bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
concepção normativa do progresso segundo Condorcet
Authors: Silva Sidney Reinaldo
Published: February 2022

O texto aborda a forma como, na filosofia de Condorcet, a arte social, o agenciamento político, se orienta pela norma do progresso. Argumenta-se que a normatividade associada ao conceito de progresso, como fato e valor, é imanente, ou seja, não se define como um dever ser idealizado ou modelo de perfeição orientador da decisão, mas como o que melhor será num contexto de aperfeiçoamentos acumulados e a se realizarem.
Como e porque sou crítico
Authors: Candido Antonio
Published: February 2022

Texto de Antonio Candido publicado no livro-homenagem Antonio Candido cem anos (Editora 34) e republicado neste número da Literatura e Sociedade.
Quem Pode Dizer o Que É Patrimônio: análise do discurso crítica do concurso “Placas da Memória Paulistana”
Authors: Peria Pedro Vianna Godinho
Published: February 2022

O concurso “Placas da Memória Paulistana”, realizado pelo Departamento do Patrimônio Histórico da Secretaria Municipal de Cultura de São Paulo, figura como a mais recente estratégia da política municipal de patrimônio cultural para integrar a sociedade civil nas ações de salvaguarda e valorização da memória da cidade e dos seus cidadãos. Tendo como objeto central o edital do referido concurso público, investiga-se a possibilidade de democratização da prática social de patrimonialização a partir da metodologia da análise do discurso crítica, buscando integrar a (1) análise do objeto textual, (2) suas condições de produção e (3) o discurso hegemônico sobre patrimônio cultural no Brasil. Mesmo com o interesse expresso na abertura ao diálogo e à inclusão de lacunas mnemônicas, a análise mostra certas continuidades em relação à tradição excludente das políticas públicas de patrimonialização, evidenciando aspectos nos quais os órgãos públicos ainda precisam avançar no sentido da democratização desse campo.
Bhesa xieii (Centroplacaceae), a new species from Guangxi, China
Authors: JIANG RI-HONG , LIN JIAN-YONG , ZHU CHANG-SAN , LIU XIU , TANG LI-MING , AN JIA-CHENG
Published: February 2022

Bhesa xieii, a new species of Centroplacaceae from southern China, is described and illustrated. Morphological comparison with Bhesa robusta, B. paniculata and B. ceylanica is provided. Both morphological and molecular evidences clearly indicate that B. xieii is a distinct species. It differs in capsules narrowly ovate, ca. 3 cm long, apex obtuse, peduncle thick, ca. 3 mm long; racemes; flowers pale yellow, pedicels 1.5–2.5 mm long; calyx lobes broadly ovate to subrotundate, apex obtuse; petals ovate to oblong-elliptic, apex obtuse, inflexed; lamina oblong-elliptic to narrowly ovate, base obtuse or subtruncate, apex acute or obtuse.
“As if possessing but one mouth”: How Irenaeus Christianizes Classical Harmonia
Authors: Franicevich Jack
Published: February 2022

John Behr has noticed that Irenaeus uses the terms “harmony” and “symphony” to describe both God’s action in salvation and the Church’s action in right proclamation. However, Irenaeus does a great deal more with “harmony” than this. This paper argues that Irenaeus’ discussion of harmony both corresponds to and christianizes the classical notion of harmonia along three lines: cosmological harmony, mythological harmony, and literary harmony. The paper begins by demonstrating the relationship between these three lines in classical thought, paying special attention to Plato and Quintillian. Then, it demonstrates the relationship between these three lines in Against Heresies. In a third section, it argues that Irenaeus’ use of classical harmonia christianizes the notion along all three lines.
Changing Households Social Dynamics and Agriculture Crisis in Shamva District, Zimbabwe
Authors: Chiba Moffat , Thebe Vusilizwe
Published: February 2022

This article explores household-level social dynamics of change and their causal effects on future agricultural practices and food security. It does this by employing a place-specific qualitative research methodology in two rural settlements in Shamva District, Mashonaland Central Province. It reveals how these changes have impacted negatively on farm households’ command of assets, including draft power, labour and social networks. Households that had a long history of agricultural excellence started to experience declines in their agriculture, while new households encountered new vulnerabilities. The article concludes by cautioning against any policy that ignores the household as a production unit in Zimbabwe’s agriculture.
Differentiating Third-Wave Cognitive Mindfulness From Meditative Mindfulness Using a Gurdjieffian Phenomenology of Awareness
Authors: Haldeman Daniel D. , Hartelius Glenn
Published: February 2022

Current literature on mindfulness offers inadequate distinction between neo-traditional mindfulness and cognitive behavioral mindfulness, to the extent that both approaches can be included within the same meta-analyses. A close examination of the mechanisms of action in several forms of mindfulness using a lens of Gurdjieffian phenomenology of awareness can point toward a clear and well defined distinction between varieties of mindfulness. The phenomenology of cognitive behavioral mindfulness suggests that it involves an enhanced attention to the cognitive contents of awareness, as in Gurdjieff’s second state, but give no evidence of attaining self-reflexive awareness in which attention attunes to its own presence as the context of cognitive processes. Neo-traditional and meditative forms of mindfulness are more likely to attend to both the contents and the context of consciousness, a change associated with a shift in state of consciousness. Using Gurdjieff’s phenomenology of awareness, neo-traditional mindfulness can be seen as similar to Gurdjieff’s self-remembering, in which awareness attends to the cognitive contents of experience as well as to its own presence. Cognitive behavioral versions of mindfulness differ from both of these in that the object of attention does not extend self-reflexively beyond cognitive contents.
L1 adaptive output-feedback fault-tolerant control for uncertain nonlinear systems subject to unmodeled actuator dynamics and faults
Authors: Zhou Yan , Liu Huiying , Guo Huijuan
Published: February 2022

This paper develops a L1 adaptive output-feedback fault-tolerant controller for uncertain nonlinear systems in the presence of unmodeled actuator dynamics and actuator faults. The proposed controller consists of the output predictor, adaptive laws, and the control law. The output predictor is a dynamic system expressed as a linear system with adaptive parameters which mean the matched uncertainties and the unmatched uncertainties. Piecewise-constant adaptive laws are designed to update the adaptive parameters so that the estimation error is driven to zero at each integration time step. The control law with low-pass filters is introduced to compensate for the performance degradation because of system uncertainties, unmodeled actuator dynamics and faults, and to guarantee the uniform boundedness of the input and output signals of the system. Two simulation examples verify the effectiveness of the proposed controller.
Changing Students, Changing Teaching1
Authors: Stodolsky Susan S. , Grossman Pamela L.
Published: February 2022

Educators are searching for effective ways to meet the challenges posed by increased cultural diversity among students. We explore this issue at the high school level where concerns about subject matter and student diversity intersect sharply. A case study approach, augmented by a large sample survey, is used to understand the dynamics of adaptation to a changing student population. We document adaptations in curriculum, instruction, and assessment made by math and English teachers. We examine the goals, conceptions of subject matter, instructional practices, and views of learning of teachers who contrast in whether they did or did not reconceptualize and change their practice when faced with new students. We also examine ways in which their high school departments facilitated, supported, or inhibited change in teaching. The analysis focuses on 4 teachers in the same school district: an English and math teacher who adapted to new students and 2 respected colleagues who did not. Different patterns of goals, beliefs, and conceptions of subject matter and students are characteristic of teachers who adapt and those who do not, and patterns are surprisingly similar in both English and math. Survey data from a sample of public school teachers confirm the relationships suggested in the case studies.
Rethinking “High Stakes”: Lessons from the United States and England and Wales
Authors: Firestone William A. , Mayrowetz David
Published: February 2022

Based on fieldwork conducted in England, Wales, and two American states, this paper suggests six themes about “high stakes testing.” First, not all stakes are perceived to be equally high. Second, pressure to respond to a test comes from more than just formal stakes. Third, external pressure leads to symbolic responses outside the classroom. Fourth, external pressure can be useful for changing content taught. Fifth, external pressure is less effective in changing instructional strategy than content taught. Sixth, the effects of stakes will depend on a variety of other policy factors.
Exploring Cross-Race Dyad Partnerships in Learning to Teach
Authors: Solomon R. Patrick
Published: February 2022

This three-year study examined ways in which race mediates the process of learning to teach. The innovation of pairing racial minority and dominant group teacher candidates in field-based practica was based on the rationale that such collaboration would enrich the pedagogical process with different perspectives, traditions, resources, and experiences from which teacher candidates, associate teachers, and students would benefit. The findings revealed that such partnerships broke down some racial barriers, tackled sensitive racial and cultural issues, helped in the acquisition of awareness and competence to function in cross-race domains, and laid the foundation for long-term social and professional relationships. On the other hand, the study uncovered an institutional culture that interpreted racial difference as deficit and generated paralytic anxiety for candidates of color, marginalizing them in the communication process. Such institutional and personal responses limited the potential of such partnerships as a collegial enterprise. While dominant group partners gained valuable insights into how racism operates in institutional structures, candidates of color often ended up as disempowered apprentices with their expectations seriously compromised and their long-term objectives to transform the teaching profession immeasurably jeopardized.
Developing a Commitment to Multicultural Education
Authors: Paccione Angela V.
Published: February 2022

The purpose of this study was to understand the factors and process involved in developing a commitment to multicultural education. The two questions that guided the study were (a) What kinds of life experiences contribute to a commitment to multicultural education ? and (b) What is the process by which individuals become committed to multicultural education ? The research methodology of content analysis was used to answer the first question and phenomenology was used to answer the second.

The theoretical population for this study included all teachers in the United States who are committed to multicultural education/diversity. The tangible population included members of the National Association for Multicultural Education (NAME). The criterion sample for the study was those members of NAME who (a) were affiliated with prekindergarten through higher education in 1997, and (b) attended the 1997 NAME Annual Conference (n = 330).

A questionnaire consisting of one open-ended and various standard demographic questions was mailed to the sample. Content analysis of the returned questionnaires revealed 11 factors that contributed to developing a commitment to multicultural education. Telephone interviews were also conducted with 45 volunteer respondents from the sample. Phenomenological analysis of the interviews strongly suggested thai a four-stage process can be used to describe the development of a commitment to multicultural education.

The results of the study have implications for multicultural education and teacher education. Foremost in the conclusions of this study are the support for (a) cultural immersion experiences and (b) course work in multicultural education that evokes a critical analysis of the sociopolitical status quo in U. S. society.
Relational Knowing in the Reform of Educational Cultures
Authors: Gallego Margaret A. , Hollingsworth Sandra , Whitenack David A.
Published: February 2022

Drawing on examples of collaborative projects in two urban Professional Development Schools, the authors argue against educational reform based solely on curricular standards. They advocate the resources and structures to establish critical relationships enabling educators to learn about themselves as they learn with others, thereby creating the opportunity for the understanding and development of different perspectives. Analyzing relationships characterizing contrastive PDS collaborations, they suggest that relational knowing—or knowledge of curriculum and instruction, knowledge of self and other, and knowledge of critical action—must be in place before school and university reform can occur.
Educating Students to Teach in a Constructivist Way— Can it All be Done?
Authors: Mintrop Heinrich
Published: February 2022

Our challenge as teacher educators and researchers was to design a teacher education program module that centered on an ambitious constructivist teaching model. How could such a program be designed that stirred vision, motivation, and inquiry on classroom, self, and the aims of education, that furnished considerable disciplinary and design knowledge and management skills, and that hatched professional community? The project experimented with three different versions over three years. In the first year, the program generated a great deal of inspired pioneering; but technical skill and keen observation was submerged at times in ideological commitment, and understanding of the model was truncated. In the second year, the program placed great emphasis on the mastery of the model aiming at clinical tryouts. Unfortunately, this format sapped the novices’ inspiration by over-burdening them with abstract theory and fixed pedagogical forms, thus disconnecting the model from the philosophical and moral reasons of teaching it. In the third year, the program concentrated on practical inquiry and careful bottom-up reflection to develop classroom community. Novices maintained their vision and motivation for the constructivist model, left the project with “reflective prompts,” but missed fundamental design competencies. Thus, none of the program iterations stands out as a shining example of success, but together they demonstrate the indispensability of all the components.
Situation and Repertoire: Civility, Incivility, Cursing, and Politeness in an Urban High School
Authors: Plank Stephen B. , McDill Edward L. , McPartland James M. , Jordan Will J.
Published: February 2022

A certain level of civility in schools is essential to successful teaching and learning. Studies of the formal organization and informal social systems of schools, however, depict currents of hostility and confrontation between students and teachers. In order to motivate a discussion of the balance struck between civility and incivility, we present data on cursing and politeness in one urban, public high school. Survey responses from 225 seniors suggest that (a) students are more often polite than rude toward teachers, but students also curse a lot; (b) students are more polite toward teachers than among themselves and are much more likely to curse among fellow students than in the presence of teachers; (c) students describe themselves as capable of being either polite or crude; and (d) cursing at teachers depends on the people and situation involved. We stress that students have both politeness and cursing in their repertoires. Further, not all cursing is intended or interpreted as being malicious or threatening. Careful attention must be paid to the circumstances that trigger different student reactions and the nuances of students’ use of language. We suggest ways in which research and theories of student resistance, cultural capital, and institutionally sanctioned discourses could be further refined. Specifically, researchers should measure and model students’ locations along continua of resistance, cultural penetration, and vocabulary. Also, the causes and consequences of being situated at one point or another should be conceptualized more fully.
Out on a Limb on Our Own: Uncertainty and Doubt in Moving from Subject-Centered to Interdisciplinary Teaching
Authors: Meister Denise G. , Nolan Jim
Published: February 2022

This paper describes and interprets how five teachers of high school freshmen defined and made meaning of a change process in which they were involved. The restructuring initiative, which was administratively imposed, involved teaming, interdisciplinary teaching, and block scheduling. The study took place during the 1st year of implementation, 6 months after the team had received the mandate and prepared for the restructuring. The tools of inquiry included the following methods: (a) analysis of three in-depth phenomenological interviews, (b) participation observation, and (c) analyses of documents such as minutes from team meetings and curriculum planning sessions.

Although several interrelated themes emerged, uncertainty and doubt became the pervading theme that had a critical and sometimes debilitating effect on the teaching team's ability to move from subject-based to interdisciplinary teaching. This uncertainty and doubt was magnified and perpetuated because of the deficit model utilized to implement the initiative: lack of teacher input into decision to restructure, the school's history of adopting trends, lack of professional development, lack of a written curriculum, lack of administrative leadership, and the pull between loyalty to subject and allegiance to team.
Career and College Advice to the Forgotten Half: What Do Counselors and Vocational Teachers Advise?
Authors: Krei Melinda Scott , Rosenbaum James E.
Published: February 2022

This article examines the career and college advice that high school counselors and vocational teachers give to the “forgotten half,” students who are unlikely to seek a 4-year college degree. Using interview data from 12 Midwestern high schools, we found that most counselors tend to encourage all students to attend college, regardless of the students’ interests or plans. Vocational teachers, on the other hand, showed evidence of a more nuanced view of the need for college. We found that vocational teachers in our sample fit in to four broad categories in terms of their advice and opinions about college: the college-for-all advocates, who push college regardless of circumstances; the diplomats, who try subtly to tell students that their plans are unrealistic; the straightforward, who try to make sure that students have realistic information; and the hands-off, who disavow any role in helping students make future plans. After an examination of these approaches, we conclude with a discussion of the implications of the various approaches for guiding students’ choices.
From World War to Woods Hole: The Use of Wartime Research Models for Curriculum Reform
Authors: Rudolph John L.
Published: February 2022

The curriculum reform movement that began in the late 1950s is widely viewed as the result of a broadly academic effort to restore disciplinary rigor to education in the United States. Much of the work that went on developing the new curricular materials and educational approaches, however, is better understood as an experiment in applying innovative research and development techniques perfected by scientists during World War II. This essay traces the development of these newer methods of scientific analysis and examines how they were imported from the military research programs to the field of education by a select group of physicists centered around Jerrold Zacharias at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. It is to these physicists, I argue, that this curriculum reform movement owes its fundamental operational characteristics, its conception of the problem of education, and the means of its solution in America at midcentury. Exploring the historical origins of these reforms reveals a good deal about how scientists of the time framed the portability of military techniques, organization, and administrative models of action and provides insight into the current emphasis on technique and performance that has come to characterize United States educational policy.
Pitfalls of Community-Based Learning: How Power Dynamics Limit Adolescents’ Trajectories of Growth and Participation
Authors: Hogan Kathleen
Published: February 2022

It is a popular contention that situating students’ academic learning in community settings provides opportunities for them to develop competencies in authentic disciplinary practices. This article examines that contention using results from an ethnographic study of 14 high school students’ experiences throughout a school year as they became involved in the work of an environmental management organization. Situated learning theory served as a lens through which to view the students’ learning as transformation of participation. Results focus on an underdeveloped aspect of that theory: the dynamics of power differentials between novices and experienced practitioners. These power dynamics ultimately limited students’ experiences and growth. This article presents a case of how community-based learning programs can fall short when held up to the standard of giving students entrée into a community of practice. A suggested avenue of remediation is to facilitate experienced participants’ reflection on and amelioration of the manifestations and consequences of power differentials.
Empowerment and Education: Civil Rights, Expert-Advocates, and Parent Politics in Head Start, 1964–1980
Authors: Kagan Josh
Published: February 2022

Much has been written about Head Start in the form of evaluations of the program's effectiveness, but little unbiased work about the program's politics has emerged. This essay asks how Head Start has survived and even thrived over thirty-five years when other Great Society programs have died. To answer this question, it explores the coalition that emerged between civil rights activists, intellectuals studying child development and social programs for children, and community action embodied in Great Society legislation. The essay traces the development of Head Start out of the emerging academic interest in “compensatory education for cultural depravation” and the New Left's desire to build a movement focused on civil rights and community action. These two groups, united in their support for Head Start and for broader reform of public education, fought over its treatment of parents of children enrolled in the program. However, neither side could correctly predict how parents actually experienced Head Start or how parents helped to ensure Head Start's political survival.
Changing Literacy
Authors: Brandt Deborah
Published: February 2022

Current discussions about literacy often focus on how economic changes are raising expectations for literacy achievement. The emergence of a so-called knowledge economy or learning economy requires more people to do more things with print. Less attention has been given, however, to how the pressure to produce more literacy affects the contexts in which literacy learning takes place. This article looks at the literacy learning experience of an autoworker turned union representative, a blind computer programmer, two bilingual autodidacts, and a former southern sharecropper raising children in a high-tech university town. It uses the concept of the literacy sponsor to explore their access to learning and their responses to economic and technological change. Their experiences point to some directions for incorporating economic history into thinking about cultural diversity and for using resources in school to address economic turbulence and inequality beyond the school.
Anthropology, Culture, and Research on Teaching and Learning: Applying What We Have Learned to Improve Practice
Authors: Foster Michèle , Lewis Jeffrey , Onafowora Laura
Published: February 2022

We examine the role of culture—anthropology's essential concept—in teaching and learning. After providing a brief overview of the application of anthropology to research on teaching and learning, we examine various studies that demonstrate how culture can be understood and used as a resource for teaching and learning. In particular, we focus on the growing body of research that positively exploits, scaffolds, and links productive community and cultural practices, particularly those of ethnic minority communities, to classrooms. We then present a theoretical framework and rationale for a current research project in which an after-school program for elementary students is developed that can serve as pedagogical laboratories and professional development community sites for inexperienced teachers as well as research sites where various issues of teaching and learning can be examined. At the heart of this project is the linking of inexperienced teachers with master teachers who have demonstrated success in teaching culturally diverse students in urban schools. Preliminary results that document children's academic achievement and teachers’ improved performance are presented from the 1st year of the project.
The Adequacies and Inadequacies of Three Current Strategies to Recruit, Prepare, and Retain the Best Teachers for All Students1
Authors: Zeichner Kenneth M.
Published: February 2022

This paper analyzes the strengths and weaknesses of three of the major approaches to teacher education reform in the United States: the professionalization agenda, the deregulation agenda, and the social justice agenda. Although each of these approaches to reform has contributed in positive ways to improving teacher education in a manner that would lessen the achievement gap in U.S. public schools, they each have certain weaknesses that undermine this goal. There are also important issues of inequality in U.S. society that are not addressed by any of the reform agendas.
Emerging Forms of School Organization
Authors: Rufo-Lignos Patricia , Richards Craig E.
Published: February 2022

This article argues that new forms of school organization are emerging that do not fit the classical definitions of public and private schools. Three case study schools are used to explore the critical features of the public-private distinction in American schooling. We focus on the fuzzy boundary between schools that are clearly public and those that are clearly private. It is our contention that the shared characteristics between public and private schools are sufficiently stabilized to contain the ground for emerging forms of school organization that defy the public-private dichotomy.
The Debate Continues: Further Evidence of Discontinuity in Dewey's Philosophy
Authors: Prawat Richard S.
Published: February 2022

Stank and Russell (2002) present arguments that refute Prawat's two-part thesis that Dewey underwent a dramatic midcareer change in his philosophy and that this change drew heavily on Pence's metaphysics. In response to this critique, Prawat presents additional evidence to support his claim that a comparison of the 1910 and 1933 versions of How We Think reveals a major change in Dewey's views about inductionism. Prawat also presents new evidence to support the claim that this shift occurred at midcareer (i.e., 1915) and that the resulting change in philosophical outlook maps closely onto Pence's earlier, groundbreaking work on inquiry and epistemology.
Movements of Mind: The Matrix, Metaphors, and Re-imagining Education
Authors: Cook-Sather Alison
Published: February 2022

Using the popular movie The Matrix to evoke both metaphors for human existence and models for teaching and learning, this article revisits arguments made by educators, philosophers, linguists, and anthropologists that metaphors govern our ways of perceiving, naming, and acting in the world, whether we are aware of this phenomenon or not. Building on this premise and through an examination of two metaphors that have dominated notions of and approaches to education in the United States, the article invites readers to make conscious the metaphors that inform our thoughts and actions, discern the “realities” we construct for ourselves and for others, and imagine the possibility of changing those. The argument made is for seeking, crafting, and embracing metaphors that cast students not only as active participants in their own education but as the principle creators of their education and themselves.
Constructivist Pedagogy
Authors: Richardson Virginia
Published: February 2022

This article constitutes a critique from the inside of constructivist pedagogy. It begins with a short history of constructivist pedagogy and its relationship to constructivist learning theory. It then addresses four issues in the ways in which constructivist pedagogy are being approached in research and practice. The first issue recommends more of a research focus on student learning in classrooms that engage in constructivist pedagogy. The second leads to the suggestion of theory development that provides an understanding and descriptions of more and less effective constructivist teaching. The third centers on the necessarily deep subject matter knowledge required of teachers who adopt constructivist pedagogy; and the difficulty this requirement imposes on elementary teachers who must deal with many subject matter areas. And the fourth issue raises the possibility that the vision of constructivist pedagogy, as presently recommended, if not mandated, locally and nationally, is strongly ideological and may impose, inappropriately, a dominant view of pedagogy on those who wish to operate differently.
The Role of History in the Education of Teachers
Authors: Violas Paul C.
Published: February 2022

Paul Violas argues that if teachers are to understand the problems they face in professional practice — and make informed judgments about them — they must understand the historical context of schooling. Using two examples from European educational history, Violas shows how history can serve as a text for critically interpreting present-day relations between school and society in two ways: one in which history stands as an informative “substitute” for first-hand experience, and one in which history helps us understand how current conditions came to be. Violas believes such understandings are necessary if teachers are to understand the context and consequences of their own practice, and to think critically about the aims and methods of schooling.
Issues in Systemic Reform for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students
Authors: Garcia Eugene E. , Gonzalez René
Published: February 2022

The ethnic and linguistic diversity of U.S. schools has grown significantly in the last two decades. Such diversity provides distinct new challenges for school reform efforts. New policy and federal programs, particularly exemplified in Title VII of the 1994 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, attempt to address this challenge. This act calls for integrated and comprehensive programming based on a new empirical and conceptual knowledge base, which has emerged in the last decade. This article addresses the demographic circumstances of student diversity, the emerging knowledge base, and the related federal educational reform policy changes related to these issues.
Opportunity-to-Learn Standards and the State Role in Education
Authors: Elmore Richard F. , Fuhrman Susan H.
Published: February 2022

Standards are the new focus of state and federal policymaking in education. The current policy debate addresses several types of standards, including performance, content, and opportunity to learn (OTL). This article focuses on opportunity-to-learn standards which define a set of conditions that schools, districts, and states must meet in order to ensure students an equal opportunity to meet expectations for their performance. States have been concerned about the issues raised by OTL standards for over a century, but they have not had much success in addressing these issues with state policy. We present some explanations for the historical inability of states to influence the equal provision of education and we offer some principles for designing new state policies that incorporate new knowledge about opportunity to learn. We conclude the article with a discussion of how states might address the underlying problem of reconciling policies more focused on performance with the problems of assuring equitable opportunities to learn.
Educational Equity Issues in an Information Age
Authors: Sayers Dennis
Published: February 2022

Equity in access to educational resources faces new challenges in our age of rapid technological change, threatening to produce a society of information “haves” and “have-nots” through schools where disparity in access to educational technology is already glaring. These challenges occur at a time when efforts toward the privatization of the “information superhighway” and of public schools themselves have dominated the discourses on public policy. An alternative direction is proposed for equity of access to global learning networks as a catalyst for genuine educational reform that preserves the legacies of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, and Lau v. Nichols.
The False Premises and False Promises of the Movement to Privatize Public Education
Authors: Hawley Willis D.
Published: February 2022

The movement to provide parents with financial incentives to send their children to private schools will increase the racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic homogeneity of the nation's schools. The case for privatizing public education is based on several assumptions about the positive effects of reducing the costs of enrolling in private schools. Six of the most commonly cited of these assumptions are examined and found to be false.
The Federal Government and the Promise of Brown
Authors: Landsberg Brian K.
Published: February 2022

The U.S. Department of Justice has played an important role in the development and enforcement of school desegregation law, by participating in Brown and later cases. From the Truman administration to the present, the thrust of government policy has been to promote unity and vindicate the unmet promise of the equal protection clause. The ambiguity of the Supreme Court's decision in Brown has allowed considerable flexibility in defining and remedying discrimination. Whether Brown failed or succeeded depends on which possible meaning of Brown one accepts. The department now should protect the gains under Brown from retrogressive attacks and should oppose resegregation.
Inequalities in Educational Financing
Authors: Glickstein Howard A.
Published: February 2022

There are sharp inequalities in school financing. The disparity is even more profound given the inverse relationship between per-pupil expenditures and actual educational need. Education, moreover, competes with other major entitlement programs for increasingly scarcer funding resources. Equality in educational financing is a worthy goal but it does not confront the basic cause of educational inequality. Fear of school integration perpetuates the existence of a multiplicity of school districts. This substantially increases the burden to fund education and ultimately costs society dearly.
Tracking the Progress of Brown
Authors: Miller Lamar P.
Published: February 2022

Since 1954, the force of law has been required to achieve much of the desegregation that has taken place. Although Brown was a great achievement, it has not solved the problems we had hoped it would. Hence, there are great similarities between the conditions in 1954 and those in 1994. Because we face a different and more com -plex set of problems than we have in the past, we cannot rely solely on the force of law to solve the problems of desegregation in general and the issues associated with racially isolated schools in particular. The education community must accept its leadership responsibility if we are to fulfill the mandate of Brown.
Revisiting the Supreme Court's Opinion in Brown v. Board of Education from a Multiculturalist Perspective
Authors: Brown Kevin
Published: February 2022

This article looks back at the Supreme Court's school desegregation opinions, including Brown v. Board of Education, from the perspective of a multiculturalist. A multiculturalist prefers an American society that has learned to appreciate and value the existence of multiple racial and ethnic cultures. A prerequisite to accomplishing this multicultural vision of a utopian American society is to bring diverse racial and ethnic students together in public schools. But for this appreciation to occur, more than the physical presence of a racially and ethnically diverse student body is required. Thus a multiculturalist also wants to foster meaningful cross-cultural understanding, though not necessarily cross-cultural agreement.

The Supreme Court's opinionin Brown produced significant positive changes in American society. Nevertheless, with the beginning of the termination of over 500 school desegregation decrees, the United States has entered a post desegregation era. Racial and ethnic segregation in public schools is likely to increase. Thus the utopian vision of a multiculturalist is not where our society is currently headed. After reexamining the Supreme Court's school desegregation opinions, I conclude by stating the reason the multicultural vision is not the one our society is moving toward. This vision was simply not part of the vision of public schools articulated by the Supreme Court in the school desegregation cases. If local school systems decide to engage in further efforts to bring racially and ethnically diverse students together, it must not be on the ideological basis of the Supreme Court's school desegregation opinions. The very kind of thinking about the issues of cultural diversity that Brown I was based upon is the very kind of thinking that must be overcome in order for true multicultural education to occur.
About Girls’ “Difficulties” in Science: A Social, Not a Personal, Matter
Authors: Jeffe Donna B.
Published: February 2022

The perception that girls historically have had a difficult time in science and math is commonly accepted by educators and laypeople alike. Yet the historical nature of these difficulties is questionable. Current debates on sex-segregated science and math classes, receiving considerable attention in the popular press and academic-education circles in recent months, seem to be founded on a misunderstanding of what girls’ “historical difficulties” actually were. The historical, social, and political con -text of women's experience in science serves to challenge the stereotype that girls “historically” have had a difficult time in math and science. Further alluding to the nature of women's difficulties as historical and personal, without a critical analysis of the sociopolitical parameters of women's experience, serves to perpetuate stereo -types about women rather than militate against obstacles created by them.
Teaching and Moral Perception
Authors: Simpson Pamela J. , Garrison Jim
Published: February 2022

Moral perception, the capacity to comprehend the unique needs and aspirations of individual persons and the best possibilities of equally unique social contexts, is important to teachers who rely on sympathetic understanding to facilitate their classroom practice. Yet moral perception and teachers’ “intuitions” have been denigrated and ignored by educational theorists and researchers who emphasize rational judgment and rule-governed principles. In our article we develop the Aristotelian theory of practical reasoning and its defense of moral perception as logically necessary to any goo d moral practice. We bolster our defense by calling on the work of John Dewey. We explicate the neo-Aristotelian theory of practical teaching wisdom in terms of the assessments of one fourth grader, Tony Mitchell. We argue that assessing students without providing a role for moral perception is a tragic mistake.
Multicultural Literature and the Politics of Reaction
Authors: Taxel Joel
Published: February 2022

The social climate of the United States of today is dramatically different from that which gave birth to multicultural children's literature. Conservatism's rise to political ascendancy has sharpened the contentious “culture wars” that surround virtually all aspects of American culture. One important dimension of today's conservative movement is a backlash against the multicultural movement. Conservative defenders of the traditional literary canon, for example, see multicultural literature as a threat to the very fabric of Western civilization. Within children's literature circles, charges abound that advocates of multicultural literature are ignoring traditional literary values and are focusing instead on ill-defined notions of “political correctness.” This article explores this complex issue and the challenges it poses to those concerned with the creation, production, distribution, and consumption of children's literature. The discussion addresses questions that speak to the very nature and function of children's literature: its status as art, as entertainment, as a source of role models and ideology for children's “impressionable” minds. Also discussed is the relation between the politically charged question of whether books about African Americans are to be written only by African Americans, books about Native Americans by Native Americans, and so forth, and the freedom of writers to write without restriction.
Curriculum Change as a Reform Strategy: Lessons from the United States and Scotland
Authors: Gamoran Adam
Published: February 2022

Recent research indicates that the school curriculum exerts an important influence on student learning: A rich and rigorous academic curriculum promotes high levels of student achievement, and curriculum differentiation is associated with achievement inequality. These findings suggest that curriculum change may be a potent policy lever. Two cases of planned curriculum change are examined to illustrate the limits and possibilities of curriculum reform. In the United States, many school districts are upgrading the quality of the mathematics curriculum for low-achieving students. Evidence from four urban districts shows that “transition courses” designed to bridge the gap between elementary and college-preparatory mathematics achieve partial success: Students in transition courses have better outcomes than those in general math, but are not as successful as those in college-preparatory classes. In Scotland, a national curriculum reform called “Standard Grade” was designed to enhance opportunities for disadvantaged students to study an academic curriculum in secondary school. Evidence from four longitudinal national surveys indicates that the reform raised achievement and reduced social inequality on national examinations at age sixteen, but inequality of enrolling in higher education persisted. These cases suggest that curriculum reform can have important benefits, but must occur in concert with other social changes to have broad and long-lasting effects.
How Schools Change Reforms: Redefining Reform Success and Failure
Authors: Cuban Larry
Published: February 2022

Because schools change reforms as much as reforms change schools, judging an innovation's success or failure has been, and is, no easy task. I identify three common criteria used by policymaking elites (effectiveness, popularity, and fidelity) and two less common ones used by practitioners (adaptability and longevity) and apply them to the two-decade-old Effective Schools school reform. What emerged as crucial in evaluating school reforms is what criteria are being used to make judgments, whose criteria they are, and how schools change reforms as they are implemented. The example of Effective Schools challenges policymakers and researchers to become more explicit about which criteria they employ to judge success and to understand how the journey of school reform is a story of constant adaptation that ultimately undermines the common criteria generally used to judge success and failure.
Promise and Possibility: Learning to Teach
Authors: Schoonmaker Frances
Published: February 2022

This article is about Kay, who wants to be a teacher. She is bright and academically able, has a broad, liberal undergraduate background, and is already on her way to developing “the motivation to learn to teach” (Hawley, 1993). In short, Kay is representative of those candidates for teaching most coveted by Tomorrow's Teachers (1986) and the National Commission on Teaching and America's Future (1996). As Kay enters her first semester as a student in the Preservice Program in Childhood Education at Teachers College, Columbia University, we follow her growing self-knowledge as an educator, her image of teaching, and her beliefs, and explore her nascent theory. These are juxtaposed with literature on teaching and the expectations this literature seems to hold out for candidates who match her profile. Kay's first semester as a student teacher is instructive in that it highlights her struggles as the Preservice Program begins to penetrate the many barriers standing between her and a promising career. The article is drawn from a larger study of Kay over a six-year period and is a first report of this work.
The Generativity Crisis and the “Scold War”: What about those Parents?
Authors: Mccaslin Mary , Infanti Helen
Published: February 2022

The role of parent is a societal construction that is influenced by an array of messages from cultural sources as diverse as formal social policy documents of the U.S. government and the everydayness of popular media. This article examines the multiple messages about parents and what it means to be an effective parent as evidenced in educational policy documents, popular women's magazines, academic research, and educational practice. One common theme emerges: Too many parents are either incompetent or unwilling to parent effectively, defined by a child's compliance with civil authority and success in school. Erikson's (1950/1963) psychosocial theory of life-span development guides the analysis of these messages and their relation to parent identity. Erikson's notion of “generativity crisis,” the individual's struggle between self-indulgence and care for another, is a useful metaphor for understanding society's role in caring for the next generation. Societal messages that parents are inadequate are self-fulfilling and self-defeating. Parents are more important as members of a generativity alliance for the betterment of children than they are as scapegoats for societal stagnation. Cultural generativity does not bypass, scold, or blame parents; it includes supporting parents and their children.
Myths in Psychology and Education regarding the Gene-Environment Debate
Authors: Sternberg Robert J. , Grigorenko Elena L.
Published: February 2022

This article describes seven myths regarding the gene-environment debate that permeate the thinking of many educators and psychologists. These myths can lead to serious misinterpretations of the role of genes in behavior and to false conclusions regarding the modifiability of behavior. We examine each myth, dispel it, and state what we believe to be correct conclusions from different kinds of behavior-genetic and related data.