bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Instructional Design
Authors: Bauer William I.
Published: August 2020

Learning is contextual, active, social, and reflective. Learners construct their own understanding by connecting prior knowledge to new information. Technology, when properly utilized, can facilitate these natural learning processes. This chapter discusses fundamental principles of human learning as they apply to the design of lessons, units, and curricula that include technology. Design models described include project based learning and backwards design, two approaches that often utilize technology and value the development of student 21st-century skills such as creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration. Technology is also a tool that music educators can use to differentiate instruction and to provide learning support to special needs students. Finally, when engaged in instructional design that includes technology, music educators and their students need to be cognizant of copyright laws, utilizing public domain and Creative Commons media and materials whenever possible.
Productivity and Professional Development
Authors: Bauer William I.
Published: August 2020

There are numerous ways in which technology can improve the productivity of music educators, helping to make administrative and organizational tasks more efficient and effective. This chapter describes a variety of technological tools that can be used to facilitate overall organization, communication, public relations and advocacy, the creation and acquisition of instructional support materials, data management, travel, and maintenance of financial records, all of which are typical responsibilities of music teachers. Technology can also be useful for continuing professional development. From informal Personal Learning Networks to formalized graduate degree programs, technology can empower music educators with personalized, sustained, flexible, and social professional learning opportunities. Taken together, these approaches to professional development can help music educators continually develop and refine their TPACK, facilitating an ongoing upward spiral of the knowledge and skills necessary for music learning today.
“The power of religion greatly displayed”
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: August 2020

Oliver Hart experienced evangelical conversion at the peak of a dynamic series of revivals known as the Great Awakening. His childhood pastor, Jenkin Jones, publicly supported the evangelist George Whitefield and did all that he could to promote revivalism in Hart’s Particular Baptist congregation. Along with Hart’s personal story, this chapter recounts the Baptist reception of the Great Awakening throughout colonial America, including in New England and in the South. It corrects the common misperception that most Particular Baptists stood aloof from the Great Awakening, and introduces the emergence of the Separate Baptist movement.
“All things are become new”
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: August 2020

The Particular Baptists of the Philadelphia Association benefited tremendously from the revivals of the Great Awakening, but at the same time felt their distinctively Baptist identity threatened by the interdenominational nature of the movement, its de-emphasis on local church accountability, and its loosening of restrictions on who could speak on behalf of God. This chapter explores how Hart and the Philadelphia Association navigated these tensions in the 1740s, and how in that context Hart experienced a “regular call” to ministry. In 1749 Hart agreed to relocate to Charleston, South Carolina, where the Baptists of the South were few, weak, and divided; he would spend the next thirty years transferring a combination of Philadelphia Association church order and Great Awakening revivalism to the Baptists of the South.
“Promoting so laudable a Design”
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: August 2020

The 1760s were a decade of significant institutional development for America’s Baptists, and Oliver Hart was a key figure in that advance. In the South, Hart led the Charleston Association to adopt the Charleston Confession as its doctrinal statement, setting a course for traditional Calvinism among white Southern Baptists for the next one hundred years or more. He also shaped the church government practices of Baptist churches, coauthoring the Summary of Church Discipline, which outlined the rigorous church order Baptists would become known for well into the nineteenth century. This chapter provides vivid examples of how this congregational government worked itself out in specific Baptist churches of the period. Beyond the South, Hart enthusiastically supported the Philadelphia Association project of founding Rhode Island College (later Brown University), an important signal that Baptists as a whole were becoming respectable in colonial American society. Finally, Hart’s frequent preaching excursions into the Carolina backcountry brought him into contact with the exploding Separate Baptist movement. Though they were far less sophisticated than his Charleston social circles, Hart found much to appreciate in the Separate Baptists and sought opportunities to unite them with his own Regular Baptist tribe.
“Comforts and mercies, losses and crosses”
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: August 2020

The first half of the 1770s was a major transitional period for Oliver Hart. Many of the most important figures in his life, including his hero, George Whitefield, and his wife, Sarah, died. (Sarah’s death provides an opportunity to reflect on the role of women in the colonial Baptist South and on the attraction they found to the Baptist faith.) At the same time, important new figures were assuming a larger role in his life, including his understudy Edmund Botsford and the promising young Separate Baptist preacher Richard Furman. Hart struggled in the domestic sphere during the period of his widowhood, contending especially with his unruly son, John, away at Rhode Island College. He was relieved to find a new wife in Anne Marie Sealy Grimball, a member of the Charleston Baptist Church in whose conversion Hart had been instrumental some years before.
“The rising glory of this continent”
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: August 2020

While most Baptists ultimately supported the American Revolution, many approached the conflict with a certain ambivalence, especially in New England and Virginia, where many of the Patriot leaders had actively suppressed their religious freedoms. Oliver Hart enthusiastically backed the cause of liberty from the beginning. At age fifty-two he accepted an assignment from the South Carolina Council of Safety to join the Patriot leader William Henry Drayton and the Presbyterian William Tennent III on a recruiting mission into the Tory-infested Carolina backcountry. While Hart found this to be rugged and distressing work, the mission was successful overall. Hart used the occasion of the new South Carolina state constitution to broker something of a merger between the formerly estranged Regular and Separate Baptists of the state, believing that they could gain greater concessions for religious freedom if they displayed a unified front to the state. When the British Army invaded Charleston in 1780, Hart’s conspicuous patriotism marked him for reparations from the Crown, and he fled northward in the company of Edmund Botsford. He would never return to the South.
“The Baptist Interest”
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: August 2020

Oliver Hart faced a crisis of decision when the Charleston Baptist Church extended an invitation for him to return as pastor there in 1783. Hart repeatedly equivocated in his correspondence with them, but ultimately blessed the appointment of his young friend Richard Furman to the post, thus sealing the union of Regular and Separate Baptists in the South. In Hopewell, Hart continued to lament the absence of revival in his apathetic congregation, as well as his own physical decline and old age. He found his greatest encouragement during these years in the “rising glory” of the young American republic, which he believed to be uniquely blessed by God. He celebrated the federal Constitution and urged his skeptical Baptist colleagues to support its ratification. This chapter also explores Hart’s change of perspective on the issue of slavery.
“All the Baptists on the Continent”
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: August 2020

Oliver Hart longed to see one more revival in his final years, but he died in 1795, just before the Second Great Awakening. The Baptist movement in America had been dramatically transformed during his lifetime, both in numbers and in cultural respectability. Twenty years after Hart’s death, “all the Baptists on the continent” would unite to support the foreign missionaries Ann and Adoniram Judson, thus birthing the first nationwide Baptist denomination and fulfilling a long-held desire of Hart’s. Fittingly, it was Hart’s successor at Charleston, Richard Furman, who would serve as the new denomination’s first president. Furman would also build on Hart’s lifework by overseeing the expansion of Baptist institutional life in the South during the first quarter of the nineteenth century. Ultimately Hart’s dream of a united Baptist America was shattered over the issue of slavery, with the South’s Baptists clinging to his earlier position on slavery, and Northern Baptists following his later position. This chapter closes with a reflection on Hart’s enduring legacy as an early American Baptist and evangelical leader.
The Machinery of Government
Authors: Heath Joseph
Published: August 2020

Political theorists are aware that the old-fashioned model of state power, according to which elected officials make policy decisions, which are then faithfully enacted by a loyal cadre of public servants, is hopelessly outdated. The complexity of the modern state, not to mention the difficulty of the economic and social problems it confronts, is such that a great deal of rule-making power is delegated to public servants. Yet if public servants are not merely in the business of administration, but are also deciding questions of policy, how are they making these decisions, and what normative principles inform their judgments? The Machinery of Government attempts to answer this question. The central challenge involves reconciling the tension between the traditional commitment to political neutrality on the part of the civil service with the fact that administrative discretion inevitably involves making normative judgments. State employees are in many cases unable to do their jobs effectively without some conception of where the public interest lies. It seems inevitable that this will conflict with the commitment to political neutrality, since this conception of the public interest may be tension with that of elected officials. The solution to the dilemma lies in an understanding of the constraints that liberalism imposes on popular sovereignty in a liberal-democratic polity. Not only do courts play an important role in checking the power of democratic publics, the executive branch is also the custodian of certain fundamental liberal principles.
Liberalism
Authors: Heath Joseph
Published: August 2020

This chapter analyses the rise of liberalism in terms of the desire to develop a set of normative principles to govern the state that exhibit neutrality with regard to controversial conceptions of the good. It traces the historical development to emphasize that these principles represented not just a solution to a conceptual difficulty but also a way to address a pressing practical problem. The classical formulation of the doctrine emphasized the state’s provision of three “neutral” goods: property, contract, and security. However, the very success of liberal states organized on this basis gave rise to a set of social problems that the doctrine was powerless to resolve. This gave rise, indirectly, to modern liberalism, which reconceptualizes liberal neutrality in terms of a commitment to a set of more abstract principles of efficiency, equality, and liberty.
Efficiency and the Rise of the Welfare State
Authors: Heath Joseph
Published: August 2020

Even among supporters of the welfare state there are several different theoretical reconstructions of the normative commitments that are taken to underlie it, all of which are in tension with one another. The three normative purposes most commonly cited are equality, community, and efficiency. These give rise to a corresponding set of models, which I refer to as the egalitarian, communitarian, and public-economic models of the welfare state. The objective of this chapter is to show that the public-economic model of the welfare state, though the least popular among political philosophers, is actually the most plausible. Not only does it provide a superior account of the existing configuration of welfare-state activities, but it alone is able to explain why, in all Western democracies, state spending rose almost continuously over the course of the 20th century.
Administrative Discretion and the Rule of Law
Authors: Heath Joseph
Published: August 2020

Empirical study of administrative decision-making shows that the power exercised by public officials is only loosely controlled by statutory law. Political theorists have traditionally viewed this discretion quite negatively, as a violation either of the rule of law or the principle of democratic legitimacy. This chapter presents a defense of administrative discretion, on the grounds that it is not just inevitable; it makes an important contribution to the quality of public administration. Both legislative and judicial strategies to reduce administrative discretion have failed or had perverse consequences. The best approach to reducing the potential for abuse of power has been through the development of a “rule of law” culture within the executive branch.
Paternalism and Individual Freedom
Authors: Heath Joseph
Published: August 2020

The growth of state bureaucracy is seen by many as a threat to individual freedom. This concern has been mitigated in part by the commitment of the liberal state to refrain from engaging in paternalistic intervention. This chapter revisits John Stuart Mill’s classic arguments against paternalism to assess recent challenges to the traditional liberal deference of individual autonomy. The discovery of systematic deviations from rationality has suggested to many that state officials may in certain cases be able to improve individual welfare by intervening in ways that override individuals’ own judgment. These proposals can be analyzed under three categories: those having to do with temporal distortions of preference, with biases in cognition, and with manipulation of choice through non-rational means. This suggests certain valid exceptions to the general rule laid down by Mill.
Conclusion
Authors: Heath Joseph
Published: August 2020

The growth of the administrative state creates a dilemma for the civil service. In order to guide the exercise of administrative power, it is compelled to develop its own conception of the public interest. And yet it appears to be prohibited from doing so both by democratic theory and constitutional convention. The solution to the dilemma lies in an understanding of the way that liberal principles inform the practice of public administration, in particular, the principles of efficiency, equality and liberty. This brief concluding chapter offers a summary of the argument, offered over the course of the book, in defense of this position.
The Software Passes the Test When the User Fails It
Authors: Sterne Jonathan
Published: August 2020

Many music technologists have sought to reproduce the sonic signature of analog audio devices—amplifiers, compressors, signal processors, instruments—in the software domain. Assessing the effectiveness of the analog model involves a confusing mix of math, sound, electronics, appearances, and feelings, all of which are negotiated differently by users and designers. Drawing on ethnographic research at major software companies, along with close analysis of the technologies themselves, this chapter argues that “analog modeling” in the digital domain is one of the latest chapters in the long history of hearing tests, for it is in the moment of the listening test that engineers and users attempt to resolve competing epistemologies of sound. The listening test thus offers a privileged point of entry into both the classification and the experience of digital sound technologies.
On Testing
Authors: Rheinberger Hans-Jörg
Published: August 2020

This afterword to Testing Hearing: The Making of Modern Aurality sifts through a number of different meanings historically associated with forms of testing in the sciences and discusses their relationship with forms of experimentation. Testing as a “way of knowing” has assumed a wide variety of shapes in the sciences and their applications, many of them illustrated by the chapters in this volume. The afterword explores testing-related concepts such as screening, norms, standardization, probing, control, and sounding out.
Sites of Ottoman Memory
Authors: Yavuz M. Hakan
Published: August 2020

This chapter presents Turkish literature as an incubator for the rise of counter-identity, exploring literature not merely as an instrument for exploring memories but, more important, as a site for storing and reconstituting them. The counterpoint of fictional writers and poets against professional historians and scholars is examined. In the case of Ottoman history, early Republican novels and poems were turned into texts of collective memory that offered a basis for reimagining the self simultaneously as Ottoman/Muslim and Turk. Literature stimulated interest and desire in Turkish readers to learn more about the past. The chapter also examines the Sufi orders and their role in preserving and reviving Ottoman memory.
Erdoğan’s Neo-Ottomanism
Authors: Yavuz M. Hakan
Published: August 2020

This chapter focuses on two pillars of Erdoğan’s political identity: the Ottoman Empire, especially under Abdulhamid II, and Islam. It indicates that the dual processes of Islamicization and Ottomanization in the case of Turkey are mutually reinforcing, inclusive processes. By drawing on Necip Fazıl, the most influential intellectual figure for AKP leadership, Erdoğan has argued for the restoration of Islamic values that stress order, family, and community. Turkey’s new cultural and economic elites support Erdoğan’s vision of neo-Ottomanism as a way of life that fits into a broader Islamic worldview and sustains their positions of power. Erdoğan’s near-obsessive reverence for two Ottoman Sultans (Mehmed II and Abdulhamid II) illuminates his thinking about the state’s potential for controlling the lives of its citizens. This chapter also examines various sites of reconstructed Ottoman memory in cuisine, fine arts, urban planning, and furniture.
Naughty Boys and The Pleasure Garden
Authors: Callahan Dan
Published: August 2020

This biographical introduction takes us through Hitchcock’s childhood and relationship with his family members. It details the famous origin story of his fear of police, describing a time his father had a policeman lock the young Hitchcock in a cell for five minutes, after which he was told, “This is what we do to naughty boys.” It also details his apprenticeship in silent films, where he worked as a title card designer, and focuses on his marriage to Alma Reville. The chapter then moves on to a close consideration of Hitchcock’s fascinating debut feature, The Pleasure Garden (1925) and the acting styles of its lead players, Virginia Valli and Carmelita Geraghty, both of whom retired early.
The Mountain Eagle and The Lodger
Authors: Callahan Dan
Published: August 2020

Hitchcock’s lost second film is represented by various stills where we can see how he carefully deglamorized his star Nita Naldi, who was a star from America. In his third film, The Lodger (1926), which made his reputation, Hitchcock carefully handles the queer matinee idol Ivor Novello, experimenting with ways of shooting him that emphasize his sex appeal and his strange way of moving. This film also features one of the first “Hitchcock blondes,” as played by an actress simply known as June. There is also a discussion of gayness in Hitchcock films and what it can mean to have a gay actor in a straight part and a straight actor in a gay part.
Blackmail
Authors: Callahan Dan
Published: August 2020

Hitchcock’s first talking film, Blackmail (1929), presented the Master with a dilemma when it came to the performance of his lead actress, Anny Ondra. Blackmail had been shot first as a silent film, but when it was decided to do a sound version, Ondra’s thick Czech accent was judged unacceptable because she was playing the part of a working-class London girl. Hitchcock did not want to replace Ondra, and so he got the young British actress Joan Barry to read the lines for her off-camera as Ondra mimed to them. The result is often awkward, of course, but it also says something about the difference between what an actor is like as an image and what an actor is like when they speak.
Juno and the Paycock, Murder!, Mary, Elstree Calling, The Skin Game
Authors: Callahan Dan
Published: August 2020

After the success of Blackmail, Hitchcock was tasked with filming successful plays like Juno and the Paycock (1930) by Seán O’Casey and The Skin Game (1931) by John Galsworthy, and neither of these pictures gave him any real creative leeway. Both of these theater adaptations feature acting that would be far more acceptable on stage than for the camera, but Hitchcock finds all kinds of interesting things to do with his players in Murder! (1930), where he focused particularly on Norah Baring as the mysterious female lead and Esme Percy (a former matinee idol who had worked with Sarah Bernhardt) as a murderous cross-dresser named Handel Fane. A German version of Murder! called Mary allows us to see just how important casting can be and how it can make a movie drastically shift its tone. In Mary, the character of Handel Fane is played by the tall and hearty Ekkehard Arendt, who is the exact opposite of Esme Percy in looks and manner.
Rich and Strange, Number 17, Waltzes from Vienna
Authors: Callahan Dan
Published: August 2020

An in-depth consideration of one of Hitchcock’s best and most undervalued films, Rich and Strange, in which he draws unerringly precise, layered, and touching work from four actors: Henry Kendall and Joan Barry, who play a straying married couple on holiday; Percy Marmont, who plays a shy British major in love with Barry’s timid wife; and Elsie Randolph, who gives a performance as the outcast Miss Imbrie that is as terrifying as anything in Psycho or The Birds. Hitchcock was not happy with either the thriller Number 17 (1932) or the operetta Waltzes from Vienna (1933), where he found no common ground with musical star Jessie Matthews, but the first period of his successful sound thrillers soon followed.
The Man Who Knew Too Much, The 39 Steps, Secret Agent, Sabotage
Authors: Callahan Dan
Published: August 2020

Hitchcock hit his stride in the mid-1930s with a series of adventurous stories in which he drew major performances from Peter Lorre as the unpredictable villain in The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934), Robert Donat as the sensitive hero and Peggy Ashcroft as an abused wife in The 39 Steps (1935), and Sylvia Sidney in Sabotage. Hitchcock allowed Lorre a lot of creative freedom within his frames, and he took full advantage of the quicksilver talent of Donat and Ashcroft while carefully controlling Sidney in Sabotage so that the scene where she murders her husband (Oskar Homolka) is a triumph for both herself and for Hitchcock. Less happy was Lorre’s exaggerated performance in Secret Agent (1936), where Hitchcock allowed his actor to Go Big in a way that lacked the structure and surprise of Lorre’s work in The Man Who Knew Too Much. But by using the affable Robert Young as the villain in Secret Agent, Hitchcock showed how effective it could be to cast against type.
Young and Innocent, The Lady Vanishes, Jamaica Inn
Authors: Callahan Dan
Published: August 2020

If Young and Innocent (1937) is the weakest Hitchcock film of this period partly because of poor or insubstantial acting from most of its players, then The Lady Vanishes (1938) is the height of his British career in large part due to the lively excellence of its cast, particularly Michael Redgrave as the all-out charmer hero. But then Hitchcock came to grief directing the demanding Charles Laughton in Jamaica Inn (1939), a film that is lopsidedly centered around Laughton’s self-indulgent, effortful performance, which is filled with lots of face making and external signifiers that could not be further from Hitchcock’s own concept of what acting for the camera should be, which he outlined in detail in a 1939 interview for Film Weekly called “What I’d Do to the Stars.”
Saboteur, Shadow of a Doubt, Lifeboat, Spellbound
Authors: Callahan Dan
Published: August 2020

Saboteur (1942) was one of Hitchcock’s weakest films because of its substandard cast, but Shadow of a Doubt was one of his best due mainly to strong work from all of its actors, from Joseph Cotten’s villainous Uncle Charlie to the unforgettable Janet Shaw, who plays an avaricious waitress at a seedy bar called Til Two. Hitchcock allowed Tallulah Bankhead to dominate Lifeboat (1944) with the contrast of her campy, expressive basso voice and her poker face, and then he fell madly in love with Ingrid Bergman’s extravagantly expressive yet often mysterious face in Spellbound (1945).
William Perkins and His Contemporaries on “Free Will”
Authors: Muller Richard A.
Published: August 2020

William Perkins’ thought on grace and free choice belongs to the context of the Elizabethan Settlement and developing English Reformed theology in an era of polemics with Roman Catholic adversaries. The works in which he deals with this issue exposit and defend English Reformed theology, address matters of doctrinal definitions, and deal with problems of piety, conscience, and assurance of salvation. Perkins’ several expositions of the problem of human freedom were written during a period of ongoing debate, sparked by the Reformers, between Protestants and Roman Catholics over this issue, particularly in relation to the economy of salvation and the question of the catholicity of Protestantism. His context in the particular historical stage or moment of this debate is also of significance. He has been variously identified in scholarship as a distinctly English churchman and prominent apologist of the Church of England, a “father of Puritanism,” an exponent of early Reformed orthodoxy, a supralapsarian Calvinist, and one among several ancestors of the anti-Arminian line of English theology in the early modern era.
Knowing and Willing in Freedom
Authors: Muller Richard A.
Published: August 2020

Perkins’ basic understanding of human freedom drew on the resources of earlier English and continental Protestant thought, including the work of thinkers like Jerome Zanchi and Zacharias Ursinus. Early modern Reformed writers, whether of the Reformation or of the era of orthodoxy, were participants in a long history of conversation and debate over the nature of voluntary choice. This debate was rooted in theological treatments of grace and freedom extending back into the patristic era. Like the earlier English and continental Protestant thinkers, Perkins carefully worked through the traditional faculty psychology, in order to counter the accusation of Roman Catholic polemicists that Reformed theology utterly denied human freedom and responsibility. From the outset, Perkins’ approach rested on an analysis of the interrelationship of intellect and will, the creation of human beings in the image of God, and the relationship of human to divine willing.
The Nature of the Will and Its Strength
Authors: Muller Richard A.
Published: August 2020

Perkins’ voluntaristic definition of the strength and power of the will allowed for various limitations, impediments, and inclinations that can influence choice. This definition, nonetheless, stressed the ability of the human will to render the final reduction of a choice to a single object or effect. Perkins, like many of his Reformed contemporaries, assumed that, although the will depends on the intellect to provide known objects for choice, the will can positively choose or reject what the intellect provides or suspend its act. The will as a free cause is not determined to one effect. In Perkins’ view, free choice is defined by alternativity and the assumption that each choice of the will could be otherwise.
Liberty Restored
Authors: Muller Richard A.
Published: August 2020

Of the issues confronting Perkins’ approach to the next two states of human nature, regeneration and glorification, the restoration of the will, specifically the lost “libertie of grace,” is the most complex. This is because he has assumed that the fallen will retains its basic freedom of choice and is both bound in sinfulness and incoercible. Given its condition, grace is not an object of choice for the will. It is not chosen—it is applied by God without abridging the freedom of the will. This is done in such a way that the will is freely active toward faith, obedience, and the good in the same temporal moment as the divine act of grace.
The Harmony and Consent of Divine and Human Willing
Authors: Muller Richard A.
Published: August 2020

Perkins argues for the harmony of a human willing that is genuinely contingent and characterized by capacity for opposite or contrary choices with the overarching providence of God. To accomplish this, he adopts a version of the theory of a divine “premotion.” This premotion is necessary to the eventuation of any and all events, whether necessary, contingent, or free. This resolution has affinities with the argument posed by Dominican or Thomist writers in Perkins’ time against the Molinist notion of middle knowledge. Conjoined with Perkins’ voluntarist reading of freed choice, it serves to explain how divine and human will only as taken together are sufficient to explain free acts of human beings.
Reasoning Strategies
Authors: Reed Stephen K.
Published: August 2020

A dichotomy that has influenced much theoretical and applied research on reasoning is the distinction between System I and System II reasoning. System I is intuitive, fast, based on associations, and subject to biases. System II is analytic, slow, based on rules, and more competent. It should be kept in mind, however, that these distinctions do not always apply. A fast, correct response occurs when an expert automatically responds quickly, and a slow, incorrect response occurs when the answer is unknown. One tactic to improve reasoning is the use of nudges to steer people’s choices in a direction to improve their lives. Another tactic is the use of boosts to educate people to make better decisions. Action-based decision-making, such as firefighting and military engagement, requires making a series of decisions as the situation changes. Situation awareness is critical for making good decisions.
Computational and Mathematical Thinking
Authors: Reed Stephen K.
Published: August 2020

Computational thinking is a way of solving problems, designing systems, and understanding human behavior that draws on concepts fundamental to computer science. The advanced placement course, AP Computer Science Principles, introduces students to basic concepts and challenges them to explore how computing and technology impact the world. Computational thinking across the K–12 curriculum compliments, rather than competes with, efforts to expand computer science education. Computer science courses include algorithmic thinking, logic, abstraction, decomposition, and debugging. Computational and mathematical thinking have much in common. The book In Pursuit of the Unknown: 17 Equations that Changed the World is an excellent introduction to mathematical thinking by describing the impact of equations.
Recoding the Boys' Club
Authors: Kreiss Daniel , Adams Kirsten , Ciesielski Jenni , Fernandez Haley , Frauenfelder Kate , Lowe Brinley , Micchia Gabrielle
Published: August 2020

This book offers the first in-depth look at the employment patterns and work experiences of women working in political technology on presidential campaigns in the United States. The book draws on a unique data set of 1,004 staffers working in political technology on presidential campaigns during the 2004, 2008, 2012, and 2016 election cycles; analysis of hiring patterns during the 2020 presidential primary cycle; and interviews with forty-five women who worked on twelve different presidential campaigns. The book reveals that women are underrepresented in political tech and especially in leadership positions, struggle to make their voices heard on campaigns, and have few means of holding people accountable for inappropriate behavior. This book is animated by the lived experiences of women. It conveys the struggles that many women endured to gain access to campaign workspaces and the battles for inclusion many faced once they got there. It shows how few formal channels women had to hold men accountable for sexist or demeaning behavior that prevented them from being the best they could be at their jobs. All with the aim of helping those who do this work create more gender-equitable and inclusive workplaces—and ones that value the ideas and skills of all those who work to get candidates elected. For those women entering the field or their careers more generally, this book offers an inside look at what those who came before experienced to help them navigate workplaces dominated by men.
Constitutional Statecraft in Asian Courts
Authors: Tew Yvonne
Published: August 2020

Constitutional Statecraft in Asian Courts explores how courts engage in constitutional state-building in aspiring yet deeply fragile democracies in Asia. Yvonne Tew offers an in-depth look at contemporary Malaysia and Singapore, explaining how courts protect and construct constitutionalism even as they confront dominant political parties and negotiate democratic transitions. This richly illustrative account offers at once an engaging analysis of Southeast Asia’s constitutional context, as well as a broader narrative that should resonate in many countries across Asia that are also grappling with similar challenges of colonial legacies, histories of authoritarian rule, and societies polarized by race, religion, and identity. The book explores the judicial strategies for statecraft in Asian courts, including an analysis of the specific mechanisms that courts can use to entrench constitutional basic structures and to protect rights in a manner that is purposive and proportionate. Tew’s account shows how courts in Asia’s emerging democracies can chart a path forward to help safeguard a nation’s constitutional core and to build an enduring constitutional framework.
Introduction Building Constitutionalism in Fragile Democracies
Authors: Tew Yvonne
Published: August 2020

What role do courts play in developing constitutional democracy in Asia? Constitutional Statecraft in Asian Courts explores the role of judicial review and constitutionalism in safeguarding democratic governance and facilitating constitutional governance. It offers an in-depth look at contemporary Malaysia and Singapore, helping us understand how courts engage in constitutional state-building even as they confront dominant political parties and negotiate democratic transitions. The book considers how the judiciary can negotiate institutional power to consolidate its position vis-à-vis the dominant political branches of government. It also examines the facilitative role courts can play in crafting the foundational principles of an evolving constitutional order. The judicial strategies evident in Malaysia and Singapore suit the challenges of many other emerging Asian democracies, providing both guidance and caution as these states negotiate their emerging constitutionalism. At the heart of this book is an account of how judicial strategies of constitutionalism can sculpt the contours of state-building. It is, in brief, about how courts engage in constitutional statecraft.
Rights Rhetoric
Authors: Tew Yvonne
Published: August 2020

Two competing narratives of rights constitutionalism have emerged in the rights discourse in Asian democracies. One account is often characterized as a universalist approach toward individual rights, driven by Western notions of liberalism and focused on civil and political liberties. In contrast, some Asian states have asserted a relativist approach toward rights, prioritizing communitarian interests and economic development over individual freedoms of expression, assembly, and personal liberty. Pitted against each other, these two frames have produced dichotomies perceived as being in tension with each other: between universalism and relativism, between individualism and communitarianism, and between civil-political rights and economic development. These constructed dichotomies perpetuated during the “Asian values” debate have continued even in the aftermath of that discourse to shape rights rhetoric and practice in the states that had been its strongest proponents. Yet the established political and constitutional paradigm has begun to shift. The changing political and popular landscape has been due in part to sustained political participation and growing rights consciousness since the turn of the twenty-first century in modern Malaysia and Singapore. This emerging culture of constitutionalism sets the backdrop for developing constitutional adjudication in these aspiring Asian democracies.
Constitutional Adjudication and Constitutional Politics
Authors: Tew Yvonne
Published: August 2020

This chapter explores the role of courts and how judicial review operates in practice within the wider political context of Asian states historically dominated by consolidated political power. Judiciaries in Malaysia and Singapore are empowered by their written constitutions to invalidate legislation and executive actions for rights violations. Yet these Asian courts have traditionally adopted an insular, rigidly formalistic approach toward constitutional review, marked by extensive deference to the political branches, stridently rejecting notions of implied constitutional principles or basic structures. This chapter consider why. Constitutional adjudication in practice is inextricably bound to constitutional politics. Courts facing a dominant political party operate within a challenging environment for exercising strong judicial review. In the 1980s, the government’s aggressive backlash to judicial decisions with which it disagreed resulted in constitutional crises in Malaysia and Singapore. Chastened, the courts retreated to a subdued position toward constitutional review. Over the next two decades the Malaysian apex court refrained from invalidating any federal statute, while its Singaporean counterpart has not once struck down any law. Recent displays of assertiveness by the Malaysian Federal Court, however, show signs of a reinvigorated judiciary. The chapter tells the story of the courts’ rise, fall, and uneven journey toward constitutional redemption in these Asian democracies.
Constitutional History
Authors: Tew Yvonne
Published: August 2020

This chapter explores the constitutional founding and road to independence in the post-colonial states of Malaysia and Singapore. It provides the historical context for understanding the constitution’s text and the foundations of the constitutional framework. Understanding the broader purposes that motivated the constitutional project provides us with the context necessary to interpret the constitutional text. For example, Malaysia’s constitutionalization of Islam as the state religion was part of a social contract memorialized in a constitutional bargain that also sought to protect minorities and individuals. This historical context is vital for understanding the role that religion would play in the new constitutional order. More generally, the constitutions of Malaysia and Singapore set in place an overarching framework for governance that envisaged continuing constitutional construction in these independent democracies. Rather than mandating a narrow focus on the framer’s specific expectations, as reflected by the Singapore Court of Appeal’s originalist approach, constitutional history helps reveal the foundational elements of a polity that can guide a contemporary adjudication approach. Faithfulness to the constitution calls for a deeper understanding of the foundational principles that underlie its structure and rights guarantees.
The Rule of Law
Authors: Tew Yvonne
Published: August 2020

Accounts of the rule of law in some Asian states have typically been portrayed in highly formalistic terms. Singapore, for example, has long been characterized as having a stable, efficient legal system that perpetuates a “thin” rule of law in service of the state’s objectives. This chapter constructs a more robust conception of the rule of law, which is fundamentally connected to the courts’ power of judicial review. The Malaysian Federal Courts decision in the 2018 case of Indira Gandhi v. Pengarah Jabatan Agama Islam reveals a notion of the judicial power of the courts as a necessary corollary of the rule of law. Further, the Federal Court expressly declared the civil courts’ judicial review power and constitutional interpretation as basic features of the constitution that cannot be altered by formal amendment. This rule of law conception is in line with the principle of legality, premised on the notion that all power has legal limits, as the Singapore Court of Appeal has articulated. This emerging account of the rule of law is inextricably linked to judicial review as integral to the constitution’s core framework.
Courts in Transition
Authors: Tew Yvonne
Published: August 2020

This chapter makes the case for an empowered judicial role in the constitutional governance of emerging democracies in Asia. Courts play a significant role in checking political power in dominant party states and building foundational principles of constitutionalism for aspiring democracies. In the face of concentrated political power, the judiciary can strengthen its institutional role through strategic assertiveness, as the Malaysian apex court has exhibited in two recent landmark decisions: Semenyih Jaya v. Pentadbir Tanah Daerah Hulu Langat (2017) and Indira Gandhi v. Pengarah Jabatan Agama Islam (2018). How can courts develop the constitutional jurisprudence necessary to support a more empowered judicial role? The chapter argues that the constitution’s foundational elements—the constitution’s original framework, the separation of powers, and the rule of law—provide a core basis for courts to safeguard and draw on to structure constitutional adjudication. It explores the specific legal mechanisms that courts can invoke in practice: a constitutional basic structure doctrine, purposive interpretation, and proportionality analysis in constitutional adjudication. Taken together, these judicial interventions can equip courts in developing democracies to defend the constitution’s core structure and to construct principles of constitutionalism.
The Austrian Constitutional Court
Authors: Grabenwarter Christoph
Published: August 2020

This chapter pays attention to the Austrian Constitutional Court. This court-constitutional adjudication is characterized by a single institution, which in its competences and organizational structure is essentially unchanged compared to the Constitutional Court that was established in 1920. In order to understand today’s constitutional adjudication, the chapter discusses its historical beginnings immediately after the end of the monarchy. It also reveals that, in the European comparison, the Austrian Constitutional Court is of great importance in national constitutional practice. It owes this essentially to its power to review and strike down statutes. Until very recently, the Constitutional Court had no authority in disputes between different organs of the state. Only since the beginning of 2015 has it been responsible for ruling on disputes between organs of the Nationalrat and organs required to provide information.
The Belgian Constitutional Court
Authors: Behrendt Christian
Published: August 2020

This chapter turns to the Belgian Constitutional Court. It argues that, though Belgium only had a constitutional jurisdiction since 1983, it did have some forms of constitutional review divided between several different bodies. This decentralized form of constitutional review, which encompasses legislative and executive rules and case law, was not eliminated with the establishment of the constitutional court either, so that it continues to exist to the present day. The chapter thus presents the fundamental features of this decentralized review. It first describes the circumstances surrounding the adoption of the Belgian constitution in 1831, the creation of the Council of State in 1946, and the efforts of the Court of Cassation at constitutional review. A consideration of the reactions elicited by this jurisprudence follows. Finally, the chapter looks into the creation of the Constitutional Court, initially referred to as the Court of Arbitration, in 1983.
The Constitutional Court of Czechia
Authors: Kosař David , Vyhnánek Ladislav
Published: August 2020

This chapter focuses on the Czech Constitutional Court (CCC). It shows, on the one hand, how the CCC has so far skilfully navigated through political ups and downs and has risen to prominence in Czech politics. On the other hand, this chapter also suggests that the CCC, despite its current wide powers, is a rather fragile institution. It argues that the creation of the CCC must be understood in the broader historical and political context. To that end, the chapter sketches the institutional design of the CCC and discusses the CCC’s powers. Subsequently, the chapter analyses the internal judicial practices of the CCC and the key procedural rules, then provides the taxonomy of the CCC’s rulings as well as their style, effects, and publication. Finally, it identifies and discusses political determinants of the CCC’s functioning and focuses on the interaction of the CCC with other domestic as well as supranational actors.
The German Federal Constitutional Court
Authors: Farahat Anuscheh
Published: August 2020

This chapter discusses the German constitutional court, otherwise known as the Federal Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht; ‘BVerfG’). It first traces the development of the German process of constitutional jurisdiction from its pre-Nazi era roots to its astounding post-war transformation into one of the world’s leading courts. The chapter looks at the challenges inherent in the founding of the BVerfG before providing an overview of the organization and role and functions of the BVerfG. It shows how the BVerfG acts as the ‘guardian’ of German constitutional law. To conclude, this chapter reflects on the increasing Europeanization of constitutional law and what it means for the BVerfG to navigate this new era of constitutional pluralization.
The Constitutional Court of Hungary
Authors: Sólyom László
Published: August 2020

This chapter is an overview of the Hungarian Constitutional Court. It first discusses the origins, history, and development of the Constitutional Court. The chapter then turns to the organization of the Hungarian Constitutional Court and the legal context within which it functions. Thereafter, the role of the Constitutional Court within the Hungarian political system is explored. The chapter considers the relationships between the Constitutional Court and the parliament and government as well as the ordinary courts. Next, the chapter examines the ideals and accomplishments of the Constitutional Court concerning its political role and the doctrine of constitutional law. Lastly, the chapter evaluates the Constitutional Court's development at a historical milestone—the transformation of the Hungarian legal order on the basis of constitutional standards.