bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Impulsivity
Authors: Smith Gregory T. , Zapolski Tamika C. B. , Combs Jessica L. , Friend Regan E.
Published: January 2010

The concept of impulsivity has played an important role in psychology. It is included in virtually every theoretical system of human personality. In the field of clinical psychology, it is understood to contribute to many different forms of psychopathology (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001). It is part of borderline personality disorder (a disorder characterized by emotional lability and ill‐considered, self‐harming acts); antisocial personality disorder (characterized by rash, ill‐thought out acts that often harm others); attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (characterized by difficulty waiting one's turn and persevering on tasks); bulimia nervosa (characterized by binge eating and subsequent purging); alcohol and drug‐use disorders; and a whole set of impulse‐control disorders, such as kleptomania, pyromania, and intermittent explosive disorder. For many of these forms of psychopathology, impulsivity is understood to contribute to their emergence.
Individualism
Authors: Johnson David W. , Johnson Roger T.
Published: January 2010

In common usage, individualism is defined as leading one's life in one's own way without regard for others. Individualism involves giving one's own interests precedence over the interests of the state or social group (i.e., egoism or selfishness). It is based on the belief in the primary importance of the individual and in the virtues of self‐reliance and personal independence. Individualism may be separated from individuality, which is the sum of the qualities that set one person apart from others. To individualize is to distinguish a person as different from others, whereas to individuate is to make a person individual or distinct. Individualism is also distinct from autonomy, which is the ability to understand what others expect in any given situation and what one's values are, and to be free to choose how to behave based on either or both. Whereas individuality and autonomy are important aspects of healthy psychological development and health, individualism is not. Finally, individualism is often contrasted with collectivism. Collectivism is a moral, political, or social outlook that stresses human interdependence and the importance of communities and societies rather than the importance of separate individuals, thus giving priority to group goals over individual goals. Collectivism requires attention to the well‐being of other members of the community and the common good, whereas individualism requires attention to only one's own well‐being.
Informed Consent
Authors: Miller Catherine , Anderson Corey
Published: January 2010

Clinicians have ethical and often legal obligations to obtain consent from clients prior to treatment. This entry provides a brief description of the components of informed consent, the legal and ethical bases of the concept, and the available research on obtaining informed consent.
Integral Psychology
Authors: EsbjÖRN‐Hargens Sean , Wilber Ken
Published: January 2010

The phrase “integral psychology” was first used in the 1940s by Indra Sen, a student of the Indian philosopher‐sage Sri Aurobindo (1872–1950), to describe the synthesis of yoga (karma‐, jnana‐, and bhakti‐yoga) pioneered by Aurobindo. Forty years later, in 1986, Sen published a book in India by that title,Integral Psychology: The Psychological System of Sri Aurobindo.On a somewhat parallel track, another student of Aurobindo, Haridas Chaudhuri, further developed an integral yoga psychology based on his teacher's evolutionary philosophy. His approach to integral psychology is explicated in his bookThe Evolution of Integral Consciousness(1977). More recently, Brant Cortright published a book entitledIntegral Psychology: Yoga, Growth, and Opening the Heart(2007), which explores psychotherapy in the context of the Aurobindo tradition of integral yoga.
Intelligence
Authors: Das J. P.
Published: January 2010

Intelligence is cognition comprising sensory, perceptual, associative, and relational knowledge. A concise definition of intelligence, according to Das, Naglieri, and Kirby (1994), is the ability to plan and structure one's behavior with an end in view. If the end is a social one, then it is the most parsimonious solution to a problem that will best serve the common good. Sternberg (2005) defined intelligence as a number of components that allow one to adapt, select, and shape one's environment. Gardner (1999) defined intelligence as the ability to create an effective product or offer a service that is valued in a culture; in other words, intelligence is a set of skills that make it possible for a person to solve problems in life. The challenge, however, is to devise ways of measuring intelligence by operationalizing the above concepts.
Interference
Authors: Miller Ralph I.
Published: January 2010

One of the earliest and most robust findings of experimental psychology is that two event representations in memory can compete with one another. If training on Task A precedes Task B, subsequent testing on Task B may yield impaired (i.e., proactive interference) or facilitated performance relative to control subjects who were not exposed to Task A. Conversely, subsequent testing on Task A may yield impairment (i.e., retroactive interference) or facilitation relative to control subjects who were not exposed to Task B. Such interference is commonly viewed as evidence of competition between the representations of Tasks A and B. Interference (and facilitation) has been observed across a wide variety of subjects (including humans and nonhuman species) and tasks. Much of the memory research conducted over the past century has attempted to identify relevant variables (for excellent reviews, old but still relevant, see Postman & Underwood, 1973; Underwood, 1957). The following remarks apply equally to proactive and retroactive interference (and facilitation) except where otherwise noted.
International Council of Psychologists
Authors: McCarthy Sherri
Published: January 2010

The International Council of Psychologists (ICP), comprised of members from over 35 countries, has been active since 1941. The organization's mission is to strengthen international bonds and improve communication among psychologists throughout the world. Regular Members are psychologists with membership in a national psychological association affiliated with the International Union of Psychological Science (IUPsyS) who have been working in psychology for at least two years. Associate Members lack two years of qualifying experience, or, in countries in which the national psychological association recognizes a higher and lower level of experience, qualify at the lower level. Professional Affiliates are active in a profession allied to psychology. Student Affiliates are working toward a degree in psychology or a related field.
International Psychology
Authors: Stevens Michael J. , Gielen Uwe P.
Published: January 2010

Although modern psychology is often said to have originated with Wilhelm Wundt's laboratory, it actually arose in several Western countries at nearly the same time (i.e., Germany, United Kingdom, United States). Because of these multiple beginnings, psychology was an international discipline from its inception (Brock, 2006; Stevens & Gielen, 2007). Following World War II, with the emigration of prominent psychologists from Germany and Austria and the growth of the American Psychological Association (APA), psychology in the United States advanced rapidly and came to dominate the discipline. Given its preeminence, psychology in the United States became increasingly monocultural and monolingual as well as less responsive to scientific and applied innovations occurring elsewhere in the world (Brock, 2006; David & Buchanan, 2003; Stevens & Gielen, 2007). As a consequence of the insularity and hegemony of U.S. psychology, efforts were undertaken in many countries to develop psychologies of greater relevance to local culture and needs (i.e., indigenization). The internationalization of psychology is also an outgrowth of the broader process of globalization, which has expanded and accelerated the worldwide exchange of information and dialogue among diverse peoples.
International Society of Clinical Psychology
Authors: Ardila Ruben
Published: January 2010

The International Society of Clinical Psychology (ISCP) was founded in 1998 in San Francisco, due to the initiative of a group of psychologists led by Donald K. Routh of the University of Miami. The ISCP was established to fill the need for a world organization of clinical psychologists, with the aim of providing a vehicle for global communication among clinicians, intended to foster multicultural understanding in the practice of clinical psychology, to enhance knowledge by cross‐cultural research, to support the education and training of clinical psychologists based on a foundational level of knowledge, to encourage the development of a world certification for clinical psychologists, and to collaborate with other world organizations in providing clinical psychology expertise where required.
Interview Assessment
Authors: Craig Robert J.
Published: January 2010

Surveys reveal that the clinical interview is the most frequently used assessment method among 95% of psychologists (Watkins, Campbell, Nieberding, & Hallmark, 1995). Although there are general factors that influence the content and structure of a clinical interview, perhaps the single most guiding factor is the theoretical orientation of the psychologist. There are primarily four major theoretical orientations that are popular among psychologists today: psychodynamic, client‐centered (which has merged with humanistic and existential orientations), cognitive‐behavioral, and family systems approaches.
Intrinsic Motivation
Authors: Deci Edward L. , Ryan Richard M.
Published: January 2010

Little children love to play and to learn. They are active, curious, and eager to engage their environments, and when they do they learn. To some extent adults also love to play and to learn. When people are playing and learning in this eager and willing way, they are intrinsically motivated. Throughout life, when they are in their healthiest states, they are active and interested, and the intrinsically motivated behaviors that result help them acquire knowledge about themselves and their world.
Introversion‐Extraversion
Authors: Thorne B. Michael
Published: January 2010

Carl Jung coined the terms
introversion
and
extraversion
to refer to two different psychological attitudes. By introversion, Jung meant a turning inward of the libido (psychic energy), whereas extraversion referred to a directing outward of the libido. Note that either term can be spelled with an “o” or an “a” (that is, either as above or as intraversion and extroversion). Although inconsistent, introversion and extraversion are the spellings used with the Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator
®
(MBTI
®
) instrument, which is a popular personality assessment tool based on Jung's type theory.
Irrational Beliefs
Authors: Bridges K. Robert , Harnish Richard J.
Published: January 2010

Irrational beliefs are rigid, inaccurate, or illogical beliefs that are used to interpret external events. They are self‐defeating, unconditional, inconsistent with reality, and unlikely to find empirical support. Conversely, rational beliefs are logical, flexible, and consistent with reality. If a person holds irrational beliefs, negative life events—inevitable in everyone's life—will result in inappropriate negative emotions and dysfunctional behaviors. Irrational beliefs also play a role as predisposing or causal factors in a number of behavior disorders.
Item Analysis
Authors: Hogan Thomas P.
Published: January 2010

Item analysis refers to a family of techniques for examining characteristics of test items. Most psychological tests consist of a collection of individual items. Test developers use item analysis techniques to evaluate these test items, eliminate poorly performing items, include nicely performing items, and apprise test users of test features resulting from the selection of items. In formal test development projects, item analysis precedes preparation of the final test. In less formal applications, item analysis may occur only after administration of the final test to indicate quality of the test.
J
ames,
W
illiam (1842–1910)
Authors: Haynie N. A.
Published: January 2010

An American philosopher and psychologist, William James was educated in Europe, England, and America. He was part of a prominent Harvard family of literature professors. Frequent trips abroad gave James a wide knowledge of the world. Although he was supported and encouraged to pursue a scientific education, James suffered physical illness, indecision, and depression throughout his early years. Finally he earned a medical degree from Harvard in 1869 and took a teaching position there in 1872. From 1875 to 1876 James taught the first psychology course in an American university at Harvard. He was given funds for laboratory and demonstration equipment for the course in 1875, about the same time that Wilhelm Wundt established his psychology laboratory at Leipzig.
Job Stress Survey
Authors: Spielberger Charles D.
Published: January 2010

Negative effects of stress in the workplace on the health and well‐being of workers have been observed throughout human history. The phrase “mad as a hatter” came into the English language long before anyone knew that mercury in the materials used in making hats affected the central nervous system (Kahn, 1981). In the nineteenth century, descriptions of the “black lung” disease of coal miners recognized a causal link between a hazardous work environment and a particular physical disorder. The World Health Organization has noted that “…occupational health and the well‐being of working people are crucial prerequisites for productivity and are of utmost importance for overall socioeconomic and sustainable development” (2000, p. 2). In a recent survey by Northwestern National Life, many employees viewed their jobs as the number one stressor in their lives.
Kagan,Jerome (1929– )
Authors: Staff
Published: January 2010

Jerome Kagan received his bachelor of science degree from Rutgers University in 1950 and the PhD from Yale University in 1954. After a term at Ohio State University, he was inducted into the United States Army during the Korean War. Following discharge from the Army in 1957, Kagan became senior scientist at the Fels Research Institute in Yellow Springs, Ohio, where his major work involved analyzing a large corpus of longitudinal data on children who were followed from birth to adolescence and assessed again when they were young adults. The results of his work, in collaboration with Howard Moss, revealed that preservation of individual differences in this relatively typical middle‐class sample did not emerge until after six or seven years of age. A summary of the project was published in a book, entitledBirth to Maturity, which won the Hofheimer Prize of the American Psychiatric Association.
Kinsey Institute
Authors: Bass Jennifer L.
Published: January 2010

The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction was founded in 1947 by pioneering researcher Alfred C. Kinsey. Located on the campus of Indiana University, the Kinsey Institute's mission is to promote interdisciplinary research and scholarship in the fields of human sexuality, gender, and reproduction. Research scientists conduct studies into sexual health and behavior, and the extensive research collections provide resources for scholars across disciplines in humanities, art, and science.
Kleptomania
Authors: Kohn Carolynn S. , Szafranski Derek D.
Published: January 2010

Kleptomania is currently defined as an impulse control disorder in which the essential feature is a recurring failure on the part of the individual to resist impulses to steal items, even though those items are not needed for personal use or their monetary value. The individual experiences an increasing sense of tension just prior to the theft and then a release of pressure, gratification, or relief after successfully completing the theft. In order to receive the diagnosis, the stealing should not be committed as an expression of anger or vengeance, should not be done in response to delusions or hallucinations, and cannot better be accounted for by another disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Thus, the individual's intention prior to and following stealing is important.
Kruskal‐Wallis Test
Authors: McKight Patrick E. , Najab Julius
Published: January 2010

The Kruskal‐Wallis (Kruskal & Wallis, 1952) is a nonparametric statistical test that assesses the differences among three or more independently sampled groups on a single, non‐normally distributed continuous variable. Non‐normally distributed data (e.g., ordinal or rank data) are suitable for the Kruskal‐Wallis test. In contrast, the one‐way analysis of variance (ANOVA), which is a parametric test, may be used for a normally distributed continuous variable. The Kruskal‐Wallis test is an extension of the two‐group Mann‐Whitney U (Wilcoxon rank) test. Thus, the Kruskal‐Wallis is a more generalized form of the Mann‐Whitney U test and is the nonparametric version of the one‐way ANOVA.
Lesbianism
Authors: Carr Malique L. , Golblum Peter B.
Published: January 2010

Lesbianism denotes a woman's same‐sex attraction, behavior, and/or identification. Lesbian is the preferred term for women who self‐identify as having same‐sex preference. Most recently, the term lesbianism has also given way to the use of “lesbian” as an adjective; thus we speak of “lesbian behavior,” “lesbian relationships,” and “lesbian community.”
L
ewin,
K
urt (1890–1947)
Authors: Lundin Ralph W.
Published: January 2010

Kurt Lewin received his PhD from the University of Berlin in 1914. Among his early associates were two of the Gestalt psychologists, Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Köhler. Some psychologists consider Lewin's system to be an extension of the Gestalt movement. Lewin considered his system to be
topological
and
vectoral psychology
. He took the terms “topology” and “vector” from mathematics. Topology investigates the properties of space. But topology was not enough: he needed a concept of force or vector.
Libido
Authors: Wertlieb Donald
Published: January 2010

“Libido is a term used in the theory of the instincts for describing the dynamic manifestation of sexuality.” Thus Sigmund Freud began his 1923 encyclopedia article on libido theory. He had used the term
libido
(derived from the Latin for lust and desire) as early as 1894. His major theoretical treatise,
Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
(1905/1973, p. 255) placed libido at the center of his theories of development and psychopathology. In his
New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
, a decade later, he introduced his review and current synthesis of libido theory by noting that “the theory of instincts is so to say our mythology” (Freud (1933/1973, p. 95). Even in Freud's later years, libido remained a central construct in psychoanalytic theory, one side of the basic, pervasive, instinctual dualisms: sex and aggression, life and death. The metapsychology of libido's vicissitudes and reorganizations over the course of development through the psychosexual stages—oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital—formed the core of early psychoanalytic theories of developmental psychopathology and clinical practice.
L
uria,
A
lexander
R
omanovich (1902–1977)
Authors: Staff
Published: January 2010

Alexander Luria graduated from the University of Kazan, Russia, at the age of 19 in 1921. He entered medical school in the late 1930s and earned degrees of MD, EdD, and DMed from the University of Moscow, where he later became a professor in the Department of Psychology and head of the Department of Neuropsychology. Luria was influenced in the direction of his studies and research by Vygotsky, whom he met in 1924.
Luria‐Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery
Authors: Tsushima William T.
Published: January 2010

The Luria‐Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery (LNNB) is a neuropsychological assessment battery based on the psychological procedures originated by the Russian neuropsychologist Alexander R. Luria and subsequently reorganized by Charles J. Golden and his associates (Golden, Hammeke, & Purisch, 1978) into a standardized battery of Luria's tests for the purpose of clinical neurodiagnosis. Luria, like the English neurologist J. Hughlings Jackson and his fellow Russian L. S. Vygotsky, believed that brain‐behavior relationships could not be explained satisfactorily by either the localizationalist or the equipotentialist theories of brain function. Instead, Luria conceived of behavior as the result of the interactions among all areas of the brain, and he favored the use of simple test procedures that reflected relatively uncomplicated patterns of brain interactions and made possible precise investigation of functional systems of the brain.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Authors: Banich Marie T.
Published: January 2010

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a method that provides information on both the anatomy and physiological function of the brain. It is a powerful tool for integrating our current understanding of brain function with models of cognition and emotion. Anatomical MRI provides a picture of brain structure, whereas functional MRI (fMRI) provides information about the physiological function of the brain.
Mainstreaming
Authors: Hardman Michael L. , Dawson Shirley A.
Published: January 2010

Mainstreaming dates back to the very beginnings of the field of special education. As the term implies, mainstreaming means educating students with disabilities alongside students without disabilities in a general education classroom for at least some portion of a school day. Mainstreaming came into widespread use in the late 1960s as professionals and parents called into question the segregation of students with disabilities in U.S. public schools. Professionals argued that special classes for students, particularly those with mental retardation, could not be justified (Dunn, 1968). The purpose of mainstreaming was to ensure that students with disabilities receive individualized planning and support from both general and special education teachers. However, this did not always happen in actual practice. In fact, the term mainstreaming fell from favor when it became associated with placing students with disabilities in general education classes without the necessary support as a means to save money or limit the number of students who could receive specialized services. Such practices gave rise to the term
maindumping.
Although the term
mainstreaming
still remains in limited use today as one way to describe educating students with disabilities in general education settings, other descriptors have come into standard use, including
integration, least restrictive environment,
and
inclusive education.
Masturbation
Authors: McKinney John Paul
Published: January 2010

Masturbation is the term used to signify any type of autoerotic stimulation. Both males and females indulge in stimulation of the genitals for sexual gratification. The term is also applied to an infant's manipulation of the genitals, a common exploratory behavior in the early years. During adolescence, masturbation becomes one of the main sexual outlets, and remains so for many adults. Michael, Gagnon, Laumann, and Kolata (1994) found that among Americans, 60% of men and 40% of women report that they have masturbated during the past year, and 25% of men and 10% of women say they masturbate at least once a week. While estimates vary, depending on the studies cited and the specific approaches used in collecting the data, it is generally accepted that there has been an increase in the acceptance and practice of this behavior in recent years, such that the behavior is reported to occur more frequently than in the past and to be initiated at an earlier age. (Francoeur, 1998; Dekker & Schmidt, 2002). These changes have occurred irrespective of whether or not the individuals are in a sexual relationship, and regardless of the satisfaction obtained from that relationship.
Mathematical Psychology
Authors: Diederich Adele
Published: January 2010

Mathematical psychology applies mathematical and statistical methods, formal logic, and computer simulation to investigate psychological phenomena. It aims at building mathematical models in a variety of fields such as learning and memory, perception, and decision making, and at developing quantitative methods and measurement theory to describe behavior. The goal is to find regularities and principles that govern a set of phenomenona. Mathematical modeling has several advantages. First, it forces researchers to give precise definitions and to make clear statements. This requires a high degree of abstraction, because assumptions about underlying processes, relations, and connections between certain aspects of behavior, interactions between experimental variables, and so on are all mapped onto mathematical objects and operations. The language of mathematics minimizes the risk of making contradictory statements in the theory.
Megalomania
Authors: Tillman Jane G.
Published: January 2010

The
Oxford English Dictionary
(1978) defines megalomania as “the insanity of self‐exaltation; the passion for ‘big things'” (p. 308). Megalomania is characterized by an inflated sense of self‐esteem and overestimation by persons of their powers and beliefs. Often associated with delusions, psychotic processes, or extreme forms of narcissism, megalomania may refer to delusions of grandeur, with a pathological overvaluation of ideas, or plans for remaking the world in accord with the person's own wishes and fantasies. Representing a form of denial and disavowal of the limitations of the self, of the existence of death, and of the power of the constituted social order, the megalomaniacal state may involve omnipotence and grandiosity taken to an extreme. People suffering from megalomania privilege their thinking to a degree where shared reality is abandoned and attempts are made to dominate others.
Memory Functions
Authors: Nairne James S. , Pandeirada Josefa N. S.
Published: January 2010

Defined generally, memory is the capacity to preserve and recover information. Yet neither memory's operation nor its structures are easily understood without some consideration of function. Like other biological systems, the capacity to remember evolved because of its fitness‐enhancing properties. Memory helped solve adaptive problems that, in turn, increased the chances of survival and genetic transmission. As a result, memory's operating characteristics likely bear the imprints of the specific selection pressures that shaped their development.
Menopause
Authors: Derry Paula S.
Published: January 2010

Menopause is the permanent end of menstruation or the last menstrual period. It occurs naturally in all women at some time during midlife or is caused by surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation. The average age at the last menstrual period is 51 years for women in industrialized countries, with most women reaching menopause between ages 45 and 55 and the normal range spanning ages 40 to 60. Menopause is defined retroactively after a woman has not had a period for 12 months (although in one large study 5% of women did have another period after this length of time).
Menstruation
Authors: Prior Jerilynn C. , Hitchcock Christine
Published: January 2010

Menstruation refers to normal vaginal bleeding that is usually monthly. The endometrium (uterus lining) sheds when a woman is not pregnant. The menstrual cycle refers to the time from the menstrual flow until the day before the next bleeding (commonly called a “period”) begins, with normal lengths of 21–36 days (van Hooff et al., 1998). Normal flow lasts for 3–5 days, and the total amount of fluid is about 20–40 mL (4–8 soaked regular tampons or menstrual pads). (Hallberg, Hogdahl, Nillson, & Rybo, 1966)
Meta‐Analysis
Authors: Schmidt Frank L.
Published: January 2010

Meta‐analysis is a set of methods for integrating findings across studies to reveal the patterns of relations that underlie conflicting research literatures, thus providing a basis for theory development. Meta‐analysis can correct for the distorting effects of sampling error, measurement error, and other artifacts that produce the illusion of conflicting findings. The goal in any science is the production of cumulative knowledge, and this implies the development of theories. But before theories can be developed, we must be able to calibrate the relations between variables. Applications of meta‐analysis to accumulated research literatures has shown that research findings are not nearly as conflicting as had been thought and that useful and sound general conclusions can be drawn from existing research. During the 1980s and accelerating up to the present, the use of meta‐analysis to make sense of research literatures has increased greatly.
Midlife Crisis
Authors: E. Lachman Margie , M. Kranz Eileen
Published: January 2010

One of the most common expectations for the middle years of the life course is that there is an inevitable crisis, but research evidence in this regard is mixed (Lachman, 2004). Approximately 26% of the participants over age 40 in the national survey of Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) reported having a midlife crisis. Most life crises, however, were reported to occur before age 40 or after age 50, thus raising questions as to whether a crisis is unique to midlife or to specific birth cohorts (Lachman, 2004).
Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory
Authors: Strack Stephen
Published: January 2010

The Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory‐III (MCMI‐III) (Millon, 2006) is one of nine published measures that operationalize Theodore Millon's (1969, 1996) evolutionary model of personality and psychopathology. Other Millon tests include the Millon Behavioral Medicine Diagnostic and the Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory. Since its introduction in 1977, the MCMI has become one of the most frequently used instruments for the examination of personality disorders and clinical syndromes. There are over 500 empirical studies based on this measure, as well as seven MCMI‐related books. Among personality tests, only the Rorschach and the MMPI‐2 have produced more research during the past 15 years. Recent reviews of this literature are available in Choca (2004) and Craig (2005).
Mindlessness‐Mindfulness
Authors: Chawla Neharika , Marlatt G. Alan
Published: January 2010

For many of us, the majority of our lives are spent in a state of “mindlessness” or “automatic‐pilot” in which we may be actively engaged in several activities, but are largely unaware of the nuances of our experience. In this state we may get from one point to another without really knowing how we got there. Further, being mindless also makes us vulnerable to reacting in ways that are largely habitual and somewhat mechanistic.
Missing Data
Authors: Little Roderick J.
Published: January 2010

Missing values are a common problem in psychology research. For example, in longitudinal studies, missing data arise because of attrition, that is, subjects dropping out prior to the end of the study. In surveys, some individuals provide no information because of noncontact or refusal to respond (unit nonresponse), or they fail to answer some of the questions because the topics are sensitive or because the information is hard to retrieve (item nonresponse). Information about a variable may be partially recorded, as when information is censored or classified or when time of an event (e.g., death) is not known because an individual is still alive at the termination of the study. Often psychology research involves indexes formed by summing values of particular items; missing data arise if any of the items that form the index is missing. Missing data can also arise by design, for example, when expensive or hard to collect information is recorded for only a subset of study participants.
Mood Disorders
Authors: Heiby Elaine M. , Fang Qijuan
Published: January 2010

Mood disorders refer to conditions involving maladaptive expression of any of three basic emotions—sadness, happiness, and anger—and their corresponding thoughts and actions. These three emotions are usually considered to be naturally adaptive reactions to changes that involve loss, gain, or obstruction, respectively. Adaptive reactions to such changes are associated with an eventual return to a euthymic (neutral or somewhat positive) mood state.
Mood Stabilizing Medications
Authors: Cristancho Pilar , Cristancho Mario , Thase Michael E.
Published: January 2010

As bipolar disorder is a recurrent illness over the lifetime of the patient, a central aspect of its successful treatment is the prevention of new mood episodes rather than simply the stabilization of acute manic or depressive episodes. For decades lithium was the only effective medication available for this purpose. However, not all patients responded to lithium, particularly those with a rapid cycling course of illness (four or more affective episodes per year) or mixed states (meeting criteria for depressive and manic states simultaneously). Over the last 15 years or so, fortunately, many new medications have emerged to greatly expand therapeutic options for our patients. Anticonvulsants such as valproate, carbamazepine, and lamotrigine have all received FDA approvals for treatment of bipolar mood states. This article summarizes the roles that lithium and several anticonvulsants play in the current treatment of mood disorders, with attention to their mechanism of action, indications, dosing, and side effects.
Moral Treatment
Authors: Shilkret Robert
Published: January 2010

Moral treatment (also called moral therapy) refers to the complex of ideas that came into prominence in Europe and America at the end of the eighteenth century and lasted through the nineteenth century. It maintained that madness (the eighteenth‐century term) was not due to a total absence of reason. Thus, the mad were not to be seen as bestial (without reason), but rather as human (following an Enlightenment principle defining reason as human), and thus should be treated as such as much as possible. “Moral” then had the general connotations of today's “psychological”; it contrasted with “medical” therapeutics (although they were often employed together), which, through the eighteenth century, included such things as bleeding, blistering, purges, emetics, opium, and liberal use of physical restraint. In the words of Gerald Grob (1973), the dean of the history of institutional treatment of mental illness in the United States, moral treatment “meant kind, individualized care in a small hospital; resort to occupational therapy, religious exercises, amusements and games; repudiation in large measure of all threats of physical violence; and, only infrequent application of mechanical restraints. Moral treatment, in effect, involved the re‐education of the patient within a proper moral atmosphere” (p. 168).
Motivational Interviewing
Authors: Martino Steve
Published: January 2010

Motivational interviewing (MI; Miller & Rollnick, 2002) is a client‐centered, goal‐directed, brief treatment approach for helping people prepare for behavior change by building their intrinsic motivation and strengthening their commitment to a change process. It is one of the most well defined and rigorously studied psychotherapeutic interventions for substance use disorders, with a growing empirical base for its application in a variety of other behavioral areas. Four key principles and a style of interaction called the “MI spirit” guide the strategic application of two sets of techniques: (1) fundamental client‐centered counseling strategies for developing a highly empathic environment in which clients may discuss their behavioral problems; and (2) direct methods for eliciting client statements that support behavior change (referred to as “change talk”). Many resources and training methods exist for teaching therapists how to practice MI. This article covers each of these areas in detail.
Motor Control
Authors: Heuer Herbert
Published: January 2010

Everyday actions such as reaching for an object, opening a bottle, or driving a car are rarely experienced as a problem. However, a brief consideration of how voluntary movements come about helps to appreciate the complexity of motor control. Movements are the result of actively modulated muscle forces, but only to some extent. Once a limb is set into motion, it exerts forces on other parts of the body. In addition there are external forces, gravity in particular. Thus, although initiated actively, the further course of a movement is shaped by nonmuscular forces in addition to muscular ones. The forces acting on a joint are combined in complex ways into torque, and the angular rotations at several joints determine the spatial position of the end effector, e.g., the tip of the finger. All in all, there is a complex transformation from muscle excitation to movement of an end effector, which can be broken down into partial transformations: from muscle excitations to muscle forces, from muscle forces to joint torques, from joint torques to joint rotations, from joint rotations to movement of the end effector.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Authors: Ronningstam Elsa
Published: January 2010

Narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) is described in theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000) as “a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy,” and it is identified by nine criteria. People with NPD have a grandiose sense of self‐importance and accompanying grandiose fantasies. They believe that they are special and unique, and they have a strong need for admiring attention. Considered to lack empathy, that is, being unwilling or unable to recognize the feelings and needs of others, they come across as arrogant and haughty. They have a sense of entitlement, with expectations of receiving special treatment and exceptions, and tendencies to be exploitive and take advantage of other people. Envy of others is common, or alternatively, they believe that others envy them because of their specialness or talents.
Narcolepsy
Authors: Siegel Jerome
Published: January 2010

Narcolepsy is a disorder characterized by persistent daytime sleepiness. Despite this daytime sleepiness, narcoleptics often do not sleep well at night. In addition to sleepiness, narcoleptics have REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep shortly after they go to sleep, in contrast to the 1–1.5 hours taken by normal individuals before their first REM sleep period. Thus short sleep latency, indicative of sleepiness, plus REM sleep shortly after sleep onset, can be used to diagnose narcolepsy.
National Academy of Neuropsychology
Authors: Elliot Robert W. , Golden Charles , McCaffrey Robert
Published: January 2010

The National Academy of Neuropsychology (NAN) was founded in 1975 as a membership organization established for individuals interested in the field of neuropsychology, a field within psychology focused on the practice and study of the relationship between the brain and behavior. With over 3,300 members in all states and 24 countries, NAN has developed into an organization that represents the diverse interests of scientist‐practitioners, clinicians, and researchers in the field of neuropsychology.
National Academy of Sciences
Authors: Barbiero Daniel
Published: January 2010

Since its founding in 1863, the United States National Academy of Sciences (NAS) has served as both an honorific association of distinguished American and international scientists and as an autonomous, nonprofit organization providing independent advice on science and technology to government agencies. The NAS has provided such advice from the beginning of its existence and in conformity to the terms of its charter, which states that it will advise the federal government on scientific and technological matters whenever called upon.
National Institute of Mental Health
Authors: Insel Thomas R.
Published: January 2010

The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) is one of 27 Institutes and Centers of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Formally established in 1949, it was one of the first four NIH Institutes. Research and research training at NIMH address a variety of mental disorders, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorders, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, borderline personality disorder, depression, eating disorders, post‐traumatic stress disorder, and schizophrenia.
National Institute on Drug Abuse
Authors: Volkow Nora D.
Published: January 2010

The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA;
http://www.nida.nih.gov
) is a component of the National Institutes of Health. Its mission is to lead the nation in bringing the power of science to bear on drug abuse and addiction. NIDA's work involves (1) supporting and conducting basic, clinical, and applied research across a broad range of disciplines ranging from genetics and neurobiology to behavioral and social science and (2) ensuring rapid and effective dissemination and use of research results to improve prevention and treatment and inform policy.
National Register of Health Service Providers in Psychology
Authors: Hall Judy E. , Sammons Morgan T.
Published: January 2010

The National Register of Health Service Providers in Psychology (National Register) was established in 1974 by the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) at the request of the American Psychological Association (APA) Board of Directors. The impetus for the National Register's establishment was a movement towards national health insurance; the National Register was created as a mechanism to identify licensed psychologists who would qualify for reimbursement as providers of behavioral healthcare services.
Near‐Death Experiences
Authors: Greyson Bruce
Published: January 2010

Near‐death experiences are profound psychological events occurring to individuals close to death or facing intense physical or emotional danger. Although the termnear‐death experienceand its acronym NDE were not coined until 1975, accounts of similar events can be found in the folklore and writings of most cultures. The phenomenon was first described as a clinical syndrome by Heim in 1892, although isolated cases appeared in medical journals throughout the 19thcentury. Once thought to be rare, NDEs have been documented to occur in 10% to 20% of cardiac arrest survivors.
NEO
Personality Inventory (
NEO
‐
PI
‐
R
)
Authors: Schipper Lindsey J. , Sollman Myriam J. , Berry David T. R.
Published: January 2010

The NEO Personality Inventory‐Revised (NEO PI‐R; Costa & McCrae, 1992) is the updated version of the NEO PI (Costa & McCrae, 1985). The NEO PI‐R is a widely used measure of the Five Factor Model (FFM) of adult personality, covering the domains of Neuroticism, Openness to Experience, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. The FFM is a robust model of normal personality, with a factor structure that has been replicated across many languages and cultures (McCrae et al., 2005). Information on these factors can be useful for understanding emotional, interpersonal, attitudinal, and motivational characteristics that are important for a variety of applications, including psychotherapy, counseling, and employment decisions. The NEO PI‐R has also become a major research tool for examining the relationship between personality and behavioral, physical, and mental health variables. It is not intended, however, to assess overt or severe psychopathology, and it is not necessarily diagnostic of any specific psychiatric disorder found in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM; American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
Netherlands, Psychology in
Authors: van DER Molen Henk T.
Published: January 2010

The year 1892 is considered as the starting date of the discipline of psychology in The Netherlands. In that year, Gerard Heymans (1857–1930), professor at the University of Groningen, set up the first psychological laboratory in the country. This laboratory was situated in his own house, and the most important subject was his wife, Anthonia, who participated in perceptual and response time experiments. On the one hand, Heymans did empirical research; on the other hand, he was engaged in systematic philosophical work, which resulted in three main books about epistemology, metaphysics, and ethics. This makes clear that psychological issues were studied within the discipline of philosophy in that period, which continued to be the case until World War II.
Neuroimaging in Pediatric Bipolar Disorder
Authors: Muralidharan Anjana
Published: January 2010

Pediatric bipolar disorder (PBD), like the adult counterpart of the disorder, has been characterized by structural and functional abnormalities in the brain regions responsible for emotional regulation, attentional control, and executive functioning. Studies of PBD subjects have revealed that adult and pediatric bipolar disorder may have shared neurological underpinnings. A few key differences between these populations have also been found, which may provide some insight into vulnerability markers for the disorder (Hajek, Carrey, & Alda, 2005), independent of effects of repeated mood episodes and long‐term medication use.
Neuropsychology
Authors: Golden Charles
Published: January 2010

Historically, the field of neuropsychology was derived not only from the discipline of psychology, but also from the various related disciplines within the traditional professions of medicine, education, and law (Meier, 1997). The term
neuropsychology
is a combination of the word
neurology
, which is defined as a branch of medicine that deals with the nervous system and its disorders, and
psychology
, which is defined as the study of behavior or the mind (Finger, 1994). One of the first people to combine the words neurology and psychology into neuropsychology was Kurt Goldstein (Frommer & Smith, 1988) in his book
The Organism
(1939). Neuropsychology today is used to describe a field of psychology that principally circumscribes the identification, quantification, and description of changes in behavior that relate to the structural and cognitive integrity of the brain (Golden, Zillmer, & Spiers, 1992). Although neuropsychological techniques and questions have long existed, the clinical side of the field did not start to expand until the late 1970s. Most practitioners in the field have been trained within the last two decades, with the majority of those in the last 10 years. Neuropsychologists are most prominently represented professionally by the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, Division 40 (Clinical Neuropsychology) of the American Psychological Association, and the International Neuropsychological Society (INS).
Neurosis
Authors: Sugarman Alan
Published: January 2010

Although the concept of neurosis dates to 1769 in Cullen's
Synopses and Nosology
, it awaited Freud's early attempts to explain and treat a host of neurotic symptoms, most notably hysterical ones, to establish its nosological prominence. In fact, the focus on the concept and the importance attributed to it as a unique psychopathological condition parallel the prominence and importance of psychoanalysis within the discipline of psychiatry. The general diagnosis of neurosis and many subtypes were included in the first and second editions of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
(DSM) of the American Psychiatric Association, which is that organization's attempt to construct a nosological schema of psychopathology. These manuals were used by generations of psychiatrists and clinical psychologists trained in the heyday of psychoanalysis in the United States. Psychoanalysts maintained prominent administrative and teaching positions in the most prestigious psychiatry departments, clinical psychology doctoral programs, and psychology internships in the post–World War II years. Fenichel's (1945) tome,
The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis,
was requisite reading for clinicians going through these training programs.