bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Design Guidelines for Social Problem-Solving Interventions
Authors: McCann Joseph E.
Published: March 2006

Two or more social actors-individuals, groups, and organizations-engage in social problem solving when resolving or managing a shared problem. Social problem solving poses significant conceptual and control difficulties that make it highly episodic and prone to setbacks. This paper proposes a framework for understanding social problem solving and offers four guidelines for designing interventions to facilitate the process. A case study illustrates the usefulness of the framework and design guidelines.
The Scanlon Plan: A Longitudinal Analysis
Authors: Schuster Michael
Published: March 2006

This article examines the operation and effectiveness of the Scanlon Plan in a large manufacturing plant. The research combined a case-study approach with an interrupted timeseries design. The researcher assessed productivity (measured as output per hour) level of employment, and voluntary turnover on a monthly basis during a seven and one-half to nineyear period. The results of the regression analysis indicated an abrupt positive change in productivity, followed by positive trends for two product lines. The plant's employment and turnover remained stable, in contrast to wider shifts for the industry. The Scanlon Plan paid consistent bonuses, and the production committees generated more than 2,477 suggestions, of which 70% were implemented.
The Productivity Battle: A Behavioral Science Analysis of apan and the United States
Authors: Ueno Ichiro , Blake Robert R. , Mouton Jane S.
Published: March 2006

A nation's behavior is a product of its unique history, form of government, religion, natural resources, and so on. A nation's behavior is also shaped by its relationships with other nations-particularly win-lose relationships derived from warfare. This paper examines the shift in productivity trends that have occurred since World War II in Japan and in the United States. The authors apply theories of intergroup conflict under competitive conditions to a comparative analysis of Japan's response to defeat and America's response to victory. They also discuss implications for the future in terms of the win-lose paradigm and its pervasive effects on individual and national attitudes and behaviors.
Some Evidence for the Cultural Relativity of Organizational Development Programs
Authors: Tainio Risto , Santalainen Timo
Published: March 2006

In this article, we explore the cultural relativity of organizational development programs by investigating the effects of two different "value-laden" change programs in the Finnish cultural milieu. The evidence distinctly illustrates different effect patterns between foreign and domestic programs. In the American program the effects appeared mainly in the management system and, more specifically, in the individual managers. The domestic program, however, experienced stronger — and longer lasting — effects at the organizational level. The barriers experienced during the introduction of the foreign program reflected quite well the cultural differences we found earlier between the countries studied. The major hypothesis based on the data is that the cultural impact on the transfer process is mediated through the different positions of managers in different countries rather than through the different need and value systems of individual managers.
The Origins and Status of Action Research
Authors: Peters Michael , Robinson Viviane
Published: March 2006

Diverse claims have been made for and about action research in a variety of contexts. In this article, we first trace the origins of this approach to Kurt Lewin and provide a synopsis of his views. We then compare Lewin's views on action research with those of contemporary exponents. In the third section, we review and systematize the claims of 11 action researchers to determine the extent to which their claims constitute a shared conception. While most authors characterize action research as a methodology, a few also attempt to link action research to a particular interpretation or theory of social science. We build on this distinction in the final section and distinguish a weak from a strong version of action research, concluding that, at this time, neither version enjoys the status of a paradigm.
Integrating Planned-Change Intervention and Computer Simulation Technology: The Case of Affirmative Action
Authors: Ledvinka James , Hildreth W. Bartley
Published: March 2006

A critical question in affirmative action planning is whether any given plan of action will successfully integrate an organization's work force within a reasonable length of time. Computer simulation, coupled with appropriate involvement by line managers, can help the organization ensure congruence between its plan of action and its timetables for making progress toward achieving an integrated work force. This article describes one organization's experiences in using a computer-assisted databased management intervention in setting affirmative action goals.
The Effects of Emotional Support on Perceived Job Stress and Strain
Authors: Jayaratne Srinika , Chess Wayne A.
Published: March 2006

This article uses a national sample of social workers to examine the relationship between work stress, strain, and emotional support. These results indicate negative associations between support and perceived stress and strain. The authors, however, found no evidence for the buffering effects of emotional support. The authors discuss the implications of these findings.
Egoistic Motives and Longevity of Participation by Social Service Volunteers
Authors: Rubin Allen , Thorelli Irene M.
Published: March 2006

This study tests the hypothesis that in a setting in which service volunteers are likely to experience meager egoistic benefits their longevity of participation is inversely related to the extent to which they feel motivated to volunteer by the need for—or expectation of—egoistic benefits. We confirmed this hypothesis in a multiple-regression analysis based on the case records of all volunteers who terminated their participation during a nine-month period in a Big Brothers/Big Sisters program.
Group Process Under Conditions of Organizational Decline
Authors: Krantz James
Published: March 2006

While organizational decline and retrenchment have become increasingly common phenomena, relatively little research has focused on either their organizational implications or their management. Using an approach pioneered at the Tavistock Institute for understanding group processes, the author describes the impact of individually experienced anxieties greatly heightened by conditions of decline on collective behavior. Case discussions of two nonprofit organizations illustrate group processes under such conditions. In its conclusion, the article considers the implications of the findings for managing the difficult process of retrenchment.
Measuring Preference for Ideation in Creative Problem-Solving Training
Authors: Basadur Min , Finkbeiner Carl T.
Published: March 2006

Creativity, problem solving, and innovation are of increasing concern to organizations in these times of accelerating change. This article seeks to deepen readers' understanding of the specific attitudes and thinking processes associated with creative behavior in organizations. The authors report on two empirical studies that developed a reliable, valid measure of "preference for ideation," an important attitude identified in previous creative problem-solving training research. They also identify three additional, distinct ideation-related attitudes: the tendency to make premature critical evaluations of ideas, the valuing of new ideas, and the belief that creative thinking is bizarre. The article presents a speculative model that differentiates "ideation" and "deferral of judgment" attitudinally and cognitively, categorizing Osborn's brainstorming rules accordingly.
Quality Circles in the United States: A Conceptual Reevaluation
Authors: Ferris Gerald R. , Wagner John A.
Published: March 2006

Faced with industrial decline, American managers have begun searching for strategies for increasing productivity. Recent attention has focused on Japanese management practices, particularly on quality circles (QCs). Drawing upon social science research, this article evaluates the assumptions behind QCs implemented in the United States. The authors present a conceptual analysis that indicates possible reasons for the differing rates of success for QCs in Japan and the U.S. The article also makes suggestions for the effective implementation of American QCs.
A Mirror for Managers: Using Simulation To Develop Management Teams
Authors: Kaplan Robert E. , Lombardo Michael M. , Mazique Mignon S.
Published: March 2006

Of the many methods consultants employ to stimulate team development, simulation is among the least common. In this article, the authors describe how realistic simulation can help one diagnose management teams. In presenting a case study of one management team's experience with simulation, the article provides a frame work for effectively using simulation for this purpose and follows this with an evaluation of the intervention.
Management Styles, Perceptions of Substance Abuse, and Employee Assistance Programs in Organizations
Authors: Steele Paul D. , Hubbard Robert L.
Published: March 2006

In this article, the authors examine the relationships among organizational style, perceptions of the extent of substance abuse, and the structure and processes of Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) in the work place. To collect data for this study, researchers administered the Survey of Organizations (SOO) questionaire and additional questions relating to substance use to a random sample of employees from seven corporations (N= 760) and conducted in-depth, open-ended interviews with EAP staff and corporate administrators (N=83). This research led to three major findings: that a negative correlation exists between organizational climate and satisfaction-as measured by the SOO indexes-and the extent of substance abuse in the work place, that the majority of respondents were unaware of specific organizational and EAP policies and procedures, and that EAPs tend to be poorly integrated in terms of structure and process with the organizations' administrative hierarchy. The authors suggest targets for information campaigns and means of integrating EAPs into the corporate hierarchy. They also recommend that future research attempt to specify the impact of intra- and extra organizationalfactors on the extent of substance abuse in the work place and the effectiveness of EAPs.
Complementary Roles for Formal and Informal Support Groups: A Study of Nursing Homes and Mortality Rates
Authors: Litwak Eugene
Published: March 2006

Organizational theorists have argued that formal and informal support systems cannot exist in strong form in the same society. In this article, the author argues that such theories fail to consider the complementarity of these two systems and the necessity of both for the completion of most tasks. A study of tasks performed for nursing home residents found that the formal organization assumed those tasks that could be standardized and deemed legitimate for Medicaidfunding, while the others were either maintained by informal support groups or lost altogether. A study of the influence of informal support groups on mortality rates found that such groups played an important role in reducing death in older persons resulting from causes associated with nontechnical matters. In conclusion, the author finds that formal groups can best manage tasks that require technical knowledge or that can be reduced to simpler, routine components, whereas informal groups can better manage tasks requiring everyday knowledge and characterized by many contingencies or unpredictability. The author stresses that both formal and informal support must be provided when serviing older people.
Attitudes Toward Human Service Organizations: Perspectives From an Urban Black Community
Authors: Gary Lawrence E.
Published: March 2006

Previous research has suggested that black Americans tend to view mental health services and community mental health centers more negatively than do white Americans. This article discusses a recent study that sought to determine whether black persons possess positive or negative attitudes, what factors influence attitude formation, and the implications of these findings. Based on a sample of black residents in a city in the Northeast, the study found that fewer than 20% of black persons possess negative attitudes toward community mental health centers, that 34% possess positive attitudes, that women and married persons tend to possess more positive attitudes than do men and unmarried persons, that those with high levels of racial consciousness tend to possess more positive attitudes than those who do not, and that those with a high tolerance of substance use tend to possess more negative attitudes than do less tolerant persons. The author suggests that human service agencies should educate social and health workers to become more aware of the cultural diversity and attitudes of the black community so that they may more effectively serve black clients.
OD and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Boosting Productivity by Raising Expectations
Authors: Eden Dov
Published: March 2006

The role of expectations in OD has largely been ignored or treated as a methodological problem, yet available data indicate that OD may operate as a self-fulffilling prophecy. This article focuses on the hypothesis that expectations are a major force for changing organizational effectiveness. The author argues that the unintended raising of expectations for intervention outcomes may be a major causal variable. He hypothesizes that an OD intervention 's effectiveness is in direct proportion to the expectations for improved performance it arouses, and that attempts to control expectations for methodological purposes may hamstring the intervention. The author discusses consultants as prophets who may unwittingly fulfill their own prophecies and the Messiah effect, and concludes by suggesting that OD programs can and should deliberately raise expectationsfor improved productivity, which may be done with considerable practical gain and no loss of methodological rigor.
Decision Rules for Increasing the Rate of Successfully Classified Respondents
Authors: Koslowsky Meni , Locke Gardner
Published: March 2006

Discriminant analysis is one of the more commonly used methodsfor classifying individuals. In this article, the authors discuss strategies for increasing the percentage of correctly classified subjects (i.e., the hit rate). Through their study of 303,000 credit card customers of a corporation, who were sent offers to purchase insurance policies through the mail, the authorsfound that by varying the decision rulesfor classification one could more accurately predict response rates and establish cutoff points for acceptance that best meet the researcher's needs. The results of this study demonstrate that one can increase the hit rate from one of less than .2% (the random response rate) to one of more than .6% by appealing only to those prospective respondents ranked in the top 10o according to classification scores. Such a result is a large improvement over the typical output available through some of the more commonly used software packages for classification of individuals.
Sociotechnical Considerations for the Development of the Space Station: Autonomy and the Human Element in Space
Authors: Schoonhoven Claudia Bird
Published: March 2006

This article addresses organization design and effectiveness with respect to sociotechnical systems (STS) applications to the development of space stations by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The author addresses the issues of how much autonomy those on the station should exercise with respect to ground control and the interaction between humans and machines, proposing that an STS approach is most appropriate for designing this sort of organization. The article discusses issues related to this application and concludes with the author's recommendations of areas in need offurther study.
A Concluding Note: Future Directions of Sociotechnical Theory and Research
Authors: Cummings Thomas G.
Published: March 2006

Addressing the findings of the other articles included in this special issue devoted to sociotechnical systems (STS), the author discusses how STS has grown and developed since its early applications to mechanized production systems. The author finds that STS research and applications are now moving toward service organizations and automated production, transorganizational systems, the identification of conditions necessary for the success of STS, and self-design and action learning by workers. He concludes that the field will continue to remain eclectic and diverse, held together by shared beliefs in work-place democracy and the importance of organizational choice.
Some Effects of Multiple OD Interventions on Burnout and Work Site Features
Authors: Golembiewski Robert T. , Hilles Richard , Daly Rick
Published: March 2006

An organization development effort using theory-driven interventions was undertaken with a human resources (HR) staff of 31 of a corporation, and this article notes how this effort reduced the HR staffs level of burnout and improved its group properties and turnover rates. Using an eight-phase model to estimate burnout level and 10 Work Environment Scales to describe the work setting, the authors gathered data over a two-year period, administering a survey five times. The level of burnout, initially high among the HR staff diminished and remained reduced for at least four months after the last planned intervention, although this improvement decayed somewhat following nine more months and a major reorganization. The improvements in group properties and the turnover rate, however, persisted and were even enhanced The authors find that personnel changes do not explain the improvements, and that the research design probably generated a conservative estimate of effects They caution, however, that this effort focused on persons in an "active" mode with respect to approaching their work even though they were in advanced phases of burnout. Therefore, orthodox, high-stimulus OD designs might not prove as effective for those in a "passive" mode.
Analyzing the Development of an OD Practitioner
Authors: Shea Gregory , Berg David
Published: March 2006

This article discusses the process of learning to perform organization development (OD) work full time. In studying this the authors conducted a "clinical" analysis ofa journal kept by one of the authors during a 20-month tenure as an OD manager, and of the experience and training of both authors in this field (one a "retired" OD manager, both professors of organizational behavior). Many personal and professional struggles were revealed in this research, which are integral to the development of the self in the role of the OD practitioner. The article offers ways of conceptualizing and handling these struggles, and thereby the work of practicing OD.
Social Organization, Profit Cycles, and Statewide Land Use Controls: Welcome to Oregon—Enjoy your Visit
Authors: Knaap Gerrit
Published: March 2006

Land use control in the U.S. has in many places been elevated to higher, more extensive levels of government, causing considerable controversy as to whose interests such reform serves. This article offers a political economic analysis of statewide land use controls, focusing on the land use program of Oregon. Using empirical evidence based on the state's population characteristics, industries, and elections featuring referenda to repeal the land use statutes, the author suggests that statewide land use controls in Oregon are supported by identifiable private interests: amenity-based industries, high-income professionals and technicans, and citizens in urban areas. The article suggests how changes in the structure of Oregon society—reflecting the development of the state's economy—led to the development of statewide land use controls.
An Institutional Theory of Leadership
Authors: Biggart Nicole Woolsey , Hamilton Gary G.
Published: March 2006

Most theories of leadership are rooted in a psychological paradigm that treats leadership as an individual attribute, although one that may be situationally activated or constrained In this article, the authors propose a theory of leadership inspired by the institutional school of organizational analysis. Using an approach based on Weberian sociology, the authors link leadership to the legitimating principles and norms of the social structure in which leadership occurs. Four hypotheses are presented; (1) leadership strategies in any one sociocultural setting will have strong underlying similarities, (2) as an organization changes over time, strategies of leadership will also change, (3) organizations performing the same tasks-but based on different substantive principles-will exhibit different strategies of leadership, and (4) occupational and organizational subgroups based on distinctive norms will exhibit similar leadership styles across organizations, and will differ from other subgroups within a single organization. 7he authors conclude by proposing a research agenda based on institutional theory.
The Life History of the Emergent Organization in Times of Disaster
Authors: Saunders Sarah Lee , Kreps Gary A.
Published: March 2006

This article offers a conceptualization and measurement of the emergence of organizations to cope with disasters. The authors define an organization as the simultaneous presence of four individually necessary elements: domains, tasks, resources, and activities. Combinations of these elements in various configurations yield a taxonomy of 24 different ways of organizing to meet the demands of emergencies. Using this taxonomy-and organization variables of timing, duration, restructuring, and survival-a model was developed for the life histories of 52 ephemeral organizations that responded to 12 natural disasters throughout the U.S., based on data from the archives of the Disaster Research Center. The model's exogenous variables include characteristics of disaster events, enacting organizations, and affected communities. The authors found that theories offormal organization and collective behavior have mutual relevance for studies of organizing, and discuss the implications of their research for emergency management.
Performing the Nuclear Ceremony: The Arms Race as a Ritual
Authors: Benford Robert D. , Kurtz Lester R.
Published: March 2006

This article examines the nuclear arms race as ritualized behavior and evaluates characteristics of ritual to comprehend the dynamics of the arms race. Following a review of the literature and statements of those participating in, conducting, examining, and opposing the arms race, the authors find the analogy of the ritual appropriate. They find that rituals (1) provide solutions to problems, especia1ly those involving difficult situations and uncontrollable forces, (2) are rooted in experience, (3) identify evil and mark boundaries, and (4) reify social processes and reinforce social structure. The authors do not criticize the ritual process per se, but develop a critical perspective on the ritualization of the arms race. They conclude by raising questions stemming from an analysis of ritual and by suggesting areas for further research.
Effects of Management Policies on Unauthorized Absence Behavior
Authors: Majchrzak Ann
Published: March 2006

This article reports a study of the effects of higher-level managers'policies on unit members' behavior, which sought to determine whether the process of communicating and clarifying policies goveming absence from the job could reduce unauthorized absences beyond the effects of the policies'content. In afield experiment with battalions of the U.S. Marine Corps at Camp Pendleton, Califomia, higher-level managers were instructed to clarify and communicate their absence policies repeatedly for a six-month period Some units were assigned to the control condition, the remainder to the treatment condition. Questionnaires were administered before and after the intervention took place. The results from the pretest and post-test measures indicate that clarifying and communicating the policies reduced the rates of unauthorized absence, but only when the policy clarification led to increased hierarchical consistency in the policies among managers and increased knowledge of the policies by unit members.
Here and there: The Phenomenology of Settlement Removal from Northern Sinai
Authors: Kliot Nurit
Published: March 2006

In discussing the removal of Israeli settlers from Sinai before its return to Egypt this article examines the sense of place with respect to a general perspective and the Israeli context. The author examines loss of place, placelessness, and rootlessness, humiliation, distress, and alienation; losing one's past, present, and future sense of place; attaining a sense of place; and continuity and change in the sense of place. Sixty families of evacuees were interviewed, with interviews held in 1980 and 1982 before the evacuation, and interviews with more than one-third of the subjects held in 1984, nearly two years after evacuation. The author concludes that the Sinai settlershad created a world with a vivid spirit of place, which some tried to replicate in their new communities with only partial success. The major obstacle to the continuity of a sense of place is hypothesized to be failure in the economic domain.
Protest and the Removal of Yamit: Ostentatious Political Action
Authors: Wolfsfeld Gadi
Published: March 2006

This article discusses the relationship between protest activity and news coverage, focusing on three major groups that resisted the Israeli government as it evacuated Jewish settlers from Yamit, Sinai to fulfill the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty. Two of these groups-the business persons and the farmers-consisted of long-time Yamit residents seeking compensation for their losses; the other, the Movement to Stop the Withdrawal (MSW), consisted of persons from outside Yamit and had ideological motivations. From participant observations and interviews with group leaders and news reporters during the resistance (December 1981-April 1982) and one month later, the author obtained several lessons and conclusions. In particular, the author found that a symbiotic relationship exists between the press and action group leaders, that groups more sophisticated in dealing with the news media have more experience, resources, and organizational structures, and that groups with ideological goals rather than materialistic ones devise different strategies for exploiting the press and must decide between political expediency and substantive considerations.
The Removal of the Israeli Settlements in Sinai: An Ambiguous Resolution of an Existential Conflict
Authors: Cohen Erik
Published: March 2006

This article discusses the nature and meaning of the removal of Israeli settlements from Sinai as required by the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty. The author considers the removal an ambiguous resolution of a basic existential conflict over whether Israel is a secular, "legal-rational " state versus a religious, traditional one, with the key issues being the relative importance of two Zionist values: territorial expansion and peace. Speculating that those conducting and resisting the removal actually collaborated somewhat in the protest so as to signal that the removal was not a precedent for future Israeli withdrawals, the author finds that Israel's existential conflict has only deepened and predicts that a bitter struggle will occur when peace negotiations involving the West Bank begin The article concludes with comparisons of the Sinai removal to other forms of human migration, indicating its lack of true historical parallels.
The Work Group and its Vicissitudes in Social and Industrial Psychology
Authors: Bramel Dana , Friend Ronald
Published: March 2006

At various times the small group in the work place has been seen as either the organization's means of controlling workers or a response to increasing power and demands. This article analyzes shifts in social science research and theory on these groups, illustrating this ambivalence by discussing the attitudes of Le Bon, Taylor, Allport, Mayo, Sherif, Lewin, and others. The authors then present a historical survey of the image and reality of work groups during 1935-1981, which they found depended on the relative power of labor and capital as indicated by strikes and employment rates in specific periods. At times when worker power peaked, democratic, group-oriented methods were advocated, when worker power declined, individualistic, authoritative approaches prevailed The authors conclude that as more psychologists become unionized the needs of workers rather than management-particularly alienating work conditions and harmful consequences of lack of worker control-could be an increasing focus of their attention.
The Impossibility of Using Random Strategies to Study the Organization Development Process
Authors: Bullock R. J. , Svyantek Daniel J.
Published: March 2006

The organization development (OD) process seeks collaborative, diagnosis-based organizational change. This article discusses how the use of random strategies of a traditional experimental design to study the OD process fundamentally changes that process to something other than OD. Following a literature search, the authors conclude that random processes and the OD process are fundamentally incompatible and thus cannot be used simultaneously. Researchers may use random strategies to study OD techniques, but not the OD process itself It is never appropriate to attempt to use random selection or random assignment to study the OD process. The authors call for the development of alternative standards and methods that are both rigorous and relevant to OD research for no true experiment studying the OD process can ever take place.
Individual Strategies for Coping with Stress during Organizational Transitions
Authors: Ashford Susan J.
Published: March 2006

This article examines the coping mechanisms employees used to adapt to a major organizational transition. Research was conducted to assess both coping resources and coping responses. The sample consisted of employees of the Bell Telephone System who had to cope with the company's recent divestiture. The results of a multivariate analysis suggest that perceived uncertainty and fears about the impact of the transition were related to employee stress. This relationship was only moderately affected by the coping mechanisms. Feelings of personal control and the ability to tolerate ambiguity were linked with improved stress levels, whereas active attempts to structure the situation by obtaining information and feedback either failed to affect or actually increased stress levels. The author concludes with implications of this research for the management of change.
Dispositional Discretion or Disparity: The Juvenile Probation Officer's Role in Delinquency Processing
Authors: Reese William A. , Curtis Russell L. , Whitworth James R.
Published: March 2006

Concerns about bias and disparity in case dispositions-despite inconclusive evidence-have recently spurred interactionist research into the organizational processes and functionaries of juvenile justice. This article reports a study of the role of the juvenile probation officer (JPO) in affecting dispositions, in which the effects of extralegal factors were systematically tested. In one juvenile probation department in the southwestern U.S., 87 JPOs each completed a survey and recommended three dispositions for the case of a juvenile delinquent. The results indicate that the JPOs' background characteristics, organizational situations, and attitudes toward delinquency were crucial variables explaining dispositional disparity. The authors posit that the "IPO factor" can produce treatment differences sufficient to undermine the rehabilitative ideal and confound studies of judicial bias, and suggest that understanding the systematic nature of this factor might facilitate needed reform.
Developing Cooperative Labor-Management Relations in Unionized Factories: A Multiple Case Study of Quality Circles and Parallel Organizations within Joint Quality of Work Life Projects
Authors: Bushe Gervase R.
Published: March 2006

A study compared the attempts of five different manufacturing plants of a corporation to develop more cooperative labor-management relations, examining results obtained for the first two years of the change projects. Data were collected through interviews with senior and lower-level managers, supervisors, and union officials, and from records on productivity, product quality, and grievances. Based on the numbers of problem-solving groups and reported changes affecting managers and union officials, two plants succeeded in improving labor-management relations, but through processes contrary to prescriptions given in the current literature. The author presents many deficiencies in current conceptualizations related to union-management change efforts. The article suggests topics for future research, especially the utility of an intergroup relations perspective and parallel organizations.
A Successful Feminist Shelter: A Case Study of the Family Crisis Shelter in Hawaii
Authors: Rodriguez Noelie Maria
Published: March 2006

Feminist-run shelters for battered women seek both to provide protection for these women and to empower them with a critique of the society that promotes violence and male domination. Largely because of difficulties in obtaining funding, however, in the U.S. the trend has been for such shelters to be coopted into conventional social service agencies. This article presents a case study of the Family Crisis Shelter in Hawaii, which has retained its feminist program and continues to promote societal change despite its financing by governmental and conventional funding sources. The author attributese this shelter's relative success to its particular empowerment strategy, which primarily depends on staffing by nonprofessional former shelter residents and its policy of providing nonjudgmental support for its residents.
Saluting in Social Context
Authors: Jaffe Alexandra
Published: March 2006

The article examines the stylistic variations of the military custom of saluting, which both reflects the military hierarchy and provides a medium for the expression of individuals' attitudes toward the system. Specific examples, conventions, and categories of saluting are presented, drawn from the author's previous experience as a United States Army officer, with reference to official guidelines and discussions with other military personnel. Common instances of individual manipulation of the standard rules for saluting are considered signs of structural ambiguity and of overlapping-and sometimes contradictory-systems of military power, values, and authority. Based on evidence of a complex interplay of social definitions in a relatively closed and regimented system, the author warns against using rigid or deterministic models of the relationship between individual action and social structure.
The Implications of Multiple Perspectives on Power for Organization Development
Authors: Bradshaw-Camball Patricia
Published: March 2006

This article presents the implications for organization development of examining power from multiple perspectives, particularly those associated with the functionalist and interpretive paradigms. To illustrate how the construction of reality and illusion making can enhance a person or group's power, data are presented from an empirical study of a hospital in Ontario. Using a grounded theory methodology, the author determined that hospital administrators had created the illusion of a fiscal crisis so as to increase their control over scarce financial resources, and thus increase their power. The author urges OD consultants to recognize such power dynamics and to choose consciously whether to accept, change, or withdraw from organizations in which these dynamics occur. The skills needed to diagnose such dynamics and alternative interventions are explored.
Toward a Sense of Organizational Humor: Implications for Organizational Diagnosis and Change
Authors: Kahn William A.
Published: March 2006

This article focuses on the use of humor as a tool for organizational diagnosis and change. The guiding assumption is that humor is a means for organization members to make statements, consciously or unconsciously, about themselves, their relationships, their groups, and their organizations-statements that may be more difficult to make and to hear in other ways. Examples from the author's and others' experiences and from secondary sources are presented to explore the processes by which organization members use humor. The author discusses ways of interpreting the data couched in humorous messages and incidents, presenting five primary functions that humor serves for individuals and groups. These functions are linked by a theoretical framework underlying the use of humor in the diagnostic process. The author also offers some thoughts on using humor sparingly and carefully in the process of creating organizational change.
The Effect of Social Support on Prenatal Care
Authors: John Craig St. , Winston Terry J.
Published: March 2006

This article examines the effects of social support on the receipt of adequate prenatal care. A study was conducted to test the hypotheses that social support helps women overcome obstacles to obtaining such care, and that social support has greater effects on women facing the most obstacles. Survey data were gathered for more than 90% of the women who gave birth in Oklahoma hospitals during specific periods in the summer of 1986. The authors found only weak support for the first hypothesis, and for the second hypothesis found only support that must be qualified according to the measure of social support. Strong evidence indicates, however, that difficulty in paying for prenatal care, personal inconveniences, and unwanted pregnancies are obstacles to obtaining such care. The findings account for some of the frequently observed demographic differences associated with receipt of adequate prenatal care, although such differences persisted even after the obstacles were considered. The authors present implications for policy makers seeking to improve women's receipt of adequate prenatal care.
Creating Excellence out of Crisis: Organizational Transformation at the Chicago Tribune
Authors: Frame Robert M. , Nielsen Warren R. , Pate Larry E.
Published: March 2006

This article describes an organizational transformation effort involving one of the Chicago Tribune's printing facilities. In July 1985, a walkout strike affecting 1,000 workers occurred, which prompted management to seek to change the printing center to meet its vision of technological and managerial excellence. Consultants conducted a transformation effort that was conceptually similar to an organization development program, but differed in its focus on results and measures of attaining them. This effort produced statements of operating beliefs and key result areas (including implementing the operating beliefs, human resources development, and effective use of capital and resources) for performance measurement. The results include a 25% improvement in productivity in pages per hour and tens of millions of dollars in potential savings in annualized advertising revenues. The authors conclude that visions of organizations of the future must be grounded in clear, integrated action steps permitting measurable outcomes.
Construct Validity of the Maslach Burnout Inventory: A Critical Review and Reconceptualization
Authors: Koeske Gary F. , Koeske Randi Daimon
Published: March 2006

This article presents an evaluation of the construct validity of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). The authors base this critique on previously published findings and data collected through five studies carried out during an eight-year period, for which 328 social workers acted as respondents. Factor analyses and correlational studies designed to test predictions provided fairly consistent evidence for the utility of the MBI subscale measures of emotional exhaustion, personal accomplishment, and depersonalization. Additional analyses supported a reconceptualization of burnout and the MBI, one that regards exhaustion as the essence of burnout and treats accomplishment and depersonalization as related variables, but not as elements of burnout.
The Power of Not Understanding: The Meeting of Conflicting Identities
Authors: Gurevitch Z. D.
Published: March 2006

Attempts to establish dialogue between conflicting identities usually focus on mutual understanding and the common, while downplaying the elements of the conflict and ignoring the element of otherness, which is especially important for conflicts in which the other is the opposite of the self. This article suggests real dialogue requires that the parties first acknowledge this otherness as the distance between them. Thus, the ability to not understand, rather than the ability to understand the other, is posited as crucial to the dialogic process. The author argues that only when the parties relinquish their previous understanding can dialogue address the nucleus of the opposition and conflict, and mobilize relations between the parties within the dialogic framework. Examples are given of attempts at dialogue, one by a group representing the religious and secular Israeli populations and one by a group representing Jews and Arabs in Israel, with their encounters described and analyzed in terms of the possibilities of understanding.
Strategic Issue Analysis: NGT + Decision Analysis for Resolving Strategic Issues
Authors: Thomas James B. , McDaniel Reuben R. , Dooris Michael J.
Published: March 2006

This article discusses how nominal group technique (NGT) can be combined with a decision analysis (DA) technique-simple multi-attribute utility-to assist decision makers in dealing with strategic issues. The authors identify a stepwise means of guiding such complex, "messy" issues through multiple levels so that organization-level alternatives can be considered without sacrificing unit-specific needs. A detailed case study is presented in which an organization consisting of many independently functioning divisions and subdivisions used NGT + DA along with group decision methodology to devise and choose from among alternatives for an integrated computer system. The organization was able to achieve consensus as to the system adopted, and informal and survey feedback from participants indicates their satisfaction with the process. The authors conclude that NGT + DA is relatively easy and inexpensive to use and transparent to the user, and call for research to assess its relative strengths compared to other combined techniques using NGT.
Prosocial Behavior, Job Complexity, and Suggestion Contribution Under Gainsharing Plans
Authors: Hatcher Larry , Ross Timothy L. , Collins Denis
Published: March 2006

This article reports a study of five manufacturing organizations with performance gainsharing plans, in which 100 nonmanagement employees responded to job characteristics scales from the Job Diagnostic Survey and were evaluated by their supervisors with respect to prosocial organizational behavior. The number of suggestions employees contributed to formal employee involvement systems was found to be positively related to perceptions of job complexity. A significant interaction revealed that suggestion making was also positively related to assisting behavior (a measure of extra role prosocial behavior), but only for employees reporting that they experienced relatively high levels of job complexity. Suggestion making was not found to be related to compliance (a measure of role-prescribed prosocial behavior). The authors present implications for further research on prosocial organizational behavior and the management of high-involvement gainsharing plans.
Influence Modes, Schema Change, and Organizational Transformation
Authors: Poole Peter P. , Gioia Dennis A. , Gray Barbara
Published: March 2006

This article reports research in which an ethnographic approach was employed to study a bank in the northeastern U.S. that underwent organizational change and transformation in response to the demands of a federal regulatory agency. The resesearchers investigated the top management's efforts to alter the firm's existing organizational schemas so as to meet the requirements of a new organizational vision. Data were obtained from field observation over a J0-month period, organization documents, and surveys and interviews. A first-order analysis using informant categories revealed themes relevant to changing organizational schemes. A second-order analysis revealed the influence modes top management used to effect organizational change. The authors conclude that the modes they label "Enforcement" and "Manipulation" unexpectedly proved most successful in bringing about the bank's transformation.
Theoretical Observations on Applied Behavioral Science
Authors: Vaughan Ted R.
Published: March 2006

This article describes how major transformations in organizational conditions-particularly the emerging dominance of transnational relationships and decline in the centrality of the nation-state-have made traditional concepts and applications of validity insufficient for addressing important social issues. Problems have arisen not just with the choice of means to ends, but also with the choice of the ends themselves. The author argues that applied social scientists should play a greater role in shaping the future by serving not merely as technical problem solvers, but also as developers of theoretical alternatives for the future. Applied social science methodology must also change to accommodate the criteria the author considers relevant to assessing the validity of proposed alternatives: objective possibility and moral consequences.
The Transcendent Function in Organizational Change
Authors: Olson Edwin E.
Published: March 2006

The conflict inherent in organizational change is explored from the perspective of Jungian psychology. The transcendent function, which is the symbol-creating capacity of the psyche, is the process through which the opposition of conscious and unconscious forces can be integrated and resolved so that organization members may experience a positive change. Manifestations of the unconscious are illustrated with examples of dreams and the underused psychologicalfunctions. Examples also demonstrate how the tension between the conscious and the unconscious can be maintained until a new level of understanding, a creative resolution of conflict, or a transformation in perception occurs. The author discusses how consultants may use this approach in team building and other organization development work.
Implications of Inflexibility in the Size of One Sample for the Statistical Power of Tests of Mean Contrasts
Authors: Hsu Louis M.
Published: March 2006

Factors beyond the control of researchers often limit the sizes of samples included in their studies. When these factors limit the total sample size, the statistical power of tests of contrasts of means may be unacceptably low. Sometimes these factors limit the size of only one sample (called the Fixed N Sample), whose mean is to be contrasted with the mean of one other sample or with the average of the means of (g-1) other samples. In such situations, the upper bound for the statistical power of the contrast test may be much below the minimum power values conventionally considered acceptable, even though the total sample size could, in theory, be indefinitely large. Such unacceptably low powers occur not only for Cohen's (1988) small effect sizes but also for medium and large effect sizes when the fixed Ns are of magnitudes no smaller than the sample sizes often reported in psychological research.