bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Ends of Experience: Incarnation and Apocalypse
Authors: Nievergelt Marco
Published: April 2023

This chapter examines how Langland forges the overarching narrative logic of this final section of the poem (passus XV–XX in the B text) out of his close engagement with Deguileville’s poetry, with particular attention to the larger structural and conceptual shifts and ruptures that cut across his pilgrimage trilogy as a whole. In particular, Langland demonstrates a nuanced understanding of the highly problematic place of the Pèlerinage Jhesuscrist in the evolving poetic vision of his predecessor, and responds by integrating the account of Christ’s life within the account of the life of his own pilgrim, Will. The enhanced re-visionary dynamism of Langland’s poem, however, also requires him to ‘unmake’ any sense of closure and resolution that accompanies the culminating vision of the Incarnation in passus B XVIII. The poem does so by returning once more to the level of human time, staging an apocalyptic ending that redeploys numerous themes and motifs that structure the terminal decline of the idealised religious community at the end of PVH2. In particular, Langland focuses his attention on the role of linguistic abuses and perversions, refracted in the dubious penitential practices of Friar Flatterer. This final stage of historical, institutional, narrative, and visionary unmaking also provides the occasion for a final reflection on the inherent limitations of poetic ‘makyng’—its provisional status, its intrinsic fallibility, and its fundamentally elusive and unreliable epistemic status as a product of human imagination and artifice.
Why Precedent Works
Authors: Barber Nicholas W
Published: April 2023

This chapter presents a social model of precedent, one in which the legal rules of precedent are supplemented by non-legal rules generated within social groups, principally the legal community of which the judge is a part. It argues that the legal structures of precedent are not enough, in themselves, to explain how the practice operates and, in particular, how it is that judges come to experience precedent as coercive. Precedent should be understood as a social practice, a mode of argumentation partly structured by non-legal rules that operate within social groups, and social expectations are key to the effectiveness of these rules. The chapter concludes by considering some of the problems raised by the roles of social groups in the operation of precedent and suggests ways in which these problems may be mitigated.
The Uses of Precedent and Legal Argument
Authors: Michelon Claudio
Published: April 2023

Courts rely on authoritative judicial precedents by deploying different types of argument. They (a) apply the ratio decidendi of previous cases to the case before them, (b) deploy legal analogies, (c) argue a fortiori, (d) argue a simile, (e) infer more general principles, inter alia. Each different type of argument leaves a distinctive argumentative footprint: they are deployed for different reasons, possess different structures, rely on different assumptions, and offer different support to different types of claims. This chapter sets out to motivate the claim that a satisfactory theory of authoritative judicial precedent should take account of the different ways in which authoritative precedent is used in legal argument. It does so by presenting and contrasting three types of judicial precedent-based argument, namely (i) arguments where a court purports to apply an authoritative precedent, (ii) precedent-based legal analogies, and (iii) precedent-based inferences to the best legal explanation. From the discussion of these argument types, the chapter shows that the authority of precedent is used in judicial decisions in a variety of ways and that a sufficiently sophisticated theory of judicial precedent should pay heed to these different ways in which authority is utilized in legal argument.
The Hermeneutics of Legal Precedent
Authors: Poscher Ralf
Published: April 2023

The application of statutory law is hermeneutical in nature along the lines of an intentionalist account of meaning and interpretation. This even holds for legal construction in hard cases. The hermeneutical character of the practice of precedent, however, is disputed. It has been contrasted with interpretation because of its purported analogical character. The question goes to the methodology of precedents in both common law and continental legal systems. This contribution shows that the application of precedent shares the hermeneutical character of the application of statutory law, although with some qualifications. These qualifications pertain to the necessity of constructing an intentional subject, the object of interpretation, and the necessity of legal construction. With these qualifications, the application of precedent follows the intentionalist account even for ‘bare’ precedents, that is, precedents without stated reasons. Unlike the application of precedents, the creation of precedent is not necessarily hermeneutical.
How Does Precedent Constrain?
Authors: Horty John
Published: April 2023

This chapter contains a simple presentation of the reason model of precedential constraint, according to which what matters about a precedent case is the earlier court’s assessment of the relative strength of the conflicting reasons it presents. This assessment is represented here as a priority ordering on reasons; later courts are then required to reach decisions that are consistent with this priority ordering. From the perspective of the reason model, a familiar problem concerning common law constraint is considered—that, if distinguishing is allowed, then real constraint is impossible, since later cases will always present new features on the basis of which they can be distinguished.
Presumptive Reasons and Stare Decisis
Authors: Marmor Andrei
Published: April 2023

Our practical reasoning often relies on defeasible generalizations; reasons for action that normally apply may have exceptions, they may not apply in this case, or even if they do, they may be defeated by conflicting reasons. Generally, however, people should not be expected to explain why a reason for action that would normally apply to them is defeated in a particular instance. My purpose in this chapter is to explicate one type of case in which an expectation to explain one’s failure to comply with a reason for action is justified, and demonstrate its bearing on the practical reasoning that underlies the legal doctrine of stare decisis in horizontal (non-binding) precedents in common law. I call them presumptive reasons. A presumptive reason is in place when an expectation is initially warranted that the subject either comply with a reason for action that would generally apply, or else explain why not. The first section shows that this burden of explanation is ubiquitous in our practical reasoning, and explains the rationale of it. The second section employs the idea of presumptive reasons to explain the structure of practical reasoning in horizontal, that is, non-binding precedents, showing that even where there is no legal obligation to follow a precedent, there is a legal obligation to explain why the reasons for following it are defeated in this case.
Realism About Precedent
Authors: Leiter Brian
Published: April 2023

In jurisdictions with a doctrine of precedent, later courts are bound only by those earlier decisions which are ‘on point’ or ‘the same in relevant respects’ to the case currently before the court. Since cases are never identical in all particulars, this always requires figuring out which general categories that subsume the particulars of different cases are the relevant ones (‘relevant similarity’). Relevant similarity is typically assessed in the light of either the reasons the earlier court actually gave for the decision or the reasons that can be imputed to the earlier court based on the legal decision that court reached. Realists about precedent—from Karl Llewellyn to Julius Stone to this author—are sceptical that precedent really binds courts, but not because they believe judges improperly disregard binding precedents. The realist worry, rather, is that judges can often properly distinguish precedents that might impede the decision they want to reach on moral or political grounds. They can do so precisely because judgments of ‘relevant similarity’ that are central to distinguishing are largely unconstrained by law. First, such judgments depend on inchoate and sometimes unconscious norms that govern general classifications of particulars, about which reasonable people can and do differ, and about which the law is mostly silent. Secondly, given the range of permissible characterizations of the earlier court’s reasons in many instances, the requirement that the judgment of relevant similarity or difference be consistent with those reasons imposes only a limited constraint on the general classification employed.
Reasons Holism and the Shared View of Precedent
Authors: Spaak Torben
Published: April 2023

Although the common law model of precedent and the civil law model of precedent differ in certain respects, they are also similar in important ways. The question discussed in this chapter is whether the common core of these models, which is here called the shared view, can be squared with a theory called reasons holism. It is argued (1) that if the usual reasons for following precedent are genuine, then any of these reasons may favour following precedent in some situations, but may favour not following precedent in others, and that this would threaten the shared view. It is, however, also argued (2) that we may coherently conceive of these reasons as merely conventional reasons, and that therefore the shared view will not be threatened. Moreover, it is argued (3) that if ordinary legal reasons are genuine, the ratio decidendi of a precedent cannot be conceived as a genuine general legal norm, following precedent can therefore not be understood as action in accordance with such a norm, and that no alternative analysis of the ratio in terms of legal rules of thumb, or supervenience likeness, could be successful. Finally, it is argued (4) that the theory of reasons holism turns out to be rather problematic, and (5) that even if it were not, exclusive legal positivists could still defend the shared view, on the grounds that legal reasons at all levels are merely conventional reasons.
Distributing Corrective Justice
Authors: Stone Rebecca
Published: April 2023

Gardner observes that certain “problems of distributive justice … come into being only because the law of torts exists.” First, there is the question whether the institutionalization of corrective justice has been done justly. Thus, the question whether the law should give tort-law recognition to a type of wrong is a question of distributive justice. Second, corrective justice makes it the case that the parties to a tort suit may face a question of distributive justice between themselves. The defendant’s wrong is something that, by virtue of corrective justice, ought to be righted. But the law’s determination about how losses arising from the wrong are to be shared may be shaped by distributive considerations. Chapter 7 argues that these observations do not support Gardner’s idea that “corrective justice in tort law enjoys some kind of explanatory priority.” If substantive rather than formal equality is the foundational value, then considerations of substantive equality ought to govern both the distribution of entitlements and the law’s response to infringements of those entitlements. The result is that the value of substantive equality will have normative priority that makes it challenging to view tort litigation as doing corrective justice except when the background conditions of the polity are close to the ideal.
The Place of Regret in the Law of Torts
Authors: Sinel Zoë
Published: April 2023

In Gardner’s account of the problem of reparation for wrongs, the justification for tort law’s reparative obligations lies in grasping a connection between secondary duties of repair and primary duties not to commit a wrong in the first place. According to his “continuity thesis,” “the secondary obligation is the rational echo of the primary obligation, for it exists to serve, so far as may still be done, the reasons for the primary obligation that was not performed when its performance was due.” Between the first-best solution of performing one’s primary obligation and the second-best solution of performing an obligation of reparation, a gap exists, a space occupied by the actor’s feelings of regret. Chapter 12 suggests that Gardner’s focus on regret’s relevance reveals a profound problem with the continuity thesis’ applicability in tort law. Regret, properly understood, is an emotion that is keyed to situations of conflicting imperfect duties—that is, duties that require further moral reasoning and judgment to determine the action they make mandatory. In these cases, I cannot satisfy all of the imperfect duties that apply to me, but this does not mean that these duties are rendered normatively inert. Crucially, however, these situations of conflict do not arise in the private law circumstances to which Gardner applied the continuity thesis’ logic. They arise only in an extra-legal, moral sphere. Thus, while Gardner is right about the structure of moral obligations, the chapter argues that this structure does not apply to the legal obligations of tort law.
Private Law Rights and Powers of Waiver
Authors: Psarras Haris
Published: April 2023

An established view in legal philosophy has it that private law rights are waivable—that is, that right-holders are free to give them up. Chapter 15 argues that not all private law rights are waivable and that waivability operates differently in different types of private law rights. The argument uses as a springboard Gardner’s tripartite classification of private law rights. This classification has been first launched to support an analysis of the place of corrective justice in private law and to explicate the extensive discretion of the plaintiff in civil litigation. As this chapter claims, Gardner’s tripartite classification can also serve as a basis for a theory on the waivability of private law rights. The chapter also argues that the conceptualization of different types of private law rights as clusters of claim-rights and powers or other entitlements supports an argument in favor of the waivability of substantive rights, and the unwaivability or limited waivability of two different types of remedial rights.
Approaching Land Warfare in the Twenty-first Century
Authors: Nilsson Niklas , Weissmann Mikael
Published: April 2023

This chapter provides a broad introduction to the volume, outlining key questions and trends that provide the overarching impetus for the volume’s focus on the contemporary and future challenges facing land forces and land operations. First, the chapter provides a brief account of the modern development of land warfare. Second, it outlines key current and future challenges defining the operational environment. Third, the chapter addresses perspectives on the future character of war and the transformation of the battlefield. Finally, it outlines the structure of the volume and introduces the individual chapters.
The Future of Manoeuvre Warfare
Authors: Tuck Christopher
Published: April 2023

This chapter assesses the future relevance of manoeuvre warfare, a key philosophical and doctrinal concept in the debate on the effective conduct of land operations. It argues that the relevance of manoeuvre warfare is likely to be assured, although this relevance cannot be assumed to be coterminous with effectiveness. Despite its prominence, manoeuvre warfare is a contested idea. This chapter explores contending views on its future: that manoeuvre warfare might be of continued relevance, because it is context agnostic; that manoeuvre warfare might be of greatly increased relevance because of developments in the character of conflict and the emergence of concepts such as Multi-Domain Operations (MDO); or that manoeuvre warfare might be largely irrelevant to the reality of future operations, its survival saying more about military norms, values, and perceptions.
Emerging Technologies
Authors: Watling Jack
Published: April 2023

Narratives surrounding the future of warfare often revolve around the transformative effects of technology on the battlefield but fail to properly account for the frictions involved in employing sophisticated military systems. This chapter examines several technologies likely to be significant on the future battlefield—autonomous systems, layered precision fires, high fidelity sensors, and artificial intelligence—and tries to map how they will shape fighting by exploring the opportunities they create and the limitations they impose. Critically, the chapter argues that these capabilities must be assessed in the context of a system that can field and sustain them, rather than in isolation.
Interoperability Challenges in an Era of Systemic Competition
Authors: Curtis Andrew
Published: April 2023

In the current era of systemic competition, interoperability will be as important as it has ever been, even though most academic scrutiny fails to consider its benefits and most practitioners fail to recognize it as a means to an end. Intra-NATO interoperability atrophied after the Cold War, with member nations modernizing their militaries at a pace and complexity to suit their own policies and budgets. However, in the last decade, the global strategic environment has undergone a considerable change and today’s multipolar world is far more competitive. Interoperability has returned to prominence, but re-embracing it will be problematic. The lack of a single, pan-NATO unifying concept means there is no common approach around which future interoperability efforts can coalesce, and behavioural differences among NATO allies is becoming more prevalent, especially as some nations aggressively press ahead with the exploitation of new technologies whilst others follow more cautiously behind.
Caught between a Rock and a Hard Place
Authors: Schmitt Olivier , Tenenbaum Elie
Published: April 2023

The army has been at the centre of the transformation of the French armed forces since the end of the Cold War. The key organizational challenge for the French Army has been to integrate and digest the consequences of professionalization, adopting a ‘joint’ information technology architecture and defining its own distinct service footprint in the shape of an expeditionary warfighting capacity. After three decades of expeditionary warfare, the French Army is once again evolving and pivoting toward high-intensity warfare, a new organizational challenge impacting doctrine, procurement, training, and the relationship with key allies. The new strategic environment—rendered even more obvious by the war in Ukraine—is already apparent in evolving tactics, doctrine, and capability development. This transformation, however, will take time as it challenges both the operational experience and the cultural heritage of a French Army that finds itself, more than ever, at the crossroads for defining its future role in the strategic landscape.
Prague and a New Czech Republic 1921–1922
Authors: McCulloch Margery Palmer
Published: April 2023

1921–1922. The pair move abroad with a contract from The Freeman, an American journal, to write about Europe after the war. Living is cheap and they go to Prague in the first years of the new Czech Republic. They enjoy the experience but are aware of social and political tensions. They meet and make friends with Karel and Josef Čapek. Edwin Muir, ‘Impressions of Prague’.
North and South 1923–1924
Authors: McCulloch Margery Palmer
Published: April 2023

1923–1924. Edwin gains confidence in the poetry he is writing, but Neill’s International School is struggling, and the Muirs move to Italy, where John Holms has rented a house. The sojourn is not a success, so they move north to Salzburg, which Edwin had visited with his friend F. G. Scott to write about the music festival that year. Encounters with Austrian anti-Semitism lead them to move to Dresden, which has a more liberal air, although the Muirs do not warm to the bohemian night life. When The Freeman folds in the United States, the couple join A. S. Neill again, whose International School is now at Sonntagberg in Austria. The experiment is short-lived, however, and Neill abandons his plans in the face of local suspicion and conservative prejudice. Neill takes the project to England. Wanting to see Scotland again, the Muirs also return, aiming to stay with Willa’s mother in Montrose.
Fête du Citron 1924–1926
Authors: McCulloch Margery Palmer
Published: April 2023

1924–1926.The Muirs meet old friends in London, and make contact with C. M. Grieve (‘Hugh MacDiarmid’) and his wife Peggy in Montrose. The poets respect each other and Edwin admires MacDiarmid’s achievement, but the families have little in common. Willa starts to translate Gerhard Hauptman and plans an essay on women—Women: An Inquiry (1925). Edwin’s reviews and essays are collected as Transition (1926). They find living in Montrose disappointing, and visit friends in the south when they can. Willa suffers a miscarriage in December 1925, and they depart for St Tropez in France. Edwin plans a novel, published as The Marionette (1927), and Willa plans one based on her memories of Montrose. She has a contract to translate Lion Feuchtwanger’s Jew Süss, which will be a big success. Willa feels their time in the south of France is spoiled by the arrival of John Holms, who dominates her husband’s attention. The couple move to Menton, but John Holms is an important person in Edwin’s life, despite Willa’s reservations. He was a charismatic and gifted talker who impressed almost everyone he met, including the millionairess Peggy Guggenheim, who will take him as a lover. The Muirs’ sojourn in France comes to an end when Willa finds she is pregnant and they return to Britain.
Scottish Journeys 1933–1935
Authors: McCulloch Margery Palmer
Published: April 2023

1933–1935. Variations on a Time Theme appears in 1934. The poet is saddened by the news that John Holms has died during a minor operation. Edwin is the Spectator’s correspondent on Scottish culture, while writing for more than five other periodicals, including the start-up European Quarterly with Janko Lavrin. Edwin and Willa attend a P.E.N. conference in Edinburgh before taking a holiday in Orkney. They are thinking of moving back to Scotland. Edwin contracts to write Scottish Journey, to join previous accounts of England and Europe as part of a series for Heinemann and Gollancz. He borrows a car and sets off on what will prove to be a cultural and psychological exploration of the state of the country. As a socialist with no time for the icons of romantic nationhood, Edwin’s conclusion is grim. Published in 1935, it is a revealing picture of economic and social decline, with the exception, perhaps, of Orkney. The chapter discusses earlier studies in Scottish identity and society, George Malcolm Thomson’s Caledonia, or The Future of the Scots (1927) and Andrew Dewar Gibb’s Scotland in Eclipse (1930). Unlike Edwin’s study, these works are conservative, anti-Catholic, and significantly tainted by the racism of anti-Irish prejudice.
Translating for a Living
Authors: McCulloch Margery Palmer
Published: April 2023

This chapter discusses in detail the economic and intellectual challenges of the Muirs’ work in translating many different texts from German literature. They are best known for their versions of Hauptmann, Feuchtwanger, Kafka, Carossa, and Broch. Willa’s linguistic skills are seen to be fundamental to the project, and she seems to have been the sole translator of several of the Hans Carossa texts—under the name ‘Agnes Neill Scott’. She is the lead translator of Hermann Broch, and her correspondence with Broch is featured. Nevertheless, reviewers have tended to underestimate Willa’s contribution, by giving prominence to Edwin’s name. The difficulty of translating Kafka from original, often unpublished texts already edited by Max Brod, is discussed, along with a critical reassessment, most notably by Mark Harmon, of the Muirs’ versions compared to those by more contemporary scholars.
Newbattle Abbey 1950–1955
Authors: McCulloch Margery Palmer
Published: April 2023

1950–1955. Newbattle Abbey, a grand house and estate, was gifted to the nation as a ‘second chance’ college, without formal exams, for men and women who missed the usual route to education. Edwin settles in well and organizes a Collected Poems 1921–1951 for Faber and Faber (1952). He starts work on an extended version of his autobiography (1954) and continues with the poems that will appear as One Foot in Eden (1956). Left to herself, Willa starts a novel based on 1940s Prague to be called ‘The Usurpers’, but it is rejected by three publishers. Her spirits are low and she begins a journal of their daily life at Newbattle. There are problems with Gavin, now graduated from St Andrews and living with them. Seemingly unable to find a job and suffering from incipient deafness, he is moody and determined to pass a performance diploma from the Royal Academy of Music, despite repeated failures to do so. Edwin is keen to sustain a residential focus on the liberal arts, but the college’s executive committee, and pressure from the trade unions, prefer a curriculum more suited to weekly courses for workers on release. These tensions are exacerbated by Willa’s suddenly urgent need for further surgical procedures. Edwin experiences chest pains, and a traffic accident in Edinburgh suggests a problem with his heart. When Edwin is invited to be the next Charles Norton Professor of Poetry at Harvard (1955–56), the Muirs gladly decide to sail for the United States.
Last Years 1963–1970
Authors: McCulloch Margery Palmer
Published: April 2023

1963–1970. Willa’s study Living with Ballads is published in 1965. An idiosyncratic approach to the topic, it is generally well reviewed. Gavin’s career is as erratic as ever, and he is still trying to pass the exam to become a Licentiate of the Royal Academy of Music. Willa keeps in touch with old students from Newbattle days, glad to hear of the success of Archie Hind, Tom Scott, and George Mackay Brown. Motivated by Peter Butter’s book on Edwin, she undertakes to write a more personal account of her life with Edwin. It is a struggle, but Belonging is published to good reviews in 1968. Gavin’s marriage is in difficulties, but he and Dorothy reconcile and move to Edinburgh. Increasingly incapacitated by arthritis in her hips and hands, Willa now needs proper support. Her sojourns at a retirement home and then a nursing home are less than satisfactory, and promised care with a friend in St Andrews is a short-lived failure. Edwin’s niece gladly invites her to stay with her and her newly retired husband in Dunoon, and it is there, quite unexpectedly and peacefully, that Willa dies on 22 May 1970. Some of her obituaries recognize her work as a translator and author, and all recognize the creative and practical support she gave to her husband.
Technology and Trade
Authors: Acharyya Rajat
Published: April 2023

In his doctrine of absolute advantage, Adam Smith emphasized upon cross-country differences in technology as the basis of trade between nations. Ricardo offered a more general explanation for trade in his doctrine of comparative cost advantage. More important, however, was his construction that all trading nations gain mutually through trade according to their respective comparative advantages, unless nations have very asymmetric sizes. This chapter presents these arguments in terms of what is known as the Ricardian model. Following Ricardo, it is shown that under constant opportunity costs the gains from trade for the trading nations are contingent upon each country completely specializing after trade in the good in which it has comparative advantage. Such a complete specialization equilibrium, on the other hand, depends on the relative sizes of the countries, or relative sizes of their workforces. Generalization of the basic 2x2 Ricardian model to many countries and many goods are also discussed. While Smith and Ricardo talked about technology determining the basis and pattern of trade between countries, there can also be a reverse causality between technology and the international trade. International trade may influence innovation choices at the firm level and push the barriers of technology. This chapter also focuses on this reverse causality.
Import Tariff and Export Subsidies
Authors: Acharyya Rajat
Published: April 2023

International trade among countries has hardly been unrestricted or has been purely market driven. Countries do intervene by restricting or promoting trade through different instruments like tariffs, import quotas, export subsidies, voluntary import restraints, etc. Some countries are more inward-looking and adopt import-restriction policies. Some countries are more outward-oriented and thus adopt export promotion policies. There are varieties of objectives for such trade interventions—restrictions or promotions. Such objectives can be achieved through different instruments of trade intervention that broadly categorize into the ones that regulate or affect prices of the traded goods and the ones that regulate the volume of trade. This chapter focuses on the former category, i.e., price instruments. More precisely, it discusses the different rationale for trade restriction through import tariffs—national welfare, revenue for the exchequer, protection of domestic import-competing industries, and redistribution of national income among factor owners—and welfare implication of trade promotion through export subsidies. The chapter also highlights on the symmetry between import tariffs and export taxes, and between export subsidies and import subsidies.
Market Failure, Distortions, and Trade Policy
Authors: Acharyya Rajat
Published: April 2023

Gains can be realized from trade according to comparative advantage if commodity prices correctly reflect the marginal benefits and marginal costs. Otherwise, the pattern of trade driven by cross-country price differences and consequent scope for arbitrage may lead to a kind of specialization that is not exactly in line with the true comparative advantage of the country. This entails specialization losses rather than gains from such trade. Such cases of prices incorrectly signalling costs and benefits—cases of market failure—may arise due to variety of reasons including, most importantly, production and/or consumption externalities. In general, market failures caused by the production and consumption externalities are examples of distortions in an economy. Distortion is a situation of Pareto sub-optimal or socially sub-optimum production and consumption of commodities. Government intervention is therefore needed to improve upon the social welfare through reallocation of resources and consequent changes in the otherwise sub-optimal production and consumption of commodities. Should international trade be restricted in such cases? Should an import tariff be imposed to correct the wrong specialization that free market leads to and to induce producers to specialize according to the true comparative advantage of the nation? The answer depends to a large extent on the nature and source of a distortion. This chapter provides a detailed accounting of different kinds of distortion and in light of those analyse whether and when trade intervention is a first-best or an optimum policy.
Trade, Growth, and Inclusion
Authors: Acharyya Rajat
Published: April 2023

This chapter introduces to the students the relationship between trade and growth that involves a two-way causality. International trade affects growth of aggregate output of trading nations largely through improvement in factor productivity and also through demand augmenting effects. However, as both theories and empirical evidences show, the export-led growth depends much on what a country exports rather than on how much a country exports. On the other hand, the output growth caused by factors other than international trade, such as technical progress, domestic capital accumulation or population growth, affects the volume of trade. If the country is large in the world market in the sense that its actions influence world commodity prices, the growth in output may worsen its TOT, and consequently may make growth immiserizing. It is for this TOT effect that the welfare implication of the growth in output in an open economy contrasts with that in a closed economy. This chapter also highlights on inclusiveness of export-led growth. Not all types output growth have the same implications for the poor and the unskilled workers. Certain types of growth may create very little opportunities for the unskilled and the low-skill workers and widens the gulf between them and the skilled workers. Such types of growth have very little impact on poverty, since most of the poor either have no skill or have low levels of skill, and large adverse impacts on income inequality. Thus growth may be exclusive rather than inclusive.
Services Trade
Authors: Acharyya Rajat
Published: April 2023

With the advent of the telecommunication and transmission technology many services that had long been considered as purely domestic (or non-traded) activities, have become tradable, such as financial services (like banking and insurance) and business services (like software development, call centres, consultancy services including medical advice, and the like). All these service activities have the inherent characteristics of non-requirement of physical transportation of product, and therefore have the scope of digitization. Thus, services are no longer just inputs to goods traded, but are themselves traded as final consumption. There are certain features of services itself that makes services trade distinctly different from commodity trade. The determinants of comparative advantages of nations in services are also not exactly the same as those for commodities, though there are some broad similarities. An interesting recent dimension of services trade is virtual trade in intermediate services driven by the time zone differences in countries engaged in such trade/exchange of services. Typical example is trade in business processing services between India and the United States. Non-overlapping time zones can itself establish comparative advantage for nations and form the basis of trade between them. Thus, geographical distance, which usually constrains international trade in goods by increasing cost of transporting goods from one country to the other, may actually promote virtual trade in intermediate services. All these different dimensions of services trade are discussed in this Chapter.
Product Standards, Regulations, and Trade
Authors: Acharyya Rajat
Published: April 2023

The goods traded amongst countries are often subjected to different sets of international standards and regulations. For example, the richer countries often impose minimum quality standards and environmental standards on the goods imported from the poor countries, and require core labour standards being maintained—particularly regarding not using child labour—while producing the export goods. Regulating trade through these different product standards is justified by the richer countries as creating a level playing field by removing undue comparative advantages of the poorer countries that arise from their differential and lower product standards. The poorer countries, on the other hand, perceive these standards and regulations as non-tariff barriers in disguise. This chapter discusses these arguments of unfair trade and counter-arguments of protectionism, and distinguishes between different types of product standards and regulations in terms of their implications for trade and investment flows across nations. Dimensions and implications of each of these standards are however different from the other. For example, trade sanctions against ecological dumping and trade sanctions against the use of child labour in production of traded goods have altogether different implications. Trade sanctions against child labour may actually backfire and do more harm than good to the child workers as they may be pushed to non-traded activities, and, worst of all, to more hazardous and sometimes unethical works. Competition among the developing countries to attract FDI through lowering of environmental standards, on the other hand, may lead to race-to-the-bottom thereby making all worse off.
World Trade Organization and Trade Agreements
Authors: Acharyya Rajat
Published: April 2023

This chapter discusses the functions, aims, and structure of the WTO and the trade policy rules and agreements that it implements and administers. It introduces to the students the dispute settlement mechanism of the WTO and the decision-making process there. Salient features of some of the multilateral agreements like Agreements on Agriculture, Agreement on Rules of Origin, Agreements on TBT and SPS, Agreement on TRIPS, and Plurilateral Trade Agreements on Government Procurement, are also discussed.
International Currency Systems and Exchange Rate Regimes
Authors: Acharyya Rajat
Published: April 2023

In the present day, the international currency system that defines the parameters of the foreign exchange market—a market where national currencies are exchanged and traded—acts as the money-changers of the yesteryears. Essentially, international currency system is a facilitator that provides a set of internationally agreed rules and means of payment acceptable between the buyers and the sellers of different nationality with different national currency units. The international currency system has been marked by three different phases. The first was the gold standard system during 1875–1944. The second phase was the Bretton Woods system (1944–71) during which the gold standard system was replaced by gold-USD exchange standard. The third and the current phase began with the abandonment of the Bretton Woods system during the 1970s and adoption of a flexible exchange rate system by many countries. This chapter discusses these different phases of the international currency system, the flexible exchange rate regime, and departures from it through interventions of different kinds in the foreign exchange markets by countries to protect their national interests. India’s exchange rate policies in the 1990s to mitigate its BOP crisis are discussed as a case study.
Currency Regimes Revisited
Authors: Acharyya Rajat
Published: April 2023

The present system of flexible exchange rates has not been too successful in sustaining output growth and containing inflation rates in the developed world. This has led many economists and policymakers to float the idea of reviving the Bretton Woods system of international currency management. This has also revived the debate over the relative efficacy of pegged and floating exchange rates in the developing world in promoting employment and growth and in stabilizing output and income fluctuations. The initial success and subsequent crisis in the Euro zone have also reopened the issue of an optimum currency area. This chapter makes a summary comparison between a pegged exchange rate regime, and broadly speaking, a flexible exchange rate regime. However, it is difficult to make a once for all choice in favour of a particular exchange rate regime. Neither the theory nor the country experiences are very conclusive in this regard. Both regimes have their benefits and costs. Suitability of a particular regime, however, depends on the policy target of a country.
Pseudo-Noun Incorporation and Differential Object Marking
Authors: Driemel Imke
Published: April 2023

Pseudo-noun incorporation describes a phenomenon in which an argument forms a “closer than usual” relation with the verb. This book provides a detailed cross-linguistic study of pseudo-noun incorporation, based on elicitation with speakers of Tamil, Mongolian, Korean, Turkish, and German. Five diagnostics are applied across eleven noun types in each of the languages under consideration. What emerges is a coherent effect of pseudo-incorporated arguments that maps loss of case marking to obligatory narrow scope, lack of binding and control relations, and a potentially restricted movement pattern. This book provides a unifying theory that is able to capture all properties with a single assumption. Pseudo-incorporation effects result from noun phrases that are made up of a nominal and a verbal category feature. Implemented in a derivational framework, the nominal feature is active early in the derivation being responsible for c-selection and nominal modification, the verbal feature is active late and crucially derives the effects we have come to recognize as pseudo-noun incorporation. One important empirical contribution of this study stems from the observation that pseudo-incorporation does not have to be the only reason for optional case marking. Tamil and Korean provide evidence that only a subset of optionally case-marked noun types also show a correlation with scope, binding, control, and movement constraints. This insight enforces the conclusion that the same language can make use of both pseudo-noun incorporation and differential object marking.
Methodology and main results
Authors: Driemel Imke
Published: April 2023

This chapter develops the methodology of the cross-linguistic study. In contrast to the better known phenomenon of noun incorporation, pseudo-noun incorporation is much more difficult to diagnose, as it does not display a visible morpho-syntactic process indicating that the noun and the verb undergo some kind of fusion. Hence, the diagnostics are described in detail for each language. Apart from introducing the sample set and discussing the elicitation methods and the number of consultants, the main results are summarized for each of the languages under investigation. The overview clearly reflects the size restriction on the noun types which have been observed in the literature to be able to pseudo-incorporate. One notable exception is Korean, where pseudo-incorporation extends to proper names, weak definites, and 1st/2nd personal pronouns.
Pseudo-incorporation as a category change phenomenon
Authors: Driemel Imke
Published: April 2023

In this chapter, I present the main idea of this book. The effects of pseudo-incorporation can be explained by an analysis along the lines of category change from a nominal to a verbal category. This idea is incorporated into the system by feature stacks, that is features which are accessible in a predetermined order in the course of the derivation. The lack of case marking, the scope inertness, and the lack of binding and control properties all point to fact that the argument has undergone a change to a verbal category. Accordingly, PNI-ed arguments show the same movement patterns as VPs. The chapter motivates the main idea, spells out the theoretical assumptions, and implements the approach in a derivational, phase-based framework in the first three sections. The last section discusses why category change is not analyzed with a layering approach, as it is traditionally assumed for nominalization.
“A Purse in Common”
Authors: Rappoport Jill
Published: April 2023

Gaskell’s final, unfinished novel has interested critics for the way its two sibling pairs struggle for scarce resources. Yet the novel attempts to replace competition with common interest, privileging mutual over individual benefit in a model of sibling relations that pools resources, giving emotional connection both an economic counterpart and a grounding in alternative evolutionary strains. By juxtaposing sibling relations with visions of marital unity and discord, Gaskell shows how extralegal economic practices can promote well-being and intimacy within both family ties. The marriage plot of Gaskell’s novel is as much a story of how to be a good brother, sister, or friend as the story of a developing heterosexual romance. Wives and Daughters shows how changing economic relationships can advance the needs of both.
“That Blent Transmission”
Authors: Rappoport Jill
Published: April 2023

Daniel Deronda responds to women’s changing property rights through Gwendolen’s story and also its “Jewish plot” of cultural inheritance. Together, the narratives map contemporary tensions between social and legal definitions of ownership. If, as the chapter suggests, the novel’s so-called “English marriage plot” uses diamond theft to stage the competing economic claims of wives and sons, its “Jewish plot” uses stolen diamonds to resolve this familial conflict by consolidating more fluid kinship ties. This “blent transmission” of spiritual inheritance counters the fraught transfer of Gwendolen’s diamonds through a form of inalienable property that, despite “theft,” adheres to its path of descent. Eliot’s expansive conception of family ties beyond marriage, her understanding of non-monetary property value, and her defense of socially sanctioned transmission over property law also point to the shortcomings of that law and suggest some of the ways in which legal rights and individuals’ priorities attending personal property diverge.
Afterword
Authors: Rappoport Jill
Published: April 2023

The Afterword turns to contemporary workplaces to consider the legacies left by Victorian stories of women’s property. This brief conclusion notes that the Victorian discipline of economics emerged precisely as women’s financial rights were changing. Pointing to a neglected but highly suggestive conjunction of legal and theoretical developments, the afterword speculates on what this neglect has meant for women’s economic lives today. Finally, it argues that a keener sense of the continuities between Victorian fictions and twenty-first-century labor markets might allow a better understanding of the economic challenges women still face and eventually even help to improve these financial circumstances.
Informality and work status
Authors: Fields Gary S.
Published: April 2023

The most important determinant of the livelihoods of households is how much they earn for their labour. People in informal work are more likely to be low earners, to live in poverty, and to make fewer transitions into the higher-paying work status groups. This chapter begins, in the first section, by defining the terms ‘informal economy’, ‘informal sector’, and ‘informal employment’. It describes the six-category work status used throughout the case studies presented in the book. The two following sections then investigate why we should differentiate between work status groups and what we can learn by analysing work status groups and the transitions between them.
Informality, labour transitions, and the livelihoods of workers in Latin America
Authors: Maurizio Roxana , Monsalvo Ana Paula
Published: April 2023

Despite the increasing trend in labour formality over the 2000s in Latin American countries, informality continues to be one of the most distinctive features of the labour markets in this region. This chapter studies the incidence and heterogeneity of labour informality in six Latin American countries from a comparative and dynamic perspective. Two contrasting labour mobility patterns appear: on the one hand, the proportion of formal workers who maintain the work status of origin or move up the job ladder is significantly higher than those who transition into lower-paying work status groups; on the other hand, despite the high labour turnover experienced by lower-tier informal wage-employees, most of them failed to move up the wage ladder. Wages are the highest for formal workers and the lowest for lower-tier informal jobs. Education raises the probability of transiting into a better job and the chances of better wages within informal occupations.