bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Stabilizing climate requires near‐zero emissions
Authors: Matthews H. Damon , Caldeira Ken
Published: February 2008

Current international climate mitigation efforts aim to stabilize levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. However, human‐induced climate warming will continue for many centuries, even after atmospheric CO2 levels are stabilized. In this paper, we assess the CO2 emissions requirements for global temperature stabilization within the next several centuries, using an Earth system model of intermediate complexity. We show first that a single pulse of carbon released into the atmosphere increases globally averaged surface temperature by an amount that remains approximately constant for several centuries, even in the absence of additional emissions. We then show that to hold climate constant at a given global temperature requires near‐zero future carbon emissions. Our results suggest that future anthropogenic emissions would need to be eliminated in order to stabilize global‐mean temperatures. As a consequence, any future anthropogenic emissions will commit the climate system to warming that is essentially irreversible on centennial timescales.
Satellite detection of severe convective storms by their retrieved vertical profiles of cloud particle effective radius and thermodynamic phase
Authors: Rosenfeld Daniel , Woodley William L. , Lerner Amit , Kelman Guy , Lindsey Daniel T.
Published: February 2008

A new conceptual model that facilitates the inference of the vigor of severe convective storms, producing tornadoes and large hail, by using satellite‐retrieved vertical profiles of cloud top temperature (T)–particle effective radius (re) relations is presented and tested. The driving force of these severe weather phenomena is the high updraft speed, which can sustain the growth of large hailstones and provide the upward motion that is necessary to evacuate the violently converging air of a tornado. Stronger updrafts are revealed by the delayed growth of re to greater heights and lower T, because there is less time for the cloud and raindrops to grow by coalescence. The strong updrafts also delay the development of a mixed phase cloud and its eventual glaciation to colder temperatures. Analysis of case studies making use of these and related criteria show that they can be used to identify clouds that possess a significant risk of large hail and tornadoes. Although the strength and direction of the wind shear are major modulating factors, it appears that they are manifested in the updraft intensity and cloud shapes and hence in the T‐re profiles. It is observed that the severe storm T‐re signature is an extensive property of the clouds that develop ahead in space and time of the actual hail or tornadic storm, suggesting that the probabilities of large hail and tornadoes can be obtained at substantial lead times. Analysis of geostationary satellite time series indicates lead times of up to 2 h.
A stress interpretation scheme applied to lunar gravity and topography data
Authors: Chambat F. , Valette B.
Published: February 2008

We present an approach of the inverse gravimetric problem that allows the gravity to be directly related to the deviatoric stresses without any rheological assumptions. In this approach a new set of parameters is considered: (1) the density variations over equipotential surfaces and the height of interfaces above the corresponding equipotential surfaces and (2) the stress difference. The method is applied to lunar topographic and gravimetric data that are interpreted in term of transversally isotropic deviatoric stress within the Moon. It also provides inference on density and crustal thickness variations. The estimated lateral variation in deviatoric stress is about 500 bars within the crust and upper mantle. In the crust, because of topography, the strongest stress differences take place on the far side, with large lateral compressions beneath the south pole–Aitken basin. Vertical compression under the mascons of the nearside is the main feature within the upper mantle.
Comparison of PI‐SWERL with dust emission measurements from a straight‐line field wind tunnel
Authors: Sweeney Mark , Etyemezian Vic , Macpherson Torin , Nickling William , Gillies John , Nikolich George , McDonald Eric
Published: February 2008

The Portable In situ Wind ERosion Lab (PI‐SWERL) was developed to measure dust emissions from soil surfaces. This small, portable unit can test the emissivity of soils in areas that are difficult to access with a field wind tunnel, and can complete a larger number of tests in less time. The PI‐SWERL consists of a cylindrical enclosure containing an annular flat blade that rotates at different speeds, which generates shear stress upon the surface. The shear stress generated by PI‐SWERL results in the entrainment of particles including dust. PI‐SWERL was developed to provide an index of dust emission potential comparable to the field wind tunnel. The PI‐SWERL dust emission results were compared against those obtained from a ∼12 m long, 1 m wide, 0.75 m high straight line suction‐type portable field wind tunnel by conducting collocated tests at 32 distinct field settings and soil conditions in the Mojave Desert of southern California. Clay‐ to sand‐rich soils that displayed a range of crusting, gravel cover, and disturbance were tested. The correspondence between dust emissions (mg m−2s−1) for the two instruments is nearly 1:1 on most surfaces. Deviation between the two instruments was noted for densely packed gravel surfaces. For rough surfaces a correction can be applied to the PI‐SWERL that results in comparable dust emission data to the wind tunnel. PI‐SWERL can be used to complement research efforts in aeolian geomorphology aimed to quantify spatial and temporal patterns of dust emissions as well as air quality research related to dust emissions.
Soil N2O and NO emissions from an arid, urban ecosystem
Authors: Hall Sharon J. , Huber David , Grimm Nancy B.
Published: February 2008

We measured soil nitrogen (N) cycling and fluxes of N2O and NO in three land‐use types across the metropolitan area of Phoenix, Arizona. Urbanization increased N2O emissions compared to native landscapes, primarily due to the expansion of fertilized and irrigated lawns. Fluxes of N2O from lawns ranged from 18 to 80 μg N m−2 h−1 and were significantly larger than managed xeric landscapes (2.5–22 μg N m−2 h−1) and remnant desert sites within the urban core (3.7–14 μg N m−2 h−1). In contrast, average NO fluxes from lawns were not significantly different from native desert when dry (6–80 μg N m−2 h−1 lawn; 5–16 μg N m−2 h−1 desert) and were lower than fluxes from deserts after wetting events. Furthermore, urbanization has significantly altered the temporal dynamics of NO emissions by replacing pulse‐driven desert ecosystems with year‐round irrigated, managed lawns. Short‐term, pulse‐driven emissions of NO from wetting of dry desert soils may reach 35% of anthropogenic emissions within a day after summer monsoon storms. If regional O3 production is NOx‐limited during the monsoon season, fluxes from warm, recently wet arid soils may contribute to summer O3 episodes.
Ensemble solute transport in two‐dimensional operator‐scaling random fields
Authors: Monnig Nathan D. , Benson David A. , Meerschaert Mark M.
Published: February 2008

Motivated by field measurements of aquifer hydraulic conductivity (K), recent techniques were developed to construct anisotropic fractal random fields in which the scaling, or self‐similarity parameter, varies with direction and is defined by a matrix. Ensemble numerical results are analyzed for solute transport through these two‐dimensional “operator‐scaling” fractional Brownian motion ln(K) fields. Both the longitudinal and transverse Hurst coefficients, as well as the “radius of isotropy” are important to both plume growth rates and the timing and duration of breakthrough. It is possible to create operator‐scaling fractional Brownian motion fields that have more “continuity” or stratification in the direction of transport. The effects on a conservative solute plume are continually faster‐than‐Fickian growth rates, highly non‐Gaussian shapes, and a heavier tail early in the breakthrough curve. Contrary to some analytic stochastic theories for monofractal K fields, the plume growth rates never exceed A. Mercado's (1967) purely stratified aquifer growth rate of plume apparent dispersivity proportional to mean distance. Apparent superstratified growth must be the result of other demonstrable factors, such as initial plume size.
A new stochastic model for fracture transmissivity assessment
Authors: Kozubowski Tomasz J. , Meerschaert Mark M. , Gustafson Gunnar
Published: February 2008

A new stochastic model is proposed for fracture counts and transmissivities in a borehole interval. This new model incorporates several empirical observations, including: (i) Clustering of fractures; (ii) Exponential fracture spacings; (iii) Transmissivities extending over several orders of magnitude; (iv) Power law probability tail for transmissivities at finer scales; (v) Log‐normal transmissivities at larger scales; and (vi) Dependence between fracture counts and transmissivities. Several example applications are provided using borehole data from Sweden.
Chemistry in the Garden
Authors: Hanson James , Brickell Chris , Johncocks William R , Harding Jennifer
Published: February 2008

The aim of this book is to describe some aspects of the chemistry and chemical ecology which are found in the garden. In the garden there are numerous interactions between plants, the soil and with other organisms in which chemistry plays a central mediating role. The discussion concerns several of the chemically and ecologically interesting compounds that are produced by common ornamental garden plants and vegetables and by the predators that attack them. Many chemists are amateur gardeners and this book is directed at them as well as those with a general interest in the scientific processes involved in the garden.
New superconducting electron cyclotron resonance ion source for RIKEN RI beam factory project
Authors: Nakagawa T. , Kidera M. , Higurashi Y. , Ohonishi J. , Goto A. , Yano Y.
Published: February 2008

For RIKEN radio isotope beam project, we started to construct the new superconducting electron cyclotron resonance ion source (SC-ECRIS), which has an operational frequency of 28GHz, in 2007. The main feature of this ion source is that we can produce large size of resonance zone with six sets of solenoid coils. Before starting, we intensively studied the effect of several key parameters of ECRIS (magnetic field configuration, microwave power density, negatively biased disk) on the plasma. In this article, we describe the effect of key parameters on the plasma and detailed structure of the new SC-ECRIS.
Differentiating the Influence of Accessibility, Attitudes, and Demographics on Stop Participation and Frequency during the Evening Commute
Authors: Cao Xinyu , Mokhtarian Patricia L , Handy Susan L
Published: February 2008

Understanding the stop-making behavior of commuters is important for planners and policy makers in their efforts to improve travel demand models and to develop transportation demand management strategies. Previous studies have identified various determinants of commuters' stop generation. However, the way in which accessibility affects stop-making decisions is not clear. Further, few studies have considered the impacts of attitudes and predispositions, which extensively influence travel behavior. Using 1256 commuters in Northern California, this study investigates the influences of accessibility and attitudes on evening commute stop-making behavior. Based on a bivariate selection model, we found that the propensity of workers to make stops is dependent on their attitudes, work-related attributes, neighborhood accessibility, and sociodemographic characteristics, whereas the frequency of trip chaining is primarily determined by sociodemographic characteristics. Accordingly, if we offer commuters opportunities to stop through land-use and transportation policies, they may tend to do so, but the intensity of chaining behavior depends on household needs, the individual's role in the household, and personal time constraints.
Landmark Hierarchies in Context
Authors: Winter Stephan , Tomko Martin , Elias Birgit , Sester Monika
Published: February 2008

We are interested in the generation of distinguishing place or route descriptions for urban environments. Such descriptions require a hierarchical model of the discourse, the elements of the city. We postulate that cognitive hierarchies, as used in human communication, can be sufficiently reflected in machine-generated hierarchies. In this paper we (a) propose a computational model for the generation of a hierarchy of one of these elements of the city—landmarks—and (b) demonstrate that a set of filter rules applied on this hierarchy derives distinguishing route descriptions from spatial context.
Aluminoborosilicate waste glass dissolution under alkaline conditions at 40°C: implications for a chemical affinity-based rate equation
Authors: Pierce E. M. , Richards E. L. , Davis A. M. , Reed L. R. , Rodriguez E. A.
Published: February 2008

Environmental context. The production of nuclear materials has generated a very large amount of highly radioactive wastes that need to be disposed of in a manner that will keep them from posing a danger for millions of years until the radioactivity decays. The process being considered for this daunting task is to contain the wastes in glass. Although studies with ancient and natural glass suggest the weathering of glass is slow, experiments are being conducted to determine the impact of this material on the natural environment and attempt to predict its long-term behaviour. The present paper briefly discusses three models that are being considered for implementing this process and the one that appears to hold the most promise.
Abstract. Single-pass flow-through experiments were conducted with aluminoborosilicate waste glasses to evaluate how changes in solution composition affect the dissolution rate (r) at 40°C and pH (23°C) = 9.0. The three prototypic low-activity waste (LAW) glasses, LAWE-1A, -95A and -290A, used in these experiments span a wide range covering the expected processing composition of candidate immobilised low-activity waste (ILAW) glasses. Results suggest incongruent release of Al, B, Na, and Si at low flow-rate (q) to sample surface area (S), in units of (m s–1), (log10(q/S) < –8.9) whereas congruent release is observed at high q/S (log10(q/S) > –7.9). Dissolution rates increase from log10(q/S) ≈ –9.3 to –8.0 and then become constant at log10(q/S) > –7.9. Forward (maximum) dissolution rates, based on B release, are the same irrespective of glass composition, evident by the dissolution rates being within the experimental error of one another (r1A = 0.0301 ± 0.0153 g m–2 day–1, r95A = 0.0248 ± 0.0125 g m–2 day–1, and r290A = 0.0389 ± 0.0197 g m–2 day–1). The results also illustrate that as the activity of SiO2(aq) increases, the rate of glass dissolution decreases to a residual rate. The pseudo-equilibrium constant, Kg, (log10(Kg) = –3.7) predicted with these results is slightly lower than the K for chalcedony (log10(K) = –3.48) at 40°C. Finally, these results support the use of a chemical affinity-based rate law to describe glass dissolution as a function of solution composition.
Sequestration and retention of uranium(VI) in the presence of hydroxylapatite under dynamic geochemical conditions
Authors: Wellman Dawn M. , Glovack Julia N. , Parker Kent , Richards Emily L. , Pierce Eric M.
Published: February 2008

Environmental context. Contamination of surface and subsurface geologic media by heavy metals and radionuclides is a significant problem within the United State Department of Energy complex as a result of past nuclear operations. Numerous phosphate-based remediation strategies have been proposed to introduce hydroxylapatite directly or indirectly (i.e. through in situ precipitation) into subsurface regimes to act as an efficient sorbent for sequestration of metals and radionuclides such as uranium. Results presented here illustrate the importance of variable geochemical conditions on the mechanism of sequestration and long-term retention of uranium in the presence of hydroxylapatite.
Abstract. Numerous solid- and aqueous-phase phosphate-based technologies for remediating heavy metals and radionuclides have the common premise of sequestration by hydroxylapatite. Complexation reactions and hydrolysis generally preclude actinides from incorporation into intracrystalline sites; rather, surface sorption and precipitation are significant mechanisms for the sequestration of actinides. The effect of pH, aqueous speciation, and the availability of reactive surface sites on minerals such as hydroxylapatite have a significant impact on the mechanism and degree of sequestration and retention of variably charged contaminants such as uranium. Yet, little attention has been given to the sequestration and retention of uranium by hydroxylapatite under dynamic geochemical conditions that may be encountered during remediation activities. We present the results of an investigation evaluating the removal of uranium by hydroxylapatite in systems near equilibrium with respect to hydroxylapatite, and the effect of dynamic aqueous geochemical conditions, such as those encountered during and subsequent to remediation activities, on the retention of uranium. Results presented here support previous investigations demonstrating the efficiency of hydroxylapatite for sequestration of uranium and illustrate the importance of geochemical conditions, including changes to surface properties and aqueous speciation, on the sequestration and retention of uranium.
How does acid treatment to remove carbonates affect the isotopic and elemental composition of soils and sediments?
Authors: Fernandes Milena , Krull Evelyn
Published: February 2008

Environmental context. The ability to accurately determine the elemental and isotopic composition of soils and sediments has important implications to our quantitative understanding of global biogeochemical cycles. However, the analysis of organic carbon in solid matrices is a time-consuming task that requires the selective removal of carbonates, a treatment that has the potential to significantly alter the composition of the original sample. In the present work, we compare three of the most common acid treatments used for carbonate removal, and critically evaluate their effect on the content and isotopic signature of organic carbon and nitrogen in both soils and sediments.
Abstract. In the present work, we compared the efficacy of three acid treatments in removing carbonates from soils and sediments for elemental and isotopic analysis. The methods tested were (1) refluxing with H2SO3; (2) in situ treatment with H2SO3 in silver capsules; and (3) treatment with HCl followed by rinsing with water. Refluxing with H2SO3 led to substantial losses of organic carbon and nitrogen, but comparatively small nitrogen isotopic shifts. The in situ treatment was inadequate for carbonate-rich samples (contents ≥30%) as a consequence of the formation of a mineral precipitate. Treatment with HCl led to substantial losses of nitrogen from carbonate-rich samples, and deviations in nitrogen isotopic signatures (δ15N) of up to 3.7‰. δ15N values showed no significant difference between acid-treated and untreated samples or between treatments, although variability was high and influenced by sample composition. Carbonate-poor samples showed no statistical difference in δ13C values between treatments, whereas carbonate-rich samples tended to be more 13C-depleted when treated with HCl, potentially suggesting the preferential preservation of 13C-depleted compounds (e.g. lipids or lignin).
Something in the air: connections between global warming, ozone depletion, POPs and particulates
Authors: Rae Ian D.
Published: February 2008

Environmental context. The release of chemical substances to the environment was long seen simply as a way to get rid of them from the immediate vicinity of their generation. Until recently there was little consideration that regional or global problems might result. Further, the various releases were studied by specialists who lacked the breadth of knowledge to understand that many of their specialties were linked and that chemical identity, toxicity, bio-accumulation, regional and global weather patterns and some arcane physical chemistry would need to be involved in a comprehensive analysis of the impact of chemicals on the environment.
Prevalence of HIV and other sexually transmissible infections in relation to lemon or lime juice douching among female sex workers in Jos, Nigeria
Authors: Imade Godwin , Sagay Atiene , Egah Daniel , Onwuliri Viola , Grigg Matthew , Egbodo Christopher , Thacher Tom , Potts Malcolm , Short Roger
Published: February 2008

Background: The rates of sexually transmissible infections (STI), including HIV, are high among female sex workers (FSW) in Nigeria and the use of various local vaginal cleansing agents to prevent infection is a common practice. The present study was aimed at determining whether any association exists between current lime or lemon douching and the prevalence of STI and HIV infections among FSW in Jos, Nigeria. Methods: Consenting FSW who were users of lemon or lime (UL) or non-users (NUL) were recruited for the study between May and September 2006. A structured questionnaire was administered by trained counsellors. Pre-HIV test counselling was done. Participant’s blood samples were tested for HIV and syphilis. Genital examination was done and high vaginal and endocervical samples were collected. The samples obtained were processed for STI using standard laboratory procedures. FSW found with treatable STI received free drugs. HIV results were disclosed after post-test counselling and positive FSW were referred to a HIV/AIDS facility for care, support and antiretroviral therapy. Results: A total of 398 FSW (86 UL and 312 NUL) participated in the study. Their mean age was 27.6 ± 7.0 years (range 16–63 years). HIV prevalence was high for both UL and NUL: 48.8 and 48.2%, respectively (odds ratio 1.0; 95% confidence interval 0.6–1.2, P = 0.9427). The rates of bacterial vaginosis were not significantly higher in UL (UL 55.8%, NUL 44.0%, odds ratio 1.59, 95% confidence interval 0.96–2.65, P = 0.06). There were no associations between the use of citrus douching and other STI. Conclusion: There were no significant associations between the prevalence of STI and HIV and lime or lemon juice usage.
Exploring 'best practice' for nucleic acid detection of Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Authors: Whiley David M. , Garland Suzanne M. , Harnett Geoffrey , Lum Gary , Smith David W. , Tabrizi Sepehr N. , Sloots Theo P. , Tapsall John W.
Published: February 2008

Nucleic acid detection tests (NADT) have considerable benefits for the detection of Neisseria gonorrhoeae (GC), including high sensitivity across a range of specimen types and use under widely differing settings and conditions. However, sexual health practitioners and others who use data generated by NADT for GC should be aware of some important limitations of these tests. False-positive results caused by cross reaction with commensal Neisseria species have been observed in many assays, and have lead to unacceptably low positive-predictive values in some patient populations. Further, false-negative results can be caused by GC sequence variation, with some gonococci lacking certain NADT target sequences. This review examines the issues associated with gonococcal NADT and considers best practice for use of these assays based on current knowledge. We emphasise the need for supplementary testing and extensive assay validation, and suggest appropriate strategies for these requirements irrespective of the setting in which they are used. Further, we highlight the need to maintain culture-based testing for certain specimen sites as well as for antimicrobial resistance surveillance.
Condoms for sexually transmissible infection prevention: politics versus science
Authors: Mindel Adrian , Sawleshwarkar Shailendra
Published: February 2008

The present review assesses the protection that condoms offer against sexually transmissible infections (STI) and the impact that social, political and religious opinion in the USA has had in the past 8 years on promoting condoms for safer sex. Condoms offer protection against most STI. However, the degree of protection depends on correct and consistent use, the type of sexual activity and the biological characteristics of different infections. Cross-sectional and case-control studies and other observational data provide the majority of evidence for STI prevention. Condoms provide a high level of protection against those infections that are transmitted mainly via infected secretions, including HIV, gonorrhoea, chlamydia and trichomoniasis. Protection against those infections transmitted via skin and mucous membrane contact, including Herpes simplex virus infection and human papilloma virus, appears to be less. The Bush administration, driven by conservative political, social and religious elements in the USA, has mounted a concerted campaign to undermine the role of the condom in health-promotion activities in the USA and overseas by undervaluing and misrepresenting scientific data, and through a sustained and well-funded promotion of abstinence-only education. However, this has lead to considerable controversy and disillusionment with abstinence-only education, both at home and abroad, and there is now incontrovertible evidence that abstinence-only programs are ineffectual.
Male sexuality in Vietnam: the case of male-to-male sex
Authors: Vu Bao Ngoc , Girault Philippe , Do Binh Van , Colby Donn , Tran Lien Thi Bich
Published: February 2008

Background: To implement effective behaviour change interventions for men who have sex with men, qualitative information was collected about the contexts and meanings of sex and relationships between men in Ho Chi Minh City. Methods: Individual interviews and focus groups were conducted with 74 men aged 18 years or older who had had sex with another man in the previous 12 months. Results: Findings reveal that sex between men exists and is associated with two common descriptors in Vietnam: bong lo for those who are feminised in public and bong kin for those who are not, and are often married. In sexual relationships, for both groups of men, there is a trade off between sexual pleasure and risk. Condoms may not be used, particularly when having sex with a partner who was considered to be good looking or perceived as ‘clean’. Conclusions: The study highlights the need for HIV prevention programs which address issues of sexual meaning in male-to-male sexual relationships.
Pulsed oxidation and biological evolution in the Ediacaran Doushantuo Formation
Authors: McFadden Kathleen A. , Huang Jing , Chu Xuelei , Jiang Ganqing , Kaufman Alan J. , Zhou Chuanming , Yuan Xunlai , Xiao Shuhai
Published: February 2008

Recent geochemical data from Oman, Newfoundland, and the western United States suggest that long-term oxidation of Ediacaran oceans resulted in progressive depletion of a large dissolved organic carbon (DOC) reservoir and potentially triggered the radiation of acanthomorphic acritarchs, algae, macroscopic Ediacara organisms, and, subsequently, motile bilaterian animals. However, the hypothesized coupling between ocean oxidation and evolution is contingent on the reliability of continuous geochemical and paleontological data in individual sections and of intercontinental correlations. Here we report high-resolution geochemical data from the fossil-rich Doushantuo Formation (635–551 Ma) in South China that confirm trends from other broadly equivalent sections and highlight key features that have not been observed in most sections or have received little attention. First, samples from the lower Doushantuo Formation are characterized by remarkably stable δ
13
C
org
(carbon isotope composition of organic carbon) values but variable δ
34
S
CAS
(sulfur isotope composition of carbonate-associated sulfate) values, which are consistent with a large isotopically buffered DOC reservoir and relatively low sulfate concentrations. Second, there are three profound negative δ
13
C
carb
(carbon isotope composition of carbonate) excursions in the Ediacaran Period. The negative δ
13
C
carb
excursions in the middle and upper Doushantuo Formation record pulsed oxidation of the deep oceanic DOC reservoir. The oxidation events appear to be coupled with eukaryote diversity in the Doushantuo basin. Comparison with other early Ediacaran basins suggests spatial heterogeneity of eukaryote distribution and redox conditions. We hypothesize that the distribution of early Ediacaran eukaryotes likely tracked redox conditions and that only after ≈551 Ma (when Ediacaran oceans were pervasively oxidized) did evolution of oxygen-requiring taxa reach global distribution.
Mesenchymal–epithelial interactions involving epiregulin in tuberous sclerosis complex hamartomas
Authors: Li Shaowei , Takeuchi Fumiko , Wang Ji-an , Fan Qingyuan , Komurasaki Toshi , Billings Eric M. , Pacheco-Rodriguez Gustavo , Moss Joel , Darling Thomas N.
Published: February 2008

Patients with tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) develop hamartomas containing biallelic inactivating mutations in either
TSC1
or
TSC2
, resulting in mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) activation. Hamartomas overgrow epithelial and mesenchymal cells in TSC skin. The pathogenetic mechanisms for these changes had not been investigated, and the existence or location of cells with biallelic mutations (“two-hit” cells) was unclear. We compared TSC skin hamartomas (angiofibromas and periungual fibromas) with normal-appearing skin of the same patient, and we observed more proliferation and mTOR activation in hamartoma epidermis. Two-hit cells were not detected in the epidermis. Fibroblast-like cells in the dermis, however, exhibited allelic deletion of
TSC2
, in both touch preparations of fresh tumor samples and cells grown from TSC skin tumors, suggesting that increased epidermal proliferation and mTOR activation were not caused by second-hit mutations in the keratinocytes but by mesenchymal–epithelial interactions. Gene expression arrays, used to identify potential paracrine factors released by mesenchymal cells, revealed more epiregulin mRNA in fibroblast-like angiofibroma and periungual fibroma cells than in fibroblasts from normal-appearing skin of the same patient. Elevation of epiregulin mRNA was confirmed with real-time PCR, and increased amounts of epiregulin protein were demonstrated with immunoprecipitation. Epiregulin stimulated keratinocyte proliferation and phosphorylation of ribosomal protein S6
in vitro
. These results suggest that hamartomatous TSC skin tumors are induced by paracrine factors released by two-hit cells in the dermis and that proliferation with mTOR activation of the overlying epidermis is an effect of epiregulin.
Two-Generation Reproductive Toxicity Study of Inhaled Acrylonitrile Vapors in Crl:CD(SD) Rats
Authors: Nemec M. D. , Kirkpatrick D. T. , Sherman J. , Van Miller J. P. , Pershing M. L. , Strother D. E.
Published: February 2008

To assess the effects of acrylonitrile (AN) exposure on reproduction, Sprague-Dawley rats (25/sex/group) were exposed to vapor atmospheres of AN via whole-body inhalation at concentrations of 0, 5, 15, 45 (two offspring generations) and 90 ppm (one offspring generation), 6 h daily, 1 litter/generation, through F2 weanlings on postnatal day 28. After approximately 3 weeks of direct exposure following weaning, exposure of the F1 animals at 90 ppm was terminated due to excessive systemic toxicity in the males. There were no exposure-related mortalities in adult animals, no functional effects on reproduction or effects on reproductive organs, and no evidence of cumulative toxicity or of enhanced toxicity in pregnant and lactating dams or in developing animals. Adult systemic toxicity was limited to body weight and/or food consumption deficits in both sexes and generations (greater in males) at 45 and 90 ppm and increased liver weights in the 90 ppm F0 males and females and 45 ppm F1 males. Neonatal toxicity was expressed by F1 offspring weight decrements at 90 ppm. Clinical signs of local irritation during and immediately following exposure were observed at 90 ppm. Microscopic lesions of the rostral nasal epithelium, representing local site-of-contact irritation, were observed in some animals at 5 to 45 ppm. The no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) for reproductive toxicity over two generations and neonatal toxicity of AN administered to rats via whole-body inhalation was 45 ppm. The NOAEL for reproduction was 90 ppm for the first generation. The NOAEL for parental systemic toxicity was 15 ppm.
Another California Milestone: The First Application of Hormesis in Litigation and Regulation
Authors: Calabrese Edward J.
Published: February 2008

The concept of hormesis has been receiving greater interest in the biomedical and toxicological research communities over the past decade. Of particular importance has been how the hormesis concept may affect risk assessment practices, litigation, and regulation. This paper identifies and discusses what may be the first application of the hormesis concept in environmental assessment and litigation. This occurred in California within the context of an assessment of alleged continuing smelter contamination nearly a century ago.
Frequency and Spectrum of lacI Mutations in the Liver of Big Blue Mice Following the Administration of Genotoxic Carcinogens Singly and in Series
Authors: Delker Don A. , Geter David R. , Kleinert Kathryn M. , Gollapudi B. Bhaskar
Published: February 2008

Transgenic mouse models offer a unique opportunity to study in vivo mutagenicity in any tissue of interest. In this study, the authors have determined the liver mutant frequency (MF) and mutational spectra (MS) of 12 week-old male Big Blue B6C3F1 transgenic mice exposed to the genotoxic carcinogens benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P; 250 mg/kg/day), N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA; 7 mg/kg/day), or N-ethyl-1-nitrosourea (ENU; 50 mg/kg/day) singly (3 daily oral doses) or in series (B[a]P on day 1, NDMA on day 2, and ENU on day 3). All genotoxic agents, alone or in series, increased MF in the liver (three-to sixfold). MS analyses of liver DNA revealed a high percentage of G:C → A:T transitions in the control (88%) and the NDMA (64%) groups. In contrast, B[a]P, ENU, and the series treatment induced a high percentage (≥50%) of transversions. Significantly, 46% (19 out of 41) of the mutations in the series treatment group occurred at CpG dinucleotides, compared to less than 22% in the other treatment groups. The MS from the series exposure was most similar to B[a]P with a high percentage of transversion mutations occurring at guanine nucleotides (36%). These preliminary data suggest that genotoxic carcinogens, when exposed in series, produce a unique MS profile characterized not only by shifts in mutation class but also sequence context.
Review of the Toxicology of Mineral Spirits
Authors: Amoruso Marie A. , Gamble John F. , McKee Richard H. , Rohde Arlean M. , Jaques Andrew
Published: February 2008

This review of the toxicology of mineral spirits covers studies of the major classes of mineral spirits and several toxicologically important mineral spirit constituents. This review cites data from numerous previously unpublished animal toxicology studies conducted on mineral spirits during the past 30 years, expanding the existing database on the toxicology of this group of hydrocarbon solvents. The data can be used to better evaluate the potential effects associated with exposure to these materials, including health and environmental reviews such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency High Production Volume (HPV) chemical program and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) HPV Screening Information Data Set (SIDS) program. The majority of animal toxicology studies in the available literature were conducted on mineral spirits categorized as ASTM D235 Type I Class A (149°C to 213°C boiling range; 8% to 22% aromatics) and demonstrate that Type I Class A mineral spirits have a low order of acute toxicity and do not produce significant systemic effects. Some additional studies conducted with ASTM D235 Type II Class C mineral spirits (177°C to 213°C boiling range; <2% aromatics) suggest that Type II Class C mineral spirits have similar toxicity to Type I Class A mineral spirits, though there is some evidence that Type II, Class C mineral spirits have a lesser degree of central nervous system (CNS) effects than the higher aromatic containing Type I Class A materials. In addition, toxicity data on selected chemical constituents of mineral spirits (e.g., n-nonane, n-decane, n-undecane) indicate that these chemicals have similar toxicological properties to mineral spirits. Overall, the data showed that mineral spirits have a low order of acute toxicity and do not appear to produce toxicologically relevant systemic effects. Ongoing studies are evaluating the concerns associated with chronic low-level exposure and central nervous system effects.
PITSTOP–Men's Health Social Marketing Program
Authors: O'Brien Ben , Forrest Diana
Published: February 2008

In 2003, Knowsley Primary Care Trust and Knowsley Council (Merseyside, United Kingdom) decided to take a social marketing approach to improving men's health. Predating the UK national social marketing review, the program nevertheless featured many of the key concepts and techniques that emerged in the UK national Social Marketing Centre's 2006 report It's Our Health (French and Blair-Stevens 2006). The PITSTOP program offers a number of useful lessons to the UK's emerging social marketers in public health because of its quantifiable outcomes, strategic success, and lessons learned through the development and delivery of the program.
Beating the Barriers to Social Marketing
Authors: Cork Sarah
Published: February 2008

A case study presentation of a social marketing project that contributes to a childhood obesity campaign is described here. It also includes a discussion of some of the barriers faced in implementing social marketing activity and how these might be overcome in future. The workshop also invited participants to discuss their own barriers to social marketing and how these might be overcome.
Measuring the Societal Impact of Behavior Choices
Authors: Lister Graham , Mcvey Dominic , French Jeff , Stevens Clive Blair , Merritt Rowena
Published: February 2008

Social marketing has a key role to play in helping to shape the choices people make and supporting the decisions and actions that determine their health and well-being. These choices have a broad impact on society, affecting not only the quality of life of individuals and communities and the cost of public services, but also the performance of business and the economy. In this article we discuss how the impact of behavior choices and the interventions that support them can be evaluated. We briefly set out the problems of measuring the cost effectiveness of behavior choice interventions and propose an approach to these challenges. The article illustrates how a pragmatic, layered framework for evaluating cost effectiveness can be developed and applied in five fields in which positive behavior choices can prevent illness (alcohol misuse, smoking, obesity, coronary vascular disease, and mental health). The review identifies the value of a quality adjusted life year in each of these fields and uses these estimates to generate “return on investment” for typical projects, at different levels in society (individual and family, health and care services, other public sector, private sector, and wider society). Finally we propose a consensus conference to develop and apply such a framework.
Happily Ever after …? Partnerships in Social Marketing
Authors: Thomas Jane
Published: February 2008

Partnership marketing (especially with commercial partners) is a relatively new concept in the realm of United Kingdom public health care but one that can offer a number of benefits especially when the project in question has a limited budget.
Applying Commercial Marketing Theory to Social Marketing: A Tale of 4Ps (and a B)
Authors: Wood Matthew
Published: February 2008

This article takes a critical view of the application of marketing theory and concepts, particularly exchange and the marketing mix, to social marketing situations. It draws upon my experience of using traditional concepts and models in the training of health professionals, in addition to the literature. Conceptually and practically there are problems in understanding and applying concepts such as exchange, value, and the 4Ps. The use of behavioral change models adds complexity to the setting and measurement of goals and it can be difficult to identify and sell the benefits of these changes in a similar way to commercial product marketing. Commercial marketing itself is changing with the growth of relationship marketing, interactive communications, and the critical impact of branding. It is argued that social marketing theory and practice needs reconsidering in the light of these developments. There are also important ethical considerations when attempting to introduce marketing concepts and language to health professionals. Following a detailed analysis of the nature of exchange in social marketing, my article considers each of the 4Ps in turn before drawing conclusions and raising questions and issues for further discussion.
Social Marketing and the Meaning of Cool
Authors: Bird Sara , Tapp Alan
Published: February 2008

Commercial marketers have long understood the value of cool in designing and selling their products, and have invested heavily in keeping in touch with the latest trends among their consumers. In this article, we contend that social marketers could use “cool” to achieve goals of behavioral change, especially with teenagers. We trace the history of cool through to its current role in consumption before exploring how commercial marketers keep track of cool trends. With a focus on teenagers, typically cool consumers but also those most likely to embrace risky behaviors, we consider the potential and pitfalls of using cool for social marketing. We conclude with a practical discussion of how to use cool, and how to stay in touch with cool consumers in a social marketing context.
“Listening to Reason”: A Social Marketing Stop-Smoking Campaign in Nottingham
Authors: De Gruchy Jeanelle , Coppel Dara
Published: February 2008

Nottingham's high level of smoking (34% prevalence) is a significant contributor to its poor health profile. This article focuses on the development, implementation and evaluation of a social marketing campaign which aimed to reduce smoking in adults living in its most deprived areas. The campaign was part of a comprehensive program of tobacco control and smoking cessation interventions. A local team of National Health Service staff coordinated the campaign. Insight into the smoking behavior of the target groups was developed through geodemographic profiling, literature review, and qualitative research in semi-structured sessions and street interviews. A marketing agency developed the intervention mix, which included billboards, bus and tram banners, posters, and beer mats. Lessons learned from the campaign are presented, along with early findings from its evaluation which suggest a modest impact on behavior. The difficulty of evaluating a small campaign at local level, particularly in an area such as tobacco control where there is a concurrent, multi-component program in place, is discussed.
Mediated Generalization in Discrimination Learning by Rhesus Monkeys
Authors: Gaffan D. , Dickinson A.
Published: February 2008

Monkeys received discrimination training in which the choice of either a simultaneous or a serial compound of two visual images was rewarded before we assessed the monkeys’ conditioned preference for one of the images from the compound. This preference was reduced or blocked if the other image had been associated with reward rather than nonreward prior to compound training. By contrast, the preference was enhanced if the other image was associated with reward rather than nonreward after compound training. The magnitudes of the blocking and enhancement were unaffected by the temporal structure, simultaneous or serial, of the stimulus compound. These results are discussed in terms of the representation of stimulus compounds, the role of within-compound associations, and the similarities between serial and simultaneous visual compounds as processed by monkeys.
Graphical Representation Fosters Discovery in the 2–4–6 Task
Authors: Vallée-Tourangeau Frédéric , Payton Teresa
Published: February 2008

In the 2–4–6 rule discovery task, reasoners seek to discover a rule that governs the arrangement of three numbers (or triple). The to-be-discovered rule is “ascending numbers”. Upon being given the triple 2–4–6 as an initial example, however, reasoners tend to formulate algebraically specific hypotheses. Traditionally, this task is conducted primarily from an internal representation of the triples and candidate hypotheses. More recently, substantial representational effects have been demonstrated wherein an external representation of the dimensions of the problem space facilitated successful rule discovery. In the two experiments reported here, an interactive graphical representation was created by concurrently plotting each triple produced by the participants. In Experiment 1, participants who performed the task with this external representation were more likely to discover the rule than were a group of control participants. Experiment 2 replicated the effect but also assessed participants’ hypotheses for each triple generated. Results indicated that a graphical representation of the triples fostered the development of hypotheses that were less constrained by the implied algebraic specificity of the initial triple.
Short Article: Memory Awareness following Episodic Inhibition
Authors: Racsmány Mihály , Conway Martin A. , Garab Edit A. , Nagymáté Gábor
Published: February 2008

Three experiments used directed forgetting (DF) and retrieval practice (RP) to investigate the relation of inhibited items to states of memory awareness occurring at test. In Experiment 1 using list DF robust inhibitory effects were present in cued recall, but in a recognition test these effects were only present in responses accompanied by recollective experience. In Experiments 2 and 3 using RP reliable effects of inhibition were found but these did not relate systematically to states of memory awareness. It is suggested that in DF the to-be-forgotten items are tagged at study as not to be recollectively experienced and so have a specific, inhibitory, relation to states of recollective experience occurring during test. In RP no tagging takes place, and inhibition is automatic or nonintentional and consequently does not have a specific relation to states of memory awareness at test.
Short Article: Detecting Objects is Easier than Categorizing Them
Authors: Bowers And Jeffrey S. , Jones Keely W.
Published: February 2008

Two experiments compared performance in an object detection task, in which participants categorized photographs as objects and nonobject textures, and an object categorization task, in which photographs were categorized into basic-level categories. The basic-level categorization task was either easy (e.g., dogs vs. buses) or difficult (e.g., dogs vs. cats). Participants performed similarly in the detection and the easy-categorization tasks, but response times to the difficult-categorization task were slower. This latter finding is difficult to reconcile with the conclusions of Grill-Spector and Kanwisher (2005) who reported equivalent performance on detection and basic-level categorization tasks and took this as evidence that figure–ground segregation and basic-level categorization are mediated by the same mechanism.