bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Urban Spatial Interaction
Authors: Angel S , Hyman G M
Published: October 2006

This paper centres on the development of a geometrical representation of movement and spatial interaction in urban areas, as distinct from the network representation commonly used in modern studies. All quantities are treated as distributions over geographic space, rather than concentrations at nodes of a network. We present a continuous model of spatial interaction and calibrate it for Greater Manchester. The model is a trip distribution model which produces an allocation of trips from any area to all other areas in accordance with a derived trip density function. The inputs to the model are density functions for residences and workplaces of car commuters, and a velocity field. The velocity field defines a measure of the travel time between different locations.

The outputs of the model are spatial distributions of accessibility of locations to jobs and residences, and a spatial distribution of traffic flow. We find that the location most accessible to jobs in Manchester is not in the centre of the city, but in a ring more than half a mile away from the centre. The maximum accessibility to residences is found to be approximately five miles away from the centre. The flow of traffic is derived as a spatial pattern and is found to peak approximately three miles from the centre of Manchester. The paper restricts itself to vehicular traffic and to radially symmetric spatial distributions. It should be seen as an attempt to introduce three major elements: time, distribution, and traffic assignment into a geometrical framework for dealing with problems of urban spatial interaction.
Two Markov Models of Neighborhood Housing Turnover
Authors: Gilbert G
Published: October 2006

This paper develops two mathematical models of housing turnover in a neighborhood. The first of these draws upon the theory of non-homogeneous Markov processes and includes the effects of present neighborhood composition upon future turnover probabilities. The second model considers the turnover process as a Markov renewal process and therefore allows the inclusion of length of occupancy as a determinant of transition probabilities. Example calculations for both models are included, and procedures for using the models are outlined.
An Analysis of an Urban Thoroughfare
Authors: Hartwick P G , Hartwick J M
Published: October 2006

This paper considers the economic impact of an urban transportation thoroughfare emanating from the central business district of a city to agricultural land. Utilizing the elements of microeconomic theory, namely the models of the producer and of the consumer, we have made an analysis of how a residential area develops around a thoroughfare under different assumptions including transportation costs along the thoroughfare, and the technology of producing residential dwellings in the surrounding area. This contribution can be looked upon as the analysis of residential development in a star-shaped city; the focus is on one branch of the star. With the aid of computer graphics, alternative economic landscapes surrounding the thoroughfare are simulated.

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the nature of city-forming forces which are generated by the decision making of producers and consumers in spatially defined areas. By demonstrating in the particular case of an urban thoroughfare the powerful city-forming influences of decision making of city dwellers, it is hoped that urban policy makers may be alerted to some different aspects of the ongoing processes of urban change.
The Calibration of Gravity, Entropy, and Related Models of Spatial Interaction
Authors: Batty M , Mackie S
Published: October 2006

This paper presents a methodology for deriving best statistics for the calibration of spatial interaction models, and several procedures for finding best parameter values are described. The family of spatial interaction models due to Wilson is first outlined, and then some existing calibration methods are briefly reviewed. A procedure for deriving best statistics based on the principle of maximum-likelihood is then developed from the work of Hyman and Evans, and the methodology is illustrated using the example of a retail gravity model. Five methods for solving the maximum-likelihood equations are outlined: procedures based on a simple first-order iterative process, the Newton—Raphson method for several variables, multivariate Fibonacci search, search using the Simplex method, and search based on quadratic convergence, are all tested and compared. It appears that the Newton—Raphson method is the most efficient, and this is further tested in the calibration of disaggregated residential location models.
Entwicklung Einer Gemeindespezifischen Produktionsfunktion
Authors: Biermann H , Friedrich P
Published: October 2006

Production functions reflecting local community characteristics are rarely found in economic literature. The concept of a production function taking account of such features is introduced; further extensions and application possibilities are discussed. The article concludes with some suggestions as regards methods of empirical verification of the production function.
The Congruence between Housing Space, Social Space, and Community Space, and Some Experiments concerning its Implications
Authors: Yeates M
Published: October 2006

Housing space, social space, and community space are each defined simply and discussed with respect to two concepts: housing space is defined in terms of type and quality for individual housing units; social space is defined in terms of social status and stage in the life cycle for a family unit. Contrasting with these micro-scale definitions are the constructs of community space—family status and social status—which describe census units at the macro-social level. The congruence between housing space and social space for a sample of homes and the families residing within them in Kingston and Winnipeg, Canada, is then determined statistically with the use of multivariate multiple regression procedures. The varying degrees of incongruence for a number of social groups are then analysed subjectively under three defined housing constraints. Finally, the representativeness of the two samples is examined, and directions for further research are outlined.
Structuring the Image: An Investigation of the Elements of Mental Maps
Authors: Jackson L E , Johnston R J
Published: October 2006

Mental map studies generally infer that the common sets of preferences which they reveal are the product of common images of the relevant places. In expressing a preference, however, an individual relies on both his image of the place and his criteria for ‘desirability’. The study reported here used the semantic differential technique as a means of identifying these criteria and images. Young residents of Christchurch, New Zealand were the respondents; various towns in that country were the stimuli; each town was rated on thirty-eight separate scales. Mean ratings for each place on the scales suggested the probable existence of common criteria for ‘residential desirability’, but analyses of the dimensionality of their images suggested little stability. About their home town, the respondents were very precise and discriminating. For other places, there was possibly only a single-dimension underlying the ratings on all thirty-eight scales, though this seemed to compose several common sub dimensions, of which socio-economic quality, social and housing environments, physical structure, and climate occurred most frequently.
Equilibrium Models of Cities: 1. An Axiomatic Theory
Authors: Amson J C
Published: October 2006

A study is undertaken of the concept of a city as an ‘urban gravitational plasma’ consisting of one or more species of civic matter (populations, activity rates, and so on) interacting on themselves and each other, and, at the same time, responding to relocation coercions induced by satisfaction potentials of various kinds (housing rentals, amenity levels, and so on). The latter are assumed to be coupled to the territorial densities of the individual species of civic matter through equations of state, for which the housing rental-population density relation in market equilibrium theory is a prototype.

The study is divided into four parts. The first part (presented here) approaches the problem from a formal axiomatic viewpoint, and the axioms and definitions are discussed in relation to the real urban situations from which they are abstracted. The notion of equilibrium configurations for a city is introduced, and the general equilibrium equations necessary for their existence are developed. Three particular illustrations of these equations are offered: that of a single species city, and of a two species city—both with an ideal (polytropic) state equation—and that of a single species city with an imperfect (van der Waals) state equation. These illustrations will be examined in detail in the subsequent three parts of this study.
Residential Environmental Preferences and Choice: Empirically Validating Preference Measures
Authors: Menchik M
Published: October 2006

In order to evaluate demands for new forms of residential environments (such as cluster development rather than the spread pattern of suburban sprawl), it may be useful to deal with persons' residential preferences directly, rather than their market choice. The paper develops residential environmental preference variables from questionnaire survey data. The preferences may be considered as relative tradeoffs among the residence's accessibility, characteristics of the house and lot (for example, lot size), the quality of the natural environment, and characteristics of the non-natural environment (for example, population density). At the same time, comparable measures are devised of the characteristics of the persons' present residences—their residential choice.

Principal results are that the preference and choice variables do seem useful; that preferences, thus defined, do express themselves to some extent through market choice; and that different persons do in fact prefer different residential characteristics. Preferences for different residential characteristics tend to be negatively associated, so that there are persons with strong preferences for the natural environment who are willing to sacrifice a large lot to live in a beautiful area.
A Search Algorithm for the Estimation of Interregional Migration in Local Areas
Authors: Meier P M
Published: October 2006

A discrete step steepest descent search algorithm is developed for the estimation of interregional migration rates in local areas from historical time series. Objective function values are obtained from a constrained least-squares optimization, and it is found that the dimensions of the search space correspond to the number of smoothing operations in the columns of the data input matrix. The iterative algorithm requires the use of symptomatic indicators of intercensal population and is shown to yield improved results over a simple least squares approach.
Urban Economic Growth and Migration: Their Interaction
Authors: Greenwood M J
Published: October 2006

The objectives of this study are twofold. Firstly, a simultaneous-equations model that takes into account the interaction between various economic aspects of urban growth, and migration to and from urban areas is specified. Secondly, the model is estimated for the 100 largest Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas in the United States. Among the jointly dependent variables utilized are civilian labor force outmigration, civilian labor force inmigration, income growth, employment growth, unemployment growth, and natural increase of the civilian labor force.
An Entropy Maximising Approach to the Recovery of Detailed Migration Patterns from Aggregate Census Data
Authors: Chilton R , Poet R R W
Published: October 2006

The paper illustrates the possibilities of using entropy maximising techniques to expand an abbreviated data source. The British Census publishes migration statistics only for flows exceeding a certain threshold and the first exercise performed in this paper attempts to discover these thresholded flows. This complete migration matrix is then used as an input into a second exercise designed to disaggregate the flow pattern according to the type of mover. Finally, a means of assessing the goodness of fit of the entropy maximising model is advanced.
Approaches to Residential Location Modelling 1: Urban Ecological and Spatial Interaction Models (A Review)
Authors: Senior M L
Published: October 2006

This is the first part of a two part paper concerned with modelling the residential subsystem of cities. Three major modes of analysis are reviewed in depth—urban ecological and spatial interaction models in Part 1, urban economic models in Part 2. Developments in each field are documented in a roughly chronological order, and assessments are made of the models themselves and the style of modelling. It will be shown in Part 2 that the diverse experiences gained in each field suggest possibilities for synthesising the best elements and underlying concepts of each approach. The review itself is prefaced by a description of the structure of the residential subsystem. It is stressed at the outset that the emphasis is largely, but not exclusively, on models defined as operational constructs rather than on theoretical propositions.
Building and Analyzing an Energy Demand Signed Digraph
Authors: Roberts F S
Published: October 2006

This paper describes some of the author's work on developing a methodology for building and analyzing an energy demand signed digraph using the subjective judgements of groups of experts. The method is illustrated using energy consumption in the transportation sector, in particular in the intraregional commuter transportation sector, as an example. The specific procedure described consists of three rounds, two devoted to choosing nodes and one to choosing edges and signs. The expert judgments of round 3 are combined to build an energy demand signed digraph for intraurban commuter transportation, and this signed digraph is then analyzed using the mathematical tools developed in Brown et al. (1972). Stabilizing strategies are identified, as are stable and unstable starting nodes and feedback loops contributing to stability and instability of the system. The conclusions are interpreted for their significance for energy demand in intraurban commuter transportation (this significance is mostly tentative and suggestive at this time) and as an illustration of the application of the signed digraph methodology.
The Density Gradients of Small Shops in Cities
Authors: Sibley D
Published: October 2006

Changes in the distribution of grocers and greengrocers in Leicester and Northampton are analysed with two regression equations. Change in the density gradient in Leicester is described as a quasi-diffusion process which can be modelled as a quadratic exponential function. In Northampton a monotonic decline in densities is maintained over time, and a first-degree negative exponential equation provides an adequate fit in all years. The difference between the two cities is accounted for by the population required to attract high-order uses which will displace a significant proportion of small shops from the central area and create a ‘density crater’. It may not be possible to define the displacement threshold with any precision.
Economic Models of Industrial Pollution Control in Regional Planning
Authors: Tihansky D P
Published: October 2006

A general theoretical model is presented for the determination of optimal regional growth and pollution control levels over a multiperiod time horizon. The problem is stated as the maximization of total profits of regional firms subject to constraints of ambient environmental quality and resource scarcity for production and abatement activities. The model assumes that environmental quality is stochastic by incorporating variable factors of dilution or assimilation in the constraint set. This model is expressed as a stochastic nonlinear programming problem, which by suitable mathematical transformations is reduced to a deterministic linear programming model. Solutions to the model show the economic impacts of uniform versus efficient treatment standards, time delays on waste control enforcement, and statistical properties of the dilution factors.
A Model of Economic System—Ecosystem Interaction
Authors: Wilen J E
Published: October 2006

The basic Ayres—Kneese materials-balance model is extended by appending a model of a set of ecosystems together with the corresponding linkages. Both submodels employ linear transformation depictions of the input—output processes, a measurement of physical production as an index of comparison, and a joint reliance on a stock of material common to production in both systems. A set of index numbers is developed which indicates the relative impact of the production of a particular commodity on particular ecosystems.
The Development of an Urban Interindustry Model: 2. The Structure of the Peterborough Economy in 1968
Authors: Morrison W I
Published: October 2006

This is the second paper in a three part series being published in successive issues of this journal. The basic structure of the Peterborough economy is illustrated with the aid of two input—output tables, one showing the intraurban economic linkages, the other showing the sectoral breakdown of imports into the city. Later the direct and indirect effects of increasing sectoral final demand sales are considered with the aid of a Leontief inverse table derived from the basic transactions matrix. Finally the induced effects of household consumption are investigated by treating the household sector endogenously and computing a second inverse matrix.
Parameter Estimation in Spatial Interaction Modeling
Authors: Cesario F J
Published: October 2006

New ways of estimating the parameters of the so-called ‘doubly-constrained’ spatial interaction model are developed and tested against contemporary procedures. Two variations of the doubly-constrained model—growth-factor and interactance (that is, gravity and entropy) models—are considered: The structural characteristics of these models are specified and several new solution properties are established. Then alternative parameter-estimation strategies are formulated and tested. The proposed techniques (which solve problems that are equivalent to existing models) are shown to be inferior to current methodology with respect to all criteria related to solution speed. However, it is shown that the proposed methods are more flexible than current approaches since a wider range of assumptions can be incorporated into the analysis.
An Approach to Urban Modelling and Evaluation a Residential Model: 1. Theory
Authors: Apps Patricia F
Published: October 2006

This is the first of three papers describing a model of housing demand. The present paper sets out the theoretical framework for the model, which is based on a number of recent theories in economics. The main interest in the research lies in the development of urban models for obtaining information directly relevant to the analysis of costs and benefits for alternative urban programs, in this case housing programs. The research for the housing model, therefore, is concerned with housing services, their relative demand prices, and demand equations for these services. The second paper, “A residential model: 2. Implicit prices for housing services”, contains results for demand prices for housing characteristics as services estimated by multiple regression analysis, using data for selling price and housing characteristics from the town of Reading, Berkshire. The research described in the third paper, “A residential model: 3. Demand equations for housing services”, includes results for the wide differences in prices for similar housing between tenure groups, and for demand equations for housing services at three levels of aggregation as a function of household attributes of income, social status, stage in family cycle, and household size.
An Approach to Urban Modelling and Evaluation a Residential Model: 3. Demand Equations for Housing Services
Authors: Apps Patricia F
Published: October 2006

This is the third of three papers describing a model of housing demand calibrated with data for Reading, Berkshire. The first paper, “A residential model: 1. Theory”, presents the assumptions and the theoretical framework for the model which is based on ideas in modern microeconomics. The second paper, “A residential model: 2. Implicit prices for housing services”, describes results for housing price indices, and implicit demand prices for housing characteristics and accessibility measures as services. This third paper contains demand equations, obtained by multiple regression, for housing services aggregated at three levels as a function of household attributes such as income, social status, household size, and stage in family cycle. Further, the paper includes a study of tenure where the real housing costs paid for similar housing by different households are calculated.
Commuter Perceptions of Public Transport Work Journeys
Authors: O'Farrell P N , Markham J
Published: October 2006

Commuter perceptions of certain public transport peak-hour performance characteristics are quantified for samples of car-owning public transport users and car users in six randomly selected areas of the Dublin conurbation. The existence of roadside survey data (for buses) and timetables (for trains) has permitted an analysis of the degree of distorted perception of in-vehicle times, waiting times, and costs. Results show that the use of objective performance data on public transport modes in urban transportation planning models needs to be questioned, as actual times and costs seldom reflect the subjective images of commuters.
Accounts and Models for Spatial Demographic Analysis 2: Age—Sex Disaggregated Populations
Authors: Wilson A G , Rees P H
Published: October 2006

In an earlier paper, methods were presented for the construction of accounts and models for spatial demographic analysis. In this paper we show how these methods can be extended to deal with age-sex disaggregated populations. At the outset a new notation is introduced which facilitates disaggregation. The accounts are then defined and the basic accounting equations constructed. The appropriate rates and ‘at-risk’ populations are introduced as a preliminary to developing the equations of the account-based model. The model is also presented in transition-rate form, which facilitates comparison with alternative models.
Decision Making in Adaptive Environments
Authors: Eastman C , Penz A
Published: October 2006

The value of an adaptive environment is determined by the decision rules used to modify it. These rules are central to the effective use of such an environment, as well as forming the basis for its design. In this paper, standard replacement models are extended to provide rules for decision makers in different contexts, and applied to provide insights into the design and use of adaptive environmental systems.
An Optimizing Model of Urban Development
Authors: Ripper M , Varaiya P
Published: October 2006

This paper presents an approach to the planning of urban development using an activity analysis framework in contrast with the more prevalent simulation models. Using input-output relations for production of commodities and labor, and a specific geometry for the transportation network, the model determines an ‘efficient’ land-use pattern and transportation system by solving a linear programming problem. The model incorporates the ‘sunk’ nature of urban capital and shows how this affects the pattern of development in a growing city. From the viewpoint of data requirements and computational complexity it appears that this approach is worth pursuing in conjunction with, or as an alternative to, the efforts devoted to Lowry-type simulation models of land use.
Testing Growth-Center Hypotheses
Authors: Gaile G L
Published: October 2006

A technique developed by Casetti, King, and Odland (Casetti et al., 1971) for testing growth-center hypotheses is analyzed and found to be sound in principle, but requiring modification in certain specifics. Refinements and modifications relative to problems of scale, ‘center-specificity’, directionality, and spatial-temporal resolution are explained and demonstrated through empirical reanalysis of Casetti et al.'s original data, and also a case study of intraurban Milwaukee as a growth-center analog.
Derivation of Optimal Spatial Prices
Authors: Greenhut M L , Ohta H , Greenhut J
Published: October 2006

The price of a good prevailing at some local market point may or may not be identical to the price of that same good at another market point. Price differentials over regions depend in part upon the number and locations of firms which sell to these regions, and on the demand curves of buyers. The present paper evaluates the price policy of a firm selling over a set of linearly extended buying points. It derives the optimal spatial prices under alternative assumptions of consumer behavior and demand. It demonstrates mathematically as well as graphically that a spatial monopolist maximizes profits by subdividing his market into economic submarkets, utilizing fob mill prices for some submarkets, and optimal discriminatory prices for the remaining ones. Thus it explains the use of fob pricing over selected distances in a firm's market area notwithstanding the apparently greater profitability of a discriminatory price policy throughout a firm's market space.
Exploratory Analyses of Interindustrial Transaction Tables
Authors: Slater P B
Published: October 2006

The use of exploratory data analytical techniques to measure the relative strengths of interindustrial linkages, as well as changes over time in such linkages, is illustrated through the separate and joint examination of two 8 × 8 Yugoslavian interindustry flow matrices.
Information Theory as a Basis for Studying Environmental Complexity: Some Limitations
Authors: Betak J F
Published: October 2006

It has been proposed that humans need and prefer an optimal level of complexity in the urban environment. Information-theory formulations have been proposed as a means of evaluating environmental complexity. This paper considers the use of information theory as the basis for treating environmental complexity. Six information-theory concepts are evaluated: unexpectedness, structural complexity, metrical information, redundancy, message, and noise. Their implications and limitations for studying environmental complexity are specified. It is concluded that information theory does not provide a sound basis for studying environmental complexity.
The Spatial Structure of Newark, New Jersey
Authors: Janson C-G
Published: October 2006

Thirty-seven variables describing demographic, socioeconomic, ethnic, racial, mobility, housing, structural, and locational aspects, were factor analyzed for Newark City and for Newark metropolitan area, in 1960. Roughly corresponding orthogonal dimensions were found. They were interpreted as segregation (racial-ethnic dimension), social rank, familism, mobility, and wives' employment, respectively, with a weak additional maleness dimension emerging in the metropolitan area. The strength of the dimensions shifted from city to metropolitan area. Segregation was the most important one in the city, with social rank and familism next. The metropolitan area had social rank first and familism next. Urban-suburban mean differences were strong but could not account for the dimensional differences in strength. Suburban differentiation appeared somewhat better caught by the dimensions than its city counterpart. Three dimensions may be seen as belonging to the familism type, but they did not refer to different stages of the family cycle in the first place, as in some Scandinavian studies. All dimensions showed some zonal variation in the metropolitan area. Social rank (and maleness) also varied sectorially, and segregation had a clustered spatial pattern.
A Multiple Criteria Approach to Regional Planning Problems
Authors: Roy G G
Published: October 2006

A proposal is made for an optimality condition in regional planning problems where multiple criteria exist. This proposal is based on the relative performance of each individual criterion rather than the more usual total utility function. An example of an application is described, showing how the optimality condition might be applied in practice. Also comparisons are made in this example with a single-objective approach to the same problem to show the difference in the results obtained.
Retailing, and Prediction of Price Patterns in Urban Form Using Curvilinear Regression Analysis
Authors: Parker C S , Jerwood D
Published: October 2006

This paper examines the complex chain of interrelationships in the retail patterns of urban areas, with particular reference to the examination of low-order goods and the patterns derived therefrom in terms of both space and price. In the search for endogenous factors it is suggested that use of multivariate linear regression models might be of limited value in this particular context and that it is both conceptually appealing, and possibly more rewarding, to utilize curvilinear regression analysis on a single variable. The family chosen here is that of the generalised gamma curves and this is related to empirical evidence from Bedford and Durham to give a predictive model for the price structure/distribution in the urban system.
Structural Inference in Transportation Networks
Authors: Tapiero C S , Boots B
Published: October 2006

Using elements of both statistical inference and graph theory, this paper demonstrates how some properties of a complete network can be inferred by observing parts of it. The approach is considered especially beneficial when cost, time, or other constraints prohibit the collection of complete information on the network under consideration.
Plan, Projection, Policy—Mathematical Programming and Planning Theory
Authors: Hopkins L D
Published: October 2006

The purpose of planning models is to help determine how best to change the controllable variables of a system so that the system will move toward desired goals. In the case of public planning, the welfare criterion or planning objective is not likely to be the same as the objective function driving the behavior of the individual elements of the system. A rigorous definition of a theory of planning is provided through extensions to the linear-programming analysis of the decentralized firm in order to handle (1) the distinction between the planning objectives and behavioral objectives, and (2) the indirect determination of prices by a public agency through policies which modify existing prices sufficiently to achieve a prescribed allocation of resources. A set of three related mathematical programs is identified which yield respectively a target plan, a projection, and an optimal choice of policies. A combination of these programs defines the best solution in terms of the value of the target plan minus the cost of altering the system to achieve that target.
A Goal-Programming Approach to Planning for Population Balance in a Multiregional System
Authors: Stern H I
Published: October 2006

This paper is concerned with the problem of settlement or resettlement of a remote region through the development of a collection of interacting human settlements. It is assumed that the government specifies a fixed development budget for housing and economic programs, as well as desired population growth profiles in time and space for the planning horizon. Goal programming is used to find the spatial–temporal scheduling of new housing construction, and development of job opportunities, that minimizes the sum of the weighted deviations between predicted and desired population trajectories over all regions. Benefits and limitations of the proposed model are proffered, as well as an exposition of related work in the literature.
Traffic Restraint as a Transport Planning Policy 1: A Framework for Analysis
Authors: Wigan M R
Published: October 2006

This paper summarises the program of work carried out at TRRL up to 1971 on traffic restraint treated as a policy for transport planning. The special techniques required were developed and are described here. The theoretical framework within which local traffic effects can be treated at a strategic level is developed using marginal cost road pricing as an example, and the necessarily stringent pricing establishing the convergence, stability, and repeatability of the results is described for a practical algorithm which can readily be used in other transport planning program systems. The application of these techniques to analyse the comparative effects of different traffic restraint policies, and the variations on the techniques required to handle several groups of travellers who react differently to restraint measures, are the subject of companion papers to appear later in this journal.
…… and How Much for Your Grandmother?
Authors: Adams J G U
Published: October 2006

Environmental planners frequently make decisions about projects which cost lives. The rational calculation of the optimal sacrifice of human life requires that such lives be made commensurate with all other factors relevant to the project under consideration. The measure most favoured by decision makers in charge of complex social problems is cash. This paper discusses the significance of recent progress toward the discovery of the correct cash value of human life.
A Conceptual Discussion and an Empirical Analysis of Commercial Land-Use Succession
Authors: Lee Y
Published: October 2006

Land-use succession theory has been the most thinly developed area in the study of urban land economics. In this paper a brief review of the spotty development of the land-use succession concept is first offered, followed by a discussion of the economic arguments of commercial land-use succession and related problems in succession studies. Then, as an empirical analysis, commercial land use in downtown Denver from 1947 to 1971 is studied. Characteristics of succession are revealed first, by the description of succession by both first- and second-order probability transition matrices; and second, by an examination of the stability of succession via two different approaches. Not unexpectedly, one of the major characteristics found in the study area is the nonstationary process of land-use succession, cautioning against the danger of employing a transition matrix estimated from one time period to predict future land use.
Accessibility, Attraction, and Potential: A Review of Some Concepts and Their Use in Determining Mobility
Authors: Vickerman R W
Published: October 2006

Some confusion seems to have developed over the relationship between accessibility and travel patterns. Various concepts of attraction, accessibility, and potential are examined with the object of reaching a more satisfactory definition. Multivariate analysis of data relating to an urban area suggests that the influences of conventional accessibility indices are concealed by collinear socioeconomic variations; when these are separated there is a more pronounced relationship. It is shown that such a relationship has important consequences for urban planning.
Stochastic Analysis of Urban Development
Authors: Bell E J
Published: October 2006

Two major drawbacks prevent the wide application of Markov processes to land use and other types of planning analysis: the lack of temporal homogeneity of the transition mechanism, and the lack of independence of spatial data. In order to avoid these difficulties Gilbert (1972) proposed the use of the nonhomogeneous, two-state, continuous time Markov process and the semiMarkov process. In this paper we expand upon Gilbert's discussion and illustrate the calibration of the nonhomogeneous (birth and death) model while commenting on the empirical intractability of the semiMarkov process.
Entropy-Maximising Location Models for Nonindependent Events
Authors: Webber M J
Published: October 2006

This paper presents two kinds of entropy-maximising location model for situations in which there exist two classes of individual. In one class of model, sampling is with replacement; in the second, sampling is without replacement. These problems are solved, and interpreted as describing the distribution of items and the component classes of items by distance, size, or time. The paper emphasises methods of obtaining complete solutions to each model for certain ideal cases. The first class of model has negative exponential solutions, the second is characterised by logistic functions.
Über Einen Einfachen Gleichgewichtsfluß in Netzwerken
Authors: Leusmann C
Published: October 2006

A simple equilibrium model of network flow, based on the topological properties of a given system, is derived with the aid of matrix algebra. This model is then used to characterise the vertices and edges of a network and to analyse real deviations. It is shown that the equilibrium characteristics are independent of the nature of the flow parameters, and are determined solely by the overall structure of the network. Three examples relating to West German railway systems are given as an illustration of the ease with which the networks can be topologically characterised. An extension of the analysis to take account of transport flow beyond boundaries of a region is suggested, which, however, involves appreciable computation work. The model provides a means of carrying out dynamic transport flow analyses relevant to planning, and is an extension of conventional analyses based on Markov chains.
Accounts and Models for Spatial Demographic Analysis 3: Rates and Life Tables
Authors: Rees P H , Wilson A G
Published: October 2006

The paper begins by distinguishing, with the aid of the Lexis diagram that plots age against time, three kinds of demographic rate: age-group rates, period rates, and life-table rates. There are single-region and multiregion versions of those rates. In order to measure multiregional life-table rates, life-table accounts are developed together with an accounts based model that estimates the full accounts matrix from available data. These multiregional rates are then used to construct multiregional life tables akin to those recently proposed by Rogers. It is shown that the calculations involved in measuring the survivorship probabilities of the life table can be succinctly summarized in Stone's fundamental matrix. The detailed connections between life-table accounts and age-group accounts are explored, and the possibility of age-group life tables raised. The conclusion is reached that the age-group accounts are the appropriate ones for generating rates for use in population projection models, and that the life-table accounts are the appropriate ones for generating rates for use in actuarial calculations.
A Computer Model for the Spatial Allocation of Activities in a Region
Authors: Weil C , Hill M , Tzamir Y
Published: October 2006

A computer model for allocating activities in regional space in order to achieve multiple objectives is proposed. The application of the model is illustrated.
The Spatiotemporal Pricing of Some Urban Public Services: Urban Ecology, Equity, and Efficiency
Authors: Feldman S , Gonen A
Published: October 2006

The paper discusses pricing schemes for some public services in urban areas with regard to equity and efficiency, taking into consideration the residential geography of cities, in terms of the spatial pattern of population density and the level of income. Spatial pricing schemes that use a distance criterion, especially distance from city center, are shown to be inadequate for purposes of equity and efficiency—the reason being the weakness of distance as an underlying variable in urban social ecology. One should, therefore, resort to a pricing scheme which comes as close as possible to the actual residential pattern. This paper suggests the use of a zonal and parcel pricing scheme which takes into account data on density and income by zone, or neighborhood, and by parcel. Usually such zonal and parcel data are quite readily available and are often used for such purposes as land use regulation or property taxation. With little additional effort a more refined spatial pricing scheme would be reached, thus equity and efficiency considerations would be more properly satisfied. By introducing additional data on the spatial distribution of peak and offpeak users, such a spatial scheme could replace temporal pricing in urban areas where peak-load pricing through metering is not feasible.
Structuration De L'espace Problème Foncier et Aménagement Du Territoire
Authors: Lipietz A
Published: October 2006

La dimension spatiale de l'articulation des modes de production, dans leurs différentes branches, est la constitution d'espaces régionaux inégalement développés. Sur cette base matérielle se développent à leur tour une nouvelle division du travail et de nouveaux schémas d'accumulation, différents selon les régions (‘centres’ ou ‘périphéries’). Au stade du capital monopoliste, celui-ci peut organiser à l'échelle interrégionale des ‘circuits de branche’ profitant au maximum des fractionnements du marché du travail.

Cependant la localisation des activités économiques rencontre des contraintes extra-économiques, et notamment la propriété foncière. Non seulement le prix du sol n'est pas un guide suffisant du développement pour l'allocation de l'espace, mais encore la structure juridique de la propriété du sol, garantie des rapports sociaux hérités du passé, fait obstacle aux formes monopolistes d'appropriation de l'espace. C'est à ces deux niveaux que s'impose l'action de l'État dans l'aménagement du territoire.
Spatial Aspects of Industrial Development in Western Europe: Economic and Political Areas
Authors: Hanappe P
Published: October 2006

This paper argues that an industrial firm may exist on a regional, national, continental, or world scale. This dimension may be different for market, actual selling space, basic social existence, and plant location.

A review of the main industrial sectors in present day Europe shows that most major firms are European-sized for market, circulation of commodities, and plant-location aspects, while they are definitely national for government help and subsidies, and that very often these helps and subsidies are vital for their survival.

This contradiction helps to explain the difficulties, hazards, and accidents on the European scene. The internationalization of the economy pushes towards European integration; but the necessities of reproducing the basic conditions of production are dependent on the specific situation in each country: the function of political and ideological reproduction can nowadays be exerted only by national governments. European unification seems to be both necessary and impossible at the same time; its pursuit necessarily involves a collision course.
La Place Des Régions Françaises Dans la Division Internationale du Travail: Deux Scénarios Contrastés
Authors: Michon-Savarit Catherine
Published: October 2006

Ce document constitue une synthèse d'un travail de réflexion mené conjointement par le Laboratoire de Conjoncture et Prospective et la Société ACT, sur l'avenir de l'industrialisation des régions françaises (LCP—ACT, 1974).

Nous insisterons ici essentiellement sur la méthode et la démarche que nous avons adoptées pour tenter de répondre à cette question. En effet, l'avenir économique des différentes régions françaises est étroitement dépendant de la place occupée par la France dans la division internationale du travail (DIT).

Pour construire cette image de la France dans la DIT, nous sommes partis de deux environnements internationaux contrastés, pour mettre en lumière le lien entre la place que pourrait occuper la France dans la DIT donc l'évolution des régions françaises, et la nature des équilibres mondiaux. Nous verrons successivement:

— un résumé rapide des deux environnements internationaux, — comment à partir de chaque environnement, il découle logiquement une certaine place de la France dans la DIT, — à partir de cette image globale, comment nous avons mené l'analyse au niveau des régions, — deux exemples en guise de conclusion.
Economic Theory and Urban Planning
Authors: Oxley M J
Published: October 2006

The lack of a theoretical basis for urban planning is stressed. It is suggested that welfare economics could provide the means for analysing the problems and a framework for developing alternative courses of action. This is achieved by examining the concept of welfare optimisation, the optimality of perfect competition, and the nature of market failure.
Hierarchical Aggregation Procedures for Interaction Data
Authors: Masser I , Brown P J B
Published: October 2006

Hierarchical aggregation procedures for interaction data are considered in relation to the design of spatial systems for operational versions of interaction models. Two types of application are examined, in general terms and with reference to real situations. These deal with cases such as the delimitation of subsystems for hierarchical models where the objective is to maximise the proportion of intrazonal interaction, and cases such as the definition of internal zoning systems where an objective is to minimise the proportion of intrazonal interaction. The application of the intramax procedure is illustrated with reference to the identification of migration subsystems within Greater London and the definition of labour-market areas within Merseyside, while the application of the intramin procedure is demonstrated with respect to the design of an internal zoning system for a work-trip model of the Wirral subsystem within Merseyside.
Temporal Disaggregation of Long-Term Transition Matrices
Authors: Whitelegg J , Oliver M
Published: October 2006

Data which are measured in several characteristics and at several different points of time are sometimes available for a population. Transition matrices or mobility tables are often constructed from such ‘panel data’ and, as in the case of the Census and migration analysis, become the basis for a wide range of research activity. Problems arise when gaps appear in the series or when change needs to be tabulated over a specific interval. Several methods for estimating subinterval transition matrices are presented and evaluated, and one method is examined in an empirical situation. This is seen as a step towards full control and understanding of spatial and temporal-aggregation problems in data analysis.
Spatial Demand Models with Uniform Rate of Growth
Authors: Thomas E A C , Davies O
Published: October 2006

This paper examines the changes over time in the spatial dispersion of facilities in a bounded one-dimensional habitat. Each facility produces a single good for a unique market area and demand for the good varies inversely with distance to the nearest facility and increases uniformly over time. Production and transportation cost functions are not assumed to be linear, and it is assumed that market areas are chosen so as to minimise the average cost of producing and transporting unit amount of the good. Conditions relating the demand function to the transportation cost function are given which are necessary and/or sufficient for the size of the market area to decrease over time. It is shown that if the market area has constant size, ‘balanced growth’ occurs if and only if the demand function is of the Pareto type. Finally, the relevance to this analysis of economies of scale is discussed.
The Comparison of Means When Samples Consist of Spatially Autocorrelated Observations
Authors: Cliff A D , Ord J K
Published: October 2006

A basic assumption of many statistical methods, which is rarely satisfied by geographically-located observations, is that the data to be analysed represent (spatially) independent drawings from some population or populations. In this paper, we illustrate the disastrous consequences of the failure to meet this assumption upon applications of tests for means based upon Student's t distribution. Procedures are developed which enable such tests to be applied more appropriately in the presence of autocorrelated samples.