bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A General Rollback Model for Regional Air Pollution Control Planning
Authors: Horie Y
Published: October 2006

A more general form of proportional model has been derived from the steady-state dispersion equation. Since the model is based on the diffusion model, it can take into account diffusion effects of stack height and spatial distribution of sources. The model, however, does not require so much input data and complex computations as does a diffusion model. In addition to the good features of a proportional model, namely, minimum input requirement and ease of handling, the model explicitly interrelates percentages and amounts of emission reduction with the resulting improvement in air quality. It is applicable for multicategory emission-source situations (for example industrial-residential emission sources) as well as for single-category emission situations (for example automotive emission sources). In the process of model formulation a number of new parameters such as growth factors and relative transfer coefficients are introduced and values of some of these parameters are determined. Several numerical examples are given to illustrate computational procedures and indicate uses of the model in air pollution abatement.
The Interpretation and Calculation of Gravity Model Zone-to-Zone Adjustment Factors
Authors: Cesario F J
Published: October 2006

Major unresolved questions surround the use of zone-to-zone adjustment factors in applications of the gravity model of trip distribution. Specifically, neither an unambiguous interpretation of these factors nor a systematic, efficient method for calculating them is available. The material in this paper represents an attempt at resolving these fundamental issues. A new interpretation of origin and destination effects on tripmaking is provided, after which two computational algorithms for estimating these effects from observed aggregate trip-distribution data are developed. Two examples illustrating the use of the recommended procedures are provided.
An Appraisal of the Development Pole Concept in Regional Analysis
Authors: Todd D
Published: October 2006

A considerable amount of recent literature on development pole concepts contains criticism that there is no adequate unifying ‘theory’ to underpin the concepts. This paper attempts to trace the conceptual evolution of development pole theory in order to isolate some of the causes of theoretical confusion. It concludes with a plea for integration of both the sectoral and spatial aspects of polarization.
Approaches to Residential Location Modelling 2: Urban Economic Models and Some Recent Developments (A Review)
Authors: Senior M L
Published: October 2006

This is the second half of a two part paper reviewing models of the residential subsystem. Part 1 (Senior, 1973)(1) covered urban ecological and spatial interaction models, and concluded on the theme that improved operational predictive models may result from an increased awareness of theoretical work. The theme is continued here with a critical appraisal of economic theories of the housing market and the operational models that urban economists have devised. This provides the basis for a wider ranging review of the ties between existing theories and some recent model developments.
Experiments in Urban Modelling for County Structure Planning: The Area 8 Pilot Model
Authors: Batty M , Bourke R , Cormode P , Anderson-Nicholls M
Published: October 2006

This paper presents the form of the pilot model designed for the Reading–Wokingham–Aldershot–Basingstoke Subregional Study, known as Area 8. The model is based on the well-developed structure first used by Lowry, but in the quest to make the model operational, significant improvements have been made to the use of locational constraints, the treatment of external zones, and calibration. The original model is first outlined, and then a number of algorithms designed to speed up the application of the constraints are tested, the best one reducing the overall model running time by 60%. External zones are considered in the context of constraints, and a much accelerated calibration technique based on a combination of Newton–Raphson and direct-search methods is introduced. The calibration of the model in Area 8 is described, and the problem of measuring and interpreting locational attraction is also addressed. Finally the implications of using the model in county structure planning are traced, in preparation for the application of the large-scale model which is under construction.
Pedestrian Traffic Planning and the Perception of the Urban Environment: A French Example
Authors: Marchand B
Published: October 2006

Planning pedestrian traffic in the city involves a better understanding of pedestrians' behavior and their perception of the urban environment. Lynch's (1961) studies proposed a qualitative method. An alternative method, essentially quantitative, is proposed here: pedestrians surveyed are asked to locate on a paper some well-known landmarks (six in all). Distances between each pair of them are measured. The model allows (1) interpretation of the degree of agreement between mental maps, and (2) a study of the ‘mean’ map. Perception seems to make space more symmetrical. Distortions can be explained by two effects: differences in transportation modes, and a particular knowledge of the neighborhood. The mental map recovered through multidimensional scaling is compared with the topographic one. It does not have the metric topology.
Immigrant Fertility Trends and Population Growth in Leeds
Authors: King J R
Published: October 2006

A simple population-projection model is presented which is used to predict the future numbers of Commonwealth immigrants in Leeds CB. The assumptions concerning survival and immigration used in the model are stated fully. The rates of fertility of immigrant groups in Leeds are investigated along with the trends in these rates in the historical period. These trends are used to calculate future fertility rates for the immigrant groups in Leeds CB. The results of the projection model are presented for each census date up to 1986 and conclusions are drawn from this information.
A Conceptual Framework for Dynamic Location—Allocation Analysis
Authors: Sheppard E S
Published: October 2006

To date, much of the work published on the problems of plant construction has been restricted to either determining the timing of the building, or forming static location—allocation models, with little attempt to combine the spatial and temporal aspects into one solution. By construction of a taxonomic tree, this paper demonstrates that the capacity expansion and the location—allocation solutions are just the simplest instances of a whole class of models. Formulation of these various possibilities is undertaken and it is shown that a fully integrated spatio—temporal plant-construction model can be derived, at least at the theoretical level. Although the derivations are in the form of deterministic programming models, the concluding section of the paper suggests possible ways in which these might be reformulated to allow for the fact that most planning takes place in an uncertain environment.
Traffic Restraint as a Transport Planning Policy 2: A Comparative Network Analysis
Authors: Wigan M R
Published: October 2006

The traffic modelling techniques described in the last issue are here applied to a number of variations on traffic restraint policies. The links between a transport-model view of road pricing and a view based on models of a single road are demonstrated, and the differing impacts and benefits of a range of other—more limited—policies are compared. The special sensitivity of parking policies to the degree of enforcement of parking charges is demonstrated using the same type of equilibrium model, extended to handle two different types of traveller.
A Markovian Entropy-Maximizing Model of Population Distribution
Authors: Lee R
Published: October 2006

The entropy-maximizing formalism used in urban and regional modelling has typically been applied within a static or equilibrium context. This paper presents a dynamic entropy model of the distribution of population over time. It is initially assumed that a Markov chain adequately represents the residential relocation process. The strategy then involves maximizing the entropy of a Markov chain, subject to suitable constraints, so as to generate least-biased estimates of the Markovian parameters. If a stationary process is assumed, these in turn allow the projection of the probability distribution vector of population densities over successive, equal, time intervals.
An Automatically Calibrated Urban Model
Authors: Baxter R , Williams I
Published: October 2006

The Garin–Lowry model is a well-documented spatial interaction model which does, however, leave unanswered questions that relate to the constraint procedure and the supply component. The incorporation of a stock simulation model satisfies both these limitations and if the iterative structure is reformulated the whole is capable of automatic calibration. This paper concentrates on the issue of automatic calibration by presenting a framework within which existing search algorithms can be incorporated, and presents the results of such a calibration and a subsequent run of the model using the automatically derived values for the parameters.
Linkage Flows, Locational Evaluation, and Industrial Geography: A Case Study of Greater London
Authors: Hoare A G
Published: October 2006

Published work on industrial linkage flows has tended to ignore both their relevance in underlying intracity industrial locational patterns and also the extent to which they relate to the present-day evaluation of such locations by firms. A series of hypotheses are set up and tested for Greater London concerning the interrelationships between linkage flows, spatial patterns, and locational evaluation. In general it is found that the volume of freight moving to and from firms in linkage flows is a poor predictor of spatial patterns and locational evaluation, despite the fact that London firms perceive linkages as important, not only in themselves but also in their strong relationship both to the degree to which firms concentrate on local markets and to their rates of decentralisation. Possible reasons for this paradox are suggested and, finally, some practical implications of the findings are indicated.
Optimal Allocation of Resources to the Educational Sector in a System of Regions
Authors: Felderer B
Published: October 2006

After a review of different approaches to educational planning, the usefulness of various optimization models for regional educational planning is examined. These models are criticized for not making a distinction between education as an investment and education as a consumption good. Also they do not distinguish between supply of and demand for education, which leads to serious problems. In optimization models for the whole economy the solution depends on a large number of coefficient matrices. Each of these matrices is subject to errors of measurement. These can lead to very large errors in the variables concerning the educational system.

The probability of error is drastically reduced if we limit ourselves to a sectoral model of the educational system, in which the future manpower requirement is an exogenous variable. The optimization model presented in this paper is an attempt along these lines, and takes into account a regional decision structure.
Trip Distribution and Disaggregation
Authors: Hathaway P J
Published: October 2006

This paper describes an investigation into the gain in the predictive and descriptive abilities of a trip-distribution model which takes into account the differences shown to exist between various categories of trip maker. Four classifications of trip makers are considered—age, sex and marital status, socioeconomic group, occupational classification, and standard industrial classification. A trip-distribution model is calibrated for each of the categories mentioned above. Calibration methods are discussed and a new method whereby the significance of the differences in the values in the trip-distribution model parameters between categories may be examined. It is concluded that it is not worth running separate distribution models for each distinct category of trip maker since the improvement, at least in descriptive ability, is only marginally better than the fit shown by a single trip-distribution model.
A Typological Approach to Individual Urban Travel Behavior Prediction
Authors: Oppenheim N
Published: October 2006

With the use of cluster analysis a sample of 1018 residents of the San Francisco Bay Area was classified into eleven types of urban residents on the basis of overall similarity of personal and environmental characteristics, and independently into nine types of travel behavior.

The relations between the two typologies, and the comparative travel behavior of the types of urban resident were investigated in an attempt to gain insight into the determinants of urban travel. The probability of the correct assignment of a travel behaviour type to an urban resident type was of the order of 0·30.

Monte Carlo simulation methods were used to test empirically whether the value of a given travel behavior characteristic for a given urban resident type can be assumed to be higher (or lower) than the value in the general population, thus testing the predictability of the travel behavior of the various urban resident types. Conversely, the prediction of the urban traveler's personal characteristics given his travel behavior type was also evaluated.

This typological approach made the prediction of the usage of the San Francisco Bay Area rapid transit system (for going to work, for going to shop, for going out for leisure, or for some other purpose) possible, in about 15% of the cases, from the knowledge of the urban resident type and, in about 25% of the cases, from the knowledge of the travel behavior type.
A Dynamic Hotelling-Type Model
Authors: Davies O
Published: October 2006

This paper describes two strategies which analyse the problem of locating public facilities, such as health and daycare centers, in a spatial market with consumer demand increasing over time. Both strategies are required to satisfy some prescribed optimality criterion at the end of a given planning period. Production (demand) totals, corresponding to each strategy, are compared for any given demand level. Finally, the possibility of reaping scale economies, as production expands, is explored.
The Analysis of Housing and Travel Preferences: A Gaming Approach
Authors: Rowley G , Wilson Susan
Published: October 2006

This paper represents a report on the study of housing and travel preferences both of coloured immigrants and of native British within the city of Sheffield, England. The investigation uses gaming procedures to facilitate the recording of raw data which reflect the preference patterns of the respondents. Certain hypotheses are proposed and the statistical analysis of the gaming procedures is developed. Simple χ2 goodness-of-fit tests are used to assess the allocation of preferences over the various elements for the two populations considered. The general approach can be quite readily extended to more complex situations. With hindsight, improvements to the initial game format are suggested.
Effort—Wage Relations, Choice of Technique, and the Urban Employment-Absorption Problem
Authors: Leibenstein H
Published: October 2006

The paper deals with some determinants of urban labor-supply absorption. This paper challenges the usual view of wage rate as an equilibrating mechanism whereby unemployment leads to lower wages which in turn encourage the introduction of more labor-intensive capital that increases demand for labor. The rational reasons for the introduction of laborsaving equipment even under conditions of unemployment is derived by considering the concept of effort per worker. Because labor contracts for continuous relationships are imprecise with regard to effort, effort variation exists. The degree to which inputs are underutilized is the degree of ‘ X-inefficiency’. Since effort depends partly on motivation, lower wages may result in more than a proportionately lower value of effort; firms will not want to minimize the wage per man-year that they pay but the wage per unit of effort. Capital-intensive techniques may (up to a certain point) be ‘effort-stretching’, stimulating a higher level of effort per worker. Under such circumstances unemployment would not lead to the introduction of more labor-intensive capital nor necessarily to the absorption of the unemployed.
Intraurban Spatial Association between Places of Work and Places of Residence
Authors: Hochman O , Fishelson G , Pines D
Published: October 2006

This report presents preliminary findings with regard to the spatial association between places of work and places of residence in Israel. The existence of such an association becomes apparent when the lines of demarcation coincide with the boundaries of the local authorities within the metropolitan area of Tel-Aviv. A finer demarcation is used to compare the actual work-trips distribution with a random distribution on the one hand and an efficient distribution on the other hand. This comparison is made separately for white-collar occupations, blue-collar occupations and all other occupations. The findings seem to be definitely inconsistent with the assumption of independence. Moreover, the ordering of the ‘proximity indices’, suggested in the paper, supports the efficient distribution hypothesis.
Patterns of Population Densities in the Tel-Aviv Metropolitan Area
Authors: Shachar A
Published: October 2006

This paper deals with an empirical investigation of the applicability of two well-known functions—the Clark and Newling functions—for the description of the patterns of population densities in the Tel-Aviv metropolitan area. The density pattern is examined in a temporal cross-section in order to trace systematic changes in it. The fitting of the two functions is done by two different methods in order to find out the influence of the method of measurement on the type of pattern generated. The findings of the investigation enable several hypotheses to be developed concerning the factors involved in structuring the density pattern of the population in the Tel-Aviv metropolitan area.
The Effect of Efficient Pricing of Air Pollution on Intraurban Land-Use Patterns
Authors: Oron Y , Pines D
Published: October 2006

This paper presents an analysis of the effect of an efficient price system on the degree of suburbanization when there exists a stable source of pollution located in the center of the city. It is shown that the city becomes more suburbanized when the external effect, associated with the emission of pollutants, is internalized by proper taxation. Under the assumptions of the model, the introduction of efficient pricing (which internalizes the external effects) is not neutral with regard to the composition of consumption. The introduction of efficient pricing results in an increase in the consumption of housing and a decrease in the consumption of all other goods.
On the Relative-Frequency Interpretation of Finite Maximum-Entropy Distributions
Authors: Smith T E
Published: October 2006

This paper critically reexamines the Jaynes interpretation of finite maximum-entropy distributions as limits of the ‘most likely’ relative-frequency distributions consistent with any given prior information. It is shown that while this interpretation is valid in a number of cases, it fails to hold for many types of prior information. Given this limitation, a weaker form of the Jaynes interpretation is proposed which is shown to hold for a wider class of prior information.
The Effects of Public Provision of Roads on the Structure and Size of Cities
Authors: Borukhov E
Published: October 2006

In this paper it is argued that public provision of roads causes cities to become more spread out than they would otherwise be, and that it tends to attract people to big cities.
Toward a Taxonomy of Belgian Daily Activity Spaces
Authors: van Naelten M
Published: October 2006

From the planner's point of view, a taxonomy of the urban daily activity spaces (DAS) is considered as an introductory step toward explaining the differential growth within an urban system. The cluster-analysis method of Rubin and Friedman (1967) is applied to the Belgian DAS, and yields three types. A first cluster identifies the large agglomerations including the older regional centres. The second and third clusters clearly show various aspects of regional structure. They demonstrate the taxonomic power of the method as well as providing a possible basis for planning policy.
Estimation of the Coefficients of a Linear Regression in the Presence of Spatial Autocorrelation. An Application to a Belgian Labour-Demand Function
Authors: Bodson P , Peeters D
Published: October 2006

Regression analyses of a spatially distributed variable is a common technique in urban and regional planning. Frequently, however, the disturbance terms are not completely independent but exhibit spatial autocorrelation. A method is proposed for taking account of this spatial autocorrelation and is illustrated by means of an application to a Belgian labour-demand function.
L'essentiel et le Résidu: Le cas de la Planification Urbaine
Authors: Dreyfus J
Published: October 2006

Les modèles de valeur du sol, ignorant la localisation résidentielle comme un lieu social, les actions sur les quartiers anciens, incapables d'appréhender ceux qui y vivent dans leur réalité quotidienne, suggèrent que ce qui apparaît comme résiduel pourrait être l'essentiel. L'essentiel relève de l'ordre de la différence renvoyant au désir entendu au sens psychanalytique et à la relation à l'autre à travers la symbolique sociale et qui fait que l'autre—autrui—est rejeté en tant qu'autre—différent. Mais l'ordre de la différence n'a pas sa place dans la planification urbaine. Les méthodes de formalisation tendent à effacer toute différence et les actions du planificateur essayant de saisir un résidu insaisissable enserrent l'homme dans un carcan de contraintes s'opposant à l'actualisation du désir. Mais telle pourrait être sa raison d'être.
The Size of the Region-Building Problem
Authors: Keane M
Published: October 2006

The problem of region building can be viewed as an aggregation problem. This note presents some combinatorial mathematics which outline the size of the problem. The methods are particularly useful in situations where the number of spatial units to be regionalized is large.
Dynamic Systems Modelling of the North-West Region: 3. Adaptive-Parameter Policy Model
Authors: Bennett R J
Published: October 2006

This is the third of four papers which will be published in close sequence in this journal. For a general distributed-lag transfer-function model of regional economic structure, the paper examines the nature of patterns of parameter variation that may be present. Methods of estimating such adaptive or innovative changes in parameter variation are then discussed, and one method based upon assuming a random-walk model of parameter behaviour is applied to estimating dynamic parameter trends, shifts, and stochastic variation for a five-equation model of the North-west region. Changes in this model structure are found to characterise, mainly, parameters associated with employment linkage, and migration and industrial-movement responses. In most cases, the employment-exchange areas in the North-west are shown to be increasingly amplifying, rather than damping, national economic fluctuations. An attempt is also made to link the observed shifts in parameter values to changes in policy instruments.
A Model of Size and Economic Structure in an Urban Hierarchy
Authors: Marshall J U
Published: October 2006

By extending the work of previous researchers, this paper develops a model of city size and economic structure which recognizes the distinction between final and nonfinal markets as sources of urban support. The model is applied to various sets of data, and the results support the hypothesis that central-place firms benefit from increased economies of scale in larger centres, at least in the lower orders of a hierarchy. The results also cast some light on the manner in which the structure of an essentially hierarchical urban system can vary across space, and the implications of such variation for compatibility with the rank-size rule are noted.
Timing Space and Spacing Time
Authors: Parkes D N , Thrift N
Published: October 2006

A plea is made for a chronosophical approach to the selection of dimensions of time which might be relevant to the description and explanation of urban processes. Following the definition of some basic terms and concepts which might be used in the future development of a notational schema, the paper considers some possibilities which are inherent in the idea of timing space. This is followed by similar consideration of the idea of spacing time. These themes are compounded in a simple example which suggests that fundamental ongoing processes in daily urban behaviour are usefully summarised by what we call the accordion effect. The final section proposes that new insights into the problem of evaluating the quality of life of urban residents are obtained when such an approach is taken.
Weighted Digraph Models for the Assessment of Energy Use and Air Pollution in Transportation Systems
Authors: Roberts F S
Published: October 2006

This paper describes extensions, to weighted and double-weighted digraphs, of the author's earlier work on building and analyzing energy-demand signed digraphs. Several weighted and double-weighted digraphs are built to provide a test of the construction methodology, to provide a test of the methods of analysis of such digraphs, and to illustrate the type of analysis one can make using such digraphs as models of complex systems. The digraphs are constructed within the context of the transportation system of a hypothetical metropolitan area, similar to the County of San Diego, California. The digraphs are used to compare fuel consumption and air pollution under two scenarios: the nominal case, where clean air standards are met by some retrofitting of cars with smog control devices; and the bus case, where cars are banned and an expensive wide-ranging bus system is introduced. It is concluded that weighted and double-weighted digraphs can be constructed relatively inexpensively and that at least weighted, and probably double-weighted, digraphs can be used at an early stage of a policy-making task to set directions for further research.
Dynamic Systems Modelling of the North-West Region: 4. Adaptive Spatio—Temporal Forecasts
Authors: Bennett R J
Published: October 2006

This is the last of four papers which have appeared in close sequence in this journal. The present paper examines methods by which distributed-lag, transfer-function models can be used for forecasting regional economic structure. The methods are based upon assumptions of both static and dynamic parameter behaviour in the future, and derive from an extension of the Wiener-Kalman filter to spatio—temporal problems, yielding minimum mean-square error forecasts. On the basis of the methods developed, a set of forecasts is prepared for the future levels of population and employment in sixty-nine employment exchange areas in the North-west region up to 1975 on the basis of data available in 1970. These forecasts are then compared with those obtained from other studies, especially the recently published Strategic Plan for the North-west. This comparison shows similar results for most areas, but divergences in other instances. It is noted that the forecasts achieved by the present methods are considerably cheaper and easier to obtain than those derived from the methods usually adopted in regional strategies.
Changes in the Ecological Structure of Hong Kong 1961–1971: A Comparative Analysis
Authors: Lo C P
Published: October 2006

Two sets of data from the 1961 and 1971 censuses of the colonial city of Hong Kong have been factor analysed by various methods that have been subjected to orthogonal and varimax rotations. Interpretations have revealed two robust factors of ‘high-income expatriate workers’ and ‘low-income blue- and white-collar workers’ in 1961. By 1971 a more diversified socioeconomic stratification of the Chinese and high-income expatriate workers had emerged. A new ‘public-housing residents’ dimension also appeared. The spatial patterns of the social areas of Hong Kong over a decade, obtained by a numerical procedure of cluster analysis, have also been compared, and the massive involuntary redistribution of population that resulted in the creation of a peripheral, government public-housing area in the previously rural—urban fringe area has been noted. These lead to some theoretical considerations of the validity of Western urban theories and concepts since the Hong Kong spatial pattern tends towards a greater degree of regularity. It is also recommended that the orthogonal and oblique rotations can complement each other to give the macro and micro variations of the urban dimensions.
Empirical Identification of Key Sectors: Some Further Evidence
Authors: Beyers W B
Published: October 2006

Techniques for the identification of key sectors have been developed in recent years. This paper proposes improvements in these methods of calculation and provides an illustration of these techniques.
Observations on Accounting Procedures and Urban-Size Policies
Authors: Johnston R J
Published: October 2006

The existence of inequalities among the population of all free-market economies has led to investigations of the location of social problems. Many of these problems are concentrated in large cities, which places are also believed to generate many of the benefits considered vital to continued economic growth. Measurement and evaluation of the costs and benefits of cities of various sizes is thus important for the derivation of policies which will minimise costs and maximise benefits. With regard to measurement, this paper argues that costs are not properly accounted for, and a method of doing this is suggested. With regard to evaluation, I argue against liberal economists who see costs as necessary evils to be countered by price mechanisms and, as a consequence, inequalities.
A City is Not a Semilattice Either
Authors: Harary F , Rockey J
Published: October 2006

In 1965 Christopher Alexander took the original step of analysing the city in graph theoretical terms and concluded that its historical or natural form is a semilattice and that urban planners of the future should adhere to this model. The idea was well received in architectural circles and has passed without serious challenge. In this paper, the value of such analysis is once again emphasized, although some of Alexander's arguments and his conclusions are refuted. Beginning with an exposition of the relationship between the graph theoretical concept of a tree, and the representation of a tree by a family of sets, we present a mathematical definition of a semilattice and discuss the ‘points’ and ‘lines’ of a graph in terms of a city, concluding that it is neither a tree nor a semilattice. This clears the ground for future graphical analysis. It seems that even general structural configurations, such as graphs or digraphs with certain specified properties, will fail to characterize a city, whose complexity, at this stage, may well continue to be understood more readily through negative rather than positive descriptions.
Human Geography, Regional Science, and the Study of Individual Behaviour
Authors: Cullen I G
Published: October 2006

This paper discusses the relationship between the highly disaggregated studies of spatial behaviour and perception, which are becoming more and more commonplace in the geographic and planning literature, and the basic tenets of the methods generally accepted within the parent disciplines of human geography and regional science. The argument is advanced that the relationship is an unfortunate one of dependence; that behavioural research in geography has accepted too easily a philosophy of science and an approach to problem formulation and hypothesis testing which is ‘handed down’ indirectly from the natural sciences; and that this limitation has effectively precluded a whole range of approaches to the study of human spatial behaviour, approaches which could be very fruitful indeed.
The Efficiency of Speculation in Urban Land
Authors: Capozza D R
Published: October 2006

This paper analyzes the effect of speculation in land at the urban periphery on resource allocation. A simple dynamic model of residential location is developed and its properties are analyzed both qualitatively and numerically. One finding is that social costs in a typical city are increased by about three to seven per cent as a result of speculative increases in the value of idle land. Appropriate tax policies are studied.
Urban Residential Analysis: 1. Spatial Consumer Behaviour
Authors: Papageorgiou G J
Published: October 2006

Equilibrium efficiency and optimum are fundamental concepts that characterize the form of ideal cities. Such forms, coupled with the ‘closed’–‘open’ distinction, provide a rich gamut of urban structures. Yet transcending this diversity of types and individualistic attributes there is a more general, unified level of analysis. Long (1971) has worked at this level, and the trend is continued in this paper.

Externalities, policies, and public goods are fundamental issues underlining the recent strong concern for normative analysis. Such issues are typically related to questions of environmental quality. Indeed the impact of environmental quality upon urban structure is decisive: the message emerges clearly as the main conclusion of this essay. The gist of the analysis concerns relations among environmental quality, composition of society, and spatial choice. These relations are general in the sense that they apply both to positive and to normative models of cities.
A Note on a Conceptual Framework for Dynamic Location—Allocation Analysis
Authors: Truscott W G
Published: October 2006

This note examines a previously published model for dynamic location—allocation analysis. The usefulness of this model is enhanced by reformulating the problem as an operational zero-one, mixed-integer program while retaining the intent of the original version.
Some Problems of Mapping the 1971 Census by Computer
Authors: Kirby A M , Tarn D
Published: October 2006

The paper justifies an intermediate-technology approach to computer mapping, and discusses the application of SYMAP to the presentation of census data. The problems of base-map preparation, data manipulation, and the presentation of line-printer output are all discussed. An example of finished output and an operational FORTRAN program for data amalgamation are presented.
Residential Area Characteristics and Residential Area Homogeneity: Further Thoughts on Extensions to the Factorial Ecology Method
Authors: Newton P W , Johnston R J
Published: October 2006

This brief article follows an earlier one which identified deficiencies in the descriptive power of the factorial ecology method. Attention is focused here on within-area variations through use of an Index of Qualitative Variation. Application of this index to data for Christchurch, New Zealand, along with the ‘classical’ factorial ecology approach, provides a more detailed description of the sociospatial environment than has hitherto been possible.
A Model of Shopping Center Location
Authors: Ducca F W , Wilson R H
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this paper is to present a model of retail employment which includes planned shopping centers in the employment-allocation function. The differences between planned shopping centers and unplanned areas are explored. The model to project retail employment is presented. Multiple sources of demand are allowed and an equilibrium between employment and demand is assumed. A procedure to locate additional planned shopping-center areas is derived. The calibration procedure involves a hill-climbing algorithm, a criterion function, and the partial derivatives of the allocation function. Calibration results indicate a good parameter fit and support the hypothesis that planned shopping centers attract retail employment.
Nonlinear Programming Approaches to National Settlement System Planning
Authors: Evtushenko Y , MacKinnon R D
Published: October 2006

Three rather aggregate approaches to modelling interregional migration processes within a context of national urban settlement systems are described. General, modified penalty-function methods of nonlinear programming are developed and then adapted for application to the simplest of the three migration models. The properties of numerical convergence of the procedure are discussed. Some of the numerical results of a case study for a Canadian urban system are interpreted. Finally, some extensions to the procedures used in this study, as well as alternative approaches to the same problem, or similar problems, are suggested.
Cost—Benefit Analysis and the Perpetuation of Regional Imbalance—A Note
Authors: Hay A
Published: October 2006

Regional development benefits are excluded from cost—benefit analysis, but the valuation techniques and discounting techniques create a bias towards projects in the best-developed regions. Three devices to counter this tendency are noted.
A Dynamic Feedback Approach to Modelling Spatial Population Density
Authors: Lee R
Published: October 2006

This paper presents an approach to modelling population density as a function of space and time, both of which are treated over a continuous domain. An equilibrium (or alternatively, an optimal) distribution of urban population density is specified exogenously. The rate of change of the actual population density is then considered to be a function of the deviations between the actual and the equilibrium (or optimal) density distributions, over time. This adjustment process is interpreted as being realized by internal migration, immigration/emigration, and/or natural growth. A formal specification of the models results in integral—differential equations. A solution procedure that uses double Laplace transforms and partial Laplace transforms with respect to space and time is outlined. Properties relating to the limiting distributions are discussed. An example that makes use of exponential functions is presented; and procedures for computing explicit, and possibly heuristic, solutions are noted.
The Psychological Role of Property Rights in Human Behavior
Authors: Edney J J
Published: October 2006

A number of psychologists are turning their interests to the problems of property rights in human behavior. This is a recent development, and the relevant work is found in studies of territoriality. A number of basic theories of territoriality are summarized here, with comments on the problems of defining the term. It has further been proposed that territories affect humans at three levels of analysis, including interaction with social rank distinction, reduction of disorder and complexity, and chaining individual behavior acts. From a subjective point of view territories are probably connected with a personal sense of security, control, self-determination, identity, and continuity.
Factorial Ecology in Space and Time: An Alternative Method
Authors: Hanham R Q
Published: October 2006

An experiment conducted by Taylor and Parkes (1975) to investigate the factorial ecology of a city within a time—space framework is reexamined by means of an alternative method. The original experiment used common-factor analysis (a two-mode procedure) in a three-mode problem. Using the published data of this experiment, the new method, Individual Differences Scaling (INDSCAL), identifies two major dimensions and defines their importance for each of the time periods being considered. INDSCAL has a greater potential as such a method, since it is capable of analyzing problems of up to seven-mode in nature.
A Spatial-Discounting Theory of Interaction Preferences
Authors: Smith T E
Published: October 2006

In a variety of situations involving human interaction, actors compare alternative interaction opportunities in terms of their perceived distance or accessibility to opportunities within some relevant space of attributes. In this paper, a theory of interaction preferences is proposed in which actors implicitly discount potential opportunity interactions in terms of these perceived distances. This form of implicit discounting behavior is shown to be characterized by three general axioms of observable preference behavior. The special case of exponential spatial discounting is also characterized explicitly. In addition, conditions are established under which discounted preferences are representable by utility functions. Finally, the dependence of discounted preferences on the underlying configuration of distances is examined in depth.
Thoughts on Revealed Preference and Spatial Behaviour
Authors: Pirie G H
Published: October 2006

The contention that space preferences determine spatial behaviour, and the claim that these preferences may be elicited from behavioural data are examined. Since not all behaviour is discretionary and not all choices are based on preferences, both the manner and the situations in which a preference-based approach is applied should be carefully selected. Conceptually it appears that revealed space-preference modelling reflects consistency of spatial choice rather than preference-based laws of spatial behaviour.
Farm Size and Regional Structure: A Preliminary Insight
Authors: Todd D , Brierley J S
Published: October 2006

This paper is concerned with differentiating the effects of regional structure on farm size and function within southern Manitoba. Farm size is presumed to represent the equilibrium outcome of internal and external forces that influence the agricultural system. Internal forces include various physical and cultural factors as well as local marketing patterns; external forces may operate through the aegis of interregional comparative advantage. A canonical analysis is set up to examine the multiplicity of factors contributing to the agricultural outcome. That analysis interrelates a set of variables representing the agricultural regional structure with a set that represents the industrial—urban domain. From the results, distinct farm size—function characteristics are identified for southern Manitoba.
Hierarchical Aggregation Procedures for Interaction Data: A Comment
Authors: Hirst M A
Published: October 2006

The procedure for the hierarchical aggregation of interaction data advocated by Masser and Brown (1975) does not take into account variations in the size of the row and column totals of the interaction matrix during the grouping process. The evaluation of cell entries within the matrix according to the objective function in the proposed aggregation procedure is thereby invalidated. Prior adjustment of the interaction matrix, so that both rows and columns in the resultant matrix sum to the same arbitrary total, effectively overcomes the problem of size effects.
The Geography of British Exports
Authors: Hoare A G
Published: October 2006

The geographical study of the origins of foreign exports within an exporting country has received no serious attention to date, despite its undoubted practical importance. Data relating to the origins of British exports in 1964 enable this pattern to be described and analysed with respect to a series of possible ‘causal’ factors. These themselves represent a range of spatial, structural, and dynamic economic characteristics of areas for which the data are recorded. Although subsequent analysis is qualified by possible data deficiencies, the general result is that such characteristics are capable of ‘explaining’ under half of the overall spatial variation in export generation, suggesting that more attention should be given to other, essentially nongeographical variables, with consequent significant implications for industrial and regional policy.
An Application of Quadratic Programming to Electrical Energy Production
Authors: Uri N D
Published: October 2006

The issue that is addressed concerns the potential cost savings to a portion of the United States if the economic advantages some regions possess in generating electrical energy are passed on to other regions. The basic conclusions include the argument that a misallocation of electrical energy among consumer sectors exists, that societal welfare could be increased if the industry were to operate from an aggregate power-system viewpoint, and finally that the industry, in the aggregate, is charging a price in excess of the marginal cost of supplying electrical energy.
Observations on Accounting Procedures and Urban-Size Problems: A Comment
Authors: Richardson H W
Published: October 2006

This paper challenges the idea that city-size control strategies can be used to correct for interpersonal inequities. Doubts about the effectiveness of these strategies do not imply a commitment to unbridled economic growth. Neither input-output analysis nor national accounting systems is a suitable technique for evaluating Professor Johnston's ‘welfare/illfare’ model. Population-distribution policies are not the most efficient means of combatting negative externalities.
The Evaluation of Transportation Model Random Error in Social and Environmental Indices
Authors: Horowitz A J
Published: October 2006

Transportation simulation models can be used to calculate social and environmental indices of transportation system performance. The outputs of the simulation models are subject to random error, and this error is transmitted to these indices. Random error is a consequence of inaccuracies in calibration and input data, and simplified model theory. The error in the indices can often be estimated prior to model execution, thus allowing the analyst to determine whether the complexity of the model is appropriate for his particular needs. Examples of how noise pollution, air pollution, vehicle-miles-traveled, and vehicle-hours-traveled indices are affected by changing the zone size of an assignment model illustrate how knowledge of index error may be used to design a transportation simulation.
Information Theory: Some Concepts and Measures
Authors: Walsh J A , Webber M J
Published: October 2006

The concepts of entropy and of information are increasingly used in spatial analysis. This paper analyses these ideas in order to show how measures of spatial distributions may be constructed from them. First, the information content of messages is examined and related to the notion of uncertainty. Then three information measures, due to Shannon, Brillouin, and Good, are derived and shown to be appropriate in analysing different spatial problems; in particular, the Shannon and Brillouin measures are extensively compared and the effects of sample size on them are investigated. The paper also develops appropriate multivariate analogues of the information measures. Finally, some comments are made on the relations between the concepts of entropy, information, and order.
Optimal Allocation of Capital between Production and Emission Control
Authors: Fishelson G
Published: October 2006

The resources of society that are available for investment are limited. The investment decision of a firm in a perfect capital market is aimed towards profit maximization. In both cases the optimal decisions are based upon expected outcomes when the outcomes are uncertain. Furthermore it is shown that when the degree of uncertainty changes, the optimal decision depends upon the behaviour of the marginal utilities of the outcomes. These general propositions are demonstrated and the optimal solution is presented for the specific case in which the outcome is environmental quality. Environmental quality is introduced explicitly into the social utility function and implicitly into the utility-from-profits function via a tax on the firm's contribution to environmental quality.