bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Carrier Statistics and Energy Band Diagrams
Authors: Jena Debdeep
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses the following questions: • What are the mobile carrier concentrations in an intrinsic, pure semiconductor? • How can we vary the mobile carrier concentrations in semiconductors by factors of ∼ 1010 by doping? • What is the carrier statistics and energy band diagrams in homojunctions: when the semiconductor is the same, but the doping varies in space? • What is the carrier statistics and energy band diagrams in heterojunctions: when both the semiconductors and the doping variy in space?
Controlling Electron Traffic in the k-Space
Authors: Jena Debdeep
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses the following questions: • The first part of this chapter succinctly discusses the quantum physics of electron and hole statistics in the bands of semiconductors, the quantum mechanical transport of the electron and hole states in the bands, and optical transitions between bands. • The second part of the chapter summarizes the core concepts of the physics, and electronic and photonic applications of semiconductors and nanostructure based devices such as diodes, transistors, solar cells, light emitting diodes, and lasers.
Taking the Heat: Phonons and Electron-Phonon Interactions
Authors: Jena Debdeep
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses the following questions: • What are the effects of phonons on the properties of solids in general, and semiconductors in particular? • What are the allowed modes, energy dispersions, density of states, and quantum statistics of phonons in semiconductors? • How do phonons influence the optical, electronic and thermal conductivity of semiconductors? • Which device applications of semiconductors are rooted in the properties of phonons?
Running Circles: Quantum Magnetotransport
Authors: Jena Debdeep
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses the following questions: • What are the semi-classical effects of magnetic field on the properties of semiconductors? • What are the quantum effects of magnetic fields on the properties of semiconductors? • How can Shubnikov de Haas oscillations and the Quantum Hall effect be explained from quantum transport in semiconductors? • How can magnetic fields be mimicked in semiconductors through topological aspects in bandstructure?
Let There Be Light: Maxwell Equations
Authors: Jena Debdeep
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses the following questions: • What is the physical content of light and how can it be explained quantitatively? • How do we understand light in its purest indivisible form via its wavelength or frequency? • How does light interact with atoms, molecules and solids, i.e., with material media?
Light–Matter Interaction
Authors: Jena Debdeep
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses the following questions: • How can we capture the interaction of semiconductors with photons quantum mechanically? • How can we explain the optical absorption spectrum of bulk semiconductors in equilibrium? • How are these properties modified in low-dimensional semiconductor structures such as quantum wells and quantum dots? • What are the characteristics of optical processes other than interband transitions such as absorption by free-carriers, excitons, impurities and intersubband transitions, and how do they differ from interband transitions?
Heavenly Light: Solar Cells and Photodetectors
Authors: Jena Debdeep
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses the following questions: • How is light energy converted to electrical energy by semiconductor solar cells, and what are the fundamental limits of their efficiencies? • How are optical absorption processes in semiconductors used to make efficient photodetectors, and over what ranges of wavelengths, timescales, and efficiencies can they operate? • What is the operating principle of semiconductor based optical modulators, and what are their limitations?
Reach for the Stars: Lasers and LEDs
Authors: Jena Debdeep
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses the following questions: • How does the absorption coefficient of semiconductors change under nonequilibrium conditions? • What are the requirements for spontaneous and stimulated emission of light from semiconductors? • How do LEDs operate based on spontaneous emission? What are their quantum efficiency limits? • What are the principles of operation of semiconductor lasers, and how is stimulated emission sustained? • How can we reconcile the quantum nature of light by quantizing the electromagnetic field?
Women Saving the World
Authors: Le Roux-Rutledge Emily
Published: August 2022

Radio has long been used as a tool for development—particularly when promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment—but far more attention has been paid to local community radio than to radio with a global reach. This chapter seeks to understand how a far-reaching global radio programme, the BBC’s 100 Women series, represents women from low and lower middle-income countries, and portrays their role in development. Narrative analysis reveals two prominent meta-narratives, or frames, in the series: one in which a woman is portrayed as a local phenomenon, and the other in which she is portrayed as a global success. Both frames reproduce a standard development trope, in which women are presented as ‘saviours’ driving development through their community mindedness and altruism, rather than as multifaceted human beings intrinsically entitled to equality.
Contemporary Arts Festivals in Nigeria and Nepal
Authors: Sage Caroline
Published: August 2022

A growing number of contemporary arts festivals in the Global South are increasingly engaged in topics and discussions that are important for development practice and discourse. Drawing on Contemporary arts festivals in Nigeria and Nepal as case studies, the chapter examines various ways the ‘cultural hybridity’ inherent in such festivals intersects with more linear development narratives and practice, providing spaces for the global and local voices and relationships to be contested, debated and redefined. The chapter explores four different elements at play in each of the festivals: Representation and the reclaiming of ‘Third World’ narratives; Deliberation and contestation on value, politics and identity; Market relations, livelihood strategies and promotion; and Reimagining Development. Ultimately the chapter argues that the development industry should pay more attention to the opportunities provided by such events for conversations and engagements which could drive genuine co-creation of development narratives and practice.
Reforming Age Discrimination Law
Authors: Blackham Alysia
Published: August 2022

Age is a critical issue for labour market policy. Both younger and older workers experience significant challenges at work. Despite the introduction of age discrimination laws, ageism remains prevalent. This book offers a roadmap for the future development of age discrimination law in common law countries, to better address workplace ageism. Drawing on theoretical, doctrinal, and empirical legal scholarship, and comparative perspectives from the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada, the book provides a grounded critique of existing age discrimination laws and their enforcement, and puts forward concrete suggestions for legal reform and change. It examines the challenges and limitations of existing legal frameworks and the individual enforcement model for addressing age discrimination in employment, mapping the stages of claiming, negotiation, or alternative dispute resolution, and hearing and judgment, using mixed method case studies of the enforcement of age discrimination law in the United Kingdom and Australia. The book puts forward a fourfold model of reform to strengthen age discrimination law, to improve the individual enforcement model, strengthen positive equality duties, bolster the roles of statutory equality agencies, and enhance collective enforcement. The book critically considers how these options might address the limits of existing laws, and the practical measures necessary to ensure their success.
The Enduring Challenge of Age Discrimination
Authors: Blackham Alysia
Published: August 2022

This chapter provides an overview and justification of the book’s scope, theoretical framework, and method. Drawing on data from the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia, it considers the challenges and opportunities of demographic ageing, and the workplace experiences of older and younger workers. It critically considers the nature and prevalence of age discrimination in employment, arguing that age discrimination is pervasive, subtle, and socially accepted, occurring across the life-cycle of employment from recruitment to termination. The chapter argues that the enduring prevalence of age discrimination at work presents a strong case for critique and reform of the legal framework; and posits that the very nature of age discrimination may make existing models of enforcement problematic. The chapter presents reflexive law and regulatory theory as useful theoretical frameworks for critiquing the enforcement and legal efficacy of age discrimination laws. It provides an overview of the book’s empirical mixed methods research design, which synthesizes qualitative, quantitative, doctrinal, and comparative research methods.
Positive Duties
Authors: Blackham Alysia
Published: August 2022

This chapter critically analyses the extent to which positive duties offer a viable alternative or addition to the individual enforcement of age discrimination law. Drawing on a theoretical model grounded in reflexive law and regulatory theory, the chapter evaluates the theoretical potential of positive duties to enhance discrimination law, and identifies key criteria for making positive duties effective in practice. It maps existing positive duties in the United Kingdom and Australia, and critiques their operation using this model. The chapter argues that positive duties have radical potential to effect organizational change, but do not yet meet the requirements for effective second-generation regulation. Focusing on four interlocking limitations of existing positive duties—self-regulation by organizations, consultation and engagement, central scrutiny, and individual enforcement—it proposes reforms to strengthen existing provisions.
When Things Grow Many
Authors: Schulman Lawrence
Published: August 2022

Methods of statistical mechanics are applied to many natural phenomena in the limit of large numbers of constituents. Applications include linguistics, finance, urban segregation, firefly and cardiac synchrony, Supreme Court voting, ecology, flocking, epidemics, crowd control, genetics, neurology, and so on. There is even a bit of physics (luminescence, large-scale structure, morphology). Suitable for use by advanced undergraduates (in any field) and graduate students. Some mathematical background is required although there are explanations of more advanced topics (e.g. fractals).
Introduction
Authors: Schulman L. S.
Published: August 2022

Introduces concepts of “more is simpler” and “more is different.” Relates these ideas to physical principles.
Ideal gas
Authors: Schulman L. S.
Published: August 2022

The ideal gas equation is derived as an example of what happens in the simplest model. Fluctuations for macroscopic objects are shown to be negligible and a cartoon derivation of the square root of N fluctuation size is presented (where N is the number of constituents).
Rubber bands
Authors: Schulman L. S.
Published: August 2022

A simple game that has a phase transition is exhibited and analyzed. Variations of the game are given. Mean field theory is used and departures from that theory are studied.
Ferromagnetism
Authors: Schulman L. S.
Published: August 2022

Magnetism and order parameters are discussed in both mean field theory and exact treatments. An example of stochastic dynamics for the Ising model is given. The Curie–Weiss model is defined as a system in which mean field theory is exact. For this system (consisting of N spins) the fluctuations at the critical point are the fourth root of N, rather than the square root as is the case when the variables are independent.
Social sciences
Authors: Schulman L. S.
Published: August 2022

Applications abound in the social sciences. Economics and finance involve both power laws and herd phenomena. Linguistics is another place where (maybe) power laws have been found. City populations seem to follow a power law, with power near the value 1, a value that occurs in many other applications. There are other issues connected to cites, for example discrimination in housing. This too can be modeled and analyzed. Another problem that is dealt with from the standpoint of “many” is elections and voter models (the same formulas also turn up on finance). There are also applications to crowd control and traffic.
Physical sciences
Authors: Schulman L. S.
Published: August 2022

This chapter deals with traditional physics so as to cast light on the main themes of the book. A particular problem of luminescence is discussed to show how power laws can be faked. There is also discussion of a fractal universe. That is, it may be that galaxies are arranged hierarchically as far as the eye (with aids) can see. This is not accepted by most cosmologists, but is an interesting study. Finally, the chapter deals with the morphology of galaxies.
Tensor algebra
Authors: d’Inverno Ray , Vickers James
Published: August 2022

Chapter 5 introduces the mathematical tools needed for the study of relativity, namely, tensor analysis. To work effectively in Newtonian theory, one really needs the language of vectors, whereas, in relativity, one needs the language of tensor analysis. This part of the book is devoted to learning this formalism, which is a precondition for the rest of the book. The notion of a differentiable manifold is first introduced. The chapter then introduces tangents to curves and normals to surfaces as prototypes for vectors and co-vectors, respectively. It then goes on to introduce the elements of tensor algebra, including the tensor product and the notion of contraction. It ends by giving a coordinate-free interpretation of vector fields in terms of derivative operators.
Tensor calculus
Authors: d’Inverno Ray , Vickers James
Published: August 2022

Chapter 6 introduces tensor calculus and deals with two important generalizations of partial derivatives, namely the Lie derivative and the covariant derivative. The metric tensor, which is used to measure distance on a manifold, is introduced and it is shown how this defines the metric connection which is used to define the covariant derivative. The very important notion of Riemann curvature is introduced using covariant derivatives and an explicit expression is derived for the Riemannian tensor. It is also shown how to decompose the curvature into a Ricci tensor part and a Weyl part
General relativity from a variational principle
Authors: d’Inverno Ray , Vickers James
Published: August 2022

Chapter 11 provides a more mathematical derivation of the field equations from a variational principle as was first suggested by Hilbert. Many tensor identities are best derived using the technique of geodesic coordinates. As well as considering the action to be dependent on the metric, this chapter introduces the Palatini approach which depends separately on a connection and a metric. The chapter ends by briefly introducing a matter term into the Lagrangian in order to obtain the Einstein Lagrangian and then the full Einstein field equations. This sets the scene for the next chapter, which considers the energy–momentum tensor.
The energy-momentum tensor
Authors: d’Inverno Ray , Vickers James
Published: August 2022

Chapter 12 looks at the three most important energy–momentum tensors in general relativity, namely the energy–momentum tensors for incoherent matter or dust, a perfect fluid, and the electromagnetic field. The treatment is neither exhaustive nor complete, but is sufficient for generating the explicit expressions needed in future chapters. In passing, we look at a tensor formulation of Maxwell’s equations governing the electromagnetic field. It is shown how the electromagnetic energy–momentum tensor can be obtained from a Lagrangian description of the electromagnetic field, which in turn leads to the Einstein–Maxwell equations. This is extended to the case of a general-matter Lagrangian, and various examples are considered. Finally, a physically realistic condition for a matter field called the dominant energy condition is introduced.
Classical experimental tests of general relativity
Authors: d’Inverno Ray , Vickers James
Published: August 2022

Chapter 16, the final one in Part C, focuses on the tests of general relativity that can be carried out in the solar system. However, these tests are really tests of general relativity in the weak field regime, in which the gravitational effects are not significantly different from the corresponding Newtonian ones. The chapter uses the Schwarzschild solution to derive the three classical experimental tests of general relativity, namely the test of the equivalence principle, the advance of the perihelion of Mercury, and the bending of light. A fourth test, the so-called Shapiro time delay, is also considered. In the final section, the parameterized post-Newtonian formalism (PPN parameters, for short) is introduced. This is used to quantify the outcome of the experimental tests and show how the current experimental evidence is strongly in support of Einstein’s theory.
Non-rotating black holes
Authors: d’Inverno Ray , Vickers James
Published: August 2022

Chapter 17 looks at non-rotating black holes. The exterior solution is the Schwarzschild metric. However, in the original Schwarzschild coordinates, it appears to have a singularity at the surface. It turns out that this is not a physical singularity but only a coordinate singularity and it is possible to introduce new coordinates, the so-called Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates, in which the metric is regular at this surface and which allow one to extend the metric for all positive values of the radial parameter r. However, a scalar invariant constructed from contracting the curvature with itself diverges as r tends to 0, which shows that there is a genuine curvature singularity there. Space-time diagrams and spatial diagrams are used to discuss the singularity structure and lead to the location of the ‘event horizon’, which has the property that any signal emitted inside this radius cannot escape to the exterior region.
Charged black holes
Authors: d’Inverno Ray , Vickers James
Published: August 2022

Chapter 19 deals with the description of a charged black hole. Such a solution has many of the features of a rotating black hole but is mathematically much more tractable. The chapter begins by looking at the electromagnetic field of a charged point particle and calculates the associated energy–momentum tensor. This is used to derive the Riessner–Nordström solution, which describes the gravitational and electromagnetic fields outside a charged spherical body. The importance of this solution is that its structure is in many ways similar to that of the more complicated Kerr solution describing rotating black holes but is mathematically simpler to deal with. The Penrose diagram of the maximum analytic extension is then obtained and the structure of the singularities and event horizons investigated.
Exact gravitational waves
Authors: d’Inverno Ray , Vickers James
Published: August 2022

Rather than looking at solutions of the linearized Einstein equations, Chapter 22 looks at exact solutions of gravitational waves. In looking for exact solutions, it is useful to assume that the metric has a high degree of symmetry. However, it is only possible to do this in special situations such as in the case of cylindrical gravitational waves and plane gravitational waves. Nevertheless, such solutions are of great interest from the theoretical point of view as they show that generically gravitational waves appear to focus as they pass through each other. This leads to the prospect of gravitational singularities at some distant time in the future. The chapter also investigates Einstein–Rosen waves, impulsive plane gravitational wave, colliding impulsive gravitational waves, and colliding gravitational waves.
The classical cosmological models
Authors: d’Inverno Ray , Vickers James
Published: August 2022

Chapter 25 mostly discusses the mathematical features of the classical FRW cosmological models (where FRW stands for Friedmann–Robertson–Walker) that one obtains by solving the Friedmann equation. It looks at how these relate to the observational evidence as well as considering some more sophisticated models in the next chapter. It also provides a more complete analysis of the various Friedmann models. These include Einstein static space, de Sitter space, and anti-de Sitter space. The early epochs of the universe and the historically significant steady-state theory are next discussed. The conformal structure of these solutions is examined and the Penrose diagrams constructed. This shows that a number of solutions have particle horizons and/or event horizons, which means that only a portion of the space-time can be seen by any observer.
Über Sinn und Bedeutung
Authors: Picardi Eva
Published: August 2022

This chapter constitutes a thorough examination of Über Sinn und Bedeutung with illuminating forays into how the issues at play in this text became the object of heated debates in subsequent philosophy of language. Chief issues are Frege’s treatment of identity and identity criteria, the objectivity of sense, his views about oratio obliqua and the doctrine of indirect senses, synonymity and its relationship with Benson Mates’s paradox and Alonzo Church’s synonymous isomorphism, as well as the recognition of the role that context may play in the determination of the thought expressed by a sentence in which indexicals and demonstratives occur.
The Chemistry of Concepts
Authors: Picardi Eva
Published: August 2022

The chapter examines the origins and value of the comparison, drawn by Frege, between chemical molecules and the composition of concepts within a proposition. While the use of chemical metaphors in logic is not new—as testified in the work of Schopenhauer, Mill and Peirce—Frege’s use is crucial to the development of his objective and anti-psychologistic account of concepts. Furthermore, it testifies to the priority of sentences expressing a judgement over their component parts. Special attention is given to Frege’s notion of ‘unsaturatedness’ and to his way of connecting this theme with the possibility of deriving quantified sentences from their atomic instantiations and vice versa.
Assertion and Assertion Sign
Authors: Picardi Eva
Published: August 2022

A characteristic element of Frege’s ideography is the assertion sign. This chapter explores its role and its connections with Frege’s conception of assertion, truth, and judgement. It is noted that Frege’s views about the assertion sign changed over the years and that they deeply influenced the work of the early Wittgenstein as well as Frank Ramsey’s thought. The key contention is that by the end of his career, Frege did not think of “true” as indicative of the essence of logic; rather, what is of the essence of logic for him was contained in the assertoric force with which a sentence is uttered, whence the key role of the assertion sign in his ideography.
Carnap Interpreter of Frege
Authors: Picardi Eva
Published: August 2022

This chapter explores the influence that Frege’s ideas had on Rudolf Carnap. First of all, it examines the role that constitutive definitions played for Carnap and compares it to the role played by constructive definitions in Frege’s work. Then, it considers the distinction between the intension and the extension of predicates, called ‘Begriffswörter’ by Frege and ‘predicators’ by Carnap. Such a distinction is traced back to Frege’s lectures in 1910, 1913, and 1914 that Carnap attended in Jena. The chapter also shows how these notions were differently developed by Carnap in the Logische Aufbau der Welt and in Meaning and Necessity.
Frege and Davidson on Predication
Authors: Picardi Eva
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines Gottlob Frege’s complex theory of predication and his intriguing ideas regarding the unity of proposition. It also dwells on Donald Davidson’s criticisms of them. First off, three different interpretations of what is at issue in predication, with different ontological commitments are presented and discussed. In the final analysis, Davidson’s critiques are found wanting, particularly because they target an understanding of predication which, arguably, is not the one proposed by Frege. That is, a deflationary reading of predication. Finally, it is argued that Frege’s theories are superior to Davidson’s and that they are still viable to this day.
The Great Change in Midwestern agriculture
Authors: Bousquette Joshua
Published: August 2022

This chapter builds on research that aligns changes in the organization and orientation of social structures with the process of language shift, focusing particularly on the relationship between specialization of labor and language shift. I show that the verticalization of the labor force through increased job specialization both affects the social networks of heritage language speakers, bringing them in greater contact with English speakers and English-speaking domains, and increases the community-external orientation of the community through an increase in vertical ties to the broader, English-speaking community. Supported by a comparative study of labor and reported and self-reported language proficiency in four Wisconsin communities over time, I argue that the shift in social structure predates the shift in language proficiency. Furthermore, I argue for a localized, inchoate process of verticalization, as rural farming communities increase job specialization and external orientation through the creation of secondary, agricultural industry.
The Great Change and the shift from Norwegian to English in Ulen, Minnesota
Authors: Natvig David
Published: August 2022

This chapter considers the relationship between verticalizing community patterns and the shift from Norwegian-English bilingualism to English monolingualism in Ulen, Minnesota. Data are drawn from US Census materials from 1900 to 1950 and supported with local community history and ethnographic and sociolinguistic interviews with present-day community members and Norwegian heritage speakers. By all accounts, Ulen maintained Norwegian-English bilingualism from its incorporation in 1886 until the mid-20th century. However, with new jobs and infrastructure from New Deal programs and more specialized and industrialized agricultural practices, the community came to rely more on extra-community systems, such as the federal government and state/national farming economies, for what were previously local functions. These outward-orienting processes affected local social patterns that supported the use and transmission of Norwegian as these gave way to national structures, where English is the default mode of communication.
Internal verticalization and community maintenance
Authors: Frey Benjamin E.
Published: August 2022

This chapter applies the verticalization model of language shift to the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (EBCI) in western North Carolina. Although most of the literature on language shift within this model considers immigrant communities in the United States, proof of the model’s general applicability rests on verifying it in indigenous contexts as well. Findings indicate that verticalization played a substantial role in the EBCI’s shift from Cherokee to English. Despite the effects of verticalization and Eastern Cherokee’s current status as an endangered language, the 2000 census listed the percentage of Cherokee speakers in Swain County, NC as being approximately double the percentage of German speakers in any county in eastern Wisconsin. The roots of this degree of maintenance lie in the Cherokee community’s cultural propensity toward forming community-internal vertical institutions, which have mitigated the breakdown of social networks and the associated language shift.
The verticalization model of language shift from a historical sociolinguistic perspective
Authors: Auer Anita
Published: August 2022

This chapter takes its cue from Chapter 1 in this volume, which presents a verticalization theory of language shift, and the case studies that test the theory within different American communities from the perspective of historical (socio)linguistics. First, the main tenets of the verticalization theory and its application to different communities in America, i.e. the five case studies, will be revisited. Second, the applicability of the theory to communities outside of North America will be further tested by comparing two Swiss migration case studies, one from North America and one from a region in today’s Ukraine. Finally, the merits of the verticalization theory will briefly be discussed within the context of historical sociolinguistics, where special attention will be paid to the challenges of reconstructing the social histories of linguistic communities in diasporas in the past, and of interpreting surviving linguistic data illustrating maintenance and shift.
Dublin, the City Coroner’s Court, and the Everyday
Authors: Breathnach Ciara
Published: August 2022

This chapter begins by positioning the coroner’s court within the medico-legal framework of Dublin City; it provides an outline of how its associated biopower surveillance network was constituted and how it mobilised with respect to sudden deaths. It then turns to the city environment, daily life, and the powers that shaped the lives of those who were the natural constituency of the coroner’s court—the poor. The parameters of ‘ordinary lives’ were limited by domestic and municipal boundaries. This chapter strengthens the case for dividing deaths into those occurring inside and outside the home. Drinking culture in Dublin City receives careful consideration as it was often the root cause of some of the more controversial cases in the sample.
The Danish Pension System in an International Comparison
Authors: Andersen Torben M.
Published: August 2022

The Danish pension system is attracting international attention for its structure and outcomes. Notably it involves a transition towards a more funded pension system, it delivers high replacement rates, and it is financially robust. The main characteristics of the Danish pension system are presented with outset in the theoretical literature on pension system design and how to address the three main objectives of a pension system: coverage (distribution), adequacy (consumption smoothing), and insurance. This calls for a multipillar pension scheme, which in the Danish case is based on defined benefit public pensions and defined contribution funded occupational pensions. The key elements of this system are presented, and the outcomes in terms of poverty alleviation, replacement rates, and macroeconomic consequences are discussed. The Danish pension system is compared in terms of structure and outcomes to those of the other Nordic countries; a comparison which is interesting since these countries share similar welfare models and yet have adopted very different pension systems. Finally, the robustness of the system in relation to changing demographics and market returns is discussed.
Asset Allocation, Investment Policies, and Returns
Authors: Jørgensen Peter Løchte , Ramlau-Hansen Henrik , Rangvid Jesper
Published: August 2022

This chapter describes the investments of Danish pension funds. The first part starts out describing the distribution of pensions savings in Denmark across pension types, pension funds, and guaranteed versus market-based pension products. It then turns to the asset composition, that is, investments, of Danish pension funds. The chapter also describes how Danish pension companies invest in so-called alternative assets. Given that these are typically illiquid assets, their expected returns are relatively high. The historical returns generated by Danish pension funds will also be discussed. The asset allocation and returns of Danish pension companies will be compared to the asset allocation and returns of pension companies in other countries. The chapter finds that it is difficult to argue that Denmark stands out as an outlier, neither positively nor negative, in terms of asset allocation and returns. After having described the investment strategies and returns of Danish pension funds, the chapter turns to the question of how returns might evolve in the future, or, more precisely, how pension funds inform their customers about the return they can expect from their pension savings. Finally, the chapter devotes attention to how Danish pension funds incorporate responsible investments and ESG (Environmental, Social, and Governance) into their investment decisions.
Making the Civilian Convention
Authors: van Dijk Boyd
Published: August 2022

Chapter 2 covers the making of the first binding international treaty to recognize human rights protections for enemy civilians in armed conflict. The Civilian Convention, as it became known, provides a set of basic norms that proscribe brutal counterinsurgency campaigns. It is often forgotten how difficult the treaty’s making really was, and how it could have collapsed at various points in time. In line with the book’s sub-goals of redrawing alternative drafting routes and reconstructing the drafters’ politics, the chapter argues that the treaty’s history should be understood as a long struggle featuring several surprising turns of events, which are now largely forgotten.
Fighters in the Shadows
Authors: van Dijk Boyd
Published: August 2022

Chapter 4 provides a micro-history of the attitudes embedded in the Civilian and POW Conventions concerning one of the most contested categories in the history of humanitarian law: the “irregular” fighter on the battlefield. This contentious debate led to conflict not just among the Cold War powers, but also within the Western bloc. It raised several crucial questions. Who deserved protection under humanitarian law? Were civilians allowed to take up arms, or would this violate the principle of distinction? And what should happen to them if they were captured? This chapter notes the importance of decolonization and the Cold War for understanding how drafters’ attitudes changed over time and why they came to a far more exclusionary outcome than is often admitted. Indeed, this discussion left a doubtful legacy for both future irregulars resisting occupation and those fracturing empires after 1949.
Conclusion
Authors: van Dijk Boyd
Published: August 2022

The conclusion tracks the trajectory of the Geneva Conventions after 1949. It starts by exploring the signature and ratification procedures of the most important drafting states and then focuses on the Conventions’ reception history. The period of the early Cold War saw the emergence of a popular mythology which celebrated the adoption of the Conventions as a “universal moment” in which states worked in concert with the ICRC to prevent the previous war’s atrocities. While it is certainly true that responses to the Conventions were overwhelmingly positive, especially in Switzerland, the conclusion shows that this is only part of the narrative that was spun around the genesis of humanitarian law. The last part of this chapter analyzes the different drafting positions taken by the most important protagonists and what legacies they created for the Conventions as they are being interpreted today.
EVERYTHING THAT’S TOUCHED
Authors: Gibson David J.
Published: August 2022

This chapter traces the background behind an important legal principle and considers how evidence in general, and botanical evidence in particular, can be successfully accepted into a court of law. It highlights the botanical evidence relevant in a court trial, how this evidence is presented, and by whom—these individuals are the so-called expert witnesses. There are also some important evidentiary standards that must be met, based on well-accepted legal precedents. The chapter covers the fourfold purpose of any forensic investigation, which is to connect evidence at a crime scene to a suspect, the victim, or both, and vice versa. Forensic investigators call these connections the four-way linkage theory.
EVERY PARTICLE TELLS A STORY
Authors: Gibson David J.
Published: August 2022

This chapter highlights microscopic plants, pollen, diatoms, and fungal structures seldom seen as anything more than dust, that can provide key evidence in criminal and civil cases. It also emphasizes how investigators must take the initiative to sample ‘les poussieres’, knowing that microscopic examination of spores, pollen grains, and unicellular algae may reveal valuable evidence. The chapter covers the forensic identification of mould that can play an important role in civic cases related to human health. It refers to Patricia Wiltshire, who pioneered the picture of place approach that involves obtaining a description of the vegetation at crime scenes from pollen and fungal spore samples recovered from suspects, vehicles, or victims.
A FORENSIC PHARMACOPOEIA
Authors: Gibson David J.
Published: August 2022

This chapter looks at the different types of toxins from plants and fungi, and how they have caused harm to humans, accidentally and deliberately. It focuses on cases of plant poisoning that involve forensic and legal investigation at some level. These investigations involve identifying the toxin and determining culpability and blame, broadly defining poison as any substance that can cause death, injury, or harm, while toxin is a poison that plants, animals, algae, viruses, bacteria, and other organisms in nature produce. The history of poisons parallels that of medicinal plants, since substances beneficial at a low dose often become poisonous at a high dose.
Ireland, Revolution and the English Modernist Imagination
Authors: Patten Eve
Published: August 2022

This introductory chapter argues that English writers of the modernist era frequently allude in their work to the events of Ireland’s revolutionary era, from the 1912 Home Rule crisis to the Easter Rising and the Civil War, and that such references often configure Irish events as a means of expressing English political apprehension, cultural disorientation, and vicarious nationalism. The chapter illustrates the English–Irish literary connection through attention to various writers who feature in the study, including Wyndham Lewis, Virginia Woolf, D.H. Lawrence, and Ethel Mannin, with preliminary readings that show how Irish allusions in English texts repeatedly inflect domestic concerns or interests, from the legacies of liberal crises and resurgent forms of interwar English nationalism to post-war imperial disaffection. The chapter also sets this discussion in a theoretical context inflected by Fredric Jameson and shaped by relevant theorists of late modernism.
Visions of Excess
Authors: Patten Eve
Published: August 2022

This concluding chapter explores an English literary turn to practices of parody, satire, and caricature in allusions to revolutionary Ireland, and asks how this tendency gestures towards broader anxieties about cultural overproduction and a related national fatigue. The chapter illustrates a modernist lineage of English caricatures of Irishness—much of it directed towards W.B. Yeats—with reference to writers such as Rebecca West, Wyndham Lewis, and T.S. Eliot. It then offers a more sustained focus on burlesques of Irish overproduction through analysis of the Irish-related wartime writings of the English fantasy author T.H. White, whose satirical portrayal of Irish cultural excess in The Elephant and the Kangaroo sees a heavily caricatured post-independence Dublin plunging into renewed civil war, and then submerged by a catastrophic flood, an ecological reimagining that casts revolutionary Ireland as the spectral harbinger of English and European catastrophe.
Education, Habituation, and Moral Development
Authors: Champion Michael W.
Published: August 2022

This chapter probes Dorotheus’ programme of education and affective moral development, focusing on questions of habituation, performance, and embodiment. Against Aristotelian and Platonic doubts about whether habituation could be considered a part of education, Dorotheus makes habituation central, especially through understanding habituation as craft-like. The chapter explores Dorotheus’ account of learning to be good through habituation and investigates key sites of habit formation: imitation of dramatic ascetic exempla, monastic work, and prayer. It provides close analysis of the use of sayings literature to form habits and build emotional and ethical norms in the monastic community. This analysis reinforces that for Dorotheus, education itself is conceptualized as a cognitive, emotional, and embodied enterprise of coming to inhabit privileged perspectives and generative narratives. Habituation, for Dorotheus, is required throughout each stage of a monk’s moral and spiritual education, partly because monastic education has the whole lifetime of the monk in view.
Parenthetical Meaning
Authors: Koev Todor
Published: August 2022

This book investigates the semantics and pragmatics of a representative sample of parenthetical constructions. These constructions are argued to fall into two major classes: pure and impure. Pure parentheticals comment on some part of the descriptive content of the root sentence but are otherwise relatively independent of it. Impure parentheticals modify components of the illocutionary force and affect the felicity or the truth of the root sentence. The book studies parentheticals from three theoretical viewpoints: illocutionary effects, scopal properties, and discourse status. It establishes and explicates the notion of parenthetical meaning in a formally precise and predictive dynamic semantic model. As a result, parentheticality is brought to bear on linguistic phenomena such as entailment and presupposition, binding and anaphora, evidentiality and modality, illocutionary force, and polarity.
Introduction
Authors: Koev Todor
Published: August 2022

This chapter lays out the empirical and theoretical basis for the rest of the book. It gives a first taste of parenthetical meaning by emphasizing the commonalities and differences across a wide range of constructions that form the empirical core of the discussion to come. It situates parentheticality among the familiar layers of meaning, arguing that parenthetical content shares properties with entailment and presupposition but also differs from these in its ability to impact the interpretation of the root sentence. It is proposed that what all parentheticals have in common is their illocutionary independence, or the fact that they carry their own force operators and thus constitute independent speech acts. It establishes two major levels of parenthetical independence (pure and impure) and identifies six semantic puzzles about parentheticals that the rest of the book strives to solve. It also sketches a basic semantic formalism that underlies the theoretical claims.
Scopal properties
Authors: Koev Todor
Published: August 2022

This chapter investigates the scopal properties of parentheticals and proposes explanations for the core findings. It is argued that, on the basis of their scopal behavior, parentheticals fall into two major categories: pure and impure. Pure parentheticals readily occur in embedded syntactic positions but trigger projective inferences. The robust projection of pure parentheticals is best explained not in structural terms but in terms of speaker perspective. Such a perspective arises from the fact that parentheticals are headed by force operators, which do not scopally interact with higher propositional operators and entail commitments for the speaker. In turn, impure parentheticals operate on the illocutionary level and typically occur in root clauses. When placed in the syntactic domain of verbs of saying, impure parentheticals adopt a non-speaker perspective but remain relevant to the current context.
April
Authors: Burt Stephen , Burt Tim
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines the long-term records (averages and extremes) of temperature, precipitation, sunshine, barometric pressure, wind direction and speed, snowfall and fog at Durham during the month of April. The chapter includes descriptive accounts and local photographs of notable weather events during the month of April. It discusses how, while it is the middle month of spring, April’s weather is more like that of March than May. It covers how in Durham snowfall in April is not uncommon, and frosts remain a problem. It also mentions that April 1917 was Durham’s coldest April on record, and briefly discusses this event.
May
Authors: Burt Stephen , Burt Tim
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines the long-term records (averages and extremes) of temperature, precipitation, sunshine, barometric pressure, wind direction and speed, snowfall, and fog at Durham during the month of May. The chapter includes descriptive accounts and local photographs of notable weather events during the month. As May is a transitional month as regards weather, the chapter covers how, while the month can occasionally exhibit summer-like characteristics, other winter- and late-spring-like weather events (for example, snow, frosty nights, and cooler day temperatures) cannot be ruled out. While May is, on average, the sunniest month in Durham, it is also the second-driest month of the year, after March.
June
Authors: Burt Stephen , Burt Tim
Published: August 2022

The meteorological summer consists of the three months June, July, and August. June in Durham is, on average, almost 3 degrees Celsius warmer than May, but is also significantly wetter and somewhat less sunny. The beginning of June can often produce remarkably cool nights, and even air frosts are not unknown at this time of year. This chapter examines the long-term records (averages and extremes) of temperature, precipitation, sunshine, barometric pressure, wind direction and speed, snowfall, and fog at Durham during the month of June. The chapter includes descriptive accounts and local photographs of notable weather events during the month.
July
Authors: Burt Stephen , Burt Tim
Published: August 2022

July is the warmest month of the year in Durham. While July is the second sunniest month after May, thunderstorms are not uncommon during the month. There are a few occasions when rainfall has resulted in flooding in the area, in some cases causing erosion. Occasionally, wind speeds can rise, especially when accompanied by rain, but high winds are not common. This chapter examines the long-term records (averages and extremes) of temperature, precipitation, sunshine, barometric pressure, wind direction and speed, and fog at Durham during the month of July. The chapter includes descriptive accounts and local photographs of notable weather events during the month.
Winter
Authors: Burt Stephen , Burt Tim
Published: August 2022

By long convention, the year is divided meteorologically into four seasons, each comprising three calendar months. Winter is the coldest season of the year. Throughout the chapter, winters are dated by the January year. With this in mind, in the northern hemisphere, therefore, the winter of 1962/63 (December 1962 to February 1963 inclusive) is referred to as ‘winter 1963’. This chapter examines the long-term records (averages and extremes) of temperature, precipitation, sunshine, barometric pressure, wind direction and speed, snowfall, and fog at Durham during the winter season. The chapter includes descriptive accounts and local photographs of various notable weather events during the December–January–February period.