bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
AGRICULTURE AND THE ENERGY CHALLENGE
Authors: Simantov A.
Published: November 2008

The rise in the costs of energy affects agriculture as a user and as a producer of energy. The adjustment of the food sector rakes difficult problems of balance between commodities, between regions of a country and also between countries. The economics of the competition between food uses and energy uses of farm products must be better understood.

As the market mechanism alone is not likely to bring about the necessary reduction in energy use, appropriate policies will need to be developed in the fields of information, price and market policy, incentives and penalties and especially for the development of more appropriate technology. In the longer‐run the position of agriculture in relation to that of many other sectors is likely to be strengthened as a result of the energy crisis.

L'AGRICULTURE ET LE DÉFI ÉNERGÉTIQUE

Le renchérissement de l'énergie affecte l'agriculture à la fois comme consommatrice et comme productrice d'énergie. L'adaptation du secteur alimentaire soulève de difficiles problèmes d'équilibre entre produits, entre réegions d'une měme pays et aussi entre pays. Les phénomèes économiques de la concurrence entre les utilisations alimentaires et les utilisations énergétiques des produits agricoles ont besoin d'ětre mieux connus.

En raison de l'improbabilité de pouvoir compter uniquement sur le mécanisme du marché pour aboutir à la diminution nécessaire de la consommation d'énergie, il faudra définir des politiques opérantes dans les domaines de l'information, de la politique des prix et des marchés, des encouragements et des pénalités et, surtout, mettre au point des techniques de remplacement positives.

Il faut s'attendre à plus longue échéance à ce que la position de l'agriculture par rapport à celle de nombreax autres secteurs sorte renforcée de la crise de l'énergie.

DIE LANDWIRTSCHAFT UND DIE HERAUSFORDERUNG DURCH DIE ENERGIE

Die gestiegenen Energiekosten wirken sich auf die Landwirtshaft als Abnehmer und als Produzent von Energie aus. Die Anpassung des Lebensmittelsektors wirft schwierige Probleme auf für das Gleichgewicht zwischen den Kommoditäten, zwischen den Regionen eines Landes und auch zwichen Ländern untereinander. Die Wirtschaftslehre des Wettbewerbs zwischen dem Lebensmittelnutzen und dem Energienuitzen von Farmprodukten muβ besser verstanden werden.

Da der Marktmechanismus allein wahrscheinlich nicht die notwendige Reduzierung da Energieverbrauch zustandebringt, müssen angemessene Politiken auf dem Gebiet der Information, Preis‐ und Marktpolitik, Anreize und Buβen und besonders für die Entwicklung geeigneter Technologien entwickelt werden. Längerfristig festigt sich wahrscheinlich die Stellung der Landwirtschaft in bezug auf die anderer Sektoren als Ergebnis der Energiekrise.
U.S. AND E.E.C. POLICY ATTITUDES COMPARED TOWARDS THE 1977 INTERNATIONAL SUGAR AGREEMENT
Authors: Harris Simon
Published: November 2008

The world sugar market is vulnerable to changes in Government domestic support policies: the impact of these policies for the volume of international trade is presented for the decade to 1978.

Developments in U. S. and E. E. C. sugar policies and their implications for the world sugar market are analysed. The results of these policies for the negotiation and implementation of the 1977 International Sugar Agreement are examined.
NUTRITION AND FOOD POLICY—AN EMERGING ISSUE FOR AGRICULTURAL ECONOMISTS?
Authors: Tracy Michael
Published: November 2008

The definition of minimum nutritional standards has an important bearing on the planning of agricultural development in low‐income countries. In high‐consumption societies, the main concern of nutritionists is with health risks associated with overeating. Health authorities in several countries have issued dietary recommendations. Should nutritional considerations be more explicitly integrated in an overall “food policy”, what action may be necessary in consequence, and is current agricultural policy liable thereby to be modified? How may market prospects for agricultural products be affected by increasing public concern with more balanced diets?

LA PLACE DE LA NUTRITION DANS LA POLITIQUE ALIMENTAIRE—UN PROBLEME NOUVEAU POUR LES ECONOMISTES DE L'AGRICULTURE?

La définition de normes nutritionnelles minimales a une influence importante sur les plans de développement agricole des pays à revenus faibles. Dans les sociétés de consommation élevée, la préoccupation principale des nutritionnistes porte sur les dangers d'une alimentation trop riche pour la santé. Dam plusieurs pays la autorités de la santé publique ont publié des recommandations sur les régimes alimentaires appropriés.

Faut‐il intégrer plus explicitement les considéerations afférentes à la nutrition dans une “politique alimentaire” globale? Quelles sortes d'actions seraient‐elles nécessaires par voie de conséquence et entraǐneraient‐elle alors inévitablement des modifications à la politique agricole actuelle? Dam quelle mesure les perspectives d'écoulement des produits agricoles peuvent‐elles ětre affectées par la sensibilisation croissante de l'opinion publique à l'égard d'un régime alimentaire plus épilibré?

Telles sont les questions posées dam cet article.

ERNÄHRUNG UND LEBENSMITTELPOLITK—EINE STREITFRAGE DIE SICH AGRAROKÖNOMEN STELLT?

Die Definition von minimalen Ernährungsniveaus hat eine wichtige Bedeutung für die Planung der landwirtschaftlichen Entwicklung in Ländern mit niedrigen Einkommen. In Ländern mit hohem Konsumniveau beschäftigen sich die Ernähungswissenschaftler hauptsächlich mit den Gesundheitsrisiken, die sich aus zu viel Essen ergeben. Gesundheitsbehörden in mehreren Ländern haben Diätempfehlungen herausgegeben. Sollten Überlegungen zur Ernährung deutlicher in eine ‘lebensmittelpolitik’ integriert werden, welche Tätigkeiten wären als Konsequenz daraus notwendig und muβ die gegenwärtige Agrarpolitik daher modifiziert werden? Wie würden die Marktaussichten von Agrarprodukten von zunehmendem öffentlichen Interesse an einer ausgewogeneren Diät betroffen?
ROLES OF WOMEN ON FARMS: A PILOT STUDY
Authors: Gasson Ruth
Published: November 2008

Official statistics do not reveal the nature of the contribution which farmers' wives make to the farm labour force. On the basis of a pilot study, three roles for women on farms were identified. Main distinguishing features were division of labour between husband and wife, frequency of manual work, responsibility for farm enterprises, participation in formal organisations and approach to housework. Home‐centred farm housewives only work on the farm occasionally, working farmwives assist their husbands regularly while women farmers threaten male status by doing “man's” work. Reasons for women playing one role rather than another are discussed. Trends in agriculture suggest that the farmer's wife's contribution to the farm business will become still more significant in future.

“The concept of ‘the farmer and his wife’ so often used by agricultural economics is far from having universal validity” (Ashby, 1953: 97).
THE VALUE OF A FUNGICIDE ADVISORY PROGRAMME FOR CEREALS
Authors: Menz K. M. , Webster J. P. G.
Published: November 2008

An estimate is made of the benefits resulting from the implementation of a proposed fungicide advisory programme for Kent wheat farmers. The programme has a value by providing information which enables improved spraying decisions to be made by farmers. The expected annual value for Kent is found to be £106,000.

A closer examination is made of both the returns and costs of one component of the scheme, viz, the training of farmers to recognise the disease (caused by Septoria spp.) in their fields. An average benefit/cost ratio of 8/1 is calculated to result from the provision of farmer training programmes. However, if the decision by farmers to attend courses is made upon the criteria of expected gain to themselves, then initial courses would have a much higher benefit/cost ratio. There would be diminishing returns to additional courses, but only those Kentish wheat growers with the smallest areas of crop would lack the financial incentive to attend.
COLLECTION OF RELIABLE FARM LEVEL DATA IN LDC's
Authors: Candler Wilfred , Slade Roger
Published: November 2008

This paper analyses the difficulties involved in timely processing of farm level survey data in LDC's using a main‐frame computer. It then discusses the potential role of micro‐computers used in the field to speed up and improve the quality of data collection.
PRICE‐QUALITY RELATIONSHIPS FOR BEEF IN SMITHFIELD MARKET
Authors: O'Connell John
Published: November 2008

Smithfield beef prices are regressed on quality measurements made on beef selling in Smithfield market. Optimal weight, conformation and fat levels are derived and the revenue foregone by not obtaining these optima is estimated for Scotch, English, Republic of Ireland and Northern Irish beef. For other quality characteristics Scotch beef is taken as the norm and the revenue foregone by not producing to Scotch standards is estimated for English, Republic of Ireland and Northern Irish beef. Differences in quality levels are found to explain only a relatively small proportion of the price gap which exists between Scotch beef and beef from the three other areas.
STATIC AND DYNAMIC ELASTICITIES AND FLEXIBILITIES IN SYSTEMS OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
Authors: Chavas Jean‐Paul , Hassan Zuhair A. , Johnson S. R.
Published: November 2008

The present paper provides a comprehensive analysis of static and dynamic multipliers (or elasticities) for price and quantity responses in simultaneous equations econometric models. The discussion relates to the algebraic relationships which underly the total and partial elasticities and flexibilities. It is shown that partial restricted reduced form parameters for dynamic simultaneous systems can be used to derive expressions for total price and quantity effects that lead to unambiguous interpretations of flexibilities and elasticities.
AN INDEX OF MANAGEMENT EFFICIENCY FOR EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURE: A CASE STUDY OF LARGE FARMS
Authors: Makary S. R. , Rees H.
Published: November 2008

An index of management efficiency in cotton production is formed for each of five geographical regions in Egypt for farms of large enough size for the functions of management and labour to be separated. The index is introduced as a variable in the production function and reveals distinct differences between the regions in the scope for improving management efficiency.
DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION ANALYSIS OF SMALL FARMERS AND LANDLESS IN INDIA*
Authors: Singh I. J. , Pandey U. K.
Published: November 2008

The small farmers and landless in India are faced with the vicious cycle of low incomes, low savings, low investment and uneconomic size of operational holdings and often are nonviable. Using data for the Haryana State of Northern India for 1977/78, the linear discriminant function was used to identify those factors which will make the majority of small farmers and landless in India a viable entity. Analysis of these data indicated that per hectare fertiliser use, area under high yielding crop varieties, operational size of holding and working capital are the factors which affect the viability of the small farmers and landless. As compared to the simple regression analysis discriminant function approach has been found an effective tool for discriminating the two social groups and for predicting the sponsored social change. However, the use of the discriminant function may be limited if the qualitative independent variable has more than two classes and its orderings are not in sequence.
SOME DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS FOR THE COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY
Authors: Buckwell A. E. , Harvey D. R. , Parton K. A. , Thomson K. J.
Published: November 2008

This paper begins with a summary of the current state of Community financing of the Common Agricultural Policy. A brief survey of the currently discussed options for change leads to the conclusion that feasible developments will involve extension of the use of existing instruments rather than wholesale reform. If agreement on such extensions cannot be reached, there is likely to be unplanned nationalisation of agricultural support expenditures.

The economic impacts of three measures to cope with surplus production using existing policy instruments‐price reductions, co‐responsibility levies and supplementary levies‐are analysed, as is a possible budgetary solution to the surplus problem‐surplus contributions. The paper concludes with some remarks about the desirability of these various development options and the role of economists in the debate about CAP reform.
RURAL PLANNING: PROBLEMS AND POLICIES
Authors: MacLeary Professor A. R.
Published: November 2008

Over the last decade there has been an increase in concern, expressed by a variety of interests, about the countryside. Increasing agricultural intensification has been accompanied by changes in the rural landscape and a decline in other areas of the rural economy. There is concern about conservation, wildlife protection and ecological balance, while demands for recreation and access are growing.

Conflicting policies can be observed in the various agencies responsible for the management of the countryside. There is a realisation that rural policy should be more comprehensive and co‐ordinated but there are divergent views on the degree of intervention and the means by which it is implemented. This paper examines the nature of the problem of ‘rural planning’ as it obtains at the present time.
WORLD ENERGY DEMAND AND CRUDE OIL PRICES TO THE YEAR 2000
Authors: Pearce Professor David
Published: November 2008

This paper takes an overall look at world energy demand forecasts contained in the recent literature. From the ‘consensus’ data the paper suggests a non‐communist world primary energy demand in 2000 of about 9,000 million tonnes oil equivalent. The focus then shifts to the demand for, and supply of, OPEC oil and it is argued that persistent excess demand will characterise this market for the remainder of the century. Observation of models of OPEC pricing behaviour suggests they are poor reflections of real world oil markets. As such, judgement rather than explicit modelling is used to suggest a world crude oil scenario in which oil prices rise at 10% p.a.
THE APPRAISAL OF MACHINERY INVESTMENT
Authors: Crabtree J. R.
Published: November 2008

The present value model is applied to investment decisions in new machinery with particular emphasis on the incorporation of taxation and inflation effects. In order to produce a more practically applicable version of the model an equivalent annuity form is derived in which post‐tax net present value is converted into a corresponding annual cost in real terms. The effects of inflation, tax and interest rates on this annual cost are explored. Possible modifications to the investment criterion, in the context of finance constraints at purchase or subsequent replacement, are discussed.
TIME VARYING DEMAND FOR ORANGES IN THE EEC
Authors: Ward Ronald W.
Published: November 2008

Orange consumption is of special interest to the EEC since three new citrus‐producing countries are scheduled to enter into the community. Demand for sweet oranges has changed over time as EEC trade policies change. Time varying parameters procedures are used to evaluate the dynamics of orange demand in the community of nine. The demand estimates are then used to make consumption projections through 1990. The merits of TVP models are contrasted to those of OLS.
RURAL SOCIOLOGY AND ITS RELEVANCE TO THE AGRICULTURAL ECONOMIST: A REVIEW*
Authors: Newby Howard
Published: November 2008

Following a discussion of the relationship between agricultural economics and rural sociology, the current status of the latter is discussed, including the differences between European and American approaches. The background to an emerging ‘sociology of agriculture’ is described and recent developments in the sociological analysis of some of its constituent components are considered. Particular attention is paid to the relationship between landholding and the social structure and to the development of ‘agribusiness’ as a vertically‐integrated food‐production complex. The impact of these on labour relations in agriculture and on the rural community are outlined. The article concludes with an assessment of future trends in rural sociology, concentrating on themes of rural development, the sociology of agriculture and the sociology of natural resources.
SUBSTITUTION AND THE RELATIVE SCALE OF PROTECTION: AN APPLICATION TO LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
Authors: Strak John
Published: November 2008

This paper presents, first of all, estimates of the rate of effective protection for particular livestock production activities in the United Kingdom over the period 1966–79. These estimates are used to construct a Relative Scale of Protection. Secondly, the sensitivity of the calculated rates and the Relative Scale to the incorporation of non‐zero substitution elasticities in the formula for effective protection is examined. The results suggest that the Relative Scale is comparatively unaffected by substitution. It may be concluded that the rate of effective protection remains a useful concept for the empirical analysis of agricultural protection.
THE ANALYSIS OF MEMORY BIAS IN AGRICULTURAL LABOUR DATA COLLECTION: A CASE STUDY OF SMALL FARMERS IN NIGERIA
Authors: Coleman Gilroy
Published: November 2008

An analysis is undertaken of daily labour data collected once‐per‐week for a sample of 129 farm households in Benue State, Nigeria during 1979/80. The purpose of the analysis is to test for the presence of memory bias in these data for which the recall period is up to seven days.

The analysis indicates significant between‐day differences in hours of agricultural work. This is partly due to the low work input for Sunday but it is also noted that the mean number of hours of agricultural work reported for the day prior to data collection is significantly lower than the means for days further removed from the time of data collection. This finding is taken to be confirmation that a significant level of memory bias exists in the labour data and it is estimated that reported hours of agricultural labour may overstate actual hours of such work by almost 38 per cent.
LAND LAYOUT AND FINANCIAL RESULTS OF DUTCH HOLDINGS UNDER GLASS
Authors: Vink L. W.
Published: November 2008

During the last decade increased production has occurred in horticulture under glass in the Netherlands. This results in a desired enlargement of the holdings and lots so as to bring about a more rational use of labour, capital and land. In addition, more attention is being paid to the impact of increasing energy prices, especially in connection with the length/width ratio of glasshouses. The total area of horticulture under glass increased from about 5,000 ha in 1960 to nearly 8,500 ha in 1979. From 1965 onwards the number of holdings with horticulture under glass decreased. Consequently the area of glasshouses per holding increased considerably. It is shown that the profitability of cultivation of vegetables and cut flowers was decreasing in the period considered. The cost components, as a percentage of total cost, remained more or less constant, though the cost of labour rose over 800% in this period. In spite of the large rise in cost of energy since 1973 the trend to use more intensively heated glasshouses is still in progress. As a result of changing production conditions in horticulture under glass, present land layout conditions are often outmoded. An attempt is made to quantify cost factors depending on the width and the size of the lot (and the glasshouse), and the results are graphically presented by way of iso‐cost curves. It may be concluded that a lot smaller than 1.25 ha (glasshouse size approximately 1.00 ha) or having a width of less than about 60m (glasshouse width approximately 55m), does have higher unit cost of production. In this respect, many holdings in the Netherlands are not operating under conditions where an ideally efficient management is possible.
GRANTS AND TAX RELIEFS AS INVESTMENT INCENTIVES*
Authors: Burrell A. M. , Hill G. P. , Williams N. T.
Published: November 2008

This paper presents and applies a methodology designed to measure the extent of the investment incentives provided to U.K. farmers by the present tax system and the capital grants currently available. We identify and examine two aspects of these incentives, viz. enhanced profitability and increased financial feasibility, and investigate their sensitivity to changes in the rate of inflation and the marginal tax rate.
COMPARATIVE EFFICIENCY OF RICE FARMS IN CENTRAL LUZON, THE PHILIPPINES
Authors: Lingard J. , Castillo L. , Jayasuriya S.
Published: November 2008

The purpose of this paper is to estimate a bias‐free agricultural production function with a view to examining efficiency differences among small rice farmers. Simultaneous equation bias is avoided if we assume that farmers maximise expected profits; specification bias, which commonly occurs when a management input is omitted from such functions, is circumvented by introducing farm‐specific dummy variables into a combined cross‐sectional and time‐series data set. Applying this model to data for 32 Philippine rice farms between 1970 and 1979, rather small production‐elasticities are obtained for the conventional inputs and an efficiency ranking of the farms is presented. Second stage analysis shows that differences in soil type, land tenure, education and access to credit are important factors explaining these efficiency differences.
AGRICULTURAL POLICY ISSUES AND ECONOMIC ANALYSES
Authors: Capstick C. W.
Published: November 2008

In this paper a number of wide‐ranging matters, which provide the background to much of the work of agricultural economists, are surveyed. Apart from their interest to the profession they are also issues attracting widespread public comment. The purpose of this paper, however, is not to add to that comment, but rather to stimulate more detailed analyses and balanced discussion of them. In this way the hope is that a fuller appreciation of the difficulties and the consequences that alternative approaches might involve will emerge.
PRODUCTION‐ORIENTED INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR AGRICULTURAL SUBSECTORS: PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES
Authors: Howe Keith S.
Published: November 2008

The existence of problems which are peculiar to agricultural subsectors explains the presence of organisations associated with individual commodities or commodity groups. Modern developments in information systems can contribute to meeting organisations' information requirements, but it is necessary to design systems consistent with both the principles and techniques of economic analysis and the general methodology. Following the definition of a subsector, a review of the principles for information systems and the relevant economic concepts shows the formal equivalence of many basic ideas. Despite reservations which have been expressed about the current potential for quantitative techniques, an input/output approach could have an important role as a flexible component of subsector information systems.
SOME HUMAN ASPECTS OF GIVING AND TAKING FARM MANAGEMENT ADVICE
Authors: Giles A. K.
Published: November 2008

Superimposed on, or underlying, the technical aspects of giving farm management advice are a variety of human considerations. The techniques used and the advice given cannot be divorced from the individuals involved and the way in which advice is communicated. Management advice will be sought for a variety of reasons and from a variety of sources. It will have its own special problems, stemming from the nature of the subject itself, and will generate its own longer term benefits. Differing advisory styles exist but it is possible to suggest some general guidelines and conclusions.
FARM MANAGEMENT ADVISORY WORK: THE PRESENT AND THE FUTURE
Authors: Dancey R. J.
Published: November 2008

This paper examines the role of the farm management adviser viz‐à‐viz the agricultural industry at large and considers the challenge to the ‘whole farm’ approach arising from the increasing demand for highly specialised technical information and advice.
THE UK FOOD CHAIN WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE INTER‐RELATIONS BETWEEN MANUFACTURERS AND DISTRIBUTORS
Authors: Burns J. A.
Published: November 2008

The paper considers developments over the past decade in the major elements that make up the UK food chain beyond the farm gate, looking at food consumption and the characteristics of food demand, the aggregate marketing margin, and providing a more detailed exploration of the present structure of food manufacturing and distribution. Following an account of the rapid rate of structural change in food retailing and wholesaling, developments in the relationships between distributors and manufacturers are discussed with comments on competition legislation.
INSTABILITY IN WORLD GRAIN MARKETS
Authors: Blandford David
Published: November 2008

The paper discusses the nature of international price variability for wheat and coarse grains. In particular, it explores the relationship between variability in national grain markets and international trade. Empirical evidence is presented on the degree to which short‐run fluctuations in domestic grain production are transmitted to the world market by major countries or country aggregates, and on their absorption of international market variability. The impact of possible structural or policy changes upon future international price variability is explored. It is argued that multilateral action to promote greater international stability should focus on the modification of domestic storage policies to reduce the transmission of short‐run domestic fluctuations in supply or demand to world markets.
PATH ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE
Authors: Breen Richard
Published: November 2008

This paper describes the technique of path analysis using data from Scully (1962). Path analysis is a method of decomposing covariances or correlations between two variables in a structural equation model in order to determine how much of this covariance is attributable to a theoretically specified causal effect of one variable on the other. In so far as it allows us to assess the relative importance of different explanatory variables in a more adequate manner than does regression, path analysis is a technique of wide potential applicability to economists and sociologists.
INFORMATION ON FARMERS‘ INCOMES: DATA FROM INLAND REVENUE SOURCES
Authors: Hill Berkeley
Published: November 2008

The most commonly quoted information on UK farm incomes comes from the Farm Management Survey. However, this Survey does not embrace the income farmers receive from non‐farm sources, and its coverage of very small farms is not good. For many income studies, an attractive alternative source of information, newly available, is the agricultural and horticultural subsets of the Survey of Personal Incomes, conducted annually by the Inland Revenue. This paper comments on the SPI results for 1978/79.

While there are reservations about the classification employed and the income concept adopted, the SPI is nevertheless an important new source of data, covering income received by farming couples and individuals from self‐employment, from employment and from investment. Overall, earned income constituted 83 per cent of the Total Income of farmers in 1978/79; business profits (including those of wives) formed less than two‐thirds of the total, illustrating the importance of including non‐farm sources in any assessment of farmers' income position. When classified by income size, agricultural incomes are seen to figure disproportionately high among the upper income groups of the community. The earnings of farmers' wives are discussed and the SPI income‐distribution compared with that from the FMS. Ways of exploiting this newly‐available data source are explored.
MEASURING FARM INCOME UNDER CONDITIONS OF INFLATION: THE GAINS FROM BORROWING
Authors: Hill G. P.
Published: November 2008

Progress made in applying the principles of Current Cost Accounting (CCA) to measuring farming income is reviewed. Attention is focussed on the absence of any adjustment to farming income figures to incorporate the gains accruing from borrowing where the real burden of debt is eroded by inflation. A procedure based on deducting implied real interest charges, instead of nominal interest payments, is proposed. Revised values for U.K. farming income are estimated for the years 1974 to 1980. The revised figures range from values for income which are 29% greater than values which exclude the gains (or losses) from borrowing to values which are 25% lower.
PROBLEMS OF INVESTMENT FOR TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCE: THE CASE OF INDONESIAN RUBBER SMALLHOLDERS
Authors: Barlow Colin , Jayasuriya S. K.
Published: November 2008

The Indonesian rubber case illustrates major problems of technological advance where perennials are cultivated by small farmers. Despite the availability of new and socially profitable technologies, farmers have not shifted from traditional methods owing to credit and information constraints and to high private time‐preferences. Some form of public assistance by the state is required if this shift is to take place.

Possible Indonesian government approaches to encouraging improvement are discussed, and the currently favoured ‘focus’ strategy of capital and management‐intensive development in large co‐ordinated blocks is compared with the ‘dispersal’ strategy of attempting to spread government assistance more widely according to the initiative of individual producers. These and other alternative strategies are conceptualised as points on a ‘meta’ production function envelope, portraying the transition to higher inputs of added capital per hectare. The dispersal strategy employs a less capital‐intensive intermediate technology, which may be adopted more easily by traditional farmers in the first instance. It may then be used as a base for moving up the learning ‘gradient’ to a higher technological level.

It is shown that a major constraint on government acceptance of the dispersal strategy is lack of knowledge about its probable rate of diffusion. It is thus argued that further studies should be made of this aspect. The results of such work would then enable policies to be geared more optimally to resource endowments and social goals.
ISSUES OF AGRICULTURAL POLICY IN A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Authors: Tracy Michael
Published: November 2008

Growth in agricultural productivity and the stimulus of price supports have led to overproduction in Western Europe: in particular, the European Community has become a smaller importer and even a major exporter of several products. But as prices in the EC are usually above world levels, this requires expensive subsidisation and leads to trade conflicts.

Adjustments now forced on the CAP mean a greater cost‐price squeeze, besides imposing quotas on the dairy sector. Policy aims relating to farm incomes and to market balance have thus become very difficult to reconcile. Future policy will also have to take more account of the impact of farming on the environment and of the role of agricultural activity in rural communities. Are there policy instruments, such as direct aids, which can help to achieve such diverse goals? What are the implications of changing circumstances for farming systems, and in particular can low‐input systems offer an alternative to the ‘productivist’ farming model?
QUANTITATIVE POLICY MODELLING IN AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
Authors: Thomson K. J. , Rayner A. J.
Published: November 2008

The paper reconsiders the topic of McClements' 1973 article on model‐building but does so in the particular context of policy modelling. Some principles are discussed, along with the relationship of the real world to its representation in a model built for a specific purpose. The assumptions and implications of the econometric and time‐series approaches to policy modelling are contrasted, and lessons drawn for model specification and selection. The management, use and dissemination of policy models are also discussed. It is hoped that the experience of the last ten or fifteen years will lead to model‐building in agricultural economics being better organised and more rewarding in future.
AN APPLICATION AND EXTENSION OF THE MARKOV CHAIN MODEL TO CEREAL PRODUCTION
Authors: Mellor C. J.
Published: November 2008

Given aggregate time‐series data, conventional Markov Chain estimation of the stationary transition probabilities is performed for a model of the cereal market in Great Britain. The possibility of non‐stationary probabilities is examined in the light of these initial results, and the basic model developed to allow exogenous variables to enter via their influence on these parameters. The evidence from the paper would appear to suggest that, at least in the case considered, time‐varying transition probabilities are a most attractive alternative.
MEASURING OLIGOPOLY POWER AND PRODUCTION RESPONSES OF THE CANADIAN FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY
Authors: Lopez Ramon E.
Published: November 2008

This study is concerned with the measurement of factor demand responses and other production characteristics of the food processing industry in Canada. An important feature of the study is that it allows for non‐competitive behaviour of the industry and thus permits an estimation of the degree of oligopoly power. The major results of the study are that the hypothesis of (output) price‐taking behaviour is statistically rejected and that the average degree of oligopoly power is significant. Moreover, the industry appears to be quite responsive to changes in the factor price structure. Labour and energy are the most responsive inputs while raw food materials and capital show substantially less sensitivity to price variations.
FERTILISER RECOMMENDATIONS BASED ON SOIL NITROGEN LEVELS: A TOTAL NUTRIENT MODEL
Authors: Smith Joyotee , Umali Gloria
Published: November 2008

Tropical rice obtains a major portion of its N uptake from the soil as opposed to fertiliser nitrogen. Therefore N‐fertiliser recommendations should be based on the availability of soil nitrogen. This can be done by applying a total nutrient model, developed by Hildreth, which estimates yield as a function of an aggregated nitrogen variable incorporating both soil and applied N. This paper incorporates recent work on the quantification of available N, by soil scientists, into the total nutrient model to provide farm specific optimal N‐rates tailored to soil nutrient availability. The methodology, however, is only applicable to samples characterised by a high degree of internal homogeneity.
BIASES IN RESEARCH: THE CASE OF RUBBER GROWING IN MALAYSIA
Authors: Yee Yuen L. , Longworth John W.
Published: November 2008

This paper measures the impact of technological progress in Malaysian rubber growing and tests the hypothesis that past research has been biased in favour of raising the productivity of capital rather than labour. It also demonstrates the methodological usefulness, in relation to a long‐lived perennial crop, of separating embodied from disembodied technical change. The analysis indicates that research leading to new embodied technology has not been biased since it has raised the productivity of all input factors at about the same rate over time. However, disembodied technological change has not shifted the production hypersurface in an unambiguously neutral fashion. These results are especially pertinent to the debate about the future direction of rubber growing research.
PROFIT OPTIMISATION, IMPROVED FARMING METHODS AND GOVERNMENT OBJECTIVES: A NIGERIAN CASE STUDY
Authors: Okuneye P. A.
Published: November 2008

Linear programming is used to show that collective farmers' returns in Ogun State could be increased by about 60% if resources were diverted towards the production of maize/yam mixture rather than the local rice desired by the government to substitute for imports. To reconcile the farmers' goal of receiving maximum profits with the government's desire for local rice, improved technology must be adopted.
THE ESTIMATION OF OFF‐FARM LABOUR SUPPLY FUNCTIONS IN SASKATCHEWAN
Authors: Furtan W. H. , van Kooten G. C. , Thompson S. J.
Published: November 2008

In this paper, a farm‐household utility maximising model which incorporates the time of both the farm operator and his wife is developed. The model is then used to estimate the off‐farm labour supply of the operator and his wife, and develop policy recommendations concerning further increases in off‐farm labour participation by farmers and their wives. A Heckman procedure is employed to test for sample selectivity bias. The results suggest that the supply of off‐farm labour is inelastic for men but quite responsive to the estimated shadow wage for women.
AGRICULTURAL POLICY IN JAPAN
Authors: Tsubota K.
Published: November 2008

Japan is situated at the opposite end of the European continent from Western Europe. Climate, culture and history all differ greatly between the two, as does agriculture. Half of the farmland is devoted to paddy rice, livestock raising is still a new industry and the average farm size is only one hectare. Nevertheless, one would find many similarities in policy. The oversupply of major agricultural products is one of the most serious problems in Japan, whilst slow structural reform is the other, and a declining rural community is undermining the agricultural base. This paper confines itself to an outline of Japanese agricultural policy, without making explicit comparisons with Western Europe.
CO‐ORDINATION STRATEGIES AND NON‐MEMBERS' TRADE IN PROCESSING CO‐OPERATIVES
Authors: Lopez Rigoberto A. , Spreen Thomas H.
Published: November 2008

This paper addresses three major issues set forth by LeVay (1983). These may be summarised as (1) the conflict of interests of the individual vis‐à‐vis the co‐operative, (2) the arrange‐ments or contract provisions which may be used to increase the efficiency of the co‐operative, and (3) modelling of the co‐operative trade with non‐members and how members can derive maximum benefit from it.
MARKET DISTORTIONS IN BRAZILIAN AGRICULTURE: AN ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTS OF GOVERNMENT POLICY ON THE BEEF AND DAIRY SECTORS
Authors: da Silva J. A. B. B. , Young T. , Traill W. B.
Published: November 2008

Intervention in the beef and dairy sectors has been the core of Brazilian agricultural policy. An econometric model of these sectors is used as a tool with which to measure the consequences of government‐induced market distortions on prices, production, consumption and external trade. It is argued that large economic losses and a less egalitarian distribution of income have been the results of government policy to date.
WELFARE AND TRADE EFFECTS OF DEFICIENCY PAYMENTS
Authors: Schmitz Andrew , Chambers Robert G.
Published: November 2008

This paper investigates the welfare implications of deficiency payment programmes for large, open economies. Illustrative calculations of the welfare effects of such programmes for the U.S. wheat market are made for 1978 and 1981.
INFORMATION IN AGRICULTURAL PEST CONTROL
Authors: Stefanou Spiro E. , Mangel Marc , Wilen James E.
Published: November 2008

This paper develops a decision aid for agricultural producers regarding their pest scouting and spraying activities. The basic issue is how estimates of pest populations are computed and when the operator should act using that information. Scouting for pests, essentially a search operation, can lead to a change in the strategy for applying pesticide. An adaptive‐scouting process is developed to unify the spraying and scouting activities. Some results, for the cotton‐lygus bug system, are presented.
UNRELIABLE MARKETS AND PERISHABLE PRODUCTS
Authors: Fraser R.W:
Published: November 2008

This paper considers the behaviour of a farmer facing an unreliable market for his perishable product. In the context of a simple model, where unreliability is characterised as demand uncertainty at the going market price, the optimal responses of a risk‐averse farmer both to the introduction and to an increase in the level of unreliability are analysed. Conditions determining these responses are described and are shown to contrast markedly with the conditions determining a farmer's responses to uncertainty in other parameters such as price. Finally, the policy implications of the paper are discussed, with particular reference to the problem of unstable supply.
PRODUCTIVITY GROWTH IN AGRICULTURE (REVISITED): A MEASUREMENT FRAMEWORK AND SOME EMPIRICAL RESULTS
Authors: Rayner A. J. , Whittaker J. M. , Ingersent K. A.
Published: November 2008

This paper explores the methodology of sectoral productivity growth measurement within the framework of input‐output analysis. A method which ensures that sectoral productivity growth rates are consistent with productivity growth rates for the economy as a whole (as well as allowing for external trade) is suggested. New estimates are presented on total factor productivity in UK agriculture using a Tornqvist index procedure. In addition, new estimates of agricultural labour productivity growth are presented, taking account not only of labour employed in agriculture but also of labour employed in ancillary industries on the supply side. The empirical results confirm that part of the labour previously employed on farms has shifted “upstream” to industries providing agriculture with fertilises, machinery and other inputs.
AGRICULTURAL FINANCE AND INFLATION: AN EXAMINATION OF ALTERNATIVE METHODS WITH REFERENCE TO BRITISH EXPERIENCE
Authors: Hill G. P. , Seagraves J. A.
Published: November 2008

Increased inflation has the effect of increasing nominal interest rates which in turn cause problems in servicing debts in the form of conventional loans. Price‐level‐adjusted mortgages (PLAMs) have been recommended as a means of avoiding debt servicing difficulties associated with inflation. Bank overdrafts can act as effective substitutes for PLAMs and have some tax advantages. Leasing also provides an alternative way of avoiding cash flow problems associated with conventional term loans. Experience in the 1970s demonstrated that the provision of external finance to agriculture was maintained during a period of inflation although the balance of borrowing shifted from term loans to overdrafts.
AN ANALYSIS OF MULTIOBJECTIVE DECISION‐MAKING FOR THE SCOTTISH INSHORE FISHERY
Authors: Sandiford Frances
Published: November 2008

The Scottish inshore fishery is used to illustrate the application of a multiobjective analytical model to decision‐making for fisheries management. Although the quantitative analysis is necessarily fishery‐specific, much of the discussion is of more general applicability. A hybrid modelling approach is used to analyse fisheries management objectives for this fishery: regression‐based models of the fishing process are used to provide input into linear and goal programming models, the linear programme also providing input into the goal programme. Optimisation of the goal programming model results in an ‘optimal’ pattern of resource allocation for the Scottish inshore fishery.
SUPPLY‐MAXIMISING AND VARIATION‐MINIMISING REPLACEMENT CYCLES OF PERENNIAL CROPS AND SIMILAR ASSETS: THEORY ILLUSTRATED BY COCONUT CULTIVATION
Authors: Tisdell C. A. , Silva N. T. M. H. De
Published: November 2008

The paper argues that maximum sustainable yields rather than net present values often need to be considered for policy and identifies the length of the replacement cycle required for maximum sustainable yield or supply in multi‐point or interval output time‐phased production conditions, such as apply to perennial crops and to similar productive processes. It enables point‐input point‐output models which have been well explored (for instance, for forestry) to be treated as special cases. A virtue of the analysis is its use of a simple technical relationship to determine the replacement rate of a perennial crop to maximise sustainable yield. The analysis is illustrated by an empirical example drawn for the cultivation of the Sri Lankan ‘tall’ variety of coconut.
THE ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF RISING FOOD PRICES: FRIEDMAN AND THE PRICE OF STEAKS
Authors: Silver Mick
Published: November 2008

The rationale for anti‐inflationary policies (at least in the UK) arises from a theory that higher rates of inflation lead to a greater variability in the dispersion of prices and market distortions. This is because economic agents do not fully anticipate what future rates of inflation will be. Little or no empirical work has been directed to the agricultual sector for this model. The economic implications of the prices of some varieties of beef steaks are considered by testing the model for UK data over the period 1968 to 1984. The effects of real earnings and the Common Agricultural Policy are also considered.
ECONOMIC EFFECTIVENESS OF BRAND ADVERTISING PROGRAMMES FOR U.S. ORANGE JUICE IN THE EUROPEAN MARKET: AN ERROR COMPONENT ANALYSIS
Authors: Lee Jonq‐Ying , Brown Mark G.
Published: November 2008

An econometric model is used to measure the impact of the Three‐Party Programme on European demand for U.S. orange juice. The results show that the programme has helped expand the demand for orange juice in European countries and, from the viewpoint of the U.S. citrus industry, is an economically preferred way of generating additional exports compared with using price reductions to achieve additional sales.
CONTROLLING STRAW BURNING: FARM MANAGEMENT MODELLING OF THE POLICY OPTIONS USING LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Authors: Hanley N. , Lingard J.
Published: November 2008

Autumn‐sown cereals place pressure on post‐harvest operations, particularly straw disposal. Burning is often a private solution but imposes external costs on others. Policy options to control burning include an outright ban, standard regulations, pollution taxes and transferable discharge rights. The effects of such options on farm income are assessed for an East of England cereals farm using a Linear Programming model. Results are sensitive to assumed straw yields, the market price of straw, and incorporation costs. Transferable discharge rights offer a flexible and efficient instrument to regulate straw burning at a non‐zero level.
AN EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO MARKET SHARE ANALYSIS WITH APPLICATION TO THE KUWAITI POULTRY MARKET
Authors: Durham Stephen E. , Lee David R.
Published: November 2008

Changes in exporter market shares in the Kuwaiti poultry import market over the period 1971–81 are analysed by three modelling procedures. Two traditional approaches, a first‐order constant transition probability Markov model and a set of market share equations, are found to be of only limited use. As an alternative, a multinominal logit model of market share behaviour is estimated. The empirical results indicate that, in addition to relative price changes, domestic policy inducements for Brazilian and European Community exports are important in determining market share changes. A comparison of the explanatory abilities of the models suggests that the multinominal logit model is as least as good as traditional modelling alternatives with respect to econometric criteria. It is concluded that the multinominal logit model offers considerable promise as a tool for market share research.
PROJECT APPRAISAL AND PROJECT AID: A DECADE OF EXPERIENCE IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Authors: Coverdale A. G. , Healey J. M.
Published: November 2008

The paper is concerned with rural development in Africa: it examines project aid performance and evaluates the use of social cost‐benefit analysis. The paper concludes that in the 1980s projects do still have a place but as part of a wider programme of assistance to sectors and institutions. Social cost‐benefit analysis, based on the key concept of opportunity cost and aimed at the efficient allocation of resources, remains highly relevant, but should be applied to a wider range of problems, should give more attention to the external economic context and should be more flexible when uncertainty is high.