bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Aristotle and the Uses of Logic
Authors: Striker Gisela
Published: November 2023

Aristotle, as we all know, invented formal logic. Over the last fifty years or so, scholars have learned to recognize that what he presented in the first few chapters of the Prior Analytics (An. pr.) is the real thing-a system of formal logic, whether or not the inspiration for the discovery of the syllogism had anything to do with Platonic division. We no longer hear about the magical force of the middle term or the alleged demonstrative power of first figure syllogisms as opposed to, say, the superficial subtleties of Stoic logic. Although Aristotle’s syllogistic covers only a small part of the field of modern mathematical logic, what he offered contained all the elements of a formal deductive system. He introduces the system of syllogistic moods by defining its technical terms, stating and justifying the primitive rules, and then providing formally correct proofs of the derivative rules.
Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Luxembourg: The Total Coincidence of Nations and Speech Communities?
Authors: Barbour Stephen
Published: November 2023

The area under consideration in this chapter corresponds very roughly indeed to the German-speaking area in Europe. More precisely, it corresponds to those states in which the majority of the population has German as its mother tongue. In the context of a discussion of language and nationalism, even an apparently simple statement like the last one requires extensive qualification. First of all, the states in question represent only those in which a majority of the population are native German-speakers; minorities of German-speakers can be found in numerous other states (see Chapters 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, and 12).
The Past, Present, and Future of the Debate about Tense
Authors: Poidevin Robin Le
Published: November 2023

The first clear articulation of the central issue about tensed distinctions is to be found in John Ellis McTaggart’;s article Toe Unreality of Time’; (1908), and again in chapter 27 of The Nature of Existence (1927). Here is how he presents that issue in the later discussion: It might be the case that the distinction of positions in time into past, present, and future, is only a constant illusion of our minds, and that the real nature of time contains only the distinctions of the B series-—the distinction of earlier and later.
Freedom and the New Theory of Time
Authors: Oaklander L Nathan
Published: November 2023

Although McTaggart’;s famous article on ‘Toe Unreality of Time’; initiated the contemporary debate between tensed and tenseless theories of time, it was not until the last two or three decades that the literature and interest in the issue blossomed. Undoubtedly, one of the reasons why the tenser-detenser debate in the philosophy of time has recently attracted so much attention is its connection with other important issues in philosophy.
Destruction
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

Around the year 1865 most of the rongorongo inscriptions appear to have been destroyed. The three Catholic missionaries who arrived at Rapanui in 1866 evidently knew nothing of the artefacts’ existence until Bishop Tepano Jaussen of Tahiti drew their attention to the tablet “Echancree” (RR 3) in 1869 (seep. 22). The rongorongo were certainly no longer hanging “in all the houses”.
Growing European Interest
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

In 1871 Adolf Bastian (1826-1905), the “Father of German Ethnology” and first Director of Berlin’s celebrated Museum fur VÖlkerkunde, the same ethnologist who had excited Miklukho-Maklai’s interest in rongorongo, was still conducting his own investigation into the Rapanui script. Bastian had heard of Huxley’s suggestion at the meeting of the Ethnological Society in London that the Easter Island glyphs were only stamps for marking tapa. Yet he was convinced there had to be more to it than this: rongorongo was a primitive form of writing. What sort of writing could this be? he asked and noted (Bastian, 1872: 84): “That the Polynesian tablets do not constitute a phonetic script requires no explanation for whoever has a pair of healthy eyes in his head and is in any way versed in the relevant problems”. Because of the script’s uniqueness in Polynesia, Bastian felt it to be incumbent to seek corresponding analogies among other peoples, especially in the Americas.
Into the 1880s
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

Encouraged by the enthusiasm that his casts of the two Santiago tablets (RR 8 and 9) had aroused among scientists in Europe, Rudolph Philippi finally turned a hand himself at investigating Rapanui’s rongorongo. The result was the best general review of the subject in the Spanish language in the nineteenth century.
Katherine Pease Routledge
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

In 19rn Sir Hercules Read, Keeper of Ethnography at the British Museum and President of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, suggested to the remarkable husband-and-wife team of explorers William Scoresby Routledge and Katherine Pease Routledge, who had expressed to him an interest in seeing the Pacific, that they should set sail for Easter Island, then still largely anthropological terra incognita. The Routledges, of 9 Cadogan Mansions in fashionable Sloane Square, London, had already spent an amazing two years (1906-08) among Kikuyu villagers in Kenya and together had authored the well-received socio-anthropological study With a Prehistoric People: The AkikÚyu of British East Africa (London: Arnold, 19rn). Independently wealthy and university trained, the Routledges were immediately intrigued by Sir Hercules’s suggestion. Yet it was a daunting proposal. They first decided against it. Then they changed their minds. When they discovered no ship was available to take them to Easter Island, they had one built for them-a 90-foot, 126-tonne wooden schooner that they christened Mana, a pan-Polynesian word usually meaning “supernatural power”. Embarking for Easter Island on 28 February 1913, they herewith commenced one of the most extraordinary anthropological voyages of the early twentieth century.
Material Resources
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

From informants’ accounts and from the surviving rongorongo inscriptions one can gather that the script’s glyphs had been incised on wooden staffs, wooden tablets, wooden rei miro ceremonial pectorals, wooden Birdman statuettes, and a handful of other wooden objects. However, throughout Polynesia stone, not wood, was the most permanent material used as a medium and container of mana-adding sacred symbols to the stone increased and charged the objects with divine power (Handy, 192]: 179). Still, no authentic rongorongo inscriptions are known ever to have been incised in stone. If rongorongo was ever written on tapa-bark cloth, no evidence for this practice has survived. Rongorongo appears to be exclusively-apart from the tuhunga ta’s special rongorongo tattoosthe provenance of the master woodcarver. This suggests that rongorongo may have been regarded by the premissionary Rapanui as something apart from the traditional petroglyph complex with its conjectured rituals and tapu. Indeed, at the beginning of the nineteenth century the new custom of rongorongo may even have superseded the island’s ancient rock art tradition.
Naming the Rongorongo
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

“Beyond doubt certain legends are ascribed to particular tablets”, wrote Thomson (1891: 516), “all of which are named, and a reference to those names will recall the appropriate story from those who do not profess to understand the hieroglyphics”. Yet, as described above (p. 92), Thomson collected no original names for the two Washington tablets he acquired on the island. He or his editor at the Smithsonian merely selected arbitrary words from the texts of chants that Ure Va’e Iko sang to photographs of Bishop Jaussen’s tablets. Whereupon these arbitrarily selected words were then placed as “titles” under the wrong illustrations in Thomson’s published report. In this way, “Keiti” (RR 6) became “Apai” (ibid., plates 36-7); the “Small Washington” (RR 15) became “Atua Matariri” (plates 38--9); the “Large Washington” (RR 16) became “Eaha to Ran Ariiki Kete” (plates 40--1); “Echancree” (RR 3) became “Ka Ihi Uiga” (plates 42-3); and “Mamari” (RR 2) became “Ate-a-Renga-Hokan Iti Poheraa” (plates 44-5). None of these names historically belonged to the artefacts they here “identify”.
On the Aim of Belief
Authors: Velleman J David
Published: November 2023

One reason, first pointed out by Bernard Williams, is that belief ‘s aiming at the truth enables us to explain the difficulty of believing at will.1 The explanation is that believing a proposition at will would entail believing it without regard to whether it was true, and hence without the aim requisite to its being a belief. Another reason for taking an interest in the truth-directedness of belief is that it may explain the phenomenon that has generally come to be known as the normativity of content. It may even explain the phenomenon away.
Introduction
Authors: Skorupski John
Published: November 2023

The outlines of ethics are neither clear nor distinct. Still, a comprehensive ethics could be expected to include an inquiry into ends of life and ideals of character and activity, and presumably an affirmation of some ends and ideals as the right or the better ones. At least this has always been a main incentive for ethical reflection. Morality must also be a main topic (including its connections to law). It is the most solid and definite shape within the ethical, even though it melts at the edges into the ends and ideals within which it is immersed. Yet, going by the ethical tradition, affirmation of specific moral duties and proposal of laws belongs more to moralists, jurists, and politicians than to moral philosophy. Since before Socrates moral philosophers have theorized about morality and law; they have also engaged in reflective criticism, often from the standpoint of some doctrine of ends or ideals. However, even those who think that morality could in principle be derived from some such doctrine, or from some other philosophical starting point, have in fact not usually engaged in extensive purported deductions of its detailed content.
The Minimalist Program and Optimality Theory: Derivations and Evaluations
Authors: Broekhuis Hans , Dekkers Joost
Published: November 2023

Optimality Theory (OT) syntax is often considered to be an alternative to the Minimalist Program outlined in Chomsky (1995). This is by no means a necessary point of view. The very reason why OT syntax and the Minimalist Program are considered to be competitors may be invoked to reconcile the two approaches to syntax: OT deals with outputs, with representations, while the Minimalist Program is mainly concerned with derivations. In the present chapter, we will put forth reasons to assume that this complementarity should be exploited by combining the two frameworks.
A neurobiological approach to the development of ‘where’ and ‘what’ systems for spatial representation in human infants
Authors: Atkinson Janette
Published: November 2023

Many different sub-systems have been considered under the heading of ‘spatial representation’. For example, Kritchevsky (1988), using specific spatial dysfunction from patients with brain damage, has delineated five categories: spatial perception (object localization, line orientation discrimination and spatial synthesis), spatial memory, spatial attention, mental rotation and spatial construction. He argues that clinical cases can manifest isolated dysfunction in one of these areas, which can sometimes be related to damage in specific brain modules. By analogy, development of brain modules for representing space can be inferred from the changing abilities on spatial tasks shown by infants and young children during development.
On Davidson’s Response to the Charge of Epiphenomenalism
Authors: Mclaughlin Brian P
Published: November 2023

In recent years, Donald Davidson has been widely charged with commitment to epiphenomenalism. He responds to the charge in ‘Thinking Causes’, Chapter 1, above. In what follows, I will examine the charge and his responses to it. Davidson seems to find the charge puzzling. He has, he points out, long insisted that mental events cause physical events; and he has, he argues, espoused no views that commit him to denying this (see above, pp. 3–4). He reminds us, moreover, that much of his work in action theory is devoted to spelling out the role of mental events in the causation of actions (which he takes to be certain sorts of bodily movements, and, so, physical events) (above, p. 14).
Mental Events as Structuring Causes of Behaviour
Authors: Dretske Fred
Published: November 2023

Causal explanations are context-sens1t1ve. What we pick out as the cause of E depends on our interests, our purposes, and our prior knowledge. Almost any event, £, depends on a great variety of other events in such a way as to make any one of them eligible, given the right context, for selection as the cause in a causal explanation of £.1 My purpose in this paper is not to dispute this doctrine, but rather, by assuming its validity, to describe a difference between two kinds of cause -what I call a triggering and a structuring cause—and to exhibit the usefulness of this distinction for understanding two ways of causally explaining the behaviour of systems. I will, finally, by way of illustration, suggest that the difference between psychological and biological explanations of animal behaviour is fundamentally a difference of this kind: psychological explanations provide structuring causes of behaviour, while biological explanations provide triggering causes of behaviour.
Understanding Humour and Understanding Music
Authors: Walton Kendall
Published: November 2023

Anthony is an anthropologist doing field-work on Mars. He notices that Martians laugh on occasion. They emit from time to time, out of the opening in their bodies from which they speak, a kind of staccato melisma. (I shall not enquire into how Anthony identifies this behaviour as laughter.) Anthony does not understand why they laugh when they do; he does not see what is funny. So he sets about trying to find out. He takes careful notes on the circumstances in which they laugh and those in which they do not. When necessary, he arranges experiments, setting up various situations to see which ones elicit amusement from the natives. Eventually, Anthony is able to predict when Martians will laugh. He knows, for instance, that if Martha, or any other mature Martian from the upper socio-economic class, sees a yellow square shape moving horizontally from left to right across a movie screen, and if she has not seen such a phenomenon previously, she will break out in peals of hysterical laughter. For the sake of argument, let us make the enormously unrealistic assumption that Anthony’s predictions are perfect.
Introduction to lndo-European Linguistics
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L
Published: November 2023

Professor Oswald Szemerényi’s Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft, first published in 1970, remains the standard introduction to comparative Indo-European linguistics. It is available here in English for the first time, in a revised, enlarged, and updated fifth edition. The introductory section presents a general survey of the principles of diachronic-comparative linguistics, and the remainder of the book is a thorough and detailed analysis, according to those principles, of the phonological and morphological structure of the Indo-European group of languages. Each section of the book has a detailed bibliography, so that the student can progress from the general overview to a more detailed examination of particular topics.
Introduction
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L
Published: November 2023

Anyone who in addition to his own language is familiar with a foreign language will, in suitable cases, perceive not only unsurprising dis similarities but also remarkable similarities between them. An English speaker studying German needs no instruction to observe that German Vater, Mutter, Hand, Eis sound very much like father, mother, hand, ice in his own language.
Linguistic Change in French
Authors: Posner Rebecca
Published: November 2023

What is French and how has it changed over time? Can we distinguish language history from historical linguistics, and language change from linguistic change? These questions are explored using copious material from the history of the French language, concentrating on changes in the relatively modern period in particular. Posner explains how change comes about and how changes at different levels of language interact, and the role of sociological and ideological factors is set against the internal mechanisms that trigger change. This work makes a substantial contribution to the theory of linguistic change, as well as to discussion of the relationship between language and history in French-speaking areas, including Canada and French Creole-speaking countries.
The Market of Languages
Authors: Ben-Rafael Eliezer
Published: November 2023

Another aspect on which we want to focus is the fact that markers of identities and boundaries produced and conveyed by socio-cultural groupings may become symbolic resources and give shape to a societal market of languages. In this way, languages achieve values that reflect their attraction to individuals and social categories. Which, in turn, influences the relation of the original carriers to those resources which symbolize their identities. These conjunctural or ‘surface’ circumstances pertain to the third dimension outlined by our schema.
English in Society
Authors: Ben-Rafael Eliezer
Published: November 2023

The coexistence of languages or of variants is embedded in socio-cultural pluralism (Fishman, Cooper, and Ma 1971). Languages and variants make cultural accumulation possible and may uphold social cohesion (Stevens and Swicegood 1987). Languages or variants that are not the legitimate language may represent markers that protect a community’s socio-cultural personality (Labov 1976: 116-42). The social importance of such languages may fluctuate according to the location of their relevant community and the wealth, power, and prestige of its members in society.
The Social Transformation of French
Authors: Ben-Rafael Eliezer
Published: November 2023

One of the largest Diaspora languages, French is still used in Israel by about 250,000 individuals—6 per cent of the Israeli Jews—either as their second or even first language (see CBS 1983). Katz and Gurevitch’s survey (1976) has shown that not less than 10 per cent of the Jewish population listen regularly to French radio broadcasts; about 4-5 per cent read a French weekly—l’Express or another—every week, and for 5 per cent, the last book they have read is in French.
Modularity and Modality in Phonology
Authors: Der Hulst Harry Van
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I claim that the innate abilities that underlie phonology are neither modular nor modality specific. The phonology of a language emerges from the interplay between innate (linguistic and perhaps even more general cognitive) principles and formats and the phonetic domain of the language modality. I will propose an account of the formation of phonological primes, phonological structure, and phonetic implementation for both spoken and signed language that is based on such principles and formats. I then discuss differences (involving the notions segment and syllable) between the two kinds of phonology, which I explain as modality effects.
Phonetics and the Origins of Phonology
Authors: Vihman Marilyn , Velleman Shelley
Published: November 2023

The chief difficulty for a constructivist account of language development is explaining the origin of specifically linguistic structure—meaning phonology and syntax, the domains of formal linguistic theory and description. The position taken in this chapter will be that the phonetic grounding of phonology, like the semantic grounding of syntax, provides an entry point into linguistic structure. Our main goal here will be to establish that an incipient phonological system can be identified within the single word period, and that it can be seen to emerge out of phonetic structure. At the same time, we will locate the origins of phonology not only in an automatic, passive process of ‘self-organization’ (Lindblom 1992) but also in the individual child’s implicit work of systematization. We ultimately trace the individual differences in both phonetic patterning and the first phonological organization to the children’s personal filtering of the adult input in relation to their own vocal production. And we affirm that emergent phonological structure serves a critical function for the child, helping to support representational memory for a growing lexical repertoire and limiting the learning space—in different ways for different children, but always leading to the same multifaceted adult system.
Questions and Answers in Embedded Contexts
Authors: Lahiri Utpal
Published: November 2023

Linguists (and others) have realised for some time that predicates of the 'know' and 'wonder' classes behave differently, in semantic terms, with respect to their interrogative complements, but have not so far fully understood how or why. This book seeks to explore and to provide solutions to this and to related problems in explaining the meaning and grammar of embedded interrogatives and the predicates that take interrogative complements. The investigation extends to the semantics of adverbs of quantification, theories of plurals, and lexical selection. The work is addressed to those working in semantics and to syntacticians concerned with the constraints that syntactic structure imposes on semantic interpretation. It is at the heart of current research in the syntax-semantics interface. Although some knowledge of formal semantics is assumed, the book has been written to be accessible to researchers in computer science, philosophy, and cognitive science.
Expression
Authors: Schulte Joachim
Published: November 2023

‘Expression’ is a central concept of the language of psychology as well as of some of its theories. In Wittgenstein’s considerations it plays a decisive role, in particular in such phrases as ‘immediate’ or ‘primary expression’.1 There is, however, yet another context where Wittgenstein deals with the concept ‘expression’, namely the context of aesthetic appraisal, criticism, or description. The connection between this use and the employment of phrases like ‘expression of a sensation’, ‘expression of an experience’, or ‘expression of pain’ is not obvious but it will gradually become apparent.
Valuing: Desiring or Believing?
Authors: Smith Michael
Published: November 2023

In general, we can explain intentional action from two quite different perspectives: the intentional and the deliberative. Though at first sight the difference between these two perspectives is both intuitive and clear, on reflection the fact that intentional action can be explained from these two perspectives provides us with a puzzle. Let me begin by explaining the two perspectives. From the intentional perspective, we explain an intentional action by fitting it into a pattern of teleological, and perhaps causal, explanation: in other words, we explain by citing the complex of psychological states that produced the action. Consider my typing these words. We explain this action from the intentional perspective when we cite my desire to produce a paper and my belief that I can do so by typing these words, for this is the desire-belief pair that teleologically, and perhaps causally, explains my typing these words.
Hume’S ‘of Miracles’: Probability and Irreligion
Authors: Wootton David
Published: November 2023

David Hume wrote a philosophical essay on the subject of miracles at some time during the years 1735 to 1737 while he was living at La Fleche, where he made use of the Jesuits’ library. It was intended for inclusion in A treatise of human nature’ but the final work appeared “castrated” of this “nobler part”. A discussion entitled ‘Of miracles’, possibly but not necessarily the one written at La Fleche, appeared however in 1748 with the publication of Philosophical essays concerning human understanding-- the first Enquiry. ‘Of miracles’ provoked a debate which continues to this day; but scholars have been slow to explore a number of fundamental historical questions, which need to be studied if we are to understand both how Hume came to write this essay and—a matter of more directly philosophical interest—the significance of the argument in his own eyes.
Confidence and Irony
Authors: Fricker Miranda
Published: November 2023

Sceptical reflection about value tends to open up a disconcerting gulf between how ethical thought is, and how it seems to be. It is a good question exactly what it would take for ethical thought to be everything it seems. The answer will depend on how ethical thought in fact seems to some relevant ‘us’. It is often assumed that the nature of our ethical experience is determinate enough and fixed enough for there to be a number of general claims we can make about it once and for all. But the assumption is questionable. An important reason to question it is that our ethical experience may vary with the historical and cultural location of the ethical community-the ‘us’ to whom morality is seeming one way or another.
Inference from Signs
Authors: Allen James
Published: November 2023

James Allen presents an original and penetrating investigation of the notion of inference from signs, which played a central role in ancient philosophical and scientific method. Inference from Signs examines an important chapter in ancient epistemology: the debates about the nature of evidence and of the inferences based on it--or signs and sign-inferences as they were called in antiquity. Special attention is paid to three main issues. Firstly, the relation between sign-inference and explanation. At a minimum, sign-inferences permit us to draw a new conclusion, and they are used in this way in every sphere of life. But inferences must do more than this if they are to play the parts assigned to them by natural philosophers and medical theorists, who appeal to signs to support the theories they put forward to explain the phenomena in their domains. Allen examines the efforts made by Aristotle, the Stoics, the Epicureans, and in medicine to discover what further conditions must be satisfied by inferences if they are to advance explanatory purposes. To speak of inference from signs presupposes that the use of signs is a form of reasoning from grounds to a conclusion. However, an alternative nonrational conception is explored, according to which the use of signs depends instead on acquired dispositions to be reminded by one thing of another. This view is traced to its probable origin in the Empirical school of medicine, whence it was taken by Pyrrhonian sceptics, who introduced it into philosophy. Evidence sometimes supports conclusive arguments, but at other times it only makes a conclusion probable. Allen investigates Aristotle's path-breaking attempt to erect standards by which to evaluate non-conclusive but--in Aristotelian terms--reputable inferences. Inference from Signs fills an important gap in the histories of science and philosophy and provides the first comprehensive treatment of this topic.
The Phraseology of Learners’ Academic Writing
Authors: Howarth Peter
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes research into the phraseological performance of non-native writers of English and, in particular, presents some of the findings of a large-scale study of collocations in academic writing (Howarth 1996). The specific university setting in which the study has been conducted has had a considerable influence on the aims of the research and the approach adopted. The focus of attention is the written production of foreign students, from a variety of language backgrounds, studying at postgraduate level at British universities. My particular interest in these students is twofold. First, I am involved in teaching on postgraduate courses in applied linguistics, evaluating native and non-native students’ written performance from an academic point of view, and, secondly, as a teacher of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) I am involved in the teaching of academic writing to non-native students from a wide range of subject areas.
The Historical Origins of the General-Purpose Dictionary
Authors: Béjoint Henri
Published: November 2023

Dictionaries are probably much older than is generally said. Sumerian lists dating back to the third millennium BC have been found that can be considered as the ancestors of our dictionaries (Boisson et al. 1991: 263). There may even have been ‘oral’ dictionaries, before the development of writing systems: at least one contemporary society that does not have a writing system has been shown to have, among its oral records used in the traditional village recitations, lists of words, either bilingual or monolingual, sometimes with sorts of definitions, half poetry and half lexicography (Boisson et al. 1991: 292). Many other societies could have had similar traditions. Of course, all societies with writing systems have produced dictionaries, of various kinds and for various reasons.
What are General-Purpose Dictionaries Really For?
Authors: Béjoint Henri
Published: November 2023

Lexicographers in many countries have recently felt the need to go beyond empirical observations on the use of the general-purpose dictionary, seeking to find out what the users really do, as opposed to what they are believed to do, in order to make sure that the dictionary really corresponds to the needs of the public. Some thought right from the start that this was a wild-goose chase: ‘What do the prospective users want (a fine exercise in ESP, wishful thinking, and ethnocentric projection)?’ (Forgue 1981: 93). The study of user needs is indeed a strange idea if it is considered in the context of the lexicographical tradition. Old-time lexicographers did not ask who the users were and what they wanted: they knew what was good for their public, and any potential discrepancy between the dictionary and what the public wanted was irrelevant, since the public simply had to adapt to the dictionary as it was. The trend has now been reversed, with lexicographers trying to find out who their users are and what they need.
Whither Lexicography?
Authors: Béjoint Henri
Published: November 2023

WHERE does lexicography go now? This is difficult to say. The answer is to be found partly in an examination of the innovative dictionaries that have been published recently—particularly (though not exclusively) those that have been or are now commercially successful (see above, 2. 5), since the commercial success of a dictionary is the unmistakable sign that there is a need for it, and the evolution of lexicography is necessarily linked with this need. Other possible answers lie in the more theoretical writings of linguists on lexicography, in a domain that extends half-way between inapplicable theory and unfounded practice. The final pages of this book will be devoted to a survey of some of the most interesting research in theoretical linguistics from the point of view of the potential improvement of dictionaries.
Synchrony and Diachrony of Sinitic Languages: A Brief History of Chinese Dialects
Authors: Chappell Hilary
Published: November 2023

Even though Sinitic languages are spoken by more than one billion people, very little research has been carried out on the synchronic grammar of major languages and dialect groups of Chinese, apart from standard Mandarin or putonghuali, and Cantonese to a lesser extent. The same situation applies to the diachrony of Sinitic languages with respect to the exact relationship between Archaic and Medieval Chinese and contemporary dialects.
Aspects of Contemporary Cantonese Grammar: The Structure and Stratification of Relative Clauses
Authors: Matthews Stephen , Yip Virginia
Published: November 2023

The term Cantonese conventionally designates the urban Yue varieties spoken in Guangzhou, Hong Kong, and Macau. Our data come from Cantonese as spoken in Hong Kong, which differs in some respects from that of Guangzhou, and more extensively from other Yue dialects of Guangdong and Guangxi provinces, with which it may even be mutually unintelligible. In particular, the influence of spoken Mandarin, still moderate in Hong Kong, is stronger in the mainland: the first tone, for example, is generally pronounced with a high level contour in Hong Kong but high falling in Guangzhou.
Pharmacology of chemokines
Authors: Mantovani A , Dinarello C A , Ghezzi P
Published: November 2023

Chemokines are a group of small cytokines whose eponimous function is to attract leukocytes. A brief overview of some of their general features is given in Chapter 1 and the reader is referred to recent reviews (Rollins, 1997; Baggiolini, 1998; Mantovani et al., 1998; Mantovani, 1999) for a more detailed analysis of the molecular and biological properties of this class of cytokines.
Nervous system
Authors: Mantovani A , Dinarello C A , Ghezzi P
Published: November 2023

The production of cytokines and the presence of cytokine receptors in the brain is well documented and is summarized in Table 8.1. Among the central effects of cytokines, fever was probably the first activity demonstrated to be mediated by IL-1. Since then, when purified recombinant cytokines became available, new physiological actions of cytokines on the brain were described.
Cardiovascular system
Authors: Mantovani A , Dinarello C A , Ghezzi P
Published: November 2023

Blood vessels have long been considered blood containers, whose main property was to contract and to regulate pressure. This ‘passive’ view particularly emphasized the negative properties of vessels and of endothelial cells (EC), the most important being that they are a non-thrombogenic substrate for blood. As such, vascular cells were considered to participate in tissue reactions mainly as targets for injurious agents. The possibility of isolating and culturing vascular cells, particularly EC, from various tissues opened the way to studying their complex reactions to a variety of activating stimuli. Vascular cells have thus emerged as active participants in many physiological and pathological processes.
The Grebes Podicipedidae
Authors: Fjeldså Jon
Published: November 2023

Those who are unfamiliar with grebes tend to think of them as odd ducks, but their strange behaviours reveal them to be fascinating and intriguing birds. Grebes are unusual and unique in many ways: their habit of feather-eating; their method of sunbathing; their special method of underwater propulsion; the unusual structure of their feet; their courtship behaviour; and their floating nests. As the birds are dependent upon shallow wetlands, they are strongly affected and threatened by our use of their habitats, leading to dwindling populations and even extinction of some species. In this new addition to the Bird Families of the World series Jon Fjeldså, a renowned expert on the grebes, provides an overview of the results of all the research that has been done on grebes. Part I contains a brief presentation of the grebe family, constraints of diving, the relationships between grebes and divers, and the morphology of grebes. Part II covers their biogeography, ecological distribution, feeding ecology, behaviour and communication, breeding biology, environmental threats, and conservation. Part III follows with 22 species accounts, including distribution maps. The plates section contains sixteen stunning paintings showing all the grebe species, by Jon Fjeldså. The Grebes, like its companion volumes in the series, will be an indispensable work of reference for ornithologists, whether professional or amateur.
Organozinc chemistry: an overview and general experimental guidelines
Authors: Knochel Paul , Jones Philip , Langer Falk
Published: November 2023

Zinc is found in a relatively low abundance in nature, but has been known for a long time due to the ease with which it is isolated from its ores. Despite the low occurrence, the ease of isolation results in today, zinc metal and zinc salts being available at low cost from the usual chemical suppliers.

Zinc is a relatively non-toxic metal and is an essential element for humans and all forms of plant and animal life, and a large number of diseases and congenital disorders have been traced to zinc deficiency. Among the metalloproteins and metalloenzymes,1 zinc species constitute the largest category and their biological functions are diverse and important, including carboxypeptidases, carbonic anhydrase, and metallothioneins. Small amounts of zinc salts are also essential for the growth of animals and plants.
Scleractinia: The Reef-Builders
Authors: Tomascik Tomas , Mah Anmarie Janice , Nontji Anugerah , Moosa Mohammad Kasim
Published: November 2023

To gain an appreciation of the diverse nature of coral reef systems in the vast Indonesian Archipelago, some understanding of basic coral taxonomy and biology’ is helpful. This is especially true for systems where one particular assemblage of organisms can be considered as the “ecological dominants.” Reef-building corals (Scleractinia) arc such a group, since: “They built the habitat and are the environment for the other reef species” (Bak 1983). Assessing environmental impacts and/or developing management and conservation plans for coral reef ecosystems without the basic knowledge of their ecology- and biology is a significant constraint in Indonesia, even though the rapid degradation of these resources has received a lot of publicity.
Morphology
Authors: Payne Robert B
Published: November 2023

Cuckoos have a zygodactyl foot with two toes of each foot (numbers 1—the inner toe or hallux of most birds—and 4, the outermost toe) directed backward, and the other two toes (numbers 2 and 3) directed forward. Most cuckoos have a long tail. Cuckoos have 10 primaries and 10 rectrices (eight in the anis); the plumage has no aftershaft; the oil gland is naked, and in most species the nestlings have no downy feathers (Nitzsch 1867). Several other morphological features occur in cuckoos that are generally not present in other birds, and a few of these features occur only in the cuckoos. The most distinctive charactereristics are in the skeleton in details of the tarsometatarsal bone (two enclosed canals side by side in the hypotarsus, and a charac teristic shape of the accessory process or sehnenhalter on trochlea IV of the distal tarsometatarsus), and in the shape of the humerus and its deltoid crest.
The evolution of brood parasitism in cuckoos
Authors: Payne Robert B
Published: November 2023

Although a cuckoo nestling destroys the host eggs and nestlings, the host parents often do not dis criminate against a cuckoo egg and they incubate it with their own eggs. The hosts may lack the genetic variation that would allow evolutionary selection to favor action against cuckoos (Rothstein 1990). Or, the hosts and their parasitic cuckoos may be in a state of equilibrium, where the gain of rejection is balanced by the cost of rejection of the cuckoo egg (Davies and Brooke 1988, Davies et al. 1996). The costs and benefits of brood parasitism and response by the hosts to the parasite can be des cribed as a mathematical model, which assumes genetic variation in both the parasite and host and tracks the coevolutionary outcome of these costs and benefits.
Cuculinae
Authors: Payne Robert B
Published: November 2023

ADULT: Sexes distinct. Male, head, back and wing coverts rufous, wing rufous with darker rufous tip of flight feathers, rump black, tail black with fine gray bars (black and gray bars each 2 mm wide) in a washboard effect (seen at close range) and broadly tipped white; underparts, throat and breast rufous, belly olive gray, under tail coverts dark gray with rufous cast; bare skin around eye light green blue, iris dark brown, bill light green, feet green-gray. Female, head and upper back light gray, back and wing coverts rufous, rump black, wings rufous with darker rufous tip of flight feathers, tail rufous with black subterminal band and white tip; underparts light gray, belly gray washed rufous, under tail coverts dark chestnut; bare skin around eye light blue green, iris dark brown, bill light green, feet green-gray.
The Physics of Block Copolymers
Authors: Hamley Ian W
Published: November 2023

This comprehensive and systematic text is the first of its kind to deal with the fundamental physics underlying the remarkable structural and dynamical properties of block copolymers. It provides the polymer scientist and technologist with a firm grounding in the principles underlying the wide applications of these important materials. It also highlights the intrinsically fascinating properties of block copolymers, such as nanoscale self-assembly in bulk and two-dimensions. The first text of its kind on the subject since the mid-1980s, this book stands alone - previous texts have focused on the chemical and material properties of block copolymers. During the last decade, there have been major developments in the field, and these experimental and theoretical advances are discussed in depth. Topics covered include: the thermodynamics and dynamics of block copolymer melts, block copolymers in dilute, semidilute and concentrated solutions, the structure of crystalline block copolymers and block copolymers in blends with other polymers. This informative book is essential to the polymer physics and materials science researcher in industry and academia, and postgraduates in related fields. Final year undergraduate students in chemistry, physics and materials science will also find this book useful as a reference text.
Radical Reactions in Organic Synthesis
Authors: Zard Samir Z
Published: November 2023

The Oxford Chemistry Masters Series is designed to provide clear and concise accounts of important topics - both established and emergent - that may be encountered by chemistry students as they progress from the senior undergraduate stage through post-graduate study to leadership in research. These Masters assume little prior knowledge, other than the foundations provided by an undergraduate degree in chemistry, and lead the reader through to an appreciation of the state of the art in the topic whilst providing an entree to the primary literature in the field. Radical reactions exhibit many of the characteristics desired by synthetic organic chemists: mild, generally neutral experimental conditions; diminished susceptibility to eliminations and rearrangements; relative insensitivity to the nature of the solvent and to steric effects; a compatibility with functional groups that is often complementary to that of ionic and organometallic reactions, obviating in many situations the need for laborious and costly protection-deprotection steps. Yet elementary radical reactions are ultra-fast processes and their taming requires some knowledge of their kinetics and rate constants, which have only relatively recently become available. Not surprisingly, transformations involving radical intermediates have long harboured the reputation of beeing difficult to control, suitable only for the synthesis of polymers and tars. This book provides a description of radical reactions and their applications in organic synthesis. It attempts to show that armed with an elementary knowledge of kinetics and some common sense, it is possible to harness radicals into a tremendously powerful tool for solving synthetic problems. The book starts with a brief historical account and presentation of the basics. It then blends the discussion of the properties of radical processes with the now familiar chemistry of stannanes. Radicals being the same entities, whichever method is used to generate them, a study of the various processes for the creation and capture of radicals constitutes the remainder of the book. Silicon and mercury based techniques as well as the Barton and related decarboxylation procedures are discussed in detail, followed by the Kharasch type atom and group transfer reactions. The increasingly important persistent radical effect, also known as the Fischer-Ingold effect, is examined in the context of non-chain reactions. Both the Kharasch based methods and the persistent radical effect have recently been applied in the emerging field of controlled radical polymerisations. Finally, the vast domain of redox processes is presented in a unified manner with the aim of providing a simple rationale for the multitude of possible transformation. The book concludes with a brief overview and some general practical hints for conducting radical reactions. More than 700 references provide access to the primary literature.
Tyrosine Phosphoprotein Phosphatases
Authors: Goldstein Barry J
Published: November 2023

Tyrosine phosphoprotein phosphatases (PTPases) are found ubiquitously in cytosolic and particulate fractions of cells. They are unique in terms of their substrate sensitivity, neutral pH optimum, resistance to EDTA, and inhibition by low concentrations of zinc or vandanate. PTPases exert both positive and negative effects on a number of metabolic and signal transduction pathways. This volume explores the sequence, structure, and biochemical properties of PTPases, regulation of PTPase expression, substrate preferences and catalytic mechanisms, physiology, covalent modification, modification by chemical agents and proteolysis, and interactions with other proteins, peptides, and macromolecules. There is an extensive bibliography to assist the reader in further research.
Literature examples of oligosaccharide synthesis
Authors: Osborn Helen M I , Khan Tariq H
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we will describe some recent examples of oligosaccharide synthesis. We hope that these syntheses will further exemplify the methods and procedures introduced in the previous chapters, and also illustrate that you have now met sufficient reactions to devise syntheses of even complex carbohydrates. Literature references to the original articles reporting the cited work are quoted for further reference at the end of the chapter.
Alternative strategies for synthesising oligosaccharides
Authors: Osborn Helen M I , Khan Tariq H
Published: November 2023

So far we have concentrated on the chemical synthesis of carbohydrate acceptors, donors and oligosaccharides. However, chemical methods are not the only methods available for synthesising oligosaccharides. Some alternative methods which also allow efficient synthesis of oligosaccharides are discussed in this chapter.

The wide range of lligosaccharides which occur in nature are prepared via a series of biosynthetic reactions which use enzymes to perform specific reactions on a limited set of monosaccharides.
Melting Around a Cylindrical Source with a Constant Wall Temperature
Authors: Kutasov I M
Published: November 2023

An approximate method of calculating the melting radius around a bare, thermally insulated cylinder with a constant temperature is presented. Simple approximate formulae are suggested to describe the temperatures in the molten and solid zones, and are verified against the results of numerical solutions.
Structure and dynamics of biological membranes
Authors: Biildt Georg , Schlesinger Ramona , Pebay-Peyroula Eva , Sass HansJurgen
Published: November 2023

Biological membranes are the barriers of cells and organelles against the outside medium. The two major components of membranes are lipids and proteins. Lipids are amphiphilic molecules, which in an aqueous medium spontaneously form double-layered structures. The amphiphilic character of the lipids with polar head-groups and apolar hydrocarbon chains is responsible for the two dimensional geometry of biological membranes. Integral membrane proteins, which span the lipid bilayer, mediate the transport of matter and signals. Soluble proteins can be associated with one side of a membrane by electrostatic interactions or through a lipid anchor covalently bound to the protein. A membrane can also contain protein anchors for filamentous structures, which mechanically stabilize the cell.