bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Interpretation of Bathymetry
Authors: Monahan David
Published: November 2020

The two previous chapters described how depth measurements are made and elaborated on the accuracy and strengths of each type of data. Clearly, it would be wonderful if the entire world ocean were covered with multibeam data, but at the present time, there is only limited coverage; only a few ships are equipped with multibeam, and their speed remains slow. Therefore, we must use the other, older types of data available to us. States wishing to prepare a claim under the Convention may be able to follow up interpretations of older data with multibeam surveys aimed at the most important targets identified from analyzing the earlier data. This chapter is aimed at those wishing to produce new bathymetric maps by converting various types of data into information about the shape of the seafloor. The chapter discusses maps, in particular the elements of maps and mapping that apply to bathymetry. It explains the differences between navigation charts and bathymetry maps and describes how to prepare a bathymetry map. A great deal of the evidence assembled for any claim under the Convention will be portrayed on maps. Although maps are part of most people's life experience and are included in the training of hydrographers and earth scientists, it is a good idea to review some of the fundamentals of maps and mapping to ensure that those viewing the maps are aware of the limitations and strengths of this particular medium. Bathymetric maps and navigation charts—indeed, all maps—are caricatures. A chart distorts reality, just as the cartoonist distorts the facial features of some well-known personality. Yet the intent is always clear: The viewer knows who or what is being portrayed despite or perhaps because of the distortion. But to do this well calls for a careful distortion of just the right features. A good caricature has an uncanny precision behind the distortion; so it is with a chart. Put more scientifically, a map or chart comprises a summation of a large number of measurements carefully filtered and designed to give its main user an unambiguous image of the situation it portrays. This section describes the design process and the filters applied.
Geological Techniques
Authors: Kudrass Herman R. , Ardus Dennis A.
Published: November 2020

In the previous chapters, the use of geophysical data for delineating the continental shelf has been discussed in some detail. But the determination of the case for any extension of the legal continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles (M) from the territorial sea baseline may in some circumstances require a geological survey to confirm that a topographic or geophysical feature comprising what appears to be a natural prolongation of land territory is of continental or oceanic origin. A geological survey may also be necessary to determine the occurrence, thickness, and extent of sediments beyond the foot of the slope. Continental margins represent regions of transition from the landmass to the ocean basin and may be present-day areas of sediment erosion or deposition. Sediment supply to the continental shelf and slope, or the extent of erosion on the continental shelf and upper slope, is influenced by tectonic activity, sea-level fluctuations, climate change, variation in the wave or current regime, and various other processes. Bottom currents or gravity transport (turbidity) processes combine to varying degrees with pelagic sedimentation (the accumulation of the remains of marine organisms) to extend the supply of sediment well beyond the shelf and slope to the continental rise, ocean trench, or abyssal plain (Evans et al., 1998). In order to understand the geology of such areas, it is necessary to determine the structural setting, the tectonic and sedimentary evolution, the chrono-and lithostratigraphy, and the volcanic history. Understanding the ocean floor is a prerequisite for the determination of the extent of the continental shelf under UNCLOS. It is also highly relevant to the identification and delineation of mineral and energy resources, for determining the waste disposal potential of parts of the seafloor, and for undertaking an assessment of the risk of slope failure. None of these are directly relevant to establishing the new limits of the continental shelf, but they are highly relevant to its long-term exploitation. In order to achieve the necessary level of knowledge, the seafloor morphology and seabed character derived from bathymetric and sonar surveys (described in chapters 9 and 10) and the three-dimensional geology determined by geophysical surveys using seismic profiling, magnetometer, and gravity meter (discussed in chapters 12 and 13) need to be calibrated or "ground truthed" by sampling and coring (figure 14.1; Stoker et al., 1994).
Delimitation Issues
Authors: Carleton Chris M.
Published: November 2020

In the previous chapters, we have dealt primarily with the situation where a State's continental shelf and any extension are adjacent to international waters. However, there are a number of cases where the continental shelf (or its extension) of one State abuts that of another State. This chapter examines that particular situation and considers its implications in delimitation issues. The UNCLOS articles 74 and 83 provide for the delimitation of the EEZ and continental shelf between opposite and adjacent States respectively. Article 83 states: . . . 1. The delimitation of the Continental Shelf between States with opposite or adjacent coasts shall be effected by agreement on the basis of international law, as referred to in Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, in order to achieve an equitable solution. 2. If no agreement can be reached within a reasonable period of time, the States concerned shall resort to the procedures provided for in Part XV. 3. Pending agreement as provided for in paragraph 1, the States concerned, in a spirit of understanding and co-operation, shall make every effort to enter into provisional arrangements of a practical nature and, during this transitional period, not to jeopardize or hamper the reaching of the final agreement. Such arrangements shall be without prejudice to the final delimitation. 4. Where there is an agreement in force between the States concerned, questions relating to the delimitation of the Continental Shelf shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of that agreement. The wording of article 74 is identical in all respects, except for continental shelf, read exclusive economic zone. These articles provide that the coastal States concerned shall reach agreement on the basis of international law in order to achieve an equitable solution. The Convention provides no further substantive guidance concerning the delimitation of maritime boundaries beyond the territorial sea. Where neighboring coastal States are adjacent to each other or opposite within 400 M of each other, a potential maritime boundary overlap exists. There is considerable State practice and jurisprudence on the matter of maritime boundary delimitation within 200 M of a coastal State's territorial sea baseline.
Fundamentals of Thermodynamic Stability
Authors: Chimowitz Eldred H.
Published: November 2020

The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy change in any spontaneous adiabatic process is greater than or equal to zero. It is a disarmingly simple statement but one that is a cornerstone of scientific theories. It is instrumental in describing the extent and direction of all physical and chemical transformations and contains within it the essential ideas for developing thermodynamic stability theory. Stability theory concerns itself with answering questions such as (1) What is a stable thermodynamic state? (2) Which conditions define the limit to this state beyond which the system becomes unstable? (3) How does the instability manifest itself ? In a real sense, stability theory provides the underlying framework for a macroscopic understanding of phase transitions and critical phenomena, the subject of this text. Many of the results of stability theory related to phase equilibria are well known; an example is the condition that, for a pure fluid in a stable state, the quantity −(∂P/∂V )T,N must be greater than or equal to zero, with the equality condition holding at the limit of stability. Many other facets of thermodynamic stability theory, however, are relatively unfamiliar. For example, any of the well-known thermodynamic potentials E, H, A, and G can be used to develop stability criteria for a given system. Are these criteria always equivalent, or do some take precedence over others? If so, what are the implications of this for understanding phase transformations in physicochemical systems? It is questions of this sort that we take up in this chapter, where we lay the macroscopic foundations for the material developed throughout the rest of the text. In this analysis, we rely heavily upon results taken from linear algebra, a branch of mathematics that provides an ideal tool for developing a comprehensive description of thermodynamic stability concepts. The combination of the first and second law of thermodynamics for a closed system leads to the well-known equation: . . . dE = T dS − PdV . . . . . . (1.1) . . . where E(S, V ) represents the system energy as a function of the independent variables S and V.
Soil Nutrients (Soil Fertility)
Authors: Keefer Robert F.
Published: November 2020

Under the section on “Soil Aeration” (Chapter 4), it was explained that all living plants respire. This is the process where oxygen is used to burn food into carbon dioxide and water. Now we will consider another process used by green plants to manufacture their own food called “photosynthesis,” In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water are used along with light energy in the plant cell chloroplasts (containing chlorophyll) to produce their own food (carbohydrates) with oxygen produced as a by-product: Although this seems to be the opposite process from respiration, yet there are differences. Note that light energy and chlorophyll are required in photosynthesis. Chlorophyll is the green coloring matter in plants. There are, at present, seventeen (17) elements that plants need to grow and complete their life cycle. These are called “essential elements” or “nutrients.” Usually an essential element cannot be completely replaced by any other element. There are also four (4) other elements, although not essential, that help plants to grow better. These are called “functional” or “metabolic.” To remember all of these elements a memory aid, a mnemonic (the first letter is silent) has been devised. The 21 elements used by plants, carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), vanadium (V), boron (B), silicon (Si), chlorine (Cl), and sodium (Na), can be listed in their chemical abbreavtions with the mnemonic below: The elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen can be considered nonmineral elements, as these are obtained by plants from air and water (O2, CO2, and H2O) and not from the soil. Plants use these three elements to form simple carbohydrates from which large amounts of more complex plant compounds (about 95% of plant tissue) are formed. There is little control of these elements by man, except for water. Supplemental CO2 has been provided to plants to increase photosynthesis by using solid CO2 (dry ice), hut this has not proved economical.
Easterlin Cycles: Fertility and the Labor Market
Authors: Chu C. Y. Cyrus
Published: November 2020

I mentioned in chapter 7 that the fluctuation of human population can be summarized into three broad categories: the pretransitional, transitional, and posttransitional cycles. Among these three categories, the last one has caught the attention of most demographic economists in the past thirty years. The main reason for this unbalanced research attention is that the posttransitional cycles appear only in developed countries, where high-quality data are available for empirical research. The recent development of advanced mathematical tools also facilitates the analysis of posttransitional density-dependent population dynamics. In this chapter we will provide a summary of the theoretical and empirical analyses of the most typical population fluctuations in the posttransitional period: the so-called Easterlin cycles. The well-known Easterlin cycles, named after the pioneer work by Richard Easterlin (1961, 1980), describe the observed two-generation-long birth cycles in the twentieth-century United States and in several other developed countries. Easterlin believed that there were two features associated with the observed cycles: they are related to the labor market, and they are more or less “self-generating” (Easterlin, 1961). The first feature implies that a complete theoretical framework should characterize how people’s fertility behavior is affected by the labor market and how the labor market is affected by the fertility pattern. The second feature addresses whether the theoretical framework can generate a persistent fertility fluctuation. An ideal theoretical framework should embody both of these features, and an ideal empirical analysis should also be compatible with these features. We start the background introduction by studying a Malthusian model presented by Lee (1974). Let us consider an overlapping-generation framework in which each individual lives one or two periods. The first period is childhood, the second period is adulthood, and all surviving adults will be in the labor force. Lee wrote down the following two equations: . . . W(t) = f(L(t)), (10.1). . . . . . b(t) = g(W(t)), (10.2). . . where W(t) is the wage rate (at time t), L is the size of the adult age group, b is the crude birth rate, and f(.) and g(.) are functions with f'(.) < 0 and g'(.) > 0.
Linear Dynamic Models
Authors: Pearson Ronald K.
Published: November 2020

It was emphasized in Chapter 1 that low-order, linear time-invariant models provide the foundation for much intuition about dynamic phenomena in the real world. This chapter provides a brief review of the characteristics and behavior of linear models, beginning with these simple cases and then progressing to more complex examples where this intuition no longer holds: infinite-dimensional and time-varying linear models. In continuous time, infinite-dimensional linear models arise naturally from linear partial differential equations whereas in discrete time, infinite-dimensional linear models may be used to represent a variety of “slow decay” effects. Time-varying linear models are also extremely flexible: In the continuous-time case, many of the ordinary differential equations defining special functions (e.g., the equations defining Bessel functions) may be viewed as time-varying linear models; in the discrete case, the gamma function arises naturally as the solution of a time-varying difference equation. Sec. 2.1 gives a brief discussion of low-order, time-invariant linear dynamic models, using second-order examples to illustrate both the “typical” and “less typical” behavior that is possible for these models. One of the most powerful results of linear system theory is that any time-invariant linear dynamic system may be represented as either a moving average (i.e., convolution-type) model or an autoregressive one. Sec. 2.2 presents a short review of these ideas, which will serve to establish both notation and a certain amount of useful intuition for the discussion of NARMAX models presented in Chapter 4. Sec. 2.3 then briefly considers the problem of characterizing linear models, introducing four standard input sequences that are typical of those used in linear model characterization. These standard sequences are then used in subsequent chapters to illustrate differences between nonlinear model behavior and linear model behavior. Sec. 2.4 provides a brief introduction to infinite-dimensional linear systems, including both continuous-time and discrete-time examples. Sec. 2.5 provides a similar introduction to the subject of time-varying linear systems, emphasizing the flexibility of this class. Finally, Sec. 2.6 briefly considers the nature of linearity, presenting some results that may be used to define useful classes of nonlinear models.
Awakening Children's Minds
Authors: Berk Laura E.
Published: November 2020

Parents and teachers today face a swirl of conflicting theories about child rearing and educational practice. Indeed, current guides are contradictory, oversimplified, and at odds with current scientific knowledge. Now, in Awakening Children's Minds, Laura Berk cuts through the confusion of competing theories, offering a new way of thinking about the roles of parents and teachers and how they can make a difference in children's lives. This is the first book to bring to a general audience, in lucid prose richly laced with examples, truly state-of-the-art thinking about child rearing and early education. Berk's central message is that parents and teachers contribute profoundly to the development of competent, caring, well-adjusted children. In particular, she argues that adult-child communication in shared activities is the wellspring of psychological development. These dialogues enhance language skills, reasoning ability, problem-solving strategies, the capacity to bring action under the control of thought, and the child's cultural and moral values. Berk explains how children weave the voices of more expert cultural members into dialogues with themselves. When puzzling, difficult, or stressful circumstances arise, children call on this private speech to guide and control their thinking and behavior. In addition to providing clear roles for parents and teachers, Berk also offers concrete suggestions for creating and evaluating quality educational environments--at home, in child care, in preschool, and in primary school--and addresses the unique challenges of helping children with special needs. Parents, Berk writes, need a consistent way of thinking about their role in children's lives, one that can guide them in making effective child-rearing decisions. Awakening Children's Minds gives us the basic guidance we need to raise caring, thoughtful, intelligent children.
Learning Through Make-Believe Play
Authors: Berk Laura E.
Published: November 2020

Two days a week, Kevin leaves his office 45 minutes early to take charge of his 2-year-old daughter, Sophie, while her mother, a university professor, teaches a late class. One balmy spring afternoon, Kevin retrieved Sophie at her child-care center and drove the 15-minute route home. Invited to look in on Sophie’s play, I met the pair at the front door and nestled into a rocking chair from which to observe unobtrusively. After downing the last bite of her snack, Sophie grabbed Kevin’s hand and led him across the family room to a rug lined on two sides by shelves filled with books, stuffed animals, and other play props. Sophie moved a toy horse and cow inside a small, enclosed fence that she and Kevin had put together the day before. Then she turned the animals on their sides and moved them toward each other. “Why are horse and cow lying down?” Kevin asked. “’Cause they’re tired,” Sophie answered, pushing the two animals closer together. “Oh, yes,” Kevin affirmed. Then, building on Sophie’s theme, he placed a teddy bear on another part of the rug and offered, “I think Ted’s tired, too. I’m going to start a bed over here for some other animals.” Sophie turned toward the teddy bear, lifted his paw, and exclaimed, “She wants a lollipop to hold in her hand!” “A lollipop in her hand? We haven’t got any lollipops, have we?” answered Kevin. “Laura has!” declared Sophie, glancing at me. “Has Laura got a lollipop?” Kevin queried. “Yes! She’s got all of those, and a swing and a table, too!” Sophie remarked, referring to my chair, which rocked back and forth next to an end table. “Maybe this could be a make-believe lollipop,” suggested Kevin, placing a round piece on the end of a long TinkerToy stick and handing the structure to Sophie “That’s a lollipop,” agreed Sophie, placing it in the paw of the teddy bear. “Can she suck that while she’s going off to sleep?” asked Kevin. “Do you think that’s what she wants?” “It’s a pacifier,” explained Sophie, renaming the object.
Soil and Plant Water
Authors: Tinker Peter B. , Nye Peter
Published: November 2020

Water is of central importance in the transport of solutes, whether by diffusion or mass flow, and whether in soils or plants (Lösch 1995). It is also extremely important for the biota that live in the soil (Parr et al. 1981). Water is an unusual component of the environment, because its structure suggests it should be a gas at normal temperatures rather than a liquid, and it is the only common compound in the biosphere that occurs to a significant extent in the vapour, liquid and solid phases. We begin this chapter with a very brief statement of the thermodynamic approach to the study of water, which defines the water potential. Without an understanding of chemical potentials, it is difficult to deal with the relationships of ions and water in the soil and the plant. Therefore, in this chapter we give an introduction to this subject with special reference to water, which we then take further in chapters 4 and 5. A clear exposition of this is given in Nobel (1991). The concept of chemical potential is fundamental. It is a measure of the energy state of a particular compound in a particular system, and hence of the ability of a unit amount of the compound to perform work and thereby cause change. In particular, the difference in potential at different points in a system gives a measure of the tendency of the component to move from the region with the high potential to the region with the low potential. A component of a system can have various forms of potential energy in this sense, all of which contribute to the total chemical potential. Here, we exclude chemical reaction energy and kinetic energy. The main forms of energy that contribute to the chemical potential of a specified compound or material are due to its concentration (which may release energy on dilution), to its compression (which may perform work on expansion), to its position in an electrical field (which may release energy if the component is electrically charged and moves within the field), and to its position in the gravitational field (which may release energy as the component moves downwards).
A Remarkable Array: Species Diversity in the United States
Authors: Stein Bruce A. , Morse Larry E.
Published: November 2020

The Carolina hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana) survives in just a few rocky streambeds along the lower slopes of the Blue Ridge Mountains. Other species of hemlock abound across the United States, but none bear a close resemblance to this particular tree. The closest relatives of the Carolina hemlock, in fact, survive in only one other forest on Earth, some 7,000 miles away in Hubei province of eastern China. The forests of eastern Asia and eastern North America are so similar that if you were suddenly transported from one to the other, you would be hard-pressed to tell them apart. In the swift mountain streams rushing past these seemingly displaced hemlocks live a number of small, colorful fish known as darters. Darters are found only in North America and have evolved into a prolific variety of fishes. Up to 175 species inhabit U.S. waters, including the famous snail darter (Percina tanasi), which brought endangered species issues to the fore when it held up construction of the Tellico Dam on the Little Tennessee River. How is it that these two organisms, hemlock and darter, one with its closest relatives on the other side of the globe and the other found nowhere else in the world, came to be living side by side? Just how many plants and animals share the piece of Earth that we know as the United States of America? Why these and not others? These are central questions for understanding the diversity of the nation’s living resources. The United States encompasses an enormous piece of geography. With more than 3.5 million square miles of land and 12,000 miles of coastline, it is the fourth largest country on Earth, surpassed only by Russia, Canada, and China. The nation spans nearly a third of the globe, extending more than 120 degrees of longitude from eastern Maine to the tip of the Aleutian chain, and 50 degrees in latitude from Point Barrow above the Arctic Circle to the southern tip of Hawaii below the tropic of Cancer. This expanse of terrain includes an exceptional variety of topographic features, from Death Valley at 282 feet below sea level to Mt. McKinley at 20,320 feet above sea level.
Strategies for Biodiversity Protection
Authors: Bean Michael J.
Published: November 2020

After a half century of ditching, diking, and draining the swamplands of southern Florida, a major effort to undo some of the ecological damage of those activities is now under way. In what is perhaps the largest ecological restoration effort of its kind anywhere, the federal and state governments are buying up large parcels of private land, changing dramatically the timing and quantity of freshwater flows to the huge “river of grass” that comprises the Florida Everglades, and even restoring the meanders and backwaters to the same Kissimmee River that an earlier generation of engineers “improved” by straightening and channelizing so as to eliminate its meanders and backwaters. Hundreds of millions of public dollars will be spent in this effort. If it succeeds, the steady degradation of one of the most biologically diverse and distinctive environments of the United States will be halted, and its recovery will have begun. The wood stork (Mycteria americana), snail kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis plumbeus), and Florida panther (Felis concolor coryi) are among the endangered species that this effort may ultimately benefit. Several hundred miles to the north, in the sandhills of North Carolina, a more modest but no less noteworthy conservation effort is under way. There, private owners of woodlots, horse farms, resorts, and even residential property are actively managing their longleaf pines to encourage the presence on their own land of another endangered species, the red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis). After a quarter century in which many private landowners came to fear the presence of endangered species on their land, sandhills landowners are now inviting them. The state and federal governments are spending few public dollars in this effort, and its scale is much smaller than that of the Everglades restoration. What drives the novel effort in North Carolina is a creative and flexible use of the provisions of the Endangered Species Act to encourage the sort of positive land stewardship that many landowners are willing to embrace. As the Florida and North Carolina examples illustrate, the challenge of effectively conserving the natural biological diversity of the nation requires the use of a flexible and diverse array of strategies.
Medical Representations of Sexual Madness: Nymphomania and Masturbatory Insanity
Authors: Goldberg Ann
Published: November 2020

Nineteenth-century science played a critical role in the formulation and legitimation of modern gender norms and the subordination of women through naturalizing gender difference—representing as “scientific” and universal in the supposedly biological makeup of the sexes what were in fact social and prescriptive beliefs. Feminist studies in the history of psychiatry and on the hysteria diagnosis in particular have been groundbreaking in opening up this line of analysis. In stark contrast to the topic of hysteria, nymphomania has received almost no attention in the historiography. It played no role in the creation of famous psychiatric careers, as did hysteria in the work of Jean-Martin Charcot and Sigmund Freud. Rather, nymphomania was one of those vague, allen compassing, but all the more ubiquitous, terms for female sexual deviancy that floated in both medical and popular culture. Yet, in the Eberbach case histories, it was nymphomania, not hysteria, that predominated in medical representations of female sexual maladies, its symptoms or diagnosis appearing in the case files of almost one-third of the female patients. Its prominence in these cases, as I shall argue, was related in complex ways to the primarily rural and lower-class social background of these patients, a group which, while typical of early–nineteenth-century asylums, has received no systematic treatment in the study of gender and madness. This class dimension is probably one reason for the paucity of studies on nymphomania: hysteria was classically, though by no means exclusively, an illness of precisely those elite Victorian women on whom the historiography of hysteria and madness has hitherto focused. Gender, as feminist scholarship has shown, is a “symbolic system” that “signif[ies] relationships of power.” Gender categories are also relational: definitions of femininity are developed in opposition to those of masculinity. These elements of gender are important for understanding the medical construction of sexual pathology in the Eberbach files. Nymphomania had its male counterpart, masturbatory insanity, and both these “illnesses” can only be understood properly in relationship to each other, as two gendered sides to the coin of sexual pathology.
The Limits of Informed Consent
Authors: Berg Jessica W. , Appelbaum Paul S. , Lidz Charles W. , Parker Lisa S.
Published: November 2020

It will come as no surprise to anyone who has read this far to know that we are enthusiastic supporters of informed consent. We believe that entitlement to adequate information and the right to make choices about one’s medical treatment are fundamental ethical rights that are every bit as important in the healthcare arena as, for example, free speech and due process of law are in the wider society. Moreover, informed consent does not merely have deontological value. We have argued that, if done correctly, informed consent can often lead to better doctor-patient relationships, better patient adherence to treatment plans, and a fuller understanding of the disease process on the part of the healthcare provider. Yet it is also important to understand the limits of informed consent so we do not try to make it do what it cannot do. For example, although informed consent may help in managing treatment, by itself it does not cure illness. The claims that have been made for informed consent, however, are sometimes almost that extravagant. Informed consent has been suggested as the means to protect patients from poor care (1-3), including involuntary care (4), and as a means to improve the outcomes of care (5,6). It has been proposed as the solution to the problems of nursing homes (7) and as a device for compensating patients who are harmed by poor medical treatment (8). None of these are entirely specious ideas. Several of them, indeed, may be correct in part, but it is important for us to understand what informed consent cannot do as well as what it can. Just as free speech does not guarantee good government and due process of law does not guarantee justice, so too informed consent cannot solve all of the problems of the healthcare system. In this chapter we explore some of the limitations of informed consent. Specifically, we want to suggest four propositions. First, informed consent is a mechanism for improving communication and decision making among healthcare providers and patients.
The Waste Crisis
Authors: Tammemagi Hans
Published: November 2020

As populations continue to increase, society produces more and more waste. Yet it is becoming increasingly difficult to build new landfills, and the existing landfills are causing significant environmental damage. Finding solutions is not simple; the problem is enormous in size, vital in terms of its impact on the environment, and complex in scope. This book provides a vast look at solid waste management in North America and seeks solutions to the waste crisis. It describes the magnitude and complexity of the problem, focusing on municipal wastes and placing them in the perspective of other wastes such as hazardous, biochemical, and radioactive debris. It describes the components of an integrated waste management program, including recycling, composting, landfills, and waste incinerators, and it presents in detail the scientific and engineering principles underlying these technologies. To illustrate both the problems and solutions of waste management programs, the authors provide seven case histories, among them the Fresh Kills (Staten Island, New York), the East Carbon Landfill (Utah), and the Lancaster County Municipal Waste Incinerator (Pennsylvania). The Waste Crisis is unique in its attempt to analyze waste management in a broader societal context and to propose solutions based on basic principles. And by doing so, it encourages readers to challenge commonly held perceptions and to seek new and better ways of dealing with waste. As such, this book deserves a place on the bookshelf of anyone who deals with or feels the need to confront the growing problems of waste management.
Inorganic Polymers
Authors: Mark James E. , Allcock Harry R. , West Robert
Published: November 2020

Polymer chemistry and technology form one of the major areas of molecular and materials science. This field impinges on nearly every aspect of modern life, from electronics technology, to medicine, to the wide range of fibers, films, elastomers, and structural materials on which everyone depends. Although most of these polymers are organic materials, attention is being focused increasingly toward polymers that contain inorganic elements as well as organic components. The goal of Inorganic Polymers is to provide a broad overview of inorganic polymers in a way that will be useful to both the uninitiated and those already working in this field. There are numerous reasons for being interested in inorganic polymers. One is the simple need to know how structure affects the properties of a polymer, particularly outside the well-plowed area of organic materials. Another is the bridge that inorganic polymers provide between polymer science and ceramics. More and more chemistry is being used in the preparation of ceramics of carefully controlled structure, and inorganic polymers are increasingly important precursor materials in such approaches. This new edition begins with a brief introductory chapter. That is followed with a discussion of the characteristics and characterization of polymers, with examples taken from the field. Other chapters in the book detail the synthesis, reaction chemistry, molecular structure, and uses of polyphosphazenes, polysiloxanes, and polysilanes. The coverage in the second edition has been updated and expanded significantly to cover advances and interesting trends since the first edition appeared. Three new chapters have been added, focusing on ferrocene-based polymers, other phosphorous-containing polymers, and boron-containing polymers; inorganic-organic hybrid composites; and preceramic inorganic polymers.
Nature and Causes of Variation
Authors: Mazer Susan J. , Damuth John
Published: November 2020

The field of evolutionary ecology is at its core the study of variation within individuals, among individuals, among populations, and among species. For several reasons, evolutionary ecologists need to know the causes and the effects of variation in traits that influence the performance, behavior, longevity, and fertility of individuals in their natural habitats. First, to determine whether the conditions for evolution by natural selection of traits of interest are fulfilled, we need to know the degree to which the phenotype of a trait is determined by the genetic constitution (or genotype) of an individual and by the environment in which an individual is raised. Second, to predict whether and how natural selection will cause the mean phenotype of a trait in a population to change from one generation to the next, we must understand the ways in which an individual’s phenotype (for this trait) influences its genetic contribution to future generations (i.e., its fitness). Third, to understand why the phenotype of a given trait influences an individual’s fitness, we need to know how the trait affects an individual’s ability to garner resources for growth or reproduction, to avoid predation, to find mates, and to reproduce successfully. Finally, to evaluate whether the phenotypic differences we observe among populations and species may represent the long-term outcome of evolution by natural selection, we must understand how different phenotypes perform under different environmental conditions. In sum, with an understanding of the causes and consequences of phenotypic variation within and among populations, we can detect evolutionary processes operating at a variety of ecological levels: within random-mating populations; within and among subpopulations distributed over a species’ geographic range; and even among multispecies associations. These goals, however, require a clear understanding of the nature of phenotypic variation. The aim of this chapter and the next is to illustrate that the richness of evolutionary ecology has increased in direct proportion to our understanding of the multiple causes of intraspecific phenotypic variation.
Offspring Size and Number
Authors: Messina Frank J. , Fox Charles W.
Published: November 2020

If we look across all organisms, we find that some species produce only one or a few large offspring per reproductive bout (e.g., most birds and mammals), others produce 10s or 100s of intermediatesize offspring (e.g., most plants and insects), and yet others produce many 1000s of offspring (e.g., some marine invertebrates). How can we account for such broad variation? In this chapter, we review many of the environmental and demographic variables that influence the evolution of offspring size and number. In the first section, we discuss how the trade-off between offspring size and number is an important determinant of offspring size. An individual’s resources can be allocated to three basic functions— growth, somatic maintenance, or reproduction. Resources directed toward reproduction can in turn be used to produce either many small offspring or a few large offspring. Thus, for a fixed amount of resources available for reproduction, it necessarily follows that there is a trade-off between the number and size of offspring during a given bout of reproduction. Trade-offs between offspring size and number during a single reproductive bout are a primary determinant of offspring size for most semelparous organisms, which reproduce once in their lifetime (e.g., salmon and century plants). For iteroparous organisms, however, lifetime reproduction is divided into many discrete bouts, with intervening periods of no reproduction. Evolutionary explanations for the number and size of offspring in these organisms must also consider how reproductive effort during any one period affects future survival and reproduction. The second part of our chapter considers the evolution of offspring number among long-lived, iteroparous organisms, especially vertebrates. We focus on the clutch sizes of birds that produce altricial (nidicolous) young. Because each nestling requires much parental care, we expect strong selection toward producing the most appropriate number of offspring for a given environment. The trade-off between current and future reproduction can also affect semelparous animals if offspring must be distributed among scattered resources. Many insects, for example, lay eggs on small, discrete hosts, and their sedentary offspring often cannot move between hosts. A female that places too many eggs on a host faces the same diminishing returns as a bird that produces more nestlings than it can provision.
Wetlands Explained
Authors: Lewis William M.
Published: November 2020

This book brings together in compact form a broad scientific and sociopolitical view of US wetlands. This primer lays out the science and policy considerations to help in navigating this branch of science that is so central to conservation policy, ecosystem science and wetland regulation. It gives explanations of the attributes, functions and values of our wetlands and shows how and why public attitudes toward wetlands have changed, and the political, legal, and social conflicts that have developed from legislation intended to stem the rapid losses of wetlands. The book describes the role of wetland science in facilitating the evolution of a rational and defensible system for regulating wetlands and will shed light on many of the problems and possibilities facing those who quest to protect and conserve our wetlands.
Atmospheric Scales of Motion and Atmospheric Composition
Authors: Whiteman C. David
Published: November 2020

Weather phenomena occur over a very broad range of scales of space and time, from the global circulation systems that extend around the earth’s circumference to the small eddies that cause cigarette smoke to swirl and mix with clear air. Each circulation can be described in terms of its approximate horizontal diameter and lifetime. Large-scale weather systems, such as hemispheric wave patterns called Rossby waves, monsoons, high and low pressure centers, and fronts, are called synopticscale weather systems. Temperature, humidity, pressure, and wind measurements collected simultaneously all over the world are used to analyze and forecast the evolution of these systems, which have diameters greater than 200 km (125 mi) and lifetimes of days to months. Mesoscale weather events include diurnal wind systems such as mountain wind systems, like breezes, sea breezes, thunderstorms, and other phenomena with horizontal scales that range from 2 to 200 km (1 to 125 mi) and lifetimes that range from hours to days. Mesoscale meteorologists use networks of surface- based instruments, balloon-borne sounding systems, remote sensing systems (e.g., radar, lidar, and sodar), and aircraft to make observations on these scales. Microscale meteorology focuses on local or small-scale atmospheric phenomena with diameters below 2 km (1 mi) and lifetimes from seconds to hours, including gusts and turbulence, dust devils, thermals, and certain cloud types. Microscale studies are usually confined to the layer of air from the earth’s surface to an altitude where surface effects become negligible (approximately 1000 feet or 300 m at night and 5000 feet or 1500 m during the day). A fourth and less rigorously defined term, the regional scale, denotes circulations and weather events occurring on horizontal scales from 500 to 5000 km (310 to 3100 mi). The regional scale is thus smaller than synoptic scale, but larger than mesoscale. The term is often used to describe events that occur within more or less homogeneous physiographic provinces (e.g., the Pacific Northwest region). Major mountain ranges impact the weather on the synoptic scale. They anchor large-scale pressure systems in the Northern Hemisphere, cause low and high pressure weather systems to form, and produce large-scale seasonal wind systems in Asia and North America.
Geology and Ages of the Islands
Authors: Carreño Ana Luisa , Helenes Javier
Published: November 2020

Before middle Miocene times, Baja California was attached to the rest of the North American continent. Consequently, most of the terrestrial fauna and flora of the peninsula had its origins in mainland Mexico. However, the separation of the peninsula and its northwestward displacement resulted in a variety of distribution patterns, isolations, extinctions, origins and ultimate evolution of fauna and flora in several ways. The islands in the Gulf of California have been colonized by species from Baja California and mainland Mexico. Some workers (Soulé and Sloan 1966; Wilcox 1978) consider that many of these islands originated as landbridges. Geographically, most of the islands are closer to the peninsula than to the mainland. Therefore, it has been assumed that the Baja California Peninsula was the origin of most of the organisms inhabiting them (Murphy 1983). Islands separated by depths of 110 m or less from the peninsula or mainland Mexico apparently owe their current insular existence to a rise in sea level during the current interglacial period (Soulé and Sloan 1966). In contrast, little information exists for deep-water islands. Any complete analysis of the distribution and origin of several organic groups inhabiting the Gulf of California islands should involve the consideration of several contrasting models arguing in favor of or against the equilibrium theory (MacArthur and Wilson 1967). In any model, one of the most important features to consider is the relationship between the species inhabiting the gulf islands and the physical and geological processes of formation of the islands, as well as their age, size, and distance from either the peninsula or the mainland. Understanding colonization, migration, and distribution, particularly in some groups, requires information on whether a particular island was ever connected to a continental source. For example, to explain some characteristics of the populations of any island, which presumably had a recent (<10,000-15,000 years) connection to a continental source, it is necessary to evaluate the coastal erosion or the relative rise in the sea level. These factors might contribute to effectively isolating an insular habit or to forming landbridges.
Breeding Dynamics of Heermann’s Gulls
Authors: Velarde Enriqueta , Ezcurra Exequiel
Published: November 2020

Islands are landmarks for sea birds, whether for orientation, as resting points during foraging and migration trips, or most importantly as nesting sites. This is due to the isolation that islands offer, rendering them free of many of the continental predators. If, additionally, islands are located in the midst of highly productive waters, they provide sea birds with abundant food, which is particularly valuable during the nesting season. This is the case in the northern Sea of Cortes. Not surprisingly, we find that the islands of this region are nesting sites for more than 90% of the world’s populations of Heermann’s Gulls (Larus heermanni) and Elegant Terns (Sterna elegans), and for about 90% of the global populations of the Least Storm-petrel (Oceanodroma microsoma), the Craven’s Murrelet (Synthliboramphus craveri), and the Yellow- footed Gull (Lams livens). The midriff island area of the Gulf of California also shelters approximately 70% of the world’s Black Storm-petrel (O. melania) and, at the subspecific level, provides breeding grounds for about 50% of the California Brown Pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis californicus), 50% of the Blue-footed Boobies (Sula nebouxii nebouxii), and 40% of the Brown Boobies (S. leucogaster brewsteri). A combination of characteristics in one particular island, Rasa, has made it a natural breeding sanctuary for Heermann’s Gulls. Besides the two traits mentioned above (lack of land predators and high marine productivity), these characteristics include (1) its characteristic flat topography from which it derives its name (rasa means “flat” in Spanish), and (2) its sparse vegetation cover, resulting from the extensive coverage of the island with guano that hinders vegetation growth. The Heermann’s Gull is the only North American representative of the group of White-hooded Gulls (Anderson 1983; Moynihan 1959; Storer 1971). The only other member of this group of gulls and hence its closest relative is the Grey Gull (Lams modestus), which inhabits the Pacific coast of South America along Chile and Peru and breeds inland in the Atacama Desert some 50-100 km away from the coast (Howell et al. 1974; Howell 1978).