bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Prosodic Weight
Authors: Ryan Kevin M.
Published: March 2019

Prosodic weight plays a central role in metrical systems, including stress, poetic meter, prosodic word minimality, and prosodic end-weight. In each, constraints regulate the interaction of weight and phonological strength. For example, in English, increasingly heavy syllables are increasingly likely to attract stress. Depending on the language and system, weight can be binary (heavy vs. light), higher n-ary (ternary, etc., but still categorical), or gradient (continuous on a ratio scale). Gradient weight is widely attested in stress, meter, and end-weight. The book emphasizes the typology and analysis of complex and gradient scales for weight as well as properties of weight that obtain universally across languages, systems, and scales. For example, across phenomena, greater sonority contributes to weight in the syllable rime but detracts from it in the onset. Scales are analyzed in terms of prominence mapping (varying stressability of elements) as opposed to moraic coercion. Prosodic minimality is analyzed in the context of larger prosodic constituents, revealing new issues. The book also offers the first detailed study of a minimum to which only certain final consonants contribute. Syllable weight in metrics is treated extensively, as complex weight in meter has been largely overlooked previously. Finally, prosodic end-weight is argued to be driven by phrasal stress, manifesting ultimately the same stress–weight interface as does word phonology. Among other things, this analysis captures that prosodic end-weight is confined to prosodically head-final contexts. Finally, complex and gradient weight brings questions concerning the phonetics-phonology interface into sharp focus.
Quantitative meter
Authors: Ryan Kevin M.
Published: March 2019

Quantitative meters regulate the distribution of syllable weight or moras in verse constituents. They generally involve a binary criterion for weight, but often add to it sensitivity to gradient, intracategorial weight. A distinction is drawn between variable weight, which can involve optional processes (such as variable cluster syllabification or vowel shortening in hiatus) and gradient weight, in which phonological structure is fixed but the meter evinces sensitivity to a weight continuum. For example, superheavy syllables are sometimes avoided in cadences, as in Sanskrit. Second, different position types sometimes exhibit different tolerances for heavier or lighter heavy syllables, permitting the diagnosis of an intraheavy continuum, as illustrated for Finnish, Greek, and Tamil. Finally, line-final position can favor heavier heavies or lighter lights. This chapter also considers prospects for Interval Theory, by which the weight domain spans the left edges of successive vowels.
Prosodic end-weight and the stress–weight interface
Authors: Ryan Kevin M.
Published: March 2019

Prosodic end-weight refers to the specifically phonological aspect of end-weight, as emerges when one controls for other factors influencing word order, such as frequency, semantics, and syntactic complexity. Eight principles of prosodic end-weight are established, all aligning with the typology of weight more generally, suggesting that prosodic end-weight reflects bona fide phonological weight as opposed to raw complexity or duration. Several possible explanations for prosodic end-weight are considered, including final lengthening, complexity deferral, phonotactic or rhythmic optimization, and phrasal or nuclear stress. Phrasal stress is argued to be the core explanation for prosodic end-weight. Thus, weight-stress mapping operates both within words and in phrasal prosody. Weight-mapping constraints from earlier in the book are extended to phrasal contexts. This analysis predicts, evidently correctly, that some languages, such as Turkish, should exhibit prosodic beginning-weight rather than end-weight.
Explaining the Future
Authors: Bains Sunny
Published: March 2019

Explaining the Future addresses the questions “will this new technology solve the problem that its inventors claim it will,” “will it succeed for any application at all,” “can we narrow down the options before we spend a lot of money on development,” and “how do we persuade colleagues, investors, clients, or readers of our technical reasoning?” Whether the person answering these questions is a researcher, a consultant, a venture capitalist, or a CTO, they will need to be able to answer them clearly and systematically. Most learn these skills only through years of experience. However, by making them explicit, this book makes the learning process more efficient and speeds its readers toward higher-level careers. First, it will provide the tools to think through matching new (and old) technologies, materials, and processes with applications: it covers the questions to ask, the resources needed to answer them, and who deserves trust. Then, it discusses analyzing the information that has been gathered in a systematic way and dealing with uncertainty. Next, there are chapters on communication, including tailoring documents to a specific audience, making a persuasive and structured technical argument, and writing an explanation that is credible and easy to follow. Finally, the book includes a case study: a real worked example that goes from an idea through the twists and turns of the research and analysis process to a final report.
Finding Answers
Authors: Bains Sunny
Published: March 2019

“Finding Answers” addresses the information you need to answer questions. The chapter starts by suggesting a basic work flow for gathering material. It then moves on to consider where to look for that material; specifically, the information sources that can be accessed both virtually and by reaching out into the real world. These include everything from keywords, technical literature, patents, intellectual property, the trade press, annual reports, conferences, lab visits, industry roadmaps, industry blogger, books, and more. For each one, the chapter discusses not only what each source can offer and which questions they are most likely to answer but also their strengths, their weaknesses, and common pitfalls in using them.
Analyze
Authors: Bains Sunny
Published: March 2019

Chapter 4 discusses the difficult, multilayered art of technical analysis. For those who haven’t yet developed their own methodology, it begins by considering different routes through the work, taking either the point of view of a problem looking for a solution, or that of a solution looking for a problem (looking for a solution). Using canvases (or spreadsheets) makes it possible to systematically evaluate technology features, application criteria, competitors, and timing—all of which were discussed in Chapter 1. Finally, the chapter discusses levels of confidence in the analysis presented, and the importance of coming to a conclusion of some kind, even if the conclusion is that more research is needed.
Communication Using Interperspectival Contents
Authors: Ludlow Peter
Published: March 2019

The problem we encounter with any semantic theory that expresses perspectival content is that when we engage in communication we of necessity communicate with people in other perspectival positions. So, for example, we often speak with people in different physical locations. Sometimes, we communicate across time, e.g. by leaving messages, and we often report on thoughts and comments made at an earlier time. Unless we are talking to ourselves, we also communicate with other persons, who are, obviously, in different perspectival positions. This chapter explores how people routinely communicate across such perspectival positions. The same interperspectival content is expressed in different ways in different perspectival contents. A theory of cognitive dynamics is developed which explains how these modes of expression are coordinated.
Computation, Information, and Interperspectival Content
Authors: Ludlow Peter
Published: March 2019

It is argued that perspectival contents run deeply through our accounts of computation and information, and that perspectival content is critical to our interpretation of natural and artifactual computational systems, and the very notion of information itself. The chapter concludes that we get to call the shots on what information is being transmitted between systems in nature. This is analogous to our interpretation and reports on the beliefs and desires of other persons. The relevant information is information that is accessible to us as observers and is a function of our explanation and understanding of the behaviors of informational systems in nature. In short, all information flow, whether natural or the product of human intentions, ultimately bottoms out in perspectival contents.
Law and the Political Economy of Hunger
Authors: Chadwick Anna
Published: March 2019

This book offers the first in-depth analysis of the significance of law in the context of world hunger. The book takes as its starting point the global food crisis in 2007–08—a crisis said to have been exacerbated by financial speculators ‘gambling’ on the price of food via commodity derivatives. Challenging the tendency to attribute the highly differentiated impact of the crisis to an underlying condition of ‘food insecurity’, the author relates the role that international law has played in making some populations ‘food insecure’ in the first instance. The book then examines recent developments in the financialization of agriculture and links these developments to structural changes in the global economy since the 1980s. Food commodity speculation—the practice linked to the causation of the global food crisis—is used as a case study to explore the interaction of regimes of law that attempt to regulate market conduct and legal regimes that create markets and enable them to operate. The tension between efforts to regulate speculative market behaviour and bodies of private law that anticipate and operationalize that same behaviour is exposed. The book concludes with a critical analysis of the potential of a human right to adequate food to address the problem of world hunger. Far from being the result of a lack of regulation, or even unrealized human rights, the book argues that prevalence of hunger in the contemporary period is a product of capitalist political economy and the legal structures that underpin it.
Introduction
Authors: Chadwick Anna
Published: March 2019

The Introduction provides an overview of the events of the 2007–08 global food crisis and surveys commonplace accounts of its causation. After signalling the role that commodity derivatives speculation is alleged to have played in causing the crisis, the author challenges the tendency to portray law as the solution to world hunger. The main argument of the book—that law actively contributes to the persistence of hunger in the world—is set out, and the arguments of each chapter are presented. The introduction concludes with an overview of existing scholarship that has contributed to the author’s thinking on the relationship between hunger and the legal system, including the work of Amartya Sen, Karl Marx, Institutionalist scholarship, and the work of Karl Polanyi.
Human Rights, Law, and Political Economy
Authors: Chadwick Anna
Published: March 2019

The final chapter of the book explores the potential of international human rights law as a means of addressing the persistence of world hunger. The chapter begins by relating the institutional development of the human right to adequate food. The analysis highlights some of the main advances that have been made in protecting the right, and it considers the emegence of two particular approaches taken to realizing socio-economic rights on the domestic level. The chapter then considers some of the limitations of human rights law as a tool to remedy complex socio-economic problems. The challenges of financialization and world hunger serve as referents for this analysis. Next, the author discusses the rise of the ‘food sovereignty’ movement and considers whether this approach overcomes some of the limitations of rights-based solutions to hunger. The chapter concludes with a two-fold argument concerning the limitations of existing international responses to hunger, which is that they simultaneously underweight the embeddedness of regulatory law in political economy, and, relatedly, that they pay insufficient attention to the operations of constitutive legal regimes that function to obstruct efforts to realize a right to adequate food.
From Slackers in Khaki to Knights of the Red Cross
Authors: Meyer Jessica
Published: March 2019

This chapter uses a range of cultural representations of the men of the RAMC produced during the war to explore how these men perceived their own work and status, and how these were perceived by those they encountered in their caring roles. Drawing on theories of cultural representation, it uses close readings of cartoons, poetry, hospital magazines, and memoirs to demonstrate the multiple and shifting ways in which the work of RAMC rankers was perceived and understood throughout the war. In contrast to the work of Jeffrey Reznick and Ana Carden-Coyne, it foregrounds the representation of the stretcher bearer and medical orderly to complicate understandings of the construction of power relationships within systems of military medical care. The range of representations explores, and the gendered nature of their construction further demonstrates, the complexity of cultural constructions of gender and gender relations in British society during the First World War.
Introduction
Authors: Meyer Jessica
Published: March 2019

This chapter introduces the subject of the book, outlining the reasons why it is a significant subject for historical analysis. It summarizes the historiographic context of the study in relation to medical histories, gender histories, and social histories of the conflict. It identifies relevant gaps in the existing literature and appropriate approaches, in particular those that use patient voices and studies of specific categories of caregiver. It then outlines the methodological approach of gender history using close readings and reception analysis that is used in this volume. Finally, it outlines the structure of the book, summarizing the approach taken and argument to be made in each substantive chapter, before concluding with the statement of the overarching thesis that a study of the men of the RAMC in the First World War enables historians to further understand the complexity of gender and gender relations in British society in this period.
The War Guilt Problem and the Ligue des droits de l'homme, 1914-1944
Authors: Ingram Norman
Published: March 2019

This book contributes in important ways to three distinct historical arguments. First and foremost, it is a significant addition to a still small, but growing, literature on the Ligue des droits de l’homme (LDH), an organization founded in 1898 at the height of the Dreyfus Affair which lay at the very centre of French Republican politics in the era of the two world wars. It posits that the Ligue was half-dead by its own hand by 1937—well before the Nazi invasion of May 1940—because of its inability to resolve the question of war guilt from the Great War. The issue of war origins and war guilt transfixed it from 1914 down to the Second World War. Secondly, this book expands our understanding of the aetiology of French pacifism, thereby allowing for a deeper awareness of the differences between French and Anglo-American pacifism. It argues that from 1916 onwards one can see a principled dissent from the Union sacrée war effort that occurred within mainstream French Republicanism and not on the syndicalist or anarchist fringes. Finally, the book proposes a new explanatory model to help us understand some of the choices made in Vichy France, moving beyond the usual triptych of collaboration, resistance, or accommodation. This study is based on substantial research in a large number of French archives, primarily in the papers of the LDH which were repatriated to France from the former Soviet Union in late 2001, but also on considerable research in German archives—something other historians of the Ligue have not done. There is thus an exciting primacy of discovery here.
War Origins
Authors: Ingram Norman
Published: March 2019

The outbreak of the Great War in August 1914 surprised the Ligue des droits de l’homme which quickly adopted the position of virtually all French people of support for the Union sacrée. Despite the fact that the Ligue’s origins in the Dreyfus Affair lay in a rejection of the military ethos in French society, it reverted almost instantly to a neo-Jacobin crusading posture based on a deep antipathy to Germany. The case for German war guilt made by the Ligue’s vice-president, Victor Basch, was challenged by 1915, however, by a minority group within the Ligue which founded the ‘Société d’études documentaires et critiques sur la guerre’ (SEDCG). Central to the SEDCG’s concerns was the issue of French and Russian war guilt in the outbreak of war; in other words, of shared responsibility for the Great War.
Bridge over the Abyss?
Authors: Ingram Norman
Published: March 2019

The Ligue des droits de l’homme had several German interlocutors in the 1920s, ranging from the Deutsche Liga für Menschenrechte (DLfM) to the German Foreign Office to German public opinion. The leadership of the DLfM cosseted French republican opinion in the belief that all of Germany wanted to pay reparations for the destruction of northern France during the Great War, but there was hardly unanimity even within the German republican left on the issue of war guilt and reparations. The tangible political ramifications of the war guilt debate are to be seen, above all, in the fallout from the Ruhr Occupation of 1923 which could have destroyed the burgeoning relationship of the LDH and DLfM, but did not. It did, however, change the way France and the Ligue were viewed in Germany.
1937, or the Aventine Secession
Authors: Ingram Norman
Published: March 2019

The 1937 Tours Congress, the theme of which was ‘How to Defend Both Democracy and Peace’, brought schism to the Ligue des droits de l’homme. The issues of contention were the Moscow Purge Trials, the Spanish Civil War, and the refusal to countenance mediation of the latter. The minority charged that the Ligue’s majority was refusing to admit the atrocities being committed in the Soviet Union in order to shore up the Popular Front in France. Refusal of mediation in the Spanish conflict was a replay of the refusal of mediation during the Great War. The link between the origins of the Great War and the European situation in 1937 was explicitly made. The latter was the misbegotten progeny of the former and the minority steadfastly refused to countenance another Union sacrée.
Conversational Exercitives
Authors: McGowan Mary Kate
Published: March 2019

This chapter argues that conversational contributions routinely enact norms for the conversation to which they contribute. When an utterance adds to a conversation, it enacts changes to the conversational score. This is because the score tracks everything relevant to the proper assessment and development of the conversation. Moreover, since what is appropriate or permissible in the conversation depends on the score, changing the score thereby changes what is permissible in that conversation and this involves the enacting of norms. Such conversational exercitives involve an important but overlooked mechanism of verbal norm enactment.
A Version of Moore’s Method
Authors: Lycan William G.
Published: March 2019

This chapter looks at Moore’s distinctive method of refuting idealists and skeptics, and isolates and defends the most effective version of that method. The version is everywhere comparative and piecemeal: which is more credible, an abstract a priori philosophical premise, or the humdrum everyday proposition the idealist is concerned to attack? This version of the method is shown to resist all the standard objections to Moore (that he is being dogmatic, that he begs the question, that he privileges “common sense” in an arbitrary way, etc.). An appendix considers but prescinds from the “Very Strong” position that, in principle, no idealist argument could possibly succeed against Moore.
The Poverty of Philosophical Method
Authors: Lycan William G.
Published: March 2019

Cartesian mind–body dualism is widely thought to have been simply refuted by sound argument. This chapter maintains that the case against dualism is very weak. There is no very good argument for materialism, and the objections to dualism are convincing only to materialists. In particular, the dreaded Interaction problem is not notably hard for a committed dualist to handle; and the other standard objections simply presuppose a third-person perspective that would not be tolerated by the dualist in the first place. Materialism is not significantly better supported than dualism. In the process, the chapter sets out a number of sociophilosophical observations that explain our impression that dualism has been simply shown to be untenable. The sociophilosophical observations, more generally, explain how an illusion is created to the effect that purely philosophical reasoning can either prove or refute a significant doctrine or claim.
The Evidential Status of Intuitions
Authors: Lycan William G.
Published: March 2019

An intuition is an intellectual seeming, and this chapter argues that intuitions have evidential status. That claim is defended against objections: that an “intuition” is just a psychological fact about a person, that it merely reveals a lack of imagination, that it is already a tacit theory rather than a datum, that intuitions are malleable, and that they vary across communities. There is a further question of how intuitions might be shown to be reliable indicators of truth; this question is misguided, as it presupposes a competing epistemological theory that is rejected here. On the positive side, intuitions justify by way of what Goodman called reflective equilibrium. That method too has incurred objections, over and above those mentioned above, but they are deferred until Chapter 8.
The copula as a nominative Case marker
Authors: Kim Kwang-sup
Published: March 2019

In Korean the morpheme /-I/ has conventionally been taken to be a copula, since it functions as a host for tense affixes when the predicate is a nominal. This chapter, however, argues that it is a nominative Case marker on the basis of morpho-phonological and syntactic evidence. First of all, /-I/ and the nominative Case marker are phonologically identical; second, they are in complementary distribution, and third, they are subject to the same distributional restrictions. On these grounds this chapter claims that the constituent that has been assumed to be a copula is an allomorph of the nominative Case marker. There are some apparent counterexamples to this claim, but this chapter shows that they turn out to be not genuine counterexamples.
The role of the copula in periphrastic passives in Russian
Authors: Borik Olga
Published: March 2019

One of the most interesting properties of the periphrastic passive construction in Russian is the optional realization of the copula verb be. Although the presence of the copula does not affect the grammaticality of the construction per se, there are semantic effects related to the presence/absence of the copula verb in a passive sentence. One of the clearest differences concerns the temporal interpretation of a sentence: a passive sentence without a copula corresponds to a present interpretation, whereas the same sentence with the copula realized has a past interpretation. This is in accordance with the grammatical pattern of copula realization in Russian: the present tense copula in nominal predicates is not overtly realized. This chapter shows that copula realization in Russian is conditioned only by a temporal interpretation, just as the traditional view has it, and is not related to a stative vs. eventive interpretation of passive sentences, as has been proposed by Paslawska and von Stechow (2003).
Predicational and specificational copular sentences in Logoori
Authors: Loccioni Nicoletta
Published: March 2019

This chapter presents data from Logoori (Bantu) which shows morphosyntactic evidence for two different strategies in place in copular sentences. Unlike English, Logoori predicational and specificational copular sentences do not (have to) have a similar surface syntax. It is claimed that the crucial difference does not rest on two distinct types of underlying predicational structures, rather it is the result of two different derivations. In Logoori, when the referential phrase is in a precopular position, it can either occupy the canonical subject position or (in some cases) it can be dislocated. On the other hand, when the predicative phrase is in precopular position it can only occupy a dislocated position, supporting an inverse analysis for specificational (and identificational) copular sentences in which the predicate must be dislocated outside the TP, much in the spirit of Moro (1997).
Structuralism
Authors: Brückner Julian
Published: March 2019

Structuralist transformation approaches were first developed by neo-Marxist critics dissatisfied with classic modernization theory. Rather than assuming a universal path to democracy that all countries eventually follow, structuralist explanations view democratization as merely one possible outcome of more fundamental changes in a society’s class and power relations. After discussing Barrington Moore’s early attempt to identify the social origins of dictatorship and democracy, this chapter turns to the role of the state and international power relations. World-system and dependency theory link the emergence of bureaucratic-authoritarian regimes in newly industrialized countries to their late integration into the capitalist world economy. Dependent development changes the nature of class relations and the outlook of the bourgeoisie thereby hampering democracy. Yet the chapter continues to show that the final push for democratic inclusion has typically been by the working class. Finally, a synthesis of different structuralist arguments and Vanhanen’s Index of Power Resources are presented.
Historical Institutionalism and Societal Transformations
Authors: Stefes Christoph H.
Published: March 2019

This chapter examines historical institutionalism (HI) and the role that time and institutions play in societal transformations. HI thereby provides analytical depth to the study of time, realizing that the duration, tempo, timing, and sequencing of historical processes and events affect the onset of societal transformations. Institutions subsequently narrow the range of paths that societal transformations could potentially take, by enabling distinct forms of cooperation between various actors, (re)distributing power and resources, and proscribing and prescribing appropriate behaviour. In the wake of radical and incremental institutional changes, caused by exogenous shocks and endogenous dynamics, societies might embark on new paths. With its analytical focus on the meso level and the nature of time, HI has contributed to the development of middle-range theories that often bridge the traditional actor-structure divide.
Macro-Qualitative Approaches
Authors: Schneider Carsten Q.
Published: March 2019

Macro-qualitative (MQ) approaches to the study of regime transformation can be defined as those that (a) in order to describe or explain macro-level phenomena (b) predominantly use qualitative data and (c) make claims about these phenomena in terms of set relations. MQ approaches can be static or dynamic and are normally used for single-case or small- to medium-N-sized studies. The set of methods employed in MQ research thus defined ranges from qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) to sequence elaboration and process tracing. Classics in the MQ transformation literature can be interpreted in terms of set theory. For instance, Lipset (1959) famously claimed that there are social conditions that are necessary for the functioning of democracy.
Economic Methods
Authors: Myant Martin , Drahokoupil Jan
Published: March 2019

The contribution of economics to the study of transformations has been dominated by the assumptions and methods of neoclassical economics. Use of statistical methods to compare countries and time periods have provided some very broad generalizations, but at the expense of ignoring many important differences between cases. Regression analysis is ill-suited to analysing highly complex processes in a small numbers of cases. Attempts to measure progress in post-socialist countries towards accepted features of market economies have provided only partial pictures, suffering from failure to include satisfactorily historical and institutional factors. This applies to the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development’s Transition Indicators and to attempts to measure the effects of privatization in those countries. Institutional and evolutionary approaches to economics have allowed recognition of the complexity of transformations and of the impact of non-economic factors on economic developments.
Comparative Methods in Transformation Research: Political Culture
Authors: Berg-Schlosser Dirk
Published: March 2019

This chapter discusses the obvious conflicts between political culture as a long-term historical only, slowly changing phenomenon in times of rapid regime changes. It specifies this concept more closely and points to the linkages between macro and micro levels of analysis. In this respect, broadly representative research methods at the micro level, such as survey research, must be brought in line with broader historical developments and their consequences for political cultures at the macro level. At its core, this affects the question of the legitimacy of the old regimes and the future and stability of the emerging institutions. All this has to be seen in the context of the recent ‘wave’ of democratization in different parts of the world, but also taking into account the causes of democratic ‘backsliding’ and the reassertion of authoritarian regimes. Finally, the question is raised where these developments lead in the age of globalization and increasing intercultural exchanges.
Transformation in Fascist Interbellum Europe
Authors: Nützenadel Alexander
Published: March 2019

Even though some scholars have highlighted the modernizing effects of Fascist social and economic policies, transformation theory has rarely been applied to the Fascist regimes of the interbellum period. This was mainly due to the antidemocratic and destructive character of Fascist regimes. This chapter argues that transformation theory can be used to explain some basic features of Fascism within a comparative framework. In particular, this theory is helpful to explore the complex interaction between ideology and political institutions on the one hand and long-term social and economic change on the other. Even though Germany and Italy represent the most interesting cases because Fascism was able to establish powerful dictatorial regimes, the historical analysis should not be limited to these two countries. Applied to other countries and world regions, the theory might explain why Fascist movements failed there.
Collective Identities
Authors: Sterbling Anton
Published: March 2019

Collective identity is an abstract category which encompasses narrowly definable concepts such as group identity, cultural identity, or regional identity, and historically specific types of community formation and sociation such as clans, tribes, peoples, nations, or ethnic minorities, including socio-structural concepts such as social status and class as well as political parties and movements. A definition of the term collective identities includes every process of community formation and sociation that leads to clearly definable social entities, although communicative processes of self- and other-identification and corresponding attitudes appear to be of constitutive importance. The transformation of collective identities is considered in view of the ‘three waves of democratization’, and the socio-structural processes of ‘political exclusion’, ‘socio-cultural closures’, and ‘meritocratic-functional differentiation’. Currently massive migration processes are also connected with questions and symptoms of a crisis of collective identities. At the same time, issues of multiple identities gain more importance.
Deconsolidation of Democracy in East Central Europe
Authors: Ágh Attila
Published: March 2019

In the early 1990s consolidation was the key term and conceptual frame in the democratization theories of the East Central European (ECE) states. However, this concept has been more and more questioned and finally rejected by the 2010s and the term deconsolidation has been introduced instead. Nowadays, there is an age of uncertainty in democracy studies that necessitates the reconceptualization of both European studies and democratic theory. In the recent deconsolidation process the trend towards ‘transitions to authoritarian rule’ has been observed in the ECE states in general and in Poland and Hungary in particular, where state capture has been extended to full-fledged ‘democracy capture’. Poland and Hungary will serve in this chapter as exemplary cases of deconsolidation of democracy.
Dilemma of Simultaneity
Authors: Saliba Ilyas , Merkel Wolfgang
Published: March 2019

The theory of the dilemma of simultaneity is empirically based on the transformations of post-socialist states in Central and Eastern Europe. The transformations after the collapse of the socialist bloc were without precedent with regards to breadth and depth. The dilemma of simultaneity consists of three parallel transition processes on three dimensions. The first part of this chapter explores the three dimensions of the transitions: nation building, political transformation, and economic transformation. The second part discusses the three levels of transformation: (1) ethno-national identity and territory, (2) polity, and (3) socio-economic distribution. The third part highlights the complexity and challenges of multidimensional simultaneous transformation processes. The fourth and fifth parts discuss the role of international actors and socio-economic structures on the transitions in Central and Eastern Europe. The chapter concludes with an account of Elster’s and Offe’s critics and their response.
External Transformation Anchors
Authors: Trappmann Vera
Published: March 2019

This chapter analyses the role of the European Union as an external transformation anchor for political and economic transformations. Drawing on Europeanization and international socialization literature, it argues that only conditionality makes it effective (promising or threatening to withdraw membership in the EU); although this does not imply that the wished-for outcome does occur, often compliance is only formal, and social institutions and informal arrangements remain untouched. The chapter analyses the different stages the EU developed in its accession policy, distinguishing the increasing levels of influence and the instruments of its leverage.
Gender Relations
Authors: Roth Silke , Walker Charlie
Published: March 2019

This chapter explores the ways in which key social transformations need to be seen as gendered processes. First, it considers the impact of colonialism on gender relations among both indigenous populations subjugated by Europeans and Europeans themselves, which still shapes gender inequality in the postcolonial development era. Second, it examines the gendered nature of processes of industrialization, which rendered a separation between public and private spheres, and deindustrialization, which has seen a ‘feminization’ of now service-dominated economies. Third, it turns to gender relations in state-socialist societies, where women played a more public role in industrialization, but still took responsibility for domestic labour. The end of socialism, and processes of neoliberalization more broadly, have in turn radically impacted masculinities and femininities. Finally, women’s movements have been key in shaping access to the political rights and benefits associated with democracy and democratization, from the French Revolution to the expansion of the European Union.
Legal Systems and Economic Development
Authors: Pistor Katharina
Published: March 2019

Legal systems and economic development stand in a complex, interdependent relation to one another. Attempts to identify a causal relation from law to economic outcomes have mostly failed, because they don’t take into account the effect of legal and economic change on power structures, and more broadly, on social relations. In part this can be attributed to the conceptual blindness of certain disciplines that focus on micro-constellations and largely ignore systemic effects; in part, it is the result of wishful thinking in policymaking institutions that have time and again tried to use law as an instrument for engineering economic change.
Liberalization
Authors: Csaba László
Published: March 2019

Liberalization is a set of policies that apply to overcoming the distortions emanating from administratively managed markets. Originally it was conceived as one of the constituting elements of the four fundamental policies of systemic change, namely stabilization, liberalization, institution building, and privatization. Opening up markets and substituting administrative constraints with monetary ones were seen to be instrumental in overcoming soft budget constraints and shortages. It was also considered to be an easy measure to be sequenced early on. In hindsight incomplete liberalization has proven to be a major stumbling block to market building, in part because many markets— such as energy, transport, healthcare—remained monopolized. Furthermore, statist turns of the 2010s led to nationalization and monopolization in previously privatized sectors. Protectionism and national champions returned, limiting competitiveness and efficiency.
Mass Media
Authors: Thomaß Barbara
Published: March 2019

A normative or a functionalist perspective on the role of mass media in pluralistic societies is the starting point for analysis of the role of the media in changing societal systems. The correlation between media shifts and societal shifts is striking in transformation processes. Communication scholars have studied this correlation in respect of the transformation in Eastern Europe, the upheavals in the Arab world, but less in the various waves of transformation and case groups. The uncoupling of the media system from the political system, which is typical for the shift from a totalitarian or authoritarian society to a pluralist one, is restructuring processes with an organizational, an economic, and a cultural dimension. It has been modelled in several phases although the actual developments show how these phases can overlap, sustain setbacks, or occur rapidly. Recent research concentrates on these new patterns of transitions and the inherent conflicts.
Political Culture
Authors: Pollack Detlef
Published: March 2019

Political culture studies presuppose that the stability of political order considerably depends upon cultural support of the population. In the event of political and economic transformation political culture studies raise the question whether internalized value orientations can change as quickly as political and economic structures to be conducive for the stabilization of the new political order. In order to answer the question of how far political orders in the countries of East Central and Eastern Europe are culturally legitimized, this chapter draws a distinction between the evaluation of the performance of the political system (specific support) and the evaluation of democracy as an idea and value (diffuse support). As far as the idea of democracy is concerned, the majority of the populations in the countries in East and Central East Europe appreciate democracy; as far as its current performance is concerned, they are, however, dissatisfied with democracy.
Regime Diffusion
Authors: Lauth Hans-Joachim
Published: March 2019

While, initially, transformation research looked more closely at the endogenous causes, additional exogenous explanatory factors were introduced later, with a distinction drawn between intended and unintended actions from outside. The latter perspective is the basis of diffusion research. This chapter contains the definition, concepts, and categories of diffusion research. Possibilities of diffusion are treated by taking reference to an S-model in which the different recipients and extent of diffusion are divided into five phases. The discussion of theories of diffusion focuses mainly on the theory of homophily. These general reflections are transferred to the analysis of democracy diffusion before empirical findings in democracy diffusion are presented and interpreted. The results underscore that a convincing research approach requires an integrated perspective of internal and external factors. There is no question of whether diffusion is effective in processes of democratization and transformation, but how it is effective.
Perpetrators, Fieldwork, and Ethical Concerns
Authors: Lekha Sriram Chandra
Published: March 2019

This chapter contributes to the discussion within the field of perpetrator studies on how to study alleged perpetrators of international crimes. It does so by focusing upon ethical concerns and fieldwork in the shadow of potential trials at the domestic or international level. Drawing upon the extended fieldwork of the author, and presenting case studies from Africa, Asia, and South America, it argues that researchers should be more attentive to the power-relations between researcher and researched. It also discusses the need for researchers to be aware of the role that research plays in analysis of alleged perpetrators inside and outside of judicial processes.
Perpetration as a Process
Authors: Ümit Üngör Uğur
Published: March 2019

This chapter shifts its perspective from the study of perpetrators to perpetration. Whereas the former term refers to the agency of the individuals who have perpetrated forms of mass violence against civilians, the latter concept refers to the process of collective commission of mass violence. The advantage of taking a processual view is that it caters for the complexity of the process of perpetration: different layers of authority, motives of involvement, rules of engagement, and most importantly, the changes in these factors over time. This chapter approaches perpetration as a socio-ecological model containing three distinct analytical levels: top-level (architects), mid-level (organizers), and bottom-level (killers). The heuristic device in this chapter fleshes out and discusses each level of analysis and applies theoretical insights. It develops a temporal processual model that focuses on the power relationships between groups of people, especially between perpetrators and victims, but also within the perpetrator group.
Beyond Perpetrators
Authors: Jessee Erin
Published: March 2019

This chapter considers the life histories of three convicted génocidaires—the term for those individuals who had some degree of criminal complicity in the 1994 Rwandan genocide. Since the genocide, the victorious Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) has, using a range of transitional justice mechanisms, disseminated an oversimplified official history of the genocide that divides the population into innocent Tutsi survivors or guilty Hutu perpetrators. However, convicted génocidaires’ actions surrounding the genocide were often more complex than the RPF’s official history acknowledges. For this reason, this chapter—building upon the work of Erica Bouris and Erin Baines—approaches génocidaires as ‘complex political actors.’ This framing allows for enhanced consideration of the individual circumstances that informed génocidaires’ actions. It similarly allows researchers to better comprehend génocidaires’ efforts to claim space as victims, bystanders, and survivors, for example, given the broader political, historical, and personal circumstances that informed their actions during the genocide.
The Female Tigers of Sri Lanka
Authors: Frerks Georg
Published: March 2019

This chapter discusses the motives and legitimation of female cadres of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) joining the fight against the Sri Lankan government. Tamil young women were, among others, motivated by grievances against the treatment of the Tamil minority by the government, their experience of sexual and gender-based violence by Sinhalese soldiers and Indian peacekeepers, and a wish to avenge the death of relatives. They also wanted to escape a suppressive and conservative Tamil culture that forced them into arranged marriages. The heroism and sacrificial martyrdom cultivated by the LTTE legitimized these women’s combat role among the Tamils in Northern and North-eastern Sri Lanka who admired their courage. Different societal and theoretical discourses exist concerning the supposedly victimizing, liberating, or empowering effects of female participation in armed struggle, but the situation in reality appears to be ambivalent, including both victimhood and emancipation.
Concluding Thoughts
Authors: Smeulers Alette
Published: March 2019

The chapter focuses on the difficulties scholars can experience when studying perpetrators. These can be practical, moral, and ethical. Probably the most difficult issue scholars have to deal with are their own emotions. Sometimes scholars may be disgusted by the perpetrator’s crimes or their indifference, but sometimes (perhaps even more worrisome) cues of empathy towards the perpetrators may emerge. Understanding perpetrators is, however, not the same as excusing them. Even more difficult is the realization that the perpetrators are often very ordinary people who are not particularly different from ourselves. This is a troubling thought and something with which scholars studying perpetrators have struggled. The need to study perpetrators, however, remains important as understanding perpetrators might be our best option to stop and prevent them committing further atrocities in the future.
I’ll Bet You Think This Blame is About You
Authors: Hieronymi Pamela
Published: March 2019

In his landmark “Two Faces of Responsibility,” Gary Watson suggested that one face of responsibility evaluates agents and actions against standards of virtue while another concerns holding one another accountable through, e.g., demands and sanctions. This chapter elaborates the idea of a sanction before noting that many responses to moral failing fall between evaluation (a kind of belief) and sanction (a voluntary action). Being responsible also involves being subject to a variety of reactions that are “non-voluntary” in a sense here explained. The non-voluntariness of these reactions has two important upshots: First, questions about their justification are complex, in ways here examined. Second, unlike sanctions, they are not well thought of as burdens voluntarily imposed upon the wrongdoer by the responder. By overlooking the non-voluntariness of many reactions to moral failure, we risk misunderstanding the significance of those reactions. In an important sense, they are not about the wrongdoer, but rather about the one wronged.
Moral Address
Authors: Wallace R. Jay
Published: March 2019

A significant theme in the work of Gary Watson is the idea that responsibility relations involve the addressing of moral demands to other agents. But both the nature of moral address, and its bearing on other moral debates, remain somewhat obscure. This chapter offers an interpretation of moral address in terms of the Strawson-style reactive attitudes. On the basis of this interpretation, it goes on to explore the significance of moral address for questions about the conditions of moral responsibility and about the ultimate nature of moral requirements. In the process, some particular Watsonian themes are discussed: the nature of the moral demands commonly associated with moral address; the fact that moral address frequently turns on interpersonal accountability; and the limits of moral address, seen in the requirement that it be directed to individuals who have the capacity to understand and respond to such demands.