bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A COMPUTERIZED TOOL FOR OIL SPILL RESPONSE DECISION MAKING
Authors: Flaherty L. Michael , Riley John E. , Hansen Allen G.
Published: January 2013

In 1984, the authors developed a preliminary version of a computerized oil spill countermeasure decision tree. The original purpose of this tool was to be used for real-time spill response, although both training and contingency planning have now been identified as additionally important uses of this product. A presentation and demonstration of the spill response and training tool were made at the 1985 Oil Spill Conference. Since that conference, comments have been solicited from government and private organizations, and the program has been upgraded to include several important features. A revised program was developed and made available for field use in June 1986.

This paper provides a brief review of the oil spill response decision process and contingency planning, the development of other decision trees, a review of what was accomplished since the last conference with this decision tree, and a discussion of the uses of the software for training purposes, for contingency planning, and for handling responses at actual spill situations. In addition, innovations in the program and those currently under development are presented. Some noteworthy additions are described which include a checklist for oil spill data gathering as well as printing capabilities for commenting on and documenting the entire decision path. Another feature identified is the inclusion of the entire National Contingency Plan (NCP) schedule of countermeasure products in the program.

Finally, a discussion of future program enhancements being considered is provided, including the use of electronic mail and multiuser computers to allow response personnel at different locations to communicate, modifications of the program to address regional needs, and the expansion of the tool to include hazardous chemical spills.
ORGANISM EXPOSURE TO VOLATILE/SOLUBLE HYDROCARBONS FROM CRUDE OIL SPILLS—A FIELD AND LABORATORY COMPARISON
Authors: McAuliffe Clayton D.
Published: January 2013

The acute toxicities of the water soluble fraction of crude oils or the aqueous solution of individual hydrocarbons were compared with the field exposure concentrations to dissolved hydrocarbons under crude oil slicks and emulsion plumes from chemically dispersed slicks. The exposures were related by expressing LC50 values for differing times and varying concentrations as a product (mean concentration × time = ppm-hours). Field exposures to soluble hydrocarbons under oil slicks on open water or in plumes of efficiently dispersed slicks are very low (from 150 to 1 million times lower) compared with exposures to cause half mortality for more than 50 marine species. This is so because oil slicks are thin, generally with average thickness between 0.1 and 0.01 mm. A high water-to-oil ratio limits the concentration of total oil to 10 to 100 ppm in the top meter of water, and 1 to 10 in 10 m. The soluble and volatile hydrocarbons quickly evaporate to the atmosphere from the slick or from near-surface waters. The field exposure of organisms in the water column is low initially and is transitory. Thus, oil spills and the chemical dispersion of slicks are unlikely to have measurable adverse effects on larval, juvenile, or adult marine organisms in the water column.
WHERE HAS ALL THE OIL GONE? DISPERSED OIL DETECTION IN A WAVE BASIN AND AT SEA
Authors: Brown H. M. , Goodman R. H. , Canevari Gerard P.
Published: January 2013

During the past 10 years, there have been many sea trials of dispersant chemicals for the purpose of demonstrating the effectiveness of specific products or elucidating the processes of oil dispersion into the water column. Unfortunately, most of these tests have proved inconclusive, leading many to believe that dispersant chemicals are only marginally effective. Wave basin tests have been carried out at the Esso Resources Canada Limited laboratory in Calgary, Canada, to measure dispersant effectiveness under closely controlled conditions. These tests show that dispersed oil plumes may be irregular and concentrated over small volumes, so that extensive plume sampling was required to obtain accurate dispersant effectiveness measurements. In large-scale sea trials, dispersants have been shown effective, but only where sufficient sampling of the water column was done to detect small concentrated dispersed oil plumes and where it was known that the dispersant was applied primarily to the thick floating oil.
DISPERSANT SPRAYING GUN
Authors: Barbouteau Gerard , Angles Michel , La Salle Yves Le Gal
Published: January 2013

An agricultural forced-air spray gun was modified to apply dispersant from the deck of a ship at sea. Under no-wind conditions, this sprayer had a range of up to 30 meters; with the wind behind it, dispersant could be applied over a slick area up to 60 meters from the ship. Further development will involve testing in actual spill conditions by one of the subsidiaries of the Elf Aquitaine Group.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR DISPERSANT USE: TANK VESSEL PUERTO RICAN INCIDENT1
Authors: Zawadzki David , Stieb Jeffrey D. , McGee Stewart
Published: January 2013

The tank vessel Puerto Rican broke into two sections on November 3, 1984, following explosions and fires which had begun three days earlier. Approximately 30,000 barrels of lube oil and lube oil additives were released 32 miles west-southwest of the Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, California. After careful consideration of the possible effects on the environment of the application of dispersants, the U.S. Coast Guard On-Scene Coordinator requested and received authorization from the Regional Response Team to use Corexit 9527 for chemically dispersing the spilled oil. This was the first authorized use of dispersants on a major oil spill in the United States.
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF OIL SPILL CONTROL DEVICES FOR USE IN COLD CLIMATES IN JAPAN
Authors: Suzuki Isao , Miki Kenjiro
Published: January 2013

In 1981, the Institute of Ocean Environmental Technology (IOOET) began work on the five-year Arctic Marine Oil Spill Control Devices Research and Development program in Japan. The following tests were conducted at the IOOET's test facility.The physical properties and evaporation of a crude oil were examined under a variety of temperature conditions.Two selected adhesion type oil skimmers, a mop and a disc type, were evaluated for their recovery efficiency and oil recovery rate using an oil which had the same viscosity as crude oil at low temperatures. The mop type oil skimmer was newly developed in this program.Performance tests were conducted with two portable oil booms which were popular in Japan. Booms were towed in the catenary configuration with oil and simulated ice pieces. Booms were tested for the critical tow speed at which oil or ice began to escape the boom.Experiments using midwater trawl nets were conducted for recovering oils sunk below the water surface. Various types of trawl net were designed and tested in the circulating water channel with emulsified bunker C fuel oil.

This paper summarizes the results of the tests and shows the applicability of each device for use in cold waters.
IN-PLACE BURNING OF CRUDE OILS IN BROKEN ICE1
Authors: Smith Nelline K. , Diaz Anibal
Published: January 2013

In March 1986, in-place oil-burning tests were conducted at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) facility in Leonardo, New Jersey. These tests culminated a three-year effort to explore the range of conditions under which in-place burning of oil is possible in broken-ice conditions. Four tests were conducted in the OHMSETT test tank in a 42 m2 area, and 19 follow-on tests were conducted in a 1 m2 pan. The tank tests used Hibernia A and Prudhoe Bay crude oils. The oil was burned in an area having 60% to 75% ice cover. In tests with Hibernia A, both neat and aerated to raise the flash point to 14° C, a total of 65% to 75% of the oil was removed by burning. The neat Prudhoe Bay crude was aerated to a flash point of 46° C and only allowed removal of 18% of the oil. An emulsion of 9% Sandy Hook Bay water and 91% Hibernia crude burned, removing 55% of the emulsion.

The pan tests used four crude oils in neat, aerated, and emulsified conditions. These included Prudhoe Bay, Hibernia A, Hibernia B, and Hibernia C crude oils. The pan tests confirmed trends observed in the tank tests: the removal efficiency of burning decreases by the presence of water in the oil and as the flash point of the oil increases. This phenomenon may be attributed to changes in chemical composition and loss of more volatile (flammable) components of the oil.

These tests were sponsored by the OHMSETT Interagency Technical Committee, which includes representatives from the U.S. Minerals Management Service, Canadian Environmental Protection Service, U.S. Coast Guard, and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
DEAD ENDANGERED SPECIES IN A CALIFORNIA OIL SPILL
Authors: Simons Edward A. , Akin Morgan
Published: January 2013

Numerous oil wells surround Taft, California, in the southern San Joaquin Valley. Heavy rains in the winter of 1985-86 brought about the overflow of a drainage channel through which brine water separated from oil was being transported to a treatment facility. The spill resulted in the known deaths of 116 mammals and 2 doves; among the mammals were 11 giant kangaroo rats, Dopodomys ingens, on the state list of endangered species. The operating procedures of the oil companies, their contractors, and state agencies have been improved as a result of this incident.
OILED SEDIMENTS IN THE HUMBER ESTUARY FOLLOWING THE SIVAND INCIDENT
Authors: Little D. I.
Published: January 2013

The Sivand oil spill of September 28, 1983, was unusual in that 6,000 t of crude oil were spilled in a highly turbid estuary. This study aimed to contribute to knowledge of spatial and temporal oil distribution and to examine its degradation. The role of suspended particulate matter (SPM) in the fate of oil is discussed, but the study concentrates on stranded oil in two sedimentologically distinct shorelines where ecological and conservation interests are high. The sites were Humberston Fitties, a sand flat, and Blacktoft Sand, a muddy shore in the inner estuary. Methods used were replicate sediment core sampling followed by gas liquid chromatography (GLC) and included ancillary sediment analyses.

Soon after the spill, the sand total hydrocarbon (THC) concentration was greater than 50,000 ppm. Over 12 months this concentration decreased to about 3,000 ppm, as expected in coarser sediments. The muds were initially less contaminated (about 2,000 ppm), with only slight reductions in concentration over 12 months. However, there was strong evidence of sediment mobility at this site, and natural cleanup was in fact nearly complete after 9 months; the oil found at 12 months was due to transport of Sivand oil-contaminated muds from nearby reed beds. Good drainage at both sites permitted initial oil penetration.

Root macropores at the muddy site encouraged penetration, weathering, and release of oil more easily than if it had been found in the sediment matrix. Sediment mobility at the muddy site contrasted with the firmness of the oiled sandflat, and contrary to vulnerability indices, may imply more rapid oil removal under some circumstances. Water washing was implicated as a major process in oil degradation at the sandy site, but no dramatic sediment turnover or erosion occurred that might have removed the oil. The steep gradients in oil concentration and composition with depth contrasted with the muddy site, where oil penetrated as a coherent mass via root macropores. The study illustrates the importance of sedimentological factors in the fate, effects, and mass balance of spilled oil. Published work on the Sivand has emphasized the effectiveness of cleanup and the lack of biological effects, but may have underestimated the amount of oil trapped in sediments.
THE MANAGEMENT OF OILED PENGUINS
Authors: Kerley Graham I. H. , Erasmus Theuns
Published: January 2013

As highly aquatic animals, penguins are particularly vulnerable to oil pollution. Penguins are increasingly often exposed to oil pollution, and the jackass penguin, Spheniscus demersus, endemic to southern Africa, may be the penguin species most exposed. The main effects of oiling on penguins are loss of the waterproofing and insulative properties of the feathers. Oiled penguins are capable of thermoregulation in air, but within 5 min become hypothermic in water (despite significantly increased heat production), and must retreat to land or die from hypothermia. Oiled penguins are therefore prevented from going to sea to forage, and die of starvation without assistance. Oiled penguins in captivity show a temporary loss of appetite (for about 5 days) but are capable of utilizing food and recover body-weight rapidly. In cleaning and rehabilitating oiled penguins it is necessary to remove all the oil as well as other contaminants on the feathers to ensure waterproofness of the feathers. Cleaning techniques have been developed so that it is now possible to clean and waterproof oiled penguins in less than an hour, reducing the total time for rehabilitation (allowing the generally emaciated birds to recover body weight) to 12.2 days (n = 84), a significant improvement over older techniques. Cleaning has been shown to be a workable treatment for oiled jackass penguins, with proven breeding success after cleaning. Recommendations relevant to the management of oiled penguins are presented.
CLEANUP AND EFFECTS OF CRUDE OIL AND FUEL OIL SPILLS IN OSITO CANYON: A COMPARISON
Authors: Kemerer Jack A. , McGuigan Terrence , Campbell Douglas
Published: January 2013

In July 1981, a crude oil spill from a pipeline break occurred in Osito Canyon near Castaic, California. In April 1984, a tank truck accident on Interstate Route 5 resulted in a fuel oil spill into a tributary canyon to Osito Canyon. Although the spills occurred at virtually the same location, the amounts spilled, the extent of the canyons contaminated, and the cleanup methods used produced different recovery results.

The spillers assumed financial responsibility for cleanup actions and complied with the concerns and recommendations of government officials. The Environmental Protection Agency served as the on-scene coordinator, while the U. S. Forest Service and the U. S. Coast Guard's Pacific Strike Team provided on-site monitors and technical assistance.

Impact from the spills appeared to be negligible on the chaparral type vegetation and sparse concentration of wildlife in the area. Effects from the spills were not lasting, and no environmentally sensitive downstream areas were affected.
PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECT OF AN OIL SPILL ON A LOUISIANA MARSH
Authors: Fischel Marion
Published: January 2013

On April 23, 1985, approximately 300 barrels of South Louisiana crude oil were spilled into the marsh near Nairn, Louisiana, as a result of a break in a pipeline owned by Shell Pipe Line Corp. About 50 acres of marsh were estimated to have been impacted by the spill and subsequent cleanup operations. To assess the effect of the oil spill on the marsh and determine the potential for recovery, four studies were conducted: remote sensing study, vegetation survey, benthic community survey, and analysis of petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations in the sediment. The results of the studies indicated considerable impact on the vegetation in the immediate vicinity of the spill. However, it was expected that most of the vegetation would recover within one to two years. Changes in species composition of the benthic community in the impacted area indicated negative effects from the oil. However, the overall numbers of benthic macrofauna and meiofauna appeared to be stimulated by the presence of the oil. Hydrocarbon analysis three months after the spill indicated that little oil remained in the sediment. The results of these studies were used to aid Shell in determining the appropriate monetary compensation to the landowners affected by the oil spill. Additional remote sensing and vegetation surveys are to be conducted to determine the extent of recovery of the marsh one complete growing season after the spill.
ENVIRONMENTAL BASELINE STUDIES FOR OIL POLLUTION CONTROL IN NIGERIA
Authors: Nwankwo Jerry N. , Michel Jacqueline , Murday Maylo
Published: January 2013

A comprehensive, three-year study was conducted in 1982–1985 of petroleum-producing regions of Nigeria. This study was designed to provide the scientific basis for determining the special requirements of the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems of Nigeria that need to be accommodated in oil-pollution control regulations for both sudden spills and the continuous releases associated with chronic oil pollution.

The study plan was composed of extensive literature review and field collection of data in the following areas:Chemical quality assessment through surface water, ground water, bottom sediments, and biological samples collected at over 600 stations, including seasonal considerationsBiological sampling of all major terrestrial and aquatic ecosystemsCoastal geology studies for trajectory analysis and environmental sensitivity mapping of the outer coast and the Bonny River estuarySocioeconomic studies to determine public and corporate perspectives on the impacts and problems of the petroleum industry in NigeriaOperational audits at 16 installations to examine state-of-practice technologiesLegal and regulatory review of worldwide oil pollution contract legislation (options for criteria and standards for Nigeria were analyzed at a workshop of international experts)

The results of this study, probably the most comprehensive inventory and synthesis of the ecology of a tropical system to date, will provide Nigeria with the scientific tools to formulate a plan for oil pollution control that may be a model for many other countries.
DOOSIM—A NEW SIMULATION MODEL FOR OIL SPILL MANAGEMENT
Authors: Johansen Øistein
Published: January 2013

A new oil spill simulation model has been developed as a part of the research program Dispersion of Oil On Sea (DOOS). The model includes features such as simulation of drift and fate of oil on the surface and in the water column, as well as effects of cleanup measures (mechanical recovery, application of chemical dispersants).

The model utilizes the particle-in-fluid concept, where the oil spill is represented by a large number of particles in different states, i.e., on the surface, entrained in the water column, or evaporated. The near surface current shear is taken into account in the wind induced component of the drift, in terms of a two layer approach (reduced wind drift factor for entrained oil).

In the design of the model, major efforts have been made to obtain a system which is easy to operate. This has led to a system consisting of three modules: one for entry of user-specified inputs, one for simulating an actual spill, and one for graphical presentation.
RESPONSE TO MAJOR OIL SPILL—TANK BARGE ST. THOMAS
Authors: Tanos Alexander E. , Hart Tony E.
Published: January 2013

In early February 1986 the U.S. tank barge St. Thomas struck a submerged object in Charlotte Amalie harbor, St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. Damage to the barge's number 1 starboard cargo tank resulted in the loss of an estimated 500 barrels of No. 6 fuel oil. Later, an additional 100 barrels were lost when temporary patching of the tank let go. These two spills are believed to be the largest that have affected the U.S. Virgin Islands.

When the operators of the barge failed to initiate an appropriate response to remove the oil, the Coast Guard on-scene coordinator initiated a federal response under the authority of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act. Over the next month the OSC coordinated the cleanup of this oil which had pocketed around the harbor. Total costs for the cleanup exceeded $1.9 million. No long-term environmental damage is believed to have occurred.
OIL SPILL TRAINING: THE NEED CONTINUES
Authors: Meyers Robert J. , Payne J. Larry , Strong Clyde B.
Published: January 2013

To effectively handle oil spill incidents, response personnel must possess certain knowledge relevant to spill control activities. These personnel must demonstrate adequate manipulative and problem-solving abilities—practical skills—that can be used in managing oil spills. As a rule, this knowledge and these skills are obtained by one of two means. Response personnel attend and participate in training activities, or they learn from experience.

Learning strictly by experience can provide valuable lessons, but such a method proves costly, inefficient, and incomplete in the long term. On the other hand, classroom and field programs in spill control are readily available and, to some extent, are successful in providing general knowledge to a broad audience.

Time, scheduling, and especially financial constraints must be considered in planning training activities. Careful planning of an overall training can result in a series of short programs that, if properly designed and sequenced, can provide stronger results than an intensive program. Many companies are modifying budgets as a result of the current economic climate, however the need for training continues. In the long term, benefits gained by responding promptly and effectively to environmental incidents can far outweigh the insignificant training costs involved. With recent industrywide reductions in experienced manpower it is even more important that personnel with limited experience be well trained to handle an emergency when it arises. The training programs described in this paper are designed with this current situation in mind.

Special emphasis is placed here on simulation exercises. Such exercises familiarize participants with their roles, relations, responsibilities, interfaces, and communications procedures during a spill cleanup operation, and also address crisis management, all in a classroom environment. Examples of actual simulations conducted at several Sohio facilities with state-of-the-art computer enhancement will be presented, and their benefits discussed.
OIL SPILL TRAINING—AN EFFECTIVE APPROACH
Authors: Wiebe Wayne
Published: January 2013

Oil spill response and equipment deployment training is a vital part of oil spill contingency planning. The Petroleum Industry Training Service has recognized the oil industry's needs in this regard and has established a number of oil spill related courses. These programs have been constructed to meet individual needs for contingency planning, response planning, equipment handling, cleanup techniques, and restoration procedures.

Our organization understands the need for practical field training and because of this has designed the material around effective communications, coordination, cooperation, and case histories.

In our training programs the varied subject matter is covered by personnel from the oil industry and regulatory agencies. Each of these individuals is well experienced in oil spill countermeasures and is capable of providing both theoretical and practical information.

In addition, the province of Alberta, Canada, has been divided into 24 oil spill cooperatives. Each co-op is required to provide adequately trained personnel who can respond to and handle an oil spill on land, water, or under ice conditions. To make the educational process more effective, a full-time oil spill training coordinator is available to assist the cooperative chairman and his members with response planning and training exercise details.

The system of classroom orientation, case studies, and hands-on field training has proven successful over the past five years, has paid dividends to the oil industry and regulatory agencies, and has received positive comments from many oil spill strategy groups.
POLLUTION PREVENTION AT THE PORT OF MARSEILLE AUTHORITY
Authors: Jointe P.
Published: January 2013

The Port of Marseille Authority has established measures both for the prevention of oil pollution and for mounting a rapid, effective response to any spills that do occur. These include an Integrated Regulations Center that provides necessary documents to port users advising them of port rules and regulations, the providing of waste removal services for materials from ships' rubbish to oily ballast waters, and stockpiles of cleanup equipment such as booms, sorbents, and skimmers. A pollution response organization—GAPAM—also has been set up to plan for and carry out major cleanup operations.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A CANADIAN OIL SPILL TRAINING PROGRAM
Authors: Potter S. G. , Ross S. L. , Oddy L. C.
Published: January 2013

A comprhensive program has been developed to train industry personnel in Canada who have marine oil spill countermeasures responsibilities. Four distinct phases were involved in the design of the program: first, in-depth interviews with oil company environmentalists and managers and analyses of company oil spill contingency plans were conducted to identify the exact training needs of the industry; second, a detailed evaluation was performed of the numerous existing courses available in Canada and internationally in order to identify which courses could satisfy the training requirements identified in the first phase; third, a curriculum for the program was developed as were recommendations on program implementation, course delivery, and certification processes; and finally, specific courses were designed to fill the deficiencies of existing courses or to satisfy the unique requirements specific to the Canadian environment. The end result is a program comprising 12 training modules, combinations of which serve to train the five category positions in any company's oil spill response organization.
POLLUTION FIGHTING: TRAINING IN FRANCE
Authors: Melguen M. , Levy J. F.
Published: January 2013

France provides various forms of training or information in the field of oil pollution prevention and combat. Some to date have been directed only to French nationals; others are open to international participation.

Every effort is made to fully train French nationals involved in pollution intervention. Handbooks are available and regularly updated; practical exercises allow them to keep pace with the evolution of equipment, and audio-visual aids complete the picture.

For international participation, several types of actions are carried out. A 2½ week session called Infopol is directed to decision makers and other senior officials involved in contingency planning. They become acquainted with the knowledge acquired in France both by actual pollution fighting after accidents and through various practical exercises. This includes organization, storage of equipment, and its behavior and capabilities.

Other sessions on more specific topics are organized either by the Port of Marseille authority, which may propose à la carte or set training programs at various levels, or by CEDRE (Centre de Documentation, de Recherche et d'Expérimentations sur les pollutions accidentelles des eaux), which also offers à la carte training courses for pollution control center managers as well as for field work coordinators and technicians from any background and level. All French centers already have extensive training experience and could help other countries develop their own training organizations or train their personnel.
A MODEL FOR MANAGING UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS
Authors: Smith Anne E. , Cohan David , Selker Frank
Published: January 2013

The potential costs of underground tank leaks provide companies with a solid incentive to take action to reduce leak risks. However, a cost-effective risk management strategy is difficult to identify when faced with the uncertainties in the occurrence, nature, and timing of costly incidents. A decision support model based on the techniques of decision analysis has been developed to help managers choose the best course of action. The model works by balancing the known costs of preventive and mitigating actions with the uncertain costs of tank leaks.

The model uses tank- and site-specific data to help determine how much testing or monitoring to do at each tank site, when to replace tanks, what to do in the future contingent on monitoring results, and what new tank system to install. For each strategy, the model assesses detailed outcomes such as the expected life-cycle cost of the tank system, the expected time for replacing the system, the likelihood of a leak, and the expected costs of leaks. Input data include the reliability of the tank type, its age and its previous testing results, the vulnerability of resources near the tank, and the cost and accuracy of tank-testing technologies.

The underground tank management model can be valuable to tank managers. Through sensitivity analysis, it can identify those aspects of the problem that critically determine sound management rules, and the areas for further data gathering that would be most fruitful for decision making. By looking at detailed results, one can investigate the implications of each strategy for different management goals. The model helps one sound out one's own management intuition, and leads to new insights on good management strategies.

Initial model results have led to important insights. Leak costs are often a significant fraction of total life-cycle costs. The optimal management policy is thus quite sensitive to the characteristics of the tank site and the type of tank. Hence, a single management strategy applied to all types of tanks and sites may be detrimental to the tank owner's overall costs.
A MOBILE PLANT PROTOTYPE FOR THE RESTORATION OF POLLUTED BEACHES BY WASHING OILY SAND
Authors: Bocard Christian , Quinquis Jean-Jacques , Such Christian
Published: January 2013

A research program was undertaken in 1980 with the support of the European Economic Community and the French Ministry of the Environment to develop a technique for treating beaches polluted by an oil spill, after the bulk of the oil has been removed from the surface of the sand by mechanical equipment. Final cleanup is often necessary, especially in the case of recreational beaches, when the oil remaining in the upper layer of sand—frequently in the range of 2 to 3 percent—in unacceptable. There is some controversy regarding the use of dispersants for this purpose.

The basic principle of the technique is to wash oil-contaminated sand in transportable equipment which is operated either close to the polluted beach or at a centralized location, the washed sand then being returned to the beach or used for other purposes.

The selected equipment and three different cleaning agents were tested in pilot trials carried out on sand polluted with heavy fuel oil. A plant prototype was set up and tested in 1985. It is composed mainly of a horizontally rotating wash drum associated with a screen, a hydrocyclone to separate the sand from the wash-water phase and a vibrating screen for sand dewatering. These three pieces of equipment are mounted on the bed of a semi-trailer along with two transfer pumps. Oil and sand fines are separated from the water, before recycling, in several ground tanks in which a flocculating agent may be added. The operating parameters of the process are discussed on the basis of trials carried out at a throughput of 18 metric tons of sand per hour, giving a washed sand with an average oil content of 0.2 percent in the case of moderate weathering.
DISPERSANT APPLICATION BY HYDROFOIL: HIGH SPEED CONTROL AND CLEANUP OF LARGE OIL SPILLS
Authors: Vacca-Torelli Marcello , Geraci Alberto L. , Risitano Antonino
Published: January 2013

Experiments undertaken in different parts of the world have shown so far that cleanup at a speed greater than 10 knots is unadvisable due to the bow wave breaking up the oil film on the water. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that a high-speed craft such as a hydrofoil, when flying foilborne, solves this problem.
ATYPICAL MITIGATION OF AN OIL SPILL, SAM HOUSTON NATIONAL FOREST
Authors: Zehner Warren B. , Mullins James R.
Published: January 2013

In March 1986 an unknown quantity of paraffin-based oil and brine was spilled in the Sam Houston National Forest, San Jacinto County, Texas. The source of the spill was a ruptured production flow line. A tributary to the East Fork of the San Jacinto River and 12.5 acres of the forest were affected by the spill. Mitigative options were evaluated for speed and environmental acceptability. Two atypical control methods were selected: freshwater flushing in areas principally affected by brine, and controlled burning in oil-saturated areas. These techniques provided rapid control of the contaminants and exerted the least additional stress on the forest. Restoration methods were suggested after the initial mitigation of the spill by burning and flushing.
OIL POLLUTION CONTROL AND SPILL RESPONSE CAPABILITY IN THE ROPME SEA AREA
Authors: Ryan P. Bernard , S. Derek J.
Published: January 2013

The ROPME sea area as defined in this paper is the scene of some of the world's most intensive offshore oil exploration and production and the associated crude oil refining and tanker terminaling for oil exportation. The potential for oil pollution in the area is high, with its confined nature making it especially vulnerable to the effects of oil pollution. Awareness of this problem is well developed in the region in both government and industry, and good progress has been made in recent years toward preparing for the big oil spill which has so far not materialized, but which most experts consider inevitable at some time.

Two distinct groups share the concern for oil pollution. The oil industry has well over 40 companies active in the area in some way. Many of these have a 15 year history of cooperation in oil spill response and continue to play a full role in protecting the environment from the adverse effects of oil pollution. More recently, nations bordering the area have taken an active interest in the problem and have demonstrated an impressive record of commitment and action over the past five or six years. While government and industry have maintained their separate identities, a good working relationship exists between them, and there is good information exchange and practical cooperation between the two groups, most especially at the national level. Future years should see this trend develop even further.

A very impressive arsenal of oil pollution response equipment has been built up in the sea area since two major oil spill incidents in 1980. What is especially noticeable now is the proportion of this equipment that is owned and operated directly by the government agencies. This stands in marked contrast to the situation in 1980. In addition to the equipment resources available, the pool of personnel trained in oil spill response technology and methods is rapidly expanding as a result of seminars, workshops, and training courses that are being organized on a regular basis.

The development of national and regional legislation to control the main sources of man-made pollution, for example, from tanker operations and offshore exploration and production, is in a very active stage and the oil industry is expected to have clear operational guidelines within the next few years.
REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES FOR DETECTING OIL SLICKS AT SEA—A REVIEW OF WORK CARRIED OUT IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
Authors: Cormack Douglas , Hurford Neil , Tookey David
Published: January 2013

The U.K. Department of Transport has equipped a light aircraft with a remote sensing system. The capabilities of the sensors for detecting oil slicks have been evaluated and the aircraft is now being used to carry out surveillance patrols. A detailed evaluation has been carried out into the feasibility of using microwave radiometry to supply more detailed information about oil slick thickness. The results showed that such a detector should only be used in conjunction with existing IR and UV sensors.
THE 1987 NEWFOUNDLAND OIL SPILL EXPERIMENT1
Authors: Tennyson E. J. , Whittaker H.
Published: January 2013

A joint Canadian-United States exercise involving the intentional spilling of approximately 18,000 gallons of specially treated crude oil was conducted off Newfoundland in September 1987 to evaluate the containment and recovery capabilities of three state-of-the-art booms and skimmers. As part of the exercise, data were collected on a specially instrumented oil spill boom in an attempt to verify a proposed performance test procedure for open-ocean oil spill booms. A viscoelastic chemical additive was used, after the equipment evaluation was completed, to enhance recovery operations. Additional observations were made on the persistence of spilled oil slicks in advanced sea states. The containment and recovery effort was successful, despite winds and sea states commonly thought to be beyond existing capabilities.
IS OVEREXPOSURE TO BENZENE LIKELY DURING CRUDE OIL SPILL RESPONSE?1
Authors: Eley W. D. , Morris R. J. , Hereth L. L. , Lewis T. F.
Published: January 2013

This article examines the potential for benzene exposure during crude oil spill response. Literature review found that under normal conditions benzene is lost from an oil slick within 40 minutes to 8 hours. A correlation between benzene and API gravity is presented graphically. This information was used to develop worst-case scenarios. Results of a preliminary field investigation indicate that benzene overexposure may be possible during “ideal adverse” conditions. Four generic crude oil spills are described along with rationale for the suggested level of self protection.
IMPROVING THE PUMPING OF VISCOUS OIL BY THE USE OF DEMULSIFIERS OR BY AN ANNULAR WATER INJECTION
Authors: Peigne Georges , Cessou Maurice
Published: January 2013

Pumping viscous oil, whether when lightening a disabled vessel or recovering spilled oil, has always been an obstacle to efficient operations aiming to avoid or limit the impact of an oil spill. French authorities have had to deal with this during many oil spills: for example, the Amoco Cadiz, Tanio, or, more recently, the Amazzone incident.

For many years, CEDRE and Institut Français du Pétrole (IFP) have been developing and testing various methods of improving the handling of naturally viscous products like heavy fuels or products that have become viscous by the formation of a water-in-oil emulsion.

The technique of injecting a ring of water at the periphery of the hoses was studied. After some preliminary tests done by IFP on a laboratory scale, full-scale experiments were conducted by CEDRE using a specially designed injector. This device enabled a large reduction of the pressure drop in the back flow of a volumetric pump moving heavy fuels. The influence of different parameters also was evaluated.

Concerning a break-up of “chocolate mousse” emulsions, it was necessary to verify the effectiveness of demulsifiers when applying them in the presence of free water, such as found when actually recovering oil spilled at sea. The influence of different parameters was first studied with a laboratory physical model and then confirmed during full-scale tests.
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT OF POLLUTION RESPONSE EFFORT—BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER THE SPILL
Authors: Waldron Darryle M.
Published: January 2013

Oil spill response has evolved tremendously over the past 20 years in technology and technique, as well as in the social demand for a clean environment. The cost of response to a pollution incident has likewise grown at a time in which both federal and private funds are less available. Although the spiller may publicly claim he will clean up the spill no matter what the cost, cost becomes an issue as the bills start coming in. The purpose of this paper is to provoke consideration of the financial management of an oil spill response, not only to reduce costs, but to reduce confusion during the early days of a response. As in any type of emergency response, contingency planning is essential for success. Having designated, but flexible, procedures and plans in place before the spill will allow the experts to concentrate on mitigation instead of future litigation. The ideas presented here are based on experience in federal responses, common sense, basic financial management principles, and a business philosophy of integrity and efficiency.
DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION FOR THE U.S.S.R. IN 1987–1988
Authors: Khalimonov Oleg N. , Nunuparov Sergey M.
Published: January 2013

An important event setting the course of further development for the National Marine Pollution Control Administration (NMPCA) was the establishment in January 1988 of the U.S.S.R. State Committee for Nature Protection (Goskompriroda) aimed at improving nature protection management and the control of natural resources.

It is along these lines that measures to improve the preparedness of the NMPCA response teams to combat an oil spill at sea have to be intensified. Thus in addition to the existing response teams in the ports of Batumi, Ventspils, Klaipeda, Murmansk, Novorossisk, Nakhodka, Baku, and Odessa, a response team was established in Korsakov in the Far East Basin. There are also plans to establish one or two response teams in the northern regions as well as smaller auxiliary response teams in areas of high pollution risk.

During the past two years, the environmental fleet of the U.S.S.R. has acquired eight multipurpose vessels with oil skimming capability, and two large dredge/skimmers—the Professor Goryunov and the Vaidagubsky. In 1989-90 additional seagoing environmental vessels will be constructed. State-of-the-art oil skimming systems have been acquired for all response teams.

These steps have made it possible to create the material facilities and technological capability necessary for maintaining initial response readiness to combat major oil spills and to further improve the organization and methods of oil pollution control.

As a new possibility for the future, plans are being considered to delegate to NMPCA certain rescue operations at sea. This would expand its role in oil spill response by improving technical capabilities and personnel training. A design is being considered for a sea-going salvage vessel which would also have the capability for rapid delivery and deployment of containment booms as well as the transfer of personnel and special equipment.

Work is in progress to develop auxiliary equipment including coastal booms and shipboard portable oil skimmers. Work has been initiated to develop a baseline program to support contingency plans for hazardous chemical substances response (through identification of cargoes, traffic patterns, and risk zones, etc.).

Considerable efforts are in progress to improve existing and develop new basin, zone, and regional contingency plans which would provide
ENVIRONMENTAL OIL SENSITIVITY OF THE GERMAN NORTH SEA COAST
Authors: Bernem Karl-Heinz van , Müller Agmar , Dörjes Jürgen
Published: January 2013

A contiguous region of tidal flats about 448 km (280 miles) long and up to 21 km (13 miles) wide extends along the North Sea coasts of the Federal Republic of Germany, The Netherlands, and Denmark. This region is called the Wadden Sea. It is of enormous value as a cleansing site for the North Sea water, as a nursery for young fishes, and as a feeding grounds for nearly all Palearctic species of wading birds and waterfowl. The proximity of important shipping routes and ports is a permanent threat, especially to the German part of the region, which became a national park in 1986.

The results of several field surveys, conducted from 1976 through 1986, revealed the necessity of an ecologically based sensitivity map for oil spill contingency planning.

To evaluate properly the great variety of possible conditions resulting from the interrelationships of biotic and abiotic parameters, a system was developed to encompass such features, including the persistence of oil in the sediment, and the vulnerability and regenerative capability of a large proportion of the biota. Species of halophytes, mammals, fishes, birds, macrofauna, meiofauna, and microphytobenthos were evaluated to determine their physiological and ecological sensitivities to oil contamination. The evaluation was made considering autecological and synecological parameters.

To test the applicability of the technique, a map was made of the littoral zone between the Weser and Elbe Rivers. The results were accepted by the West German organization for the control of oil spills at sea (ÖSK). Mapping will be continued under the direction of the Geesthacht Research Center until 1992. Eventually the project will cover the entire German part of the Wadden Sea through the financial support of the GKSS, the Umweltbundesamt (UBA), the ÖSK, and the national park authorities. A data processing system is being established by the GKSS so that the results can be used not only for oil spill control but also for the analysis of the ecosystem and to help the national park bureaus fulfill their obligations.
RECENT ACTIVITIES OF THE PRIVATE OIL SPILL COOPERATIVE IN JAPAN
Authors: Kusunoki Naomichi , Saito Takeo
Published: January 2013

The grounding of the Juliana, a crude tanker, off the Niigata Port, in late November 1971, caused the first major oil spill in Japan, a spill of 7,200 kL (45,000 bbl) of Oman crude oil. The member companies of Petroleum Association of Japan (PAJ) hurriedly sent their oil booms and chemical dispersants to Niigata under the instructions of the headquarters set up in the secretariat of PAJ.

This accident showed the oil industry the necessity of a nationwide network to supply oil cleanup equipment and materials in an emergency. In January 1973, a nationwide oil spill cooperative in Japan was initiated, with the agreement of 51 oil companies of PAJ. The organization of 47 branches covered all the Japan Islands, stretching about 3,000 km from Hokkaido to Okinawa. Each branch represents several petroleum facilities, a total of about 380. This oil spill cooperative has continued to act effectively.

The utility of the arrangement has been proved clearly through provision of about 30 percent of the oil cleanup equipment and materials in Japan.
OIL SPILL STRATEGY IN THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY: NEW TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN MECHANICAL SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Schroh Klaus
Published: January 2013

Prevention and control of oil spills in the Federal Republic of Germany are based on an agreement between the federal government and the four coastal states. Comprehensive procurement and reconstruction programs for oil pollution personnel and equipment are realized and finalized within two years. The Federal Minister for Research and Technology contributed substantially toward using advanced oil spill response techniques at sea and for shoreline cleanup.

Since the particular ecological conditions of the Wadden Sea on the German coastline greatly limit dispersant application, main emphasis was given to developing recovery systems meeting the following requirements:An extended scope of mechanical application at sea, for wave heights exceeding 1.2 m (4 feet)New types of recovery vessels with multiple functions, like bunkering services and floating reception facilitiesOil recovery with self-driven vessels for shallow waters close to the coastline and embankmentsDesign of an amphibious chain-driven vehicle for oil recovery in Wadden Sea areas.

With the integration of these new types of oil recovery vessels or systems the German recovery fleet now consists of 6 high-sea-going vessels and 14 recovery vessel devices for shoreline cleanup.