bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE ARCO ANCHORAGE OIL SPILL, PORT ANGELES, WASHINGTON1
Authors: Lindstedt-Siva June , Chamberlain Dilworth W. , Mancini Eugene R.
Published: January 2013

On December 21, 1985, the tanker Arco Anchorage ran aground in Port Angeles Harbor. Approximately 5,960 bbl (239,000 gal) of Alaska North Slope crude oil were released from two gashes in the ship's hull. Weather conditions permitted the effective operation of containment booms and skimmers. Once the vessel was secured, first priority during the response was protection of environmentally sensitive areas to the east of the spill site, including a National Wildlife Refuge with large populations of marine birds, fishes, and invertebrates. Heaviest shoreline contamination was on Ediz Hook in Port Angeles Harbor, but oil was observed as far east as Dungeness Bay and as far west as Neah Bay. Approximately 2,000 seabirds were known to be oiled during the spill. Removal of oiled debris was a successful cleanup strategy for all beaches except Ediz Hook, and concentrations of oil in the sediments returned to background levels within weeks. Oil penetrated into coarse sediments at the most heavily oiled sites on Ediz Hook. A unique cleanup method incorporating a combination of physical agitation and high-pressure water jets was devised to remove most of the entrained oil. Concentrations of oil in these sediments and biological recruitment are being monitored. Recommendations are made to further reduce the environmental impacts of such incidents.
EFFECT OF INFAUNAL BURROW STRUCTURE ON OIL PENETRATION INTO SEDIMENTS
Authors: Howard S. , Little D. I.
Published: January 2013

The presence of an infaunal burrow structure facilitated the penetration of a medium fuel oil mousse into subsurface sediments to a greater depth than similar sediments lacking a burrow structure (destroyed by digging). The increased penetration of oil appeared to be related to better drainage characteristics resulting from the burrow structure. Oil was found to penetrate burrows of all sizes down to at least 1 mm diameter. Penetration of oil into the burrows occurred within 24 hours and was accompanied by a decrease in feeding rate of the lugworm Arenicola marina, although there were no detectable toxic effects of the oil on the small-sized infaunal community during the one-month experiment. Depending on the toxic properties of the oil, reworking of oiled sediments by the infauna may return oil to the surface, thus promoting degradation.
RELATIONSHIP OF SPARTINA ALTERNIFLORA GROWTH TO SEDIMENT OIL CONTENT FOLLOWING AN OIL SPILL
Authors: Alexander Steve K. , Webb James W.
Published: January 2013

A single spill of crude oil in a salt marsh is generally considered to have limited biological effects. A crude oil spill in Dickinson Bayou (in the Galveston Bay system of Texas) in January 1984 provided the opportunity to test this hypothesis in salt marshes exposed to varying amounts of oil. Growth of Spartina alterniflora was unaffected in light to moderately oiled sediments (less than 5 mg oil/g sediment). However, growth was significantly reduced in sediments with high oil content (5 to 51 mg/g) through 18 months. Erosion of shoreline areas with high oil content was evident by 16 months and continued through 32 months. These results demonstrate the adverse effect of high concentrations of crude oil in salt marsh sediments. Each crude oil spill must be evaluated individually with regard to the likelihood of significant accumulation of oil in sediments before a decision is made regarding a cleanup response.
REGIONAL RESPONSE TEAM-HOSTED PUBLIC FORUM FOR SHELL OIL SPILL, SAN FRANCISCO BAY
Authors: Shimmin Kathleen G.
Published: January 2013

On April 22 and 23, 1988, Shell Oil Company spilled more than 400,000 gallons of crude oil into northern San Francisco Bay from its refinery in Martinez, California. The resulting contamination of more than 11 miles of shoreline, marshes, beaches, and marinas attracted widespread public interest and extended investigation by governmental agencies and elected officials, as the cleanup extended for many weeks. The regional response team (RRT) was asked to host two public forums to present a unified governmental perspective on the incident and to give the public a chance to comment and express ideas for restoration and mitigation measures. This paper describes how this process was carried out and makes observations on the importance of the SPCC program. Reviewing a regional response to a discharge is a possible RRT activity described in the National Contingency Plan. This effort presents an opportunity for the RRT to solicit public views for use in its evaluation process.
USING OIL SPILL DISPERSANTS ON THE SEA
Authors: Butler James N.
Published: January 2013

Primary consideration in this critical review was given to treating oil spills at sea with the intent of reducing the environmental impact of that oil if it should reach the shore. The general conclusions reached were:In carefully planned and monitored laboratory and sea tests, oil has been effectively dispersed; but at many field tests and at accidental spills, reported effectiveness has been low—perhaps because of poor targeting and distribution of aerial sprays, because the oils were too viscous to be dispersable, or the observations of effectiveness were inconclusive.The acute lethal toxicities of dispersant formulations currently in use are usually lower than those of the more volatile and soluble fractions of crude oils and their refined products; hence the toxicity of dispersed oil is due primarily to the oil and not to the dispersant.Sublethal effects of dispersed oil observed in the laboratory occur in most cases at concentrations comparable to or higher than those expected in the water column during treatment of an oil slick at sea (1 to 10 ppm) but seldom at concentrations less than are found several hours after treatment (less than 1 ppm). Since the times of exposure in the laboratory are much longer than predicted exposures during slick dispersal at sea (one to three hours), the effects would be correspondingly less.In open waters, organisms on the surface will be less affected by dispersed oil than by an oil slick, but organisms in the upper water column will experience greater exposure to oil components if the oil is dispersed. In shallow habitats with poor water circulation, benthic organisms will be more immediately affected by dispersed than untreated oil. Long-term effects of dispersed oil on some habitats, such as mangroves, are less, and the habitat recovers faster if the oil is dispersed before it reaches that area.Because the principal benefit of dispersant use is to prevent oil stranding on sensitive shorelines, and because dispersability of oil decreases rapidly with weathering, prompt response is essential.
EFFECTS OF OIL POLLUTION ON INDUSTRIAL WATER INTAKES1
Authors: Nichols J. A. , Parker H. D.
Published: January 2013

Oil spills in coastal waters sometimes give rise to concerns that oil may become entrained in the seawater intakes of power stations, desalination units, and other industrial plants. This paper reviews the findings of an investigation, undertaken by the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation and Sir M. MacDonald & Partners, on the effects of oil pollution on water-cooled electricity-generating stations and desalination plants using multistage flash distillation and reverse osmosis. The various components that could be contaminated by oil are described and, using case studies wherever possible, the effects on equipment, heat transfer surfaces, and potable water are discussed. Finally considered are various methods of minimizing the impact of oil and financial implications of oil contamination for the different types of industrial plant.
RISK ASSESSMENT: TOOLS FOR REDUCING LIABILITY FROM UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS
Authors: Tucker William A. , Hearne Frank L.
Published: January 2013

Although regulations are being implemented at federal, state, and local levels, many major oil companies have decided to do even more than is required by law to prevent leaks from underground storage tanks (USTs). On the other hand, regulatory agencies directing cleanup of contaminated sites may demand restoration that goes beyond reasonable concerns for protection of public health and the environment. These cross-currents indicate that simply complying with applicable codes and regulations may not be an adequate strategy for cost-effectively reducing the risks of handling light refined products.

To control risks, it is important first to understand them. Risk assessment is useful before a leak occurs as well as after. Before the leak occurs, risk assessment requires estimates of the probability of release as well as the likely consequences (damages). Techniques are presented that can be useful to managers of a large number of tanks or insurance underwriters to assess risks and prioritize risk reduction measures. Ultimately, these procedures could be used to determine an appropriate budget for tank upgrade programs.

After a leak, and armed with detailed site assessment data, relatively precise estimates of toxic risks are possible. More realistic risk estimates are possible for refined petroleum product losses than are possible at many hazardous waste sites because of the relatively homogeneous and predictable properties of refined products. Field-verified predictive techniques that can be used to support defensible risk estimates are reviewed. Cost-effective strategies for collecting data required to support risk assessment and remediation of contaminated sites are stressed.

Risks can be mitigated to generally acceptable levels at some sites even if contamination substantially exceeds federal maximum contaminant levels (MCLs). At other sites, remediation to lower levels would be advisable.
Use of Dispersants in the United States: Perception or Reality?
Authors: Cunningham John M. , Sahatjian Karen A. , Meyers Chris , Yoshioka Gary , Jordan Julie M.
Published: January 2013

Dispersants have been a controversial oil spill response technique since their introduction during the Torrey Canyon oil spill off the coast of the United Kingdom in 1967. Despite reductions in the toxicity of dispersants and improvements in their application since then, dispersants have not been used extensively in the United States because of logistical difficulties, unfavorable weather conditions, and a lack of demonstrated effectiveness during actual spill conditions. In addition, there is a widely held perception in the United States that dispersant use has been limited by complex authorization procedures.

This paper reviews the dispersant policies of several European nations and Canada and compares them with those of the United States. Recent developments in U. S. dispersant policy are outlined, particularly those designed to expedite decision making. The paper concludes by examining some recent U. S. oil spills in which dispersant use was considered.
Dispersant use for Tropical Nearshore Waters: Jamaica
Authors: Thorhaug Anitra , Anderson Marcel , Teas Howard J. , Carby Barbara , Reese Richard , Aiken Karl , Walker Wendy , Miller Beverly , Gordon Valerie , McFarlane John , Sidrak George , Rodriquez Mike , McDonald Franklin
Published: January 2013

Jamaica's shoreline is at the intersection of five major petroleum tanker shipping routes, and is a cargo transshipment point for the Caribbean. The natural coastline resources are valuable economically, with two-thirds of exchange dollars coming through tourism associated with beaches, clear waters, coral reefs, and nearshore fishing. The most thorough examination of the feasibility of using dispersants ever carried out in a developing nation has been undertaken. Dispersant toxicity of various species of critical matrix organisms has been carried out with an array of 12 dispersants. Corals, fish, seagrasses, and mangroves were tested. Toxic dispersants and three very low toxicity compounds were identified at concentrations ten times those likely to occur and ten times longer exposures. Thus, a safety factor was built in. A sensitivity map of the coastline was constructed. Simulations of “near-miss” tanker accidents were done manually with disperse and nondisperse options. A policy study of European and North American dispersant use was undertaken by the Office of Disaster Preparedness, the Coast Guard and the Oil Spill Committee. A draft policy was prepared for nontoxic dispersant use. The recommendations for use of nontoxic dispersants—with primarily coral reef and fish sensitivity as paramount concerns—are Cold Clean, Corexit 9550 and Finasol OSR7. Several European nations also have approved lists with Corexit 9550 (or allied products) and Finasol OSR-7. A computer simulation of all potential occurrences is the future goal.
Personal Computer Oil Spill Response Model: Canadian Beaufort Sea
Authors: Jayko Katherine , Spaulding Malcolm L. , Howlett Eoin , Knauss Will , Isaji Tatsu , Anderson Eric L. , Goodman Ronald , McKenzie Bruce
Published: January 2013

An oil spill response model, configured for operation on a personal computer, was developed for the Canadian Beaufort Sea (in the Mackenzie Bay-Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula area) for a consortium of oil companies operating in the region. The spill model predicts the drift, spread, evaporation, dispersion, emulsification, and shoreline interaction of spilled oil in ice-infested waters. Wind conditions and ice distribution data are input by the user. Currents are provided by a three-dimensional, fine-grid hydrodynamic model of the study region forced by river flow and wind. The spill model allows the user to reinitialize the spill location based on observations and to simulate either instantaneous or continuous spill scenarios. The model predicts the spill's trajectory, the areal distribution of the oil slick, the oiled shoreline, and the oil mass balance as a function of time. Model output is provided on a color ink printer or a color graphics monitor.
Coast Guard Research and Development for the 1990s1
Authors: Jensen Donald S. , Tebeau Peter A.
Published: January 2013

Over the past 20 years, the U. S. Coast Guard pursued an extensive R&D effort in oil spill response technology, producing a number of systems that have defined the current state of the art. In the mid-1980s, the R&D effort was scaled back due to declining national emphasis, and to its reaching a point of diminishing returns. Following the Exxon Valdez and several other catastrophic spills, the Coast Guard began reexamining the mission needs and technology to formulate a revitalized R&D effort for the 1990s. Workshops were held within the Coast Guard and with other federal agencies and industry, to identify spill response needs and R&D efforts that would support those needs. Several technology assessment efforts are currently underway. Based on these workshops and technology assessments, a five-year R&D program has been developed. The elements of this program are described in detail, including plans for cooperative efforts with other agencies, other countries, and industry.
VESSEL RESPONSE PLAN REQUIREMENTS: OBSERVATIONS BY INTERTANKO
Authors: Corbett Charles R.
Published: January 2013

The U.S. government has elected to proceed unilaterally with respect to oil spill response plans for vessels—despite the fact that it is party to two important treaties which support a globally unified system. While the timetable for implementing the vessel response plans required by U. S. legislation moves forward for tanker owners, the U. S. executive branch has not kept pace by providing badly needed guidelines—demanded by the same legislation. Of particular importance are the failure of revisions to the U. S. National Contingency Plan, area contingency plans, and oil spill cleanup contractor approval procedures and guidelines to appear.
OYSTERS AS BIOMONITORS OF THE APEX BARGE OIL SPILL
Authors: Wade Terry L. , Jackson Thomas J. , McDonald Thomas J. , Wilkinson Dan L. , Brooks James M.
Published: January 2013

The collision of the Greek tanker ship Shinoussa resulted in a spill of an estimated 692,000 gallons of catalytic feed stock oil into Galveston Bay on July 28, 1990. Oysters were collected from Galveston Bay Todds Dump (GBTD) 235 days previous to the spill and 6, 37, 132, and 495 days after the spill. Oysters were also collected from Galveston Bay Redfish Island (GBRI), a site known to be impacted by the spill, 37 and 110 days after the spill. The concentration of the 24 polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) measured for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's national status and trends program (NS&T) site showed a sharp increase from about 100 ng/g to over 600 ng/g one week after the spill compared to concentrations 235 days previous to the spill. The concentration of the 24 NS&T PAH in oysters from GBRI ranges from 400 to over 1000 ng/g. Soon after the spill the concentration of the 24 NS&T PAH at Todds Dump decreased to levels not statistically different from pre-spill samples. However, analyses of alkylated and sulfur containing aromatic compounds indicate the oysters were still contaminated with Apex barge oil at least 37 and 110 days after the spill at GBTD and GBRI, respectively. Data from NS&T sampling at GBTD more than a year after the spill (495 days) indicates the presence of alkylated aromatic hydrocarbons that may be from Apex barge oil still in the area. It appears that a sink of Apex barge oil (i. e., in sediments) may periodically be released by storms or other events into the ecosystem near GBTD. Therefore, bioavailable Apex barge oil is still present and may adversely affect oysters 495 days after the spill.
NATURAL DISPERSION OF OIL BY DIFFERENT SOURCES OF TURBULENCE
Authors: Delvigne Gerard A.L.
Published: January 2013

An earlier laboratory investigation by the author led to the acquisition of quantitative data on natural dispersion due to breaking waves, in terms of dispersion rate, droplet size distribution, and intrusion depth of the droplets in the water column. The present paper demonstrates that the relationships derived and empirical data can be applied to other dispersion sources as well. As found with breaking waves, these other dispersion sources must consist of a short-duration plunging process hitting the surface oil parcel. The following dispersion sources which apparently fulfill the requirement are discussed: flow over a dam, a cataract with a hydraulic jump, fast flow around an obstacle, and a ship sailing through an oil slick.
FEDERAL NOTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS FOR RELEASES OF OIL AND HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
Authors: Hostage Barbara , Perry Gerain
Published: January 2013

Federal notification requirements represent the first step in ensuring that the federal government is available to provide valuable oversight, resources, and expertise during responses to potentially dangerous releases of oil or hazardous substances into the environment. Beginning with the Clean Water Act of 1970 (CWA), and followed by the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986 (EPCRA), and the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA), Congress has enacted provisions that direct responsible parties to notify cognizant federal, state, and local authorities as soon as possible about releases of oil or other substances that may pose a hazard to public health, welfare, or the environment. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has had primary responsibility for developing reporting triggers that ensure that potentially dangerous releases are reported promptly, but at the same time do not overwhelm federal, state, and local response organizations with notifications to which they rarely, if ever, would respond. The agency is working constantly to clarify, streamline, and reduce any unnecessary burden. It also works to respond to concerns raised by the general public, industry, and Congress, and to eliminate inconsistencies and to ensure efficient and effective protection of public health, welfare, and the environment.
TEXSONDE '94—RADAR MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE CURRENTS FOR OIL SPILL MODELING
Authors: Hodgins Donald O. , Giammona Charles , Martin Robert , LaBelle Robert , Goodman Ronald
Published: January 2013

The SeaSonde 12.5 MHz radar was used to measure surface currents offshore Galveston for a one month period (March 1994). The radar generally performed well when sited with open beach exposure; however, data return was found to vary with wind direction, which led to occasional reductions in the total coverage area. Although useful for input directly to oil spill models, the utility of the radar current data could be improved through assimilation into hydrodynamic flow models.
JIN SHIANG FA CASE STUDY: WHAT COULD HAVE BEEN DONE?
Authors: Capune William K.
Published: January 2013

On October 14, 1993, the fishing vessel Jin Shiang Fa grounded at Rose Atoll with 100,000 gallons of fuel on board. Rose Atoll is one of the most pristine atolls in the world. Due to its extreme remoteness, responders had very limited options and were unable to recover any fuel. Six weeks after the grounding, a salvage vessel arrived on scene and found the Jin Shiang Fa completely destroyed by a storm, and a third of the reef dead. No response expense was spared. Yet no fuel was ever recovered. When traditional response methods are not feasible, alternative options should be considered.
AIR CURTAIN INCINERATION FOR EMERGENCY DISPOSAL OF OIL SPILL DEBRIS
Authors: Kennedy Alan J. , Dallas Robert J. , Wotherspoon Paul
Published: January 2013

Disposal of oiled waste materials following a spill provides a significant challenge in Canada's northern boreal forests. Voluminous amounts of waste, composed of a mixture of oil and water as well as organic and mineral matter, must be dealt with following cleanup in muskeg or bog ecosystems. The Prairie Oil Spill Containment and Recovery Advisory Committee (PROSCARAC) has developed a portable air curtain incinerator to provide an acceptable waste disposal method. The environmental acceptability of the incinerator is shown by the results of a test burn.
U.S. COAST GUARD SPILL PLANNING, EXERCISE, AND RESPONSE SYSTEM (SPEARS)
Authors: Ishiki Shane , Chan Dexter
Published: January 2013

The confluence of managing risk, achieving preparedness, partnership, and effective pollution response actions is a “sine qua non” for minimizing water pollution and damage to the environment and natural resources. To succeed, the U.S. Coast Guard is implementing a new computer-based tool called SPEARS for use by Coast Guard on scene coordinators for incidents involving hazardous chemical or oil pollution. Highly capable, versatile, and user friendly, SPEARS uses state of the art technology, databases, mathematical models, and digital maps to manage information and support decision making for risk management, planning, exercises, and pollution response.
FAST SOURCE-FINGERPRINTING ANALYSIS FOR OIL SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Roberts Paulene O. , Henry Charles B. , Ehrmann Ursula , Overton Edward B.
Published: January 2013

Source identification of spilled petroleum during incidents is a crucial piece of information required for response activities. The need for rapid, accurate assessment is essential at the onset of a spill to determine the extent and impacts of the incident. This necessity for speed becomes less important as cleanup progresses. Current fingerprinting methods utilize gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC/MS) and have become an important analytical tool because of high selectivity and compound specificity. Disadvantages include time requirements for sample preparation and analysis in addition to the use of soon-to-be-banned chlorinated solvents. Sample analyses may require up to eight hours a sample when using standard techniques. We are currently developing methods to reduce the turnaround time by alternate sample preparation and rapid analysis; primarily through use of thermal extraction and short, narrow-bore capillary columns. This technique can greatly reduce analysis time without sacrificing important chromatographic information. Samples from recent oil spills were compared by standard GC/MS fingerprinting to the fast chromatographic method developed in our laboratory. The identification clarity capability of the faster method is shown by the inclusion of various characteristic biomarkers—such as the more resistant, yet toxic, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, geological biomarker triterpanes and steranes, as well as compounds indicative of weathering and degradation stages.
REMOVING OIL AND SAVING OILED MARSH GRASS USING A SHORELINE CLEANER
Authors: Pezeshki S. R. , DeLaune R. D. , Nyman J. A. , Lessard R. R. , Canevari G. P.
Published: January 2013

A new shoreline cleaner, which was specially developed during the cleanup of the Valdez spill in Alaska, was tested to determine its effectiveness in removing oil from Louisiana Gulf Coast marsh grass thus minimizing the oil impact. Intact plugs of Spartina alterniflora containing living plants, roots, and soil microbial communities were collected from salt marshes and transferred to a greenhouse. Plant photosynthesis, respiration, and stomatal conductance were monitored following various oiling and cleaning scenarios. The treatments included: oiled, oiled and cleaned after one day, oiled and cleaned after two days, cleaner only, and control. Plant recovery depended upon the degree of oiling and the type of oil used. Fouling with bunker C oil caused almost total plant mortality unless the plants were cleaned with the shoreline cleaner. South Louisiana crude oil was less toxic but cleaning accelerated recovery as was evident by photosynthetic activity and other plant functions such as regeneration of new shoots. Collectively, these studies demonstrate the potential for saving an oiled Spartina alterniflora marsh by use of this shoreline cleaner in a real oil spill.
LIGHTERING AND SALVAGE OF THE TANK BARGE OCEAN 255 IN AFTERMATH OF A COLLISION, EXPLOSION, AND FIRE IN TAMPA BAY, FLORIDA, AUGUST 1993
Authors: Kichner Jerzy J.
Published: January 2013

In the early morning hours of August 10, 1993, the 14,000 gross ton tank barge Ocean 255, loaded with over 200,000 barrels of aviation fuel, premium and regular gasolines, and diesel fuel collided with the M/V Balsa 37 west of the Sunshine Skyway Bridge in Tampa Bay, Florida. The energy of the collision resulted in an explosion and fire that completely enveloped the 546 foot barge. The fire burned intensely for over 18 hours while the barge lay grounded north of the main ship channel leading into the Port of Tampa. After the fire was extinguished, the transfer of the remaining cargo, to remove the very prominent threat from explosion and pollution, fell to the U.S. Coast Guard's National Strike Force. The Ocean 255's cargo containment, transfer, venting, and safety systems were completely destroyed, and its stability and hull integrity were in question. The operation was faced with uncertain weather including the possibility of a hurricane developing, frequent strong afternoon thunderstorms and squalls, strong currents, and a vessel that was a virtual time bomb. The entire amount of remaining cargo was transferred in eight days of around-the-clock pumping operations. The damage assessment after the explosion complicated the plans for lightering and salvage operations. However, action and site safety plans, and the formation of integrated teams developed by Maritrans LP (owners of the barge and the responsible party) and the National Strike Force, resulted in a successful and safe removal of the remaining 180,000 barrels of highly flammable cargo without further pollution of the waters of Tampa Bay and the State of Florida.
RESPONDER IMMUNITY AND SALVAGE1
Authors: Peck William L. , Elmore Allan F.
Published: January 2013

Marine salvage protects not only vessel and cargo, but also the marine environment. International conventions and federal and some state oil pollution legislation provide legal protection for responders to actual or threatened pollution events. Many of these responder immunity provisions, however, fall short in protecting salvors. As a result, salvors risk incurring liability in their operations. This paper examines responder immunity provisions in the context of the protection they afford the salvor. The paper offers a model responder immunity provision for persons engaged in salvage of a casualty threatening pollution.
APPLICATION OF OIL SPILL SIMULATIONS TO TANKER ROUTING OFF THE U.S. COAST
Authors: LaBelle Robert P. , Marshall Charles M.
Published: January 2013

Enactment of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 has resulted in increased efforts by the U.S. Coast Guard to identify and evaluate existing tanker routing schemes that may pose a threat to sensitive marine resources. The Minerals Management Service is assisting in these efforts through stochastic applications of its oil spill trajectory models. Restricting tanker routes or establishing tanker-free zones would constrain the potential sites of future tanker spills. This restriction would maximize the available response time for containment, recovery, or natural dispersion of tanker spills. Two analyses are described.

In the first analysis, multiple trajectories were simulated from tanker routes off the U.S. west coast. (Similar analyses are planned for the east coast and the Gulf of Mexico.) Contacts with environmental resources, which were assigned sensitivity index values, were plotted as seasonal oil spill contact risk contours. The contours were used to define alternative boundaries of potential tanker-free zones. These alternative boundaries, in turn, may provide specified levels of protection for sensitive marine areas.

The second application of oil spill simulations is in the Gulf of Mexico, where the U.S. Coast Guard is evaluating the potential impact of establishing tanker lightering zones. These lightering zones would concentrate traffic in certain areas where large vessels would offload petroleum cargo into smaller tankers for transport ashore. Results of the oil spill trajectory model characterize the risks from these zones.
BURIAL AND BREAKDOWN OF OIL IN COASTAL DUNE SYSTEMS
Authors: Daniels Roger E. , Harrison Anthony F. , Parkinson John A. , Hall Graham
Published: January 2013

In 1992 and 1994, sites where oiled beach material, resulting from tanker spills at sea, had been buried in sand dunes in 1978 were located. Analysis of samples from one site (Hemsby, Norfolk) was inconclusive but samples from Pendine in south Wales contained small quantities of hydrocarbon residues and bacterial populations capable of metabolizing catechol. Gas sampling also showed elevated concentrations of volatile hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide within the deposit compared with controls in adjacent sand dunes. Following the beaching of heavy fuel oil at Pendine in January 1994, oiled sand from the beach was deposited in the nearby dune system and a monitoring experiment was set up. Evidence of hydrocarbon degradation was found soon after deposition and was especially rapid close to the previous deposit. Progress of the oil decomposition is being monitored by collection and analysis (chemical and microbiological) of core samples and in-situ measurements of gaseous emissions. Because of problems of sand being moved by the wind and consequent concentration of oil residues on the surface, alternative methods of surface stabilization by vegetation are also being tested.
TRANSBOUNDARY RESPONSE OPERATIONS: A LOOK TO THE NORTH
Authors: Crick Laurie L. , Wallace R. Adm. Sidney A.
Published: January 2013

The prospect of conducting pollution response operations in the waters of another country is or should be daunting to American oil spill response organizations (OSROs), especially those capable of large-scale deployment of forces across national borders. Problems raised by transboundary operations are very complex, require solutions to be developed by governments, but with OSROs at the negotiating table, and should be addressed well before the pollution incident occurs. One of the most difficult impediments is a legal one, the OSRO's liability when operating in a foreign jurisdiction, but other barriers exist as well, such as customs and immigration requirements, labor laws, tax and insurance issues, and disposal of waste.

This paper addresses these problems, focusing chiefly on the liability question, using Canada and existing Canadian law to illustrate the difficulties faced by transboundary response operations. It cannot be taken for granted that close cooperation in responding to a transboundary spill will automatically occur, even where adjoining nations are good friends and have similar legal systems. The paper explains why this is so, and illustrates the kinds of impediments that should be removed in advance, if an effective response is to be launched when a spill happens in a transboundary setting.
INFORMATION TO MINIMIZE IMPACTS FROM FRESHWATER OIL SPILLS
Authors: Fritz David E. , Steen Alexis E.
Published: January 2013

The American Petroleum Institute (API) has the only program in the United States dedicated to freshwater oil spill research. In existence since 1990, the API Inland Spills Work Group consists of representatives from industry and government. Projects have included a manual prepared with NOAA that evaluates cleanup techniques in order to minimize environmental impacts of spills in freshwater habitats, a literature review and annotated bibliography of environmental and human health effects of freshwater oil spills, a study of chemical treating agents for use in freshwater applications, and an evaluation of in situ burning of oil spilled in marshes.
THE VULNERABILITY ANALYSIS: EVALUATING EFFECTS OF OIL DISCHARGES ON THE ENVIRONMENT
Authors: Lively-Diebold Bobbie , Davis Susan M.
Published: January 2013

Various components make up a vulnerability analysis of the potential effects of an oil discharge or a release of a hazardous substance on the environment. Although the process used in the oil spill vulnerability analysis would be appropriate for other planning purposes, this particular analysis is an element of the OPA 90 response plan that the owner or operator of a “substantial harm” facility must prepare and submit to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
OIL BOOM LINEAR HAULER LAUNCH AND RECOVERY SYSTEM
Authors: Koepenick Steve , Maples LeRoy , Molsberry David
Published: January 2013

The oil boom linear hauler launch and recovery system promotes technical advances in launching, recovering and storing large lengths of oil boom. This launch and recovery system is capable of handling differing types and varying lengths of boom from ships of opportunity while deploying or storing to and from pallets or ISO open top containers versus multiple storage reels.
SMOKE PLUMES FROM IN-SITU BURNING OF CRUDE OIL
Authors: McGrattan Kevin B. , Walton William D. , Evans David D.
Published: January 2013

Several regions in the United States have begun the process of obtaining preapproval to use in-situ burning as a remediation method for oil spills. The Building and Fire Research Laboratory of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) under the sponsorship of the Minerals Management Service has conducted a research program to study various aspects of this problem. One result of this program has been the development of a numerical model to predict the downwind concentration of smoke particulate and other combustion products from a large oil fire. To assess the accuracy of this model, data from three sets of experimental burns have been compared to model simulations run under similar meteorological conditions. The tests are (1) the Newfoundland Offshore Burn Experiment (NOBE), August 1993; (2) the Alaska Clean Seas Burning of Emulsions, September 1994; and (3) the U.S. Coast Guard/NIST Meso-scale Burn Series, October 1994. The model compared favorably with the experiments, increasing the confidence in numerical modeling as a tool to develop guidelines on safe distances from in-situ burns.
RECENT RESEARCH ON THE APPLICATION AND PRACTICAL EFFECTS OF SOLIDIFIERS
Authors: Dahl William A. , Lessard Richard R. , Cardello Elizabeth A.
Published: January 2013

A Petroleum Environmental Research Forum (PERF) project, entitled Solidifiers for Oil Spill Response, was conducted by Exxon between 1993 and 1995 (Cardello et al., 1994). This paper highlights the results of the recent project. The main focus was on evaluating existing application equipment for potential use in applying solidifiers and subsequently solidifying the oil. The study also identified options for recovery, removal, and disposal.
REAL-TIME FORECASTING MODEL OF OIL SPILL SPREADING
Authors: Morita Ichiro , Sugioka Shin-ichi , Kojima Takashi
Published: January 2013

A 3-D model for real-time forecasting of oil spills was developed as part of a project for minimizing damage by oil spills in the sea. Various spreading processes are imbedded: current advection, horizontal diffusion, mechanical spreading, evaporation, entrainment into the underlying water, sinking, and dissolution and sedimentation, with emphasis on the processes of oil spills in subsurface layers down to the bottom of the sea. Because the wind force, which is of primary importance, is quite variable with time, the model was designed so as to use on-line, real-time gridded wind data. Except for the real-time procedure, the model was validated with hindcasting using field trial data at Frigg, Norway, in 1995: these data included data from drifting buoys, airborne remote sensing, an ROV (remotely operated vehicle), and water sampling. The simulated distribution of oil spreading agreed well with observations.
TURNING OVER A NEW LEAF: THE NEXT GENERATION OF LASER FLUOROSENSORS
Authors: Brown Carl E. , Fingas Mervin F.
Published: January 2013

Detecting oil in the marine environment with remote sensing is difficult at the best of times. When that environment includes ice, kelp or seaweed, and the myriad substrates found on beaches and shorelines, the detection becomes increasingly difficult. The laser fluorosensor is the only sensor that detects a primary characteristic of petroleum products, namely, their unique fluorescence spectral signatures. A laser fluorosensor reliably detects oil on ice in ice-infested waters, among floating kelp and seaweed beds, and on complex beach and land environments. This paper will provide details of the Scanning Laser Environmental Airborne Fluorosensor (SLEAF) and the anticipated benefits of the SLEAF system to the oil spill response community.
INCREASING AWARENESS AND ACCURACY IN IDENTIFYING ENVIRONMENTALLY SENSITIVE AREAS WITHIN COOK INLET, ALASKA
Authors: Manka-White Linda
Published: January 2013

The continual development and refinement of systems that identify environmentally sensitive areas using the best available technology facilitates informed decision-making processes during emergency responses. Cook Inlet Spill Prevention & Response Inc. (CISPRI) is a nonprofit oil spill cooperative serving 11 “member” companies. CISPRI combines Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) maps with new technology, the Visual Information Response System (VIRS), to increase awareness and accuracy in identifying sensitive areas and in tailoring associated response efforts within Cook Inlet, Alaska.
THE EFFECT OF CLAY-OIL FLOCCULATION ON NATURAL OIL DEGRADATION
Authors: Weise Andrea Marga , Lee Kenneth
Published: January 2013

Small-scale shaker flask experiments were conducted over 56 days with a weathered crude oil to investigate the significance of clay-oil flocculation processes on natural oil degradation rates. Clay-oil flocculation processes mediated the transfer of oil from solid surfaces into the aqueous phase where oil biodegradation rates are higher. As a result, within 7 days, 34% of the total n-alkanes (n-C12 to n-C35) were degraded in the oiled flasks containing mineral fines whereas no significant degradation was observed in flasks without mineral fines. After 56 days, only 25% and 48% of the n-alkane fraction remained in the flasks treated with and without mineral fines, respectively. No significant difference was observed between treatments for a selected number of 2-4 ring aromatic compounds. Microbiological results that showed an increase in the numbers of oil-degrading bacteria supported the results and conclusions derived from the chemical data.
THE DECISION PROCESS TO SUPPORT SHORELINE CLEANING AGENTS IN THE FIELD
Authors: Clayton John R. , Stransky Brian C. , Lees Dennis C. , Schwartz Marilyn J. , Snyder Barry J. , Adkins Anthony C. , Michel Jacqueline , Reilly Timothy J.
Published: January 2013

Chemical shoreline cleaning agents (SCAs) are one option for cleanup of stranded oil on shorelines. However, site-specific variables, the properties of stranded oil, variations in the nature of oiled substrates, and the types of organisms present at a spill site can influence decisions to use SCAs. Combining results of on-site testing for cleaning effectiveness and toxicity with an appropriate stepwise decision process can assist “use/no-use” decisions for SCAs in the field.
USE OF CHEMICAL COUNTERMEASURES ON ROADSIDE FUEL SPILLS
Authors: Bragan Mary Jo
Published: January 2013

As the first and sometimes only line of defense for roadway fuel spills, local responders find themselves in a paradoxical position of having to quickly remove the material while minimizing impacts to the environment. In the past, to facilitate a quick reopening of the roadway, local responders hosed the spilled fuel into a nearby creek or storm drain. Today, in response to the local responders’ need for tools to mitigate these spills without damaging the environment, many products, called chemical countermeasures, were developed. Unfortunately, without the technical expertise to adequately evaluate each product, local responders are misled into using countermeasures that when released into the environment actually increase the toxicity, mobility, and volatility of the material originally spilled. This paper describes an outreach and training program developed to address this problem by EPA Region IVs Emergency Response and Removal Branch (ERRB) in response to a request by several local fire-fighting agencies
Lessons from 10 Years of Post-Exxon Valdez Monitoring on Intertidal Shorelines
Authors: Hoff Rebecca Z. , Shigenaka Gary
Published: January 2013

Intertidal shorelines impacted by the Exxon Valdez oil spill have been monitored by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) since late 1989. Originally intended to document oil fate and impacts of hot-water high-pressure washing, the program evolved into a comprehensive examination of long-term recovery processes in these environments. Annual field sampling and laboratory and statistical analyses are combined to document trends in biology, chemistry, and geomorphology of 26 sites in Prince William Sound.

Recovery processes in shoreline ecosystems occur over different time frames, depending on the particular measure and scale used. Using a geomorphological measure, most boulder/cobble sites where berm relocation was carried out to remove subsurface oil took 1–2 years to return to pre-treatment configurations. Mean levels of polyaromatic hydrocarbons in mussels from oiled sites remained elevated for approximately 3–4 years after the spill. Abundance trends for most epibiota species at mid intertidal zones from oiled sites were parallel to those from unoiled sites after 1–2 years. Longer lasting impacts were found for infaunal species at low elevations, perhaps related to changes in grain size composition at washed sites. Some impacts from oiling remained at sensitive sites through at least 1997, including subsurface oiling, species abundance differences, and patchy areas of sediment and bivalve contamination from polyaromatic hydrocarbons.
Planning Vs. Execution During a “Real” Spill Incident: Plan Vs. Reality
Authors: Neilson David E.
Published: January 2013

The paper uses a current, significant spill incident (November 1997, Cork, Ireland) to discuss a number of planning and spill management issues. The paper demonstrates how the adoption of certain simple but crucial spill management techniques can allow the cleanup of the spill to proceed successfully. Comment is made on the significance of unwieldy spill management systems.

The incident occurred at a single site refinery operation in Cork, Ireland. The incident involving fuel oil spilt from the refineiy will highlight pertinent issues as they existed in that local area, the state, and European community.

The primary questions asked in the paper are: did the existing plan work? Was it executed correctly? How was the spill managed initially? How was the spill managed in the subsequent weeks?, The main content of the paper will be given to discussion about how the refinery's staff and support organisations initial response and how—with the adoption of simple but workable management systems—the situation was brought under control. More specific issues such as how a small volume of a persistent oil can be more problematic than first understood by less-experienced responders; Actually understanding the numbers of personnel and equipment resources that are required; and resources necessary for shoreline cleanup, especially in an area of difficult foreshore access and differing shoreline types. The importance of resource management and financial control from the very outset of the response activities will be highlighted in the paper. Conclusions will be made on cost comparison of cleanup of other spills at the time and whether large response management systems are effective in certain situations.
Packaging of Tier 3 Oil Spill Equipment for a Faster Response
Authors: Read Scott Jeremy
Published: January 2013

To mount an effective world wide response, oil spill clean-up equipment and experienced personnel need to quickly reach the scene. The distance and often remoteness of the incident from an International response centre (Tier 3) dictates that to achieve this rapid response air transport will be required.

Speed, flexibility and frequency of scheduled flights combined with increased availability on the charter market have made air transport a realistic option to most areas of the world. Chartered aircraft are most likely to be side-loading cargo jets and as such response equipment needs to be suited both in size and ease of loading/offloading.

To assist in the air transportation of response equipment, a specialised aircraft pallet system has been developed. The system comprises of four pallet modules per aircraft pallet station which have been profiled to fit within the most commonly used cargo jets. Pre-packing the pallet modules decreases loading times considerably, they can also be declared as known cargo helping move them through the air cargo security procedures.

An assessment of type and quantity of equipment required will be made before dispatch, these small packages present maximum flexibility and allow “mix and match” of different pallet modules to create the final load.

The modules can be delivered to airports with low capacity offloading equipment. This is enhanced by a specialist self build rapid equipment delivery and deployment system.