bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
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Authors: Gabriel Yiannis
Published: November 2023

Oligarchy is the rule of the few over the many. Based on a study of the German Social Democratic Party in the early part of the century, Robert Michels (1876–1936) argued that all organizations are subject to an Iron Law of Oligarchy. Arguing against his mentor, Max Weber, Michels claimed that organizations are not rational instruments for the accomplishment of administrative goals; instead, he saw political systems through which small elites control the masses. ‘It is organization which gives birth to the dominion of the elected over the electors, of the mandated over the mandators, of the delegated over the delegators. Who says organization, says oligarchy.’ Weberian rules and procedures are nothing but an elaborate smoke- screen, behind which a ruthless power game unfolds, a game through which leaders seek to perpetuate themselves in positions of power. To this end, the organization’s survival becomes essential; goals become regularly displaced, values and doctrines are constantly compromised, and organization becomes an end in itself.
Clause structure and verbal forms in Nakh-Daghestanian languages
Authors: Kalinina Elena , Sumbatova Nina
Published: November 2023

The notion of finiteness is one of those theoretical concepts that is widely used but vaguely defined. Traditionally, finiteness has often been understood in terms of morphological categories, i.e. as the ability of a verbal form to be marked for certain morphological categories such as subject agreement in person and number, or tense (e.g. Schwyzer 1939: 639; Heidolph et al. 1981: 498). Generative grammar also accepts that finiteness of a clause correlates, although indirectly, with verbal morphology (e.g Radford 1988: 287–92; Rizzi 1997: 284; Carnie 2002: 149–51, and Kornfilt, Chapter 9 below).
Institutions of governance: can democracies choose them?
Authors: Olsen Johan P
Published: November 2023

Institutional reform has for quite some time been a salient issue on the political agenda of the European Union. The allegation has been that the EU institutions of governance have major weaknesses, that they lack effectiveness and legitimacy, and that comprehensive reform is needed. The claim covers single institutions, as well as the relationships and balance among institutions. Therefore, the basic principles and rules for constituting, distributing, controlling and legitimizing power in the European polity are involved.
Coping with conflict at constitutional moments
Authors: Olsen Johan P
Published: November 2023

The literature on the dynamics through which political order and organized government is constituted and reconstituted in democratic contexts presents a paradox. It is commonplace to argue that democracies require constitutional rules in order to function well and it is assumed that a legitimate and durable order has significant benefits. In particular, constitutional rules and stable institutions provide a framework that makes it easier to regulate and limit conflict and secure civilized co-existence. Democratic constitutions are assumed to balance unity and diversity, power relations, and continuity and change.
The Europeanization of the territorial state?
Authors: Olsen Johan P
Published: November 2023

‘Europeanization’ is understood in this chapter as change in the core domestic institutions of governance as a consequence of the development of European-level institutions, identities and policies.1 Attention will be focused upon how, through what processes, and to what degree European influence is exerted at the domestic level. What kind of adaptation pressure can be observed from the European Union? Is there a collision between principles of organization and governance at the European and the domestic levels? Are domestic impacts so profound that they represent a challenge to territorial states?
A Question of Balance
Authors: Woolf Lord
Published: November 2023

Abstract This paper provides an introduction to the English legal system, explaining that a distinction, albeit blurred, between public and private law is now an essential feature at the heart of the English administrative law system. It gives an historical account of the procedure for judicial review, being primarily concerned with enforcing public duties on behalf of the public as a whole, vindicating the interests of the individual as part of the process of ensuring public bodies do not act unlawfully and do perform their public duties. It discusses the safeguards in judicial review procedure and notes that courts should use their powers to remedy injustice rather than unnecessarily intervening where there is no injustice. This involves a fundamental change from the traditional approach of English law, which in the past used to equate the rights and duties of public bodies with those of private individuals. It is the base upon which future legal developments have occurred.
Magna Carta: A Precedent for Recent Constitutional Change
Authors: Woolf Lord
Published: November 2023

Abstract This paper provides an historical account of the fundamental principles of the rule of law. Reference is made to the chapters at the heart of the Magna Carta of 1215 as containing many of the core features of societies that today adhere to the rule of law. Magna Carta principles are placed within a contemporary setting through a discussion of the UK ‘s new constitutional arrangements that include the abolition of the old Office of Lord Chancellor and provision for a new Supreme Court. It explains that increased recognition of the rule of law is apparent from its impact upon the global economy and strident argument which has occurred over the recent flood of asylum seekers, the invasion over Iraq, and dispute over the legal status of detainees.
Judicial Independence Not Judicial Isolation
Authors: Woolf Lord
Published: November 2023

Abstract This paper argues that the judiciary should be both independent and involved. It should not be isolated. In any jurisdiction the existence of a judiciary which is both individually and institutionally independent is critical to the rule of law. Recent constitutional upheavals are fundamentally altering the relationship between the judiciary and the other arms of government. This paper expresses concern that while some of the changes will, as is intended, increase the protection of independence for the judiciary, others will undermine the checks and balances which have contributed to that independence. Increasing the separation of the judiciary from the other arms of government risks isolation which can itself damage the administration of justice.
Current Challenges in Judging
Authors: Woolf Lord
Published: November 2023

Abstract Just as the common law has evolved to meet the changing requirements of society, so should the role of the common law judge. Unless the judicial role evolves in this way, the judiciary will be unable to fulfil the expectations of the public whom they serve. Whether it does so will depend on the calibre, commitment, organisation and training of the judiciary. It will also depend upon the executive and legislature providing the judiciary with the support they require. This paper discusses the new contemporary role of the judge—ranging from balancing the rights of individuals and the state, to assisting the judiciary of other jurisdictions, to providing knowledge about the legal system to schoolchildren. The challenge is to preserve the best in our system as it has evolved over the centuries while at the same time making the changes necessary to ensure the judiciary are capable of meeting contemporary challenges.
Medics, Lawyers and the Courts— A Defence of the Access to Justice Recommendations
Authors: Woolf Lord
Published: November 2023

Abstract Commenting on the relationship between the medical profession and the courts, this paper discusses the recommendations in the Access to Justice Final Report and criticisms that were made of some of them, notably by Professor Michael Zander QC. It focuses upon the recommendations that were made for the improvement of handling medical negligence cases, as an example of the recommendations for the improvement of litigation generally. Professor Zander ‘s opposition to the recommendations is described as ‘misleading ‘ and ‘inaccurate ‘, based on an unwillingness to accept that the civil justice system has serious faults—faults that most commentators have accepted exist.
Are the Courts Excessively Deferential to the Medical Profession?
Authors: Woolf Lord
Published: November 2023

Abstract This paper discusses how the relationship between the courts and the medical profession has changed in recent times. It suggests that the courts traditionally treated the medical profession with excessive deference, but that the position has changed and for the better. It explains why the courts were previously over deferential and relates the changes to the growth of judicial review, increasing litigation, increasing awareness of patients ‘ rights, and well-publicised medical profession scandals. It concludes with a discussion of the Access to Justice reforms and how improved civil justice procedures have increased the ability of the courts to resolve medical issues justly.
The Rule of Law and Harmony in China
Authors: Woolf Lord
Published: November 2023

Abstract This paper provides an account of the ‘Icebreakers’ visit to China, from which a lecture is included in this book [see Chapter 25]. It discusses the development of China’s legal system in recent times and China’s genuine ambition to adhere to the rule of law and human rights, vital for a country that seeks to meet its obligations as a member of the World Trade Organisation and achieve its economic ambitions. While China still has some way to go to meet the requirements of the rule of law, it is making progress; there is now an acceptance of the need to produce clear accessible laws to improve enforcement of laws and to train more lawyers and judges. It concludes by emphasising the importance of spreading the standards of the common law to China, drawing upon the role that Hong Kong’s legal system has played to China’s overall success, and promoting China’s relationship with the UK.
Freedom Of Expression And Privacy: An Introduction
Authors: Nicol Andrew , Millar Gavin , Sharland Andrew
Published: November 2023

This book is aimed at practitioners in the media law field, but it is hoped that it will be of interest to students of media law and human rights law. It is not intended to be a definitive text on media law; for this see Geoffrey Robertson QC and Andrew Nicol QC, Media Law. Neither is it intended to be a comparative academic work; if this is what is required, see Professor Eric Barendt’s work entitled Freedom of Speech.
Defamation
Authors: Nicol Andrew , Millar Gavin , Sharland Andrew
Published: November 2023

In England a claimant raises a defamation claim by showing publication of a defamatory statement referring to him or her. In broad terms the statement is defamatory if it damages the claimant’s reputation. Specifically, the question is whether it has a meaning ‘lowering the Plaintiff in the estimation of right- thinking members of society generally’, or ‘exposing him to hatred ridicule or contempt’ or causing him to be ‘shunned or avoided’. It is presumed that such a statement is false. In libel (written defamation) damage to reputation is presumed. So some damages will always be recovered.
Experiential Learning without Work Experience Reflecting on Studying as ‘Practical Activity’
Authors: Räsänen Keijo , Korpiaho Kirsi
Published: November 2023

When business school students do not have previous experience in professional work, which is the case in many European master’s programmes, the users of experiential methods meet a serious problem (cf. Reynolds and Vince 2004). What is the ‘experience’ that is supposed to be reflected on and learnt from? One answer to this question is that the students’ lives are full of experiences, including the experiences of studying in the business school.
Police Reform
Authors: Savage Stephen P
Published: November 2023

This book focuses on the very topical subject of police reform in the UK. Currently, the police service is undergoing a time of significant change and reform as a result of the ‘modernisation’ agenda. Planned force re-structuring, the performance culture, recruitment and training issues are just a few elements of this extensive reform process. There is therefore a need for a text which looks at this current agenda for reform against its historical backdrop and debates the long term future of this process. The book spans three decades and is structured thematically around the main driving forces for reform, looking at the policy process and its related contexts. Key topics covered include system failure (when things go wrong), public order policing, international influences, economic issues and value for money, internal influences and political issues. The book adresses a complex and ever-shifting subject in an accessible manner.
Policing as a Performing Art? ‘Value for Money’ and Police Reform
Authors: Savage Stephen P
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 1 the ways in which police ‘mindsets’ or paradigms can change was discussed, in that context in relation to the emergence in the 1980s of the ethos of ‘community-oriented policing’ and the repositioning of the police which that change in mindset entailed. What also began to appear in the 1980s, and very much accelerated into the 1990s, was a mindset change of a somewhat different dimension, involving ways in which the police organization should be managed.
The Politics of Policing and the Politics of Police Reform: Too Hot to Handle or Too Hot to Leave Alone?
Authors: Savage Stephen P
Published: November 2023

At various points in previous chapters a caveat was made regarding the relative influence of the differing drivers for police reform considered so far. That caveat concerns the extent to which any drivers for change and reform in policing are constrained in terms of influence by the politics of policing. Whilst each of the drivers of police reform discussed earlier has its own particular forms of influence over police reform agendas, each in turn must pass what we might call the political test—that the political climate needs to be one which is receptive to the messages coming through. This is not just a matter of the preparedness of decision-makers to accept this or that particular policy, although that is of course important.
Inequality and Poverty in Global Perspective
Authors: Vita Álvaro de
Published: November 2023

Only a few well-known figures suffice to illustrate how significantly different life chances in the world are. About 1.2 billion people live on less than $1 per day and about 2.8 billion people live on less than $2 per day (UNDP 2000: 9). The wealth of the richest 200 individuals in the world reached $1.135 trillion in 1999, in contrast to $146 billion in combined incomes of the 582 million people living in the least developed countries (LDCs) in the same year (UNDP 2000: 82). Only 25 million people in the United States, the top decile of the income distribution in the country, have a combined income greater than that of the poorest 43% of the world’s population (about 2 billion people) (UNDP 2000: 19).
The Duties Imposed by the Human Right to Basic Necessities
Authors: Ashford Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

There is a compelling case for the claim that there is a human right to basic necessities, given the devastating impact the lack of them has on persons’ interests and the threat it poses to their lives. Moreover, there has been widespread international acknowledgment of such a right. A right to basic necessities is a claim right, and it therefore entails corresponding duties. This means that genuinely acknowledging this right requires specifying and enforcing those duties. However, there has been very little agreement about what they are and who has responsibility for fulfilling them.
The impact of Islam and Europe on African development: 1–2003 ad
Authors: Maddison Angus
Published: November 2023

The long-term economic development of Africa is difficult to quantify with any precision. However, it is possible to discern the broad contours of population growth and there are some clues on the development of per capita income.
Principles of European Law Sales (PEL S)
Authors: Hondius Professor Dr. Ewoud , Heutger Dr. Viola , Jeloschek Dr. Christoph , Sivesand Dr. Hanna , Wiewiorowska Aneta
Published: November 2023

The Study Group on a European Civil Code has taken upon itself the task of drafting common European principles for the most important aspects of the law of obligations and for certain parts of the law of property in movables which are especially relevant for the functioning of the common market. Like the Commission on European Contract Law's Principles of European Contract Law, the results of the research conducted by the Study Group on a European Civil Code seek to advance the process of Europeanisation of private law. Among other topics the series tackles sales and service contracts, distribution contracts and security rights, renting contracts and loan agreements, negotiorum gestio, delicts and unjustified enrichment law, transfer of property, and trust law. The principles furnish each of the national jurisdictions a grid reference. They can be agreed upon by the parties within the framework of the rules of private international law. They may provide a stimulus to both the national and European legislator for moulding private law. Beyond this, they aim to further discussion about the creation of a European Civil Code, or a Common Frame of Reference in the area of patrimonial law, by submitting a concrete model. The Principles of European Law are published in co-operation with Bruylant (Belgium), Sellier (Germany) and Staempfli Publishers Ltd. (Switzerland).
Consumer Goods Guarantees
Authors: Hondius Professor Dr. Ewoud , Heutger Dr. Viola , Jeloschek Dr. Christoph , Sivesand Dr. Hanna , Wiewiorowska Aneta
Published: November 2023

Article 6:101 provides the definition of a ‘consumer goods guarantee’. The first paragraph indicates who is designated as the offeror and the recipient of the guarantee. The second paragraph lists different variants, or basic examples, of consumer goods guarantees by describing what a consumer goods guarantee may actually contain. The application of the rules contained in Chapter 6 is limited to consumer sales, as they were specifically designed to answer the needs of consumer sales. The main reason for this policy choice lies in the specific function that the guarantee plays in consumer sales transactions, which is distinct from the function assumed in other categories of sales. Under commercial sales a guarantee by the producer is often coupled with a reduction of the buyer’s rights against the seller. Consumer sales, on the other hand, are to a large extent governed by rules of a mandatory character, and the guarantee cannot influence (in a negative way) the rights of the buyer. At the same time, guarantees, used as marketing tools aiming at tying the consumer to a particular brand, may very often mislead the consumer as to his actual rights. It may lead to a situation where, instead of improving the position of the consumer, a guarantee actually impairs it.
Obligations of the lessee
Authors: Lilleholt Kåre , Victorin† Anders , Fötschl Andreas , Konow Berte-Elen R , Meidell Andreas , Tørum Amund Bjøranger
Published: November 2023

Article 5:101: Obligation to pay rent The lessee must pay the rent that is fixed by or determinable from the terms agreed by the parties or from II. – 9:103. The rent accrues from the start of the lease period. Comments Reference to the contract and default rules The contract Normally, the parties have agreed on the rent to be paid. The rent may be agreed as an amount for the entire lease period. More often though the rent is agreed as an amount per interval of time (rent per hour, day, month, etc.). In some cases the amount to be paid is not spelt out in the contract, but can be determined via a reference to price lists etc. In particular for long term leases, there may be rent regulation clauses of various kinds, for example a clause allowing one or each of the parties a right to claim adjustments to rent based on an index. Default rule Occasionally, the rent cannot be determined from the contract, even if it is agreed that a rent is to be paid. In such cases the rent must be determined by the rules in II. – 9:104 (Determination of price). If the rent cannot be determined from agreed terms, from any other applicable rule of law or from pertinent usages and practices, “the price payable is the price normally charged in comparable circumstances at the time of the conclusion of the contract or, if no such price is available, a reasonable price”. Often there will be no sharp distinction between the agreement and the pertinent usages and practices established by the parties, or between common usages and practices and the rent normally charged (“market price”). If the rent cannot be determined from such criteria, the lessee must pay a rent that is reasonable. According to the Definitions, what is “reasonable” is to “be objectively ascertained, having regard to the nature and purpose of what is being done, to the circumstances of the case and to any relevant usages and practices”. Hence there is a certain overlap between reasonableness and the guidance that can be garnered from usages and practices.
Introduction
Authors: De Cat CéCile
Published: November 2023

In spite of decades of research on French, certain aspects of spoken French are still, surprisingly, poorly understood. Dislocations fall into this category. Their pervasive use is one of the distinctive traits of spoken French. In these constructions, an XP appears in the left- or the right-periphery of the sentence and is usually resumed by an element inside it. In (1.1a), for instance, the left-dislocated DP is coindexed with an object clitic. In (1.1b), there is a right-dislocated DP coindexed with a subject clitic and a second right-dislocated element (a PP) coindexed with the ‘possessor’ in the first dislocated element.1
Interpretation
Authors: De Cat CéCile
Published: November 2023

It is uncontroversial that the essential function of conversation is to exchange information and that speaker and hearer cooperate to that effect (see e.g. Roberts 1998). Given this, the way we say things depends on what we think our addressee already knows or believes. Put more formally, the information structure of an utterance is ‘the tailoring of [that] utterance by a sender …] that reflects the sender’s hypotheses about the receiver’s assumptions and beliefs and strategies’ (Prince 1981: 224). The module of linguistic competence which determines that sort of encoding and decoding of information is referred to in various ways in the literature, e.g. information structure (Lambrecht 1994), information packaging (Vallduví 1992), f-structure (Erteschik-Shir 1997).
Syntax
Authors: De Cat CéCile
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I will argue that French Dislocation is a unified syntactic phenomenon including both left and right dislocation, regardless of whether it is resumed by a clitic or a non-clitic element. Narrow syntax will be shown to play a minimal role in its derivation: all that is required is the merging of the dislocated element by adjunction to a Discourse Projection (generally a finite TP with root properties). No agreement or feature checking is necessary, hence no syntactic movement of any sort need be postulated. The so-called resumptive element is argued to be a full-fledged pronoun rather than a true syntactic resumptive.
Judgment of Nuremberg
Authors: Schwarzenberger Georg
Published: November 2023

‘We must never forget that the record on which we judge these defendants to-day is the record on which history will judge us to-morrow.’ International Military Tribunal for the Trial of German Major War Criminals has been described as a tribunal of a totally unprecedented character. It has been held that there is no precedent for this Tribunal,¹ and that there is no need for any precedent.² ;e first proposition seems hardly tenable, while the second is based on rather questionable assumptions.
Medication
Authors: Matthews David
Published: November 2023

There are five types of oral medication available: metformin, sulphonylureas, glitazones, acarbose, and meglitinides. The most commonly prescribed first-line medications are metformin, which acts to enhance the effects of insulin, and sulphonylureas, which increase insulin secretion. The main side effects of metformin are nausea and diarrhoea, but these do improve with time and can be reduced by increasing the dose gradually. The main side effect of sulphonylureas is hypoglycaemia. Glitazones are useful if metformin is not tolerated or as a third medication to add to metformin and a sulphonylurea if the blood sugars are not controlled. Acarbose and the meglitinides are useful for controlling post-meal rises in glucose. There are currently three drugs available to aid weight loss, but these must be used in conjunction with diet and exercise.
What care to expect
Authors: Matthews David
Published: November 2023

In the UK, the National Health Service aims to give equal treatment to all regardless of age, gender, ethnicity, religious beliefs, disability, or sexuality. This applies to people with diabetes, although some inequality does still exist.
The first days are the hardest
Authors: Selikowitz Mark
Published: November 2023

The initial period, after your baby is born, is usually the most difficult. Most parents react with shock and dismay on hearing that their new- born baby has Down syndrome. Once over the initial period, the majority of parents cope well with the special challenges of bringing up their child, and gain great pleasure from him or her.
Your child’ s development
Authors: Selikowitz Mark
Published: November 2023

In Down syndrome, development is not only slower than normal, but is also less complete, and your child, in adulthood, will need more help than the average person. Children with Down syndrome also vary in their rate of development, with some developing more slowly and others at a faster rate. We should aim to help each child with Down syndrome develop to his own greatest potential, but we should not attempt to drive a child beyond his capacity.
Your child’ s behaviour
Authors: Selikowitz Mark
Published: November 2023

The behaviour and temperament of people with Down syndrome varies from one person to another, just as it does for people without the syndrome. There are no behaviour problems unique to children with Down syndrome. Behaviour modification is a form of teaching, employed in situations where explanation alone does not succeed. Two statements are often made about the behaviour of children and adults with Down syndrome. One is that they are placid individuals who are easy to manage. The other is that they are strong-willed and difficult to control. The co-existence of two such strong conflicting views reflects the real truth about the behaviour of people with Down syndrome—namely, that it varies markedly from one person to another. Some are placid, some determined, and many fall temperamentally somewhere between these two extremes. Some parents find their children with Down syndrome easier to control than their normal children; others have to cope with a wide range of behaviour problems.
A guide to services
Authors: Selikowitz Mark
Published: November 2023

As the parent of a child with Down syndrome, you will have special needs over and above those of most other parents. Services are continually changing, and it is difficult to keep track of them. You have to keep your eyes open, read advertisements, and talk to other parents. It is often good to have a non-medical professional take on the role of key support person. Such a worker should be easy to contact, approachable, and able to work with the other professionals who are involved with your child’ s care. As the parent of a child with Down syndrome, you will have special needs over and above those of most other parents. It is important to know how to get the most out of services available to your child. Services are continually changing, and it is difficult to keep track of them. You have to keep your eyes open, read advertisements, and talk to other parents. The latter can be particularly helpful with first-hand experience of services they have used. Some local authorities produce excellent guides to services available in their areas. The description in a leaflet or an advertise- ment is often incomplete, however, and it is useful to talk to a professional who has knowledge of local services, and can give you the benefit of his or her experience.
Adolescence
Authors: Selikowitz Mark
Published: November 2023

In most adolescents with Down syndrome, the physical changes of puberty occur at the same age as they do in normal adolescents. In adolescents with Down syndrome the hormonal changes and associated physical and emotional effects occur in a child who is immature intellectually. The adolescent with Down syndrome needs to be taught many everyday skills, and given ample opportunity to practise them.
Special phenomena
Authors: könig Christa
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, some special phenomena that are relevant for a better understanding of the behavior of case in Africa are highlighted. These are in particular tone as a means of case expression (5.1), definiteness as a crucial feature in case marking (5.2), and the rule “no case before the verb”, which is the most important split condition (5.3). Definiteness is important both as a condition for split and as a historical source for case markers. Section 5.4 sheds some light on the emergence of case in the Khoisan languages !Xun and Khwe. Marked nominative is also a phenomenon that belongs here. It has been treated extensively in the preceding chapter but there remain some issues that need to be further discussed, relating to some western Bantu languages which have been claimed to be marked-nominative (section 5.1.1). Most of the topics have already been discussed in previous chapters in some way or other but require further analysis, as we will see below.
Introduction
Authors: Rodin David , Shue Henry
Published: November 2023

Can a soldier be held responsible for fighting in a war that is illegal or unjust? This is the question at the heart of a new debate that has the potential to profoundly change our understanding of the moral and legal status of warriors, wars, and indeed of moral agency itself. The debate pits a widely shared and legally endorsed conviction about war—that combatants have equal rights and responsibilities irrespective of whether they are fighting in a war that is just or unjust—against a set of striking new arguments. These arguments challenge the idea that there is a separation between the rules governing the justice of going to war (the jus ad bellum) and the rules governing what combatants can do in war (the jus in bello). If ad bellum and in bello rules are connected in the way these new arguments suggest, then many aspects of just war theory and laws of war would have to be rethought and perhaps reformed.
A Presumption of the Moral Equality of Combatants: A Citizen-Soldier’s Perspective
Authors: Zupan Dan
Published: November 2023

I have started and restarted this chapter it seems like a million times. The moral equality of combatants (MEC) is a just war principle whose legitimacy I have assumed probably since I began thinking about just war theory many years ago. Now I am not so confident of its plausibility, much less its legitimacy. Nonetheless, after considering the issue from many sides, and considering the very powerful arguments of those theorists who question MEC, I still feel there is something to say in favour of MEC and that the jus in bello/jus ad bellum distinction provides some reason to believe that combatants on any side of a war are moral equals (provided they fight in accordance with the laws of war, a notion that itself requires clarification but is not the focus of this chapter). So I want to discuss a couple of ideas, ways of looking at MEC, that make its legitimacy seem plausible.
The Principle of Equal Application of the Laws of War
Authors: Roberts Adam
Published: November 2023

The principle that the rules relating to the conduct of armed conflict should apply equally to all belligerents in an armed conflict, regardless of its causes and the issues at stake in it, is always under contestation. This principle comes under particular stress when wars are fought on the basis of highly moralistic rhetoric. In many contemporary wars the claim is made—sometimes on both sides—that the conflict is not about the pursuit of interest or of limited goals, but should be seen as a struggle of world-historical importance; as a war between right and wrong; as a fight against adversaries who violate both the law about resort to force and the law about the conduct of war; or as having humanitarian or transformative purposes so fundamental that they may on occasion take priority even over foundational rules of international law such as the non-intervention principle.
What is chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS/ME)?
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

As ‘fatigue’ forms part of the medical name, it seems sensible to talk about that first. People often mean different things when they talk about fatigue. They may mean:
Introduction to self-help
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

The fact that there is as yet no single identified cause or proven medical cure for CFS/ME does not mean that there is nothing that can be done about the condition. For a start, your doctor may be able to help you with symptom relief and perhaps refer you to other health professionals who can assist you in your quest for improvement.
Dealing with problems
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

We all face difficulties and problems in our lives, and being ill can create a new batch to go with the ones you had before. At every stage of your illness things change; some problems get easier, but new ones crop up—even getting better can cause some problems! Managing problems in the best way is very much part of managing your illness and giving yourself the best chance of improvement.
Managing relationships and people
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

Being ill often changes relationships. Even the best relationships can be put under strain, and one that was a little rocky to begin with may become very difficult. You may be grieving for the past, for your lost job perhaps or the things that you cannot do now. However, people close to you may also have lost by your illness. A carer may have had to have taken on the responsibility of housework or earning the money, and have had to give up a lot of things they previously enjoyed on their own or with you. Their grief needs to be acknowledged too. You may feel that they are not caring enough; they may feel that you are asking too much. There may be resentment on both sides.
Public Service Motivation and Ethical Conduct
Authors: Maesschalck Jeroen , Wal Zeger van der , Huberts Leo
Published: November 2023

Our goal in this chapter is to bring together and synthesize two research traditions on topics that, so far, have been studied separately, even though they are in many aspects interrelated and perhaps even interdependent: ‘public service motivation’ and ‘organizational ethics’. Although some studies attempt to combine both topics of research (Brewer & Selden, 1998; Choi, 2004), they are the exception rather than the rule. Drawing from the broader literature on organizational ethics, we hope to contribute to the understanding of public service motivation with additional insights on which values public sector employees embrace and espouse, and how these relate to antecedents of ethical conduct. Because the literature on organizational ethics is very broad, we limit ourselves primarily to research on ethics in public service organizations.
Nota Government Monopoly: The Private, Nonprofit, Voluntary Sectors
Authors: Steen Trui
Published: November 2023

The concept of public service motivation relates to the claim that public service is a special calling and that people working in public service differ from people working in other sectors (Perry & Wise, 1990). This chapter discusses the broad relevance of the public service motivation concept and its utility outside the government sector. The first section argues that, even assuming that public service-motivated individuals are more likely to work in public and nonprofit organizations, they will also work in the private sector. The second section discusses differences in public service motivation among public and nonprofit staff and volunteers. The third section looks at public service motivation in the private sector and discusses ways in which highly public service-motivated employees in commercial settings can act in accord with their motivations. We examine how the organization affects behavior when employees perceive the organizational culture to support public service motivation, as well as when the organization is perceived as not fitting one’s prevailing public service values.
Parliamentary Elites of New European Party Families: Unsuccessful Challenges or Chaotic Signs of Change?
Authors: Tronconi Filippo , Verzichelli Luca
Published: November 2023

In the logic of a long-term comparative analysis of parliamentary elite transformations in Europe, the study of political and sociological profiles of green, “new left/alternative left”, and ethno-regionalist MPs could be considered as a “residual” exercise, given the limited size of such political elites and their relatively short historical impact.
Introduction
Authors: Hill Henrietta , Kenyon Richard
Published: November 2023

Books on discrimination tend to tell you what the law says. They either relate to one of the six ‘strands’ of discrimination (sex, race, disability, sexual orientation, religion or belief and age) or alternatively cover discrimination more generally but with chapters on each strand of discrimination. We have aimed to make the approach of this book different in three respects:

• first, we take a practical task-based approach with pragmatic guidance, checklists and examples. By taking a task-based approach, we are able to explain, for example, how to carry out a recruitment process from advertising the post, through selection and interview to appointment, ensuring that the process is compliant with all discrimination legislation and best practice.
The Legal Framework
Authors: Hill Henrietta , Kenyon Richard
Published: November 2023

The aspirational legal promise of equality and the enjoyment of rights without 2.01 discrimination can be traced back, at least, to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948. However, the attempts to give legal effect in the British workplace to the general objective of non-discriminatory treatment have been faltering, and, at times, confused. The structure of discrimination law in Britain is—at least until the much-anticipated Single Equality Bill becomes a reality—not so much a clear framework as a rambling patchwork.
Recruitment and Promotion
Authors: Hill Henrietta , Kenyon Richard
Published: November 2023

Both recruitment and promotion are essential to the promotion of equality and diversity, dealing as they do, respectively, with entry and progress in employment and the rewards that follow. The equality enactments for each strand make it unlawful for an employer to discriminate against a person in the arrangements it makes for, amongst other things, recruitment and promotion. We have chosen to put recruitment and promotion together into one chapter as they share many of the same characteristics, in particular the selection of an appropriate candidate to take a particular job.
Handling Requests for Information and Grievances
Authors: Hill Henrietta , Kenyon Richard
Published: November 2023

The ‘Handling Customer Complaints’ section of a particular international restaurant chain’s employee manual suggests that only one in ten diners complain if they are dissatisfied with their meal or the service they have received: the other nine pay their bill and never return. A complaint is therefore seen by that company as an opportunity to rescue a failing relationship. Translating that principle to the employment context, an employee grievance represents an opportunity to resolve an issue that might otherwise result in morale and staff retention problems or, in extreme cases, stress and sickness and ultimately litigation.
The Equality and Human Rights Commission and a Single Equality Act: The Future?
Authors: Hill Henrietta , Kenyon Richard
Published: November 2023

As this book goes to print, the British discrimination law landscape continues to be in a state of flux: the EHRC, formerly known as the CEHR, is beginning its role; and promise of a Single Equality Act, which would provide a more accessible and consistent source of discrimination legislation, appears closer than ever. In this chapter we consider these developments and offer our thoughts on the road ahead.

Established by section 1 of the EA this new body corporate takes on the work of the dissolved former commissions (the CRE, EOC and DRC) with additional responsibilities in relation to the three newer strands of discrimination (sexual orientation, religion or belief and age) and human rights.
Asthma
Authors: Jackson Mark
Published: November 2023

Asthma is a familiar and growing disease today, but its story goes back to the ancient world, as we know from accounts in ancient texts from China, India, Greece and Rome. It was treated with acupuncture and Ayurveda. As Western medicine developed, the nature of asthma became clearer, and its basis in the lungs recognized. But cultural perceptions of the disease shifted too. By the 18th century, with recognition that the disease was centred on the lungs, the idea of environmental triggers such as dust and smoke first became recognized. And with that, asthma also became identified as a disease of artisans. Things changed again in the 19th century, as medical understanding grew with the advent of the stethoscope and new techniques such as percussion of the chest. New treatments included the promotion of mountain spas, for asthma now rose in social status, and became associated with the upper classes and the literati. For Marcel Proust and Charles Dickens, asthma shaped their lives and their creativity. From early in the 20th century, the idea of asthma as an allergic disease became established, and the search for environmental causes was on. Hay fever was closely linked, and pharmaceutical companies began to make antihistamines, anti-inflammatories and bronchodilators. Asthma sufferers were warned to beware of pets, simplify their furnishings, and take holidays by the sea far from pollens. But a newly emerging concept was that attacks could be triggered by stress and psychological factors. With musicians such as Schoenberg and Berg as celebrity sufferers, the idea of asthma as an élite disease persisted. In recent years, attitudes have changed again, as incidences of asthma grew dramatically across the world, especially among the young. The disease has now become closely linked to modern lifestyles and the many products of civilization. The battle against house-dust mites began, and whole new lines of anti-allergenic products and foods were launched - asthma has proved highly lucrative over the years. But the disease has remained fashionable, even becoming the theme of several pop songs. Asthma: the biography is part of the Oxford series, Biographies of Diseases, edited by William and Helen Bynum. In each individual volume an expert historian of medicine tells the story of a particular disease or condition throughout history - not only in terms of growing medical understanding of its nature and cure, but also shifting social and cultural attitudes, and changes in the meaning of the name of the disease itself.
Asthma Redefined
Authors: Jackson Mark
Published: November 2023

In 1552, the apparent superiority of new Italian modes of learning and investigation were adroitly demonstrated by the celebrated physician and mathematician Girolamo Cardano (1501–76). During the 1540s and early 1550s, John Hamilton (1511–71), the Roman Catholic archbishop of St Andrews who was a member of one of the most powerful families in Scotland and a prominent architect of church reform, had developed an increasingly severe and recalcitrant form of asthma, characterized by a cough, expectoration, and shortness of breath.
Using language
Authors: Blake Barry J
Published: November 2023

While it is true that language serves to exchange and accumulate information, another pervasive function is to maintain harmony or cohesion between people, or simply to put one human in touch with another. Where relations between people are cordial, talk is exchanged, and failure to talk or to respond to talk can be quite upsetting. People who feel that someone in their group has betrayed them, may ‘send them to Coventry’, that is, refuse to talk to them. Some strict religious groups will ‘shun’ a member who fails to live up to the required code of behaviour.
Phonology
Authors: Blake Barry J
Published: November 2023

Speech sounds are regularly affected by neighbouring sounds. We described[n] as an alveolar nasal and[l] as an alveolar lateral, but in words like tenth or plinth the[n] will be dental and in words like health and wealth the[l] will be dental. The th-sound[y] is dental and the tongue anticipates the dental position in making the preceding[n] or[l]. It would be hard not to do this. It is difficult to detect any difference in sound between a dental and an alveolar nasal or lateral, but you can trying saying tent slowly and feel where your tongue goes, and then try saying tenth and feel where your tongue goes.
The International Judge
Authors: Terris Daniel , Romano Cesare P R , Swigart Leigh
Published: November 2023

Over the last century, international courts, once reserved for arcane matters of diplomacy and trade, have begun to address a broad range of human experience and activity. This volume corrects some of the common misperceptions about international judges, while providing a balanced introduction to both the strengths and shortcomings of their work. As they rule on crucial issues of war and peace, human rights, and trade, in addition to high-profile criminal trials, international judges are playing a critical role in developments that will affect world affairs for years to come. Based on interviews with more than 30 international judges, this volume is the first comprehensive portrait of the men and women in this new global profession. The working environment of international judges is closely examined in courts around the world, highlighting the challenge of carrying out work in multiple languages, in the context of intricate bureaucratic hierarchies, and with a necessary interdependence between judges and their courts' administration. Arguing that international judges have to balance their responsibilities as interpreters of the law and as global professionals, the authors discuss the challenges of working in the fluid circumstances of international courts. Profiles of five individual judges provide insight into the experience and dilemmas of the men and women on the international bench.