bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
ANALISIS TINGKAT EMISI PADA CEROBONG ASAP PABRIK SEMEN TONASA PANGKEP
Authors: Caronge Muhammad Anshari
Published: May 2020

Industri semen merupakan salah satu penyumbang polusi udara terbesar di dunia karena tingkat konsumsi energi dan potensi emisi debu. Hal ini menjadi faktor utama sumber polusi udara. Emisi udara dari industri semen mengandung zat-zat kimia yang berbahaya, seperti Total Partikel, CO2, NO2, SO2, dan Opasitas. Dampak dari emisi akibat industri semen tidak hanya berpengaruh pada kesehatan manusia saja, tetapi juga pada lingkungan sekitar tempat produksi semen. Oleh karena itu, perlu diadakan analisis emisi pada pabrik produksi semen untuk mengetahui efeknya terhadap kesehatan dan lingkungan sekitar. Metode pengujian yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah penentuan Total Partikel secara isokinetik, uji SOx menggunakan metode turbidimetri, uji kadar Nitrogen Dioksida (NO2) dengan metode Griess Saltzman, uji CO2 dengan cara analisis otomatik. Hasil uji emisi menunjukkan konsentrasi zat pencemar emisi masih berada di bawah Baku Mutu Emisi sesuai KEPMENKES-13/MENLH/1995 tentang Baku Mutu Emisi Tidak Bergerak.
The Impact of Plague and Quarantine
Authors: Henderson John
Published: May 2020

This chapter details the impact on the population of the policies discussed in the previous chapter. It first analyses the factors underlying the spread of plague, both through Florence and at a more local level in the city's largest parish, S. Lorenzo. Based on records of city and parish, it has been possible to analyse the number of people infected and buried in relation to the topographical and social profiles of individual streets. If this enables one to consider some of the environmental determinants of infection, it is also possible to assess the impact on mortality of the policy of removing the sick from their houses to Lazaretti, through comparing the number of people buried in extra-mural plague pits with those at the isolation hospitals. For contemporaries it was successful, since higher numbers died in Lazaretti, suggesting that they had managed to identify and remove the sick before they got worse. This policy remained in force the next year when a new strategy was introduced, with the imposition from mid-January of a general 40-day quarantine of the inhabitants of both the city and the surrounding countryside. Although this was an extremely expensive operation, since food and drink were being supplied daily to over 34,000 people, the continued drop in mortality led contemporaries to regard this as fulfilling their aims.
Religion in the Time of Plague
Authors: Henderson John
Published: May 2020

This chapter focuses on religion and the works of art commissioned during and after the epidemic. The strategies adopted by Church and state in Florence were seen as vital to placate the wrath of God, one of the main causes of plague. Indeed, there was close collaboration between Church and state, as each shared the common aim of employing the power of local saints and images to intervene with the wrathful deity. Secular and ecclesiastical authorities also shared similar concerns for public health, by limiting direct participation of the majority of the population in major processions. Official devotion and major processions centred on three major ecclesiastical sites: the Cathedral; SS. Annunziata, which housed the city's main miraculous shrine; and S. Marco, where the body of St Antonino was kept in an elaborate crystal casket. Belief in the power of religion during plague is reflected by the importance placed on artistic patronage in each of these three churches during and following the epidemic. As during previous epidemics, the 1630s plague led to a lasting legacy of commissions of new chapels, altarpieces, frescoes, costly silver candlesticks, and humble ex-voti, reflecting that plague in Florence, as elsewhere, led to the enrichment of churches.
Surviving Plague
Authors: Henderson John
Published: May 2020

This chapter assesses the everyday life of the inhabitants who remained in the city, not having been taken off to a Lazaretto or to a quarantine centre. It provides a more nuanced picture of the identity and reactions of the poorer levels of society through a discussion of how the criminal justice system in Florence worked in practice. These records reveal that many prosecutions were of individuals and families who had adopted strategies to survive. Trials, interviews, and witness statements reflect the personal experience of how the city's population dealt with being shut up at home, leading to isolation and deprival of their normal means of support as families were split up and economic activities were banned. Court records reflect not just an extraordinary amount of social activity, despite the imposition of measures of social and sanitary control, as people escaped from locked-up houses, climbed over roofs to visit family, friends, or prostitutes, and tried to carry on their normal trades to help starving families. If economic hardship formed a major motive for people breaking out of and into houses, there were also organised gangs who exploited the crisis and conducted criminal activities, which led to the theft of valuables from locked houses and isolation and quarantine centres.
The Return and End of Plague, 1632–3
Authors: Henderson John
Published: May 2020

This epilogue addresses the return of plague in 1632–3, clearly shocking contemporaries since they had assumed it had disappeared. This analysis serves as a way to examine how far the city of Florence learned from its recent experience, since they now had tried and tested public health policies they could put into place to deal with an epidemic, whereas in 1630 they had not suffered from plague for over a century. What makes this outbreak interesting are the similarities and differences in secular and religious responses. As the chapter argues, while many of the same strategies were employed, this later outbreak did lead to some innovations. These include the quarantining of whole streets and the processing of the Virgin of S. Maria Impruneta through the city over three days. Fortunately, this outbreak proved more localised and much less virulent than the main epidemic which forms the centre of this book, and may help to explain why it was contained more effectively.
The Underground Wealth of Nations
Authors: Graulau Jeannette
Published: May 2020

Hundreds of years before a sixteenth-century crisis in European agriculture led to the origins of capital, investment, and finance, the silver mining industry exhibited many of the features of modern capitalism. Silver mines were large-scale businesses that demanded large investments and steady cash flow, achieved by spreading that risk through fungible shares and creating legal structures to protect entrepreneurs from financial disaster. This book argues that mining preceded agriculture as the first true capitalist enterprise of the modern world.
Digging the Underground Wealth of Europe
Authors: Graulau Jeannette
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses issues surrounding private monopolies that are explained in the case of Trento. The mining business in Trento shared one essential condition of capitalist businesses: it was a monopoly of production. Some feudal maladies stood in the way, but private producers firmly took hold of the mines of the region. Everything started when Bishop Wanga was appointed to the bishopric by German Emperor Frederick II in A.D. 1206. Wanga obtained monopoly rights over Trento's forests and fishing and coinage rights along with the bishopric seat and its assets. Emperor Frederick II also granted Wanga in perpetuum the title of Prince Bishop of Trento.
Black Magic in Modern Times
Authors: Waters Thomas
Published: May 2020

This chapter shows that the history of black magic in modern times is a cosmopolitan drama. Human movement rapidly accelerated from the nineteenth century. People, goods, technologies, and ideas began crossing the earth at a dizzying rate. Travellers took their magical beliefs abroad and encountered new mysticisms when they got there. Empires regulated their colonial subjects in all sorts of ways, including how they dealt with witches. Witchcraft became more international, though at the same time it remained fundamentally rooted in local circumstances. This means that, to understand modern witchcraft, one must combine a global orientation with a local focus. And an excellent place for that local focus is a large island, lying on the eastern edge of the North Atlantic Ocean: Britain.
Occultists Study Dark Arts
Authors: Waters Thomas
Published: May 2020

This chapter shows that witchcraft did not beguile only rustic simpletons during the Victorian era. In cities and suburbs, behind expensive curtains and in bay-windowed houses, avant-garde types experimented with new forms of occultism. Spiritualism, theosophy, Christian Science, and extremely complex ritual magic — these types of mysticism are often seen as positive, therapeutic, and emancipating. In many ways they were, but the late Victorian occult revival had dark sides too. Many occultists were intrigued by evil powers and some were absolutely obsessed with them. These characters, with their strange theories and esoteric investigations, helped to refresh the idea of witchcraft, rendering it in terms that befitted the modern age.
Futureproof
Authors: Coaffee Jon
Published: May 2020

Catastrophic events such as 9/11, Hurricane Katrina, and the Tohoku ‘Triple Disaster’ of earthquake, tsunami, and nuclear meltdown that hit the eastern seaboard of Japan in 2012 are seen as surprises that have a low probability of occurring but have a debilitating impact when they do. In this eye-opening journey through modern and ancient risk management practices, the author explains why we need to find a new way to navigate the deeply uncertain world that we live in. Examining how governments have responded to terrorist threats, climate change, and natural hazards, the book shows how and why these measures have proven inadequate and what should be done to make us more resilient. While conventional approaches have focused on planning and preparing for disruptions and enhanced our ability to ‘bounce back’, our focus should be on anticipating future challenges and enhancing our capacity to adapt to new threats.
Introduction
Authors: Coaffee Jon
Published: May 2020

This introductory chapter argues that we need to be more forward thinking in our response to risks and threats of all kinds. It points out that we should not be like army generals who, it is said, are always fighting the last war. Indeed, we must arm ourselves for new ones. Furthermore, a singular focus on preparing for past challenges is futile. The chapter asserts that what we should be doing is paying more attention to enhancing our ability to cope with a wide array of disruptive challenges that may present themselves in the future. These are the challenges that pose significant threats to our current way of living and to our very existence.
Seeing Carbon Reductionism and Climate Change from the Streets
Authors: Méndez Michael
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses the modes and logics environmental justice activists employ in climate policymaking. The concepts of carbon reductionism and climate change from the streets are introduced—they provide an overview and framework that guides the analysis presented in the book.
Contentious Capitol Climates
Authors: Méndez Michael
Published: May 2020

Describes the tension between global environmental protection and a local focus on the most disadvantaged communities. The chapter analyzes the development of California’s landmark climate change legislation: Assembly Bill (AB) 32. It illustrates the contentious nature of defining climate change and how the entanglements of diverse knowledges and worldviews shape contemporary climate governance and decision-making processes.
Islam
Authors: Pugh Martin
Published: May 2020

This introductory chapter discusses how, despite the common origins of Islam and Christianity, Islam has long been misunderstood and misrepresented in Western societies, particularly over such matters as women, polygamy, sex, sexuality, slavery and jihad. Westerners today are largely unaware that Islam is a relatively egalitarian religion which does not endorse differences of birth, caste, wealth or race. In fact, it denounces privilege as un-Islamic, though this has not prevented the emergence of elites and aristocracies over time. Converts often find the egalitarianism a refreshing change. In this spirit, a number of Muslim states have, in modern times, adopted policies of socialist Islamism. For the British, it has always proved difficult to get the institution of slavery into its true perspective. They have tended to close their minds to the fact that for a long time the British profited enormously from the slave trade, preferring to emphasise the later campaigns against the trade and the efforts made to eradicate it in the Muslim parts of Africa during the Victorian period.
Boxing Pandora
Authors: Waters Timothy William
Published: May 2020

The inviolability of national borders is an unquestioned pillar of the post-World War II international order. Fixed borders are believed to encourage stability, promote pluralism, and discourage nationalism and intolerance. But do they? What if fixed borders create more problems than they solve, and what if permitting borders to change would create more stability and produce more just societies? This book examines this possibility, showing how we arrived at a system of rigidly bordered states and how the real danger to peace is not the desire of people to form new states but the capacity of existing states to resist that desire, even with violence. The book proposes a practical, democratically legitimate alternative: a right of secession. With crises ongoing in the United Kingdom, Spain, Ukraine, Iraq, Syria, Sudan, and many other regions, this reassessment of the foundations of our international order is more relevant than ever.
The Failure of a Flourishing Idea: The Decadence of Self-Determination
Authors: Waters Timothy William
Published: May 2020

This chapter traces the origins of current commitments about territory and peoples. The rules and assumptions governing how people think about territory and political community are not immutable; in fact they are quite recent in origin. Their history, like that of many ideas, is full of reversals of meaning. Thus, the chapter examines how the legal doctrines and political commitments developed historically, to see how people have arrived at the particular system of rules about territory, states, and people that exists today. At the center of this system is the idea of self-determination, but the broader frame concerns rules and justifications for forming and preserving states. It is possible to talk about new states or even secession without invoking self-determination. The term will prove useful, however, when one considers the reasons for making new states: One will find that self-determination provides the underlying logic for why people might want to make new states at all.
The Measure of Nations: Testing the Assumptions behind the Classical Rule
Authors: Waters Timothy William
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines what people think the prevailing model actually does. The current, classical rule of self-determination is historically bounded: Its borders are history's borders; it favors the outcomes of historical processes over current realities. Under the classical rule, whenever a conflict arises within a state, people are compelled to look for solutions that work within the fixed borders they already have. This constraint is thought to be a virtue. The explicit purpose of the system put in place at the end of the Second World War—territorial integrity, self-determination, human rights, and prohibition of aggression—was to stabilize global politics and reduce the resort to war. Rigid borders were an intentional part of that project. But has that been the result? Have fixed borders produced a more peaceful world? What if territorial integrity has not reduced violence but increased it? To answer these questions, one has to measure the effects of the classical rule. The chapter does that, and suggests borders are not doing what people think they are.
The generation wars
Authors: Bristow Jennie
Published: May 2020

This chapter lays out the myths of the so-called ‘generation wars’ waged between the Millennials and Baby Boomers and the damaging effects of this generational conflict. The current generation war is presented as a clear conflict between two opposing sides. On one side are the Baby Boomers, born in the twenty years or so following the Second World War; on the other are the Millennials, born in the final two decades of the twentieth century. The chapter shows how the feverish debates about generational conflict reflect very little about the lives of people in any generation. It argues that Boomer-blaming is a narrative that has been constructed by political elites of Western societies to suit their policy agendas.
‘Youthquakes’ and the politicisation of generational identity
Authors: Bristow Jennie
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses the politicisation of generational identity. It shows that the script of Boomer-blaming has formed the basis for a new political narrative, which has come to view generational conflict as an alternative frame to the class-based politics that dominated the twentieth century. This latest phase of generationalism overstates the importance of generational characteristics and difference, and threatens to turn them into a brittle form of generational identity, deliberately setting old and young against each other. A set of ideas about the ‘younger generation’ — the kind of people they are, the politics they support, the vision they hold of the future — has been marshalled to narrate political events and promote particular outcomes. Older generations, meanwhile, are positioned as standing in the way of the interests of the present — voting too much, voting the wrong way, daring to have a say on the future of a society in which they will soon be dead.
‘Democratic deficits’ and the tyranny of ‘future generations’
Authors: Bristow Jennie
Published: May 2020

This chapter argues that the idea that older people, who have ‘already lived their lives’, should have no say in the future of our society, expresses the toxic impact of generationalism on political debate. In their determination to present political conflicts as a clash of interests between old and young, generation warriors promote a version of citizenship that is as anti-democratic as it is anti-social. A tangled web is woven from dubious statistics, barely veiled prejudices, and contradictory arguments, to promote a particular kind of political and policy agenda. Here, the ‘youth vote’ has become a symbolic vehicle for pushing through a certain set of values, by a section of the elite that finds itself on the defensive and lacking in popular support. The flipside of this artificial promotion of the youth vote is the denigration of the ‘senior’ vote — and the people who cast it.
Small Changes
Authors: Livesey James
Published: May 2020

This chapter explains mass popular involvement in public debt. It provides an index for the complex ways in which the public credit system was beginning to be used by different kinds of people. These ordinary people saw the public funds as secure and reliable enough to be part of their own planning for their future. This small but significant trend of popular investment sat among a series of patterns of continuity and discontinuity in public investment in the sénéchausée in the late eighteenth century. The chapter also reveals the changing nature of debt and money in the eighteenth-century Languedoc, which remained relatively stable. Credit and debt were everyday features of European life. An older historiography saw debt as the road to impoverishment for peasants and other nonelites. In those accounts urban bourgeois offered credit to economically marginal peasants with a view to their eventual default and the expropriation of their land.
The Swing Plow as an Eighteenth-Century Universal Machine
Authors: Livesey James
Published: May 2020

This chapter talks about cases of many intellectually complex, socially ubiquitous, and highly significant technological innovations, such as the development of fore and aft rigging for sailing vessels that intensified coastal trade in Europe and later the Caribbean. The majority of the blacksmiths who experimented with plows do remain anonymous, but the contribution of James Small was so striking that he left behind a written record as well as a material object. Small was a blacksmith and cartwright from Berwickshire in southern Scotland, who in 1764 introduced a wheel-less iron plow inspired and provoked by his adjustments to the Rotherham plow patented in 1730 by Joseph Foljambe and Disney Stanytown. What made Small stand out was that he was able to articulate the thinking that underpinned his innovations in design. He defined the plow not as an object but as a function.
The Urban Improvise
Authors: Kloeckl Kristian
Published: May 2020

The built environment in today's hybrid cities is changing radically. The pervasiveness of networked mobile and embedded devices has transformed a predominantly stable background for human activity into spaces that have a more fluid behavior. Based on their capability to sense, compute, and act in real time, urban spaces have the potential to go beyond planned behaviors and, instead, change and adapt dynamically. These interactions resemble improvisation in the performing arts, and this book offers a new improvisation-based framework for thinking about future cities. The book moves beyond the smart city concept by unlocking performativity, and specifically improvisation, as a new design approach and explores how city lights, buses, plazas, and other urban environments are capable of behavior beyond scripts. Drawing on research of digital cities and design theory, the book makes improvisation useful and applicable to the condition of today's technology-imbued cities and proposes a new future for responsive urban design.
Interface, Interact, Improvact
Authors: Kloeckl Kristian
Published: May 2020

This chapter is dedicated to models of human-machine interaction (HCI) that have been influential for the design domain and that form the basis of how we think about designing human-machine interactions today. Digital networked technologies have become increasingly pervasive in today's urban environments. But regardless of the urban dimension, the domains of HCI and interaction design have long examined design approaches that take into account the ways in which humans relate to technologies. Different ways of thinking about the interaction between humans and machines have informed the way we work with technologies. The mental models one adopts when working with technologies contribute not only to how they are viewed but also to how these technologies are shaped in substantial ways.
Improvisation as Technique and Practice for Design
Authors: Kloeckl Kristian
Published: May 2020

This chapter explores the richness of practice-based frameworks and improvisation techniques in the performing arts. It illustrates how these can become a resource for an improvisation-based design approach by developing a concrete hybrid city application. Participatory design methods use improvisation to develop applications in collaboration with users. They attempt to unlock tacit kinds of knowing and gain firsthand appreciation of existing or future conditions by engaging participants and designers together in a concrete situation. In role-play techniques, for example, cards are handed to each participant that introduce the scene and contain information about rules associated with that specific scene, goals to be achieved, and the roles that participants enact.
The Artist-Philosopher
Authors: Fullagar Kate
Published: May 2020

Chapter 2, much like Chapter 1, traces the first several decades of an eighteenth-century life, dwelling on what childhood can reveal about a whole society; when lives might be said to begin in a given culture; and how the protagonist moved within his world to reach mid-life. Its focus is the artist--philosopher Joshua Reynolds. Reynolds’s life embodies a deep conflict in British society of the time—the conflict over empire. We see Reynolds’s character develop gradually as both conservatively sceptical about Britain’s recent expansionist thrust into the world and keenly eager to make the most of all that imperial commerce was now bringing into his native country. Reynolds’s ambivalence is also reflected in his art theories, local politics, and even domestic life. While narrating his rise to artistic pre-eminence (and a philosophical devotion to neoclassical aesthetics), the chapter also shows how Reynolds built increasingly close friendships to key male literary figures of the time—especially Samuel Johnson and Edmund Burke. Through his connection to the Tory Johnson and the Whiggish Burke, we get a glimpse into Reynolds’s otherwise elusive, hard-to-read political views—especially during Britain’s greatest imperial push to date, the Seven Years War.
The Master Ascendant
Authors: Fullagar Kate
Published: May 2020

Chapter 6 opens with some reminders of Reynolds’s ambivalent character. His political views are put to the test at the close of the Seven Years War, in 1763, when Britain announces victory but half the nation refuse to celebrate with the king. Reynolds performs similar balancing acts in his personal life, including romantically with Angelica Kauffmann and collegially with Thomas Gainsborough. Most of all we see Reynolds’s artful balancing in the way he secures the presidential appointment to Britain’s first Royal Academy of the Arts. The 1770s see further signs of ascension for Reynolds, such as his acquisitions of a new country house and an honorary doctorate. These years also yield further tests of his ambivalent politics. His portrait of Joseph Banks reveals a circumspect opinion of Pacific exploration while his effort to secure a Devonian Mayoral appointment reiterates his canny play of apologist and oppositional positions. The year 1775, however, presents the biggest challenge of all. His friends Johnson and Burke publish dramatically opposing views on the upcoming American Revolution and at the same time Reynolds’s dignity as President of the Royal Academy is threatened by a lampoon from a fellow academician.
The Decline of Magic
Authors: Hunter Michael
Published: May 2020

In early modern Britain, belief in prophecies, omens, ghosts, apparitions and fairies was commonplace. Among both educated and ordinary people the absolute existence of a spiritual world was taken for granted. Yet in the eighteenth century such certainties were swept away. Credit for this great change is usually given to science — and in particular to the scientists of the Royal Society. But is this justified? This book argues that those pioneering the change in attitude were not scientists but freethinkers. While some scientists defended the reality of supernatural phenomena, these sceptical humanists drew on ancient authors to mount a critique both of orthodox religion and, by extension, of magic and other forms of superstition. Even if the religious heterodoxy of such men tarnished their reputation and postponed the general acceptance of anti-magical views, slowly change did come about. When it did, this owed less to the testing of magic than to the growth of confidence in a stable world in which magic no longer had a place.
A Geography Of Invention, 1500–1600
Authors: Scott Jonathan
Published: May 2020

This chapter describes the European political geography of invention, upon which the Anglo-Dutch-American process would draw. Much of the technology underpinning the rise of early modern Europe, including printing, navigation, and gunpowder, developed in China first. Yet in China, long-range voyaging was suppressed, as was printing in Constantinople. These were successful political attempts to control the movement of people and of ideas. In Europe, there was no central power capable of exercising such control, even had the will existed to do so. On the contrary, despite strenuous attempts to shield valuable information from rivals, in Europe new developments and discoveries tended to unleash a field of competitive response. As a result, the early modern acquisition of global empire was the work of many powers, rather than one. Political and (from 1517) religious competition were primary motors of the process, driving it faster and further than would otherwise have been the case.
The Storm, 1618–49
Authors: Scott Jonathan
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses the Thirty Years' War. It shows that, when the Scots and then the English Protestants took up arms between 1638 and 1642 they followed the Dutch in committing to the defence of their Reformation by force. This was the first in a series of conflicts which did not secure Protestantism in England until 1689, or Calvinism in Scotland until 1707. These struggles on both sides of the North Sea were intertwined, beginning with a Scots rebellion supported by soldiers returning from the Netherlands and elsewhere, and ultimately hinging upon a Dutch invasion of England in 1688–9. In the long term, Reformation could only be defended in North-Western Europe by a multinational (and cross-confessional) military alliance against Louis XIV and James II.
The Republic Was an Empire
Authors: Scott Jonathan
Published: May 2020

This chapter deals with the circumstances leading to the first of three Anglo-Dutch wars. Beginning with a proposal for political union, the chapter addresses the growing animosity between the English and the Dutch through two major themes. In the first place, from the moment of its foundation the English republic was, and behaved like, an empire. Second, it was the product, as in the Netherlands, of a rebellion and fiscal/military revolution which built the state. More than its Dutch model, the English republic entailed a sharp, indeed spectacular, break with the past, accompanied by a revolutionary as well as an imperial ideology.
Isle Of Pines
Authors: Scott Jonathan
Published: May 2020

This chapter concerns the Second Anglo-Dutch War. It shows how Restoration, by re-establishing monarchy and the Church, also altered the ideological relationship between the English and Dutch governments. As usual, however, the broader situation was complicated. Retaining the republic's navy and its aggressive commercial and colonial policies helped to set in place the contexts for the second Anglo-Dutch war. Envy of Dutch prosperity was not new, accompanied by a desire to emulate it or forcibly reassign ‘market share’. Competition was sharpened by the foundation of the Royal African Company, which immediately took a large share of the slave. The new restoration ingredient, embodied by that company's patron, the Duke of York, was a hostile royalist perspective upon a neighbouring republic.
Archipelagic State Formation, 1578–1783
Authors: Scott Jonathan
Published: May 2020

This chapter looks at how the old world ended through a sequence of republican revolutions. The Anglo-Dutch revolution of 1649–1702 was part of a broader process of Anglo-Dutch-American state-making spanning two centuries. Across the Atlantic, between the Dutch Revolt and the American War of Independence, a series of states emerged which were new not only in fact, but in nature. These were products of an Atlantic Age of Revolution which is sometimes located only in the eighteenth century, but which had clear origins in the sixteenth. Although the new states in question were three in number, the ‘Age of Revolution’ involved four political and military upheavals of global importance.
The political economy of transport and travel
Authors: Docherty Iain , Shaw Jon , Waite David
Published: May 2020

In the chapter we focus on why we spend money on some things and not on others, and why this matters. Our point is that transport investment can create both winners and losers, and it is important to be open and honest about this, and fully aware of the consequences, before committing public resources. Failing to do so runs the risk of perpetuating existing inequalities in a policy environment where a) there is already plenty of inequality and b) public resources for investment are scarce.
Changing demographics
Authors: Musselwhite Charles , Chatterjee Kiron
Published: May 2020

Older people are travelling more than previous generations, especially by private vehicle. By contrast there has been a decline in car use among the younger population. We highlight how many of the reasons for these trends lie outside the transport sector. Younger people are living at home longer, delaying getting married and having children later in life. A decline in young people’s disposable income, a growth in low-end service jobs and the rise of precarious employment are also likely to be key contributors to a reduction in car use, especially with rising learning to drive and insurance costs. Younger people are also more likely to live in urban areas, which means less need for private vehicles. Older people are more likely to live in dispersed communities that require a car to access services and shops. They are less likely to use the internet for shopping, for accessing services and for staying connected to people. They have lived through a time of increased reliance and norms around using the car and continue this into later life. Examining mobility in relation to age suggests a need to look at how transport matters from the viewpoint of individuals and their relationship with society.
Comparative insights into local responses to the European Social Fund
Authors: Zimmermann Katharina
Published: May 2020

Chapter 5 presents insights how local responses to the ESF look like, both in a qualitative and descriptive manner, and in a more formalised, quantified way. In a first step, the chapter presents descriptive snapshots how usages of Europe look like in the empirical reality and then illustrates the situation across the 18 local cases. The same is done for ESF-induced change. In a final step, the chapter draws a comparative picture of local patterns of usage and change. Here, three different configurations of usage and change stand out empirically: cases where no usage and no change was observed, cases with usage but no change, and cases with both usage and change.
Statistical work: the changing occupational landscape
Authors: McConway Kevin
Published: May 2020

It never was the case that only statisticians work with statistics, but the occupational landscape is becoming more and more diverse. This chapter looks at the work of statisticians and data scientists, but also at how journalists, campaigners, and academics such as economists and psychologists work with statistics, and how the resulting variety of approaches and orientations shapes the discipline of statistics and how it is seen. I consider the following questions. First, who analyses what data? In particular, how do two relatively new occupations, data scientist and data journalist, fit in? Second, who presents the results to which audiences, and in particular, how are statistical findings communicated to the general public? Third, who defines what statistical analyses are appropriate, and to what extent is the ‘replication crisis’ really a crisis for statistics? Fourth, who trains whom in working with data, and how might that depend on the influence of data science? None of these questions have straightforward answers. There have been and continue to be changes in all of them. They all involve people who would not be described, by themselves or others, as ‘statisticians’.
Using survey data: towards valid estimates of poverty in the South
Authors: Carr-Hill Roy
Published: May 2020

It is important to be cautious about making inferences from survey data. This chapter focuses on one very important but unexamined problem, that of the undercount of the poorest in the world. This arises both by design (excluding the homeless, those in institutions and nomadic populations) and in practice (those in fragile households, urban slums, insecure areas and servants/slaves in rich households). In developing countries, it is difficult to make inter-censal estimates because essential data like birth and death registration are not systematically collected. Donors have therefore promoted the use of international standardized household surveys. A possible alternative is Citizen surveys initiated by an Indian NGO (Pratham). Comparisons are made between citizen surveys and contemporaneous Demographic and Health Surveys in three East African countries
Tax justice and the challenges of measuring illicit financial flows
Authors: Murphy Richard
Published: May 2020

Multinational corporation tax avoidance is primarily about tax avoidance. That is, recording transactions in ways that are legal but which might not meet with the approval of the all the tax authorities who might be impacted by the way in which transactions are recorded are reported. This is most especially true of many transactions involving tax havens. The problem with tracing transactions recorded in these places has, however, been locating any data on them because if the accounting opacity that they create, which is also permitted by existing accounting standards for multinational corporations. Country-by-country reporting was created to tackle this opacity head-on by requiring that all large corporations report all their transactions wherever they might arise. The result could be far greater information on the illicit financial flows of major companies, or their potential elimination.
The difficulty of building comprehensive tax avoidance data
Authors: Sikka Prem
Published: May 2020

Tax avoidance has become a prominent feature of contemporary media coverage. It shows that complex corporate structures and transactions are used at home and abroad to enable corporations and wealthy elites to avoid taxes. In this process they are aided by the private banking, legal, accounting, and investment industries. Due to secrecy and confidentiality attached in individual and corporate tax affairs, the amounts of tax revenues lost due to unlawful practices (often called tax evasion), competing interpretations of law (some call it tax avoidance) and a variety of other factors are hard to estimate, but competing models provide a glimpse. This chapter argues that it is difficult to reveal the full extent of tax revenues lost and identifies some of the reasons why this is so. It is difficult if not impossible, to build a comprehensive picture partly because tax avoiding transactions frequently give the appearance of normal transactions and partly because the limited staffing and financial capacity of HMRC makes thorough investigation and prosecution where necessary impossible in all cases.
Counting the uncounted: contestations over casualisation data in Australian universities
Authors: Dados Nour , Goodman James , Yasukawa Keiko
Published: May 2020

Recently, insecure work in universities in many countries has grown exponentially, alongside the rapid marketization of higher education. Reflecting the neoliberal ideal of a flexible workforce, research and teaching at universities is routinely carried out by precariously-employed academics. In Australia, for instance, the bulk of university teaching is now carried out by hourly-paid employees. This structural dependence on precarious academics poses a reputational problem for universities, and universities respond by obfuscating the statistical evidence. We present a case study of tracking down the level of this phenomenon in Australian higher education. The academics’ trade union and allies have used the university-level figures to challenge the advance of academic job insecurity, and are now highlighting the incidence of precarious academic employment nationally. Our own work has highlighted the multiple and conflicting figures being reported by universities, and the systematic underestimation of the actual rate of insecure jobs reported by government departments. We question these unreliable estimates, examples of neoliberalism’s ‘funny numbers’, and develop alternative data and arguments Thereby, we aim to reveal the impact of casualisation and enable critical evaluation of trends in the higher education sector, so as to restore industrial justice.
From looking backwards to forwards: unemployment insurance, France, 2000
Authors: Hansen Magnus Paulsen
Published: May 2020

Chapter 4 presents the reform process of the so-called PARE (‘aid plan for the return to employment’) of the French unemployment insurance system in 2000. The instruments of PARE included an individual contract that would oblige the unemployed to engage in ‘personalised’ job seeking activities while getting access to support such as training courses. Further, PARE strengthened requirements to accept job offers from the job exchange service as well as sanctions upon refusals and contractual infringements. The trade unions were divided in their stance towards this, causing intense debate, especially on the use of sanctions. The reform illustrates how the addition of a rather simple instrument radically changed the moral status of the unemployed.
The employability skills discourse and literacy practitioners
Authors: Allatt Gwyneth , Tett Lyn
Published: May 2020

This chapter shows how the human capital model of knowledge that is embedded in transnational and national policies has led, in literacy programmes, to a focus on skills at the expense of wider goals. However, practitioners have resisted this discourse of deficit to some extent by a shared understanding of what is good practice, clear views of their underpinning value system and creative ways of delivering pre-set outcomes.
Education policy and the European Semester: challenging soft power in hard times
Authors: Stevenson Howard , Milner Alison , Winchip Emily , Hagger-Vaughan Lesley
Published: May 2020

Education policy is a national competence within European Union rules, and therefore the responsibility of national governments. However, encouraging education policy co-ordination across Member States, and developing a European education ‘policy space’ has always been a feature of EU activity. In this chapter we demonstrate how the EU’s economic governance structures, known as the European Semester, introduced after the 2008 financial crisis have developed to include a significant role for developing European education policy. We identify the need to ‘open up’ the European Semester to more democratic influences and show how education unions across Europe are working to ensure the Semester promotes socially just and democratically accountable public education.
Living in a state of insecurity
Authors: Bogue Kelly
Published: May 2020

This chapter begins by highlighting the circumstances and conditions of participants’ lives preceding the introduction of the Bedroom Tax policy. This serves as a starting point for the chapter, illustrating that the policy was introduced into lives that were already characterised by income insecurity, employment precarity, and ill-health. It charts the ways in which participants responded to the implementation of the policy and the impact it had in informing decisions about moving or absorbing the extra rental expenditure. This chapter is concerned with the impact at the household level documenting how life became more difficult as the extra financial outlay placed a strain on participants financially, socially, and psychologically. In the final section, the focus turns to how the policy worked to transmit insecurity into the lives of participants’ children, furthering the inter-generational transmission of inequality through the introduction of a precarious housing situation which had not been there previously.
Divisive social policy: the competition for physical and symbolic resources
Authors: Bogue Kelly
Published: May 2020

In this chapter, the focus turns to explore how the policy impacted on participants’ perceptions of fairness and justice in social housing allocation. This is set within the context of existing debates about the racialisation of social housing, a result of struggles over who should have preference to access this declining resource. While those tensions are played out at the local level, the rhetoric around social housing has increasingly linked this form of tenure with ‘welfare dependency’. The chapter begins by exploring how participants evaluate austerity politics in terms of their own economic position. It then turns to focus on their status and social positioning and how the policy raises questions of worth and value. What we see here are not just struggles over material resources such as housing, but also over less tangible psychosocial and symbolic resources that afford people a sense of worth and value.
Struggles to Locate Mobile People at the Centre of the Migration and Climate Change Nexus
Authors: Nash Sarah Louise
Published: May 2020

This chapter focuses on the second nodal point in the policy-making discourse on migration and climate change, which is the people who are at the centre of the phenomenon analysed in the previous chapter. People are also central to this discourse, for without people whose mobilities are in some way being affected, the abstract phenomenon of the migration and climate change nexus would remain as such, an abstract phenomenon. However, this is not to say that an easily identifiable community of affected people exists or that the lives of those people who are perceived as being affected by the nexus can be slotted into existing systems for understanding and classifying people on the move. One commonality shared by the people at the centre of the migration and climate change nexus is the exceptionality that is created around them. The basis of this exceptionality being identified as movement reveals a sedentary bias underlying the conceptualisation of the migration and climate change nexus.
Conclusion: Closing the Policy Circle
Authors: Nash Sarah Louise
Published: May 2020

This concluding chapter summarizes the arguments discussed in the book before turning to the future, extrapolating what these arguments could mean for future work on the migration and climate change nexus. The moral, so to speak, of this story is that changing policy making on migration and climate change does not just imply coming up with new policy ideas, populating a new policy domain with mentions of migration and climate change, or being open to a sprinkling of new faces in policy arenas. Instead, it entails reconsidering how people understand and talk about migration and climate change and undertaking a process of self-reflection: what perspective do people have on the issue and why? This does not necessarily involve interrogating the reasons why people are moving, or the extent to which people connect changes in weather patterns to their decisions to move or their inability to do so. Rather, this involves a process of critical reflection of the motives, both explicit and implicit, of the policy juggernaut. This perspective is really important if the migration and climate change nexus is going to exist as anything but a dire warning of the realities of climate change, and if policy responses are going to be transformative rather than buttresses for the current global state of affairs.
Belonging in Translation
Authors: Shindo Reiko
Published: May 2020

This is the first book to investigate how migrants and migrant rights activists work together to generate new forms of citizenship identities through the use of language. It begins with an overview of the important connection between language and the materiality of migration and discusses how the research on language in the context of migrant activism can advance one's understanding of belonging, of what it means to be a legitimate member of a community. The book then looks at the acts of citizenship in more detail, showing that not only the visible but also the audible presence of noncitizens is constitutive of struggles for citizenship. In conclusion, it reflects on the insights obtained from the study on multilingual migrant activism. The book is an original take on citizenship and community from the perspective of translation, and an alluring amalgamation of theory and detailed empirical analysis based on ethnographic case studies of Japan.