bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
HOMOPLASY AS PATTERN: MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF MORPHOLOGICAL CONVERGENCE IN ANSERIFORMES
Authors: Faith Daniel P.
Published: October 2008

Abstract— A multivariatc model for taxa and characters is presented that represents taxa as points in an ordination space such that shared derived character states define groups of taxa or regions in this space. This model is compared, in terms of concepts of information content and explanatory power, to the eladistie model that relates characters and taxa to a hierarchical pattern. While a cladogram may be identified with a phylogenetic hypothesis, the ordination pattern may be equated with hypotheses about similarities among the taxa in habitat, feeding mode, or other ecological factors.

This basic data‐pattern model is appropriate for the explanation of the character convergences implied by a particular phylogenetic hypothesis. Under the assumptions of the model, the underlying ordination pattern may be inferred from the observed character data using robust ordination procedures recently developed in community ecology.

As an illustration of the method, the morphological convergences derived from a recent phylogenetic hypothesis for genera of Anseriformes are analysed. In the resulting two‐dimensional ordination, the genera are arranged such that the convergenlly derived states form regions in the space. While this pattern implies that some of the taxa that are close together in the space are phylogcnetically dissimilar, taxa that are close together in the space are found to be similar in their mode of feeding. Thus, the ordination demonstrates that taxa sharing these morphological convergences tend to utilize habitat in the same way in terms of mode of feeding.

The explanatory power of the pattern and the degree of recovery of habitat information are tested against null hypotheses using Monte Carlo simulations.

Extensions of the method are discussed, including applications to studies of parasite—host relationships and to biogeography.
A CLADISTIC ANALYSIS OF CIRCAEA (ONAGRACEAE)
Authors: Boufford David E. , Crisci Jorge V. , Tobe Hiroshi , Hoch Peter C.
Published: October 2008

Abstract— Circaea (Onagraceae), a genus of seven species from the northern hemisphere, forms a monophylctic group defined by the following synapomorphies: two stamens (opposite the sepals), fruits indehiscent capsules, hooked hairs on the fruits, and perianth parts reduced to two. A cladistic analysis of the genus was performed using 22 characters from morphology, anatomy and palynology. The seven species and seven additional subspecies were considered the terminal taxa. Polarity of the characters is based on the outgroup comparison method. Eighteen equally parsimonious cladograms were produced, each with 32 steps and a consistency index of 0.75. A successive weighting procedure was applied, resulting in six cladograms with a consistency index of 0.95. All 24 cladograms share the following seven monophylctic groups: (1) all species except C. cordala and C. glabrescens (stipules deciduous); (2) the group of C. mollis, the three subspecies of C. lutetiana and C. erubescens (exsertcd nectary); (3) C. repens and all six subspecies of C. alpina (single‐seeded fruits, stolons terminated by tubers, and viscin threads reduced or absent); (4) the six subspecies of C. alpina (unilocular ovaries with no trace of a second loculc and tardily opening perianth); (5) C. alpina subspecies alpina, micrantha, pacifica, and imaicola (flowers opening on ascending to erect pedicels); (6) C. alpina subspecies alpina, micrantha, and pacifica (translucent leaves); (7) C. alpina subspecies alpina and murantha (glabrous stems). Results of the cladistic analysis support most of the current systematic classification of the genus, except for the relationships among the three subspecies of C. lutetiana.
AN AMPLIFICATION OF THE PHYLOGENETIC SPECIES CONCEPT
Authors: Nixon Kevin C. , Wheeler Quentin D.
Published: October 2008

Abstract— The goal of a phylogenetic species concept is to reveal the smallest units that are analysable by cladistic methods and interpretable as the result of phylogenctic history. We define species as the smallest aggregation of populations (sexual) or lineagcs (asexual) diagnosable by a unique combination of character states in comparable individuals (semaphoronts). A character state is an inherited attribute distributed among all comparable individuals (semaphoronts) of the same historical population, clade, or terminal lineage. This definition of species is character‐based and pattern oriented. Evolutionary explanations of phylogenetic species are consistent with contemporary explanations of processes of speciation, but require only the assumption of nested hierarchical pattern. We discuss the compatibility of the phylogenetic species concept with various biological needs for species and justify its use at the exclusion of alternative species concepts.
COMBINATORIAL WEIGHTS IN PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSIS: A STATISTICAL PARSIMONY PROCEDURE
Authors: Wheeler Ward C.
Published: October 2008

Abstract— A data dependent weighting procedure is developed to allow the comparison of phylogenetic trees based on nucleic acid sequence data. The sampling error of this cladogram “cost” is then examined, permitting statistical evaluation of the cost differential.
CHARACTER DEFINITIONS AND CHARACTER STATE DELINEATION: THE BETE NOIRE OF PHYLOGENETIC INFERENCE
Authors: Pogue Michael G. , Mickevich M. F.
Published: October 2008

Abstract— Currently characters are static concepts whose definition and state delineations seldom undergo any scrutiny. Common systematic practice tends to synthesize character slates by combining or dividing observed conditions, a situation most likely due to current theoretical limitations in phylogenetic inference, which tends to ignore problems of multistate characters. This process we refer to as the “synthetic” method for character definition. Character definitions derived for the genera of North American Cochylini (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) using “synthetic” character states postulated that the cochylines were not monophyletic. The use of cladogram characters and nearest neighbor matrices in uncovering potential flaws in character state delineation is demonstrated. The “synthetic” set of character definitions proved deficient upon such analysis, principally due to its attempt to force highly variable features into a few states. The set of character definitions produced from this analysis is referred to as “reflective” because it does not ignore observed variation. It produces characters with many states and presents problems of setting up transformation series. Three means lor deriving transformations are applied to produce transformation series for the reflective set of character definitions: the unordered outgroup method, morphocline analysis and Transformation Series Analysis (TSA). All three data sets postulated the Cochylini as monophyletic. The three sets of phylogenies were compared. Consensus trees are ambiguous when analysing changes in hierarchy. In order to summarize these results in a manner which does not destroy the phylogenetic structure, positional subtrees, a new means for summarizing multiple solution cladograms, are introduced. It was found that all three sets of transformations produced very different cladograms which in turn were very different from the tree produced by the original, synthetic definitions. The results of each of these methods were assessed for their internal consistency. TSA gave the least contradictory results.
NUCLEIC ACID SEQUENCE PHYLOGENY AND RANDOM OUTGROUPS
Authors: Wheeler Ward C.
Published: October 2008

Abstract— When divergent taxa are used to root networks, it is assumed that the character stales in the outgroup have historical similarity to those in the ingroup. Yet, if the data are nucleic acid sequences, the character stales shared by a divergent outgroup may be based not on history but on random similarity. A simple procedure is proposed to test this possibility. In the absence of an appropriate outgroup, root position can be estimated with the use of an asymmetrical character transformation matrix. If the matrix is sufficiently biased, it can supply the polarity information usually derived from an outgroup. This outgroup test and rooting procedure are demonstrated with ADH sequences from the genus Drosophila.
Sámi Reindeer Pastoralism as an Indigenous Resource Management System in Northern Norway: A Contribution to the Common Property Debate
Authors: Bjørklund Ivar
Published: October 2008

Pastoralism is defined here as a system in which humanity mediates the relation between land and animals. The paper argues that the conventional idea of pastoralism as a pure relation between animals and land obscures indigenous resource management systems such as that of the Sámi, with its seasonal variations in both labour and pasture. This management is exercised through flexible social groupings which mediate the relation between the size of the herd and the capacity of the pasture. The fact that there is no historical evidence of overgrazing in a general sense in Sámi areas must be seen in connection with this management system.
State, Industrialization and Agricultural Policy in Korea
Authors: Burmeister Larry L.
Published: October 2008

Analyses of Korean (Republic of Korea) development point to the strong role of the state in directing the industrialization process. State intervention has also been pronounced in agriculture, as state agents have mobilized bureaucratic resources to direct agricultural production activities in support of the national development project through the creation of strategic agroindustrial linkages. The Korean green revolution campaign to achieve rice self‐sufficiency is used to illustrate the state's role in fostering intersectoral linkages. Agriculture is brought back into the debate about Korean development.
Structural Adjustment and Diversification in Zambia
Authors: Meijer Fons
Published: October 2008

Structural adjustment should go hand in hand with measures to diversify the economy to make it less vulnerable to future changes in the external environment. However, adjustment programmes tend to concentrate on expenditure reduction policies, thereby hampering the necessary diversification. This proposition is elaborated for the economy of Zambia, which is still as dependent on mineral exports as it was twenty‐five years ago at independence. During and after the minerals boom the country suffered from Dutch disease. The subsequent adjustment efforts, reinforced through IMF involvement, did not sufficiently change the bias against tradables production. The latter is taken as a yardstick for diversification. A balanced implementation of expenditure switching policies in a later stage became increasingly difficult when the country also had to adjust to debt repayments.
The Political Economy of Industrialization: A Comparison of Latin American and East Asian Newly Industrializing Countries
Authors: Jenkins Rhys
Published: October 2008

ABSTRACT

The paper analyses the industrial performance of two East Asian (South Korea and Taiwan) and three Latin American (Argentina, Brazil and Mexico) newly industrializing countries. It argues that the better performance in East Asia is not due simply to differences in trade orientation or the degree of state intervention, but rather to the effectiveness of intervention. This is explained in terms of the relative autonomy of the state and the structuring of the state apparatus in the two regions. The historically determined class structure and the international context led to much greater state autonomy in East Asia than in Latin America. The last part of the paper shows a number of ways in which this greater relative autonomy has contributed to rapid industrial growth in East Asia in comparison with Latin America.
Regional Disparities, Industry and Government Policy in Japan
Authors: Mutlu Servet
Published: October 2008

This paper examines the time path of regional per capita income disparities in Japan during the last three decades, and analyses the determinants of this path, including government policies. Regional disparities have been quite common in most countries, and the problem has proven to be relatively intractable, though varying in intensity across time and across countries. The Japanese case is instructive in that the country has experienced several stages of the problem in a relatively brief period, and has managed to limit spatial polarization to a certain degree. This paper identifies links between broad growth policy orientations with resultant changes in regional income disparities, and suggests their policy implications for both mature and developing economies.
Comments on Alex de Waal's ‘Re‐assessment of Entitlement Theory in the Light of Recent Famines in Africa’
Authors: Osmani S.R.
Published: October 2008

Alex de Waal attempts to build his account of recent famines in Africa (de Waal, 1990) on the foundations of a critique of Amartya Sen's entitlement theory ‐ henceforth, Entitlement Theory (ET). The core of the paper is thus composed of two parts ‐ one critical and the other constructive. The constructive part, or at least the motivation behind it, is eminently useful, but the critical part, I am afraid, is rather off the mark. I shall argue that not only are his criticisms hard to accept, they are also not necessary for building his constructive part.
Calha Norte: Military Development in Brazilian Amazônia
Authors: Allen Elizabeth
Published: October 2008

Calha Norte is the most recent military project for the development of Brazilian Amazõnia. It aims to incorporate the whole of the region to the north of the Amazõn River into the national economy and to defend the area from guerrillas, drug traffickers and other perceived threats from neighbouring countries. It also seeks to integrate Indian groups into Brazilian society by means of a new Indian policy. This paper looks at the context of military development in Brazilian Amazônia and the origins and proposals of the Calha Norte project. It focuses on the state of Roraima, the impact of illegal gold miners and the treatment of the Yanomami Indians. While recognizing the long military involvement in Amazônia, the paper argues that the return to democracy in Brazil requires the military not only to consider the security and development of the region, as perceived by them, but to adopt a sensitive and more flexible range of policies.
Democratic Rural Development: Leadership Accountability in Regional Peasant Organizations
Authors: Fox Jonathan
Published: October 2008

Many development analysts assert the importance of democratic social organizations, but few either document or analyse the actual processes of internal democracy. This study examines part of the broader problem of the ‘Iron Law of Oligarchy’ — the ebbs and flows of leadership accountability over time. Drawing on the history of a Mexican regional peasant organization since 1974, the analysis suggests that different kinds of organizational structures encourage or discourage membership action, but moments of mass direct action in turn shape the ways in which organizational structures actually distribute power. The case analysis shows how the interaction of internal and external factors shaped the balance of power between leaders and members at each critical turning point. Participatory subgroups turn out to be the crucial counterweight to concentrated leadership power, mediating relations with the membership and providing alternative sources of leadership. Whether formal or informal, multiple vertical channels and alternative horizontal linkages between membership groups are crucial complements, and sometimes substitutes, to conventional organizational structures.
Development, Neoliberalism and Electoral Politics in Latin America
Authors: Espinal Rosario
Published: October 2008

The purpose of this article is to discuss the impact of the current economic crisis on development strategies in Latin America, and the ways in which redefinitions of the notion of development have transformed Latin American politics during the period of democratization. The article examines, specifically, the rise of the neoliberal movement in Latin America and its impact on policy‐making, parties and electoral politics. It argues that in spite of the electoral inroads recently made by neoliberal parties, political organizations of the New Right remain weak, either because they are the product of unstable political coalitions with a slim chance of surviving electoral defeat, or because the renewal of populist parties has pre‐empted the growth of neoliberal parties.
Gender, Contracts and Wage Work: Agricultural Restructuring in Brazil's São Francisco Valley
Authors: Collins Jane L.
Published: October 2008

Brazil̂s São Francisco Valley provides an example of the ways in which agro‐food firms are attempting to mobilize and control labour as they expand production of fruits and vegetables for domestic and global markets. In crops where cost reduction is a primary concern, firms choose highly ‘flexible’ forms of labour mobilization, drawing on the casual labour of migrants from the Brazilian Northeast. In crops where the quality and timing of produce are of great importance, firms use either subcontracting arrangements that mobilize family labour, or the labour of local women and children. In this way, firms involved in the production of fruits and vegetables show many similarities to their counterparts in certain branches of industry: they are actively experimenting with labour arrangements that tap the most vulnerable segments of the international workforce, and that appropriate unpaid family labour.
The Development Impact of NGO Activities in the Red Sea Province of Sudan: A Critique
Authors: Ati Hassan Ahmed Abdel
Published: October 2008

This article examines the results of, and the prospects for, the declared shift of NGOs from relief operations to development activities in the Red Sea Province of eastern Sudan. Statistical and qualitative information contained in the reports of NGOs themselves provides the main data source on which the analysis is based. Although NGOs have been successful in conducting massive relief operations in the area, the article asserts that they have not yet and are not expected to achieve any tangible results on the development front. The main reason for this is the apparent misconception of development on the part of the NGOs as an isolated, localized activity which they can perform; another is the NGOs' failure to recognize the difference in the methods, means and prerequisites necessary for relief and for development; a third is the failure of NGOs to equip local institutions to absorb and/or sustain any achieved ‘development’, since most NGOs operate in complete isolation from governmental and traditional Beja institutions.
NGOs, Disaster Relief and Asset Transfer in the Horn: Political Survival in a Permanent Emergency
Authors: Duffield Mark
Published: October 2008

Famines have winners and losers. Conventional analysis has concentrated on the losers: what has been neglected is that famines can result from the conscious exercise of power in pursuit of gain or advantage by the politically strong. This article is an attempt to analyse the process of political survival in the context of permanent emergency. Through examples of local asset transfer, and indicating how this process articulates with a wider regional parallel economy, the paper offers an analysis of political survival in the arc of crisis that runs from Sudan through southern Ethiopia to Somalia. The role of donors and NGOs is examined in terms of how they relate to the weak and the strong within the asset transfer economy. Donors are seen to have supported the strong whilst the position of NGOs is more contradictory. Although programme measures to protect assets have been developed, and the disjuncture between the rules of sovereignty and the protection of human rights has been highlighted, these measures have essentially failed. A review of trends since the end of the Cold War suggests that the chances of preventing the further consolidation of a transfer economy within the region are negligible. The position of those who gain from such a destructive se the process of political survival in the context of permanent emergency. Through examples of local asset transfer, and indicating how this process articulates with a wider regional parallel economy, the paper offers an analysis of political survival in the arc of crisis that runs from Sudan through southern Ethiopia to Somalia. The role of donors and NGOs is examined in terms of how they relate to the weak and the strong within the asset transfer economy. Donors are seen to have supported the strong whilst the position of NGOs is more contradictory. Although programme measures to protect assets have been developed, and the disjuncture between the rules of sovereignty and the protection of human rights has been highlighted, these measures have essentially failed. A review of trends since the end of the Cold War suggests that the chances of preventing the further consolidation of a transfer economy within the region are negligible. The position of those who gain from such a destructive process seems assured.
New Technologies, Employment and Labour Markets in Developing Countries
Authors: James Jeffrey
Published: October 2008

This article is concerned with the impact of new technologies ‐ especially, but not entirely, those that are related to microelectronics ‐ on employment and labour markets in developing countries. Taking the form of a literature survey it looks at those impacts that have already occurred as well as effects that seem likely to occur in the future. Both sets of issues are addressed within an analytical framework that views the impact of technical change as the end result of a process which begins with the generation and proceeds via the diffusion of new technologies. The need for so broad an approach is shown to stem from the multiplicity of ways in which the generation and diffusion of new technologies influence each other and condition the ultimate impact of these technologies on employment and labour markets. Because many such mechanisms have not yet received much attention in the literature, there appears to be substantial scope for further research.
The Global Flea Market: Migration, Remittances and the Informal Economy in Tonga
Authors: Brown Richard P. C. , Conneil John
Published: October 2008

Some common assumptions about the form and use of migrants' remittances in the South Pacific are examined and questioned in the light of information from a micro‐economic study of one group of remittance recipients in the flea market of Nuku'alofa, the capital of the Kingdom of Tonga. The findings of this study suggest that economic analysis and policy recommendations based on the existing macro‐economic data on recorded remittances and other economic aggregates should be treated with caution. The unrecorded inflows of remittances in kind and the associated spread of the domestic informal sector have had some important implications for the functioning of Tonga's economy. There is some evidence to suggest that the growth of informal, international trade is fostering other significant changes in the domestic economy. The functioning of remittance‐dependent economies such as Tonga is much more complex than existing economic analysis suggests, and involves substantial investment – not just consumption – with the emergence of entrepreneurs and the manipulation of dependence, rather than merely passive receipt of cash and expenditure focused on consumption.
Ecological Conflicts and the Environmental Movement in India
Authors: Gadgil Madhav , Guha Ramachandra
Published: October 2008

Nature‐based conflicts have increased in frequency and intensity in India. They revolve around competing claims over forests, land, water and fisheries, and have generated a new movement struggling for the rights of victims of ecological degradation. The environmental movement has added a new dimension to Indian democracy and civil society. It also posesan ideological challenge to the dominant notions of the meaning, content and patterns ofdevelopment.
Gender, Environment and Population
Authors: Heyzer Susan Joekes with Noeleen , Salles Ruth Oniang'o and Vania
Published: October 2008

Based on field research from three regions with distinct variations in environment, population density, livelihood bases and levels of resource dependency, this study investigates the gender aspects of environmental change. It seeks to illustrate the relevance of gender factors for the patterns of adaptation to change, for the welfare impact of changes on the population, and for the ramifications for resource management and livelihood generation at the community level. It employs a gender analysis to examine the impact of such changes on population variables, particularly on health and nutrition, and to explore the more general question of whether women's socio‐economic status is being threatened by the pressures of environmental change.
Social and Political Dimensions of Environmental Protection in Central America
Authors: Utting Peter
Published: October 2008

This study takes a critical look at mainstream efforts to protect and rehabilitate the environment in Central America. Despite some notable successes, many forest protection and tree planting schemes have not been effectively implemented and have even contributed to further environmental degradation, social inequality and impoverishment. It is argued that the trade‐off between environmental protection and human welfare which characterizes many schemes to protect forests and promote tree planting undermines not only local livelihoods but also the possibility of achieving basic environmental objectives, given the nature of local responses and their effects on project implementation. There is a need for a more integrative and socially‐aware approach to environmental planning which addresses two fundamental problems: the failure to locate environmental protection initiatives within a broader development framework and the failure to integrate concerns for environmental protection with the needs and rights of local people. Addressing these two problems of ‘macro‐’ and ‘micro‐coherency’ in environmental planning requires not only dealing with the many technical, administrative and financial constraints which typically characterize environmental programmes and projects, but also changes in the balance of social forces.
Intellectuals, Economic Reform and Social Change: Constraints and Opportunities in the Formation of a Nigerian Technocracy
Authors: Bangura Yusuf
Published: October 2008

Crisis and economic reforms have changed the status of intellectuals and their relations with dominant élites and policy makers. Because of the technical and ideological nature of these reforms, policy makers have tended to rely on intellectuals as opposed to bureaucrats to shape the agenda of change. This has converted a large number of intellectuals into technocrats and undermined the fabric of academic life in universities. Nowhere is this more pronounced than in developing countries with a large middle class and an economic or financial base that ensures some degree of independence from the multilateral financial institutions. Understanding the success or failure of economic reforms in developing countries requires some analysis of the complex relations between technocrats and political leaders and the societal constraints both sets of actors face. This article explores these issues in the context of Nigeria, whose academic community, bureaucrats and professionals grew in leaps and bounds in the 1970s, following an oil‐induced boom. The crisis of the 1980s led to attempts at economic reform and a highly programmed strategy of political change in which academics played a leading role. The article examines the effectiveness of intellectuals in government, and compares the Nigeria case with technocratic experiments in Ghana, Botswana and Côte d̂Ivoire.
Economic Restructuring, Coping Strategies and Social Change: Implications for Institutional Development in Africa
Authors: Bangura Yusuf
Published: October 2008

Since the early 1980s, most African countries have experienced unsatisfactory rates of economic growth and profound changes in livelihood systems, which have affected the way their modern institutions function. However, when confronted with evidence of poor economic performance in countries undergoing adjustment, the international financial institutions often blame governments for their lack of political will in regulating the activities of bureaucrats and vested interests. They recommend policies aimed at restructuring public sector institutions through privatization, public expenditure cuts, retrenchment, new structures of incentives and decentralization. Despite efforts to implement these measures in a number of countries, the problems of low institutional capacity remain. Two key contradictions appear to explain why institutions have been largely ineffective in crisis economies in Africa: the growing contradiction between the interests of bureaucratic actors and the goals they are supposed to uphold; and the contradiction between the institutional set‐up itself and what goes on in the wider society. To understand how these contradictions work, it is necessary to look more closely at the set of values and relationships that anchor institutions on social systems. The issues here are social compromise and cohesion; institutional socialization and loyalties; overarching sets of values; and political authority to enforce rules and regulations. The crises in these four areas of social relations, which are linked to the ways households and groups have coped with recession and restructuring, have altered Africa's state institutions so that it has become difficult to carry out meaningful development programmes and public sector reforms without addressing the social relations themselves.
Household Incomes in Cuban Agriculture: A Comparison of the State, Co‐operative, and Peasant Sectors
Authors: Deere Carmen Diana , Gonzales Ernel , Perez Niurka , Rodriguez Gustavo
Published: October 2008

This article presents the results of a 1991 household income survey of the three main groups in Cuban agriculture: wage workers on state farms, members of production co‐operatives, and peasant producers. It is shown that since the 1959 revolution household income levels in the agricultural sector have improved dramatically, while regional differences have been ameliorated considerably. Households in the private sector of Cuban agriculture have fared the best. It is also demonstrated that agricultural households rely on multiple sources of income to generate their livelihood. Rather than being strictly proletarian, collective, or petty commodity producers, these households are best characterized by the multiple class relations in which they participate.
Does Agricultural Growth Matter in Poverty Alleviation?
Authors: Gaiha Raghav
Published: October 2008

This article uses a panel survey of households in the Indian state of Maharashtra to demonstrate that agricultural growth takes too long to trickle down to the rural poor. Unanticipated inflation, on the other hand, aggravates rural poverty, as does domination of the agricultural growth process by large landholders. This affects the poor through the oligopsonistic influence of the landholders in rural labour markets, dampening employment and wages (as compared with the outcome in a competitive market). In the context of structural adjustment, while the emphasis on allocative efficiency through withdrawal of input subsidies and remunerative prices for output is justified, acceleration in agricultural growth by itself is unlikely to make a dent in rural poverty. Measures designed to accelerate agricultural growth must therefore be supplemented by direct anti‐poverty interventions. Consumer price stabilization is particularly important, and would be assisted by an overhaul of the Public Distribution System. Major reforms would include improved flexibility in the scale of the PDS, better targeting through alternative distribution networks when private trade channels are weak or non‐existent, and simplification of registration procedures. The oligopsonistic role of large landholders could be curbed through market‐mediated land redistribution, scrapping of all tenancy regulations when tenancy markets function efficiently, and through large‐scale intervention in rural labour markets along the lines of the Employment Guarantee Scheme.
The Democratization Process and Popular Participation in Africa: Emerging Realities and the Challenges Ahead
Authors: Rasheed Sadig
Published: October 2008

Many observers have judged the recent wave of democratization in Africa as an unstoppable process and have overemphasized the role of external factors in inducing this change. This article argues that the quality of change has been fragile and defective in many respects, and draws attention to the susceptibility of the process of democratic transition to reversals. It goes on to underscore the importance of internal forces in bringing about change and in ensuring the sustainability of democracy in Africa. The tasks that lie ahead for civil society in Africa and the role of the international community and political conditionality of aid in this context are then debated.
Africa after the Cold War: New Patterns of Government and Politics
Authors: Ellis Stephen
Published: October 2008

The state‐system of Africa is still essentially the one created by the colonial powers and passed on intact at independence. But the political economy of these states — the substance of political life within fixed territorial boundaries — is changing very profoundly as a result of the breakdown of the style of government of recent decades and the decline of economies based on the export of primary commodities. The political economy which is emerging, still within the same territorial boundaries, is best understood by reference to Africa's history over a long period.
The Dynamics of African Agricultural History: Is it Time for a New Development Paradigm?
Authors: Niemeijer David
Published: October 2008

Much of our present day perception of African agriculture is still indirectly based on the coloured accounts of the early explorers and administrators. It involves an often very static conception of ‘traditional’ African agriculture. Not only does this fail to dojustice to the rich and dynamic history of African agriculture, it has also led to an inappropriate research and development paradigm which treats African agriculture as a disrupted equilibrial system that needs readjustment to return to an equilibrial and productivestate. A diachronic study of African agricultural history reveals that many of our preconceptions of African society and agriculture are invalid: agriculturists are not inert, but respond in innovative and dynamic ways to the perturbations of their natural and socialenvironment. It appears that their survival is not so much dependent on the establishmentof a fine‐tuned equilibrium, but rather on the dynamic responses to these external disturbances. It is very likely that the agro‐ecosystems in large parts of Africa function mainly as non‐equilibrial (unstable), but nevertheless persistent systems. This has importantimplications for development interventions and agricultural research. It requires a shiftfrom a synchronic approach to a diachronic approach that is firmly based on an understaning of the past.
Palace Fundamentalism and Liberal Democracy: Oil, Arms and Irrationality
Authors: Mernissi Fatema
Published: October 2008

With the end of the Cold War, some students of international affairs have suggested that the next field of conflict will be defined in cultural terms, between West and East, and particularly between liberal democracy and Islam. In this essay, it is argued that constructing a dichotomy between ‘rational’ Western democracy and ‘irrational’ Islam is not only dangerous but hypocritical. Support for the most backward and fanatical forms of Islamic fundamentalism has long been an element in the global geopolitical strategies of Western democracies. The trade in oil and arms has had particularly perverse social and political effects, which must be confronted in order to provide greater opportunities for the development of a modern civil society in the Arab world.
The Future of the State
Authors: Hobsbawm E. J.
Published: October 2008

After reviewing the historically specific characteristics of the modern nation state, this essay discusses both supranational and infranational forces which now work to undermine some of the powers and functions of even the oldest and most firmly established states. Two popular visions of alternative arrangements, associated with free‐market ultra‐liberalism and the philosophy of ‘small is beautiful’, are rejected, since neither the market nor the decentralization or breakup of existing states can provide adequate solutions to their problems. As trends in economic development increase the likelihood that wealth will be generated by a smaller proportion of total populations, the redistributive function of the public sector is likely to become more important than ever.
NGOs and Environmental Public Goods: Institutional Alternatives to Property Rights
Authors: Meyer Carrie A.
Published: October 2008

NGOs are linked to environmental objectives for good reason: non‐profit NGOs provide a flexible, private‐sector answer to the provision of international environmental public goods. The non‐profit sector can link for‐profit, non‐profit, and public‐sector objectives in complex contracts. This article examines how, for the case of the National Biodiversity Institute (INBio) in Costa Rica, such complex contracts with both domestic and international parties provide partial solutions to public goods problems in the absence of private property rights over genetic resources. INBio's ‘monopoly’ position, legitimized by the local government, brings in rents from genetic resources which are reinvested in the production of public goods.
Clinical aspects of autoimmunity in animals*
Authors: DEAR M. G.
Published: October 2008

The concept of autoimmunity and its role in disease‐states in man and animals are discussed. A clinico‐anatomical classification of the autoimmune diseases is presented to facilitate diagnosis. With this as a basis, the clinical recognition of the autoimmune state and the diseases which it causes, or accompanies, in animal medicine are described and comparative features reviewed. This is concluded with brief comments on treatment and future studies.

Résumé. On envisage le concept de l'auto‐immunité et de son rôle en pathologie humaine et animale. Une classification clinico‐anatomique est décrite pour faciliter le diagnostic. En partant de là, on décrit les signes permettant de reconnaître les états d'auto‐immunité et les maladies qu'ils provoquent ou accompagnent chez les animaux et on passe en revue les données d'une étude comparative. Un bref commentaire sur le traitement et les études futures conclut cet article.

Zusammenfassung. Der Begriff der Autoimmunität und ihre Rolle bei Krankheitszuständen von Mensch und Tier werden besprochen. Eine klinisch‐anatomische Klassifikation der autoimmunen Krankheiten wird zwecks Erleichterung der Diagnose dargestellt. Davon ausgehend werden die klinische Erkennung des autoimmunen Zustands und der Krankheiten, die er verursacht oder begleitet, auf dem Gebiete der Tiermedizin beschrieben und gemeinsame Züge hervorgehoben. Daran schliessen sich kurze Bemerkungen über die Behandlung und über weitere Untersuchungen.
Dysgerminoma of the ovary in a bitch
Authors: ISHMAEL J.
Published: October 2008

A case of dysgerminoma of the ovary in a bitch is reported. Sex chromatin was not found in the tumour cells.

Résumé. On rapporte un cas de dysgerminome de l'ovaire d'une chienne. On n'a pas trouvé de chromatine sexuelle dans les cellules de la turneur.

Zusammenfassung. Ein Fall von Disgerminom im Eierstock einer Hündin wird besprochen. Geschlechtschromatin wurde nicht in den Tumorzellen gefunden.
Theoretical and Experimental Studies of Chatter in Turning for Uniform and Stepped Workpieces
Authors: Yu S. D. , Shah V.
Published: October 2008

This paper presents a method for predicting regenerative chatter onset conditions for uniform and stepped workpieces. The lateral deflections of flexible workpieces are modeled using the Timoshenko beam theory and three-node beam finite elements. The modal summation method is employed in conjunction with an adaptive remeshing scheme to determine the varying natural frequencies and varying mode shapes of workpieces during a cutting process, and to reduce the system equations of motion in terms of nodal variables to coupled equations of motion in terms of the modal coordinates. Various simulations were conducted and presented in this paper for understanding the gyroscopic and cross-coupling effect, and effects of other system and cutting process parameters on chatter onset conditions. Six experiments were carried out on an engine lathe for three uniform and three stepped workpieces to verify the theoretical chatter onset conditions. Good agreement in chatter onset conditions was observed between the simulations and the experiments.
Effect of Temperature Ratio on Jet Array Impingement Heat Transfer
Authors: Goodro Matt , Park Jongmyung , Ligrani Phil , Fox Mike , Moon Hee-Koo
Published: October 2008

This paper consider the effects of temperature ratio on the heat transfer from an array of jets impinging on a flat plate. At a constant Reynolds number of 18,000 and a constant Mach number of 0.2, different ratios of target plate temperature to jet temperature are employed. The spacing between holes in the streamwise direction X is 8D, and the spanwise spacing between holes in a given streamwise row Y is also 8D. The target plate is located 3D away from the impingement hole exits. Experimental results show that local, line-averaged, and spatially averaged Nusselt numbers decrease as the Twa∕Tj temperature ratio increases. This is believed to be due to the effects of temperature-dependent fluid properties, as they affect local and global turbulent transport in the flow field created by the array of impinging jets. The effect of temperature ratio on crossflow-to-jet mass velocity ratio and discharge coefficients is also examined.
A Method for Determining the Heat Transfer Properties of Foam-Fins
Authors: Moffat Robert J. , Eaton John K. , Onstad Andrew
Published: October 2008

Metallic and graphitic open-cell foams are being used or proposed as extended surfaces (fins) in heat sinks for electronic cooling and compact heat exchangers for aircraft applications. Three parameters must be known to calculate the heat transfer performance of a foam-fin: the product hmAc* as a function of flow-rate (the convective conductance per unit volume), the product ksAk* (the effective conductive conductance as a fin), and Rbond (the effective thermal resistance between the foam and the surface to which it is attached). This paper describes a new test method, which, in conjunction with an older well established type of test, allows all three parameters to be measured using one specimen.
Effect of Longitudinal Minigrooves on Flow Stability and Wave Characteristics of Falling Liquid Films
Authors: Helbig Klaus , Nasarek Ralph , Gambaryan-Roisman Tatiana , Stephan Peter
Published: October 2008

Falling liquid films are used in many industrial apparatuses. In many cases the film flow along a wall with topography is considered advantageous for intensification of the heat and mass transport. One of the promising types of the wall topography for the heat transfer intensification is comprised of minigrooves aligned along the main flow direction. The wall topography affects the development of wavy patterns on the liquid-gas interface. Linear stability analysis of the falling film flow based on the long-wave theory predicts that longitudinal grooves lead to the decrease in the disturbance growth rate and therefore stabilize the film. The linear stability analysis also predicts that the frequency of the fastest growing disturbance mode and the wave propagation velocity decrease on a wall with longitudinal minigrooves in comparison with a smooth wall. In the present work the effect of the longitudinal minigrooves on the falling film flow is studied experimentally. We use the shadow method and the confocal chromatic sensoring technique to study the wavy structure of falling films on smooth walls and on walls with longitudinal minigrooves. The measured film thickness profiles are used to quantify the effect of the wall topography on wave characteristics. The experimental results confirm the theoretical predictions.
Phototoxicity to selected marine and freshwater algae of polyacetylenes from species in the Asteraceae
Authors: Arnason Thor , Stein Janet R. , Graham Elizabeth , Wat Chi-Kit , Towers G. H. Neil , Lam Jørgen
Published: October 2008

The phototoxicity of polyacetylenes from representatives of the Asteraceae to a broad range of freshwater and marine algal species was observed. In the tests triacetylenes were more toxic than diacetylenes. In addition, a small group of polyacetylenes with terminal alcohol or aldehyde groups were found to be toxic with or without ultraviolet (UV) treatment (300–400 nm). Quantitative tests with Euglena and Valonia indicated toxic reactions with three compounds at concentrations greater than 1 ppm. Considering the toxicity of polyacetylenes to bacteria, fungi, invertebrates, and fish, the present work with plants is further evidence of their general cytotoxic nature.
Ultrastructure of the Gaertneriomyces zoospore (Spizellomycetales, Chytridiomycetes)
Authors: Barr Donald J. S.
Published: October 2008

The zoospore type is described for Gaertneriomyces, a genus in the new order Spizellomycetales, Chytridiomycetes. The nucleus lies in the posterior of the zoospore and it has a basal concavity. The kinetosome and nonfunctional centriole are located just distally to the concavity. Microtubulules radiate in the cytoplasm from a presumed microtubule organizing center consisting of two short, electron-opaque bars attached to the kinetosome. Mitochondria are predominantly in the posterior, and aggregates of lipid globules in the anterior of the zoospore. Microbodies are morphologically associated with the lipid and endoplasmic reticulum. They are also found along the sides of the nucleus and near the mitochondria.
Histological and chemical changes in tannic compounds of evergreen oak leaf litter
Authors: Racon L. , Sadaka N. , Gil G. , Petit J. Le , Matheron R. , Poinsot-Balaguer N. , Sigoillot J. C. , Woltz P.
Published: October 2008

In evergreen oak leaves collected at a western Mediterranean site (Var, France), the amounts of both hydrolyzable and condensed tannins decrease through the depth of the leaf litter. The decrease in condensed tannins could be partly explained by the cellular degradation of the lower epidermis and the mesophyll of leaves, as observed in histological sections. However, the condensed tannins may also be degraded by microbial enzymes because their average molecular weight decreased by about 50%. In contrast, the decrease in hydrolyzable tannins seems to be initiated by microbial enzymatic action, which is then followed by the same degradation process described above.