bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Etruscan Art
Authors: Carpino Alexandra
Published: June 2011

Although Etruscan art has never been accorded the same value or respect given to the material remains of the Greeks or Romans, especially in the English-speaking world, it represents the most important evidence we have for understanding the civilization of the Etruscans and its place in the ancient Mediterranean world. From the eighth century bce on, a wide variety of local and immigrant artists and craftsmen created homes, temples, tombs, paintings, sculptures, vases, jewelry, mirrors, and more for individuals eager to communicate statements about their wealth, their families, their beliefs, and their cultural traditions. Today, the view that denigrated Etruscan art as either culturally inferior to Greek art or a poor imitation of it has been set aside, as has the idea of one-way (i.e., Greece to Etruria) trade. Foreign influences—whether from the Near East and the Aegean during the late eighth and seventh centuries or from Attica during the sixth through fourth centuries—remain undeniable, but their appropriation is no longer considered indicative of a lack of local creativity. In addition, the active contributions of the Etruscans to and interactions with a multitude of Mediterranean communities, along with regional artistic diversity within Etruria itself, are not only better understood but also more openly acknowledged, with the Etruscans celebrated as technological and artistic pioneers in a variety of media. Nevertheless, because so much Etruscan art comes from tombs or sanctuaries, many of which were not carefully excavated, assessments of both context and meaning remain challenging. The study of Etruscan art is further compounded by the absence of surviving literature and historiography as well as by the strong anti-Etruscan bias in the few Greek and Roman texts whose writers comment on their culture. These lacunae make iconographical and iconological studies especially difficult and sometimes lead to fanciful speculations with respect to the ancient meaning or significance of individual works.
Greek Sculpture
Authors: Mattusch Carol C.
Published: June 2011

In his History of the Art of Antiquity (1764; Winckelmann 2006 in General Overviews), J. J. Winckelmann proposed a chronology of Greek art based upon style. Following his lead, scholars used ancient literary sources to assign extant freestanding sculptures to artists and to name specific works mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History (Book 34 on bronze and Book 36 on marble), and by other ancient authors. Pliny’s separation of artists working in bronze from those working in marble revealed that the Greeks preferred bronze for their public sculpture, whereas it now appears that the Romans more often used marble for sculptures in public and in their homes. Pliny’s division of media and his prejudice against the art of his own times led scholars to distinguish between Greek bronze originals, which rarely survive, and Roman marble copies, of which there are many survivors. Even though this notion is now understood to be overly simplified, textbooks covering classical sculpture still tend to privilege bronzes over marbles. At the same time, Roman marble versions of classical statue types continue to be used as substitutes for lost Greek statues. Recent scholarship takes into account ancient technology, taste, and ancient art markets (Ridgway 1984 in Roman Copies, Modern Adaptations; Mattusch 1996 in Archaizing and Classicizing Sculpture), and modern bias (Donohue 2005 in General Overviews), and, along with traditional stylistic studies, yields a more balanced understanding of freestanding Greek sculpture and a far more revealing picture of Roman sophistication in the production of sculptures in the classical style. Studies of the ancient marble trade may help to pin down some chronological questions that cannot be solved purely on the basis of style and the literary testimonia, and new analyses of such famous works as the Aphrodite of Melos (Hamiaux 1998 in Museum Catalogues) and the widely popular classicizing reliefs of dancing maenads (see Alice A. Donohue, “Ai Bakchai choreuousi: The Reliefs of the Dancing Bacchantes,” Hephaistos 16/17 [1998/1999]: 7–46) are leading to the revision of textbooks. Excellent photographs are a valuable tool for research in this field, and works that have them are so noted, even if the accompanying texts are less useful. Because many works address not just freestanding sculpture and relief but also architectural sculpture they are included here, even though the subject is better suited to consideration with the buildings which the sculptures adorned. General textbooks on Greek art are not part of this bibliography.
Social Work and the Law
Authors: Barsky Allan E.
Published: June 2011

“Social work and the law” refers to the interface between the practice of social work and the legal system, including statutory law, case law, legal institutions (courts, prisons, etc.), and legal professionals (attorneys, judges, paralegals, forensic experts, and alternative dispute resolution professionals). Law plays a number of important roles in the practice of social work. First, from an ecological perspective, the legal system is a vital part of a client’s social environment. Many social work clients are involved in legal systems, such as child protection, criminal justice, or mental health. Social workers need to be aware of the laws that regulate each system in order to help clients navigate their way through these systems more effectively, and to be able to advocate for law reform to improve the goodness of fit between clients and their socio-legal environments. Laws also govern many relationships of interest to social work clients, including landlord/tenant, employer/employee, physician/patient, vendor/purchaser, spouse/spouse, and parent/child relationships. Thus, knowledge of the law should provide practitioners with a practical understanding of their clients’ rights and responsibilities in a broad range of social relationships. Second, hospitals, schools, social assistance, correctional institutions, mental health facilities, and other social agencies are regulated by organization-specific laws. Organization-specific laws may dictate who is eligible for services, standards for record keeping, confidentiality, and other client rights. Social workers need to understand these laws in order to ensure that their agencies comply with the laws, and to be able to advocate for changes in the law to promote greater social and economic justice. Third, the profession of social work itself is regulated by various laws. Most states have licensing or accreditation laws that regulate the practice of social work, including who may practice and what standards of practice are legally enforceable. Social workers should also be aware of malpractice (tort) laws that identify when a social worker may be legally responsible for causing harm to a client if they perform their professional duties in a manner that falls below a reasonable standard of care. Finally, some social workers practice in forensic settings, providing investigations, evaluation, expert testimony, and treatment for clients involved in court or other legal systems. Such settings include probation, parole, prison, child custody evaluation, and involuntary committal to mental health institutions.
Health Disparities
Authors: Gehlert Sarah
Published: June 2011

Health disparities is defined by the National Institutes of Health as differences in the incidence, prevalence, mortality, and burden of diseases and other adverse health conditions that exist among specific population groups in the United States. According to United States Public Law 106–525, known as the Minority Health and Health Disparities Research and Education Act, “a population is a health disparity population if there is a significant disparity in the overall rate of disease incidence, prevalence, morbidity, mortality, or survival rates in the population as compared to the health status of the general population” (p. 2498; see Policy). Although the vast majority of research in health disparities has focused on group differences by race or ethnicity, health disparities can occur by gender, socioeconomic status, disability status, sexual orientation, age, and location/geography. This bibliography’s primary focus is on disparities within the United States. These resources are meant to be useful to social work practice, policy, education, and research. While the identified references focus on social work applications, references dealing with clinical and policy-relevant issues that originate in other health professions and disciplines also are listed.
Psychopathology and Social Work Practice
Authors: Dziegielewski Sophia F. , Jacinto George
Published: June 2011

As the field of social work practice has expanded its services within health-care and mental health-care settings, social workers have become one of the leading providers in the delivery of mental health-related services. This requires that social workers, regardless of their specialization area, be well versed in diagnosis, assessment, intervention, and treatment planning. Therefore, courses in psychopathology have become the cornerstone of many social work programs, constituting a central aspect of the social work educational curriculum. This focus is clear regardless of the social work program’s concentration or an individual social worker’s interest. In almost all graduate programs, exposure with a resultant expertise in this area is expected. In terms of sheer numbers, social workers outnumber those from other disciplines, such as psychiatry and psychology, who also specialize in this area. Updated information in this area is necessary to help social workers keep abreast of changes while taking into account the lessons learned from the past, as well as current strategy and what will be needed for the future. Because mental health conditions are compilations of extreme symptoms occurring in the greater population, preparation for this aspect of practice requires working knowledge of the DSM-IV-TR, or other multi-assessment strategies. This involves a practice assessment and intervention guided by the foundational knowledge of psychopathology. Most references in this area strive to provide information related to the causes and development (as well as the subsequent treatment) of mental illness, and how professional intervention and prevention efforts can be applied to achieve the best practices.
Hebrews
Authors: Aitken Ellen B. , deSilva David A.
Published: June 2011

The New Testament writing known as the Epistle (or “Letter”) to the Hebrews poses many challenges to its interpreters, due to the mysteries that continue to surround fundamental issues relating to the text’s historical background. Although the attribution of Hebrews to Paul dates to early in the history of its transmission, doubts concerning its authorship are equally old. In the twenty-first century, scholars are in near-complete agreement in rejecting Pauline authorship of the Epistle, and there is increasing acceptance of the thesis that Hebrews’ author will remain anonymous. The title conferred upon Hebrews provides further difficulties, both because the epistolary nature of the text is typically rejected in favor of the view that Hebrews bears resemblance to a sermon and because there is a lack of consensus concerning the location and identity of the work’s addressees. Hebrews is thus often referred to as a “riddle,” but the work also occupies a special place among New Testament writings because of its highly developed rhetorical style, intricate relationship with the scriptures of Israel, and rich theological vision. Hebrews has been somewhat neglected in the history of New Testament scholarship, but the end of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first have witnessed a marked increase in the number of publications devoted to its analysis, and this fresh intensity of interest in Hebrews shows no sign of abating.
Revelation (Apocalypse)
Authors: Harrington Daniel J. , deSilva David A.
Published: June 2011

The book of Revelation is an apocalypse or revelation (1:1) and a prophecy (1:3) in letter form (1:4). It was intended to be read aloud in a communal setting (1:3). It is written in a Semitic Greek style of poor quality and is full of allusions to the Old Testament, which the author knew very well. Its structure features a series of “sevens”—seven letters (2:1–3:22), seven seals (6:1–8:6), seven trumpets (8:7–11:19), seven bowls (16:1–21), and seven end-time events (19:11–22:5). The communities in western Asia Minor (present-day Turkey) addressed in Revelation (see chaps. 2–3) had certain internal problems and were also facing persecution for their Christian faith. This persecution was a limited program promoted by a local political and/or religious official. It focused on Christians refusing to worship the Roman emperor as a god and the goddess Roma as a personification of the empire. The author was a Jewish Christian prophet named John, most likely not the apostle or the evangelist, in exile on the island of Patmos for his witness to Christ (1:9). It is presented as his own visionary experience of the risen Christ on “the Lord’s day” (1:10). Its composition is usually placed late in the emperor Domitian’s reign (95–96 ce), although it may contain some earlier material from Nero’s time. Its original purpose was to give hope and perspective to Christians who were already suffering or expected to suffer soon for refusing to worship the emperor or the empire as divine. The author insists that the risen Jesus is the only “Lord and God” worthy of their worship.
Self, Non-Self, and Personal Identity
Authors: Kapstein Matthew
Published: June 2011

The precise nature of the Buddha’s doctrine, as he himself may have taught it, is subject to many difficulties of interpretation. Did the Buddha in fact teach a well-formed “doctrine” at all, or was he a practical teacher of ethics and meditation, for whom doctrine was an unnecessary intellectual distraction? Are the doctrines attributed to him perhaps the inventions of the schools that followed and not the formulations of the founder himself? Or was he, as certain scriptures present him, actively engaged in disputations with the leading ascetic teachers of his time, so that he must have sought, in his turn, to refine the content and consistency of his message? However we may seek to answer these and similar questions, many early Buddhist scriptures unmistakably call into question the notion that each one of us possesses a unique and persisting self. Though it has been suggested that the Buddha may have only intended an ethically uplifting conception of selflessness, or perhaps wished to awaken us to the possibility of a higher Self, the attribution to him of a metaphysical assertion of “non-self” (Pali anatta, Skt. anātman) became established as a hallmark of his teaching among the mainstream of his successors early on. From the conflicting interpretations about this that arose in the generations following the founder’s passing, and later from their disputes with the non-Buddhist schools of Indian thought, there evolved in scholastic circles a rich array of increasingly rigorous arguments to support the conclusion that the “self” (ātman) or “person” (pudgala), conceived as an enduring entity that somehow individuates an otherwise fragmented continuum of mental and physical events, simply does not exist. We are continuums (santāna), not persisting selves. The conception of the person that seemed entailed here gave rise to numerous puzzles that later Buddhist thinkers endeavored to resolve. Certain of the teachings that became current were suspected of seeking tacitly to reaffirm the existence of a substantial self. One such doctrine, that of the “Personalists” (pudgalavādin), is surveyed below; others, notably the conceptions of a “ground consciousness” (ālayavijñāna) and of buddha-nature (buddhadhātu, tathāgatagarbha), are treated in other entries. As the history and development of Buddhist thought have become better known, some contemporary scholars have called attention to apparent parallels between Western and Buddhist approaches to the puzzles of the self and personal identity. Recent explorations of these conceptual connections are examined in the final section of this entry.
Theravada
Authors: McDaniel Justin
Published: June 2011

Did a separate Theravada school of Buddhism actually exist as a discernible entity before the modern period? Can we talk about Theravada Buddhism as a field of study or as a religion bounded by a distinct set of texts, rituals, beliefs, and institutions? The term “Theravada” is rarely found in texts in South and Southeast Asian languages before the 19th century. Moreover, Theravada is mistakenly associated with “early Buddhism,” even though there is no evidence that it was anything more than one of many intellectual, ritual, and organizational lineages in early Indic Buddhism. More properly instead of talking about an amorphous Theravada sect or school, scholars have started to trace ordination and teaching lineages, or look at the degree to which other categories such as araññavāsī/pupphārāmavāsī (forest/flower garden-dwellers) or gāmavāsī/nagaravāsī (village/city-dwellers), or ganthadhura (those who carry the burden of [textual] study) and vipassanādhura (those who carry the burden of meditation practice) were used in different places. Scholars have yet to define the contours of the Theravada. Therefore, the field has been divided into the citations that follow to reflect the tension between local anthropological and textual works and larger national, regional-based, and general studies. Unfortunately, space restraints limit the works cited to those written in Western languages and exclude the large numbers of studies on “socially engaged Buddhism” that has become quite popular in recent years and demands a separate bibliographic entry.
Buddhism in Tibet
Authors: Gray David
Published: June 2011

Buddhism reached Tibet relatively late, around the 7th century, and within a few centuries it became the dominant religion on the Tibetan plateau. Tibet continued to receive transmissions of texts and practices from India until approximately 1500 ce, and thus received the full flowering of Indian Buddhism, particularly the tantric or Vajrayāna form of Buddhism that developed in India around the 7th century. The first transmission of Buddhism to Tibet took place with the support of the imperial government, and it continued until disrupted in the mid-9th century by the collapse of the Tibetan empire. This first transmission constitutes the basis of all of the Tibetan Buddhist traditions, as a number of exoteric Buddhist works such as sutras were translated into Tibetan at this time. The “Ancient” Nyingma (rnying ma) school of Buddhism also claims that its secret Tantric teachings were also transmitted to Tibet at this time. The process resumed with the second or “latter” transmission (phyi dar) of Buddhism to Tibet, which resulted in the formation of the “New” (gsar ma) schools of Tibetan Buddhism, the Geluk, Kadam, Kagyü, Jonang, and Sakya traditions. With the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, Tibetan Buddhism began to spread in Central Asia and China. With the diaspora of Tibetan lamas following the Chinese occupation of Tibet in the 1950s, Tibetan Buddhism has spread throughout the world and has become one of the most influential forms of Buddhism on the global stage.
Buddhism in the West (North America and Europe)
Authors: Mitchell Scott A. , Calobrisi Thomas
Published: June 2011

The study of Buddhism in the West is built on the pioneering work of a handful of scholars in the mid-1970s. These individuals were bold enough to take the subject seriously within a reluctant academic discipline. Charles Prebish’s American Buddhism (1979) set the standard and many terms of debate for the decades to come. The field has grown considerably, despite a perceived lack of methodological sophistication (see Numrich 2008, cited under General Overviews). Scholars in this area generally approach the subject from one of three directions: area studies (Buddhism in the United States, Buddhism in France, etc.), something of a reverse area studies (e.g., Japanese Buddhism in the United States, Theravada in Britain), or topical studies (e.g., ritual studies, immigration and ethnicity, Buddhism and psychology). The most wide-reaching debates in the field generally revolve around questions of identification or classification and can manifest themselves in a variety of ways. For example, some question what “the West” is meant to signify, placing their research squarely in the context of postcolonial studies, transnational studies, or the construction of Buddhist modernism (McMahan 2002, cited under Ch’an, Zen, Sŏn). Others, such as Tweed 2002 (cited under Matters of Identity), recognize the difficulty of defining what constitutes a Western Buddhist when Buddhist culture has so thoroughly permeated the broader cultural milieu. Serving as a backdrop to these issues has been the wide-ranging and perennial debate regarding the “two Buddhisms” typology that, over the years since Prebish coined the phrase in 1979, has been considered, reconsidered, rearticulated, expanded to three Buddhisms, and renamed in a variety of ways. This article reflects these methodological approaches and topical debates, and it includes relevant sources from postcolonial studies, ritual studies, and engaged Buddhism. As mentioned, “the West” as an area of study is itself somewhat contested. Is the West limited to areas dominated by European culture? Do we extend this category to Australia and Oceania? For the sake of brevity, this article focuses on North America and Europe.
Death
Authors: Luper Steven
Published: June 2011

This article concerns contemporary philosophical discussions of death. The philosophy of death attempts to determine what it is for people and other living things to die and to be mortal, how and the extent to which death, mortality, and posthumous events benefit or harm those who die, and the morality of killing. The issues that arise might loosely be classified as metaphysical, prudential, and moral. The metaphysical issues concern what death is, how it and mortality are related, and, by extension, what it is to be alive, what you and I are, and what the persistence conditions of living creatures are. (The former issues are covered under Nature of Death and Mortality, while the latter are covered under Life and Persistence over Time.) The prudential issues concern how and the extent to which death, mortality, posthumous events, and coming to be affect the welfare of those who die (covered under Mortal Harm and Posthumous Harm), and the time when those effects are incurred (covered under the Timing Issue). Finally, the moral issues concern how the prudential significance of death and posthumous events bear on the moral permissibility of killing. When killing is wrong, it is wrong primarily (even if not exclusively) because of the way death affects its victims. Its objectionableness may be due to the fact that it harms its victims or, in the case of some victims, such as moral agents, because killing them (without their informed consent) is inconsistent with the respect they are due. Philosophers of death attempt to work out whether and how the harmfulness of dying and consent to being killed bear on the wrongness of killing. (These moral issues are covered under Killing.)
Caste
Authors: Jaffrelot Christophe
Published: June 2011

Caste is one of the key concepts of Indian civilization. It gives the civilization most of its sociocultural distinctiveness. Caste is inseparable from Hinduism but is not limited to this religion since caste-based logic is found in Sikhism, Islam, and Christianity, and, to some extent, in Buddhism and Jainsim as well. The interpretations of this phenomenon are many: about its origins, meanings, and evolutions. It has attracted the attention not only of Indologists, anthropologists, and historians but also that of sociologists and political scientists, because it continues to play a major role in the public as well as the private spheres in India and within the Indian diaspora.
Statehood
Authors: Coggins Bridget L.
Published: June 2011

States are the principal and most fundamental actors in world politics. Although supranational organizations and nonstate actors are growing in importance as a result of globalization, states have been the dominant form of political organization for the last two centuries. Because of the state’s centrality to modern political life, statehood is well studied, much sought after, and hotly contested. Political philosophers disagree about the rationale for the state and the nature of the international system. Political scientists debate the extent to which sovereignty influences political behavior and examine the dynamics of the beginning and end of statehood. In international law, the declaratory and constitutive nature of the state is debated both in theory and in practice. The major divide centers on the extent to which statehood depends on the intrinsic character of the actor or on its external legitimacy in the eyes of other states. Critical cases of claims to sovereignty show that, as a legal matter, statehood is not straightforward. Also, empirically statehood is not homogenous but varied; some present-day members of the international community scarcely resemble one another or, for that matter, the formal legal standards of statehood. Finally, faced with challenges to their sovereign statehood, governments have attempted a number of nonstate alternatives to accommodate diverse populations and other governance challenges.
League of Nations
Authors: Seely Christopher
Published: June 2011

The League of Nations was designed and authorized during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference in the aftermath of World War I. The leaders of the victorious powers, particularly US president Woodrow Wilson, hoped to create an international organization and permanent conference that would serve to peacefully resolve future conflicts and prevent another war. Although they managed to found the League of Nations to those declared ends, this experiment in international security is generally regarded as a failure, especially in light of the outbreak of World War II. After World War II, the victors attempted to improve on the League by creating the United Nations, but they kept the League’s bicameral structure as a model. During its formal existence from January 1920 until April 1946, the League faced a variety of violent conflicts that it usually failed to prevent. However, at levels below that of international security, the League advanced a number of important areas and issues in international relations, including the way states approached emergent global issues such as human rights, post–World War II revision of international law, and ongoing efforts to provide some form of collective security to the international community.
Air Quality: Indoor Health Effects
Authors: Colbeck Ian
Published: June 2011

People often assume that air pollution is a modern phenomenon and that it has become worse in recent times. However, since the dawn of history, mankind has been burning biological and fossil fuels to produce heat. The walls of caves, inhabited millennia ago, are covered with layers of soot, and many of the lungs of mummified bodies from Paleolithic times have a black tone. Air pollution in large cities and industrial areas of western Europe has been increasing since the Industrial Revolution in the nineteenth century; however, it was not until the first half of the twentieth century that the adverse health effects of air pollution started attracting scientific attention. Two widely quoted air-pollution episodes, the Great London Smog of 1952 and the Meuse Valley (Belgium) episode of 1930, raised public awareness of the potential health effects of air pollution. While ambient air quality is now improving, indoor air quality has attracted public concern and increasing scientific interest due to the proliferation of sealed buildings, energy conservation programs, new building and consumer products, and the recognition of the health effects of radon and asbestos. Indoor air quality is now an important component of public health.
Cyberpolitics
Authors: Howard Philip
Published: June 2011

Cyberpolitics is a domain of inquiry into the role of new information technologies in contemporary political life. It is an exciting domain of inquiry because not all of the things that communication scholars learned by studying mass media systems and interpersonal communication hold up in digital media environments. Studying cyberpolitics usually means one of two things. It can mean investigating the ways in which political actors use new technologies in creative—and sometimes problematic—ways. Some voters use digital media to improve their knowledge of public affairs, others use the same media to limit the flow of news and information. The Internet allows some journalists to do more research and track down more sources, but such digital media has had a significant impact on the organization of the newsroom and the features of the news market. Politicians and candidates for elected office use the Internet to reach out to new voters, but they also use it for data mining and manipulating public opinion. But studying cyberpolitics can also mean investigating the less overt political machinations that go into setting telecommunications standards and making decisions about how to engineer information infrastructure. Allocating the public spectrum, setting privacy standards into law, building universal broadband access, or deciding which information packets may be more important than others are technical issues with significant implications for political life.
Propaganda
Authors: Delwiche Aaron
Published: June 2011

Propaganda researchers study systematic attempts to influence audience perceptions and behaviors. This area of scholarship is intrinsically interdisciplinary, with findings emerging from such fields as anthropology, art, communication, computer science, history, psychology, and sociology. Some propaganda scholars measure outcomes, while others analyze themes, techniques, and campaign strategies without making claims about audience effects. Quantitative and qualitative research methods are commonly used, with many scholars incorporating a mixed-method approach.
Media Effects
Authors: Tsfati Yariv
Published: June 2011

Media effects are typically defined as social or psychological responses occurring in individuals, dyads, small groups, organizations, or communities as a result of exposure to or processing of or otherwise acting on media messages. The changes caused by media can take place on several dimensions. The effects can be intended by the message source or unintended. The consequences can include not only changes, but also preservation of the status quo. If a certain social situation perpetuates because of media this is also considered a media effect. In addition, media effects can be both short-term and long-term. Dating back to the 1920s, media-effects research emerged as an academic field grounded within the young communication discipline only in the 1950s. The dominant paradigm in communication research, after an initial wave of public apprehension of massive media effects, was that media have only limited effects on the audience. In the 1970s and 1980s, with the advent of new theories stressing significant media impact, scholars called for a return to the concept of massive media impact. These new theories moved away from the notion that exposure to media can immediately and directly affect people’s attitudes and behaviors. Rather, each theory stressed more sophisticated and limited processes that may only indirectly affect decisions and actions. In recent years, research has focused less on whether media effects are “minimal” or “massive” and more on identifying moderators (the conditions under which effects are stronger or weaker) and mediators (the phenomena that lie between exposure and the changes caused by exposure). This move suggests an increasing realization that media effects are not “massive,” uniform, or direct. Scholars have examined the effects of a variety of texts, disseminated through a diversity of media, in a variety of contexts, on a range of cognitive, attitudinal, and behavioral dependent variables. This article represents the main theories and concepts, and the different generations of scholarship, research contexts, topics, and types of responses investigated. The organization of this article has a chronological-historical component: it starts with the early notions of powerful media, moves to the limited effects theories prevalent from between the 1940s and 1960s, and proceeds to more contemporary theories of more powerful effects. However, every time a theory is addressed, an effort is made to cover must-read items on this theory from different contexts, generations, and research traditions.
Public Opinion
Authors: Moy Patricia
Published: June 2011

The communication scholar’s approach to the study of public opinion emphasizes the role that mass media and interpersonal discussion play in shaping people’s attitudes, behaviors, and cognitions. Recognizing how the communication of public opinion can affect how citizens feel and what they do regarding an issue, scholars are concerned with the accuracy, quantity, and overall quality of media reports of that issue. They also investigate how interacting with individuals can shape people’s attitudes and behaviors. Studies of public opinion examine how individuals, groups, organizations, and other entities respond to expressions of opinion, and they delineate the processes by which individual opinions shape public policy. By definition, then, public opinion research is concerned with phenomena at the micro, meso, and macro levels, and, regardless of the level of analysis, can be applied to understanding social and political issues in democratic and nondemocratic systems.
Detective Fiction
Authors: Humpherys Anne
Published: June 2011

Much of 19th-century detective fiction was published in periodicals, the form of Victorian detective fiction being primarily the short story, though there were a handful of novels and novellas. The genre of detective fiction novels as it came down into the early 20th century was essentially established in the previous century. The standard history of Victorian detective fiction (in which a detective works to solve a specific crime or mystery) starts with Edgar Allan Poe’s three Dupin stories (1841–1846), followed by the detectives of Charles Dickens (Bucket in Bleak House [1852–1853]) and Wilkie Collins (Cuff in The Moonstone [1868]) and culminating in the first appearance of Sherlock Holmes in A Study in Scarlet in 1887. These texts and writers were for the most part the only ones subjected to early critical study. Sometimes early histories of detective ficton would briefly mention other English precursors to Sherlock Holmes, including William Godwin, Things as They Are, or Caleb Williams (1794) and the Newgate Calendar (1774); Thomas Gaspey, Richmond: Scenes from the Life of a Bow Street Runner (1827); or William Russell, Recollections of a Detective Police-Officer, by “Waters” (1856). Since the 1990s, however, following on the increased interest in popular culture and the recovery of texts by women writers, as well as the theoretical turn, especially structuralism, attention has increased in other writers of detective fiction, either earlier or contemporary with the Sherlock Holmes stories though many critical works still treat only the Sherlock Holmes. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries as the canon of detective fiction has expanded, criticism has done so as well by focusing on 19th-century detective fiction in terms of genre, science, and the empire.
G. W. M. Reynolds
Authors: Humpherys Anne
Published: June 2011

George William Macarthur Reynolds (b. 1814–d. 1879) was at his death labeled “the most popular writer of our time” by the Bookseller in its short obituary. This popularity rested on two achievements: first, the mammoth twelve-volume series of “mysteries” novels, The Mysteries of London (1846–1848) and The Mysteries of the Court of London (1848–1855), and, second, his involvement with Chartist politics, which led in 1850 to his founding and editing the radical Sunday newspaper Reynolds’s Newspaper, which lasted in some form until 1962. The Mysteries novels were also constantly in print in a variety of cheap formats for most of the 19th century. Reynolds was a controversial figure both among working-class radicals, who doubted his commitment, and among the middle-class literary establishment, which abhorred his popular sensationalist novels. Dickens was probably referring to him as the “draggled fringe on the Red Cap, Pander to the basest passions of the lowest natures—whose existence is a national reproach” in the opening number of Household Words in 1850. Sometime shortly after 1860, Reynolds essentially stopped writing and editing. But the influence of his mysteries series continued, especially in the United States, India, and other countries. His novels fell out of print in the early 20th century; he himself became relatively unknown among historians and literary critics. This neglect lasted until the second half of the 20th century, at which point a number of scholars began to analyze Reynolds’s importance in 19th-century popular literature, politics, and the periodical press, a development that gathered force in the first decade of the 21st century. There is now a G.W.M. Reynolds Society, available online.
Induction of Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 MexAB-OprM Multidrug Efflux Pump by Flavonoids Is Mediated by the Repressor PmeR
Authors: Vargas Paola , Felipe Antonia , Michán Carmen , Gallegos María-Trinidad
Published: June 2011

In this study, we have analyzed the expression of the Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 mexAB-oprM efflux pump operon and of the regulatory gene pmeR, and we have investigated the role of the PmeR protein on transcription from both promoters. We demonstrate that mexAB-oprM and pmeR are expressed in vivo at a relatively high and moderate basal level, respectively, which, in both cases, increases in the presence of different flavonoids and other compounds, such as butyl and methylparaben. We show that PmeR is the local repressor of the mexAB-oprM promoter and is able to regulate its own expression. The mechanism for this regulation includes binding to a pseudopalindromic operator site which overlaps both mexAB-oprM and pmeR promoters. We have also proven that flavonoids are able to interact with PmeR and induce a conformational change that interferes with the DNA binding ability of PmeR, thereby modulating mexAB-oprM and pmeR expression. Finally, we demonstrate by in vivo experiments that the PmeR/MexAB-OprM system contributes to the colonization of tomato plants. These results provide new insight into a transcriptional regulator and a transport system that play essential roles in the ability of P. syringae pv. tomato DC3000 to resist the action of flavonoids produced by the host.
Cloning and Characterization ofR3b; Members of theR3Superfamily of Late Blight Resistance Genes Show Sequence and Functional Divergence
Authors: Li Guangcun , Huang Sanwen , Guo Xiao , Li Ying , Yang Yu , Guo Zhen , Kuang Hanhui , Rietman Hendrik , Bergervoet Marjan , Vleeshouwers Vivianne G. G. A. , van der Vossen Edwin A. G. , Qu Dongyu , Visser Richard G. F. , Jacobsen Evert , Vossen Jack H.
Published: June 2011

Massive resistance (R) gene stacking is considered to be one of the most promising approaches to provide durable resistance to potato late blight for both conventional and genetically modified breeding strategies. The R3 complex locus on chromosome XI in potato is an example of natural R gene stacking, because it contains two closely linked R genes (R3a and R3b) with distinct resistance specificities to Phytophthora infestans. Here, we report about the positional cloning of R3b. Both transient and stable transformations of susceptible tobacco and potato plants showed that R3b conferred full resistance to incompatible P. infestans isolates. R3b encodes a coiled-coil nucleotide-binding site leucine-rich repeat protein and exhibits 82% nucleotide identity with R3a located in the same R3 cluster. The R3b gene specifically recognizes Avr3b, a newly identified avirulence factor from P. infestans. R3b does not recognize Avr3a, the corresponding avirulence gene for R3a, showing that, despite their high sequence similarity, R3b and R3a have clearly distinct recognition specificities. In addition to the Rpi-mcd1/Rpi-blb3 locus on chromosome IV, the R3 locus on chromosome XI is the second example of an R-gene cluster with multiple genes recognizing different races of P. infestans.
A Multiplex PCR for the Detection ofPhytophthora nicotianaeandP. cactorum, and a Survey of Their Occurrence in Strawberry Production Areas of Japan
Authors: Li Mingzhu , Asano Takahiro , Suga Haruhisa , Kageyama Koji
Published: June 2011

We aimed to simultaneously detect two pathogens causing strawberry diseases, Phytophthora nicotianae and P. cactorum, by multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and to survey their occurrence in the main strawberry production areas of Japan. Due to the need to combine different primer pairs for multiplex PCR and the low specificity of published specific primers for P. nicotianae and P. cactorum, new species-specific primers for P. nicotianae and P. cactorum were designed based on the internal transcribed spacer regions of ribosomal DNA and the ras-related protein gene Ypt1, respectively. Specificity of the designed primers was demonstrated using 68 isolates, including Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., and other soilborne pathogens. Multiplex PCR discriminated between P. nicotianae and P. cactorum in DNA mixtures of mycelia of the two species. Moreover, both species were detected in artificially and naturally infested soils, indicating that these markers can be used in diagnosis of strawberry diseases. For investigation of the geographic distribution of the two pathogens in Japan, soil samples were collected in 89 strawberry fields from eight prefectures (Gifu, Saga, Nara, Tochigi, Chiba, Shizuoka, Yamanashi, and Hokkaido) of Japan. The method that was developed was successfully applied to survey P. nicotianae and P. cactorum, and distribution of the two pathogens in strawberry plantings in Japan was determined.
Mitigation of errors in pair distribution function analysis of nanoparticles
Authors: Mullen Katharine , Levin Igor
Published: June 2011

Information on the size and structure of nanoparticles can be obtainedviaanalysis of the atomic pair distribution function (PDF), which is calculated as the Fourier transform of X-ray/neutron total scattering. The structural parameters are commonly extracted by fitting a model PDF calculated from atomic coordinates to the experimental data. This paper discusses procedures for minimizing systematic errors in PDF calculations for nanoparticles and also considers the effects of noise due to counting statistics in total scattering data used to obtain the PDF. The results presented here demonstrate that smoothing of statistical noise in reciprocal-space data can improve the precision of parameter estimates obtained from PDF analysis, facilitating identification of the correct model (from multiple plausible choices) from real-space PDF fits.
Low-energy contamination of Mo microsource X-ray radiation: analysis and solution of the problem
Authors: Macchi Piero , Bürgi Hans-Beat , Chimpri Abita S. , Hauser Jürg , Gál Zoltán
Published: June 2011

In recent years, microsource sealed tubes in combination with multilayer optics have been adopted in many crystallography laboratories for very low power X-ray generation, monochromatization and high-brilliance microfocusing. All these factors allow high-performance experiments on a laboratory scale. However, a fundamental defect of this technology has been discovered, namely a significant contamination of the characteristic radiation by low-energy photons. Some simple experiments are reported, showing that the contamination can significantly reduce the accuracy of the measured intensities, especially when Mo Kα radiation is used. A simple and economic solution to the problem is proposed: an aluminium filter approximately 100 µm thick, which efficiently removes the low-energy contaminant photons.
In-crystal affinity ranking of fragment hit compounds reveals a relationship with their inhibitory activities
Authors: Yamane Junji , Yao Min , Zhou Yong , Hiramatsu Yasuyuki , Fujiwara Kenichiro , Yamaguchi Tohru , Yamaguchi Hiroto , Togame Hiroko , Tsujishita Hideki , Takemoto Hiroshi , Tanaka Isao
Published: June 2011

Fragment-based drug discovery (FBDD), which is a molecular build-up strategy from small scaffolds, has recently become a promising approach for lead-compound generation. Although high-throughput protein crystallography is usually used to determine the protein–ligand complex structure and identify potential hit compounds, the relationship between the quality of theFo–Fcmaps of hit compounds and their inhibitory activities has rarely been examined. To address this issue, crystallographic competition experiments were carried out to determine the relative order of the in-crystal binding affinities using five hit compounds of bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitors. Soaking experiments of all combinations of the five hit compounds were used to define the in-crystal affinity ranking. Based on characterization by a high-concentration bioassay, a clear correlation was observed between in-crystal binding affinities and the inhibitory activities in solution. Moreover, the correlation analysis revealed that X-ray-based screening can detect a weak hit compound with inhibitory activity below the limit of detection, even in a high-concentration assay. The proposed crystallographic competition method could function as a valuable tool, not only to select a plausible starting scaffold for subsequent synthetic efforts but also to access structure–activity relationships using fragment compounds with a wider detection limit than a biological assay. The crystallographic validation methodology described here will greatly accelerate the hit-to-lead process during fragment-based and structure-based drug design.
Surface curvatures and diffraction profiles of sagittally bent Laue crystals
Authors: Shi Xianbo , Ghose Sanjit , Zhong Zhong , Rehak Margareta L. , Kaznatcheev Konstantine , Takacs Peter Z. , Dooryhee Eric
Published: June 2011

The performance of a bent Laue crystal monochromator crucially depends on the sagittal and meridional bending curvatures of the crystal. To optimize the design of monochromator crystals, the surface curvatures and diffraction profiles of a set of sagittally bent Laue crystals with different aspect ratios have been studied experimentally by optical metrology and X-ray measurements. The results were confirmed with finite-element analysis using large-deformation theory. The nonlinear relationship between the curvatures necessitates an experimentally determined parameter in the theoretical modeling of the diffraction profiles. By taking into account the local stress and the aspect ratio of the sagittally bent Laue crystal, the modified analytical approach successfully predicts the rocking-curve width and the integrated reflecting power. The effect of extreme sagittal bending on the rocking curve is also discussed. To retain high reflectivity, the bending curvature should not exceed its critical value for the specified crystal geometry. Furthermore, the uniformity of the bending curvatures across the crystal surface has been examined, which suggests that the minimum crystal dimension should be approximately twice the size of the beam footprint.