bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Comorbidity of migraine and somatic diseases
Authors: Martinovic Zarko , Buder Nevenka , Velickovic Ruzica , Milovanovic Maja
Published: July 2006

Introduction A 5-year prospective follow-up study was performed at the Institute of Mental Health in Belgrade, and it included adult patients diagnosed with migraine. Material and methods A protocol for prospective fallow-up of comorbiditiy of migraine and somatic diseases was designed, whereas data were analyzed using standard statistical methods. Results The study comprised 381 patients, mean age 35.8 (range 19-60) years, 60 (15.8%) males and 321 (84,2%) females. The mean duration of migraine history before the first visit to the doctor was 7.7 (0-36) years. There was no concomitant disease in 50.5% of examinees. The most common concomitant diseases in the study population were: spondylosis (15.9%), head injury (12.9%), gynecological disorders (11.6% of female subgroup), hypotension (8.8%), hypertension (8.5%), allergy and asthma (5.8%), various cardiovascular diseases (4%) and epilepsy (3%). The incidence of the majority of diseases is in accordance with known epidemiological data for general population (except for head injury and epilepsy). In the subgroup of patients with comorbidity, almost 70% of patients reported more than one migraine attack per month, compared to 35% of patients without concomitant diseases, and about 60% of them had a higher intensity of headache in comparison with 35% of those without comorbidity. Conclusion Present results indicate an increased severity of migraine attacks in patients with comorbidity. Therefore, it is necessary to assess how good management of comorbid diseases can alleviate the course and intensity of migraine headaches.
Dysphagia aortica: Case report
Authors: Jovancevic Ljiljana , Jovic Rajko , Mitrovic Slobodan
Published: July 2006

Introduction Dysphagia aortica is a swallowing condition caused by external compression of the esophagus due to aortic aneurysm or atherosclerotic changes affecting the aorta. The case report on this rare cause of dysphagia should contribute to better diagnosis of dysphagia aortica and swallowing difficulties in general. Case report A 63-year-old male patient was hospitalized duo to a four month history of intermittent swallowing difficulties. Chest radiography showed a widened mediastinum and an enlarged aortic arch. Rigid esophagus endoscopy was done in general endotracheal anesthesia. At 28 cm from the upper incisors, a difficulty in passing the endoscope appeared, revealing an external compression as a probable cause, since the whole esophagus had no intraluminal pathological changes. Contrast esophagography revealed an aortic aneurysm. The esophagus had a normal lumen width, wall tension and elasticity, and smooth contours. After cardiovascular examination and magnetic resonance imaging, a giant aneurysm of the aortic arch was diagnosed. Discussion Patients with dysphagia aortica as well as patients with any other swallowing difficulties should be managed by multidisciplinary "dysphagia team". The team should include an otorhinolaryngologist, neurologist, radiologist, gastroenterologist, surgeon, dietitian, speech and language therapist and specially trained nurses. Conclusion Aneurysm of the thoracic aorta is a very rare cause of dysphagia. Mild to moderate symptoms can be in great disproportion with the severe condition which causes them.
Cataract as a leading cause of visual disability and blindness in the region of Eastern Sarajevo and Eastern Herzegovina
Authors: Ceklic Lala , Latinovic Slobodanka , Aleksic Petar
Published: July 2006

Introduction Cataract is the second leading cause of blindness and visual disability in the region of Eastern Herzegovina and Eastern Sarajevo. It is a curable and preventable cause of blindness, because visual function can be surgically recovered. The aim of our study was to determine the frequency of cataract among registered blind population. .Material and methods We used data stored in the Regional Association of Blind Persons from municipalities of Eastern Herzegovina (Trebinje, Kileca, Foca) and Eastern Sarajevo. In this population-based study data were analyzed using standard statistical methods. We have investigated sex and age distribution, visual acuity and type of cataract in the registered population. Results Among 298 registered blind persons and persons with visual disability, 17% are persons with cataract Males are more frequent than women. Most people with cataract are older than on and are with age-related cataract. Discussion and conclusion Literature data show that cataract is one of the leading causes of blindness and visual disability in the world. Cataract is the second leading cause of visual disability and blindness in the registered population of Eastern Herzegovina. The total number of people with visual disability caused by cataract would decrease by increasing the number of surgeries, which correlates with improving the quality and training of ophthalmologists.
Accuracy of ultrasonic fetal weight estimation using head and abdominal circumference and femur length
Authors: Mladenovic-Segedi Ljiljana , Segedi Dimitrije
Published: July 2006

Introduction Former investigations have shown that the accuracy of fetal weight estimation is significantly higher if several ultrasonic fe?tal parameters are measured, because the total body mass depends on the size of fetal head, abdominal circumference and femur length. The aim of this investigation was to establish the best regression model, that is a number of combinations of fetal parameters providing the most accurate fetal weight estimation in utero in our population. Material and methods This prospective study was carried out at the Gynecology and Obstetrics Clinic of the Clinical Center Novi Sad. It included 270 pregnant women with singleton pregnancies within 72 hours of delivery who underwent ultrasound measurements of the biparietal diameter (BPD), head circumference (HC), ab?dominal circumference (AC) and femur length (FL). Results In regard to fetal weight estimation formulas, the deviation was lowest using regression models that simultaneously analyzed four fetal parameters (0.55%) with SD ?7.61%. In these models the estimates of fetal weights were within ?5% of actual birth weight in 48.89%, and within ?10% of actual birth weight in 81.48%. Good results were also obtained using AC, FL measurements (0.92% ? 8.20) as well as using AC, HC, FL measurements (-1.45% ? 7.81). In our sample the combination of AC and FL model gave better results in fetal weight estimation (0.92 ? 8.20%) than the one using BPD and AC (2.97 ? 8.83%). Furthermore, the model using parameters AC, HC and FL showed a lower error in accuracy (-1.45 ? 7.81%) than the model using BPD, AC and FL (2.51 ? 7.82%). Conclusion This investigation has confirmed that the accuracy of fetal weight estimation increases with the number of measured ultra?sonic fetal parameters. In our population the greatest accuracy was obtained using BPD, HC, AC and FL model. In cases when fast estimation of fetal weight is needed, AC, HC, FL model may be appropriate, but if fetal head circumference cannot be measured (amnion rupture and/or fetal head already in the pelvis) the AC, FL model should be used.
Residual renal function and nutritional status in patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis
Authors: Jovanovic Natasa , Lausevic Mirjana , Stojimirovic Biljana
Published: July 2006

Introduction During the last years, an increasing number of patients with end-stage renal failure caused by various underlying diseases, all over the world, is treated by renal replacement therapy. Nutritional status Malnutrition is often found in patients affected by renal failure; it is caused by reduced intake of nutritional substances due to anorexia and dietary restrictions hormonal and metabolic disorders, comorbid conditions and loss of proteins, amino-acids, and vitamins during the dialysis procedure itself. Nutritional status significantly affects the outcome of patients on chronic dialysis treatment. Recent epiodemiological trials have proved that survival on chronic continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis program depends more on residual renal function (RRF) than on peritoneal clearances of urea and creatinine. Material and methods The aim of the study was to analyze the influence of RRF on common biochemical and anthropometric markers of nutrition in 32 patients with end-stage renal failure with various underlying diseases during the first 6 months on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). The mean residual creatinine clearance was 8,3 ml/min and the mean RRF was 16,24 week in our patients at the beginning of the chronic peritoneal dialysis treatment. Results and conclusion During the follow-up, the RRF slightly decreased, while the nutritional status of patients significantly improved. Gender and age, as well as the leading disease and peritonitis didn't influence the RRF during the first 6 months of CAPD treatment. We found several positive correlations between RRF and laboratory and anthropometric markers of nutrition during the follow-up, proving the positive influence of RRF on nutritional status of patients on chronic peritoneal dialysis.
Leading causes of blindness and visual impairment in the region of Eastern Herzegovina
Authors: Ceklic Lala , Latinovic Slobodanka , Aleksic Petar
Published: July 2006

Introduction. Visual impairment and blindness are serious social and health problems in the world. 1992 classification of visual disorders by World Health Organization has recently been implemented. The goal of this study was to determine common causes of visual impairment and blindness in the region of Eastern Herzegovina. Material and methods. In this population based study we have analyzed medical records stored in the regional Association of Visually Impaired and Blind Persons of the Republic of Srpska (Trebinje, Bileca, Foca, Eastern Sarajevo). The analysis included sex and age distribution of registered population, classification and leading causes of visual disability and blindness. Results. There are 298 registered persons with visual disability and blindness in the region of Eastern Herzegovina and Eastern Sarajevo. The prevalence of visual impairment and blindness in the aforementioned region is 0.1%. Among the studied population, there are more males than females with visual disability or blindness (56% versus 44%). Most (78%) of registered persons are blind, and only 22% are visually impaired. 43% of registered population are in the IV category and only 8.38% are registered in the II category. Only 2% of registered population are children. Common causes of visual disability and blindness in the region of Eastern Herzegovina are: glaucoma (22%), cataract (17%), myopia alta (13%), diabetic retinopathy (12%) and ocular trauma (11%). Common causes of children's visual impairment include: optic nerve anomalies, congenital cataract and premature retinopathy. Discussion and conclusion Compared with literature data, common causes of blindness and visual impairment in the region of Eastern Herzegovina do not differ significantly from those in other regions. Registration is based on the WHO model, but it is possible only by performing active epidemiological studies. .
Avian influenza viruses - new causative a gents of human infections
Authors: Hrnjakovic-Cvjetkovic Ivana , Cvjetkovic Dejan , Jerant-Patic Vera , Milosevic Vesna , Tadic-Radovanov Jelena , Kovacevic Gordana
Published: July 2006

Introduction. Influenza A viruses can infect humans, some mammals and especially birds. Subtypes of human influenza A viruses: ACH1N1), ACH2N2) and A(H3N2) have caused pandemics. Avian influenza viruses vary owing to their 15 hemagglutinins (H) and 9 neuraminidases (N). Human cases of avian influenza A In the Netherlands in 2003, there were 83 human cases of influenza A (H7N7). In 1997, 18 cases of H5N1 influenza A, of whom 6 died, were found among residents of Hong Kong. In 2004, 34 human cases (23 deaths) were reported in Viet Nam and Thailand. H5N1 virus-infected patients presented with fever and respiratory symptoms. Complications included respiratory distress syndrome, renal failure, liver dysfunction and hematologic disorders. Since 1999, 7 cases of human influenza H9N2 infection have been identified in China and Hong Kong. The importance of human infection with avian influenza viruses. H5N1 virus can directly infect humans. Genetic reassortment of human and avian influenza viruses may occur in humans co infected with current human A(HIN1) or A(H3N2) subtypes and avian influenza viruses. The result would be a new influenza virus with pandemic potential. All genes of H5Nl viruses isolated from humans are of avian origin. Prevention and control. The reassortant virus containing H and N from avian and the remaining proteins from human influenza viruses will probably be used as a vaccine strain. The most important control measures are rapid destruction of all infected or exposed birds and rigorous disinfection of farms. Individuals exposed to suspected animals should receive prophylactic treatment with antivirals and annual vaccination. .
The correlation between lifestyle and lipid profile
Authors: Mirjanic-Azaric Bosa , Djeric Mirjana , Vrhovac Maja , Sukalo Dusanka
Published: July 2006

Introduction. The aim of this study was to estimate if negative lifestyle habits such as alcohol consumption, smoking and physical inactivity affect the lipid profile values. Material and methods. The study included 250 workers on regular examination in the Gradiska Health Center in the period from 2001 to 2002. There were 113 (45.2%) men and 137 (54.8%) women. The examinees were divided into three groups according age (25-39, 40-49 and 50-60 respectively). Standard laboratory methods were used to establish the following: total cholesterol, triglyceride and HDL-cholesterol level, LDL cholesterol, atherosclerosis index (AI) and total cholesterol/HDL cholesterol. Results Using a questionnaire, we have found out that out of 250 examinees 48.80% consume alcohol regularly, 50.80% are smokers and 36% are physically. The mean total cholesterol was high in all groups and it was 6.41 mmol/l. The mean triglyceride level was 1.88 mmol/l and mean HDL cholesterol was 1.48 mmol/l, I A was 2.99 and total cholesterol/HDL cholesterol ratio was 4.69. Statistical analysis showed that there was a statistically significant relationship between triglyceride values and alcohol consumption, smoking and physical activity (p<0.05). Also, we showed that there was a statistically high relationship between HDL cholesterol values, AJ, total cholesterol/HDL cholesterol and smoking in the examined groups (p<0.01). Discussion In our study the lipid profile parameters were above the desired levels, probably due to unhealthy lifestyle, including smoking, alcohol consumption and insufficient physical activity. Our results are in concordance with the results of similar studies. Conclusion It is of utmost importance to take steps to improve lifestyle habits of our population.
Morphometric and immunohistochemical patterns of duodenal CCK-cells in rats with portacaval shunts
Authors: Radosavljevic Tatjana , Todorovic Vera , Vucevic Danijela , Sikic Branka
Published: July 2006

Introduction. End-to-side portacaval shunt (PCS) performed in rats is an appropriate experimental model of chronic liver insufficiency. Functional hepatic injury followed by numerous metabolic and endocrine disorders develops, as well. Due to impaired functional hepatic activity in PCS and to the well known role of the liver in CCK metabolism and elimination, delayed CCK blood?stream elimination may be responsible for increased CCK-A receptor activity. Therefore, we investigated immunohistochemical and morphometric features of duodenal CCK-cells in rats with PCS. Material and methods. Male Wistar rats (180-250g body weight) were used in this experiment. The animals were divided into two groups: PCS-animals (experimental group (n=27) which undenvent an operation) and C-unoperated animals [control group (n=11)]. Surgical technique End-to-side portacaval anastomosis was created using the technique of Lee and Fisher, modified by Bismuth el al. Eight weeks after the operation, animals were sacrificed. Pancreatic and hepatic weights were measured and samples taken from appropriate segments of the small intestine were used for morphometric and immunohistochemical CCK-cells determination. Immunohistochemical technique Peroxidase-antiperoxidase (PAP) technique described by Stenberger was applied for detection of intestinal CCK-immunoreactive cells. Results. Our results indicate that eight weeks after operation liver weight was reduced in animals with PCS compared to control animals (p<0.01). To the contrary, in comparasion with control animals, the pancreatic wight was increased (p<0.01). In the exocrine pancreas of rats with PCS there were lipid droplets and hypertrophy of the acinus cells. The morphometric analysis of CCK-immunoreactive cells in different small intestine segments indicates that in the duodenum of animals with PCS there was a significant cell increase compared to control, unoperated animals. Conclusion. In liver cirrhosis, plasma CCK-8 concentration increases. In PCS, performed in rats, as an experimental model of chronic liver insufficiency, proliferation of CCK-cells in the small intestine leads to pancreatic hypertrophy and hyperplasia. .
The concept and importance of medical law
Authors: Jakovljevic Branislava , Segedi Dimitrije
Published: July 2006

Introduction. Medical law is a scientific discipline which has not been affirmed in our country, but at law schools in many developed countries it has gained the status of a separate scientific discipline and today it is studied with multidisciplinary cooperation of Schools of Medicine, Schools of Dentistry and Schools of Pharmacy. Generally speaking, medical law concerns the rights and duties of the medical profession. Ethics and legal questions of medical law. The progress of scientific research and of new technology used in diagnostics and treatment, opens new fields in terms of responsibility. Most European countries have legal institutions in the field of health care. These include laws and legal acts, as well as codification of professional norms. Law concerning physicians. Apart from the national law, there is also an international law concerning physisians. The World Health Organization and the World Association of Medical Doctors brought the following declarations: Declaration on Promotion of Patients' Rights, the Revised Lisbon Declaration on Patients' Rights, the Revised Helsinki Declaration on Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects and the Council of Europe's Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine. Conclusion. There is no national order of physicians in Serbia and Montenegro, because chambers of physisians with legal authority and mandatory membership have not been formed. The foundation of Chambers of Physicians of Vojvodina and Montenegro is the first step to goal achieving. .
The role of increased levels of homocysteine in the development of cardiovascular diseases
Authors: Ceperkovic Zoran
Published: July 2006

Introduction. Homocysteine is a sulphur amino acid produced by demethylation of the essential amino acid methionine. Dysfunction of certain enzymes or insufficient intake of nutrients may cause increase of intracellular homocysteine, which is then exported into plasma. Etiopathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases accompanied with higher level of homocysteine. McCully's theory suggests that high levels of homocysteine are associated with cardiovascular diseases, arteriosclerosis and endothelial dysfunction. Harmful effects of homocysteine are associated with LDL cholesterol oxidation, increased production of collagen, lower availability of nitric oxide as well as prothrombotic activity. Reduction of homocysteine levels. The most recent researches show that hyperhomocysteinemia is responsible for about 10% of total risk of cardiovascular diseases. Vitamin BJ2 plays a major role in the remethylation of homocysteine. Reducing the homocysteine concentration in blood by 3 mol/l (with daily intake of 0.8 mg of folic acid) reduces the risk of ishemic heart diseases by 16%, vein thrombosis by 25%, and stroke by 24%. A six-month therapy with folic acid (Img/d), vitamin B12 (400g/d) and vitamin B6 (10mg/d), reduces the frequency of cardiovascular occurrences after successful PTCA. Plasma homocysteine concentration over 12/1 doubles the risk of myocardial infarction. Conclusion. A lack of folates, vitamin B6 and vitamin B12 increases the level of homocysteine and thus increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Changes in lifestyle and diet, as well as intake of food supplements, are of great importance in reducing homocysteine levels in plasma and therefore in reducing the occurrence and acceleration of arteriosclerosis. .
On the mass distribution of stars in the solar neighborhood
Authors: Ninkovic S. , Trajkovska V.
Published: July 2006

The present authors analyze samples consisting of Hipparcos stars. Based on the corresponding HR diagrams they estimate masses of Main-Sequence stars from their visual magnitudes. They find that already beyond the heliocentric radius of 10 pc the effects of observational selection against K and M dwarfs become rather strong. For this reason the authors are inclined to think that the results concerning this heliocentric sphere appear as realistic, i. e. the fraction of low-mass stars (under half solar mass) is about 50% and, as a consequence, the mean star mass should be about 0.6 solar masses and Agekyan's factor about 1.2. That stars with masses higher than 5 M? are very rare is confirmed also from the data concerning more remote stars. It seems that white dwarfs near the Sun are not too frequent so that their presence cannot affect the main results of the present work significantly.
Antimicrobial activity of root canal sealers
Authors: Vujaskovic Mirjana , Radosavljevic Branka
Published: July 2006

All root canal sealers should have antimicrobial activity so that they could act against any remaining bacteria after root canal obturation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of five root canal sealers: AH26, a resin based paste; Apexit, calcium hydroxide based paste; Endomethasone and Tubliseal, zinc oxide eugenol based materials and Ketac Endo Aplicap, glass ionomer based sealer. Matherials And Methods: Antimicrobial activity was tested against S. mutans 70C and L.casei ATCC 27773 using ADT (agar diffusion inhibitory test) on TYC SB, blood and MRS agars. Freshly prepared paste or cement was placed in grooves of 4 mm in diameter in agar plates. Prepared agar plates were incubated at 37?C in GAS PAC system for 24hours. The antimicrobial effect was determined according to the diameter of growth inhibition zone around tested materials. Three measurements were done for each material and values were recorded in millimeters. Statistical analysis was done using Mann Whitney test. The results confirmed that epoxy resin and zinc oxide eugenol based sealers had the greatest antimicrobial effect. Calcium hydroxide and glass ionomer based sealers showed significantly lower antimicrobial activity compared to AH26, Endomethasone and Tubliseal. Conclusion: The greatest antimicrobial activity was found for epoxy resin based sealer (AH26) for both tested microorganisms.
The identity of an underachiever student as an outcome of social relations
Authors: Milosevic Nikoleta
Published: July 2006

The paper deals with various performance factors in underachiever students primarily juvenile delinquents who reported declining levels of achievement throughout the duration of corrective out-of-institution measures. This raises the question: Why is there a decline in school achievement of juvenile delinquents during the treatment which is essentially aimed at improving school performance. What causes this? In the search for an answer we considered various approaches for the determination of the identity of a juvenile delinquent, underaching at school. The author takes issue with traditional views on identity and changes the focus from an individual over to the interaction between an individual and society. It is argued that poor school performance should be placed in the context of social relations; the author suggests that problems faced by underachievers at school only accidentally stem from what they can or cannot do, rather, the root of the problem lies in the manner other people relate to them. It is necessary that a teacher should realize that students are social beings in behavioral experiments who have individualities and that their personal characteristics stem from their relations with other people. A teacher is expected to attempt to construct the manner in which a student views himself and the world around himself, that is, to enter a "role relationship" with him.
Economic Aspects of a European Union
Authors: Haberler Gottfried
Published: July 2006

The idea of a European political and economic union is more popular and is being taken more seriously in the United States than in Europe. The American attitude has been well expressed in the “Declaration of Policy” of “The Foreign Assistance Act of 1948” by which Congress enacted the European Recovery Program. One section of that act reads:
Strategy as a Science
Authors: Brodie Bernard
Published: July 2006

THE recent resignations from posts of high civil authority or ceremonial rank of former military officers will no doubt allay somewhat the suspicions current a year or more ago that the military were “moving in” where they did not belong. Although the original appointment to civil posts of such men as Generals George C. Marshall and Walter B. Smith was hardly due to design on the part of the armed services, being quite easily and plausibly explained on other and quite innocuous grounds, the military departments unquestionably do have a greater influence upon high policy decisions than was true before the recent war. It is therefore time to express concern not so much that that military will move in where they do not belong, but rather that in the process of moving in where in part, at least, they do belong, their advice will reflect their imperfections not as diplomatists but as soldiers.
American Security and Access to Raw Materials
Authors: Mason Edward S.
Published: July 2006

The foreign policy of the United States appears to have two primary political objectives: the maintenance of peace, if possible; and, if this becomes impossible, the maximization of military effort against its enemies. This duality of purpose raises a number of perplexing questions. If we could assume with Clausewitz that the making or avoidance of war simply involves a choice between means—the endbeing given—, then these questions would disappear. As it is, we have to recognize that in fact the pursuit of peace may well involve actions which tend to diminish United States military potential and that attempts to maximize military potential may well increase the possibility of war. Under these circumstances only a compromise solution seems sensible. We must consider best how peace may be maintained, but be ready to reject those methods which would leave the United States defenseless in the event that war cannot be avoided.
Political Struggle in Bureaucratic Societies
Authors: Eisenstadt S. N.
Published: July 2006

THE purpose of this article is to analyze in a preliminary way some of the basic sociological problems of bureaucratic political systems—legitimation, autonomy, and political struggle. For reasons which will be specified later—not least among them, reasons of space—we shall limit our discussion to pre-modern, historical societies, such as the ancient empires (especially the Egyptian), the Byzantine, Chinese, and Ottoman Empires, and some of the European countries in the age of absolutism. By way of introduction, we shall endeavor to discern some common characteristics in all these political systems, and the main differences among them; and then inquire into some of the sociological conditions that are related to both the common features and the chief differences.
Varieties of Worldly Wisdom
Authors: Manning C. A. W.
Published: July 2006

The English and American ways of life have more than a little in common. Except however when “Rhodes Scholars in reverse,” Englishmen do not “major.” Instead, they “specialize”—a very, very few in International Relations. Some of these do it in London. This article is on what that means.

In cricket—a staple, incidentally, of the English way of life—there are broadly two techniques for bringing a ball to “turn from the off.” One, the less usual, is the “googly.” Fifty years ago it was a rarity indeed. Yet the writer knew in those days a fellow-schoolboy who, bowling googlies, was unaware that not everybody did. To him, they seemed the natural way to have a ball “turn from the off.”
The Political Partitioning of Our World: An Attempt at Analysis
Authors: Gottmann Jean
Published: July 2006

In a previous article we attempted to examine the intricate net in which geography and the study of international relations are interwoven. The basic problem with which we dealt was the partitioning of the space available to men. Our conclusion was that this partitioned, differentiated space is organized: by studying its organization, geography can describe and analyze a network of relations in space which is both useful and at times indispensable to an understanding of international relations.
Some Thoughts on the Social Structure After a Bombing Disaster
Authors: Hirshleifer Jack
Published: July 2006

While much is known about the impact of bombing on an economy's material ability to produce—in terms of the physical survival of resources—comparatively little thought has been devoted to the broader social consequences of truly major bombing. The social and political consequences, however, may well dominate the material or more narrowly economic ones; resources potentially of value may either remain unutilized or may be improperly or anti-socially employed, as a result of the impairment or collapse of our accepted processes of social decision. Our purpose here is to attempt to explore the social consequences of a major bombing disaster by an examination of the effects of bombing upon the organization of society, upon the distribution of political and economic power, and upon institutions relevant to the effective functioning of society. Needless to say, we can only make preliminary or tentative conjectures (or, rather, speculations), in view of the complexity of the subject and the limited degree of historical knowledge of the functioning of human societies under conditions of extreme stress. Nevertheless, it seems desirable to explore these questions—since the answers may have important implications for prewar planning designed to promote the ability of our society to cope with such disasters.
The Congress of Vienna: A Reappraisal
Authors: Kissinger Henry A.
Published: July 2006

It is only natural that a period anxiously seeking to wrest peace from the threat of nuclear extinction should look nostalgically to the last great successful effort to settle international disputes by means of a diplomatic conference, the Congress of Vienna. Nothing is more tempting than to ascribe its achievements to the very process of negotiation, to diplomatic skill, and to “willingness to come to an agreement”—and nothing is more dangerous. For the effectiveness of diplomacy depends on elements transcending it; in part on the domestic structure of the states comprising the international order, in part on their power relationship.
The Christian Parties of Western Europe
Authors: Almond Gabriel
Published: July 2006

It is a cliché of Communist propaganda to describe the opposition to the peaceful and progressive policy of the Soviet Union as consisting of Wall Street, fascists and former collaborationists, the Vatican, and the right-wing Socialist “toadies.” The general impression given is one of a monolithic and wholly malevolent alliance of all the reactionary “minorities,” bent on driving the innocent and peace-loving masses into a war against the Soviet Union and the “New Democracy.” It is hardly a betrayal of confidence to point out that the Communist is not given to making distinctions. But it is possible to disentangle at least one element of truth in this somewhat harsh judgment of the world outside. This is, that the units engaged in the present world struggle are not solely, and perhaps not even primarily, the nation-states. There is, in a sense, an “East” in the “West,” and a subdued “West” in the “East.” Ideological and political movements, whether regional or world-wide in scope, have become increasingly important bearers of foreign policy. On the most significant issues of foreign policy in the present crisis, the party affiliation of a Western European makes a greater difference than his national affiliation.
The Balance of Power: Growth of an Idea
Authors: Vagts Alfred
Published: July 2006

Twice within 25 years, in 1919 and again in 1944–5, the idea of the balance of power hasbeen pronounced dead, and twice it has arisen from its seeming demise soon after such funereal exercises. Foremost among the obituaries were those of American statesmen, like Woodrow Wilson and Cordell Hull. When the latter returned from conferences in Moscow in the autumn of 1943, he stated, as if he were the true heir of Wilsonism, that “as the provisionsof the fournations declarations are carried into effect, there will no longer be need for spheres of influence, for balance of power, or any other of the special arrangements through which, in the unhappy past, the nations strove to safeguard their security.”
Psycho-Cultural Hypotheses About Political Acts
Authors: Leites Nathan
Published: July 2006

During recent years there has been a noticeable rise in the production of, and interest in, a relatively new kind of analysis of political behavior. Anthropologists had become increasingly concerned with describing and explaining the entire way of life of the non-literate societies they were studying. Some of them came to believe that cultural anthropology should return to home, i.e., that the methods of observation and recording, and also the theories which they had developed on so-called primitive material should be applied to our own society and other large and complex groups. At the same time, psychologists and psychiatrists had become increasingly interested in describing and explaining the entire way of life, subjective and behavioral, of the individuals they were studying. They tended to be particularly interested, on the one hand, in the broad varieties of human nature (“character types” and “defense mechanisms”) and, on the other, in the unique structure of each case. But some of them came to be interested in ascertaining the psychological regularities, if any, in large groups. The confluence of these two developments in the human sciences led to the emergence of what we may call psycho-cultural analyses of social events.
Idealist Internationalism and the Security Dilemma
Authors: Herz John H.
Published: July 2006

The heartbreaking plight in which a bipolarized and atom bomb-blessed world finds itself today is but the extreme manifestation of a dilemma with which human societies have had to grapple since the dawn of history. For it stems from a fundamental social constellation, one where a plurality of otherwise interconnected groups constitute ultimate units of political life, that is, where groups live alongside each other without being organized into a higher unity.

Wherever such anarchic society has existed—and it has existed in most periods of known history on some level—there has arisen what may be called the ‘security dilemma’ of men, or groups, or their leaders. Groups or individuals living in such a constellation must be, and usually are, concerned about their security from being attacked, subjected, dominated, or annihilated by other groups and individuals. Striving to attain security from such attack, they are driven to acquire more and more power in order to escape the impact of the power of others. This, in turn, renders the others more insecure and compels them to prepare for the worst. Since none can ever feel entirely secure in such a world of competing units, power competition ensues, and the vicious circle of security and power accumulation is on.
Partisan Foreign Policy: Britain in the Suez Crisis
Authors: Epstein Leon D.
Published: July 2006

Often as foreign policy may be the subject of partisan discussion in modern democracies, important international commitments are usually made only with support, or the expectation of support, from the great bulk of the political community. This has surely been the ordinary American and British pattern, labeled bi-partisan, non-partisan, or extra-partisan. We assume that political support extending well beyond the ranks of the party in office is essential for a successful foreign policy, and especially for a substantial military venture. Even the American decision to defend South Korea, while it was necessarily made by the Democratic administration before any apparent political consensus and while it eventually involved the United States in an unpopular war, was never in itself a partisan policy which Republicans as a group refused to support. The one outstanding recent instance of a truly partisan foreign policy is Britain's Suez action of 1956. As the significant deviant case, it provides useful insights into the process by which an alternative to the usual bi-partisan arrangement is developed and conducted. Specific questions concern the making of the Suez intervention decision, the nature of parliamentary support for this decision, the role of party loyalty in maintaining such support, and the significance of partisan opposition.
Indonesia's Political Symbols and Their Wielders
Authors: Feith Herbert
Published: July 2006

A Striking feature of politics in Indonesia, as in some other new states, is the great importance of the government's symbolic activity—gestures, ceremonial, and ritual on the one hand, propaganda and indoctrination on the other. The Indonesian government of the post-1958 period allots immense resources to creating and maintaining particular attitudes and states of mind, in ways which often detract greatly from the effectiveness of its administrative and economic performance. This article describes this symbolic activity and suggests some hypotheses which may help to account for its importance.
The Professionalization of the New Diplomacy
Authors: Rossow Robert
Published: July 2006

The concept of a profession as a social institution is a rather nebulous one. It is sometimes used to refer to any clearly defined vocational group. More traditionally it refers to a “learned profession,” the classic examples of which are divinity, medicine, and the law. The Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences (Vol. XII, p. 478) defines a profession, in this sense, as “a vocation founded upon prolonged and specialized intellectual training which enables a particular service to be rendered.” It is this meaning of the term that is here intended.
The Changeability of a Dictatorship
Authors: Gerschenkron Alexander
Published: July 2006

The following reflections have been occasioned by the Twenty-second Congress of the Communist Party of the USSR. Their purpose is to try to grasp the nature and to gauge the extent of the change between the Russia of today and that of Stalin's time. Naturally, no more can be done within the scope of a brief paper than to indicate some of the areas that may be relevant in this connection and to arrive at some provisional conclusions. In looking for those areas, various curiosities and incongruities of the Moscow Congress may serve as guiding beacons.
The Study of Contemporary Chinese Politics: Some Remarks on Retarded Development
Authors: Boorman Howard L.
Published: July 2006

Aretrospective assessment at mid-century might have suggested that the course of Chinese history between 1900 and 1950 recorded only two events of enduring political significance: the first, the fall of the Ch'ing dynasty in October 1911 and, with it, destruction of the imperial system which had lasted for two millennia; the second, the establishment of the People's Republic of China in October 1949 and, through it, commitment to accelerated modernization and forced industrialization along lines similar to those plotted earlier by the Soviet Union. Simultaneously, assessment of the future might well have concluded, with prescience born of objectivity, that the effect of the Chinese Communist explosion on both Chinese and world politics would merit a major effort on the part of American social science research.
An Alternative to the Grand Design
Authors: Brown Seyom
Published: July 2006

We hear the term less these days. But our NATO policies, our policies toward the Common Market, and our reactions to French assertiveness still give the appearance of struggling to continue along the lines of the “Grand Design” for Atlantic Partnership. As frustrations have grown the momentum of the thrust has waned; but the direction, not yet feeling the impact of alternative formulations, is sustained.
Nuclear Strategy in Europe
Authors: Schelling T. C
Published: July 2006

Discussion of troop requirements and weaponry for NATO is much concerned with the battlefield consequences of different troop strengths and nuclear doctrines. But the battlefield criterion is only one criterion, and when nuclears are introduced it is secondary. The idea that European armament should be designed for resisting Soviet invasion, and is to be judged by its ability to contain an attack, is based on the notion that limited war is a tactical operation. It is not.
Tomorrow's Military Matrix
Authors: Giffin S. F.
Published: July 2006

A Characteristic of warfare is that it has changed with the arrival of new weapons and concepts to produce a series of distinct pasts, each of which in its time proved surprising in terms of the past once removed. Although critics have generally been able to observe that the generals were prepared for the last war, they might with greater insight have noted that the generals were prepared not just for the last war, but for all the past wars, and hence were seldom at a loss except on encountering foes better equipped than themselves. Cortez was prepared for Montezuma; Montezuma, up against new notions and gadgets, was not prepared for him.
Authoritarian and Single-Party Tendencies in African Politics
Authors: Kilson Martin L.
Published: July 2006

With the exception of Libya, Egypt, the Sudanese Republic, and Ethiopia, where no political parties exist, some variation of the single-party political system or a distinctive tendency in that direction may be found in nearly all of the independent African states. That this should have come to pass within the relatively short period of the rise of African states has been a surprise to some observers of African nationalist movements and parties during the colonial period—who were rather sanguine about the prospects of Western-type democracy and party systems in Africa—as well as to the colonial powers themselves (especially Britain and France)—who presumably assumed that their policies of decolonization in Africa were providing the institutional framework within which Western-type party systems and politics would prevail.
The Intellectuals in the Political Development of the New States
Authors: Shils Edward
Published: July 2006

The gestation, birth, and continuing life of the new states of Asia and Africa, through all their vicissitudes, are in large measure the work of intellectuals. In no state-formations in all of human history have intellectuals played such a role as they have in these events of the present century.

In the past, new states were founded by military conquest, by the secession of ethnic groups led by traditional tribal and warrior chiefs, by the gradual extension of the power of the prince through intermarriage, agreement, and conquest, or by separation through military rebellion. In antiquity, the demand that subjects acknowledge the divinity of the Emperor was no more than a requirement that the legitimacy of the existing order be recognized.
The New Face of Soviet Totalitarianism
Authors: Ulam Adam B.
Published: July 2006

Nothing pricks one's curiosity more than the inner operations of a power system. And in the case of Russia the incentive to speculate on “what really goes on” in the councils of the Kremlin is enhanced by the supersecrecy in which the highest level of Soviet politics is enveloped, by the dramatic shifts of policy and sudden displacements of leading personalities, and by a natural apprehension about the operations of a totalitarian regime which may at any moment threaten or transform our daily lives.
National Security Policy as a Field for Economics Research
Authors: Hitch Charles J.
Published: July 2006

Problems of national security are in no sense novel for the application of economic analysis. Adam Smith, in a well-known passage inThe Wealth of Nations, was concerned with the allocation of resources between “defense” and “opulence”—what we would call the problem of the size of the national security budget. There has been great interest among economists, especially during and following the First and Second World Wars, in problems of industrial mobilization during war, including the associated problems of economic stablization. In fact, to many economists during the past generation this set of mobilization problems constitutedtheeconomics of defense. Books were published with titles likeEconomics of Defensethat dealt with little else.
The Calculus of Nuclear Deterrence
Authors: Kaplan Morton A.
Published: July 2006

THE importance of nuclear deterrence in the modern world does not require exposition. It became an issue of extended public discussion after the speech on massive retaliation by Secretary of State Dulles, who in the opinion of this writer came closer to an adequate theory of deterrence than most of his critics. This article will develop the view that the threat of counterattack is the best strategy against the possibility of aggression and that a nuclear counterattack is the most effective version of that strategy.
The Administered Society: Totalitarianism Without Terror
Authors: Kassof Allen
Published: July 2006

“As an orchestra conductor sees to it that all the instruments sound harmonious and in proportion, so in social and political life does the Party direct the efforts of all people toward the achievement of a single goal.
Nuclear Tactics for Defending a Border
Authors: Read Thornton
Published: July 2006

Although tactical nuclear weapons have been extensively integrated into NATO, there appears to be no clear doctrine for using them to control a battlefield or hold a defense perimeter. Even the possibility of a limited tactical nuclear war has been questioned. Disenchantment with tactical nuclear defense has stimulated an increased interest in the controlled use of strategic weapons and a demand for stronger conventional forces. But these alternatives also present problems.
Bargaining and Bombing During World War II in Europe
Authors: Quester George
Published: July 2006

The Second World War is often regarded as a virtually total conflict, with few mutual restraints to bind the belligerents to less than maximum use of their destructive capabilities. While it is generally remembered that poison gas and bacteriological weapons were not used, these limits are usually cited as great exceptions to the rule. Relatively little notice has been taken of the restraints in Europe on the use of conventional high-explosive and incendiary bombs in aerial bombardment, restraints which remained in effect for an unexpectedly long time after the start of the war.