bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
ICT INNOVATION IN CENTRAL GOVERNMENT: LEARNING FROM THE PAST
Authors: WYATT SALLY
Published: April 2003

This article examines two attempts to develop information networks by central government administrations in the UK and the US during the 1980s. These are examples of service innovations within public services, and can be viewed in the light of analyses of services innovation. They also mark a shift in public procurement, from acquiring a technology to purchasing services. The British attempted to develop a data communication network; the Americans attempted to develop an integrated voice, data and image communication network. Both networks were to be shared by different government departments and both were to be provided by a third-party supplier. The rhetoric and policy concerns behind these networks are similar to those expressed more recently in Britain by the new Labour Government. It is argued that these earlier attempts were unsuccessful because insufficient attention was paid to users, and because the systems were attempting to do too much. Not only were they expected to reduce costs and improve services, they were also intended to implement important elements of telecommunications and competition policies. Paradoxically, over-simplification of the systems, to make them comprehensible to a wide range of actors, may have contributed to their failure.
THE INCIDENCE AND EFFECTS OF INNOVATION IN SERVICES: EVIDENCE FROM GERMANY
Authors: HIPP CHRISTIANE , TETHER BRUCE S. , MILES IAN
Published: April 2003

Innovation processes in services remain under-researched, but recently large-scale surveys have been conducted which allow for a more systematic appraisal of the level and scope of innovation in services. To date, much of the literature on innovation in services focuses on the adoption and use of information and communication technologies (ICTs). Innovation in services, and services innovation, should, however, be understood in broader terms, and this understanding should extend to non-technological innovation. This paper presents evidence from a recent large-scale survey of innovation amongst German commercial service firms. It shows that services are much more active with respect to innovation than is widely thought. They are innovative in terms of being producers of service and process innovations. From our broader perspective, we examine the pattern of innovation as it relates to the standardisation-particularisation of service products, across a range of service sectors and across firms of various sizes. The production of bespoke or customised services shaped by client inputs has long been considered a defining characteristic of many services, and one that has affected their innovation potential. The present analysis reveals a pattern of diversity in behaviour, which reflects the diversity amongst service firms, and demonstrates the need for more subtle and differentiated analyses of services and services innovation.
KNOWLEDGE-INTENSIVE BUSINESS SERVICES AS CO-PRODUCERS OF INNOVATION
Authors: HERTOG PIM DEN
Published: April 2003

In the unfolding knowledge-based economy, services do matter. But while they are increasingly seen to play a pivotal role in innovation processes, there has been little systematic analysis of this role. This essay presents a four-dimensional model of (services) innovation, that points to the significance of such non-technological factors in innovation as new service concepts, client interfaces and service delivery system. The various roles of service firms in innovation processes are mapped out by identifying five basic service innovation patterns. This framework is used to make an analysis of the role played by knowledge-intensive business services (KIBS) in innovation. KIBS are seen to function as facilitator, carrier or source of innovation, and through their almost symbiotic relationship with client firms, some KIBS function as co-producers of innovation. It is further argued that, in addition to discrete and tangible forms of knowledge exchange, process-oriented and intangible forms of knowledge flows are crucial in such relationships. KIBS are hypothesised to be gradually developing into a "second knowledge infrastructure" in addition to the formal (public) "first knowledge infrastructure", though there is likelihood of cross-national variations in the spill-over effects from services innovation in and through KIBS, and in the degree to which KIBS are integrated with other economic activities. Finally, some implications for innovation management and innovation policy are discussed.
INNOVATING BEHAVIOUR IN LOCAL PRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS BASED ON SMEs
Authors: ADAME-SANCHEZ CONSOLACIÓN , ESCRIG-TENA ANA B. , MARCH-CHORDÀ ISIDRE
Published: April 2003

Our main purpose is to analyse the evolution experienced by a local productive system based on SMEs specialising in a traditional food segment: the nougat sector. This local system has undergone a serious crisis in the last decade due to a variety of factors. The Xixona SMEs have failed to behave as a real local productive system, fully integrated and benefiting from scale and agglomeration economies. In our empirically-based study on 21 Xixona SMEs, we look into the reasons that explain their failure to understand the nature of change, and we provide a Strategic Innovation Programme, which in our view, would help to convert the present Xixona productive system into an authentic local productive system.
ROUND THE CLOCK: COLLABORATIVE WORK IN THE INTERNATIONAL MOULDING INDUSTRY
Authors: CUNHA JOÃO VIEIRA DA , CUNHA MIGUEL PINA E
Published: April 2003

This case presents the development of an administrative innovation aimed at introducing an organisational arrangement that allows new product development and innovation to occur around the clock. This innovation had an underlying plan that was swept away by a wave of unforeseeable events, forcing its participants to improvise to attain their goals. We show how this process evolves around four stages of increasing structure, and to argue that innovation and creativity can, in fact, happen because of rules and norms and not in spite of them.
DEVELOPING APPROPRIATE MEASURES OF NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT: A CONTINGENCY-BASED APPROACH
Authors: STORY VICTORIA , SMITH GARETH , SAKER JIM
Published: April 2003

While previous research studies describe a broad set of factors that discriminate between new product success and failure, much of the past and current research remains exploratory in nature (Cooper & Kleinschmidt, 1987; Montoya-Weiss & Calantone, 1994). The suggestion is that researchers, in looking to generalise, have actually been describing findings that are "averaging" over a number of areas, such as Dimensions of Success and Industry boundaries (Cooper & Kleinschmidt, 1993; Craig & Hart, 1992; Griffin & Page, 1993). This may well provide some explanation as to why, despite the very consistent findings of many past studies, failure rates are still high (Kleinschmidt & Cooper, 1995). This paper aims to provide more detailed insights into the development process activities within a single sector, the UK automotive components industry. This sector is particularly important as it is the main source of NPD activity for one of the world's largest industrial sectors, namely the automotive assembly market (Ford, GM, etc.). The paper addresses the "averaging" issue by using qualitative research to compare and contrast NPD processes in this sector with those suggested by extant (generalised) NPD literature to confirm that the measures used are valid for this particular industry context. The research identifies similarities but also significant differences. This suggests that the general measures used to assess NPD projects are not sufficiently detailed to analyse this chosen sector, which casts doubt over the applicability of these general NPD measures in other single industry settings. The findings confirm the need for this "intermediate" stage in the research process prior to undertaking quantitative research to evaluate the impact of the issues identified on performance, as described in the future research section.
DEVELOPING AND DEPLOYING KNOWLEDGE FOR INNOVATION: BRITISH AND JAPANESE CORPORATIONS COMPARED
Authors: COLLINSON SIMON
Published: April 2003

Within a broader comparison of the management of innovation in British and Japanese firms, this paper focuses on an alliance between British Steel Strip Products and Nippon Steel Corporation established to help the UK firm improve its plant-level procedures for product and process development. The alliance proved successful and clear improvements in defect rates, productivity and product quality were achieved by the UK firm. Some practices, however, proved to be difficult or impossible to "learn" or develop in the organisation context of the British firm. A variety of theoretical approaches, including dynamic capabilities, innovation studies and the "social shaping of technology" are combined in a knowledge-based approach to analyse how differences in the organisation context influence knowledge-management capabilities and innovation. The findings highlight important differences between the two firms, including aspects of managerial power and employee motivation, that influence how specialist knowledge is developed, deployed, integrated and "leveraged" for manufacturing innovation. Contextual factors underpin sustained differences between such firms and therefore represent sources of competitive advantage, but may also contribute to inertia and path-dependency.
KNOWLEDGE AND ORGANISATION STRATEGIES IN INNOVATION SYSTEMS
Authors: WERKER CLAUDIA
Published: April 2003

The purpose of the following analysis is to identify the most promising organisational strategies of innovative agents under different environmental constraints. To do so, the processes of the relationships between these agents are taken into account by putting three aspects together. First, it is shown that the transfer, storage, and use of knowledge are significantly influenced by this knowledge's characteristics. Second, the main principles of the generation and selection of innovation are introduced from the systemic point of view. As a third element, the variety of possible relationships between innovative agents are categorised to identify the different organisational principles that can be employed. By putting all these elements together, it is possible to show which strategies are the most promising under different constraints given by the innovation possibilities, the relevant institutions, the knowledge employed, and the kind of innovation expected.
BOUNDARIES, HIERARCHIES AND NETWORKS IN COMPLEX SYSTEMS
Authors: CILLIERS PAUL
Published: April 2003

Models used in the understanding of complex entities, like organisations, are problematic in several respects. After an introductory discussion of this problem, this paper addresses the problems associated with the boundaries of complex systems, arguing that although boundaries do exist, they have a peculiar nature. Similarly, it is argued that although hierarchies form an important part of the structure of complex systems, they are not clearly defined or "nested" as is often assumed. Hierarchies should also in principle be transformable in a viable system. Finally, the usefulness of network models is investigated. The conclusion is that although network models have a structure similar to that of complex systems, they are subject to the same limitations all models of complexity are faced with. A few implications for our understanding of organisations are mentioned.
DIVERSITY, KNOWLEDGE AND COMPLEXITY THEORY: SOME INTRODUCTORY ISSUES
Authors: ANDRIANI PIERPAOLO
Published: April 2003

This paper will discuss some introductory issues related to the role and importance of microdiversity of agents in the context of business networks. Traditional views emphasise the importance of connectivity in the making of industrial clusters, but neglect the crucial role of microdiversity. Microdiversity is important to achieve adaptive behaviour in the presence of environmental uncertainty. Diversity acts as a reservoir of potential strategies against unpredictable environments. Secondly, the formation of business networks is explained in terms of mechanisms generating diversity. Networks emerge as the organisational form in which the diversity of agents can self-organise. This paper suggests that the issue of diversity can be used to discriminate between the model of organisation based on rational allocation of resources — the firm — and the model of organisation based on emergence and self-organisation — the network. The paper concludes that the former is a diversity-reducing mechanism, whereas the latter is a diversity-enhancing mechanism
ENERGISING ORDER-CREATING NETWORKS OF DISTRIBUTED INTELLIGENCE: IMPROVING THE CORPORATE BRAIN
Authors: McKELVEY BILL
Published: April 2003

Human and social capital developments are discussed in the context of increasing corporate IQ, defined as distributed intelligence (DI) in firms, as the basis of economic rent generation. A review of current multilevel leadership theories shows that charismatic visionary CEOs more often than not create conditions likely to inhibit the development of DI. Complexity science theory indicates that "adaptive tension" dynamics (analogous to Bénard cell energy-differentials) may be used to foster adaptively efficacious DI appreciation. The optimal region for rapidly improving adaptive fitness occurs "at the edge of chaos". This region — in which emergent self-organisation occurs — exists between the 1st and 2nd critical values of adaptive tension. Below the 1st value, there is little change; above the 2nd value, the system becomes chaotic and dysfunctional. Various activities available to rent-seeking CEOs wishing to create or enlarge the region of emergence are discussed.
CAREERS, COMMUNITIES, AND INDUSTRY EVOLUTION: LINKS TO COMPLEXITY THEORY
Authors: ARTHUR MICHAEL B. , DEFILLIPPI ROBERT J. , LINDSAY VALERIE J.
Published: April 2003

Traditional views of industry evolution focus on the company as their principal unit of analysis. We offer an alternative view that links between workers' careers and successive community, company and industry effects. We apply this view to evidence from independent film-making, and suggest a conception of the career, involving three "ways of knowing", to underlie these links. We next explore two more industry examples, the New Zealand boat building industry and the Linux operating system in the software industry, which provide further support for the alternative view proposed, as well as extending it to consider the influence of the World Wide Web. We see all three industry examples as illustrating a range of ideas in complexity theory. We propose that a career-centric view provides a useful basis for the further exploration and application of complexity theory to industrial life.
KNOWLEDGE CREATION AND DIFFUSION IN GEOGRAPHIC CLUSTERS
Authors: MASKELL PETER
Published: April 2003

The established fact that knowledge in society is always distributed and dispersed can be given a dynamic interpretation when perceived as the outcome of an ongoing deepening of the division of labour as suggested by Adam Smith. Individuals specialising on performing certain tasks are motivated to find solutions and notice peculiarities otherwise overlooked. Thus, this gives rise to the suspicion that the process of innovation and learning is fuelled by the development of distinct bodies of knowledge developed in independent organisations pursuing objectives of competitiveness. Specialisation and outsourcing, etc., aim at freeing managerial and other resources within the firm to be relocated in developing core capabilities or competencies and in enhancing the internal learning processes. The boundaries of the firm thus impact directly on the (possible) level of learning in the economy. However, developing distinct bodies of knowledge increases the cognitive distance that firms have to overcome when engaged in inter-organisational learning. This must imply that interorganisational learning is subject to thresholds, before the dispersed knowledge bases of firms have grown sufficiently apart for interacting to imply learning; and ceilings, after which the cognitive distance becomes too great for firms to bridge, and where learning, consequentially, will cease.

The paper argues that geographical clusters constitute an unplanned and organically developed mechanism for reducing cognitive distance between firms and thereby the cost of knowledge transfer and utilisation, while at the same time maintaining the specialisation within and between firms necessary for creating new knowledge.
DOES ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT FACILITATE ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES?
Authors: NITZ TRACEY , HOLLAND IAN
Published: April 2003

The aim of environmental impact assessment (EIA) is to ensure effective environmental management outcomes for development projects. Some argue it has failed to achieve this, because environmental management activities are not properly planned in the EIA process. The extent of this problem is largely unknown, due to a lack of empirical evidence.

This paper presents the results of research investigating environmental management planning within EIA in the state of Queensland, Australia. The study examined environmental management commitments within 285 environmental impact statements (EISs).

The majority of the EISs contained environmental monitoring and mitigation commitments and more than half identified corrective actions. This suggests that EIA facilitated environmental management within some developments. Nevertheless, many environmental management activities were not addressed in EISs, even when specifically requested.

Trends in environmental management planning over time revealed dramatic improvements. These appeared to have resulted from an increase in government requirements for, and the provision of guidelines to assist, environmental management planning. These findings suggest improved environmental management must be facilitated by government agencies, rather than relying upon industry innovation.
DATA TYPE AND SCALE EFFECTS ON AN EIA PROCESS — CONTEXT VERSUS OBJECT APPROACH: A CASE STUDY OF THE EVALUATION OF THE IMPACTS OF THE A2 ROAD IN SOUTHERN PORTUGAL ON THE IBERIAN LYNX
Authors: FERNANDES JOÃO PAULO
Published: April 2003

The use of two scales within an environmental impact assessment study of the impacts on the Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardina Linnaeus) is described. The differences in information content and assessment ability are evaluated. One scale is based on the register of observations along the study corridor of the highway (the "object" approach), and the second on a broad regional landscape ecological analysis assessing the entire Lynx population and the viability for survival of the individual populations that are potentially affected by the highway (the "context" approach). Other data quality and type variations and its influence in the evaluation are also analysed.
TAKING THE PLUNGE: HOW DO WASTE MANAGEMENT DISPUTANTS DECIDE WHETHER TO USE ADR?
Authors: ANDREW JOHN S.
Published: April 2003

This paper examines the incentives and disincentives for disputants in waste management conflicts to participate in alternative dispute resolution (ADR) processes such as negotiation, facilitation and mediation. Twenty-four cases in which ADR was applied to a waste management conflict in Ontario or Massachusetts are studied, using telephone interviews with 123 ADR participants as the principal source of data. The paper identifies and ranks the importance of incentives and disincentives that influence a disputant's decision whether to participate in ADR, compares these factors to those addressed in the literature, and identifies the sub-factors by which they are in turn influenced. It examines whether these key factors have different effects on different types of parties, and concludes with recommendations for strengthening the incentives of disputants to enter into ADR processes.
PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE OF TRANSGENIC BT RICE IN THE PHILIPPINES
Authors: AERNI PHILIPP , PHAN-HUY SIBYL ANWANDER , RIEDER PETER
Published: April 2003

The Philippines faces an opposition to genetic engineering in agriculture led by a coalition of non-governmental organisations (NGOs). There is an ongoing public debate which is mainly focused on transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) rice and its potential contribution to future food security in Asia.

The present research project evaluated perception patterns among the main participants in the Philippine debate on transgenic rice and the political importance attributed to these participants.

For this purpose, a survey of 65 respondents representing the relevant institutions involved in the public debate was conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire.

The results suggest that non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and other public interest groups are generally not in favour while scientists are generally in favour of transgenic rice. A majority of the political decision makers has very high expectations with regard to the potential of genetic engineering for solving problems in the Philippine rice economy. However, their attitude with regard to risks and benefits of Bt rice is ambivalent.
APPLICATION OF LIMITING MARGINAL ABATEMENT COSTS IN OPTIMISED STRATEGIES TO REDUCE ACIDIFICATION AND EUTROPHICATION IN EUROPE: ILLUSTRATIONS USING THE ABATEMENT STRATEGIES ASSESSMENT MODEL (ASAM)
Authors: WARREN RACHEL F. , APSIMON HELEN M.
Published: April 2003

The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution has led to the setting up of international protocols to reduce emissions of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, ammonia, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Policy makers have made use of optimised abatement strategies derived by integrated assessment models (IAMs) which cost-effectively reduce acidification, eutrophication and tropospheric ozone. IAMs use information on costs of potential emission abatement options in individual countries. This paper explores the implications of limiting the abatement options in IAMs to those with moderate marginal costs. Three methods of applying this constraint to the optimisation are described. All methods indicate a loss of cost-effectiveness, this being most severe when marginal costs are constrained and environmental constraints are not compromised. However, when the overall investment level is capped and the strategy re-optimised taking into account marginal cost limitation whilst allowing violation of the original environmental targets, the loss of cost-effectiveness is less severe. For all three methods, significant changes occur in patterns of country expenditures and environmental protection, which tends to decrease significantly in those areas most difficult to protect. However, the re-optimisation method does provide the opportunity for "compensating" improvements to be achieved in other areas which are easier to protect. The choice of marginal cost limits strongly affects the extent and nature of these changes, as does the nature of the original optimised strategy.
URBAN AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN EUROPE: LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND INFORMATION ACCESS
Authors: KARATZAS KOSTAS , MOUSSIOPOULOS NICOLAS
Published: April 2003

The European Union (EU) legislative framework related to air quality, together with national legislation and relevant declarations of the United Nations (UN), requires an integrated approach concerning air quality management (AQM), and accessibility of related information for the citizens. In the present paper, the main requirements of this legislative framework are discussed and main air quality management and information system characteristics are drawn. The use of information technologies is recommended for the construction of such systems. The World Wide Web (WWW) is considered a suitable platform for system development and integration and at the same time as a medium for communication and information dissemination.
GAS, COAL AND GAS FROM COAL: A STRATEGIC SOCIO-ECONOMIC APPRAISAL OF THE UK ENERGY POLICY
Authors: GLASSON JOHN , CHADWICK ANDREW
Published: April 2003

UK energy policy is based on non-renewable sources, and is likely to remain so for the foreseeable future. Until recently this was primarily coal, but during the 1990s the short term "dash for gas" has resulted in a dramatic shift in the fuel mix. With a focus on the electricity supply industry, the article seeks to provide a longer and wider strategic socio-economic appraisal of the gas–coal mix for the UK. It explores the relative merits of clean coal technology, producing gas from coal, including the specific project example of Kellingley, and concludes with an appraisal of the continuing barriers to its development.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DECISIONS OF AUSTRALIAN INVESTMENT PROFESSIONALS
Authors: FAYERS CHRIS , COCKLIN CHRIS , HOLMES DOUG
Published: April 2003

With the realisation that changed investment patterns are necessary conditions for sustainable development, investors and other stakeholders are becoming increasingly interested in corporate environmental performance. In some countries, environmental and eco-efficiency factors are now being considered in the context of investment decisions. Research conducted in both Australia and overseas suggests, however, that investment professionals do not place the same emphasis on environmental performance as other users of corporate reports. In this paper we report on the results of a questionnaire distributed to investment analysts in Australia. The questionnaire was directed towards identifying the extent to which environmental management and performance feature in assessing company performance, general attitudes among investment professionals towards the business-environment relation, and the constraints on the inclusion of environmental performance in investment decisions. The results indicate a very modest shift towards environmental considerations among investment professionals in Australia and that some forms of environmental risks are being assessed. However, there are constraints to the inclusion of environmental performance, most of which relate to the nature and availability of reliable information. In this paper we also contemplate the question of whether environmental reporting and performance rating systems would facilitate the integration of environmental considerations in investment decisions.
STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT: WHAT IS IT? & WHAT MAKES IT STRATEGIC?
Authors: NOBLE BRAM F.
Published: April 2003

This paper highlights perhaps one of the most fundamental issues constraining strategic environmental assessment (SEA) practice — its definition. Current reviews fail to explain why certain assessments are referred to as strategic while others are not. Furthermore, there appears to be very little attention given to the basic characteristics of strategy in the environmental assessment of proposed or existing policies, plans and programmes. This paper attempts to identify the characteristics of SEA that make it strategic and therefore different from other forms of impact assessment. A review of selected case studies is undertaken with the purpose of identifying those assessments that actually conform to the characteristics of a "strategic assessment". It is argued here that if SEA methodology and practice is to advance, then a common understanding of its definition and characteristics must first be achieved.
IPCC AND POLICY DEVELOPMENT: TOWARD THE THIRD ASSESSMENT REPORT
Authors: MAYDA JARO
Published: April 2003

In preparing the Third Assessment Report (due in 2001), the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was also assigned the task of assessing "methodological aspects of cross-cutting issues such as equity, discount rates, and decision making frameworks". The article analyses the task; points out the gaps in IPCC's past approaches to policy and decision making methodologies; and outlines elements of a paradigm that effectively bridges science and decision making, especially in the area of applying IPCC's global policies on the national and local levels, within the ultimate goal of sustainable development.
A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR INTEGRATED ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING IN ASIA — A LITERATURE REVIEW
Authors: KING PETER , ANNANDALE DAVID , BAILEY JOHN
Published: April 2003

Successive global conferences on sustainable development, such as the 1992 Earth Summit, have called for environmental and economic activities to be planned at the same time and in the same institutions, without elucidating how this should be done. This literature review provides a conceptual framework for organising the various approaches to integrated economic and environmental planning, along with supporting tools and techniques. The conceptual framework derived from this analysis illustrates the importance of vertical linkages among planning levels and highlights the paucity of integrated economic and environmental plans at the subnational level in Asia. Both of these issues need to be addressed if a nested hierarchy of integrated economic and environmental plans is expected to contribute to the achievement of sustainable development.
INTEGRATED ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING AT THE SUBNATIONAL LEVEL IN ASIA
Authors: KING PETER , ANNANDALE DAVID , BAILEY JOHN
Published: April 2003

Throughout Asia, there is a commitment by governments to sustainable development, yet economic development continues to degrade the natural resources of the region and pollute the environment in both urban and rural areas. Current thinking about sustainable development suggests that planners and development specialists should attempt to integrate social, economic and environmental dimensions at all planning levels. This paper examines work undertaken by the Asian Development Bank over the last 15 years in the area of subnational integrated economic-cum-environmental (E-c-E) planning. It evaluates five subnational E-c-E plans against a model developed by the Organization of American States (OAS). The study found that the Asian case studies (and six earlier Latin American case studies) often have common failings. Improvement of the E-c-E planning approach, building on the common success factors and improving on the common weaknesses, is proposed. An improved E-c-E planning approach at all levels may be pivotal in contributing to sustainable development.
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AND SOCIAL ACCEPTABILITY IN THE PHILIPPINE EIA PROCESS
Authors: COOPER LOURDES M. , ELLIOTT JENNIFER A.
Published: April 2003

Since 1992, the Philippines has employed an innovative requirement to demonstrate social acceptability in project planning as a means through which public participation can be established. This paper discusses the participatory mechanisms used and evaluates the effectiveness of public participation in three case studies from key development sectors. In doing so, the existing conceptual frameworks for evaluating public participation are further developed through insights to community empowerment and sustainability in particular. Whilst increased public participation has resulted in improvements in the EIA process and environmental decision making in the Philippines, the evaluation of the case studies also reveals substantial issues of conflict within the communities and of the representation of diverse local interests at core stages in the planning process.
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND EXPERT SYSTEMS FOR IMPACT ASSESSMENT Part I: GIS
Authors: RODRIGUEZ-BACHILLER AGUSTIN
Published: April 2003

Impact Assessment (AI) is getting over its "teething problems" of the early 1990s, and is now trying to define, consolidate and spread best practice. It has been suggested that computer technologies like Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and/or decision-support tools like Expert Systems (ES) can play an important part in this process, and in a series of two articles we critically review these technologies, their use and their potential — and drawbacks — for IA. This first article is devoted to GIS, powerful packages that can handle spatial information quite efficiently in map form, but whose analytical capabilities are rather limited and would benefit from being articulated with other tools to make their use more friendly and efficient. The proposition underlying these articles is that these three areas (IA, GIS and ES), if properly organised, are potentially complementary and there can be mutual benefits if they are brought together. We concentrate on GIS first, ES will be discussed in the next paper.
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND EXPERT SYSTEMS FOR IMPACT ASSESSMENT Part II: Expert Systems and Decision Support Systems
Authors: RODRIGUEZ-BACHILLER AGUSTIN
Published: April 2003

This paper and another one preceding it investigate the potential of computer technologies like Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Expert Systems (ES) to help with Impact Assessment (IA), suggesting that one way to optimise the effectiveness of GIS is to embed these systems in a more user-friendly environment. This paper explores the experience and potential of ES to provide such decision support environment, extending the argument further into the realm of Decision Support Systems (DSS). The proposition behind this paper is that these areas (IA, GIS, ES and maybe DSS) are potentially complementary and there can be mutual benefits if they are brought together. Certain tasks in IA — like screening, scoping, or statement review — already have potential for substantial automation, as an opportunity for technology transfer within organisations involved with IA, so that relatively scarce experts can be freed up for more difficult jobs while less expert staff are promoted to answer more sophisticated questions like these. More technical tasks like impact and environmental prediction also show scope for some degree of modelling-based automation, while other less routinised and more open-ended tasks involved with the management of the whole IA process probably lend themselves better to automation of a different kind, which works more as an "aid" than a substitute for the expert, for which the more flexible DSS seem more appropriate.
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN EIA: A STUDY FROM A PORTUGUESE PERSPECTIVE
Authors: VASCONCELOS CONSTANÇA , HAMILTON ANDY , BARRETT PETER
Published: April 2003

This paper focuses on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) since it was the first and is the most universal instrument requiring public participation in environmental management. After considering the origins of EIA and its relationship to the inherent problems in environment and sustainability, we put it in the context of "The Portuguese Case". Portugal's involvement in the European environmental debate only began after the 1974 revolution. After 40 years of repressive dictatorship, the Portuguese society is characterised by a lack of traditions in civil society, the centralisation of the state, clientelism and bureaucracy. We examine the legal framework for EIA in Portugal and its interaction with various levels of government. Within this context the results of our research work are discussed. The interviews carried out with stakeholders in the Portuguese EIA process show that public participation occurs too late in the process and that the methods of consultation are generally considered inadequate. A growing demand by the public for better systems of consultation is noted. An analysis of the current state of Portuguese EIA is given and, based on this analysis, suggestions for improving the process are made. A brief assessment is made of new legislation (decree law 69/2000) concerning EIA.
MANAGING REGIONAL CUMULATIVE EFFECTS OF OIL SANDS DEVELOPMENT IN ALBERTA, CANADA
Authors: SPALING HARRY , ZWIER JANELLE , ROSS WILLIAM , CREASEY ROGER
Published: April 2003

This paper demonstrates an approach to regional cumulative effects management using the case of oil sands development in Alberta, Canada. The 17 existing, approved, or planned projects, all concentrated in a relatively small region, pose significant challenges for conducting and reviewing cumulative effects assessment (CEA) on a project-by-project basis. In response, stakeholders have initiated a regional cumulative effects management system that is among the first such initiatives anywhere. Advantages of this system include (1) more efficient gathering and sharing of information, including a common regional database, (2) setting acceptable regional environmental thresholds for all projects, (3) collaborative assessment of similar cumulative effects from related projects, (4) co-ordinated regulatory review and approval process for overlapping CEAs, and (5) institutional empowerment from a Regional Sustainable Development Strategy administered by a public authority. This case provides a model for integrating project-based CEA with regional management of cumulative effects.
ENVIRONMENTAL DECISION MAKING IN A TRANSBOUNDARY CONTEXT: PRINCIPLES AND CHALLENGES FOR THE DENMARK-SWEDEN ØRESUND FIXED LINK
Authors: GULLETT WARWICK
Published: April 2003

It is now possible to identify projects or activities in many countries whose policy objectives of promoting "sustainable development" have been achieved. The philosophy underlying the "sustainable development" concept captures misgivings about the nature of development and about social and technological ability to avoid further deterioration of the environment. Although many of the advances in environmental law and theory have occurred in international forums, implementation of sustainable development principles is less evident at the international than at the local level. The is due, in large part, to the difficulties created by multiple jurisdictions and the increased complexity of regional or global environmental problems. This paper considers the challenges and opportunities that exist for improving the implementation of the precautionary principle as a sustainability objective at the international level. It concentrates upon approval processes for development projects with potential cross-border environmental effects. A case study is provided of the decision making process for the Øresund Fixed Link between Denmark and Sweden.
ADDRESSING CUMULATIVE EFFECTS THROUGH STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT: A CASE STUDY OF SMALL HYDRO DEVELOPMENT IN NEWFOUNDLAND, CANADA
Authors: BONNELL STEVE , STOREY KEITH
Published: April 2003

Environmental assessment (EA) is widely used as a means of incorporating environmental considerations into decision-making, primarily at the project level. The scope of EA has been expanded considerably in recent years to include earlier stages of the decision-making process, namely, policies, plans and programmes. Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) facilitates a planning approach to addressing the overall, cumulative effects of the projects that occur as a result of these decisions. This paper demonstrates the potential benefits of SEA in the assessment and management of cumulative effects, using a case study of recent hydroelectric development planning in Newfoundland, Canada. It goes on to illustrate how SEA could be used to address potential cumulative effects at the various stages of such a decision-making process. Through the case study, the paper also explores a number of issues in the implementation of such a planning approach.
THE USE OF LCA TO INTRODUCE LIFE-CYCLE THINKING INTO DECISION-MAKING FOR THE PURCHASE OF MEDICAL DEVICES IN THE NHS
Authors: ISON ERICA , MILLER ANNE
Published: April 2003

In the NHS, criteria for the selection and purchase of medical devices tend to be restricted to concerns about any risks to patients and/or staff during clinical practice, and the purchase price. In addition, the basis for taking many of these decisions about purchase may be only that of personal opinion, anecdote or limited information. We report on the application of life-cycle assessment (LCA) to a particular medical device — the suction receptacle — as a case-study to determine the potential of LCA to improve the range and quality of information available for decision-making, and act as a framework for a more holistic approach. Using LCA, substantial environmental and economic burdens were found to be associated with the different product systems in use (durable versus disposable devices). We discuss the ways in which various stakeholders in the healthcare sector could use this information, at both a strategic and operational level. We also outline possible future developments of LCA that would support healthcare managers in the drive towards evidence-based decision-making.
PHASE-OUT OF LEADED GASOLINE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: APPROACHES AND PROSPECTS FOR LEBANON
Authors: EL-FADEL MUTASEM , HASHISHO ZAHER
Published: April 2003

Air pollution from urban traffic is a growing environmental problem worldwide. Emissions of lead resulting from the usage of leaded fuel are of particular concern due to associated health hazards. While many countries have accomplished or are in the process of phasing-out leaded gasoline, others continue to rely to a large extent on the use of high lead-content gasoline. Such is the case of Lebanon where the use of unleaded gasoline is hindered not only by the lack of direct governmental endorsement but also by the price difference in favour of leaded gasoline. While the phase-out of leaded gasoline is economically feasible, several measures should be undertaken for a successful transition to unleaded gasoline. This paper reviews the problem of lead addition into gasoline and the international experience in its phase-out. Policy measures and technical considerations for a successful transition to unleaded gasoline are described. Available data for Lebanon about the vehicle fleet characteristics, gasoline consumption and quality as well as lead emissions and concentrations in various environments are presented. This information forms the basis for developing a phase-out action plan outlining the interrelation and responsibilities of various agencies as well as measures to be adopted for a successful phase-out process.
FROM GREEN GNP TO THE SUSTAINABILITY GAP: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMIC ACCOUNTING
Authors: EKINS PAUL
Published: April 2003

It is now generally accepted that the national accounts which give a comprehensive overview of national economic activity should also account for the way the economy uses, and often has a negative impact on, the environment. However, a number of areas of uncertainty and disagreement remain as to how this should be carried out, involving such issues as whether Net National Product (NNP) is a measure of production or of economic welfare, whether environmental damage can be adequately valued for the purpose of the national accounts, how the macroeconomic aggregates can be adjusted for environmental impacts, and the correct treatment of defensive expenditures. On the basis of a review of these and other issues, the paper's principal conclusion is that there is no methodologically sound and operationally feasible way of deriving a figure for Green GNP by subtracting figures pertaining to environmental degradation or depletion from GNP, but that it is possible to calculate a "sustainability gap" for the economy, in either physical or monetary terms. When expressed as a ratio of GDP, this gives an indicator of the "unsustainability intensity" of economic activity, comparable to the energy intensity indicator that is already in wide use.
AN APPROACH TO INTEGRATED APPRAISAL: PROGRESS BY THE ENVIRONMENT AGENCY IN ENGLAND AND WALES
Authors: BROOKES A. , EALES R. , FISHER J. , FOAN C. , TWIGGER-ROSS C.
Published: April 2003

As part of its principal aim of contributing towards achieving the objective of sustainable development the Environment Agency in England and Wales established a National Centre for Risk Analysis and Options Appraisal in 1997. This paper describes a key area of the Centre's work over the past four years, namely the development of an approach for integrated appraisal. This approach has been developed jointly by EIA specialists, economists, a social psychologist and an expert in technology assessment. There have been several opportunities for developing tools and techniques for internal use and the Agency has also been able to advise and inform others, particularly the Central and regional governments. This paper aims to summarise some of these case studies for the benefit of a wider audience. Significant challenges remain, not least because there are few role models to follow and relatively little published literature on the subject of integrated appraisal. Challenges are methodological, procedural and institutional. The paper recommends the term "integrated appraisal" as the umbrella term under which many other approaches (variously termed) fit and develops a checklist of questions to be asked.
IMPLEMENTING ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR JOINT IMPLEMENTATION AND THE CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM
Authors: BEGG KATHERINE , HAQ GARY , CHADWICK MICHAEL , KALLASTE TIIT
Published: April 2003

The 1992 Climate Change Convention aims to stabilise greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Joint Implementation (JI) and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) are instruments which allow countries with high marginal costs of abatement to participate in emission reduction projects in countries with lower marginal abatement costs with the incentive of gaining carbon credits for the reduction of GHGs. The environmental benefits sought by the Convention relate mainly to he mitigation of climate change. However, consideration should also be given to other potential environmental, economic and social effects of JI/CDM projects on the local population and host country. This paper discusses the need for integrating environmental and social considerations into the JI/CDM process. It undertakes a preliminary retrospective environmental assessment of AIJ energy projects in the Czech Republic and Estonia. It also proposes support for capacity building and data collection systems in host countries, application of a simple participative scoping exercise for all projects followed by further work as necessary, upgrading of the Uniform Reporting Format for projects, and incorporation into project approval criteria.
DEVELOPMENT OF A POLICY APPRAISAL CHECKLIST FOR THE ENVIRONMENT AGENCY OF ENGLAND AND WALES
Authors: POLLARD VICKY , BROOKES ANDREW
Published: April 2003

This paper describes the development of a simple integrated approach to policy appraisal for use within the Environment Agency for England and Wales. The approach was developed by the Environment Agency's National Centre for Risk Analysis and Options Appraisal, and is intended as a first version of a tool to allow policy makers in the Agency to consider the possible environmental, social, economic and resource use impacts of the policy options available to manage risks, and to allow the monitoring of impacts of policy options selected.

The context within which the approach was developed is discussed — including existing literature on, and experience of, policy and integrated appraisal respectively, as well as the needs and resources of the Environment Agency with respect to policy appraisal. The paper provides a description of the approach developed before highlighting issues for further development.

The guidance summarised here is version 1, which is being rolled out for use by policy authors within the Agency in 2000 and 2001. The process will inevitably be iterative and it is intended over the next two years, following further application and road testing, that subsequent versions of the guidance will be produced.