bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Azithromycin Concentrations in Blood and Gingival Crevicular Fluid After Systemic Administration
Authors: Lai Pin‐Chuang , Ho Weiting , Jain Nidhi , Walters John D.
Published: March 2011

Background: Azithromycin is a macrolide antibiotic that is active against several periodontal pathogens. Macrolides are taken up and concentrated inside gingival fibroblasts, which could influence their pharmacokinetics. This study tests the hypothesis that steady‐state levels of azithromycin are higher and more sustained in gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) than in serum.

Methods: Four healthy patients received an initial dose of 500‐mg azithromycin followed by 250‐mg doses on each of the next 2 days. Serum and GCF samples were obtained 2 hours after the last dose on day 2, and on days 4 and 7. GCF samples were collected from maxillary posterior sites with paper strips. The strips were pooled and eluted with high‐purity water. After extraction, the azithromycin content of the serum samples and GCF eluates was determined with an agar diffusion bioassay.

Results: On days 2, 4, and 7, the concentrations of azithromycin in blood serum were 0.22 ± 0.02, 0.08 ± 0.02, and 0.04 ± 0.01 μg/mL, respectively. The concentrations in GCF were 8.82 ± 1.25, 7.90 ± 1.72, and 7.38 ± 1.15 μg/mL, respectively. Mean GCF levels were significantly higher than mean serum levels (P ≤0.02; paired t test).

Conclusions: The findings demonstrate that the pharmacokinetic profiles of azithromycin are different in GCF and serum. At steady state, azithromycin concentrations in GCF were higher and more sustained than those in serum. Based on previous studies, the levels observed in GCF were above the minimal inhibitory concentration for Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans (previously Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans), Porphyromonas gingivalis, and Prevotella intermedia.
Long‐Term Efficacy of Subantimicrobial‐Dose Doxycycline as an Adjunctive Treatment to Scaling and Root Planing: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis
Authors: Sgolastra Fabrizio , Petrucci Ambra , Gatto Roberto , Giannoni Mario , Monaco Annalisa
Published: March 2011

Background: Subantimicrobial‐dose doxycycline (SDD) is widely used as an adjunctive treatment to scaling and root planing (SRP), but its long‐term effectiveness remains controversial. The purpose of this systematic review was to assess the actual evidence of the effectiveness of SRP + SDD compared to SRP + placebo in the treatment of chronic periodontitis.

Methods: A literature search of electronic databases was performed for articles published through November 1, 2010. Several dental journals were screened during the manual search, and authors were contacted for missing information. The systematic review and meta‐analysis were conducted according to the Quality of Reporting of Meta‐Analyses statement and recommendations of the Cochrane Collaboration. The methodologic quality of the studies was determined via a Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials–based assessment. Clinical attachment levels, probing depths, plaque and gingival indices, and gingival crevicular fluid levels were compared between baseline and the end of follow‐up. Data were extracted and pooled using a random‐effect model. The weighted mean difference was reported with the 95% confidence interval. Heterogeneity was assessed using the χ2‐based Q‐statistic method and I2 measurement. P <0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results: After applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, three randomized placebo‐controlled clinical trials were entered into the meta‐analysis. These studies had similar treatment designs, SDD dosage regimens (20 mg twice daily for 3 months), and post‐treatment follow‐up lengths (9 months). Significant differences were observed for all investigated clinical parameters in favor of the SRP + SDD group.

Conclusion: The meta‐analysis results seemed to support the long‐term effectiveness of adjunctive SDD therapy; however, future studies are needed to confirm these findings.
Can Safety Improvement Increase Drilling Efficiency?
Authors: Boutalbi S. M. , Pavel D. A. , Grayson M. B.
Published: March 2011

The number one operational safety risk during the drilling and completion of a well is the risk of a kick and the danger that this can place on people, assets and environment. The second is the potential misdiagnosis of a kick or a limited ability, to quickly and efficiently identify downhole anomalies. Is it a kick, or is the well breathing when making a connection? Are we experiencing losses, or is the well ballooning when the mud pumps are turned back on after a connection is made? If a wrong decision is made based on a misdiagnosed situation, the results can range from costing millions of dollars in nonproductive time to loss of life and rig.

There are numerous key technology elements in the industry today that can greatly mitigate these risks and create a substantially safer drilling and completion operation and environment. These elements are field-proven over 40 plus years, are readily available from many vendors and are relatively economical. Surprisingly, these elements are not used on the most critical, risk-laden and expensive wells being drilled globally. These risk-mitigating elements include such systems as rotating control devices, flow-metering technologies, automated drilling choke systems and downhole isolation valves. Individually these elements add incremental benefits and increase the overall safety of the drilling and completion operations. When these systems are paired or used in combination with each other to create a closed and pressurizable mud-returns system, the benefits escalate exponentially when compared to cost or perceived inconveniences of these elements. Furthermore, when the closed-loop system is designed as such – a system – as opposed to being piecemealed together, the operational benefits of the system are maximized.

This paper describes how a few of these basic elements greatly enhance operational safety and efficiency. A closed mud-returns system enables the quick and accurate identification of kicks and thereby minimizes risk without sacrificing other operational elements.
A New Safety Arena: The Safety Challenges of New Floating Structure Applications
Authors: Bower-White Graham
Published: March 2011

Recent developments in technology and application has seen the emergence of new floating development applications ranging from large scale gas condensate FPSOs, FLNG, semi-submersibles supporting mega sized gas condensate topsides through to dynamically positioned drill ships.

Traditional safety engineering FPSO approaches developed over the past twenty years that apply to oil developments often do not automatically apply to these new floating applications. Inherent safety risks fundamental to the new application and the associated practical solutions needs to be understood and worked using a first principles approach, and may often result in the implementation of solutions involving counter intuitive philosophies and safety in design practices.

These safety challenges of new floating applications involve engineers, fabricators, operators and certifying agencies and apply across all phases of project implementation.

This paper maps out some of the key challenges and risks associated with the new floating structure applications. It also lays out the need for different thinking not only in the design process, but also in fabrication, testing and certification phases.

Also addressed is the requirement for industry participation, as the ever increasing pressure for fast track project implementation continues in a situation where the oil and gas industry will be solving many first of a kind applications.
Management of Water Extracted From Carbon Sequestration Projects: Parallels to Produced Water Management
Authors: Veil J. A. , Harto C. B. , McNemar A. T.
Published: March 2011

Throughout the past decade, much discussion and debate have centered on geological sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2). In order for sequestration to have a reasonably positive impact on atmospheric carbon levels, the anticipated volume of CO2 that would need to be injected is very large. The plume of injected CO2 could potentially extend for many kilometers from the injection well, and formation pressure could be elevated following extended injection of CO2.

In the past two years, there has been growing discussion of a new issue concerning withdrawal of water from formations that would receive injected CO2. The concept is that by removing water already residing in the receiving formations (referred to as "extracted water" to distinguish it from "oil and gas produced water"), the pressure gradients caused by injection could be reduced, and additional pore space could be freed up to sequester CO2.

Produced water is typically salty ground water. The potential extracted water is also salty ground water. Therefore, many of the same management practices may be applicable. This paper describes the probable composition of the extracted water, options for managing the extracted water that is removed from the formations, the pros and cons of those options, and some opportunities for beneficial use of the water.
Counting for Nothing? The Importance of Quantifying Social Risks in Major Capital Projects
Authors: Calcut T. D. , Wall C. R.
Published: March 2011

Major Capital Projects (MCPs) face a wide range of operational, regulatory, and reputational risks. Each of these issues has a strong element of "social risk." Despite progress in the quantification of delays on MCPs in terms of cost and schedule implications after-the-fact, little attention has been paid to quantifying social risk.

This paper focuses on the potential implications that social risk, in its various forms, can have on MCPs. Then, taking existing knowledge on the quantification of budget overruns and schedule delays, it examines the case for more thorough quantification of social risk, early in the MCP planning process.

Examining a series of recent MCPs, this paper makes the case that there is a strong rationale for systematic management and mitigation of social risk. Applying experiences from MCPs worldwide, this paper explores tools for effective social risk management, including social and community health impact assessments, targeted stakeholder engagement, and strategic community investment.

The potential cost of delays and budget overruns on MCPs today is immense. With a significant percentage of the world’s largest MCPs experiencing adverse effects from social risk, there is a strong economic rationale for robust social risk identification. If identified and quantified early in MCP planning, effective social risk mitigation and management is possible.

Too often, however, population surveys, community consultation, and social investment are not applied in a way that is targeted at a MCP’s social risks. Where these mitigation strategies are not implemented in an effective or timely manner, they can "count for nothing." This paper takes the position that MCP sponsors need to adequately quantify, and then manage, these social risks to support successful MCP implementation.
Enhanced Anaerobic Biodegradation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Groundwater
Authors: Cuthbertson J. F.
Published: March 2011

At many sites, sulfate reducing bacteria have been demonstrated to be a dominant factor in the natural anaerobic biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons dissolved in groundwater. There are many benefits of providing sulfate as a terminal electron acceptor to the subsurface environment. As anaerobic conditions naturally prevail under petroleumimpacted sites, there is less acclimation time necessary for microbial populations, thus sulfate enhancement stimulates processes that are already occurring. The high solubility and stability of sulfate solutions relative to traditional electron acceptors allows for improved subsurface delivery and coverage, and higher concentrations of sulfate (as compared to oxygen) can be added to groundwater due to its high solubility. The lower energy reactions of sulfate reduction require less nutrient supplementation and produces less biomass and secondary precipitates, which can plug an aquifer. There is less nontarget demand on sulfate when compared to oxygen, which provides better utilization efficiencies. Case studies that demonstrate the benefits of enhancing the sulfate concentrations in groundwater to stimulate the biodegradation of petroleum contaminants under field conditions are presented.
Security and Safety Are Sisters
Authors: Simmerman J.
Published: March 2011

Since the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the US, security has been an important element of sustainability in the Petroleum facilities, terminals and refineries. New homeland security regulations have only reinforced this new paradigm. Not surprisingly, Quality Safety Compliance Programs (QSCP) can greatly enhance a facility's security posture. This presentation will include:

A brief introduction of security regulations. The synergy of QSCP and a security program. How QSCP can cut security program costs and liabilities. How a bench-mark QSCP enhances the security and safety of a facility. QSCP recommendations that will provide facility leaders with key facility risk management tools.
China Offshore Anti-Collision Risk Management Standard and Remedial Measures
Authors: Kun Cheng , Zhong Cheng , Yunan Wei , Wenyan Wu , Holditch S. A.
Published: March 2011

With the trend of economic, regulatory and technological changes, demand of a comprehensive standard to systematically evaluate and manage the risks of wellbore collisions has become significant in offshore oil development. Several accidents happened during normal operations at the Bohai Sea oilfield, including boreholes collision and drilling through adjacent casings. Under this situation, the China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) adopted new offshore well anti-collision standard and related remedial measures.

As part of the anti-collision safety operation system in CNOOC offshore oil drilling, the standard is designed and established for requirements mainly in four perspectives, including: data and material collection specifications in the early stage of drilling; anti-collision risk analysis in drilling design; anti-collision safety technical measures in drilling operation and operation site; remedial strategies and operations in case of wellbore collision. In this paper, we also describe how the standard has been applied to the several recent cases, and discuss its benefits for the anti-collision risk control of drilling offshore cluster wells and adjustment wells, treatment cost reduction, and marine environment safety.
Application and Use of Standardized Safety Questionnaires for Contractor Management in Upstream Oil and Gas
Authors: Pinheiro A. B. , Kuiper C.
Published: March 2011

Petroleum exploration and production (E&P) operations are inherently hazardous and dictate the need for prudent approaches to job planning and execution. Contractors are used extensively to support drilling, construction, and production activities and diligence should be exercised in their selection, monitoring, and management. Effective contractor selection from a Health, Safety and Environmental (HSE) perspective is predicated upon access to current and reliable information on contractor programs and performance. That need could be partially fulfilled by on-line questionnaires which offer the advantages of convenience, expediency, and cost-effectiveness, compared to conventional information-sourcing methods.

This paper discusses how an integrated oil and gas company (Operator) has successfully used questionnaires for contractor prequalification, evaluation, selection, site management, and auditing. An analysis of the contractor HSE audits, to validate the questionnaire over a two year period, identified limitations in the process and instances of inaccurate reporting by the contractor. Those inaccuracies were attributed to question phrasing, perceived question threat, lack of understanding of HSE management principles and legislation by the respondent and, in some cases, untruthful answers. This study also found that when an online questionnaire is weighted on HSE "management" questions to the detriment of "compliance" questions, its usefulness as an information source gets diminished. Further complications arise when the compliance questions are answered simply by copying appropriate regulations or citations without evidence of implementation. Recommendations, supported by John Maxwell’s laws of leadership, are made to address the areas of concern and increase the validity, reliability, and usefulness of online questionnaires as a valuable information source for contractor HSE risk assessment.
Water Recycling and Purification in the Pinedale Anticline Field: Results from the Anticline Disposal Project
Authors: Shafer L.
Published: March 2011

Recycling produced water and fracture flow back water for hydraulic fracturing can contribute significantly to water supplies for unconventional gas field development. Waste water may also be cleaned to supplement fresh water supplies for drilling and cementing surface pipe, surface construction, and other field development needs.

The Pinedale Anticline field in western Wyoming is an example where recycling water has contributed significantly to supplies for field development. Early in the field development the need to conserve available water supplies and the limitations on waste disposal injection capacity demonstrated the need to recycle water.

The Anticline Disposal Process was designed and constructed to meet the field development needs in two phases. The first phase utilized anaerobic and aerobic biologic treatment followed by clarification and filtration to clean fracture flow back and produced water. The process successfully cleaned and recycled 22,000,000 barrels of "frac water" in the first four years of operation. The second phase was designed to process surplus water to supplement fresh water supplies and also to meet discharge standards for a local river. This requires removing constituents such as methanol, dissolved aromatic compounds, excess dissolved solids, and boron. The process utilizes a membrane bioreactor, reverse osmosis, and ion-exchange process treatment steps. Organic constituents are removed to below detection limits. Inorganic salts are reduced from over 8,000 mg/l in the feed to below 100 mg/l in the product water. Boron is reduced from 15 to 30 mg/l in the feed to less than 0.75 mg/l, the drinking water standard, in the product water. Over 200,000 barrels of processed water has been used locally in the first year of operation with over 1,000,000 surplus barrels discharged to the river.

The results demonstrate feasibility to construct water processing plants to clean fracture flow back water for re-use in well completions and to reclaim water to supplement fresh water supplies. Design considerations, process steps, and lessons learned for consideration in application to other areas will be presented.
Reducing the Risk of Low-Probability High-Consequence Events
Authors: Threadgold I. M.
Published: March 2011

Low-Probability High-Consequence (LPHC) events are accidents that are unexpected, with few similar historical events; however, when they do happen the impact is extreme. With few prior events available to learn from, it can be difficult for a single company or organization to completely understand, manage and fully mitigate the risks involved with LPHC events. This is because they do not have enough learning opportunities to improve their overall risk management performance, and properly address the hazards.

Part of the problem in managing against LPHC events occurring has been the lack of appropriate metrics. While efforts are underway by industry to develop a suite of Process Safety metrics, there is still a gap where Operational Safety is concerned.

The author proposes that the best way to reduce the risks is by working issues at a sector or total industry level, rather than on a company by company basis. At an industry sector level there is greater knowledge and awareness of a larger number of previous events and a broader group of experts to develop industry practices and risk management guidelines.

Examples are given of how successful this concept has been for a specific hazard, then at a national level, and finally in the geophysical sector of the oil and gas industry between the International Association of Geophysical Contractors (IAGC) HSE&S Steering Committee and International Association of Oil and Gas Producers (OGP) Geophysical HSSE Sub-committee, where contractors and operators have worked together on Health, Safety, Security and Environmental (HSSE) issues for a number of years.

The oil and gas industry can improve its overall safety performance for LPHC events by working at a global sector level, or even globally across the industry by better sharing of the right kind of information on incidents. In addition, industry should capture the key aspects and lesson learned in databases that can then be used for several purposes: to drive the development of guidance documents; to help create improved and more consistent risk assessments across industry; to help develop the improved metrics still needed for Operational Safety, and potentially to guide any new regulatory requirements.

To accomplish all of this on a global basis may require the creation of a new industry body. It is worth bearing in mind what occurred in the US after the Three Mile Island nuclear incident. The nuclear power industry was at risk, and it established the Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO) in 1979, with a mission to "promote the highest levels of safety and reliability – to promote excellence – in the operation of commercial nuclear power plants". In the 30 years since INPO was established it has built an excellent safety and reliability record, but they are still cognizant of continuing challenges. The best way forward may be to establish a similar but global body for the world-wide oil and gas industry.
Fundamental Reservoir Engineering Principles Explain Lenses of Shoreline Residual Oil Twenty Years after the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
Authors: Pope Gary , Gordon Kim , Bragg Jim
Published: March 2011

Twenty years after the Exxon Valdez spill, weathered residual oil is still found in small, isolated lenses of subsurface sediments of a very small fraction of Prince William Sound shorelines. The ecological impact of this remaining oil still causes great concern and has been extensively studied for this reason. Despite this concern and numerous publications on the subject, no papers exist in published literature that have applied the fundamental principles and tools of reservoir engineering to understand and explain how oil entered the subsurface, why most but not all of it was washed out by tides and occasional storms, and why and under what conditions some of it still persists. Potential ecological impacts of the remaining oil are determined by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) components in the now highly degraded oil. The PAH components dissolve in groundwater (i.e. water within sediment pores) and transport to the surface water (water above sediment) where they could impact biota. Aqueous PAH concentrations in nearshore waters are currently at background levels even along shorelines identified with the most subsurface oil. Three-dimensional simulations of two well-characterized sites representative of locations with the most remaining subsurface oil clearly show both why remaining oil persists where it does, and why PAH concentrations in the surface water are extremely low. The permeability of underlying fine-grained sediments containing oiled lenses is about 1000 times less than overlying boulders, cobbles and gravels. Therefore, the water velocity through these lenses is extremely low. Secondly, the PAH solubility in the pore water within these lenses is extremely low. Thirdly, twice daily, large volumes of seawater flowing through higher permeability surface sediments mix with and dilute any dissolved PAH leached from buried source lenses. Detailed modeling results therefore explain why only background levels of PAH have been measured in numerous surveys of water or sentinel biota such as mussels.
Offshore Safety Through Design: Practical Implementation of Best Practices from the OSHA 1910 Framework
Authors: Laskar S. , Mallinson T. , Aldeeb A.
Published: March 2011

Although not all upstream facilities have been historically obligated to meet the requirements of the federal OSHA PSM standard (29 CFR 1910.119), utilizing this existing set of technical, documentation, and procedural practices can be expected to achieve the same results as in the downstream, chemical, and petrochemical industries. Namely, to ensure the safe operation of a facility, various hazards associated with the facility process and the plant equipment need to be addressed in a systematic manner.

Those working in the oil and gas industry are reminded with depressing regularity of the importance of process safety management, as post-incident investigation invariably points to one or more deficiencies related to process safety as root causes. This paper challenges the predominant notion that upstream facilities can be safely operated without following methods similar to those dictated by OSHA based on technical comparisons of pressure relief system design findings for upstream and downstream facilities. An adequate pressure relief system plays an important role in safe facility operation both through avoidance of catastrophic events and through prevention of incident escalation.

Similarities in relief system design issues for 60 process units of representative upstream and downstream production facilities are presented in a comparative case study. Alignments and points of divergence in typical practice between the example facilities are discussed. Significant similarity in the nature and types of the pressure relief systems deficiencies between upstream and down stream facilities is concluded.

The information presented helps upstream asset owners better understand standard practice for OSHA regulated facilities, align the corporate approach to safety, especially for vertically integrated owners, and demonstrate benefits achieved through proper design and documentation.
Human Rights Due Diligence in Iraq
Authors: Auerbach M.
Published: March 2011

Through technological advances and due to the rising price of oil and gas, the oil and gas industry has been able to explore and extract in areas deemed too difficult just a decade ago. The risks facing companies over the next 10 years are no longer technical, and chief executives do not stay up at night worrying about discovery or output. Socio-political factors have become the major issues of concern.

This paper explores human rights concerns as related to the oil and gas industry. Human rights are a core concern that requires proactive engagement. John Ruggie, the UN Special Representative on human rights and transnational corporations, has been at the forefront of guiding multinationals on how best to identify and eliminate human rights risks from its operations. The oil and gas industry faces increased pressure from governments (both domestic and foreign), non-governmental organizations, and stakeholders and shareholders to conduct human rights due diligence.

Human rights due diligence is a process that analyzes the company’s operations and relationships in relation to its social, political and economic footprint, and then evaluates the analysis in light of international human rights standards, guided by the existing body of national and international human rights law. This two-step due diligence process generates a picture of what we call "human rights risks," which the company must manage, mitigate, and ideally eliminate.

Corporations must understand that Human Rights and Risk are different. Human rights comprise the universal protections for human beings and Risk is a functional concept applied across a range of disciplines, from finance to human development, which seeks to identify and mitigate a threat. Human rights risk can be understood as the potential for harm to people, where that harm constitutes a violation of internationally proclaimed human rights. Therefore, the potential harm to human rights should be identified and companies must take steps to mitigate those risks. This paper will clarify and provide guidance to the attendees of SPE Americas 2011 and will surely elicit a lively debate.
Managing Risk and Operating in Environmentally Sensitive Areas: The Wetlands of the Northwest Louisiana Haynesville Shale
Authors: Krauss R. F.
Published: March 2011

The aerial extent of the Haynesville Shale play has been analyzed with regard to regulatory and permitting processes such that unavoidable surface impacts can be planned in a manner that allows operators to minimize both risk and cost from operations in environmentally sensitive areas – the wetlands of northwest Louisiana.

A workflow has been developed and applied for operators with significant leaseholds seeking to understand the volume of wetlands that may be impacted due to construction of drilling pads, reserve pits, access roads, flowlines, pipelines and gathering systems that comprise field infrastructure. Working under new rules since 2008, regulatory agencies require offsets for unavoidable impacts to wetlands to occur in the watershed where the impacts are planned to occur. With limited mitigation acreage available in an area where surface rights are locked up by landowners and operators, the need for creative wetland analyses and mitigation solutions has risen to need-to-know-now status.

Of the 4.3 million surface acres in the Louisiana and Texas Haynesville Shale play, more than 23% of the Louisiana play area is considered jurisdictional wetlands by the US Army Corps of Engineers. After operators avoid and minimize their wetlands impacts, GIS analysis of current and past land compositions and uses can be used to forecast future unavoidable wetland impacts from oil and gas development activities. Results of this analysis are used to formulate an appropriate compensatory mitigation solution that can be readily approved by regulatory agencies.

Surface impact analysis employs a unique methodology and workflow that has shown to generate significant real-dollar savings for operators, allows compensatory mitigation plans to be proactively developed thereby accelerating agency regulatory processes, and transfers risk and liability from oil and gas operators to those delivering wetland mitigation solutions.
Implementing a Comprehensive Industry Program With Broad Environmental and Safety Implications for Exploration & Production: Tank Overfill Protection—Philosophy, Vision, Objectives, Program Structure, and Execution
Authors: Erickson M. E.
Published: March 2011

Protecting human health and the environment are essential requirements in today’s exploration & production, refining, and petroleum marketing workplaces. Preventing tank overfills at above-ground, atmospheric storage tanks is essential, for "overfills" and the attendant consequences, i.e., potential volitization and groundwater-soil contamination, etc., pose significant risk to the safety of workers, surrounding communities, and the environment itself. Overfill incidents demonstrate the need, and urgency, for tank overfill protection measures to be evaluated and, as determined, undertaken.

The design and implementation of a tank overfill protection (hereafter referred to "TOP") program offers potential benefits for E&P in the environmental, human health, community welfare, and safety performance areas. E&P operations do not necessary deal in the numbers of atmospheric tanks as those in, say for example, the midstream (pipeline) operations, nonetheless safety and environmental contamination are issues of concern. There are common attributes of a comprehensive overfill protection that can be applied to E&P settings.

A TOP program for a large pipeline organization – consisting of hundred’s of above-ground, atmospheric storage tanks (Class 1-3 liquids) – was recently developed and implemented, and is currently undergoing its first year of compliance and assurance evaluation. This program was comprehensive in nature, containing its own unique objectives and distinctives.

There are two aspects to an overfill protection program. The first is the "programmatic" aspect, which addresses the various program features, i.e., policy development; standards and procedures; roles and responsibilities; program management functions; and various content features of the overfill policy to be implemented. The second aspect deals specifically with overfill equipment, to include equipment identification and related engineering, procurement, and construction (installation) activities, as well as any necessary electrical and instrumentation upgrades at a facility. The programmatic aspect, in a proactive and preventative sense, is deemed the most protective regarding tank overfill events.

This paper addresses a "conceptual model" for an overfill protection program, based on this recent industry example. Key portions of the programmatic and overfill equipment aspects will be addressed.
Chemical Properties Affecting the Environmental Performance of Synthetic Based Drilling Fluids for the Gulf of Mexico
Authors: Dorn P. B. , Wong D. C. , Ye J. , Martin V. A.
Published: March 2011

The effects of olefin carbon number distribution (chain length), bond position, and branching on sediment toxicity and anaerobic degradability were investigated. Specific carbon number olefins were tested individually for their sediment toxicity and then spiked in proportion to their molar distribution in a commercial C1518 internal olefin product containing predominately a distribution of C15 through C18. In other sets of experiments, toxicity contribution of C14 and lower (C10-C14) internal olefins to toxicity of the C1518 internal olefin product was investigated. Within the variability limits of the sediment toxicity test, specific carbon number olefins from C10-C14 showed similar toxicity. 10-day LC50s ranged from 28 to 56 mg/kg for C10 to C14 olefins when tested individually. C6 and C8 olefins did not exhibit toxicity at the concentrations tested presumably due to volatilization loss during sample preparation and test exposure. Concentrations of up to 4.8% C14 olefin (and lower) did not increase the toxicity of the commercial C1518 base fluid. C1518 base fluid showed no increased toxicity between the samples spiked with 7% to 25% C14. The effect of sediment organic carbon on olefins toxicity was examined in tests using formulated and natural field sediments. For each olefin, toxicity was highest in formulated sediment and lowest in the field sediment with the higher total organic carbon. In side-by-side tests examining the role of carbon to carbon bond position in sediment toxicity, LC50 values indicate no differences between α-olefin and internal olefin. With regards to anaerobic biodegradability, theoretical gas production appeared lower for a C16 α-olefin (60.3%) compared to C14 α-olefin (77.9%); however, only one data point was available for comparing the effect of chain length on anaerobic biodegradability. Anaerobic biodegradability was not affected by bond position for the one paired of isomers tested. Testing showed that increased branching of internal olefins adversely impacted both sediment toxicity and anaerobic biodegradation. The results presented in this study are part of on-going research and development activities aimed at understanding the relationships between chemical structure and environmental fate and effects of base oils for non-aqueous drilling fluids; which will provide the design basis for products with better environmental profile. Sustainable offshore drilling will require improvement in the environmental performance of these fluids.
Identification of HSE Leading Indicators Using Regression Analysis
Authors: Jablonowski C. J.
Published: March 2011

"Leading indicators" are variables that are known to correlate with lagging indicators. When a leading indicator suggests that the risk of a safety incident is increasing, the safety manager can intervene and mitigate the risk. This paper presents the results of a recently completed study of leading indicators using an operator-provided data set. This research leverages the results of two previous studies on the same data set to identify leading indicators and to provide guidance regarding intervention. This case study is intended to demonstrate how a quantitative approach can provide specific guidance to safety managers regarding safety policy and decision-making.
Taking the Mystery Out of Social Responsibility by Developing a Transparent Business Process Within an Exploration and Production Organization
Authors: Zantman A. , Chia S. , Cook P.
Published: March 2011

Social Responsibility (SR) is at heart, a business process. If the process is done well it enables senior management to determine how SR creates value and affects all levels of an organization. This paper addresses the development of a transparent decision process that utilizes existing risk evaluation practices to manage SR issues and the prevention of major disputes or adverse events.

The exploration and production (E&P) sector has long recognized the importance of managing the impact of projects and facilities to improve corporate performance, protect operations, and capture future opportunities. However, there is an inadequate understanding of how SR creates value and, as a result, an organization’s commitment to SR can be challenged.

This paper focuses on the real life example of complex E&P operations in Indonesia. Operations included production in Gresik and planned offshore exploration activities in West Papua and South Sesulu. An assurance review (including stakeholder workshops) was undertaken to verify the current SR hazards and risk profile associated with these activities. A critical step was the development and delivery of a transparent decision process with the management team.

The utilization of a Business Process Map (including Bowtie analysis) assisted in confirming that appropriate systems, procedures and key personnel were in place to execute the SR plan over the business lifecycle. An important outcome was that value chain functions understood their role and took ownership in achieving the intended critical SR objectives, meeting performance expectations and implementation of an effective risk management strategy.

The paper highlights how this Indonesian business unit improved transparency at all levels of the organization and personnel’s understanding of the triggers of adverse events and the decisions to reduce the likelihood of these adverse events occurring.
Field Site Testing of Low Impact Oil Field Access Roads: Reducing the Environmental Footprint in Desert Ecosystems
Authors: Burnett D. B. , McDowell J. , Scott J. B. , Dolan C.
Published: March 2011

Lease roads and well pads are a highly visible and often less than welcome aspect of O&G drilling and producing operations. In South Texas this is occurring as the Cretaceous Eagle Ford shale is being developed from near the Mexican border outward to the east/northeast across several counties stretching more than 150 miles. The "Brush Country" as it is often referred to, is a semi-arid landscape where measures to lessen the impact of developing the shale are fostering a host of new technologies.

To address environmental concerns about the development of the resource, Texas A&M University is adapting "Disappearing Roads" technology to the particular needs of the Eagle Ford. A collaborative project within the Environmentally Friendly Drilling Program has been testing new types of "disappearing roads" in a desert like environment to measure their effectiveness and ability to lower the surface footprint of surface operations. One road was constructed with materials made with recycled drilling waste, another incorporated reusable composite mats, and a third represented a new type of "roll out road" developed in by a student engineering team from the University of Wyoming as a class project. The field demonstration is expected to:

Provide a realistic field trial in representative desert ecosystems so that results could be evaluated efficiently so as to benefit both the industry, the organizations with the technology, and the public sector. Document and provide the results of technology field trials so that promising processes, systems and products could be utilized in a wider range of gas shale plays. Speed the commercial development of technology developed to reduce the environmental footprint of drilling activities,

The removable mat concepts may also be used to lessen the impact of constructing water ponds and to provide temporary enlargement of well pads that can accommodate service equipment used in fracturing operations. This paper will describe the technology behind the roads and document their performance in semi-arid rangeland landscapes.
Evolution of the HSE System in the Drilling and Completion Team of an Operator
Authors: Borja H. , Ortiz E. , Diaz O. , Aldana E. , Rueda H.
Published: March 2011

Aspects related to HSE has been incorporated into the oil companies as a corporate strategic to prevent accidents, environmental incidents and occupational diseases, which is why in 1989, the company began incorporating HSE as one of its strategic value. By then it stared the measuring of indicators and its performance in HSE, NPT and poor quality events in operations.

The success factor in implementing the integrated HSE system has been the incorporation of human factors and their behavior. To achieve the stated objectives there have been several key factors. Commitment and management leadership within the strategic activities were for involved the development and implementation of activities of HSE such as management visits, which is a vital commitment to achieve the goals. Involvement and participation of all employees and contractors in the process of HSE, training programs were implemented and training at all levels of operations in order make stronger the capacities of the staff.

Within HSE management tools the measurement and the monitoring were implemented, fulfillments of prevention programs, accident control and management of their main indicators like the severity index, TRFC and LTI. Within the continuous improvement in drilling operations new technologies were implemented to reduce risks, the time spent by the worker in the job, the level of hazard with less toxic chemicals and the implementation of personal protection. Preventive culture was involved to all operational lines to achieve individual and collective safe behavior, where workers are concerned about HSE and of their own team.

After the implementation of the integrated HSE system the company could obtain a culture of prevention at all levels of management and supervision, safe behavior of the labor force and indicators are satisfied as they move from having almost 1 injured worker (LTI) by every 2 days working with more than 1 million man worked hours in 1989 to fulfill 2 years in 2010 without injured workers (LTI) with 2 million man worked hours, zero occupational diseases, clean operations with less environmental impact, less time lost and NPT reduction in the operations as in the commitment of the organization for HSE aspects.
Success in the Abandonment of a Damaged Offshore Platform Through Stakeholder Involvement
Authors: Abadie R. J. , Trail K. L. , Riche R. S.
Published: March 2011

Description

Typically, decommissioned platforms are safely removed and taken ashore for disposal per regulatory requirements. But an alternative for the Eugene Island 331A platform was for Shell to recycle and transform it into a valuable marine habitat as part of "Rigs-to-Reef".

Application

EI 331A was originally installed in 1972 as a fixed structure in 242’ water depth. In September 2008, the platform was hit by Hurricane Ike. While the topsides was deemed salvageable, Shell determined it was not feasible to repair the jacket due to the number of broken structural members located below the water surface. Shell then began to assess this piece of infrastructure as a potential candidate for the Rigs-to-Reef program.

Results

The final jacket reefing took place on September 20, 2009, after a topsides and deck removal campaign was completed. The steel jacket structure, comprised of eight legs and weighing almost 3000 tons, was cut loose from the ocean floor utilizing special cutting tools to make cuts 15’ below the mudline. No explosive cutting was used during the project. The jacket was lifted and then towed a short distance, where it was toppled to its final position. Underwater ROV cameras documented fish and other marine life following the jacket during its tow operation and reefing.

Significance

This was the first major Rigs-to-Reef project that Shell had done over 15 years - the learnings will be beneficial for future abandonments. In addition to the positive impact of the rig-turned-artificial reef on fisheries enhancement, there are also mutual financial benefits realized by both the operator and the state. States utilize these donations to both manage the artificial reefing sites and study their long-term benefits to marine habitats. Following the final reefing, Mr. Robert Barham, Secretary of the LDWF, called the reefing of the EI331A jacket the "gold standard" for reefing projects.
Improving Technical Oilfield Training: Interactive Classroom Techniques
Authors: Murdock P. M. , Pigusch K. , Matta S. , Wakefield S. M.
Published: March 2011

Adult learning presents a challenge for trainers and content developers. In many cases, technical classroom training consists of lecture-based slide driven presentations with no interactivity. Research indicates this traditional learning environment is not an effective method to promote knowledge transfer and long-term retention in adult trainees. Current adult learning research confirms that classroom time is most effective if lecture is interspersed with a variety of teaching methods, including group discussion and brief interactive exercises. Based on these findings, the service provider investigated an alternative instructional strategy.

This paper will discuss current research and will give specific details on how to create an effective interactive classroom. Guidelines include changing the mindset from traditional classroom teaching methods to a student-centered learning environment, segmenting lecture sessions, and incorporating a variety of activities relevant to course objectives. Examples from various oilfield services technical training courses will be provided to model new course activities.

This paper will help the industry design, develop, and facilitate effective training courses by describing an interactive classroom methodology to maximize knowledge transfer and on-the-job retention.
Operational Safety on Subsea Wells
Authors: Petersen F. C. , Miura K. , da Fonseca T. C. , Mendes J. R. , Guilherme I. R. , Morooka C. K.
Published: March 2011

Supported by the last events, it can be observed that safety must be the major concern in the activities developed in oil and gas well construction. However, safety assessment during the well construction process is not a trivial issue. Available risk evaluation approaches are based on static analyses of existent systems, not allowing a dynamic evaluation of the risk at each alteration of circumstances.

This work proposes the use of quantitative and dynamic risk assessment (QDRA) to assess the degree of safety of each planned job. The QDRA is a type of "safe job analysis" approach, developed to quantify the "degree of safety" in the entire well construction process, as well as during maintenance activities. The proposed methodology presents the definitions of "barrier" and "integrated barriers set (IBS)", as well as the modeling technique showing their relationships and it compares it with the analysis presented at Norwegian standard (NORSOK D-010).

This technique has been applied not only during the planning stages of well construction but also during workover to analyze the number of available IBSes for each operation. The greatest advantage of this technique is that it can be applied during the planning stages of well construction and maintenance, where the effects of hazard on the job sequence are important unknowns.