bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Feminist Research
Authors: Baxter Judith
Published: December 2012

Feminist research emerged across the social sciences to “give voice” to women's activities, lived experiences, and perspectives, a mission which had been conspicuously missing in mainstream research.
First Language Vocabulary Acquisition
Authors: Clark Eve V.
Published: December 2012

Children produce their first words anywhere between 12 months and 24 months of age. And they add steadily to their vocabulary from then on, at a rate estimated at around nine words a day up to age six (Clark, 2009).
Form‐Focused Instruction
Authors: Collins Laura
Published: December 2012

The term
form‐focused instruction
describes any pedagogical practice undertaken by second language (L2) teachers with the goal of drawing their students' attention to language form.
Formulaic Sequences
Authors: Wray Alison
Published: December 2012

A “formulaic sequence” is broadly defined as a string of words with a meaning or function different from that of its component parts and which, for that reason, is hypo‐thesized to be processed holistically.
Fossilization
Authors: Han Zhaohong
Published: December 2012

Fossilization is deemed a central characteristic of second language (L2) acquisition (Selinker, 1972; Bley‐Vroman, 1989; Long, 2003).
Genesee, Fred
Authors: Christian Donna , Bach Aileen
Published: December 2012

Fred Genesee (1948– ) is a researcher and professor of psychology whose work has shaped the fields of bilingual and second language (L2) acquisition and education.
Gimson, A. C.
Authors: Wells John
Published: December 2012

Professor Alfred Charles (A. C.) Gimson (1917–85) was the most influential British phonetician of the second half of the 20th century.
Graded Readers
Authors: Day Richard R.
Published: December 2012

Graded readers occupy an unusual space in foreign language (FL) teaching—unusual because many in the FL profession, particularly teachers, regard them as a valuable and indispensable resource while others, particularly FL researchers and theorists, view them with disdain. The strengths and weaknesses of graded readers (GRs) are discussed in this entry, with the aim of showing how helpful they can be not only in the teaching and learning of FL reading but in overall FL learning.
Register
Authors: Allwood Jens
Published: December 2012

The fact that there are systematic differences between the ways in which people speak, write, and gesture in different parts of the world has led to a great number of concepts and terms having been proposed to capture this variation. Here is a nonexhaustive list: language, dialect, sociolect, register, sublanguage, activity language, restricted language, trade language, scientific language, text type, accent, “patois,” jargon, slang.
Grammar and the Research Article
Authors: Flowerdew Lynne
Published: December 2012

The research article (RA) is one of the most important genres in academic discourse, one reason being that progression in an academic career can hinge on the quality and quantity of an academic's publication record.
Grammar in Academic Writing
Authors: Shaw Philip M.
Published: December 2012

Academic discourse (the language, organization, and rhetoric of academic texts) is a member of a set of discourses called “language for specific purposes” (LSP), which include business, legal, and technical discourse. These discourses occur in spoken and written texts of many sorts. Their vocabulary and grammar can be called their registers, so that one could speak of a general academic written register characterized, for example, by formality and precision, and, within that, of the register of chemistry, characterized above all by a particular terminology. But all these LSP discourses are also characterized by having a particular set of genres (i.e., types of texts with a particular purpose and audience, for example textbooks, research articles, student essays). They use the grammar of the general language but the frequency and functions of some features are different, depending partly on the genre.
Heath, Shirley Brice
Authors: McCreight Jennifer , Gardner Roberta , Thiel Jaye , Allen Jobeth
Published: December 2012

Shirley Brice Heath (1939– ), a linguistic anthropologist, works at the macro and micro levels to study language in political and sociocultural contexts.
Historical Development of Literacy Research
Authors: Martin Nicole M. , Selena Protacio Maria , Huang Hsuan‐Yi , Kuo Nai‐Cheng , Hartman Douglas K.
Published: December 2012

The history of literacy research is like a series of slow, undulating waves. Just as a wave reaches its crest, it wanes and another overtakes it. The ebb and flow of literacy scholarship follows a similar pattern. In this entry we focus on the
topical
shifts in literacy research during the last 140 years by using the language arts as our analytic frame (i.e., reading, writing, speaking, listening, viewing, and visually representing; National Council of Teachers of English [NCTE] and International Reading Association [IRA], 1996).
History of World Englishes
Authors: Kachru Braj B.
Published: December 2012

The history of the construct of “World Englishes” (WE) has evolved over a short period of not more than five decades. It was in 1978 that two path‐breaking, independently organized conferences were planned in two parts of the USA.
Hornberger, Nancy H.
Authors: M. Hult Francis , Cassels Johnson David
Published: December 2012

Nancy Hughes Hornberger (b. 1951) is an internationally recognized scholar in language planning and policy, bilingual education, and biliteracy.
Human Rights
Authors: Starkey Hugh
Published: December 2012

Human rights provide a way of looking at the world. Since the publication of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR; United Nations General Assembly, 1948), all human beings have potential access to a shared language to describe and name ways in which human dignity may be violated and can be protected. This is facilitated by the existence of 375 different language versions of the Declaration, demonstrating a commitment by the United Nations (UN) to communicating directly with people irrespective of the official status of their language.
Ideology in Research Methodology
Authors: Moita‐Lopes Luiz Paulo
Published: December 2012

Any consideration of research methodology necessarily involves accounting for ideological issues.
Iedema, Rick
Authors: Van Leeuwen Theo
Published: December 2012

Rick Iedema (1954– ) is a discourse analyst and semiotician whose work in health communication, organization studies, and organizational semiotics has made important and innovative contributions to discourse analysis and social semiotics as well as to the fields with which his research has been primarily occupied.
Implicit Learning in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Rebuschat Patrick , Williams John N.
Published: December 2012

The process of implicit learning, essentially the ability to acquire unconscious knowledge, is an elementary and ubiquitous process of human cognition.
Incidental Learning in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Hulstijn Jan H.
Published: December 2012

The term incidental learning is used, in applied linguistics, to refer to the acquisition of a word or expression without the conscious intention to commit the element to memory, such as “picking up” an unknown word from listening to someone or from reading a text.
Information Retrieval for Reading Tutors
Authors: Eskenazi Maxine , Juffs Alan
Published: December 2012

Reading tutors are one example of an intelligent tutoring system. Such intelligent tutors seek to integrate content knowledge and instructional principles with models of an individual learner's knowledge and beliefs. In this way, an intelligent tutor can provide individualized instruction appropriate to the stage of development of the learner in the targeted knowledge domain. In this context, the use of information retrieval (IR) for reading tutors is relatively recent (Brown & Eskenazi, 2004) and stems from the strong desire on the part of language educators to give students practice in a realistic environment that goes beyond second language textbooks. In this case, the realism is provided by the authentic texts that are retrieved from the Internet. An authentic text is a text that has not been created or edited specifically for a (second) language learner. The challenge in using authentic documents to teach reading and vocabulary is that, unlike documents prepared by teachers expressly for their students, the materials typically obtained from the Internet are not homogeneous in content and in difficulty. This means that a simple search, containing one or several words and using a common search engine such as Google, will not retrieve documents that are satisfactory for use in tutoring. To find usable documents, the content of the Web pages that are found must be filtered, annotated, and presented to the student in an appropriate environment.
Interviews
Authors: Ho Debbie G. E.
Published: December 2012

The interview is one method applied linguists use to explore language‐related problems. Most interviews are carried out as conversations between people, including the researcher and a respondent whose beliefs, opinions, attitudes, and feelings are relevant to the language issues investigated. Interviews are typically used in exploratory and qualitative research to gather data about beliefs of individuals or groups, but different types of interviews are used for different purposes, including data collection in quantitative research.
Martin‐Jones, Marilyn
Authors: Jones Kathryn
Published: December 2012

Marilyn Martin‐Jones is an emeritus professor based at the MOSAIC Centre for Research on Multilingualism in Birmingham, England.
Krashen, Stephen
Authors: Arnett Katy
Published: December 2012

Stephen Krashen was born in Chicago, Illinois, in 1941.
Kroll, Judith
Authors: Schwartz Ana I.
Published: December 2012

Judith F. Kroll (1948– ) is a distinguished professor of psychology, linguistics, and women's studies at the Pennsylvania State University.
Language and the Digital Divide
Authors: Warschauer Mark
Published: December 2012

Thedigital dividerefers to inequality in access to or use of computers, the Internet, and other information and communication technologies.
Language Attitudes in Language Policy and Planning
Authors: O'Rourke Bernadette , Hogan‐Brun Gabrielle
Published: December 2012

A basic premise of modern linguistics is that all languages are functionally equal (Edwards, 1979, 1994).
Language Ideology and Public Discourse
Authors: Milani Tommaso M.
Published: December 2012

Over the past two decades, the notion of language ideology has gained considerable momentum in different strands of scholarship that aim to unpack how language works in society. Language ideology has its roots in North American linguistic anthropology as a concept within which to explore the “mediating links between social forms and forms of talk” (Woolard, 1998, p. 3). Whilst it is axiomatic for linguists that “all languages are equal” in terms of their meaning‐making potential and their worth as objects of academic inquiry, a cursory glance at any sociolinguistic environment in the “real world” will reveal a different scenario—one in which linguistic phenomena are unequally ranked according to different meanings and values, so that, say, “language” X is believed to be lexically richer, more logical or beautiful, and thus better suited for wider communication within a polity than “dialect” Y. It is precisely the belief systems underlying such social processes of naming, signifying, and valorizing linguistic practices that the notion of language ideology aims to capture. This entry will begin by clarifying the notion of language ideology, followed by a reflection over the notions of public versus private in relation to language ideology. The entry will conclude with some current developments and directions in language ideology research.
Language Trainer Training in Technology
Authors: Healey Deborah
Published: December 2012

Technology in the form of electronic devices and digital media is an important part of education in most settings today.
Language and Education for Returnees
Authors: Kubota Ryuko
Published: December 2012

“Returnees” refers to individuals who return to their homeland after sojourning in another country due to displacement caused by war, conflict, natural disaster, economic migration, overseas business assignment, international marriage, child adoption, or education abroad.
Language, Politics, and the Nation‐State
Authors: Joseph John E.
Published: December 2012

The “nation‐state” is the concept of a continuous expanse of territory occupied in the majority by the people that has traditionally inhabited it, and governed autonomously by them. This people is assumed to be ethnically and culturally unified, with the principal cultural manifestations of their unity being shared religion and language.
Languaging: Collaborative Dialogue as a Source of Second Language Learning
Authors: Swain Merrill , Watanabe Yuko
Published: December 2012

A theoretical claim is that languaging is a source of second language (L2) learning (Swain, 2006, 2010).
Large‐Sized Language Classes
Authors: Watson Todd Richard
Published: December 2012

Large‐sized language classes are a cause for concern for many language teachers, with most teachers regularly teaching classes of a size larger than what they perceive as ideal.
Learner Modeling in Intelligent Computer‐Assisted Language Learning
Authors: Schulze Mathias
Published: December 2012

In computer‐assisted language learning (CALL), a student model is a computational data structure that contains information about individual students and thus facilitates individualized instruction through the adaptation of a language learning system to the learner.
Legal Translation
Authors: Cao Deborah
Published: December 2012

Legal translation is a complex and special type of linguistic activity. It involves mediation between different languages and cultures, and above all different legal systems. It requires special skills, knowledge, and experience on the part of the translator. This entry outlines the key concepts and issues involved in legal translation.
Lehiste, Ilse
Authors: McRobbie‐Utasi Zita
Published: December 2012

Ilse Lehiste (1922–2010) was professor emeritus in the Department of Linguistics at The Ohio State University.
Lexicostatistics and Glottochronology
Authors: McMahon April , McMahon Robert
Published: December 2012

Lexicostatistics and glottochronology are connected methods which use vocabulary to make historical inferences about relationships between languages.
Lingua Franca and Language of Wider Communication
Authors: Berns Margie
Published: December 2012

The potential uses of any particular language are manifold. These uses have been variously described in such terms as creative, administrative, instrumental, or interpersonal; as political or ideological; as rhetorical or symbolic.
Linguistic Imperialism
Authors: Phillipson Robert
Published: December 2012

The study of linguistic imperialism focuses on how and why certain languages dominate internationally, and attempts to account for such dominance in a theoretically informed way.
Linguistic Relativity and Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Athanasopoulos Panos
Published: December 2012

The principle of linguistic relativity was formulated by Benjamin Lee Whorf (1940/1956), but it is also often referred to as the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis in reference to Whorf's mentor at Yale University, Edward Sapir. Whorf contended that while we all see the same objective reality, we nonetheless interpret and classify it differently, based on the categories made available in our language. Therefore, according to Whorf, speakers of different languages think and reason about the perceived world differently. For example, speakers of a language that uses one term to refer to the colors blue and green (a so‐called grue term) evaluate the perceptual difference between blue and green stimuli as less significant than speakers of a language with distinct terms for blue and green (Kay & Kempton, 1984).
Literacy and Language Revitalization
Authors: McCarty Teresa L.
Published: December 2012

To revitalize a language is to create new contexts for its acquisition and use among a heritage community associated with that language. The goal is to engender new vitality in a language that is in danger of falling silent because natural intergenerational language transmission mechanisms have broken down, causing the language to fall out of everyday use. Endangered languages are described as “at risk” or “moribund,” meaning their speakers are beyond childbearing age, or as “sleeping” or “dormant,” meaning they have no native speakers but have written and/or audio documentation and a living heritage community. Language regeneration, renewal, and reclamation are overarching terms to describe revitalization processes for endangered languages.
Literacy Practices in Virtual Environments
Authors: E. Jacobs Gloria
Published: December 2012

Developing an understanding of literacy in virtual environments is challenging because virtual environments are rapidly emerging and evolving, as are the language and literacy practices associated with those environments. Nonetheless, research is beginning to provide insights into the literacy practices inherent in virtual environments and what those practices mean to people who participate in virtual environments.
Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie
Authors: Véronique Georges Daniel
Published: December 2012

In 1946, the French Fourth Republic (1946–58) replaced the defunct French Empire, and the Union Française (French Union) granted French citizenship and political representation to its colonies in an effort to maintain them under its control. The French Fifth Republic (1958), created in the turmoil of the decolonization process, in an attempt to forestall the move toward independence of its colonies, replaced the French Union with the Communauté Française (French Community). Eventually, the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (henceforth OIF;
www.francophonie.org
) emerged in the 1960s, in the wake of the decolonization process that had led to the dismantling of the French Community. The impetus for the founding of the organization came from former colonies wanting to retain their association with France. This entry provides some information on the historical background of the OIF, explains its gradual growth and the development of its policies, and assesses its present contribution.
Lyster, Roy
Authors: Ranta Leila
Published: December 2012

Professor Roy Lyster (1956– ) is a leading researcher in applied linguistics associated with the topic of corrective feedback, form‐focused instruction, and the integration of language and content in content‐based language instruction.
McClelland, James L.
Authors: Joanisse Marc F.
Published: December 2012

James L. McClelland (born on December 1, 1948 in Cambridge, Massachussetts, USA) is best known as a principal developer of the parallel distributed processing (PDP) framework of cognitive science.
Mnemonics
Authors: Barcroft Joe
Published: December 2012

Mnemonics
(mnemonic devices or techniques) are mental aids that help us to remember different types of items and information, such as new word forms, names, historical dates, numbers, formulas, and various rules and lists. Typically they involve recoding or breaking down formal components of a target (to‐be‐remembered) item in a manner that makes these components more familiar, abbreviated, or in some way easier to remember. The phrase
every good boy deserves fudge
and the word
FACE
, for example, are mnemonics that are often used to help an individual who is beginning to learn to read music. The first letter of each word of the five‐word phrase corresponds to notes on the lines on the treble clef, and each letter of the word
FACE
corresponds to the note for each of the empty spaces between the lines. Other examples of mnemonics are well‐known catchphrases such as
i before e except after c
, designed to help recall spelling rules, and rhymes such as
red sky at night, sailors'
(or
travellers'
,
shepherds'
)
delight; red sky in morning, sailors take warning
, designed to help individuals know what to expect with regard to warning signs for different weather conditions (putting aside whether or not the assertion being made is correct).
Mobile‐Assisted Language Learning
Authors: Kukulska‐Hulme Agnes
Published: December 2012

Mobile‐assisted language learning (MALL) is the use of mobile technologies in language learning, especially in situations where device portability offers specific advantages.
Modeling Language for Assessment
Authors: Mislevy Robert J.
Published: December 2012

A model is a simplified description of a more complex system that helps people reason about particular aspects of the system.
Modularity in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Sharwood Smith Michael
Published: December 2012

Modules, in any branch of science and engineering, will be defined as units that have a special function.
Monolingual Lexicography
Authors: Hanks Patrick
Published: December 2012

In recent years there has been an increasing focus on the lexicon in applied linguistics, while the technology of dictionary compiling and dictionary publishing has changed beyond recognition, due to the availability of electronic resources such as very large corpora.
Multilingual Education and Language Awareness
Authors: Hélot Christine
Published: December 2012

The role of languages in education is both a central and a contentious issue faced by most education systems in the world today, because many teachers have to contend with multilingual students being schooled in languages other than their mother tongues.
Multilingual Education in Africa
Authors: Heugh Kathleen
Published: December 2012

Approximately 2,100 (30% of the world's) languages are spoken in Africa (Lewis, 2009), with multilingualism a defining characteristic of the continent.
Multilingual Education in India
Authors: Mohanty Ajit K.
Published: December 2012

Synthesis of diverse cultural influences and religious traditions and coexistence of many languages complementing different spheres of public activity have remained distinctive features of Indian society.
Multilingual Education in North America
Authors: De Jong Ester J.
Published: December 2012

Bilingual and multilingual education is one form of schooling that has developed worldwide in response to the linguistic and cultural diversity that characterizes countries all over the world as a result of continuing migration, transmigration, and globalization. Simply defined, bilingual education is instruction that uses two languages as media of instruction. By extension, multilingual education programs are programs whose goals include proficiency in more than two languages. In the North American context, bilingual programs are more common than multilingual education programs.
Multilingualism and Emotions
Authors: Dewaele Jean‐Marc
Published: December 2012

Wierzbicka (2004) notes that “emotions are central to human life, and bilingualism provides a new perspective on emotions which promises to lead to new insights, as well as to offer crucial evidence for the old debates” (p. 94). One of these debates opposes researchers who defend a more universalist perspective on emotions and researchers who favor a more relativist perspective.
Multilingualism and the Internet
Authors: Leppänen Sipra , Peuronen Saija
Published: December 2012

Introduction

Why multilingualism and the Internet should be an interesting and important topic at the present time (2011) has a great deal to do with globalization.
Multimodality and Globalization
Authors: Schmitz Ulrich
Published: December 2012

Human communication is typically multimodal. Verbal communication goes along with mimic and gesture; written text always shows a typeface more or less visually designed (Krämer, Cancik‐Kirschbaum, & Totzke, 2011).
Multimodality and Metaphors
Authors: M. Lazar Michelle
Published: December 2012

Metaphors are commonly viewed as a figurative literary device that adds eloquence to a speech or text. The assumptions underlying this popular understanding of metaphors are that they are a property of words; they are used to achieve some artistic or rhetorical effect; they are based on a relationship of similarity between two entities; they are a conscious and skilled use of language; and they are a figure of speech whose function is merely decorative (Kovecses, 2002, p. vii).
Multimodality and Time
Authors: Frommherz Gudrun
Published: December 2012

Temporality in language and in human interaction is a complex phenomenon.
Narrative Discourse
Authors: Bamberg Michael
Published: December 2012

This entry brings two lenses into fusion and, by use of a few brief illustrations, documents what narrative discourse is able to contribute to the general field of applied linguistics.
Nation
Authors: Joseph John E.
Published: December 2012

The term “nation,” as opposed to “state” or “federation” or “territory” or other related terms, implies the existence of a people united either by common ancestry or some other deep cultural bond.
Naturalistic Data
Authors: Kirjavainen Minna , Theakston Anna
Published: December 2012

Data collection is an important part of language research.
Needs Analysis
Authors: H. Long Michael
Published: December 2012

Learner goals and needs can differ widely, both within and across groups.
Neurolinguistic and Cognitive Aspects of Interpreting
Authors: Setton Robin
Published: December 2012

Interpreting looks at first sight like rapid language transfer, a kind of instant translation relying on exceptional linguistic proficiency, but there is direct and indirect evidence of abundant supporting cognitive activity.
Norris, Sigrid
Authors: Wohlfart Irmengard
Published: December 2012

Associate Professor Sigrid Norris (b. 1961) is Director of the Multimodal Research Centre (MRC, atwww.multimodalresearch.org/) at Auckland University of Technology (AUT), New Zealand.
O
hta,
A
my
S
nyder
Authors: Tateyama Yumiko
Published: December 2012

Amy Snyder Ohta (1962– ) is best known for her application of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory to second language learning and development. She is also widely recognized as one of the first scholars who conducted extensive research on the development of interactional competence of adult learners of Japanese through microanalysis of classroom interactions.
Onomastics
Authors: Coates Richard
Published: December 2012

Onomastics is the branch of linguistics which studies proper names.
Organization of the Second Language Lexicon
Authors: Kroll Judith F. , Bogulski Cari A.
Published: December 2012

Learning and using new words are typically the first steps in acquiring proficiency in a second language (L2).
Otto, Frank
Authors: Bush Michael D.
Published: December 2012

The creation in 1981 of CALICO (Computer‐Aided Language Instruction Consortium) represented a significant chapter in the history of computer‐aided language learning, and Dr. Frank Otto played a preeminent role in that development.
Language for Specific Purposes: Overview
Authors: Upton Thomas A. , Connor Ulla
Published: December 2012

Language for specific purposes (LSP) is an area of applied linguistics that focuses on the analysis and teaching of language in order to meetspecificlanguage needs of non‐native speakers of the language.
Pike, Kenneth Lee
Authors: N. Headland Thomas
Published: December 2012

Kenneth L. Pike (1912 –2000) was born in East Woodstock, Connecticut.
Policy Analysis and Document‐Based Literacy Research
Authors: Patel Stevens Lisa , Laliberte Matthew
Published: December 2012

In Lisa Patel Stevens's undergraduate training as a print journalist, a professor handed her the journalistic charge succinctly: A newspaper should convey what it was like to be alive on that day in that place. Fairly straightforward, right? However, even a cursory scratch of the surface of that statement agitates and enlivens the complexity that spills over the capacity of texts to capture lived realities neutrally. For example, depending upon the news source, the flooding of New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina was a natural disaster of climate patterns or a human‐made disaster of civil engineering. Also depending upon your lived experiences, the reporting of these events may be, in and of themselves, textual acts that perpetuate racial inequities in the United States. It is within this complexity of texts as representative and agentive that policy analyses and document‐based literacy research finds itself.
Pragmatic Transfer
Authors: Bou‐Franch Patricia
Published: December 2012

As resourceful human beings, when we embark on a task for the first time, we resort, consciously or unconsciously, to our previous knowledge and experience in order to accomplish the task as efficiently as possible. This also applies to second (or third or other) language acquisition/learning scenarios: When we learn a new language, we already know, at least, a first language and have a wealth of world experience and information that will necessarily play a role in the acquisition and use of the new language. The interaction between the old information—our first language—and the new information—any subsequent language we may learn—is at the heart of the phenomenon of transfer.
Pragmatics of Second Language Computer‐Mediated Communication
Authors: Williams Lawrence
Published: December 2012

This entry provides an overview of issues related to the pragmatics of second language (L2) computer‐mediated communication (CMC) with a focus on synchronous CMC (SCMC), which involves real‐time exchanges between or among participants.
Pragmatics of Short Message Service
Authors: Spagnolli Anna
Published: December 2012

Technically speaking, the short message service (henceforth “SMS”) is a system that allows the exchange of textual messages from one mobile phone to another.
Prestige Planning
Authors: Ammon Ulrich
Published: December 2012

Prestige planning has received little attention from language planners and, to the extent that it has, it has been impeded by lack of clarity, even on basic concepts.
Prison Language
Authors: Mayr Andrea
Published: December 2012

The specific demands on language by a subgroup in society are often expressed through slang, and the use of slang by minority or deviant groups is well known.
Private Speech in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: De Guerrero María C. M.
Published: December 2012

Traditionally, the study of second language (L2) acquisition has focused on learners' use of speech for social or public purposes (as in writing for an audience or engaging in conversation).
Prompted Responses
Authors: Taguchi Naoko
Published: December 2012

Prompted responses are data elicited through experimental tasks in which participants do not produce spontaneous language but respond to stimuli in some way. Prompted responses are different from naturalistic data and interviews that are not elicited. Similar to prompted production that also forms elicited data (but in production), prompted responses are considered a reflection of underlying knowledge and processes. This chapter reviews prompted responses in three domains: linguistics, pragmatics, and psycholinguistics.
Qualitative Research in Language Planning and Policy
Authors: Payne Mark
Published: December 2012

A clear and all‐encompassing definition of language planning (LP) remains elusive. A working definition used by this author, taken from Joshua Fishman, is: “the organized pursuit of solutions to language problems, typically at the national level” (Fishman, 1974, p. 79). This definition is included among Robert Cooper's selected 13 definitions of a field that embraces both the societal focus in LP (status planning) and inherently linguistic matters (corpus planning), and ranges across a spectrum from national to local LP (Cooper, 1996). As Kaplan and Baldauf point out, LP is usually deliberate, governmentally driven, future orientated action designed to bring about changes in linguistic behavior (Kaplan & Baldauf, 1997). For example, a number of LP studies have influenced change in terms of national policies, such as Lo Bianco's work on the Australian National Policy on Languages which sought to develop a nationally coordinated language policy (Lo Bianco, 1987) or Tuin and Westhoff's work evaluating the foreign language capacity of the Dutch population in the Dutch National Action Programme (Tuin & Westhoff, 1997).
Qualitative Sociolinguistics Research
Authors: Langman Juliet , Sayer Peter
Published: December 2012

Qualitative sociolinguistics research (QSR) is an approach to sociolinguistic research that focuses on the ways in which people in communities use language to accomplish things in the world, and how they represent themselves to the world.
Reading and Language for Specific Purposes
Authors: Grabe William , Stoller Fredricka L.
Published: December 2012

The uses and development of reading skills in Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) contexts have been, oddly enough, rarely discussed in recent years, even though LSP students typically study a second or foreign language for academic or professional purposes that entails substantial reading.
Research Techniques and the Bilingual Brain
Authors: Conboy Barbara T.
Published: December 2012

Bilingualism—broadly defined as the regular use of two or more spoken or signed languages in a person's daily life—is frequent throughout the world, yet many models of how language is acquired and processed by the brain have been based on studies of monolingual children and adults. Practical need for normative data, and theoretical interest in the uniqueness of bilingual language processing, have increased the demand for research on the bilingual brain. At the same time, techniques for investigating the neural bases of language across age groups continue to develop, making the neural basis of bilingualism a promising area for future research.
Sampling: Mixed Methods
Authors: Collins Kathleen M. T.
Published: December 2012

A sampling design comprises two components: the selection of a sampling scheme (purposive or probability) and a sample size.
Second Language Reading, Scripts, and Orthographies
Authors: Koda Keiko
Published: December 2012

Reading has several unique properties.
Second Language Speech Perception and the Brain
Authors: Wang Yue
Published: December 2012

The theoretical framework of second language (L2) speech perception and processing is based on the nature–nurture interplay in language learning.
Sentence Production in a Second Language
Authors: Kormos Judit
Published: December 2012

Sentence production has four important components: (a)
conceptualization
, that is, planning what one wants to say; (b)
formulation
, which includes the grammatical, lexical, and phonological encoding of the sentence; (c)
articulation
, in other words, the production of speech sounds; and (d)
self‐monitoring
, which involves checking the correctness and appropriateness of the produced output (Levelt, 1989).
Shohamy, Elana
Authors: King Kendall A.
Published: December 2012

Elana Shohamy is an internationally recognized scholar in the study of language testing, language policy, immigration, and linguistic landscapes. Her research, writing, teaching, and consulting work over the last three decades have advanced our understanding of how language, testing, and public policy interact to produce differences in educational access and achievement across groups, as well as the roles of these forces in the negotiation of power and identity within multilingual societies such as Israel and the United States.
Sociolinguistics: Mixed Methods
Authors: Caldas Stephen
Published: December 2012

Mixed methods research incorporates both quantitative and qualitative research techniques, and provides a broader, more rounded, and multifaceted perspective on the complex reality of social settings than either quantitative or qualitative approaches alone (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009).
Solan, Lawrence M.
Authors: MacLeod Nicci
Published: December 2012

Lawrence M. Solan (1952– ) is Don Forchelli Professor of Law at Brooklyn Law School, and well known for his contributions to the field of language and law with his booksThe Language of Judges(1993) andSpeaking of Crime: The Language of Criminal Justicewith Peter Tiersma (Solan & Tiersma, 2005), as well as numerous scholarly articles.
Sound and Spelling
Authors: Bassetti Benedetta
Published: December 2012

Spelling means representing a language in writing by using the letters of an alphabet according to conventions.
Spoken Word Production in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Costa Albert , Runnqvist Elin , Strijkers Kristof
Published: December 2012

When the multilingual aphasic patient AH is asked to describe her day in Italian, she answers in the following manner: “I cannotcomunicare conyou; I am adisastrotoday” (taken from Abutalebi, Miozzo, & Cappa, 2000).
Stansfield, Charles
Authors: Reed Daniel J.
Published: December 2012

Dr. Charles W. Stansfield is president of Second Language Testing, Incorporated (SLTI), a thriving test‐development company that he created in 1994, which has clients in government, education, and in the private sector.
Structural Equation Modeling
Authors: Schoonen Rob
Published: December 2012

Structural equation modeling (SEM) refers to a flexible and rich analytic approach that can be used to address a variety of research questions through a combination of factor analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and regression analysis.
Suprasegmentals: Discourse Intonation
Authors: Pickering Lucy
Published: December 2012

Intonation is narrowly defined as the linguistically significant use of pitch movement at the suprasegmental level.
Swain, Merrill
Authors: Lapkin Sharon
Published: December 2012

Merrill Swain (1944– ) has made multiple scholarly contributions to the field of applied linguistics.
Dialogic Inquiry and Teacher Talk in Second Language Classrooms
Authors: Haneda Mari , Wells Gordon
Published: December 2012

A sociocultural approach to language and literacy emphasizes the need for students to be actively engaged in jointly undertaken activities that involve the co‐construction of knowledge through dialogue with teacher, texts, and peers.
Teaching and Learning of Interpreting
Authors: Wilson Christine W. L.
Published: December 2012

The teaching and learning of interpreting has a short history. Although interpreting has shadowed human activity throughout the ages, the first practitioners of interpreting were people with language skills, but without training in interpreting. As has been observed in more recent times, these “natural” or “lay” interpreters would interpret intuitively; subsequently, knowledge acquired through personal experience might be shared with others beginning to interpret, as master to novice.
Teaching and Learning of Translation
Authors: Washbourne Kelly
Published: December 2012

Translators provide products and services, and work with written documents, as distinguished from interpreters, who work as oral language mediators. Although it is less common to work in both fields, except at the community level, many students in translation and interpreting schools pursue a dual‐track degree or course of study. It is generally accepted that the required skill sets for translation and interpreting only partially overlap. Traditionally, translators have learned their craft informally: through on‐the‐job training or in unstructured apprenticeships. Many translators today still learn by working in the language services market, though an array of program options within academia have opened in the last decades, commonly at the undergraduate (first‐cycle) and master's (second‐cycle) levels. Graduate or undergraduate certificate programs are another option, and are generally shorter than degree programs. The foundational degree is generally accepted to be the master's, whereas the bachelor's is seen as preparatory. PhD programs (third‐cycle) in translation tend to be designed to train not translators but rather scholars of translation, usually in the academic discipline of translation studies. Qualified translation graduates find work as language policy consultants, translation tool vendor representatives, project managers, terminologists, acquisitions editors, literary translators, and translator trainers. Translators are employed in a variety of industries: schools and universities; major newspapers; multinational companies; health care and social assistance, especially hospitals; and other areas of government, such as federal, state, and local courts, or international organizations. Translation agencies (bureaus) also outsource much of their work to translation vendors. Publishing companies are employers of translators, usually through a work‐for‐hire contract; this type of translation is sometimes known aseditorial translation. An increasing percentage of translators are self‐employed, and thus today's students work toward mastery in more than languages—the mandate for a strong foundation in entrepreneurship exists, as in‐house opportunities are growing steadily fewer. Many translators rely on other sources of income to supplement earnings, such as teaching or language consultancy. Most well‐developed translation programs around the world offer some form of business of translation course in which such related professionalizing issues of self‐marketing, standards and payment practices, and bidding for work are addressed.
Teaching English for Medical and Health Professions
Authors: Hoekje Barbara J.
Published: December 2012

The teaching of English for medical and health professions (TEMHP) is a growing enterprise worldwide linked to the rise of English as an international language of health care, global employment flows, and an increasing focus on communication in medical education and practice.
Teaching for Language Awareness
Authors: Svalberg Agneta M.‐L.
Published: December 2012

Language awareness (LA) is defined by the Association for Language Awareness (ALA) as “explicit knowledge about language, and conscious perception and sensitivity in language learning, language teaching and language use” (retrieved April 19, 2011 fromhttp://www.lexically.net/ala/la_defined.htm).
Teaching Integrated Skills
Authors: Hirvela Alan
Published: December 2012

Teaching foreign‐language skills in an integrated way—that is, with what is sometimes called a “blending” of the skills within a teaching/learning event as opposed to teaching them separately from each other—traditionally was not seen as an option by language teachers.
Teaching Reading
Authors: Grabe William , Stoller Fredricka L.
Published: December 2012

This entry focuses on academic reading contexts and corresponding instructional approaches.
Technology and Teaching Language for Specific Purposes
Authors: Ene Estela
Published: December 2012

Technology is constantly transforming the way we live and learn.
Technology and Learning Vocabulary
Authors: Cobb Thomas
Published: December 2012

To date, vocabulary is the dimension of language that has been most intimately involved with technology.
Technology and Usage‐Based Teaching Applications
Authors: Gardner Dee
Published: December 2012

Recent advances in computer technology have allowed the study of human language to progress in ways that were not possible when experts relied on human judgments alone (Sinclair, 2004).
Text‐Based Approaches to Translation
Authors: Giannossa Leonardo
Published: December 2012

The text‐based or textual approach to translation regards a text as a communicative act which takes places in a situationally and culturally significant context. In this sense, translation is more than a mere interlinguistic transcoding activity. The text to be translated, or, as is often referred to by translation scholars and translators, the source text (ST), is viewed as a coherent chunk of lexical items and is analyzed globally at the supra‐sentential level by looking at its overall meaning, textual features, and communicative function(s). The translation unit is no longer the word or sentence, as is the case with the linguistic approach, but rather the text as a whole. The translator's task is to produce a translation or target text (TT) which is textually and communicatively equivalent to the ST. This is accomplished by encoding the ST information into equivalent target culture textual prototypes (see Neubert & Shreve, 1992, discussed below).
Theory of Interpreting
Authors: Bartłomiejczyk Magdalena
Published: December 2012

Theory of interpreting is a dynamically developing field of study dealing with various aspects of oral and sign language translation in its several modes and a wide range of settings.
Tiersma, Peter
Authors: Howald Blake Stephen
Published: December 2012

Peter Meijes Tiersma (1952– ) is a linguist and lawyer who is Professor of Law and Honorable William Matthew Byrne, Jr. Chair at Loyola Law School in Los Angeles, California. Tiersma's research and scholarship focuses on numerous types of language in the legal system from a linguistic science perspective, typically drawing on theoretical constructs in historical linguistics, discourse analysis and pragmatics (e.g., speech act theory, Austin, 1962; and implicature, Grice, 1975). For example, Tiersma'sLegal Language(1999) explores the origins of legal language from the early Anglo‐Saxons, through the Norman Conquest, to present day forms (e.g., statutes, testimony, contracts, judicial opinions, etc.) from the perspective of both linguistic and jurisprudential theory and practice. The relevance of this work, which expands the early work of Mellinkoff (1963), stems from the fact that, in a given legal system, there is often a disconnect between the structure and meaning of written laws and the application of those written laws to factual scenarios in the real world, potentially leading to incongruous results. Linguists have sought to correct this disconnect by highlighting the need to understand the history of a given language and basic ideas in linguistics (with an eye toward making intelligent reforms—e.g., the plain language movement). Tiersma also tackles these issues in the face of modern‐day computer technology inParchment, Paper, Pixels: Law and the Technologies of Communication(2010).
Transcription
Authors: Dittmar Norbert
Published: December 2012

Transcription(from Latintranscribere, ‘to transcribe’) means “any graphic representation of selective aspects of speaking and of one or more persons’ behaviour and setting concomitant with speaking” (O'Connell & Kowal, 1995, p. 646). The Latin proverbverba volant, scripta manent(“words are fleeting, but written they remain”) reflects the fact that only written discourses were taken as “legitimate” text resources in developed societies before the 20th century. Most of the world's societies use a coded written alphabet which fits the norms of a standard language and serves as a normative system for any legitimate public communication. It is a code independent of social context and the changing conditions of verbal interactions in situational settings.
Translation, Localization, and Internationalization
Authors: Dunne Keiran J.
Published: December 2012

Translation, localization, and internationalization are interdependent processes whereby digital content and products developed in one locale are adapted for sale and use in one or more other locales. To understand the meaning of localization and internationalization and their relationship both to each other and to translation, it is necessary to consider when, why, and how they arose and the ways they have changed over time.
T
ucker, G.
R
ichard
Authors: Donato Richard
Published: December 2012

For over 40 years, G. Richard Tucker (1942– ) has contributed significantly to research in diverse domains within the field of applied linguistics and has provided inspiring leadership to the profession.
Uses of Language Assessments
Authors: Brown Annie
Published: December 2012

Language tests are used in many contexts and for many purposes. Language test scores are used to make many types of decision about people and programs.
Values in Language Teaching
Authors: Zahler Tara
Published: December 2012

Formal research and scholarship in applied linguistics directly focused on values in language teaching only began to surface at the turn of the 21st century.