bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Effect of a Token Economy on the Exercise Behavior of Individuals with Down Syndrome
Authors: Bennett Freddie , Eisenman Pat , French Ron , Henderson Hester , Shultz Barry
Published: August 2016

A single-subject multiple baseline design across subjects was used to discern the effect of a token economy on the exercise behavior and cardiorespiratory fitness of individuals with Down syndrome. The subjects were three females ranging in age from 24 to 26 years, with estimated IQs between 32 and 56. The exercise behavior consisted of pedaling a cycle ergometer for 15 min each weekday at 50-60% of peak VO2 for 6 to 8 weeks. Subjects voluntarily pedaled the cycle ergometer during the baseline phase, and after stabilization entered the intervention phase at 5-day intervals. During the intervention phase, tokens that could be exchanged for preferred items were dispensed for a predetermined number of revolutions. Based on the data and calculations using the split-middle technique, it was concluded that a token economy can be used to increase exercise behavior. Resting heart rates decreased 12.2%, and submaximal exercise heart rates, averaged over three work stages, decreased 18.8% over the course of the study. The small sample size, variable subject response, and a malfunctioning gas analyzer call for caution in inferring any possible cardiorespiratory fitness training effect.
Skill Acquisition by Children with Autism: Influence of Prompts
Authors: Reid Greg , Collier Douglas , Cauchon Michelle
Published: August 2016

Visual, verbal, and physical prompting systems promote motor skill acquisition in learners who are autistic (Collier & Reid, 1987). The purpose of the present study was to contrast the effectiveness of two instructional models, one that emphasized visual prompting and one that stressed physical prompting. Both models were designed to teach autistic children a bowling skill that was subdivided into 19 task analytic steps. All four subjects received 120 trials under both instructional models in a counterbalanced fashion. It was hypothesized that physical prompting would be the most effective model, but only limited support was generated in this regard. The subjects did benefit from carefully designed instruction, however, thus replicating previous findings.
Sport Licensing and Internationalization: A Case Analysis of the Reebok Bike Business
Authors: Hecox Mark
Published: August 2016

Reebok officially entered the bike business after 15 years of deliberation and strategic re-tooling. This case presents a situation that considers how the process of internationalization may be impacted by various factors both internal and external to the firm. The analysis examines multiple marketing elements, including brand position, product development, distribution channel, pricing, promotion, and operating model. The focus of decision making in the case centers on the use of licensing and determining possible alliance partner structures as possible solutions to enable Reebok to enter the global bike business successfully. Specific internationalization elements explored include mode of entry, foreign market selection, cultural influences, supply chain, operating model, and licensing strategic alliance partner strategy. This case provides an ideal opportunity to explore and analyze why and how a sport enterprise might want to internationalize its business and the potential role sport licensing might play in the process.
Diamond Dollars Case Competition: The Mike Trout Dilemma
Authors: Gennaro Vince
Published: August 2016

This case was prepared by the author for the Diamond Dollars Case Competition in March 2013. It was developed for the purpose of a case discussion. It contains various assumptions that were generated for illustrative purposes and is not intended to serve as a source of primary data. It takes the hypothetical 2013 performance of young baseball superstar Mike Trout to provide students with an opportunity to apply analytical skills to the types of real-world problems faced by professional sport organizations. The case study invites students to weigh the many factors that Los Angeles Angels management must consider in determining how to realistically negotiate with Trout for the benefit of the ball club following the 2013 Major League baseball season.
Retention Factors for Head Athletic Trainers in the NCAA Division I Collegiate Setting
Authors: Mazerolle Stephanie M. , Pitney William A. , Goodman Ashley
Published: August 2016

Context:

Retention factors for athletic trainers (ATs) generally include autonomy, work-life balance, and job satisfaction, but little is known specifically about the position of Head AT.

Objective:

To investigate factors that influence retention of the Head AT in a leadership role.

Design:

A qualitative study that employed structured interviews.

Patients or Other Participants:

18 Head ATs (13 males, 5 females; 44 ± 8 years of age; 22 ± 7 years of experience in the role) participated.

Data Collection and Analysis:

Participants responded to a series of questions presented through an online interview. The data were analyzed through a general inductive approach.

Results:

Two key retention factors that were identified by the analysis were enjoyment of the work setting and professional motivation.

Conclusions:

Head ATs remain in their positions due to rewarding relationships with staff members and student-athletes. A commitment to lifelong learning for professional development also exerts a positive influence for retention.
Radioulnar Range of Motion Normative Values for Elite Baseball Players
Authors: Laudner Kevin , Lynall Robert , Williams Jeffrey , Wong Regan , Onuki Takashi , Meister Keith
Published: August 2016

Context:

Numerous studies have documented reduced glenohumeral joint range of motion (ROM) of the dominant extremity among baseball players, which may be caused by throwing-related factors that also affect the radioulnar joint.

Objective:

To measure pronation and supination ROM in competitive baseball pitchers and position players.

Participants:

Asymptomatic professional and collegiate baseball pitchers (N = 59) and position players (N = 43).

Outcome Measures:

Bilateral radioulnar pronation and supination ROM.

Results:

Pitchers demonstrated significantly less pronation and total ROM in the throwing arm than the nondominant arm. The position players demonstrated significantly less total ROM in the throwing arm than the nondominant arm.

Conclusions:

The reported normative values may provide useful standards for interpretation of radioulnar ROM measured in both asymptomatic and symptomatic baseball players.
Voluntary Inducement of Triceps Surae Muscle Cramping
Authors: Goodman Ashley , Zwetsloot Kevin A.
Published: August 2016

Context:

Exercise-associated muscle cramping (EAMC) is difficult to induce experimentally.

Purpose:

T o assess the reliability of a maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) procedure for inducement of a muscle cramp.

Participants:

Seventy-four healthy and physically active participants (23 ± 8 years of age; 49 males and 25 females); 63 who had previously experienced EAMC.

Main Outcome Measure:

Each participant’s triceps surae musculature was placed in a shortened and unloaded position. Participants were instructed to maximally contract the triceps surae musculature with the intent to induce a cramp within 60 seconds.

Results:

Cramping was induced in 31% of participants within 60 seconds, and 97% of participants who experienced cramping during the initial session and who returned for two subsequent testing sessions at one-week intervals reproduced cramping with the procedure.

Conclusions:

The MVC procedure consistently induced cramping in a subset of 18 cramp-prone participants during multiple testing sessions, which suggests that it may have value as a screening tool for identification of athletes with a predisposition for EAMC.
Biomechanical Analysis of the Preparatory Motion for Takeoff in the Fosbury Flop
Authors: Ae Michiyoshi , Sakatani Yukinori , Yokoi Takashi , Hashihara Yoshihiro , Shibukawa Kanji
Published: August 2016

The major purpose of this study was to investigate the preparatory motion during the last stride executed by Fosbury-flop jumpers, using 3-dimensional cinematography. Most of the trials for five male high jumpers were filmed at an official track meet by two high-speed cameras. The results suggested that to lower the center of gravity during the preparatory phase, Fosbury-flop jumpers using a curved approach ran resorted to (a) leaning the body toward the center of the curve, and (b) flexing the body. Two types of preparatory motion were classified, and their characteristics were identified concerning the loss of approach velocity and a large and effective takeoff motion.
Effects of Wind and Altitude on the Times of 100-Meter Sprint Races
Authors: Dapena Jesús , Feltner Michael E.
Published: August 2016

A method for adjusting the effects of wind and altitude on the times of 100-meter sprint races was developed in three stages: (a) generation of an initial model, (b) evaluation of the initial model using a test based on statistical information from world-class sprinting races, and (c) modification of the model to make its predictions fit with the statistical data. The test used to check the accuracy of the model's predictions involved a compilation of the 100 best races ever run (after adjustment of the times for wind and altitude effects), and a comparison of the average wind reading of these races with the average wind reading of all races. The modified form of the model predicted a 0.07-second advantage for a 2-m/s tail wind, a 0.085-s disadvantage for a 2-m/s head wind, and a 0.05-s advantage for the altitude of Mexico City (2,250 m). These values were clearly smaller than those predicted by previous models. If the modified model is correct, this implies that times made with aiding wind and/or at high altitude have greater merit than was previously thought.
Optimum Release Conditions for the New Rules Javelin
Authors: Hubbard Mont , Alaways LeRoy W.
Published: August 2016

Changes in the rules for construction of the men's javelin have dramatically altered the pitching moment profile as a function of angle of attack. Thus the optimal release conditions are different for the new javelin. Optimal release conditions are presented for nominal release velocities in the range 20 < vn < 35 m/s. Although the optimal release angle remains roughly constant near 30° over this speed range, the optimal angle of attack and pitching angular velocity change substantially with speed. The main effects of the rule change have been (a) to decrease the achievable range at a nominal velocity vn = 30 m/s by about 10% by making it impossible to take advantage of the javelin's potentially large aerodynamic lift forces, and (b) to make the flight much less sensitive to initial conditions.
The Forces of Skiing and Their Implication to Injury
Authors: Mote C.D.
Published: August 2016

The forces and moments applied to the leg by the ski during skiing are compared to the forces necessary to cause injury to the tibia and ligaments at the knee and to standard recommendations for ski release binding adjustment. These forces and moments of recreational skiing are shown to be similar to, or greater than, those capable of causing injury to the knee and tibia. The adjustment of release bindings by current standards unavoidably permits forces of sufficient magnitude to cause injury to the skier. Release bindings cannot be adjusted to guarantee that the forces transmitted to the boot are below an injury threshold for a large fraction of the population. The role of muscle contraction in skiing safety requires complete recognition in the knowledge base on skiing safety.
The Uniform Density Assumption: Its Effect upon the Estimation of Body Segment Inertial Parameters
Authors: Ackland Timothy R. , Henson Peter W. , Bailey Donald A.
Published: August 2016

The effect of the uniform density assumption upon estimation of body segment inertial parameters was examined by employing directly measured, CT-derived, and cadaver-derived density values. Sectional and average density values for the right leg segments of a patient 29 years of age and a cadaver (65 years) were obtained with a GE 9800 computed tomography scanner using dual energy radiographic factors of 80 kV, 200 mAs, and 140 kV, 200 mAs. Careful sectioning of the cadaver leg following these scans permitted mass and density measurements to be directly performed. The results for both legs showed marked variation in cross-section density values throughout their lengths, which highlighted the limitations of the assumption of uniform segment density. The effect of employing this assumption was tested using a series of inertial parameter estimation strategies by means of mathematical modeling. Adoption of the uniform density assumption when estimating inertial parameters of the human leg segment was shown to produce only minor errors. However, greater errors were shown to be caused by inaccurate estimates of segment volume.
Techniques Used in Performing Handspring and Salto Forward Tucked in Gymnastic Vaulting
Authors: Takei Yoshiaki
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine the mechanical factors that govern success in the performance of the handspring and salto forward tucked vault. The subjects were the 41 all-around gymnasts participating in the 1986 USA Gymnastics Championships. A motion-picture camera placed with its optical axis at right angles to the runway was used to record the performances of the subjects. Significant correlations indicated that the horizontal velocity at takeoff from the board was an important determinant for successful results, and also that the more the gymnast’s focus was on horse contact or blocking and the more vertical the direction of his effort at takeoff into the postflight, the better the final result. Quite unexpectedly, significant correlations revealed that the greater the relative height of takeoff from the horse and the less the height of CG at landing on the mat, the greater the points awarded by the judges. These relationships were almost entirely a consequence of the landing angle. Rationale for these findings were based on close observations of the filmed performances and the correlational analyses.
Theoretical Drag Analysis of a Skier in the Downhill Speed Lace
Authors: Savolainen Sauli
Published: August 2016

The aerodynamics of the skier’s equipment and the effect of postural changes on the aerodynamic forces acting on the skier during downhill speed racing have been studied theoretically. The aerodynamic characteristics of skier and equipment have been determined by a source panel method based on the velocity potential theory. The calculations indicate that the skier’s torso should be slightly lifted from the tangential direction of downhill during skiing, thus causing a lift force and reducing the friction between the skis and snow. The drag of the torso—tilted by a few degrees—will remain almost the same as the drag of the torso in strict tangential direction. The force acting on the skier’s legs can be directed according to individual needs. The shape of the leg spoilers will give the wanted drag/lift ratio. The optimum shape of the helmet depends on the skiing style. The results introduced here are obtained from theoretical calculations, and their validity should first be tested in a wind tunnel and finally during the normal skiing performance. The calculated drag forces, which are based on the velocity potential theory, do not include the base drag of the skier’s body.
The Takeoff Forces in Ski Jumping
Authors: Virmavirta Mikko , Komi Paavo V.
Published: August 2016

This study measured the takeoff forces exerted by jumpers during the 70-m ski jumping competition of the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary. Instrumentation consisted of four force plates installed under the snow of the takeoff platform. The results indicated that the greatest force was already exerted 149±9 ms before the release. The second force peak appeared closer to the edge of the takeoff platform. The correlations between the variables measured in this study were generally weak but some were considered important. The official approach velocity of the first round and relative maximum force as well as the mean relative force during the whole takeoff sequence of the second round correlated to length of jump. The mean relative forces at the end of takeoff and for the whole takeoff sequence were significantly higher among the best jumpers. It is concluded that although the force analyses among the jumpers do not reveal conclusive interrelationships, the fast development of the takeoff forces may be an important prerequisite for successful ski jump performance.
The Choice between Bernoulli’s or Newton’s Model in Predicting Dynamic Lift
Authors: Sprigings Eric J. , Koehler James A.
Published: August 2016

This paper questions the appropriateness of using a model based on Bernoulli’s theorem to explain dynamic lift in sport. The authors discuss the relative merits of an alternative model based on Newton’s second and third principles.
A Regression Analysis of High Jumping Technique
Authors: Dapena Jesús , McDonald Craig , Cappaert Jane
Published: August 2016

It is difficult to ascertain for an individual high jumper the optimum values of the horizontal velocity and height of the center of mass at the end of the approach ran (VHO and H0, respectively) and of the activeness of the arms during the takeoff phase (AACT), because they depend on each athlete’s ability to resist buckling of the takeoff leg. However, the strongest jumpers will generally be those with the largest vertical elocity values at the end of the takeoff phase (VZ1). Therefore, VZ1 may serve as a rough indicator of a high jumper’s ability to resist buckling. This project derived equations that permit the use of the measured VZ1 value of a high jumper to predict what values should be expected for VHO, H0, and AACT. Comparison of the predicted and actual values of these parameters should help to diagnose the technique deficiencies of individual jumpers.
A Compact Portable Data Acquisition Module for Sports Biomechanics Research
Authors: Newmiller Jeff , Hull Maury L.
Published: August 2016

This article describes a new portable digital data acquisition module, which has been developed for the measurement and temporary storage of signals from mobile biomechanical phenomena in the field. The module’s performance capabilities include 32 available analog input channels, a 12-bit analog-to-digital converter, maximum throughput of 57,040 samples per second, and a temporary storage capacity of up to 253,000 samples. The portable power source is a rechargeable battery pack, and the appropriate sensors and sensor signal conditioning circuits are supplied by the user to meet the particular needs of the phenomena under study. The size of the signal conditioning, battery pack, and data acquisition module is such that it can be carried in a belt pack worn by a subject under study and weighs less than 3 kgf. To facilitate the use of the module, operating software complements the hardware. The software is comprehensive functionally in that routines are provided for acquiring data, for transferring acquired data serially to a general purpose microcomputer for storage on magnetic media, and for monitoring equipment setup. Further, the software is versatile in that the various parameters necessary to customize the operation to a particular application may be readily set. Finally, the menu-driven structure ensures that the software is easy to use.
A Comparison of Techniques Used in Performing the Men’s Compulsory Gymnastic Vault at the 1988 Olympics
Authors: Takei Yoshiaki
Published: August 2016

It was hypothesized that the techniques employed by two groups of male gymnasts in performing the handspring and salto forward tucked vault at the 1988 Olympics were not significantly different. The 11 highest scored vaults (Gl) of the 51 subjects filmed during the competition were compared with the 11 lowest scored vaults (G2). The G1 had (a) significantly greater horizontal velocity of hurdle and preflight and (b) significantly greater vertical reaction forces exerted on them by the horse, which in turn produced a significantly greater change of vertical velocity while on horse. Consequently, the better gymnasts departed from the horse with significantly greater vertical velocity, which resulted in significantly greater height, larger distance, and longer time of postflight than the gymnasts in G2. The better gymnasts had the instant of the tightest tuck position while significantly nearer the instant of peak postflight than the G2 gymnasts, which caused the height of CG at the tightest tuck position to be significantly greater for the better gymnasts. During the subsequent phase of the vault, the better gymnasts moved out of the tuck position higher in midair, extended the body more fully, and held this extended position longer to a controlled landing on the mat, all of which the judges are seeking.
Muscle Soreness during Running: Biomechanical and Physiological Considerations
Authors: Hamill Joseph , Freedson Patty S. , Clarkson Priscilla M. , Braun Barry
Published: August 2016

This study involved an 8-day protocol to determine the effects of delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) on the mechanics of the lower extremity and on oxygen consumption during level running. On Day 1 the subjects, 10 healthy female recreational runners, were administered a treadmill max V̇O2 test. They completed a 30-min downhill run on Day 3 to induce muscle soreness. On Days 2, 5, and 8 they completed a 15-min level run at a speed corresponding to 80% of V̇O2max. Subsequent to each run the subjects completed a muscle soreness questionnaire and a blood sample was taken for creatine kinase (CK) analysis. Data analysis revealed statistically significant between-day differences for perceived muscle soreness and CK activity. However, metabolic cost was not different between days. There were significant differences between days in maximum ankle support dorsiflexion and plantar flexion and maximum knee flexion during both support and swing. None of the global parameters describing the total stride produced significant differences between Days 2 and 5. Therefore DOMS appeared to have little effect on V̇O2 and a small effect on the kinematics of the lower extremity.
Electromyographic Analysis of Muscle Activation during Ski Jumping Performance
Authors: Virmavirta Mikko , Komi Paavo V.
Published: August 2016

Electromyographic (EMG) activities of gluteus maximus (GL), vastus later-alis (VL), vastus medialis (VM), tibialis anterior (TA), and gastrocnemius (GA) were measured telemetrically from four world-class athletes during the entire ski jumping performance. Integrated electromyographic activities (IEMG) were calculated from the different phases of jump. TA and GA showed alternate activation during the curve, suggesting that maintenance of the inrun position is a process requiring continuous active control. VL and VM were observed to contribute mostly to the entire takeoff phase whereas GL became strongly active within the last 4 meters of the takeoff. GA was slightly but continuously active during the inrun and showed only a small increase during takeoff. The quick lifting of the skis, as evidenced by the activation of TA, does not seem to allow effective use of GA at the end of the takeoff. Strong continuous activity of the knee extensors and TA dominated the midflight phase whereas the activation of GL and GA increased toward the end of the flight.
An Alpine Ski Binding with Electrically Modulated Twist Release
Authors: Eseltine Kevin , Hull Maury L.
Published: August 2016

This article describes the design of a new binding for Alpine skiing wherein the release level of the toepiece in twist is modulated based on the level of neural stimulation of one of the vastii muscles in the quadriceps group. A conventional binding toepiece that relies on the force of a compressed spring to resist the release of the boot was modified. To modulate the release level to either a high or a low state, a special solenoid activated mechanism that alters the binding spring constant was designed. The design details of this special mechanism are described and the computations necessary to ensure reliable activation with a low force solenoid are summarized. Also described is the special circuitry that was designed to actuate the solenoid. To demonstrate the workability of both the mechanism and the circuitry, a prototype binding system was constructed and tested. The results of this testing are described as well.
External Loading at the Knee Joint for Landing Movements in Alpine Skiing
Authors: Read Lynda , Herzog Walter
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine resultant knee joint forces and moments during a specific movement in Alpine ski racers. The movement analyzed consisted of a landing from a bump and the initiation of recovery (if necessary). Resultant loads were obtained using an inverse dynamics approach. Results of two specific skiers are contrasted, one skier landing in good form, the second skier landing in poor form. The skier landing in poor form exhibited larger knee flexion, and larger knee joint resultant forces and moments than the skier landing in good form. The movement of the skier landing in poor form has been associated with isolated anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury. However, the data obtained in this study do not indicate that either skier was in danger of ACL injury.
Spectral Analysis of Impact Shock during Running
Authors: Shorten Martyn R. , Winslow Darcy S.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of increasing impact shock levels on the spectral characteristics of impact shock and impact shock wave attenuation in the body during treadmill running. Twelve male subjects ran at 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0 m s−1 on a treadmill. Axial accelerations of the shank and head were measured using low-mass accelerometers. The typical shank acceleration power spectrum contained two major components which corresponded to the active (5–8 Hz) and impact (12–20 Hz) phases of the time-domain ground reaction force. Both the amplitude and frequency of leg shock transients increased with increasing running speed. Greatest attenuation of the shock transmitted to the head occurred in the 15–50 Hz range. Attenuation increased with increasing running speed. Thus transmission of the impact shock wave to the head was limited, despite large increases in impact shock at the lower extremity.
Calling Out the Heavy Hitters: What the Use of Performance-Enhancing Drugs in Professional Baseball Reveals About the Politics and Mass Communication of Sport
Authors: Denham Bryan E.
Published: August 2016

In this essay, the author proposes that, in order to understand how the issue of performance-enhancing-drug use in professional baseball has been defined for mass audiences, scholars need to consider the political and economic interests of both baseball and the media companies that have covered the issue. Where performance-enhancing drugs are concerned, media characterizations have had a significant impact on the formation of public and organizational policy, and the author seeks to demonstrate that portrayals and perceptions of drug use in baseball can be understood through the media product that results from an intersection of normative standards with powerful influences on those standards. Calling out the heavy hitters in a culture of pervasive drug use is unfair to elite performers in that media reports sometimes give the impression that athletes have reached superstar status because they were willing to do what others were not; this is a basic falsehood.
Professional Athletes’ Shrinking Privacy Boundaries: Fans, Information and Communication Technologies, and Athlete Monitoring
Authors: Sanderson Jimmy
Published: August 2016

This case study considers how audience labor performed via information and communication technologies (ICTs) helps sports organizations monitor professional athletes. Three incidents are examined—(a) National Basketball Association (NBA) player Greg Oden participating in a pickup (casual) basketball game while he was rehabilitating an injured knee, (b) photographs posted on the Internet that captured National Football League player Matt Leinart posing with several young women in a hot tub and holding a beer bong, and (c) a video posted on YouTube that depicted NBA player Josh Howard disparaging the U.S. national anthem. The case study explores how ICTs enable sports organizations to capitalize on free labor provided by audience members to intensify surveillance of professional athletes and how fans’ ability to comment on news coverage of these stories reinforces organizational control, further reifying professional athletes as commodities.
The Changing Organizational Structure of Football Clubs and Their Relationship With the External Media
Authors: Cleland Jamie A.
Published: August 2016

The development of “new” media and the financial investment in football since the early 1990s have dramatically changed the football club–media relationship. A number of clubs changed ownership and organizational structure for financial gain or financial survival while the increasing demand for immediate information led to clubs’ recognizing the importance of external communication. Drawing on 47 semistructured interviews with media personnel and 827 questionnaires completed by supporters at 4 football clubs, this article assesses the organizational structure of clubs in dealing with the media and supporters and the level of dependence between clubs and the external media. The results highlight changes in the organizational structure of clubs and their strategies for external communication, as well as the contrasting relationships between football clubs and the external media. As ownership and personnel changes occur, clubs should remember the importance of the 2-way relationships they are in with supporters and the media.
The Impact of Fantasy Football Involvement on Intentions to Watch National Football League Games on Television
Authors: Dwyer Brendan
Published: August 2016

The business of fantasy football is a multibillion dollar-per-year industry. However, academic inquiry into the distinct attitudes and intentions of fantasy football participants is underdeveloped. Therefore, following Fazio, Powell, and Herr’s proposed attitude–behavior framework, this study examined the relationship between sport fans’ attitudes, fantasy football involvement level, and intentions to watch the televised broadcast of National Football League (NFL) games. The results suggest that fantasy football is a noteworthy connection point for NFL fans. Specifically, fantasy participation appears to duplicate the positive and negative attitudes of traditional team fandom, and this replication ultimately increases television viewership throughout the league. Thus, instead of competing with traditional team-focused professional-football viewership, fantasy football appears to be a complementary or value-adding activity. Discussed are theoretical outcomes, as well as the practical implications for sport marketers and media providers looking to capitalize on this highly popular and lucrative online activity.
ESPN Films and the Construction of Prestige in Contemporary Sports Television
Authors: Vogan Travis
Published: August 2016

Despite its popularity, pervasiveness, and value, ESPN’s programming is not typically recognized as sophisticated or artful. To give its brand identity greater prestige within the increasingly competitive world of cable sports television, in 2008 ESPN created ESPN Films, a subsidiary film production unit that specializes in documentaries. ESPN Films’ most ambitious project thus far is 30 for 30 (2009–2010), a series of 30 documentaries made by 30 commissioned filmmakers to celebrate ESPN’s 30th anniversary. ESPN markets 30 for 30 through emphasizing three primary qualities that distinguish the series, and, by extension, ESPN, from other sports television: the use of the documentary form, the productions’ status as films, and the commissioned filmmakers’ position as renowned artists. This essay uses ESPN Films and 30 for 30 to examine ESPN’s efforts to add refinement to its institutional identity and to illustrate the economic and industrial functions this shift in cultural status serves.
The Medium of the Future: Top Sports Writers Discuss Transitioning From Newspapers to Online Journalism
Authors: Kian Edward M. , Zimmerman Matthew H.
Published: August 2016

In this phenomenology, interviews were conducted with former newspaper reporters now working for prominent Internet sports sites. Krumboltz’s (2008) Planned Happenstance Learning Theory on career development was used as a guiding framework. Data were transcribed and coded by two researchers. Most of the journalists decided to be newspaper sports writers early in life and began garnering professional experiences in their teens or in college. None planned to work for Internet outlets. However, all foresaw the demise of newspapers and landed with Internet outlets through media connections initially formed through newspapers. All but one expressed high satisfaction in their current jobs, citing large travel budgets, freedom to choose writing assignments, national platforms, and no hard time deadlines for submitting stories. These reporters find the future of sports journalism unpredictable, but believe they will be ready. Lehman-Wilizig and Cohen-Avigdor’s media life-cycle model (2004) was used to understand results in a broader context.
Sports Journalists and England’s Barclays Premier League: A Case Study Examining Reporters’ Takes on Modern Football
Authors: Coombs Danielle S. , Osborne Anne
Published: August 2016

England’s Barclays Premier League is one of the most successful and widereaching sporting organizations in the world, attracting the best football players and managers from around the world as well as a global audience. Since its formation in 1992, the Premier League has focused on commercial success for both the League and its constituent clubs. This emphasis has brought tremendous change to English football as a whole. This case study analysis seeks to understand the perceptions and experiences of sports reporters tasked with covering these Premier League sides. These football journalists describe limited access brought on by the clubs’ decisions to emphasize global brands and manage their own branded content through club-run websites and material. Respondents also perceive this limited access is exacerbated by increased multiculturalism and a growing culture of suspicion that widens the gulfs between teams and the reporters who cover them.
The Word-of-Mouth Phenomenon: Its Presence and Impact in a Sport Setting
Authors: Shreffler Megan B. , Ross Stephen D.
Published: August 2016

Word-of-mouth (WOM) marketing has the potential to effectively contribute to revenue generation as sport organizations continue to create and implement marketing strategies to build and maintain relationships with consumers. While there has been a plethora of research on WOM marketing in the general business literature, the magnitude of the phenomenon must be examined separately in a sport setting because of the uniqueness of sport fans as consumers. This study examined the effect of the transference of personal experiences through WOM activity on brand associations, team identification, and the behavioral intentions of college basketball fans. Through a 4-stage data-collection approach in which both positive and negative messages were used, it was found that WOM activity has a significant impact on some of the measured constructs. The results of the study suggest that negative WOM has a greater impact on consumers than positive WOM, providing significant theoretical and managerial implications.
Effect of Complimentary and Conflicting Commentary on Sports Enjoyment
Authors: Zhou Shuhua , Xu Jie , Ye Yinjiao
Published: August 2016

This article first explicates the concept of sports enjoyment and then reviews the literature on the many facets of sports commentary regarding its general content and effects. An experimental study was designed to test whether complimentary or conflicting commentary, as well as game knowledge, and playing experience contributed to game enjoyment, perceived liking of the commentary, and perceived action in the game. Results partially supported the hypotheses. Specifically, commentary type had a significant impact on viewers’ liking of the commentary but had no impact on game enjoyment or perceived action in the game, game knowledge increased game enjoyment but had no impact on the other two dependent variables, and playing experience had a positive impact on perceived action in the game but had no impact on the other two variables. Implications are discussed.
The Organizational Roles of College Athletics Communicators: Relationship to the Use and Perceptions of Social Media
Authors: Stoldt G. Clayton , Vermillion Mark
Published: August 2016

Employing an organizational public relations (PR) roles typology, this study addressed differences in the professional use and perceptions of social media based on the primary PR roles of college athletics communicators. Data were gathered via an online survey of members of the College Sports Information Directors of America (N = 518). Results indicated that those in management roles spent significantly more time working with blogs and social media than technicians did. Managers and technicians also differed significantly in several ways regarding their perceptions of the impact of social media and their relationship with traditional mainstream media. The findings contribute to an understanding of how PR roles have evolved in the era of social media, as well as role-related dynamics specific to social media in college sport PR.
The Tiger Woods Scandal in the Media: Measuring Attribute Effects on the Public
Authors: Kozman Claudia
Published: August 2016

This case study examines the Tiger Woods sex scandal using second-level agenda setting and attribute priming as its theoretical structures. It approaches the case through the compelling-arguments hypothesis to explain the transfer of salience from the media agenda to the public agenda. A content analysis of print and broadcast media is employed to determine the dominance of scandal stories in general, and the “sex/adultery” attribute in particular, on the media agenda. This study also uses attribute priming to measure the presence of opinion and its direction in the public, after exposure to the scandal stories. The data that form the public agenda come from a nationally representative survey of the American public, as well as online search queries on Google.
Sexualized Representation of Female Athletes in the Media: How Does It Affect Female College Athletes’ Body Perceptions?
Authors: Riebock Andrea , Bae John
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of the sexualized representation of female athletes in the media on the body perceptions of collegiate female athletes. The intention of the research was to examine whether such effects varied depending on college year rank and ethnicity as interrelated factors. Data were collected using questionnaires that consisted of questions addressing aspects (i.e., body shame, consequences of body shame, and goal of appearance) of selfobjectification. Overall, the results indicated that grade level and ethnicity do not play a significant role on the effects of the media on body perceptions. In conclusion, this study can be helpful to develop prevention and intervention programs for age groups and ethnicities most greatly affected by media’s objectification of female athletes.
Social Media’s Influence on American Sport Journalists’ Perception of Gatekeeping
Authors: Reed Sada , Hansen Kathleen A.
Published: August 2016

Using gatekeeping theory as a conceptual framework, this study examines social media’s influence on American sports journalists’ perception of gatekeeping, particularly sports journalists who cover elite sports. Seventy-seven print sports journalists covering professional sports were asked if their definition of gatekeeper has changed since they began using social media for news-gathering purposes. Thirty-six participants did not think their definition of gatekeeper had changed. The 26 respondents who did think it had changed were asked to explain how. Responses were coded into 1 of the 5 categories in Shoemaker and Reese’s Hierarchy of Influences model—individual, media routines, organization, extramedia, and ideological. Results suggest that for practitioners who do believe there has been a change, they see social media as changing their day-in, day-out job routines, as opposed to extramedia influences.
The Status of Women in Sport-Talk Radio: A Survey of Directors
Authors: Hardin Marie , Antunovic Dunja , Bien-Aimé Steve , Li Ruobing
Published: August 2016

Sport-talk radio has been recognized, along with other forms of sports media, as a masculine space where women’s value as athletes and fans is diminished. Little is known, however, about the gendered dynamics of sport-talk-radio production. This study used a survey of programming directors from across the United States to explore issues around the employment of women and coverage of women’s sport by local stations. Results suggest that many stations do not employ any women, although more than half do. Still, leadership positions belong primarily to men. Programming directors see little value in women’s sport for their listeners and make decisions that reinforce their vision of an audience that also sees little value in women’s sport. Using a feminist lens, the authors speculate on the impact that women in positions of power could have on programming if their representation moved beyond token status, while acknowledging the realities of the sport-media workplace.
Vitamin and Mineral Supplementation to Athletes
Authors: Haymes Emily M.
Published: August 2016

Vitamin and mineral supplements are frequently used by competitive and recreational athletes. Dietary deficiencies of most vitamins are not very common among athletes except in those who restrict their food intake in order to maintain body weight. Vitamins most likely to be deficient in the diet are folate, , , and E. Biochemical evidence of vitamin deficiencies in some athletes have been reported for thiamine, riboflavin, and . When the diet is deficient, vitamin supplements may improve performance but are not likely to be effective if the dietary intake is adequate. Some female athletes' diets are low in calcium, iron, and zinc. Low calcium intake may reduce peak bone mass in young women. Iron deficiency may impair performance and needs to be corrected with an iron supplement. Zinc supplements that exceed the RDA interfere with the absorption of copper and lower HDL-cholesterol.
Comparison of Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI-2) Scores of Male Bodybuilders to the Male College Student Subgroup
Authors: Anderson Sara Long , Zager Kate , Hetzler Ronald K. , Nahikian-Nelms Marcia , Syler Georganne
Published: August 2016

The intensity and effort of bodybuilding training suggest an overinvestment in body shape and physical appearance, which has been suggested to be a risk factor for developing eating disorders. The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of eating disorder tendencies among a sample of collegiate male bodybuilders (BB, n = 68) and controls (C, n = 50) (nonbodybuilders), using the Eating Disorders Inventory 2 (EDI-2). T tests were used to test the hypothesis that bodybuilders' scores would be higher than those of controls. The mean scores on the EDI-2 did not indicate the presence of eating disorder tendencies for either group. Controls scored significantly higher than bodybuilders on the Body Dissatisfaction scale. Results indicate that when the EDI-2 is used, college-age male bodybuilders are not shown to be more likely to have eating disorders than a group of college-age male controls.
Regulation of Skeletal Muscle Amino Acid Metabolism during Exercise
Authors: Gibala Martin J.
Published: August 2016

The contribution of amino acid oxidation to total energy expenditure is negligible during short-term intense exercise and accounts for 3–6% of the total adenosine triphosphate supplied during prolonged exercise in humans. While not quantitatively important in terms of energy supply, the intermediary metabolism of several amino acids—notably glutamate, alanine, and the branched-chain amino acids—afreets other metabolites .including the intermediates within the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Glutamate appears to be a key substrate for the rapid increase in muscle TCA cycle intermediates (TCAI) that occurs at the onset of moderate to intense exercise, due to a rightward shift of the reaction catalyzed by alanine aminotransferase (glutamate + pyruvate <-> alanine + 2-oxoglutarate). The pool of muscle TCAI declines during prolonged exercise, and this has been attributed to an increase in leucine oxidation that relies on one of the TCAI. However, this mechanism does not appear to be quantitatively important due of the relatively low maximal activity of branched-chain oxoacid dehydrogenase, the key enzyme involved. It has been suggested that an increase in TCAI is necessary to attain high rates of aerobic energy production and that a decline in TCAI may be a causative factor in local muscle fatigue. These topics remain controversial, but recent evidence suggests that changes in TCAI during exercise are unrelated to oxidative energy provision in skeletal muscle.
Copper Status of Collegiate Female Athletes Involved in Different Sports
Authors: Gropper Sareen S. , Sorrels L. Michelle , Blessing Daniel
Published: August 2016

Copper status was assessed in 70 female collegiate athletes aged 18 to 25 years participating in cross country track, tennis, softball, swimming, soccer, basketball, and gymnastics during the 2000–2001 season. A group of 8 college-aged females, 20 to 23 years of age, who were not collegiate athletes, served as controls. Mean copper intakes including supplements did not differ significantly among the controls and athletic teams. Mean copper intakes including supplements as micrograms/day and percent recommended dietary allowance (RDA) were as follows: controls 1071 ± 772 μg (119 ± 86%), cross country track 1468 ± 851 μg (163 ± 95%), tennis 1099 ± 856 μg (122 ± 95%), softball 654 ± 420 μg (73 ± 47%), swimming 1351 ± 1060 μg (150 ± 118%), soccer 695 ± 368 μg (77 ± 41%), and gymnastics 940 ± 863 μg (104 ± 96%). Forty-one percent of athletes and 29% of controls failed to consume two thirds of the RDA for copper. Mean serum copper and ceruloplasmin concentrations were within the normal range and did not differ significantly among the controls (117 ± 22 μg/dl, 445 ± 122 μg/L) and cross country track (98 ± 17 μg/dl, 312 ± 59 μg/L), tennis (140 ± 84 μg/dl, 424 ± 244 μg/L), softball (95 ± 30 μg/dl, 310 ± 77 μg/L), swimming (98 ± 25 μg/dl, 312 ± 40 μg/L), soccer (93 ± 15 μg/dl, 324 ± 54 μg/ L), basketball (85 ± 10 μg/dl, 280 ± 62 μg/L), and gymnastics (96 ± 21 μg/dl, 315 ± 68 μg/L) teams. Copper status of female collegiate athletes appears to be adequate in this cross-sectional assessment.