bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Zambia
Authors: Hinfelaar Marja , Rakner Lise , van de Walle Nicolas
Published: January 2023

Zambia displayed distinct, observable democratic backsliding between 2011 and 2021, linked both to elite contestation and participatory rights. Autocratization resulted from the deliberate use of legal mechanisms to enhance executive power, stifle the opposition, silence the press, and undermine civil society forces. The manipulation of rules was legitimized by the use of legal strategies that have their origin in the country’s 1991 Constitution. Through all constitutional amendments, formal rules that provide extra powers and discretion to the executive remain, even as politics outwardly appears to be governed by democratic principles. Zambia’s democratic backsliding was closely linked to the changing relationship with its international partners as they no longer acted as “agencies of restraint” on the government’s policymaking, and the quality of governance declined as a result. The donor withdrawal weakened the political influence of civil society due to both cutback of funding and the reduction in political space for civic associations, protected by the patronage of the donors. The election of opposition candidate Hakainde Hichilema in August 2021 may have ended this episode of backsliding as, for the third time in the country’s history, power changed peacefully through the ballot box. To what extent the 2021 elections will move Zambia away from authoritarianism is uncertain as the current state of the country’s political institutions leaves it vulnerable to further episodes of backsliding.
Irrelevance
Authors: Day Frank Morgan
Published: January 2023

Between the Civil War and World War I, formal education is often said to have “modernized,” “bureaucratized,” or undergone an “organizational revolution,” and though these terms are usually understood to describe a highly rationalized, implacable process, the consolidation of a proper school system in the United States was, to the contrary, halting and dysfunctional. This dysfunction came about as the modern school struggled to overcome its perceived irrelevance as a social institution. This chapter presents an overview of the book’s main argument: that literature as an object of academic study ensured the reproduction and expansion of the modern educational system after the Civil War. Literature proved indispensable to the project of modern education because it helped the school system in its quest for social relevance—because it enabled the school to identify itself with a more meaningful world beyond the walls of the traditional classroom.
The School and Society
Authors: Day Frank Morgan
Published: January 2023

Chapter 1 examines the emergence of an anti-scholastic American literary tradition before the Civil War and then follows the scholastic reception of this anti-scholastic tradition in the postbellum period. The key figure in the chapter is Washington Irving, whose affiliation with both the romance tradition and the sentimental tradition—which are often believed to be antithetical to one another—makes the institutionalization of his work Hespecially revealing. As this chapter argues, the decisive factor in the divergent reception histories of these two literary traditions is the orientation each assumed toward the scene of formal pedagogy. If sentimentalists deployed literature in the service of educational reform, writers of romance believed that literature was unassimilable to scholastic projects, and this, perversely, provides the explanation for their (and Irving’s) enduring success in the modern school system, which in the postbellum period learned to transform literature’s hostility toward formal education into an engine of its own expansion.
Interest, Disgust
Authors: Day Frank Morgan
Published: January 2023

Chapter 4 investigates two seemingly unrelated historical phenomena: the emergence of student interest as an object of fascination for school reformers after the Civil War, and the rise of disgust as the core affective mode of postbellum literary production. If reformers like John Dewey found in student interest a driving force in the educational system’s expansion, writers like Frank Norris and Upton Sinclair wrote disgusting books in order to think through the limits of that school system, to consider the system’s boundaries. And yet, the disgusting literature of the postbellum period has done nothing to encumber the affective life of the modern school over time; upon its reintegration into the classroom it has in fact broadened the educational system’s emotional palate. Battered corpses and rat feces may remain outside the scope of the school curriculum, but the novelistic representation of battered corpses and rat feces has proved a welcome addition to lesson plans across the country.
Castles of Eternity
Authors: Ura Karma
Published: January 2023

The workers toiling at the construction of a castle were guided by master builders. The expertise of a master builder was accumulated by being a wood worker or masonry/rammed earth builder in villages. Ancient builders chose inaccessible and commanding elevations to build dzongs while modern architects and engineers selected the flattest places. Builders’ skills were visible to foreigners who noted that the lofty height of the utse of Tashi Chodzong reached seven stories high, each story from fifteen to eighteen feet high. The layout of oblong classical dzongs is contrasted with the squarish monolithic structures of the newly built dzongs. Oblong dzong layout along north-south axis brought sunshine into the rooms and favoured spacious walk-through courtyards, and less noise-disturbances across the structures. Earth quake resistance was increased by thick and tapered stone walls. It is contended by master builders that the resilience against earth quake is enhanced by the east-west direction of beams. Dzongs and their watch towers housed, paradoxically, both military and monastic personnel and were built for dual purposes.
Wynkyn de Worde and the Bucolics
Authors: Day Matthew
Published: January 2023

Chapter 3 provides a comprehensive study of Wynkyn de Worde’s four editions of Virgil’s Eclogues (1512, 1514, 1522, 1529, titled the ‘Bucolics’). Through analysing the contents, production and use of these editions, the chapter demonstrates the enduring influence of medieval pedagogy on the gradual adoption of humanist curricula in England. As the first part of the chapter shows, the commentary in De Worde’s editions was modelled on a genre of medieval pedagogic commentaries, often termed ‘familiar commentaries’. Second, an examination of surviving Sammelbände suggests that late fifteenth- and early sixteenth-century schoolmasters more often taught the Bucolics alongside traditional medieval school texts rather than humanist curricular choices. The third part of the chapter shows how De Worde progressively revised his printing repertoire to accommodate developing humanist attitudes among English readers.
Douglas’s Eneados
Authors: Day Matthew
Published: January 2023

Chapter 5 examines Gavin Douglas’s Older Scots translation of the Aeneid (1513), the first full translation of the poem into any language related to English. While Douglas has often been seen as a humanist innovator in translation technique, this study contextualizes his practice within broader fifteenth-century French and English traditions. Although Douglas scathingly repudiates Caxton’s Aeneid translation for its textual infidelity, the first part of the chapter argues that his and Caxton’s works are more alike than meets the eye. Sharing in common fifteenth-century traditions, both translations exhibit similar techniques of amplifying Virgil’s text and reworking its style. The second part of the chapter shows that Douglas’s engagement of humanist commentaries is underpinned by these literary concerns. Rather than a sign of scrupulous textual fidelity, he uses commentaries to facilitate his poetic embellishments of Virgil’s text.
Conclusion
Authors: Day Matthew
Published: January 2023

Drawing together the monograph’s key findings, the conclusion discusses the influence of humanism on the reception of Virgil and classical poets more generally. While humanists initiated a dramatic rise in Virgil’s readership and canonical status, their methods of reading and translating Virgil were inherited from well-established traditions, in particular from the disciplines of grammar and rhetoric. Rigorous distinctions between ‘medieval’ and ‘humanist’ readers and translators belie the very gradual pace of humanist development and the continuous influence of medieval learning on the studia humanitatis. As evidenced in annotations of manuscripts and printed editions, variations in practice tend to reflect readers’ individual interests rather than wider collective trends. In sum, Virgilian reception in fifteenth- and sixteenth-century England was marked by continuity and piecemeal evolution.
Privacy and the Role of International Law in the Digital Age
Authors: Yilma Kinfe
Published: January 2023

This book examines the role of international law in securing privacy and data protection in the digital age. Driven mainly by the transnational nature of privacy threats involving private actors as well as States, calls are increasingly made for an ‘international’ privacy framework to meet these challenges. Mapped against a flurry of global privacy initiatives, the book explores the extent to which and whether international law attends to the complexities of upholding digital privacy. It does so in three levels. First, the book interrogates boundaries of international privacy law in upholding privacy and data protection in the digital ecosystem where threats to privacy are increasingly transnational, sophisticated, and privatized. It demonstrates that shackled by a host of normative and structural setbacks, international law offers weak protections to privacy and data protection. Second, the book explores the potential of global privacy initiatives, namely Internet bills of rights, universalization of regional systems of data privacy protection, and the multi-level privacy discourse at the United Nations, in reimagining the normative contours of international privacy law. It finds that none of the global privacy initiatives will effectively address structural shortcomings of international law. Third, the book proposes a pragmatic approach to the international law of privacy that could make it better-equipped in the digital age. Drawing on the catalytic potential of global privacy initiatives, the book lays out a set of reform ideas that could help address the major normative and institutional blind spots in international privacy law.
Summary and Conclusion
Authors: Yilma Kinfe
Published: January 2023

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How change has been explained
Authors: Dassonneville Ruth
Published: January 2023

The second chapter of the book provides an overview of theories that have been proposed to explain the rise in electoral volatility, with a focus on theories that connect the voting decision process with volatility. The chapter first introduces the theoretical concept of the funnel of causality, before discussing three main ways in which previous work has argued the funnel has changed to produce more volatility. These three arguments are that long-term socio-demographic factors are no longer guiding voters' choices, that party identification has declined, and that short-term factors increasingly shape voters' choices. Having summarised these theoretical perspectives, the chapter then identifies the main ways in which these theories fall short of explaining the surge in electoral volatility. The key point that is highlighted is that a theory of change in voting behaviour should account for the fact that different - long- and short-term - determinants of the vote are inter-connected within the funnel of causality.
The reference system of Gidar
Authors: Frajzyngier Zygmunt
Published: January 2023

Gidar (Central Chadic, Cameroon) distinguishes two genders and two numbers in nouns, pronouns, determiners, and the inflectional system on the verb. The category of person is coded by markers that differ from those in the category of number. Gidar has a distinct subject pronoun for the third-person subject in focus, but this is used only for masculine nouns. Previously mentioned objects are obligatorily marked by object pronouns. In addition, definiteness of the nominal object is marked through object pronouns on the verb. Gidar has a rich system of demonstratives and determiners that code functions belonging to either the domain of the speech environment or that of discourse. Within each of these domains there is a further distinction between proximate and remote distance from the place or the time of speech.
The reference system of Hdi
Authors: Frajzyngier Zygmunt
Published: January 2023

Hdi (Central Chadic) does not have gender markers. It marks both nominal and verbal plurality. The system of reference in Hdi distinguishes between referential functions applying to the category subject and referential functions applying to the category object. With respect to noun phrases, Hdi makes a distinction between (a) no instructions to identify the participant, (b) instructions to identify the participant within the speech environment, and (c) instructions to identify the participant in the preceding discourse. These distinctions are coded by (a) the deployment of bare nouns, (b) the deployment of previous discourse markers and demonstratives alone, and (c) modification of the noun by previous discourse markers and demonstratives. Hdi is unique in that the determiners can be reduplicated, and can be combined with other determiners, and such groups of determiners can precede and follow the noun at the same time. Hdi makes a formal distinction between reference to the domain of discourse and reference to the entities in the environment of speech.
Summary
Authors: Frajzyngier Zygmunt
Published: January 2023

This chapter summarizes the findings of the present volume with respect to properties of coding means in the systems of reference; instructions as to whether to identify the participants in the proposition or not; and the more frequent and less frequent functions through which the participant is to be identified in the languages of the sample. The summary is explicitly limited to the functions coded in the grammatical systems rather than to what kind of inferences can be drawn from the deployment of some coding means in some utterances. ‘No instructions to identify the participant’ is a function present in most languages in the sample. The summary confirms that when languages do instruct the addressee to identify the participants, different languages deploy different functions for this task. Nevertheless, some functions are deployed more frequently than others.
Implications
Authors: Frajzyngier Zygmunt
Published: January 2023

Chapter 15 deals with the implications of the findings in this book for the theory and methodology of semantic analysis, for linguistic typology, and a most important implication for the formation of utterances in natural discourse. The main implication for semantics is that the primary object of semantic research should be semantic structures encoded in the grammatical system. Once one has analyzed the semantic structure encoded in the language, the description of meaning of individual utterances, the traditional object of research in semantics, is relatively easy. The description of meaning encoded in the grammatical system consists of contrasts encoded in the functional domains. The main implication for typology is that linguistic typology should provide a picture of what functional domains and what functions are encoded in the grammatical system of individual languages. The main implication for the formation of utterances is that this process is driven by the semantic functions encoded in the grammatical system and their interaction with the lexical items selected for a given predication.
Unconventional Lawmaking and International Cooperation on Illegal Bunkering at Sea
Authors: Ishii Yurika
Published: January 2023

This chapter discusses the characteristics of unconventional lawmaking to regulate oil bunkering activities in the maritime domain beyond the territorial sea. Such activities adversely affect the fight against oil theft and smuggling, as well as harming the marine environment. Under the United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea, a non-flag state may not interfere with a ship unless it is within its authority, as allocated under the convention. At this stage, there is no international agreement that directly controls oil bunkering. Yet, there are international efforts to develop cooperation between law enforcement authorities to suppress those unlawful acts, where the coastal states may have jurisdictional basis. Such a move can be seen, for instance, in the Luanda Declaration on Maritime and Energy Security of 2015. This chapter will examine these latest state practices, and analyse their impact on the legal order at sea.
Essay on the Scottish Islands, their lessons for extraterrestrial governance, and a sketch of the applications of this knowledge to settlements beyond Earth
Authors: Cockell Charles S.
Published: January 2023

The successful settlement of space requires the identification of a plausible set of governance stages through which a settlement would develop as it expands in size. Scotland has played host to isolated island populations of many sizes that have persisted for centuries. Populations sizes of Scottish islands investigated here range from small, such as the Isle of Canna (a population of 18) to large communities, such as Skye (a population of ~10,000), providing a snapshot of governance structures from initial settlement sizes proposed in space settlement schemes to larger established settlements, and at points in between. Although their environments are not as extreme as extraterrestrial environments and their histories are shaped by diverse cultural specificities, it is precisely this diversity of experimentation that provides material from which generalized lessons can be extracted for the successful management of isolated populations beyond Earth.
Decoupling physical and spiritual ascent narratives in astronomy and biology
Authors: John Mix Lucas
Published: January 2023

Planetary travel narratives from Plato to Sagan reveal a long association between spaceflight, human development, and salvation. Popular stories describe ascent along a traditional ‘ladder of nature’ stretching from earth to heaven. This chapter explores the long association between space science and space fiction and the role of ascent narratives in both. It starts with the classical model of the cosmos, a hell centred sphere. Planetary ascents were journeys outward toward God and became associated with biological and technological development. The fields of biology and sociology embraced hierarchical models of species and civilizations that justify sacrifice the ‘low’ for the sake of the ‘high’. But science changed. The Copernican Revolution made physical ‘up’ relative. The Modern Synthesis replaced biological ‘up’ with local adaptation. Rockets fly outward, not upward; species adapt, but do not develop. Planetary travel narratives, however, from The Man in the Moon (1638) to The Expanse (2011+), still link concepts of physical, biological, and spiritual ascent. They influence astrobiology through the work of Bernal, Sagan, Grinspoon and other prominent scientists. Scientific discussion of spaceflight should be decoupled from ideas of biological progress and spiritual ascent, which have problematic provenance and serious moral consequences.
Global legal pluralism and outer space law
Authors: Vermeylen Saskia
Published: January 2023

Outer space in the twenty-first century is increasingly seen as a potential site for human settlement. Whether it is a lunar hotel, a Martian permanent settlement, or a corporation mining asteroid, it is widely believed that private parties will want to have exclusive private property rights over the ‘land’ and the resources they exploit. This chapter analyses the future of space law from a global legal pluralist perspective. The first part of the chapter applies the empirical-positivist approach to legal pluralism to the International Space Station (ISS) and concludes that the ISS fails to accommodate alternative forms of law beyond traditional state or international law. As a thought experiment, the second part of the chapter applies global legal pluralism and a systems theory of legal pluralism to the Association of Autonomous Astronauts. This application is part of a wider invitation in this chapter for space law to become more adventurous and to learn from other areas of global law that have embraced non-state actors as normative legal communities.
Regulation—a restraint of liberty or an enabler?
Authors: Wheeler Joanne
Published: January 2023

There have been an increasing number and variety of private commercial entities seeking licences to launch and operate satellites and conduct innovative activities in outer space in recent years. With growing orbital populations and an increasing number of near conjunctions, compliance with space debris mitigation standards and issues of international governance and national regulation are more important than ever. This chapter will discuss: the international legal framework governing such activities; regulatory forum shopping by commercial operators; a shift from a ‘race to the bottom’ approach by operators seeking licences from jurisdictions offering a ‘light touch’ regulatory framework to a ‘race to the top’ concept with operators seeking a licence from regulators which ensure compliance with space debris mitigation guidelines and environmental, social, and governance (ESG) objectives; and how this is incentivising companies to accept a restraint on commercial liberty in order to gain market access and investment.
The case for space is liberty
Authors: Zubrin Robert
Published: January 2023

The case for space is liberty. Only societies featuring liberty under law can develop the entrepreneurial creativity required to open the space frontier. Furthermore, space settlements will be economically supportable because they will be a group of technically adept people in a frontier environment where they will be forced to innovate. They will thus need to be free to innovate, and become pressure cookers for invention. These inventions will not only make life in space possible but they will also be licensable on Earth. Space settlements will get rich exporting intellectual property. This will make space settlements a powerful driver for human progress, not only because of the inventions they produce but because in order, not only to invent but to attract settlers in the first place, space settlements must be free. Extraterrestrial societies organized as tyrannies are impossible because no-one would want to move there. There will no doubt be many city states founded on Mars, for example, but only the ones that offer more freedom than exists on Earth will attract immigrants, and those that offer the most will outgrow the rest. Furthermore, by showing that we can turn a wasteland into an inhabited world, Mars will undermine the limited resource dogma which is the ultimate argument for tyranny and war on Earth. Freedom will give us space. Space will give us freedom.
The Standard Model of Ideal Social Ontology
Authors: Burman Åsa
Published: January 2023

This chapter characterizes ideal social ontology by developing the standard model of ideal social ontology. The standard model is exemplified by the works of Margaret Gilbert, John Searle, and Raimo Tuomela. This model thus synthesizes central assumptions from the three works that shaped the research field of ideal social ontology and shows their explicit and implicit assumptions about social reality. This standard model has a crucial implication: it has shaped what social ontologists understand the social phenomena to be analyzed to be—direct, transparent, and deontic social phenomena built on consensus. Consequently, this model offers only a partial view of the social world while claiming it is general, and it is too limited to serve as the foundation of the social sciences.
Negotiating Jewish Identity in The Gates of Justice
Authors: Klotz Kelsey
Published: January 2023

Chapter 5 focuses on the late 1960s, as the civil rights movement appeared to some to be splintering, and after the Brubeck Quartet officially disbanded. In 1968, Brubeck was commissioned by the Union of American Hebrew Congregations with the College Conservatory of Music at the University of Cincinnati to compose a cantata that would address what many Jewish leaders perceived as the rapidly deteriorating relationship between Black and Jewish communities. The result was The Gates of Justice (1969). This chapter presents musical analysis alongside conversations among Black and Jewish leaders across the 1960s, revealing the ways in which the cantata, though explicitly intended to speak to Black-Jewish relations, also re-solidified a particularly Jewish identity in an era of increasing discomfort with white assimilation among Jewish communities.
Introduction: Musical Form and Movement of the Multitude
Authors: Greenberg Yoel
Published: January 2023

What characterizes bottom-up explanations and theories of self-organization? This chapter presents a historic overview ranging from Democritus, Epicurus, and Lucretius in ancient times, through Adam Smith, Charles Darwin, and their contemporaries, to twentieth- and twenty-first-century extensions of Darwinist theory. These theories and the systems they describe share numerous properties: theory typically trails practice, rather than driving it; novelty emerges incrementally through “movement of the multitude” rather than being invented by dominant figures; and entities are notoriously difficult to define. All these are true of many musical forms, and most of all sonata form, suggesting that theories of form will profit from a bottom-up approach.
Wholes in the Theory
Authors: Greenberg Yoel
Published: January 2023

This chapter argues that Formenlehre, new and old, are characterized by a holistic outlook. Such an outlook is necessarily essentialist, and therefore focuses primarily on synchronic questions of definition, while avoiding diachronic ones, which explore evolution and trends. It argues that any top-down theory, which views the elements of form as the result of a governing formal plan or ideal, is irreconcilable with a deeply diachronic approach. A bottom-up outlook, however, in which the elements of form enable governing logics rather than resulting from them, is inherently diachronic, and provides a fuller, more flexible, and more satisfying framework for the understanding of musical form.
On Positive Interaction and the Emergence of the Recapitulation
Authors: Greenberg Yoel
Published: January 2023

This is the first of two chapters that consider formal elements within a form in terms of members in a system, and the ways different elements may interact. This chapter considers “positive interaction,” whereby elements are compatible with one another, enabling them to collaborate and reinforce each other. In such cases, the collaboration creates higher-level formal entities, which may, in turn, have increased, or even entirely new advantages over those of each of the elements separately. These advantages provide form with greater stability, enabling the notion of form to crystalize. Specifically, the chapter presents the binary rotation and the recapitulation as instances of such higher-level formal entities, arguing that they resulted through the convergence of the end rhyme with the medial repeat or the double return, respectively.
Converging Forms
Authors: Greenberg Yoel
Published: January 2023

Many forms throughout the eighteenth century adopted sonata-form features, many of them becoming so close to sonata form that they eventually came to be considered as types of sonata form. The best known of these are the rondo-sonata and the classical concerto (Hepokoski and Darcy’s type 4 and 5 sonatas respectively). In this chapter we examine this convergence of forms through the lens of evolutionary convergence, whereby separate species come to resemble each other due to similar environmental constraints. Based on information from a corpus of 250 concertos dated 1720–1789, the chapter traces the course of this evolution, demonstrating how the soloist received not only an increasing share of the musical material, but also an increasing role in the articulation of the formal logic.
Beyond Sonata Form
Authors: Greenberg Yoel
Published: January 2023

Chapter 8 takes a step back from the detailed corpus studies and analyses of the preceding chapters to consider the applicability of the system-oriented approach of the whole book to other forms, such as the rondo, fugue, and theme and variations, and to fields beyond the study of music such as literary theory. On the basis of the gradual evolution describes throughout the book, it challenges the validity of sonata form as a historical concept separable from binary form, suggesting that our most basic concepts in Formenlehre more often than not limit our ability to adopt a truly diachronic perspective.
Understanding and Engaging Pluralist Legal Orders
Authors: Swenson Geoffrey
Published: January 2023

Legal pluralism has vast policy and governance implications. Non-state justice systems often handle most disputes and retain substantial autonomy. However, the importance of legal pluralism is underappreciated. This chapter advances understanding of legal pluralism theoretically and empirically. It proposes a new framework for conceptualizing legal pluralism through four distinct archetypes—combative, competitive, cooperative, and complementary—to help clarify the range of relationships between state and non-state actors. It posits five main strategies used in attempts to influence the relationship between state and non-state justice: bridging, harmonization, incorporation, subsidization, and repression. As post-conflict situations are fluid and can feature a wide range of relationships between state and non-state actors, they are particularly instructive for showing how legal pluralism archetypes can be shifted over time. Establishing the rule of law is a prolonged, highly contingent process. Still, well-informed strategies can significantly bolster domestic and international initiatives and minimize the risk of missteps.
Explaining the Value of Human Beings
Authors: Theunissen L. Nandi
Published: January 2023

This chapter develops a relational account of the value of humanity that makes essential reference to the value of a well-lived life. It begins with a widely shared assumption that the value of human beings in some way depends on our capacity for valuing other things. But it makes the distinctive proposal that the capacity for valuing makes people of value because it makes them capable of leading a good life, a notion that is explicated in broadly Aristotelian terms. People are of value because they can be “good for themselves” in the sense that they bear a special relation to their own flourishing. The chapter shows how the resulting proposal provides a justification for basic forms of ethical behavior that are owed to others.
Are We of Equal Moral Worth?
Authors: Sangiovanni Andrea
Published: January 2023

This chapter invites readers to abandon the idea that humanity has an unconditional, nonrelational, and intrinsic value that grounds strong duties of egalitarian respect for persons. Instead, it develops the view that treating as inferior is wrong, when it is wrong, because it attacks another’s capacity to develop and maintain an integral sense of self. Treating as inferior is wrong when and because it threatens harm rather than undermines dignity. But why care about our capacity for flourishing in the first place? The chapter argues that we have reasons to care about the flourishing of human beings (and other sentient animals) that are grounded not in the nonrelational worth of their psychological capacities but in the value of the relation between those capacities and their conscious point of view on the world.
Laws of Variation
Authors: Pechenik Jan A.
Published: January 2023

Darwin wrote The Origin of Species before the principles of genetics were understood. Gregor Mendel published his pea plant paper in 1866, about seven years after The Origin was first published, but Darwin apparently never read paper. At the time it was published most people seemed to miss the general applicability of Mendel’s findings, so even those who read the paper didn’t understand that his findings also applied to species with “blended” inheritance rather than just to the discrete traits that Mendel had been working with. Indeed, Mendel seems never to have tried to contact Darwin even after having read a translation of his book, so that even Mendel must have missed seeing the connection between his work and Darwin’s. Thus, in much of Chapter 5, Darwin is trying his best to make sense of the “laws of variation” without having any understanding of what those laws actually were; he had no idea of how variation was generated, controlled, or passed on to offspring.
Miscellaneous Objections to the Theory of Natural Selection
Authors: Pechenik Jan A.
Published: January 2023

In this chapter, Darwin addresses a number of major criticisms that had been thrown at his theory of evolution by natural selection and survival of the fittest, particularly those delivered by zoologist St. George Jackson Mivart, who had initially been a strong supporter of the theory. In doing so, Darwin discusses in detail about some remarkable examples that he hasn’t mentioned before, including the evolution of baleen whales from toothed ancestors, the evolution of climbing in plants, and the evolution of breasts in mammals. This chapter appeared in The Origin of Species for the first time in the sixth edition, on which this book is based.
Hybridism
Authors: Pechenik Jan A.
Published: January 2023

In this chapter, Darwin tightens the link between varieties and species even further, showing that the members of some plant and animal species can be successfully mated with members of other species and still produce viable offspring, offspring that are themselves sometimes capable of reproducing. He also shows that although most varieties can be successfully crossed with other varieties of the same species, that is not always the case. Indeed, there are intriguing gradations of infertility even within a variety, for plants that produce several forms of flower. This all provides strong support for Darwin’s argument that species and varieties are really just points on a continuum of change and that varieties are species in the making. Species may eventually become reproductively isolated from the members of other species, but they were not created that way.
Evidence for Mutual Affinities Among Organic Beings
Authors: Pechenik Jan A.
Published: January 2023

In this chapter, Darwin explains how gradual evolutionary changes can explain why the members of all taxonomic groups can be linked into a single genealogical series. He explains why all of the smaller taxonomic groups of organisms, such as species and families, are placed within larger groups; why all living and extinct organisms can be grouped together within the same few major taxonomic categories; why embryological characteristics are so often used in grouping organisms; why identical larval stages are so often found in such a wide variety of adult organisms; why atrophied, currently functionless organs are so useful in placing organisms into their proper groups; and why some body parts that different animals use for greatly different purposes are constructed on the same basic pattern. His explanation is that organisms living today have descended from common ancestors, with a great deal of change and extinction occurring over long periods of time.
How to Practice
Authors: van der Werff Ivo-Jan
Published: January 2023

This chapter offers general ideas on how to practice most efficiently, utilizing time to the greatest effect through mental focus and concentration. It stresses the importance of taking breaks and being patient, creating a good mental attitude that allows one to observe issues but also to praise oneself when something has gone well. It discusses how to use a metronome most effectively, offers thoughts on the importance of practicing fast versus slow, and introduces the idea of variety to keep the mind actively engaged.
Left Hand
Authors: van der Werff Ivo-Jan
Published: January 2023

This chapter discusses the following topics: how to create a balanced hand frame; keeping the knuckles and fingers soft; explaining the angle the fingers should have when landing on the string and the optimum position of the wrist; keeping the thumb flexible; general hand frame from 1st to 4th position and 4th upward, learning the relationships between each pair of fingers; freeing a tight vibrato; and making vibrato rhythmically even.
Racial Reparations
Authors: Darby Derrick
Published: January 2023

Questions commonly raised by the reparations debate include: Who is owed reparations? Who owes reparations? And what form should reparations take? Recent philosophical treatments of the topic also invite us to consider the following question: What is the relationship between the historical injustices of slavery and Jim Crow and current racial inequalities in wealth, health, housing, crime, and education in the normative argument for black reparations? Some ways of answering this question seek to undermine the prevailing normative argument for black reparations, namely, the argument from corrective justice. Influential versions of this argument turn on a particular explanation of the “root” cause of racial inequalities. This is a serious source of concern, however, given the depth of disagreement in the social science literature about why black–white inequalities persist in the postracial era. This chapter develops the concern to vindicate skepticism regarding a race-first approach to securing reparations for racial wrongs.
Power to the People
Authors: Darby Derrick
Published: January 2023

The chapter presents W. E. B. Du Bois’s argument for affording all people, especially black and other marginalized populations, a hand in democratic rule. This is vital for achieving a realistic blacktopia. Du Bois maintains that the masses should use the weapon of voting to select representatives committed to seeking justice for all. He supports postracial remedies and anticipates the pragmatic importance of seeking such remedies to address the profound inequalities that stem from imperfect democracy. To achieve a more perfect democracy, where differences have been used to divide and distract from all the ways in which plutocrats have fleeced the masses, he argues, we must use political power to undo the circumstances that affect everyone excluded. To do this, we must give power to the people.
Walking Among Pharaohs
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter
Published: January 2023

Pyramids with hidden burial chambers. Colossal royal statues and minuscule gold jewelry. Decorated tomb chapels, temples, settlements, fortresses, ceramics, furniture, stone vessels—and hieroglyphic inscriptions everywhere. This is the legacy of forty-three years of breathtakingly successful excavations at twenty-three different archaeological sites in Egypt and Sudan (ancient Nubia). George Reisner (1867–1942) discovered all this and more during a remarkable career that revolutionized archaeological method in both the Old World and the New. Leading the Harvard University–Boston Museum of Fine Arts Expedition, Reisner put American—and particularly Boston—Egyptology on the world stage. His uniquely American success story unfolded despite British control of Egyptian politics, French control of Egyptian antiquities, and an Egyptian yearning for independence, all while his Egyptian teams achieved the fieldwork results and mastered the arts of recording and documentation. Reisner’s lifespan covers the birth of modern archaeology; aspects of colonialism, racism, and nationalism; the history of Harvard and of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (MFA); and the issues of repatriation and cultural patrimony long before they became the “hot topics” they are today. This new biography gathers unpublished documents from all over the world to present the untold story of one of the founding fathers of excavation methodology and restore his place in the history of world archaeology, while not overlooking some of his cultural interpretations that we can easily reject today.
Midwestern Beginnings and Endings
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter
Published: January 2023

This chapter traces the ancestry of George Reisner’s family, their origins in Worms, Germany, emigration, arrival in the New World, and ultimate settlement in Indianapolis. It highlights Reisner’s formative influences during his high school education, his father’s employment in a shoe store, and the birth of his younger siblings. The major event of his youth was his mother’s insanity and violent suicide, which caused the family to move house and engage an aunt to look after the children. Reisner’s future wife, Mary Putnam Bronson, moves with her family from Sandusky, Ohio, to Indianapolis. Accepted to Harvard University as a member of the class of 1889, Reisner prepares to move east.
Back to the Classroom
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter
Published: January 2023

Reisner taught for two semesters at Harvard, developing the sequence of courses he would offer in various configurations for the rest of his semesters back in Cambridge. His most prominent student was Dows Dunham, who later joined the expedition and succeeded Reisner as curator at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. As curator of the MFA’s Egyptian Department, Reisner installed many of the objects he discovered, and announced his assignation of the Sphinx to the pharaoh Khafre. The news was misinterpreted by the press in all sorts of fantastical ways. Reisner also delivered Harvard’s prestigious Ingersoll Lecture on conceptions of immortality, and his classes touched on the thorny issue of ancient races. Sir Henry Wellcome turned to Reisner for advice in excavating the site of Gebel Moya in the Sudan, and Reisner lent him several of his workmen. There were visits to Indianapolis and Berkeley, and an encounter set up by MFA benefactor Gardiner Martin Lane with Henry Clay Frick resulted in Reisner taking the Frick family up the Nile on a tour. Back at Giza, Frick offered to pay for removing the newly discovered (by Fisher) tomb of Akh-meret-nisut to the MFA in Boston. After a performance of “Aida” at Giza, the Titanic disaster hit close to home for some in Reisner’s milieu.
(Mis)interpreting the Nubians in the Shadow of Tutankhamun
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter
Published: January 2023

In the fall of 1921, Reisner returned to America for the first time since 1912, while Dows Dunham managed Harvard Camp at Giza. In late November Dunham returned to Meroe. From Boston Reisner successfully helped Ludwig Borchardt regain his Cairo institute and property after confiscation by the British during the war. Reisner’s Harvard students included several talented foreigners, but African American William Leo Hansberry openly challenged his colonialist interpretations of indigenous African civilizations. Others rejected his Libyan-origins theory for ancient Nubia as well. The chapter also covers the new antiquities division law and Howard Carter’s 1922 discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun as seen through Reisner’s eyes. Dows Dunham was “loaned” to the Egyptian Antiquities Service for Saqqara excavations and parted ways with Reisner thereafter. The team completed the drawings of the Menkaure temples at Giza, and Reisner’s two-volume publication of Kerma finally appeared, a solid archaeological work but hardly free from racist historical interpretation. The Meroe excavations were finished by 1923; a short excavation season at Sheikh Farag, near Naga ed-Deir, was followed by clearance of the Middle Kingdom forts of Semna and Kumma at the Second Cataract. 1924 saw the inaugural season of James Breasted’s Epigraphic Survey at Luxor, the discovery of Djoser’s Third Dynasty Step Pyramid complex at Saqqara, the murder of British officer Sir Lee Stack, and the expedition’s discovery of the Sixth Dynasty tombs of Qar and Idu at Giza.
The Hope for Democracy
Authors: Barnhart Joslyn N. , Trager Robert F.
Published: January 2023

The spread of democracy in the nineteenth century was surrounded by optimism. Early liberal thinkers like Thomas Paine and Immanuel Kant believed that democracy would bring fundamental social, economic, and political change. But above all, they believed it would bring peace. Once those who bore the brunt of wars were able to punish warmongering leaders at the polls, wars would cease. But as democracy among men began to spread, would their optimism prove warranted? This chapter explores the attitudes of early all-male electorates in Britain and the United States towards issues of war and peace. It shows that, contrary to early and modern faith in democratic pacifism, all-men voting publics often pushed reluctant leaders to promote policies of violence and conquest in the latter half of the nineteenth century.
The Hope for Suffrage and Peace in the New Century
Authors: Barnhart Joslyn N. , Trager Robert F.
Published: January 2023

In the years since the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, many have come to think of women’s suffrage as an endpoint, as the ultimate symbol of women’s equality. But many early suffragists were not seeking suffrage and equality solely as ends in themselves. Rather, they sought them as a means to social and political change. Like early liberal thinkers, they saw the vote as a means to achieving a better, less conflictual world—but only if women were included in the electorate. Although democratic institutions certainly mattered in some regard, the suffragists believed that who was able to participate in the process was more important. This chapter examines the attitudes and actions of these early suffragists as they fought for both suffrage and international peace.
Ravana in Modern Sri Lankan Literature
Authors: Henry Justin W.
Published: January 2023

This chapter examines renderings of the Ramayana in Sinhala poetry, drama, and fiction from the late nineteenth century to the present. It explores the resurrection of the Ramayana alongside Buddhist themes in the Sinhala “neoclassical” literary revolution of the late 1800s, along with Ravana’s role in the Heḷa Havula (“Pure Sinhala”) movement. The chapter reviews a number of radio, theater, television, and film productions of the Ramayana in the twentieth century offering a sympathetic treatment of Ravana which have hitherto escaped scholarly attention, concluding with an examination of the theme of ancient Sri Lanka as a prelapsarian paradise and repository of technological marvels in modern Sinhala and English fiction.