bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Smoke characteristics of tunnel wood fires
Authors: Lee Calvin K. , Singer Joseph M. , Cashdollar Kenneth L.
Published: May 2005

Characteristics of smoke particulates generated from a wood fire in a ventilated model tunnel were investigated using an in situ optical and a grid sampling technique. Volume‐to‐surface mean diameter and mass concentration of the smoke particles, and the transmission, optical density per unit length and particulate optical density of the smokeladen exhaust gas were obtained as a function of the burning process in the tunnel. It was found that high concentration of smoke (∼1 mg l−1) were rapidly generated as the fire changed from oxygen‐rich to fuel‐rich burning, resulting in fast obscuration of the passageway. The simultaneous generationof large amounts of smoke and high temperature carbon monoxide (∼8%) coupled with low transmission (∼1% though 0.5 m) represents and extremely hazardous situation in such a fire environment. Present measurements and others from current smoke testing chambers are compared and discussed.
The effect of halogenated fire extinguishants on the self‐ignition of polyolefins
Authors: Baillet C. , Delfosse L. , Antonik S.
Published: May 2005

The effect of halogen additives, containing bromine as one of the substituents (e.g. CF2CIBr, CF3Br), on the self‐ignition of polypropylene has been investigated. These compounds appear to promote self‐ignitionat low concentration and inhibit self‐ignition at high concentration when introduced into the oxidant gas. The lability of bromine is thought to influence the limiting concentration above which these additives act as inhibitors. By comparison with other systems of oxidation the authors propose an explanation an explanation in which HBr and Br' radical species are the only active entities in all cases.
Use of experimental materials to assess toxicological tests for rating polymeric materials under thermal stress
Authors: Anderson R. C. , Dierdorf J. , Stock M. F. , Matijak M. , Sawin R. , Alarie Y.
Published: May 2005

In order to evaluate the performance of the indices of toxicity which have been developed, thermal decomposition products of three polymers, polyvinylchloride, polychloroprene, and polycarbonate were tested for sensory irritation, physiological stress induction, and acute lethality. Each polymer has been contrasted with the same polymer containing 5% zinc ferrocyanide. The most irritating and the most stressful pyrolysis products were those from polyvinylchloride. The least irritation and stress were associated with polycarbonate decomposition products. The acute lethality for polychloroprene was higher than that of the other two polymers by a factor of 4. The addition of zinc ferrocyanide had a variable effect, depending on the polymer and the index of toxicity being evaluated. Sensory irritation was lessened by the presence of zinc ferrocyanide in polycarbonate. The sample weight required to cause death of 50% of the animals was reduced for the two hydrogen chloride‐generating polymers, polyvinylchloride and polychloroprene. However, the acute lethality of polycarbonate did not change with addition of zinc ferrocyanide. By itself, zinc ferrocyanide decomposed very slowly during heating, caused almost no irritation or stress, and no deaths.
Relationship between fire resistance and fire tolerance
Authors: Harmathy T. Z.
Published: May 2005

Much of the information accumulated on the fire resistance of ‘dividing’ elements can be utilized in the design of buildings for fire safety, if the fire tolerance values are converted into fire resistance. Three methods of conversion, one based on the concept of equal temperature‐time areas, the second on the concept of equal maximum temperatures, and the third, Law method, are critically examined and handy conversion tools presented. In the case of the ‘key’ elements of buildings, basing the fire safety design on fire resistance information is not recommended.
Post‐flashover compartment fires—application of a theoretical model
Authors: Babrauskas Vytenis , Williamson Robert Brady
Published: May 2005

Numerical solutions of the post‐flashover fire are considered and a computer program is presented. The solutions are compared with experiment and the sensitivity of the solutions to a number of variables is discussed. It is shown that increasing the ventilation may either increase or decrease fire intensity, and the importasnce of the ventilation controlled phase of the fire is discussed. Application of the model to calculate the expected time‐temperature history is illustrated and its significance is discussed. The deterministic approach is compared with a new method for calculating the most severe fire by letting one variable take any value between certain limits. The latter method is called pessimization. The significance for designers is noted.
Heat transfer from a buoyant smoke layer beneath a ceiling to a sprinkler spray. 2—an experiment
Authors: Morgan H. P. , Baines K.
Published: May 2005

An experiment is described which measures the heat transferred from a hot, flowing, buoyant gas layer in a mall, to a sprinkler spray. Interpolation techniques are described which allow for the large heat losses occurring within the apparatus (a large‐scale model mall). The results are compared with predictions based on the method developed in Part 1 and found to be consistently 150% of the predicted heat transfer rates. Given the assumptions required by the predictive calculations this is thought to be reasonable degree of agreement. The largest heat transfer rate to the one sprinkler spray in this experiment was 157 kW ± 38 kW.
On the role of KρC of room lining materials in the growth of room fires
Authors: Thomas P. H. , Bullen M. L.
Published: May 2005

The role of the product of the thermal properties of thermal conductivity and thermal capacity per unit volume in fire growth is explored in relation to a simple model of a room fire. The calculated differences between flashover times for two different lining materials are plausible; the main conclusion is to show that the flashover time depends on KρC in a weaker relationship than simple proportionality.
An apparatus for the determination of the ignition time of fabrics
Authors: Bernskiöld A. , Schultz B.
Published: May 2005

In this paper an apparatus is presented by means of which it is possible to measure the ignition time with a very high accuracy, namely 0.01 s. This apparatus has been developed not only for determining the ignition time of fabrics and end products such as curtains, garments, beds, upholstered chairs and toys, but also as an igniting source for use in studying the flame propagation. By using the apparatus it is possible to separate the burning phase from the ignition phase.
Faults in fire extinguishers
Authors: Emson I. C.
Published: May 2005

Specimens of dry powder, halogenated hydrocarobon and carbon dioxide extinguishers manufactured in 1972 were tested in that year as part of a monitoring scheme for fire extinguishers. Leakages and faults which prevented an extinguisher operating or might lead to it being discarded in a emergency are listed, and some of the other defects which were encountered are noted.
Toxic gas and smoke assessment studies on vinyl floor covering with the fire propagation test
Authors: Martin K. G. , Powell D. A.
Published: May 2005

The Fire Propagation Test (BS 476 Part 6) has been used with the discharge of combustion products into a small test room, to provide a fire hazard assessment of some polyvinylchloride floor covering systems, and includes measurements of fire propagation, smoke, CO and HCI production. Particular attention has been given to the change in the HCI concentration of the Room atmosphere during the test and the influence of relative humidity and the nature of the surface linings of the room. The results have been discussed as a contribution to the understanding of the role of HCI in toxicity of fire atmospheres. Some approaches for improving further the reproducibility of the test method are indicated and support is given to the Japanese proposal that such a test be standardized to enable comparison of fire hazard potential of lining systems used in buildings.
Fire testing flat roofs and wall linings with point fire sources
Authors: Brein D. , Seeger P. G.
Published: May 2005

In the spring of 1977 seven real scale fire tests on flat roofs and wall linings were carried out with relatively small fire loads to simulate the early stages of a fire. Tests with large fire loads had already been performed. Five tests were carried out on insulated corrugated steel roof decks with a fire‐retardant EPS (expanded polystyrene) foam insulation of reduced flammability and one test with a non‐combustible mineral‐wool insulation. A seventh test was run to study the fire behaviour of corrugated asbestos cement roofs and wall linings with EPS foam insulations and fire loads of the same kind (wood cribs up to 200 kg) as before. The tests demonstrated both the advantages and the disadvantages of the different insulations for corrugated steel roof decks in case of fires before Flash‐over.
Carbonyl sulphide in fire gases
Authors: Tsuchiya Yoshio , Boulanger J. G.
Published: May 2005

The toxic gases released by combustion/pyrolysis of wool include CO, HCN and four compounds containing sulphur. Animal test data suggest that the toxicity of the sulphur compounds is significant. Wool was pyrolysed and the gases were analysed by GC‐MS. SO2 was the main sulphur‐containing gas produced by flaming combustion in an oxygen‐enriched atmosphere. In pyrolysis under various conditions COS was a major sulphur‐containing product. Although it is a highly toxic gas, COS has not so far been reported by workers engaged in the toxicity of fire gases. It is suggested that analysis of COS be included in the analytical toxicology of sulphur‐containing polymers.
Assessment of draft ISO radiant panel spread‐of‐flame test
Authors: Settle G. E.
Published: May 2005

A versatile radiant panel apparatus for studying flame propagation in materials used as interior finishes on floors, walls and ceilings is described. Comparative trials with this apparatus and other tests based on relatively very small sources of heat were made on a wide variety of floorcoverings. The results showed that fibre composition and specimen orientation have a marked effect on flame spread. Materials which gave favourable (low flame spread) results in the panel test also gave favourable results in the small heat source tests. On the other hand, some materials which gave favourable results in the small heat source tests gave unfavourable results in the panel test. It was concluded that although small heat source tests will continue to play an important role in flammability testing, the radiant panel test gives an additional assurance of the flame spread resistance of materials in general and should be strongly recommended for materials intended for high risk areas. The effects on flame spread in the panel test of various factors concerned for materials intended for high risk areas. The effects on flame spread in the panel test of various factors concerned with the structure and conditions of test specimens and the apparatus are discussed. A small modification of the radiant panel apparatus is described which enables it to be temporarily altered to simulate a standard French radiant panel test.
Australian fire statistics
Authors: Ramsay G. Caird
Published: May 2005

This paper describes in some detail the sources of data on fires occurring in Australia with to their scope and reliability. Particular reference is made to the data published by the Fire Brigades Board of New South Wales for these are the most detailed and comprehensive published in Australia although limited to one State. Data are given on the number of fires, property loss, and deaths and injuries due to fires in Australia and on causes, occupancies, points of origin and extents of fires in New South Wales. Comparisons are made with United Kingdom and United States of America statistics where relevant data are available. In conclusion, some trends which indicate that better data should be available in the future are discussed.
Fire fatality study
Authors: Birky M. M. , Halpin B. M. , Caplan Y. H. , Fisher R. S. , McAllister J. M. , Dixon A. M.
Published: May 2005

Over a six‐year period, 530 fire fatalities resulting from 398 fires were studied in the State of Maryland. The study had two major objectives: (1) to determine the specific cause of death by a detailed autopsy stud of fire victims, and (2) to determine the specific cause of fatality‐producing fire by an on‐the‐scene fire investigation. The fire fatality study was limited to residential fires and to fatalities that occurred within 6 h of the fire. The results of the toxicological analysis show that (1) 60% of the victims had a carboxyhemoglobin value greater than or equal to 50% carbon monoxide saturation, (2) an additional 20% had elevated carboxyhemoglobin with preexisting cardiovascular disease, (3) 11% of the victims had severe burns, (4) 9% were unexplained and (5) 40% of the victims had positive blood alcohol levels with 30% of these meeting the legal definition of intoxication (blood alcohol ≥0.1%). The fire investigations confirmed that the predominant fatal scenario is the cigarette ignition of upholstered furniture or bedding. This scenario accounted for 47% of the fires and 44% of the victims. Alcohol also appears to be significant factor in this scenario.
Burning characteristics of materials
Authors: Paul K. T.
Published: May 2005

The feasibility of using a dynamic, i.e. multivariable, test procedure instead of the more usual single point tests has been investigated by determining the limiting conditions for burning. The rate of burning and the limiting conditions for flaming and smoldering combustion have been determined over a range of temperatures and oxygen concentrations. Results show that the relative burning rates of materials and also their relative combustion thresholds can alter significantly with changes in the tests environment.
Biological evaluation of toxicity caused by combustion of building materials
Authors: Herpol Claire
Published: May 2005

This paper presents results of tests performed on 35 materials, including woods, synthetic and textile materials, which have been submitted to thermal degradation at three different combustion temperatures. In addition, the interpretation and limitations of toxicological test results are discussed more generally.
The early fire behaviour of combustible wall lining materials
Authors: Moulen A. W. , Grubits S. J. , Martin K. G. , Dowling V. P.
Published: May 2005

The development of the Australian Standard AS 1530 Part 3 ‘Test for Early Fire Hazard Properties of Materials’ from the study of the fire behavior of cellulosic wall linings in simulated room fires has been outlined. Similar studies for assessing a wider range of wall linings are now reported including various plastic facings applied to hardboard. Using similar parameters for ignitability, spread of flame, heat evolved and smoke developed, the behaviors of the linings in the standard test have been compared to the behavior in corner‐wall burns. Two methods of ignition were used for the burns; (a) timber cribs; and (b) impressed radiant heat with a pilot flame. The results are discussed in terms of the validity of the standard test as a multi‐parameter assessment of materials in a fire hazard situation. The test has been validated for the wider range of wall lining materials.
Current thinking and development in fire testing in Europe
Authors: Malhotra H. L.
Published: May 2005

The paper examines briefly the history of fire testing in the UK and outlines the current European position as exemplified by activities in the EEC member countries, the Scandinavian countries and Eastern Europe. The role of ISO and the changing approach to the development of fire tests is considered. The interactions amongst test developing bodies, regulatory authorities and the regional organizations concerned with harmonization are highlighted.
Comparative studies of the burning behaviour of textiles from polyester/cotton and pure cotton
Authors: Umbach K. H.
Published: May 2005

A test device consisting of an asbestos covered wooden cylinder was developed to study the burning behaviour of textiles relative to transmitted thermal energy and heat flux registered at 20 sensor points on the cylinder. In order to simulate a ‘line situation’ a reproducible procedure was used for igniting the fabrics at the hem edge by open flames. By linking known tolerance thresholds for second degree burn injuries in humans to the measured time patterns of transmitted thermal energy, the burning behaviour of a pure cotton twill, a 35/65% polyester‐cotton twill and a 65/35% polyester‐cotton twill was compared. All fabrics, which had no fire‐retardant finishes, were also tested in combination with cotton underwear and in some of the experiments they were soaked with an inflammable solvent before ignited. In contrast to customary opinions it could be shown that in apparel burn accidents without inflammable solvents fabrics made from polyester‐cotton blends are more advantageous with regard to the thermal energy transmitted to the skin of the wearer than fabrics made from cotton. Even when the burning clothes are soaked with an inflammable solvent, polyester‐cotton blends are practically not more disadvantageous than 100% cotton fabrics.
A closer look at cause and effect in fire fatalities—The role of toxic fumes
Authors: Punderson John O.
Published: May 2005

Much has been learned about fire from laboratory studies on fire gases, but the idea of using a laboratory toxicity test to rank or rate materials with respect to fire safety has not proved to be a fruitful concept. ‘Toxicity’ standards or specifications are not an effective defense against the threat of toxic fumes in fire for reasons which are fundamental to the nature of fire itself. As a matter of public policy on materials standards, by far the best way of reducing the threat of toxic fumes and all other fire threats is by control and regulation of those materials properties or performance aspects which permit the elimination or moderation of fire. Some of the concepts discussed in this paper run counter to commonly held assumptions, and they are put forth for the purpose of stimulating open public discussion on alternative approaches to improved decision‐making in fire safety.
Synergistic action of Sb2O3 with bromine‐containing flame retardant in polyolefins: 3—The relationship between certain combustion variables
Authors: Handa Takashi , Nagashima Toshiaki , Ebihara Naobumi
Published: May 2005

The combustion of polypropylene flame‐retarded by the synergistic action between Sb2O3 and bromine‐containing flame retardants has been studied. From the relationship between a number of the variables, a parameter quantatively reflecting the flame retardant effect has been found. With the addition of flame retardant, the rate of weight loss, the CO and CO2 emission rates and heat release all decrease while smoke density increases. These effects were considered to depend on the concentration of HBr gas in the pyrolysates released into the gas phase (i.e., dWHBr/dW, HBr flux ensity), and the following equations were obtained:

η*(dW/dt)max, which approximately corresponds to the oxidation velocity of pyrolized hydrocarbon, is inversely proportional to the HBr flux density. As the conversion of CO to CO2 was almost independent of the amount of flame retardants added, the flame retardant effect of bromine‐containing flame retardants was considered to be a retardant effect of the initial oxidation reaction at the gas liquid interface. Moreover, η* is almost proportional to the combustion efficiency η, which was obtained from the heat release measured in the flaming region. The heat release is therefore considered to be governed by the HBr flux density.
Fire safety of soft furnishings—an overview
Authors: Sumi K. , D'Souza M. V.
Published: May 2005

The fire risk posed by soft furnishings such as bedding materials and upholstered furniture and the strategies being developed to reduce the number of fire‐related casualities are reviewed from a Canadian point of view. Statistics from Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom indicate that a substantial reduction in the number of fire deaths would be possible if the ability of assemblies of materials to resist ignition by smokers' materials, such as cigarettes and matches, could be improved. The post‐ignition performance of furnishings that results in generation of heat, smoke and toxic gases is also important from a safety point of view. A need exists for both full‐scale and small‐scale fire tests, and for mathematical modelling for present and future control strategies.
Oxidation and stabilization of hydrocarbon polymers: Relationships, new aspects and unsolved problems
Authors: Pospišil Jan
Published: May 2005

Oxidation processes involved in processing, atmospheric ageing and the pre‐burning stages of hydrocarbon polymers are outlined. Open problems based on up‐to‐date knowledge of the mechanisms of oxidation and stabilization processes are considered. Stabilizers used to assist processing and long‐term stability are transformed during their service‐time. Some of the products thus formed, as well as the products of polymer oxidation, should be considered as inherent impurities of polymers and play an active role in the degradation. Because of safety consideration, some of the products have to be protected also against catastrophic oxidation, i.e. burning. Significant changes in the mechanisms of degradation take place in the pre‐burning step in the phases of high temperature oxidation and oxidative pyrolysis. Fuller understanding of the mutual relationships in the mixtures of antioxidants and/or light stabilizers with flame‐retardants in lacking.
Lightweight fire protection of steel framed buildings: Comments on russian experience in use of light weight fire protection coverings for steel frame buildings
Authors: Yakovelv A. U. , Bushev V. P. , Levites F. A.
Published: May 2005

In recent year, increased attention, linked to the use of new structural design criteria and materials, has been given to maintaining the integrity of buildings and structures exposed to fire. Structures are now designed using lighter structural shapes and consequently differ from earlier, more traditional buildings, in terms of their resistance to the effects of the high temperature of fire. Contemporary structures are less expensive. Advance in building construction technology also result in faster erection.
The thermo‐oxidative decomposition, ignition and burning of flame‐retarded polystyrenes
Authors: Masařík I. , Světlík J. , Horák Z.
Published: May 2005

The theromo‐oxidative decomposition, flash ignition and burning of high‐impact polystyrene containing the flame‐retardant system decabromodiphenyl oxide + antimony trioxide was investigated using the Setchkin apparatus combined with mass spectrometry. The time dependences of the release rate of the main products into the gas phase during decomposition and burning showed that the flame‐retardants markedly influence these processes. It was found that the retardants used exhibit an acceleration of the polymer degradation and that the efficiency of inhibition in the gas phase depends on the atomic ratio antimony: bromine.
Toxic gas tests in perspective
Authors: Edgerley P. G.
Published: May 2005

A study of the 1979 UK fire statistics and the Annual Report of the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys shows that only 1 death per 1000 is attributable to toxic gases from combustion. However, of the ‘deaths by violence’ it rises to 30 (3%). As 37% of all fires in occupied buildings were confined to the first item ignited and 53% to the area of origin it is postulated that such fires (and the consequent deaths) largely concerned substances which will burn on their own. From experience these are largely materials with limiting oxygen indices below 22 or 22–28 for restricted burning only. Those with limiting oxygen indices >28 cannot on their own sustain combustion. These considerations suggest the mode in which toxic gas tests should be conducted, i.e., horizontally or vertically and vertically only for the first two groups, respectively, and in the presence of a fire sustainer for the limiting oxygen index >28 group. Wood in the form of a wooden crib is suggested as suitable. To this end some experiments are described with PVC placed on top of a No. 5 crib (PSA). These latter show that, making the best assumption possible from the existing data, the wood contributes about 63% to the toxicity and the PVC 37%. On the large scale, other work has shown that wooden cribs alone will give lethal concentrations of carbon monoxide for significant periods. Thus difficult‐to‐burn substances need to evolve gases of exceptional toxicity for their contribution to be worth considering.
The Delphi method—a complement to research
Authors: Harmathy T. Z.
Published: May 2005

In making fire safety decisions the designer often finds that some input variables concerning his problems are chance variables. As detailed statistical data are rarely available the designer must rely largely on his expert judgment. With the application of the Delphi method such decisions can be optimized and formalized. The essence of the Delphi method is described and its use illustrated through an example related to the assessment of fire resistance requirements.
Breaking of window glass close to fire, II: Circular panes
Authors: Keski‐Rahkonen Olavi
Published: May 2005

A heat‐conduction equation with linearized radiation cooling boundary conditions is used to calculate the thermal field in a circular window pane heated by thermal radiation (fire) but screened on narrow strips along edges built into the frame. This temperature field is used to calculate a quasi‐static thermal stress field in the pane in the first‐order planar thermal stresses build up at the edges in a narrow strip of a few times the pane thickness. As the radius of the pane grows the edge stresses quickly approach those of the linear strip pane. The round window does not differ much from the strip window in the geometrical region of practical utility in windows. The results also indicate, without explicit calculations, that in rectangular windows the stresses do not concentrate in the corner regions. As the final result of the theoretical work it seems plausible to use simple, general relationships obtained for the strip window as well for all geometries deviating from linear to evaluate approximately the danger of thermal breakage of a pane.
Thermogravimetry of wood treated with water‐insoluble retardants and a proposal for development of fire‐retardant wood materials
Authors: Hirata Toshimi , Kawamoto Sumire , Nishimoto Tetsuya
Published: May 2005

The combustion of wood and methods for the fire retardacy of wood are reviewed briefly first, and then a study on thermogravimetry (TG) and derivative thermogravimetry (DTG) of water‐insoluble retardants and wood treated with retardants is presented. In the review of the flaming combustion of wood supported by cellulose, three categories of fire‐retardant methods, namely (1) chemical modification of the wood pyrolysis, (2) inhibition of the flaming combustion in the gas phase, and (3) thermal effects to restrain the increase in the temperature of wood and assumed temperature profiles in the heated wood are described. The results of TG and DTG, discussed in terms of kinetics, indicate three kinds of action of the retardant tested: (1) acceleration of dehydration and carbonization, (2) thermal stabilization of the chemical structure of cellulose, and (3) inhibition of the flaming combustion by halogen products. In conclusion, models of fire‐retardant wood materials for interior and exterior use are proposed, which contain retardants for the dehydration and the stabilization in the outer layer and those for the inhibition in the inner layer, respectively.
Cone calorimetry—a review of tests carried out on plastics for the association of plastic manufacturers in Europe
Authors: Scudamore M. J. , Briggs P. J. , Prager F. H.
Published: May 2005

An evaluation of the cone calorimeter by the Association of Plastic Manufacturers in Europe (APME) involved testing of 25 plastic materials together with two natural polymers. Specimen preparation is identified as having an important influence on the results, especially for certain types of material. Ignition time, rate of heat release (RHR) and smoke results are presented to show the influence of external heat flux. The dynamic smoke results (which should be measured from the time of exposure) are only relevant to well‐ventilated fires unless the cone calorimeter is specially modified. For a complete evaluation a cumulative smoke measurement may be needed in addition. Although the cone calorimeter is a valuable research tool, and may be used frequently in industry, it needs to be made more robust and user friendly to avoid excessive downtime and to reduce calibration time. If the instrument is to be used for routine development and quality assurance, only one or two heat flux levels should be selected. These could represent a developing and a developed fire and should depend on the product application.
Standardization of formats and presentation of fire data—the FDMS
Authors: Babrauskas Vytenis , Peacock Richard D. , Janssens Marc , Batho Nigel E.
Published: May 2005

Effective exchange of fire test data, even within a single laboratory, has been difficult due to the multiple, and often incompatible, data formats and hardware. This issue has been addressed by a careful study of user needs, leading to the development of a series of standard formats whereby fire test data could easily be exchanged among users. These formats have been made practical by the development of a computer program—the Fire Data Management System (FDMS)—and pertinent hardware standards. The system includes the most commonly used of modern‐day fire test methods, but also has provisions for future extension to other tests of interest.
Full‐scale/Bench‐Scale correlations of wall and ceiling linings
Authors: Wickström Ulf , Göransson Ulf
Published: May 2005

A complete testing and classification system requires both small‐ and large‐scale test methods. In this article such a system in outlined employing the Cone Calorimeter and the Room/corner Test for testing on a small and a large scale, respectively. Translation models are also described allowing the Room/corner test to be predicted by Cone Calorimeter results only. A proposal for a classification system for wall and ceiling linings is also given together with actual and predicted test results.
Surface radiant‐energy balance for structural thermal analysis
Authors: Mooney J.
Published: May 2005

The development of computer programs to model the effects of fire on structures has led to an increase in the variety of problems to which they are applied. Programs which provide the thermal analysis for such problems must determine the energy exchange between the structure and the fire environment, and this paper addresses the radiation aspect of this exchange. The radiant energy exchange of a surface exposed to any fire environment is considered in relation to equations used in such programs. With the aid of a simple model an alternative generalized expression is derived, which takes a simple form. Two equations, typical of those used in such programs, are compared with this generalized form and their shortcomings discussed. It is proposed that the expression derived in this work should be the preferred choice.
Recent developments in understanding the toxicity of PTFE thermal decomposition products
Authors: Purser David A.
Published: May 2005

Fluropolymers, especially polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), have good fire‐resistance properties, but their application is limited by concerns over the toxicity of their thermal decomposition products. In experiments using a tube furnace system similar to the DIN 53 436 method, the 30‐minute (+ 14 days observation) LC50 in mass loss terms was found to be 2.9 mgI−1 (Standard Error 0.40) under non‐flaming conditions, approximately ten times as toxic as wood and most other materials. Toxicity was due to upper respiratory tract and airway irritation, and was consistent with the known effects of carbonyl fluoride and hydrogen fluoride. When decomposed in the NBS cup furnace test under‐non‐flaming conditions, PTFE evolved extreme‐toxicity products with an LC50 of approximately 0.05 mgI−1 (mass loss), approximately 1000 times as toxic as wood and most other materials. Toxicity was due to deep lung irritation and oedema. Investigations of the range of conditions under which the extreme toxicity of PTFE products occurs in both small‐scale (200‐litre) and intermediate‐scale (6 m3) experiments have shown that the highest toxicity occurs when PTFE is decomposed under non‐flaming conditions over a temperature range of 400–650°C, and when the primary decomposition products are subjected to continuous secondary heating. At higher or lower temperatures, when the sample is flaming, when decomposition products from wood are also present in the chamber, when secondary heating is curtailed, or when the molecule contains hydrogen as well as fluorine, the toxicity of the products is greatly reduced, tending towards the region of ten times the potency of most other materials. Extreme toxicity is associated with a particulate, but the particulate atmosphere is not always extremely toxic, the potency decreasing as the fumes age.
The pyrolysis of benzonitrile
Authors: Sonya‐T‐Etemad‐Rad  , Metcalfe E.
Published: May 2005

The pyrolysis of benzonitrile under nitrogen at atmospheric pressure has been studied at temperatures of 823–873 K in a flow reactor. The results demonstrate that conversion to hydrogen cyanide occurs directly by a free radical mechanism. The dominant products detected are hydrogen cyanide, monocyanodiphenyl, benzene, dicyanodiphenyl and dicyanobenzene. Reaction orders and activation energies have been determined for product formation. A reaction scheme involving three competing chain reactions in the gas phase with chain carriers H., C6H and .C6H4CN is proposed to explain the observed kinetics. A mechanism is advanced for the formation of significant quantities of polymer, consistent with infra‐red spectra and elemental analysis.
Surface modification of hybrid fibres for fire protection
Authors: Heidari S. , Parén A.
Published: May 2005

The formation of polyaluminosiloxane networks through surface modification of cellulose‐polysilicic acid hybrid fibres with inorganic aluminium compounds enhances flame retardancy and laundry performance of these fibres. Fibres of cellulose‐polysilicic acid (VISIL) have been reported as a flame retardant. In contrast to their thermal property, these fibres undergo a significant change, in terms of flame retardancy, when subjected to alkaline conditions (pH > 10). Surface modification of these fibres with inorganic aluminium compounds not only reduces the solubility behaviour but also increases the flame retardancy.
The behaviour of commercially important di‐isocyanates in fire conditions Part 1: Toluene di‐isocyanate (TDI)
Authors: Marlair G. , Prager F. H. , Sand H.
Published: May 2005

Several ‐i‐isocyanates have become commercially important materials, used as intermediates in the manufacture of a wide variety of polyurethane products, yet little is recorded on their behaviour if involved in fire. This paper describes a series of programmes carried out under the auspices of the International Isocyanate Institute Inc. First, a small‐scale laboratory investigation of the ignition, heat release, smoke and toxic gas production characteristics of di‐isocyanates was carried out. Second, their behaviour in drumstock and pool fires, respectively, was examined, using full‐sized samples and selected real‐fire scenarios. Part 1 records the results for toluene di‐ isocyanate (TDI) showing the need for a modest energy input to ignite it from a pilot flame. It then burns in a steady rather than vigorous manner, leaving no residues. Toxic gases evolved are mainly carbon monoxide, while free isocyanate is likely in the early stages of the fire, and hydrogen cyanide may be important in well‐developed fires. Drumstock material behaviour in a fire is dictated mainly by the rupture characteristics of the containers, which can be violent. A series of simple guidelines is suggested, which includes the need for firefighters to wear full protective clothing and fresh‐air breathing equipment. It is also recommended that drumstock TDI should be stored away from easily ignitable materials.
Discussion of smoke corrosivity test methods: Analysis of existing tests and of their results
Authors: Hirschler Marcelo M.
Published: May 2005

Smoke corrosivity was, until recently, associated only with acid, mainly halogenated, gas emission. It has now been shown that all smoke is corrosive, even if it does not contain acid gases. Moreover, acid gas emission from burning materials does not fully correlate with smoke corrosive potential. Many factors govern corrosion, e.g. smoke amount and composition, humidity and temperature. Four small‐scale performance tests for smoke corrosivity have been proposed and are described: CNET, ASTM E‐5.21.70 draft radiant, ASTM D‐9.21.4 draft cone corrosimeter and DIN 53436 draft flow‐through tests. All are undergoing attempts at standardization but none has completed the process. Furthermore, none of them has, as yet, been correlated with full‐scale fires. An analysis was made of the advantages and disadvantages of each of the tests, based on the concepts applied, on the reproducibility and on the results supplied to date. Of particular interest in this respect was a study, by the Society of the Plastics Industry Polyolefins Fire Performance Council, which tested over 20 materials using three of the tests mentioned above. This analysis suggests that the cone corrosimeter is the most promising. The three main reasons for this statement are: (1) it generates a broad range of smoke corrosivity data,(2) the data have good reproducibility and (3) the apparatus is capable of yielding, with an excellent fire model, a whole range of fire properties other than smoke corrosivity. Moreover, this analysis also suggests that the CNET test is the one with the largest number of negative aspects.
Time‐dependent mass loss rate behavior of wall materials under external radiation
Authors: Brehob Ellen G. , Kulkarni Anil K.
Published: May 2005

External radiation in enclosure fires can significantly enhance flame spread and fire growth. One of the effects of external radiation is to increase the mass loss rate of the fuel, which in turn produces larger flames. In this work, a measurement of mass loss with and without applied radiation was made as a function of time for three types of materials: a plastic (polymethylmethacrylate), wood‐based products (particle board and hardboard), and a paper‐based product (cardboard). The levels of applied radiation ranged from 0 to nearly 12 kWm−2. The purpose of the investigation was to (1) quantitatively determine the effect of external radiation on the mass loss of various materials,(2) measure various parameters which may be used to characterize the mass loss rate history of the materials and (3) determine a method for expressing the mass loss rate as a function of time for input into numerical models. Higher levels of external radiation resulted in higher peak mass loss rates and quicker consumption of the material. Quantities which are useful for ranking the flammability of materials have been measured for the samples tested and are tabulated.
Assessment of effectiveness of smoke suppressants—using a He–Ne laser in a flow system
Authors: Sharma Sunil K. , Singh M. P. , Saxena N. K. , Srivastava S. K.
Published: May 2005

In the study of smoke suppressants the measurement of gross amount of smoke from a given sample is essential. However, smoke being a complex phenomenon, its measurement with optical methods presents practical problems. The paper describes a flow system for the measurement of smoke production. Effectiveness of smoke‐suppressant formulations for poly(vinyl chloride) as assessed in a flow system is reported. Results of experiments conducted to probe and establish the capability of smoke measurement in a flow system using a helium–neon laser are discussed.
Autoantibodies against GLEA2 and PHF3 in glioblastoma: Tumor‐associated autoantibodies correlated with prolonged survival
Authors: Pallasch Christian Philipp , Struss Anne‐Katrin , Munnia Angela , König Jochem , Steudel Wolf‐Ingo , Fischer Ulrike , Meese Eckart
Published: May 2005

Using serological identification of recombinantly expressed tumor antigens (SEREX), we identified several autoantibodies against glioma‐expressed antigens including GLEA1, GLEA2 and PHD‐finger protein3 (PHF3). Analysing sera of 62 glioblastoma patients, we found an antibody response against GLEA1 in 15 sera (24.2%), against GLEA2 in 30 sera (48.4%) and against PHF3 in 35 sera (56.5%). Relating patient survival to the occurrence of autoantibodies against either GLEA1, GLEA2 or PHF3, we found a significant prolonged survival for glioblastoma patients positive for autoantibodies against GLEA2 (p = 0.0115) and PHF3 (p = 0.0031), respectively. The median survival of patients with GLEA2 antibodies was increased to 17.4 months and for patients with PHF3 antibodies to 14.7 months, as compared to 7.2 months for patients without GLEA2 or PHF3 antibodies. There was no significant correlation between patient survival and GLEA1‐autoantibodies (p = 0.1611). Herein we present autoantibodies that are: (i) most frequent in glioblastoma patients; (ii) specific for glioblastoma‐associated antigens; and (iii) significantly correlated with prolonged survival in patients with glioblastoma. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Deficiency in surface expression of E‐selectin ligand promotes lung colonization in a mouse model of breast cancer
Authors: Monzavi‐Karbassi Behjatolah , Whitehead Tracy L. , Jousheghany Fariba , Artaud Cecile , Hennings Leah , Shaaf Saeid , Slaughter Aubrey , Korourian Soheila , Kelly Thomas , Blaszczyk‐Thurin Magdalena , Kieber‐Emmons Thomas
Published: May 2005

Expression of sialyl Lewisx (sLex) and sLea on tumor cells is thought to facilitate metastasis by promoting cell adhesion to selectins on vascular endothelial cells. Experiments supporting this concept usually bypass the early steps of the metastatic process by employing tumor cells that are injected directly into the blood. We investigated the relative role of sLex oligosaccharide in the dissemination of breast carcinoma, employing a spontaneous murine metastasis model. An sLex deficient subpopulation of the 4T1 mammary carcinoma cell line was produced by negative selection using the sLex‐reactive KM93 MAb. This subpopulation was negative for E‐selectin binding but retained P‐selectin binding. Both sLex‐negative and ‐positive cells grew at the same rate; however, sLex‐negative cells spread more efficiently on plates and had greater motility in wound‐scratch assays. Mice inoculated in the mammary fat pad with sLex‐negative and ‐positive variants produced lung metastases. However, the number of lung metastases was significantly increased in the group inoculated with the sLex‐negative variant (p = 0.0031), indicating that negative selection for the sLex epitope resulted in enrichment for a subpopulation of cells with a high metastatic phenotype. Cell variants demonstrated significant differences in cellular morphology and pattern of tumor growth in primary and secondary tumor sites. These results strongly suggest that loss of sLex may facilitate the metastatic process by contributing to escape from the primary tumor mass. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
An investigation of bioactive glass powders by sol‐gel processing
Authors: Li R. , Clark A. E. , Hench L. L.
Published: May 2005

Bioactive glass powders, with a composition of SiO2‐CaO‐P2O5,have been successfully synthesized via a sol‐gel process at considerably loer temperatures than required for conventional melting method. Bioactive glass powders made via conventional methods form an interfacial bond wih none when they are implanted. Bonding is correlated with the formation of a surface hydroxyapatite layer. This study examinded the formation of a hydroxyapatite layer in Tris‐buffered solution as a function of SiO2 content of sol‐gel derived powders. A FT‐IRRS technique was used to monitor the formation of the hydroxyapatite on the surface of the powders. X‐ray diffraction analysis and BET were also used to characterize the chemical and physical properties of the sol‐gel derived bioactive powders. It was discovered that: (a) the rate of hydroxyapatite formation decreased wih increasing SiO2 content for powders whose SiO2 content was less than 90 mol%; (b) a hydroxyapatite film does not form for the powders whose SiO2 content is more than 90 mol%; (c) the SiO2 limit, beyond which the powders lost their bioactivity, was much higher for bioactive glass powders mad through sol‐gel process (90%) than those made by conventional melting methods (60%). These results indicate that it is possible to significantly expand the bioactive composition range through microstructural control made possible by sol‐gel processing techniques.
A method to determine shear adhesive strength of fibrin sealants
Authors: Sierra David H. , Feldman Dale S. , Saltz Renato , Huang Shu
Published: May 2005

The adhesive strength of fibrin sealants has not been rigorously evaluated to date. The adhesive strength of six different concentrations of cryoprecipitated fibrinogen as well as the commercially available fibrin tissue adhesive Tissucol® was tested under controlled conditions utilizing split‐thickness skin grafts as the test adherand. This test configuration permitted the modeling of bonding strength for attachment of skin grafts as well as incorporate established engineering test standards for adhesives. An increase in fibrin concentration corresponded with an increase in shear adhesive strength. No significant increases in adhesive strength were attained after 5 min of bonding for all tested concentrations, except for the commercial adhesive, which attained the adhesive strength of an equivalent concentration of cryoprecipitated adhesive after 90 min. The adhesive strength, however, was an order of magnitude less than reported values of the tensile strength of fibrin material for similar concentrations. Therefore, it is important that the surgeon use a sufficiently high fibrinogen concentration for the specific clinical indication. The method of fibrin sealant preparation and/or the compounding adjuncts appear to have an effect on the development of adhesive strength.
A novel drug delivery system for osteomyelitis using porous hydroxyapatite blocks loaded by centrifugation
Authors: Itokazu Mansho , Matsunaga Takanobu , Kumazawa Shinji , Wenyi Yang
Published: May 2005

A novel drug delivery system for osteomyelitis was developed using porous hydroxyaptite blocks (HA‐b) loaded with antibodies by centrifugation. In the study, 10 mm3 HA‐b was placed in a container and mixed with antibiotic solution; the antibiotic was then loaded into the pores of the HA‐b by centrifuging at 1500 rpm for 15 min. Slow release of HA‐b in both moist form and dried form (by heating at 160°C) was tested after loading with the antibiotic arbekacin sulfate (ABK), 1‐N‐(S)‐4 amino‐2‐hydroxybutyryl dibekacin. To estimate the concentration of antibiotic, both forms of HA‐b were placed in 3 mL of phosphate buffered saline (PBS), which was replaced every 48 h. In both groups, which were loaded with 70 mg ABK per one block of HA (concn 0.5 μg/mL) which is sufficiently high to control most pathogens, was maintained for 21 exchanges of PBS (after 42 days). Minimum inhibitory concentration for methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), 3.13 μg/mL, was maintained until nine exchanges took place (after 18 days). The centrifugation method is wsimple, and driked ABK produced by heating loaded HA‐b is particularly useful in clinical applications for osteomyelitis. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.