bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Attitude Accessibility as a Function of Repeated Attitudinal Expression
Authors: Powell Martha C. , Fazio Russell H.
Published: March 2007

The accessibility of attitudes from memory was examined as a function of the strength of the association between the attitude object and the evaluation. The strength of the object-evaluation association was manipulated by varying the number of times (zero, one, three, or six) that subjects expressed their attitudes toward a given issue on an attitude survey. Accessibility was operationalized as the latency of response to an attitudinal inquiry. A quadratic relation between number of expressions and latency was observed, such that initial expressions decreased response latency more than did subsequent expressions. The nature of the experiment also permitted a correlational examination of the relation between attitude extremity and attitude accessibility. A significant but not very substantial correlation was found. The results are discussed in terms of their implications both for the process by which attitudes guide behavior and/or attitude measurement practices.
Over Justification
Authors: Newman Joan , Layton Bruce D.
Published: March 2007

Self-perception theory predicts a decrease in preference for a rewarded activity (the "over justification effect') only when two conditions are met: Internal interest in the activity is high and the reward is perceived as more than adequate justification for performance. In order to test this prediction, it is necessary to have a baseline of internal interest that is uncontaminated by external factors. In a 2 X 3 factorial design, 60 elementary school children played with an interesting or uninteresting toy, and were given one of three levels of reward for their play. An additional 22 children provided a baseline measure of internal interest in the toys by playing with them alone and unrewarded. The predicted interaction of internal interest and reward size was found on behavioral indices of play following the reward period. Compared to the baseline, increasing reward size was associated with a decrease in preference for the interesting toy but not for the uninteresting toy.
Getting Acquainted
Authors: Riggs Janet Morgan , Cantor Nancy
Published: March 2007

An experiment was conducted to investigate the role of perceivers' self-concepts and preconceptions about one another on the formation of interpersonal impressions. Pairs of female undergraduates expected to interact in a game-playing situation that demanded coolheadedness and cooperation between partners. One subject (the perceiver) was given bogus information about the other subject (the target), and was then asked to select questions to ask the target in order to facilitate the getting-acquainted process. After the target provided answers to these questions, perceivers' evaluations of targets' anxiety and targets' self-evaluations of anxiety were obtained. In addition, naive judges were asked to evaluate targets, based on the targets' answers to the perceivers' questions. Perceivers' self-concepts in the anxiety domain) predicted the kind of information sought about targets which, in turn, predicted the way in which judges rated targets. Judges' and perceivers' ratings of targets were also influenced by perceivers' false preconceptions about targets. In addition, perceivers' self-concepts seemed to be indirectly related to targets' final self-evaluations.
Affective Assessment and Dialectical Oppositionality in the Cognitive Processing of Social Descriptors
Authors: Rychlak Joseph F. , Williams Richard N.
Published: March 2007

A theory of affection based upon dialectical cognitive processing is put to test. Twenty subjects (equated for sex) are assigned to each of three experimental conditions (N = 60). Experimental task is paired-associates learning of social descriptors like active, realistic, and quiet. In the same condition, subjects learn descriptors that they have seen before in this study and affectively assessed (i.e., liked or disliked a descriptor's meaning). In the opposite condition, subjects learn antonyms learned have not been seen before in this study.) A control group learns the same descriptors as the opposite group without benefit of seeing or affectively assessing their opposites. In the line with predictions (p = .005): (1) subjects in the same condition learn liked descriptors more readily than disliked descriptors; (2) subjects in the opposite condition learn antonyms of disliked descriptors more readily than autonyms of liked descriptors; (3) control subjects fail to demonstrate the dialectical patterning of the opposite subjects to whom they have been yoked. It is shown how an exclusively social (i.e., supra-individual) theoretical explanation of these findings leads to circularity.
Clustering and Gender Schemata
Authors: Deaux Kay , Kite Mary E. , Lewis Laurie L.
Published: March 2007

Following the procedures of Bem (1981), an attempt was made to replicate the relationship between the assumed use of a gender schema as indexed by scores on the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) and the clustering of gender-related words in recall. Although comparable levels of overall clustering were obtained, there was no observable relationship between the masculinity and femininity scales of the BSRI, combined in a number of different ways, and indices of gender-related clustering. Both methodological and conceptual issues are discussed.
Friendship and the Development of Self-Schemas
Authors: Deutsch Francine M. , Mackesy Mary Ellen
Published: March 2007

Two studies were conducted to examine a model proposed to explain similarity in the self-schemas of friends. According to this model, in the ongoing conversation of friendship, each person becomes aware of the dimensions used by the friend for describing people. Over time each incorporates some of the friend's dimensions for organizing information about others and ultimately for describing the self. In the first study the self-conceptions of friends and nonfriends were compared. As predicted, friends, as compared to nonfriends, had more similar self-schemas, and more readily adopted each other's self-schema dimensions for describing a target. In the second study two unacquainted partners discussed their impressions of a target person. Subsequently, the pairs shared more similar self-schemas and incorporated dimensions from each other's self-schemas for self-description and for description of the target person. Thus, the results of both studies are consistent with the model proposed. Directions for future research are discussed.
On the Nature of Self-Monitoring
Authors: Miller Mark L. , Thayer Julian F.
Published: March 2007

In this article we attempt to ascertain the nature of the relationship between self-monitoring and each of two constructs of central importance to personality psychology: identity and adjustment. Previous empirical and theoretical work leaves the relationship between internal and external sources of identity and self-monitoring unclear. Snyder (1979) suggests no correlation exists between self-monitoring and neuroticism (a leading index of maladjustment). Yet, by building on previous work by Block (1961), we argue that adjustment should be related to self-monitoring in an inverted-U fashion. In a study of 268 under graduates, personal sources of identity did not discriminate between high and low self-monitors. On the other hand, social sources of identity were significantly associated with self-monitoring scores. Also found, as predicted, was a curvilinear relationship between self-monitoring and adjustment. A three-way interaction between identity sources and self-monitoring was also significantly associated with adjustment. Unexpectedly, it was the middle self-monitors, who were also low on both personal and social identity, who were most well adjusted. We discuss these various results, draw some implications from them, and suggest their importance for the recently proposed typology of self-monitoring of Gangestad and Snyder (1985).
Performance Attributions and the Type a Behavior Pattern
Authors: Strube Michael J
Published: March 2007

Past research has produced conflicting results concerning the manner in which Type As and Bs make attributions following success and failure. Some studies find that Type As are more likely than Type Bs to blame themselves for all outcomes, particularly failure. Other research indicates that Type As are more self-serving in their postperformance attributions. Research indicating more self-blame by Type As typically uses a causal source approach, that is, subjects are asked to indicate the extent to which common causal sources (e.g., ability, effort) produced the outcome. The causal-dimension approach, used in studies that find Type As to be more self-serving than Type Bs, assesses the dimensional structure of causes directly. One possible explanation for the divergence in results is that Type As and Bs differ in their interpretations of the dimensional structure underlying common causal sources, with Type As interpreting those causes in a more self-servingc manner. Results provided support for this hypothesis: Following success and failure, Type As interpretations of the dimensional structure of ability and effort differedfrom those of Type Bs in ways that were more self-serving.
Trait Encoding in Behavior Identification and Dispositional Inference
Authors: Bassili John N.
Published: March 2007

Subjects were presented with behavioral vignettes that either suggested traits in the actors or suggested that the behavior was caused by the situation. A word-fragment completion procedure was used to determine whether suggested traits were activated during processing of the vignettes. One issue of interest was whether suggested traits were activated both in the context of behavior identification and in the context of inferences about actors. To distinguish between these two forms of activation, fragments of implied traits were presented either with or without the relevant actor label. It was reasoned that if a trait is linked to an actor, the actor cue should facilitate trait completion. Subjects' orienting task was also manipulated: half were asked to form impressions of the actors and half to allocate causality to the actor or to the situation. Trait priming proved to be common for subjects instructed to form impressions of actors, even in conditions that did not elicit dispositiona' inferences. Actor cues were effective in aiding trait completion for these subjects, but only when covariation information implied a person attribution. There was no evidence of trait priming following the causal allocation task In the context of Trope's distinction between behavior identification and dispositional inference, it is argued that these results show that trait concepts are involved in the identification of behavior independently from their involvement in dispositonal inferences.
The Effects of Positive Self-Descriptions on Impressions
Authors: Holtgraves Thomas , Srull Thomas K.
Published: March 2007

Evidence is presented suggesting that a speaker who makes positive self-descriptions will be perceived differently as a function of the conversation context of his or her remarks. Subjects read a transcript of a conversation between two persons; one of whom made positive self-statements about his (Replication 1) or her (Replication 2) intellectual prowess. Impressions of the target were positive when these statements were made in response to specific questions or were made in the context of positive self-statements by the other. However, when the target simply took advantage of the topic of the conversation to make positive statements about the self, impressions of the target were much more negative. These effects were greater for subjects high in public self-consciousness, and this finding is used to argue that such subjects are more sensitive to the implicit rules of social interaction.
Developments in the Field of Close Relationships
Authors: Holmes John G. , Boon Susan D.
Published: March 2007

Research on interactional processes in marriage is reviewed to illustrate how advances in the field of close relationships have created a foundation for progress in the domains of public education, newlywed counseling, and marital therapy. First, the transition from serious dating to marriage is characterized using the concepts of mutual responsiveness and compatibility. Major themes and assumptions underlying approaches to marital therapy are then examined in the light of research on patterns of social exchange, communication and problem solving, interpersonal perception, and interdependence in marriage. It is suggested that findings in these four areas provide a basis for articulating and modifying interventions for marital distress.
The Purposeful-Action Sequence and the "Illusion of Control"
Authors: Fleming John H. , Darley John M.
Published: March 2007

This study examined how features of both the situation and the target's behavior may lead observers to infer that a target has exerted control over a random event-in this case a roll of the dice in a game of backgammon. Observers read stories about a game of backgammon in which the male target either strongly wished for one particular outcome of the roll of the dice or was indifferent and in which either the target rolled the dice himself or a third party rolled the dice for him. Results showed that when the target desired a particular consequence of the dice roll in advance and rolled the dice himself, observers were more likely to see him as having exerted influence over the dice roll, were willing to wager more that he could roll the same number again, and rated luck as less influential in producing the dice roll outcome. These results are discussed from the perspective of illusory perceptions of control that might explain why observers inferred an actor's intentions from the actor's production of an event generally regarded as random.
Interpersonal Sensitivity in Teaching Interactions
Authors: Bernieri Frank J.
Published: March 2007

This study investigated the relation between the amount learned by high school students in a brief teaching session conducted by their peers and two aspects of the interpersonal sensitivity of teacher and student, encoding ability and decoding ability. Encoding ability was measured with a paper-and-pencil scale of empathic sensitivity believed to measure self-presentation and role-taking ability. Decoding ability was measured with (a) the PONS, a film designed to assess sensitivity to nonverbal behavioral cues, and (b) a measure of person-perception accuracy derived from self-report and rating-of-partner questionnaires. Student learning was strongly correlated with the encoding skill of the teacher but was not correlated with the teacher's decoding ability. The opposite pattern of results emerged for students. Students' learning was correlated with their own decoding skill but was not correlated with their encoding ability. Results support a multidimensional construct of interpersonal sensitivity and demonstrate its potential impact in one-on-one teaching interactions.
The Effect of Completing the Beck Depression Inventory on Self-Reported Mood State: Contrast and Assimilation
Authors: Mark Melvin M. , Sinclair Robert C. , Wellens Tracy R.
Published: March 2007

It was hypothesized that completion of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) would influence self-reported mood, through subjects' comparison of their own state with the affectively negative content of the BDI. In Study 1, college students completed the BDI, Snyder's Self-Monitoring scale, or no initial questionnaire before completing a 20-item mood measure. Given the generally positive affective state and self-relevant constructs of college students, it was expected that subjects completing the BDI would contrast their own state with its affectively dissimilar content and would derive from the BDI a (negative) standard of reference against which they would evaluate their current state; consequently, it was hypothesized that completion of the BDI would result in a more positive mood. As predicted, subjects who had completed the BDI reported the most positive affect. In Study 2, subjects were dichotomized on depression scores and completed the BDI either before or after a mood measure. It was expected that, among subjects who completed the BDI first, nondepressed subjects would contrast the BDI content and report more positive moods, but depressed subjects would assimilate the BDI content and report more negative moods. Overall, subjects reported more positive mood after completing the BDI. However; this effect was attenuated for the depressed group. In Study 3 a more depressed group was employed, and the predicted interaction was observed. That is, depressed subjects were more negative, and nondepressed subjects more positive, if they first completed the BDL. The results are discussed in terms of the implications for future research and the interpretation of past research.
Gender Differences in Relationship Awareness and Marital Satisfaction among Young Married Couples
Authors: Acitelli Linda K
Published: March 2007

Relationship awareness is defined here as thinking about interaction patterns, comparisons, or contrasts between oneself and one's partner in a relationship. This concept provides a frame-work for examining the effects of spouses' thinking and talking about their own relationships on marital satisfaction and contentment with life. During interviews conducted with 42 married couples, wives talked more about their relationships than their husbands did. Wives' marital satisfaction was positively associated with the husbands' degree of relationship talk during the interview. The association between husbands' relationship talk and wives' marital well-being was strongest for wives who talked very little about their relationship. Husbands' marital satisfaction was not related to either spouse's relationship talk. A similar pattern of results was found for contentment with life. Findings are discussed in light of previous research that focuses on gender differences in relationships, in the sense of self and interpersonal communication.
Subliminal Conditioning of Attitudes
Authors: Krosnick Jon A. , Betz Andrew L. , Jussim Lee J. , Lynn Ann R.
Published: March 2007

Most of the literature on attitude formation assumes that attitudes are the products of deductive integration of an individual's beliefs about an object's attributes. Two studies demonstrate that attitudes can develop without deduction from such beliefs and, indeed, without individuals' being aware of the antecedents of those attitudes. Subjects viewed nine slides of a target person going about normal daily activities; immediately preceding the presentation of each photograph was a subliminal exposure of an affect-arousing photograph. Half the subjects in each study were subliminally exposed to positive-affect-arousing photos and half to negative-affect-arousing photos. The subliminal photographs affected attitudes toward the target person and shaped beliefs about the target person's personality traits. Presumably because relevant objective data were available, the subliminal photographs apparently had less impact on judgments of the target person's physical attractiveness. These findings demonstrate conditioning of attitudes without awareness of their antecedents.
Individual Differences in Differentiation in the Rating of Personal Values: The Role of Private Self-Consciousness
Authors: Shrum L. J. , McCarty John A.
Published: March 2007

Past research has shown that when personal values are measured by a rating procedure, respondents often show little differentiation among the values, tending to assign similar, high ratings to all of them. Data from two studies suggest that level of private self-consciousness moderates the degree of differentiation: individuals higher in private self-consciousness make greater distinctions among the values. Consistent with past research, these studies suggest that those higher in private self-consciousness have a better-articulated self-schema and are more aware of internal dispositions. Discussion addresses theoretical issues for self-consciousness and personal values research.
The Role of Perceived Self-Efficacy, Perceived Control, and Causal Attributions in Adaptation to Rheumnatoid Arthritis: Distinguishing Mediator from Moderator Effects
Authors: Schiaffmo Kathleen M. , Revenson Tracey A.
Published: March 2007

To examine mediational versus moderational relationships among perceived control self-efficacy, and causal attributions in adjustment to chronic iUness, data were obtained at two times from 64 rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients. Adaptational outcomes were operationalized as depression and disability. Greater evidence wasfoundfor moderational than mediational models. Only one of six mediational hypotheses was significant: Self-efficacy mediated the relationship between perceived control and disability. Four of six moderational hypotheses were significant in concurrent adaptation, and three of these remained significant when later adaptation was assessed. Moderational effects differed for depression and disability: When RA controllability or patient selfefficacy was low, internal, global, stable attributions for the cause of a symptom flare were linked to greater depression but less disability. These disparate findings are discussed in terms of the learned-helplessness model and the context of chronic illness.
The Influence of Attributions on the Relevance of Negative Feelings to Personal Satisfaction
Authors: Kehner Dacher , Locke Kenneth D. , Aurain Paul C.
Published: March 2007

This investigation examined the influence of emotional attributions on the relevance of current feelings to judgments of personal satisfaction. In the first three studies, subjects were led to make different attributions for their naturally occurring feelings and then asked to judge their personal satisfaction. Satisfaction was higher after situational and specific attributions than after general and self-referential attributions, but only in domains that were unrelated to the causes to which subjects attributed their feelings. Study 4 tested whether affective states such as emotions with clearly defined causes are less relevant to judgments of life satisfaction than more diffuse states such as moods. Satisfaction was elevated after a laboratory mood induction only when subjects were led to focus on their moods in ways characteristic of emotional states (by articulating specific causes and labels for their feelings). These studies illuminate the role of emotional attribution in judgments of personal satisfaction.
The Impact of Self-Presentations on Self-Appraisals and Behavior: The Power of Public Commitment
Authors: Schienker Barry R. , Dlugolecki David W. , Doherty Kevin
Published: March 2007

Strategic self presentations can have a far-reaching impact on an actor's identity. Subjects who presented themselves as sociable to an interviewer, compared with those who did not present themselves, later raised their self-appraisals of their own sociability, behaved more sociably (i.e., spoke sooner, more frequently, and longer) in a different situation, were viewed as more sociable by a confederate and by judges, and recalled personal experiences that indicated they were more sociable. Strategic self presentations thus produced both a phenomenological and a behavioral carry-over that influenced the actor's identity in a new situation with a new audience. Two further experiments explored the processes responsible for these effects and found that private self-reflection was not sufficient to produce the changes. Rather; public commitment to the identity portrayed in the self-presentation was a crucial antecedent of changes in self-appraisals.
Selectivity in Generalizations about Self and Others from Performance
Authors: Sanbonmatsu David M. , Harpster Lora L. , Akimoto Sharon A. , Moulin James B.
Published: March 2007

The willingness of perceivers to generalize about self and others from observed performance was investigated. In the first experiment, subjects judged the specific memory ability and the global intelligence of self or another after performance on a short-term memory task. Subjects drew strong inferences about the specific memory abilities of both self and others from performance. Global inferences about intelligence, however, were drawn about others but not self The second experiment examined the effects of chronic self-esteem on willingness to generalize about self: High- and low-self-esteem subjects judged their specific and global qualities after performing an anagram task. High-self-esteem subjects drew global inferences about self after good performance but not poor performance, whereas low-self-esteem subjects drew global inferences about self after poor performance but not good performance. The study provides evidence of an important mechanism that may contribute to the maintenance of global self-appraisals and chronic self-esteem.
Gender Differences in Coping with Stress: When Stressor and Appraisals Do Not Differ
Authors: Ptacek J. T. , Smith Ronald E. , Dodge Kenneth L.
Published: March 2007

In an attempt to control for the effects of event type on sex differences in coping, men and women responded to an identical achievement-related stressor under controlled laboratory conditions. Although men and women were similar in their cognitive appraisal of the situation, they nonetheless reported differences in preparatory coping. Women reported seeking social support and using emotion-focused coping to a greater extent than men, whereas men reported using relatively more problem-focused coping than women. The masculinity and femininity of respondents failed to moderate the relation between sex and coping. These results are inconsistent with a purely situational explanation of sex differences in coping but are consistent with the notion that men and women are socialized to cope with stress in different ways.
Unrealistic Optimism: Self-Enhancement or Person Positivity?
Authors: Regan Pamela C. , Snyder Mark , Kassin Saul M.
Published: March 2007

Researchers interested in unrealistic optimism disagree on whether the phenomenon reflects self-enhancement or person positivity. Past research in this area has used a paradigm that confounds the self/other dimension with the individual aggregate dimension, making it difficult to determine which alternative is correct. Two studies examined whether people are unrealistically optimistic only for their own futures or whether they are unrealistically optimistic for the future of any individual. Study 1 revealed that, in comparison with an aggregate of same-sex peers, participants were unrealistically optimistic for their own and a close friend's futures but not for the future of a non-self-relevant other Study 2 employed unconfounded measures and demonstrated that, in comparison with other individual social objects, participants continued to be unrealistically optimistic for their own futures. These results suggest that unrealistic optimism is a form of self-enhancement rather than person positivity bias.
Do Sex Differences Define Gender-Related Individual Differences within the Sexes? Evidence from Three Studies
Authors: Lippa Richard
Published: March 2007

Do questionnaire items (e.g., masculinity and femininity scale items, occupational preference items) that show large sex differences tend also to be those items that correlate most strongly with independent gender-related criteria within the sexes? Three different criteria of within-sex gender-related individual differences were studied in data from three studies: a composite of eight gender-related behaviors in Study 1, masculinity-femininity as rated by friends and family members in Study 2, and self-ascribed masculinity-femininity in Studies 1, 2, and 3. Data from all studies and for all criteria converged, showing that items displaying large sex differences tended also to correlate most strongly with independent gender-related criteria within the sexes. Implications for the assessment of gender-related and other kinds of group-related individual differences are discussed.
The Social Context of Emotion: Effects of Ethnicity and Authority/Peer Status on the Emotional Reports of African American College Students
Authors: Vrana Scott R. , Roflock David
Published: March 2007

The emotional impact of imagined and real interand intraethnic interactions with peers and authority figures was examined among African Americans. A total of 66 African American undergraduates rated their emotional responses to paragraphlong vignettes that varied the ethnicity (Black or White) and the peer/authority status of other actors in common inteipersonal situations within three emotional contexts (oy, anger, and neutral). Subjects encountered eitherAfi can American or White experimenters. Subjects reported more negative emotions in their imagined interactions with Whites and intensification of both positive and negative affect in imagined interactions with authority figures. The range of reported affect was more limited in the presence of White experimenters. Results are discussed in terms of contextual moderators of emotional responses among African Americans and their implications forfuture research.
Androgyny and Attachment Security: Two Related Models of Optimal Personality
Authors: Shaver Phillip R. , Papalia Daria , Clark Catherine L. , Koski Lilah Raynor , Tidwell Marie C. , Nalbone David
Published: March 2007

Three studies explored similarities between attachment style typologies and sex role typologies. Both are defined by pairs of dimensions: self model and other model (attachment styles); masculinity, or agency, and femininity, or communion (sex role orientations). Results indicate that although there are conceptual and empirical similarities between self model and masculinity (two operationalizations of "agency") and between other model and femininity (two operationalizations of "communion '9, the sex role renditions of agency and communion are more closely related to gender than are the attachment style renditions. The authors argue that attachment style dimensions and the personality ideal they help to define-attachment security-are closer than masculinity and femininity to what sex role researchers may have had in mind when they proposed the concept of psychological androgyny. Attachment security is, roughly speaking, androgyny minus the elements of power; aggression, and emotional vulnerability that are inadvertently retained when agency and communion are defined in terms of gender-linked traits.
Creating Social Reality: Informational Social Influence and the Content of Stereotypic Beliefs
Authors: Wittenbrink Bernd , Henly Julia R.
Published: March 2007

Three experiments tested the hypothesis that comparison information about other people's stereotypic beliefs is used to validate personal beliefs about a target group. A simple manipulation of questionnaire items and their response scales, presented as part of a political opinion survey, served as social comparison information regarding beliefs about African Americans. The comparison information influenced participants' subsequently measured beliefs about group as well as their evaluation of a Black target. When provided with negative comparison information, participants reported more negative racial beliefs and a more negative evaluation of the Black target than when provided with positive feedback. Moreover; this effect depended on participants' initial stereotypic beliefs. Only participants with initially negative beliefs about the target group were influenced by the comparison information; participants with relatively positive beliefs were not.
Effects of Multiple Determinacy and Measurement Error on Trait-Behavior and Behavior-Behavior Relations: An Integrated Conceptual Model
Authors: Kirkpatrick Lee A.
Published: March 2007

The relationship is demonstrated between two explanations for the attenuation of observed trait-behavior and behavior-behavior correlations: multiple determinacy, as explicated recently by Ahadi and Diener and by Strube, and measurement error, as discussed previously be Epstein, Ajzen, and others. The former pertains to multiple determinants of a behavior construct other than the trait of interest, whereas the latter pertains to multiple determinants of a behavior measure other than the behavior construct of interest. However, it is shown that in the two cases the fundamental psychometric principles involved are the same. Implications of this integrated conceptual perspective are explored with respect to the magnitude of observed trait-behavior and behavior-behavior correlations that should be expected under different circumstances, focusing particularly on the distinction between global and more narrowly defined traits.
Style of Anger Expression and its Relation to Daily Experience
Authors: Martin Rene , Watson David
Published: March 2007

The authors explored the construct validity of the Anger Expression Scale in a diary study of 49 college women. Participants completed seven diary entries per day for 8 days; at each assessment, they noted the occurrence of problems and anger episodes, indicated whether they had expressed any anger, and rated their current mood. Anger-in was broadly associated with the occurrence of unpleasant events and with the experience of various types of negative mood, suggesting that the anger-in scale may not be a specific measure of anger per se. Moreover, anger-in predicted negative mood and problem occurrence even after controlling for neuroticism. In contrast, anger-out was unrelated to reports of anger expression and all other aspects of daily experience.
Perceptions of Disadvantage Versus Conventionality: Political Values and Attitudes Toward the Elderly Versus Blacks
Authors: Lambert Alan J. , Chasteen Alison L.
Published: March 2007

This article examines the role of political ideology in social prejudice. In contrast to a simple bipolar conceptualization of liberalism and conservatism, the authors present a framework stipulating that (a) liberalism is associated with the desire to assist disadvantaged groups but (b) conservatism is associated with respect for conventional, old-fashioned values. Unlike Blacks (who are potentially viewed by White Americans as both unconventional and disadvantaged), the elderly are highly disadvantaged but relatively conventional. On the basis of these differences, the authors predicted that liberalism would be positively correlated with attitudes toward both groups, whereas conservatism would be negatively correlated with attitudes toward Blacks but positively correlated with attitudes toward the elderly. This framework received strong support and, moreover, successfully predicted reactions to other types of groups that varied in terms of their conventionality/disadvantaged status. Implications for research on stereotypes and possible conceptualizations of political ideology are discussed.
Gender Differences in Verbal Presumptuousness and Attentiveness
Authors: Stiles William B. , Lyall Lisa M. , Knight David P. , Ickes William , Waung Marie , Hall Caroline Lowry , Primeau Brian E.
Published: March 2007

Men's and women's verbal presumptuousness and attentiveness were measured by verbal response mode coding of laboratory conversations in five studies. The data were used to assess implications of two common assumptions about gender roles in American society: that women's status is viewed as lower than men's and that women tend to be oriented toward maintaining relationships, whereas men tend to be oriented toward hierarchy, mastery, and control Comparisons failed to show the expected greater presumptuousness by men, despite evidence that presumptuousness was closely regulated within dyads. In these conversations, women were more attentive than men under some conditions, particularly within committed relationships (married or dating couples).
Similarity and Uniqueness Focus: A Paper Tiger and a Surprise
Authors: Tesser Abraham , Beach Steven R. H. , Mendolia Marilyn , Crepaz Nicole , Davies Blossom , Pennebaker James
Published: March 2007

Two studies examined self-defensiveness as a result of thinking about one's intimate relationship in terms of self-partner similarity or uniqueness. Fifty married couples (Study 1) and 106 single women who were involved in romantic relationships (Study 2) wrote essays on self-partner similarities or uniqueness or on movies (control). All participants were then given threatening information-spouse outperformed self on a novel task (Study 1)-or negative feedback on desirable attributes (Study 2). Defensiveness was measured. Content analysis revealed that relationship-similarity essays were associated with good feelings, a "we" focus, and limited cognitive processing. Relationship-uniqueness essays were associated with a self-focus, negative feelings, and substantial cognitive processing in terms of understanding and assimilation. In neither study did relationship-similarity essays reduce defensiveness; in both studies, relationship-uniqueness reduced defensiveness. Results are discussed in terms of the syndromes produced by the similarity and uniqueness essays.
The Accuracy and Power of Sex, Social Class, and Ethnic Stereotypes: A Naturalistic Study in Person Perception
Authors: Madon Stephanie , Jussim Lee , Keiper Shelley , Eccles Jacquelynne , Smith Alison , Palumbo Polly
Published: March 2007

This research examined the accuracy and power of sex, social class, and ethnic stereotypes in person perception. Participants included 49 to 56 teachers and nearly 2,000 students in seventh-grade public school math classes. Results indicated that teacher perceptions regarding achievement and motivation differences between girls and boys, lower- and upper-class students, and African American and White students were mostly accurate. Results also showed that although teachers generally relied on students' personal characteristics to form their perceptions, they occasionally relied on stereotypes. We discuss these results in terms of the classic view that stereotypes are inaccurate, rigid, exaggerated, and exert powerful effects on person perception.
Partner Selection for Personality Characteristics: A Couple-Centered Approach
Authors: Klohnen Eva C. , Mendelsohn Gerald A.
Published: March 2007

Both personality similarity and complementarity have been hypothesized to underlie mate selection. However, neither hypothesis has received strong and consistent empirical support. This study examined personality matching in couples by taking within-couple similarity as the basic unit of analysis. On the assumptions that individuals seek in another what they value in themselves but that they cannot always get what they want, it was hypothesized (a) that the similarity of partners' self-descriptions is positively related to self-liking, (b) that there is assortative mating for self-liking, (c) that there is significant similarity between subjects' ideal self-descriptions and their perceptions of their partners, and (d) that participants bias their perceptions of their partners in the direction of their ideal self-conceptions. The authors examined and found support for the four hypotheses by analyzing California Q-set ratings provided by both partners of couples, who described themselves, their ideal selves and their partners.
Depression and Interpersonal Responses to Others' Moods: The Solicitation of Negative Information about Happy People
Authors: Wenzlaff Richard M. , Beevers Christopher G.
Published: March 2007

A total of four experiments tested the prediction that social comparison concerns lead depressed individuals to solicit more negative disclosures from happy people than they otherwise would. In Experiments 1 and 2, depressed, mildly depressed, and nondepressed subjects reviewed information about another person that included ratings of that person's mood (Experiment 2 also included a control condition without mood information). After reviewing the material, subjects chose a subset of items from a list of positive, negative, and neutral questions to ask the person in an upcoming meeting. Experiment 3 replicated this procedure but used a mood manipulation to define subject groups. Experiment 4 examined the impact of subjects' line of questioning on others. Taken together; the results indicate that when they believe their partner is happy, depressed individuals are especially likely to solicit negative information about that person. This unfavorable interpersonal response increases depressed individuals' risk of social rejection.
What Determines Behavioral Decisions? Comparing the Role of Covariation Information and Attributions
Authors: Schuster Beate , Rudolph Udo , Forsterling Friedrich
Published: March 2007

This study investigated whether behavioral decisions (e.g., persistence, help seeking) are influenced by covariation information and if this influence is mediated by attributions. In Experiment 1, participants belonging to different age groups received covariation information, and causal attributions as well as behavioral-reaction decisions were assessed. Experiment 1 replicated the often-documented influence of covariation information on attributions. Furthermore, it revealed that covariation information affects behavioral decisions more strongly, and developmentally earlier, than do attributions. In Experiment 2, participants were provided with conflicting covariation information and attributions. Covariation information had a stronger impact on reaction decisions than attributions. Experiment 3 again provided participants with covariation information and assessed attributions and behavioral choices, as well as reaction times. Participants provided with covariation information needed less time to choose behavioral reactions than to choose attributions. We conclude that behavioral decisions can be directly determined by covariation information without attributional mediation.
Evaluation of Implied Orders as a Basis for Tailored Testing with Simulation Data
Authors: Cliff Norman , Cudeck Robert , McCormick Douglas J.
Published: March 2007

Monte carlo research with TAILOR, a program using Implied Orders as a basis for tailored testing, is reported. Birnbaum's (1968) three-parameter logistic model was used to generate data matrices under a variety of simulated conditions. It was found that TAILOR typically required about half the available items to estimate for each simulated examinee the responses on the remainder. Validity of Tailored score with True score was found to be within a few points of True score with Complete test score. Increasing item discrimination affected the efficiency of the tailored test, but the procedure was little affected by any of a variety of other fac tors.
Sex Differences in Item Responses on the Graduate Record Examination
Authors: Donlon Thomas F. , Hicks Marilyn M. , Wallmark Madeline M.
Published: March 2007

This study explores the scope and nature of sex differences in the December 1974 aptitude tests of the Graduate Record Examination by identifying individual test items that differ from the other items in terms of the magnitude of the difference in item difficulty for the sexes. The method is that' used in earlier studies by Angoff and Stern (1971) and by Strassberg-Rosenberg and Donlon (1975). In general, limited evidence of sex differences was es tablished.
A Comparison of Four Clustering Methods Using MMPI Monte Carlo Data
Authors: Blashfield Roger K. , Morey Leslie C.
Published: March 2007

Monte carlo procedures were used to generate data sets that resembled MMPI psychotic (8-6), neurotic (1-3-2), and personality disorder (4-9) pat terns. Lorr's clumping method, inverse factor analy sis, average linkage, and Ward's method were the clustering methods compared. The solutions were found to vary in terms of misclassifications and coverage. The clustering solutions also varied as a function of different optional parameters associated with each method.
Dimensionality of the California Preschool Social Competency Scale
Authors: Flint David L. , Hick Thomas L. , Horan Mary D. , Irvine David J. , Kukuk Susan E.
Published: March 2007

The structure and construct validity of the Cali fornia Preschool Social Competency Scale as used with disadvantaged children ( N = 1,723) in New York State was investigated through factor analysis. Five factors were extracted and interpreted as (1) Considerateness; (2) Extraversion; (3) Task Orienta tion; (4) Verbal Facility; and (5) Response to the Unfamiliar. The first three of these were found to be empirically similar to the three dimensions of the Classroom Behavior Inventory. These three fac tors plus the fourth, Verbal Facility, appeared to be conceptually similar to factors isolated in a number of other research-based social competency scales.
Rasch Analysis of the Central Life Interest Measure
Authors: Schmitt Neal
Published: March 2007

Rasch item analyses were conducted and esti mates of item residuals correlated with various demographic or person variables to investigate item bias in an attitude scale. Analysis revealed that the model fit the data well and that none of the demo graphic variables accounted for greater than 7% of the residual variance. Similar analyses of other atti tude scales as well as aptitude tests should be use ful.
Some Empirical Results Related to the Robustness of the Rasch Model
Authors: Forsyth Robert , Saisangjan Upatham , Gilmer Jerry
Published: March 2007

The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the invariance properties of the Rasch model using data from standardized achievement tests that were not constructed to conform to the Rasch model. The item responses of approximately '3,400 examinees (Grades 9, 10, 11, and 12) to four separately timed sections of the Iowa Tests of Educational Development were analyzed. The re sults indicated that the Rasch model does yield rea sonably invariant item parameter and ability parameter estimates for different tests and different examinee groups, even though the assumptions of the model are not met.
A Cross-Cultural Analysis of the Fairness of the Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test Using the Rasch Model
Authors: Nenty H. Johnson , Dinero Thomas E.
Published: March 2007

Logistic models can be used to estimate item pa rameters of a unifactor test that are free of the ex aminee groups used. The Rasch model was used to identify items in the Cattell Culture Fair Intelli gence Test that did not conform to this model for a group of Nigerian high school students and for a group of American students, groups believed to be different with respect to race, culture, and type of schooling. For both groups a factor analysis yielded a single factor accounting for 90% of the test's vari ance. Although all items conformed to the Rasch model for both groups, 13 of the 46 items had sig nificant between score group fit in either the Amer ican or the Nigerian sample or both. These were re moved from further analyses. Bias was defined as a difference in the estimation of item difficulties. There were six items biased in "favor" of the American group and five in "favor" of the Nigerian group; the remaining 22 items were not identified as biased. The American group appeared to per form better on classification of geometric forms, while the Nigerians did better on progressive ma trices. It was suggested that the replicability of these findings be tested, especially across other types of stimuli.
A Cautionary Note on Estimating the Reliability of a Mastery Test with the Beta-Binomial Model
Authors: Wilcox Rand R.
Published: March 2007

Based on recently published papers, it might be tempting to routinely apply the beta-binomial model to obtain a single administration estimate of the reliability of a mastery test. Using real data, the paper illustrates two practical problems with esti mating reliability in this manner. The first is that the model might give a poor fit to data, which can seriously affect the reliability estimate, and the sec ond is that inadmissible estimates of the param eters in the beta-binomial model might be ob tained. Two possible solutions are described and il lustrated.