bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Syntactic Form Frequency: Assessing
Authors: Brysbaert Marc , Mitchell Don C
Published: December 2005

Syntactic form frequency research aims to find out how often words and sequences of words in a given context fulfil particular syntactic roles in a sentence. This is achieved by analyzing representative samples of text or speech materials. The research is motivated by the findings that artificial grammars perform better when they take syntactic form frequencies into account, and that humans also seem to be sensitive to this kind of information.
Language Acquisition and Language Change
Authors: Lightfoot David W
Published: December 2005

Under a cognitive view of language, a mental system emerges in the mind/brain of an individual child; linguists study the acquisition of that system, a ‘grammar’, which characterizes the individual's mature linguistic capacity. If a different system develops in another child in the next generation of speakers, then we have grammatical change, and that change reflects differences in the acquisition process.
Learnability Theory
Authors: Wexler Ken
Published: December 2005

The issue of learnability has dominated the study of generative grammar for most of its history. The problem of learnability is how to account for the fact that any normal child can learn any natural language.
Lexical Development
Authors: McKee Cecile Maxine
Published: December 2005

Lexical development refers to children's acquisition of meaningful and grammatical elements of the lexicon.
Syntax, Acquisition of
Authors: Crain Stephen , Thornton Rosalind
Published: December 2005

Research shows that young children adhere to core grammatical principles early in the course of language development. Experimental studies of child language confirm the theory of universal grammar, and support the continuity assumption for language development.
Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Juffs Alan , DeKeyser Robert M
Published: December 2005

Second language acquisition (SLA) involves the development of the knowledge of a complex system of sound, word, sentence structure, and meaning of any non‐native language by children as well as adults; it also involves the acquisition of the ability to use that system appropriately in different social settings.
Language Acquisition by Animals
Authors: Rumbaugh Duane M , Beran Michael J
Published: December 2005

Language acquisition by animals is concerned with how the acquisition of linguistic skills by nonhuman animals compares to language acquisition in humans. Although language acquisition by nonhuman animals is not claimed to be identical, or even approximate, to language acquisition by humans, researchers in this area are concerned with the specific cognitive skills of nonhuman animals that are necessary in the productive use and understanding of symbols.
Finite State Processing
Authors: van Noord Gertjan
Published: December 2005

Finite state processing is the analysis of (natural) language by means of finite state automata. Finite state automata are computational devices with limited capabilities.
Phonology, Computational
Authors: Coleman John
Published: December 2005

Various methods of computational modeling of phonological processing have been developed, especially in speech and language technology but also for cognitive models.
Speech Recognition, Automatic
Authors: Hermansky Hynek , Morgan Nelson
Published: December 2005

Automatic speech recognition is the attempt to use a machine to derive the linguistic message from a speech signal.
Morphology, Computational
Authors: Oflazer Kemal
Published: December 2005

Computational morphology can be defined as the study of computational analysis and synthesis of word forms in the context of natural language processing with the computer.
Psycholinguistics, Computational
Authors: Lewis Richard L
Published: December 2005

Computational psycholinguistics seeks to build theories of human linguistic processes that take the form of working computational models. These models address processes ranging from word recognition to discourse comprehension, and produce behavior that constitutes predictions to be compared to human data.
Lexicon, Computational Models of
Authors: Copestake Ann
Published: December 2005

Natural language processing systems require information about individual words which is stored in the lexicon. Computational lexical representation techniques have been developed to model lexical knowledge.
Performance and Competence
Authors: Frazier Lyn
Published: December 2005

There is an important distinction between knowledge of the general principles of grammar (competence) and the way that knowledge is applied in actual language production or comprehension (performance).
Language, Connectionist and Symbolic Representations of
Authors: Steedman Mark
Published: December 2005

Connectionist or neurocomputational representations are based on sets of similar, multiple connected neuron‐like parallel processing units, the connections bearing modifiable weights adjusted on the basis of locally available information using a learning algorithm. Symbolic representations, by contrast, are defined in terms of rules relating expressions in a formal language. Among the claims that have been made for connectionist models is the ‘emergence’ of generalizations that had been thought to require the mediation of rule‐based grammars and modular symbolic processing architectures. A more convincing linguistic role for such networks lies in their potential for inducing grounded conceptual structure and statistical models as infrastructure for acquisition and processing of standard symbolist representations of lexicalized syntax and semantics.
Semantics and Cognition
Authors: Goddard Cliff , Wierzbicka Anna
Published: December 2005

The words and grammar of any language encode a vast array of prepackaged concepts, most of them complex and culture‐related. Since language plays an important role in normal human cognition, the nature and extent of semantic variation across languages is a key research question for cognitive science.
Synaesthesia
Authors: Baron‐Cohen Simon , Harrison John
Published: December 2005

Synaesthesia is experienced when stimulation of one sensory modality gives rise to a perception in a second modality, without that second modality having received any direct stimulation.
Consciousness, Cognitive Theories of
Authors: Baars Bernard J
Published: December 2005

‘Consciousness’ operationally consists of all the things human beings report experiencing, from perception to mental images, inner speech, recalled memories, semantics, dreams, hallucinations, emotional feelings, and aspects of cognitive and motor control. In cognitive theory, consciousness appears to be a global access function, presenting an endless variety of focal contents to executive control and decision‐making.
Consciousness, Sleep, and Dreaming
Authors: Hobson J Allan
Published: December 2005

Advances in, and links between, neurobiology and psychology as applied in the study of sleep and dreaming compared to the waking state are increasingly revealing significant evidence for the brain basis of consciousness.
Consciousness, Animal
Authors: Allen Colin
Published: December 2005

Observable similarities between humans and other animals with respect to behavior and neurology, as well as considerations related to evolutionary continuity between species, underlie most opinions that animals have conscious experiences. The attempt to understand other forms of consciousness – other species of mind – may help us to understand the evolutionary roots of our own.
Memory, Philosophical Issues about
Authors: Sutton John
Published: December 2005

Memory is a set of cognitive capacities by which humans and other animals retain information and reconstruct past experiences, usually for present purposes. Philosophical investigation into memory is in part continuous with the development of cognitive scientific theories, but includes related inquiries into metaphysics and personal identity.
Personal Identity
Authors: Radden Jennifer
Published: December 2005

Personal identity is a hotly contested topic in both definition and implication, which questions whether, and in what sense, an individual person can be understood as a uniquely definable entity at any one time (synchronic unity) and as that same entity through time (diachronic unity).
Other Minds: The Problems
Authors: Hyslop Alec
Published: December 2005

The problem of other minds questions the basis of our knowledge that others have minds, and enquires into how our beliefs about the mental states and inner lives of others can be supported.
Aging, Neural Changes in
Authors: Kensinger Elizabeth A , Corkin Suzanne
Published: December 2005

Dementia is not an obligatory consequence of aging. Normal aging does, however, result in changes in cognition, caused by a combination of neurotransmitter abnormalities and alterations in the structure and function of the brain.
W
ernicke–
G
eschwind Model
Authors: Kertesz Andrew
Published: December 2005

The Wernicke–Geschwind model is the basis for an aphasia classification system that is favored by many clinicians. It is also a model for language organization of the brain.
Modularity in Neural Systems and Localization of Function
Authors: Umiltà Carlo
Published: December 2005

Modularity assigns particular cognitive functions to particular structures (modules) in the brain. These functional units are viewed as operating relatively independently from one another. This view contrasts with the hypothesis that such functions correspond to the highly interactive operations of many brain components.
Hippocampus
Authors: O'Keefe John
Published: December 2005

The hippocampus is a cortical structure located in the temporal lobes of the brain. Its role in memory has been extensively investigated in humans and other animals.
Frontal Cortex
Authors: Stuss Donald T , Floden Darlene
Published: December 2005

The frontal lobes (or cortex) serve as the primary bases of social interactions, self‐awareness, and the regulation of more modular functions such as perception, memory, and language.
Blindsight, Neural Basis of
Authors: Marzi Carlo A
Published: December 2005

Blindsight is the presence of unconscious visually guided behavior elicited by stimuli presented within the visual field loss of patients with damage to the primary visual cortex.
Anosognosia
Authors: Kaszniak Alfred W
Published: December 2005

Anosognosia is a clinical syndrome in which a patient with brain dysfunction appears unaware of a neurological or neuropsychological impairment, such as paralysis or amnesia.
Prosopagnosia
Authors: Young Andrew W
Published: December 2005

Prosopagnosia is a neurologically based impairment of the ability to recognize faces.
Amnesia
Authors: Mayes AR , Hunkin NM
Published: December 2005

Amnesia means loss of memory; more specifically, the term refers to the amnesic syndrome. In this syndrome, usually caused by regional brain damage, there is impaired recall and recognition of facts and episodes encountered both before and after the onset of the disorder, although intelligence and short‐term or immediate memory are preserved.
Dyslexia
Authors: Coltheart Max
Published: December 2005

Dyslexia is a specific impairment in the ability to read; it may be acquired (impaired reading caused by brain damage in a previously literate person) or developmental (failure ever to have learnt to read adequately).
Disorders of Body Image
Authors: Berlucchi Giovanni , Aglioti Salvatore M
Published: December 2005

Body image (or schema) is the complex of perceptions, beliefs, and representations about one's own body that is included in the notion of self. Amputations, cerebral lesions, and psychiatric disorders may induce dramatic alterations of this image.
What and Where/How Systems
Authors: Dijkerman Hendrik Christiaan
Published: December 2005

What and where/how systems are the two main processing streams along which visual information is processed in the primate cerebral cortex.
Neural Basis of Memory: Systems Level
Authors: Shimamura Arthur P
Published: December 2005

A systems level approach to the neuroscientific investigation of memory looks at the ways in which different areas of the brain interact and communicate to achieve this function.
Memory Consolidation
Authors: Moscovitch Morris
Published: December 2005

In memory consolidation, biochemical and psychological processes form new memories and assimilate them into a person's pre‐existing body of knowledge.
Encoding and Retrieval, Neural Basis of
Authors: Nyberg Lars
Published: December 2005

Cognitive theories describe encoding and retrieval as two distinct but interacting memory processes. This way of characterizing encoding and retrieval processes converges with analyses of their neural basis in that encoding and retrieval seem to engage specific as well as common brain areas.
Working Memory, Neural Basis of
Authors: Jonides John
Published: December 2005

Working memory is the memory system used by humans and other animals to store small amounts of information for brief periods in the service of reasoning, thinking, problem‐solving and the like.
Planning: Neural and Psychological
Authors: Goel Vinod
Published: December 2005

To plan is to formulate a scheme or method for attaining some goal. Scientists are just beginning to understand the psychological processes and brain systems involved.
Syntax and Semantics, Neural Basis of
Authors: Shapiro Lewis P
Published: December 2005

Based on evidence from aphasia and neuroimaging studies, elements of syntax and semantics appear to be neurologically isolable and have distinct time courses.
Reasoning and Thinking, Neural Basis of
Authors: Grafman Jordan , Goel Vinod
Published: December 2005

Reasoning is the cognitive activity of drawing inferences from given information. All arguments in reasoning involve the claim that one or more propositions (the premises) provide some grounds for accepting another proposition (the conclusion).
Navigation and Homing, Neural Basis of
Authors: Bingman Verner P
Published: December 2005

Navigational ability in animals often relies on memory‐based maps of environmental space, typically assisted in birds by external ‘compass’ clues and in rodents by internal positioning information represented by specialized neurons such as place cells. The hippocampus and related brain structures appear to be integral to the ability to navigate.
Neuron Doctrine
Authors: Kaczmarek Leonard K
Published: December 2005

A simple statement of the neuron doctrine is that neurons are the fundamental units of the nervous system, and that the entire activity of the brain can be understood in terms of the actions and interactions of these cells. While this is generally accepted by current‐day neurobiologists, theories of exactly how neurons achieve control over the workings of the brain have undergone multiple modifications since the concept was first introduced.
Neural Inhibition
Authors: Martin Kevan AC
Published: December 2005

Neural inhibition is an active process that reduces or suppresses the excitatory activity of synapses, neurons or circuits.
Neural Oscillations
Authors: Wang Xiao‐Jing
Published: December 2005

Oscillations represent a general feature of neural firing patterns, produced by dynamical interplay between cellular and synaptic mechanisms. Large‐scale synchronous neural population rhythms reflect different behavioral states, play a role in neural synchronization that contributes to the neuronal encoding of sensory stimuli, or may be correlated with cognitive processes such as attention and working memory.
Decoding Neural Population Activity
Authors: Foldiak Peter
Published: December 2005

The brain uses the activity patterns of a large number of neurons to represent information about the world. Decoding methods allow us to read out this neural code and interpret the neural activity pattern.
Neurons, Representation in
Authors: Földiák Peter
Published: December 2005

The brain uses the activity patterns of a large number of neurons to represent information about the world. The way in which information items are encoded in these patterns has fundamental consequences for information storage, recall, generalization and learning.
Neurons, Computation in
Authors: Bower James M
Published: December 2005

Detailed knowledge of the complexities of single‐neuron computation – the way in which single neurons process synaptic input – is essential to understanding the function of the brain itself.
Receptive Fields
Authors: Das Aniruddha
Published: December 2005

The receptive field of a neuron is the extended region of sensory space to which the neuron responds, including those stimuli that directly activate or suppress the neuron's activity, as well as those stimuli that can modulate the neuron's response to other stimuli, but have no direct effect by themselves.
Neural Development
Authors: Sengelaub Dale R
Published: December 2005

The structure of the nervous system is determined developmentally through the interaction of genetic and nongenetic processes. These processes are progressive, wherein cells are added, connections are established, and functions mature, as well as regressive, involving substantial death of cells and loss of connections.
Synapse
Authors: Matus Andrew , Frotscher Michael
Published: December 2005

Synapses are specialized structures in neuronal circuits where signals are transmitted from one nerve cell to the next. Synaptic plasticity, involving changes in the efficiency of signal transmission and rearrangement of connections between nerve cells, is thought to underlie brain learning and memory.
Hodgkin–Huxley
Authors: Scott Alwyn
Published: December 2005

Quantitative representation of transmembrane ionic currents by the Hodgkin–Huxley equations allows the calculation of nerve‐impulse dynamics, including all‐or‐nothing behavior, threshold, temperature dependence, decremental conduction and the nature of the refractory zone.
Mc
C
ulloch–
P
itts Neurons
Authors: Anderson James A
Published: December 2005

The ‘McCulloch–Pitts neuron’ is an abstraction of the computational functions of a biological neuron. This model ‘neuron’ has two states, on or off, it sums activation from other neurons, and it enters the on‐state when the sum of its inputs exceeds a threshold. Networks composed of such abstract “neurons” can compute any finite logical expression.
Hebb Synapses: Modeling of Neuronal Selectivity
Authors: Shouval Harel Z
Published: December 2005

Hebb synapses are modifiable synaptic connections that increase their efficacy when the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons are coactive. Such a learning rule has appealing computational properties but is not stable. Several modifications have been proposed to stabilize this rule. There is mounting experimental evidence that modifiable synapses exist in brain and form the basis for learning, memory and some aspects of development.
Cortical Columns
Authors: Goodhill Geoffrey J , Carreira‐Perpiñán Miguel Á
Published: December 2005

In many regions of the cortex, neuronal response properties remain relatively constant in a direction perpendicular to the surface of the cortex, while they vary in a direction parallel to the cortex. Such columnar organization is particularly evident in the visual system, in the form of ocular dominance and orientation columns.
Single Neuron Recording
Authors: Taube Jeffrey S
Published: December 2005

Single neuron recordings are the voltage or current responses monitored extracellularly or intracellularly from individual neurons over time.
Place Cells
Authors: O'Keefe John
Published: December 2005

Research in the 1970s first suggested that neurons in the rat hippocampus signaled the animal's location in its environment. This prominent correlation with the animal's spatial location has led to these cells being termed place cells.
Face Cells
Authors: Tovée Martin
Published: December 2005

Face cells are neurons in the primate visual system that seem to be specialized for face recognition.
Mirror Neurons
Authors: Rizzolatti Giacomo , Gallese Vittorio
Published: December 2005

Mirror neurons are a class of neurons, discovered in monkey premotor cortex, that become active both when the monkey makes an action and when it observes another individual making a similar action. Similar systems are found in humans.
Neglect
Authors: Driver Jon , Vuilleumier Patrik
Published: December 2005

Unilateral spatial neglect is the failure to perceive, orient, and act on objects or events towards the side of space opposite a unilateral brain lesion (typically to the right hemisphere). These characteristic deficits are not attributable to primary sensory or motor loss, but involve deficits in higher‐level spatial representation and attention.
Levels of Analysis in Neural Modeling
Authors: Dayan Peter
Published: December 2005

Neural systems are analyzed by building multiple levels of descriptive and explanatory mathematical models. Parallel to these are interpretive computational models, showing how information is represented and manipulated.
Spatial Disorders
Authors: Vallar Giuseppe
Published: December 2005

Cerebral lesions may impair a person's ability to perceive and remember objects, and to orient and navigate in the surrounding space. These neuropsychological disorders may be highly selective, suggesting that the internal anatomofunctional representation of space is multicomponential, although our phenomenal experience of it is largely unitary.
Diffusion Models and Neural Activity
Authors: Ricciardi Luigi M , Lánský Petr
Published: December 2005

Neuronal interspike intervals can be characterized in terms of the first‐passage time probability density of stochastic diffusion processes under steady state and periodic stimulation. The Wiener and Ornstein–Uhlenbeck models, and models with multiplicative noise, can be used to elucidate neuronal activity.
Neural Development, Models of
Authors: Goodhill Geoffrey J
Published: December 2005

Models of neural development attempt to produce precise mathematical and computational descriptions of the biological mechanisms that regulate the formation of the nervous system.
Perceptual Systems: The Visual Model
Authors: Stankiewicz Brian J
Published: December 2005

Perception is the interpretation of specific sensation from the visual, auditory, somatosensory and olfactory sensation systems. Computational models of perceptual systems attempt to understand the connection between the input (sensation) and the output (perception) of these systems.
Learning and Memory, Models of
Authors: Eagleman David M , Montague P Read
Published: December 2005

Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, and memory is the retention of knowledge. Both have their roots in the biochemistry and anatomy of the brain, and are commonly studied by investigating the connection between brain cells, the synapse.
Spatial Cognition, Models of
Authors: Hartley Tom , Burgess Neil
Published: December 2005

Neurophysiological research has led to detailed mechanistic theories about how spatial locations and headings are represented in the brain and used in memory and navigation.
Attention, Models of
Authors: Rao Rajesh PN
Published: December 2005

Attention is the ability of an organism to select and process only the relevant or ‘interesting’ parts of its sensory inputs, while discarding other potentially irrelevant parts. Models of attention seek to explain the mechanisms and neuronal substrates underlying this evolutionarily important sensory ability.
Rate versus Temporal Coding Models
Authors: Shadlen Michael N
Published: December 2005

Information is represented in the brain by the electrical activity of neurons. A number of current theories attempt to explain this neural code of information and how it is used by the brain to achieve perception, action, thought, and consciousness.
Pattern Vision, Neural Basis of
Authors: Kiper Daniel C , Carandini Matteo
Published: December 2005

From the retina to the cerebral cortex, the early stages of the visual system decompose the visual scene into a number of relevant features, while discarding redundant information. Successive stages of the visual system perform an increasingly complex analysis of the visual scene.
Object Perception, Neural Basis of
Authors: Koyama Minoru , Hasegawa Isao , Miyashita Yasushi
Published: December 2005

Object recognition is a process through which sensory inputs reactivate distributed neural networks subserving memory of objects in the temporal and other association cortices.
Sensory Integration, Neural Basis of
Authors: Stein Barry E , Stanford Terrence R , Wallace Mark T
Published: December 2005

Multisensory integration is the ability of the brain to combine information from different sense receptors to enhance the organism's perception of its environment.
Somesthesis, Neural Basis of
Authors: Hsiao Steven S , Yoshioka Takashi , Johnson Kenneth O
Published: December 2005

Somesthesis is the awareness of sensation from the skin, muscles, joints, and viscera, through specialized receptors in the skin and deep tissues.
Cortical Map Formation
Authors: Kaas Jon H
Published: December 2005

Cortical maps are orderly representations of sensory receptors or body movements that form during the development of the brain. Proper development depends on genetic information, molecular signals based on relative position in the brain, and information in spontaneous and evoked neural activity patterns.
Neural Prostheses
Authors: Chapin John K
Published: December 2005

A neural prosthesis is an electronic device that uses electrode stimulation to artificially activate muscle, nerve or brain tissue that has lost its normal functional capacity.
Neural Degeneration
Authors: Lucassen Paul John , Heine Vivi M , Boekhoorn Karin , Krugers Harm
Published: December 2005

As adult neurons generally do not divide, dysregulation or unwanted induction of apoptosis at an adult stage can have dramatic consequences for brain function.
Neurogenesis
Authors: Ormerod Brandi K , Falconer Erin M , Galea Liisa A M
Published: December 2005

Adult neurogenesis has been found to occur in the olfactory bulb and the hippocampus of all vertebrate species studied but has been most extensively characterized in birds and mammals. Although its function is unknown, neurogenesis is influenced by physical activity, learning, environmental complexity, season and photoperiod, exposure to stress, and experimental brain pathology.
Neural Regeneration
Authors: Bandtlow Christine E , Oertle Thomas
Published: December 2005

In the mammalian nervous system nerve fibers of the peripheral nervous system can regrow upon injury; in contrast, fibers of the central nervous system lack this regenerative capacity. Research into the molecular and cellular processes of nerve repair is improving the prospects of successful treatment of spinal cord injury.
Neural Transplantation
Authors: Dunnett Stephen B
Published: December 2005

Neural transplantation is the transplantation of nerve cells and tissues into the brain and spinal cord. First developed as an experimental strategy to study development and plasticity in the brain, it has led to new strategies to treat injury or disease throughout the nervous system.
Neurogenetic Approaches
Authors: Lipp Hans‐Peter , Wolfer David P
Published: December 2005

The relation between genes and cognition is analyzed using two approaches: identification of genetic traits and statistical mapping to chromosomes, and by studying the effects of targeted deletion of genes on brain and behavior.
Brain Self‐Stimulation
Authors: Milner Peter M
Published: December 2005

Most vertebrates and some invertebrates learn to make responses that deliver electrical stimulation to parts of the nervous system. This provides a tool for studying the anatomy and neuropharmacology of reward mechanisms. Knowledge so gained has proved useful for understanding motivation and addiction.
Long‐Term Potentiation, Discovery of
Authors: Garraghty Preston E
Published: December 2005

Long‐term potentiation is an increase in the strength of connections between neurons due to changes in the inputs to a neural circuit. It is widely regarded as the best model for studying the ways the brain changes as we learn and remember.
Golgi Staining
Authors: Scheibel Arnold B
Published: December 2005

Golgi staining describes a group of methods that depend on the reaction of chromate salts with heavy metals, usually silver or mercury, to reveal the nerve cell body and all of its processes for microscopic study.
Behavioral Neuropharmacological Methods
Authors: Wise Roy A
Published: December 2005

The neural systems responsible for cognitive function are segregated by anatomical and neurochemical specificity. Characterization of the effects of drugs on thought and action helps us to identify the basic functional units of neuronal and cognitive organization.
Cerebellum
Authors: Middleton Frank A , Tillery Stephen I Helms
Published: December 2005

The cerebellum (‘little brain’) contains more neurons than the rest of the entire nervous system, and its complex organization has been the subject of much research. Although it is not essential for cognitive thought processes, the cerebellum is clearly involved in the performance of some cognitive tasks and in the improvement of motor control.
Reticular Activating System
Authors: Sarter Martin , Bruno John P , Berntson Gary G
Published: December 2005

The reticular activating system consists mostly of ascending noradrenergic and cholinergic projections originating in the brainstem. These projections enter the cortex, thalamus and basal forebrain, and mediate increases in wakefulness and arousal. Contemporary hypotheses describe these systems as actively regulated afferent components of forebrain circuits mediating defined cognitive processes.
Occipital Cortex
Authors: Weerd Peter De
Published: December 2005

The occipital cortex is the thin, 6‐layered sheet of gray matter that envelopes the white matter of the most posterior lobe of the brain, and that contains several visual areas involved in the analysis of the retinal image.
Basal Ganglia
Authors: Brown Lucy L , Feldman Samuel M
Published: December 2005

Nuclei near the base of the brain integrate information from the entire cerebral cortex and serve a regulatory function for movement and cognition.
Thalamocortical Interactions and Binding
Authors: Revonsuo Antti
Published: December 2005

Thalamocortical interactions are synchronous neural activities in bidirectional thalamocortical loops. They may serve as the neural mechanism of binding, or perceptual integration and the unity of consciousness.
Autonomic Nervous System
Authors: Berntson Gary G , Sarter Martin , Cacioppo John T
Published: December 2005

The autonomic nervous system has been viewed as a reflexive system for maintaining internal homeostasis. It is now clear, however, that the autonomic nervous system has reciprocal interactions with higher neurobehavioral substrates, influencing both autonomic control and cognitive/behavioral processes.
Basal Forebrain
Authors: De Rosa Eve , Baxter Mark G
Published: December 2005

The basal forebrain is a complex of subcortical nuclei that project widely to cortical and limbic areas involved in cognitive function. Damage to the basal forebrain is associated with cognitive deficits. The contributions of particular neuroanatomical and neurochemical components of the basal forebrain to different aspects of cognitive function can be dissociated to some extent.
Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
Authors: Schieber Marc H , Fuglevand Andrew J
Published: December 2005

The motor areas of the cerebral cortex are those four regions most directly involved in deciding which movements to make and in executing the selected movements – posterior parietal, dorsolateral prefrontal, secondary motor, and primary motor cortex.
Descending Motor Tracts
Authors: Peters Michael
Published: December 2005

The human ability to ‘compose’ new kinds of movement allows us to speak and to generate technology. Evolutionary changes in the descending motor tracts and especially the corticospinal tracts lie at the core of this ability.
Multiple Sclerosis
Authors: Smith KJ , Sharief MK
Published: December 2005

Multiple sclerosis is a neurological disorder characterized by symptoms that either wax and wane or slowly progress, in which immune cells invade the central nervous system and damage nerve fibers, thereby disrupting impulse conduction.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Authors: Swanson James M , Volkow Nora D , Newcorn Jeffrey , Casey BJ , Moyzis Robert , Grandy David , Posner Michael
Published: December 2005

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a childhood syndrome characterized by developmentally inappropriate inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity which produces impairment at home and school. Long‐term outcome is poor, but treatment with stimulant medication and behavior modification is effective. Investigations of the disorder and its treatments suggest a dopamine deficit exists that may be corrected by stimulant medication.
Autism
Authors: Pierce Karen , Courchesne Eric
Published: December 2005

Autism is a developmental disorder, five times more common in males, with clinical onset during the first years of life. It is characterized by abnormalities in social behavior, language, and cognition, and is now known to be biological rather than psychogenic in origin.
T
ourette Syndrome
Authors: Hyde Thomas M
Published: December 2005

Tourette syndrome is a movement disorder that begins in childhood and is characterized by chronic motor and vocal tics. Clinical features span the disciplines of neurology and psychiatry. Effective pharmacological therapy is now available.
Down Syndrome
Authors: Lott Ira T
Published: December 2005

Down syndrome is a chromosomal disorder characterized by specific dysmorphic features, organ malformations, and variable but often severe learning difficulties.
Fragile X Syndrome
Authors: Gane Louise W
Published: December 2005

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is a leading cause of mental retardation, associated with a broad spectrum of involvement, ranging from mild emotional problems or learning disabilities through all levels of mental retardation. Since 1991 it has been known that the disorder is caused by a single gene on the X chromosome.
Nootropic Drugs
Authors: Meck Warren H , Williams Christina L
Published: December 2005

Nutrients and other chemicals that amplify cognition are sometimes called ‘nootropics’. These ‘smart drugs’ are thought to work by one of two basic processes, either by influencing glucose metabolism and blood flow in the brain, or by elevating the levels of one of the many neurotransmitters or neuromodulators that are known to play a role in attention, memory and decision processes.
Color Vision, Neural Basis of
Authors: Conway Bevil R , Livingstone Margaret S
Published: December 2005

The brain determines color from different wavelengths. Specialized cells in the retina, thalamus, primary visual cortex and higher brain areas achieve color perceptions by taking into account chromatic context, which explains various color illusions and color constancy.
Olfaction and Gustation, Neural Basis of
Authors: Brennan Peter A
Published: December 2005

The senses of taste and smell convey information that is vital for the survival and reproduction of most animals. This information is conveyed by the pattern of activation of receptor cells with different chemical specificities.
Reorganization of the Brain
Authors: Kaas Jon H
Published: December 2005

The complex normal organization of the brain in patterns of interconnected nuclei and areas emerges during brain development, but it can be altered or reorganized through life by sensory experience and damage to sensory and motor pathways. The reorganization process allows neurons to acquire new functional properties and roles in behavior.
Memory, Neural Basis of: Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms
Authors: Rosenzweig Mark R
Published: December 2005

Through the ages, there has been much speculation about how memory works. The current consensus is that memories are stored in circuits of neurons by plastic neurochemical and neuroanatomical changes at junctions between neurons (synapses), but it remains to be determined which of these changes are necessary and sufficient for memory formation.
Synaptic Plasticity, Mechanisms of
Authors: Garraghty Preston E
Published: December 2005

Literally billions upon billions of connections between neurons (synapses) exist in the brain. These connections are not static, but wax and wane in strength as we learn, remember and forget.
Learning in Simple Organisms
Authors: Eng Kenneth W , Rose Jacqueline K , Rankin Catharine H
Published: December 2005

Invertebrate animals with small nervous systems have been studied to investigate the cellular basis of learning and memory. Through behavioral, physiological, and genetic studies many of the mechanisms of habituation, sensitization, and classical conditioning have been discovered.
Emotion, Neural Basis of
Authors: Morrone‐Strupinsky Jeannine V , Lane Richard D
Published: December 2005

Emotion is information about the extent to which goals are being met in interaction with the environment.
Addiction, Neural Basis of
Authors: Wise Roy A
Published: December 2005

Addictive drugs affect brain function by acting at specialized receptors for the endogenous chemical messengers that affect communication between nerve cells. The understanding of addiction depends on our understanding of these receptors, the brain circuits they are embedded in, and the functions that these circuits normally serve.
Reward, Brain Mechanisms of
Authors: Wise Roy A
Published: December 2005

Direct electrical or chemical stimulation of the brain can be powerfully rewarding. The neurons activated by such rewards are partially known and are the focus of intense investigation. These neurons are thought to participate in normal motivation and in the control of behavior through the natural pleasures of life.
Stress and Cognitive Function, Neuroendocrinology of
Authors: Meaney Michael J , Lupien Sonia
Published: December 2005

Stressful events impose a very important set of demands on the body, and this is reflected by changes in cognitive function.
Hunger, Meals, and Obesity
Authors: Strubbe Jan H
Published: December 2005

Hunger, meals, and obesity are strongly related topics discussed in this article. Obesity is a severe state of being overweight, which is increasing rapidly in the Western World and is a major health problem. Obesity is often associated with an increased desire for food (hunger) which will be taken as larger bouts of feeding activity (meals). Therfore, to get more insight in the causes of obesity, knowledge of the physiological background of feeding behavior is extremely important. This will be discussed in this article.
Aggression and Defense, Neurohormonal Mechanisms of
Authors: Blanchard R J , Markham C , Blanchard D C
Published: December 2005

Aggression and defense are important behavioral strategies throughout the animal kingdom, and are linked to activation of brain areas in the prefrontal cortex, limbic system, hypothalamus, and periaqueductal gray matter. While substantial progress has been made toward understanding the neural and neurotransmitter systems underlying defense, and the neurotransmitter and hormonal systems involved in aggression, the relationship between aggression and defense systems is poorly understood, as are the applicability of these findings to human aggression and violence.
Hormones, Learning and Memory
Authors: Jr Joe L Martinez , Meilandt William J , Peng Haixiang , Barea‐Rodriguez Edwin J
Published: December 2005

Hormones modulate learning and memory processes by increasing or decreasing the strength with which information is stored.
Sleep: Polyphasic
Authors: Stampi Claudio
Published: December 2005

Polyphasic sleep describes the ubiquitous rest–activity pattern observed in nature, in which animals show bouts of activity and rest alternating several times per day.
J
akobson,
R
oman
Authors: Lehiste Ilse
Published: December 2005

Roman Jakobson was one of the most creative and influential linguists of the twentieth century particularly in terms of his contributions to linguistic theory.
S
aussure,
F
erdinand
de
Authors: Gordon W Terrence
Published: December 2005

Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is generally acknowledged as the father of modern linguistics. Observations and speculations about human language form a long tradition of philosophical inquiry dating back to antiquity, but it was Saussure who first focused on the systematic nature of language, thus launching twentieth‐century linguistics and making it possible to put the discipline on a scientific footing.
S
apir,
E
dward
Authors: Darnell Regna
Published: December 2005

Edward Sapir (1884–1939) was the foremost linguist among the first generation of North American anthropologists trained by Franz Boas. His work on American Indian languages, linguistic relativity, and culture and personality defined the scope of linguistics within anthropology.
Whorf,BenjaminLee
Authors: Carroll John B
Published: December 2005

Benjamin Lee Whorf may justly be considered one of the major contributors to cognitive science in the twentieth century.
N
ewell,
A
llen
Authors: Anand Roheena
Published: December 2005

Allen Newell (1927–1992) was a pioneer in the field of artificial intelligence. Much of the work he initiated continues to be of fundamental importance today.
M
arr,
D
avid
Authors: Vaina Lucia M
Published: December 2005

David C. Marr (1945–1980) was a theoretical neurophysiologist and cognitive scientist whose work symbiotically integrated data from experimental neuroscience and psychophysics with novel computational models, thus providing an explicit foundation for the field of computational neuroscience.
Sperry, Roger
Authors: Trevarthen Colwyn
Published: December 2005

Roger Wolcott Sperry received the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine in 1981. Famous for experiments on the embryology and regeneration of functional nerve connections, on perception and learning in split‐brain cats and monkeys, and on hemispheric modes of consciousness in human beings following commissurotomy, his belief that awareness and memory depend on the generation of motor images in the brain is now central in brain theory, important in understanding both self‐awareness and communication.
T
euber,
H
ans‐
L
ukas
Authors: Parlee Mary Brown , Adelman George
Published: December 2005

Hans‐Lukas Teuber (1916–1977) was a neuropsychologist known for his research on the effects of brain injuries on human sensation, perception, language, and memory. He founded the MIT Department of Psychology (now Brain and Cognitive Sciences) in 1964, an early instance of brain and behavioral scientists working together in a single graduate department in the US.
W
alter,
G
rey
Authors: Freeman Walter J
Published: December 2005

An autonomous robot embodies the principles of goal‐seeking and scanning that characterize animal behavior. Grey Walter (1910–1977), a physiologist adept in electronics engineering with major accomplishments in early electroencephalography, used his wartime exposure to radio detection and ranging (RADAR) to build a simple ‘brain’ that endowed his artificial ‘turtle’ with complex adaptive behaviors.
B
razier,
M
ary A. B.
Authors: Parlee Mary Brown
Published: December 2005

Mary A. B. Brazier was an authority on electroencephalography who after World War II pioneered the use of correlational techniques and high‐speed computers to study brain activity and behavior. She also authored influential books and articles on the history of neurophysiology which stimulated historical interest in the brain and behavioral sciences.
L
uria,
A
lexander
R
.
Authors: Tupper David E
Published: December 2005

Alexander Romanovich Luria (1902–1977) was a Russian neurologist and psychologist recognized as one of the preeminent neuropsychologists of the twentieth century. His primary interest was the study of the cerebral localization of psychological functions, but he also was involved in developmental psychology, cross‐cultural cognitive research, the study of frontal lobe impairments, aphasiology, educational and rehabilitative interventions, and personal biographies of individuals with unusual cognitive characteristics.
Mcculloch, Warren
Authors: Lettvin Jerome Y , Holland Taffy
Published: December 2005

Warren Sturgis McCulloch (1898–1969) was an important figure in the development of current views on the relation of brain, as mechanism, to spirit, as process. He was particularly interested in the physiology of the nervous system.
O
lds,
J
ames
Authors: Best Phillip J
Published: December 2005

The discovery by James Olds (1922–1976) of reward systems in the brain was an important advance in our understanding of brain–behavior relationships. Olds later developed new techniques for recording the activity of individual brain cells in freely behaving animals, and used these techniques to study brain activity during learning.
P
enfield,
W
ilder
Authors: Fabiani Louise
Published: December 2005

Wilder G. Penfield (1891–1976), the founder of the Montreal Neurological Institute, possessed a rare talent for combining science and medicine in the study of the human brain. This approach made many advances possible, including the mapping of the human cerebral cortex, improvements in neurosurgical technique, and developments in the treatment of epilepsy and other neurological diseases.
L
ashley,
K
arl
S
.
Authors: Orbach Jack
Published: December 2005

Karl S. Lashley was a major figure of twentieth‐century neuropsychology, whose work on the relation between brain function and behavior, especially learning and memory, has proved seminal.
Representations, Abstract and Concrete
Authors: Snodgrass Joan Gay
Published: December 2005

Abstract and concrete representations are symbols that refer to an object, event or idea that has existed, does exist or might exist in the real world. Concrete representations bear a physical resemblance to their referents, whereas abstract representations do not. Both come to be learned through the process of categorization.
Language Acquisition
Authors: Maratsos Michael P
Published: December 2005

Language acquisition comprises the developmental processes by which children develop into competent users of words and sentences in their native language, to express themselves, and to influence and cooperate with others.
Analogical Reasoning, Psychology of
Authors: Gentner Dedre
Published: December 2005

Analogical reasoning is a kind of reasoning that applies between specific exemplars or cases, in which what is known about one exemplar is used to infer new information about another exemplar. The basic intuition behind analogical reasoning is that when there are substantial parallels across different situations, there are likely to be further parallels.
Animal Learning
Authors: Machado Armando , Silva Francisco J
Published: December 2005

The field of animal learning studies the behavioral mechanisms and processes that animals use to adapt to changes in their environment. Its emphasis is on environment–behavior interactions.
Animal Navigation and Cognitive Maps
Authors: Poucet Bruno
Published: December 2005

Many species have impressive spatial navigation capabilities which seem to rely on the existence of representations, or cognitive maps, of the spatial environment.
Antisocial Personality and Psychopathy
Authors: Finn Peter R
Published: December 2005

Antisocial personality is a mental disorder that begins in childhood and continues into adulthood, and involves the persistent violation of the rights of others and social norms in general. Deficits in emotional, motivational, and cognitive processes contribute to the development of the disorder.
Visual Art
Authors: Solso Robert L
Published: December 2005

Many neurological pathways and interactions are involved in viewing art. Our perceptions are based not only on visual stimuli but also on higher‐order cognitive associations which give meaning to what we see.
Attention
Authors: Gopher Daniel , Iani Cristina
Published: December 2005

Attention is the scientific term primarily used to describe all processes and mechanisms that govern the subjective constraints imposed by the human organism on the flow and interpretation of external and internal information, and on the organization and selection of responses, in the service of goal‐directed behavior. In some cases, attention can also be automatically captured by sudden changes in the situation, or by well‐trained stimulus–response tendencies.