bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Predicting DOC removal during enhanced coagulation
Authors: Edwards Marc
Published: February 2018

Langmuir‐based semiempirical models are used to predict DOC removal during alum and ferric coagulation.

The concentration of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) remaining after enhanced coagulation can be predicted with a standard error of about 10 percent or 0.4 mg/L using a new model with inputs of coagulant dosage, coagulation pH, raw water UV254, and raw water DOC. Total organic carbon remaining after coagulation can be predicted with similar accuracy. The model may also be calibrated to a specific site, improving the standard predictive error to 4 percent or 0.27 mg/L (or ±10 percent for 90 percent confidence). Performance differences between equimolar dosages of alum and ferric coagulants in mediating DOC removal may be attributed to (1) equal or better removal of DOC using ferric at very high coagulant dosages, (2) equal or better removal of DOC using alum at lower coagulant dosages, or (3) differing acidity of coagulants, producing a performance advantage for the more acidic coagulant.
Information Collection Rule Monitoring to Begin
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

After many months of preparation, monitoring is about to begin under the Information Collection Rule (ICR), the most extensive data collection effort ever attempted. This month, each of the 298 water utilities affected by the ICR will receive official approval of its sampling plan from the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Utilities must begin 18 months of monitoring in July 1997 and begin reporting data to USEPA in November 1997. This article discusses the initial steps of implementation which include: nationally conducted training; completion of the ICR Laboratory Quality Assurance Data System; approval of specific laboratories; test runs; and, development of educational and training materials. The basic steps in data validation are also discussed.
Facing the Future
Authors: Beaudet Bevin
Published: February 2018

Beaudet believes the association needs to begin positioning itself for the future.
Shared residuals processing will benefit adjacent agencies
Authors: Clark David K. , Anderson Catherine A.
Published: February 2018

Cooperative efforts by neighboring facilities will reduce operating costs for both agencies.

The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (MWDSC) conducted a detailed feasibility study on alternative residuals processing and disposal methods for its Joseph Jensen Filtration Plant. Alternatives to the current practice of sewer disposal were evaluated through literature research, vendor testing, on‐site pilot testing, and joint investigations with outside agencies. As a result of this study, MWDSC and the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP), one of MWDSC's 27 member agencies, will enter into an agreement to jointly process residuals from two adjacent water treatment plants operated by the respective agencies. The residuals from the MWDSC plant will be pumped to existing evaporation ponds at the LADWP plant for processing and disposal, and avoided costs will be shared between the two agencies. In addition, the agencies have agreed to exchange standard water treatment chemicals during emergencies.
Enhanced softening: factors influencing DBP precursor removal
Authors: Thompson Jeffrey D. , White Mark C. , Harrington Gregory W. , Singer Philip C.
Published: February 2018

Bench‐scale tests demonstrate the importance of magnesium hydroxide precipitation and NOM characteristics on precursor removal by softening.

Relationships of hardness removal, natural organic matter (NOM) removal, and selected chemical characteristics of NOM were explored, and the implications of the enhanced softening portion of the proposed Disinfectants/Disinfection By‐products Rule were assessed. For most of the nine raw water sources examined, the amount of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) removed (both on an absolute and a percentage basis) correlated strongly with the amount of magnesium precipitated. A semilogarithmic model provided a good fit to the data for six of the nine waters (R2 values >0.8). Greater absolute removal of DOC was achieved for raw waters with higher initial DOC concentrations. DOC removal by softening was most effective for the raw water sources with the highest percentage of hydrophobic organic carbon. Greater specific ultraviolet absorbance values also corresponded to greater DOC removal.
A Changing Public Health Role for Utilities
Authors: DeBoer Jon
Published: February 2018

Water utilities now play a more active role in public health education and protection.
A dual water system for Cape Coral
Authors: Godman Robert R. , Kuyk David D.
Published: February 2018

Cape Coral, Fla., may well be a model city for water conservation and the most beneficial use of water resources.

After much public debate and education regarding the health and cost aspects of a dual water system, such a system is now operating in Cape Coral, Fla. The authors conceived a plan for a dual water reclamation system for the city in 1981 during a drought in south Florida. They studied the city's 300‐mi (480‐km) freshwater canal system to determine how much water would be available for a citywide irrigation system that would be supplemented by reuse of wastewater. Test wells were drilled over the 114‐sq mi (295‐km2) area of Cape Coral to assess the limited supply of treatable potable water for use in all aquifers. In 1992, the first home was connected to the new irrigation supply. About 25 percent of the city is now connected. Cape Coral is the only Florida city that has a detailed utility master plan that includes a citywide nonpotable irrigation system.
Service lines: their effect on microbiological quality
Authors: Prévost Michèle , Rompré Annie , Baribeau Hélene , Coallier Josée , Lafrance Pierre
Published: February 2018

Water that stagnates for long periods in distribution system service lines is susceptible to increases in bacteria, which can be reduced by extensive flushing.

The influence of service lines on the microbiological quality of drinking water was investigated. The microbial water quality in domestic service lines was found to differ from that in the main pipes of the distribution system. Differences in bacterial counts from the first flush of the service line and from the main pipe were generally more pronounced in service lines located near the plant. After a thorough flushing of the service line, however, tap water quality was found to be equivalent to that in the main pipe. Bacteriological parameters studied were total direct count after acridine orange staining, heterotrophic plate counts, total coliforms, and Aeromonas. Physicochemical parameters measured included temperature, oxidant residual, and total, dissolved, and biodegradable organic carbon. Lead and copper concentrations were determined in the first flush, after flushing the service line,
Communication Is the Key to Rate‐Hike Acceptance
Authors: Cameon P.J.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the importance of public relations when a water system is seeking approval of a rate hike. Continuous and active public relations efforts such as bill stuffers, regular contacts with local media, and meetings with local civic groups not only establish a rapport but also build credibility, confidence, trust and support among a system's customers.
Pennsylvania's filtration evaluation program
Authors: Consonery Phil J. , Greenfield Donald N. , Lee Joseph J.
Published: February 2018

By identifying weaknesses and optimizing treatment, Pennsylvania has greatly improved performance at its surface water plants.

Pennsylvania's Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) initiated a statewide filter plant performance evaluation (FPPE) program for safe drinking water and completed 506 FPPEs at 290 surface water treatment plants. Only 39 percent of the plants were rated “acceptable” for performance at the program's inception in 1988, but by 1996 the percentage had increased to 91 percent—demonstrating that assistance to these systems could lead to successful improvements and decreased risks from waterborne protozoa. The percentage of positive Cryptosporidium (presumptive) samples of the finished water dropped from 35 percent in 1990 to <5 percent in 1996. Positive Cryptosporidium samples have remained below 5 percent in the last five years. The 90th percentile of particle count data showed a postfiltration count of 50/mL in the 3‐ to 18‐μm size range as the threshold for acceptable performance. Because optimized performance is a goal of the FPPE program, the concentrations of 3‐ to 18‐μm particles should remain below 10/mL to minimize breakthrough of pathogenic protozoa. The DEP considers turbidity of <0.1 ntu from each filter as a more optimum level of filter plant performance.
Preliminary testing for control of DBPs in Cleveland
Authors: Pizzi Nicholas G. , Rodgers Margaret L.
Published: February 2018

Pilot testing of chlorination and ozonation with regular and enhanced coagulation suggests ozonation is not the best choice for the Crown Water Treatment Plant in Cleveland, Ohio.

Bench‐ and pilot‐scale studies of total organic carbon (TOC) removal in Lake Erie water using enhanced coagulation, ozonation, and granular activated carbon (GAC) were conducted to determine the applicability of these processes to the upgrade and expansion of the Crown Water Treatment Plant in Cleveland, Ohio. Alum–polymer blends, alum, and ferric chloride more effectively removed TOC than did polyaluminum sulfate–polymer blends. Ozone did not affect TOC concentrations, but it reduced bromochloroacetic acid. Bench‐scale tests showed an optimal dose of 10 mg/L powdered activated carbon with 25 mg/L alum–polymer blend was needed to achieve a 39 percent reduction in TOC. Rapid, small‐scale column tests with GAC beds of 5‐ and 10‐min empty‐bed contact time showed breakthrough at two and six days, respectively; they did not maintain 30 percent TOC reduction after 30 and 100 days, respectively. TOC removal for future control of disinfection by‐products could most effectively be achieved in Cleveland by enhanced coagulation.
Communicating Water Quality With CCRs
Authors: Gilnack Gerald M.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the usefulness of Consumer Confidence Reports and also some of the things a small utility needs to consider when preparing a report.
Expedited Microbial/Disinfection By‐product Rules Defined
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

The 1996 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) established deadlines for the Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts (D/DBP) Rule and the Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (ESWTR). The first deadline to be met is November 1998, when the Stage I D/DBP Rule and the interim ESWTR are to be finalized. To meet this new deadline, the US Environmental Protection Agency initiated an expedited schedule for development of these two rules. In addition, the agency formed an advisory committee under the Federal Advisory Committee Act to provide advice regarding development of these rules. This article summarizes the committee's points of agreement. The rationale for all issues will be discussed fully in the forthcoming notice of data availability, and public comments will be requested.
Crypto research: are fundamental data missing?
Authors: Klonicki Patricia T. , Hancock Carrie M. , Straub Timothy M. , Harris Stephanie I. , Hancock Keith W. , Alyaseri Ali N. , Meyer Charles J. , Sturbaum Gregory D.
Published: February 2018

Effective application of Cryptosporidium research is tied to adequate documentation of oocyst quality and enumeration techniques.

Noting the dearth of accurate information regarding the quality and quantity of Cryptosporidium oocysts used for experimentation, the authors used isolates meeting stringent quality assurance criteria to document the variation of results with three different enumeration techniques—hemacytometer, cellulose–acetate membrane, and well slide. In 70 comparisons of the three techniques, results generated by well slide and hemacytometer varied by an average of 24.7 percent, hemacytometer and membrane results varied 67.6 percent, and well‐slide and membrane results varied 79.3 percent. Significant discrepancies between counts generated by different techniques indicate a strong probability of poor accuracy in previous enumeration‐based studies. Recovery of oocysts after Percoll‐sucrose flotation varied considerably with either hemacytometer or membrane‐counting techniques, which helps explain low precision with the Information Collection Rule protozoan method. Incomplete description of experimental procedures hinders Cryptosporidium research directed toward improving the analytical method, evaluation of water treatment efficacy, and surrogate development.
Using flow cytometry to detect protozoa
Authors: Hoffman Rebecca M. , Standridge Jon H. , Prieve Audrey F. , Cucunato Joseph C. , Bernhardt Mat
Published: February 2018

For routine detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia, flow cytometry with cell sorting bests IFA in terms of relative sensitivity as well as average cost, assay volume, assay time, and turnaround time.

Flow cytometric cell sorting (FCCS), followed by microscopic verification, was evaluated as an alternative to immunofluorescence assay (IFA). Two hundred and sixty‐two water samples were stained with either indirectly conjugated or directly conjugated anti‐Cryptosporidium and anti‐Giardia antibodies and were examined by IFA and FCCS, respectively. Relative sensitivities of each assay were calculated by dividing the number of positive samples detected by one assay by the number of positive samples detected by either assay. When samples analyzed within five months of the initial IFA analysis were compared, the relative sensitivities of FCCS for detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia were 94.1 and 78.6 percent, respectively, whereas the relative sensitivities using the IFA were 35.3 and 61.4 percent. Identification of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in water samples using FCCS takes less time, costs less, and analyzes a greater sample volume than the IFA. Given the nearly threefold increase in relative sensitivity for Cryptosporidium detection and the equal relative sensitivities for Giardia detection, the authors support the use of FCCS for routine detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in environmental samples.
Comparative performance of Colisure
Authors: McFeters Gordon A. , Broadaway Susan C. , Pyle Barry H. , Pickett Molly , Egozy Yair
Published: February 2018

Colisure, an enzyme detection–based medium, outperformed established reference methods in detecting chlorine‐stressed total coliform bacteria and E. coli.

Colisure presence–absence medium was compared with standard reference methods for detecting low numbers of total coliform bacteria and E. coli in drinking water when the bacteria were subjected to chlorine stress. When Colisure was compared with established reference methods to detect total coliforms in dilute, disinfected samples, Colisure yielded more positive results after 24, 28, and 48 h than lauryl tryptose broth (LTB) confirmed in bile green lactose broth after 48 h. Colisure also detected higher levels of chlorine‐injured E. coli than LTB confirmed in EC medium with 4‐methylumbelliferyl B‐D‐glucuronide (EC/MUG). The sensitivity and specificity of Colisure were also evaluated and were determined to be between 96 and 100 percent on nonchlorinated samples when positive and negative tests were verified.
Microfiltration Bests Conventional Treatment
Authors: de Haas Robert
Published: February 2018

In 1988, Pine Brook Water District, just outside of Boulder, Colorado, went online with their existing package filtration plant. In 1991, the district recognized that the filtration plant needed to be upgraded to meet or exceed state and federal regulatory standards. The district studied various treatment techniques and decided to install membranes. The district has been pleased with the performance of its microfiltration plant.
Implementing a new SDWA
Authors: Pontius Fred
Published: February 2018

Now, with a flexible reauthorized Safe Drinking Water Act, water suppliers have their work cut out for them.
Operator Certification—Will You Be Qualified?
Authors: Leiby Vanessa M.
Published: February 2018

Every state has its own operator certification program. But during reauthorization of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), concern arose about certification of small system operators, many of which may be exempt from state requirements. To improve small system compliance with regulations and to enhance public health protection, Congress required the US Environmental Protection Agency to develop and publish information for states on recommended operator certification requirements. This information is to be available February 6, 1998. Guidelines specifying minimum standards of certification (and recertification) of operators of community water systems and nontransient‐noncommunity water systems must be published (in cooperation with the states) no later than February 6, 1999. The guidelines are to take into account existing state programs, system size and complexity, and other factors aimed at providing an effective program at reasonable costs to states and public water systems.
Effect of iron and sulfur on thermal regeneration of GAC
Authors: Cannon Fred S. , Snoeyink Vernon L. , Lee Ramon G. , Dagois Gerard
Published: February 2018

Iron accumulations on coal‐based GAC or wood‐based GAC had little or no catalytic influence on regeneration behavior during the first regeneration cycle.

Regeneration of spent granular activated carbon (GAC) can be affected by inorganics that have accumulated by ion exchange on specific GAC sites, precipitation, or adsorption of metal‐organic complexes. The authors found iron (Fe) in several spent GAC samples. Sulfur (S) always appeared in these GAC samples as well. Although Fe catalyzes the gasification of GAC to oxides of carbon, Fe catalysis of GAC gasification experienced dramatic inhibition by S at concentrations as low as 100–300 mg S/kg GAC (0.01–0.03 percent). When S was reduced to 20 mg S/kg GAC, the Fe at 1 percent loading became a strong catalyst. Because S is usually present in spent GACs at concentrations that inhibit catalysis, thermal regenerations behaved essentially the same whether Fe was present or absent.
So Many Oocysts, So Few Outbreaks
Authors: Frost Floyd , Craun Gunther F. , Calderon Rebecca , Hubbs Stephen A.
Published: February 2018

Prevention of waterborne disease outbreaks is a primary objective of drinking water treatment. As required by the Information Collection Rule (ICR), selected US water utilities have begun monitoring for specified chemical contaminants, Cryptosporidium, and other waterborne pathogens. When Cryptosporidium oocysts are detected during ICR monitoring, will these surveillance programs be able to estimate the risk of waterborne cryptosporidiosis? This article addresses such questions in a look at the future of surveillance programs for waterborne disease.
USEPA's infrastructure needs survey
Authors: Davies Clive , Fraser Dan L. , Hertzler Patricia Carroll , Jones Ralph T.
Published: February 2018

USEPA estimates that water systems need $138 billion to install, upgrade, or replace infrastructure. Only $12.1 billion of that total is attributable to requirements of the SDWA.

The nation's 55,000 community water systems must make significant investments to install, upgrade, or replace infrastructure to ensure the provision of safe drinking water to their 243 million customers. The US Environmental Protection Agency's first‐ever national drinking water infrastructure needs survey, conducted in 1995, estimates that these systems must invest a minimum of $138.4 billion in the next 20 years. Of this total, $76.8 billion is for infrastructure improvements needed now to protect public health. A portion of the total, $12.1 billion, is for infrastructure improvements related to standards established under the Safe Drinking Water Act.
The Good Old Days
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr reflects on the “good old days” enjoyed by the drinking water industry in the 1960s and 1970s, and discusses how that period of relative stability has changed to the present‐day highly charged, complex legislative/regulatory environment. Pressure from environmental groups, law firms looking for settlements, and an increasingly aware public have increased the need for different methods of communication. This column discusses some of the new trials utilities face and the methods of change that are needed for success.
Shaping Regulations Through Public Involvement Opportunities
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

The 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) amendments mandated an agenda for the implementation of new programs and issuance of new drinking water regulations. This article discusses how public participation is an essential component in the development and implementation of the SDWA and of the partnership ethic embodied within. Topics discussed are: the sometimes misleading concept of public participation; the flexibility federal agencies have in meeting with the public and discussing elements of an anticipated regulation; how the issuance of a proposed rule in the Federal Register initiates the formal public comment period; and, how public involvement becomes limited after rule proposal.
Assessing the value of youth education
Authors: Mirvis Kenneth W. , Clark Neil
Published: February 2018

An informal survey of 10 water organizations yields some compelling reasons for funding youth education programs.

The authors conducted informal research—questionnaires and interviews—with nine water agencies and one water education organization to ascertain the value, variety, and goals of school education programs. They found a broad range of programs covering every grade level and many messages. These agencies used a range of measures to assess the value of their programs, including quantifying the number of students reached and attempting to measure changes in student behaviors. The costs of these programs were surprisingly low, ranging from 5ȼ to 57ȼ per household per year, with an average of only 24ȼ per household per year. Despite little agreement about what school programs should be, the organizations agreed on the programs' long‐term value to the agency and the community and concurred that youth education programs provide an excellent opportunity for outreach.
Georgia's Peer Review Program
Authors: Camp Gene
Published: February 2018

This article discusses how Georgia's small system peer review program helps alleviate some of the labor and financial burdens, which have been placed on most rural and small systems across the United States as a result of: the complex and increasingly stringent requirements of the Safe Drinking Water Act; the reductions in available grant funds; the continuous turnover of employees; poor management practices; and, limited cash flow. The author, himself the superintendent of the Bartow County Water Department in Cartersville, Georgia, demonstrates how the program assists in protecting water resources and how confidentiality works both for and against the program.
Automatic meter‐reading is not always economical
Authors: Bienlien Kent D. , Burns Larry D.
Published: February 2018

Automatic meter reading has benefited some utilities economically, but a cost–benefit review of such systems should be performed.

Automatic meter reading (AMR) is promoted as a way to use electronic technology to reduce the cost of customer service and meter‐reading. Manufacturers provide a wealth of technical data about hardware and software for AMR, but objective reviews of the current systems' economic feasibility are also needed. A nine‐month trial of three manufacturers' AMR systems was conducted in Lexington, Ky., to determine the cost‐effectiveness of radio‐frequency hand‐held meter‐reading equipment. All three systems accurately read meters in pits at distances up to 500 ft (150 m). Economic justification inherently varies significantly from site to site. For the site described in this article, economic analysis indicated that installation of the most economical system would increase the cost of each meter read by $0.22.
Seroepidemiology—The Key to Crypto Surveillance
Authors: Griffiths Jeffrey K. , Morris Robert D.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the difficulty in determining the exact amount of cryptosporidiosis that occurs in the United States. Because it has such a low fatality rate, and because there is no treatment for it, definitive diagnostic tests are rarely performed and cryptosporidiosis thus avoids passive detection. The authors advocate an active surveillance system for cryptosporidiosis based on seroepidemiology. They encourage anonymous national serological testing for Cryptosporidium in children and other representative groups as an important component in understanding endemic cryptosporidiosis. A study of cryptosporidiosis conducted in Houston, Texas, with human volunteers is given as an example.
Health Advisory Issued for Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

This article provides information on the use of methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) as an octane enhancer in gasoline since the late 1970s. To assist water utilities and others in addressing instances of MTBE contamination, the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) issued a health advisory for this chemical in December 1997. The details of the advisory are discussed here, as well as methods for MTBE removal.
Small Systems to Tackle Disinfection By‐products
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

This article describes disinfection by‐products (DBPs) and the history behind their regulation and research. The kind and amount of DBPs that form depend on several factors, which are discussed here. The first DBPs regulated were total trihalomethanes (TTHMs) in 1979. These regulations, however, only applied to large community water systems (those serving 10,000 or more people) that add a disinfectant (oxidant) to the water in any part of the treatment process. The reasons that small systems were originally exempted from the rule are discussed along with the future of small systems and DBP regulation.
Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List Released
Authors: Pontius Frederick W. , Pontius Nancy L.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the US Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA's) Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List (DWCCL), a list of drinking water contaminants not subject to any proposed or promulgated National Primary Drinking Water Regulation. Specifically, the article discusses how the DWCCL was developed in 1996, the future role of the DWCCL in determining which contaminants are regulated, and the National Drinking Water Contaminant Occurrence Database (NCOD), which will store occurrence data for both regulated and unregulated contaminants.
Energy Deregulation
Authors: Harmon Rick
Published: February 2018

How will changes in the generation and delivery of energy affect water utilities?
What Is Good Science?
Authors: Roberson Alan
Published: February 2018

In this article, the author expresses his views on the meaning and significance of the term “good science” and examines the need for objectivity when considering the science underlying drinking water regulations. The author also recommends two books for water utility managers: the first recounts groundwater contamination problems in Woburn, Massachusetts that allegedly led to several cases of childhood cancer; the second focuses on endocrine disruption by synthetic chemicals in the environment.
Water affordability and the DWSRF
Authors: Beecher Janice A. , Shanaghan Peter E.
Published: February 2018

The DWSRF provides a potentially important means of mitigating the affordability problem.

The Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSRF) was established under the 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) to provide financial assistance to water systems that cannot afford to make improvements that would allow them to comply with regulatory standards. Disadvantaged communities are also targeted for aid under the DWSRF. But to implement the provisions of the SDWA, states must adopt affordability criteria for use in their DWSRF programs. “Affordability” is the term used to describe the ability of a water system and its customers to support the cost of compliance. Although a considerable amount of research has been conducted on affordability, no simple solution has emerged. This article describes a framework for understanding the multidimensional issue of affordability.
Building on AWWA's Strengths
Authors: Holme Rod
Published: February 2018

Holme wants to draw upon the association's resources to expand AWWA's international role and implement the SDWA.
Metric benchmarking
Authors: Blankenship Linda , Olstein Myron , Liner Barry
Published: February 2018

Benchmarking is becoming a popular tool for utilities to systematically assess how their performance compares with that of other utilities, so that trouble spots can be targeted.

In recent years, benchmarking has gone from a buzzword in the water industry to a useful tool to assess performance. The AWWA Research Foundation has funded two studies of benchmarking, is sponsoring expansion of WaterStats into a database that can support benchmarking efforts, and has defined two forms of benchmarking—metric benchmarking and process benchmarking. Metric benchmarking, more commonly used by water suppliers, involves tracking operations over time and comparing the performance against that of similar companies within one industry. Process benchmarking breaks system processes into individual steps and then compares these process elements with those of the best practice providers from any field. For water utilities, benchmarking is particularly useful in five distinct applications: management review, strategic planning, outsourcing of services, reports to management, and system acquisition.
Activity‐based costing
Authors: Eggers John L. , Bangert Charles E.
Published: February 2018

Activity‐based accounting provides a true measure of services and goods and helps target business processes that need improvement.

The water supply industry must respond to the competitive challenges of the current business climate by promoting efficiency and lowering costs. Many techniques are available to help managers decrease costs and increase productivity and customer service. None of these methods will work, however, unless an organization can identify and measure the cost and performance of the activities that constitute its core business processes. Activity‐based costing (ABC) is proposed as a methodology for measuring and managing gains in process efficiency. A proven operational technique, ABC measures the cost of activities, provides true costs of goods and services produced, and tells a manager where to look to improve business processes and employee performance, reduce costs, and enhance the quality of products produced and services performed.
Spreadsheet water conditioning
Authors: Trussell R. Rhodes
Published: February 2018

Spreadsheets are a powerful tool for solving water chemistry problems.

Procedures for solving problems of equilibrium chemistry are demonstrated through the use of spreadsheet calculations. For most simple problems, these calculations are less costly and more reliable than bench‐scale testing. Once such a spreadsheet has been constructed, it can be reused without duplicating the original effort. Spreadsheet technology makes calculations of this sort accessible to more users than the traditional methods.
Defining a Safe Level for Copper in Drinking Water
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses how the scientific basis of the US Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA's) drinking water regulation for copper has been questioned because of the economic burden it will impose on certain water systems. Topics discussed are: copper as an essential trace element for human nutrition; the susceptibility of children to copper toxicity; the basis of USEPA's maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG); and, the contradictory studies that criticize the current copper MCLG as being either too low or not low enough.
Managing water supply infrastructure
Authors: Burlingame Gary A. , Rahman Jameel , Navera Edgar , Durrant John E.
Published: February 2018

Materials engineering offers water suppliers services beyond routine testing and failure investigation.

As it relates to the treatment and supply of drinking water, materials engineering is not limited to the investigation of failures and routine testing of samples for compliance with purchase specifications. Materials engineering can be used to rewrite material specifications, coordinate vendor surveillance, provide predictive testing to prevent failures, and consult on new designs. If water suppliers are to continue to provide high‐quality water with greater reliability in the quantity desired at an affordable cost, the US drinking water industry must make greater use of materials engineering and become more involved in materials engineering discussions and research. By sharing the experiences of the Philadelphia (Pa.) Water Department, the authors hope to encourage technology transfer in materials science and technology among water suppliers.
Agricultural chemicals: effects on wells during floods
Authors: Ray Chittaranjan , Soong T.W. David , Roadcap George S. , Borah Deva K.
Published: February 2018

A radial‐arm collector well was at more risk than vertical wells, but MCLs were not exceeded in any well.

A 175‐mi (282‐km) stretch of the Illinois River was studied to assess the potential effects of flooding on the quality of pumped groundwater. Water pumped from four municipal water supply wells (pumping rates, 140‐500 gpm [0.009‐0.03 m3/s]) was analyzed. Three of these wells were vertical wells located 175‐220 ft (53‐67 m) from the river's edge at normal pool stages. The fourth well was a radial‐arm collector well with laterals extending beneath the river bed. Although concentrations of atrazine in the Illinois River during peak flows of 1995 and 1996 were as high as 6 and 12 μg/L, respectively, the concentration of atrazine in groundwater pumped at the three vertical‐well sites remained below the 0.1‐μg/L detection limit. In 1996 a small breakthrough of atrazine was observed in the collector well water. The high concentration of nitrate in river water appeared to have slightly increased the nitrate in pumped groundwater at two locations. Dilution and other factors may have affected the transport of river water contaminants in the alluvial aquifer between the river and the pumping wells.
Taking the Mystery Out of O & M
Authors: Gilnack Gerald M.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the term “operation and maintenance” (O&M) in the context of small water systems. Key elements of O&M discussed include understanding how each phase of the treatment operation is supposed to work as well as how each piece of equipment is supposed to work, establishing a maintenance program, and stocking spare parts.
Blending supplies for plant optimization
Authors: Booth Susan K. , Hagar C.B. , Garaña Eduardo , Hall Herbert R.
Published: February 2018

When water supplies are combined, a blend based on a target source water parameter rather than quantity alone can help optimize plant performance.

The Corpus Christi, Texas, water treatment plant treats water from the Nueces River watershed. In the fall of 1998, the plant will begin receiving water from Lake Texana, a source with very different water quality. A comprehensive treatability study was conducted to prepare the plant for the new water. In evaluating the desirability of treating a given blend and selecting an optimum blend to target for treatment, the authors considered several factors, e.g., amount of chemicals required, range in chemical dosages required, settled and filtered water quality, and compliance with the proposed enhanced coagulation regulations. The authors proposed that the optimal blend for Corpus Christi be identified by alkalinity and achieved by targeting a range of alkalinity in the raw water. In general, selection of a blend based on a target source water parameter may result in creation of a more consistent source water than is achievable by blending based on quantity alone, thereby increasing the potential for optimizing plant performance.
Implementing a large‐meter replacement program
Authors: van der Linden Matthew J.
Published: February 2018

A comprehensive large‐meter replacement program can help utilities avoid revenue losses caused by malfunctioning meters and increase reliability of service to customers.

Each year, thousands of dollars in revenue are lost because of malfunctioning large water meters. Implementing a large‐meter replacement program is critical to the financial health of any water utility. A large‐meter replacement program provides procedures to systematically and continuously replace or repair aging and malfunctioning large meters. The benefits of such a program include accurate accounting of water consumption to maximize revenues and reliable service to customers.
Practical applications of turbidity monitoring
Authors: Burlingame Gary A. , Pickel Michael J. , Roman Joseph T.
Published: February 2018

To take the use of turbidity measurements to a level at which accuracy is critical without the support of quality assurance‐quality control would be inappropriate.

The Philadelphia Water Department (PWD) has expended considerable effort to achieve a voluntary 0.1‐ntu turbidity goal. This was motivated in large part by heightened concern about Cryptosporidium, by the expectation of changes in regulatory requirements under the Safe Drinking Water Act, and by voluntary participation in the Partnership for Safe Water. This article summarizes PWD's understanding of, concerns about, and perspectives on the practical applications of turbidity monitoring.
Y2K
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr addresses Y2K, also called the “millennium bug.” He discusses the origins of Y2K, its seriousness, and how it will affect the water industry.
Optimizing Operations to Reduce Waterborne Disease
Authors: Hubbs Stephen A.
Published: February 2018

In this article, the author discusses his views on the American Water Works Association (AWWA) Partnership for Safe Drinking Water program. The Partnership program gives utilities the tools to reduce the risk of cryptosporidiosis and other waterborne diseases in a nonregulatory framework. The author also discusses how the Partnership promotes performance optimization by focusing on what can be done with existing resources.
Out of Sight, Out of Mind
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr discusses how water quality will be one of the biggest challenges water utilities will face in the next five years. Specifically, distribution systems are addressed as being one of the most overlooked and important barriers to contamination of drinking water. Costs of water infrastructure improvements are discussed, including the US Environmental Protection Agency's Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey.
Using need‐to‐know criteria to design training
Authors: Delvecchio Fred
Published: February 2018

Need‐to‐know criteria and instructional systems design methods can help prepare operators to protect public health.

The Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996 recognize that training and certification contribute to achieving public health and water quality goals. Water facility managers and operators, regulatory personnel, training program managers, and instructors have a stake in the success of training and certification. Certification and training share purposes and methods. Instructional systems design methods and principles can be used to develop effective training and certification examinations. Need‐to‐know (NTK) criteria developed by the Association of Boards of Certification to design certification examinations can serve as a beneficial starting point to identify training needs. NTK criteria are derived from job tasks and the apabilities necessary to accomplish those tasks. Thus, certification that is based on NTK criteria should effectively measure a person's abilities and training. The end result should be competent operators who are able to perform essential job skills.
Cross‐training benefits Oregon plant
Authors: Wise Doug
Published: February 2018

Even in an emergency, this strategy empowers fewer operators to handle more responsibilities effectively and efficiently.

Labor is often the single most expensive component of water treatment operations and water quality monitoring. By fully cross‐training operators in plant operations, maintenance of structures and equipment, and certified laboratory sampling and analyses, any utility can ensure that its employees have the technical capability to complete water production and water quality monitoring tasks cost‐effectively. A fully integrated program that requires operators to complete advanced training, maintain the highest possible certification, and manage diverse responsibilities usually reduces the number of staff positions required at a plant site. Job interest is increased by providing regular shift rotation and varied tasks. Cross‐training typically promotes long tenure because of the resulting job satisfaction. This combination of skill, experience, and responsibility works well during normal operations but proves to be vital during abnormal operations or emergencies, such as the record flooding in Oregon in February 1996.
Operator training: a step‐by‐step approach
Authors: Kerri Kenneth D.
Published: February 2018

Effective training matches learning needs and objectives with the right mix of instruction methods and technologies.

This article describes how to identify operator training needs, define training program objectives, evaluate training methods, and select appropriate methods and technologies. Program planning considerations include operators' availability for and attitudes toward training programs, instruction methods and technologies, time constraints for completing training, and costs. The basic modes of instruction are classroom lectures and home‐study or self‐study programs. Work‐related training programs include apprenticeships, internships, on‐the‐job training, and technical assistance. Instruction can be enhanced by the use of written training materials, videos, compact disks with read‐only memory, interactive computers, and computer simulation games. Operator trainers and utility agencies need to evaluate each training program after it is completed; they should also develop a long‐term strategy to evaluate the effectiveness of the overall training effort and to improve future training programs.
Water's fer Fightin'
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr addresses the issue of public versus private ownership, and how sometimes the mission of protecting and preserving public health is lost in the debate over “who does what better.” He stresses the need for cooperation among industry leaders rather than the current battleground style of resolving issues.
Ultrafiltration Fits Between a Rock and a Hard Place
Authors: Boyd Philip F.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses how the East Shoshone County Water District (ESCWD) in Idaho was faced with filtering its five surface water sources to comply with the requirements of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). An engineer was hired to evaluate the available options: to avoid filtration by converting to a groundwater source; and, to filter the surface water sources using an appropriate technology. The findings of the engineer, including work on a pilot‐testing program for ultrafiltration (UF) equipment, are discussed.
QualServe Pilots Program for Mid‐size Systems
Authors: Crotty Patrick
Published: February 2018

Two utility managers say volunteering for self‐assessment and peer review helped them think outside the box.
BOM removal during biofiltration
Authors: Carlson Kenneth H. , Amy Gary L.
Published: February 2018

Although the biofiltration process may not control the design of a filter bed, results described here can help the engineer better understand the tradeoffs.

Pilot‐scale biofiltration experiments were conducted to determine how empty bed contact time (EBCT) and hydraulic loading rate (HLR) affected the removal of biodegradable organic matter (BOM). The removal of BOM formed during ozonation was measured as the reduction (resulting from biodegradation) of dissolved organic carbon in the filter; it was referred to as biodegradable dissolved organic carbon–filter (BDOCfilter). Ten ozone by‐products were measured to understand the composition of BDOCfilter and to assess whether these by‐products might be used as a surrogate for BOM; none sufficed. BOM formed during ozonation limited the removal of BDOC during biofiltration with two exceptions: nonsteady‐state BOM loading conditions and inadequate EBCT. Both of these conditions were limited by biomass formation. HLR had no effect on BDOCfilter even though markedly different biomass profiles were observed.
Preparing utility computer systems for the year 2000
Authors: Ladner Robert L. , Leake Gary A.
Published: February 2018

Making the transition to the new millennium represents a real threat to water utility operations until a compliance program is completed.

On Jan. 1, 2000, some 80 million computers around the world will attempt to process a 00 year. Without year 2000 (Y2K) compliance assured, some computers will crash, some programs will halt, and others will create countless errors. Worse yet, some programs will produce slightly errant or corrupt data that will be assumed valid because the errors will not be readily detected. Utilities can take strategic steps to ensure that their computer systems are immune from Y2K‐related problems. This article discusses the Y2K problem and presents a methodology utilities can follow to take corrective action.
Converting utility data for a GIS
Authors: Cannistra James R.
Published: February 2018

To be effective, a geographic information system must be created with its intended use, available source materials, and budget considerations in mind.

Most utilities throughout the United States and abroad are planning or implementing an automated mapping–facilities management–geographic information system. The database acquisition and conversion process is typically the most expensive and time‐consuming part of implementing such a system. Many agencies convert water or sewer facility data immediately after a land and parcel database is developed. This article highlights the key technical issues associated with creating a geographic information system database to support water utility operations and applications. It describes database concepts and provides an overview of the data conversion process. Alternative approaches for developing a base map and converting water facility data are described, and technical issues relating to accuracy, symbology, feature content, conversion methodologies, and quality control are discussed.
Committee Report: Design and installation of PE pipe
Authors:   AWWA Polyolefin Pressure Pipe Fittings Committee
Published: February 2018

PE piping made in accordance with AWWA C906‐90 is a sturdy, tough, and durable material ideal for direct burial, no‐dig, and marine installations.

The AWWA Polyolefin Pressure Pipe and Fittings Committee is developing a manual that will focus solely on the design and installation of polyethylene piping made in accordance with AWWA C906‐90. Because development will take at least another year, the committee has produced this report to provide guidance on properly designing and installing PE materials in the meantime. This report discusses the composition and properties of PE piping, including its density, toughness, and ductility; outlines major applications for the material; presents essential design criteria; and offers guidelines on joining, installing, and pressure‐testing PE pipe. A section on marine installations covers selecting an appropriate site and assembling, launching, and submerging pipe.