bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Dento‐alveolar and maxillofacial injuries: a 5‐year multi‐center study. Part 2: Severity and location
Authors: Lin Shaul , Levin Liran , Goldman Sharon , Sela Galit
Published: October 2009

Abstract –  Maxillofacial and dental injuries are not uncommon. These injuries may cause morbidity and demand meticulously planned treatment. Part 1 of this study focused on the incidence of general trauma injuries, as well as facial or dental trauma. The aim of part 2 is to evaluate the severity and location of the dento‐alveolar and maxillofacial injuries over 5 years. A retrospective cohort study was conducted based on data from the Israel National Trauma Registry. Patients admitted and hospitalized due to trauma injuries during the years 2000–2004, totaled 111 010 in which 5886 (5.3%) were maxillofacial or dental injuries. Most of these injuries were traffic‐related (54.5%), followed by events at home (18.7%). Facial injuries combined with injuries to other organs involved occurred in 3721 (63.2%) of the patients. Most minor injuries were noted when no other organs were involved, while severe injuries were more common when multiple organs were involved. More than 25% of facial injuries required surgery. Meticulous epidemiologic studies are needed to support the leading role, extent, and severity of maxillofacial trauma.
The three‐dimension finite element analysis of stress in posterior tooth residual root restored with postcore crown
Authors: Fu Gang , Deng Feng , Wang Lu , Ren Aishu
Published: October 2009

Abstract –  Objective:  Teeth that have been endodontically treated and restored with postcore crown may experience fracture sometimes. Some researchers have analyzed the stress of the anterior teeth after postcore crown restoration, but the stress of the posterior teeth after such restoration has not been reported. We used three‐dimension finite element methods to analyze the stress magnitude and distribution of remaining dentin in posterior tooth residual root restored with postcore crown. The binding material, loading direction, number, length and material of posts were studied.

Methods:  The models of residual root of maxillary first molar restored with postcore crown were created by CT scanning, mimics software and abaqus software. Different number, length and material of posts were used in the modeling. The posts were cemented with zinc‐phosphate cement or composited resin. A load of 240 N was applied to the occlusal surface in four directions and tensile, shear, and von Mises stresses were calculated.

Result:  (i) The maximum stress on remaining dentin changed irregularly as the number and length of posts changed. (ii) The maximum stress on remaining dentin decreased slightly as elastic modulus of the material of posts increased. (iii) The maximum stress on bonding layer and remaining dentin was lower when bonded with resin luting agent than with zinc‐phosphate cement. (iv) The maximum stress on remaining dentin increased markedly as loading angle increased.

Conclusion:  The number, length, material of posts, bonding material and loading angle all have influence on the magnitude and distribution of stress. The influence of loading angle is most apparent.
Comparison of intraoral radiography and limited cone beam computed tomography for the assessment of root‐fractured permanent teeth
Authors: Bornstein Michael M. , Wölner‐Hanssen Andrea B. , Sendi Pedram , Von Arx Thomas
Published: October 2009

Abstract –  Aim: To compare intraoral occlusal (OC) and periapical (PA) radiographs vs. limited cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) in diagnosing root‐fractured permanent teeth. Material and methods:  In 38 patients (mean age 24 years, range 8–52 years) with 44 permanent teeth with horizontal root fractures, intraoral radiographs (PA and OC) and limited CBCT were used to evaluate the location (apical, middle, cervical third of the root) and angulation of the fracture line. Furthermore, the conventional radiographs and CBCT images were compared for concordance of fracture location. Results:  In the PA and OC radiographs, 28 fractures (63.6%) were located in the middle third of the root, 11 (25.0%) in the apical third and 5 (11.4%) in the cervical third. The PA/OC radiographs and the sagittal CBCT images (facial aspect) yielded the same level of root fracture in 70.5% of cases (31 teeth; 95% CI: 54.1–82.7%). The PA/OC radiographs and sagittal CBCT images (palatal aspect) showed the same level of root fracture in 31.8% of cases. There was a statistically significant association between the angle at which the root fracture line intersected the axis of the tooth and the level of root fracture in the facial aspect of the sagittal CBCT images. Conclusions:  The diagnosis of the location and angulation of root fractures based on limited CBCT imaging differs significantly from diagnostic procedures based on intraoral radiographs (PA/OC) alone. The clinical significance for treatment strategies and for the prognosis of root‐fractured teeth has to be addressed in future studies.
The potential intermediate role of lysosomes in oxygen free radical pathology
Authors: BRUNK ULF , CADENAS ENRIQUE
Published: October 2009

The term “free radical” refers to atoms or groups of atoms containing a single unpaired electron occupying an outer orbital. This unpaired electron lends the molecule distinct chemical and physical properties such as its high reactivity and magnetic moment, respectively. Some relevant advances in medical research have encompassed O2 radicals and other toxic derivatives of O2. These reactive O2 species were shown to play a significant role in a wide spectrum of pathological states (see Halliwell & Gutteridge, 1985; Flohé 1986; Kensler & Taffe, 1986; McCord, 1986), though the measurement of free radical activity in clinically‐accesible material has been unsatisfactory (Dormandy, 1986). This overview provides only a framework of information to assist the reader on some relevant topics on free radical pathology, which by no means can cover the multiple aspects of the medical literature in this context. The reader is referred to several articles which cover particular features of free radical biology and medicine (Chance et al., 1979; Pryor, 1976–1984; Fridovich, 1983; Jamieson et al, 1986; Kensler & Taffe, 1986; McCord, 1986; Weiss, 1986).
Relationship betweenMycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium paratuberculosisand “wood pigeon mycobacteria”
Authors: SAXEGAARD FINN , BAESS INGA
Published: October 2009

The DNA‐DNA homology percentages obtained in this study indicate thatM. aviumandM. paratuberculosisbelong to one species. Consequently,M. paratuberculosisought to be considered a variant ofM. avium, and the following designations are proposed:Mycobacterium avium, subsp.avium. Mycobacterium avium, subsp.paratuberculosis.Identification and classification of “wood pigeon mycobacteria” occurring in wild animals have been problematic due to their dysgonic and mycobactin‐dependent growth. DNA‐DNA homology percentages indicate that these bacteria are closely related to reference strains both ofM. aviumand ofM. paratuberculosis.“Wood pigeon mycobacteria” should therefore be classified as atypical strains ofM. avium, and the following designation is proposed:Mycobacterium aviumsubsp.columbae.
Effect of oral N‐acetylcysteine administration on human blood neutrophil and monocyte function
Authors: JENSEN TIM , KHARAZMI ARSALAN , NIELSEN HENRIK , PEDERSEN SVEND STENVANG , HØIBY NIELS , SCHIØTZ PETER OLUF , STAFANGER GERD , KOCH CHRISTIAN
Published: October 2009

N‐acetylcysteine (NAC) is known to be a scavenger of free oxygen radicals, and recent in vitro studies have demonstrated that it is also able to inhibit leukocyte function. The clinical significance of these effects is, however, not known. In this study we have measured the effect on human blood neutrophil and monocyte function of a single 400 mg dose of NAC administered orally. Administration of NAC to ten healthy volunteers resulted in significant reduction of neutrophil chemiluminescence response following activation by opsonized zymozan as compared to four non‐treated persons acting as controls. No effect was observed on the chemotaxis of either cell type or on monocyte chemiluminescence response. These findings suggest that NAC may be beneficial in clinical conditions like cystic fibrosis, where tissue damage may be a consequence of the effects of increased release of toxic oxygen radicals and proteolytic enzymes.
Benign nevus cells in the lymph nodes
Authors: BICHEL PETER , ØRNSHOLT JØRGEN
Published: October 2009

Aggregates of nevus cells in the axillary lymph nodes may give rise to a suspicion of metastatic breast cancer. Usually the nevus cells are confined to the capsule or the trabeculae, but in the present case, clusters of nevus cells were also observed in the peripheral sinus. Immunohistochemical analysis for S‐100 protein and epithelial membrane antigen established the true nature of the cells.
Mesenterial‐window hyperplasia in the lactating rat
Authors: BERGSTRÖM STEFAN , NORRBY KLAS
Published: October 2009

By examining the true mesentery adjacent to the small gut before and after weaning, as well as in age‐matched controls, we found that the number of mesenteric windows, their total area, and their total DNA content increased significantly during lactation. Simultaneously, Feulgen‐DNA absorption analysis in individual mesenteric cells showed that these had a normal DNA stemline, and a normal distribution within the G1–G2 range. The hyperplasia and growth developed and declined temporally somewhat parallel in the mesenterial windows and their adjacent small gut, suggesting that an as yet unknown common factor(s) governs the hyperplastic growth in both these tissues. The novel physiological, mesenterial‐window hyperplasia in the lactating rat described in the present study may prove useful for studies of the mesenteric function and the regulation of cell proliferation.
Down's syndrome and maternal cancer
Authors: KÄLLÉN BENGT
Published: October 2009

The possible association between maternal cancer and Down's syndrome was studied in a register‐based case‐control study of 962 women who had an infant with Down's syndrome born during 1973–1981, and to each two controls, matched for maternal age, parity, and year of delivery. A total of 952 complete triplets was obtained. Among them, 63 Down's syndrome mothers and 79 control mothers were found in a cancer registry for the period 1958–1982 (odds ratio 1.6; 95% conf. interval 1.3–2.0). Of these, 14 Down's syndrome mothers and 20 controls had malignant lesions (odds ratio 1.4,0.9–2.2), and 49 Down's syndrome mothers and 55 controls had cervical cancer in situ (odds ratio 1.8, 1.4–2.3). This risk increase was present both before and after the delivery of the Down's syndrome infant. Various explanations of these findings are discussed and the need for further data is stressed.
Antibody dependent cell mediated cytotoxicity against anti‐D sensitized human erythrocytes
Authors: SAMDAL HELVI HOLM , MICHAELSEN TERJE E. , HEIER HANS ERIK , NORDHAGEN RANNVEIG
Published: October 2009

Antibody dependent cell mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) was measured against anti‐D sensitized erythrocytes using various mononuclear cell populations from peripheral blood in a chromium release assay. Adherent effector cells gave stronger cytotoxicity than unseparated and non‐adherent cells, and were less dependent on pretreatment of the target cells with papain. However, close correlations were found between the cytotoxicity obtained with the various effector cell populations, indicating that either of them might be used for the purpose of establishing in vitro methods to determine the clinical significance of erythrocyte antibodies. The optimal choice of effector cells is discussed.
Bacteria of the gastric antrum and their relation to chronic gastritis
Authors: AASE STEINAR , ELGJO KJELL , FAUSA OLAV , BJØRNEKLETT ARVID , NEDENSKOV‐SØRENSEN PETER , BUKHOLM GEIR
Published: October 2009

Biopsy samples from the gastric antrum were taken from 61 patients. On bacteriological culture, Campylobacter pylori was isolated in 27 subjects. Thirty‐four patients had chronic gastritis, as seen in routine‐stained histological sections. By means of the May‐Griinwald‐Giemsa (MGG) staining technique, bacteria were demonstrated in sections from 26 subjects. Of these, 22 had gastritis histologically. In 13 subjects, structures similar to Campylobacter pylori were found in MGG‐stained sections, 11 of these having chronic active gastritis histologically. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated bacteria with the typical appearance of Campylobacter pylori, but other types of bacteria were also found, both on electron microscopy and on bacteriological culture. The study confirms that there is an increased frequency of histological gastritis when Campylobacter pylori is present in the samples (p=0.009). However, a causative role of the bacteria could not be demonstrated in this study, and bacterial penetration into the epithelium was not observed.
Multilocus genotypes of two strains of Neisseria meningitidis and their presumed variants obtained upon subcultivation
Authors: CAUGANT DOMINIQUE A. , ANDERSEN BJØRG MARIT , SOLBERG OTTO
Published: October 2009

Loss of sulfonamide resistance and endotoxin liberation have been described in two strains of Neisseria meningitidis serogroup B, upon subcultivation every 1 to 2 months over an 18‐month period. Subsequently, the two laboratory variants, designated 270E‐ and 840E‐, were also found to differ from the parent strains, 270E+ and 840E+, in serotype, outer membrane protein pattern, and virulence in mice. We report here the multilocus genotypes determined by enzyme electrophoresis, of the four isolates 270E+, 270E‐, 840E+, and 840E‐, and demonstrate that 270E‐ and 840E‐ strains could not have originated from subcultivation of 270E+ and 840E+, respectively, but that a mix‐up of strains has occurred.
Stability of ampicillin, piperacillin, cefotaxime, netilmicin and amikacin in an L‐amino acid solution prepared for total parenteral nutrition of newborn infants
Authors: GOLDSTEIN KARIN , COLDING HANNE , ANDERSEN GUNNAR E.
Published: October 2009

The stability of ampicillin, piperacillin and cefotaxime, alone or in combination with either netilmicin or amikacin, was tested by microbiological methods at 29 °C (ampicillin, also at 22 °C) in an L‐amino acid solution specially prepared for newborn infants. In the case of ampicillin, the mean concentration had dropped to 84% of the initial value after 24 hours. This fall is acceptable. Piperacillin and cefotaxime were stable. Admixture of netilmicin or amikacin did not affect the activity of ampicillin, piperacillin and cefotaxime. The concentrations of netilmicin and amikacin were stable for 24 hours. Combination with ampicillin, piperacillin or cefotaxime did not affect the activity of either aminoglycoside. The antibiotics investigated could therefore be used in our TPN infusion system.
Pulmonary damage caused by fluoride in rabbits during experimental fluorosis
Authors: SHASHI  , THAPAR S. P. , SINGH J. P.
Published: October 2009

The effect of fluoride on lung tissue was assessed in rabbits during experimental fluorosis. Sodium fluoride as 5, 10, 20 and 50 mg/kg body weight/day was injected subcutaneously for 100 days into rabbits of both sexes. The control animals were given 1 cc distilled water/kg body weight/day for the same period. Histological studies showed alveolar hemorrhage, necrosis of alveolar epithelium and bronchiolitis, followed by progressive exudation of oedema fluid, congestion, and hyperplasia of alveolar cell nuclei in treated animals. In animals of the 50 mg fluoride group, lung parenchyma had a distorted apprearance with loss of alveolar architecture. The structural manifestations in pulmonary tissue were more progressive with the subsequent increase in the dosage of fluoride.
Some new, simple and efficient stereological methods and their use in pathological research and diagnosis
Authors: GUNDERSEN H. J. G. , BENDTSEN T. F. , KORBO L. , MARCUSSEN N. , MØLLER A. , NIELSEN K. , NYENGAARD J. R. , PAKKENBERG B. , SØRENSEN F. B. , VESTERBY A. , WEST M. J.
Published: October 2009

Stereology is a set of simple and efficient methods for quantitation of three‐dimensional microscopic structures which is specifically tuned to provide reliable data from sections. Within the last few years, a number of new methods has been developed which are of special interest to pathologists. Methods for estimating the volume, surface area and length of any structure are described in this review. The principles on which stereology is based and the necessary sampling procedures are described and illustrated with examples. The necessary equipment, the measurements, and the calculations are invariably simple and easy.
Hyperplasia of the mesenterial windows precedes that of the small gut in the streptozotocin‐diabetic rat
Authors: BERGSTRÖM STEFAN , NORRBY KLAS
Published: October 2009

Hyperplastic growth of the mesenterial windows abutting the small gut occurs in lactating rats (Bergström and Norrby 1988) and chronically diabetic rats (Norrby et al. 1983). In the present study, early events in the mesenterial windows and the small gut in streptozotocin‐diabetic rats were examined. The area of the mesenterial windows had already increased significantly on day 1 and hyperplasia in terms of increased DNA content, as well as an increase in histamine content (a mast‐cell marker), was established from day 2 of diabetes. The increase in total mesenterial window content of DNA, histamine and protein was roughly linear and parallel from day 2 to day 19. The small‐gut circumference increased transiently on day 1, but the small‐gut mucosal volume was unaffected on days 1 and 2. The small‐gut wet weight increased significantly from day 5, whereas elongation was not observed until day 19. The difference in time between the appearance of hyperplasia and the growth of the mesenterial windows and their adjoining gut and the rate with which the hyperplasia proceeds in the two tissues indicate that the regulatory mechanisms of early hyperplastic growth in these tissues are not identical. The factors) causing mesenterial window growth and hyperplasia is/are as yet unknown.
Determination of susceptibility of anaerobic bacteria to beta‐lactam antibiotics by a tablet diffusion test
Authors: JANSEN JENS E. , BREMMELGAARD ANNIE
Published: October 2009

A standardized tablet diffusion test and a reference agar dilution test was evaluated for susceptibility testing of anaerobic bacteria to beta‐lactam antibiotics. 74 freshly isolated anaerobic bacteria and three control strains (Cl. perfringens ATCC 13124 B. fragilis ATCC 25285, B. thetaiotaomicron ATCC 29741) were tested. The in vitro activities of 7 beta‐lactam antibiotics were compared with metronidazole and clindamycin. Most active were metronidazole and clindamycin. Cefoxitin had the best activity of the beta‐lactam antibiotics, whereas piperacillin and carbenicillin had good activities. High resistance rates were found for penicillin, ampicillin, cefuroxime and cefotaxime. MIC on control strains fell well within range set by the National Commitee for Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS). Correlation between MIC and inhibition zone diameters was generally good. Tablet diffusion can be used to divide anaerobic bacteria into three susceptibility categories. In addition all bacterial strains were tested for production of beta‐lacmase by a nitrocefin tube test. Beta‐lactamase production by the nitrocefin test indicated reduced sensitivity to beta‐lactam antibiotics.
On the theory of the disk diffusion test
Authors: RINGERTZ SIGNE , KRONVALL GÖRAN
Published: October 2009

The procedure for disk diffusion susceptibility testing has been worked out for rapidly growing non‐fastidious bacteria. Using the general zone diameter breakpoints for interpretation of susceptibility, it was found that clinical isolates of H. influenzae were assigned to the wrong SIR category in fifty per cent of the strains for erythromycin, and ten per cent for doxycycline. New species‐ and laboratory‐specific interpretive zone diameter breakpoints corresponding to the recommended MIC limits were therefore worked out. The Standard Curve regression Analysis (SCA) method used for this purpose is based on the correlation between zone size and disk content, using two reference strains with different MICs. In its original version (the Single strain Regression Analysis, SRA) only one reference strain was used. This equation was found not to be generally valid since the relationship between MIC and the critical concentration is not constant, as was originally assumed. The slope and intercept of the regression line obtained by SCA is species related, while a general regression line based on results from many different species assumes that there is the same relation between the zone size and MIC for all species. Breakpoints for erythromycin and doxycycline calculated by the SCA equation gave more accurate results in routine susceptibility testing of H. influenzae and reduced the error rate from fifty three and ten per cent to four and three per cent for the two antibiotics.
The detection of measles specific immunoglobulin M antibodies using biotinylated antigens
Authors: TUOKKO HANNA
Published: October 2009

The methods of reverse type enzymeimmunoassay (EIAs) with biotinylated antigens were used to determine IgM antibodies to measles virus in human sera. These antigens, either purified measles virus antigen or lysate type measles‐vero antigen with lysate vero control antigen, were used in the two separate IgM‐tests. Paired sera from 15 measles patients as well as 456 sera from patients with viral infections other than measles, with mycoplasma pneumoniae infections, from rheumatoid arthritis patients and blood donors, were assayed in a dilution of 1:200. Both the test systems detected all the 30 serum specimens from the measles patients as measles IgM positive, but the sera of all the other groups proved to be measles IgM negative. These tests developed for measles specific IgM antibodies, avoiding the interference of IgM‐class rheumatoid factor, offer valuable tools for routine virus serology.
Possible errors in the calculation of cell‐binding parameters exemplified by the analysis of the IgG‐Fc receptor system
Authors: ONICA DOINA , CALUGARU ANA , LUBAN FLORICA , DUMITRU V. , GHETIE V.
Published: October 2009

The binding parameters of monomeric and polymeric (immune complex with a molecular weight of 500,000 daltons) rabbit IgG to homologous Fc receptor‐bearing alveolar macrophages were estimated, using corrected values for IgG and cell concentrations. Considering the maximum percentage of monomeric IgG binding to cells (2.7%) and the maximum percentage of cells binding monomeric IgG (32%) instead of the IgG and cell concentrations in the initial reaction mixture, a 36‐fold increase of the equilibrium constant (K) (from 0.6 × 106 L/M to 21.3 × 106 L/M) and a 3‐fold increase of the maximum number of IgG molecules able to bind to a single cell (n) (from 7.8 × 105 to 23.7 × 105) were registered. Since more than 60% of the polymeric IgG is bound to 46% of the macrophage population, the values of K (from 10.8 × 106 L/M to 15.6 × 106 L/M) and n (from 4.3 × 105 to 9.4 × 105) are only doubled by using the corrected values for IgG and cell concentrations. It results that the cytophilic fraction of the monomeric IgG, representing only 2.7% of total IgG, has a slightly higher affinity for the Fc receptors than the polymeric IgG. By considering the actual number of macrophages which bind IgG it is evident that the number of Fc receptors per cell is higher than that determined by the usual procedure which does not take into account cellular heterogeneity.
The Revolution in Presidential Studies
Authors: MOE TERRY M.
Published: October 2009

In recent years, presidential studies has been transformed by a seismic shift in the scope, power, and analytical rigor of its theories. The mechanism of this revolution has been rational choice theory. In this article, I describe what has happened and offer some perspective on how the revolution came about, what it consists of, and why it is on balance a very good thing. But I also argue that, while rational choice will be the prime vehicle of theoretical progress in the near future (emphasis on “near”), it is destined to lose its dominance over the over the longer haul, both in presidential studies and in political science more generally, to competitors that are better equipped for scientific inquiry and progress—and more in keeping with the concerns of its critics.
Building Reliable Theories of the Presidency
Authors: JACOBS LAWRENCE R.
Published: October 2009

Framing the necessary purpose of theory building as a choice between grand theory or particularism poses two unsound extremes. The application of rational choice has made contributions, but it has also generated conclusions that are inaccurate, duplicative of long‐standing and well‐known research, and unnecessarily adversarial. The most productive approach to theory building in the study of the presidency relies on “middle‐level” concepts and research, producing theoretical extension by climbing the abstraction ladder to identify similarities and sufficient analytic intention to avoid unnecessary declines in precision and accuracy.
The Contemporary Presidency: The Political Utility of Empathy in Presidential Leadership
Authors: SHOGAN COLLEEN J.
Published: October 2009

In simple and precise terms, empathy is feeling what another person feels. It is the perception of another person's emotions. A debate over the importance of empathy in political leadership has generated considerable controversy since the 2008 election. However, Barack Obama's presidency is not the first to be affected by empathy; it has played an influential role in presidential leadership throughout American history. Focusing on the presidencies of Abraham Lincoln, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush, this essay explains why empathy is a critical governing and political resource, and argues that a paucity or excess of empathy can prove a dangerous liability for presidents.
HLA‐G 3′‐UTR SNP and 14‐bp deletion polymorphisms in Portuguese and Guinea‐Bissau populations
Authors: Alvarez M. , Piedade J. , Balseiro S. , Ribas G. , Regateiro F.
Published: October 2009

In the HLA‐G locus, the 3′‐untranslated region (3′‐UTR) begins in the mid exon 6, and ends in exon 8. The occurrence of a 14‐bp deletion within exon 8, the only mutation known until now in the 3′‐UTR, has been considered a risk factor for disease and allograft rejection. To describe the polymorphism within this region, direct sequencing analysis was performed on 120 DNA samples from Portugal and Guinea‐Bissau. Results indicate that exon 8 is less conserved than the coding exons. Nine single nucleotide polymorphisms and the previously described 14‐bp deletion were found within exon 8 of both populations. Molecular diversity was higher in the Guinean samples than in the Portuguese; however, little differentiation was found among the populations, suggesting that local selection on exon 8 sequence variation is absent. The screening for sequence motifs suggests that polymorphism on this region may be involved in HLA‐G post‐transcriptional regulation and, therefore, in phenotype variation.
Will They Stay or Will They Go? Simulating the Dynamics of Single‐Holder Farms in a Dualistic Farm Structure in Slovakia
Authors: Happe Kathrin , Schnicke Hauke , Sahrbacher Christoph , Kellermann Konrad
Published: October 2009

This paper investigates the dynamic interplay between farm exit and entry of single‐holder farms (SF) in a dualistic farm structure in the Nitra region of the Slovak Republic. Our focus is on economic and noneconomic reasons for farm exit. The impact of varying both the likelihood of succession and the initial farm operator age distributions is studied. An agent‐based simulation model of structural change in agriculture is applied, which brings together farm‐internal and ‐external determinants and creates a set of endogenous adjustment reactions. We show that the stepwise introduction of direct payments of the Common Agricultural Policy in Slovakia has a strong impact on its structural development. In the short‐ to medium‐term, the dualistic farm structure together with a specific age structure of farms still persists as a response to the policy. The phasing‐in of payments persuades SF to stay and potential successors to enter. In the longer run, the initially heterogeneous farm structure becomes increasingly homogeneous toward larger SF. The prevalence of small SF in the medium‐ to long‐term is not necessarily a given. This may lead decision makers to reconsider the role of individual farms in rural development.

Dans le présent article, nous avons étudié la relation entre l'entrée en agriculture de fermes à propriétaire unique et leur sortie dans un contexte d'agriculture dualiste dans la région de Nitra, en Slovaquie. Nous nous sommes concentrés sur les raisons économiques et non économiques qui motivent la sortie. Nous avons étudié l'impact liéà la possibilité de relève et à la répartition par âge des agriculteurs. Pour évaluer le changement structurel en agriculture, nous avons utilisé un modèle de simulation multi‐agent qui réunit les facteurs internes et externes et crée un ensemble de réactions d'adaptation endogènes. Nous avons montré que l'introduction progressive des paiements directs accordés dans le cadre de la Politique agricole commune en Slovaquie a des répercussions considérables sur son développement structurel. À court et à moyen termes, l'agriculture dualiste, combinée à la structure de l'âge des exploitations agricoles, demeure une réaction à la politique en place. La mise en place progressive des paiements persuade les exploitations à propriétaire unique de demeurer dans le secteur et encourage les successeurs potentiels à y entrer. À plus long terme, la structure agricole qui était hétérogène au départ devient de plus en plus homogène et compte de plus grandes fermes à propriétaire unique. À court et à moyen termes, la prévalence de petites fermes à propriétaire unique ne va pas nécessairement de soi. Cette situation pourrait amener les décideurs à réexaminer le rôle des exploitations individuelles dans le développement rural.
The Anti‐tumor Effects of Androstene Steroids Exhibit a Strict Structure–Activity Relationship Dependent upon the Orientation of the Hydroxyl Group on Carbon‐17
Authors: Graf Martin R. , Jia Wentao , Lewbart Marvin L. , Loria Roger M.
Published: October 2009

Androstene steroids are metabolites of dehydroepiandrosterone and exist as androstene‐diols or ‐triols in α‐ and β‐epimeric forms based upon the placement of the hydroxyl groups relative to the plane of the Δ5cycloperhydrophenanthrene ring. 5‐Androstene‐3β,17β‐diol (3β,17β‐AED) functions to upregulate immunity and the addition of a third hydroxyl group at C‐7 in the α‐ or β‐orientation (3β,7α,17β‐AET and 3β,7β,17β‐AET, respectively) enhances the immunological activity of the molecule. In contrast, 5‐androstene‐3β,17α‐diol (3β,17α‐AED) possesses potent anti‐tumor activity. We synthesized a new androstene by adding a third hydroxyl group at C‐7 to make 5‐androstene‐3β,7α,17α‐triol (3β,7α,17α‐AET) and compared the anti‐tumor activity of this steroid to the four existing androstenes. The results showed that this modification reduced the activity of 3β,17α‐AED. The ranking of the anti‐tumor activities of these steroids and their IC50 on human glioblastoma and lymphoma cells was: 3β,17α‐AED (∼10 μm) > 3β,7α,17α‐AET (∼30 μm) >> 3β,7α,17β‐AET (∼150 μm)> 3β,7β,17β‐AET (not achievable) ≥ 3β,17β‐AED (not achievable). 3β,17α‐AED and 3β,7α,17α‐AET induced autophagy in T98G glioblastoma cells and apoptosis in U937 lymphoma cells. These results indicate that the position of the hydroxyl group on C‐17 dictates the anti‐tumor activity of the androstenes and must be in the α‐configuration, demonstrating a strict structure–activity relationship.
Revisiting the Central Dogma in the 21st Century
Authors: Shapiro James A.
Published: October 2009

Since the elaboration of the central dogma of molecular biology, our understanding of cell function and genome action has benefited from many radical discoveries. The discoveries relate to interactive multimolecular execution of cell processes, the modular organization of macromolecules and genomes, the hierarchical operation of cellular control regimes, and the realization that genetic change fundamentally results from DNA biochemistry. These discoveries contradict atomistic pre‐DNA ideas of genome organization and violate the central dogma at multiple points. In place of the earlier mechanistic understanding of genomics, molecular biology has led us to an informatic perspective on the role of the genome. The informatic viewpoint points towards the development of novel concepts about cellular cognition, molecular representations of physiological states, genome system architecture, and the algorithmic nature of genome expression and genome restructuring in evolution.
The Great Billion‐year War between Ribosome‐ and Capsid‐encoding Organisms (Cells and Viruses) as the Major Source of Evolutionary Novelties
Authors: Forterre Patrick , Prangishvili David
Published: October 2009

Our conceptions on the origin, nature, and role of viruses have been shaken recently by several independent lines of research. There are many reasons to believe now that viruses are more ancient than modern cells and have always been more abundant and diverse than their cellular targets. Viruses can be defined as capsid‐encoding organisms that transform their “host” cell into a viral factory. If capsid‐encoding organisms (viruses) and ribosome‐encoding organisms (cells) are the major types of living entities on our planet, it seems logical to conclude that their conflict has been a major engine of biological evolution (in the framework of natural selection). In particular, many novelties first selected in the viral world might have been transferred to cells as a consequence of the continuous flow of viral genes into cellular genomes. We discuss recent observations and hypotheses suggesting that viruses have played a major role at different stages of biological evolution, such as the RNA to DNA transition, the origin of the eukaryotic nucleus, or, alternatively, the origin of unique features in multicellular macrobes.
Cell‐Cell Channels, Viruses, and Evolution
Authors: Baluška František
Published: October 2009

Between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells there is dramatic difference in complexity which represents a problem for the current version of the cell theory, as well as for the current version of evolution theory. In the past few decades, the serial endosymbiotic theory of Lynn Margulis has been confirmed. This results in a radical departure from our understanding of living systems: the eukaryotic cell representsde facto“cells‐within‐cell.” Higher order “cells‐within‐cell” situations are obvious at the eukaryotic cell level in the form of secondary and tertiary endosymbiosis, or in the male and female gametophytes of higher plants. The next challenge of the current version of the cell theory is represented by the fact that the multicellular fungi and plants are, in fact, supracellular assemblies as their cells are not physically separated from each other. Moreover, there are also examples of alliances and mergings between multicellular organisms. Infection, especially the viral one, but also bacterial and fungal infections, followed by symbiosis, is proposed to act as the major force that drives the biological evolution toward higher complexity.
Hen or Egg?
Authors: Rustom Amin
Published: October 2009

Precise coordination of various cell types and tissues represents a substantial prerequisite for the development and maintenance of multicellular organisms. Therefore, eukaryotic cells have developed a variety of complex structures, including synapses or gap junctions. Recently, thin membranous channels, termed “tunnelling nanotubes,” were discovered. Tunnelling nanotubes interconnect miscellaneous animal cells and are assumed to be involved in important physiological and pathological mechanisms, such as the intercellular spread of diverse pathogens. This phenomenon shows striking similarities to plant tissues, where cells are connected via membranous channels, called plasmodesmata. Emerging evidence suggests that the discovery of tunnelling nanotubes may enforce reconsideration of previous conceptions of intercellular communication, additionally providing novel perspectives concerning early evolution of multicellular life‐forms.
No Genetics without Epigenetics? No Biology without Systems Biology?
Authors: Van de Vijver Gertrudis
Published: October 2009

In this article, we propose to reflect on the meaning of complexity in relation to current biology, and in particular, in relation to current systems biological developments by considering them as confronting biology with the idea of a complex part–whole determination of living systems, that is contextual as well as stratified. We attempt to trace as clearly as possible the abstract core of the idea of parts and wholes that is at stake in this contextual determination. In doing so, we have found inspiration in Kant's view on living systems. We argue that Kant's transcendental viewpoint can be relevantly actualized and extrapolated as a relational account of living systems, and will explore its ramifications starting from a multilevel view of living systems.
The Role of NF‐κB in Hypoxia‐Induced Gene Expression
Authors: Taylor Cormac T. , Cummins Eoin P.
Published: October 2009

Hypoxia is a common physiologic and pathophysiologic stimulus that activates the expression of genes through oxygen‐sensitive transcription factors including the hypoxia‐inducible factor (HIF) and nuclear factor‐kappaB (NF‐κB). Hypoxia‐dependent gene expression can have important physiologic or pathophysiologic consequences for an organism, depending upon the cause of the hypoxic insult. Consequently, this pathway represents an attractive therapeutic target in a number of disease states. While the mechanism linking hypoxia to the activation of HIF has been extensively studied, our understanding of how hypoxia activates NF‐κB is limited. Recent studies have demonstrated that similar oxygen‐sensing mechanisms are employed in conferring oxygen sensitivity to both HIF and NF‐κB−dependent gene expression. Furthermore, there is an extensive degree of cross‐talk occurring between NF‐κB and HIF. Investigations into mechanisms of hypoxic activation of HIF and NF‐κB and how these signaling pathways interact will uncover new therapeutic modalities in a diverse range of disease states where hypoxia is a feature of the microenvironment including cancer, vascular disease, and chronic inflammation.
Hypoxia and Neurodegeneration
Authors: Peers Chris , Dallas Mark L. , Boycott Hannah E. , Scragg Jason L. , Pearson Hugh A. , Boyle John P.
Published: October 2009

Periods of chronic hypoxia, which can arise from numerous cardiorespiratory disorders, predispose individuals to the development of dementias, particularly Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD is characterized in part by the increased production of amyloid β peptide (Aβ), which forms the extracellular plaques by which the disease can be identified post mortem. Numerous studies have now shown that hypoxia, even in vitro, can increase production of Aβ in different cell types. Evidence has been produced to indicate hypoxia alters both expression of the Aβ precursor, APP, and also the expression of the secretase enzymes, which cleave Aβ from APP. Other studies implicate reduced Aβ degradation as a possible means by which hypoxia increases Aβ levels. Such variability may be attributable to cell‐specific responses to hypoxia. Further evidence indicates that some, but not all of the cellular adaptations to chronic hypoxia (including alteration of Ca2+ homeostasis) require Aβ formation. However, other aspects of hypoxic remodeling of cell function appear to occur independently of this process. The molecular and cellular responses to hypoxia contribute to our understanding of the clinical association of hypoxia and increased incidence of AD. However, it remains to be determined whether inhibition of one or more of the effects of hypoxia may be of benefit in arresting the development of this neurodegenerative disease.
An Essential Role of the HIF‐1α–c‐Myc Axis in Malignant Progression
Authors: Yoo Young‐Gun , Hayashi Masami , Christensen Jared , Huang L. Eric
Published: October 2009

Cancer is a disease of genomic aberration. The hypoxic microenvironment is believed to promote tumor progression via the induction of genetic instability. To understand how hypoxia drives tumor progression, we have shown recently that the hypoxia‐inducible transcription factor, HIF‐1α, is critical for transcriptional repression of DNA repair genes by a noncanonical mode of action referred to as the “HIF‐1α–c‐Myc axis.” HIF‐1α action via the HIF‐1α–c‐Myc axis is independent of its DNA‐binding and transactivation domains; instead it requires the PAS‐B domain to displace the transcription activator c‐Myc from the target gene promoter for gene repression. Owing to the functional compromise on DNA repair, tumor cells with activated HIF‐1α–c‐Myc axis display persistent DNA damage, genetic alterations, and malignant progression. However, apoptosis‐proficient cells are resistant to such changes. These findings argue that the hypoxic microenvironment plays a critical role in driving genetic alterations especially in apoptosis‐deficient cells for malignant progression.
People Use their Knowledge of Common Events to Understand Language, and Do So as Quickly as Possible
Authors: McRae Ken , Matsuki Kazunaga
Published: October 2009

People possess a great deal of knowledge about how the world works, and it is undoubtedly true that adults use this knowledge when understanding and producing language. However, psycholinguistic theories differ regarding whether this extra‐linguistic pragmatic knowledge can be activated and used immediately, or only after a delay. The authors present research that investigates whether people immediately use their generalized knowledge of common events when understanding language. This research demonstrates that (i) individual isolated words immediately activate event‐based knowledge; (ii) combinations of words in sentences immediately constrain people’s event‐based expectations for concepts that are upcoming in language; (iii) syntax modulates people’s expectations for ensuing concepts; and (iv) event‐based knowledge can produce expectations for ensuing syntactic structures. It is concluded that theories of sentence comprehension must allow for the rapid dynamic interplay among these sources of information.
Obesity‐Related Cardiorenal Syndrome
Authors: Nelson Ryan , Antonetti Illena , Bisognano John D. , Sloand James
Published: October 2009

J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2010;12:59–63. ©2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The term obesity cardiomyopathy has previously been used to describe a clinical syndrome in obese patients typically consisting of eccentric left ventricular hypertrophy with preserved ejection fraction and diastolic dysfunction and is often associated with right ventricular dysfunction independent of the presence of the obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Although several publications have described the early stages of this syndrome, little is known about the end stages of the disease. The authors conducted a retrospective study of a subset of edematous obese patients with multiple common medical comorbidities who present with a clinical syndrome in the setting of physiologic stress or infection. Under severe physiologic stress these patients developed pulmonary hypertension, right‐sided volume overload, decreased effective arterial blood volume, and renal failure. Often, these findings were in the setting of obstructive sleep apnea. This retrospective study focuses on an obesity‐related cardiorenal syndrome but also serves to provide a foreground for acknowledging the broad spectrum of cardiovascular pathology, including pulmonary hypertension, diastolic dysfunction, and sleep apnea, seen in the obese.
WHAT HAS PSYCHOANALYSIS GOT TO DO WITH HAPPINESS? RECLAIMING THE POSITIVE IN PSYCHOANALYTIC PSYCHOTHERAPY
Authors: Music Graham
Published: October 2009

abstract

This paper questions whether what is a strength of psychoanalysis – its focus on painful and difficult experiences and its ability to remain in touch with the negative aspects of the personality – might also be an Achilles heel. The paper discusses research from neuroscience, developmental and social psychology to argue that more attention needs to be given to how we work with more positive and hopeful aspects of the personality, and that otherwise psychoanalytic psychotherapists are not working with the whole person. Some clinical examples are used to illustrate how these ideas might be used.
THE ODYSSEY: CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVES
Authors: White Jean
Published: October 2009

abstract

As this paper was originally given as a lecture, I have retained something of the spoken tone of the original. The paper explores some of the ways in which Odysseus is transformed from a stereotypical Greek warrior and hero into a wiser, humbler and more complex and sophisticated man through his various adventures on his return journey from Troy to Ithaca. These adventures symbolically describe and recapitulate some of the central tenets of psychoanalytic theories of psychic change and growth from the contemporary Independent, Lacanian and post‐Kleinian schools.
PSYCHIC AND MENTAL BISEXUALITY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SENSE OF SELF AND MIND
Authors: Hurwood Judith
Published: October 2009

abstract

Drawing on the ideas of Birksted‐Breen (1996) and Houzel (2005), this paper discusses the concept of bisexuality, which has been viewed in various ways in the psychoanalytic literature. An argument is made for a clearer definition and conceptual distinction using the terms ‘psychic’ and ‘mental’ bisexuality. Houzel's ‘psychic bisexuality’ and Birksted‐Breen's ‘mental bisexuality’ are distinguished as two separate developmental phases which promote the establishment of psychic space and thought. Psychic bisexuality pertains to the structuring of the self and the development of internal space. Mental bisexuality pertains to the functioning of the mind, with the development of space between internal objects and between self and others. Central to these developments are the containing functions of being both close enough to, and distant enough from, the patient. Clinical material illustrates how interwoven problems at the stage of psychic and mental bisexuality can be and demonstrates that the development of internal space, and space between self and others, requires internalization of both the psychic and mental bisexuality of the therapist.