bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Treatment of Parent–Child Violence
Authors: Wilson Rebecca F. , Fortson Beverly L. , Chaffin Mark
Published: September 2017

Parent–child violence is a public health problem that affects the lives of millions of children and families annually. It is associated with many negative short‐ and long‐term outcomes (e.g., anxiety disorders, depression, suicidal ideation, and substance abuse) and also contributes significantly to the costs associated with health and medical care, special education, criminal justice, child welfare, and losses in productivity. In this chapter, nonbehavioral and behavioral interventions to prevent the reoccurrence of abusive behavior are discussed. The nonbehavioral interventions include kinship care, foster care, and adoption and termination of parental rights. The behavioral interventions discussed include Nurse–Family Partnership, SafeCare, Parent–Child Interaction Therapy, and Incredible Years. While the field has come a long way in recognizing the prevalence of parent–child violence, how it affects the lives of children, and treatments that work, much work remains to be done to ensure that impacted families have access to and benefit from programs that have evidence of effectiveness.
Treating Anger and Aggression in Veterans With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Authors: Morland Leslie A. , Kloezeman Karen , Angkaw Abigail C. , Love Allison R. , Mackintosh Margaret‐Anne
Published: September 2017

Anger and aggression are common problems for military populations, particularly veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Excessive anger is a key predictor of PTSD symptom severity and treatment outcomes. Dysregulated anger impacts other clinical factors, including interpersonal functioning, physical health problems, alcohol misuse, increased healthcare costs, and legal issues. Explanatory models to account for the strong relationship between anger and PTSD have been proposed in the research. PTSD‐related anger is posited to be distinct from other forms of problematic anger in terms of its causal and maintaining factors. Cognitive–behavioral treatment for anger management and trauma‐focused treatments, which include intervention strategies aligned with hypothesized anger regulation deficits, have been found to be effective in reducing anger symptoms. Clinical issues that it is important to address when treating veterans with anger problems include the assessment of risk for violence, common co‐occurring difficulties, treatment engagement, and ethnocultural and military cultural considerations.
Treatment of Anger and Aggression Following Acquired Brain Injury
Authors: Hart Tessa , Fann Jesse R. , Brockway Jo Ann , Maiuro Roland D.
Published: September 2017

Anger and irritability are important clinical problems in acquired brain injury, including traumatic brain injury (TBI) and stroke. Presentations vary widely, from agitation and aggression during the acute confusional state following TBI to chronic problems with temper control that undermine employment, relationships, and community participation. As the causes of anger include biological and social or reactive components as well as premorbid temperament, treatment is challenging. Amantadine, anticonvulsants, stimulants, and serotonergic antidepressants are used clinically with little formal evidence to support choice of medication. Operant conditioning methods may benefit those with severe cognitive impairment and may be taught to caregivers. Psychoeducational treatments using modified cognitive–behavioral approaches, and skill training adapted from mainstream anger management programs, may be helpful in teaching people with brain injury a repertoire of appropriate methods for expressing frustration and approaching conflicts in a constructive fashion.
Prevention of Recidivism and Violent and Aggressive Offenders
Authors: Polaschek Devon L. L.
Published: September 2017

Interventions that are effective in reducing recidivism and enhancing desistance are growing, but research into whether they work and how they work is rare. In keeping with the risk principle of the risk‐need‐responsivity model, risk‐reducing interventions have the most impact on the highest‐risk offenders. Developmental theory and longitudinal cohort research indicate that those who commit the most violent acts are also prolific and diverse offenders who start offending early, persist well into adulthood, and have myriad characteristics associated with poor life prognoses, including risk factors for offending, poor physical and mental health, and economic failure. This chapter reviews treatment programs for high‐risk violent offenders in correctional settings such as prisons before considering the applicability of developments in the treatment of psychopathic and personality‐disordered offenders. It proposes that psychological treatment, while effective, should be coupled with reentry or resettlement preparation and postrelease support to minimize recidivism.
Promoting School‐Wide Social Skills
Authors: Sugai George , Simonsen Brandi , Salle Tamika La , Freeman Jennifer
Published: September 2017

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the rationale, core features, and an implementation process for deliberately and explicitly teaching school‐wide social skills within a multitiered system of support (MTSS) framework. Specifically, five questions are addressed: (1) Why is teaching school‐wide social skills important? (2) How are social skills learned? (3) How does school‐wide social skills instruction fit within MTSS? (4) How are social skills deliberately, explicitly, and routinely taught school‐wide? And (5) How can social skills be promoted across classrooms and school‐wide?
Early Intervention and Prevention of Aggressive and Violent Behavior through School‐Wide Systems of Positive Behavior Support
Authors: Mitchell Barbara S. , Bruhn Allison L. , McDaniel Sara C. , Lewis Timothy J.
Published: September 2017

The costs of early trajectory patterns of antisocial behavior have been well documented with respect to the at‐risk youth themselves, educators, and society at large. Research examining antisocial behaviors leading to violence and aggression points to key events within at‐risk youths' development that are potentially amenable to early intervention and prevention. Unfortunately, many schools continue to engage in ineffective disciplinary practices that fail to impact and alter early patterns, and actually make them worse. School‐Wide Positive Behavior Support (SW‐PBS) is a comprehensive multitiered system designed to allow educators to (1) build proactive school‐wide preventive supports, (2) identify at‐risk youth early and build in appropriate interventions and supports, and (3) provide a framework to engage community agencies. SW‐PBS research to date has shown a promising impact on associated risks linked to antisocial behavior. Essential features of SW‐PBS and summaries of research to date are discussed.
Predicting and Reducing Aggression and Violence toward Teachers: Extent of the Problem and Why it Matters
Authors: McMahon Susan D. , Martinez Andrew , Reddy Linda A. , Espelage Dorothy L. , Anderman Eric M.
Published: September 2017

Although violence prevention has largely focused on students, national and state‐level studies suggest that teacher‐directed violence warrants attention by researchers, policy makers, and school stakeholders. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the empirical literature on teacher‐directed violence, including the extent of the problem, types of violence teachers experience, measurement issues, and how this problem varies across perpetrators and social contexts. We specify recommendations for assessment, including developing and using reliable and valid measures to better understand teachers' experiences with violence. Violence prevention approaches are described, and we advocate for assessment and intervention that incorporate teacher experiences. Using a social–ecological model, we outline intervention strategies that address school violence that affects students, teachers, and administrators at the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem levels. Ultimately, we need to take the entire school ecology into account to reduce violence and create an effective teaching and learning environment where everyone feels safe.
Gang Violence inLatinAmerica
Authors: Dammert Lucía
Published: September 2017

The gang phenomenon has been blamed for the most violent criminal problems of the late 20th and early 21st centuries in Latin America. Formed in marginalized urban areas defined by segregation, fragmentation, and inequality, streets gangs depict the social problems and economic challenges of most cities in Latin America. Although much of the literature is centered onmarasin Central America, the BACRIMs in Colombia and multiple street gangs across the rest of the region represent an important security problem. Strongly linked to drug trafficking and transnational organized crime, gangs have developed and mutated since the mid‐20th century, going from street gangs dedicated to illegal activities to criminal associations that use gang networks to consolidate transnational crime. But that transition is not identical in all countries, cities, and even neighborhoods, which limits the possibility of developing a Latin American gang perspective.
Violence and Aggression against Older Adults: What Works? What Works Best?
Authors: Burnes David , Zhao Rebecca , Pillemer Karl
Published: September 2017

Elder mistreatment is recognized as a pervasive public health concern with major individual consequences, including shortened survival, and societal costs. With a global aging population, the scope of elder mistreatment is expected to double worldwide by the 2040s. Given the expanding scope of elder mistreatment and associated consequences, a focus on prevention is urgently warranted. Our knowledge and understanding of elder mistreatment prevention strategies remains the largest gap in the literature. This chapter provides a brief background to basic elder mistreatment knowledge and describes the state of the literature on elder mistreatment primary and secondary prevention strategies. It highlights emerging theory and promising prevention options that warrant further rigorous research attention, including caregiver support interventions, financial management programs, helplines, multidisciplinary teams, and emergency shelters.
Prevention of Bullying at Work
Authors: Chambers Andrea , Donnelly Peter D.
Published: September 2017

There is a need to mitigate upstream factors that contribute to workplace bullying to prevent the far‐reaching consequences that impact individuals, teams, and organizations. In this chapter, we review literature on interventions designed to prevent workplace bullying targeting groups of employees or organizations as a whole and strategies to support implementation. We identified a number of prevention strategies at the team, organizational, and society level; however, there are a number of gaps in available research evidence on effective prevention strategies in this area. Recommendations are provided on the development of comprehensive organizational strategies to address workplace bullying involving a review and development process that breaks down existing processes and conditions that are supporting, precipitating, or enabling workplace bullying and incorporating a participatory approach. We also point to opportunities for further research through the validation of existing measurement instruments and the incorporation of recent advancements in the evaluation of complex interventions.
Hotspotting and Football Violence: Current Statistics and Implications for Prevention
Authors: Kurland Justin , Johnson Shane D. , Tilley Nick
Published: September 2017

The violence associated with football matches has long been acknowledged. In this chapter, we adopt a novel perspective that uses the framework of environmental criminology, whose principal concern is patterns of crime events focusing not on who engages in violence but on where and when violence occurs on football match days and why such patterns might emerge. We address questions about patterns of football‐related violence events, such as “Do hotspots of football‐related violence emerge around stadiums on match days and, if so, where?” and, related to this, “Do such hotspots (if they occur) appear in the same places (and times) on match and nonmatch days?” We present evidence that violent offending associated with football matches was clustered in space and time in data taken for a case study area. We also illustrate forms of analysis that can inform crime prevention and consider what sorts of strategies might be used to reduce this kind of violence.
Youth Facilities and Violence: An Overview
Authors: Egozy Offer , Cox Alexandra
Published: September 2017

Young people's exposure to violence in residential facilities can play a significant role in their long‐term well‐being and raises questions about core constitutional and human rights in confinement. Much public access to knowledge about violence in youth facilities comes from headlines about serious incidents of violence and death in custody. This overview highlights current research and theories on violence in US juvenile facilities.
What Works in Residential Programs for Aggressive and Violent Youth?
Authors: Stams Geert Jan , van der Helm Peer
Published: September 2017

This chapter reviews current literature on the effective treatment of youth at risk for aggressive and violent behavior in residential care. It is concluded that residential youth care can produce modest but positive effects if residential facilities provide evidence‐based treatment with high levels of program integrity and if there is an open and therapeutic living group climate. However, there is always the risk of iatrogenic effects. A biological propensity for aggression and violence, low genetic susceptibility to positive environmental influences (often combined with a mild intellectual disability), and years of aversive living conditions characterize juveniles in residential youth care, particularly those at risk for aggressive and violent behavior. We advocate a three‐step model of treatment for aggressive and violent youth: (1) creation of a safe environment; (2) a combination of limit setting and risk management while acknowledging the child as a person; and (3) the delivery of individualized therapies targeting (criminogenic) needs in a responsive way.
Reducing Violence and Aggression in Police Officers
Authors: Harris Christopher J.
Published: September 2017

Police organizations employ a variety of means to minimize aggression and violence in their officers, from recruitment and selection processes to on‐the‐job training and monitoring as well as policy development. This chapter touches upon all of these means through a consideration of US police departments but particularly focuses on the ways in which police agencies attempt to locate and intervene with officers who exhibit performance problems, particularly with regard to aggressive and violent behavior. While there exists a body of work around police misconduct regarding aggression and violence on the part of officers, there is much less knowledge around whether or not current intervention efforts are sufficient, so the chapter concludes with a discussion of future research efforts to help illuminate this issue.
Involving Community in Sexual Violence Prevention: Engaging Bystanders
Authors: Banyard Victoria , Edwards Katie M. , Siebold Wendi L.
Published: September 2017

Sexual violence is a pervasive public health issue. Researchers often use the social–ecological model to understand the risk and protective factors that occur at multiple levels of a person and their environment. Prevention strategies, however, have primarily been comprised of curricula focused on changing the attitudes and behaviors of the individuals. Community‐level prevention includes strategies that change aspects of the setting, including collective efficacy, community norms, and policies. It uses messages that engage everyone in the community and strategies that give all community members a role to play in prevention. Community prevention involves community voices in the design of the work and leverages strengths, not just risk factors. This chapter discusses one promising strand of prevention that cuts across levels of the social ecology to reduce violence in communities: bystander mobilization.
TheKiVaAntibullying Program: Lessons Learned and Future Directions
Authors: Herkama Sanna , Saarento Silja , Salmivalli Christina
Published: September 2017

School bullying is a widely recognized and unfortunately fairly common social problem among children and adolescents. In this chapter, we introduce the school‐based KiVa antibullying program, which has been found to be effective in reducing bullying and victimization. The effectiveness of the program was first evaluated in Finland, both in a large‐scale randomized controlled trial (2007–2009) and during the nationwide rollout (since 2009). As of early 2016, 90% of Finnish schools providing basic education in Grades 1–9, with students aged 7 to 15 years, were registered program users. We begin by introducing the background and contents of the KiVa program. Next, evidence of effectiveness is presented from Finland and ongoing evaluations in other countries, and questions of program implementation are addressed. Finally, some future directions for research and program development are contemplated.
Plastid Division in Higher Plants
Authors: Møller Simon Geir
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

The Morphology of Plastid Division

Plastid Division Initiation byFtsZ

Division Site Placement

arcMutants

Non‐arc‐Related Chloroplast Division Components

DNASegregation during Division

Conclusions and Future Prospects

Acknowledgements
Biogenesis of the Thylakoid Membrane
Authors: Robinson Colin , Mant Alexandra
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Targeting of Thylakoid Lumen Proteins

The Targeting of Thylakoid Membrane Proteins

Biogenesis of the Thylakoid Membrane

Biosynthesis of Chloroplast Lipids

Thylakoid Biogenesis during Chloroplast Development

Concluding Remarks
Chloroplast Avoidance Movement
Authors: Kasahara Masahiro , Wada Masamitsu
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Photoreceptors Controlling Chloroplast Movement

Downstream Signaling from the Photoreceptors

Physiological Significance of Chloroplast Movement

Conclusion

Acknowledgements
Chloroplast Genetic Engineering for Enhanced Agronomic Traits and Expression of Proteins for Medical/Industrial Applications
Authors: Devine Andrew L. , Daniell Henry
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Historical Aspects

Unique Features of Chloroplast Genetic Engineering

Maternal Inheritance and Gene Containment

Crop Species Stably Transformed via the Plastid Genome

Agronomic Traits Conferred via the Plastid Genome

Transgenic Plastids as Bioreactors

Biomaterials, Enzymes, and Amino Acids

Conclusions

Acknowledgements
Chlorophylls
Authors: Willows Robert D.
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Chlorophyll Biosynthesis

Chlorophyll Degradation

Regulation

Chlorophyll and Chemically Modified Chlorophylls as Photodynamic Agents
Carotenoids
Authors: Cuttriss Abby , Pogson Barry
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Structure, Function and Manipulation

Biosynthesis and Regulation

Conclusions and Future Directions

Acknowledgements
Betalains
Authors: Zrÿd Jean‐Pierre , Christinet Laurent
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Betalain Pigments

Chemistry

Physiology of Betalains

Genetics of Betalains

Enzymology and Biotechnology

Evolution of Betalains

Social and Economic Value

Prospectives

Acknowledgements
Plant Pigments and Human Health
Authors: Lila Mary Ann
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction/Overview

Anthocyanins (And Associated Flavonoids)

Betalains

Carotenoids

Chlorophylls

Other Pigments and Human Health Intervention

Conclusions and Prospects for Future Research on Pigments and Human Health
Plant Pigments and Protection againstUV‐BRadiation
Authors: Jordan Brian R.
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

The Role of Plant Pigments

Biosynthesis ofUV‐B‐Protective Pigments

Signal Transduction Involved in the Biosynthesis of Protective Pigments

The Cost and Consequences of Protection
Concepts and Techniques in Plant Membrane Physiology
Authors: Blatt Michael R.
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Plant Membrane Transport

Intracellular Recording and the Voltage Clamp

Patch Clamp

Separating and Analysing Membrane Currents

Microinjection and Perfusion

Radiotracer Flux Analysis

Conclusion

Acknowledgements
Ion‐Coupled Transport of Inorganic Solutes
Authors: Hawkesford Malcolm J. , Miller Anthony J.
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Types of Ion‐Coupled Transporter

Nitrate

Sulphate

Ammonium

Energetic Costs of Transport

Conclusions and Future Research

Acknowledgements
Functional Analysis of Proton‐Coupled Sucrose Transport
Authors: Bush Daniel R.
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Defining Basic Properties of Transport

Intact Tissues

Membrane Vesicles

Sucrose Sensing

Heterologous Expression Systems

Sucrose Transport in Plant Growth and Development
Voltage‐Gated Ion Channels
Authors: Dreyer Ingo , Müller‐Röber Bernd , Köhler Barbara
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Voltage Gating from a Mechanistic Point of View

Voltage‐Gated Ion Channels Uncovered in Plants and Their Involvements in Physiological Processes

Gating Modifiers

Outlook – Voltage‐Gated Ion Channels in ‘Systems Biology’
Ligand‐Gated Ion Channels
Authors: Maathuis Frans
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Acetylcholine Receptors, the Archetypal Ligand‐Gated Ion Channels

Techniques to Study Ligand‐Gated Channels

Plant Ligand‐Gated Ion Channels

Ca2+Release Channels from Endomembranes

Non‐Selective Ligand‐Gated Ion Channels

Concluding Remarks
Aquaporins in Plants
Authors: Willigen Clare Vander , Verdoucq Lionel , Boursiac Yann , Maurel Christophe
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Water Transport Measurements: Principles and Methods

Aquaporins at the Level of Molecules, Cells and Tissues

Mechanisms of Regulation

Conclusion
Ca2+andpHas Integrating Signals in Transport Control
Authors: Bibikova Tatiana N. , Assmann Sarah M. , Gilroy Simon
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Transport and the Control of Development

Plant and Algal Transporters and Tip‐Growth Control

Tip Growth Shows Oscillations in Fluxes and Growth

How are Local Ca2+Gradients Formed?

G‐Proteins Regulating Ion Fluxes at the Apex

Regulation ofH+Fluxes

Transport and the Reversible Control of Cell Volume

The Mechanistic Basis of Reversible Cell Volume Change

Calcium and Volume Change in Motor Cells

Ca2+, Secretion and the Cytoskeleton

How areCa2+Oscillations Generated?

G‐Proteins Regulating Signaling in Guard Cells

Regulation ofH+Fluxes

Roles of ExtracellularCa2+andpHin Wall Structure/Activity of Guard Cells and Pulvinar Cells

Conclusions and Perspectives

Acknowledgements
Vesicle Traffic and Plasma Membrane Transport
Authors: Hurst Annette C. , Thiel Gerhard , Homann Ulrike
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Membrane Turnover in Plants

Turnover of Membrane Proteins

Parallels to Mechanisms in Animal Cells

Regulatory Mechanisms in Membrane Trafficking and Their Implications for Activity of Ion Transport Proteins

Acknowledgements
Membrane Transport and Soil Bioremediation
Authors: Rosser Susan , Dominy Peter
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Phytostabilisation

Phytoextraction

Discussion
RNAas a Signalling Molecule
Authors: Dunoyer Patrice , Voinnet Olivier
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Intercellular Movement of PlantmRNAs

Intercellular Movement of Viroids

Intercellular Movement ofRNASilencing
Plasmodesmata – Gateways for Intercellular Communication in Plants
Authors: Gillespie Trudi , Oparka Karl J.
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Structure

Macromolecular Trafficking

Acknowledgements
Lessons from the Root Apex
Authors: Bonke Martin , Tähtiharju Sari , Helariutta Ykä
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Organization of the Root

Cell Fate Studies of the Growing Root

Molecular Genetics of Root Development

Future Prospects

Acknowledgements
Lessons from Leaf Epidermal Patterning in Plants
Authors: Srinivas Bhylahalli Purushottam , Hülskamp Martin
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Overview

Introduction

Mechanisms of Trichome Patterning

Stomatal Development and Patterning

Perspective
Shoot ArchitectureII: Control of Branching
Authors: Turnbull Colin G.N.
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Branch Positions and Morphologies

Bud Initiation

Bud Dormancy and Branch Outgrowth

Environmental Influences

Conclusions and Prospects

Acknowledgements
Floral Architecture: Regulation and Diversity of Floral Shape and Pattern
Authors: Kramer Elena M.
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Phyllotaxy and Merosity

Floral Symmetry

Floral Organ Identity

Elaboration of Organ Identity

Sex Determination as a Modification of Floral Architecture

Future Perspectives

Acknowledgments
E
ighteenth
B
rumaire
Authors: Richardson Annette
Published: September 2017

The Eighteenth Brumaire of Napoleon Bonaparte was a coup d'état that overthrew the five‐man governing council, the Directory, in France on November 9, 1799, and replaced it with a three‐man Consulate, of which Bonaparte was First Consul. Eighteenth Brumaire was the date on the French Revolutionary calendar on which the incident occurred.
Ejército deLiberaciónNacional,Colombia
Authors: Azzellini Dario
Published: September 2017

The Ejército de Liberación Nacional (ELN) is a Marxist guerilla group founded in 1964 as a military‐political organization. It has been strongly influenced by the Cuban Revolution, Che Guevara, and liberation theology and was founded to use revolutionary violence to seize power. It later changed to a vision in which power seizure is not a simple takeover but the result of a revolutionary process of construction of alternatives and attacks on the existing order. The ELN is the second largest Colombian guerilla group after the Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia, or Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). Government sources estimate its membership since the beginning of the 1990s as constantly around 5,000. The ELN does not offer numbers and its structure, with a strong focus on political work, makes it difficult to count its membership.
Emmet,Robert (1778–1803) andEmmet'sRebellion
Authors: Sonnelitter Karen
Published: September 2017

Robert Emmet was born in Dublin in 1778, into a family that was a solid pillar of the Dublin elite. Young Robert grew up surrounded by leaders of the United Irishmen, including his older brother, Thomas Addis Emmet. Theobald Wolfe Tone was a regular visitor to the Emmet home. Not surprisingly, Robert was attracted to their revolutionary republican politics. He entered Trinity College in 1793 and while there became secretary to one of four United Irish societies at the college. In the aftermath of the failed 1798 Rebellion the college purged republican sympathizers and he was expelled. Meanwhile, his brother, deeply implicated in the uprising, had fled to France to escape prosecution. After the 1798 defeat the younger Emmet became involved in the dangerous and highly conspiratorial work of reorganizing the United Irish Society. He helped to devise a secretive military structure that would provide the basis for a renewed attempt at insurrection in 1803.
E
ngels,
F
riedrich (1820–1895)
Authors: Rimke Heidi M.
Published: September 2017

Friedrich Engels was a nineteenth‐century revolutionary who, along with collaborator Karl Marx, articulated the theory of communism in their 1848 work, The Communist Manifesto. To Engels, the capitalist system needed to be overthrown by a revolution from the proletariat, which would subsequently establish a classless society, thereby ending exploitation and misery.
EnglishReformation
Authors: Jewell Jason
Published: September 2017

The English Reformation is a process or period sometimes difficult to define. All scholars agree that the Church of England's break with Rome under King Henry VIII is part of the story, but there is disagreement over where the process ends. Is it with the Elizabethan settlement of the late 1550s, the ultimate failure of Puritan government in 1660, or the moral reforms of the Methodists in the eighteenth century? The most sound of the historical accounts follow the traditional dating found in authors such as Elton (1977) and Dickens (1964). According to this understanding, the story of the Reformation begins with the growth of Protestant influence in England in the 1520s and ends with the settlement reached in the early reign of Elizabeth I, consisting chiefly of the Act of Uniformity, the Act of Supremacy, and the Thirty‐Nine Articles.
E
nglish
R
evolution, Radical Sects
Authors: Marik Soma
Published: September 2017

Even after the victory of the New Model Army in the English Civil War (1642–6), radicalism continued to flourish. The demand for democracy arose substantially out of the struggle for religious freedom, but in 1646–9 it took on a firm secular political color. A number of important groups played a role in the radical movement.
ETA
Liberation Front (Euzkadi ta Askatasuna) and Basque Nationalism
Authors: Dowling Andrew
Published: September 2017

The lands that form the Basque territory, known in the Basque language as Euskal Herria, have been, since the 1950s, the location of Europe's longest lasting violent conflict. In spite of periodic ceasefires, the radical Basque organization Euzkadi ta Askatasuna, more widely known as ETA, is Europe's last active home‐grown terrorist organization. For its supporters, ETA is the latest in a long line of expressions of resistance to centralizing and homogenizing trends that have been led by Madrid. The historically formed discourse of resistance that prevails within the Basque nationalist movement evokes an ancient culture that has been preserved through the ages, citing the apparent failure of Roman, Visigoth, Arab, and other invaders to overcome them. The Basque people speak a language that is non‐Indo European and are almost certainly the longest continuously remaining linguistic community on European soil. By the early modern period, the territory had come to form part of both the French and Spanish states, though the Basques managed to maintain a relative autonomy until the nineteenth century, though concomitant developments brought about by modernity became a major challenge. Basque alienation from Spanish liberalism, with its increasing centralizing trends, was expressed through support for the ultra‐conservative and Catholic movement known as Carlism. Basque Carlists fought in two Spanish civil wars in the nineteenth century and their ultimate defeat in 1876 led to the abolition of the historic local rights and charters of the Basques, recognized by successive Spanish kings, known as the fueros. The abolition of these fueros would remain a major grievance in the twenty‐first century as they are considered to be the early political expression of Basque autonomy.
Ethnic and Nationalist Revolts in the Hapsburg Empire, 1500–1848
Authors: McMurray Matthew
Published: September 2017

The Hapsburg Empire emerging in 1526 with the acceptance of Hapsburg rule by the Bohemian and Hungarian estates and by the Croatian estates the following year was a collection of territories formed in a piecemeal fashion rather than as an integrated state. At no time in its nearly 400‐year history was this far‐flung Empire united ethnically, culturally, economically, or linguistically. The Empire was the only multinational state in the early modern era and by far the most diverse. None of the ethnic groups represented a majority and some territories had nearly a half‐dozen languages. Although unifying forces existed throughout this period, such as the military, the Church, and the bureaucracy, the forces of disintegration were stronger. One of the most powerful of these was ethnic jealousy, a constant theme in the history of the Empire. Bohemians' efforts to throw off German domination in the eighteenth century and Hungarian attempts to make Magyar the official language of the territories in the Danube Basin in the nineteenth century are only two of the dozens of examples that might be cited. Another was economic conflict between the various parts of the Empire, such as the efforts of both Croatia and Hungary to obtain access to the Adriatic.
European Revolutions of 1848
Authors: Schaefer Richard
Published: September 2017

Discontent over economic issues and calls for political reform boiled over in a series of revolutions that swept across most of Europe in 1848. Though rooted in very different national contexts, the revolutions were a pan‐European movement that effectively toppled the repressive political order laid down by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The failure of so many of the revolutionaries' immediate objectives, and the reassertion of dynastic authority, should not obscure the significance of these revolutions for European society. Ending the last remnants of feudalism across central Europe, the revolutions promoted nationalism, reinforced class divisions, and both inspired and frightened Europeans with the potential of mass politics. It is in this context that the Communist Manifesto can be read as a programmatic text and not an objective description of events. It is also in this context that nationalism emerged post‐1848 as the single strongest and broadest ideological force for shaping the European future.
Ezeiza Protest and Massacre, 1973
Authors: Horowicz Alejandro
Published: September 2017

The Ezeiza Protest and Massacre occurred on June 20, 1973, when Argentine anti‐communist terrorist snipers attacked a crowd of over 2 million people who had assembled near the Buenos Aires airport as Juan Perón returned from nearly two decades in exile in Spain. The attacks, according to official figures, resulted in 13 deaths and more than 300 wounded, but those who were present at the massacre and prominent newspaper sources claim that the number was much higher. The event marked the bloody and tragic downturn of Juan Perón's politically bifurcated but devoted party (comprised largely of an unlikely alliance of leftist and right‐wing Peronistas), as well as the beginning of what became known as Argentina's Dirty War.
Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN)
Authors: Chávez Joaquín M.
Published: September 2017

The Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) was founded in October 1980 by the Farabundo Martí Popular Liberation Forces (FPL‐Farabundo Martí), the People's Revolutionary Army (ERP), the National Resistance (RN), the Central American Revolutionary Workers Party (PRTC), and the Communist Party of El Salvador (PCS). Between 1980 and 1991 the FMLN fought a revolutionary war against counterinsurgent regimes firmly backed by two consecutive US administrations under Ronald Reagan. On January 16, 1992 the FMLN and the government of Alfredo F. Cristiani, a leader of the right‐wing party ARENA, signed a peace accord that put an end to the civil war. As a result of the peace process the FMLN became a legal political party in 1993 and remains to this day the main opposition party in El Salvador.
Fisher, Percy (1891–1922)
Authors: van der Walt Lucien
Published: September 2017

Born in Durham, England in 1891, Percy Fisher arrived in Cape Town in 1912 at the age of 20. After moving to the Witwatersrand he became a trade unionist and joined the South African Industrial Federation (SAIF), which organized white workers and was formed in 1914. A mineworker, he became known for his dissident and radical views and was active in the independent Works Committee movement that emerged from 1918 with the aid of W. H. Andrews and the revolutionary syndicalist International Socialist League. The Works Committees often acted outside of the official South African Mineworkers Union (SAMWU) and SAIF, and Fisher was one of several militants condemned by SAIF leader Archie Crawford for heading an unofficial strike at City Deep Mine in late 1920.
Flynn, Elizabeth Gurley (1890–1964)
Authors: Ince Anthony J. E. , Squire Heather
Published: September 2017

Elizabeth Gurley Flynn was a prominent labor activist, feminist, communist, and one of the founding members of the American Civil Liberties Union. The daughter of Irish immigrants, Flynn was born in Concord, New Hampshire, but raised primarily in a poor neighborhood in the Bronx (New York City). Flynn was introduced to socialism at an early age by her parents, and gave her first political speech at the age of 16. Flynn joined the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) in 1906, and a year later became a full‐time organizer for the radical union.
F
o,
D
ario (b. 1926)
Authors: Stampacchia Mauro
Published: September 2017

Dario Fo is an actor, director, and playwright of international fame whose artistic career is characterized by his advocacy of civil, democratic, and workers' rights. In 1997 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature.
Food Not Bombs, United States
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

Food Not Bombs is a global movement of volunteers who seek to end poverty, hunger, and war by distributing surplus food to those in need. Currently, Food Not Bombs has hundreds of autonomous chapters throughout the world that share free vegetarian food with hungry people as a means of protesting war and poverty. As a grassroots organization its activity has spread not only throughout the United States, but into Europe, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Australia as well. In its 25‐year history, Food Not Bombs has fought to end hunger and support an end to globalization of the economy, restrictions to the movements of people, and the exploitation and destruction of the earth.
France, 1830 Revolution
Authors: Brown Bradford C.
Published: September 2017

The French Revolution of 1830 (July Revolution) was a popular rebellion that succeeded in overthrowing the rule of King Charles X and his ministers. The revolt was prompted by the government's rejection of legitimate election results and its suspension of the constitution. Armed crowds in Paris and other cities throughout France took to the streets to oppose the king and to support the elected representatives of the parliamentary opposition. Three decisive days of fighting, July 27–9, gave the insurrection its other names:
la Révolution de Juillet
and
les trots glorieuses
. Revolutionary leaders moved quickly to force the king's family into exile and to crown one of his distant cousins, Louis‐Philippe, the Duc d'Orléans. The new regime, called the July Monarchy (or sometimes the Orléans Monarchy), would last until the February Revolution of 1848 created the Second Republic.
France, June Days, 1848
Authors: Harison Casey
Published: September 2017

The June Days rebellion in Paris (June 23–6, 1848) was the largest and most violent urban uprising in Europe between the French Revolution of 1789–94 and the Paris Commune of 1871. It erupted in the wake of the dashed hopes of the February Revolution and ended only after three days of bitter street fighting between workers and the armed forces of France's new republican government. For a long time, the June Days would stand as the clearest example of class struggle in the modern European experience.
France, Resistance to Nazism
Authors: Neeno Timothy M.
Published: September 2017

The French resistance movement can be said to have begun on June 18, 1940 with Charles de Gaulle's appeal to Frenchmen everywhere to continue the struggle against Nazi Germany. De Gaulle had been one of the few French military commanders to have success against the invading blitzkrieg (“lightning”) strategy. Promoted to brigadier general on June 1, 1940, he was later appointed under‐secretary of state for national defense. With the French army collapsing, however, he had to flee in exile and issue his appeal for resistance from London.
Frankfurt School (Jewish émigrés)
Authors: Gerhardt Christina
Published: September 2017

The Institute of Social Research – more commonly known as the Frankfurt School (a term that was first applied in the 1960s) and, in Germany, as
Kritische Theorie
(critical theory) – was founded in Frankfurt, Germany in 1923. It sought to bring together a wide variety of disciplines – spanning sociology and philosophy, psychology and history, economics and aesthetics, and literary and music criticism – within a critical Marxist framework. The most central and best‐known members of the Frankfurt School's first generation included Theodor W. Adorno, Erich Fromm, Max Horkheimer, Leo Lowenthal, Herbert Marcuse, and Friedrich Pollock.
Freedom Summer
Authors: Brown Susan Love
Published: September 2017

Freedom Summer was the name given to the summer of 1964 when the Council of Federated Organizations (COFO) decided to carry out a voter registration project among blacks in Mississippi. In June, approximately 500 Northern volunteers converged on Mississippi to assist in the project. In addition, some 40 Freedom Schools, manned with volunteers, conducted classes for poor black students, and the decision was made to challenge the traditional Democratic Party that had excluded black voters. However, the summer is best remembered for the brutal slaying of three volunteers – James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, and Mickey Schwerner.
FRELIMO (Frente de Libertação de Moçambique)
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

FRELIMO (Frente de Libertação de Moçambique; Front for the Liberation of Mozambique) was founded on June 25, 1962, 13 years to the day before Mozambique became independent. It was established after a conference which began on June 20, 1962, when leaders opposed to Portuguese rule in Mozambique met in Dar‐es‐Salaam in Tanganyika (Tanzania as of 1964). The leaders who met included Marcelino dos Santos, Eduardo Mondlane, Matthew Mmole, and Uria Simango, with Julius Nyerere of host‐nation Tanganyika and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana urging for a united front. FRELIMO was created from the merger of three anti‐Portuguese nationalist movements: the Mozambican African National Union (MANU), the National Democratic Union of Mozambique (UDENAMO), and the National African Union of Independent Mozambique (UNAMI). All three had been fighting the Portuguese but had different backers and different political stances, with MANU being supported by the Tanganyikan government, UDENAMO being essentially Stalinist with aid from Ghana, and UNAMI being based in Malawi. The three groups were brought together under the (elected) leadership of Eduardo Mondlane (1920–69), who gave up his position as professor of anthropology at Syracuse University (New York) to become leader of FRELIMO. The new organization set up its office at 201 Arab Street in Dar‐es‐Salaam, the street later being renamed Nkrumah Street – FRELIMO appeared in the telephone directories of the period as “Mozambique Liberation Front, Political Party.”
French Caribbean in the Age of Revolution
Authors: Dubois Laurent
Published: September 2017

During the early 1790s, Guadeloupe and Saint‐Domingue (present‐day Haiti) were both French plantation colonies. Their histories paralleled each other during this period. In each there were conflicts among white colonists over the particular meaning the changes of the French Revolution should have in the colonies and violent struggles over the rights and status of free people of color. Most importantly, both saw large‐scale mobilization and revolt among the enslaved during the early 1790s. As a result of the mass insurrection of the enslaved in Saint‐Domingue, by 1794 the enslaved in both colonies had gained their freedom and become citizens of the French Republic.
French Guiana, Ecological Movements Against the Guiana Space Center in Kourou
Authors: Martínez María Ximena Alvarez
Published: September 2017

Guiana became a French overseas department in March of 1946. Ninety percent of its land is made up of forest and represents a treasure of biodiversity. It is also rich in gold. Because of its favorable geographic conditions, such as its proximity to the Equator and the Atlantic Ocean, as well as its climatic benefits and its low demographic index (a total population of 45,000 in 1964), it was chosen in 1965 as the site for a French space base, the Guiana Space Center, in the small town of Kourou.
French Guiana, Indigenous Rebellions
Authors: Espejel Leticia Pacheco
Published: September 2017

Located on South America's northern coast, French Guiana is an overseas department of France. Originally inhabited by Native Americans, it was settled in the seventeenth century by the French, who used it for penal settlements beginning in 1852. This area has seen a number of protests, the earliest of which involved the struggles of the indigenous peoples to maintain their rights to their homeland. Since the 1970s, there have been protests for autonomy from France, as well as ecological protests against the Guiana Space Center in Kourou.
F
rench
G
uiana, Political Movements Against Departmentalization
Authors: Martínez María Ximena Alvarez
Published: September 2017

French Guiana, along with Martinique and Guadaloupe, become an overseas department of France with the arrival of the Fourth French Republic in 1946. The approval of the law of departmentalization on March 19, 1946, was led by the leftist majority in the National Assembly, which included the Communist Party and the Gaullists. This new jurisdiction determined the management and transfer of the central government's subsidiary resources, which created a strong economic dependence. Even though on one hand it improved the quality of life, it also led to a decline in productivity and a high unemployment rate. Decisions at a local level had to be authorized by the cabinet of ministers in France, which indicated that the “colonial relationship” with Europe had not improved.
French Polynesia, Protest Movements
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

French Polynesia in the Pacific consists of 118 islands which form five archipelagos. It has been occupied by France since 1842, becoming an overseas territory of France in 1946, with its own territorial assembly. Its population is 78 percent Polynesian, 12 percent Chinese, with 6 percent being local French settlers and their families, and 4 percent being French from metropolitan France.
French Revolution, 1789–1794
Authors: Conner Clifford D.
Published: September 2017

On July 14, 1789, Paris exploded in a massive insurrection that proved to be the opening salvo of one of history's most thoroughgoing social revolutions. The French Revolution dealt the death blow to the traditional social structure in Europe and cleared the way for the transformation of the continent and the world.
French Revolution, Historians' Interpretations
Authors: Marik Soma
Published: September 2017

As one of the great turning points in modern history, the French Revolution has naturally been the focus of immense historiographical examination and debate. Conflicting interpretations have reflected the opposing political and ideological standpoints of the historians who have studied it. For more than the last hundred years the primary conflict has been between Marxist and non‐Marxist (or anti‐Marxist) interpretations. The first major historical account of the French Revolution to be inspired by Karl Marx's philosophy of history was a multi‐volume work published by Jean Jaurès between 1901 and 1904. Jaurès's
Socialist History of the French Revolution
was an early example of “history from the bottom up,” highlighting the role of the masses instead of elite maneuvering.