bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
People, Place, and Politics: The Role of Place Attachment and Conflict in Forest Communities
Authors: Creighton Janean H. , Blatner Keith A. , Carroll Matthew
Published: August 2019

For this study we wanted to identify the meanings (shared and contested) that family forest landowners in rural western Washington assigned to their properties in the context of a rapidly urbanizing environment. Two categories of family forest landowners emerged with respect to the acceptance of the proposed growth management plan and corresponded to the degree of attachments the interviewees exhibited regarding where they lived and in how they described themselves with respect to the community and a dispute regarding the plan. For the long-term residents, their attachment to place provides the foundation for their ties to family and tradition. Although the newcomers interviewed expressed emotional attachments to the area, their attachments were not necessarily tied to their identity, or within any historical context. For the newcomers, involvement in local land-use planning may serve to reinforce the significance of the attachments they developed to their adopted home and strengthen their desire that the area remain pristine.
Effect of Fire Charring on Condition of Ponderosa Pine Trees in Oregon as Measured by Longitudinal Compression Strength
Authors: Kangas Michael , Filip Gregory M. , Morrell Jeffrey J.
Published: August 2019

The ability to assess wood quality using longitudinal compression strength (LCS) of plugs removed from along the length of a tree stem was assessed in ponderosa pine damaged to varying degrees 4 years earlier in a prescribed burn. LCS has been used elsewhere to estimate residual strength of utility poles and might be a simple method for assessing wood quality in standing trees. The degree of stem char on fire-killed trees had a significant effect on LCS values. LCS values of plugs from charred portions of fire-killed ponderosa pines were greater than those from uncharred portions of fire-killed ponderosa pine trees. LCS might be a useful tool for forest managers assessing the remaining flexural properties of standing dead timber after fires.
A Managerial Approach to Estimating Wildland Fire Use Workload
Authors: Rideout Douglas B. , Reich Robin M. , Ziesler Pamela S.
Published: August 2019

Increasing recognition of the role of fire in natural ecosystems has increased the use of wildland fire as a management tool. Although wildland fire use (WFU) has been practiced for decades, it is emerging as an organized program. As such, the analytics of WFU, from a management sciences perspective, are largely undeveloped at a time when there is a growing need to inform program managers and support modeling efforts aimed at more cost-effective fire management programs. Conventional initial attack modeling relates workload to fire perimeter; but, currently, there is no analog for WFU events. This article takes the first step in providing a companion estimation of WFU workload. WFU workload is estimated as a function of basic information on fire size and duration by using a regression tree analysis. Workload scores for wildland fire use management and monitoring were estimated separately. These estimates explained about 68 and 60% of the variation in the management and monitoring scores, respectively. The estimated scores were sensitive to fire size, although duration played an important role, especially on larger events. For example, fires in the same size class often received higher workload scores with increasing duration. Workload estimates from the management regression tree were then associated with average resource usage. The form of the association indicated that as workload estimates increased, average resource usage increased exponentially. Estimating workload scores as a function of size and duration, which are readily available from simulation models, and then associating the scores with resource usage supports efforts to address WFU effort and cost management.
Equations to Convert Compacted Crown Ratio to Uncompacted Crown Ratio for Trees in the Interior West
Authors: Toney Chris , Reeves Matthew C.
Published: August 2019

Crown ratio is the proportion of total tree length supporting live foliage. Inventory programs of the US Forest Service generally define crown ratio in terms of compacted or uncompacted measurements. Measurement of compacted crown ratio (CCR) involves envisioning the transfer of lower branches of trees with asymmetric crowns to fill holes in the upper portion of the crown. Uncompacted crown ratio (UNCR) is measured without adjustment for holes in the crown and may be a more appropriate measurement when interest is on height to the first live branches in the crown. CCR is more commonly available because it is a standard measurement of the Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program of US Forest Service, and UNCR is an optional measurement at the discretion of regional FIA units. The mean difference between UNCR and CCR of trees in the western United States (0.17 live crown) could be large enough to introduce biologically significant bias in applications that use crown ratio to derive height to crown base. Equations were developed to convert CCR to UNCR for 35 tree species in Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico using data from the Interior West FIA unit. UNCR was modeled as a logistic function of CCR and tree diameter, and species-specific equations were fit by nonlinear regression. Root mean squared error for the regression equations ranged from 0.06 to 0.15 UNCR (mean absolute error, 0.04ߝ0.12 UNCR). Equations for most species performed well when applied to test data that were not available at the time of model fitting.
Twenty-Year Response of Ponderosa Pine (Pinus ponderosa Laws.) to Treatment with Hexazinone in Northeastern Oregon
Authors: Lindsay Amanda , Oester Paul , Cole Elizabeth
Published: August 2019

Chemical control of competing vegetation with hexazinone is a common and effective silvicultural treatment for ensuring ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Laws.) plantation success on dry sites in the western United States, yet few studies document the effect for more than the first few years after planting. This study, re-evaluated 20 years after planting, followed ponderosa pine growth and survival when hexazinone was applied in broadcast and spot treatments for control of competing vegetation. We continued work from the first 5 years after establishment that identified early differences in ponderosa pine seedling survival and growth with treatment. Examination of 20-year trends indicated that individual tree volume and volume per hectare continued to diverge among treatments. The economic differences among treatments may increase as more surviving, faster-growing trees in the broadcast treatments reach higher-value products sooner. Initial control of competing vegetation increased the likelihood of seedling survival and increased tree size after 20 years. Results pertained to ponderosa pine of the Douglas-fir/spiraea (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Beissn./Spiraea betulifolia Pall.) and Douglas-fir/common snowberry (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Beissn./Symphoricarpos albus [L.] S. F. Blake) plant associations in northeastern Oregon, but they should apply to similar sites throughout much of the intermountain West.
Evaluation of Alternative Approaches for Predicting Individual Tree Volume Increment
Authors: Hann David W. , Weiskittel Aaron R.
Published: August 2019

The volume increment of individual trees is often inferred from a volume or taper equation and predicted or observed diameter and height increments. Prediction errors can be compounded with this type of approach because of the array of equations used and differences in their accuracy. The consequences of several alternative approaches for indirectly or directly estimating individual tree volume increment were examined using an extensive stem analysis data set of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii [Mirb.] Franco) in southwest Oregon. The data were used to construct new stem volume, taper, and volume increment equations, which were then used to compare predicted and observed 5-year volume increments. The results of this analysis suggest that the indirect prediction of volume increment is sensitive to both the approach used for estimating stem volume and the use of actual versus predicted diameter and height increment, especially diameter increment. In addition, using the indirect method of volume and taper equations was found to have a slightly lower level of accuracy in predicting stem volume increment than the direct method. It was found that the use of local calibration procedures could help to mitigate possible problems with the bias incurred by using predicted rather than actual diameter increment.
Comparison of Hossfeld's Method and Two Modern Methods for Volume Estimation of Standing Trees
Authors: Ducey Mark J. , Williams Michael S.
Published: August 2019

Two modern methods, centroid sampling and the paracone model, have been shown to be accurate approaches for obtaining the volumes of trees and logs when taper functions are unavailable or local volume estimates are desired. We show that the equation for whole-tree volume using Hossfeld's method, an older method that has all but disappeared from the North American literature, is nearly identical to that for centroid sampling and the paracone model. Hossfeld's method may be slightly simpler to implement in the field, and like the modern methods, it can be used either for whole trees or for unmerchantable tops. In comparison with detailed measurements taken on 186 ponderosa pine trees from the Black Hills of South Dakota, the paracone model was most accurate for whole trees, but Hossfeld's method was slightly more accurate than centroid sampling. Hossfeld's method was substantially more accurate than either modern method for estimating the volume in tops.
The Economic Value of Selling Carbon Credits from Restored Forests: A Case Study from the Navajo Nation's Tribal Forests
Authors: Huang Ching-Hsun , Sorensen Christopher
Published: August 2019

The goals of this study were to promote restoration of forest ecosystems through fire hazard reduction treatments and to evaluate potential economic benefits of carbon credits to the Navajo Nation. We used the historic Navajo Nation's Continuous Forest Inventory data to calibrate the Forest Vegetation Simulator (FVS) with growth increments and used the FVS to run simulations that encompass the next 50 years. We calculated C revenues using two carbon accounting approaches: (1) reduced buffer pool under the Climate Action Reserve protocol and (2) increased C stocks based on with-and-without analysis. We investigated nine C price scenarios, including constant- and rising-price trajectories; performed discounted cash flow analyses; and calculated net present worth (NPW). When timber was the only marketable output, using a real alternative rate of return (ARR) of 4%, the NPW of target basal area (BA) 40, 70, and 100 ft2/ac were −$144.89, −$267.98, and −$308.57/ac, respectively. When both timber and C were marketable outputs, with a C price of $3/ton, the NPW of target BAs of 40, 70, and 100 ft2/ac were increased to −$119.26, −$256.83, and −$306.31, respectively, under the first accounting approach, and were increased to $168.62, −$57.29, and −$184.09, respectively, under the second accounting approach. Our results indicate that C accounting method, C price, and landowner's ARR affect forest landowner's profitability in participating in the C market.
Low Thinning as a Forest Restoration Tool at Redwood National Park
Authors: Teraoka Jason R. , Keyes Christopher R.
Published: August 2019

A growing interest in the restoration of young second-growth forests by managers of reserves in the redwood region has led to a need to evaluate restoration-based silvicultural strategies. This case study assessed the effectiveness of low thinning as a forest restoration tool via analysis of stand structure at Redwood National Park's Whiskey Forty Forest Restoration Study. The second-growth stand had more than 5,500 trees ha−1 and 57.0 m2 ha−1 basal area and consisted chiefly of three species: Douglas-fir (the dominant species), redwood, and tanoak. Low thinning reduced stand density but also reduced species richness by eliminating scarce species. Seven years after thinning, growth was enhanced (33.6% gain in basal area), and mortality was minor (3% of all stems); however, Douglas-fir remained competitive in the upper canopy. Its average basal area increment was less than redwood's, but its radial growth was equal and its rate of basal area growth was greater in the years following thinning. We conclude that the thinning improved stand conditions but did not fully satisfy restoration goals and that other thinning methods, such as variable-density thinning, are likely to be more effective at promoting redwood dominance.
An Examination of Five Identical Mapping-Grade Global Positioning System Receivers in Two Forest Settings
Authors: Wing Michael G. , Frank Jereme
Published: August 2019

We collected measurements using five identical high-quality mapping-grade GPS receivers that were configured the same and collected data simultaneously in two distinctly different settings within a forest. Our primary objective was to determine whether measurement accuracies were different among the mapping-grade GPS receivers. A secondary objective was to determine whether measurement accuracies were different depending on whether receivers established their locations by taking a single 1-second measurement or by averaging 30 or 60 measurements. In the open-sky setting, where receivers had few obstructions overhead, we found that all five receivers recorded measurements with similar positional accuracies. Errors were lower when measurements were differentially corrected (postprocessed). We found an average error of 1.6 m for unprocessed data and an average error of 0.2 m for postprocessed data. Our results indicate that in open-sky conditions, all five receivers performed similarly when measurements were postprocessed. In addition, there was no significant difference in accuracy whether 1, 30, or 60 points were averaged, regardless of whether data were postprocessed. In the young-forest test course, examination of errors between receivers revealed that one receiver had significantly different errors compared with other receivers, which was likely the result of environmental influences on satellite signal strength and availability. We also found that measurement errors for all five receivers were significantly lower when measurements were postprocessed. On average, measurement errors were 5.9 m for unprocessed data and 1.4 m for postprocessed data. In analyzing individual receiver errors, no receiver had significantly different measurement errors whether 1, 30, or 60 measurements were recorded.
Prediction of Diameter Using Height and Crown Attributes: A Case Study
Authors: Filipescu Cosmin N. , Groot Arthur , MacIsaac Dan A. , Cruickshank Mike G. , Stewart James D.
Published: August 2019

Recent advances in remote sensing provide increasingly detailed forest information in a timely and cost-effective manner. Individual tree stem diameter, an important variable for operational forest inventory, cannot be determined directly from remotely sensed data; stem diameter must be estimated from ancillary measures of tree crown, tree height, and/or measures related to stand structure. In this study, we developed predictive models of diameter as a function of height and crown attributes using a nonlinear mixed-effects approach. Long-term silvicultural experiments provided data for several species: black spruce, Douglas-fir, and lodgepole pine. Addition of crown area and crown area of larger trees to diameter-height models significantly improved predictive performance, resulting in low root mean squared error values between 0.9 and 1.8 cm (10–11% of mean diameter). Our models indicated the need to include additional explanatory variables at wider levels of spacing and thinning. This case study highlights several practical implications for developing and refining individual tree diameter models based on variables that can be remotely sensed.
Sitka Spruce and Western Hemlock Stand and Tree Growth 10 Years after Precommercial Thinning in Southeast Alaska
Authors: Newton Mike , Cole Liz
Published: August 2019

Ten years after precommercially thinning 16–18-year-old naturally regenerated stands of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis [Bong.] Carr.) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla [Raf.] Sarg.) in southeast Alaska, neither species responded in height growth to spacing. Spruce diameter growth increased significantly following all thinning treatments, and among thinning treatments, there was a weak but increasing trend toward more rapid diameter growth at the wider spacings. Spruce basal areas increased almost twice as fast after thinning as without thinning, and radial growth continued to increase, whereas unthinned stands grew at a slower but steady rate. Western hemlock also showed a trend for increased diameter, but growth response was less than for spruce. Shrub control to enhance understory plant development for deer forage did not improve growth of either tree species. Branch diameter of Sitka spruce increased with spacing. Pruning led to epicormic sprouting in the 3 years following pruning with numbers inversely related to spacing. Sprouts developed and persisted in stands thinned to 200 or fewer stems per acre. Overall, pruning led to a small reduction in diameter growth at breast height.
Cost Efficiency of Pruning Black Hills Ponderosa Pine
Authors: Smith Richard C. , Kurtz William B. , Johnson Thomas E.
Published: August 2019

Trees pruned in stands of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) managed at several growing stock levels were used to determine the number of years for pruning wounds to heal. The mean time for pruning wounds to heal was 11 years. Costs and returns from pruning the butt log of trees to be retained to final harvest were analyzed. Pruning to a height of 8.5 ft cost $0.58 per tree; pruning to a height of 17.5 ft cost $1.78 per tree. Trees pruned to 17.5 ft for production of clear grades of lumber in 16-ft lengths would earn real internal rates of return ranging from 7.8 to 14.0% for several stand conditions and management regimes. Trees pruned to a height of 8.5 ft, to produce 8-ft lumber, earned IRRs somewhat higher, 8.6 to 16.1%. Outcomes are best on productive sites if pruning costs are kept low and if high-valued products are anticipated. West. J. Appl. For. 3(1):10-14, January 1988.
Protection of Disease-Resistant Western White Pine Seed from Insect Damage
Authors: Haverty Michael I. , Shea Patrick J. , Stipe Lawrence E.
Published: August 2019

Seed produced in blister rust-resistant western white pine (Pinus monticola Douglas) seed orchards is in high demand. The fir coneworm, Dioryctria abietivorella (Groté), and the lodgepole pine coneworm, Eucosma recissoriana (Heinrich), cause considerable damage to seed crops in the Moscow Arboretum seed orchard. Single (May or June) and repeated (May and June) applications of 0.025% fenvalerate, and repeated applications (May and June) of 0.0125% fenvalerate, a synthetic botanical insecticide, were evaluated in 1986 for protection of cone crops. Results in 1986 confirm results in 1984 (Haverty et al. 1986): an application of 0.025% fenvalerate in May and June significantly reduces insect damage, regardless of the relative abundance of cones or insects. The decision to use a single or repeated application depends on demand for seed, projected seed crop and insect populations, and socioeconomic costs of the treatment. West. J. Appl. For. 3(1):18-20, January 1988.
Shrub Response to High and Low Severity Burns Following Clearcutting in Northern Idaho
Authors: Morgan Penelope , Neuenschwander Leon F.
Published: August 2019

Early seral shrub community development following clearcutting is documented for fall broadcast burns aged 0-5 and 15 years on a western redcedar (Thuja plicata)/beadlilly (Clintonia uniflora) habitat type. Shrub cover was dominated by redstem ceanothus (Ceanothus sanguineus), blackberry (Rubus ursinus), thimbleberry (R. parviflorus), common snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus), and 8 other shrub species. Frequency of occurrence differed significantly (P < 0.05) with burn severity (6 of 12 species), but not with burn age (10 of 12 species) up to 15 years after fire. Percent canopy cover of seedlings and sprouts, summed over species, differed with burn severity on burns less than 4 years old. There was greater total cover of rhizomatous shrub sprouts (P < 0.01) on low severity burns. Cover of shrub seedlings was significantly less (P = 0.03) on low severity than on high severity burns. However, there was no difference (P = 0.60) in cover of nonrhizomatous sprouts on high and low severity burns. West. J. Appl. For. 3(1):5-9, January 1988.
Timber-Harvesting Mechanization in the Western United States: An Industry Survey
Authors: Schuh Donald D. , Kellogg Loren D.
Published: August 2019

A survey of mechanized harvesting operations in the western United States located more than 140 timber companies and logging contractors using nontraditional manufacturing or transportation equipment during 1985. The operations ranged from small contractors owning a single feller-buncher to completely mechanized firms operating delimbers, debarkers, chippers, and felling machines. Most of the mechanized logging was found in Washington, Oregon, and Montana. Equipment breakdowns were the most critical harvesting problem cited by the loggers, followed by decreased production on steep terrain. Few contractors provide formal training for their equipment operators, a factor that may increase the frequency, duration, and severity of equipment downtime. Monetary incentive bonuses were used to spur production by approximately 35% of the responding firms. West. J. Appl. For. 3(2):33-36, April 1988.
Western Spruce Budworm Damage to Sprayed and Unsprayed Young Douglas-Fir
Authors: Alfaro Rene I. , Wegwitz Emil
Published: August 2019

Defoliation, mortality, and top-kill were measured in 40-year-old, open-grown Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii [Mirb.] Franco) under attack by the western spruce budworm (Choristoneura occidentalis [Freeman]) in the interior of British Columbia, in control trees and trees treated with ground sprays of the insecticide Sevin. In untreated trees that sustained repeated defoliation of 50 to 90% of the total crown foliage, tree mortality began after four years and had reached 29% after eight years. Thirty-four percent of the survivors in this group suffered top-kill, which averaged 1.0 m at the end of eight years. No mortality and only negligible top-kill occurred in trees, sprayed or not, which sustained less than 50% defoliation. A regression model of the probability of tree mortality based on the defoliation is presented. West. J. Appl. For. 3(2):44-46, April 1988.
Quantifying Marketplace Characteristics for Use in Timber Stumpage Appraisal
Authors: McQuillan Alan G. , Johnson-True Candace
Published: August 2019

Regression-based models for predicting stumpage price have received attention in recent years for use in transactions evidence timber appraisal, forest planning, and valuation of timber inventories. These models usually use individual sale characteristics in conjunction with broad measures of product demand to explain variation in sale value. Local variation in markets due to mill capacity and concentration are either ignored, or separate models are generated for local market areas. The authors attempted to improve the specification of stumpage-price prediction models by incorporating new variables designed to reflect important aspects of local market conditions. This type of model has the potential to improve prediction of stumpage price and, in addition, to facilitate estimation of price impacts caused by changes in local mill capacity and concentration. West. J. Appl. For. 3(3): 66-69, July 1988.
Yields of Southwestern Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands
Authors: Smith Frederick W. , Schuler Thomas
Published: August 2019

Site quality and growth-growing stock relations were developed for southwestern woodlands of pinyon (Pinus edulis) and one-seed juniper (Juniperus monosperma) or Utah juniper (J. osteosperma). Anamorphic height-age site index curves for pinyon were developed from a regional sample of 60 woodlands. Site index was unaffected by variation in stocking and was correlated with woodland yield when used in conjunction with density. Pinyon and juniper PAI, when taken separately, were highly correlated with stand density and pinyon site index. Pinyon was twice as productive as juniper at similar stand densities. Pinyon and juniper yields in woodlands of average density and site index were estimated at 0.29 and 0.15 m3ha-1y-1. At high densities pinyon and juniper yields increased to 0.61 and 0.31 m3ha-1y-1 Pinyon and juniper yields appeared independent of the density of the other species in an individual woodland. Maximum yield of dense mixed species woodlands on average sites was 0.78 m3ha-1y-1, and occurred when pinyon constituted 65% of woodland density. West. J. Appl. For. 3(3):70-74, July 1988.
A Generalized Height-Diameter Equation for Coastal California Species
Authors: Krumland Bruce E. , Wensel Lee C.
Published: August 2019

The equation H = Hm exp [-b(D-c - Dm-c)] is proposed for estimating the total height of trees on growth and inventory plots. This estimator requires only the computation of average dbh (Dm) and average total height (Hm) of a sample of trees selected from the upper one-fifth of the stand diameter distribution. The procedure is also efficient because this stand component is also used to estimate site index. With small samples, these equations were found to be accurate in local volume table construction. Results are illustrated using redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) data from northern California. West. J. Appl. For. 3(4):113-115, October 1988.
Growth Rates after Fertilizing Lodgepole Pine
Authors: Cochran P. H.
Published: August 2019

Heavy application rates of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S) to thinned lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) produced responses in volume increment directly related to increased tree nutrition that lasted no more than 8 years. An indirect response in volume increment, resulting from increased levels of stocking after fertilization, continued for a longer period. Resulting increases in yields probably cannot economically justify operational fertilizing in similar stands. West. J. Appl. For. 4(1):18-20, January 1989.
Suppression of Spruce Beetle Attacks by MCH Released from Bubble Caps
Authors: Lindgren B. Staffan , McGregor Mark D. , Oakes Robert D. , Meyer Hubert E.
Published: August 2019

The attack density of the spruce beetle, Dendroctonus rufipennis (Kirby), was reduced to 10-25% of that on untreated felled Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) trees, when the trees were treated with 9-15 bubble cap release devices, each releasing the aggregation inhibitor MCH at 1-3 mg/24 h at 20°C. In the first experiment, deterioration of many release devices reduced the suppression effect. In the second experiment, MCH reduced attacks by 85%, and total brood production by 79-88%. The attacks on the MCH treated trees occurred late, as evidenced by the early stage of development of galleries and brood on these trees. Semiochemical-baited traps at untreated, or MCH-treated, felled trees caught few beetles, and had no effect on the attack density. The results show that manually applied MCH can be used operationally to reduce attacks by the spruce beetle on small groups of wind thrown trees. Mass trapping of spruce beetles is not feasible with currently known semiochemicals. West. J. Appl. For. 4(2):49-52, April 1989.
Ponderosa Pine Habitat Types as an Indicator of Site Quality in the Dixie National Forest, Utah
Authors: Verbyla David L. , Fisher Richard F.
Published: August 2019

Forest habitat types have been purported to be useful indicators of site quality. This is generally true for habitat types with different dominant tree species. However, few have studied the site indicator value of habitat types with the same dominant tree species. We measured site index (base age 25) from 172 randomly selected plots within the ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) zone of the Dixie National Forest, Utah. The range of site index within any one habitat type was broad. Poor sites occurred on all five habitat types. However, the best sites occurred only on the Pinus ponderosa/Symphoricarpos oreophilus and Pinus ponderosa/Quercus gambelii habitat types. Therefore, habitat type may be useful in predicting the best sites, but only if other site information is used in addition to habitat type. West. J. Appl. For. 4(2):52-54, April 1989.
Precommercial Thinning in a Ponderosa Pine Stand affected by Armillaria Root Disease: 20 Years of Growth and Mortality in Central Oregon
Authors: Filip Gregory M. , Goheen Donald J. , Johnson David W. , Thompson John H.
Published: August 2019

A naturally regenerated stand of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) was thinned in 1966 to determine the effects of spacing on crop-tree mortality caused by Armillaria root disease in central Oregon. After 20 years, crop-tree mortality in unthinned plots exceeded that in the thinned plots (1.6 vs. 0.8 trees/ac/yr). Crop-tree diameter growth, however, was greater in thinned plots (0.2 vs. 0.1 in./yr). Forest managers should not defer thinning of similar stands because of Armillaria root disease. West J. Appl. For. 4(2):58-59, April 1989.
A Simulation/Linear Programming Approach to Timber Supply Modeling
Authors: McKillop William , Krumland Bruce
Published: August 2019

A growth and yield simulator was combined with a forest inventory processor and a linear programming model to analyze and project timber inventory, growth and harvest for industrial and nonindustrial lands in each of five regions in California. Harvest priorities for each stand type were chosen by maximization of conifer output over alternative periods of time subject to volume, species, and inventory constraints. Results indicated that timber harvest from forest industry land would decline in the next several decades, but that this decline would be offset by increased output from nonindustrial holdings. A substantial buildup of hardwood inventories on small private ownerships is anticipated. West. J. Appl. For. 4(3):80-84, July 1989.
Relative Abundance of Ambrosia Beetles in an Old-Growth Western Hemlock/Pacific Silver Fir Forest and Adjacent Harvesting Areas
Authors: McLean John A. , Salom Scott M.
Published: August 2019

Semiochemical-baited multiple-funnel traps were set out in two new logging areas and in mature forest on northeastern Vancouver Island near Kelsey Bay, British Columbia. The large numbers of ambrosia beetles captured indicated that Trypodendron lineatum and Gnathotrichus sulcatus are distributed along logging rights-of-way as well as in the surrounding forest. Results suggest that logs must be removed as soon as possible after felling in order to minimize degrade of the logs and to prevent the transport of ambrosia beetles from the harvesting areas to dryland sorting areas, booming grounds, and sawmills. West. J. Appl. For. 4(4):132-136, October 1989.
Spacing and Shrub Competition Influence 20-Year Development of Planted Ponderosa Pine
Authors: Oliver William W.
Published: August 2019

Growth and stand development of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) were monitored for 20 years after planting at five different square spacings (6, 9, 12, 15, and 18 ft) in the presence or absence of competing shrubs on the westside Sierra Nevada. Mean tree size was positively correlated and stand values negatively correlated with spacing in the absence of competing shrubs. Trees growing with competing shrubs attained 76% of the diameter, 80% of the height, and 58% of the cubic volume of trees free of shrub competition when all spacings were combined. This study suggests that the major effect of shrub competition in ponderosa pine plantations on good sites is to lengthen the rotation. West. J. Appl. For. 5(3):79-82, July 1990.
Manual Release Contracting: Production Rates, Costs, and Future
Authors: Fiddler Gary O. , McDonald Philip M.
Published: August 2019

Manual release, primarily accomplished through the use of service contracts, is increasingly used by silviculturists for controlling competing vegetation in the West, particularly in California. Over 60 recent manual release contracts on four National Forests and one Bureau of Land Management Resource Area in California were analyzed for production rate and cost relationships. Mean number of acres completed per workday was 0.11-0.50 and the average cost of release was $174-$310 per acre. Grubbing or cutting costs were $0.44-$0.86 per seedling regardless of radius treated. Cutting and grubbing combined cost $0.63-$0.71 per seedling for 3-5 ft radii, and $1.19 for a 6-ft radius. The increased costs resulting from more realistic bidding and the projected unavailability of crews to do the work mean that many acres needing manual release will go untreated. West. J. Appl. For. 5(3):83-85, July 1990.
Response of Underplanted Douglas-Fir to Herbicide Injection of Sclerophyll Hardwoods in Southwest Oregon
Authors: Helgerson Ole T.
Published: August 2019

Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) container-grown plug (1-0) and nursery-grown bareroot (2-0) seedlings were planted in southwest Oregon beneath sclerophyll hardwoods injected with triclopyr amine or left untreated. Sixty percent of the hardwood canopy was killed by injection. Seedlings beneath treated hardwoods experienced greater daytime moisture stress but lower predawn moisture stress. Plugs grew more in the first year than bareroots. Five-year survival averaged 100% and 96% for plugs and bareroots under treated hardwoods, 83% and 73% under untreated hardwoods. Herbicide injection of hardwoods was associated with increased height, diameter, and volume growth rates in the underplanted Douglas-fir and seems necessary for establishing Douglas-fir in this environment. West. J. Appl. For. 5(3):86-89, July 1990.
Recent Experiences with End Result Contracting on National Forestlands in the West
Authors: Wright Pamela J. , Rideout Douglas
Published: August 2019

The cost effectiveness of USDA Forest Service end result contracts (ERCs), also known as "stewardship" contracts, was compared with similar information from conventional service contracts. Bid data from 18 ERCs were examined, and Forest Service costs were compared with service contracts and timber sale contracts on the Umpqua and Winema National Forests in Oregon. We found generally that ERCs are still in an initial stage of development, but at this point costs of ERCs compared well with service contracts. The results of this study indicate that where regeneration is typically successful, ERCs can be used to address a variety of forest management objectives. ERCs are a management tool that deserves further experimentation and analysis. West. J. Appl. For. 5(4):00-00, October 1990.
The Impact of Federal and State Income Taxes on Timber Income in the West Following the 1986 Tax Reform Act
Authors: Bettinger Pete , Haney H. L. , Siegel W. C.
Published: August 2019

Nineteen eighty-eight federal and state income tax liabilities for a hypothetical nonindustrial private forest landowner case were calculated for 13 western states. The state portion of the total income tax liability for the passive case (without timber sale revenue) ranged from 15% in Arizona, California, and Colorado to 25% in Hawaii for the medium income level. It ranged from 12% in Arizona and Colorado to 20% in Hawaii for the high income level. The state portion for the active case (with timber sale revenue) ranged from 12% in Arizona and Colorado to 21% in Hawaii, and from 10% in Arizona to 19% in Hawaii for the medium and high income levels, respectively. Federal income tax deductions, capital gain exclusions, and tax rates are the most important state provisions affecting state income tax liability. The installment sale method of reporting timber sale revenue was used as one alternative tax planning strategy. Timber sale revenue was spread over a 2-year period to reduce the amount of taxable income subject to higher marginal rates. In the Oregon hypothetical case, the landowners who elected to use the installment sale method would save $1,240 and $616 at the medium and high income levels, respectively. West. J. Appl. For. 6(1):15-20.
Effects of Storage, Planting Date, and Shelter on Engelmann Spruce Containerized Seedlings in the Central Rockies
Authors: Roberts Scott D. , Long James N.
Published: August 2019

Containerized Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) seedlings were treated with different nursery storage methods, planting dates, and amounts of overstory shelter after planting. Third-year survival of seedlings stored in refrigeration did not differ from that of seedlings maintained in a lathhouse prior to planting. Survival of seedlings planted in mid-June was about 70% compared to 48% for seedlings planted in late July. Survival was only 52% within strip shelterwood units and more than 72% in the more protected environment of uniform shelterwood units. Seedlings within strip shelterwood units were slightly taller after 3 years than those under a uniform shelterwood. West. J. Appl. For. 6(2):36-38.
Estimating and Comparing Demand Functions for Personal Use Christmas Tree Cutting at Seven Utah Sites
Authors: Daniels Steven E. , Johnson Rebecca , Markstrom Donald C.
Published: August 2019

The travel cost model of recreation demand analysis was applied to seven USDA Forest Service Ranger Districts in Utah. The objectives were to (1) estimate consumers' surplus and total willingness to pay values for the recreational component of personal use Christmas tree gathering, and (2) compare these Utah results with each other and with the Markstrom and Donnelly (1988) results from Colorado, the only other travel cost analysis of Christmas tree gathering from public lands. The results were that per-trip consumer' s surplus estimates ranged from $6.71 to $31.17, compared to Markstrom and Donnelly's (1988) estimate of $10.05. There is sufficient intersite variation that the demand functions from any site cannot be readily applied to any other. West. J. Appl. For. 6(2):42-46.
Survival of Sapling and Pole-Sized Conifers near True Fir Stumps with Annosus Root Disease in Northern California1
Authors: Slaughter G. W. , Parmeter J. R. , Kliejunas J. T.
Published: August 2019

Mixed conifer saplings and small poles near 870 large, true fir (Abies spp.) stumps with annosus root disease caused by Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.) Bref. were studied in 1984 to evaluate mortality. Of 3035 trees adjacent to stumps, 24 were dead (0.8%), and none showed symptoms of annosus root disease. Of 1102 trees adjacent to 71 true fir stumps revisisted 3 and 6 years later, 31 were dead (2.8%), and none showed annosus symptoms. The rarity of annosus-caused conifer mortality associated with infected stumps could be due to variations in pathogenicity, host specificity of H. annosum isolates, decline of inoculum in roots of stumps, or to a combination of these factors. West. J. Appl. For. 6(4):102-105.
Unsold Timber Offerings in the Northern Region: Trends, Causes, and Disposition
Authors: Schuster Ervin G. , Niccolucci Michael J.
Published: August 2019

Do unsold timber offerings indicate excessive, wasteful timber sales, as critics charge? Or are such offerings a normal part of timber markets and eventually sold? This study assessed unsold offerings in the Northern Region of the USDA Forest Service during 1961-1988 to determine the percentage, duration, and reasons for unsold offerings. About 7% of all offerings are initially unsold; moreover, the percentage has been rising during the past 3 decades. Although specific variables were poorly correlated with unsold offerings, regional timber availability seems to be the most important causal factor. About 60% of the volume in unsold offerings was eventually sold, averaging about 15 months to sell. West. J. Appl. For. 6(4):108-111.
An Analysis of the Effects of Northern Spotted Owl Conservation, Harvest Replanning, a Log Embargo, and Recession on the Northwest Log and Lumber Trade
Authors: Flora Donald F. , McGinnis Wendy J.
Published: August 2019

Protection of habitat for the northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) became a major feature of land management and timber production in the Pacific Northwest in 1990, with designation of about 8 million ac as Habitat Conservation Areas (HCAs), mostly on public lands (USDA Forest Service et al. 1990). Additional owl-conservation provisions were recommended for half the forestland base outside HCAs, including private timberland. Concerns were raised immediately about impacts of these proposals, now being implemented, for the region's timber economy. Our study was aimed at portraying key economic effects of the owl conservation strategy—log and lumber price changes, production and export levels–within the context of rapidly changing policy and economic climates. We estimated the effects of new forest plans (most of which carry harvest reductions independent of provisions for the owl); a new embargo on exports of logs that affects timber from state lands; and the economic recession that continued from late 1990 into 1991. Effects of these conditions were gauged separately and in concert with owl impacts, for western Washington and western Oregon, here termed the fir region. We analyzed the degree to which lumber would substitute for logs in the export market, and likely interactions between domestic and offshore markets. We also assessed the degree to which the policy-driven timber supply changes can be expected to yield less-than-proportionate volume impacts and higher-than-proportionate price movements in the short run. West. J. Appl. For. 6(4):87-90.
Site Index and Height Growth Curves for Ponderosa Pine, Western Larch, Lodgepole Pine, and Douglas-Fir in Western Montana
Authors: Milner Kelsey S.
Published: August 2019

Height growth patterns from several published site curve sytems for ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var glauca), western larch (Larix occidentalis) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var latifolia) were compared to stem analysis data from western Montana. Most of the published curves had height growth patterns that differed significantly from those in the data. The magnitude of the deviations often varied by level of site index; this appeared to be related to differences in the range of site qualities sampled. Those curves constructed from stem analysis data from geographically similar populations compared most closely. Curves constructed using guide curve techniques showed a consistent tendency to underpredict heights at greater ages. New site index and height growth curves are presented for each species. West. J. Appl. For. 7(1):9-14.
Effects of Harvesting Season and Stump Size on Incidence of Annosus Root Disease of True Fir
Authors: Filip Gregory M. , Schmitt Craig L. , Hosman Kevin P.
Published: August 2019

A high frequency (89%) of annosus root disease caused by Heterobasidion annosum was found in true fir stumps cut 5 to 10 years earlier in northeastern Oregon. Neither season of harvesting nor stump size significantly affected the amount of stump decay which averaged 51%. Another root pathogen, possibly a species of Armillaria heretofore not recorded in Oregon, was often found in H. annosum-infected stumps. Additional surveys and research are recommended in true fir forests throughout western North America. West. J. Appl. For. 7(2):54-56.
Growth of Advance Regeneration in Response to Residual Overstory Treatment in Northern Idaho
Authors: Bassman John H. , Zwier John C. , Olson John R. , Newberry James D.
Published: August 2019

The effects of killing a low-volume residual overstory on growth of advance natural regeneration in North Idaho were assessed. Killing this overstory had little effect on subsequent growth of advance regeneration regardless of the basal area killed. Growth of regeneration following release was affected by competition from other advance regeneration and competition from brush. Height-growth response was negligible when density of either advance regeneration or brush were high. Residual tree killing was associated with improved crown vigor of regeneration where residual overstory basal area was high. Height growth of advance regeneration following residual tree killing was highly correlated with prerelease height growth and current crown vigor of advance regeneration. West. J. Appl. For. 7(3):78-81.
Bulk Density Changes in Two Central Oregon Soils Following Tractor Logging and Slash Piling
Authors: Davis Scott
Published: August 2019

Bulk density changes were measured in two soil types within and adjacent to a 20-ha clearcut site in central Oregon. Yarding was done with rubber-tired skidders, and slash was piled with crawler tractors. Bulk density of the 0-20 cm depths was measured with a single probe nuclear gauge at randomly located sites in the clearcut and an adjacent undisturbed area with similar soils. Average bulk densities of sandy loam volcanic ash and cobbly loam soils were 35% and 23% higher, respectively, than undisturbed controls following yarding and piling. Detrimental compaction existed on 60%-66% of the harvest area when defined as either a 15% or 20% increase in bulk density. Compacted areas included skid trails, landings and land subjected to slash piling. The Proctor test and lower energy versions of this test were made on both soils to describe moisture density relationships in response to compactive forces. While the low energy curve appears to provide a good simulation of field bulk density of the cobbly loam soil, it is the moderate energy curve that provides the most reasonable estimate of soil densities after activities on the noncohesive sandy loam volcanic ash soils. West. J. Appl. For. 7(3):86-88.
Potential Timber Availability for Mechanized Harvesting in Oregon
Authors: Bettinger Pete , Sessions John , Kellogg Loren
Published: August 2019

We assessed the availability of timber for mechanized harvesting in Oregon with regard to timber size, slope class, ownership, and geographic location. Because of the transition from harvesting old-growth to second-growth timber, we predict that most of the Oregon harvest in the next decade will be comprised of trees small enough to permit some form of mechanized harvesting. An analysis of slope classes suggests that almost 60% of western Oregon and 85% of eastern Oregon are potentially accessible for ground-based, in-woods mechanization. West. J. Appl. For. 8(1):11-15.
Development and Use of Bounding Functions in a Forest Growth Model
Authors: Dolph K. Leroy , Dixon Gary E.
Published: August 2019

Erroneous predictions of forest growth and yield may result when computer simulation models use extrapolated data in repeated or long-term projections or if the models are used outside the range of data on which they were built. Bounding functions that limit the predicted diameter and height growth of individual trees to maximum observed values were developed to constrain these erroneous predictions in a forest growth and yield simulator. Similar techniques could be useful for dealing with extrapolated data in other types of simulation models. West. J. Appl. For. 8(1):24-27.