bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Case Study: Effect of Handrim Diameter on Performance in a Paralympic Wheelchair Athlete
Authors: Costa Gabriel Brizuela , Rubio Miguel Polo , Belloch Salvador Llana , Pérez Soriano Pedro
Published: August 2016

This study, with a top T-52 class athlete, determines the relationship between stroke frequency (SF) and push time (PT) and wheelchair velocity (Wv) using different handrim diameters (HD) and the effect of different HDs on the athlete’s heart rate (HR) and blood lactate (LACT) at competition speeds. Wv shows a linear-direct relationship with SF but a linear-inverse relationship with PT (p < .001 in both cases). Using bigger handrims (0.37 m instead of 0.36 m), SF increases 6%, while PT decreases 27% (at 24 Km·h–1). HR (p < .0001) increases with Wv and is also affected by HD with differences between the 0.34 m—0.36 m handrim group (lower values) and the 0.37 m handrim (higher values). Significant interaction (p < .0001) is identified between HD and Wv. LACT results seem to follow the same direction as HR. This methodology helped the athlete to choose the optimum HD, and his achievements (some world records) indicate that HD optimization could be highly profitable in sport terms.
Nutritional Practices of Competitive British Wheelchair Games Players
Authors: Goosey-Tolfrey Victoria L. , Crosland Jeanette
Published: August 2016

This study described the dietary intake profiles of 14 female (F) and 9 male (M) trained British wheelchair games players. The M group showed significantly higher daily energy (2060 ± 904 vs. 1520 ± 342 kcal·day-1), carbohydrate and protein intakes than the F group (p < .05). The energy derived from carbohydrate, protein, and fat for both F and M groups were similar (53.6%, 16.9% and 29.3% and 53.3%, 19.0% and 26.8%, respectively), yet the carbohydrate intakes were slightly lower than those recommended for athletes. Only two participants from the F group showed adequate intakes of iron, and 19 participants from both F and M groups did not meet the dietary fiber recommendation but this may be related to individualized bowel management strategies. Overall, the dietary practices encompassed aspects of the dietary guidelines recommended for sport, but balancing the energy needs of wheelchair games play with the promotion of long-term health still needs careful consideration.
Comparison of Below-Knee Amputee Gait Performed Overground and on a Motorized Treadmill
Authors: Button Chris , Moyle Stuart , Davids Keith
Published: August 2016

There has been no direct attempt to evaluate whether gait performed overground and on a treadmill is the same for lower limb amputees. A multiple case study approach was adopted to explore the degenerate movement behavior displayed by three male amputees. Participants walked overground at a self-selected preferred pace and when this speed was enforced on a treadmill (50 stride cycles per condition). The extremities of motion (i.e., maximum flexion) for the hip and knee joints differed between conditions (0.2–3.8°). For two participants, the temporal asymmetry of gait was reduced on the treadmill. Initial data suggest that research on amputees simulating overground walking on a treadmill might need to be interpreted with some caution.
The Psychometric Properties of the Difficult Behavior Self-Efficacy Scale
Authors: Oh Hyun-Kyoung , Kozub Francis M.
Published: August 2016

The study was designed to estimate the psychometric properties of Hastings and Brown’s (2002a) Difficult Behavior Self-efficacy Scale. Participants were two samples of physical educators teaching in Korea (n = 229) and the United States (U.S.; n = 139). An initial translation of the questionnaire to Korean and pilot study were conducted along with the larger study using a confirmatory factor analysis procedure. Internal consistency estimates (weighed Omega) for the five-item scale were 0.88 both the Korean and U.S. samples. The average variances extracted for the one factor were 0.59 for the total data set and 0.57 each for the Korean and U.S. samples. Confirmatory factor analysis supported a five-item, unidimensional model for self-efficacy for the total sample: Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) = 0.97, Nonnormed Fit Index (NNFI) = 0.95, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0.98, and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) = 0.03. Only the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA = 0.12) fell below criterion levels of acceptable fit, with similar fit indices occurring in separate analyses of the Korean and U.S. samples. Invariance testing across the two samples supported metric invariance (similarity of factor loadings) but not scalar invariance (U.S. means higher on all five items). The factor structure for the self-efficacy scale provides an initial estimate of validity and internal consistency for use with different teacher groups.
Physical Fitness and Physical Activity in Adolescents With Asperger Syndrome: A Comparative Study
Authors: Borremans Erwin , Rintala Pauli , McCubbin Jeffrey A.
Published: August 2016

While physical activity is beneficial for youth with developmental disabilities, little is known about those individuals’ fitness profile and levels of activity. Therefore the purpose of this study was to investigate the physical fitness profile and physical activity level of 30 adolescents with and without Asperger syndrome (AS). Evaluations were done using the Eurofit physical fitness test and the Baecke Habitual Physical Activity questionnaire. A 2 × 2 MANOVA indicated that adolescents with AS scored significantly lower than the comparison group on all physical fitness subtests, including balance, coordination, flexibility, muscular strength, running speed, and cardio-respiratory endurance (p < .001). Adolescents with AS were also less physically active (p < .001). Engagement in physical activities is therefore recommended.
Motor Skill Performance and Sports Participation in Deaf Elementary School Children
Authors: Hartman Esther , Houwen Suzanne , Visscher Chris
Published: August 2016

This study aimed to examine motor performance in deaf elementary school children and its association with sports participation. The population studied included 42 deaf children whose hearing loss ranged from 80 to 120 dB. Their motor skills were assessed with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, and a questionnaire was used to determine their active involvement in organized sports. The deaf children had significantly more borderline and definite motor problems than the normative sample: 62% (manual dexterity), 52% (ball skills), and 45% (balance skills). Participation in organized sports was reported by 43% of the children; these children showed better performance on ball skills and dynamic balance. This study demonstrates the importance of improving deaf children’s motor skill performance, which might contribute positively to their sports participation.
Coteaching in Physical Education: A Strategy for Inclusive Practice
Authors: Grenier Michelle A.
Published: August 2016

Qualitative research methods were used to explore the factors that informed general and adapted physical education teachers’ coteaching practices within an inclusive high school physical education program. Two physical education teachers and one adapted physical education teacher were observed over a 16-week period. Interviews, field notes, and documents were collected and a constant comparative approach was used in the analysis that adopted a social model framework. Primary themes included community as the cornerstone for student learning, core values of trust and respect, and creating a natural support structure. Coteaching practices existed because of the shared values of teaching, learning, and the belief that all students should be included. Recommendations include shifting orientations within professional preparation programs to account for the social model of disability.
The Effects of Swim Training on Respiratory Aspects of Speech Production in Adolescents With Down Syndrome
Authors: Casey Amanda Faith , Emes Claudia
Published: August 2016

Reduced respiratory muscle strength in individuals with Down syndrome (DS) may affect speech respiratory variables such as maximum phonation duration (MPD), initiation volume, and expired mean airflow. Researchers randomly assigned adolescents with DS (N = 28) to either 12 weeks of swim training (DS-ST) or a control group (DS-NT). Repeated measures MANOVA demonstrated a significant increase in MPD for DS-ST participants from pretest to posttest, t(11) = –3.44, p = 0.006, that was not maintained at follow-up, t(11) = 6.680, p < .001. No significant change was observed for DS-NT participants across time, F(2, 11) = 4.20, p = 0.044. The lack of long-term change in DS-ST participants may be related to the relatively short training period.
The Revised DCDQ: Is It a Suitable Screening Measure for Motor Difficulties in Adolescents?
Authors: Pannekoek Linda , Rigoli Daniela , Piek Jan P. , Barrett Nicholas C. , Schoemaker Marina
Published: August 2016

The parent-rated Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ) has been revised to incorporate a wider age range, including adolescence. In this exploratory study, internal consistency and validity of the DCDQ-2007 was assessed using a community-based sample of 87 adolescents. Psychometric properties of the DCDQ-2007 were investigated and concurrent validity, sensitivity, and specificity were assessed with the MABC-2 as a criterion standard. The results demonstrated high internal consistency for the DCDQ-2007 and a relationship with the MABC-2 was found. The DCDQ-2007 met the recommended standard for sensitivity, although the confidence interval was large; however, it failed to meet the recommended standard for specificity. This has important implications concerning the suitability of the DCDQ-2007. Although promising psychometric properties were found within the current study, the applicability of the DCDQ-2007 as a screening measure for motor difficulties requires careful consideration.
Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior in Older Adults With Intellectual Disabilities: A Comparative Study
Authors: Dixon-Ibarra Alicia , Lee Miyoung , Dugala Anisia
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the physical activity patterns of older adults with intellectual disabilities (ID) in comparison with younger adults with ID and older adults without ID. A sample of 109 participants was included in the study. Sophisticated data reduction, time stamped technology, and multiple objective measures (i.e., pedometers and accelerometers) were used to determine physical activity intensities and walking patterns of participants. Results indicate that older adults with ID are performing less physical activity than comparison groups. A small proportion of older adults with ID (6%) met national physical activity recommendations of 150 min of moderate or 75 min of vigorous physical activity in bouts greater than ten minutes across the week (USDHHS, 2008). Sedentary behavior was also an observable factor in this study. These findings demonstrate the need for health promotion efforts for adults with ID across the lifespan.
Acquiring a Stable Estimate of Physical Activity in Adults With Visual Impairment
Authors: Holbrook Elizabeth A. , Kang Minsoo , Morgan Don W.
Published: August 2016

As a first step toward the development of adapted physical activity (PA) programs for adults with visual impairment (VI), the purpose of this study was to determine the time frame needed to reliably estimate weekly PA in adults with VI. Thirty-three adults with VI completed 7 days of pedometer-based PA assessment. Generalizability theory analyses were conducted to quantify sources of variance within the PA estimate and determine the appropriate number of days of PA monitoring needed for the total sample and for participants with mild-to-moderate and severe VI. A single-facet, crossed design was employed including participants and days. Participants and days correspondingly accounted for 33–55% and 0–3% of the total variance in PA. While a reliable account of PA was obtained for the total sample over a 6-day period, shorter (4-day) and longer (9-day) periods were required for persons with mild-to-moderate and severe VI, respectively.
Impact of After School Programming on Physical Activity Among Adolescents With Visual Impairments
Authors: Cervantes Carlos M. , Porretta David L.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of an after school physical activity intervention on adolescents with visual impairments within the context of Social Cognitive Theory. Four adolescents with visual impairments (1 female, 3 males) between 14 and 19 years of age from a residential school for the blind served as participants. We used a range-bound changing criterion single-subject design. Physical activity was measured using ActiGraph accelerometers. Questionnaires were used to obtain information on selected social cognitive theory constructs. Results show that the intervention exerted functional control over the target behaviors (e.g., leisure-time physical activity) during intervention phases. Similarly, changes in scores for selected social cognitive constructs, in particular for outcome expectancy value, suggest a positive relationship between those constructs and physical activity behavior. No maintenance effects were observed.
Exploring the Meaning of Parental Involvement in Physical Education for Students With Developmental Disabilities
Authors: An Jihoun , Hodge Samuel R.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this phenomenological inquiry was to explore the experiences and meaning of parental involvement in physical education from the perspectives of the parents of students with developmental disabilities. The stories of four mothers of elementary aged children (3 boys, 1 girl), two mothers and one couple (mother and father) of secondary-aged youth (1 girl, 2 boys) with developmental disabilities, were gathered by using interviews, photographs, school documents, and the researcher’s journal. Bronfenbrenner’s (2005) ecological system theory provided a conceptual framework to interpret the findings of this inquiry. Three themes emerged from thematic analysis: being an advocate for my child, understanding the big picture, and collaborative partnerships undeveloped in GPE. The findings lend additional support to the need for establishing collaborative partnerships in physical education between home and school environments (An & Goodwin, 2007; Tekin, 2011).
Children’s Social Relationships and Motivation in Sledge Hockey
Authors: Wynnyk Katrina , Spencer-Cavaliere Nancy
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore children with disabilities’ social relationships and motivation to take part in sledge hockey. Harter’s (1978) theory of Competence Motivation was used as the conceptual framework. Ten children (1 girl and 9 boys) between ages 11–16 years, who experienced a range of disabilities, participated. Primary data were collected using semistructured interviews, participant observations, and field and reflective notes. The thematic analysis led to four themes: (a) coach feedback, (b) parental involvement, (c) skill and belonging, and (d) (dis)ability sport. The findings revealed that interactions with significant others contributed extensively to the participant’s perceptions of competence and motivation to participate, as did the sport’s competitive nature. The findings are discussed in the context of Harter’s theory and the children’s sport and adapted physical activity inclusion literature.
Effects of Practica Type, Experience, and Gender on Attitudes of Undergraduate Physical Education Majors Toward Disabled Persons
Authors: Rowe Joanne , Stutts Rose Marie
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine variables that affect change of attitudes of undergraduate physical education majors toward disabled persons. The subjects (175) were assigned to one of four practicum sites. They were not matched with a particular disabled person, nor were they given a choice of practicum sites. The practica were with (a) preschool disabled, (b) adult CP disabled, (c) elementary school disabled, and (d) adolescent MR disabled. The practica was for 12 weeks, 2 days per week. The physical education majors were administered the Attitudes Toward Disabled Persons Scale, Form A, on a pre- and posttest basis. Of the total subjects, 109 (63%) had negative attitudes toward disabled persons before the practica experience but had a change in attitude at the completion of the practica experience. Another 20 (11%) had negative attitudes before the practicum and remained unchanged. The remaining 46 (26%) had positive attitudes and remained positive in their attitudes toward the disabled. There was no significant difference between the results of males and females.
Improving Attitudes Toward Disabled Persons
Authors: Patrick George D.
Published: August 2016

The degree to which physical education majors’ attitudes toward disabled persons improved after taking an adapted physical education course was examined in this study. Participants included 179 undergraduate students from a large university, some of whom were exposed to course lectures, clinic contact with disabled individuals, relevant films, disability simulations, and readings. A Solomon four-group design was used. Two groups received the course in adapted physical education (pretest-posttest, n=47; posttest only, n=45), and two control groups were not enrolled (pretest-posttest, n=44; posttest only, n=43). Data were collected using the Attitudes Toward Disabled Persons Scale (Yuker, Block, & Younng, 1966). The results indicated significant change of the two treatment groups, leading to improved attitudes toward disabled persons. Secondary findings included the reactivity to pretesting for students in the experimental condition and no statistically significant effects of gender and age.
Self-Efficacy and Psychological Well-Being of Wheelchair Tennis Participants and Wheelchair Nontennis Participants
Authors: Greenwood C. Michael , Dzewaltowski David A. , French Ron
Published: August 2016

The importance of self-efficacy as a cognitive mediator of wheelchair mobile individuals’ psychological well-being was examined. Specifically assessed were competitive wheelchair tennis participants’ and wheelchair nontennis participants’ mood and self-efficacy toward performing tennis and general wheelchair mobility tasks. Wheelchair tennis participants exhibited an iceberg profile of positive well-being and were higher than the Profile of Mood States norm on vigor and lower than the norm on tension, anger, depression, fatigue, and confusion. Furthermore, wheelchair mobility self-efficacy significantly correlated with wheelchair tennis self-efficacy. More important, both self-efficacy measures correlated significantly with vigor for the wheelchair tennis participants and wheelchair mobility self-efficacy correlated significantly with each mood factor except depression for the wheelchair nontennis participants. It was concluded that wheelchair mobile individuals participating in tennis may be more confident about performing tennis skills and general wheelchair mobility tasks than are wheelchair mobile nonparticipants.
Reliability and Concurrent Validity of the Test of Motor Impairment-Henderson Revision
Authors: Riggen Katherine J. , Ulrich Dale A. , Ozmun John C.
Published: August 2016

The reliability and concurrent validity of the Test of Motor Impairment-Henderson Revision was evaluated employing a sample of preschoolers. Absolute reliability of the final test score was established by calculating the standard error of measurement (SEM). An SEM of .86 was obtained. The consistency of decisions related to motor impairment or nonimpairment was estimated by calculating the proportion of agreement index across two testing occasions and Kappa. A 90% agreement was obtained with Kappa equal to .71. Concurrent validity using the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-Short Form as the criterion resulted in an 88% agreement between the two tests.
An Activity Based Weight Control Program
Authors: Emes Claudia , Velde Beth , Moreau Mary , Murdoch Douglas D. , Trussell Rebecca
Published: August 2016

Two methods of introducing obese adolescents to aerobic exercise were compared. A fast-start group began with five aerobic sessions per week and gradually reduced these to three over a period of 12 weeks. A slow-start group began with one per week and gradually increased to three. A control group had an equivalent amount of time in interactive group sessions and nonaerobic activity. The program was assessed by physical fitness, anthropometry, and attendance. Results were analyzed by multivariate analysis. The method of introducing exercise to the subjects produced no significant differences on measures of fitness or anthropometry. Significant effects for time were shown for strength, push-ups, body mass index, the sum of five skinfolds, gluteal and abdominal circumferences, weight, and percent overweight. Significant differences in the absenteeism rates were shown among groups. However, no relationship was found between absenteeism and changes in weight or overall fitness levels.
Ecological Task Analysis: Translating Movement Behavior Theory into Practice
Authors: Davis Walter E. , Burton Allen W.
Published: August 2016

A new approach to task analysis is presented based upon an ecological theory of perception and current motor development and control theories. The ecological task analysis (ETA) approach stands in sharp contrast to more traditional approaches and offers procedures equally applicable to instruction and assessment of movement performance as well as to applied research. The strengths of the ETA approach lie in (a) its grounding in current motor development and control theories, (b) its linking of the task requirements, environmental conditions, and performer characteristics, (c) its application of a functional and dynamic approach to instruction and assessment, and (d) its integration of instruction and assessment procedures. Following a discussion of the traditional approach and ecological theory, four concepts are presented that emanate from Gibson’s theory of affordances. From these concepts ETA procedures are derived. Applied research questions relating to task analysis are also implied from the ecological approach and are presented in the final section.
Effect of a Dance Program on the Creativity of Preschool Handicapped Children
Authors: Jay Danielle
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine whether a dance program for preschool handicapped children can influence their creativity. This study was conducted in two schools in Illinois with 17 preschool handicapped children (Program I, N = 12; Program II, N = 5), ages 3 to 5 years. In each school there was a Program I and Program II. The children in Program I participated in the 12-week dance program which was based on sensory experiences utilizing Laban’s effort actions. Those in Program II did not have the dance program but did participate in an adapted physical education program. At the beginning and end of the study, the Torrance Test of Thinking Creatively in Action and Movement (TCAM) was administered individually. It consisted of three subscales: fluency, imagination, and originality. A two-way MANCOVA on the TCAM scores revealed that the experimental group improved over the comparison group (p <.05) on the set of subscale scores. Subsequent univariate ANCOVA analyses were performed on the data to determine which dependent measures were significantly different between the groups. The results demonstrated that imagination (p <.01) was significantly changed by the dance program but that fluency and originality were not.
Integrated Swimming Classification: A Faulted System
Authors: Richter Kenneth J. , Adams-Mushett Carol , Ferrara Michael S. , McCann B. Cairbre
Published: August 2016

Classification is intended to provide fair competition for athletes. Each disability group has developed different methods and techniques of classification to ensure fair competition. However, the 1992 Paralympics will use integrated classification for swimmers from the International Sports Organization for the Disabled (ISOD), the International Stoke Mandeville Wheelchair Sports Federation (ISMWSF), and the Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association (CP-ISRA). The integrated swimming classification is said to be based on the research of Counsilman. The developers of the integrated swimming classification system have assigned point values for body parts involved in swimming propulsion. Counsilman (1977) refutes the assignment of points to swimming propulsion since it is unscientific and based on subjective evaluation. Further, the integrated swimming classification has yet to undergo extensive field testing to determine its reliability and validity. Additionally there are physiological, sports technical, and statistical problems with the integrated system.
Changing Attitudes about Teaching Students with Handicaps
Authors: Rizzo Terry L. , Vispoel Walter P.
Published: August 2016

This study was conducted to determine the influence of two physical education courses on undergraduate physical educators’ attitudes toward teaching students labeled educable mentally retarded, behavioral disordered, and learning disabled. The two courses, Adapted Physical Education and Physical Education for Children, included 77 and 97 students, respectively. Four strategies for attitudinal change (information, contact, persuasion, and vicarious experience) were emphasized in the former course. Participants in both courses completed the Physical Educators’ Attitude Toward Teaching the Handicapped Questionnaire (PEATH–II) during the first and last days of a 16-week semester. The data were analyzed using a split-plot hierarchical ANOVA design with two between-subjects factors, course type and teacher (nested under course type), and two within-subjects factors, time (pretest and posttest) and handicapping label. Results indicated that attitudes toward teaching students with handicaps improved significantly in the adapted physical education course but not in the other course.
Adapted Physical Activity Research: Issues and Recommendations
Authors: Lavay Barry , Lasko-McCarthey Peggy
Published: August 2016

To successfully conduct quality research, professionals in adapted physical activity (APA) must address a number of unique and challenging issues. These issues include difficulty in acquiring large and homogenous samples; developing valid, reliable, and commercially available test instruments and protocols specific to persons with disabilities; properly training doctoral students to conduct quality research; and maintaining a specific research focus. With regard to these issues, this paper provides the following recommendations: utilize alternative research designs; acquire adequate graduate research training; develop a research focus as an adapted physical activity researcher; and promote an interdisciplinary, collaborative research effort among professionals. Most important, through continued scholarly research adapted physical activity professionals will be able to expand the scientific body of knowledge.
Examining the Concept of Reverse Integration: A Response to Brasile’s “New Perspective” on Integration
Authors: Thiboutot Armand , Smith Ralph W. , Labanowich Stan
Published: August 2016

Brasile (1990) has proposed a “new perspective” on efforts in the United States to integrate persons without disabilities in activities currently limited exclusively to those with disabilities (i.e., wheelchair sports). It is contended herein that Brasile’s rationale for “reverse integration” is based upon faulty logic; moreover, it violates fundamental concepts that form the foundation of the wheelchair sports movement in the U.S. Not only would it reduce competitive opportunities for persons with disabilities, but reverse integration reflects an outdated perspective that wheelchair sports is primarily a form of rehabilitation rather than sports competition. Finally, the fundamental issue in this debate is identified: who will ultimately decide who is or is not eligible for participation in wheelchair sports in the U.S.? In 1987 the players (i.e., team delegates) within the National Wheelchair Basketball Association voted overwhelmingly against the inclusion of players without disabilities. The athletes themselves should continue to have control of wheelchair sports.
Musculoskeletal Injury Evaluation Standards for Different Disciplines
Authors: Lafave Mark R. , Mohtadi Nicholas G. , Chan Denise S.
Published: August 2016

Evaluation of musculoskeletal injuries requires special knowledge and skills that are shared by different health professions, but the process used to establish a diagnosis is not necessarily the same. Medicine has employed the objective structured clinical exams (OSCE) to assess clinical competence. The performances of two Canadian athletic therapists were assessed by two different methods for assessment of clinical competence in the evaluation of knee injuries. On the basis of existing standards, both of the athletic therapists would have passed the examination using the Standardized Orthopedic Assessment Tool currently used to assess the clinical competence of athletic therapy students, but both would have failed using the Academy of Sport and Exercise Medicine OSCE for sport medicine physicians. The failure could be because the performances of only two subjects were assessed, but it could also be because different constructs are represented by the two methods. If we truly want to provide patient-centered care, it should be important to have similar standards, regardless of the clinician’s professional discipline.
Vaults Performed by Female Olympic Gymnasts: A Biomechanical Profile
Authors: Nelson Richard C. , Gross Ted S. , Street Glenn M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this report was to provide a model analysis of biomechanical films taken during the women's gymnastic vaulting events of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games. Although a majority of the optional vaults were filmed, only the 16 vaults performed by the competitors in the individual championships were examined. The analysis included calculations of temporal, spatial, and velocity parameters as the gymnast's center of mass moved through four phases of the vault. The phases were identified as Reuther board contact, prehorse flight, horse contact, and posthorse flight. A representative profile of a female gymnast competing in the Games was compiled based on these parameters. This profile indicated that the gymnasts were much smaller than the average population, efficient in the use of the Reuther board and the horse to reach and maintain CM velocities necessary to complete the vault, and agile enough to perform complex airborne rotations during an average posthorse flight duration of .80s.
Kinematic Analysis of Olympic Discus Throwers
Authors: Gregor Robert J. , Whiting William C. , McCoy Raymond W.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to record the performance of all male and female competitors in the discus throw during the 1984 Olympic Games. The final rounds of the men's and women's discus throw were filmed at 120 fps using two high-speed 16mm LoCam cameras. Height, angle, and velocity of the discus and the thrower's trunk angle were measured at release in the best three throws of the Gold, Silver, and Bronze medalists in both the men's and women's division. Little difference was observed between men and women regarding the angle and velocity of release, and results were comparable with those from previous studies on elite performers. But differences were observed in foot position at release and height of release between men and women. It appeared the men had more vertical thrust in taking them off the ground prior to release and, even relative to their greater body height, released the discus with a higher arm position. The three-dimensional nature of this event precludes any further interpretation at this time.
Biomechanical Profile of Elite Women Marathoners
Authors: Buckalew Daniel P. , Barlow David A. , Fischer James W. , Richards James G.
Published: August 2016

Extensive study has been done on male subjects dealing with gait analysis, but similar investigations of women runners are limited. The purpose of this study was to quantify the essential characteristics and alterations in gait mechanics of women marathoners. Forty elite women marathoners were filmed at four camera locations during the first U.S. Olympic Women's Marathon Trial. Data were quantified with a microcomputer and digitizing system. Quantification of 11 kinematic and temporal variables of gait were obtained. Five variables were examined bilaterally to determine degree of symmetry. Results showed remarkably consistent characteristics of gait across the four camera locations. However, substantial changes did occur between the third and fourth camera locations in stride length and horizontal velocity. All subjects displayed little asymmetry throughout the race. Minimal differences between the top and bottom 10 finishers were noted. There are differences between the gait patterns of men and women distance runners. Stride length, support/nonsupport time ratio, and percent overstride appear to be important factors for success of women distance runners. Most alterations in gait mechanics appear to occur between the 20- and 24-mile marks of the marathon.
A Three-Dimensional Cinematographic Analysis of the Fastball and Curveball Pitches in Baseball
Authors: Elliott Bruce , Grove J. Robert , Gibson Barry , Thurston B.
Published: August 2016

Three-dimensional (3-D) high speed photography was used to record the fastball (FB) and curveball (CB) actions of six members of the Australian National pitching squad. The direct linear transformation (DLT) method of motion analysis for 3-D space reconstruction from 2-D images was used to record the movement of selected anatomical features. Laterally positioned phase-locked cameras operating at 200 fps and a front-on camera operating at 300 fps were used to record the pitching action. Mean pitching velocities for the FB and the CB were recorded. A kinematic analysis of the two pitching motions from the first balance point following the completion of the pump and pivot to follow through are presented. The actions are very similar for the two pitches, as would be expected if disguised to confuse the batter. Minor differences were noted, however, for stride length, forearm action prior to release, and wrist action at release.
Experiments in Human Ergometry as Applied to the Design of Human Powered Vehicles
Authors: Kyle Chester R. , Caiozzo Vincent j.
Published: August 2016

A comparison of six methods of measuring maximal human power output is given. The methods are as follows: the standard bicycle ergometer and modified bicycle ergometer (revised so that a standard racing bicycle and a higher applied torque could be used); a bicycle ridden on a treadmill; an unbraked flywheel bicycle ergometer; power using bicycle wind and rolling resistance measurements; running up stairs with weights; and running up a ramp with weights. Power output was. measured for time periods varying from less than 1 sec to 20 min. Power from the different methods agreed quite well. Example data are given for leg exercise, arm and leg exercise, and cycling in the prone, supine, and standard cycling positions.
Kinematics of a World Record and Other World-Class Performances in the Triple Jump
Authors: Miller John A. , Hay James G.
Published: August 2016

The horizontal jumps at the 1985 TAC (U.S. national) Championships in Indianapolis were filmed as part of the Elite Athlete Project of the U.S. Olympic Committee. Jumps by Willie Banks and Mike Conley were especially outstanding and, because of this as well as some excellent performances by the third and fourth place finishers, an analysis of the jumping techniques used by the top four finishers was conducted. Its purposes were (a) to determine selected kinematic data for a world record triple jump, and (b) to compare these data with corresponding data for previous performances by the same athlete and for performances by other elite triple jumpers. A comparison of the phase distances and phase ratios for the 1985 TAC jumps with those for the best analyzed jump by Banks, Conley, and Joyner at some previous meets revealed that, as they increased their effective distances, all three decreased the emphasis they placed on the step phase. The best athletes seem to use a “pawing” (or active) landing prior to takeoff into the step phase and a “blocking” landing prior to takeoff into the jump phase.
A Mechanical Model of the Long Jump and its Application to a Technique of Preparatory and Takeoff Phases
Authors: Řídká-Drdácká Eva
Published: August 2016

The motion of the center of gravity of a human body at the takeoff phase of the long jump is simulated by a simple mechanical model. The takeoff phase depends on the chosen input values of kinematical quantities and on the resulting force acting on the center of gravity of the body during this phase. The dependence of the performance, that is, length of the jump on the values of horizontal and vertical velocities at the beginning of the flight, is graphically displayed in a nomogram. By plotting the course of the takeoff phase into this nomogram for a sample of jumps, we gain information on the relation between different parameters and the performance. Optimal values of these parameters are deduced. Suitable technique of the preparation for takeoff and the proper takeoff phases is suggested. The criteria for correct application of this technique are defined.
Upper Extremity Function in Running. II: Angular Momentum Considerations
Authors: Hinrichs Richard N.
Published: August 2016

Ten male recreational runners were filmed using three-dimensional cinematography while running on a treadmill at 3.8 m/s, 4.5 m/s, and 5.4 m/s. A 14-segment mathematical model was used to examine the contributions of the arms to the total-body angular momentum about three orthogonal axes passing through the body center of mass. The results showed that while the body possessed varying amounts of angular momentum about all three coordinate axes, the arms made a meaningful contribution to only the vertical component (Hz). The arms were found to generate an alternating positive and negative Hz pattern during the running cycle. This tended to cancel out an opposite Hz pattern of the legs. The trunk was found to be an active participant in this balance of angular momentum, the upper trunk rotating back and forth with the arms and, to a lesser extent, the lower trunk with the legs. The result was a relatively small total-body Hz throughout the running cycle. The inverse relationship between upper- and lower-body angular momentum suggests that the arms and upper trunk provide the majority of the angular impulse about the z axis needed to put the legs through their alternating strides in running.
The Influence of Aerodynamic and Anthropometric Factors on Speed in Skiing
Authors: Luethi Simon M. , Denoth Jachen
Published: August 2016

The anthropometric and aerodynamic conditions are among the important factors that decide performance in downhill ski races. This paper combines a theoretical approach with input data from wind tunnel experiments to estimate the influence of selected variables on speed in skiing. The variables of interest are the mass of the athlete and the aerodynamic forces, drag and lift. Based on the findings of the study, an anthropometric code number (ACN) is introduced. This ACN value is a combination of the mass of the skier, the coefficient of drag, and the greatest projected area the athlete exposes to the airflow. It seems that the ACN is a valid, easy-to-calculate number in order to compare test results from wind tunnel experiments.
Neck Loads during Head-First Collisions in Ice Hockey: Experimental and Simulation Results
Authors: Wells Richard P. , Bishop Patrick J. , Stephens Malcolm
Published: August 2016

Spinal cord trauma due to head-first collisions is not uncommon in vehicle accidents, shallow water diving, football, or ice hockey. Two approaches to evaluating potential protective devices for ice hockey are described: an evaluative tool based upon an anthropometric test dummy, and a computer simulation of axial head-first collisions. Helmets reduced the peak cervical spine loads during low velocity head-first collisions by up to 8%. It is shown that large thicknesses of appropriate padding are necessary to hold the cervical spine loads to noninjurious levels. A head-first impact of 3.0 m • sec−1 required padding deformations on the order of 94 mm to hold cervical spine loads below 2,000 N.
The Marathon Skate in Nordic Skiing Performed on Roller Skates, Roller Skis, and Snow Skis
Authors: Gervais Pierre , Wronko Craig
Published: August 2016

In the past few years there has been a change from emphasizing the classical cross-country ski technique to introducing the skating technique. Use of the skating stride has led to the adoption of roller skates instead of the ratchet-type roller skis for dryland training. Therefore the question arises as to whether the roller skates simulate the movement pattern observed on snow. This study attempted to answer this question and to evaluate the movement similarity between a newly designed skating-specific roller ski and snow skis in performing the skating stride. The marathon skate was chosen for analysis as it was the most established and consistent skating stride. Biomechanical cinematography was used to acquire a sagittal and anterior view of the skiers. Temporal and angular kinematic data were collected. Both dryland devices approximated the snow skiing pattern, yet it was found that due to the discrepancies in the propulsion phase between the roller skates and the snow skis, the “Nordic Skate” roller skis proved to more closely simulate the on-snow technique.
Timing of the Lower Limb Drive and Throwing Limb Movement in Baseball Pitching
Authors: Elliott Bruce , Grove J. Robert , Gibson Barry
Published: August 2016

Eight international baseball pitchers were filmed in a laboratory while throwing from a pitching rubber attached to a Kistler force platform. Following a warm-up, all subjects threw fastballs (FB) until two strike pitches were assessed by an umpire positioned behind the catcher for both wind-up and set pitching techniques. Subjects then followed the same procedures for curveball pitches (CB). Both vertical (Z) and horizontal (Y) ground reaction force (GRF) data were recorded. A shutter correlation pulse was encoded so the temporal data from the film could be synchronized with the kinetic data from the force platform. Analysis of variance was used to analyze differences in force data at selected points in both pitching actions for both techniques. Vertical and horizontal GRFs increased from the first balance position to maximum levels at the cocked position for both techniques. Nonsignificant changes in GRF then occurred between the cocked position and front-foot landing. The Z GRFs were similar throughout the pitching action but higher in magnitude for the CB compared to the FB. Mean resultant forces were similar for the three fastest FB pitchers when compared to the three slowest pitchers. However, the slower group produced their peak resultant force earlier in the action, thus reducing the ability to drive over a stabilized front leg.
Approach Strategies in the Long Jump
Authors: Hay James G.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine whether elite long jumpers make use of a visual control strategy during the final four strides of their approach. Analysis of existing film records revealed that all subjects adopted a visual control strategy at some point during their final strides. Data for the last four strides were insufficient to permit the actual point to be identified in most cases. A second study was undertaken to determine the location of this point and whether it is a function of the error accumulated during the preceding phase of the approach. The performances of 19 subjects were recorded over the last 8–10 strides of the approach. On average, the subjects adopted a visual control strategy on the 5th-last stride. The point at which this strategy was adopted was apparently unrelated to the error in the accuracy of striding up to that point.
Shock Absorbing Characteristics of Floors Used for Dance Exercise
Authors: Francis Peter R. , Leigh Michael , Berzins Aldis
Published: August 2016

The Standardized Test Method for Shock-Absorbing Properties of Playing Surface Systems and Materials (ASTM F-355) was used to evaluate the shock absorbing characteristics of 13 floors used for dance exercise. Acceleration-time histories indicated that the floors differed markedly in their shock absorbing behavior. The complex nature of the acceleration-time histories led to the conclusion that descriptors that have previously been used to quantify shock absorbing data were inadequate for the floors examined in this investigation. An additional procedure was devised in order to examine potentially injurious stresses on a performer while executing a common dance exercise movement performed on each of the 13 floors tested. It was concluded that the two testing procedures evaluated differing aspects of the shock absorbing mechanisms involved in dance exercise. However, a tentative relationship between the two corresponding data sets provided some support for the retention of ASTM F-355 as a reproducible test for the shock absorbing characteristics of floors.
A Method for Obtaining Three-Dimensional Data on Ski Jumping Using Pan and Tilt Cameras
Authors: Yeadon Maurice R.
Published: August 2016

A method is presented for the three-dimensional analysis of ski jumping using two pan and tilt cameras. In each film frame two reference markers are digitized and identified so that a pseudo focal length and three angles defining camera orientation can be calculated from a knowledge of the positions of camera and markers. In each film frame 12 body landmarks are digitized and the films taken by the two cameras are synchronized using the digitized displacement data. The time histories of the center of mass location and 15 angles describing the orientation and configuration of the jumper are calculated. Digitization errors lead to an error of 0.05 m in center of mass location and an error of 1° in orientation angles.
Forces on the Hand in the Tennis Forehand Drive: Application of Force Sensing Resistors
Authors: Knudson Duane V. , White Scott C.
Published: August 2016

Two force sensing resistor force transducers were utilized to measure the forces on the hand of seven skilled tennis players performing the tennis forehand drive. Repeatable gripping force patterns were recorded for the subjects given the experimental protocol used for the study. The magnitude of the peak postimpact force on the hand was highly variable, ranging from 4 to 309 N, and was found to be related to high-frequency vibrations of the racket. There was less variability in the magnitude of preimpact gripping forces, indicating that the subjects utilized a consistent gripping pattern in preparation for impact. The large within- and between-subject variability of postimpact forces warrant further study in order to establish the range of loadings in tennis play that may be related to overuse injuries.