bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Economic Implications of Migration into the Federal Republic of Germany, 1988–1992
Authors: Gieseck Arne , Heilemann Ullrich , von Loeffelholz Hans Dietrich
Published: June 2018

An analysis of the effects of the last wave of migration into West Germany on labor markets, public finances and economic growth, this study points at the often ignored fact that the migrants were rather successful in finding jobs and thus helped in eliminating labor shortages in certain industries. Simulations with a macroeconometric model for the FRG indicate that in 1992 the GDP was almost 6 percent higher than without migration, that 90,000 jobs were created and that migration created a surplus of DM14 billion in the public sector, compared to the baseline. This study also makes clear, however that these effects mainly depend on a quick absorption of migrants by FRG labor markets, and as to the social system, the relief may be only transitory.
Immigrant Workers and Australian Trade Unions: Participation and Attitudes
Authors: Bertone Santina , Griffin Gerard , Iverson Roderick D.
Published: June 2018

Most studies of unionized, immigrant workers have argued mat such workers have lower levels of participation in and hold different attitudes toward their unions than do nonimmigrant union members. Drawing on a questionnaire survey of members of six Australian trade unions, this article questions this consensus. We argue mat country of origin – in particular whether the union member was born in a non-English-speaking or an English-speaking country – does not, of itself, lead to different levels of union participation or different union attitudes. A closely related variable, the level of English language ability, does influence some elements of particpation and attitudes.
Modes of Immigration Politics in Liberal Democratic States
Authors: Freeman Gary P.
Published: June 2018

The politics of immigration in liberal democracies exhibits strong similarities that are, contrary to the scholarly consensus, broadly expansionist and inclusive. Nevertheless, three groups of states display distinct modes of immigration politics. Divergent immigration histories mold popular attitudes toward migration and ethnic heterogeneity and affect the institutionalization of migration policy and politics. The English-speaking settler societies (the United States, Canada, and Australia) have histories of periodically open immigration, machineries of immigration planning and regulation, and densely organized webs of interest groups contesting policies. Their institutionalized politics favors expansionary policies and is relatively immune to sharp swings in direction. Many European states (France, Britain, Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Belgium) experienced mass migration only after World War II and in a form that introduced significant non-European minorities. Their immigration politics is shaped by what most see as the unfortunate consequences of those episodes and are partially institutionalized and highly volatile and conflictual. European states until recently sending countries (Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Greece) deal with migration pressures for the first time in their modern histories, under crisis conditions, and in the context of intensifying coordination of policies within the European Union. We should expect the normalization of immigration politics in both sets of European states. Although they are unlikely to appropriate the policies of the English-speaking democracies, which should remain unique in their openness to mass immigration, their approach to immigration will, nevertheless, take the liberal democratic form.
Germany at the Crossroads: National Identity and the Challenges of Immigration
Authors: Kurthen Hermann
Published: June 2018

In both the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, German history was characterized by shifting political borders and territorial expansions and contractions. These changes correlate with extreme phases in the definition of nationhood: very broad, inclusive ones and very narrow, exclusive ones. Current problems with immigration and nationhood date back to the origins of the nation-building. They reflect unresolved contradictions between exclusive ideas of the nation-state and inclusive ideas of republican and universal principles of individual human and civil rights; between rigidly interpreted citizenship regulations and a liberal asylum law; and between the official notion of national homogeneity and increasing diversity created by immigration and refugee movements. The unforeseen consequences of unification, particularly increased immigration, have exacerbated existing tensions between exclusive and inclusive notions of nationhood. German democracy and political culture is challenged to readjust and redefine national interests and identity in the 1990s. In this process Germany must adapt to its status as an immigration society and the unavoidable consequences of increasing ethnocultural diversity.
Keeping up with Schengen: Migration and Policy in the European Union
Authors: Convey Andrew , Kupiszewski Marek
Published: June 2018

There is an inescapable relationship between the existence of migration movements and the resulting policies which are adopted by the authorities of the area concerned towards encouraging these movements, or more commonly towards attempting to control or to reduce them. This in turn means that the migration researcher must not only look at the effects of policy and changes in policy, important though this is, but must also attempt to understand the changing political factors which fuel the formation of policy. This paper aims to bring together some of the wide variety of policy issues and responses which may be observed in Europe at the present time and in the recent past, and in particular to make an assessment of the approaches being taken by the European Union member states as a whole, and also by the so-called Schengen group of member states. This article also attempts to look at the perceptions of these policies and their effects from the point of view of both the “western” and the “eastern” European countries, as migration policy issues are rarely onesided. In conclusion, it considers some of the research issues and problems which are raised by geographers and others working in this area, difficulties which might be implied by our possibly flippant title, “Keeping Up with Schengen.”
Freedom of Movement vs. Exclusion: A Reinterpretation of the ‘Insider'-‘Outsider’ Divide in the European Union
Authors: Ugur Mehmet
Published: June 2018

This article argues that the question of free movement vs. exclusion within the European Union (EU) can be addressed satisfactorily only if we move away from the narrow state-centrism inherent in the current debate. What is required is to ‘open’ the state concept and examine the implications of state-society relations for EU policymaking. Once this is done, it can be seen that the exclusionist stance of the immigration policy and the essentially intergovernmental nature of the policymaking are due to an implicit contract between states and constituents implied by the concepts of nationality and citizenship. According to this perspective, the focus on the state or the political elite alone is too one-sided and misses the more complex factors bearing upon EU policymaking in this area.
Minoritarian Francophonie – The Case of Israel, with Special Reference to the Palestinian Territories
Authors: Miles William F.S.
Published: June 2018

This article examines the minoritarian status of a nonethnic group identity: Israeli Francophonie. Nonethnic minority status is particularly interesting for it represents a nonascriptive and voluntary category of group identity. In the case of Israel, Francophonie has evolved from its mainly North African (and hence socially disparaged) associations in the 1950s and 1960s to becoming an immigrant Ashkenazi and “frenchified Sephardic” phenomenon today. Francophone intellectuals promote Israeli Francophonie as an adjunct to Zionism, for it represents a cultural alternative to the Americanization of Israeli society. Common French language also diffuses the cleavages (religious versus secular versus nationalistic) which otherwise challenge the unity of the Jewish state. Associational, educational, cultural and religious institutions reflect the diffuse, dispersed and discrete nature of Israeli Francophonie; while there are categories of Francophonie, there is no francophone community per se. The future of Francophonie in Israel is a function of media technology, pluralistic self-redefinition, and political relations with France. Regarding the latter, the originally religiously-based Palestinian Francophonie based on the Latin Patriarchate is being supplemented by diplomatic efforts to extend French cultural influence among Arabs both in Israel and in the occupied territories.
Migradollars and Development: A Reconsideration of the Mexican Case
Authors: Durand Jorge , Parrado Emilio A. , Massey Douglas S.
Published: June 2018

Economic arguments, quantitative data, and ethnographic case studies are presented to counter popular misconceptions about international labor migration and its economic consequences in Mexico. The prevailing view is that Mexico-U.S. migration discourages autonomous economic growth within Mexico, at both the local and national levels, and that it promotes economic dependency. However, results estimated from a multiplier model suggest that the inflow of migradollars stimulates economic activity, both directly and indirectly, and that it leads to significantly higher levels of employment, investment, and income within specific communities and the nation as a whole. The annual arrival of around $2 billion migradollars generates economic activity that accounts for 10 percent of Mexico's output and 3 percent of its Gross Domestic Product.
Migration and Marriage among Puerto Rican Women
Authors: Ortiz Vilma
Published: June 2018

Research on immigrant women in the last ten years has focused on developing a gendered understanding of the relationships among family, work, and migration. From this emerges a view of women as active agents in the migration process – using migration as an economic option that deals with gender ideology and practice. Migration among Puerto Rican women is an interesting case study with which to examine these relationships given the prominent role of women in this migration history and that the role of family characteristics have not been sufficiently studied with this population. This paper examines the effect of family indicators on migration from, and return migration to, Puerto Rico among women in the 1980s. It appears that women use migration to gain independence as single women and mothers since unmarried women were more likely to migrate from Puerto Rico than married women. On the other hand, we see evidence of a traditional route in which women follow men in the migration stream since women recently married were more likely to migrate from, and return to, Puerto Rico. Women married for longer periods of time are the least likely to migrate. Finally, it appears that women use migration to counter limited marriage opportunities in Puerto Rico since unmarried women were less likely to return there and since there were more changes in marital status after women migrated to New York than after returning to Puerto Rico.
Admission Criteria and Immigrant Earnings Profiles
Authors: Duleep Harriet Orcutt , Regets Mark C.
Published: June 2018

There has been an ongoing concern about the productivity of kinship-based immigrants in the U.S. labor market. Despite the policy importance of this issue, little empirical or theoretical attention has been devoted to learning the effect of different admission criteria on immigrants’ economic performance. To estimate the effect of admission criteria on immigrant earnings profiles, we use 1980 census data on individuals matched to Immigration and Naturalization Service information on admission criteria for country-of-origin/year-of-entry immigrant cohorts. We find that nonoccupation-based immigration, most of which is family-based, is associated with lower entry earnings but higher earnings growth than occupation-based immigration. The higher estimated earnings growth is sufficient for nonoccupation-based immigrants to catch up with occupationally admitted immigrants after eleven to eighteen years in the United States.
Factors Influencing the Policy Responses of Host Governments to Mass Refugee Influxes
Authors: Jacobsen Karen
Published: June 2018

The policy responses of asylum governments to mass influxes of refugees have varied considerably. Focusing on less developed countries, this article explores why some host governments respond in relatively generous ways, while other governments act more restrictively. The policy alternatives available to receiving governments are classified, and a set of factors influencing refugee policy formation is explored. These factors include: the costs and benefits of accepting international assistance, relations with the sending country, political calculations about the local community's absorption capacity, and national security considerations. However, the end result is not a neat solution yielding a rationally evolved refugee policy. Host governments also struggle with bureaucratic politics, the position of refugees in domestic politics, power struggles between government ministries and among decisionmakers, paucity of information, bureaucratic inertia, and other complications that must be teased out at the empirical level.
Components of Refugee Adaptation
Authors: Montgomery J. Randal
Published: June 2018

This article explains the need to improve research methods in studies of how Third World refugees cope with resettlement in the First World. Research on refugee adjustment (e.g., psychological and family dynamics) and adaptation (e.g., sociocultural-economic measures) indicates that these dependent variables are not unidimensional or homogeneous. Rather, adjustment and adaptation may have several components which each require unique sets of causal variables and contributory factors to be identified. Subjective aspects of adjustment and adaptation are important and can sometimes have opposite effects on objective measures of adjustment and adaptation. Conflicting findings in the literature suggest interaction effects among predictor variables, which are thus not “independent” variables.
Where Do Americans Live Abroad?
Authors: Bratsberg Bernt , Terrell Dek
Published: June 2018

This article examines the factors that influence emigration of U.S. citizens. Data from a 1993 survey administered by the U.S. Department of State as part of an evacuation requirements report form the basis for the empirical analysis. The empirical analysis explains the distribution of U.S. citizens residing in 65 foreign countries in terms of economic and political characteristics of the foreign states. The study finds that U.S. citizens are more likely to reside in rich and close countries than in distant and poor countries and that the foreign country's ties to the U.S. immigrant population and the use of the English language are important determinants of where Americans settle abroad. Political conditions and U.S. military presence also influence the choice of foreign residence.
Labor Immigration and Capital Flows: Long-Term Australian, Canadian and United States Experience
Authors: Clarke Harry R. , Smith Lee
Published: June 2018

Evidence on labor immigration and capital inflows to three high labor-immigration economies (Australia, Canada, the United States) is examined over periods ranging from 1820–1870 through to 1991. Data show a close association between capital flows and immigration, although causality implications are ambiguous. For the United States, the relation between factor flows is more complex than for the other countries, but flows to the United States have influenced those to smaller economies. All three nations have been subjected to common immigrant push factors through to 1930–1950 but, since World War II, linkages between factor flows have altered. Post-World War II U.S. immigration restrictions have become more important as a global determinant of labor flows, with factor flow policymaking becoming increasingly internationally interdependent.
Self-Selection, Earnings and Chicano Migration: Differences between Return and Onward Migrants
Authors: Shumway J. Matthew , Hall Greg
Published: June 2018

The purpose of this article is to extend the empirical literature on Chicano return migration by examining earnings differentials between return and onward Chicano migrants. Our approach reflects the complexity of estimating such effects in terms of selectivity biases and the interaction between individual and locational attributes. We use data derived from the public use microdata sample (PUMS) of the 1990 U.S. census. After controlling for migration and labor force self-selection, results indicate that Chicano return migrants are not negatively self-selected. Chicano return migrants have smaller earnings profiles largely due to the negative effects of living in areas with higher concentrations of co-ethnics. Apparently, return migrants, at least in the short run, are willing to accept lower earnings for the nonpecuniary benefits of living in the Southwest.
From Ellis Island to LAX: Immigrant Prospects in the American City
Authors: Waldinger Roger
Published: June 2018

This article seeks to bring the “urban” back into immigration research. Each immigrant receiving area has its own particular group of newcomers, and the economic and political structures of the immigrant receiving areas are also distinctive. Those structures are not all determining, as immigrant trajectories are shaped by the interaction between distinctive urban institutions and the specific characteristics of the relevant ethnic groups. But in the last analysis, the urban context makes a difference, as this study shows by examining the leading immigrant destinations – New York and Los Angeles.
The Family Unit and International Migration: The Perceptions of Italian Immigrant Children
Authors: Ziegler Suzanne
Published: June 2018

This paper examines the centrality of the family, both nuclear and extended in the Italian postwar migratory process to Canada and in their post-migratory adjustment. In a series of interviews with first generation immigrant children, two themes emerged: the necessity of keeping the nuclear family together and the importance of intergenerational ties and commitments. The respondents tended to view their parents’ decision to migrate as one primarily motivated by familial considerations. That is, it was seen as a decision based on their future as a family, whether for reunification, or for greater opportunities for the children. For these respondents, family ties have not only survived migration but have been fortified by it.
Ethnic Orientations among Polish Americans
Authors: Pienkos Donald
Published: June 2018

A survey of the ethnic consciousness of 246 Milwaukee Polish Americans found that the respondents could be divided into three general categories. The largest of these was composed of persons who, for all practical purposes, are assimilated. Among the others, two variations in Polish American ethnicity were identified. One was based on involvement in fraternal organizations while the other was founded in the maintenance of close contacts with Poland. Ethnically defined attitudes and behavior were strongest among members of this last group, who are familiar with the Polish language, usually born in Poland, and retain personal ties with that country. Ethnicity is strongly associated with older age, higher education and residence in heavily Polish neighborhoods in Milwaukee.
Determinants of English Proficiency among Mexican Migrants to the United States
Authors: Espinosa Kristin E. , Massey Douglas S.
Published: June 2018

We replicate prior research into the determinants of English language proficiency among immigrants using a dataset that controls for potential biases stemming from selective emigration, omitted variables, and the mismeasurement of key constructs. In general, we reproduce the results of earlier work, leading us to conclude that despite inherent methodological problems, research based on cross-sectional censuses and surveys yields fundamentally accurate conclusions. In particular, we find unambiguous evidence that English proficiency rises with exposure to U.S. society, and we reaffirm earlier work showing a clear pattern of language assimilation among Mexican migrants to the United States.
Family Migration and the Economic Status of Women in Malaysia
Authors: Chattopadhyay Arpita
Published: June 2018

The impact of family migration on women's economic position in a developing country setting is an area that has received relatively little research attention. Incorporating a lifetime perspective, this study makes use of the retrospective migration histories of husbands and wives from the second round of the Malaysian Family Life Survey to estimate how joint migration with the husband affects women's socioeconomic achievement. The findings show that family migration depresses the chances of working, but it does not significantly reduce socioeconomic attainment of those who do work. However, when a woman migrates with her husband she does forgo the substantial advantage she could have derived had she moved alone.
Walls of Silence and Late Twentieth Century Representations of the Foreign Female Domestic Worker: The Case of Filipina and Indonesian Female Servants in Malaysia
Authors: Chin Christine B. N.
Published: June 2018

This article analyzes the distinct ways in which public walls of silence continue to surround the absence of labor rights and benefits for foreign female domestic workers in the receiving country of Malaysia. Key state and nonstate actors involved in regulating and/or encouraging Filipina and Indonesian female domestic workers’ migration to, and employment in, Malaysia are identified. It is argued that the actions and perceptions of labor-sending and receiving state officials, middle-class employers, and representatives from private domestic employment agencies have had the effect of representing Filipina and Indonesian female domestic workers respectively as economic soldiers, criminal-prostitutes and pariahs, girl-slaves, and/or commodities. Taken individually and collectively, such representations obscure the fact that foreign female domestic workers are workers who ought to be protected by labor legislation.
The Impact of Immigration on School Education in New South Wales, Australia
Authors: Iredale Robyn , Fox Christine
Published: June 2018

Australia's immigration policies have had a dramatic effect on school populations, especially in the state of New South Wales which receives about 40 percent of the intake. This article is based on a study that was carried out for the Bureau of Immigration, Multicultural and Population Research and the NSW Ministry of Education. The study revealed that many non-English-speaking background pupils miss out on English as a second language instruction, community languages are allowed to lapse, and aspects of the school environment, such as relations between different groups, are not given the attention that they deserve.
Toward a Reconciliation of “Assimilation” and “Pluralism”: The Interplay of Acculturation and Ethnic Retention
Authors: Gans Herbert J.
Published: June 2018

The reconciliation between “assimilation” and “pluralism” is sought to help prevent further polarization among immigration researchers and is based mainly on two arguments. First, if assimilation and acculturation are distinguished, acculturation has proceeded more quickly than assimilation in both “old” and “new” immigrations. This reconciles traditional assimilationist theory with current pluralist — or ethnic retention — theory, which admits that acculturation (and accommodation) are occurring, but without assimilation. Second, the reconciliation can also be advanced by the recognition that the researchers of the old and new immigrations have studied different generations of newcomers and have approached their research with “outsider” and “insider” values, respectively.
Second Generation Decline? Children of Immigrants, past and Present –A Reconsideration
Authors: Perlmann Joel , Waldinger Roger
Published: June 2018

Is the contemporary second generation on the road to the upward mobility and assimilation that in retrospect characterized the second generation of earlier immigrations? Or are the American economic context and the racial origins of today's immigration likely to result in a much less favorable future for the contemporary second generation? While several recent papers have argued for the latter position, we suspect they are too pessimistic. We briefly review the second generation upward mobility in the past and then turn to the crucial comparisons between past and present.
Assimilation and its Discontents: Between Rhetoric and Reality
Authors: Rumbaut Ruben G.
Published: June 2018

The process of immigrant assimilation is typically and uncritically conceived as one of linear progress – becoming similar to the dominant group in the place of destination is presumed to be a good thing. But a compelling body of evidence on the adaptation of immigrants and their children points to a deterioration of outcomes over time and generation in the United States, as well as to nonlinear processes of change. While linguistic assimilation among children of immigrants does proceed rapidly and inexorably as a linear function, other outcomes – in such diverse areas as infant and adolescent health, diet and divorce, delinquency and risk behaviors, educational achievement and aspirations, an ethos of hard work, and the development of an ethnic identity – contradict conventional expectations, expose underlying ethnocentric pretensions, and point instead to assimilation's discontents. By examining such paradoxes of immigrant adaptation that emerge in the conceptual interstices between rhetoric and reality, fruitful reformulations of a seminal sociological concept may be stimulated and advanced.
Face the Nation: Race, Immigration, and the Rise of Nativism in Late Twentieth Century America
Authors: Sanchez George J.
Published: June 2018

This article examines the rise of nativism directed at Asian and Latino immigrants to the United States in contemporary American society. By focusing on the Los Angeles riots and other evidence of the rise of anti-immigrant feelings among the population, this study reveals that a racial nativism has arisen which intertwines a new American racism with traditional hostility towards new immigrants in a variety of ways. Both recent scholarship on race and John Higham's classic work on nativism are utilized to provide a conceptual framework for understanding our multiracial contemporary setting. Tellingly, this new racial nativism emerges from both sides of the political spectrum, and is evident in attempts to keep discussions of race focused on solely white/black national construction. Finally, the study explores how immigrants themselves have responded to these attacks by increasing naturalization rates and political activity, forming a newfound ambivalent Americanism.
Everything Old is New Again? Processes and Theories of Immigrant Incorporation
Authors: Dewind Josh , Kasinitz Philip
Published: June 2018

After three decades of renewed, large-scale immigration to the United States, social scientists are increasingly turning their attention to processes of immigrant incorporation and reexamining the perspectives of social scientists who studied similar processes in the past. This essay reviews the insights and questions raised by the foregoing articles in this special issue of the International Migration Review and assesses their theoretical contributions to understanding relations between immigrants and native-born Americans in contemporary processes of incorporation.
Understanding the Living Arrangements of Latino Immigrants: A Life Course Approach
Authors: Blank Susan , Torrecilha Ramon S.
Published: June 2018

Using data from the 1990 Panel Study of Income Dynamics Latino Sample, this study examines three competing hypotheses for understanding extended family living among Mexican, Puerto Rican and Cuban immigrants. The findings indicate no significant relationship between living with extended kin and cultural indicators — such as English fluency – or economic factors – such as employment and income. Rather, the data support a life course explanation. Extended family living arrangements among Latino immigrants represent a resource generating strategy for caring for young children and older adults. Differences in age, relative location in the life course, and migration opportunities inform group variation in extended living arrangements for Mexican, Puerto Rican and Cuban immigrants. These findings verify patterns of household composition among Latino immigrants suggested by nonrandom, ethnographic samples.
Occupational Status and Mobility among Undocumented Immigrants by Gender
Authors: Powers Mary G. , Seltzer William
Published: June 2018

This article addresses two issues concerning about the integration and mobility of undocumented immigrants in the United States: 1) whether undocumented men and women improve their earnings and occupational status over time and 2) the extent of variation in occupational status and mobility by gender and region. Data from the 1989 Legalized Population Survey indicate that both undocumented men and women, on average, improved their earnings and occupational status between their first jobs in the United States and their jobs just prior to application for legalization under the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act. The earnings, occupational status, and occupational mobility of men were greater than for women, however.
Labor Market Outcomes of Immigrant Women in the United States: 1970 to 1990
Authors: Schoeni Robert F.
Published: June 2018

Forty-two percent of immigrant workers in the United States are women, yet almost all of the evidence on the economic performance of immigrants is based on analyses of men. This study begins to fill the void by examining differences in a wide array of labor market outcomes between U.S.-born and immigrant women, and among immigrant women born in different countries or regions of the world, using the 1970, 1980 and 1990 censuses. Immigrant women were less likely to participate in the labor force, and this gap increased to 7 percentage points by 1990. However, the share of self-employed and the number of weeks and hours worked among employed women were roughly the same for immigrants and natives throughout the 1970–1990 period. The gap in unemployment and weekly wages widened in favor of natives between 1970 and 1990, with a gap in median wages of 14 percent in 1990. However, immigrants born in the United Kingdom and Canada, Europe, Japan, Korea, China, the Philippines, and the Middle East have had steady or improved wages and unemployment relative to U.S.-born women. At the same time, immigrants from Mexico and Central America, who now represent one-quarter of all immigrant women, have experienced relatively high unemployment and low earnings, and these differences have increased, with the wage gap reaching 35 percent in 1990. Disparities in completed years of schooling can explain a substantial share of the differences in labor market outcomes.
The Impact of IRCA on the Job Opportunities and Earnings of Mexican-American and Hispanic-American Workers
Authors: Dávila Alberto , Pagán José A. , Grau Montserrat Viladrich
Published: June 2018

This article studies the earnings gap between Mexican, Hispanic and non-Hispanic white male workers resulting from changes in both the wage structure and immigration laws that occurred during the 1980s. Our results suggest that Mexican and Hispanic workers were adversely affected by these two changes. Using data from the 1980 and 1990 One Percent Public Use Microdata Samples, we show that these “at-risk” workers minimized the negative impact of the increases in the returns to skill by gaining in the non-Hispanic white residual wage distribution. We conclude that at-risk workers increased their work effort to lessen the effects of Act-induced employment losses. Using 1983–1992 data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and EEOC data for this period, we provide support for this contention.
Undocumented Residents in the United States in 1990: Issues of Uncertainty in Quantification
Authors: Woodrow-Lafield Karen A.
Published: June 2018

Censuses and national surveys are monitoring net immigration to the United States as the twentieth century closes with high immigration reminiscent of the early decades. These demographic studies inferred the legal-undocumented composition for census and national survey estimates for the foreign-born population. For both net immigration and that portion attributable as net legal immigration, an increasing trend is evident since 1970. Uncertainties are abundant about the measurement of net undocumented migration and change over the past two decades. This analysis presents possible upper and lower boundaries on components for estimating legal migration in 1980–1989 and on the foreign-born population in 1990. Positing ranges for net undocumented immigration; between 2 million and 4 million undocumented residents may have been counted in the 1990 census. The total number of undocumented residents may have been as high as 6 million. To more narrowly specify these ranges, greater exercise of judgment would be necessary but not sufficient.
The Politics of Proximity: The Italian Response to the Albanian Crisis
Authors: Perlmutter Ted
Published: June 2018

This article focuses on the apparent disjunction between the Italian reluctance to allow Albanians to come as refugees and Italy's enthusiastic leadership of the United Nations military-humanitarian mission. It explains the Italian response both in terms of Italian popular opinion regarding Albanians and Italy's concern for the impression on Europe that its politics would make. Italy's leadership of the mission represents the first time a medium-sized power has assisted a neighboring country with whom it has had deep historical connections. The conclusion argues that such proximate interventions are likely to increase in the future, and spells out the implications of the Italian case.
Notes on Emerging Collective Action: Ethnic-Trade Guilds among Japanese Americans in the Gardening Industry
Authors: Tsukashima Ronald Tadao
Published: June 2018

This inquiry focuses upon one form of ethnic-collective action among Japanese-American entrepreneurs — in-group trade guilds. They emerge in response to exclusionary and inclusionary forces. The article extends middleman theory to account for ethnic-trade guilds that result from both exclusionary and inclusionary forces and proposes two additional perspectives – competition and enclave theory. Three factors are isolated: 1) interethnic competition, 2) the perceived reciprocal fairness of the resulting competition, and 3) the differential cohesion of ethnic networks. Although the findings support the first and third conditions, the second is questionable. Evidence suggests that ethnic-trade guilds engender more conflict (when competition is defined as unfair rather than fair) than heretofore proposed. Ethnic networks that extend beyond the narrow circle of niche participants constitute the primary building blocks in mobilizing a collective response to intergroup competition. Caution needs to be taken in overstating ethnic solidarity at the expense of a groups diversity, and an explanation of internal dissension is called for in interpreting the emergence of ethnic-collective action.
Interests Not Passions: Mexican-American Attitudes toward Mexico, Immigration from Mexico, and Other Issues Shaping U.S.-Mexico Relations
Authors: De La Garza Rodolfo O. , DeSipio Louis
Published: June 2018

As Mexico has become more significant to the United States in the past decade, political leaders on both sides of the border have raised questions regarding the role that the Mexican-origin population of the United States will play in U.S.-Mexico relations. Will they become, as many Americans fear and Mexican officials hope, an ethnic lobby mobilized around policy issues affecting Mexico? Or will they abandon home-country political interests while maintaining a strong cultural identity? This article examines Mexican-American attitudes toward Mexico and toward the public policy issues that shape United States-Mexico relations. Our analysis suggests that Mexican Americans have developed policy attitudes that diverge from those of Mexico. Yet, the relationships of Mexican Americans to the United States and to Mexico are sufficiently volatile to suggest caution in concluding that Mexican Americans will take no role in shaping relations between the two countries.
Immigration to Spain: Implications for a Unified European Union Immigration Policy
Authors: Huntoon Laura
Published: June 2018

This article examines the difficulties of establishing a joint policy regarding the free movement of people within the European Union by focusing on changing immigration policies in one member — Spain. Previous studies have shown that negotiations toward harmonizing national policies on border control and immigration among EU members have many sticking points. By comparing Spain, a country of recent immigration, to Germany, a country with a longer history of non-European immigration, the difficulties of harmonizing immigration policies to satisfy this varied constituency become clearer. Administrative control of entry, estimates of legal and illegal immigrants present, and the current state of bilateral relations with Morocco are examined to illustrate the political difficulties of a unified immigration policy within Spanish society and for the EU. Spain is a threshold to the EU as well as a destination. Conclusions suggest that control of borders, although difficult, may be the easier part of implementing a joint immigration policy. Control of settlement is more difficult and problematic, involving the role of immigrants in European society. Moreover, high rates of native unemployment may coexist with immigration, given local demand for low-skilled, low-paid workers.
Self-Employment Rates of Asian Immigrant Groups: An Analysis of Intragroup and Intergroup Differences
Authors: Fernandez Marilyn , Kim Kwang Chung
Published: June 2018

Self-employment rates and related business activities of four groups of recent adult Asian immigrants (Koreans, Chinese, Asian Indians, and Vietnamese) are empirically examined with the 1990 census data. As expected, both intra- and intergroup differences in self-employment rates are observed among the four groups. Korean immigrants are sharply different from other Asian immigrant groups in their rate of self-employment and pattern of intragroup differences in self-employment rates. As a whole, for non-Korean Asian immigrant groups, intragroup differences in self-employment rates can be explained by the interactive model and by the related issue of immigrants’ labor market disadvantage in the United States. To some extent, the interactive model also offers a useful framework to explain Korean immigrants’ rate of self-employment. But the pattern of their intragroup difference is better explained by the linkage between their businesses and their home country economies reflecting the international dimension of immigrant small business entrepreneurship. Implications of the findings of intra- and intergroup differences observed among the four groups are discussed.
From Refugees to Immigrants: The Legalization Strategies of Salvadoran Immigrants and Activists
Authors: Coutin Susan Bibler
Published: June 2018

The legalization strategies pursued by Salvadoran immigrants and activists from the 1980s to the present demonstrate that migrants’ and advocates’ responses to policy changes reinterpret law in ways that affect future policy. Law is critical to immigrants’ strategies in that legal status is increasingly a prerequisite for rights and services and that immigration law is embedded in other institutions and relationships. Immigration law is defined, however, not only when it is first formulated but also as it is implemented, enabling the immigrants who are defined according to legal categories to shape the definitions that categorization produces. Immigrants and activists also take formal legal and political actions, such as lobbying Congress and filing class action suits. Through such formal and informal policy negotiations, immigrants seek to shape their own and their nations’ futures.
Reforming the Household Registration System: A Preliminary Glimpse of the Blue Chop Household Registration System in Shanghai and Shenzhen
Authors: Wong Linda , Wai-Po Huen
Published: June 2018

For decades, the household registration system has functioned as a powerful device in halting rural influxes into Chinese cities. The exigencies of the reform call for reform of the hukou system. One of the many attempts is the blue chop household registration system. Both Shanghai and Shenzhen have introduced this practice. In addition to promotion of real estate and investment, it creams off those more desirable migrants into the permanent population of the two cities. In view of the present situation of linking welfare provision with household registration status, this selective migration policy seems to be a sensible step forward.
Gender Differences in the Occupational Status of Undocumented Immigrants in the United States: Experience before and after Legalization
Authors: Powers Mary G. , Seltzer William , Shi Jing
Published: June 2018

This article examines the incorporation of a national sample of undocumented immigrants both before and after they applied to legalize their status under the provisions of the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA). Data from the 1989 and 1992 Legalized Population Surveys (LPS-1 and LPS-2) are used. These surveys provide labor force and occupational data for three critical reference periods: as newly arrived undocumented immigrants, as experienced undocumented immigrants, and as documented immigrants. Labor force participation and occupational status are used as indicators of economic integration. The overall upward mobility of both men and women between first job and the occupation held at time of application for legalization continued after legalization. On average, men also continued to report higher status jobs than women, although women did somewhat better after their status was legalized. These patterns also continued after controlling for available human capital variables, country of origin, marital status, and household composition.
Immigrant Incorporation in the Garment Industry of Los Angeles
Authors: Light Ivan , Bernard Richard B. , Kim Rebecca
Published: June 2018

Stressing the network's facilitation of immigrants’ searches for jobs and housing, migration network theory has conceptually overlooked the manner in which immigrants’ social networks also expand the supply of jobs and housing in target destinations by means of the ethnic economy. An expanded migration network theory takes into account the ethnic economy's role in creating new resources in the destination economy. However, the power of this objection wanes in the context of working-class immigrations that generate few entrepreneurs. Introduced here, the concept of immigrant economy responds to this contingency. Unlike ethnic economies, in which co-ethnics hire co-ethnics, immigrant economies arise when immigrants hire non-co-ethnic fellow immigrants. This situation usually arises when very entrepreneurial immigrant groups coexist in a labor market with working-class immigrant groups that generate few entrepreneurs of their own. Using evidence from the garment industry of Los Angeles, this paper estimates that only a third of immigrant employees found their jobs in a conventional ethnic economy. Half owed their employment to the immigrant economy in which, for the most part, Asian entrepreneurs employed Latino workers.
Residential Segregation of West Indians in the New York/New Jersey Metropolitan Area: The Roles of Race and Ethnicity
Authors: Crowder Kyle D.
Published: June 2018

To assess the relative roles of race and ethnicity in shaping patterns of residential segregation, this article utilizes indices of segregation and a geographic mapping strategy to examine the residential patterns of West Indian blacks in the greater New York City area. The socioeconomic characteristics of neighborhoods occupied by West Indian blacks are also examined and compared to those of areas occupied by African Americans. The results indicate that, on one hand, West Indians are largely denied access to residential areas occupied predominantly by whites and are confined to areas of large black concentrations. On the other hand, West Indians appear to have carved out somewhat separate residential enclaves within these largely black areas, and there is evidence to indicate that these areas are of somewhat higher quality than areas occupied by similar concentrations of African Americans. The discussion of these results focuses on the reciprocal relationship between the formation of these distinct residential enclaves and the maintenance of a distinct West Indian ethnic identity.
Immigration, Labor Force Integration and the Pursuit of Self-Employment
Authors: Mata Fernando , Pendakur Ravi
Published: June 2018

Using correspondence analysis, we look at age-education cohorts of male immigrants who arrived in Canada between 1945 and 1961 and compare them to similar age-education groups of Canadian-born males in order to examine shifts in employment patterns across four census periods. We find that immigrants with low levels of schooling consistently had higher rates of self-employment than similar groups of Canadian-born males, and the longer they stayed in Canada, the more likely they were to become self-employed. We posit that the pursuit of self-employment may be tied to the existence of a segmented labor market, particularly for immigrants with low and moderate levels of schooling.
Family-Forming Migration from Turkey and Morocco to Belgium: The Demand for Marriage Partners from the Countries of Origin
Authors: Lievens John
Published: June 2018

This article examines the intensity and trends of marriages of Turks and Moroccans living in Belgium to partners from their countries of origin (‘imported partners’) and the motives for marrying such partners. Using data from the 1991 Belgian census, we show that large proportions of the migrant groups choose a partner from the country of origin and that marrying such a partner is certainly not dying out. Furthermore, the results of logit analyses reveal that marrying an imported partner is more than merely an act of traditional behavior: women may marry an imported partner in order to satisfy ‘modern’ goals.
Migration, Sexual Behavior and the Risk of HIV in Kenya
Authors: Brockerhoff Martin , Biddlecom Ann E.
Published: June 2018

The association of migration with AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa is well documented, yet the social and behavioral mechanisms underlying this relationship remain poorly understood. Using data from the 1993 Kenya Demographic and Health Survey, this article examines whether migrants are more likely than nonmigrants to have multiple recent sexual partners and not use condoms with those partners. Results indicate that migration is a critical factor in high-risk sexual behavior and that its importance varies by gender and by the direction of movement. Independent of marital and cohabitation status, social milieu, awareness of AIDS, and other crucial influences on sexual behavior, male migrants between urban areas and female migrants within rural areas are much more likely than nonmigrant counterparts to engage in sexual practices conducive to HIV infection. In rural areas, migrants from urban places are more likely than nonmigrants to practice high-risk sex. Given the predominance of men in urban migration and the large volume of circulatory movement between urban and rural areas, these results have serious implications for HIV transmission throughout Kenya.