bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Mencius-Xunzi Debate in Early Confucian Ethics
Authors: Stalnaker Aaron
Published: May 2008

This chapter outlines the disagreement between Mencius and Xunzi and the deeper ethical issues these thinkers confront under this organizing principle, as they help articulate some of the most powerful and influential visions of personal formation ever produced. The essay closes with a discussion of how Mencian and Xunzian material lends itself especially well to teaching courses on Chinese or Confucian thought, East Asian culture and society, religious ethics, philosophical ethics, and virtue ethics.
Understanding the Ethical Universe of Neo-Confucianism
Authors: Foster Robert W.
Published: May 2008

Neo‐Confucianism was the predominant intellectual movement within China from the twelfth through seventeenth centuries. It insisted on the ultimate reality of this world and the ultimate importance of individual development within a social context. Drawing on renewed interest in classical Confucian texts such as the Analects, Mencius, Great Learning, and Centrality and Commonality, Neo‐Confucianism stressed education, morality, and engagement. Neo‐Confucians were intensely interested in developing a worldview that connected human beings with the universe and affirmed that human ethics are themselves natural expressions of universal patterns. By doing so, they underscored the importance of social engagement in a world that was not only ultimately real but also ultimately moral.
Problematizing Contemporary Confucianism in East Asia
Authors: Fung Yiu-ming
Published: May 2008

For contemporary Chinese Confucians as well as their Neo‐Confucian forebears, Confucianism is more than Confucian studies. Rather, they conceive of Confucian teaching as a kind of practical wisdom and transcendental truth that cannot be understood by objective and logical methods but can only be accessed by some kind of intellectual or mystical intuition after completing a series of difficult and serious moral practices. This highlights the essential and incommensurable difference that many of these Confucians see between Chinese and Western thought. Some Confucian leaders argue that “Asian values” are both distinct from and alternative to their Western counterparts in the sense that Asia can have modernization but on terms different from those wrongly labeled as normative in the West. In spite of this, many Chinese Confucians have borrowed ideas from the Western thinkers such as Plato, Kant, and Hegel to reconstruct the ancient teaching of Confucius.
Teaching Confucianism in Christian Contexts
Authors: Berling Judith A.
Published: May 2008

This chapter frames the pedagogical issues surrounding teaching Confucianism in Christian contexts through the thematic lens of the “challenge of otherness.” Including Confucianism in the enterprise of Christian theological education helps identify numerous points of resonance between Confucian and Christian cultures. Interactions between Christian students from East Asian backgrounds and non‐Asian backgrounds can be enhanced by a shared curricular focus on Confucianism, especially through a collective consideration of whether and how Confucianism is a “religion.” Such “interreligious learning” has two distinct goals: understanding the “other” religion well and accurately and engaging in critical theological reflection on one's own spiritual location.
Why Faculty Find It Difficult to Talk about Religion
Authors: Edwards Jr. Mark U.
Published: May 2008

This essay describes the historic ideals of Christian higher education, the complex history of church‐related higher education in America, and the diversity of approaches that exist today. Rejecting a simplistic distinction between secular and religious higher education, the Jacobsens discuss the different roles that religious advocacy and religious neutrality can play at schools rooted in different religious traditions. The notion of tradition‐enhanced learning is used to describe the variety of ways that church‐related colleges and universities incorporate religion into their work as educational institutions.
Professing Understanding and Professing Faith: The Midrashic Imperative
Authors: Shulman Lee S.
Published: May 2008

Shulman argues that the Jewish tradition of midrash—i.e., the conflict of interpretation related to the Hebrew Bible—offers a model of knowledge, learning, and pedagogy that is ever enlarging and celebrative of new possibilities. Rather than proposing definitive answers, the Jewish tradition of learning welcomes ongoing dialogue about the webs of meaning that sustain our lives. These webs of meaning are simultaneously freeing and restrictive, reminding us that the task of teaching and learning is never complete and is necessarily always ongoing.
Urbanization and the End of Black Religion in the Modern World
Authors: Evans Curtis J.
Published: May 2008

Sociologists, black and white, set out in the 1940s to bury residual notions of blacks as naturally religious. Innate religiosity now connoted essential racial difference and an obstacle to black assimilation into the white mainstream. Yet as black and white interpreters abandoned biological theories of racial difference they began emphasizing distinctive features of black culture as peculiarities that needed to be shed and the new sociological framework focused on cultural pathology as the central feature of black life in the urban North. As black critics became more disillusioned with this dour view of black life, reassertions of black romantic racialism in the more secular language of a black “soul” movement found a broader audience. Black religion lost its former salience as urbanization became increasingly seen as the crucible that ended persisting notions of black innate religiosity.
Kavvanah and Kavvanot
Authors: Giller Pinchas
Published: May 2008

The kabbalistic practice of prayer intentions, or kavvanot, derives from the general theological problem of proper intention in observing the laws of Judaism. The experience of kavvanot practice is otherwise hard to quantify and has been the subject of much discussion by scholars. With regards to ethics and the other devotional aspects of religious life, the Beit El kabbalists were largely dependant on earlier sources and produced little of their own. For the Beit El kabbalists, linguistic mysteries served the same purpose as symbolism and mythos in earlier kabbalistic systems. Nonetheless, they retained the traditions of erotic union with the Shekhinah and other hallmarks of classical Kabbalah. The contemporary scholar J. Garb as argued that these processes are techniques to harness sacred power, although the Beit El practice developed past the models presented in Garb's typologies.
Imperial Expiation
Authors: Satia Priya
Published: May 2008

This chapter describes the cultural legacy of the Middle Eastern campaigns. It argues that they offered the hope of some continuity with the past, undercutting the sense of total rupture produced by the Western front. They offered a vision of a glamorous, biblical, Arabian‐Nights theater in which the old, adventurous, mobile sort of warfare still worked. The Kut disaster of the Mesopotamia campaign produced a redemptive vision of empire as a tool of colonial development. This helped package the new Middle East empire as a selfless endeavor in the increasingly anti‐imperialist postwar world. Central in the romantic image of these campaigns were the heroic figures that participated in them, including Lawrence, Gertrude Bell, and others, who acquired positions of enormous political and cultural influence after the war. Their celebrity was a product of an increasingly democratic public sphere fascinated with Arabia and struggling with changing notions of Englishness.
David, Saul, and God
Authors: Borgman Paul
Published: May 2008

The original audience heard a story shaped to their listening capacities, which for a print‐oriented audience presents special difficulties. In highlighting the reliance of David's story on ancient techniques of repetition, this book brings into focus a narrative most often approached as a collection of parts rather than as a compelling whole. David's story (Samuel and early Kings) took final shape from within an oral culture whose techniques of repetition demanded from the audience not only a grasp of the story's forward progress, but also a circling backward—a tracing of those “hearing clues” constituting broad formal patterns. From eleven major patterns emerge narrative shape and meaning, and an answer to the mystery of who David is. Some examples: (1) the mystery of David's character is finally less so in a triad of sparings: twice, David spares the life of enemy Saul, accounts that “sandwich” a third sparing—of an enemy David has set out to kill; (2) Saul is anointed and/or proclaimed king three times, and (3) commits wrongdoing in parallel fashion; (4) David is introduced to the story's audience four times, paving the narrative way for aspects of his character lying ahead; (5) David's three‐time failure as a father mirrors Eli's earlier failure, and spells out the king's great fall, setting up the story's glorious resolve, the triumph of a father finally saying no to a spoiled son and yes to interests of the kingdom. Biblical scholar Walter Brueggemann, who has written extensively on the David story, responds with skepticism to Robert Alter's suggestion that David's story evidences architectural cohesion: “Alter may be correct on this point,” Brueggemann cautions, “but he has only asserted the matter and has not given it any careful analysis.” This study demonstrates the aptness of Alter's assessment regarding the story's unity, answering Bruggemann's challenge with a singular analysis adequate to the demands of this sophisticated ancient masterpiece.
News of Death—Public and Private Davids
Authors: Borgman Paul
Published: May 2008

Before hearing about how David the father faces hearing news of three successive sons' deaths, we are shown David's response to death‐news of three successive political opponents, or would‐be opponents. Taken together, the six instances of David's responding to death‐news, preceded by the Eli instance of responding to the same news, repeat formal elements in such a way as to shed increased light on the complexity of David. The tension between the private‐ and public‐Davids, for example, comes into clear focus, setting the narrative stage for a seventh instance, an epilogue of sorts, of private‐David working in synch with public‐David, toward communal well‐being. Six instances of death‐news begins, again, with Eli hearing of his sons' death (I, 4:10‐18), followed by David receiving news of Saul's & Jonathan's deaths (II, 1:1‐27); King David hearing of Abner's death (II, 3:28‐39), then of Ishbaal's death (II, 4:5‐12); then father‐David hearing of his infant son's death (II, 12:15‐24); of son Amnon's death (II, 13:21‐39); of son Absalom's death (II, 18:24‐19:8). The pattern is complete with a twist: father‐David, as king, says “no” to son Adonijah upon hearing ominous (not death) news (I Kings: 1:5‐31).
Conclusion
Authors: Borgman Paul
Published: May 2008

For Homer's audience, the resourceful Odysseus—“known before all men for the study of crafty designs”—is predictable, always the same, always on brilliant display. David, on the other hand, remains mysterious to the story's audience for great portions of the narrative, acting often in a surprising manner. The biblical writer develops character; the Homeric writer demonstrates character. The divine in each story play roles appropriate to each hero, while reflecting their authors' respective sense of character and moral universe. In fact, the relationship of hero to the divine has much to do with the diametrically opposed characterizations of David and Odysseus within their respective stories, and the gulf between implied moral universes. Because of the goddess Athene, Odysseus becomes more of what he has always been. Because of the biblical God, on the other hand, David changes, becoming known to others—and to himself—only as the story unfolds. David and Odysseus inhabit worlds that could not be more different. A brief exploration of notable cave scenes from their respective stories helps to shine a spotlight on the complexity of David, of his God, and of the relationship between the two.
5 Major Subclasses
Authors: Langacker Ronald W.
Published: May 2008

Despite being polar opposites conceptually, the two most fundamental grammatical classes—noun and verb—show extensive parallelism. One similarity is that both divide into two major subclasses: count vs. mass for nouns, perfective vs. imperfective for verbs. Allowing for the intrinsic conceptual difference between nouns and verbs, these oppositions are precisely the same. The essential feature of count nouns and perfective verbs is that the profiled thing or process is construed as being bounded within the immediate scope in a particular cognitive domain: the domain of instantiation, characterized as the domain where instances of a type are primarily conceived as residing and are distinguished from one another by their locations. For nouns, the domain of instantiation varies, although space is prototypical; for verbs, the relevant domain is always time. Correlated with bounding are other distinguishing properties: internal heterogeneity (for count and perfective) vs. homogeneity (for mass and imperfective); contractibility (the property of masses and imperfectives whereby any subpart of an instance is itself an instance of its type); and expansibility (whereby combining two mass or imperfective instances yields a single, larger instance). Count vs. mass and perfective vs. imperfective are not rigid lexical distinctions, but are malleable owing to alternate construals as well as systematic patterns of extension. The conceptual characterization of perfective and imperfective verbs explains their contrasting behavior with respect to the English progressive and present tense.
6 Constructions
Authors: Langacker Ronald W.
Published: May 2008

Grammar consists in patterns for assembling symbolically complex expressions. Such expressions are characterized as assemblies of symbolic structures, also called constructions. In large measure, symbolic assemblies are hierarchically arranged: at a given level of organization, component symbolic structures are integrated to form a composite symbolic structure, which can in turn function as component structure at a higher level, and so on. Component structures are integrated both semantically and phonologically, the phonological integration serving to symbolize the semantic integration. Although linguistic meanings are only partially compositional, compositional patterns are essential to the formation and understanding of novel expressions. These patterns are themselves symbolic assemblies, differing from expressions just by virtue of being schematic rather than specific; they are thus referred to as constructional schemas. Abstracted from occurring expressions, these schemas serve as templates for assembling and assessing new ones. A distinction is made between unipolar and bipolar organization, depending on whether the elements involved are delimited solely on semantic or phonological grounds or whether they are delimited by their participation in symbolic relationships. That is, unipolar organization is a matter of phonological or conceptual structure per se, considered independently of symbolic relationships, whereas bipolar organization pertains to the semantic and phonological structures which function in lexicon and grammar. Unipolar and bipolar organization do not have to match at either the semantic or the phonological pole.
7 Constructions
Authors: Langacker Ronald W.
Published: May 2008

Constructions are characterized in terms of four basic factors: correspondences, profiling, elaboration, and constituency. Correspondences are the basis for semantic and grammatical integration; they specify the conceptual and phonological overlap between component structures, as well as between the component and composite structures. Semantic integration often involves multiple correspondences. Semantic anomaly arises when corresponding elements have inconsistent properties. Usually the composite structure inherits its profile (and thus its grammatical category) from one of the component structures, which is thus the constructional head (or profile determinant). It is also usual for one component structure to elaborate a schematic substructure (an elaboration site) within the other component. A component which makes salient schematic reference to another in this manner is said to be dependent on it. Organization in relationships of autonomy/dependence (A/D-alignment) is a basic feature of language structure. The difference between complements and modifiers is a matter of whether these component structures are autonomous or dependent with respect to the constructional head. Constituency is the hierarchical aspect of symbolic assemblies. Contrary to standard views, constituency is neither fundamental nor essential to grammar, and while it does emerge, it is neither invariant nor exhaustive of grammatical structure. Grammatical relations (like subject and object) are defined on the basis of semantic factors and correspondences, and are thus independent of particular constituency configurations.
8 Rules and Restrictions
Authors: Langacker Ronald W.
Published: May 2008

Language is both cognitive and sociocultural, consisting in conventionally sanctioned patterns of communicative activity. These patterns take the form of schemas abstracted from usage events by the reinforcement of recurring commonalities. Conventional linguistic units are linked by relationships of composition and categorization (either elaboration or extension) and thus form intersecting networks of great complexity. Expressions are interpreted and assessed for well-formedness through categorization by linguistic units. Through a process of interactive activation, particular units are selected to categorize particular facets of an expression. The total set of categorizing relationships constitutes the expression's structural description, and whether the categorizations involve elaboration or extension determines its degree of conventionality. Despite the absence of explicit prohibitions, this model affords an account of distribution, restrictions, and judgments of ungrammaticality. One aspect of grammatical constructions is their characterization at different levels of specificity, including constructional subschemas incorporating specific lexical items. And since one aspect of lexical items is their occurrence in particular constructions, lexicon and grammar are overlapping rather than disjoint. The model accommodates degrees and kinds of regularity, which decomposes into generality, productivity, and compositionality. Regularities include higher-order generalizations, where sets of categorizations or lexical behaviors are themselves schematized to form productive patterns. Among the phenomena described in this manner are patterns of phonological extension (phonological rules), patterns of semantic extension (e.g. general metonymies), and patterns of morphological realization (like conjugation classes).
TWO What Theater Makes
Authors: Woodruff Paul
Published: May 2008

The second chapter offers an account of what it is to be a particular theater piece—a question that belongs to ontology. A theater piece may be performed many times, so it is not identical to a particular performance; performances of plays are based on texts, but a text is not a theater piece because, by itself, it has nothing to do with watching and being watched. In general, a play is the particular play that it is because of the characters and plot that belong to it. That is why Shakespeare's Hamlet can have many versions and still be the same piece; but Anouilh's version of Antigone is not the same piece of theater as is Sophocles', owing to substantial differences in plot and character.
THREE Action Worth Watching: Plot
Authors: Woodruff Paul
Published: May 2008

Live pornography and football games belong to theater, but they are defective in plot, because their action is not worth watching for the time that they take. An audience may lose interest in the game if it is one-sided; and audience members may lose interest in pornography if they are with attractive partners. Good theater has a plot that sustains audience attention to the end; indeed, plot is the element in theater that defines the time that a piece of theater takes by setting the end point. The definition of theater that is the central hypothesis of this book supports such judgments of value. Plot is a structure of actions; actions are events proceeding from human choice. Passive events are less engaging than active ones, with the result that the art of theater aims to show that its characters are making active choices and not simply being swept along by events.
The Yongzheng Emperor and Imperial Intervention
Authors: Wu Jiang
Published: May 2008

This chapter introduces the Yongzheng emperor's intervention in the first controversy. The emperor wrote a lengthy book to condemn Hanyue and to promote Miyun. It shows that Yongzheng practiced Chan Buddhism in the court for a long time and left a series of works on Chan Buddhism. He was a unique Chinese monarch who claimed to have reached enlightenment and behaved like a Chan master.
Anti‐Pelagian Grace
Authors: Cary Phillip
Published: May 2008

In his polemics against Pelagianism, Augustine had originally thought that his Platonist emphasis on the need for inner help to love the eternal Good would be sufficient, as illustrated in On the Grace of the New Testament (= Epistle 140). Also, he thought he could uphold free will by making the choice to believe dependent on our response to a merely external word, the “suitable call.” But when Pelagius argues that grace is given by external means (such as divine Law) and to those who merit it, Augustine must be clearer about the gratuity and prevenience of grace, and particularly about how the human choice to believe is brought about by the same inner grace as the human will to love. Grace is irresistible because it comes to us not as external word but as inner divine teaching.
Believing Persons
Authors: Cary Phillip
Published: May 2008

For Augustine the knowledge we ultimately seek is not like having faith in our friends but like seeing for ourselves. Yet Augustine acknowledges that nearly everything we know about human society and history, and even about the souls of our friends, is based not on seeing but on believing what we are told. Likewise, to believe the Scripture is to accept the testimony of witnesses who have seen what we have not. Seeing the truth to which they testify is in fact easier than seeing what is in their souls, and in that sense God can be known more clearly than other persons. So also our knowledge of Christ, as it grows, depends less and less on what we know of his historical particularity, his humanity and his flesh, and more and more on our vision of his divine being.
Sacred Signs of Inner Unity
Authors: Cary Phillip
Published: May 2008

Medieval theologians like Lombard and Aquinas depart from Augustine when they conceive of sacraments as external signs that not only signify inner grace but also confer it. For Augustine sacraments are not efficacious means of grace but sacred signs outwardly marking the church's inner unity, which is the true means of grace. The power of this inner community of souls brought together by love can be seen in the role the prospect of baptism and its humility play during the conversion narrative of Confessions 8, in the union of Augustine and his mother in the vision at Ostia in Confessions 9, and in Augustine's own practice as a preacher of sermons.
The Paśupatinātha Temple Area
Authors: Michaels Axel
Published: May 2008

This Chapter introduces the reader to the topographical structure, the seats of the deities, the ritual specialists (priests, temple assistants, servants etc.), key forms of worship, temple organisation, and ascetic sects. It also gives an overview and classification of the festivals and rituals.
The Worship for the Salvation of the Country (Deśoddhārapūjā)
Authors: Michaels Axel
Published: May 2008

This chapter describes and analyzes the Worship for the Salvation of the Country (Deóddhārapūjā). It is a festival and procession during which a group of representatives from the four classes (varṇa), built out of eight castes, are worshipped by the Newar population of Deopatan. Apparently, the varṇa scheme has been imposed on the local caste system involving all major social groups in order to harmonize tantric and smārta forms of worship. The festival is a fascinating field of study for its elaborated ṭīkā exchange and the binding of huge turbans for the varṇa representatives.
Bālā's Fourteenth (Bālācaturdaśī)
Authors: Michaels Axel
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses the significance of the Bālā's Fourteenth what? (Bālācaturdaśī). This festival is observed on the fourteenth of the dark half of the moon in the month of Maṅgsīr (November/December). Through it, ancestors commonly are remembered in performances by Hindus and Buddhists with fire sacrifices (homa) and night vigilance.
Roots of the Classical
Authors: Van der Merwe Peter
Published: May 2008

From the Middle Ages to the early 20th century, Western ‘art’ music has grown out of, and drawn on, popular models. This book traces this recurring process. Again and again simple patterns have been refined and elaborated, eventually to the point of decadence, whereupon the search begins anew for further raw folk-stuff. A remarkable instance is the evolution of classical tonality, beginning with the tonic-and-dominant patterns of Italian dance music of about 1500, and ending with the extreme chromaticism of 1900. Other topics discussed in this book are: the Oriental influence on Western music; the waltz and other 19th-century dances; Italian opera and other popular genres; Wagner and early Modernism; and the roots of the 20th-century popular idiom. Throughout, the focus is on the simple, the commonplace, and even the hackneyed. Though due attention is paid to the historical and cultural background, this is mainly a study of musical patterns (generally melodic or harmonic, sometimes rhythmic or formal). It is as much theoretical as historical, the basis of the theory being melodic dissonance, essentially the tension between notes of different pitch. This explains both modes and scales (extensively discussed) and harmony, regarded as simultaneous melody. Other important concepts are self-similarity (maximised in classical tonality); musical ambiguity, in the sense of multiplicity of meaning; and tonal counterpoint, or the counterpoint between tonalities rather than melodies.
Introduction
Authors: van der Merwe Peter
Published: May 2008

This introductory chapter points out how grievously scholars have neglected popular influences on classical music. It challenges the tradition of ‘homage musicology’, whereby musical analysis is seen as a gesture of reverence towards the great composers. The banal, commonplace, or third-rate are equally worthy of study, and historically at least equally important. Further, the chapter introduces the main theoretical theme of the book: melody and its patterns, as found particularly in the simplest and most spontaneous music. Everything else — harmony, polyphony, and tonality — is an elaboration on these.
Dissonance and Discord
Authors: van der Merwe Peter
Published: May 2008

This chapter distinguishes between dissonance and discord. Dissonance is the property of attraction or repulsion between notes of different pitch, giving rise to a sense of instability or restlessness. Discord is the property of acoustic roughness between simultaneously sounding notes.
The Debt to the East
Authors: van der Merwe Peter
Published: May 2008

Over many centuries, Western music has drawn on the partially Oriental music of southern and eastern Europe. This chapter examines this process, and in particular, the Gypsy music that profoundly influenced the Viennese school. Among features discussed are drones and ostinatos (separately or in combination), melodic outline, recurring figures, and sequences. Most important of all are the modes, e.g., the Phrygian, Lydian, ‘Gypsy’ (with one or two augmented seconds), ‘acoustic’ (c–d–e–f sharp–g–a–b flat), and major–minor (c–d–e–f–g–a flat–b flat). The last two belong to the ‘heptatonia secunda’ scale, and are among the ancestors of the octatonic scale of alternating tones and semitones. In most of these modes, individual degrees of the scale fluctuate between major and minor, making possible both advanced chromaticism and extended tonality.
The Dances of Central Europe
Authors: van der Merwe Peter
Published: May 2008

This chapter deals briefly with the polka and its musical relatives, and with the waltz in detail. It traces the history of these dances from primitive beginnings, showing how increasing length and complexity (of melody, harmony, and rhythm alike) coexisted with an underlying simplicity. The waltz ‘suite’ of successive tunes (e.g., Johann Strauss's ‘Blue Danube’) is discussed, pointing out the subtle unifying devices employed by the great waltz composers.
Holland's Rulers: The Urban Oligarchies
Authors: Tracy James D.
Published: May 2008

In Flanders and Brabant, guilds had a share in urban government. Holland's cities were ruled by self‐perpetuating town councils. Whether brought to power by Orange, or merely adapting to new conditions, these magistrates secured their authority against challenges arising from the unsettled circumstances. The clergy of the Dutch Reformed Church, granted a monopoly on the public exercise of religion, had to accept supervision by the magistrates. Villages, no matter how large, could not claim the privileges of towns. Civic militia companies, though vital to the initial success of the Revolt, would not have a voice in civic affairs. The prince of Orange must be obeyed as commander in chief, but his writ did not run to matters of finance. Even the authority of the Lords States was limited: if a new tax was proposed, no town could be made to pay against its will.
The Securing of Holland's Forward Frontier, 1583–1588
Authors: Tracy James D.
Published: May 2008

As towns and provinces fell away, the Council of State recruited troops from France, from Germany, and from England, where Elizabeth I named the earl of Leicester as governor in the Low Countries, in keeping with the Treaty of Nonsuch (August 1585). Some contingents never came; those that did could not blunt Parma's advance. Meanwhile, the Lords States of Holland husbanded their resources for needs of the Union of Utrecht: garrisons at the “gateways” to Holland were paid regularly, those in Brussels were not. When Nijmegen went over to Spain, breaching the line of the Waal, funds were found to hold the line of the Rhine. This strategy did not counter Parma's, but it worked as well; at key points in Gelderland and Overijssel, the forward frontier was secured. As a protected island of peace in a sea of war, Holland would prosper as never before.
Epilogue: The Dutch Republic in Europe's Republican Tradition, c.1590–1650
Authors: Tracy James D.
Published: May 2008

Historians of republicanism have focussed on states where princely rule was overthrown (15th‐century Florence, 17th‐century England). Yet even in princely realms town magistrates claimed to be part of a underline respublica mixta, a state combining the principles of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. Dutch writers understood the United Provinces as a underline respublica mixta—that is, a stable, balanced constitution. Some embraced the democratic principle, invoking the memory of ancient Athens. Others (partisans of the House of Orange) bemoaned the weakness of the monarchical principle. Still others, like Holland's Hugo Grotius, saw the town oligarchies as forming a proper, aristocratic republic, like Sparta or Venice. Thus understood, the new polity was hardly democratic; but in a Europe dominated by strong monarchies, it was a beacon of republican liberty.
DETECTORS FOR SYNCHROTRON TOMOGRAPHY
Authors: Graafsma Heinz , Martin Thierry
Published: May 2008

Efforts are underway to optimize two-dimensional X-ray detectors, which have become a standard at synchrotron sources for practically all applications including tomography. Area detectors can be divided into two main classes: in direct detection the X-ray photons are directly converted to an electrical signal via electron-hole pair creation, either in a semiconductor or in a gas; in indirect detection the X-ray photons are first converted into visible light that is subsequently converted to an electronic signal in the semiconductor. So far, the most effective, low-cost and low-risk solution for tomography has been indirect detection, where a scintillator converter screen is optically coupled to an integrating detector, either a commercial CCD camera, or a specially developed amorphous photodiode array. This chapter explains this technology and discusses the various components. It begins with a survey of the various existing types of X-ray conversion screens. This is followed by a discussion of the optical relays and the light sensors required to convert the light into a digital image.
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRON TOMOGRAPHY
Authors: Midgley Paul A. , Weyland Matthew , Stegmann Heiko
Published: May 2008

This chapter presents some applications of electron tomography in materials research and in the semiconductor industry. These include applications in heterogeneous catalyst, polymers, nanotubes and semiconductor nanostructures, biomaterials, and semiconductor manufacturing.
5 A Tale of Three Villages: Practised Forestry in India
Authors: Ghate Rucha
Published: May 2008

Forest management in India has become accommodative since the forest policy of 1988. Presently, three types of ‘collective action’ based institutions can be found: self-initiated, NGO-promoted, and government-sponsored Joint Forest Management (JFM). Despite their common goals of strengthening ecological security and meeting the subsistence biomass needs of the local people, they differ in their strengths and weaknesses. The basic argument is that rather than oscillating between a simplistic either/or model of ‘state’ or ‘village community’, there is a need to conceive of more complex arrangements in which forest areas are protected for multiple objectives, under the joint management of multiple institutions.
4 Joseph Priestley, Political Philosopher
Authors: Fitzpatrick Martin
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines Priestley's political ideas and radical reputation. It argues that the most important dimensions of Priestley's political philosophy are his delineation of a specific sphere for civil liberty, his arguments for freedom of inquiry, and his belief that political activity should aim at creating the optimal conditions for preserving civil liberty and for a free and open society in which truth would progress. Both in his insistent arguments for liberty of thought and in his radicalization of Locke on sovereignty and toleration, he conformed and contributed to major trends within the Enlightenment.
7 Joseph Priestley in America
Authors: Graham Jenny
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses Priestley's life in America. Priestley, who was implicated in more than one way in the activities of the English radicals, departed for America in April 1794. Priestley received an enthusiastic welcome upon arriving in New York in June 1794 because he was a long-standing friend of the Americans and their experiment in republican government, and he received much sympathy for his persecution in England as a result of his outspoken support for France. Priestley's early years in Pennsylvania, his identification with the social and political trials facing America, and his final years under Jefferson are discussed.
The Electronic Structure of Atoms
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung
Published: May 2008

This chapter starts off with an in-depth discussion on the angular and radial functions of the hydrogenic orbitals. Then the ground 1s  2 and the excited 1s  12s  1 configurations of the helium atom are employed to illustrate the determinantal wavefunction and the Pauli Exclusion Principle. Some simple trial wavefunctions for helium are introduced, with emphasis on the physical meaning of the adjustable parameters. For the many-electron atoms, the L-S and j-j coupling schemes are used to derive the spectroscopic terms arising from a given atomic configuration. Examples are then given to illustrate the correlation between the terms derived by these two schemes. The chapter concludes with a section on atomic properties, including ionization energy and electron affinity, electronegativity, relativistic effect on the properties of elements.
Structural Chemistry of Hydrogen
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung
Published: May 2008

Even though hydrogen is the ‘simplest’ atom in the Periodic Table, it has a very rich structural chemistry with eight bonding types. This chapter discusses the nature of the hydrogen bond, non-conventional hydrogen bonds (X-H···π, X-H···M, X-H···H-E, etc.), hydride complexes, molecular hydrogen coordination compounds, and σ-bond complexes.
Structural Chemistry of Group 17 and Group 18 Elements
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Wai Mak Thomas Chung
Published: May 2008

This chapter covers the elements of Groups 17 (halogens) and 18 (noble gases) in the Periodic Table. For the elemental halogens, discussion includes their crystal structures and homopolyatomic anions and cations. The subsequent sections are on the interhalogen compounds and ions, charge-transfer complexes of halogens, the oxides and oxo compounds of halogens, etc. The final section devoted to noble-gas compounds with a comprehensive coverage on the structural chemistry of xenon.
5 The Antiquarian Ass: Apuleius and the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (1499)
Authors: Carver Robert H. F.
Published: May 2008

The Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (‘The Strife of Love in a Dream of Poliphilo’) — first published in Venice in December 1499 — has long been regarded (particularly by art critics and bibliophiles) as one of the great glories (and curiosities) of Western civilization. This chapter argues that the Hypnerotomachia is probably the most remarkable piece of prose fiction to emerge in the 15th century and deserves an honoured place in the Western Canon between the Decameron and Gargantua and Pantagruel. It is also the work of Renaissance literature that displays most exuberantly its debts to Apuleius.
`Ethos' and the Oxford Movement
Authors: Pereiro James
Published: May 2008

This book is a study of a fundamental and neglected aspect of the Oxford Movement. The term ethos appears often in the writings of the Oxford men, especially in their correspondence, and the concept makes its presence felt in every aspect of the Tractarians' intellectual life and religious or social activity. The present study fills a gap in the research about the Oxford Movement and it revises commonly held assumptions about it; the scholarly overlook of the topic has prevented a proper understanding of significant aspects of the intellectual and social history of the Movement. Ethos, for the Oxford men, was more than just a general ‘tone of peculiar gentleness and grace’. It represented a complex theory of religious knowledge which deeply influenced the genesis and development of the Movement. The Tractarians were conscious from the first of how far their ethos distinguished them from the High Church party, with whom they shared much common doctrinal ground. Recent historiography's overstressing of the High Church dimension of the Oxford Movement has tended to obscure Tractarian intellectual originality and the motivation behind many of their actions. The Oxford men were radical religious reformers inspired by an uncompromising principle which urged them forward towards the full restoration of early Christian doctrinal orthodoxy and the recovery of the Catholic ethos. They considered that this Catholic ethos, long lost in the Church of England, was the only ground where a real revival could take root and grow up. The book studies the pre-Tractarian formation of the concept of ethos, and its later development; it explores the intellectual and practical consequences of the notion for the religious and social revival the Oxford Movement tried to promote; it also offers a study of the formation of Newman's theory of doctrinal development and of the defining and definitive role ethos played in its conception.
3 The Ethos of the Oxford Movement
Authors: Pereiro James
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the Movement's theory of knowledge: the origin of the concept of ethos in Keble's interpretation of Joseph Butler's Analogy, and its subsequent development by Froude Newman and Williams. The Tractarians never described clearly and systematically what they understood for ethos in any of their published works. The chapter tries to map the contributions of different authors to the common theory (or at least to its written expression) in a broadly chronological sequence; two elements central to the concept (‘reserve’ and ‘realizing’) are dealt with in separate sections. The chapter also explores the ‘iconic’ nature that Froude's incarnation of the Catholic ethos had for Newman and the other Tractarians.
Validity and the Unprovability of Soundness
Authors: Field Hartry
Published: May 2008

This chapter gives an initial discussion of the relation between validity and necessary truth-preservation. It argues that the so-called ‘soundness theorems’ of first order logic are misnamed, and that the soundness of first order logic is not provable (even ‘rule-circularly’) in standard set theory.
Introduction to the Broadly Classical Options
Authors: Field Hartry
Published: May 2008

This chapter is a short introduction to the ways of dealing with the Liar paradox within classical logic. It distinguishes classical gap theories, classical glut theories, and weakly classical theories (a heading that includes both supervaluation theories and revision theories, in their ‘internal’ versions). It introduces some natural ‘Incoherence Principles’, jointly unsatisfiable in classical logic. The gap, glut, and weakly classical theories can be understood as different choices as to which incoherence principle to reject.
Introduction to Supervaluational Approaches to Paradox
Authors: Field Hartry
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the simplest supervaluationist fixed points, and the ‘internal’ fixed-point theories based on them. These are not gap theories; they are ‘weakly classical’ theories in that they preserve the implications of classical logic but not certain meta-rules. Most dramatically, they do not allow for reasoning by cases. Two notions of validity are distinguished (strong and weak), and the framework of deMorgan semantics and Boolean semantics is introduced and discussed.
What Is To Be Done?
Authors: Field Hartry
Published: May 2008

This chapter sets the goal: a theory without excluded middle with ‘naïve truth and satisfaction’, that is, satisfying the full Tarski schemas and Intersubstitutivity Principle. A semantic framework is sketched, involving a deMorgan valued semantics with an additional operator for the conditional. There are different ways to fill out the framework — Lukasiewicz semantics is one of them — and the trick will be to find one in which the goal of naïve truth and satisfaction can be achieved. In all ways to fill out the framework, we can define a determinateness operator, and iterate it through the transfinite. But to achieve ‘naïvety’, this hierarchy can never collapse. This is also required if the theory is to be useful for vagueness.
Hyper‐Determinacy and Revenge
Authors: Field Hartry
Published: May 2008

Do dialetheic theories do better as regard revenge problems than theories that restrict excluded middle? This chapter argues that they do not, and shows in particular that each of the revenge problems that Priest has raised against theories without excluded middle arise against dialetheic theories as well. The charge that dialetheic theories can't express the property of being solely true is investigated. It is found that a full defense against the charge requires a transfinite sequence of weaker and weaker negation-like operators, reminiscent of the sequence of iterations of the determinacy operator in theories that restrict excluded middle.
Unions, Working Hours, and Absence: Sweden
Authors: Kramarz Francis , Cahuc Pierre , Crépon Bruno , Skans Oskar Nordstörm , Schank Thorsten , Lomwel Gijsbert van , Zylberberg André
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the impact of unions and working-time reductions in Sweden. It is shown that strong unions do not necessarily mean short weekly working hours and, specifically, strong unions do not always demand working-time reductions in order to preserve employment. Explicit working-time reductions are not the only policies that reduce actual hours worked. Policies that promote absence or career interruptions have the same motivations as working-time reductions and induce substantial reductions in actual hours worked in these countries. Recent policy experiments using career interruptions as work-sharing policies had negative effects on participants' subsequent wages and are not likely to have contributed to the employability of the long-term unemployed, in contrast to the initial intention.
Introduction
Authors: Brown David
Published: May 2008

This introductory chapter begins with a description of the book, which is the third of three volumes on the religious experience as mediated through culture and the arts. It then lays out the theoretical foundations for the succeeding chapters. It argues that although Christianity cannot help but be influenced by its wider cultural setting, it is quite wrong to suppose that this must always be to Christianity's disadvantage.
Introduction
Authors: Bispham Edward
Published: May 2008

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the situation in Rome after the Social War. The situation in which Rome found herself after the Social War was utterly different from that which she was in during the 4th and 3rd centuries, as was the scale of the enfranchisements. Moreover, the simple grant of citizenship could not mask wide differences in the cultural and political experiences of the peoples incorporated. The management of this new huge diversity of culture, language, tradition, outlook, and aspiration is examined. The problem of origins, municipalization, and studies on Italy are discussed.
‘Quattuoruiri Quinquennales’, and Other Variations
Authors: Bispham Edward
Published: May 2008

This chapter begins by analyzing epigraphic evidence on the magistracy, and then proceeds to more general conclusions. Although the origins of the magistracy remain uncertain, an ‘Italic’ as opposed to a Roman origin can be excluded: it is at all times clearly a Roman collegiate magistracy, like the duovirate, and its wide distribution must speak against any theory of an origin in a particular part of Italy. One essential feature of the quattuorvirate is the blandness of the name, which by simply specifying the number of magistrates in the senior college could not be tied to the pre-enfranchisement political history or administrative structures of any particular community or group of communities. Some insights have been gained on the structure of the magistracy as it developed over time, and in its earliest form, the quattuorvirate was a college of four magistrates who possessed equal powers and responsibilities.