bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Rabl5
Authors: Elferink Lisa A , Schellers Richard H
Published: November 2023

In an attempt to define GTPases involved in neurotransmitter release, Rab15 was identified from a rat brain cDNA library, using the coding regions of two Sec4-related cDNA clones, previously characterized from the marine ray Discopyge ommata (Elferink etal. 1992; Ngsee etal. 1991). The nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequence of Rabi 5 is shown in Fig. 1. The GenBank accession number is M83679.
RCC1
Authors: Bischoff F Ralf , Nishimoto Takeharu , Ponstingl Herwig
Published: November 2023

The human RCC1 cDNA has been cloned due to its ability to complement the ts+ phenotype at the restrictive temperature in tsBN2 cells, a temperature-sensitive mutant of BHK21 cells from golden hamster (Kai etal. 1986; Ohtsubo et al. 1987). The nucleotide sequence of the human RCC1 cDNA is shown in Fig. 1. The hamster and Xenopus RCC1 cDNA were cloned from cDNA libraries using the human RCC1 cDNA as a probe (Nishitani et al. 1990; Uchida et al.
Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF)
Authors: Nicola N A
Published: November 2023

The nucleotide sequences of GM-CSF cDNAs cloned from mouse and man (GenBank accession numbers X03020 and X03021) predict a protein of 144 (human) or 141 (mouse) amino acids each containing a 17-amino-acid leader sequence (Gough and Nicola 1990; Walter et al. 1992). These proteins are 54 per cent identical at the amino acid level (Fig. 1) and do not cross-react either biologically or at the receptor binding level between the two species.
Mammalian Hsp40
Authors: Ohtsuka K
Published: November 2023

The hsp40 gene was independently isolated as HDJ1 by cDNA cloning from a human placenta cDNA library (Raabe, Manley, 1991). The nucleotide sequence of human hsp40 cDNA (GenBank accession numbers D17749, D49547; Ohtsuka, 1993) is almost identical (98%) to that of independently isolated HDJ1 cDNA (GenBank accession number X62421; Raabe, Manley, 1991). The hsp40 cDNA encodes a protein of 340 amino acids (calculated molecular mass of 38 042 Da, pl of 8.92).
Annexins
Authors: Kaetzel Marcia A , Dedman John R
Published: November 2023

The sequence organization of the family is highly conserved (Fig. 3). Annexins consist of a conserved core region composed of four repeated domains and a unique N-terminal tail. Annexin VI is unique in that it contains eight domains. Each core contains several calcium- and phospholipid-binding sites. The sequence conservation for each domain ranges between 40 and 70 per cent when individual family members are compared. The N terminus of each protein confers functional differences and can contain phosphorylation sites for serine/threonine and tyrosine kinases. Annexins II and Xllla are acylated. Annexins I, II, VII, and XI have been shown to bind S-100 EF-hand calcium-binding proteins. Sequences in both the N-terminal and the core regions are required for vesicle fusion by annexin I, F-actin binding by annexin II,2 or ion channel regulation by annexins IV and Vl.
Severin
Authors: Noegel Angelika A
Published: November 2023

The most prominent severing protein in Dictyostelium discoideum is severin. It belongs to a family of proteins that in a Ca2+-dependent manner sever actin filaments, nucleate actin assembly, and cap the fast growing filament ends. These activites are inhibited by PIP2. Structurally and functionally severin resembles gelsolin and vii/in from higher organisms. The functions attributed to severin have been mapped to different domains within the polypeptide. The structure of domain 2 of severin has been solved by NMR.
Vinculin
Authors: Geiger Benjamin
Published: November 2023

Vinculin is an anchor protein which is specifically associated with ce/1-ECM adhesions such as focal contacts as well as with adherens type cell-eel/ junctions. In both sites, vinculin participates in the formation of a submembrane ‘plaque’ structure which is responsible for the attachment of actin filaments to the plasma membrane. Biochemical and molecular genetic analyses of intact vinculin or vinculin fragments suggested that the molecule can interact with a variety of cytoskeletal and anchor proteins. Furthermore, it is shown that vinculin may exist in folded (head-to-tail) and unfolded states and that the unfolding process, induced by acidic phospholipids, may lead to the exposure of its different binding sites.
Contrasts for a Within-Species Comparative Method
Authors: Felsenstein Joseph
Published: November 2023

If we ask how we can construct a within-species counterpart to comparative methods that are used to correct for effects of phylogeny in between-species comparisons, we find that migration matrices, not phylogenies, are the relevant structures. Just as the hierarchical pattern of relatedness between species leads to a set of contrasts that are independent, the spectrum of the migration matrix leads to contrasts between populations. If these contrasts are not used, migration can cause an artifactual appearance of a correlation between a phenotype and an environmental variable. The contrasts are derived from the spectral analysis of the migration matrix, and it is shown how to transform means and covariances between populations into variables that can be assumed independent, eliminating the artifact.
Linkage Analysis and Coalescents
Authors: Ewens Warren , Kaplan Norman
Published: November 2023

I’he number of chapters in this volume, and in the research literature generally, that discuss the coalescent attests to the importance of this concept, both in theoretical and in applied population genetics. This chapter discusses applications of the coalescent to linkage analysis. The disease genes in a sample of affected individuals can often be traced back to a most recent common ancestor disease gene, thus forming a natural coalescent process. However, the genetic information available to the investigator concerns marker genes, which if linked to the disease gene share some but not all aspects of this coalescent. Thus, since the observations concern a locus different from that relating to the relevant coalescent process, an analysis more complex than that associated with the standard coalescent process is needed.
Separation of Time Scales and Convergence to the Coalescent in Structured Populations
Authors: Nordborg Magnus , Krone Stephen M
Published: November 2023

Many biological phenomena can be thought of and modeled in terms of generalized population structure, with individuals having a number of different possible states. Certain groups of states in such models are often connected by’migration’ that occurs on a time scale that is much faster than the coalescent time scale. We show that, when viewed on the coalescent time scale, the structure associated with such groups of states collapses, and is replaced by a kind of averaging over the states. When the entire structure collapses, the standard coalescent is retrieved. The effect of the population structure on the coalescent is then captured by a simple scaling factor that is related to various notions of’effective population size’. It is also possible for parts of the structure to collapse, leading to a reduced structured coalescent.
The biology of the future and the future of biology
Authors: Rose Steven
Published: November 2023

We view and interpret the world around us, both natural and cultural, through perceptual and cognitive spectacles of our own construction. The natural sciences claim that their methods, of hypothesis, observation, and experiment, permit something approximating to a true representation of the material reality that surrounds us to be achieved. However, for several decades now, philosophers, historians, and sociologists of science have been pointing to the ways in which our scientific knowledge is socially, culturally, and historically constructed; that is, it offers at best a constrained interpretation of the material world. A first such constraint is provided by the very construction of our brain and the biology of our perceptual processes. To this I would add that brains do not exist in isolation from bodies: how we perceive the world is affected by our hormonal, immunological, and general physiological state.
The Short Oxford History of English Literature
Authors: Sanders Andrew
Published: November 2023

The Short Oxford History of English Literature provides in a single volume a comprehensive beginner's guide to the literature of the British Isles from the Anglo-Saxon period to the present day. Now established as the leading introduction to English literature, separate chapters trace the development from Beowulf to the `post-modern' fictions of Seamus Heaney and Angela Carter. The History provides detailed discussion of Old and Middle English Literature, the Renaissance, Shakespeare, the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Romantics, Victorian and Edwardian literature, Modernism, and post-war writing. Discussions of key writers and works from Anselm and Chaucer to Spencer and Bunyan, and from Swift and Johnson to Dickens and D.H. Lawrence, are combined with analysis of the impact on literature of contemporary political, social, and intellectual developments. The History looks again at the canon of English literature and provides a fresh assessment of the distinctive contribution of Scottish, Irish, and Welsh writers, and it asks about the future of the canon in the light of the fragmented condition of British writing in the post-imperial period. This revised edition includes for the first time detailed, chapter-by-chapter guidance on further reading. Lively, accessible, and up-to-date, The Short Oxford History of English Literature will be an invaluable source for general readers and a key textbook for sixth-form students, first year undergraduates, and foreign students of English literature.
Sobolev spaces
Authors: Allaire Gregoire
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we define Sobolev spaces which are the ‘natural’ spaces of functions in which to solve variational formulations of partial differential equations. Physically, Sobolev spaces can be interpreted as spaces of functions with finite energy. This chapter is the most ‘technical’ of this book and relies in part on a course of ‘pure’ mathematics Nevertheless, it is necessary to understand the results below well to follow the rest, of the course, including its more numerical aspects. In general, it is not necessary to know the proofs of these results (expect for the most simple and most useful).
Evolution problems
Authors: Allaire Gregoire
Published: November 2023

This chapter is dedicated to the mathematical and numerical analysis of problems of evolution in time (in the preceding chapters we have studied stationary problems without a time variable). More precisely we shall analyse two different types of partial differential equations: parabolic, and hyperbolic. The typical example of a parabolic equation is the heat, flow’ equation which we will study in detail (but our analysis extends to more complicated models like the time-dependent Stokes equations). The prototype of a hyperbolic equation is the wave equation on which we shall concentrate (but once more our analysis extends to more complicated models like the elastodynamic equations or the electromagnetic equations). More generally, the approach developed here extends to many other evolution problems, not. necessarily parabolic or hyperbolic, like, for example, the Schrodinger equation in quantum mechanics.
COREPER and National Governments
Authors: Saurugger Sabine
Published: November 2023

Adopting an institutionalist viewpoint, we argue that the characteristics of political systems and their structures of power and decision-making deeply influence the nature of interest representation. While the first writings on the European integration process predicted a supranational governance system, where actors would reorient their loyalties (Haas 1958), the 1970s and 1980s contradicted this approach. Decision-making processes remained mainly intergovernmental, with member state governments making decisions. According to a neo-liberal intergovernmentalist approach (Moravcsik 1993, 1998), member state governments thus remained the most important actors in EU policy-making processes. For this reason, interest groups were said to attach more importance to national arenas than to European processes.
Business Lobbying in the European Union
Authors: Coen David
Published: November 2023

Business lobbying is an ever present reality in European Union (EU) politics. With their significant economic and informational resources, business interests are able to exert influence along the European policy process from initiation and ratification of policy at the Council of Ministers, agenda-setting and formulation at European Commission (EC) forums, reformulation of policy at the European Parliament (EP) committees, to the final interpretation, harmonization, and implementation of regulation in the nation state. In being one of the few actors to follow all points of the policy process, business interests are an important supply of information for the development and delivery of EU public policy, and a potential source of legitimacy to policy-makers.
Bargaining and Lobbying in EU Social Policy
Authors: Treib Oliver , Falkner Gerda
Published: November 2023

Social policy has long led a shadowy existence in the process of European integration. The founding treaties clearly subordinated social policy to economic integration. Subsequently, however, several major treaty revisions gradually expanded the legislative competences and the scope of qualified majority voting in social policy. This has facilitated the adoption of binding legislation, especially in the areas of occupational health and safety, gender equality, and general working conditions. With regard to the field of social security, in contrast, Majone’s (1993: 155) assessment that the European Union (EU) is a ‘welfare laggard’ still holds true, although areas such as pensions, health care, and social inclusion have recently been addressed through the soft governance mechanisms offered by the Open Method of Coordination (OMC).
Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics
Authors: Holm Darryl D , Schmah Tanya , Stoica Cristina , Ellis David C P
Published: November 2023

This chapter introduces some of the main themes of geometric mechanics in the setting of systems of N point masses. In addition, the final section introduces rigid body dynamics as motion on the group of 3*3 orthogonal matrices. For more details, see [Arn78] or [Gol59].
EPDiff
Authors: Holm Darryl D , Schmah Tanya , Stoica Cristina , Ellis David C P
Published: November 2023

Arnold [Arn66] showed that the Euler equations for incompressible motion of an ideal fluid may be cast into Lagrangian and Hamiltonian forms that are similar to those for the rigid body, but are suitably generalized to allow for continuum motions, instead of only rigid rotations. Rigid rotations preserve the distances between any pair of particles. However, in continuum motions, no metric relation is imposed on the distances between the particles.
Mathematics and mathematics education in traditional Vietnam
Authors: Volkov Alexei
Published: November 2023

This Chapter is devoted to the transmission of mathematical expertise from China to Vietnam. Throughout this Chapter China and Vietnam will play the parts of ‘centre’ and ‘periphery’. However, the conventional use of these terms, suggesting that the tradition was established in one specific location (identified as the ‘centre’) before being transferred to a number of others (the ‘periphery’), proves to be somewhat inadequate. This model excludes other possible options, such as interaction between several centres, each contributing to the growth of knowledge circulating in the network.
Some Aspects of Bayesian Model Selection for Prediction
Authors: Chakrabarti Arijit , Ghosh Jayanta K
Published: November 2023

We consider cross-validatory Bayes factors for prediction in both the -open and ℳ-closed cases and explore how much of a sample is to be used for estimating parameters of competing models and how much for model selection. The dimension p of the model may be fixed or go to infinity. We also re-examine critically the relation between classical cross-validation and AIC. The latter is shown to be Parametric Empirical Bayes in prediction problems and its performance is studied in all subsets model selection.
Approximating Interval Hypothesis: p-values and Bayes Factors
Authors: Rousseau Judith
Published: November 2023

In this paper we study Bayes factors and special p-values in their capacity of approximating interval null hypotheses (or more generally neighbourhoods of point null) hypotheses by point null or eventually parametric families in the case of the goodness of fit test of a parametric family. We prove that when the number of observations is large Bayes factors for point null hypotheses can approximate Bayes factors for interval null hypotheses for extremely small intervals. We also interpret the significance of calibration goodness of fit tests using a p-value in terms of width of neighbourhoods of the point null hypothesis. Finally we study the consistency of Bayes factors for goodness of fit tests of parametric families, which enables us to shed light on the behaviour of the Bayes factors.
Partial Differential Equations in General Relativity
Authors: Rendall Alan D
Published: November 2023

A graduate level text on a subject which brings together several areas of mathematics and physics: partial differential equations, differential geometry and general relativity. It explains the basics of the theory of partial differential equations in a form accessible to physicists and the basics of general relativity in a form accessible to mathematicians. In recent years the theory of partial differential equations has come to play an ever more important role in research on general relativity. This is partly due to the growth of the field of numerical relativity, stimulated in turn by work on gravitational wave detection, but also due to an increased interest in general relativity among pure mathematicians working in the areas of partial differential equations and Riemannian geometry, who have realized the exceptional richness of the interactions between geometry and analysis which arise. This book provides the background for those wishing to learn about these topics. It treats key themes in general relativity including matter models and symmetry classes and gives an introduction to relevant aspects of the most important classes of partial differential equations, including ordinary differential equations, and material on functional analysis. These elements are brought together to discuss a variety of important examples in the field of mathematical relativity, including asymptotically flat spacetimes, which are used to describe isolated systems, and spatially compact spacetimes, which are of importance in cosmology.
Introduction To Connections, Curvature And Holonomy Groups
Authors: Joyce Dominic D
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we will introduce the theory of connections, focussing in particular on two topics, the curvature and the holonomy group of a connection. Connections can be defined in two different sorts of bundle, that is, vector bundles and principal bundles. Both definitions will be given in 2.1. Sections 2.2–2.4 define the holonomy group of a connection on a vector or principal bundle, and explain some of its basic properties, including its relationship with the curvature of the connection. The curvature is a local invariant of the connection, since it varies from point to point on the manifold, whereas the holonomy group is a global invariant, as it is independent of any base point in the manifold.
Special Lagrangian Geometry
Authors: Joyce Dominic D
Published: November 2023

Special Lagrangian submanifolds (or SL m-folds for short) in C m, or in a Calabi–Yau m-fold or almost Calabi–Yau m-fold ( X, J, g, θ), are real m-dimensional submanifolds in C m or X calibrated by the real part Re θ of the holomorphic volume form θ. They were invented by Harvey and Lawson [151, III], who concentrated on SL m-folds in C m. For a long time, essentially the only nontrivial result on SL m-folds in Calabi– Yau m-folds was McLean ‘s beautiful theorem on the deformation theory of compact SL m-folds in 8.4.1 below.
The Accession of Estonia to the EU
Authors: Streimann Alar
Published: November 2023

Relations between Estonia, a small country on the northern coast of the Baltic Sea with slightly more than one million inhabitants, and the rest of Europe have been full of controversy for centuries. The fact that Estonians, who are considered one of the most ancient populations in Europe, have lived at their current habitat for thousands of years and retained their own distinct language and culture is indeed a miracle in today’s fast-changing world where whole civilizations have perished without trace.
The Accession of Slovenia to the EU
Authors: PotoČnik Janez , Černe Fedor , Mrak Emil Erjavec in Mojmir
Published: November 2023

The main objective of this chapter is to provide an overview and analysis of Slovenia’s accession process to the European Union (EU). In addition to the introduction, the chapter consists of five main sections. First, the chapter discusses the relationship between newly independent Slovenia and the EU before the accession negotiations (section 2), and continues with the presentation of the institutional structure for effective carrying out of the negotiations (section 3). Further on, the chapter provides a brief overview of the negotiating process throughout the 1998–2002 period (section 4), and a more detailed analysis of selected issues of negotiations (section 5). These issues were chosen because they were of particular importance for Slovenia and required particular attention in negotiations. The final part of the text summarizes the lessons learnt by Slovenia in its process of accession to the EU (section 6).
Nets, Puzzles, and Postmen
Authors: Higgins Peter M
Published: November 2023

What do road and railway systems, electrical circuits, mingling at parties, mazes, family trees, and the internet all have in common? All are networks - either people or places or things that relate and connect to one another. Only relatively recently have mathematicians begun to explore such networks and connections, and their importance has taken everyone by surprise. The mathematics of networks form the basis of many fascinating puzzles and problems, from tic-tac-toe and circular sudoku to the ‘ Chinese Postman Problem’ (can he deliver all his letters without traversing the same street twice?). Peter Higgins shows how such puzzles as well as many real-world phenomena are underpinned by the same deep mathematical structure. Understanding mathematical networks can give us remarkable new insights into them all.
Novel Applications of Nets
Authors: Higgins Peter M
Published: November 2023

You have now seen enough to be shown some striking applications of network theory. The first is merely a puzzle, while the final one involves unravelling the mystery of life itself. As is often the case, the mathematics pays scant regard to our initial motivation and takes care of things in its own way.

This is a colourful and tactile Parker Brothers game that is based on a simple set of four plastic cubes each face carrying one the four colours, red, yellow, green, or blue, with each colour featuring at least once on every cube. The task is to form a tower from the four blocks so that each colour appears on each face of the four long sides of the tower.
Built to Last? The Durability of EU Federalism
Authors: kelemen R D aniel
Published: November 2023

Many observers of EU politics viewed 2005 as an annus horribilis, and 2006 has brought little relief. Again and again, politicians and pundits of all stripes have proclaimed the EU to be ‘in crisis’. Events great and small, from the French and Dutch ‘No’ votes on the European Constitution, to the stalled budget talks, to threats of Italy quitting the Euro, to the rising tide of protectionism, to alleged strains on the EU’s absorption capacity, are routinely portrayed as threats to the very survival of the Union. Many policymakers and scholars maintain that the EU’s current institutional arrangements will not function in an EU of twenty- five (or more) member states, and that without significant reform, the EU’s institutional machinery will grind to a halt.
The European Company Statute and the Governance Dilemma
Authors: Fioretos Orfeo
Published: November 2023

The central institutional dilemma of the European Union (EU) has remained how to create a common economic space without barriers to exchange in ways that do not undermine national designs held dear by individual member states. Already in the negotiations surrounding the Treaty of Rome, this governance dilemma shaped debates among member states over what powers and competencies should be given to Community institutions and what should be the structure of common European-wide rules. Similar debates took place during deliberations over the internal market in the 1980s, economic and monetary union in the 1990s, and most recently during the Constitutional convention that ended in 2005.
The Constitutionalization of the European Union: Explaining the Parliamentarization and Institutionalization of Human Rights
Authors: Rittberger Berthold , Schimmelfennig Frank
Published: November 2023

Constitutionalization has become one of the buzzwords in the study of the EU. Past years have seen a constant increase of references to constitutionalization in the academic literature and in political commentary. In the EU literature, constitutionalization has traditionally been employed to denote the process of European legal integration which has led to a remarkable transformation of the EU replacing the traditional notion of a state-centered international organization with ‘a vertically integrated legal regime conferring judicially enforceable rights and obligations on all legal persons and entities, public and private, within the sphere of application of EC law’ (Haltern 2002: 2).
Understanding the European Union as a Global Political Actor: Theory, Practice, and Impact
Authors: Ginsberg Roy H , Smith Michael E
Published: November 2023

The EU today is one of the most unusual and widest-ranging political actors in the international system. Since the 1950s, this capacity has gradually expanded to encompass foreign policy initiatives toward nearly every corner of the globe, using a range of foreign policy tools: diplomatic, economic, and now limited military operations. This capacity, however, was neither included in the original Treaty of Rome, nor was it expected by many knowledgeable observers of European integration. On both sides of the functional-intergovernmental spectrum we find skepticism about the EU’s prospects as a global actor: Ernst Haas (1961) explicitly excluded foreign and security policy from his neofunctional logic of regional integration, which stresses spillover processes in socioeconomic affairs, while Stanley Hoffmann (2000) argued that political cooperation in the EU would remain very difficult owing to concerns over national sovereignty.
Impacts of invasions
Authors: Davis Mark A
Published: November 2023

Non-native species, like native species, can impact human health, national and local economies, and the ecosystems and ecological communities in which they reside. In fact, most non-native species do not have a large impact in any of these three areas. Some even have desirable effects. However, a small proportion of non-native species are considered harmful or undesirable owing to their impacts. In some instances, the harmful impacts can be dire. Introduced pathogens can threaten human health, crops, and livestock.
Researching invasion biology
Authors: Davis Mark A
Published: November 2023

The development of specialty areas seems to be an inevitable consequence of scientific activity. Certainly, ecology has developed many of them (Graham and Dayton 2002, Pickett et al. 2007). Without question, there are benefits to be gained from such focused attention. Researchers with similar interests may be able to work more efficiently by collaborating on research with one another, and findings may be disseminated within the group very quickly. As long as specialists in different groups continue to regularly communicate with one another, it remains possible to pursue a narrow path while still remaining connected to the larger scientific landscape.
Brownian Motion And Martingales
Authors: Xiong Jie
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we introduce some basic concepts and properties of martingales that will be needed in the development of the filtering theory introduced in this book. The aim is to prepare the reader with necessary material for the study of filtering theory through the shortest route possible.
Stochastic Differential Equations
Authors: Xiong Jie
Published: November 2023

In many filtering problems, the signal X t is a stochastic process governed by a stochastic differential equation (SDE). First, we derive this SDE intuitively. Suppose X t is a continuous process taking values in ℝd.
Uniqueness Of The Solution For The Filtering Equation
Authors: Xiong Jie
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we prove the uniqueness for the solution to the filtering equation. To this end, we consider an interacting particle system whose weighted empirical distribution process satisfies the filtering equation. Note that the filtering equation is a non-linear stochastic partial differential equation (SPDE). The main idea in proving the uniqueness in this chapter is to show that the uniqueness of a non-linear SPDE is implied by that of the infinite system of ordinary stochastic differential equations and that of a corresponding linear SPDE, which follows from the same arguments as those in the previous chapter. The uniqueness for the system is obtained by a truncation argument.
Approximation Of Irrationals By Rationals
Authors: Hardy G H , Wright E . M
Published: November 2023

Statement of the problem. The problem considered in this chapter is that of the approximation of a given number ξ ,usually irrational, by a rational fraction Since the rationals are dense in the continuum, there are rationals as near as we please to any ξ .Given ξand any positive number E, there is an r= p/qsuch that any number can be approximated by1a ratio1nal with any assigned degree of accuracy. We ask now how simplyor, what is essentially the same thing, how rapidlycan we approximate to ξ? Given ξand E, how complex must p/qbe (i.e. how large q)to secure an approximation with the measure of accuracy E? Given ξand q, or some upper bound for q, how small can we make E? and in Ch. X we proved a num1ber of s1imilar theorems by the use of continued fractions.‡ The inequality (11.1.1), or stronger inequalities of the same type, will recur continually throughout this chapter.
Generating Functions Of Arithmetical functions
Authors: Hardy G H , Wright E . M
Published: November 2023

The generation of arithmetical functions by means of Dirichlet series. A Dirichlet seriesis a series of the form The variable smay be real or complex, but here we shall be concerned with real values only. F(s), the sum of the series, is called the generating functionof αn. The theory of Dirichlet series, when studied seriously for its own sake, involves many delicate questions of convergence. These are mostly irrelevant here, since we are concerned primarily with the formal side of the theory; and most of our results could be proved (as we explain later in § 17.6) without the use of any theorem of analysis or even the notion of the sum of an infinite series. There are, however, some theorems which must be considered as theorems of analysis; and, even when this is not so, the reader will probably find it easier to think of the series which occur as sums in the ordinary analytical sense. We shall use the four theorems which follow. These are special cases of more general theorems which, when they occur in their proper places in the general theory, can be proved better by different methods. We confine ourselves here to what is essential for our immediate purpose.
Reconceptualizing Democratization: Access to Power Versus Exercise of Power
Authors: Mazzuca Sebastián L
Published: November 2023

Most democracies are ‘low-quality democracies’. Such is the diagnosis commonly offered in the literature on the quality of democracy. The most prominent symptoms of the alleged deficit in democratic quality are corruption, government by executive decree, clientelism, and ineffective checks and balances. And, according to this analysis, most democracies in Latin America display more than one of these symptoms, several democracies embody the full syndrome of symptoms, and democratic quality is confined to small countries like Costa Rica, Chile, and Uruguay. Indeed, the standard analysis goes something like this.
The mechanics of credit scoring
Authors: Anderson Raymond
Published: November 2023

Our first two chapters focused on: (i) the use of credit scoring within the business; and (ii) the history of credit, credit bureaux, credit rating agencies, and credit scoring. Ultimately, credit scoring is used to aid decision-making, but is often more associated with the statistical techniques and processes used to develop the scorecards. This next chapter delves more into the latter, and provides an overview of topics covered in subsequent modules. The primary goal is to familiarise the reader with terminology used in the rest of the book, skipping over the detail where possible.
Segmentation
Authors: Anderson Raymond
Published: November 2023

Segmentation is something usually associated with marketing, where companies adjust the marketing mix to improve the appeal to different groups of customers. Similar concepts are used in credit, but not always for the same reasons. At this point, it is assumed that the purpose of the scorecard (risk, response, revenue, or retention) and the objective (default, bankruptcy) is known. Most of the concepts are common, but to aid understanding this section focuses on credit risk assessment and default prediction, where segmentation’s primary goals are to: (i) improve the assessment; and (ii) ensure an appropriate product offering, in terms of loan rate, repayment term, collateral, and other requirements (see Section 26.5, on Risk-Based Pricing). It must be stressed that the resulting segmentation will often not agree with that used for marketing, and may impact upon marketing.
Marketing
Authors: Anderson Raymond
Published: November 2023

Despite many years of recognizing the mutual advantages of communication between credit and marketing strategies, it still happens too infrequently and to too little effect. Thomas et al. 2002:154 Marketing is the starting point of this module’s little adventure. It includes functions like research and development (R&D), advertising, and sales. It is usually a vibrant area, often with a cowboy mentality, that is driven by sales volumes, asset growth, or some other income statement or balance sheet measure. This is also an area that consumes considerable analytical tools, and data mining resources.
Collections and recoveries
Authors: Anderson Raymond
Published: November 2023

According to psychological studies, death, public speaking, and asking for money are people’s greatest fears. It is no wonder then, that so many businesses have such a hard time collecting what is due. They are afraid to ask! Fortunately, in the credit industry this only applies to late payers, who enter the realm of collections and recoveries (C&R). Lenders’ challenge is to decide upon the appropriate treatment, as some self-cure, some just need a nudge (or counselling), and only a few require drastic action. Their numbers may be low, but costs can be high, and credit providers have to develop extremely thick skins.
The Language Gene That Wasn’t
Authors: Taylor Jeremy
Published: November 2023

Specific Language Impairment (SLI) tends to run in families but even by the standards of SLI the KE family are an exceptional example. Elizabeth Auger’s special educational needs unit at a primary school in Brentford, west London, was inundated with them. At one point, in the late 1980s, she had seven children in her unit at the same time, all from this one extended family. Several family members from the older generations had been previously referred to her.
Povinelli’s Gauntlet
Authors: Taylor Jeremy
Published: November 2023

In his book Our Inner Ape, the primatologist Frans de Waal takes a close look at the best and the worst of human nature and invites us to consider what light our two closest primate relatives, the chimpanzee and the bonobo, can shed on it. He took the title for his book from an interview quote given by the English actress Helena Bonham-Carter, who played Ari in Planet of the Apes.
The cognitive neuroscience of constructive memory: remembering the past and imagining the future
Authors: Schacter Daniel L , Addis Donna Rose
Published: November 2023

Episodic memory is widely conceived as a fundamentally constructive, rather than reproductive, process that is prone to various kinds of errors and illusions. With a view towards examining the functions served by a constructive episodic memory system, we consider recent neuropsychological and neuroimaging studies indicating that some types of memory distortions reflect the operation of adaptive processes.
Basic statistical methods
Authors: Thomas Duncan C
Published: November 2023

Before describing the basic approaches to the analysis of epidemiological data, we need to establish some fundamental concepts from probability theory. Let us denote a random variable (a quantity that varies between observational units—individuals, times, and so on—in some manner that is not completely predictable) by the symbol Y and use the corresponding lower case letter y to denote the specific value a particular observation may have. Three kinds of random variables that will be particularly important in epidemiology are binary (dichotomous), count, and continuous variables. A binary variable is one with only two possible values, for example, present (Y 1) or absent (Y 0). A count variable is one which can take any nonnegative integer value, such as the number of cases of disease in a group. A continuous variable can take any real value (although possibly over some restricted range, such as only positive numbers).
Mechanistic models
Authors: Thomas Duncan C
Published: November 2023

The empiric models discussed heretofore have not explicitly incorporated knowledge of specific biological mechanisms, although in some cases, the form of the dose–response model may be motivated by theoretical considerations, such as the linear-quadratic cell-killing model used in radiobiology (see Chapter 6). In some instances, however, the underlying disease process may be well enough understood to allow it to be described mathematically. Probably the greatest activity along these lines has been in the field of cancer epidemiology. Two models in particular have dominated this field: the multistage model of Armitage and Doll (1954) and the two-event clonal-expansion model of Moolgavkar and Knudson (1981). For thorough reviews of this literature, see Whittemore and Keller (1978), Peto (1977), Moolgavkar (1986), and Thomas (1988); here, we merely sketch some of the basic ideas.
Self-Regulation in a World of States
Authors: Brown Dana L
Published: November 2023

The growth of corporate self-regulation has become a hallmark of globalization in the twenty-first century. Especially since the late 1990s, large global firms increasingly are integrating into their regular business practices ‘codes of conduct’, ‘corporate social responsibility’ mandates, or are participating in ‘voluntary initiatives’ that aim to improve their social, environmental, and human rights record. These efforts have largely been prompted by increasing pressure on firms to account for the persistence of social deprivation, environmental decay, and corruption that has accompanied their own enrichment from the global expansion of market activities.
Wallace’s Unfinished Business*
Authors: Smith Charles H
Published: November 2023

In February 1858 a then little-known bird and insect collector named Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913) was struck with a startling revelation while fending of an attack of malaria in the Moluccas. As soon as the fit passed he prepared an essay on the idea—natural selection—and sent it off to a man he figured would be interested in the concept: Charles Darwin. The rest of the story is well enough known not to bear repeating; in the end it was Darwin whose name became most associated with the principle, with Wallace relegated to “other man” status, and his ideas to the dustbin of history.
Wallace’s Dilemmas: The Laws of Nature and the Human Spirit*
Authors: Benton Ted
Published: November 2023

After many years of neglect, Alfred Russel Wallace has recently been the subject of a food of scholarly studies. Earlier efforts often focused on one or another aspect of his exceptionally diverse intellectual and practical engagements, with a particular emphasis on the timing of his independent discovery of the key mechanism of organic evolution. More recent scholarship—most notably the work of Charles.
The Retreat of the State
Authors: Clark Gordon L
Published: November 2023

Eric Hobsbawm (1994) refers to the twentieth century as a ‘short century’, dating its onset with the First World War and its conclusion with the ‘end of the Soviet era’. He suggests that the early years of this century were dominated by events that owed their origins to nineteenth-century European imperialism, while the last decade of the twentieth century seems to be best understood as the beginning of a new era whose features and logic will only be fully revealed next century. Between 1914 and 1989, wars, revolutions, economic catastrophes, and economic growth engendered extraordinary experiments in social and economic organization, many of which are now thoroughly discredited by virtue of the lives lost forcing through their implementation.
Pension Fund Capitalism: A Causal Analysis
Authors: Clark Gordon L
Published: November 2023

The rise and significance of pension funds has been described in various ways. Drucker (1993) thought that their growth presaged an era of ‘pension fund socialism’: because pension plans own large tranches of corporate equities, workers now own the means of production by virtue of their status as the beneficiaries of pension plans. This is an intriguing idea, one that reappears every so often in debates about the proper scope of pension fund investments. But the idea of ‘pension fund social ism’ is an exercise in political rhetoric rather than reality. Pension funds depend upon the performance of national and international markets for their accumulated wealth. Their assets are the product of the employment relation, and agency relationships with the investment management industry.
Contested Terrain
Authors: Clark Gordon L
Published: November 2023

Community development advocates often look to pension funds as significant, albeit untapped, sources of finance. More than twenty years ago, Rifkin and Barber (1978) claimed that community control of workers’ pension fund assets could promote alternative forms of corporate ownership, and reverse the decline of the lJS industrial heartland. Notwithstanding the enormous loss of unionized jobs and community dislocation occasioned by corporate restructuring, the Northeast and Midwest have seen a renaissance in terms of labour productivity and investment in value-added production. Even so, labour leaders continue to lament the fact that ‘workers’ own pension funds’ have fuelled ‘the continuing spiral of corporate mergers and downsizing’, and have called for strategies to take control of ‘our money in support of long-term, quality jobs’ in local communities.
Community Solidarity
Authors: Clark Gordon L
Published: November 2023

Whereas twenty years ago the financing of local economic development was a combination of direct government spending and community lending by banks, pension funds are seen by many as the only institutions capable of filling the gaps left by the retreat of the state and first order intermediaries.1 In this respect, it could be argued that pension funds have, in effect, promoted US regional economic development. See Black and Gilson (1997) and Gilson (1998) on the significance of pension fund investment in high-risk low-cap stocks and initial public offerings for the development of Silicon Valley. Venture capital firms, in particular, have relied upon the positive and reinforcing agglomeration economies evident in the Silicon Valley innovation process to capture and sustain high rates of return.
Paying for Health, Education, and Housing
Authors: Glennerster Howard , Hills John , Travers Tony , Hendry Ross
Published: November 2023

England is unusual in relying so heavily on central government to finance its social services. Citizens expect to be able to access services of similar standards wherever they live. This raises difficult theoretical and practical issues. How are the needs of different areas to be measured? How are the different costs of providing services in very different parts of the country to be assessed? This book reviews the economic theory that underpins thinking about the problem. It then traces the way governments have distributed resources from the end of the last century until today. It critically analyses current methods for three services - the National Health Service, schools, and housing.
Funding in the NHS: Life after RAWP
Authors: Glennerster Howard , Hills John , Travers Tony , Hendry Ross
Published: November 2023

We saw in the previous chapter that the publication of the Resource Allocation Working Party (RAWP) Report in 1976, and the essential acceptance of its recommendations, was something of a milestone in establishing a quantifiable measure of relative need. However, it was only the beginning of an evolutionary process. Though the new RAWP formula allocated the greater part of the NHS recurrent budget, about three-quarters, the remaining quarter continued to be allocated to general practitioners and to dentists on quite different principles. They were not salaried employees of the service. They were individual contractors with it. The sums they received to run their essentially private businesses were designed to give them an average income negotiated with their trade unions each year. It was not until right at the end of the period we are studying that an attempt was made to bring these allocation systems together in a tentative way. We discuss that at the end of this chapter.
The Development of Education Needs Formulae from 1958 to 1990
Authors: Glennerster Howard , Hills John , Travers Tony , Hendry Ross
Published: November 2023

The year 1958 saw the beginning of modern local government grant systems in England. The 1958 reform of central grants to local authorities had a single, efficiency-driven, objective. Whereas before there had been a number of percentage grants (that is, where the more a council spent on schools, the more grant it would receive), the post-1958 arrangements created a new, general, grant for education, health, fire, child care, planning, road safety, traffic controls, electoral registration, training, recreation, residential care, and school crossings. The proportion of all grants-in-aid which were not tied to specific services increased from one-sixth of all grants to almost two-thirds (Travers 1986: 9). There was also a (separate) grant to assist authorities which had low taxable resources.