bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Public Management 1996: Once More Unto the Breach
Authors: Prasser Scott
Published: March 2008

Reviewing public administration in Australia was once akin to watching glaciers — you knew there was movement and something was happening beneath the surface, but detection required patient observation over a long period of time.
Ethics and the Changing Nature of Public Service
Authors: AM Peter Shergold
Published: March 2008

The public sector is held to an ethical standard not demanded of others. It must recognise the distinctive nature of its contribution to the public good and meet a demanding accountability regime. Structural changes pose still further challenges for the public sector. Yet we should be proud of our accomplishments and willing to defend the unique character of public service.
Are prisoners Clients?
Authors: Vardon Sue
Published: March 2008

The concept of the involuntary client is very familiar to those people working in statutory agencies—the social work literature has explored this. those working in child protection, community corrections and juvenile justice rely on it for the development of their philosophical and theoretical models for intervention. There are many people for whom the services of the state are their only option because of the nature of the service or the lack of other suppliers in the market place. To consider that people should lose the benefits of client status because of these limits is to deny them dignity and to assume it lies only within the area of financial transaction — therefore for those who can afford to pay. The dignity of the client and the consequent practices and behaviours expected of people who deliver a human service are well documented and the concept has been around a lot longer than the recent literature on customer service.
Political Capture
Authors: Jackson Michael
Published: March 2008

National Commission of Audit, Report to the Commonwealth Government, Canberra: AGPS, June 1996. ISBN 0 644 36116 6. xxviii + 409 pp. 24.95
A Future for Public Sector Appeal Systems Under New Managerialism?
Authors: Thornthwaite Louise
Published: March 2008

This article examines the fate of public sector appeal systems under the managerialist reform agenda. Is new managerialism wedded to a particular shape of appeal system? Is it wedded to the dismantling of this traditionally distinctive feature of public sector employment in Australia? To explore these questions, this article examines the roles which public sector appeal systems play in human resource management and their implications for public sector reform. It then compares traditional appeal rights and processes with those currently operating in the state, Commonwealth and Northern Territory public services. The article also discusses the implications of the dramatic changes in some jurisdictions, including Victoria and Western Australia, for the effectiveness of appeal processes, and human resource management in the public sector.
Information Technology Outsourcing by State Governments in Australia
Authors: Graham Mary , Scarborough Helen
Published: March 2008

Outsourcing of IT services is being undertaken at a rapid rate within the public sector in Australia. This paper investigates the adoption of this practice by a sample of state government enterprises and departments from South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales which have tendered long‐term IT outsourcing contracts.

The motivation, decision‐making process and extent of outsourcing are examined in further detail. In addition, the tendering process, contract and risk management are investigated to determine whether consideration has been given to the full economic costs involved in entering into longer term contracts.
Quality Control and Contracting Out of Legal Aid
Authors: Prenzler Tim , Williams Andrew McLean , Hayes Hennessey
Published: March 2008

This article reports on an evaluation of a pilot project in the tendering out of legal aid defence services for criminal matters in the Queensland District Court. Comparisons were made on quality and cost between the assignment of matters through competitive contracting and conventional assignment to private practitioners through a panel and scale fee system. Results show no significant differences in case outcomes and client perceptions of quality. In the interests of further cost reductions, any extension of tendering would need to focus on relatively simple, high‐volume areas of prescribed crime, where there is less risk that competitive pricing will reduce the quality of service delivery. In addition, the evaluation indicated that greater savings might in future be obtained by enhanced utilisation of in‐house (salaried) legal aid practitioners.
Implementation of Aged Care Policy in the Australian Federal System
Authors: Clark Michele J.
Published: March 2008

In 1983–84 the Commonwealth and state governments trialled the introduction of the geriatric assessment team (GAT) program. Twenty years of Australian Health Ministers' Conference (AHMC)1 minutes and records (1969–88), files within the Queensland and Commonwealth health departments (1983–88) and interviews with major stakeholders revealed that implementation can extend over many years and can require a confluence of factors for a policy idea to come to fruition. This article examines the dynamics involved in the implementation of the GAT policy and reveals that expert advisers played a central role in policy innovation and implementation and that the federal system could both obstruct and facilitate policy implementation. While there was evidence of delay and conflict, the Australian states through their expert advisers were significant contributors to the development and implementation of aged care policies. Many of the intergovernmental relations were often characterised by a high degree of cooperation at least at the officer to officer level. The ‘coercive’ nature of the federal system may need to be revisited.
Managerialism, Accountability and Democracy: A Victorian Case Study
Authors: Zifcak Spencer
Published: March 2008

Managerialism has made a substantial contribution to providing a more cost conscious, efficient and effective public service. But the Victorian case also raises concerns about whether managerialist techniques will be pursued within a wider constitutional, political and legal framework which recognises the need for discussion, debate and accountability in democratic policy‐making.
Which Contract State? Four Perspectives on Over‐Outsourcing for Public Services
Authors: Hood Christopher
Published: March 2008

Since the term ‘contract state’ was coined over 20 years ago, there has been much discussion about the scope and limits of outsourcing and contractorisation. But attempts to fix the limits of outsourceability, using approaches such as transaction‐cost analysis, the identification of inherently state functions and business‐strategy ideas of ‘core competences’ seem fated to be indeterminate. What counts as over‐outsourcing or inappropriate contractorisation depends on what basic values animate ‘the’ contract state. The limits of outsourcing will be different according to whether a state aims at ‘steering’, ‘empowering’, ‘consumerism’ or ‘amoral’ goals. Accordingly, a simple distinction between ‘public bureaucracy state’ and ‘contract state’ may be less important than analysis of different variants of the contract state.
Reforming Central Banking STEPHEN KIRCHNER
Authors: Bell Stephen
Published: March 2008

This book is about which monetary institutions and monetary regimes are most likely to promote: price stability. As such it is a welcome addition to the literature on this much debated question, especially because it provides such a lucid account of Kirchner's side of the debate. The questions he explores are important because central banks have become much more significant in recent times. Indeed, momentous changes in political economy, especially in the last decade in the wake of global and domestic financial deregulation, have propelled monetary policy and central banks to a new prominence.
Balancing Acts — Wielding the Balance of Power
Authors: Kernot Cheryl
Published: March 2008

After discussing the nature of the balance of power following the March 1996 federal election, this article looks at potential methods of influence for parties (particularly the Australian Democrats) in a balance of power situation. Included are three case studies of major legislation. The results show levels of influence to be mixed depending on the nature of the legislation, and the Howard government to be a ‘mixed bag’ in its approach to parliamentary process and dealing with the Senate. The final stage of this article looks briefly across those case studies to make conclusions as to the motivation, intent and consequences of public sector changes which are occurring under the Howard government.
From Marketisation To Diplomacy: It's the Mix that Matters
Authors: Rhodes RAW
Published: March 2008

In marked contrast to conventional Westminster models, this article proposes that a more useful explanatory framework is provided by the concept ‘the differentiated polity’. This new perspective not only focusses on fragmentation, networks, hollowing‐out and governance as alternative explanatory variables, but proposes that markedly different policy skills are required to manage ‘differentiated polities’. These skills include: coping with complexity; negotiating interdependence; game‐playing; reestablishing trust relations; and using diplomatic techniques of patience, perseverence and persuasion.
‘Problems in International Environmental Governance’ or ‘A Policy Analyst Looks at the World…. this Being a Tale of How the Hopes of Mice and Men in Geneva Are Dashed in Canberra’
Authors: Kellow Aynsley
Published: March 2008

Concern about international environmental governance has shifted from the problems in having multilateral environmental agreements adopted to trying to ensure that the agreements which are negotiated are implemented, and that they produce positive environmental outcomes. This article argues that features of the international policy process which assist domestic policy adoption, especially scientific reductionism and moral suasion, can undermine the chances of policy implementation. This is often because business interests which are marginalised during policy adoption are more influential at the domestic level at which policy must be implemented. This asymmmetry is explained by suggesting that — rather than their being ‘two‐level games’ (as Putnam suggested) — there are (in Lowi's terms) distinctive arenas of power at the the international and national levels. Improving policy effectiveness requires the distribution of power in each arena to be made more symmetrical.
Managing the Environment: Rhetoric, Policy and Reality
Authors: Dovers Stephen R , Lindenmayer David B
Published: March 2008

This article argues that, despite environmental issues climbing higher on the political agenda and considerable recent policy activity, rhetoric is not matched by reality in our efforts to manage the Australian environment. We integrate the imperatives emerging from the policy and sustainability literatures and from actual policy, with detailed work on wildlife conservation in Victoria's Central Highlands. Our analysis demonstrates that, rather than undertaking the more intensive policy and ‘adaptive management’ that is needed, governments are often doing less and may actually be ‘taking their hands of their wheel’. Some public policy and administration implications of the emerging policy field of sustainability are illustrated.
Reforms to Rural Research and Development Viewed in a New Light: the Importance of the Individual
Authors: Lovett Siwan
Published: March 2008

The reforms accomplished in the rural research and development (R&D) sector throughout the 1980s and 1990s revolutionised the conduct of scientific inquiry in Australia. Surveys of these reforms have viewed the accomplishment of this change as an evolutionary, smooth and uncontroversial process (see Lovett 1993; 1994). However, it is not until the developments prior to 1985 are examined that the apparent ease and seamlessness of the reforms become challenged. It is now clear that rather than being a planned and ordered process, the changes made to rural (R&D) were sporadic and dependent upon specific personalities who happened to be in ‘the right place at the right time’. This article exposes this Contrary account in order to highlight the true nature of the changes made to the area. In so doing it challenges previous accounts of the period and provides a basis from which to understand the transformation of the rural (R&D) sector in Australia.
The Changing Role of Government in Community Services: Issues of Access and Equity to Administrative Review
Authors: Tang Anita
Published: March 2008

Governments are increasingly moving to privatise, or contract out many community services and functions previously the responsibility of the public sector. Consumers of community services stand to benefit from this trend toward contracting out. However, it is also apparent that there is a need to ensure that improved avenues of review, redress and safeguards accompany these changes in delivery and decision making.
Departmental Secretaries: Introductory Notes
Authors: Podger A.S.
Published: March 2008

Termination and appointment of some departmental secretaries before and after the 1996 election triggered considerable unease within the Australian public service, not only among departmental secretaries. Yet the environment which facilitated such changes had been evolving inexorably over several decades through legislative changes, debates fostered by official inquiries and the broader context of change in the Australian economy and workforce.

A dispassionate review was called for to ensure that the important issues raised last year were indeed properly analysed, while standing back from the immediate emotions and avoiding any suggestion of inappropriate public debate between current senior public servants and the new government (and the new opposition).

I believe the articles offered in this symposium provide a major contribution to that dispassionate review, and hope they receive the attention they deserve from the parliament and senior commentators on public affairs. They not only dissect the issues, but remind us importantly of several decades of public administration history in Australia, the UK and Canada.

These introductory notes are not intended to express my personal views on the suggestions made, but to draw attention to some of the underlying themes and issues.
Departmental Secretaries in Canada and the United Kingdom1
Authors: Halligan John
Published: March 2008

This report examines the formal processes by which appointments and terminations of departmental secretaries are undertaken in Canada and the United Kingdom. It is based on the reviews of official procedures in those countries and the literature on the subject. The report takes into account the practices which have prevailed in recent decades and related conditions of employment for deputy ministers in Canada and permanent secretaries in the United Kingdom. The main purpose of the report is to serve as a companion piece to the study by Patrick Weller and John Wanna of Australian departmental secretaries.

It should be noted that these countries operate within a shared tradition, but that there are differences between them. For example, the Canadian tradition has not maintained the separation of the political and civil service careers to the same extent as the United Kingdom, although the latter has in the past relied on an elite socialisation process for both politicians and civil servants based on the education system.
Lobbying by Law Firms: A Study of Lobbying by National Law Firms in Canberra1
Authors: Darke Matthew
Published: March 2008

This article examines the way in which national law firms lobby the federal government from their Canberra offices. It is based on extensive interviews with lobbyists from those law firms, other commercial lobbyists in Canberra and legal professional bodies. The article begins by establishing the unique nature of law firm lobbying. In particular, it looks at the technical skills law firm lobbyists possess, their access to specialist legal knowledge and their preference for administrative, over political, lobbying. The development of law firm lobbying is then discussed. This centres around changes to the legal profession, federal business laws and federal government decision‐making. The article concludes by suggesting that law firm lobbying both reflects and stimulates changes in government decision‐making and will grow in importance as the legal profession in Canberra grows.
The Curse of Sisyphus: Public Sector Audit Independence in an Age of Economic Rationalism
Authors: Funnell Warwick
Published: March 2008

Consistent with the economic rationalist philosophy which now pervades the decisions and policies of all Australian governments, the persuasive aura of competitive markets has been used to justify the provision by the private sector of an increasing range of public services. Governments who have been consistently antagonised by the findings of the auditor‐general are now attempting to use the arguments for competition in the public sector to diminish the stature and role of the auditor‐general. In place of audit models which are based upon an auditor who is able to conduct audits on behalf of parliament, the auditor‐general is to be increasingly isolated from the means to audit. This represents the onset of a radical interpretation of public sector audit which will usher in the last days of an independent public sector audit function.
Contracting Out and Accountability
Authors: Mulgan Richard
Published: March 2008

Governments are increasingly moving to contract out the provision of public services which have previously been delivered by public service departments. Contracting out typically implies provision by private sector contractors. However, it may also include in‐house provision by public service departments or other public agencies where the right to provide is won through competitive tendering and is governed by contract. At the Commonwealth level, the trend has been given added impetus by the Coalition government elected in 1996 (Reith J 996; National Commission of Audit 1996).

The main rationale for contracting out is to improve efficiency in service provision by harnessing the virtues of competition, in particular the superior productivity engendered among competitive providers (Industry Commission (IC) 1996, B3.4; Appendix E). At the same time, there is a legitimate expectation that providers of public services paid for by public funds will be publicly accountable (IC 1996, BI). However, contracting out has the potential to reduce the extent of public accountability by transferring the provision of public services to members of the private sector who are generally not subject to the same accountability requirements as public officials. Indeed, reduction in such accountability requirements may be one of the reasons for the greater efficiency of the private sector.
New Labour and Government in Britain: Change or Continuity?
Authors: Laffin Martin , Thomas Alys
Published: March 2008

The 1997 British election marks a major change in British government. Eighteen years of Conservative rule had brought about growing inequality and social division and have generated powerful demands for new directions in public policy, especially in the areas of welfare and public administration. On welfare state reform Labour is constrained by election promises to restrain taxation and public expenditure. New Labour ministers influenced by the New Right have in any case largely rejected traditional social democratic redistributive strategies and are seeking instead new ways of reducing welfare dependency.

The virulent spread of quangos at all levels of government and a marked increase in the centralisation of power in Whitehall have given a new impetus to demands for constitutional reform. Labour's response to these demands is a major program of regional devolution, House of Lords reform and open government measures.

This article explains what ‘New Labour’ means and discusses New Labour policies on welfare and constitutional reform and their implications for the future of public administration in Britain.
Is the Higher Public Service a Profession?
Authors: Matheson Craig
Published: March 2008

Professionalisation in the public services is regarded as essential but the concept is ambiguous and organisationally weak. Moreover, if not jeopardised by managerialism, public service professionalisation today faces some major barriers or limitations. Nonetheless, the public service may be able to maintain greater professional status with increased emphasis on job security, occupational closure and horizontal organisation. The prospects for such conditions may now seem remote, but with this criteria in mind Australia will neglect the professionalism of its public service very much to its cost.
Public Sector Reform, Intergovernmental Relations and the Future of Australian Federalism
Authors: Painter Martin
Published: March 2008

Recent developments in the reform of intergovernmental relations have been influenced by contemporary models of public sector reform. Their systematic application to intergovernmental administration, in particular the manner in which jointly funded and managed programs are organised, may have profound and unanticipated effects on the federal system. When viewed in the context of a recent history of collaborative policymaking between political executives, the possibility that new forms of intergovernmental joint policy‐making and program management might become the norm poses serious challenges to federal traditions of dual government. Arm's length and collaborative forms of joint decision making are contrasted as ideal types, and then used to analyse two case studies in collaborative intergovernmental decision‐making — National Competition Policy and the National Training Agreement. It is concluded that the system‐wide implications are profound if they are part of a broader trend, but caution is expressed about the powers of inertia and resistance in traditional forms of federal politics.
The Measure of Policy? Evaluating the Evaluation Strategy as an Instrument for Budgetary Control
Authors: Francesco Michael Di
Published: March 2008

This article reports recent research undertaken on the contribution of program evaluation to that part of the budget process for which the Australian public service has carriage. It examines the degree of success which the Labor government's evaluation strategy attained in serving budget agency information purposes. The research is not conclusive, only indicative. Based on two sets of evidence — interviews with officers in the Department of Finance1 and an analysis of survey results on the use of evaluation in the budget — it contends the evaluation strategy has had only a marginal impact on central budgetary processes. By documenting changes in the approaches of budget officials the article reports the impact of program evaluation on the core function of Finance — the provision of policy advice relating to the expenditure priorities of government.
Judicial Decisions and Policy
Authors: Bygrave Louise
Published: March 2008

This symposium debates the impact of High Court decisions by questioning whether the High Court has the constitutional and legislative authority (and possibly the moral right) to decide policy issues and determine the rights of citizens. Arguments on the role of the High Court vary from views that the High Court provides a sphere in which political interests may be lobbied to notions that its role is solely to interpret the Australian Constitution. However, what occurs when the political aspirations of government are in conflict with the decisions of the High Court? Should the High Court adapt judicial decisions to changing social views, or consider the implications of their decisions on the executive and legislature? What is the constitutional role of the High Court? These questions are explored in detail in the following articles.
Workplace Relations and Agreement Making in the Australian Public Service
Authors: Yates Bernie
Published: March 2008

The Howard government has introduced major change to APS employment relations. The long‐established centralised system has been replaced by a new employer agenda. Negotiations now occur at agency level and are regulated, as in the private sector, by the Workplace Relations Act 1996. Freedom of association is emphasised, as is the right for individuals to settle contracts with their employer. While the transformation is not yet complete, government policy is pushing toward a new paradigm for bargaining in the public sector.
Prisons, the Private Sector and the Market: Some Queensland Lessons
Authors: Weller Patrick
Published: March 2008

Queensland has two prisons run by private companies; the first contract was signed in 1989. In 1995 a competitive tender for a new prison was won by the QCSC against two private providers. Further, there is now a belief that prisons should be run on commercial grounds. The principal agency, the Queensland Corrective Services Commission (QCSC) has been divided into two bodies — a purchaser and a provider — to allow markets to prevail in Queensland corrective services. What can be learnt from these developments? This article will, first, provide a brief history of the changes; second, it will explore whether the initial objectives for the introduction of the private sector into the corrective system have been met; and third it will ask whether market forces can or should be a dominant feature and hence whether a corrective services system can or should be organised on a commercial basis.
The Rule of Reason in European Citizenship
Authors: Borgmann‐Prebil Yuri
Published: March 2008

Abstract:  This article reviews the European Court of Justice's case‐law on European citizenship in the light of aspects of the rights theories of Ronald Dworkin and Robert Alexy. More specifically, the free movement right in Article 18(1) EC is conceptualised as a Dworkinian principle and as a prima‐facie right or ‘optimisation precept’ in Alexy's sense. Against this backdrop the article argues that Article 18(1) can best be interpreted by drawing an analogy with the economic free movement provisions. The central argument is that the rule of reason also applies to European citizenship, or that there is a rule of reason in European citizenship. The analogy encompasses both the definition of the scope of Article 18(1) and its limitations. With regard to the latter, it is contended that there is no conceptual distinction between the ‘limitations’ and ‘conditions’ referred to in that provision. Particular emphasis is placed on the recent case‐law concerning the question of access to welfare benefits. In this regard it is suggested that the notion of a ‘structural link’ constitutes both a threshold criterion to trigger the prima‐facie right in Article 18(1) as well as a benchmark for assessing the degree of solidarity owed to the migrant citizen. The rule of reason approach leads to the stipulation of a thin, juridical conception of European citizenship that does not rely in any way on thick, essentialist properties.
Arbitrage and Abuse of Rights in the EC Legal System
Authors: Schammo Pierre
Published: March 2008

Abstract:  This article contrasts species of regulatory and tax arbitrage with the ECJ's approach to abuse of rights. Its aim is to explain the concepts, describe their relationship and identify the legal and policy issues which they raise within the EC legal system. Arbitrage and abuse figure prominently in the ECJ's case‐law, especially on the freedom of movement. In its more recent case‐law, the ECJ has adopted a more developed approach to abuse of rights by laying down a two‐prong test. This article seeks to draw legal and policy conclusions by examining inter alia the virtues and vices of the EC doctrine of abuse of rights.
Glial aromatization increases the expression of bone morphogenetic protein‐2 in the injured zebra finch brain
Authors: Walters Bradley J. , Saldanha Colin J.
Published: March 2008

In songbirds, brain injury upregulates glial aromatase. The resulting local estrogen synthesis mitigates apoptosis and enhances cytogenesis by poorly understood mechanisms. Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), long studied for their role in neural development, are also neuroprotective and cytogenic in the adult brain. BMPs remain uncharacterized in songbirds, as do the mechanisms regulating their post‐injury expression. We first established the expression of BMPs 2, 4, 6, and 7 in the adult zebra finch brain using RT‐PCR. Next, we determined the effect of neural insult on BMP expression, by comparing BMP transcripts between injured and uninjured telencephalic hemispheres using semi‐quantitative PCR. The expression of BMPs 2 and 4, but not 6 and 7, increased 24 h post‐injury. To determine the influence of aromatase on BMP expression, we compared BMP expression following delivery of the aromatase inhibitor Fadrozole or vehicle into contralateral hemispheres. Fadrozole decreased BMP2, but not BMP4, expression, suggesting that aromatization may induce BMP2 expression following injury. Since BMPs are gliogenic and neurotrophic, future studies will test if the neuroprotective and cytogenic effects of aromatase upregulation are mediated by BMP2. Songbirds may be excellent models towards understanding the role of local estrogen synthesis and its downstream mechanisms on neuroprotection and repair.
Relationship between muscle oxygenation and electromyography activity during sustained isometric contraction
Authors: Yamada Eiji , Kusaka Takashi , Arima Nobuo , Isobe Kenichi , Yamamoto Tetsuji , Itoh Susumu
Published: March 2008

The purpose of this study was to clarify the relationship between electromyography (EMG) spectrum changes and muscle oxygenation measured by near‐infrared time‐resolved spectroscopy (TRS). Each subject performed sustained isometric knee extension at 50% of the maximal voluntary contraction load for 1 min. Surface EMG and TRS were simultaneously recorded from the right vastus lateralis muscle. Mean power frequency (MPF) of the power spectrum was calculated every 5 s during isometric contraction using fast Fourier transform, and decrease in the slope of MPF for 1 min was calculated using the least squares method. The maximal changes in oxygenated haemoglobin and myoglobin (Oxy Hb/Mb) and in deoxygenated haemoglobin and myoglobin (Deoxy Hb/Mb) from pre‐contraction values of 1 min were calculated. There were significant relationships between the decrease in the slope of MPF and the maximal changes in Oxy Hb/Mb and Deoxy Hb/Mb (P < 0·05). These findings suggested that changes in Oxy Hb/Mb and Deoxy Hb/Mb indicate muscle fatigue assessed by EMG.
An Empirical Taxonomy of Hospital Governing Board Roles
Authors: Lee Shoou‐Yih D. , Alexander Jeffrey A. , Wang Virginia , Margolin Frances S. , Combes John R.
Published: March 2008

Objective. To develop a taxonomy of governing board roles in U.S. hospitals.

Data Sources. 2005 AHA Hospital Governance Survey, 2004 AHA Annual Survey of Hospitals, and Area Resource File.

Study Design. A governing board taxonomy was developed using cluster analysis. Results were validated and reviewed by industry experts. Differences in hospital and environmental characteristics across clusters were examined.

Data Extraction Methods. One‐thousand three‐hundred thirty‐four hospitals with complete information on the study variables were included in the analysis.

Principal Findings. Five distinct clusters of hospital governing boards were identified. Statistical tests showed that the five clusters had high internal reliability and high internal validity. Statistically significant differences in hospital and environmental conditions were found among clusters.

Conclusions. The developed taxonomy provides policy makers, health care executives, and researchers a useful way to describe and understand hospital governing board roles. The taxonomy may also facilitate valid and systematic assessment of governance performance. Further, the taxonomy could be used as a framework for governing boards themselves to identify areas for improvement and direction for change.
Does Reimportation Reduce Price Differences for Prescription Drugs? Lessons from the European Union
Authors: Kyle Margaret K. , Allsbrook Jennifer S. , Schulman Kevin A.
Published: March 2008

Objective. To examine the effect of parallel trade on patterns of price dispersion for prescription drugs in the European Union.

Data Sources. Longitudinal data from an IMS Midas database of prices and units sold for drugs in 36 categories in 30 countries from 1993 through 2004.

Study Design. The main outcome measures were mean price differentials and other measures of price dispersion within European Union countries compared with within non‐European Union countries.

Data Collection/Extraction Methods. We identified drugs subject to parallel trade using information provided by IMS and by checking membership lists of parallel import trade associations and lists of approved parallel imports.

Principal Findings. Parallel trade was not associated with substantial reductions in price dispersion in European Union countries. In descriptive and regression analyses, about half of the price differentials exceeded 50 percent in both European Union and non‐European Union countries over time, and price distributions among European Union countries did not show a dramatic change concurrent with the adoption of parallel trade. In regression analysis, we found that although price differentials decreased after 1995 in most countries, they decreased less in the European Union than elsewhere.

Conclusions. Parallel trade for prescription drugs does not automatically reduce international price differences. Future research should explore how other regulatory schemes might lead to different results elsewhere.
Short‐term ferrous sulfate supplementation in female blood donors
Authors: Maghsudlu Mahtab , Nasizadeh Soheila , Toogeh Gholam Reza , Zandieh Tahereh , Parandoush Siavash , Rezayani Maryam
Published: March 2008

BACKGROUND: Iron deficiency is a public problem in women, which contributes to the high percentage of deferred blood donations in this group. This study evaluated the effect of iron supplementation in improving iron stores to promote safe blood donation in women.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 412 female blood donors were randomly recruited for the study. The volunteers were scheduled for an initial visit and three subsequent visits at 4‐month intervals for possible repeat donation. Each volunteer was given 21 tablets of 150 mg of ferrous sulfate or placebo to be taken three times daily for 1 week after each blood donation. Their hemoglobin (Hb) concentration, hematocrit (Hct), serum ferritin, total iron‐binding capacity (TIBC), and percent saturation of the TIBC were tested throughout the course of the study.

RESULTS: The group taking ferrous sulfate showed no significant difference between the mean initial and final result for any of the values other than Hb values, whereas there was a significant decline in mean Hb, Hct, serum iron, serum ferritin, and percent saturation in the group taking placebo. Hb concentrations declined significantly in both groups; however, it was more severe in the placebo group when compared to the ferrous sulfate group. The relative risk of iron deficiency in placebo group was 3.6 (95% confidence interval = 1.73‐7.74).

CONCLUSION: The results indicate that supplementation therapy can be considered as one of the strategies to promote safe blood donation in women. A quantity of 150 mg of elemental iron per day as ferrous sulfate, however, is not the correct dose for Iranian female donors.
Cell secretion: an update
Authors: Jeremic A.
Published: March 2008

Introduction

An update

This past decade has witnessed the publication of a flurry of scientific papers and reports on the subject of cell secretion, following discovery of a permanent plasma membrane structure termed ‘porosome’ and its determination as the universal secretory machinery in cells. This discovery has led to a paradigm shift in our understanding of the secretory process, demonstrating that membrane‐bound secretory vesicles transiently dock and fuse at the porosome base to release their contents to the cell exterior. The regulated release of intravesicular contents during cell secretion is governed by dilation of the porosome opening to the outside, and the extent of vesicle swelling. In agreement, a great number of articles have been written and studies performed, which are briefly discussed in this article.
GTRAP3‐18 serves as a negative regulator of Rab1 in protein transport and neuronal differentiation
Authors: Maier S. , Reiterer V. , Ruggiero A. M. , Rothstein J. D. , Thomas S. , Dahm R. , Sitte H. H. , Farhan H.
Published: March 2008

Glutamate transporter associated protein 3–18 (GTRAP3‐18) is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)‐localized protein belonging to the prenylated rab‐acceptor‐family interacting with small Rab GTPases, which regulate intracellular trafficking events. Its impact on secretory trafficking has not been investigated. We report here that GTRAP3‐18 has an inhibitory effect on Rab1, which is involved in ER‐to‐Golg trafficking. The effects on the early secretory pathway in HEK293 cells were: reduction of the rate of ER‐to‐Golgi transport of the vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein (VSVG), slowed accumulation of a Golgi marker plasmid in pre‐Golgi structures after Brefeldin A treatment and inhibition of cargo concentration of the neuronal glutamate transporter excitatory amino‐acid carrier 1 (EAAC1) into transpor complexes in HEK293 cells, an effect that could be completely reversed in the presence of an excess of Rab1. In accordance with the known role of Rab1 in neurite formation, overexpression of GTRAP3‐18 significantly inhibited the length of outgrowing neurites in differentiated CAD cells. The inhibitory effect of GTRAP3‐18 on neurite growth was rescued by co‐expression with Rab1, supporting the conclusion that GTRAP 3‐18 acted by inhibiting Rab1 action. Finally, we hypothesized that expression of GTRAP3‐18 in the brain shoul be lower at stages of active synaptogenesis compared to early developmental stages. This was the case as expression of GTRAP3‐18 declined from E17 to P0 and adult rat brains. Thus, we propose a model where protein trafficking and neuronal differentiation are directly linked by the interaction of Rab1 and its regulator GTRAP3‐18.
Discovery of a phosphatidylserine‐recognizing peptide and its utility in molecular imaging of tumour apoptosis
Authors: Thapa Narendra , Kim Soyoun , So In‐Sup , Lee Byung‐Heon , Kwon Ick‐Chan , Choi Kuiwon , Kim In‐San
Published: March 2008

The exposure of phosphatidylserine (PS) molecules from the inner to the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane has been recognized as a well‐defined molecular epitope of cells undergoing apoptosis. Examination and monitoring of PS exposure is an extensively used molecular marker in non‐invasive apoptosis imaging under a variety of clinical conditions, including the assessment of therapeutic anti‐cancer agents and myocardial infarction. Herein, we report the identification of a PS‐recognizing peptide which was identified by the screening of an M13 phage display peptide library onto PS‐coated ELISA plates. Repeated biopanning for a total of four rounds revealed a predominant enrichment of the phage clone displaying peptide sequence, CLSYYPSYC (46%). The identified phage clone evidenced enhanced binding to a number of apoptotic cells over non‐apoptotic cells, and this binding was inhibited by both annexin V and synthesized peptide displayed on the phage. The binding of the fluorescein‐labelled CLSYYPSYC peptide to apoptotic versus normal cells was assessed by both FACS analysis and fluorescence microscopy. Optical imaging after the systemic administration of fluorescein‐labelled CLSYYPSYC peptide to tumour‐bearing nude mice (H460 cells xenograft model) treated with a single dose of an anticancer drug (camp‐tothecin) indicated peptide homing to the tumour. The histological examination of tumour tissues showed intense staining of the tumour vasculature and apoptotic tumour cells. With these results, the CLSYYPSYC peptide is recognized as a novel PS‐recognizing moiety which may possibly be developed into a molecular probe for the imaging of apoptosis in vivo. This application would clearly be relevant to assessments of the efficacy of anticancer therapy in tumours.
Polymorphisms in the 5′ flanking region of IL12RB2 are associated with susceptibility to periodontal diseases in the Japanese population
Authors: Takeuchi‐Hatanaka Kazu , Ohyama Hideki , Nishimura Fusanori , Kato‐Kogoe Nahoko , Soga Yoshihiko , Matsushita Sho , Nakasho Keiji , Yamanegi Koji , Yamada Naoko , Terada Nobuyuki , Takashiba Shogo
Published: March 2008

Objectives: The expression of interleukin (IL)‐12Rβ2 molecule is a crucial regulatory factor in the T‐helper type (Th) 1 differentiation of T cells. To elucidate the role of the cell‐mediated immune (CMI) response in the pathogenesis of periodontitis, Japanese periodontal patients were subjected to single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analyses of the 5′ flanking region of IL12RB2, whose variants are frequently detected in lepromatous leprosy patients, in which the very weak cellular immune response is caused by low expression of IL‐12Rβ2.

Material and Methods: The gene polymorphisms of the 5′ flanking region of IL12RB2 were examined in subjects with several types of periodontal disease and in healthy controls. Serum immunoglobulin (Ig) G antibody titres against periodontopathic bacteria were measured and compared in periodontal patients with and without variant alleles of IL12RB2.

Results: The frequencies of variant alleles of IL12RB2 were significantly higher in aggressive periodontitis patients as compared with healthy controls or chronic periodontitis patients. Serum IgG titres against all periodontal bacteria examined in subjects carrying variant alleles were higher than those in subjects without variant alleles.

Conclusion: IL‐12Rβ2 SNPs could be useful as genetic markers to access the susceptibility of the general population to periodontal disease. Low CMI responses or high humoral responses are associated with the pathogenesis of inflammatory periodontal diseases.
Tissue alterations after tooth extraction with and without surgical trauma: a volumetric study in the beagle dog
Authors: Fickl Stefan , Zuhr Otto , Wachtel Hannes , Bolz Wolfgang , Huerzeler Markus
Published: March 2008

Objectives: The aim of this study is to evaluate whether tooth extraction without the elevation of a muco‐periosteal flap has advantageous effects on the resorption rate after tooth extraction.

Material and Methods: In five beagle dogs polyether impressions were taken before the surgery. The roots of the first and second pre‐molars (P1 and P2) were extracted and the sites were assigned to one of the following treatments: treatment group (Tx) 1, no treatment; Tx 2, surgical trauma (flap elevation and repositioning); Tx 3, the extraction socket was filled with BioOss Collagen® and closed with a free soft‐tissue graft; Tx 4, after flap elevation and repositioning, the extraction socket was treated with BioOss Collagen® and a free soft‐tissue graft. Impressions were taken 2 and 4 months after surgery. The casts were scanned, matched together with baseline casts and evaluated with digital image analysis.

Results: The “flapless groups” demonstrated significant lower resorption rates both when using socket‐preservation techniques and without. Furthermore, socket‐preservation techniques yielded better results compared with not treating the socket.

Conclusion: The results demonstrate that leaving the periosteum in place decreases the resorption rate of the extraction socket. Furthermore, the treatment of the extraction socket with BioOss Collagen® and a free gingival graft seems beneficial in limiting the resorption process after tooth extraction.
Longitudinal study on the relationship between serum albumin and periodontal disease
Authors: Iwasaki Masanori , Yoshihara Akihiro , Hirotomi Toshinobu , Ogawa Hiroshi , Hanada Nobuhiro , Miyazaki Hideo
Published: March 2008

Aim: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between periodontal disease and the general health status in community‐dwelling elderly using the serum albumin concentration as a criterion index of the severity of underlying disease and nutrition.

Material and Methods: Six hundred subjects aged 70 years underwent a baseline examination. Dental examinations were carried out at baseline and once a year for 4 years. Periodontal conditions were estimated for subjects with at least one remaining tooth. Clinical attachment levels at six sites of all teeth present were measured. A change in loss of attachment of 3 mm or greater in 1 year at each site was defined as periodontal disease progression. Data were analysed in subjects for whom data were available for 4 years.

Results: Serum albumin concentration at baseline ranged from 3.4 to 5.0 g/dl with a mean of 4.3±0.2. When the analysis was stratified by smoking status, we found that serum albumin concentration had a significant effect on periodontal disease progression among non‐smokers (standardized regression coefficient=−0.16; p=0.017), using multiple regression analysis.

Conclusions: The findings of the present study suggest that serum albumin concentration is a significant risk predictor of periodontal disease progression among elderly non‐smokers.
Transforming growth factor‐β1 gene expression and cyclosporine A‐induced gingival overgrowth: a pilot study
Authors: Radwan‐Oczko Małgorzata , Boratyńska Maria , Ziętek Marek , Dobosz Tadeusz
Published: March 2008

Aims: The relationship between gingival overgrowth (GO) induced by cyclosporine A (CsA) and transforming growth factor‐β1 (TGF‐β1) remains unclear. The aims of the present study were to evaluate TGF‐β1 gene expression under different immunosuppressive treatments and its association with TGF‐β1 gene functional polymorphism and GO in renal transplant recipients.

Material and Methods: The study included 98 CsA‐treated renal transplant recipients (with and without GO) and 44 tacrolimus‐treated transplant patients (without GO). TGF‐β1 mRNA expression was measured using a real‐time quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay. The levels were correlated with TGF‐β1 gene polymorphisms at codons 10 and 25, with different immunosuppressive treatment and GO.

Results: The level of TGF‐β1 gene expression was insignificantly lower in the CsA‐treated group compared with the tacrolimus group, and significantly lower in the group with GO compared with patients without GO. In tacrolimus‐ and CsA‐treated patients, but not in patients with GO, the level of TGF‐β1 gene expression was associated with functional phenotypes of TGF‐β1. The incidence, degree and extent of GO were higher in recipients with lower TGF‐β1 gene expression.

Conclusions: Lower level TGF‐β1 gene expression, not functional polymorphism, in patients treated with CsA may be considered to be a risk factor for GO.