bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Changes in Interior Douglas-Fir Root Development in Containers after Copper and Auxin Treatments
Authors: Dumroese K.R.
Published: August 2019

Growing interior sources of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca) seedlings in containers with four root-modifying treatments changed root morphology and subsequent abundance and location of new roots. Copper, 1-napthaleneacetic acid (NAA), and copper + NAA treatments reduced height and shoot biomass about 20% compared with the control, but root collar diameters were similar. In a root growth chamber, however, 30% more new roots occurred in the copper treatment compared with the control, and new roots originating in the upper portion of the root plug increased 3X. NAA increased the total number of new roots and roots growing from the upper root plug when compared with the control but not to the same extent as copper. Combining copper and NAA decreased the number of deliverable seedlings by about 50% when compared with all other treatments. West. J. Appl. For. 15(4):213–216.
Site Preparation for Establishing Interior Spruce in British Columbia: Trials at Upper Coalmine and Mackenzie
Authors: Sutton R.F. , Bedford L. , Stordeur Linda , Grismer Marvin
Published: August 2019

Two trials (“Upper Coalmine” and “Mackenzie”) were begun in the 1980s in the Prince George Forest Region, B.C., to evaluate a total of 13 site preparation treatments for establishing interior spruce (Picea glauca × engelmannii) in the Engelmann Spruce-Subalpine Fir and Sub-Boreal Spruce biogeoclimatic zones. Treatments included mounding (with various thicknesses of mineral soil “capping”), patch scarification, blading, disk trenching, and herbiciding. In each trial, five blocks each contained one 48 or 80 tree plot/treatment. Trees were monitored for 10 yr at Mackenzie and 15 yr at Upper Coalmine. Large mounds have had consistent biological success. Tree seedling response to blading was site specific; blading at Mackenzie was not significantly inferior to the best (Ministry mound) treatment, but at Upper Coalmine was no better than the untreated control. West. J. Appl. For. 16(1):9–17.
Epicormic Branching on Pruned Coastal Douglas-Fir
Authors: Collier R.L. , Turnblom E.C.
Published: August 2019

In theory, pruning is an attractive silvicultural technique because there is a great potential for increased production of clear wood after its execution. Much of the currently available literature on the pruning of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) concerns the effects of pruning on diameter and height growth. Other aspects of the pruning response need to be considered, because clear wood production cannot be guaranteed merely because the trees were pruned. The Stand Management Cooperative, headquartered at the University of Washington, conducted a regional study to examine how Douglas-fir trees respond to pruning. Epicormic branching responses are reported here. Some anecdotal observations, as well as some intuitive ones, are confirmed. Epicormic branching was most severe on the south and west sides of trees. When epicormic branching was severe, sprouts occurred both at nodes (or whorls) and along internodes. Less severe or moderate sprouting tended to originate mainly in nodes. The risk of epicormic branching is minimal as long as the pruning treatment does not reduce the live crown by more than 40% and the stand has 500 or more stems/ha. The highest risk of epicormic branching was found to be when the live crown is reduced by more than 40%, and the stand carries less than 500 stems/ha. West. J. Applied For. 16(2):80–86.
Patterns of Long-Term Balsam Woolly Adelgid Infestations and Effects in Oregon and Washington
Authors: Mitchell Russel G. , Buffam Paul E.
Published: August 2019

The balsam woolly adelgid (Adelges piceae) is an introduced pest discovered damaging grand fir (Abies grandis) in Oregon's Willamette Valley around 1930. In 1955, the insect was found infesting and killing Pacific silver fir (A. amabilis) near Mt. St. Helens in Washington and subalpine fir (A. lasiocarpa) in the Cascade Range in Oregon. In the next 10 yr, the pest dispersed widely throughout western Oregon and Washington, causing significant tree mortality over thousands of acres in the Cascade Range. Observations on trend plots established 35 to 40 yr ago have shown somewhat consistent trends in the patterns of infestation and damage. Infestations and damage were most severe on the best sites and at the lowest elevations where the hosts grow. Tree damage was consistently most severe in the first decade of infestation, but the insect never seemed to disappear from a stand; infestations and tree killing were observed on some plots 40 yr after the initial infestation. An ecological problem with the balsam woolly adelgid is a pattern of attack that is gradually eliminating grand fir from low-elevation landscapes west of the Cascade Range. The adelgid is also removing subalpine fir as a pioneer tree species in many of the important mountain environments. West. J. Appl. For. 16(3):121–126.
A Literature Review on the Environmental Effects of Postfire Logging
Authors: McIver James D. , Starr Lynn
Published: August 2019

Literature on logging after wildfire is reviewed, with a focus on environmental effects of logging activity and the removal of large woody structure. As in unburned stands, log retrieval systems vary considerably in their immediate effect on soils in the postfire environment, with ground-based systems generally causing more disturbance than aerial systems. Timber harvest methods used by managers can mitigate erosion effects—for example, logging residue can decrease erosion by impeding overland flow. Ground disturbance from postfire logging can encourage establishment of different plant species (including nonnatives) and can influence the growth of trees. The removal of large woody structures typical in postfire logging operations can change plant species composition, reduce plant species richness, and increase conifer growth in the first years after logging, but can also reduce the probability that insect pest populations will build up and infest adjacent stands. Removal of large woody structures can cause declines in the abundance of several cavity-nesting bird species, including mountain bluebird, and black-backed, hairy, and three-toed woodpeckers; Lewis woodpecker tends to increase after postfire logging. Overall, studies on the environmental effects of postfire logging are limited, arguing for the use of adaptive management to monitor effects of logging and to adjust practices accordingly. West. J. Appl. For. 16(4):159-168.
Declining Woody Vegetation in Riparian Ecosystems of the Western United States
Authors: Obedzinski Robert A. , Shaw Charles G. , Neary Daniel G.
Published: August 2019

Riparian ecosystems serve critical ecological functions in western landscapes. The woody plant components in many of these keystone systems are in serious decline. Among the causes are invasion by exotic species, stress-induced mortality, increases in insect and disease attack, drought, beaver, fire, climatic changes, and various anthropogenic activities. The latter include agricultural development, groundwater depletion, dam construction, water diversion, gravel mining, timber harvesting, recreation, urbanization, and grazing. This article examines the factors implicated in the decline and discusses the importance of interactions among these factors in causing decline. It also clarifies issues that need to be addressed in order to restore and maintain sustainable riparian ecosystems in the western United States, including the function of vegetation, silvics of the woody plant species involved, hydrologic condition, riparian zone structure, and landscape features, geomorphology, and management objectives. West. J. Appl. For. 16(4):169-181.
Relationship of Native and Introduced Grasses With and Without Cattle in a Young Ponderosa Pine Plantation
Authors: McDonald Philip M. , Fiddler Gary O.
Published: August 2019

On an above-average site in northern California, an early shrub-forb-grass plant community was treated by artificially seeding two forage grass species at plantation age 3, cattle grazing with and without seeded grasses, and applying a soil-active chemical (Velpar). Planted ponderosa pines (Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa) were part of this community. Results for a 10 yr period (1988-1997) are presented for a native, naturally invading needlegrass (Achnatherum nelsonnii), introduced orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) and introduced pubescent wheatgrass (Agropyron trichophorum). In general, all three grasses became established, grew well, and spread throughout the study area. Density of needlegrass was highest in the Velpar, fenced control, and grazed control treatments (more than 72,000 plants/ac). Orchard grass density was highest in the seeded and grazed and seeded and fenced treatments (more than 14,000 plants/ac) and relatively high in the Velpar treatment (8,400 plants/ac). Pubescent wheatgrass established well in both seeded treatments (more than 24,000 plants/ac) and spread best to the grazed control (6,950 plants/ac). Ecologically, the introduced grasses had no major effect on the native plant community, and, economically, their effect was positive, although minor. West. J. Appl. For. 17(1):31–36.
Fate of Overstory Trees and Patterns of Regeneration 12 Years After Clearcutting with Reserve Trees in Southwest Washington
Authors: Buermeyer Karl R. , Harrington Constance A.
Published: August 2019

Changes in management objectives for some forestlands in the Pacific Northwest have spurred interest in the creation of multistoried stands and the use of natural regeneration systems, but data on such systems are lacking. We assessed the status of the overstory trees and the regeneration 12 yr after a clearcut harvest with reserve trees in an even-aged, 145-yr-old Douglas-fir stand on a moderately productive site (site class 3) in southwest Washington. The 15 ha harvest unit was superimposed over two areas differentially thinned 15 and 34 yr before clearcutting. The clearcut harvest retained 18 trees/ha with a mean diameter of 63 cm.

The reserved overstory trees had a 93% survival rate after 12 yr; most dead trees had been windthrown. Diameter growth for the reserved trees averaged 3.3 cm and was greatest during the most recent 3 yr period, which also had the highest growing-season precipitation. In a 1 ha mapped area, there were 5,854 seedlings/ha, and more than 99% of the regeneration was Douglas-fir. Most seedlings were less than 2 m tall. Seedling density was somewhat clumped (value of 2.1 for Pielou's index of nonrandomness), but 79% of randomly located 4.04 m2 (mil-acre) plots and 98% of 5 × 5 m grid cells had at least one conifer seedling. There was no obvious pattern of regeneration based on direction from the reserved trees, but both seedling density and seedling size within the drip lines of reserved tree crowns were less than in the rest of the area. The number of seedlings was similar on the two halves of the plot corresponding to the original thinning blocks, but seedling size and age differed. In the half of the study plot that had been twice lightly thinned, only 14% of the seedlings were >0.5 m tall; however, 41% of the seedlings were >0.5 m in the block that had been thinned more heavily. There was no difference between the thinning blocks in the ages of seedlings ≤0.5 m tall (mean age of 5 yr). This example of clearcutting with reserve trees resulted in reasonable survival of the overstory trees and adequate stocking but slow growth rates in the naturally regenerated Douglas-fir. Heavier thinning before harvest was associated with more advance regeneration, more shrub cover, and less windthrow of the reserved trees than in the more lightly thinned block. If an abundance of tree species other than Douglas-fir was desired on this site, interplanting would be required. West. J. Appl. For.17(2):78–85.
Pine engraver (Ips pini) Colonization of Logging Residues Created Using Alternative Slash Management Systems in Western Montana
Authors: Six Diana L. , Vander Meer Mark , DeLuca Thomas H. , Kolb Peter
Published: August 2019

In this study, we observed effects of various slash treatments on pine engraver colonization. Five slash treatments (slash-free, chipped, small piles, large piles, scattered) were replicated five times at each of two sites, one consisting mainly of ponderosa pine and the other predominantly lodgepole pine. No pine engravers were found in slash-free or chipped slash treatments at either site. At the ponderosa pine site, significantly more pine engraver attacks and galleries were found in the scattered slash treatment than in small and large pile treatments. A significantly greater number of invertebrate natural enemies were also found in the scattered slash treatment, where they were approximately six to nine times as abundant as in the small pile and large pile treatments, respectively. No pine engravers were observed colonizing slash in the lodgepole pine treatments where slash was in an advanced stage of drying. At both sites, the use of a feller buncher–delimber during harvest increased the rate of drying of slash, reducing its suitability for pine engraver colonization. West. J. Appl. For. 17(2):96–100.
The Chilling Optimum of Idaho and Arizona Ponderosa Pine Buds
Authors: Wenny David L. , Swanson Daniel J. , Dumroese R. Kasten
Published: August 2019

Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) seedlings from Idaho (var. ponderosa) and Arizona (var. scopulorum) grown in a container nursery received optimum chilling [2,010 hr (84 days) of temperatures below 5°C]. While seedlings were in the greenhouse, days required for 50% of the population to break bud were similar for both seed sources and decreased inverse exponentially from 74 to 23 days as chilling hours accumulated to the optimum. When subsequently placed into either refrigerated or frozen storage, Idaho seedlings broke bud significantly faster than Arizona seedlings when returned to favorable environmental conditions for growth. All seedlings removed from refrigerated storage broke bud faster, were less cold tolerant, and therefore less quiescent than seedlings that had been frozen. West. J. Appl. For. 17(3):117–121.
Predicting Postfire Survival in Coulter Pine (Pinus coulteri) and Gray Pine (Pinus sabiniana) after Wildfire in Central California
Authors: Borchert Mark , Schreiner David , Knowd Tim , Plumb Tim
Published: August 2019

Factors related to the survival of Coulter pine (Pinus coulteri) and gray pine (P. sabiniana) 3 yr after a September wildfire were evaluated for a site on the central coast of California. Data for 146 Coulter pine and 117 gray pine were analyzed with logistic regression models to estimate postfire survival in relationship to tree and fire-damage variables. Probability of survival for both species decreased with the increasing percentage of crown scorching and increasing height of bole bark char. Crown scorch was the most important variable for predicting survival of these species, but it was augmented by the bole-damage variable. Survival of gray pine was higher than that of Coulter pine for comparable values of both variables. West. J. Appl. For. 17(3):134–138.
Effects of Varying Levels and Patterns of Green-Tree Retention on Amount of Harvesting Damage
Authors: Moore John R. , Maguire Douglas A. , Phillips David L. , Halpern Charles B.
Published: August 2019

An inventory of fresh logging wounds from treatment implementation was performed in a regional green-tree retention experiment in Oregon and Washington. The DEMO (Demonstration of Ecosystem Management Options) study contains six treatments replicated in six blocks: (1) 100% retention (control), (2) 75% aggregated retention, (3) 40% dispersed retention, (4) 40% aggregated retention, (5) 15% dispersed retention, and (6) 15% aggregated retention. Over all blocks and treatments, Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) comprised 74.9% of all measured trees, and the proportion of trees damaged was similar for both species. Suppressed trees tended to be more susceptible to damage than were trees in other crown classes. A greater proportion of trees in the dispersed retention treatments were damaged than in the aggregated treatments. Only in the two dispersed retention treatments were levels of damage significantly different from the control (P < 0.05). The greatest proportion of damaged trees occurred in the 15% dispersed retention treatment and was likely due to the wider dispersion and higher intensity of felling and yarding operations associated with this treatment. The pattern of damage across treatments was similar for both small (≤ 25 cm dbh) and large (> 25 cm dbh) trees. Some evidence was also found that the sites with gentler slopes had less damage than those with steeper topography. Probable effects of wounds on future growth and tree health could not be inferred as no data were collected on wound size or height. However, it is expected that the future incidence of stem rot and growth reduction will be greatest in the dispersed retention treatments. West. J. Appl. For. 17(4):202–206.
Effects of Phosphorus Additions on Growth, Mineral Nutrition, and Gas Exchange of Red Alder (Alnus rubra) Seedlings Grown in Outdoor Sandbeds
Authors: Brown Kevin R.
Published: August 2019

The growth of young red alder on Vancouver Island may increase with phosphorus (P) availability. In order to better interpret growth responses in field fertilization trials, this study examined the effects of P additions (10, 100, 200, or 400 kg P/ha) on the growth and nutrient uptake of red alder seedlings grown in outdoor sandbeds for one growing season. Height did not increase with P supply. Stem growth and whole-plant mass increased with P rate from 10 to 100 kg/ha, but did not increase further at greater rates of P addition. Stem volumes, averaged across the P100, P200 and P400 treatments, were 37% greater than in the P10 treatment. Volume and mass did not increase as foliar P concentrations exceeded 2.2 g P/kg. These responses were consistent with data from field trials. Reduced growth in the P10 treatment was not accompanied by significantly reduced foliar P concentrations. Increases in stem volume with P supply were associated with increases in the amount of branching and foliage borne on branches but not with shifts in allocation of dry matter from roots to shoots. West. J. Appl. For. 17(4):209–215.
Patterns of Survival, Damage, and Growth for Western White Pine in a 16-Year-Old Spacing Trial in Western Washington
Authors: Harrington Constance A. , Bishaw Badege , DeBell Dean S.
Published: August 2019

Information about effects of planted spacing on growth and development of western white pine is scant because white pine blister rust disease has severely limited the survival of trees in young plantations. In the early 1980s, we established a western white pine spacing trial in the southern Cascades of Washington, using seedlings from a seedlot comprised primarily of open-pollinated seed from trees screened and certified as resistant to white pine blister rust. Initial square spacings ranged from 2 to 6 m; treatment plots were 0.4 ha in size and were replicated three times (six times for the 3 m spacing). Permanent measurement plots were installed at age 8, and the lower portion of all stems was pruned in the 10th growing season to reduce blister rust infections. The plots were remeasured at ages 11 and 16. Sixteen years after planting, survival averaged 80%; most mortality was associated with blister rust, but the rate of new infections and mortality diminished substantially between ages 11 and 16; 71% of the planted trees were free of blister rust at age 16. Trees averaged 8.4 m tall (ranging from 7.6 m in the 2 m spacing to 8.8 m in the 4 and 5 m spacings) and 12.7 cm dbh (10.3 in the 2 m spacing to 14.0 cm in the 5 m spacing). Periodic annual growth from 11 to 16 yr in the three wider spacings averaged 0.7 m in height and 1.0 cm in diameter. Antler rubbing by elk caused substantial damage to stems, but wounds on most trees were overgrown in 2 to 4 yr. Rub damage did not appear directly related to spacing but rather to stem diameter, with damage limited primarily to stems >6 and <15 cm. Early growth rates in this trial were much greater than those attained in older, natural stands (as inferred from site index curves and yield tables) and in progeny tests and other young silvicultural trials planted elsewhere. We believe rust-resistant stock of western white pine merits greater consideration for planting in the Douglas-fir region. West. J. Appl. For. 18(1):35–43>.
Harvest System Selection and Design for Damage Reduction in Noble Fir Stands: A Case Study on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation, Oregon
Authors: Matzka Peter J. , Kellogg Loren D.
Published: August 2019

Many high-elevation stands of noble fir (Abies procera) in the northern Oregon Cascades are being actively managed. Forest managers are investigating different activities that will control stand impacts and the subsequent spread of Heterobasidion annosum, a rot pathogen on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation. The purpose of this study was to quantify the relationship between logging production and costs with associated residual stand damage during a commercial thinning operation. Investigated in the study were four ground-based harvesting systems and two different harvest unit layout methods. Harvesting costs for the four different systems and layout methods ranged from $67.75 to $92.66/mbf (thousand board feet), with residual stand damage of 20.1 to 62.6%. Equipment size, log lengths, and layout method were found to affect total residual stand damage. West. J. Appl. For. 18(2):118–126.
Management Plans and Oregon's NIPF Owners: A Survey of Attitudes and Practices
Authors: Elwood Norman E. , Hansen Eric N. , Oester Paul
Published: August 2019

Management planning can help NIPF owners identify goals and constraints, assess resource potentials, and prioritize management activities. Interestingly, however, only a small percent of owners nationwide have management plans. This note reports characteristics of Oregon NIPF owners, their ownerships, and their opinions and practices concerning management planning. Connections among various owner/ownership characteristics and management plans/planning are discussed, including ownership size and objectives, owner age, family involvement, plan development, obstacles to planning, and plan use, results, and updating. West J. Appl. For. 18(2):127–132.
Economics of Harvesting to Maintain High Structural Diversity and Resulting Damage to Residual Trees
Authors: Hartsough Bruce
Published: August 2019

We compared two harvesting prescriptions at the Blacks Mountain Experimental Forest in northeastern California: one that maintained high structural diversity by retaining larger, old-growth trees, and a more traditional approach that removed the overstory, thinned the vigorous younger trees, and removed the suppressed understory. We investigated two aspects: economics of harvesting and damage to residual trees.The low diversity treatment generated net revenue of $2600/ac due to the large volume of large sawlogs removed. The high diversity prescription resulted in a net loss of $300/ac due to the high harvesting costs and low product values associated with the smaller sawlogs, the low sawlog volume, and the negative net value of the small biomass trees. Leaving the smallest trees (4 in. dbh) on site would reduce the net loss by half but would also leave an additional three bone dry tons (BDT) of fuel/ac. The net revenue results are sensitive to the product values. If, for example, the delivered value of the biomass was $40/BDT instead of the assumed $20/BDT, the high diversity prescription would just break even.On average, 17 and 23% of the sampled leave trees were damaged in the high and low diversity treatments, respectively. Smaller trees were more likely to be damaged. Felling damage frequency also increased with the level of removals. Skidding damage was higher in plots with more leave trees and adjacent to skid trails. We developed logistic regressions to estimate the probabilities of damage. These can be applied to a leave tree stand table to estimate roughly how many trees will survive undamaged or to estimate how many trees must be initially selected as leave trees so that a desired number will remain undamaged after all harvesting activities. For the high and low diversity treatments respectively, approximately 120 and 180 initial leave trees/ac are needed to obtain 100 final leave trees/ac without major damage. West. J. Appl. For. 18(2):133–142.
Breeding Values of Parental Trees, Genetic Worth of Seed Orchard Seedlots, and Yields of Improved Stocks in British Columbia
Authors: Xie C.Y. , Yanchuk A.D.
Published: August 2019

This report describes the procedures that are currently used in British Columbia for predicting the breeding values of parents, estimating the genetic worth of orchard seedlots, and projecting the yields of genetically improved stocks. Breeding value is a measure of the genetic quality of an individual as a parent. There are several procedures available for its estimation/prediction. Among those, the best linear prediction (BLP) relaxes most of the assumptions required by the others and minimizes the error variance of prediction. In most situations in British Columbia, it should provide predictions with satisfactory accuracy and precision with greatly reduced computational complexity. In this province, breeding value for growth potential is expressed as percent gain of stem volume over the unimproved population at a designated rotation age.Genetic worth is an important attribute of the genetic quality of a seedlot. It represents the average level of genetic gain expected for the trait of concern at a designated rotation age when a seedlot is used for reforestation. Currently, the genetic worth of a seedlot is estimated by the mean breeding value of all the parents, including those that contribute to pollen contamination and supplemental mass pollination, weighted by their proportional gamete contributionsThe yield of a genetically improved plantation is projected by incorporating the genetic worth of the seedlot into the existing growth model developed based on extensive data from managed unimproved stands. The current approach not only takes account of the stand dynamics determined by site conditions and silvicultural regimes but also the declining nature of expected gain over time because of imperfect age-age genetic correlation.Because of errors from genetic and environmental sampling, measurement, and analysis, as well as possible violation of model assumptions, estimates/predictions may still be subject to errors and/or biases. Various conservative measures have been taken to minimize any possible upwards biases. As more matured data and advanced analytical technologies become available, both the accuracy and precision will be improved. The advancement made in the procedures described in this document should contribute to superior decisions in many aspects of forest management. West. J. Appl. For. 18(2):88–100.
Verbenone Reduces Mountain Pine Beetle Attack in Lodgepole Pine
Authors: Progar R.A.
Published: August 2019

Mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae, is the most common cause of mortality of mature lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia). In 2000–2002 the antiaggregative compound verbenone was applied annually to the same lodgepole pine stands in campgrounds and resort facilities at the Sawtooth National Recreation Area in central Idaho to assess its ability in deterring mountain pine beetle attack through the course of a multiyear outbreak. Verbenone was applied at the rate of forty 5g pouches/ac releasing 25–35 mg/24h at 20°C. Significantly fewer trees were attacked and killed in the verbenone plots during 2000 and 2001. However, of the plots containing verbenone, a higher percentage of large trees were attacked in the second year of treatment, suggesting that the efficacy of verbenone may diminish under increasing beetle pressure. In 2002, there were nearly twice as many trees attacked and killed in the verbenone plots as in the untreated plots. It is hypothesized that the change in the performance of verbenone may be due to the large beetle population overwhelming the treatment or because mountain pine beetles undergo a change in their response to verbenone that may be attributed to small diameter host trees. West. J. Appl. For. 18(4):229–232.
Dichotomous Keys for Scaling and Grading Merchantable Quality Sawlogs
Authors: Bowers Steve
Published: August 2019

This study documented and field-tested a simplified version of the Westside Grading Guidelines as published in the Official Rules Handbook by the Northwest Log Rules Advisory Group. A four-step dichotomous key was documented and field-tested to determine merchantable vs. nonmerchantable logs. The study also documented and field-tested an individual seven-step dichotomous log grading key for evaluating second-growth Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), and grand fir (Abies grandis) as derived from the Rules For Grading Logs section of the Official Rules Handbook. Results were compared with certified scalers employed by Yamhill Log Scaling & Grading Bureau and Columbia River Log Scaling & Grading Bureau. Eighty-four individuals measured the length, scaling diameter, determined merchantability versus nonmerchantability and assigned log grade for 440 logs. Results showed participants in the study correctly measuring log length 99% of time, scaling diameters were recorded correctly at an 89% rate, and merchantability and log grade at 98 and 97%, respectively. West. J. Appl. For. 18(4):250–258.
Spring Versus Summer Spruce Stocktypes of Western Canada: Nursery Development and Field Performance
Authors: Grossnickle Steven C. , Folk Raymund S.
Published: August 2019

This article summarizes information on the performance of spring versus summer spruce (Picea glauca, Picea engelmannii) stocktypes grown in western Canada. The spring planted stocktype is grown over one growing season in the nursery, hardened in late summer, goes through acclimation in the fall, lifted within a fairly broad window in late fall and early winter when it is considered winter-hardened, and then frozen-stored until planting in the spring This stocktype is planted across a fairly broad spring planting window. In contrast, the summer planted stocktype is grown over one or two growing seasons in the nursery, lifted during late spring to early summer for planting in a narrow planting window in mid summer. These stocktypes are quite different in their phenology during final stages of nursery development, through stock quality assessment and initial performance in the field. For this reason, the discussion centers on comparing important morphological and physiological attributes between these two stocktypes. The stocktype used for spring planting programs has a high level of stress resistance just after planting (i.e., freezing tolerance: index of injury at -6°C of 11%; drought tolerance: osmotic potential at turgor loss point of -2.2 MPa). This stocktype starts to lose this high level of stress resistance as seedlings break bud and undergo shoot development within weeks of being planted on reforestation sites. The stocktype used for summer planting programs has a low level of stress resistance just after budset (i.e., freezing tolerance: index of injury at -6°C of 43%; drought tolerance: osmotic potential at turgor loss point of -1.6 MPa). This stocktype has a rapidly changing phenology resulting in an increasing level of stress resistance and decreasing growth potential (primarily in the root system), whether budset is induced naturally or by a short-day cultural treatment. Thus, timing of lifting plays a critical role in the success of summer stocktypes. The spring-plant stocktype has both shoot and root growth, while the summer-plant stocktype only root growth during the first season on a reforestation site. During the second growing season, both stocktypes have a similar pattern of shoot and root growth across the growing season. West. J. Appl. For. 18(4):267–275.
Soil Disturbance Impacts on Early Growth and Management of Radiata Pine Trees in New Zealand
Authors: Murphy Glen , Firth John
Published: August 2019

In the mid-1980s, trials were established in Esk and Ngaumu Forests to determine the effect of five graded levels of skid trail usage (i.e., logging-induced soil disturbance) on the growth and early management of the next crop of trees. This article reports results of measurements taken up until the Esk trees were 16 years old and the Ngaumu trees were 14 years old. Soil disturbance influenced both soil penetration resistance and weed competition; soil penetration resistance was greatest on the heavily disturbed areas, and weed competition was greatest on the undisturbed areas. Up until the time when the trees were first precommercially thinned, there was no clear relationship between disturbance levels and tree malformation. Only heavily disturbed areas in the Ngaumu trial showed increased levels of mortality. Fastest height and diameter growth occurred on minor skid trails where a certain amount of soil disturbance had taken place. Trees on completely undisturbed sites grew almost as poorly as those on the most disturbed areas (major skid trails). This difference was still evident in tree volume measurements at mid-rotation; i.e., about 15 years old. Soil disturbance also influenced the early management of the trees. Heavily disturbed areas had fewer trees selected for low pruning and more trees selected for precommercial thinning. West. J. Appl. For. 19(2):109–116.
Relationship Between Xerophyllum tenax and Canopy Density in the Southern Cascades of Washington
Authors: Blatner Keith , Higgins Stewart , Kerns Becky K. , Worthington Alexis
Published: August 2019

Large-scale commercial harvest of beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax) has been taking place in the Cascades of Washington and Oregon for the past 15 to 20 years. The long, slender leaves are either used fresh or dried and dyed for use in the floral industries in the United States and Europe. Our objectives were to develop a better understanding of beargrass production under different tree canopy (overstory) densities in the Pacific silver fir/big huckleberry/beargrass and the mountain hemlock/big huckleberry/beargrass plant associations in and around the Cispus Adaptive Management Area. We examined differences in beargrass production for different overstory canopy conditions on 10 sites in each association. Results indicated that beargrass quality is not of commercial grade under open canopies (<60% overstory density). For medium and high densities, the interaction between plant association and overstory density was significant for all response variables except harvestable dry mass. Harvestable dry mass of beargrass did not differ between the two associations, but was greater under medium- compared with high-density conditions. For the Pacific silver fir association, the high-overstory-density class had greater basal area of beargrass per site, and plants were larger with longer leaves compared to medium-canopy-density sites. We did not find this relationship for the mountain hemlock association, except for the longest leaf variable. It is unclear why basal area and size of beargrass were more closely related to overstory conditions for the Pacific silver fir association. Evaluation of the sustainability of beargrass as a nontimber forest product will require long-term study of the relationships among environmental variables, beargrass productivity, and beargrass population dynamics. West. J. Appl. For. 19(2):82–87.
Consumer Willingness to Pay for a Naturally Decay-Resistant Wood Product
Authors: Donovan Geoffrey , Hesseln Hayley
Published: August 2019

Chromated copper arsenate (CCA) is the most widely used chemical wood preservative in the United States. Concerns about the safety of CCA led to an agreement between the Environmental Protection Agency and the wood treatment industry to withdraw CCA for nonindustrial uses by the end of 2003. In light of the publicity surrounding the withdrawal of CCA, this article evaluates consumers' willingness to pay a premium for products manufactured from naturally decay-resistant wood as opposed to chemically treated wood. We use a national contingent valuation survey to quantify consumer willingness to pay for a children's play structure made from Alaska yellow-cedar, as opposed to an identical play structure made from southern pine treated with ammonial copper quaternary, the likely replacement for CCA. Respondents' estimated mean willingness to pay for the Alaska yellow-cedar play structure is $2,013, compared to $1,000 for the treated southern pine structure. This study shows that manufacturers of products made from naturally decay-resistant wood may be able to capture a substantial premium for their products. West. J. Appl. For. 19(3):160–164.
Early Realized Genetic Gains for Coastal Douglas-Fir in the Northern Oregon Cascades
Authors: Clair J. Bradley St. , Mandel Nancy L. , Jayawickrama Keith J. S.
Published: August 2019

Block-plot realized genetic gain trials were established for coastal Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) at five sites in the northern Oregon Cascades. The long-term objectives of these trials are to explore the growth trajectories and productivity of genetically improved stands and their relationship to predicted genetic gains based on performance in progeny tests. Measurements 5 years after planting provide an opportunity for an early assessment of realized genetic gains as compared to predicted gains and provide data for determining the number of replicates needed to detect statistically significant differences between improved and unimproved populations using large block plots. Results indicate that progress from selection and breeding of Douglas-fir is readily achievable, and realized genetic gains 5 years after planting are similar to those predicted based on results from progeny tests. Realized genetic gains were about 6% for height, 8% for diameter, and 28% for stem volume, compared to predicted genetic gains of about 8% for height, 7% for diameter, and 25% for stem volume. Large numbers of replicates (30–50) are required to detect statistically significant differences in height and diameter between improved and unimproved populations given genetic gains expected in a typical tree improvement program. West. J. Appl. For. 19(3):195–201.
Artificial Inoculation of Decay Fungi into Douglas-Fir with Rifle or Shotgun to Produce Wildlife Trees in Western Oregon
Authors: Filip Gregory M. , Parks Catherine G. , Baker Fred A. , Daniels Stephen E.
Published: August 2019

A total of 188 Douglas-fir trees were treated to determine whether fungal inoculation with rifle or shotgun promoted stem decay and subsequent use by cavity-nesting birds in the Coast Range in Oregon. Inoculated trees were either live or killed by topping. Topped trees were climbed and severed just below the lowest whorl of live branches. Fungal inoculum was delivered by either a 0.45–70 caliber rifle or a 12-gauge shotgun to tree trunks at a height of about 8 m aboveground. Inoculum of either Phellinus pini or Fomitopsis cajanderi was grown on small wooden dowels or sawdust and fitted into the rifle slug (dowels) or behind the shotgun slug (sawdust). Sterile dowels or sawdust were used as a control. After 5 years, all topped trees had died, and at least 50% had sap rot as indicated by the presence of conks of Trichaptum abietinum. Conks of Crytoporus volvatus, Fomitopsis pinicola, or P. pini were sometimes observed on topped (dead) trees. Almost half of the topped trees had evidence of wildlife activity including foraging holes, nest cavities, or bark removal. There was no difference in sap rot incidence or subsequent wildlife activity among three treatments (rifle, shotgun, or not shot) or among three inoculum types (P. pini, F. cajanderi, or sterile). None of the untopped (live) but artificially inoculated trees had conks or evidence of wildlife use. Of seven live and shot trees that were destructively sampled, there was an average of 68.7 cm2 of decay area on each wood disc that was associated with each bullet. There was no apparent difference in internal decay area between sterile and viable inoculum, but sample size was small. It appears that tree killing by topping below the live crown is a faster method of creating wildlife habitat than ballistic inoculation of live Douglas-fir trees in the Oregon Coast Range. Topped and dead trees had more avian foraging holes, deep cavities, and bark removed than did live inoculated trees. Based on the seven live shot trees that we sampled for internal decay, it appears that shooting trees with a shotgun or rifle is effective in creating internal decay within 5 years, but it may take several more years to form a decay column large enough to be used by cavity-nesting birds. West. J. Appl. For. 19(3):211–215.
Use of Natural Temperature Patterns to Identify Achievable Stream Temperature Criteria for Forest Streams
Authors: Ice George G. , Light Jeff , Reiter Maryanne
Published: August 2019

Almost 90% of the streams listed on the EPA's nationwide database as water-quality impaired for temperature are in the Northwest. Historic records, monitoring of streams in federal wilderness areas in Oregon, and available data for least-impaired streams in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho show that many of these streams cannot achieve state temperature criteria. Forest management often is cited as a cause for increased stream temperature above state standards. The expectation that all forested streams should be below state targets has led to unnecessary listing of streams as impaired, wasting limited watershed protection resources. State water-quality programs should base water temperature criteria on natural patterns of stream temperature and on factors that have biological relevance to beneficial uses. West. J. Appl. For. 19(4):252–259.
A New Formulation and Reduced Rates of Carbary for Protecting Lodgepole Pine from Mountain Pine Beetle Attack
Authors: Shea Patrick J. , McGregor Mark
Published: August 2019

A large-scale field experiment was conducted on the Flathead National Forest, Montana, to evaluate the efficacy of 0.5%, 1.0%, and 2.0% formulations of Sevimol® and Sevin brand XLR® for protecting individual lodgepole pines (Pinus contorta var. latifolia Engelm.) from attack by mountain pine beetles (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopk.). All concentrations and formulations were highly effective (>95%) in protecting lodgepole pine trees from lethal attack by mountain pine beetle for 1 year, and the 1% and 2% concentrations were effective (>90%) for 2 years. West. J. Appl. For. 2(4):114-116, October 1987
Biomass and Leaf-Area Estimates for Varnishleaf Ceanothus, Deerbrush, and Whiteleaf Manzanita
Authors: Hughes Thomas F. , Latt Christopher R. , Tappeiner John C. , Newton Michael
Published: August 2019

To help foresters assess site occupancy of seed-established stands of varnishleaf (Ceanothus velutinus var. laevigatus) deerbrush (Ceanothus integerrimus), and whiteleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos viscida), we developed equations for estimating their aboveground biomass and leaf area. From 9 to 14 pure stands from 2 to 20 years old were selected for each species in southwest Oregon and northern California. Individual stems of Ceanothus species and whole bushes of manzanita were destructively sampled Regression equations for leaf and total biomass of manzanita plants and for stems of Ceanothus sp. showed that these variables were highly correlated with trunk or stem diameter (r² = 0.85 - 0.99). Total biomass, leaf biomass, and leaf area index (LAI) of stands can be estimated accurately from measurements of stem or trunk basal area (r² = 0.87 - 0.99). Stand age (yr) and average stem length (cm) are also reliable estimators (r² = 0.74 - 0.82). It appears that stands of varnishleaf attain a maximum LAI of 5.5 m²/m² by 7 years, whereas the maximum values for deer-brush and manzanita were 2.8 and 3.5, respectively, at about 15 years. Stands of all three species apparently continue to produce net biomass well beyond 16 years of age. West. J. Appl. For. 2(4):124-128, October 1987.
Difference in Radial Growth Response to Restoration Thinning and Burning Treatments Between Young and Old Ponderosa Pine in Arizona
Authors: Skov Kjerstin R. , Kolb Thomas E. , Wallin Kimberly F.
Published: August 2019

Thinning and burning treatments based on forest conditions present before Euro-American settlement have been proposed to improve growth of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) in northern Arizona. We examined tree growth response to different levels of such treatments and compared growth response between old trees that established before Euro-American settlement (presettlement trees) and younger trees that established after Euro-American settlement (postsettlement trees). We made these comparisons for 3 years of posttreatment growth in northern Arizona stands subjected to four levels of thinning. Thinning treatments varied the number of postsettlement trees retained to replace dead presettlement trees. Thinning increased radial growth at breast height of postsettlement trees in all 3 years after treatment, and growth response was negatively correlated with posttreatment stand basal area. In contrast, growth of presettlement trees was not affected by thinning in most years, and there was no relationship between growth and posttreatment stand basal area. Application of the same thinning prescription to stands with different management history resulted in different posttreatment basal area and consequently different growth response to thinning for postsettlement trees. Our results show that growth of 80-year-old, postsettlement ponderosa pines is more responsive to restoration thinning than older presettlement trees, and provide guidelines for thinning levels needed to stimulate growth of presettlement trees. West. J. Appl. For. 20(1):36–43.
A Model to Estimate Noble Fir Bough Weight
Authors: Blatner Keith A. , Fight Roger D. , Vance Nan , Savage Mark , Chapman Roger
Published: August 2019

The harvesting of noble fir (Abies procera) for the production of Christmas wreaths and related products has been a mainstay of the nontimber forest products industry in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) for decades. Although noble fir is the single most important bough product harvested in the PNW, little or no work has been published concerning the estimation of the weight of harvestable boughs from standing trees. The model presented in this article was designed specifically for use in predicting the weight of harvestable boughs from standing trees. A total of 322 noble fir were selected on the west side of the Cascades of Washington and Oregon. The stands and sites for sampling were chosen to represent a wide range of environmental and stand conditions. Sample trees were selected at fixed distances along systematical located lines at each selected site. Circular plots with a 20-ft radius centered at each sample tree were established to provide data on competition. Regression analysis was used to estimate the final model. Variables included in the final model were total tree height, merchantable bough height, dbh2, age at dbh, whorl age for each merchantable whorl, and the associated number of boughs for each whorl as well as the total number of trees within a 20-foot radius of the plot tree. In addition, an intercept shifter (0,1) to designate noble fir stands located north and South of the Marion/Clackamas County line in Oregon (South = 0, North = 1) was included in the model. The overall model was significant at the 0.0001 level with an adjusted R2 of 0.77 West. J. Appl. For. 20(1):44–49.