bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Axillary Staging of Early‐Stage Invasive Breast Cancer by Ultrasound‐Guided Fine‐Needle Aspiration Cytology
Authors: Zhu Ying , Zhou Wei , Zhou Jian-qiao , Fei Xiao-chun , Ye Ting-Jun , Huang Ou , Chen Xiao-song , Zhan Wei-Wei
Published: April 2016

Objectives

Ultrasound (US)‐guided fine‐needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) is able to identify patients with extensive node involvement before surgery. In this study, we aimed to establish the optimal US criterion to identify abnormal lymph nodes on US‐guided FNAC for detection of patients with 3 or more metastatic axillary nodes.

Methods

A total of 445 axillae from 443 patients with histologically confirmed invasive breast cancer (cT1–2 cN0) were examined with US at Ruijin Hospital from August 2013 to August 2014. Ultrasound‐guided FNAC was performed on suspicious nodes when the cortex was eccentrically or concentrically thickened to greater than 2 mm; 269 axillae (60.4%) met the criterion and underwent US‐guided FNAC. We retrospectively analyzed the US characteristics of axillary lymph nodes, the US‐guided FNAC results, and the extent of axillary nodal involvement. For diagnostic performance, the sensitivity, specificity, and receiver operating characteristic curves were obtained.

Results

Eighty‐six patients (19.4%) were confirmed to have 3 or more positive lymph nodes by pathologic analysis. There was a significant association between the morphologic change in the most suspicious node and the extent of axillary nodal involvement (P < .001). When we applied the cutoff point (cortical thickness >3.5 mm) at which the maximal sum of sensitivity and specificity for diagnosis of 3 or more axillary lymph node metastases was achieved, we found that the sensitivity and specificity were 75.6% and 82.7%, respectively. When combining this criterion with US‐guided FNAC of the most suspicious nodes, the sensitivity and specificity were 64.2% and 94.5%, and 36.1% of cases could be spared an unnecessary 1‐step axillary lymph node dissection.

Conclusions

Cortical thickness of greater than 3.5 mm in the most suspicious nodes is appropriately predictive of patients with 3 or more tumor‐involved axillary nodes. When this criterion for US‐guided FNAC was adopted, a group of patients with 1 or 2 metastatic nodes could be spared unnecessary 1‐step axillary lymph node dissection.
Transvaginal Ultrasound‐Guided Biopsy of Deep Pelvic Masses
Authors: Plett Sara K. , Poder Liina , Brooks Rebecca A. , Morgan Tara A.
Published: April 2016

The purpose of this review is to discuss the rationale and indications for transvaginal ultrasound‐guided biopsy. Transvaginal ultrasound‐guided biopsy can be a helpful tool for diagnosis and treatment planning in the evaluation of pelvic masses, particularly when the anatomy precludes a transabdominal or posterior transgluteal percutaneous biopsy approach. A step‐by‐step summary of the technique with preprocedure and postprocedure considerations is included.
How to Acquire Cardiac Volumes for Sonographic Examination of the Fetal Heart
Authors: Yeo Lami , Romero Roberto
Published: April 2016

Four‐dimensional sonography with spatiotemporal image correlation (STIC) technology allows acquisition of a fetal cardiac volume data set and displays a cine loop of a complete single cardiac cycle in motion. Part 1 of this 2‐part article reviews STIC technology and its features, the importance of operator training/experience, and acquisition of high‐quality STIC volumes, as well as factors that affect STIC volume acquisition rates. We also propose a detailed and practical stepwise approach to performing 4‐dimensional sonography with STIC and begin herein by providing general recommendations. Part 2 will discuss specifics of the approach, along with how to determine whether such volumes are appropriate for analysis.
Seasonal trends of Amazonian rainforest phenology, net primary productivity, and carbon allocation
Authors: Girardin Cécile A. J. , Malhi Yadvinder , Doughty Christopher E. , Metcalfe Daniel B. , Meir Patrick , del Aguila‐Pasquel Jhon , Araujo‐Murakami Alejandro , da Costa Antonio C. L. , Silva‐Espejo Javier E. , Farfán Amézquita Filio , Rowland Lucy
Published: April 2016

The seasonality of solar irradiance and precipitation may regulate seasonal variations in tropical forests carbon cycling. Controversy remains over their importance as drivers of seasonal dynamics of net primary productivity in tropical forests. We use ground data from nine lowland Amazonian forest plots collected over 3 years to quantify the monthly primary productivity (NPP) of leaves, reproductive material, woody material, and fine roots over an annual cycle. We distinguish between forests that do not experience substantial seasonal moisture stress (“humid sites”) and forests that experience a stronger dry season (“dry sites”). We find that forests from both precipitation regimes maximize leaf NPP over the drier season, with a peak in production in August at both humid (mean 0.39 ± 0.03 Mg C ha−1 month−1 in July, n = 4) and dry sites (mean 0.49 ± 0.03 Mg C ha−1 month−1 in September, n = 8). We identify two distinct seasonal carbon allocation patterns (the allocation of NPP to a specific organ such as wood leaves or fine roots divided by total NPP). The forests monitored in the present study show evidence of either (i) constant allocation to roots and a seasonal trade‐off between leaf and woody material or (ii) constant allocation to wood and a seasonal trade‐off between roots and leaves. Finally, we find strong evidence of synchronized flowering at the end of the dry season in both precipitation regimes. Flower production reaches a maximum of 0.047 ± 0.013 and 0.031 ± 0.004 Mg C ha−1 month−1 in November, in humid and dry sites, respectively. Fruitfall production was staggered throughout the year, probably reflecting the high variation in varying times to development and loss of fruit among species.
Eddy properties in the Western Mediterranean Sea from satellite altimetry and a numerical simulation
Authors: Escudier Romain , Renault Lionel , Pascual Ananda , Brasseur Pierre , Chelton Dudley , Beuvier Jonathan
Published: April 2016

Three different eddy detection and tracking methods are applied to the outputs of a high‐resolution simulation in the Western Mediterranean Sea in order to extract mesoscale eddy characteristics. The results are compared with the same eddy statistics derived from satellite altimetry maps over the same period. Eddy radii are around 30 km in altimetry maps whereas, in the model, they are around 20 km. This is probably due to the inability of altimetry maps to resolve the smaller mesoscale in the region. About 30 eddies are detected per day in the basin with a very heterogeneous spatial distribution and relatively short lifespans (median life around 13 days). Unlike other areas of the open ocean, they do not have a preferred direction of propagation but appear to be advected by mean currents. The number of detected eddies seems to present an annual cycle when separated according to their lifespan. With the numerical simulation, we show that anticyclones extend deeper in the water column and have a more conic shape than cyclones.
Rerouting of subglacial water flow between neighboring glaciers in West Greenland
Authors: Chu Winnie , Creyts Timothy T. , Bell Robin E.
Published: April 2016

Investigations of the Greenland ice sheet's subglacial hydrological system show that the connectivity of different regions of the system influences how the glacier velocity responds to variations in surface melting. Here we examine whether subglacial water flow paths can be rerouted beneath three outlet glaciers in the ablation zone of western Greenland. We use Lamont‐Doherty and Center for Remote Sensing of Ice Sheets of University of Kansas (CReSIS) ice‐penetrating radar data to create a new ice thickness map. We then use a simple subglacial water flow model to examine whether flow paths can be rerouted and identify the topographic conditions that are sensitive to subglacial rerouting. By varying water pressures within an observationally constrained range, we show that moderate changes in pressure can cause flow paths to reroute and exchange water from one subglacial catchment to another. Flow across subglacial overdeepenings is particularly sensitive to rerouting. These areas have low hydraulic gradients driving flow, so subtle water pressure variations have a strong influence on water flow direction. Based on correlations between water flow paths and ice velocity changes, we infer that water piracy between neighboring catchments can result in a different spatial pattern of hydrologically induced ice velocity speedup depending on the amount and timing of surface melt. The potential for subglacial water to reroute across different catchments suggests that multiple hydrographs from neighboring glaciers are likely necessary to accurately ascertain melt budgets from proglacial point measurements. The relationship between surface runoff, ice dynamics, and proglacial discharge can be altered by rerouting of subglacial water flow within and across outlet glaciers.
Predicting convective rainfall over tropical oceans from environmental conditions
Authors: Raymond David J. , Flores Marcos M.
Published: April 2016

A cloud resolving model in spectral weak temperature gradient mode is used to explore systematically the response of mean convective rainfall to variations tropical environmental conditions. A very large fraction of the variance in modeled rainfall is explained by three variables, the surface moist entropy flux, the instability index (a measure of low to midlevel moist convective instability), and the saturation fraction (a kind of column‐averaged relative humidity). The results of these calculations are compared with the inferred rainfall from 37 case studies of convection over the tropical west Pacific, the tropical Atlantic, and the Caribbean, as well as in the NCEP FNL analysis and the ERA‐Interim reanalysis. The model shows significant predictive skill in all of these cases. However, it consistently overpredicts precipitation by about a factor of three, due possibly to simplifications made in the model. These calculations also show that the saturation fraction is not a predictor of rainfall in the case of strong convection. Instead, saturation fraction covaries with the precipitation as a result of a moisture quasi‐equilibrium process.
Relation between grid, channel, and Peano networks in high‐resolution digital elevation models
Authors: De Bartolo Samuele , Dell'Accio Francesco , Frandina Giuseppe , Moretti Giovanni , Orlandini Stefano , Veltri Massimo
Published: April 2016

The topological interconnection between grid, channel, and Peano networks is investigated by extracting grid and channel networks from high‐resolution digital elevation models of real drainage basins, and by using a perturbed form of the equation describing how the average junction degree varies with Horton‐Strahler order in Peano networks. The perturbed equation is used to fit the data observed over the Hortonian substructures of real networks. The perturbation parameter, denoted as “uniformity factor,” is shown to indicate the degree of topological similarity between Hortonian and Peano networks. The sensitivities of computed uniformity factors and drainage densities to grid cell size and selected threshold for channel initiation are evaluated. While the topological relation between real and Peano networks may not vary significantly with grid cell size, these networks are found to exhibit the same drainage density only for specific grid cell sizes, which may depend on the selected threshold for channel initiation.
Separating climate‐induced mass transfers and instrumental effects from tectonic signal in repeated absolute gravity measurements
Authors: Van Camp M. , de Viron O. , Avouac J. P.
Published: April 2016

We estimate the signature of the climate‐induced mass transfers in repeated absolute gravity measurements based on satellite gravimetric measurements from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission. We show results at the globe scale and compare them with repeated absolute gravity (AG) time behavior in three zones where AG surveys have been published: Northwestern Europe, Canada, and Tibet. For 10 yearly campaigns, the uncertainties affecting the determination of a linear gravity rate of change range 3–4 nm/s2/a in most cases, in the absence of instrumental artifacts. The results are consistent with what is observed for long‐term repeated campaigns. We also discuss the possible artifact that can result from using short AG survey to determine the tectonic effects in a zone of high hydrological variability. We call into question the tectonic interpretation of several gravity changes reported from stations in Tibet, in particular the variation observed prior to the 2015 Gorkha earthquake.
Obscenity Laws in theUnitedStates,Canada, andEurope
Authors: Saunders Kevin W.
Published: April 2016

Obscenity laws represent a variety of censorship, a restriction on expression, based on concerns over morality. In the United States, the focus has been on explicit sexual depiction. Other countries define obscenity as including material with any tendency to corrupt, an approach that encompasses far more material. In the United States and in Europe there has been the recognition that there is variation from community to community, and obscenity determinations have been tied to geography, a position that is harder to maintain after the development of the Internet.
Cult of Domesticity
Authors: Connellan Kathleen
Published: April 2016

The cult of domesticity is a belief in the process of homemaking and nurturing. Central to this is the mother figure and the home as site of safety but also social status. Expectations of cleanliness were inculcated into racial, gendered, and cultural ideals of domesticity through colonialism and then extended in the Western appliance revolution. The gender compass of domesticity is shifting with deepening understandings of sexualities and belonging.
Feminist Disability Studies
Authors: Gill Michael
Published: April 2016

Feminist disability studies (FDS) is an exploration of how categories of gender and disability, along with other identities, intersect. FDS emerged out of disabled women narrating their material and embodied experiences in order to transform sexist and ableist spaces. FDS seeks to articulate how gender operates as a regulatory system in the lives of disabled individuals. FDS's focus on the body including reproductive technologies, sexual access, and discourses of beauty and perfection considers how systems of oppression, including ableism, sexism, racism, classism, and heteronormativity, interlock in the lives of disabled women. FDS also seeks to complicate feminist ideas of independence, agency, and care labor by bringing disabled perspectives as worthy of analysis and theorization. FDS is both interdisciplinary in its investigation and multidisciplinary in its origins as many of the foundational texts are found in academic traditions from sociology, philosophy, and literary studies. FDS can complicate meanings of able‐bodiedness and disability identity and inform theories of intersectionality by foregrounding an analysis of how ableism intersects with racism, classism, sexism, and other interlocking systems of oppression.
Privilege
Authors: Riggs Damien W.
Published: April 2016

The concept of privilege as used within both research and everyday activism refers to the automatic attribution of value to particular individuals on the basis of their group membership. This attribution results from living in societies where particular groups of people are seen as the norm. The accrual of privilege to certain groups of people is the product of historical factors that have served to legitimate a particular group of people as the norm against which all others are compared. Privilege is also something that individuals who occupy a privileged social identity are invested in maintaining. As such, understanding privilege involves examining how people living in the present are willing to perpetuate historically unjust modes of distributing social, symbolic, cultural, and economic capital, primarily to their own benefit.
Gender, Politics, and the State: Indigenous Women
Authors: Burman Anders
Published: April 2016

At the intersections of race/ethnicity, class, and sex/gender, indigenous women are frequently discriminated against because they are indigenous, poor, and women. However, indigenous women's political engagement within their own societies and with national politics is indissolubly intertwined with a broader struggle for indigenous peoples' rights. Around the world indigenous movements are emerging as political subjects contesting the state and other external actors. From within these mobilizations indigenous women offer readings of their situation that often differ from the dominant notion of them being victims whose primary need is external assistance.
Sex versus Gender Categorization
Authors: Kelly Maura
Published: April 2016

This entry examines the relationship between the concepts of “sex” and “gender” as used in theory and research. When scholars initially distinguished these two concepts, sex represented “biological” differences, while gender represented “social” differences. Today, many gender scholars problematize this distinction and understand both sex and gender as socially constructed categories of difference. Gender is the preferred term to refer to masculine and feminine identities as well as average differences between men as a group and women as a group. Intersex, transgender, and non‐binary gender identities have been used to theorize the relationship between sex and gender.
Masturbation
Authors: Frank Elena
Published: April 2016

The touching or other stimulation of one's own genitals or other erogenous zones for sexual purposes, masturbation has a long and complex history as a social, moral, and medical problem. Denigrated as a sign of either immorality or illness, masturbation has generally been perceived as a manifestation of cultural anxieties, rather than a “normal” or “natural” sexual behavior, with self‐pleasure considered more morally and physically dangerous for women than men. Despite twentieth‐century academic researchers' deconstruction of dominant medical and psychoanalytic perspectives that viewed masturbation as non‐normative and pathological, and the subsequent adoption of self‐stimulation as a personal and political act of liberation byUSsocial movements, masturbation remains a sensitive and controversial topic in mainstream Western culture and discourse today.
Reflexivity
Authors: Giuffre Patti , Hudson April
Published: April 2016

Reflexivity refers to researchers seeing themselves as part of the research process beyond collecting and analyzing data. It presumes that researchers' biases, feelings, and interactions are a part of the data, not extraneous to them. Reflexive researchers carefully consider how their various social locations and statuses (e.g., gender, ethnicity, social class) influence the respondents, the setting, and their own interpretations of the data. Reflexivity aids the researchers' understanding of the social phenomenon under study.
Cohabitation andEkageikamain theKandyanKingdom (SriLanka)
Authors: Silva Kalinga Tudor
Published: April 2016

Cohabitation refers to a living arrangement where an unmarried couple lives together in a socially accepted union inclusive of sexual intimacy. There were several patterns of heterosexual cohabitation in the Kandyan Kingdom (1463–1815).Ekageikama(literally, eating together in the same house) involved a polyandrous union where two or more male siblings lived with a common wife who was married to one of them, usually the oldest one, but had consensual sexual alliances with one or more of his male siblings without necessarily going through any formalization of such alliances. In addition, there were also some instances of polygyny, monogamous cohabitations, and extramarital cohabitations usually of a hypergamous nature, where a higher‐caste man had a lower‐caste woman as his mistress. Of the various forms of cohabitation in the Kandyan Kingdom, adelphic polyandry received greater attention as it was considered an important feature of the bilateral Kandyan kinship system. Adelphic polyandry served to conserve ancestral landholdings, mobilize domestic labor for various purposes, including provision of corvee labor to the state, and perhaps regulate population growth in the Kingdom. Nearly all traditional forms of cohabitation in Kandyan society have disappeared over time due to the impact of colonialism, modernization, urbanization, and legal reforms.
Infanticide
Authors: Bechtold Brigitte H.
Published: April 2016

Infanticide's gendered aspects relate to the sex of the perpetrator, sex selection of the act's victim, the material circumstances that prompt infanticide, and the sanctions exercised by society. Although in today's large patriarchal societies of China and India infanticide is sex‐selective, this does not hold across time and cultures. Cultural attitudes toward punishment or tolerance of infanticide are distinctly gendered, and relate to socially constructed ideals of gender and gender roles. Societies that exhibit relatively more gender equality and egalitarian access to resources exhibit relatively less infanticide.
Child Labor in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Derby C. Nana
Published: April 2016

Child labor is a social construct defined diversely in different cultures. As a social construct, cultural practices, history, and various social institutions unique to the culture tend to influence definitions we assign this social issue. Unlike other practices, however, the phenomenon of child labor is often given meaning within the international community and in ways that somehow affect respective frameworks within individual countries. These frameworks either positively examine the functional roles of child labor or critically evaluate ways in which child labor constitutes abuse, erodes childhoods, and impedes growth and development in minors. This entry provides variations in the perspectives, local and international, and scholarly and legal definitions of the phenomenon. Each of the definitions is evaluated for its practicality, with relevant examples from different parts of the world.
Courtly Love
Authors: Ellis‐Etchison John W.
Published: April 2016

Courtly love is a highly circumscribed code of conduct that relies on an amalgamated language of feudalism and noblesse oblige to convey a sense of intrinsic disparity in the power dynamics between the lovers. While depictions of normative gender roles within this tradition seem rigidly demarcated, merely reifying as natural masculine activity and feminine passivity, the overt sexualization and objectification of the feminine, and the ascendancy of patriarchal dominion, this is not a foregone conclusion. Scholars continue to debate the ways in which courtly love sounds the depths of gender and sexuality, calling into question, reversing, and undermining hidebound constructions of masculine authority through the enactment of feminine autonomy.
Religious Fundamentalism
Authors: Aleaz Bonita
Published: April 2016

Religious fundamentalism manifests the symptoms of patriarchal decline visible primarily in the spheres of the family and sexual morality; however, the underlying causes point toward socioeconomic factors: the erosion of small‐scale family‐owned businesses, the displacement of males from rural to urban production centers, and formal and codified relationships at the expense of intimate patriarchal relations between employers and employees. Certain intrinsic core values are perceived as being violently threatened. Thus, while there is no homogeneity in the language used by fundamentalists, cutting across religions, sex – or, more specifically, female sexuality and the controls to be exercised over it – looms large in their repertoire. Women are attracted to the message of fundamentalism, which invokes the language of kinship, and in which religion itself substitutes the family. Such a notion provides desired security, so despite the presentiment of being caged in, women respond in like measure to men to overcome the ill effects of dislocation and disempowerment.
Women's Writing
Authors: Plate Liedeke
Published: April 2016

Women and writing is a subject central to art and literature. Taking gender as its principle of categorization, the topic covers women's writings, the distinctiveness of literature by women, and its relationship to male canons of writing; female authorship and its conditions of possibility; access to means of production and distribution; and the reception, assessment, and evaluation of women's writings.
Open and Affirming Religious Organizations
Authors: Sumerau J. E.
Published: April 2016

In this entry, scholarship concerning open and affirming religious organizations is briefly reviewed. Specifically, these religious organizations are defined, their historical trajectory in relation to contemporary society is demonstrated, the two major forms they take within contemporary society are elaborated, and the potential impact of these religious organizations in terms of gendered and sexual inequalities is discussed. Finally, the entry provides a list of suggested materials readers may turn to for further information concerning open and affirming religious organizations.
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Psychologies
Authors: Peel Elizabeth , Riggs Damien W.
Published: April 2016

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) psychology is the current term used to refer to what was previously known as the affirmative field of lesbian and gay psychology, which developed from the late 1960s onwards. This field of psychology is closely aligned to the psychology of sexualities, but with a specific focus on non‐heterosexual and/or non‐gender normative people. The term LGBT psychology signals a more unitary field than LGBT psychologies, the latter highlighting a multiplicity of psychological perspectives and also discrete bodies of psychological knowledge that focus on either lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender identities and topics. The epistemological frameworks and research methods utilized within the field of LGBT psychology differ between countries. In North America (and particularly the United States), positivist empiricism informed by liberal humanism is the dominant framework in this field (as with psychological research more generally). In Europe and in Australasia, by contrast, LGBT psychological research is commonly more aligned with post‐positivist and critical psychological traditions such as social constructionism.
Language and Gender
Authors: Weatherall Ann
Published: April 2016

The relationships between language and gender are complex. Feminist researchers have importantly documented the ways language reflects, maintains, and even produces gender. This entry describes two issues that have dominated the research. The first is the matter of gender differences in language use. Despite widely held beliefs to the contrary, there is a lack of evidence that women and men use language differently. The second issue is sexism in language. It is now widely accepted that gender in language can reflect sexism. More recently constructionist theories expand the role of language to consider the ways discourse, conceptualized as broader meaning systems, produces beliefs about gender and sexuality.
Sexism in Language
Authors: Weatherall Ann
Published: April 2016

A broad array of language practices have been considered sexist, including terms of address that indicate the marital status of women (i.e., Miss versus Mrs.) but not men and the trivialization women's speech by the words used to describe it (e.g., as nagging or gossiping). An important debate has been whether sexism in language just reflects social beliefs and attitudes toward women or if it also helps to support and maintain sexism in society. Scientific studies have shown that language use does shape thinking and behavior in important ways. The negative impact of sexist language on women has led to non‐sexist language policies in education and publishing. An ongoing issue that feminist language researchers highlight is the underrepresentation or misrepresentation of women on television and in social media.
Gender Blind
Authors: Bishop C. J. , Hitomi Maaya Kuri , Morrison Todd G.
Published: April 2016

Two definitions of “gender blind,” a term that refers to dismissing gender as a meaningful social category, are highlighted based on whether the concept is applied to individuals or institutional provisions/policies. As well, the relationship between this concept and neologisms such as pomosexuality and panromantic is explored.
Hypermasculinity
Authors: Hickey Chris
Published: April 2016

Hypermasculinity is understood as the exaggeration of male stereotype behaviors. It is derived from the constellation of masculine stereotypes that are readily drawn on as a frame for gender comparison, that is, more or less masculine. Hypermasculinity can be employed as a psychoanalytic or sociological construct to represent the excessive performance of male pattern behaviors. While there is a range of adjectives that can be attached to hypermasculinity, it is frequently identified within the macho assemblage, expressed as stoicism, hardness, forcefulness, and rebelliousness.
Biochemistry and Physiology
Authors: Rubin David A.
Published: April 2016

Biochemistry uses molecular methods to study chemical processes in organic systems. Physiology is the study of integrated function among organisms, organs, cells, and molecules in bionetworks and ecosystems. Biochemistry and physiology explain some – though not all – of the many dimensions of sex and gender. Contemporary research in biochemistry and physiology has advanced significantly beyond the monocausal explanations of sex and gender that once dominated these fields. Scientists have come to define sex as anatomically multidimensional and molecularly polygenic.
Women's Banking
Authors: Rutterford Janette , Maltby Josephine
Published: April 2016

We argue that women have long been involved in the financial sector, as investors and savers. As legislation gave married women equal rights to those of spinsters and widows by the end of the nineteenth century, and as low‐risk securities that appealed to women were increasingly offered to investors, so women increased in importance relative to men, outnumbering men by the 1950s. Whether out of necessity or preference, women took less financial risk than men. This difference in risk attitude has persisted to the present, whether in pension investment choice or in the substantial gap between the numbers of men and women who are employed in senior roles in the financial services sector, in the United Kingdom and the United States. Despite changes in women's activity over time, it seems that there is a persistent belief that women are innately different from men – in particular, more risk averse – in their financial ability and preferences.
Social Role Theory of Sex Differences
Authors: Eagly Alice H. , Wood Wendy
Published: April 2016

Social role theory is a social psychological theory that pertains to sex differences and similarities in social behavior. Its key principle is that differences and similarities arise primarily from the distribution of men and women into social roles within their society. Through socialization and the formation of gender roles, the behaviors of men and women generally support and sustain the division of labor. In industrialized economies, for example, social roles are organized so that women are more likely than men to be homemakers and primary caretakers of children and to hold caretaking jobs in the paid economy. In contrast, men are more likely than women to be primary family providers and to assume full‐time roles in the paid economy, often ones that involve physical strength, assertiveness, or leadership skills.
S
hakti
S
hanti
Authors: Amirtham Metti
Published: April 2016

“The desire for attaining Shanti is natural in human beings,” writes Maharishi Mehi.
Shanti
in Sanskrit means “peace,” “tranquility,” “bliss,” etc. But from its Hindu and Buddhist origins, T. S. Eliot once translated the Sanskrit word to mean, “The Peace which passeth understanding.” Rather than passive or inactive, Shanti is said to represent more of a moving, fluid, or “living” peace that can be realized in an ever‐present state of being – right here, right now – and actively engaged through personal practice. In other words, the subtle nuance of Eliot's translation conveys the idea of a peace that can be continually discovered, experienced, reaped – not as an outcome, but as a never‐ending practice and experience.
Masculinism
Authors: Hakala Ulla
Published: April 2016

Masculinism, or masculism, is a countermovement to feminism that has functioned in Western countries since the 1980s. Masculinists identify themselves primarily as men, and as activists promoting the rights of men and fathers. They claim that men are in a worse position than women because of the decades‐long emphasis on women's rights and the feminization of society.
Media and Gender Socialization
Authors: Gadzekpo Audrey
Published: April 2016

The media is widely regarded as influencing how people perceive the world around them through the images and messages it produces. Gender scholars argue that the media is complicit in promoting a gendered society by reinforcing hegemonic messages that inform societal understandings of what it means to be a woman and a man. Social learning theorists have demonstrated that from an early age the media plays a key role in socializing individuals into gendered roles. Although media representations are slowly changing, stereotypical constructions of femininity and masculinity persist in diverse media – from children's books, television, film, and advertisements to online media and video games.
Child Prostitution
Authors: Norma Caroline
Published: April 2016

Child prostitution is recognized by the United Nations as a growing problem of sexual demand for children. This demand is generated globally by child sex tourism, the prostitution and pornography industries, militarism, and caste‐based familial and religion‐sanctioned systems of sexual exploitation in countries like India. Scholars are divided on the extent to which children are harmed by prostitution, but there is empirical medical, psychological, and social science research indicating serious and life‐long consequences for victims. There is also scholarly debate about causes of expanding global demand for the prostitution of children. Male sexuality has begun to be problematized in relation to the problem, as well as the profits of online businesses mediating the trade.
Transphobia
Authors: Ansara Y. Gavriel , Friedman Erica J.
Published: April 2016

The term transphobia refers to hostile responses to people perceived as “trans,” a term typically used to describe people whose own designations of their gender are independent from their assigned gender or from the administrative sex category listed on their original birth certificate. “Trans” has also been used to describe people whose characteristics and behavior differ from expected gender norms in a particular context. Since transphobia was first measured in 2005, researchers using the transphobia framework have shifted the direction of research from studies that try to determine the causes of the existence of “trans people” to studies that investigate the causes and consequences of hostile and discriminatory treatment of “trans people.” Limitations of the transphobia framework include reliance on a “transgender/cisgender” gender binary and the exclusion of subtle, implicit, and benevolent forms of delegitimization and exclusion experienced by people perceived as trans.
Women's and Feminist Activism in
S
outhern
A
frica
Authors: Hames Mary
Published: April 2016

This entry tracks the role of women's and feminist activism in the Southern Africa region since the liberation struggles and into the twenty‐first century. The entry shows how conservative women's causes within the ruling party became and how they compromised women's liberation for the sake of party politics. It illustrates the importance of feminism praxis within civil society as separate from state feminism. The entry comments on the lack of commitment to international agreements and conventions by the states and how the dualistic nature of the legal systems is in contravention of the universal human rights framework.
Informal Economy
Authors: Limoncelli Stephanie A.
Published: April 2016

The informal economy is a diverse, complex, and persistent feature of countries worldwide and one that affects men and women differently. Not only are women more likely to be in informal work compared to men, they are also likely to be in the most precarious, lowest‐paying segments of the informal economy. Academics, policymakers, and activists have identified a number of policy and program responses as well as further research to help better understand and address the needs of those involved in the informal economy.
Child Custody and the Father Right Principle
Authors: Michaels Wendy
Published: April 2016

The history of child custody reflects changing conceptions of family and gender roles. The common lawparens patriae(“parent of the country”) principle vested in Chancery in 1600 empowered courts to award child custody based on the father right principle that bestowed ownership of children on the father. The principle was central to thepater familiasstructure, protected the father's material and familial property, and deemed his authority to be “natural.” Its authority was challenged through case law and by legislators and social reformers. In the United Kingdom an 1839 statute replaced father right with maternal preference for children of tender years. Most American jurisdictions began to endorse maternal preference for tender years offspring throughout the nineteenth century. Australian states were tardier in replacing father right with maternal preference. The late twentieth century internationally saw shifts away from both father right and maternal preference to joint custody.
Kathoey
Authors: Sangganjanavanich Varunee Faii
Published: April 2016

Kathoey is a Thai word referring to men who wear women's costumes (cross‐dressers), adopt female gender roles, stereotypes, and expectations (male‐to‐female [MtF] transgender people), live full‐time as a woman in a feminized body (MtF transsexual people), or have both female and male sexual organs (intersex people). Although kathoeys are highly visible in Thai society, they are considered members of a sexual minority who have fought for their human and legal rights.
Gender Dysphoria
Authors: Lev Arlene
Published: April 2016

This entry defines gender dysphoria, outlining the DSM‐5 criteria, and controversies regarding its inclusion as a mental illness. Assessment and clinical treatment for anatomical dysphoria and clinical significant gender‐related incongruence associated with gender‐non‐conforming behavior and treatment are briefly outlined.
Women's Political Representation
Authors: Dahlerup Drude
Published: April 2016

The continuous underrepresentation of women and of various minorities in elected political assemblies challenges classic democratic theory, which focuses on procedures, on thehow, while neglecting thewhoof representation, be it in the ancient city‐state of Athens or in modern deliberative governance structures. Political representation is embedded in the power structure of the political system. In most political systems the political parties are the gatekeepers to elected positions. When the voters enter the polling station, the nomination and rank order of candidates for election have already been decided on by the political parties. Historically, representation predates democracy, as in the representation of noblemen, priests, and the bourgeoisie in the old estates. The present discussion of equal representation of all citizens in relation to their share of the population is linked to modern democracy. Yet, increasingly, even senior non‐democratic countries select their political assemblies through direct public elections, which has made the question of who the representatives are a global issue. This entry distinguishes between descriptive, substantive, and symbolic representation.
Transvestitism
Authors: McIntyre Joanna
Published: April 2016

Transvestitism (or transvestism) refers to certain modes of, and behaviors associated with, cross‐dressing; that is, temporarily wearing clothing and adornments designated to the opposite sex/gender. Those who practice transvestitism are known as transvestites. Transvestitism tends to manifest either as an expression of cross‐sex/gender identification (distinct from sexual orientation), or for the purposes of sexual gratification associated with transvestic fetishism.
Gay Male Literature
Authors: van den Oever Roel
Published: April 2016

Three historically‐specific definitions of the term “gay male literature” can be given. They are: (1) the portrayal of male–male desire in all of literature; (2) literature relating to the discursive category of homosexuality from 1869 onwards; and (3) literature relating to gay liberation from 1969 onwards. The resulting corpus of gay male literature varies from all‐encompassing for definition (1) – a reader is free to uncover male–male desire in any text – to relatively small for definition (3) – only texts written by openly gay authors about gay characters are included.
Bear Culture
Authors: Gideonse Theodore K.
Published: April 2016

Bear culture is a gay male subculture that originated in the 1980s and has since spread through the world. While what defines a bear has always been debated by those who identify as one, archetypically gay bears are bearded, hirsute, and stocky. Bears are expected to perform hypermasculine gendered behavior, and many bears see this behavior and the bear appearance as standing in opposition to what they consider to be a dominant gay culture that encourages a thin and hairless frame, fashion consciousness, and an effeminate affect.
Children's Literature and Sexuality
Authors: Chick Kay A.
Published: April 2016

Children's literature teaches gender norms at a time when children are forming their gender identity. Books teach children about traditional and nontraditional families, multiple masculinities and femininities, and diversity in gender and sexuality. Gay and lesbian families have been portrayed in children's books since the 1990s. In recent years gender variance has become more common in literature, with children now depicted as gay, lesbian, or transgender. Children's literature helps young people think beyond traditional gender identities, rethink and challenge gender stereotypes, and consider the possibility of multiple masculinities and femininities. However, censorship of books with gender variant characters is common. As a result, during the time when children are forming their gender identity, developing views on masculinity and femininity, and acquiring gender stereotypes, literature that supports diversity in gender and sexuality may not be available to them.
Queer Space
Authors: Alley Jason
Published: April 2016

This entry follows the intellectual twists and turns surrounding queer space from the 1990s to the present. Beginning with new forms of theory, activism, and identity gathered under the umbrella of “queer,” the entry moves on to chart the shifts from postmodern approaches to queer space to engagements with globalization, urban place‐making, queer critiques of the nation, and future directions in the analyses of queer space and place.
Gender Outlaw
Authors: Barczak Del
Published: April 2016

As the moniker suggests, gender outlaws are the quintessential rule‐breakers when it comes to gender conformity. They break rules on how people are supposed to look, how people can act or participate in which spaces, and rules about who can be attracted to whom; all often simply by existing. The refusal to be labelled and identified in accordance with a highly policed, binary system of male and female, as well as refusing to moderate behavior to align with sex‐role stereotyping is common amongst gender outlaws. Historically, being differently gendered publicly or acting outside the dictates of behavior attributed to gender assignation potentially lead to life‐threatening situations; however, the increasingly visible political and social challenge of gender stereotypes and a
naturalness
gender status quo exemplifies the modern gender outlaw. These challenges rarely mean advocating for a genderless society however, most often encompassing and legitimizing an understanding that there are more than two sex‐aligned genders.
Gender Identities and Socialization
Authors: Bettis Pamela J. , Ferry Nicole Capriel
Published: April 2016

Gender socialization refers to the complicated social process in which men become appropriately masculine and women become appropriately feminine. Major societal institutions such as schools, business, families, religions, governments, science, and what is considered common sense contribute to the shaping of gendered identities that reflect masculine and feminine behavior. Simultaneously, individuals take up these gendered roles out of societal compliance and the belief that biology is destiny. Critical gender scholars argue that gender socialization limits the possibilities of individuals embracing their full humanity and argue for the elimination of the gender binary and for a recognition of the continuum of human behavior and sexuality regardless of an individual's sex.
S
haker Religion
Authors: Davis R. Casey
Published: April 2016

This article explores the Shakers' perspective and understanding of gender and sexuality. Their perspective on these two facets of life was shaped by their religious beliefs and practices. Shakers were one of the main religious and social forces that advocated for women's suffrage and equality. However, this understanding also limited the growth of the Shakers due to their practice of celibacy.
Head of Household and Supplementary Earner
Authors: Bowman Dina
Published: April 2016

The household is a social and economic unit and the site of production and consumption. Household arrangements reflect and reinforce labor market norms, social and economic policies, workplace practices and cultural expectations about work and family life. Households are commonly used in surveys that generate demographic, labor force, time use and other data to inform social and economic policies. The male head of household and female supplementary earner is a common arrangement that reflects a gendered division of labor. Despite women's participation in the labor force economic inequality between women and men persists, which emphasizes the importance of a better understanding of intra‐household dynamics and the ways in which market inequalities are reflected and reproduced in the household.
Sexual Subjectivity
Authors: Dimen Muriel
Published: April 2016

Sexual subjectivity refers to how people see themselves as desirous beings. It includes their experiences of sex and erotism, as well as their assessment of their own erotic and sexual desires, acts, and fantasies. It encompasses their sexual pleasures and displeasures; appetites, revulsions and apathies; and the way they speak of or otherwise represent their sexual experience(s) and their sexual dreams. By implication, it comprises as well the unfelt or unregistered forces of unconscious and cultural life that inform sexual experience.