bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Diversion Programs
Authors: Delaney Raymond M. , Ferguson Debbie J.
Published: August 2019

This entry focuses on diverting offending women through programs that are effective for the transitional process. It discusses the nature and scope of diversion programs, and how a human service organization or correctional facility provides transitional services for offending women. The needs of women offenders have largely been misunderstood by the justice system and ignored by scholars.
D
ix,
D
orothea
Authors: Gibson Camille
Published: August 2019

Humanitarian Dorothea Lynde Dix is credited with leading substantial change in the care for the criminally insane in the United States and Europe. She spent years visiting and observing over thirty institutions, then publicizing conditions in need of change and advocating for reforms in treatment and conditions. Her interest was in the state of schools, asylums, and prisons and those served therein.
Domestic Assault
Authors: Diamond‐Welch Bridget K. , Dzordzormenyoh Michael K.
Published: August 2019

Domestic assault is a crime that still is the center of much debate. This entry reviews the two primary ways domestic assault is viewed, either as discrete acts of violence that occur within an intimate relationship or as a set of techniques used by one intimate partner to maintain power and control over another. Each definition has different implications for who is viewed as a victim of domestic assault. More recent research has expanded who is viewed as a victim by exploring different populations – such as gay and lesbian and immigrant victims. Regardless of how domestic assault is defined, its victims experience a wide array of negative consequences.
Domestic/Family Violence Courts
Authors: Campie Patricia , Francis Karen B.
Published: August 2019

Domestic and family violence courts are specialized courts created as a comprehensive response by the criminal justice system to incidents of domestic violence against couples or family members, often involving households with minor children. These specialized courts provide a framework for an integrated model to comprehensively address root causes of domestic violence, provide access to a wide range of victim supports and services, and determine outcomes involving minor children such as custody, visitation, civil protection orders, and divorce.
Domestic Violence Laws
Authors: Kethineni Sesha
Published: August 2019

Prior to the 1970s, domestic violence was considered a family matter. Police, prosecutors, and even judges were reluctant to intervene in such cases. In the mid‐1970s, states started enacting legislation that provided protection to the victims of domestic violence by allowing police to make warrantless arrests in misdemeanor domestic violence cases. In the last thirty years, various state and federal legislations have been passed that have enhanced protections for victims and their families, increasing prosecution of perpetrators, and improving services to victims.
Drug Trafficking and Female Offending
Authors: Albonetti Celesta A.
Published: August 2019

Decades of research have attempted to describe and explain women's involvement in the illicit drug economy. Some research is grounded in general theories of crime causation, while other research theorizes gender‐specific influences on both participation in drug trafficking and the social, economic, and legal consequences thereof. Regarding the latter, studies indicate that female drug‐trafficking offenders receive less severe punishment, compared to males. A growing body of research seeks to explain gender‐specific sentencing by examining whether gender interacts with legal and extralegal variables.
Elderly Female Offenders
Authors: Dodson Kimberly D.
Published: August 2019

In the criminal justice system, individuals aged 50 years or older are considered elderly. Offenders are physiologically older because of risky lifestyles that include substance abuse and a lack of preventative healthcare. In addition, offenders' health conditions mirror the health conditions of nonincarcerated individuals who are 10–15 years older. Elderly women offenders have unique treatment and medical needs but many of their needs are overlooked because their numbers are small. Specifically, elderly women prisoners account for approximately 6% of incarcerated women in state and federal prisons. However, correctional administrators and staff working with elderly female offenders must be aware and respond to their gender‐specific needs.
Female Abolitionists
Authors: Levesque Amie
Published: August 2019

Penal abolitionists favor the overthrow of punitive institutions that incarcerate and isolate individual offenders from society, and many of the key leaders within the global abolitionist movement have been women from diverse ethnic, racial, educational, and religious backgrounds. Abolitionists argue that penal institutions have historically targeted marginalized groups, and do nothing to improve societal health. Instead, they believe that the most effective means to decrease the persistence of crime is to target the larger social structures of society that create social inequality, and focus on building social cohesion among community members.
Female Crime and Victorian Society
Authors: Naoroz Carolyn
Published: August 2019

Female crime and Victorian society discusses the intersection of the strict morals and values of Victorian England with women as both victims and perpetrators of crime. The Victorian era defined double standards of morality that women face created through both social and legal frameworks of female repression. Due to a lack of economic opportunities available, prostitution was the most common crime committed by women.
Female Crimes Against Humanity
Authors: DeCarlo Josephine
Published: August 2019

Crimes against women have long been ignored or given diminished priority within justice systems whether those systems were local, national, or international. However, as the world strives for gender equality, the international justice system has begun to recognize the distinctive repercussions for female victims, and how women can be targeted as an identified people group. Through the help of advances within diverse fields (including psychology, sociology, applied criminology, etc.), we have also come to better analyze the motivation(s) behind gender crimes and the circumstances under which they are committed. Through closer analysis of the motivations and circumstances regarding crimes against women, we have further developed and expanded concepts such as crimes against humanity, war crimes, and genocide. (While some notable trials are covered, for the sake of concision, not all are included.) Additionally, we have ascertained that one's sexuality can be utilized as a weapon or strategy of war.
Female Cyberoffending
Authors: Miller Brooke
Published: August 2019

Female cyberoffending has increased with the rapid worldwide expansion and accessibility of the Internet. While females remain less likely to engage in cyberoffending than males, their participation in cyberoffenses, such as cyberstalking, cyberbullying, digital piracy, hacking, and white‐collar offenses persists.
Female Drug Use, Abuse, and Victimization
Authors: Nazon Maryse , Hawkins Donnetta
Published: August 2019

There has been a growing interest over the last decade in understanding the relationship between substance use, abuse, and victimization. There is a consensus that the relationship between substance use, abuse, and victimization is bidirectional, that is, that women's substance use disorders are both the result and the precursor to different types of female victimization. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the most common post‐victimization consequence for women. The current entry provides an overview of the nature of the relationship between substance use, abuse, and victimization.
Female Heroin Use
Authors: Wincup Emma
Published: August 2019

Despite patterns of drug use being profoundly gendered, traditionally research in the drugs field has tended to either ignore women or represent them as passive and socially inadequate. Since the 1980s, feminist scholarship on drug use, including heroin use, has brought drug‐using women to the fore and has challenged the misconceptions surrounding female drug users that deny them a sense of agency and gloss over the sociopolitical context in which their drug use occurs.
Incarcerated Women and Their Families
Authors: Alexander Kellie , Opsal Tara
Published: August 2019

Women represent a small proportion of the total inmate population in the United States; however, this population has experienced a dramatic increase over the past four decades leading to many negative consequences related to the imprisoned women themselves, their children, and their families. Women are predominantly the caregivers of their children before incarceration, meaning that the imprisonment of a mother usually is more disruptive to a child than the imprisonment of a father. It is necessary to consider these outcomes when developing correctional programming, particularly those that aim to maintain bonds between incarcerated mothers and their children, as they have the potential to mitigate psychological and behavioral issues for incarcerated women and their children, contribute to successful familial reunification, and reduce recidivism rates for women once they are released.
Female Inmates and Violence in Prison
Authors: Boxberg Verena
Published: August 2019

Violence in prison is a broad term that can be defined in a number of ways. It encompasses different types of violence (e.g., physical or sexual) as well as various types of offenders with varying levels of power (inmates, staff). Prison violence is defined through the residence of the victim. Though there is little knowledge available on the subject, it can be stated that prison violence is linked to offenders' previous life experiences as well as inmate culture. The victimization of prison violence can have serious implications.
Female Jury Membership
Authors: Jones Angela M.
Published: August 2019

Until a US Supreme Court decision in 1975 (
Taylor v. Louisiana
), women were often excluded altogether or provided with exclusive exemptions from jury duty. Many questioned the contributions of women to public discourse and whether their decisions would differ from men. The empirical research has not borne out these concerns. Across both criminal and civil cases, few gender differences in legal decision making have emerged. The limited research observing gender differences appears to be carried out in combination with research on a variety of other characteristics, such as race and attitudes. Thus, while attorneys may rely on gender‐based stereotypes when selecting a jury, such stereotypes are not a reliable cue for legal decisions.
Female Offenders and Juries
Authors: Bellas Christopher M.
Published: August 2019

Studies suggest that there is gender disparity with respect to male and female offenders within the criminal justice system. While jurors may not consciously exhibit gender bias, there is the possibility that jurors' preexisting ideas about prescribed gender role expectations for how men and women are to behave shape how they render verdicts. Three explanations describe such disparity. First is the
liking‐leniency
hypothesis, which states that the more a defendant is liked, the more leniency she or he will receive. Thus, it is presumed that female offenders will come across as more likeable to juries. Another is
protection paternalism
, where a woman is regarded as in need of safeguarding because she is the weaker sex, and thus there is a sense of chivalry toward female offenders. Finally,
patronizing paternalism
, where a female is viewed as being less accountable for her actions because she knows no better. Although juries take into account the evidence presented in a case, unconscious gender bias still exists, which can affect case outcomes.
Female Offenders and Solitary Confinement
Authors: Pittaro Michael
Published: August 2019

The use and practice of solitary confinement within US prisons and jails has a lengthy history extending back to the 1700s beginning with the Pennsylvania Quakers and the penitentiary movement. Although initially intended to be used as a rehabilitative tool to reflect and repent upon one's misdeeds and reestablish a relationship with God, solitary confinement has been rife with questions as to whether this commonly employed practice should be abolished. At the very least, most agree that this practice should be altered so that it is more humane and that periods of confinement in isolation should be significantly reduced in order not to exacerbate or lead to psychological disorders especially among female prisoners. Solitary confinement can and most likely will affect females more than males because female prisoners have higher rates of mental illness, past physical and sexual victimization, and extensive histories of substance abuse in comparison to their male counterparts.
Female Offending in Asia and Asia Minor
Authors: Singh Raghu N.
Published: August 2019

Outlining the importance and rate of female criminality in Asian social systems is timely and meaningful. It includes identifying complexity in the region based on multiple ethnic groups, religions, subcultures, and theoretical interpretations for understanding that particular criminological context. Selected examples for the involvement of women in criminal activity are also suggested. The scope of research and its future directions may provide clues to understanding the characteristics and trends of women offending in a rapidly changing Asia.
Female Officers and Vice Squads
Authors: Lancaster‐Ellis Karen
Published: August 2019

Traditionally, vice squads were established to address what was considered acts of immorality. While it was in the early 1900s that the first woman police was hired to carry out a limited, gender‐specific role, the role of female officers has changed over the years, from dealing primarily with children and women issues to a more diverse role. Female officers treat situations differently from their male counterparts given their inherent nurturing characteristics. Thus, female officers have found themselves in every policing area and a key component of vice squads. The focus of vice squads tends to be different across cultures and is usually based on the crime and deviance problems and what is the socially accepted norm. The focus is sometimes based on religious persuasion but it is this diversity, it seems, that makes it incumbent upon police agencies to post female officers to their vice squads.
Female Police Officers and Coercion
Authors: Koski Connie M.
Published: August 2019

Early research on the use of non‐excessive force and coercion by female officers indicated that women in law enforcement possessed heightened verbal communication skills, a lesser likelihood of aggressive patrol tactics, and lower involvement in the use of physical coercion than their male counterparts. These factors became important in advocating for increasing the recruitment and retention of women in policing. As the research evolved, however, more and more studies have come to find that women are equally engaged in coercive tactics and use of non‐excessive force as their male counterparts, and gender became less significant in predicting use of force and coercion than the situational and community contexts of the incident. This is an area in need of future research in order to understand better whether and how female officers “do” coercion differently.
Female Prescription Drug Abuse
Authors: Jackson Robin D.
Published: August 2019

Nonmedical prescription drug use, particularly by females, is increasing at alarming rates and is recognized as a public health concern. Despite lower rates of delinquency and use of other types of substances, females are at greater risk for prescription drug misuse and abuse. National research reports suggest that women are more sensitive to pain and are more likely to suffer from anxiety, depression, tension, and chronic pain. As such, adolescent girls and women are at greater risk to misuse prescription drugs, pain relievers in particular, as a form of self‐medication and relief. Recommendations for preventing and treating female prescription drug use and abuse are also briefly discussed.
Female Sex Offenders
Authors: Behounek Elaina K.
Published: August 2019

Female sex offenders were historically ignored by the criminal justice system due to gendered notions about criminality. Female sex offenders represent a small proportion of overall sex offenders, and an incomplete picture remains due to underreporting. Female and male sex offenders differ in characteristics and offending behavior. Many typologies exist to categorize and explain female sex offenders.
Female Suicide Bombers
Authors: Wojcik Michelle L.
Published: August 2019

Female suicide bombers commit a form of suicide attack in which the attacker uses her body as a bomb for self‐immolation and ignites herself in order to kill others. The use of women as suicide bombers has increased exponentially over the past several decades. Many terror organizations have shifted their efforts from attacking “hard” military targets to “soft” civilian targets and therefore have relied more on female suicide bombers to execute attacks. Female bombers generate little suspicion, are less likely to be stopped at security checkpoints, and easily blend into civilian groups, which allows them to conduct more deadly attacks than their male counterparts. Although some women choose to become a suicide bomber because of the related glory and social status, many vulnerable women are coerced into becoming a bomber.
Females and Law School
Authors: Spina Francesca
Published: August 2019

The number of females in law schools has been increasing since the 1970s. Although females constitute nearly half of the current law school population, they still have a different experience in school than their male counterparts. Furthermore, female lawyers continue to earn less than their male colleagues and hold fewer leadership positions or positions within the judiciary. Consequently, it is important to address gender disparities in law school so that females can continue closing the gender gap in the practice of law.
F
ry,
E
lizabeth
Authors: Birkett Gemma
Published: August 2019

Elizabeth Fry (1780–1845) née Gurney is one of the most celebrated prison reformers of all time. Born to a devout Quaker family in Norwich, England, she married banker Joseph Fry in 1800 and went on to have eleven children.
G
andhi,
I
ndira
Authors: Toor Sunita
Published: August 2019

Indira Gandhi is regarded as one of the most powerful political women of the twentieth century, where she has been defined for her unprecedented, ruthless, strong, and centralized political power. She is heralded as the first female head of any democratic state and is referred to as India's Iron Lady.
Gang Rape
Authors: Jones Melissa S.
Published: August 2019

Gang rape is a serious and often understudied form of rape. This entry includes discussions of defining gang rape, estimations and prevalence of gang rape, comparisons of gang rape and individual rape perpetrators and incidents, typologies of gang rape perpetrators, different social settings in which gang rape occurs (e.g., college campus, gang membership, prison, in the military, and during wartime), and gang rape survivors.
Gender Disparities in Policing
Authors: Perkins Wendy
Published: August 2019

While women are represented in the field of policing, the profession remains largely dominated by men. Women face barriers to obtaining jobs as police officers and encounter additional challenges once hired into a department. Police culture has historically been unwelcoming toward women and cultural change is a key element to encouraging more women to enter the field.
Gender Stereotypes and Criminal Offending
Authors: Shapiro Lauren R.
Published: August 2019

Gender stereotypes affect criminal offending first by influencing the reporting of the crime and subsequently in each phase of the criminal justice system. Specifically, cognitive schemas for crimes and criminals inherently have embedded gender stereotypes that impact perception, understanding, and interpretation of actions as “criminal” and consequently, reporting and prosecuting crimes. Arrest statistics show that male offending is higher than female offending for crimes against person, property, and society. These proxies for actual offending may be artifactual, or may be explained using “gender‐neutral” or “feminist” theories of criminality.
Gender Stereotypes and Victimization
Authors: Jones Lynn C.
Published: August 2019

Gender stereotypes are socially constructed meanings about female and male characteristics or behaviors, and these are reinforced through social interactions and media portrayals. Gender stereotypes include rules about appropriate performance of gender, or doing gender appropriately, and individuals often act to reinforce expectations when gender is performed in non‐normative ways. Victimization of women by men reflects gender stereotypes as men reassert masculinity and punish female partners who are thought to challenge their female role. Victim blaming persists along with gender stereotypes, as female victims are judged and men's violence is legitimated.
Hagerman, Amber (
AMBER
Alert)
Authors: McCormack Philip D.
Published: August 2019

The tragic death of young Amber Hagerman in 1996 triggered an outcry in the local and then national community concerning how law enforcement responds to child abductions and how sex offenders are monitored in the community. Legislation was quickly enacted, then subsequently expanded, to require the use of public notification systems in cases of child abduction. The systems in place are widespread, fast‐acting, and have been credited with the safe return of hundreds of abducted children.
Homelessness and Female Victimization and Offending
Authors: Alatorre Francisco J.
Published: August 2019

The experiences of homeless women supports the Bureau of Justice Statistics' predictors that drug use, sexual abuse, and violence at early stages of life increases their vulnerability to homelessness and criminal offending more than that of their male counterparts. These women's experiences also reveal the strong correlation between such experiences and homelessness and criminal offending.
Homelessness and Girls
Authors: Garland Tammy S.
Published: August 2019

Girls run away as a result of a number of family (physical and sexual violence) and economic conditions (poverty). Others simply become homeless as a result of residential instability. However, in an attempt to secure safety, turning to the streets places girls at an increased risk for victimization, as homeless females often suffer from sexual exploitation, sexual violence, and physical violence. As a result, homeless girls face a number of mental, emotional, and health issues.
H
omolka,
K
arla
Authors: Weisz Elishewah
Published: August 2019

Karla Leanne Homolka, born in 1970, formed one part of a serial killer couple from the Toronto area in Canada. She and her husband, Paul Bernardo, were responsible for the sexual assault and homicide of at least three teenage girls, including Karla Homolka's own younger sister, Tammy Homolka. They are also known as the “Ken and Barbie” killers. Karla made a plea deal and was convicted to 12 years' incarceration, while Paul was convicted to life imprisonment for the murders. Karla was released in 2005.
Human Trafficking and Prostitution
Authors: Snow Natalie M. , Smith Molly , Radatz Dana L.
Published: August 2019

While both human trafficking and prostitution are characterized by the sale of sexual services, there is ongoing debate among scholars regarding the interrelationship of these two crimes. Perceptions of this relationship can be placed on a continuum that ranges from full integration, whereby it is believed that all prostitution is coerced, and thus a form of human trafficking, to full denial, whereby it is believed that voluntary prostitution does not meet the necessary requirements for the definition of human trafficking. Current legal movement throughout the globe regarding these two crimes further complicates this debate.
Indigenous Female Victimization
Authors: Davis Alexandra P.
Published: August 2019

Indigenous female victimization includes the experiences of victims who identify as indigenous and as female. It is understood that these experiences, dissimilar to those of women from other races or ethnicities, stem from direct colonial practices, and have transformed into experiences stemming from a complex web of systemic legal and economic systems designed in a neoliberal era. Such victimization – often experiences of violence – has negative impacts on women's health and risk behaviors. While there have been advancements in laws and declarations protecting the rights and experiences of Indigenous women, many scholars argue that tribal self‐determination – the right of Indigenous groups to decide and enact policies that fit their cultural values – is the most effective long‐term solution to the issue.
International Day to End Violence Against Women
Authors: Barnes Lynn M.
Published: August 2019

The International Day to End Violence Against Women is a worldwide observance held each year on November 25. Proclaimed by a resolution from the United Nations General Assembly, the day commemorates the killing of three sisters who were political activists in the Dominican Republic. Governments, international organizations, and nongovernmental agencies are asked to organize and promote events that raise awareness of the problem of violence against women. Various projects, activities, and campaigns are held to bring attention to the issue, and to assist and support women and children who are victimized.
International and Transnational Feminist Criminology
Authors: Barberet Rosemary
Published: August 2019

International and transnational feminist criminology is a subfield of feminist criminology that embraces the global nature of crime and justice and its gendered ramifications. It argues for a wider definition of crime, victimization and justice, the stretching of methods and theory to expand our knowledge base, the correction of global inequities, and the revamping of justice frameworks to prioritize the critical applicability of international human rights.
Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act
Authors: Pasko Lisa
Published: August 2019

Monitored by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, the 1974 Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act (JJDPA) is a federal law in the United States that stipulates protections for justice‐involved youth. Such protections include the deinstitutionalization of status offenders (DSO), “sight and sound” separation between juveniles and adults, jail removal disallowing confinement of juveniles in adult jails, and disproportionate minority confinement (with “confinement” later changed to “contact”) requiring states to examine the overrepresentation of youth of color in the justice system. Overall, the JJDPA and its re‐authorizations have provided benefits for female juvenile offenders, including a reduction in their confinement for status offenses, examination of the extent and availability of gender‐specific services, and efforts to address disproportionate minority contact.
Madonna/Whore Dichotomy
Authors: Cooper Krystal
Published: August 2019

The Madonna/whore dichotomy categorizes women into two polarized types, the Madonna – the “good woman,” and the whore – the “bad woman.” Originating with research put forth by Sigmund Freud, the Madonna/whore dichotomy continues to have an impact not only in general society, but also in the criminal justice system. However, there are arguments that there may be disparity in how women are typified based on race.
Memory and Child Abuse
Authors: Shapiro Lauren R.
Published: August 2019

The relationship between memory and child abuse is reviewed in light of the legal issue of whether testimony by children about their current maltreatment and by adults about their past childhood abusive experience is reliable and valid. Several theories are described that explain a general mechanism or specific mechanism for forming autobiographic episodes, including traumatic ones. Empirical evidence examining development in the self‐concept, cognitive abilities and linguistic skills, as well as the degree of trauma are used to indicate possible reasons for abusive experiences not to be stored and/or reported. Advice regarding interview characteristics and their impact in report inaccuracy over time is also provided.
Native American Female Victimization and Female Offenders
Authors: Hume Wendelin
Published: August 2019

A number of misconceptions about Native Americans fuel misunderstanding about victimization and offending among this group. This entry begins by describing these misconceptions, then discussing victimization of Native American women and its consequences. Despite challenges in proper classification of Native American offenders as Native American, it is nevertheless clear that sentencing practices work to further disadvantage this group. The entry concludes with reasons for cautious optimism and directions for future research.
Pathways to Sex Work
Authors: Hickling Shamma Jabal
Published: August 2019

Women account for a large majority of arrests for prostitution and commercialized vice. Entry into sex work involves a complex set of contextual, individual, and environmental factors. The circumstances that lead women into sex work vary, but a few broad categories help make sense of women's pathways to sex work. Pathways to sex work include poverty (economic necessity), violence, abuse, and drug addiction. For many women, the cycle of violence and abuse that contributed to their entrance into sex work began during childhood. Additionally, many women use sex work as a means to support their drug habits as well as the habits of their partners.
Pink‐Collar Crime
Authors: Lutz Jennifer R.
Published: August 2019

Edwin Sutherland introduced the term “white‐collar crime” in his 1939 American Sociological Association presidential address in which he argued that criminologists should focus attention on the illegal behaviors of professionals. He further expounded upon the concept of white‐collar crime in his seminal criminology text, where he defined white‐collar crime as illegal behaviors committed by respectable professionals in positions of power and high social status. While some scholars argue that women's increased labor force participation closed the gender gap in white‐collar offending, others maintain that the crimes committed by women in the workplace tend to be low‐level embezzlement offenses and low‐level fraud committed by low‐ranking personnel. Therefore, these low‐level offenses typically perpetrated by women tend to be outside the purview of Sutherland's definition of white‐collar crime, creating gendered distinctions between white‐collar crime and “pink‐collar” crime. Blocked economic opportunities, through gendered labor market segmentation and the exclusion of women from informal work networks, shape women's participation in white‐collar crimes. Additionally, gendered focal concerns, risk preferences, and responses to workplace stress influence gendered differences in motivation and rationalizations for white‐collar and pink‐collar crimes.
Postpartum Syndromes
Authors: Capps Jennifer E.
Published: August 2019

Postpartum syndromes are psychiatric conditions that impact new mothers. Postpartum depression and postpartum psychosis are the most serious postpartum syndromes and afflict women at the rates of 7–15% and 0.01–0.02%, respectively. Postpartum conditions capture media attention when their relationship to the commission of heinous crimes like infanticide are brought to light. Postpartum psychosis has been shown to be the more effective explanation for criminal behavior than postpartum depression in all stages of the criminal justice system especially as it relates to verdicts of “not guilty by reason of insanity.”
Prostitution Rights Movement
Authors: Fitch Chivon H. , Weber Brandon M.
Published: August 2019

The advancement of rights for prostitution and sex workers has been a goal of many organizations within the United States and internationally. Organizations like Call Off Your Old Tired Ethics (COYOTE) and the Sex Workers Outreach Project (SWOP) have worked to protect prostitutes and sex workers from violence and stigma.
Recidivism and Female Offenders
Authors: Urby Heriberto
Published: August 2019

Recidivism (repeat offending) among female offenders continues somewhat unabated in the United States. In general, females recidivate less than male offenders. Female offenders may recidivate due to unemployment, use of alcohol or drugs, and problems with reintegration.
Reno, Janet
Authors: Pashea Joseph J.
Published: August 2019

Janet Wood Reno was an American lawyer and former attorney general of the United States. Reno holds the distinction as the first woman state attorney for Miami‐Dade county in Florida as well as the first female attorney general of the United States. Reno was also the longest serving US attorney general of the twentieth century and the second longest serving in history. Reno's justice department was involved in many high profile cases and incidents, such as the siege against the Branch Davidians compound in Waco, Texas, as well as the convictions of Theodore Kaczynski (Unabomber) and Oklahoma City bombers Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols.
Restorative Circles
Authors: Cournoyer Erin L.
Published: August 2019

Restorative circles may be described as a method or process of empowering victims, repairing harm, and building community grounded in principles of equality and respect. Restorative circles are versatile in form and function, used most often in schools and in all phases of the criminal legal system. Adapted from indigenous roots in ancient traditions, restorative circles encompass many adaptable forms, including sentencing, reentry, peacemaking, healing, and support circles.
Restorative Justice
Authors: Posick Chad
Published: August 2019

Restorative justice is a philosophy which suggests that when crime occurs, relational bonds are broken in society. To achieve justice, society must seek to repair those bonds. Restorative justice practices encourage active participation by all parties affected by crime including the offender, victim, and community who come to a conclusion as to how best to repair the harm done by crime. Restorative justice can be fruitful for both female offenders and victims and offers an alternative to the traditional criminal justice system in providing an avenue to restore peace in society.
Riggs, Christina
Authors: McElvaney Stacy
Published: August 2019

Christina Riggs (1971–2000) was the fifth woman in the United States to be executed following reinstatement of capital punishment by the US Supreme Court in 1976; her execution was the first to be performed in Arkansas in over 150 years. As an extension of her own suicide attempt on November 4, 1997, Riggs murdered her two preschool children, Justin and Shelby. Riggs's execution is significant because it questions how the legal system and society respond to women who violate socially constructed norms of motherhood and femininity.
Sadism (MarquisdeSade)
Authors: Comerford Caroline V.
Published: August 2019

“Sadism” is a term that originates from the eighteenth‐century French novelist, soldier, philosopher, and revolutionist Marquis de Sade (i.e., Donatien‐Alphonse‐François, Comte de Sade) whose literary works involved explicit depictions of sexual violence, torture, and cruelty against fictitious victims. Throughout de Sade's life, his sexually deviant behavior reflected many such literary depictions. Sadism refers to sexual gratification through the infliction of psychological and/or physical pain, humiliation, and/or degradation of another individual.
Shelter Movement
Authors: Wilkes Nicole
Published: August 2019

As the problem of domestic violence started to be recognized and discussed in the 1970s, shelters for domestic violence victims emerged as a place for victims to stay to escape from the violence in their homes. Many of the early shelters had feminist and grassroots origins. Shelters continued to develop in communities throughout the 1980s. Over the past 40 years, shelters have provided an essential service to victims and their children. Throughout their history, shelters have continued to evolve with the needs of victims and challenges faced by the movement.
S
tebbins
W
ells,
A
lice
Authors: Capsambelis Christopher R.
Published: August 2019

Alice Stebbins Wells who was hired by the Los Angeles Police Department, was the first female police officer in the United States to be called a policewoman. During her tenure as a police officer, Wells was instrumental in organizing the International Policewomen's Association and the Women's Peace Officers' Association of California.
Surratt, Mary
Authors: Capsambelis Christopher R.
Published: August 2019

Mary Surratt has the distinction of being the first woman to be executed by the United States government. Surratt was convicted of treason as one of the co‐conspirators in the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. She was hanged along with three other conspirators on July 7, 1865.
Transnational Justice
Authors: Trent Carol L.
Published: August 2019

Transnational justice is the judicial and nonjudicial response used by societies to address widespread human rights violations, mass atrocities, or other forms of collective trauma. In nations transitioning from autocratic regimes, those emerging from periods of civil conflict and war, and those coming to terms with large‐scale violations of international law, these processes help societies reestablish the rule of law, hold perpetrators accountable and bring justice to victims, and heal communities through reconciliation. Addressing gender justice is a key facet of the transnational justice, since women and girls are particularly vulnerable to human rights abuses, including sexual and gender‐based violence (SGBV).
UNDeclaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women
Authors: King Anna
Published: August 2019

The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women (DEVAW) is a nonbinding declaration issued by the General Assembly of the United Nations aimed at strengthening state commitments to global participation and policy formation regarding violence against women. The resolution is the first international tool explicitly dealing with violence against women, which it defines as any physical, sexual, or psychological violence or the threat of it, toward women and girls occurring in the home, the community, and/or condoned by the state. Especially vulnerable groups of women are identified, such as those who are residents of remote or war‐torn areas, children, poverty stricken, prisoners, minorities, indigenous, refugees, migrants, disabled, or elderly. The statement frames gender violence as a threat to the peace and development of nations.
Unborn Victims of Violence Act (Laci and Conner's Law)
Authors: Roth Kelly Sue
Published: August 2019

This entry discusses the 2002 murder of Laci Peterson and her unborn child, Conner. Laci was eight months pregnant at the time of her murder. Scott Peterson, Laci's husband, was convicted of her murder. At the time there were no laws that allowed a person to be charged with harm to an unborn child. As a result of this case, President Bush signed the federal law titled, The Unborn Victims of Violence Act.
Victim Blaming
Authors: De Heer Brooke
Published: August 2019

Victim blaming is the term used to describe the ascription of partial or full responsibility of a criminal act or maltreatment to the victims themselves. Large‐scale social movements such as the civil rights and women's movements brought attention to the concept and detriment of victim blaming and led to a more unbiased approach to the study of victims, known as victimology. Many things contribute to victim blaming, including rape myths and cognitive biases. While victim blame is typically seen through media representations of sexual assault or domestic violence victims, victims of white‐collar and corporate crimes are also held responsible for their own victimization.
Walker, Lenore
Authors: Copenhaver Brandi W.
Published: August 2019

Domestic violence gained recognition and public attention on a national and global level when Dr. Lenore Walker published her famous book,
The Battered Woman
. Her research and practitioner experience led to the founding of the Domestic Violence Institute and several publications on domestic violence and treatment for survivors. Walker continues to advance the prevention and treatment of violence and the rights of victims through her work as a clinical and forensic psychologist.
Women Attorneys and Legal Practice
Authors: del Carmen Sara Jane
Published: August 2019

Women attorneys have faced years of explicit and implicit bias. Studies have found that the current structures in place for advancement are barriers for women to reach high‐level positions, from law firms to the United States Supreme Court. The notion that by being in the legal profession “pipeline” evens out the playing field is inaccurate.
Wuornos, Aileen
Authors: Miller Brooke
Published: August 2019

Aileen Wuornos gained national notoriety as the first female serial killer in the United States. Wuornos was convicted and sentenced to death in the murders of six men in Florida between 1989 and 1990. At trial, Wuornos claimed to have committed the murders in self‐defense as the men tried to rape her. She was convicted after a two‐week jury trial where her former lover, Tyria Moore, testified against her.
Yates, Andrea
Authors: Baldwin Lucy
Published: August 2019

This entry relates to Andrea Yates who on June 20, 2001, killed all of her five children aged between 6 months and 7 years. Following two trials, Andrea Yates was ultimately found guilty by reason of insanity and committed to hospital.
Smart Injectable Hydrogels for Cancer Immunotherapy
Authors: Chao Yu , Chen Qian , Liu Zhuang
Published: August 2019

Hydrogels, a class of materials with a 3D network structure, are widely used in various fields especially in biomedicine. Injectable hydrogels could facilitate the encapsulation and controlled release of small molecular drugs, macromolecular therapeutics, and even cells. With the rapid development of cancer immunotherapy, such injectable hydrogels have attracted wide attention for local immunomodulation to boost systemic anticancer immune responses, realizing more effective immunotherapy at lower doses. The latest progresses in the development of various smart injectable hydrogels for cancer immunotherapy are summarized here. Although applied locally, such injectable hydrogels can activate systemic antitumor immune responses, safely and effectively inhibiting the tumor metastasis and recurrence. Moreover, it is discussed how injectable hydrogel‐based cancer immunotherapy would contribute to the development of next generation of cancer treatment together with their potential for clinical translation.
Advanced Compressible and Elastic 3D Monoliths beyond Hydrogels
Authors: Hu Yijie , Chen Zehong , Zhuo Hao , Zhong Linxin , Peng Xinwen , Sun Run‐Cang
Published: August 2019

3D monoliths have undergone great progress in the past decades in scientific and engineering fields. Especially, compressible and elastic 3D monoliths (CEMs) hold great promise in a series of applications, such as pressure/strain sensing, energy storage, oil/water separation, and thermal insulation, attributed to their unique mechanical properties and multifunctionality (e.g., conductivity, thermal stability, and high adsorption capacity). Recently, plenty of advanced CEMs have been developed from 1D and 2D building blocks, polymers, and biomass via various methods. Herein, the latest progress in controllable design and preparation of advanced CEMs, which mainly refer to aerogels, sponges, and foams, are reviewed in terms of their structural units and applications. The relationship between structure and mechanical performances of CEMs is discussed. Moreover, their applications in sensing, energy storage and conversion, water treatment, fire‐resistance, and electromagnetic interface shielding are presented. Finally, the challenges and future opportunities of CEMs are also discussed.
Continuously Producing Watersteam and Concentrated Brine from Seawater by Hanging Photothermal Fabrics under Sunlight
Authors: Liu Zixiao , Wu Binhe , Zhu Bo , Chen Zhigang , Zhu Meifang , Liu Xiaogang
Published: August 2019

Solar‐enabled evaporation for seawater desalination is an attractive, renewable, and environment‐friendly technique, and tremendous progress has been achieved by developing various photothermal membranes. However, traditional photothermal membranes directly float on water, resulting in some limitations such as unavoidable heat‐loss to bulk water and severe salt accumulation. To solve these problems, a hydrophilic, polymer nanorod‐coated photothermal fabric is designed and fabricated, and then an indirect‐contact evaporation system by hanging the fabric is demonstrated. The two ends of the fabric are designed to be in contact with seawater to guide water flow through capillary suction. Both arc‐shaped top/bottom surfaces of the hanging fabrics are exposed to air, which can prevent heat dissipation to bulk seawater and facilitate the double‐surface evaporation upon sunlight irradiation. Our design leads to an efficient evaporation rate of 1.94 kg m−2 h−1 and high solar efficiency of 89.9% upon irradiation with sunlight (1.0 kW m−2). Importantly, the highly concentrated brine can drip from the bottom of the arc‐shaped fabric, without the appearance of solid‐salt accumulation. This indirect‐contact evaporation system establishes a new path to continuously and economically produce watersteam from seawater for fresh‐water and concentrated brine for the chlor‐alkali industry.
Hybrid Cholesteric Films with Tailored Polarization Rotation
Authors: Rofouie Pardis , Galati Elizabeth , Sun Lu , Helmy Amr S. , Kumacheva Eugenia
Published: August 2019

Incorporation of metal nanoparticles in chiral (Ch) films of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) enhances nanoparticle plasmon resonances, due to the coupling of the intrinsic properties of the plasmonic guest and the photonic properties of the Ch‐CNC host. In contrast with previous reports, the properties of the Ch‐CNC host are focused and an effective strategy is developed for tuning the optical polarization rotation of the composite films formed by the CNCs and gold nanoparticles. A twofold enhancement in the polarization rotation power of the composite Ch‐CNC films, with an insignificant change in the incurred optical losses, is achieved by varying the density and dimensions of gold nanoparticles embedded in the Ch‐CNC films. For such films, a new approach is developed to obtain broadband circular dichroism by fabricating films from mixtures of CNC suspensions ultrasonicated for different time intervals. These new findings enable fine‐tuning of the power and spectral range of the polarization rotation and offer a novel strategy for the fabrication of broadband reflectors and polarizers, smart solar windows, and detectors for circularly polarized light.