bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Le point sur les marées d’équinoxes dans l’estuaire du Saint-Laurent
Authors: Bourgault Daniel , Chavanne Cédric , Dumont Dany , Morin Émilie , Galbraith Peter S. , Gostiaux Louis
Published: December 2015

Selon une étude publiée dans Le Naturaliste canadien, les marées de l’estuaire du Saint-Laurent ne seraient pas plus grandes aux équinoxes qu’à d’autres moments de l’année. Cette idée de marées plus grandes aux équinoxes relèverait plutôt d’une croyance populaire sans fondements théoriques, répandue même parmi la communauté scientifique. Il est démontré ici que ces conclusions contredisent en fait la théorie des marées et découlent d’un problème de sous-échantillonnage des données de marées. Une analyse basée sur 30 ans d’observations horaires du niveau de la mer à la station Rimouski montre que, statistiquement, les marées sont bel et bien plus énergétiques autour des équinoxes, en accord avec la théorie des marées. Cependant, cette conclusion statistique n’indique pas nécessairement que les marées les plus fortes d’une année particulière se rencontrent précisément aux jours des équinoxes puisque l’augmentation du marnage vers les équinoxes est faible comparativement aux variations de marnages associées au cycle vive-eau/morte-eau (2 semaines) qui n’est pas synchronisé avec les équinoxes. La théorie des marées est expliquée simplement et un schéma est proposé pour illustrer l’influence du cycle équinoxe-solstice sur les marées.
Enhanced light extraction in 260 nm light-emitting diode with a highly transparent p-AlGaN layer
Authors: Jo Masafumi , Maeda Noritoshi , Hirayama Hideki
Published: December 2015

AlGaN LEDs have been studied as efficient light sources in DUV. One of the central issues in DUV LEDs is their low light extraction efficiency owing to the absorption in a p-contacting layer and a metal electrode. We report the fabrication of a 260 nm LED containing a transparent p-AlGaN layer. The LED showed a relatively good current injection with an increase in forward voltage compared with a p-GaN LED. Its efficiency reached 2%, almost equivalent to that of the p-GaN LED. In addition, a nearly zero absorption in the p-contacting layer increased the light extraction efficiency by using a reflective metal electrode.
Two summers of São Paulo drought: Origins in the western tropical Pacific
Authors: Seth Anji , Fernandes Kátia , Camargo Suzana J.
Published: December 2015

Two years of drought in Southeast Brazil have led to water shortages in São Paulo, the country's most populous city. We examine the observed drought during austral summers of 2013/2014 and 2014/2015 and the related large‐scale dynamics. The 2013–2014 precipitation deficits were more concentrated in the state of São Paulo, while in 2014–2015 moderate deficits were seen throughout the region. We find that a persistent warm sea surface temperature (SST) anomaly in the western tropical Pacific Ocean was an important driver of drought via atmospheric teleconnection in the two December–February seasons. The warm SST and associated convective heating initiated a wave train across the South Pacific. The resulting anticyclonic geopotential height anomaly over the southwest Atlantic expanded the westward margin of the South Atlantic high and prevented low‐pressure systems from entering southeast Brazil from midlatitudes. This mechanism suggests a hemispheric symmetry to that proposed for the recent California drought.
Aerosol effects on cloud cover as evidenced by ground‐based and space‐based observations at five rural sites in the United States
Authors: Ten Hoeve John E. , Augustine John A.
Published: December 2015

Previous studies of the second aerosol indirect (lifetime) effect on cloud cover have estimated the strength of the effect without correcting for near‐cloud contamination and other confounding factors. Here we combine satellite‐based observations with a multiyear ground‐based data set across five rural locations in the United States to more accurately constrain the second indirect aerosol effect and quantify aerosol effects on radiative forcing. Results show that near‐cloud contamination accounts for approximately 40% of the satellite‐derived aerosol‐cloud relationship. When contamination is removed and the effect of meteorological covariation is minimized, a strong physical aerosol effect on cloud cover remains. Averaged over all stations and after correcting for contamination, the daytime solar and total (solar + IR) radiative forcing is −52 W/m2 and −19 W/m2, respectively, due to both direct and indirect aerosol effects for aerosol optical depths (τ) between 0 and 0.3. Averaged diurnally, the average total radiative forcing is +16 W/m2.
Modelling total electron content during geomagnetic storm conditions using empirical orthogonal functions and neural networks
Authors: Uwamahoro Jean Claude , Habarulema John Bosco
Published: December 2015

It has been shown in ionospheric research that modelling total electron content (TEC) during storm conditions is a big challenge. In this study, TEC modelling was performed over Sutherland (32.38°S, 20.81°E, 41.09°S geomagnetic), South Africa, during storm conditions, using a combination of empirical orthogonal function (EOF) and regression analyses techniques. The neural network (NN) technique was also applied to the same TEC data set, and its output was compared with TEC modeled using the EOF model. TEC was derived from GPS observations, and a geomagnetic storm was defined for Dst≤−50 nT. The hour of the day and the day number of the year, F10.7p and A indices, were chosen as inputs for the modeling techniques to take into account diurnal and seasonal variation of TEC, solar, and geomagnetic activities, respectively. Both EOF and NN models were developed using GPS TEC data for storm days counted from 1999 to 2013 and tested on different storms. For interpolation, the EOF and NN models were validated on storms that occurred during high and low solar activity periods (storms of 2000 and 2006), while for extrapolation the validation was done for the storms of 2014 and 2015, identified based on the provisional Dst index data. A comparison of the modeled TEC with the observed TEC showed that both EOF and NN models perform well for storms with nonsignificant ionospheric TEC response and storms that occurred during period of low solar activity. For storms with significant TEC response, TEC magnitude is well captured during the nighttime and early morning, but short‐term features, TEC enhancement, and depression are not sufficiently captured by the models. Statistically, the NN model performs 12.79% better than the EOF model on average, over all storm periods considered. Furthermore, it has been shown that the EOF and NN models developed for a specific station can be used to estimate TEC over other locations within a latitudinal and longitudinal coverage of 8.7° and 10.6°, respectively. This is an important result as it reduces the data dimensionality problem for computational purposes.
Evaluation of the performance of the Beijing Climate Centre Climate System Model 1.1(m) to simulate precipitation across China based on long‐range correlation characteristics
Authors: Zhao Shanshan , He Wenping
Published: December 2015

In this study, we investigated the observed daily precipitation data in China using detrended fluctuation analysis. The daily precipitation records exhibit relatively weak long‐range correlation (LRC) characteristics with scaling exponents of less than 0.6 in most of China. The performance of the climate model can be quantitatively evaluated by comparing the differences of the scaling exponents between the observational data and the model‐simulated data. Based on these findings, the performance of the Beijing Climate Centre Climate System Model (BCC_CSM1.1(m)) was evaluated for simulations of daily precipitation in China. The LRCs of the model‐simulated daily precipitation were stronger than those of the observations in the midwest of Northwest China and in the majority of North China but were weaker in the middle and eastern parts of Inner Mongolia, Jilin, and the area between the Yangtze River and the Huaihe River. In general, the average scaling exponents of the model‐simulated daily precipitation were greater than those of the observational data in all four seasons; the minimum of the simulated error occurred in winter, and the maximum occurred in autumn. Moreover, obvious differences were observed between the coefficients of the skewness and the kurtosis of the scaling exponents in the simulations and the observations.
LGBT Relationships
Authors: Lannutti Pamela J.
Published: December 2015

The study of interpersonal communication in LGBT relationships has been influenced by changes in the social context of these relationships. Early research on communication in LGBT relationships focused on the effects of stigma on LGBT communication and the process and effects of “coming out.” Further research has examined characteristics of same‐sex relationships, and has compared same‐sex couples and different‐sex couples. The HIV/AIDS epidemic and changes in civil recognition for same‐sex relationships influenced research on LGBT communication and relationships. Studies have also focused on the diversity of communication and experiences within the LGBT community.
Uncertainty Increasing Strategies
Authors: Donovan Erin E.
Published: December 2015

Avoiding phone calls from a doctor who has your test results; suggesting to a friend that there are multiple explanations for her boyfriend's behavior; giving a vague answer during a job interview—all of these are examples of how communication behaviors can be employed strategically to increase uncertainty. There are a number of circumstances in which people may increase their own or others' uncertainty intentionally or inadvertently. Personality differences, relationship characteristics, and message features are all factors in why and how people engage in uncertainty‐increasing communication strategies.
Advice
Authors: MacGeorge Erina L.
Published: December 2015

Advice is a ubiquitous and consequential form of communication in both personal and professional interactions. The exchange of advice has varied outcomes for recipients, advisors, and social networks. The outcomes of advice for recipients are influenced by message content, message style and interactional sequence, characteristics of the advisor, and recipient perceptions, emotions, and traits. Advisors’ cognitive processes and traits also influence the effectiveness of advice. Advice response theory and the integrated model of advice provide theoretical frameworks for understanding advice outcomes.
Politeness Theory
Authors: Feng Hairong
Published: December 2015

Politeness theory posits that individuals in any culture have positive and negative face wants. But many daily interaction behaviors intrinsically threaten face. The degree to which an act is face threatening is affected by the social factors of power, distance, and rank of imposition. People therefore use politeness strategies to reduce face threats. Politeness theory has particular implications for interpersonal communication research: It helps address why people say what they do when performing actions such as making requests or giving advice and it has implications for identity management and personal relationships. The theory also has spurred ongoing debate about what elements of politeness are culturally specific versus universal.
Support Types
Authors: Jones Susanne M. , Koerner Ascan F.
Published: December 2015

Support types are categories of messages and behaviors people use to help others cope with stressful life events. There are two broad support categories, emotion‐focused support and problem‐focused support. Emotion‐focused support is directed at mitigating emotional upset and includes all support types that primarily assist people in dealing with difficult emotional experiences that are a result of upsetting life events. Emotion‐focused support strategies includeemotional support(expressions of care and concern),esteem support(reassurances of worth), andnetwork support(expressions of inclusion and connection). Problem‐focused strategies are all those strategies that are directed at resolving the problem and involvetangible aid(providing concrete aid) andinformational assistance(advice) that helps the person in need mobilize resources or resolve the stressor. There are two support type models that have been empirically tested: the optimal matching model (OMM) and the sensitive interactive systems theory (SIST).
Cohabitation
Authors: Priem Jennifer S.
Published: December 2015

Cohabitation, defined as nonmarital romantic partners sharing a residence, has increased significantly and changed relationship development and family formation in contemporary dating relationships. Accordingly, cohabitation takes on a variety of forms and functions. This entry examines the rapid increase in rates and acceptance of cohabitation and the forms and functions of cohabitation, as well as the role that cohabitation plays in relationship development and the process of transitioning into co‐residence.
Affinity Seeking/Ingratiation Strategies
Authors: Daly John
Published: December 2015

A critical function of communication is developing and maintaining affinity. People engage in a number of strategies to get others to like them. Early work on self‐presentation and ingratiation led communication scholars to study affinity‐seeking. Research has since revealed a number of strategies that people use to generate affinity. Studies have shown the importance of affinity‐seeking in a variety of situations. Generally, the more strategies people effectively engage in, the more successful they are in accomplishing their interpersonal goals.
Marital Typologies
Authors: Koerner Ascan F. , Jones Susanne M.
Published: December 2015

Marital typologies are developed by scholars to better describe and understand the large and diverse universe of what is arguably humanity's most central interpersonal relationship. Such typologies can be based on single attributes of marriages or spouses, or on a single interpersonal process, but more sophisticated typologies are often combinations of both. In addition to external validity, the best typologies provide a theoretical explanation for why and how marital types differ. This entry describes the basic assumptions underlying marital typologies, provides a brief historical review of marital typologies, and provides more detailed descriptions of several influential marital typologies.
Intergroup Contact Theory
Authors: Harwood Jake
Published: December 2015

Intergroup contact theory suggests that when members of different social groups come into contact with one another, attitudes toward their respective groups are changed. Work in this area has considered numerous different social groups communicating across a variety of media. Overall, the theory is strongly supported; however, numerous moderating and mediating variables come into play, and the theory remains the subject of rapid theoretical and conceptual development. In addition to studying the effects of contact, recent work examines when and how contact occurs, and how to encourage contact between groups as a means to reducing conflict and achieving intergroup harmony.
Conflict Escalation
Authors: Miller Courtney Waite
Published: December 2015

Conflict escalation occurs when a conflict grows in severity or intensity. Research on conflict escalation has advanced models aimed at understanding the conflict escalation process and conditions that encourage escalation.
Taking Conflict Personally
Authors: Hample Dale
Published: December 2015

A person who takes conflict personally feels that conflicts are punishing, nasty interactions. Taking conflict personally is a set of relatively enduring predispositions and expectations, and is not easily changed. Its connection to other personality variables, cognitive processes, and conflict behaviors are summarized.
Cognitive Editing
Authors: Hample Dale
Published: December 2015

Cognitive editing refers to the process by which people suppress or revise messages prior to saying them. The standards people use to do this editing are described. Profiles of people who are task oriented or person centered emerge from the research.
Forensic Communication
Authors: Motley Michael T.
Published: December 2015

The forensic branch of a field is that which applies its scientific research to matters that arise in courtroom litigation: forensic linguistics, forensic pathology, forensic anthropology, and so forth. There are many areas of forensic communication involving expert‐witness courtroom testimony by communication scholars. There are even more applications to courtroom concerns when forensic communication includes consultation by communication scholars with attorneys and witnesses.
On‐Again/Off‐Again Relationships
Authors: Dailey René M.
Published: December 2015

Assessing on‐again/off‐again or cyclical relationships is a new, but growing, area of research. Studies show that a majority of individuals have experienced an on‐again/off‐again (on‐off) relationship at some point in their dating history. As compared to partners whose relationships do not break up and renew, on‐off partners report lower relational quality (e.g., lower satisfaction, more relational uncertainty, greater conflict, more aggression) as well as greater structural constraints (e.g., children, lower income). Further, a cyclical nature during dating predicts a cyclical nature in cohabiting and marital relationships. Research identifying different types or trajectories of on‐off relationships, however, has revealed that some partners may use the relational transitions to improve their relationship. Certain theoretical perspectives have been applied (e.g., interdependence, commitment theories) to explain the development and maintenance of these relationships.
Disclosing
HIV
Status
Authors: Moskowitz David A.
Published: December 2015

HIV
disclosure is the verbal or nonverbal transmission of one's
HIV
status to friends, family, or casual/main sexual partners. It is a form of interpersonal health communication that, due to the unique nature of
HIV
/
AIDS
as a disease, has been studied in distinction to other types of disclosures. In this entry, the 34‐year history of
HIV
disclosure is presented, from Kaposi's sarcoma as the first form of
HIV
disclosure, to the Earvin “Magic” Johnson press conference, to how men and women living with
HIV
disclose today. Following a dual‐continua model, which frames individuals’ use of verbal/nonverbal and direct/indirect methods to disclose their status, explains the myriad ways a seropositive status can be transmitted to a person or persons. The historic and current theoretical frames for the when and why individuals
HIV
disclose are identified and deconstructed. Finally, the entry ends with some suggestions and research questions for further scrutiny regarding
HIV
disclosure. Most notably, given that
HIV
has moved from terminal‐ to chronic‐disease classification, is
HIV
disclosure even necessary anymore? Readers should be able to understand how
HIV
disclosure developed as a construct, how it can appear as a communication event, and the reasons and impetuses for individuals’ disclosure or concealment of their seropositive status.
Political Socialization
Authors: McDevitt Michael
Published: December 2015

Political socialization refers to an intergenerational process in which children are inducted into a political culture through acquisition of cognitive, attitudinal, discursive, and other behavioral orientations. Theories of interpersonal communication have helped scholars and educators to imagine how conditions for political development can more effectively contribute to participatory citizenship. Children who grow up in homes where parents encourage opinion expression, and students who attend high schools with open climates for discussion, are more likely to develop confidence for participation as adults in more formal, contentious settings—contexts that demand deliberative skills and cognitive sophistication in pluralistic cultures.
Interrogation
Authors: Slowik Stanley M.
Published: December 2015

Interrogation is the art of persuading a guilty person to tell the truth. Discussion includes interrogation behaviors that distinguish truth and deception, differences between interviews and interrogations, admissions and confessions, false expectations and false promises of leniency. Interrogation methodologies are examined within the context of legality and effectiveness.
Communication in Service Encounters
Authors: Susskind Alex M.
Published: December 2015

In this entry, communication in service organizations is defined and described. The defining characteristics of a service organization are presented to demonstrate how service‐based organizations differ from other types of organizations. Next, the key literature on consumer–service provider interaction and complaint communication is summarized to describe how communication and interaction is structured in service encounters. Special emphasis is applied to empirical models that explain these interactions and behavior.
Guilt and Interpersonal Communication
Authors: Miczo Lisa
Published: December 2015

Guilt is a pervasive and potent influence within interpersonal relationships. A self‐conscious emotion, experienced when a person feels he or she has failed to live up to some moral or social norm, guilt functions as a means of influencing the attitudes and behaviors of relational partners. Contemporary research demonstrates that guilt elicitation is a common communication strategy used to improve and sustain relationships. The causes and consequences of interpersonal guilt, its functional nature within relationships, and verbal techniques used to elicit guilt are discussed.
Interpersonal Communication Ethics
Authors: Fritz Janie Harden
Published: December 2015

Interpersonal communication ethics, an area of study emerging at the intersection of social scientific research and communication ethics scholarship, addresses issues that arise when people are faced with decisions about whether, and how to, communicate messages that are likely to have a significant influence on others and can be judged according to some standard of right and wrong. Because interpersonal communication has a significant influence on human well‐being, interpersonal communication ethics is an essential area of study for students and scholars of interpersonal communication.
Nagging
Authors: Dawson Kari P. , Roloff Michael E.
Published: December 2015

Individuals often attempt to influence others with whom they are interdependent. When their targets resist or are likely to resist, some individuals repeat their requests and demands and a nagging sequence begins. This entry explicates the notion of nagging and resulting communication sequences, identifies conceptual frameworks that describe it, and discusses how nagging occurs in the workplace and in family and health‐related contexts.
Narcissism and Communication in Marriage
Authors: Leit Lisa
Published: December 2015

Narcissism, considered a personality disorder, is defined as an all‐pervasive pattern of grandiosity in fantasy or behavior. Central features of narcissism include a need for admiration and a lack of empathy. The concept of narcissism has been extended beyond mental illness and is now considered a personality trait. It follows then that narcissistic tendencies might affect one's marital communication style. Whereas less than 1 percent of the general population is diagnosed with narcissistic personality disorder (
NPD
), conversational narcissism characterizes 78 percent of marriages, frequently renders spouses invisible, and predicts maladaptive dialogue and divorce at 7 years. This finding supports the view of America as a “culture of narcissism” in which the tendency is for individuals to focus on themselves to the detriment of others.
Communication and Narcissism
Authors: Leit Lisa
Published: December 2015

Whereas only an estimated 0.5–1.0% of the general population is diagnosed with Narcissistic Personality Disorder (
NPD
), narcissistic verbal and behavioral communication styles characterize over 75% of social interactions, frequently render others invisible, and predict negative mental and physical health outcomes, as well as relationship problems over time. The existing empirical research supports the notion that individuals with an inflated view of themselves, not necessarily to pathological levels, display self‐centered communication styles during interactions. These practices are often extremely subtle, as social norms prohibit overtly self‐centered behavior. This finding supports the view of America as a “culture of narcissism” in which the tendency is for individuals to focus on themselves to the detriment of others.
Family Mediation of Children's Media/Internet Use
Authors: Austin Erica Weintraub , Kistler Michelle
Published: December 2015

This entry reviews family mediation, traditionally referred to as parental mediation. An increasing awareness of effective parenting strategies from the child development literature, combined with a perceived loss of parental control as digital media have become more accessible, has shifted scholars’ emphasis from top‐down parental effects to family mediation that emphasizes bidirectional communication among parents and children. This less authoritarian approach tends to be more effective because it increases communication competence and media literacy while decreasing youth reactance against parental control. There still is a place for rule‐making, however, in a media environment that presents very real hazards to youth not yet fully prepared to navigate them safely on their own.
Competence in Conflict Management
Authors: Canary Daniel J. , Weger Harry
Published: December 2015

Conflict frequently occurs within relationships and tends to become more frequent as a relationship becomes more intimate. Because conflict can have both positive and negative outcomes, a large body of research has focused on how people can competently manage their disagreements. This entry looks at competence and conflict management. Specifically, we view competence at conflict management occurring during several events of the conflict process. People who can manage these various events successfully appear more competent than people who cannot. In brief, competent communicators engage in episodic control over conflict causes, individual control over their own tendencies, attributional control over how they interpret conflicts, goal emergence control to attain one's valued goals, and use of conflict strategies and tactics, as well as care in contributing to patterns of conflict interaction.
Physiological Measurement
Authors: Priem Jennifer S.
Published: December 2015

Physiological measures provide a way of examining how biology influences communication, and, in turn, communication influences biological changes within the body. Biological processes influence every aspect of human behavior. Brain structures process emotion and control cognitive functions such as planning and strategic communication. Hormonal production has been linked to almost every aspect of life including parenting, social support, television viewing, peer groups, life events, education, occupational choice, marriage, and childbearing. This entry examines physiological markers that are especially useful for understanding facets of interpersonal communication. More specifically, the entry overviews three major physiological systems: the nervous system, endocrine system, and immune system. Each section describes specific measures and how they can be used to enhance understanding of interpersonal communication and theory.
Online Deception
Authors: Markowitz David M. , Hancock Jeffrey T.
Published: December 2015

Online deception takes many forms, ranging from overt e‐mail spam to interpersonal lies in online dating profiles. Current research has focused on the ability to understand behavioral patterns of deception (e.g., frequency of lies, language cues) in order forecast how lies differ from truths in a variety of contexts. These efforts suggest that our interpersonal deceptions are strategic, but we do not always rely on them to accomplish self‐presentation goals. In this review, we provide several examples of online deception and use two competing hypotheses to question whether online behavior reflects either an extended real‐life or idealized version of the self. We propose that while deception is a salient interpersonal concern, our intuition that suggests we are a deception default species is worthy of reconsideration.
Workplace Bullying
Authors: Alberts Jess K. , Brooks Margaret M.
Published: December 2015

Workplace bullying occurs when one or more individuals is the target of a barrage of negative attacks over time. It is different from incivility and conflict due to both the intensity of the negative behaviors and the perception of the intent to cause harm. Research on workplace bullying originated in Scandinavia, though a number of scholars in the United States now study this phenomenon. To understand workplace bullying, one must examine the roles played by bullies, their accomplices, witnesses, and the targets themselves. Although workplace bullying can be difficult to stop once it begins, a number of strategies are available to targets and witnesses to help put a stop to the behavior.
Television Depictions of the American Family
Authors: Douglas William
Published: December 2015

Depictions of the family on television quickly came to be dominated by white middle‐class couples with children. In these families, gender‐based rights and responsibilities were divided between the provider father and the nurturer/caregiver mother. This model has continued to be the most common although both family relationships and the family experience have changed significantly. From the outset, the working‐class family and black families were portrayed in quite different and substantially negative ways. These issues are discussed as well as those dealing with the ways in which the family on television has been studied.
Therapeutic Communication
Authors: Le Poire Molineux Beth A.
Published: December 2015

This entry explores the intersection of therapeutic communication and interpersonal communication theories and processes. First, the unifying theme across disparate therapy modalities of accepting and affirming communication in the form of understanding from the therapist to the patient is explored; second, the role of interpersonal communication theories in informing various therapeutic processes (i.e., communication of attribution theories, attachment theory, reduction or management of uncertainty theories); finally, the intersection between “personality disorders” and interpersonal communication, where more intransigent psychological processes result in difficult and intractable communication patterns (with implications for other difficult communication exchanges explored within substance abuse and autism spectrum disorders as well). While the scope of this endeavor is limited by the nature of an encyclopedia entry, this work begins to explore the relationship between these two inter‐related fields in a way which weaves theoretic approaches together as opposed to simply reviewing literature on how to enact more effective therapeutic communication.
Sexual Harassment
Authors: Dougherty Debbie S. , Meyer MadelEine
Published: December 2015

Workplace sexual harassment is a communication phenomenon that negatively impacts people and organizations. Negative health implications as well as decreased productivity are frequent outcomes of this behavior. Sexual harassment is not about sex, it is about power. As a result, unwelcome sexual overtures are simply one means through which perpetrators can enact power in organizational settings. Research on sexual harassment can be roughly divided into naming, defining, role, power, culture, organizational level responses, and barriers to reporting sexual harassment.
Assertiveness
Authors: Hayes Javette Grace
Published: December 2015

Assertiveness involves standing up for one's own rights and being up front regarding one's cognitive and affective experiences while simultaneously demonstrating regard for those of others. Assertiveness is not simply about communication, although its employment necessitates the use of verbal and nonverbal cues. It involves cognition, affect, and behavior; therefore, it elicits interest from scholars across a wide variety of academic disciplines. This entry provides a glimpse into the origins, theory, measurement and research of assertiveness.
Language and Gender
Authors: Palomares Nicholas A.
Published: December 2015

Gender‐based language is a product of a male–female dynamic that enhances the significance of a gender salience prototype—which usually includes a dimension of assertiveness and/or affiliation—that delineates what communicative behavior is expected for men and women. Early research focused on differences between men and women with less attention on the contextual nuances of gender‐based language. This focus resulted in a muddled understanding of when and why men and women use language differently and similarly. Contemporary research has prioritized understanding the diverse range of possible outcomes for male/female language use patterns (e.g., no differences, traditional differences, counter‐stereotypical differences) given contextual variations with a focus on gender salience and its prototype. This move has resulted in more success in predicting whether men and women will communicate differently and why the differences occur. Contemporary theorizing posits that a language difference between men and women is only a gender‐based difference if a psychological component draws on gender during language production; otherwise, it is a sex difference that has little to do with gender.
Communication and Psychological Contracts
Authors: Brown Lori A.
Published: December 2015

A psychological contract constitutes a perceived exchange agreement between parties based upon made or implied promises and obligations made in that relationship. Typically studied in organizations, psychological contracts include employees’ exchange of resources for promised tangible or socioemotional rewards from the organization. Organizational communication has a distinctive role in the formation and management of psychological contracts, and the fulfillment or breach of psychological contracts has implications for employment relationships, employee well‐being, and organizational behavior. Increasingly, new dimensions to the study of psychological contracts explore the motivational and health‐enhancing elements to psychological contract fulfillment and organizations’ ethical obligation to fulfill them.
Nanocomposite versus Mesocomposite for Osteogenic Differentiation of Tonsil‐Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells
Authors: Moon Hyo Jung , Patel Madhumita , Chung Heejung , Jeong Byeongmoon
Published: December 2015

Injectable inorganic/organic composite systems consisting of well‐defined mesocrystals (4–8 μm) of calcium phosphate and polypeptide thermogel significantly enhance the osteogenic differentiation of the tonsil derived mesenchymal stem cells (TMSCs). Compared to composite systems incorporating nanoparticles (10–100 nm) or pure hydrogel systems, osteogenic biomarkers including alkaline phosphatase (ALP), bone morphogenetic protein 2, and osteocalcin are highly expressed at both the mRNA level and the protein level in the mesocrystal composite systems. ALP activity of differentiated cells is also significantly higher in the mesocomposite systems compared to the nanocomposite systems or the pure hydrogel systems. The mesocomposite systems provide not only hard surfaces for binding the cells/proteins by the inorganic mesocrystals but also a soft matrix for holding the cells by the hydrogel. Through the current research, (1) a novel method of preparing mesocrystals is developed, (2) TMSCs are proved as a new resource of stem cells, and (3) the mesocomposite systems are proved to be a promising tool in controlling stem cell differentiation. (4) Finally, the research emphasizes the significance of mesoscience as a new perspective of science in controlling cell and material interfaces.
Synthesis of Polysubstituted Thiophenes via Base‐Induced [2+2+1] Cycloaddition Reaction of Alkynes and Elemental Sulfur
Authors: Liu Weibing , Chen Cui , Liu Hailing
Published: December 2015

A simple approach to polysubstituted thiophene derivatives is demonstrated. The synthesis is highlighted by the direct [2+2+1] cycloaddition reaction to construct carbon‐sulfur and carbon‐carbon bonds, without adding oxidizing, reducing and noble metal agents. All tested substrates provided their corresponding thiophene products in high isolated yields under the optimized conditions.

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A Triazole Organocatalyst with Spiropyrrolidine Framework and its Application to the Catalytic Asymmetric Addition of Nitromethane to α,β‐Unsaturated Aldehydes
Authors: Liu Wen‐Xing , Chen Si‐Kai , Tian Jin‐Miao , Tu Yong‐Qiang , Wang Shao‐Hua , Zhang Fu‐Min
Published: December 2015

A series of new water‐compatible “spiropyrrolidine triazole” catalysts was designed and synthesized. The asymmetric Michael addition of nitromethane and α,β‐unsaturated aldehydes in an aqueous system was investigated to evaluate these new catalysts, and the resulting adducts were obtained with excellent enantioselectivity (up to 95.5% ee) and moderate to good yield (63–88%).

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Asymmetric Synthesis of 3,4‐Dihydrocoumarins Bearing an α,α‐Disubstituted Amino Acid Moiety
Authors: Hejmanowska Joanna , Albrecht Anna , Pięta Jakub , Albrecht Łukasz
Published: December 2015

An organocatalytic approach for the stereoselective synthesis of 3,4‐dihydrocoumarins with an α,α‐disubstituted amino acid moiety incorporated is presented. The developed methodology is based on the cascade reaction between α‐substituted azlactones and 2‐hydroxychalcones. It is initiated by a chiral Brønsted base‐catalyzed enantio‐ and diastereoselective Michael reaction followed by the azlactone ring opening to construct a 3,4‐dihydrocoumarin framework. Products bearing two adjacent stereogenic centers, one being quaternary, were formed with high enantioselectivities and excellent diastereoselectivities. Furthermore, the complete regioselectivity of the new cascade reactivity is worthy of notice.

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Direct Synthesis of 4‐Organylselanylpyrazoles by Copper‐ Catalyzed One‐Pot Cyclocondensation and CH Bond Selenylation Reactions
Authors: Oliveira Daniela H. , Aquino Thalita B. , Nascimento José Edmilson R. , Perin Gelson , Jacob Raquel G. , Alves Diego
Published: December 2015

We describe herein an efficient protocol to synthesize selanyl‐substituted pyrazoles by cyclocondensation and copper‐catalyzed direct CH bond selenation reactions. The products were obtained in moderate to excellent yields by the one‐pot multicomponent reactions of hydrazines, 1,3‐diketones and diorganyl diselenides, using catalytic amounts of copper bromide and bipyridine. These reactions tolerated a range of substituents in the starting materials and proved to be an efficient methodology for combinatorial synthesis of new selenium‐containing pyrazoles with potential applications in biological studies.

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Synthesis of α‐Tertiary Amine Derivatives by Intermolecular Hydroamination of Unfunctionalized Alkenes with Sulfamates under Trifluoromethanesulfonic Acid Catalysis
Authors: Fei Jun , Wang Zhen , Cai Zheren , Sun Hao , Cheng Xu
Published: December 2015

An efficient and mild trifluoromethanesulfonic acid‐catalyzed hydroamination of unfunctionalized alkenes to afford α‐tertiary amine derivatives at temperatures as low as room temperature is reported. 2,2,2‐Trifluoroethyl sulfamate was found to be the optimal nitrogen source because its good solubility in both organic solvents and water facilitated both conversion and purification. The reaction conditions were compatible with a variety of substrate functional groups and afforded moderate to good yields. The desired amine compounds could be obtained easily by means of a mild, one‐pot, redox‐neutral deprotection procedure. Caryolane amine was synthesized with excellent chemo‐ and regioselectivities by means of a cascade hydroamination reaction of β‐caryophyllene.

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3D‐Branched ZnO/CdS Nanowire Arrays for Solar Water Splitting and the Service Safety Research
Authors: Bai Zhiming , Yan Xiaoqin , Li Yong , Kang Zhuo , Cao Shiyao , Zhang Yue
Published: December 2015

Modulation of broadband light trapping through assembly of 3D structures and modification with narrow band‐gap semiconductors provide an effective way to improve the photoelectrochemical (PEC) performance. Here, 3D‐branched ZnO nanowire arrays (NWAs) modified with cadmium sulfide (CdS) nanoparticles are designed and synthesized via solution chemical routes. The 3D‐branched ZnO NWA–CdS nanoparticle photoanodes show an excellent PEC performance in UV and visible region and the maximum photo‐to‐hydrogen conversion efficiency reaches to 3.1%. The high performance of 3D‐branched ZnO NWA–CdS composites is mainly attributed to the excellent carrier collection capability and high light‐trapping ability of 3D‐branched ZnO NWAs as well as the excellent photocatalytic activity of CdS nanoparticles in the visible region. In addition, the photocorrosion mechanism of 3D‐branched ZnO NWA–CdS photoanodes is systematically investigated, and a protective TiO2 layer is deposited onto the photoanodes to elevate the PEC stability. The results benefit a deeper understanding of the role of 3D‐branched structures decorated with narrow band‐gap semiconductors in solar water splitting.
The Conflict Games: Getting Ready To Bring Mediation to the 2016 Brazil Olympics
Authors: Neto Augusto Barros De Figueiredo E Silva
Published: December 2015

The Olympic Games are the biggest sports gathering in the world. They are a mega‐event that depends on a complex combination of efforts, beginning with a city's nomination as a host candidate and only ending after the dissolution of the Local Organizing Committee.
Body part representation and the extended analysis of New Zealand fishbone
Authors: CAMPBELL MATTHEW
Published: December 2015

The conventional method of archaeological fishbone analysis employed in New Zealand for the past 40 years has been to identify five major mouthparts – dentary, articular, quadrate, maxilla and premaxilla – to the lowest possible taxonomic level. This method has the advantage of being relatively fast and easily learnt, and provides robust cross‐assemblage and cross‐site comparisons. Recent analyses have extended this method to include further sub‐cranial and cranial elements as well as vertebrae. So far, few New Zealand assemblages have been analysed using this method. This paper looks at the analysis of two of them: Parton Road (U14/2876) at Papamoa, Bay of Plenty; and Urquharts Bay (Q07/751) on the Whangarei Harbour, Northland. The results show that more species can be found across more contexts using the extended method, and that comparisons of cranial and vertebral counts demonstrate variation in the treatment of body parts.
Quantitative Assessment of Knee Effusion‐Synovitis in Older Adults: Association With Knee Structural Abnormalities
Authors: Wang Xia , Blizzard Leigh , Jin Xingzhong , Chen Zhongshan , Zhu Zhaohua , Han Weiyu , Halliday Andrew , Cicuttini Flavia , Jones Graeme , Ding Changhai
Published: December 2015

Objective

To describe the natural history of quantitatively measured knee effusion‐synovitis and the longitudinal associations between effusion‐synovitis and knee structural factors, including cartilage defects, cartilage volume, subchondral bone marrow lesions, and meniscal pathology, in older adults.

Methods

A total of 406 subjects (with a mean age of 63 years, 50% women) were randomly selected at baseline and followed up 2.7 years later. T2‐ or T1‐weighted fat saturation magnetic resonance imaging was used to assess knee effusion‐synovitis maximal area, cartilage defects, cartilage volume, bone marrow lesions, and meniscal pathology at baseline and follow‐up. Multivariable generalized linear regression was performed to analyze the associations between the maximal area of effusion‐synovitis and other joint structural factors after adjustment for age, sex, body mass index, tibial bone area, and/or radiographic osteoarthritis (OA).

Results

Over 2.7 years of follow‐up, the size of effusion‐synovitis increased in 29%, remained stable in 50%, and decreased in 22% of the participants. Baseline effusion‐synovitis maximal area was significantly associated with changes in knee cartilage defects (β = 0.18 [95% confidence interval (95% CI)] 0.07, 0.29), bone marrow lesions (β = 0.17 [95% CI 0.05, 0.30]), and cartilage volume (β = −0.40 [95% CI −0.71, −0.09]) but not with change in meniscal pathology. In contrast, baseline structural measures were not associated with change or increase in effusion‐synovitis maximal area.

Conclusion

Our findings indicate that knee effusion‐synovitis is not static in older adults. It is predictive of, but not predicted by, other structural abnormalities, suggesting a potential role in early knee OA changes.
Sophie Ledebur, Das Wissen der Anstaltspsychiatrie in der Moderne. Zur Geschichte der Heil‐ und Pflegeanstalten Am Steinhof in Wien, (Wissenschaft, Macht und Kultur in der modernen Geschichte 5) Wien usw.: Böhlau 2015.
Authors: Germann Urs
Published: December 2015

319 S., € 35,00. ISBN 978‐3‐205‐79582‐7.
Audio–visual aid in teaching “fatty liver”
Authors: Dash Sambit , Kamath Ullas , Rao Guruprasad , Prakash Jay , Mishra Snigdha
Published: December 2015

Use of audio visual tools to aid in medical education is ever on a rise. Our study intends to find the efficacy of a video prepared on “fatty liver,” a topic that is often a challenge for pre‐clinical teachers, in enhancing cognitive processing and ultimately learning. We prepared a video presentation of 11:36 min, incorporating various concepts of the topic, while keeping in view Mayer's and Ellaway guidelines for multimedia presentation. A pre–post test study on subject knowledge was conducted for 100 students with the video shown as intervention. A retrospective pre study was conducted as a survey which inquired about students understanding of the key concepts of the topic and a feedback on our video was taken. Students performed significantly better in the post test (mean score 8.52 vs. 5.45 in pre‐test), positively responded in the retrospective pre‐test and gave a positive feedback for our video presentation. Well‐designed multimedia tools can aid in cognitive processing and enhance working memory capacity as shown in our study. In times when “smart” device penetration is high, information and communication tools in medical education, which can act as essential aid and not as replacement for traditional curriculums, can be beneficial to the students. © 2015 by The International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 44:241–245, 2016.