bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Reaction Front Morphology
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J
Published: November 2023

Reaction fronts of planar, spherical, or other high-symmetry forms may be unstable to perturbations changing their shape. In this chapter we investigate both the linear instability and the nonlinear restabilization of these fronts into scalloped or other lower-symmetry forms. Such phenomena have been found in flames, secondary oil recovery, in situ coal gassification, crystal or particle growth, and reactive porous medium-flow systems. A scalloped reaction front is indicated schematically in Fig. 7-1. In this chapter the instability of planar reaction fronts and their restabilization to new morphologies and states of temporal oscillation are discussed. Numerical results on carbonate-cemented sandstones are presented that demonstrate the surprising richness of nonlinear phenomena that even the simplest systems can sustain.
Mechanochemical Coupling
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J
Published: November 2023

In a rock under stress, a given grain may interact strongly with its neighbors. Two types of interactions seem possible. A given grain experiences stresses that are related not only to the stresses applied to the rock but also to the mechanical properties and disposition of its neighboring grains. Furthermore, abutting grains may cause strains in each other because of lattice mismatch or interactions among surface charges. Thus, the stress and interfacial energy contributions to the free energy of a given grain can lead to a dependence of its solubility on the disposition of its neighbors.
Hostages of the Ayatollah
Authors: Vandenbroucke Lucien S
Published: November 2023

On November 4, 1979, a mob of islamic fundamentalist militants overran the U.S. embassy in the Iranian capital of Tehran, seizing sixty-three diplomats and embassy personnel. Thus began the Iranian hostage crisis, a 444-day ordeal that was to be the Carter administration’s most serious foreign policy crisis. Iran had been in turmoil since early 1978, when islamic militants had taken to the streets in protest against Iran’s ruler, Mohammed Reza Shah. Hostility to the shah had been building up in Iran for years, and the demonstrations triggered a ground swell of protest that swept the country, drawing millions into the streets.

As antigovernment demonstrations continued throughout 1978, the crowds grew ever larger and more violent. By early 1979, it was clear that most Iranians had turned against the shah and that the security forces, the mainstay of his regime, were crumbling. Aware that he had lost control, the shah fled into exile on January 16, 1979. A few days later, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the spiritual leader of the islamic activists who had spearheaded the protests, returned from exile in France to a triumphal welcome in Tehran.
Why We Failed
Authors: Vandenbroucke Lucien S
Published: November 2023

Of the four strategic special operations examined in this study, Sontay came the closest to success. Brilliantly executed, in the end the raid was nonetheless a failure because it did not achieve its chief objective, the recovery of U.S. POWs. The Bay of Pigs and the Iran rescue mission were disasters that exacted a high price in human life and U.S. prestige. The Mayaguez operation was similarly a fiasco, although the fortuitous recovery of the ship’s crew obscured the fact that eighteen Americans died landing at the wrong location to rescue prisoners the Cambodians had already decided to free. Moreover, close examination of these episodes confirms that, as hypothesized at the outset of this study, recurrent problems have plagued U.S. strategic special operations. Faulty intelligence, poor interagency and interservice cooperation and coordination, provision of inadequate advice to decision makers, wishful thinking, and overcontrol of mission execution by officials far removed from the theater of operations have repeatedly jeopardized the ability of the United States to conduct such missions successfully.
Asymmetries Of Neural Architecture And The Structure Of Emotional Experience
Authors: Tucker Don M
Published: November 2023

Several research approaches are providing the basis for a neuropsychological understanding of human motivation and emotion. Studies of hemispheric contributions to emotional communication are suggesting how the two hemi spheres’ cognitive skills are differentially important to emotional processes (Buck, 1985; Strauss, 1986).
Methodological Considerations In The Search For Indicators Of Vulnerability To Severe Psychopathology
Authors: Nuechterlein Keith H
Published: November 2023

The focus on populations at heightened risk for later psychopathology has become a very popular strategy for identifying possible vulnerability indicators that precede the onset of a disorder. This strategy allows indicators of vulnerability to a disorder to be separated from abnormalities that are either a structural part of the diagnosable symptomatic state or a secondary consequence of this symptomatic state.
Atmospheres In Radiative And Thermal Equilibrium
Authors: Liou K N
Published: November 2023

In this chapter is discussed the subject of radiation and thennal equilibrium in the earth’s atmosphere, with a specific emphasis on the cloud effect. Radiative equilibrium involves the balance between incoming solar radiation, which drives the general circulation of the atmosphere and the oceans, and outgoing thennal infrared (ir) radiation emitted from the earth-atmosphere system. Consideration of this equilibrium provides a fundamental step toward a physical understanding of the thennal structure of the atmosphere, as a first approximation. Radiative equilibrium has been extensively studied in the fields of stellar atmospheres, atmospheres of other planets, and the earth’s primitive atmosphere. Indeed, some of the earlier pioneering research efforts on the subject of radiative equilibrium can be found in the discussion of temperature for stars (Chandrasekhar, 1939), in the discussion of the vertical structure of planetary atmospheres (Chamberlain and Hunter, 1987), and in the discussion of the structure of the earth’s stratosphere (Goody and Yung, 1989).
Phototactic Behavior: Searching for Light
Authors: Wolken Jerome J
Published: November 2023

All organisms respond in some way to light; they move, orient, swim, or fly to or away from the light—they are phototactic. Organisms have evolved photoreceptors for detecting light, measuring its intensity, and selecting the wavelengths of light for function—all in search of an optimal environment for survival.

Phototactic behavioral responses are described as phototropism and phototaxis. Phototropism, as defined here, is simply a positive or negative orientation of a part or of the whole organism to move toward or away from light. The bending and twisting of a plant leaf to present its surface to the light is an example of positive phototropism. This ability of a plant to orient in search of light increases its efficiency for photosynthesis, which in effect determines the plant’s biochemistry and growth.
Spectral Sensitivity and Color Vision
Authors: Wolken Jerome J
Published: November 2023

We experience the sensitivity of our eyes to light in going from bright daylight to darkness, as in entering a theater. It takes from five to ten minutes for our eyes to become dark-adapted. This phenomenon, moving from photo topic (daylight) to scoto topic (night) vision, was first described by the Czech physiologist Jan Purkinje (1825) as a shift in spectral sensitivity from the blue toward the red of the visible spectrum.

The basis for this difference is that the retinal rods are sensitive at relatively low light levels and their spectral absorption is in the blue-green around 500 nm while the cones are functional in bright light (and color vision) and their spectral absorption lies more toward the red, 560 to 620 nm of the visible spectrum.
Bioengineering: Biomimetics
Authors: Wolken Jerome J
Published: November 2023

Can the present information we have about photoreceptors and the optics of imaging eyes be exploited to develop imaging optic devices that can be applied to technology that will provide for human needs? Some examples of this developing technology include solar energy collectors, photoreceptor systems for (light) energy conversion, information systems, photochemical molecular computers, and optical imaging systems as prostheses for the visually impaired. These goals have stimulated researchers to develop devices and systems that mimic to some extent the way living organisms have engineered their photoreceptor, photosensory, and optical systems.
Circumventricular Organs and Their Role in Visceral Functions
Authors: Johnson A K , Loewy A D
Published: November 2023

The capillaries of the brain form a unique barrier that permits certain molecules and ions to be trans ferred from the plasma to the brain by selective regulatory processes that are controlled by the endothelial cells. These cells are connected by an elaborate system of tight junctions and form the blood-brain barrier. This barrier does not exclude all molecules. For example, certain substances such as oxygen, car bon dioxide, and anesthetics that are highly lipid soluble readily pass through this barrier.
Autonomic Control of Endocrine Pancreatic and Adrenal Function
Authors: Edwards A V
Published: November 2023

With one or two exceptions, such as the adrenal medulla and posterior pituitary, the release of hormones into the circulating blood by endocrine cells used to be thought of as representing an entirely separate way of controlling the activity of peripheral tis sues from that exerted by the nervous system. Over the past two decades, however, an enormous amount of evidence has accumulated to show that virtually all endocrine effects can be influenced by the autonomic innervation in one way or another and that such influences are functionally important under normal physiological conditions.
Introduction
Authors: Bancroft John
Published: November 2023

The purpose of The Kinsey Institute Series is to examine issues relating to sex, gender, and reproduction that require an interdisciplinary approach. Adolescence is a prime example of such an issue. It is the stage of development at which the individual is capable of reproduction, re­ organizes and reasserts gender, and displays the early unfolding of the sexual adult-a time of complex and often obscure interaction between biological and sociopsychological influences.
Social Support and Pressure and Their Impact on Adolescent Sexual Behavior
Authors: Trost Jan E
Published: November 2023

Social support and social pressure-that is, social control-are significant for human society. We belong to groups and to society with all their norms, to which we are more or less obedient. Subsystems and their various norms can contradict each other or they can be congruent. It seems obvious that adolescents today live under a system that is infinitely more complex than adolescents of a few centuries ago. To simplify, we can say that earlier there were clear rites de passage, indicating when a child changed into an adult. For example, in some Christian societies the confirmation ceremony acted as such a rite of passage. Nowadays, at least in many Western societies, there is no such rite. The adolescent may be counted as a child until 20 years of age when it comes to buying liquor, but as an adult at 12 years of age when traveling by bus or train. Many are not considered adults until they have a college or university education or have married and had children.
Oxides that are Debye-Like Solids
Authors: Anderson Orson L
Published: November 2023

By physicists’ standards, the materials of planets are not well characterized. The material in the mantle of terrestrial planets is rocky and composed of many minerals that belong to a few phase diagrams. The large potential number of minerals in these phase diagrams is reduced and constrained by the density of seismological models. Even so, uniqueness is not possible because many minerals or combinations of minerals have the same density at zero pressure. Density discrimination at high pressure and high temperature could reduce the ambiguity further if the temperature of the planet were well characterized (which it is not), and if the equation of state were universally agreed upon (which it is not, as will be shown in Part II). Minerals that survive as candidates for planet interiors are of interest to ceramic science.
Finite Strain
Authors: Anderson Orson L
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we consider a few EoS’s based on finite strain. The classical theory of infinitesimal elasticity is based on two assumptions: 1) the strains are uniquely determined by the stresses and are reversible, and 2) the strains are limited to ‘linear’ elasticity; that is, they are so small that squares and products are negligible. In finite strain, the first assumption is retained, but the restriction to small strains is removed (Murnaghan, 1937). In generalized elasticity theory, finite strain representations go back to Love (1927), but practical expressions for finite strain were developed by Birch (1938, 1952). He used Murnaghan’s basic theory but restricted it to the case where the initial stress is a large hydrostatic pressure. The crucial assumption in finite strain theory is in the formal relationship between compression and coordinate displacement (see Stacey et al., 1981).
Constraining Parameters to Get the Equation Of State
Authors: Anderson Orson L
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I present some examples showing EoS’s that arise with the assumption of special characteristics of EoS parameters. The majority of EoS’s in the literature arise from special and arbitrary assumptions about the parameters. Of the many possibilities, we review three illustrative cases: (1) an assumption about K’ at high P, (2) an assumption about q, and (3) an assumption about Kr(P). The second case is a thermodynamic approach (Brennan and Stacey, 1979), where the Griineisen parameter is written as a special function of pressure (known as the “free volume” approximation), yielding a differential equation in P.
Shear Velocity at High Pressure
Authors: Anderson Orson L
Published: November 2023

A significant phenomenon in high pressure elasticity is that the behavior of the shear elastic constants does not follow the simple rules found in the EoS, which are restricted to relationships of the bulk modulus in P, V, T space. The behavior of the EoS, such as found in Chapters 6, 7, and 8, is not very structure dependent. On the other hand, the shear constants under pressure are very dependent on structure even to the extent of being different from point group to point group in the same crystal class. Two generalizations stand out. (1) Whereas the bulk modulus is linear in pressure, at least to values of Pf Ko =::: 1/2, the shear elastic constants are, by comparison, quite nonlinear. (2) The Poisson ratio increases with pressure for oxides and ceramics that are densely packed.
Melting
Authors: Anderson Orson L
Published: November 2023

Over the last 50 years a sustained effort to quantify theoretically the solid liquid phase transition has resulted in an enormous literature on the subject. This has not brought about uniform agreement to any satisfaction, and, indeed, as Cotterill (1980) pointed out, melting is still one of the least understood of the common physical phenomena known to man. There are two opposing camps on the theory of melting. The first is that of the purists, who insist that melting requires imposing the thermodynamic condition that the Gibbs free energies of solids and liquids are equal, requiring that a detailed description of the atomic and electronic structures of the solid and of the liquid be quantified (Tallon, 1982). This approach is difficult because the details of the structure of the liquid are known with far less precision than those of the solid. The second camp insists that the nature of melting can often be understood by studying the stability properties of a solid near its melting point: melting is thought to result from a lattice instability. The earliest instability criterion was made by Lindemann (1910), who suggested melting occurs when the amplitude of the vibration of atoms reaches a value large enough that the solid lattice is shaken apart. Other early instability criteria were the ideas that the isothermal compressibility vanished at melting (Hertzfield and Goeppert-Meyer, 1934) or that a shear elastic constant vanished at melting (Born, 1939).
Thermodynamic Functions
Authors: Anderson Orson L
Published: November 2023

It is well known that the computations of thermodynamic functions (entropy, for example) require knowledge of the thermal expansivity o and compressibility K., as well as the specific heat. The pressure (or volume) and temperature variation of o and K. contribute to the pressure (or volume) and temperature variation of the thermodynamic functions. The tabulation of these thermodynamic functions in the extreme ranges of temperature and pressure requires a good understanding of the EoS, elasticity at very high temperature, anharmonicity of the solid, and the thermal expansivity at high temperature.
Founding an Independent State
Authors: Medding Peter Y
Published: November 2023

Strictly speaking, the founding of the political order in the new State of Israel did not begin on May 14, 1948. Israel embarked on the transition to independent statehood with an already functioning set of voluntary political arrangements developed by the Jewish community in Palestine (the Yishuv) during the British Mandate (1920-48). But during the founding period, fundamental decisions were made that effectively determined which of the existing Yishuv political arrangements would be maintained and which would not.
Issue Structure, Electoral Response, and Coalition Politics
Authors: Medding Peter Y
Published: November 2023

The capacity of the major political actors the political parties and their leaders-to influence events and exercise political power in democratic societies is, in the last resort, dependent upon winning public support in electoral competition. Ideological and issue differences are usually important elements in elections, and in policy conflict within political institutions between elections. Particularly in coalition systems such conflicts must be resolved if governments are to be constituted and political decisions are to be made.
The Political Dynamics of the Founding Period
Authors: Medding Peter Y
Published: November 2023

In previous chapters the relative stability of government in Israel during the founding period was attributed to the pattern of party government led by Mapai, which established and directed the new state structures, headed all cabinets, chose its coalition partners, manned the important ministries, set national priorities, determined the political agenda, and centralized and con­ trolled policy-making and its implementation. In successfully meeting the political, military, economic, and social challenges that accompanied newly acquired statehood, the government demonstrated considerable capacity to rule under difficult conditions.
Conclusion
Authors: Medding Peter Y
Published: November 2023

This book has focused upon the establishment and operation of the political structures of Israeli democracy during the founding period that were a hybrid of two diametrically opposed models of democracy: the majoritarian and the consensus models. As we noted, the former tended to concentrate and centralize executive power in the hands of a single-party majority: the latter promoted restraints upon simple majority rule by sharing, dispersing, distributing, and limiting executive power.
On L. V. Kantorovich’S Research In The Field Of Computer Architecture
Authors: Fet Ya. I
Published: November 2023

The range of interests of Leonid Vital’evich Kantorovich was unusually broad, and he made original and deep contributions to all domains of his various activities. We will try to describe briefly Kantorovich’s views on computer architecture and to review his works in the field. Being an outstanding mathematician and author of fundamental mathematical theories, Kantorovich also paid considerable attention to the technical realization of complicated computational processes.
Patterns of Conflict and Cooperation in Mayor-Council and Council-Manager Governments
Authors: Svara James H
Published: November 2023

“Politics,” Banfield and Wilson assert at the beginning of City Politics, “arises out of conflict, and it consists of the activities ... by which conflict is carried on.” 1 This orientation colors their observation and interpretation of the phenomena of urban politics. Most political science research has shared this perspective. Attention has been given to those aspects of the political life of cities which conform to a pattern of conflict. Conflictual conditions, however, are not universal in the governmental process. To have a more complete view, one must look for a different pattern in the interactions that occur among officials. In some communities, there is not only an absence of conflict but the presence of cooperation.
The Cultural Context of Cognitive Activity
Authors: Rogoff Barbara
Published: November 2023

It is essential to view the cognitive activities of individuals within the cultural context in which their thinking is embedded. The human heritage is notable for the cultural legacy of values and skills, which each new individual inherits from near and distant ancestors and practices with the assistance of caregivers and the companionship of peers.
Social Psychology as Individual Psychology
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham
Published: November 2023

The development of American social psychology during the first decades of the twentieth century paralleled the general historical and intellectual currents of the period. Social psychology can be seen as evolving in a pendulum manner, swinging from an emphasis on society and group to one on self and the individual. Although social psychology was relatively well established by 1924, Floyd H. All port’s text was the first written from a psychological perspective. All port has to be seen as a monumental figure, coming at the end of an epoch and re shaping social psychology largely in his own image (Post, 1980).
Socialization and Personality Development
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham
Published: November 2023

Although experimental research continued to increase throughout the 1930s, the conflict between psychology and sociology was temporarily obscured by the brief entry of two new disciplines, psychoanalysis and cultural anthropology, and by a more general concentration on the psychological study of social problems brought on by the Great Depression. The stock market crash of 1929 and the depression marked a dramatic shift in cultural and intellectual trends and a pendulum swing away from the conservative focus on the individual that was characteristic of the 1920s. Social psychologists, like other social scientists, were profoundly aware of the impact of the environment during the depression and began once again to look for the causes of behavior within the broader social context. The development of social psychology during the 1930s reflected a blend of progressive ideals prevalent in America before World War I and new trends imported from Europe, such as Marxism and psychoanalysis.
Symbolic Interaction
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham
Published: November 2023

While psychological social psychologists have tended to stress the experimental study of cognitive processes, sociologists since World War II have focused on symbolic interaction. The symbolic interaction approach addresses two shortcomings within the psychological approach to social psychology. First, it includes a frank recognition that mental processes are culturally derived, and second, it focuses on interaction-that is, communication and coordinated activity-rather than cognitive processes taking place within individuals.
Exhaustion of the Resource Base and the Future Supply of Oil and Gas
Authors: Drew Lawrence J
Published: November 2023

This chapter summarizes the exhaustion of the parent population of oil and gas fields by the exploration process and links it to the effect of a change in oil and gas prices to form a set of future supply categories. This concept was developed from the application of discovery process modeling, which was discussed in Chapters 6-8, and from the theory of the exploration play, which was discussed in Chapter 4. Exploring for crude oil and natural gas within an exploration play is an economic activity that progressively attacks the parent population of undiscovered oil and gas fields that occur under the fairway of the play. The exploration process deals with large risks that arise from the uncertainties associated with the amounts of crude oil and natural gas found when a new discovery is made that starts a play, as well as with the number of wildcat wells needed to make additional discoveries in the early phase of an exploration play.
DNA variation in humans and its implications for human evolution
Authors: Li Wen-Hsiung , Sadler Lori
Published: November 2023

A knowledge of the extent and pattern of genetic variability in natural populations is a prerequisite for understanding the mechanism of evolution. For this reason, electrophoresis was used extensively from the late 1960s to the early 1980s as a simple, convenient technique for studying the genetic variability in natural populations (see reviews by Lewontin 1974; Nei 1975). In view of the tremendous progress in recombinant DNA techniques one would expect that some of these techniques would have been heavily used to study DNA variation in natural populations. Unfortunately, this has not been the case.
Symbiosis in evolution
Authors: Douglas A E
Published: November 2023

This article explores the significance of symbiosis as a source of novel capabilities. It concentrates on one class of symbiosis, the endosymbioses, which have been defined as associations between species of unequal size in which the whole body of the smaller (known as the symbiont) is enclosed within the larger (the host) (Douglas and Smith 1989). The symbionts are microorganisms (prokaryotes and protists) and the hosts are eukaryotes (protists, fungi, plants, and animals).
Overview: Afghanistan And The End Of The Cold War
Authors: Cordovez Diego , Harrison Selig S
Published: November 2023

Historians debating why and how the Cold War ended have divided into two warring camps. On one side are those who argue that the West prevailed through four decades of geopolitical containment and military deterrence, culminating in the American military build up during the presidency of Ronald Reagan and in the stepped-up support for anti-Communist insurgencies proclaimed in the Reagan Doctrine. Many proponents of this view attribute the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan primarily to American military pressure, with a passing nod to the bravery of the Afghan resistance. Carried to its extreme, this interpretation gives the CIA’s covert operation in Afghanistan credit not only for ending the Cold War but also for bringing about the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Arrayed against this dominant school of thought are George Kennan and like-minded Soviet specialists who emphasize the profound changes that were taking place within Soviet society during the Cold War, the failure of the ossified Communist system to respond to these changes, and the resultant emergence of new leaders committed to domestic reform and retrenchment abroad.
Soviet Occupation, Afghan Resistance, And The American Response
Authors: Harrison Selig S
Published: November 2023

Within days of the invasion, President Carter made a series of symbolic gestures to express American outrage, invoking economic sanctions against the Soviet Union and canceling American participation in the 1980 Olympics scheduled to take place in Moscow. Within weeks he stepped up long-gestating plans for a Rapid Deployment Force (RDF) in the Persian Gulf. No longer skittish about a direct American role in providing weapons support to the Afghan resistance, Carter also gave the CIA the green light for an American-orchestrated covert assistance program to be financed in part by congressional appropriations and in part with Saudi Arabian help. By 1991 the covert aid influx was to surpass $2.8 billion in American and Saudi funding. It started out, however, at relatively modest levels of $30 million in 1980 and $50 million in 1981. During these two years, Pakistan agreed to serve as a conduit for the gradually expanding aid, but only after a protracted internecine policy struggle and unabashed bargaining with the United States. The price exacted from Washington was a U.S. commitment to provide $1.5 billion in military aid for Zia’s armed forces. Foreign Minister Agha Shahi, who wanted to limit the U.S. role in Afghanistan and to promote a settlement, lost his job in this struggle.
Making The Russians Bleed
Authors: Harrison Selig S
Published: November 2023

Moscow made its first serious attempt to find a way out of the Afghan quagmire during the fifteen-month tenure of Yuri Andropov, from November 1982 until his death in February 1984. Andropov no longer displayed the ambivalence that had marked his attitude toward the 1979 decision to intervene. In internal Communist party debates he became increasingly critical of the occupation as a serious blunder likely to entail growing economic, social, and diplomatic costs for the Soviet Union. Many of his close associates cite persuasive evidence that Andropov was prepared to withdraw Soviet forces under the aegis of the United Nations despite opposition from the armed forces and from more orthodox Communist leaders. By all accounts, however, he envisaged a withdrawal on terms considerably more favorable to the Soviet Union than those that Mikhail Gorbachev accepted five years later. Precisely what type of settlement he was ready to accept was never tested because Pakistan and the United States were in no mood to bargain. With the Cold War at full tilt, the dominant power groups in Islamabad and Washington deeply distrusted Soviet motives in the U.N. negotiations and regarded it as desirable, in any case, to keep Soviet forces pinned down in a now in commitment.
From Breakthrough To Breakdown
Authors: Cordovez Diego
Published: November 2023

On October 11, 1982, one month before Brezhnev’s death, the New York Times published an OP-ED article by William Safi.re entitled “Inside Andropov’s Mind,” which reflected an upsurge in Western interest in the Geneva negotiations. “The struggle for succession in Moscow is on and I, Yuri Andropov, represent the policy line that will win,” he was supposed to be thinking. Chernenko, in Andropov’s mind, advocated the statuo quo: “continued failure of the economy, adventurism in Afghanistan, losses to the Israelis in the Mideast, helpless pleading with the Chinese· and inability to entice the Americans into detente and SALT.” Victor Grishin, another front-runner in the maneuvering to succeed Brezhnev, “wants to bring about a Bay of Pigs in reverse-a superpower confrontation in Iran or Yugoslavia which, if a weak American President succeeds Reagan, might tip the scales permanently.” “Although I headed the KGB for fifteen years, ... “ Andropov was supposed to conclude, “my image is pleasing to the West .... The specific issue upon which I ascend to power is this: The only way to achieve the fruits of detente without having to give one iota of freedom to Eastern Europe is to arrange an accommodation in Afghanistan.”
Realpolitik Vindicated
Authors: Harrison Selig S
Published: November 2023

When Mikhail Gorbachev assumed power on March 11, 1985, disengagement from Afghanistan was one of his central objectives. Yet it was not until three years later, on April 14, 1988, that the Geneva accords were concluded. Why, I asked him, did it take so long to bring about the Soviet withdrawal? How serious was the opposition from Soviet hard-liners who wanted to continue the war? Would a more positive American attitude toward the U.N. negotiations have made an earlier withdrawal possible?“Actually,” Gorbachev replied, “it would have been a very great stimulus if the United States had recognized that we were serious and had shown a desire to help us get out through the U.N. process. It would have facilitated the situation a lot in dealing with people who were causing difficulties.” To my surprise, he minimized the power of the prowar lobby in Moscow. “Yes, yes,” he said, “but this wasn’t the main problem. Don’t forget Kabul. Remember that Karmal headed the Afghan government. He was a very particular personality, and he had his own agenda. In view of this, I am afraid that even with the backing of the United States we would have had a very difficult time.
Climax And Anticlimax: The Geneva Accords
Authors: Cordovez Diego
Published: November 2023

Determined as Gorbachev was to bring about significant changes in Soviet American relations, the Washington summit was undoubtedly his finest hour. The New York Times said that almost up to the time of his departure, on December 9, Gorbachev “continued his remarkable campaign to sell himself, his policies and his country to the American people.” “It was like the coming of the second Messiah, or something,” said an astonished Washingtonian when Gorbachev leaped from his car on Connecticut Avenue to shake hands with bystanders. “The man is a genius,” gushed a thrilled young girl on the evening news. “It will be remembered,” Time magazine concluded, “as the summit at which intimacy and symbolism overshadowed disputes about substance.”The summit was still dominated, of course, by the old Cold War agenda; the reunification of Germany, the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact, the collapse of the Communist system were to take place later.
Charcoal Monkey
Authors: Strier Karen B
Published: November 2023

Muriqui is the Tupi Indian name for the largest South American monkey, the gorillas of the New World, in a sense. Muriquis of both sexes grow up to weigh nearly 15 kilograms, but even their weight fails to convey the impression they give when they are glimpsed in the wild (Figure 1.1). Muriquis measure about five feet when they hang suspended from their long arms, so, although they weigh less, they appear nearly as tall as a human. But unlike the tail-less gorillas and humans, muriquis have long, grasping, “prehensile” tails that are strong enough to support their full body weight while they feed or socialize upside down.
Fragmented Forest
Authors: Strier Karen B
Published: November 2023

Scattered throughout southeastern Brazil, from Bahia in the north to Sao Paulo in the south, and inland into Minas Gerais, are isolated stands of what remains of the Brazilian Atlantic forest. It once carpeted the chain of mountains running along the eastern coast of Brazil from the states of Rio Grande do Soul to Rio Grande do Norte, an area of roughly one million square kilometers. Agriculture and logging have reduced this unique ecosystem to less than 5% of its original extent. Now all that is left are fragments of a once magnificent forest that early explorers described as a living paradise (Figure 2.1).
From Days to Years
Authors: Strier Karen B
Published: November 2023

I left the United States for my second visit to Fazenda Montes Claros in June 1983 with five large suitcases containing the clothes, field supplies, and books I would need for the next 14 months. Unfortunately, I arrived in Rio de Janeiro alone. I was promised that my luggage would be delivered to me within a day, which had its advantages since now I would not have to try to explain the purpose of each item to the customs officers in my still somewhat broken Portuguese. I had arranged to have Mittermeier’s Brazilian assistant, Carlos Alberto, pick me up at the airport and drive me to the forest, and when my luggage was delivered the following morning, we set off.
Early Risers and Other Surprises
Authors: Strier Karen B
Published: November 2023

The summer sun rises at 5:00 am in southeastern Brazil, and the forest begins to wake up like a vast green blanket unrolling with life. It is already humid, and dew steams from the tops of the trees. Troops of howler monkeys fill the air with their long morning calls. Less resonant, the neighs of the muriquis signal that it’s time for them to move on.
Peaceful Patrilines
Authors: Strier Karen B
Published: November 2023

The first mating I ever observed was such a passive affair that it took me several minutes to recognize what was going on. I had been following Nancy, one of the adult female muriquis, systematically recording her approaches, first to one male, then to another, before she finally settled down on a branch less than 1 meter from one of the largest males, Irv. A moment later, Irv moved into contact with Nancy, and then nonchalantly climbed on her back. I didn’t connect this unusual position with an attempted copulation until he began to thrust his hips minutes later. Nancy’s son, 1½ year old Nilo, was clearly curious about what Irv and his mother were doing, and he, too, climbed on Nancy’s back to investigate. When his efforts to insert himself between Irv and his mother proved unsuccessful, Nilo swung underneath them and grabbed at Irv. Irv swatted at Nilo, who screamed and moved beside his mother on the branch. Nilo continued to scream, but Nancy’s only response was to look over her shoulder at Irv, with her lips drawn back in a grin and her teeth chattering in a mating “twitter.” Irv resumed his sporadic thrusts, and disengaged himself a leisurely 6 minutes later (Figure 6.1).
Expert Invention and the Turn of the Screw
Authors: Weber Robert J
Published: November 2023

I’m fastening a shelf on the wall. I want it to be a strong enough for books so I’m using long wood screws that will not pull out. I’ve never looked closely at a screw before, but now that I’ve become interested in invention every device seems new to me. Where did the screw come from? From some natural form? Or the less complex nail? While we all engage in invention on an everyday basis, with the motivation of satisfying an immediate need or making an immediate improvement in the way something works, that is not necessarily the way the experts do it. To be sure, the expert’s motivation may well be need-driven or device-driven, but it may also be something more. For lack of a better phrase, we will call that something more play-driven invention. It results from the actions of mental manipulations driven more by mental play and the desire to form interesting combinations than anything else. It is what-if thinking on a grand scale-thought experiments where ideas and devices are selected and combined in unusual ways. The combining of ideas is anything but random, however. Often it is influenced by subtle and powerful heuristic principles, rules of thumb for generating ideas. To foreshadow our story, I want to follow the idea of the screw through the work of great historical inventors-Archimedes, Leonardo, and the Wright brothers. The span of history ranges from the third century B.c. to this century, and each case is a meditation, a variation, on the turning screw.
Describing an Invention
Authors: Weber Robert J
Published: November 2023

Quickly, I stab the crust of the chicken pot pie with my fork, so it won’t explode when heated in the microwave. After it cooks, I use the fork to break the shell and stab a piece of meat and transport it from plate to mouth. Then I scoop up some vegetables with the cup or palm of the fork. The crust is too big for the next bite, so I use the edge of the fork to cut it. A piece of potato looks a bit dry and I mash it into the gravy by using the back of the fork. What is going on here? Evidently, something more general than just using a fork. It is almost systematic, almost describable.
Nicotine Delivery Devices
Authors: Slade John
Published: November 2023

The cigarette is ... among the most awe-inspiring examples of the ingenuity of man .The cigarette should be conceived not as a product but as a package. The product is nicotine. The cigarette is but one of many package layers. There is the carton, which contains the pack, which contains the cigarette, which contains the smoke. The smoke is the final package. The smoker must strip off all these package layers to get to that which he seeks Smoke is beyond question the most optimized vehicle of nicotine and the cigarette the most optimized dispenser of smoke.
Introduction
Authors: Tauber Alfred I , Chernyak Leon
Published: November 2023

Immunology began as a biological discipline in the 1880s. It arose from convergence of several disciplines, principally microbiology, pathology, and embryology. The emergence of the germ theory of infectious diseases was well established by the midl 870s. The studies by Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur of anthrax in 1876-1877, where each claimed to first establish the etiology of the disease (I), served as the experimental basis of a new discipline. Koch’s postulates (although he never formally so presented them [2]) were quickly applied to human diseases, so that by the midl 880s the basis of infectious diseases was firmly established as the science of microbiology.
Support Builds for Networks
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M
Published: November 2023

Kölliker was not alone in gravitating toward the concept of nerve networks. The idea is commonly ascribed to von Gerlach, but in fact it was born in the early 1850s and by the 1880s had acquired many fathers. We will chart its rise briefly in this chapter in order to understand the microscopical evidence on which it was based, to gauge its depth of support, and to gain an appreciation of how it set a rather hostile tone to the intellectual environment from which the neuron doctrine emerged.
The Law of Dynamic Polarization
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M
Published: November 2023

With the introduction of the neuron doctrine, anatomists had succeeded in uniting nerve processes and nerve cell bodies into one anatomical unit. Although there was the strong implication that this anatomical unit was also the basic physiological unit of the nervous system, it was not at all clear what kinds of functions this meant in precise terms.
Modern Revisions of the Neuron Doctrine
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M
Published: November 2023

By the early part of this century the incorporation of the nerve cell into the cell theory was widely accepted in biology and the neurological sciences. Its importance was stated eloquently by Sherrington (1906) in the first sentence of his landmark book, The Integrative Actions of the Nervous System: Nowhere in physiology does the cell-theory reveal its presence more frequently in the very framework of the argument than at the present time in the study of nervous reactions.
Post-Renaissance Visual Anatomy and Physiology
Authors: Finger Stanley
Published: November 2023

In the seventeenth century, l’Abbe Edme Mariotte (1620–1684) discovered the blind spot in the eye through careful study. He determined where the optic nerve entered the eye and set about to test the sensitivity of this point. Mariotte’s discovery of the blind spot was communicated in an “Epistle” to a M. Pecquet, which was then sent to the Royal Society in London. Mariotte (1668, p. 668) wrote: This discovery was deemed so important that it was demonstrated to the king. Nevertheless, Mariotte erroneously concluded that the choroid and not the retina was the sensitive layer of the eye.
Olfaction
Authors: Finger Stanley
Published: November 2023

The idea that unpleasant odors can be evil, powerful, or dangerous has a long history. In fact, in some languages, words such as “wizard” or “witch” were derived from terms meaning “to smell evil” (Summers, 1926). In addition, feces and other substances with repulsive odors were used routinely to drive away demons and harmful spirits in Egyptian and other early cultures (see Chapter 1).
The Process of Sleep
Authors: Finger Stanley
Published: November 2023

Two very closely related topics are sleep and dreaming. This chapter looks at the nature of sleep, and Chapter 18 examines theories and research on dreaming. The present chapter begins with some general ideas about sleep from ancient civilizations and works into the nineteenth century, when experimenters began to study sleep more scientifically. Much of the discussion here focuses on the major theories of sleep proposed during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Two sleep disorders, African sleeping sickness and narcolepsy, are also examined.
Treatments and Therapies: From 1700 to World War I
Authors: Finger Stanley
Published: November 2023

Francois Quesnay (1694-1774), an eighteenth-century apprentice to a barber-surgeon, graduated from the College of Surgery in 1718. He advanced in his profession and became physician to Louis XV (1710-1774) and his mistress, Madame de Pompadour (1721-1764).1 Quesnay, who saved the King’s life, lived during the Age of Enlightenment and was decidedly more optimistic about treating brain injuries than most of his predecessors and contemporaries.
Epilogue
Authors: Finger Stanley
Published: November 2023

The present volume was written as a survey of the history of the neurosciences, with emphasis on how specific functions were eventually associated with particular brain structures. It began with the realization that the practice of opening skulls in living human beings is thousands of years old, suggesting that the brain was perceived as important even by our Neolithic forefathers.
Jason: Learning to be Independent After Encephalitis
Authors: Wilson Barbara A
Published: November 2023

After following the “Human Brain” programmes I wrote to the B.B.C. hoping they might appeal to families of patients suffering from memory problems to write to me and that we might be of some mutual help. My son contracted Virus Encephalitis 2½ year ago, he is now 26. I had a reply from the B.B.C. (Dick Gilling), who thought that you might be the one person who could be interested enough to give me some help and advice, as your main interest was memory. So far I have not been able to get any help, there are no organisations who know of people like Jason, I have written to so many. It is always the same, there are so few cases and there is no centre of information. Jason cannot remember much of his life before his illness, just facts, like the name of his school, name of his University, but has no recognition, when taking him to the University he did not know it or the way around.
Derek: Relearning to Read After A Gunshot Wound
Authors: Wilson Barbara A
Published: November 2023

Derek was born in 1954. At the age of 18 he joined the Royal Air Force but was discharged because of tuberculosis. He spent 2 yr as a slaughter man before joining the Special Airborne Services (SAS) Regiment of the Rhodesian Army. In October 1977, during a battle in Mozambique, Derek was shot in the head. At first he was left for dead in the bush but a friend went to reclaim the body 3 days later. Derek was found to be alive although his brain was visible through his shattered skull. Taken to Salisbury (now Harare) in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), Derek underwent surgery to clean the wound and repair a leak of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSP). For 3 mo he hovered between life and death. Derek’s father in England learned of his son’s plight and scraped together enough money to go to Rhodesia and bring his son back to England where he was admitted to a neurosurgical department. Derek was very agitated and disturbed. He had meningitis and a communicating hydrocephalus.