bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Portrayal of Aggression on North American Television1
Authors: Williams Tannis MacBeth , Zabrack Merle L , Joy Lesley A.
Published: August 2006

The past decade has seen an accumulation of evidence that TV viewing influences beliefs about social reality, particularly in areas related to violence. Detailed content analyses of the portrayal of aggression on North American television were conducted in an attempt to document some of the symbolic messages in television content and the extent to which those messages vary according to program category. The TV sample analyzed consisted of 109 programs (81 hours) chosen on the basis of audience viewing figures; 76% were produced in the U.S.A. and 22% in Canada. An average of 9 acts of physical aggression and 7.8 acts of verbal aggression per program hour were observed, but both type and rate of aggression varied by program category. Other methods of conflict resolution occurred rarely, and few witnesses sought alternatives to aggression. Less than 2% of the aggression observed was accidental, and most (69%) was incidental to the plot. Aggression, especially verbal abuse, was often portrayed as humorous, and there was little evidence of consequences. Some differences between Canadian and U.S. programming were noted. The possibility of using schema theory to understand the role of television in the development of beliefs about social reality is explored.
Fat, Four‐Eyed, and Female: Stereotypes of Obesity, Glasses, and Gender1
Authors: Harris Mary B. , Harris Richard J. , Bochner Stephen
Published: August 2006

In a between‐subjects design, 46 male and 101 female Australian university students rated a target person described as male or female, overweight or average weight, and wearing glasses or not, on twelve 7‐point rating scales. As predicted, a negative stereotype of the overweight person and a complex one of the person with glasses were found. However, there was no significant effect of sex of target except on the ratings of masculine and feminine and no interaction of sex of target with either the glasses or obesity variables. Nor did sex of subject influence the ratings. The results suggest that, although stereotypes of obesity and glasses do exist, they may be as severe for men as for women.
Beyond Fairness: The Criterion Problem in Research on Dispute Intervention1
Authors: Lissak Robin I. , Sheppard Blair H.
Published: August 2006

Recent research has demonstrated that parties to a dispute attend to, and make evaluations of, the procedures that are used to resolve disputes. A central focus of this research has been on procedural and distributive fairness. Two studies were conducted in an attempt to identify criteria used by parties to organizational disputes to choose and evaluate dispute resolution procedures. Sixteen criteria were identified, including fairness. In a third study, these criteria were also found to be relevant to police officers involved in crisis intervention. Discussion focuses on the implication of these findings for theories of dispute resolution, for general issues in the psychology of fairness, and for practical concerns.
The Effect of Brief Lamaze Training and Social Encouragement on Pain Endurance in a Cold Pressor Tank1
Authors: Worthington Everett L. , Martin Glen A. , Shumate Michael , Carpenter Johnice
Published: August 2006

The Lamaze method of childbirth involves educating women in pain control techniques and training men to “coach” the women through labor by giving social encouragement to endure pain. In a cold pressor experiment, women volunteers (N= 52) received either Lamaze training (or none) or direct social encouragement to tolerate ice water (or none). Women were tested for tolerance before and after training. They also completed the California Q‐Set personality description and an assertiveness questionnaire. The Lamaze training induced longer endurance among participants, whereas direct social encouragement induced very long endurance for some but little for others. The combined treatment powerfully induced endurance in many even though considerable variance was evident. Analyses of Q‐Set responses and the assertiveness measure revealed little to help predict who endured the pain. Results suggested that, in this situation, environmental variables were more important in predicting endurance than personality variables.
Information Processing in Joined and Severed Trials
Authors: Bordens Kenneth S. , Horowitz Irwin A.
Published: August 2006

The present study was conducted to determine the process by which jurors reach verdicts in trials in which multiple charges are joined in one indictment. The experiment was designed to test the impact of joinder of affenses, similarity of offenses, and evidentiary strength of jurors' ability to process trial evidence. The results gathered from 220 male and female subjects indicated, as previous research has shown, that joined trials lead to more guilty verdicts than severed trials; that the first charge in a joined trial accounts for this “joinder effect,” receiving significantly more guilty verdicts than its severed counterpart. When joined trials are composed of similar categories of crimes, guilt verdicts increase and jurors tend to confuse evidence‐as shown by a high rate of antidefendant intrusions from case two to case one. More antidefendant cognitions were also found when the cases were similar. Furthermore, case similarity interacted with the evidentiary strength of the charges in joined trials.
Weakness as Strength: The Use and Misuse of a “My Hands Are Tied” Ploy in Bargaining
Authors: Friedland Nehemia
Published: August 2006

This study was designed to evaluate empirically the notion that in bargaining weakness can be turned into strength. Subjects participated in simulated labor‐management negotiations. The results indicate that a “my hands are tied” ploy is effective in eliciting concessions when used to induce an adversary to accept a settlement which is included in the bargaining range. In contrast, the use of the ploy in an effort to settle negotiations outside the bargaining range enhanced the adversary's intransigence. The implications of the differential effects of a “my hands are tied” ploy for the process of negotiations are discussed.
Selective Evaluation and Recall During the 1980 Reagan‐Carter Debate1
Authors: Bothwell Robert K. , Brigham John c.
Published: August 2006

To assess the effects of the 1980 Reagan‐Carter presidential debate, samples of college students were surveyed in the laboratory and in the field before and after watching the debate. Responses were consistent across groups, indicating that both selective recall and selective evaluation occurred. The plurality of subjects in both groups (i.e., field and laboratory) were better at recalling their preferred candidate's arguments than those of the opposition. In addition, judgments of who won were biased in favor of predebate presidential preference. Commitment was not significantly related to either process (i.e., selective evaluation or selective recall), indicating that both strongly committed and weakly committed individuals may selectively encode and selectively evaluate incoming political information. These findings are discussed in light of the timing of the debate.
Information Load Stress, Risk Taking, and Physiological Responsivity in a Visual‐Motor Task1
Authors: Streufert Siegfried , Streufert Susan C. , Denson Ann L.
Published: August 2006

The effects of four levels of information load on performance, risk taking, and physiological responsivity (blood pressure and heart rate) are investigated. Twenty‐five adults participated in a handeye coordination task, presented as a video game. Increases in load resulted in performance decrements and increased proclivity to take risks. Participation in the task increased (diastolic) arousal. Load effects on arousal were negligible. Subjects with greater diastolic blood pressure elevations engaged in more risk taking. The potential of two separate groupings of stressor effects, directly producing cognitive performance changes in one case and producing affective/arousal impacts in the other case (with potential indirect effects on cognition and performance), is considered. Suggestions for future research are made.
Comparing the Effects of Monetary Incentives and Foot‐in‐the‐Door Strategies in Promoting Residential Electricity Conservation
Authors: Katzev Richard D. , Johnson Theodore R
Published: August 2006

The relative effectiveness of incentive and minimal justification techniques in promoting electrical energy conservation among 90 homeowners was investigated. Subjects in the Questionnaire condition were asked to complete a short energy conservation survey. Those in the Commitment condition were asked to curtail their consumption of electricity by 15%. In the Questionnaire + Commitment condition, subjects received both requests. These three groups were compared to an Incentive condition, where individuals were offered a highly attractive monetary incentive for conserving electricity, a Questionnaire + Commitment + Incentive condition, and a Control condition. The groups did not differ in electricity consumption during baseline, initial request, or follow‐up periods. However, during the conservation period, homeowners in the Commitment and the combined treatment groups conserved more electricity and contained more conservers than either of the remaining groups. These outcomes were discussed in terms of the comparative effectiveness of minimal justification and incentive strategies for inducing behavioral change.
The Relationship Between the Consequences Adolescents Expect from Smoking and Their Behavior: A Factor Analysis with Panel Data1
Authors: Bauman Karl E , Chenoweth Roger L
Published: August 2006

The expected consequences of behavior are basic to many modern theories of behavior and to programs designed to influence behavior. In this research, 52 consequences expected from smoking cigarettes were measured in a panel study of 1,406 adolescents. Six factors were identified through factor analysis of these consequences. Multivariate analyses generally indicated that the negative physical/social factor predicted the initiation of smoking and the pleasure factor predicted smoking initiation and increased smoking among those who were smokers at the beginning of study. The other factors‐positive peer relationships, negative peer relationships, habit, and health‐were either unrelated to subsequent smoking behavior or inconsistently related across the multiple measures of behavior. The research is considered in the context of theory, methods, and programs related to adolescent cigarette smoking.
Schema‐Guided Information Search in Stereotyping of the Elderly1
Authors: Carver Charles S. , de la Garza Nora H
Published: August 2006

Current theory holds that stereotypes of outgroups are organized schematically in memory, as reflected by the fact that evoking one aspect of the stereotype tends to evoke other aspects as well. Previous research shows that when a stereotype is activated, one result is biased encoding of subsequently available information, such that stereotype‐consistent information is encoded preferentially over stereotype‐irrelevant information. The present research investigated whether evoking a specific stereotype‐that of the elderly‐would cause subjects to actively seek out stereotype‐relevant information. Subjects read a brief description of an auto accident, which involved either an elderly driver or a young driver as its protagonist. As predicted, the “elderly” label led to the differential seeking of information concerning the physical and mental adequacy of the driver and possible impairment of his vision, whereas the “young” label led subjects to seek information as to whether the driver had been drinking. Discussion centers on the relationship between these findings and the results of prior research.
Predicting the Onset of Cigarette Smoking in Adolescents: A Longitudinal Study1
Authors: Chassin Laurie , Presson Clark C. , Sherman Steven J. , Corty Eric , Olshavsky Richard W.
Published: August 2006

In a longitudinal study, the second‐year‐smoking status of adolescents who were initially Nonsmokers or Triers was predicted from their Year 1 standing on three types of social psychological variables: Ajzen and Fishbein's factors (predicting smoking transitions from attitudes, normative beliefs and behavioral intentions about smoking); Jessor and Jessor's distal variables (predicting smoking transitions from more generalized personality and perceived environment factors), and smoking environment variables (predicting smoking transitions from the extent of smoking models in an adolescent's social milieu). The predictive power of these three categories of factors was compared. All three classes of social psychological variables were statistically significant predictors of smoking transition, although the Ajzen and Fishbein variables were more important for Triers while the Jessor and Jessor and smoking environment variables were more important for initial Never Smokers. Moreover, each category of variables made independent contributions to the prediction of smoking transition. Finally, there were several age and sex differences in the relative importance of predictor variables. Implications of these findings for the design of effective smoking prevention programs are discussed. Smoking prevention programs might be more effective if they were aimed at a specific high risk audience (as identified by the current study) rather than at a general adolescent population.
Smoking Prevention and the Concept of Risk1
Authors: Best J. Allan , Flay Brian R. , Towson Shelagh M.J. , Ryan Katherine B. , Perry Cheryl L. , Brown K. Stephen , Kersell Mary W. , D'Avernas Josie R
Published: August 2006

Sixth‐grade children in 22 schools received either a social‐influences smoking‐prevention program or routine health education. The social‐influences program was designed to teach youth about peer, parent, and media influences affecting smoking onset and to provide them with skills in resisting these influences. Comparison schools were given no program, but were permitted to continue their usual provision of health education. Program impact was evaluated as a function of pretreatment risk of future smoking. Risk was defined with respect to both (a) the prevalence of social models who smoked and (b) previous smoking experience. Two‐and‐a‐half‐year results show program impact to vary with both kinds of risk. Smoking‐experience risk interacted such that, at first, there was greater impact on children with experience, but on later follow‐up the pattern reversed, with the greater treatment effects seen for those initially with limited experience. Social‐models risk showed a direct relationship, with greater risk being associated with greater program impact. Implications both for evaluation research and prevention programs are discussed.
Developing Data‐Based Communications in Social Psychological Research: Adolescent Smoking Prevention1
Authors: Evans Richard I. , Raines Bettye E. , Hanselka Larry
Published: August 2006

The present paper deals with how pre‐intervention data were gathered from a sample of junior high school students to whom a smoking prevention program was addressed and how these data were used in the creation of trigger films which were an important element in the prevention program. The coping techniques used by students who are successfully able to withstand social pressures to smoke were determined from pre‐intervention group interview‐role‐playing sessions with samples of students from two schools representative of the intended target population of the smoking prevention program. These data were used in the production and editing of ten‐minute, sound, color films which reflected simulations of the student responses in the interview‐role‐playing sessions. Assessment of the impact of these filmed social‐inoculation coping strategies indicates that they appear to be a promising component of smoking deterrent programs for adolescents.
Vietnam Veterans: Fighting the Employment War
Authors: Bordieri James E. , Drehmer David E.
Published: August 2006

The extent and nature of unfairly discriminatory hiring practices involving Vietnam veterans was experimentally explored. Sixty‐six supervisors and mid‐level managers reviewed the resume of an applicant and the position description for the job being sought. Given otherwise identical qualifications, the applicant was described as either a Vietnam veteran or a non‐Vietnam veteran. Results demonstrated that subjects made significantly lower recommendations to hire the Vietnam veteran even though both applicants were judged equally qualified for the job. The Vietnam veteran was also perceived to have a higher probability of psychological problems in his life. Findings are discussed in the context of Asch's (1946) central trait theory.
Attitudinal Consequences of the Preemployment Polygraph Examination1
Authors: White Lawrence T.
Published: August 2006

An important factor concerning the use of the polygraph in employment settings has been overlooked: How does the polygraph experience affect a new employee's work‐related attitudes? In two experiments, subjects were exposed to different hiring scenarios‐one included a polygraph examination, the other did not—and then responded to a questionnaire of work‐related attitudes. Results indicated that preemployment polygraph examinations may induce negative work‐related attitudes. These findings suggest that the polygraph experience acts as a symbolic communication from the employer to the prospective employee, imparting information that may induce feelings of distrust and dislike. Moreover, the polygraph experience may be interpreted by prospective employees as evidence of high levels of employee theft, thus establishing a new (higher) norm of peer theft behavior.
A Model of Friendship Similarity in Mildly Deviant Behaviors1
Authors: Rodgers Joseph Lee , Billy John O.G. , Udry J. Richard
Published: August 2006

Kandel's research on the relationship between friendship similarity and deviant behavior in adolescents is extended by a consideration of more mildly deviant behaviors, controlling for the possible spurious effects of sex, race, and grade. Tversky's theory of elimination by aspect is used to model the individual level decision‐making process involved in friendship selection, and a contingency table model is used as an analytic framework. Results indicate that in females, even controlling for obvious friendship selection factors, mildly deviant behaviors like smoking, drinking, and particularly sexual intercourse affect the observed friendship structure. No such relationship is found in males, however. Tentative theories to explain this difference are proposed.
Subjectivity in Issue Polarization
Authors: Polley RichardB.
Published: August 2006

SYMLOG, a method and theory of group observation and analysis developed by Bales, is applied to the examination of issue polarization. Using a “phantom other” technique, the locations in SYMLOG's three‐space of values for polar stands on ten controversial issues were measured. There was a high rate of agreement on these locations despite great diversity of opinion on the issues themselves. Subjectivity in locations is explained by Lewin's theory of vectors of attraction and repulsion. Individuals tend to draw toward their global favored (PRO) locations those stands with which they agree. For example, one who opposes abortion on demand will draw toward his or her PRO location the image of “opposes abortion on demand.” Subjectivity in issue polarization seems to be organized around attraction to and repulsion from the PRO location without regard to the individual's global opposed (CON) location.
The Effect of Research with Teenage Mothers on the Development of Their Infants1
Authors: Landy Sarah , Schubert Josef , Cleland John F. , Montgomery Jacquelin S.
Published: August 2006

Mother‐infant interaction of 14 teenage mothers and 12 women 20 years or older was observed and recorded in the laboratory or the home when the infants were 16, 20, 24, and 52 weeks of age. In order to assess the possible effect of the research intervention on the maternal behavior and on the infants' development, a control group of teenage mothers and their infants was seen only at the end of the study when the infant was 52 weeks old. At 12 months the Home Observation Measure of the Environment Inventory (HOME) was administered and infants were assessed with the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (motor and mental scales) and the Ainsworth Strange Situation procedure. On all measures the observation groups scored significantly higher than the control group. The significant aspects of the research intervention are discussed.
Salient Consequences, Cultural Values, and Childbearing Intentions1
Authors: Crawford Thomas J. , Boyer Robyn
Published: August 2006

In this study of childbearing intentions, 163 young married women were interviewed using measures derived from Fishbein's behavioral intentions model. Unlike most research testing Fishbein's theory, in which fixed alternative modal belief measures have been employed, in the present study open‐ended measures of consequence salience were used. The finding that different consequences of childbearing are salient for those who intend versus those who do not intcnd to have a child raises questions about earlier research using fixed alternative methods. In contrast with the results of earlier studies, intender/non‐intender differences in the evaluation of childbearing outcomes were also found.

Statistically significant correlations between childbearing intention and religiosity, sex‐role traditionalism, and affluence values were reduced to a statistically non‐significant level when the model's attitudinal and normative predictors were controlled by partial correlation. Analyses of indirect effects indicate that religiosity and sex‐role traditionalism were largely mediated through the motivation to comply with husband's childbearing preference.
Self and Peer Ratings and Evaluations of Group Process in Mixed‐Sex and Male Medical Training Groups
Authors: Alagna Sheryle W. , Reddy Diane M.
Published: August 2006

Medical students randomly assigned to mixed‐sex or male anatomy dissection groups completed two questionnaires assessing self and peer evaluations and perceptions of group functioning. Results indicated that women and men respondents from mixed‐sex groups had similar perceptions of group functioning. Respondents from both groups had similar self‐evaluations and perceptions of leadership and role determinants. Significant differences were found between respondents from mixed‐sex and male groups for peer evaluations, perceptions of certain aspects of group functioning (e.g., quality of communication), and for causal explanations of problems in group functioning. These differences were associated with significant differences in cohesiveness as indicated by desire for and actual change of group.
Testifying on Eyewitness Reliability: Expert Advice Is Not Always Persuasive1
Authors: Maass Anne , Brigham John C. , West Stephen G.
Published: August 2006

This study investigates the impact of different types of expert testimony regarding the unreliability of eyewitness identification. In two hypothetical court cases involving eyewitnesses, expert testimony was presented that was either sample‐based (presenting the results of a research program on eyewitness identification) or person‐based (presenting information about the particular eyewitness under consideration); the expert either offered causal explanations for his unreliability claim or failed to do so. Two additional control groups (with and without eye‐witness identification) were not presented with any expert testimony. The results indicate that subjects who had been confronted with an expert statement made more lenient judgments about the offender but did not discount the eyewitness identification completely. Sample‐based information had a moderate impact on the subjects' judgments, regardless of whether or not causal explanations were given. Person‐based testimony was the most influential type of expert advice when a causal explanation was provided but the least influential one when no reasons were given. The practical (international differences in admissibility of expert testimony) and theoretical implications (processing of base‐rate information) of these findings are discussed.
Variable Credibility Threats: A Procedure for the Enhancement of Deterrence Effectiveness1
Authors: Friedland Nehemia
Published: August 2006

This experiment evaluated a procedure whereby tax evasions can be more effectively deterred by dividing the taxpayers' population into two, high‐ and low‐audit probability, categories. The procedure employs a rule that assigns tax evaders to the high‐audit probability category and assigns those who abide by the law to a low‐audit probability category. A simple empirical simulation showed that the “variable probabilities” procedure prevented tax evasions more effectively than an alternative, “fixed probability” procedure, in which the same audit probability applied to all individuals, regardless of their past record.
Author Race, Essay Quality, and Reverse Discrimination
Authors: Fajardo Daniel M.
Published: August 2006

This study examines the interaction between author race and essay quality on evaluations of essays by experienced teachers and student teachers. Subjects (n= 160) were told that they were reading essays written by high school seniors applying for university admission and that their evaluations would result in the authors' admission and class assignment to remedial, normal, or advanced composition classes. Four preselected and prerated essays: one poor, two moderate, and one excellent were presented to the subjects in a booklet, each with a bogus admissions form, an essay rating scale, and a class assignment form. The attribution of author race was accomplished surreptitiously. Results showed that both the essay quality manipulation and author race attribution were successful. Subjects easily discriminated the difference in quality among the essays. They also showed a significant tendency to use reverse discrimination in rating black authors higher than authors whose race was not indicated. An interesting finding was that reverse discrimination was greatest for the moderate essays. Class assignments showed a similar trend, but differences in assignment of black and non‐black authors were not generally significant. Discussion focuses on the distinction between ambiguity and ambivalence as psychological constructs in explaining prejudice and discrimination. The significance of these findings for minority education is also examined.
Psychosocial Factors in Child Safety Restraint Use1
Authors: Foss Robert D.
Published: August 2006

Within the past 3 years, a majority of states have passed laws requiring children riding in automobiles to be properly restrained in safety devices. Several studies indicate that such laws have only a modest effect on the number of children being properly protected. To determine factors associated with safety restraint use a telephone interview survey was conducted with 211 residents of a state that has had a child safety restraint law in effect for two years. Several hypotheses derived from the Health Belief Model were tested. The model was generally supported, but will require some revision to explain a routine and repetitive behavior such as safety seat use. While strong general resistance to government intervention in family behavior was found, this did not translate into resistance of safety seat laws.
Causal and Moral Responsibility of Victims of Rape and Robbery
Authors: Kanekar Suresh , Pinto Nirmala J. P. , Mazumdar Deepa
Published: August 2006

Four experimental studies of attribution in a criminal situation used a 24 ANOVA design with three common independent variables, namely, type of crime, time of crime, and victim's prior experience of crime, all three manipulated through a passage describing an incident of crime involving a male criminal and a female victim, and one common dependent measure which was length of imprisonment recommended for the criminal. The fourth independent variable was subject's sex in the first two experiments and instructionally manipulated female subject's involvement (objective or identifying female subject) in the last two experiments. The second dependent measure was fault attributed to the victim in the first and third experiments and perceived likelihood of crime in the second and fourth experiments. The subjects were undergraduate students of the University of Bombay, 15 per cell in each experiment. Female subjects were more punitive toward the criminal than male subjects, especially in the case of rape, and the rapist received a longer sentence than the robber, especially from female subjects. Identifying female subjects tended to recommend a longer sentence than objective female subjects. Female subjects attributed less fault to the victim and perceived greater likelihood of crime than male subjects and identifying female subjects attributed somewhat less fault to the victim than did objective female subjects. The robbery victim was attributed more fault than the rape victim. Whereas previous experience of similar victimization increased attributed victim's fault, a late hour enhanced both attributed victim's fault and perceived likelihood of crime. These findings are discussed with respect to a theoretical distinction between causal and moral responsibility as represented by the likellhood and fault measures, respectively.
The Influence of Eyewitness Nonidentifications on Mock‐Jurors' Judgments of a Court Case1
Authors: Leippe Michael R.
Published: August 2006

Two experiments examined the effect of an eyewitness nonidentificution on mock‐jurors' verdicts in robbery cases, as well as the effects of number of identifying eyewitnesses and status of the identifying witness (victim or bystander). Subjects read court case summaries that included variable eyewitness evidence and constant alibi, circumstantial, and character evidence. In Experiment 1, frequency of guilty verdicts was significantly less when an eyewitness testified in court that the defendant was not the perpetrator, even when this nonidentification opposed two positive identifications. In Experiment 2, a low guilty rate was again associated with the presence of a nonidentifier, but only when the nonidentifier actually testified in court and stipulated that the defendant is “not the man.” On the average, 70% of the jurors delivered guilty verdicts when both the victim and bystander gave identifying testimony, whereas 12.5% delivered guilty verdicts when the bystander gave opposing nonidentifying testimony. Guilty rates were unaffected by the identifying eyewitness' status and (in Experiment 2, but not Experiment 1) were higher when there were two (vs. one) identifying eyewitnesses.
A Choice of Alternative Strategies in Oligopoly Bargaining
Authors: Seholm Kenneth J. , Walker James L. , Esser James K.
Published: August 2006

Research in bilateral bargaining has shown reciprocal and tough strategies to be superior to soft strategies in producing favorable bargaining outcomes. However, previous research has not examined the effectiveness of opponent strategies in oligopoly bargaining. It was hypothesized that in oligopoly bargaining a soft reciprocal strategy would produce better outcomes than either tough reciprocal or tough strategies. Female students from introductory psychology classes bargained utilizing three programmed strategies. Subjects were afforded the opportunity to bargain with the strategy of their choice and to change opponents (strategies) as they wished. Results indicated that subjects (1) bargained more often with the soft reciprocity strategy than with either the tough reciprocity or tough strategy, (2) made more concessions to the soft reciprocity strategy, (3) reached more agreements with the soft reciprocity strategy. Furthermore, although the soft reciprocity strategy earned the lowest profit per agreement, it also earned the largest total profit by virtue of the greater number of agreements.
The Relative Effectiveness of Three Compliance Techniques in Eliciting Donations to a Cultural Organization
Authors: Brownstein Richard J. , Katzev Richard D.
Published: August 2006

To compare the relative effectiveness of three compliance techniques during a museum fund‐raising drive, 89 individuals were asked to contribute $1 to the museum after having been exposed to an initial request according to one of the following conditions: (1) in the foot‐in‐thedoor condition, individuals were first asked to sign a petition in support of the museum; (2) in the door‐in‐the‐face condition, they were initially asked for a $5 contribution; (3) in the. low‐ball condition, they were asked to contribute 75 cents and then to increase this amount by 25 cents in order to support the children's program: and (4) in the control condition, subjects simply received the target request for $1. The groups differed significantly in terms of the number of individuals who donated, and in the amount of their contributions. The low‐ball condition was generally the most effective, especially with respect to the amount of money contributed. This was followed in turn by the door‐in‐the‐face and control conditions, with the foot‐in‐the‐door condition the least effective in virtually every comparison. These findings are discussed in terms of their implications for the experimental analysis of compliance, as well as the development of more effective fund‐raising programs.
The Perceived Seriousness of Personal Problems: A Comparative Study of Telephone Counselors and Community Members
Authors: Bradshaw Ruth , Amato Paul R.
Published: August 2006

This study investigated judgments of the seriousness of problems by 25 telephone counselors and 25 members of the public not involved in helping professions. Subjects rank ordered 15 problem descriptions taken from counseling files in terms of their seriousness and provided ratings for each problem on a series of bipolar scales. The two groups displayed a high level of agreement in relation to the ranks assigned and in relation to the problem characteristics associated with seriousness. Highly serious problems were ones in which help was needed immediately, a threat to life was involved, the victim was responsible for the welfare of others, and the problem was complex. Multidimensional scaling analysis of the ranks revealed similarities, and differences, in the dimensions the two groups used to cognitively represent the problems.
Family and Nonfamily Components of Social Support as Buffers of Stress for College Women1
Authors: Martin Barclay , Burks Nancy
Published: August 2006

Two samples of college women (N= 273 and N= 99) were administered a stress inventory, a social support scale, and the Hopkins Symptom Checklist. Separate measures of family and nonfamily social support were obtained as well as separate measures of types of social support: social availability, tangible support, information/guidance, and emotional support. With the total symptom score used as the dependent variable, nonfamily social support showed a clear buffering effect on life stress in both samples, whereas family social support showed significant buffering only in Sample 2. Multiple regression analyses indicated that nonfamily emotional support was more effective as a buffer than family social support in both samples. There were no clear differences among the types of social support in their buffering effectiveness All four symptom subscales showed buffering trends, but depression was the only subscale that was significantly buffered in both samples by nonfamily social support. The greater effectiveness of nonfamily social support as a buffer of stress is discussed in terms of the possible greater availablity, both physically and psychologically, of nonfamily friends for late adolescent and young adult women.
Differential Intolerance for Inequity from Organizational and Individual Agents1
Authors: Greenberg Jerald
Published: August 2006

College students were either overpaid, underpaid, or equitably paid by an individual or an organizational agent for performing a task. Overpayment was more tolerated, but underpayment was less tolerated when it came from an organizational agent than from an individual. The implications for equity theory and research are considered.
Gender, Physical Attractiveness, and Electability: An Experimental Investigation of Voter Biases
Authors: Sigelman Carol K. , Sigelman Lee , Thomas Dan B. , Ribich Frederick D.
Published: August 2006

In an examination of the impacts on electoral success of candidate gender, candidate physical attractiveness, prestige and responsibility of office sought, and voter characteristics, 219 college students evaluated six challengers to an incumbent in either a mayoral or county clerk's race. Challengers represented men and women of high, moderate, and low physical attractiveness. Male, but not female, voters discriminated against female candidates. While physical attractiveness accentuated perceptions of masculinity in a man and femininity in a woman, the appeal of an attractive (i.e., more feminine) woman seeking a masculine‐stereotyped position was not damaged by the so‐called “beauty is beastly” effect. However, attractiveness was less consistently an asset for female candidates than it was for male candidates. Male, but not female, candidates directly benefitted from being physical attractive and were also more positively evaluated to the extent that they were perceived as highly masculine. These findings not only contribute to understanding of the joint impacts of sex‐role and attractiveness stereotypes, but call into question survey findings pointing to the demise of sexism in electoral politics.
Measurement of Sense of Community Within the Sphere of City1
Authors: Davidson William B. , Cotter Patrick R.
Published: August 2006

Based on a deductive process, several objective items were developed to measure people's sense of community with their city of residence. An item analysis produced a 17‐item scale, which was then evaluated for homogeneity and external validity in three studies using telephone interviews on random samples in Alabama and South Carolina. Of seven hypotheses that were tested, six received support. Results described the scale as internally reliable and unidimensional, and the scale differentiated between people who differed in terms of demographics, home ownership, and civic contributions. Contrary to prediction, the scale did not relate to how long people had lived in their city. Explanations for this were offered and then conclusions were drawn about the potential usefulness of the scale.
Sex Biases in Comparable Worth Analyses
Authors: McArthur Leslie Zebrowitz , Obrant Sarah W.
Published: August 2006

Remunerating jobs according to their comparable worth has been suggested as one way to reduce sex inequities in wages. To implement such a policy, it is necessary to obtain unbiased ratings of a job's worth. The present study investigated whether such ratings would be biased by the incumbent's sex, the sex composition of the occupation, or the job analyst's sex. A second purpose was to ascertain what job characteristics are viewed as worthy of financial compensation. Business school undergraduates viewed videotapes of a male enacting a low prestige, anchor job and either males or females enacting a moderate and a high prestige job. Ratings of the moderate and high prestige jobs relative to the anchor revealed that both male and female analysts perceived the jobs as higher in responsibility, in persuasive ability requirements, and in monetary worth when enacted by males than by females. The occupation's sex composition had no effect on any job ratings, a finding attributed to subjects' failure to recall the sex composition information provided. Regression analyses revealed that the only significant predictors of a job's monetary worth relative to the anchor were its perceived salary, its desirability, the training it required, and the gender of the incumbent. It was concluded that sex biases in comparable worth analyses may yield an underestimation of the wages that women's work is worth.
Cognitive Social Learning Variables and the Characteristics of Leaders1
Authors: Florin Paul , Mednick Marc , Wandersman Abraham
Published: August 2006

This study explored the potential of a person × situation approach to identifying the characteristics of leaders in a voluntary community organization. A set of variables based on Mischel's “cognitive social learning variables” was operationalized to provide variables which assess the characteristics of individuals in relation to the specific context in which some emerge as leaders. This set of variables was compared with a larger set of traditional demographic and personality variables. Analyses indicated the approximate statistical comparability of the two sets. Advantages of the cognitive social learning approach for understanding and intervening in leader emergence and development in voluntary community organizations are discussed.
Predicting Cigarette Use: The Need to Incorporate Measures of Salience in the Theory of Reasoned Action1,2
Authors: Budd Richard J.
Published: August 2006

It is shown that incorporating a measure of belief salience in the theory of reasoned action improves both the model's predictive and explanatory power. It is demonstrated that the sum of the five evaluative‐beliefs which are most salient for each person is more predictive of a semantic differential measure of that person's attitude than is the sum of the remaining nonsalient evaluative beliefs. In addition, it is shown that the perceived utilities of smoking are differentially salient for smokers and nonsmokers.

It is argued that latitude of rejection, centrality, and certainty can be used as measures of the degree of definition of a person's attitudes and subjective norms. It is consequently predicted that these variables will be correlated and that attitudes and subjective norms which are well defined will be more highly predictive of a person's intention and behavior. While some support was found for these hypotheses, it is argued that the present results suggest that the relationship between these variables may be more complicated than was initially hypothesized.
The Impact of the Guilty but Mentally III Verdict on Juror Decisions: An Empirical Analysis
Authors: Savitsky Jeffrey C. , Lindblom William D.
Published: August 2006

The present study attempted to determine the impact of alternative verdict choices on the decisions of mock jurors. Subjects used in this study as mock jurors were all college undergraduates. They were shown one of two versions of a videotaped simulated murder trial. Both films presented a defendant who appeared to be suffering emotional difficulties, but in one film the defendant had clearly committed the act while in the other film the defendant's actions were less certain. Subjects than gave their individual verdicts and, after deliberation with other subjects, a total jury verdict. The verdicts available to the subjects varied across three conditions such that the subjects in one condition were only allowed to find the defendant to be innocent or guilty. In another condition the subjects could find the defendant innocent, guilty or not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI). In the third condition the subjects were allowed to choose between innocent, guilty, NGRI, and guilty but mentally ill (GBMI). The results indicated that the addition of the “mental health” verdicts had a significant impact on the decisions of the jurors. In particular, it appears that only defendants who would otherwise have been found innocent were likely to be found NGRI. This study also indicated that the GBMI verdict is very attractive to mock jurors. Indeed, even innocent defendants were found to be GBMI, a form of guilt, when this alternative was made available. These findings raise potentially important constitutional and practical issues for the trial of emotionally disturbed criminal defendants.
Situational Determinants of Coping in Smoking Relapse Crises1
Authors: Shiffman Saul , Jarvik Murray E.
Published: August 2006

Interviews with 264 callers to a relapse prevention hotline were used to explore situational determinants of coping among exsmokers facing temptations to smoke. As hypothesized, subjects were more likely to perform cognitive and behavioral coping early in abstinence. Coping was also more likely in situations where subjects had habitually smoked. Discriminant function analyses were used to predict the performance of coping from situational variables. Cognitive coping could not be predicted. Performance of behavioral coping was predictable from six situational variables which accounted for 28% of the variance in coping performance. These situational variables also accounted for the decay of behavioral coping over time. The findings imply that individual differences play a limited role in coping performance and have implications for clinical efforts to enhance smoking cessation through coping interventions.
Perceptions of Social Support in Men with AIDS and ARC: Relationships with Distress and Hardiness1
Authors: Zich Jane , Temoshok Lydia
Published: August 2006

Previous research has suggested that social support may act as a buffer against stress or in other ways may affect physiological adjustment, health, longevity, and sense of well‐being. Perceptions of social support in persons newly diagnosed with Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and AIDS‐related Complex (ARC) were examined as a part of an ongoing longitudinal study. Social support was examined in terms of emotionally‐sustaining and problem‐solving types of help, based on Gottlieb's content analysis of informal helping behaviors. Representative examples of each of the four major categories of help were assessed in terms of their perceived desirability, availability, frequency of use, and usefulness if used. These social support data were then examined in relation to other behavioral, cognitive, affective, and medical indices.

For persons with AIDS only, increased physical distress was associated with perceiving less availability of support. For both persons with AIDS and ARC, the more available social support was perceived to be, the less hopelessness and depression were reported. While all types of help were rated as desirable by both persons with AIDS and ARC, emotionally‐sustaining types of help were rated as more desirable, more available, more frequently used, and more useful when used than were problem‐solving types of help. Social support measures were most consistently and strongly correlated with the Commitment subscale of Kobasa's Hardiness Scale.
Target Groups for Preventing AIDS Among Intravenous Drug Users
Authors: Jarlais Don C. Des , Friedman Samuel R.
Published: August 2006

The acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) has rapidly become the most serious medical consequence of injecting illicit drugs. Its potential impact on intravenous (IV) drug use is enormous. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV, also known as HTLV‐III and LAV), the virus that causes AIDS, appears, usually, to lead to lifelong infection. At present there is no effective treatment, and the treatments under development may require lifelong antiviral therapy. Since most of the antibody produced in response to HIV infection does not neutralize the virus, and since there is substantial genetic variation in the virus, it will be difficult to develop a vaccine. Even after vaccines are developed, testing their safety and efficacy will be formidable problems. Until either effective treatment or vaccines are developed, control of the epidemic among IV drug users must be attempted through behavior change/prevention efforts. In this paper we will review the epidemiology of AIDS among IV drug users and characteristics of the IV drug‐use subculture relevant to prevention efforts. We will then identify different target groups for these prevention efforts, present available evidence about behavior change in these groups, and then briefly discuss how to prevent transmission of HIV to heterosexual partners who are not themselves IV drug users and to the children of IV drug users.