bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
North–South migration
Authors: Odok Godwin Etta
Published: January 2013

Migration has been a sphere of interest over time among scholars who have concentrated on the identification of factors to explain the processes by which internal and international destinations attracted people to them (Clark & Souden 1987). The literature demonstrates that unprecedented numbers of people are on the move worldwide and globalization of the world economy is likely to increase migration even further (Kane 1995). From 1980 to 2000, more people have moved from their homes and countries than ever before in history (Indra 1999). Most would prefer to remain where they were, but due to lack of the ability to survive in their communities, more have to move. Scholars have successfully demonstrated how the movement of people in the mass reflected a set of scientific principles concerning poverty, capacity to relocate, and distance (Massey 1999).
Novels and memoirs and migration
Authors: Beus Yifen T.
Published: January 2013

Migrant literature or literature of migration refers to writings about or by migrants. The United Nations' definition of a migrant or migration relies heavily on the geopolitically defined boundaries to describe human movement (UNESCO, n.d.). In literary studies, however, the concept of a migrant can be broadly conceived to include an individual who moves, voluntarily or not (such as an exile or a refugee), temporarily or permanently, “from one country, locality, place of residence, etc. to settle in another” (OED, n.d.). Although the duration of the migrants' sojourns varies, the lasting impacts on them often invoke sentiments that inspire such writings. Migrant writings often foreground the experiences of migrants during and after their movements and typically reflect the sociopolitical as well as cultural conditions of their countries of origin and of the new host locations. Issues of equality and human rights, cultural and linguistic identity, nostalgia, the notion of a homeland, and even the definition of nation are among topics and themes most frequently treated in migrant literature. This essay will highlight the following issues and characteristics that are central to the study of migrant writing, with a focus on the novel and memoirs: genre definition and boundaries, key literary movements and styles, major themes and motifs, and developing trends.
Palestine, migration 1880 to present
Authors: Pappé Ilan
Published: January 2013

The expulsion of the Palestinians from their homeland began in systematic form in 1948. A few thousand Palestinians had been previously evicted from their land in the 1920s and 1930s as a result of Zionist land purchase, but they remained within Palestine. The expulsion in many ways continues in an incremental, at times undetected, manner, through the first decade of the 21st century. The main reason for this uprooting is the internal logic of the Zionist ideology and the consensual vision in Israel of the need to create an exclusive Jewish state in historical Palestine.
Paraguay, migration 19th century to present
Authors: Oddone Hugo
Published: January 2013

Paraguay's historic migratory experience is one of paradox. Since the 1860s, colonizers opened the region's doors in an unrestricted way to immigration – but despite these efforts – the country became a nation of emigration. At the close of the Triple Alliance War (1864–1870) during which Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay fought against Paraguay, immigration was announced as a strategic policy in order to repopulate the country, demographically reduced to 30 percent of the prewar population by the military conflict. Immigration was a necessity to reactivate the country's economy, which had been completely destroyed by the war.
Peninsular India and the Bay of Bengal: mobility and travel, 4th century BCE to 8th century CE
Authors: Ray Himanshu
Published: January 2013

Extending for 4,671 miles (7,517 km), the Indian coastline is shared by eight of the country's largest states from Gujarat in the west to Bengal in the east. Three of the largest cities, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata, lie on the coast. This maritime orientation of peninsular India has influenced travel and mobility in the region from at least the start of the Iron Age, that is the middle of the 2nd millenniumBCEonward. In this essay, I shall discuss the theme of travel and mobility in three sections, each centered around one of the groups known for its propensity to migrate. I start with the evidence for fishing and sailing communities along the east coast of India and across the Bay of Bengal. The second section deals with overland trade networks of the interior and the extent to which these were linked to coastal centers. Finally, in the last section, I focus on the movements of Buddhist monks and Brahmans across the Indian subcontinent and into Southeast Asia from the 4th centuryBCEto the 8th centuryCE.
Poland, migration 19th century to present
Authors: Burrell Kathy
Published: January 2013

Until recently, modern Poland has characteristically been a country of emigration; flows away from the country have not only been significant in scale, but have also had an important influence on the nation's self‐identity, being closely tied to the political and economic fortunes of the country. Polish emigration can broadly be divided into two categories, political and economic. Before considering these, however, there are some complications related to modern‐era emigrations that need to be addressed. Firstly, between 1795 and 1918 Poland did not exist as a nation‐state on the map of Europe, having been partitioned between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. These three zones were markedly different in terms of migration dynamics, making generalizations necessarily unsatisfactory. It was the poorer Russian zone which was most associated with mass emigration, for example, but political migration was also significant from the Austrian territory. Secondly, the partitioned state of Poland also meant that there were difficulties in officially counting Polish emigrants in the reception countries during this period; national residence and ethnicity were not congruent. Who was Polish came down to a commitment to ethnicity above all else.
Portugal: migration 16th century to present
Authors: Borges Marcelo J.
Published: January 2013

International migration has been a constant in Portuguese history during the last six hundred years. From the early 15th century to the early 19th century, migration occurred mostly within the space of the global Portuguese empire. Beginning in the mid‐19th century, labor migrants from Portugal joined other Europeans in mass transatlantic moves to the Americas and other overseas destinations. The second half of the 20th century marked a shift in direction, from the Americas to northern Europe. At the turn of the 21st century, Portugal became for the first time a country of immigration, but emigration continued, especially within the space of the European Union.
Postcolonial refugee narratives
Authors: Shemak April
Published: January 2013

The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees initially focused primarily on refugees in Europe following World War II, largely ignoring the crises of displacement and forced migration occurring through decolonization in the developing world. There is a growing body of postcolonial literature that represents the experiences of refugees across the postcolonial world after World War II. Postcolonial refugee narratives can be defined as prose narratives (novels, short stories, memoirs) by and about refugees fleeing nations of origin that have a history of European colonialism. In these narratives, the conditions of the nation of origin exist in some form of political and/or economic crisis, sometimes as a direct result of colonial rule, neocolonialism, or decolonization. Postcolonial refugee narratives represent a genre of literature that highlights the human rights issues facing stateless persons. Keeping in mind that refugees are not a monolithic group, but originate from many regions and speak numerous languages, I will address some refugee narratives written in English. Frequently associated with the “masses,” refugees are often portrayed in the media as downtrodden, voiceless victims, thus, it is important to consider how literary narratives attempt to give voice to refugees, and/or mark their exclusion from dominant discourses.
Postcolonial theories of migration
Authors: Nair Parvati
Published: January 2013

This essay explores the relevance of postcolonial theory to migration. In so doing, it begins with the premise that, by definition, the postcolonial must be considered in the light of migration. For, above all, the postcolonial is about dislocation. In turn, if migration is a major issue in many national and regional debates and policies, then this is largely because of the influx of migrants to the West from the less affluent countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America; in other words, from postcolonial nations, whereby issues of class, race, ethnicity, and religion feature prominently, as do questions of national purity and contamination, inside and outside, self and other. Equally, it is important to note that postcolonial theory is not always the sole theoretical inroad to the study of migration: many migrants, especially those who are skilled, economically secure, and welcome in their host countries, do not share the struggle or the deep historical dislocation of the postcolonial. However, those many millions of immigrants who cross borders and live tenuous lives in inhospitable circumstances do share the context of the postcolonial, for, ultimately, this issue is one of class, subjugation, and exploitation. The larger backdrop here is that of the history of globalization, a process whose roots go back to colonial ventures and whose impact at a planetary level is sharply on the increase, with often dire consequences that range from the social to the environmental. The parity between the postcolonial and the migrant brings to light the crucial question of persisting empire in the age of globalization. At the heart of this ongoing process are the ideology and practices of capitalism.
Poverty, development, and migration
Authors: Sørensen Ninna Nyberg
Published: January 2013

A basic assumption in classic migration theory is that a search for better – or more secure – livelihoods is the main cause of migration (De Haan 1999; Ellis 2000). Poverty motivates individuals, families, and communities to embark on migratory projects. If successful, such movements may contribute to economic as well as human development. Yet migration and the development of economic and human capacity have been treated as two separate and distinct areas of concern, academically as well as politically. The failure to link migration and development and to study, for example, migration's poverty‐alleviating effects, has been more pronounced in cases of international migration than in studies of population movements within nation‐state boundaries. Over the last 10 years, however, attention to the migration–development nexus and the many links that exist between the two fields has moved to center‐stage (Sørensen et al. 2002; Spaan et al. 2005; Glick Schiller & Faist 2009). This has generated a profusion of academic studies, policy analyses, international fora, and recommendations focused on to how to make migration work for poverty reduction and human development in concrete migration settings. However, the nature of the relationship between migration and development remains contested and the assumed links often entail a number of problems, if not contradictions.
Protohistoric European migrations
Authors: Champion Timothy
Published: January 2013

Migrations in protohistoric Europe (1000BCEto 500CEoutside the Classical world of the Mediterranean) fall into three categories: (1) hypothetical migrations invoked to explain observed patterns of similarity in material culture shown by archaeology, or (2) those deduced from the distribution of languages recorded by historical linguistics, or else (3) the migrations and invasions of northern barbarians recorded by Greek and Roman authors. Genetic analysis of modern populations has produced no evidence of significant population movements in this period, while analysis of ancient human remains is still at a preliminary stage. Historical, archaeological, linguistic, and genetic data provide different results, which do not yet offer a unified picture (Sims‐Williams 1998).
Public health and migration
Authors: Hoyez Sarah E. Curtis and Anne Cécile
Published: January 2013

Internationally, it has been recognized that “health” comprises more than the absence of disease and should be understood rather in terms of “complete physical, mental and social well‐being” as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO 1948). This definition is reinforced by the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion (adopted in 1986) which mentions some preliminary conditions for achieving good health, such as peace, sufficient economic resources, appropriate access to housing and food, a stable ecosystem, sustainable resources, social justice, and equity. These conditions are also major factors associated with international migration processes. The WHO definition of health encourages all public health systems to consider “health” as a fundamental right (WHO 2003) and to provide health care facilities to all people, independently of national, racial, or ethnic origins.
Puerto Rico, migration 1868 to present
Authors: Duany Jorge
Published: January 2013

In 1898, the United States invaded Puerto Rico during the Spanish‐Cuban‐American war. In 1901, the US Supreme Court defined Puerto Rico as “foreign to the United States in a domestic sense,” in other words neither a state of the American union nor an independent country. The Court also ruled that the island was an “unincorporated territory … belonging to … but not a part of” the United States (Downes v. Bidwell1901). The Court later declared that Puerto Ricans were not “aliens” for immigration purposes in the United States (Gonzales v. Williams1904). In 1917, Congress granted US citizenship to all persons born on the island, without extending to them all constitutional rights and duties.
Race and migration
Authors: Gupta Tania Das
Published: January 2013

The right to move is a basic human right recognized in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UN 1948). As people have interacted, they have developed ideas about themselves and others, noting differences in actual or imaginary physical appearance and habits. Common attributes noted as markers of difference are skin color, language, and religion. This essay discusses the emergence of racial ideologies associated with migrants in societies based in Western Europe, including Canada, Australia, and the US (henceforth referred to as the “West”). Non‐Europeans also have ideas about their others (Miles 1989; Bhatt 2000); however, those are not the focus here.
Railroads and migration
Authors: Hoerder Dirk
Published: January 2013

Railroads have generally been considered as facilitating emigrant travel to a port of departure and from a port of arrival. However, building railroad grades required immense amounts of human labor and it was construction rather than individual migration plans which mobilized local, or in some cases, distant earth‐workers. The English navvies, German
Erdarbeiter
, and Hungarian
kubykos
began to follow construction camps, and extended Europe's railways form a mere 330 km in 1831 to more than 300,000 km by 1876. Some would migrate intercontinentally to build the Panama railroad (1855) to shorten migrants' route to California, or, later, dig the Panama Canal or carve railway grades in the Rocky Mountains.
Refugee families and children
Authors: White Allen
Published: January 2013

On January 1, 2010 the global population of refugees, asylum seekers, and those given temporary protection numbered approximately 16.1 million people (UNHCR 2010). Of these 40 percent (or 6.5 million) were children. This global refugee population total represents a drop from a high of 27 million in 1995. The decline in numbers of people of concern to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and in the numbers seeking asylum in the West (Hyndman and Mountz 2007 note, for example, that the numbers seeking asylum in the EU in 2004 were at their lowest since 1997) should not be misinterpreted as indicating greater levels of social and political stability in the world. Quite the opposite, they more accurately reflect the evolution of “regional solutions,” “temporary protection,” and “containment policies” of richer states that seek, through developing “transit processing centers” and safe third‐country agreements and the like, to construct an “architecture of enmity” that excludes and prevents desperate migrants from making claims for asylum (Hyndman and Mountz 2007). To illustrate this point, when one includes “internally displaced” populations in refugee counts, the number increases to 43.1 million people (UNHCR 2010).
Religion and migration
Authors: Connor Phillip
Published: January 2013

International migration is a global phenomenon currently involving nearly 215 million people, or about 3 percent of the world's population, according to the United Nations (2009). Although traditional receiving countries (e.g. United States, Canada) and more recent receiving countries in Western Europe contain a large share of the world's migrants, international migration is not strictly an American or even a Western issue. This global scale of international migration has consequences in both sending and receiving countries, but, in terms of religion, it is more closely realized by the individual migrant. Therefore, the role of religion within the migration process can be traced from the migratory act to changes in religious practice after migration to religion as an integrative force within the receiving society.
Remittances and international migration
Authors: Julca Alex
Published: January 2013

International labor migration is a complex multidimensional process, as much as vulnerability and resilience reflects the complex capacities of individuals and groups. As a coping mechanism, migration is directed at reducing environmental and socioeconomic vulnerabilities. In this regard, the nature of the migration stream as well as embedded structures of inequality and immigration policies will affect the chances for reducing vulnerabilities. Considering the different skill levels, highly skilled migrants generally move to improve income and quality of work, while low‐skilled migration is typically driven by the need to reduce economic insecurity. The former would have a better chance of entering destination countries legally and with better prospects for employment, while the latter group would likely be exposed to undocumented migration and low wages in their cities of destination. As a consequence, economic and adaptation processes for both streams will differ.
Remittances, motivation
Authors: Julca Alex
Published: January 2013

The literature on immigrant remittances has burgeoned over the past twenty‐five years along with the phenomenon itself, and yet little analysis has focused on what motivates immigrants in unstable economic conditions to send remittances to people in their home countries. Socioeconomic ties between immigrants and their family (kin) and community (kith) back home play a significant role, as much as the living conditions of immigrants at their destinations. This essay argues that remittances are a result of the dynamics between immigrants' socioeconomic structure and labor market conditions. More importantly, remittance patterns end up changing the socioeconomic relations between origins and destinations of kin/kith. Thus, the kind of socioeconomic structure between immigrants and their kin and ethnic group affects remittance flows, whose patterns ultimately transform that structure. This argument can be summarized in the following equation.
Remittances and political economy of migration
Authors: Julca Alex
Published: January 2013

Empirical evidence has revealed that remittances to countries suffering from economic recessions often grow during and after these events. Remittances act as a cushion against these shocks since transfers often soar after disasters, for example Hurricane Mitch in Honduras and Nicaragua, and after earthquakes in Central America and Peru (International Organization of Migration 2004).
Research on migration: an overview
Authors: Hoerder Dirk
Published: January 2013

Research about migration began in the 1880s in Europe and North America, focused on “assimilation” in the US in the 1920s and 1930s, and narrowed from comprehensive societal perspectives to a migration‐and‐ethnicity or nation‐to‐ethnic‐enclave approach in the 1950s. In the 1960s new approaches expanded the field and sophisticated interdisciplinary migration studies emerged. With few exceptions (outlined below), it remained a European and North American field until the 1970s.
Return migration
Authors: Peterson Glen
Published: January 2013

Prior to the 1960s, there was hardly any mention at all of return migration in the vast literature on human migration. Studies of migration often proceeded as if the phenomenon of return migration never occurred. Migration was viewed as a one‐way process beginning with “uprooting” at the point of origin and ending with “assimilation” into one's adopted culture and country. This notion of migration as a unidirectional process was greatly influenced by the dominance of nation‐based categories of analysis in which people were identified by the national groupings to which they formally belonged. In fact, return migration is a common feature of most human migrations. For instance, it has been estimated that “at least” one‐third of the 52 million Europeans who emigrated from Europe between 1824 and 1924 eventually returned permanently to their original homelands (Wyman 2005: 16).
Return migration and ethnicity
Authors: Tsuda Takeyuki
Published: January 2013

Return migration refers to first‐generation immigrants who move back to their country of origin after a period of living abroad, which can last from a few years to decades (see Gmelch 1980; Long & Oxfeld 2004; Markowitz & Stefansson 2004). The reasons for return migration are quite varied. Partly because of the increased speed and lower cost of international travel in a globalized world, the amount of temporary, sojourner migration may be on the rise. Many economic labor migrants intend to live abroad for only a limited amount of time to work and earn as much money as possible and then return home. Others are admitted by receiving governments on temporary visas (work visas or guest‐worker programs) and are required to repatriate after their visa expires. Host country governments have also sometimes implemented policies to encourage immigrants to return home, especially for those who were admitted as guest workers (Rogers 1981; Dustmann et. al. 1996). Asylum‐seekers may be forced to return if their application for asylum is rejected by the host government. Likewise, undocumented immigrants may also be apprehended and forcibly deported.
Roma migrations
Authors: Montesino Adrian Marsh and Norma
Published: January 2013

To write the history of any population presents scholars with multiple challenges. The past record of any population group, in all its diversity and complexity, with a range of differing and shifting identities and a past of sometimes bewildering contingency, is inevitably one that seeks, to some extent, to gloss over this complexity and diversity in the interests of presenting a consistent “rational” ethno‐history. The complexity of these challenges is illustrated by the contested nature of the nomenclature or categories that should be used to define the various groups that have been historically described as “Gypsies” (Roma, Travelers, Sinti, Dom, Lom, etc.) by others and sometimes by themselves (for example, “Egyptians” in medieval Byzantium, early modern England, and modern Kosovo). We use a variety of terms in this essay, including the plural form Romani peoples (Rromane dzenein the Romani language) because it reflects this complex diversity, one that is intrinsically related to the experience of migration. The recognition of the cultural, ethnic, and social heterogeneity of the groups included in the category “Roma” is in itself a serious questioning of consistent generalizing about “the Gypsies.” Existing research in the field of Romani history is in large part an investigation of the history of Romani migrations and the construction of “narratives of journey” that underpin the epistemological and normative assumptions made by many scholars and researchers. Such narratives have themselves become the basis for political mobilization amongst Romani people by autochthonous organizations, in the process of challenging discrimination and seeking equality, over the past 40 years.
Roman colonization
Authors: de Ligt Luuk
Published: January 2013

According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek historian who wrote a history of regal and early republican Rome in the final decades of the 1st centuryBCE, the Roman practice of founding colonies in newly conquered territories started as early as the reign of Romulus, who is credited with the foundation of Fidenae (DH 2.53.4). Dionysius describes the colony as a garrison of three hundred men. Modern historians regard Romulus as a purely legendary figure and find it difficult to believe that Dionysius or his sources had any reliable information about historical events that took place in the 8th centuryBCE. It seems clear, for instance, that Dionysius' description of Romulean Fidenae was inspired by the citizen colonies of mid‐republican times (cf. below). The reliability of the tradition (e.g. Livy 1.33) which credits the fourth king, Ancus Hostilius, with the foundation of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber is also doubtful. Archaeologists place the establishment of the first fortified settlement at Ostia between 380 and 350BCErather than in the second half of the 7th centuryBCE(Cornell 1995: 321).
Rural migrant workers in the construction industry, New Delhi, India
Authors: Prosperi Valentina
Published: January 2013

India is a huge country and its own history has been formed by the migration of entire populations across and between its borders. In the present neoliberal era, immigration to urban India guarantees a controlled and disciplined labor supply and facilitates the capital in keeping the working class fragmented along regionally and socially constructed divides. This is well illustrated by the case of the construction industry in New Delhi. The lives of construction workers are characterized by the harshness of their working conditions and the lack of social mobility. However, the advance system – according to which workers are paid before the beginning of the working season, when they need the money most, for example to celebrate weddings, and by which means intermediaries can secure laborers at the lowest cost – and the debt trap do not seem to be key explanatory factors, as observed by scholars writing on other Indian sectors and contexts (Breman 1996, 2008; Guérin 2009: 170). In what follows I shall suggest what the explanatory factors may be in cases like that of New Delhi, with reference to medium‐ to large‐scale development projects characterized by the massive use of migrant labor.
Scalabrinian missionaries and migration
Authors: Battistella Graziano
Published: January 2013

The Missionaries of St. Charles (Scalabrinians) are a Roman Catholic congregation of religious devoted to the human and spiritual welfare of migrants. Founded in 1887 by Blessed John Baptist Scalabrini, bishop of Piacenza, Italy, the congregation initially provided assistance to Italian migrants in the Americas, but nowadays they are involved in the ministry to all migrants, and are present in all continents.
Second generation, identity formation
Authors: Gonzales and Roberto G. , Lee Rennie
Published: January 2013

The ways in which today's children of immigrants are choosing to identify themselves ethnically are shaped by a variety of pre‐ and post‐migration factors. Their American experiences are undoubtedly separate and unique from those of their immigrant parents as well as those of their American‐born peers. While the immigrant first generation has a distinct point of reference in the country of origin, the experiences of their children are distinctly American (Portes & Rumbaut 2001). However, many of them carefully balance dual cultures and languages at home and in school. The children of immigrants representing post‐1965 migrations are just beginning to reach adulthood in significant numbers (Kasinitz et al. 2008). Understanding the adaptation among these adult children of immigrants requires attention to the ways in which they are acculturating and coming of age. How they become incorporated into mainstream society will reveal much about their current experiences and what future generations may experience (Portes & Rumbaut 2001: 22).
Sex workers and migration, Europe
Authors: Andrijasevic Rutvica
Published: January 2013

Global migration and transnational border crossings of prostitutes is a historical phenomenon that dates back for centuries and prostitutes have historically have encountered legal and social discrimination in countries of destination through the denial of citizenship and residency rights. This contribution focuses on the recent migration of prostitutes (sex workers) from the 1970s to the 2010s.
Silk Road and migration
Authors: Foltz Richard
Published: January 2013

The term “Silk Road” was coined in the late 19th century by German explorer Ferdinand von Richthofen to describe the network of overland trade routes which linked the Mediterranean world with China across the central Eurasian land mass since at least the 2nd centuryBCE. However, archaeological evidence suggests human migrations along this west–east corridor dating back even earlier, beginning 4,000 years ago or even more. The prehistoric migrants of that period were likely Indo‐European‐speaking pastoral nomads originating from the region of the Pontic Steppe in Eurasia (Black Sea to Caspian Sea) where the domestication of the horse more than 5,000 years ago dramatically increased human mobility. This mobility, combined with an aggressive warrior culture, allowed the Indo‐European languages (which spread as far as the British Isles in the west and to the Indian subcontinent in the east) to become the most widespread linguistic family in the world.
Skills and migration
Authors: Kuptsch Christiane
Published: January 2013

In looking at skills and migration, this entry will focus on international labor migration, that is, migration that involves crossing a border and is for the purpose of employment. A skill is usually defined as the ability to do something well, and in the world of work distinctions are made between “highly skilled workers” and “workers with lesser skills” or “low‐skilled workers.” Most international labor migration today takes place at the high and low ends of the job ladder, with managers and information technology specialists moving, as well as domestic helpers and construction workers. There is no agreed international definition of what is considered a “highly skilled worker.” Some scholars and official country statistics refer to those with postsecondary or tertiary education as highly skilled; others define a highly skilled worker as someone who earns a salary above a certain level; there are also mixed approaches as under the EU Blue Card program. Someone who is considered highly skilled in one country may only be regarded as a mid‐level technician elsewhere, and the scarcity of skills in certain settings can impact on the definitions.
Slave trade, medieval era
Authors: Schiel Juliane
Published: January 2013

Slavery and migration have always been connected, irrespective of time and space. Slaves, often defined as “outsiders who were alien by origin,” have migrated spatially and socially at all times, whereas “the most developed forms of slavery … were those where enslaved individuals were removed a considerable distance from their birthplace” (Lovejoy 2011: 36–37). Thereby, slave migration may be permanent or temporary as slaves could be owned lifelong or manumitted after a certain time, yet their enslavement is in any case a form of “conflict migration” (Bretell & Hollifield 2008: 115–117). As a consequence of war, raid, tribute payment, punishment, indebtedness or impoverishment, slave migration includes violence and constraint (Patterson 1982). Furthermore, in most cases slavery can be considered as a sort of working migration trading people from a region where manpower is abundant to a region where workforce is needed (Meissner et al. 2008: 271).
Social remittances
Authors: Vargas‐Silva Carlos
Published: January 2013

The term
social remittances
is used in reference to the ideas, norms of behavior, identities, beliefs, values, expectations, mindsets, worldviews, and social capital that immigrants send to their home countries (Levitt 2001). Immigrants typically do not cut ties with their country of origin, even if they assimilate. They transmit social remittances through their continuous interaction with their home community. These transfers are considered to be a migration‐driven form of cultural diffusion and dissemination.
Sojourners
Authors: Lynch Maureen
Published: January 2013

The word “sojourner” is sometimes used for a temporary resident, an individual who spends an unspecified period of time in a new, different, or unfamiliar environment. This term may refer to a number of individuals and groups, including students, professors, trainees, technical assistants, tourists, business people, military personnel, missionaries, and foreign service officers. A sojourner spends a relatively moderate length of time (six months to five years) at a new location, typically with the intention of returning “home.” Tourists generally spend too brief a period abroad to be classified as sojourners. Finally, migrants and refugees often reside for a long and unspecified period overseas (Furnham 1987).
South America, immigrant legislation and laws
Authors: Modolo Susana Novick and Vanina
Published: January 2013

Although governments have attempted to monopolize the exclusive right to authorize and regulate movement within their territories (primarily international movement) (Torpey 2000) since the French Revolution, their authority to legislate has been limited by international law (Hollifield 1992; Massey 1999). Moreover, the effects of globalization are challenging the efficacy of the sovereign state's control over territorial mobility (Castles & Miller 2003). As a result, in recent decades in South America, as in other parts of the world, migration has been managed through a set of national, bilateral, regional, and multilateral instruments.
South Asia, migration 1850–1970s
Authors: Kaur Amarjit
Published: January 2013

Indian migration to British territories in Southeast Asia and elsewhere in the late 19th century corresponded with the expanding Atlantic economy and with world processes relating to the region's past and present narratives. Initial labor migration flows to Malaya and Sumatra (Benkulen) were linked to earlier British trading networks in the Indian Ocean and the transportation of convict labor to the English East India Company factories there. Following South Asia's incorporation into the British empire, there was increasing integration of global Indian migration flows associated with the engagement of distinct labor groups for Britain's far‐flung colonies across the Indian Ocean, westward toward Africa and eastward toward East and Southeast Asia. India essentially provided laborers for plantation capitalism and the production of commodities of empire (foodstuffs, stimulants, and industrial crops); for industrial, port, and shipping systems; and for public sector projects. Workers in the third group constructed railways and roads to connect townships with production areas which led to the transformation of economies.
Southern Africa: gender and migration
Authors: Dodson Belinda
Published: January 2013

Patterns and processes of migration in Southern Africa, including their gendering, must be understood in historical context. From the 17th to the 19th century, colonization by the Dutch, British, Germans, and Portuguese brought white settlement to the region, together with the penetration of capitalist agrarian, mining, and manufacturing economies. Imposed upon pre‐industrial African societies, these created new forms and sites of labor demand at the same time as they alienated Africans from the land and resources that had been the basis of their livelihoods. This caused enormous social disruption, including radical changes in family and gender relations and in gender divisions of labor. Across the region, colonialism also brought the establishment of separate countries with fixed national borders, inherited by the region's present‐day states on their independence. The colonial economic, social, and political order meant the creation of cities, along with measures to control population movements both within and between countries. Together, these forces have shaped the political, economic, and social geography of Southern Africa, not least in terms of patterns and trends of human mobility – and indeed immobility. Who moved where, with whom, and under what conditions was determined not only by labor supply and demand, or related livelihood strategies under a new mode of production, but also by systems of social and legal control that operated along both race and gender lines.
Spain and its empire, migration and emigration, c.1450–c.1750
Authors: Soyer François
Published: January 2013

The conquest of the “New World” for the Spanish crown was broadly accomplished in the period spanning 1492 to the middle of the 16th century. It has become most notable for the overthrow and destruction of the Aztec and Inca civilizations and the imposition of Spanish colonial rule in both Mexico (1519–21) and Peru (1530s), as well as other regions of the Caribbean and Central and South America. In the wake of these remarkable military conquests, the soldiers settled down in theirencomiendas(land parcels) and exploited the labor of the Amerindian populations “commended” to their care by the Spanish crown. These first settlers were soon followed, however, by thousands of Spaniards who crossed the Atlantic principally to settle in the newly established viceroyalties of New Spain (Mexico) and Peru. The conquest of Granada in 1492, and the end of the Reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula, led Spaniards to cross the Atlantic in order to seek their fortune and find better opportunities for improving their lives than those available in the Old World.
Sri Lanka, migration 1960s to present
Authors: Ukwatta Swarna
Published: January 2013

Sri Lanka has long‐established migration flows, both internal and international, that date back to the colonial period (UN 1980; Ukwatta 1986; Dias & Jayasundere 2004). There has been a transformation in the types of these migration flows due to a transformation in global migration, as the International Migration Institute observes (IMI 2006). This transformation is a result of the increasing complexities and dynamics of migration, migration transitions, transnationalism, and policy interventions in migration. Migration has become complex because Sri Lankans are involved not only in permanent and temporary migration but also in trafficking, smuggling, refugee movement, undocumented migration, and internal displacement.
Statelessness
Authors: Lynch Maureen
Published: January 2013

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights clearly states that “Everyone has the right to a nationality” and “No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality, nor denied the right to change his nationality” (UN 1948). Thus in theory no individual should be left without a legal link to any country, but the reality is that more than 12 million people around the world are stateless (UNHCR 2010).
Steerage, slavery, and shipboard insurrections
Authors: Nyaoro Charles Dulo
Published: January 2013

African slaves under European imperialism were thrown together in a new environment with a range of linguistic and cultural differences, not only with other slaves but also with their masters. They found it necessary to adapt and transform their environment so that they could communicate with each other and also with their masters. The starting point therefore was breaking the language barriers. African slaves soon learned European languages including English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. While adapting to European cultures, Africans who were captured and sold in the slave trade remained keenly aware of their heritage and social differences which they actively sought to preserve, as they were transported as steerage on slave ships.
Labor strikes, militancy, and migrant worker collective action
Authors: Ness Immanuel
Published: January 2013

Since the origins of capitalism in the early 18th century, strikes and work stoppages have been a frequent means of improving labor conditions and increasing low wages that are unable to provide for the basic costs of social reproduction: food, shelter, health care, and education. Given that recent migrant workers frequently do not have representation in traditional labor unions, they have frequently organized rank‐and‐file associations to defend their interests against employers who have extracted vast profits from their labor through lengthening the workday and in many instances delaying or failing to pay wages. Strikes have been an enduring tactic and strategy for building working‐class power.
Student migration: an overview
Authors: Kang Yoonhee
Published: January 2013

The practice of seeking knowledge and intellectual attainment through spatial movement is not a new phenomenon. Indeed, education has long been a major reason for human migration. For example, many Asian mothers still cite the well‐known Chinese proverb that “A good mother is ready to move three times to give [her] children a good education,” a maxim based on the Chinese philosopher Mencius's (372–289BCE) account of his mother's relocation three times to give him the best possible educational environment that would advance his capacity to reason, capacity for cognition, and for analytic reasoning.
Student migration, China to Japan
Authors: Liu‐Farrer Gracia
Published: January 2013

Students have long formed a major component of human migration from China to Japan. Since 1896, when 13 excited Chinese young men boarded a French boat leaving Shanghai, hundreds of thousands of Chinese students have arrived in Japan for education. This essay briefly introduces the history of Chinese student migration into Japan in the late 19th and the first half of the 20th century, and focuses on student migration from China to Japan from 1978 to the present. It discusses the socioeconomic and institutional contexts for student migration during recent decades and contemporary Chinese students' economic practices.
Temporary migrant workers and labor organization
Authors: Holgate Jane
Published: January 2013

As the International Labour Organization (ILO), among other organizations, points out, international labor migration is hardly new, but it has become an increasingly topical issue at local and global policy levels (ILO 2010). The extent to which workers are able to seek employment outside their homeland has grown significantly with the expansion of more affordable means of transportation and the dynamics of globalizing forces. The notion of “time/space compression” means that “far‐flung” workplaces have become more accessible to a greater number of migrant workers as spatial barriers have been broken down (Harvey 1990). In the past, migration was often considered in terms of permanency – a move to establish a new home and life in a different country or region, though seasonal and circular migration appeared across the Atlantic in the 19th century.
Temporary migrant workers, globalization, 20th century to present
Authors: Valiani Salimah
Published: January 2013

Temporary labor migration is the phenomenon of workers migrating on the basis of temporary work authorizations, which attach the legal status of workers to particular employers and/or particular positions of employment. Temporary labor migration schemes take on various forms: from bilateral and regional agreements for the exchange of labor between states, to changes in national legislation allowing employers easy and accelerated access to temporary migrant workers for varying time periods, to provisions in multilateral trade agreements such as Mode IV of the World Trade Organization's General Agreement on Trade in Services. While labor migration has been a recurring phenomenon in human history (Potts 1990; King 1996), what is new in the post‐1970 period of restructuring in the world capitalist economy is the increased use of temporary migrant labor by employers around the world and state facilitation of this shift.
Trade networks and migration, early modern Europe
Authors: Antunes Cátia
Published: January 2013

European trade networks during the early modern period were cause and consequence of migratory flows throughout the world. Even though the contribution of early modern European trade networks to the process of globalization is mostly ascribed to their economic function of transacting capital and products, trade networks also contributed heavily to the movement of people worldwide. In this article we will focus on two types of migratory flows provoked, facilitated by, or resulting from the growth and dynamics of trading networks in the period between 1500 and 1750: temporary employees of trading networks (agents of business) and permanent business representatives (agents of settlement).
Trafficking migrants
Authors: Cheng Sealing
Published: January 2013

Contemporary concerns about trafficking arose at the start of the 21st century in the context of burgeoning migration. In very broad strokes, trafficking in persons may be understood as a product of the following forces: 1) the drive for cheap and flexible labor for profit maximization, 2) state concerns to maintain borders through restrictive immigration control, and 3) migrants' desire for opportunities to improve their lives. Generated by increasing economic inequalities in a neoliberal global economy, the flows of people across borders – documented and undocumented – pose both symbolic and material threats to national borders and security. Simultaneously, the abuses that mobile populations are subjected to challenge the human rights ideals pledged by the global community.
Transatlantic Slave Trade
Authors: Holdren Nate
Published: January 2013

Slavery and migration can be considered as parallel or as overlapping areas of inquiry. Migration historians have studied migrants who moved with varying degrees of freedom and compulsion – convicts, indentured servants, refugees, free laborers – as well as structures of mobility management including immigration law and border control. Slavery historians have considered slavery as a system of social status, a system of property, and a system of labor but have focused less on slavery as a form of migration. At the same time, much of slavery involved migration and mobility‐control, and a large proportion of the world's migrants have been enslaved people.