bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Use of Microcomputers for Data Acquisition During Displacement Experiments
Authors: Home R. N. , Bouett L. W. , Gilardi J. , Johns R. A. , Barua J.
Published: December 2007

This paper describes the use of microcomputers for the acquisition and analysis of data in an experimental laboratory. Stanford University Petroleum Engineering Department uses several microcomputers in the laboratory for the collection of measurements during core displacement and flow model experiments. Since 1984 we have accumulated experience in the use of several data-acquisition systems including an 8-bit system and several different 12-bit systems.

The paper describes the way in which these systems have been used, and the way in which they performed. There was little difference in ease of application between the data acquisition boards, the principle differences lay in the technical capability of each system.

Two principle considerations in data acquisition are accuracy and frequency of measurement. It was impossible to obtain sufficient accuracy with the 8-bit board, and we have always used 12-bit boards ever since. Although the analog/digital converters are capable of very high frequencies of sampling, in practise the measurement rate is governed more by the CPU work involved in processing the data during the measurement process. Using programs in BASIC, we were able to achieve data rates of about 100 voltage measurement per second, including the time required to convert the voltage, write it to RAM-disk and graph the answers on the display. The data still required post-processing after the experiment. This post-processing and the subsequent analysis were all performed using the same microcomputer that acquired the data.
Tax and Financial Aspects of Oil and Gas Production Payments
Authors: Sandison Robert W.
Published: December 2007

This paper was prepared for the California Regional Meeting of the Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, to be held in Santa Barbara, Calif., Nov. 17–18, 1966. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words. Illustrations may not be copied. The abstract should contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper is presented. Publication elsewhere after publication in the JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY or the SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL is usually granted upon requested to the Editor of the appropriate journal, provided agreement to give proper credit is made.

Discussion of this paper is invited. Three copies of any discussion should be sent to the Society of Petroleum Engineers Office. Such discussions may be presented at the above meeting and, with the paper, may be considered for publication in one of the two SPE magazines.

Production payments have become increasingly important within the oil and gas industry. Acquisitions of producing companies, acquisition of developed properties, development of existing properties or generation of cash income to a company can all entail the use of production payment financing. The author presents a nontechnical discussion of the tax and financial problem areas and industry practice relating to the use of oil and gas production payments.

Introduction

Most petroleum engineers at one time or other are asked to prepare an engineering report to be used as the basis of a production payment transaction. While most engineers can describe a production payment, not all understand its important position in the financial community in buying, selling or developing oil or other mineral properties.

Production payments since the end of World War II have become increasingly more important within the oil and gas industry. Acquisitions of production companies, purchases of producing oil or gas properties, development of existing properties or accelerating cash income to an existing company can all entail the use of production payment financing.

In fact, it is interesting to speculate that the acceptance of the ABC oil payment transaction by the Internal Revenue Service, as well as the banks and insurance companies, has been largely responsible for the sell-out and demise of many small, medium and even large production companies.

With our high income tax structure and high costs of finding new oil, many oil operators have found it to their advantage to sell producing properties at capital gain rates rather than produce them over a period of time and pay taxes at regular rates as well as high operating and overhead costs. Conversely, certain other companies have found it more economical to purchase proven reserves than explore and developed new reserves by the rare conventional methods. Production payment financing has created the happy solution whereby both the seller and buyer receive maximum tax and financial advantage.
Drilling Considerations on Spray Ice Island Structures: A Case History, OCS-Y-0302 Well No.1, Beaufort Sea, Alaska
Authors: Bowles H. T. , Boykin G. F. , Mamerow B. S. , Summers M. A.
Published: December 2007

This paper discusses the planning considerations and field experience gained from drilling on the Amoco Mars Spray Ice Island. The physical environment, design and construction of the island, well program plan, logistics, environmental impact, and economics are addressed. Spray ice characteristics and the techniques which were implemented to distribute rig loads, maintain rig stability, and protect the ice material from rig associated heat sources are described. These considerations for the spray ice material impacted drilling operations throughout all phases of the project.

Encouragement for the future application of spray ice islands for exploratory drilling was gained during this operation. A substantial exploratory cost reduction compared to gravel islands or a self-contained mobile drilling unit can be achieved using spray ice islands for single well projects in appropriate ice pack and water depth environments.
Toxicity of Drilling Fluids Using Photobacteria and Mysid Shrimp Bioassays
Authors: Bland R. G. , Chang C. Y. , Bettge G. W.
Published: December 2007

The EPA's discharge permit for the Gulf of Mexico caused shortages of shrimp, long turn around times and increased bioassay costs ($1000/test). The Microtox Toxicity Analyzer uses a luminescent marine bacteria to measure toxicity in hours for a fraction of the cost. Including % Oil improved the correlation coefficient to 0.6 690 for all of the samples (n=38) tested.
Some Economic Aspects Of Increased Saleable Liquid Recovery From Natural Gas With Packaged Process Systems
Authors: Coggins R.W.
Published: December 2007

The individual operating and economic characteristics of the various types of major equipment available for field processing of natural gas-condensate production need to be well known by all concerned. Within the last few years, the USERS AND SUPPLIERS have pooled their knowledge to make available BUILDING BLOCKS OF PACKAGED PROCESS UNITS designed with the single thought in mind of providing economical and efficient installations that provide QUICK RETURNS ON INVESTMENTS AND MORE TOTAL PROFIT DOLLARS over the life of the operation.

The proper utilization of each of these flexible profit-making packages and the selection and up-dating of the proper combinations of these packages…to produce the maximum return on the investment…is a problem that must be JOINTLY SOLVED BY THE SUPPLIER AND USER.

It is the purpose of this paper to describe the possible combinations available and some of the economic aspects of these packages, thus to aid both the supplier and user in the evaluation and selection of the BEST POSSIBLE PACKAGE for a particular application or the BEST COMBINATION OF PACKAGES to solve a general overall problem. Pictures.. flow diagrams… brief descriptions of the processes. background information necessary to intelligently evaluate each problem…and studies of three different randomly selected streams as applicable to each piece of equipment…are included in this paper.

This presentation deals with no detailed computation of payouts on any particular piece of equipment. There are far too many variables involved in these computations. It is felt that if inappropriate assumptions were to be made to arrive at payouts, in some cases this could discourage application of equipment that might actually provide an attractive payout.

The packages discussed on the subsequent pages are presented in the form of BUILDING BLOCKS. It is hoped that some of the information presented in this paper will discourage OVERBUYING OR OVERSELLING of equipment. Either one of these policies on the part of either the user or supplier can and does detract from the overall progress of the industry. USERS AND SUPPLIERS WORKING AS A TEAM must continue to make progress in the future as they have in the past in their efforts to utilize economically the valuable hydrocarbons that exist in the gaseous streams before the gas itself is consumed. Day-by-day as the demand for hydrocarbons accelerates, THE PRESSURE WILL INCREASE TO SEPARATE MORE EFFICIENTLY AND CONSERVE these valuable components that are becoming so VITAL IN THE PETROCHEMICAL, AVIATION, REFINERY, GAS TRANSMISSION, AND OTHER INDUSTRIES.

P. 1^
Effect of Complex Fluid Phase Behavior on CO2 Flood Simulation
Authors: Fanchi J. R.
Published: December 2007

Evidence of complex phase behavior has been observed in many CO2-hydrocarbon systems at relatively low temperatures (about 100°F). The phase behavior includes two hydrocarbon liquid phases and a vapor phase. In some cases a hydrocarbon solid phase (a precipitate) is observed. Combining these four phases with an aqueous phase suggests that accurate modeling of a CO2 flood should account for five phases. From a practical perspective, the input data and computer requirements of such a simulator would be extensive, and could be excessive.

An attempt to evaluate the expected effect of an additional hydrocarbon phase on CO2 miscible simulation was made using a four-phase (no solid phase) simulator. Three CO2-hydrocarbon systems were evaluated. It was found in the cases studied that the presence of two hydrocarbon liquid phases, under optimum conditions, changed the recovery factor by only a few percent.
Correlation of Friction Factors for Viscoelastic Fluids in Tubes
Authors: Kilbane J.K. , Greenkorn R.A.
Published: December 2007

This paper was prepared for the Society of Petroleum Engineers Symposium on Mechanics of Rheologically Complex Fluids, to be held in Houston, Tex., Dec. 15–16, 1966. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words. Illustrations may not be copied. The abstract should contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper is presented. Publication elsewhere after publication in the JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY or the SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL is usually granted upon requested to the Editor of the appropriate journal, provided agreement to give proper credit is made.

Discussion of this paper is invited. Three copies of any discussion should be sent to the Society of Petroleum Engineers Office. Such discussions may be presented at the above meeting and, with the paper, may be considered for publication in one of the two SPE magazines.

This paper proposes a friction-factor correlation for turbulent flow of viscoelastic fluids in tubes. The correlation is a generalization of the Blasius form such that

........................................(1)

where f is the friction factor and K is a parameter for the particular fluid. N'Re is the Reynolds number generalized from the Oswald-deWaele model

........................................(2)

where D is tube diameter, V is bulk velocity, rho is density, K' and n' are the consistency variable and the flow behavior index, respectively. f" is the friction factor predicted from the correlation of Dodge and Metzner for a given value of n' and a modified Reynolds number [1 + NWs] N'Re where NW, is the Weissenberg number. The correlation fits existing viscoelastic data within an average of 8 per cent.

Introduction

There are many fluids which do not follow Newton's law of viscosity. These fluids are broadly classified as either purely viscous non-Newtonian or viscoelastic. Three approaches are used to develop predictive techniques for the flow of these complex fluids:

the phenomenological approach, where one correlates semi-empirical functions with experimental data; the molecular or structural approach, where one tries to relate bulk behavior with the detailed dynamics of the structural unit; and the continuum approach, where one tries to generate models by placing general restrictions on the form of the rheological equations as prescribed by the rules of tensor analysis.

Correlations have been tested for purely viscous non-Newtonian fluids against considerable data for smooth tubes. Three turbulent flow correlations exist for viscoelastic fluids; each correlation has been derived from an independent set of flow data. This paper presents a correlation for friction factors for fluids in turbulent, viscoelastic flow which fits the data as well as or better than the three above-cited correlations. The proposed correlation is a generalization of the Blasius correlation for the turbulent flow of Newtonian fluids.
Joint Industry/Government/University Programs of Research and Development
Authors: Bourgoyne A. T.
Published: December 2007

The most serious short and long-term energy problem in the United States is the inadequate supply of domestic petroleum for transportation fuels. National energy problems stem from rapidly declining domestic petroleum resources, the manipulated world market for oil, and insufficient research and development.

Most petroleum research is currently funded by industry or government in their own laboratories. This approach has the following shortcomings: (1)competing oil companies are duplicating research efforts, (2) the technology transfer and end-user feedback essential to making research and development " effective does not occur in an efficient manner, and (3) funding of large projects is difficult and may prevent the undertaking of a number of desirable studies.

Joint industry/government/university programs are emerging as a viable alternative for directing, managing, and funding research. This format can help minimize nonproductive and redundant research efforts. It also greatly strengthens the academic programs that are needed to provide highly trained professionals for the energy industries. This is especially true for disciplines, such as Petroleum Engineering, which are closely tied to the oil and gas producing industry and its cyclical manpower needs.

Academic institutions were surveyed to compile a list of existing joint research ventures. The type of contractual arrangements and management structures used in the existing programs were determined. Comments are made on the strong points and problem areas experienced in various types of cooperative research programs.
CO2 Injection and Production Field Facilities Design Evaluation and Considerations
Authors: Linn L. R.
Published: December 2007

Many technical papers have been published on CO2 flooding from a reservoir standpoint; but, few have ever discussed design considerations of field CO2 production and injection facilities. This paper will present initial design and installation considerations, design criteria, and initial installation problems associated with Amoco's four West Texas CO2 projects (Slaughter Estate Unit, Central Mallet Unit, Frazier Unit, Wasson ODC Unit). Additionally, design and operational considerations, based on the experience gained from operating the four CO2 floods during the last two years, will be discussed for use in future CO2 facility designs.

Equipment problems which have been experienced during operation, modifications which have been made as a result of experience, and recommended changes for future designs will be discussed in this paper. Actual case histories of operations, equipment design, and equipment problems encountered will be presented. The specific areas to be discussed will include: The CO2 injection system material selection and layout, CO2 injection wellhead material selection and configuration, CO2 injection well downhole equipment, producing wellhead pressure and material requirements, flowline and fluid gathering systems, satellite and central tank battery layout and operation, and the gas collection system layout and material selections.

Special considerations will be given to design details and material' specifications that are often overlooked, or not considered. The resulting potential problems and failures of these oversights will be discussed.
Production Well Testing Utilizing a Mass Flow Meter
Authors: Flahive R. M. , Hickey P. J.
Published: December 2007

Metering equipment has been developed which can accurately measure the percent watercut in addition to the total flow rate of an emulsion stream. This makes possible the use of two-phase (liquid and vapor) vessels for accurate production well testing purposes. This alleviates the need to use more costly and less operationally efficient three-phase vessels.
Correlation of Capillary Entrance Pressure Drops with Normal Stress Data
Authors: LaNieve H.L. , Bogue D.C.
Published: December 2007

The pressure loss at the entrance of a capillary tube was studied as a means of characterizing viscoelastic fluids. Measurements were made for four polymer solutions and correlated with an equation of the form

where D is the shear rate and where Hch and lambda ch are a characteristic stress and a characteristic time, respectively, determined independently from viscosity and normal stress measurements. Various theoretical analyses of capillary entrance flow are also compared.

Introduction

The most fundamental experiments to measure stress behavior in viscoelastic fluids are those in which the fluid elements have undergone constant shear rate histories for a very long tine. These important viscometric flows are found in the basic viscometric geometries: capillary tube, rotational cylinder, cone and plate, etc. On the other hand, many industrially important flows are accelerative [non-viscometric] and must be analyzed mathematically using a constitutive equation or correlated empirically. The flow at the entrance of a capillary is this kind of flow. It is a particularly important one because of the wealth of data and experience from the capillary viscometer.

The measured pressure drop in a capillary viscometer is an over-all one from the upstream reservoir to the downstream reservoir or from the upstream reservoir to a free jet. The frictional losses [viscous dissipation include a loss upstream of the tube and inside the tube due to the developing flow, a loss during developed flow in the tube, and a loss at the exit. There is also a kinetic energy [Bernoulli] effect if either reservoir is not large compared with the tube. These various effects plus possible elastic effects may be summarized in terms of a mechanical energy balance as follows:

........................................(1)

where F indicates irreversible dissipation and indicates differences between the two reservoirs. The quantity E is the elastic energy per unit mass and, in terns of the classical balance is part of the internal energy of the fluid.

For inelastic fluids [where PE/P = 0), analyses are available for the dissipation in each of the sections indicated in Eq. 1. For viscoelastic fluids, no rigorous analysis exists but if one assumes that the elastic effects may be added to the viscous effects [by no means certain], the elastic effects can be identified by difference and correlated experimentally. The analyses and procedures for the various terms will now be discussed in turn.

KINETIC ENERGY AND VISCOUS DISSIPATION EFFECTS

Kinetic Energy Effects

In a flow through a capillary from one stagnant reservoir to another, the net change in kinetic energy is zero.
Research on Jet Pumps for Single and Multiphase Pumping of Crudes
Authors: Corteville J. C. , Ferschneider G. , Hoffmann F. C. , Valentin E. P.
Published: December 2007

The hydraulic characteristics of an industrial jet pump were determined in single and two-phase flow, and a prototype was studied to determine geometric shapes well suited for two-phase flows. Jet pumps were then compared to other downhole pumps from the technical and economic standpoint.
New Logging Concept Defines Clay Invasion While Drilling
Authors: Boone D. E.
Published: December 2007

A computerized system has been developed that logs porosity and percentage gas saturation of reservoir rock in one foot increments. Interpretive procedures have been developed that provide a positive definition of hydrocarbon reservoirs with porosity, pore pressure, gas saturation, reserves and permeability. Examples show that permeability to drilling fluid is a function of porosity raised to the power 2.21. Clay and drill solids penetrate porous sands to such depth that current wireline porosity tools read low.
Foamed Cement Achieves Predictable Annular Fill in Appalachian Devonian Shale Wells
Authors: Colavecchio G. P. , Adamiak R.
Published: December 2007

Foamed cement systems, consisting of 35% to 45% nitrogen by volume, have been pumped during the past several years in a number of different applications throughout the continental United States including the Appalachian Basin. Candidates for foamed cement include wells that have low breakdown pressures (lost circulation), those that require a stage tool to obtain required fillup and air-drilled holes where high viscosity slurries in narrow annulus create excessive pressures that contribute to weak zones thieving cement.1

The Devonian Shale exhibits all the above criteria in areas of West Virginia, so was selected as a field study for purposes of developing technology while improving the percentage of "successful" cement jobs in the field. The exact definition of success may vary from area to area, operator to operator, so for purposes of this paper it will be defined as obtaining consistent cement fillup in the annulus and subsequently fracture stimulating through the cement sheath with no operational or production problems due to high break down pressures. Other evaluation criteria of successful cement jobs such as economics and bond logs must be analyzed on operator/field basis and not a regional basis.

Operationally, significant strides have been made in mixing, pumping and maintaining a stable foamed cement in the field. Early jobs may have failed due to nitrogen bubbles becoming too large by interconnecting and migrating through the base cement slurry. Those jobs resulted in, at best, inconsistent slurry density throughout the column and at worst nitrogen returning to surface in the annulus causing complete job failures resulting in remedial squeeze work.

Recent improvements in maintaining foam stability have allowed foamed slurry samples to be retained at the surface during pumping operations. Precise job monitoring of rates, pressures, temperatures and slurry densities have established quality control assurances at the surface so that downhole variables can be better determined.

The state of the art of foamed cement systems pumped in the Appalachian Basin today is vastly superior to that of the past. What was once a good idea in theory is now an even better idea in practice.
Economic Optimization of Bailing Operations in the Appalachian Area
Authors: Suhy T. E. , Yu J. P. , Zhuang Z.
Published: December 2007

The gas industry in the Appalachian Basin is experiencing falling gas prices. The result is reduced revenues and fewer dollars available for exploration and development of new reserves. This has forced innovative companies to examine methods to increase production from existing wells. It has been observed that optimizing a fluid removal program can result in profitable production increases.

The majority of accumulated fluids in the wellbore are formation salt brines. The hydrostatic pressure created by this fluid column can restrict or kill production from these typically low pressured reservoirs. The most common procedure used to remove the production reducing brines is periodic bailing.

The non-linear least square curve-fitting techniques are being applied to fit the production decline of each well. The overall production is curve-fitted as hyperbolic or harmonic decline and each bailing cycle is curve-fitted as an exponential decline. The bailing cost and other economic overhead are used as the economic limit for bailing cycle scheduling. Other criteria such as rate of return on investment, lease contracts, current gas prices, geographic location, weather conditions and farming activities will be optimized into a working priority list for the bailing operation of each well. The ultimate goal is to create a complete management package on a microcomputer that can be used to continuously evaluate the update the entire bailing and production maintenance program. In this package, artificial intelligence will be included to optimize the decision-making rules. This new approach will create an economic benefit for oil and gas production in the Appalachian Basin. This paper describes the development and work completed towards this objective.
Infill Drilling in the Clinton: Monte Carlo Techniques Applied to the Material Balance Equation
Authors: Murtha J. A.
Published: December 2007

Material balance methods can be used to estimate oil-in-place and then drainage area for oil wells, when only production data is available. Reservoir pressure, both initial and current, must be available. In addition, gas and oil gravities must be known. Ranges for other factors, such as solution gas-oil-ratios and formation volume factors can be derived. Monte Carlo simulation provides the final step.
Some Rheological Considerations Concerning Rock Behavior
Authors: Rana Mahmood H.
Published: December 2007

It is well known that rocks behave in a viscoelastic manner. Therefore, the theory of elasticity does not provide valid answers to problems of rock behavior. Various rheological models have been developed conforming to rock deformation. Most important of these is the Kelvin solid model. The model involves a coefficient of solid viscosity, which appears to have the makings of a future criterion for rock fracture.

The paper describes the evaluation of the Kelvin model and presents a few analytical developments concerning rock's viscosity from measurement in the mine stopes and the structural volume flow of rocks. Some experiments, results obtained in the laboratory are presented. These results indicate the advisability of using a Kelvin model and give an idea of the types of failure mechanisms operating in the rocks.

In light of these and other development's, the directional properties of rocks are discussed. The possibilities of exploitation of these properties in drilling in preferential directions, reorientation of mine workings, and oil well fracturing are briefly mentioned.

Introduction

It is well known that rocks behave in a viscoelastic manner. Among rheological models applicable to rock behavior, the most import is that of the Kelvin solid, although the Maxwell and Burger models are also applicable to some extent. One of the two constituents of a Kelvin solid deals with time-dependent behavior of rocks and involves the coefficient of structural viscosity. This solid-viscous parameter appears to be a future potential criterion for structural design involving rocks and rock-like materials. The parameter has been experimentally determined in the laboratory, using a number of independent techniques. This paper is a step further in this direction and consists of theoretical development for determination of structural viscosity from mine stope measurements. Some data obtained in the laboratory are used to calculate some values of the coefficient of solid structural viscosity. The above are then used in formulating the comments concerning exploitation of the directional properties of rocks in drilling reorientation of mine workings and oil well fracturing.

ANALYTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

In analytical development presented here, it is assumed that the rocks behave like a Kelvin solid, represented by the equation:

........................................(1)

The solution of Eq. 1 is given by:

........................................(2)

If is constant, Eq. 2 reduces to:

........................................(3)

P. 121^
North Sea Pioneer
Authors: Goodwill D.
Published: December 2007

This paper was prepared for the 96th Annual AIME Meeting to be held in Los Angeles, Calif., Feb. 19 through 23, 1967. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words. Illustrations may not be copied. The abstract should contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper is presented. Publication elsewhere after publication in the JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY or the SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL is usually granted upon requested to the Editor of the appropriate journal, provided agreement to give proper credit is made.

Discussion of this paper is invited. Three copies of any discussion should be sent to the Society of Petroleum Engineers Office. Such discussions may be presented at the above meeting and, with the paper, may be considered for publication in one of the two SPE magazines.

American Overseas Petroleum Limited, operator for Texaco North Sea U. K. Limited and California Oil Company Limited, drilled the first well - 38/29-1 - on the U. K. Continental Shelf after leases were issued in 1964. This well is the farthest offshore operation yet attempted and was drilled through the severe 1964 winter. The detailing of the preplanning and actual drilling of this first well is presented to offer assistance to Industry not only for the North Sea basin but also for other new offshore areas. It is the conclusion of the operator that year-round drilling can be carried out in the North Sea; however, preplanning is necessary - allowance must be made for weather induced delays - and recognition must be taken of possible leg scour problems resultant from the combination of ocean floor currents and type formation.

There have been many recent news items regarding the oil industries' successful activities on the U.K. Continental Shelf - happily one of such in October 1966 reported a gas discovery by American Overseas Petroleum Limited acting as managing agent for Texaco North Sea U. K. Limited and California Oil Company Limited on Block 48/7. However, the specific well to be discussed, Amoseas 38/29-1, garnered more publicity than any other U. K. offshore well drilled to date - and it was dry! This publicity reflected the fact that 38/29-1 was the first offshore well to be drilled on the U. K. Continental Shelf after the Shelf leases were issued by the U. K. Government in Fall 1964. This paper discusses the preplanning and actual drilling of this first well. It is the author's hope that providing such a detailed discussion of both preplanning and actual results will be of assistance to industry in evaluating the operational problems to be anticipated in such new offshore areas. For the back round behind the spudding of well 35/29-1 almost at the geographical mid-point of the North Sea on December 2, 1964, one must refer back to 1959. It was in August 1959 that Slochteren #1 discovered The Netherlands Groningen gas field now credited with reserves in excess of 50 trillion cu. ft. of natural gas.
Systems Approach to Pipe Handling, Cementing, and Mud Mixing
Authors: Merritt C.H.
Published: December 2007

This paper was prepared for the 96th Annual AIME Meeting to be held in Los Angeles, Calif., Feb. 19 through 23, 1967. Permission to copy is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words. Illustrations may not be copied. The abstract should contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper is presented. Publication elsewhere after publication in the JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY or the SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL is usually granted upon requested to the Editor of the appropriate journal, provided agreement to give proper credit is made.

Discussion of this paper is invited. Three copies of any discussion should be sent to the Society of Petroleum Engineers Office. Such discussions may be presented at the above meeting and, with the paper, may be considered for publication in one of the two SPE magazines.

This paper outlines the design objectives of current development programs toward semi and fully automated pipe handling systems and increased utilization of existing onshore skid mounted cementing units by incorporating into this unit additional functions of supplying the hydraulic source for pipe handling equipment and the capabilities of performing all mud mixing and conditioning.

Introduction

As the cost of exploration and drilling of known reserves is rapidly increasing throughout the world, the need for new improved methods and a more highly mechanized approach to labor and time saving innovations becomes apparent. The equipment presently used in the drilling industry offers untold opportunities to improve machinery design in order to help offset these costs. While the evaluation of automation in this field has been historically slow, there are at present definite parameters of equipment design which may be nearer to justifying automatic machinery than ever before.

One of these areas where development work is presently underway involves potential labor and time saving methods of pipe handling. In this conjunction, investigation is underway for the development of the following tools:

Universal Drill Pipe Tong Pipe Racking Systems Casing Stabbing System.

Further savings may be realized by incorporating the low pressure mud mixing system plus hydraulic power for pipe handling tools into skid mounted cementing units presently used on almost all offshore drilling rigs. This phase of design is already completed and remains to be proven through extended application.

As early as 1947 development was undertaken on semi-automatic power operated drilling machinery. This system performed all the routine functions of round tripping the pipe in the hole and was controlled remotely by manipulation of hydraulic and pneumatic valves.
A New Conformance-Improvement-Treatment Chromium(lll) Gel Technology
Authors: Sydansk R. D.
Published: December 2007

Laboratory testing and evaluation of a new chromium(III) [CrIII] acrylamide-polymer gel technology for conformance-improvement-treatment (CIT) use are reported. This paper is primarily limited to discussing the gel technology as applicable to fracture conformance problems.

Several notable features of the gel technology are as follows. The gels, as injected in the field, are a single fluid system. Gels are made by simply adding a single aqueous crosslinking-agent solution to the aqueous polymer solution. The base chemical of the crosslinking agent is a readily available and relatively inexpensive CrIII chemical. An entire family of CIT gels, ranging from highly flowing to rigid rubbery gels, can be produced by varying the formulation of the same chemical set. Thus, the new gel technology is applicable to a wide range of conformance problems. Highly controllable gel times, ranging from minutes to weeks, are possible and can be preselected. Gels have been shown to be stable for extended periods of time when aged at temperatures ranging from 55 to 255°F [13 to 124°C]. Over the same temperature range, the gels have been shown to possess exceptional yield strengths (resistance to flow) and to be effective plugging agents. The gels are relatively inexpensive because they typically contain 98 to 99.7% water, with the remainder being low cost chemicals. Gels of the new technology are insensitive to oilfield interferences and environments, including H2S. They are compatible with all tested oilfield fluids and equipment and with all tested reservoir rocks and minerals. The gels can be made over a polymer solution pH range of at least 4.0 to 12.5. Gels can be formulated with low-molecular-weight polyacrylamide polymers when low viscosity (watery) treatment fluids are required. The gels can be chemically degraded (reversed).

Laboratory studies are described which show the dependence of gelation rate and gel strength on the following parameters: 1) polymer type, concentration, molecular weight, and hydrolysis level; 2) polymer-to-chromium ratio; 3) temperature; 4) polymer solution pH; and 5) salinity. Gels are shown to exhibit favorable phase-stability, shear, and leakoff properties. A new bottle-testing scheme is described. Bottle testing is used to effectively, rapidly, and inexpensively monitor in a semi-quantitative manner gelation rate and gel strength as a function of time over a broad range of temperatures and gel parameters. Gel viscosities, as determined by dynamic oscillatory measurements, are used to substantiate bottle-testing findings and trends. For selected rigid gels, gel breakdown pressures in porous media and yield pressures are reported.
Weeks Island Bravity Stable CO2 Pilot
Authors: Johnston J. R.
Published: December 2007

The Weeks Island S sand Reservoir B (S RB) gravity-stable CO2 field test is almost complete. Injection started in October 1978 and production began in January 1981 in this high-permeability, steeply dipping sandstone reservoir. Through 1987, about 261,000 barrels of oil or about 64 percent of the starting volume has been recovered. A 24-percent pore-volume slug of CO2 mixed with about six mole percent of natural gas (mostly methane) was injected at the start of the pilot. During 1983, when gas production rates started to increase, CO2 containing produced gas was reinjected. Through 1987, CO2 usage statistics are 7.90 MCF/B0 with recycle and 3.26 MCF/B0 based on purchased CO2.

This report is a review of early pilot history and a more detailed account of the post-June 1981 results. A reservoir-simulation history match of pilot performance plus core and log data from a 1983 swept-zone evaluation well are included.
Theories of Foam Mobilization Pressure Gradient
Authors: Rossen W. R.
Published: December 2007

This paper presents theoretical models to predict the magnitude of the minimum pressure gradient (∇p)min to mobilize foam in two cases. In the first case, foam lamallae form by snap-off at pore throats during simultaneous flow of liquid and gas through the pore space. Percolation theory relates (∇p)min to the fraction of pore throats blocked by lamellae, the geometry of the pore throats, and the topology of the pore network. This theory indicates that in field application foam can begin to flow only at the relatively high ∇p found near the well. Effective reservoir sweep with foam therefore depends on the propagation of foam formed near the well.

In the second case a well-established foam flows as "bubble trains" through regions of trapped gas. Theory predicts that fine-textured foams then have substantial (∇p)min (tens of psi/.ft). If the reservoir ∇p cannot sustain (∇p)min from injection well to producer, flow stops and the foam plugs the zone. Thus some coalescence is necessary to avoid plugging and allow foam propagation deep into the formation.

Bubble compressibility increases (∇p)min because bubbles lodge at the pore throats, where capillary resistance is highest. Plateau borders, the rounded films were the lamellae contact the pore wall, reduce (∇p)min, especially for incompressible foams, At low capillary pressures, however, (∇p)min increases due to bubble separation at pore throats.
A New Formation Wettability Test: The Dynamic Wilhelmy Plate Wettability Technique
Authors: Andersen M. A. , Thomas D. C.
Published: December 2007

This paper describes a technique for inferring formation wettability from measurement on crude oil/brine pairs. This dynamic Wilhelmy plate technique yields a quantitative measure of wettability in a form which is directly comparable to other forces in the reservoir. Exposure to air affects the measured wettability of crude oil, and a device is described for avoiding contamination.
Applied Geostatistical Analysis: Sage Spring Creek Unit "A", Natrona County, Wyoming
Authors: Russell T. L. , Bradley D. J.
Published: December 2007

Geostatistical analysis is a useful tool for the petroleum engineer. The reservoir engineer can use such an analysis for determining grid block values for reservoir modeling; and the geologist and drilling engineer can use geostatistical analysis for determining development drilling spacing, and infill drilling spacing.

This paper describes the procedure necessary to perform a parametric geostatistical analysis, and uses thickness data from Sage Spring Creek, Unit "A" to illustrate the procedure.
Effects of Reservoir Heterogeneity and Fracture Azimuth on Optimization of Fracture Length and Well Spacing
Authors: Meehan D. N. , Horne R. N. , Aziz K.
Published: December 2007

Optimization of fracture length and well spacing can be critical to the economics of the exploitation of natural gas resources. If the fracture length is small compared to well spacing, then fracture azimuth will not affect interference between wells; many fields will be drilled to dense spacings and therefore require knowledge of the fracture azimuth to optimize the number of wells, the placement of the wells, and the length of the fractures. This is contrary to historical approaches to the optimization of ultimate recovery and net present value from tight gas fields, which are based on the idealization of homogenous, isotropic reservoirs and which neglect interwell interference.

This paper reviews current technology for determining hydraulic fracture azimuth, and presents a solution for uniform flux fractures which accounts for fracture azimuth. It is shown that the uniform flux fracture model fails when interference between wells is significant. Numerical simulation of high conductivity fractures confirms that knowledge of fracture azimuth will be important for cases for which the ratio of interwell distance to fracture length is less than 2.0. Permeability anisotropies increase the importance of knowing fracture azimuth. A general procedure for optimization of fracture azimuth and well spacing is presented.
High Angle Development Wells in the N.W. Java Sea Bima Field: An Update
Authors: Barry P. M. , Troncoso J. C. , Sumantri A. N. E.
Published: December 2007

Atlantic Richfield Indonesia, Inc., brought five of seven platforms of the BIMA Field on stream in December, 1986. At the time of writing this paper, two additional platforms were being started up. Forty eight wells were drilled from the seven platforms, including sixteen horizontal (90°) and high angle (85°) wells drilled through the productive zone. All of the wells in the field were equipped with electric submersible pumps.

The early phase of the high angle well program was the subject of a paper presented to the 15th Annual Indonesian Petroleum Association in October, 1986(1). This update describes the transition from the original high angle well design to a horizontal well configuration and the use of downhole steering and directional control techniques to accomplish productive zone extended reach penetration lengths of up to 2175' with only a 19' TVD variation.

This paper also describes how measurement while drilling (MWD) technology was employed to obtain well directional and lithological data and also how MWD logs replaced drill pipe conveyed logging tools. The costs to drill and complete BIMA extended reach wells are shown to compare favorably with standard deviated holes.

Operating characteristics and problems encountered in the course of producing wells in the high angle and horizontal environment at BIMA are discussed. Early indications from production data analysis verify that high angle wells exhibit a reduced drawdown, as expected, meaning that reservoir management techniques to control water and gas coning can be applied without sacrificing oil rate.

Completions are described which illustrate how pump installations and wireline activities are limited to the upper sections of the high angle holes. Also described are techniques which will use novel workover engineering approaches in an attempt to control excessive water and gas influx in horizontal wells.

High angle wells have proven to be an economically practical approach in a complex reservoir such as the Batu Raja limestone in the BIMA Field. Atlantic Richfield Indonesia, Inc., has led the way in successfully drilling and operating these long reach wells in the Offshore N.W. Java contract area.
Sensitivity and Reliability of Commercial Drill-String Inspection Services
Authors: Dale B. A. , Moyer M. C.
Published: December 2007

Drill-string failures continue to be a costly problem for the oil industry. To reduce the occurrence of these failures, operators and drilling contractors typically employ service companies to perform periodic nondestructive inspections to remove damaged tubulars from service. Nonetheless, drill-string failures continue to occur, most often as a result of some form of metal fatigue. This paper presents the results of several field evaluation programs which were conducted to assess the performance of commercial drill-string inspection services employing conventional nondestructive testing techniques. A practical estimate of the effectiveness of these commercial inspection services is made using modern fracture mechanics concepts and fatigue crack growth data obtained from full-scale testing. Based on the data presented in this paper, commercial drill-string inspection services are found to be statistically quantifiable, however their effectiveness is substantially less than optimum. Improved flaw detection technology is needed to most effectively reduce typical downhole fatigue failures.
High Temperature High Rate Gas Well Completions: A Learning Experience
Authors: Husein H. , Steel D.
Published: December 2007

This paper reviews Mobil Oil Indonesia's experience in the completion o£ high temperature, high rate gas wells, gained during ten years as operator for the Arun Field.

Over 50 production and injection wells have been completed in the Arun Field, and some of these wells have been worked over once or even twice since their initial completion. Problems which have been encountered during the operation or workover of the wells have led to changes in completion practices and equipment design. These problems are described in detail as are the. subsequent completion changes and the results of these changes.
Quantitative Flood Monitoring Utilizing a New Pulsed Neutron Tool Modeling Concept
Authors: Smith M. P. , Wyatt D. F. , Nguyen C.
Published: December 2007

A new flood monitoring technique is presented that models both the capture cross section (sigma) and ratio/porosity responses of a pulsed neutron logging tool using known reservoir, hydrocarbon and flood agent properties. Open hole logs and pulsed neutron logs acquired before, during and after flooding are combined to determine individual hydrocarbon, saltwater and flood agent saturations. This new model uses total neutron migration length and direct ratio computations1 to compute the flood agent volume fraction. Improved accuracy of the computed fluid saturations and the ability to handle specific flood agents are two enhancements to flood monitoring provided by this new approach. Accuracy is especially important because often the results from a limited number of monitor wells are used to project the sweep efficiency and economics of the flood process for an entire reservoir.

This new method is applied to a CO2 flood and the resulting fluid saturations for oil, saltwater and CO2 are analyzed and discussed. These results are compared with those based on the older excavation effect method.2,3,4