bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Comparing Older Persons’ Human Rights: Exploratory Study of the International Older Persons’ Human Rights Index (IOPHRI)
Authors: Doron Israel , Cox Carole , Spanier Benny
Published: June 2018

Background and Objectives

Over the last 2 decades, several international indices have been developed to describe the status of older persons. None, however, have examined their human rights. The International Older Persons’ Human Rights Index (IOPHRI) fills in this gap by analyzing the formal legislative foundation of human rights for older people. The objective of this exploratory study is to examine the IOPHRI while comparing the legislation in 6 countries.

Research Design and Methods

A comparative international exploratory study comparing the human rights legislation of 6 countries: United States, Chile, Ireland, South Africa, India, and Australia in 5 different human rights domains: constitutional, protection, familial and informal support, planning, and empowerment.

Results

The findings suggest that the actual relationship between formal human rights of older persons and the real world is complex: for example, while the IOPHRI index places South Africa in first place, it is far behind compared with all other participants in the Global AgeWatch Index (which measures objective elements such as life expectancy at 60, or poverty rates in old age).

Discussion and Implications

Measuring and indexing human rights of older persons reveal significant methodological issues. Beyond these methodological challenges, comparing the ranking of the IOPHRI to nonlegalistic indices raises significant questions about the relationship between formal human rights and the actual living experiences of older persons.
Who is fishing on what stock: population-of-origin of individual cod (Gadus morhua) in commercial and recreational fisheries
Authors: Jorde Per Erik , Kleiven Alf Ring , Sodeland Marte , Olsen Esben Moland , Ferter Keno , Jentoft Sissel , Knutsen Halvor
Published: June 2018

Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) in Skagerrak are structured into distinct ecotypes or stock components that have been severely depleted over the past decades. To improve our understanding of how local commercial and recreational fisheries influence cod stocks, we investigated whether these user groups target different stock components of cod. Cod were sampled from the recreational rod and line fishery and from commercial shrimp trawlers catching cod as by-catch. Based on a large set of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), we defined a subset of 27 semi-diagnostic SNPs designed to discriminate between two cod stock components: “inner fjord” cod and “North Sea” cod, designated by their dominant habitat preferences. Genetic assignments of fishery-caught cod indicated that 4% of individuals caught by shrimp trawlers belonged to the inner fjord cod component and 96% to the North Sea, whereas among cod caught by recreational fishers, the estimated percentages were 11.8 and 88.2%, respectively. Our findings confirm the existence of two sympatric cod stock components in coastal Skagerrak, indicating that existing management units are biologically inappropriate and should be reconsidered. Furthermore, more attention should be given to recreational angling to reduce fishing mortality on the depleted inner fjord cod component.
Naturalistic Assessment of Situations Using Mobile Sensing Methods
Authors: Harari Gabriella M. , Müller Sandrine R. , Gosling Samuel D.
Published: June 2018

The assessment of psychological situations in everyday life presents a number of methodological challenges, largely stemming from the need to assess situations as they occur in their natural context. Digital media devices (e.g., smartphones, wearables, smart home appliances) that come equipped with a wide array of sensors address these challenges by making it possible to measure objective information about situations, many times, with great fidelity, over long periods of time, in a way that is both unobtrusive and ecologically valid. This chapter provides an overview of mobile sensing methods (MSMs) and describes how they can be used to capture objective information about situational cues (e.g., social interactions, objects, activities, locations, time). It then describes opportunities for psychological research using MSMs to provide insights into everyday situational cues, characteristics, and classes. It concludes by discussing some of the practical considerations and challenges associated with using MSMs to assess situations.
The Politics of Global Health Agenda Setting
Authors: Smith Stephanie L. , Shiffman Jeremy
Published: June 2018

This chapter examines the politics of global health agenda setting, the process by which global health issues come to receive attention from actors that control or influence the allocation of financial, technical, human, and other kinds of resources. It suggests that the global health agenda is shaped by the capabilities of actors, including policy entrepreneurs, high-level champions, and networks; ideas, especially those surrounding problem definition, solutions, and causal stories; powerful interests, such as the economic and security concerns of wealthy countries and industries; and institutions, such as international law and trade regimes. Most studies of global health agenda setting are of a single case, and many are descriptive. To build the field, future research should supplement these studies with comparative, theoretically grounded inquiry.
The Global Politics of HIV and AIDS
Authors: Whiteside Alan
Published: June 2018

Global health politics is a new field of study. At the same time that the importance of health for economic growth and development was resonating with policymakers, the HIV and AIDS epidemic was spreading. Although fears of massive global mortality and potential political collapse did not materialize, the disease has had devastating consequences in some parts of the world and among certain groups. During the 2000s major initiatives among donor countries brought treatment to the poor. The politics of AIDS in 2017 centers around the inability of certain countries to bring the disease under control, and the need for treatment will increase inexorably in the decades ahead. Another major concern is that of low-income countries depend on the largess of donor countries to fund their treatment programmes. Global political changes, but especially in the United States, may mean money is no longer forthcoming, increasing mortality among these populations.
Security and Health
Authors: Rushton Simon
Published: June 2018

This chapter examines and critiques how diseases have come to be seen as national and international security threats, beginning with a brief look at the long history of disease as a threat to societies, then turning to deepening linkages between disease and national security in the post–Cold War era. It then examines four health threats that have entered Western security agendas since the 1990s: emerging infectious diseases, HIV/AIDS, bioterrorism, and drug-resistant infections, focusing on how the public health and security communities have combined to construct these particular health problems as security threats. The chapter also examines some apparent benefits of framing diseases as security threats. The final section discusses critiques of the securitisation of health, noting that these point to the need for policymakers to grapple with deeply political trade-offs regarding how much “security” from health threats we want and what we will sacrifice to get it.
Modes of Coordination in Political Consumerism
Authors: Diani Mario
Published: June 2018

This chapter uses the concept of modes of coordination to differentiate between various forms of political consumerism, often generically treated as consumer movements. When consumer activism consists primarily of individual purchasing decisions, it is difficult to speak of social movements, although consumption takes place in the context of retail/production organizations embedded in a specific consumerist subculture and not purely oriented to the market. In other cases, organizations creating opportunities for critical consumers may develop cooperative ties and engage in substantial and formal collaboration with other similar organizations; individual members may act primarily as individual consumers. In other instances, individuals may be involved in multiple interpersonal connections as members of multiple groups while organizations may not collaborate with each other in significant ways. Finally, both conditions may occur simultaneously, with multiple networks linking individual consumers and service-providing organizations. Such cases are close to a social movement mode of coordination.
Jesuit Involvement in Africa, 1548–2017
Authors: Mkenda Festo
Published: June 2018

Divided into nine administrative regions, Jesuits in Africa are involved in a number of educational and pastoral ministries in thirty-six countries. This geographical spread occurred as a response to greater openness to missions after World War II and growing appreciation of African cultures after Vatican II. Between 1861 and 1945, Jesuits had concentrated on Madagascar, southern Africa, and Congo. In these regions they acted as evangelizers within the context of the nineteenth-century influx of Christian missions into Africa and organized themselves along the lines of colonial spheres of influence. Jesuit missions in these three regions were new, not resuscitations of previous Jesuit existence in Angola, Mozambique, and Ethiopia before the Society’s suppression in 1773. The presuppression missions had lasted for almost two centuries, thus linking the Jesuits to the poorly researched second wave of evangelization in Africa and connecting the continent to the very beginnings of the Society of Jesus.
Autism Doesn’t Speak, People Do
Authors: Bakan Michael B.
Published: June 2018

How might an ethnomusicology of autism best serve to cultivate an epistemological landscape in which autistic voices are central to contemporary discourses on autistic personhood, civil rights, and ontology? The inherent integrity and dignity of autistic ways of being have been attacked and marginalized for as long as the term “autism” has been in existence. Reversing that course is an essential move toward autistic repatriation, and to contribute to the documentation and dissemination of autistic voices speaking on their own behalf through ethnography—and also through music and discourses about music—is to engage in a form of advocacy archiving that fosters repatriation. It is to such a form of repatriation that this chapter is dedicated, and that work is achieved here principally through the re-presentation (as opposed to representation) of chat messaging-based dialogues between the author and one of his principal autistic musician collaborators, the pseudonymous Donald Rindale.
TRPC Channels—Insight from the Drosophila Light Sensitive Channels
Authors: Katz Ben , Pak William L. , Minke Baruch
Published: June 2018

The Drosophila Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) channel is the founding member of a large and diverse family of channel proteins. These channels are evolutionarily conserved from yeast to mammals and are found in many organisms and tissues. The TRP family is classified into seven subfamilies, while the most closely related to the Drosophila TRP are members of the TRPC (Canonical) subfamily. This review focuses on a comparison between properties of Drosophila TRP, discovered in the native photoreceptor cells, and that of mammalian TRPC channels. These properties include: (i) organization of TRP channels in multimolecular signaling complexes via PDZ-containing scaffold proteins, (ii) mutations causing constitutive activity of TRP channels and cell degeneration, (iii) regulation of TRP channels by phosphorylation, and (iv) hypoxia/anoxia-activation of TRP channels. Hence, we suggest that knowledge gained from studies of Drosophila may guide studies in mammals that attempt elucidating diverse types of diseases caused by TRPC channel malfunction.
The Stress Sensitization Model
Authors: Stroud Catherine B.
Published: June 2018

The stress sensitization model was developed to explain the mechanism through which the relationship between stress and affective disorder onsets changes across the course of the disorder. The model posits that individuals become sensitized to stress over time, such that the level of stress needed to trigger episode onsets becomes increasingly lower with successive episodes. The stress sensitization model has accrued empirical support in the context of major depression and to a lesser extent in bipolar spectrum disorders. Furthermore, expanding upon the original stress sensitization model, research also indicates that early adversity (i.e., early childhood experiences) sensitizes individuals to subsequent proximal stress, increasing risk for psychopathology. In this chapter, the theoretical background underlying the stress sensitization model is reviewed, and research evidence investigating stress sensitization is evaluated. In addition, moderators and mechanisms of stress sensitization effects are reviewed, and recommendations for future research are provided.
Early Life Stress and Psychopathology
Authors: McLaughlin Katie
Published: June 2018

Exposure to chronic or severe stressful life events during childhood and adolescence—frequently referred to as early life stress (ELS) or childhood adversity—has powerful and lasting associations with psychopathology across the life course. This chapter reviews the growing body of research on ELS and psychopathology across the life course, with a particular focus on the mechanisms that explain the strong associations between ELS and psychopathology. To address these questions, I review evidence on the links between ELS and psychopathology and highlight divergent conceptual models of ELS that advocate different approaches to uncovering these mechanisms. I end by addressing different approaches to the measurement and analysis of ELS that have emerged from these conceptual frameworks.
Using Novel Technology in Dialectical Behaviour Therapy
Authors: Lungu Anita , Wilks Chelsey , Linehan Marsha M.
Published: June 2018

Dialectical behaviour therapy is a comprehensive behavioural treatment that can be applied trans- and multi-diagnostically to address clinical problems involving behavioural, emotional, or cognitive dysregulation, and target mild to severe dysfunction, including high suicide risk. Dissemination of treatment, particularly to those with severe mental illness and those underserved, is an important primary target for DBT. Clinicians are trained to provide DBT via traditional face-to-face therapy, but many individuals who need DBT do not receive it as the need still exceeds the number of trained and available clinicians. This chapter discusses the conceptual match between elements of DBT, its theoretical and scientific foundation, and how new technologies can be used effectively for treatment dissemination purposes. It provides an overview of the products already developed for DBT that include technology, and discusses future endeavours and highlights possible future developments, while cautioning against potential pitfalls that can threaten core DBT values.
Implementing DBT
Authors: Comtois Katherine Anne , Landes Sara J.
Published: June 2018

Implementation of Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT) has been studied to a much lesser extent than the effectiveness of DBT. Implementation science is the study of strategies to promote the integration of research evidence into healthcare policy and practice. Implementation strategies for DBT include training, consultation, clinic reorganization, changing billing rates to cover cost of team, etc. When evaluating the implementation of an evidence-based practice such as DBT it can be helpful to focus on acceptability, appropriateness, adoption, feasibility, fidelity, reach, cost, and sustainability. These implementation outcomes can be thought of as DBT “implementation targets.” Client outcomes are the core goal of DBT implementation and to achieve them it is critical to target implementation outcomes first. This chapter discusses each implementation outcome in relation to DBT implementation research and the authors’ practical experience. It highlights key points to consider when newly implementing DBT, consulting with others implementing DBT, or trying to solve implementation problems.
Shaping Therapists Towards Adherence
Authors: Gaglia Amy
Published: June 2018

DBT is a complex principle-driven treatment, with an abundance of treatment strategies, and is applied by contextual factors. This chapter reviews studies investigating whether adherence to the DBT treatment manuals is related to outcome in the treatment and which implementation strategies may promote therapist adherence. It includes a brief introduction to the DBT-ACS, the DBT adherence rating scale that has been used for research purposes, and how training, supervision, and effective use of consultation team all show promise as approaches that enhance therapists’ adherence to and competence in the model. It explores common therapist adherence pitfalls, provides some suggestions for therapists seeking to avoid these difficulties, and promotes the likelihood of providing adherent DBT. Finally, it includes examples of common problems, which pull therapists out of adherence, that occur in consulation team, individual therapy, and group skills class, and offers potential solutions.
The Important Role of Problem Solving Appraisal in Creating a Positive Life Across Cultural Contexts
Authors: Heppner P. Paul , Lee Dong-Gwi , Tian Lu
Published: June 2018

This chapter focuses on how problem solving appraisal has been empirically demonstrated to be an important asset in living and an important component of positive psychology. It begins with a history of applied problem- solving appraisal, followed by how it is measured by the widely used Problem Solving Inventory (PSI). The PSI literature is reviewed, and demonstrates robust empirical evidence for the positive role of problem solving appraisal, linked to numerous indices of psychological adjustment, physical health, coping activities, and career/vocational adjustment. Future research can now more fully integrate problem solving appraisal with other positive psychology constructs, such as resilience, optimism, aging well, hope, and wisdom. Because problem solving appraisal is learned and malleable, this brings positive changes to people’s lives through the integration of problem solving and positive psychology.
Forgiveness
Authors: Tsang Jo-Ann , Martin Stephen R.
Published: June 2018

Research in the psychology of forgiveness continues to grow. This chapter starts by defining forgiveness and briefly reviewing research methodology used in the psychological study of forgiveness. We then review the major antecedents of forgiveness, including intrapersonal variables such as empathy, personality, attributions, and religion; interpersonal variables such as relationship closeness, and conciliatory behavior on the part of the transgressor; and transgression-specific variables such as perceptions of severity, responsibility, and intent. Major forgiveness interventions are reviewed. The outcomes of forgiveness are also discussed, and the question of whether forgiveness is uniformly positive is raised. Lastly, future directions in the study of forgiveness are proposed.
The Theory and Politics of Recognition
Authors: Bird Colin
Published: June 2018

This chapter investigates the relationship between the so-called ‘politics of recognition’ and the philosophical discussion of principles of distributive justice. It argues that the literature has failed to distinguish clearly between three forms of recognition potentially relevant to distributive justice: status-recognition, authenticity-recognition and worth-recognition. Each of these forms of recognition is explored, and their various possible links to arguments about the requirements of justice are distinguished and critically discussed. Against much conventional wisdom, the chapter suggests that models of recognition built around the recognition of ‘equal status’ need not be problematically ‘difference blind’; that claims about authenticity-recognition have a more tenuous relation to discussion of (distributive) justice than many suppose; and that disadvantaged individuals’ need for respectful recognition is not reducible either to claims about their moral status or to demands that identity be authentically expressed in social discourse.
Gender
Authors: Gheaus Anca
Published: June 2018

This chapter discusses gender in relation to the most influential current accounts of distributive justice. There are various disparities in the benefits and burdens of social cooperation between women and men, in the family, the workplace and more widely. Which of these disparities, if any, one identifies as indicative of gender injustice will depend on the theory of distributive justice that one endorses. Theoretical decisions concerning the role of personal responsibility, the goods whose distribution is relevant for justice, and the site of justice—institutions-only or individual behaviour, too—all influence how one thinks about gender justice. New directions for research on this topic are suggested.
Education
Authors: Clayton Matthew
Published: June 2018

This chapter discusses the central questions about the content and distribution of education debated by philosophers in recent years. How should educational opportunity be distributed between individuals? Should society aim to achieve equal opportunity, or should it allow departures from equality provided the least advantaged are thereby helped or everyone enjoys an adequate education? Should society seek to eliminate or temper only inequalities that are caused by class differences, or also those caused by individuals’ genetic endowments? Education is not merely a good to be distributed; it is also a vehicle for shaping individuals’ beliefs and desires. Is it permissible for the political community to raise children to have a sense of justice, and for the community or parents to get children to adopt a particular conception of the good life, such as particular religious convictions? Finally, may parents determine the kind of education that their child receives?
Migration
Authors: Fine Sarah
Published: June 2018

This chapter focuses on the relationship between the freedom to move across state borders and the demands of distributive justice. For some, the freedom to move across borders represents a requirement of distributive justice, whereas others argue that the demands of distributive justice may justify more or less significant restrictions on international freedom of movement. After outlining the key terms, the chapter critically examines the argument that the freedom to move across borders is a requirement of distributive justice. It presents different plausible versions of this argument and then addresses a set of arguments that point in the other direction, and which seek to illustrate that the obligations of distributive justice may support limits on the freedom to move across borders. Ultimately, the chapter argues that those who look to distributive justice to provide us with definitive answers to questions about freedom of movement’s proper scope will be disappointed.
Conceptual Analysis and Distributive Justice
Authors: Kramer Matthew H.
Published: June 2018

This chapter ponders several understandings of conceptual analysis in the context of debates over distributive justice. The chapter's first three main sections consider the concept/conception distinction in its multilayered complexity in a couple of prominent recent accounts of justice. The chapter explores how those theories of justice unfold over several levels of increasing specificity. Thereafter, the chapter takes up the vexed question whether expositions of the concept of justice can ever be austerely analytical or formal rather than morally value-laden. After distinguishing between value-independence and value-neutrality, the chapter argues that, although some possible accounts of justice are at least partly value-neutral, no accounts of justice are ever value-independent.
Political and Distributive Justice
Authors: Van Shoelandt Chad , Gaus Gerald
Published: June 2018

To most philosophers, unmet claims based on distributive justice imply a political injustice—some have a complaint of justice against their political system. This article explores a variety of views about how this connection may be grounded or qualified: political institutions may be one tool among others to realize an independent good, distributive principles might regulate the distributive activities of political institutions, or distributive principles might apply in light of a special relation of a political institution and its members. We also consider a view prevalent in the social contract tradition that, in light of reasonable disagreement, one cannot demand that shared political institutions conform to one’s own contentious distributive theory: members must seek terms with which all can live, even though such terms may not be anyone’s most preferred possibility.
Introduction
Authors: Olsaretti Serena
Published: June 2018

This chapter introduces the idea of distributive justice. It identifies several different views of what characterizes distributive justice, as opposed to other types of justice and to non-justice-based moral demands. The preconditions of distributive justice, its primary subject and its object, and its normative significance are discussed. The chapter then suggests that bringing the diversity of usages of the concept of distributive justice into view helps cast light on some of the many contemporary debates about distributive justice and its limits. This chapter also introduces and outlines the different topics covered by the different sections and chapters of the book.
Sufficiency and Needs-Based Approaches
Authors: Brock Gillian
Published: June 2018

This chapter addresses several debates concerning needs and distributive justice, and argues that the debate between egalitarians and sufficientarians has not been as productive as it could have been. The issue is not whether we should prefer equality or sufficiency, but rather what is the proper role for each in an account of distributive justice. Several prominent debates concerning needs and distributive justice are also addressed. Among needs-theorists there is convergence on what counts as a need and the needs claims that give rise to appropriate claims of justice. There is a role for needs to play in distributive justice that does not displace concern with several neighboring concepts such as desert or equality. Though there are several ways of interpreting the advice to distribute “to each according to his needs,” some important guidance on how to establish priorities among different needs claims is also available.
The Archaeology of Childhood
Authors: Crawford Sally , Hadley Dawn M. , Shepherd Gillian
Published: June 2018

This chapter provides an overview of the development and growth of the archaeology of childhood as a discipline. It outlines the emergence of the inclusion of childhood and children in archaeological studies. Childhood is discussed in terms of the role of competence, as well as dependency, of children, and its relevance in archaeological interpretation. The notion of biological age and chronological age as definitions of childhood are discussed. This is followed by an introduction to the volume which provides an outline of the structure of the volume, its themes, the key areas discussed within the chapters, and the contribution this new volume makes to the discipline.
Above and Below the Surface
Authors: Sundström Anne Ingvarsson , Mispelaere Jan , Bäckström Ylva
Published: June 2018

This chapter addresses children’s lives and living conditions during the early modern period in Sweden. A case study on the population at one of Sweden’s most important historical mines, the Sala Silver mine forms the basis for a discussion about children’s work, their diets, and how gender roles and social status may have affected their health. Two sources provide complementing and sometimes contradicting information about how children’s lives were shaped: the bioarchaeological material (skeletons and graves) and historical sources (archival material). The historical sources show that children were important economic actors in the mining community, and the bioarchaeological material indicates that their health was affected by the socioeconomic status of their families, as well as the unsanitary living and working conditions at the site.
Boys at Sea
Authors: Boston Ceridwen
Published: June 2018

In the Age of Sail, boys were an integral part of sealife, comprising a significant proportion of the crews of both merchant and military vessels. In the latter, they performed both as junior officers (midshipmen) and as common seamen and marine boys. Sailing a square-rigged vessel of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries took many years to master, and training from childhood or adolescence was seen as imperative. Although many other European navies also carried a large complement of boys, this chapter focuses on the British Royal Navy in the latter half of the eighteenth to early nineteenth centuries. An historic overview of boys in the Navy is given, but this chapter will concentrate on the osteological evidence for children and adolescents, and how early exposure to a very specific lifestyle is reflected in the skeletons from three English Royal Navy hospital burial grounds.
Portrait of a Palaeolithic Family
Authors: Cooney Jessica
Published: June 2018

This chapter exams the contribution of children to the creation of art in the Palaeolithic, exploring how different forms of art can reflect and inform the relationship between children and their family/community. The widest definition of ‘art’ is used, to include material culture, portable or static, which has been purposefully moulded to create something other than its original form and its interpretation is culturally specific. In this chapter, the material culture will be drawn from two sources; the mortuary record, namely body ornamentation in the form of beads, shells, and teeth, which are contextually associated with human burials, and the decorated Franco-Cantabrian caves. The ‘art’ from both of these records can in their own ways inform as to the relationship between children and their families.
The History of the Archaeology of Childhood
Authors: Lillehammer Grete
Published: June 2018

The archaeology of childhood challenges the mindset of the student and researcher, both in terms of collected archaeological material, and when they go out into the field to make hypotheses about where the settlements have been in the past, and who the people were who once lived there. In this chapter, the intention is not to present scientific results based on childhood studies over the years. It is to encourage the curiosity of everyone interested in searching for the innermost core of humanity and what it meant to become human in past societies. Different stages of childhood are covered, as well as the changing views of the innocence of children, and distinctiveness from adults.
Children and Migration
Authors: Hadley Dawn M.
Published: June 2018

This chapter will explore how children experienced a sense of community and family within the context of migration, focusing on case studies from the nineteenth century and the Viking Age. In particular, the chapter will look at two main migratory contexts: transnational and internal migration. There has been extensive research on migration in diverse contexts and time periods by archaeologists, but the experiences of children of migration have largely been unexplored. Analysis of recent migrations, principally by social scientists, has highlighted the distinctive experiences that children may have of migration, and revealed that children are often important mediators of the ensuing cultural interaction and assimilation, being particularly socially adept at extending adult social networks in new settings. Children can, indeed, be shown to shape the migratory experience in fundamental ways.
Disease and Trauma in the Children from Roman Britain
Authors: Lewis Mary E.
Published: June 2018

This chapter explores our current knowledge of pathology and trauma in Romano-British non-adult samples focusing on the children from the late Roman cemetery of Poundbury Camp, Dorset. Evidence for metabolic diseases (rickets, scurvy, iron deficiency anaemia), fractures, thalassemia, congenital disorders and tuberculosis, are presented with emphasis on what their presence tells us about the impact of the Romans in Britain. Many of the large Roman sites from the UK were excavated long before diagnostic criteria for recognizing pathology in child remains were fully developed, and European studies tend only to focus on anaemia and its link to malaria. A lack of environmental evidence for the sites from which our skeletal remains are derived is also problematic, and this chapter hopes to set the agenda for future research into the health and life of children living in the Roman World.
Where Are the Children? Locating Children in Funerary Space in the Ancient Greek World
Authors: Shepherd Gillian
Published: June 2018

Children are often underrepresented in ancient Greek cemeteries in terms of retrievable burials, and their visibility in major formal city cemeteries can vary considerably with time and space. However, given that child mortality—especially perinatal death—must always have been high, there remain questions regarding the nature and location of the disposal of deceased children in periods and places where it is clear they did not receive formal burial alongside adults in city cemeteries. This chapter seeks to gather and analyse in a more systematic manner the evidence for child burials outside city cemeteries and to put forward some suggestions regarding the disposal of children where their burials continue to elude us; it also examines more specifically the locations of retrieved child burials and highlights the considerable variations in acceptable destinations for deceased children in the ancient Greek world.
Techniques for Identifying the Age and Sex of Children at Death
Authors: Buckberry Jo
Published: June 2018

The skeletal remains of infants and children are a poignant reminder of the perilous nature of childhood in the past, yet they offer valuable insight into the life histories of individuals and into the health of populations. Many osteoarchaeological and bioarchaeological analyses are dependent on two vital pieces of information: the age-at-death and sex of the individual(s) under study. This chapter will outline how age-at-death and sex can be estimated from the skeletal remains and dental development of non-adults, and how these are easier or more difficult to determine than for adults, and will discuss the complexities and controversies surrounding different methods.
Roman Sarcophagi and Children
Authors: Huskinson Janet
Published: June 2018

The chapter opens by defining ‘Roman’ and ‘children’ (in Roman sarcophagus terms) and problems inherent in both. The discussion starts with a brief description and outline of Roman burial practices involving sarcophagus burials, including how the city of Rome may have differed from e.g. northern Italy in terms of children and sarcophagi. The discussion then moves onto the reliefs that decorated sarcophagi and to the key question of how far their iconographies presented childhood as a differentiated stage of life and one which had particular resonances with Roman social ideals as played out in family terms, investigating the underlying issues in how children get represented, issues of family continuity, the portrayal of innocence, the dichotomy between unsocialized versus civilized, and the impact of Christianity.
From the Archaeology of Childhood to Modern Children Visiting Archaeological Museums
Authors: Lambrugo Claudia
Published: June 2018

This chapter addresses three interconnected topics, beginning with a short overview of the archaeology of children and childhood in Italy, explaining how and why the Italian contribution to the topic has been very recent. The chapter then moves on to explore the relationship between modern children, Italian scholars of ancient history of art and archaeology, and museums; it notes that for a very long time Italian universities and museums have not been interested in developing didactic archaeology at all, especially when the spectators were children, whether of pre-school or older age. Finally, returning to children in the past, two noteworthy case studies of the presentation of ancient children at exhibitions are illustrated as an interesting point of convergence between current archaeological studies in Italy on childhood in the ancient world, and the newly generated need to communicate to the general public the result of research works.
Presenting Children from the Distant Past in Museums
Authors: Brookshaw Sharon
Published: June 2018

This chapter discusses the archaeology of childhood from a museum perspective. It presents data from British museums showing that material is held in collections that can evidence the existence and sometimes also the activities of children in the more distant past. Even remains of children themselves, such as ‘Charlie’, the skeleton of a young child on display at the Alexander Keiller Museum, can prove important, particularly for younger visitors to such museums. Some examples of museum displays where children from the deeper past have been included and consideration of the curatorial perspective (how important and relevant do curators of archaeological material consider displaying such material to be? Do they think it is feasible to do so?) will be also be covered.
The Study of Growth in Skeletal Populations
Authors: Mays Simon
Published: June 2018

Classically, the study of skeletal growth in earlier human populations has involved the study of long-bone lengths versus dental age, making comparisons between archaeological groups or between archaeological and modern populations. Although this continues to be an important avenue of scholarly enquiry in archaeological growth studies, some important new directions have recently been explored. There has also been an increased diversity to the statistical methods used to model and investigate skeletal growth in archaeological populations, and increased recognition of some of the limitations of growth studies using archaeological populations. This chapter outlines developments in these areas and discusses prospects for the future of archaeological studies of human skeletal growth.
Cultural Models of Stages in the Life Course
Authors: Grove M. Annette , Lancy David F.
Published: June 2018

It is clear that societies differ with respect to their locally constructed, cultural, or ‘folk’ models of the life course. However, predictable transitions can be found as children progress through naturally occurring stages (walking, talking, gaining sense, puberty). Societies draw upon these predictable transitions to construct models of development. Ethnographic and historic records provide evidence of behavioural changes in children and the response of family members that signal a shift in the child’s status. Drawing on these data, we construct a broadly applicable cultural model of child development. This model coalesces around six life cycle stages, which correspond to evolutionary biologists’ analyses. This entry draws on a long-term project designed to develop an anthropological perspective on human development. Our database consists of archival accounts of childhood from nearly 1,000 societies, ranging from the Palaeolithic to the present and from every area of the world.
Infants and Mothers
Authors: Gowland Rebecca
Published: June 2018

There is a burgeoning interest in the variable ways in which past and present societies construct the notion of foetal and infant entities and the beginnings of personhood. The newborn baby has often been conceptualized as a tabular rasa, a blank slate, which progressively becomes moulded by biological, environmental, and social forces. Within this construct the infant is likened to clay and indeed this analogy is made explicit in early medical writings. However, infants are conceived and born into social worlds and these impact on their nascent identities whilst still in utero. Likewise, cultural beliefs concerning gender identity, reproduction, and the pregnant body may have biological repercussions for the developing foetus. This chapter aims to explore the interplay between the body and society in the formation and conceptualization of infant bodies in the past.
Roman Household Organization
Authors: Allison Penelope
Published: June 2018

This chapter surveys current perspectives on children and stages of childhood within Roman households and examines how archaeological evidence for household organization can change these perspectives. It discusses what can be gleaned from analyses of archaeological evidence for household space and household activities, and notably from assessing skeletal remains, material culture, and decoration. It discusses what this evidence can tell us about potential numbers of children in households, how they might have inhabited this space and played with their pets and their toys, and how this evidence might be used to deepen understandings of children and their sociospatial practices within household organization. It uses two case studies, from urban elite households in Pompeii and from provincial non-elite households, notably military households of ordinary soldiers.
Sextarianism
Authors: Mikdashi Maya
Published: June 2018

Lebanese statecraft and sovereignty emerge from the management of sectarian difference and sexual difference; two mutually constitutive modes of political difference. This chapter develops an analytic for the study of Lebanese statecraft that is situated at the intersections between sect and sex, “sextarianism.” Sextarianism allows the study of the Lebanese state without separating or privileging sectarian difference from sexual difference, an analytic approach that is grounded in the ways that the state actually regulates and produces sexual and sectarian difference (what we might call sextarian difference). As a technology of biopolitical power, sextarianism makes possible the categories of citizenship, family, sex, and sect.
Imami Shi‘I Legal Theory
Authors: Gleave Robert
Published: June 2018

This article discusses the historical development of Imami usul al-fiqh and the major themes that make Shi‘i usul a distinctive system of jurisprudence within the broader history of usul al-fiqh. After reviewing the history of Shi‘i usul and its early emergence from the time of al-Shaykh al-Tusi (d.460/1067) to the present, the article considers the reaction to the dominance of the model of usul al-fiqh which was initiated by al-‘Allama al-Hilli and summarised by Hasan b. Zayn al-Din. In particular, it looks at Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi’s work called al-Fawa’id al-Madaniyya. It also examines the influence of Akhbarism on the development of Imami Shi’i legal theory and how its impetus has transformed into movements within Usulism. Finally, it explores the role played by Al-Shaykh Murtada al-Ansari as the founder of the contemporary school of Imami jurisprudence.
Leibniz’s Network
Authors: Hotson Howard
Published: June 2018

Leibniz’s network is a major subject of study in its own right, exemplifying the centrality of the ‘republic of letters’ to the intellectual history of early modern Europe.  Yet the primary reason for discussing it here is that understanding Leibniz’s network is also indispensable for understanding his thought.  Leibniz’s thought is not a fixed product, immortalized in a small number of polished publications.  Its content and expression evolved constantly in a long series of fragmentary statements, many penned in dialogue with contemporaries.  To understand these fragments, we must understand the hundreds of people with whom Leibniz was interacting, and the networks and communities for which they spoke.  Grasping the complexity of these interactions surpasses the limitations of print technology.  Obtaining a synoptic understanding of Leibniz’s network therefore requires a new generation of digital infrastructure capable of assembling and exploring the relevant data in a highly collaborative and interactive fashion.
History of Disorders of Writing and Reading
Authors: Henderson Victor W.
Published: June 2018

In the history of medicine, studies of agraphia and alexia have figured prominently in efforts to understand neural underpinnings of cognition. The central historical figure is Jules Dejerine (1849–1917), whose worked followed pioneering studies on aphasia by Broca and Wernicke. Dejerine identified the left angular gyrus as crucial for reading and writing, and he described syndromes commonly referred to as alexia with agraphia and alexia without agraphia (pure alexia). Models derived from Broca, Wernicke, and Dejerine are based on concepts of specialized cortical centers linked by subcortical nerve fiber pathways. Following his death, Dejerine’s clinical–anatomical formulations were deconstructed by Marie, Head, and Goldstein, only to be resurrected in the second half of the 20th century. Newer varieties of agraphia or alexia were linked to apraxia, impaired body image, spatial misperception, and interhemispheric disconnection; and newer syndromes were identified from information processing approaches focused on error analyses.
Scientifically Supported Writing Practices
Authors: Graham Steve , Rouse Amy Gillespie , Harris Karen R.
Published: June 2018

This article examines scientifically supported writing practices (SSWPs) and what instructional research tells us about the teaching of writing to school-aged students. It first explains why teachers should apply SSWPs before considering writing practices based on the insights and experience of professional writers and teachers, along with their limitations. It then describes writing practices based on scientific evidence and outlines three reasons why SSWPs are important to writing instruction and should become central to everyday writing practices. Twenty SSWPs that provide teachers with a variety of tools for improving students’ writing are analyzed; these SSWPs also provide a framework for a writing program that addresses six principles. The article concludes with a discussion of two basic theories that have dominated much of the discussion about how writing develops: The first takes into account how context shapes writing development, and the second emphasizes the role of cognition and motivation.
The Dynamics of Constitutional Conventions in Westminster Democracies
Authors: Barry Nicholas , Miragliotta Narelle , Nwokora Zim
Published: June 2018

Constitutional conventions are fundamental to the operation of Westminster democracies. However, despite their political significance, there have been few attempts to analyse and theorise their internal dynamics. This article aims to address this gap by identifying the triggers of constitutional ‘softening’, when the opportunity for convention change emerges; and examining how such moments interact with the particular properties of a convention to determine its change trajectory. We argue that the change trajectories of constitutional conventions are not entirely unpredictable but can be traced to particular kinds of change events and the particular set of features inherent to that convention.