bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cytokines
Authors: Balkwill Frances R
Published: September 2006

Cytokines are ‘messenger proteins’, soluble mediators that allow communication between cells. Together with hormones and neurotransmitters, they contribute to a chemical signalling language that controls development, tissue repair, inflammation and the immune response in multicellular animals.
Cytokine Receptors
Authors: Rose‐John Stefan
Published: September 2006

Cytokines are proteins that coordinate the activity of the immune system. Many cytokines belong to a family exhibiting a four‐helical topology. Receptors for these cytokines belong to the immunoglobulin superfamily, and are all type I transmembrane proteins.
Immunity: Stimulation by Indigenous Gastrointestinal Microflora
Authors: Berg Rodney D
Published: September 2006

The indigenous gastrointestinal microflora consists of microorganisms that normally inhabit the gastrointestinal tract. The indigenous microflora primes the host immune response so that it can respond more effectively to exogenous pathogens.
Immunoregulation
Authors: O’Shea John J , Nutman Thomas B
Published: September 2006

The immune system serves essential functions in protection from numerous pathogenic organisms and, in general, is not harmful to the host. The process by which the immune response is restrained or controlled is termed immunoregulation. A number of different aspects of the immune system contribute to this process of immunoregulation, some of the most important being signals from antigen‐presenting cells by ostimulatory molecules, the effects of cytokines and apoptotic cell death.
Immunotoxicology
Authors: Luster Michael I , Simeonova Petia P , Germolec Dori R
Published: September 2006

Immunotoxicology can be defined as the study of adverse effects on the immune system resulting from exposure to chemicals (including drugs), biological materials and, in certain instances, physiological factors, collectively referred to as agents. It encompasses studies of various immune pathologies associated with exposure of humans and wildlife species, including allergy, immune dysregulation (suppression or enhancement), autoimmunity and, in some instances, chronic inflammatory diseases.
Molecular Mimicry
Authors: Cunningham Madeleine White
Published: September 2006

The macromolecules found in infectious pathogens, such as bacteria or viruses, are often similar in structural, functional or immunological properties to those of the host tissue. This is called molecular mimicry and it plays an important role in immune response to infection and in autoimmune diseases.
Smallpox Eradication
Authors: Henderson Donald A
Published: September 2006

In 1980, the World Health Assembly declared that the global eradication of smallpox had been achieved. This was the first and, so far, the only disease to have been eradicated. The success of this programme provided an important impetus for vaccination programmes of all types throughout the world.
Vaccination of Humans
Authors: Rappuoli Rino
Published: September 2006

Vaccines have been the most effective tool for preventing and eliminating devastating infectious diseases and thus improving the quality of life. Their role will be increasingly important in the medicine of the future because biotechnology has now broadened the targets of vaccination to include new infectious diseases, immunotherapy of tumours, chronic infections, autoimmunity and allergies.
Vaccination of Animals
Authors: Babiuk Lorne A
Published: September 2006

Various approaches can be employed to improve animal health through vaccination. Due to the unique management situation faced by different species, each have their own problems associated with vaccine delivery.
Hypersensitivity: Anaphylactic (Type I)
Authors: Bannon Gary A
Published: September 2006

Type I hypersensitivity reactions occur in individuals who have been previously sensitized to a specific allergen. They are the result of allergen recognition by immunoglobulin E on mast cells and basophils and cause a variety of symptoms such as itching or tingling of the lips, tongue or throat; nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea; sneezing, runny nose and wheezing, shortness of breath and coughing. In some cases the reaction can be so severe that the circulatory system shuts down and tracheal swelling occurs, leading to a life‐threatening condition known as anaphylaxis.
Reproductive Immunology
Authors: Chaouat Gérard
Published: September 2006

Reproductive immunology is an interdisciplinary science, which deals with the role of immunocytes and cytokines in reproduction and, as a consequence, immune control of fertility and sexually transmitted diseases.
Infertility: Immunological Aspects
Authors: Naz Rajesh K
Published: September 2006

Antisperm antibodies are immunoglobulins present in sera and genital tract secretions of some women and men that can cause infertility.
Restriction Enzymes
Authors: Chandrasegaran Srinivasan
Published: September 2006

Type II restriction enzymes are the molecular scissors that catalyse the double‐strand cleavage of DNA at specific base sequences. In the future it may be possible to design/engineer chimaeric restriction enzymes to target a specific DNA site within a genome.
Promoter Fusions to Study Gene Expression
Authors: Ma Jun
Published: September 2006

Promoter fusions are chimaeric genes designed to have the coding sequence of one gene controlled by the regulatory and promoter sequences of another gene. Promoter fusions are useful tools for studying gene regulation and function and for identifying new genes.
Antisense Nucleic Acids in Biotechnology
Authors: Delihas Nicholas
Published: September 2006

Antisense nucleic acids are natural or synthetic polymers that base pair with target RNAs and inhibit target functions. Natural antisense RNAs are found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms and regulate gene expression during cell growth or development. Synthetic and vector‐encoded antisense nucleic acids are used in experimental molecular genetics to determine the function of target genes, and are being developed for use in human disease management and in agriculture.
Patenting Genes and their Products
Authors: Buffinger Nick , Mascarenhas Desmond M
Published: September 2006

The process of patenting allows companies and individuals to protect their investments. In the biotechnology industry however the act of patenting raises many ethical and technological issues.
Gene Delivery by Viruses
Authors: Thyagarajan Bhaskar , Phillips Julie E , Calos Michele P
Published: September 2006

Viral vector systems are very useful for delivering genes to cells. Commonly used systems include vectors derived from retroviruses, lentiviruses, adenoviruses, adeno‐associated viruses and herpesviruses.
Transfection of DNA into Mammalian Cells in Culture
Authors: Phillips Julie E , Calos Michele P
Published: September 2006

Transfection is the transfer of DNA into cells and is a key technique for analysing mammalian cells. A variety of methods are employed to achieve transfection and use it in genetic studies.
Southern Blotting and Related DNA Detection Techniques
Authors: Brown Terence A
Published: September 2006

Southern blotting is a technique for transfer of DNA molecules
from an electrophoresis gel to a nitrocellulose or nylon membrane, and is
carried out prior to detection of specific molecules by hybridization probing.
DNA
Profiling in Forensic Science
Authors: Gill Peter , Sparkes Rebecca , Tully Gillian
Published: September 2006

Since 1985, DNA profiling in forensic science has rapidly evolved into an important technique that solves both major and minor crimes. A valuable innovation was the inception of the UK National DNA database that now comprises over 700 000 samples.
Arenaviruses
Authors: Howard Colin R
Published: September 2006

Arenaviruses cause persistent virus infections in small mammals and some can give rise to serious haemorrhagic disease in humans. Early studies on the fundamental properties of cytotoxic T cells were first elucidated with these viruses.
Arthropod‐borne Viruses
Authors: Calisher Charles H
Published: September 2006

Arthropod‐born viruses (arboviruses) are viruses that replicate in insects and are then transmitted by the insects to vertebrates. Arboviral diseases are very common, causing a wide variety of illnesses in humans, livestock and wildlife.
Astroviruses
Authors: Carter Michael J , Willcocks Margaret M
Published: September 2006

Astroviruses are small, RNA viruses which are an important cause of diarrhoea and vomiting in the young of both humans and animals.
Birnaviruses
Authors: Dobos Peter
Published: September 2006

Birnaviruses are bisegmented double‐stranded RNA viruses and are responsible for causing disease in fish and poultry.
Bornaviruses
Authors: Lipkin W Ian , Briese Thomas
Published: September 2006

Borna disease virus
is a neurotropic, nonsegmented negative‐strand RNA virus that is currently the only known member of the family
Bornaviridae
within the order
Mononegavirales
. It appears to be distributed worldwide and has the potential to infect most, if not all, warm‐blooded hosts, causing disorders of the central nervous system.
Caliciviruses
Authors: Neill John D
Published: September 2006

The Caliciviridae is a family of small, nonenveloped viruses containing a single‐stranded, plus‐sense genomic RNA that is polyadenylated at its 3′‐end. Most caliciviruses have distinctive cup‐shaped depressions (L. calix, cup) on their surface, giving them their characteristic ‘Star of David’ appearance. These viruses have a large and diverse host range and cause diseases of both human and veterinary importance.
DNA Plant and Animal Virus Replication
Authors: Gutierrez Crisanto , Martinez‐Salas Encarnacion
Published: September 2006

DNA viruses have evolved very different replication strategies as well as a rich variety of molecular interactions with their host cells. They frequently subvert cellular pathways involved in transcription, translation, DNA replication and cellular defence. Their study is providing key information for designing strategies of virus control and, at the same time, DNA viruses are extremely useful molecular tools to delineate the mechanisms behind basic cellular processes.
Ebola Viruses
Authors: Sanchez Anthony
Published: September 2006

A small group of exotic and mysterious viral agents that cause a severe haemorrhagic disease in human and/or nonhuman primates.
Epstein‐Barr Virus
Authors: Sung Nancy S , Pagano Joseph S
Published: September 2006

The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), a ubiquitous herpesvirus, was the first human tumour virus to be discovered. Infecting both lymphocytes and epithelial cells, EBV is associated with a diverse array of diseases, most of them malignant and restricted to distinct human populations.
Foot‐and‐mouth Disease
Authors: King Andrew MQ , Belsham Graham J , Donaldson Alex I
Published: September 2006

Foot‐and‐mouth disease is an economically important, viral disease of cloven‐hoofed animals characterized by the appearance of vesicles (blisters) on the feet and in and around the mouth. The causative agent was the first mammalian virus to be discovered and has been studied intensively.
Hepatitis C Virus
Authors: Smith Donald B
Published: September 2006

Hepatitis C virus
is an RNA virus, usually transmitted by contact with blood, that frequently gives rise to chronic infections. After several years or decades, disease can progress to chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, liver failure or the development of hepatocellular carcinoma. While the availability of screening assays has greatly reduced the incidence of infection following blood transfusion, current treatment is only partially successful and a vaccine is still under development.
Influenza Viruses
Authors: Kawaoka Yoshihiro
Published: September 2006

Influenza viruses are isolated from a variety of animals, including humans and birds. The majority of these viruses cause mild to severe respiratory disease; some produce lethal systemic disease.
Exonucleases
Authors: Mitsis Paul G
Published: September 2006

Exonucleases are a widely distributed class of enzymes that hydrolyse nucleic acids from a free end. They are involved in replication, repair, recombination, and the proper maturation and degradation of DNA and RNA, making them essential for the proper expression and maintenance of the genome.
DNA Replication: Mammalian
Authors: Hickey Robert J , Hoelz Derek J , Malkas Linda H
Published: September 2006

Resolution of the structure of DNA revealed the complementary relationship between the nucleoside bases of the two DNA chains forming the double helix. It was suggested that the complementary strands of the DNA molecule separated during DNA replication, and that DNA alone functioned as the template for the synthesis of new daughter DNA molecules. It is now known that the replication of the DNA genome of even very simple organisms is very complicated, requiring many different proteins and enzymes. Although much is known regarding the basic mechanics of DNA synthesis there is still much to be understood in relation to the regulatory mechanisms controlling DNA synthesis, and much to be learned about the architecture of the machinery responsible for mediating DNA replication.
Bacterial DNA Polymerase I
Authors: Li Ying , Waksman Gabriel
Published: September 2006

Bacterial DNA polymerase I is a family of enzymes that are involved in bacterial DNA lesion repair, as well as DNA replication. These enzymes have a multidomain structure containing a polymerase activity, a proofreading 3′–5′ exonuclease activity and/or a 5′–3′ exonuclease activity within one polypeptide chain.
Bacterial Primosome
Authors: Masai Hisao
Published: September 2006

The primosome is a protein complex capable of processive unwinding of duplex DNA and primer RNA synthesis at the replication fork during DNA replication. Essential components of the primosome include the prepriming proteins DNA helicase and primase.
Bacterial Replication Fork: Synthesis of Lagging Strand
Authors: Masai Hisao
Published: September 2006

How can an antiparallel DNA strand be duplicated by a DNA polymerase that synthesizes DNA in only one direction? What are the enzymatic limitations of DNA polymerases with respect to DNA duplex polarities?
Eukaryotic Replication Fork
Authors: Walther André P , Wold Marc S
Published: September 2006

In eukaryotic cells, DNA synthesis occurs at specific sites that move through the genome called replication forks. Multi‐protein complexes at these forks catalyse the synthesis of two new strands of DNA using parental strands as templates to produce two complete copies of the parental DNA.
Eukaryotic Replication Origins and Initiation of DNA Replication
Authors: DePamphilis Melvin L
Published: September 2006

DNA replication begins at specific genomic sites called replication origins where thirteen different proteins are assembled into a prereplication complex.
Integrase Class Site‐specific Recombinases
Authors: Scocca John J
Published: September 2006

The integrase family of recombination proteins promote coordinated conservative DNA breakage–rejoining reactions at duplex DNA sites of defined sequence. They ensure accurate partition of duplicated circular prokaryotic chromosomes or insert and remove temperate phage genomes from host chromosomes through formation of a DNA–integrase phosphodiester linkage between a tyrosyl residue and a 3′‐phosphoryl group.
Evolutionary Developmental Biology: Homologous Regulatory Genes and Processes
Authors: Gaunt Stephen J
Published: September 2006

Traits in two species are classed as homologous when they are derived from a similar trait in a shared ancestor. Homology can exist at the levels of both anatomical structure and regulatory gene sequence, but homology in one of these does not necessarily imply homology in the other.
Cleavage and Gastrulation in Zebrafish Embryos
Authors: Köppen Mathias , Heisenberg Carl‐Philipp
Published: September 2006

During zebrafish gastrulation, the interplay between patterning events and morphogenesis creates an embryo out of a seemingly unstructured blastula stage embryo, an embryo with distinct polarities along its anterior–posterior, dorsoventral and left–right axes at the end of gastrulation.
Cleavage and Gastrulation in the Sea Urchin
Authors: McClay David R
Published: September 2006

Cleavage and gastrulation are two of the early stages in the embryonic development of any organism. Cleavage is characterized by a period of relatively rapid cell division and gastrulation is characterized by a dramatic rearrangement of cells to form the basic body plan of an organism.
Animal Viruses Pathogenic for Humans
Authors: Nel Louis H
Published: September 2006

Diseases and infections which are readily transmitted between animals and man are known as zoonoses. Some of the most important and best known zoonoses are of viral origin.
Poliovirus
Authors: Bradrick Shelton S , Romero José R
Published: September 2006

Poliovirus, which is responsible for the paralytic disease poliomyelitis, is a well‐characterized RNA virus on the verge of eradication.
Polyomaviruses
Authors: Atwood Walter J , Shah Keerti V
Published: September 2006

Polyomaviruses are small DNA‐containing viruses that infect a wide variety of species in nature. The human polyomavirus known as
JC virus
causes a fatal central nervous system demyelinating disease known as progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy.
Poxviruses
Authors: Pickup David J
Published: September 2006

Poxviruses are brick‐shaped or ovoid, enveloped viruses each containing a linear, double‐stranded DNA genome of 130–380 kilobases. Several family members, including variola, monkeypox, cowpox, vaccinia and molluscum contagiosum viruses, cause disease in humans.
Rhabdoviruses
Authors: Pringle Craig R
Published: September 2006

The viruses classified in the family Rhabdoviridae have monopartite, negative‐sense, single‐stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA) genomes, 11–15 kb in size; the virions have helical nucleocapsids contained within bullet‐shaped or bacilliform enveloped particles. Rhabdoviruses infect animals, plants and invertebrates; some rhabdoviruses multiply in both invertebrates and vertebrates, and others in both invertebrates and plants, but none multiply in all three hosts. The family includes several viruses responsible for considerable economic losses in agriculture and commercial fisheries; Rabies virus is the most significant human pathogen.
RNA
Plant and Animal Virus Replication
Authors: Rybicki Edward P
Published: September 2006

RNA plant and animal viruses may have double‐stranded (ds) or single‐stranded messenger‐sense (+) or antimessenger‐sense (−) RNA genomes, which may be single‐ or multi‐component, and may be encapsidated in simple protein capsids, or complex membrane‐enveloped particles. The different types of viruses have a wide variety of different strategies for the replication of their genomes, and the production of infectious particles.
Vesicular Stomatitis Virus
Authors: Pringle Craig R
Published: September 2006

Vesicular stomatitis virus is the prototype rhabdovirus. It is an important animal pathogen that causes a disease which is difficult to differentiate clinically from that caused by foot‐and‐mouth disease virus. Its broad host range, rapid lytic growth cycle, unique morphology and susceptibility to interferon have all contributed to its popularity as a model system in experimental virology.
Viral Culture Methodologies
Authors: Harper David R
Published: September 2006

Virus culture is used both to prepare and to analyse viruses. The techniques of virus culture are based on the culture of cells from host organisms, in which the virus is grown and maintained. Viruses may be prepared as components for vaccines or testing kits, or for use as genetic vectors. Cultured viruses may be used to test new antiviral drugs, to increase understanding of cellular biology, or to study the viruses themselves.
Viral Capsids and Envelopes: Structure and Function
Authors: Lucas William , Knipe David M
Published: September 2006

Virus particles contain the viral genome packaged in a protein coat, called a capsid, and sometimes a lipid coat called the envelope. These structures play many roles in viral infection, including virus entry into cells and spread from one cell to another.
Viral Genome
Authors: Cann Alan J
Published: September 2006

The virus genome is the nucleic acid component of a virus which encodes the genetic information.
Pathogenic Viruses: Clinical Detection
Authors: Olivo Paul D
Published: September 2006

Clinical detection of pathogenic viruses requires clinical acumen to recognize the signs and symptoms of a viral infection followed by a thoughtful diagnostic plan. This involves obtaining appropriate specimens, handling these specimens properly, and ordering the most useful confirmatory tests. Finally, the results of these tests must be interpreted in the context of the clinical picture and the pathogenesis of the particular virus being considered.
Yellow Fever Virus
Authors: Barrett Alan DT
Published: September 2006

Yellow fever virus
is a flavivirus that causes the disease yellow fever. The virus is found in tropical South America and subSaharan Africa. The disease varies from a febrile illness to a lethal haemorrhagic fever.
Regeneration in Planaria
Authors: Newmark Phillip A , Alvarado Alejandro Sánchez
Published: September 2006

Planarians possess remarkable regenerative abilities enabling them to replace parts of the body removed by amputation or naturally occurring fission. The regenerative process is mediated by the formation and eventual differentiation of a specialized structure known as the regeneration blastema.
Regeneration of Vertebrate Appendages
Authors: Ferretti Patrizia
Published: September 2006

Some vertebrates can replace complex parts of their body, a feature which is more commonly observed in invertebrates. They can perform this remarkable task because of their capacity to recruit progenitor cells and activate developmental programmes that largely parallel those used during embryogenesis.
Regeneration: Nerve‐dependent and Nerve‐independent
Authors: Mescher Anthony L
Published: September 2006

The anatomical and functional restoration of parts removed from an organism is known as regeneration. In some systems, as in the regenerating amphibian limb, this process occurs under the influence of nerves, whereas in other systems nerves are not required.
Regeneration of Mammalian Skin
Authors: Mast Bruce A
Published: September 2006

Regeneration and repair of tissue injury in mammalian skin is an intricate process in which cellular, biochemical and molecular interactions occur. These interactions are the foundations of new therapeutics designed to facilitate tissue repair.
Affinity Chromatography
Authors: Fassina Giorgio
Published: September 2006

Affinity chromatography is a separation technique based on the use of specific and selective immobilized ligands able to associate reversibly to a desired biomolecule. Samples are passed through affinity columns that are equilibrated with a buffer favouring interaction between the immobilized ligand and the target biomolecule. Unrelated contaminants will be eluted in the column void volume and a suitable buffer change will lead to elution of the adsorbed biomolecule.
Dictyostelium
: Cell Sorting and Patterning
Authors: Weijer Cornelis J , Williams Jeffrey G
Published: September 2006

Multicellular development of the social amoeba
Dictyostelium discoideum
results from the starvation induced chemotactic aggregation of single cells to form a fruiting body consisting of a stalk supporting a spore mass
Bacteriophage Display of Combinatorial Antibody Libraries
Authors: Andris‐Widhopf Jennifer , Steinberger Peter , Barbas Carlos F
Published: September 2006

Bacteriophage display of combinatorial antibody libraries is one means by which monoclonal antibodies of a desired specificity can be selected without the use of conventional hybridoma technology. Phage display is the expression of proteins and peptides on the surface of a bacteriophage particle, and a combinatorial antibody library is a collection of rearranged variable‐region gene segments that have been randomly combined through the use of recombinant molecular biology techniques to yield a large ‘library’ of antibodies.
Basophils
Authors: Galli Stephen J , Wedemeyer Jochen
Published: September 2006

Basophils are a type of leucocyte (‘white blood cell’) that circulates in the blood and can participate in the expression of allergic diseases, such as asthma and hay fever; these cells also can contribute to resistance to parasite infections. When they participate in allergic reactions or responses to parasites, basophils release histamine and many other biologically active molecules that can contribute to inflammation.
Dendritic Cells (T Lymphocyte Stimulating)
Authors: Girolomoni Giampiero , Corinti Silvia
Published: September 2006

Dendritic cells are the principal antigen‐presenting cells for T lymphocytes, and direct both the quality and the quantity of the immune responses.
Erythrocytes
Authors: Gershon Harriet
Published: September 2006

The erythrocyte is a highly specialized cell designed for the transport of the oxygen in the circulation from the lungs to the body tissues and for the removal of carbon dioxide from the tissues. Erythrocytes of primates function in the clearing of the blood of complement‐bearing immune complexes and pathogens and also have antiinflammatory functions.
Follicular Dendritic Cells (B Lymphocyte Stimulating)
Authors: Burton Gregory F , Kapasi Zoher F , Qin Dahui , Wu Jiuhua
Published: September 2006

Follicular dendritic cells (FDCs) are found in virtually all secondary lymphoid tissues (e.g. lymph nodes, spleen, Peyer's patches, and tonsils). Their main role is in trapping and retaining minute quantities of antigen that serve as a repository to help maintain potent anamnestic (memory) antibody responses for years, but they also have roles in germinal centre formation and in signalling to lymphocytes.
Immune System:
In Vitro
Study
Authors: Blom Bianca , de Waal Malefyt René
Published: September 2006

The immune system involves a network of specialized organs, cells and molecules that collaborate in the protection of an organism against disease. To gain more insight into the complex interactions between cells,
in vitro
methods and techniques have been developed to study the origin, structure and function of these organs, cells and molecules.
Immune System: Evolutionary Pressure of Infectious Agents
Authors: Warr Gregory W , Pilström Lars
Published: September 2006

Mutation is essential for both the evolution of pathogenicity and the expression of vertebrate immunity. The evolutionary pressure imposed by pathogens has required the development of a highly diverse and flexible vertebrate immune system.
Hypersensitivity: Antibody‐mediated Cytotoxic (Type II)
Authors: Samson C Michael , Foster C Stephen
Published: September 2006

Few disease states occur on the basis of a single hypersensitivity reaction. Type II hypersensitivity reactions cause tissue damage without the involvement of lymphocytes.
Epithelial Branching
Authors: Nakanishi Yasuo , Hieda Yohki , Cardoso Wellington V , Lubkin Sharon R , Daniel Charles W
Published: September 2006

Embryonic rudiments of most organs are composed of two types of
tissues: epithelium and mesenchyme, separated by a basal lamina. Growing
epithelial tissue changes and acquires a shape unique to each organ during
development.
C
. elegans

Vulval Induction
Authors: Sternberg Paul W
Published: September 2006

Study of
Caenorhabditis elegans
vulval development has
improved our understanding of inductive signalling and pattern formation at
the single cell level, and has led to the definition of signalling cascades.
Studies of signal transduction during vulval development have led to the
discovery of what is considered a universal signalling pathway from growth
factor receptor to RAS to MAP kinase to the nucleus, and the discovery of the
LIN‐12/Notch family of receptors that mediate lateral signalling.
Drosophila
Eye: Progressive Neural Development
Authors: Moses Kevin
Published: September 2006

The compound eye of the fruitfly
Drosophila melanogaster
has geometrically precise development which synergizes with the technological
power of fly genetics and molecular biology to form one of the most powerful
genetic model systems for studying nervous system development. This system has
provided important data for our current understanding of developmental
signalling processes and the development and regulation of neural cell types,
pattern and structure.
Autonomous Cell Specification: Overview
Authors: Byrum Christine A , Wikramanayake Athula H
Published: September 2006

Autonomous cell specification is a form of specification in
which the developing cell is able to differentiate (express proteins typical
of the mature cell) without receiving external signals. This is possible when
cytoplasmic determinants (the cytoplasmic regulatory factors necessary for
specification) are partitioned into the cell during cleavage.
Nucleosomes: Detailed Structure and Mutations
Authors: Wolffe Alan P
Published: September 2006

The nucleosome is the fundamental repeating unit of chromatin that provides a structural and regulatory infrastructure for chromosomal DNA. Transcription, replication, recombination and repair of eukaryotic chromosomes all make very effective use of the nucleosomal infrastructure to fulfil mechanistic and regulatory requirements.
Chromosomes: Higher Order Organization
Authors: Geyer Pamela K , Parnell Timothy J
Published: September 2006

Eukaryotic chromosomes are packaged into domains of higher order chromatin structure. Specific sequences such as matrix attachment regions (MARs), locus control regions (LCRs) and insulators are suggested to play an important role in defining these domains. This organization provides a mechanism for compaction of large genomes and aids in regulating gene expression.
Telomeres
Authors: Blackburn Elizabeth H
Published: September 2006

Telomeres are specialized DNA‐protein structures that occur at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes. A special ribonucleoprotein enzyme called telomerase is required for the synthesis and maintenance of telomeric DNA.
Telomeres in Cell Function: Cancer and Ageing
Authors: Pardue Mary‐Lou , DeBaryshe Gregory
Published: September 2006

Telomeres are dynamic structures that make up the ends of chromosomes. They have important roles in assuring that genetic material is divided equally when cells multiply, and it is thought that they may be involved in regulating cell division in human ageing and cancer.
Homologous DNA Interactions in Interphase: Spatial Organization of Interphase Nucleus
Authors: Fung Jennifer C , Sedat John W , Marshall Wallace F
Published: September 2006

Interaction between homologous chromosomes is a key organizing force in the interphase nucleus. Establishment of these interactions requires large‐scale chromosome movement and provides a model system for studying homologue pairing in meiosis.
Immunological Cytotoxicity Studies:in vitro
Authors: Froelich Christopher J , Mektar Sunil
Published: September 2006

The immune system has evolved a variety of strategies to protect the host from detrimental effects of pathogens and tumour cells; the most beneficial outcome, however, is induction of an apoptotic death for the offending cell. Immune‐mediated killing occurs through granule secretion and ‘death receptor’ pathways. Cytotoxicity assays have traditionally evaluated membrane permeabilization. With the realization that deathin vivois apoptotic, a host of novel approaches have been devised to evaluate this form of physiological cell death.
T
‐lymphocyte Activation
Authors: Parry Richard V , Ward Stephen G
Published: September 2006

T‐lymphocyte activation refers to the set of biochemical events triggered by interaction of the T‐cell antigen receptor with foreign antigen. Activation culminates in the secretion of IL‐2, an autocrine growth factor for T cells.
Lymphocyte Responses
In Vitro
Authors: Hodgkin Philip Desmond
Published: September 2006

Lymphocytes can be stimulated
in vitro
to undergo many of the responses associated with antigen stimulation
in vivo
. The development of
in vitro
activation protocols has led to the identification of important cellular communication pathways and to a molecular description of lymphocyte function.
DNA Packaging in Sperm
Authors: Hennig Wolfgang
Published: September 2006

The chromatin constitution of spermatozoa differs from that of all other cell types. The DNA is mainly associated with basic chromosomal proteins that are different from the otherwise universal histones, allowing packaging of the chromatin in a much smaller volume. Other biological functions in addition to a higher degree of chromatin compaction may be related to the difference in chromatin constitution but their nature is speculative.
Mechanisms of X‐inactivation
Authors: Duthie Sarah M
Published: September 2006

X‐inactivation involves the transcriptional silencing of one of the two X‐chromosomes in the cells of female mammals. This process is controlled by elements present in the X‐inactivation centre (Xic) which is required in cis for X‐inactivation to occur.
Lymphocytes: Intraepithelial
Authors: MacDonald Thomas T
Published: September 2006

Intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) are the small, round mononuclear cells which are found within all external and internal epithelia. They are found in the skin and in the epithelium of the gut, biliary tract, oral cavity, lung, upper respiratory tract and reproductive tract. The largest population lies basolaterally within the epithelium of the small intestine.
Lymphocytes: Recirculation
Authors: Jalkanen Sirpa , Salmi Marko
Published: September 2006

Successful immunosurveillance requires endless patrolling of lymphoid tissues by lymphocytes in search of foreign antigens. Bloodborne lymphocytes bind with vessel wall, transmigrate out from the circulatory tree, percolate through the tissues and return via the lymphatic vessels back into the blood in a tightly controlled process called lymphocyte recirculation. Leucocyte–endothelial cell interaction is mediated by adhesive and de‐adhesive interactions between multiple molecules on the two opposing cell types.
Mast Cells
Authors: Kitamura Yukihiko , Morii Eiichi
Published: September 2006

Mast cell is a type of connective tissue cell but it originates from the haematopoietic stem cell. Mast cells function as a major effector of immunoglobulin E‐dependent hypersensitivity reaction.
Monoclonal Antibodies
Authors: Zola Heddy
Published: September 2006

Monoclonal antibodies are antibodies with a unique specificity, generally made by cloning cells containing a particular antibody gene to produce a population of identical cells derived from a single cell which all produce the same antibody. This should be contrasted with polyclonal antibodies found in the serum of immunized animals, which consist of a very diverse mixture of antibodies against many different molecules.
Innate Immune Mechanisms: Nonself Recognition
Authors: Parish Christopher R
Published: September 2006

The innate immune system contains a range of cell‐bound and soluble proteins which eliminate pathogens by recognizing unique molecular patterns expressed by microorganisms, but not by host cells. Alternatively, host cells express proteins that protect them from attack by the alternative pathway of complement activation whereas foreign organisms lack these protective proteins and are, therefore, susceptible to complement attack.
Superantigens
Authors: Renno Toufic
Published: September 2006

Superantigens are operationally defined as molecules that bind to the products of the major histocompatibility complex and active T cells bearing a given T‐cell receptor beta chain variable domain.
Mononuclear Phagocytic System
Authors: Peracchia Maria Teresa , Barratt Gillian , Couvreur Patrick
Published: September 2006

The mononuclear phagocyte system is made up of blood monocytes and their precursors, and two differentiated cell populations derived from them: macrophages and dendritic cells. The former are professional phagocytes whose main role is to take up particulate material, while the latter are specialized to process and present antigens to T cells.
Myeloid Cell Differentiation
Authors: Biggs Joseph R , Kraft Andrew S
Published: September 2006

Myeloid cell differentiation is the process by which stem cells develop into various types of mature blood cell. This is achieved by the sequential activation of sets of genes, which produce the proteins that direct cell development and confer the specific properties of blood cells. Disruption of this process is believed to result in leukaemia.
Natural Killer (
NK
) Cells
Authors: Valiante Nicholas M
Published: September 2006

Natural killer (NK) cells are a discrete subset of lymphocytes characterized by a unique array of phenotypic markers (CD3−/CD16+/CD56+). They are rapid mediators of cytotoxicity against infected or transformed cells and potent producers of lymphokines. Through these functions, they act as both effector and regulatory cells at the earliest stages of the immune response.
Platelets
Authors: Deitcher Steven R , Chiang Thomas M
Published: September 2006

Platelets are small, anucleate, disc‐shaped blood cells derived from bone marrow megakaryocytes which serve several critical roles in normal haemostasis and participate in both health and disease.
TLymphocytes: Cytotoxic
Authors: Gotch Frances M
Published: September 2006

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes are T cells that have the ability to kill other cells. Most are MHC Class One restricted CD8 T cells, but CD4 T cells can sometimes kill. Cytotoxic T cells are of great importance in host defence against cytosolic pathogens.
Transgenic Animals in Immunology
Authors: Radic Marko Z
Published: September 2006

Transgenic animals are produced by microinjection of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) modified
in vitro
into fertilized oocytes to observe the effect of the injected DNA on the biology of the organism. Transgenes may be heritable following their insertion into the germline.
Antigen Processing
Authors: Sandberg Johan K , Glas Rickard
Published: September 2006

Processing of antigenic proteins into short peptide fragments is required for antigen recognition by T lymphocytes. Antigen recognition is mediated through cell surface presentation of the processed peptide fragments by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) gene products.
Blood Groups and Transfusion Science
Authors: Reid Marion E
Published: September 2006

Determination of blood group antigens is an integral part of safe blood transfusion and of the management of pregnancy. The antigens are on the surface of erythrocytes and, thus, can elicit an immune response in a person who has a different profile of antigens (only identical twins will have erythrocytes with the same profile).
Graft Rejection: Immunological Suppression
Authors: Wood Kathryn J
Published: September 2006

When tissue is transplanted between individuals who are not genetically identical it is rejected by the recipient's immune system. Powerful immunosuppressive drugs are used to prevent transplant rejection in clinical transplantation.
Histocompatibility Antigens
Authors: Mehra Narinder K
Published: September 2006

The histocompatibility antigens are cell surface glycoproteins expressed on nucleated cells whose major function is to bind peptides within the cell and present them at the cell surface for inspection by T cells of the immune system. They are a part of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) that exists in most vertebrate species and whose antigens were originally defined as the most important molecules involved in the rejection of transplanted tissues, exchanged between individuals of the same species.
Animal Models of Human Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases
Authors: Smith CI Edvard , Sandstedt Karin , Berglöf Anna
Published: September 2006

Animals with well defined immunodeficiencies provide useful model systems for the study of corresponding immunological disorders in man.
Tissue Typing for Transplantation Antigens
Authors: Vaughan Robert W
Published: September 2006

Tissue typing usually refers to methods for detecting human leucocyte antigens (HLAs), although it is applicable to other species. The major practical need for tissue typing is to facilitate the transplantation of organs.
Tumours of the Immune System
Authors: Bolam S , Oscier DG
Published: September 2006

Tumours of the immune system are malignant proliferations of haematopoietic cells and include leukaemias, lymphomas and myeloma.
Bacterial Chemotaxis
Authors: Eisenbach Michael
Published: September 2006

Bacterial chemotaxis is the phenomenon in which bacteria actively modulate their direction of movement so as to approach chemoattractants (favourable, usually nutritious chemicals) and avoid chemorepellents (unfavourable, usually noxious chemicals).
Intracellular Transport
Authors: Cross Robert A
Published: September 2006

For higher cells, diffusion is inefficient as a means of supplying cellular components to distant reaction sites. Instead, eukaryotic cells transport packets of components (membrane‐bounded vesicles and organelles) by attaching them to molecular motors and hauling them along microtubules and actin filaments.
Muscle Contraction
Authors: Squire John M
Published: September 2006

Muscular contraction is one of the few biological processes that can be appreciated directly in our everyday lives. In the past few decades a detailed understanding of the underlying molecular processes that produce force and movement has been obtained.
Cell Locomotion
Authors: Bershadsky Alexander D , Elbaum Michael
Published: September 2006

The crawling locomotion of animal cells results from a coordinated cycle of protrusion, attachment and retraction. Protrusions in the direction of motion are normally generated by controlled assembly of actin networks, while adhesion and retraction rely as well on tension generated by actin–myosin interactions. Microtubules control the spatial distribution of these activities, creating a polarized shape in the cell that determines the direction of motion. All these processes are coordinated by small G proteins of the Rho family.
Cell Structure
Authors: Lane Nancy J
Published: September 2006

Cells are living entities made up of a central nuclear region which contains the hereditary material, surrounded on all sides by cytoplasm, which, encompassed by a delimiting membrane, contains all the structures required for biological processes, such as making protein and extracting utilizable energy from food. These events may occur in separate compartments, the organelles, which include the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, the mitochondria, the chloroplasts and the lysosomes; there is also an internal cytoskeleton.
Cell Biophysics
Authors: Dogterom Marileen
Published: September 2006

Physical processes affect macromolecular interactions in a cellular environment, either by affecting the free‐energy landscape directly or by affecting the physical location and mobility of interacting molecules in the cell.
Multicellular Organs and Organisms
Authors: Andrews Elizabeth R.
Published: September 2006

In unicellular organisms the single cell performs all of the
necessary functions for life. In multicellular organisms groups of cells specialize within tissues and organs performing specific tasks.
Extracellular Matrix
Authors: Davies Jamie A
Published: September 2006

The extracellular matrix is the component of tissue that lies immediately outside and between cells in animals and plants.
Cell Junctions
Authors: Wegener Joachim
Published: September 2006

For any multicellular organism to function, it is a prerequisite
that its individual cells interact with each other. These interactions are
realized by cell‐to‐cell junctions that provide mechanical stability or
information exchange.
Autoimmune Disease: Aetiology and Pathogenesis
Authors: Rosmalen JGM , Leenen PJM , Drexhage HA
Published: September 2006

Unfortunate combinations of genetic susceptibility and exogenous factors (microbial, toxic, stress) lead to full‐blown autoimmune disease
Antibody Engineering
Authors: Paul Sudhir , Planque Stephanie
Published: September 2006

Human antigen‐specific antibodies can be obtained by inducing adaptive B‐cell development in transgenic mice or by test‐tube affinity maturation of cloned antibody variable (V) domain repertoires. The V domains are recloned as full‐length antibodies to improve their pharmacokinetic behaviour. Assembly of V domain into multivalent constructs improves the binding strength and linkage to enzymes, toxins or delivery proteins imparts novel functions to the constructs. Emerging engineering strategies include the development of antibodies with catalytic activity and antibodies that can target intracellular antigens.
Complement: Measurement
Authors: North Jonathan , Whaley K
Published: September 2006

The complement system comprises a group of serum proteins and cell membrane receptors that function primarily to fight infection. Clinically, measurement of complement pathway activity and individual component levels is of value in cases of immunodeficiency and inflammatory conditions that involve complement activation.
Autoimmune Disease: Diagnosis
Authors: Peakman Mark
Published: September 2006

The diagnosis of autoimmune diseases frequently makes use of laboratory‐based detection of autoantibodies. Many autoantibodies have molecularly‐characterized target antigens, are detected with high analytical sensitivity, and may be used for accurate diagnosis and prediction of autoimmune disease.
Autoimmune Disease: Genetics
Authors: Santamaria Pere
Published: September 2006

Autoimmune diseases result from an attack of the body's own tissues by the immune system. Genetic susceptibility and resistance to autoimmunity are primarily associated with highly polymorphic genes of the major histocompatibility complex and, to a lesser extent, with polygenic modifiers elsewhere in the genome.
Immunological Tolerance: Therapeutic Induction
Authors: Christadoss Premkumar
Published: September 2006

Protection from the development of autoimmune diseases and acceptance of transplanted organs are due to effective tolerance to self‐antigens and alloantigens, respectively. Various immunological strategies have been developed to induce therapeutic tolerance to control autoimmune disease or prevent graft rejection in antigen specific or non‐specific manner.
Plant–Water Relations
Authors: Passioura John B
Published: September 2006

Plant–water relations concerns how plants control the hydration of their cells, including the collection of water from the soil, its transport within the plant, and its loss by evaporation from the leaves.
Water Channels: Aquaporins
Authors: Daniels Mark J , Chrispeels Maarten J
Published: September 2006

Aquaporins are members of an ancient family of intrinsic membrane proteins that form pores or channels for water, and so facilitate the flow of water through cellular membranes in the presence of osmotic or hydrostatic gradients.
Phloem Structure and Function
Authors: Schulz Alexander , Thompson Gary A
Published: September 2006

The phloem collects photoassimilates in green leaves and supplies the heterotrophic plant organs (e.g. fruits, buds and roots). Phloem structure is specialized for loading, long‐distance transport and unloading of assimilates.
Photosynthesis: Dark Reactions
Authors: Heineke Dieter
Published: September 2006

Light reactions occur in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts that provide reducing power in the form of NADPH and energy as ATP. These products are consumed in the so‐called ‘dark reactions’ to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide. The reactions are organized in a cyclic metabolic pathway called the Calvin cycle.
Photorespiration
Authors: Sharkey Thomas D
Published: September 2006

Photorespiration is the light‐dependent release of CO2 from photosynthetic organisms and is caused by O2 substituting for CO2 in the first step of photosynthetic CO2 fixation.