bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Origins of City-States
Authors: Stasavage David
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the origins of European city-states. It has long been observed that within Europe, autonomous cities tended to emerge in a relatively narrow belt stretching from the Low Countries to northern Italy, and this empirical observation has generated a variety of explanations. Answering this question is critical to the conceptualization of the broad process of state formation in Europe. The chapter asks why city-states emerged in some European regions in the first place, whereas elsewhere territorial states became the dominant mode of state organization. It considers the principal existing explanation for the pattern of city-state development, the Rokkan/Tilly hypothesis, and compares it with the Carolingian partition hypothesis. Results of empirical tests show that city-states were able to emerge in Europe's central core because this was where central political control collapsed to the greatest extent after the partition of the Carolingian Empire.
Three Territorial State Experiences
Authors: Stasavage David
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines public credit and political representation in three European territorial states: France, Castile, and Holland. It tackles the following question: If having a representative assembly with strong control over finance had major advantages, then why could territorial states not emulate the institutions present in their city-state neighbors? The chapter first considers the early history of the rentes sur l'Hôtel de Ville and how it set the stage for the French monarchy's frequent difficulty in later obtaining access to credit. It then discusses absolutism in Castile and Castilian public credit in the seventeenth century, along with representative assemblies in the Dutch Republic. The experience of France, Castile, and the Dutch Republic shows that most territorial states faced obstacles in establishing an intensive form of political representation, and thus in gaining access to credit.
Overture
Authors: Gikandi Simon
Published: November 2017

This chapter reflects on the character and shape of sensibility in the age of slavery. It explores how ideas and ideals about taste and beauty demanded powerful counterpoints built around notions of black difference. Focusing on British debates on the question of taste and the role of culture in the shaping of modern identity and the reality of enslavement and its objects, the chapter considers how some of the most important ideas of bourgeois culture—namely, art and freedom—were mapped and haunted by their contaminating danger, manifestly represented by the racialized black body. The chapter also locates the author's work within changing debates on empire and the symbolic economy of slavery.
Unspeakable Events
Authors: Gikandi Simon
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents two instances of how slave money shaped the moment of taste in both pragmatic and conceptual terms. It provides a substantive exploration of the cultural traffic between Britain and its colonial outposts in order to show how the experience of slavery was turned into an aesthetic object that was woven into the fabric of everyday life. It then seeks to connect slave money and the power and prestige of art by focusing on the aesthetic lives of William Beckford and Christopher Codrington, famous heirs to slave fortunes, who sought to remake their social standing through the patronage of art and the mastery of taste.
Breaking Ties, Building Fences
Authors: John Rachel St.
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the decade of war that included both the Mexican Revolution and the United States' participation in the First World War, describing how war transformed the border from a site of interaction and cooperation to one of conflict and division—a transformation that was reflected spatially in transborder battles and the erection of border fences. During the war years, U.S. and Mexican officials began to replace the landscape of binational cooperation and conditional controls that had been developed with the countries' customs, immigration, and law enforcement needs in mind with stricter regulations on who and what could cross the border and armed men and physical barriers to enforce them. These measures, along with years of violence and bloodshed, took their toll on the social and economic ties that had bound border communities together.
Like Night and Day
Authors: John Rachel St.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how U.S. prohibitions prompted the growth of border vice districts and alcohol and drug smuggling along the boundary line and explores the conflict that arose on both sides of the border over how the nation-states could or should use border controls to stymie these developments. By the 1920s, both Americans and Mexicans had become aware that the border control apparatus that the states had erected on the border for national defense and customs enforcement could also be used for new state prerogatives, including morality regulation. However, the conditional controls—including the early closing of border gates—raised questions about who had the right to regulate the boundary line and on what basis they should be allowed to enforce that control. While American reformers lauded the establishment of early closing hours, many business people, bureaucrats, and Mexican nationalists challenged the U.S. government's authority to unilaterally use the boundary line for the purposes of enforcing moral standards.
Introduction to Modeling Convection in Planets and Stars
Authors: Glatzmaier Gary A.
Published: November 2017

This book provides readers with the skills they need to write computer codes that simulate convection, internal gravity waves, and magnetic field generation in the interiors and atmospheres of rotating planets and stars. Using a teaching method perfected in the classroom, the book begins by offering a step-by-step guide on how to design codes for simulating nonlinear time-dependent thermal convection in a 2D box using Fourier expansions in the horizontal direction and finite differences in the vertical direction. It then describes how to implement more efficient a nd accurate numerical methods and more realistic geometries in two and three dimensions. The third part of the book demonstrates how to incorporate more sophisticated physics, including the effects of magnetic field, density stratification, and rotation. The book features numerous exercises throughout, and is an ideal textbook for students and an essential resource for researchers. It explains how to create codes that simulate the internal dynamics of planets and stars, and builds on basic concepts and simple methods. The book shows how to improve the efficiency and accuracy of the numerical methods. It considers more relevant geometries and boundary conditions.
A Model of Rayleigh-Bénard Convection
Authors: Glatzmaier Gary A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a model of Rayleigh–Bénard convection. It first describes the fundamental dynamics expected in a fluid that is convectively stable and in one that is convectively unstable, focusing on thermal convection and internal gravity waves. Thermal convection and internal gravity waves are the two basic types of fluid flows within planets and stars that are driven by thermally produced buoyancy forces. The chapter then reviews the equations that govern fluid dynamics based on conservation of mass, momentum, and energy. It also examines the conditions under which the Boussinesq approximation simplifies conservation equations to a form very similar to that of an incompressible fluid. Finally, it discusses the key characteristics of the model of Rayleigh–Bénard convection.
Linear Stability Analysis
Authors: Glatzmaier Gary A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes a linear stability analysis (that is, solving for the critical Rayleigh number Ra and mode) that allows readers to check their linear codes against the analytic solution. For this linear analysis, each Fourier mode n can be considered a separate and independent problem. The question that needs to be addressed now is under what conditions—that is, what values of Ra, Prandtl number Pr, and aspect ratio a—will the amplitude of the linear solution grow with time for a given mode n. This is a linear stability problem. The chapter first introduces the linear equations before discussing the linear code and explaining how to find the critical Rayleigh number; in other words, the value of Ra for a and Pr that gives a solution that neither grows nor decays with time. It also shows how the linear stability problem can be solved using an analytic approach.
Spatial Discretizations
Authors: Glatzmaier Gary A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers two ways of employing a spatial resolution that varies with position within a finite-difference method: using a nonuniform grid and mapping to a new coordinate variable. It first provides an overview of nonuniform grids before discussing coordinate mapping as an alternative way of achieving spatial discretization. It then describes an approach for treating both the vertical and horizontal directions with simple finite-difference methods: defining a streamfunction, which automatically satisfies mass conservation, and solving for vorticity via the curl of the momentum conservation equation. It also explains the use of the Chebyshev–Fourier method to simulate the convection or gravity wave problem by employing spectral methods in both the horizontal and vertical directions. Finally, it looks at the basic ideas and some issues that need to be addressed with respect to parallel processing as well as choices that need to be made when designing a parallel code.
Boundaries and Geometries
Authors: Glatzmaier Gary A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how boundary and geometry affect convection. It begins with a discussion of how one can implement “absorbing” top and bottom boundaries, which reduce the large-amplitude convectively driven flows within shallow boundary layers or the reflection of internal gravity waves off these boundaries in a stable stratification. It then considers how to replace the impermeable side boundary conditions with permeable periodic side boundary conditions to allow fluid flow through these boundaries and nonzero mean flow. It also introduces “two and a half dimensional” geometry within a cartesian box geometry and describes how a fully 3D cartesian box model could be constructed. Finally, it presents a model of convection in a fully 3D spherical-shell and shows how it can be easily reduced to a 2.5D spherical-shell model. The horizontal structures are represented in terms of spherical harmonic expansions.
Organic Bodies, Part I
Authors: Smith Justin E. H.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines Leibniz's theory of organic body. In his early animal–economical texts, for the most part Leibniz is interested in the motion of animal bodies but not the force that underlies it. From the early 1680s on, Leibniz grew increasingly concerned with distinguishing the two, arguing that the movement can be explained without appeal to the “more real” force underlying it. He continues to insist that there must be an autonomous and self-sufficient domain for the study of bodies. He repeats frequently his view that every particular thing in the world of bodies may be explained in mechanical terms, even if the general principles of bodies are derived from higher—which is to say metaphysical—principles. At the same time, Leibniz believes that he can give an exhaustive account of the phenomena of living bodies without taking recourse to higher principles. To offer such an account is the highest goal of his study of organics.
On the threshold of the state
Authors: Brett Annabel S.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides a background of the conflicted relationship between nature and the city—the fraught intersection of the political and the natural world—in the natural law discourse of the later sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. In the course of this extraordinary century, marked by the outward expansion of European states across the globe and simultaneously by their internal implosion into civil war, the boundaries of political space were fundamentally contested not only at a practical but at a theoretical level, and the dominant idiom of that contestation was the universalizing juridical language of natural law. What was forged in the process, culminating iconically in the Peace of Westphalia of 1648 and Thomas Hobbes' masterpiece Leviathan of 1651, is commonly taken to have been nothing other than the modern, territorial nation-state.
Travelling the borderline
Authors: Brett Annabel S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at Francisco de Vitoria and his Dominican colleagues at the Spanish School of Salamanca in the middle of the sixteenth century. They are famous for their reconstitution and redeployment of Thomas Aquinas's theory of natural law to address the new problems of the sixteenth century, problems that beset Spain along with the rest of Europe: the power of the crown both within its own commonwealth and in relation to other commonwealths, and these powers both within Europe and overseas. For the School's most celebrated member, Francisco de Vitoria, natural law is the law of reason by which all human beings are naturally governed—the law of humanity as such—and, for him as for Aquinas, it ultimately determines the legitimacy of any subsequent human institutions and laws. The chapter also considers Domingo de Soto's The deliberation in the cause of the poor, which was published in 1545.
Constructing human agency
Authors: Brett Annabel S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that human agency is free agency. It is freedom, or dominium over one's own actions, which makes a human being different from all other animals; and it is the foundation of the world of the moral, the juridical, and the political, which are all continuous with one another and from which animals—and a fortiori all other natural agents—are excluded. However, during the sixteenth century, the idea that human beings are essentially and ineradicably free to control their own actions came under severe pressure from new and irreconcilable theological differences over the freedom of the human will—differences that therefore implicitly pressured the primary threshold of political space.
Natural law
Authors: Brett Annabel S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the concept of natural law, turning first to the Protestant milieu. Alterity—what would in the seventeenth century come to be theorized, and problematized, as “sociability”—is the dominant mood of the humanist and Protestant handling of natural law. It is there even in Thomas Hobbes, whose natural law coincides with moral philosophy and concerns the sphere of one's actions in respect of others. However, the Catholic scholastic tradition presents a very different framing of natural law, one that centers on individual agency and regulates the behavior of individual agents in their aspect as beings of a particular kind. While authors in this tradition grapple equally with the question of animal behavior in relation to law, they do not do so from the social perspective that characterizes Protestant humanist Aristotelians and jurists.
Natural liberty
Authors: Brett Annabel S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the juridical status of natural liberty within legal humanist and Aristotelian thinking. Within the broadly Aristotelian political literature, there are two places where the question of a natural liberty surfaces. The first is in Book I of the Politics, where Aristotle argued for the existence of natural slaves. Aristotle here did not contrast natural slavery with natural liberty but with natural mastery or dominium. The second is in Book V of the Politics, where Aristotle defined the democratic understanding of liberty as “to live as one likes” and for “the fancy of the moment”—a misguided understanding, because “it ought not be regarded as slavery to live according to the constitution, but rather as salvation.” In this way, the discussion of liberty as a natural faculty was intimately connected with the question of the proper understanding of civil liberty.
The lives of subjects
Authors: Brett Annabel S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the relationship of the state to its subjects as necessarily physically embodied beings. The primary way in which the commonwealth commands its subjects is through the medium of its law. The law is for the common good and obliges the community as a whole, and thus the ontological status of the law—as distinct from any particular command of a superior to an individual—is intimately tied to that of the body politic. The question, then, concerning the relationship of the state to the natural body of the individual can be framed in terms of the extent of the obligation of the civil law.
Short introduction to heights and Arakelov theory
Authors: Edixhoven Bas , de Jong Robin
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses bounding the heights of the coefficients of minimal polynomial P. As was hinted at in Chapter 3, such bounds are obtained using Arakelov theory, a tool that is discussed in this chapter. It is not at all excluded that a direct approach to bound the coefficients of P exists, thus avoiding the complicated theory that we use. On the other hand, it is clear that the use of Arakelov theory provides a way to split the work into smaller steps, and that the quantities occurring in each step are intrinsic in the sense that they do not depend on coordinate systems or other choices one could make. This method does not depend on cancellations of terms in the estimates we will do; all contributions encountered can be bounded appropriately.
Computations with modular forms and Galois representations
Authors: Bosman Johan
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses several aspects of the practical side of computing with modular forms and Galois representations. It starts by discussing computations with modular forms, and from there work towards the computation of polynomials that give the Galois representations associated with modular forms. Throughout, the chapter denotes the space of cusp forms of weight k, group Γ‎₁(N), and character ε‎ by Sₖ(N, ε‎).
Bounds for Arakelov invariants of modular curves
Authors: Edixhoven Bas , de Jong Robin
Published: November 2017

This chapter gives bounds for all quantities on the right-hand side in the inequality in Theorems 9.1.1 and 9.2.5, in the context of the modular curves X₁(5l) with l > 5 prime, using the upper bounds for Green functions from Chapter 10. The final estimates are given in the last section of the chapter.
Computing Vf modulo p
Authors: Couveignes Jean-Marc
Published: November 2017

This chapter addresses the problem of computing in the group of lsuperscript k-torsion rational points in the Jacobian variety of algebraic curves over finite fields, with an application to computing modular representations. An algorithm in this chapter usually means a probabilistic Las Vegas algorithm. In some places it gives deterministic or probabilistic Monte Carlo algorithms, but this will be stated explicitly. The main reason for using probabilistic Turing machines is that there is a need to construct generating sets for the Picard group of curves over finite fields. Solving such a problem in the deterministic world is out of reach at this time. The unique goal is to prove, as quickly as possible, that the problems studied in this chapter can be solved in probabilistic polynomial time.
Computing coefficients of modular forms
Authors: Edixhoven Bas
Published: November 2017

This chapter applies the main result on the computation of Galois representations attached to modular forms of level one to the computation of coefficients of modular forms. It treats the case of the discriminant modular form, that is, the computation of Ramanujan's tau-function at primes, and then deals with the more general case of forms of level one and arbitrary weight k, reformulated as the computation of Hecke operators Tⁿ as ℤ-linear combinations of the Tᵢ with i < k = 12. The chapter gives an application to theta functions of even, unimodular positive definite quadratic forms over ℤ.
Spaces and Operators
Authors: Roach G. F. , Stratis I. G. , Yannacopoulos A. N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter consists mainly of definitions and various properties (without proofs) of spaces and operators used in this book. It defines O as an open set in Rᶰ such that it is locally on one side of its boundary Γ‎ := δ‎O, which is supposed to be bounded and Lipschitz. The chapter is mainly focused on the case of N = 3. Further, without loss of generality, the chapter supposes that Γ‎ is connected (for otherwise, one could work separately at each connected component). Such a set O is referred to as ‘regular’ in what follows. Let n denote the outward unit normal vector to Γ‎. In addition, let Oₑ := Rᶰ∖Ō: By N₀ we denote the set N ∪ {0}.
Towards a Scattering Theory
Authors: Roach G. F. , Stratis I. G. , Yannacopoulos A. N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter indicates how scattering theories can be developed when wave motions in chiral media are studied. To begin, this chapter remarks that a scattering process describes the effects of a perturbation on a system about which everything is known in the absence of the perturbation. It then presents a general formulation of the class of problems thus described in terms of evolution operators, and outlines an approach to scattering theory in the time domain. The chapter also shows how the use of spectral theory allows the explicit construction of solutions to abstract initial boundary value problems in terms of generalised integral transforms, and how these generalised integral transforms can be used for the construction of the wave operators and the scattering operator. Furthermore, this chapter explores the extension of these ideas to the study of electromagnetics of complex media.
Introduction
Authors: Clark Gordon L. , Dixon Adam D. , Monk Ashby H. B.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides an overview of sovereign wealth funds (SWFs). It begins with a discussion of how policymakers of all stripes, from democracies to autocracies, have all come to see SWFs as important buffers against global market forces that threaten domestic institutions and policies. It then details the rise of SWFs; the effort to build trust through the voluntary Generally Accepted Principles and Practices, known as the Santiago Principles, developed by the International Working Group of SWFs with the support of the International Monetary Fund; the institutional form and function of SWFs; and the new geography of finance. It argues that SWFs represent the high-water mark of financialization and the next installment of capitalist development following Clark's (2000) pension fund capitalism.
The Ethics of Global Investment: Norway’s Government Pension Fund
Authors: Clark Gordon L. , Dixon Adam D. , Monk Ashby H. B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the investment policies of the Norwegian Government Pension Fund-Global (GPF-G). One of the world's largest investors, this sovereign wealth fund (SWF) has an explicit mission to integrate long-term investment policies with a two-sided ethical commitment. The Norwegian fund's ethical mandate is remarkable when compared to other SWFs. However, this mandate is best understood in terms of procedural rather than substantive justice. The chapter argues that the primary reason for the ethical policies within the GPF-G is to secure domestic legitimacy; its ethical impact is of secondary importance. This argument is sustained by reference to recent work on the nature of state authority and legitimacy in democratic societies, the logic of institutional governance, and the functional integration of decision-making. The chapter concludes with implications for situating the functional performance of the fund in the context of changing global financial markets.
A Religion That Instills Virtue
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers elaborations of republican religion in Quattrocento political thought. Politicians, prophets, historians, and philosophers explained that the men who serve the common good render themselves godlike. Salutati, for instance, stated several times that a good Christian has a duty to serve his fatherland with all his energies. He also noted that charity toward the fatherland must comprise as well as surpass any other affection, bond, and interest. Bruni, who served as chancellor of the republic from 1410 to 1411, and again from 1427 until his death in 1444, also thought that the good Christian should be a good citizen, ready to serve his fatherland, because Christ's word does not conflict with a love of country.
Sacred Laws and Sacred Republics
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers theories on sacred laws and republics. For civic humanists, laws are sacred as long as they reflect divine wisdom, and because their object is not just whatever is good but rather the divine good, which is the public good. In order to ignite and sustain loyalty within a citizenry toward laws and statutes, a republic must foster its religious system with great diligence. Furthermore, a republic must educate its citizenry to love justice and the fatherland, through both the teaching imparted by good and revered priests, and ceremonies that strike and move the multitudes' sentiments. Palmieri, for instance, believes that religion instills a sense of duty and reinforces within men's souls the will to live in accordance with justice. He emphasizes that God loves the decent life and wants to preserve it, and therefore rewards men involved in the excellent deeds of “extirpating tyrants for the good of the many” as well as “establishing good and peaceful governments.”
Without God
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the impact of Jean-Jacques Rousseau on the history of republican religion. Rousseau was well aware that republics need religion to come to life and endure. He notes that great lawgivers had to place the rules of civil life in God's mouth and that only men with great souls can persuade people that they have been inspired by God and hence can establish enduring laws. At the same time, he charges the Christian religion with inculcating in its followers a servile mentality. Inasmuch as both past and present religions are ill suited for founding a civil morality, Rousseau recommends a new religion, to be instituted and preserved through the force of laws, founded not on dogmas but rather on “sentiments of sociability without which it is impossible to be either a good citizen or a loyal subject.” Rousseau's ideas on civil religion had considerable impact not only in France but also in Italy during the “Jacobin years” (1796–1799), when, in the shadow of French armies, republican governments were formed.
The New Alliance
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the rise of a new civil religion in Italy. The ideas coming from France helped Italian intellectuals seek a civil religion different from the Jacobin one, which had revealed all its flimsiness and had not been able to weaken the traditional religion. The prevailing position was that of promoting a civil religiosity in Italy within Christianity. The most refined intellectual reflections originated in Tuscany, where four centuries before, a republican Christianity was born and took root. The most influential personality of the reform movement was Raffaello Lambruschini (1788—1873), who was imprisoned because of his involvement with the refugees of the Neapolitan Revolution, and had a prominent role in Tuscan cultural and political life at the beginning of the 1820s. Lambruschini stood in favor of the alliance between religion and liberty.
Two Clashing Religions
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter recounts the history of the religion of liberty from the beginning of the fascist regime to the birth of the republic, and the stories of some of the men and women who believed in that religion. The fascist religion brought thousands of people to the squares, had state support, and offered impressive rituals; the religion of liberty lived in the souls of a few men and women, and circulated on the pages of books and reviews as well as in letters and private diaries. Less than fifteen years later, the fascist religion dissolved under the weight of the immense and unfathomable suffering that its idols and priests imposed on millions of human beings along with the force of worldwide moral condemnation. The religion of liberty, instead, helped the birth of a new Italian fatherland.
In the Name of Christ
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the opposition to fascism. For instance, Don Giovanni Minzoni, parish priest in Argenta, massacred by the fascists on August 23, 1923, was among the first who understood the fundamental truth that fascism offends Christian conscience. During World War I, Minzoni served as a military chaplain. Notwithstanding this terrible trial, he continued to understand the word of Christ as a teaching of liberty and democracy. Whereas the Vatican was engaging in ever-closer rapprochement with the regime, other Catholics penned calls encouraging people to fight fascism. Igino Giordani, who in 1925 published Rivolta cattolica (Catholic revolt), with the Piero Gobetti Press, was one of these writers. In his text, Giordani openly urges Catholics to revolt, in the name of their faith, against the anti-Christian religion of fascism.
The Religion of Liberty
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the political writings of Benedetto Croce. As early as 1925, Croce outlined the characteristics of a religion of liberty opposing the fascist religion. In his “Manifesto degli intellettuali antifascisti” (Manifesto of antifascist intellectuals), which he wrote in direct response to the “Manifesto of Fascist Intellectuals” composed by Gentile, he uses the most severe words against fascism's claim to be a new religion for Italy. When Croce challenged the fascist intellectuals in the name of the religion of liberty, he had already developed a profound awareness of the contrast between an outward religiosity and true religion, which is a firm inner conviction. Only the latter opens the way to the modern world, and can free Italians from the false idols that have seduced and conquered their consciences.
Twilight
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter summarizes key themes and presents some final thoughts. It argues that the tragedy of fascism and Nazism should have taught us that totalitarianism establishes itself through banal men, and that the true antidote is a religion that prevents one from adoring men who pretend to be gods, for it teaches us to love instead the inner God of moral conscience, and to defend liberty with absolute devotion. It is a lesson of history to be pondered. This book, having narrated a few moments of the history of the religion of liberty in Italy, will certainly not help bring it back to life, even though it is desperately needed; but it will at least help us preserve the memory of the men and women who lived for it.
Introduction
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter discusses the ‘Problem of Paganism’ and premise of this issue, as well as the scope and methods this volume will undertake in unraveling the subject. The Problem posited here is a newly invented label which picks out a set of closely connected issues about pagan virtue and the knowledge of God and salvation — issues which reveal a central tension within the culture of Western Europe in the period from c. 200 to c. 1700, the ‘Long Middle Ages’. More often than not they are sidelined or hidden, but they are given sustained attention by a number of the most remarkable thinkers and writers of the period.
Boethius
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy, which was written around 524 CE. A striking contrast to Augustine's answer to the Problem of Paganism, the Consolation of Philosophy was translated into the gamut of medieval vernaculars, from Old High German to Hebrew. The Consolation does not obviously put forward an answer, or even state the Problem of Paganism, and on the reading followed by many specialists, Boethius was not concerned with it at all. This chapter argues that their judgement is wrong, and emphasises that the Consolation needs to be considered as a complex literary work that can be properly understood only when placed in its author's unusual cultural context.
The Early Middle Ages and the Christianization of Europe
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the ease with which the ancient pagan culture was adopted and adapted to fit into a Christian world (without in many cases being actually Christianized) during the Early Middle Ages. In writing which was not strictly theological or philosophical, early medieval scholars used ancient models and language freely within a Christian context. They took the compatibility of pagan culture and Christian belief so much for granted that the Problem of Paganism did not arise; and the same is true for their predecessors in the sixth and seventh centuries as for some tenth- and eleventh-century writing. This broad, unproblematic acceptance of classical culture set what would remain the mainstream view throughout the Middle Ages. The chapter also looks at how Christian Europe came about only as the result of a long process.
The Sino-Soviet Split and Problems for the United States in Asia, Europe, and the Americas, 1956–64
Authors: Christensen Thomas J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the Sino-Soviet split and its implications for the United States' policies in Asia, Europe, and the Americas during the period 1956–1964. Coordination and comity in the communist camp peaked between 1953 and 1957, but alliance between the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China (PRC) was relatively short-lived. This was caused by ideological differences, distrust, and jealous rivalries for international leadership between Nikita Khrushchev and Mao Zedong. The chapter explains what caused the strain in Sino-Soviet relations, and especially the collapse of Sino-Soviet military and economic cooperation. It also considers the effects of the Sino-Soviet disputes on third-party communists in Asia, China's foreign policy activism, and the catalytic effect of the Sino-Soviet split on Soviet foreign policy.
“This backdrop of entrenched inequality”
Authors: King Desmond S. , Smith Rogers M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter illustrates the conflicting approaches advanced by today's racial alliances on issues of race equality in the workplace, as on so many other topics—conflicts that include disagreements not only over formal affirmative action programs but also over the legitimacy of race-conscious policymaking of any sort. It is no accident when these issues emerge with particular intensity in employment policy. No area of American life is more central to the quest to eradicate unjust material racial inequalities. This is why, as the chapter shows, previous struggles on racial equality focused so strongly on equality in the workplace. While such actions were hailed by many veterans of the civil rights movement as necessary, color-blind proponents came to assail these as new forms of unjust racial discrimination. Contestation over these policies became the central “battleground” around which modern racial policy coalitions formed.
Hugo Grotius Revisited
Authors: Risse Mathias
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines collective ownership of the earth as a ground of justice by focusing on Hugo Grotius's De Jure Belli ac Pacis Libri Tres (DJB, Three Books on the Law of War and Peace, 1625), which addresses questions of global scope in a way that develops a standpoint of global public reason. The chapter first explains how reflection on collective ownership enters Grotius's work before discussing how Grotius introduces his views on natural law as well as the collective ownership status of the earth. It then explores how, according to DJB, a morally legitimate system of private ownership law could develop against the background of persisting natural collective ownership rights. It also describes how Grotius uses humanity's collective ownership to constrain what people may do with resources and spaces.
“Our Sole Habitation”
Authors: Risse Mathias
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines from a secular standpoint the notion that the earth belongs to humankind collectively by offering a view on the ownership status of the earth that it calls Common Ownership. It first considers collective ownership of the earth and some of its conceptions, especially Common Ownership, before describing what work Common Ownership does in an engagement with libertarianism. It then defends Common Ownership against objections in terms of the value of the environment and discusses two alternative conceptions of collective ownership. It relates the results to global justice and shows how Common Ownership enters into debates in the philosophical literature. Finally, it explores one version of left-libertarianism and one of Thomas Pogge's arguments for the claim that the global order harms the poor.
Proportionate Use
Authors: Risse Mathias
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the relationship between immigration and collective ownership of the earth, and whether the physical aspect of immigration provides constraints on immigration policy. The fact that the earth is originally collectively owned must affect how communities can regulate access to what they occupy. The chapter first considers an account of relative over- and underuse of original resources before discussing illegal immigration in the United States, using a parallel to the civil law notion of “adverse possession” to argue that, under certain conditions, illegal immigration is morally unobjectionable. It then formulates conditions under which it would be reasonable for co-owners to refrain from entering certain regions, even though they would violate no duties of justice by doing so. This proposal is part of the overall approach to global justice that pluralist internationalism develops.
Climate Change and Ownership of the Atmosphere
Authors: Risse Mathias
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the implications of Common Ownership for duties resulting from climate change. It explains what we can learn from the standpoint of collective ownership of the earth about how to distribute burdens from mitigation and adaptation specifically among states. To this end, the chapter considers the ownership status of the atmosphere and ways of thinking about a fair division of burdens. It shows that, as an obligation of justice, regulating access to the absorptive capacity of the atmosphere is required to make sure the basic climate conditions of the earth are preserved. It argues that access to the absorptive capacity of the earth ought to be regulated by a fair-division scheme. It is an obligation of justice that access to that capacity be regulated, and it is a demand of reasonable conduct that such regulation be done by a fair-division scheme.
Arguing for Human Rights
Authors: Risse Mathias
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines whether labor rights are human rights. Labor rights appear in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and are covered by the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. Nevertheless, there are three primary objections to the notion that labor rights are human rights: the nature-of-rights objection, the inferior urgency objection, and the cultural imperialism objection. In light of the persistent skepticism confronting the idea of labor rights as human rights, the chapter traces the historical development that brought labor rights into the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It also considers whether we can derive labor rights from the various substantive sources of membership rights in the global order.
Introduction
Authors: Gelderblom Oscar
Published: November 2017

This book explores the impact of urban competition on the institutional foundations of international trade in the Low Countries during the period 1250–1650, with particular emphasis on local and foreign merchant communities in Bruges, Antwerp, and Amsterdam. The book offers an alternative explanation for institutional change in European commerce that is not predicated upon the existence of strong territorial states or the ability of merchants to create private order solutions. Instead, it argues that the very problem of premodern Europe's political and legal fragmentation also produced its solution in the form of open access or inclusive institutions that made it easier for merchants to deal with violence and other conflicts. This introductory chapter considers the dynamics of institutional change, focusing on the link between state formation and the growth of trade, foreign traders' use of private order solutions to prevent violent assaults or the opportunistic behavior of their agents without the support of sovereign rulers, and urban competition between commercial cities in the Low Countries.
Commercial Cities
Authors: Gelderblom Oscar
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the competition between neighboring ports led Bruges, Antwerp, and Amsterdam to adapt institutional arrangements to the needs of international traders. It considers how Bruges, Antwerp, and Amsterdam were able to overcome the negative effects of urban competition and develop an institutional framework conducive to the growth of trade. It explores what the three commercial cities did to secure a central position in domestic and international trade during the period, focusing on the important role played by the urban magistrates. The chapter shows that the creation of more inclusive commercial regimes allowed Bruges, Antwerp, and particularly Amsterdam to treat all merchants equally by means of a commercial infrastructure that served the merchant community at large.
The Protection of Trade
Authors: Gelderblom Oscar
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the protective measures implemented by merchants and rulers in Bruges, Antwerp, and Amsterdam to deal with violent threats such as theft, robbery, or even outright warfare. It shows that the existence of an international network of commercial cities created strong incentives for local and central governments to offer protection to international traders to enhance the position of individual cities in this network. It also considers how imminent changes in a city's position in the international urban hierarchy led to the massive use of force, citing as examples the Flemish Revolt and the Dutch Revolt. Finally, it discusses the unification of the Habsburgs as rulers of the Netherlands and its impact on the safety of merchants, along with the rise of the Dutch Republic.
Ex-Jew, Eternal Jew
Authors: Schwartz Daniel B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the “prehistory” of the Jewish rehabilitation of Spinoza, exploring how his Jewish origins figured in fashioning him into a cultural symbol among non-Jews first. It traces his shifting image across a spectrum of modern Jewish movements and milieus, from the Berlin Haskalah to early religious Reform and Wissenschaft des Judentums (the Science of Judaism) in Germany to the East European Haskalah, Zionism, and Yiddish culture. The chapter discusses the relevance of Spinoza's Jewishness to this early mythmaking. The shapers of Spinoza's early image typically assigned his Jewishness a significant role, albeit not a positive one. Two basic plotlines relevant to this particularity developed in the late seventeenth and first half of the eighteenth century: one emphasized contrast, the other continuity.
The Hoplite Debate
Authors: Kagan Donald , Viggiano Gregory F.
Published: November 2017

This chapter takes a more detailed look into the hoplite debate. It shows how modern historians of ancient Greece have come to develop a grand narrative. This “orthodoxy” explains the rise of the early polis in terms of a dramatic change or “revolution” in arms, armor, and tactics; the military revolution became a driving force behind the emergence of the characteristic political and social structures of the Greek state. A central part of the thesis is that the change in fighting style was directly related to recent innovations in arms and armor. Second, the phalanx depended on the weight and the cohesion of heavily armed men who employed “shock” tactics in brief but decisive battles. Third, it has been critical to identify the greatest number of hoplites with a middling group within the polis, which had the wealth to provide its own arms. Fourth, this middling group transformed Greek values.
The Arms, Armor, and Iconography of Early Greek Hoplite Warfare
Authors: Viggiano Gregory F. , Van Wees Hans
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines hoplite equipment. Although elements of the bronze panoply associated with the classical hoplite began to appear in the late eighth century, what set the hoplite apart from his predecessors was above all his distinctive heavy wooden shield with a double handle, which is first attested circa 700 BC. This date may therefore be regarded as the beginning of the hoplite era. The shield has a central metal armband (the porpax), through which the bearer thrust his left forearm up to the elbow, and a hand grip (antilabe), at the rim of the shield, that he grasped with his left hand. A great deal of the debate about the origins of the classical phalanx centers on what the adoption of this type of shield might imply about the nature of hoplite fighting and battle formations.
The Hoplite Revolution and the Rise of the Polis
Authors: Viggiano Gregory F.
Published: November 2017

This chapter contests the idea that any argument put forth in recent years is reason to push down the traditional date for the origin of the polis or to reject the hoplite orthodoxy. It states the basic elements of the theory that have their beginnings in Aristotle's Politics, and then tests their merit against revisionist claims. The chapter also contests the recent claims that the evidence of survey archaeology has disproved the existence of a substantial class of middling farmers in the late eighth and seventh centuries. It argues that, despite gaps in the evidence, a clear picture of how the polis emerged can be made without omitting or contradicting any of the evidence from the literary sources, archaeology, and inscriptions.
Not Patriots, Not Farmers, Not Amateurs: Greek Soldiers of Fortune and the Origins of Hoplite Warfare
Authors: Hale John R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that neither the leisured class of aristocrats who vied for high social and political status within the polis nor the middling citizen soldiers who defended their farmland provides the origins of archaic Greek arms and tactics. Instead, the chapter suggests looking for the first hoplites fighting as mercenaries in the service of Eastern monarchs in areas such as Syria, Egypt, and Babylon. These soldiers of fortune fought in search of gain and glory, not to defend a civic ideology or ethos. Evidence for this thesis can be found in lyric poetry and in inscriptions, pottery, and the remains of hoplite armor discovered outside Greece. Here, the mercenary service is considered the “Main Event” of Greek military history in the seventh century, in contrast to the sporadic battles between poleis.