bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Fostering family resiliency: a review of the key protective factors
Authors: Benzies Karen , Mychasiuk Richelle
Published: November 2008

The aim of this integrative review was to identify the protective factors that contribute to family resiliency. Families are comprised of individuals who interact across levels in a socio‐ecological system. Family resiliency does not develop through evasion of risk, but through successful application of protective factors to engage in adverse situations and emerge from them stronger. In an effort to move away from pathological labelling, this review provides a foundation for strength‐based family interventions. Thirteen peer‐reviewed databases were searched for articles and information regarding family resiliency. Careful review yielded 24 protective factors that foster resiliency across three distinct but interactive levels: individual, family and community. The protective factors identified in this review of the literature offer an excellent starting point for development of clinical interventions to support family resiliency.
Peanut cross‐reacting allergens in seeds and sprouts of a range of legumes
Authors: Jensen L. B. , Pedersen M. H. , Skov P. S. , Poulsen L. K. , Bindslev‐Jensen C. , Andersen S. B. , Torp A. M.
Published: November 2008

Background
Recently, peanut‐allergic patients have reported symptoms upon ingestion of bean sprouts produced from various legumes.

Objective
This study was designed to identify immunoreactivity to seeds and sprouts of legumes other than peanut in sera from peanut‐allergic patients.

Methods
Crude protein extracts of seeds and sprouts (comprising cotelydons and hypocotyls/epicotyls) of peanut, soybean, green pea, blue lupine, mung bean, alfalfa, broad bean, and azuki bean were prepared. The reactivity of sera from 10 peanut‐allergic patients to these extracts was analysed by indirect histamine release (HR), enzyme‐allergosorbent test (EAST), EAST inhibition, and Western blots. Skin prick tests (SPTs) were performed on the patients with fresh legume seeds as well as four commercial legume sprouts, and food challenges with soybean, pea, and lupine were performed on a subgroup of the patients.

Results
All legume seeds and commercial sprouts induced positive SPTs in some of the patients. Indirect HR experiments indicated an extensive co‐reactivity between peanut and the legumes, and cross‐reactivity was observed for soybean, pea, and lupine seeds as well as lupine hypocotyls in EAST inhibition experiments. Of the 16 protein extracts, soybean, pea, and lupine seed extracts produced visible bands in Western blots.

Conclusion
The symptoms reported by peanut‐allergic patients after legume sprout intake might be caused by cross‐reactivity of peanut‐specific antibodies. The intake of raw legume sprouts might cause symptoms in peanut‐allergic patients.
Interleukin-18-deficient mice exhibit diminished chronic inflammation and airway remodelling in ovalbumin-induced asthma model
Authors: Yamagata S , Tomita K , Sato R , Niwa A , Higashino H , Tohda Y
Published: November 2008

Interleukin (IL)-18, which is produced by activated monocytes/macrophages and airway epithelial cells, is suggested to contribute to the pathophysiology of asthma by modulating airway inflammation. However, the involvement of IL-18 on modulating chronic airway inflammation and airway remodelling, which are characterized in a refractory asthma model exposed to long-term antigen, has not been investigated sufficiently. We examined the role of IL-18 in chronic airway inflammation and airway remodelling by long-term antigen exposure. IL-18-deficient and C57BL/6-wild-type mice were sensitized by ovalbumin (OVA) and were then exposed to aerosolized OVA twice a week for 12 weeks. We assessed airway inflammation by assessing the infiltration of cells into the airspace and lung tissues, and airway remodelling by airway mucus expression, peribronchial fibrosis and smooth muscle thickness. In IL-18-deficient mice, when exposed to OVA, the total cells and neutrophils of the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were diminished, as were the number of infiltrated cells in the lung tissues. IL-18-deficient mice exposed to OVA after 12 weeks showed significantly decreased levels of interferon (IFN)-γ, IL-13 and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 in the BALF. The airway hyperresponsiveness to acetyl-β-methacholine chloride was inhibited in IL-18-deficient mice in comparison with wild-type mice. In addition, IL-18-deficient mice exposed to OVA had fewer significant features of airway remodelling. These findings suggest that IL-18 may enhance chronic airway inflammation and airway remodelling through the production of IFN-γ, IL-13 and TGF-β1 in the OVA-induced asthma mouse model.
Clinical relevance of multiple antibody specificity testing in anti-phospholipid syndrome and recurrent pregnancy loss
Authors: Tebo A E , Jaskowski T D , Hill H R , Branch D W
Published: November 2008

We wanted to evaluate whether testing for anti-phosholipid antibodies other than anti-cardiolipin (aCL) and anti-beta-2 glycoprotein I (aβ2GPI) immunoglobulin (Ig)G and IgM identifies patients with recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL) who may be positive for anti-phospholipid syndrome (APS). In a cross-sectional study comprising 62 patients with APS, 66 women with RPL, 50 healthy blood donors and 24 women with a history of successful pregnancies, we tested IgM and IgG antibodies to phosphatidic acid, phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl ethanolamine, phosphatidyl glycerol, phosphatidyl inositol and phosphatidyl serine with and without beta-2 glycoprotein I (β2GPI) from a single manufacturer as well as aCL and aβ2GPI antibodies. Diagnostic accuracies of individual and combined anti-phospholipid (aPL) assays were assessed by computing sensitivities, specificities, positive predictive values and negative predictive values together with their 95% confidence intervals. There was a general trend for increased sensitivities in the presence of β2GPI co-factor with significant effect for certain specificities. The overall combined sensitivity of the non-recommended aPL assays was not significantly higher than that of the aCL and aB2GPI tests. Multiple aPL specificities in RPL group is not significantly different from controls and therefore of no clinical significance.
The successful treatment of haemophagocytic syndrome in patients with human immunodeficiency virus-associated multi-centric Castleman's disease
Authors: Stebbing J , Ngan S , Ibrahim H , Charles P , Nelson M , Kelleher P , Naresh K N , Bower M
Published: November 2008

Both virus-associated haemophagocytic syndrome (HPS) and human immunodeficiency virus-associated multi-centric Castleman's disease (HIV-MCD) induced by human herpesvirus-8 (HHV-8) are extremely rare. We therefore wished to investigate their occurrence together, and establish the degree of cytokine activation present. From a prospective cohort of individuals with HIV-MCD, we investigated the incidence and outcomes of HPS and measured 15 inflammatory cytokines and the plasma HHV-8 viral loads before and during follow-up. Of 44 patients with HIV-MCD with an incidence of 4·3/10 000 patient years, four individuals (9%) were diagnosed with HPS. All are in remission (range 6–28 months) following splenectomy, etoposide and rituximab-based therapy. Plasma HHV-8 levels were raised markedly at presentation (median 3 840 000 copies/ml). Histological samples from spleen, splenic hilar lymph nodes and bone marrow demonstrated increased phagocytosis by histiocytes and presence of HHV-8-infected plasmablasts outside the follicles. Surprisingly, many known inflammatory plasma cytokines were not elevated, although interleukin (IL)-8 and interferon-γ were increased in all cases and IL-6 levels were raised in three of four patients. HPS in the setting of HIV-MCD is common and treatment can be successful provided the diagnosis is made appropriately. Systemic activation of cytokines was limited, suggesting that immunosuppressive therapy with steroids is not indicated in HHV-8-driven HPS.
Effects ofBifidobacterium animalisadministered during lactation on allergic and autoimmune responses in rodents
Authors: Ezendam J , De Klerk A , Gremmer E R , Van Loveren H
Published: November 2008

Probiotics are promoted as being beneficial to health and positive effects on the immune system have been reported. Beneficial immune effects have been attributed to several mechanisms, including stimulating T helper 1 (Th1) immunity. To explore the effects of the probiotic Bifidobacterium animalis on Th1- and Th2-mediated immune responses, two different animal models representing either Th1- or Th2-mediated immune responses were used: a rat model for experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) (Th1) and a mouse model for respiratory allergy induced by ovalbumin (OVA) (Th2). B. animalis administration started when the mice or rats were 2 weeks old. Respiratory allergy or EAE were induced when the animals were 6–7 weeks old. In the allergy model, B. animalis modestly reduced the number of infiltrating eosinophils and lymphocytes in the lungs, but no effects on allergen-specific serum immunoglobulin E levels were found. Cytokine profiles assessed after culturing spleen cells with the mitogen concanvalin A (ConA) showed that B. animalis skewed the Th1/Th2 balance towards Th1 in females. However, allergen-induced cytokine production in females was not affected by B. animalis. In males, B. animalis significantly decreased ConA-induced interleukin-13 and a trend towards lower levels of OVA-induced Th2 cytokines. In the EAE model, B. animalis significantly reduced the duration of clinical symptoms by almost 2 days in males and improved the body weight gain during the experimental period compared with the control group. Our data show that B. animalis reduced several immune parameters in the allergy as well as in the autoimmunity model.
An in vivo rat model for early development of colorectal cancer metastasis to liver
Authors: Robertson John H. P. , Yang Shi Yu , Iga Arthur M. , Seifalian Alexander M. , Winslet Marc C.
Published: November 2008

At diagnosis of colorectal cancer, approximately 25% of the patients have established colorectal liver metastasis. Optimal management of disseminated disease requires therapies targeting multiple stages in hepatic colorectal cancer metastasis development. To facilitate this, biologically accurate in vivo models are required. Early colonic cancer liver metastases development was studied using BDIX and Sprague–Dawley rat strains with human HT29 and rat DHDK12 colonic cancer cell lines. Different cancer cell–host combinations were used. Rat DHDK12 was previously chemically induced in the BDIX rat. Real‐time intra‐vital microscopy was employed to analyse the early development of liver metastases in four groups (n = 6 per group) (HT29–BDIX, DHDK12–BDIX, HT29–SD and DHDK12–SD). Data were compared using one‐way anova with Bonferroni’s multiple comparison test. The total number of tumour cells visualized, adherent cells within the hepatic sinusoids, extravasated tumour cells and migration rates were significantly higher in the DHDK12–BDIX combination. Maximum number of visualized cells and maximum migration rate were also significantly higher in this group. No significant differences were observed in these experimental parameters among the other three groups or in the haemodynamic parameters among all groups. In conclusion, cancer cell line–host selection has a significant effect on early colonic cancer liver metastasis development.
Acute colonic ischaemia in rats results in long‐term structural changes without alterations of colonic sensitivity
Authors: Ravnefjord Anna , Pettersson Madeleine , Rehnström Erika , Martinez Vicente
Published: November 2008

Colonic ischaemia and mast cells have been involved in the pathophysiology of the functional gastrointestinal disorder irritable bowel syndrome, although the cause–effect relationships remain unknown. We assessed long‐term histopathological and functional changes associated to an acute ischaemic episode (1 h) of the colon, followed by 8‐week recovery, in rats. Functional colonic alterations [sensitivity during colorectal distension (CRD), compliance and propulsive motility] were assessed regularly during the recovery. Colonic histopathology (presence of inflammation, morphometric alterations and variations in neuronal density in the enteric nervous system) 8‐week postischaemia was assessed. Following ischaemia, none of the functional parameters tested (motility, sensitivity and compliance) were affected. At necropsy, the colon presented an overall normal appearance with an increase in weight of the ischaemic area (mg/cm: 99 ± 6;P < 0.05vs. control: 81 ± 4 or sham ischaemia: 81 ± 3). Histopathological evaluations revealed the presence of a local infiltrate of mast cells in the area of ischaemia (nb of mast cells: 142 ± 50;P < 0.05vs. control, 31 ± 14 or sham ischaemia: 40 ± 16), without other significant alterations. Animals subjected to colonic ischaemia and treated 8 weeks later with the mast cell degranulator, compound 48/80, showed no changes in CRD‐related pain responses. These studies show that acute colonic ischaemia is associated with the presence of a long‐term local infiltration of mast cells, located within the serosa and muscle layers, despite the absence of functional changes, including colonic sensitivity. Considering the important pathophysiological functions of mast cells, the observed mast cell infiltration may be involved in ischaemia‐induced functional changes yet to be characterized.
A general practice‐based study of the relationship between indicators of mental illness and challenging behaviour among adults with intellectual disabilities
Authors: Felce D. , Kerr M. , Hastings R. P.
Published: November 2008

Background  Existing studies tend to show a positive association between mental illness and challenging behaviour among adults with intellectual disabilities (ID). However, whether the association is direct or artefactual is less clear. The purpose was to explore the association between psychiatric status and level of challenging behaviour, while controlling for adaptive behaviour and occurrence of autistic spectrum disorders.

Methods  Data were collected on the age, gender, adaptive and challenging behaviour, social impairment and psychiatric status of 312 adults with ID. Participants were divided according to psychiatric status, group equivalence in adaptive behaviour and the presence of autistic spectrum disorders achieved, and differences in challenging behaviour explored. In addition, multiple regression was used to examine the association between psychiatric status and challenging behaviour after controlling for other participant characteristics and to test whether the interaction between psychiatric status and adaptive behaviour added significantly to explanation.

Results  Challenging behaviour was higher among participants meeting threshold levels on the psychiatric screen. The regression analysis confirmed the association and demonstrated an interaction between total score on the psychiatric screen and level of adaptive behaviour. This moderated effect showed the relationship between psychiatric status and challenging behaviour to be stronger at lower adaptive behaviour.

Conclusions  This study reinforces previous findings that psychiatric morbidity among people with ID is associated with higher levels of challenging behaviour and supports predictions that this association is more pronounced for people with severe ID. The precise nature and causal direction of the association requires further clarification. However, the understanding of how psychiatric problems might contribute to challenging behaviour needs to be part of the clinical appreciation of such behaviour.
Kinetics and substrate specificities of desulfo‐glucosinolate sulfotransferases in Arabidopsis thaliana
Authors: Klein Marion , Papenbrock Jutta
Published: November 2008

Sulfotransferases (SOTs) (EC 2.8.2.‐) catalyze the transfer of a sulfate group from the cosubstrate 3′‐phosphoadenosine 5′‐phosphosulfate (PAPS) to a hydroxyl group of different substrates. In Arabidopsis thaliana, three SOTs were identified to catalyze the last step of glucosinolate (Gl) core structure biosynthesis called AtSOT16, 17 and 18. These enzymes from Arabidopsis ecotype C24 were overexpressed in Escherichia coli and purified by affinity chromatography. Recombinant proteins were used to determine substrate specificities to investigate whether each of the three desulfo (ds)‐Gl SOTs might influence the Gl pattern of Arabidopsis differently. After optimization of the enzyme assay, it was possible to measure in vivo substrates with non‐radioactive PAPS by HPLC analysis of the product. In vitro enzyme assays revealed a preference of AtSOT16 for the indolic ds‐Gl indol‐3‐yl‐methyl, AtSOT17 showed an increased specific activity with increasing chain length of ds‐Gl derived from methionine and AtSOT18 preferred the long‐chain ds‐Gl, 7‐methylthioheptyl and 8‐methylthiooctyl, derived from methionine. In planta ds‐Gl exist side by side; therefore, initial results from one substrate measurements were verified using a defined mixture of ds‐Gl and ds‐Gl/Gl leaf extracts from Arabidopsis ecotype C24. These studies confirmed the one substrate measurements. To compare SOTs from different Arabidopsis ecotypes, additionally, AtSOT18* from ecotype Col‐0 was overexpressed in E. coli and purified. The recombinant protein was used for in vitro measurements and revealed a different enzymatical behavior compared with AtSOT18 from C24. In conclusion, there are differences in the substrate specificities between the three ds‐Gl AtSOT proteins within ecotype C24 and differences among ds‐Gl AtSOT18 proteins from different ecotypes.
Cefquinome Concentrations in Endometrium after Intrauterine Treatment of Cobactan 4.5%®in Mares and Inflammatory Response of the Endometrium to this Treatment
Authors: Parlevliet JM , Paccamonti DL , Barker SA
Published: November 2008

Contents

This study was conducted to measure the concentration of cefquinome in the endometrium of mares after intrauterine treatment and to evaluate associated inflammation. Mares (n = 14) were randomly assigned to one of the following groups: (i) control (n = 4) were either not treated (n = 2) or received (n = 2) lactated Ringer’s intrauterine for 1 or 3 days; (ii) treated mares (n = 10) received intrauterine cefquinome for 1 or 3 days. After at least 10 days had passed following the last treatment and ovulation, mares were given Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) and were randomly assigned to an alternate treatment. Endometrial biopsy samples were taken at 2, 8, 24 and 48 h, or at 4, 12 and 36 h, after the last treatment. Biopsy samples were taken at the same time points from control mares (n = 2) and lactated Ringer‐treated mares (n = 2). Cefquinome concentrations were quantified using a high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) assay and inflammation was assessed using haematoxylin and eosin (H&E)‐stained sections. Concentrations of cefquinome [559 (1 day) and 595 μg/g (3 days) at 2 h, and 403 (1 day) and 370 μg/g (3 days) at 4 h] were similar between treatment groups at 2 and 4 h after treatment (p > 0.05). At 8 h, as well as at 24 and 48 h, concentrations were greater in the 3‐day group (17 vs 301 μg/g, 3 vs 80 μg/g and 0.1 vs 0.2 μg/g, respectively) (p < 0.05). No significant differences (p > 0.05) in the inflammatory response at 2–48 h after treatment were found between groups.
Development of a fall prevention program for elderly Japanese people
Authors: Kato Mayumi , Izumi Kiyoko , Shirai Shizuko , Kondo Kazuko , Kanda Makiko , Watanabe Isao , Ishii Kazuko , Saito Ryoko
Published: November 2008

The purpose of this study was to develop a fall prevention program adapted to the individual risks of elderly patients in a long‐term care facility by increasing the caregiving skills and motivation of the staff members. The fall prevention program was created by synthesizing information based on evidence‐based practice and action research methodology was chosen to complete the development of the program. There were 31 participating patients in the intervention ward and 20 patients in the control ward. The Generalized Self‐efficacy Scale and the Social Support Scale were used to evaluate fall prevention skills the motivation of the staff members. The fall prevention program helped to reduce injuries from 41.9% to 9.7% among the elderly participants and to increase emotional support and self‐efficacy among the staff members. Empowerment was considered to be a driving force. The fall prevention program was shown to be acceptable for use among elderly individuals in a long‐term care facility.
Undesired effects of a combinatorial treatment for spinal cord injury – transplantation of olfactory ensheathing cells and BDNF infusion to the red nucleus
Authors: Bretzner Frederic , Liu Jie , Currie Erin , Roskams A. Jane , Tetzlaff Wolfram
Published: November 2008

Transplantations of olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) have been reported to promote axonal regeneration and functional recovery after spinal cord injury, but have demonstrated limited growth promotion of rat rubrospinal axons after a cervical dorsolateral funiculus crush. Rubrospinal neurons undergo massive atrophy after cervical axotomy and show only transient expression of regeneration‐associated genes. Cell body treatment with brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) prevents this atrophy, stimulates regeneration‐associated gene expression and promotes regeneration of rubrospinal axons into peripheral nerve transplants. Here, we hypothesized that the failure of rubrospinal axons to regenerate through a bridge of OEC transplants was due to this weak intrinsic cell body response. Hence, we combined BDNF treatment of rubrospinal neurons with transplantation of highly enriched OECs derived from the nasal mucosa and assessed axonal regeneration as well as behavioral changes after a cervical dorsolateral funiculus crush. Each treatment alone as well as their combination prevented the dieback of the rubrospinal axons, but none of them promoted rubrospinal regeneration beyond the lesion/transplantation site. Motor performance in a food‐pellet reaching test and forelimb usage during vertical exploration (cylinder test) were more impaired after combining transplantation of OECs with BDNF treatment. This impaired motor performance correlated with lowered sensory thresholds in animals receiving the combinatorial therapy – which were not seen with each treatment alone. Only this combinatorial treatment group showed enhanced sprouting of calcitonin gene‐related peptide‐positive axons rostral to the lesion site. Hence, some combinatorial treatments, such as OECs with BDNF, may have undesired effects in the injured spinal cord.
Anticipatory reward signals in ventral striatal neurons of behaving rats
Authors: Khamassi Mehdi , Mulder Antonius B. , Tabuchi Eiichi , Douchamps Vincent , Wiener Sidney I.
Published: November 2008

It has been proposed that the striatum plays a crucial role in learning to select appropriate actions, optimizing rewards according to the principles of ‘Actor–Critic’ models of trial‐and‐error learning. The ventral striatum (VS), as Critic, would employ a temporal difference (TD) learning algorithm to predict rewards and drive dopaminergic neurons. This study examined this model’s adequacy for VS responses to multiple rewards in rats. The respective arms of a plus‐maze provided rewards of varying magnitudes; multiple rewards were provided at 1‐s intervals while the rat stood still. Neurons discharged phasically prior to each reward, during both initial approach and immobile waiting, demonstrating that this signal is predictive and not simply motor‐related. In different neurons, responses could be greater for early, middle or late droplets in the sequence. Strikingly, this activity often reappeared after the final reward, as if in anticipation of yet another. In contrast, previous TD learning models show decremental reward‐prediction profiles during reward consumption due to a temporal‐order signal introduced to reproduce accurate timing in dopaminergic reward‐prediction error signals. To resolve this inconsistency in a biologically plausible manner, we adapted the TD learning model such that input information is nonhomogeneously distributed among different neurons. By suppressing reward temporal‐order signals and varying richness of spatial and visual input information, the model reproduced the experimental data. This validates the feasibility of a TD‐learning architecture where different groups of neurons participate in solving the task based on varied input information.
Mechanisms of substrate transport‐induced clustering of a glial glutamate transporter GLT‐1 in astroglial–neuronal cultures
Authors: Nakagawa Takayuki , Otsubo Yasuto , Yatani Yumi , Shirakawa Hisashi , Kaneko Shuji
Published: November 2008

Glutamate uptake by the Na+‐dependent glutamate transporter GLT‐1, which is predominantly expressed in astrocytes, is crucial for regulating glutamate concentration at the synaptic cleft and achieving proper excitatory neurotransmission. A body of evidence suggests that GLT‐1 constitutively traffics between the plasma membrane and endosomes via an endocytosis/recycling pathway, and forms a cluster. Here, we report substrate transport via GLT‐1‐induced formation of GLT‐1 cluster accompanied by intracellular trafficking in rat astroglial–neuronal cultures. We constructed a recombinant adenovirus expressing enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP)‐tagged GLT‐1. Adenoviral infection resulted in the expression of functional GLT‐1–EGFP preferentially in astrocytes, partly as clusters. Treatment with glutamate, but notN‐methyl‐D‐aspartate, dramatically increased the number of GLT‐1 clusters within 1 h. The estimated EC50value of glutamate was 240 μm. In addition, glutamate decreased the cell surface expression and increased the intracellular expression of GLT‐1. The GLT‐1 clusters were found in early and recycling endosomes and partly in lysosomes, and were inhibited by blockade of endocytotic pathways. Ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptor antagonists had no effect on glutamate‐induced GLT‐1 clustering. The non‐transportable glutamate uptake inhibitors (2S,3S)‐3‐[3‐[4‐(trifluoromethyl)benzoylamino]benzyloxy]aspartate and dihydrokainate, as well as Na+‐free conditions, prevented the glutamate‐induced GLT‐1 clustering, whereas the competitive substrates, aspartate and L‐trans‐pyrrolidine‐2,4‐dicarboxylate, induced GLT‐1 clustering. Furthermore, the Na+/K+‐ATPase inhibitor, ouabain, and the Na+ionophores, gramicidin and monensin, produced GLT‐1 clustering. Modulators of intracellular Ca2+signaling or membrane depolarization had no effect on GLT‐1 clustering. Taken together, these results suggest that Na+influx associated with GLT‐1 substrate transport triggers the formation of GLT‐1 clusters accompanied by intracellular trafficking via endocytotic pathways in astrocytes.
Predominant expression of phospholipase Cβ1 in telencephalic principal neurons and cerebellar interneurons, and its close association with related signaling molecules in somatodendritic neuronal elements
Authors: Fukaya Masahiro , Uchigashima Motokazu , Nomura Sachi , Hasegawa Yuta , Kikuchi Hisaya , Watanabe Masahiko
Published: November 2008

Upon activation of receptors coupled to the Gq subclass of G proteins, phospholipase C (PLC)β hydrolyses membrane phospholipid to yield a pair of second messengers, inositol 1,4,5‐trisphosphate and 1,2‐diacylglycerol. Of four PLCβ isoforms, PLCβ1 is transcribed predominantly in the telencephalon and its gene inactivation in mice impairs metabotropic glutamate receptor‐ and muscarinic acetylcholine receptor‐dependent hippocampal oscillations, endocannabinoid production in the hippocampus and barrel formation in the somatosensory cortex. Here we examined cellular and subcellular distributions of PLCβ1 in adult mouse brains. In the telencephalon, high levels of PLCβ1 were observed in principal neurons, including pyramidal cells in the cortex and hippocampus, granule cells and mossy cells in the dentate gyrus, and medium spiny neurons in the caudate‐putamen, whereas most interneurons had low levels of or were negative for PLCβ1 and, instead, expressed PLCβ4. By immunofluorescence, tiny clusters of PLCβ1 were distributed in somatodendritic compartments of principal neurons and positioned close to those of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5, muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M1 and diacylglycerol lipase‐α, respectively. Immunoelectron microscopy revealed that PLCβ1 was often associated with the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, cell membrane or postsynaptic density. In particular, it was highly accumulated at the perisynapse of dendritic spines forming asymmetrical synapses. In the cerebellum, PLCβ1 was generally low but was enriched in axons and dendrites of basket cells. These results suggest that PLCβ1 is the key effector in telencephalic principal neurons and cerebellar interneurons. Furthermore, the well‐orchestrated molecular arrangement appears to be the anatomical basis for the specificity, efficiency and convergence of the neuronal phosphoinositide signaling system.
INEQUALITY, INJUSTICE AND LEVELLING DOWN
Authors: Christiano Thomas , Braynen Will
Published: November 2008

The levelling down objection is the most serious objection to the principle of equality, but we think it can be conclusively defeated. It is serious because it pits the principle of equality squarely against the welfares of the persons whose welfares or resources are equalized. It suggests that there is something perverse about the principle of equality. In this paper, we argue that levelling down is not an implication of the principle of equality. To show this we offer a defence of, and partial elaboration of, what we call a common good conception of the principle of equality, which principle favours states in which everyone is better off to those in which everyone is worse off. We contrast this with what we call a purely structural conception of the principle of equality. The common good conception of equality involves two basic components: (1) in each circumstance there exists an ideal egalitarian distribution, which distributes equally all the available good in the distribution with the highest average welfare and (2) in evaluating how just the world is, it will matter how far the actual distribution is from the ideal distribution. The ideal egalitarian distribution in the circumstance is Pareto optimal and the approximation rule implies that Pareto superior states are less unjust than Pareto inferior states.1
Increased basal transepidermal water loss leads to elevation of some but not all stratum corneum serine proteases
Authors: Voegeli R. , Rawlings A. V. , Doppler S. , Schreier T.
Published: November 2008

Synopsis

There are indications of elevation of some inflammatory serine proteases in barrier damaged skin (e.g. plasmin and urokinase). Moreover, many other serine protease activities are present such as desquamatory enzymes as well as a newly detected tryptase‐like serine protease. However, the activities of these proteases have never been correlated with stratum corneum (SC) barrier function. The activity of extractable key serine proteases (SC trypsin‐like kallikreins, SC chymotrypsin‐like kallikreins, SC tryptase‐like serine protease, urokinase and plasmin) was measured from the outermost layers of SC obtained from facial tape strippings in clinically normal subjects. The protein content of the tape strippings was quantified by absorption measurements with the novel infrared densitometer SquameScanTM 850A and the protease activities by the use of fluorogenic peptide substrates. SC barrier function, SC hydration and skin surface pH were measured using AquaFluxTM, NOVA dermal phase meter and Skin‐pH‐Meter®, respectively. As expected, SC hydration was reduced with increased transepidermal water loss (TEWL) values indicative of barrier impairment. Surprisingly, SC chymotrypsin‐like activity showed no correlation with hydration or TEWL, whereas all other enzymes positively correlated with impaired barrier function and some were statistically significant: SC trypsin‐like kallikreins (R2 = 0.66, P < 0.01), SC tryptase‐like enzyme (R2 = 0.95, P < 0.001), plasmin (R2 = 0.86, P < 0.001) and urokinase (R2 = 0.50, P < 0.05). All enzymes except urokinase also negatively correlated with SC hydration. Elevated levels of SC serine proteases have been associated with some dermatological disorders, such as atopic dermatitis, psoriasis and rosacea but these results indicate that these enzymes are also elevated with milder forms of barrier disruption, which is not clinically evident as irritated skin. As these proteases are elevated in the SC, they will also be elevated in the epidermis where they can be involved in neurogenic inflammation and epidermal barrier impairment via activation of the protease‐activated receptors. These results highlight the need for using serine protease inhibitors especially for urokinase and plasmin, SC tryptase‐like serine protease and possibly SC trypsin‐like kallikreins even in milder forms of barrier damage.
Regulation of macronutrient transport
Authors: Amtmann Anna , Blatt Michael R.
Published: November 2008

Contents

Summary
35

I.
Introduction
36

II.
Stimuli and signals
37

III.
Molecular mechanisms of regulation
40

IV.
Conclusions and outlook
46

References
47
B‐cell diversity decreases in old age and is correlated with poor health status
Authors: Gibson Kate L. , Wu Yu‐Chang , Barnett Yvonne , Duggan Orla , Vaughan Robert , Kondeatis Elli , Nilsson Bengt‐Olof , Wikby Anders , Kipling David , Dunn‐Walters Deborah K.
Published: November 2008

Older people suffer from a decline in immune system, which affects their ability to respond to infections and to raise efficient responses to vaccines. Effective and specific antibodies in responses from older individuals are decreased in favour of non‐specific antibody production. We investigated the B‐cell repertoire in DNA samples from peripheral blood of individuals aged 86–94 years, and a control group aged 19–54 years, using spectratype analysis of the IGHV complementarity determining region (CDR)3. We found that a proportion of older individuals had a dramatic collapse in their B‐cell repertoire diversity. Sequencing of polymerase chain reaction products from a selection of samples indicated that this loss of diversity was characterized by clonal expansions of B cells in vivo. Statistical analysis of the spectratypes enabled objective comparisons and showed that loss of diversity correlated very strongly with the general health status of the individuals; a distorted spectratype can be used to predict frailty. Correlations with survival and vitamin B12 status were also seen. We conclude that B‐cell diversity can decrease dramatically with age and may have important implications for the immune health of older people. B‐cell immune frailty is also a marker of general frailty.
PLANNING A PIG ENTERPRISE WITH CONSIDERATION OF VARIATIONS IN PRICES, FEED COSTS AND GRADING
Authors: STEWART J. D. , THORNTON D. S.
Published: November 2008

Summary. A good set of records kept by the fanner allowed precise estimates to be formed of feed and miscellaneous costs, of labour requirements and of the time taken to reach a variety of fat‐pig weights. Using these data a programme was calculated which proved to be stable over wide ranges of possible conversion rates, unit feed costs and prices. The farmer was thereby presented with the clear‐cut choice of changing to a radically different system of production likely to yield a profit some £500 greater than his present system, or of continuing to produce baconers and hoping to improve his grading results. The Linear Programming technique may be said to have clarified considerably the alternative courses of action available.
IMPERFECT COMPETITION AND THE COBWEB THEOREM: A VEGETABLE CASE
Authors: RIDLER DUNCAN
Published: November 2008

Producer price changes are dependent on final demand, marketed volume and marketing cost, but the less than perfect competition which may determine this last is ignored in formulating the cobweb theorem. Attention to monopsonistic buying of farm products has importance in the choice between stabilisation measures directed at producers and marketing firms, and also as regards the need for integration of the theory of imperfect competition and the analysis of agricultural price cycles.

Cyclical instability is a serious problem in the New Zealand vegetable industry. The size and inflexibility of retail margins significantly accentuate producer price fluctuations. Auctions are the main mechanism for price formation, and high retail margins appear to be permitted by the non‐competitive elements in this marketing system. The most promising avenues for improvement would be in reform of auction procedures and exploration of alternative marketing channels for vegetables.
AGRICULTURAL POLICY IN WEST GERMANY
Authors: Hallett Graham
Published: November 2008

Much of the area which at present constitutes the German Federal Republic was, in the past, agriculturally backward. Since 1949, West German agriculture has made considerable technical progress, but still suffers from severe structural problems. These problems of small farm size and fragmentation have their origin in the 18th century, when farmers obtained control of the land without the enclosure movement experienced in Britain, and no serious programme of structural reform was undertaken before 1939. In recent years, West German agriculture has increased production very greatly and at the same time reduced its labour force at an unprecedented rate. Moreover, a substantial programme of structural reform was initiated in the 1950's. As a result, farmers' incomes have risen at roughly the same rate as other incomes. In the last few years, West German agriculture has come under increasing pressure as a result of economic developments and the competition of other Common Market countries. It is clear that a more radical programme of structural reform is needed.
APPLICATIONS OF GAME THEORY MODELS IN AGRICULTURE*
Authors: Agrawal R. C. , Heady E. O.
Published: November 2008

Due to the time lag between investment and payoff, the price‐taking nature of agriculture, stochastic weather variables and other factors, the uncertainty faced by decision makers in agriculture is greater than and different from that confronting managers of most other sectors of economy. In this paper, game theory models have been applied to the problem of decision making under uncertainty in agriculture. The authors examine and compare the pros and cons of the four conventional theories of choice in decision making in agriculture. The four theories are: (a) Wald's maximin criterion, (b) Laplace's principle of “insufficient reason”, (c) Hurwicz's “optimism‐pessimism” criterion and (d) Savage's “regret” criterion. In this study, applications have been made to the choice of type of farming, optimum dosage of fertiliser and manure and the most appropriate time of selling agricultural produce. The authors propose an additional theory of choice—the criterion of “benefit”—which seems more appropriate than the conventional theories under many situations.
OCCUPATIONS CHOSEN BY THE SONS OF FARMERS
Authors: Gasson Miss Ruth
Published: November 2008

The Government aims to reduce the number of farmers in this country by encouraging some existing operators to retire. This paper explores an alternative possibility, namely, that of influencing potential new entrants, the majority of whom are farmers' sons. For a number of reasons, sons of existing farmers may find it easier, on leaving school, to stay in agricirlture than to enter other occupations. Later realisation by many of them of the economic prospects and subsequent moves to other jobs represent a waste of human resources to the whole economy as well as causing social hardship to the individual. A recent survey of the occupational choice process of rural schoolboys and students aimed to discover the obstacles, if any, to greater outward mobility. Farmers' sons were compared with others in respect of educational and occupational aspirations, alternative jobs considered, sources of career advice and work values. Some ways are suggested whereby sons whose fathers have farms which are too small to provide a living might be made aware of their own prospects in farming, the range of opportunities open to them and the satisfactions to be gained in other occupations before they commit themselves to an unrewarding strirggle in farming.
DERIVATION OF OPTIMAL LIVESTOCK RATIONS USING QUADRATIC PROGRAMMING
Authors: Townsley Robert
Published: November 2008

Linear programming has been used extensively as a procedure for formulating least‐cost livestock rations. More recently attention has heen focused on the incorporation of information on animal performance into the linear programming derivation of optimum livestock rations. Where the production is a quadratic function of nutrient inputs and where there are a large number of possible ration ingredients, parametric quadratic programming is shown to be an efficient computational technique for the derivation of “expansion path” rations. The region of economic interest along the expansion path is identified for the liveweight gain interval described by the production function. The rise of information contained in programming solutions to evaluate the economic significance of nutrient requirements and to aid in the search for possible ration ingredients is briefly discussed.
LINEAR PROGRAMMING AND GAME THEORY MODLES—SOME EXTENSIONS
Authors: McInerney J. P.
Published: November 2008

This is an extension of the author's earlier paper in this Journal, showing how the complete range of decision criteria conventionally associated with game theory can be applied in conjunction with a linear programming model. The use of these criteria is demonstrated in relation to the same farm planning problem as was shown earlier in the development of Maximin programming, and a comparison of all the alternative plans resulting from the adoption of a game theoretic decision framework is presented.
OCCUPATIONAL IMMOBILITY OF SMALL FARMERS
Authors: Gasson Ruth
Published: November 2008

The small farmer may be reluctant to leave farming because his present income is adequate, he foresees difficulties in finding a satisfactory alternative or he has a strong preference for remaining in his present occupation. A survey carried out during 1967 among occupiers of small full‐time farms in the Fens and Hertfordshire investigated causes of occupational immobility. Barriers to mobility beyond the farmer's control, like advanced age and lack of alternatives, were particularly important in the Fens. Younger farmers and those with a non‐farm upbringing valued the intangible benefits of farming more highly. Contrary to expectations, farmers with a higher opportunity cost, through location, age and experience, showed stronger attachment to their present job. Since those who could change their occupation will not and those who would change cannot, there seems little prospect of encouraging small farmers to leave farming before they reach retiring age.
RECIPROCITY IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Authors: Phillips Truman , Ritson Christopher
Published: November 2008

This article is in two parts. First, the theoretical basis underlying the possibility of reciprocity in trade is stated. Secondly, a study has been made of statistics of post war trade between the U.K and its major trading partners in an attempt to see whether any evidence of reciprocity emerges and, if so, the nature of the relationship. Doubt is cast on the supposition that a calculation of net import saving is a reliable short‐run estimate of net balance of payments contribution of an expansion of U.K. agriculture. Finally, the results of the analysis are applied to the level of import saving projected by the National Economic Development Committee's Report on “Agriculture's Import Saving Role”.
THE PROBLEM OF AGRICULTURE IN A EUROPEAN ECONOMIC UNION
Authors: Hallett Grabam
Published: November 2008

A revaluation of the German Mark has been hindered by the effects that this would have on German farm prices, given the E.E.C. agricultural policy. The article therefore examines the implications of (a) a common agricultural price level, and (b) fixed or adjustable exchange rates within a customs union such as the E.E.C. It concludes that a change in relative price levels between countries couldbe tackled by means of exchange rate changes, while retaining a common agricultural price level; but even with adjustable exchange rates, a common price level may give rise to diBculties unless agricultural productivity in the member countries grows in a particular way. It finally suggests that a wider European economic union would require niorejexible arrangements than those at present in force in the E. E.C.
PROBLEMS OF THE MULTI‐FARM AGENCY IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: SOME OBSERVATIONS FROM EAST AFRICAN EXPERIENCE
Authors: MacArthur J. D.
Published: November 2008

In referring to the increase in planning activities in East Africa, this paper concentrates on the institutional aspects of planning for new production. It sets out the need for multi‐farm agencies and illustrates by reference to Land Settlement Schemes. Attention is drawn to the non‐economic problems involved and of the responsibility (at present) on the economist to speak for other social scientists.
EVOLUTION OR REVOLUTION IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT ?
Authors: Thomas W. J.
Published: November 2008

Agricultural economists are increasingly involved in development planning. Variability in the success of agricultural development projects raises questions about some fundamental concepts; which are re‐examined in this paper. In particular, questions relating to the motivation to change, the speed of change and the relationship between technological and institutional change are discussed.
PROFIT MAXIMISATION AND IMPERFECT COMPETITION—AN APPLICATION OF QUADRATIC PROGRAMMING TO HORTICULTURE*
Authors: Rae A. N.
Published: November 2008

This paper discusses the determination of profit‐maximising behaviour under conditions of imperfect competition in product and/or factor markets. After stating a quadratic programming model which restricts product demand and factor supply functions to a linear form, an empirical application to a New Zealand nursery firm is discussed. It is concluded that such quadratic programming models should have an important role to play in horticultural management
NOTE ON HARMONIC MOTION AND THE COBWEB THEOREM*
Authors: McClements L. D.
Published: November 2008

This note critically examines some recent studies which have rejected the cobweb theorem as an explanation of agricultural production cycles in favour of an alternative model, harmonic motion. It is argued that the only fundamental distinction between the two models lies in the behavivoural decision rule which they assume, and that some of the arguments put forward by proponents of the harmonic motion model are illusory.
THE MECHANISATION OF BRITISH FARMING, 1910–1945
Authors: Whetham Edith H.
Published: November 2008

Both tractors and milking machines were available to British farmers from the early 19OO's, but the mechanisation of field work and of dairy farming was not general until the 1950's. This paper discusses the technical difficulties of early forms of farm machinery, and the reorganisation of farm work which was required to use the machinery efficiently. Tractors were at first adopted for heavy work, thus easing the pressure on, and increasing the efficiency of, the horses. It was not until after the second world war that tractors and their implements became sufficiently reliable and versatile to supplant horses in all farm operations and to change an important constraint upon the structure of farms and the methods of working them.