bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Scanning Patterns with Ecological Displays when Abstraction Levels are Separated
Authors: Burns Catherine M.
Published: January 2012

Ecological interface design (EID) has shown success as an approach for interface design in the case of a process control microworld. However, in applying the EID approach to larger systems, questions of navigation and integration of abstract information arise. In this study, three ecological displays were developed for an industry-scale simulated power plant from an abstraction-decomposition model of that plant. In one of the displays, the abstraction levels were temporally separated. In the other two displays the abstraction levels were temporally integrated. When using the temporally separated display, subjects developed distinct temporal scanning patterns along the abstraction dimension. The nature and characteristic of the scanning patterns suggests that functional integration is an important design element when designing large ecological displays.
A Red Team Analysis of the Electronic Battlefield: A Cognitive Approach to Understanding How Hackers Work in Groups
Authors: McCloskey Michael J. , Stanard Terry
Published: January 2012

The nature of battle is evolving. As technology continues to evolve and the world becomes more interconnected, the potential for cyber-terrorism and hacker crime continues to grow. Malicious hackers have been developing tools and strategies for years that enable them to work in distributed teams and launch coordinated, synchronized attacks against targets of their choice. If we are to effectively combat the enemies of cyberspace, we need to first understand how they operate. When they work in groups, how do they form? How do they identify goals? How do they share information when they are a distributed team? Klein Associates is in the process of studying the behaviors and motivations of hackers and hacker groups. We can learn many lessons from the actions of these skilled individuals that will help network security professionals better understand and counter the threats they face.
CoHOST- Computer Simulation Models to Investigate Human Performance Task and Workload Conditions in a U.S. Army Heavy Maneuver Battalion Tactical Operations Center
Authors: Middlebrooks Sam E. , Knapp Beverly G. , Barnette B. Diane , Bird Cheryl , Johnson Joyce , Kilduff Pat , Schipani Salvatore P. , Swoboda Jennifer , Wojciechowski Jody , Tillman Barry , Ensing Annette R. , Archer Sue , Archer Rick , Plott Beth
Published: January 2012

A multi-year effort was conducted to investigate the impact on human cognitive and physical performance capabilities, which the introduction of a new Army command and control vehicle with modernized digital communications systems would have. This was a joint effort by the Human Research and Engineering Directorate of the U.S. Army Research Laboratory in partnership with the Directorate of Force Developments at the U.S. Armor Center and School at Fort Knox, Kentucky, and the U.S. Army Operational Test and Evaluation Command at Alexandria, Virginia. Literature searches and background investigations were conducted, and a model architecture based on a taxonomy of human performance was developed. A computer simulation design and methodology was implemented with these taxonomic-based descriptors of human performance in the military command and control domain, using a commercially available simulation programming language. A series of computer models called Computer modeling of Human Operator System Tasks (CoHOST) was written and results were developed that suggest that automation alone does not necessarily improve human performance.
Human-Centered Automation: The View from Earth versus the View from Mars
Authors: Massimino Michael J. , Mitchell Christine M. , Smith Philip J. , Stillwell Don J. , Mitchell Christine M. , Thurman David A. , Malin Jane T. , Jones Patricia M.
Published: January 2012

This panel addresses the topic of human-centered automation in a very different context—manned missions to deep space in which predominantly autonomous systems must control the crew's life-support systems most of the time. The Mars spacecraft and its inhabitants are totally dependent on the proper operation of thousands of control loops and pieces of equipment to maintain the delicate, unbuffered homeostasis of their remote existence. Mission success hangs on a thread that depends on a successful partnership, or symbiosis, between crew and machines, which exceeds anything ever required of ground systems. The need for a new approach to human-centered automation is not a “frill” in future Mars mission, but rather a sine qua non of survival. Thus the challenge is design: Can we design systems intended to operate in a predominantly autonomous mode, without a human backup, that are sufficiently safe such that human travel into deep space is possible? Further, when such systems reach their inevitable limits, can they be designed such that a crewmember, neither an operator in any traditional sense nor a software engineer, can understand what happened and repair or modify system operation?
An Analysis of Problems with Auditory Alarms: Defining the Roles of Alarms in Process Monitoring Tasks
Authors: Xiao Yan , Seagull F. Jacob
Published: January 2012

It has become a standard practice to use auditory alarm devices to enhance human monitoring performance in monitoring tasks. However, the effectiveness of such practice has been-challenged from time to time, which leads to the fundamental question of what roles alarms should and could assume. This paper reviews reported observations of interactions between human operators and alarm mechanisms in patient care, aviation, and process control. Based on the reviews, we propose that the roles of alarms in process monitoring tasks should be viewed more as a way of informing process status and less as a way of interpreting the significance of process status. The roles can best be understood in the skill-, rule-, and knowledge-based performance framework. Implications to alarm and auditory designs are discussed. Specifically, design of alarm devices should be guided by the principle of information provision regardless of whether an alarm may be true or false indication of “alarming” events.
Team-in-the-Loop, Synthetic Simulation: Bridging the Gap between Laboratory and Field Research
Authors: Hess Stephen M , MacMillan Jean , Elliott Linda R. , Schiflett Sam
Published: January 2012

The reported work demonstrates some recent results in an ongoing effort to bridge the gap between controlled laboratory investigations of team performance and more complicated but realistic research from the field. Reported work is part of a broad, multidisciplinary research program linking insights from both extremes in a middle ground of controlled experimentation with medium fidelity, team-in-the-loop synthetic tasks. Our work, focussed on the domain of AWACS command and control, has taken a multi-level, multi-method approach to task development and performance assessment. In this report, we will discuss recent data and insights from a high-fidelity DMT exercise—RoadRunner '98-and our ongoing efforts to apply these insights and results to the development of a series of experiments using medium-fidelity simulation to capture the same core constructs. Paper contains preliminary data from RoadRunner 98, a description of our measurement approach and discussion of our current research using the medium-fidelity DDD-AWACS simulator.
Task “Versus” Work Domain Analysis Techniques: A Comparative Analysis
Authors: Miller Christopher A. , Vicente Kim J.
Published: January 2012

Work analysis techniques are the primary methods for designers to obtain knowledge for good interfaces. The majority of current techniques are either task-centered or system- or work domain-centered. In previous work (Miller and Vicente, 1998) we maintained that each technique focuses on different aspects of the design problem and has complementary strengths and weaknesses, thus mandating a unification for completeness. Here, we compare the results of two analyses of the same work environment, one using a work domain-centered technique (Rasmussen's (1985) Abstraction Decomposition Space or Abstraction Hierarchy) and the other using a task-centered technique (Hierarchical Task Analysis—Shepherd, 1989). We compare the requirements produced by each analytic technique and demonstrate their complementary nature. We argue for examining a work domain from both perspectives and discuss interface concepts that would satisfy both analyses. We argue that these interfaces would provide better user support than one designed from either analytic technique alone.
The Value of Assistance: An Onboard Diagnostic Interface for Navy Rotorcraft Operations
Authors: Deaton John E. , Glenn Floyd A. , Coury Bruce G.
Published: January 2012

User interfaces capable of providing intelligent assistance to people are becoming a viable solution to the problem of human interaction with complex systems. In this paper we present a number of important factors and discuss their implications for intelligent assistance, with specific emphasis on user interface design. We will present those factors in the context of empirical data obtained during two studies of aircrew performance conducted in a helicopter simulator. The paper will begin with a discussion of the background to the project, and then turn to the factors revealed in the two studies and the data which indicated to us the importance of those factors. The paper will conclude with a discussion of the implications for user interface design, and our plans for further research and development in this area.
The Role of Learning Theories in the Design of Effective Online Learning Environments
Authors: Quealy James , Langan-Fox Janice
Published: January 2012

Online learning systems are rapidly changing the nature of teaching and learning. Large amounts of resources are being put into their development, despite inconclusive evidence of their effectiveness and a lack of pragmatic, empirically supported guidelines to aid the design and development process. A profusion of learning theories has added little to the enterprise with a critical review showing that the dominant learning theory at any point over the past 30 years has mirrored the characteristics of the latest learning technology. In a complex research domain, this study proposes a research methodology which foregrounds teaching practitioners' experience and beliefs and seeks to investigate the differences in both teaching theory and practice between disciplines. Using a University-wide trial of online learning, the ongoing study will compare the learning theories and design decisions made by development teams across the University's discipline areas.
Spatial Distribution and Integrated Information Display: Effects on Memory for Rapidly Changing Information
Authors: Hess Stephen M , Ellis R. Darin , Detweiler Mark C.
Published: January 2012

One symptom of the digital revolution has been the rapid proliferation of information displays on everything from consumer products to automotive dashboards. As devices get smaller and displays are placed in environments where real-estate is at a premium, new methods for representing large quantities of information in small spaces must be developed. In a recent panel discussion on the topic of compact information displays, Christoffersen (1998) raised a dichotomy between “single-sensor-single-indicator” (SSSI) displays (Goodstein, 1981; Vicente and Rasmussen, 1990) and integrated displays. In integrated displays, users pull separate values on each of several variable from a single location on the display. The advantages of integrated displays have been attributed to a number of design factors, but we wondered whether the simple attribute of spatial proximity might account for some of the benefits. To study spatial proximity issues in the lab, we looked at participants abilities to monitor and keep track of the current states of rapidly changing variables that were presented in tight physical proximity vs spatially separated, with each variable presented in a unique location. Our results provide further evidence that there are task contexts in which display integration may not be the appropriate design decision.
Alphabetic vs. Qwerty Keyboard Layouts for Touch Screens: Hasn't Someone Already Done That?
Authors: Capobianco Gary , Lee Mark D. , Cohen Sally
Published: January 2012

Forty-eight subjects (24 experienced and 24 inexperienced) entered name and address data on three types of keyboard layouts, the standard QWERTY, an alphabetic, and a random layout (as a control condition). Each keyboard was used in a squared arrangement where the keys were arranged in perfectly aligned rows and columns, and an offset version, where for every other row, the columns were slightly offset. The data show both preference and performance advantages for the QWERTY arrangement. Recommendations for design are discussed
User Models of Consumer Products - The Initial Encounter
Authors: Resnick Marc
Published: January 2012

When consumers are introduced to a new product, they begin to develop a conceptual model immediately. If this initial experience occurs at the point of sale, their model will be based chiefly on information on the product packaging and price. To understand consumer-product interactions, a greater understanding of how packaging information is incorporated into product models at the initial encounter is needed. Sixty participants were shown thirty-six unfamiliar brands of general consumer products ranging from nutritional supplements to household cleaners. Product packaging was manipulated to produce variations in the product name, price, and endorsements from a variety of groups including government agencies and celebrities. Significant differences in perceptions of product effectiveness and purchase intentions were found depending on endorsement source, product price, participant income, education, and age.
The Uninformativeness of Quantitative Research for Usability Focused Design of Consumer Products
Authors: Kanis H. , Weegels M. F. , Steenbekkers L. P. A.
Published: January 2012

Scientific journals in the area of Ergonomics/Human Factors are strongly oriented towards quantitative research. At the same time, authors are urged to discuss the practical applicability of their research, such as in terms of design recommendations. On the basis of empirical findings in several studies, the present paper demonstrates that usability focused design of consumer products is barely supported by research into human characteristics. Neither do the commonly found overall performance measures obtained in summative evaluations appear to be of any help in design. Instead, to inform design, in-depth research into actual user activities is indispensable, preferably including observations in a naturalistic environment enriched by clarification of product use from a user's perspective.
An Electromyographic Study of Two Different Types of Ballpoint Pens
Authors: Udo Hiroshi , Otani Toru , Udo Akihiro , Yoshinaga Fumitaka
Published: January 2012

The purpose of this study is to compare a New pen (N pen) with a conventional pen (C pen) for the load that they exert on the upper limb during 1 h of continuous writing. EMG and upper limb pain scores are used as indicators. C pen's grip area is cylindrical with an 8.3-mm diameter, and is manufactured of hard plastic, which is rigid and slippery. N pen has a cylindrical grip area that flares out at the bottom, near the pen-tip, and has a diameter ranging from 11.9-13.6mm. and the grip is constructed of a 2 to 3 mm-thick silicon rubber sleeve that is softer and less slippery than C pen. Twelve students transcribed an English text for 1 h, alternately using the two pens. The EMG of the flexor pollicis brevis and the pain scores for the thumb, forefinger, middle finger, forearm and shoulder were significantly lower for N pen than for C pen.
Ergonomic Survey of Household Tasks and Products
Authors: Marut Michele , Hedge Alan
Published: January 2012

The application of ergonomics in the home is a relatively neglected topic. Little has been written on this since the early 1970s and yet domestic technologies have changed considerably since then. This study reports a comprehensive Internet-based survey of ergonomic issues in the home, including the most tiring household tasks. Analysis of results for 385 respondents show that scrubbing, mopping, tidying/picking up, vacuuming and doing laundry are perceived to be the five most tiring tasks, a pattern not dissimilar to that reported in a household survey conducted some 50 years ago. Results can be used to identify areas of opportunity for the application of ergonomic design principles to the design of products in the home.
Sociotechnical Design Aspects of Educational Technology
Authors: Watson Jeffery G. , Caldwell Barrett , Derry Sharon J. , Canty Nicole
Published: January 2012

The goal of this project is to develop and understand how technology can be integrated with the teaching of an instructional design course in a secondary education program. A sociotechnical approach to systems design is appropriate for this project because educational systems can be modeled as more or less open systems which are impacted by environmental factors. In general, it is expected that the approach adopted here can also be used by other organizations including higher and secondary education institutions. Most design constraints are sociotechnical rather than simply technical. Work completed includes concept development, a technology needs analysis, a survey of existing collaborative tools, and initial prototype development.
Supporting the Torso through Seated Articulation
Authors: Faiks Frederick S. , Allie Paul , Reinecke Steven M.
Published: January 2012

The magnitude and rate of force required to maintain the body in a supported position throughout seated articulation will vary depending on the physical stature of the user and the seating mechanism. This study investigated five different chair mechanisms. The magnitude of force required to support the body throughout articulation, for a diverse population, was determined for each chair's mechanism. This requirement was then compared to the amount of support that the chair's mechanism was designed to produce. The relationships between the magnitude of force required by the user to maintain support throughout articulation and the magnitude of force provided by the chair mechanism is compared and evaluated.
An Evaluation of Postural Motions, Chair Motions, and Contact in Four Office Seats
Authors: Bush Tamara Reid , Hubbard Robert , Reinecke Steven
Published: January 2012

The goal of this study was to use biomechanical procedures and models to measure people and office chairs in terms of fit, movement, and support during changes in recline and spinal curvature. Testing was performed with four office chairs in a simulated keyboarding workspace with fourteen subjects ranging from petite, light women to tall, heavy men.

Postures, body motions and chair motions were measured with a video-based system. A Lordosimeter measured changes in lumbar spinal curvature. Torso positions relative to the keyboard and desktop were evaluated for changes in recline angle and lumbar curvature. Pressure distributions were measured on the back of the chairs and related to changes in torso posture (back inclination and lumbar curvature). Based on the contact areas between the subject's back and the seat back, the amount of support was evaluated for changes in recline angle and lumbar curvature.

Chair D, the LEAP chair had the best overall performance. LEAP was found to move with people as they moved their spine from flexion to extension. During recline motions LEAP demonstrated a reduction in travel of the wrist and head as compared to the other chairs and a reduction in the pressure necessary to recline the seat, specifically in the shoulder region. The LEAP chair also provided a consistent pressure map for all test conditions, confirming that the chair maintained contact with the torso.
Litigating Community Noise Annoyance: A Human Factors Perspective
Authors: Casali John G.
Published: January 2012

Noise annoyance in the community setting is a prominent source of civil legal action and local government hearings. Measurement, interpretation, and enforcement of community noise offenses is a challenging task, particularly when zoning regulations or noise ordinances are not in place for guidance. This paper provides a human factors perspective on how to measure community noise, interpret noise data, render comparisons against benchmarks, provide conclusions about expected noise impact on the community, and plot objective determinants of predicted sleep arousal and speech interference, all for use in legal proceedings. A common community noise case study example (automobile racetrack noise) is used for illustrative purposes.
Understanding Age-Related Differences in the Perception and Comprehension of Symbolic Warning Information
Authors: Hancock Holly E. , Rogers Wendy A. , Fisk Arthur D.
Published: January 2012

The older segment of the population is living longer and remaining active after retirement. Consequently, many older adults are continuing to use common household products that may be associated with potentially serious hazards. Warning information accompanying these products, particularly those warnings in symbolic format, may not effectively convey their intended messages if they are difficult to interpret. In this study, survey data regarding symbol recognition, perception, and comprehension were collected from 865 individuals ranging in age from 17 to 91. The data indicate that older adults poorly comprehend a number of different warning symbols, despite believing symbols to be very helpful when interpreting warning information on products. Furthermore, symbol comprehension was not related to symbol recognition in older adults, suggesting that poor comprehension by this age group cannot be explained simply by low recognition levels. This paper discusses symbol perception, recognition, and comprehension, focusing on the importance of understanding age-related issues when designing warning systems.
MIR Human Factors Solutions for the International Space Station and Beyond
Authors: Sanders Betty M. , Booher Cletis R.
Published: January 2012

This Panel features three individuals with several years of experience in the development of systems and the training of crew members for Shuttle missions, two of whom are potential International Space Station (ISS) crew members. Each of these people have indicated an interest in, or have educational backgrounds related to, the human factors and ergonomics discipline.

The goals of this session are:

1) To acquaint attendees at the '99 AM with some of the anticipated challenges which may arise during ISS and Mars missions, on the part of US crew-members. 2) To challenge attendees of this session to think in terms of Human Factors (HF) oriented solutions to these identified challenges. 3) To solicit inputs from the session attendees relative to potential HFE solutions to these identified challenges.

The intent of this panel is to identify the most significant and/or critical issues which will need to be addressed as the ISS comes on-line as a micro-g living and working environment for long-duration crews, and, as plans are made for Mars missions.
Preferred Driving Posture and Driver's Physical Dimension
Authors: Park Se Jin , Lee Jeong-Woo , Kwon Kyu Sik , Kim Chae-Bogk , Kim Han-Kyung
Published: January 2012

This study collected the data concerning preferred driving postures and adopted seat adjustment levels. Then, the relationships among drivers' body sizes, postural angles, positions and angles of the seat, and body pressure distribution were investigated. An experiment was conducted to find observed optimum driving posture, seat adjustment level, and body pressure. Thirty-six subjects (20 males, 16 females) were selected to be representative of the automotive driving population of Korea. The preferred ranges for optimum postural comfort of Korean were presented. Considering the relationships among body sizes, driving postures, and seat adjustment levels, there was trade-off on the comfortable driving posture between steering wheel handling and pedal operation. Estimation models on observed optimum driving posture and seat adjustment level were constructed. The developed models enable us to estimate the quantitative optimum driving posture and seat adjustment level with a certain driver's physical dimensions.
Outsourcing Aviation Maintenance: Human Factors Implications
Authors: Drury C. G. , Kritkausky K. , Wenner C.
Published: January 2012

As part of the Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) response to the recent crash of ValuJet Flight 592, we investigated the potential for human errors unique to the repair station environment. Visits to a sample of repair stations showed a number of opportunities for errors arising from the more complex interactions between the repair station, the airline customers and the regulatory authority. Two quantitative studies gathered data to test for particular problems. First, a repair station error database was analyzed to find repeating patterns of errors, and determine effective intervention strategies. Second, because repair stations must switch frequently between the documentation systems of different airlines, a workcard comprehension study was run to test these effects. With 54 licensed mechanics, the effects of document format were much larger than any effects of document switching.
Promoting Ownership: A System for WWW Site Maintenance by the Non-Technical User
Authors: Charlton Colin , Little Janet , Neilson Irene , Ward Paul
Published: January 2012

The invention of the World Wide Web has created a graphical user interface to the world of distributed computing that does not require high level skills in the end-user. As the Internet changes however, effective exploitation of its ecommerce potential requires a greater degree of technical sophistication in the design and maintenance of a WWW site. Tools are required to facilitate this process for the nontechnical user. This paper describes one suite of tools designed to enable the non-technical user to maintain and develop a WWW site and/or store without the need to learn complex programming skills. A WWW interface provides the user with transparent access to a comprehensive suite of WWW site maintenance and development software. The user can thus complete key maintenance tasks -Authoring; Site registration and Marketing; Site Validation and Analysis- and extend the functionality of their site without the need for detailed technical knowledge
Model-Based Development of Web Based Human Performance Management Tools: An Example from Financial Services
Authors: Sundström Gunilla A. , Ip Tony , Maddix Beth , Moore Marva , Ramakrishnan Prabha , Rideout Bill , Yona Yael
Published: January 2012

Management of resources in geographically distributed operations environments such as call centers poses many challenges including: (1) identifying which measures should be used as key performance indicators, (2) creating a shared view of performance management across geographical boundaries and enforcing usage of a common set of performance indicators. The present paper describes results from a multi-year effort to address these two challenges. A set of models were developed by leveraging functional modeling concepts proposed in the area of human-machine systems. These were used to specify the information required and how it must be used in monitoring and managing call center agents' performance. These models were the key building blocks of a user-centered design approach used to develop Web based performance management tools. A description of modeling process as well as an overview of the resulting tools and their impact on operational efficiency are provided.
The Future of the Internet
Authors: Czerwinski Mary , Risden Kirsten , Lund Arnold , Isensee Scott , Forsythe Chris , Chisholm Wendy , Vora Pawan
Published: January 2012

Over the last few years, the internet has grown exponentially. New internet-technologies, coupled with the proliferation and networking of computers have given rise to new applications. A truly “wired world” is emerging where access and manipulation of information are moving away from the confines of the desktop to impact more of our daily lives. This panel session will discuss the human factors issues associated with new internet technologies, products, and services.
Ergonomics and the Customer Satisfaction Model: Ergonomics in the Language of Business
Authors: Getty Robert L.
Published: January 2012

Ergonomics has a strong human focus and success lies in integrating the effort to the goals of business. It is suggested in this paper that ergonomics has a strong contribution to business in any continuous improvement effort. This strength lies in the focus on the human as an employee or participant in business ventures and as a customer or a recipient of the product or service. A customer satisfaction model is suggested that pulls together customer and employee oriented quality initiatives that are occurring across industries with examples drawn from the Lockheed Martin Tactical Aircraft Systems (LMTAS) experience to illustrate the application. The various initiatives of National Quality Awards and productivity improvements through the Lean Enterprise focus have made major changes in business processes. For the human factors and ergonomics message to be part of these current business trends it must be phrased in the language of business.
Human Factors and Training Evaluation of two Automated Exteral Defibrillators
Authors: Aguirre Richel , McCreadie Scott , Gosbee John
Published: January 2012

Two automated external defibrillators (AED), Forerunner (HeartStream) and HeartStart 1000 (Laerdal) were evaluated for general usability and training issues. The descriptive study included observation and survey of 32 first responder students, and interviews of 5 experienced first responders in a fire department. The main human factors issues for the Heart Start 1000 were: 1) short time interval between audio warning and shock delivery; 2) batteries are large, heavy, and fragile; 3) unclear situational awareness of device function, especially audio signals; and 4) confusion about hitting ‘on’ button for continuation of patient monitoring. For the Forerunner the main human factors issues were: 1) no method to delay patient assessment algorithm 2) forgetting to talk into AED voice recorder describing medical situation; 3) main status icon definition is unclear; and 4) poor audio recordings. In anticipation of AED usage by the lay public design concepts were introduced for future assessment.
Monitoring Behavior: A Pilot Study Using an Ambulatory Eye-Tracker in Surgical Operating Rooms
Authors: Seagull F. Jacob , Xiao Yan , MacKenzie Colin F. , Jaberi Mahmood , Dutton Richard P.
Published: January 2012

Information provision is an important function of most technology interventions. Understanding human operators' patterns in consulting various information sources could provide insights into how displays should be designed. We tested the utility of an ambulatory eye-tracker in an operational setting for collecting data of monitoring behavior. Temporal patterns of eye-tracking data, coupled with the data on observed activities and events led to a model of monitoring that treats knowledge about the monitored process as a resource. In a semi-self-paced work environment, the operator could deploy the strategy of building up knowledge about the monitored process before anticipated high workload periods and reestablishing such knowledge immediately after high workload periods to replenish lost resources. Through measures of monitoring frequency and time series analysis, supportive evidence for the resource model was obtained from the eye-tracking data of the pilot study. The study successfully demonstrated the utility of an ambulatory eye-tracking device in a real, dynamic environment.
Slip Potential during Exit from Commercial Tractors
Authors: Fathallah Fadi A. , Grönqvist Raoul , Cotnam John P.
Published: January 2012

Many commercial vehicles are equipped with steps and grab-rails to assist the driver in safely entering/exiting the vehicle. Nevertheless, many drivers do not use these aids. The purpose of this study was to assess the slip potential of various exit methods from two common commercial tractors when icy conditions are assumed. The study assessed the required coefficient of friction of ten male subjects while exiting cab-over-engine and conventional tractors. The results showed that the probability of a fall to occur was high (about 0.9 for wet ice conditions) when the exit aids were not utilized. Fully utilizing the steps and grab-rails resulted in a substantial decrease in the probability of a fall. An approach that emphasizes optimal design of entry/exit aids, coupled with driver training and education, is expected to minimize exit-related injuries.
Potential Problems Associated with Overusing Warnings
Authors: Frantz J. Paul , Rhoades Timothy P. , Young Stephen L. , Schiller Jean A.
Published: January 2012

Providing product warnings is one strategy that manufacturers often use to communicate information about product hazards and promote safe and satisfactory use of their products. Given that product warnings are designed to promote safety and hazard awareness, it is important to reflect upon how the value of warnings might be preserved or enhanced. This paper reviews literature regarding the overuse of warnings and the potential negative consequences of adding warnings to products such as: reduced attention to warnings generally; reduced attention to individual messages within warnings; reduced recall of certain warning messages; reduced believability/credibility of warnings; reduced ability to differentiate the relative magnitude of risks; and misplaced reliance on the completeness of warning labels. From a product safety standpoint, this review illustrates that providing product warnings about every conceivable risk associated with products is an inappropriate practice; that it is not only the sheer number of warnings provided on a label or on products, but the nature of the warnings themselves that may have a detrimental effect on safety; and that there is also a need to more clearly define the characteristics of warning messages that increase the likelihood of negative effects related to attention to, credibility of, and ultimately the response to warnings.
Favorability Toward Nuclear Power: The Role of the Availability Heuristic and Knowledge
Authors: Martin David W. , Young Karen R.
Published: January 2012

Three studies were conducted to test the effects of availability and knowledge on favorability ratings toward nuclear power. In the first study, students listed advantages, risks, or both of using nuclear power; then they rated their favorability toward nuclear power generation. Data analyzed using a strict criterion for inclusion supported the availability heuristic in that those listing advantages were more favorable than those listing risks. Additionally, ratings from participants who were able to list more advantages tended to be more favorable. In a second study, students were asked to list disadvantages as opposed to risks. While not statistically significant, the number of disadvantages listed was positively related to favorability, suggesting the possibility that favorability is related to a person's knowledge of nuclear power issues. Thus, a third study was conducted to determine the relationship between favorability and knowledge. A positive correlation was found between favorability and tested knowledge of nuclear power.
Managing Aviation Human Factors Aircraft Accident Investigations: Lessons Learned
Authors: Strauch Barry
Published: January 2012

The Human Performance Division of the Office of Aviation Safety of the National Transportation Safety Board is charged with explaining the nature of the error or errors that may have caused or contributed to the cause of civil aviation accidents. In this paper I describe the conduct of a human performance investigation, circumstances that may be encountered during an investigation, and aspects of the management of the human factors group within the National Transportation Safety Board.
Human Factors Lessons Learned in Terminal Air Traffic Control System Procurement
Authors: Mogford Richard H. , Krois Paul A. , Allendoerfer Kenneth R.
Published: January 2012

The Federal Aviation Administration Standard Terminal Automation Replacement System (STARS) acquisition program will replace aging terminal radar workstations and computers at 172 US airports. In 1997, human factors issues associated with this commercial off-the-shelf product emerged that spanned STARS tower, terminal, and maintenance components. Many lessons were learned from subsequent intensive human factors efforts to incorporate user requirements into the STARS equipment. This experience resulted from diverse usability assessments and controlled tests as well as the application of rapid prototyping tools. Design changes were defined and prototyped under significant time pressure using an integrated team approach. Due to the breadth and the size of the program, the lessons learned will extend to air traffic control and other system acquisitions and will be of interest to practitioners in terms of specific techniques and issues.
Detecting Targets from a Moving Vehicle with a Head-Mounted Display and Sound Localization
Authors: Smyth Christopher C.
Published: January 2012

Eight participants detected and identified pop-up targets on an outdoor range from a stationary and a moving vehicle using a head-mounted display (HMD), with and without sound localization, and direct viewing as a control. A head-slaved camera mounted on top of the vehicle provided the image to the HMD. The computer controlled audio cueing appeared to originate from the location of the target. The results are that although targets were detected sooner with direct viewing from the stationary vehicle without cueing, sound localization improved target detection in all other test modes. More targets were detected and identified with direct vision than with the HMD, and from the stationary position than the moving vehicle. Workload test battery ratings show a significant increase in perceived workload with the HMD as compared to the direct vision. A test of situational awareness shows significant decreases in perceived stability and familiarity and an increased need to concentrate when using the HMD in the moving vehicle. Further, most of the participants reported a general discomfort associated with motion sickness while in the moving vehicle with the HMD. Finally, the participants rated direct viewing as more useful than the HMD, and the sound localization as being of more use with the HMD than with direct viewing.
Oral and Written Symbol Comprehension Testing: The Benefit of Cognitive Interview Probing
Authors: Brantley Kimberly A. , Wogalter Michael S.
Published: January 2012

Traditionally, symbol comprehension is tested using open-ended, written responses. However, responses are often so brief that they may fail to indicate a participant's true understanding of some symbols. In the present study, several test methods were compared to the standard written method to determine if they produce better symbol comprehension performance. The four alternative methods included: written test with probe questioning after all responses were provided, oral test without probe questioning, oral test with probe questioning after responses for all symbols were provided, and oral test with probe questioning after each partially correct or incorrect response. The probe or follow-up questioning technique is taken from the cognitive interview procedure used in eyewitness identification research to elicit more detailed responses. Participants reported their interpretations of 31 safety symbols in one of the 5 test method conditions. Results showed that the test methods that included follow-up questioning elicited more information from participants, and increased comprehension rates in both oral and written test formats. The results have implications for cost-effective symbol design and evaluation.
Analysing Incident Reports for Factors Contributing to Air Traffic Control Related Incidents
Authors: Weikert Clemens , Johansson Curt R.
Published: January 2012

A total of 36 air traffic control incident investigation reports were analysed, identifying five main contributing factors: lack of concentration, methodology, handover, lack of training and fraseology. A number of background factors with possible relations to the occurance of incidents were also selected. The most important background factors were traffic intensity and work shift. Experience in terms of time as controller and time since the controller was checked out in his present position also seems to play a major role. A cluster analysis confirms the above conclusions as well as giving indications of effects of individualized ways of working.
Feature Detection Performance with Fused Synthetic and Sensor Images
Authors: Simard Philippe , Link Norah K. , Kruk Ronald V.
Published: January 2012

The operational (airborne) Enhanced/Synthetic Vision System will employ a helmet-mounted display with a background synthetic image encompassing a fused inset sensor image. In the present study, three subjects viewed an emulation of a descending flight to a crash site displayed on an SVGA monitor. Independent variables were: 3 fusion algorithms; 3 visibility conditions; 2 sensor conditions; and 9 sensor/synthetic image misregistration conditions. The task was to detect specified terrain features, objects and image anomalies as they became visible in 16 successive fused image snapshots along the flight path. The fusion of synthetic images with corresponding sensor images supported consistent subject performance with the simpler algorithms (averaging and differencing). Performance with the more complex opponent process algorithm was less consistent and more image anomalies were generated. Reductions in synthetic scene resolution did not degrade performance, but elevation source data errors interfered with scene interpretation. These results will be discussed within the context of operational requirements.
Assessment of Compatibility of Training Materials with Reading Skills of Railroad Tank Car Loaders
Authors: Gertler Judith B. , Reinach Stephen J. , Kuehn George , Raslear Thomas G.
Published: January 2012

Proper training of shipper personnel who load railroad tank cars with hazardous materials is a factor in preventing non-accident release of the substances during transport. This paper presents the results of a study to determine the extent to which written materials used in training hazmat loaders are consistent with the trainees' reading skills. Data from four case study sites was used to conduct the analysis. The reading skills of the trainees was assessed through self-reporting of years of education completed and through the administration of a verbal skills aptitude test. The Fry Readability Index was used to determine the educational level of the written training materials from each site. Three metrics for measuring reading skills were computed. Each program had some degree of incompatibility between reading level of the materials and skills of the trainees. Overall, regardless of the means of assessment, the reading level of the materials appears excessively high.
Internet Teaching of PA Practitioners in Rural Areas: Can Complex Material with High Definition Graphics be Taught Using P.C.'s?
Authors: Winn Francis J. , Fletcher Donald , Smith John , Williams Ronnie , Louis Thomas
Published: January 2012

Personal computer technology provides point to point training of complex material with high definition supporting graphics. We wanted to determine if complex materials with high definition graphics could be used with Internet training. We also wanted to determine if outcome measures were equivalent to a traditional on campus course and if the student's perceptions of the experience were positive. A gross anatomy course using the following measures to compare performance with an on-campus cohort was used to answer the question: paper and pencil exam scores, laboratory exams, case studies, and evaluations of case studies. The average number of points earned by the 22 on-campus PA students was 405 and for the 8 DL – PA students 402. The average number of points earned by students in other training programs ranged from 417 for Physical Therapy students (the highest) to 397 for Occupational Therapists (the lowest). Differences between student cohorts are attributed to demand characteristics requiring PT students to obtain 80% criteria to pass while other students were required to obtain 70%. We conclude that the Internet can be used to teach a highly intense visual course, such as gross anatomy, that contains highly complex materials in addition to high definition graphics if the proper course format is followed.
Development of a Minimum Set of Recommended Railroad Dispatcher Training Objectives: A Case Study
Authors: Reinach Stephen J. , Gertler Judith B. , Raslear Thomas G.
Published: January 2012

Two recent Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) safety audits found substantial variability in the way railroad dispatchers are trained. Given this variability, and the potential for compromised safety that arises, a need for more uniform dispatcher training exists. This paper discusses the development of a minimum set of railroad dispatcher training objectives that can be used by a wide variety of railroad operations, and are acceptable to all of the different stakeholders, including railroad management, railroad dispatchers, and the FRA. Using information from site visits, interviews, and existing training materials, a set of training objectives was developed using Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive learning outcomes. The objectives were reviewed by stakeholders to ensure that the objectives were broadly applicable and acceptable. The objectives can be used to develop instructional materials for any dispatcher training program. Lessons learned from this approach are discussed.
A Framework for Relating Head-Mounted Displays to Mixed Reality Displays
Authors: Milgram Paul , Colquhoun Herman W.
Published: January 2012

The Head Mounted Display (HMD) is discussed as a subset of Mixed Reality (MR) displays. A definition of MR is given, in terms of image mixtures along a Reality-Virtuality (RV) Continuum, including the subclasses of augmented reality (AR) and augmented virtuality (AV). In relation to actual task execution, the relative need for local guidance information versus more global planning and navigational information is discussed. A taxonomic framework for classifying MR systems is presented, in terms of not only the RV continuum, but also the degree of centricity of the observer relative to a nominal viewpoint and the extent of control-display congruence. Several practical examples of MR systems are presented, all from the domain of surgery, and for each a volume within the MR design space is proposed.
Operational Constraints on the Utility of Virtual Audio Cueing
Authors: Ericson Mark A. , Bolia Robert S. , Nelson W. Todd , McKinley Richard L.
Published: January 2012

The potential of virtual audio display technology to provide operators with veridical spatial cues may be substantially constrained by factors that are common in many operational settings – i.e., high noise level, limitations in the bandwidth of the audio source and/or display. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of varying the bandwidth of a virtual sound source in the presence of broadband noise in a reverberant environment. Specifically, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) was varied from +50 dB to −10 dB, and the signal was low pass filtered at 1.6 kHz, 4 kHz, 8 kHz, and 15 kHz. Correlational analyses comparing actual and perceived sound source location revealed that both signal bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio influenced auditory localization acuity, and that even under optimal bandwidth and noise conditions (15 kHz and +50 dB) localization in elevation was extremely poor. These findings have numerous implications for the design of spatial audio displays, especially those meant to be used in noisy environments.