singularity of the covariance matrix of a composition, has generally been considered only from a numerical point of view. Singularity is a direct consequence of the constant-sum constraint and, as in other multivariate methods, it rules out the use of estimation techniques such as cokriging of all components. Numerically the problem can be tackled either by taking generalized inverses or, equivalently, leaving one component out to avoid singularity of the matrices of coefficients.
Introduction
Authors: Bell Derrick
Published: November 2020

Graduation Day At Yale University in late May 2002 was blessed with warm, clear weather. It is the hope for such a beautiful morning that enables outdoor commencements to survive the rain-soaked disappointment of those hopes on far too many better-forgotten occasions. Yale’s Old Campus was filled with faculty, administrators, soon-to-be graduates, and their well-dressed families and friends. Under the canopy-covered stage, there were ten individuals designated to receive honorary degrees because of their significant achievements. I was there at the invitation of one of those honorees, Robert L. Carter, my mentor and friend for more than forty years. Then eighty-five, a senior judge on the federal district court with thirty years of service, Carter had previously enjoyed a long and distinguished career as an NAACP civil rights attorney and, for a few years, a partner in a large law firm. All of these accomplishments would be worthy of the praise and warm applause that other candidates received. When, though, Yale University president Richard Levin announced that Judge Carter was an important member of the legal team that planned the strategies and argued the landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education , noting that the decision was only two years short of its fiftieth anniver­sary, the audience leaped to its feet and, with great enthusiasm, applauded and cheered. On that happy day, Judge Carter was the recipient of the audience’s appreciation for his work in helping litigate a case in which the Supreme Court had held racial segregation in the public schools unconstitutional. The mainly white audience that had assembled for the commencement exercises at one of the nation’s premier universities was not unsophisticated. For them, and so many others regardless or status or race, Brown v. Board of Education evoked awe and respect. I fasked, most would have agreed that the decision was the finest hour of American law. In their view, this long-awaited and now much-appreciated decision had erased the contradiction between the freedom and justice for all that America proclaimed, and the subordination by race permitted by our highest law.
Brown Reconceived: An Alternative Scenario
Authors: Bell Derrick
Published: November 2020

Having Read An Early Draft Of This Manuscript, longtime friend and Harvard University professor Frank Michelman asked: “Was there any way that they, as a Court acting subject to certain public expectations about the differences among courts, legislatures, and constitutional conventions, could have framed their intervention differ­ently from, and better than, the way they actually chose?” I think the answer is yes. Despite decades of efforts to reverse Plessy v. Ferguson and the NAACP lawyers’ well-researched legal arguments supported by reams of social science testimony, the Supreme Court might have determined to adhere to existing precedents. Suppose that, while expressing sympathy for the Negroes’ plight, the Court had decided that Plessy v. Ferguson was still the law of the land? Suppose, moreover, they understood then what is so much clearer now: namely, that the edifice of segregation was built not simply on a troubling judi­cial precedent, but on an unspoken covenant committing the nation to guaranteeing whites a superior status to blacks? On this understanding, could the Court have written a decision that disappointed the hopes of most civil rights lawyers and those they represented while opening up opportunities for effective schooling capable of turning constitutional defeat into a major educational victory? Again, I think the answer is yes. And I have imagined such an alternative. Today we uphold our six decades old decision in Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896). We do so with some reluctance and in the face of the argu­ments by the petitioners that segregation in the public schools is unconstitutional and a manifestation of the desire for dominance whose depths and pervasiveness this Court can neither ignore nor easily divine. Giving full weight to these arguments, a decision overturning Plessy, while it might be viewed as a triumph by Negro petitioners and the class they represent, will be condemned by many whites. Their predictable outraged resistance could undermine and eventually negate even the most committed judicial enforcement efforts.
Processes of the Long-Term Carbon Cycle: Chemical Weathering of Silicates
Authors: Berner Robert A.
Published: November 2020

Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere during the weathering of both silicates and carbonates, but, over multimillion year time scales, as pointed out in chapter 1, only Ca and Mg silicate weathering has a direct effect on CO2. Carbon is transferred from CO2 to dissolved HCO3– and then to Ca and Mg carbonate minerals that are buried in sediments (reaction 1.4). In this chapter the factors that affect the rate of silicate weathering and how they could have changed over Phanerozoic time are discussed. Following classical studies (e.g., Jenny, 1941), the factors discussed include relief, climate (rainfall and temperature), vegetation, and lithology. However, over geological time scales, additional factors come into consideration that are necessarily ignored in studying modern weathering. These include the evolution of the sun and continental drift. The aim of this book is to consider all factors, whether occurring at present or manifested only over very long times, that affect weathering as it relates to the Phanerozoic carbon cycle. Within the past decade much attention has been paid to the effect of mountain uplift on chemical weathering and its effect on the uptake of atmospheric CO2, an idea originally espoused by T.C. Chamberlin (1899). The uplift of the Himalaya Mountains and resulting increased weathering has been cited as a principal cause of late Cenozoic cooling due to a drop in CO2 (Raymo, 1991). Orogenic uplift generally results in the development of high relief. High relief results in steep slopes and enhanced erosion, and enhanced erosion results in the constant uncovering of primary minerals and their exposure to the atmosphere. In the absence of steep slopes, a thick mantle of clay weathering product can accumulate and serve to protect the underlying primary minerals against further weathering. An excellent example of this situation is the thick clay-rich soils of the Amazon lowlands where little silicate weathering occurs (Stallard and Edmond, 1983). In addition, the development of mountain chains often leads to increased orographic rainfall and, at higher elevations, increased erosion by glaciers. All these factors should lead to more rapid silicate weathering and faster uptake of atmospheric CO2.
Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide over Phanerozoic Time
Authors: Berner Robert A.
Published: November 2020

In this chapter the methods and results of modeling the long-term carbon cycle are presented in terms of predictions of past levels of atmospheric CO2. The modeling results are then compared with independent determinations of paleo-CO2 by means of a variety of different methods. Results indicate that there is reasonable agreement between methods as to the general trend of CO2 over Phanerozoic time. Values of fluxes in the long-term carbon cycle can be calculated from the fundamental equations for total carbon and 13C mass balance that are stated in the introduction and are repeated here: . . . dMc/dt = Fwc + Fwg + Fmc + Fmg – Fbc – Fbg (1.10) . . . . . . d(δcMc)/dt = δwcFwc + δwgFwg + δmcFmc + δmgFmg – δbcFbc – δbgFbg (1.11) . . . where Mc = mass of carbon in the surficial system consisting of the atmosphere, oceans, biosphere, and soils Fwc = flux from weathering of Ca and Mg carbonates Fwg = flux from weathering of sedimentary organic matter Fmc = degassing flux for carbonates from volcanism, metamorphism, and diagenesis Fmg = degassing flux for organic matter from volcanism, metamorphism, and diagenesis Fbc = burial flux of carbonates in sediments Fbg = burial flux of organic matter in sediments δ = [(13C/12C)/(13C/12C)stnd – 1]1000. Variants of equations (1.10) and (1.11) have been treated in terms of non–steady-state modeling (e.g., Berner et al., 1983; Wallmann, 2001; Hansen and Wallmann, 2003; Mackenzie et al., 2003; Bergman et al., 2003), where the evolution of both oceanic and atmospheric composition, including Ca, Mg, and other elements in seawater, is tracked over time. However, since the purpose of this book is to discuss the carbon cycle with respect to CO2 and O2, and so as not to overburden the reader with too many mathematical expressions, I discuss only those aspects of the non–steady-state models that directly impact carbon. These are combined with results from steady-state strictly carbon-cycle modeling (Garrels and Lerman, 1984; Berner, 1991, 1994; Kump and Arthur, 1997; Francois and Godderis, 1998; Tajika, 1998; Berner and Kothavala, 2001; Kashiwagi and Shikazono, 2002).
Finding Story Ideas and Sources
Authors: Yam Philip M.
Published: November 2020

As a freelance or a staff journalist, you will face at some point dread and insecurity as you wonder if the story ideas you're about to pitch to an editor are any good. We've all been there. There is no formula for coming up with that novel angle or fresh topic. But certain approaches and strategies can help you hone your nose for science news and root out interesting stories editors will want. First, scope out publications, both print and Web. If you've contemplated science journalism, then you have probably read the science and technology sections of major newspapers and leafed through the popular-science magazines on the newsstands. Familiarize yourself with the weeklies, such as New Scientist and Science News, as well as the news section of Science. Gain a greater depth by, for instance, reading review-type articles, such as those that appear in Scientific American, Nature's News and Views section, or the News & Commentary section of Science. Check out clearinghouses for press releases, such as Newswise, Eurekalert!, and PRNewswire. They send periodic e-mail alerts and maintain searchable websites. Some require that you have a published body of work before granting you access to certain privileged information (such as the contact numbers of researchers). Others may require that you obtain a letter from an editor. You can also subscribe to mailing lists of media relations offices at universities, medical centers, and other research institutions and sign up for various industry newsletters. When surfing the Web for science information, don't forget major government websites, such as those of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Institutes of Health, the National Institutes of Standards and Technology, and the Department of Energy, which manages the national labs. Besides weapons work, the DOE labs—including Los Alamos, Brookhaven, Oak Ridge, and Lawrence Livermore—conduct research in both physical and biological sciences. Other worthwhile online resources include listservs and Web logs, but keep in mind that the ideas there are not vetted as they are in journals. Plus, you have to have the patience to get past the ranting and raving that can obscure good postings. For beginning science journalists, it may be best to follow blogs of well-respected researchers.
Popular Magazines
Authors: Tanne Janice Hopkins
Published: November 2020

I like to know how things work—why plaque piles up in arteries, how microbiologists identify different strains of bacteria, how surgeons separate conjoined twins, why some medical centers are better than others. I want to give people information that will help them make better medical decisions. The most exciting way to find these things out, and to inform the public, is by writing for popular magazines. Most magazine articles begin with a proposal, also called a query letter. For a piece I suggested to Child magazine, here's how I opened my proposal: . . . Eva Marie is an energetic 4-year-old beauty with big dark eyes, a shining pageboy haircut, and a hole in her heart. Yes, doctors said, the hole can be repaired, but the surgery will split open Eva's breastbone and leave a scar down the center of her small body. Eva Marie would spend three days in the pediatric intensive care unit and at least seven days in the hospital. How can you explain to a 4-year-old what major heart surgery means? Eva Marie's parents hoped to find a way to save her the pain, the scarring, and the lengthy recovery time. They were fortunate. Surgeons at New York University Medical Center who pioneered minimal-access heart surgery for adults are now using the technique to treat children's heart defects like the one Eva Marie was born with. . . . The editor liked the proposal and assigned me the story, which ran as the article “Gentle Repair for Tiny Hearts” in the August 2000 issue of Child. The major magazine markets for health and medical stories are general interest magazines, women's magazines, parenting magazines, health magazines, and science magazines. With a circulation of nearly 36 million and a readership of 80 million—nearly one-third of the nation—the granddaddy of general interest magazines is Parade. It is the Sunday magazine of 350 newspapers. Parade has a commitment to health coverage; it runs one major health story a month, plus a health column. It also features special issues on “Live Longer, Better, Wiser,” men's health, women's health, and issues keyed to important “disease weeks.”
Trade and Science Journals
Authors: Norman Colin
Published: November 2020

I once asked a friend who was a political reporter for an influential British daily whether he had a particular type of reader in mind when he sat down at his typewriter (yes, I said typewriter; it was a long time ago). His response: “Somebody who moves his lips when he reads.” At the time, equipped with a mere bachelor's degree, I was starting out as a reporter for Nature, a journal read by researchers at the forefront of their disciplines—Nobel laureates, even. My friend's flip remark carried a useful message, which is why it has stuck with me over the years: Don't be intimidated by your readers. Writing for a scientific journal can certainly be intimidating. A fraction of your readers will know a good deal more about the topic than you do, and a larger fraction will be quick to jump on any mistakes. Yet if you are writing for a multidisciplinary journal like Science or Nature, and are hoping to entice an astrophysicist, say, to read an article on genetics, you'll need to explain some basic terms—and you'll need to do it without talking down to the scientists who are already the experts. You are also writing for a very busy audience, so there's a premium on good writing. Scientists have a hard enough time understanding the technical papers in the back of the journal, and they will turn the page rather than struggle through a news story if it's needlessly dense. And, perhaps most important, you are setting the context of whatever research you're describing. Your readers can get the findings just by scanning the literature, but what they can't get is how those findings fit into a hot new trend or the way that intense competition drove the research. That's where you come in. So what makes a good story for a professional magazine? Remember who your readers are: a community of scientists—a relatively specific community if you are writing for a magazine like Chemical and Engineering News, or a very broad one if you are writing for Science or Nature.