bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Lock of the Heart Controversy in Taiwan, 1962–63: A Question of Artistic Freedom and a Writer's Social Responsibility
Authors: Lancashire Edel
Published: March 2009

The early 1960s marked a period of intellectual and literary ferment in Taiwan. The East-West Controversy, which had its roots in the debate that took place in the middle of the last century regarding the continued validity of the Chinese tradition in the face of western military and economic superiority and in the controversy regarding westernization as the road to modernization in the 1930s, had broken out afresh. Creative writers, musicians and painters were experimenting with new forms and new techniques. As early as 1954 the writers of modern Chinese poetry had started the search for a more contemporary expression of their art form; and modern poetry societies, each with its own philosophy on how modernization should take place, had come into being. Writers of fiction who up till then had been almost exclusively concerned with the Sino-Japanese War; the mainland before the communist takeover in 1949, or the various aspects of the struggle against communism, were moving away from this kind of “propaganda-motivated writing” towards the production of “pure literature.” However, there were few modern Chinese creative writers of stature on whom either the poet or fiction writer could model himself. This was because of the ban imposed by the government in Taiwan on the works of writers prior to 1949 due to the association of many of them with communism or with ideologies unacceptable to the authorities. This meant that they had to seek for inspiration in the works of western writers which could be found in translation or in pirated versions of the original texts in the major cities of Taiwan. The traditionalists viewed this growing trend with alarm as did those writers who were closely associated with the Kuomintang. The latter had formed themselves during the early 1950s into three writers' associations, the China Association of Literature and Art, the Chinese Youth Writers' Association, and the Taiwan Women Writers' Association.
Anna Louise Strong: Three Interviews with Chairman Mao Zedong
Authors: Strong Tracy B. , Keyssar Helene
Published: March 2009

Anna Louise Strong was part of the first generation of those westerners who reported extensively and sympathetically on socialist revolutions. Born in Nebraska in 1885, she obtained a doctorate in philosophy from the University of Chicago in 1908, became involved in the labour movement in Seattle where she helped organize the general strike in 1919 and went first to the Soviet Union in 1921 on the advice of Lincoln Steffens. She became during the 1920s and 1930s probably the best-known American journalist reporting on the domestic policies of the Soviet Union. Her reportage was unswervingly sympathetic – what doubts she had were hidden in letters to friends, in strained disavowals, in odd turns of phrase in her many articles and books.
Maoism and Inter-Party Relations: Peking's Alienation of the Japan Communist Party
Authors: Simon Sheldon W.
Published: March 2009

The revolutionary Japanese artists have several times revised parts of the historical play Prairie Fire which they have been staging during their tour of China. It depicts the Japanese peasants' uprising in 1848, and they have made changes in it, in accordance with Mao Tse-tung's thought, to bring out even more clearly the armed struggle waged by the peasants. They have added a magnificent new scene at the end of the play. Amidst the singing of “The East is Red” and “The Internationale”, a great image of Chairman Mao appears on the backdrop, and the Japanese people, holding red-covered Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung and also spears and rifles, all turn to Chairman Mao.
China's Minority Nationalities in the Cultural Revolution
Authors: Dreyer June
Published: March 2009

Initialy, the Chinese Communist Government held high hopes for a speedy solution to “the nationalities question.” Recent events, however, show that this question is still much in evidence and has been causing considerable anxiety in Peking. Since the beginning of the Cultural Revolution, Red Guard exposures of “black bandits in power who are following a capitalist path” have revealed the existence of minorities problems which cast doubt on the régime's previous claims of progress. The Cultural Revolution has also revealed a split between those in the top leadership who favour concessions to the customs and traditions of the minorities and those who favour immediate and total assimilation. Since the former are generally experienced administrators while the latter are ideological zealots, this split may also be seen as yet another manifestation of the continuing “Red” versus “Expert” controversy.
Evolution of Urban Collective Enterprises in China
Authors: Tang Jianzhong , Ma Laurence J. C.
Published: March 2009

China's economy has been undergoing major changes since 1979 that are beginning to affect both the structure and performance of her economic system. Although the changes have been carried out largely on an exploratory and experimental basis, they promise to infuse greater management flexibility into some units of production. China's economic system has been greatly influenced both by excessive administrative control that has tended to slow down the processes of decision-making and production adjustment, and by ideological mandates that predetermined the forms and functions of the national economic system. The new economic order being shaped was formally sanctioned by the third plenary session of the eleventh central committee of the Communist Party of China held in Beijing between 18 and 22 December 1978, which called for the adoption of a series of major new economic measures to relax the central government's tight grip on production units. Such tight control has left most, if not all, production enterprises with little management authority and has to a large extent hindered the performance of the economy as a whole.
A Comparative Approach to the Cultural Dynamics of Sino-Western Educational Co-operation
Authors: Hayhoe Ruth E. S.
Published: March 2009

The purpose of this article is to examine comparatively three distinctive exemplars of Sino-Western educational co-operation: Tongji University as an expression of Sino-German educational interaction, Qinghua University with its roots in Sino-American relations, and the lesser-known Zhongfa University, an important institution of French-Chinese scholarly collaboration in the pre-Liberation period. The present open-door climate has given rise to contemporary projects of educational cooperation between China and each of these countries, as well as many other western countries, which might be illumined by some reflection on an earlier period. It will be of interest, therefore, to investigate the particular combination of scholarly values or ethos created by each institution and its relevance to the wider problematic of the modernization of Chinese scholarly culture.
Rural Reconstruction during the Nanking Decade: Confucian Collectivism in Shantung
Authors: Alitto Guy S.
Published: March 2009

“Recently, amid clamor and cries of ‘rural bankruptcy’ and ‘rural collapse,’ the slogans ‘rural reconstruction’ and ‘rural revival’ reverberate through the entire nation; this is really a kind of sudden awakening of government and people.” Thus, the major chronicler of rural reform movements during the Republican period began his 1934 compendium. Another reporter counted almost 700 distinct organizations devoted to rural work of various sorts. The pens of the intelligentsia churned out hundreds of monographs and specialized periodicals, and thousands of articles on the rural problem and the rural reconstruction solution. The powerholders – the Nanking regime itself, the provincial governments under its control, and the semi-independent militarist provincial governments – were concurrently formulating policies, instituting measures, establishing agencies, reorganizing local government structures, and generally manifesting great concern for the giant rural sector of Chinese society they had previously ignored.
Sino-American Relations and the Vietnam War, 1964–66
Authors: Rogers Frank E.
Published: March 2009

Perceptions as well as realities have always played an important role in international politics and it is frequently difficult to separate the two. By the 1960s the realities of increased American involvement in South east Asia and a more militarily and politically influential China heightened the possibility of a Sino-American confrontation. It is the thesis of this study that the United States and the People's Republic of China, both fearful of that possibility as a spill-over from the conflict in Indochina, reached a tacit understanding limiting their involvement. This understanding was transmitted through a series of subtle public signals and, quite possibly, by a number of confidential communications. The primary motive was to prevent an unwanted Sino-American con frontation which could have resulted from a misperception of intentions. As will be demonstrated in this study both Peking and Washington sought, on a number of occasions, to transmit their intentions in order to prevent misperceptions and possible over-reactions.
Centralization and Decentralization in China's Fiscal Management
Authors: Donnithorne Audrey
Published: March 2009

Dr Lardy (in The China Quarterly, No. 61, March 1975) denies that the economic decentralization of the late 1950s impaired the ability of the central government to control allocation of economic resources. If such impairment had occurred, he argues, “ More developed provinces with high remission rates in the period before decentralization would have vastly greater resources at their disposal which they could use to maintain or increase the level of health, education and welfare (HEW) services they provided to their populations. Because provincial remittances would be reduced the central government could no longer subsidize areas previously dependent on net central government subsidies. Thus I hypothesize that the level of HEW expenditures in these areas would decline after decentralization as compared with the previously less dependent provinces. Similarly I hypothesize that the share of total national investment in provinces with proportionately greater fiscal resources would have increased sharply while the investment shares of the less developed provinces would have declined” (pp. 33 and 36). Dr Lardy's calculations indicate that “the dependency variable is significant but its effect is exactly the opposite of that predicted by the ‘decentralization hypothesis.’ That is, provinces that were more dependent on the central government prior to 1958 experienced larger increases, on the average, than did the less dependent provinces” (p. 38). “These tests,” he continues, “do not support the view that the decentralization measures transferred resource allocation power to provincial governments ”(pp. 38–39). Dr Lardy draws the conclusion that “ The central government's continued control of the fiscal system assured that the level of social services provided in the less developed provinces did not decline compared to more developed regions.”
Research Note: New Material on Teng Hsiao-p'ing
Authors: Gittings John
Published: March 2009

Some important documentation has been published in the Chinese press since the dismissal of Teng Hsiao-p'ing regarding the policies which he pursued during the preceding year. As might be expected this evidence is partial and fragmentary, but it does throw new light on recent events. In particular the material strongly suggests that Teng took to the offensive in 1975 against what he regarded as a widespread tendency of ultra-Leftism especially in the Party, in industry and education, and that the anti-Teng struggle in spring 1976 was therefore not unprQVpked. Whether the policies advocated by Teng amounted to “restoring capitalism,” and whether the contradiction between the two lines was in fact “antagonistic,” is of course another question. This research note is simply designed to bring the story up to date for readers of The China
From the “Great Union of the Popular Masses” to the “Great Alliance”
Authors: Schram Stuart R.
Published: March 2009

The main purpose of this article is to serve as an introduction to the foregoing translation of Mao Tse-tung's essay, “The Great Union of the Popular Masses,” written during the summer of 1919. As suggested by the title, however, while focusing primarily on Mao Tse-tung's thought at the time of the May Fourth Movement, I have chosen to develop also certain parallels with the ideas he has put forward more recently, especially during the Cultural Revolution. That there are elements of continuity between these two epochs has been recognized by everyone from the very beginning of the Cultural Revolution. Indeed, Mao himself not only stressed these links, but, for a time at least, sought to exaggerate them. The Cultural Revolution was (among many other things) an attempt to re-create, for the benefit of today's youth, an experience analogous to that of Mao's generation of young Chinese half a century ago. None the less, the juxtaposition, for purposes of analysis, of two such episodes widely separated in time may at first glance appear somewhat arbitrary. Such an approach can, in my view, be justified by the fact that the Mao Tse-tung of 1919 had not yet seriously begun to assimilate Marxism, whereas the Mao Tse-tung of the Cultural Revolution had already moved beyond Marxism to conceptions not altogether compatible with the logic of Marxism or of Leninism. The intervening years, during which he mastered, applied and then to some extent discarded the principles of revolution developed by Lenin and Stalin are, of course, vitally important to an understanding of the genesis and present significance of his thought. But by looking directly from 1919 to 1969, and leaping over the intervening period, one can perhaps see the problem in a perspective which reveals points that would otherwise be obscured. In particular, one can note the persistence of traits and ideas not derived from Marxism, and which therefore belong to an earlier and deeper stratum of Mao's thinking and feeling about the problems of Chinese society.
From Conflict to Quiescence: The Kuomintang, Party Factionalism and Local Elites in Jiangsu, 1927–31
Authors: Geisert Bradley Kent
Published: March 2009

Historians have long recognized that Chiang Kai-shek's (Jiang Jieshi) anti-communist purge in April 1927 marked a crucial turning-point in the history of the Kuomintang. It answered with finality some very basic questions about the fate of the party. Most importantly, the purge ensured that the Chinese Communist Party would not be able to take control of the Kuomintang, something which had not been a foregone conclusion before the purge. In addition, the conflagration drove many young activists from the Kuomintang and dampened the enthusiasm of many who remained in its ranks.
The Evolution of Agricultural Policy
Authors: Ash Robert F.
Published: March 2009

The core of this article comprises three sections. The two outer sections are the more substantial and seek to describe and analyse the evolution of agricultural policy in what has come to be regarded as the first and second stages of China's rural reform. In between, briefer consideration is given to the transitional year of 1984, when a major change in agricultural policy began to be apparent.
Trends in Crop Production, 1978–86
Authors: Walker Kenneth R.
Published: March 2009

The economic and institutional framework against which trends in crop production under the government of Deng Xiaoping must be considered, is vastly different from that which existed throughout the Mao era. In a word, Deng replaced a system of planned production and supply by one in which market demand became the main determinant of the level and structure of agricultural production. Under Mao Zedong, maximizing the physical output of key agricultural products was the basis of agricultural policy. Centrally identified priorities – based on “national need” – were reflected in targets for the output, sown area and yield per hectare of individual items. These mandatory targets were to be fulfilled by the collective farms (the production teams of the communes) which were the basic organizational units of Chinese agriculture. Similarly, the disposal of farm output was determined by the central plan. For production teams, therefore, decision-making was relatively simple and followed the sequence of production, harvesting and procurement, all according to plans laid down by the government. Cost accounting was rudimentary. It was not, in any case, geared to the promotion of “economic efficiency.” If production costs rose-for example, as a result of an increase in the multiple cropping index directed by the government – the peasants bore the burden, as they were the residual claimants in the distribution of income by the production teams.
Recent Developments in Chinese Social Science, 1977–79
Authors: Braybrooke George
Published: March 2009

In the dozen years or more since the Cultural Revolution Chinese social scientists have been through a period of relative inactivity. This is now said to have been the direct result of the interference of the “gang of four.” Since the disappearance of the “gang of four” in October 1976, social science has undergone a revival and social scientists are once again active.
On Chinese Pragmatism in the 1980s
Authors: Pye Lucian W.
Published: March 2009

The orthodoxy of the day is that Chinese politics is now pragmatic. The China that was once the ultimate in ideological politics in both the intensity of her passions and the follies of her principles has vanished as by the wave of a conjurer's hand. The primacy of ideology, the hallmark of Chinese Communism under Chairman Mao Zedong, has been replaced by the no-nonsense philosophy of Deng Xiaoping who does not care about the “colour of the cat” so long as it catches “the mice.” With near unanimity scholars of contemporary China welcome the change. It promises not only liberation for the Chinese people from the heavy hand of doctrinal politics but also the prospect that analysis of Chinese developments can emerge from the realm of murky esoteric interpretation into the fresh air of reasoned policy evaluation.
The Zunyi Conference as One Step in Mao's Rise to Power: A Survey of Historical Studies of the Chinese Communist Party
Authors: Yang Benjamin
Published: March 2009

In January 1935, three months after the epic Long March was under way, the Chinese Communists captured the second largest city in Guizhou province, Zunyi, and held an enlarged Politburo conference there. The importance of the Zunyi Conference in Chinese Communist Party (CCP) history and, particularly, in the late Chairman Mao Zedong's political career has aroused the interest of both Chinese and western scholars; their reflections on this episode have in turn greatly enhanced its importance, perhaps too much so.
Overseas Remittances in South-eastern China
Authors: Yu Elena S.H.
Published: March 2009

Recent reports from China, based mostly on the travels of North-American and European scholars, have broadened our knowledge of social conditions in that country. In most cases, the journeys of these scholarly visitors have been greatly facilitated by the availability of Chinese guides and interpreters who at times become their main source of contact with the people, especially in non-Mandarin speaking regions. Thus, great strides have been made in our understanding of the new society. But there is another source of traveller's reportage from China — the hundreds of ordinary overseas Chinese, especially those between the ages of 50 and 90, who every day visit their relatives on the mainland — and about whose personal observations and experiences we know very little. Consequently, there are gaps in our knowledge of every-day life in China, especially in the remote countryside of provinces such as Fukien, which are least frequented by delegations from Europe and America.
Agricultural Mechanisation in Communist China
Authors: Kuo Leslie T. C.
Published: March 2009

At the beginning of the “Great Leap Forward” campaign of 1958, Mao Tse-tung declared the now much publicised “eight-character constitution of agriculture” for the technical transformation of agriculture. This “constitution” was essentially a condensed and more appealing version of the National Agricultural Development Programme for 1956–67, promulgated in 1956, which contains twelve important measures to improve agricultural production. The eight Chinese characters referred to are: shui, water conservation; fei, fertilisation; t'u, soil conservation; chung, seed selection; mi, dense planting; pao, plant protection; kung, tool improvement; and kuan, field management.
Writers' Criticism of the Party in 1942
Authors: Goldman Merle
Published: March 2009

The angry outbursts of Chinese intellectuals against the Chinese Communist Party at the time of the Hundred Flowers in 1956–57 revealed that China's intellectuals, even those who were oriented towards the left, were in conflict with many of the Party's practices. Actually, this tension between the Party and the intellectuals had been smouldering for a long time. It had come to the surface many years earlier during the Cheng Feng movement in Yenan in the early 1940s. At that time the Party, as it did later in the Hundred Flowers period, embarked on a drive “to rectify the style of work” of both Party members and intellectuals. One aspect of this drive was that the Party encouraged intellectuals and lower-rank cadres to speak out on the misuses of Party power.
China's Militia
Authors: Gittings John
Published: March 2009

China's “Everyone a Soldier” movement of Autumn 1958 represents on paper perhaps the most ambitious military enterprise in the history of mankind. Two hundred and twenty million men and women of a predominantly agricultural population were to be transformed into an “ocean of soldiers,” equipped and prepared to defend their homeland against the invader.
The Good Officer: Definition and Training
Authors: Bobrow Davis B.
Published: March 2009

Mao Tse-tung, the Marxist, may believe in the “objective” and “inevitable” forces of history, but Mao, the politician, general and revolutionary has argued that Communist success depends on the “subjective factor of ability of direction.” This article analyses the variation in the Chinese Communist definition of good military leadership and the relationship between this definition and officer training programmes.
The Reorganisation of Higher Education in Communist China, 1949–61
Authors: Hsu Immanuel C. Y
Published: March 2009

Within the short span of twelve years since their rise to power in 1949, the Chinese Communists have completely revamped their educational system. Private institutions of higher learning have been abolished and the number of universities vastly reduced; in their place hundreds of technical institutes have been created, with an unprecedented increase in enrolment and graduates. The faculties of various universities and colleges have been amalgamated in an effort to train more and more scientific and technical personnel. New types of instruction, known as “specialty” (spetsial'nost) and “specialisation” (spetsializatsiia), have been introduced to accelerate the training of industrial experts. Emphasis on science and technology has completely replaced the traditional respect for the humanities; the highest learned organisation in Communist China today is the Academy of Sciences, and not the Academy of Letters (Hanlin Yuan) of Imperial China. A Twelve-Year Science Programme was adopted in 1956 with the avowed objective of producing 10,500 top scientists and some two million technicians by 1967, and towards this end a new University of Science and Technology was established in 1958.
Wheat in China—Past, Present and Future
Authors: Myers Ramon H.
Published: March 2009

After the technological revolution in dry farming of the Sui Dynasty (581–618 a.d.) made possible the rapid spread of wheat farming, this crop gradually became important for farmer and consumer alike. By the 20th century wheat had come to occupy about one-fifth of the total foodgrain sown area and ranked second to rice as the most important foodgrain. More than one-third of the population consumed wheat. Roughly two-thirds of the total wheat production came from the north China plain and nearly another third from the central provinces. Winter wheat made up 87 per cent of the wheat sown area with the remaining being spring wheat.
The Chinese Revolution and the Colonial Areas: The View form Yenan, 1937–41
Authors: Goldstein Steven M.
Published: March 2009

The years 1937 to 1941 constitute the formative period in the Maoist leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), when Mao and his colleagues developed much of the political and military strategy that was to guide the Party through the anti-Japanese war and into the civil war period. This package of revolutionary prescriptions – loosely labelled the Yenan experience – is generally recognized to have had a powerful, lingering hold on the Party leadership.
Some Speculations on the Return of the Regions: Parallels with the Past
Authors: Solinger Dorothy J.
Published: March 2009

At the National Conference on Learning from Taching in Industry, held in Peking in May 1977, vice-premier of the State Council, Yu Ch'iu-li, first publicly mentioned the recreation of regional “economic systems.” Although there has been no reference to any administration for governing these regions, the use of the term “systems” (t'i-hsi), which must be “established,” suggests organized co-ordination on a regional basis. Several Hong Kong-based journals that report on current Chinese economic or political developments took note of Yu's remarks, speculating, respectively, that they were to serve economic development or defence goals, or that they might represent a concession to provincial leaders demanding autonomy. Thereafter, no further word of these regions surfaced for over four months. Then, in mid-September, in an article on socialist construction, the State Planning Commission drew attention again to these regions.
China's Demographic Evolution 1850–1953 Reconsidered
Authors: Schran Peter
Published: March 2009

There remains little doubt that the offcial population statistics which indicate the beginning and the end of the most recent down swing in China's “dynastic cycle” of demographic development – 430 million people in 1850 and 582·6 million on 30 June 1953 – are close approximations of the true totals. Detailed scrutiny of all evident irregularities in the reported data is unlikely to suggest corrections by more than five per cent, and such modifications are subject to questions and reservations in turn.
Research Notes on the Changing Loci of Decision in the Chinese Communist Party
Authors: Chang Parris H.
Published: March 2009

In the course of the Cultural Revolution, both Chinese official and Red Guard sources have revealed that the so-called Chung-yang kung-tso hui-i (Central Work Conference)—an institution hitherto not well known to outside observers—had met frequently during 1960–66 and that these meetings were connected with decisions on important policy issues. While its existence and jurisdiction have never been formally stipulated by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Constitution of 1956 or 1945, the Central Work Conference appears to have become an important locus of decision in the Party during the 1960s. There are indications that it functioned alongside of the Party's regular decision-making bodies, the Central Committee (CC) and the Politburo, and that it replaced, and possibly pre-empted, the functions of other institutional devices which Mao Tse-tung has utilized during the second half of the 1950s. This article examines briefly the participants in, and functions of, the Central Work Conference and other types of Party meetings, attempting to shed some light on the loci of decision in the CCP. Appended to the article is a list of known Party meetings from 1949–66, compiled from official and Red Guard publications, which may be of some use to students of Chinese Communist affairs.
Resolutions of the Tsunyi Conference
Authors: Ch'En Jerome
Published: March 2009

Summing up the Campaign against the Enemy's 5th “Encirclement”* Resolutions of the Centre of the CCP Adopted by the Conference of the Politburo, Tsunyi, 8 January 1935 Having listened to Comrade X X's survey of the 5th “Encirclement” and Comrade X X X's supplementary report, the enlarged conference of the Politburo regards Comrade XX's survey as fundamentally incorrect.
Buddhism since the Cultural Revolution
Authors: Welch Holmes
Published: March 2009

On 3 August 1966 a brief dispatch was included in the English service of the New China News Agency. That day, it said, the Chinese Buddhist Association had given a banquet in honour of a group of visiting Japanese Buddhists, members of the Shingon sect, led by Juncho Onozuka. The day before they had joined in performing a religious ceremony at the principal Peking monastery; and the day after, 4 August, they were received by Kuo Mo-jo.
A Review of China's Economy in 1970
Authors: Klatt W.
Published: March 2009

The writer on Chinese economic affairs may be forgiven for recalling an incident from early schooldays when the headmaster, introducing his pupils to The Odyssey, mused about its author: “Nobody, he said, knows for certain whether Homer ever lived; what is known, though, is that he was blind.” Turning to China, the student of contemporary affairs is similarly uncertain of his facts. He is facing the most populous, yet one of the industrially least advanced and statistically least well documented countries in the world. At the same time, China not only succeeded within two decades in developing its own nuclear striking force, but at the end of this short period of development it launched its first earth satellite. We are thus confronted with an entirely new situation, the study of which requires certain adjustments of the techniques of analysis usually applied. Today's “China-watchers” find themselves where 20 years ago the analysts of the Soviet scene were when they had to guess Stalin's intentions and successes on the strength of misleading indices related to unknown starting dates.
The Current Political Scene in China
Authors: Ching Frank
Published: March 2009

The current political scene in China is characterized by greater stability at the top of the Party hierarchy than at any time since the overthrow of the “gang of four” in October 1976. At the same time, resistance to new policies and ideas continues to be strong at the middle and lower levels.
Politics and Epistemology in China Since Mao
Authors: Womack Brantly
Published: March 2009

Of the three “great debates” of post-Mao Chinese politics, on democracy, economics and epistemology, the last one became the most politicized and crucial because it was directly related to the basic question of the legitimacy of post-Mao policies. It began with the publication of an article, “Practice is the only standard for evaluating truth,” in Kuang-ming jih-pao on 11 May 1978. The article was signed by the paper's “special commentator” (t'e-yueh p'ing-lun yuan), and was reprinted the following day in People's Daily. However, there was nothing to indicate that the article was in any way exceptional until Teng Hsiaop'ing made its theme the centerpiece of his speech at the Army Political Work Conference on 2 June. After Teng's insistence on “seeking truth from facts” (shih-shih ch'iu shih) and his criticism of people “who talk about Mao Tse-tung's Thought all the time,” but do not emulate his practicality, the campaign emphasizing the importance of practice developed rapidly and in several directions. Conferences were held to explore its significance, new authoritative articles were published which defended and amplified the anti-dogmatic stance, and over the succeeding months a series of rather repetitive speeches by virtually every provincial secretary and military region commander appeared in People's Daily affirming Teng's position. Finally, in October 1978, “special commentator” articles appeared in People's Daily which called for the deepening of the struggle against the “gang of four,” claiming that their poison had affected even some who had opposed them politically.
The Autumn Harvest Insurrection
Authors: Hofhejnz Roy
Published: March 2009

In the latter half of 1927 the Chinese Communist Party suffered the most disastrous defeat of its history. The debacle of that year not only very nearly destroyed the Party's apparatus, it shattered beyond repair an entire conception of revolutionary strategy: the use of peasant mass organisation as a power base for the seizure of hegemony within the revolutionary movement. The repercussions of this traumatic reverse are being felt to this very day.
Mao's “Cultural Revolution”: Origin and Development
Authors: Bridgham Philip
Published: March 2009

Mao Tse-Tung utilised the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the October Revolution to lecture delegates attending the Moscow Communist Party Conference on the correct method for dealing with erring comrades. Mao appeared to be offering his formula “unity-criticismunity” to other Bloc parties as a substitute for the violence and terror inherent in Stalin's periodic purging of the Soviet party. At the same time, Mao appeared to be giving assurances that Stalin's errors connected with the “cult of personality” could not possibly develop within the Chinese party.
From Revolutionary to Semi-Bureaucrat: The “Regularisation” of Cadres
Authors: Vogel Ezra F.
Published: March 2009

When the victorious Tokugawa rulers of early seventeenth-century Japan brought an end to decades of warfare, the warrior class, the samurai, no longer had any wars to fight. However, the ideals of the samurai warrior did not die quickly, and new generations of samurai continued to learn the “martial arts” and to give obeisance to the model of the loyal and fearless warrior. In fact, however, under peaceful Tokugawa rule, the samurai gradually became an administrator-bureaucrat and took up the study of the “literary arts” which were more suited to his daily activities than studies of the martial arts.
The Guerrilla Movement in Northwest China: The Origins of the Shensi-Kansu-Ninghsia Border Region (Part II)
Authors: Selden Mark
Published: March 2009

While the partisans were expanding on the Shen-Kan border in 1932, San Yuan hsien became the centre of the peasant movement in the Wei Pei area. Developments seemed sufficiently promising for the Shensi Party to resolve on June 6, 1932 that a new soviet be created in the three hsien of San Yuan, Fu P'ing and Yao Chou, where land redistribution had begun and a revolutionary committee established.
Communism and Chinese Communalism in Sarawak
Authors: Van Der Kroef Justus M.
Published: March 2009

The Chinese are still divided into two groups. One group is very left in its views, very vociferous, very active, very humourless, very narrow minded and forceful, and knows what it wants and intends to achieve its objects by fair means or foul, regardless of what the rest of the population may think. The other group is undoubtedly immensely larger, though one might be excused for not realising this, as it lacks cohesion and the people in it merely wish to be left alone to carry on their normal avocations. Since it has no strong feelings not only does this group not speak out, but in many cases it finds the line of least resistance is to support the other group when asked to do so.

The 1962 Annual Report for the District of Kuching, The Sarawak Gazette, May 31, 1963.
The Long March
Authors: Garavente Anthony
Published: March 2009

The Communists under the leadership of Mao Tse-tung and Chu Teh enjoyed two relatively stable periods of growth and development in the south-eastern Kiangsi-western Fukien border region, from December 1929 to December 1930 and from the autumn of 1931 to April 1933. These periods of Communist expansion were possible because Chiang Kai-shek, the only leader both powerful enough to check their growing strength and aware of its potential danger to internal security, was struggling elsewhere in China against more immediate threats to the Nationalist Government. The weak provincial troops and local militia in this remote area of China were no match for the well-led, disciplined Red Army.
Growth of the Construction Industry in Communist China
Authors: Chao Kang
Published: March 2009

As Western observers generally know, China achieved very impressive progress in most sectors of its economy during the first ten years (1949–59) of the Communist régime. The rapid rise in production was mainly a result of the intensive investment programme under their five-year plans aimed at raising the productive capacity for the country as a whole.
Health Trends in China Since the Great Leap Forward
Authors: Worth Robert M.
Published: March 2009

Since illness has both socio-economic causes and effects, an analysis of public health problems and programmes can give some insight into the condition of a nation and into the social philosophy of its government.
The Party and the Unions in Communist China
Authors: Harper Paul
Published: March 2009

A Communist party is not a mass party. It is rather, by its own definition, a party of elites, the most advanced members of a single class. The Communist Party in China is proportionally the smallest of all ruling Communist parties, never having comprised as much as three per cent. of the population. Such a small leadership group, lacking the direct involvement of the masses in its membership, must rely on other organs to engage the bulk of the population on its behalf. These are the mass organizations. Operating through these mass organizations, the Party maintains leadership and control over the various sectors of society; at the same time, the organizations, staffed by Party members, educate the masses in communism and provide grass roots listening posts which help the Party to maintain its legitimacy.
The Cultural Revolution and the Chinese Political System
Authors: Tsou Tang
Published: March 2009

One of the most extraordinary and puzzling events of the twentieth century is surely the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in China. This most profound crisis in the history of the Peking regime provides us with the best available opportunity to study the Chinese political system. For it is during a crisis that the nature, the strength, and the vulnerabilities of a political system fully reveal themselves. Further-more, we can attempt not only to note the unique features of this extraordinary event, and of Chinese politics itself, but also to see whether the seemingly unique Chinese experience does not reveal some universal dilemma of the human condition and fundamental problems of the socio-political order in a magnified and easily recognizable form. It is my belief that the Chinese political system prior to the Cultural Revolution is one of the purest forms found in human experience of a type of association in which there is a clear-cut separation between the elite and the masses. If one follows Ralf Dahrendorf in asserting that in every social organization there is a differential distribution of power and authority, a division involving domination and subjection, the Chinese political system can be taken as one of the polar examples of all social organizations, showing clearly their possibilities and limitations, their problems and dilemmas. From this perspective, the Maoist vision as it has revealed itself in its extreme form during the early phases of the Cultural Revolution can be considered a critique of this type of political organization.
Revolution and Reaction in the Chinese Countryside: The Socialist Education Movement in Cultural Revolutionary Perspective
Authors: Baum Richard
Published: March 2009

At the time the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) issued its now-famous Circular Notice of 16 May 1966, which roundly criticized Peking's Mayor P'eng Chen and thereby ushered in a dramatic new stage of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, a large-scale and intensive Socialist Education Movement was still being implemented systematically in the Chinese countryside.
Two Models of Agricultural Development: A Context for Current Chinese Policy
Authors: Reynolds Bruce L.
Published: March 2009

Less than three years ago, in the early stages of the anti-Teng Hsiao-p'ing campaign of 1976, the Chinese press abounded with statements of the following kind:

[Capitalist roaders] energetically peddle the economic thinking of the bourgeoisie, saying that science and technology are most important… They advocate letting experts run factories, oppose putting proletarian politics in command and advocate material incentives… They oppose the activation of both central and local initiatives and reimpose the practice of “direct central control” …by the ministry concerned, oppose walking on two legs, lay onesided stress on things big and foreign, and oppose independence and selfreliance.
Ch'en Tu-hsiu's Unfinished Autobiography
Authors: Kagan Richard C.
Published: March 2009

There are two sources of world civilization: one is the study, another is the prison. We the youth must make up our minds to enter the prison once out of the study, and enter the study once out of the prison. Only these provide the most lofty and sublime life. And only those civilizations born in these two places are true civilizations with life and value.
Impressions of Language in China
Authors: Fincher Beverly Hong
Published: March 2009

From 12 October to 13 November 1971 I listened to various forms of Chinese as it is spoken in the People's Republic. I listened with the ear of a Chinese educated – after leaving Amoy as a small child – in various dialects as they are spoken by Chinese in South-East Asia, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Japan and the United States. I was pleased both as a Chinese and as a professional linguist to discover immediately that language as well as a Chinese face remains a social passport in the People's Republic just as in Chinese communities elsewhere. I entered at Shumchun through the gate for Chinese with my three-and-a-half-year-old daughter, Leta. Leta is even more fair-skinned and blonde than her American father, and an army guard on the bridge was somewhat startled to see a westerner coming in that way.
The Role of History in Party Struggle, 1962–4
Authors: Goldman Merle
Published: March 2009

As opposed to the practice of the early 1960s of expressing dissent through plays, short stories and literary forums, by 1962 and 1963 dissidence was expressed through discussions on Chinese history. Like the literati of old, Chinese intellectuals used their interpretations of history as criticisms of the regime, and the regime used contrary interpretations as rebuttals. While these debates were in actuality a subtle struggle over policy, they touched on some fundamental questions as to the dynamics of the historical process, the role of traditional values and the nature of man. They were conducted with a degree of sophistication and balance that had not been exhibited since the Communists had come to power.
Class Struggle in Yellow Sandhill Commune
Authors: Obaidullah Khan A. Z. M.
Published: March 2009

Ying Wei-chen, the narrator of the following account, is the chairman of the Revolutionary committee of the Huang Tu Kang People's Commune in the southern suburbs of Peking, and secretary of its Party committee. In 1952 he organized the first agricultural co-operative in the Peking area, and he was a deputy to the 9th Party Congress in April 1969. He is an agile stocky man of 48, and widely respected.
The worker/wrapper transformation
Authors: GILL ANDY , HUTTON GRAHAM
Published: March 2009

The worker/wrapper transformation is a technique for changing the type of a computation, usually with the aim of improving its performance. It has been used by compiler writers for many years, but the technique is little known in the wider functional programming community, and has never been described precisely. In this article we explain, formalise and explore the generality of the worker/wrapper transformation. We also provide a systematic recipe for its use as an equational reasoning technique for improving the performance of programs, and illustrate the power of this recipe using a range of examples.
Introduction
Authors: Alon Noga , Bollobas Bela
Published: March 2009

This special issue is devoted to papers from the meeting on Combinatorics, Probability and Computing, held at the Mathematisches Forschungsinstitut in Oberwolfach from 29 October 2006 to 4 November 2006. Like most conferences at Oberwolfach, this was an exciting and stimulating occasion; we were treated to numerous excellent talks, many of which provoked a great deal of interest and discussion among the participants.
European Communities – Measures Affecting the Approval and Marketing of Biotech Products
Authors: HOWSE ROBERT L. , HORN HENRIK
Published: March 2009

TheEC-Biotechdispute exposed the WTO dispute settlement system to a more challenging test than any previous dispute. Not only did the Panel have to take a stand on the limits of science, or technocratic regulatory controls, to protect against objective risk, but in this regard faced more complex issues than ever addressed before by an adjudicating body. The dispute also concerned an extremely charged political issue, partly because of inherent ethical sensitivities with regard to foodstuffs, partly due to public skepticism about the role of science, and partly due to a common public perception of the complaint as being driven by the interests of an untrustworthy industry. Because of these and other challenges, the Panel faced an almost impossible task. This paper discusses how the Panel addressed some of these issues. The recently (after our report was drafted) decided appeal inEC–Hormones Suspensionis likely to reduce the significance for WTO jurisprudence of some of the Panel's findings inEC–Biotech, given the apparently different approach of the AB to fundamental interpretative issues under SPS concerning the meaning of risk assessment and precaution.
Nothing Dramatic (… regarding administration of customs laws)
Authors: HOEKMAN BERNARD M. , MAVROIDIS PETROS C.
Published: March 2009

This paper discusses the 2005 dispute between the European Community (EC) and the United States (US) regarding the customs classification of two specific products and the ambit of Art. X GATT (Publication and Administration of Trade Regulations). The Dispute Settlement Panel and the Appellate Body (AB) essentially upheld the position advocated by the EC, with one exception that is of no practical import, as the EC had already modified its regime. While the AB followed prior case law, it added two new findings. First, the WTO-consistency of laws can be challenged under Art. X GATT if they concern the implementation or application of laws concerning customs administration and enforcement. Second, the obligation included in Art. X.3(b) GATT to establish tribunals or procedures to review and correct administrative actions relating to customs matters concerns courts of first instance only. Thus it is quite possible that their decisions might not be uniform, and absence of uniformity at this level is not a violation of Art. X.3(b).
The influence of pension plan risk on equity risk and credit ratings: a study of FTSE100 companies
Authors: MCKILLOP DONAL , POGUE MICHAEL
Published: March 2009

This paper examines the relationship between funding risk of defined benefit pension plans and both corporate debt ratings and equity risk measures for FTSE100 companies. Panel based models highlighted a direct relationship between pension plan risk and equity risk. Pension risk was also demonstrated to be factored into credit ratings with the analysis highlighting that the greater the pension risk, the greater the probability of obtaining a lower debt rating. From a rating agency viewpoint, this is positive news, particularly at present when agencies are being criticized for a perceived failure to reflect sub-prime mortgage problems in firm-specific ratings.