bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Rous, Francis Peyton
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1879–1970 American pathologist who demonstrated that cancer tumours could be caused by viruses.
Rutherford, Ernest
Authors: Sutton Michael A
Published: September 2006

1871–1937 New Zealand physicist who showed that radioactivity involved the formation of new elements, and deduced the nuclear structure of the atom.
Sanger, Frederick
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

1918– British biochemist who determined the structures of insulin and nucleic acid molecules.
Schally, Andrew Victor
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1926– Polish‐born (now Latvia) American biochemist, oncologist and Nobel Prize winner who discovered peptide‐releasing hormones.
Smith, Hamilton Othanel
Authors: Witkowski JA
Published: September 2006

1931– American scientist who elucidated the action of bacterial restriction enzymes that cut DNA molecules at specific places.
Snell, George Davis
Authors: Klein George
Published: September 2006

1903–1996 American immunogeneticist who discovered the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), which governs tissue transplantability and plays an essential role in the lymphocyte‐mediated recognition of foreign antigens.
Soddy, Frederick
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1877–1956 English radiochemist who conceived the concept of isotopes.
Sperry, Roger Wolcott
Authors: Kaufman James C
Published: September 2006

1913–1994 American neuroscientist known for pioneering research and theories on split‐brain hemispheres.
Stanley, Wendell Meredith
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1904–1971 American biochemist and Nobel Prize winner who crystallized the
Tobacco mosaic virus
.
Sturtevant, Alfred Henry
Authors: Winchester EG
Published: September 2006

1891–1970 American naturalist and geneticist who invented the idea of the genetic map.
Sutherland, Earl Wilbur, Jr
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1915–1974 American biochemist and Nobel Prize winner who discovered cyclic AMP.
Vane, John Robert
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1927– British pharmacologist who differentiated the various prostaglandins.
Waksman, Selman Abraham
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1888–1973 Russian microbiologist, who isolated the antibiotic streptomycin from soil organisms.
Werner, Alfred
Authors: Griffith WP
Published: September 2006

1866–1919 French ‐ born Swiss scientist who laid the foundations of modern coordination chemistry.
Wilkins, Maurice Hugh Frederick
Authors: Fuller Watson
Published: September 2006

1916– British biophysicist (born in New Zealand) noted for his work on DNA.
Wilkinson, Geoffrey
Authors: Kneeland Timothy W
Published: September 2006

1921–1996 British chemist noted for his work on organometallic ‘sandwich’ compounds.
Wilson, Edmund Beecher
Authors: Bynum WF
Published: September 2006

1856–1939 American biologist who made many fundamental contributions to our understanding of the cell in heredity and development.
Wittig, Georg Friedrich Karl
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1897–1987 German organic chemist and Nobel Prize winner who developed reagents for organic synthesis.
Woodward, Robert Burns
Authors: Coley Noel G
Published: September 2006

1917–1979 American organic chemist noted for his studies of the structure and synthesis of numerous complex natural substances.
Yalow, Rosalyn Sussman
Authors: Sutton Michael A
Published: September 2006

1921– American medical physicist who helped develop the technique of radioimmunoassay (RIA), which detects very small quantities of biologically important substances in body fluids.
Ziegler, Karl
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1898–1973 German organic chemist and Nobel Prize winner who developed the ‘Ziegler catalysts’ used in chemical synthesis.
Flow Cytometers
Authors: Steinkamp John A
Published: September 2006

Flow cytometers are analytical instruments that offer an advanced technology for rapidly analysing and separating cells and subcellular components based on their physical, biochemical and functional properties. The technology has broad application in the life sciences, in biomedical research and in the clinic, with the range of applications expanding as cytochemical and instrumental capabilities continue to advance.
Fluorescent Analogues in Biological Research
Authors: Lakowicz Joseph R
Published: September 2006

The information that can be obtained from a fluorescence measurement is influenced strongly by the spectral properties of the fluorophores. A large variety of probes is now available which bind spontaneously to macromolecules, react covalently with macromolecules, or display spectral changes in response to chemical species of interest.
Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (
EPR
) and Spin‐labelling
Authors: Fajer Peter G
Published: September 2006

In EPR the magnetic dipole of an electron interacts with an external magnetic field and can be excited by an oscillating magnetic field. Spin labelling involves use of extrinsic probes, nitroxides, attached to the molecule under study. The spectra of nitroxide probes are used to infer orientation, dynamics and distances between labelled sites.
Electron Cryomicroscopy and Three‐dimensional Computer Reconstruction of Biological Molecules
Authors: Ludtke Steven J , Chiu Wah
Published: September 2006

Electron cryomicroscopy, when combined with complex computer algorithms, can provide three‐dimensional structures of large proteins and complex macromolecules. This technique can approach problems which are difficult or impossible for techniques like X‐ray diffraction or NMR.
Differential Interference Contrast Light Microscopy
Authors: Oldfield Ronald J
Published: September 2006

Differential interference contrast (DIC) is a technique in light microscopy that maintains high resolving power because it introduces contrast optically into images of transparent specimens. The image is characterized by a three‐dimensional appearance (a pseudo‐relief) in which contrast and colour may be varied.
Electronic and Computer Image Enhancement in Light Microscopy
Authors: Cardullo Richard A
Published: September 2006

Image processing techniques allow low contrast microscopic specimens to be observed and quantified. These routines can be applied to all types of light microscopes and are used to reduce noise and extract features of interest.
Confocal Laser Scanning Light Microscopy
Authors: Paddock Stephen
Published: September 2006

The confocal laser scanning microscope is an improved design of light microscope used for imaging fixed or living tissues that are usually labelled with one or more fluorescent probes.
Single‐molecule Light Microscopy
Authors: Greulich Karl Otto , Uhl Volker
Published: September 2006

The wavelength of visible light (∼500 nm) does not permit spatial resolution of individual molecules; but single molecules can be detected if they are themselves fluorescent [fluorophores] or are fluorescently tagged with fluorophores. Such techniques allow optical microscopy studies of quantum‐mechanical phenomena, mechanical properties of macromolecules, and single‐molecule reaction kinetics and mechanisms.
Immuno‐electron Microscopy
Authors: Schwarz Heinz , Hohenberg Heinz
Published: September 2006

Immuno‐electron microscopy combines the specificity and sensitivity of immunological methods with the high structural resolution of electron microscopy, providing an
in situ
correlation and visualization of antigen‐binding sites and ultrastructure.
Leucine Zipper
Authors: Krylov Dmitry , Vinson Charles R
Published: September 2006

The leucine zipper is a protein–protein interaction domain consisting of amphipathic α helices that dimerize in parallel, either as homodimers or heterodimers, to form a coiled‐coil.
Protein Stability
Authors: Pace C Nick , Grimsley Gerald R
Published: September 2006

The folded, biologically active conformation of a protein is only marginally more stable than unfolded, inactive conformations. The major destabilizing force is conformational entropy. The major stabilizing forces are the hydrophobic effect and hydrogen bonding.
Amino Acid Substitutions: Effects on Protein Stability
Authors: Weng Zhiping , DeLisi Charles
Published: September 2006

The ability of a protein to function in its biochemical role(s) is determined by its geometry, which in turn is determined by the amino acid sequence and the environment. Amino acid mutations affect the thermodynamics of folding and their effects can be investigated experimentally by such techniques as site‐specific mutation, random point mutations and shuffling.
Molten Globule
Authors: Fink Anthony L
Published: September 2006

Molten globules are compact, partially folded conformations of proteins that have near‐native compactness, substantial secondary structure, little detectable tertiary structure and increased solvent‐exposed hydrophobic surface area relative to the native state.
Hydrogen Bonds in Proteins: Role and Strength
Authors: Hubbard Roderick E
Published: September 2006

Hydrogen bonds provide most of the directional interactions that underpin protein folding, protein structure and molecular recognition.
Proline Residues in Proteins
Authors: Deber Charles M , Brodsky Barbara
Published: September 2006

As the only commonly occurring imino acid in proteins, proline has been found to play unique structural and dynamic roles in guiding protein folding, globularity and fibre formation.
Protein Folding: Overview of Pathways
Authors: Wedemeyer William J , Scheraga Harold A
Published: September 2006

Most proteins can function only if they are folded – i.e. if they have adopted a specific, stable tertiary structure. The ‘protein folding problem’ is to determine how and why the initially unstructured protein converges to this native structure. A typical sequence of structural changes during the folding of a protein molecule is referred to as a folding pathway.
Chaperonins
Authors: Consalvi Valerio , Chiaraluce Roberta
Published: September 2006

The protein folding problem is the production of the native, active conformation from the primary sequence information.In vivo, in the cytosolic environment, acquisition of the native conformation is on competition with proteolytic degradation and/or intracellular precipitation. Chaperone proteins are responsible for assistance during the process of finding the native fold, and these key components of the cellular machinery occur ubiquitously through archaea, bacteria and eukarya.
Genome, Proteome, and the Quest for a Full Structure–Function Description of an Organism
Authors: Hung Li‐Wei , Kim Sung‐Hou
Published: September 2006

Using sequencing techniques developed in the 1990s, the genome projects have now successfully identified all the genes in several organisms encrypted in a four‐letter alphabet. The gene products – proteins and RNAs coded by the genes – are the actual nuts and bolts of a living organism and the elucidation of their function and how they interact to sustain life remains one of the biggest challenges of the twenty‐first century.
Mining Biological Databases
Authors: Prilusky Jaime
Published: September 2006

Advances in technology and efforts towards better self‐knowledge are generating mountains of biological data stored in databases. Various techniques and tools are needed to separate the gold from the surrounding rock.
Protein Structure Classification
Authors: Pearl Frances MG , Orengo Christine A , Thornton Janet M
Published: September 2006

To understand and map the universe of protein structures, it is necessary to collate, annotate and classify these structures in a rational scheme. The different approaches that have been taken to tackle this problem include the identification of protein domains, phylogenetic and phenetic classification, and hierarchical and nearest‐neighbour clustering. Powerful new sequence searching methods enable structural assignments to be allocated to genomic data.
Entrez and Forward Database Searching
Authors: Lewitter Fran
Published: September 2006

Entrez is a text‐based system that provides integrated access to multiple molecular biology databases and provides links to relevant information for entries that match the search criteria. This system was developed by and is available through a website at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).
Crystallization of Proteins: Two‐dimensional
Authors: Jap Bing K , Walian Peter J
Published: September 2006

A number of different methods can be used to produce two‐dimensional crystals of proteins – planar ordered arrays one molecule in thickness. Electron crystallography of these proteins allows their structure to be determined.
Circular Dichroism: Studies of Proteins
Authors: Price Nicholas C
Published: September 2006

Circular dichroism is the differential absorption of the left‐ and right‐circularly polarized components of plane‐polarized electromagnetic radiation. It can provide structural and dynamic information about biological macromolecules, particularly proteins; although it cannot provide the high‐resolution structural data available from X‐ray crystallography or nuclear magnetic resonance, its speed and convenience make it the technique of choice in many applications.
Two‐dimensional Electron Crystallography
Authors: Braun Thomas , Engel Andreas
Published: September 2006

Electron crystallography allows the structural analysis of two‐dimensional (2D) protein crystals up to atomic resolution. Planar 2D crystalline arrays are reconstituted from lipids and membrane proteins, which are thus regularly arranged and in a close‐to‐native environment.
Low‐angle Scattering of Neutrons and X‐rays
Authors: Trewhella Jill
Published: September 2006

Low‐angle scattering of X‐rays and neutrons provides information about the structures of proteins and DNA in solution, domain interactions within proteins, and protein–protein and protein–DNA interactions within their functional complexes. Recent advances in synchrotron sources and instrumentation have made possible low‐angle scattering studies of time‐dependent changes in protein structure.
ATP‐binding Motifs
Authors: Matte Allan , Delbaere Louis TJ
Published: September 2006

Proteins bind ATP with the use of a variety of motifs, the most common being the P loop that interacts with phosphoryl groups. There are a few sequence specific motifs that recognize adenine/adenosine but there is no single fingerprint motif because main‐chain protein contacts are usually more important here than side‐chain contacts.
Immunoglobulin Fold: Structures of Proteins in the Immunoglobulin Superfamily
Authors: Gelfand Israel M , Chothia Cyrus , Kister Alexander E
Published: September 2006

Proteins of the immunoglobulin fold are built of homologous domains of approximately 100 residues and with a structure formed by two β sheets packed face to face. Functions of the proteins are mainly in the immune system, cell–cell recognition or in the structural organization and regulation of muscle.
GTP‐binding Loop
Authors: Li Guangpu
Published: September 2006

The GTP‐binding loop is an evolutionarily conserved structure found in the GTPase superfamily of proteins. The GTP‐binding loop enables GTPases to bind and hydrolyse GTP molecules and makes them excellent regulators of cellular processes.
EF–hand Calcium‐binding Proteins
Authors: Nelson Melanie R , Chazin Walter J
Published: September 2006

Calcium and the proteins that bind to it play important roles in normal physiological processes and have been implicated in a variety of disease states. The importance of Ca2+is due mainly to its role as a second messenger in signal transduction. The Ca2+signal is mediated and controlled by many proteins in the cell, the majority of which belong to the EF‐hand superfamily of calcium‐binding proteins.
Chlorarachniophytes
Authors: McFadden Geoffrey I
Published: September 2006

Chlorarachniophytes are unicellular marine algae with green chloroplasts surrounded by four membranes. Chloroplasts were acquired by secondary endosymbiosis of a green alga. The green algal endosymbiont is drastically reduced. The endosymbiont nucleus (nucleomorph) is the smallest known eukaryotic nucleus and is estimated to contain only 300 genes.
Plant Transformation
Authors: Hooykaas Paul JJ
Published: September 2006

The genetic constitution of plants can be altered in the laboratory by a process called transformation. Several methods to accomplish plant transformation have been devised for this purpose, including the use of the natural vector
Agrobacterium tumefaciens
.
History of Bacteriology
Authors: Worboys Michael
Published: September 2006

Bacteriology was established in the 1880s, within medicine, and while medical applications have remained dominant, the subject has also developed in relation to agriculture, water pollution, and biotechnologies.
History of Molecular Biology
Authors: Summers William C
Published: September 2006

Molecular biology is usually described as that domain of biology that seeks explanations in terms of the structure and function of molecules of the cell and sometimes of the whole organism. It has developed from a tradition that borrowed significant paradigms from early twentieth century physics and incorporated some areas of biochemistry and genetics.
History of Plant Sciences
Authors: Browne Janet
Published: September 2006

The study of plants has played a significant, if sometimes undervalued, role in history. Plants have been important in science, medicine and economic affairs since Antiquity. The herbal tradition dominated investigations until the Renaissance after which it ran alongside developing areas of expertise in classification and physiology. In the eighteenth century, plant sciences became significant in geographical exploration and in general culture. Nineteenth‐century botanists used plants for investigating cell theory and early genetics as well as in evolutionary biology.
History of Physiology
Authors: Magner Lois N
Published: September 2006

Modern approaches to physiology developed during the second half of the nineteenth century, but philosophical inquiries into the vital functions of animals and plants are very ancient. Major developments in the history of physiology include William Harvey's demonstration of the circulation of the blood in the seventeenth century and Claude Bernard's discovery of internal secretions in the nineteenth century.
History of Biotechnology
Authors: Bud Robert
Published: September 2006

Biotechnology became a well‐known industry in the late 1970s. Then it was seen to be based on recombinant DNA technology but the word biotechnology had been coined sixty years earlier and there had been an active debate since then about how life processes could be exploited to make useful products.
History of Cancer Research
Authors: Morange Michel
Published: September 2006

History of cancer research has always been closely linked with the history of biology. In particular, cancer research has been revitalized during the last two decades through the development and transformation of molecular biology.
History of Nutritional Science
Authors: Carpenter Kenneth J
Published: September 2006

Historically, the study of nutritional science has been significant for an understanding of the food requirements of humans and animals and the diseases which occur as a consequence of diets deficient in micronutrients
History of Drug Discovery
Authors: Sneader Walter E
Published: September 2006

Until the nineteenth century the only source of medicinal agents was the natural world. The development of synthetic chemistry greatly increased the range of potential medicinal compounds.
History of Biogeography
Authors: Browne Janet
Published: September 2006

Biogeography is the study of the large‐scale distribution patterns of flora and fauna. Modern studies date from the nineteenth century when biologists realized that former changes in the geology and geography of the globe helped plants and animals expand or contract their range. Evolutionary ideas, and then the notion of continental drift, became key concepts.
History of Taxonomy
Authors: Stevens Peter F
Published: September 2006

Taxonomy is the theory and practice of making classifications and detecting relationships. The formal classification of organisms in Western science begins around 1753, but societies worldwide have always assigned organisms to named groups.
History of Classical Genetics
Authors: Harman Oren S
Published: September 2006

Classical genetics has its origin in the 1850s and 1860s, when the Moravian monk Gregor Mendel attempted to formalize the rules of inheritance governing plant hybridization. When Mendel's laws were rediscovered in 1900, breeding experiments were wedded to cytological observation of chromosomes in the nucleus of organisms – most notably in the fruit fly – and classical genetics was born, culminating towards mid‐century in models of what genes do, and what they are made of.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (
NMR
) Spectroscopy in the Study of Whole‐animal Metabolism
Authors: Gillies Robert J , Raghunand Natarajan
Published: September 2006

NMR‐active isotopes are present in living systems and, because the radiofrequency of nuclear magnetic resonance experiments is non‐ionizing, NMR signals can be obtained noninvasively and nondestructively from whole living organisms.
Mass Spectrometry: Analysis of Two‐dimensional Protein Gels
Authors: Lim Hanjo , Yates John R
Published: September 2006

Matrix‐assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry and electrospray tandem mass spectrometry, coupled with liquid chromatography, enable high‐throughput protein identification and further characterization, such as post‐translational modification, of proteins, after initial separation by two‐dimensional gel electrophoresis.
Optical Mapping
Authors: Libbus Imad , Rosenbaum David S
Published: September 2006

Voltage‐sensitive fluorescent dyes that bind to cell membranes allow the transmembrane potential to be recorded without insertion of microelectrodes or the use of extracellular electrodes. Such optical mapping is used to record action potentials from cardiac and neuronal tissues.
p
H
and Buffers
Authors: Segel Irwin H , Segel Leigh D
Published: September 2006

Many biomolecules possess weakly acidic or weakly basic groups whose ionization state can affect both biological function and stability, and many biological processes, such as oxidation–reduction reactions, produce or consume hydrogen ions. The extents of the reactions and the rates at which they proceed depend on the acidity of the reaction environment. Buffers are used to maintain a constant hydrogen ion activity.
Protein Quaternary Structure: Subunit–Subunit Interactions
Authors: Jones Susan , Thornton Janet M
Published: September 2006

The quaternary structure of proteins is the highest level of structural organization observed in these macromolecules. The multimeric proteins that result from quaternary structure formation involve the association of protein subunits through hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions. Protein quaternary structure has important implications for protein folding and function.
DNA Structure: A‐, B‐ and Z‐DNA Helix Families
Authors: Ussery David W
Published: September 2006

There are three major families of DNA helices: A‐DNA, B‐DNA and Z‐DNA. The helical structure of DNA is variable and depends on the sequence as well as the environment.
Nucleic Acids: Thermal Stability and Denaturation
Authors: Doktycz Mitchel J
Published: September 2006

Nucleic acid structures can have different stabilities that depend on a variety of factors that include the nucleic acid sequence, the structure adopted, and the solution environment. Together, these factors influence the thermal stability of the complex.
DNA
/
RNA
Flexibility
Authors: Levene Stephen D
Published: September 2006

Flexibility of DNA and RNA molecules are characteristics that describe resistance of these polymers to conformational distortion. The bending flexibility of nucleic acid molecules is an important factor that governs local interactions involved in protein–nucleic acid recognition and RNA folding as well as global properties such as supercoiling and genome organization.
Watson–Crick Base Pairs
Authors: Marky Luis A , Garcia Angel
Published: September 2006

Watson–Crick base pairs are crucial in the formation of double helical DNA and in the storage of genetic information. They comprise two of the most common geometries involving the pairing of dA with dT and dG with dC through the formation of two and three hydrogen bonds, respectively. The complementarity of the anti‐parallel strands forming a double helix is crucial in DNA replication since the complementary strand is synthesized by adding the Watson–Crick complementary bases of the parent strand. The hybridization of DNA or DNA–RNA strands is widely used in biotechnology and molecular biology for multiple purposes.
Base Pairing inDNA: Unusual Patterns
Authors: Gmeiner William H , Walberer Bernhard J
Published: September 2006

Watson–Crick base pairs comprise just two of 44 reasonable base pairing geometries involving the four common deoxyribonucleotides (dA, dC, dG, dT) in either their neutral or protonated forms. Most of the 42 non‐Watson–Crick base pairs have been observed experimentally in DNA. Although these unusual base pairs are difficult to detectin vivo, unusual base pairing may be significant for the biological functions of DNA.
RNA Structure: Pseudoknots
Authors: Gultyaev Alexander P , Pleij Cornelis WA , Westhof Eric
Published: September 2006

An RNA pseudoknot results from Watson–Crick base pairing interactions of a single‐stranded segment, occurring between two paired sequence fragments, with a complementary sequence that is not located between the paired fragments. RNA pseudoknots adopt different folding topologies and are an essential part of various functional RNA molecules.
Protein–Nucleic Acid Interaction: Major Groove Recognition Determinants
Authors: Xiong Yong , Sundaralingam Muttaiya
Published: September 2006

Protein–nucleic acid interactions play a crucial role in central biological processes. It is known that the most common binding element of proteins is an α helix and the primary binding site on DNA is in the major groove. Some general rules of the α helix binding to the DNA major groove have been derived, but there is no general code (one‐to‐one correspondence) for recognition.
Nucleic Acid: Hybridization
Authors: Magliano Dianna , Lee Wong , Choo Andy
Published: September 2006

Nucleic acid hybridization is the pairing of complementary DNA strands to produce DNA–DNA hybrids or the pairing of complementary DNA–RNA strands to produce DNA–RNA hybrids.
Nucleic Acids: Subtractive Hybridization
Authors: Byers Richard J , Hoyland Judith A , Freemont Anthony J
Published: September 2006

Cells can be characterized phenotypically by demonstrating expressed proteins or messenger RNA. ‘Subtracting’ the gene expression profile of one cell from that of a different cell eliminates the signal from common shared ‘housekeeping’ genes and allows the functional gene expression profile of one cell to be defined. Subtractive hybridization is one of the major methods for achieving this.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): Specialized Reactions
Authors: Tsirka Stella E , Frohman Michael A
Published: September 2006

The polymerase chain reaction is a technique that rapidly amplifies selected subsets of DNA or complementary DNA from initially complex biological mixtures. The efficiency of amplification or the sequence of the amplified material can then be examined for any of many purposes, including genotyping or the characterization of new genes, gene expression patterns, mutations or polymorphisms.
Protist Systematics
Authors: Corliss John O
Published: September 2006

Protist systematics is concerned with the taxonomy or classification of the typically microscopic organisms (above the level of the evolutionarily primitive bacteria) found in abundance nearly everywhere in the Earth's biosphere. Such organisms include the algae, the protozoa, and certain lower fungi.
Pollination by Animals
Authors: Waser Nickolas M
Published: September 2006

Most flowering plants depend on flower‐visiting animals such as bees for their sexual reproduction. Animal pollination is critical for crop and natural ecosystems and plays central roles in plant ecology and evolution.
Population Dynamics: Introduction
Authors: Gillman Michael
Published: September 2006

Population dynamics, meaning changes in population size in time and/or space, can be understood with reference to simple mathematical models. The dynamics include fluctuation around a stable equilibrium, cycles and chaos and are driven by ecological processes such as competition and predation.
Marine Communities
Authors: Snelgrove Paul
Published: September 2006

Marine communities are collections of plants and animals within an area of the ocean that interact with one another more than with other such collections.
Stream and River Community Structure
Authors: Alexander Laurie C , Palmer Margaret A
Published: September 2006

Streams and rivers are inhabited by diverse communities of fish, insects, crustaceans and other organisms that have adapted to the physical and chemical conditions found in running water environments. The assemblage of species found in any particular stream is not random: it is determined by many current and historical factors, including regional environmental conditions, species interactions, evolutionary processes and human activities. All of these factors interact in complex ways to create the observed species diversity, abundance and composition in stream and river communities.
Tropical Forests
Authors: Thomas Sean C , Baltzer Jennifer L
Published: September 2006

Tropical forests, while occupying only one‐tenth of the world's land area, are disproportionately important in terms of global biogeochemical cycles and as home to more than half of the world's species. Research on these most complex of ecological systems has focused on mechanisms for the maintenance of high diversity, and forest responses to fragmentation, logging, and other human impacts.
Primary Succession
Authors: Walker Lawrence R , del Moral Roger
Published: September 2006

Primary succession is the assembly of ecosystems on barren landscapes following severe disturbances that leave little or no biological legacy (lava flows, landslides, mine wastes). Understanding how plant, animal and microbial communities develop under such extreme conditions is essential for restoration of damaged lands.
Secondary Succession
Authors: Shugart Herman H
Published: September 2006

Secondary succession refers to the sequential changes in vegetation that occur after a disturbance such as wildfires, hurricanes or human alterations.
Trophic Cascades
Authors: Persson Lennart
Published: September 2006

Trophic cascades in ecological communities are defined as the vertical propagation of indirect mutualism between non‐adjacent trophic levels in a food chain or food web.
Phosphorus Budgets
Authors: Tiessen Holm
Published: September 2006

Phosphorus is a key element in biological reactions so that small changes in phosphorus availability can have major impacts on ecosystem function and structure.
Forest Ecosystems
Authors: Ollinger Scott V
Published: September 2006

Forest ecosystems cover a large fraction of the Earth's land area and account for most of its terrestrial biological productivity. The structure and function of forests are regulated by an elegant series of feedbacks between the physical environment, plant growth strategies, successional processes, biogeochemical cycles and mechanisms of disturbance.
Mire Ecosystems
Authors: Nilsson Mats
Published: September 2006

Mires are ecosystems in which the long‐term production of organic material exceeds the rate of decomposition, leading to the accumulation of organic material, i.e. peat.
Grazer‐dominated Ecosystems
Authors: Conant Richard T
Published: September 2006

Grazer‐dominated ecosystems are characterized by removal of significant amounts of net primary production by grazing animals and subsequent impacts on elemental budgets, species composition and fire regimes, all of which are manifest on physiological to evolutionary time scales.
Mediterranean Ecosystems
Authors: Joffre Richard , Rambal Serge
Published: September 2006

Mediterranean regions are defined by their unique climate, which is characterized by a hot drought period in summer and cool wet period in winter. They partly cover the Mediterranean Basin, California, southwestern and southern Australia, central Chile and southern Africa. Mediterranean‐type ecosystems present strong similarities concerning vegetation types and functioning, as well as land‐use patterns and general appearance of the landscape.
Arctic Ecosystems
Authors: Callaghan Terry V
Published: September 2006

Arctic ecosystems cover large land masses and provide vast wilderness areas with a valuable and particular diversity strongly related to climate. Current rapid sociological changes in the North, together with a predicted amplification of global climate warming in the Arctic, are likely to have large effects on potentially vulnerable Arctic ecosystems.
Photosynthesis: Ecology
Authors: Johnson Giles
Published: September 2006

While most plants depend directly on photosynthesis for energy, their ability to capture light energy and grow will be affected by many other environmental factors, including water supply, nutrients and temperature. Various adaptations of photosynthesis exist that allow plants to tolerate extreme environmental conditions. Ultimately, the overall net photosynthetic rate of ecosystems has a major impact on the global carbon budget.
Ecophysiological Responses of Plants to Air Pollution
Authors: Caporn Simon JM
Published: September 2006

Changes in plant ecology due to the impacts of air pollution and the underlying physiological causes.
Migration: Energetics
Authors: Bairlein Franz
Published: September 2006

Energetic preparation for migration is the deposition of tissue to fuel locomotion. The prime fuel is fat, which can be accumulated in huge stores.
Behavioural Ecology
Authors: Hager Reinmar
Published: September 2006

Behavioural ecology investigates how animal behaviour is adapted to the physical and social environment of the species concerned. Both empirical and theoretical studies analyse how evolution has shaped behaviour through the process of natural selection.
Biogeographical Regions
Authors: Huggett Richard
Published: September 2006

Species are not uniformly distributed over the land surface. Fauna and flora display regional differences. The largest regions of animals and plants are biogeographical regions, each bearing a distinctive fauna and flora. Some families and even some orders of animals are endemic to particular biogeographical regions. Other families are shared by two or more regions. A few families are cosmopolitan, being found in all biogeographical regions.
Islands
Authors: Henderson Scott J , Whittaker Robert J
Published: September 2006

Islands are simplified ecosystems that provide natural scientists with multiple, discrete units to study and upon which to base more general biogeographical, ecological and evolutionary theory. Island biogeographical theory has provided a framework for estimating species losses and to guide conservation management as continental landscapes become increasingly fragmented into ‘habitat islands’.
Cladistic Biogeography
Authors: Humphries Christopher J
Published: September 2006

Cladistic biogeography (also called vicariance biogeography) is concerned with the classification of patterns and processes of a changing Earth and its biota through geological time.
Range Limits
Authors: Hartvigsen Gregg
Published: September 2006

The range of a species is the area over which individuals of that species can be found. To understand range we need to consider the behaviour of individuals (individual movement and the dispersal of propagules) and the biotic (resources, enemies, and competitors) and abiotic variables that influence the potential and actual range of species.
Eutrophication of Lakes and Rivers
Authors: Kleinman Peter JA , Sharpley Andrew N
Published: September 2006

Eutrophication is the process of increasing organic enrichment of a water body. The accelerated eutrophication of lakes and rivers represents one of the most pervasive water quality problems in the world.
Agricultural Systems: Ecology
Authors: Edwards Clive A
Published: September 2006

Agricultural systems have four main inputs, cultivations, nutrients, crops and pest management, all of which are interlinked and influenced by each other. They are affected by land and water and energy availability and soil erosion. To achieve long‐term agricultural sustainability, the need for fossil‐fuel‐based inputs should be minimized and the biological and ecological inputs maximized.
Fisheries Management
Authors: Pauly Daniel
Published: September 2006

Fisheries management is the set of science‐based procedures used by government institutions to regulate fishers’ access to fisheries resources; this involves temporal and spatial restrictions on the deployment of fishing gear, restrictions on features of these gear, and constraints on the species and size composition of the catch, and its overall magnitude.
Environmental Impact Assessment
Authors: Thompson Dixon , Ross William A
Published: September 2006

Environmental impact assessment attempts to identify and predict the impacts of human activity on the environment and human wellbeing. It also interprets and communicates information about those impacts and investigates and proposes means for their management.
Agricultural Production
Authors: Pimentel David , Pimentel Marcia
Published: September 2006

World food security is threatened because agricultural production is unable to keep up with the increasing demand for food to feed a rapidly growing human population. Finite natural resources, such as land, water and energy, limit what most technological advances in agricultural production can accomplish.
Theoretical Ecology
Authors: Lundberg Per
Published: September 2006

Theoretical ecology is the study of the fundamental forces and processes determining the course of evolution and how ecological systems are assembled and maintained. Theoretical ecology therefore typically encompasses almost all levels of biological organization (from genes to ecosystems). Theoretical ecology progresses under the common scientific attitude that we indeed are able to reveal generalities and law‐like behaviours of nature despite the overwhelming diversity of life on Earth.
Satellite Remote Sensing of the Environment
Authors: Bamber Jonathan L
Published: September 2006

Remote sensing (RS) is the derivation of information about an object that is not in direct contact with the observer. It is achieved by detecting changes in the energy field caused by the object. This could be a perturbation to the electromagnetic (EM), acoustic (seismology), gravity or magnetic field. In general, when related to satellite observations of the Earth, it involves the use of EM radiation.
Ecological Methods
Authors: Henderson Peter Alan
Published: September 2006

Ecological studies involve setting objectives and formulating a sampling programme; sampling in the field and sorting, identifying and measuring the organisms retrieved; and data analysis. The results can be used to derive absolute or relative population measures, construct life tables, probe population dynamics and estimate biodiversity.
Macroecology
Authors: Maurer Brian A
Published: September 2006

Macroecology is the science of examining ecological systems at large spatial scales, focusing on the statistical distributions of species among ecologically important variables such as body size, geographic range size, energy use and phylogeny.
Ecological Biochemistry
Authors: Que Hee Shane
Published: September 2006

Ecological biochemistry is the study of the role of biochemistry and chemistry in the ecological relationships of different organisms in their abiotic environment.
Time‐series Analysis in Ecology
Authors: Lange Holger
Published: September 2006

Most phenomena in ecosystem research are assessed via repeated measurements of environmental variables. The dynamics of these time series are investigated with a variety of statistical techniques and nonlinear methods which allow the separation of short‐ and long‐term components, show all types of trends and quantify the information contained and the complexity of the data sets.
Vitamin B
2
Deficiency
Authors: Rivlin Richard S
Published: September 2006

The consequences of vitamin B
2
deficiency can be far reaching. In humans it can lead to weakness and fatigue and can influence drug and lipid metabolism.
Biogeography of Freshwater Algae
Authors: Sheath Robert G
Published: September 2006

Freshwater algae represent those organisms growing in inland waters that are typically photosynthetic but do not have a vascular system or sterile layer of cells protecting the reproductive structures.
Meckel, Johann Friedrich, the Elder
Authors: Lohff B
Published: September 2006

1724 – 1774 German anatomist and founder of an important anatomical collection.
History of Plant Ecology
Authors: Nicolson Malcolm
Published: September 2006

Plant ecology is the study of the collective phenomena of plants. It dates from the nineteenth century, having its origins in Humboldtian plant geography and in Darwinian physiological anatomy. Much important work was done in the USA and Britain, both before and shortly after World War II. The study of plant communities is now a major aspect of ecosystem ecology.
Forestry Management and Production
Authors: Innes John L , Bull Gary
Published: September 2006

The issue of the nature, rate and causes of deforestation is of political significance through carbon accounting under the Kyoto Protocol. There is debate over the underlying causes of deforestation, but the primary causes are well understood. Forests are a major source of woodfuels and reservoirs of biodiversity.
Cellulose: Biogenesis and Degradation
Authors: Stone Bruce
Published: September 2006

Cellulose is synthesized by plasma membrane‐bound cellulose synthase complexes found in bacteria, slime moulds, algae and embryophytes. Cellulases produced by many bacteria, protistans and fungi break down cellulose to soluble saccharides for use in growth and energy production. Plant pathogens use cellulases to gain access to the contents of plant cells by digesting their walls, and in embryophytes cellulases have a role in cell wall development and differentiation.
Sperm–Egg Interactions: Sperm–Egg Binding in Invertebrates
Authors: Carroll David J
Published: September 2006

During fertilization, spermatozoa undergo a series of responses (including chemoattraction and the acrosome reaction) to egg‐derived factors before they contact the egg proper. Specific cell surface proteins direct the interactions between the sperm and the egg that lead to fusion and egg activation.
RNA
Polymerases: Subunits and Functional Domains
Authors: Woychik Nancy A , Reinberg Danny
Published: September 2006

RNA polymerase is a multisubunit enzyme that catalyses the synthesis of RNA. Although there is a striking degree of structural and functional conservation among all RNA polymerases, there are also many distinguishing features that reflect the specific requirements of individual organisms.
Chromatin Remodelling and Histone Modification in Transcription Regulation
Authors: Urnov Fyodor D , Wolffe Alan P
Published: September 2006

The eukaryotic genome is assembled into chromatin, localized alterations of which are a major feature of gene control pathways. A wide variety of dedicated enzymatic complexes are targeted by particular transcriptional regulators to specific loci in the genome and remodel the structure of chromatin via energy‐dependent disruption of histone–DNA contacts and covalent modification of histones, both with major regulatory consequences.
Predator‐induced Polyphenism
Authors: Gilbert Scott F
Published: September 2006

Some organisms have evolved the ability to alter their development in response to a predator or group of predators. When these changes enable the organism to escape predation, they are called predator‐induced polyphenisms.
Fibroblast Growth Factors in Development
Authors: Liu Aimin , Wang Charlotte , Niswander Lee
Published: September 2006

Fibroblast growth factors play a key role in a variety of developmental processes, including branching morphogenesis of the invertebrate tracheal system and vertebrate lung, as well as the cell movements of gastrulation.
Lung Development
Authors: Malpel Sarah , Cardoso Wellington V
Published: September 2006

Lung morphogenesis and differentiation result from activation of a complex network of signalling molecules in epithelial and mesenchymal cells. Regional expression of these signals along the developing respiratory system determines the pattern of branching of the airways and the appearance of the distinct cell types that characterize the tracheobronchial tree and the alveoli.
Predation (Including Parasites and Disease) and Herbivory
Authors: Hartvigsen Gregg
Published: September 2006

Organisms generally fall into two broad categories: either they are enemies or they are victims. Predation, parasitism, diseases, and herbivory all constitute ecological interactions that involve both enemies and victims. Predation is the act of an animal (enemy) capturing, killing, and consuming prey (victim). Parasites and diseases (or the agents which cause some bodily degradation) vary in their effects on victims from hardly noticeable to causing death. Finally, herbivory is that act of an animal consuming a plant. The effect of herbivory, like the effect of parasites and diseases, may be relatively minor or result in the death of the plant.
Genetics and Variation in Survival and Reproduction
Authors: Pletcher Scott D
Published: September 2006

An understanding of the genetic basis of variation in survival and reproduction requires integration of ideas from several different scientific fields including: population genetics, mathematical demography, life‐history biology and quantitative genetics.
Homo erectus
Authors: Wood Bernard A
Published: September 2006

Homo erectus
is an extinct hominin species belonging to the genus
Homo
. Its temporal range is around 1.8–0.2 million years ago.
Dinosaur Growth – Egg to Adult
Authors: Chinsamy‐Turan Anusuya
Published: September 2006

Different growth strategies are evident among the Dinosauria. Some dinosaurs grew rapidly and uninterruptedly, while others experienced periodic interruptions during growth.
Dinosaur Locomotion
Authors: Hutchinson John R
Published: September 2006

Many lines of evidence must be used to understand dinosaur locomotion: how extinct dinosaurs moved.
Dinosaur Feeding
Authors: Norman David B
Published: September 2006

Most dinosaurs can be relatively easily divided into those that were ‘classic’ carnivores like
Tyrannosaurus rex
or those that were
Diplodocus–Stegosaurus–Triceratops
style herbivores. However, a number of dinosaurs cannot be so easily categorized and therefore challenge our understanding of their likely feeding behaviours; for these latter creatures a more deductive approach must be adopted.
Primates and the Origin of Culture
Authors: McGrew W C
Published: September 2006

Clues to the origins of culture may lie in the diversity of behaviour seen in living large‐brained creatures with complex cognition. Comparison across apes, monkeys and other species may help us to understand what is unique and universal about human culture and what is not.
Flowering Plants, Evolution
Authors: Stevens Peter F
Published: September 2006

The evolution of angiosperms shows a tendency to an increase in canalization and synorganization, but it is also characterized by widespread parallelism and reversal. The great diversity shown by extant angiosperms is concentrated in a relatively few clades.
Patenting Plants and Plant Products
Authors: Ergenzinger Edward R , Spruill W Murray
Published: September 2006

The US approach to protecting newly developed plant varieties has fed a booming agribusiness industry, but the US differs from many other parts of the world in terms of its views on patenting plants and public attitudes regarding genetically modified foods.