bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Logic Programming and a New Framework for Logic
Authors: Gillies Donald
Published: November 2023

The aim of this chapter is to explore some consequences for the philosophy of logic of the development of the logic programming system PROLOG. These consequences, it will be argued, are of considerable importance. Although PROLOG developed from studies of classical predicate logic, it led to a new kind of logic, so-called non-monotonic logic. The logic of PROLOG is very far from being the first non-classical logic, but it is the first non-classical logic which has proved to be useful in some practical applications. This situation, as I will argue, strengthens the view that logic is empirical rather than a priori. PROLOG, moreover, introduces control into deductive logic and thus suggests a new framework in which logic is thought of, not merely as inference, but as inference + control. This framework will prove valuable in the next chapter, in which we shall consider the question of whether there can be an inductive logic, and, if so, what form that logic should take.
The Problem with Matter
Authors: Stoneham Tom
Published: November 2023

It is usual for philosophers studying Berkeley to concentrate on the first two positions in Philonous’ list because Berkeley here has arguments, namely the inconceivability of an unconceived tree and that nothing is like an idea but an idea, which, if successful, would make the rest of the argument redundant. What these arguments suggest to the twenty-first-century philosopher who has read Kant and Wittgenstein is that Berkeley is trying to draw limits to what we can think, limits which would leave materialism as literally unthinkable.
Objects and Identity
Authors: Stoneham Tom
Published: November 2023

In Chapters we concluded that to be part of physical reality an idea had to be perceived by the senses. Sense perception is involuntary and thus not something God can undergo. In Chapter 6 we saw that there was a reason to change Berkeley’s criterion of sense perception from involuntariness to passivity, but God is essentially active (DHP2 213-14), so sense perception is still exclusive to finite minds. Thus an idea is real, as opposed to merely imagined, if, and only if, it is actually, but passively, perceived by a finite spirit.
Conclusion
Authors: Stoneham Tom
Published: November 2023

Since the most natural and most common response to Berkeley is that he went wrong somewhere in his account of perception, most readers of this book will, I expect, be inclined to immunize themselves from immaterialism by rejecting SMP. But we must not forget the potential side effects of this immunization programme. SMP is so attractive to Berkeley because it captures the very intuitive sense in which we think that sense perception is simple openness to the world.
Schools of Thought: From Aristotle to Augustine
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

The fourth century saw a shift in political power from the city-states of classical Greece to the kingdom of Macedonia to the north. In the same way, after the Athenians Socrates and Plato, the next great philosopher was a Macedonian. Aristotle was born, fifteen years after Socrates’ death, in the small colony of Stagira, on the peninsula of Chalcidice. He was the son of Nicomachus, court physician to King Amyntas, the grandfather of Alexander the Great. After the death of his father he migrated to Athens in 367, being then 17, and joined Plato’s Academy. He remained for twenty years as Plato’s pupil and colleague, and it can safely be said that on no other occasion in history was such intellectual power concentrated in a single institution.
Towards Human Rights
Authors: Finnis John
Published: November 2023

The basic good of practical reasonableness {bonum prudentiae} summons one to treat the good of other people as a reason for action in one’s own practical deliberation and choosing. For: the direction the first practical principles give one’s deliberation is towards goods one can share in along with others, and it has no rational stopping-place short of a universal common good: the fulfilment of all human persons.
The Power of the Sword
Authors: Finnis John
Published: November 2023

The ‘power of the sword’, as Aquinas understands it, is essentially the public authority of the state’s rulers, and their judicial and military officers, to execute criminals and wage war. On occasion a private person may be commissioned by proper political or judicial authority to participate in some such punitive or appropriately warlike activity.
Introduction to the Politics
Authors: Kraut Richard
Published: November 2023

Having examined Aristotle’s conception of well-being, virtue, and justice in the Nicomachean Ethics, we are now ready to follow the instructions he gives his audience in the final sentences of the Ethics (X.9 rr8rb12-23). We are about to bring to completion the ‘philosophy of human affairs’ (rr8rbr5) begun in the Ethics, by examining the work to which the Ethics is a prolegomenon. But before we enter the terrain of the Politics, we should raise some questions about its internal consistency and its principle of organization. Because Aristotle wrote voluminously about diverse topics over the course of his lifetime, it would not be surprising to find him modifying his positions, or perhaps even changing his mind quite radically about certain matters.
Politics III: Citizenship, Stability, and Obedience
Authors: Kraut Richard
Published: November 2023

The Politics has a wealth of introductory material-which is a polite way of saying that the traditional arrangement of the treatise defers (perhaps for too long) the positive core and rich detail of Aristotle’s political theory.1 The topic of Book I is not the polis and its organization, but the household; by insisting that the individual and the household are secondary in importance to the city (I.2 r253a19), Aristotle conveys the point that this book is merely a prelude to political theory. Book II also serves as an introduction to later material: it tells us how others have stumbled in their thinking about the ideal constitution, and thus sets the stage for Aristotle’s own utopian ideas. Furthermore, as we have just seen in Chapter 9, the household continues to occupy Aristotle’s thoughts throughout much of Book II, for his discussion of Plato’s utopianism is, for the most part, an attempt to show that family and property are indispensable components of civic life.
French Style, and Inequality: Lavigne’s Sonatas
Authors: Rowland-Jones Anthony
Published: November 2023

As J. R. Anthony says in his book on French Baroque Music (p. 320), the French sonata was an ‘ultramontane importation’ from Italy. According to Franc;ois Couperin, the first French sonatas (called ‘sonades’ by Couperin) were composed by him in about 1692, and were an outcome of his admiration for Corelli. Baroque ‘French style’ had been powerfully established by Lully and his contemporaries, and French composers cultivated the kinds of music associated with the glories of Louis XIV’s reign and with the rich musical life of the salons of Paris and their ‘concerts spirituels’. French involvement with Italian musical taste as it developed in the early eighteenth century at different levels of music, most especially through the Opera Comique (see Anthony, 152 ff.), was for some time rather ambivalent, particularly with regard to the sonata.
Articulation and Slurs: Herbert Murrill’s Sonata and Handel’s ‘Furioso’ (D Minor Sonata)
Authors: Rowland-Jones Anthony
Published: November 2023

Quantz says of tonguing that it ‘is the means by which we give animation to the execution of the notes upon the flute ... it must animate the expression of the passions in pieces of every sort, whatever they may be: sublime or melancholy, gay or pleasing’ (p. 71). How much truer is this of the recorder with its unusually sensitive response to the articulations of normal speech arising from its low breath-pressure and its relaxed and natural lip position. Quantz adds that tonguing ‘so distinguishes one flute player from another that if a single piece is played in turn by several persons, the differences in their execution frequently make the work almost unrecognizable.’ Tonguing, like one’s way of speaking, is a very personal matter, as there is variation from one person to another in the shape of his upper jaw and palate, teeth positions (which dentistry may exacerbate), and the muscularity of the tongue, as well as differences arising from personality, native language, or accent. Moreover, different instruments-different by voicing and bore as well as by size-respond differently to ways of tonguing, though in itself each recorder is responsive to a wide variety of tonguing nuances.
Analysing Performance and Performing Analysis
Authors: Cook Nicholas
Published: November 2023

More than anything else, I suppose, it was Wallace Berry’s book Musical Structure and Performance that marked the emergence of ‘analysis and performance’ as a recognized subdiscipline within music theory.1 Yet Berry’s book reads more like the summation than the opening-up of a field. It represents not so much a cross-disciplinary exercise—the attempt to forge a relationship between two fundamentally different activities—as an attempt to incorporate performance within the existing intellectual framework of theory. Berry’s very language locates the intersection of analysis and performance firmly on the theorist’s turf; his aim, says Berry, is to investigate ‘how … a structural relation exposed in analysis can be illuminated in the inflections of edifying performance’. In this way the direction is always from analysis to performance, and Berry reiterates this to the point that you almost wonder if, deep down, he really believes it. He refers to ‘the path from analysis to performance’, and elsewhere to ‘the path from analysis to interpretive decision’, he speaks of ‘the findings of analysis and consequent outlets in performance’, and of such findings being ‘in turn’ expressed in performance.
Other Musicologies: Exploring Issues and Confronting Practice in India
Authors: Qureshi Regula Burckhardt
Published: November 2023

The ingenuously generic title of this chapter instantly and effectively invokes a complex problematic that has variously constrained Western music scholarship both outside and within the bounds of its own conventions. Aspects of this problematic are currently motivating critical initiatives in Western musicology. They are also challenging anew the explicitly other-oriented scholarship of ethnomusicology. A strong sense of engagement, linked to the current rethinking of Western intellectual foundations (to which this volume clearly contributes), characterizes these diverse initiatives for confronting, and juxtaposing, music scholarship and otherness.
Gender, Musicology, and Feminism
Authors: Cusick Suzanne G
Published: November 2023

My task here is to explain the relationship between gender and musicology, to explain the intellectual, musical, and political challenges that feminist scholarship poses to musicology, and to consider the reasons why feminist scholarship about music warrants the serious attention of all readers interested in ‘rethinking music’ as the twentieth century draws to a close.
Colour
Authors: Hemsley Thomas
Published: November 2023

One of the most important aspects of singing, and one which seems to be more and more neglected, is the ability consciously and meaningfully to vary the colour of the voice; to cultivate not only voice but also modifications of voice; in fact, to cultivate those aspects most directly expressive of human feelings, most characteristic of solo singing in our best tradition. Singers are frequently exhorted to vary the colour, but are too often at a loss to know precisely what is meant, and how to set about it. Too often they attempt to do this either through ‘colouring ‘ the voice superficially by distorting words, or resorting to states of excessive personal excitement.
The Centred Passion
Authors: Holman Derek
Published: November 2023

Derek Holman was born in England, but has lived in Canada since 1965. He is an accomplished organist, with special experience and expertise in choral and church music. He has also composed much orchestral and chamber music, but the bulk of his output is vocal music, for which he displays a special understanding and affinity. His work shows the influence of the English Romantics, and also, as with so many of his and later generations, Stravinsky, Shostakovich, and Britten have left their mark. This song cycle is a happy discovery: beautifully crafted, with a real sweep to it and a deep identification with the voice as a physical means of expression as well as an instrument.
Time to the Old
Authors: Schuman William
Published: November 2023

This beautifully written short cycle by a distinguished US composer completely disproves any arguments that twelve-tone writing can impair lyricism and expressive freedom. One rarely finds such accurately heard use of the voice in silky-smooth lines that dip and soar and words that fall naturally. The music sits perfectly in the lyric soprano voice, but a warmvoiced tenor would find this an ideal vehicle, and flexible, light mezzos and baritones would also be at home.
First Frost, Op. 115
Authors: Wilson James
Published: November 2023

The work of the Dublin-based British composer James Wilson is a consistent source of pleasure. With unfaltering taste, a delicate wit, and unobtrusive technical expertise, he has evolved a flexible and confident musical language that is loosely tonal, yet with a free-ranging chromaticism. Some harmonic and rhythmic gestures are redolent of other English music, especially of Britten, yet his work has a distinctive style and exceptional emotional power. He is not afraid to portray passion, and his works leave a strong impression long after the performance.
Three Poems of Irina Ratushinskaya
Authors: McLeod John
Published: November 2023

The searing emotional power of the work of the young Russian poet Irina Ratushinskaya and her defiant optimism in the face of horrific experiences in a Soviet labour camp, have moved and inspired artists everywhere. Since her poems became known here, several composers have responded to their vivid and visceral immediacy: Brian Elias, for instance, has produced a fine orchestral song cycle. The striking and characterful music of the Scottish composer John McLeod is perfectly suited to these vibrant texts. Full of drama, contrast, and rhythmic drive, the three settings make a most satisfying and wellproportioned cycle, with the fiercely dynamic middle song the most ambitious in scope.
Interlude IV: More on Piano Textures
Authors: Pratt George
Published: November 2023

In chorale harmonisations the directional flow of individual melodic lines is clearly visible. It is, too, in most of the textures created by several single-line instruments, though chords may be expanded upwards and downwards through a range much wider than that of the human voice, and chords are often extended in time, horizontally, by such devices as arpeggios and repeated broken chords. But it is in piano textures that the linear flow of parts can be most heavily disguised: the final resolution of a long scalar passage, or of arpeggios ranging widely over several octaves, may seem a long way from the expectations set up at the beginning of such figurations. The notation, too, is not easy to handle as so much material is contained within two staves. Even the draughtsmanship required for assembling notes in dense chords can be laborious and unwieldy.
Eye changes associated with Graves’ disease
Authors: Vanderpump Mark P J , Tunbridge W Michael G
Published: November 2023

Certain eye changes are found in thyroid overactivity irrespective of its cause, but fortunately in most people with hyperthyroidism these are not too troublesome, although they can cause concern. Two distinct types of ophthalmic disorder may occur. One type is due to overactivity of the sympathetic nervous system and may occur in hyperthyroidism, whatever its cause. The other type occurs only in Graves’ disease and may be present to some degree in up to half of people with this condition.
Simple non-toxic goitre
Authors: Vanderpump Mark P J , Tunbridge W Michael G
Published: November 2023

‘Simple non-toxic goitre’ is a time-honoured clinical description of a particular type of goitre. However, the term is not ideal. It does not indicate the cause of the condition nor, at its face value, is ‘simple’ appropriate.
Multinodular goitre and the solitary nodule
Authors: Vanderpump Mark P J , Tunbridge W Michael G
Published: November 2023

A multinodular goitre is likely to occur in a person who has had a problem with their thyroid gland for many years. However, a solitary nodule or lump in the thyroid gland may appear suddenly. A very small swelling or a lump in the neck may have been noticed and ignored previously, but then concern may rise if it suddenly increases in size or becomes painful.
Atlantic Republic
Authors: Giles Paul
Published: November 2023

Atlantic Republic traces the legacy of the United States both as a place and as an idea in the work of English writers from 1776 to the present day. Seeing the disputes of the Reformation as a precursor to this transatlantic divide, it argues that America has operated since the Revolution as a focal point for various traditions of dissent within English culture. By ranging over writers from Richard Price and Susanna Rowson in the 1790s to Angela Carter and Salman Rushdie at the turn of the twenty-first century, the book argues that America haunts the English literary tradition as a parallel space where ideology and aesthetics are configured differently. Consequently, it suggests, many of the key episodes in British history-parliamentary reform in the 1830s, the imperial designs of the Victorian era, the twentieth-century conflict with fascism, the advance of globalization since 1980-have been shaped by implicit dialogues with American cultural models. Rather than simply reinforcing the benign myth of a ‘special relationship’, Paul Giles considers how various English writers over the past 200 years have engaged with America for various complicated reasons: its promise of political republicanism (Byron, Mary Shelley); its emphasis on religious disestablishment (Clough, Gissing); its prospect of pastoral regeneration (Ruxton, Lawrence); its vision of scientific futurism (Huxley, Ballard). The book also analyses the complex cultural relations between Britain and the United States around the time of the Second World War, suggesting that writers such as Wodehouse, Isherwood, and Auden understood the United States and Germany to offer alternative versions of the kind of technological modernity that appeared equally hostile to traditional forms of English culture. The book ends with a consideration of ways in which the canon of English literature might appear in a different light if seen from a transnational rather than a familiar national perspective.
John Selden
Authors: Toomer G J
Published: November 2023

This book provides the first thorough treatment of the scholarship of John Selden, acknowledged as the most learned man of 17th-century England. All of his numerous published works, especially in the fields of history, law, and Hebraica, are critically examined and described in detail. The narrative also relates his writings to contemporary events, in the Civil War and the parliaments (including the Long Parliament) in which he played a prominent part, and to the work of other scholars in Europe (notably Scaliger and Grotius) and in Britain (including Camden and Ussher). Selden’s involvement with the Universities, the support of libraries, and the promotion of scholarship is discussed. The work will be an essential resource, not only for the life of a major figure of his time, but also for the intellectual history of 17th-century England in general.
Mare Clausum
Authors: Toomer G J
Published: November 2023

In 1609 there was published at Leiden a small treatise entitled Mare Liberum. Although anonymous, it was known to have been written by Hugo Grotius, who, at age 25, was already distinguished as a jurist and scholar not only in Holland, but throughout Europe. Its purpose was to assert the right of the Dutch to trade with the East Indies, against Portuguese claims to monopoly in commerce and navigation in those waters. However, Grotius incidentally (in chs. 1 and 8) enunciated the thesis that the ‘Law of Nations’ establishes the right of all to sail the seas and trade freely.
The Changing European Context of Economic and Monetary Union: ‘Deepening’, ‘Widening’, and Stability
Authors: Umbach Gaby , Wessels Wolfgang
Published: November 2023

From the outset, the idea of supranational monetary policymaking and the establishment of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) with the Maastricht Treaty was a project of highest political relevance. In addition to its economic rationale, EMU was perceived as a political project, a major step towards deeper European integration and eventual ‘political unity’ (Single European Act: Article 1; cf. Krgenau and Wetter 1994: 73). Like earlier milestones in European economic integration that formed ‘first steps’ (cf. Schuman 1950) in the evolution of the EU’s political system, the provisions of EMU were conceived as an instrument to smooth the way for a ‘political union’ (Bundesregierung 1991: 85) and the creation of ‘an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe’ (Preamble Treaty on European Union Nice/Lisbon). Hence, the creation of EMU followed essential elements of what is generally known as the ‘Monnet method’ (cf. Wessels and Faber 2007).
European States and the Euro Area: Clustering and Covariance in Patterns of Change
Authors: Dyson Kenneth
Published: November 2023

In the light of the preceding ‘country’ and thematic chapters, this chapter asks whether patterns can be identified in the effects that the Euro Area is having on European states, with respect to their institutional characteristics, policies, and politics. Its central argument focuses on the need to embed Europeanization research—on how European economic governance and policies, especially the euro, affect states and their activities—in a broader political economy analysis. This approach to analysing change incorporates the preferences of firms—how they respond to changing market circumstances, consequent on the euro, in turn altering the context of state action. The chapter focuses principally on Euro Area member states.
Introduction: Literacy, Medicine, and Gender
Authors: Green Monica H
Published: November 2023

In June of 1410, a female surgeon, Perretta Petone, was brought before the royal tribunal of Paris on charges of unlicensed practice. Perretta never denied that she practised medicine. On the contrary, she proudly claimed that she had been trained by one of her relatives and several other practitioners in a small provincial town and that for the past eight years she had been practising in Paris, evidently with great success. Her patients themselves had demanded her release when she had first been imprisoned more than a year earlier. The intent of the corporation of surgeons that brought the charge, however, was to prove Perretta incompetent. And the key to their arguments was her literacy.
Sense and Insensibility Or Where Minimalism Meets Contextualism
Authors: Corazza Eros , Dokic Jérôme
Published: November 2023

As we understand it, semantic minimalism is the view that: (i) an utterance u of a (declarative) sentence S expresses a proposition p whose constituents must all be represented by elements of S; (ii) the structure of p reflects the logical form of S, and (iii) if S does not contain indexical expressions, u expresses p in a context-independent way. This last claim can be illustrated in considering:
The making of a writer
Authors: Slater Michael
Published: November 2023

Dickens’s father, John, was the younger son of William Dickens (d. 1785) and Elizabeth Ball (d. 1824), respectively butler and housekeeper in the Crewe family, who had married in 1781.
Society, charity, and satire
Authors: Slater Michael
Published: November 2023

Martin Chuzzlewit was published in monthly parts from 31 December 1842 to 30 June 1844. Dickens thought it ‘in a hundred points immeasurably the best of my stories’ (Forster, 305), and declared that he felt his power more than ever before. And, indeed, this is the great transitional novel that leads from the dazzling farce and comedy of humours, the often powerfully effective melodrama and satirical episodes, the some- times startling grotesquerie and the picaresque pleasures of the early fiction to the complex, resonant, carefully planned and structured master- pieces of Dickens’s later years.
The Beagle voyage, 1831–1836
Authors: Desmond Adrian , Moore James , Browne Janet
Published: November 2023

Henslow’s letter referred to a proposed two-year trip to ‘Terra del Fuego & home by the East Indies’, explaining that the position was ‘more as a companion than a mere collector’. Henslow had recommended Darwin, ‘not on the supposition of yr. being a finished Naturalist, but as amply qualified for collecting, observing, & noting any thing worthy to be noted in Natural His- tory’ (Correspondence, 1.128–9).
Theorizing in London, 1836–1842
Authors: Desmond Adrian , Moore James , Browne Janet
Published: November 2023

After visiting Cambridge to consult Henslow about experts to describe his Beagle specimens, and calling on his Wedgwood relatives in Staffordshire, Darwin stayed with his brother in London for a few weeks. During the five-year voyage the whigs had established a new work- house regime for the losers in a Malthusian competitive economy. Erasmus Darwin was intimate with the poor-law propagandist Harriet Martineau, which put him at the heart of the Whig machine, and Darwin’s cousin Hensleigh Wedgwood, whose wedding to Frances Mackintosh had been attended by Thomas Robert Malthus’s daughter as a bridesmaid, completed the two brothers’ dining circle.
Botany and belief, 1861–1882
Authors: Desmond Adrian , Moore James , Browne Janet
Published: November 2023

During the controversy over the Origin of Species Darwin increasingly turned to botanical observations. He had always considered plants as important to his theories as animals: many of the arguments for adaptation, variation, and descent in the Origin hinged on his early botanical work, particularly in plant geography. He was a regular contributor to Gardeners’ Chronicle and sent papers on botanical topics to the Linnean Society of London. After publishing the Origin he carried out a wide range of investigations into the living processes of plants and their adaptations.
Elizabeth I
Authors: Collinson Patrick
Published: November 2023

Definitive, concise, and very interesting... From William Shakespeare to Winston Churchill, the Very Interesting People series provides authoritative bite-sized biographies of Britain’s most fascinating historical figures - people whose influence and importance have stood the test of time. Each book in the series is based upon the biographical entry from the world-famous Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
Court and country
Authors: Collinson Patrick
Published: November 2023

The Elizabeth who has become almost a historical cliché has been romanticized as a kind of queen bee at the centre of a hive populated by glittering and competing favourites. Distinctions have been drawn between on the one hand ‘mere’ favourites, decorative players like, above all, Leicester, Sir Christopher Hatton, who was thought to have made it to the high office of lord chancellor by his performance on the dance floor, and Sir Walter Ralegh, and, on the other, workaholic politicians, more soberly dressed, such as Burghley and Walsingham.
A restless tactician
Authors: Parry Jonathan
Published: November 2023

The Conservative Party split elevated Disraeli to the front opposition bench in 1847. This completed a change of parliamentary image: colourful attire had by now given way to the black frock coat (sometimes blue in summer), grey trousers, plush waistcoat, and sober neckerchief which was to be his Commons uniform for the next thirty years. He worked hard on his oratory, mugging up blue books and spending all day memorizing figures so that his mastery of them in debate could seem as spontaneous as Peel’s.
Disraeli’s second premiership, 1874–1880
Authors: Parry Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Despite Liberal weaknesses, at the beginning of 1874 there was little reason to expect a rapid return to power. In fact, Disraeli was prime minister again before the beginning of the session, owing to Gladstone’s unexpected dissolution and decisive defeat at the election. The Conservatives had over 350 seats. Disraeli took office on 18ruary. At last he had achieved his great ambition, power with a majority—something that had seemed impossible for most of his life.
Can We Trust Our Intuitions?
Authors: Kahneman Daniel
Published: November 2023

Daniel Kahneman is the world’s pre-eminent investigator of the ways in which the limits of our cognitive abilities shape our judgements. Since the late 1960s, his work, much of which was carried out in close collaboration with the late Amos Tversky (1937 –1996), has focused on our intuitive judgements. One of Kahneman and Tversky’s favoured methods of studying such judgements involves asking subjects relatively simple questions about cases.
Introduction
Authors: Duanmu San
Published: November 2023

There are some fifty ethnic groups in China, the largest of which is Han, with over 90 per cent of the total population. The native language of the Han people is called Hanyu ‘ the Han Language’ or Zhongwen ‘ Language of China’ . The broader sense of the English word Chinese refers to anyone from China. The narrower sense of the word refers to the Han people or their native language. There are over 1,000 million native speakers of Chinese (including some non-Han groups such as Hui and Man), who make up about a fifth of the world’ s population today. In this regard, Chinese is the largest language in the world.
The Syllable
Authors: Duanmu San
Published: November 2023

Syllable boundaries in Chinese are mostly unambiguous, regardless of the dialect. The majority of Chinese words are monosyllabic. The maximal size of a syllable in SC is either CGVV or CGVC, where C is a consonant, G a glide, and VV either a long vowel or a diphthong. I refer to such syllables as CGVX, where CG is realized as a complex sound CG (see below). In polysyllabic words, which are often foreign names, syllable boundaries are also unambiguous. In particular, the durational patterns and allophonic changes provide cues for word-medial syllable boundaries. Some examples in SC are shown in (1).
Tone: Basic Properties
Authors: Duanmu San
Published: November 2023

In producing voiced sounds, the vocal cords will vibrate to open and close the airflow in quick succession. The rate of the vibration is called the fundamental frequency, or F0. Pitch is the perceived height of F0; a higher F0 will be heard as a higher pitch. However, F0 does not correspond to pitch proportionally. For example, when the F0 value doubles, the pitch is not twice as high. Having said this, we will not be concerned with the difference between F0 and pitch. All languages use pitch for various linguistic purposes such as intonation. When pitch is used to distinguish words, it is called tone.
Connected Speech and Other Dialects
Authors: Duanmu San
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I discuss some sound changes in connected speech, major phonological processes in other Chinese dialects, and Taiwanese accented SC. I use connected speech to refer to speech that occurs at natural speed, such as spontaneous conversations or narratives. This section is not meant to be a detailed review or analysis of connected speech; its purpose is to show the kind of changes that occur by listing some examples, transcribed in phonetic symbols. Tones are marked when relevant (see Chapter 10 for representation of tone). Vowel length is not always indicated.
Who Represents Us Best? One Member or Many?
Authors: Curtice John , Shively W Phillips
Published: November 2023

There is one issue which tends to dominate the debate about legislative electoral systems. It centres on the relative merits of “fairness” versus an electoral outcome which produces a clear winner. Advocates of proportional representation argue that the allocation of seats for each party in a legislative body should be as proportional as possible to the votes that they win. This, they argue, ensures that the diversity of views of the electorate is faithfully and fairly reflected in the composition of the legislature.
Introduction—Roma, recepta: a topography of the imagination*
Authors: Larmour David H J , Spencer Diana
Published: November 2023

Exaudi, regina tui pulcherrima mundi, inter sidereos, Roma, recepta polos; exaudi, genetrix hominum genetrixque deorum, non procul a caelo per tua templa sumus: te canimus semperque, sinent dum fata, canemus, sospes nemo potest immemor esse tui. [...] urbem fecisti quod prius orbis erat. Listen, Queen, who is the fairest in your world, amidst the starry skies Rome is made welcome; listen, mother of men and mother of gods, we are not so far from heaven on account of your temples: it is you whom we celebrate in song and shall, while fate allows, forever celebrate; no-one can be safe who is forgetful of you . . . you have made a city out of what was formerly the whole world. Rutilius Namatianus, De reditu suo 1.47–52, 66 The subject of this volume is the topography of Rome in its broadest sense, as a persistent present in the time, space, and memory of Western consciousness. Why Rome? Since the Italian Renaissance, Rome has occupied and engaged the Western imagination in a manner unparalleled by any other city, but even in the classical * We would like to thank OUP’s readers, in particular, for their advice and suggestions, and Gideon Nisbet for critiques of successive drafts.
The sites and sights of Rome in Fellini’s Wlms: ‘not a human habitation but a psychical entity’*
Authors: Theodorakopoulos Elena
Published: November 2023

The site of Fellini’s Rome is, mostly, studio 5 at Cinecitta`—just as its sight is, mostly, Fellini’s. Even the Colosseum and the jammed autostradawhich surrounds it in Roma(1972) are sets created for Fellini—so are the Baths of Caracalla, the Via Veneto, and, even, the dome of St Peter’s in La Dolce Vita(1960). In Fellini Satyricon(1969), classical Rome is mostly absent, or else unrecognizable. In this sense, Fellini’s Rome is artiWcial and constructed—it is also spectacular, and dream-like. It is Xooded with memories, both personal and collective. It is diYcult to Wnd cohesive routes and vistas through it—and it is diYcult to distinguish past, present, and future—let alone fact and Wction. Ruin and decay permeate it as much as energy and vitality. It is impossible to categorize generically: the Satyriconis history and science Wction, Romais documentary and Wction, La Dolce Vitais narrative and non-narrative. Rome is both home and exile (in Satyricon), maternal and sexual (in Roma), welcoming and alienating (in La Dolce Vita). Like many of the sites and sights discussed in this volume, Fellini’s cinematic Rome is a city of the imagination, in which past and * I owe thanks to Diana Spencer and David Larmour, and to OUP’s reader, for their generous and insightful comments on the Wrst draft of this piece, and to Susanna Binelli for helping me with translating Italian.
Rising from obscurity, 1599–1642
Authors: Morrill John
Published: November 2023

The Cromwell fortune and name derived from Cromwell’s great-grandfather, Morgan Williams, a Welshman from Glamorgan who had settled in Putney as an innkeeper and brewer and who had had the good fortune to marry the elder sister of Henry VIII’s great minister Thomas Cromwell before the latter’s rise to greatness. Williams and his son Richard were beneflciaries of this relationship and received enough conflscated church lands to become one ofthe most prominent families in Huntingdonshire.
Introduction
Authors: Hinde Robert A
Published: November 2023

Do-unto-others-as-you-would-have-them-do-unto-you. Some variant of this ‘Golden Rule’ is basic to our society. Yet in the commercial world people do the best they can for themselves, in war soldiers kill, politicians distort the truth to please the electorate, and barristers defend individuals whom they believe to be guilty or prosecute ones they believe to be innocent. Seen from the standpoint of everyday morality, they are breaking the Golden Rule, yet not only does the businessman, soldier, politician, or barrister believe him- or herself to be doing the right thing but, to different degrees, their behaviour is accepted by others.
Exchange and Reciprocity
Authors: Hinde Robert A
Published: November 2023

Personal relationships provided the context in which moral precepts emerged, for the integrity of a small group depends on the relationships between its members. This chapter considers some aspects of how personal relationships work, and has two sections. The first introduces perhaps the most important factor in the day-to-day conduct of personal relationships—reciprocal exchange. Related to that, many human values ensure that personal relationships run smoothly, and have presumably been selected, biologically or culturally, to that end.
Ethics and the Physical Sciences
Authors: Hinde Robert A
Published: November 2023

This chapter and the next are concerned with ethical problems that arise in the physical and medical sciences. The physical sciences are discussed first because ethical problems there have become acute only relatively recently, and there is as yet no clear plan on how they should be met. Ethical problems in the practice of medicine and in medical research are well recognized, and there are methods for dealing with them—though the rapid advances in medical and biological sciences are bringing new and even more acute problems. Later chapters deal with contexts in which the problems have long been with us, but those involved, or the community, have devised methods to reduce the tension that they would otherwise generate.
Ethics and War
Authors: Hinde Robert A
Published: November 2023

The preamble to the United Nations Charter states:

We the peoples of the United Nations determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind

There can be no question that, if we remember our humanity, war is wrong in principle and nearly always wrong in practice. It involves inflicting, or trying to inflict, harm to others that one would not like to have done to oneself. While war may strengthen bonds within the in-group, it contravenes the principle of prosocial reciprocity so far as the out-group is concerned.
The Cartesian Legacy
Authors: Cottingham John
Published: November 2023

What does our present worldview owe to Descartes? Routine genuflections to the ‘father of modem philosophy’ do not help one bit to answer this question. It is true that nearly all philosophy students still cut their teeth on the Meditations; further, that its author’s place in the historical canon of great philosophers is unassailable. But despite Descartes’s prominence on the reading lists, if we look at the way philosophy is actually practised in our own day, it seems undeniable that the ruling conception of the philosophical enterprise is, and has been for some time, a powerfully anti-Cartesian one.
‘The only sure sign...’ Thought and Language in Descartes
Authors: Cottingham John
Published: November 2023

Some people like to think that the modern discipline of philosophy has little if anything to learn from the history of the subject, but in reality the philosophical enquiries of each generation always take shape against the background of an implicit dialogue with the actual or imagined ideas of past thinkers. Many of our current debates on the relationship between thought and language bear the imprint of what the ‘father of modern philosophy’ said, or is supposed to have said.
Redistribution in Australia: The Importance of One Vote, One Value
Authors: Medew Rod
Published: November 2023

Members of the Australian House of Representatives are elected from singlemember electoral districts referred to as electorates. Population shifts over time affect the populations of the electorates, and substantial variations must be rectified periodically by redistribution. This chapter will describe the redistribution process in Australia: what triggers a redistribution, which entity is responsible for carrying it out, and what criteria must be taken into account by those tasked with redrawing electorate boundaries.
Redistricting in France under Changing Electoral Rules
Authors: Balinski Michel
Published: November 2023

France has undoubtedly used more electoral systems for electing its national representatives than any other modern democracy: Since 1789, one system survived 30 consecutive years (1889–1919), one 27 years (1958–85), another 18 years (1852–70), still another 17 years (1831–48). With the exception of the present system—adopted in 1986 to elect 577 “députés”—all other systems have had shorter lives. France also elects a President, 346 senators (as of 2010), 78 members of the European Parliament, some 4,000 cantonal representatives, and about 2,000 regional representatives (in 26 separate regions) using a wide variety of different systems. In the words of Charles de Gaulle, “We have experimented—we, the French—with all possible electoral systems.”
Delimiting Electoral Boundaries in Post-Conflict Settings
Authors: Handley Lisa
Published: November 2023

Organizing elections and delimiting electoral boundaries in a post conflict setting is very different from drawing constituencies and conducting elections under normal conditions. Although the situation varies by country, most post conflict societies lack the legal framework, the institutional infrastructure, the financial and technological resources, and often even the political will to engage in democratic elections and embark on the requisite tasks to bring these elections to fruition. Furthermore, competitive elections—and a contentious delimitation process—may actually exacerbate the deep divisions already present among former combatant parties.
Beginning Again
Authors: Huggan Graham
Published: November 2023

There are few pursuits less fashionable yet more contentious than literary history. What is this outdated discipline that continues, in spite of itself, to be so up-to-date? And if literary history is seen, as it often is, as being an ‘anachronistic reflex’ (Pierce 1988: 88), then why is so much fuss being made about it, in Australia and elsewhere? One possible answer is that the current debates surrounding literary history are closely linked with those centring on the figure of the nation. If the nation can loosely be defined as a shared symbolic space invested with collective memories (Featherstone 1996: 53), then literary history charts that space, attempting to give it meaningful shape. Literary histories, it need hardly be said, are not intrinsically nationalistic; but they are national narratives of a kind, textual constructions of the nation: they are part, that is, of the negotiable field of meanings, signs, and symbols that is associated with national culture, national identity, national life (Bhabha 1990: 3).
The Archaeologist as Shaman: the Sensory National Archaeology of Manolis Andronikos
Authors: Hamilakis Yannis
Published: November 2023

The story of this chapter starts exactly where that of the last chapter finished: at the ashes of Smyrna, in Asia Minor in 1922. Among the thousands who left was a 3-year-old with his parents, who eventually settled in Thessaloniki. My own point of entry in this story, however, will be in a Thessaloniki church, Agia Sophia, 70 years later. 1 April 1992. A funeral. But not any funeral. A funeral for which the prime minister of the country, along with four senior ministers, Xew in from Athens. A funeral for which the national Xags were raised at halfmast all over Thessaloniki. A funeral for which thousands of people have been Xocking to the church since 11 o’clock in the morning. The honoured dead is not a prominent statesman, a famous literary author, or poet.
Political Developments 1830–1852
Authors: McCord Norman , Purdue Bill
Published: November 2023

The government formed by Earl Grey1 after the fall of the Tories in 1830 was responsible for some of the most important reforms within the period covered by this book. At first sight this might not appear a likely development. The Tories had carried notable reforms, such as Catholic emancipation, and the new Cabinet scarcely wore a radical aspect. It was not simply a Whig ministry, but a new coalition including men who had worked comfortably under Lord Liverpool. The Canningite Tories did not bring to Grey’s government a numerous parliamentary following, but their leaders’ administrative experience was welcome to a Whig Party which had been excluded from office for many years. The importance of the Canningites’ entry into the coalition was illustrated by the major offices which they received. Melbourne took the Home Office, Palmerston the Foreign Office, Goderich the Colonial Office, and Charles Grant became President of the Board of Control for India.
Government and Administration c.1880–1914
Authors: McCord Norman , Purdue Bill
Published: November 2023

The period 1880–1914 ends with a burst of spectacular and radical change in the late Edwardian period which saw a considerable expansion in the role of government. In comparison both with those years and with the pattern of change in public administration in the decades before 1880, the growth of government in the years 1880–1906 is often undervalued, being seen as largely the continuation of trends established during the struggle for the growth of government before 1880.
Testing Hypotheses: More Dogs, Monkeys, and Ticks
Authors: Harré Rom
Published: November 2023

We can look on the experimental programmes of Stephen Hales and the Oxford cognoscenti as the systematic exploration of further features of the mammalian blood system that could be studied in the light of Harvey’s theory of blood circulation. If we assume that the heart is pumping a small quantity of blood round and round the body it is an obvious next step to ask how rapidly it is circulating and what sort of pressure is built up in the system. Hales ‘ programme of experiments was not designed to distinguish between two rival hypotheses about the internal circulation and pressures of the fluid in the mammalian veins and arteries.
Modelling Individuals: Yet More Dogs, A Few Mice, and One Human Stomach
Authors: Harré Rom
Published: November 2023

A great deal of research in which animal bodies have figured has involved treating them as models of human bodies. The patterns of reasoning are typical of model-based research. In such work, similarities between model and subject must be weighed against differences, not only in their behavior, but also in their intrinsic natures. Scientific research is traditionally supposed to be a cluster of practices distinct from engineering, pharmacology, and psychiatry. Scientists, it is declared, pursue knowledge for its own sake.
Inventing Novel Beings: An Imaginary Cat and Virtual Life Forms
Authors: Harré Rom
Published: November 2023

We do not always have to use real pieces of equipment to do experiments. Sometimes it is enough to imagine a situation and think out what might be the outcome of manipulating the things with which we have populated it. Some of the greatest scientists have been the most adept at the art of ‘thought experiments ’. To test out the viability of his conception of absolute motion in absolute space, Newton imagined a pair of globes connected by a string, rotating around their common centre of gravity in ‘an immense vacuum ’. He concluded that even if there were nothing else in the Universe, an observer could know whether the globes were really rotating because there would be a tension in the string if they were.