bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effects of small‐scale animal disturbances on plant assemblages of set‐aside land in Central Germany
Authors: Milton S.J. , Dean W.R.J. , Klotz S.
Published: May 2006

Abstract.The distribution, density and cover of small‐scale natural disturbances was surveyed in semi‐natural and set‐aside vegetation in a hilly landscape in Central Germany in the spring of 1995. More of the landscape was disturbed on set‐aside agricultural land in valley s (1.02 %) and on warm south‐facing slopes(1.33 %) than on rocky hilltops (0.3 %) and cool north‐facing slopes (0.56 %). The major agents of disturbance on set‐aside fields were moles, rodents (and their predators) and wild boars. In surrounding semi‐natural grasslands, rabbit warrens were common on south‐facing slopes and mound‐building ants on north‐facing slopes. Disturbances were significantly clustered and frequently superimposed.

In order to investigate the effects of disturbance quality on plant assemblages in set‐aside fields, two common types of disturbances were compared. These were grazing lawns (0.4–1.0 m2) maintained throughout the summer by common voles (Microtus arvalis), and excavations, 0.7–1.6 m2in area, where wild boars (Sus scrofd) grubbing for food had removed vegetation and top soil in early spring. Both types of disturbances increased plant species richness on the local scale. Wind‐dispersed annual and pauciennial forbs of ruderal habitats (e.g.Carduus acanthoides, Cirsium vulgare, Matricaria maritima, Senecio vernalis) were most abundant on the superficial disturbances made by voles, whereas small, ephemeral field weeds (e.g.Polygonum aviculare, Anagallis arvensis, Chenopodium album, Fallopia convolvulus) predominated on patches grubbed by boars.

This study confirms that small‐scale disturbances by animals provide a variety of regeneration niches for field weeds and ruderals. The rate of decline in plant species richness on set‐aside land is likely to be reduced where land is utilized by a variety of herbivorous and soil‐moving mammals.
Biomass and chemical composition of common forest plants in response to fire in western Norway
Authors: Skre Oddvar , Wielgolaski Frans Emil , Moe Bjørn
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The biomass and chemical composition in six dominant field and bottom layer species was followed during four years after a fire in a Pinus sylvestris forest in western Norway. Three fire intensity levels were distinguished: low, medium and high. The overall biomass in the different species was estimated from the biomass per shoot, the shoot densities in pure stands of the investigated species and the percentage cover at medium burned sites. Corresponding measurements were made at control plots outside the burned area.

A strong post‐fire increase in the overall biomass of Calluna vulgaris, Polytrichum spp., Deschampsia flexuosa and Pteridium aquilinum was found, against a much slower regrowth of Vaccinium myrtillus and V. vitis‐idaea. The Vaccinium species and Calluna were the dominant species at the control plot. Accumulation of carbohydrates seemed to take place in green and non‐green tissue of Pteridium and Deschampsia. A corresponding accumulation of nitrogen was found in green and non‐green Calluna and in non‐green Vaccinium myrtillus tissue, and of phosphorus in green and non‐green tissue of both Vaccinium species and Calluna as a result of fire. The regrowth of Calluna was mainly from seeds that appeared to be present in the soil before the fire. The regeneration of Pteridium and the two Vaccinium species took place almost exclusively vegetatively from below‐ground rhizomes that had survived the fire.

Three years after the fire the overall biomass at the burned site was higher than at the control site, due to improved light and nutrient conditions. However, the biomass is expected to decrease in the future and the species composition will probably change as nutrients are leached out of the soil and Pinus and deciduous trees (Betula pubescens and Salix caprea) regenerate from seeds and roots, leading to increased competition in the field and shrub layer.
Conifer seedling recruitment in a southeastern Canadian boreal forest: the importance of substrate
Authors: Simard Marie‐Josée , Bergeron Yves , Sirois Luc
Published: May 2006

Abstract. In order to explain conifer species recruitment in Canada's southeastern boreal forest, we characterized conifer regeneration microsites and determined how these microsites vary in abundance during succession. Microsite abundance was evaluated in deciduous, mixed and coniferous stands along a 234‐yr postfire chronosequence. Conifers were most often found in relatively well‐illuminated microsites, devoid of litter, especially broad‐leaf litter, and with a reduced cover of lower vegetation (< 50 cm tall). Although associated with moss‐rich forest floor substrates, Abies balsamea was the most ubiquitously distributed species. Picea glauca and especially Thuja occidentalis seedlings were frequently found on rotten logs. Light measurements did not show differences among seedling species nor between stand types. The percentage cover of broad‐leaf litter decreased significantly during succession. Also, rotten logs covered with moss occupied a significantly larger area in the mid‐successionnal stands than in early successional deciduous or late successional coniferous stands. The results suggest that the presence of specific forest floor substrate types is a factor explaining low conifer recruitment under deciduous stands, conifer codominance in the mid‐successional stage, and delayed Thuja recolonization after fire. Results also suggest that some facilitation mechanism is responsible for the observed directional succession.
Maintaining and restoring biodiversity in European boreal forests by developing natural disturbance regimes
Authors: Angelstam Per K.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. A conceptual model is presented as a guide to the maintenance and restoration of ecologically sustainable boreal forest. The model is based on the hypothesis that self‐sustained forest ecosystems can be (re‐)created, and their biodiversity developed, if forest management can simulate the composition and structure of boreal forest landscapes by introducing and maintaining disturbances leading to naturally dynamic spatial and temporal patterns of forest regeneration.

The major explanatory variable in the model is the effect of wildfire on sites with different fuel characteristics and climates found in the European boreal forest. Four levels of fire intensity are distinguished, based on mean fire frequencies. These range from extremely low in some wet tall‐herb sites or sites at high altitudes or latitudes with a humid climate, where fire is absent or rare, to dry lichen‐rich sites where fire occurs often. The model is called ASIO, after the words Absent, Seldom, Infrequent and Often, indicating the four levels.

Three main disturbance regimes are distinguished in the European boreal forest, based on the complex interactions between probabilistic (e.g. mean fire intervals at different site types) and random events (e.g. where and when a fire occurs): (1) gap‐phase Picea abies dynamics; (2) succession from young to old‐growth mixed deciduous/coniferous forest; and (3) multi‐cohort Pinus sylvestris dynamics. The model stems mainly from studies in Fennoscandia, but some studies from outside this region are reviewed to provide support for a more general application of the model.

The model has been implemented in planning systems on the landscape level of several large Swedish forest enterprises, and is also used as an educational tool to help private land owners with the location and realization of forest management regimes. Finally, the model can be used to develop an administrative system for the monitoring of biodiversity in boreal forest.
Wildfires in the western Canadian boreal forest: Landscape patterns and ecosystem management
Authors: Johnson E.A. , Miyanishi K. , Weir J.M.H.
Published: May 2006

Abstract.Mimicking of natural disturbance for ecosystem management requires an understanding of the disturbance processes and the resulting landscape patterns. Since fire is the major disturbance in the boreal forest, three widely held beliefs about fire behavior and resulting landscape patterns are examined in light of the empirical evidence available. These beliefs are: (1) that there is a ‘natural’ fire frequency for boreal ecosystems; (2) that the landscape mosaic created by wildfire is generally one of small, younger patches embedded within a matrix of older forest; and (3) that forest flammability is largely controlled by fuel accumulation. Despite the apparently logical basis for such beliefs, they are not well supported by empirical evidence. This discrepancy is explained by problems such as failure to appreciate the relationship between number of fires and area burned and inappropriate extrapolations or generalizations from other regions and vegetation types. The most important implications for management are that the natural disturbance processes producing landscape patterns in the boreal forest generally operate at much larger scales than management units, and that humans may have more indirect (through landuse change) rather than direct (through fire suppression) effects on the frequency of wildfires.
Does selective defoliation mediate competitive interactions in a semiarid savanna? A demographic evaluation
Authors: Briske D.D. , Hendrickson J.R.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Three patterns of target‐neighbor plant defoliation were imposed on a late‐seral, perennial, C4‐grass, Bouteloua curtipendula, in three long‐term grazing regimes to determine the influence of selective defoliation on competitive interactions and species replacement in a semiarid savanna on the Edwards Plateau, Texas, USA. Short‐term (3‐yr) target plant defoliation did not significantly affect either tiller or plant responses in any of the three grazing regimes. Neighbor plant defoliation, either alone or in combination with target plants, produced a significant defoliation interaction with time for tiller number and basal area per plant, but not for tiller recruitment or mortality. The minimal effect of selective defoliation on the intensity of competitive interactions in this semiarid community indicates that selective grazing has a less definitive role in mediating herbivore‐induced species replacement than it does in mesic grasslands and savannas. This interpretation is discussed within the context of long‐term (45‐yr) change in herbaceous vegetation associated with grazing in this community.

Cumulative tiller recruitment in the intensively grazed regime was only 44% of that in the ungrazed regime because of greater plant mortality and fewer surviving plants that recruited tillers. Target plant mortality (50%) only occurred in the intensively grazed regime and the proportion of target plants that initiated tillers decreased by 70, 48 and 32% in the ungrazed, moderately and intensively grazed regimes, respectively, during the final two years of the investigation. The decrease in cumulative tiller recruitment in all grazing regimes was probably mediated by a drought‐induced increase in median tiller age the second year of the study. However, tiller per tiller recruitment rate among plants that recruited at least one tiller remained relatively constant among grazing regimes and years. Intensive, long‐term grazing has modified the population structure of this late‐seral perennial grass to the extent that population responses to both herbivory and periodic drought have been altered in comparison with those of ungrazed and moderately grazed populations. Ecological consequences of a herbivore‐induced transition in population structure may be to minimize the effect of selective herbivory on competitive interactions and to function as an avoidance mechanism to reduce the probability of localized population extinction in response to intensive long‐term herbivory.
The response of native species to removal of invasive exotic grasses in a seasonally dry Hawaiian woodland
Authors: D'Antonio Carla M. , Hughes R. Flint , Mack Michelle , Hitchcock Derek , Vitousek Peter M.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Non‐native perennial grasses form 30% of the live understory biomass in seasonally dry, submontane forests in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, yet their effects on native species are unknown. We removed these grasses from plots of 20 m × 20 m in 1991 and maintained removal and control areas over the next three years. Two fast growing shrub species, Dodonaea viscosa and Osteomeles anthylidifolia, increased in size significantly more in removal areas than in controls. Individuals of the most abundant shrub species, Styphelia tameiameia showed no net growth response to grass removal. They did, however, change their architecture: many branches along the mid and upper sections of the main trunk died and a proliferation of new leaves and shoots occurred in the lower 40 cm of trunk. Basal diameter increase was very small in Metrosideros polymorpha, the dominant tree species in these sites.

All species except Styphelia had significantly increased leaf tissue nitrogen in removal plots by 18 months after removal when compared to shrubs in control areas suggesting that removal plot shrubs had greater access to soil nitrogen. Available soil‐N pools, which were generally higher in the removal plots, support this interpretation. Light levels near the soil surface were also higher where grasses were removed than where they were present which may have contributed to increased shrub growth. By contrast, soil moisture was consistently lower where grasses were removed than where they were still present. Shrub tissue carbon isotope values were consistent with the interpretation that shrubs in removal plots had less rather than more water available to them. Hence, the increased growth observed in removal plot shrubs could not be due to release from moisture competition.

Lastly, our results showed that seedlings of all woody species except Metrosideros were significantly more abundant in removal plots at both one and three years after removal and initially high sapling mortality was balanced by high recruitment into the sapling class. We believe that over time this will result in increased densities of native shrubs if grasses are kept out. With the presence of grasses, shrub growth in these woodlands is reduced and biomass is shifting towards grasses.
Structure and dynamics in seasonal dry evergreen forest in northeastern Thailand
Authors: Bunyavejchewin Sarayudh
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Studies of tropical forest dynamics have often been based on one large‐scale permanent plot, representative of a given forest type. Broad classifications of tropical forest types are expected to include a wide range of stand structures, dynamics patterns and species compositions – a range which cannot be represented in a single plot. To demonstrate this problem two 1‐ha permanent plots, dominated by Hopea ferrea and Shorea henryana (both Dipterocarpaceae), respectively, were established in 1987 in seasonal dry evergreen forest at the Sakaerat Environmental Research Station in northeastern Thailand. In 1997 the plots were remeasured as to patterns of recruitment, mortality and growth. The Hopea plot was relatively static with low mortality, recruitment and growth. The Shorea plot was very dynamic with high rates of growth, mortality and recruitment. If the current trends continue, the plots are likely to further diverge. Even if the study of a large forest plot provides a good insight into tropical forest dynamics, it is necessary to consider the entire local pattern of variation.
Stand structure and vegetation dynamics of a subalpine wooded fen in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado
Authors: Johnson J. Bradley
Published: May 2006

Abstract.The tree population size structure and relationship between tree diameter and age were examined in a subalpine fen and surroundingPicea‐Abiesforest in northern Colorado. The fen grades from a sedge fen, through an ecotone, to a treed fen. Tree growth rate varies across the vegetational gradient, with the sedge fen having the slowest growth, and the upland forest having the fastest growth. Differences in growth rate are related to the average size of peat hummocks, with areas containing tall hummocks exhibiting the highest tree growth rates. Size structures display the characteristic reverse‐J distribution generally indicative of stable populations, but forest vegetation is expanding into the open regions of the fen, and within the treed fen an increase inAbies lasiocarpais occurring. These changes are primarily attributed to a positive feedback situation wherein the fen's surface is built up by peat accumulation. Distinct hummocks form first on the open fen but then coalesce to form raised peat islands in the treed fen. This new substrate provides habitat with a comparatively low water table and allows the growth of mesophytic forest vegetation. A pathway for this vegetational development is proposed.
Instability of ordination results under changes in input data order: explanations and remedies
Authors: Oksanen Jari , Minchin Peter R.
Published: May 2006

Abstract.Correspondence analysis (CA) and its Detrended form (DCA) produced by the program CANOCO are unstable under reordering of the species and sites in the input data matrix. In CA, the main cause of the instability is the use of insufficiently stringent convergence criteria in the power algorithm used to estimate the eigenvalues. The use of stricter criteria gives results that are acceptably stable. The divisive classification program TWINSPAN uses CA based on a similar algorithm, but with extremely lax convergence criteria, and is thus susceptible to extreme instability. We detected an order‐dependent programming error in the non‐linear rescaling procedure that forms part of DCA. When this bug is corrected, much of the instability in DCA disappears. The stability of DCA solutions is further enhanced by the use of strict convergence criteria. In our trials, much of the instability occurred on axes 3 and 4, but one should not assume that published two‐dimensional ordinations are sufficiently accurate. Data sets which have pairs of almost equal eigenvalues among the first three axes could suffer from marked instability in the first two dimensions. We recommend that a debugged, strict version of CANOCO be released. Meanwhile, users can check the stability of their CA and DCA ordinations using the software that we have made available on the World Wide Web (http://www.helsinki.fi/jhoksane/). An accurate program for CA, a debugged, strict version of DECORANA (for DCA) and a strict version of TWINSPAN are also available at our site.
Rates of small‐scale species mobility in alvar limestone grassland
Authors: van der Maarel Eddy , Sykes Martin T.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Small‐scale species frequency and cumulative species frequency were studied in four plots in limestone grassland of the Veronica spicata‐Avenula pratensis association on Stora Alvaret on the Baltic island of Öland, Sweden. Species mobility was expressed as increase in cumulative species frequency in 20 subplots of 100 cm2. Observed cumulative frequencies from 1985–1989 in all four plots, and from 1985–1995 in one plot were compared with values following from two null models, a ‘minimal mobility’ model and a random mobility model. In ca. 50 % of the cases the observed cumulative frequency was not significantly different from the random expectation. However, in many such cases the mean annual frequency was either very high or very low.

Three ways of calculating the mobility rate are presented though only one is used: (observed cumulative frequency ‐lowest annual frequency) / expected cumulative frequency. Values × 100 range from 0 to 100. There were slight differences between the four plots which were interpreted in terms of differences in grazing intensity and soil depth.

It is stressed that the idea of the Carousel model has never been meant to suggest that all species would show random mobility, which we now quantify, but that species differ in their mobility rate and that the mean rate is much higher than generally realized.
Scales of aboveground and below‐ground competition in a semi‐arid woodland detected from spatial pattern
Authors: Martens Scott N. , Breshears David D. , Meyer Clifton W. , Barnes Fairley J.
Published: May 2006

Abstract.Semi‐arid woodlands are two‐phase mosaics of canopy and inter‐canopy patches. We hypothesized that both aboveground competition (within canopy patches), and below‐ground competition (between canopy patches), would be important structuring processes in these communities. We investigated the spatial pattern of trees in aPinus edulis‐Juniperus monospermawoodland in New Mexico using Ripley'sK‐function. We found strong aggregation of trees at scales of 2 to 4 m, which indicates the scale of canopy patches. Canopy patches were composed of individuals of both species. Crown centers of both species were always less aggregated than stem centers at scales less than canopy patch size, indicating morphological plasticity of competing crowns. In the smallest size classes of both species, aggregation was most intense, and occurred over a larger range of scales; aggregation decreased with increasing size as is consistent with density‐dependent mortality from intraspecific competition. Within canopy patches, younger trees were associated with older trees of the other species. At scales larger than canopy patches, younger trees showed repulsion from older conspecifics, indicating below‐ground competition. Hence, intraspecific competition was stronger than interspecific competition, probably because the species differ in rooting depth. Woodland dynamics depend on the scale and composition of canopy patches, aggregated seed deposition and facilitation, above‐ and below‐ground competition, and temporal changes in the spatial scale of interactions. This woodland is intermediate in a grassland‐forest continuum (a gradient of increasing woody canopy cover) and hence we expected, and were able to detect, the effects of both above‐ and below‐ground competition.
Euthymos of Locri: a case study in heroization in the Classical period
Authors: Currie Bruno
Published: May 2006

Euthymos was a real person, an Olympic victor from Locri Epizephyrii in the first half of the fifth century BC. Various sources attribute to him extraordinary achievements: he received cult in his own lifetime; he fought with and overcame the ‘Hero of Temesa’, adaimonwho in ritual deflowered a virgin in the Italian city of Temesa every year; and he vanished into a local river instead of dying (extant iconography from Locri shows him as a river god receiving cult a century after his death). By taking an integrative approach to Euthymos' legend and cult iconography, this article proposes a new interpretation of the complex. It is argued that Euthymos received cult already in his lifetime in consequence of his victory over the Hero and that he took over, in a modified form, the Hero's cult. Various considerations, including the role of river gods as the recipients of brides' virginity in prenuptial rites, point to an identification of the Hero as a river deity. In this light it is suggested that the contest between Euthymos and the Hero was conceived as a deliberate emulation of Herakles' fight with Acheloos. The case of Euthymos at Locri, for all its peculiarities, draws our attention to some important aspects of the heroization of historical persons in the Classical period. First, the earliest attested cult of a living person in Greece is to be placed around the middle of the fifth century. Second, heroized persons in the Classical period were not always passive in the process of their heroization, but could actively promote it. And third, a common pattern in the heroization of contemporaries in the Classical period was to accommodate them into existing cults.
A note on the Berber head in London
Authors: Roller Duane W.
Published: May 2006

The well-known ‘Berber Head’ in the British Museum, found at Kyrene in 1861, has long defied exact stylistic analysis. Its findspot provides no precise date, and ever since the excavators suggested that it was a piece from the fourth century BC, this dating has been sustained, generally through inertia. Yet recent scholars have become increasingly aware of the weakness of this date without offering specific alternatives other than a gradual down-dating. Its North African features indicate that it is a portrait of an indigenous ruler, and thus attribution must be based on the likelihood of such a person being honoured in Kyrene. It is herein suggested that it is a portrait of the Numidian prince Mastanabal, son of Massinissa, and that it dates to the time that Massinissa was a close associate of the king of Kyrene, the future Ptolemaios VIII of Egypt, or 163–148 BC. Mastanabal was a noted athlete and thus the piece may be a commemoration of one of his victories. Its commissioning would fit into his father's vigorous hellenization policy. Although the style remains difficult of analysis, certain features, especially the beard under the chin, support a second-century BC date.
Factors influencing vegetation gradients across ancient‐recent woodland borderlines in southern Sweden
Authors: Brunet Jörg , von Oheimb Goddert , Diekmann Martin
Published: May 2006

Abstract. We studied gradients in field layer vegetation across ecotone‐type borderlines between 12 ancient woodlands and adjacent secondary deciduous woodlands on former arable land. The aim of the study was to determine how distance from the borderline influences species distributions as compared with soil factors and degree of canopy closure. Correspondence Analysis showed that distance from the borderline is closely related to the first ordination axis at all study sites. Canonical Correspondence Analysis with variation partitioning revealed that distance from the borderline was the single most important factor in explaining vegetation variation. In general, the results suggest the following order of decreasing importance: Distance from the borderline < Soil reaction < Soil nitrogen < Soil moisture < Canopy cover. However, the sum of soil variables, as estimated by weighted averages of Ellenberg indicator values for moisture, reaction and nitrogen, accounted for as much as ca. 50–70% of the total variation explained by environmental variables. Important gradients in field layer vegetation are due to a decrease in typical woodland species and an increase in other species with increasing distance from the ancient woodland. The results suggest dispersal limitation of woodland species as an important determinant of secondary forest succession. However, the importance of distance to species distributions decreases with increasing stand age as most woodland species gradually colonize the recent woodlands. After 70 yr, ca. 50 % of the woodland species present at a site showed complete colonization within 50 m from the ancient woodland border.
Some Constitutions composed by Justinian
Authors: Honoré A. M.
Published: May 2006

During the reigns of Justin (518–527) and Justinian (527–565), as at other periods of the later Roman empire, the duty of composing imperial constitutions fell on the quaestor of the sacred palace (qsp). His chief duty was said to be leges dictare. But this is perhaps too formal a description of his office. Composing laws was only part of his function. He, if anyone, was expected to initiate new legislation. Thus Procopius has an interesting passage about Proclus, the elegant draftsman who was Justin's quaestor. Proclus, the only quaestor mentioned by Procopius with approval, was upright and incorruptible: ‘He did not lightly compose laws nor was he willing to disturb the existing order.’ Here ‘compose,’ graphein, means to put a draft before the emperor in the form of a legislative proposal (suggestio) and the implication is that there would be little legislation unless the quaestor or some other official or body proposed it. But the quaestor was not confined to proposing and drafting laws.
Vespasian's Reconstruction of Spain
Authors: McElderry R. Knox
Published: May 2006

After giving a six-months' emperor to Rome and setting the example of successful usurpation, the Spanish provinces took but little active part in the long agony which followed. It was, indeed, a contest not of provinces but of provincial garrisons, and the Spanish army was too small and remote again to take the lead; Cluvius Rufus, who succeeded Galba in Hither Spain, was not distinguished as a soldier. After a brief hesitation he recognised Vitellius, wishing perhaps to avenge Galba, and influenced by the strength and proximity of the armies of the Rhine. He proved his loyalty to his new allegiance by the measures he took against Albinus, the procurator of Mauretania, who threatened to rise for Otho. Fearing an invasion of Spain, he moved the Legio X Gemina southward to the coast of Baetica, and at the same time by active propaganda he won over the Mauretanian garrison to Vitellius; Albinus and his chief supporters were slain. Then being accused by Hilarus, an imperial freedman and probably a subordinate procurator of Hither Spain, of aiming at independent authority, he went to meet Vitellius in Gaul. His services procured him an easy acquittal; he was granted the privilege of governing his province through his legati, while he himself, attached to the imperial suite, returned to Italy and Rome.
Cut Elimination in the Presence of Axioms
Authors: Negri Sara , von Plato Jan
Published: May 2006

A way is found to add axioms to sequent calculi that maintains the eliminability of cut, through the representation of axioms as rules of inference of a suitable form. By this method, the structural analysis of proofs is extended from pure logic to free-variable theories, covering all classical theories, and a wide class of constructive theories. All results are proved for systems in which also the rules of weakening and contraction can be eliminated. Applications include a system of predicate logic with equality in which also cuts on the equality axioms are eliminated.
From Stability to Simplicity
Authors: Kim Byunghan , Pillay Anand
Published: May 2006

§1. Introduction. In this report we wish to describe recent work on a class of first order theories first introduced by Shelah in [32], the simple theories. Major progress was made in the first author's doctoral thesis [17]. We will give a survey of this, as well as further works by the authors and others.

The class of simple theories includes stable theories, but also many more, such as the theory of the random graph. Moreover, many of the theories of particular algebraic structures which have been studied recently (pseudofinite fields, algebraically closed fields with a generic automorphism, smoothly approximable structures) turn out to be simple. The interest is basically that a large amount of the machinery of stability theory, invented by Shelah, is valid in the broader class of simple theories. Stable theories will be defined formally in the next section. An exhaustive study of them is carried out in [33]. Without trying to read Shelah's mind, we feel comfortable in saying that the importance of stability for Shelah lay partly in the fact that an unstable theory T has 2λ many models in any cardinal λ ≥ ω1 + |T| (proved by Shelah). (Note that for λ ≥ |T| 2λ is the maximum possible number of models of cardinality λ.)
Towards a Re-Evaluation of Julius König's Contribution to Logic
Authors: Franchella Miriam
Published: May 2006

Julius König is famous for his mistaken attempt to demonstrate that the continuum hypothesis was false. It is also known that the only positive result that could have survived from his proof is the paradox which bears his name. Less famous is his 1914 bookNeue Grundlagen der Logik, Arithmetik und Mengenlehre. Still, it contains original contributions to logic, like the concept of metatheory and the solution of paradoxes based on the refusal of the law of bivalence. We are going to discover them by analysing the content of the book.
Between Russell and Hilbert: Behmann on the Foundations of Mathematics
Authors: Mancosu Paolo
Published: May 2006

After giving a brief overview of the renewal of interest in logic and the foundations of mathematics in Göttingen in the period 1914-1921, I give a detailed presentation of the approach to the foundations of mathematics found in Behmann's doctoral dissertation of 1918, Die Antinomie der transfiniten Zahl und ihre Auflösung durch die Theorie von Russell und Whitehead. The dissertation was written under the guidance of David Hilbert and was primarily intended to give a clear exposition of the solution to the antinomies as found in Principia Mathematica. In the process of explaining the theory of Principia, Behmann also presented an original approach to the foundations of mathematics which saw in sense perception of concrete individuals the Archimedean point for a secure foundation of mathematical knowledge. The last part of the paper points out an important numbers of connections between Behmann's work and Hilbert's foundational thought.
Metropolitanus Campus
Authors: Ramsay W. M.
Published: May 2006

It may not be unsuitable to the purpose of this Journal to depart for once from the strictly scientific method, and describe shortly the problem of a ‘Lost Phrygian City,’ as it presents itself to the explorer both in its relation to ancient literature and in its actual modern features. I take the example of a city which played no part in ancient history, which is mentioned only twice or thrice incidentally in classical literature, where no known event took place and no person known to fame was born, which, in short, is about as insignificant as a city could well be, and I hope to show that the discovery even of such a little city may have interest and value for classical scholars.

The passage in which Livy describes the march of the consul Manlius on his piratical raid through Asia Minor is one of peculiar interest on many grounds, apart from its value for students of geography. There is no passage in the whole of Livy which is more obviously translated from a Greek original: it is therefore of great importance in the question of his relation to his authorities and of his trustworthiness in using them. Beyond the mere resolution of the true scholar to understand his author, there is the further incentive to study this particular passage that the author's historical character is to some extent dependent on it. Now the third recorded stage beyond Sagalassos in Manlius's march is the Metropolitanus Campus. Where in wide Phrygia was the Metropolitanus Campus?
The Ruins of Hissarlik
Authors: Sayce A. H. , Jebb R. C.
Published: May 2006

In Professor Jebb's article on ‘The Ruins at Hissarlik,’ published in the last number of the Journal of Hellenic Studies (III. 2), I find a statement attributed to me (p. 191), which I must beg leave to disclaim. Professor Jebb there makes me declare ‘that “any one, however inexperienced in questions of archaeology,” must see that all traces of the Aeolic Ilium cease at six feet below the surface of Hissarlik.’ A reference however, to my letter in the Academy of November 12th, 1881 (not November 5th, as Professor Jebb says), will show that he has altogether misapprehended my meaning, and that my letter speaks only of objects found at Hissarlik and figured in Ilios, and contains no allusion either to walls or to any other kind of building. My words, therefore, can have no relation to ‘the architectural epochs which Dr. Dörpfeld recognises at Hissarlik.’ Consequently there is no opposition between my views and those of Professor Goodwin, as quoted by Professor Jebb. On the contrary, like Dr. Schliemann and, I believe, Professor Jebb himself, I thoroughly agree with Professor Goodwin that there have been ‘only two important settlements’ at Hissarlik, the second prehistoric city namely, and the Greek Ilion. The first, third, fourth, fifth, and (if we accept Dr. Schliemann's views) sixth cities were all poor villages which (with, perhaps, one exception) did not extend beyond the castle-hill itself. In referring to Professor Goodwin, Professor Jebb has overlooked the fact that he does not say there have been only two cities at Hissarlik, but, what is very different, ‘only two important’ ones.
Notes of Travel in Paphlagonia and Galatia
Authors: Hirschfeld Gustav
Published: May 2006

When I undertook in the months of August, September, and October, 1882, my last excursion into Asia Minor, my principal object was to explore some very little known districts in the northern part of that country. Of these Paphlagonia has hitherto been almost a blank on all critical maps, traversed only by two or three routes of Hamilton, Ainsworth, and Tchichatcheff which gave no hint whatever as to the configuration, the present condition, and the ancient remains of the province. The adjacent parts of Galatia, the inferior course of the Halys, the tract lying between this river and the Iris, the source and length of the famous Thermodon, had all likewise remained unexplored until the present day. No doubt their lack of historical interest must be held to account for their neglect by recent travellers. There were even some important points on the coast-line, such as Kytoros and Kinolis, which had not been visited since Tavernier, two centuries ago.

My starting point was Ineboli, the ancient Abonu teichos Paphlagoniae, lying about the centre of the northern coast of Asia Minor. Hence I explored, as far as was possible in the course of a rapid ride, the western half of the province as far as the river Parthenius. The mountainous character of the country proved very unfavourable for travelling. The mountains were crowded as it were very closely together, separated only by narrow ravines, while the ascents were of extraordinary steepness. Indeed the paths were on the whole far more difficult than I had met with before even in the Taurus of Pisidia and Cicilia.
Notes on (1) The Trilogy, (2) Certain Formal Artifices of Aeschylus
Authors: Bury John B.
Published: May 2006

1. The interesting Prolegomena zu Aeschylus' Tragödien of R. Westphal (1869), which contains the germ of the idea worked out in Mezger's recent edition of Pindar, suggested to me to inquire why Aeschylus and the other pre-Sophoklean tragedians wrote tetralogies,—for this is the form in which Westphal's book suggests the question. But it becomes soon apparent that the real problem is why it was the habit to write a trilogy + a satyric drama; and this question contains two distinct parts: (1) why tragedy took the form of a trilogy— not a dilogy, tetralogy, or single drama; (2) why a satyric drama was also performed. Of these questions the latter has been discussed and adequately answered in every treatise on Greek drama.

Westphal was seriously misled through not keeping the satyric drama separate from the three plays that preceded it. These formed a connected whole and were really equivalent to one consecutive drama of three acts, from which the satyric piece was quite distinct, albeit its subject usually had some external connexion with them. He connected the tetralogical form with the fact first noticed by him that every Aeschylean play contains four χορικά, so that Aeschylus, he supposes, used a quadruple division as his artistic τϵθμός, in the same way as the Terpandric nomos was based on a seven-fold division.
The Discovery of Naukratis
Authors: Petrie W. M. Flinders
Published: May 2006

[The Honorary Secretaries of the Egypt Exploration have handed us for publication the following summary, drawn up by Mr. Petrie, of the results of his year's excavation at Nebireh. It may serve as an acknowledgment by the Committee of the Fund of the aid already received from the Society of Hellenic Studies; and as an invitation to further co-operation in the future.—Ed.]

The season which is now drawing to a close has been one of great interest in the work here, though of an interest which would scarcely be expected, since not Egyptian but Greek antiquities claim our attention.
The Islands of Telos and Karpathos
Authors: Bent Theodore
Published: May 2006

Having visited these two outlying islands of the Sporadic group last winter, and having spent in them over two months, I propose to put together a few notes on the antiquities to be found in each. They are islands which are very difficult of access and rarely visited by foreigners, and are consequently peculiarly retentive of customs and myths which bear the stamp of extreme antiquity. Both these islands appear to have had a much more considerable population in ancient times than they have now, though much behind their neighbours on Rhodes and Kos in the arts and civilisation.

The principal feature of the small island of Telos is a precipitous mountain which rises directly behind the chief of the two modern villages of the island, on the summit of which is a fortress covering a triangular plateau about three quarters of a mile in circumference; the foundation of the walls of this fortress are Hellenic, on which during the Middle Ages more modern walls have been constructed. In the centre of this fortress there stands an Hellenic temple now converted into a church, and almost buried on two sides by the débris of Hellenic masonry covered with brushwood. From the gateway which enters the walls on the south side, a broad approach with steps flanked on either side by huge blocks of stone leads straight to the temple; the form of the proaulion is easily distinguished, and the north wall of the temple is almost intact and built of neatly fitting stones without mortar of a coarse bluish marble.
Sculpture and Epigraphy, 1886–1887
Authors: Gardner E. A.
Published: May 2006

There are two directions in which there has been much good work to report from Greece during the last few months; the discovery of new antiquities, and the arrangement and exhibition in accessible places of those which were known before, the whole now profiting by the able direction of M. Cavvadias. All students of archaeology will be glad to hear that the excellent principle has been adopted of bringing together all the most important sculptures now on Greek soil in the new Central Museum at Athens: the only considerable exception will be in the case of the Olympian discoveries, for which a fine Museum has been built upon the spot. It is thus possible now for archaeological travellers to study the art treasures found upon any site in Greece at their leisure, while living comfortably at Athens: they will then be free, when travelling in other districts, to devote their attention to those questions of architecture and topography that can only be studied upon the sites themselves. In accordance with this principle, many sculptures from various sites have been brought to the Athenian Central Museum; and the arrangement of that Museum is now rapidly progressing. Among well-known works now exhibited there may be mentioned the heads of two heroes and the boar from the pediments of the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea, which we know to have been designed by Scopas; the archaic statues from Delos, including that dedicated by Nicandra, and the pedestal of Archermos, with the winged figure that high authorities now refuse to associate with it; and the statues found in the Greek excavations at Epidaurus before 1884, notably the pedimental figures of mounted Amazons, &c.
Athene in the West Pediment of the Parthenon
Authors: Gardner Ernest Arthur
Published: May 2006

Few subjects have afforded more opportunities for archaeological controversy than the western pediment of the Parthenon; and of this possibly the most uncertain, as well as the most important part is the centre group, of whose meaning very many and very different explanations have been given. This controversy received a fresh start from the discovery, in 1872, of a vase which has represented upon it, partly in relief, partly in painting, a design which evidently bears a more or less close relation to the pediment itself. The vase, a hydria, was found in a grave at Kertsch, and it was published, with a long and learned discussion of its bearing and importance, by M. Stephani. It will perhaps be as well here to give a brief account of its composition. In the centre is an olive-tree, on the left of which is Athene, on the right, Poseidon. Amidst the branches of the tree is Nike, who floats towards Athene, so indicating the issue of the contest, and round its trunk is coiled a snake, which raises its head as if against Poseidon. This god stands half advanced upon his right foot. In his right hand he raises the trident, the points of which are just above the head of the snake; with his left he holds the bridle of a horse, which stands beside him. Between his legs is one dolphin, and another is a little beyond his left foot. Athene on her side has raised her spear, but its point, like that of Poseidon's trident, is directed downwards. On her left arm is her shield, the outer edge of which is close to the trunk of the tree. Behind her advances Dionysus, accompanied by his panther; he stretches out his thyrsus in front of her, towards the olive-tree. Behind him, on a higher level, is a female figure, nude to the waist, who is half reclining upon the ground. On the right, behind Poseidon and his horse, is a female figure, in long flowing drapery, flying from the centre of the composition. Beyond her there is a rock, upon which is seated a bearded man of kingly appearance with a long sceptre resting against his shoulder; he has his back to the centre group, towards which, however, he turns round his head. Above him is a small temple, on a higher level. Of these figures only those which form part of the central group are represented in relief as well as in colour. In the case of the others only small portions, such as the thyrsus or the sceptre, and especially gold bosses or ornaments, are raised, the rest of these figures being painted as on ordinary Greek vases.
On some Ionic Elements in Attic Tragedy
Authors: Verrall A. W.
Published: May 2006

In the former part of this paper I started from the fact that the use in Attic prose of forms in -οσυνος, -οσυνη, is limited by certain rules as to meaning and etymology, which do not apply to Ionic literature; and I observed that the usage of the Attic tragedians followed in these respects the practice of the Ionians. This being so, I advanced the hypothesis that the tragedians and their audiences must have been aware of the peculiar character of these words, and that upon investigation the passages of tragedy in which they occurred would be found to have in other ways also an Ionic colour or a special connection with Ionic language and tradition, which colour or connection the reader must perceive if he would fully appreciate the tone, and in some cases the meaning, of the author. So far as the limit of my space extended this anticipation was, I think, fulfilled. I showed that in some cases certainly (p. 272), in others almost certainly (p. 279 foll.), these words were actually inflected according to the Ionic rule.