bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Hume's Politics
Authors: Sabl Andrew
Published: November 2017

This book provides a comprehensive examination of David Hume's political theory, and is the first book to focus on Hume's monumental History of England as the key to his distinctly political ideas. The book argues that conventions of authority are the main building blocks of Humean politics, and explores how the History addresses political change and disequilibrium through a dynamic treatment of coordination problems. Dynamic coordination, as employed in Hume's work, explains how conventions of political authority arise, change, adapt to new social and economic conditions, improve or decay, and die. The book shows how Humean constitutional conservatism need not hinder—and may in fact facilitate—change and improvement in economic, social, and cultural life. It also identifies how Humean liberalism can offer a systematic alternative to neo-Kantian approaches to politics and liberal theory. The book builds bridges between political theory and political science. It treats issues of concern to both fields, including the prehistory of political coordination, the obstacles that must be overcome in order for citizens to see themselves as sharing common political interests, the close and counterintuitive relationship between governmental authority and civic allegiance, the strategic ethics of political crisis and constitutional change, and the ways in which the biases and injustices endemic to executive power can be corrected by legislative contestation and debate.
Coordination and Convention
Authors: Sabl Andrew
Published: November 2017

This chapter outlines the problem of coordination and the solution to it—convention—that is most relevant in the context of large-scale politics and government. It provides a basic introduction to coordination questions for non-specialists, and explores some implications of the coordination framework that even specialists may find of interest. Coordination theory divides political theorists into those who assume that no intelligent theorist can fail to know the literature on it and those who are very intelligent but have never seen the point of learning the first thing about it. Though coordination problems are often seen as a subset of formal theory, the crucial contribution of Hume's political theory is to explain, and help solve, coordination problems on scales that the usual tools of formal theory do not address.
Vertical Inequality and the Extortion of Liberty
Authors: Sabl Andrew
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at how Hume's theory is obviously attractive to those who live under conditions of brutal civil war or anarchy, or who fear such. Contemporary citizens demand not just order but other things: at the least, liberty, equality, and democracy. With respect to the first two of these, at any rate, Hume agreed and rejected the Hobbesian doctrine that order trumps all other goods. For those who prefer that problems take analytic form, they can regard the kind of political authority that arises as a solution to coordination problems as threatening to bring about two kinds of inequality—these might be called vertical and horizontal. The chapter shows how Hume attacked vertical inequality, which goes by the classic names of monopoly, tyranny, and corruption, by disaggregating “government” very thoroughly.
Introduction
Authors: Pines Yuri
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter offers some insights into the durability of the Chinese political system. In particular, the chapter attributes the Chinese imperial experience from that of other comparable polities elsewhere to the empire's exceptional ideological prowess. The Chinese empire, as the chapter shows, was an extraordinarily powerful ideological construct, the appeal of which to a variety of political actors enabled its survival even during periods of severe military, economic, and administrative malfunctioning. Moreover, the chapter provides a number of arguments against merely reducing Chinese political culture to this peculiar historical trajectory. To conclude, the chapter lays out the three main goals to be accomplished in this volume, as well as some notes on references and translations.
The Literati
Authors: Pines Yuri
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the intellectuals' voluntary attachment to the ruler's service as their single most significant choice. It elucidates both the advantages of this choice and its price. Having opted for a political career, leading intellectuals had to accept their position as the emperor's servitors, which was at odds with their self-proclaimed moral superiority over the throne; and the resultant tension between their roles as the leaders and the led generated persistent frustration and manifold tragedies. Yet bitterness aside, the voluntary attachment of the intellectuals to the throne had also greatly empowered the educated elite as a whole. For two-odd millennia, members of this stratum navigated the empire through many storms and challenges, contributing decisively toward the preservation of the imperial political structure, and of its cultural foundations, against all odds.
A Behavioral Theory of Elections
Authors: Bendor Jonathan , Diermeier Daniel , Siegel David A. , Ting Michael M.
Published: November 2017

Most theories of elections assume that voters and political actors are fully rational. While these formulations produce many insights, they also generate anomalies—most famously, about turnout. The rise of behavioral economics has posed new challenges to the premise of rationality. This book provides a behavioral theory of elections based on the notion that all actors—politicians as well as voters—are only boundedly rational. The theory posits learning via trial and error: actions that surpass an actor’s aspiration level are more likely to be used in the future, while those that fall short are less likely to be tried later. Based on this idea of adaptation, the book constructs formal models of party competition, turnout, and voters’ choices of candidates. These models predict substantial turnout levels, voters sorting into parties, and winning parties adopting centrist platforms. In multiparty elections, voters are able to coordinate vote choices on majority-preferred candidates, while all candidates garner significant vote shares. Overall, the behavioral theory and its models produce macroimplications consistent with the data on elections, and they use plausible microassumptions about the cognitive capacities of politicians and voters. A computational model accompanies the book and can be used as a tool for further research.
Aspiration-based Adaptive Rules
Authors: Bendor Jonathan , Diermeier Daniel , Siegel David A. , Ting Michael M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses some general properties of aspiration-based adaptive rules (ABARs). It begins with an overview of propensity and aspiration-based adjustment, using axioms to represent three premises: agents have aspirations, they compare payoffs to aspirations, and these comparisons determine the key qualitative properties of how agents adjust their action propensities. It then considers stochastic processes such as Markov chains before turning to some useful types of ABARs, along with realistic aspirations and how the behavior and performance of ABARs are associated with the existence of relations of Pareto dominance among alternatives. It also examines the empirical content of ABAR-driven models and concludes with an analysis of some evidence regarding aspiration-based adaptation, paying attention to behavior and hedonics.
Voter Choice
Authors: Bendor Jonathan , Diermeier Daniel , Siegel David A. , Ting Michael M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the voter’s choice between candidates. In the context of voter choice, aspirations are internal evaluation thresholds which code an incumbent’s performance as good or bad, satisfactory or unsatisfactory. Good performance is rewarded with increased support, and bad with less support. This chapter introduces a behavioral model of voter choice that allows voters to use the identity of the incumbent’s party in their decision making. It first presents the model, along with a few definitions necessary to structure later results, before discussing the difference between naïve and sophisticated retrospective voting. Using the model, it examines aggregate electoral outcomes in large populations of voters all responding independently to an incumbent. Using simple retrospective voting rules, citizens can generate endogenous party affiliations. This creates ideological polarization when aggregated over the entire population.
Weimar Psychology
Authors: Ash Mitchell G.
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes the indeterminate place of professional psychology between the natural sciences and the humanities in the epoch, and the manner in which members of the discipline, especially the Gestalt theorists of the “Berlin School,” revealed a preoccupation with “holism” and the “immediately given” characteristic of other fields of thought in the contemporary moment of crisis. The discussion focuses on three topics: (1) definitions and institutional locations of Weimar-era psychology; (2) natural scientific and humanistic approaches to psychology in Weimar-era crisis talk; (3) trained intuition, psychological practice, and the cultural grounding of expertise. Unifying the discussions in parts two and three is the centrality of holistic thought—and the effort to establish alternative forms of scientific objectivity and expert practice compatible with holism.
Method, Moment, and Crisis in Weimar Science
Authors: Carson Cathryn
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how a self-consciously “Weimar science” came together, meaning how the Weimar moment was experienced and theorized by intellectuals preoccupied with science. It surveys developments across the wide terrain of the natural sciences, from physics (Planck, Einstein, Bohr, Heisenberg, Schrödinger) to biology (Plessner, Driesch, von Uexküll) to the philosophy of mathematics and scientific method (Reichenbach, Cassirer, Carnap). The chapter starts with an introduction to the natural scientific enterprise as it was pursued in the Wilhelmine and Weimar eras. Against this backdrop, it highlights several developments in the life sciences, mathematics, and physics that attracted critical notice. Showing how disputes over these matters intersected, even lapped over the borders of professional science, it shows how they resonated with contemporary philosophical contention. To close, it picks out two responses that shared a desire to stake a claim on a scientific present: calls associated with logical empiricist philosophy to create a unified worldview based on science; and attempts by intellectual historians, philosophers, and some scientists to understand science itself as irreducibly situated in historical time.
Weimar Film Theory
Authors: Hake Sabine
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides a careful reconstruction of major themes and points of critical tension amongst Béla Balázs, Siegfried Kracauer, and Rudolf Arnheim, the three greatest theorists of film during the Weimar period. Their contributions are more accurately located in the space between criticism and theory, and can only be understood through the entire historical constellation: the various institutional contexts, aesthetic categories, social practices, and cultural traditions that constituted film as a discursive object; the competing functions of film as mass-produced commodity, art form, and propaganda tool that informed critical practices; and the changing positions of film in relation to other art forms, mass media, and modes of perception and experience.
The Aftermath
Authors: Rabinbach Anson
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents some chilling reflections that highlight certain continuities between the Republic and the Third Reich. It demonstrates how fluid and flexible Nazi ideology was in practice—so amenable to multiple interpretations and accommodations, in fact, that the majority of elites and masses could demonstrate fealty to the regime in multiple ways and thereby maintain a continued and even increased level of “normalcy” after the Nazi Gleichschaltung, notwithstanding the tragic fates suffered by too many of those who had once been citizens of the Republic. Biographies and institutional studies of the conservative circles in Weimar and the Kaisserreich reveal that unlike Soviet Communism, intellectual fealty to National Socialism required not so much rhetorical and ideological conformity as an ethos or “Gesinnung,” a willingness to adhere to the precepts of the worldview which was vague and indistinct enough to embrace a variety of related perspectives.
The International Human Rights Movement
Authors: Neier Aryeh
Published: November 2017

During the past several decades, the international human rights movement has had a crucial hand in the struggle against totalitarian regimes, cruelties in wars, and crimes against humanity. Today, it grapples with the war against terror and subsequent abuses of government power. This book offers a comprehensive and authoritative account of this global force, from its beginnings in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to its essential place in world affairs today. The book combines analysis with personal experience, and gives a unique insider's perspective on the movement's goals, the disputes about its mission, and its rise to international importance. Discussing the movement's origins, the book looks at the dissenters who fought for religious freedoms in seventeenth-century England and the abolitionists who opposed slavery before the Civil War era. It pays special attention to the period from the 1970s onward, and describes the growth of the human rights movement after the Helsinki Accords, the roles played by American presidential administrations, and the astonishing Arab revolutions of 2011. The book argues that the contemporary human rights movement was, to a large extent, an outgrowth of the Cold War, and it demonstrates how it became the driving influence in international law, institutions, and rights. Throughout, the book highlights key figures, controversies, and organizations, including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, and considers the challenges to come.
The Movement
Authors: Neier Aryeh
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains that the driving force behind the protection of human rights worldwide, today and for roughly the past thirty-five years, has been the nongovernmental human rights movement. Intermittently during the last two-and-a-half centuries, citizens' movements did play important roles in efforts to promote human rights, as during the development of the antislavery movement in England in the eighteenth century and the rise of the feminist movement in the United States in the nineteenth century. The contemporary human rights movement responds to victories and defeats by shifting focus from time to time, but it shows signs that it will remain an enduring force in world affairs. Efforts by those outside governments have been particularly important in extending the protection of rights beyond national boundaries, and it is in the present era that they have been most significant.
European Wine on the Eve of the Railways
Authors: Simpson James
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the nature of grape production and wine making on the eve of the railways. The process of creating wine followed a well-determined sequence: grapes were produced in the vineyard; crushed, fermented, and sometimes matured in the winery; and blended (and perhaps matured further) in the merchant's cellar; finally, the wine was drunk in a public place or at home. This chapter looks at the major decisions that economic agents faced when carrying out these activities. It examines the nature of wine and the economics of grape and wine production, market organization, and the development of fine wines for export before 1840.
Surviving Success in the Midi: Growers, Merchants, and the State
Authors: Simpson James
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the experience of the Midi, France's cheapest wine producer. After examining long-run changes in France's domestic wine supply, and in particular merchants' attempts to augment supply during the phylloxera epidemic by adulteration, it shows how the changes in political strength of small farmers and workers increased during the Third Republic, especially after the 1884 law permitting the formation of syndicates. Despite the presence of large vineyards in the Midi, the wine industry was relatively united in its attempt first to tackle phylloxera and replant, and then to demand state intervention to control fraud. Finally, the chapter considers how smaller growers started to establish cooperatives in response to another threat to their livelihood, namely, the increasing economies of scale and skills required for wine production and marketing.
Selling to Reluctant Drinkers: The British Market and the International Wine Trade
Authors: Simpson James
Published: November 2017

This chapter shows that wine was traditionally a luxury because of the high and discriminatory import duties, which benefited Portuguese and Spanish producers at the expense of the French. With the reforms of the early 1860s there was a temporary increase in consumption and a switch in preference away from Iberian fortified wines toward French table wines. Merchants blended cheap commodity wines from different locations to minimize quality fluctuations, but although retail prices remained remarkably stable during the phylloxera-induced period of shortages, this was achieved only by significantly reducing product quality. Poor wines and numerous press reports concerning their adulteration led to falling consumption. The failure of buyer-driven commodity chains such as the Victoria Wine Company or Gilbeys to significantly cut marketing costs implied that the small family retailer remained competitive, but neither could simultaneously cut prices and guarantee product quality for consumers.
Bordeaux
Authors: Simpson James
Published: November 2017

This chapter follows the long history of commercial relations between many British ports and Bordeaux. It begins by examining the long-run changes in wine production and trade during the nineteenth century and the organization of wine production in the region. After a period of prosperity that lasted from the mid-1850s to the early 1880s, there followed three decades of depression. Moreover, information problems for consumers of fine wines were reduced by the 1855 classification, but the growth in market power and economic independence of the leading estates was checked in the late nineteenth century. Finally, small growers successfully used their political voice to achieve legislation to establish a regional appellation, which limited to wines of the Gironde the right to carry the Bordeaux brand.
From Sherry to Spanish White
Authors: Simpson James
Published: November 2017

This chapter shows the nature and limits of organizational change in the production and sale of sherry over the nineteenth century. Despite an apparent flexibility in responding to increased demand in international markets, a decline in the reputation of sherry caused a rapid drop in sales, as merchants in Jerez and especially Britain sold adulterated and cheap imitation wines. Although there was much talk about protecting the name of sherry in Jerez, this proved difficult because of the diversity of interests within the producing region itself. The big export houses responded to weaker demand for their fine sherries by moving down-market to achieve volume. While the political influence of small growers in France allowed them to capture market power from the merchants by establishing regional appellations and cooperatives, this did not happen in Jerez.
Conclusion
Authors: Simpson James
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter takes a brief look at the changes that took place among traditional producer countries in Europe and then offers some comments concerning the obstacles facing the producers in the New World. It finishes with reflections on the extent to which the organization of the wine industry today is the result of changes that took place before 1914. These changes were not uniform, and by 1914 major differences were found in the organization of production and marketing of commodity wines in places as far-flung as France, California, South Australia, and Mendoza. Even within a country such as France, new and differing institutions had appeared that altered market incentives for growers, winemakers, and merchants in places such as Bordeaux, Reims, and Montpellier.
Legal Initial Conditions
Authors: Berkowitz Daniel , Clay Karen B.
Published: November 2017

THIS CHAPTER EXAMINES colonial legal systems and their effects on the balance of power between the state legislature and the state high court. It argues that the balance of power is important because it determines the extent to which the state high court can act as a constraint on the legislature and the elites more broadly. Establishing and maintaining an appropriate balance of power has been and remains a critical issue at both the state and the federal levels. Thus, the chapter conducts a detailed examination of the settlement history and historical operation of courts in what would become the American states.
Initial Conditions and State Political Competition
Authors: Berkowitz Daniel , Clay Karen B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter investigates the relationship between five initial conditions in states—temperature, precipitation, distance to oceans, distance to rivers and lakes, and colonial legal system—and long-run levels of state political competition. State political competition is measured by examining the division of seats in the legislature between the political parties, although a number of other measures of state political competition are also examined. This chapter sketches some relationships between initial conditions and state political competition. It emphasizes the importance of state political competition, because it is thought to lead to better economic and social outcomes. In fact, there is a strong positive association between the extent of political competition and outcomes.
The Mechanism
Authors: Berkowitz Daniel , Clay Karen B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that initial conditions associated with trade and agriculture shaped the occupational distributions of early state elites who, in turn, influenced the subsequent evolution of state political competition. It provides a summary of the relationships among initial conditions, occupational homogeneity of the elite, and state political competition. The chapter thus shows how conditions shaped the early comparative advantage of the state economy and that, moreover, the mix of elite occupations influenced state political competition. When state elites worked largely in the same profession, a single party that reflected the interests of this occupation tended to dominate. When state elites worked in a broader mix of professions, different groups supported different parties, and political competition was stronger from the outset.
Basic Properties and Examples of Dirichlet Forms
Authors: Chen Zhen-Qing , Fukushima Masatoshi
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces the concepts of the transience, recurrence, and irreducibility of the semigroup for general Markovian symmetric operators and presents their characterizations by means of the associated Dirichlet form as well as the associated extended Dirichlet space. These notions are invariant under the time changes of the associated Markov process. The chapter then presents some basic examples of Dirichlet forms, with special attention paid to their basic properties as well as explicit expressions of the corresponding extended Dirichlet spaces. Hereafter the chapter discusses the analytic potential theory for regular Dirichlet forms, and presents some conditions for the demonstrated Dirichlet form (E,F) to be local.
Boundary Theory for Symmetric Markov Processes
Authors: Chen Zhen-Qing , Fukushima Masatoshi
Published: November 2017

This chapter proposes a boundary theory for symmetric Markov processes. It begins by investigating the relationship between the space (Fₑ,E) and the space ((ℱ⁰)ref, ℰ
0,ref). Next, the chapter focuses on the restricted spaces ℱ₀∣F, ℱ∣F and their descriptions in terms of the Feller measures U, V, and U
α‎ and the Douglas integrals defined by them. The chapter then introduces the lateral condition for the L² generator and studies the case where the set F consists of countably many points that are located in an invariant way under a quasi-homeomorphism. It then turns to one-point extensions and examples of these, and follows up with many-point extensions and their examples as well.
Suburb, Network, Homeland: National Space and the Rhetoric of Broadcasting
Authors: Giles Paul
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the landscape of American broadcasting in the second half of the twentieth century evolved from a situation in which values of liberal independence acted as a front for the sway of network corporations to one in which the incremental fragmentation of the increasingly global media market posed a challenge to the rhetoric of national space. It considers how the spatial dynamics inherent within American culture have been represented in American writers such as Toni Morrison, Philip Roth, and Don DeLillo, and contrasts this with the perspectives of a younger generation, in particular those of David Foster Wallace and Dave Eggers. It explains how the “Voice of America” (VOA), the official radio and television service of the U.S. federal government, became “the nation's ideological arm of anti-communism,” while the minds of supposedly free-thinking citizens at home were also shaped surreptitiously by the new power of electronic media.
The Gay Apprentice
Authors: Wasley Aidan
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses Auden's influence on John Ashbery. By looking at the development of Ashbery's career through the prism of his early apprenticeship to Auden, and by taking Ashbery's claims about his own poetics seriously, it challenges some familiar critical presumptions about Ashbery, prompted by a few basic questions: What are we to make of the disparity between how Ashbery sees himself and how he is seen? What is the responsibility of critics toward authorial claims of self-knowledge and intention? Is there something to be learned by listening to this poet and his poems, rather than reading through or against them? What does it mean to read Ashbery as a self-conscious inheritor of Auden's civic tradition, rather than heir to the various Romantic traditions with which he is customarily linked? In the end, the goal is less to reject prior understandings of Ashbery than to augment and complicate them, and suggest that in doing so, we discover a poet who is even richer—both more familiar and more strange, more conventional and more radical—than we may have seen.
From Niches to Distributions
Authors: Peterson A. Townsend , Soberón Jorge , Pearson Richard G. , Anderson Robert P. , Martínez-Meyer Enrique , Nakamura Miguel , Araújo Miguel Bastos
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the conceptual bases for the discrepancy between species’ potential geographic distributional areas and their occupied distributional areas, focusing on the case of conditions when the Eltonian Noise Hypothesis is true as well as the necessary modifications when it is not. It first considers the meaning of the potential distributional area and the reasons why an ecological niche model may not estimate it correctly. It then explains why a species may not be at equilibrium with its potential distributional area, but rather inhabits only some subset of areas suitable for it. It also discusses nonequilibrium distributions that may arise in terms of the BAM diagram before concluding with an analysis of procedures for further processing of a niche model, which expresses potential geographic distributional area, to yield an estimate of occupied distributional area.
Introduction to Applications
Authors: Peterson A. Townsend , Soberón Jorge , Pearson Richard G. , Anderson Robert P. , Martínez-Meyer Enrique , Nakamura Miguel , Araújo Miguel Bastos
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides an introduction to various applications of correlative approaches used in ecological niche modeling, along with the theoretical principles on which the applications are based. It demonstrates how the methods can be applied to interesting challenges to yield highly useful results, provided that the researcher understands exactly what is being estimated based on which data. It also gives examples of types of model predictions that can yield useful information. Each of the following chapters describes key questions that the niche models address, for example, where unknown populations are likely to be present, or which areas are most susceptible to nonnative species invasions. Practical considerations for implementing each application are also taken into account, and future directions and challenges are discussed.
Diversity and Disenfranchisement Indices
Authors: Ginsburgh Victor , Weber Shlomo
Published: November 2017

This chapter is concerned with the measurement of diversity. It distinguishes two main types of indices: fractionalization indices and disenfranchisement indices. Fractionalization indices capture the ethnolinguistic mosaic of existing societies. They allow cross-country or cross-regional comparisons and examination of differences between various economic and political systems, institutions, and outcomes influenced by the diversity of societies. The chapter also discusses polarization indices, which are based on the same fundamentals. Polarization, as well as fractionalization, entails several groups with similar or identical members whose linguistic or ethnic characteristics are substantially different from those in other groups. However, in addition to exogenous ethnolinguistic distances between groups, polarization also introduces the idea of identification and alienation. Disenfranchisement indices are related to the notion of linguistic disenfranchisement caused by government policies. In addition, the chapter discusses the links between fractionalization, disenfranchisement, and communication indices, which were introduced in Chapter 3.
Place of Meta-analysis among Other Methods of Research Synthesis
Authors: Koricheva Julia , Gurevitch Jessica
Published: November 2017

Meta-analysis is a method of research synthesis. Research synthesis may be defined as a review of primary research on a given topic with the purpose of integrating the findings (e.g., for creating generalizations or resolving conflicts). Research synthesis is central to the scientific enterprise. Without it, the evidence for various alternative hypotheses cannot be properly evaluated and generalizations cannot be reached, thus the advance of the scientific field as well as any potential practical applications are inhibited. Meta-analysis employs specialized techniques for data gathering and analysis developed specifically for the purposes of research synthesis. This chapter reviews the variety of approaches to research synthesis and discusses their relative merits, advantages, limitations, and drawbacks.
Statistical Models and Approaches to Inference
Authors: Mengersen Kerrie , Schmid Christopher H. , Jennions Michael D. , Gurevitch Jessica
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides an introduction and overview of the three statistical components of the meta-analysis: (1) the statistical model that describes how the study-specific estimates of interest will be combined; (2) the key statistical approaches for meta-analysis; and (3) the corresponding estimates, inferences, and decisions that arise from a meta-analysis. First, it describes common statistical models used in ecological meta-analyses and the relationships between these models, showing how they are all variations of the same general structure. It then discusses the three main approaches to analysis and inference, again with the aim of providing a general understanding of these methods. Finally, it briefly considers a number of statistical considerations which arise in meta-analysis. In order to illustrate the concepts described, the chapter considers the Lepidoptera mating example described in Appendix 8.1. This is a meta-analysis of 25 studies of the association between male mating history and female fecundity in Lepidoptera.
Bayesian Meta-analysis
Authors: Schmid Christopher H. , Mengersen Kerrie
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces a Bayesian approach to meta-analysis. It discusses the ways in which a Bayesian approach differs from the method of moments and maximum likelihood methods described in chapters 9 and 10, and summarizes the steps required for a Bayesian analysis. It shows that Bayesian methods provide the basis for a rich variety of very flexible models, explicit statements about uncertainty of model parameters, inclusion of other information relevant to an analysis, and direct probabilistic statements about parameters of interest. In a meta-analysis context, this allows for more straightforward accommodation of study-specific differences and similarities, nonnormality and other distributional features of the data, missing data, small studies, and so forth.
Temporal Trends in Effect Sizes: Causes, Detection, and Implications
Authors: Koricheva Julia , Jennions Michael D. , Lau Joseph
Published: November 2017

The general aim of meta-analysis is to combine scientific evidence scattered through a number of individual studies addressing the same topic. Evidence, however, is not static and tends to evolve over time due to changes in research methods, changes in the characteristics of the subjects being studied, for example. A number of recent studies in ecology and evolution have shown that temporal trends in effect sizes are common and often quite dramatic in these fields. Temporal changes in effect sizes could jeopardize the stability of conclusions (i.e., the conclusions of meta-analyses on the same topic conducted in different years might differ). For these reasons, this chapter is devoted to temporal changes in effect sizes. It first summarizes the findings of studies that examined temporal changes in the magnitude and direction of effect sizes in ecology, evolutionary biology, medicine, and the social sciences. It then discusses their possible causes, methods of detection, and implications for the interpretation of the results of the meta-analysis.
Phylogenetic Nonindependence and Meta-analysis
Authors: Lajeunesse Marc J. , Rosenberg Michael S. , Jennions Michael D.
Published: November 2017

In ecological and evolutionary meta-analysis, pooling research from multiple species can be a problem because species form a nested hierarchy of phylogenetic relationships. This shared phylogenetic history can introduce a correlated structure to effect size data because studies on closely related species may yield similar outcomes, and therefore similar estimates of effect sizes. This similarity is the product of shared (i.e., phylogenetically conserved) morphological, physiological, or behavioral characteristics. This chapter describes statistical methods to account for phylogenetic nonindependence of species when pooling and testing for homogeneity of effect sizes. It also describes a method that compares the results of a traditional and a phylogenetically independent meta-analysis to evaluate which approach was more effective at explaining variation in research outcomes. Using these methods, it provides a worked example of a meta-analysis on trade-offs among plant antiherbivore defenses. The chapter concludes a discussion on approaches for collating phylogenetic information for meta-analysis.
Life History Processes, Ontogenetic Development, and Density Dependence
Authors: de Roos André M. , Persson Lennart
Published: November 2017

This chapter first considers the question of how ecologists have conceptualized populations. In other words, how has their research looked at “group[s] of individuals of one species”? It reflects on the classical models that form the theoretical basis of population ecology: the Lotka–Volterra competition model, Lotka–Volterra predator–prey model, and Fretwell–Oksanen food chain model. It then argues that much of ecologists' understanding about populations and communities and their dynamics is couched in terms of mathematical models. The remainder of the chapter discusses individual- versus population-level assumptions, the population dynamical triad, growth patterns and ecology of ontogenetic development, body-size scaling and magnitude of body-size changes, and changes in ecological roles over ontogeny.
Emergent Facilitation among Predators on Size-Structured Prey
Authors: de Roos André M. , Persson Lennart
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses a variety of positive interactions between predators foraging on different stages of the same prey species, which all emerge owing to the biomass overcompensation that may occur in prey life history stages in response to increased mortality. These interactions include emergent facilitation of specialist predators by generalists that forage on the same prey individuals as the specialists, but in addition forage on smaller or larger prey individuals as well. Furthermore, the chapter shows that two predators that specialize on different life-history stages of prey can facilitate each other to the extent that one predator relies on the presence of the other for its persistence. A stage-specific predator may act as a catalyst species, which promotes and in fact is necessary for the invasion of another predator species, but is subsequently outcompeted by the latter.
Demand-Driven Systems, Model Hierarchies, and Ontogenetic Asymmetry
Authors: de Roos André M. , Persson Lennart
Published: November 2017

This chapter shows that overcompensation and cohort cycles are also found in demand-driven systems, and that shifts in overcompensation patterns and cycle types can, as for supply-driven systems, be related to whether development or reproduction is more limited and controls the population at equilibrium. Furthermore, it considers whether dynamical phenomena like cohort cycles have also been reported to occur in unicellular species, which have a limited change in size over their life cycle. Finally, the principles of development versus reproduction control and the concept of ontogenetic asymmetry have formed major cornerstones throughout this whole book. The chapter returns to these topics and sets them in the context of contemporary—and future—ecological theory.
Introduction
Authors: Barany Zoltan
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides a background of democratization and the building of democratic armies. Democratization and the building of democratic armies usually commences in response to a major change that shocks the political system and sets it on a new path. The pivotal event may have been a long time coming or triggered in response to exogenous causes. Scholars of historical institutionalism refer to these events as “formative moments” or “critical junctures,” when the path of an organization or institution is set, confirmed, or changed. This book considers three contexts that follow such formative moments: after war, during regime change, and following state formation. The two subcategories of state transformation taken up in this study are those following colonialism, when a former colony becomes one or more independent state(s), and after (re)unification or apartheid, when two different political or social entities are joined.
After World War II: Germany, Japan, and Hungary
Authors: Barany Zoltan
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the democratization of civil–military relations in two former fascist dictatorships, postwar Germany and Japan, whose armies had destroyed and terrorized large swathes of the surrounding territory. The creation of lasting democratic regimes on the ashes of these dictatorships stands as the signal achievement of democracy promotion. An important part of this process was the building of the new West German and Japanese armed forces. On the other hand, Hungary after World War II illustrates the trajectory of military politics in numerous European states where domestic political forces were defeated by the Soviet Union and its native communist puppets. The chapter then considers the evolution of Hungarian civil–military relations from the end of the war until the March 1953 death of Joseph Stalin, which is a suitable point to mark the consolidation of the Soviet-controlled communist regime and the completion of the armed forces' transformation.
After Military Rule in Asia: South Korea, Thailand, and Indonesia
Authors: Barany Zoltan
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses three Asian states: South Korea, Thailand, and Indonesia. The “good” case, South Korea, has been remarkably successful in consolidating democracy and carving out a proper place in the new institutional architecture for its armed forces. The “bad” case is Thailand where, after a promising though difficult fifteen-year democratization process, the military overthrew the elected government in 2006. Finally, the “interesting” case is Indonesia, the world's most populous Muslim-majority state, where, against the expectations of most experts, the armed forces' political presence and influence have gradually diminished since 1998. The chapter explains why Korean officers have become the servants of the state, why their Indonesian colleagues have more or less given up their intention to run their country, and why members of the Royal Thai Armed Forces (RTAF) have been far more reluctant to relinquish their political role.
Policy Issue Substance and the Revitalization of Legislative Studies
Authors: Lapinski John S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter seeks to introduce a substance-oriented research program based on policy issues for studying Congress from multiple vantage points. In doing so, it makes serious progress on systematically understanding Theodore Lowi's provocative claim that “policy determines politics,” which, while important, has never been satisfactorily understood, either empirically or theoretically. In advancing a substance-oriented approach to studying policymaking and lawmaking in Congress, the chapter sheds light on several important new tools and ideas to use in determining how policy issue substance matters for lawmaking. These include new data, such as an immense data set on U.S. lawmaking between 1877 to 1994; new and massive measures of political preferences broken down by policy issue areas for U.S. lawmakers spanning the period 1877 to 2010; and fresh approaches to analyzing these new data sets.
Freedmen with Conditional Freedom
Authors: Kamen Deborah
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on one of the two major subtypes of freed slave in classical Athens, the slaves freed with strings attached. It begins with a discussion of how manumission worked in classical Athens. Slaves in Athens could be freed in a number of different ways. Sometimes a master freed his own slaves. Slaves could also be freed through “purchase” by a third party. A large number of slaves were freed conditionally. The most striking feature of conditional-freedom manumission inscriptions is a so-called paramonē clause, mandating that the freedman remain and serve his or her former master. The paramonē clause also often includes sanctions, whether bodily punishment, sale, or invalidation of manumission, in the case of failure to perform paramonē service.
Full Citizens: Male
Authors: Kamen Deborah
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on male citizens. In theory, all male citizens were equal. However, variations existed within the male citizen population, with some groups restricted (officially or unofficially) from holding office or compelled to pay extra taxes. Age was one determining factor, since one could be too young or too old to perform the full set of citizen rights. Wealth was another important factor, affecting in several ways the degree to which one could participate in the polis and also the level of timē one could attain. Poor citizens, constrained by their limited resources and their obligation to perform labor, could not exercise full-fledged citizenship and were socially degraded as compared to their richer fellow-citizens. Mostly likely, they felt threatened by the existence of wealthy slaves and rich metics, who despite their inferior legal status occupied a higher socioeconomic status than they did.
Conclusion
Authors: Kamen Deborah
Published: November 2017

This chapter summarizes key themes and presents some final thoughts. Through close analysis of various forms of evidence—literary, epigraphic, and legal—this book demonstrated that classical Athens had a spectrum of statuses, ranging from the base chattel slave to the male citizen with full civic rights. It showed that Athenian democracy was in practice both more inclusive and more exclusive than one might expect based on its civic ideology: more inclusive in that even slaves and noncitizens “shared in” the democratic polis, more exclusive in that not all citizens were equal participants in the social, economic, and political life of the city. The book also showed the flexibility of status boundaries, seemingly in opposition to the dominant ideology of two or three status groups divided neatly from one another: slave versus free, citizen versus noncitizen, or slave versus metic versus citizen.
Introduction
Authors: Penslar Derek J.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides an overview of Jewish involvement in the military. From the beginnings of conscription in the late 1700s until the end of the Second World War, military service was of enormous concern to Jews throughout the world. Advocates for Jewish rights presented the Jewish soldier as proof that Jews were worthy of emancipation and social acceptance. For Jewish soldiers, as for all who serve, military life could be a torment but could also be thrilling and liberating—the most memorable experience of a young man's life. However, two sets of historically contiguous events—the Holocaust and establishment of the state of Israel, on the one hand, and the 1967 Middle East war and the anti-Vietnam War movement, on the other—blotted the Jewish soldier out of Jewish collective memory.
Fighting for Rights: Conscription and Jewish Emancipation
Authors: Penslar Derek J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter illustrates the context in which western and central European armies took form and how Jews were included in them. The issue of military service played a major role in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century debates about the emancipation of Jews. In the early 1700s, Protestant Hebraists and Enlightenment thinkers reconceived the position of Jews in European society by presenting Jews as capable of martial valor and so deserving of civil rights. In the late eighteenth century, new conceptions of the meliorability of humanity led to the introduction of conscription for all men, including Jews. Proponents of the Jewish Enlightenment (Haskalah) paid considerable attention to the issue of military service, especially after the introduction of mass conscription in France during the revolutionary wars. In the German lands, early nineteenth-century advocates of Jewish emancipation urged Jewish youth to volunteer to fight against Napoleonic France.