bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Theodore Roosevelt and the Bully Pulpit
Authors: Smith Gary Scott
Published: February 2007

To many, Theodore Roosevelt was an exemplar of manliness and “muscular Christianity” and an exceptional public servant who led a crusade for social justice. To others, the sage of Oyster Bay was a jingoist, a nativist, a hot-tempered, unpredictable manic, and an egomaniac who put his own interests above America’s good. Roosevelt highly valued biblical morality and considered it vital to personal and public life, including politics. He downplayed doctrine and theological differences and strongly stressed the importance of good works and character. Many contemporaries called him a preacher of righteousness, and he labeled the presidency a bully pulpit, which he used to trumpet the importance of social justice, civility, and virtue. Three religious issues caused considerable controversy during Roosevelt’s tenure in office: his attempt to remove “In God We Trust” from some coins, the “Dear Maria” affair, and concerns about William Howard Taft’s Unitarianism during the 1908 presidential campaign. Christianity, especially the version espoused by turn-of-the-century Social Gospelers, played a significant role in shaping his philosophy of government. Roosevelt’s role in mediating the 1902 anthracite coal strike, “taking” Panama to build an isthmus canal, and promoting conservation illustrate how his religious commitments helped shape his policies.
George W. Bush
Authors: Smith Gary Scott
Published: February 2007

Although George W. Bush is not more personally devout than Woodrow Wilson or Jimmy Carter, religious issues have played an even more important role in his presidency than for any of his predecessors. The impact of Bush’s faith is evident in his personality, rhetoric, campaigns, appointments, and policies. It has helped shape his electoral strategy, his political agenda, and his relationship with domestic constituencies and leaders of other nations. The nature of his personal faith, the many religious factors involved in his campaigns, and the influence of his religious convictions on his policies have provoked an immense amount of discussion, debate, and disagreement. More than that of any other president, his White House is filled with individuals who have strong faith commitments. Bush has been frequently accused of being a Christian zealot who wants to remake America in accordance with his own religious views, as evident in his domestic agenda, political appointments, and approach to international relations. Detractors also protest that many of Bush’s policies and his belief that he is God’s instrument violate First Amendment guarantees of church-state separation and are extremely dangerous. Bush faithfully reads the Bible and stresses the power of prayer. The support Bush received from evangelicals and conservative Catholics contributed significantly to his narrow victories in the 2000 and 2004 elections. Bush’s faith played a major role in his promotion of compassionate conservatism and faith-based initiatives. The war on terrorism and the invasion and occupation of Iraq have provoked substantial debate among America’s religious communities. Critics and supporters reach dramatically different conclusions about Bush’s faith and its effect on his presidency. Some argue that Bush’s faith is insincere, hypocritical, and a political cover for his right-wing agenda. Others counter that his faith has sustained him during crises, strengthened his resolve, increased his courage, confidence, and compassion, and shaped his policies in many positive ways.
Conclusion
Authors: Smith Gary Scott
Published: February 2007

This examination of the lives of eleven presidents demonstrates that their faith has been vitally important to a substantial number of the occupants of the Oval Office. Their faith helped shape their character, political philosophy, and style of governing. It also affected their relationships with religious groups and many of their policies. The policies they pursued to achieve these ends differed substantially, however, because of the religious traditions to which they belonged; their personalities and interests; their political parties, platforms, and perspectives; and the way they interpreted the Bible and conceived their political duties. Despite their differences, all eleven presidents emphasized the nation’s religious heritage, trumpeted the value of religion, called for spiritual renewal, and underscored the relationship between religious faith and morality. From George Washington to George W. Bush, they argued that God rules the universe, that the dictates of reason and revelation reinforce one another and supply a basis for both individual morality and public policy, and that religious faith best sustains the nation’s constitutional democracy and provides the strongest safeguard and support for republican virtue and liberty. These presidents have been both lauded and lambasted for their faith. Many have praised their personal piety and the influence of their religious convictions on various actions and policies, but others have complained that some chief executives have mistakenly (and dangerously) claimed to know God’s will on vital issues or that their faith influenced them to adopt policies that have harmed the nation. This final chapter evaluates how their religious convictions, their views of the separation of church and state, civil religion, and America as a chosen nation, and their character affected the work of these eleven presidents. The tremendous responsibilities and pressures and the trials and tribulations of the presidency inspired many of these eleven chief executives to develop a stronger faith. Faith — although not always orthodox, Christian faith — had a powerful influence on the thoughts and actions of many presidents, contributing significantly to their efforts to advance justice, peace, equality, compassion, and virtue.
The History of the Buddha's Relic Shrine
Authors: Berkwitz Stephen C.
Published: February 2007

Buddhist chronicles have long been had a central place in the study of Buddhism. Scholars, however, have relied almost exclusively on Pali works that were composed by elites for learned audiences, to the neglect of a large number of Buddhist histories written in local languages for popular consumption. The Sinhala Thūpavaṃsa, composed by Parakama Pandita in 13th-century Sri Lanka, is an important example of a Buddhist chronicle written in the vernacular Sinhala language. Furthermore, it is among those works that inform public discussion and debate over the place of Buddhism in the Sri Lankan nation state and the role of Buddhist monks in contemporary politics. This book offers the first complete English translation of the Sinhala Thūpavaṃsa. Composed in a literary dialect of Sinhala, it contains a richly descriptive account of how Buddhism spread outside of India, replete with poetic embellishments and interpolations not found in other accounts of those events. Aside from being an important literary work, the Sinhala Thūpavaṃsa is a text of considerable historical and religious significance. It comprises several narrative strands that relate the life story of the Buddha and the manner in which Buddhist teachings and institutions were established on the island of Sri Lanka in ancient times. The central focus of this work concerns the variety of relics associated with the historical Buddha, particularly how the relics were acquired and the presumed benefits of venerating them. The text also relates the mythological history of the Buddha's previous lives as a bodhisattva and concludes with a prediction about the future Buddha Maitreya. Reflection on Buddhist ethics and instruction on the Dharma, or the Buddha's teaching, are found throughout the work, indicating that this historical narrative was meant both to recall the past and give rise to religious practice among contemporary readers and listeners.
The Story of Prince Siddhārtha
Authors: Berkwitz Stephen C.
Published: February 2007

This chapter presents an English translation of the Sinhala Thūpavaṃsa, focusing on the life story of Prince Siddhārtha. It begins with his penultimate rebirth as a god in the Tua heaven. After having chosen the manner and timing of his rebirth into the human realm, Siddhārtha is born to Queen Mahāmāyā in the midst of many miraculous events in nature that signify the birth of a Great Being.
The Awakening of the Buddha
Authors: Berkwitz Stephen C.
Published: February 2007

This chapter presents an English translation of the Sinhala Thūpavaṃsa, focusing on Siddhārtha's attainment of complete Buddhahood. He fends off the amorous advances of Māra's daughters who make several futile attempts to seduce him, and decides to preach the Dharma he has discovered to others.
The Story of King Aśoka
Authors: Berkwitz Stephen C.
Published: February 2007

This chapter presents an English translation of the Sinhala Thūpavaṃsa, focusing on King Asoka's service to the Buddha's Dispensation. As in many Theravāda texts, Asoka is depicted as a pious follower of the Buddha who devotes great energy and resources to spread relics and the Dharma throughout his empire and beyond. His conversion to Buddhism comes about after having observed a well–composed novice monk, and the king later tracks down the relic deposit of Ajātasatru and builds 84,000 relic shrines throughout Jambudvīpa.
Korean American Evangelicals
Authors: Ecklund Elaine Howard
Published: February 2007

In an age of what many call a declining civil society, it is crucial to ask how changes in the racial, ethnic, and religious composition of the United States will influence how we live together as American citizens. Religious communities are among the primary places Americans form civic identities. This book explores how Korean Americans, a growing segment of American evangelicals, use religion to negotiate civic responsibility. It compares Korean Americans in second-generation and multiethnic churches, the most common types of evangelical churches in which Korean Americans participate. The book is based on in-depth interviews with 100 Korean Americans across the country, nine months of ethnography, and a survey of both a second-generation Korean congregation and a multiethnic church with Korean American participants. It is shown that these church types provide Korean Americans with different cultural schema for ethnic identity and civic responsibility. From their congregations, Korean Americans gain different ways of negotiating the image of Asian Americans as “model minorities”. Although scholars stress the conflict inherent in Asian American and African American race relations, some of the Korean Americans in multi-ethnic churches used a religious justification to identify with African Americans as fellow minorities, and thus become more politically active. For scholars, the book reveals the conditions under which organizations constrained by the same institution, in this case American Evangelicalism, provide room for diverse identity constructs among the individuals in these organizations. For everyone else, it argues that the children of non-white immigrants will change the relationship between religion and American civic life.
Implications for Institutional Change
Authors: Ecklund Elaine Howard
Published: February 2007

This chapter argues that diverse approaches to Christianity among Korean Americans and other new non-white Americans could re-shape race relations within evangelicalism and their impact on wider American civic life by bringing issues of race to the table among a primarily white evangelical leadership.
Imperatives
Authors: Bencivenga Ermanno
Published: February 2007

Since humans are not perfectly rational, moral laws have a deontic, imperative character for them: what these laws claim to be necessary does not always occur. But humans must be guided in their behavior by the trust that perfect rationality will triumph in the end. They must proceed as if nature and reason will eventually harmonize, however intellectually convinced they might be that it will never happen.
Pharmacological and Psychological Interventions
Authors: Glannon Walter
Published: February 2007

This chapter assesses the potential benefits and harms of actual and possible uses of psychopharmacological agents for prevention, therapy, and enhancement. These include using drugs to prevent or erase memories of fear-arousing events. They also include drugs that could alter the neural circuitry of violent offenders. Placebos as a psychological intervention and their effects on the brain and mind are considered, focusing on whether it can be ethical to give placebos to treat symptoms associated with different medical conditions. Finally, possible off-label uses of drugs for enhancing cognition and mood are discussed.
Neurosurgery, Psychosurgery, and Neurostimulation
Authors: Glannon Walter
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines different forms of neurosurgery, psychosurgery, and neurostimulation for neurological and psychiatric disorders. It discusses the weighing of benefits and risks in determining whether neurosurgery or psychosurgery can be justified. The issue of consent from patients figures more importantly in brain surgery than in any other area of neuroethics because of the invasiveness of the procedure and the risk of significant neurological impairment following surgery. It is also because the competence necessary for consent may be impaired by dysfunction of the organ that is both the intended area of intervention and the basis for competence and consent. Different forms of neurostimulation are considered, from electrodes implanted inside the brain, as well as from devices outside the brain. Finally, the possible use of neurostimulation for managing pain is considered.
Epilogue
Authors: Glannon Walter
Published: February 2007

This epilogue presents a synthesis of discussions in the preceding chapters. It emphasizes five general points that should frame any discussion of what measures of or interventions in the brain can or cannot tell us about human mentality, thought, and behavior, and whether or to what extent we should use them. These are (i) that no two brains are alike; (ii) that although the brain generates and sustains the mind, the mind is not reducible to the brain; (iii) that before we consider manipulating the brain to alter mental capacities, we should consider how these capacities may be adaptive; (iv) that neuroscience can inform our ethical judgments; and (v) that whole-brain death is not the same as the death of a person.
The Price of Truth
Authors: Resnik David B.
Published: February 2007

The financial and economic aspects of modern science raise many important and difficult questions for research ethics, the philosophy of science, and science policy. How does money affect scientific research? Can financial interests undermine scientific norms, such as objectivity, truthfulness, and honesty? Have scientists become entrepreneurs bent on making money instead of investigators searching for the truth? How does the commercialization of research affect the public’s perception of science? Can scientists prevent money from corrupting the research enterprise? What types of rules, polices, and guidelines should scientists adopt to prevent financial interests from adversely affecting research and the public’s opinion of science? This book examines these and other questions related to the financial and economic aspects of modern science. It investigates and analyzes the relationship between the pursuit of financial gain and the pursuit of knowledge. It considers how greed can affect the conduct of scientists, universities, corporations, and the public’s perception of science. It explores how moral, social, and political values affect public and private funding of research, and how debates about research funding reflect broader, ideological divisions within society. The book also proposes some policies for controlling, regulating, and monitoring financial interests in research and for counteracting money’s corrupting effects on science.
The Norms of Science
Authors: Resnik David B.
Published: February 2007

This chapter develops a philosophical framework for thinking about science’s norms. The norms of science help advance the goals of science by promoting cooperation and trust among scientists, and the public’s support for science. They also help to ensure that scientific research is publicly accountable. Science has epistemological goals, such as knowledge, truth, and explanation, as well as practical ones, such as prediction, power, and control. Science has epistemological norms, such as testability, empirical support, and simplicity, and practical and ethical norms, such as honesty, credit, and openness. Epistemological norms govern scientific methods and techniques, while practical norms apply to practices and traditions.
Money and the Norms of Science
Authors: Resnik David B.
Published: February 2007

This chapter considers the various ways that money can interfere with scientific norms. Problems can occur when financial interests intrude into experimental design, data analysis and interpretation, publication, peer review, and other aspects of science that should be protected from financial, political, or other biases. When this happens, financial interests affect the process of scientific research, and they can undermine objectivity, openness, honesty, and other research norms. Although it is impossible to prevent money from having any impact on research, society should take some steps to prevent financial interests from undermining scientific norms, such as developing policies for journals, granting agencies, and research institutions; educating students and scientists about potential problems and issues; and monitoring of research.
God at Work
Authors: Miller David W.
Published: February 2007

What was once taboo — faith at work — is increasingly accepted in corporate America. From secretaries to CEOs, growing numbers of businesspeople today want to bring their faith to work. Yet they wrestle with how to do this effectively and appropriately in a pluralistic corporate setting. For help they turn not to their clergy, but to their peers and to a burgeoning cottage industry on spirituality at work. They attend conferences and seminars, participate in Bible study and prayer groups, and read books, blogs, and eNewsletters. They see their faith as a resource for ethical guidance and to help find meaning and purpose in their work. This book looks at how this Faith at Work movement developed and considers its potential value for business and society. Done well, the integration of faith and work has positive implications at the personal level, as well as for corporate ethics and the broader economic sphere. At the same time, increasing expressions of religion and spiritual practices at work also present the threat of divisiveness and discrimination.
“Faith at Work”?
Authors: Miller David W.
Published: February 2007

This chapter introduces the Faith at Work movement and defines some key terms. It cites the church's failure to address the growing need felt by businesspeople to integrate their faith and their work. This has led to the emergence of the FAW movement largely outside the church and its usual programs. The movement is decentralized, with loosely networked clusters of lay-initiated and lay-led activities that focus on integrating spirituality and work. The result has been the spawning of a various voluntary associations throughout America (and increasingly beyond), comprising many different individuals and types and sizes of groups, as well as a range of ways in which these people express themselves.
The Social Gospel Era (c. 1890s–1945)
Authors: Miller David W.
Published: February 2007

This chapter focuses on the first wave of the faith at work movement (FAW). Three broad streams of FAW activity developed whose vestiges are still seen today: (a) the Social Gospel, (b) special–purpose groups, and (c) the popularization of Jesus. The Social Gospel sought theological legitimacy in and gave hermeneutical primacy to the doctrine of the kingdom of God. The Social Gospel comprised many shapes and forms, often with overlapping interests. However, it can be arranged into three main substreams: conservative social Christianity, radical social Christianity, and progressive social Christianity. Special-purpose groups addressed “issues both specific to the churches and of more general concern to the broader society.”. These religiously motivated groups are part of the American tradition of voluntary associations. The popularization of Jesus involves the emergence of a style of writing and speaking that sought to contemporize and popularize a practical Jesus for modern times.
Response of the Church and the Theological Academy to FAW
Authors: Miller David W.
Published: February 2007

This chapter explores what the faith at work movement offers its participants, focusing on the inadequate response by the church and the academy to the questions and issues surrounding the integration of faith and work. It identifies several reasons why clergy and religious professionals do not perceive and therefore do not respond to the needs that are driving the FAW movement. These include pejorative marketplace perceptions, liturgical narrowness, clericalism, language, and inexperience.
Analyzing and Understanding the Faith at Work Movement
Authors: Miller David W.
Published: February 2007

This chapter develops a new framework and language for discussing the FAW movement. It presents the Integration Box, which builds on and utilizes this book's findings about the demand side, supply side, and evidence of the FAW movement qua movement. It is clear that a quest for integration is the organizing principle of the FAW movement. Moreover, participants in the movement tend to experience and express the quest for the integration of faith and work through one or more of the modalities of ethics, evangelism, experience, and enrichment. When transposed into a new nonlinear theoretical framework, these Four E's result in the Integration Box, a model containing these four quadrants, or types, of FAW orientations and associated language. This conceptual framework facilitates critical analysis, discourse, and understanding the movement and its participants. Each quadrant represents one of the Four E's as the primary manifestation of the quest for integration.
Government Intervention, Rent Distribution, and Economic Development in Korea
Authors: Cho Yoon Je
Published: February 2007

This chapter discusses how economic rent was created and distributed in the course of economic development in Korea, focusing on government intervention in the financial market. The Korean experience shows that it is possible for governments to intervene productively and effectively in the early stages of economic development. The balance between the role of government and market forces should reflect the financial market, industrial organization, market structure, and political and international environment facing the country. However, as economic development advances, the role and scope of government intervention must be reappraised with a view towards greater reliance on market forces.
Unintended Fit: Organizational Evolution and Government Design of Institutions in Japan
Authors: Aoki Masahiko
Published: February 2007

This chapter discusses nanoscopic, intra-organizational coordination. It argues that the spontaneous order of cross-task coordination based on information sharing within the firm is an important source of total factor productivity growth in postwar Japan. The institutional apparatus that the government originally designed for centralized control of wartime production did not work as intended, but evolved into a supporting framework for decentralized private coordination following democratic transformation during postwar reform.
Sectoral Resource Transfer, Conflict, and Macrostability in Economic Development: A Comparative Analysis
Authors: Teranishi Juro
Published: February 2007

This chapter investigates the effects of financing industrialization through policy-based mobilization of agricultural savings, based on a comparative study of less developed economics in East Asia, Latin America, and Sub-Saharan Africa. The degree of resource shift, from the rural sector through direct and indirect taxation, did not vary much across the three regions. However, there was significant difference between East Asia and the other two regions in the ways the adverse effects of resource transfer were politically compensated. In Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa, divisible benefits (rents) were supplied by the government to win the support of particular interest groups (large landlords or tribes). In East Asia, the adverse effects were mitigated by investments in infrastructure, which enhanced the productivity of small landholding farmers.
The Political Economy of Growth in East Asia: A Perspective on the State, Market, and Ideology
Authors: Woo‐Cumings Meredith
Published: February 2007

This chapter discusses the impact of differences in initial conditions and international environments on the developmental strategy between Latin America and East Asia (Korea and Taiwan). The unique imprint of Japanese colonial legacies on the bureaucratic nature of the state in Korea and Taiwan, and its relations with business and agrarian interests are elucidated. How the specific geopolitical positions of these two economies affect their developmental strategies as well as their capabilities to extract ‘rent’ from the United States during the Cold War is discussed.
6 The Indian Summer of Restoration Anglicanism: Queen Anne and the Tory Revival
Authors: Brydon Michael
Published: February 2007

Although Anne’s reign coincided with the start of a new century, it made little difference at the time since the Tories treated it as an opportunity to put the political and ecclesiastical clock back. Although they were reasonably successful, notably at Sacheverell’s trail, they became increasingly conscious that the imminent accession of the Hanoverians would result in their eventual sidelining.
5 Who were the ‘Eusebians’?
Authors: Gwynn David M.
Published: February 2007

This chapter begins with an analysis of the phrase hoi peri Eusebion and the implications of Athanasius’ presentation of his opponents as a ‘church party’. It then assesses the various passages in which Athanasius actually names the men whom he regards as ‘Eusebians’, and demonstrates the degree to which these catalogues of names vary between Athanasius’ different works as the polemic develops over time. The chapter ends with a survey of the fragmentary evidence for the known careers and writings of the most prominent individuals whom Athanasius identifies as ‘Eusebians’, particularly Eusebius of Nicomedia himself and Asterius ‘the Sophist’.
Contemplating Art
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This book is a compendium of writings from the last ten years by one of the leading figures in aesthetics, Jerrold Levinson. It contains twenty-four essays and is divided into seven parts. The first is about issues relating to art in general, not specific to one art form. The second is about philosophical problems specific to music. The third part focuses on pictorial art, and the fourth on interpretation, in particular, the interpretation of literature. The remaining parts of the book discuss aesthetic properties, issues in historical aesthetics, humor, and intrinsic value.
Introduction
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This introductory chapter presents a description of the essays included in this volume.
Sound, Gesture, Space, and the Expression of Emotion in Music
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

The main concern of this essay is musical expressiveness and the role that the imaginative construal of sound in gestural ways plays in grounding that expressiveness. It is argued that to hear the expressiveness of music is to hear it as personal expression; that to hear it as personal expression is to hear a sort of gesture in the music, or the music as gesturing in a certain manner; that to hear such musical gesture is to deploy a capacity to imagine in spatial terms, most obviously because that is required for apprehension of the behavioural gestures and performing gestures that underlie musical gesture. Thus, grasp of expressiveness in music is not detachable from a comprehension of the range of expressive human gesture and a comprehension of the means by which music is actually produced, each of which implicates possession by the hearer of a robust spatial imagination.
What is Erotic Art?
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This essay argues that erotic art is art which aims to engage viewers sexually through explicit sexual content, and succeeds to some extent in doing so. The boundaries of the concept of erotic art, and some of the psychological and social implications of erotic art are also explored. The scope of this essay is restricted in two ways. First, the essay concerns visual art exclusively, and then, almost entirely, visual art of two dimensions. Second, the examples are drawn only from Western art, and mainly Western art since the Renaissance.
Who's Afraid of a Paraphrase?
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This essay focuses on the interpretation of metaphors. It argues that metaphors, however much their force or imagery outstrips their semantic content, in fact usually possess relatively definite meanings, meanings which deserve the label of ‘metaphorical’, and which paraphrases can to a large extent express. The key to the stance on metaphors adopted is the conception of them asutterancesin specific linguistic contexts, which acquire meanings in such contexts despite there being no rules of a semantic sort for the projection of such meanings. Examples of metaphors from both literary and non-literary contexts are examined. The conception of literary meaning as centrally a species ofutterance meaningis the foundation stone of the view of literary interpretation dubbed ‘hypothetical intentionalism’.
Hume's Standard of Taste: The Real Problem
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This essay formulates a persisting problem about the authority of art criticism and situates this problem in relation to Hume's search for the standard of taste in his famous essay of that name. It sketches a complex solution to this problem, somewhat provocatively labelled therealproblem left us by Hume, a solution whose complexity is justified by the thorniness of the problem in question.
Intrinsic Value and the Notion of a Life
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: February 2007

This essay explores the notion of intrinsic value. It is argued thata richly sentient life being a certain wayis the only possible subject of a defensible judgement of intrinsic value. One consequence of this thesis is a disagreement with G. E. Moore regarding the intrinsic value of a beautiful world devoid of sentience, a famous thought experiment from hisPrincipia Ethica. But a more important consequence is the underlining of an intimate connection between the notion of a richly sentient life and the very idea of intrinsic value.
Self‐Love and the Vices of Self‐Preference
Authors: Adams Robert Merrihew
Published: February 2007

Excellence in caring for one's own good had a central place in ancient thought about virtue, but modern ethical thought has often been reluctant to regard it as a moral virtue at all. This chapter argues that there is a form of self-love that is quite distinct from vices of self-preference such as selfishness, self-centredness, and conceit; and that is virtuous and not inimical to altruistic benevolence.
Moral Frailty and Moral Luck
Authors: Adams Robert Merrihew
Published: February 2007

Psychological experiments and other empirical data seem to show that good traits of character (even if real) are frail, rather easily overcome by some types of temptation, and are dependent on social context and social support (and thus on ‘moral luck’) for their development, continuance, and behavioural manifestation. It is argued that excellence is not incompatible with fragility, and that the excellence of virtue is no less valuable for being in large part a gift rather than an individual achievement.
Introduction: The Appearances, and What They Might Mean
Authors: Stainton Robert J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter introduces and explains the two key premises around which the book is built. Premise 1 says that speakers genuinely can utter ordinary words and phrases in isolation, and thereby perform full-fledged speech acts. Premise 2 says that if speakers genuinely can utter ordinary words and phrases in isolation, and thereby perform full-fledged speech acts, then such-and-such implications obtain. What emerges repeatedly from the discussion of the two premises, and in several different ways, are two issues about words and thoughts: whether mere words (as opposed to sentences) can be used to state complete thoughts, and what the answer to this question entails about the general issue of how language (i.e., ‘words’) relates to thinking (i.e., ‘thoughts’). It is these two issues about words and thoughts that give rise to the title of the book.
4 The European Union and National Politics
Authors: Schmidt Vivien A.
Published: February 2007

The chapter begins with a brief sketch of the EU’s representative politics in comparison with national politics. It then examines the EU’s effects on national politics generally as well as differentially between majoritarian and proportional representation systems in terms of questions related to party politics and electoral participation, referenda and citizen activism, trust in government, identity and class between majoritarian and proportional representation systems. This is followed by a more detailed consideration of the EU’s effects in France, Britain, Germany, and Italy. While Europeanization has been equally problematic for the polarized, majoritarian politics of France and Britain, Britain has been more politically polarized for much longer around the issue of Europe than France, despite the fact that it has shielded itself more from EU encroachments on national policies. Europeanization has been least disruptive to Germany’s consensus-oriented, proportional representation system and most salutary to Italy’s more conflictual, mixed system of representation.
SONG OF THE MASTER IDEA
Authors: Wilson Mark
Published: February 2007

This chapter investigates the implications of these conclusions with respect to rule-following and rigor's implementation. It begins with a survey of common philosophical tensions over these topics and recommends a seasonal sensitivity with respect to the competing demands that syntax and ‘semantic picture’ place upon a usage. The historical travails of Oliver Heaviside's operational calculus provide a vivid illustration of how reasonable standards of rigor must adapt and shift over time.
Introduction
Authors: McKay Thomas J.
Published: February 2007

This introductory chapter begins with a brief discussion of the codification, interpretation, and development of first-order logic. It then argues that first-order logic should be extended to allow for the representation of non-distributive plural predication. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
A Formal Language with Non‐distributive Plurals: Preliminary Considerations
Authors: McKay Thomas J.
Published: February 2007

This chapter presents some preliminary considerations in favour of taking non-distributive predication seriously, introduces key concepts, and indicates some of the issues that need to be worked out in order to have a successful treatment of non-distributive predication, plural quantification with a full range of quantifiers, and compound plural terms. It argues that although plural language is widely used and understood in ordinary discourse, further exploration of the notation and the semantics for such a language leads to some interesting insights and surprises.
From Epicurus to Epictetus
Authors: Long A. A.
Published: February 2007

This book presents eighteen essays on the philosophers and schools of the Hellenistic and Roman periods: Epicureans, Stoics, and Sceptics. The discussion ranges over four centuries of innovative and challenging thought in ethics and politics, psychology, epistemology, and cosmology. The focus is on the distinctive contributions and methodologies of individual thinkers, notably Epicurus, Zeno, Pyrrho, Arcesilaus, Lucretius, Cicero, Seneca, and Epictetus. Placing their philosophy in its cultural context, and considering it in relation to the earlier ideas of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, the author invites readers to imagine themselves choosing between Stoicism and Epicureanism as philosophies of life. All but one of these pieces has been previously published in periodicals or conference volumes, but the author has revised and updated everything, and has also added postscripts to many of the essays.
Hellenistic Ethics as the Art of Life
Authors: Long A. A.
Published: February 2007

This chapter focuses on the idea of philosophy as the art of life, studying the foundations and implications of this idea, with a view to asking whether some version of it can still be useful to ethics. The embryo of this idea can be traced back to Socrates and the sophists, but its full and explicit development only began with the founding fathers of Stoicism in the third century bc. The idea is also implicit in Epicureanism; and it became widespread in later antiquity when it was contested by Sceptics. The discussion will incorporate the Epicureans as well as the Stoics, because both schools — in spite of their obvious divergences and rivalry — share many similarities in their basic assumptions and in what they promise their adherents. That common ground provides an understanding of the ancient appeal of both systems, while their divergences show that an art of life was taken to involve a totally consistent self-orientation, mediated by one's choice of system.
Aristotle and the History of Greek Scepticism
Authors: Long A. A.
Published: February 2007

The purpose in this chapter is not to cast doubt on Aristotle's dogmatic credentials, but rather focuses on a series of questions that seem to have gone largely unasked. How far is Aristotle aware of the sceptical challenge to knowledge, and how far does he attempt to answer it? How does he assess earlier Greek thinkers who have been regarded as forerunners of the official sceptics? How much, if at all, did his own work influence and anticipate the debates between sceptics and dogmatists that are charted in Cicero'sAcademicaand the writings of Sextus? It is argued that these questions are profitable lines of enquiry, and that Aristotle deserves more than the occasional footnote in histories of ancient scepticism.
Timon of Phlius: Pyrrhonist and Satirist
Authors: Long A. A.
Published: February 2007

Timon of Phlius has yet to receive his full due within the broad context of Greek intellectual history and literary study. Those who may have little or no interest in early Pyrrhonism are missing a lot if they are unfamiliar with Timon's extremely artful parodies of Homer and his Aristophanic versatility in coining new words. The neglect of Timon was the more surprising because his subject matter, the philosophy of Pyrrho, has never been short of attention. The study of Pyrrho must begin with the study of Timon; he stands even closer to Pyrrho than does Plato to Socrates.
Cicero's Plato and Aristotle
Authors: Long A. A.
Published: February 2007

The aim of this chapter is to approach Cicero's philosophical work by studying his assessments and use of Plato and Aristotle. It is argued that there is more to Cicero's Plato and Aristotle than can be ascertained from his purely philosophical background and sympathies. Cicero was not a purist in philosophy. His philosophical interests and judgements were constantly influenced by his Roman identity as an orator, statesman, and consistent supporter of themos maiorum. Cicero's use of Plato, i.e., his interest in identifiable material from Plato's dialogues; and his appeal to Aristotle and the Academic tradition for the methodology of pro and contra argument (in utramque partem dicere) are analyzed.
Vagueness in Context
Authors: Shapiro Stewart
Published: February 2007

This book develops both a philosophical and a formal, model-theoretic account of the meaning, function, and logic of vague terms in an idealized version of a natural language like English. Extensions of vague terms vary with such contextual factors as the comparison class and paradigm cases: a person can be tall with respect to male accountants and not tall (even short) with respect to professional basketball players. The main feature of the author's account is that the extensions (and anti-extensions) of vague terms also vary in the course of a conversation, even after the external contextual features, such as the comparison class, are fixed. A central thesis is that in some cases, a competent speaker of the language can go either way in the borderline area of a vague predicate without sinning against the meaning of the words and the non-linguistic facts. Shapiro calls thisopen texture, borrowing the term from Friedrich Waismann. The formal model theory has a similar structure to the supervaluationist approach, employing the notion of a sharpening of a base interpretation. In line with the philosophical account, however, the notion of super-truth does not play a central role in the development of validity. The ultimate goal of the technical aspects of the work is to delimit a plausible notion of logical consequence, and to explore what happens with the sorites paradox. Later chapters deal with what passes for higher-order vagueness — vagueness in the notions of ‘determinacy’ and ‘borderline’ — and with vague singular terms, or objects. In each case, the philosophical picture is developed by extending and modifying the original account. This is followed with modifications to the model theory and the central meta-theorems. In this book, vagueness is seen as a linguistic phenomenon, due to the kinds of languages that humans speak. But vagueness is also due to the world we find ourselves in, as we try to communicate features of it to each other. Vagueness is also due to the kinds of beings we are.
The Scale of Sciences
Authors: O’Meara Dominic J.
Published: February 2007

The scale of virtues corresponds to a division and scale of sciences which help realize these virtues. This chapter examines the scale of sciences as it was introduced into the curriculum of Neoplatonic schools especially by Iamblichus, with particular reference to the way in which ‘political science’ is integrated in the scale, and to the way in which ‘political science’ is conceived as to its contents and purpose.
Conclusion
Authors: O’Meara Dominic J.
Published: February 2007

This conclusion summarizes the argument of the book, gives some indications of the later history of Neoplatonic political philosophy in Byzantium and in the Italian Renaissance, and discusses the differences separating this philosophy from modern views concerning the nature of political philosophy.
Direct Perceptual Realism I: The Refutation of Idealism
Authors: Hanna Robert
Published: February 2007

This chapter examines Kant's argument for direct perceptual realism. It begins with a negative evaluation of Kant's Refutation and then moves towards a more positive line of analysis. It is argued that although Kant's Refutation of Idealism fails to establish the conceptual correctness and judgmental truth of outer perceptions of distal material objects, it does nevertheless establish the truth of content externalism. And when it is supplemented by some points from ‘Directions in Space’ and ‘What is Orientation in Thinking?’, it also refutes sceptical idealism and establishes direct perceptual realism by means of the quite substantive thesis of the necessity of self-orienting embodiment for all self-conscious creatures sharing our cognitive constitution, as well as the non-inferential warrant of perceptual judgments about some proximal and distal material objects.
Manifest Realism I: A Critique of Scientific Essentialism
Authors: Hanna Robert
Published: February 2007

This chapter makes a negative case for Kant's manifest realism by criticizing the leading contemporary version of maximal scientific realism, namely, scientific essentialism. It begins with a discussion of what is scientific essentialism. It presents four distinct ways that Kant would criticize scientific essentialism: the empirical inaccessibility of the microphysical world, why there is no necessary a posteriori, the antimony of essentialism, and the logical contingency of the laws of nature.
Truth and Human Nature
Authors: Hanna Robert
Published: February 2007

This chapter develops and defends four claims about Kant's theory of truth. The first is that Kant holds that ‘the accordance of my cognition with its object’ is the strictly and analytically correct, yet metaphysically and epistemologically neutral, explication of the concept of truth. Second, that the idea of a ‘real definition’ of truth is equivalent to Kant's notion of a criterion of truth. Third, that in denying that there is a real definition of truth, Kant is not saying that there are no criteria of truth whatsoever, but rather that there is no single or univocal universal criterion of truth, because in fact there are several irreducibly different types of truth, each of which reflects a distinct human cognitive capacity, and that accordingly truth has several different, equally legitimate, and systematically specifiable criteria. Finally, some broader and deeper implications of Kant's theory of truth are explored.
How Do We Know Necessary Truths?
Authors: Hanna Robert
Published: February 2007

This chapter provides a general framework for properly understanding Kant's famous modal-epistemological slogan, ‘reason has insight only into what it self-produces according to its own design,’ in terms of active a priori knowledge and pure practical reason, while rejecting any appeal to strong transcendental idealism, and also effectively avoiding platonism, conventionalism, scientific essentialism, and modal scepticism alike. This framework will be supplied in four stages. First, Kant's theory of epistemic necessity and epistemic apriority is explicated. Then, this theory is exemplified with a case study: his account of conceptual insight into simple analytic truths. Third, some remarks are made about the special role of insight in Kant's overall conception of a priori knowledge. Finally, the concept of insight in terms of his notion of theoretical technique is briefly reexplicated.
Where There's a Will There's a Way: Causation and Freedom
Authors: Hanna Robert
Published: February 2007

This chapter explores the same basic Kantian presuppositional links with respect to causation. It begins by unpacking the basics of Kant's metaphysics of causation, with special reference to the three Analogies of Experience and the Third Antinomy of Pure Reason. It then analyzes the problem of free will and works out a new version of Kant's theory of freedom, called the Embodied Agency Theory. Some of the intimate Kantian links between freedom and nature are explored, and a biological interpretation of the Embodied Agency Theory is developed. It is argued that for Kant, the irreversibility of time — ‘Time's Arrow’ — entails a necessary connection between naturally mechanized causation and the possibility of human practical causation.