Training Psychological Skills: Efficacy and Assessment of a Nonclinical Psychological Sports Coaching E-Intervention for Young Elite Athletes
Authors: Bonetti Raphaël , Crettaz von Roten Fabienne , Hauw Denis 
Published: January 2025

Introduction
In the evolving landscape of the 21st century, digital interventions have emerged as innovative tools for transferring knowledge efficiently and sustainably into sports practices. As of 2024, an impressive 858 applications to enhance psychological skills have permeated the smartphone market (Bonetti et al., under revision). These e-interventions aim to cultivate elite performance and promote well-being while addressing the need for sustainable approaches in sports. Crafted to be accessible through a tap on a mobile screen or a click on a website, these applications host an array of features, including practical exercises, comprehensive explanations, AI chatbots, and engaging videos. However, their effectiveness remains uncertain, as scientific validation of these interventions is lacking.
Given the critical role of psychological skills in the development of young athletes and the current emphasis on digital and sustainable innovations, the rise of accessible e-interventions is unsurprising. Indeed, the significance of psychological skills as fundamental attributes of high performance in sports has been well documented (e.g., Birrer & Morgan, 2010; Brown & Fletcher, 2017; Weinberg & Gould, 2023). Solid acquisition of these skills may contribute to more effective learning and optimized development opportunities, aligning with principles of knowledge transfer and long-term sustainability in athlete development.
Recognizing the potential of an e-intervention to impact psychological skills sustainably among talented young athletes, we designed two studies aimed at (1) evaluating the effectiveness of an e-intervention to support athletes in developing these skills and (2) assessing the usability of the intervention, thus providing insights into the user experience. To do so, we employed mixed methods by combining the results of qualitative and quantitative investigations. In Study 1, we conducted quantitative analyses to examine both short- and long-term impacts, offering insights into the intervention's effectiveness. Study 2 subsequently focused on quantitative and qualitative data, ensuring the program's design met the practical needs of young athletes while fostering sustainable engagement.
Methods
The study sample consisted of 105 athletes (73 males, 32 females), comprising 61 skiers (33 males, 28 females), 29 male footballers, and 15 track and field athletes (11 males, 4 females), recruited from four sports clubs in Switzerland and France. Participants aged 13 to 18 (M = 14.67, SD = 1.13) trained an average of 4.10 times per week (SD = 1.01) and had been practicing their sport for an average of 8.65 years (SD = 2.46). All athletes were enrolled in training centers recognized by their regional committees and were potential candidates for national youth teams. They were randomly assigned to either an Intervention group or a Control group.
The e-intervention, structured as a four-week program, was developed using a psychotherapy process-outcome research framework (Allemand & Flückiger, 2017) and integrated the principle of implementation intention (Achtziger et al., 2008). The French version of the Psychological Characteristics of Developing Excellence Questionnaire-Short (PCDEQ-S) by Hauw et al. (2023) was administered pre- and post-intervention to measure the impact on psychological skills. The System Usability Scale (SUS) assessed the intervention’s usability.
Results
The intervention group demonstrated a significant improvement in self-analysis skills over time [b = 0.49, 95% CI(0.18, 0.80), SE = 0.16, p < 0.05]. Remarkably, the group also showed a significant increase in the psychological skill of seeking support from others [b = -0.35, 95% CI (-0.66, -0.05), SE = 0.15, p < 0.05], despite this skill not being directly targeted by the intervention. The qualitative analysis revealed six key components: service’s ease of use, concrete engagement with mental skills, impact of external factors on program participation, improved relationships with coaches, absence of face-to-face interaction, and mixed quality of message content. The e-intervention earned a high usability score, exceeding 80 points on the SUS, placing it in the top 10% of usability rankings. Feedback from participant interviews highlighted areas for potential improvement.
Discussion/Conclusion
The findings of this study were built on primary and original data collected from an e-intervention tailored for talented athletes, underscoring the potential of digital tools to enhance psychological skills sustainably. These results highlight the potential of this approach, as previously suggested by authors in the field of sports psychology (e.g., Abbott & Collins, 2002; Birrer & Morgan, 2010; Brown & Fletcher, 2017; MacNamara & Collins, 2010; Simonton, 1999; Weinberg & Gould, 2023), emphasizing the importance of knowledge transfer into practice.
Participants in the intervention group, who focused on developing their self-analysis skills, demonstrated a significant improvement in these competencies over time compared to the Control group. Furthermore, the e-intervention enriched athletes’ awareness and utilization of their support systems. Reports indicated a more positive perception of the assistance they received, including increased support before competitions and the reliable presence of coaches during training sessions. These outcomes suggest that the intervention successfully reshaped participants’ psychological skills and support structures, achieving meaningful changes within a relatively short period—a critical aspect of sustainable impact in sport. Encouragingly, these positive shifts were maintained in follow-up assessments.
To our knowledge, this study represents one of the first empirical efforts to adapt and modify psychological skills using an online platform specifically designed for young, competitive athletes. This digital approach reflects an important step in transferring research-based knowledge into practical, long-lasting applications within the sporting community.
References
Abbott, A., & Collins, D. (2004). Eliminating the dichotomy between theory and practice in talent identification and development: Considering the role of psychology. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22(5), 395–408. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410410001675324
Allemand, M., & Flückiger, C. (2017). Changing personality traits: Some considerations from psychotherapy process-outcome research for intervention efforts on intentional personality change. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 27(4), 476–494. https://doi.org/10.1037/int0000094
Achtziger, A., Gollwitzer, P., & Sheeran, P. (2008). Implementation intentions and shielding goal striving from unwanted thoughts and feelings. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(3), 381–393. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207311201
Birrer, D., & Morgan, G. (2010). Psychological skills training as a way to enhance an athlete’s performance in high-intensity sports. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20(s2), 78–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01188.x
Bonetti, R., Rod, B., Sabourin, C., & Hauw, D. (submitted). Quality of mobile apps for psychological skills training in sport: A MARS-based study. Computers in Human Behavior Reports.
Brown, D. J., & Fletcher, D. (2017). Effects of psychological and psychosocial interventions on sport performance: A meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 47, 77–99.
Hauw, D., Gesbert, V., & von Roten, F. C. (2023). Psychological Characteristics of Development Excellence Questionnaire – French Version; Short Version (PCDEQ-SV). https://doi.org/10.1037/t89826-000
Macnamara, A., & Collins, D. (2010). The role of psychological characteristics in managing the transition to university. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11, 353–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.04.003
Simonton, D. K. (1999). Talent and its development: An emergenic and epigenetic model. Psychological Review, 106(3), 435–457. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.106.3.435
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2023). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. Human Kinetics.