bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cistercians
Authors: Peters Greg
Published: January 2012

Founded in 1098 by the Benedictine monk Robert of Molesme, the New Monastery at Cîteaux secured a lasting footing under her first abbots, Alberic and Stephen Harding. Dissatisfied with the spiritual state of his own monastic foundation of Molesme and eager to establish a more authentic observance of the Rule for Monks of Benedict of Nursia, Robert, along with a number of other monks (including Alberic and Stephen), moved to the forest in the Burgundian region of France, near Dijon. Orderic Vitalis, the English chronicler of the 12th century, writes that in time Odo, Duke of Burgundy, gave Robert and his companions a manor located at Cîteaux, on which the monks began to build a new cenobitic monastery. The
Exordium cistercii
, a brief account of the early history of the monastery up to 1115, reveals that this manor belonged to Reynard, Viscount of Beaune, and his wife, Hodierna. The text claims that it was “for the remission of their sins and those of their forebears” that Reynard and Hodierna gave their manor to Robert and his companions for “observing the Rule of Saint Benedict more strictly and faithfully than they have hitherto done” (Elder 1998: 11).
Clement ofRome (c.97)
Authors: Williams D. H.
Published: January 2012

Written to the Christians in Corinth, the letter known as I Clement was probably written from Rome in the closing years of the 1st century. The author of I Clement never identifies himself except for an allusion that he is one of the elders (presbuteros) of the church of Rome and is obviously familiar with Paul's letters. Association of the letter with Clement is partly due to the writer's association with a certain Clement mentioned by Paul in Phil. 4:3 (see Eusebius of Caesarea'sEcclesiastical History, III. 38, 4). The connection between the two became permanent.
Clinical Theology
Authors: Gillman John
Published: January 2012

Clinical Theology is a form of reflection on clinical experience that combines insights from psychology, philosophy, and theology. Frank Lake (1914–1982), a pioneer in this field, founded the Clinical Theology Association in 1962, which is a contemporary form of the British Pastoral Care movement. The theology of this movement is grounded in the love and power of God; the model used in pastoral counseling for mental health is the person of Jesus. Drawing particularly on the Gospel of John, Lake highlighted Jesus' secure sense of identity, which is anchored in God the Father, the source of his being.
Cluny
Authors: Woods Thomas E.
Published: January 2012

Cluny was a monastery established by William, Duke of Aquitaine, in 909 that contributed to the revitalization of religious life in Europe. William renounced all control over Cluny after establishing it, entrusting the monastery to the small group of monks who inhabited it. At a time when widespread lay control of ecclesiastical institutions had fostered spiritual laxity and corruption, Cluny's independence portended a happier outcome.
C
olenso,
J
ohn
W
. (1814–1883)
Authors: Maclean Iain S.
Published: January 2012

Born on January 24, 1814, in St. Austell, Corn‐wall, John William Colenso, the first Anglican bishop of the colony of Natal, South Africa, was a famed if controversial missionary to the Zulus. He was a pioneer Zulu linguist, a controversial Old Testament scholar, and political opponent of the British colonial government. The last‐mentioned earned him the names of Sobantu (Father of the People) and Sokhuleka (Father of Respectful Supplication). He married Sarah Frances Bunyon in 1846 and through her met Frederick Denison Maurice, whose ideas were to influence him. While teaching mathematics in East Anglia, he met Bishop Robert Gray of Cape Town, who was touring England to raise support and clergy for the missionary see of Natal. Accepting Gray's offer of a missionary bishopric for Natal, he was consecrated and left shortly afterwards for a visitation to Natal. Upon his return he published
Ten Weeks in Natal
(1855), which gave an outline of the colonial situation, his missionary vision, and proposals for financing the mission. The same year he also published his argument against the American missionaries in Natal, who held that baptism of polygamists was admissible.
Communion
Authors: Laing Jacqueline
Published: January 2012

Communion, deriving from the Latin
communio
, meaning “union with,” is used in a variety of contexts, including that of “Holy Communion”, the “Communion of Saints,” and the jurisdictional notion of being “in communion.”
Comparative Theology
Authors: Cheetham David
Published: January 2012

Comparative theology has emerged out of a broader concern with the theology of religions. Contemporary representatives (e.g. Francis Clooney and James Fredericks) propose a methodology that seeks to encourage detailed dialogue with, and study of, other faiths
before
constructing a theology. Thus, they are critical of methodologies that propose theologies entirely according to a priori principles. The grand theological metanarratives associated with theological constructs such as the “exclusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism” paradigm are seen as representative of such methodological deficiencies.
Compassion: The Hospice Movement
Authors: Wong Paul T. P.
Published: January 2012

Every society can be best judged by how it treats its vulnerable citizens. The progress of a civilization can be measured not only by technological advancements, but also by progress in the humane treatment of those who cannot help themselves. Therefore, hospice and palliative care represents one of the highest achievements of Christian civilization.
Compostela
Authors: Murray K. Sarah‐Jane
Published: January 2012

Situated in Galicia, in the northwest of Spain, Compostela was the third most important medieval pilgrimage destination after Jerusalem and Rome. Men and women flocked from all corners of Europe to venerate the remains of the apostle James. According to the
Veneranda Dies
sermon preserved in the
Codex Calixtinus
(a manuscript centered on the cult of St. James and preserved in the Cathedral Archives of Santiago de Compostela), St. James came to the West after Christ's death to spread the Gospel and landed in Spain. After many difficulties, he returned to Judea, where he was martyred at the hands of Herod Agrippa in
ad
44. James's disciples carried his body down to the sea port where they discovered a miraculous ship without crew or sail (and, according to some versions of the legend, made out of stone), which carried them back to Ira Flavia in Spain. They buried the apostle's body but the location of the tomb was forgotten until the hermit Pelayo and a group of shepherds — led by a bright star — discovered it in the midst of a field. (This legend resulted in the popular, but false, etymology according to which “Compostela” was thought during the Middle Ages to refer to the
campus stellae
or “field of stars” where James's body was rediscovered.)
Concordat
Authors: Essig Andrew M.
Published: January 2012

A concordat is a mutual agreement concerning relations between the Catholic Church and a particular country. Legally it is commonly accepted as a bilateral treaty recognized under the rules of international law. As such, it delineates the rights and duties of both parties in areas of vital interest. The political authority of the state and the spiritual authority of the church, which both exercise authority over individuals in society, sometimes have to regulate the same activities from different points of view. This necessitates cooperation between church and state. It does not, however, exclude the existence of the separation of church and state, but it does presume that the church is a sovereign entity which exists and negotiates by its own right. Concordats rarely demand a change in policy by sovereign states; more often the church shows greater sensitivity to the needs of the state than vice versa.
Confession and Repentance
Authors: Smith James D.
Published: January 2012

Confession and repentance are rooted in the human consciousness of sin. History and literature chronicle our awareness of falling short of a standard, relational brokenness and alienation, and fear of human and/or divine judgment. Whether due to inner guilt or shameful loss of face, attitudes and acts aimed at setting things right become vital. It is a Christian distinctive that confession and repentance gain forgiveness from God, not by human work or merit, but only by the grace of Jesus Christ. This provides a model for person‐to‐person reconciliation as well.
Confirmation
Authors: Fatokun Samson Adetunji
Published: January 2012

The sacrament of confirmation has its historical and theological roots in the rite of water baptism in the 1st century church, accompanied by what is called “apostolic confirmation.” In Acts 8:14–17, apostles Peter and John on their apostolic visit to Samaria for the consolidation of the church newly established by Philip, one of the Seven, had as a vital part of their responsibilities the imposition of hands on the newly baptized converts of Philip for the reception of the Holy Spirit. Apostle Paul, in a similar way, demonstrated this apostolic authority by his imposition of hands on the 12 disciples of John for the reception of the Holy Spirit shortly after he had administered them Christian water baptism (Acts 19:1–7).
C
ongar,
Y
ves (1904–1995)
Authors: Werntz Myles
Published: January 2012

Yves Congar O.P. was born in Sedan, France to devout Catholic parents, amidst Jewish and Protestant neighbors. Trained initially under Jacques Maritain in Paris, Congar's most formative schooling came at the hands of Marie‐Dominique Chenu. This turn from the neo‐Thomism of Maritain to the historical approach of Chenu would profoundly influence Congar's career, particularly his assertion of the need for the church to continually re‐receive the tradition and to continually reform from within.
Congregational Churches
Authors: Beck Peter
Published: January 2012

Congregationalism represents more of a movement than a denomination. Over the years, however, a distinct family of denominations has arisen that claims the name Congregational Church. To understand congregationalism as a body of Christian believers today requires consideration of their history and theology.
Constantine the Great (c.280–337)
Authors: Tarwater John K.
Published: January 2012

Many church historians consider Constantine (born as Flavius Valerius Constantine, the son of Constantius “Chlorus” and Helena) as the first Christian emperor of Rome. When Diocletian decided to organize his empire under two Augusti, each with an accompanying Caesar (tetrarchy), he promoted Constantine's father to Caesar. Later, Constantine was reared in the court of Diocletian, although some scholars consider he was held hostage. By the time of his death in 337, Constantine had risen to the position of sole ruler of the empire and initiated a number of reforms, making life as a Christian no longer a constant threat.
Constantinople
Authors: Quantz Amanda D.
Published: January 2012

Located at the mouth of the Bosphorus River in modern‐day Turkey, the ancient city of Byzantium was probably established by Greek colonists in about 660
bce
. After legalizing Christianity in 313
ce
, Constantine moved the seat of the empire in 324 from Rome to Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. Following the Council of Constantinople in 381 the bishops of the eastern cities of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Constantinople began to see themselves as having greater power and authority than other metropolitans in the eastern Roman Empire. Until the mid 15th century, these sees, along with the bishopric of Rome, constituted the five major patriarchates of Christendom.
Constantinople, Councils of
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Constantinople (
Constantinopolis
) was the city that the Roman emperor Constantine the Great named after himself and made the headquarters of the Roman Empire in 330. Previously, it was known as Byzantium, so named by the Greeks around 600
bc
, and in 73
bc
it became part of the Roman Empire. Similar to Rome, it was built on seven hills. It was seen as the citadel of Christianity until 1453 when the Muslim Turks conquered it. In 1930, the city's name was officially changed to Istanbul by Turkey's leader Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, even though the Turks, among themselves, had been calling it Istanbul even before they captured it in 1453.
Consubstantiation
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Consubstantiation is a doctrine that pertains to the Lord's Supper or Eucharist. Theologians of the Reformed churches, and also some others, often say that Lutheran theology, which states that Christ's body and blood are really and truly present in the Lord's Supper, is the doctrine of consubstantiation. But Lutheran theologians have usually rejected the term, especially when its users imply that in the Lord's Supper the heavenly and earthly elements are mingled or mixed. By using the term consubstantiation, some also say that the Lutheran doctrine of Christ's real presence in the Supper is a modification of the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation. The latter means that the natural substances of the bread and wine are transubstantiated (changed) by the officiating priest into Christ's body and blood, and that then only the body and blood of Christ are present. But Lutheran theologians have never taught that Christ's bodily presence in the Lord's Supper is a modified doctrine of transubstantiation, for in the Lord's Supper bread and wine still retain their natural substance as communicants also receive Christ's real body and blood supernaturally.
Conversion: A Biblical Analysis
Authors: Chacko James
Published: January 2012

The psychology of conversion is a broad and complex topic and is limited here to that of religious (Christian) conversion and the extent to which this concurs with the Scripture.
C
opernicus,
N
icholas (1473–1543)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Nicholas Copernicus, astronomer, was born on February 19, 1473, and died on May 24, 1543. Current history books commonly say he was Polish, but before Germany fell out of favor with American historians after World War I he was called a German, a view supported by John Draper in his book
The Intellectual Development of Europe
(1986).
Coptic Language
Authors: Farag Lois
Published: January 2012

The Coptic language is the last stage of the ancient Egyptian language, the language of the Pharaohs — hieroglyph.
Coptic Church
Authors: Farag Lois
Published: January 2012

The Coptic Church is also known as the Church of Alexandria and the Egyptian Church. The ancient Copts called themselves “en‐remen‐kame” that is “the people of the Black Land” referring to the fertile black silt of the Nile valley. When the Greeks invaded Egypt in the 4th centurybc, they arrived at the port of Alexandria (Rakoti in Coptic) where “the house or temple of the spirit of Petah,” Hak‐Ka‐Petah, was located. They named the country they invaded after the temple of Hak‐Ka‐Petah which was corrupted to Ai‐Ga‐Ptos, which became the root for the Greek wordaigyptos, from which “Egypt” is derived. Since Semitic languages write only consonants, when the Arabs invaded Egyptaigyptoswas corrupted further to the Arabicqubt, which in its Europeanized form is “Copt.” Thus the Coptic Church means the Egyptian Church. The conquering Arabs, who were Muslims, began using “Copt” to refer to the native inhabitants of Egypt, who were Christians. Though it began as an ethnic distinction, it also carried a religious connotation. Presently in Egypt, the word “Copt” is synonymous with “Christian” and is associated with Coptic Orthodox Christians, though a few Copts converted to Catholicism and Protestantism when European colonialism made new opportunities available.
C
onner,
W
alter
T
homas (1877–1952)
Authors: Dockery David S.
Published: January 2012

W. T. Conner was born on January 19, 1877, in Cleveland County, Arkansas. When he was 15, his family moved to Texas where he was baptized at the Harmony Baptist Church at Caps, Texas. Conner received a B.A. and M.A. from Baylor University and was a member of the first graduating class of Southwestern Baptist Seminary in 1908 with a Th.B. degree. In 1910 he received a B.D. degree from Rochester Seminary where he studied with A. H. Strong and Walter Rauschenbusch. Following his graduation from Rochester and a brief period at the University of Chicago, Conner was invited to join the Southwestern faculty in 1910. He was given leave of absence in 1914 to pursue his Th.D. with E. Y. Mullins at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary.
Cosmology
Authors: Feser Edward
Published: January 2012

Cosmology is the study of the universe as a whole, including its origin and ultimate destiny. From a Christian point of view, any complete cosmology must culminate in the assertion of God's creation of the universe
ex nihilo
(“out of nothing”). Indeed, the cosmological argument — perhaps the central argument of natural theology — holds that there is no way to explain the existence of the universe apart from an appeal to God as its first cause. But there are various ways in which this claim has been interpreted. According to the
kalam
version of the cosmological argument, it can be established by both philosophical and scientific arguments (especially the Big Bang model of cosmic origins) that the universe must have had a beginning in time, and that there must have been a cause of this beginning. However, other versions of the argument, such as those associated with Thomas Aquinas, hold that whether the universe had a temporal beginning or not is irrelevant to whether it was created by God. According to the first of Aquinas's Five Ways, that anything in the universe undergoes motion or change at all — even if the series of moving or changing things extends infinitely into the past — is only explicable if there is a first unmoved mover, altogether outside of time and space, who sustains the motion or change of the entire infinite series. The Second Way argues that the sequence of causes and effects existing within the universe, even if it has no beginning in time, must be explained in terms of a first uncaused cause that, again, sustains the whole infinite causal series. The Third Way (the last of the Five Ways constituting a cosmological argument) holds that even an infinite sequence of things which come into being and go out of being must be explained by reference to a necessary being, one which has always existed and cannot fail to exist.
C
ouperin,
F
rançois (1668–1733)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Leading French composer of the early 18th century. Couperin came from a renowned French family of musicians who included two first‐rate composers, including his father Charles Couperin who was an organist at St. Gervais. Musically precocious, François Couperin started playing music at the age of 10. He succeeded the famous organist Jacques Thomelin as organist and
maitre de chapelle
of
Chapelle Royale.
Although Couperin's fame rests on his secular compositions, he composed a significant body of church music.
Covenant
Authors: Shields Candace C.
Published: January 2012

A covenant is a binding agreement which sets the terms of relationships and contracts. The term can be traced back to ancient times. It was by the conditions of a covenant that nations, tribes, and families were able to be organized and have lasting relationships in ancient times. However, the concept of a covenant as a regulator of relationships is more in line with the biblical use of the term. When it is used as an organizational term it is more of a legal term.
C
ranmer,
T
homas (1489–1556)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Thomas Cranmer was born in 1489 in Nottinghamshire, England; he studied at Jesus College in Cambridge but dropped out when he married. After his wife died in childbirth, he resumed his studies and became a Catholic priest in 1523. Soon after becoming a priest, he became acquainted with King Henry VIII who had assumed the crown in 1509. Henry married Catherine of Aragon the same year. By the late 1520s, the king was convinced that Catherine would notbear him a male heir. He asked the pope in Rome for an annulment, but the pope refused. Several years later, Parliament made the English church independent of Rome, and the king became head of the church. In 1533 Cranmer was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury by the pope at Henry's urging. Feeling secure, Cranmer voided Henry's first marriage in 1533. The king married the already pregnant Anne Boleyn the same year.
C
riswell,
W
.
A
. (1909–2002)
Authors: Streett R. Alan
Published: January 2012

Pastor of First Baptist Church, Dallas, Texas, and leader of the conservative resurgence within the Southern Baptist Convention, W. A. Criswell was born on December 19, 1909 in Eldorado, Oklahoma, and named after his father, W. A. Sr. The family moved shortly after his birth to Texline, Texas, a Panhandle town on the Texas–New Mexico border. At the age of 10, W. A. was converted while attending a brush arbor revival meeting. By the time he reached 12, he had publicly responded to a call to the gospel ministry and preached his first sermon to childhood friends who attended his pet dog's funeral. He was licensed to preach at age 17.
C
roatto,
J
osé
S
everino (1930–2004)
Authors: García Alberto L.
Published: January 2012

Born on March 19, 1930 in Sampacho, Cordoba, Argentina, he is respected worldwide as a Roman Catholic scholar, author, and professor. Croatto made significant contributions in the fields of biblical exegesis and Latin American biblical hermeneutics and played a vital role in the Movimiento de Lectura Popular de la Biblia, a popular education movement for training lay people in biblical interpretation. He helped, therefore, to provide interpretative tools to the important Comunidades de Base in Latin America.
Cross, the
Authors: Gagnon Robert A. J.
Published: January 2012

The contribution to civilization rendered by the image of the cross obviously lies not in the mere fact of Jesus' crucifixion by the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate and with the acquiescence of Jewish authorities. Rather, it lies in the degree to which the “cross,” as a metonym for Jesus' violent death, became early on in the church a positive organizing center for Christian thought and practice. It did so in three primary ways: (1) its atoning function; (2) its incorporative function (i.e. crucified with Christ); and (3) its ethical function. Christianity's positive focus on Christ's crucifixion is remarkable in view of the fact that the crucifixion of a movement's founding leader would normally be devastating for that movement. Certainly this was the design of those who had Jesus crucified. Even the stories of Jesus' resurrection appearances to disciples reported soon after his death did not, in and of themselves, require a positive valuation of Jesus' death.
Crusades
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Some historians speak of the Crusades as having occurred primarily in the Middle East, while others see them having also occurred in France, Spain, England, and in the Baltic area. Some also extend the time period of the Crusades as having lasted for several centuries. The present article focuses on the Crusades in the Middle East and as having essentially ended in 1291.
Crypto‐Calvinism
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

At the Marburg Colloquy in 1529 in Germany the Protestants could not agree on the doctrine of the Lord's Supper. Luther insisted that Christ was bodily present in the Eucharist, while Ulrich Zwingli (d. 1531) refused to accept the doctrine of the real presence. Later, John Calvin (d. 1564) also declined to hold to the doctrine of Christ's bodily presence in the Lord's Supper, contending that Christ was only spiritually present in the Supper. But after Luther died in 1546, his co‐worker Philipp Melanchthon (who was present at Marburg), in his desire to conciliate, together with some compromising Lutherans (known as Philippists, followers of Melanchthon), began to waver on the doctrine of Christ's real presence in order to unite with the Calvinists while still calling themselves Lutherans. Thus, Lutherans holding to the doctrine of the real presence labeled Melanchthon and his supporters “crypto‐Calvinists,” indicating they were really hidden Calvinists.
Cypriot Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Christianity in Cyprus has a storied past. Paul visited Salamis with Barnabas in 46 and Barnabas later became the first bishop of Cyprus. In 441 the third Ecumenical Council of Ephesus discussed the separation of the church of Cyprus from the church at Antioch. During the reign of the eastern emperor Zeno (474–491) the Cypriot church received an autocephalous status. The island became famous for a number of monasteries. From the 8th to the 10th centuries, Cyprus was subjected to a series of Arab raids. In 1054 when the schism between the Eastern and Western Churches took place, Cyprus sided with Constantinople.
Czech Christianity
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas
Published: January 2012

The modern Czech Republic, or Czechia, consists mainly of the historic provinces of Bohemia and Moravia. In the 9th and 10th centuries, Bohemia was united, centralized, and Christianized by the same process. Borivoj I (d. 894) was the first Christian king, and his wife Ludmilla (860–921) and grandson Vaclav (Wenzel, 907–935) are Bohemia's patron saints for Catholics and Orthodox alike. In 973 Prague became a diocese, but for a long time remained dependent on archbishops in the west. Czechia was Christianized mainly through a large number of religious foundations. As part of the German Empire, Prague finally became an archdiocese in 1344. Bohemia reached its zenith under Charles IV (1346–1378), who founded Charles University in 1348 with an importanttheological faculty, built major churches such as the cathedral of Prague, and initiated church reforms.
Dancing in the Spirit
Authors: DuPree Sherry Sherrod
Published: January 2012

In the Old Testament (Exod. 15:20), at the defeat of Pharaoh's armies following the crossing of the Red Sea, Miriam, the prophetess, the sister of Aaron, took a timbrel in her hand; and all the women went out after her with timbrels and with dances. In 2 Samuel 6:12‐1, David ‘danced before the Lord’ to celebrate the Ark of the Covenant being brought back to Jerusalem.
Danish Christianity
Authors: Green Todd
Published: January 2012

The kingdom of Denmark belongs to the Nordic region of Northern Europe, along with Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Iceland. These five nations share a religious history dominated by Lutheranism. The following article provides a historical overview of Danish Christianity from the 8th century to the present, with particular attention given to Denmark's Lutheran heritage.
D
arby,
J
ohn
N
elson (1800–1882)
Authors: Pratt J. Kristian
Published: January 2012

John Nelson Darby was one of the founders of the Plymouth Brethren movement and the father of dispensationalism. Born in London in 1800 to a prominent Irish landowner and merchant, Darby graduated from Trinity College in Dublin with a BA in 1819 and entered training for a career in law. Shortly after his admission to the Irish Bar in 1822, he abandoned his law career for life in the Anglican Church. On February 19, 1826, he was ordained as a priest in the Church of England and appointed to a parish in County Wicklow, Ireland. Early in his curacy, while recovering from an injury sustained in a riding accident, Darby reflected upon his reading of New Testament passages about the church. Seeing a discrepancy between the Church of England and the New Testament church, he became dissatisfied with the established church and began to seek other like‐minded individuals.
D
avid,
J
ohann
N
epomuk (1895–1977)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Austrian composer who helped to inspire the resurgence of organ music in the 20th century. Beginning his career as an organist he became professor of composition in 1934, director of the Leipzig Conservatory in 1939, director of the Salzburg Mozarteum (1945–1948) and professor of composition (1947–1963) at the Musikhoch‐schule in Stuttgart. Many of his works were lost during the Allied bombing of Leipzig in World War II.
D
e
L
ubac,
H
enri (1896–1991)
Authors: Gonzalez Yolanda J.
Published: January 2012

Henri de Lubac, S.J., French Jesuit theologian and cardinal, was a prolific writer and an important figure of the Catholic Church in the 20th century. He was once described by his student Hans Urs von Balthasar as the “defender of misunderstood and unappreciated themes and currents in the history of theology.” Certainly his corpus of works serves as a testament to this observation. His first published work,
Catholicism
(1938), places him on this trajectory. There he discusses the social aspects of Catholicism, specifically that which entails the salvation of humanity and is illustrated in the sacraments; the historical aspect of Catholicism, dealing particularly with the significance of the church's history; and finally the relationship between the individual and the community.
J
osquin
D
esprez (c.1440–1521)
Authors: McElwain Randall D.
Published: January 2012

The best‐known composer of the early Renaissance, Josquin Desprez devoted much of his life to the church while also making significant contributions to the musical world at large. During his lifetime, he was honored as the “father of musicians.” The German Reformer Martin Luther wrote of him: “Josquin is the master of the notes. They must do as he wills; as for the other composers, they have to do as the notes will.”
Z
urbaran,
F
rancisco
D
e (1598–1664)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

This Spanish artist's most productive years were from 1635, during which he painted mainly for religious orders. His first documented commission was in 1636 for a cycle of paintings for the Dominicans of S. Pablo el Real in Seville. Another commission was the series painted for the Merced Calzada (1629–1630), including
Vision of St. Peter Nolasco
and
Fray Francisco Zumel
. He settled in Seville at the invitation of the city council in 1629. His first work there was part of a cycle dedicated to St. Bonaventura, painted for the Franciscans. He was at his best when painting isolated figures, such as
St. Francis in Meditation
(1655), or martyr virgins, such as
St. Margaret
(1634). He was the favorite painter of the monastic orders, who loved his blend of realism and spirituality. However, he stopped receiving major commissions from the monasteries after 1650. But he continued to paint religious subjects, including
Virgin and Child with the Infant St. John
(1656) and
St. Francis in Meditation
(1658). Among his noblest works is the
Martyrdom of St. Serapion
(1628), a martyr of the Mercedarian Order. His two versions of
St. Francis
(1635 and 1639) are unforgettable in their simplicity.
St. Bonaventura at the Council of Lyons
and the
Saint on his Bier
include very sensitive portraits. He displays a superb sense of the color white in the
Adoration of the Magi
(1638), and his portraits of Carthusian and Mercedarian saints.
P
iero della
F
rancesca (1410/20–1492)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Italian painter. In 1442 he was commissioned to paint a polyptych, the
Madonna della Misericordia.
Between 1452 and 1459 he painted his major work, a fresco cycle in San Francesco Arezzo, of the
Legend of the True Cross
, beginning with the Annunciation and ending with the Dream of Constantine. Between the 1440s and 1460s he painted an exquisitely painted panel, the
Flagellation of Christ
. Heraldic and religious imagery abound in the Flagellation, which is Piero's most enigmatic work. Another unusual work is the
Madonna del Parto
, painted between 1450 and 1455, showing the pregnant Virgin standing in a tabernacle.
The Madonna and Child with Saints and Federigo of Montefeltro
was painted for the Church of San Bernardino in Urbino. Above the Virgin's head hangs an ostrich's egg, a symbol of creation. In the
Madonna di Senigallia
the Virgin appears as Theotokos or the Mother of God flanked by two angels. In the fresco of the
Resurrection
the symbolism contrasts the bare trees and earth on the left with the sprouting trees on the right while two soldiers stare at the Risen Christ in astonishment and another hides his face from the bright light. Toward the end of his life Piero became blind. He was also a mathematician, interested in geometry and perspective as well as color and light.
Devotio Moderna
Authors: Jensen Paul
Published: January 2012

The Devotio Moderna (Latin, modern devotion) was a late medieval renewal movement, which started in the home of its founder Gerard Groote (1340–1384) in the city of Deventer in the Netherlands. Widespread spiritual hunger, the need for religious reform, and an increasingly rational scholastic theology in 14th century Europe provided a conducive climate for fostering spirituality outside conventional channels. The Devotio Moderna established communal houses for women and men devoted to the experience of imitating Christ in Northern European towns and cities; initially, it constituted a “middle way” between the parish and the mostly rural religious orders of the day. They detested knowledge without virtue, so they established dormitories and schools for the spiritual formation of youth. The movement is best remembered for its great spiritual classic that is now, after some debate, generally attributed to Thomas à Kempis, The Imitation of Christ (2005) — the most published Christian text outside the Bible. Heart meditation on Jesus' life and death, written in ordinary language, provided the working masses with an accessible means of imitating Christ. This affective meditation undergirded all facets of the movement's origin, character, development, and considerable legacy in both Catholic and Protestant traditions.
G
iotto (1267–1337)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Giotto di Bondone was an Italian painter who received Dante's praise in the
Divine Comedy
(Purgatorio, XI, 94–96). He was a seminal figure in the revival of the visual arts in Italy and the development of the discipline and vocabulary of art history. Petrarch considers him the founding father of Renaissance painting.
Diaconate
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas
Published: January 2012

The Greek word diakonos in the New Testament is often translated as “servant,” and according to most exegetes is used as the official title for the office of deacon in only three instances. The term originally designated the person who served at table or took care of others. While every Christian is a servant, special duties may carry the designation “minister,” meaning a leadership function in church and mission work (e.g. 1 Cor. 3:5; 2 Cor. 3:6; Eph. 3:7; Col. 1:23; 1 Tim.). The special office is mentioned in Philippians 1:1 (“to all the saints … with the bishops and deacons”), definite evidence, then, in the New Testament of the office held by deacons alongside the leadership position of the elders and overseers, as also is 1 Timothy 3:8–13, with separate qualifications for the overseers and the deacons.
Didache
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

This is an early Christian document, probably written about
ad
80–90, although some scholars think it is a 2nd century treatise. Originally, this little book (about 40 pages), written in Koinė Greek, did not have a title, but later it received the title of Didache Kyriou Dia Ton Dodeka Apostolon Ethesin (The Teaching of the Lord by the Twelve Apostles to the Gentiles). Although Eusebius mentioned the Didache in his Ecclesiastical History (vol. 3), it was lost until 1873, when it was found by Archbishop Philotheos Bryennios in a Greek convent in Istanbul, Turkey. This copy is now in the library of the Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem.
Dionysius the Areopagite (fl. c.500)
Authors: Foltz Bruce V.
Published: January 2012

Dionysius the Areopagite is the traditional appellation for the mysterious author of a remarkable set of writings that can rightly be called the key texts of Christian mysticism. These writings (the Corpus Dionysiacum, or CD) first became known in the 6th century, which attributed them to St. Dionysius, who was converted by St. Paul (Acts 17:34), and designated by Eusebius as the first Bishop of Athens. Since then, they have exerted inestimable influence, especially in the Middle Ages. In the east, St. Maximus the Confessor wrote an influential series of scholia on the CD in the 7th century, and throughout the Byzantine era, Dionysius was built upon as a cornerstone of Christian theology. In the west, Dionysius was translated from Greek into Latin by Eriugena in the 9th century; Aquinas quotes him nearly a thousand times; and St. Bonaventure deems him “the Prince of Mystics.” But by the time of the Renaissance, the traditional authorship was being doubted, and today most scholars believe the author to have been a Byzantine monk, perhaps a bishop as well, and possibly living in Syria, during the late 5th or early 6th century. For some time, this pseudonymous authorship was highlighted by signifying the author as “the Pseudo‐Dionysius,” but it is now becoming recognized that this usage is somewhat anachronistic and condescending.
C
hristian Church (Disciples of
C
hrist)
Authors: Brenneman Todd M.
Published: January 2012

In the 19th century the movements of Alexander Campbell and Barton W. Stone united. This union did not last the century and produced two distinct movements. One of them was the Disciples of Christ. Although an official split was not recognized until the religious census of 1906, the Stone–Campbell movement had been dividing since the American Civil War era as members of the movement (identifying themselves as “Christians” or “Disciples”) began to split over sectional, class, theological, and ecclesiological lines. Those that would eventually form the Disciples of Christ — later renamed Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) — were more often Northern, more upper‐class individuals. They also tended to be more theologically and ecclesiologically liberal compared totheir fellow believers who became part of the Churches of Christ.
Discipleship
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J.
Published: January 2012

“Disciple” means “learner” and assumes attachment to a religious teacher. As a Jewish maxim attributed to Joshua b. Perahyah (c.100bc) states, “Provide yourself with a teacher and get yourself a fellow‐disciple” (m. 'Abot 1:6). “Discipleship” refers to a person's life commitment to a body of teaching as exemplified by the teacher himself. In the 1st centuryad, Jewish rabbis were surrounded by disciples and taught them the proper application of the Jewish Law.
Divorce
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick
Published: January 2012

Divorce is a contested issue theologically: all branches of the Christian church hold high the value of marriage and of the traditional family.
Doctors of the Church
Authors: Warner David B.
Published: January 2012

At the end of the 13th century, Pope Boniface VIII named four pastors as “outstanding teachers of the Church” (egregii doctores ecclesiae): Ss. Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and Gregory the Great. They became known as “The Great Fathers of the Church,” and later, after the parallel naming of four Great Eastern Doctors, they were known as the Four Great Doctors of the Western Church. For their part, the Eastern Orthodox prefer to venerate as a group the “Three Holy Hierarchs” of Ss. Basil, Gregory Nazianzus, and John Chrysostom, while still giving high honor to St. Athanasius.
Doctrines and Dogmas
Authors: Yarnell Malcolm B.
Published: January 2012

Though often used as synonyms, the terms doctrine and dogma have a distinct usage in describing Christian beliefs in a broader as opposed to an official meaning. “Doctrine,” deriving from the Latin term, doctrina (“instruction”), indicates the teachings of Christians, whether those doctrines are taught by an individual theologian or by an entire community. “Dogma,” deriving from the Greek term, dogma (“governmental decree”), indicates the official teachings of a Christian tradition. Doctrines are subject to challenge by other theologians and churches within a Christian tradition, but dogmas may not generally be challenged without placing the dissenting theologian or church outside its original tradition.
Dogmatic Theology
Authors: Harmon Steven R.
Published: January 2012

Dogmatic theology designates a species of theology that reflects upon and gives expression to the church's teachings. “Dogmatic” in this sense lacks the more recently acquired connotation of “dogmatic” as “asserting or imposing dogmas or opinions in an authoritative, imperious, or arrogant manner” (Oxford English Dictionary). In the present usage it is rather a synonym of “doctrinal” that is linked etymologically with the early Christian usage of the Greek adjective dogmatikos to refer to that which is “concerned with doctrine.” It recognizes a proper distinction between dogmatic theological reflection that has the teaching of the church as its primary object, beneficiary, and set of parameters, and other sorts of theological reflection that carefully venture beyond these parameters and creatively address other concerns while remaining rooted in the teaching of the church.
D
orner,
I
saak
A
ugust (1809–1884)
Authors: Allen Michael
Published: January 2012

Born in 1809, the son of a Lutheran pastor, and educated at Tübingen under F. C. Baur, Isaak Dorner influenced German Lutheranism through a series of professorships, extensive writing, and ecclesiastical involvement. He went to Tübingen in 1839 as tutor and then associate professor of Theology, followed by professorships at Königsberg in 1843, at Bonn in 1847, at Göttingen in 1853, and eventually at Berlin in 1862. He founded and edited the Jahrbücher für deutsche Theologie beginning in 1856. During his time in Berlin he also served on the superior church council. He died in 1884.
Dostoevsky,FyodorMikhailovich (1821–1881)
Authors: Veith Gene Edward
Published: January 2012

The Russian writer Dostoevsky was born in Moscow on October 30, 1821. His father, Mikhail, was a physician in a hospital for the poor. His mother, Mariya, loved books and music. Fyodor was the second of eight children, one of whom died in infancy. He would become one of the greatest novelists in world literature.
Dunstable (Dunstaple),
J
ohn (
c
.1390–1453)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

English composer, known as the Prince of Music. His surviving works consist chiefly of polyphonic Masses, single Mass movements, Mass‐pairs, and motets. All his surviving 50 compositions are on sacred texts. They include sections of the Mass Ordinary, Latin Motets, mostly on the Virgin Mary, and isorhythmic polytextual motets. The compositions vary from traditional accompanied melody in three voices to complex isorhythmic patterns in three or four voices. His music was characterized by sonority of texture. There is also a feeling for chords and chordal progression. His pieces are airy, singable, and lyrically fresh, as in Salve regina mater mire and Sancta Maria, non est tibi similis. Although his works were not performed after 1500, Dunstable had enormous influence among musical theorists.
D
ürer,
A
lbrecht (1471–1528)
Authors: Buss Reinhard J.
Published: January 2012

Born in Nuremberg, Germany, Dürer is considered to be the greatest artist of the German Renaissance. His innovative creations and vast output place him on a par with such celebrated contemporaries as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. Approximately 1,300 of his works can still be found in art galleries and private collections around the world. Dürer is known for his self‐portraits, portraits, altar paintings, etchings in wood and copper, chronicles, and theoretical writings.
Christianity in the
N
etherlands
Authors: van Eijnatten Joris
Published: January 2012

The most characteristic aspect of the religious history of the Netherlands until the 1960s was the variety of Christian traditions that had to be accommodated within a relatively circumscribed geographical space. Defining that space is not a simple matter, for the perimeter of the “Netherlands” changed continuously. Its boundaries were definitively settled only in 1839, with the inclusion of the province of Limburg in the south‐east. Although the latest territorial addition to the Dutch state, Limburg was witness to the earliest manifestation of institutional Christianity when in the 4th century its current capital, Maastricht, began to function as the informal seat of the bishop of Tongeren (now in Belgium). The Franks, who were the dominant political force in the region after the fall of the Roman Empire, undertook initiatives to establish churches further to the north. Dagobert I had a church built in Utrecht around 630 and later commissioned the bishop of Cologne to convert the “Frisians” who occupied the broad swath of land stretching from present‐day Zeeland in the south‐west to Groningen in the north‐east. These early ventures had little effect.
EastAfrican Christianity
Authors: Kollman Paul
Published: January 2012

East Africa — Somalia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique — has just five centuries of Christian history, and Christianity reached most of the populace only in the last century. Nonetheless Christians already comprise a majority in the region, and Christianity plays a central role everywhere except Somalia.
Easter
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

It is not known exactly when Christians began commemorating Christ's bodily resurrection, today called Easter in English. Some evidence exists that they commemorated his resurrection already during the first two centuries, and that they called the commemoration
Pascha
, a Greek term derived from the Hebrew
Pesah
, meaning “Passover.” The church historian Eusebius in the 4th century states that in about
ad
154 Bishop Polycarp from Asia Minor met with Bishop Anicetus of Rome regarding the dispute that existed in the church with respect to when
Pascha
, as they called it, was to be celebrated. But whether
Pascha
in the 2nd century included celebrating Christ's resurrection, or just his passion, cannot be determined definitively. However, by the 4th century the term
Pascha
definitely referred to both the death and resurrection of Christ. In fact, the Council of Arles in 314 and the Council of Carthage in 397 both used the term
Pascha
to commemorate Christ's resurrection.
Eastern Orthodox Church
Authors: Gkortsilas Paschalis
Published: January 2012

The “Eastern Orthodox Church” signifies a family of Christian churches in communion with the four ancient patriarchates of the east (Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem).