bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Capital Asset Pricing Model
Authors: Doppegieter Jan
Published: January 2015

The CAPM is one of the most fundamental models in modern finance theory and offers a powerful and straightforward prediction about a linear relationship between risk and expected return. The CAPM's key outcome is a required rate of return, representing a market‐based opportunity cost that reflects risk similar to that of the asset under scrutiny. CAPM is a single‐factor model, defined by the beta coefficient, which measures the degree of non‐diversifiable risk. It reflects the change in an asset's return in response to a change in the overall market return. The CAPM has been widely discussed and tested, not without controversy. Criticism reflects weaknesses in the model's underlying assumptions as well in its empirical implementation. It is a topic of ongoing research. Despite its shortcomings, it is a popular tool for financial managers, portfolio managers and financial analysts.
Commoditization
Authors: Cortini Michela
Published: January 2015

Commoditization, also called commodification, happens when a company's products or services are very similar to a competitor's product and services, so that consumers, when not capable of differentiating between brands, generally buy the cheapest product.
C
onfucian dynamism
Authors: Francesco Anne Marie
Published: January 2015

Confucian dynamism, one of the four cultural factors of the Chinese Value Survey, is associated with Confucian work ethics. Cultures with high Confucian dynamism place importance on persistence/perseverance, ordering relationships by status and observing this order, thrift, and having a sense of shame. Personal steadiness and stability, protecting your face, respect for tradition, and reciprocation of greetings, favors and gifts are considered less important. Hofstede added Confucian dynamism, which he calls long‐term orientation (
LTO
), as the fifth of his dimensions of cultural values. He explained that the values associated with Confucian dynamism were more future oriented, whereas those at the other end of the scale were more past and present oriented. Research focusing on the relationship between Confucian dynamism and other management‐related variables is extremely limited and much less than that for Hofstede's other four value dimensions. The few studies done have generally focused on the positive relationship between Confucian dynamism and national economic growth.
Consumers
Authors: Minor Michael S. , Nasif Nese
Published: January 2015

A consumer is the final or end user of a marketed product. Because individuals, households, businesses, and other micro‐level entities are not fully self‐sufficient, they must regularly be consumers of products from other businesses to satisfy their needs and wants. Consumers are often the unit under study in business and social science studies, such as marketing, microeconomics, and psychology and are studied by behavioral researchers for several reasons.
Contingency Perspective
Authors: Thai Mai
Published: January 2015

Since its conceptual landmark in the late 1960s, the contingency perspective has become an influential theoretical perspective to study various aspects of management. This article provides the definition of the contingency perspective and explains its application. It presents a brief overview of findings in the areas that have received significant amount of contingency‐based research, namely, organizational structure, leadership, and strategy. Then it concludes by enumerating contingency‐based theories and their major elements of contingent analysis.
Cross‐Subsidization
Authors: Zdravkovic Srdan
Published: January 2015

Cross‐subsidization is a strategy where a firm charges different prices for its products in order to support some products with the profits accumulated from other products. In most cases, profits from selling one product are used to support products that are making less money or are actually losing money. In short, cross‐subsidization is a pricing strategy in which the sale of one product is used to subsidize sales of other products.
Cultural Convergence, Divergence, and Crossvergence
Authors: Guo Chun
Published: January 2015

In this monograph, I summarize three theories providing different viewpoints of how attitudes, behaviors, and values of individuals in organizations across cultures change over time. Convergence theory states that the common logic of industrialism has made individuals embrace values, attitudes and behaviors similar to those common in industrialized, capitalist Western countries. The divergence theory suggests that the interpersonal aspects of management will diverge and that individuals from a society will retain their specific value systems, attitudes, and behaviors through time. Lastly, crossvergence theory advocates that the dynamic interaction of sociocultural influences and business ideology can lead to the emergence of a unique value system that is different from the parent cultures and can take form of conforming crossvergence, static crossvergence, or deviating crossvergence.
Cultural Distance
Authors: Smith Peter B.
Published: January 2015

Cultural distance is a measure of the similarity or difference between two cultural groups or nations. It has usually been measured by computing the overall difference between the scores obtained for nations by Hofstede G. (1980) Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work‐related Values, Sage, Beverly Hills, CA. Recent researchers compute distance scores for each dimension separately. Whether cultural distance is advantageous to companies involved in mergers and acquisitions or not depends on the amount of desired integration between the two parties.
Cultural Regions
Authors: Peterson Mark F.
Published: January 2015

International management research that developed from studies of nations has turned to the cultural region topics of multiple‐nation clusters and within‐nation regions. A developing empirical literature is beginning to provide information about the utility of considering alternative cultural boundaries to national boundaries. Both this quantitative research and historical analysis draw from theories that can be organized and extended by sorting them into functional, institutional and critical event explanations for cultural boundaries.
Currency
Authors: Howden David
Published: January 2015

Currency is the physical embodiment of money – typically coins and notes. Its value is assigned either through social convention motivating individuals to use it or through legal tender laws obliging them to do so. Although once the primary component of the greater money supply, technological innovations have increasingly diminished the importance of currency. Its use as a final means of debt settlement gives it a primary role in the monetary system.
Demography
Authors: Lee Hyun‐Jung
Published: January 2015

Demography is the scientific study of human populations. A central question is how the population produces and renews itself over time. Any social aggregates such as states, societies, ethnic or racial groups, and organizations are all populations. Demographic research gains its firm place in management studies since 1970s. There are at least three traditions that are prominent in management studies: workforce demography, organizational demography, and organizational ecology. Workforce demography looks at the flows of individuals in the workplaces; explains labor turnover and mobility in organizational settings. Organizational demography looks at the composition of organizational members in terms of their attributes such as sex, age, education level, ethnicity, and tenure; explains the distribution of the member characteristics and organizational outcomes such as turnover and firm performance. Organizational ecology looks at the vital rates of organizations – birth, growth, and death – and their relations with environments.
Diversification and Firm Performance: An International Perspective
Authors: Purkayastha Saptarshi
Published: January 2015

The link between diversification and performance has become an important topic for research in diverse fields such as strategic management, industrial organization and financial management. This article compares and contrasts the past research evidence on the relationship between diversification and firm performance in the context of developed economies to the more recent work in the emerging economies.
Diversity
Authors: Chui Celia W. S. , Kleinlogel Emmanuelle P. , Dietz Joerg
Published: January 2015

This article is an overview of the concept of diversity. Diversity is a term used by scholars to refer to the composition of social units and is a concept used by both employers and researchers to describe a wide range of physical, cultural, psychological, and behavioral differences in organizations. Different diversity types recognized by employers (e.g., national origin and culture, gender, race and ethnicity, age, disability, and social class) are summarized and approaches to managing diversity (i.e., the prejudice reduction approach and the preventing discrimination approach) based on the individual‐level model of intergroup conflict and leadership are examined. Furthermore, globalization trends and its implications on diversity management in organizations are discussed.
Dominant Logic
Authors: Obloj Krzysztof , Obloj Tomasz
Published: January 2015

Dominant logic describes the manner in which managers conceptualize their organization and its environment, and make critical resource allocation decisions. It also refers to the overtime development of mental maps, business models, and processes that become organizational routines. Dominant logic has important consequences for strategic actions and subsequent firm performance.
Dynamic Capabilities
Authors: Tallman Stephen
Published: January 2015

Dynamic capabilities are complex systems of actions and resources that are directed at renewing the operational resources and capabilities, the core competences, of the firm. The competences of the firm must change as its environment changes, and the success of this change is closely tied to the firm's ability to initiate and guide a dynamic and uncertain process. The increasing scope and velocity of change in the global business environment make a strong set of dynamic capabilities particularly important for multinational firms.
Economic Theory in the Twentieth and Twenty‐First Century
Authors: Chichilnisky Graciela
Published: January 2015

The article covers new theories in economics in the twentyfirst century, including sustainable development, North‐South trade, the global environment, and decisions with catastrophic risks.
Economies of Scale
Authors: Athanassiou Manolis
Published: January 2015

Economies of scale appear when total average cost of production decreases as the level of production increases. The reverse relationship holds when diseconomies of scale are present. Determinants of the precise nature of this relationship may be the technology of production, the organizational structure of a firm, or possibly the level of expertise in producing a certain product or service.
Emerging Markets: An Opportunity and a Challenge
Authors: Vora Davina
Published: January 2015

Emerging markets, countries with relatively low levels of
GDP
yet high
GDP
growth, are becoming increasingly important in today's global economy. Firms face a number of challenges in emerging economies, including institutional voids; different consumer concerns, tastes, and preferences; and competition from local, emerging market firms. To succeed in emerging markets, there are various strategies, including modifying existing business models, treating institutional voids as opportunities, and leveraging local knowledge to develop products, services, and processes for local and global markets.
Environmental Management
Authors: Pinkse Jonatan
Published: January 2015

Environmental management in an international setting refers to the way in which multinational enterprises (MNEs) manage local and global environmental issues, such as the release of toxic substances, biodiversity, ozone depletion, and climate change. With regard to environmental management, MNEs face the strategic challenge of whether to adopt a single global environmental standard or multiple locally adapted standards. Along with the rise of global environmental issues such as climate change and ozone depletion, environmental management has become strategically more relevant for international business and has required making a shift from a focus on local environmental regulation toward global competitive behavior of rivals.
Equal Opportunity
Authors: Jonsen Karsten , Tatli Ahu , Özbilgin Mustafa F. , Dietz Joerg
Published: January 2015

The concept of equal opportunity is discussed and defined. The authors initially describe historical anchors, EU legislation, and management. Seeking to capture different contexts and interpretations, and drawing on a variety of disciplines, the authors suggest a contemporary definition of equal opportunity as “an ideal state in which everyone has the same chance to participate and succeed in any aspect of their work and lives.” Implications for management are discussed.
Gender and the Work Place Around the World
Authors: Punnett Betty Jane
Published: January 2015

This article gives an overview of gender in the workplace globally, including statistics about men and women in organizations in various countries. The conclusion is that women are less represented in organizations, especially in certain positions and at top levels, in all countries. Some reasons for this are explored. A link between culture and gender roles is considered to be an explanation for the differing levels of participation found across countries.
Global Competencies Framework
Authors: McNett Jeanne M.
Published: January 2015

The global competencies framework describes the specific skills, attitudes, and behavioral repertoire required for effective global management.
Globalization
Authors: Ghemawat Pankaj
Published: January 2015

The term “globalization” first appeared in a dictionary of (American) English in 1951, and its roots can be traced back to the terms “global” (which took on the meaning of “world scale” in the late nineteenth century) and “globalize” (which appeared in the 1940s).
ProjectGLOBE: Insights into the Study of Culture and Leadership
Authors: de Luque Mary Sully , Lelchook Ariel M. , Quigley Narda R.
Published: January 2015

This article contains a summary of global leadership and organizational behavior (GLOBE) project. The article includes a discussion of the theoretical framework used by project GLOBE, which includes the nine culture dimensions and six global leadership dimensions (with 21 leadership subdimensions). A general overview of the three phases of GLOBE is provided. The first phase focuses on the development of research instruments to assess culture and leadership. The second phase examines the relationships between societal culture and the leadership dimensions for mid‐level managers. The third phase is dedicated to examining culture and leadership at the executive level of leadership. A discussion of future research directions in cross‐cultural leadership research is also discussed.
Hofstede'S Cultural Dimensions
Authors: McNett Jeanne M.
Published: January 2015

Hofstede's cultural dimensions form a framework that provides basis for an initial understanding of cultural differences.
Initial Public Offerings
Authors: Ragozzino Roberto
Published: January 2015

This article highlights the important consequences of initial public offerings (IPOs) for firms operating in international markets. In a nutshell, going public can enhance a firms' ability to gain access to the economies made available by globalization. Additionally, the endorsement of prominent figures during the IPO process can also produce long‐term benefits for firms wishing to operate across borders.
Innovation and
R&D
Authors: Berdrow Iris
Published: January 2015

Innovation, the continual evolution toward both the new and the improved, is a strategic imperative for any organization. For, not innovating implies staying with the status quo, and in the global business environment of today no company, industry, or market is safe from the dangers of being run over by competition. To provide guidance to organizations about how to achieve effective and efficient innovation, it is necessary to understand innovation as a purpose, as a process, as well as an outcome. This brief discussion attempts to point toward all the components that should be considered in defining, managing, and evaluating an organization's strategic innovation efforts.
Institutional Theory
Authors: Puffer Sheila M. , McCarthy Daniel J.
Published: January 2015

According to one of the leading theorists on institutional theory, that theory “attends to the deeper and more resilient aspects of social structure. It considers the processes by which structures, including schemas, rules, norms, and routines become established as authoritative guidelines for social behavior. It inquires into how these elements are created, diffused, adopted, and adapted over space and time; and how they fall into decline and disuse. Although the ostensible subject is stability and order in social life, students of institutions must perforce attend not just to consensus and conformity but to conflict and change in social structures” (Scott, 2005).
International Business
Authors: O'Connell John
Published: January 2015

International business takes place when business is carried out across national borders.
International Marketing
Authors: Eisend Martin
Published: January 2015

International marketing is defined by the American Marketing Association as follows: “international marketing is the multinational process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational objectives.” Despite the similarities between marketing decisions and activities on local markets, marketers face some unique decisions during the process of international or global marketing: the decision whether to internationalize; the decision as to which markets to enter; the decision as to which market entry strategies to apply; and the decision how to design, implement, and coordinate the global marketing program.
Knowledge Management
Authors: Wagner Heinz‐Theo , Moos Bernhard
Published: January 2015

Knowledge is arguably the most important asset of firms and a central tenet of the knowledge‐based view that regard firms as systems of knowledge production and application. In this context, two forms of knowledge – explicit and tacit knowledge – gain significant interest in literature and are discussed with respect to diverse knowledge management processes such as knowledge creation or knowledge transfer. Knowledge management deals with systematic processes to identify, acquire, create, share, apply, and maintain knowledge, and is critical for firms to fulfill their organizational objectives.
Labor Markets
Authors: Hoşgör Evren A.
Published: January 2015

Labor markets function through the interaction of workers and employers. Labor supply refers to the number of workers willing and able to work, whereas labor demand means the number of workers firms are willing and able to hire. Through this interaction, wages, the size of workforce and working conditions are determined at labor markets. The concept does not refer to a single competitive market. It is composed of many individual submarkets and can be subdivided according to geographic location or occupation.
Legal System
Authors: O'Connell John
Published: January 2015

A legal system dictates the process used to arrive at decisions concerning disputes between parties.
Long‐Term Future Orientation
Authors: Ashkanasy Neal M.
Published: January 2015

Long‐term future orientation refers to a cultural belief that individuals are able to influence their future and that they will have a future that matters. Such individuals also plan for their future and assess their current actions in terms of future effects. Long‐term orientation is also associated with past memories, such that favorable memories tend to maintain the status quo, while unfavorable memories can result in a totally new vision of the future.
Marketing
Authors: Eisend Martin
Published: January 2015

Marketing is defined by the American Marketing Association (AMA, 2007) as “the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large.” The marketing orientation focuses on what customers want. The needs of customers drive production, and marketing activities aim at satisfying them. In line with this orientation is the understanding that a company has to be managed from a market perspective. This understanding is central for the marketing planning process that covers both strategic marketing as well as instrumental marketing related to product, price, communication, and distribution.
Microfinance
Authors: Roy Abhijit
Published: January 2015

Microfinance involves offering financial services to microentrepreneurs and small businesses that lack access to traditional banking and related services due to the high transaction costs of serving them. There are four types of microfinance providers: (i)informal financial service providers, which include moneylenders, pawn brokers, savings collectors, and so on; (ii)member‐owned organizations, which include self‐help groups, credit unions, and a variety of hybrid organizations such as financial service associations; (iii) nongovernment organizations (NGOs), which offer innovative, pioneering banking techniques such as solidarity lending, village banking, and mobile banking in serving poor populations; and (iv)formal financial institutions, which include commercial banks, as well as state banks, agricultural development banks, savings banks, rural banks, and nonbank financial institutions.

The modern history of microfinance can be traced back to the 1970s by Muhammad Yunus, with the formation ofGrameen Bankin Bangladesh when they began providing large‐scale outreach profitably, to the twenty first century when the goal is to satisfy unmet demand on a much larger scale and to play a greater role in reducing poverty. Microfinance has grown rapidly in the past four decades with almost $25 billion in loans in 2012, even though there is demand for almost 10 times as much capital. Such programs can operate on the web – Kiva,Zidisha,Microloan Foundation, andUnited Prosperityhave used various models to connect lenders in the developed world to microentrepreneurs in the developing world. The successes of microfinance in some parts of the world have been difficult to replicate elsewhere and as such have faced occasional criticisms.
Motivation and Reward Systems
Authors: van Eerde Wendelien
Published: January 2015

Reward systems are identified as one of the human resource management (HRM) practices that may impact motivation. Reward systems may consist of several components, including financial and nonfinancial rewards, in fixed and variable amounts. Reinforcement, expectancy, and equity principles are discussed to explain why reward systems have motivating properties. The influence of reward systems on motivation is not straightforward, because the psychological meaning of pay has to be taken into account. Each system may have unintended consequences because of the psychological interpretation of the rewards. In an international context, it is reasonable to assume that cultural differences affect the interpretation and meaning of reward systems, as the values that affect their meaning may differ between cultures. As such, a reward system may have differential motivational effects in different cultures. Some research findings regarding these differences are presented, and some issues for future research are discussed.
Multiculturalism
Authors: Vora Davina
Published: January 2015

Multiculturalism is a term used at the societal, organizational, group, and individual levels. The first two relate to openness toward multiple cultures at the societal or organizational levels and has been discussed in the diversity literature of management. The third relates to group dynamics in the context of diverse groups. Multiculturalism at the individual level is related to biculturalism, where a person identifies with more than one culture.
Nepotism
Authors: Littrell Romie F.
Published: January 2015

This Encyclopedia article defining “nepotism”.
Organizational Culture
Authors: Kwantes Catherine T.
Published: January 2015

Organizational culture reflects aspects of organizational life that are not visible, yet have enormous impact on both employees and organizations they impact every aspect of organizational functioning. It reflects a shared understanding of how things are done in an organization as well as how things should bedone. It serves as a coordinating mechanism that promotes individual employee efforts toward organizational goals when it is a positive and strong culture, but can be a liability if it is too weak or too strong. Organizational cultures develop from forces within an organization, such as its mission, the values of the founder of the organization, and the values of top management. It is also strongly affected from forces outside the organization such as societal cultures and forces from the profession or industry within which the organization functions, thus creating subcultures. These variations in organizational culture may be understood as resulting from an integration, differentiation, or fragmentation perspective, with each perspective focusing on an assumption of the degree to which different constituencies share common assumptions and norms, and ascribe similar meanings to organizational events.
Parochialism
Authors: Gluesing Julia C.
Published: January 2015

Parochialism refers to an outlook that emphasizes a narrow or local perspective on living and working. International business scholarship is criticized for being parochial, for taking a western perspective and one, that is, narrowly defined by disciplinary boundaries. The trend for the future in both scholarship and international business competency is to be less parochial and more pluralistic, multidisciplinary, and multidimensional.
Repatriation
Authors: Herman Jeffrey L.
Published: January 2015

Repatriation, the experience of returning from an extended overseas experience (expatriation), is central to international mobility and the management of a global workforce.
Reporting Currency
Authors: O'Connell John
Published: January 2015

A multinational organization normally uses the currency of its home country or place of incorporation to prepare its financial statements.
Corporate Reputation
Authors: Newburry William
Published: January 2015

This article briefly reviews the literature on corporate reputation. It overviews a few of the major conceptualizations of corporate reputation, along with a number of reputation antecedents found in prior studies. The article next discusses international aspects of reputation and the general need for future research examining the reputation construct in an international context. Finally, it addresses some measurement issues, while also comparing and contrasting two prominent alternative reputation measures.
Resource Curse
Authors: Kolstad Ivar
Published: January 2015

Countries rich in resources such as oil or diamonds on average have lower economic growth, more poverty and inequality, and lower levels of human development than other countries. This phenomenon is known as the resource curse. Recent scientific work on the phenomenon emphasizes political mechanisms, and finds that the resource curse is due to poor institutions. Major topics in the international business literature have been the normative analysis of the responsibilities of multinational corporations operating in resource rich countries, and positive analysis of their role in promoting or preventing development and institutional dysfunctions in these countries.
Risk
Authors: McQuillan Deirdre , Sharkey‐Scott Pamela
Published: January 2015

Risk within the context of international management is an unavoidable aspect of business due to a lack of knowledge relating to a new foreign market on the part of the business entity and uncertainty associated with managerial decisions. While international risk is traditionally understood as relating to environmental uncertainties concerning foreign and unfamiliar environments, it may also be described from the perspective of the individual based on their propensity for risk taking behavior. Managers may be risk averse, risk tolerant or even risk seeking, depending on a range of factors including past experience and the extent of their international business relationships. In this regard, managing international risk involves the consideration of factors both from within and outside of the business entity.
Schwartz Value Theory
Authors: Elster Andrey , Sagiv Lilach
Published: January 2015

The Schwartz Value Theory discusses values at both the individual and the national level. Individual‐level values are desirable goals that serve as guiding principles in people's lives. Schwartz identified 10 basic motivations, represented by 10 value types, yielding a circular model. The circular structure of values could be summarized into two main conflicts:self‐enhancement(power, achievement, hedonism) versusself‐transcendence(benevolence, universalism) values andopenness‐to‐change(self‐direction, stimulation) versusconservation values(tradition, conformity, security). The Schwartz model has been tested in extensive cross‐cultural research providing support for the theorized content and structure of values. At the cultural level, Schwartz identified three bipolar dimensions of values that allow for comparing societies. Theembeddednessversusautonomydimension focuses on the regulation of relationships between the individual and the group; thehierarchyversusegalitarianismdimension focuses on the regulation of responsible behavior among societal members; and themasteryversusharmonydimension focuses on the relationships between humanity and nature. The three bipolar dimensions form a circle in which cultural values that share compatible assumptions are adjacent whereas values that reflect conflicting assumptions oppose each other.
Scientific Mindfulness
Authors: Dietz Joerg , Jonsen Karsten
Published: January 2015

Scientific mindfulness is a holistic, cross‐disciplinary, contextual, and reflexive approach to research, teaching, and practice using multiple perspectives with the intent to contribute to the betterment of society. With scientific mindfulness, Jonsen
et al
. introduced an evidence‐based approach that reflects a pro‐active mindset, combining a pro‐social attitude, stakeholder involvement, and intellectual curiosity with the purpose of generating practically relevant knowledge and evidence that are both valid and reliable. Scientific mindfulness is a general approach, but can also be concretely applied in the planning and execution of projects.
Shareholder Value
Authors: Campbell Bruce A.
Published: January 2015

Shareholder value is the monetary worth of equity ownership in a business firm. In economics and finance, the maximization of shareholder value is considered the most important, if not exclusive, goal of a firm. Maximizing shareholder value is seen to align the actions of management with the interests of shareholders. In contrast to shareholder value, stakeholder theory, which has emerged in management and strategy literature, asserts a broader purpose for the firm: the creation of value for not only shareholders but all other stakeholders, including employees, suppliers, customers, and the community. Shareholder value less commonly refers to a firm's market capitalization, the market value of shares outstanding. This contrasts with the book or accounting value of equity which is the value of shareholders' equity on a firm's balance sheet. Shareholder value added (SVA) is a measure of economic profit a firm creates for its shareholders.
Social Axioms
Authors: Leung Kwok , Bond Michael H.
Published: January 2015

To augment value‐based frameworks for cross‐cultural analysis, a framework based on social axioms, or generalized beliefs about the world, has been developed based on a global research program. Five dimensions of social axioms have been identified: Social cynicism asserts the malevolence of human nature and social institutions; reward for application refers to the belief complex that positive outcomes result from the application of effort, knowledge, and other resources to a problem; social complexity refers to the belief that people's behavior may vary across situations and that any given problem has multiple solutions; fate control refers to the belief in the preordination of events, but the possibility of predicting and improving one's fate by taking certain actions; finally, religiosity is concerned with the belief in the existence of a supernatural being controlling the universe and the beneficial social and personal functions of religious practice. At the cultural level of analysis, two dimensions have been identified. Dynamic externality refers to the belief in external agents of control as well as the usefulness of personal striving. Societal cynicism is conceptually similar to social cynicism. Both the individual‐ and culture‐level social axiom frameworks have been applied in international management research on a variety of topics.
Social Capital in the International Business Context
Authors: Athanassiou Nicholas , Maznevski Martha
Published: January 2015

Social capital is the value of the intangible resources lying in relationships among people. It can be drawn upon by those in the relationship to help them achieve something they could not otherwise do. Social capital describes a manager's relationships with others and complements human capital and financial capital. Social capital differs fundamentally from human and financial capital because it exists only through a specific relationship between two people or groups, that is, embedded in a social network. Such a network facilitates flow of usefulinformation, allows an actor to wieldinfluenceon others who play a critical role in decisions, provides access to resources, offers a certification for the actor'ssocial credentials, and facilitates access to social relations thatreinforcean actor's identity and his/her recognition in a network.
Social Cognition
Authors: Ravlin Elizabeth C. , Ward Anna‐Katherine
Published: January 2015

The study of social cognition, or the processes whereby we interpret and respond to social stimuli (other individuals, aggregates, and ourselves), has become a major discipline contributing to general and international management research over the last 30 years. Because people extend their understandings of others and the self by inferring, deducing, and assuming beyond the actual evidence available to the senses, there are many aspects of managerial interpretation, action, and reaction that are significantly influenced by social cognitive processes. Research over the years has encompassed such topics as the relationship between cognition and emotion, attention, memory and encoding, and judgment and decision processes, among others. In the international management arena, as research has evolved from a focus on aggregate‐level cultural values, a stream of more recent studies builds on social cognitive principles examining how culture is manifest in individual social cognitive structure and processes. Important issues that have been investigated recently include the extent to which culture fosters holistic versus analytic modes of cognition, how culture influences the attributions made for behavior, and the role of automatic and controlled information processing and self‐regulation in effective development of cross‐cultural relationships.
Social Entrepreneurship: Innovation on Dual Frontiers
Authors: Mair Johanna , Ganly Kate
Published: January 2015

Over the past two decades, social entrepreneurship as a phenomenon has gained increased momentum and is widely recognized for its potential to address social needs or problems that too often fall through the gaps of our market and governance systems. This article presents social entrepreneurship as a powerful tool to shape and change institutions and ultimately to inspire the commercial and public sectors. It is conceptualized as a process involving innovation on two levels: (i) the innovation of a new type of product, service, or structure that is created to fulfil unmet needs; and (ii) the innovation of envisioning and enacting alternative institutional arrangements. We contend that the dual nature of this type of innovation is what makes social entrepreneurship more effective than existing solutions and distinguishes it from conventional entrepreneurship. Two case studies are examined to show how social entrepreneurs kick start change by challenging taken for granted ways of doing things and demonstrating how new strategies can make a real impact. They illustrate that more sustainable solutions are possible and often provide “proof of concept” leading to the creation of new markets, new policies, and even new behaviors and attitudes.
Stakeholders
Authors: O'Sullivan Niamh
Published: January 2015

This article is concerned with the term “stakeholders.” It first considers the definition of stakeholders, how they may be identified, why they are important; and the challenges this poses for stakeholder management. It then provides an overview of stakeholder engagement processes in practice and how they have been critiqued in the academic literature. Finally, it briefly discusses the influence of different stakeholder groups on corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities, and how this may have interesting implications for stakeholder management and corporate governance in the future.
Strategic Management
Authors: Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya
Published: January 2015

Strategic management is defined as the process of evaluation, planning, and implementation designed to maintain or improve competitive advantage. The process of evaluation is concerned with assessment of the external and internal environments. Planning involves developing business models, corporate direction, competitive tactics, international strategy, acquisitions, and collaborative action. The implementation phase requires leadership to build the appropriate organizational structure, develop management culture, control the strategic processes, and steer the organization through ethical corporate governance. The outcomes of strategic activity are visible in the change in revenues, market shares, profits, and return on investment for stakeholders. The outcomes create a feedback loop which in turn affects the external and internal environment of the organization.
Supply Chain Management
Authors: Eroglu Cuneyt , Croxton Keely L.
Published: January 2015

Even though supply chain management is sometimes used as a new name for logistics management, there is a growing consensus that supply chain management is a much broader concept. While logistics management is limited to managing product flows across the supply chain, supply chain management is about the management and integration of key value‐adding business processes within and between firms in a supply chain. Over the past decade, numerous authors, both academics and practitioners, have worked to provide guidelines for implementing intra‐ and inter‐firm integrations of business processes. Two prominent frameworks that have emerged from these efforts, namely, the supply chain management framework developed by the Global Supply Chain Forum and the Supply Chain Operations Reference (SCOR®) model developed by the Supply Chain Council. This article summarizes these frameworks.
Teams and Groups
Authors: Hinds Pamela
Published: January 2015

Teams are groups of workers whose tasks are interdependent, who share common goals, and who have a shared identity or sense of themselves as a bounded group. In international management, multicultural and global teams are prevalent. Multicultural teams are culturally diverse, while global teams are also geographically distributed and thus embedded in different cultural contexts.
Technology
Authors: Banerjee Preeta
Published: January 2015

Technology is the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes. The study of technology and innovation management follows this development process from creation to commercialization, when the technology enters consumer markets and grows in adoption and use. Technology must deal with the cultural, socio‐demographic, and environmental issues that allow this to happen in different contexts, from appropriate technology to frugal innovation. By expanding technology in its development and use from developing countries to developed countries, technology allows people to participate and engage the world in more technically advanced ways, thus improving livelihoods and quality of life. Technology service and product managers should realize that the development and adoption of technology has become more than an issue of technical feasibility and economic growth to include social and cultural and environmental sustainability.
Trade
Authors: McGee Robert W.
Published: January 2015

Trade is free if individuals or their representatives (corporations) can trade what they have for what they want. In all other cases, trade is not free. This entry begins with an ethical analysis of trade policies, and then proceeds to examine some of the major arguments that have been made over the centuries for protectionism, including the dumping, job destruction, deindustrialization, low wage, fairness, level playing field, and infant industry arguments. The entry concludes with a discussion of the concept of trade deficits.
Trading Bloc
Authors: John Anna
Published: January 2015

This article defines the term trading bloc. It classifies trading blocs and designates their effects on member and nonmember countries and their businesses. In the final section, the article discusses factors that underpin formation of trading blocs.
Trompenaars' And Hampden‐Turner's Cultural Factors: Universalism–Particularism
Authors: Taras Vas
Published: January 2015

Universalism–particularism is one of the seven dimensions of Trompenaars' and Hampden‐Turner's model of culture.
Uncertainty
Authors: Yukhanaev Andrey , Sharma Satish
Published: January 2015

In the current economic environment, companies across the world constantly experience a great deal of instability, uncertainty, and various risks in the day‐to‐day business operations. Globalization of the commercial activities in many industries has brought both significant complexities in the management process and many opportunities for corporate growth. International expansion strategies not only provided enormous potential for business leaders in terms of accessing the necessary resources and distant insatiable markets, but also presented numerous challenges caused by differences in social, economic, and institutional development of the foreign destinations. Thus, being competitive internationally today means professional dealing with uncertainty, understanding of its nature and sources, as well as having competences to govern enterprises in the volatile and rapidly changing environmental conditions.
Upper Echelons Theory
Authors: Herman Jeffrey L. , Smith Brett
Published: January 2015

Upper Echelons Theory states that top management team (
TMT
) members' characteristics, including past experiences, values, and personalities, affect how they make strategic and organizational decisions.
Cosmopolitanism
Authors: Lee Hyun‐Jung
Published: January 2015

Cosmopolitanism is a concept widely used in popular businesses, as well as scholarly discourses, but lacks a generally accepted definition. The interest in cosmopolitanism is primarily in response to an increasingly connected global business environment. The core idea of cosmopolitanism in the international management field is an individual's orientation or identity horizon that transcends the conventional local boundaries of social entities such as corporations, communities, nation states, or the countries of origin. Cosmopolitanism construct influences a number of subfields in international management such as global leadership and global mindset, biculturalism, and international assignment and career literature. The future research agenda of cosmopolitanism include the following: (i) a further refinement of the cosmopolitanism construct to a generally accepted definition; (ii) research into the antecedents of cosmopolitanism; and (iii) the identification of distinctive skills and outcomes of cosmopolitan individuals to provide insights on how organizations might leverage the full potential of cosmopolitan individuals.
World Values Survey
Authors: Stonefish Twiladawn , Kwantes Catherine T.
Published: January 2015

The World Values Survey was developed to document and enabling an understanding of values across cultures and across time with waves of data collection from 1981 until the present. It has information from over 100 countries on all six continents. Two dimensions of cross‐cultural differences are tapped by the WVS: Traditional/Secular‐rational and Survival/Self‐expression. Together, these two dimensions explain a large part of the difference in values between cultures.
Competing in a Global Marketplace: Just‐in‐Time in the Value Chain
Authors: Granberry Jameshia , Raisinghani Mahesh S. , Arora Anshu
Published: January 2015

This article examines the viability of the inventory management system just in time (
JIT
), in a global economy. Before
JIT
's creation, many companies relied upon inventory management systems called
material requirements planning
(
MRP
), which had consisted of fully stocked inventory warehouses and expensive software packages. Thirty years have passed since the creation of
JIT
, and this idea has spread from the manufacturing industry to the service industry. Many industries have acquired
JIT
principles because of the profitable advantages first experienced by the manufacturing industry. The Bose Corporation has refined and launched a new
JIT II
system, which supercharged the original model by implementing system integration. Departments such as engineering, planning, and purchasing are bridging the interorganizational gap between customer and supplier to improve communications, visibility, and efficiency from production to final delivery.
Computer Ethics
Authors: Allen Gove
Published: January 2015

Computer ethics is a term used broadly to refer to issues surrounding computer use where appropriate behavior may be unclear. These issues are increased when computers are part of an interconnected information systems. Areas of prominence in computer ethics include privacy, copyright, appropriate use of shared resources, misappropriation, cyberloafing, malware, and others. Additionally, more traditional ethical issues are considered a part of computer ethics because the nature of computing environments facilitates certain behaviors; these include: gambling, pornography, bullying, plagiarism and others. Professionals who work in creating and administering computing systems may be subject to the formal codes of ethics of different associations.
Information Overload
Authors: Elie‐Dit‐Cosaque Christophe
Published: January 2015

Organizations produce considerable amounts of information every day. However, the volume of information received by workers often exceeds their processing capabilities, which consequently results in information overload. This article provides an overview of the concept information overload by emphasizing its main determinants and consequences. Furthermore, it sheds light on organizational and individual responses to this phenomenon, as well as on the key challenges faced by management information systems researchers and practitioners regarding this concept.