bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
On a Collection of Diplopods from North India, both Cavernicolous and Epigaean.
Authors: Turk Frank A.
Published: August 2010

The following new forms are described either from caves or as epigaean species in the Himalayan area: Glenniea nova, Orthomorpha (Kalorthomorpha) almorensis. Chondromorpha kaimura, Sundanina septentrionalis, Glyphiulus sp., Siphonophora larwoodi and Saroxenus mirus. The cavernicolous genus Glenniea Turk is re‐studied and re‐described as well as its type species G. indica Turk. The genus Saroxenus often regarded as a doubtful one is re‐instated and its range extended to the continent of Asia by the discovery of the new species. Some faunistic notes on the collection are appended.

All type specimens of the new species are, at present, in my collection.
Colour mutants of the Malay Short‐tailed Mongoose, Herpestes brachyurus Gray.
Authors: Schwarz Ernst
Published: August 2010

The systematic position of the mongoose named by Gray Herpestes semitorquatus, and based on a specimen collected by Sir Hugh Low on the mainland of Borneo opposite Labuan Island, i. e. Brunei, has always been somewhat of a puzzle. Very few typical specimens are known and all of these come from the distributional area of Herpestes brachyurus. The type skull in the British Museum which I have examined, shows no relevant differences from skulls of H. brachyurus of comparable age. There is also no difference in proportions, the nakedness of the soles, nor in the hair structure between the two groups. The only difference that remains is that in colour. Herpestes‐brachyurus is a very dark animal with a lot of black, whereas in H. semitorquatus the black pigment is greatly reduced, making the red ground colour predominant. The conclusion that I draw, is that the red and the blackish short‐tailed mongooses are colour mutants of the same species, the oldest name of which is H. brachyurus Gray. This conclusion is emphasized by the fact that both the black and the red mutants vary geographically, and that the characters by which “Herpestes brachyurus sumatrius” Thomas from Sumatra differs from “H. b. rajah” Thomas from Borneo, are the same as those by which “Herpestes semitorquatus uniformis” Robinson and Kloss from Sumatra, differs from H. s. semitorquatus Gray from Borneo. In both cases the Sumatran animal is more uniform in colour, with a dark tail, whereas the Bornean animal is more finely speckled, and has a tail that is lighter than the body.
Notes on some Asiatic Rodents in the British Museum.
Authors: Ellerman J. R.
Published: August 2010

This paper is intended as a brief summary of certain alterations and revisions which I am noting in much greater detail in my forthcoming third volume of the ‘Families and Genera of Living Rodents.’ Owing to present day difficulties, the delay in publishing this volume is greater than anticipated. It is therefore my desire to publish here certain increased knowledge on various rodents of Asia. This knowledge is the result of further detailed study since my former volumes' were published. References in the present paper are mainly to ‘Families and Genera of Living Rodents,’ Ellerman, 1940, vol. 1, and 1941, vol. 2.
List of Mallophaga collected from birds brought to the Society's Prosectorium.
Authors: Meinertzhagen Col. R. , Clay. Theresa
Published: August 2010

The following table represents the results of an examination of birds which died in the Society's Gardens between 1939–1946. In no case can the numbers of Mallophaga be regarded as a total count, though the proportion of sexes is probably correct. In the majority of cases the genus only is given. The correct naming of each species would entail a review of each genus.
Experimental Studies of the Biological Significance of Non‐Cryptic Pigmentation with Special Reference to Insects.
Authors: Popham E. J.
Published: August 2010

(1) Under the experimental conditions employed, nymphs of Aeschna grandis, adults of Dytiscus marginalis, Common Rudd (Leuciscus erythrophthalmus), Minnows (Phoxinus phoxinus) and the Common Toad (Bufo bufo bufo) were able to distinguish between two types of prey, one brown, the other red, having approximately equal grey values. Owing to the ability of insects to perceive ultra‐violet light the experiments with insects predators are of doubtful value as this factor was not controlled. In comparison with the colour vision of man these predators have a very poor sense of colour.

(2) Minnows were fed on three types of Corixa distincta coloured respectively red, yellow and brown and all having approximately the same tonal value. The survival value of each of the three colours of prey depended upon the colour of the background upon which it was placed. In each case the insect with a colour harmonizing with the background was destroyed in the smallest numbers.

(3) When the Minnows were given two types of Corixa distincta painted different tones of red, the type having the greater tonal difference with the background was destroyed in the larger numbers.

(4) Specimens of Corixa distincta painted with three transverse bands of yellow were less conspicuous than evenly coloured yellow insects on a brown background to Minnows, but more conspicuous to Toads.

(5) Some vertebrate and invertebrate predators were offered specimens of insects belonging to the orders Orthoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera and Hymenoptera and Diptera. Toads learned to avoid various species of Hymenoptera with stings and in some cases Lady‐birds of the species Coccinella 7‐punctata. Nymphs of Aeschna grandis learned to avoid Water Mites of the genus Hydra‐rachna.

(6) Starlings, Great and Blue Tits were observed to cat various Hymenoptera in such a way as to avoid being stung.

(7) The rate at which Toads learned to avoid a given species of Hymenoptera or Lady‐bird depended upon (a) the individual toad, (b) the nature and quantity of other types of food.

(8) Toads trained to avoid any one species of Hymenoptera would accept unrelated species with similar coloration and refuse related species with a different pigmentation. This suggests that to a partially colour‐blind predator, such as the Toad, the pigmentation of the prey is of little importance in enabling a predator to recognize it and that factors such as size, shape, habits and movement of the prey are of greater value.
Diademodus hydei, a new fossil shark from the Cleveland Shale.
Authors: HARRIS JOHN E.
Published: August 2010

Diademodus hydei, a new genus and species of shark from the Cleveland Shale, is described and figured from the holotype in the Cleveland Museum of Natural History.

About 40 centimetres in length, the fish is an adult male with well‐developed claspers; it shows a combination of hybodont and cladoselachian characteristics.

The teeth are many‐cusped and bilaterally symmetrical, with the outer cusps longer than the inner; they approach more closely to the sculpturing of the scale pattern than in orther primitive sharks.

A comparison with the contemporaneous Cladoselache and Ctenacanthus clarki suggests that Diademdus is an early and not distant offshoot from the primitive chondrichthyan stock, the main line of which led through Ctenacanthus and the hybodonts to the modern elamobranchs; Cladoselache is a specialized side line of this main stock and is not an appropriate ancestral type for the Chondrichthyes.
The egg and larval stages of Nyctiphanes simplex, a euphausiid crustacean from California*
Authors: BODEN BRIAN P.
Published: August 2010

The female of Nyctiphanes simplex carries her eggs in an egg sac. The eggs hatch in the nauplius stage and remain in the egg sac throughout that stage. The larva emerges from the sac as a pseudo‐metanauplius and moults immediately into the metanauplius stage. This is followed by three calyptopis stages and the furcilia stages. There are probably nineteen types of furcilia larvae. Since six of these are numerically dominant, it is probable that the larvae “jump” stages in the furcilia series. The six dominant types are described as the six furcilia stages. A key to the furcilia stages is included.
On the organ of Jacobson and the nasal‐floor cartilages in the chondrocranium of Galago senegalensis.
Authors: ELOFF F. C.
Published: August 2010

The palatine cartilage does not give any clue to the possible ancestry of the Galaginae. It occurs in all Insectivora and even in the Platyrrhini and therefore does not throw any light on the point in question. The cartilago ductus nasopalatini can also be disregarded as it is most probably a cartilage of recent development and even its independence has not yet been conclusively demonstrated. One must, therefore, rely on the outer bar of Jacobson's cartilage which, although it cannot be used as a criterion in mammalian taxonomy, has been shown to be a reliable guide to mammalian affinities, being a remnant of a primitive turbinal. In this characteristic there is a striking agreement between Tupaia and Galago, not only in the mere presence of the outer bar but also in the finer details thereof. The presence of this element in Galago indicates a low state of development. It has been shown by Broom (1915) that Tupaia and Macroscelides agree in practically every detail with the Marsupialia, as far as Jacobson's organ and its cartilages are concerned.

Although the supposed relationship between the Lemuroidea and the Tupaiidae as maintained by Gregory (1910), Le Gros Clark (1925), Wood Jones (1929), Simpson (1945) and others, is still emphatically denied by some, the conditions of the organ of Jacobson and its cartilages provide additional proof of the intimate relationship supposed to exist between the Primates and the Tupaiidae.
On the responses to environmental stimuli, and the sensory physiology of Millipedes (Diplopoda).
Authors: CLOUDSLEY‐THOMPSON J. L.
Published: August 2010

The behaviour and sensory physiology of Paradesmus gracilis (C. L. Koch) and Blaninlus guttulatus (Bose) have been investigated. Both species posses a dermal light sense, and respond to light stimuli by means of a simple orthokinesis. Their temperature reactions fall into three categories: a general orthokinetic metabolic effect upon speed of locomotion, duration of spiral reflex, etc., a preference shown klinokinetically for temperatures about 15°C.; and orthokinetic activity stimulated by sudden drops in temperature. The temperature sense cannot be aseribed to any particular sensillae, but resides in the antennae as well as elsewhere. Positive geotaxis become apparent under the influence of the orthokinesis engendered by desiceation. The Tömösvary organs may be gravity receptors, but if so the stimulation of various proprioceptive organs by the weight of the body acting on limtes is probably also concerned in the reception of the stimulus.

No orthokinetic response to humidity comparable with that found in woodlice and wireworms has been observed: the millipedes show maximum locomotory activity at all humidity ranges, but once they have finally come to rest, they do not readily start moving again. Responses to moisture, however, are far more important in their behaviour; they are purely orthokinetic, and probably a general effect of dehydration. Possibly both Tömösvary organs and trichoid sensillae register vibrations: the millipedes respond by curling up (spiral reflex), but very slight vibrations frequently stimulate locomotory activity. Reactions to contact stimuli are of very great significance in the behaviour of millipedes. They are chiefly orthokinetic, and the tactile hairs on the limbs, sides of the body, and particularly on the antennae are the sensory receptors.

Millipedes do not respond to odours, but there is an orthokinetic “attraction” to gluclose and sucrose with a threshold about 0·5 gm. litre. There is no attraction to asparagine and strach, but urea repels Blavials. Antennary and gnathochilarial basiconic sensillae are the receptors for contact chemical stimulation. Removal of, or painting over the antennae induces a state of depression which persists until death.

The significance of the behaviour and sensory responses of millipedes in relation to their ecology is discussed with particular reference to the importance of Blaniulus as an agricultural pest.
The mummified cats of ancient Egypt.
Authors: MORRISON‐SCOTT T. C. S.
Published: August 2010

A series of one hundred and ninety skulls of mummified cats, excavated at Gizeh, and dating from approximately 600‐200 B. C., has formed the basis of an enquiry into the identity of the cats of ancient Egypt. Statistical analysis of the measurements of these skulls, and a critical examination of the available evidence, lead to the view that two forms of cat were mummified. The larger form, which is not so common as a mummy, and which may or may not have been domesticated, represents Felis chaus. The smaller, and by far the commoner, mummies were thought by Ehrenberg (1833) to represent two forms, one larger than the other, and Ehrenberg's view has been adopted by many subsequent authors. But the evidence does not support this view and, apart from the large chaus, the cats mummified by ancient Egyptians appear to represent one form only, the skulls of which agree closely with those of the wild Felis libyca Forster, from which it was probably derived. If this view is correct this form should be known as Felis libyca bubastis Ehrenberg, 1833.

From paintings and figures it seems that bubastis, which was certainly domesticated, was a ginger‐coloured cat, with rather long ears and legs, and with a long, ringed tail.
THE LATERAL MUSCULATURE AND THE SWIMMING OF FISH
Authors: NURSALL J. R.
Published: August 2010

The lateral musculature of the fish‐like chordates has been examined in an effort to find reasons for the peculiar pattern of the myomeres. There are three distinct types of myomeres: amphioxine, cyclostomine and piscine. All have in common the function of bending their possessors' bodies from side to side to provide locomotor force. In all cases pull is applied obliquely to the long axis of the body. The myomeres pull at once latero‐craniad and laterocaudad to bend the body from its position of equilibrium, or rest, into concavity. If continued, this movement would lead to a condition of instability, in which the vectors of the forces applied would pass across the axis of bending and the body would be distorted. However, the length of the body and its resistance to compression prevents this. Also, during locomotion, restorative forces are developed on the convex side of the body to supplant the original bending movement and the body passes through the equilibrium position to become concave on the opposite side. These reactions follow one another through myomere after myomere from head to tail along the body of the animal; the result is lateral waves passing rapidly down the body, the reaction of which with the water provides locomotion. Each myomere covers several vertebral segments and succeeding myomeres overlap. This allows the bending to progress smoothly along the body as each myomere affects not only its own section of the body but also those of its neighbours.

The myomeres gain attachment to vertebral centra, neural and haemal spines (or ribs) and the connective tissue septa between these structures. Secondary attachments by means of longitudinal ligaments, formed by the apposition of deep myosepta, often occur, especially among the Chondrichthyes.

The mechanical advantage of a segment of the lateral musculature is very small, but it approaches unity among the tunas, In these fish the muscle is concentrated in the body region, while the caudal peduncle supports long tendons running to the caudal fin.

Intermuscular bones appear in the myosepta of many species of fish. These appear to have been developed in response to stresses and strains set up by the musculature.
THE ORIGIN OF NEST‐CEMENT IN EDIBLE‐NEST SWIFTLETS (COLLOCALIA SPP.)
Authors: MARSHALL A. J. , FOLLEY S. J.
Published: August 2010

A re‐examination of the alimentary tract of two species of Asiatic swiftlets (Collocalia) appears to confirm Bernstein's (1859) hypothesis that nest‐cement is produced by salivary glands. There is no sign of a crop‐gland such as occurs in pigeons and doves.

The salivary glands of Collocalia are relatively enormous in comparison with those of the unrelated Swallow Hirundo which has apparently similar aerial‐feeding habits yet does not cement its nest. On the other hand, the oesophageal and gastric mucosa in both genera are much the same.

A strikingly differential degree of salivary gland development is demonstrated in two species of Collocalia (taken on the same day at the same cavern) which are said to have different breeding dates. No such difference was detected in the oesophageal and gastric epithelium of the same examples. The probability of a hormonal control of the seasonal development of the salivary glands of Collocalia is briefly discussed.
SURVIVAL CURVES OF MAMMALS IN CAPTIVITY
Authors: COMFORT A.
Published: August 2010

Life tables and survival curves were constructed for eight species of mammal from data in the records of the Zoological Society of London.

Upon arithmetic coordinates, all the survival curves were approximately straight lines over the period of adult life.

The survival curves of two species of sheep, and of hybrid wolves, were nearly identical. That of wild goats was similar in form but significantly longer in duration.

The data are compared with figures for wild and domestic populations of similar animals. The survival curve of wolves was approximately similar to that of wolfhounds. The maximum longevities of domestic, wild, and zoological garden sheep were similar, but the median age reached by zoological garden sheep was lower, and the early adult mortality higher, than in wild sheep subject to predation. There was no significantly greater loss of lambs in zoological garden sheep compared with agricultural flocks.

The relationship between survival curves obtained under these conditions and curves for wild and for fully domestic animals is discussed.
AN ANALYSIS OF THE TAXONOMIST'S JUDGMENT OF AFFINITY
Authors: Cain A. J. , Harrison G. A.
Published: August 2010

The basic idea of affinity as overall similarity, which is logically and historically prior to that of evolutionary affinity, is described. It is in constant use in taxonomy

After an analysis of the ideas of different forms, the general plan of construction of an organism, similarity in general plan, and the single character, a procedure is worked out which makes precise the judgment of affinity, and enables us to obtain a numerical value for the mean character difference between any two forms

As a result, it is shown that the family tree diagram can be used only for the evolutionary topology of a group, not for showing amount of evolutionary difference

A measure of the relevance of a taxonomic comparison is described

The possibility of giving a quantitative basis to the taxonomic hierarchy is pointed out
VARIATION IN THE MAXILLARY NERVE OF CERTAIN MAMMALS
Authors: Ashton E. H. , Oxnard C. E.
Published: August 2010

A study has been made of the maxillary nerve in eighty‐three specimens of nineteen species of placental mammals. The series included representatives of six mammalian orders.

In this material, the maxillary trunk first gives off the zygomatic nerve and then passes forwards on the orbital floor. It gives origin to the posterior and anterior superior dental nerves, and splits at a variable point into nasal and labial divisions. The nasal division supplies the surface of the snout, the rhinarium and the vestibule of the nose, frequently giving twigs to the uppermost members of the group of mysticial vibrissae. The labial division is distributed to the remainder of the mysticial vibrissae, and to the skin of the cheek and upper lip.

If the rhinarium or the uppermost mysticial vibrissae are prominent, the nasal division is correspondingly big.

If the lower members of the group of mysticial vibrissae are well developed, it is the labial division that is relatively enlarged.

The relative sizes of the facial branches of the infraorbital nerve are also affected by the development of specialized facial features—e.g. in the pig the vast majority of nerve fibres are distributed to the disc‐like ending of the snout.

Certain structures presumably derived from the frontonasal process receive their nerve supply from the nasal division, while those derived from the maxillary processes are normally supplied by fibres from the labial division. In the ungulates, however, the nerve supply to the mobile upper lip is derived from branches of the nasal division.
The structure of defence glands in some Tenebrionidae and Nilionidae (Coleoptera)
Authors: KENDALL D. A.
Published: August 2010

SYNOPSIS

An account is given of the structure of the defence glands in a number of Tenebrionidae and two Nilionidae. The origin of defence glands from other integumentary structures, and some of the phylogenetic implications of the gland structure, are discussed.
Seasonal changes in fat content, form, state of gonads and length of adult life in the sycamore aphid, Drepanosiphum platanoides (Schr.)
Authors: DIXON A. F. G.
Published: August 2010

Even when reared under similar conditions of crowding and nutrition, first and second generation adult sycamore aphids differ in their morphology and physiology. Second generation adults have a smaller abdomen, a longer gut, greater fat reserves, less developed gonads, a longer reproductive diapause and live longer than first generation aphids.

Second generation nymphs reared in isolation develop into adults which have less well‐developed gonads but a reproductive delay similar to that of first generation adults.

Crowding of second generation adults prolongs the reproductive diapause.
The biology of Chrysopidae and Hemerobiidae (Neuroptera), with reference to their usage as biocontrol agents: a review
Authors: NEW T. R.
Published: August 2010

Many regions have well‐developed faunas of Chrysopidae and Hemerobiidae, many of which are potential control agents, but only a few widely distributed species have been seriously considered as such.

Most of the biological information available concerns Chrysopa species in north temperate areas. C.carnea Stephens, in particular, has been utilised in many pest control programmes. Prepupal or adult diapause constitutes a well‐defined stage in the life cycles of many temperate species.

Larval searching behaviour is efficient, and larvae of most species studied can utilise a wide range of prey organisms or sugar‐based foods. The quality of the larval food can affect reproduction of the ensuing adults. Cannibalism is frequent, and may serve as the main food supply when other sources are scarce. Artificial diets for mass rearing are outlined.

Adult Hemerobiidae are predators. Adult Chrysopidae are either predators or honey‐dew feeders, the latter possessing symbiotic yeasts which aid amino acid synthesis. Sprays based on sugar and yeast hydrolysates can be applied in the field as (i) attractants and (ii) alternative or additional food.

A wide range of predators and hymenopterous parasites attack all stages. Many widespread and non‐specific parasites may attack lacewings introduced from other areas.

Potential use of Chrysopidae and Hemerobiidae in integrated control is enhanced by their tolerance to some insecticides.

Lacewings are potential control agents of pests in greenhouse, field crops, and orchards. Native species should be augmented rather than others introduced. It would probably be wise to encourage only one or few lacewing species against any given pest.
Biosystematics of the straw itch mite with special reference to nomenclature and dermatology
Authors: MOSER J. C.
Published: August 2010

Cross‐mating of various populations of Pyemotes obtained from laboratory insect cultures demonstrated that the straw itch mite is a single, widely dispersed species, different from P.ventricosus, which was probably associated with the furniture beetle.

P.ventricosus should not be the approved scientific name for the straw itch mite. The correct name for the straw itch mite is Pyemotes tritici.

Various Pyemotes species differ in preferred habitats, hosts, and toxicity to man. Whereas P.tritici commonly attacks grain insects and is highly toxic to man, other species attack wood boring insects and may cause little or no irritation. P.scolyti and P.parviscolyti, which attack bark beetles, cause no observable symptoms.

It is suggested that before Pyemotes are used as biological control agents against bark beetles, it is important to identify the species correctly.
Study of two forms of the adult Stenocranus minutus
Authors: MAY YIN YIN
Published: August 2010

In studies onStenocranus minutus, two winged forms of adults have been observed, macropterous and sub‐macropterous. Macropterous individuals, with extra‐long wings, have not been previously observed or described. Probably only the macropterous form disperses by flight.

The two forms differ in their wing lengths, intensity and extent of pigmentation.

The rate of maturation differs in the two forms. In macropters, maturation is delayed; the period of oviposition is shorter and they are less fecund.

Macropters do not live as long as sub‐macropters.

The macropters weigh less than the sub‐macropters.

Under laboratory conditions, both forms can hop but the macropterous forms fly for a longer time than the sub‐macropters.

At 25°C, more macropterous forms were produced on wiltingDactylisthan on green, succulentDactylis.

Dispersal of field population was inferred from changes in proportions of the two forms and by simultaneous occurrence of macropters in aerial suction traps.

The macropterous forms ofS.minutusmigrate a few weeks after emergence while still immature and migration coincides with drying up of host plant,Dactylis glomerataL.

Relatively high temperature, low wind speeds and a small number of hours of sunlight seem to favour dispersal by flight inS.minutus.
Age‐related increase of reactive oxygen generation in the brains of mammals and birds: Is reactive oxygen a signaling molecule to determine the aging process and life span?
Authors: Sasaki Toru , Unno Keiko , Tahara Shoichi , Kaneko Takao
Published: August 2010

Since Harman proposed the “free‐radical theory of aging”, oxidative stress has been postulated to be a major causal factor of senescence. The accumulation of oxidative stress‐induced oxidatively modified macromolecules, including protein, DNA and lipid, were found in tissues during the aging process; however, it is not necessarily clear which factor is more critical, an increase in endogenous reactive oxygen and/or a decrease in anti‐oxidative defense, to the age‐related increase in oxidative damage. To clarify the increasing production of reactive oxygen with age, we examined reactive oxygen‐dependent chemiluminescent (CL) signals in ex vivo brain slices prepared from different‐aged animal brains during hypoxia–reoxygenation treatment using a novel photonic imaging method. The CL signal was intensified during reoxygenation. The signals in SAMP10 (short‐life strain) and SAMR1 (control) brain slices increased with aging. The slope of the increase of CL intensity with age in P10 was steeper than in R1. Age‐dependent increase of CL intensity was also observed in C57BL/6 mice, Wistar rats and pigeons; however, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in the brain did not change with age. These results suggest that reactive oxygen production itself increased with aging. The rate of age‐related increases of CL intensity was inversely related to the maximum lifespan of animals. We speculate that reactive oxygen might be a signaling molecule and its levels in tissue might determine the aging process and lifespan. Decelerating age‐related increases of reactive oxygen production are expected to be a potent strategy for anti‐aging interventions. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2010; 10 (Suppl. 1): S10–S24.
39. The Colonization of the Sea by Insects: with an Account of the Habits of Pontomyia, the only known Submarine Insect
Authors: Buxton P. A.
Published: August 2010

The habits and occurrence of a new submarine Chironomid midge (Pontomyia nutans Edwards, described in the previous paper) which was found by the author in Samoa, are described. It is pointed out that no other insect is known which is submarine in all stages; the reason for this is obscure, in view of the great adaptability of insects to the varying conditions which prevail in fresh water. For instance, insects which live in lakes and streams are able to withstand waves and currents: larvæ of Diptera, and of one Trichopteron, can live in water as salt as or salter than the sea; among the Chironomidæ, many have marine larvæ, but in all except Pontomyia the adult is aerial. In estuaries, and in such seas as the Baltic and the Caspian, the boundary between fresh and salt water is gradual. In spite of this, insects have failed to colonize the sea; possibly they can overcome any one of the barriers which exist between fresh and salt water, but not a combination of the barriers.
8. Notes on some early Blastocysts of the South American Bat Molossus
Authors: Sansom G. S.
Published: August 2010

Summary.

The early development of Molossus agrees fairly closely with that of the other Micro‐Cheiroptera, as described by Keibel, da Costa, and Levi.

The orientation of the blastocyst at right angles to the mesometrial axis is noteworthy; it occurs in all the six early states, but is not preserved in the last, considerably later blastocyst, where the embryonal disc is directed more towards the antimesometrial side. In Pl. II. fig. 7 an arrow indicates the direction of the mesometrium, and it will be seen that the greater part of the ectodermal plate lies in a plane at about 40d̀ to the mesometrial axis.

The primitive amniotic cavity arises as a cloft or clefts in the amnioectodermal mass, and its formation is apparently initiated by the rearrangement of the cells. The roof of this cavity thins out and ultimately disappears, with the result that a cavity is formed bounded on the one side by the shielf ectoderm and on the other by the thin layer of covering trophoblast. According to Levi, the definitive amniotic cavity is formed by the ingrowth of ectoderm, from the margins of the ectodermal shield, in contact with the covering trophoblast. There are indications in Ol. II. fig. 8 that this process has already started.

The slight activity of the eyto‐trophoblast and the apparent absence of syneytio‐trophoblast, even in the latest stage herein described, are noteworthy. The trophoblast in these early stages appears to be devoid of phagocytic or eytolytic properties.
The Oxygen Consumption of Newly‐hatched Larvae of Ascaris suum.
Authors: Fenwick D. W.
Published: August 2010

Four series of experiments were carried out to determine the oxygen consumption of newly‐hatched larvae of Ascaris suum, using a Barcroft Differential Respirometer.

It was found that the consumption curve was divisible into three regions:–

A preliminary phase, during which there was a low rate of oxygen consumption, probably due to the fact that the larvae had not settled down to their new conditions of life.

An intermediate period, during which the rate of oxygen consumption was very high owing, it is believed, to the larvae making good an oxygen debt incurred during their previous conditions of life inside the egg‐shell due, probably, to the low permeability of the egg‐cases.

A final state of constant low oxygen consumption entered into after the larvae have satisfied their oxygen debt and have settled down to their new‐aerobic conditions of life.

The actual rate of oxygen consumption during the two later phases was measured and found to be ‐0093 c.c./hr./1000 larvae for the intermediate period and ‐000928 c.c./hr./1000 larvae for the final rate, i. e., during the intermediate phase the rate of oxygen consumption was ten times the normal rate.

It is suggested that the larvae can use oxygen if present, but that they can live anaerobically in its absence and build up an oxygen debt during an anaerobic life.
THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE CLOACA OF THE COMMON FROG: 4. On the Structure and Function of the Cloaca of the Common Frog(Rana t. temporaries).
Authors: Kerr T.
Published: August 2010

The frog cloaca is a short simple tube receiving at its inner end the genital and urinary ducts, the rectum, and the allantoic bladder. The female cloaca diners from the male only in the addition of the Mullerian ducts. The ducts open on a ridge of vacuolated tissue marking the boundary of cloaca and rectum. It functions as part of a recto‐cloacal valve and brings the urinary openings close to the opening of the bladder. The lining epithelium of the cloaca is derived half from ectoderm and half from endoderm; the former in its stratification and glands resembles the skin, the latter is composed of tall glandular cells with some resemblance to those of the rectum. The general structure of the organ is similar throughout; the epithelium is backed by a layer of loose connective tissue containing lymph spaces; this in turn is enclosed by a layer of first circular and then longitudinal muscles embedded in dense connective tissue, to the outside of which are attached the extrinsic muscles of the cloaca.

A sequence of changes occurs in the endodermal epithelium and the connective tissue beneath it which can be correlated with stages in the sexual cycle. Following the breeding season there is a collapse of the individual epithelial cells and of the folds, the latter apparently due to a reduction in the lymph spaces of the loose connective tissue; during the late summer and autumn the cells and folds are gradually built up to an intermediate condition which persists over the winter, reaching a final enlargement as the breeding season approaches. It is suggested that the function of this tissue is to flush out and lubricate the cloaca, particularly for the passage of eggs and sperm. Injection of growth‐stimulating extract of the anterior pituitary brings about an acceleration of the building‐up process, slight in June but marked in October, and injection of gonad‐stimulating extract appears to produce a tendency towards the post‐breeding condition, so it is suggested that this part of the cloaca is functionally part of the genital duct system, which is, according to Spaul and Gladwell, under pituitary control. These and other injections produce in the ectodermal part of the cloaca only the effects that they produce upon the skin itself.
The Relative Frequency of Beak‐marks on Butterflies of Different/ Edibility to Birds.
Authors: Carpenter, D.M. G. D. Hale
Published: August 2010

Evidence of attacks upon butterflies by birds is provided by the imprint of the beak upon the wings. Comparison is made between the frequency of such beak‐marks in butterflies which have the characters of relatively distasteful species and in others not so characterized. Over 14,000 specimens belonging to three different groups were examined for the purpose, and the difference in frequency of beak‐marks was found to be immensely significant statistically. The marks are ten times more frequent in the more “distasteful” species. In addition, 567 models and 341 mimics, forming several African mimicry associations, showed that there is a significant difference between them in frequency of beak‐marks in favour of the models. These facts are interpreted as evidence of the greater destruction of species not furnished with aposematic characters, which, when attacked, do not escape like the tougher, more distasteful species.
A NOTE ON THE EVOLUTION OF STRIDULATION WITHIN THE FAMILY SCORPIONIDAE
Authors: ALEXANDER ANNE J.
Published: August 2010

Superficially similar mechanisms of pedipalpar stridulation occur in the genera Pandinus and Heterometrus. The basic differences are pointed out and it is shown that part, at least, of the anatomical bases for both mechanisms occur in another scorpionid genus, Opisthophthalmus.

Contrary to previous opinions on the subject, it was found that the stridulatory movements in Pandinus and Heterometrus are not the same; in Pandinus they are defensive while those described for Heterometrus correspond to the movement of pedipalpar attack.

It is pointed out that these two different movements produce friction in different places: the attack movement causes most friction over surfaces which produce the sound in Heterometrus, the defensive movement at the points which have become stridulatory surfaces in Pandinus.

It is shown that there is anatomical preadaptation to cheliceral stridulation within the genus Opisthophthalmus.
THE INNER EAR OF SOME MEMBERS OF THE PIPIDAE (AMPHIBIA)
Authors: PATERSON NELLIE F.
Published: August 2010

The aquatic habit of members of the Pipidae seems to have resulted in the retention of a number of neotenic features, and these are evident in the inner ear as well as in other systems of organs.

From a comparative study of the morphological details of the inner ear of adults of Hemipipa carvalhoi, Hymenochirus curtipes and Xenopus laevis, juvenile Pipa pipa and larval stages of Hemipipa, Xenopus and Rana fuscigula, it appears that the arrangement in Hemipipa is the least specialized, while the inner ear of Xenopus closely resembles that of amphibious Anura.

Attention is drawn to Witschi's conclusions (1947–1956) that in larval forms of Rana and Xenopus the lungs act as sound receptors, associated with which is the temporary development of certain auxiliary bronchial structures. In the present observations these structures are interpreted otherwise, and no definite conclusions are reached as to their participation in the auditory mechanism.

Variations in the inner ear of the four species of Pipidae studied appear to strengthen opinions regarding the somewhat unsatisfactory classification of the family. Hemipipa and Pipa fall naturally into the subfamily Pipinae, but the marked differences between Hymenochirus and Xenopus, not only in regard to the inner ear, but also in other anatomical features, suggest that these two genera should be relegated to separate subfamilies.
SIX NEW SPECIES OF MICRATHENA (ARANEAE, ARGIOPIDAE) FROM SOUTH AMERICA WITH NOTES ON KNOWN SPECIES
Authors: CHICKERING ARTHUR M.
Published: August 2010

Six new species of Micrathena are described and figured. These are all selected from unassorted collections loaned by the Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History) and Oxford University Museum. The types will be deposited in the appropriate institutions.

In order to further our understanding of the genus additional notes and figures on sixteen species, previously known but inadequately described, are given.
NOTES ON THE BREEDING OF THE DOMESTICATED GREY GUPPY LEBISTES RETICULATUS (PETERS)
Authors: AFFLECK ROBERT J.
Published: August 2010

The broods from guppies Lebistea reticulatus are usually small owing to cannibalism by the parent and other fish before the swim‐bladders of the fry are inflated. When cannibalism is eliminated, by confining each female in a maternity cage, the number of fry in the brood from domesticated grey guppies is a linear function of the total length of the female.
THE RED GORAL OF THE NORTH‐EAST FRONTIER REGION
Authors: HAYMAN R. W.
Published: August 2010

Reports dating back to 1912 of a remarkable foxy‐red coloured goral or goat‐antelope (Nemorhaedus) from S.E. Tibet and N.E. Assam have been investigated. In 1931 Lord Cranbrook collected a specimen of this goral in the Adung Valley, Upper Burma, and recently Mr H. L. Cooper has presented to the British Museum (Natural History) a rug made of skins of three of these gorals taken in 1922 in the Mishmi Hills of Upper Assam. Study of these specimens has led to the proposal of a new species of Nemorhaedus based not only on colour but also on comparative size and proportions. A colour plate of skins of the new animal is given.
REPORT OF THE PATHOLOGIST FOR THE YEAR 1960
Authors: T.‐W.‐FIENNES R. N.
Published: August 2010

An account is given of autopsy examinations on Mammalia, Aves and Reptilia during the year 1960. Statistical analyses of results are added in the tables given. Various research problems studied during the year are briefly described.
LIFE CYCLES OF FOUR FRESHWATER SNAILS IN LIMITED POPULATIONS IN LOCH LOMOND, WITH A DISCUSSION OF INFRASPECIFIC VARIATION
Authors: HUNTER W. RUSSELL
Published: August 2010

With dredged samples from an isolated bank in Loch Lomond providing standards, data are presented on the interpopulation variations in growth and reproduction which occur in five species of freshwater snails. Infraspecific differences between populations inPlanorbis albusandValvata piscinalisinvolve only growth rates and the time and intensity of the breeding season. InPhysa fontinalis, Lymnaea peregraandAncylus fluviatilis, interpopulation differences involve the seasonal course of the reproductive cycle (and the number of generations per year), as well as growth rates. A series of the known life cycles of freshwater pulmonates is then considered: two patterns of simple annual cycle, and two patterns each involving a second generation annually, are described, besides certain more exceptional life cycles. All four patterns have been found in different populations ofP. fontinalisandL. peregra.

Variations in breeding are dependent both on environmental factors, water temperature being most important, and on endogenous causes involving the growth of the snails; variation in mortality may involve environmental limitation. Most interpopulation variations can be environmentally evoked, but some differences seem genetically determined. It is suggested that adaptive plasticity, as found in several aspects of the physiology of these snails, is of fundamental selective value, given the temporal and spatial peculiarities of the freshwater environment.
THE POPULATIONS OF BALANUS AMPHITRITE VAR. STUTSBURI ON THE GUINEA COAST
Authors: SANDISON EYVOR E.
Published: August 2010

Collections of Balanus amphitrite Darwin have been made along the Guinea Coast, and varieties denticulata, venustus and stutsburi have been identified. Of these only var. stutsburi appears in Lagos Harbour, but these individuals have shown so much variation of their morphological characters that they have led to a more detailed study to try to ascertain the inter‐relationships of the various var. stutsburi populations found along the coast, and to see whether any of these could be entering the Harbour.

Certain characters, mainly referring to proportional measurements of the tergum and scutum and the numbers of segments on the cirri, have been chosen for closer analysis. The more variable characters shown by var. stutsburi have been selected for this, in the hope of (a) finding more accurate methods for describing the variable characters of a variety and giving their limits of variation, and (b) to find possible elines in the characteristic features as shown by the var. stutsburi populations on the Guinea Coast.

As a result of this analysis the relationships between the “centre” of the population in Kuramo, near Lagos Harbour, and the populations in the surrounding lagoons is clarified, and the populations at Irewe and Port Harcourt are found to show slight (but definable) trends differing from those in the Lagos area.

B. amphitrite var. pallidus, recorded by Darwin from West Africa, has not been identified amongst the collections, but the possibility that it may be synonomous with var. stutsburi is discussed. The necessity for a re‐description of the type specimens is emphasized, and more accurate methods for the description of new species and varieties is advocated.
NOTES ON THE HABITS OF THE MOUNT KENYA HYRAX (PROCAVIA JOHNSTONI MACKINDERI THOMAS)
Authors: COE MALCOLM J.
Published: August 2010

The results of field work conducted on Mount Kenya between 1957 and 1960 are presented, and the origin of the subspecies Procavia johnstoni mackinderi is discussed with regard to glacial history and the distribution of montane forest.

The number of young produced is below the mode for lowland species, due to the sparcity of food.

Activity is related to illumination and not to temperature. Both sunlight and moonlight have a profound effect on activity.

Food material being restricted at high altitudes, diet varies with the position of the colony.

Colonies appear to consist of single males protecting small groups of females and their young.
THE RELATION BETWEEN THE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE, MOULT AND CHANGES IN THE SUBLINGUAL SALIVARY GLANDS OF THE SWIFTLET COLLOCALIA MAXIMA KIJME
Authors: MEDWAY LORD
Published: August 2010

Six collections of adult Collocalio maxima Hume, including both sexes, were taken at the nest sites in Niah cave, Sarawak (113° 46' E. 60' N). Changes in the gonads and accessory reproductive organs of these specimens indicate a prolonged breeding season of eight months, September to April annually, after which the gonads regress to nonbreeding condition. The moult is also a seasonal event, but the progress of moulting in individual birds is not directly related to breeding condition. The sublingual glands of a fledgling and of certain adults were minute and nonsecretory. It is concluded that the secretion of these glands has no digestive function, but is related solely to periodic nest building. No correlation is found between the reproductive state of individual birds and activity in the sublingual glands. Some females in breeding condition had totally inactive sublingual glands, whereas all males in breeding condition had active sublingual glands. It is suggested that these glands may be responsive to teaticular hormone. The most important external environmental factor controlling the activity of the sublingual glands appears to be the presence or absence of the nest itself.
THE CEPHALOPHARYNGEAL APPARATUS OF SYRPHID LARVAE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER DIPTERA
Authors: HARTLEY J. C.
Published: August 2010

The main remnant of the head of the syrphid larva hag been retracted into the thorax and is called the cephalopharyngeal apparatus. It forms a special food collecting and sorting pump. The form, development, and function of this structure in Eristalis is described. The structure of the other remnants of the head is also considered.

The cephalopharyngeal apparatus of other Syrphidae is compared with the saprophagous type of Eristalis. A previously undescribed feature is a grinding mill in the cephalopharyngeal apparatus of Merodon and Eumerus. The way in which the various forms of the cephalopharyngeal apparatus of the Syrphidae have arisen from the primitive type is discussed.

The morphology of the head is compared with other families of Diptera and relationships of some parts are discussed. A new interpretation of some parts of the cephalopharyngeal apparatus is suggested, particularly the so‐called ‘ intermediate ’ sclerite.