bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Gender and Bodies
Authors: Kwan Samantha , Haltom Trenton M.
Published: February 2020

Scholars from various disciplines (anthropology, gender studies, history, philosophy, and sociology, among others) have written about gender and bodies. The interdisciplinary nature of this topic has resulted in scholarship on many different aspects of the body across the life course. The works included here are foundational to knowledge about the gendered body and particularly the sociology of the body. Moreover, they exhibit intersectionality and begin with the assumption that social constructs such as race, ethnicity, class, sexuality, age, and dis/ability intersect with gender to shape life experiences, social outcomes, and self-concept. While there are many areas that fall under the topic of gender and bodies (such as medicalization, sport, disability, gendered violence, sexual practices, and eating disorders) this article focuses particularly on theory and research on the social construction of female and male bodies, as well as bodies that disrupt sex, gender, and sexuality binaries, i.e., intersex and LGBTQ Bodies. Specifically, there is an abundance of scholarship that examines how social and cultural structures patrol normative femininities and hegemonic masculinities thereby reinforcing binary understandings of sex and gender. Nonetheless, there is some work that emphasizes the undoing of gender, social activism, and embodied resistance. Writings on gendered constructs and the body also examine how some bodies are privileged over others, showing a body hierarchy based on, for example, beauty, skin tone, and body size that furnishes some people with physical capital while disadvantaging others. Finally, the article acknowledges research and theory that engages labor-related processes about the body; the body as a modification project (including body building, tattooing, and Cosmetic Surgery); and the role of medical and other technologies on gendered bodies and lives.
Race in Global Perspective
Authors: Vergara-Figueroa Aurora
Published: February 2020

Race and racism are key analytical constructs that express fundamental issues not only of power and inequality, but also of justice, democracy, equity, and emancipation. The study of race in the social sciences is an established, dynamic, multidisciplinary, and international field. Work began at the end of the 19th century. To study race with a global perspective, it is necessary to have a transdisciplinary view to read critically the phenomena that intersect with this variable. This field includes contributions from sociology, history, philosophy, legal studies, anthropology, cultural studies, political science, epidemiology, and journalism, among others. Several declarations have been made in recent years about the alleged end of racism or the end of a race-coded era. However, even though they are not new, every time they resurge these doxas underline new regimes of truth, reconfigure racisms, and strength inequality. The vast literature produced by scholars in this field provides evidence of how race is based on narratives created to enslave, subordinate, exploit, and exclude millions of human beings across the globe.
Causal Inference
Authors: Geraldo Bastías Pablo , Brand Jennie E.
Published: February 2020

Causal inference is a growing interdisciplinary subfield in statistics, computer science, economics, epidemiology, and the social sciences. In contrast with both traditional quantitative methods and cutting-edge approaches like machine learning, causal inference questions are defined in relation to potential outcomes, or variable values that are counterfactual to the observed world and therefore cannot be answered from joint probabilities alone, even with infinite data. The fact that one can possibly observe at most one potential outcome among those of interest is known as the “fundamental problem of causal inference.” For example, in this framework, the economic return to college education can be defined as a comparison between two potential outcomes: the wages of an individual with a college education versus the wages that the same individual would have received had he or she not attended college. In general, researchers are interested in estimating such effects for certain groups and comparing the effects for different subpopulations. Critical to causal inference is recognizing that, to answer causal questions from observed data, one has to rely on untestable assumptions about how the data were generated. In other words, there is no particular statistical method that would render a conclusion “causal”; the validity of such an interpretation depends on a combination of data, assumptions about the data-generating process based on expert judgment, and estimation techniques. In the last several decades, our understanding of causality has improved enormously, owing to a conceptual apparatus and a mathematical language that enables rigorous conceptualization of causal quantities and formal representation of causal assumptions, while still employing familiar statistical methods. Potential outcomes or the Neyman-Rubin causal model and structural equations encoded as directed acyclic graphs (DAGs, also known as structural causal models) are two common approaches for conceptualizing causal relationships. The symbiosis of both languages offers a powerful framework to address causal questions. This review covers developments in both causal identification (i.e., deciding if a quantity of interest would be recoverable from infinite data, based on our assumptions) and causal effect estimation (i.e., the use of statistical methods to approximate that answer with finite, although potentially big, data). The literature is presented following the type of assumptions and questions frequently encountered in empirical research, ending with a discussion of promising new directions in the field.
Gender and Crime
Authors: Spina Francesca
Published: February 2020

Scholars and practitioners paid little attention to the subject of gender and crime until the 1960s. However, this topic began to gain attention as a result of the political and social changes of the women’s movement, as well as the civil rights movement. Prior to that, men engaging in crime was the norm, and women who engaged in crime were seen as anomalies. Criminology scholars started to think of gender and crime differently, recognizing how the vastness of this topic could lead to opportunities in this previously under-researched area. Researchers began examining issues related to inequality, differences in offending between men and women, and female victims of male violence. In the 21st century, scholars often focus on intersectionality, taking the effects of race/ethnicity, class, sexuality, and other factors into consideration. Furthermore, research on gender and crime also examines the different pathways men and women have into crime. Consequently, it is important to research prevention and treatment programs that address female offenders’ unique needs, including histories of childhood trauma, mental illness, and substance abuse. Finally, as more women are entering the field of criminal justice, research has focused on some of the challenges they face in law enforcement and legal professions.
Religion and the Public Sphere
Authors: Brennan Michael , Stypinska Diana
Published: February 2020

Religion in the public sphere (hereafter RPS) refers to the intermingling of religion with issues of politics, governance, the state, and institutions of civil society. That it is a topic of interest to academics across the humanities and social sciences is itself a reflection of the gradual separation—over many centuries—of religion from public affairs in modern, largely secular, societies of the West. The readmission of religion to the public sphere raises several key issues, not least around secularization (and the extent to which religion has been disassociated from public life and policymaking), but also about the resurgence of religious conservatism as an attempt to close the gap opened up in modernity between religion and politics. The renewal of interest in religion as a social, cultural, and political force—a feature of what some are now calling the “post-secular”—has proved especially contentious in diverse, multifaith liberal democracies, where attempts to divorce religion from public life can be seen to undermine the inclusion of religious minorities and the expression of religious identities. Academic interest in the intersection between religion and public life has been concentrated largely among sociologists (of religion) and political scientists. The revival of religion in the public sphere confounds a widely held assumption among modern social and political theorists; namely, that religion would wither as a feature of public life as societies underwent a process of modernization—and where religion continued to exist at all, it would be confined to the private, domestic sphere and that of individual belief. Particular interest has been generated by controversies that expose the vexed nature of attempts to limit or bar the admission of religion in public life; such as the 1962 ruling by the US Supreme Court removing prayer from public schools (in the spirit of the First Amendment of the US Constitution), or, more recently, the banning of religious headscarves (and other “ostentatious” symbols of religion) from public schools in 2004 by the French authorities (in the spirit of secularism—or laïcité) enshrined in Article 1 of the French Constitution). Attempts to undo the “wall of separation” between religion and state first envisioned by Thomas Jefferson can be seen in attempts by American religious conservatives to overturn “progressive” legislation on abortion, gay rights, and same-sex marriage. Recent opposition in the United Kingdom by Muslim conservatives to LGBT education in public schools illustrates the sensitivities and tensions surrounding expressions of RPS in contemporary Western societies.
Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Research Sampling Strategies
Authors: Guetterman Timothy C.
Published: February 2020

Sampling is a critical, often overlooked aspect of the research process. The importance of sampling extends to the ability to draw accurate inferences, and it is an integral part of qualitative guidelines across research methods. Sampling considerations are important in quantitative and qualitative research when considering a target population and when drawing a sample that will either allow us to generalize (i.e., quantitatively) or go into sufficient depth (i.e., qualitatively). While quantitative research is generally concerned with probability-based approaches, qualitative research typically uses nonprobability purposeful sampling approaches. Scholars generally focus on two major sampling topics: sampling strategies and sample sizes. Or simply, researchers should think about who to include and how many; both of these concerns are key. Mixed methods studies have both qualitative and quantitative sampling considerations. However, mixed methods studies also have unique considerations based on the relationship of quantitative and qualitative research within the study.
Media and Time
Authors: Fordyce Robbie
Published: February 2020

The shift to electronic computing that began slowly in the late 20th century, and has only become more widespread since, was the core of a global media infrastructure. This agglomeration of technologies, devices, protocols, users, signals, networks, and cables has become the reference point for a contemporary idea of an economy of speed. The internet is ‘fast’ and ‘instantaneous,’ enabling ‘simultaneous’ communication that folds into a ‘24/7’ online culture that is always online. Speed is underwritten by a sense of permanence, both in the idea that metadata traces are left in indelible ink for corporate platforms to retain for their big data analytics in perpetuity, and the popular culture idiom that ‘once something is on the internet, it cannot be deleted.’ Data is far less permanent than any idiom would suggest. The internet’s capacity to send information instantaneously is not uniform. Indeed even the idea that it is simultaneous is a very anthropic perspective on the matter, given that individual computers may send data encapsulated in different protocols which themselves have different relationships to speed, order, and efficiency. The internet is presently the most visible and most prevalent of current media systems, and it has impacted the temporal character of our relationships with each other. Not only have humans used a range of media at different periods throughout history, we also presently use a wide variety of media that have different relationships to time, different relationships to the past. Accordingly, media have affected our own perceptions of time in different ways: from the workplace, to interpersonal communication, through shaping our perspective of history and culture, to reflecting on the possibility of what could have been, and creating mechanisms for us to preserve something of ourselves into the future. The study of media vis a vis time has its foundations in the works of a number of key scholars including from fields of study in philosophy, economics, and sociology of science. Key developments in the study of media tend to focus on how the temporal affordances of media rearrange aspects of the economy or of daily life, with a significant focus on how temporal media shape personal experiences of work and labor. The field of media archaeology has emerged relatively recently as a methodology for understanding the social location of media technology of the past, and has quickly developed an enthusiastic community with a rigorous research agenda. This entry broadly covers a number of key scholarly contributions to the study of time in the context of media.
Ethnography Apps and Games
Authors: Collins Samuel Gerald
Published: February 2020

Although there are numerous precedents in the history of anthropology, the presence of apps and games in ethnography has been a relatively recent development in the field. This essay looks to contemporary examples of apps and games in ethnographic methods and ethnographic dissemination, and contextualizes their growth in that of multimedia and multimodal anthropology. Their inclusion in the ethnographic process reflects a realization that traditional forms of public dissemination (articles, books, and films) may not be the only way to engage anthropological publics, both in the field and in the classroom. In this way, they suggest powerful alternatives to other media structured along asymmetrical relationships between anthropologists and their interlocutors. Accordingly, this essay looks to both the possibilities and pitfalls of apps and games for emergent anthropologies.
History of Society for Visual Anthropology
Authors: Takaragawa Stephanie
Published: February 2020

The Society for Visual Anthropology (SVA) was founded as a section of the American Anthropological Association (AAA) in 1984 to encourage the development and use of visual media in anthropological research and teaching. The adoption of photographic technology, along with film and video, into anthropological practice informed the development of a visual anthropology early on, but visual media were not formally incorporated into anthropological and ethnographic research until the 1970s, through predecessors of SVA to be discussed in depth in this article. SVA was developed largely by North American anthropologists who identified the growing importance of visual media to anthropological studies, and argued for greater critical awareness in the implementation of their use. SVA continues to be an active subsection of the AAA, as well as producing the journal Visual Anthropology Review (VAR). In the journal American Anthropologist (AA), SVA contributed heavily to the ethnographic film section beginning in the 1960s and continues to contribute through the newly renamed Multimodal Anthropology section. In addition to serving as a forum for members interested in visual anthropology, SVA has advocated the use of visual media for satisfying promotion and tenure requirements. In 2001, AAA formally approved guidelines created by SVA for the professional evaluation of ethnographic visual media, to assist in the tenure and promotion processes for anthropologists working with and producing visual materials. Historical documents of the SVA have been archived at the Smithsonian National Anthropological Archives in Suitland, Maryland by SVA Historian Joanna Cohan Scherer. SVA developed from the Society for the Anthropology of Visual Communication (SAVICOM).
Grass
Authors: Malek Amy
Published: February 2020

Seeking to capture a “natural drama” of epic proportions, in 1924 three American explorers spurred by wanderlust—Merian C. Cooper, Ernest Schoedsack, and Marguerite Harrison—traveled to the Middle East and filmed the semiannual migration of the Bakhtiari tribes and their flocks from winter to summer pastures. Filmed over forty-six days and only two years after the release of Nanook of the North (1922), the result became Grass: A Nation’s Battle for Life (1925). Unlike Nanook, the majority of the captivating shots that formed Grass were neither set up nor reenacted, nor could they be: the film documents the movement of an estimated 50,000 people and 500,000 animals crossing treacherous icy rivers, climbing harrowing steep cliffs, and undertaking barefoot hikes up the snowy terrain of the Zagros mountains of southwestern Iran. Critically, the film garnished generally positive reviews, but reviewers at the time repeatedly described the film as incomplete, bemoaning the lack of a central family, a romance, or a complete classical narrative—criticisms also leveled by both Cooper and Schoedsack. Despite an intent to film the return migration several months later to fill in these gaps, a lack of resources forced the filmmakers to make do with what they had captured. Padded with travelogue footage and intertitles to reach feature-length by Paramount, the migration itself is represented in the second half of Grass, highlighted by Schoedsack’s graceful compositions of long shots depicting the zigzag lines of migrating families and herds along breathtaking cliffs and across raging rivers. The lowlights, however, include Orientalist, essentializing, overdramatic, and wisecracking titles that reveal a problematic racial ideology and a self-congratulatory depiction of the heroism of the filmmakers, leading the Bakhtiari to be viewed by Western audiences as noble savages and primitive ancestors. Despite these shortcomings, Grass is counted among the first documentary films, valued for its cinematic innovations and ethnographic contributions, and it has inspired numerous Iranian filmmakers to document tribal migrations in the 20th century. Historians of ethnographic film frequently cite Grass alongside Nanook as the earliest films to document indigenous groups’ practices; they also almost uniformly describe Grass as ethnographic by accident or in spite of itself. Meanwhile, film historians have routinely considered Cooper and Schoedsack’s “natural dramas” filmed in Iran, Thailand, Indonesia, and East Africa as forming a crucial trajectory from thrill-seeking explorers to innovators on Hollywood soundstages, culminating in their most famous film, King Kong (Atlanta: Turner Home Entetainment).
Museum Studies
Authors: Simmons John E. , Latham Kiersten F.
Published: February 2020

This article is on museum studies, not on museums. Museum studies is defined as the interdisciplinary engagement in critical examination of the history, functions, and roles of museums in society. Although the name museum studies began to be used in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom in the late 1960s and early 1970s, an older term, museology, is more commonly used in non-English speaking countries and is a more appropriate and descriptive term for the field, despite the widespread use of museum studies. In this article, museology and museum studies are used synonymously. When Jay Rounds set out, nearly in the 1990s, to empirically determine whether museum studies had a core body of literature, he did so among skeptics who claimed the field was underdeveloped and lacked a foundation of knowledge. The results of Rounds’s analysis contradicted these assertions and revealed a substantial core literature and a significant body of discipline-specific knowledge. Over the last two decades, the museological knowledge base and quantity of core literature continued to grow exponentially. Museum studies has a robust foundation and a diverse, healthy, growing body of core literature. Since their origin in the late 1700s, modern museums have evolved and diversified extensively, but the museum profession did not emerge as a distinct field of endeavor until the early 1900s. Nevertheless, the earliest museological publications date back to the precursors of modern museums in the mid-1500s. Far and away most of the bibliographic growth in museum studies has occurred in the last three decades, resulting in a historically sparse, but contemporaneously rich, museological literature.
Polysemy
Authors: Falkum Ingrid Lossius , Vicente Agustin
Published: February 2020

A word is said to be polysemous when it is associated with two or several related senses (e.g., a straight line/a washing on a line/a line of bad decisions; lose a wallet/lose a relative; a handsome man/a handsome gift). It is distinguished from monosemy, where a word form is associated with a single meaning, and homonymy, where a single word form is associated with two or several unrelated meanings (e.g., the ‘financial institution’ and ‘riverside’ meanings of bank). Although the distinctions between polysemy, monosemy, and homonymy may seem clear at an intuitive level, they have proven difficult to draw in practice. Some problems are how to count senses or meanings; how to decide whether two senses are related, and in which way they are related; and how to tell apart polysemy from pragmatic effects that affect lexical meanings. Some tests have been proposed in the literature, but such tests do not give uniform results, in part because there are different ways in which an expression can be polysemous. There is an emerging consensus concerning the following “minimal” taxonomy of polysemy, such that the polysemy a word displays can belong to at least one of the following patterns: (i) irregular or accidental polysemy (e.g.,The Sun is a star/Mary is a star), (ii) regular polysemy (e.g., catch the rabbit/order the rabbit), and (iii) logical or inherent polysemy (e.g., The book is interesting/the book is heavy). The current literature approaches polysemy from different perspectives and research traditions, including lexicography, formal semantics, cognitive linguistics, distributional semantics, psycholinguistics, pragmatics, and computational linguistics.
Love and Care in the Early Years
Authors: Taggart Geoff
Published: February 2020

It is widely recognized that children who encounter sensitive and responsive interactions in their settings go on to demonstrate superior cognitive, linguistic, and social skills. At the same time, with mothers either choosing or having to work, young children can expect to spend more of their time in nonfamilial paid care of different kinds. Researchers have therefore increasingly become interested in the role which affective, nonrational skills and dispositions may play in professional practice and the place of concepts such as love, care, and compassion in embodied professional knowledge. Because of the age and vulnerability of the children, research and practice within early childhood education and care (ECEC) is extremely sensitive to the importance of child protection. Therefore, a key intention within commentary and discussion is to redefine the notions of “love” and “passion” within a professional context so that the sexual connotations are removed. Research into love and care in ECEC highlights the cultural bias which prevents it from being taken seriously as a professional undertaking. For example, the distinction between high-status education and low-status care is symptomatic of a Platonic legacy in which the life of the body is inferior to the life of the mind. Care is also associated with the supposedly nonintellectual, private, domestic work of women within patriarchy and stands in contrast to the public, remunerated work of men within the domain of reason and language. Research into the nature and cause of close, nurturing relationships between practitioners and children therefore often has the implicit aim of overcoming such dichotomies, demonstrating that the personal and public/political domains are interrelated and that “love” may be a necessary part of intelligent professional practice. All researchers agree that ECEC is a deeply gendered occupation in that the workforce is overwhelmingly female. This state of affairs is significant since it is therefore impossible to consider the place of love and care in this practice without also considering the rights and agency of women in the labor market. Research has therefore started to make use of feminist theories, particularly a philosophical ethic of care, to justify and champion early childhood work as a form of ethical praxis, rather than as an expression of innate female biology. With this in mind, a key concern relates to the extent to which programs for pre-service practitioners can help to cultivate professional dispositions of love and care in a gender-neutral way.
Industrial, Educational, and Instructional Television and Video
Authors: Hughes Kit
Published: February 2020

For as long as television has been a darling of the commercial entertainment industries, it has been an object of interest for educators and businesses. The same can’t be said for media studies, which has long focused on the former mode—the domestic medium and the popular art—at the expense of the latter. This article corrals sources written in the 2010s from within the field, as well as research from scholars in education, sociology, management, and training. It begins with analyses of nontheatrical film used to train workers, educate students, promote capitalism, complete work processes, and other applications that television would take up beginning in the 1940s. It then addresses resources that would be equally helpful to scholars of educational and industrial television: useful television theory, archives, and trade publications. The remainder divides industrial and educational television into their own sections to allow for a more granular look at the key debates and practices articulated to each. Industrial television (ITV) comprises a wide range of uses. In the postwar era, goods producers used closed-circuit television (CCTV) to extend workers’ oversight of expanding manufacturing operations. Around the same time, larger corporations began experimenting with theater television for shareholder meetings and special training events. Videotape (1956) made television financially accessible for more companies that used the open-reel format for taped self-observation. The watershed moment for ITV was the introduction of the videocassette (the U-matic became available in 1971), which dramatically expanded both users and uses of the medium and supported an ITV-programming publishing industry. Eventually ITV—in the form of business satellite television (BTV, mid-1980s–1990s)—would provide national and international employers the capability to beam morale-boosting and informational messages to its employees in a period of globalization and worsening working conditions. Educators took advantage of many of these same televisual affordances, although to different ends. Resources here focus on educators’ experiments with novel modes of audiovisual pedagogy, as well as their attempts to bend CCTV, videotape, and broadcast to fulfill instructional needs and address crises in American public education, from teacher shortages to racialized inequalities. One of the major narrative arcs of educational television (ETV) is the battle for dedicated broadcast frequencies and the founding of American public broadcasting. Not only did these victories establish a foothold for educators within broadcasting (who continued to use the medium for direct instruction, though these applications were overwhelmed in the turn to broad cultural-uplift programming and funding shortages), they provoked debates over the capacity of commercial television to inform and educate. While PBS is well covered elsewhere, included here are sources that illustrate the contours of discussions that sought to define the meaning of “educational” television.
Disarmament in International Law
Authors: Garcia Denise
Published: February 2020

The international regulation of armaments is an important factor and a tool to achieve international peace and security. All states will gain from the value of having weapon systems either controlled or prohibited, if the control measures are well crafted, verified, and enforced. More cooperation and compliance with global norms, set by international law that limit armaments, mean more peace and security. Less coordination and no governing rules mean a more insecure world and precarious relations among states. International disarmament law, or the law of disarmament, has evolved to constitute a separate branch of international law, similar to international environmental law and international criminal law. The biggest shift in recent years has been the rise of what is called “humanitarian disarmament” and the accompanying legal framework that developed. The focus is on humanizing international security through the setting of principled, multilateral treaties that safeguard human security, not solely national security. If faithfully implemented, international regulations on arms may reduce the humanitarian impact of violence and prevent the use of weapons of mass destruction. The codification of global norms on disarmament through international law signifies progress in international relations and improves human security worldwide. This progress is based upon the foundational legal framework set up by the United Nations Charter on disarmament. One of the main functions of the convening power of the United Nations is its responsibility to progressively codify international law and allow for its evolution. Therefore, it may also exercise such role and function within the gradual and continuing role of developing disarmament law.
Belief Perseverance
Authors: Guenther Corey L. , Smith Abigail M.
Published: February 2020

People’s proclivity to passionately cling to, and advocate for, beliefs or attitudes that exist in the absence of evidentiary support manifests in a range of life domains, including politics, sports, the workplace, social media, and relationships, among others. In fact, this propensity to develop, maintain, and unwaveringly cling to one’s beliefs in the absence of sufficient evidence is one of the most well-established tendencies in the social-psychological canon. It is a tendency that contributes to numerous psychological effects, including those involved in impression formation, comparative bias, attitude persuasion, intergroup perception, and social judgment, to name a few. And just as importantly, this tendency also has significant implications for judgment and decision-making in critical applied domains, including politics, jury deliberation, and medicine. The area of research that most directly illustrates this tendency is that on belief perseverance. Initially documented in the 1960s, belief perseverance refers to the tendency to maintain held beliefs even when the evidence supporting such beliefs is fully invalidated. It is the most extreme manifestation of espousing attitudes or belief systems in the absence of objective support—they are not merely beliefs based on evidence that is difficult to muster or verify, but rather, they are beliefs that persist despite their very evidential foundation being fully discredited as factually false. Since its initial conceptualization, research on belief perseverance has explored various mechanisms underlying the effect, moderating factors that influence the effect’s strength, and applied domains where belief perseverance has direct implications for judgment and decision-making. This bibliography explores the belief perseverance literature and is divided into six sections. General Overviews contains written works that provide a broad overview of the belief perseverance phenomenon. Seminal Demonstrations contains empirical articles considered to be seminal demonstrations of the belief perseverance effect. Explanatory Mechanisms includes studies that highlight key mechanisms driving belief perseverance, while Moderating Factors reviews boundary conditions that exacerbate or limit the strength of belief perseverance effects. Finally, Applied Investigations reviews articles exploring implications of belief perseverance in political, academic, judicial, and entertainment domains, while Related Perspectives discusses research areas closely related to, yet distinct from, belief perseverance in the social psychological literature.
Empathy and Altruism
Authors: Stocks Eric L. , Clark Taylor
Published: February 2020

The word empathy has been used as a label for many different phenomena, including feeling what another person is feeling, understanding another person’s point of view, and imagining oneself in another person’s situation. Perhaps the most widely researched phenomenon called “empathy” involves an other-oriented emotional state that is congruent with the perceived welfare of another person. Feelings associated with empathy include sympathy, tenderness, and warmth toward the other person. Other manifestations of empathic emotions have been investigated, too, including empathic joy, empathic embarrassment, and empathic anger. As was the case with empathy, the term altruism has also been used as a label for a broad range of phenomena, including any type of prosocial behavior, as a collection of personality traits associated with helpful persons, and biological influences that evoke protective behaviors toward genetically related others. A particularly fruitful research tradition has focused on altruism as a motivational state with the ultimate goal of protecting or promoting the welfare of a valued other. For example, the empathy–altruism hypothesis claims that empathy (viewed here as an other-oriented emotional state) evokes an altruistic motivational state. Empathy and altruism, regardless of how they are construed, have important consequences for understanding human behavior and social relationships.
Abraham Isaac Kook
Authors: Seeman Don
Published: February 2020

Rabbi Abraham Isaac Ha-Cohen Kook (b. 1865–d. 1935) is considered one of the most important modern Jewish thinkers and shaper of some of the most significant trends in Religious Zionism. He was the first Ashkenazi chief rabbi of Mandatory Palestine and the founder of the institutional state rabbinate, as well as an influential yeshiva known as Mercaz Ha-Rav. Rabbi Kook was known for the breadth and depth of his scholarship across all the branches of traditional Jewish scholarship, including law, philosophy, and Kabbalah as well as his appreciation for contemporary science and non-Jewish philosophy. Witnessing the disaffection or rebellion of Jewish youth from tradition, particularly among the Zionist pioneers in the Land of Israel, he devoted himself with special fervor to the attempted reconciliation of modernity with Orthodox Judaism. To this end, he developed a series of dialectical responses that often seemed to accord spiritual dignity to the characteristic features of modern consciousness—such as burgeoning nationalism and evolutionary historicism—while simultaneously subordinating them to his understanding of Jewish theological imperatives. Though he aroused suspicion and controversy among both secularists and traditionalists, Rabbi Kook was often able to gain their respect and serve as a rare bridge between their communities. Ultimately, his thought contributed to the rise of a distinctively Zionist Religious community dedicated to traditional learning and observance as well as commitment to the Zionist state building project. Though Rabbi Kook himself died in 1935, before either the Holocaust or the establishment of the State of Israel, his thinking remains a vibrant source of inspiration and controversy to this day, and is the subject of voluminous secondary literature. Rabbi Kook’s primary writings included many letters and essays published during his lifetime, but some of his most famous and influential works are the result of significant editing by various disciples, some of which took place posthumously. For a variety of reasons, R. Kook’s original notebooks were not available to scholars until the last few decades, and are now gradually leading to revisions in our understanding of his creative legacy. Despite the intellectual and political vicissitudes of classical “religious Zionism” associated with his name, popular and scholarly interest in R. Kook has only burgeoned in recent years through a spate of academic research, publication of new, more accessible Hebrew versions, and translations primarily into English. His views on prophecy, Jewish law, state building, ethics, and metaphysics remain both provocative and generative today.
Business and Human Rights
Authors: Wettstein Florian , Santoro Michael , Ramasastry Anita , Simons Penelope
Published: February 2020

Business and human rights have not traditionally been addressed or theorized in close connection to each other. Rather, human rights have been seen as the exclusive domain of the state, that is, as a legal or political concept with little relevance or implication for companies. This view has changed dramatically in recent decades. There is now a broad interdisciplinary and dynamic discussion on the potential human rights responsibilities of business. While a systematic debate on the issue can be traced back at least to the mid-1990s, contributions to this debate have increased substantially in the wake of John Ruggie’s appointment as the United Nations Special Representative on Business and Human rights in 2005. This article structures this evolving debate and guides readers to the most relevant sources in the field. The debate has attracted contributions from a wide variety of disciplines and perspectives. This review is limited to contributions published in the broader management and business ethics literature and a selection of key contributions from the legal literature on the topic. Furthermore, with just a few exceptions, it includes only contributions that explicitly refer to human rights in the context of business. Articles that relate to or inform the debate on business and human rights, such as discussions on corporate social responsibility or on human rights in general, but lack the specific connection of both fields were not included.
Questionnaires
Authors: Zadrozny Joann
Published: February 2020

Geography prospered as a qualitative discipline until a paradigm shift known as the quantitative revolution in the 1940s and 1950s, in which geographers switched to objective, empirical, and scientific methods (such as closed-ended surveys) to explain, represent, and understand the human and physical world. Quantitative research explained phenomena and relationships with statistical methods. In the last few decades, however, a resurgence of qualitative methodology has been viewed as scientific to conduct research in the vast spectrum of geography. The four most basic types and commonly used methods of qualitative data are grouped into observations, interviews, documents, and audio-visual materials. With the acceptance of qualitative data as scientific in geography, a new methodology, mixed methods, has emerged adopted by many geography researchers to better explore and explain phenomena and relationships. This has led to the use of surveys and questionnaires as both a quantitative and qualitative data collection method and data analysis technique. Surveys and questionnaires are often used interchangeably in research designs and articles; however, there is a difference between the two. Surveys are the process of assessing a sample/population, while a questionnaire is the data collection instrument, or a standardized set of questions administered to a sample/population. A questionnaire can include close-ended questions that are statistically analyzed and reported in numerical form. Alternatively, it can include open-ended questions, which are then coded by the researcher. This extension of open-ended questions allows for supplement explanation or narratives to emerge that were once not associated with quantitative survey-based research. Through carefully crafted, reliable, and validated questionnaires and sampling procedures, a survey can represent basic characteristics and present findings of a population. Survey research is useful for eliciting people’s attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, and opinions about a range of geographic topics and research as presented in the following bibliography. Given the nature of geography, some articles could overlap subtopics, but they are kept to just one subtopic.
Sanctuary Cities
Authors: Gonzalez O'Brien Benjamin
Published: February 2020

Sanctuary policies first emerged in the 1980s as a response to the Reagan administration’s denial of asylum claims for refugees from Guatemala and El Salvador. In response to a growing refugee crisis, and the fear that many of those who were being denied asylum faced persecution and death in their country of origin, churches and synagogues began offering “sanctuary” to refugees from these countries, based on ancient religious tradition. The Sanctuary Movement, as it came to be known, led a number of cities to adopt city resolutions in solidarity beginning in 1983, marking the birth of the sanctuary city. These policies forbade local officials from inquiring into the immigration status of residents and often criticized the Reagan administration’s refugee policies. Today, the scope of sanctuary policies has expanded, and they may not only bar local officials from collecting information on immigration status, but also include a refusal to honor immigration detainers from Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), which are issued by ICE to request that local authorities hold immigrants until they can be taken into federal custody for deportation proceedings. Most sanctuary policies in the United States were passed during three periods. The first ran from 1983 to 1989, with the policies passed in response to the Central American refugee crisis. The September 11 attacks and the subsequent immigration crackdown and passage of policies like Secure Communities would lead to more policies being passed between 2001 and 2012. Lastly, the presidency of Donald Trump led to more declarations based on the administration’s crackdown on undocumented immigration. At the same time, an anti-sanctuary movement materialized for the first time at both the federal and state level that sought to either prevent further declarations or to attach penalties to sanctuary policies. One example is Texas’s SB 4, which in 2017 introduced state-wide bans on these policies and allows for fines and removal from office for officials who do not comply with federal immigration policy. The Trump administration itself sought to deny federal grants to sanctuary jurisdictions, something that had been floated in the past by Republican presidential candidates like Fred Thompson but had never been attempted by previous administrations. The rhetoric of the Trump administration on sanctuary policies, as well as the media coverage of the 2015 accidental shooting of Kathryn Steinle in San Francisco by an undocumented immigrant led to more coverage of the topic than at any other point in history. This in turn led to increased scholarship, which continues, as researchers look to connect the Sanctuary Movement to modern sanctuary cities; to examine the effects of media framing of these policies; to analyze the causes of public support or opposition; to explore the legality of sanctuary and anti-sanctuary legislation; and to document the effects these policies have on the incorporation of immigrant communities and crime rates in sanctuary cities.
Gender and Work in Contemporary China
Authors: Liu Jieyu , Sun Nina , Zhong Yuan
Published: February 2020

This bibliography includes journal articles, books, and reports, both in English and Chinese, examining the processes of transformation of gender and work in both urban and rural China. Topics include urban laid-off workers, service workers, sex workers, white-collar professionals, and rural-to-urban migrants, as well as women’s work in rural China.
Legal framework for religious activity in post-Soviet Kazakhstan: from liberal to prohibitive approaches
Authors: Podoprigora Roman
Published: February 2020

Religious activity is a very sensitive area of government regulation in Kazakhstan. After some post-soviet years of liberalization, the government has decided to return to soviet-style relations with a large amount of attention on the control and supervision of religious areas. The Law ‘On Religious Activity and Religious Associations’ adopted in 2011 was the result of such a decision. This article analyses the legal framework for religious activity, the model of relations between state and religious associations in modern Kazakhstan, the public attitude towards regulation in the religious field, the legal and social consequences of the adoption of current law, as well as the problems of its implementation and the government’s administration of religious activity in Kazakhstan. The author reaches the conclusion that more liberal legislation and law-enforcement practice is unlikely without changes in the political system, the public attitude towards religion and views on secularity.
Effects of Bupivacaine on Opioid Patient-Controlled Intrathecal Analgesia in Chronic Pain Patients Implanted with Drug Delivery Systems
Authors: Hayek Salim M , McEwan Matthew T , Veizi Elias , DeLozier Sarah J , Pogrebetskaya Mariya
Published: February 2020

Background

Combining neuraxial opioids and local anesthetics in acute pain results in improved duration of analgesia and reduced dosages and adverse effects. Although commonly used in intrathecal drug delivery systems (IDDS) for chronic pain, the effectiveness of this admixture has not been examined specifically in relation to patient-controlled intrathecal analgesia (PCIA).

Methods

IDDS-implanted chronic noncancer pain patients receiving opioids with bupivacaine (O + B) were randomized to receive either opioids without bupivacaine (O) or O + B in a double-blind manner, at IDDS refills, for one week and then crossed over to the other solution for another week. Primary outcome measures included numeric rating scale (NRS) pain scores before and within 30 minutes after PCIA boluses. Secondary outcome measures included average NRS scores and functional outcome measures.

Results

Seventeen patients were enrolled, and 16 patients completed the study. There were no differences in NRS scores before and after PCIA boluses between the O and O + B conditions, though pain scores improved significantly (average decrease in NRS scores: O 1.81 ± 1.47 vs O + B 1.87 ± 1.40, P = 0.688). No differences were noted in speed of onset or duration of analgesia. Although more patients subjectively preferred the O + B treatment, the difference was not statistically significant. No differences were noted in secondary outcome measures, with the exception of global impression of change having higher scores in O compared with O + B.

Conclusions

Acutely removing bupivacaine from a chronic intrathecal infusion of opioids and bupivacaine in patients with chronic noncancer pain did not adversely affect PCIA effectiveness, nor did it affect speed of onset or duration of effect. These findings are divergent from those in acute pain and may have to do with study conditions and pain phenotypes.