bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Africana Andromeda
Authors: Donkor Kimathi
Published: February 2020

The Tate’s national collection of British art includes work about the Greek myth of Andromeda who, according to the Roman poet, Ovid, was an Ethiopian princess rescued from death by Perseus. This chapter explores this racialized, gendered narrative and Andromeda’s suppressed African heritage through writing, reading, digital design, painting, photography, and drawing. How do British, Classical, and Black identities interact through art, and how are such processes mediated through a complex history characterized by colonialism and slavery, as well as by independence, struggle, and settlement? Informed by the disruptive spirit of Frantz Fanon, the author’s studio practice responds to Tate artworks, like Henry Fehr’s monumental sculpture, as well as to whiteness in Burne-Jones’ and Turner’s paintings. The author’s own artwork Rescue of Andromeda is proposed as demonstrative of how critical reading and studio methodologies can facilitate new art celebrating ascendant black womanhood, whilst contributing to debates about artistic tradition and popular culture.
Evolutionary Medicine and Women’s Reproductive Health
Authors: Trevathan Wenda R. , Rosenberg Karen R.
Published: February 2020

Women’s reproductive health is often appropriately the focus of medical attention and intervention in developed countries today. We argue, however, that clinical treatment can benefit from a greater understanding of the conditions under which female reproductive biology evolved. Reproductive factors such as timing of menarche and first reproduction, ovulatory cycles, levels of reproductive hormones, and fertility are shaped by local conditions, lived experiences of each woman, and evolutionary forces that have operated for many millennia on ancestral women. Aspects of our reproductive biology that we take for granted and think of as “natural” are actually products of our recent and current lifestyles—this includes monthly menstrual periods for much of women’s reproductive years for a total of as many as 450 cycles in their lifetimes. More typical of the human experience relevant to evolution is less frequent menstrual periods interrupted by pregnancy and several years of lactation for a total of fewer than 100.
Optimizing Maternal-Infant Health
Authors: Stuebe Alison M. , Tully Kristin P.
Published: February 2020

In this chapter, we use an evolutionary lens to deepen understanding of maternal and family needs in the early postpartum period so that health care can be more aligned with confronted realities. The discussion is centered around the concept of the 4th trimester, which is the period between birth and the first 3 months postpartum. This framework encourages a holistic understanding of perinatal health by drawing attention to evolved maternal-infant needs. By addressing these ultimate-level contributors to health issues, we can facilitate more effective clinical support, comprehensive research, and a fuller “village” to enable new families to thrive. Core to this approach is the concept of trade-offs between parents and offspring, exemplified by lactation as a prime example of the complexities of dyadic needs and gap between the current culture of health and optimal support.
Evolutionary Medicine Viewed Through the Lens of Pregnancy and the Obesity Epidemic
Authors: Zera Chloe , Wilkins-Haug Louise
Published: February 2020

The rapid rise of the global obesity epidemic is one of the most significant microevolutions of the past century. Identification, evaluation and weight-altering interventions are sustainable only with an understanding that evolution occurs both at a macro level over centuries as well as on a micro level across a decade. Among the genes related to metabolism, on a global level, variation at the DNA coding level is to be expected. The unique distribution of these variants is shaped through hundreds of years of macroevolution to mature a population for survival of the fittest based on reproductive success. Over shorter time periods, these varied gene pools are further influenced by proximate response mechanisms within microevolution and co-inheritance. Microevolution prompts individuals’ responses to internal and external environmental pressures by changing gene activation and silencing.
Tinbergean Approach to Clinical Medicine
Authors: Natterson-Horowitz B.
Published: February 2020

Among the most enduring and influential contributions of Nobel Laureate Nikolaas Tinbergen was the introduction of a four-part framework for understanding biological causation. Beyond traditional proximate-mechanistic explanations, Tinbergen asserted, a consideration of both phylogenetic and functional-adaptive perspectives was essential. The application of a framework derived from this Tinbergean structure to human medicine offers a novel approach to the development of theories of causation for high-impact somatic and bio-behavioral disorders. This perspective offers physicians and physicians-in-training an expanded understanding of the nature and origin of human vulnerability to disease. The phylogenetic perspective expands awareness of non-human animals who spontaneously develop the disorder and the functional-adaptive perspective considers what components of vulnerability to disease might have adaptive benefit. Both facilitate the development of novel testable hypotheses.
Evolution, Genomics, and the New Genetic Technologies
Authors: Haug Louise Wilkins
Published: February 2020

“Genomics” encompasses gene variations, gene-gene interactions, control of DNA sequence activation and the expanding understanding of the process from gene to protein to individual. This critical pathway from gene, to protein, to individual is complex but remarkably unaltered across species. New genomic technologies can interrogate innumerable sites for possible alteration or targeting for interventions. In addition, central to integrating the current and future genomics into medical care is an interweaving of evolution, especially evolutionary medicine. The core principle of evolution is survival of the fittest—survival to reproduction and transference of genes. Continued education around the concepts of mechanistic (proximate) cause and ultimate cause (the evolutionary nature) will inform medical care. Understanding genomics and evolution is central to thoughtful ‘precision medicine’ with the crafting of medical care to individual gene alterations. An inclusive approach is needed among medical education.
Usage events and utterance types
Authors: Schmid Hans-Jörg
Published: February 2020

The chapter lays the foundation for the understanding of usage events and utterance types. Usage events consist of several components, all of which can become conventionalized and entrenched: utterances (including the required motor and sensory activities), communicative goals of participants, cognitive and interpersonal activities, and the linguistic, situational, and social context. Utterance types are contingent links between communicative goals and linguistics forms. They are contingent on several dimensions: the onomasiological link between goals and forms, the semasiological link between forms and meanings, combinations on the syntagmatic dimension, and the use of utterance types in cotexts and contexts. Utterance types can be defined as multiply contingent and probabilistic connections between goals and forms. Three classes of utterance types can be distinguished with regard to their function, specificity, and size, i.e. distinctors, units, and patterns. Although the notion of utterance types is similar to that of construction, it is preferred to emphasize the dynamic and contingent nature of form-meaning relations.
Co-semiosis and other interpersonal activities
Authors: Schmid Hans-Jörg
Published: February 2020

This chapter discusses interpersonal activities which have the potential to feed into conventionalization and entrenchment. Co-semiosis is the most important interpersonal activity. It is defined as the negotiation of the mutual belief of mutual understanding and shared intentionality. It is based on the licensing potential of utterance types. Co-adaptation is the tendency to repeat and adopt aspects of the speech or style of others in a usage event. It is also known as accommodation, alignment, persistence, etc. Arguably, co-adaptation has a strong potential for the conventionalization and entrenchment of all kinds of utterance types. Co-construction is another important interpersonal activity closely related to the negotiation of shared intentionality. Further interpersonal activities which are important for the conventionalization of utterance types and the entrenchment of patterns of associations are turn-taking and illocutionary and perlocutionary acts, mitigating, stance-taking, and acts of identity, i.e. self-presentation and positioning.
Forces affecting usage
Authors: Schmid Hans-Jörg
Published: February 2020

This chapter discusses forces that affect usage. According to the feedback-loop idea dominant in the EC-Model, processes and activities can also act as forces: the more conventionalized and entrenched, the more likely to be used. Production circumstances (i.e. channel and medium) affect the choice of utterance types in context. Cognitive economy and communicative efficiency are competing forces, with the former promoting the use of speakers’ entrenched routines and the latter encouraging them to factor in hearers’ needs. Extravagance, expressivity, foregrounding, and attention-seeking salience facilitate the production of creative utterances. Politeness and impoliteness are social forces influencing the choice of utterance and affecting their conventionalization and entrenchment. Solidarity and distance can influence the choice of utterances in context to signal in-group membership or emphasize group differences. Speakers assert power in their behaviour in concrete usage events.
Summary of Part I
Authors: Schmid Hans-Jörg
Published: February 2020

This short chapter provides a summary of Part I of the book. It emphasizes the claim that all aspects associated with usage events have the potential to become conventionalized and entrenched. These include the forms and meanings of utterances, the interpersonal and cognitive activities involved in their production and comprehension, and the cotextual, contextual, and social characteristics of utterances. The chapter also highlights the special role played by pragmatic associations as mediators between interpersonal and cognitive activities and their conventionalization and entrenchment. Forces affecting usage are portrayed as fairly stable sociopragmatic and emotive principles whose concrete manifestations are, however, subject to change.
Usualization
Authors: Schmid Hans-Jörg
Published: February 2020

The chapter discusses the nature of the process of usualization and explains its contribution to the conventionalization of innovations, to linguistic variation, change, and persistence. The process is explained with reference to Berger and Luckmann’s (1966) constructivist model of the sociology of knowledge. Usualization is responsible for the conventionalization of innovative form-meaning pairings as well as innovative forms and meanings. It is argued that linguistic variation on all dimensions, from form, structure, and meaning to situational, social, and individual variation can be handled by the unified approach suggested by the EC-Model. Usualization is a major factor in types of language change labelled by such terms as grammaticalization, lexicalization, pragmaticalization, idiomatization, and context-induced change. A case study of the development of the going-to future illustrates this potential. Not only variation and change, but also the persistence of structure are dynamic in the sense that it must be refreshed by continual usualization.
The routinization of pragmatic associations
Authors: Schmid Hans-Jörg
Published: February 2020

In this chapter it is first argued that numerous linguistic phenomena located at the heart of grammar, e.g. deixis, reference, tense, aspect, modality, sentence mode, and intonation, have their origin in the routinization of commonalities extracted from usage events. These commonalities are represented by more or less strongly entrenched pragmatic associations. Then it is claimed that implicatures and other inferential mechanisms such as metaphors, metonymies, irony, as well as connotations and style and register awareness are also based on the routinization of pragmatic associations. These claims are condensed in three pragmatic-strengthening principles: situational pragmatic strengthening, inferential pragmatic strengthening, and pragmatic strengthening of situated meanings. The fundamental role of pragmatic associations for shaping core grammar is emphasized.
Persistence
Authors: Schmid Hans-Jörg
Published: February 2020

This chapter discusses how the Entrenchment-and-Conventionalization Model explains the persistence of linguistic structure. Persistence is regarded as an effect of frequent repetition of items with high similarity. An idealized scenario is developed which reflects how the different components can work together to keep certain parts of the linguistic system stable for a long time and comparatively uniform. It is stressed that persistence is not mere lack of change and variation, but particularly intense refreshment in usage, conventionalization, and entrenchment, generally driven by the repetition of highly conventionalized and entrenched utterance types. Forces such as economy, efficiency, solidarity, and power generally tend to support persistence.
Variation
Authors: Schmid Hans-Jörg
Published: February 2020

This chapter discusses how the Entrenchment-and-Conventionalization Model explains language variation. It sifts the various contributions of the components of the model for elements that are conducive to onomasiological and semasiological structural variation, to situational, social, and regional variation, and to individual differences. Not only the conventionalization processes of usualization and diffusion, but also the entrenchment process of routinization make a strong contribution to the emergence and change of variation on all levels. Numerous forces promote variation, e.g. economy, extravagance, solidarity, prestige, mobility, and language contact. The dynamic, changeable nature of variation is emphasized and the various sources of this malleability are identified. It is also highlighted that the existence of individual differences is one of the central predictions of the EC-Model.
Introduction
Authors: Claydon Tony
Published: February 2020

The introduction surveys theories about a change in the perception of time over the early modern centuries. These could be summed up as a shift from older static to ‘modern’ models which were far more dynamic and developmental. It also surveys the case for interpreting the revolution of 1688–9 in England as a deliberate step into ‘modernity’. It then relates these two historiographic trends, asking if there is evidence that a new chronological awareness helped witnesses to 1688–9 conceive it as a turning point, and step into a new modern era. It advertises the argument of the book: that there is only partial evidence for the suggested chronological shift, and that we may therefore have to reconceive what was happening after 1688–9
The Experience of Time During William’s Invasion
Authors: Claydon Tony
Published: February 2020

Chapter one examines reactions to the fast-moving events of the autumn of 1688, when James II’s regime collapsed in the face of an invasion by William III. It demonstrates that some features of the reaction illustrate a ‘modern’ sense of time with an unstable present shaping a fluid future (especially the acceleration of time produced by fast-flowing events, and faster flowing news); but it also shows that interruptions in communication technology disrupted this modernity, leading to a fragmented sense of time’s passage, which encouraged the sort of simplistic scripting and produced the sort of bewilderment that may be characteristic of the postmodern condition.
The Revolution in Reformation Time
Authors: Claydon Tony
Published: February 2020

Chapter three considers the chronological effects of placing the 1688–9 revolution in ‘Reformation’ time: that is interpreting it as a salvation for a Protestant movement that had started in the early sixteenth century. The chapter shows that Protestant readings of time produced some chronological dynamism—seeing major turning points in history that divided the past into periods, reading spiritual truth as revealed through evolving narrative and perhaps promising an imminent apocalyptic denouement. However it also shows Protestant understanding of 1688–9 was affected by the inherently static nature of Christian time: the typological structure of scripture encouraging a view of time that was frozen, symmetrical (it could be read as easily backwards as forwards), and fractal (the content of time looked the same whatever period or length of period was examined).
Progressive Williamite Time
Authors: Claydon Tony
Published: February 2020

Chapter five examines ways in which supporters of the revolution began to develop more dynamic perceptions of time after their initial defence of its constitutional legitimacy. Partly this was in reaction to the Jacobite and opposition rhetorics of the 1690s: William’s supporters were forced to consider developmental chronologies as they answered a case that was based on them. There was also, however, a specifically pro-revolution account of the Stuart age, which saw it as a developmental process of degeneration from the golden age of Elizabeth I. Despite these more ‘modern’ features of Williamite time however, it retained many static qualities: it continued to defend 1688–9 as a restoration of an ancient constitution and of godly religion, while its conception of Stuart history was cyclical rather than linear.
Conclusion
Authors: Claydon Tony
Published: February 2020

The conclusion summarizes the qualifications that the book has made on the modernity of the 1688–9 revolution and of chronological perception in the late Stuart period. It also attempts to resolve the paradox that people with a largely static view of time supported and implemented a large number of profound changes during the revolution and its aftermath. It suggests that static chronology could, in some circumstances, demand radical action, and ends with the suggestion that we need a far more subtle account of changes in chronological awareness and their impact on human responses.
Physics as an Art Form
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

Beauty and simplicity, a scientist’s view. A first encounter with Einstein’s equations of General Relativity, space-time, and Gravity. Ockham’s Razor. Why the Universe is the way it is: The origin of the laws of Nature.
The Bothersome Question of Units⋆
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

Converting units is a pain. Celsius, Kelvin, and degrees Farenheit; feet, fathoms, and meters, American dollars and British pounds are examples. Physicists attempt to simplify units at maximum. Thus their “natural units” in which, for instance, the value of the speed of light, c, is simply and precisely 1, c = 1.
The Three Relativities
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

Galileo’s and Einstein’s Special and General Relativity are introduced. So is the equivalence principle between gravity and acceleration, the basic assumption of general relativity. A first encounter with the twin paradox of Einstein’s relativity, also called the clock paradox. The twins are further discussed in a subsequent chapter (16).
A First, Fast Visit to the Universe
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

This initial visit to the Universe is fast but not short. The fact that looking far away is looking into the past is recalled. There are a lot of things in our Universe, which are introduced here in order of diminishing size: The entire visible universe, cosmic background radiation (CBR), clusters of galaxies, galaxies, stars and planets, living beings, molecules, atoms, atomic nuclei, nucleons, electrons, quarks The fundamental forces holding these various objects together as well as antimatter, neutrinos, and Feynman diagrams make their first appearance here.
More on the Fundamental Forces and Their “Carriers”
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

A discussion of the “carriers” of the basic forces of nature and the way they “work.” Electrical charges and their interaction with photons (QED). Gravitons and the identity of inertial and gravitational masses. Intermediate vector bosons and the weak interactions. Gluons and the “chromodynamic” interactions (Quantum Chromodynamics: QCD). Adding electric charges and “colored” chromodynamic charges. Confinement in QCD.
Everything … So Far
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

Introduces the concepts of fermions, bosons, leptons, and hadrons, while summarizing the elementary particles encountered so far in previous chapters. To all these objects we will come back later, some of their properties being quite fascinating.
Understanding Relativity and Quantum Mechanics
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

A very brief parenthesis on why it is so difficult. And how it could be made much easier for children, though only in the case of quantum mechanics (experimenting with relativity is expensive).
A Parenthesis: Is Basic Science Useful?
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

Various opinions on the practical consequences of basic science. Some of the ones mentioned: The GPS, the HyperText Transfer Protocol (http), Sputnik, Hertz’s radio, nuclear reactors and Plato’s views on the subject.
The Discovery of Gravitational Wave Emission
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

Neutron stars, binary stars and pulsars. The Arecibo radio antenna. The discovery of the first binary pulsar (PS1913+16) by Husle and Taylor. This pulsar’s understanding in general relativity: A fantastic success.
The LHC and its Detectors
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

The construction of the LHC detectors and how they work. Briefly, for a detailed description would take a zillion pages, since they are amongst the most complex objects ever built. The beauty of a magnificient scientific and technical achievement, the joy of its users, and how it inspires artists.
Today’s Standard Models of Particles and Gravity
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

The missing particle of the standard model: the “axion.” Our considerable ignorance concerning dark matter and the dark energy density of the Universe. No decent theory of quantum gravity. How all this sends us back to the drawing board, and to return to observations of the Universe, starting with Hubble’s law of its expansion.
Inflation
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

A critical and homogeneous universe: The conundra that the inflationary paradigm resolves. “Exponential” growth of the scale of the Universe. Causal domains in the old and inflationary Big Bang theories. The tiny CBR anisotropies in inflation. The inflatIon field and its evolution. Reheating and the generation of all matter. The largest “objects” that exist (the uniform patches of the CBR sky) were once mere quantum fluctuations. Thus, Quantum Mechanics also describes the biggest “things.” Inflationary predictions or simply data fits?
Limitations and Peculiarities of the Standard Models
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

Back to how peculiar the recipe to cook an inflationary universe is, with its mysterious cosmological constant and dark matter components. The arbitrary parameters of the Standard Model of particles are also many, and one of its predictions (the axion particle) still escapes detection. CERN’s CAST experiment, looking for—with no success—axions that the Sun could be emitting.
The Discrete Symmetries of the Fundamental Interactions⋆⋆⋆
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

Continuous and discrete symmetries. Parity (P) and its violation. T.D. Lee, C.N. Yang, and Madame Wu. The chirality of spin-1/2 particles. Left- and right-handed neutrinos. Sterile neutrinos. Charge-conjugation (C). The matter-antimatter question for neutrinos. Majorana neutrinos. Quantum baseball. Time reversal (T). The combined CP and CPT symmetries. The CPT theorem.
The Fate of the Universe
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

The Big Freeze: The end of cosmology as an observational science in a cosmological-constant dominated universe. Eternal expansion? Big Crunch?
Back to the Ether?
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

The vacuum is permeated by a constant Higgs field, does this bring the old “ether” back? No, velocities relative to the ether were thought to be detectable. The vacuum of the Standard Model does not make that possible, given the spin-0 nature of the Higgs field. Yet the other substance permeating our Universe, the CBR, constitutes an absolute system: the one in which it is maximally isotropic.
The Crash
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

Quantum Mechanics plays a role in our understanding of the extremely large and small realities, Why the measured cosmological constant has such an “unnatural” value. Natural numbers in a physical theory. The numerically largest conundrum in physics. The non-existing Theory of Everything.
In Spite of Our Admitted Ignorance
Authors: De Rújula Alvaro
Published: February 2020

Is space-time basic or emergent? Are we a hologram? How did inflation start? What determines the laws of Nature? Are there other universes? All questions with no current answer from physicists. Religious and philosophical attemps to provide answers. My fabulous math teacher’s belief in the power of math.
Taking the Lead: Bank Recovery and Resolution Rules
Authors: James Scott , Quaglia Lucia
Published: February 2020

As in the case of bank capital, elected officials were quick to respond to voter concerns by substantially expanding regulators’ powers over bank recovery and resolution. In response, regulators developed stringent new rules on loss-absorbing capacity (LAC) and ‘living wills’ for banks. However, the financial industry on the whole did not seek to resist the changes. Nonetheless, UK regulators sought to act as pace-setters in this area at the international and EU levels to manage the cross-border externalities generated by bank failures. They were therefore able to exert significant influence in the formulation of new international standards on resolution and LAC, and over the EU’s new Bank Recovery and Resolution Directive. This was achieved by leveraging their substantial regulatory expertise, alliance-building (with the US), and ‘first-mover advantage’.
Sitting on the Fence: Bank Structural Reforms
Authors: James Scott , Quaglia Lucia
Published: February 2020

The main driver of new, stringent rules on bank structure was not pressure from elected officials, as the two largest UK political parties were ambiguous about the benefits of separating retail and investment banking. Instead, we argue that regulators in the Bank of England pushed strongly for ‘ring-fencing’ to address moral hazard concerns caused by too-big-to-fail banks. Despite fierce opposition from the financial industry, regulators were determined to trade up rules by actively cultivating political support through the Independent Commission on Banking (ICB) and in Parliament. At the international and EU levels, UK regulators acted as fence-sitters on banking reform for two reasons. First, unilateral reform by the US meant that it was not possible to push for an international solution with its traditional ally. Second, resistance to major structural reforms amongst several member states limited the scope for harmonization across the EU.
Resisting the Push for Tougher Regulation: Hedge Funds
Authors: James Scott , Quaglia Lucia
Published: February 2020

In the wake of the crisis, regulators at the Financial Services Authority (FSA) sought to develop a tougher approach to overseeing hedge funds. But this push for trading-up regulation was opposed by elected officials, together with the financial industry, on the grounds that this would damage the competitiveness of the sector. The FSA’s capacity to resist this pushback was also severely constrained by growing speculation over whether it would be abolished, limiting its regulatory capacity and diminishing its institutional resources. At the international level, the UK allied with the US to act as foot-draggers to ensure that new international standards were broadly compatible with their relatively light-touch regime. However, the UK’s ability to resist the trading-up of EU rules was more limited because it lacked political allies and domestic constraints to exploit as bargaining leverage.
Conclusion: The Future(s) of UK Financial Regulation
Authors: James Scott , Quaglia Lucia
Published: February 2020

The concluding chapter begins by recalling the main puzzle and research questions set out at the beginning of the book, and by summarizing the main findings from the case study chapters. The second section details the book’s wider empirical and theoretical contribution to the field, as well as providing recommendations for future research. We focus on three main literatures: the political economy of financial regulation, theories of business power, and theories of new interdependence. The final section assesses the implications of Brexit for the UK’s role in shaping financial regulation in the future. Specifically, we consider how the UK’s withdrawal from the EU is likely to affect the UK’s regulatory preferences (more or less stringency), its regulatory strategy (greater divergence or further harmonization), and its regulatory influence (enhanced or diminished).
Leibniz: Discourse on Metaphysics
Authors: Rodriguez-Pereyra Gonzalo
Published: February 2020

The Discourse on Metaphysics, written around January 1686, is one of Leibniz’s fundamental works, since it is the most accomplished systematic expression of Leibniz’s philosophy in the 1680s, the time when Leibniz’s philosophy reached maturity. The point of the Discourse is to give a metaphysics for Christianity. That is, Leibniz’s goal is to give the answers that he believes Christians should give to the basic metaphysical questions, questions about why the world exists, what is the world like, what kinds of things exist, and what is the place of human beings in the world. To this purpose Leibniz discusses some of the most traditional topics of metaphysics, like the nature of God, the purpose of God in creating the world, the nature of substance, the possibility of miracles, the nature of our knowledge, free will, and the justice behind salvation and damnation. This book is a new translation of the Discourse and a philosophical commentary of it.
Introduction
Authors: Rodriguez-Pereyra Gonzalo
Published: February 2020

This part provides an introduction and synopsis of the Discourse on Metaphysics. It explains the significance and character of the Discourse and briefly relates a few facts about its composition. It also explains the reason for a new translation, the style of the translation, and the nature and purpose of the commentary.
Unsettled Thoughts
Authors: Staffel Julia
Published: February 2020

How should thinkers cope with uncertainty? What makes their degrees of belief rational, and how should they reason about uncertain matters? Recent research in epistemology has attempted to answer these questions by developing formal models of ideally rational credences. However, we know from psychological research that ideal rationality is unattainable for human thinkers. This raises the question of how rational ideals can apply to human thinkers. A popular reply is that the more a thinker’s imperfectly rational credences approximate compliance with norms of ideal rationality, the better. But what exactly does this mean? Why is it better to be less irrational, if we can’t ever be completely rational? And what does being closer to ideally rational amount to? If ideal models of rationality are supposed to help us understand the rationality of human, imperfect thinkers, we need answers to these questions. Unsettled Thoughts offers these answers: we can explain why it’s better to be less irrational, because less irrational degrees of belief are generally more accurate, and better at guiding our actions. Moreover, the way in which approximating ideal rationality is beneficial can be made formally precise by using a variety of distance measures that track the benefits of being more rational.
Approximation Measures
Authors: Staffel Julia
Published: February 2020

The focus of Chapter 3 is the central Bayesian tenet that a thinker’s unconditional credences should be probabilistically coherent. Plausibly, thinkers who don’t have coherent credences can be more or less incoherent, i.e. their credences can diverge from complying with the probability axioms only a little, or quite substantially. We can capture this intuitive idea by representing a thinker’s credence function as a vector, and measuring its distance to the closest probabilistically coherent credence function that is defined over the same set of propositions. The problem that arises in this context is that there are many possible measures we can use to determine the distance from coherence, and those measures can deliver incompatible rankings. I present a representative range of such measures and illustrate the ways in which they differ.
Why Approximate Coherence?
Authors: Staffel Julia
Published: February 2020

Chapter 4 begins to answer the question of how Bayesians can justify the claim that approximating probabilistic coherence is beneficial for non-ideal thinkers. Dutch book arguments are often put forth to argue that ideal rationality requires being coherent. I show that we can justify that it is better to be less incoherent by showing that decreased incoherence is associated with decreased losses from Dutch books. While incoherent thinkers can never be immune from Dutch book losses, the amount they stand to lose, given that we standardize bet sizes, is greater the more incoherent their credences are.
Approximating Ideal Rationality with Multiple Norms
Authors: Staffel Julia
Published: February 2020

Chapter 6 considers views on which being ideally rational requires more than just being coherent. While extreme subjective Bayesians think that the coherence norm is the only requirement of epistemic rationality, more moderate proponents defend further requirements, such as versions of the Indifference Principle or the Principal Principle. This raises the question of how we can measure approximations to rationality, when being ideally rational requires thinkers to comply with multiple different epistemic norms. Different approaches to justifying norms of rationality are distinguished by whether they assume that there is a single epistemic value or good that explains the various requirements of rationality, or whether there are multiple epistemic values or goods that have to be aggregated somehow in evaluating the rationality of epistemic states. Each view of how epistemic values give rise to norms of rationality is then paired with a suitable strategy for measuring approximations to ideal rationality.
A Small Piece of the Puzzle
Authors: Staffel Julia
Published: February 2020

Chapter 8 examines how the proposed view of rationality fits in with other related approaches to theorizing about rationality. The view is best seen as a small piece of a bigger puzzle, and it is therefore important to ensure that there is no tension between this view and nearby puzzle pieces. Five topics are discussed in particular: the relationship between propositional and doxastic rationality, the relationship between ideal and ecological/bounded rationality, the relationship between evaluative and ameliorative approaches to theorizing about rationality, the relationship between epistemological and semantic perspectives on rationality, and the relationship between rational evaluations, permissions, and obligations. The view proposed in this book is best understood as an account of the propositional epistemic rationality of credences. It not only harmonizes with the ways in which rationality is theorized in related domains, but is often a necessary ingredient for developing theories of these aspects of rationality.
Matters to Be Settled
Authors: Staffel Julia
Published: February 2020

Chapter 10 summarizes the main results from each of the previous chapters. For each chapter, it points to questions that were left open in the discussion, and avenues for further research. The results of the book have the potential to inform both descriptive and normative research paradigms going forward.
The Kronion Archive
Authors: Langellotti Micaela
Published: February 2020

This chapter discusses the role, nature, and composition of the archive of Kronion, the head of the local notarial office, which provides the main evidence for this study. First, it analyses the various types of document belonging to the archive, that is contracts, registers, and accounts, and explains how these will be used to reconstruct the socio-economic history of Tebtunis. Second, it examines the administrative functioning of the record-office, the role of the notary and other employees, and reconstructs the role of the record-office in the local community and within the wider (regional and provincial) network.
Social Stratification in First-Century Tebtunis
Authors: Langellotti Micaela
Published: February 2020

This chapter reviews current views of social stratification in Roman Egypt, then discusses the role, nature, and composition of the various social groups attested in the village of Tebtunis. These include the local elite, consisting of some priestly families and landowners of Hellenic descent or with a strong Hellenized background, members of the numerous professional associations involved in various agricultural and non-agricultural activities, the indigenous population, and slaves. Based on their contractual activity and other contemporary evidence, a close-up analysis is provided for each social group. Socio-economic trends emerge which shed light on the behaviour of the various groups and give us deeper insight into the complex realities of the village, including living standards.
Introduction
Authors: McCarthy Erin A.
Published: February 2020

This chapter introduces Doubtful Readers: Print, Poetry, and the Reading Public in Early Modern England. Early modern lyric poetry was a social form, but print publication made poems available to anyone who either had the means to a buy a book or knew someone who did, radically expanding the early modern reading public. The study focuses on the period between the maturing of the market for printed English literature in the 1590s and the emergence of the professional poet following the Restoration to acknowledge changes in both the economics and aesthetics of poetry book publication. It argues that publication in its broadest sense is a form of mediation between multiple agents and material forms. Because print did not change poetry in a single way, this book presents a series of case studies. This chapter concludes with a brief overview of each.
Typography, Genre, and Authorship in The Passionate Pilgrim (1599) and Shake-speares Sonnets (1609)
Authors: McCarthy Erin A.
Published: February 2020

This chapter argues that Thomas Thorpe’s 1609 edition of Shake-speares Sonnets was stymied by the success of The Passionate Pilgrim, a poetry collection first published by William Jaggard in 1599 and reprinted in 1612. Critics have suggested that the success of Jaggard’s volume may “have spoiled the market for authentic ‘sugred Sonnets’ by Shakespeare.” But to date, no one has read The Passionate Pilgrim as a sonnet sequence in its own right. This chapter outlines a history of sonnet publication that reveals striking resemblances between The Passionate Pilgrim and the printed English sonnet sequences then in fashion. Moreover, every element of the book—the title page, the poems it contained, and even its format—seems designed to highlight its place within Shakespeare’s oeuvre. Thus, when Thorpe’s Shake-speares Sonnets was printed in 1609, it appeared to be less sequence-like and less Shakespearean than The Passionate Pilgrim.
Poems, by J.D. (1633 and 1635), the O’Flahertie Manuscript, and the Many Careers of John Donne
Authors: McCarthy Erin A.
Published: February 2020

This chapter shows how the 1635 second edition of Poems, by J.D. promulgated the tale of Jack Donne’s transformation into Doctor Donne in response to concerns about the volume’s reception by an unidentified reading public. The 1633 first edition had presented Donne’s poems in a loosely organized collection resembling a manuscript miscellany, while the O’Flahertie manuscript (Harvard MS Eng. 966.5), created around the same time, divided the poems by genre in order to highlight Donne’s religious poems. Critics have long recognized that the changes in the second edition of Poems, by J.D. made it more biographically suggestive than the first, but they have taken for granted that this version of Donne’s life story would have been self-evident to readers in 1635. This chapter argues that the revised second edition created this narrative and, in the process, radically changed the way readers read and understood both John Donne and poetic authorship.
Conclusion
Authors: McCarthy Erin A.
Published: February 2020

This short chapter summarizes the book’s major findings about the print publication of early modern English poetry. Between 1590 and 1660, the social form of the lyric was increasingly recognized as a literary genre worthy of preservation and careful reading. Stationers played an important, if often unacknowledged, role in delineating genres, addressing readers, defining poetic authorship, and assembling texts. Because these mediations have influenced our canons, texts, and histories, a fully historical formalism must account for both the literary content and material forms of printed editions. Doubtful Readers ultimately proposes a new methodology, and the chapter concludes with a call for further study.
‘Turky Labours’
Authors: Mills Simon
Published: February 2020

Chapter 1 sets out the institutional history of the Levant Company in London and Aleppo. It argues that the infrastructures developed from the late sixteenth century to facilitate trade – the legal protection provided by the capitulations, regular shipping routes, systems of postal communication – laid the foundations for a ‘literarum commercium’, a commerce of letters, that would have implications beyond the immediate mercantile concerns of the Levant Company. New opportunities for scholarly inquiry were augmented by the growth of the English community, or ‘factory’, in Aleppo, and, in particular, by the appointment, from the early seventeenth century, of a line of clergymen employed to minister to the expatriate merchants and consular staff. Drawing on the Levant Company archive, the chapter paints a detailed picture of this small outpost, positioning it alongside the more established Venetian and French (and later Dutch) communities and the various Roman Catholic missions then stationed in Aleppo. The chaplains came to serve as the crucial link between Syria, London, and the English universities (predominantly Oxford), with whose members many of them remained in touch from abroad. The chapter also provides an overview of intellectual developments which sets the scene for the more detailed investigations of individual projects explored in the remainder of the book.
Henry Maundrell and the Making of A Journey
Authors: Mills Simon
Published: February 2020

Chapter 6 reconstructs the production of the most enduring of the chaplains’ works of antiquarian reportage: Henry Maundrell’s A Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem at Easter, A. D. 1697 (1703). The first part of the chapter uncovers the story of Maundrell’s election to the Aleppo chaplaincy, and explores some of his early work securing copies of Greek inscriptions from sites in the vicinity of Aleppo. It then turns to his Jerusalem journey, showing how the different strains of interest which had developed during the course of the seventeenth century found expression in Maundrell’s account: the careful description of biblical and Greco-Roman antiquities; the testing of traditions against the authority of first-hand experience; and the attempt to reconcile the testimonies of Scripture with the landscape and material traces of the past.
Magic Pie
Authors: Zhang Yi-Cheng
Published: February 2020

Chapter 1 lays out the basic tenants of our new market theory. Based on the recognition of widespread information asymmetry in consumer markets, consumers have, to an extent, limited understanding of almost all products. The gray-degree of this extent plays a key role. Consumers and businesses have motives and means to shift the gray-scale, and this can impact market transactions in the new supply–demand relation. The key concept is the fundamental asymmetry between consumers and businesses, that businesses are easier to adapt to consumers’ needs rather than vice versa. Hence we advocate finding ways to improve consumers’ selection power incessantly as the way of value creation.
Matchmakers
Authors: Zhang Yi-Cheng
Published: February 2020

Chapter 2 discusses the role of information intermediaries (information matchmakers) in helping consumers to improve their infocap. You as a consumer probably have never hired a purchase agent for help, so what intermediaries do we speak of? We show that most of your purchases are mediated by information matchmakers, which are everywhere yet are hardly noticed. For example, we do not consider Facebook as a matchmaker, yet its relatively tiny marketing role is vital to its existence. Collectively, these invisible/ubiquitous matchmakers play the largest role in consumer markets. We also show that the most effective information matchmakers are those that curate users’ own contribution to evaluate products and beyond. We also analyze revenue models and innovative ways to capture consumers’ attention and their data in order to play the matchmaker role.
Personal Assistant
Authors: Zhang Yi-Cheng
Published: February 2020

Chapter 3 focuses on a special type of information matchmaker, totally dedicated to consumers, that we call Personal Assistant (PA). Consistent with our fundamental asymmetry, we argue that the best information matchmakers should not be in the middle between businesses and consumers, but should be completely aligned with consumers’ interests by cutting revenues from businesses. Although such a PA does not yet exist, we predict that it will be the mainstay matchmaker in the near future. If something is so good, why is it not being utilized? Here it is argued that the initial barriers are high, and that current matchmaking models first opt for the easier way of obtaining business sponsors.
Diversification
Authors: Zhang Yi-Cheng
Published: February 2020

Chapter 4 asks the following question. With incessant infocap improvements, what would happen to consumer markets? We see that we can never attain perfect knowledge of the products; instead, enhanced selection power leads to product diversification. With the expanding set of consumer products, the expanding infocap, when spread over single items, would just be able to maintain the pace. The proposition that the observed product diversification is mainly due to the average infocap improvements is not widely recognized. The alternative explanation might be that increasing affluence is the cause. The detailed analysis in this chapter marshals copious circumstantial evidence in support of the new hypothesis.
Man and the Economy
Authors: Zhang Yi-Cheng
Published: February 2020

Chapter 8 looks deeper into human needs and capabilities. We find that both are inexhaustible, while more are revealed and still more emerge. Institutional settings are important in selecting and fostering desirable traits in man, and finally it is by expanding man’s capabilities and needs that the economy grows. This chapter draws largely on inspiration from psychology, anthropology, and other humanities sciences, combined with our new market theory, to show that the theory finally finds its anchor in man. We posit that while self-interest may be the primary motive, to understand the economy we must pay attention to many secondary motives.