bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: McDonald Michael P. , Altman Micah
Published: May 2019

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the Public Mapping Project, which reveals a fundamentally different approach to redistricting: one that allows the public to draw its own fully legal districts that are politically fair, protect and even enhance minority representation, and respect local community boundaries. One of the reform efforts in public mapping occurred in the city of Minneapolis, where voters approved a Charter Amendment that transferred redistricting power to the city's Charter Commission. The Charter Commission, in turn, solicited interested members of the public to serve on the nine-member Redistricting Group to advise the commission on the drawing of new city council districts. This lead to the development of the DistrictBuilder software, which empowers the public to provide their suggestions to Minneapolis' Redistricting Group during the public comment period.
A History of Public Mapping
Authors: McDonald Michael P. , Altman Micah
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses the history of public mapping. The earliest reform efforts in redistricting were made possible because districts were primarily drawn out of large geographic units such as counties, which greatly simplified the redistricting task. That task grew more complex in the early 1960s, when the Supreme Court ruled that districts had to be of roughly equal population: counties would now often have to be split between two or more districts. The increasing computational demands effectively shut the public out of redistricting, since redistricting could be performed only on extremely costly computer systems. The reemergence of public mapping began in the 1990s, when states began offering public access to computer terminals loaded with their redistricting software and data. Eventually, two technological innovations by 2010 made public mapping available to the general public. Organizations and individuals are now able to leverage high-speed internet and open-source software to disseminate easy-to-use redistricting systems through the Web.
Gene expression inTribolium castaneumlife stages: Identifying a species-specific target for pest control applications
Authors: Perkin Lindsey C. , Oppert Brenda
Published: May 2019

The red flour beetle,Tribolium castaneum, is a major agricultural pest of post-harvest products and stored grain. Control ofT. castaneumin stored products and grain is primarily by fumigants and sprays, but insecticide resistance is a major problem, and new control strategies are needed.T. castaneumis a genetic model for coleopterans, and the reference genome can be used for discovery of candidate gene targets for molecular-based control, such as RNA interference. Gene targets need to be pest specific, and ideally, they are expressed at low levels for successful control. Therefore, we sequenced the transcriptome of four major life stages ofT. castaneum, sorted data into groups based on high or low expression levels, and compared relative gene expression among all life stages. We narrowed our candidate gene list to a cuticle protein gene (CPG) for further analysis. We found that the CPG sequence was unique toT. castaneumand expressed only in the larval stage. RNA interference targeting CPG in newly-emerged larvae caused a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in CPG expression (1,491-fold) compared to control larvae and 64% mortality over 18 d. RNA-Seq of survivors after 18 d identified changes in the expression of other genes as well, including 52 long noncoding RNAs. Expression of three additional cuticle protein genes were increased and two chitinase genes were decreased in response to injection of CPG dsRNA. The data demonstrate that RNA-Seq can identify genes important for insect survival and thus may be used to develop novel biologically-based insect control products.
Transcriptomic study of the mechanism of anoikis resistance in head and neck squamous carcinoma
Authors: Guo Chen , Xu Ling-feng , Li Hui-min , Wang Wei , Guo Ji-hua , Jia Meng-qi , Jia Rong , Jia Jun
Published: May 2019

Background

Normal epithelial cells rapidly undergo apoptosis as soon as they lose contact with the extracellular matrix (ECM), which is termed as anoikis. However, cancer cells tend to develop a resistance mechanism to anoikis. This acquired ability is termed as anoikis resistance. Cancer cells, with anoikis resistance, can spread to distant tissues or organs via the peripheral circulatory system and cause cancer metastasis. Thus, inhibition of anoikis resistance blocks the metastatic ability of cancer cells.

Methods

Anoikis-resistant CAL27 (CAL27AR) cells were induced from CAL27 cells using the suspension culture approach. Transcriptome analysis was performed using RNA-Seq to study the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the CAL27ARcells and the parental CAL27 cells. Gene function annotation and Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis were performed using DAVID database. Signaling pathways involved in DEGs were analyzed using Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) software. Analysis results were confirmed by reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR), western blotting, and gene correlation analysis based on the TCGA database.

Results

GO enrichment analysis indicated that the biological process (BP) of the DEGs was associated with epidermal development, DNA replication, and G1/S transition of the mitotic cell cycle. The analysis of cellular component (CC) showed that the most significant up-regulated genes were related to extracellular exosome. KEGG Pathway analysis revealed that 23 signaling pathways were activated (p-value ≤ 0.05, FDR q-value ≤ 0.05) and 22 signaling pathways were suppressed (p-value ≤ 0.05, FDR q-value ≤ 0.05). The results from the GSEA indicated that in contrast to the inhibition of EGFR signaling pathway, the VEGF signaling pathway was activated. The VEGF signaling pathway possibly activates STAT3 though induction of STAT3 phosphorylation. Gene correlation analysis revealed that the VEGFA- STAT3-KLF4-CDKN1A signal axis was not only present in head and neck squamous carcinoma (HNSCC) but also two other epithelial-derived carcinomas that highly express VEGFA, including kidney renal clear cell carcinoma (KIRC) and ovarian serous cystadenocarcinoma (OV).
Simphony: simulating large-scale, rhythmic data
Authors: Singer Jordan M. , Fu Darwin Y. , Hughey Jacob J.
Published: May 2019

Simulated data are invaluable for assessing a computational method’s ability to distinguish signal from noise. Although many biological systems show rhythmicity, there is no general-purpose tool to simulate large-scale, rhythmic data. Here we present Simphony, an R package for simulating data from experiments in which the abundances of rhythmic and non-rhythmic features (e.g., genes) are measured at multiple time points in multiple conditions. Simphony has parameters for specifying experimental design and each feature’s rhythmic properties (e.g., amplitude and phase). In addition, Simphony can sample measurements from Gaussian and negative binomial distributions, the latter of which approximates read counts from RNA-seq data. We show an example of using Simphony to evaluate the accuracy of rhythm detection. Our results suggest that Simphony will aid experimental design and computational method development. Simphony is thoroughly documented and freely available at https://github.com/hugheylab/simphony.
An Assessment of the Language Learning Attitudes, Learning Strategies, Language Proficiency of First Year College Students
Authors: Julhamid Nelson
Published: May 2019

This descriptive-correlational research described the Language Learning Attitudes (LLA), Language Learning Strategies (LLS) and Language Proficiency (LP) of 120 college students from 4 courses. It employed Lunsford's Standardized LLA Questionnaire, Oxford's (1994) Strategy Inventory of Language Learning (SILL); and Reading Proficiency Test.  It used mean, standard deviation, Pearson r, Multiple Regressions, t-Test of significant difference, and One-Way ANOVA for treatment of data.  This study found out that students are Average in LLA; "Somewhat true of me" in LLS and Poor in reading proficiency. No significant relationship between respondents' LLA and reading proficiency; Very low correlation between respondents' LLS and reading proficiency; Sex and course do not affect students' LLA and do not influence the latter's contribution on reading proficiency except for the inferential level; and Sex does not influence respondents' LLS and reading proficiency except course.  This study hardly provides empirical data to support the theories in LLA and LLS which are supposed to have a significant role in affecting students' reading proficiency. It also denies the role of schema theory in reading by activating learners' prior knowledge to process meaning and concepts from the reading selections.  Variable course may seem to provide empirical support to the extension of the theories in LLS as well as schema theory in reading.
Linguistic Study on Surigaonon and Kamayo Children's Songs
Authors: Mundiz Teresa May A.
Published: May 2019

This paper looks into the linguistic characteristics of the Surigaonon and the Kamayo languages of the Surigao Provinces through the children's songs. It aims to identify and explain the morphological and phonological features that bring about the intelligibility of the two languages. Oftentimes confused as the waya-waya or the jaun-jaun language, Surigaonon finds its speech community among the Surigao del Norte inhabitants as well as a few numbers in the municipalities of Surigao del Sur. Kamayo, on the other hand, is common among the Surigao del Sur inhabitants. Using convenience sampling, this qualitative study interviewed ten participants and recorded children's songs common for both languages. It found out that Surigaonon and Kamayo have to compete for forms and phonological differences. Both languages' morphological constructions differ with the use of some inflectional affixes and grammatical markers. The morphophonemic alterations between the different versions of the songs reflect the same kind of changes unique to the Cebuano Visayan language. As a result, Surigaonon and Bisliganon Kamayo are in themselves variants of the Cebuano Visayan since speakers from the languages can understand each other without really having to speak the kind of language each speaker is acquainted with: Kamayo language is intelligible with that of Surigaonon; while the latter is intelligible to the Cebuano language.
The Effects of Mulches on Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) in Respect of Yield Attribute in Ecosystem of Coastal Bengal
Authors: Kundu Prasenjit , Adhikary Nayan Kishor , Saha Monidipta , Ghosal Abhijit , Sahu Narayan Chandra
Published: May 2019

Mulching has become an important practice in modern field production. The use of mulches in vegetable production is undergoing a radical change away from high input, nonrenewable resources, such as plastic, to the use of high-residue organic mulches from cover crop. The purpose of this present study was to compare the growth and yield of tomato when grown under different organic and inorganic mulches. The experiment was conducted with four treatments in two consecutive years (2016-2017 and 2017-2018) at instructional farm of Sasya Shyamala Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Arapanch and different blocks of South 24 Parganas district. Among the treatments, maximum yield 60.3 t/ha and 58.7 t/ha were recorded under poly mulches in the consecutive years.
The Association between Placental Location in the First Trimester and Fetal Sex
Authors: Mirbolouk Fariba , Mohammadi Maryam , Leili Ehsan Kazemnejad , Dalil Heirati Seyedeh Fatemeh
Published: May 2019

Background: Because advance knowledge of fetal sex can satisfy parental curiosity and allay anxiety, attempts at its determination prior to birth have a long history. There may also be reason to determine fetal sex when sex-specific genetic disorders are suspected. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between gestational sac (GS) location and fetal sex.

Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted on 751 pregnant women. Transvaginal ultrasound was performed during 7-8 weeks of gestation for prenatal care and assessment of pregnancy sac and GS location. Age, parity, gravidity and GS location were recorded. Abdominal ultrasound was performed at 16-20 weeks of gestation to determine fetal health and sex and finally data was analyzed and compared to sex of the fetus after birth using SPSS software version 21.

Results: There was a significant relationship between GS location and fetal sex (P<0.0001). However, pregnancy outcomes (male or female) and GS location (anterior or posterior) were not significant correlated (P= 0.290). There was, on the other hand, a significant relationship between outcomes and GS location (right or left) (P<0.0001).

Conclusion: Maybe GS location could be considered as a helpful method for earlier fetal sex determination.
Familism
Authors: Silva Archibaldo , Campos Belinda
Published: May 2019

Familism is the term used to describe a societal norm for family members to prioritize family interests over individual preferences. Its norms capture the rights and obligations that individual family members have in relation to kin and involve family solidarity and integration. Familism has been formally studied since the 1940s. It was originally framed as a cultural deficit, but current evidence suggests that familism is a cultural strength for both collectivist and individualist peoples. This entry reviews the familism construct, four types of familism, historical and contemporary research on familism, and the controversies that have characterized research on this topic. At the end of this entry, current and future directions in the study of familism are described.
SOPA,PIPA
Authors: Konieczny Piotr
Published: May 2019

SOPA and PIPA were pieces of American legislation proposed in the early 2010s to address issues related to copyright infringement that led to significant grassroot mobilization and protests among the Internet community. Those two bills were dropped following these protests but they have resurfaced since under other names, and related issues continue to be debated by politicians, scholars, activists, and the general public.
Economic Perspectives
Authors: Zafirovski Milan
Published: May 2019

Classical political economy is the earliest stage and school in the evolution of economic science from the late eighteenth century to the second half of the nineteenth century, since Adam Smith the founder. It is the science of the production, distribution, exchange, and consumption of wealth. It has two related branches: pure economics as the theory of a market economy and social economics or economic sociology as an analysis of the institutional structure of economies, including markets. Classical political economy is succeeded by neoclassical economics, the next stage and school in the evolution of economic science from the 1870s to the 1930s and later. It begins with the “marginalist revolution” in economics during the 1870s–1890s, such as the marginal utility theory of value and prices, in adverse reaction to classical political economy's labor version. The founders of “marginalism” are William Jevons, Carl Menger, and Leon Walras, “discovering” marginal utility theory in Europe during 1871–1874. Neoclassical economics consists of two main branches or orientations, “pure” economic theory in the form of “market economics” and social economics or economic sociology.
Racism
Authors: Olivier Jasmine , Clair Matthew , Denis Jeffrey S.
Published: May 2019

The study of racism in sociology entails an examination of the social construction of “racial” groups and racial inequalities. Defined as an ideology of racial group superiority that justifies or prescribes a system of racial domination or exploitation, racism is perpetuated by the beliefs and behaviors of individuals and by the institutions in which they are embedded. In the post‐civil rights period, many scholars have focused on the shift from overt to subtle forms of racism and white privilege. In today's sociopolitical climate, however, scholars have increasingly documented a return of overt racism and white supremacist movements, providing more evidence against the notion of a postracial society. A thorough analysis of racism requires an examination of both subtle forms of racism and the resurgence of overt racism and its consequences for inequality.
Narrative Research
Authors: Wolgemuth Jennifer R. , Agosto Vonzell
Published: May 2019

Narrative research is a qualitative research methodology in the narrative inquiry tradition. Narrative inquiries elicit and analyzes stories in order to understand people, cultures, and societies. Narrative inquiry emerged from social constructionism and the narrative turn, which attuned narrative researchers to the importance of story and the belief that people's lives are forged through stories. Narrative inquiries can be categorized as narratives of the self, narratives and society, and narratives for/of social justice. They are distinguished by their focus on the author's story, composition and analysis of narrative within broader cultural and social discourses, and use of critical theories to tell counterstories of oppressed and marginalized groups. Future influences on narrative inquiry and research include new materialist and posthumanist theories, large and small scale political and social activism, and mass production of narratives via social media.
Sharing Economy
Authors: David Matthew
Published: May 2019

The meaning of a sharing economy is narrowed down in this entry to a discussion of the free sharing of informational goods, rather than the wider domain of direct rental and labor that is often unhelpfully associated with the term. The question of whether free sharing of nonrivalrous informational goods (in the sense of free copying) represents a credible economic model rather than just a parasitic threat to property and market‐based models is then examined in terms of the efficiency, efficacy, and incentives created by free sharing relative to property and markets. It is shown that in the domains of music, software, writing, and science a sharing economy is more efficient, effective, and incentivizing.
Zald,MayerNathan (1931–2012)
Authors: McCarthy John D.
Published: May 2019

Mayer Zald's important contributions to sociological scholarship included his political economy approach to organizational analysis, understood as more or less contained organized conflicts between collective actors within organizations, the resource mobilization approach that stresses the importance of resource availability, new technologies for their aggregation, the role of mass media, and the centrality of both entrepreneurial leaders and competition among social movement organizations to understanding social movements, and how these two approaches can be combined to account for how new organizational forms emerge.
Convergence Culture
Authors: Horbinski Andrea
Published: May 2019

Convergence culture constitutes the rise of participatory cultures in conjunction with new forms of storytelling and narrative consumption across media, powered by affective labor as a form of consumption in post‐Fordist capitalism. Through their labor in these cultures, audiences create connections amongst themselves and across media that destabilize hierarchies of media production and enable new forms of nonofficial production and social relations.
T
awney,
R.H.
(1880–1962)
Authors: Page Robert M.
Published: May 2019

R.H.Tawney (1880–1962) was a renowned twentieth‐century British economic historian, educationalist, and democratic socialist thinker. In his best‐known historical work,
Religion and the Rise of Capitalism
(1926), he explored the way in which the emergence of Protestant doctrine in the sixteenth century served to legitimate individualistic rather than collective approaches to commercial activity. In two other landmark publications,
The Acquisitive Society
(1921) and
Equality
(1931), Tawney made a significant contribution to the development of democratic socialist thought and policy within the UK Labour Party. His impassioned critiques of capitalism and its propensity to devalue the moral worth and dignity of workers and undermine solidaristic and co‐operative forms of enterprise inspired the Labour movement. Tawney also worked tirelessly to promote the case for improved educational opportunities for working‐class children and adults.
Colorism
Authors: Ray Victor
Published: May 2019

Colorism is a stratification system based on skin tone or other phenotypical features associated with nonwhite people generally and black people specifically.
Alatas,SyedHussein (1928–2007)
Authors: Hassan Riaz
Published: May 2019

Syed Hussein Alatas was one of Southeast Asia's most eminent social scientists. He is known for his seminal studyMyth of the Lazywhich offered penetrating analyses of colonial capitalism and its sociological consequences. His prolific scholarly output also made significant contributions to the sociology of corruption, political sociology, and sociology of religion, and modernization.
Healthcare
Authors: Guseva Alya , Kilicaslan Alaz
Published: May 2019

We review key policy and sociological work on several aspects of healthcare: the problems of the US healthcare delivery system and the history of health reform in the United States with occasional references to other peer countries; social determinants of health (socioeconomic status, race, and gender); medical professional dominance, its effect on patient care and on other health occupations, and its recent decline; medicalization and healthcare consumerism.
Technoscapes
Authors: Biniok Peter
Published: May 2019

Technoscapes are global configurations of technology and connect previously separated spheres and places. They span worldwide sociotechnical configurations, networks, and systems and enable the flow of information, manpower, and money. Technoscapes have local manifestations. These technological milieus are shaped by worldwide rules and patterns. Conversely, locally produced and established routines change technoscapes. Human life is a technological life. Digitalization transcends the divide between humans and technologies. Both are constructing new and modifying existing technoscapes. Individuals move through these sociotechnical landscapes and position themselves in online and offline worlds. By doing so, they give meaning to technoscapes.
Euro Crisis
Authors: Tosun Jale
Published: May 2019

This entry offers a discussion of the causes, consequences, and management of the euro crisis starting in 2009. To this end, it first introduces the principles of the European Monetary Union and then sketches out the chronology of the euro crisis as it unfolded from 2009 to 2015. The presentation of the chronology of the crisis is accompanied by an illustration of how the political leaders dealt with this exceptional situation. Given the nature of the euro crisis, Greece features prominently in this entry. Last, it turns to the political, economic, and societal consequences of the crisis for Greece, but also for the other member states as well as for the European Union as a whole.
World Culture
Authors: Elliott Michael A.
Published: May 2019

Globalization studies tend to be dominated by accounts of political conflict or economic expansion, but accounts of world culture gained traction in the 1990s and have coalesced around four general approaches: (1) world culture as an ideology constructed by powerful, hegemonic actors; (2) world culture as a web of international norms that are used to pursue rational self‐interest; (3) world culture as an ontological framework that defines appropriate action, identities, and purpose; and (4) world culture as diverse reactions to, and adaptations of, global flows and connections. In the process of summarizing each approach, the example of human rights – a prominent feature of contemporary world culture – is used to highlight their key differences.
Ideology and Health
Authors: Cockerham Geoffrey B.
Published: May 2019

The relationship between ideology and health is based on the proposition that political ideologies may influence health in two major ways. The first is that ideologies, at the national or individual level, can shape social norms that affect health lifestyle practices. The second is that the dominant political ideology of a particular government may influence its allocation of resources to healthcare expenditures.
Red Mafia
Authors: Wang Peng
Published: May 2019

The term “red mafia” has been increasingly used by researchers in the field of organized crime and corruption, but no consensus has been made on what it means. Russian criminologists use red mafia to refer to Russian organized crime groups in general or organized crime groups in the post‐Soviet context. Chinese criminologists, however, define red mafia as groups or networks of corrupt Communist Party members who earn illicit profits, mainly from abusing public office and selling protection. Completely different understandings of what the red mafia is and how it works hinders theoretical and empirical advancement. The entry discusses conceptual ambiguity and confusion in the literature and offers recommendations for future research directions.
Food and Health
Authors: Schneider Tanja
Published: May 2019

In many parts of the world the relationship between food and health is predominately defined by a nutritional and medical discourse today. This discourse focuses on food intake as a core determinant of individual bodily and mental health, prevention of under‐ or overweight, and of future diseases. Sociologists and other social scientists, however, have a broader understanding of the relationship between food and health and emphasize how cultural meanings and beliefs as well as social structures and institutions such as education, media, law, politics, and economy shape food practices. The aim of sociological research, reviewed here, is to understand the conditions of possibility for the emergence and prominence of a medical nutrition discourse on food and health and what it tells us about contemporary society.
Rex,John (1925–2011)
Authors: Solomos John
Published: May 2019

John Rex (1925–2011), was a key figure in the history of British sociology in general and central to the emergence and development of the study of race and ethnic relations as a specific subfield. Rex grew up in South Africa and developed a strong interest in questions about race as a result of his experiences of racial segregation and domination in that environment. He was an active scholar, researcher, and public figure from the 1960s to the 2000s, writing extensively on various facets of race and ethnicity. In addition to his work on race and ethnicity he made important interventions about sociological theory, including his influentialKey Problems of Sociological Theory.
Aging, Sociology of
Authors: George Linda K.
Published: May 2019

The sociology of aging encompasses investigations of aging as a process, of older adults as a group, and of old age as a distinctive stage of the life course. Aging research is performed at multiple levels of analysis, from macrolevel studies of age structure within and across societies, to mezzolevel studies of labor force participation and family structure, to microlevel investigations of health and well‐being. Aging research uses the full repertoire of methods that characterize the discipline, including life tables and other demographic methods, survey research, ethnographic methods, and observational studies. The depth of the field results from the accumulation of scientific studies that now span more than threequarters of a century.
Bourgeoisie
Authors: Göçek Fatma Müge
Published: May 2019

The bourgeoisie originated as a social group in European cities from the eleventh century on, referring specifically to those male burghers who earned their living through artisanal work, trade, and commerce. With the advent of the industrial and ideological revolutions of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, this group assumed sociological significance as a social class, namely as a group of people that shared a common material location in society with ensuing economic and political interests that they concomitantly pursued. Across time and space, the most significant debates around the term bourgeoisie pertain to its relation first to social and political, and later cultural spheres.
Civil Society
Authors: Ray Larry
Published: May 2019

Civil society is often understood as a defense against excessive state power and atomized individualism, which otherwise threatens to create conditions for authoritarianism. The term can be traced to Roman juridical concepts (
ius civile
), but its contemporary use to describe contractual relations, the rise of public opinion, representative government, civic freedoms, plurality, and “civility” first appeared in seventeenth and eighteenth‐century political philosophy. Thomas Hobbes's theory of the sovereign state (Leviathan) was premised on the existence of two branches of society – political and civil – tied by a “social contract” between subjects and the state. Surrender of sovereignty to the state protected society from the war of all against all. Although the political system was the dominant part, the civil and political were mutually sustaining systems, in which private activity, while governed by sovereign laws, was otherwise bound only by conscience and the rules of civic association. Disputing Hobbes's negative views of human nature, John Locke further enhanced the status of civil society as a space of association, contract, and property regulated by the law.
Cognitive Balance Theory (
H
eider)
Authors: Munroe Paul T.
Published: May 2019

Balance theory explains how people develop and maintain consistency in patterns of their liking and disliking of each other and of nonhuman objects, attitudes, or ideas. When patterns of liking and disliking are balanced, structures are stable. When they are imbalanced, structures are unstable and there is pressure to change in the direction that makes them balanced. Fritz Heider, in the mid 1940s, founded this now widely studied theoretical research program. His remarkably simple arguments have been tested and broadened into a research program that includes explanations and predictions of relationships in larger structures and networks, and theorists and researchers have found a wide array of applications for explaining social interaction.
Counterculture
Authors: Bannister Matthew
Published: May 2019

Counterculture refers to a primarily western, white, youth culture of opposition to mainstream culture, originating in the mid‐1960s United States, which explored alternative lifestyles and perspectives, and is often referred to as the hippy movement. In the 1970s, social change, along with the rise of subcultural studies, meant that the term, and the movement, went out of fashion. More recent studies focus on the concept of the neo‐tribe, a loose affiliation of lifestyles and interests, and arguably today's Green parties and environmental movements exemplify this concept while also owing a debt to the original 1960s counterculture.
Educational Inequality
Authors: Renzulli Linda A. , Petts Amy L.
Published: May 2019

Many assume that the US educational system is meritocratic, meaning that through hard work all individuals have an equal chance of acquiring the educational credentials needed to succeed. This entry explores how social inequality in the education system challenges this assumption and often leads to the reproduction, and not reduction, of social inequality. In particular, the entry focuses on how family and school processes generate inequalities in educational opportunities and outcomes for children. It also discusses changes in inequality over time and likely directions of future research exploring educational inequality.
E
merson,
R
ichard
M
. (1925–1982)
Authors: Cook Karen S.
Published: May 2019

Richard Marc Emerson is best known for his work on social power, and subsequently his work on social exchange. In the early 1960s he published two highly significant papers on social power and social exchange that changed the way social scientists viewed social power. An important feature of his work was its focus on network positional determinants of power. This simple idea set the stage for the linkage between exchange theory and networks, which became a major focus of attention in the social sciences. He was recruited to the Department of Sociology at the University of Washington in 1965, where he served on the faculty until his premature death in 1982 at the peak of his academic career.
Engels, Friedrich (1820–1895)
Authors: Carver Terrell
Published: May 2019

Friedrich Engels is best known as Karl Marx's political partner and financial benefactor. His self‐effacing pose in this relationship obscures his early contributions to the development of Marx's theorizations of class struggle and capitalist crisis. But it also validates his later reworkings of Marx's ideas into a systematic form adopted by succeeding Marxists. His
The Condition of the Working Class in England
marks him as a pioneer of urban geography and politically engaged sociologies. His codrafting of the “Communist Manifesto” demonstrates his importance to historical sociologies and sociologies of capitalist societies. Marxist feminists have drawn inspiration from his late work,
The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State
, in which he substantially modified the notion of class to include women as productive and reproductive laborers. However, his projection there of Darwinism into Marxist social theory and gender studies has few defenders. His critics have disputed his easy linkage of communist politics with systematic science, and have found his works wanting by later standards of empirical and textual accuracy. Posthumously published early works now show how and why the famous partnership was launched, such that the two together through their works could be distinctively appropriated in subsequent Marxisms.
Franchise
Authors: Bills David B.
Published: May 2019

Franchising is a business arrangement in which a parent company contracts with one or more smaller firms to grant or sell to them the right to distribute its products, implement its processes, or use its trade name.
Gambling as a Social Problem
Authors: Barmaki Reza
Published: May 2019

A key result of the recent legalization of gambling in many countries has been the massive proliferation of its types and venues. This has resulted in the increasing view of gambling as a “social problem,” that is, as having considerable adverse social consequences. One such consequence has been pathological (problem) gambling, that is, the irresponsible and irrepressible obsession with gambling. Key behavioral and psychological disorders associated with it include depression, suicide, substance abuse, and crime. Physical injuries related to it include enuresis, encoprisis, repetitive strain injury, photosensitive epilepsy, increased risk of obesity, and hand and arm vibration syndrome. Serious nature of these consequences has made gambling a central concern of governmental and academic research. The aim has been the introduction of effective methods of prevention, intervention, and treatment.
Globalization
Authors: Ray Larry
Published: May 2019

Globalization has become one of the central but contested concepts of contemporary social science. The term has further entered everyday commentary and analysis and features in many political, cultural, and economic debates. The globalized world order originates in the international organizations and regulatory systems set up after World War II – including the United Nations, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (now the World Trade Organization), the International Monetary Fund, and the World Bank. However, the end of the Cold War was the prelude to the maturity of the concept of globalization, since, after 1989, it was possible at least to imagine a “borderless” world in which people, goods, ideas, and images would flow with relative ease and the major global division between east and west had gone. A world divided by competing ideologies of capitalism and state socialism gave way to a more uncertain world in which capitalism became the dominant economic and social system. Coinciding with these changes, a major impetus to globalization was the development and availability of digital communication technologies from the late 1980s, with dramatic consequences for the way economic and personal behavior were conducted.
Implosion
Authors: Genosko Gary
Published: May 2019

Implosion was coined by Marshall McLuhan to describe a technological tendency of information flow, accelerated communication, and networked integration. It is contrasted with explosion, an earlier condition of print culture. The demands of constant intimacy and instantaneity are exacerbated under the influence of electric infrastructure and electronic media. Similar ideas of influential precursor Harold Innis are considered, along with Paul Virilio's interpretation of the concept as inertial.
Income Inequality, Global
Authors: van Marrewijk Charles
Published: May 2019

Global income inequality can rise and fall at the same time depending on your focus and measure of inequality. Additional problems have to be solved before we can analyze global inequality using suitable measures. Historically, global inequality is now high, although it has been slightly falling recently because of rapid growth in China and India, reducing between‐country income inequality. Undue attention to top and bottom shares is unwarranted as these are bad inequality measures.
Intersubjectivity
Authors: Munroe Paul T.
Published: May 2019

Intersubjectivity refers to a shared perception of reality between two or more individuals. The term presupposes that we, as human beings, cannot know reality except through our own senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, or tactile feeling. Accordingly, each individual's reality is necessarily subjective and it is impossible for one person to know how anyone else perceives the world. However, people assume that the world and social interactions follow rules that are outside the control of any one person. This presumed consensus allows us to co‐ordinate our activities in the expectation that others share our views about what is normal, right, healthy, expected behavior. This pair of opposite truths presents a problem for anyone studying how people view their worlds; neither objectivity nor subjectivity is sufficient to explain the life experiences of the individual. Sociologists study intersubjectivity as an intermediate position people use to navigate this problem.
Liebow, Elliot (1925–1994)
Authors: Masters Patricia Anne
Published: May 2019

Elliot Liebow (1925–1994) was a major contributor to racial and ethnic studies, urban sociology, and ethnographic methodology. His influence extended beyond a theoretical understanding of the problems of the disadvantaged, however, for he was a social activist on their behalf and worked in the area of mental health and public policy all his life. This article focuses on his two major works,
Tally's Corner: A Study of Negro Streetcorner Men
(1967) and
Tell Them Who I Am: The Lives of Homeless Women
(1993) and their impact on the ways in which sociologists and anthropologists understand the plight of the poor in urban communities.
Management
Authors: Clegg Stewart
Published: May 2019

At the turn of the nineteenth century scientific management sought to make work as robotic and automatic as possible; by the early years of the twenty‐first century the use of artificial intelligence and robotics made android dreams real. In between management sought to manage the twin aims of efficiency and commitment. Contemporaneously, however, efficiency and commitment are increasingly delivered through two kinds of self‐management. For the creative class of knowledge workers, through new organizational designs that seek to harness technologies to creativity and commitment in everyday managing, working, and organizing. For those employees displaced by the shift from organizational employment to transactional encounters as the major means of doing business then a different form of self‐management beckons in the gig economy.
Organizations, Voluntary
Authors: Onyx Jenny
Published: May 2019

Voluntary organizations are also referred to as nonprofits, NGOs, third sector organizations, and civil society organizations. These are organizations independent of government and the market. While the structure and function of these vary widely, they all have in common a nonprofit distribution principle and a social mission. Second, voluntary organizations do not normally create a direct revenue stream, and thus remain dependent on other sectors for financial resources. They do, however, generate considerable social capital in support of their mission. While some voluntary organizations form strong corporate and business structures, others focus on advocacy and online activism with little formal structure.
Revolutions, Sociology of
Authors: Lie John
Published: May 2019

The study of revolutions has been dominated by the reality of the French Revolution and the ideology of Marxism. It has declined in significance because of the delegitimation of actually existing (or existed) communist regimes and the recent surge of interest, both political and scholarly, in nonrevolutionary forms of violence, such as terrorism.
Riesman, David (1909–2002)
Authors: Lair Craig D.
Published: May 2019

David Riesman (1909–2002), was not a formally trained sociologist. Nevertheless, his 1950 book,
The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character
, written in collaboration with Nathan Glazer and Reuel Denney, has earned a unique distinction in US sociology: Excluding textbooks and “classical” works,
The Lonely Crowd
is the only book by an American sociologist to sell over 1 million copies. This means that the all‐time best‐selling work in US sociology was written by someone who never earned a degree in the discipline.
School Climate
Authors: Thapa Amrit
Published: May 2019

This entry provides a general summary of school climate, which is the character and quality of school life. It includes topics such as development of the field, school climate research, policy and practice, in the context of school climate improvement efforts. The article also discusses major challenges of the field and highlights some areas for future directions.
Science, Proof, and Law
Authors: Riesch Hauke
Published: May 2019

Science and law share the aim of finding out the truth – how this is done differs because of differing epistemological traditions and their interplay requires the interaction between various actors from various fields – science, law, and the general public. Each broad group brings their own way of thinking, understanding, and perceiving science, proof, and expertise. This entry will trace some of the issues that arise from this, such as the certification of expertise, the professionalization of forensic science, some ethical issues on databases, and the public understanding of forensic science expressed as worries over the “CSI effect.”
Scientific Models and Simulations
Authors: Moretti Sabrina
Published: May 2019

In sociology, scientific models can be classified into three categories, even if it is impossible to clearly define the boundaries between them: mathematical‐deductive, statistical, and simulation models. The advantage of simulation models, compared to other types, is that they can represent the characteristics of complex systems, such as the nonlinearity of relationships, chaos, and the emergence of collective properties, in a more suitable way. The most popular types of simulation model are system dynamics, cellular automata, and agent‐based models (ABMs). ABMs are very suitable to represent target systems that are supposed to be composed of autonomous, goal‐oriented, and interacting social actors, endowed with bounded rationality and able to communicate with others; they follow some rules of behavior and are located in an environment that can be organized in a physical space, or in a social network with a particular structure.
Self‐Fulfilling Prophecy
Authors: Zulaika Joseba
Published: May 2019

The logic of self‐fulfilling prophecy – a false definition of a situation that evokes a new behavior that makes the original false conception become true – obtains in large and small historical events, in politics and in economics, in education, in financial cycles, as well as in matters of war and terrorism. This logic follows from what sociologist Robert Merton called the Thomas theorem: If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences. Pre‐emption in war, the projections of threats in terrorism, the anticipation of future crises in economics are examples of situations in which the time manipulation of a feared future may force reality to become self‐fulfilling.
Society
Authors: Ray Larry
Published: May 2019

The concept of society is both core to sociological analysis and subject to wide‐ranging dispute that is often informed by the theoretical disputes within the discipline. When in 1987 British prime minister Margaret Thatcher said in an interview “There is no such thing as society. There are individual men and women and there are families,” many sociologists offered a robust defense of the concept. There is, however, an uncertainty within the discipline as to the appropriateness of the concept, especially in a globalized age in which the idea of discrete societies bound by national borders has been widely questioned. Ironically, in the rest of her interview Thatcher went on to emphasize the importance of reciprocal social obligations and bonds between people – things that many sociologists would regard as central to the idea of society.
Spencer, Herbert (1820–1903)
Authors: Weinstein D.
Published: May 2019

Herbert Spencer was a nineteenth‐century British social and political theorist and moral philosopher. His most important work in social theory was the three‐volumeThe Principles of Sociology(1876–1896). His most important study in ethics was his two‐volumeThe Principles of Ethics(1879–1893). In these works, and in many others, he argued that, thanks to Lamarckian use‐inheritance and natural selection, human societies evolved from prehistoric small bands into larger “militant” societies and nations and ultimately into peaceful “industrial” societies, politically libertarian and morally utilitarian. Spencer's utilitarianism was similar, in some important respects, to J.S. Mill and Henry Sidgwick's classical utilitarianism.
Sports Stadia
Authors: Horne John
Published: May 2019

The sociology of sports stadia has been developed by those interested in: (1) production, asking questions about who is producing these places and why; (2) consumption, exploring how sports audiences, or fans, use them; and (3) interpretation, such as the meanings sports stadia hold for the people who use them.
Stratification, Distinction and
Authors: Bögenhold Dieter
Published: May 2019

Being located higher up in the vertical social stratification of income has several serious implications, since more financial resources imply better food, living, and housing, better education, health, and further life chances. Human beings operate their activities in a social space within complex societies by socially constructed sense and cognitive mechanisms. Accordingly, people decide on one or the other style of thinking and belonging, in other words, the social logic of inclusion and exclusion. Bourdieu incorporated the ideas of Simmel, Weber, and Veblen into his stratification framework. He linked vertical stratification research to discussion on lifestyles and forms of preferences and cultural habits. Stratified societies become visible as different social circles practicing strategies to include and to exclude. Distinction is a product and source of inequality as well as a strategy to express superiority. Lifestyles serve as holders of proximity and distance to others.