bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Overview of Ethics and How Public Health Does Its Work
Authors: Taylor Holly A.
Published: January 2019

Modern public health in the United States is conducted by a network of private, public, local, state, tribal, and federal organizations, agencies, individuals, and communities. The ethical mandate of public health has always been to protect and promote the health and well-being of the population. This chapter introduces the ways in which public health actors work to achieve those goals, and how their efforts can be squared with the quintessential American value of personal liberty, as well as with the increasing recognition of the importance of justice as a foundation for public health. It also provides chapter overviews for the related section of The Oxford Handbook of Public Health Ethics, which includes chapters on the ethics and public health system, public health interventions, and public health law and regulation.
Assessment Policy and Practice in Music Education in Taiwan, Republic of China (ROC)
Authors: Chuang Ming-Jen , Lin Sheau-Yuh
Published: January 2019

Music education in Taiwan is implemented in three ways: through professional music education offered at schools, general music education offered at schools, and music education offered to the public. This chapter excludes assessment issues concerning music education offered to the public and rather, addresses (1) the assessments in joint admissions of the professional music education and (2) the assessment in general music education offered at schools. To be more specific, topics cover the following perspectives: artistic talent music programs, admissions to the artistic talent music programs in elementary and junior high schools, joint admissions to the artistic talent music program in senior high schools, college joint admissions (first year), music assessment related regulations for compulsory education, and literature related to music assessment in general music instruction, followed by discussion and implications. In order to bridge the gap between assessment practices and assessment research, more efforts need to be taken in building assessment knowledge bases, in formulating cross-discipline cooperation, and in addressing the contextual integration of curriculum, instruction, and assessment.
The Development of Standards-Based Assessments in Music
Authors: Burrack Frederick , Parkes Kelly A.
Published: January 2019

Academic standards are public statements indicating what students should know and be able to do. Standards for music education have been developed and applied in a variety of ways across academic communities as guidelines that focus assessment processes. This chapter provides a review of the purpose of standards, policies that underlie the integration of standards into practice, the presence of national standards and the interactions between standards and curriculum. We provide an historical view of current standards-based assessment in music, an overview of standards based projects and the environment of educational accountability. We discuss connections to teacher evaluation and implications for future development of standards-based assessment practice.
Music Teacher Evaluation and Student Growth in Music
Authors: Davison Dru , Fisher Ryan
Published: January 2019

This chapter provides an in-depth analysis of the development and implementation of an alternative student growth measures system specifically designed by arts educators to provide teachers with a fair, flexible, and rigorous method of demonstrating teacher effectiveness as part of a multiple measures teacher evaluation system. We also present a brief overview of the Race to the Top legislation as well as the No Child Left Behind waivers in the United States as they relate to the increased attention to the use of student growth and achievement data in teacher evaluation systems. An overview of the multiple-measures evaluation systems with particular attention to the use of student growth data portion of the multiple measures is also included. The initial guidance from the US Department of Education regarding various approaches of incorporating student growth data in teacher evaluation systems is discussed. Implications for music education are also presented.
Assessing Music Teaching and Learning in Spanish-Speaking Countries in South America
Authors: Frega Ana Lucía , Limongi Ramiro
Published: January 2019

Spanish-speaking Latin American countries share language, educational history and approaches, and a colonial past. Education was an essential part of a transculturation process that changed the indigenous worldview and inserted European civilization. Along the centuries, music served for catechizing, inculcating cultural and moral values, easing social control, attaining group cohesion, supporting the emerging national spirit, promoting social inclusion, integrating immigrants, stimulating multiculturalism awareness, and achieving social or individual emotional, creative, intellectual, and even physical development. So highly regarded, music education was included in most educational endeavors at any level of schooling. However, hazardous political, institutional, and economic life hindered its effective implementation. Policies changed frequently, and European and North American models randomly mixed with local traditional expressions. Governments issued regulations, looking for improvement, but disjoint efforts, deficient monitoring, and inadequate evaluation often resulted in failure. The culture of assessment is still incipient in the region and poses a great yet unavoidable challenge.
The Florida Performing Fine Arts Assessment Project
Authors: Kelly Steven , Cummings Beth , Gordon Mary Grace
Published: January 2019

This chapter outlines the background, philosophy, and process associated with the “Race to the Top” Florida Performing Fine Arts Assessment Project. On August 24, 2010, the US Department of Education announced that Florida was a recipient of the federal Race to the Top Phase 2 competition. Through a competitive process, the Florida Department of Education awarded the Polk County Florida School Board a total of $5.7 million to develop a statewide assessment tool in the performing arts for the creation of a district-developed test item bank in seven hard-to-measure areas that included the performing arts. The project involved approximately 450 performing arts teachers, supervisors, administrators, and university faculty. Project leaders felt it was imperative to develop an assessment that reflected activities and experiences within a realistic performing fine arts classroom environment with two interrelated assessments: (1) a performing task, and (2) a written test.
Washington State’s Classroom-Based Performance Assessments
Authors: Joseph AnnRené
Published: January 2019

How does an entire state assess the arts in every school district at the elementary, middle, and high school levels with interrater validity and reliability? This chapter will summarize how Washington State’s Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI) created, developed, designed, piloted, assessed, implemented, and reported arts classroom-based performance assessments (CBPAs), 2003–2016. The OSPI music CBPAs measure what educators value and teach, align with state arts learning standards regarding what all students should know and be able to do in music, and empower teachers to change their practice, resulting in practical significance. Developed by music educators, music CBPAs measure how individual students create, perform, and respond to real-life prompts. The CBPAs are formative and summative in design, and have become part of accountability instructional practices and state policy via annual district implementation verification reports. The vision for the initial CBPA design was: Curriculum + Instruction + Assessment for/ = Learning.
Measuring Student Learning in Michigan
Authors: Taggart Cynthia Crump , Shaw Ryan
Published: January 2019

States have pursued various paths in their quest for high-quality assessments that would facilitate measures of student achievement/growth in traditionally nontested subjects and grades. In 2012, Michigan began an ambitious arts assessment program, termed the Michigan Arts Education Instruction and Assessment project (MAEIA), which produced three tools: an arts education blueprint, a program review tool, and arts assessment specifications/prototypes. Projects like MAEIA present opportunities to understand and contextualize current trends and the broader context of arts assessment and arts standards. This chapter discusses the local and national context for the MAEIA work and reviews the components of the project. It details the project work to date, offering a critical analysis of the project’s process, goals, outcomes, and the successes and challenges inherent to the work. Last, it offers conclusions and discusses the implications and unresolved questions surrounding the MAEIA project.
Assessment Practices of American Band Directors
Authors: Vaughan Charles J.
Published: January 2019

American band directors are often tasked with preparing their ensembles (often large) for many performances throughout a year while providing meaningful relevant curricula, creating meaningful and effective assessments, and delivering all of this in an inspirational way. Band directors currently do so in a myriad of ways. To begin to address these challenges, in 2014 the National Core Music Standards (NCMS) were published while Model Cornerstone Assessments (MCAs) continue to be developed. When completed, alongside the NCMSs, the MCAs will serve to maximize the efficacy and efficiency of classroom assessment and provide model assessments and assessment models to teachers. State large ensemble performance assessments serve as summative assessments for many band directors and their ensembles. Some states use the assessment results as a part of yearly teacher evaluations, but there are validity and reliability concerns that must be addressed before this becomes a common practice.
Assessment Practices of American Orchestra Directors
Authors: Moss Kirk , Benham Stephen , Pellegrino Kristen
Published: January 2019

After reviewing a small body of literature on the assessment practices of American orchestra directors, this chapter quickly shifts attention to conducting original research. It describes a descriptive survey study with American String Teachers Association (ASTA) members (N = 416) that found performance-based assessments were the most frequently used form of formal assessment to evaluate technique, musicianship skills, creative musicianship, and ensemble skills. Music literacy was nearly equally split between performance-based and written assessments, while evaluation of music and musical performances and historical and cultural elements tended toward written assessments and verbal feedback. Creative musicianship and historical/cultural elements were the top two nonassessed areas, but were still assessed by the vast majority of teachers. Interviews with five string teachers demonstrate that the research participants emphasized performing/playing assessments, focused on student learning/improvement, acknowledged the role of the school district/administration and benefited from its support, and recognized the value in aligning assessment to standards/curriculum.
Assessing Music in Early Childhood
Authors: Runfola Maria
Published: January 2019

In this chapter, pros and cons of assessing young children’s music skills and content knowledge are explored. An integrative literature review is included as well as a thematic review lending support to core themes. Several reasons were identified as to the importance of promoting student assessment as children participate in early childhood music. Use of music assessments in the classroom and for research should consider practices consistent with musical age as well as chronological age. Increased recognition of the importance of music in total development of the child supports need for effective early childhood assessment systems especially by the music education research community as they continue to gather evidence regarding the utilitarian value of music in early childhood. Researchers need to be aware of environmental factors that may impact early music learning and cognizant of current best practices in music education for early childhood. Researcher-developed criterion measures often are not investigated for quality characteristics, and thus rigorous guidelines for such criterion measures are needed. It appears there are no definitive policy or ethics statements regarding early childhood music assessment but both should be considered vital priorities for the profession. Most likely only those scholars with profound interest in assessment and teachers with deep understanding of the role of assessment in teaching and learning will volunteer to respond. Everything developed in such a national network will be useful, providing we start with clearly defined, intended outcomes and then develop assessments to document student attainment of those musical outcomes.
Self-Assessment of Singing Accuracy
Authors: Riley Patricia
Published: January 2019

This chapter presents a series of three research studies conducted to determine how teachers can best employ self-assessment to help elementary school children improve their singing accuracy. The first study examines the accuracy of children’s self-assessment, the second details the effects of teacher feedback on self-assessment accuracy, and the third describes the effects of peer feedback on self-assessment accuracy. Implications are that informal self-assessment of singing skills, conferencing with peers regarding singing skills, and practicing singing and self-assessment are activities that may contribute to accurate self-assessment in using correct words, singing in time, and using singing voices, and to somewhat accurate self-assessment in ability to match pitch. Including teacher feedback and peer feedback individually has yielded mixed results in increasing singing self-assessment accuracy in the combined areas of using singing voice, matching pitch, and melodic contour—with peer feedback over a slightly long period of time being more effective.
Assessing Music Learning with Technology
Authors: Bauer William I.
Published: January 2019

The purpose of this chapter is to describe and discuss ways in which technology may be used to assess student learning outcomes focused on knowledge, skills, processes, and products related to creating, performing, and responding to music. Topics include (1) assessment principles essential to high-quality technology-assisted musical assessment, (2) the design of assessment tasks and procedures facilitated by technology, (3) applications of technology to assessment instruments and assessment management, and (4) technology for assessing learning outcomes related to creating, performing, and responding to music. Technology has the potential to transform assessment in music education, and through that to make a major impact on student learning. Up-to-date links to various technology resources related to this chapter can be accessed at http://www.oup-assessment.billbauer.me.
Sodium Channels and Pain
Authors: Cummins Theodore R. , Waxman Stephen G. , Wood John N.
Published: January 2019

Electrical excitability in nerve and muscle depends on the action of voltage-gated sodium-selective ion channels. It is now known that there are nine such ion channels; intriguingly, three of them, Nav1.7, Nav1.8, and Nav1.9, are found relatively selectively in peripheral damage-sensing neurons. Local anesthetics are sodium channel blockers that have proved to be excellent analgesics. However, their systemic use is limited by side effects. Because it is known that peripheral damage-sensing sensory neurons are required to drive most pain conditions, there have been many attempts to target peripheral sodium channels for pain relief. Human genetic advances have supported the idea that multiple sodium channel subtypes are good analgesic drug targets. Human monogenic gain-of-function mutations in Nav1.7, Nav1.8, and Nav1.9 cause ongoing pain conditions, while loss-of-function Nav1.7 mutations produce insensitivity to pain. This compelling genetic evidence has inspired a large number of drug development programs aimed at developing analgesic subtype-selective sodium channel blockers. This article reviews the structure and physiological role of voltage-gated sodium channels and describes recent advances in understanding the contribution of sodium channel isoforms to different pain states. Also described are mechanistic studies aimed at better understanding routes to drug development and the potential of gene therapy in therapeutic approaches to pain control. Two decades of sodium channel–targeted drug development have yet to produce a clinical breakthrough, but recent progress holds promise that useful new analgesics are on the horizon.
Ellipsis and Discourse
Authors: Kehler Andrew
Published: January 2019

Despite the considerable attention paid to elliptical phenomena in the literature, the conditions under which a representation of an utterance may serve as a suitable antecedent for interpreting a subsequent ellipsis remain highly contentious and poorly understood. Focusing primarily on VP-ellipsis, this chapter surveys evidence that informs this debate, focusing on issues bearing on the discourse context in its role of making meanings available for ellipsis recovery. It argues that the evidence more strongly favors discourse-based explanations over syntactic ones, although problems for discourse-based theories do remain.
Movement and Islands
Authors: Abels Klaus
Published: January 2019

This chapter discusses two strands of research where the interaction of ellipsis with movement has been used to construct arguments pertaining to the implementation of movement in the grammar, the architecture of the grammar, and the nature of the grammar more broadly. Both lines of research discussed in this chapter take as their empirical starting point asymmetries in the behavior of moved constituents depending on whether movement originates within an ellipsis site or not. Movement from an ellipsis site is sometimes less restricted than movement from an overt phrase hypothesized to correspond to the silent structure at the ellipsis site and sometimes more restricted. The overall conclusions that can be drawn from the phenomena sampled here are that syntactic structure is present at the ellipsis site, that locality constraints are most likely not lifted within the ellipsis site, and that the identity condition on ellipsis is semantic/pragmatic rather than syntactic.
Aphasia and Acquisition
Authors: Grodzinsky Yosef , Deschamps Isabelle , Shapiro Lewis P.
Published: January 2019

This chapter reports studies of parallelism in VP-ellipsis in two populations whose linguistic ability is lacking. First, a complex comprehension experiment was conducted with individuals with Broca’s aphasia, said to suffer from a specific syntactic deficit that some view as restricted to the deletion of traces of movement, while others argue is related to “complexity.” Though still at a preliminary stage, the experimental record suggests that parallelism, as evinced by the patients’ ability to reconstruct elided VPs, is relatively intact for these patients, indicating that their deficit is restricted. Second, a similar study was run with normally developing, 4–5-year-old children, whose linguistic abilities are not yet fully manifested. Nevertheless, these children use parallelism in an adult-like fashion, and correctly reconstruct elided material in comprehension. We also provide evidence that 3-year-olds use elided VPs in spontaneous language production. Both studies are used to argue for fine deficit analyses, and against generic, “complexity”-based accounts of language development and language loss.
Parsing Strategies
Authors: Yoshida Masaya
Published: January 2019

In order to successfully comprehend sentences involving ellipsis, the online sentence-processing mechanism must be able to identify the ellipsis site, find its antecedent, and recover the content of the ellipsis site by referring to the antecedent. The psycholinguistic study of ellipsis aims to reveal aspects of the mechanism of online sentence processing by studying how ellipsis constructions are processed online. In this chapter, the following questions are asked. What structure does the parser build in the ellipsis site? How does the parser build the structure of ellipsis? When does the parser recognize ellipsis? Where does the parser find the antecedent of ellipsis? By answering these questions, this chapter tries to reveal what parsing strategies are employed in the online processing of ellipsis constructions.
Sluicing and Its Subtypes
Authors: Vicente Luis
Published: January 2019

This chapter discusses the phenomenon of sluicing, a type of clausal ellipsis whereby an entire interrogative clause is missing save for a wh-phrase. Sluicing consists of a number of subtypes, each one exhibiting its own properties and restrictions. Given that the properties and restrictions of any given subtype tend to be the properties and restrictions of some independently available strategy of wh-question formation, the most parsimonious analysis is the one advanced by Ross (1969) and Merchant (2001): sluicing is a purely PF-side operation, i.e. non-pronunciation of a regular wh-question, without affecting its syntactic or semantic properties. At the same time, we need to contend with the fact that this seems to be only a tendency (albeit a remarkably strong one), rather than an exceptionless generalization: there exist cases of sluicing that appear to resist assimilation to a pure deletion approach. Determining whether they are genuine exceptions (and if so, exactly which factors allow them to be exceptional) is arguably one of the main issues that an eventual comprehensive, insightful theory of the taxonomy of sluicing must resolve.
Varieties of English
Authors: Thoms Gary
Published: January 2019

This chapter provides an overview of dialectal variation in English with respect to ellipsis phenomena. The discussion focuses on VP-ellipsis, describing dialectal variation in the range of licensors and in the retention of additional non-finite auxiliaries (e.g. John has been fired and Mary has (been) too). The range of variation attested, drawing upon data from British and North American varieties, provides an instructive test for theories of licensing, pushing in the direction of a theory which pays closer attention to the role of prosody in licensing ellipsis. There is also a discussion of British do, an ellipsis construction which seems to show an interaction between ellipsis licensing and extraction.
French
Authors: Dagnac Anne
Published: January 2019

This chapter is a case study of elliptical constructions in French. It reviews the elliptical constructions that French does and does not display, and the language-specific properties some of them show. It argues that French does not display predicate ellipses but only predicate anaphors, including in comparatives. It also shows that not all clausal ellipses may rely on the same mechanism: while the gap following modal verbs in French, known as French Modal Ellipsis, is an ellipsis based on clausal deletion, some cases of sluicing and fragment answers resist such an analysis, while stripping and gapping subsume different types of elliptical phenomena which cannot be given a homogeneous analysis. It also briefly presents the main properties of nominal ellipses and of the various short structures in comparative clauses.
Indonesian
Authors: Fortin Catherine
Published: January 2019

This chapter describes ellipsis phenomena in Indonesian (Austronesian; Malayo-Polynesian). Several ellipsis phenomena are attested in Indonesian, including sluicing, fragments, auxiliary-stranding verb phrase ellipsis, pseudogapping, gapping, stripping, conjunction reduction, null complement anaphora, and ellipsis within nominal phrases. Indonesian has the potential to contribute meaningfully to our understanding of the ways in which these phenomena manifest cross-linguistically. One notable feature of Indonesian ellipsis, which is considered in detail, is that it permits prepositions to be omitted in some elliptical contexts, despite preposition stranding being prohibited in non-elliptical contexts. This is unexpected, given the cross-linguistically robust Preposition Stranding Generalization (Merchant 2001), which links a language’s ability to omit a preposition under ellipsis to its ability to strand a preposition via extraction of its complement. Phenomena affected include sluicing, fragments, pseudogapping, stripping, and gapping.
Ellipsis in Dependency Grammar
Authors: Osborne Timothy
Published: January 2019

This contribution considers how dependency grammars (DGs) view ellipsis phenomena. For the most part, comprehensive explorations of particular ellipsis phenomena are rare in the tradition of DG, but when ellipsis is examined, there is a tendency to posit the existence of null material/nodes to accommodate aspects of ellipsis. One recent development in the DG tradition that is particularly relevant to the analysis of ellipsis is the catena unit. A catena is a word or combination of words that are linked together by dependencies. Most ellipsis phenomena are eliding catena, whereby these catenae are often not constituents. Given the catena unit, a more economical approach to ellipsis has become possible, one that does not need to resort to movement to vacate the remnant from the encompassing constituent before that encompassing constituent is elided.
Afterlife (Modern Era)
Authors: Blanshard Alastair J. L.
Published: January 2019

Chapter 34 focuses on Demosthenes’ reception in the modern era. It was Cicero and Quintilian who made sure that Demosthenes will never be forgotten. The praise that they heaped on Demosthenes’ style made it possible for him to always remain a figure to conjure with. Plutarch established the status of Cicero and Demosthenes as the twin fathers of oratory. The article first considers how Demosthenes emerged as a central topic in political discussions during the modern period, as seen in the first English translation of the Olynthiacs and the Philippics by Thomas Wilson. It then examines how, from Wilson onwards, Demosthenes’ fortunes became largely intertwined with the fortunes of Athenian democracy itself, and particularly how his association with liberty and opposition to tyranny propelled Demosthenes into the limelight of American Revolutionary rhetoric. It also describes how Demosthenes became an important figure in popular culture.
Speeches in Private Prosecutions
Authors: Cobetto Ghiggia Pietro
Published: January 2019

Chapter 29 examines Demosthenes’ speeches in private prosecutions, beginning with a discussion of his debut in a lawcourt when he was forced to file lawsuits against the relatives who had served as his guardians after his father’s death and who had deprived him of nearly his entire inheritance. It then considers the two personalities on display in the Demosthenic opus: a brilliant and ruthless practitioner of civil law. It also explores the classification and authorship of Demosthenes’ private speeches, the arguments of the speeches in relation to private law in fourth-century Athens, and what Demosthenes’ private speeches say about fourth-century Athenian society.
Cognition and Expert-Level Proficiency in Intelligence Analysis
Authors: Moore David T. , Hoffman Robert R.
Published: January 2019

Proficiency scaling in the domain of intelligence analysis converges on an answer to the question of what counts as expertise in this domain. Proficiency scales in the domain are based on what are called essential competencies. There are many distinct analytical roles, entailing a specialization of expertise. This chapter discusses macrocognitive models of analyst reasoning and knowledge as a function of proficiency level, including recognition-primed decision making and intuition. This chapter also considers individual differences and conceptualize the different styles to be relatively stable and distinctive approaches to critical thinking. Proficiency scaling entails the issue of whether intelligence analysts are prone to cognitive biases. Analysts must cope with the problem of indeterminate causation, that is, the understanding of events for which there is no single cause, and causal forces include human agency and motivations. Directives in the intelligence community call for robust performance measures, but measuring analyst procedural skills is non-trivial. Finally, the implications for training are discussed.
Civil Military Affairs and Military Culture in Post-Transition Nigeria
Authors: Siollun Max
Published: January 2019

The Nigerian military has arguably been the most influential institution in the country’s post-independence history. Military governments ruled for twenty-nine of the thirty-three years between 1966 and 1999. During its three decades in power the military substantially altered the political architecture of the state. Although the military ceded power to an elected government nineteen years ago, it still influences national politics and defense policy, and has generated long-term conflicts that continued to be contested after the military left power. These conflicts bequeathed a legacy of politically motivated violence that was inherited by the subsequent civilian governments and has led to frequent and sustained military deployments. The frequency of deployments since 1999 has intensified civil–military animosity. It has also positioned the military as a prism through which underlying economic, ethnic, political, and religious conflicts are viewed and contested.
Drivers and Dynamics of Electoral Reform, 1999–2015
Authors: Levan Carl , Ajijola Abiodun
Published: January 2019

A large body of research examines questions relating to the quality of Nigeria’s elections, focusing on the mechanisms of fraud, the likelihood of violence, or the virtues of administrative reform. After briefly summarizing these issues, this chapter focuses on important reforms contained in a 2010 electoral reform law, such as new rules pertaining to party primaries and requirements to post electoral results at the polling unit level. It then asks why these reforms passed. Most explanations focus on the change of leadership in the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC). However, the chapter points to reform-minded coalitions in the National Assembly that emerged during presidential leadership crises in 2006 and 2010, as well as important shifts within civil society that increased INEC’s operational latitude and provided political “cover” from partisan interference. The complementary convergence of a coalition for reform inside government and a constituency for reform outside government, were critical to the successful conduct of the 2011 and 2015 elections.
The People’s Democratic Party
Authors: Agbaje Adigun , Akande Adeolu , Ojo Jide
Published: January 2019

The People’s Democratic Party (PDP), the dominant party in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic since inauguration of the Republic in 1999, found itself out of power and in opposition following its unprecedented defeat in the 2015 presidential and other elections. This chapter examines the background, historical context, nature, and matters arising from this transition of the PDP from ruling to opposition party. It shows how the transition was signposted by a decline in party vision, structure, coherence, performance, and reputation complemented by a gradual consolidation of opposition parties and interests into a single formidable platform, the All Progressives Congress (APC), which successfully wrested power from the PDP in 2015. The chapter demonstrates that impunity embedded in antidemocratic schemes that make party and electoral rules subject to pro-power interpretations while making outcomes predictably pro-dominant power provide only a fragile basis for party rule.
Fiscal Federalism, Subnational Politics, and State Creation in Contemporary Nigeria
Authors: Elemo Olufunmbi
Published: January 2019

Through cycles of civilian and military government, Nigeria’s political leadership has prioritized gaining access to revenue in order to distribute resources via patronage systems. As a result, the desire of elites to access the primary mode of revenue generation motivates political choices to centralize power in the national government or disperse authority through the federal system. This chapter provides an overview of how political and fiscal federalism have evolved in postcolonial Nigeria. Up until the Fourth Republic, the central government has dominated revenue extraction and policymaking, all at the cost of subnational autonomy and institutional capability. More contemporarily, as we see subnational governments strengthening their capacity to mobilize non-oil income (via taxation), state and local governments could potentially reassert their autonomy in Nigeria’s political system.
Revenue and Representation
Authors: Owen Oliver
Published: January 2019

Tax and revenue have shaped and reshaped Nigeria’s administration, institutions, and practices and informed the way that governance and power have been created and understood by ordinary people. This chapter traces that journey from colonial experiments, through agricultural boom and bust, then to oil-reliance and centralization, and afterwards to the renegotiations involved in the transition back to democracy, before concluding in an examination of contemporary Nigeria. Today the country finds itself in a situation where the federal government and states alike are searching for new sources of revenue as oil prices slump, provoking new negotiations of the social contracts between government and citizens.
Nigeria’s Petroleum Booms
Authors: Lewis Peter M.
Published: January 2019

Petroleum has been key to Nigeria’s political economy since the 1970s, giving rise to a syndrome called the “resource curse.” This includes a revenue monoculture, procyclical policies, endemic corruption, political uncertainty, communal tensions, and heightened conflict. The resource curse concept is organized around shifting elite bargains for the mediation of state-controlled rents. Analyses of the resource curse emphasize structural continuity, yet the syndrome is not immutable, as political interests and institutions may lead to different outcomes. Nigeria’s two petroleum booms illustrate the influence of political factors. Both were framed by abrupt windfalls, volatility, and equally sudden declines in revenue. While the first boom culminated in prolonged economic decline, the second was followed by transient recession and resilient performance in the non-oil economy. This chapter argues that electoral politics and civic participation have shifted elite incentives toward more responsive policies, though these factors are insufficient to shift the political settlement toward an inclusive developmental model.
Colonial Rule
Authors: Falola Toyin , Heaton Matthew
Published: January 2019

This chapter examines the transformations brought about by British colonial rule in Nigeria, which began with the annexation of Lagos in 1861 and ended with the independence of Nigeria on October 1, 1960. Colonial rule transformed political, economic, social, and cultural dynamics among indigenous peoples. Indirect rule bound “traditional” rulers to British authority. The economy became increasingly dependent on exports. European education created a middle class of Nigerian civil servants and social activists both indebted to the colonial project and resistant to its racialist underpinnings. Resistance to colonial rule took a number of forms, incrementally moving Nigeria toward independence. However, decolonization also brought regionalization and a hardening of ethnic identities. British colonialism created Nigeria, but did little to make it a viable, stable, self-sustaining national entity. The historiography of colonial rule in Nigeria has been shaped by efforts to grapple with the antecedents of postcolonial crisis.
The Origins of Boko Haram
Authors: Mohammed Kyari
Published: January 2019

Boko Haram metamorphosed from a local insurgency to a highly sophisticated fighting force capable of challenging the Nigerian military, which says a great deal about their commitment and tenacity. Though the Boko Haram has attracted world attention due to the magnitude of its violence, its unorthodox beliefs and ability to endure, its local dynamics are not well understood. This study accounts for the evolution and growth of the insurgency from its beginnings in 2002 to its current state by mostly synthesizing secondary sources and drawing from earlier research by the author. Boko Haram comes out as a highly adaptive militant Islamic movement amenable to changing its tactics and strategies to survive under intense pressure from a hostile local community, the Nigerian military, regional alliance, and an international community averse to terrorism.
Game Transfer Phenomena: Origin, Development, and Contributions to the Video Game Research Field
Authors: Ortiz de Gortari Angelica B.
Published: January 2019

Game Transfer Phenomena (GTP) is a multimodal and holistic research approach for understanding the effects of playing video games on cognition, sensory perceptions, and behaviors, considering the interplay of video game contents, in-game phenomena (e.g., immersion, trance state, embodiment), in-game activities, and the manipulation of hardware and peripherals. Research with over 6,000 gamers from different samples has demonstrated that playing video games can lead to at least temporarily seeing images, hearing music, sounds, voices, tactile sensations, involuntary movements of limbs, sensations of unreality, illogical thoughts, verbal outbursts, etc., with video game contents. This chapter encompasses an overview of the research on GTP conducted to date, including contributions to the video game research field and future research directions. The chapter is divided into three main sections: i) the phenomena comprises characteristics and the prevalence of GTP; ii) the gamer covers the underlying factors associated with GTP, appraisal and consequences of GTP, and iii) the game includes structural characteristics associated with GTP.
Cyberpsychology Research Methods
Authors: Krantz John H.
Published: January 2019

Cyberpsychology is a science. With that seemingly simple statement comes a need to understand how information is collected. Thus, it is vital to understand research methods. Along with methods, it is important to consider the nature of measurement, that is, how observations are converted into numbers that can be interpreted. This chapter covers the basic research methods, including observational, correlational, and experimental, and several of their associated measures. Each type of method is described, and issues and limitations are discussed. The chapter also introduces the need to consider the reliability and validity of the different methods and measurements. Research methods are constantly evolving so emerging methods, such as online data collection and the notifications on phones to collect data, are briefly described. Additionally, as cyberpsychology research involves human participants, it is important to treat these people well. Thus, the chapter closes with a discussion of research ethics.
Visual Rhetoric of Early Christian Reliquaries
Authors: Noga-Banai Galit
Published: January 2019

This chapter focuses on the visual language of early Christian reliquaries produced to contain fragments of sacred saints, sites, and events. It aims to describe and contextualize the representative as well as exceptional cases produced in various places, made of assorted materials, and decorated with diverse and elaborated decorative programs. The chapter illustrates nuances and approaches that were in use throughout the period. Moreover, it shows that the visual rhetoric—that is, the frame, composition, and selection of motifs and scenes—is capable of implying something about the dynamics of the inanimate object and the type of memory it contains. This allows us to discover clues about the visual preferences of the faithful, whether they were exalted bishops or simple pilgrims seeking heaven on earth.
Spolia and the “Victory of Christianity”
Authors: Frey Jon Michael
Published: January 2019

In the past few decades, the post-Classical reuse of fragments of sculpture and architecture, commonly known as spolia, has become a subject of much scholarly interest. As a result, many of the interpretations first voiced in the Renaissance have been critically assessed. But others have not, such as the idea that the reuse of temple architecture was a statement of Christian victory over paganism. Building on the recent reassessment of evidence for temple conversion in Late Antiquity, this chapter suggests that reuse evoked different reactions from various audiences and at different moments in time. Consequently, it is likely that in many cases the religious interpretation of spolia was not a factor in the initial moment of reuse, but had its origin one or more generations later.
Syria
Authors: Loosley Emma
Published: January 2019

Syria occupies a unique place in early Christian archaeology by virtue of the fact that Antioch was the first city where followers of Jesus Christ were referred to as “Christians” and because it is the country in which the only securely dated house church has ever been discovered. Away from the Holy Land and the events of Christ’s life, and the establishment of ecclesiastical authority in Rome and Constantinople, Syria’s significance to archaeologists of Christianity lies in what the country can tell us about the daily lives of early believers. In the hinterland of Antioch hundreds of villages dating to the first seven centuries ce attest to a fully Christian society from the second half of the fourth century onward, and they offer us valuable information about how the church supplanted the state as the source of moral and civic leadership.
Asia Minor
Authors: Talloen Peter
Published: January 2019

The early Christian archaeology of Asia Minor has recently developed into a discipline devoted to the contextualized study of the material remains of early Christianity. It has characterized Asia Minor as a region where—save some notable exceptions from mortuary contexts in Central Anatolia—the impact of the new faith on local material culture only became tangible in the course of the fourth century. During the fifth and sixth centuries Christianity would eventually conquer urban and rural landscapes through church construction in traditional as well as new foci of public space. At this time it also moved into the private sphere as household objects became decorated with Christian images and symbols.
The Archaeology of Early Italian Churches in Context, 313–569 CE
Authors: Chavarría Arnau Alexandra
Published: January 2019

The archaeology of early Christian churches has made important advancements in recent decades in Italy thanks to a large number of new excavations and scientific meetings, as well as the development of the project CARE (Corpus Architecturae Religiosae Europeae (IV–X saec.)), in which most Italian specialists are involved. This chapter suggests new lines of research, thus contributing to a revised historiography of the archaeology of early Christian churches in Italy between the fourth century and the end of the sixth century. It surveys some of the ecclesiastical complexes that have been reanalyzed in recent decades or recently discovered through archaeological excavations.
James and Wittgenstein
Authors: Boncompagni Anna
Published: January 2019

According to a common reading in the Wittgensteinian literature, William James’s writings, especially the psychological ones, were for the Viennese philosopher a paradigmatic example of conceptual confusion. This chapter argues against this reading, although without minimizing the criticism that Ludwig Wittgenstein leveled against James. More specifically, rather than ascertaining whether Wittgenstein was right or wrong about James, the aim is to figure out what picture of James Wittgenstein offers, and if and in what terms anything specifically Jamesian remains in Wittgenstein’s work. Since it was through the Varieties of Religious Experience that Wittgenstein first came into contact with James, religion is the starting point for this reflection. I will then focus on the pragmatic maxim and Wittgenstein’s comments about the pragmatist conception of truth. The three central sections of this chapter deal with psychology. I will then broaden the discussion to the theme of aspect-seeing, and finally, in the last section, examine Wittgenstein’s observations about the “good” in pragmatism in order to draw some concluding remarks.
Catholic Moral Anthropology
Authors: Volpe Medi Ann
Published: January 2019

This chapter concerns Catholic moral anthropology. After beginning by emphasizing the centrality of the teaching that human beings are created in the image of God, the chapter shows that human beings, as a union of soul and body, are ordered towards beatitude, towards a true freedom that imitates and participates in divine freedom. The status of being in the image of God is a gift to all persons: even the most seriously intellectually disabled persons still bear this image in its fullness. The architecture of the moral life is then considered, by examining the passions and importance of an educated conscience. The chapter ends by showing that Catholic moral anthropology emphasizes the communal nature of the moral life.
Singing and Vocal Development
Authors: Welch Graham F.
Published: January 2019

This chapter examines the link between singing and vocal development to challenge the cultural stereotype that some people “can sing” and some “cannot.” It suggests that singing in the general population is more accurate and widespread than currently believed. It explores the nature of singing as a developmental behavior from pre-birth and infancy through puberty and adolescence. It considers how normal singing development may be fostered, shaped, and sometimes hindered. It identifies factors that can affect a child’s singing behaviors, contextual influences, and that age generally is not a reliable predictor for establishing voice change stages. It suggests that singing in one form or another is an essential feature of an individual’s musical development and behavior, and that in each age phase the human voice has a distinctive underlying anatomy and physiology producing different “singing” behaviors. Finally, it suggests how all of us can realize our singing potential.
Early Generative Grammar
Authors: Hacken Pius Ten
Published: January 2019

In the earliest stages of transformational-generative grammar, there was no lexicon and the rewrite rules and transformations aimed to generate the correct sequence of morphemes of a sentence. The introduction of the lexicon was based on empirical considerations, but not in the domain of morphology. Chomsky’s Lexicalist Hypothesis places word formation in the lexicon, but not inflection. Elaborating on these ideas, Halle (1973) lays the foundation for morpheme-based approaches and Jackendoff (1975) for word-based approaches to word formation. In Generative Semantics, semantic structure is the basis for generation and word formation is integrated with lexical insertion. Levi (1978) proposes Recoverably Deletable Predicates to restrict the power of the transformations involved in compounding.