bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Health worker motivation in the context of HIV care and treatment challenges in Mbeya Region, Tanzania: A qualitative study
Authors: Mbilinyi Deogratius , Daniel Marguerite L , Lie Gro Th
Published: November 2011

Background

Health worker motivation can potentially affect the provision of health services. The HIV pandemic has placed additional strain on health service provision through the extra burden of increased testing and counselling, treating opportunistic infections and providing antiretroviral treatment. The aim of this paper is to explore the challenges generated by HIV care and treatment and their impact on health worker motivation in Mbeya Region, Tanzania.

Methods

Thirty in-depth interviews were conducted with health workers across the range of health care professions in health facilities in two high HIV-prevalence districts of Mbeya Region, Tanzania. A qualitative framework analysis was adopted for data analysis.

Results

The negative impact of HIV-related challenges on health worker motivation was confirmed by this study. Training seminars and workshops related to HIV contributed to the shortage of health workers in the facilities. Lower status workers were frequently excluded from training and were more severely affected by the consequent increase in workload as seminars were usually attended by higher status professionals who controlled access. Constant and consistent complaints by clients have undermined health workers' expectations of trust and recognition. Health workers were forced to take responsibility for dealing with problems arising from organisational inefficiencies within the health system.

Conclusion

HIV-related challenges undermine motivation among health workers in Mbeya, Tanzania with the burden falling most heavily on lower status workers. Strained relations between health workers and the community they serve, further undermine motivation of health workers.
Residual tumor after the salvage surgery is the major risk factors for primary treatment failure in malignant ovarian germ cell tumors: A retrospective study of single institution
Authors: Lee Chung Won , Song Min Jong , Park Sung Taek , Ki Eun Young , Lee Sung Jong , Lee Keun Ho , Ryu Ki Sung , Park Jong Sup , Hur Soo Young
Published: November 2011

Background

Malignant ovarian germ cell tumors are rare, and knowledge of their prognostic factors is limited, with little available randomized data. This study was conducted to evaluate the clinicopathologic characteristics of malignant ovarian germ cell tumors and to determine the association of their prognostic factors to primary treatment failure.

Methods

The medical records of 57 patients with stages I to IV malignant ovarian germ cell tumor were retrospectively reviewed, and their clinicopathologic and treatment-related data were collected and analyzed.

Results

The median age at the diagnosis was 23.3 years (range: 8-65 years), and the median follow-up period was 108 months (range: 48-205 months). The histological types of the tumors were immature teratoma (n = 24), dysgerminoma (n = 20), endodermal sinus tumor (n = 8), mixed germ cell tumor (n = 4), and choriocarcinoma (n = 1). 66.7% of the patients had stage I disease; 5.2%, stage II; 26.3%, stage III; and 1.8%, stage IV. After the initial surgery, 49 patients (86%) received cisplatin-based chemotherapy. The five-year survival rate was 96.5%. There were six primary treatment failures, with two of the patients dying of the disease, and the median time to the recurrence was 8 months. The histological diagnosis (P < 0.0001), tumor stage (P = 0.0052), elevation of beta-hCG (P = 0.0134), operation methods (P = 0.0006), and residual tumor after the salvage surgery (P < 0.0001) were significantly associated with the risk of primary treatment failure in the univariate analysis. In the multivariate analysis, the residual tumor after the salvage surgery was the only significant variable associated with primary treatment failure (P = 0.0011, Hazard ratio = 29.046, 95% Confidence interval 3.832-220.181).

Conclusion

Most malignant ovarian germ cell tumors have excellent prognoses with primary treatment, and good reproductive outcomes can be expected. Because primary treatment failure is associated with the residual disease after the salvage surgery, knowledge of the presence or absence of this risk factor may be helpful in risk stratification and individualization of adjuvant therapy in malignant ovarian germ cell tumors. Further large-scale prospective studies to confirm these results should be performed.
Atomistic aspects of ductile responses of cubic silicon carbide during nanometric cutting
Authors: Goel Saurav , Luo Xichun , Reuben Robert L , Rashid Waleed Bin
Published: November 2011

Cubic silicon carbide (SiC) is an extremely hard and brittle material having unique blend of material properties which makes it suitable candidate for microelectromechanical systems and nanoelectromechanical systems applications. Although, SiC can be machined in ductile regime at nanoscale through single-point diamond turning process, the root cause of the ductile response of SiC has not been understood yet which impedes significant exploitation of this ceramic material. In this paper, molecular dynamics simulation has been carried out to investigate the atomistic aspects of ductile response of SiC during nanometric cutting process. Simulation results show that cubic SiC undergoes sp

3

-sp

2
order-disorder transition resulting in the formation of SiC-graphene-like substance with a growth rate dependent on the cutting conditions. The disorder transition of SiC causes the ductile response during its nanometric cutting operations. It was further found out that the continuous abrasive action between the diamond tool and SiC causes simultaneous sp

3

-sp

2
order-disorder transition of diamond tool which results in graphitization of diamond and consequent tool wear.
Differential Gene Expression to Investigate the Effects of Low-level Electrochemical Currents on Bacillus subtilis
Authors: Szkotak Robert , Niepa Tagbo H R , Jawrani Nikhil , Gilbert Jeremy L , Jones Marcus B , Ren Dacheng
Published: November 2011

With the emergence and spread of multidrug resistant bacteria, effective methods to eliminate both planktonic bacteria and those embedded in surface-attached biofilms are needed. Electric currents at μA-mA/cm2 range are known to reduce the viability of bacteria. However, the mechanism of such effects is still not well understood. In this study, Bacillus subtilis was used as the model Gram-positive species to systematically investigate the effects of electrochemical currents on bacteria including the morphology, viability, and gene expression of planktonic cells, and viability of biofilm cells. The data suggest that weak electrochemical currents can effectively eliminate B. subtilis both as planktonic cells and in biofilms. DNA microarray results indicate that the genes associated with oxidative stress response, nutrient starvation, and membrane functions were induced by electrochemical currents. These findings suggest that ions and oxidative species generated by electrochemical reactions might be important for the killing effects of these currents.
Androgen Receptor Repression of GnRH Gene Transcription
Authors: Brayman Melissa J. , Pepa Patricia A. , Berdy Sara E. , Mellon Pamela L.
Published: November 2011

Alterations in androgen levels lead to reproductive defects in both males and females, including hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, anovulation, and infertility. Androgens have been shown to down-regulate GnRH mRNA levels through an androgen receptor (AR)-dependent mechanism. Here, we investigate how androgen regulates expression from the GnRH regulatory region in the GT1-7 cell line, a model of GnRH neurons. A synthetic androgen, R1881, repressed transcription from the GnRH promoter (GnRH-P) in an AR-dependent manner, and liganded AR associated with the chromatin at the GnRH-P in live GT1-7 cells. The three known octamer-binding transcription factor-1 (Oct-1) binding sites in GnRH-P were required for AR-mediated repression, although other sequences were also involved. Although a multimer of the consensus Oct-1 binding site was not repressed, a multimer of the cluster of Oct-1, Pre-B cell leukemia transcription factor (Pbx)/Prep, and NK2 homeobox 1 (Nkx2.1) binding sites, found at −106/−91 in GnRH-P, was sufficient for repression. In fact, overexpression of any of these factors disrupted the androgen response, indicating that a balance of factors in this tripartite complex is required for AR repression. AR bound to this region in EMSA, indicating a direct interaction of AR with DNA or with other transcription factors bound to GnRH-P at this sequence. Collectively, our data demonstrate that GnRH transcription is repressed by AR via multiple sequences in GnRH-P, including three Oct-1 binding sites, and that this repression requires the complex interaction of several transcription factors.
The Causal Effect of Federal Work-Study Participation
Authors: Scott-Clayton Judith
Published: November 2011

Since 1964, the Federal Work-Study (FWS) program has provided funds to subsidize the wages of student employees, but it has never been studied directly. I use an instrumental variables difference-in-difference framework with administrative data from West Virginia to identify causal effects, comparing eligible and ineligible students across institutions with higher and lower FWS availability and using differences in FWS availability to instrument for actual FWS participation. I find no evidence that FWS participation improves academic outcomes for the full sample, but this masks significant negative effects for women and some significant positive effects for men. Although results should be interpreted cautiously given limitations of the sample, they represent the first direct, quasi-experimental evidence regarding the effect of the program.
Piezoresistive Strain Sensors Made from Carbon Nanotubes Based Polymer Nanocomposites
Authors: Alamusi  , Hu Ning , Fukunaga Hisao , Atobe Satoshi , Liu Yaolu , Li Jinhua
Published: November 2011

In recent years, nanocomposites based on various nano-scale carbon fillers, such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), are increasingly being thought of as a realistic alternative to conventional smart materials, largely due to their superior electrical properties. Great interest has been generated in building highly sensitive strain sensors with these new nanocomposites. This article reviews the recent significant developments in the field of highly sensitive strain sensors made from CNT/polymer nanocomposites. We focus on the following two topics: electrical conductivity and piezoresistivity of CNT/polymer nanocomposites, and the relationship between them by considering the internal conductive network formed by CNTs, tunneling effect, aspect ratio and piezoresistivity of CNTs themselves, etc. Many recent experimental, theoretical and numerical studies in this field are described in detail to uncover the working mechanisms of this new type of strain sensors and to demonstrate some possible key factors for improving the sensor sensitivity.
THE FABRICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF LINEARLY ORIENTED LAMELLAR-LIKE MULTIPLE-CHANNEL SILK FIBROIN NERVE CONDUITS
Authors: Rao Jianwei , Quan Daping , Peng Linmei , Xie Gaoyi , Xu Yangbin
Published: November 2011

Objective To explore how to fabricate a innovative silk fibroin nerve conduits (SF-NCs) with linearly oriented multiple-channel structure. Methods The innovative SF-NCs was fabricated by a vertical sequential cooling-thermal induced phase separation (TIPS) processing, its morphology was observed by Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), MTT assay was used to quantitatively analyzed the PC12 cells viability co-cultured with the innovative SF-NCs, SEM was used to observe the adhesion and morphology of PC12 cells seeded into the innovative SF-NCs, PC12 cells were used to assess the NGF bioactivity released from the SF-NCs. Results The SEM results showed that the new fabricated SF-NCs had linearly oriented lamellar-like multiple-channel, which distributed evenly. The spaces between parallel lamellar-like channels (ds), porosities and compressive strengths (σc, Ec) of the SF-NCs decreased with decreasing T ft . MTT assay results showed that the viability of PC12 cell was better than the control group (P < 0.05). The SEM observation indicated that PC12 cells showed good adhesion and differentiation with neuritis outgrowth during the period of co-culture with the SF-NCs. NGF release from the innovative SF-NCs was prolonged over 4 weeks, and remained bioactive. Conclusion The new fabricated SF-NCs with special topography structure, excellent mechanical properties and good biocompatibility. Importantly, the SF-NCs are also biomimicking the anatomy structure of peripheral nerve fasciculus and could be used as another alternative of artificial nerve conduits.
Assessments of maternal psychosocial adaptation for pre-labor hospitalized pregnant women in Japan
Authors: Nakamura Yasuka , Yoshizawa Toyoko , Atogami Fumi
Published: November 2011

Maternal psychosocial adaptation to pregnancy is significant task for women during pregnancy. Antepartum hospitalization is often characterized by maternal anxiety, boredom, feelings of imprisonment, and loneliness. The purpose of this study was to explore maternal psychosocial adaptation during pregnancy for hospitalized pregnant women compared with such adaptation in low-risk pregnant women from a reference population. This was a cross-sectional study with convenience samples of high-risk hospitalized and low-risk mothers. This study was carried out in five hospitals and two clinics between March and December 2009 in several areas of Japan. Subjects were 189 hospitalized women diagnosed with premature labor who had received continuous 24-h treatment with intravenous ritodrine hydrochloride for more than 1 week. The Japanese version of Prenatal Self-Evaluation Questionnaire was administered to measure maternal psychosocial adaptation during pregnancy. Women in hospitalized group had significantly lower adaptation in acceptance of pregnancy and preparation for labor (P<.05-.001) and showed significantly higher adaptation in identification of a motherhood role and relationship with her husband. Moreover, in hospitalized group, relationship with her husband showed significantly higher adaptation (P<.05) in primipara, acceptance of pregnancy and preparation for labor were significantly lower adaptation score (P<.01-.001) in multipara. Hospitalized pre-term pregnant women should be assessed maternal psychosocial adaptation especially the domains of acceptance of pregnancy, preparation for labor, relationship with her husband, and identification of a motherhood role. Health care provider should know the character and background of those women as well as the character of primipara and multipara.
Spiders (Arachnida: Araneae) of the vegetation layer of the Mkambati Nature Reserve, Eastern Cape, South Africa
Authors: Dippenaar-Schoeman Anna S. , Hamer Michelle , Haddad Charles R.
Published: November 2011

The Pondoland region of the Eastern Cape province, South Africa is very poorly studied with regard to invertebrate diversity, particularly in the case of arachnids. Accordingly, and in view of proposed infrastructural and mining developments in this ecologically sensitive area of high plant endemism, baseline data are provided on spiders (Araneae) of the vegetation layer (i.e. excluding the ground-dwelling fauna) of the Mkambati Nature Reserve (MNR). Spiders were collected at 26 sites (six forest and 20 grassland sites) in the MNR over an eight-day period, using sweep sampling and active searching of flowers in grassland and tree beating in forests, as part of a broader biodiversity survey. Additional specimens were collected with Malaise and pan traps. A total of 1275 specimens were sampled, representing 132 species (6.6% of the total number recorded in South Africa) in 103 genera and 29 families. Theridiidae and Araneidae were the most diverse spider families in the reserve, represented by 22 species each (16.7% of the total), followed by Thomisidae with 19 species (14.4%) and Salticidae with 18 species (13.6%). Grassland and forest had distinct spider faunas, with only 24.2% of species being recorded from both biomes. The average number of species sampled per site in grassland and forest was 26 species for both habitats, although values for the two biomes are not directly comparable because different sampling methods were used. All 132 species are new records for the reserve, of which 20 were new records for the Eastern Cape and at least eight spider species may be new to science. The spider diversity captured despite temporal and methodological limits indicates that many additional species are likely to occur in the reserve. Conservation implications: If the MNR is not adequately conserved at least five new species, which may be confined to the area, would be at high risk of extinction and 15 other species endemic to the Pondoland and KwaZulu-Natal region would have their risk of extinction increased.
The Impact of Medication Use in a Multicomponent Intervention: Results from the WISEWOMAN Program
Authors: Khavjou Olga A. , Finkelstein Eric A. , Will Julie C.
Published: November 2011

Purpose.

To assess the impact of medication use on improvements in coronary heart disease (CHD) risk among WISEWOMAN participants.

Design.

Pre-post analysis.

Setting.

WISEWOMAN projects operating at the local level in 8 states.

Subjects.

WISEWOMAN participants with baseline and one-year follow-up data with at least one abnormal risk factor at baseline (N = 2385; 24% of women with baseline visits).

Intervention.

WISEWOMAN provides low-income uninsured women with CHD risk factor screenings, lifestyle interventions, access to medications, and referral services.

Measures.

One-year changes in blood pressure, cholesterol, and 10-year CHD risk by medication status.

Analysis.

Regression analysis was used to estimate risk factor changes by medication status (newly medicated women, women medicated at baseline, or not medicated women) and quantify the percentage of improvements in risk factors attributed to medication use.

Results.

Participants experienced statistically significant improvements in systolic (12.6 mm Hg) and diastolic (9.7 mm Hg) blood pressure, total (25.7 mg/dl) and HDL (4.9 mg/dl) cholesterol, and 10-year CHD risk (11.6%). Medication use was responsible for 4% to 5% of the reduction in blood pressure, 32% of the reduction in total cholesterol, 3% of the increase in HDL cholesterol, and 31% of the reduction in 10-year CHD risk.

Conclusions.

Some of the improvements in CHD risk factors can be attributed to medication use; however, the majority of improvements are likely driven by a combination of other factors, including screenings, risk factor counseling, and lifestyle interventions.
Association of Neighborhood Design and Recreation Environment Variables with Physical Activity and Body Mass Index in Adolescents
Authors: Kligerman Morton , Sallis James F. , Ryan Sherry , Frank Lawrence D. , Nader Philip R.
Published: November 2011

Purpose.

To examine associations of neighborhood walkability and recreation environment variables with physical activity in adolescents.

Methods.

The cross-sectional study was conducted with 98 white or Mexican-American adolescents (mean age = 16.2 years). Physical activity was measured with 7 days of accelerometer monitoring. Height and weight were measured to compute body mass index (BMI). Environmental measures were created using geographic information systems. A neighborhood walkability index was based on land use mix, retail density, street connectivity, and residential density. Proximity to public and private recreation facilities was assessed.

Results.

In a linear regression, the walkability index within 0.5 mile of homes was related to minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity, explaining approximately 4% of variance. Recreation variables were not related to physical activity, and BMI was not explained by environmental variables.

Conclusion.

Neighborhood walkability was related to adolescents' physical activity, similar to findings for adults.
Urban Form Relationships with Walk Trip Frequency and Distance among Youth
Authors: Frank Lawrence , Kerr Jacqueline , Chapman Jim , Sallis James
Published: November 2011

Purpose.

To assess the relationship among objectively measured urban form variables, age, and walking in youth.

Design.

Cross-sectional analyses of travel diary data mapped against urban form characteristics within a 1-km buffer of participant's place of residence.

Setting.

Youth in the Atlanta, Georgia region with selection stratified by income, household size, and residential density.

Subjects.

A total of 3161 5- to 20-year-olds who completed 2-day travel diaries. Diaries of those under 15 years were completed by a parent or legal guardian.

Measures.

Walking distances were calculated from a 2-day travel diary. Residential density, intersection density, land use mix, and commercial and recreation space were assessed within a 1-km network distance around residences.

Analysis.

Logistic regression analyses were performed for each urban form variable by age groups controlling for the demographic variables. All variables were then entered simultaneously into an analysis of the whole sample.

Results.

All five urban form variables tested were related to walking. Recreation space was the only variables associated with walking across the four different age groups. All the urban form variables were related to walking in the 12 to 15 years age cohort. For this group, the odds of walking were 3.7 times greater for those in highest- versus lowest-density tertile and 2.6 times greater for those with at least one commercial and 2.5 times greater for those with at least one recreational destination within 1 km from home. In the analysis of the full sample, number of cars, recreation space, and residential density were most strongly related to walking.

Conclusions.

Access to recreation or open space was the most important urban form variable related to walking for all age groups. Children aged 12 to 15 years old may be particularly influenced by urban form.
The Brewer-Dobson circulation and total ozone from seasonal to decadal time scales
Authors: Weber M. , Dikty S. , Burrows J. P. , Garny H. , Dameris M. , Kubin A. , Abalichin J. , Langematz U.
Published: November 2011

Abstract. The effect of the winter Brewer-Dobson circulation (BDC) on the seasonal and decadal evolution of total ozone in both hemispheres is investigated using satellite total ozone data from the merged GOME/SCIAMACHY/GOME-2 (GSG) data set (1995–2010) and outputs from two chemistry-climate models (CCM), the FUB-EMAC and DLR-E39C-A models. Combining data from both hemispheres a linear relationship between the winter average extratropical 100 hPa eddy heat flux and the ozone ratio with respect to fall ozone levels exists and is statistically significant for tropical as well as polar ozone. The high correlation at high latitudes persists well into the summer months until the onset of the next winter season. The anti-correlation of the cumulative eddy heat flux with tropical ozone ratios, however, breaks down in spring as the polar vortex erodes and changes to a weak positive correlation similar to that observed at high latitudes. The inter-annual variability and decadal evolution of ozone in each hemisphere in winter, spring, and summer are therefore driven by the cumulative effect of the previous winter's meridional circulation. This compact linear relationship is also found in both CCMs used in this study indicating that current models realistically describe the variability in stratospheric circulation and its effect on total ozone. Both models show a positive trend in the winter mean eddy heat flux (and winter BDC strength) in both hemispheres until year 2050, however the inter-annual variability (peak-to-peak) is two to three times larger than the mean change between 1960 and 2050. It is, nevertheless, possible to detect a shift in this compact linear relationship related to past and future changes in the stratospheric halogen load. Using the SBUV/TOMS/OMI (MOD V8) merged data set (1980–2010), it can be shown that from the decade 1990–1999 to 2000–2010 this linear relationship remained unchanged (before and after the turnaround in the stratospheric halogen load), while a shift is evident between 1980–1989 (upward trend in stratospheric halogen) and the 1990s, which is a clear sign that an onset of recovery is detectable despite the large variability in polar ozone. Because of the large variability from year to year in the BDC circulation substantial polar ozone depletion may still occur in coming decades in selected winters with weak BDC and very low polar stratospheric temperatures.
Biomass burning contribution to black carbon in the Western United States Mountain Ranges
Authors: Mao Y. H. , Li Q. B. , Zhang L. , Chen Y. , Randerson J. T. , Chen D. , Liou K. N.
Published: November 2011

Abstract. Forest fires are an important source to carbonaceous aerosols in the Western United States (WUS). We quantify the relative contribution of biomass burning to black carbon (BC) in the WUS mountain ranges by analyzing surface BC observations for 2006 from the Interagency Monitoring of PROtected Visual Environment (IMPROVE) network using the GEOS-Chem global chemical transport model. Observed surface BC concentrations show broad maxima during late June to early November. Enhanced potassium concentrations and potassium/sulfur ratios observed during the high-BC events indicate a dominant biomass burning influence during the peak fire season. Model surface BC reproduces the observed day-to day and synoptic variabilities in regions downwind of but near urban centers. Major discrepancies are found at elevated mountainous sites during the July-October fire season when simulated BC concentrations are biased low by a factor of two. We attribute these low biases largely to the underestimated (by more than a factor of two) and temporally misplaced biomass burning emissions of BC in the model. Additionally, we find that the biomass burning contribution to surface BC concentrations in the USA likely was underestimated in a previous study using GEOS-Chem (Park et al., 2003), because of the unusually low planetary boundary layer (PBL) heights in the GEOS-3 meteorological reanalysis data used to drive the model. PBL heights from GEOS-4 and GEOS-5 reanalysis data are comparable to those from the North American Regional Reanalysis (NARR). Model simulations show slightly improved agreements with the observations when driven by GEOS-5 reanalysis data, but model results are still biased low. The use of biomass burning emissions with diurnal cycle, synoptic variability, and plume injection has relatively small impact on the simulated surface BC concentrations in the WUS.
Atmospheric ice nucleators active ≥−12°C may be quantified on PM10 filters
Authors: Conen F. , Henne S. , Morris C. E. , Alewell C.
Published: November 2011

Abstract. Small number concentrations render it difficult to quantify ice nucleators (IN) active at warm temperatures. An improved filter method is proposed. It makes use of quartz filters which had been used in 24 h PM10 monitoring (720 m3 air sample). Small subsamples (1.8 mm diameter) from the effective filter area and from the clean fringe (blank) are subjected to immersion freezing tests. We applied the method to eight filters from the High Alpine Research Station Jungfraujoch (3580 m a.s.l.) in the Swiss Alps. All filters carried IN active at −7 °C and below. Number concentrations of IN active at −8, −10, and −12 °C were on average 3.3, 10.7, and 17.2 m−3, respectively. Severalfold larger numbers of IN active at ≥−12 °C per unit mass of PM10 were found in air masses influenced by Swiss and Southern German atmospheric boundary layer air, compared to a Saharan dust event. In combination with data on PM10 mass and atmospheric transport simulations, the method may be used to re-construct time series of IN number concentrations.
Functioning of the planktonic ecosystem on the Gulf of Lions shelf (NW Mediterranean) during spring and its impact on the carbon deposition: a field data and 3-D modelling combined approach
Authors: Auger P. A. , Diaz F. , Ulses C. , Estournel C. , Neveux J. , Joux F. , Pujo-Pay M. , Naudin J. J.
Published: November 2011

Abstract. A coupled hydrodynamic-biogeochemical modelling is developed to address main mechanisms that drive the particulate organic carbon (POC) deposition in the Gulf of Lions (NW-Mediterranean). Low-salinity water (LSW, salinity <37.5) lenses detached from the Rhone River plume under specific wind conditions tend to favour the biological productivity and provide a good opportunity for validating a planktonic ecosystem modelling. A specific calibration dedicated to river plume ecosystems is then proposed and validated using in situ measurements within such LSW lens (BIOPRHOFI cruise – May 2006) and on the Gulf of Lions. During spring 2006, the POC deposition is maximal on the prodelta area and within the coastal area in the Gulf of Lions. Organic detritus mostly contribute to the total POC deposition (82–92%) whereas the contribution of living organisms (microphytoplankton) appears lower than 17%. Exploring both influences of terrestrial inputs from the Rhone River and planktonic ecosystems on the POC deposition on the shelf, we estimated that the contribution of terrestrial POM inputs to the total POC deposition is lower than 17% at the shelf scale during the study period, with maxima during peak discharges of the Rhone River. The main deposition area of terrestrial POC is found in the vicinity of the river mouth in agreement with sediment data. On the other hand, a remarkable influence of marine biological processes on the POC deposition is highlighted further on the shelf (from 60 to 80 m depth). A tight feedback between zooplankton and POM contents in the water column is proposed to explain the control of POC deposition by zooplankton: terrestrial POM inputs would favour the development of living organisms through photosynthesis and grazing processes increasing the retention of organic matter within the food web. By favouring the development of large-sized zooplankton, LSW lenses may have paradoxically a negative impact on the carbon deposition on the shelf. In the same way, peak discharges of the Rhone River finally increase the gradient of POC deposition between the prodelta and the offshore area in the Gulf of Lions. The biogenic elements from the Rhone River are then exported further offshore through advection of zooplankton communities on the Gulf of Lions shelf.
Microbial food web dynamics along a soil chronosequence of a glacier forefield
Authors: Esperschütz J. , Pérez-de-Mora A. , Schreiner K. , Welzl G. , Buegger F. , Zeyer J. , Hagedorn F. , Munch J. C. , Schloter M.
Published: November 2011

Abstract. Microbial food webs are critical for efficient nutrient turnover providing the basis for functional and stable ecosystems. However, the successional development of such microbial food webs and their role in "young" ecosystems is unclear. Due to a continuous glacier retreat since the middle of the 19th century, glacier forefields have expanded offering an excellent opportunity to study food web dynamics in soils at different developmental stages. In the present study, litter degradation and the corresponding C fluxes into microbial communities were investigated along the forefield of the Damma glacier (Switzerland). 13C-enriched litter of the pioneering plant Leucanthemopsis alpina (L.) Heywood was incorporated into the soil at sites that have been free from ice for approximately 10, 60, 100 and more than 700 years. The structure and function of microbial communities were identified by 13C analysis of phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) and phospholipid ether lipids (PLEL). Results showed increasing microbial diversity and biomass, and enhanced proliferation of bacterial groups as ecosystem development progressed. Initially, litter decomposition proceeded faster at the more developed sites, but at the end of the experiment loss of litter mass was similar at all sites, once the more easily-degradable litter fraction was processed. As a result incorporation of 13C into microbial biomass was more evident during the first weeks of litter decomposition. 13C enrichments of both PLEL and PLFA biomarkers following litter incorporation were observed at all sites, suggesting similar microbial foodwebs at all stages of soil development. Nonetheless, the contribution of bacteria, especially actinomycetes to litter turnover became more pronounced as soil age increased in detriment of archaea, fungi and protozoa, more prominent in recently deglaciated terrain.
Metamorphic history and geodynamic significance of the Early Cretaceous Sabzevar granulites (Sabzevar structural zone, NE Iran)
Authors: Nasrabady M. , Rossetti F. , Theye T. , Vignaroli G.
Published: November 2011

Abstract. The Iranian ophiolites are part of the vast orogenic suture zones that mark the Alpine-Himalayan convergence zone. Few petrological and geochronological data are available from these ophiolitic domains, hampering a full assessment of the timing and regimes of subduction zone metamorphism and orogenic construction in the region. This paper describes texture, geochemistry, and the pressure-temperature path of the Early Cretaceous mafic granulites that occur within the Tertiary Sabzevar ophiolitic suture zone of NE Iran. Whole rock geochemistry indicates that the Sabzevar granulites are likely derived from a MORB-type precursor. They are thus considered as remnants of a dismembered dynamo-thermal sole formed during subduction of a back-arc basin (proto-Sabzevar Ocean) formed in the upper-plate of the Neotethyan slab. The metamorphic history of the granulites suggests an anticlockwise pressure-temperature loop compatible with burial in a hot subduction zone, followed by cooling during exhumation. Transition from a nascent to a mature stage of oceanic subduction is the geodynamic scenario proposed to accomplish for the reconstructed thermobaric evolution. When framed with the regional scenario, results of this study point to diachronous and independent tectonic evolutions of the different ophiolitic domains of central Iran, for which a growing disparity in the timing of metamorphic equilibration and of pressure-temperature paths can be expected to emerge with further investigations.
Albigensian Crusades (1209–1226)
Authors: Marvin Laurence W.
Published: November 2011

The Albigensian Crusade, one of the most notorious yet little‐understood military events of the Middle Ages, began for religious reasons but eventually changed the political map of western Europe. The pope called for a Crusade after a papal representative, Peter of Castelnau, was assassinated in late 1208. The Albigensian Crusade was the first Crusade preached against an ostensibly Christian land in the Middle Ages. The area it was preached against, modern‐day Languedoc‐Rouissillon, was only loosely part of the French crown. The region had long tolerated a dualist heresy (called Catharism or Albigensianism) that attracted many adherents and noble protectors, but the church had tried to suppress it in a variety of ways. Popes and prelates had long considered a military solution, but until the assassination there was little enthusiasm for it. Contrary to modern popular belief, the pope preached not against the heretics but against the noble primarily identified as protecting them: Count Raymond VI of Toulouse. Count Raymond quickly reconciled himself back into the good graces of the church by promising to punish heresy, but by then perhaps as many as twenty thousand men had already taken the cross to campaign. Someone, perhaps Raymond himself, convinced the leaders of the Crusade to spare his lands by moving against another noble in the region suspected of harboring heretics, Raymond‐Roger Trencavel, Raymond of Toulouse's nephew.
Anglo‐Asante Wars (1823–1831, 1863–1864, 1873–1874, 1896, 1900)
Authors: Vandervort Bruce
Published: November 2011

The Kingdom of Asante, whose empire stretched from the rainforests in the heart of what is today the nation of Ghana in West Africa into the savannah far to the north, resisted European encroachment throughout most of the nineteenth century. With a territory of some 140,000 sq miles, Asante, with its capital at Kumasi, had long been a regional power. The state had been founded as a confederacy of vassal kingdoms in 1701 under the rule of King Osei Tutu I. The symbol of royal sovereignty was the Golden Stool, which was believed to hold the soul of the Asante people and over which all kings were lowered and raised three times without touching it upon their accession to the throne. The mistaken British belief that the Golden Stool was an actual throne and that, once their armies had seized control over Asante, it should be surrendered so that their royal governors could sit upon it, would lead to conflict with the Asante in 1900.
Anglo‐Norman invasion of Ireland (1169–1171)
Authors: Duffy Seán
Published: November 2011

The Anglo‐Norman invasion of Ireland that culminated in Ireland's subjection to English rule, and which has dominated relations between both countries ever since, began in the late 1160s, although connections were of long standing and England's kings since the Norman Conquest in particular had expressed an interest in the country. One of Henry II's first councils, held at Winchester in September 1155, was called for the specific purpose of organizing a conquest of Ireland for his brother William, although their mother apparently vetoed the proposal.
Angolan Civil Wars (1975–2002)
Authors: van der Waag Ian
Published: November 2011

The Angolan conflict is in many ways the foremost African insurgency case study. Not only did this conflict follow a national liberation war, but it was also cast against the backdrop of the Cold War. Moreover, it covers the full range of combat, from low‐intensity, insurgent conflict through to conventional warfare. The insurgency was fought throughout most of southern, central, and northern Angola, while the larger, semi‐conventional war, conducted in southern Angola, involved until 1989 South African and Soviet‐bloc forces (Turner 1998). The first civil war, ended by a fragile ceasefire, was followed in 1992 by renewed conflict, without the foreign forces, that continued, despite ongoing negotiations, through to the assassination of Jonas Savimbi in 2002. It had additionally become a personal war; UNITA finally became indistinguishable from Savimbi, whose termination had become the only precondition for the end of the war.
Armor, development of
Authors: Coulston J. C. N.
Published: November 2011

The design, development, and provision of protective equipment for warriors and soldiers in the ancient world depended upon a series of predictable factors. There was always a balance to be struck between the weight, heat retention, and restrictive structure of armor, which limited the wearer's actions and endurance, and the requirements of mobility and defense, particularly in missile‐rich tactical environments. Lighter or heavier construction materials, with more or less physical flexibility and efficient protective properties, were partly dictated by the technological capabilities of a particular culture, but also by socioeconomic factors. Metallic armor was especially costly in societies that were socially mobilized for war and in which the polity did not supply all the equipment for its forces. Even if the latter was the case, as, for example, in the late Roman Republic, higher‐status citizens might still have greater armor protection. Some Eurasian steppe nomad peoples were not rich in metallic resources and only a small elite might employ armor acquired from the craftsmen of sedentary neighbors, as was the case with the numerous copper‐alloy helmets of Classical Greek manufacture found in Scythian funerary contexts. Inherited traditions might dictate modes of warfare for which armor was inappropriate, as with the Numidian or Moorish light horse of North Africa. In other societies a socioeconomic elite engaged as foot warriors and drawn up in close formation might tend toward widespread and highly protective armor provision, as with the hoplite phalanxes of Archaic and Classical Greek city‐states. Indeed, the armored infantry line became the dominant Mediterranean mode of warfare for Greek, Carthaginian, and Roman armies, in contrast with the less organized and less well equipped forces of Iron Age Europe, the horse archer groups of the Eurasian steppe, and the more heavily armored cavalry armies developed in the Levant from the fourth to the first centuriesBCEonwards.
Arthashastra
Authors: Barua Pradeep P.
Published: November 2011

TheArthashastrais an ancient Indian text that serves as a practical guide to autocratic rule. It provides advice on how to secure the most effective political, economic, and military strategies for a state's survival. It is credited to have been written by Kautilya (also known as Chanakya), the close advisor and minister to the Mauryan king Chandgrapupta Maurya (fourth century bce). However, there has been considerable scholarly debate about the text since the palm‐leaf parchment documents were discovered in 1904 by Dr. Shamasastry, the government of Mysore's chief librarian. Some scholars argue that the work dates to the second century CE at the earliest. Others have argued that there is no single author, but multiple authors of the text.
Aughrim, Battle of (1691)
Authors: Lenihan Pádraig
Published: November 2011

William III's armies defeated the Irish supporters of his deposed father‐in‐law James II at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. This did not, however, destroy the Jacobite army and let William secure the resources of the three Stuart kingdoms for the “Grand Alliance” against Louis XIV.
Balkan Wars (1912–1913)
Authors: Hall Richard C.
Published: November 2011

In the second half of the nineteenth century, the Balkan Peninsula increasingly became an area of nationalist restiveness, directed mainly against the waning power of the Ottoman Empire. During the mid‐1870s, revolts erupted in Bosnia and Bulgaria to challenge Ottoman authority, and in 1876 war broke out between Serbia and the Ottomans. In an effort to maintain stability and to safeguard their interests, the Great Powers of Europe at the Congress of Berlin in 1878 intervened to impose an overall settlement on the region. This settlement failed to meet the national aspirations of the peoples living there. The Bulgarians, Greeks, Montenegrins, and Serbs all sought additional territories from the Ottoman Empire to realize their national unity. Until the early twentieth century, however, their mutual rivalries for Ottoman territories precluded the development of any Balkan alliance directed against the Ottoman Empire. For the Bulgarians, Greeks and Serbs, these rivalries all overlapped in Macedonia. There, rival Bulgarian, Greek, and Serbian irregulars fought against the Ottoman authorities as well as against each other.
Barbarian invasions of Europe (fifth century)
Authors: Wood Ian
Published: November 2011

For much of its history the Roman Empire was troubled by the so‐called barbarian peoples who lived to the north of the Danube River and east of the Rhine River. During some periods of the second and third centuries the threats had been considerable, but they had ultimately been checked. In the course of the fourth and fifth centuries, however, the problems posed by the barbarians proved insoluble.
Blockades
Authors: Jones Heather
Published: November 2011

A blockade is usually defined as a form of economic warfare whereby the enemy's supplies, and in particular their trading routes, are targeted in order to bring about capitulation. The use of the economic blockade in war is a modern variation of the older practice of the siege, whereby ancient, medieval, and early modern cities, fortresses, or similar strongholds were forced into surrender by an opposing force which surrounded them with the purpose of cutting off their access to supplies. While sieges were relatively small‐scale operations, however, usuallylimited to one geographical site, the modern economic blockade marked an escalation of the practice of targeting supply routes to the state or national level. Although blockades historically have been carried out on both land and sea, maritime blockade has been the more prevalent phenomenon of the two and is thus the main focus here. The modern maritime economic blockade is defined by one recent commentator as “essentially a method of naval economic interdiction; its purpose is to prevent the ingress and egress of state vessels moving to and from the coastal areas of the enemy, resulting in the economic and operational strangulation of the enemy's war effort” (Jones 1983: 762).
Bullard, Eugene “Jacques” (1894–1961)
Authors: Cockfield Jamie H.
Published: November 2011

America's first black military aviator. Born in Columbus, Georgia, on October 9, 1894, he early encountered violent racism, and as a young teenager he struck out for France, where he had heard blacks were treated better than in America. Discovered as a stowaway on a German freighter several days out of Norfolk, Virginia, he was put ashore in Scotland, finally settling in Liverpool, where he learned to box. Late in 1913 a match in Paris finally brought him to France, where he first encountered a semblance of racial equality. The early months of World War I brought the death of so many of his friends that he enlisted in the French Foreign Legion in October 1914, and he fought with distinction in the 170th Infantry unit until he was seriously wounded at Verdun. He was then invalided out of the French army.
Chindits
Authors: Farrell Brian P.
Published: November 2011

The Chindits were a British and Indian army formation raised in India in 1942, disbanded in 1945, trained, equipped, and deployed for special operations in the Burma campaign in World War II. The name came from mispronouncing the Burmese word chinthe, a mythical half‐dragon/half‐lion stone figure commonly used to guard temples and monasteries in Burma. The Chindits were also designated Special Force, or the 3rd (Indian) Division as a security cover. During two lengthy incursions in force behind Japanese lines in Burma in 1943 and 1944, the Chindits restored Allied morale in the region, disrupted Japanese operations, and gained lasting renown—but learned hard lessons about the difficulties of jungle warfare and combined arms operations. Their role in the Allied campaign to evict the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) from Burma remains controversial, for many reasons. Foremost among them was the British officer who founded and led the force, Orde Wingate.
Chinese Warfare: Han and the Three Kingdoms (third centuryBCEto third centuryCE)
Authors: Crespigny Rafe De
Published: November 2011

The Han Dynasty of the Liu family ruled China for four hundred years from the beginning of the second century BCE. Contemporary with the late republic and early empire of Rome, it controlled a comparable area at the opposite end of the Eurasian landmass, but its nature, its enemies, and its methods of warfare were different. Most notably, whereas the Romans conquered and then controlled people as varied as the Egyptians and the Gauls, China was a unified culture, with common language and customs, based upon settled peasant agriculture. To the south there was steady colonization, reaching as far as Vietnam; but in the north the Chinese faced nomad peoples with differing levels of political organization in territory which could be neither settled nor directly controlled. The Great Wall was a symbol of this division, and the problem was central to Han military concern.
Chivalry
Authors: JONES ROBERT
Published: November 2011

Chivalry is that which pertains to the
chevalier
or knight, the mounted martial and social elite of medieval western and central Europe. It can be used as a collective noun encompassing the entire caste, but is more normally applied to the Christian warrior ethos to which it subscribed. Although principally militaristic, chivalry presented ideals of behavior and conduct both on and off the battlefield, and was an ideology that encompassed all aspects of its adherents' lives.