bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Saving Costs With Reservoir Pumped‐Water Interties
Authors: Whitlatch E. Earl
Published: February 2018

The interconnection of reservoirs through pumped‐water or gravity interties can lead to cost savings and increased system safe yield. The city of Columbus, Ohio, constructed a 3.8‐mi pipeline from Alum Creek Reservoir, owned by the US Army Corps of Engineers, to Hoover Reservoir, a city‐owned water supply source. Through careful timing of the transfer of water from Alum Creek Reservoir to Hoover Reservoir, an increase of 34.3 mgd in the safe yield of Hoover Reservoir is achieved with an average pumpage of only 22.5 mgd. Because transferred water and Hoover Reservoir water cost less to treat than alternative sources, a net savings of $695,135 per year is realized in total water system operating costs.
Organic Carbon and THM Formation Potential in Kansas Groundwaters
Authors: Miller Rachel E. , Randtke Stephen J. , Hathaway Lawrence R. , Denne Jane E.
Published: February 2018

Fifty wells in Kansas were sampled to determine the concentrations of total organic carbon (TOC) and trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP) associated with major aquifer systems. The mean TOC and THMFP concentrations were 1.03 ± 0.76 mg/L and 46.7 ± 39.5 μg/L, respectively; THMFP was very strongly correlated with TOC (r = 0.953). Only 8 percent of the THMFP concentrations exceeded 100 μg/L, but 56 percent exceeded 25 μg/L and 90 percent exceeded 10 μg/L, suggesting that many Kansas water utilities using groundwater might have difficulty meeting a substantially lower THM standard. Efforts to control THMs in Kansas groundwater supplies should focus on alluvial aquifers, particularly those with high concentrations of TOC, ammonium, iron, and manganese.
Evaluating Layered Upflow Carbon Adsorption for the Removal of Trace Organic Contaminants
Authors: Munz Christoph , Walther Jean‐Louis , Baldauf Günther , Boller Markus , Bland Ralph
Published: February 2018

The primary objective of this investigation was to compare layered upflow carbon adsorption (LUCA) with conventional fixed‐bed adsorbers for removing chlorinated hydrocarbons from drinking water sources. During LUCA operation, the granular activated carbon (GAC) is added in thin layers, with a new layer being added whenever the maximum allowed effluent concentration of the contaminants is reached. Thus, the time of exposure of the GAC to dissolved organic carbon, which is known to reduce GAC's adsorption capacity for organic contaminants, is reduced. This mode of operation was found to produce approximately 50 percent longer operating times and correspondingly higher throughputs.
Of Pendulums and Windmills
Authors: Mannion John B.
Published: February 2018

Mr. Mannion describes nineteenth century economist Frederick Bastiat and one of his sayings: “Everyone wants to live at the expense of the state; they forget that the state lives at the expense of everyone.” Mr. Mannion therefore sees government as merely the means by which the people organize things for the common good and the government's job as keeping special interests balanced. He asks if today's environmental movement is getting more than its share of governmental clout. Is the pendulum swinging so far in environmental protection that other aspects of the common good are being overlooked? Examples of this include attempts to stop the use of chlorine and preserving all wetlands. Mr. Mannion hopes for a more centrist position that would hold all socioeconomic interests in balance and that peoples' rights be balanced with those of nature. He points out that the results of the industrial chemical age are life expectancy of 75 years, as compared to 33 in 1900, and that state of public health is better than at any time in this history of civilization. He asks if it is possible that extremists have taken us beyond fact and reason in their environmental worries.
Minimizing Chlorite Ion and Chlorate Ion in Water Treated With Chlorine Dioxide
Authors: Gordon Gilbert , Slootmaekers Bregt , Tachiyashiki Satoshi , Wood Delmer W.
Published: February 2018

Minimizing the inorganic by‐products chlorite ion and chlorate ion in drinking water treated with chlorine dioxide is important if Cl02 is to remain a viable alternative in potable water treatment. The use of sulfur dioxide‐sulfite ion chemistry to quantitatively remove chlorite ion to below the 0.1‐mg/L level is described, along with the use of free chlorine to remove the sulfur dioxide‐sulfite ion. The stoichiometry and the rate law are described for pH values of 5.5 to 8.5 so that the chemistry can be applied directly in existing drinking water treatment facilities.
Water‐Use Efficiency Standards for Plumbing Fixtures: Benefits of National Legislation
Authors: Vickers Amy
Published: February 2018

Proposed US legislation would establish nationwide water‐use efficiency standards for plumbing fixtures and appliances. The legislation is intended to reduce the need for and costs of developing new sources of raw water by reducing demand. Potential benefits of the legislation for both water and wastewater systems are assessed.
Evaluating Ion Exchange for Removing Radium From Groundwater
Authors: Subramonian Suresh , Clifford Dennis , Vijjeswarapu Winston
Published: February 2018

This article, the second in a series, focuses on the results of bench‐ and pilot‐scale studies of ion exchange processes for radium removal from groundwater in Lemont, Ill. Batch and column studies indicated a very high resin selectivity for radium compared with common cations. Exhaustion‐regeneration studies with a variety of resins showed that a standard gel‐type strong‐acid cation exchanger is most suitable for radium removal in cyclic operation. Because the ion exchange softening process, operated to hardness breakthrough (300‐360 bed volumes [BV]), removes radium but does not fully utilize the resin capacity, cyclic runs were made with resins exhausted to radium breakthrough (2,500‐3,000 BV) and regenerated with sodium and calcium salts. But because of the poor radium regenerability of the exhausted resins, simultaneous breakthrough of radium and hardness occurred during the subsequent exhaustion run on the sodium cycle, and high radium leakage was observed on the calcium cycle. A study of factors affecting elution showed that during normal regeneration with 15‐20 lb NaCl/cu ft, only 20‐25 percent of the adsorbed radium was removed. For the Lemont water containing 12 pCi/L of Ra‐226, this left a typical Ra‐226 residual of 14,000 pCi Ra‐226/L resin after regeneration. Use of very high regenerant dosages (up to 20 times stoichiometric) could desorb 75‐90 percent of the adsorbed radium, but such excessive regenerant use, compared with normal dosages of two to three times stoichiometric, would not be economical without incorporation of regenerant‐reuse techniques. The sodium ion exchange softening process (operated to hardness breakthrough without regenerant reuse) continues to be an appropriate technology for the removal of radium.
Small Systems: Help Coalescing
Authors: Ytell Elizabeth , Clark Robert M. , DeLong Annabel , Fraser Dan L. , Trax John M. , Lay Trudie , Shanaghan Peter E.
Published: February 2018

This discussion on activities designed to help small systems comply with federal regulations took place Feb. 8, 1990, in Tampa, Fla., during the annual conference of the Association of State Drinking Water Administrators. Panel moderator was Trudie Lay, AWWA small systems program manager. Other participants included Robert M. Clark, director of the Drinking Water Research Division, US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 26 Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH 45268 (participated via telephone hookup); Annabel DeLong, general manager of the Union Williams Public Service District, Route 31, Box 243, Waverly, WV 26184; Dan L. Fraser, sanitary engineer for the Montana Water Quality Bureau, A‐206 Cogswell Bldg., Capitol Station, Helena, MT 59620; Peter E. Shanaghan, Mobilization Program manager for USEPA, Office of Drinking Water, 401 M St., SW, Washington, DC 20460; John R. Trax, on detail from USEPA as a senior environmental engineer for the National Rural Water Association, 2915 South 13th, Duncan, OK 73534; and Elizabeth Ytell, a division director for the Rural Community Assistance Corp., 2125 19th St., Suite 203, Sacramento, CA 95818.
Removing and Disposing of Radium From Well Water
Authors: Mangelson Kenneth A. , Lauch Richard P.
Published: February 2018

A small, full‐scale ion exchange system, the Redhill Forest (Colo.) treatment facility, removes iron, hardness, and radium from well water. The plant also includes an aeration process for removing dissolved radon and carbon dioxide gases. A unique feature of the plant is a process that removes radium in the waste brine from the ion exchange system and complexes it permanently on a radium‐selective complexer (RSC). The RSC resin is replaced when needed and is sent for final disposal to a site that accepts low‐level radioactive wastes.
Evaluating Alternative Disinfectants for THM Control in Small Systems
Authors: Myers Anthony G.
Published: February 2018

A pilot‐plant study was conducted at two water utilities to evaluate alternative disinfectants—ozone, hydrogen peroxide, chlorine dioxide, chloramines, and potassium permanganate—for trihalomethane (THM) control and to determine the impact of their use on small water systems. Air stripping and activated carbon were also evaluated. Combinations of alternative disinfectants reduced THMs to a range of levels from approximately 160 μg/L using chlorine to 80 μg/L (chlorine‐monochloramine) or <5 μg/L (ozone‐monochloramine). The costs of incorporating various process modifications into small water systems were estimated.
New Regulations for Total Coliforms
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Articles in this section of the Journal are dedicated to providing current information about legislative and regulatory developments pertinent to the drinking water industry. They address needs and concerns of water utilities from a practical standpoint; they are not intended to reflect official positions or policies of AWWA. Frederick W. Pontius, AWWA regulatory engineer, prepared this article summarizing the requirements of the new Total Coliform Rule and coordinates development of future articles. Pontius monitors and evaluates legislation and regulations that affect the drinking water industry, prepares official AWWA statements on drinking water issues, and represents the association at meetings, workshops, and study groups.
Right Dilemma, Wrong Balloon
Authors: Mannion John B.
Published: February 2018

How can the US safe drinking water program require states to assume more responsibilities without providing the funds necessary to do the job? The US Environmental Protection Agency's proposed solution is to require states to raise the necessary money by enacting a surcharge on water rates. Mannion's position is that state surcharges may well become a fact of life; if so, let it be done at the state level, with full involvement by the affected public service and its rate payers, keeping federal involvement minimal.
The Potential for Expert Systems in Water Utility Operation and Management
Authors: Collins Anthony G. , Nix Stephan J. , Tsay Ting‐Kuei , Gera Arun , Hopkins Mary Ann
Published: February 2018

Expert systems are an emerging technology that has potential benefit to the water industry. The basic elements that comprise an expert system and the method of development of typical systems are reviewed. A simple example relates such a system to the operation of a water treatment plant. The tools (software) available for expert‐system development are reviewed, and a procedural basis for evaluating the most likely application areas within water utility operation and management is presented.
Liquid Chromatography‐Mass Spectrometry: An Emerging Technology for Nonvolatile Compounds
Authors: Budde William L. , Behymer Thomas D. , Bellar Thomas A. , Ho James S.
Published: February 2018

Most currently regulated organic compounds found in drinking wtaer are amenable to separation and measurement by gas chromatography. A new generation of compounds being proposed for regulation includes some that are not amenable to separation and measurement with this technique. The emerging analytical technology of liquid chromatography‐mass spectrometry is described and is considered a likely candidate for the separation and measurement of nonvolatile compounds in drinking water.
Images: Public and Self
Authors: Mannion John B.
Published: February 2018

The best way to ensure that our public image is correct is to ensure that our self‐image is correct. First consider the language used: we have followed the popular trend of referring to public water service as an industry. The word industry carries connotations, including the notion of large, impersonal, profit‐oriented enterprises. If we are not motivated by the notion of public service, then indeed we have become just another industry with another product to sell. The difference between a public service and any given industry is important one to preserve in the minds of the people. It is in our best interest to reinforce in the public mind that water service is a public service, carried out by professionals who are keenly aware of the public trust vested in them.
A State View of Consumer Education
Authors: Miller G. Wade , Leiby Vanessa M.
Published: February 2018

State responsibilities under the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments and resulting regulations mean that consumer education and public relations activities in state drinking water programs must be stepped up. States and/or utilities must explain (1) regulations in laymen's terms; (2) why the drinking water was “safe” yesterday but may not be “safe” today; and (3) requirements for monitoring and treatment may cause a dramatic rise in water rates. Target audiences include utilities, consumers, the media, schools, and most important–state legislators. Tools include consumer brochures, newsletters, meeting with representatives of the news media, publishing enforcement actions and “good guys” lists, and educational packets for schools. The authors offer tips for implementing a public relations program.
Developing a Risk Communication Strategy
Authors: Santos Susan L.
Published: February 2018

Increasing concern over environmental problems and the passage of more stringent legislation have led utility personnel to recognize that risk communication must become a part of their overall approach to environmental management. The key to effective risk communication is the two‐way exchange of information between the utility and the public. The utility explains technical data to interested segments of the public, who in turn voice their concerns, opinions, and reactions. As well as being involved in a dialogue concerning the nature of the risk, the public should also be involved in decisions relating to its control.
The Turning Point
Authors: Mannion John B.
Published: February 2018

Based on a text by Mark Twain that posits there is no single turning point in a person's life, but that we are all influenced by chains of circumstances, Mr. Mannion discusses regulations and the water industry. Current and coming regulations do not stem from the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974; the act itself was drawn up in response to a number of preceding events. Utilities cannot respond to the act with procrastination or timidity, but must learn more about microorganisms and how to treat them, more about the chemistry of disinfection byproducts, filtration, and organic contaminants and their removal. Then the industry must act and change the way it does things, contributing to a historic turning point in the field of public water service.
Effect of Natural Organic Matter on Biodegradation of a Recalcitrant Synthetic Organic Chemical
Authors: Lu Chih‐Jen , Speitel Gerald E.
Published: February 2018

This research focused on the influence of naturally occurring organic matter (NOM) on the biodegradation of an aromatic synthetic organic chemical, pentachlorophenol (PCP), under conditions typical of drinking water treatment. In the first set of experiments, four columns were operated in parallel and were fed PCP and NOM exposed to no oxidation, chloramination, ozonation, or both chloramination and ozonation. The second experiment examined PCP removal in the absence of NOM. The best removal of PCP in the first experiments occurred for the NOM exposed to both chloramines and ozone. Removal of PCP in the absence of NOM was better than in the presence of NOM. Thus, NOM interfered with PCP biodegradation, but the degree of interference was diminished by treating the NOM with oxidants.
Assessing the Reliability of Urban Reservoir Supplies
Authors: Bakken J. Darrell , Bruns Thomas M.
Published: February 2018

The Indianapolis Water Company conducted a thorough study of its reservoir supplies to assess the reliability of its water supply system. Although more than 10 percent of reservoir storage capacity had been lost over the years because of sedimentation, it was found that the amount of raw water available could be increased by almost one fourth if the available storage was fully utilized and the operational releases from the three reservoirs were coordinated. An ongoing monitoring and inspection program ensures that dams at two of the reservoirs remain structurally sound. The cost of retaining consultants to review storage volumes, dependable yields, and dam safety was estimated to be only 1 percent of the cost of constructing new sources of surface water supply.
Student Water Use
Authors: McLellon Waldron M.
Published: February 2018

Students in a senior‐level water supply course at the University of Central Florida were required to account for all personal water use over a 24‐hour day in order to compare student demands with values reported in the literature. The accounting was done by successive classes over eight years, totaling 252 students of both sexes. The plot of average use on arithmetic probability paper gave a good straight line, with a mean of 89 gpcd (337 Lpcd). The one in one hundred frequency values were 59 gpcd (223 Lpcd) and 119 gpcd (450 Lpcd). Water for flushing toilets, at 24.7 percent, and for personal cleanliness, at 59.2 percent, accounted for 83.9 percent of demand.
Coliform Rule Compliance
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Articles in this section of the Journal are dedicated to providing current information about legislative and regulatory developments pertinent to the drinking water industry. They address needs and concerns of water utilities from a practical standpoint; they are not intended to reflect official positions or policies of AWWA. Frederick W. Pontius, AWWA associate director for regulatory affairs, prepared this discussion regarding compliance with the Coliform Rule and coordinates development of future articles. Pontius monitors and evaluates legislation and regulations that affect the water industry, prepares official AWWA statements on drinking water issues, and represents the association at meetings, workshops, and study groups.
Using Reducing Agents to Eliminate Chlorine Dioxide and Chlorite Ion Residuals in Drinking Water
Authors: Griese Mark H. , Hauser Keith , Berkemeier Mona , Gordon Gilbert
Published: February 2018

In an effort to determine the viability of various disinfection alternatives, the Evansville, Ind., Water and Sewer Utility is engaged in a pilot‐plant investigation to compare chlorine dioxide and ozone pretreatment. As a result of increased speculation that the total residual concentration of chlorine dioxide and its inorganic species will soon be regulated, supplemental studies were performed to determine the effectiveness of various reducing agents for reducing or eliminating chlorine dioxide and chlorite ion residuals in finished water. The effectiveness of ferrous iron in achieving the desired reductions is examined along with promising results obtained with sodium thiosulfate. Specific difficulties encountered with the sulfur dioxide–sulfite ion method of chlorite ion reduction are also presented.
Clean Water Act Reauthorization
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Articles in this section of the JOURNAL are dedicated to providing current information about legislative and regulatory developments petinent to the drinking water industry. They address needs and concerns of water utilitiesfiom a practical standpoint; they are not intended to reflect official positions or policies of AWWA. Frederick W. Pontius, associate director for regulatory affairs, prepared this article on the upcoming reauthorization of the Clean Water Act and coordinates development of figure articles. Pontius monitors and evaluates legislation and regulations that affect the drinking water industry, prepares official A WWA statements on drinking water issues, and represents the association at meetings, workshops, and study groups.
Assessing Perlite as a Sand Substitute in Filtration
Authors: Uluatam Semra Siber
Published: February 2018

Quartz sand is commonly used in filter beds to remove suspended solids. In Turkey, however, sources of sand suitable for filtration are limited and costly, making it necessary for utilities to examine alternative bed materials. Crushed raw perlite, which is plentiful along Turkey's Aegean Coast, was examined for its suitability as a substitute for sand. Sieve analysts, porosity, particle density, and solubility in 20 percent concentrated HCl acid test results as well as the costs of perlite and sand were compared.
Potential Effects of Polyphosphate Products on Lead Solubility in Plumbing Systems
Authors: Holm Thomas R. , Shock Michael R.
Published: February 2018

Lead concentrations in drinking water can be minimized by adjusting the pH and alkalinity. Such lead solubility controls, however, may be offset by other water treatment measures that inadvertently increase lead solubility, e.g., the adding of polyphosphate‐containing products. Through the use of solubility computations, the authors of this article conclude that, at best, the application of polyphosphates for the specific purpose of lead corrosion control entails considerable uncertainty and risk.
Phase II Organic and Inorganic Contaminant Regulations
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Articles in this section of the Journal are dedicated to providing current information about legislative and regulatory developments. They address needs and concerns of water utilities from a practical standpoint; they are not intended to reflect official positions or policies of AWWA. Frederick W. Pontius, AWWA associate director for regulatory affairs, prepared this discussion regarding the Phase II organic and inorganic contaminant regulations and coordinates development of future articles. Pontius monitors and evaluates legislation and regulations that affect the water industry, prepares official AWWA statements on drinking water issues, and represents the association at meetings, workshops, and study groups.
Financing Capital Improvements
Authors: Ayres Douglas W. , Thorpe Scott
Published: February 2018

Good utility management means keeping the physical components of the system in good working order and having access to funds should improvement needs arise. To navigate the complexities of the financial planning process, it is essential that a utility have a capital improvement plan. This article describes such plans and outlines the vital components that make such plans a success.
Remote Biological Monitoring in an Open Finished‐Water Reservoir
Authors: White Brian N. , Kiefer Dale A. , Morrow John H. , Stolarik Gary F.
Published: February 2018

A prototype instrument array known as REOS1, for remote electro‐optical sensor, provided automated surveillance of a nuisance algal population in an open drinking‐water reservoir. The high‐resolution data base provided by moored sensors enabled reservoir managers to detect algal blooms before water quality was aesthetically compromised. A remote data link also provided immediate feedback on the efficacy of algicide treatments in the reservoir. A simple decision matrix included in this article shows how REOS data can be used to diagnose the biological status of an open reservoir and to guide daily operations.
The Emerging Demand‐Side Era in water Management
Authors: Vickers Amy
Published: February 2018

Decreasing sources of supply are resulting in a trend toward demand‐side alternatives in water management and toward striking a balance between new source development and conservation. This article describes some steps that are being taken across the United States to restrict demand, including the setting up of water conservation offices, committees, coordinators, and conferences; the planning of conservation programs by utilities and water districts; and the implementation of conservation measures by the residential, commercial, industrial, and agricultural sectors.
Water Demand Monitoring in Austin, Texas
Authors: Rothstein Eric
Published: February 2018

In response to challenges to contractually determined wholesale rates, rising revenue requirements, and demands for rate equity, the Austin (Texas) Water and Wastewater Utility is scheduled to implement wholesale cost‐based rates in November 1992. Rate alternatives derived from a comprehensive cost‐of‐service analysis will reflect hourly water demand data currently being collected for the utility's major customer classes. Water demand monitoring sites ensure statistical representation of customer class demands, and the three types of monitoring equipment were selected to minimize data collection costs, to provide sufficient data resolution, and to allow direct transfer of data to a relational data base. Preliminary results are encouraging.
Laboratory Evaluation of the Leaching of Organics From Fabric Material
Authors: Hao Oliver J. , Phull Kotu K. , Simmers Kathleen W.
Published: February 2018

Samples of fabrics made for collapsible potable water storage tanks by five manufacturers were used to evaluate leaching of organics under three test conditions: control medium (pH = 8.3) at 20°C; low‐pH medium (pH = 5.8, Cl2 = 10 mg/L); and control medium at 50°C. The extraction procedures were basically those described in National Sanitation Foundation standard 61. Results indicated the presence of trace amounts of organic compounds, but the concentrations were well below existing health standards. The type and magnitude of the organics depended on the material used and the test conditions.
An Analysis of Low‐Level Turbidity Measurements
Authors: Hart Vincent S. , Johnson Chris E. , Letterman Raymond D.
Published: February 2018

The turbidity measurement is the most widely used method for monitoring the performance and the particle‐removal efficiency of water filtration systems. But the instrument design specifications used in standardized methods for turbidity measurement are antiquated. This study, which compared ratio‐ and nonratio‐type turbidimeters, showed that even when turbidimeter design meets instrument design specifications given in Standard Methods and when each instrument has been calibrated according to the manufacturer's manual, the same reading may not be obtained for a given suspension. Further study is needed to compare the results from the two types of instruments using a large sampling of low‐turbidity, filtered‐water samples from plants across the United States. In addition, the use of performance standards for turbidimeter design and calibration should be considered. With this two‐pronged approach, new techniques could be developed and innovation in instrument design would be promoted.
The Effects of Fluctuations in Biodegradable Organic Matter on Nitrification Filters
Authors: Manem Jacques A. , Rittmann Bruce E.
Published: February 2018

In these experiments, three completely mixed biofilm reactors were fed ammonium nitrogen (NH4+‐N) at a constant concentration of 1.5 or 2.5 mg/L. Acetate was added to the feed media at concentrations ranging from 0 to 10 mg C/L. Sudden increases in the acetate loading led to temporary deterioration of the nitrification efficiency and to formation of nitrite nitrogen (NO2–‐N). The incomplete nitrification occurred because of the suddenly high growth rate of the heterotrophic bacteria, which outgrew the nitrifiers and temporarily swept them out of the biofilm. Establishment of a new steady state for the heterotrophic bacteria allowed the nitrifiers to regrow in the biofilm and achieve nearly 100 percent nitrification. These results demonstrate that fluctuations in the input loading of biodegradable organic matter can adversely affect nitrification performance through competition by fast‐growing heterotrophic bacteria but that long‐term stable nitrification is possible.
Volunteers Integral to Small System's Success
Authors: Tamburini Joseph U. , Habenicht William L.
Published: February 2018

A subdivision in the foothills of Colorado's Rocky Mountains has built a small system whose water meets or exceeds state and federal guidelines. Eighty‐four homes are connected to the system, which can potentialiy accommodate 125 homes. The unique geologic setting introduced water quality problems such as radioactive contaminants as well as more conventional iron and corrosion problems. Communitywide support and involvement assured the success of the project, which was accomplished without outside subsidies. Community residents with expertise in geology, engineering, construction, and financial and business management volunteered their help to design, build, and maintain the system. This donated expertise is estimated to have saved the water district $300,000 to date. In addition to local expertise and voluntecrism, the author considers other issues of importance to small systems: responsible interest in health effects, planning on a small system level, and contract management guided by engineering expertise.
OSHA ‐ Our Savior Has Arrived
Authors: Lehr Ray C.
Published: February 2018

In the past few years, several new Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations have been set that have had enormous impact on the water industry. Several proposed rules are pending. A brief summary of the following rules are given: safety rules as applied to excavations; hazardous energy (lock‐out‐tag‐out) rule; process management; laboratory safety rules covering chemical hazards; OSHA fines; proposed confined‐space rules; and motor vehicle standards under development.
Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission Implements GIS
Authors: Cannistra James R. , Leadbeater Richard , Humphries Ray
Published: February 2018

The Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission (WSSC) recently completed a cooperative pilot project with Montgomery and Prince George's counties, Md., in which a complete 59‐layer geographic information system (GIS) data base was developed for a portion of its service area. During the pilot project described in this article, planimetric and parcel data were developed, and water and sewer facility maps were digitzed. The procedures and approach defined during the pilot project will be used to develop a full‐scale data base. This article describes and evaluates the design process, the conversion methods, and the application developed.
Computer Control of Operations at a Large Distribution System
Authors: Orr Chun Hiou , Ulanicki Bogumil , Rance J.P.
Published: February 2018

This article outlines a new scheduling and control methodology for water supply and distribution systems. Unlike traditional methodologies, the new approach is based on a general‐purpose simulator and network model. These simulate the complex, interactive, nonlinear hydraulic and cost performance of water networks. The simulator is linked to the on‐line management system via a data base so that network models are kept up to date. Within the overall control methodology, the simulator is used by different functional tasks, one being an optimizing scheduler. The optimizing scheduler provides practical hydraulic control of complex networks and generates savings in operating costs. It was developed and applied to a large urban distribution system in the United Kingdom. Results show that hydraulic control can be achieved in a transient operations environment, with significant savings in operating costs.
Characterizing the Influence of Surface Water on Water Produced by Collector Wells
Authors: Mikels M. Susan
Published: February 2018

Waterborne particulates, turbidity, and temperature were used to characterize the influence of surface water on collector wells constructed in alluvial river valleys. No insects, other macroorganisms, Giardia, or other large‐diameter pathogens were found in water From the collector wells, although Giardia were detected in adjacent rivers. The turbidity of the water produced by the collector wells remained virtually constant throughout the year and did not fluctuate with changes in river turbidity. These results support the conclusion that the influence of surface water on collector wells should not be characterized as “direct.” Temperature data, however, show that the collector wells are influenced by the surface water, but these data alone are insufficient for deciding whether this influence is direct.
Incorporating Biologically Based Models Into Assessments of Risk From Chemical Contaminants
Authors: Bull Richard J. , Conolly Rory B. , De Marini David M. , MacPhail Robert C. , Ohanian Edward V. , Swenberg James A.
Published: February 2018

The general approach to assessment of risk from chemical contaminants in drinking water involves three steps: hazard identification, exposure assessment, and dose–response assessment. Traditionally, the risks to humans associated with different levels of a chemical have been derived from the toxic responses observed in animals. It is becoming increasingly clear, however, that further information is needed if risks to humans are to be assessed accurately. Biologically based models help clarify the dose–response relationship and reduce uncertainty.
Research Agenda for Inorganic Compounds
Authors: Knocke William R. , McKinney James D. , Golden Robert J. , Ohanian Edward V. , Schnell R. Craig , Askenaizer Dan , Neukrug Howard , Paris David B.
Published: February 2018

This article presents important issues surrounding risk assessment for inorganic compounds in drinking water. It is not intended to be an all‐inclusive document of health effects research needs for specific inorganics in drinking water, but rather a glimpse into the future toward the broad research needs in 2000 and beyond. Although many of the issues discussed are not specific to inorganics, they are addressed within this context.
A Knowledge‐Based Energy Management System for the Municipal Water Industry
Authors: Jamieson Richard A. , III J. W. Foster , Sastri Tep , Kubala John F.
Published: February 2018

Optimization of high‐service pump operation with respect to peak kilowatt consumption or total kilowatt hour consumption, depending on conditions, is the goal of KBEMS (knowledge‐based energy management system), the system described in this article. The system has high potential to save municipal water utilities significant amounts of money in electricity expenditures. The knowledge‐based system is designed to foster the incorporation of operators' knowledge and nonhistoric information into planning the operation of a water distribution facility. Flexibility is a prime consideration in the system's design because of the multitude of factors that can influence operating procedure. Constraints imposed by operators and by general pumping strategies of water plant managers act as “filters” placed in front of algorithmic procedures such as pump scheduling and demand forecasting. In this situation, pure optimality is admittedly sacrificed, but necessarily so, in favor of arriving at a good and efficient operating plan.
Network Modeling for Small Utilities
Authors: Ormsbee Lindell , Chase Donald
Published: February 2018

It has become possible for many small utilities to develop or utilize hydraulic network models in their day‐to‐day planning and operational activities. In addition to determining pressures and flows within a particular system, such models can be used to address issues of fire‐flow capacity, system reliability, rehabilitation scheduling, emergency response, and energy management. The authors believe that the cost associated with network modeling will be more than offset by better operation and management decisions that will result from a more comprehensive understanding of the network system.
Sampling and Enumeration of Zebra Mussel Veligers: Implications for Control
Authors: Brady Thomas J. , Van Benschoten John E. , Jensen James N. , Lewis Donald P. , Sferrazza John
Published: February 2018

The zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) has been introduced into the Great Lakes and is expected to spread throughout much of North America. Monitoring for veligers is necessary in water treatment plants in order to determine when control strategies should be applied. Three years (1990, 1991, and 1992) of sampling results from a treatment plant that withdrew water from the Niagara River show that veliger densities varied considerably, with low densities (<10/L) found in >60 percent of samples. The sampling data for 1991 show that veligers and postveligers were present in the river from May to as late as December. On the basis of these data, strategies aimed at preventing veliger settlement may have to be applied for up to eight months per year.
California Consortium Finds Consensus
Authors: Bock Rosalie
Published: February 2018

In 1988 a statewide conservation work group set out to validate the assumption of the California State Water Resources Control Board that conservation could reduce urban water use in the state by one million acre‐feet annually. Conflicting opinions regarding the possibility of reaching such a goal led to a unique consortium or urban water agencies, environmental groups, state agencies, and other interested parties. Working together, they developed the Memorandum of Understanding Regarding Urban Water Conservation in California. The document lists 16 best management practices that approach conservation in a uniform and measurable fashion. A schedule incorporated into the memo assuredly timely implementation, and the California Urban Conservation Council was formed to monitor implementation.
Protecting the Public Against Cryptosporidium
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Cryptosporidium is rather new to the waterborne disease game. First recognized as a human pathogen in 1976, it has been responsible for a number of outbreaks of waterborne disease, most notably the recent Milwaukee, Wisc., outbreak. Cryptosporidium appears to be widespread in the environment and is difficult to detect. While it is known to cause gastrointestinal distress, the infective dose is not known. Complicating matters is the fact that some outbreaks of waterborne disease attributed to cryptosporidium may in fact be cause by multiple factors, including hard‐to‐detect viruses. A review of recent outbreaks reveals that often, multiple causes are to blame. Cryptosporidium is difficult to kill; chlorine and chloramines are ineffective. Ozone is the most effective disinfectant, but filtration and watershed protection are the only conventional control practices available for fighting the microorganism. Although the Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) does not regulate Cryptosporidium at present, the pathogen is on the USEPA's Drinking Water Priority List for possible regulation, and then Enhanced SWTR will set a maximum contaminant level goal of zero for Cryptosporidium. This article presents a good overview of information about Cryptosporidium.
The Energy Policy Act: Assessing Its Impact on Utilities
Authors: Vickers Amy
Published: February 2018

With passage of the federal Energy Policy Act in 1992, the United States will have uniform water efficiency standards for nearly all toilets, urinals, showerheads, and faucets manufactured after January 1994. Based on the combination of fixtures of different ages now in use, the average 2.63‐person household uses about 121 gal/day for toilets, showerheads, and faucets. This will probably drop to about 55 gal/day by 2026 as the pre‐1994 generation of fixtures is replaced by the post‐1994 stock. The reduced water demand and wastewater volumes will influence policy and planning decisions of utilities. Some systems may need to determine the age and water demand of representative plumbing fixtures used in the community to determine conditions that will affect future demand. Oversized meters may need to be replaced to accommodate lowered water usage. The author proposes that all toilet manufacturers be required after 1994 to provide a minimum 10‐year leak‐free guarantee on all toilets produced. Use of treatment chemicals, utility demand for energy, and related energy combustion emissions are all expected to decrease with reduced water consumption.
Reg‐Neg Process Draws to a Close
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

After many hours of regulatory negotiation (reg neg), the advisory committee negotiating the D‐DBP Rule agreed to develop three new rules: the D‐DBP (Disinfection‐Disinfection Byproducts) Rule, the Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (ESWTR), and the Information Collection Rule to support the other two rules. This brief article gives a broad outline of each of the rules and where they stand in development. The purpose of working on all three rules at once is to ensure that the risk microbial disease outbreaks is balanced against the risks associated with disinfectants and their byproducts. A table gives a detailed schedule of the D‐DBP and ESWTR rulemaking through December 1994.
Enumerating and Disinfecting Bacteria Associated With Particles Released From GAC Filter–Adsorbers
Authors: Stringfellow William T. , Mallon Kathryn , DiGiano Francis A.
Published: February 2018

Granular activated carbon (GAC) in filter–adsorbers provides an excellent support surface for the proliferation of microorganisms. Therefore, GAC beds may release particles of carbon with attached bacteria that are protected from disinfection. In this pilot‐plant study, particles were collected from the product waters of GAC filter–adsorbers, examined for bacterial colonization, and characterized by energy‐dispersive X‐ray analysis. Results showed that bacteria attached to GAC particles could be disinfected with chlorine if particle concentrations were in the range found in the product waters, i.e., <20 μg/L. Increasing particle concentration tenfold interfered with disinfection efficiency. Powdered activated carbon used in pretreatment contributed to the particles found in product water.
The Role of Residuals Disposal Laws in Treatment Plant Design
Authors: Koorse Steven J.
Published: February 2018

A complex network of federal, state, and local laws governs the management, transport, disposal, and recycling of the wastes generated by water treatment plants. Those laws influence the siting, selection, and design of treatment systems. Water utility managers must systematically evaluate all regulations so they can make rational and cost‐effective decisions regarding renovation of existing facilities or addition of new facilities.
Public Involvement in Austin's Rate Study
Authors: Rothstein Eric P. , Jones Elaine
Published: February 2018

Rate increases are inherently unpopular; some utility customers oppose them regardless of how badly they are needed or how frugal the utility is. In Austin, Texas, a public involvement program conducted in concert with a cost‐of‐service rate study assisted the Austin Water and Wastewater Utility in achieving implementable rates. In this article the authors review business values that enhance the likelihood a public involvement program will succeed, and they describe techniques that strengthen public involvement programs. Among these techniques are assigning the utility a role as moderator of diverse groups, efficiently using professional consultants, and carefully training utility representatives who will interact with public interest groups. In Austin, communication among interested parties was thorough and was conducted at a surprisingly technical level. At the end of the process, the utility and an ad hoc public committee agreed on 18 of 22 recommendations made by the rate study team.
Survey Says Water Utility Advisory Councils Are a Success
Authors: Becker Joan
Published: February 2018

This article reviews the results of a survey of water utilities that have had experience with public advisory groups. AWWA's Public Information Committee conducted the survey. Responding utilities state that the topics most frequently addressed by groups in their communities are conservation, rates, and water supply projects. Most advisory groups met specific goals. Utilities found that the participation of the advisory groups improved utilities' operations rather than detracting from them, in some cases increasing community support for projects. The author reviews the experience of the Bridesburg Community Advisory Council in Philadelphia, Pa., which serves as a community sounding board for controversial projects at the water department's wastewater plant. The article concludes with advice and general comments from survey participants who have formed community advisory groups.
Making the Public a Partner in Project Development
Authors: Deister Ane D. , Tice Catherine A.
Published: February 2018

The Joint Venture partnership of the Las Virgenes Municipal Water District and the Triunfo Sanitation District developed a 12‐step public involvement program to help the agency gain acceptance for a new reservoir to store reclaimed water. Close participation with a citizens advisory committee helped the agency involve its public in design and implementation of this project. This experience showed that the success of the public participation model depends on a sincere commitment on the part of the water agency and a complete acceptance that public participation cannot be turned off when the heat gets turned on.
Table of Values of Most Probable Numbers: Ten Tubes, Three Dilutions
Authors: Brahms Gilbert L. , Gan David C. , Danielson Richard E. , Tamplin Benjamin R.
Published: February 2018

A 10‐tube per 10‐fold dilution most‐probable‐number (MPN) table, generated by a computer program, was calculated using Hoskins's formula. The 10‐tube table provides more definitive MPN values and narrower confidence intervals than the commonly used five‐tube per 10‐fold dilution MPN table.
Strengthening the Surface Water Treatment Rule
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Changes to the current Surface Water Treatment Rule will likely affect water utility compliance with the new Disinfection‐Disinfection Byproducts Rule. As a result, the reg‐neg committee agreed that the USEPA would propose an interim “enhanced” Surface Water Treatment Rule that would include a wide range of regulatory options. The interim and final rule would be developed so that it would be effective at the same time that systems would be required to comply with the D‐DBP rule. The enhanced surface water rule would regulate cryptosporidium, modify criteria for avoiding filtration, allow alternative filtration technologies, require routine sanitary surveys, and may increase treatment requirements.
Ensuring Water Quality in Urban Environments
Authors: Bolden John R. , Jr. Walter C. Farrell
Published: February 2018

Urban environments are undergoing rapid change as a result of a variety of environmental stresses. Rapidly growing population density, aging water treatment and distribution facilities, and toxic chemicals in urban runoff will combine to increase the stresses on existing water supplies. In the future, we can expect waterborne pathogens such as Giardia, Legionella, and Cryptosporidium to be joined by hybrids of themselves and by as‐yet‐unidentified bacteria and viruses. Retraining utility personnel will be imperative as we incorporate new technologies to ensure water quality. The pressure on water suppliers to protect public health requires new forms of interagency cooperation. Water departments and public health departments must engage in collaborative planning efforts.