bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
4. Enforcing EU law rights in national courts
Authors: Berry Elspeth , Bogusz Barbara , Homewood Matthew , Strecker Sophie
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Complete series combine extracts from a wide range of primary materials with clear explanatory text to provide readers with a complete introductory resource. This chapter discusses the development of the concepts of the direct effect and indirect effect of EU law—in other words, the rights of an individual or business to rely on a provision of EU law in their national courts; the rules that apply to the grant of remedies in national courts for breach of directly or indirectly effective EU law; and the relationship between direct and indirect effect, and the principle of State liability.
1. Introduction
Authors: Chen-Wishart Mindy
Published: September 2022

This introductory chapter presents an overview of contract law. It discusses the definition of a contract; the problems arising in the life of a contract that must be addressed by contract law; the common law, statutory, and international sources of contract law; the nature of legal reasoning; the pluralistic values reflected in contract law that introduce tensions; the main theories on why contracts should be enforced; the reach of contract law and where contract law does not apply; contract law’s relationship to other branches of private law tort, property, and unjust enrichment; and the external influences on English contract law.
11. Direct control over terms
Authors: Chen-Wishart Mindy
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines direct legal controls over the contents of contracts, with particular emphasis on the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 (UCTA) and the Consumer Rights Act 2015 (CRA). The pattern of control under UCTA and CRA is discussed, compared, and contrasted in terms of: the types of contracts covered; the parties who can benefit from, or be detrimentally affected by, the contract; the types of terms subject to control; the control mechanisms such as of outright invalidity and a test of reasonableness or fairness; and the enforcement mechanism, whether by the individual complainant or by a statutory body. Other statutory and common law controls of terms are also briefly discussed, as is the question of whether control of substantive unfairness by contract law can be justified.
7. Intention to Create Legal Relations
Authors: McKendrick Ewan
Published: September 2022

An essential ingredient of a binding contract is that the parties must have had an intention to create legal relations. In other words, they must have had an intention to be bound by the terms of their agreement. This chapter, which examines the doctrine of intention to create legal relations, begins by considering cases involving domestic and social agreements before turning to analyse the role of intention to create legal relations in the commercial environment. The chapter also covers the role of presumptions in relation to proof of the existence of an intention to create legal relations and the relationship between the doctrine of intention to create legal relations and consideration.
16. Mistake
Authors: McKendrick Ewan
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the effects of a mistake on the validity of a contract. A mistake may prevent parties from reaching agreement. First, a court may decide that no contract has been concluded where one party knows that the other is labouring under a mistake in relation to the terms of the agreement and fails to inform that other party of the mistake. Secondly, it may conclude that the terms of the offer and acceptance suffer from a latent ambiguity such that the parties cannot be said to have reached agreement. The third case in which a mistake may prevent the formation of a contract is where there has been a mistake as to the identity of the party who is said to be a party to the contract. The discussion then turns to the leading cases on common mistake, mistake in equity, and rectification. The chapter concludes by considering the non est factum defence, which can be invoked by someone who, through no fault of his own, has no understanding of the document that he has signed.
21. Frustration and Force Majeure
Authors: McKendrick Ewan
Published: September 2022

The doctrine of frustration operates to discharge a contract where, after the formation of the contract, something occurs which renders performance of the contract impossible, illegal, or something radically different from that which was in the contemplation of the parties at the time of entry into the contract. This chapter examines the scope of the doctrine of frustration and the relationship between the doctrine of frustration and any force majeure or hardship clause that is found in the contract. Consideration is given to the basis of the doctrine of frustration and the remedial consequences of the conclusion that a contract has been frustrated. It also explores the reasons for the narrow scope of the doctrine of frustration and contrasts it with the more liberal regimes to be found in, for example, the Principles of European Contract Law.
3. Offer and acceptance II: two related principles
Authors: O'Sullivan Janet
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter examines the applications of the general principles of the offer and the acceptance requirement in the law of contract in two specific problem areas which raise offer and acceptance principles. These issues concern intention to create legal relations and unilateral (or ‘offer and acceptance’) mistake, including the doctrine of non est factum.
4. Certainty
Authors: O'Sullivan Janet
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter examines the certainty requirement in contractual formation and discusses the factors that influence the courts in deciding whether an agreement possesses the requisite degree of certainty, in the context of issues such as agreements to agree, agreements to negotiate in good faith, and agreements to use reasonable or best endeavours to negotiate or agree.
5. Consideration and estoppel
Authors: O'Sullivan Janet
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter explores and defends the consideration requirement in the enforceability of contractual obligations, both when the contract is formed and if it is varied, refuting some of the criticisms calling for the requirement of consideration to be reformed or abolished in English law. It defines consideration as the ‘price of the promise’ and clarifies that an act or promise must have been requested by the promisor to count as consideration. It explores issues such as past consideration, performance of an existing contractual duty, and part payment of a debt, for which latter issue the common law rule is ameliorated by the equitable doctrine of promissory estoppel.
11. Undue influence
Authors: O'Sullivan Janet
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter examines undue influence in a contract, which is a vitiating factor and also a ground of restitution. It explains that undue influence is hard to define and can more easily be recognised when found than exhaustively analysed in the abstract. This chapter investigates how undue influence is proved by means of a rebuttable presumption based on a relationship of trust and confidence coupled with a transaction that calls for an explanation, and how the resulting presumption is rebutted. It then covers the remedy of rescission for undue influence. Finally it explores undue influence in three-party cases, where relief depends on whether the contracting party had notice, actual or constructive, of the undue influence and whether it had taken reasonable steps.
15. Discharge of a contract for breach
Authors: O'Sullivan Janet
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter examines the circumstances in which a contract can be terminated or discharged by one party following breach or incomplete performance by the other party, covering entire obligations. It explains that breach of contract does not automatically bring a contract to an end and that termination of a contract for breach is not the same as rescission. This chapter also discusses the two sorts of situation in which the innocent party can terminate the contract for the other party’s breach, namely breach of condition or serious breach of an innominate term, and following repudiation, and considers the innocent party’s option to elect whether to terminate the contract or keep it alive.
16. Remedies I: compensatory damages
Authors: O'Sullivan Janet
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter focuses on compensatory damages, the principal remedy for breach of contract, and explores the actionable types of loss. It deals with the various measures of damages, how they are quantified, and discusses the circumstances in which the claimant can recover for non-financial loss. It explores principles of causation and the remoteness of damage test for breach of contract, the requirement of mitigation, and the defence of contributory negligence.
6. Adverse possession
Authors: Clarke Sandra , Greer Sarah
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the law on adverse possession. It first considers arguments for and against allowing adverse possession. It then describes changes in the law of adverse possession and outlines the main statutory provisions, namely the Limitation Act 1980, the Land Registration Act 1925, and the Land Registration Act 2002. Next, the chapter discusses what a squatter needs to show in order to make a claim to the land and the effects of adverse possession. The old scheme under the Limitation Act 1980 and the new scheme under the Land Registration Act 2002 are compared.
9. Trusts and the family home
Authors: Clarke Sandra , Greer Sarah
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses a form of ‘implied’ co-ownership—the situation in which the law recognizes that co-ownership in a property has arisen, even though this is sometimes far from the intention of the parties. It looks at how implied co-ownership arises, through either a resulting or constructive trust. It discusses in detail the two-stage process that gives rise to the court identifying that the existence of a common intention constructive trust has been established, and looks at how the courts have considered this process over many years. It then considers how the court approaches quantification of shares in the property. Finally it looks at the many proposals for reform in this area of law.
The Substantive Law of the EU
Authors: Barnard Catherine
Published: September 2022

The Substantive Law of the EU provides a critical and thorough analysis of the key principles of the substantive law of the EU, focusing on the four freedoms (goods, persons, services, and capital). An introductory chapter provides valuable context on the nature of the internal market, its evolution, and the theories behind its key principles. Each of the freedoms is then considered in turn. The book concludes with a discussion of harmonization, the regulation of the internal market, and its future.
1. Introduction to the Issues
Authors: Barnard Catherine
Published: September 2022

This book focuses on the rules interfering with movement across EU Member States. This chapter places these rules in context. It discusses the importance of free trade; the different stages of integration; understanding the integration process; and the principles underpinning the common market.
5. Derogations and Justifications
Authors: Barnard Catherine
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the specific derogations under Article 36 TFEU, the mandatory requirements developed by the Court, and the application of the principles of proportionality and fundamental rights. It considers the so-called ‘Mutual Recognition’ Regulation adopted as part of the Commission’s 2007 ‘Package on Internal Market for Goods’ and its revision by Regulation 2019/515.
11. Freedom of Establishment and Freedom to Provide Services: Legal Persons
Authors: Barnard Catherine
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the restrictions on both access to, and exercise of, freedom of establishment and freedom to provide services by legal persons (companies, branches, agencies, and subsidiaries). It also discusses the Services Directive 2006/123 which in part codifies and in part develops the Court’s approach to both freedom of establishment and free movement of services.
13. Free Movement of Capital
Authors: Barnard Catherine
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the development of free movement of capital in the EU. It covers the scope of the provision on capital; national measures that are prohibited under Article 63 TFEU; express derogations and public interest requirements. The chapter begins by examining why free movement of capital is considered an important part of any trading area before briefly examining its evolution in the EU. The chapter then analyses the detail of the Treaty provisions on capital.
4. Equality in Employment
Authors: Emir Astra
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers those provisions of the Equality Act 2010 that relate to employment law. These generally are to be found in Parts 5, 8, 9, 10, and 11 of the Act, together with provisions found in various schedules. Topics discussed include key concepts of the Act; various types of prohibited conduct such as direct and indirect discrimination; the protected characteristics in the Equality Act (namely age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage and civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity, race, religion or belief, sex, sexual orientation); defences such as justification and occupational requirements; discrimination in employment; provisions in the Equality Act that are common to all of the protected characteristics; comparators; occupational requirements; submitting a complaint; enforcement powers of the Equality and Human Rights Commission; and other protected groups. It also covers ex-offenders and rehabilitation periods.
7. Employment Protection
Authors: Emir Astra
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers miscellaneous legal rights given to employees in the Employment Rights Act 1996 and other legislation. These are minimum standards which can be exceeded by agreement or negotiation, but they cannot be denied to an employee. The discussions cover guarantee payments (ERA, ss 28–35); suspension on medical grounds (ERA, ss 64–65) and time off work for various reasons, such as for public duties, study, or training, and for occupational pension scheme trustees. It also covers statutory sick pay including self-isolation due to Coronavirus; the scheme surrounding the Working Time Regulations 1998, and looks at the provisions of the regulations and their enforcement.
9. Transfer of Undertakings
Authors: Emir Astra
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers the transfer of undertakings. It looks at the background and at the legislation, including the Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of Employment) Regulations 2006 and the Collective Redundancies and Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of Employment) (Amendment) Regulations 2014. It discusses what counts as a transfer of a business or undertaking, considering service provision changes and transfers within the public administration. Also covered are the mechanics and effects of the transfer, including statutory rights and the effect on the contract of employment; dismissal on transfers and ETO reasons (economic, organisational or technological reason); refusing a transfer; employee liability information; and remedy for failure to notify employee liability information. It also looks at the effect of transfers on collective agreements and insolvency rights.
16. Wrongful Dismissal
Authors: Emir Astra
Published: September 2022

Under the law which existed prior to 1971, an employer was entitled to dismiss an employee for any reason or no reason at all. In 1971 the Industrial Relations Act created the right for many employees not to be unfairly dismissed, and though that Act was repealed, the relevant provisions were substantially re-enacted in the Trade Union and Labour Relations Act 1974, and further changes were made by the Employment Protection Act 1975. The Employment Rights Act 1996 (as amended) contains most of the relevant statutory provisions currently in force. This chapter discusses the ways in which wrongful dismissal may occur, collateral contracts, summary dismissal, and employment law remedies.
18. Redundancy
Authors: Emir Astra
Published: September 2022

The Redundancy Payments Act 1965 was enacted to compensate a long-serving employee for the loss of a right which he has in a job. The Act has been repealed and replaced by corresponding provisions in the Employment Rights Act 1996. This chapter discusses provisions of the Employment Rights Act 1996. It looks at what is a dismissal and the definition of redundancy, transferred redundancies, presumption of redundancy, and offers of alternative employment. Considered are whether redundancy dismissals are fair or unfair; offers of suitable alternative employment; excluded classes of employees; handling redundancies; claims for redundancy payments; payments by the Secretary of State; consultation on redundancies; the meaning of the term ‘establishment’; the consultation provisions of the legislation; and notification of mass redundancies to the minister.
19. Duties of Ex-employees
Authors: Emir Astra
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers the duties of ex-employees, ie the obligations which apply to an employee who is about to leave his employment (whether voluntarily or otherwise), or who has actually left that employment. The law must strike a delicate balance. On the one hand, an employee has a right to earn his living, and knowledge and skills obtained in his former employment will doubtless enable him to continue to do so; on the other hand, an employer is entitled to limited protection against an employee who may well be seeking to compete. It includes garden leave, trade secrets and confidential information, restraint of trade, and working for competitors.
20. Practice and Procedure
Authors: Emir Astra
Published: September 2022

An employee seeking the enforcement of a statutory right, or to obtain a remedy for a breach of that right, must present his claim to an employment tribunal. This chapter discusses the rules for making a claim to an employment tribunal and the employment tribunal procedure. It looks at time limits and the effective date of termination, and considers the mechanics of submitting and defending a claim; the various stages of proceedings such as preliminary hearings and case management as well as the final hearing; remedies including compensation, basic award and compensatory award; vexatious litigants; costs and appeals to the Employment Appeal Tribunal and beyond.
22. The Law Relating to Trade Unions
Authors: Emir Astra
Published: September 2022

This chapter focuses on the law as it affects the running of a trade union. All the relevant law is consolidated by the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992, as amended. The discussions cover the definition of a trade union, their listing, and certification; the rules of a trade union including disciplinary action and conduct of union affairs; the executive committee, election of candidates to the executive committee; rules for accounts, records, etc; the requirements before a trade union can have a political fund and pursue political objects; breach of union rules; amalgamation and transfers; and employers’ associations.
5. Employers’ Liability and Vicarious Liability
Authors: Dyer Dr Karen , Balan Dr Anil
Published: September 2022

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses the law on employers’ liability and vicarious liability. To answer questions on this topic, students need to understand the following: tort of negligence; statutory duties, and the effect of breach of statutory duty; the Employers’ Liability (Defective Equipment) Act 1969; vicarious liability, and specifically The Catholic Child Welfare Society and others v Various Claimants and The Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools [2012] UKSC 56; and defences to negligence.
8. Intentional Torts
Authors: Dyer Dr Karen , Balan Dr Anil
Published: September 2022

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses intentional torts. It covers key debates, sample questions, diagram answer plans, tips for getting extra marks, and online resources. To answer questions on this topic, students need to understand the following: trespass to the person: assault, battery, false imprisonment, the rule in Wilkinson v Downton and the Protection from Harassment Act 1997; trespass to land; trespass to goods and the tort of conversion; and defences to intentional torts: necessity, lawful arrest, consent, and self-defence.
10. Defamation and Privacy
Authors: Dyer Dr Karen , Balan Dr Anil
Published: September 2022

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. To answer questions on defamation, students need to understand the following: categories of defamation: libel and slander; what constitutes a defamatory statement: innuendo; defences to defamation: absolute privilege and qualified privilege; the Defamation Act 2013; and offer of amends, Defamation Act 1996 sections 2–4. To answer questions on privacy, students need to understand the following: the nature of privacy; the overlap between the torts of misuse of private information, and other causes of action; trespass; negligence; the Human Rights Act 1998; and the Protection from Harassment Act 1997.
4. Improperly obtained evidence other than confessions
Authors: Spencer Maureen , Spencer John
Published: September 2022

This chapter focuses on prosecution evidence that is relevant but improperly obtained and consequently may be excluded by judicial discretion. It looks at the exclusionary discretion contained within s78 of the UK’s Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE) and explains how common law and statutory exclusionary discretion may be exercised in relation to other areas of evidence, such as character evidence and hearsay evidence, as well as confessions. The chapter also looks at the most common areas of exclusion, other than confession evidence, including breach or evasion of legislation such as PACE and the Codes of Practice. Police undercover activity is examined. Consideration is given to when a stay of prosecution might be the appropriate procedure. Finally, it discusses the relevant principles of Art 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) that are enshrined in s78 of PACE.
9. Opinion evidence
Authors: Spencer Maureen , Spencer John
Published: September 2022

This chapter, which focuses on opinion evidence in criminal and civil cases in the UK, explains the rule on the admissibility of opinion evidence, largely expert opinion. The notice and disclosure rules in criminal cases under the Criminal Procedure Rules (CPR) are outlined. The criteria for the admissibility of expert evidence, the responsibilities of expert witnesses, and the approach of the courts to new areas of expertise are examined in detail. It also considers the presentation of expert evidence, including the use of court-appointed experts, in civil cases under the CPR, and, finally, examines the ultimate issue rule, which has been abolished by s33(1) of the Civil Evidence Act (CEA) 1972.
8. Adverse possession
Authors: Sayles Victoria
Published: September 2022

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses the concept of adverse possession. An owner of an estate in land (paper owner) is under no obligation to make use of that land; mere neglect will not end ownership. However, where that land is adversely possessed by another for the required period, the paper owner will lose his title to the land. Through his acts of adverse possession, the adverse possessor acquires a better title to the land than the paper owner. This is so even if such acts stem from an initial wrong, such as a trespass.
9. Trusts of land
Authors: Sayles Victoria
Published: September 2022

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses trusts of land. The creation of concurrent interests in land generally now occurs by way of a trust of land, governed by the Trusts of Land and Appointment of Trustees Act 1996 (TLATA) and replacing their forerunner, trusts for sale. Trusts of land may be expressly or impliedly created and, where implied, may be resulting or constructive trusts. Key provisions of TLATA 1996 include: ss 6–8 governing the extent of trustees’ powers over the trust property; s 11 governing the circumstances in which trustees have a duty to consult beneficiaries when exercising their powers; ss 12–13 governing the rights of beneficiaries to occupy the trust property; and ss 14–15 governing the right of an interested party to make an application to the court for an order to resolve a dispute over trust land.
14. Mortgages
Authors: Sayles Victoria
Published: September 2022

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses mortgages. A mortgage is a proprietary interest that can be legal or equitable in status. The equity of redemption encapsulates the rights of a mortgagor and includes the equitable right to redeem and the ability to have certain clauses struck out from a mortgage agreement. The mortgagor of a dwelling house has special legislative protection. Where a mortgage is obtained under undue influence, be it actual or presumed, it may be set aside. The mortgagee has various remedies available to it should the mortgagor fail to meet the mortgage payments, dependent upon the status of the mortgage. A property may be subject to more than one mortgage and where this is the case and the property is sold, proceeds from the sale will be applied in order of priority.
14. Meetings and investor engagement
Authors: Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the role and importance of general meetings, the significant body of procedural rules by which general meetings are run, and the extent to which a company’s members actually engage with general meetings. Members make decisions in one of two ways: through a resolution or by unanimous assent. A resolution is simply a vote that requires a specified majority vote in its favour in order to be passed. The resolutions of public companies must be passed at meetings, whereas resolutions of private companies can be passed at meetings or via a written resolution. In some cases, companies are required to hold a class meeting in which only one class of member is entitled to attend. To encourage institutional investors to engage more, the Financial Reporting Council (FRC) has published the UK Stewardship Code.
23. Liquidation, dissolution, and restoration
Authors: Roach Lee
Published: September 2022

This concluding chapter explores the different types of liquidation, the powers of a liquidator, and the ways in which a company can be dissolved and restored. The Insolvency Act 1986 (IA 1986) provides for two types of liquidation: voluntary winding up and winding up by the court. A voluntary winding up occurs where the members voluntarily wind up the company by passing a special resolution. Meanwhile, compulsory winding up occurs where a person petitions the court for an order of winding up the company, and the court grants such an order. The liquidator’s role is to gather, realize, and distribute the assets of the company to its creditors and, if there is a surplus, to persons so entitled. Ultimately, the process by which a company’s existence is ended is known as ‘dissolution’. A dissolved company can be restored in certain circumstances.
1. Introduction to contracts of sale of goods
Authors: Baskind Eric
Published: September 2022

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter provides a general introduction to sale of goods law in the UK. It explains the sale of goods contract, why there is a different framework for these types of contract under English law, and the specific legislation for contracts of sale of goods and other relevant transactions. The chapter considers the statutory definitions for contract, property, and goods and discusses the distinction between sales and agreements to sell, between specific goods and unascertained goods, and between existing goods and future goods. The chapter introduces and provides an analysis of the Consumer Rights Act 2015, which subsequent chapters then build upon. Finally, it examines contracts other than of sale of goods.
11. Consumer credit
Authors: Baskind Eric
Published: September 2022

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses some of the key common law and statutory provisions relating to consumer credit agreements and the common issues that arise. It first explains the provisions of the Consumer Credit Act 1974, as amended by the Consumer Credit Act 2006. The chapter then considers the rights of debtors who take credit under a ‘regulated agreement’, along with the (previous) extortionate credit bargain provisions that have been replaced by a test which considers whether there was an unfair relationship between the debtor and the creditor. It also considers consumer hire agreements, exempt agreements, small agreements, and non-commercial agreements, as well as the liability of the creditor for the seller’s misrepresentation or breach of contract, retaking of protected goods, and the debtor’s right to complete payments ahead of time.
7. Excusatory Defences
Authors: Horder Jeremy
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses ‘excusatory’ defences. These are defences that are concerned with absence of fault or culpability in a broader sense than is understood by a ‘fault element’ when such an element is included in the definition of an offence. Even when an accused person (say) intended to harm another person, and thus possessed the fault element in the definition of the crime, he or she may still be all but blameless if, for example, what was done was done only because he or she would be killed if the action was not undertaken. In that regard, the chapter covers duress and coercion, reasonable mistake, and ‘putative’ defences. The ‘defence’ of intoxication is also tackled here, even though it is not really an excuse in the sense just explained.
10. Property Offences
Authors: Horder Jeremy
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses property offences. These include theft, taking a conveyance without consent, robbery, blackmail, burglary, handling stolen goods, and criminal damage. Among these, the offence receiving the most detailed treatment is theft. The current definition of theft dates back to 1968, long before the time when it became possible to hold and transfer money and other items (such as photographs) electronically, and the courts have sought to interpret the law in such a way that it can meet this challenge. But, in seeking to modernize the law’s approach to new forms of property holding and transfer, has the definition become too wide?
16. Communication Offences
Authors: Horder Jeremy
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers a range of ‘communication’ offences. The main focus is the offence of publishing an obscene article, contrary to the Obscene Publications Act 1959, and the offences under section 127 of the Communications Act 2003 and section 1 of the Malicious Communications Act 1988, concerned with the sending of false, indecent, or offensive messages. These offences are considered in the light of the right to free expression under Article 10 of the ECHR and the abolition of criminal defamation, and of the importance of allowing uninhibited political debate while protecting those taking part in such debate from abuse and threats.
7. Rights and Obligations
Authors: Young Katharine G
Published: September 2022

Human rights are grounds for obligations. This chapter reviews the methods by which international human rights treaties oblige states to promote and secure rights. Two prominent approaches to the determination of obligations are discussed. First, the tripartite typology that calls on states to respect, protect, and fulfil human rights is examined. Second, the chapter considers the distinction between absolute norms and those that may be subject to justifiable and proportionate limitation or derogation. Finally, the chapter discusses how globalization impacts our understanding of human rights obligations: from the importance of extraterritorial obligations to different models for monitoring and accountability which affect how obligations are understood and specified.
9. Integrity of the Person
Authors: Ferstman Carla
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the right to be free from torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment and the right to life. These are fundamental rights which stem from the concepts of human dignity and the integrity of the person, both foundational principles of human rights law. Following explanations of both these principles, the chapter sets out the meaning and content of the right to be free from torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment. It then explains the right to life, analysing similarly the content of the right and its limitations and how it has been interpreted in recent jurisprudence and treaty body commentaries.
13. Detention and Trial
Authors: Shah Sangeeta
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the protections afforded by international human rights law to the right to liberty and security of the person and the right to a fair trial. The right to liberty regulates powers of detention and provides safeguards against ill-treatment of detainees. An extreme form of arbitrary detention is enforced disappearance. The right to a fair trial sets out how court proceedings should be conducted and court systems organized. In addition, there are specific protections for those who are suspected of having committed a criminal offence.
17. Children’s Rights
Authors: Nolan Aoife
Published: September 2022

Centring on the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the work of its treaty-monitoring body, the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, this chapter addresses the key sources, developments, standards, and debates regarding international children’s rights law. In tackling questions related to CRC rights, obligations, duty-bearers, jurisdiction, and limitations, the chapter makes clear the strengths and weaknesses of both the CRC and the enforcement mechanisms associated with that treaty. The chapter provides an in-depth discussion of the past record and future prospects of the CRC in terms of responding meaningfully to the diverse challenges faced by children.
18. Group Rights
Authors: McCorquodale Robert
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the definition, exercise, and limitations of certain group rights, including peoples with the right to self-determination, minorities, and indigenous peoples. The right to self-determination protects a group as a group entity with regard to their political participation, as well as their control over their economic, social, and cultural activity as a group. Rights of minorities can be seen as both an individual and a group right. Finally, the growing recognition of the rights of indigenous peoples is considered.
29. Terrorism
Authors: Scheinin Martin
Published: September 2022

This chapter first addresses the question of whether terrorism constitutes a violation of human rights, or whether the notion of human rights violations can only be applied to action by states, and then considers challenges to the applicability of human rights law in the fight against terrorism, particularly since 9/11. It focuses on the notion of terrorism, and in particular the risks posed to human rights protection by vague or over-inclusive definitions of terrorism. The main section of the chapter deals with some of the major challenges posed by counter-terrorism measures to substantive human rights protections. It is argued that the unprecedented post-9/11 wave of counter-terrorism laws and measures that infringed upon human rights was a unique situation, and that governments and intergovernmental organizations are realizing that full compliance with human rights in the fight against terrorism is not only morally and legally correct but is also the most effective way of combating terrorism in the long term.
4. Consideration
Authors: Atkins Ruth
Published: September 2022

This chapter looks at the requirement of consideration; the basic idea, how it works, that it will usually not be a problem because supplying the consideration is generally the whole purpose of the contract (the ‘bargain’), but that the courts will sometimes ‘find’ consideration when none is readily apparent, and will not require it to be of adequate value. It goes on to consider performance of an existing duty by one party as consideration for a new promise by the other party, particularly in the light of the approach taken in Williams v Roffey Bros. It also looks at the related problem (and emphasizes the relationship) of a promise to forego part of a debt in return for payment of part of what is owed in the light of the traditional approach taken in Foakes v Beer, and the recognition of promissory estoppel in High Trees. The significant case of Rock Advertising Ltd v MWB Business Exchange Centres Ltd is explored in detail in this chapter.
7. Express and implied terms
Authors: Atkins Ruth
Published: September 2022

This chapter looks at the creation of express and implied terms. In particular, it deals with spoken statements becoming express terms and the different types of implied terms. Terms implied in fact, in law, and by custom are addressed. The traditional ‘business efficacy test’, and ‘officious bystander test’ are looked at in relation to terms implied in fact, and developments leading up to and including the recent Supreme Court judgments of Marks and Spencer plc v BNP Paribas Securities Services Trust Company (Jersey) Ltd and Wells v Devani. Consideration is given to the requirements for terms to be implied in law, at common law, and the growing recognition that, despite references to ‘necessity’, the implication of such terms is concerned with issues of fairness, reasonableness, and social policy.
15. Illegality
Authors: Atkins Ruth
Published: September 2022

This chapter explores the illegality of contracts. Contracts which may fall within the scope of the restraint of trade doctrine are considered, including the Court of Appeal’s approach in Proactive Sports Management Ltd v Rooney. The chapter also looks at other reasons why a contract may be declared illegal or void at common law, such as grounds of public policy. Policy factors and the illegality defence are explored in light of recent case law and the Law Commission Final Report ‘The Illegality Defence’. Useful case law illustrations demonstrate how the courts have dealt with the issues surrounding illegality in a range of contexts, such as contracts to commit an unlawful act, contracts promoting sexual immorality, contracts prejudicial to the interests of the state, contracts prejudicial to the administration of justice, and contracts promoting corruption in public life. The rules on severance in light of the Supreme Court decision in Tillman v Egon Zehnder (2019) and subsequent case law are also considered. The consequences and effects of impropriety and illegality are also looked at. The landmark case of Patel v Mirza [2016] UKSC 42, and its impact on the law, is also explored in this chapter.
18. Performance and breach
Authors: Atkins Ruth
Published: September 2022

This chapter covers the two contractual situations of performance and breach. First, it recognizes that most contracts are performed and completed, with the consequence that liability ceases and the obligations under the contract are discharged by performance. Some obligations may be classed as conditions precedent, or as conditions subsequent, and the order for performance may be provided for by contingent conditions. The relevance of the entire contracts rule is noted. Second, the chapter explores the injured party’s right to terminate for breach. The right to terminate for repudiatory breach and the right to terminate for anticipatory breach of contract, are both illustrated through the relevant case law which highlight the possible options available to an injured party and the consequences which may follow.
1. Introduction
Authors: Arvind TT
Published: September 2022

This introduction provides an overview of contracts and the law of contract. It first explains what the law of contract is about and why it matters before discussing the tasks of contract law. It then considers the role of debates in contract law, unity and diversity in contract law, and central issues in contract law. It also examines the main perspectives about contract that have influenced English law, including perspectives that used to be historically important. In particular, it explores the notions of bargains and the will. The chapter goes on to address two very different understandings of contracts: one that sees it primarily as a bundle of rights, and one that sees it as a relationship between the parties.
5. Non-contractual promises
Authors: Arvind TT
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers how promissory and proprietary estoppel intersect with the law of contract. Where an agreement is unenforceable at contract law because some legal prerequisite or formality has not been met, that role is played by the law of estoppel. The law of estoppel works by deeming a party to be legally prevented (‘estopped’) from going back on something she has in the past asserted, promised, or accepted. The effect of estoppel is to hold the person to that past assertion or promise, by preventing her from resiling from it. This chapter first examines the context of promissory estoppel before discussing its requirements and its effect, such as suspending rights and extinguishing debts. It then explains the requirements of proprietary estoppel; namely, there must be a promise or encouragement, the promise or encouragement must induce reasonable reliance, reliance must be detrimental, and unconscionability.
8. Filling the gaps
Authors: Arvind TT
Published: September 2022

This chapter focuses on contracts which leave some issues unaddressed and the law of implied terms used by the courts to deal with such situations. It first explains the nature of implied terms and the process of implication that requires the court to strike a difficult balance, along with the tests for implication. It then considers terms implied in law, paying attention to implication by statute and at common law, before discussing terms implied in fact. More specifically, it explores the tests of business efficacy, obviousness, and the officious bystander, and the approach used based on Lord Hoffmann’s judgment in the Privy Council in Attorney General of Belize v Belize Telecom. The chapter also analyses implication by custom, along with good faith and cooperation as requirements for parties to a contract.
Exome sequencing and functional analyses revealedCETN1variants leads to impaired cell division and male fertility
Authors: Sudhakar Digumarthi V S , Phanindranath Regur , Jaishankar Shveta , Ramani Anand , Kalamkar Kaustubh P , Kumar Umesh , Pawar Asmita D , Dada Rima , Singh Rajender , Gupta Nalini J , Deenadayal Mamata , Tolani Aarti Deenadayal , Sharma Yogendra , Anand Anuranjan , Gopalakrishnan Jay , Thangaraj Kumarasamy
Published: September 2022

Human spermatogenesis requires an orchestrated expression of numerous genes in various germ cell subtypes. Therefore, the genetic landscape of male infertility is highly complex. Known genetic factors alone account for at least 15% of male infertility. However, ~40% of infertile men remain undiagnosed and are classified as idiopathic infertile men. We performed exome sequencing in 47 idiopathic infertile men (discovery cohort), followed by replication study (40 variants in 33 genes) in 844 infertile men and 709 controls using Sequenom MassARRAY® based genotyping. We report 17 variants in twelve genes that comprise both previously reported (DNAH8, DNAH17, FISP2 and SPEF2) and novel candidate genes (BRDT, CETN1, CATSPERD, GMCL1, SPATA6, TSSK4, TSKS and ZNF318) for male infertility. The latter have a strong biological nexus to human spermatogenesis and their respective mouse knockouts are concordant with human phenotypes. One candidate gene CETN1, identified in this study, was sequenced in another independent cohort of 840 infertile and 689 fertile men. Further, CETN1 variants were functionally characterized using biophysical and cell biology approaches. We demonstrate that CETN1 variant- p.Met72Thr leads to multipolar cells, fragmented nuclei during mitosis leading to cell death and show significantly perturbed ciliary disassembly dynamics. Whereas CETN1–5′ UTR variant; rs367716858 leads to loss of a methylation site and increased reporter gene expression in vitro. We report a total of eight novel candidate genes identified by exome sequencing, which may have diagnostic relevance and can contribute to improved diagnostic workup and clinical management of male infertility.