bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
On the Faultline Between the Profession and the State: The Ambiguous Role of Teacher Professional Bodies
Authors: Alcorn Noeline
Published: December 2017

The New Zealand Teachers Council was established in 2002 to enhance the professional status of teachers. Though its responsibility for teacher registration and discipline makes it a gatekeeper to the profession, its status is problematic. Self-regulation is key to the professional status of doctors, lawyers and engineers, but the powers of teaching councils internationally are limited. Governments, increasingly prescriptive about curriculum, assessment and achievement, are reluctant to surrender power over standards and accountability to a teacher dominated body. The article examines the challenges for teaching councils across four countries, as they grapple with complex issues of professionalism and accountability in the contested ground between teachers and the State.
Shared Principalship of Schools
Authors: Upsall Debby
Published: December 2017

Since the Tomorrow’s Schools reforms of 1989 decentralised school administration, a managerialist construct of leadership has been officially promoted. It will be argued that this approach to school leadership has been at odds, not only with the beliefs and preferred practice of the majority of New Zealand primary school principals, but also with the recommendations of a wealth of national and international educational researchers and theorists. Collaborative management structures are not only an effective way of leading successful schools, but may attract into school leadership a wider variety of applicants. New Zealand primary schools are currently experiencing increasing difficulty recruiting new principals and retaining experienced ones. Alternative models of school principalship that might make the job more manageable and attractive, particularly to women, need to be explored. One such alternative model, shared principalship, is discussed.
Moving the Frontiers of Convention 1975-2003: An Overview of the Early Childhood Education Landscape
Authors: May Helen
Published: December 2017

There has been an early childhood convention every four years since 1975. In a keynote address to the Eighth Early Childhood Convention held at Palmerston North in September 2003, the author presented an overview analysis of these conventions in the pedagogical and political landscape of early childhood in Aotearoa-New Zealand. The resulting convention papers can be seen as signposts, outlining the pedagogical and political issues of the time. The convention forums have been a useful platform for:

celebrating New Zealand early childhood education
challenging entrenched opinion
critiquing existing policy and practice
signalling strategic directions
forecasting new frontiers.

This paper is an abbreviated and updated version of the keynote address. It summarises the debate and discourse on early childhood matters in Aotearoa-New Zealand from 1975 until 2003 through the medium of the conventions themselves.
Collectivism, Communities, and Constellations: Some Reflections on Early Childhood Innovations 2003
Authors: Podmore Valerie
Published: December 2017

This article identifies some themes and issues from early childhood education policy, research, pedagogy, and practice in Aotearoa 2003. It weaves together some selected themes from the Eighth Early Childhood Convention, held in Palmerston North in September 2003, together with reflections on the concept and development of early childhood centres of innovation (COIs). There is a focus on collaborative, innovative practice and research.
Beginning Literacy: The Small-Unit Versus Large-Unit Debate Continues
Authors: Twist Juliet
Published: December 2017

This article presents a review of the literature on the small- versus large-unit debate, followed by an analysis of the Ready to Read Teacher Support Material in order to determine where it stands in relation to the issue over whether only grapheme-phoneme correspondences should be taught to beginning readers, or whether they should also be taught rime-analogy strategies. The literature review shows the small-units-first argument as the more robust, and the analysis of the Ready to Read support material shows the small-units-first argument has been relatively more influential in the development of teaching suggestions for readers at the beginning of instruction.
How to Make “What Works” Work: A Role for the Resource Teacher Learning and Behaviour
Authors: Thomson Charlotte
Published: December 2017

This article identifies the need for New Zealand schools to implement empirically-based research strategies in order to improve achievement outcomes for students whose needs they are failing to meet. The article highlights the gap between research and practice, and the construct of acceptability is examined as a possible explanation for the gap. Variables affecting the acceptability of interventions are analysed under three headings – the intervention, the teacher and the support needed to bring about change. Finally, the paper makes a case for the suitability of the Resource Teachers Learning and Behaviour (RTLB) to fill the role of a scientist-practitioner in order to link the theoretical positions of the academic researcher and the teacher at the front line.
Financing Education
Authors: Stephens Bob
Published: December 2017

Although education was an issue of major concern to voters in the lead-up to the 1993 election, and political parties responded with a variety of policy proposals, there was a noticeable reticence for further state funding of education. By international standards, tax levels are low in New Zealand, as is participation by tertiary standards. But whether increases in Vote: Education are the best use of further tax dollars depends on philosophical stances as to the nature of education. The human capital school argue for increased fees, whilst those who regard education as a right have to realise that quality may suffer if the state is the sole funder. Provision and policy development based in Iwi and Maori worlds are not covered.
Curriculum Reform: Forwards or Backwards?
Authors: Elley Warwick
Published: December 2017

In April 1993, the Minister of Education launched the New Zealand Curriculum Framework, which sets out the essential skills and achievement objectives to be developed in every school. During the year, also, the detailed national statements of aims and standards for Mathematics and Science were published, along with suggested instructional activities and assessment tasks. In addition the draft statement for English was released in October, for comment, and work was well advanced on the Technology and Social Science curricula. The Government’s hope is that these various documents would “specify clear objectives” and identify “for boards of trustees, teachers, students, parents and the wider community a progression of desirable standards of learning – against which students’ progress can be assessed” (Ministry of Education, 1993a). This is the hallmark of the reformed curricula – that the progression in each subject be clearly specified. The standards are spelled out in the form of eight successive levels in each learning area and students’ progress is to be assessed in relation to these levels.

These statements are the first curriculum documents to be developed under the Ministry’s new contract system, and it remains to be seen whether they will acquire sufficient levels of teacher ownership and attract sufficient resourcing and teacher development to be successfully implemented, as intended....
The Politics of Gender: Women, Education and the Market in 1993
Authors: O'Neill Anne-Marie
Published: December 2017

This chapter sets out an analysis of the assumptions underlying the new educational settlement (Grace, 1990). In particular, it analyses the patriarchal nature of the “world view” and practices of that settlement guiding model, that is a free market and its endorsement of what I have termed the concept of rational market man. The intellectual paucity of neo-liberalism free market ideologies and possessive individualism which have guided and legitimated educational change are starkly revealed when a gender analysis is applied to them. This chapter examines a few of the multitude of different “realities” through which women live out their lives in a gendered and unequal society. Such realities are closely related to educational provision and yet they can never be taken account of (and never resourced) in educational policy and planning as long as the hegemony of market models is retained.
1893-1993: How Far Have We Come in Women's Employment in Education?
Authors: Court Marian
Published: December 2017

In 1893, the year of women’s enfranchisement, women teachers were petitioning for equal pay for work of equal value. In 1993, the year celebrating women’s suffrage, how far have we come in struggles for equality? In this article, a brief overview of some historical concerns precedes an examination of the nature of present gendered hierarchies across and within the education services. Despite the equity legislation of the 1980s, there is a disturbing similarity between women’s positions and concerns today and those of a hundred years ago. A discussion of issues related to an increasing casualising of work and demands for flexibility in management and labour relations is placed in the context of the restructuring of educational administration and the Employment Contracts Act.
Maori Education in 1993: A Review and Discussion
Authors: Irwin Kathie
Published: December 2017

Was 1993 a happening year or was 1993 a happening year! A number of significant events, in national as well as global terms, occurred. It was: the centenary year of Women’s Suffrage in Aotearoa; the International Year of the World’s Indigenous People, linking “an estimated 250 million indigenous people in more than seventy countries around the world” (Te Puni Kokiri, 1993a); an election year; and the final year of the Development Decade, which was outlined as the third objective of the kawenata, the covenant, declared by Maoridom at the Hui Taumata, the Maori Economic Development Summit held in 1984, marked in Te Rapa this year with the holding of the 1993 National Commercial and Economic Development Conference, organised by the Ki Tua o Te Arai Trust (Te Puni Kokiri, 1993b). Each of these events has major implications for Maori education during 1993 and beyond. Analyses of the implications of these events for Maori education provide the major organising themes for this paper. The events of 1993 have stimulated much critical debate, research and scholarly analyses of the issues they encompass. We will all be the richer for the publication of these new works. Numerous conferences have been held and books launched. Some of the books capturing this year’s themes with significance for Maori education include: Standing in the Sunshine (Coney, 1993); Maori Women and the Vote (Rei, 1993); Nga Mahi Whakaari a Titokowaru, Ruka Broughton’s previously unpublished draft doctoral thesis (Broughton, 1993) (the first Maori text on Titokowaru to be published, following the two previously published texts in English by Pakeha writers); Learning Liberation: Women as Facilitators of Learning (Manchester and O’Rourke, 1993); Te Ara Tika: Maori and Libraries – A Research Report (MacDonald, 1993); Educating Feminists: Life Histories and Pedagogy (Middleton, 1993); Te Maori i roto i nga Mahi Whakaakoranga – Maori in Education (Davies and Nicholl, 1993); Women Together: A History of Women’s Organisations in New Zealand (Else et al., 1993); and Te Hikoi Marama, Volume 2 – A Directory of Maori Information Resources (Szekely, 1993)...
The Cultural Safety Debate in Nursing Education in Aotearoa
Authors: Ramsden Irihapeti , Spoonley Paul
Published: December 2017

The recent debate about cultural safety highlights the distance between those who seek to retain the practices and values of a colonial past, and those who want to proceed to a post-colonial future. In the present case, the latter group have attempted to alter the education of some health professionals, nurses, by offering a critical understanding of colonial structures and their effects, and by providing an alternative that centres on ethnic sensitivity. In most respects, it has been a modest innovation in nursing education in terms of meeting the goal of tino rangatiratanga in health delivery services for iwi. But the opposition that began in 1992 in Metro Magazine and which reached something of a crescendo from mid-1993 illustrates the reluctance of important sectors of the community to even consider such modest changes an improvement. Indeed, the reverse is the case. Cultural safety has become defined as a politically inspired campaign of subversion which represents the agenda of extremism....
Raising Research Consciousness the Fa'aSamoa Way
Authors: Marie Tupuola Anne
Published: December 2017

For too long non-Western indigenous researchers have been limited in their research because of the “scholarship” attached to ethnocentric and culturally insensitive methodological frameworks. This paper highlights the very rich experiences of the author’s alternative methodology in the Samoan context, and argues the need for the world of Western academia to acknowledge “other” cultures’ perception of scholarship and knowledge. It focuses on the necessity for both non-indigenous and indigenous researchers to take into consideration the culture of participants, and to incorporate their culture into the methodological framework and written text.
Bicultural Education in Aotearoa/New Zealand: Establishing a Tauiwi Side to the Partnership
Authors: Sullivan Keith
Published: December 2017

In this paper, the author discusses the development of ideologies about multiethnic educational policy in Aotearoa/New Zealand in terms of four successive stages: assimilation, integration, multiculturalism and biculturalism. He argues that we need to develop a form of biculturalism that fully acknowledges Maori as tangata whenua and which is centred upon a Maori/Tauiwi partnership rather than the present Maori/Pakeha primary relationship. He also suggests we need to articulate clearly what we mean by biculturalism and to understand both the ideologies and philosophies that have been developed during the four stages in order to develop useful policy and practice. The author adopts James Banks’ concept of the multiethnic paradigm as an analytical tool to assist this process.
Community and Continuing Education in 1993: Who is Deciding? Who is Benefiting?
Authors: Hindmarsh Jennie Harre , Bell Atawhai , Addison Alan , Gunn Colin , McGray Dorothy
Published: December 2017

1993 was the International Year of Indigenous Peoples, the centenary of Women’s Suffrage in Aotearoa/New Zealand, and an election year. In recognition of these events, this review of trends and issues in policies, practices and research in community and continuing education places some emphasis on noting how these relate to Maori and women as learners and providers. The first section examines trends and issues evident in policy developments – from the field, the government and the three other main political parties; and the second section, trends and issues in the provision of learning opportunities through local and national community organisations, school community education, institutions and private providers. Provision and policy development based in Iwi and Maori worlds are not covered.
The Changing Nature of Distance Education in New Zealand 1992-93: Some Strategic Considerations
Authors: Stevens Ken , Tate Ormond
Published: December 2017

Throughout 1992-1993 New Zealand educationalists have become increasingly aware of the significance of developments in information and communication technologies for teaching and learning as well as the changing nature of distance education. Increasingly, distance education methods, materials and technologies have moved into the mainstream of New Zealand education, opening new possibilities for inter-school cooperation both within this country and overseas. Recent developments in distance education open new possibilities for enhancing the provision of education and for linking schools and industry. Above all, changes in distance education over the last two years have made open learning a possibility for New Zealanders.
Recognition Of Prior Learning: Recent Developments and Some Issues
Authors: Gunn Colin , McDougall Julie
Published: December 2017

Recognition of prior learning (RPL) policies have been in place overseas for up to two decades. The Education Amendment Act (1990) gave the NZQA the responsibility for developing a national qualifications framework in which “there is a flexible system for the gaining of qualifications, with recognition of competency already achieved.” 1993 saw significant developments in the introduction of RPL policies in New Zealand. This paper will review these developments, focusing primarily on New Zealand polytechnics. In particular, it will briefly outline overseas influences on RPL, NZQA policies and actions, and some developments in tertiary institutions in New Zealand. It will define RPL, look at some of the guiding principles in applying RPL policies and look at some ways that these policies may be implemented. The paper will conclude by identifying some of the current issues concerning the introduction of RPL to New Zealand. These will include financial, cultural and equity concerns, staff workloads and other considerations.
Is School Choice a Sustainable Policy for New Zealand? A Review of Recent Research Findings and a Look to the Future
Authors: Gordon Liz
Published: December 2017

This chapter provides an overview of research on school choice and educational markets which has been undertaken in New Zealand over the past two years. The paper considers how choice should be conceptualized: as “voice” or “exit”. It goes on to examine what is being chosen when parents and students look at schools, and notes that choices are severely constrained by a policy context which emphasises “exit”. The next two parts of the paper examine the relationship between schools choice and the social and racial characteristics of schools, and notes the OECD’s conclusion that school choice reflects a vertical social hierarchy rather than a horizontal diversity of real educational choices. Implications for both “loser” schools, and those at the top of the hierarchy are examined next, and there is a discussion of enrolment schemes. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of recent research for educational policy in this country, with an emphasis on policy sustainability.
The Centre for Early Childhood Studies/Te Pumanawa Rangahau Kohungahunga
Authors: OHolmes Tony
Published: December 2017

The Centre for Early Childhood Studies/Te Pumanawa Rangahau Kohungahunga is a new initiative to develop and promote early childhood education in Aotearoa/New Zealand. The Centre aims to initiate, co-ordinate, facilitate and supervise early childhood research, organise seminars and conferences, collect and disseminate information, analyse and critique early childhood policy, and work on behalf of early childhood educators. The Centre’s work will complement other early childhood initiatives, and will invite collaboration with early childhood groups, centres and educators. The Centre will become a resource available to all those committed to working for quality early childhood education and enhanced professional recognition.
Qualifications, Gender and Income: Inter-Related Issues in the Early Education Sector
Authors: Farquhar Sarah-Eve
Published: December 2017

Teachers in early education remained, in 1994, among the lowest paid and lowest qualified of all education groups. One reason for this is that the area is dominated by women, who tend to price their services lower than men, and who may not have other career options. This article provides an analysis linking the issues of income, qualification and gender. Arguments for improving the status of early education and the standard of programme quality experienced by children through increasing the required qualifications of teachers and encouraging more men into the profession are presented. The higher cost of early education due to higher qualification requirements and the entry of people (including men) who see this as a viable career alternative could be offset by an increase in government subsidies and a rise in demand for higher quality services.
Primary Problems and the New Zealand Curriculum
Authors: Aikin Sandra
Published: December 2017

Selected features of the New Zealand curriculum framework are examined and their relevance to, and potential impact upon, primary schools considered. Because every school is a medium through which the implementation of curriculum policy must pass, these features are examined within the context of primary school culture.

The argument is made that despite attempts to make the framework appropriate to primary school teaching methods and values, there are contradictions in the framework that inevitably favour secondary schooling and, by extension, the labour market. As a result, the framework has the potential to jeopardise many valuable aspects of primary school.
Maori Education in 1994: A Review and Discussion
Authors: Irwin Kathie , Davies Lisa
Published: December 2017

This article comprises four main sections each of which explores “whanau” in a range of educational contexts. The first section draws from research published in the Journal of the Polynesian Society by Dame Joan Metge (1990) to comment on the meaning and changing use of the concept “whanau”. This overview is then followed by the second section which comprises reflections and analyses of the Te Kauru family reunion which I attended at the beginning of this year. The third section takes May 6th, 1994, the day the film Once were Warriors and the book Te Maranga a te Ihu a Hukarere were launched, as a focal point to illuminate and explore the impact of two of the main contemporary uses of whanau in their respective contexts. Section four highlights and discusses the findings of a major study completed in 1994 in which “whanau” played a significant role. The study, “What happens to Maori girls at school?”, is the final report of The Regional Study of the School Based Factors Affecting the Schooling of Maori Girls in Immersion, Bilingual and Mainstream Programmes in the Wellington Region, commissioned by the Ministry of Education.
Financing Tertiary Education: An Evaluation of the Todd Report
Authors: Stephens Bob , Boston Jonathan
Published: December 2017

This article evaluates the proposals in the Report of the Ministerial Consultative Group (MCG) for funding the expected growth in tertiary student enrolments over the next decade. The Report (commonly known as the Todd Report), published in May 1994, was still under active consideration by the Government at the time of writing. After outlining the context in which the Report was prepared, this article summarises the Report’s key policy recommendations and assesses their merits. Particular attention is given to the proposals contained in Option B under which students would be expected to pay 50 percent of their course costs. The article argues that the Report’s failure to provide a clear analytical and philosophical framework gives rise to numerous flaws and inconsistencies in its recommendations. The case for significantly higher fees is considered to have little merit.
Whare Wananga Development in 1993-1994
Authors: Winiata Pakake Calm , Winiata Whatarangi
Published: December 2017

The historical significance of whare wananga to Maori is described and documented. Matauranga Maori is defined and its maintenance, expansion and dissemination (under certain conditions) is offered as the rationale for the existence of whare wananga – past and present. Two wananga which have been established, and one awaiting the process, under the Education Amendment Act 1990, are discussed and, in brief, their characteristics are compared with those of tikanga Pakeha institutions. Some principles of Maori education are suggested. The National Association of Wananga, Te Tauihu o Ngaa Whare Waananga, is introduced, and its priorities for 1995 and beyond are listed. An international perspective is incorporated and a wananga agenda for the future is outlined.
Towards a Languages Policy for New Zealand Education
Authors: Benton Richard
Published: December 2017

Although a national languages policy had not yet been formulated, developments during 1994 indicated that at least some of the key recommendations of the 1992 discussion document Aoteareo: Speaking for Ourselves had been incorporated in official policy. Draft curriculum statements were launched for Spanish, English, Chinese (Mandarin) and Maori (including mathematics and science taught through Maori). Both the Minister of Education and the Prime Minister stressed the economic importance of developing competence in key foreign languages among New Zealanders. Some attention was paid to community languages but major emphasis was given to commercially significant foreign languages, English and Maori. Although the position of Maori as an official language seemed to be universally recognised and assured, serious deficiencies in the effectiveness of measures being taken to revitalise the language were highlighted. Among these, inadequacies in teacher-training and resource development attracted comment from Maori groups and from several official agencies.
The Assessment of Females in Mathematics
Authors: Clark Megan , Forbes Sharleen , Blithe Thora
Published: December 2017

Many assessment procedures in mathematics have been shown to disadvantage females in some situations. The authors show that females prefer questions set in “environmental” or “people” contexts and indicate that they do better on familiar, rather than problem-solving, questions. Performance of male and female students (both Maori and non-Maori) gives clear evidence that in secondary school national mathematics examinations, and in some university mathematics papers, females do better in the internal assessment than in the examination while the reverse is true for males. The New Zealand practice of moderating internal assessment by examination results is therefore weighted against female students. All assessment of mathematics performance should incorporate a number of different procedures in order to provide a more authentic measure of various mathematical abilities.
Special Education in 1994: Practice in Search of a Policy
Authors: Mcdonald Lex
Published: December 2017

For special education in New Zealand, 1994 was a year in limbo as educators, parents and students awaited the Government’s policy statement and intentions. The issues of funding and contestability of service remained central to the proposed reorganisation with considerable apprehension expressed at the direction of change. It was indicated that teachers were needing and seeking professional development in the area of special education and a number of exemplary inservice training programmes were being offered. Many special educators believe that additional training and assistance should be provided to deal with the problem of our disaffected youth but Government policy has precluded adequate interventions in this area. Research studies and projects in 1994 reflected the wide nature of the ongoing issues and concerns in special education.
Are You Gay, Sir? A Review of the Literature Concerning the Experiences of Gay Male Educators
Authors: Town Shane
Published: December 2017

This article reviews the literature available from overseas and in Aotearoa that investigates the experiences of gay and lesbian teachers in secondary schools. In doing so it explores the role that homophobia and heterosexism play in creating school environments that are often hostile to lesbian and gay teachers and students. These “forces” operate to maintain the segregation between gay and lesbian youth and gay and lesbian teachers creating a climate of fear based on myths of paedophilia, recruitment and deviancy. The damaging effects of this institutionalised homophobia on the daily lives of gay male teachers is examined. Using overseas experience as a guide, suggestions as to how to create safe schools for lesbian and gay students and teachers are explored.
Generally Fine but Occasionally Overcast with the Possibility of Thunder and Lightning: A Year in the Life of the New Zealand Qualifications Authority
Authors: Tuck Bryan
Published: December 2017

The New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA) was established by legislation in 1990. It has as a goal the establishment of a single standards setting system (The Framework), which will accommodate all national qualifications in post-compulsory education. There is no distinction made between vocational and academic education.

The discourse of the NZQA is consistent with the characterisation of education as an enterprise, where the “outcomes” are primarily determined by economic objectives, and educational institutions purchase the right to become providers of products. Implementing the Framework, and the core notion of “unit standards” has not been without its problems. Difficulties noted among others include the confusion over the roles and nature of Industrial Training Organisations, the use of participation in the changes as a political lever by secondary teachers, and the opposition of the Association of University Staff.

Critics have argued that all of the valued goals of education cannot be expressed in the discourse sanctioned by the NZQA, that the published “unit standards” do not in fact entail descriptions of standards, and that the logic underlying the hierarchy of levels is flawed. Despite the massive changes brought about by the introduction of the Framework, it may well be that these conceptual problems will result in further changes to its character.
Youth Suicide
Authors: Beautrais Annette
Published: December 2017

Youth suicide rates have increased markedly in New Zealand during the last three decades and are now among the highest in the developed world. Major risk factors for suicidal behaviour include: psychiatric illness (notably, depressive disorders, substance abuse disorders and antisocial behaviours) previous suicide attempts and comorbid diagnoses of more than one mental disorder; exposure to adverse childhood and family experiences; social disadvantage; borderline and antisocial personality disorders; genetic and biologic factors. The best hope for substantial reduction in youth suicide rates may lie in reducing the number of young people with mental disorders. There is substantial scope for schools to participate in inter-sectoral efforts to promote and improve youth mental health in order to reduce vulnerability to mental disorders associated with suicidal behaviour.
Overcoming the Bulk Funding Blockage: The Ministerial Reference Group on School Staffing
Authors: Simpkin Gay
Published: December 2017

The report of the Ministerial Reference Group on school staffing, while ostensibly addressing the mechanism by which the supply of teachers to schools is calculated, has greater significance for schools. Its recommendations appear to be related to neo-liberal theories of the state. Not only do they provide another opportunity for schools to choose to be bulk funded for teacher salaries, but they also introduce competition between schools by reducing staffing levels in smaller schools, and by providing capped contestable pools of funds for which schools must compete. The article explores the implications of these developments for the national collective contracts of teachers.
Crossroads – Early Childhood Education in the Mid-1990s
Authors: Mitchell Linda
Published: December 2017

In the 1990s the early childhood community has emphasised the importance of high quality services that provide the best possible environments for young children. Structural features of quality are generally agreed. This paper describes the current provision and quality of early childhood services in New Zealand. It argues that there has been a steady erosion of high-quality publicly-funded early childhood education and that the competitive free market model is inappropriate for the provision of education services. The paper discusses weaknesses in the state infrastructure that supports early childhood education and inadequacies in current funding arrangements. It analyses the 1995 budget decisions with particular focus on free kindergartens. Finally the paper describes an initiative by NZEI Te Riu Roa to develop proposals to take the sector forward on a sound basis into the 21st century.
The Technological Challenge to the Notion of Rurality in New Zealand Education – Repositioning the Small School
Authors: Stevens Ken
Published: December 2017

Small rural schools in New Zealand are in the forefront of changes in the application of information and communication technologies to teaching and learning. The emergence of rural school electronic networks is an important step towards the development of virtual classes in New Zealand, requiring new ways of organising teaching and learning. It is particularly appropriate to reconsider the pedagogy of the one- and two-teacher school in relation to the emerging virtual class. These small schools could have a new role in the information age and should, accordingly, be repositioned within the national education system.
Twenty Years On: Looking at Gender Equality
Authors: Mcdonald Geraldine
Published: December 2017

A conference in 1995 provided the opportunity to find out what had happened to equality for women and girls in education over the twenty years since International Women’s Year, the report of the Select Committee on Women’s Rights, and the landmark conference on Education and the Equality of the Sexes. This chapter compares the issues for women in 1975 with those of 1995, assesses the gains and the losses, and notes changes in the way in which Maori and non-Maori women have viewed the issues.
Information Literacy: Past Approaches and Present Challenges
Authors: Moore Penny
Published: December 2017

Interest in information literacy is increasing as the information age challenges educators to keep abreast of new developments in subject matter and technology. In this article, past approaches to teaching aspects of information literacy are reviewed and their implications for future learning and teaching are discussed. The role of collaboration between teachers and librarians is mentioned and information problem solving is examined as a context for developing thinking skills essential to information literacy. Professional development for both educators and librarians is seen as crucial to success in implementing the National Curriculum with respect to information skills.
Media Studies and the Curriculum
Authors: Watson Chris
Published: December 2017

Media Studies is a popular and vital new addition to the educational curriculum. The term “Media Studies” denotes a “stand-alone” subject that is taught in its own right. The difficulty is to know whether the material which it embraces should be taught in this way or whether it should find a place within the rubric of another field – English, or possibly Technology or Art. “Media Education” is a term used to describe the teaching of media components or modules within existing subject areas.

Another problem relates to the methods required for evaluation. Neither internal assessment of the Sixth Form Certificate, nor the use of the New Zealand Qualification Authority’s unit standards will carry the prestige of external examinations such as University Bursary. This impacts on the academic level of students electing to study the subject and the way in which the curriculum must be constructed.
The Ownership, Governance and Accountability of Tertiary Institutions in New Zealand
Authors: Boston Jonathan
Published: December 2017

Significant changes have been made since the late 1980s to the funding, governance, and accountability of New Zealand’s public tertiary education institutions (TEIs). The new governance framework, which was introduced by the fourth Labour government in 1990, has been the subject of numerous criticisms. According to the government’s departmental advisers on tertiary education, the new regime exposes the Crown to significant ownership risks, provides insufficient incentives for sound financial management, gives too much power to vested interests, unduly limits the government’s capacity to intervene in the wider public interest, and leaves TEIs insufficiently accountable for their use of public resources. This article examines the merits of these criticisms, and assesses the various proposals for reform.
Assessment, Accountability and the 1996 School Certificate Science Examination
Authors: Stedman Geoff
Published: December 2017

The discovery of serious flaws in the 1996 School Certificate science examination led to a vigorous public debate and to an extended discussion between the New Zealand Institute of Physics (NZIP) and the New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA). This article documents these discussions from the point of view of the NZIP, and reflects upon accountability in the assessment of learning in science.
Performance Indicators for New Zealand Schools: The Problems and the Potential
Authors: Annesley Barbara
Published: December 2017

In recent years, there have been increasing demands, particularly from governments, for better information about the performance of schools. Performance indicators have been identified and adopted in many countries as a potential solution to the challenge of providing information which demonstrates the efficiency and effectiveness of schools and other education institutions. This article examines the notion of performance indicators, discusses their benefits and limitations, and identifies the characteristics of effective indicator systems. It describes and critically appraises the information and measurement systems that are currently used to assess the performance of New Zealand schools. Finally it considers whether indicators could be utilised more effectively not only to measure, but also to improve the performance of New Zealand schools.
Assessment Resource Banks for School-Based and National Assessment
Authors: Croft Cedric
Published: December 2017

The New Zealand Council for Educational Research (NZCER) is developing assessment resource banks (ARBs) in mathematics and science. The ARBs are broader than traditional item banks, as they contain assessment resources varying from selected-response items to practical tasks. They reflect current New Zealand curriculum statements in mathematics and science, and are presented as computerised databases with classification and retrieval systems which enable users to select assessment material to match teaching objectives. The ARBs are available via the Internet for school-based uses within New Zealand. Their possible role in national assessment policy is also being considered.

This article outlines the development and structure of the ARBs, summarises an evaluation of school-based and national uses undertaken in 1996, and discusses the future possibilities of ARBs for school-based and national assessment purposes.
Special Education 2000: Developing a Policy for Inclusive Education in New Zealand
Authors: Brown Sue
Published: December 2017

Special education has had a complex history in New Zealand. The Ministry of Education’s document Special Education 2000 is the latest attempt by Government to make policy and provision clear, fair and consistent. This paper examines Special Education 2000 in its historical, political and social contexts, with particular reference to the claim of the policy to be part of a government strategy for an inclusive education system.
Don’t Be Too Polite Girls, Don’t Be Too Polite: Kindergarten Teachers and Employment Contracts
Authors: Duncan Judith , Rowe Lee
Published: December 2017

Kindergarten teachers have experienced significant changes in their employment contracts since 1992. In 1996 the New Zealand political environment of an upcoming MMP election combined with the issues of women, women’s work and the discourses relating to kindergarten teaching and teachers. The outcome of this combination was a regaining of some previously lost employment conditions, as well as improvements “against the odds”. This article discusses the historical struggle for employment conditions in the kindergarten service and the events of the 1996 employment negotiations.
Editorial: Of Making Many Books
Authors: Livingstone Ian
Published: December 2017

Editorial
Agendas for Change: Universities in the 21st Century
Authors: Peters Michael A
Published: December 2017

This article provides a critical discussion of two recent policy documents on tertiary education: the Tertiary Review Green Paper in New Zealand and the Dearing Report in the United Kingdom. Brief reference is also made to the interim report of the West Committee in Australia. Pivotal differences between the Green Paper and the Dearing Report are identified under four headings: the concept of education, resourcing, globalisation, and the role of the humanities. The authors argue that the Green Paper represents a further step toward a fully consumer-driven system of tertiary education in New Zealand. The Dearing Report provides a more expansive educational ideal in the notion of “The Learning Society”. While not devoid of potential problems, the Dearing Committee's ideal recognises both the need for change in a globalised world and the importance of preserving intellectual and cultural traditions through the arts and humanities.
Public Subsidies for Students in Private Tertiary Education
Authors: Guerin Dave
Published: December 2017

Private training establishments are a growing sector in New Zealand tertiary education, although their students receive lower subsidies than do those at public institutions. The determination of public subsidies for private tertiary education students is complex and is based upon philosophical arguments, trends in demand and the capacity of private and public sectors. This issue has gained prominence in New Zealand since the release of the Government Green Paper on tertiary education last year, which suggested equal subsidies for students in private and public tertiary education. This paper reviews the general arguments and overseas examples in this area, before examining the New Zealand situation and outlining options for the future.
Central and Local Control in Education
Authors: Barrington John
Published: December 2017

The question of the extent to which education should be centrally or locally controlled and administered has been a hardy perennial in New Zealand. It was being vigorously debated even prior to the passing of the 1877 Education Act, which established the national system and, far from lessening in importance, became central to the 1989 education reforms. This paper begins by briefly examining the situation prior to Tomorrow’s Schools and then explores trends and issues until the present day, concluding with a discussion of the Coalition Agreement on Education.
Bicultural Research and Support Programmes for Maori Students, Teachers and Communities
Authors: Glynn Ted , Berryman Mere , Atvars Kathryn , Harawira Wai , Walker Rangiwhakaehu , Kaiwai Hone
Published: December 2017

This paper highlights the importance of majority-culture professionals learning to work in contexts where control over educational research, development and training for indigenous people remains under the control of indigenous people, and is located within culturally preferred practices and settings.

We describe work undertaken by our bicultural research whanau at the New Zealand Specialist Education Services Poutama Pounamu Education Research Centre, in Tauranga. We discuss processes and outcomes of research which has been undertaken within a research whanau (metaphoric extended family). Our whanau includes Maori elders, Maori members of the New Zealand Specialist Education Services, Maori teachers, as well as Maori students and a non-Maori academic.

To date, our research has focussed on developing and trialing learning and behavioural resources for Maori students, and their teachers and families. We present information from five projects; (1) parent- or peer-delivered Maori and English reading tutoring strategies (Tatari Tautoko Tauawhi); (2) a collaborative parent and teacher programme designed to assist Maori students experiencing behavioural difficulties in school, home and community settings (Hei Awhina Matua); (3) a programme for improving students’ learning to write in Maori (Kia Puawai ai Te Reo); (4) a study of the training needs of itinerant Resource Teachers of Guidance and Learning, so they can assist Maori students experiencing behavioural and learning difficulties in mainstream schools; and (5) Mauri Tau, a programme for young Maori who are parents or are becoming parents.

Each of the five projects has generated practical and effective resources for sharing with Maori students, teachers and communities. We now seek to establish networks to enable us to deliver our research findings and materials around New Zealand. We conclude this paper by focussing attention onto some of the important cultural principles which have guided our work, and will continue to do so.
Ko e Ako ‘a e Kakai Pasifika, Pacific Islands Peoples’ Education in Aotearoa, New Zealand Towards the 21st Century
Authors: Tongati'o Lesieli
Published: December 2017

In December 1996, the Secretary for Education, Howard Fancy launched Ko e Ako 'a e Kakai Pasifika, the Ministry of Education’s plan for raising the quality of education for Pacific Islands peoples in New Zealand. The plan is a first step towards developing a long-term Pacific Islands education strategy. It has been 16 months since the plan was launched and it is encouraging to see the variety of initiatives being implemented to achieve its goals. This paper will discuss these initiatives more fully.
Kindergartens and Their Removal from the State Sector Act
Authors: Davison Claire
Published: December 2017

The kindergarten sector has been the scene of some remarkable policy manoeuvres over the past seven years. Successive Governments in New Zealand have sought to implement a “New Right” agenda aimed at reducing state involvement in the sector. In 1997 we have witnessed some decisive moves in this direction. This paper focuses on the removal of kindergartens from the State Sector Act 1988, through an Amendment to the Act passed in April, 1997.
Teaching: A Women-Only Profession?
Authors: Farquhar Sarah-Eve
Published: December 2017

The latest statistics on teacher gender show a continuing downward trend in the participation of male teachers across secondary, primary and early childhood education. The trend is more pronounced in the primary than in the secondary sector, while early childhood education, which has never had a significant proportion of men, seems over the past five years to be losing more than it is attracting. This paper identifies key reasons for the feminisation of teaching, focusing on the early years of education (0-8 years). The main advantages of having male teachers on the staff are presented. Teacher gender seems to matter most for children’s learning during the early years of education. It is argued that the growing gender gap here should be regarded as a problem of serious professional and political concern.
The Third International Mathematics and Science Study: Some Implications for New Zealand
Authors: Garden Robert
Published: December 2017

This article discusses issues associated with cross-national studies, and implications for New Zealand of a selection of findings arising from initial exploration of the TIMSS data. These findings indicate some factors identified by TIMSS as amenable to change, and likely to lead to improved teaching and learning in mathematics and science.