bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Poetics of Fiction: Poetic Influence on the Language of Apuleius’ Metamorphoses
Authors: Harrison S. J.
Published: February 2012

This chapter describes the role of poetic language in Apuleius’ Metamorphoses, and how that role has been differently perceived in Apuleian scholarship. The Metamorphoses is the Apuleian work in which poetic elements figure most prominently, for which its kinship with poetry through its character as a literary fiction is a primary explanation. The examples discussed come from especially marked moments of the novel’s plot, since it is at such moments that poetic allusion and language are likely to come to the fore, but poeticism is a universal strategy in the Metamorphoses. The chapter also argues that traditional views about poetic elements in the novel as evidence of post-classical Latinity can be superseded by a more positive and contextualized approach which opens up new perspectives on Apuleius’ place in the history of Latin prose. It then addresses a further case in which poetic language contributes to impressive and heightened scenes in the novel, and in which one can see the diction of Apuleian prose not only employing existing poetic terms, but creating new ones by analogy with poetic models.
Gregory of Tours and Poetry: Prose into Verse and Verse into Prose
Authors: Shanzer Danuta
Published: February 2012

This chapter first presents two representative nineteenth-century scholarly voices on the stylistic aspirations and achievements of the bishop of Tours. Before pursuing a new approach to Gregory’s reading, writing, and Sprachgefühl, it sets out some of the very real impediments to a study of his language and style. Gregory’s stylistic texture can be observed to change even from one sentence to another, sometimes obviously enough for one to suspect lost sources. The relationship of some of his prose to verse and verse to prose is explained. In addition, the importance of Gregory’s paraphrases is described.
Joined-Up Government in the West beyond Britain: A Provisional Assessment
Authors: Six Perri
Published: February 2012

In many western countries, politicians and senior civil servants are working on the improvement of the coordination and integration of the activities of many government departments and agencies. This chapter offers some hypotheses that determine the differences in the style of governments in some countries in terms of their coordination and integration or ‘joining-up’ styles. In this chapter, particular attention is directed on the difficult relationship relating to cross-national trends in horizontal coordination and integration within the client level and privacy concerns. The chapter also offers a short discussion on the ways in which horizontal relationships might be arranged between regulators with different responsibilities within the same jurisdiction for different aspects of work in the same organizations. Before offering a better explanation of the differences in the styles of coordination and integration between countries, the chapter considers some explanations derived from literatures on the subject of ‘joined-up’ government that accept or reject rationales that support or fail to explain the geographical variance of joining-up. After taking a look at some prevailing explanations on the varying styles of coordination and integration, the chapter presents the neo-Durkheimian institutionalist explanation which is non-circular and which provides a more detailed account of the geographical and historical differences of ‘joined-up’ government. The chapter concludes with some provisional conclusions on the politics of administrative coordination and the politics of ‘joined-up’ government.
Introduction*
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: February 2012

This chapter introduces Bayes' Theorem, which is primarily concerned with probability. It discusses some of the different kinds of probability, such as statistical probability, before moving on to a discussion of probability axioms. Bayesianism, prior probability and simplicity, and countable additivity are also studied in the chapter.
What Should be Done about the History of British Sociology?
Authors: Platt Jennifer
Published: February 2012

This chapter deals with the writing of the history of sociology as an activity in Britain. Work on the history of sociology is not usually approached through the study of its institutions, but this chapter argues that they deserve much more attention than they have received. The British Sociological Association has not been merely a mirror or consequence of what was happening elsewhere; it has also been a motor of change and development which has had consequences for the history (as well as being of interest as an institution in its own right). This chapter reviews some of the ways in which the British Sociological Association has played a part in the more general history of sociology, in support of the argument for the value of more work on sociological institutions, leading into a more general discussion of lacunae in what has so far been treated and of some of the problems facing historical work in this field.
Not Really a View from Without: The Relations of Social Anthropology and Sociology
Authors: Peel J. D. Y.
Published: February 2012

This chapter argues that the histories of social anthropology and sociology in Britain have been so closely intertwined and overlapping that they cannot really be seen as external to one another at all. The two disciplines have common origins in the social thought of the Enlightenment. This was an enquiry into the character of the emergent, modern society of contemporary Europe, with a view to realizing the conditions for human emancipation from tyranny, ignorance, and poverty. By the early 1950s, sociology at the London School of Economics started to acquire the coherence and momentum that would power its lift-off in the 1960s. Many sociologists and anthropologists were attracted by the new analytical possibilities offered by structuralism, but they were also drawn by external circumstances to address issues of social change. The resurgence of Marxism, as much a feature of the late 1960s and 1970s as the rise of structuralism, was much more a response to events in the world than a movement internal to the realm of ideas.
The Metaphysics of Time
Authors: Tooley Michael
Published: February 2012

This chapter maintains that the two broad positions in the temporal becoming debate are too broad; that is, each is a conjunction of metaphysical theses, and these are in general logically independent of each other. Furthermore, it notes that the truth ‘lies in the middle’. It argues for a temporal becoming in the sense that what facts are actual varies with time. And arguments relating to counterfactuals and to causation suggest that facts never cease to exist, so that actuality ‘grows’ by accretion of facts. On the other hand, the opponents of temporal becoming are right in some of their claims, such as that tensed properties are relational, not intrinsic, and that tensed concepts are not basic in conceptual analysis. The discussion favours analysing temporal priority as a causal relation between spacetime points.
Can There be a Literary Philosophy of Time?
Authors: Currie Gregory
Published: February 2012

This chapter takes the discussion of the metaphysics of time in a different direction. It asks whether the treatment of time in fictional narratives can teach anything about the nature of time, or the concepts and experience of it. In particular, it asks whether it can teach lessons that people cannot get from the usual philosophical studies of time. To pursue this question, the discussion assesses two main lines of thought that suggest the answer ‘Yes’. First, it focuses on such claims as that one can learn about time, and even about the self. Second, it considers the idea of appealing to a narrative with an unusual temporal structure, and to the ability to engage imaginatively with the narrative's time, to produce an argument that more usual structures are not necessary to time.
Thinking Historically about Challenging Economic Issues
Authors: David Paul A. , Thomas Mark
Published: February 2012

This book discusses some of the ways in which studying the economic experiences of societies in the past can contribute to a better understanding of current and future economic issues. It offers a variety of engagements of the ‘historian's craft’, in the service of enlightened discussions of social and economic policy. It draws upon detailed historical works that provide fresh and useful insights into some of the major economic challenges that will continue to concern policy-makers and informed members of the general public in the decades ahead.
Technological Systems and Comparative Systems of Innovation: From Historical Performance to Future Policy Guidelines
Authors: Tunzelmann Nick Von
Published: February 2012

This chapter looks at the comparative systems approach to understanding the way in which different institutional regimes affect the governance of technological development. It focuses on four institutional constraints: market failure, government failure, corporate failure, and network failure. Each has the potential to impede or disconnect the linkage between the production of technology and the use or adoption of technology.
Height and the High Life: What Future for a Tall Story?
Authors: Leunig Timothy , Voth Hans-Joachim
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses height as a reliable indicator of health status and standard of living. It also suggests that mapping from height to other measures of well-being has attracted the attention of economic historians. The history of heights may prove to be a useful means by which economic historians can better explain the past. The first area is social history, and in particular family history, in the developed world. The second is the economic history of those countries or areas with limited amounts of other data.
John Edward Christopher Hill 1912–2003
Authors: Pennington Donald
Published: February 2012

John Edward Christopher Hill (1912–2003), a Fellow of the British Academy, was a great historian. Nearly all his huge output was on the seventeenth-century ‘English Revolution’ and its origins. It was claimed that his Marxism, even when mellowed, led him to ignore evidence that did not support it. In 1936, Hill became an assistant lecturer at Cardiff University. Two years later, he returned to Balliol College at the University of Oxford as fellow and tutor in history. In 1956, he released his first major book, Economic Problems of the Church: from Archbishop Whitgift to the Long Parliament. Hill also found himself at the centre of communist politics in Britain, when the Historians’ Group led the movement to end the Communist Party’s obedience to Moscow. Besides the disputes with historians, Hill’s devotion to poetry had brought him into conflict with literary critics. Hill is cautious in his assessments of John Milton’s relations with radicalism. Hill’s sympathy for the downtrodden and unsuccessful was an unchanging part of his historical and his practical beliefs.
John Smith Roskell 1913–1998
Authors: Harriss Gerald
Published: February 2012

John Smith Roskell (1913–1998), a Fellow of the British Academy, defended a broadly neo-Stubbsian view of the British Parliament against the revisionists, while making a more critical and balanced assessment of the role of the Commons in what his mentor, J. G. Edwards, termed ‘The Second Century’ of its history, after 1377. Roskell brought to his work an unrivalled familiarity with the text of the parliament rolls in Britain, carefully scrutinising language and context to establish the development of the procedures and powers of the House of Commons. He steered to successful completion the official history of The House of Commons, 1386–1421, which bears the imprint of his approach. While at the University of Nottingham, he began to compile and publish in the relevant local history journals a series of biographies of speakers. During his retirement, Roskell wrote The History of Parliament covering the period 1386–1421.
Isaac Schapera 1905–2003
Authors: Kuper Adam
Published: February 2012

Isaac Schapera (1905–2003), a Fellow of the British Academy, spent the second half of his long life in London but remained very much a South African. His parents immigrated to South Africa at the turn of the century from what is now Belarus, and settled in Garies, a small town in the semi-desert district of Little Namaqualand, in the Northern Cape. As an undergraduate at the University of Cape Town, Schapera was introduced to ‘British social anthropology’ by A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, one of the founding fathers of the discipline, the other being Bronislaw Malinowski. He then became one of the first members of Malinowski’s post-graduate seminar at the London School of Economics. Towards the end of his career, Schapera preferred to describe himself as an ethnographer rather than as an anthropologist. His research in the 1930s and 1940s was distinguished by a concern with ‘social change’, a focus endorsed in South Africa by Malinowski in London.
Empire, History and the Contemporary Global Order
Authors: Lieven Dominic
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses empire in its entirety across the millennia and across all the regions of the world. It presents an argument that power in its many manifestations is the core and essence of the empire. The lecture also seeks to address the concerns of both historians and students of international relations. It stresses the crucial significance of power in a way that is more familiar to international relations scholars than to many contemporary historians of empire. Finally, the lecture shows how important empire has been in shaping the contemporary global order, and that it still has much to tell about the nature of modern international politics.
Authority and Intertextuality in the Works of Ælfric
Authors: Hill Joyce
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses the intellectual and textual systems within which Ælfric and his Carolingian models were working. It focuses on Ælfric's cultural context, compositional process, and his interaction with his textual community. The sources are considered to be simply forms of evidence for interpretation. The author uses two main investigation procedures: a critical examination of the efficacy of the models of interpretation used in modern source-study scholarship, and an analysis of the construction of the early medieval system of intertextual discourse.
Patents and Public Health: Principle, Politics and Paradox
Authors: Cameron Edwin , Berger Jonathan
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses how patent protection has been used in order to limit access to essential medicines. It considers how patents can be justified and shows how and why the ‘principle of balance’ has been subverted by the discourse of property rights. This principle lies at the heart of patent protection. The lecture concludes with a consideration of the Declaration on the TRIPs agreement and public health, which is also known as the Doha Declaration. It also presents an analysis of the inaction on the part of developing country governments, which have largely failed to take advantage of the breakthrough achieved at Doha.
The New Political Economy
Authors: Besley Timothy
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses important issues that arise in the policy sphere. It is primarily concerned with extending the competence of economists to analyse issues that require some facility with economic and political decision-making. The lecture serves as a highly selective and personal view of the motivation behind the field and some of the key themes in the literature. It shows the value in focused research in asking a specific question and of using appropriate data. It also determines that the New Political Economy rises to specific challenges, is not about economic imperialism, and rarely discusses grand issues of states versus markets and democracy versus non-democracy.
What Fates Impose: Facing Up to Uncertainty
Authors: King Mervyn
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses risk, specifically how people think, talk, and manage risk. It illustrates two propositions: thinking in terms of probabilities and the public receiving accurate and objective information about the risks. These propositions are illustrated by considering public policy about pensions as an example. The lecture also stresses that most public policy decisions are a matter of balancing risks. It determines that modelling and recognising risks means understanding the limits to a person's present knowledge, while communicating risk is about transparency.
Pilgrims and Crusaders in Western Latin Sources
Authors: Riley-Smith Jonathan
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses pilgrims and crusaders in western Latin sources. It starts with a look at the pilgrimages and crusades made to the East, followed by past attempts to list the individuals who had gone on pilgrimages and crusades between 650 and 1291. Western sources, which are categorized as either library sources or archival material, are examined as well. The chapter concludes with a discussion on how to research individuals who were pilgrims and crusaders during this period.
Genocide and Resistance in Hitler’s Bosnia
Authors: Hoare Marko Attila
Published: February 2012

This volume is a study of revolution, genocide and national identity in Bosnia-Hercegovina during World War II. It explains the civil war between two rival guerrilla movements — the Partisans and the Chetniks — both in terms of long-term socio-economic and cultural fissures in Bosnia-Hercegovina, and in terms of short-term differences in policy and ideology. A chronological narrative history of the Bosnian Partisan movement allows the reader to understand how it evolved, as it first provoked the emergence of its Chetnik rival, and was then forced to adapt under pressure from the latter.
The Idea of National Opera, c. 1800*
Authors: Leopold Silke
Published: February 2012

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was one of many composers who, during the last quarter of the eighteenth century, thought more and more about a German-language opera. The idea of a German national opera was intensively discussed in Mannheim, and also put into practice with Ignaz Holzbauer's setting of Anton Klein's libretto Günther von Schwarzburg (1777). The idea of the national opera took hold in Europe during the nineteenth century. Is the German national opera, which composers and writers on music from Richard Wagner to Hans Pfitzner see as starting with Christoph Willibald Gluck's Iphigenie auf Tauris and Carl Maria von Weber's Freischütz, a historical reality or a historiographical construct? In order to answer this question, this chapter takes a brief look at the situation of opera around 1800, for only in Germany, and not in the other two leading opera nations, Italy and France, can a development at this time be observed in which the idea of a national opera takes shape.
Playing with the Nation: Napoleon and the Culture of Nationalism
Authors: Alter Peter
Published: February 2012

In his time, Napoleon Bonaparte of France commanded the ideological environment which made nationalism grow and helped to turn the idea of the ‘nation’ into one of the most powerful political forces in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Napoleon's conquests, and the strong reactions they provoked in England, Spain, Germany, Poland, and Russia, intensified and diffused the civic ideas of national autonomy, unity, and identity across Europe and throughout Latin America. It is this aspect of Napoleon's historic impact which, more or less by accident, and only in a few instances deliberately, helped to spread a new political culture or, indeed, a new political cult whose origins can be traced back to the French Revolution. The new political culture which arose out of the Revolution focused on the concept of the democratic, sovereign nation as a novel political and social unit for the organisation of society. National aspirations turned against Napoleon and his rule over Europe, and helped substantially to bring him down, instead of lending him support in consolidating his overstretched empire.
Art in a Cool Climate: The Cultural Policy of the British State in European Context, c. 1780 to c. 1850*
Authors: Mandler Peter
Published: February 2012

Is it possible to speak of a ‘cultural policy’ of the ‘State’ in this period without falling into anachronism? Patronage of the fine arts had been a traditional (self-selected) responsibility of individual nobles and princes. Although sovereign nobles and princes were taking on in this period more explicit responsibilities for police and for more of their people, it is often difficult to distinguish between their activities as individual patrons, their activities as courtly patrons, and their activities as States. This chapters examines what was distinctive about the British State and its cultural policies in the period during and after the Napoleonic Wars. It argues that both the British State and its posture towards culture carried certain features that put them in the Western European mainstream towards the end of the eighteenth century. It also assesses the extent to which Britain was also affected by events in Europe, by which the fine arts were yoked bureaucratically to education and religion in programmes of national integration.
Dashed Expectations: Governmental Adaptation to Transparency Rules
Authors: Roberts Alasdair
Published: February 2012

In January 2005, the United Kingdom's Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) came into force, providing British citizens with a limited but justiciable right to government information. The Blair government promised that the new law would make two important contributions to British political life. The first would be a fundamental change in the predispositions of officials regarding the release of government information. Lord Chancellor Charles Falconer predicted that the FOIA would lead to ‘a new culture of openness: a change in the way we are governed’. This fundamental ‘change in the way we are governed’ was expected to produce a follow-on effect: the restoration of public trust in government. The linkage between a ‘vigorous commitment to freedom of information’ and the ‘renewal of trust’ was often made in the months before implementation of the law. The critical point is that the FOIA does not reduce the political salience of complaints about governmental secrecy and lack of transparency in the public sector.
What Hope for Freedom of Information in the UK?
Authors: McDonald Andrew
Published: February 2012

This chapter assesses freedom of information (FOI) in the United Kingdom. It discusses the terminology associated with FOI, namely, transparency and openness. FOI refers to access to non-personal information; the regulation of personal information is typically governed by privacy or data-protection laws. Some jurisdictions take an integrated approach to both categories of information, but this chapter focuses on information that does not relate primarily to the individual. The family of information statutes – encompassing FOI, privacy, official secrecy and the like – are known collectively as Access to Information laws. Finally, open government is a term close to openness, since both are concerned with systems and delivery.
Varieties of Software and their Implications for Effective Democratic Government
Authors: Camp L. Jean
Published: February 2012

As governmental processes and judgments become increasingly digital, the transparency of digital systems that implement the processes of government becomes increasingly important. Open code is a necessary but not sufficient prerequisite for maintaining transparency as democracy becomes digitized, and complete openness of process is not appropriate for every domain. This chapter explores some of the complexities in the relationship between openness of code and democratic government. Computer code controls and enables the actions of users, and for users to have true autonomy they must be able to examine, alter, and redistribute the code. A key issue for transparency is the degree to which this observation applies to the activities of government that are embedded in computer code. Free software creates a fundamentally different market structure than closed code. The philosophy of free software argues that the inability to view code that implements governance suggests totalitarian and Kafkaesque control, a constraining complex network of rules and regulations.
Introduction
Authors: HERRMANN GEORGINA , CRIBB JOE
Published: February 2012

This introductory chapter discusses the coverage of this book, which is about the history of Central Asia after its conquest by Alexander the Great and before the introduction of Islam. It explores the role of the nomads in the shaping of Central Asia, describes major cities and the arrangement of buildings, and explores the region's experience with a series of invasions. The chapter analyses the role of money as a marker of cultural continuity and change and discusses religious iconography and temples.
Regions and Territories in Southern Central Asia: What the Surkhan Darya Province tells us about Bactria
Authors: STRIDE SEBASTIAN
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the territories and regions in the southern area of Central Asia, focusing on the Surkhan Darya Province and Bactria. It analyses the distribution of the pattern of settlement using site, oasis, province, or secondary river valley as the main spatial entities. The chapter shows that the notions of territory and region could be used to help interpret the human ecology and the history of Central Asia, and discusses the relationship between nomad and sedentary populations and the relative importance of ethnic identities.
The Arrangement of Buildings in the Quarters of a Sogdian City
Authors: SEMYENOV GRIGORY
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the pattern of arrangement of the buildings in ancient Sogdian towns. Recent archaeological excavations that identified the territorial units Paikend has made it possible to determine that early medieval towns in Sogdiana were not laid out like Greek cities or fortified Roman camps, but had a plan of separate quarters. The findings reveal that the streets in the towns served the purpose of linking different parts of the town and at the same time dividing it into separate quarters.
The Fortifications of the City of Gyaur Kala, Merv
Authors: ZAVYALOV V. A.
Published: February 2012

This chapter describes the fortifications of the ancient city of Gyaur Kala in the Merv Oasis based on the result of archaeological excavations. It summarizes the phases of construction and rebuilding and provides preliminary evidence for dating individual phases. Overall, the excavations strongly suggest that broader trends in military architecture influenced the development of the city walls of Gyaur Kala.
Money in Eastern Central Asia before AD 800
Authors: WANG HELEN
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the monetary history of the eastern region of Central Asia before AD 800. The findings reveal the use of Chinese and Chinese-style coins in the region; the use of Kushan, Byzantine, and Sasanian coins in particular locations at particular times; and the desire to create new local styles of coinage. The results also indicate that coins were not the only form of money.
Buddhism and Features of the Buddhist Art of Bactria-Tokharistan
Authors: MKRTYCHEV TIGRAN
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines Buddhism and the features of the Buddhist art in the Bactria-Tokharistan region of Central Asia. The findings indicate that Buddhism spread to Bactria in the Kushan period because of the support of the Kushan nobility. During the first to third centuries there was a considerable growth of Buddhist art, mainly that of the monumental variety. Most of the work on the decoration of Buddhist monuments at that time was undertaken by professional artists who did not belong to the Buddhist community.
Why So Different? Why So Bad a Future?
Authors: Glennerster Howard
Published: February 2012

While virtually all European countries with advanced welfare states are worrying about how to cut back their state pension generosity, and sometimes partially succeeding, the United Kingdom faces the opposite problem. It is offering its citizens both inadequate and very varied pensions for the future. The UK began providing state pensions at the beginning of the twentieth century and has been unusual in Europe in developing a large private occupational pensions sector built on and fostering sophisticated financial markets in London. The country relies more on means-testing than any other European country. No one thinking of the UK as conforming to the ‘Beveridge model’ would have expected that. William Beveridge was so adamant that this was not what the British people desired. A different theoretical starting point is needed to explain these dilemmas. It has to take account of the labour market and the particular structure of the trade union movement in the UK and its relationship to the Labour Party. The chapter also considers the role of the Pensions Commission.
Why Has It All Gone Wrong? The Past, Present, and Future of British Pensions
Authors: Field Frank
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the political framework within which the debate about retirement income in Britain is conducted. It uses the lessons of the national minimum strategy, but takes into account today's political realities, to draw up a pensions reform programme. The Pensions Reform Group (PRG) advocates a new basic universal pension which guarantees an income in retirement above means-testing. This is to be achieved by keeping the current pay-as-you-go state pension and building alongside it a funded scheme so that in total a pension between 25–30 per cent of average earnings can be paid. This is a collective scheme but is not one run by the state as is today's national insurance retirement pension. Serious pension reform is far too big an issue for governments not to be interested in the outcome. That interest is accepted but balanced by the form of governance being proposed by the PRG.
Epilogue
Authors: Pemberton Hugh , Thane Pat , Whiteside Noel
Published: February 2012

The pension reforms proposed by Lord Turner's Pensions Commission were certainly radical, although perhaps not as radical as they might have been. How well did the government of Britain rise to the challenge posed by the Pensions Commission? In the months leading up to the white paper, a major battle raged in Whitehall. Although interpreted through the prism of conflict between Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, in fact a very familiar and traditional pattern of British pension policy-making was unfolding, with the Treasury fighting to contain spending commitments on pensions over the long term. It was arguably only the potentially expensive prospect of over 70 per cent of pensioners being able to claim means-tested Pension Credit by the middle of the century that has forced a recalibration of the present system. A few details demonstrate how the Commission's recommendations have been modified to secure this end. The most heavily trailed of the white paper's proposals is the relinking of the basic state pension to average earnings rather than prices.
Down and Out: The Children of Migrant Workers in the Belgian Labour Market
Authors: PHALET KAREN
Published: February 2012

Belgium has three major ethnic minorities – Italians, Moroccans, and Turks – originating from guest workers who arrived in the post-war period. These groups continue to experience significant ethnic penalties in the Belgian labour market. For employment and occupational attainment alike, the Italian second generation experiences the smallest ethnic penalties and comes closest to achieving parity with native Belgians. In contrast, the Moroccan and Turkish second generation experience much larger ethnic penalties. Moreover, the Turkish second generation is clearly at the bottom end of the ethnic hierarchy, since it experiences at once the largest penalties on avoidance of unemployment and on access to the salariat. The persistence of ethnic disdvantage in the second generation suggests that at least part of the explanation is to be found in the receiving society. Possible explanations range from overt ethnic prejudice to citizenship status.
Is French Society Truly Assimilative? Immigrant Parents and Offspring on the French Labour Market
Authors: SILBERMAN ROXANE , FOURNIER IRENE
Published: February 2012

France is unusual among Western European countries in having experienced net immigration for much of the twentieth century. Migrants have come from three main sources: firstly, from other European countries (especially Portugal); secondly, from former French territories and colonies in Maghreb, Sub-Saharan Africa, and South East Asia; and thirdly, from some less-developed non-European countries in the Near East. It is also important to distinguish repatriates (of European origin) from other migrants from the Maghreb. France's ‘Republican Model’ of assimilation runs counter to the active recognition of distinct ethnic groups, but a number of datasets make it possible to identify with reasonable accuracy the major second-generation groups. While the second generation have made considerable absolute gains in terms of education and occupation, in relative terms the second-generation Maghrebins remain just as disadvantaged as their parents. In contrast, groups of European ancestry experience much-reduced ethnic penalties, and in several cases no penalty at all.
Educational Hurdles on the Way to Structural Assimilation in Germany
Authors: FRANK KALTER , GRANATO NADIA
Published: February 2012

There are five major groups of classic ‘labour migrants’ in Germany: Greeks, Italians, (ex-)Yugoslavs, Turks, and Iberians, with the Turks being the largest single group. Today, there are significant numbers of second-generation men and women from these origins in the German labour market. More recently, they have been joined by a more diverse group of migrants from Western Europe, Eastern Europe, the (middle) East, and Africa. In the first generation, the labour-migrant groups had relatively low levels of education, leading to marked ethnic stratification within the labour market. This stratification continues in the second generation although on a reduced scale. While the second generation has acquired higher levels of education than the first, they still lag some way (the Turks especially so) behind native Germans in their education. Ethnic penalties in the labour market itself are also much reduced in the second generation, although significant penalties remain for Turks. However, most of the continuing ethnic stratification is due to processes that operate prior to entry into the labour market.
Instant Absorption of Immigrants and Persistent Exclusion of Arab Citizens in Israel
Authors: SHAVIT YOSSI , LEWIN-EPSTEIN NOAH , ADLER IRIT
Published: February 2012

There is no ‘host’ group in Israel; all but a small fraction of the population are either immigrants, children of immigrants, or members of an excluded indigenous minority. In addition, Israel is stratified not only along ethno-national lines, dividing Jews from the indigenous Palestinian population, but also between Ashkenazi (predominantly originating from Europe) and Sephardim (predominantly from North Africa and the Middle East). Regarding unemployment, all male immigrant groups, as well as Palestinians, have higher probabilities than third-generation Jews of being unemployed. This chapter examines the extent of convergence among ethnic groups in Israel as exemplified by differences in labour-market participation and occupational attainment between first and second generations of immigrants. Even after controlling for education and demographic attributes, Jews of Middle Eastern and North African origins had lower odds of attaining higher class positions than second-generation Israelis and Jewish immigrants of European descent.
Equal Opportunities or Social Closure in the Netherlands?
Authors: TESSER PAUL , DRONKERS JAAP
Published: February 2012

There are four major ethnic-minority groups in the Netherlands: labour migrants from Turkey and Morocco, together with migrants from former Dutch colonies in the Caribbean, namely, Antilles and Surinam. Men from all four groups have lower labour-market participation and higher unemployment than the indigenous Dutch, and this holds for the second generation as well as for the first. First-generation Turkish and Moroccan women participate at considerably lower levels than indigenous women, whereas Surinamese and Antillean women participate at higher levels than their indigenous peers. Among second-generation women, however, these differences in participation have largely disappeared. The distribution of ethnic minorities across occupational classes also reveals a major change between generations. Overall, processes of social closure appear to continue to operate within Dutch society. Equal opportunities have not yet been achieved.
Nice Work if You can Get it: Ethnic Penalties in Great Britain
Authors: CHEUNG SIN YI , HEATH ANTHONY
Published: February 2012

Britain has long been home to migrants from Ireland (which until 1921 had been part of the United Kingdom). More recently, it has seen major inflows from a number of less-developed countries such as Jamaica, India, Pakistan, Nigeria, Kenya, and Hong Kong that had formerly been part of the British Empire. While there is some reason to believe that the Irish experienced some discrimination in Britain in the first half of the twentieth century or before, evidence implies that the Irish, both first and second generation, now compete on equal terms with the indigenous British. The ethnic penalties experienced by the visible minorities from the less-developed members of the Commonwealth have declined markedly in the second generation, but all the major visible minorities still find it more difficult to obtain jobs commensurate with their qualifications than do the various white groups, even in the second generation. Continuing discrimination against visible minorities is likely to be a major part of the explanation for the difficulty in gaining employment.
Progress in Reducing Catholic Disadvantage in Northern Ireland
Authors: LI YAOJUN , O’LEARY RICHARD
Published: February 2012

This chapter on Northern Ireland focuses on the indigenous Catholics and Protestants, who can be viewed as ethno-religious groups. The historically disadvantaged position of Catholics continued after the partition of Ireland and the establishment of Northern Ireland in 1921, and the differences with respect to their position in the labour market, especially unemployment rates, have long been a symbol of contention and a matter of political importance. Comparison of data from the Continuous Household Surveys in 1985–1986 and 2002–2003 revealed substantial improvement for Catholic men in terms of avoidance of unemployment. This is consistent with the positive impact of the improving economy and the British government's fair employment legislation (Acts of 1976, 1989, and 1998). The class situations of Catholic women have also improved over the period covered. However, we find that Catholic men are still disadvantaged in accessing the salariat and in their labour-market earnings.
The New Second Generation at the Turn of the New Century: Europeans and non-Europeans in the US labour market
Authors: MODEL SUZANNE , FISHER GENE A.
Published: February 2012

At the turn of the twenty-first century, more immigrants resided in the United States than at any time in the nation's history. Whereas in the past, most immigrants came from Europe, the bulk of the influx has recently come from Asia and Latin America. This chapter shows that the addition of non-Europeans to the American melting pot has wrought some changes in the traditional ‘assimilation tale’. Ceteris paribus, at the turn of the new century, first-generation non-Europeans do not do as well as their European counterparts. On the other hand, most of the second-generation non-European groups do as well as native-born white people. Most ethnic minorities are vulnerable to unemployment, some face hardships in occupational attainment, and a few incur earnings deficits within occupational categories. In general, women fare better than men, and the second generation better than both the first and the third. The one second-generation group in difficulty is Mexicans, but there is an important gender difference here. Both second- and third-generation Mexican women encounter fewer labour-market difficulties than their male counterparts.
Revolution and Republic (1848–50)
Authors: Mercer Wendy S.
Published: February 2012

The February days of the 1848 revolution forced Marmier to be confined to Paris. Salvandy lost his portfolio in the change of government, and was replaced by Falloux, a liberal Catholic. After getting Falloux's approval, Marmier set out on a journey that took him from Paris to other places such as New York, Philadelphia, and New Orleans. During this time, he predicted the rupture of the union between North and South on the issue of slavery, thus hinting at some of the tensions that were to give rise to the civil war in just over ten years' time. In addition to the above, this chapter considers Marmier's Lettres sur l'Amérique and his expedition from New Orleans to Montevideo.
Social Change and the Transition from the Third Dynasty of Ur to the Old Babylonian Kingdoms c.2112–1595 bce
Authors: Sharlach Tonia
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the social change associated with the transition from the Third Dynasty of Ur to the Old Babylonian Kingdoms in ancient Mesopotamia during the period from c.2112 to 1595 BCE. It identifies certain key institutions at the time of the Third Dynasty of Ur and attempts to trace their evolution into Old Babylonian times. The analysis of the debt relief edicts and naditu priestesses reveals the discontinuities in the social and economic fabric of these two periods.
Persian Conquerors, Babylonian Captivators
Authors: Ehrenberg Erica
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the impact of the relation between the Persian conquerors and the local Babylonians on the cultural continuity in Babylonia during the mid-first millennium BCE. It suggests that the evidence of Persian adoption of Babylonian traditions is manifest not only in administrative and social systems, but also in the visual arts and iconography. The analysis of corpora of seal impressions from Babylonian and Achaemenid archives reveal a complex and slowly evolving relationship between the two traditions, reflecting, but not temporally correlative with, political developments.
Ambivalent Capitalists: The Roots of Fascist Ideology among Bohemian Nobles, 1880–1938
Authors: Glassheim Eagle
Published: February 2012

Although fascism has often been considered a plebeian, even radically egalitarian ideology, many of its outspoken proponents were members of the old European elite: nobles, clericalists and representatives of the haute bourgeoisie. Historians of Nazi Germany have puzzled over the affinity of German conservatives such as Paul von Hindenburg and Franz von Papen to Adolf Hitler's National Socialist version of fascism. A small but extremely wealthy noble elite struggled to maintain its long-standing social, economic and political influence in Bohemia. By the late nineteenth century, the Bohemian nobility was a self-consciously traditional social group with a decidedly modern economic relationship to agrarian and industrial capitalism. This chapter examines the response of the Bohemian aristocracy to the new state of Czechoslovakia. This restricted caste of cosmopolitan latifundist families was more German than Czech in sentiment, and further alienated by land reform. The aristocrats entertained divergent assessments of Nazism and responded in different ways to the crisis of the state by 1938.
Hungarians, Czechs, and Slovaks: Some Mutual Perceptions, 1900–1950
Authors: Evans R. J. W.
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the ways in which Czechs and Slovaks interacted between 1900 and 1950 with Hungarians, both with the Magyars incorporated against their will inside the new state and with those in the reconstituted kingless kingdom of Hungary. The main themes are how perceptions were created and perpetuated, and how these related to the changing reality of ethnic relations. In this three-sided pattern of connections, the Slovaks long remained comparatively subordinate, reckoned ‘neutral’ — or innocent — by both the other parties. Even the status of the Magyar minority within Czechoslovakia, largely unreconciled to the new dispensation, apart from certain exceptions such as the young Sarló movement, only furnished a pretext for the more squarely antagonistic contest between Czechs and Hungarians which rested on, and consciously invoked, historical and contemporary prejudices.
Old Wine in New Bottles? British Policy towards Czechoslovakia, 1938–1939 and 1947–1948
Authors: Smetana Vít
Published: February 2012

Britain's policy towards Czechoslovakia, ironically and tragically, twice fell victim to the geo-strategic realities of the time. While the general approach to foreign policy conducted by Neville Chamberlain and Edward Halifax, the prime minister and his foreign secretary, was very different from that of Clement Attlee and Ernest Bevin, neither the government in 1938–1939 nor that in 1947–1948 could find the resources or will to overcome these strategic constraints. However, the impact of the crucial events in Czechoslovakia upon British foreign policy was remarkable. This chapter compares the two Czechoslovak crises from a British governmental perspective. It shows remarkable parallels between 1938 and 1948, in terms both of British attitudes and of their wider international significance. The juxtaposition itself is revealing, in that the extent of British interest and sympathy appears to have been greater post-1945 than before 1938.
The German Advisers in Slovakia, 1939–1945: Conflict or Co-operation?
Authors: Tönsmeyer Tatjana
Published: February 2012

Just days after the Slovak state was created, it signed with Nazi Germany a ‘treaty of protection’ and a protocol on co-operation in financial and economic matters. As a result of these measures, Slovakia would be labelled a German vassal state and the government a puppet regime. This chapter examines the nature of the wartime Slovak state and reconsiders the concept of a puppet regime and a native version of fascism (so-called ‘clerical fascism’). It examines the ways in which Germany tried to influence the Slovak government, who the German protagonists were, and how and according to what guidelines Slovak politicians reacted to these manoeuvres. It first outlines how Slovak nationalists demanded autonomy during the later years of the First Czechoslovak Republic, and then assesses the Slovak-German relations from March 1939 to the summer of 1940. By this time, the German minister of foreign affairs, Joachim von Ribbentrop, had labelled the Slovak case an example of ‘revolutionary foreign politics’.
Britain and Munich Reconsidered: A Personal Historical Journey
Authors: Robbins Keith
Published: February 2012

This chapter reflects on the connection between Czechoslovakia and Britain by commenting on the Munich agreement. It takes two exemplars from personal experience: the author's tutor A. J. P. Taylor and his own work as author of the first British account of Munich. Taylor realized that ‘Munich’ was the last time in which Europe seemed the centre of the world. The ‘Big Four’ — Britain, France, Italy, and Germany — genuinely supposed that the peace and security of the world depended on them. Today, Slovakia and the Czech Republic, each of them securely but separately integrated, though not without some continuing issues of ethnicity, may be looking with considerable incomprehension at a complicated Britain which has to wrestle with problems of racial equality, cultural space, religious pluralism, and linguistic diversity that are arguably of even greater complexity than existed in inter-war Czechoslovakia.