bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Defence of Superior Orders in Canada: A Review of Superior Orders in National
and International Law
Authors: Simpson James M.
Published: June 2019

In the preface to his book, Superior Orders in National and International Law, Professor Green mentions that “… in 1972 the Canadian Department of Justice on behalf of [the Office of] the Judge Advocate General of the Department of National Defence, invited me to undertake a survey of the defence of superior orders in both national and international law … [and] the present book has grown out of the Report that materialized from these studies.” It may be useful, or at least interesting, to readers of the book to preface this review with some of the background to the decision to ask Professor Green to undertake the study.
La délimitation du plateau continental entre le Canada et les Etats-Unis dans la mer de Beaufort
Authors: Frederick Michel
Published: June 2019

La Relation Geographique entre le Canada et les Etats-Unis est unique. Ensemble, ils occupent la majeure partie du continent nord-américain tout en s’individualisant l’un de l’autre par une frontière politique est-ouest (de l’Atlantique au Pacifique) et nord-sud (entre l’Alaska et le Yukon) qui totalise plus de 6,500 kilomètres de longueur. Les côtes canadiennes et américaines sont baignées par trois océans et les plateaux continentaux adjacents à ces côtes occupent respectivement, selon la classification mondiale, le deuxième et le troisième rang quant à leur superficie.
Unitary Taxation in the United States of America
Authors: Castel J.-G.
Published: June 2019

Sommaire

L'auteur soutient que les États des États-Unis d'Amérique violent le droit international lorsqu'ils imposent les sociétés qui font affaires chez eux sur la base du revenu global du groupe de sociétés auxquelles elles appartiennent. Une formule spéciale permet d'attribuer un certain montant de ce revenu global à la société qui fait affaires dans un État qui a adopté ce système et qui en tiendra compte pour l'imposer. Le système de répartition des revenus imposables aboutit à une double imposition contraire aux traités signés par les États-Unis avec un grande nombre de pays y compris le Canada. Dans une certaine mesure, il est aussi contraire à la Constitution des États-Unis et aux règles coutumières du droit international se rapportant à la compétence législative des États. Sans aucun doute, le système unitaire constitue un obstacle aux investissements étrangers.
The “New Thinking” in Soviet International Law: Soviet Doctrines and Practice in the Post-Tunkin Era
Authors: McWhinney Edward
Published: June 2019

Sommaire

La “nouvelle pensée” (Novoe Mishlenie) en droit international soviétique représente l'application juridique concrète de la conception-clé d'un renouvellement compréhensive (Perestroika) de la société russe, achevé par la voie d'une ouverture politique-intêllectuelle (Glas-nost). Bâtie sur la théorie de la Coexistence pacifique des systèmes juridiques différents élaborée à la fin des années 50e par le grand savant russe, Gregory Tunkin, et codifiée dans la Résolution célèbre de l'Assemblée Générale de l'Onu en octobre 1970, la “nouvelle pensée” a abandonné la notion d'un conflit inévitable et nécessaire entre ces systèmes, et a mis son emphase sur la coopération et la réciprocité mutuelle. La "nouvelle pensée" implique, concretement, la primauté juridique de l'Onu dans le règlement des différends interétatiques, l'augmentation de la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour internationale, et aussi l'accélération du processus de désarmement nucléaire et général et le renoncement du recours à la force armée sauf avec l'autorité préalable et sous l'égide et aussi la surveillance directe de l'Onu.
State Succession and State Reponsibility
Authors: Czaplinski Wladyslaw
Published: June 2019

Sommaire

Le problème de la succession d'Etats en matière de responsabilité internationale ne fut pas codifié lors du processus de codification sur la succession d'États et sur la responsabilité internationale. L'auteur s'interroge sur la pratique des États et sur l'existence de normes coutumières en ce domaine.

Plusieurs accords internationaux concernant cette question furent conclus au dix-neuvième siècle (les cas de dissolution du Royaume de Westphalie et de l'Union de Colombie). Les dettes résultant de délits internationaux y furent acceptées par les successeurs.

La pratique diplomatique n'est pas claire. On peut observer une tendance à nier le transfert en matière de responsabilité internationale. Toutefois dans plusieurs cas d'annexion, les paiements ex gratia ont été acceptés.

La jurisprudence des tribunaux arbitraux rejette le passage de la responsabilité sur l'État successeur (les affaires R. E. Brown et les prétentions de Hawaii). La décision dans l'affaire Collas et Michel confirme la responsabilité internationale du successeur, mais le fondement de cette responsabilité n'est pas évident. Le successeur y fut aussi déclaré responsable pour ses propres actes.

Se référant maintenant à la jurisprudence interne des États, le passage de la responsabilité a été accepté sans condition dans un seul jugement qui se basait sur un accord international dont les termes étaient exprès sur ce point.

Malgré sa décision initiale de 1963, la CDI a exclu la succession en matière de responsabilité internationale de son mandat sur la succession d'États et de gouvernements. Elle a estimé que la succession en matière de dettes délictuelles devait être considérée dans le cadre de la responsabilité internationale. Les rapporteurs dans ce dernier domaine ont aussi exclu cette question spéciale. La doctrine n'est pas unanime sur le passage ou non de la responsabilité internationale sur l'État successeur. De plus, la pratique internationale sur le transfert des prétentions relatives à des délits internationaux est aussi contradictoire.

En conclusion, il ne semble pas exister de normes coutumières dans le domaine de la succession d'Etats en matière de responsabilité internationale.
Dispute Settlement under the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement
Authors: Hage Robert
Published: June 2019

Sommaire

L'adoption de dispositions sur le règlement des différends commerciaux binationaux était un objectif fondamental du Canada lors des négociations de l'Accord de libre-échange avec les États-Unis. Les articles inclus au chapitre 18 de l'Accord à la suite des négociations constituent un compromis qui a recours à un processus de prévention initiale des différends et qui s'appuie ensuite sur la constitution de Groupes spéciaux présentant des recommandations au niveau politique, en l'occurrence, la Commission mixte du commerce canado-américain. Les deux premières affaires étudiées par des Groups spéciaux portant sur des allégations de restrictions commerciales à l'exportation du saumon et du hareng canadiens de la côte du Pacifique et à l'importation du homard canadien vers les États-Unis ont fourni une première occasion de vérifier le fonctionnement du processus de règlement des différends. Dans cette note de recherche, l'auteur examine comment une affaire est mise en état et présentée selon les procédures convenues, à partir de l'entente sur le mandat du Groupe spécial jusqu'à la présentation de son rapport à la Commission. L'auteur décrit certaines des difficultés rencontrées, particulièrement dans le cas de différends commerciaux qui ont eu beaucoup d'impact et il propose des mesures pour atténuer ces difficultés. Il conclut que même si l'on commence seulement à utiliser ce processus, il est manifeste que la diversité des mécanismes auxquels le Canada peut recourir pour régler ses différends commerciaux avec les États-Unis répond aux objectifs canadiens.
The United Nations Decade of International Law
Authors: Macdonald R.St.J.
Published: June 2019

Canadian lawyers and all those interested in international affairs will be pleased to know that the Sixth Committee of the General Assembly concluded on November 15, 1990 its deliberations on the report of the working group on the United Nations Decade of International Law (“the Vukas Report”) under the chairmanship of Professor Budislav Vukas of Yugoslavia (“the Vukas Committee”). The Vukas Report sets out the proposed program of activities for the first period of the Decade, being the period 1990-92, and represents another important step towards the implementation of Resolution 44/23 of November 17, 1989, and the fulfilment of the aspirations connected with that resolution for strengthening the international legal order. The Report was well received by the delegations of states to the Sixth Committee and on November 19, 1990, the General Assembly adopted by consensus the program of activities set out in the Report, the Decade thus achieving more tangible form.
The Developing Relationship between Superior and Subordinate Political Bodies at the International Level: A Note on the Experience of the United Nations and the Organization of American States
Authors: MacDonald R.St.J.
Published: June 2019

Speaking in the general debate at the Eighteenth Session of the United Nations General Assembly on September 19, 1963, Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson made the following observation:

The United Nations will inevitably remain the central world forum for international discussion and recommendation on a wide range of subjects. We already have on the other hand, regional groupings of states — in Europe, Africa and Latin America. Other groupings conceivably may be formed. The time may have to come to correlate the activities of these regional groupings more closely with those of the United Nations. It is possible to envisage a stage in the evolution of the UN when regional assemblies may be used with regional problems in search of local solutions or in the preparation for broader treatment at the United Nations. The Charter acknowledges the part to be played by regional arrangements or agencies in the conduct of international relations. In the economic and social field there is a growing tendency to delegate responsibility and authority to the UN Regional Commissions. Why not adopt a similar approach to some, though obviously not all, of the political questions which may face us in the United Nations?
The Canadian Contribution to the Concept of a Fishing Zone in International Law
Authors: Gotlieb A.E.
Published: June 2019

On July 23, 1964, an act respecting the Territorial Sea and Fishing Zones of Canada was proclaimed by the Governor-in-Council and came into effect. It is a milestone in the history of Canada's attempts to gain greater protection of its interests in its adjacent shores; it does not mark the end of her international efforts but it constitutes a major stride forward in this direction. The Act has three chief effects: for the first time the breadth of the territorial seas of Canada is, for general purposes, defined at three miles; the straight baseline system is made applicable to the Canadian coastline; and a fishing limit is established extending twelve miles from the baselines from which the territorial sea is measured (nine miles from the outer limits of the territorial sea).
La zone de pêche exclusive du Canada
Authors: Morin Jacques-Yvan
Published: June 2019

A la seconde conferénce des nations unies sur le droit de la mer, tenue à Geneve en 1960, le Canada prit l’initiative d’une proposition tendant à l’établissement d’une regie de Droit international selon laquelle le mer territoriale des Etats se serait étendue sur une largeur de six rnilles marins, auxquels serait venue s'ajouter une zone de pêche exclusive de même largeur. Destiné à réconcilier les Etats pour lesquels la limite traditionnelle de trois milles était devenue inacceptable et, à l’opposé, ceux pour lesquels l’extension des eaux territoriales jusqu'à douze milles constituait une innovation injustifiée, le compromis “six-plus-six” fut endossé par les Etats-Unis; peu s’en fallut que la proposition, appuyée également par plus de cinquante pays, ne recueillisse la majorité requise par le règlement de la Conférence.
Les armements sur les Grands Lacs
Authors: Bédard Charles
Published: June 2019

L’historique de cette question remonte au Traité de Paris de 1783 entre la Grande Bretagne et les Etats-Unis d'Amérique: lors des négotiations qui ont précédé la signature de ce Traité, les Etats-Unis avaient suggéré qu’on precède à un désarmement sur les Grands Lacs. Cette suggestion ne fut, toutefois, considérée de façon concrète qu’après la guerre de 1812, lors d’un échange de notes en date des 28–29 avril 1817, connu sous le nom d’Accord Rush-Bagot.
II Le Canada et le système monétaire international en 1992
Authors: Colas Bernard
Published: June 2019

Il y a dix ans déjà que la crise de la dette des pays en développement a débuté. Le Mexique, dont la décision de suspendre ses remboursements avait déclenché la crise, s'est vu en 1992 radier par le Canada de la liste des pays désignés et a retrouvé accès, dans une certaine mesure, aux marchés internationaux des capitaux. Pour les banques commerciales canadiennes, cette crise apparait structurellement terminée car l'endettement des pays en développement ne représente plus une menace systémique au systàme bancaire international et parce qu'elles ont réduit leurs créances à l'égard de certains pays fortement endettés. Toutefois pour de nombreux pays à faible revenu ou aà revenu intermédiaire, notamment en Afrique, l'endettement porte toujours de pénibles conséquences.
The Expanding Role of the Supreme Court of Canada in International Law Issues
Authors: La Forest Gérard V.
Published: June 2019

The rapid globalization that marks our era has resulted in increasing demands for the legal resolution of disputes arising out of interstate activities. National courts throughout the world have been significantly affected by this development. This article describes the recent expansion of the work of the Supreme Court of Canada in relation to transnational legal issues, including issues of public and private international law, human rights, admiralty law, and issues of private law having international ramifications. It traces the Court's evolving approach to international law issues and its willingness to reformulate its principles to meet modern conditions and to foster compliance with its norms. The more cosmopolitan attitude thereby generated has worked in concert with the Court's increasing willingness to rely on comparative law techniques in assuting in the resolution of issues of a localized character.
Consular Immunity: Alleged Criminal Activities of a Consular Officer
Authors: Lee Edward G. , Shidlowski Alvin J. , Roy Julian K.
Published: June 2019

A recent decision of the Ontario Court of Justice (Provincial Division) involving criminal charges of perjury and attempting to obstruct justice against a consular officer posted in Toronto was the occasion for a comprehensive review of the scope and application of consular immunity in Canada. Contrary to the arguments presented by the attorney general of Ontario and the evidence and opinion of the secretary of state for External Affairs, Canada, the court ruled that the consular officer was immune from the criminal jurisdiction of the Court. The Court concluded that the consular officer’s actions were performed in the exerdse of consularfunctions and that while the impugned acts occurred outside the geographical consular district, the immunity was not compromised. The authors conclude that relief through diplomatic channels, rather than criminal prosecution, is the appropriate mechanism for addressing consular misconduct.
Using Treaties in Canadian Courts
Authors: van Ert Gibran
Published: June 2019

Increasingly, litigants are seeking to rely on international treaties before domestic courts. The difficulties they face, together with the judges hearing these cases, are great. Public international law is unknown territory for the vast majority of Canadian lawyers, both at the bar and on the bench. Moreover, the rules according to which international treaties take effect in Canadian domestic law engage a wide variety of legal sources, including ancient common law jurisprudence, unwritten constitutional rules, federalism, and the provisions of theCanadian Charter of Rights and Freedomsand other Canadian human rights instruments. The object of this article is to describe in a comprehensive manner how international treaties may be used in Canadian courts. The disparate and seemingly unrelated norms informing the Anglo-Canadian law of treaty reception, including the implementation requirement, the treaty presumption, the rule inLabour Conventions, and the landmark decision inBakerv.Canada, are depicted as internally-consistent manifestations of the guiding principles of the Canadian reception system: self-government and respect for international law.
Regulatory Expropriation and State Intent
Authors: Byrne Katharina A.
Published: June 2019

This article examines whether the characterization of a regulatory measure as expropriatory depends upon the objective intent of the state in enacting that measure. The issue of regulatory expropriation is of particular importance, given the fact that a number of recent multilateral investment treaties, including the North American Free Trade Agreement, grant investors a right of direct action against a foreign state for losses arising out of measures that are “tantamount” to expropriation.

This article will first consider the respective approaches of the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal and the United States to regulatory expropriation. These approaches will be then briefly contrasted with the unique jurisprudence of the European Court of Justice and the European Court of Human Rights. Next, the role of intent in municipal law as a means of categorization will be addressed and a case made as to why this approach is equally viable on the international plane. In conclusion, reasons will be given as to why a test based on intent is to be preferred over other theories.
Peut-on justifier l’intervention de l’OTAN au Kosovo sur le plan humanitaire? Analyse de la politique occidentale et ses conséquences en Macédoine
Authors: Barutciski Michael
Published: June 2019

It is generally accepted that NATO’s military intervention against Yugoslavia did not conform to recognized rules of legal positivism. For most western observers, the justification relies on its legitimacy rather than its legality. This moral argument is based on the belief that the humanitarian plight of the Albanian populations in Kosovo was exceptionally grave. While the situation on the ground prior to NATO’s bombing campaign warranted western involvement, the article shows that it was not exceptional in relation to other armed conflicts around the world.Western diplomacy in this Balkan crisis reflects an element of selectivity concerning respect for public international law that will have negative consequences on the future of international relations. The result in the immediate region is a change in the balance of power accompanied by general destabilization. Despite the large international military and civilian presence, Kosovo has been transformed into an almost homogeneous Albanian territory and neighbouring Macedonia is threatened by an extension of the Albanian insurrection. This international intervention confirms the relevance of established legal norms on the use of force because they allow better chances for action guided by reason rather than one-sided media pressure.
Parallel Proceedings — Converging Views: The Westec Appeal
Authors: Walker Janet
Published: June 2019

The flexibility afforded by the new rules in Canada for jurisdiction and judgments creates opportunities for opposing parties to commence parallel proceedings against one another in different jurisdictions. As litigants begin to take advantage of these opportunities, Canadian courts are faced with the special concerns associated with parallel proceedings and the potential for inconsistent results. Various mechanisms have been developed in other legal systems for addressing these concerns but some of these mechanisms do not prevent the “race to judgment” or the “race to file.” A review of the experiences with these mechanisms, and of the Canadian decisions to date, can help in formulating rules that accord with the Canadian appreciation of comity and that seek to prevent abuse without compromising fairness.
Obligatory Negotiations in International Organizations
Authors: Kass Stephen L.
Published: June 2019

Article 26 of the Mandate by which Great Britain administered Palestine required disputes between league members to be submitted to the Permanent Court if they “cannot be settled by negotiation.” In the Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions case, Great Britain contended that discussions with Greece, the complainant, had been so brief as not to amount to negotiations, insisting that in negotiations parties must at least define their positions and consider each other's views. Although intergovernmental exchanges had not reached this point, the Court held that prior discussions between Mavrommatis and British authorities had so defined the relevant issues that the Greek government could rely on these talks, in conjunction with its own protests, to satisfy the negotiations requirement.

Judge Moore, in dissent, believed that negotiations should be limited to intergovernmental discussions because issues raised by individuals cannot define the positions open to governments. Moreover, negotiations should proceed in an ordered, even rational manner.
The ICJ, Advisory Opinions, and the Judicial Function: Between Adjudication and Consultation
Authors: Savoie Pierre-Olivier
Published: June 2019

Legal commentators have not always considered advisory opinions as a legitimate judicial function. Under both national and international law, it is often considered that only ripe controversies can be legitimately decided by a court of law. Under international law, advisory opinions are also criticized for undermining sovereignty when consent is not obtained from all states affected by the matter. By examining the International Court of Justice’s (ICJ) advisory opinions in light of comparative law, the author argues that this criticism underestimates the evolution of the judicial function, as much in international as in national law. The advisory opinion is a mode of social ordering that stands somewhere between consultation and adjudication. The advisory opinion not only adopts most of adjudication’s characteristics but abo has the added flexibility of consultation because it can consider a wider spectrum of opinions than can adversary procedures. The ICJ’s advisory opinions can almost be assimilated to adjudication. Considering that they have also greatly contributed to the development of international law, the ICJ’s advisory opinions remain an integral and legitimate part of the court’s judicial function.
The Role of Discipline in the Military
Authors: Green L. C.
Published: June 2019

The importance of the role of discipline in the military and the way in which it has been viewed from historical times to the present day are surveyed by the author. The practices of different armies in various conflicts are considered and attempts to codify rules through international conventions and decisions of tribunals are discussed.
Regional Arrangements and the Maintenance of International Peace and Security: The Role of the African Union Peace and Security Council
Authors: Majinge Charles Riziki
Published: June 2019

This article examines the role of regional arrangements under the Charter of the United Nations (UN Charter) in the maintenance of international peace and security. The African Union Peace and Security Council (AU PSC), the organ within the AU charged with addressing threats to international peace and security on the African continent, is used as a case study. The author contends that the major challenges facing regional arrangements in exercising mandates under Article 53 of the UN Charter of the United Nations have more to do with inadequate financial and logistical resources than the nature of those mandates. Taking the AU’s role in Somalia, Sudan, and other African countries as examples, the article demonstrates that the AU PSC has failed to achieve its objective of maintaining peace and security precisely because the United Nations (UN) Security Council — a more powerful and better resourced organ — has failed to live up to its responsibility of extending the assistance necessary to enable the AU PSC to perform its functions. Consequently, the author concludes that the UN Security Council, when delegating powers to regional arrangements to maintain international peace and security, should provide adequate resources to such regional arrangements, especially those that will otherwise have minimal or no capacity to fulfil their mandate effectively.
The Origins of the South West Africa Dispute: The Versailles Peace Conference and the Creation of the Mandates System
Authors: Slonim S.
Published: June 2019

The roots of the South West Africa dispute relate back to the events that took place at the end of World War I and led to the creation of the League of Nations mandates system. More particularly, the conflict between the United Nations and South Africa cannot be understood except by tracing the manner in which South West Africa became a part of that system. The “great compromise” hammered out by President Wilson and the Dominion ministers at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 produced a three-tiered system of mandates which reflected in a sliding scale a varied balancing of national and international interests. The result of the compromise was a divergency of interpretation that has endured to this day and in considerable measure has fostered and sustained the dispute in its present-day dimensions.
The International Legal Status of Formosa
Authors: Kirkham D. Barry
Published: June 2019

We consider that the isolation of Communist China from a large part of normal international relations is dangerous. We are prepared to accept the reality of the victory in mainland China in 1949…. We consider, however, that the effective political independence of Taiwan is a political reality too.

—THE HONORABLE PAUL MARTIN

The International Legal Status of Formosa has long been a subject of vigorous political and academic debate. Twenty-three years after the termination of the Second World War the matter remains completely unresolved; yet it is of fundamental importance. As one writer has stated, “The question of the international status of Taiwan has been the central issue of dispute between the People’s Republic of China and a number of western states and has constituted the primary obstacle to the establishment of formal relations between mainland China and Canada.” In the words of another scholar:

The Formosa problem is perhaps the most important cause of the hostile relationship between the United States and Communist China. Its prolonged unsettlement creates a highly dangerous situation in the Far East. As a result, many international problems, such as Chinese recognition, the seating of Communist China and disarmament remain unsolved. Accordingly, an early settlement of the Formosan problem is necessary.
The World Court: Reform or Re-Appraisal
Authors: Dalfen Charles M.
Published: June 2019

In sharp contrast to the high hopes raised by the reconstitution of the International Court of Justice in 1946, its subsequent record has been somewhat less than inspiring; and its impact as an organ for the settlement of disputes has been anything but spectacular. Established as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, it broods at The Hague in idle splendour, waiting hopefully for the occasional suit to be taken before it. Despite the hopes, the promise and the optimism, recourse to adjudication is exceptional, infrequent, and limited to disputes of minor importance.

Writings on the Court are suffused with lamentations over the chasm between the idealized aspirations of its founders and its actual performance. From the depths, however, the call is heard; the vision of the jurists becomes the burden of the reformers — the burden of recasting the machinery of world order. Political theorists, lawyers and institutional reformers are all prepared to shoulder the burden, and each considers it his duty to add to the literature on the Court yet another “epilogue for the improvement….”
The New Canadian Declaration of Acceptance of the Compulsory Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice
Authors: MacDonald R. St. J.
Published: June 2019

On April 8, 1970, Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau informed the members of the Canadian House of Commons that the federal government had given notice of its intention to introduce two bills dealing with the protection of Canada’s marine environment and the living resources of the sea. He then made the following statement:

I wish now to table a copy of a letter which Canada’s Ambassador to the United Nations has delivered to the Secretary General submitting a new reservation to Canada’s acceptance of the compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice. This reservation is intended to guard against any possible litigation of certain features of these two bills.
Superior Orders and the Reasonable Man
Authors: Green L.C.
Published: June 2019

Recent Allegations Concerning a “massacre” of Vietnamese by United States forces in the Song My area of Vietnam, together with disclosures of a similar event during British antiguerrilla operations in Malaya, have drawn renewed attention to the problem of the behaviour of troops in war, and the extent to which they may be expected to obey the laws of war. This is not the place to examine the philosophical aspect of whether there are or can be any rules of war, particularly if one of the belligerents is waging an “illegal” or “criminal” war, or is not recognized as a state so that the operations do not technically qualify as a war in the traditional sense. The Kawasaki case demonstrates that “war” may exist, even though neither the parties nor third states recognize the operations as such. It is also clear, at least since the Geneva Conventions of 1949, that laws regarding the humane treatment of wounded and sick, prisoners of war and civilians in occupied territory operate even in armed conflicts not of an international character, as well as those which only one party regards as a war, or if only one is party to the Conventions, or if territory is occupied and no resistance met.
The Revision of the Warsaw Convention
Authors: FitzGerald Gerald F.
Published: June 2019

At its seventeenth session held in February-March 1970, the Legal Committee of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) adopted the final text of new draft rules governing the liability of the air carrier in respect of the international carriage of passengers by air. Since 1965, ICAO has been working on the preparation of these draft rules which, when ultimately adopted by a diplomatic conference, signed and ratified, will constitute a farreaching revision of the provisions of the widely accepted Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules relating to International Carriage by Air (Warsaw 1929) as amended by the Hague Protocol of 1955. In previous notes in thisYearbookthe writer summarized discussions on the Warsaw rules in the international aviation community from late 1965, when the United States of America filed its notification of denunciation of the Warsaw Convention, until early 1968, when the ICAO Council decided to hand over the task of revision to the ICAO Legal Committee. The latter body having finished its work on revision early in March 1970, the ICAO Council lost no time in convening a diplomatic conference for February-March 1971. This conference will have the task of preparing and adopting the definitive instrument revising the Warsaw Convention as amended by the Hague Protocol.
Canada’s Role in the International Commission for Supervision and Control in Cambodia
Authors: Dai Poeliu
Published: June 2019

Commenting on canada’s participation in the activities of the International Commission for Supervision and Control in Cambodia, Mr. Paul Martin, the then Secretary of State for External Affairs, stated in the House of Commons on May 27, 1965 as follows:

… Canada has been a member of the Commission for almost 11 years under two different Governments. I believe our record on the Commission is one that has commended itself to the people of Asia, and has commended itself to most people in Canada who have looked at this problem objectively. As Secretary of State for External Affairs I say, and I say with pride, that the officers of the Department and the officers of the Department of National Defence who have served on these commissions have rendered to Canada and as well as to the cause of peace, a distinct service.
The Canadian Claim to Sovereignty over the Waters of the Arctic
Authors: Reid Robert S.
Published: June 2019

In the late summer of 1969 the American tankerS.S. Manhattantraversed the fabled Northwest Passage through the waters of the Canadian Arctic archipelago. Its purpose was to determine the commercial feasibility of transporting crude oil via ice-breaking supertankers from the oil fields of Prudhoe Bay in Alaska to the eastern seaboard of the United States. In Canada the voyage of the Manhattan triggered a reaction of nationalism accompanied not only by flag waving but by a vehement demand for a definitive statement of Canadian sovereignty over the waters of the Arctic and particularly the Northwest Passage. The Liberal government under Prime Minister Trudeau found itself between the Scylla of public demands and the Charybdis of international law. In 1969 Canada claimed a three-mile territorial sea, which meant that the waters beyond that limit were high seas and beyond Canadian jurisdiction. Any claim to authority over Arctic waters might be quickly challenged in the World Court, and if proved to have no basis in international law the Canadian claim would be lost for good. The purpose of this paper is to determine the nature of Canada’s claim to the Arctic waters as disclosed by the Canadian government in its pronouncements and actions.
The Judgment of the International Court of Justice in the Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council
Authors: Fitzgerald Gerald F.
Published: June 2019

On August 18, 1972, the International Court of Justice delivered its Judgment in the Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council (India v. Pakistan) in which:

(a) By thirteen votes to three, it rejected Pakistan’s objections on the question of its competence, and found that it had jurisdiction to entertain India’s appeal from a series of decisions of the ICAO Council which had found that the Council had jurisdiction to entertain the application and complaint made before the Council by Pakistan on March 3, 1971, the details of the application and complaint being given below.

(b) By fourteen votes to two, it held the ICAO Council to be competent to entertain the above-mentioned application and complaint.
Canada and the Review of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations
Authors: Dai Poeliu
Published: June 2019

Although the United Nations has undertaken more than a dozen peacekeeping operations, and Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim has affirmed that “peacekeeping constituted a principal, and perhaps the most vital, function of the UN,” there is no agreement on the definition of the political and jurisdical scope, or any uniform procedural basis, for such peacekeeping operations. As a matter of fact, the term peacekeeping does not even appear in the UN Charter.

Most commentators, however, draw a sharp distinction between peacekeeping operations undertaken pursuant to chapter VI of the Charter on pacific settlement of disputes and enforcement action authorized by the Security Council under chapter VII. As one Swedish diplomat explained, peacekeeping operations are essentially voluntary, undertaken at the request or with the consent of the country in whose territory an operation is to take place, and do not impose any obligation on member states in regard to personnel, equipment or logistics.
FOREWORD
Authors: Olof Stenflo Jan
Published: June 2019

Traditionally, solar and stellar physics have been two separate branches of astronomy, which independently of each other have developed their own scientific goals and methods. During the last decade, however, we have witnessed a gradual convergence of these two areas: The solar physicists realize more and more that the sun has to be seen as a special case in a large family of stars of various properties. A more complete understanding of the sun can only be achieved by considering it in this broader context. The stellar physicists on the other hand have become aware that the detailed knowledge of the physical processes that the solar physicists have reached has a more general significance and can be applied to a variety of other astrophysical objects. Observational techniques developed in solar work can frequently be adapted for other stars as well. This unified approach to solar and stellar physics is often called the “solar-stellar connection”.
Long-Term Coherent Periodicities in the Mean Magnetic Field of the Sun
Authors: Kotov V.A. , Levitsky L.S.
Published: June 2019

To investigate periodic variations of the magnetic field of the Sun as a star (SMMF; see Severny, 1969) we have used the mean field measurements made in Crimea, Mt. Wilson, and Stanford observatories; in total N = 5783 daily values were available for the time interval 1968–1981. In essence, these data offer a unique possibility to study the Sun as a variable magnetic star (Scherrer et al., 1977).
Zeeman Effect Observations in the RS CVn Star HR 5110 and in Late-Type Stars with Strong Ca II Emission
Authors: Bonsack Walter K. , Simon Theodore
Published: June 2019

Although magnetic fields are presumed to be of substantial importance in the physics of stellar chromospheres (e.g., Vaiana et al. 1981), firm detections of magnetic fields in stars later than type A are rare, if not entirely absent. For example, Boesgaard (1974) made careful photographic measurements of longitudinal fields in a number of dwarf stars, and obtained 5 σ or greater detection of fields at the level of 100 G in the G8 V stars in ξ Boo A and in the KO V star 70 Oph A. Robinson et al. (1980) studied ξ Boo A by means of an analysis of the widths of magnetically sensitive lines, and obtained a mean field magnitude of 2600 G. However, Marcy (1981) used the same technique and found no significant field in this star. Brown and Landstreet (1981) looked for longitudinal fields in a variety of late type stars with an adaptation of a Griffin-type radial velocity spectrometer, which yielded standard errors near 10 G. They found no fields in any of the stars which they surveyed, including ξ Boo A, 70 Oph A, and a number of RS CVn stars and other stars with strong Ca II K and He I 10830 A emission.
Self-Consistent Models for Small Photospheric Flux Tubes
Authors: Deinzer W. , Hensler G. , Schmitt D. , Schüssler M. , Weisshaar E.
Published: June 2019

We give a short summary of some results of a numerical study of magnetic field concentrations in the solar photosphere and upper convection zone. We have developed a 2D time dependent code for the full MHD equations (momentum equation, equation of continuity, induction equation for infinite conductivity and energy equation) in slab geometry for a compressible medium. A Finite-Element-technique is used. Convective energy transport is described by the mixing-length formalism while the diffusion approximation is employed for radiation. We parametrize the inhibition of convective heat flow by the magnetic field and calculate the material functions (opacity, adiabatic temperature gradient, specific heat) self-consistently. Here we present a nearly static flux tube model with a magnetic flux of ∼ 1018 mx, a depth of 1000 km and a photospheric diameter of ∼ 300 km as the result of a dynamical calculation. The influx of heat within the flux tube at the bottom of the layer is reduced to 0.2 of the normal value. The mass distribution is a linear function of the flux function A: dm(A)/dA = const. Fig. 1 shows the model: Isodensities (a), fieldlines (b), isotherms (c) and lines of constant continuum optical depth (d) are given. The “Wilson depression” (height difference between τ = 1 within and outside the tube) is ∼ 150 km and the maximum horizontal temperature deficit is ∼ 3000 K. Field strengths as function of x for three different depths and as function of depth along the symmetry axis are shown in (e) and (f), respectively. Note the sharp edge of the tube.
Chromospheric and Coronal Indicators of Stellar Magnetic Structure
Authors: Zwaan Cornelis
Published: June 2019

This paper discusses attempts to derive information on magnetic structure in late-type stars, only from emission fluxes in the cores of the Ca II H and K lines, in UV emission lines and in soft X-rays — and from relations between these emission fluxes. However simpleminded and indirect this approach may seem, it brings out stimulating results. Studies of this kind are guided by solar research, so let us look first at the solar data.
The Observed Relationships Between Some Solar Rotation Parameters and the Activity Cycle
Authors: Howard Robert , LaBonte Barry J.
Published: June 2019

Several parameters of the solar rotation show variations which appear to relate to the phase of the solar activity cycle. The latitude gradient of the differential rotation, as seen in the coefficients of the sin2 and sin4 terms in the latitude expansion, shows marked variations with the cycle. One of these variations may be described as a one-cycle-per-hemisphere torsional oscillation with a period of 11 years, where the high latitudes rotate faster at solar activity maximum and slower at minimum, and the low latitudes rotate faster at solar activity minimum and slower at maximum. Another variation is a periodic oscillation of the fractional difference in the low-latitude rotation between north and south hemispheres. The possibility of a variation in the absolute rotational velocity of the sun in phase with the solar cycle remains an open question. The two-cycle-per-hemisphere torsional waves in the solar rotation also represent an aspect of the rotation which varies with the cycle. We show that the amplitude of the fast flowing zone rises a year before the rise to activity maximum. The fast zone seems to be physically the more significant of the two zones.
The Relation Between Rotation and Magnetic Activity on Lower Main Sequence Stars as Derived from Chromospheric Indicators
Authors: Noyes R.W.
Published: June 2019

It is now firmly established that lower main sequence (LMS) stars show a qualitative correlation between rotation rate and chromospheric and coronal emission. By analogy with the Sun, the emission is believed to be intimately associated with surface magnetic fields. This association is especially close on the Sun for the Ca II H and K lines, for which the spatial correlation between chromospheric emission and photospheric fields is essentially one-to-one down to scales at least as fine as a few arcseconds and for which the emission flux from an area on the Sun is approximately proportional to the total magnetic flux passing through the same area in the underlying photosphere (Leighton 1959; Skumanich, Smythe, and Frazier 1975; Frazier 1971). The extension of the association to other LMS stars, while based on appeal to analogy, has been strengthened by recent detections of strong magnetic fields covering large fraction of the surface area of chromospherically active stars (see review by Marcy in this symposium).
Magnetic Fields and Convection: New Observations
Authors: Livingston W. C.
Published: June 2019

Fourier Transform Spectrometer observations of Fraunhofer line displacement and asymmetry suggest that granular convection is inhibited in regions of magnetic activity. We discuss the observations and a method for removing the effects of solar rotation. In integrated sunlight (“the sun-as-a-star”) records of line asymmetries indicate that a significant reduction in the amplitude of the sun's convective signature took place between 1980 and 1982. To the extent that full disk line asymmetry arises strictly from convective motions, the results constitute strong evidence that magnetic activity influences (inhibits) convective motion on a global scale.
Stellar X-Ray Emission as an Indicator of Stellar Magnetic Activity
Authors: Vaiana G. S.
Published: June 2019

An overview of recent Einstein Observatory observations and theoretical modeling of stellar x-ray emission is presented, with particular emphasis upon the role such studies can play furthering our understanding of stellar magnetic activity. We argue that solar observations can be used to show that coronal emission is morphologically related to surface magnetic field activity; to establish a quantitative link between the observed soft x-ray flux and the mean surface (photospheric) magnetic flux; and, in sum, to demonstrate that soft x-ray emission is a sensitive diagnostic for the presence of surface magnetic fields, uncomplicated by radiative transfer effects and the resulting coupling to the underlying atmosphere (which may introduce unwanted correlations with spectral type and luminosity class). Recent analyses of stellar x-ray observations from the Einstein Observatory have focused on the interpretation of stellar coronal emission and possibly-related surface magnetic activity within the framework of our understanding of solar activity; including “loop” models of stellar coronae, observations of coronal emission variability on a wide range of time scales (which provide information on the morphology of the emitting plasma), and observations and modeling of low-resolution spectroscopic x-ray observations (which test the applicability of solar modeling). These recent results, which I review, all reenforce the argument that stellar coronal emission constitutes an excellent probe for studying stellar magnetic activity over a wide dynamic range, one which may prove to be uniquely suited to studying such activity in distant (and hence faint) sources.
The Coronal Rotation-Activity Relations in Late-Type Stars
Authors: Walter Frederick M.
Published: June 2019

I discuss EINSTEIN X-ray observations of late-type (G and K) stars. For the RS CVn systems and the evolved G stars, there is a linear relation between X-ray surface flux and stellar angular velocity. The situation is more complex among the G-K dwarfs: rapid rotators, with rotational periods less than ∼10d, also show a linear relation between X-ray surface flux and angular velocity, but the slow rotators fall some two orders of magnitude below that relation.
A Molecular Weight Gradient Battery Mechanism for Stellar Magnetic Fields
Authors: Mestel L. , Moss D.
Published: June 2019

Dolginov (1977) pointed out that a non spherical distribution of molecular weight μ can drive a Biermann type “battery” mechanism in a star and so generate a toroidal magnetic field. We consider uniformly rotating axisymmetric models of this type, containing a ‘primeval’ poloidal field, in which the currents maintaining the toroidal field flow along poloidal field lines, thus ensuring that the configuration is torque free. When the molecular weight distribution is chosen so as to produce a meridional circulation which exactly cancels the Eddington-Sweet circulation, then battery fields of order 1000 gauss can be maintained against ohmic decay in models appropriate to Ap stars near the main sequence with period of order 5 days.
Topological Magnetic Flux Pumping Revisited
Authors: Arter Wayne
Published: June 2019

Calculations by Drobyshevski and Yuferev (1974) suggest that magnetic flux is ‘topologically pumped’ to the bottom of a convecting Benard layer as the electrical conductivity is increased. This is shown to be mistaken: however, compressible flows where motion is mainly around fieldlines can confine flux near their base.