bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Multisensory Perspective
Authors: and Bruno
Published: September 2018

Perception may be defined as the cognitive process that lets us know what is out there, based on incoming sensory signals. Standard textbook accounts often emphasize five modular ‘senses’ encoding such signals. In the perspective presented in this book, instead, perception is inherently multisensory and linked to exploratory action. Perceptual processes do not merely encode incoming sensory signals, they actively explore the environment, seeking informative stimulation from potential multisensory sources and they combine available signals through several multisensory interactions. Studying perception within a multisensory, rather than modular perspective, requires a systemic approach, and this book illustrates how this notion can be successfully applied to eight domains of perception in natural conditions: knowing our own body, controlling its movements, perceiving inanimate objects, perceiving edible objects, understanding the intriguing phenomenon known as synaesthesia, attending to objects in multisensory conditions, perceiving space, and perceiving time.
Epilogue
Authors: and Bruno
Published: September 2018

Multisensory interactions in perception are pervasive and fundamental, as we have documented throughout this book. In this final chapter, we propose that contemporary work on multisensory processing is a paradigm shift in perception science, calling for a radical reconsideration of empirical and theoretical questions within an entirely new perspective. In making our case, we emphasize that multisensory perception is the norm, not the exception, and we remark that multisensory interactions can occur early in sensory processing. We reiterate the key notions that multisensory interactions come in different kinds and that principles of multisensory processing must be considered when tackling multisensory daily-life problems. We discuss the role of unisensory processing in a multisensory world, and we conclude by suggesting future directions for the multisensory field.
Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.800-146 BC
Authors: Lewis David M.
Published: September 2018

The orthodox view of ancient Mediterranean slavery holds that Greece and Rome were the only ‘genuine slave societies’ of the ancient world, that is, societies in which slave labour contributed significantly to the economy and underpinned the wealth of elites. Other societies, labelled as ‘societies with slaves’, apparently made little use of slave labour, and have therefore been largely ignored in recent work. Greek Slave Systems in their Eastern Mediterranean Context, c.800–146 BC presents a radically different view. Slavery was indeed particularly highly developed in Greece and Rome; but it was also highly developed in Carthage and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean, and played a not insignificant role in the affairs of elites in Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia. This new study portrays the Eastern Mediterranean world as a patchwork of regional slave systems. In Greece, diversity was the rule: from the early archaic period onwards, differing historical trajectories in various regions shaped the institution of slavery in manifold ways, producing very different slave systems in regions such as Sparta, Crete, and Attica. In the wider Eastern Mediterranean world, we find a similar level of diversity. Slavery was exploited to different degrees across all of these regions, and was the outcome of a complex interplay between cultural, economic, political, geographic, and demographic variables.
The Riddle of Freedom
Authors: Lewis David M.
Published: September 2018

This chapter looks at the concept of freedom and its articulation in ancient Greek texts. It shows that in the Homeric period, the terminology of slavery and freedom was used only for personal status. In the centuries that followed, these terms were appropriated and applied metaphorically to a variety of asymmetrical power relationships. However, Greeks were able to maintain clear distinctions between slavery as a legal concept and slavery as a metaphor. The chapter concludes with critiques of the methods of M. I. Finley and R. Zelnick-Abramovitz, who do not make clear distinctions between law and metaphor when analysing this terminology, and whose methods have led to convoluted analyses of aspects of Greek slavery.
Helotic Slavery in Classical Sparta
Authors: Lewis David M.
Published: September 2018

This chapter explores the slave system of classical Sparta, known to modern scholars as helotage. The bulk of the chapter is devoted to a detailed demonstration that the helots were privately owned slaves, not communally controlled serfs. The second part of the chapter endeavours to account for the institutional features of helotage by contextualizing it in terms of Sparta’s broader institutional features and cultural mores. The third part of the chapter shows that Sparta, not Athens, should be seen as the most extreme example of a ‘slave society’ in the Greek world. The chapter closes with an analysis of the concept of ‘helotic slavery’.
Classical Crete
Authors: Lewis David M.
Published: September 2018

This chapter continues the analysis of Chapter 6 by focusing on slavery in classical Crete. Ancient writers from Aristotle onwards compared the system of dependent labour in Crete to Sparta’s helots. This chapter tests whether or not the traditional view—that these dependants were serfs—stands up to a detailed scrutiny of the evidence. By looking at Crete’s legal inscriptions, particularly those of the polis of Gortyn, we can see that these dependants were privately owned slaves, not serfs. The second half of the chapter examines in detail the legal and economic position of slaves in Gortyn and their contribution to the position of Gortynian elites.
Iron Age II Israel
Authors: Lewis David M.
Published: September 2018

This chapter draws on the evidence of archaeology and the Hebrew Bible to explore the phenomenon of slavery in Israel and Judah during the monarchical period. The first part of the chapter comprises a detailed legal analysis of the so-called ‘slave laws’ of the Torah. The rationale behind these laws was to prevent members of the Israelite ethnic group from falling into slavery; they aim to transform the enslaved Israelite into an indentured servant with various rights, including the right not to be sold. The second half of the chapter surveys the Hebrew Bible and shows how elites in Israel and Judah probably depended to a significant degree on slave labour for the cultivation of their estates.
Assyria
Authors: Lewis David M.
Published: September 2018

This chapter explores the archival texts of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and attempts to gauge the legal and economic position of slavery in Assyrian society. It shows that the Assyrians held a similar legal understanding of slavery to the Greeks, and knew also of the phenomenon of debt bondage. The chapter then moves on to consider the location of slavery in Assyrian society, showing widespread and significant levels of slave ownership among the Assyrian elite; however, relatively high slave prices prevented slave ownership from becoming a more widespread phenomenon. The third part of the chapter looks at the Assyrian countryside more broadly, and shows that despite often owning large numbers of slaves, members of the Assyrian elite more probably drew the bulk of their income from the exploitation of bound tenant farmers.
Differentials in the Magnitude of Slaveholding
Authors: Lewis David M.
Published: September 2018

This chapter aims to explain the differing patterns of exploitation of slaves sketched in Chapters 5–13. It sets out a model of labour choice that draws on recent work, then fine-tunes it by adding two further variables: political geography and economic geography, which structured the location of demand and supply for slave labour and the resultant transport costs. It examines the effects of slave trading on supplier zones and argues that the demand for slaves from more politically developed regions damaged peripheral zones from which slaves were drawn by incentivizing violence and predation. The chapter ends by setting out ten conclusions to which this book has been leading.
‘The Black Body’ in TWAS’ MEDEA and Pecong and CTH’s Trojan Women
Authors: Powers Melinda
Published: September 2018

This chapter explores three Harlem-based productions of Greek dramas: Take Wing and Soar’s MEDEA (2008) and Pecong (2010), and the Classical Theatre of Harlem’s Trojan Women (2008). Drawing on the work of performance theorists like Harvey Young, Brenda Dixon Gottschild, Angela Pao, and Brandi Wilkins Catanese, it argues that these performances and their reception both illustrate and pose a challenge to implicit and explicit biases against African Americans. While each work aims to challenge cultural stereotypes of African Americans in distinct ways, their reception, in some cases, also illustrates the persistence of societal ideas of ‘the black body’, an idea of blackness that continues to be projected upon actual bodies. Despite these challenges, each work aims to promote an idea of a hybrid America, one that looks towards a hybrid future while acknowledging a segregated past of racial division that continues to deny opportunities to artists of colour.
‘Executing Stereotypes’ in Luis Alfaro’s Electricidad, Oedipus El Rey, and Mojada
Authors: Powers Melinda
Published: September 2018

This chapter examines the process of ‘executing stereotypes’ (Brian Eugenio Herrera’s term for challenging stereotypes of Latinxs) in Luis Alfaro’s productions of Electricidad at the Mark Taper Forum, Los Angeles (2005), Oedipus El Rey at the Dallas Theater Center (2014), and Mojada at the Getty Center, Los Angeles (2015), revisions of Sophocles’ Electra and Oedipus Tyrannus, and Euripides’ Medea respectively. These productions work to ‘take back’ stereotypes through the use of humour combined with poignant social commentary. In so doing, Alfaro draws on the Chicanx performance traditions of carpa and tanda to laugh at and thereby dismantle the stereotypes associated with assimilation, as he deftly portrays the connections between ancient Greek tragedy and the struggles faced by cholxs and undocumented workers. However, despite the playwright’s aim of empowering these communities, the performances may also have inadvertently served to reinforce the very stereotypes against which the production wanted to work.
Italy and the Early Middle Ages
Authors: Balzaretti Ross , Barrow Julia , Skinner Patricia
Published: September 2018

The Introduction situates the chapters within the frame of Chris Wickham’s own trajectory of scholarship. It emphasizes Chris’s commitment to working across national linguistic and historiographical boundaries, and outlines how the editors to arrange the chapters so that they respond not only to Chris’s more recent, pan-European studies, but also to specifics of his archival work on Tuscany, including his work on dispute settlement. The introduction highlights the problems of written records, as well as the importance of new archaeological data for examining the late Roman transition and settlement patterns. Finally, it highlights the utility of looking for comparisons, for which Chris is rightly celebrated.
Chris—An Appreciation
Authors: Nelson Jinty
Published: September 2018

A survey of Chris’s development as a scholar, with a focus on the different stages of his publication career.
Lodare ‘il Wickham’
Authors: Rocca Cristina La
Published: September 2018

An appreciation of Chris Wickham’s place among his Italian colleagues in history and archaeology, and work with Riccardo Francovich.
Social Cohesion, Breaks, and Transformations in Italy, 535–600
Authors: Pohl Walter
Published: September 2018

When the Gothic War began in Italy in 535, the country still conserved many features of classical culture and late antique administration. Much of that was lost in the political upheavals of the following decades. Building on Chris Wickham’s work, this contribution sketches an integrated perspective of these changes, attempting to relate the contingency of events to the logic of long-term change, discussing political options in relation to military and economic means, and asking in what ways the erosion of consensus may be understood in a cultural and religious context. What was the role of military entrepreneurs of more or less barbarian or Roman extraction in the distribution or destruction of resources? How did Christianity contribute to the transformation of ancient society? The old model of barbarian invasions can contribute little to understanding this complex process. It is remarkable that for two generations, all political strategies in Italy ultimately failed.
The Roman Origins of the Northumbrian Kingdom
Authors: Wood Ian
Published: September 2018

The origins of Northumbria have received very much less attention than those of southern English kingdoms, for which Bede, the Historia Brittonum and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle preserve origin legends. By contrast there is no origin legend recounting the arrival of Angles or Saxons from the continent in the area north of the Humber. Moreover, the archaeological record suggests a far smaller influx of migrants to the North than to the South. The excavations at Birdoswald, however, suggest continuity through the fifth and sixth centuries, while the written and epigraphic evidence suggests that there was a significantly Germanic element to the Wall-zone population even before the sixth century. As limitanei, rather than comitatenses, these would not have been taken out of Britannia by Constantine III in 406. The Bernicii are likely, therefore, to have been largely formed out of a regrouping of forces already on the Wall before 410. Similarly, there are some indications that the core of the Deiri included groups already based in the York/Malton region in the late Roman Empire. The transformation of the remnants of the Roman army, which would have been partially Germanic, may well explain how an Anglian kingdom of Northumbrian could emerge, with very little in the way of immigration.
Travail, salaire et pauvreté au moyen âge
Authors: Feller Laurent
Published: September 2018

Hired working is a topic rarely dealt with by medievalists. It is nevertheless a central matter: beside the corvée and the range of constraints that goes with the seigniorial system, wages play an important part in the organization of rural or urban working. In the first place, every kind of work, even constrained work, has a cost. This ranges from the material organization of the tasks to the offering of a meal or to the payment of a monetary counterpart in exchange for the work. These features are compensations for the time passed in the fields or in the workshop and for the strength and skill used to satisfy the demands of the master. The fact that this cost is not necessarily, and never entirely, monetized is a barrier to thinking that between tenth and fifteenth centuries work could be considered a mere commodity whose wage is a price. The existence of counterparts in working means that there are reciprocal obligations: this fits well with an economic system in which acts and things can be valued according to social or political circumstances. Hired working appears to have been part of the seigniorial system from its very beginnings, as a marginal but useful way to obtain work from free workers. The way in which the different tasks are remunerated, and not only the amounts concerned, reveal the hierarchies in working: there is a gap between the gold given once a year to an architect (or to a professor at a university) and the bullion used to pay workers once a week on construction sites. The ways of remunerating work can be very complicated, mixing payments in cash and in kind. These payments show a considerable confusion in the conception of what the remuneration consists of: different words are used, even in the same contexts, to indicate the same economic reality, especially in rural contexts where the remuneration can involve clothes, cash, food, and accommodation. In the end, salary and poverty appear to be closely linked in the mentalities as well as in the social and economic reality. Hired working, salary, and misery are clearly three interrelated features of the medieval economic and social reality.
Riflessioni sulle economie dei secoli X e XI
Authors: Molinari Alessandra
Published: September 2018

Chris Wickham has recently turned his attention to the economic and social transformations of the central Middle Ages. In the same period relations between the Christian and Muslim worlds have been presented primarily in terms of holy war or raids, and hardly ever framed in economic terms. Archaeology can help to answer questions about exchange routes, systems of production and settlement patterns, and pottery provides a key element in reconstructing the complexity of pre-modern economic networks. In this paper I want to compare two case studies. I will first examine the role of Palermo in the internal economy of Sicily and beyond. Recent excavations have provided much new information on the Muslim and Christian periods in its history, and particularly on the city’s planned growth and development as a centre of pottery production and export in the tenth century. I will then turn to the archaeological evidence for Rome, which Chris has described as the most complex city between the tenth and twelfth centuries, both economically and socially, in the whole Italian peninsula. In fact, based on the material evidence, Rome was far less complex than Palermo, and unlike Milan, it failed to take off economically in the thirteenth century. Chris has suggested that the success of the latter city was due to its specialized products, local exchange system and connections with a hierarchy of smaller settlements in the locality. Whilst the archaeological evidence for Milan is much scarcer, these features can usefully be tested as a model against which to compare other cities. Comparing Rome and Palermo it is the Sicilian city that can be said to have had the more vibrant economy, with its exports to multiple rural centres some distance away. Whilst a recent conference has underlined the existence of specialized artisans serving Rome’s elite and its numerous pilgrims, unlike Palermo it did not base its economy on production and mercantile activities.
Reframing Norman Italy
Authors: Carocci Sandro
Published: September 2018

This chapter relies on the results of a recently published book, in which the author carried out the first systematic analysis of lordship in the Kingdom of Sicily during the Norman, Staufen, and early Angevin periods. Peasant worlds of hitherto unsuspected dynamism are at the heart of the chapter, as well as kings determined to curb the aristocratic authority and nobles forced to adapt their seigneurial power to both the forces at work in rural societies and royal policy. Among the many elements that favoured village society, the chapter focuses only on the size of seigneurial exactions, the superficial, external character of seigneurial power, and clientele relations within the villages.
Disputed Possession, Legal Process, and Memory in Thirteenth-Century Lombardy
Authors: Coleman Edward
Published: September 2018

On 3 March 1193, in the episcopal palace of Piacenza, in the presence of the bishop of Piacenza and a papal legate (Cardinal Peter of S. Cecilia), Gandolfo, abbot of the Piacentine monastery of S. Sisto, presented a copy of an imperial diploma of the emperor Louis II, dated 4 November 862. The document recorded the donation of the curtes of Guastalla and Luzzara to Louis’ wife, the empress Angilberga, who subsequently left the same lands to the monastery in her will. Abbot Gandolfo stated that the lost original of the imperial diploma had been furnished with a golden seal and three monks of S. Sisto testified on oath that they had read the document and seen and touched the seal. This event marked the beginning of a bitter dispute lasting three decades between the monastery of S. Sisto and the commune of Cremona over possession of Guastalla and Luzzara. Before it was finally resolved in 1227 it attracted the attention of three popes (Innocent III, Honorius III, and Gregory IX), two emperors (Otto IV and Frederick II), three papal legates (including Ugolino da Segni, the future Pope Gregory IX) as well as a large cast of Lombard bishops and abbots employed as papal judges-delegate. It arose principally as a result of Cremona’s attempt to gain control of an area on the south-eastern periphery of its territory or contado. This was not unusual in northern Italy in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries: powerful city communes were everywhere trying to push the boundaries of their political, fiscal, and judicial authority up to, and sometimes beyond, traditionally recognized limits. The Guastalla–Luzzara case is an extremely well-documented instance of this trend: 250 documents relating to it are transcribed together, more or less in sequence, in an early thirteenth-century register of the commune of Cremona known as Codice A. This documentary record reveals in detail the various strategies adopted by the commune of Cremona to achieve its goals and allows the historian to view the dispute against the complicated background of political alliances, power relationships, and war in the Po plain during this period. Moreover, such is the richness of documentation that the case also throws up numerous vivid details of human interest.
Garden Cities in Early Medieval Italy
Authors: Goodson Caroline
Published: September 2018

It is a commonplace assumption that the medieval cities were ‘ruralized’ by the presence of vegetable patches, fields, and livestock. Historians and archaeologists have often taken evidence for agricultural cultivation in urban spaces as indicators of the breakdown of medieval urban fabric and economies, but urban gardens were not simply by-products of decline or devolution. They were created because people living in the city wanted fresh fruits and vegetables and dedicated space to grow them. The evidence from Italy makes clear that residential properties with access to cultivated spaces were controlled by urban elites, both private and ecclesiastical. The study of these urban vineyards, vegetable patches, and fields, through their textual and archaeological records, provides us a small window on to shifting social structures within medieval cities, the rises and falls in small-scale markets, and emerging ideals of charity. The combination of property documents with letters, narrative chronicles, and a considerable amount of recent urban archaeology make it possible to observe urban food provisioning in early medieval Italy and to relate the phenomenon of urban gardening with shifting power structures in the city.
Chestnuts in Charters
Authors: Balzaretti Ross
Published: September 2018

This chapter responds to a point which Chris Wickham raised in his recent review of my book on Dark Age Liguria: did chestnut cultivation show any economic specialization in this region in the early medieval period? Chestnuts figured a great deal in that book, which drew briefly on the surviving charter documentation for the region. In this chapter a more detailed analysis of charters from the tenth and eleventh centuries develops an answer to the question of specialized production with a comparative study in which the Genoese evidence is set alongside similar charter evidence from Milan and its region, where chestnuts were also cultivated for food. The Genoa–Milan comparison puts into practice Wickham’s advocacy of comparative method at the micro as well as at the macro scale, for regions where comparison has not historically been the norm. The comparison suggests that chestnuts were more important to the Genoese than the Milanese economy, in part for local climatic reasons but also, perhaps, because of fundamental political and social differences between these two cities. It will be shown that some charters show that the production of chestnuts was to some degree specialized, how it was specialized and what the consequences of that specialization were for each economic system.
Early Medieval Wales and Calabria
Authors: Skinner Patricia
Published: September 2018

In 2011 Chris Wickham highlighted the comparative potential in the post-Roman histories of Wales and southern Italy, commenting that ‘the changing societies in each were the result of indigenous developments alone.’ This chapter takes up the implicit challenge in that statement and discusses South Wales and Calabria utilizing three frames: topographical, economic, and literary. Topographically, the mountainous interiors demand attention not only as barriers to access, but also as places of refuge and retreat. Both areas were open to the sea, and potentially to hostile waterborne raiders. Economically, the two regions were unpromising for agriculture, but ideal for pastoralism, and also offered specific resources that were in demand by local elites. From a literary viewpoint, both regions generated stories that emphasized and used the landscape and followed their protagonists on journeys through and beyond the region. Whilst their development in the early Middle Ages may well have been identifiably indigenous, it did not occur in isolation from wider social and economic change.
Memory, Gift, and Politics
Authors: Jan Régine Le
Published: September 2018

Duchess Matilda of Tuscany is known as an Italian actress in the conflict between the Emperors and Popes during the Gregorian Reform. Since she was a cousin of the Emperor, she was also a ‘daughter of Saint Peter’, a friend of the Pope, as her mother and other great women were. During more than 30 years, she has acted as a political leader, conducting her armies and serving the interests of Rome. This paper focuses on the politics and the language of gift used by Matilda in her relationships with both Cluny and the Pope, in other terms with Saint Peter. Matilda gave her monastery of Polirone to Saint Peter of Cluny in 1080, creating bonds of friendship and Protection with the Abbots of Cluny; as she continued to make important donations to the monastery, she could make Polirone a place of memory, where she decided to be buried in a splendid monument she had made built. She also gave her treasure to the Pope and made important donations to the Church in Rome, which will be analysed in terms of politics and memory.
Como and Padua
Authors: Andrews Frances
Published: September 2018

This chapter takes as its starting point Chris Wickham’s emphasis on the importance and difficulties of comparative history (if on a small scale). It compares the engagement of viri religiosi in communal offices in two cities and their contadi in northern Italy: Padua and Como, which in the first half of the thirteenth century adopted contrasting approaches to this practice. In Como, already by 1216, otherwise unidentified fratres qui supersunt ad cartas were responsible for dealing with the commune’s creditors, and within a few decades the city’s treasurers (canevarii) were usually fratres regulares. Some rural communes in the hinterland took to using fratres in similar ways. Como’s adoption of this ‘religious’ solution to staffing key offices is precocious, but a similar pattern can be identified in the following decades in numerous northern and central Italian cities and contadi. This has, surely correctly, been linked to the rise of pro-papal guelfism in the middle of the century. By contrast, Padua seems to be an exception, with no evidence for the employment of fratres in urban office either before, during, or after the period of domination by the Ezzelini (1237–1256). Yet in the early 1200s the Ezzelini were already regionally significant leaders, and were aligned against the imperial cause. The comparison is not intended to explain a silence in the records, but as an exploration of approaches to these differences, a case-study of communal practices, political factionalism and ecclesiastical communities.
Body in Categories 6
Authors: Pfeiffer Christian
Published: September 2018

This chapter expands on the basic theory, which is presented in the Categories. It offers a treatment of the mereotopological properties of bodies, for instance, what belongs to them insofar as they are bodies of physical substances. Bodies are complete and perfect in virtue of being three‐dimensional. Body is prior to surfaces and lines and, because bodies are complete, there cannot be a four‐dimensional magnitude. The explanation offered is that certain topological properties are linked to and determined by the nature of the object in question. Body is a composite of the boundary and the interior or extension. A formal characterization of boundaries as limit entities is offered and it is argued that boundaries are dependent particulars. Similarly, the extension is ontologically dependent on bodies. Aristotle’s argument that the extension of objects is divisible into ever‐divisibles is revisited.
Conclusions
Authors: Pfeiffer Christian
Published: September 2018

The conclusion looks back over the study, which consists of two parts. Part I shows the necessity of a study of bodies and magnitudes for the project of Aristotelian physical science. An analysis of the notion of body is crucial for the physicist. Part II identifies a theory of body in Aristotle. Although Aristotle does not devote several continuous chapters in his works to an analysis of body and magnitude as he does with motion, time, and place, passages scattered over the corpus Aristotelicum offers us a unified and elegant analysis of the notion of body. This final chapter closes by situating this study in the wider context of Aristotelian scholarship.
Introduction
Authors: Giuseppe Telesca
Published: September 2018

The ambition of this book is to combine different bodies of scholarship that in the past have been interested in (1) providing social/structural analysis of financial elites, (2) measuring their influence, or (3) exploring their degree of persistence/circulation. The final goal of the volume is to investigate the adjustment of financial elites to institutional change, and to assess financial elites’ contribution to institutional change. To reach this goal, the nine chapters of the book introduced here look at financial elites’ role in different European societies and markets over time, and provide historical comparisons and country and cross-country analysis of their adaptation and contribution to the transformation of the national and international regulatory/cultural context in the wake of a crisis or in a longer term perspective.
Reshaping Strategies
Authors: Valmori Niccolò
Published: September 2018

Information and connections are essential elements of the life of market actors. In revolutionary times direct access to limited information and a strong network of connections in the political world are vital to thrive. The chapter analyses the double-sided dimension of information and political connections during the French Revolution through three case studies of merchants and bankers with interests at stake in France. Direct access to information concerning French political life allowed the banker Walter Boyd to enhance his position through his dealings with the wealthy financier Henry Hope; James Bourdieu paid a high price due to his connection with minister Jacques Necker; while the trajectory of Jean-Conrad Hottinguer demonstrates the ability of bankers to build long-lasting relations with political figures and clients during turbulent times.
Financial Elites and the Italian Corporate Network, 1913–2001
Authors: Rinaldi Alberto , Vasta Michelangelo
Published: September 2018

This chapter analyses the Italian corporate network along the twentieth century focusing on seven benchmark years (1913, 1927, 1936, 1960, 1972, 1983, and 2001). For each year, the top 250 companies (50 financial and 200 non-financial) by total assets have been selected. After showing some descriptive statistics, the chapter develops a network connectivity analysis of the system. This is integrated by a prosopographic study of the big linkers, defined as those directors who had the highest number of board positions in each year. The big linkers who held directorships in both banks and industrial firms functioned as the nation’s financial elite. These relationships were assured for a long time principally by industrialists and financiers. Bankers surged to a prominent position only at the end of the century, after the massive privatizations of the 1990s.
French Bankers and the Transformation of the Financial System in the Second Half of the Twentieth Century
Authors: Quennouëlle-Corre Laure
Published: September 2018

The purpose of this chapter is to reassess the role of French financial elites, especially bankers, in the second half of the twentieth century. The first part of the chapter examines the commercial banks’ strategies concentrating on the three decades following the Second Word War, characterized by an increased level of state intervention and strict regulation in financial affairs. The second part considers the post-1981 period, marked by a double policy change, when the Socialists came to power before being displaced by the Right in 1986. These upheavals had a direct impact on the financial sector and raise the question of the role of the financial elites: how did they react to the nationalizations and then the liberalization of the financial system? Was their position enhanced or diminished by these transformations?
Trust and Regulation in Corporate Capital Markets before 1914
Authors: Hannah Leslie
Published: September 2018

Historians have struggled to explain how stock markets could develop—with notable vigour in many countries before 1914—before modern shareholder protections were legally mandated. Trust networks among local elites—and/or information signalling to public investors—substituted for legal regulation, but this chapter suggests real limits to such processes. They are especially implausible when applied to giant companies with ownership substantially divorced from control, of which there were many with—nationally and internationally—dispersed shareholdings. In London—the largest pre-1914 securities market—strong supplementary supports for market development were provided by mandatory requirements for transparency and anti-director rights in UK statutory companies and by low new issue fees. There were also stringent London Stock Exchange requirements for other companies wanting the liquidity benefits of official listing. Shareholder rights were similarly achieved in Brazil and other countries and colonies dependent on British capital.
Financial Elites, Law, and Regulation
Authors: Arvind T. T. , Gray Joanna , Wilson Sarah
Published: September 2018

This chapter considers the often-ignored role of legal elites—practitioners, judges, arbitrators, and academics—in shaping and legitimizing modern finance. The financial crisis of 2007 involved legal innovation as much as it involved financial innovation, and this pattern is not new. Legal history shows us a constant trend, going back at least as far as the seventeenth century, of financial elites working through and with legal actors to reshape, extend, and repurpose legal concepts, categories, and understandings in ways that better serve the ends they seek to pursue. This chapter uses a historical analysis to consider who these legal actors are; the role they play within networks of financial elites and the financial system; how they influence understandings of what is and what is not permissible, possible, or legitimate within the framework of law; and how the law might be structured to ameliorate the most deleterious effects of their influence.
Basel Banking Supervisors and the Construction of an International Standard-Setter Institution
Authors: Drach Alexis Frédéric
Published: September 2018

From the 1970s on, banking supervision grew in size and importance. Which were the characteristics of the regulatory elite leading this activity? Based on archival material from central banks and supervisory institutions and on a collective biography analysis, this chapter explores the profile of the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision members, their role in the construction of an international regulatory institution, and some of their first achievements. It shows that some Basel Committee members were deeply involved in transnational networks of governance, others used their experience as banking supervisor in the private sector, while still others had a more national-centred career and stayed in the central banking or banking supervision sector. The Basel Committee members were the elite of banking supervisors. Over time, their committee evolved from a club to a standard-setter institution, illustrating the newly acquired influence both of banking supervision and experts and expertise in international financial governance.
The Value of Ancient Children
Authors: Flynn Shawn W.
Published: September 2018

This chapter reviews previous scholarship on children in the Hebrew Bible and identifies successes and common methods, but also some gaps. Children have rarely been considered a valid interpretive lens for elucidating biblical texts. No study has yet undertaken to examine the stages of a child’s life. While many of the historically based studies begin to suggest discussions of a child’s value, they do not explore those further. To begin the discussion, the chapter takes a linguistic analysis of terms for children both in Mesopotamian literature and the Hebrew Bible to begin framing the stages while demonstrating the fruits of the comparative methods.
Introduction
Authors: Clark Nicola
Published: September 2018

The Introduction outlines the historiographical context for this study and introduces the Howards. It argues that we need to appreciate the importance of the Howard women, but that we can only fully understand this by placing them in their many contexts: at court as well as at home, as sisters and cousins as well as wives and mothers; and by appreciating the interaction and intersection of their full kaleidoscope of identities, as Howards, as evangelical, conservative, or otherwise in religion, as subjects of the crown, as both patronesses and petitioners. None of these categories is sufficient explanation of their role taken in isolation, and all need to be seen side by side. This highlights the ongoing need to integrate women into sixteenth-century political historiography, and also a need to nuance our understanding of the triangular relationship between elite women, the aristocratic dynasty, and the early modern state.
‘Trashe baguaige and many od endes’
Authors: Clark Nicola
Published: September 2018

For elites, material culture told their dynastic story and was also used to construct, or re-construct, it. Women’s place in this remains complex. They were much more likely to own and control objects like jewels, clothes, and furniture than they were land or property. They were also involved in the production, design, and purchase of these objects, and there are definably female patterns of exchange throughout society. However, the use of material culture is often considered as a collective enterprise within families like the Howards. Though many scholars maintain that a woman’s primary role was to support their husband’s family, material evidence for the Howards shows that they were able to use objects to transmit their complex accumulation of familial identities. In doing so, they also used material culture to enhance their social standing, to secure political alliance, and to cement ties of familial affection and friendship, thereby revealing an intense level of direct agency.
‘To wise for a woman’
Authors: Clark Nicola
Published: September 2018

While there were clear strategic aims in the way that marriages were made in the Howard dynasty during this period, the family was only unusual in that it operated at the very top of the aristocratic hierarchy and was therefore able to use marital alliances to successfully recover and bolster both status and finances. Where they were different, however, was in the experience of some of these women within marriage. By and large, the marriages made by and for members of the family, including women, seem to have been as successful as others of their class. However, three women close to the core of the dynasty experienced severe marital problems, even ‘failed’ marriages, almost simultaneously during the 1520s and 1530s. The records generated by these episodes tell us about the way in which the family operated as a whole, and the agency of women in this context, and this chapter therefore reconstructs these disputes for this purpose.
‘Yll name or fame’
Authors: Clark Nicola
Published: September 2018

This book has already shown that ‘family’ was not a simple thing for women. Which family, natal or marital, were they supposed to promote first and foremost, and what if they had to choose one above the other, or if interests clashed? The question of loyalties is one that is rarely formally considered, but it was brought sharply into focus for women at court during Henry VIII’s reign. Yet again, this rests on the way in which we define ‘a Howard woman’, and the elasticity of kinship. This chapter explores this from the perspective of the royal court, shedding new light on some well-known episodes and bringing out some of the difficulties faced by female Howard courtiers across this period.
Epilogue
Authors: Clark Nicola
Published: September 2018

The Howard dynasty tumbled dramatically from its position of power and favour at the very end of Henry VIII’s reign in 1546 with the arrest and imprisonment (until 1553) of the family patriarch Thomas Howard, Third Duke of Norfolk, and the arrest and subsequent execution (in January 1547) of his son and heir Henry, Earl of Surrey. The ‘fall of the Howards’ is often considered to have set the tone for the Howard family’s fortunes until Mary I’s accession in 1553, and is thus of considerable importance to the dynasty’s post-Henrician narrative. Beginning with an analysis of this episode, this epilogue explores the activities and experiences of the Howard women from the end of Henry VIII’s reign onwards, until the accession of Elizabeth in 1558, at which point a new generation of Howard women flooded into the new Queen’s household.
Conclusion
Authors: Clark Nicola
Published: September 2018

The conclusion draws together the key themes of the book in order to raise the question of the existence of any form of ‘family strategy’ among dynasties like the Howards. The actions of these women suggest that there were sometimes coherent group strategies, most discernibly in efforts to evade life-threatening legal convictions, or, more usually but less obviously, in attempts to augment the family’s fortunes by promoting family and clients. Among the Howards, however, collective strategy was rare. The conclusion also reflects on the role of the women of the dynasty in perpetuating dynastic identity. Families and individuals were themselves responsible for writing and rewriting their own dynastic history, and, therefore, their dynastic identity. Women could be the source of its creation, its subject, and the means by which it was passed on. It also shows that throughout the early modern period, a Howard woman remained a Howard woman no matter how many marriages she experienced.
Unfit to Stand Trial Canadian Law and Practice
Authors: Ferguson Gerry
Published: September 2018

This chapter examines the Canadian law of fitness to stand trial, which has remained largely the same since its codification in 1992. It examines two major weaknesses of that law. First, the statutory definition of unfit to stand trial is unduly narrow. Secondly, the disposition imposed on the accused after a finding of unfitness still allows, at least theoretically, for indefinite detention. The chapter also analyses existing data on the actual length of detention for unfit accused. Other reform issues are also examined in this chapter. For example, is it time for Canada to abolish the practice of fitness to stand trial verdicts being made by juries rather than judges? And should Canada raise the standard of proof to ‘beyond a reasonable doubt’ when the issue of unfit to stand trial is alleged solely by the Crown?
Competency to Stand Trial in Italy
Authors: Cadoppi Alberto , Celva Mattia
Published: September 2018

This chapter assesses competency to stand trial in Italian Criminal Procedure, using a two-pronged analysis. First, there is analysis of the relevant provisions of the Italian Code of Criminal Procedure (CCP). Pursuant to these provisions, the trial must be suspended in case the defendant is not capable of meaningful participation. The CCP also regulates various aspects connected to this incapacity. In particular, it sets forth the grounds on which the suspension must be granted and provides for the means through which the incompetency should be ascertained, if not immediately apparent. The picture painted by the Code is complex and many of these provisions have been challenged as unconstitutional in front of the Constitutional Court, with different results. The chapter focuses on such problems, in order to illustrate the approach of the Constitutional Court, as well as examining the solutions proposed by legal scholarship, including the definition of incapacity.
Fitness to Stand Trial under International Criminal Law
Authors: Freckelton Ian , Karagiannakis Magda
Published: September 2018

This chapter analyses the international criminal law jurisprudence on fitness to stand trial. It examines the mental and physical disorders that have been asserted in international criminal proceedings for defendants accused of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. It exposes the processes by which fitness is determined and distils the legal standards that international courts have utilised and the consequences of unfitness by international courts. The chapter canvasses the introduction of more nuanced and psychiatrically informed criteria for fitness determinations. It also proposes the introduction of adequately resourced secure facilities for the confinement of persons found unfit to stand trial in order to reduce the incentives for the assertion of questionable unfitness claims, and encourages consideration of the introduction of special hearings for those found unfit in order to advance the overall aims of international criminal justice.
Two Questions about Interpretive Effects
Authors: Stainton Robert J. , Viger Christopher
Published: September 2018

Our exposition is framed around two questions: What interpretive effects can linguistic utterances have? What causes those effects? Lepore and Stone make an empirical case that some effects are contributions to the public record of a conversation determined by linguistic conventions—following Lewis—while non-contributions (our term) produced by imagination offer no determinate content—following Davidson. They thereby replace the old semantics–pragmatics divide by eliminating conversational implicature altogether. We critique Lepore and Stone’s position on empirical grounds, presenting cases in which contributions are made non-conventionally. We also critique their view methodologically, presenting a dilemma by which they either cannot handle many cases using their framework or they do so in an ad hoc fashion. We conclude by suggesting Relevance Theory as an alternative that follows Lepore and Stone’s purported methodology and handles many of their empirical cases.