bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Computational Method for Optimizing the Shape and Location of a Polygon on a Plane
Authors: Shiode Narushige , Okabe Atsuyuki
Published: March 2003

This study applies the concept of the Voronoi diagram to a simultaneous search for the optimal shape and location of a polygon. Suppose that an area‐like facility is contained in a finite two‐dimensional uniform region. The objective of our study is to optimize the shape and location of the facility (polygon) in terms of the mini‐sum distance from all the surrounding points. When the mini‐sum distance is minimized, the polygon forms a star‐shaped polygon at the center, and when maximized, it verges alongside the edge of the region. The results are represented by an approximate value of local optima obtained by replacing the boundary of the polygon with points. We justify the results by examining the difference between the value obtained from a line Voronoi diagram and that generated from points.
A New Upper Bound for the Cylinder Packing Problem
Authors: Correia M.H. , Oliveira J.F. , Ferreira J.S.
Published: March 2003

This paper introduces a new upper bound to the problem of fitting identical circles into a rectangle. This problem is usually referred to as the ‘cylinder packing problem’ or ‘cylinder palletization’. In practice, it arises when it is desired to maximize the number of cylindrical items packed in an upright position onto a rectangle/pallet. The upper bound developed consists in determining the reduced pallet area by deducting a lower bound for the unused pallet area from the total area of the pallet. The upper bound for the number of identical circles to pack into the pallet is computed by the ratio reduced pallet area/circle area. The results obtained for five distinct sets of problems are analyzed and compared with previous bounds found in the published literature.
Hyperbolic Penalty: A New Method for Nonlinear Programming with Inequalities
Authors: Xavier Adilson Elias
Published: March 2003

This work intends to present and to analyze a new penalty method that purposes to solve the general nonlinear programming problem subject to inequality constraints. The proposed method has the important feature of being completely differentiable and combines features of both exterior and interior penalty methods. Numerical results for some problems are commented on.
Measuring Income Inequality in Euroland
Authors: Beblo Miriam , Knaus Thomas
Published: March 2003

In this paper we propose an aggregate measure of income inequality for the founding countries of the European Monetary Union. Applying the methodology of the Theil index we are able to derive a measure for Euroland as a whole by using complementary data from the European Community Household Panel and the Luxembourg Income Study. The property of additive decomposability allows us to determine each country's contribution as well as that of each demographic group to overall income inequality. In addition the impact of government transfers on this inequality measure is assessed.
On Human Capital and Individual Capabilities
Authors: Hartog Joop
Published: March 2003

Starting out from a simple conceptual framework running from initial individual abilities to skills produced in school to the utilization of these skills in the labor market, this paper surveys empirical studies in labor economics, economics of education and occupational psychology to assess the empirical strength of the links between these sets of variables. Cognitive and non‐cognitive abilities are relevant for economic success, but make a modest contribution. Occupational psychology is complementary to economics and supports the notion of interlocking heterogeneity of individuals and jobs.
Study On Some Problems In Estimating China’s Gross Domestic Product
Authors: Xianchun Xi
Published: March 2003

This paper discusses the five main problems with current price estimates of China’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). These are the measurement of housing services, fiscal subsidies, welfare services provided within enterprises, rural industry and livestock products. The paper gives the possible ranges of error arising from problems in these areas and shows their quantitative impact on GDP estimates. The paper concludes that these problems have some impact on the structure of China’s GDP, but limited impact on the total size of China’s GDP. The official estimates, therefore, provide a reasonably accurate measure of the size of China’s current price GDP.
Measuring Educational Heterogeneity And Labor Quality: A Note
Authors: Fosgerau Mogens , Hougaard Jensen Svend E. , Sørensen Anders
Published: March 2003

This paper investigates the magnitude of the mismeasurement that occurs when only a few education categories are used in the construction of a constant quality index for labor input. By employing a very comprehensive data set it is found that the error resulting from the omission of information on education is relatively small. The empirical results are thus supportive of the current state of practice of constructing indices of constant quality labor input.
Geographies of family formations: spatial differences and gender cultures in Britain
Authors: Duncan Simon , Smith Darren
Published: March 2003

The significance of national differences in family formations has been addressed through the social policy debate over women’s position in different welfare state regimes. However, the nature and effects of sub–national family geographies remains under–researched. In this paper we use census mapping to describe regional and local differences in partnering and parenting within Britain. We develop an index of the ‘Motherhood Employment Effect’ to indicate different geographical levels of adherence to the ‘traditional’ male breadwinner/female homemaker family, and use a ‘Family Conventionality’ index to describe geographical differences in the social evaluation of marriage. The geography of family formations thus described does not follow the better known ‘north–south’ or ‘urban–rural’ geographies of economic performance and prosperity. We use the example of Lancashire and Yorkshire to explore further the socio–economic associations of this family geography, employing additional indicators of ‘household conventionality’ and ‘family restructuring’. Finally, we speculate as to how this relatively unfamiliar family geography may be related to the existence of regional gender cultures, and briefly outline some implications for social policy.
The Structural Determinants of Mortality in Japanese Prefectures
Authors: Young Frank W. , Minai Keiko
Published: March 2003

This cross‐sectional multivariate analysis of age‐ and sex‐standardized mortality for the 47 Japanese prefectures explores and tests the hypotheses that structural pluralism and differentiation, interpreted as dimensions of “social problem solving capacity”, determine lower mortality rates, controlling on the availability of medical facilities. The postulated explanatory principle is that participation in community problem‐solving optimizes the biological functioning of the residents, which fosters better health. A factor analysis generated two factors (plus a third index of medical facilities) that measure the structural dimensions. Regression analysis showed that pluralism predicted lower mortality for both males and females, but differentiation gave contradictory results. Surprisingly, medical facilities predicted higher male mortality. A control on the more recently industrialized and the hyper‐urbanized prefectures refined the analysis so that the differentiation factor predicted consistently and the spurious correlation between medical facilities and male mortality dissolved.
Murakami Haruki and the Naturalization of Modernity
Authors: Cassegard Carl
Published: March 2003

Walter Benjamin famously portrayed the shock sensation as the cause of a “heightening of consciousness” in modernity, a process which in turn causes the disintegration of the “aura” and the suffocation of “experience” under the “protective shield” of consciousness. When applied to the cultural space of Murakami Haruki's novels a discrepancy comes into view that calls for sociological elucidation. Here modernity is a “naturalized” space characterized by tranquillity and stillness, a low consciousness, and a fusion of reification with re‐enchantment. This naturalization is made possible by a process of privatization whereby libidinal energy becomes transferred from objective human relations to the interior of the self. Murakami struggles with the dilemma of how to affirm naturalization while counteracting privatization. While the prime cultural contradiction according to Benjamin was the conflict between “the aura” and the heightening of consciousness, in the naturalized modernity portrayed by Murakami another contradiction emerges which revolves around the conflict between painless solitude and the struggle to regain auratic human relations.
Urban Space and Cyberspace: Urban Environment in the Age of Media and Information Technology
Authors: Wakabayashi Mikio
Published: March 2003

Today, the many innovations and the spread of new media and information technologies are bringing new realities to contemporary society. In Japanese sociology, this social transformation is called johoka, or information–oriented transformation. The present study examines two aspects of today's urban environment, concerning this social transformation. One is the phenomenon of “Disneylandization” of the urban environment and the other is the emergence of “cyberspace” or the “cybercity”. The former is the proliferation of areas and buildings filled with signs and designs that are quoted from other historical or geographical contexts, and arranged under some “theme” or “concept”, such as theme parks. The latter is the emergence of “virtual spaces” and the “virtual city” in computer networks, especially on the Internet. The former is a change in the physical urban environment and the latter is a phenomenon of the non–physical environment, inside computers. However, in spite of this contrast, these phenomena can be considered to result from the same social transformation—that is, the new relationship between space and society. The semantic emptiness, and expectations and desires for a sense of “placeness” in contemporary society are the preconditions of both phenomena. Often these elements are regarded as postmodern phenomena, yet it is of interest to explore Disneylandization and the emergence of the cybercity as the latest versions of the modern urban transformation and the modern urbanism.
Towards a Cultural Analysis of the Modern Family: Beyond the Revisionist Paradigm in Japanese Family Studies
Authors: Notter David
Published: March 2003

Under the influence of the “new history of the family” of the past few decades, a revisionist view of the “modern family” has emerged among family theorists in Japan. In spite of the significant merits of this new paradigm, I have argued that the failure of its proponents to address certain theoretical and presuppositional issues has discouraged a cultural analysis of the modern family. In recent years, one of the foremost theorists to attempt to bring cultural analysis fully into sociological discourse has been Jeffrey Alexander. I have drawn extensively on Alexander's discussion of Durkheim's later thought as the key to a cultural program in the field of sociology. In doing so, I have suggested that one effect of the transition to modern society is the sacralization of what Durkheim termed the “domestic order”. Furthermore, in considering the mechanism by which the central emotional axis of the family comes to revolve around either the parent–child bond or the conjugal bond, I have postulated the existence of a “sacred” dyad—in the Durkheimian sense—within the family unit.
Managerial Actions, Stock Returns, and Earnings: The Case of Business‐to‐Business Internet Firms
Authors: Rajgopal Shivaram , Venkatachalam Mohan , Kotha Suresh
Published: March 2003

In this study we investigate the valuation implications of managerial actions undertaken by 57 Internet firms engaged in Business‐to‐Business (B2B) e‐commerce. We classify 3,007 managerial actions undertaken by our sample firms between the firm’s IPO date and September 30, 2000 into nine action categories: (1) acquisition of major customers, (2) introduction of new products and services, (3) promotional and marketing actions, (4) actions taken to address the concerns of stakeholders such as employees and the community at large, (5) announcements of technology, marketing, and distribution alliances, (6) completion of acquisitions, (7) expansion into international markets, (8) management team building actions, and (9) organizational changes.

In the short window tests, we find a significant increase in stock price volatility over a three‐day event window surrounding the announcement of almost all actions suggesting that announcement of managerial actions provides value‐relevant information to the stock market. In the long window tests, we use factor analysis to group the counts of managerial actions taken by each firm over its post‐IPO life into two broad managerial initiatives—market penetration and organization building. These two initiatives explain a substantial portion of the cross‐sectional variation in the firms’ post‐IPO life stock market returns beyond that explained by both reported earnings and analysts’ forecasts of future earnings and revenues. Thus, investors appear to supplement relatively meager accounting information with data about the cross‐sectional intensity of managerial actions in setting stock prices of B2B Internet firms.
Error Detection by Industry‐Specialized Teams during Sequential Audit Review
Authors: Owhoso Vincent E. , Messier, Jr. William F. , Lynch, Jr. John G.
Published: March 2003

To improve audit effectiveness, public accounting firms have organized their practices to include hierarchical review by teams organized along industry lines. We examine how industry specialized auditor teams detect errors, using a sophisticated experimental design. Our analysis of nominal teams created from seniors and managers working individually shows that seniors add value to the team by detecting more mechanical errors while managers detect more conceptual errors. Working within specialization, managers and seniors both contribute in a nonredundant way to the team’s overall effectiveness. We also find that the nominal teams outperform real teams in the detection of mechanical but not conceptual errors. These results only hold when the auditors work within in their industry specialization. Out of specialization the auditors are not effective at detecting errors, and real teams perform below the nominal team benchmark in the detection of both mechanical and conceptual errors.
Shredded Reputation: The Cost of Audit Failure
Authors: Chaney Paul K. , Philipich Kirk L.
Published: March 2003

In this article we investigate the impact of the Enron audit failure on auditor reputation. Specifically, we examine Arthur Andersen’s clients’ stock market impact surrounding various dates on which Andersen’s audit procedures and independence were under severe scrutiny. On the three days following Andersen’s admission that a significant number of documents had been shredded, we find that Andersen’s other clients experienced a statistically negative market reaction, suggesting that investors downgraded the quality of the audits performed by Andersen. We also find that audits performed by Andersen’s Houston office suffered a more severe decline in abnormal returns on this date. We are not able to show that Andersen’s independence was questioned by the amount of non–audit fees charged to its clients.
Earnings Surprise “Materiality” as Measured by Stock Returns
Authors: Kinney William , Burgstahler David , Martin Roger
Published: March 2003

Ranked earnings surprise portfolios formed from First Call files for 1992–97 are used to assess the annual earnings surprise magnitude for an individual firm sufficient to expect a “significant market reaction.” We find that, for an individual firm, the maximum probability of a gain from trading on prior knowledge of any surprise magnitude is .622. The lack of probable trading gains is due to the S–shaped surprise/return relation and the large variance of returns for a given magnitude of surprise. In turn, we find that the S–shape is related empirically to the dispersion of analyst forecasts. Thus, factors underlying dispersion differences are related to the importance or “materiality” of earnings surprise as measured by stock returns and explain at least part of the S–shaped surprise/return relation.
What Drives Stock Price Behavior Following Extreme One‐Day Returns
Authors: Larson Stephen J. , Madura Jeff
Published: March 2003

We identify samples of losers and winners by selecting daily stock price returns in excess of 10% (sign ignored) and determine whether these samples over‐ or underreact. We then identify “informed” events, which correspond to announcements in the Wall Street Journal(WSJ), and “uninformed” events, which are not explained in the WSJ. For winners, there is overreaction in response to uninformed events but no overreaction on average in response to informed events. This finding suggests the degree of overreaction to new information depends on whether the cause of the extreme stock price change is publicly released.
Attachment strategies in Japanese urban middle–class couples: A cultural theme analysis of asymmetry in marital relationships
Authors: Onishi Miyoko , Gjerde Per F.
Published: March 2003

This study introduces a cultural theme analysis to assess within–culture variation in attachment, with special emphasis on asymmetry in Japanese marital roles. Thirty–nine young urban married Japanese couples were interviewed using a modification of the Adult Attachment Interview. The participants also described their marital experiences, viewed both from their own and from their spouse”s perspective, and the ego resiliency of their child. Husbands” attachment strategies vis–à–vis their parents and their adherence to the marital asymmetry theme conjointly influenced their marital attachment security. The secure husband’s strategy seemed to be enhanced by using his “motherly” wife as a secure base, thereby leading to higher marital attachment security. In contrast, the dismissing husband—when adhering to the marital asymmetry theme—appeared to further intensify deactivating strategies by downplaying the emotional significance of his motherly wife. Thus the marital asymmetry theme appears to have different psychological implications for Japanese husbands, depending on their attachment strategies (secure versus dismissive). Conceptual and methodological issues in the study of adult attachment from a cultural perspective are discussed.
Links between attachment orientations and dispositional and diary–based measures of disclosure in dating couples: A study of actor and partner effects
Authors: Bradford Steven A. , Feeney Judith A. , Campbell Lorne
Published: March 2003

Issues concerning the influence of attachment characteristics on own and partner’s disclosure were addressed using a sample of 113 couples in medium–term dating relationships. Individual differences in attachment were assessed in terms of relationship anxiety and avoidance. Disposition to disclose was assessed using questionnaire measures of self–disclosure, relationship–focused disclosure, and the ability to elicit disclosure from the partner; in addition, structured diaries were used to assess aspects of disclosure (amount, intimacy, emotional tone, and satisfaction) in the context of couples’ everyday interactions. Couple–level analyses showed that avoidance strongly predicted dispositional measures of disclosure, whereas anxiety (particularly partner’s anxiety) was related to negative evaluations of everyday interactions. Interactive effects of attachment dimensions and gender were also obtained, highlighting the complexity of communication behavior. The results are discussed in terms of the goals and strategies associated with working models of attachment.
Differences between Jewish–Israeli and Arab–Israeli college students in attitudes toward date selection and sex relations: A research note
Authors: Hetsroni Amir
Published: March 2003

Jewish and Arab–Moslem students attending an Israeli college were compared for their date selection criteria and their attitudes toward sexual relations. Questionnaires were completed by 214 Jews and 162 Arabs. Seventy percent of the respondents in both groups were women. Jews (more than Arabs) and males (more than females) showed a greater tendency to mention physical appearance as a selection criterion. In both ethnic groups, women thought that a longer dating period is needed before having sex. However, Jewish females did not differ from Jewish males in their vision of the appropriate age to start having sex, whereas Arab men and women did differ. The findings indicate that Israeli–Arab college students are considerably more traditional than Jewish students in their attitudes toward sex and dating and that the gender differences among Arabs are larger. The results are controlled for religiosity, family status, and financial status.
Did I do that? Self–esteem–related differences in reactions to romantic partners’ moods
Authors: Bellavia Gina , Murray Sandra
Published: March 2003

This study examined the relation between self–esteem and responses to a romantic partner's moods. College students in dating relationships imagined one scenario in which their romantic partners were in a positive mood and one in which their partners were in a negative mood. A probable source of each mood was suggested to half the participants. Participants reported their cognitive, affective, behavioral, and attributional responses to each scenario. When the partner's mood was negative and ambiguous in cause, participants with low self–esteem felt more responsible for the mood, more rejected, and more hostile than did those with high self–esteem. A mediational analysis suggested a dependency regulation explanation of the results, such that low self–esteem people perceived self–directed negativity in their partners’ bad moods and in turn responded with more negativity toward their partners.
Vying for the Urban Poor: Charitable Organizations, Faith‐Based Social Capital, and Racial Reconciliation in a Deep South City
Authors: Silverman Robert Mark
Published: March 2003

In this article the mobilization of social capital is examined as it relates to the formation of collaborative partnerships among charitable organizations. It is argued that social capital, expressed through social ties and mutual trust, forms the foundation for such partnerships. Specifically, collaborative activities built upon religiously based social capital mobilized among charitable organizations are focused upon in this study. The extensive role of such social capital, combined with the historical context of the research setting, overshadows alternative forms of social capital that might be accessed for neighborhood revitalization, particularly social capital based on race. Consequently, this article’s findings suggest that a color‐blind approach to racial reconciliation has emerged among charitable organizations in conjunction with the hegemonic role of religiously based social capital in this local context. The unique nature of this outcome is significant because it emphasizes the impact of local context on the manner in which social capital is mobilized within localized networks.
Studying and Measuring Civility: A Framework, Trends and Scale
Authors: Ferriss Abbott L.
Published: March 2003

Four essential questions for the study of civility involve developing a definition of the term, determining its effects, establishing trends, and predicting the consequences of civility. A framework for studying it includes the actors, their gender, situations and settings, occupational role requirements, the cultural imperatives defining civility, and the processes through which it is learned. Objective measures of civility in the United States show its variability and change. Four items in the 1996 General Social Survey (GSS) are combined to form a scale of civility. Correlates of the scale show that civility does not differ by gender, color, or region. It is weakly associated with income but is significantly associated with education, occupation, and health. Age, education, and health provide a predictive model of civility. Anger, an emotional aspect of interpersonal exchange, reveals reactions characteristic of civil behavior: waiting for anger to pass before responding, trying to forget the incident, not thinking of revenge, not walking away from the situation, and not yelling or hitting. Hypotheses are proposed for further study that involves age, marital status, occupation, health, and emotional control.
Ethnic Labels and Ethnic Identity as Predictors of Drug Use among Middle School Students in the Southwest
Authors: Marsiglia Flavio Francisco , Kulis Stephen , Hecht Michael L.
Published: March 2003

This article explores differences in the self‐reported drug use and exposure to drugs of an ethnically diverse group of 408 seventh‐grade students from a large city in the southwest. We contrast the explanatory power of ethnic labels (African American, non‐Hispanic White, Mexican American, and mixed ethnicity) and two dimensions of ethnic identity in predicting drug use. One dimension focuses on perceived ethnically consistent behavior, speech, and looks, while the other gauges a sense of ethnic pride. Ethnic labels were found to be somewhat useful in identifying differences in drug use, but the two ethnic identity measures, by themselves, did not generally help to explain differences in drug use. In conjunction, however, ethnic labels and ethnic identity measures explained far more of the differences in drug use than either did alone. The findings indicate that the two dimensions of ethnic identity predict drug outcomes in opposite ways, and these relations are different for minority students and non‐Hispanic White students. Generally, African American, Mexican American, and mixed‐ethnicity students with a strong sense of ethnic pride reported less drug use and exposure, while ethnically proud White students reported more. Ethnic minority students who viewed their behavior, speech, and looks as consistent with their ethnic group reported more drug use and exposure, while their White counterparts reported less. These findings are discussed, and recommendations for future research are provided.
The Impact of Pubertal Timing on Adolescents’ Alcohol Use
Authors: Wichstrøm Lars
Published: March 2003

The relation between pubertal timing and alcohol use was investigated in a nationally representative sample (N= 4,686) of junior high school students who were followed up 2 years later (N= 3,862). Information regarding pubertal timing and status, sex‐role identification, number of alcohol intoxications, substance use, sexual behavior, friends’ alcohol use, and involvement in other types of problem behaviors was obtained. The results showed that early timing of pubertal development correlated with number of alcohol intoxications and number of units consumed on each occasion, and, to a lesser degree, with the frequency of alcohol use. Moreover, correlations were stronger among males than among females. Substantial parts of the association between pubertal timing and alcohol intoxications were mediated through friends’ problem behavior. Pubertal timing predicted alcohol use at follow‐up, but the effect was mostly due to increased alcohol intoxications at initial testing.
The Imaginary Audience and Personal Fable: Factor Analyses and Concurrent Validity of the “New Look” Measures
Authors: Goossens Luc , Beyers Wim , Emmen Mieke , Van Aken Marcel A. G.
Published: March 2003

This study examined key components of the “New Look” at the imaginary audience and personal fable constructs. Toward this end, data from four samples of Belgian high school students (N= 1,458) were analyzed. Confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses failed to confirm that the measures associated with the New Look theory, the New Imaginary Audience Scale, and the New Personal Fable Scale (NPFS), tapped a common underlying construct. Only the invulnerability and omnipotence subscales of the NPFS proved to be highly related. In line with the New Look theory, boys were found to believe more strongly in their own uniqueness, invulnerability, and omnipotence than were girls. Higher scores on the invulnerability and omnipotence subscales were associated with lower levels of depression and loneliness. Finally, each aspect of the personal fable seemed to have its own specific role in the process of separation – individuation. Implications of these findings for the New Look theory of the imaginary audience and the personal fable are discussed. Suggestions for future research are put forth, with particular emphasis on the role of the invulnerability/omnipotence complex in adolescent development and behavior and on the family resemblances among the various aspects of the personal fable.
The Influence of Female and Male Risk on the Occurrence of Sexual Intercourse Within Adolescent Relationships
Authors: Harrington Cleveland H.
Published: March 2003

This study uses the characteristics of male and female partners within adolescent relationship pairs drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to predict the occurrence of intercourse within relationships. Most analyses are based on a sample of 724 relationship pairs. The sample was ethnically diverse: 56% White, 20% Black, 14% Hispanic, and 10% Asian, Pacific Islander, or Other. Male partners on average were 17.5 years in age and females were 17.0. Predictors of intercourse included virginity status when entering the relationships, desire to have sex early in relationships, family‐ and school‐related risk indicators, attitudes regarding the pros and cons of having sex, and other risk indicators, such as delinquency and drinking. Findings demonstrate that the characteristics of both sexes influence intercourse occurrence within relationships.
Selecting Human Health Metrics for Environmental Decision‐Support Tools
Authors: Hofstetter Patrick , Hammitt James K.
Published: March 2003

Environmental decision‐support tools often predict a multitude of different human health effects due to environmental stressors. The accounting and aggregating of these morbidity and mortality outcomes is key to support decision making and can be accomplished by different methods that we call human health metrics. This article attempts to answer two questions: Does it matter which metric is chosen? and What are the relevant characteristics of these metrics in environmental applications? Three metrics (quality adjusted life years (QALYs), disability adjusted life years (DALYs), and willingness to pay (WTP)) have been applied to the same diverse set of health effects due to environmental impacts. In this example, the choice of metric mattered for the ranking of these environmental impacts and it was found for this example that WTP was dominated by mortality outcomes. Further, QALYs and DALYs are sensitive to mild illnesses that affect large numbers of people and the severity of these mild illnesses are difficult to assess. Eight guiding questions are provided in order to help select human health metrics for environmental decision‐support tools. Since health metrics tend to follow the paradigm of utility maximization, these metrics may be supplemented with a semi‐quantitative discussion of distributional and ethical aspects. Finally, the magnitude of age‐dependent disutility due to mortality for both monetary and nonmonetary metrics may bear the largest practical relevance for future research.
Assessing Cancer Risks from Short‐Term Exposures in Children
Authors: Ginsberg Gary L.
Published: March 2003

For the vast majority of chemicals that have cancer potency estimates on IRIS, the underlying database is deficient with respect to early‐life exposures. This data gap has prevented derivation of cancer potency factors that are relevant to this time period, and so assessments may not fully address children's risks. This article provides a review of juvenile animal bioassay data in comparison to adult animal data for a broad array of carcinogens. This comparison indicates that short‐term exposures in early life are likely to yield a greater tumor response than short‐term exposures in adults, but similar tumor response when compared to long‐term exposures in adults. This evidence is brought into a risk assessment context by proposing an approach that: (1) does not prorate children's exposures over the entire life span or mix them with exposures that occur at other ages; (2) applies the cancer slope factor from adult animal or human epidemiology studies to the children's exposure dose to calculate the cancer risk associated with the early‐life period; and (3) adds the cancer risk for young children to that for older children/adults to yield a total lifetime cancer risk. The proposed approach allows for the unique exposure and pharmacokinetic factors associated with young children to be fully weighted in the cancer risk assessment. It is very similar to the approach currently used by U.S. EPA for vinyl chloride. The current analysis finds that the database of early life and adult cancer bioassays supports extension of this approach from vinyl chloride to other carcinogens of diverse mode of action. This approach should be enhanced by early‐life data specific to the particular carcinogen under analysis whenever possible.
Negotiating via Information Technology: Theory and Application
Authors: Thompson Leigh , Nadler Janice
Published: March 2003

In this review article, we examine how people negotiate via e‐mail and in particular, how the process and outcomes of e‐negotiations differ from those of traditional face‐to‐face bargaining. We review the key tasks of negotiation and then undertake a review of the research literature that has examined e‐negotiations. We outline four theories of interaction that provide insights about social behavior in e‐media: rapport building, social contagion, coordination, and information exchange. Our research program has focused on the interpersonal factors and social identity factors that can enhance the quality of e‐negotiations. E‐negotiators often succumb to the temporal synchrony bias, the burned bridge bias, the squeaky wheel bias, and the sinister attribution bias. We discuss social psychological factors that can reduce these biases and the future of research on e‐negotiations.
Campus–Community Partnerships: The Terms of Engagement
Authors: Bringle Robert G. , Hatcher Julie A.
Published: March 2003

The emergence of service–learning in higher education and the renewed emphasis on community involvement presents colleges and universities with opportunities to develop campus–community partnerships for the common good. These partnerships can leverage both campus and community resources to address critical issues in local communities. Campus–community partnerships are a series of interpersonal relationships between (a) campus administrators, faculty, staff, and students and (b) community leaders, agency personnel, and members of communities. The phases of relationships (i.e., initiation, development, maintenance, dissolution) and the dynamics of relationships (i.e., exchanges, equity, distribution of power) are explored to provide service–learning instructors and campus personnel with a clearer understanding of how to develop healthy campus–community partnerships.
Designing Service–Learning to Empower Students and Community: Jackson Elementary Builds a Nature Study Center
Authors: Werner Carol M. , Voce Rose , Openshaw Kellie Gaufin , Simons Michael
Published: March 2003

We propose an approach to service–learning in which projects are designed so as to empower undergraduate students and community members. When student service scholars take away control from citizens, they can undermine citizens’ perceptions of competency; when faculty reduce students’ choice and responsibility, they can undermine students’ efficacy and desire to learn. We propose four guidelines for optimizing student and citizen experiences: (1) service should serve both the community and the students; (2) service should empower; (3) service should be contextual; and (4) service projects should endure. We elaborate this philosophy and illustrate it with a project in which nine university students and 30 fifth–graders built a science and nature study center for a K–6 elementary school.
Sociocultural Strategies for a Dialogue of Cultures
Authors: Savignon Sandra J. , Sysoyev Pavel V.
Published: March 2003

There is often a lack of learner opportunity for beyond‐the‐classroom interaction in school foreign language programs. This lack of opportunity places learners at considerable disadvantage when confronted with the inevitable psychological, linguistic, and sociocultural obstacles in second language communication (Savignon, 1972, 1983, 1997; Sysoyev, 1999a, 2001). In this article, we report the findings of a study that attempted to operationalize the concept of sociocultural competence for classroom learners and explore the benefit to learners of explicit training in strategies for coping with certain social and cultural situations. The goal of our study was to promote learners' sociocultural competence with a view to preparing them for a dialogue of cultures (Bakhtin, 1981, 1986; Bibler, 1991) essential to intercultural communication. Our report includes 3 sections: (a) a taxonomy of sociocultural strategies, (b) the description of a method of explicit strategy training developed for use in a Russian high school English as a foreign language (EFL) program, and (c) the outcome of an experimental program in explicit instruction in sociocultural strategies with a class of 11th grade EFL learners.
Abstract
Authors: Hauser‐Cram Penny , Warfield Marji Erickson , Shonkoff Jack P. , Krauss Marty Wyngaarden
Published: March 2003

This Monograph presents the results of the Early Intervention Collaborative Study, a longitudinal investigation of the cognitive and adaptive behavior development of children with developmental disabilities and the adaptation of their parents, extending from infancy through middle childhood. The study was designed to generate and test conceptual models of child and family development and contribute to the knowledge base that informs social policy and practice.

The sample for the investigation reported here consists of 183 children with Down syndrome, motor impairment, developmental delay and their families who were recruited at the time of their enrollment in an early intervention program in Massachusetts or New Hampshire. Data were collected at five time points between entry to early intervention and the child's 10th birthday. Home visits were conducted at each time point and included child assessments, maternal interview, and questionnaires completed independently by both parents.

Trajectories in children's development and parental well‐being were analyzed using hierarchical linear modeling. Predictor variables were measured at age 3 years when children were exiting early intervention programs. Children's type of disability predicted trajectories of development in cognition, social skills, and daily living skills. Children's type of disability also predicted changes in maternal (but not paternal) child‐related and parent‐related stress. Beyond type of disability, child self‐regulatory processes (notably behavior problems and mastery motivation) and one aspect of the family climate (notably mother‐child interaction) were key predictors of change in both child outcomes and parent well‐being. A different aspect of the family climate—family relations—also predicted change in child social skills. Parent assets, measured as social support and problem‐focused coping, predicted change in maternal and paternal parent‐related stress respectively.

The implications of these findings for both the science of child development and the policies and practices of developmental intervention are discussed.
The Alaska Permanent Fund: Politics and Trust
Authors: Anderson Jonathan
Published: March 2003

Trust funds are a particular way of governing resource flows. Governments use trust funds to bind policy decisions of future actors and remove resource flows from budget competition. The state of Alaska removed a portion of its oil revenues from political competition through the creation of the Alaska Permanent Fund. A unique feature of the Fund is that it pays annual dividends to Alaskan citizens, thus creating a citizen stake in the management of the Fund. Through this framework Alaskans have successfully protected a significant stream of revenue ($21 billion) from political demands.
Tax Expenditure Budgets, Budget Policy, and Tax Policy: Confusion in the States
Authors: Mikesell John L.
Published: March 2003

A tax expenditure budget should contribute to efficient and effective public decisions by quantifying the division in the tax structure between provisions that represent revenue policy (distribute the cost of government according to the legislated tax base) and parts that represent budget policy (substitute for direct spending). For this transparency to have the desired impact, however, the tax expenditure budget process and the direct expenditure process must be properly integrated and the tax expenditure budget must make an accurate division between the parts of the tax structure. A review of the 33 states with tax expenditure systems shows many weaknesses in application of the concept and poor linkage to the direct spending budget system. Their most significant flaw is in dividing the tax structure into normal and preference elements; states need greater attention to defining their basic tax structure if they are to have a meaningful tax expenditure budget.
Providing Adequate Educational Funding: A State–by–State Analysis of Expenditure Needs
Authors: Rubenstein Ross
Published: March 2003

While school finance research and litigation has traditionally focused on the equity of funding across school districts, courts and policy makers are increasingly addressing the adequacy of educational resources. This article reviews recent developments in adequacy research and estimates the additional expenditures required to achieve adequacy across states. Using the cost–adjusted national median of current per–pupil expenditures as a benchmark for adequacy, the results suggest that additional spending of $15.6–18.5 billion is needed nationally to reach the benchmark in all districts. The additional spending would be concentrated in a small number of states, particularly in urban and urban fringe districts.
Debt and the Local Economy: Problems in Benchmarking Local Government Debt Affordability
Authors: Hildreth W. Bartley , Miller Gerald J.
Published: March 2003

Debt creation imposes an obligation to repay borrowed funds from a wealth base that for most local governments is capitalized in property values. Therefore, the ability to afford debt is tied to the local economy, a factor often overlooked by localities in the analyses of their own position. However, debt levels are also relative, as the many debt affordability studies among governments and by bond rating agencies suggest. We argue here that economic concentration and interjurisdictional coordination fundamentally provide a broader analytical approach to the question a locality asks: can we afford more debt?
Project Management Characteristics and New Product Survival
Authors: Jeffrey Thieme R. , Michael Song X. , Shin Geon‐Cheol
Published: March 2003

We develop a conceptual model of new product development (NPD) based on seminal and review articles in order to answer the question, “What project management characteristics will foster the development of new products that are more likely to survive in the marketplace?” Our model adopts Ruekert and Walker's theoretical framework of situational dimensions, structural/process dimensions, and outcome dimensions as an underlying structure. We conceptualize their situational dimensions more narrowly as project management dimensions, allowing us to examine more specifically how project management practices affect the NPD process. In our model, project management dimensions include project manager style, project manager skills, and senior management support. Structural/process dimensions include cross‐functional integration and planning proficiency. Outcome dimensions include process proficiency and new product survival.

Our empirical analysis finds support for 20 hypotheses, a reversal of one hypothesis, and nonsignificant results for one hypothesis. These results show that projects are best led by managers with strong technical, marketing, and management skills, using a participative style and enjoying early and continuous support from senior management. These project management dimensions promote cross‐functional integration and planning, which are important to process proficiency and new product survival.

Our study suggests two broad conclusions. First, it confirms the links in the extant literature between situational (project management) dimensions, structural/process dimensions, and outcome dimensions in NPD. Second, firms can improve cross‐functional integration and planning through various project management practices. Generally, we find that firms interested in improving both proficiency in their development process and the survival rate of new products should take steps to promote cross‐functional integration and to improve their planning processes. While the linkage between cross‐functional integration and NPD outcomes is well established in the literature, the impact of the planning process on NPD outcomes is a research area ripe with opportunity. Our study highlights three aspects of planning that contribute to NPD outcomes. Plans should be detailed, team members should participate actively in the planning process, and teams should be given flexibility and autonomy to respond to unanticipated issues as they appear.
Can Nonprofit Management Help Answer Public Management’s “Big Questions”?
Authors: Brooks Arthur C.
Published: March 2003

Are the fields of nonprofit management and public management naturally complementary, or are they substitutes? Briefly surveying the nonprofit literature on board governance, volunteer management, and performance measurement, the author shows that study of the third sector can help inform public management’s “big questions”. As such, nonprofit studies and scholarship should represent an improvement to public administration curricula and a fertile source of ideas for public managers.
Span of Control and Public Organizations: Implementing Luther Gulick’s Research Design
Authors: Meier Kenneth J. , Bohte John
Published: March 2003

In Luther Gulick’s classic essay “Notes on the Theory of Organization,” he argued that span of control structures relationships between leaders and subordinates in organizations. Commenting on the state of knowledge about span of control, Gulick lamented the lack of systematic research on what he viewed as three key determinants of span of control: diversification of function, time, and space. This study adopts Gulick’s approach to studying span of control by examining the effects of diversity of function, time, and space in structuring relationships among personnel in a sample of 678 Texas public school districts. We then investigate Joan Woodward’s link between span of control and organizational performance. Our results reveal that although Gulick was correct in asserting that diversity of function, time, and space play a role in determining how spans of control are structured, these variables have different meanings that depend on the level of organizational hierarchy analyzed.