bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Protecting User Interfaces
Authors: Shemtov Noam
Published: October 2017

This chapter examines the scope of protection to which graphical user interfaces may be eligible under various intellectual property rights: namely, trade marks, unfair-competition laws, design rights, copyright, and patents. It first considers the extent of copyright protection over a software product’s ‘look-and-feel’ elements, with particular emphasis on graphical user interfaces protection under US and EU laws. It then discusses trade-mark, trade-dress, and unfair-competition protection for graphical user interfaces, along with intellectual property rights protection for design patents and registered designs. Finally, it describes the patent protection for graphical user interfaces in the United States and at the European Patent Office.
Functions of Same-Tracking
Authors: Millikan Ruth Garrett
Published: October 2017

There are non-uniceptual same-tracking mechanisms, mechanisms that same-track not in order to implement storage of information about their targets, but merely as an aid to the identification of further things. Examples are the various mechanisms of perceptual constancy, self-relative location trackers, object-constancy mechanisms, and same-trackers for real categories. There are also several kinds of unicepts, hence, of unitrackers, procedural, substantive, attributive. What begins as a non-uniceptual same-tracker might or might not be redeployed to serve also as a procedural unitracker, or a procedural unitracker might be redeployed to serve also as a substance unitracker or an attribute unitracker. This is possible because the difference between affordances, substances, and attributes is not a basic ontological distinction but is relative to cognitive use.
Misrepresentation, Redundancy, Equivocity, Emptiness (and Swampman)
Authors: Millikan Ruth Garrett
Published: October 2017

Over the long run, failures of function are the rule rather than the exception for biological systems, being mostly due not to malfunction but to external conditions not historically “Normal” for performance of a function. Most cognitive failures occur because outside conditions are not Normal for the particular cognitive functions attempted. When unitrackers with well-focused targets fail, the result is misperception or false belief. Failures can also occur in the operation of prior mechanisms whose jobs are to prime unitrackers, to send them after clear targets and to keep them on target as they develop. Redundant unitrackers may be maintained side by side, collecting information about the same thing by different means—so called Frege cases. Equivocal unitrackers may develop, aimed incompatibly toward two or more targets at once. False priming can result in empty unitrackers that are not aimed at anything real at all.
Philosophical Analysis; Referents of Names
Authors: Millikan Ruth Garrett
Published: October 2017

Replacing empirical concepts with unicepts has implications both for philosophical methodology and for some central matters in philosophy of science, plilosophy of language, and philosophy of mind. This chapter gives illustrations that concern the fixing of referents of naming words in a public language, the method of philosophical analysis, referential constancy of names for theoretical objects over theory change, the distinction between so-called “observational concepts” and “theoretical concepts,” and last, so-called “theory of mind.” This is a somewhat arbitrary collection of apparent implications of embracing unicepts, but the discussions of the “observation-theory” distinction and of “theory of mind” will be needed when discussing both perception and the semantics-pragmatics distinction.
An Anatomy of Signs
Authors: Millikan Ruth Garrett
Published: October 2017

Informational signs (infosigns) are signs of complete states of affairs and are, as such, members of infosign systems or families. They are always articulate, containing variant and invariant aspects, and their families are often productive, containing variables drawn from nondenumerable classes. Every sign in an infosign family can be derived from any other by a substitution of arguments for its variable or variables. Without yet offering a definition of “infosign,” many kinds of examples are given. Variable elements of infosigns correspond to their signified elements by a variety of kinds of mapping rules. “Absolute-” and “relative-reflexive” infosign elements, “isosign” elements, “names,” and “roaming names” are described. The sign that is a gas gauge reading exemplifies elements of all of these types at once.
Perception, Especially Perception through Language
Authors: Millikan Ruth Garrett
Published: October 2017

Perceptual processing is translation of patterns in the data of sense into cognitive understanding without uniceptual inference. Understanding language differs from ordinary perceptual processing in that the signs it translates are detached rather than attached. This similarity is obscured because ordinary uses of the verbs of perception do not track a kind of psychological processing. Their use is mostly factive, which encourages overlooking the fallibility of perception. One result is the mistaken view that perceptual illusions are an anomaly and that perception is cognitively impenetrable. The assumption that each of the senses has its own proprietary level of perception and the assumption that differences in the result of perceptual processing are always accompanied by differences in perceptual experience are questioned. Finally, a number of intuitive objections to the idea that understanding language is a form of perceptual processing are discussed.
Corpora and quantitative methods in historical linguistics
Authors: Jenset Gard B. , McGillivray Barbara
Published: October 2017

Chapter 3 provides an overview of the use of corpora and quantitative methods in historical linguistics over time. This chapter further substantiates the claims in Chapter 1 regarding the underuse of corpora and quantitative methods in historical linguistics, and traces some of the historical roots of the current situation. The chapter demonstrates that there has been a persistent underrepresentation of quantitative research in historical linguistics, but that various material (lack of cheap and accessible computing power) and conceptual factors (early quantitative methods that provoked a negative reaction) have held back a more widespread adoption of quantitative corpus methods. A number of common counterarguments to the use of quantitative methods are discussed and refuted.
The role of numbers in historical linguistics
Authors: Jenset Gard B. , McGillivray Barbara
Published: October 2017

Chapter 6 discusses the relationship between numbers or frequencies and historical linguistic arguments. Grounded in the principles laid out in Chapter 2, the benefits of using arguments based on quantification are discussed and explicitly connected to the general aims of historical linguistics. The chapter offers an introductory overview of state-of-the art multivariate statistical methods, and discusses why these are preferred over simpler, more commonly used statistical null-hypothesis tests. In particular, the discussion goes into how multivariate techniques are able to handle several potentially explanatory factors simultaneously. An extended case study of the rise of the so-called existential there in Middle English illustrates these points. Using the case of existential there, the chapter shows that simple null-hypothesis tests are insufficient for the complexities of historical linguistic research. Instead, multivariate techniques provide the means to understand the data and assess competing claims from the existing literature.
The Many Faces of Socioeconomic Change
Authors: Toye John
Published: October 2017

This book provides a survey of different ways in which economic sociocultural and political aspects of human progress have been studied since the time of Adam Smith. Inevitably, over such a long time span, it has been necessary to concentrate on highlighting the most significant contributions, rather than attempting an exhaustive treatment. The aim has been to bring into focus an outline of the main long-term changes in the way that socioeconomic development has been envisaged. The argument presented is that the idea of socioeconomic development emerged with the creation of grand evolutionary sequences of social progress that were the products of Enlightenment and mid-Victorian thinkers. By the middle of the twentieth century, when interest in the accelerating development gave the topic a new impetus, its scope narrowed to a set of economically based strategies. After 1960, however, faith in such strategies began to wane, in the face of indifferent results and general faltering of confidence in economists’ boasts of scientific expertise. In the twenty-first century, development research is being pursued using a research method that generates disconnected results. As a result, it seems unlikely that any grand narrative will be created in the future and that neo-liberalism will be the last of this particular kind of socioeconomic theory.
Development with a human face, 1980–
Authors: Toye John
Published: October 2017

Early attempts to humanize political economy raised two questions—the class interests of owners of land and capital and the politics of moving to a reformed system of wealth valuation. These two problems recurred when Mahbub ul Haq revolted against the conventional techniques of development planning and advocated a reform that included targets for the structure of consumption, expressed in physical and not financial terms. This basic needs approach was criticized for being top-down, state-led, and foundering on the difficult politics of reform. Amartya Sen rejected the metric of both utility and commodities and argued for that of capabilities to function, but declined to propose a set of basic human capabilities—while supporting ul Haq’s simplistic Human Development Index. Poverty has many dimensions, but even the new multiple poverty index needs to justify the dimensions chosen for inclusion.
‘Independence, Dependence, and Interdependence Day’
Authors: McDonald Peter D.
Published: October 2017

This chapter begins by reflecting on various reactions Joyce’s Finnegans Wake provoked during its long gestation, looking in detail at H. G. Wells, T. S. Eliot, Eugene Jolas, and C. K. Ogden. After explaining why it is important to consider the Wake’s place in intellectual history, it focuses on three traditions from which Joyce derived inspiration: the political thinking of the late nineteenth century, reflected in the writings of the Russian anarchist Léon Metchnikoff (1838–88); the linguistic thinking of the early twentieth century, as manifest in the work of the Danish linguist Otto Jespersen (1860–1943); and the philosophical thinking also of the early twentieth century, associated with the Austro-Hungarian journalist, novelist, and philosopher Fritz Mauthner (1849–1923). The chapter concludes by considering the Wake’s various lessons in reading, the centrality it accords to writing, and the bearing this has on how we think about language, culture, community, and the state.
Against State Literacy
Authors: McDonald Peter D.
Published: October 2017

Seen in the context of UNESCO’s analysis of apartheid education and its long-running debates about indigenous knowledge, this chapter reflects on J. M. Coetzee’s critical relations with the traditions of the European novel, whether in its ‘realist’ or in its ‘modernist’ modes. It begins by examining the school edition of F. A. Venter’s Swart Pelgrim (1958), arguably the most prescribed novel of the apartheid era, which included a curiously high-minded supplementary essay by the leading Afrikaans literary critic A. P. Grové who also happened to be an influential censor. Through detailed readings of Life & Times of Michael K (1983) and Foe (1986), it then shows how Coetzee sought to distance himself and his ideal reader from the European novel, taking issue with its representational powers, its claims to knowledge, and its apparent cultural mobility.
Against Naturalization
Authors: McDonald Peter D.
Published: October 2017

Seen in the context of the analogy UNESCO draws between cultural and biological diversity, this chapter reflects on the leading contemporary Indian poet Arvind Krishna Mehrotra’s choice of English as a literary medium and on his practice as a poet-translator. Like a number of other major poets of the post-independence era, including Arun Kolatkar, A. K. Ramanujan, and Adil Jussawalla, and following in a path Joyce pioneered, Mehrotra refused naturalism in two ways: first, he declined to write in his ‘mother tongue’ (Hindi); second, he chose not to indigenize English as an Indian language. Instead, he chose a number of foreignizing and, for him, denaturalizing strategies, including Americanization. The chapter, which also considers the significance of these strategies given the terms of the Indian constitution, ranges widely across Mehrotra’s oeuvre, focusing on The Absent Traveller (1991) and Songs of Kabir (2001).
Organisms and diversity patterns at high altitudes
Authors: Jacobsen Dean , Dangles Olivier
Published: October 2017

Chapter 4 gives a group-by-group treatment from amphibians and fish to algae and microbes of what is known about altitudinal diversity patterns, dominant groups, and prominent species from high altitude waters around the world. This is accompanied by biogeographical considerations on dispersal, immigration, and local speciation processes. The general and well-known decrease in species richness with increasing altitude observed in the terrestrial environment is also the rule in aquatic systems. Yet, while some groups of organisms show very clear altitudinal patterns, others do not. Some groups even increase in richness towards high plateaus. Likewise, the proportion of endemics often increases with altitude. Patterns also vary globally and seem to depend on factors such as regional topography, catchment physiognomy, and palaeo-environmental and climatic history.
Community dynamics in highland watersheds
Authors: Jacobsen Dean , Dangles Olivier
Published: October 2017

Chapter 6 presents the interaction between space and time in determining the organization of natural communities in high altitude heterogeneous waterscapes. After explaining why high altitude waters represent suitable models for examining metacommunity organization, the chapter focuses on dispersal—a central process to allow colonization and establishment of populations in remote localities and to counter local extinctions. Community organization patterns are then described for a variety of organisms living in high altitude waters, from microbes to invertebrates to fish and birds. These patterns reveal that both environmental and spatial variables are generally involved in species assembling. Examples of studies on directional spatial processes (e.g. through wind and water flow), waterscape genetics, and temporal variability (synchrony/asynchrony) are highlighted as promising research areas to increase the current knowledge on high altitude metacommunity dynamics.
Conserving sustainable ecosystem services
Authors: Jacobsen Dean , Dangles Olivier
Published: October 2017

Chapter 10 focuses on ecosystem services as a key concept to study the conservation of high altitude waters. Despite their limited area, these ecosystems provide important provisioning, regulating, and cultural services on both local and global scales. They are water towers for mountain and lowland populations, serve as important carbon dioxide sinks, constitute the most extensive high altitude pastoral regions worldwide, and serve as refugia for unique species and communities. The chapter argues that the sustainable use and effective conservation of these ecosystems requires developing sound indicators and scenarios of temporal environmental changes. It also requires uncovering ecosystems’ macroeconomic dimension (i.e. identifying and quantifying causal interactions among biodiversity, water use changes, and socio-economic drivers at different scales), and developing strategies combining biodiversity conservation (e.g. through the protection of umbrella species and extensive areas), livelihood protection and development, and the maintenance of cultural diversity and traditional values.
The Contested Nature of Graduate Labour
Authors: Tholen Gerbrand
Published: October 2017

This chapter assesses the dominant understanding of what graduate labour is. This continues to influence how we currently understand the work that graduates perform, their status, and the role of higher education in the economy. The chapter outlines the discourse on modern capitalism and in particular the knowledge economy and explains how it changed our vision of the graduate labour market. Contemporary society is portrayed as ever more complex, differentiated, and dependent on specialized knowledge. As a result graduate workers are understood to have a special place within the economy and labour market and their skills and abilities to be crucial for economic development. The chapter then contrasts these ideas with academic contributions criticizing the main assumptions of the knowledge-based economy discourse. Yet despite these contributions, the dominant discourse has not been fundamentally changed or been fundamentally challenged within the public domain.
Recruitment and Selection of Graduate Workers
Authors: Tholen Gerbrand
Published: October 2017

This chapter examines the recruitment and selection process in four graduate occupations (scientists, software engineers, financial analysts, and press officers). How do graduate workers access jobs? Who is eligible to enter graduate roles and why? What does it take to be recruited and selected in both entry-level and more senior roles? This chapter shows that recruiting and selecting suitable candidates is a deeply contextualized, situational, and occupation-dependent process. The hard skills and knowledge skills often identified to distinguish graduates from non-graduates do not have a privileged status in it. The chapter shows that despite the differences between occupations, sectors, and positions there are indeed few general principles that define the recruitment and selection process for graduate workers.
Graduates’ Careers
Authors: Tholen Gerbrand
Published: October 2017

This chapter examines the notion of graduate careers. By examining the career of graduate workers in the four occupations, it argues that university education does not tend to be the direct driving force within the careers of graduates. There is nothing intrinsic about the graduate labour force that warrants set career paths. Characterizations such as the ‘boundaryless career’ can be associated with some graduate workers but it would be hard to associate the concept with graduate work or graduate occupations that graduates perform. Boundaries still shape graduate careers. There also exists great heterogeneity between and within occupations in terms of security and predictability.
The Role of the Opposition
Authors: Russell Meg , Gover Daniel
Published: October 2017

This chapter analyses the opposition’s contribution to scrutiny of government bills and policy-making at Westminster. Westminster is classically seen as dominated by an adversarial ‘opposition mode’, giving opposition politicians little policy impact. This chapter argues that there are actually several distinct ‘opposition modes’, which can be more consensual. It summarizes existing literature on opposition, and sets out the basics of how opposition parties are organized in both chambers. The bulk of Westminster legislative amendments are proposed by opposition parliamentarians, and the motivations behind these are explored. Many amendments are actually driven by objectives other than policy change—including seeking government explanations, and embarrassing the government. Hence it is important not to overstate ‘failure’ of such amendments. In addition, many opposition amendments go on to trigger government concessions, particularly via the House of Lords. In various ways, the opposition at Westminster is hence more influential on policy than is often assumed.
Conclusion
Authors: Russell Meg , Gover Daniel
Published: October 2017

This chapter summarizes the book’s findings, and provides a substantive analysis of the way policy influence operates at Westminster. It concludes that parliament has significant power that takes several distinct forms. The chapter summarizes the changes made to the 12 case study bills, and draws on interview evidence from insiders about parliament’s overall influence in the process. It identifies six ‘faces’ of parliamentary power over legislation—including visible change through amendments, but also ‘anticipated reactions’, more subtle internalization by government of parliament’s desires, setting the policy agenda (‘issue politicization’), exposure and accountability, and, finally, supporting the government. The chapter explores how these different forms of influence are exercised by different actors at Westminster—particularly including the opposition and government backbenchers. It concludes that Westminster can, despite common perceptions, be viewed as a ‘legislator’ in an important sense, and discusses why there may be a mismatch between common perceptions and reality.
Structural Requirements of Rationality
Authors: Kiesewetter Benjamin
Published: October 2017

Chapter 3 provides an examination of some elementary questions about structural requirements of rationality. These questions are discussed, as far as possible, in abstraction from the normative question about rationality. The first section introduces the main disagreements about requirements of structural rationality, namely whether they take wide or narrow scope (3.1). The chapter then goes on to discuss several questions about the form of such requirements: whether their objects are propositions or responses (3.2); whether they are conditional or unconditional (3.3); whether they are synchronic or diachronic (3.4); and whether they govern states or processes (3.5). It is argued that on both narrow- and wide-scope readings, structural requirements of rationality are best understood as conditional and diachronic state-requirements that take responses as their object.
Bootstrapping and Other Detachment Problems
Authors: Kiesewetter Benjamin
Published: October 2017

Chapter 4 discusses the problem that a normative understanding of structural requirements of rationality seems to allow for the detachment of unacceptable conclusions about what we ought or have reason to do. The chapter begins by illustrating the ‘bootstrapping problem’ that occurs when we take the relevant requirements to have narrow scope (4.1), and then discusses and rejects two strategies to solve this problem: the reasons strategy (4.2), and the subjective ‘ought’ strategy (4.3). A third, and more promising, strategy is presented, which blocks bootstrapping by taking structural requirements of rationality to have wide scope (4.4). The remainder of the chapter examines further detachment problems that arise when the wide-scope account is combined with independent principles about the transmission of reasons and ‘oughts’ (4.5–4.7). The conclusion is that the wide-scope account ultimately fails to block detachment of unacceptable normative conclusions (4.8).
The Why-Be-Rational Challenge
Authors: Kiesewetter Benjamin
Published: October 2017

Besides the problems with detachment, proponents of the view that structural requirements of rationality are normative face the challenge to identify a reason that counts in favour of conforming to rational requirements. There are three possible ways to account for this challenge. The first is to present instrumental or other derivative reasons to conform to rational requirements (5.1). The second is to argue that rational requirements are themselves reasons (5.2). The third is to give some kind of buck-passing account of rational requirements, according to which such requirements are verdictive statements about reasons that exist independently of them (5.3–5.4). Chapter 5 argues that none of these strategies succeed. Finally, two accounts that have claimed to explain the normativity of structural rationality without assuming that rational requirements are necessarily accompanied by reasons, are discussed and rejected: the transparency account (5.5), and the apparent reasons account (5.6).
An Evidence-Relative Account of Reasons
Authors: Kiesewetter Benjamin
Published: October 2017

Chapter 8 develops a theory of how claims about what an agent ought or has reason to do are sensitive to this agent’s evidence, which preserves the plausible ideas that reasons are facts and that reasons can be discovered in deliberation and disclosed in advice. The first part introduces the philosophical debate over the normative relevance of epistemic circumstances, clarifies the thesis, and argues for it (8.1–8.4). The second part discusses the main challenge for the view, which is to account for practices (most notably advice) in which ‘ought’ is geared to information that is better than the agent’s present evidence (8.5). It is argued that this challenge can be met by accounting for the distinction between synchronic and diachronic reasons, that is, reasons for acting immediately and reasons for acting at some later time, and realizing the different ways in which such reasons are sensitive to evidence (8.6–8.8).
Explaining Structural Irrationality
Authors: Kiesewetter Benjamin
Published: October 2017

Chapter 9 provides the outline of a general explanation of structural rationality in terms of non-structural requirements of rationality, i.e. rational requirements to respond to reasons. The general idea is that internal incoherence is not by itself forbidden by rationality, but only indicates that at least one of the attitudes involved is insufficiently supported by available reasons. It is argued that a successful explanation of this kind amounts to a vindication of the normativity of rationality (9.1), can accommodate the close connection between irrationality and incoherence (9.2), and avoids the problems of structural requirements of rationality (9.3). After discussing two important problems for the suggested approach (9.4), the chapter provides a detailed explanation of three different types of structural irrationality: akrasia (9.5), doxastic akrasia (9.6), and modus ponens irrationality (9.7).
Explaining Instrumental Irrationality
Authors: Kiesewetter Benjamin
Published: October 2017

Chapter 10 provides an account of instrumental irrationality in terms of requirements to respond to reasons. This anti-structuralist approach faces the challenge to explain what is irrational about means/end-incoherence in case the agent’s end is neither required nor forbidden by the agent’s reasons (10.1). It is argued that this ‘underdetermination problem’ cannot be solved by assuming that adopting an end in an underdetermined case tips the balance in favour of taking the means (10.2–10.3). Neither can instrumental irrationality be explained as an instance of akrasia or theoretical inconsistency (10.4). The remainder of the chapter develops and defends the following general idea: means/end-incoherence is irrational because it increases the risk of engaging in pointless activity and thereby wasting valuable resources, which gives one a positive reason to make a decision for taking the means or giving up the end (10.5–10.9).
“Asia for the Asians,” Bushido, and Japanese War Crimes in the Netherlands East Indies, 1942 to 1946
Authors: Borch Fred L.
Published: October 2017

The 300,000 Europeans and Eurasians residing in the Indies in March 1942 soon learned that the Japanese occupiers planned to implement political, economic, and cultural policies that would integrate the newly “liberated” colony into the “Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere.” This goal of “Japanization” was to transform everyone living in the Indies into loyal subjects of the Emperor, with one important exception: “Asia for the Asians” meant there was no place for the white race in the Netherlands East Indies (NEI). Additionally, the Japanese in the archipelago were true believers in the warrior code of Bushido, which led to widespread mistreatment of prisoners of war and spilled-over into the treatment of civilian internees. This chapter explains how the Japanese intended to eradicate Dutch civilization and how the “Asia for the Asians” philosophy and Bushido code of behavior resulted in the commission of horrific war crimes, especially against whites and Eurasians.
Preparing for Trial
Authors: Borch Fred L.
Published: October 2017

Netherlands East Indies authorities faced a number of obstacles in preparing for trial. Many Japanese nationals who had committed war crimes in the Indies were no longer available. Some were dead, some were missing (whereabouts unknown), some had already been repatriated to Japan and consequently were beyond the reach of the Dutch. Of the Japanese who were in custody, it was not easy to build a prosecution case. Memories fade over time and persons who had been victims in 1942 were not always able to identify their assailants. Language barriers (the Dutch and Eurasian victims did not speak, much less understand, Japanese) meant that the victims often did not know the name of the person who had harmed them. This chapter looks at the practical problems faced by the Dutch in prosecuting war crimes.
Trials for Mass Murder and Unlawful Executions
Authors: Borch Fred L.
Published: October 2017

Temporary courts-martial heard evidence of “mass murder” and “unlawful executions” carried out by the Japanese during the occupation. The murders were either in retaliation for general resistance to their authority or else because “military necessity” required it. As for unlawful executions, the gist of this offense was that the accused had killed (or had ordered his subordinates to kill) one or more citizens for some alleged crime or misconduct, but that the execution had occurred without any regularly constituted trial or hearing to determine guilt or innocence. This chapter looks at representative cases in both categories. It also looks at the so-called “Haga Plot” and the “Overakker Plot,” in which prominent Dutch officials were executed for their involvement in so-called “anti-Japanese activities.”
Trials for Forced Prostitution
Authors: Borch Fred L.
Published: October 2017

For the first time in legal history, the Dutch prosecuted forced prostitution (also called “enforced prostitution”) as a war crime. They were the only Allied Power to prosecute the offense at a military tribunal. Consequently, their efforts to punish sexual violence against women and girls, especially in the “Semarang forced prostitution affair,” are important in the evolution of the law of armed conflict. This chapter explores how the Japanese forced European civilian girls and women in internment camps to work as prostitutes (“comfort women”) in brothels licensed by the Japanese military. It also examines recent efforts to obtain redress for the victims of Japanese sexual slavery.
Criminal Group Responsibility
Authors: Borch Fred L.
Published: October 2017

During the Japanese occupation, the widespread and almost daily commission of war crimes by members of the Tokkeitai and Kempeitai resulted in a unique post-World War II approach to the prosecution of war crimes: If a war crime was committed within the framework of the activities of a group of persons in such a way that the crime could be ascribed to the group as a whole, then the crime was considered to have been committed by the group, and criminal proceedings could be taken against and sentences passed on all members of the group. This was a unique approach to the prosecution of war crimes; no other nation has ever used such a group criminal liability theory. This chapter examines the concept by looking at prosecutions involving the Japanese naval police (Tokkeitai) and military police (Kempeitai) and the 25th Army.
Trials for Violations of the Terms of the Armistice
Authors: Borch Fred L.
Published: October 2017

An armistice, also known as a truce or cease-fire, does not end a war; it merely suspends hostilities. After the Japanese surrender in August 1945, a number of Japanese soldiers violated the terms of the armistice—which required them to lay down their arms and cease fighting—and joined the Indonesian revolutionaries fighting for freedom from the Dutch. The NEI authorities were convinced that these Japanese soldiers were joining the revolutionaries in order to fulfill the “Asia for the Asians” goal for which Japan had gone to war. Fearful that Japanese support of the insurgency would make it more difficult to restore colonial rule, the Dutch prosecuted these individuals for the war crime of violating the terms of the armistice. The trials are unique in military legal history; no other nation has ever prosecuted this war crime.
Aftermath
Authors: Borch Fred L.
Published: October 2017

Days before Dutch sovereignty ended in the islands on December 27, 1949, those Japanese war criminals still serving prison sentences in the Netherlands East Indies were transferred to Japan, where they were to serve out their terms of imprisonment. This chapter discusses how the Dutch authorities arranged for the transfer of more than 600 convicted war criminals to Japan, and how these men fared back on Japanese soil. The Dutch had hoped that the Japanese who had been convicted would complete their sentences in Japan. This was not to be: The American occupation authorities immediately implemented a policy of clemency, with the result that every Japanese war criminal transferred from the NEI to Japan was free by 1958.
Introduction and Overview
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: October 2017

This is a foundational work, written not just for philosophers of logic, but for logicians and foundationalists generally. Like Frege we seek to deal with the formal first-order language of mathematics. We revisit Gentzen’s proof theory in order to build relevance into proofs, while leaving intact all the logical power one is entitled to expect of a deductive logic for mathematics and for scientific method generally. Proof systems are constituted by particular choices of rules of inference. We raise the issue of the reflexive stability of any argument for a particular choice of logic as the ‘right’ logic. We examine the question of pluralism v. absolutism in choice of logic, and suggest that the informal notion of valid argument is stable and robust enough for us to be able to ‘get it right’ with our formal systems of proof for both constructive and non-constructive reasoning.
The Logic of Evaluation
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: October 2017

Sentences of propositional logic may be verified or falsified with respect to an atomic basis. Verifications and falsifications are co-inductively defined. The rules generating them justify the truth tables row by row, left to right. Model-relative rules verifying universals or falsifying existentials can generate ‘infinite sideways branchings’ within evaluations. If a sentence has both a verification and a falsification, then a particular atom occurs with its negation in the basis. This presages how any ‘failure’ of transitivity with any two core proofs is offset by proof that their combined premises are inconsistent. More general atomic bases allow for conceptual inclusions and contrarieties. The resulting rules of verification and falsification determine the Logic of Evaluation. These morph into the rules of Core Logic by allowing for complex premises; having sentences replace ⊥ in conclusion-positions; and voiding the basis, so that deducibility becomes a model-invariant matter of form, not of content.
From the Logic of Evaluation to the Logic of Deduction
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: October 2017

We deliver the details on the smooth morphing from the verification and falsification rules of the model-relative Logic of Evaluation to the model-invariant, deductive rules of Core Logic. There are good reasons for preferring the parallelized forms of certain elimination rules in natural deduction (the ones for conjunction, the conditional, and the universal quantifier) to their more conventional serial forms. We explain how ⊥ can make its way into proofs as a conclusion, as required for applications of ¬-Introduction. We discuss the notion of harmony between introduction and elimination rules, in preparation for the full treatment of reduction procedures for the logical operators that will be provided in Chapter 6.
Motivating the Rules of Sequent Calculus
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: October 2017

Parallelized elimination rules in natural deduction correspond to Left rules in the sequent calculus; and introduction rules correspond to Right rules. These rules may be construed as inductive clauses in the inductive definition of the notion of sequent proof. There is a natural isomorphism between natural deductions in Core Logic and the sequent proofs that correspond to them. We examine the relations, between sequents, of concentration and dilution; and describe what it is for one sequent to strengthen another. We examine some possible global restrictions on proof-formation, designed to prevent proofs from proving dilutions of sequents already proved by a subproof. We establish the important result that the sequent rules of Core Logic maintain concentration, and we explain its importance for automated proof-search.
Transitivity of Deducibility
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: October 2017

We reformulate M, I, and C in our preferred format: parallelized elimination rules whose major premises have no proof-work above them. An effective binary operation [ , ] of reduction is recursively defined on proofs. It secures Cut-Elimination for each of M, I, C, and Classical Core Logic. The common form is: If proof P uses premises X to prove A and proof P′ uses A with other premises Y to prove B, then [P,P′] uses premises in X,Y to prove [either ⊥ or] B. Cut-Elimination for the orthodox systems omits the last bit of bracketed material; while Cut-Elimination for the two core systems includes it. So the core systems can enjoy epistemic gains that the orthodox systems cannot. We end by showing how to extract from any intuitionistic proof a core proof of a result at least as strong; and how to do the same with any classical proof.
Epistemic Gain
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: October 2017

Core Logic avoids the Lewis First Paradox, even though it contains ∨-Introduction, and a form of ∨-Elimination that permits core proof of Disjunctive Syllogism. The reason for this is that the method of cut-elimination will unearth the fact that the newly combined premises form an inconsistent set. A new formal-semantical relation of logical consequence, according to which B is not a consequence of A,¬A, is available as an alternative to the conventionally defined relation of logical consequence. Nevertheless we can make do with the conventional definition, and still show that (Classical) Core Logic is adequate unto it. Although Core Logic eschews unrestricted Cut, nevertheless (i) Core Logic is adequate for all intuitionistic mathematical deduction; (ii) Classical Core Logic is adequate for all classical mathematical deduction; and (iii) Core Logic is adequate for all the deduction involved in the empirical testing of scientific theories.
Transmission of Truthmakers
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: October 2017

We begin by introducing the formal genus ‘conditional M-relative construct’, of which M-relative truthmakers and falsitymakers, and core proofs, are species. Fortunately they can stand in symbiotic relations, even though they cannot hybridize. We aim to generalize the earlier method we used in order to prove Cut-Elimination, so that the inputs P for the binary operation [P,P′] can be truthmakers (whereas P′ remains a core proof); and so that the reduct itself, when it is finally determined by recursive application of all the transformations called for, is a truthmaker for the conclusion of P′. This result can be understood as revealing that formal semantics can be carried out in a kind of infinitary proof-theory. Core proof transmits truth courtesy of normalization.
Replies to Critics of Core Logic
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: October 2017

We take on our critics in chronological order, on such matters as intersubstitutivity of interdeducibles, transitivity of deduction, intuition and reflective equilibrium, methodological adequacy, burden of proof (on the would-be logical reformer), and the (alleged) indispensability of the rule EFQ for the formalization of mathematical reasoning. We rebut J. C. Beall and Greg Restall; Dirk Hartmann; John Burgess; and Harvey Friedman and Arnon Avron.
Managing the Economy, Managing the People
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2017

The volume provides a distinctive new account of British economic life since the Second World War, focusing upon the ways in which successive governments, in seeking to manage the economy, have sought simultaneously to ‘manage the people’: to try and manage popular understanding of economic issues. In doing so, governments have sought not only to shape expectations for electoral purposes but to construct broader narratives about how ‘the economy’ should be understood. The starting point is to ask what goals have been focused upon; how these have been constructed to appeal to the population; and how far the population has accepted these narratives. In its first part, the volume analyses the development of the major narratives from the 1940s onwards. This part covers the notion of ‘austerity’ and its particular meaning in the 1940s; the rise of a narrative of ‘economic decline’ from the late 1950s, and the subsequent attempts to ‘modernize’ the economy; the attempts to ‘roll back the state’ from the 1970s; the impact of ideas of ‘globalization’ in the 1980s and 1990s; and, finally, the way the crisis of 2008/9 onwards was constructed as a problem of ‘debts and deficits’. The second part of the volume then focuses in on four key issues in attempts to ‘manage the people’: productivity, the balance of payments, inflation, and unemployment. It shows how in each case governments have sought to get the populace to understand these issues in a particular light, and have shaped strategies to that end.
Introduction
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2017

This introduction outlines how the idea of a national economy subject to governmental management was constructed in Britain out of the dissolution of the unmanaged economy of the pre-1914 era. It argues that a key turning point came in 1931 with the departure from the gold standard and the introduction of protection. But, it is argued, it was only from the 1940s that national economic management was combined with ‘managing the people’, through major efforts to shape public opinion on the economy. This chapter also summarizes the development of the major kinds of economic statistics which underpinned both facets of economic management.
Austerity to ‘Never had it so Good’
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2017

This chapter charts the intricacies of the Attlee government’s austerity strategy, the attempts to shape opinion around this strategy, and the obstacles faced. Central to persuading the public in these years was a notion of ‘fair shares’, a particular version of equity which was crucial to the politics of the 1940s. The chapter then outlines the grounds for success of the alternative, anti-austerity message from the Conservatives, and assesses who responded most strongly to this stance. Third, it analyses how a new politics of ‘affluence’ emerged during the 1950s, and how this related to public understanding of the economy. Alongside the analysis of the narratives constructed is an account of the means of propaganda employed, especially under the Attlee government when such propaganda was used more intensively than ever before or after.
Rolling Back the State
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2017

This chapter begins with the economic crisis of the 1970s, OPEC 1 and Labour’s responses, and the broader ideological challenge presented to social democracy by the economic problems of the mid 1970s. The chapter’s second section looks at the broad growth of anti-state notions amongst a variety of elements in 1970s Britain, including academics, journalists, and think tanks, and how these notions related to the Conservative Party’s developing positions. The third section looks in a more focused fashion at the development of the ‘rolling back the state’ policy agenda as applied to public spending after 1979. The fourth section looks more broadly at the successes and failures of the attempt to roll back the state down to the end of the Conservative government in 1997. The final section looks at how far the state-shrinking agenda reflected or shaped public opinion.
Deficits, Debts, and Austerity
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2017

This chapter examines the underpinnings of the ‘debts and deficits’ narrative by looking at the development of Labour’s pre-crisis fiscal policy, then at the nature and significance of the ‘Keynesian moment’ of 2008–9. Following this is an analysis of the Conservatives’ economic policy stances up to 2007/8, and then how they used the crisis to construct an effective narrative in opposition to Labour. The next section looks at the two successive budgets of 2010 and how they sought to define the economic policy options; while the general election of that year polarized economic debate, this section explores how far apart the parties’ postures really were. The penultimate section looks at the meaning of austerity after 2010 and the significance of the notion of ‘rebalancing’ the economy. Finally, a brief summary is given of the way in which the ‘Brexit’ debate and outcome crowded out the ‘debt and deficits’ narrative.
Unemployment
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2017

This chapter examines the underpinnings of full employment policy, and the popular understandings of economic life that went along with it. It examines how and why the defeat of unemployment achieved such importance, and how the policy was understood and represented from the 1940s onwards. Next it looks at the tensions surrounding this policy aim from the 1970s, and how it unravelled in the 1980s. The downgrading of the significance given to full employment was accomplished by a variety of strategies to reshape understanding, from the questioning of the ‘reality’ behind official enumeration of unemployment in the early 1970s through to the revival of ‘scrounger’ narratives. It looks at how the Conservative government after 1979 reacted to the surge in unemployment, and how they tried to establish a new popular understanding of the causes of job losses.
Productivity
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2017

This chapter shows that the drive for higher productivity never attained universal popular support, though in government circles it was widely believed that such popular support was absolutely essential to achieve this goal. While most of the productivity drive came from government, it involved, at times, extensive and ambitious publicity campaigning. Hence productivity improvement is a particularly important theme in the overall story of government attempts to shape economic understanding since the 1940s. In both the 1940s and the 1960s, a Labour government placed increasing productivity at the centre of its economic policy agenda, accompanied by extensive publicity aimed primarily at the ‘shop-floor’ worker. But while there were continuities in the propaganda on productivity, there were also differences in approach and tone, which, along with the differences in the methods of propaganda employed, help us to understand the varying resonance the term had in these two decades.