bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE EFFECTS OF CONTINGENT AND NONCONTINGENT REWARDS ON THE I.Q. SCORES OF CHILDREN OF ABOVE‐AVERAGE INTELLIGENCE1
Authors: Clingman Joy , Fowler Robert L.
Published: March 2006

This study investigated the effects of candy reinforcement on I.Q. test scores in first and second graders of above‐average intelligence. Thirty‐six subjects were randomly assigned to one of three groups and either given candy contingent on correct responses, noncontingently, or not given candy. After measuring all subjects on Form L of the revised Stanford Binet, each subject in the contingent group was given an M & M immediately following each correct answer on Form M, while a yoked‐comparison subject received the same number of M & M's before responding to a question and therefore without regard to correctness of answers. It was expected that both types of candy administration would produce higher I.Q. change scores than the no‐candy control group, but there were no statistically significant differences among the three treatments. The differences between the first and second test scores were 4.17 (contingent), 4.67 (noncontingent), and 1.00 (no reinforcement). Reasons for this failure to replicate previous findings were discussed.
USE OF NORMATIVE PEER DATA AS A STANDARD FOR EVALUATING CLASSROOM TREATMENT EFFECTS1
Authors: Walker Hill M. , Hops Hyman
Published: March 2006

This study illustrated the use of normative behavioral observation data as a standard for evaluating the practicality of treatment effects produced in other settings. Three groups of eight subjects each, displaying relatively low proportions of appropriate classroom behavior when compared with regular classroom peers, were selected for treatment within an experimental classroom setting. The three groups were exposed to intervention procedures designed to reinforce either direct academic performance and/or facilitative nonacademic classroom responses. The treatment was effective in changing levels of appropriate behavior (1) above baseline levels in the experimental classroom, and (2) to within normal peer‐defined limits when reintegrated into the regular classroom. Further, the data reflect successful maintenance of these effects for a seven‐ to 12‐week follow‐up period. Several applications of a normative model for evaluating treatment, generalization, and maintenance effects were presented and discussed.
A REVIEW OF ACADEMIC PERMANENT‐PRODUCT DATA COLLECTION AND RELIABILITY PROCEDURES IN APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS RESEARCH1
Authors: Kelly Michael Bryan
Published: March 2006

Three publication sources were reviewed to determine the recent conventions for collecting, and assessing the reliability of, academic permanent‐product data (handwriting, examination papers, etc in applied behavior analysis. The primary source was the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (1968–1974). Secondary sources included conference proceedings titled, A new direction in education: behavior analysis (E. Ramp and B. L. Hopkins, Eds., Lawrence, Kansas: Support and Development Center for Follow Through, Department of Human Development, University of Kansas, 1971), and Behavior Analysis and Education (G. Semb, Ed., Lawrence, Kansas: Support and Development Center for Follow Through, Department of Human Development, University of Kansas, 1972). Finally, as a test of the generality of the findings in the two applied behavior analysis sources, the current issue of each of 14 psychological and/or educational journals was reviewed. Thirty JABA studies reported academic permanent‐product data, but only 14 reported reliability. Increasingly more product data through 1973 have been reported along with a greater proportion of authors reporting reliability. The review of the two conference proceeding publications revealed the same trend. In 1971, only three studies reported academic product data, none with reliability, while in 1972, 15 reported academic data, nine including reliability assessment. The review of 14 current education/psychology journal issues revealed four studies reporting academic data, none with reliability. Across all sources, about one‐half of the studies reported reliability. Most of the studies reporting reliability described the frequency of reliability assessment, with approximately equal numbers of JABA studies reporting reliability for each paper or reliability for each session. The use of uninformed observers was reported in only three JABA studies and one conference study. Marks made on subjects' papers by either the teacher or the primary observer were reported masked for reliability purposes by only two JABA and two conference studies. Reliability was calculated on a session total basis in two JABA studies. Point‐by‐point agreement was given in nine JABA and three conference studies. Perfect reliability (mean agreement of 100%) was reported in only six JABA and three conference studies. Scores between 90 and 100% were reported in nine JABA and four conference studies. Scores below 80% were reported in three JABA studies. No other percentage agreement scores were reported, although one JABA study reported correlational reliability (Pearson r). In summary, recently more studies have dealt with academic data and, until 1974, a greater proportion of these studies reported reliability assessment, and relatively few studies reported either replicable methods, 100% agreement, or controls for maintaining rater independence.
EVALUATION OF FAMILY INTERVENTION THROUGH UNOBTRUSIVE AUDIO RECORDINGS: EXPERIENCES IN “BUGGING” CHILDREN1
Authors: Johnson Stephen M. , Christensen Andrew , Bellamy G. Tom
Published: March 2006

Five children referred to a child‐family intervention program wore a radio transmitter in the home during pre‐intervention and termination assessments. The transmitter broadcast to a receiver‐recording apparatus in the home (either activated by an interval timer at predetermined “random” times or by parents at predetermined “picked” times). “Picked” times were parent‐selected situations during which problems typically occurred (e.g., bedtime). Parents activated the recorder regularly whether or not problems occurred. Child‐deviant, parent‐negative, and parent‐commanding behaviors were significantly higher at the picked times during pretest than at random times. At posttest, behaviors in all three classes were substantially reduced at picked times, but not at random times. For individual subject data, reductions occurred in at least two of the three dependent variables for three of the five cases during random time assessments. In general, the behavioral outcome data corresponded to parent‐attitude reports and parent‐collected observation data.
EFFECTS OF GROUP RESPONSE‐COST PROCEDURES ON CASH SHORTAGES IN A SMALL BUSINESS
Authors: II David Marholin , Gray Deanne
Published: March 2006

The effect of a group response‐cost procedure (accompanied by verbal and written instruction) designed to decrease cash shortages in a small business was evaluated with a reversal design. When cash shortages were subtracted from the six employees' salaries on days in which the shortage exceeded 1% of total daily sales, the magnitude of daily shortages sharply decreased. This response‐cost contingency was used only three times throughout the study, with a maximum cost of $8.70 per subject over the 41‐day period. The efficacy of the procedures may be due to either increased precision in change calculations, a decreased frequency of stealing from the cash register, increased shortchanging of customers, and/or increased incidents of register under‐ringing. Ethical questions relative to the utilization of group punishment procedures are raised, and it was concluded that the procedures used were more humane than commonly used alternatives.
THE CELLBLOCK TOKEN ECONOMY: TOKEN REINFORCEMENT PROCEDURES IN A MAXIMUM SECURITY CORRECTIONAL INSTITUTION FOR ADULT MALE FELONS1
Authors: Milan Michael A. , McKee John M.
Published: March 2006

Two experiments were conducted (1) to explore the application of token reinforcement procedures in a maximum security correctional institution for adult male felons and (2) to determine to what extent the reinforcement procedures disrupted the day‐to‐day lives of inmate participants. In Experiment 1, an expanded reversal design revealed that the combination of praise and token reinforcement was more effective than the combinations of praise and noncontingent token award or direct commands on four common institutional activities. The latter two combinations were not found to be any more effective than praise alone. Experiment 2, which also employed a reversal design, indicated that the high levels of performance observed during the token reinforcement phases of Experiment 1 could be attained without subjecting participants to undue hardship in the form of increased deprivation of either social intercourse or the opportunity to engage in recreational and entertainment activities. Client safeguards are discussed in detail.
FACILITATING PAPER RECYCLING: EFFECTS OF PROMPTS, RAFFLES, AND CONTESTS1
Authors: Witmer Jill F. , Geller E. Scott
Published: March 2006

The effects of prompts and reinforcement to promote paper recycling were compared in six university dormitories. For a Prompt condition, residents were urged to recycle paper for ecological reasons via flyers distributed to each room. For a Raffle contingency, residents were given one raffle ticket for every pound of paper brought to a collection center. For a Contest contingency, two dorms were paired and the dorm whose residents delivered the most paper won $ 15 for its treasury. Contingency awareness was strengthened via a flyer placed under the door of each resident's room. Flyers alone had little effect in increasing paper‐recycling behaviors, but the raffle (substantially) and the contest (somewhat) increased the amount of paper brought to a dorm's recycling center. Students whose rooms were closest to the collection center showed the greatest participation. Removal of the reinforcement contingencies resulted in a return to baseline levels.
A PERFORMANCE‐BASED LOTTERY TO IMPROVE RESIDENTIAL CARE AND TRAINING BY INSTITUTIONAL STAFF
Authors: Iwata Brian A. , Bailey Jon S. , Brown Katrina M. , Foshee Terry J. , Alpern Michael
Published: March 2006

Two experiments were conducted on four units of a residential facility for the multiply‐handicapped retarded in an attempt to improve daily care and training services. Experiment I compared the effects of two procedures in maintaining the work performance of attendants, using an A‐B design on two units. One procedure consisted of implementing specific staff‐resident assignments, the other consisted of allowing attendants who had met performance criteria to be eligible for a weekly lottery in which they could win the opportunity to rearrange their days off for the following week. Results showed that the lottery was a more effective procedure as measured by the per cent of time attendants engaged in predefined target behaviors, and by their frequency of task completion in several areas of resident care. Experiment II replicated and extended these results to the area of work quality on two additional units, using a multiple‐baseline design. The performance lottery was found to be an effective economical procedure that could be implemented by supervisory staff on a large scale.
TEACHING COIN SUMMATION TO THE MENTALLY RETARDED1
Authors: Lowe Margaret L. , Cuvo Anthony J.
Published: March 2006

A procedure to teach four mild and moderately retarded persons to sum the value of coin combinations was tested. Subjects were first taught to count a single target coin, and then to sum that coin in combination with coins previously trained. Five American coins and various combinations were trained. Modelling, modelling with subject participation, and independent counting by the subject constituted the training sequence. The subjects improved from a mean pretest score of 29% to 92% correct at posttest. A four‐week followup score showed a mean of 79% correct. A multiple‐baseline design suggested that improvement in coin‐counting performance occurred only after the coin was trained. The results indicate that this procedure has potential for teaching the retarded to sum combinations of coins in 5 to 6 hr of instruction.
BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS APPLIED TO ENVIRONMENTAL/ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS; A REVIEW1
Authors: Tuso Margaret A. , Geller E. Scott
Published: March 2006

Recent applications of operant technology, including the manipulation of environmental conditions and response consequences, have been directed toward the improvement of man‐environment relations. This document summarizes the research designs, procedures, results, and conclusions of these recent behavioral interventions for ecological rebalance. Each of the 32 studies reviewed was undertaken since 1970; all studies were relatively successful in changing the probability of an ecology‐related response; all studies incorporated basic methodologies applicable for large‐scale, community programs; most of the investigations were conducted in field settings (e.g., college campuses, grocery stores, mobile‐trailer parks, homes, movie theaters, public campgrounds, and a football stadium). Several of the studies are as yet unpublished. Sources for receiving documentation of the unpublished research are provided in this document. About 50% of the investigations reviewed were designed to influence behaviors related to environmental litter; the others were of behavior‐modification programs that substantially increased bus‐ridership, decreased lawn‐trampling, promoted the purchase of drinks in returnable rather than throwaway containers, initiated a recycling process, or reduced energy consumption. Essentially, the interventions were either preventive in nature (i.e., designed to discourage environment‐destructive behaviors before they occur), or remedial (i.e., designed to encourage behaviors that correct an existing environmental problem). Usually, the preventive measures emphasized responses priming (or prompting), while the corrective measures applied some form of positive reinforcement. Response priming was accomplished with modelling techniques, or with written and/or verbal prompts presented either publicly or on a personal, one‐to‐one basis. Among the positive reinforcement procedures were field applications of token economies, lottery systems, feedback programming, and intergroup contests, as well as individual contingency contracting. Some experimental designs provided for comparisons between the behavioral effects of response priming and positive reinforcement.
CONSIDERATIONS IN THE CHOICE OF INTEROBSERVER RELIABILITY ESTIMATES
Authors: Hartmann Donald P.
Published: March 2006

Two types of interobserver reliability values may be needed in treatment studies in which observers constitute the primary data‐acquisition system: trial reilability and the reliability of the composite unit or score which is subsequently analyzed, e.g., daily or weekly session totals. Two approaches to determining interobserver reliability are described: percentage agreement and “correlational” measures of reliability. The interpretation of these estimates, factors affecting their magnitude, and the advantages and limitations of each approach are presented.
EVALUATING INTEROBSERVER RELIABILITY OF INTERVAL DATA1
Authors: Hopkins B. L. Hopkins , Hermann Jaime A.
Published: March 2006

Previous recommendations to employ occurrence, nonoccurrence, and overall estimates of interobserver reliability for interval data are reviewed. A rationale for comparing obtained reliability to reliability that would result from a random‐chance model is explained. Formulae and graphic functions are presented to allow for the determination of chance agreement for each of the three indices, given any obtained per cent of intervals in which a response is recorded to occur. All indices are interpretable throughout the range of possible obtained values for the per cent of intervals in which a response is recorded. The level of chance agreement simply changes with changing values. Statistical procedures that could be used to determine whether obtained reliability is significantly superior to chance reliability are reviewed. These procedures are rejected because they yield significance levels that are partly a function of sample sizes and because there are no general rules to govern acceptable significance levels depending on the sizes of samples employed.
SOCIAL‐SKILLS TRAINING FOR UNASSERTIVE CHILDREN: A MULTIPLE‐BASELINE ANALYSIS1
Authors: Bornstein Mitchell R. , Bellack Alan S. , Hersen Michel
Published: March 2006

The effects of social‐skills training consisting of instructions, feedback, behavior rehearsal, and modelling were examined in a multiple‐baseline analysis in four unassertive children. The treatment was effective in that the behaviors selected for modification changed markedly. The effects of treatment generalized from trained to untrained items (interpersonal situations requiring assertive responding) and gains were maintained at the two‐ and four‐week followup probe sessions. In addition, overall assertiveness in all subjects increased from baseline assessment to the conclusion of treatment and into followup.
THE EFFECT OF MODELLING ON DRINKING RATE
Authors: Garlington Warren K. , Dericco Denice A.
Published: March 2006

Three male college seniors were asked to drink beer at their normal rate in a simulated tavern setting. Each was paired with a confederate, also a male college senior, in an ABACA single subject design. In the baseline conditions, the confederate matched the drinking rate of the subject. Baseline and all subsequent conditions were continued in 1‐hr sessions until a stable drinking rate was achieved. In Condition B, the confederate drank either one third more or one third less than the subject's baseline rate. In Condition C, the direction was reversed. All three subjects closely matched the confederate's drinking rate, whether high or low. All subjects reported they were unaware of the true purpose of the study.
THE REDUCTION OF STEALING IN SECOND GRADERS USING A GROUP CONTINGENCY1
Authors: Switzer E. Beth , Deal Terrence E. , Bailey Jon S.
Published: March 2006

Three classes of second graders served as subjects in this study of the effects of two types of intervention programs upon stealing: (1) an antistealing lecture with no specific contingency implied, and (2) a direct group contingency applied, whereby children were rewarded with (a) extra free time for no thefts, (b) allowed normal free time if stolen items were returned, and (c) punished with loss of free time if stolen items were not returned. A multiple‐baseline design across the three classes showed the group contingency to be effective in reducing stealing behavior; the anti‐stealing lecture was ineffective.
EFFECTS OF PEER SOCIAL INITIATIONS ON THE BEHAVIOR OF WITHDRAWN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
Authors: Strain Phillip S. , Shores Richard E. , Timm Matthew A.
Published: March 2006

Social approach to peers was evaluated as an intervention for isolate preschoolers. During baseline, confederate peers made few social approaches to the target subjects. Confederates greatly increased their rate of social approaches during the first intervention, decreased social approaches during a second baseline, and increased social approaches again in a second intervention phase. Increases in confederate social initiations immediately increased the frequency of subjects' positive social behavior. Additionally, five of six subjects showed an increase in their own positive social initiations during intervention periods. The results suggest that: (a) peers may be programmed to increase the positive social behaviors of their isolate classmates, and (b) remediating social deficits requires assessment and intervention specifically tailored to the individual child.
EVALUATING MUNICIPAL POLICY: AN ANALYSIS OF A REFUSE‐PACKAGING PROGRAM1
Authors: Stokes Trevor F. , Fawcett Stephen B.
Published: March 2006

The effect of a municipal enforcement program to improve residents' packaging of refuse was analyzed in a multiple‐baseline design across two areas of a city. The enforcement program involved instruction concerning refuse‐packaging regulations, collection only of appropriately packaged refuse, and feedback notices to residents concerning the reasons for noncollection of their inadequately packaged refuse. Both the number of violations and the percentage of residences violating each day were markedly reduced during the enforcement program. Furthermore, sanitation workers considered that the packaging of refuse and the safety and efficiency of refuse collection had improved. This study served as a pilot evaluation of a policy change in the city sanitation department, and was functional in determining the direction of that policy.
BEHAVIORAL NUTRITION: CONSUMPTION OF FOODS OF THE FUTURE BY TODDLERS1
Authors: Herbert‐Jackson Emily , Risley Todd R.
Published: March 2006

Behavioral measures of food consumption and tasting were combined with nutrient analysis of foods served at a toddler day‐care center to determine whether children at the stage of initial exposure to adult diets would accept textured vegetable protein (TVP) and nonfat dry milk as well as they ate other sources of protein and calcium. Main dishes were prepared alternately with TVP, meat, or neither; others were prepared with or without nonfat dry milk. The variation in ingredients appeared not to affect the amount children ate, the percentage sampling the foods, or the percentage eating half a portion or more. Dishes made with TVP increased protein intake comparable to the amount obtained with meat supplements, and calcium intake increased with nonfat dry‐milk supplements. In light of these findings, it appears that TVP and nonfat dry milk are practical alternative sources of protein and calcium in menus for young children.
AN ANALYSIS OF DAILY REPORT CARDS AND PARENT‐MANAGED PRIVILEGES IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF ADOLESCENTS' CLASSROOM PERFORMANCE
Authors: Schumaker Jean B. , Hovell Melbourne F. , Sherman James A.
Published: March 2006

A daily report‐card system, involving home privileges administered by parents, was developed for use with “problem” junior‐high students. In Experiment I, when home privileges and parent praise were contingent on improved school conduct, classwork, daily grades, and teacher satisfaction, the school performance of three students improved considerably. In Experiment II, a similar report‐card system was employed with two additional students, except only parent praise was contingent on improved school performance. Under these conditions, one of the students did not bring the report card home, and class performance did not improve until contingent home privileges were added. The school performance of the second student improved with the card and praise alone. However, there appeared to be a slow decline of classwork performance over time. For Experiment III, an instructional manual, describing the report‐card program, was written for school guidance counsellors. Two guidance counsellors read the program, used it with one student each, and found that the school performance of both students improved. These results suggest that the daily report‐card program with home consequences administered by parents can improve the school performance of, and teacher satisfaction about, students having considerable difficulty in school.
AN EVALUATION OF A TRAINING PACKAGE FOR COMMUNITY CANVASSING BEHAVIORS1
Authors: Fawcett Stephen B. , Miller L. Keith , Braukmann Curtis J.
Published: March 2006

Basic to the development of most community‐based volunteer programs, neighborhood service centers, and other social service agencies is a program of outreach to the people of the community to be served. Such outreach programs often disseminate information on the service agency by canvassing the residents of the target community. The effectiveness of such programs is sometimes reduced by the failure of the project director to specify appropriate behaviors and the inability of community workers to generate the desired behaviors following only general, unspecific instructions. This study evaluated the effects of an instructional package on the community canvassing behaviors with four trainees: three university field‐work students and a low‐income staff member of a neighborhood service center. The package, consisting of written instructions, quizzes, and feedback, was designed to teach specified target behaviors for presenting information specific to the neighborhood service center (Information Presentation), wearing appropriate apparel (Appearance), making introductory comments (Greeting Behaviors), indicating “interest” in the neighborhood resident (Contact Behaviors), and handling sensitive comments relating to race, religion, and politics (Sensitivity Behaviors). Target behaviors were observed in simulated situations in which scripted statements by a confederate (person playing the role of the neighborhood resident) permitted direct observation of trainee performance in response to a consistent set of conversational stimuli. The effect of the package on the performance of community canvassing behaviors was analyzed by a multiple‐baseline design across behavioral categories. The overall mean percentage of target behaviors increased from 38% during baseline to 94% after training for Information Presentation; from 16% to 97% for Contact Behaviors; and, from 24% to 96% for Sensitivity Behaviors. (The Appearance and Greeting Behaviors of all trainees were at near‐mastery levels before training.) The results suggested that the instructional package was responsible for the increased percentage of target behaviors observed in simulated situations. In addition, the results of two generalization tests suggested that the observed effects were not limited to either a few conversational stimuli or to a single person playing the role of the neighborhood resident. It was concluded that a more comprehensive validation of this social‐skills training program might formally address a number of additional questions: (1) generalization of target behaviors to actual home settings; (2) social validation of the target responses selected for training; (3) generalization to measures of neighborhood resident behavior, and (4) satisfaction of neighborhood residents with the performance of trained community canvassers. This study is suggestive of a technology for systematically validating programs designed to teach complex social skills.
TWO‐TO‐ONE versus ONE‐TO‐ONE STUDENT‐TEACHER RATIOS IN THE OPERANT VERBAL TRAINING OF RETARDED CHILDREN1
Authors: Biberdorf John R. , Pear Joseph J.
Published: March 2006

The operant training of two retarded children simultaneously on a picture‐naming task was investigated as an alternative to the more commonly reported one‐to‐one student‐teacher ratio. In Experiment I, two conditions were compared in which the children received primary reinforcement on a fixed‐ratio schedule for responding correctly on prompt and probe trials in a standardized picture‐naming procedure. During the “Group Condition”, the experimenter alternated from one child to the other after each primary reinforcement, after each incorrect response, after each response omission, and after each 10‐sec period in which a child did not “attend” (by making a trial‐initiating response) when it was his or her turn to be worked with. During the “Individual Condition”, the experimenter worked with only one child, and presented trials whenever the child made attending responses. Experiment I demonstrated that the Group Condition was more efficient than the Individual Condition in terms of total correct responses and total pictures learned per unit of training time. Incidental learning was also found in that the children learned some of each others' pictures as well as their own, thus indicating a further advantage of the larger student‐teacher ratio. In Experiment II, an attempt was made to equate the two conditions, except for the presence of two children in the Group Condition, by ignoring the child in the Individual Condition for brief periods equal to those that occurred in the Group Condition when the experimenter presented training trials to the other child. The results demonstrated that the greater efficiency of the Group Condition was not due to the manner in which training time was allocated to the two members of a group. It also replicated the finding that the children learned some of each others' words in the Group Condition.
A PARENT ADVICE PACKAGE FOR FAMILY SHOPPING TRIPS: DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION1
Authors: Clark Hewitt B. , Greene Brandon F. , Macrae John W. , McNees M. Patrick , Davis Jerry L. , Risley Todd R.
Published: March 2006

This article reports on the primary steps in the development of parent advice for popular dissemination: (a) developing advice for one specific problem situation, family shopping trips; (b) testing the advice program for benefit to children and convenience to adults; and (c) packaging the advice so it can be used successfully by interested parents. Systematic observation of 12 families using the written advice package on shopping trips revealed its effectiveness in reducing child disruptions and increasing positive interactions between parents and children. These findings, along with interview information from families, showed that the package is usable, effective, and popular with both parents and children, and thus is ready for dissemination to a wide audience of parents—a step that in itself should involve research and evaluation.
DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF FIXED‐ AND VARIABLE‐TIME FEEDBACK ON PRODUCTION RATES OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN
Authors: Saudargas Richard W. , Madsen Charles H. , Scott John W.
Published: March 2006

The performance of 26 third‐grade students who worked on individual weekly academic tasks was compared under fixed‐ and variable‐time “home reports”. During fixed‐time home reports, each student was given a report to take home on Friday that indicated the quantity of work the student had completed that week, contained comments concerning the quality of the work, and had a space for parental remarks and signature. The same report was given during the variable‐time reports, except that seven to nine students were randomly selected each day to receive a home report During variable‐time reporting, students completed more assignments and completed assignments on a greater percentage of available workdays than during fixed‐time reporting. The teachers' preference for the variable‐time reporting was one additional advantage for the variable system.
GENERALIZING ARTICULATION TRAINING WITH TRAINABLE MENTALLY RETARDED SUBJECTS1
Authors: Murdock Jane Y. , Garcia Eugene E. , Hardman Michael L.
Published: March 2006

A multiple‐baseline technique was used to evaluate generalization effects during articulation training with trainable mentally retarded subjects. Four target words were selected for each subject on the basis of whether the subject could articulate the word correctly when it was modelled but could not articulate the word correctly in response to a picture of it. Five different settings were selected for generalization probing and training for each subject. In Setting 1, Experimenter 1 initiated training sequentially on all four target words for each subject. Other experimenters probed for correct articulation generalization in four other settings. Training was initiated in these four other settings sequentially only if correct responding failed to generalize to a setting. Results indicated that it was necessary to initiate training on at least three of the four selected target words in at least one additional setting with an additional trainer before correct responding generalized to untrained settings.
A REVIEW OF THE OBSERVATIONAL DATA‐COLLECTION AND RELIABILITY PROCEDURES REPORTED IN THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
Authors: Kelly Michael Bryan
Published: March 2006

The research published in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (1968 to 1975) was surveyed for three basic elements: data‐collection methods, reliability procedures, and reliability scores. Three‐quarters of the studies reported observational data. Most of these studies' observational methods were variations of event recording, trial scoring, interval recording, or time‐sample recording. Almost all studies reported assessment of observer reliability, usually total or point‐by‐point percentage agreement scores. About half the agreement scores were consistently above 90%. Less than one‐quarter of the studies reported that reliability was assessed at least once per condition.
THE USE AND EVALUATION OF STUDY GUIDES WITH MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS1
Authors: Farnum Marlene , Brigham Thomas A.
Published: March 2006

Two experiments were conducted with 24 fifth‐grade students participating. In the first experiment, quiz performance with study guides was compared to quiz performance without study guides. The group whose students received study guides always scored higher than the group who did not receive study guides. Experiment II assessed the feasibility of students scoring their own study guides. The reliability of student scoring was found to be 93% over all study guides and there were no significant differences between “self‐scored” and “teacher‐scored” groups on the weekly quizzes.
MODIFICATION OF ACTIVITY LEVEL THROUGH BIOFEEDBACK AND OPERANT CONDITIONING1
Authors: Schulman Jerome L. , Stevens Theodore M. , Suran Bernard G. , Kupst Mary Jo , Naughton Michael J.
Published: March 2006

The biomotometer, an electronic device that simultaneously measures activity and provides auditory feedback to the subject, was used in combination with material reinforcers in two experiments attempting to modify activity level in children. In the first study the activity level of an 11‐year‐old highly active boy was decreased below mean baseline during conditioning in a classroom setting. His level of activity returned to baseline when feedback was withdrawn. In the second study, activity level of a 10‐year‐old hypoactive boy was increased over mean baseline level during conditioning in a free‐play setting, and returned to slightly below baseline during five extinction trials. Results of these studies indicate that the biomotometer is a useful instrument for modification of activity level.
MULTIPLE‐PROBE TECHNIQUE: A VARIATION OF THE MULTIPLE BASELINE1
Authors: Horner R. Don , Baer Donald M.
Published: March 2006

Multiple‐baseline and probe procedures are combined into a “multiple‐probe” technique. The technique is designed to provide a thorough analysis of the relationship between an independent variable and the acquisition of a successive‐approximation or chain sequence. It provides answers to the following questions: (1) What is the initial level of performance on each step in the training sequence? (2) What happens if sequential opportunities to perform each next step in the sequence are provided before training on that step? (3) What happens when training is applied? (4) What happens to the performance of remaining steps in the sequence as criterion is reached in the course of training each prior step? The technique features: (1) one initial probe of each step in the training sequence, (2) an additional probe of every step after criterion is reached on any training step, and (3) a series of “true” baseline sessions conducted just before the introduction of the independent variable to each training step. Intermittent probes also provide an alternative to continuous baseline measurement, when such measurement during extended multiple baselines (1) may prove reactive, (2) is impractical, and/or (3) a strong a priori assumption of stability can be made.
THE USE OF PHYSICAL RESTRAINT IN THE TREATMENT OF SELF‐INJURY AND AS POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
Authors: Favell Judith E. , McGimsey James F. , Jones Michael L.
Published: March 2006

Two experiments investigated the effects of a treatment package on the self‐injurious behavior of three profoundly retarded persons who appeared to enjoy the physical restraints used to prevent their self‐injury. The treatment package included physically restraining subjects contingent on increasing periods of time during which no self‐injury occurred, and providing them with toys and attention during intervals between restraints. A reversal and multiple‐baseline analysis documented that the rapid and complete reduction in self‐injury by all subjects was due to this treatment package. Because these results suggested that physical restraint might function as a positive reinforcer, in a third experiment physical restraint was applied contingent on a marble placement response with one subject. A reversal design demonstrated that toy play systematically increased when each response resulted in restraint. The experiments have implications for the nonaversive remediation of self‐injury in individuals who are restrained, as well as for the development and maintenance of self‐injury in natural settings.
PUPILS' SELF‐SCORED ARITHMETIC PERFORMANCE: A PRACTICAL PROCEDURE FOR MAINTAINING ACCURACY1
Authors: Hundert Joel , Bucher Bradley
Published: March 2006

Scoring of student performance is often costly in teacher time. Self‐rating may be a practical alternative, if ratings are accurate. Some conditions affecting self‐rating accuracy were examined in two special‐education classes in two experiments. The first assessed the separate effects of submitting self‐ratings to the teacher and token reinforcement for those ratings. Actual and self‐rated performance during daily 20‐minute arithmetic assignments were observed in a class of four boys with an average age of 10 years, four months. Subjects answered assignments in pen for later detection of falsified answers. At the end of the session, correct answers were projected and papers self‐scored in pencil. During class dismissal, the experimenter surreptitiously scored actual performance. Three experimental conditions were introduced in an A B C B A design. During A, subjects self‐rated but submitted no report, nor received token reinforcement. During B, self‐ratings were reported to the teacher on a folded slip of paper, without reinforcement. During C, points were awarded for self‐reported scores based on changes in individual performance from the prior condition and later exchanged for prizes. Subjects self‐rated accurately during A, with little change during B. However, awarding points for self‐reported scores in C, produced highly exaggerated performance. There was little change in correct arithmetic performance throughout the experiment. The second experiment examined a low‐cost procedure to produce and maintain a low level of exaggeration in a class of 17 boys with an average age of 15 years, three months. Continuous, then intermittent checks on the accuracy of self‐rated arithmetic performance were assessed in a multiple‐baseline design across groups of subjects. Following a condition where subjects' self‐reported performance was reinforced as in the first experiment, the self‐rating accuracy of all subjects was checked publicly and a penalty applied for inaccuracies or bonus points for accuracies (Maximum Checks). During Minimum Checks, the self‐rating accuracy of one randomly selected subject was checked. The reduction in checking frequency was gradual for one group and abrupt for the other. When self‐reports were reinforced, 13 of the 17 pupils submitted ratings discrepant with actual arithmetic performance by more than two problems per session. Maximum Checks reduced discrepancies below two problems per session for 15 of the 17 pupils. This same low level of exaggeration was maintained during Minimum Checks for 14 of the 17 pupils. Correct arithmetic performance showed no systematic change. Teachers reported that self‐rating resulted in time savings over their usual methods of scoring. The results indicated that pupils exaggerate when rewarded for self‐ratings. Exaggeration was reduced and maintained at low levels by infrequent accuracy checks.
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION TRAINING: IN VIVO VERSUS CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION
Authors: Neef Nancy A. , Iwata Brian A. , Page Terry J.
Published: March 2006

This study evaluated a classroom program to teach public transportation usage (bus‐riding skills) to retarded persons. Based on a task analysis of specific skills, five retarded male students were taught each of the components of locating, signalling, boarding and riding, and exiting a bus. These skills were taught sequentially, using training procedures consisting of role playing, manipulating the actions of a doll on a simulated model, and responding to questions about slide sequences. Before, during, and after training, subjects were tested on generalization probes in the classroom and in the natural environment. Results of a multiple‐baseline design across subjects indicated that up to 12 months after termination of training, each subject exhibited appropriate bus‐riding skills on actual city buses. Two other subjects were trained on each skill component in vivo, on city buses, in order to compare the relative effectiveness and efficiency of classroom versus in vivo training. Both of these subjects acquired appropriate bus‐riding skills; however, the in vivo training procedure was both more time consuming and expensive than classroom training. These findings further demonstrate the effectiveness and practicality of properly designed classroom training procedures for teaching community survival skills to retarded persons.
INCREASING THE RATE OF PRESENTATION AND USE OF SIGNALS IN ELEMENTARY CLASSROOM TEACHERS1
Authors: Carnine Douglas W. , Fink William T.
Published: March 2006

Two issues relevant to competency‐based teacher training were investigated—the specification of acceptable implementation levels for validated techniques and the necessity and feasibility of providing training on those techniques. First, a descriptive study was conducted to collect data on two direct‐instruction teaching techniques—rate of presentation and signalling—that have been demonstrated to be functionally related to child performance in earlier studies. Data collected on 13 teachers, who received intensive preservice and inservice training, were then used as a standard for comparison in a multiple‐baseline design across three untrained teachers to evaluate the effects of training on the two techniques. The experimental study served to determine whether training on the two techniques was necessary; and, if training was necessary, whether a training package, including supervised practice, unsupervised practice, and self‐critique, would result in adequate implementation levels for the two techniques. Low implementation levels during baseline for three untrained teachers indicated that training was necessary. With training, all teachers increased their levels of appropriately signalling pupil responses and accelerated their rates of presentation well above the levels of the comparison standard. Observations made one week and again four weeks after training ended showed that performance levels achieved during training were maintained.
MEASURING CLIENT GAINS FROM STAFF‐IMPLEMENTED PROGRAMS
Authors: Greene Brandon F. , Willis B. S. , Levy Rick , Bailey Jon S.
Published: March 2006

Confidence in the adequacy with which staff implement training programs requires an analysis of the impact on the client. In two experiments, measures were devised to reflect this impact. In the first, a measure of the consistency with which clients participated in a toilet‐training program revealed their participation to be erratic. Consistent participation occurred after a public display of the consistency of participation was introduced. In Experiment II, detailed measures were devised to reflect the client's performance during the implementation of two physical‐therapy programs: range‐of‐motion and ambulation. Additionally, standardized measures of the benefits that accrued from their participation in these programs were devised. Improvements in both measures were slight and unstable during a condition of immediate feedback (supervisor praise) to staff but substantial improvements were obtained with the addition of a public display of the client's performance.
AN INDEX FOR ASSESSING WEIGHT CHANGE IN CHILDREN: WEIGHT/HEIGHT RATIOS1
Authors: Edwards K. Anthony
Published: March 2006

Weight and height data from two studies were recomputed, and original data were computed using a Weight Index formula that accounts for the interaction of actual weight/height changes in growing children and compares this ratio with that of normed weight/height ratios for equal‐aged children. Recomputing the data of one study showed that the Weight Index is a more sensitive procedure for assessing long‐term behavioral treatment of obesity for girls than weight alone. Recomputing the data of a second study showed that the Weight Index formula is consistent for boys and girls and is a more sensitive procedure for assessing long‐term effects of a variety of medical treatments for obesity than the Ponderal Index or weight alone. Computation of the data for 17 “normal” children in a preschool class showed a zero Weight Index score before and after a six‐month interval elapsed without treatment. The procedure may be useful in assessing ponderosity or anorexia over intervals of six months or more with growing children or difference between actual and normed weight over shorter intervals.
A CLASSIFICATION SCHEME OF SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF REINFORCEMENT WITHIN GROUP OPERANT SYSTEMS1
Authors: Neumann Joseph K.
Published: March 2006

Many different reinforcement contingencies are found in group operant systems, such as token economies and point systems. Some systems use group contingencies in which the reinforcement of any one participant may depend on the behavior of some other group member. Other programs are individual, in that participants earn reinforcers dependent only on their own behavior. The various possible arrangements of people and their response requirements are labelled “social conditions of reinforcement” in this paper. Previous attempts at classification have failed to categorize the variety of social conditions of reinforcement. In addition, some conditions that may produce behaviorally different effects have not been separated. The present paper classifies the social conditions of reinforcement found in applied programs in a three‐dimensional scheme. The efficacy of the three major dimensions—reinforcing agent, recipient response requirement, and group response requirement—is supported by clinical and research data. The reinforcing agent dimension refers to the person(s) who dispenses reinforcers to group members. This major dimension is further subdivided: one or several agents may be either designated or nondesignated. Recipients are the group members who receive reinforcement. This dimension is also subdivided: one or several recipients in a social condition of reinforcement may obtain reinforcers either contingently or noncontingently. The group response requirement is a criterion that must be satisfied before any group participant is eligible for reinforcement. Some systems have no group requirement, and others have a group requirement that must be met by some designated or nondesignated participant(s). Supportive references and examples are given in the explanation of each dimension and subdimension. The behavioral impact of the various categories is emphasized. For all major dimensions, applied implications and research suggestions are discussed. Concluding remarks center on the utility of the present scheme, the classification of operant procedures other than positive reinforcement, and both theoretical and applied issues requiring further study (e.g., the long‐term effects of participation in group contingencies).