bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Investigation into the Application of Digital Prediction Filters to Direct Digital Control Systems
Authors: Roberts P. D.
Published: November 2015

The report describes a digital simulation study of the application of discrete prediction filters, designed from Taylor series expansion or the method of least squares, to direct digital control, where the prediction filter is inserted in the feedback path. The effects on system performance to set-point changes and load disturbances are investigated. In addition, the effects of process noise and system stability are considered. It is concluded that accuracy of prediction is not the most important property which affects control performance. Best performance is obtained using a filter which has a low sensitivity to process noise and predicts as far as possible into the future while remaining within stability constraints.
Slurry Flow Velocity, Concentration and Particle Size Measurement Using Flow Noise and Correlation Techniques
Authors: Ong K. H. , Beck M. S.
Published: November 2015

Three areas of slurry pipe flow measurement using flow noise and correlation techniques are described. Signals generated by the natural turbulence inherent in the flow of two-component fluids can be used to enable the total volume flow rate, concentration and particle size of the discontinuous component to be measured.

Total volume flow is measured by a cross correlation method which involves obtaining the time of flight of a tagging signal due to the turbulence between two transducers spaced axially along the direction of flow. Both ultrasonic and conductivity transducers are used to detect the flow turbulence. Results show that a measurement accuracy within ±2% can be achieved in all systems tested. The intensity of the flow noise detected by a simple transducer is related to the quantity of the discontinuous component present in the flow. This flow noise is measured by an AC method and gives direct indication of the concentration of the discontinuous component. Turbulent flow consists of eddies which have characteristic size ranges. The motion of particles in a turbulent flow field is a function of the particle size and shape, and the density of the particles and of the fluid. A measure of the eddy size based on the spectral analysis of the flow noise can be used to give an indication of the mean particle size.
Multivariable Control of Bath Recovery Plant for Aluminium Electrolysis
Authors: Clay J. , Retallack D. G. , Riffaud J. P.
Published: November 2015

The paper describes a time-varying, non-linear, sampled-data multivariable control problem with human and laboratory interfaces between the process and controlling computer. Special emphasis is placed on the plant experience and physical reasoning which enables the problem to be gradually reduced to a sample-by-sample-adaptive one with a particularly simple feedforward/feedback solution. It is concluded that extra effort spent in setting up and simplifying a control problem can pay enormous dividends in terms of (a) physical insight into the most important aspects of the process from the control viewpoint, and (b) the ease with which the design problem is solved.
An Intercomparison of French and UK Pressure Standards
Authors: Clapham P. B. , Daborn J. E. , Hatley M. B. , Samson P. , Congé G.
Published: November 2015

Within the framework of co-operation between the Bureau National de Métrologie and the National Physical Laboratory an intercomparison of the French and UK barometric pressure standards was performed during 1973 and 19 74. Both ‘absolute’ and ‘gauge’ pressures in the range 0–110 kPa (0–1100 mbar) were employed and the results demonstrated that the respective national standards agreed to within 3 Pa (0.03 mbar) throughout the range, which is well inside the measurement uncertainties associated with the exercise.
A Simulator to Train Process Operators of Substitute for Natural Gas Plants
Authors: Davies J.
Published: November 2015

Simulators can be invaluable aids to process operator training, but their benefits can only be realised by means of good functional design resulting from a careful analysis of the training problem. Simulator usage and design are discussed, and the general principles raised are illustrated with respect to a substitute natural gas process simulator designed and constructed for the British Gas Corporation, and a North Sea oil production platform simulator being designed for Pergamon Press Ltd.
Analytical Instruments for Process Control
Authors: Carr-Brion K. G.
Published: November 2015

The function and typical applications of on-line analytical instruments used for process control are reviewed. Current limitations and future techniques and requirements are also examined.
Model Reference Adaptive Control Systems: Background and Development
Authors: Tatnall M. L.
Published: November 2015

Of the many classes of adaptive control systems described in the literature this article is primarily concerned with the background and development of the model reference type. Of this large group the main emphasis is upon systems synthesised by the use of stability criteria.

The relatively recent origins of adaptive control are examined and some of the control policies developed during the 1950's are described. Consideration is given to the development of this technology in the flight-systems field which led to the MIT system and others using a model reference technique. Applications of these systems are discussed wherever possible.

Some of the stability problems inherent in systems designed using these techniques are discussed and reference is made to the continued development of the steepest descent methods which appeared in the early 1960's.

The problem of determining the stability boundaries essential in the application of the earlier methods of adaptive control was removed by the introduction of stability-based systems of Grayson, Rang, Butchart and Shackcloth, and Parks. These methods of synthesising the adaptive control laws by the use of Lyapunov's direct method and their shortcomings with regard to state measurement are considered.

An adaptive hydraulic control system is described and the results of this experiment are given as examples of what can be achieved using relatively simple parametric controllers. Consideration is given to the synthesis of multi-variable adaptive control systems and the recent, more general, approach to these systems is examined. Some examples are included of the adaptation of time-varying process parameters and methods of improving the performance of stability-based systems are discussed.
Maintenance of Electrical Instrumentation in Hazardous Areas
Authors: Towle L. C.
Published: November 2015

The paper begins by discussing those aspects of maintenance of low-power electrical equipment in hazardous atmospheres that are common to both intrinsically safe and type ‘N’ equipment. The salient points particular to each of the techniques are then discussed separately, the points made on intrinsically safe equipment being in line with current accepted practice and those on type ‘N’ equipment being slightly more controversial.
Dynamic Modelling of a Gas Pressure Regulator for Low Pressure Service
Authors: Tatnall M. L. , Redpath A.
Published: November 2015

This paper concerns the development of a mathematical model for use both in predicting system behaviour and in control valve design. The first model considered includes several parameters whose values may only be found by experimentation, whilst the second model may be synthesised using only readily available data. The response of each of the simulation models is compared to experimentally obtained results obtained from a 2 in regulator and the effects of parametric variations are considered. It is shown that the transient response of this type of valve may be modelled by the use of the reasonably simple simulation model described.
Reference Standards for Gas Flow Measurement
Authors: Brain T. J. S.
Published: November 2015

The most significant standard methods of gas flow measurement in current use are reviewed. Each method is briefly described and discussed and guides to the flow ranges covered by the methods are presented along with estimates of their accuracies. Details of the standard methods covered in this review may be found from the references listed.
TEC — A National System for the Education of Technicians
Authors: Jackson E.
Published: November 2015

It so happened that I was present at the FE Staff College, Coombe Lodge, for the official announcement of the TEC Policy Statement in June 1974 and the discussion that followed highlighted the salient features; as a result I have observed the working of the scheme with some interest since then. Many criticisms have been expressed and I have been amongst those who have expressed some disagreement with certain aspects. However, the following article is intended to be entirely factual. The interpretation is mine and does not purport in any way to represent that of SELTEC, my previous college where I was in charge of Instrumentation and Process Control Courses nor that of the Polytechnic of Central London where at the moment I am a visiting lecturer.

Direct quotes from TEC Documents are indicated in the usual way.
The Excess Weight Controller
Authors: Hague M. , Senior R. A. , Smith R. W.
Published: November 2015

An idea for improved control of plants with a transport delay arose from simulation studies of a sinter plant feed system. The idea was initially developed and explained in terms of the concept of Excess Weight in Transport. On this basis an ‘excess Weight Controller’ was developed and installed very successfully on one of the British Steel Corporation's sinter plants where it has been operating successfully for over two years. Further study of the theory of the Controller has shown that it can be considered as an extension of the Smith Predictor developed by Prof Otto Smith in California. This consolidation of the theory will make it easier to apply the concepts to a wider range of problems.
Process Measurement in the Food Industry (Part 1)
Authors: Steele D. J. , McFarlane I.
Published: November 2015

This article reviews a selection of familiar techniques for in-line measurement of temperature, moisture, flow, and level, with descriptions of some transducers adapted for particular applications in the food industry. There is also a number of illustrations of methods for measuring other variables, and descriptions of some special devices for foreign body detection, dimension gauging, and viscosity measurement. The review will conclude with some discussion of future trends in food process plant instrumentation.
Considerations in the Application of Self-Tuning PID Controllers Using EXACT-Tuning Algorithm
Authors: Carmon A
Published: November 2015

The paper reviews the operation of an on-line continuously adaptive PID controller which uses an expert system approach to self-tune. The benefits of using continuously adaptive control have been demonstrated by trial installations and have produced financial returns running into six figure values per annum per loop. Indirect benefits such as better insight into plant controllability (used to indicate a need for plant maintenance) and faster plant startups have been identified by users. The paper stresses the need for experience feedback in developing the understanding of the industry in the correct and best use of this new technology, a technology which promises to become the industry standard. An application guideline is provided and some limitations are pointed out. Some features that help make it a robust and secure product in a process control environment are also indicated.
The FORTH Programming Language for Control Systems: Potential Advantages
Authors: McCurdy C
Published: November 2015

When working with the control system1, it was found that the FORTH language offered advantages over:

BASIC — in terms of speed of control action machine code — in terms of program development/testing time.

Furthermore, in common circumstances where program/alterations have to be made to cope with plant, process or design changes, FORTH is less prone to errors that may occur when adapting machine code.
Standards, Codes of Practice and Expert Systems
Authors: McCluskey E G , Thompson S , McSherry D M G
Published: November 2015

Many engineering design problems require reference to standards or codes of practice to ensure that acceptable safety and performance criteria are met. Extracting relevant data from such documents can, however, be a problem for the unfamiliar user. The use of expert systems to guide the retrieval of information from standards and codes of practice is proposed as a means of alleviating this problem.

Following a brief introduction to expert system techniques, a tool developed by the authors for building expert system guides to standards and codes of practice is described. The steps involved in encoding the knowledge contained in an arbitrarily chosen standard are illustrated. Finally, a typical consultation illustrates the use of the expert system guide to the standard.
Chemical Sensors and Their Relevance to Clinical Measurement
Authors: Baker M , Vadgama P
Published: November 2015

The concept of a bedside monitor capable of performing rapid, accurate and reagentless analyses in undiluted biological fluids is highly attractive. Such concepts have been awoken in many minds in recent years, as reflected by the large and rapidly expanding volume of literature in the chemical and biosensors field. An apparently unending stream of novel systems are reported for detecting species of diagnostic or medical importance. Frequently, however, these have been optimised under assay conditions which poorly address the compatibility problems associated with introducing sensor devices into biological matrices. As a consequence, few of the described systems have achieved practical clinical status. This article describes principles and problems of medically relevant chemical sensors and assesses likely future developments in the field.
The Application of Condition Monitoring Techniques to Product Quality Monitoring
Authors: Hughes M L
Published: November 2015

Techniques normally associated with automated condition monitoring, such as dynamic analysis, spectrum comparison and fault diagnostics may be used to create a sensitive inspection technique for mechanical products capable of detecting faults not easily found from performance tests. This article outlines the concept of the technique, known as Product Quality Monitoring (PQM), examines some of the methods employed and discusses advantages, limitations and future development.
Intrinsic Safety Rules OK for Process Instrumentation — Part 2
Authors: Hutcheon I C
Published: November 2015

The technique of intrinsic safety was originated in England for mine signalling, following a serious mine disaster in 1913. The first surface certificate was issued in 1936 and the first formal standard in 1945, but it was not until the 1960s that the technique came into its own for process measurement and control, with the development of the shunt-diode safety barrier based on the Zener diode.

This paper outlines the development of the technique and describes some typical applications of the shunt-diode barrier and its more recent companion, the isolating interface device. It also looks briefly at the new IS instruments being made possible by advances in low-power semiconductor technology.
Sensing in Advanced Robotic Assembly
Authors: Taylor P M
Published: November 2015

Sensors are typically added to programmable assembly cells in order to enable correct operation when components are imprecisely positioned, and when fixtures, actuators and other cell resources are non-ideal. The assembly operation and the environment can be monitored so that any errors can be detected and recovery actions can be selected automatically. In an ideal world the synthesis of such a system for a given assembly problem would be simple, quick to undertake and foolproof. Such systems could then be applied to rapidly changing small-batch production environments. However, in practice, the synthesis of sensory assembly systems is non-trivial, time-consuming and error prone. The paper categorizes the use of sensors in assembly with illustrations from practical assembly projects. This then leads to ideas about sensor selection and how sensory information can be used in decision-making. An outline is given of a probabilistic framework which can be used as a basis for both of these tasks.
Electrical and Electronic Engineering Education in Italy
Authors: Monaco V A
Published: November 2015

The organization of engineering education in Italy is discussed, considering also the changes which are being introduced as a result of recent law; in this country, in fact, all university curricula are subject to state laws. The new law gives greater autonomy to the universities and enables them to provide more specialized curricula by means of the institution of two new degree courses: in information engineering (i.e. computer engineering), and telecommunications engineering.

Throughout the paper special attention has been given to control engineering education. In order to provide a more complete picture of the situation, in the first section the organization of the Italian educational system is briefly described.
Intrinsic Safety — The Second Edition
Authors: Tortoishell G
Published: November 2015

The second edition of the European Standard for Intrinsic Safety was released for public comment in early 1989 and contains several significant additions and clarifications which could have a significant effect on the design of intrinsically-safe apparatus and systems. The purpose of this article is to highlight these proposals and examine their likely effect as far as equipment designers are concerned.
Public policy and operational alignment in light of public service retrenchment – lessons learned from Canada
Authors: Levasseur Karine , Rounce Andrea
Published: November 2015

This article examines the Strategic and Operating Review (SOR) process used by the Government of Canada through a strategic management perspective. Initiated by the Harper government in the 2011 Budget as a one-year process, SOR is expected to secure savings of CDN$4 billion by 2014–15 from the CDN$80 billion operating budget of departments. Our article assesses to what degree the strategic operational cuts support the public policy priorities of the Harper government.

Points for practitioners

Using Canada as a case study to understand how budgetary cuts are handled, this article provides an opportunity to consider how policy makers align operational cuts with public policy priorities. While the budget cuts in this case study are operational in nature, they require direction from central government to support – not undermine – public policy priorities.
Adolescents Educated in Israel and in the Soviet Union
Authors: Ziv Avner , Shani Abraham , Nebenhaus Shoshana
Published: November 2015

Moral judgments on a relativistic-realistic dimension of two groups of adolescents were measured. One hundred Israeli- and 100 Soviet-educated adolescents who had recently arrived in Israel were given a specially designed instrument—the Morality Shifting in Adolescence Questionnaire. Soviet-educated adolescents were significantly more realistically oriented in their moral judgment than the Israelis. It was also found that, in both groups, girls were more realistically oriented than boys. The proposed explanation related these differences to the different socialization processes in the two countries.
The Functions of Saliva
Authors: Mandel I. D.
Published: November 2015

Nature's demands on salivary glands are extensive and diverse and range from the reptilian need for a venomous drop to incapacitate its prey to the 100 quarts that ruminants require to digest a day's grazing. Other species depend on saliva not for survival, but for improving the quality of life, using the fluid for functions varying from grooming and cleansing to nest-building. Humans can manage without saliva; its loss is not life-threatening in any immediate sense, but it results in a variety of difficulties and miseries. Oral digestion per se is only of marginal importance in humans, but saliva is important in preparing food for mastication, for swallowing, and far normal taste perception. Without saliva, mealtimes are difficult, uncomfortable, and embarrassing. The complex mix of salivary constituents provides an effective set of systems for lubricating and protecting the soft and hard tissues. Protection of soft tissues is afforded against desiccation, penetration, ulceration, and potential carcinogens by mucin and anti-proteases. Saliva can encourage soft tissue repair by reducing clotting time and accelerating wound contraction. A major protective function results from the salivary role in maintenance of the ecological balance in the oral cavity via; (1) debridement/lavage; (2) aggregation and reduced adherence by both immunological and nan-immunological means; and (3) direct antibacterial activity. Saliva also possesses antifungal and anti-viral systems. Saliva is effective in maintaining pH in the oral cavity, contributes to the regulation of plaque pH, and helps neutralize reflux acids in the esophagus. Salivary maintenance of tooth integrity is dependent on: (1) mechanical cleansing and carbohydrate clearance; (2) post-eruptive maturation of enamel; (3) regulation of the ionic environment to provide a remineralizing potential without spontaneous precipitation; and (4) pellicle deposition and limitation of acid diffusion. Saliva also plays a role in water balance, can serve in a limited way in excretion, and has possible hormonal function in the gastro-intestinal tract.
Inflammatory and Obstructive Disorders of Salivary Glands
Authors: Blitzer A.
Published: November 2015

Obstructive and inflammatory diseases of the salivary glands can have a congenital, traumatic, metabolic, or infectious-inflammatory cause. The acute inflammatory conditions include bacterial and viral infections, and the chronic conditions include sialoliths, strictures, chronic sialadenitis, sialectasis, and lymphoepithelial disease. The neoplastic diseases can cause obstruction and/or infection and often make the diagnosis elusive. In addition to a working knowledge of possible etiology, one needs experience with clinical examination, salivary analysis, sialography, CT scans, MRI, and fine-needle aspiration and cytology in order successfully to evaluate and manage patients with these conditions.
Artificial Salivas: Present and Future
Authors: Levine M. J. , Aguirre A. , Hatton M. N. , Tabak L. A.
Published: November 2015

Modern technology has allowed us to understand better the functions of saliva and now provides a rationale for developing: (1) diagnostic reagents for monitoring oral and systemic health status and (2) replacement therapies for individuals with salivary dysfunctions. Several areas of dental research are directed at augmenting or enhancing both the quality and quantity of saliva for individuals with dry mouth. An “intrinsic” approach is being explored which utilizes medications such as pilocarpine and bromhexine to stimulate the salivary glands to produce more saliva. An “extrinsic” approach proposes to use topically applied artificial saliva. Studies in our laboratory have been directed toward developing artificial salivas which incorporate many of the protective features of “native” saliva. An ideal artificial saliva should be “long-lasting”, provide lubrication, inhibit colonization of microflora responsible for dental caries and gingivitis, and coat the oral soft tissues for protection against environmental insult and desiccation. Studies are currently under way to determine the structural requirements of salivary molecules responsible for these protective functions. Composite salivary molecules consisting of multiple biologically active or “functional domains” could then be designed and synthesized based upon primary sequence and conformational analyses, computer-assisted structural predictions, and in vitro testing. These supersalivary substances could then be used as saliva substitutes for targeting to selected oral surfaces to promote mineralization, hydration, and/or regulate microbial-mediated disease.
The Antimicrobial Action of Fluoride and its Role in Caries Inhibition
Authors: Van Loveren C.
Published: November 2015

Despite a considerable amount of literature on the effects of fluoride in dental plaque, several urgent questions remain unanswered, such as: Does the inhibiting effect of fluoride on dental plaque metabolism contribute to caries prevention? Does adaptation of plaque to fluoride affect its cariogenicity?

Single applications of fluoride directly to dental plaque reduced acid production. Also, fluoride dissolving from topically treated enamel reduced the acid production in covering layers of oral bacteria in vitro. The effects of both treatments were only of short duration and may not be relevant to caries prevention in vivo. In contrast, daily applications of fluoride resulted in a reduction of the acidogenicity of dental plaque even 8–12 h after the treatment. Such a reduction is likely to contribute to caries prevention. But it has to be realized that when plaque reaches saturation with respect to fluoridated calcium (phosphate) precipitates, enamel becomes insoluble and any antimicrobial effect becomes irrelevant. Still lacking are data on the antimicrobial effects of fluoride regimens normally used in home care, in weekly rinsing programs in schools, or treatments applied professionally every six months.

Adaptation of Streptococcus mutans to fluoride has been suggested to reduce the cariogenic potential of the cells. In vitio-induced fluoride-resistant strains were less cariogenic in rats, and the velocity of acid production in vitro was reduced at constant pH > 5.5. Despite the ability of oral bacteria to adapt to fluoride, evidence of adaptation in dental plaque of normal subjects resulting in a reduced cariogenic potential has not yet been demonstrated.
Critical Evaluation of the Composition and Use of Topical Fluorides
Authors: Stookey G.K.
Published: November 2015

This report reviews the current status of various topical fluoride systems commonly used for caries prevention; these systems include professional fluoride applications, prophylaxis pastes, varnishes, rinses, gels, and dentifrices. Although the cariostatic benefits of professional applications are well-established from early studies, the magnitude of benefit relative to other preventive measures needs to be re-assessed under current conditions. Significant cariostatic benefits from fluoride prophylaxis pastes remain to be established, as does the relative efficacy of fluoride varnishes in comparison with other fluoride measures. The established cariostatic activity of fluoride rinses with supervised usage needs confirmation under normal home usage conditions. There is inadequate evidence to justify either increasing or decreasing the concentration of fluoride in conventional dentifrices whose efficacy is well-established. Based on limited clinical data and supportive laboratory data, fluoride appears to be effective for preventing root-surface caries.
A Comparison of Confidential versus Anonymous Survey Procedures: Effects on Reporting of Drug Use and Related Attitudes and Beliefs in a National Study of Students
Authors: O'Malley Patrick M. , Johnston Lloyd D. , Bachman Jerald G. , Schulenberg John
Published: November 2015

This study presents a comparison of reporting of drug use and related attitudes and beliefs by national samples of eighth and tenth grade students under two different modes of administration conditions: confidential and anonymous. The results show that there were clearly no differences between the conditions in tenth graders' reports of drug use and related attitudes and beliefs. With eighth graders, the results show, at most, only a very modest mode of administration effect and quite possibly no effect at all. The results are reassuring to researchers who conduct surveys of drug use and related attitudes and beliefs among secondary school students.
Correlates of Underreporting of Post-Discharge Cocaine Use among Therapeutic Community Clients
Authors: Messina Nena P. , Wish Eric D. , Nemes Susanna , Wraight Brook
Published: November 2015

This study had two goals: first, to assess the validity of self-reported recent cocaine use at follow-up among therapeutic community (TC) clients and second, to identify pre- and post-admission factors that are related to underreporting of cocaine use. Research interviews and urinalyses were used from the follow-up sample of 307 people participating in the District of Columbia Treatment Initiative (DCI) study 19 months after treatment discharge. Results show that the type of measure used to assess validity is very important to determining the results. Overall percentage agreement between self-reports and urinalysis was greater than 70 percent; however, after restricting the sample to include only those clients who were cocaine positive, the agreement decreased to 35 percent. Bivariate analyses revealed no pre-admission correlates of underreporting cocaine use at follow-up and a few post-admission correlates. We conclude that it is not possible to identify in advance clients who are likely to underreport cocaine use. To avoid underestimating cocaine use, treatment outcome studies should use objective measures of drug use along with self-reports.
Substance Use Rates among American Indian Adolescents: Regional Comparisons with Monitoring the Future High School Seniors
Authors: Plunkett Mark , Mitchell Christina M.
Published: November 2015

While substance use rates among American Indian (AI) adolescents have been compared to those of non-AI youth, statistical tests have not been used to determine whether these rates differ significantly. The literature also has not compared rates within geographic regions. In this research, we used two data sets to address these issues among high school seniors: the Voices of Indian Teens and Monitoring the Future projects. Lifetime substance use among AI youth was significantly higher than it was for non-AI youth for only two substances (marijuana and cocaine); non-AI youth had significantly higher use rates of inhalants and cigarettes. AI youth were significantly higher than non-AI youth for the 30-day use of five of seven substances (marijuana, cocaine, stimulants, alcohol, and barbiturates). However, analysis of the geographic regions revealed different patterns of substance use, with AI youth significantly higher on more lifetime substance use items in one region and non-AI youth significantly higher in another. In addition, AI youth rates were significantly higher on only three of seven substances when region was controlled.
An Estimate of the Level and Determinants of Illicit Drug Use among Unauthorized Latino Immigrant Arrestees in California
Authors: Marcelli Enrico A.
Published: November 2015

Although justifications for a more restrictive U.S. immigration policy have increasingly relied on linking socially unacceptable behaviors such as welfare participation and illicit drug use with illegal entry, very few immigration impact studies separate respondents by foreign-born legal status. Applying a legal status prediction equation to 1994–1996 CALDUF data, this paper (1) estimates the relative level of illicit drug use (IU) among unauthorized Latino immigrant arrestees (ULIAs) in California and (2) investigates how individual-demographic and institutional-structural factors influence IU. ULIAs were underrepresented, with a smaller proportion testing positive for IU and having experienced or desired drug treatment. Regression results suggest (1) ULIA status had an independent negative effect on IU; and (2) higher earnings may have decreased, and public assistance recipiency and the percent of one's income obtained illegally may have increased, the likelihood of IU. We conclude by discussing implications for various policy instruments.
Examining Prevalence Differences in Three National Surveys of Youth: Impact of Consent Procedures, Mode, and Editing Rules
Authors: Fendrich Michael , Johnson Timothy P.
Published: November 2015

We examined the potential prevalence Impact of differences In consent procedures, mode of administration, and editing protocols in the 1997 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, the Monitoring the Future study, and the Youth Risk Behavior Survey, limiting analyses to 10th and 12th graders. NHSDA's high level of compliance with federal regulations regarding human subjects research, including thorough parental permission prior to adolescent participation, may in part be responsible for the relatively low prevalence rates obtained in this study. Key mode effects which contribute to observed differences across surveys are survey setting and privacy. The two school-based surveys produce higher prevalence estimates than the NHSDA. Although NHSDA prevalence rates Increase with increased interview privacy, the increase Is not enough to account for discrepancies with the school surveys. The procedures used to handle Inconsistent survey responses and to Impute missing data are very different across the three surveys. These differences In editing procedures, however, are unlikely to be responsible for the observed differences in prevalence rates. Based on these analyses, we conclude that the field would benefit from a well-designed experimental study evaluating school vs. household effects as well as the impact of variation In consent procedures. Increased methodological research on the validity of school based drug surveys is also needed.
High Risk Drug Use Sites, Meaning and Practice: Implications for AidS Prevention
Authors: Weeks Margaret R. , Clair Scott , Singer Merrill , Radda Kim , Schensul Jean J. , Wilson D. Scott , Martinez Maria , Scott Glenn , Knight Glenn
Published: November 2015

A study of drug use locations in Hartford, CT, Is designed to understand the environmental and social conditions within “high risk sites” where drug users inject drugs or smoke crack, In order to develop AIDS prevention models that build upon the physical and social organization of these locations. The study assesses high-risk sites characterized on the basis of type of location or structure, presence and strength of gatekeepers, and presence and strength of HIV prevention opportunities and pressures. A combination of ethnographic, epidemiological, and social network methods are used to document the characteristics, social organization, natural history, and dynamics of these sites, the network relations of site users, and the various opportunities for, or barriers to, on-site social-level HIV prevention intervention. This paper provides an overview of the study and presents preliminary findings, Including the degree to which drug injectors and crack smokers use specific types of sites in Hartford. The paper also discusses the ways these findings Inform development of on-site, type-specific and peer-led or structural HIV-prevention Interventions.
Illicit Retail Methamphetamine Markets and Related Local Problems: A Police Perspective
Authors: Taylor Bruce G. , Brownstein Henry H. , Mulcahy Timothy M. , Woods Daniel J. , Fernandes-Huessy Johannes , Hafford Carol
Published: November 2015

In this paper we examine whether features of the operation of retail methamphetamine markets affects communities in three domain areas (public safety, health, and economy). We use data from a national survey of law enforcement agencies (n= 1,367) with narcotics officers to examine the operational characteristics of methamphetamine markets. We found that the operational features of a market (the source of methamphetamine and the most common location for selling methamphetamine) can have a significant impact on the types of public safety, health, and economic problems that communities are experiencing. In particular, jurisdictions distinguished by largely semi-private markets (strip clubs and bars) are more likely to be characterized as localities that have a large public safety and health problem. Jurisdictions that are supplied by multiple local and international sources (compared to a single source) were more likely to be characterized as jurisdictions that have problems in the three domains.
How Distinct are the Stages of Change for Smoking Cessation? A Comparison of the Stages of Change and the Contemplation Ladder Using an Adolescent Sample
Authors: Herzog Thaddeus , Komarla Rohini
Published: November 2015

The stage of change approach to smoking cessation posits that smokers can be divided into categories based on the extent to which they are motivated to quit smoking. Recent research, however, suggests that the stage of change algorithm systematically misclassifies smokers by underestimating motivation to quit. The hypothesis of the current study was that the systematic misclassification by the stages of change results in stages that blend together smokers varying widely in motivation to quit. We tested this hypothesis by contrasting the stages of change with the contemplation ladder (an alternative measure of motivation to quit smoking) using cross-sectional data on ten cessation-relevant variables. The sample consisted of 401 adolescent smokers. The results were consistent with the hypothesis. The cross-sectional analyses indicated that the contemplation ladder is a more discriminating measure of motivation to quit, and that the stage of change algorithm is an unnecessarily imprecise instrument.
The Economic Organization of the Nicotine, Heroin and other Drug Industries
Authors: Sullivan Richard F.
Published: November 2015

The tools of economic analysis can be applied to the buying and selling of any illegal commodity and they may be able to highlight some errors in social policy. In this article the demand and supply conditions of three illegal drug industries are analyzed, as well as the organizing principles of the industries, the degree of monopoly or of competition, and the principal sales techniques. The fact of addiction leads to a condition known as price-inelastic demand for heroin and nicotine, but not for marijuana, which is non-addictive. This means that total spending will increase as sales decrease when price rises. Price rises due to high sales taxes have created a flourishing criminal nicotine industry and price rises due to vigorous law enforcement have created the conditions for criminal monopolies in the heroin industries. Moreover, both nicotine and heroin sellers have used similar merchandising techniques because of the nature of the addiction involved. The demand conditions also make a policy of vigorous enforcement of the laws against marijuana, leading to an increase in the price of marijuana, a potentially dangerous social policy.
An Assessment of Prior Methadone Use by Residents of a Drug-Free Therapeutic Community
Authors: Collier Walter V.
Published: November 2015

Along with the increase in methadone treatment programs, there has also been an increase in on-the-street use of methadone. One of the effects of these statistical trends has been an increase of prior methadone users and abusers among individuals entering drug-free treatment programs. The present study sought to profile former methadone users within Daytop Village's drug-free therapeutic community. The study also included a sub-investigation on the outcome of treatment within the TC as a function of prior involvement within a methadone maintenance program.
Research on the Effects of Over-the-Counter Drug Advertising
Authors: Kanter Donald L.
Published: November 2015

Dr. Kanter presents a summary of his research assessing the role of OTC advertising in Influencing drug usage. His work represents the only systematic study of the impact of commercial advertising on drug usage. He stresses that advertising in itself does not directly lead to drug misuse but should be considered as part of a host of factors in the social environment and in the media environment that have significant influence in determining people's behavior. He also urged that the existing pharmaceutical advertising codes, which are often violated, be reviewed and strengthened.
Junkie Television
Authors: Johnson Nicholas
Published: November 2015

The term “junkie television” illustrates what Commissioner Johnson believes is the role of radio and television in pushing people toward a “drug life”. By direct design, the drug manufacturers and advertising agencies encourage the massive consumption of drugs under the guise of promoting better health and happiness. As flagrant examples of this disregard for the public, he lists the deliberate misinformation and withholding of accurate information to consumers of over-the-counter drugs, and more importantly, the development and reinforcement of the use of medication to solve non-medical problems, without presenting viable positive alternatives. He singles out the failure of the government in protecting consumer interests and welfare. He laments the lack of consumer directed responsibility among government agencies and private business. He also feels that self-regulation is unlikely to solve the present situation, and argues strongly for counter advertising as a right of the consumer to be informed.
New Laws are Needed to Regulate the Drug Industry
Authors: Nelson Gaylord
Published: November 2015

Senator Nelson, the chief Congressional critic of pharmaceutical advertising, charges that the promotion of prescription drugs is the principal reason for irrational prescribing and over-medication. He believes that the increase of drug indications through advertising for non-medical conditions and intensive promotional campaigns all contribute to fostering the development of a drug-oriented society. He is particularly critical of the use of detail men and their uncontrolled promotional practices. The passive stance of the AMA and the Federal government, he believes, permits profit-oriented drug companies to determine the quality of health care throughout the country. In his presentation, he questions the ethics of both the drug industry and the medical profession in permitting such collaboration and asks, “Is drug advertising really necessary?”
Weaknesses in the System of Promoting and Marketing Drugs
Authors: Turner James
Published: November 2015

Although critical of several specific drug industry practices as being major contributions to the current over-medicated society controversy, Mr. Turner believes that the pharmaceutical industry can work together with consumer organizations and the public sector in resolving these issues. Of particular interest is his observation that the economic structure of current drug development and research prevents the manufacturer from assessing the impact of a drug in terms of necessary health benefits.
The Reliability and Validity of Drug Use Responses in a Large Scale Longitudinal Survey
Authors: Single Eric , Kandel Denise , Johnson Bruce D.
Published: November 2015

The problem of developing reliable and valid measures is potentially greater for drug use than for other behaviors because the use of many of the drugs is Illegal and disapproved of by society. In the absence of independent criteria, responses to drug use questions may be tested for consistency and validity. In a survey based on a representative sample of 8,206 New York State public secondary school students, we find that self-reported Illicit drug use is consistent at one point in time, but less so over time. Self-reported Illicit drug use is strongly related to adolescents' attributes as well as to data independently obtained from best school friends. Only a very small proportion of respondents report the use of a fictitious drug. However, inconsistencies over time are related to sporadic patterns of drug use, suggesting that the failure to report certain types of drug use is more the result of poor recall than of willful concealment of use. Underreporting is potentially a greater problem in drug research than overreporting.
Promotional Parameters: A Preliminary Examination of Promotional Expenditures
Authors: Brooke Paul
Published: November 2015

Pharmaceutical promotional expenditures are frequently criticized for needlessly increasing the cost of many drugs and for encouraging irrational prescribing. This paper presents an analysis of the financial costs of promotional activity in journal advertisements, direct mailings to physicians and detailing. In 1972, the industry spent $101 million for journal ads, $41 million for mailing expenses and approximately $315 million for detailing. Retail pharmacies reported a 6–7 percent increase in prescriptions filled over the previous year while promotional spending increased only 4 percent.
Drug Information for Practitioners: Commercial Obligation or Social Responsibility?
Authors: Rucker T. Donald
Published: November 2015

Our present system of providing physicians with information about prescribed medicines, relying heavily on the manufacturers of those very products, poses the possibility of conflict-of-interest and questionable ethics. In this paper, Dr. Rucker suggests an alternative information/education system, the National Drug Education Foundation, to be supported by a neutral agent.
Ineffectiveness X Delay = Danger: A Public Health Equation for Failure
Authors: Nellis Muriel
Published: November 2015

This article is strongly critical of the federal Food and Drug Administration, the agency charged with ensuring the safety, efficacy and proper labeling of prescription drugs. The author accuses FDA of negligent action and inaction which benefits the pharmaceutical industry at the expense of an unsuspecting public.
Epidemiology Abuse: Epidemiological and Psychosocial Models of Drug Abuse
Authors: Jacobs Phillip E.
Published: November 2015

Epidemiological and psychosocial approaches to drug abuse are discussed, with specific reference to the limits of the narrow epidemiological model when applied to the dynamics of heroin addiction, especially the elimination of heroin supply. During the early 60's there was much controversy between medical and psychosocial models of drug abuse with respect to methadone maintenance treatment programs versus drug free treatment programs. Frequently drug abuse treatment facilities would refuse to have both types of programs available, but after some time the differences which were thought to be irreconcilable were in fact reconciled and the field moved towards a synthesis of drug free and methadone maintenance approaches. The same thing needs to occur with respect to epidemiological and psychosocial approaches to drug abuse. The current narrow epidemiological approaches to drug abuse focus on heroin itself and ways of eliminating heroin supply. Psychosocial models are concerned with alienation, societal inadequacies, and psychological deficiencies of addicts. Psychosocial approaches define heroin addiction as a symptom of a more widespread social and psychological malaise, while narrow epidemiological approaches consider the heroin addiction itself the sole problem. Epidemiological and psychosocial approaches to drug abuse should be integrated so that much valuable information produced by epidemiologists such as the dynamics of the spread of heroin addiction, the period of time that addicts remain infectious, and the natural life-history of epidemics can be combined with knowledge produced by psychosocial approaches to fashion a more comprehensive approach to drug abuse. An epidemiologically based approach calling for stringent control of heroin distribution to non-addict populations coupled with easy access to low cost heroin for addicted persons would reflect an appreciation of the psychological/social/political realities involved in addiction as well as a grounding in epidemiological principles and data.