bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Composite Correction Program Optimizes Performance at Water Plants
Authors: Renner Robert C. , Hegg Bob A. , Bender Jon H. , Bissonette Eric M.
Published: February 2018

The two‐phase composite correction program (CCP) can help water treatment plants comply with the Surface Water Treatment Rule by optimizing plant performance without making major capital expenditures. The first phase, the comprehensive performance evaluation (CPE), is a thorough analysis that identifies performance‐limiting factors. The second phase, comprehensive technical assistance (CTA), is implemented if the CPE indicates performance can be improved. This article describes a program in which a CCP was implemented at 36 small and medium‐sized utilities; only 2 were operating optimally, and several were considered threats to public health. Insufficient resources did not significantly limit performance of small water plants; instead, the primary problems were operational. Decreasing flows and increasing operating time were judged to be a practical alternative for plants operating less than 24 hours a day. In addition, exceeding a design standard to optimize multiple‐barrier protection was found justifiable if the integrity of the overall process is maintained. Establishing adequate rate structures and motivating workers to pursue high‐quality water as a treatment objective can overcome perceived resource barriers. After CTAs at four plants, finished‐water turbidity requirements were achieved at a capital cost of less than $10,000 per plant. To achieve the maximum benefit, the CCP should be integrated with the existing state drinking water program.
Tips for Saving Energy in Pumping Operations
Authors: Walski Thomas M.
Published: February 2018

Pumps that are operating efficiently look just like those that are wasting energy. It takes some work to identify which pumps are inefficient and why. The best approach depends on the size of the utility and its budget. Pump inefficiency can be addressed at several levels that range, in order of increasing cost, from field testing of equipment to the use of optimal computer control.
Integrating Conservation Targets Into Water Demand Projections
Authors: Weber Jack A.
Published: February 2018

Virtually all variables used to forecast water demand are uncertain: population and household formation, employment and industrial growth, income and water use characteristics by customer sectors, conservation targets and performances, and weather. The key to accurate forecasting is to isolate or specify the effects of each variable so that changes in water demand that are attributable to changes in the variables over time can be accurately included in the forecasts. After a forecasting model has been properly specified, it is far more efficient to recognize the inherent error level and work with it to identify upper and lower bounds of potential water demand than to persist in fine‐tuning the model to extract the last ounce of efficiency from a limited database. The objective of this article is to briefly discuss the major methods of demand forecasting and then concentrate on measuring conservation performance and integrating conservation targets into long‐run demand projections.
Evaluation of a Field Test Kit for Monitoring Lead in Drinking Water
Authors: Schock Michael R. , George Gregory K.
Published: February 2018

This article describes a conceptual framework for designing evaluation studies of test kits for the analysis of significant drinking water constituents. A commercial test kit for the analysis of lead in tap waters was evaluated and compared with a standard graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometry (GFAAS) technique. The kit was relatively free of operator bias and had a detection limit of 4 μg/L in spiked deionized water. Above the detection limit of the kit, accuracy was comparable to that of GFAAS when samples were analyzed in triplicate. The relative precision of the kit varied with concentration. The absolute precision of the kit was about ±3 μg/L from 10 to 100 μg/L. Significant interferences were found for certain concentration thresholds of zinc, iron [Fe(II)], polyphosphate species, and orthophosphate. High concentrations of aluminum and chloride reduced method precision. Several operational changes are presented that improve precision and accuracy of the test kit for field and laboratory use.
Getting the Most From a Contract Laboratory
Authors: Eaton Andrew , Lynch Gary , Thompson Ken
Published: February 2018

With today's regulatory and staff pressures, an increasing number of water utilities are considering the use of an outside contract laboratory for all or part of their analytical needs. This article is intended as a guide for utilities in selecting a contract laboratory to best serve their requirements. Among the desirable qualities sought in an outside laboratory are current certification, a familiarity with drinking water analysis, and an established quality control program. Cost is an important but not primary consideration, because costs can be contained without a loss of efficiency. A request for proposals and subsequent bids help to eliminate unsuitable laboratories. The authors explain the importance of building a partnership with the selected laboratory in order to maximize the benefits of such an arrangement.
Water Quality Improvement Plan for Greater Vancouver
Authors: Foellmi Steven N. , Neden Douglas G. , Dawson Robert N.
Published: February 2018

The Greater Vancouver Regional District commissioned an l8‐month planning and predesign study to define the components in a comprehensive water quality improvement plan for its 2,500‐ML/d (600‐mgd) system. The study included three primary tasks: (1) predesign of disinfection and corrosion control facilities, (2) a 12‐month pilot testing program using parallel pilot plants at the Seymour and Capilano water supply reservoirs, and (3) planning for future filtration plants. The results of the study identified chlorine, ammonia, sulfur dioxide, soda ash, and carbon dioxide in a two‐stage treatment approach as the recommended disinfection and corrosion control scheme for the low‐pH, low‐alkalinity water supplies. The pilot‐plant studies confirmed that direct filtration using deep‐bed monomedium filters operating at a loading rate of 22.5 m/h provided excellent treatment performance and productivity over a wide range of raw‐water quality. Ozonation was studied extensively and found not to be beneficial in the overall treatment performance. A major conclusion of the study was that the district could achieve significant cost benefit from a combined 1,900‐ML/d (500‐mgd) filtration facility for both the Seymour and Capilano supplies even though a 6.7‐km rock tunnel would have to be constructed to facilitate this concept. The phased improvement plan for the disinfection, corrosion control, and filtration facilities has an estimated capital cost of about Can$459 million.
Calculating C × T Compliance
Authors: Martin Peter
Published: February 2018

The spreadsheet described here demonstrates a technique for calculating CT Values compliance for two modes of disinfection: free chlorine and chloramine. The same approach would be used for CT calculations with other disinfectants. The spreadsheet allows CT monitoring to be done frequently and efficiently, and it is easy to use, even for operators that do not have prior computer experience.
Effects of ozonation on coagulation of NOM using polymer alone and polymer/metal salt mixtures
Authors: Edwards Marc , Benjamin Mark M. , Tobiason John E.
Published: February 2018

The possible benefits of reduced coagulant demand and head loss resulting from preozonation must be weighed against increased organic matter in the finished water.

Prior investigations have identified many of the mechanisms by which natural organic matter (NOM), coagulant, and particles interact in ozonated systems. This study investigated the effects of ozonation on coagulation with cationic polymer and with polymer‐metal salt mixtures. Preozonation decreased the concentration of NOM that reacts with polymer, reducing organic carbon removal, polymer coagulant demand, and the rate of head loss buildup during direct filtration. The effects of ozonation in systems using dual coagulants (alum‐polymer or ferric chloride‐polymer) were a blend of the effects observed for the coagulants individually.
Penalties for SDWA and CWA violations
Authors: Rubin Kenneth A.
Published: February 2018

From reasonable penalties to deliberate overkill, USEPA has imposed sanctions on water utilities that violate the Safe Drinking Water Act or the Clean Water Act.

Although the number of enforcement actions against water suppliers to date has been limited, increasing regulation means that utilities are more likely to face US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) sanctions under the Safe Drinking Water Act and, to some extent, the Clean Water Act. In this article the author reviews possible criminal and civil actions—the latter consisting of administrative and court actions and citizens' suits—and briefly describes eight cases that exemplify various enforcement actions taken in the last few years. Large monetary penalties are not USEPA's usual goal in acting against a water supplier unless the supplier deliberately makes false reports. Instead, USEPA usually seeks to impose fines that match the amount a violator saved by not complying with regulations. Reorganization last fall at USEPA created the Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance, which indicates the agency's intention to streamline enforcement efforts.
Costs and benefits of current SDWA regulations
Authors: Auerbach Jan
Published: February 2018

The total national cost of compliance with current SDWA‐mandated drinking water regulations is estimated to be $1.4 billion annually for public water systems.

In 1993 Congress directed the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to prepare a report examining the technical and economic capacity of states and public water systems to implement USEPA drinking water regulations. As part of the report, USEPA was required to address the costs and benefits of current regulations. USEPA submitted the “Chafce Report”—so called because Senators John Chafee (R‐R.I.) and Frank Lautenberg (D‐N.J.) wrote the amendment that required it— to Congress in September 1993. This article summarizes the portions of the report1 that provide demographic information about public water systems and a summary of USEPA's estimates of the costs and benefits of those regulations.
A survey of BOM in US drinking waters
Authors: Kaplan Louis A. , Reasoner Donald J. , Rice Eugene W.
Published: February 2018

The data collected in this survey represent the first comparison of three methods for measuring biodegradable organic matter in a wide range of US drinking waters.

Bacteria that pose a public health threat through their potential regrowth in water distribution systems derive energy and carbon for their growth from biodegradable organic matter. Three methods for determining biodegradable organic matter—which is necessary if the process of bacterial regrowth is to be fully understood—were compared in this study of a broad range of US drinking waters and treatment processes: the assimilable organic carbon (AOC) assay, the biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC) assay, and the coliform growth response (CGR). The source of water—surface water versus groundwater—had a strong influence on AOC and BDOC. The correlations between AOC and BDOC, between AOC and dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and between BDOC and DOC were statistically significant. CGR did not correlate well with either AOC or BDOC. The authors caution that these data are limited and urge increased focus on individual systems.
Water conservation for Rhode Island lawns
Authors: McCann Alyson , Gold Arthur J. , Mallon Kathleen , Gorres Josef
Published: February 2018

Computer modeling helped Rhode Island water professionals choose the best way to educate consumers about lawn irrigation.

In 1989, water professionals in Rhode Island developed a program for home lawn irrigation scheduling that adapted an agricultural soil moisture model for use on home lawns. The key to the program, which emphasized supplemental watering only, was a “water factor” that was developed from daily simulation models for lawns on two soil textures. The program was pilot‐tested in 1990 and ran statewide in the 1991 growing season. The simulation model relied on a single weather station for moisture data. Analysis of rainfall amounts suggested that computerized irrigation scheduling for home lawns requires spatially explicit data. Variability in factors such as rooting depth and soil composition caused additional concern about the accuracy of the recommendations. It was concluded the computerized farm‐based irrigation scheduling programs for the Northeast cannot be easily adapted to home lawn water management over a broad area. Instead, emphasis should be placed on linking sprinkler calibration rates to soil types. Low‐maintenance landscaping also should be encouraged in suburban areas.
Implications of discharging potable water in Southern California
Authors: Beuhler Mark D. , III Edward G. Means
Published: February 2018

Water utility managers need to consider a wide range of effects when controlling discharge parameters.

Controlling periodic discharges of potable water into streambeds, reservoirs, and flood‐control channels presents a wide range of challenges for water utility managers. The authors examine the physical, chemical, and biological effects of discharges, which are regulated by the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System program. They also warn that future regulation of discharges will become more severe, limiting options for utilities and making permits more difficult to obtain.
Monitoring waivers for Phase II and Phase V regs
Authors: Ley Mary Ellen
Published: February 2018

An assessment program to evaluate the vulnerability of wells to contamination enabled Wisconsin to waive some monitoring requirements.

In 1992, student interns assessed the vulnerability of Wisconsin's 3,650 community and nontransient drinking water wells to contamination from pesticides and volatile organic chemicals. This article describes the development of criteria, the assessment process, and the number of waivers issued during the vulnerability assessment program. Cost to the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources of development and implementation for the first three‐year monitoring period was $400,000. Monitoring waivers will save water systems about $18 million in initial monitoring costs and target resources to problem sites. Sample results to date indicate that fewer than 5 percent of the most vulnerable wells are contaminated.
Evaluating surrogates for disinfection by‐products
Authors: Najm Issam N. , Patania Nancy L. , Jacangelo Joseph G. , Krasner Stuart W.
Published: February 2018

Data analysis suggests that UV‐254 absorbance is a better indicator than TOC concentration for chlorination by‐product formation in SDS tests—and is substantially easier, faster, and less costly to measure.

Each of four low‐bromide waters was coagulated at three pH values (5.5, 7.0, and 8.0), and then simulated distribution system (SDS) chlorination tests were performed. The object of the study was to determine whether total organic carbon (TOC) or UV‐254 absorbance can be employed as an indicator of the trihalomethane (THM) and haloacetic acid (HAA) concentrations formed upon chlorination. Results showed that removal of TOC and UV‐254 always increased with decreasing coagulation pH, but the extent of removal varied with the different waters. Maximum reduction of SDSTHM and SDSHAA5 formation was achieved after coagulation at pH 5.5. UV‐254 proved to be a better surrogate for chlorinated by‐product formation than TOC. The applicability of the correlations to waters with higher bromide levels and different chlorination pH values should be evaluated.
Laboratory‐scale testing of a continuous CLAS process
Authors: Bhowmick Madhumita , Semmens Michael J.
Published: February 2018

No gases were released to the atmosphere when UV photooxidation was incorporated in a continuous closed‐loop air‐stripping process for removing volatile organic chemicals from water.

The removal of five volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) was evaluated by passing the contaminated water once through a hollow‐fiber‐membrane module that received a countercurrent flow of air recycled from an ultraviolet (UV) photooxidation chamber. VOC removal was measured experimentally under a variety of operating conditions. The results compared favorably with the behavior predicted by a mathematical model of the process. When operated as a closed‐loop process, the photooxidation of the VOCs in the gas phase has several advantages over conventional air‐stripping with off‐gas treatment: the end products are reabsorbed back into the water flow; no exhaust gases are released to the atmosphere; and no adsorbent regeneration or disposal costs are incurred.
Arsenic occurrence: USEPA seeks clearer picture
Authors: Reid Joe
Published: February 2018

USEPA is combining existing data with new survey results in anticipation of proposing a revised arsenic rule next year.

With a November 1995 deadline for proposing a new regulation for arsenic, the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has been moving to develop a clearer picture of arsenic occurrence and exposure throughout the United States. This article summarizes the studies that are the basis for USEPA's estimates of preliminary occurrence and exposure for arsenic, including several newer surveys that add information about low‐level occurrences. The article does not attempt to evaluate the methodology or conclusions of these studies or to weigh the relative importance of one study over another. Better estimates of arsenic occurrence at levels as low as 0.5 μg/L have particular importance, because USEPA could consider a new arsenic limit below 0.05 mg/L. Preliminary occurrence estimates from USEPA show that arsenic occurs primarily in the source water of smaller (serving fewer than 10,000 people) groundwater systems in the western United States.
Alum sludge land application and its effect on plant growth
Authors: Lucas Jay B. , Dillaha Theo A. , Reneau Raymond B. , Novak John T. , Knocke William R.
Published: February 2018

Addition of phosphorus fertilizer corrected the phosphorus deficiency found in fescue grass at higher sludge application rates.

These investigators conducted three greenhouse experiments to determine the impact of alum sludge from the Harwood's Mill water treatment plant, Newport News, Va., on the growth and chemical composition of fescue grass. Fescue yields decreased with increased sludge addition, a trend that was attributed to reductions in plant‐available phosphorus (P) at higher loadings. Supplemental P fertilization corrected this deficiency. Lime addition did not affect yield. The presence of manganese and copper in the sludge increased metal uptake by the plants but did not affect yield.
The effect of shear on the dewatering of water treatment residuals
Authors: Novak John T. , Bandak Nazih
Published: February 2018

Conditioning with an appropriate polymer at the optimum dosage reduces the tendency of alum sludge to deteriorate under shear and, thus, leads to better dewatering.

These researchers investigated, at bench scale, the dewatering performance of drinking‐water treatment plant sludges under varying shear conditions and the effect of conditioning with polymers. It was found that unconditioned alum sludges fracture during mixing and are more sensitive to the intensity of shear than to the mixing time. Polymers reduce this tendency to deteriorate, with the dosage required for the best dewatering depending on both the mixing time and the intensity of shear. Lime‐softening sludges do not deteriorate when subjected to shear
Gaining Access to Capital Markets
Authors: Raftelis George
Published: February 2018

Financial experts discuss how to shop the bond market.

Participants in this Roundtable met in New York, N.Y., on June 21, 1994. Moderator was George Raftelis of Raftelis Environmental Consulting Group Inc., 6100 Fairview Tower, Charlotte, NC 28210. Other participants were J. Chester Johnson, chairman of Government Finance Associates Inc., 71 Broadway, Suite 1301, New York, NY 10006; Edward S. Krauss, vice‐president of the Public Finance Department, Moody's Investors Service, 99 Church St., New York, NY 10006; Thomas E. Taylor, executive director of Upper Trinity Regional Water District, 396 W. Main St., Lewisville, TX 75067; and Clarence O. Warnstaff, director of public utilities, City of Virginia Beach, Municipal Center, Virginia Beach, VA 23456.
Inside H.R. 226
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Among legislation introduced on the first day of the 104th Congress was H.R. 226, a Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) reauthorization bill. Identical to H.R. 3392, passed by the House in the 103rd Congress, the bill was introduced by John Dingell (D‐Michigan), ranking minority member of the House Commerce Committee and its Health and Environment Subcommittee. Dingell introduced the measure to serve as a starting point for reauthorization discussions in this session of Congress. He chaired the House committee that marked up the bill passed by the 103rd Congress. This article summarizes H.R. 226, which will be a factor in the debate on SDWA reauthorization.
An evaluation of algal enumeration
Authors: Rashash Diana M.C. , Gallagher Daniel L.
Published: February 2018

The data presented here can be used by water utility personnel who use the Palmer–Maloney method to approximate the standard deviation of their algal counts relative to the observed cell density.

The Palmer–Maloney (P–M) counting chamber method, as described in Standard Methods section 10200‐F.2b, was used to enumerate 10 different unialgal cultures representing three algal morphologic types (i.e., colonial, unicellular, and filamentous). The standard deviations of counts obtained by the P–M method were not constant. Although the absolute standard deviation increased with increasing cell density, the relative standard deviation decreased from >30 percent at low cell density to <10 percent at high cell density. Variability among the three morphological types was similar.
Inorganic metal polymers: preparation and characterization
Authors: Gray Kimberly A. , Yao Chonghua , O'Melia Charles R.
Published: February 2018

It is possible to produce stable preparations of partially neutralized aluminum chloride solutions in which cationic aluminum polyelectrolytes predominate, but attempts to produce similar stable preparations containing cationic iron(III) polyelectrolytes were unsuccessful.

One method to improve the effectiveness of inorganic metal coagulants in water treatment is to partially neutralize concentrated metal salt solutions prior to their addition to the raw water and thus preform polymeric metal species, the actual coagulants. In this way coagulant chemistry can be controlled and proper solution conditions for the formation of desired coagulant species can be maintained. This article compares polymeric preparations of aluminum and ferric chloride salts with respect to preparation parameters and the extent and stability of polymerization.
Integrated planning: a common‐sense approach
Authors: Borak Jonathan , Giannini Paul
Published: February 2018

Planning that integrates the various regulatory requirements applicable to water utilities is a practical way to anticipate emergencies.

Overlapping federal emergency planning requirements are imposed on all but the smallest water and wastewater facilities. The various regulations pose complex challenges to facility managers, who must balance the legal need to prepare written plans responsive to individual laws with the practical need that response plans be clear and consistent. The integrated emergency planning process enables utilities to appreciate potential regulatory conflicts and accommodate them in a plan that can be readily implemented, meets legal requirements, and is less expensive to create and maintain. The integrated emergency planning process begins with an understanding of the various laws and regulations.
Setting Standards: Risk Assessment Issues
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

How drinking water standards are set and which contaminants should be regulated are central issues in reauthorization of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). Suggested amendments to the standard‐setting provisions of the SDWA cover a broad spectrum. In general, environmental groups argue that standards are not strict enough and that greater consideration should be given to sensitive sub‐populations. Others note that the high cost associated with meeting increasingly strict standards is unjustified in light of the uncertain and sometimes nonexistent incremental benefits. This column takes a look at the issues involved in developing a rational approach for establishing drinking water standards. It reviews the current US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to set standards. The second part of this series will review legislative proposals offered in the 104th Congress to change the standard‐setting process.
Water Treatment: The Next Generation
Authors: Symons James M.
Published: February 2018

Throughout the twentieth century, our goals for treating surface water have remained essentially the same as they were in the early 1900s‐‐to remove particles and inactivate pathogens. The author's stance is that as the turn of the century approaches, many water suppliers are taking the first steps toward adding new goals for surface water treatment.
Hourly monitoring of single‐family residential areas
Authors: Rhoades Stephen D.
Published: February 2018

A project in Austin, Texas, provides the city with the statistical basis for refining customer class categories and updating the rate structure.

For several summers Austin, Texas, has used transit‐time ultrasonic meters to monitor hourly water use and derive coincident and noncoincident daily and hourly peaking factors for a sample of the city's single‐family residential customer class. These data have been used in a formal cost‐of‐service study for setting cost‐based rates. Additionally, the data have set the stage for operational, conservation, and pricing studies.
Giardia and Cryptosporidium in raw and finished water
Authors: LeChevallier Mark W. , Norton William D.
Published: February 2018

The D/DBP Rule and the ESWTR must be orchestrated carefully to ensure protection of public health.

The American Water System has conducted extensive monitoring of its operations since 1988. Analysis of 347 surface water samples collected between 1988 and 1993 showed that the prevalence rate of Giardia and Cryptosporidium was 53.9 percent and 60.2 percent, respectively. But because the parasite assay does not indicate viability or virulence, these results do not necessarily indicate that these water systems were at risk from waterborne pathogens. To supplement coagulation and filtration, the average system will have to apply sufficient disinfection to reduce viable Giardia levels by 3.1 log10. An analysis of existing disinfection practices shows that most systems are already applying disinfectant at a level sufficient to reduce Giardia levels. However, the proposed Disinfectants/Disinfection By‐products (D/DBP) Rule may hamper the ability of water utilities to apply sufficient disinfection under current operating conditions. Careful integration of the D/DBP and the Enhanced Surface Water Treatment rule is encouraged.
Developing an action level for Cryptosporidium
Authors: Haas Charles N. , Rose Joan B.
Published: February 2018

The authors suggest yardsticks to gauge the significance of finished water oocyst densities.

From consideration of prior monitoring studies on finished water Cryptosporidium and measurements made during and after detected outbreaks, an action level for Cryptosporidium oocysts is defined. At concentrations within and above 10–30 oocysts/100 L in finished water, the possibility of an outbreak would appear to exist. In the lower range of this region and below, outbreaks may occur but may not be detectable. If a single sample exhibits counts at or above this level, further sampling on an expedited basis or consideration of supplemental performance data to support a decision should be undertaken.
Slow sand filters for a small water system
Authors: Riesenberg Felix , Walters Brien B. , Steele Andy , Ryder Robert A.
Published: February 2018

Slow sand filtration improved water quality in Camptonville, Calif.

Slow sand filtration was selected to meet the Surface Water Treatment Rule requirements for the community of Camptonville, Calif. The slow sand filtration facility uses precast concrete vaults, hauled by truck to the site and laid out in a linear arrangement to adjust to the contour of the steep hillside site. This alternative filtration process is credited by the California Department of Health Services with 2‐log Giardia and 1‐log virus reduction. A 3‐log Giardia and 4‐log virus removal can be achieved with disinfection. The facility began operation in December 1991 and has maintained a treated water turbidity <1.0 ntu, despite stream turbidities of >30 ntu. The process effectively removes high levels of iron and manganese from the community's backup groundwater supply. In addition, low construction and operating and maintenance costs have kept customers' costs down.
Establishing Regulatory Priorities
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Statutory deadlines for setting regulations under the 1986 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) have not been met. Faced with limited resources, the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has historically set regulatory priorities based on perceived need, politics, and legal deadlines. This has resulted in a fragmented regulatory program and confusion on the part of the regulated community and on the part of other stakeholders. Even though the agency has been subject to court‐imposed deadlines for most new regulations, resource limitations have caused these deadlines to be missed, resulting in new court‐imposed deadlines.
Small Systems Eye Possible Funding Revolution
Authors: Miller Ellen G. , Howell Mary , Saxena Sanjay
Published: February 2018

The Safe Drinking Water Act reform bill passed by the US Senate in November and a similar bill expected to come before the House of Representatives early this year propose state revolving funds (SRFs) for drinking water systems. The authors discuss the impacts this bill will have on small systems, and how to prepare for this change.
Using Computers to Find Federal Legislative and Regulatory Information
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Computer‐based resources for legislative and regulatory information have increased in recent years as computer technology has advanced. Much information available previously only to “insiders” or at a premium price can now be easily accessed, depending on the computer equipment available, the information source, and the experience of the user. This article reviews several options available for obtaining federal drinking water legislative and regulatory information using computer technology.
An update of the federal regs
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Because of resource limitations and pending reauthorization of the Safe Drinking Water Act, the pace of regulatory activity has slowed considerably.

This article reports the current developments related to rules promulgated or proposed under the Safe Drinking Water Act, such as the Lead and Copper Rule, Phase V Rule, the Disinfectants/Disinfection By‐products Rule (including the Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule and the Information Collection Rule), the Radionuclides Rule, and the Sulfate Rule. Anticipated new rules that will update analytical methods, reestablish regulatory priorities, and streamline revisions to current regulations are reviewed as well.
Developing the Ground Water Disinfection Rule
Authors: Macler Bruce A.
Published: February 2018

A different logic must be applied to regulations for systems that use true groundwater.

The US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) is developing requirements for disinfection of groundwater‐based drinking water systems. The Ground Water Disinfection Rule regulatory workgroup, made up of representatives from USEPA, states, utilities, and other interested parties, recognizes that most drinking water systems using true groundwater supplies are substantially different from those using surface water. These differences have as much to do with the systems' relative sizes and economic circumstances as with the source water and types and degree of treatment currently in place. This article discusses the context, issues, status, and directions of this rule.
Public–private partnerships
Authors: Shanker Amy , Rodman Len
Published: February 2018

For some water utilities, in some areas of operation, private‐sector involvement may hold the key to improved service and a healthier bottom line.

Privatization is being considered as a way to increase competition and achieve more cost‐effective infrastructure improvements in US public utilities. A broader term—public–private partnerships—includes full privatization as well as other innovative ways through which water utilities can increase their competitiveness. Among other techniques are contract services, turnkey facility construction, and developer financing. Many of these techniques enable utilities to operate and treat more efficiently and to reap cost benefits. Drawbacks to private involvement may but do not necessarily include labor problems, lack of control by the utility, and lack of support from the community.
Influence of NOM composition on nanofiltration
Authors: Nilson James A. , DiGiano Francis A.
Published: February 2018

Hydrophilic NOM caused little permeate flux decline and was poorly rejected compared with hydrophobic NOM.

The influence of natural organic matter (NOM) composition on the rejection of total organic carbon (TOC), permeate water flux, and the strength and amount of NOM association with the membrane was examined in bench‐scale nanofiltration studies. NOM composition was manipulated by fractionation into hydrophilic and hydrophobic components and by powdered activated carbon (PAC) pretreatment with subsequent dilution to control for TOC concentration. Hollow‐fiber nanofilters made of negatively charged polysulfone were used in a batch recycle system. Hydrophobic NOM was shown to be responsible for nearly all permeate flux decline and was more highly rejected by the membrane than hydrophilic NOM. Using membrane‐feed solutions with the same TOC concentration, the authors found that the NOM remaining in solution after PAC pretreatment caused greater permeate flux decline and was more poorly rejected than the original mixture of NOM. NOM recovered from the membrane after nanofiltration was predominantly high‐molecular‐weight material (i.e., > 30,000 daltons).
Optimizing Treatment: Now Is the Time
Authors: Logsdon Gary S. , Harms Leland L.
Published: February 2018

During this century, Americans served by public water systems have come to expect safe drinking water whenever they turn on a faucet. Since passage of the Safe Drinking Water Act, the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has set drinking water quality standards‐‐maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) or treatment techniques‐‐for health protection. Although carrying out best management and operating practices is costly, it is important that water treatment be optimized in order to protect the health of the community and meet the requirements of the Information Collection Rule (ICR). Since data obtained under the ICR will be made available for public review and comment, the time to optimize treatment is now, before problems arise.
Expanding Horizons
Authors: Wiley Rockford D.
Published: February 2018

Rockford D. Wiley, informally and widely known as “Rocky,” takes over the gavel as president of AWWA this month. He was interviewed at AWWA headquarters by Mary A. Parmelee, MainStream editor and contributing editor to the Journal. Wiley is manager of general planning for Denver (Colo.) Water and has represented the utility on the Governor's Metropolitan Water Roundtable and advisory committees to the Denver Regional Council of Governments (DRCOG). He has been a member of AWWA for 25 years, serving as local chair of the 1986 annual conference in Denver, chair of the Rocky Mountain Section, and the section's director. His civic and professional endeavors have been acknowledged by awards from AWWA, DRCOG, the Optimist Club, and his alma mater, Colorado State University. He holds a bachelor of science degree in civil engineering and is qualified as an expert witness in water utility planning and operations, hydraulic design, population and customer class projections, and water use and demand forecasting.
Building a Cross‐Connection Control Program
Authors: Hopkins Elizabeth , Ansley Charles
Published: February 2018

Establishing and maintaining a cross connection program can be expensive and labor intensive, especially for small systems. In Texas, the Fort Worth Water Department provides cross connection assistance to 23 small systems in the same county. While not all large systems offer this kind of voluntary support, operators of small systems should ask for help from larger systems. An effective and efficient cross connection program does not necessarily have to be on a large scale to succeed. Borrow ideas from existing programs and make use of information clearinghouses. By being actively involved and providing input about cross connection, small systems can benefit from new legislation and ensure that it addresses their needs as well as those of the large systems.
ICR survival guide
Authors: Nieminski Eva C. , Chaudhuri Sanwat , Flint Tage I. , Paxman Scott W. , Reynolds Florence P. , Carman John R.
Published: February 2018

Utah utilities gained practical experience during an 18‐month practice run of quarterly analyses under the ICR protocol.

In August 1994, in a cooperative, nonregulatory effort, a pre‐Information Collection Rule (ICR) testing program was initiated by Utah Division of Drinking Water, Utah Department of Health Laboratory, and the five largest water utilities in Utah. As part of a larger water quality enhancement program, the participating utilities conducted quarterly analyses under the ICR protocol for 18 months. Samples were collected from 10 plants and analyzed according to proposed ICR protocols for general water quality, microbial contaminants, and disinfection by‐products. Two utilities and the Utah Division of Drinking Water participated in the alpha and beta testing of the ICR utility software, and the ICR laboratory software was tested at the Utah Department of Health Laboratory. The experience gained in this effort in determining the time, effort, and resources necessary for sampling, testing, and reporting and in finding practical solutions to potential problems should help utilities across the country prepare for the ICR.
Multiagency approach to water quality enhancement
Authors: Nieminski Eva C. , Reynolds Florence P. , Carman John R. , Flint Tage I. , Pitcher David O. , Paxman Scott W.
Published: February 2018

Important public health protection benefits can result from the type of cooperative effort the authors describe.

The five largest water utilities in Utah and the State Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) formed the Utah Water Quality Alliance to strive to produce drinking water of the best quality. The alliance was designed to monitor both source water and treated water quality, optimize treatment processes, and evaluate new technologies to further reduce contaminants of concern. The alliance's activities fulfilled many of the criteria of a subsequently proposed national water quality enhancement program, the Partnership for Safe Water. Each utility has benefited from this multiagency and cooperative approach by opening communication lines, securing additional funding through the participation of the state DEQ, and sharing expertise to accomplish complex tasks such as tracer studies and extensive monitoring programs (e.g., the pre‐Information Collection Rule study).
The Las Vegas cryptosporiisis outbrak
Authors: Roefer Peggy A. , Monscvitz J.T. , Rexing David J.
Published: February 2018

An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in a drinking water system with no apparent treatment deficiencies or breakdowns suggests that waterborne outbreaks are a potential threat in other US cities.

When Las Vegas, Nev., experienced an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in the AIDS population early in 1994, the Clark County Health District requested that the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) assist in determining the cause of the outbreak. Results of CDC's epidemiological study indicated that AIDS patients drinking tap water in Las Vegas are at greater risk of contracting cryptosporidiosis than if they consume bottled or filtered water. An AWWA Research Foundation peer review panel concurred with the CDC that the epidemiologic evidence pointed to tap water as the only risk factor in the outbreak. The paradox of this outbreak is that the influent water quality at the treatment plant did not change, no treatment breakdowns or deficiencies were identified, and the outbreak ended as suddenly as it began, with no changes in water treatment.
Mathematical modeling of PAC adsorption processes
Authors: Najm Issam N.
Published: February 2018

Easy‐to‐use models for PAC adsorption processes are presented.

Recently, great strides have been made in modeling the adsorption of organic compounds onto powdered activated carbon (PAC), specifically with the conversion of the partial differential equations of the homogeneous surface diffusion model to algebraic nonlinear equations. The solutions of these equations are easy to obtain using nonlinear equation‐solving techniques (such as Newton's method) and are as accurate as the partial differential equation solutions obtained using labor‐intensive numerical techniques. A new method using these algebraic equations has been developed to determine the value of the surface diffusion coefficient Ds from adsorption batch kinetic tests. A nondimensional parameter λ = (t Ds/R2) can be used to evaluate the performance of PAC in a continuous‐flow process. A λ value > 0.1 implies that the adsorption process is highly efficient, in that more than 75 percent of the PAC adsorption capacity is being utilized. On the other hand, a λ value < 0.01 implies that the adsorption process is highly inefficient, in that less than 30 percent of the PAC adsorption capacity is being utilized.
Integrating conservation into water supply planning
Authors: Maddaus William O. , Gleason Gwendolyn , Darmody John
Published: February 2018

How can water suppliers achieve an appropriate balance between capacity expansion and conservation?

Finding an appropriate balance between capacity expansion and conservation can result in quantifiably reduced demand, which yields benefits for water utilities. One benefit is reduction in operation and maintenance expenses, because less pumping energy and fewer chemicals are used in the acquisition, treatment, and disposal of water. Another benefit is the deferral or downsizing of capital facilities. Comparing current supply with projected demand aids in the identification of future needs for demand management or increased supply. In addition to cost factors, nonmonetary factors, including environmental effects, should be considered. In this article, case studies from Texas, California, Idaho, and New Zealand illustrate this balancing process.
Acceptable Microbial Risk
Authors: Haas Charles N.
Published: February 2018

Given that it is technically impossible for suppliers to always produce drinking water that is totally free of pathogens, the question of how many pathogens can be tolerated (and how frequently they can be tolerated) arises. In assessing microbial risks associated with drinking water, the benchmark of one infection in 10,000 people per year has often been cited. Estimation of this acceptable risk level occurred in the later 1980s. It is becoming apparent that some key factors used for computing this acceptable risk level are incorrect and that this benchmark may be too stringent. In the writer's viewpoint, the current benchmark must be reconsidered.
Watershed protection for New York City's supply
Authors: Ashendorff Arthur , Principe Michael A. , Seeley Anne , LaDuca John , Beckhardt Larry , Faber Walter , Mantus Jeff
Published: February 2018

New York City is making every effort to protect its watershed to assure water quality and maintain filtration avoidance.

Since 1987, New York City has enhanced its comprehensive watershed monitoring program (including pathogen monitoring), developed a disease surveillance and outbreak detection program, and implemented a watershed protection program that has improved water quality. The city recognized that high‐quality source water and effective watershed protection are the foundation of filtration avoidance under the federal Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR). Accordingly, the city applied for and received filtration avoidance determinations for the Catskill and Delaware portions of its system. This article summarizes the city's water quality data and watershed monitoring and protection programs in the context of the SWTR. A Watershed Memorandum of Agreement, signed Jan. 21, 1997, provides for land acquisition, updated watershed regulations, and partnership programs. As part of the watershed agreement, USEPA issued a four‐month interim filtration avoidance and will issue a revised filtration avoidance later in 1997. Provided the city meets certain provisions, this will allow it to avoid filtering the Catskill and Delaware supplies until at least Apr. 15, 2002.
FPA of selected odorous compounds
Authors: Rashash Diana M.C. , Dietrich Andrea M. , Hoehn Robert C.
Published: February 2018

Flavor profile analysis proves to be a reliable method of evaluating odors in water, especially when performed by well‐trained panelists using familiar descriptors.

The odors of 15 organic compounds were evaluated by the flavor profile analysis (FPA) method. The FPA data were well described by the Weber‐Fechner law, as indicated by the R2 values (0.6–0.99). Odor threshold concentrations were obtained and ranged from <0.01 μg/L (geosmin, 2‐methylisoborneol, and 2t,6c‐nonadienal) to 60 μg/L (phenethyl alcohol). Changes in qualitative descriptors were observed among structurally related compounds and with changes in compound concentration; thus, exposing FPA panelists to a variety of compounds, each at several concentrations, will aid in familiarizing the panelists with the diverse odor descriptors that can be encountered.
Evaluating an AOP for TCE and PCE removal
Authors: Karimi Ali A. , Redman Jeremy A. , Glaze William H. , Stolarik Gary F.
Published: February 2018

The authors evaluate an AOP by introducing elevated TCE and PCE into groundwater and propose a chemical kinetic model for evaluating AOP performance.

A full‐scale evaluation of an advanced oxidation process (AOP) involving the use of ozone (O3) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) at a 126‐L/s (2,000‐gpm) flow rate was completed in a plug‐flow hydraulic regime by the Los Angeles (Calif.) Department of Water and Power. This facility is the first full‐scale AOP for trichloroethylene (TCE) and tetrachloroethylene (PCE) treatment in the United States, if not the world. The purpose of this study was to challenge the performance of the plant with typical groundwater pollutants, propose a kinetic model for the process, and confirm past laboratory and pilot studies. Groundwater containing up to 447 μg/L TCE and 163 μg/L PCE was treated to below the maximum contaminant (MCL) level of 5 μg/L. The optimum H2O2/O3 dose ratio was 0.5–0.6. Removal efficiency of TCE and PCE declined as groundwater alkalinity increased. Investigation of by‐product formation showed formation of assimilable organic carbon and bromate following the treatment process. A kinetic model calibrated using the experimental data predicted the concentration of TCE and PCE in the finished water reasonably well.