bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The equivalence principle
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter recalls several relevant aspects of Newton’s theory of gravity, as well as Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism, to describe the conceptual path that Albert Einstein followed in going from the theory of special relativity to general relativity. Looking at 1907 and beyond, the chapter shows that the ambition of Einstein was to construct a theory in which all reference frames (and therefore none) were privileged. Moreover, there were no longer any inertial forces, no ordering of Newton’s absolute space. Therefore, Einstein’s theory was one in which the laws of physics had the same form in all frames, inertial or not, so that no frame could be regarded as being privileged. In brief, he sought a theory of general relativity.
Matter in curved spacetime
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter is concerned with the laws of motion of matter—particles, fluids, or fields—in the presence of an external gravitational field. In accordance with the equivalence principle, this motion will be ‘free’. That is, it is constrained only by the geometry of the spacetime whose curvature represents the gravitation. The concepts of energy, momentum, and angular momentum follow from the invariance of the solutions of the equations of motion under spatio-temporal translations or rotations. The chapter shows how the action is transformed, no longer under a modification of the field configuration, but instead under a displacement or, in the ‘passive’ version, under a translation of the coordinate grid in the opposite direction.
The Einstein equations
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter deals with Einstein equations. In the absence of matter there is no gravitational field, and the spacetime which represents this empty universe is Minkowski spacetime. More precisely, if the gravitational field created by the matter can be neglected, the appropriate framework for describing the matter is that of special relativity. Einstein gravitational equations relate geometry and matter: specifically, they relate the Riemann tensor, or more precisely the Einstein tensor, to the geometrical object describing ‘inertia’, the energy content of the matter—that is, the energy–momentum tensor. These equations form a set of ten nonlinear partial differential equations. The coordinate system can be chosen arbitrarily.
The Schwarzschild solution
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter deals with the Schwarzschild metric. To find the gravitational potential U produced by a spherically symmetric object in the Newtonian theory, it is necessary to solve the Poisson equation ΔU = 4πGρ. Here, the matter density ρ and U depend only on the radial coordinate r and possibly on the time t. Outside the source the solution is U = –GM/r, where M = 4π ∫ ρr2dr is the source mass. In general relativity the problem is to find the ‘spherically symmetric’ spacetime solutions of the Einstein equations, and the analog of the vacuum solution U = –GM/r is the Schwarzschild metric.
The Schwarzschild black hole
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses the Schwarzschild black hole. It demonstrates how, by a judicious change of coordinates, it is possible to eliminate the singularity of the Schwarzschild metric and reveal a spacetime that is much larger, like that of a black hole. At the end of its thermonuclear evolution, a star collapses and, if it is sufficiently massive, does not become stabilized in a new equilibrium configuration. The Schwarzschild geometry must therefore represent the gravitational field of such an object up to r = 0. This being said, the Schwarzschild metric in its original form is singular, not only at r = 0 where the curvature diverges, but also at r = 2m, a surface which is crossed by geodesics.
The two-body problem and radiative losses
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter begins by finding the field created by compact objects in the post-linear approximation of general relativity. The second quadrupole formula is then completely proven. Next, the chapter finds the equations of motion of the bodies in the field which they create to second order in the perturbations, assuming that their velocities are small. It shows that, to correctly describe the radiation reaction at 2.5 PN order, it will prove necessary to iterate Einstein equations a third time. This leads the discussion to the equations of motion, which generalize to order 1/c5 the EIH equations of order 1/c⁲. Finally, the chapter studies the effect of the radiation reaction force on the sources, and shows that there is an energy balance at 2.5 PN order between the energy radiated to infinity and the mechanical energy lost by the system.
Primordial quantum perturbations
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter shows that fluctuations of quantum origin are generated during inflation and that this process supplies initial conditions compatible with the observations. These fluctuations are therefore an important prediction of inflationary models. The chapter thus begins with a study of perturbations during inflation, proceeding in a similar manner to the previous chapter by finding the perturbation of the energy–momentum tensor of the scalar field. Another method of deriving the equations of motion of the perturbations is to start from the action of general relativity coupled to a scalar field, and expand to second order in the metric and scalar field perturbations. The chapter then proceeds with the determination of the initial conditions and the slow-roll inflation.
The Cartan structure equations
Authors: Deruelle Nathalie , Uzan Jean-Philippe
Published: October 2018

This chapter focuses on Cartan structure equations. It first introduces a 1-form and its exterior derivative, before turning to a study of the connection and torsion forms, thereby expressing the torsion as a function of the connection forms and establishing the torsion differential 2-forms. It then turns to the curvature forms drawn from Chapter 23 and Cartan’s second structure equation, along with the curvature 2-forms. It also studies the Levi-Civita connection. The components of the Riemann tensor are then studied, with a Riemannian manifold, or a metric manifold with a torsion-less connection. The Riemann tensor of the Schwarzschild metric are finally discussed.
Sentientist Politics
Authors: Cochrane Alasdair
Published: October 2018

There is now widespread agreement that many non-human animals are sentient, and that this fact has important moral and political implications. Indeed, most are in agreement that animal sentience ought to constrain the actions of political institutions, limiting the harms that can be perpetrated against animals. The primary aim of this book is to show that the political implications of animal sentience go even further than this. For this book argues that sentience establishes a moral equality and a shared set of rights amongst those creatures who possess it. Crucially, this worth and these rights create a duty on moral agents to establish and maintain a political order dedicated to their interests. This book is devoted to sketching what this ‘sentientist politics’ might look like. It argues in favour of a ‘sentientist cosmopolitan democracy’: a global political system made up of overlapping local, national, regional, and global communities comprised of human and non-human members who exist within shared ‘communities of fate’. Furthermore, the institutions of those communities should be democratic—that is to say, participative, deliberative, and representative. Finally, those institutions should include dedicated representatives of non-human animals whose job should be to translate the interests of animals into deliberations over what is in the public good for their communities.
Introduction
Authors: Cochrane Alasdair
Published: October 2018

This introductory chapter prepares the ground for the theory that is sketched and defended in the rest of the book by systematically considering the need for it, its assumptions, and broad outline. The chapter is structured around four sections. The first section offers a brief statement of the kind of ‘sentientist politics’ that the book defends: namely, a ‘sentientist cosmopolitan democracy’. The second then provides an overview of the way in which this book’s theory of ‘sentientist politics’ differs from and contributes to existing literature in the area. The third section addresses the issue of ‘feasibility’, asking whether and to what extent it matters that the theory offered throughout the book is radically ambitious. The final section then offers a brief outline of the chapters to follow.
Sentientist Democracy
Authors: Cochrane Alasdair
Published: October 2018

Chapter 3 asks what kinds of institutions are needed to protect the worth and rights of sentient creatures. The chapter’s ultimate claim is that they are best protected by democratic institutions: that is, institutions which are participative, deliberative, and representative, and underpinned by a set of entrenched rights. Crucially, the chapter further argues that those institutions should be comprised of dedicated animal representatives. The job of those representatives should be to act as trustees of the interests of ‘animal members’ of the political community. In other words, their job should be to translate the interests of animals with whom we share a ‘community of fate’ into their deliberations with other representatives over what is in the public good.
Sentientist Cosmopolitan Democracy
Authors: Cochrane Alasdair
Published: October 2018

Chapter 4 asks what the borders and powers of political communities ought to be within a global political order dedicated to the interests of all sentient creatures. It argues that taking the borders and powers of current political communities as they stand is problematic and leaves sentient individuals vulnerable to the policy decisions of those outside of their community. The chapter thus defends a ‘sentientist cosmopolitan democracy’ comprised of overlapping local, national, regional, and global communities. Crucially, the powers of each of these communities is determined by who is likely to be affected by policy-making in that area. This means that some existing powers of states should be devolved up to international communities, and some should be devolved down to more local ones.
Predication, Possibility, and Choice
Authors: Cook Roy T.
Published: October 2018

Bob Hale’s deflationary conception of truth equates the actual (and necessary) existence of a property or relation with the possible existence of a corresponding predicate with appropriate satisfaction conditions. After surveying recent work on developing a semi-formal framework within which to study the deflationary conception, and presenting extant results regarding the extent to which the account supports the second-order comprehension schema, this chapter examines the extent to which the deflationary account allows one to justify various second-order versions of the axiom of choice. The results are primarily negative: choice does not seem to be forthcoming on the deflationary approach, and even assuming the possibility of arbitrary countably infinite linguistic supertasks, a version of the countable axiom of choice seems to be the best that we can do.
Neo-Fregeanism and the Burali-Forti Paradox
Authors: Rumfitt Ian
Published: October 2018

This chapter considers what form a neo-Fregean account of ordinal numbers might take. It begins by discussing how the natural abstraction principle for ordinals yields a contradiction (the Burali-Forti Paradox) when combined with impredicative second-order logic. It continues by arguing that the fault lies in the use of impredicative logic rather than in the abstraction principle per se. As the focus is on a form of predicative logic which reflects a philosophical diagnosis of the source of the paradox, the chapter considers how far Hale and Wright’s neo-logicist programme in cardinal arithmetic can be carried out in that logic.
Analytic Essentialist Approaches to the Epistemology of Modality
Authors: Vaidya Anand Jayprakash
Published: October 2018

How can human thinkers come to know whether something is possible or necessary? Conceivability-based theories try to answer the question by appeal to our ability to conceive of alternative scenarios in our imagination, deductive approaches by appeal to our ability to draw deductive inferences. One version of the deductive approach is essentialist-k theory: we can come to have knowledge of possibility and necessity through our knowledge of conditionals that link essences to necessity and possibility and additional information. The chapter offers a critical examination of both Hale’s and Lowe’s explorations of essentialist-k theory. It argues that deductive theories, in general, have some advantages over conceivability-based theories; and that Hale’s version of essentialist-k theory has some advantages over Lowe’s. The chapter closes by articulating a general problem for essentialist-k theories, and calling for more work on the essentialist branch, what is also called the Hale-Branch, of research in the epistemology of modality through investigation of the metaphysics of essence.
The Bible
Authors: Holmes Andrew R.
Published: October 2018

Chapter 4 begins with a discussion of attitudes towards biblical criticism in the 1820s and introduces the Irish career of Samuel Davidson, the first British ‘martyr’ to modern criticism. The next section examines Presbyterian biblical scholarship during the mid-nineteenth century with particular emphasis on biblical commentators and missionary explorers who used their first-hand experiences of the Middle East to defend the plenary inspiration and authority of Scripture. There then follows an examination of the wholehearted opposition of Irish Presbyterians to ‘believing criticism’, especially as it developed in the Free Church of Scotland. The final section describes how believing criticism came to be accepted by a number of Presbyterian writers in the early twentieth century, most of whom either spent their careers away from Ireland or came to the colleges from other churches.
Killing the King
Authors: Ashe Laura
Published: October 2018

This chapter argues from the premise that ‘romance’ is a mode of thought, a discourse structuring narrative expectations, which interacts with all the competing discourses surrounding it. It considers the historical accounts of King John’s death, examining the late-thirteenth-century appearance of a new story, clearly derived from oral tradition and structured by the conventions of romance, which has John righteously poisoned for his crimes against the people. It is argued that the expectations of romance enable the Prose Brut chronicler to present the poisoner as a self-sacrificing hero for the English people, in a manner which exposes the possibility of the rightful destruction of a ruling king. Comparisons are drawn with the account in a monastic Latin chronicle, and in the Short English Metrical Chronicle in the Auchinleck manuscript, as well as with the romance of Havelok. It is argued that romance is an inherently political and politicizing discourse.
Song and the Soundscape of Old French Romance
Authors: Dillon Emma
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines the presence of song and sound in romance, with a particular focus on the traditions of Old French romance from its incarnation in the 1170s, in the works of Chrétien de Troyes, to the earliest examples of romances interpolated with song (romans à chansons) which date from the first decades of the thirteenth century. Romance’s emergence coincided with a period of extraordinary creativity in the realm of vernacular song, most notably with the emergence of a northern lyric tradition of the trouvères, with the continued cultivation of their Occitan inspiration in the lyrics of the troubadours, and with the earliest efforts at codification of both, in songbooks or chansonniers, the earliest examples of which date from the 1230s. Drawing on approaches from musicology, literary studies, and sound studies, my chapter explores how sound manifests in this tradition, and proposes ways to listen to romance. Listening to romance in turn permits new ways to reframe song culture, particularly in the period prior to its notated codification, and the chapter has implications, too, for what musicology may learn from the sonic aspect of romance.
Good History, Bad Romance, and the Making of Literature
Authors: Warren Michelle R.
Published: October 2018

Genre categories are shaped by cultural context and can change over time. This case study of Henry Lovelich’s Grail and Merlin (Cambridge, Corpus Christi College, MS 80) accounts for the malleability of ‘romance’ by assessing in detail how perceptions of genre are mediated by form, politics, religion, archival methods, aesthetics, and pedagogy. When MS 80 was created in the fifteenth century, the English text was part of a multilingual tradition in which romance and history were inherently entangled and overlapping. In the sixteenth century, the Grail and King Arthur served as politically useful history. As the religious polemics of the Reformation subsided, Lovelich’s translation came to represent the beginning of English national romance. By the mid-twentieth century, it had been repositioned as a much maligned ‘bad romance’. Later, from the perspective of manuscript studies, evaluations became more positive. Now, early in the twenty-first century, the expansion of digital archives supports new approaches that challenge traditional distinctions between literary history and book history.
Introduction
Authors: Langland-Hassan Peter , Vicente Agustín
Published: October 2018

This introduction situates the chapters that follow in relation to six key questions we see as fueling contemporary debates over inner speech. These questions are: 1) What are the proper parts of inner speech? 2) What is the relation of inner speech’s components to each other? 3) Is inner speech the expression of thought, or thought itself? 4) In what ways does inner speech facilitate self-knowledge? 5) What role can inner speech play in explanations of auditory verbal hallucinations and “inserted thoughts”? And 6), What is Vygotsky’s influence on current debates? This introduction both provides historical context to explain why these questions are now particularly pressing, and summarizes how the authors of each chapter aim to offer new answers.
Inner Speech as the Internalization of Outer Speech
Authors: Gauker Christopher
Published: October 2018

This chapter aims to clear a path for the thesis that inner speech, in the very languages we speak, is the sole medium of all conceptual thought. First, it is argued that inner speech should not be identified with the auditory imagery of speech. Since they are distinct, there may be many more episodes of inner speech than those that are accompanied by auditory imagery. Second, it is argued that it is not necessary to conceive of linguistic communication as a matter of the speaker’s revealing through words an underlying thought. Rather, acts of speech may be conceived as producing cooperation by intervening on processes of thought that are essentially imagistic. So conceived, the practice of speaking in language may acquire a function wholly internal to the individual, where it adds a layer of coordination to an underlying foundation of imagistic cognition.
From Introspection to Essence
Authors: Langland-Hassan Peter
Published: October 2018

To some it is a shallow platitude that inner speech always has an auditory-phonological component. To others, it is an empirical hypothesis with accumulating support. To yet others it is a false dogma. In this chapter, I defend the claim that inner speech always has an auditory-phonological component, confining the claim to adults with ordinary speech and hearing. It is one thing, I emphasize, to assert that inner speech often, or even typically, has an auditory-phonological component—quite another to propose that it always does. When forced to argue for the stronger point, we stand to make a number of interesting discoveries about inner speech itself, and about our means for discriminating it from other psycholinguistic phenomena. Establishing the stronger conclusion also provides new leverage on debates concerning how we should conceive of, diagnose, and explain auditory verbal hallucinations and “inserted thoughts” in schizophrenia.
Inner Speech, Determinacy, and Thinking Consciously about Thoughts
Authors: Luis Bermúdez José
Published: October 2018

Frege wrote: “The thought, in itself imperceptible by the senses, gets clothed in the perceptible garb of a sentence, and thereby we are enabled to grasp it.” This chapter defends a version of Frege’s claim, namely, that we can only think about thoughts when they are linguistically formulated. Section 7.1 makes the general argument that intentional ascent (thinking about thinking) requires semantic ascent (thinking about language). Section 7.2 addresses Martínez-Manrique & Vicente’s objection that the need to disambiguate indeterminacy in inner speech makes inner speech redundant as a potential vehicle for consciously thinking about thoughts. Section 7.3 takes issue with Langland-Hassan’s proposal that episodes of inner speech cannot carry the right kind of content to serve as vehicles for intentional ascent. The final section rebuts the objection that conscious inner speech presupposes the ability to bring a thought to consciousness, and so this latter ability is the true explanandum.
The Self-Reflective Functions of Inner Speech
Authors: Morin Alain
Published: October 2018

The current chapter revisits an earlier account (2005) of how inner speech leads to self-reflection. Definitions, functions, neuroanatomy, and measurement of self-reflection and inner speech are first presented, followed by the detailed proposal suggesting that these two processes are connected in at least three possible ways. Empirical evidence supporting this proposal is discussed, as well as theoretical considerations pertaining to underlying mechanisms explaining how self-reflection and inner speech may interrelate. To illustrate, several self-referential tasks used in typical fMRI studies show a reliable activation of the left inferior frontal gyrus—the main brain area known to sustain inner speech; inner speech can reproduce (i.e. internalize) already existing social mechanisms leading to self-reflection. Some possible philosophical and clinical implications of the role played by inner speech in self-reflection are outlined in conclusion.
The Small State Challenge
Authors: Corbett Jack , Veenendaal Wouter
Published: October 2018

Chapter 1 introduces the main arguments of the book; outlines the approach, method, and data; defines key terms; and provides a chapter outline. Global theories of democratization have systematically excluded small states, which make up roughly 20 per cent of countries. These cases debunk mainstream theories of why democratization succeeds or fails. This book brings small states into the comparative politics fold for the first time. It is organized thematically, with each chapter tackling one of the main theories from the democratization literature. Different types of data are examined—case studies and other documentary evidence, interviews and observation. Following an abductive approach, in addition to examining the veracity of existing theory, each chapter is also used to build an explanation of how democracy is practiced in small states. Specifically, we highlight how small state politics is shaped by personalization and informal politics, rather than formal institutional design.
Democratization and Cultural Diversity
Authors: Corbett Jack , Veenendaal Wouter
Published: October 2018

Chapter 3 interrogates the argument that cultural homogeneity is a prerequisite for democratic persistence. The thesis here is that the absence of diverse interests and agreement around cultural norms produces a unified citizenry. This is supported by the view that democracy is harder to sustain in ethnically and religiously diverse societies. The problem is that many small states are ethnically, socially, and linguistically divided and stubbornly democratic. They also tend to operate majoritarian rather than consensual or consociational political institutions. Indeed, in some cases, such as the Melanesian region of the Pacific, it has been argued that hyper-fragmentation actually aides consolidation by ensuring that no group can come to dominate the apparatus of the state. Conversely, many homogenous small states have dominant cultural codes that, when combined with the personalization of politics, stifle pluralism and dissent. So, homogeneity is not a perquisite for democracy any more than economic growth is.
Democratization and Political Parties
Authors: Corbett Jack , Veenendaal Wouter
Published: October 2018

The adaptation theme is a strong feature of Chapter 5, which examines the old idea that democracy is unworkable without political parties, and that an institutionalized party system is a prerequisite for a stable democracy. Some small states have institutionalized party systems and others do not. We find that, with few exceptions, the qualitative experience of countries without robust party systems is not decisively different in those small states that do have strong parties as, in all cases, personalized rather than programmatic representation is the norm. The conclusion is therefore that political parties and party systems are not decisive to the democratization prospects of small states.
Democratization and Small Size
Authors: Corbett Jack , Veenendaal Wouter
Published: October 2018

The previous chapters challenged mainstream democratization theory by highlighting small state divergence. Chapter 7 turns to the final explanation: that small states tend to be more democratic because they are small. Contra the strong statistical correlation between country size and democracy, we challenge the age-old demographic claim that ‘small is beautiful’. Small-sized states have highly personalized politics, and therefore accusations of nepotism and political patronage are ubiquitous. Accountability is strong among families but undermined in government by weak media and civil society organizations, and by the dominance of informal politics. Inherent conflicts of interest blur clear lines of accountability. International donors, including The World Bank, classify some small states as ‘failed’ or ‘failing’. Elsewhere, citizen disaffection with the way democracy is practiced has led to further decentralization. So, small can mean democratic, but often in a markedly illiberal way.
Ether and Electrons in Relativity Theory (1900–11)
Authors: Walter Scott A.
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses the roles of ether and electrons in relativity theory. One of the most radical moves made by Albert Einstein was to dismiss the ether from electrodynamics. His fellow physicists felt challenged by Einstein’s view, and they came up with a variety of responses, ranging from enthusiastic approval to dismissive rejection. Among the naysayers were the electron theorists, who were unanimous in their affirmation of the ether, even if they agreed with other aspects of Einstein’s theory of relativity. The eventual success of the latter theory (c.1911) owed much to Hermann Minkowski’s idea of four-dimensional spacetime, which was portrayed as a conceptual substitute of sorts for the ether.
Lenard’s Ether and Its Vortex of Emotions
Authors: Schirrmacher Arne
Published: October 2018

This chapter traces the career of Philipp Lenard, a prominent scientific figure in Nazi Germany, as a way of understanding some of the specifically German conceptions of the ether in the twentieth century. Starting from the perspective of Anglo-Saxon observers, the chapter sketches the development of Lenard’s understanding of the ether through his experience with the ether, the experiments he envisaged to prove the ether, and his emotions concerning the ether, as these impacted his scientific, philosophical and political approaches. The chapter also discusses his major scientific and popular writings from between 1910 and 1943, highlighting the exchange of ideas about the ether, particularly between German and British scientists, and delineating Lenard’s aims in the natural sciences as well as in political matters related to ether, matter, life and spirit, which became a central part of his Deutsche Physik, an infamous physics textbook from 1936.
Umberto Boccioni’s Elasticity, Italian Futurism and the Ether of Space
Authors: Henderson Linda Dalrymple
Published: October 2018

This chapter focuses on Umberto Boccioni’s 1913 painting Elasticity and his response to the ether in both its scientific and its occult contexts. The absence of translations of Boccioni’s 1914 book Pittura scultura futuriste, combined with the general lack of knowledge of early twentieth-century ether physics, has obscured this central theme of Boccioni’s art and theory. Boccioni’s treatise is, in fact, filled with references to contemporary science, including X-rays, Hertzian waves, electrons and ‘the electric theory of matter’. The latter reference suggests his specific awareness of Oliver Lodge, whose ideas and writings were well known in Italy—in both popular scientific and occult sources. Indeed, for futurists such as Boccioni, as for so many others in the early twentieth century, occultism (including spiritualism) and science seemed to be equally valid routes for exploring the unknown. Lodge’s writings about an elastic, energy-filled, matter-producing ether surely provided the stimulus for Boccioni’s Elasticity.
The Useful Knowledge of William Hutton
Authors: Whyman Susan E.
Published: October 2018

The Useful Knowledge of William Hutton shows the rapid rise of a self-taught workman and of the city of Birmingham during the two major events of the eighteenth century—the Industrial Revolution and the Enlightenment. Hutton achieved wealth, land, status, and literary fame, but later became a victim of violent riots. The book boldly claims that an understanding of the Industrial Revolution requires engaging with the figure of the ‘rough diamond’, a person of worth and character, but lacking in manners, education, and refinement. A cast of unpolished entrepreneurs is brought to life as they drive economic and social change, and improve their towns and themselves. The book also contends that the rise of Birmingham cannot be understood without accepting that its vibrant cultural life was a crucial factor that spurred economic growth. Readers are plunged into a hidden provincial world marked by literacy, bookshops, printing, authorship, and the spread of useful knowledge. We see that ordinary people read history and wrote poetry, whilst they grappled with the effects of industrial change. Newly discovered memoirs reveal social conflict and relationships in rare detail. They also address problems of social mobility, income inequality, and breathtaking technological change that perplex us today.
Rough Diamonds
Authors: Whyman Susan E.
Published: October 2018

Hutton was one of many rough diamonds—‘men of great talent but no polish’—who offer an alternative model to ‘politeness’. These self-educated entrepreneurs add a new layer to our knowledge of provincial society. Chapter 2 defines their characteristics, roles, strategies, and impacts. Case studies give life to Hutton’s collaborators and competitors including the printer John Baskerville, the industrialist Samuel Garbett, and the papermaker Robert Bage. They reveal how outsiders fit (or not) into the social structure and how mainstream society responded. Their lack of education and refusal to give deference caused problems, resentment, and grudges that are revealed in Hutton’s ‘Memorandums’. The result is a picture of suppressed conflict that allows us to address questions about social change and mobility. Yet because rough diamonds had confidence to experiment with new ideas, they became driving forces for the spread of mass culture on a less refined but more widespread plane.
Hutton Enters Public Office
Authors: Whyman Susan E.
Published: October 2018

Chapter 5 shows the opportunities and limits of participating in Birmingham’s government. A lively print culture and competing newspapers led to high levels of engagement. Since Birmingham had no corporation, volunteers, including rough diamonds, were able to grasp power. In this fluid unregulated moment, they kept order and promoted trade. We see how Hutton became a public official, served on key committees, and led reform, whilst provoking those with whom he served. He was motivated by a deep desire to improve Birmingham, as well as by self-interest. Publication of An History of Birmingham (1781) added to his stature. A comparison of images in its second and third editions gives visual proof of how private enterprise improved the town
New Insights from an Old Dialogue Partner
Authors: Lemons J. Derrick
Published: October 2018

The chapter argues that a growing number of anthropologists are ready to engage theology but struggle to find a framework that supports this type of inquiry. It examines the creative tension and history between anthropology and theology. It also contends that generating a reflexive theologically engaged anthropology improves anthropological research. To support this thesis, it provides an example from original fieldwork involving American evangelicals. These evangelicals use missional church theology to inform their lived religious experience.
An Anthropologist Is Listening
Authors: Bielo James S.
Published: October 2018

This chapter focuses on a commitment that has been gaining force among practical theologians and Christian ethicists since the early 2000s. The commitment is that ethnographic fieldwork can be used to generate theological reflection and knowledge. The aim is to encourage a substantive shift, from a one-way engagement into an actual and generative dialogue between ethnographic theologians and anthropological ethnographers. The animating question is this: What does each dialogue partner—anthropology and theology—stand to gain from such an open exchange about ethnography? To address this question, the chapter argues that ethnographic theologians can work with a more diverse conception of ethnography while anthropological ethnographers can learn how theologians engage normativity in their work. It concludes by reflecting on genres of ethnographic writing as an opportunity for dialogue.
Anthropology, Theology, and the Problem of Incommensurability
Authors: Bialecki Jon
Published: October 2018

This chapter argues that anthropologists and theologians cannot speak about the contributions that theology could make to anthropology without first discussing the two discipline’s relationship. Rejecting both genealogical accounts and universalist narratives that deny the historical and institutional specificity of either discipline, it sees theologians, anthropologists, and the people about whom they write as all being engaged in the same work. They are all struggling with immanent and virtual problems in the sense used by Gilles Deleuze. This means rejecting understandings of anthropology and theology as second-order accounts, however, and seeing theological and anthropological thought as just other ways of thinking the problem through, albeit ways that often more clearly index the underlying problem. The chapter illustrates this argument by showing similarities in anthropological, theological, New Atheist, and Mormon attempts to grasp what may be the twenty-first century’s greatest challenge: an incipient technical possibility of transcending our humanity.
Anthropology and Theology
Authors: Davies Douglas J.
Published: October 2018

This tripartite chapter calls for a creative approach that engages diverse themes while striving for satisfying resolutions of disciplinary tensions between anthropology and theology. It calls for this even if these resolutions are not achieved. The first part, entitled “Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Dialogue,” is heavily autobiographical, and offers a case study of reflexivity, excusing its indulgence in biographical reflection on account of its intention to pinpoint the very particular and contextual nature of idea development. The second part, headed “Further Conversation Pieces,” picks up just such ideas open to anthropological–theological conversation, including a cautionary gloss on the over-easy use of anthropology and theology as discrete terms. The third and final part, described as “Disciplinary Quandaries,” takes some of these formal classifications of disciplines further and also brings together some personal and institutional factors surrounding both anthropological and theological practice.
World Christianity and the Reorganization of Disciplines
Authors: Robbins Joel
Published: October 2018

This chapter reviews recent changes in anthropology and theology to suggest that these changes bring them to a point where their paths are ready to cross. The change considered in anthropology is the unexpectedly rapid rise of what is called the anthropology of Christianity. More specifically, the chapter examines the prosperity gospel, in which believers are convinced that God wants health and wealth for them in this world and overwhelmingly stress these themes in their worship. Scholars in the Western academy tend to find this kind of Christianity hard to assimilate to their more general understandings of the faith, or at least to their favorite understandings. But a closer look at how this kind of Christianity trips up both theologians and anthropologists reveals places where both disciplines would be open to help from each other, the provision of which might lay the basis for a new kind of transformative dialogue.
Latter-Day Saints and the Problem of Theology
Authors: Cannell Fenella
Published: October 2018

This chapter reveals that contemporary American Latter-Day Saints lead lives shaped by a conscious, often partially conflicted, relationship to the authoritative teachings of their church hierarchy. This doctrine represents the power of present-day revelation channeled through the current Prophet; however, many Latter-Day Saints believe that prophets may also make human mistakes. For an important minority, including some feminist intellectuals, these tensions have been experienced as an attempt to prohibit the development of theology. The problematic status of Mormon theology may be one reason why many church members seek to reconcile doctrine with personal experience by means of narrative and autobiography, producing a culture of Mormon stories. This chapter considers how some Mormon feminist excommunicates attempted to project religious authenticity against the grain of the institution. Mormon ethnography thus provides an instance of the anthropological approach to theology as a lived category, including the contestation of the space for theology itself.
Theology on the Ground
Authors: Haynes Naomi
Published: October 2018

This chapter provides an ethnographic exploration of theology on the ground, focusing on Pentecostal Christians on the Zambian Copperbelt. For Copperbelt Pentecostals, theology means drawing analogies between their experience and the stories recorded in the Bible. Through these analogies, believers insert themselves into the narrative of Scripture in an effort to change their personal circumstances. This analogical work has visible social effects because it positions people on different sides of the biblical narrative. While interpreting these effects simply in political terms would be easy, the chapter argues that Pentecostal theology is more than just a struggle for power because the theological efforts of its informants represent conduits for divine action. The ethnographic study of Pentecostal theology, therefore, addresses one of the most vexing problems in the anthropology of religion—namely, how to write God into our analysis.
Passionate Coolness
Authors: Percy Martyn
Published: October 2018

This chapter explores and analyzes the ecclesial identity of a local parish church in a rural context. Deploying the concept of implicit theology, a subgenre of ethnographic theology, it argues that the character of the church is composed through core and cherished values that are seldom explicitly articulated. What emerges from the study is that the character of rural Anglicanism in the Church of England can be understood as primarily but not exclusively temperate, mild, aesthetic, and rational. Moreover, there may be a link between the grammar and timbre of worship and the kind of God individuals and congregations subsequently believe they experience. The study also notes a broader sociological significance of selecting to study a rural church. That said, it pointedly avoids reductionism, but does recognize the formation of an alloy in need of attention in the emergent social and theological construction of reality.
Anthropological and Theological Responses to Theologically Engaged Anthropology
Authors: Coakley Sarah , Robbins Joel
Published: October 2018

This chapter provides insightful responses to the preceding essays in this volume, informed by its authors’ respective disciplines—anthropology and theology. It gives serious consideration to the foundation of a theologically engaged anthropology while at the same time forging a pathway to propel theologians and anthropologists forward. The chapter reveals both the exciting possibilities and cautionary pitfalls that this emerging field of study offers to both anthropologists and theologians. Overall, the chapter suggests that the conversation between anthropology and theology has only begun. As this collaboration continues, theologically engaged anthropology is well positioned to aid anthropologists and theologians in their search for a deeper understanding of religion.
A Republic in Letters
Authors: Gildenhard Ingo
Published: October 2018

The corpus of letters from and to Cicero that survives from the five-year period after Caesar’s crossing of the Rubicon in 49 BCE and his assassination on the Ides of March 44 BCE demands attention as a special medium of political commentary, intervention, and reflection—as well as community-building. The chapter shows how in a commonwealth shattered by civil war and in the process of being transformed in an autocratic key through Caesar’s victory and dictatorship, the letter offers Cicero a medium for various forms of political activism: in and through his correspondence, he tries to come to terms with Caesar, stake out a position for himself in Caesar’s world, and mediate between the centre of power and high-profile Republicans still languishing in exile in various places across the Mediterranean. These efforts are all designed to sustain a community of peers committed to a Republican commonwealth.
Shocks
Authors: Rajeev S. G.
Published: October 2018

When the speed of a fluid exceeds that of sound, discontinuities in density occur, called shocks.The opposite limit from incompressibility (constant density) is constant pressure. In this limit, we get Burgers equation. It can be solved exactly in one dimension using the Cole–Hopf transformation. The limit of small viscosity is found not to be the same as zero viscosity: there is a residual drag no matter how small it is. The Maxwell construction of thermodynamics was adapted by Lax and Oleneik to derive rules for shocks in this limit. The Riemann problem of time evolution with a discontinuous initial density is solved in one dimension. These simple solutions provide the basic intuition for more complicated shocks.
Instabilities
Authors: Rajeev S. G.
Published: October 2018

The most well-known of the many instabilities of a fluid is the Rayleigh–Taylor instability. A denser fluid sitting on top of a lighter fluid is in unstable equilibrium, much like a pendulum standing on its head. Kapitza showed that rapidly oscillating the point of support of a pendulum can counteract this instability. The Rayleigh–Taylor instability can also be inhibited by shaking the two fluid layers rapidly. The Orr–Sommerfeld equations are a linear model of instabilities of a steady solution of Navier-Stokes. The Orr–Sommerfeld operator is not normal (does not commute with its adjoint). This means that there are transients (solutions that grow large before dying out) even if the linear equations predict stability. A simple nonlinear model with transients due to Trefethen et al. is studied to gain intuition into fluid instabilities.
Singularities
Authors: Rajeev S. G.
Published: October 2018

The initial value problem of the incompressible Navier–Stokes equations is explained. Leray’s classic study of it (using Picard iteration) is simplified and described in the language of physics. The ideas of Lebesgue and Sobolev norms are explained. The L2 norm being the energy, cannot increase. This gives sufficient control to establish existence, regularity and uniqueness in two-dimensional flow. The L3 norm is not guaranteed to decrease, so this strategy fails in three dimensions. Leray’s proof of regularity for a finite time is outlined. His attempts to construct a scale-invariant singular solution, and modern work showing this is impossible, are then explained. The physical consequences of a negative answer to the regularity of Navier–Stokes solutions are explained. This chapter is meant as an introduction, for physicists, to a difficult field of analysis.
Geometric Integrators
Authors: Rajeev S. G.
Published: October 2018

Generic methods for solving ordinary differential equations (ODEs, e.g., Runge-Kutta) can break the symmetries that a particular equation might have. Lie theory can be used to get Geometric Integrators that respect these symmetries. Extending thesemethods to Euler and Navier-Stokes is an outstanding research problem in fluid mechanics. Therefore, a short review of geometric integrators for ODEs is given in this last chapter. Exponential coordinates on a Lie group are explained; the formula for differentiating a matrix exponential is given and used to derive the first few terms of the Magnus expansion. Geometric integrators corresponding to the Euler and trapezoidal methods for ODEs are given.
Social networks
Authors: Newman Mark
Published: October 2018

A discussion of social networks and methods for determining their structure. The chapter starts with a brief description of social networks, broadly defined, and the history of their study. Several methods for measuring social networks are discussed, including survey instruments such as interviews and questionnaires, direct observation, and archival or historical data. Also discussed are Milgram's small-world experiment and snowball sampling techniques.
Inequality and Ordinary Living Standards in OECD Countries
Authors: Nolan Brian , Thewissen Stefan
Published: October 2018

This chapter focuses on how the patterns of real income growth or stagnation seen in Chapter 2 are related to changes to inequality in the distribution of income, which has played such a prominent role in recent commentary and debate. It examines how income inequality has evolved over recent decades across the rich countries, both overall and in terms of the share going to the very top of the distribution, and highlights key factors in driving inequality upwards—albeit differentially across countries and time-periods. The ways in which rising inequality may undermine real income growth for middle and lower income households are discussed, and the empirical relationship between inequality and such real income growth over recent decades across the rich countries is analysed. Alongside real income growth or its absence, some other ways of looking at whether ‘the middle’ has been ‘squeezed’ in income terms are also explored.