bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Evaporation
Authors: Harrison Roger G. , Todd Paul W. , Rudge Scott R. , Petrides Demetri P.
Published: November 2020

Evaporation is a process that involves the removal by vaporization of part of the solvent from a solution, with the objective being to concentrate the solution. In the evaporation of solutions containing biological compounds, the volatile solvent can be water or an organic solvent. Organic solvents are frequently used for antibiotics, steroids, and peptides. Often the solution is under a moderate vacuum, at pressures down to about 0.05 atm absolute [1], which is especially important for heat-sensitive biologicals where the temperature should be as low as possible to minimize degradation. The energy source for evaporation is usually steam at a low pressure, below 3 atm absolute [1]. Evaporation processes typically occur after the processes used for the removal of insolubles. They are often used to concentrate a solution just prior to the bioproduct being crystallized or precipitated. Evaporation can often be coupled with extraction: for example, a bioproduct is extracted from an aqueous stream with an organic solvent, and the extract is sent to an evaporator for concentration. In this chapter, the basic principles of evaporation are discussed, followed by a description of the most common types of evaporators for heat sensitive biological products and a discussion of scale-up and design methods. After completing this chapter, the reader should be able to do the following: • Explain the different types of resistances to heat transfer in an evaporator. • Take into account the boiling point elevation in heat transfer calculations for evaporators. • Calculate the heat transfer resistances and residence time for the concentration of a heat-sensitive bioproduct in a falling film evaporator. • Estimate the fouling factor in an evaporator. • Calculate the maximum allowable vapor velocity from an evaporator. • Select an appropriate type of evaporator to use based on the specific operational and product characteristics. • Size evaporators based on specific operating conditions and the expected overall heat transfer coefficient. The main principles to consider for evaporators are heat transfer and vapor-liquid separation. The theoretical basis of these principles will be discussed.
E–pH Diagrams
Authors: Schweitzer George K. , Pesterfield Lester L.
Published: November 2020

This volume is intended to employ E–pH diagrams to describe the inorganic solution chemistry of the chemical elements. Such diagrams are very useful in numerous fields of investigation, including electrochemistry, analytical chemistry, inorganic chemistry, geochemistry, environmental chemistry, corrosion chemistry, hydrometallurgy, water chemistry, agricultural chemistry, toxicology, biochemistry, chemical engineering, materials science, health physics, and nutrition. It is assumed that the reader is acquainted with the following major topics which are treated in elementary chemistry: stoichiometry, equilibrium, acid–base phenomena, solubility, complexation, elementary thermodynamics, and electrochemistry. In 1923, W. M. Clark and B. Cohen published a paper in which they introduced the idea of plotting the electromotive force as referred to the hydrogen electrode E against the pH for several chemical systems. In 1928, Clark continued to develop this graphical presentation in his text on the determination of pH. The utility of the method was further extended by numerous other investigators such as M. Pourbaix, G. Valensi, G. Charlot, T. P. Hoar, R. M. Garrels, N. de Zoubov, J. Van Muylder, E. Deltombe, C. Vanleugenhaghe, J. Schmets, M. Maraghini, P. Van Rysselberghe, A. Moussard, J. Brenet, F. Jolas, K. Schwabe, J. Besson, W. Kunz, A. L. Pitman, J. N. Butler, P. Delahay, H. Freiser, H. A. Laitinen, L. G. Sillen, P. L. Cloke, and others. In 1963, M. Pourbaix in collaboration with N. de Zoubov published Atlas d’equilibres electrochimiques, a collection of E–pH diagrams for 90 chemical elements. This volume was translated into English in 1966 by J. A. Franklin and published as Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions. Subsequently other investigators published computer programs for constructing the diagrams: L. Santoma; B. G. Williams, and W. H. Patrick; P. B. Linkson, B. D. Phillips, and C. D. Rowles; K. Osseo-Asare, A. W. Asihene, T. Xue, and V. S. T. Ciminellie; D. R. Drewes; M. Mao and E. Peters; H-H. Huang and C. A. Young; J. P. Birk and Laura L. Tayer; G. P. Glasby and H. D. Schulz; and Q. Feng, Y. Ma, and Y. Lu.
Reactions and Applications
Authors: Schweitzer George K. , Pesterfield Lester L.
Published: November 2020

E–pH diagrams involve two types of reactions: (1) Non-redox full reactions and (2) Redox half-reactions. Non-redox full reactions are exemplified by ones such as Mn(OH)2 + 2H+ → Mn+2 + 2HOH. This is not a redox (reduction–oxidation) reaction, since there are no changes in oxidation numbers of the elements. Such reactions are reflected as vertical lines on E–pH diagrams. An example of a redox half-reaction is 2e− + Mn+2 → Mn. As can be seen, this is a redox reaction, since electrons appear in the equation, and there is an oxidation number change (II to 0 for Mn). Such reactions are represented by horizontal or sloped lines in an E–pH diagram. In order to write complete reactions in which oxidation numbers change, two half-reactions must be combined. One half reaction will represent a reduction (2e− + Mn+2 → Mn) and the other will represent an oxidation (Mg → Mg+2 + 2e−). These half-reactions are combined such that the electrons cancel out and a complete redox equation is obtained (Mn+2 + Mg →Mn + Mg+2). Each of the two half-reactions has an E value, and the E value of the resulting complete redox equation is obtained by the difference in the E values of the contributing half-reactions. E–pH diagrams may be employed to predict non-redox full reactions and complete redox reactions and to ascertain E values of the latter. This will be the subject matter of the next few sections. Dashed lines in every E–pH diagram represent the E values for changes in HOH-related species (HOH, H+, H2, O2, and implicitly OH−). The upper dashed sloped line represents the reaction 4e− + 4H+ + O2 → 2HOH and is described by the equation E = 1.23−0.059 pH. The lower dashed sloped line represents the reaction 2e− + 2H+ → H2 and is described by the equation E= 0.00−0.059 pH. Figure 3.1 shows the E–pH diagram for HOH, and Figure 3.2 shows the E–pH diagram for Mg with all soluble species at 1.00 M except H+. The solid horizontal line represents the reaction 2e− + Mg+2 → Mg, and the equation for the line is E = −2.36 + 0.030 log [Mg+2].
The Oxygen Group
Authors: Schweitzer George K. , Pesterfield Lester L.
Published: November 2020

The Oxygen Group of the Periodic Table consists of the elements oxygen O, sulfur S, selenium Se, tellurium Te, and polonium Po. The outer electron structure ns2np4 characterizes all five of the elements, with n representing principal quantum numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, respectively. The ns2np4 indicates the possibility of oxidation states of −II, II, IV, and VI in all of the elements, with O almost always showing a value of −II. As one descends the group, non-metallic character gradually diminishes with only Po being distinctly metallic, and the crossover occurring with the metalloid or semi-metal Te. The II and the VI oxidation states decrease in stability down the group, and the IV oxidation state increases. Oxygen stands out as considerably different from the other elements, there being numerous discontinuities in properties between it and S. Covalent radii in pm are as follows: O(73), S(102), Se(117), Te(135), and Po (149). Ionic radii in pm are as: O−2(126), S−2(170), Se−2(184), and Te−2(207). a. E–pH diagrams. Figure 10.1 depicts the E–pH diagram for O with the soluble species (except H+) at 10−1.0 M. The upper region is occupied by O2, the lower region by H2, and the intermediate area by HOH and its equilibrium species H+ and OH−. This diagram functions as the background for all chemical reactions in HOH solution and in an air or O2 atmosphere. The compound hydrogen peroxide H2O2 is another compound of O and H which is of importance. Because of complicated kinetic behavior, H2O2 can act as either an oxidant or a reductant. Figure 10.2 displays the E–pH diagram for H2O2 at 10−1.0 M when it is functioning as an oxidizing agent. Figure 10.3 is the E–pH diagram for H2O2 at 10−1.0 M when it is acting as a reducing agent. Equations for the lines that separate the species are displayed in the legends of the diagrams.
The Zn Group
Authors: Schweitzer George K. , Pesterfield Lester L.
Published: November 2020

The elements of this group (zinc Zn, cadmium Cd, mercury Hg) all exhibit a II oxidation state in aqueous systems, and Hg also shows a I oxidation state as indicated by the unusual cation Hg2+2. None of the elements shows oxidation states greater than II, which indicates that the d electrons are not involved. Within the group Zn and Cd resemble each other more closely than Cd and Hg. This is especially evident in the nobility of Hg (E˚ positive for Zn and Cd, negative for Hg), the lack of an Hg hydroxide, the thermal instability of HgO, and the greater stabilities of many Hg complexes as compared to those of Zn and Cd. a. E–pH diagram. Figure 17.1 shows the E–pH diagram for Zn at a 10−1.0 M concentration for soluble species except H+ (and OH−). No complexing agent other than HOH and OH− is assumed to be present. The Zn+2 ion is more properly expressed as Zn(HOH)6+2, and the hydroxo complexes probably have enough HOH attached to realize a coordination number of 6. In aqueous solution, Zn acts only in the oxidation states of 0 and II. The legend of the figure shows equations for the lines separating the species. b. Discovery, occurrence, and extraction. Brass, an alloy of Cu and Zn, dates back to pre-historic times. Indications are that it was produced by heating calamine (ZnCO3) with Cu and C. Pure Zn was being produced in India and China during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and by about 1600, was being imported by Europe. Even before this, some reports indicate that zinc was recognized in Europe, but it was generally believed that it was a mixture of metals. In 1746, Andreas Marggraf published a book describing the production of Zn from its mineral calamine ZnCO3 (now also known as smithsonite), and soon it was recognized by Lavoisier as an element. The name zinc derives from the German zink, which means sharp point, a name designating its appearance when it deposits in a smelter. The major ores of Zn are zinc blende ZnS (also known as sphalerite) and calamine ZnCO3.
The Spirit of Connection
Authors: Orr David W.
Published: November 2020

The conversation about the future of humankind and the preservation of life cannot be bottled up at the level of technology, economics, and politics, which have to do with means, not ends. In a vacuum of meaning and purpose, however, we don’t do well either individually or collectively. Instead we are more likely to succumb to anomie, nihilism, and insensate violence. But questions about the purposes and the moral compass by which we might reorient ourselves have become much more complicated. At the dawn of the 20th century, optimism about the human condition abounded. Science and technology seemed to promise an unlimited future, and in various ways larger questions were set aside in the intoxication with progress, the goal to master ever more of nature, and the hive-like effort to grow economies and eventually fight two world wars. But looking back across the wars, gulags, death camps, ethnic cleansings, killing fields, and mutual assured destruction, the 20th century appears rather like a passage through Hell. Looking ahead to rapid climate destabilization, the loss of perhaps a quarter to half of the species of life on Earth, and the widening gulf of poverty and living standards, we see that it may not have been a passage at all but a road toward the abyss of extinction. But it is a mistake, I think, to regard the possible suicide of humankind as an anomaly rather than the logical outcome of a wrong turn that now must be quickly undone. For all of its complexity, the essence of the issue of sustainability was put by the writer of Deuteronomy long ago: “I have set before you life and death, blessing and cursing: therefore choose life, that thou and thy seed may live.” No previous generation could make that choice as fully and finally as we can. We have the choice of life and death before us, but now on a planetary scale. One might expect that this choice would have been a matter of considerable interest to mainstream Christian denominations, but with a few notable exceptions they have been, in scientist Stuart Simon’s word, “sluggish” to recognize such issues.
The Strange Case of Helium and the Nuclear Atom
Authors: Fisher David
Published: November 2020

It is often taken as a matter of established fact that the difference between a good scientist and a great scientist is the ability to distinguish in advance which problems are going to be the important ones. I think this belief is a reflection of the fact that history is written by the winners: Professor X chooses a problem and with much hard work solves it, but it turns out not to have important consequences, so it and he are forgotten; Professor Y does the same, but this time the result spurs further work or even opens new and unforeseeable regions of science, so he naturally feels that his “intuition” was correct. But how do you distinguish his intuition from a lucky guess? I suggest that a study of the history of science tells us that luck plays a significant part. Consider, for example, Lord Rutherford’s discovery of the nuclear atom—perhaps the most important experimental discovery of the twentieth century, in that it led to quantum theory and the whole of nuclear physics. To set the stage: By the first few years of the twentieth century it had been determined that there were three kinds of radioactive emissions, termed alpha, beta, and gamma rays. The gamma rays were electromagnetic in nature, the beta rays were electrons, and Rutherford had just shown that the alpha rays were in fact helium; or rather, as he put it, the alpha rays were a stream of particles zipping along at roughly 10,000 miles per second which, after they slowed down and lost their electric charge, became helium atoms. (He didn’t realize at the time that they “lost” their positive electric charge by picking up negatively charged electrons.) What next? Well, the natural thing to do was to see how these radioactive emissions interacted with matter. This had already been done with the beta and gamma radiations: a stream of these radiations had been directed at various targets, and such parameters as their depth of penetration and ionizing capabilities had been measured, with no particular insights gained (an example of Professor X’s work).
Cornell, the Ten-Minute Experiment, and Back to Argon
Authors: Fisher David
Published: November 2020

Because, you know how it is, you never forget your first love. I tried, believe me, I tried. I turned enthusiastically to activation analysis, which is a technique in which you irradiate a sample in a nuclear reactor—which, unlike the Cosmotron, just sits there day and night pouring out neutrons which slip into the sample, hardly disturbing it but pushing some of the atoms over the line from stable to radioactive. Since radioactivity is the most sensitive detection type of them all, you can measure the presence of extremely small amounts of many elements in the most complex of minerals. Roman Schmitt of General Atomic (later at Oregon State University) and I had discussed the possibility of detecting some elements without any work. You would just drop the sample in the reactor and then stick it in one of those newfangled multichannel gamma detectors. There would be a whole mélange of gamma rays coming out from all the radioactive isotopes in the sample, but a few elements throw out gammas of very high energy, and these would stand out above the background noise, or so we thought. The data would give immediate results while we just sat there reading a book or daydreaming. For instance, aluminum. It consists of a single isotope, 27Al, and upon bathing it in a sea of neutrons it forms 28Al, which is radioactive with a half-life of 2.3 minutes and a gamma ray of 1.78 Mev. Beautiful! Hardly any element throws out a gamma of energy more than 1 Mev, so the 1.78 bugger would stand out easily, and the 2.3-minute half-life meant that I could easily follow its decay for positive identification. Several half-lives, or, say, ten minutes, would be plenty. By irradiating a sample of known aluminum content, a comparison of the two activities would give the aluminum in the unknown. What every scientist dreams about: the ten-minute experiment! The problem was to find some reason to measure aluminum.
Primvordial Helium and Argon and the Evolution of the Earth
Authors: Fisher David
Published: November 2020

And a few surprises in store. But surprises don’t surprise us; they’re expected. We don’t know what they’ll be, but we know they’re lurking somewhere out there in the vast unknown of our barely investigated universe: “Seek and ye shall find, but seek not to find that for which you seek” … or you’ll miss the important stuff. Finally my new mass spectrometer showed up, a custom-made machine put together by Nuclide Analysis Associates, a group operating out of Penn State, consisting of one professor and— most importantly—a fine technician who showed up with a parcel of crates and proceeded to put it together. In only a few weeks, we had a beam of ionized noble gas ions and began to try to make the instrument work.
We had, at that time, with that machine, no means of determining the mass of the ions being sent down the beam to the detector. The heavier the mass, the stronger would have to be the magnet setting in order to bend it out of a straight path and deflect it into the detector, so—as when I started at Brookhaven—it made sense to start by trying to find the lightest element, helium. In particular, I went looking for the 4He isotope, both because it was radiogenic (formed from the decay of uranium and thorium) and because it was by far the most abundant (and thus most easily measured) isotope of helium. I started by melting one of my ocean rocks, cleaning up the gases, and searching among them for the nearby mass 2 peak, which was unwanted but always present due to the ubiquitous hydrogen molecule, and soon found it. Then I scanned upwards and quickly found the helium-4 peak. To my surprise, there was a tiny little bump in the scan between the two, at mass 3—unexpected, like a ghost that shouldn’t be there.
Back to the Stars
Authors: Fisher David
Published: November 2020

Fritz Houtermans, A Swiss/German/Austrian/Dutch/Jewish physicist, was the first person to realize what makes the stars shine. Well, to tell the truth, “the first person to …” is a phrase badly used in science; it’s often not exactly the truth. All scientific progress builds on a growing body of knowledge, and when that body grows to a certain level it sets up the next discovery for whoever is bright enough to grasp it. And frequently that means more than one person, so coincidental discoveries by more than one person are often the case. Thus Lise Meitner discovered nuclear fission, which was hiding in the radiochemical data of groups working in Rome under Enrico Fermi and in Berlin under Otto Hahn, but so did another female German scientist, Ida Noddack; Meitner gets the credit, Noddack is forgotten. The list of such simultaneous discoveries goes back a long way, through special relativity (Einstein and Lorentz) and calculus (Newton and Leibniz) and gravity (Newton and Hooke) all the way back to whoever were the first people to realize the earth was round. So Fritz Houtermans actually may not have been the first, but no one preceded him, as far as we know. In 1959, at Brookhaven, while we were discussing a possible research appointment at his Physikalisches Institut in Berne (which he said he was laboriously tugging into the twentieth century), he told me of his epiphany. He was courting a lovely girl, he said, and in lieu of a local movie theatre he took her on a long walk into the countryside. Night fell and the moon came out and they lay down on a small rug he had thoughtfully (and hopefully) brought along and by the light of the moon they made love. Afterwards he dozed, and woke to find the moon had set and the cool clear night was ablaze with stars. He lay there staring up at them, oblivious of the young lady curled beside him, and (he said) with an inspiration so sudden it was almost as if the stars themselves were telling him their secret, he realized what it was: “Helium, that was the key!”
Radon and You
Authors: Fisher David
Published: November 2020

A review for one of my National Science Foundation grant proposals began “He isn’t the world’s greatest experimentalist, but …” I couldn’t argue with that. In fact, once I nearly destroyed the Brookhaven chemistry building. I had been working nearly thirtysix hours straight and was a bit tired. When I finally left, with the sun not quite rising, I forgot to turn off the Bunsen burner. Not only that, but I had left it with its rubber feed tube twisted a bit. Evidently the strain on the tubing later pulled the burner around and tipped it over. When it fell, the flame went out but the gas kept right on flowing through, and a few hours later when our lab tech, Johnny Densieski (who was always the first person to come in every morning), opened the doors he was nearly knocked over by the smell. Ordinarily he would have been more than just nearly knocked over, but for some reason the lit cigarette that was always dangling from his lips was absent that day, saving his life and the chemistry building from instant demolition. Johnny was loyally close-mouthed about it, but the story did get around. So when a routine exam of our lab showed radioactive contamination, everyone’s eyes naturally turned to me. I have to admit I thought it probably was my fault until a spectrometric examination of the evidence showed that it was alpha radiation, and all my work was done with beta radionuclides. The health physicists conducting the investigation didn’t believe me, of course, and so they tested lab counters and desks everywhere I had been, and found more and more radioactivity. They were about to put me in front of a firing squad until, being more thorough, they began to test areas where I had never been and found the same radioactive contamination, which they identified as polonium-218.
Discovering Natural Assets
Authors: Collier Paul
Published: November 2020

Natural assets are living dangerously: lacking natural owners they are liable to be plundered. Since mankind has had a long time in which to plunder, those depleting natural assets that are still around are there because they are difficult to extract. They lie beneath the earth, hence why they are called “subsoil assets.” Where are they? The world currently consists of 194 nation states, which can conveniently be grouped, as we’ve seen, into four roughly equal quadrants: the rich countries of the OECD; the countries of the bottom billion; Russia and China with their satellites; and the emerging market economies, such as India and Brazil. Each group occupies around a quarter of the planet’s land surface area. Occasionally national borders have been determined by the presence of subsoil assets. British colonial pioneers, for example, got wind of the existence of deposits of copper in central Africa and so pushed a railway line northward from South Africa. They found the copper belt in what is now Zambia. Having pushed over two thousand miles, however, they missed by some thirty the far richer copper deposits that now lie in the southeast corner of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. But usually, national borders do not reflect the endowments of subsoil assets to any significant degree. It would therefore be reasonable to regard subsoil assets as being randomly distributed between countries. Further, countries in the four groups are scattered across the planet. Although each group adds up to around a quarter of the planet’s total land area, it does not literally make up a quadrant, a neat quarter-slice out of a global orange. Since subsoil assets are randomly distributed among the 194 countries, and each of the four groups of countries is fairly randomly distributed around the earth, we might expect the law of large numbers to even out the distribution of subsoil assets among the groups. That is, while the random distribution over the 194 countries is likely to produce some spectacular differences between lucky and unlucky countries, by the time we have aggregated them into four massive groups the remaining differences should be much smaller.
Investing in Investing
Authors: Collier Paul
Published: November 2020

Harnessing natural assets for sustained development depends upon a chain of decisions, and the outcome is only as good as the weakest link in that chain. We have now reached the last link in the chain, and unfortunately it is the weakest. Suppose that the government has got each of the three previous decisions right: It has commissioned geological surveys that have revealed sufficient information about opportunities and thus been able to auction extraction rights for likely discoveries at good prices; it has designed a tax system which has captured the lion’s share of the rents that constitute the economic value of these natural assets; and it has saved the bulk of these revenues—less than 100 percent—because it judged some extra consumption to be consistent with meeting its obligations to the future, and, recognizing that the rate of return on domestic investment would be much higher than the world interest rate, counted on a capital gain to ease the burden of responsibility. All that remains—the final link—is to implement that domestic investment. Scaling up domestic investment is surely the very stuff of development: it builds the office blocks, constructs the factories, paves the roads, and generates the electricity that visibly distinguishes an emerging market economy from the bottom billion. Why might this final step be the most difficult? Recall that the International Monetary Fund has advised the governments of low-income countries to use the savings from the revenues on natural resources not to invest domestically but to acquire foreign financial assets. This is the Norwegian model, to which the more prudent finance ministers of poorer countries have been attracted. The Fund’s advice is based on a realistic sense of the problems involved: were the extra money spent on domestic investment it would be unlikely to yield an adequate return. Indeed, it might actually damage the economy by congesting fragile public investment systems and causing a collapse in quality. The overarching concept the Fund uses for these problems is “absorption”: the economy simply cannot absorb the extra spending.
Developing a Student-centered and Inclusive Music Classroom
Authors: Hammel Alice M. , Hourigan Ryan M.
Published: November 2020

Classroom behavior is a common concern among many music educators. This is particularly true for music educators who teach in inclusive settings. This chapter is designed to provide effective tools and strategies at the micro-level (e.g., behavior and management techniques), and the macro-level by informing the reader of philosophical underpinnings that encompass a successful inclusive classroom. The socialization and lasting relationships that all students develop in school are also of considerable importance. Therefore it is imperative for music educators to strive for a caring, inclusive environment that is conducive for all students to learn. The practical strategies suggested at the end of this chapter are presented to encourage music educators to create a tolerant, caring classroom that is conducive for music teaching and learning. Many of the techniques discussed in this chapter are just examples of good teaching regardless of what population of students you are teaching. Effective classroom management begins long before the students enter the music room. A well-prepared environment is essential for optimal instruction and is particularly important when teaching music to students with special needs. This groundwork can be time-consuming and requires a thoughtful approach to the classroom setting; however, it is well worth the planning when the classroom becomes an inclusive and student-centered environment. Conroy, Sutherland, Snyder and Marsh (2008), explains that specific teacher interventions can lead to improved student behavior. These interventions include: (a) close supervision and monitoring, (b) classroom rules, (c) opportunities to respond, and (d) contingent praise. As music educators, we can apply these principles to music classrooms. The next section of this chapter is designed to relate these interventions to music teaching and learning, and to provide strategies for music teachers. Close supervision and monitoring. Conroy et. al found that close supervision and monitoring can by implemented in the music classroom in the following ways: (a) student proximity to the teacher; (b) a music teacher’s ability to visually monitor all students; (c) active engagement with students; (d) student access to teacher; and (e) ratio of adults to students that is conducive to close supervision.
Copyleft
Authors: Keats Jonathon
Published: November 2020

Developing an open-source alternative to the UNIX operating system in the early 1980s, the master hacker Richard Stallman faced a dilemma: if he put his new GNU software in the public domain, people could copyright their improved versions, undermining the open-source cycle by taking away the freedoms he’d granted. So Stallman copyrighted GNU himself, and distributed it, at no cost, under a license that arguably was to have greater impact on the future of computing than even the software he was striving to protect. The GNU Emacs General Public License was the founding document of the copyleft. The word copyleft predated Stallman’s innovation by at least a couple of decades. It had been used jestingly, together with the phrase “All Rights Reversed,” in lieu of the standard copyright notice on the Principia Discordia, an absurdist countercultural religious doctrine published in the 1960s. And in the 1970s the People’s Computer Company provocatively designated Tiny BASIC, an early experiment in open-source software, “Copyleft—All Wrongs Reserved.” Either of these may have indirectly inspired Stallman’s phrasing. (He first encountered the word copyleft as a humorous slogan stamped on a letter from his fellow hacker Don Hopkins.) Stallman’s genius was to realize this vague countercultural ideal in a way that was legally enforceable. That Stallman was the one to do so, and the Discordians weren’t, makes sense when one considers his method. His license stipulated that GNU software was free to distribute, and that any aspect of it could be freely modified except the license, which would mandatorily carry over to any future version, ad infinitum, ensuring that GNU software would always be free to download and improve. “The license agreements of most software companies keep you at the mercy of those companies,” Stallman wrote in the didactic preamble to his contract. “By contrast, our general public license is intended to give everyone the right to share GNU Emacs. To make sure that you get the rights we want you to have, we need to make restrictions that forbid anyone to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights.” Freedom was paradoxically made compulsory.
Crowdsourcing
Authors: Keats Jonathon
Published: November 2020

On the day that the June 2006 issue of Wired magazine was released, the publication’s technology director searched the web for the word crowdsourcing, the subject of an article by contributing writer Jeff Howe. He took a screenshot of what he found, a total of three brief mentions, and forwarded it to the author, advising that Howe save it as a “historical document.” Howe didn’t have to wait long to see history in action. Within nine days Google was returning 182,000 hits. Nor was it a fleeting fad. Three years later the number had multiplied to 1,620,000, with regular appearances in the mainstream media, from the Washington Post to Fox News, where crowdsourcing was averaging two hundred new mentions each month. There’s a simple explanation for the neologism’s success. Howe had detected a trend and given it a word. The backstory, which Howe posted on his personal blog, crowdsourcing.com, supports this notion: In January Wired asked me to give a sort of “reporter’s notebook” style presentation to some executives. I had recently been looking into common threads behind the ways advertising agencies, TV networks and newspapers were leveraging user-generated content, and picked that for my topic. Later that day I called my editor at Wired, Mark Robinson, and told him I thought there was a broader story that other journalists were missing, ie, that users weren’t just making dumbpet-trick movies, but were poised to contribute in significant and measurable ways in a disparate array of industries. In what Howe characterizes as “a fit of back-and-forth wordplay,” he and Robinson came up with a term that riffed off the title of a business book popular at the time, James Surowiecki’s The Wisdom of Crowds, while also suggesting opensource software and corporate outsourcing. When “The Rise of Crowdsourcing” was finally published six months later, the last of these three roots was explicitly evoked in the teaser: “Remember outsourcing? Sending jobs to India and China is so 2003. The new pool of cheap labor: everyday people using their spare cycles to create content, solve problems, even do corporate R & D.”
Steampunk
Authors: Keats Jonathon
Published: November 2020

“I wish to God these calculations had been executed by steam,” exclaimed the British polymath Charles Babbage to his colleague John Herschel one day in 1821, as they worked together to correct a batch of mathematical tables riddled with errors. With that outburst, according to his memoirs, Babbage envisioned the first computer. The machine he conceived was colossal, a cogwheel behemoth comprising twenty-five thousand parts, planned to measure seven feet long and to weigh fifteen tons. The British government invested ￡17,500 in it—the cost of twenty-two new locomotives—yet after eleven years of hard labor Babbage’s unfinished difference engine was abandoned. But what if construction had succeeded? That’s the question sci-fi writers William Gibson and Bruce Sterling asked a century and a half later, their answer serving as the premise of The Difference Engine, a novel in which the information age overtakes Victorian England. As a work of speculative fiction the book was a deep meditation on the interdependence of technology and society, destined to have an intellectual impact nearly as significant as Gibson’s breakthrough Neuromancer, in which he introduced the idea of cyberspace. Also like Neuromancer, arguably the first cyberpunk novel, The Difference Engine was to spawn a vast subculture. Steampunk, as the cult was dubbed, was actually named several years before The Difference Engine was published, in a 1987 letter to the genre magazine Locus, penned by the sci-fi writer K. W. Jeter. “Personally, I think Victorian fantasies are going to be the next big thing, as long as we can come up with a fitting collective term,” he wrote. “Something based on the appropriate technology of that era; like ‘steampunks,’ perhaps.” James P. Blaylock, another writer of these “Victorian fantasies,” seconded Jeter’s suggestion in the following issue, and the subgenre was sufficiently established by the time The Difference Engine was published in 1990 that the Locus editors decreed it “ not steampunk, because it is a work of hard sf.”
Ethics, Public Policy, and Global Warming
Authors: Jamieson Dale
Published: November 2020

There has been speculation about the possibility of anthropogenic global warming since at least the late nineteenth century (Arrhenius 1896, 1908). At times the prospect of such a warming has been welcomed, for it has been thought that it would increase agricultural productivity and delay the onset of the next Ice Age (Callendar 1938). Other times, and more recently, the prospect of global warming has been the stuff of “doomsday narratives,” as various writers have focused on the possibility of widespread drought, flood, famine, and economic and political dislocations that might result from a “greenhouse warming”-induced climate change (Flavin 1989). Although high-level meetings have been convened to discuss the greenhouse effect since at least 1963 (see Conservation Foundation 1963), the emergence of a rough, international consensus about the likelihood and extent of anthropogenic global warming began with a National Academy Report in 1983 (National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council 1983) and meetings in Villach, Austria, and Bellagio, Italy, in 1985 (World Climate Program 1985) and in Toronto, Canada, in 1988 (Conference Statement 1988). The most recent influential statement of the consensus holds that although there are uncertainties, a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide from its preindustrial baseline is likely to lead to a 2.5 °C increase in the earth’s mean surface temperature by the middle of the twenty-first century (IPCC 1990). (Interestingly, this estimate is within the range predicted by Arrhenius 1896.) This increase is expected to have a profound impact on climate and therefore on plants, animals, and human activities of all kinds. Moreover, there is no reason to suppose that without policy interventions, atmospheric carbon dioxide will stabilize at twice preindustrial levels. According to the IPCC (1990), we would need immediate 60 percent reductions in net emissions in order to stabilize at a carbon dioxide doubling by the end of the twenty-first century. Since these reductions are very unlikely to occur, we may well see increases of 4 °C by the end of the twenty-first century.
Global Environment and International Inequality
Authors: Shue Henry
Published: November 2020

My aim is to establish that three commonsense principles of fairness, none of them dependent upon controversial philosophical theories of justice, give rise to the same conclusion about the allocation of the costs of protecting the environment. Poor states and rich states have long dealt with each other primarily upon unequal terms. The imposition of unequal terms has been relatively easy for the rich states because they have rarely needed to ask for the voluntary cooperation of the less powerful poor states. Now the rich countries have realized that their own industrial activity has been destroying the ozone in the earth’s atmosphere and has been making far and away the greatest contribution to global warming. They would like the poor states to avoid adopting the same form of industrialization by which they themselves became rich. It is increasingly clear that if poor states pursue their own economic development with the same disregard for the natural environment and the economic welfare of other states that rich states displayed in the past during their development, everyone will continue to suffer the effects of environmental destruction. Consequently, it is at least conceivable that rich states might now be willing to consider dealing cooperatively on equitable terms with poor states in a manner that gives due weight to both the economic development of poor states and the preservation of the natural environment. If we are to have any hope of pursuing equitable cooperation, we must try to arrive at a consensus about what equity means. And we need to define equity not as a vague abstraction but concretely and specifically in the context of both development of the economy in poor states and preservation of the environment everywhere. What diplomats and lawyers call equity incorporates important aspects of what ordinary people everywhere call fairness. The concept of fairness is neither Eastern nor Western, Northern nor Southern, but universal. People everywhere understand what it means to ask whether an arrangement is fair or biased toward some parties over other parties.
One Atmosphere
Authors: Singer Peter
Published: November 2020

There can be no clearer illustration of the need for human beings to act globally than the issues raised by the impact of human activity on our atmosphere. That we all share the same planet came to our attention in a particularly pressing way in the 1970s when scientists discovered that the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) threatens the ozone layer shielding the surface of our planet from the full force of the sun's ultraviolet radiation. Damage to that protective shield would cause cancer rates to rise sharply and could have other effects, for example, on the growth of algae. The threat was especially acute to the world's southernmost cities, since a large hole in the ozone was found to be opening up each year over Antarctica, but in the long term, the entire ozone shield was imperiled. Once the science was accepted, concerted international action followed relatively rapidly with the signing of the Montreal Protocol in 1985. The developed countries phased out virtually all use of CFCs by 1999, and the developing countries, given a 10-year period of grace, are now moving toward the same goal. Getting rid of CFCs has turned out to be just the curtain raiser: the main event is climate change, or global warming. Without belittling the pioneering achievement of those who brought about the Montreal Protocol, the problem was not so difficult, for CFCs can be replaced in all their uses at relatively little cost, and the solution to the problem is simply to stop producing them. Climate change is a very different matter. The scientific evidence that human activities are changing the climate of our planet has been studied by a working group of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), an international scientific body intended to provide policy makers with an authoritative view of climate change and its causes. The group released its Third Assessment Report in 2001, building on earlier reports and incorporating new evidence accumulated over the previous five years. The report is the work of 122 lead authors and 515 contributing authors, and the research on which it was based was reviewed by 337 experts.
Adaptation, Mitigation, and Justice
Authors: Jamieson Dale
Published: November 2020

In this chapter I claim that climate change poses important questions of global justice, both about mitigating the change that is now under way and about adapting to its consequences. I argue for a mixed policy of mitigation and adaptation, and defend one particular approach to mitigation. I also claim that those of us who are rich by global standards and benefit from excess emissions have strenuous duties in our roles as citizens, consumers, producers, and so on, to reduce our emissions and to finance adaptation. When I began my research on global climate change in the mid-1980s, it was commonly said that there were three possible responses: prevention, mitigation, and adaptation. Even then we were committed to a substantial climate change, although this was not widely known. This realization began to dawn on many people on June 23, 1988, a sweltering day in Washington, D.C., in the middle of a severe national drought, when climate modeler James Hansen testified before a U.S. Senate committee that it was 99 percent probable that global warming had begun. Hansen’s testimony was front-page news in the New York Times, and was extensively covered in other media as well. Whether or not Hanson was right, his testimony made clear that we were entering a new world, what Schneider (1989) called “the greenhouse century.” Once it became clear that prevention was no longer possible, mitigation quickly moved to center stage. One week after Hansen’s testimony, an international conference in Toronto, convened by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), called for a 20 percent reduction in greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions by 2005. In November, the World Congress on Climate and Development, meeting in Hamburg, called for a 30 percent reduction by 2000. Later that same year, acting on a proposal by the United States, the WMO and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in order to assess the relevant scientific information and to formulate response strategies.
It’s Not My Fault: Global Warming and Individual Moral Obligations
Authors: Sinnott-Armstrong Walter
Published: November 2020

To make the issue stark, let us begin with a few assumptions. I believe that these assumptions are probably roughly accurate, but none is certain, and I will not try to justify them here. Instead, I will simply take them for granted for the sake of argument. First, global warming has begun and is likely to increase over the next century. We cannot be sure exactly how much or how fast, but hot times are coming. Second, a significant amount of global warming is due to human activities. The main culprit is fossil fuels. Third, global warming will create serious problems for many people over the long term by causing climate changes, including violent storms, floods from sea-level rises, droughts, heat waves, and so on. Millions of people will probably be displaced or die. Fourth, the poor will be hurt most of all. The rich countries are causing most of the global warming, but they will be able to adapt to climate changes more easily. Poor countries that are close to sea level might be devastated. Fifth, governments, especially the biggest and richest ones, are able to mitigate global warming They can impose limits on emissions. They can require or give incentives for increased energy efficiency. They can stop deforestation and fund reforestation. They can develop ways to sequester carbon dioxide in oceans or underground. These steps will help, but the only long-run solution lies in alternatives to fossil fuels. These alternatives can be found soon if governments start massive research projects now. Sixth, it is too late to stop global warming. Because there is so much carbon dioxide in the atmosphere already, because carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere for so long, and because we will remain dependent on fossil fuels in the near future, governments can slow down global warming or reduce its severity, but they cannot prevent it. Hence, governments need to adapt. They need to build sea walls. They need to reinforce houses that cannot withstand storms. They need to move populations from low-lying areas.