bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effect of Tacrine‐3‐caffeic Acid, A Novel Multifunctional Anti‐Alzheimer's Dimer, Against Oxidative‐Stress‐Induced Cell Death in HT22 Hippocampal Neurons: Involvement of Nrf2/HO‐1 Pathway
Authors: Chao Xiao‐Juan , Chen Zi‐Wei , Liu An‐Min , He Xi‐Xin , Wang Shao‐Gui , Wang Yu‐Ting , Liu Pei‐Qing , Ramassamy Charles , Mak Shing‐Hung , Cui Wei , Kong Ah‐Ng , Yu Zhi‐Ling , Han Yi‐Fan , Pi Rong‐Biao
Published: June 2014

Aims

Oxidative stress (OS) plays an important role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). This study was designed to uncover the cellular and biochemical mechanisms underlying the neuroprotective effects of tacrine‐3‐caffeic acid (T3CA), a novel promising multifunctional anti‐Alzheimer's dimer, against OS‐induced neuronal death.

Methods and Results

T3CA protected HT22 cells against high‐concentration‐glutamate‐induced cell death in time‐ and concentration‐dependent manners and potently attenuated glutamate‐induced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production as well as mitochondrial membrane‐potential (ΔΨ) disruption. Besides, T3CA significantly induced nuclear factor erythroid 2‐related factor 2 (Nrf2) nuclear translocation and increased its transcriptional activity, which were demonstrated by Western blotting, immunofluorescence, and antioxidant response element (ARE)‐luciferase reporter gene assay. Further studies showed that T3CA potently up‐regulated heme oxygenase‐1 (HO‐1), an endogenous antioxidative enzyme and a downstream effector of Nrf2, at both mRNA and protein levels. The neuroprotective effects of T3CA were partially reversed by brusatol, which reduced protein level of Nrf2, or by inhibiting HO‐1 with siRNA or ZnPP‐IX, a specific inhibitor of HO‐1.

Conclusions

Taken together, these results clearly demonstrate that T3CA protects neurons against OS‐induced cell death partially through Nrf2/ARE/HO‐1 signaling pathway, which further supports that T3CA might be a promising novel therapeutic agent for OS‐associated diseases.
Identification of cardiac repercussions after intense and prolonged concentric isokinetic exercise in young sedentary people
Authors: Le Goff Caroline , Kaux Jean‐François , Couffignal Vincent , Coubard Romain , Mélon Pierre , Cavalier Etienne , Croisier Jean‐Louis
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Cardiopathies are the world's leading cause of mortality and morbidity. Although rare, cardiovascular accidents can occur during intense and infrequent sporting activity, particularly among those who are unaware of their heart condition. The development of cardiospecific biochemical markers has led to a reconsideration of the role of biology in the diagnosis of cardiovascular illnesses. The aim of this study therefore was, through the use of cardiac biomarker assays, to highlight the impact of sustained physical effort in the form of intense and prolonged concentric isokinetic exercise and to research potential cardiovascular risks.

Materials and methods

Eighteen subjects participated in a maximal concentric isokinetic exercise involving 30 knee flexion–extensions for each leg. Five blood tests were taken to study the kinetics of the cardiac biomarkers. Haemodynamic parameters were measured continuously using a Portapres, and respiratory parameters were measured using a Sensormedics Vmax 29C.

Results

The results showed significant increases in the creatine kinase, myoglobin, homocysteine and haemoglobin cardiac markers. Evolutionary trends were also observed for the following biomarkers:NT‐proBNP, myeloperoxydase and C‐reactive protein. All the physiological parameters measured presented statistically significant changes.

Conclusion

Isokinetic effort leads to the release of cardiac markers in the blood, but these do not exceed the reference values in healthy subjects. Maximal concentric isokinetic exercise does not, therefore, lead to an increased risk of cardiovascular pathologies.
Determining the origin of invasions and demonstrating a lack of enemy release from microsporidian pathogens in common wasps (Vespula vulgaris)
Authors: Lester P. J. , Gruber M. A. M. , Brenton‐Rule E. C. , Archer M. , Corley J. C. , Dvořák L. , Masciocchi M. , Van Oystaeyen A.
Published: June 2014

Aim

Understanding the role of enemy release in biological invasions requires an assessment of the invader's home range, the number of invasion events and enemy prevalence. The common wasp (Vespula vulgaris) is a widespread invader. We sought to determine the Eurasian origin of this wasp and examined world‐wide populations for microsporidian pathogen infections to investigate enemy release.

Location

Argentina, Eurasia, New Zealand.

Methods

A haplotype network and phylogenetic tree were constructed from combined wasp COI and cytb mitochondrial markers. A morphometric study using canonical discriminant analysis was conducted on wing venation patterns. Microsporidian pathogens prevalence was also examined using small subunit rRNA microsporidia‐specific primers.

Results

Our spatially structured haplotype network from the native range suggested a longitudinal cline of wasp haplotypes along an east to west gradient. Six haplotypes were detected from New Zealand, and two from Argentina. The populations from the introduced range were genetically similar to the western European, United Kingdom and Ireland. The morphometric analysis showed significant morphological variation between countries and supported the Western European origin for New Zealand populations, although not for Argentine samples. Microsporidian infection rates were highest in New Zealand samples (54%), but no significant differences in infection rates were observed between the invaded and native range. Nosema species included matches to N. apis (a pathogen from honey bees) and N. bombi (from bumble bees).

Main conclusions

Multiple introductions of the common wasp have occurred in the invaded range. A high microsporidian infection rate within the native range, combined with multiple introductions and a reservoir of pathogens in other social insects such as bees, likely contributes to the high microsporidian infection rates in the invaded range. Enemy release is likely to be more frequent when pathogens are rare in the home range, or are host specific and rare in reservoir populations of the introduced range.
Habitat fragmentation and the species–area relationship: a focus on total species richness obscures the impact of habitat loss on habitat specialists
Authors: Matthews Thomas J. , Cottee‐Jones H. Eden , Whittaker Robert J.
Published: June 2014

Aim

The species–area relationship (SAR) is widely used in conservation science to predict the number of species likely to go extinct as a result of habitat loss. Often, studies employing theSARuse total species richness as the dependent variable. However, this overlooks the fact that habitat specialists and generalists differ in their susceptibility to habitat loss. We undertook a synthetic review of 23 habitat island datasets for birds to determine the impact of habitat generalists on theSAR.

Location

Global.

Methods

We sourced 19 habitat island datasets from the literature and combined these data with four of our own empirically gathered datasets. For each dataset, we classified all bird species as either forest habitat specialists or generalists. We then fitted the powerSARmodel (log–log and nonlinear forms) to the specialists, generalists and all species for each dataset and compared the resulting model parameters. We compared differences in the rate of change in richness with area between specialists and generalists using the first derivative of a multimodelSAR.

Results

We found that the slope of the power model was steeper for habitat specialists in the majority of datasets, and this difference was significant in 15 and 16 of the 23 datasets, for the nonlinear and log–log forms of the power model, respectively. Comparison of the multimodelSARcurve derivatives revealed further differences in the rate of change in species richness with area between subsets.

Main conclusions

Thezvalues of both forms of the power model of the specialists'SARs were generally larger, often considerably so, than the values used in mostSARstudies predicting extinctions from habitat loss. Thus, studies that have usedzvalues derived fromSARstudies using total richness may be underestimating the impact of habitat loss on specialist species, which are likely to be those of greatest conservation concern.
Do children with primary complex motor stereotypies only have movement problems?
Authors: Lemiere Jurgen
Published: June 2014

This commentary is on the original article by Mahone et al. on pages 1001–1008 of this issue.
Head titubation: an unrecognized manifestation of Joubert syndrome and other (midline) cerebellar disorders?
Authors: Zanni Ginevra
Published: June 2014

This commentary is on the original article by Poretti et al. on pages 1016–1020 of this issue.
Clinical and demographic risk factors associated with mortality during early adulthood in a population‐based cohort of childhood‐onset Type 1 diabetes
Authors: Cooper M. N. , de Klerk N. H. , Jones T. W. , Davis E. A.
Published: June 2014

Aims

To calculate standardized mortality ratios and to assess the association between paediatric clinical factors and higher risk of mortality during early adulthood in a population‐based cohort of subjects with Type 1 diabetes.

Methods

Subjects with Type 1 diabetes were identified through the Western Australian Children's Diabetes Database and clinical data for those who reached 18 years of age (n = 1309) were extracted. An age‐ and sex‐matched (without diabetes) comparison cohort (n = 6451) was obtained from the birth registry. Mortality records were obtained from the death registry. Participants were followed up until 31 January 2012. Associations of clinical factors (from clinic visits before 18 years of age) with mortality were assessed using Cox proportional hazard models.

Results

The standardized mortality ratio for all‐cause mortality was 1.7 (95% CI 0.7–3.3) for male and 10.1 (95% CI 5.2–17.7) for female subjects with Type 1 diabetes (median age at end of study 25.6 years). The adjusted hazard ratio was 1.5 (95% CI 1.1–2.1) for a 1% increase in mean paediatric HbA1c level, 3.8 (95% CI 0.9–15.3) for four episodes of severe hypoglycaemia relative to zero episodes, and 6.21 (95% CI 1.4–28.4) for a low‐level socio‐economic background relative to a high‐level background.

Conclusions

People with childhood‐onset Type 1 diabetes have higher mortality rates in early adulthood. At particularly high risk are women, those with a history of poor HbA1c levels, those with recurrent severe hypoglycaemia during paediatric management, and those from a low socio‐economic background. These groups may benefit from intensified management during transition from paediatric to adult care facilities.
Durability of glycaemic efficacy over 2 years with dapagliflozin versus glipizide as add‐on therapies in patients whose type 2 diabetes mellitus is inadequately controlled with metformin
Authors: Nauck M. A. , Del Prato S. , Durán‐García S. , Rohwedder K. , Langkilde A. M. , Sugg J. , Parikh S. J.
Published: June 2014

Aims

To assess the long‐term glycaemic durability, safety and tolerability of dapagliflozin versus glipizide as add‐on therapies in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled by metformin alone.

Methods

This was a 52‐week, randomised, double‐blind study of dapagliflozin (n = 406) versus glipizide (n = 408), uptitrated over 18 weeks according to tolerability and glycaemic response to a maximum of 10 and 20 mg/day, respectively, as add‐on therapies to metformin (≥1500 mg/day) with a 156‐week double‐blind extension period. Data over 104 weeks are reported here.

Results

In total, 53.1% of patients completed 104 weeks of treatment. After the greater initial decrease (0–18 weeks) in glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) with glipizide, the 18–104‐week HbA1c coefficient of failure (CoF) was lower with dapagliflozin (0.13%/year) than with glipizide (0.59%/year), resulting in significant dapagliflozin versus glipizide differences of −0.46%/year (95% CI −0.60,−0.33; p = 0.0001) for CoF and −0.18%(−2.0 mmol/mol) [95% CI −0.33(−3.6),−0.03(−0.3); p = 0.021] for 104‐week HbA1c. Dapagliflozin produced sustained reductions in weight and systolic blood pressure, whereas glipizide increased weight and systolic blood pressure, giving 104‐week dapagliflozin versus glipizide differences of −5.1 kg (95% CI: −5.7,−4.4) and −3.9 mmHg (95% CI: −6.1,−1.7), respectively. Over 104 weeks, the hypoglycaemia rate was 10‐fold lower with dapagliflozin than with glipizide (4.2 vs. 45.8%), whereas patient proportions with events suggestive of genital infection and of urinary tract infection (UTI) were greater with dapagliflozin (14.8 and 13.5%, respectively) than with glipizide (2.9 and 9.1%, respectively).

Conclusions

Over 2 years, compared with glipizide, dapagliflozin demonstrated greater glycaemic durability, sustained reductions in weight and systolic blood pressure and a low hypoglycaemia rate; however, genital infections and UTIs occurred more frequently.
Factors associated with molar incisor hypomineralization in Thai children
Authors: Pitiphat Waranuch , Luangchaichaweng Sarunporn , Pungchanchaikul Patimaporn , Angwaravong Onauma , Chansamak Nusara
Published: June 2014

Molar incisor hypomineralization (MIH) is a qualitative developmental enamel defect that affects one to four permanent first molars, with or without involvement of permanent incisors. Its etiology is of systemic origin, but is not well understood. Therefore, we conducted this cross‐sectional study to examine pre‐, peri‐, and postnatal risk factors for MIH among children, 7–8 yr of age, in urban areas of Khon Kaen, Thailand. Molar incisor hypomineralization defects were diagnosed using the European Academy of Pediatric Dentistry criteria. Mothers or primary caregivers were interviewed on maternal medical history and habits during pregnancy, pregnancy and delivery complications, and the child's medical history. Molar incisor hypomineralization defects were observed in 78 (27.7%) of 282 children. Multiple logistic regression analysis showed a statistically significant association between the development of MIH and Cesarean section (adjusted OR = 2.0, 95% CI = 1.1–3.7), complications during vaginal delivery (adjusted OR = 4.5, 95% CI = 1.9–11.0), and severe/chronic illness when under 3 yr of age (adjusted OR = 2.9, 95% CI = 1.6–5.0). There was no association of preterm birth and low birth weight with MIH. The results suggest that Cesarean section, complications during vaginal delivery, and poor health during the first 3 yr of life are independent risk factors for MIH.
Effects of Dietary Selenium and Training on Oxidative Stress in Young Horses
Authors: White SH , Warren LK
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Exercise training can enhance antioxidant status, but it is unknown whether selenium supplementation can further improve antioxidant defenses.

Methods

American Quarter Horse yearlings (n = 20; mean ± SE 18 ± 0.2 months) balanced with regard to age and sex were randomly assigned to four dietary Se and training treatments for 14 weeks: 0.1 mg Se/kg DM with (n = 5) or without (n = 5) training or 0.3 mg Se/kg DM with (n = 5) or without (n = 5) training. Trained horses were exercised 4 d/wk for 30 min/d. At wk 14, all horses underwent a 2‐hr, 27.5 km submaximal exercise test (SET). Blood samples and biopsies of the gluteus medius were obtained before and after training and in response to the SET. Serum Se, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity in whole blood and muscle, and plasma lipid hydroperoxides (LPO) were evaluated. Data were analysed using a mixed model ANOVA with repeated measures.

Results

Serum Se was higher (P = 0.02) at wk 14 in trained horses receiving 0.3 than 0.1 mg Se/kg, but was unaffected by diet in untrained horses. Muscle GPx activity was unchanged after 14‐weeks of Se and training, but in response to the SET, muscle GPx was higher (P = 0.05) in trained than untrained horses. An effect of training*time (P = 0.008) was noted for whole blood GPx, reflecting greater (P = 0.01) activity in trained than untrained horses immediately after the SET. Plasma LPO was not influenced by dietary Se, but increased (P<0.0001) in untrained horses immediately after the SET while remaining unchanged in trained horses.

Conclusions

Training appears to mitigate oxidative damage in response to prolonged exercise in young horses. Although trained horses responded to a higher level of dietary Se, it showed no clear advantage for reducing oxidative stress.

Ethical Animal Research

This project was approved by the Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Animal Care Committee at the University of Florida (approval number 016‐12ANS). Sources of funding: Partial financial support of this project was provided by Alltech, Nicholasville, KY, USA. Competing interests: none.
Effects of Dietary Selenium and Training on Mitochondrial Function in Young Horses
Authors: White SH , Warren LK , Wohlgemuth S
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Exercise training results in improved mitochondrial efficiency but it is unclear if dietary selenium level can further modify mitochondrial function.

Methods

American Quarter Horse yearlings (n = 20; mean ± SE 18 ± 0.2 months) balanced with regard to age and sex were randomly assigned to four dietary Se and exercise training treatments for 14 weeks: 0.1 mg Se/kg DM with (n = 5) or without (n = 5) training or 0.3 mg Se/kg DM with (n = 5) or without (n = 5) training. Trained horses were exercised 4 d/wk for 30 min/d. At week 14, all horses underwent a 2 hr, 27.5 km submaximal exercise test (SET). Permeabilized muscle fibers obtained from the gluteus medius of horses at rest were analysed for mitochondrial function via high resolution respirometry. Mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation capacity with Complex I substrates was determined using the respiratory control ratio (RCR) of state 3 (with ADP) and state 2 (without ADP; leak respiration). Electron transport system capacity (ETSC) was determined by uncoupling phosphorylation and respiration using carbonyl cyanide p‐trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone. Cytochrome c oxidase (CCO) and citrate synthase (CS) activities were assessed in resting muscle samples obtained at week 0 and 14, and in response to the SET. Data were analysed using a mixed model ANOVA.

Results

Leak, state 3, ETSC, CS and CCO were higher (P<0.05) at wk 14 compared to wk 0 in all horses, but were not affected by training or Se level. Additionally, CS and CCO were unaffected by the SET.

Conclusions

Mitochondrial number (CS activity) and efficiency were unaffected by training and dietary Se level, but did increase over time, perhaps due to growth of horses. A more strenuous training protocol may be needed to induce mitochondrial adaptations.

Ethical Animal Research

This project was approved by the Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Animal Care Committee at the University of Florida (approval number 016‐12ANS). Sources of funding: Partial financial support of this project was provided by Alltech, Nicholasville, KY, USA. Competing interests: none.
Investigation of MSTN Genotype Association with VO2peak in Untrained Yearlings
Authors: Hill E , McGivney B , Herdan C , Gough K , Katz L
Published: June 2014

Introduction

In Thoroughbreds, genetic variation in myostatin (MSTN g.66493737C/T) is highly predictive of optimum race distance and influences mRNA expression, precocity, skeletal muscle development, two‐year‐old earnings, speed variables and skeletal muscle fibre type. The aim of this study was to investigate MSTN variation associations with VO2peak in untrained yearling Thoroughbreds.

Methods

Peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak) was measured in 41 untrained Thoroughbred yearlings (16 colts, 25 fillies, 19.8 ± 1.4 months) from one flat racing yard (November‐December). Data was collected as horses freely travelled up an all‐weather gallop (2% incline) with no rider. VO2 was measured using an ergospirometry and oximetry mask and associated customized software validated for field testing. Horses were instrumented with a GPS‐HR monitor, light‐weight mask and data‐capture equipment. HRpeak, maximal velocity (Vmax) and exercise distance were recorded. MSTN genotypes were determined using a customised Taqman SNP genotyping assay. Tests of association between genotype and phenotype were performed using PLINK software.

Results

Average exercise distance was 1700.5 ± 33.4 m, Vmax 15.0 ± 1.4 m/s, and HRpeak 221.2 ± 9.6 bpm. MSTN genotypes and VO2peak based on 6 breaths were n = 16 CC, VO2peak = 119.49 ± 21.8; n = 22 CT, VO2peak = 116.40 ± ‐27.2; n = 3 TT, 115.08 ± 20.2.There was no association (P>0.05) between genotype and VO2peak.

Conclusions

In yearling Thoroughbreds no association between MSTN genotype and untrained peak oxygen consumption was observed. This may be a function of the small number of TT genotype individuals evaluated or a reflection of a requirement for MSTN‐associated skeletal muscle entrainment in VO2peak changes resulting from a period of exercise training. Such changes may be associated with MSTN genotype and this requires further investigation.

Ethical Animal Research

Institutional Animal Research Ethics Committee approval was obtained. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: Science Foundation Ireland under Grant Number 11/PI/1166. Competing interests: Dr Hill is a co‐founder and Chairman of Equinome Ltd.
Effects of Preloading with NaCl, KCl, NaHCO3, or KHCO3 on Plasma Electrolyte Concentrations and Run Time During a High Intensity Exercise Test: A Pilot Study
Authors: Schott II H
Published: June 2014

Introduction

NaHCO3 has been administered prior to racing in an attempt to enhance performance but it remains unclear whether potential ergogenic effects may be due to increased buffering capacity or expanded extracellular fluid volume.

Methods

Solutions of 1 g/kg of NaCl, KCl, NaHCO3, or KHCO3 in 8 L of water were administered via a nasogastric tube 60 min prior to a high intensity treadmill exercise test (12 m/s to fatigue) to 4 horses in a randomized fashion. Changes in mixed venous plasma electrolyte concentrations (NOVA Biomedical analyser) and run time to fatigue were compared by repeated measures ANOVA.

Results

Administration of Na and K salts increased Na and K concentrations before and during maximal exercise, respectively. Administration of bicarbonate salts attenuated acidosis and the decrease in bicarbonate concentration during exercise, as compared to Cl salts. Of interest, run time to fatigue was longer (P<0.001, power = 0.98) after administration of KCl (5.1 ± 0.6 min) as compared to both bicarbonate salts (3.7 ± 0.6 and 3.6 ± 0.8 min for NaHCO3 and KHCO3, respectively), but was not different than run time after NaCl administration (4.3 ± 0.8 min).

Conclusions

Preloading with large amounts of Na and K salts produced expected changes in mixed venous Na and K concentrations but preloading with bicarbonate did not improve performance. Observation of longer run times to fatigue after administration of NaCl or KCl was unexpected and warrants further investigation.

Ethical Animal Research

Animal use approved by the Animal Use Committee of Michigan State University. Sources of funding: Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Michigan State University. Competing interests: none.
Individual Limb Contributions to Centripetal Force Generation during Circular Trot
Authors: Clayton HM , Starke SD , Merritt JS
Published: June 2014

Introduction

The simplest model of circular locomotion is a point mass moving uniformly on a circle. To produce circular motion, a centripetal force is generated. This study investigated contributions of individual limbs to the net centripetal force in horses trotting on a circle.

Methods

Six horses trotted on a 6 m diameter circle at their preferred speed. Optical motion capture (Motion Analysis Corp) recorded kinematics, while six force plates (AMTI) recorded ground reaction forces (GRF). Whole body center of mass (CoM) was computed using a 23‐segment rigid body model. The GRF of each limb was expressed at the CoM in cylindrical coordinates centered at a best‐fit circle of the ground path of the CoM. Average vertical, tangential and radial force components were computed for each limb over the whole stride duration. Forces were analyzed using ANOVA with Tukey HSD post‐hoc tests.

Results

The maximum ground‐path deviation of the CoM from the best‐fit circle among all trials was only 2.8% of the radius. The forelimbs contributed an average centripetal (radial) force of 0.49 ± 0.16 N/kg (mean ± SD, normalized to body mass), which was significantly greater (P<0.001) than the hind limb contribution of 0.36 ± 0.13 N/kg. There was no significant difference between inside and outside limbs.

Conclusions

The contribution of individual limbs to the centripetal force provided a direct indication of their role in circular locomotion. The forelimbs generated significantly more centripetal force, possibly in direct relation to their greater support of the body mass against gravity.

Ethical Animal Research

The study was approved by the MSU Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee, protocol #06/11‐112‐00. Sources of funding: This study was funded by the McPhail Endowment. SD Starke's collaborative research visit for this project was funded by the British Society for Animal Science, Murray Black Award. Competing interests: none.
External and Radiographic Hoof Angles Differ in Thoroughbred Foals
Authors: Curtis S , Martin J , Hobbs S
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Poor hoof angle and hoof pastern alignment has been linked to lameness in mature horses. External characteristics, such as the hoof pastern axis and hoof angle, are commonly used to assess dorsopalmar conformation in the same manner in foals. The hoof wall integument and distal phalanx is parallel in healthy mature horses but not in foals: this is not understood.

Methods

The front feet of 22 Thoroughbred foals were radiographed and measured in June and again in November. Lateromedial radiographic images were measured (Osirix) for hoof integument angle and width, and proximal, middle and distal phalanx angles. The data were tabulated in Excel and analysed in Minitab. After assessment for normality (Anderson‐Darling), potential relationships were assessed for differences between June and November using paired t‐tests and regression analysis.

Results

The dorsal hoof angle became more acute with age, R2 = 0.3326, the mean of June, 59.05 ± 3.662°, was significantly different from November, 53.64 ± 2.7824°, P<0.0001. The hoof pastern axes were broken forward in June, 6.1 ± 2.1°, in November 2.5 ± 1.6°, whereas the phalangeal axes were broken back, June,‐11.0 ± 7.5°, November, −8.3 ± 4.4°. There was a significant relationship between age and hoof pastern axis alignment, R2 = 0.3746; P<0.0001. The phalangeal axis did not correlate with age. The relationship between age and parallelism of the integument was significant R2 = 0.4867; P<0.0001.

Conclusions

The cause of the non‐alignment of the hoof pastern axis and phalangeal axis in Thoroughbred foals is widening of hoof integument proximodistally and circumferential bone thickening of the distal phalanx. Assumptions of phalangeal angles based on external characteristics cannot be made in foals.

Ethical Animal Research

Approval was given by the University of Central Lancashire Animal Projects Committee. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: World Horse Welfare partially funded this study. Competing interests: none.
Effect of Acute Exercise and Aerobic Conditioning on the Faecal pH of Horses
Authors: Almeida MML , Queiroz‐Neto A , Costa M , Ferraz GC , Lemos MEG
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Repeated monitoring of faecal pH may be useful in detecting the effects of exercise and conditioning on the fermentative activity within the large intestine. This study investigated the effect of a maximal incremental exercise test (MIET) and aerobic conditioning on the faecal pH of untrained horses.

Methods

Fourteen equines were randomly divided into two experimental groups. The control group consisted of 7 horses that remained untrained. The second group underwent physical training (n = 7). The trained equines underwent two MIETs, once before and once after exercise conditioning. The conditioning period lasted 6 weeks and consisted of 3 weekly sessions of exercising on a treadmill at 70% of lactate threshold. All horses were fed the same diet. To evaluate the effect of exercise on faecal pH, stool samples were collected before and 48 h after the MIETs (before and after training) for determination of fecal pH. To determine chronic effects, weekly stool sampling was performed at 0 (immediately before), 7, 14, 21, 28, 35 and 42 days of training. One‐way repeated measures ANOVA followed by Dunnett's test, the paired t‐test (MIET) and the unpaired t‐test were performed for comparisons between the groups at the different times.

Results

Faecal pH decreased from day 28 in the trained horse group compared to controls. pH values were 7.57 ± 0.10 and 7.27 ± 0.24 (before) and 7.97 ± 0.14 and 6.75 ± 0.15 (after) for the control and trained groups respectively. There was no change in faecal pH after the MIET.

Conclusions

It appears that physical conditioning reduced faecal pH of horses.

Ethical Animal Research

The Ethical Principles in Animal Experimentation adopted by the Brazilian College of Animal Experimentation was approved by the institutional animal care and use committee of the university (CEUA, Process: 016842/13). Sources of funding: FAPESP ‐ Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (Process 2013/14703‐3). Competing interests: none.
Myofascial Kinetic Lines in Horses
Authors: Elbrønd VS , Schultz RM
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Myofascial lines are chains of interconnected anatomical structures that functionally direct the basic motion patterns of the musculoskeletal system. They have previously been dissected in humans, where they describe the overall spinal motion of flexion, extension, lateral flexion and axial rotation. They are believed to play a role in functionality, connection, and balance of the body. The aim of this study was to investigate whether similar myofascial lines could be identified in the horse.

Methods

Five myofascial kinetic lines were dissected in 22 horses euthanized for unrelated reasons. The lines were the Superficial Dorsal Line (SDL), Superficial Ventral Line (SVL), Lateral Line (LL), Spiral Line (SL), and Functional Line (FL).

Results

SDL included hind limb flexors and the errector spinae group, which extend the hip and spine. SVL included hind limb extensors, abdominal muscles, and ventral neck muscles, which are structures with antagonistic functions to SDL. LL followed myofascial tissues along the side of the abdomen and produced latero‐flexion of the spine. FL and SL formed helical lines concerned with spinal axial rotation. FL connected the front limb to the contralateral hind limb by crossing over the midline at the thoraco‐lumbar level dorsal and ventral on the trunk. SL connected one side of the neck with the contralateral front limb and ipsilateral hind limb by a helical course around the body crossing over at the cervico‐thoracic and lumbo‐sacral junctions.

Conclusions

The SBL, SVL and LL complete a functional anatomical ring, which balances the dorsal, ventral and lateral motion patterns of the horse. The helical FL and SL determine the spinal axial rotation. With minor exceptions all lines mirrored the human lines.

Ethical Animal Research

The study was performed on material collected during post‐mortem examination. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: IVCA and The Danish Society for Promotion of Veterinary Science. Competing interests: none.
Effect of Side of Handling on Movement Symmetry in Horses
Authors: Hopkins S , Pfau T
Published: June 2014

Introduction

When horses are trotted in‐hand, this is predominantly performed with the handler on the horse's left side. In the context of objective gait analysis, this study investigated whether the side a horse is led from affects movement symmetry measures used to quantify lameness. We hypothesised that the side which horses were handled from would have no effect on head and pelvic movement symmetry.

Methods

Vertical movement of head and pelvis was quantified in 23 horses during trot in‐hand with a validated inertial sensor gait analysis system. Established movement symmetry measures commonly used to quantify lameness were calculated for a minimum of 27 strides per condition. Each horse was assessed three times, twice handled from one side, once from the other side, with the initial handling side randomly assigned. Differences in movement symmetry between repeat assessments led from the same side were compared to differences when led from the opposite side using a paired t‐test (P<0.05)

Results

Which side a horse was led from had no significant effect on either head (all P>0.754) or pelvic (all P>0.514) movement symmetry. Mean differences for head (and pelvic) movement asymmetry were below 2% or 2 mm (0% or 1 mm) for repeat assessments from the same side and below 4% or 2 mm (0% or 1 mm) for opposite side leads.

Conclusions

The side from which a horse is led does not significantly affect differences in movement symmetry between repeat assessments. Data analysis should be restricted to trials with consistent head carriage and a minimum of 27 strides (previously reported to give a representative estimate of stride‐to‐stride variability).

Ethical Animal Research

The study was approved by the local ethics committee Sources of funding: none declared. Competing interests: none.
The Point of Application of the Ground Reaction Force Moves in Circling Horses
Authors: Merritt JS , Starke SD , Clayton HM
Published: June 2014

Introduction

The position and magnitude of the ground reaction force (GRF) relative to the hoof influences loading within the limbs. In this study, we investigated changes to the point of force application (PFA) of the GRF in horses walking and trotting on circles compared to a straight line.

Methods

8 horses were lunged in 6 m diameter circles (left and right), and led straight, at walk and trot over force plates on firm ground. Hoof‐mounted retro‐reflective markers were tracked using a motion capture system (Motion Analysis Corp). The PFA was computed in a hoof‐local coordinate system during 2018 strides. The instantaneous PFA was weighted by the GRF magnitude to compute an average PFA position within the hoof print for each total stance phase. The average PFAs were analyzed using an ANOVA in which type of locomotion (circle or straight), gait (walk or trot) and hoof (fore or hind) were used as independent variables. A Tukey post‐hoc analysis identified pair‐wise differences.

Results

At trot, the PFA moved toward the center of the circle by 19.8 ± 10 mm (mean ± SD, P<0.001). At walk there was no significant difference in PFA between straight and circle. The hoof (fore or hind) did not significantly affect the PFA shift.

Conclusions

The significant medio‐lateral shift of PFA suggests that the balance of limb loading changes during circular locomotion. This is likely to affect the medio‐lateral balance in the distal joints and cause sub‐optimal loading of limb structures.

Ethical Animal Research

The study was approved by the MSU Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee, protocol #06/11‐112‐00. Sources of funding: This study was funded by the McPhail Endowment. SD Starke's collaborative research visit for this project was funded by the British Society for Animal Science, Murray Black Award. Competing interests: none.
A Comparison of Piaffe in Competition with the Fei Definition of the Movement
Authors: Moore G , Nankervis K , Dumbell L , Douglas J
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Requirements of competitive dressage should be reviewed periodically to inform training of horses and judges. The aim of this study was to determine whether features of the FEI definition of piaffe are achieved in competition and to correlate the judges′ scores with the degree of conformity to the definition.

Methods

Videography (60 Hz) of 3 piaffe strides (performed at marker D within a field of view 6 x 4 m) from 60 Grand Prix horses was used to measure croup height (CH), poll height (PH), the highest point of the neck (PN), peak height of the fore (FTpeak) and hindlimb toe (HTpeak), the level of a point half way down the cannon (MC) and the level of the fetlock joint (FJ) to within ± 0.01 m. Paired t‐tests were used to compare CH in piaffe with that in halt, PH with PN, FTpeak with MC and HTpeak with FJ during piaffe to determine if the criteria within the definition were met. Piaffe scores from 5 judges were obtained from a subset of 17 horses.

Results

CH was higher in piaffe than in halt (P<0.001). PN was higher than PH in piaffe (P = 0.001). FTpeak was lower than MC (P = 0.001) and HTpeak was lower than FJ (P = 0.001). There was no significant difference (P = 0.836) between the scores awarded to each horse but also no correlation between the scores and PH (P = 0.331), CH (P = 0.829), FTpeak (P = 0.784) or HTpeak (P = 0.924).

Conclusions

Piaffe performed in competition does not conform to the FEI definition of the movement although judges′ scores appear consistent. This finding suggests that the definition of the movement or judge training should be reviewed.

Ethical Animal Research

Project approved by Hartpury College Research Ethics Committee. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: Hartpury College. Competing interests: none.
Effect on VLa4 of Reduced Exercise Periods During Conditioning of Horses
Authors: Boffi F , Lindner A , Muriel M , Botta V , Lopez R
Published: June 2014

Introduction

One week of reduced workload between 3 periods of 2 weeks of conditioning (CP) 5 times/fortnight at VLa10 for two bouts of 5 minutes allowed for a continuous increase of VLa4, but the extent was smaller than in another study with the same conditioning program but for the recovery week (VLa4, VLa10: horse's speed, which produced a blood lactate concentration of 4 and 10 mmol/l).

Methods

Six Purebred Arabians were submitted to the same conditioning protocol of the studies mentioned above except for increasing the duration of treadmill exercise in each CP by 2.5 minutes (2 x 10 minutes in the third CP). A standardized exercise test (SET) was performed at the beginning of CP to determine VLa4 and VLa10, and repeated after the week with reduced workload after each CP. Exercise speed was individually adapted to the new VLa10 for every CP. The effects of conditioning on VLa4 were examined using repeated measures analysis of variance. Significant results were analyzed further with Fisher's test.

Results

Mean VLa4 increased after the first CP (P<0.001), fell between first and second CP (P<0.001) and remained at this level after the third CP (P>0.05).

Conclusions

This conditioning program did not allow for VLa4 increases of the magnitude observed in other studies with the same exercise protocols but without the week with reduced workload and increases in exercise duration. It is possible that the decline of VLa4 of the horses after the first CP was due to overtraining (simultaneous increase of speed and duration of exercise). The effect of recovery from training needs further studies.

Ethical Animal Research

All procedures were approved by the Bioethical Committee of the University of La Plata, Argentina. Sources of funding: Verein zur Förderung der Forschung im Pferdesport, Germany. Competing interests: none.
Does Swim Training Improve Athletic Performance of Mangalarga Marchador Horses?
Authors: Coelho C , Drumond B , Silva G , Fardin V , Giuberti CR
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Swimming can be used for conditioning and rehabilitation of horses. Its main advantage is minimal musculoskeletal stress. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of swimming on athletic performance of Mangalarga Marchador horses.

Methods

Eight horses (6.7 ± 2.9 years old, 426 ± 32 kg) conditioned to swim training were evaluated twice, before (M1) and after (M2) four weeks of training consisting of 60 minutes of hand‐walking twice a week, alternating with marcha exercise with a rider for 40 minutes three days a week, and 20 minutes of marcha with a rider each day of the weekend. Four animals were randomly selected after M1 as a test group and were submitted to swim training for 15 minutes twice a week in a lake. During M1 and M2, heart rate, hematocrit, AST, CK and lactate were recorded before (T0) and after 5 (T1), 30 (T2) and 120 (T3) minutes of exercise (marcha gait for 40 minutes). Variables were analyzed for normality with Kolmogorov‐Smirnov test. Comparisons between M1 and M2 and between control and test groups on each moment were made using paired t‐test (P<0.05).

Results

No differences were observed for HR, hematocrit, lactate and AST. Serum CK was significantly different for the test group between M1 and M2 for T1 (P = 0.0175), T2 (P = 0.0498) and T3 (P = 0.0226) with higher values for M2; also significant differences were observed between control and test groups for M1 at T1 (P = 0.0385), T2 (P = 0.0029) and T3 (P = 0.0180) with higher values for control group.

Conclusions

The swimming training protocol used did not improve the athletic performance of selected horses.

Ethical Animal Research

Study approved by the Ethics Committee for Animal Use at Universidade Vila Velha (CEUA‐UVV), Protocol 251‐2013. Sources of funding: UVV‐ES. Competing interests: none.
Effect of Lungeing and Circle Size on Movement Symmetry in Sound Riding Horses
Authors: Thomsen MH , Sahl‐Tjørnholm C , Sørensen H , Tolver A
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Evaluation of the movement during trot in circles is commonly used in clinical equine lameness examinations to exacerbate mild or bilateral lameness. Sound horses trotting in a straight line have a high degree of movement symmetry, which decreases with lameness. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of lungeing and circle size on movement symmetry in sound horses.

Methods

Twenty five riding horses categorized sound by inspection on straight line and lungeing were trotted in a straight line and in circles of 8, 10, 12, 14 and 16 metres diameter on both reins. Overall symmetry (S), symmetry of diagonal limb pair loading (A), and symmetry of diagonal limb pair timing (W) were calculated from trunk accelerations measured over the 13th thoracic vertebrae (T13) with a 3‐axis accelerometer. Data were analysed via ANOVA with horse as random effect.

Results

S, A, and W showed high degree of symmetry of straight line trot with mean ± SE = −6.0 ± 0.1, 0.01 ± 0.02 and −0.001 ± 0.003, respectively, that decreased with circular trot (P<0.02 in pairwise tests). S and A showed decreasing symmetry with decreasing circle size. For 16 and 8 metres, respectively; S = −5.2 ± 0.1 and −4.7 ± 0.1; A = 0.10 ± 0.01 and 0.16 ± 0.01; W = −0.009 ± 0.002 and −0.012 ± 0.002.

Conclusions

In sound horses, movement symmetry measured over T13 decreased with circular trot and decreasing circle size as shown in earlier studies of movement of the poll and sacrum. The asymmetry mimicked inside diagonal lameness. Effect of circular movement and circle size should be considered in interpretation of lameness signs and asymmetry measured during circular trot.

Ethical Animal Research

The study was approved by the department ethical committee. The horses belonged to the Danish army, who gave their informed consent. As no invasive procedures were applied approval from the Danish Animal Experimental board was not needed. Sources of funding: Foreningen KUSTOS af 1861. Competing interests: none.
Effect of Weighted Boots Used with Different Shoeing Styles on Limb Movement and Ground Reaction Forces in Icelandic Horses at Walk, Tölt and Trot
Authors: Waldern N , Wiestner T , Ramseier L , Weishaupt M
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Weighted boots and unnaturally high and long hooves (SH) are used to improve the 4‐beat rhythm of the tölt and enhance forelimb action.

Methods

The effect of these methods on loading and movement of the limbs was investigated in thirteen Icelandic horses at walk, tölt and trot on an instrumented treadmill. Vertical ground reaction forces and kinematic data of fore‐ and hindlimbs were measured. Four conditions were differentiated: SN (standard shoeing) and SH, without and with weighted boots of 240 g (WB240), respectively. Differences were tested using one‐way repeated measures ANOVA, separately for each gait (P<0.05).

Results

At the tölt, in both shoeing styles, WB240 increased protraction height of the forelimbs by about 13%. The weight gain of 273 g at the distal limb induced by changing SN to SH had a similar and cumulative effect. Hoof length alone was also positively, but not significantly, associated with protraction height; the combination of SH and WB240 resulted in an increase of up to 35%. Lateral coupling (pace‐like rhythm) in tölt was reduced only with a combination of SH and WB240. Stride impulse increased with a change of hoof conformation alone at tölt, and combined with weight at all three gaits. Shorter relative stance durations in the forelimbs particularly at faster speeds resulted only in a minor increase of peak forces (+1.4%) due to an impulse shift to the hindlimbs.

Conclusions

Weight, particularly in combination with SH, improved gait performance and marginally increased limb peak forces. However, enhanced inertial forces during swing might additionally stress internal distal limb structures.

Ethical Animal Research

The experiment was carried out with the approval of the Animal Health and Welfare Commission of the Canton of Zurich (No. 206/2010). Owner written informed consent was obtained. Sources of funding: Stiftung Forschung für das Pferd, the Haldimann Stiftung, the Swiss Metall Union, the Stiftung Temperatio, the Swiss Veterinary Office (FVO) and the Islandpferde‐Vereinigung Schweiz. Competing interests: none.
Sacroiliac Joint Morphology: Influence of Age, Bodyweight and Previous Back Pain
Authors: Goff L , Jeffcott L , Riggs C , McGowan C
Published: June 2014

Introduction

Degenerative changes in sacroiliac joints (SIJ) are reported to cause poor performance in horses. The aim of this study was to document the frequency and nature of changes in SIJ surfaces of Thoroughbred (TB) racehorses and to correlate gross morphology and marginal new bone formation to age, body weight and history of back pain.

Methods

SIJ surfaces from 37 deceased TBs retired from the Hong Kong Jockey Club were photographed and measurements taken to facilitate subjective and objective analysis of gross changes. SIJ surfaces were described, and the surface area of the joint surfaces determined from the photographs, using Image J. Area and shape of the joint surfaces were recorded and SIJs were graded and allocated a type according to pre‐determined criteria. Changes were compared for horses with and without clinical records of back pain.

Results

Mean age was 6.6 ± 2.3 years; weight 494 ± 35 kg; with no differences between horses with (n = 14) and without (n = 23) a history of back pain. There was no relationship between bodyweight (r = 0.08) or age (r = 0.13) and SIJ surface area. SIJs of the back pain group were affected by obvious gross pathology that showed certain characteristics. There was a relationship between surface area of joint and degree of marginal bone formation (P<0.001). SIJs from the group of TBs with no back pain had fewer and less obvious gross findings.

Conclusions

Clinical evidence of back pain, which may reasonably be expected to have affected the horse's racing performance, was associated with characteristic gross pathology of the SIJ.

Ethical Animal Research

Ethical approval for animal use was obtained by the institutional animal ethics committee (University of Queensland) and Hong Kong ethics committee. The study was performed on material collected during post‐mortem examination. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study is not stated. Sources of funding: Rural Industries Research and Development Council, Australia. Competing interests: none.