bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
9 Filtows
Authors: Sorensen Roy
Published: January 2008

The distinction between filtows and shadows rebuts Roberto Casati's slippery slope argument for colored shadows. The metaphysics of shadows is contrasted with that of filtows and objects. Puzzles about what constitutes objects are used to motivate a parallel question with respect to objects.
12 Seeing in Black and White
Authors: Sorensen Roy
Published: January 2008

Do people who see in black and white see black and white? Most people assume that totally color‐blind people see the whiteness of their shirts, the grayness of their trousers, and the blackness of their shoes. They feel the same way about animals that see only in black and white. This chapter's thesis is that only those who see in color see black and white. Its premise is that some positively equivalent representations have unequal amounts of negative information.
14 Hearing Silence
Authors: Sorensen Roy
Published: January 2008

The opening thesis is that we hear silence. Since silence is the absence of sound, we can perceive absences. We also perceive an absence when we see darkness. There is a sensation of darkness – blackness. But there is no sensation of silence. In this respect, hearing silence is a more direct experience of an absence than seeing darkness. Although there is no sensation of silence, we still know what it is like to experience silence. There are introspectible gaps in sensation.
Fore Play
Authors: Heine Steven
Published: January 2008

This chapter provides a methodological anchor and framework for the constructive juxtaposition that enables a creative interaction and dialogue instead of opposition and polarization between the traditional and critical Zen positions, by orienting the discussion in terms of the main ingredients of Zen's original self‐definition and how in early sources Zen portrayed itself as a unique and distinctive tradition. First there is a discussion of the role of Orientalism for interpreting and misinterpreting a phenomenon such as Zen Buddhism. Then the chapter establishes a basis for analyzing and evaluating the exchange of ideas concerning the real meaning of Zen theory and practice.
6 Mandatory Genetic Engineering Labels and Consumer Autonomy
Authors: Markie Peter
Published: January 2008

Some proponents of mandatory labels for GE (genetically engineered) products present the autonomy argument: The labeling of GE products as such should be mandatory because consumers need this information to make purchase decisions that are informed by their values. The argument's appeal to consumer values and autonomy seems to settle the issue of mandatory labels independently of safety issues. This chapter examines three versions of the argument, shows that each is unsuccessful, and explains the poor prospects for a successful autonomy argument.
Trials of Reason
Authors: Wolfsdorf David
Published: January 2008

Scholarship on Plato's dialogues persistently divides its focus between the dramatic or literary and the philosophical or argumentative dimensions of the texts. But this hermeneutic division of labor is naïve, for Plato's arguments are embedded in dramatic dialogues and developed through complex, largely informal exchanges between literary characters. Consequently, it is questionable how readers can even attribute arguments and theses to the author himself. The answer to this question lies in transcending the scholarly divide and integrating the literary and philosophical dimensions of the texts. This is the task of Trials of Reason.

The study focuses on a set of fourteen so-called early dialogues, beginning with a methodological framework that explains how to integrate the argumentation and the drama in these texts. Unlike most canonical philosophical works, the early dialogues do not merely express the results of the practice of philosophy. Rather, they dramatize philosophy as a kind of motivation, the desire for knowledge of goodness, and as a discursive practice, motivated by this desire and ideally governed by reason. And they dramatize the trials to which desire and reason are subject, that is, the difficulties of realizing philosophy as a form of motivation, a practice, and an epistemic achievement. In short, Trials of Reason argues that Plato's early dialogues are as much works of metaphilosophy as philosophy itself.
Two Causal Axioms
Authors: Schmaltz Tad M.
Published: January 2008

This chapter considers two basic causal axioms in Descartes, namely, the “containment axiom” that the total and efficient cause must contain its effect “formally or eminently,” and the “conservation axiom” that the act of conserving an object in existence does not differ in kind from the act of creating it in the first place. It is shown that Descartes borrowed these axioms from the scholastics, and particularly from Suárez, though he adapted the axioms to fit his radically anti-scholastic ontology. It is also argued both that though these axioms allow for the causal efficacy of created beings, Descartes's endorsement of them does not suffice to indicate whether he is an occasionalist, concurrentist, or mere conservationist.
Reforming Saints
Authors: Collins David J.
Published: January 2008

Reforming Saints explains how and why Renaissance humanists composed Latin hagiography in Germany in the decades leading up to the Reformation. Reforming Saints shows that, contrary to scholarly presumptions, there was a resurgence in the composition of saints’ lives in the half centuries on either side of 1500 and that German humanists were among the most active authors and editors of these texts. A goal of Reforming Saints is therefore to shed light on the intersection of a kind of writer (the humanist) and a kind of literature (hagiography) at a defining moment for both. Reforming Saints argues for evaluating this abundant, if overlooked and misunderstood literature on its own terms and against an approach that would denigrate it for not meeting standards drawn from Erasmus or Luther. By exploring salient themes in the humanists’ hagiographical writings and relating them to the general religious culture of the era, Reforming Saints discovers the unexpected yet coherent extent of humanist engagement in the cult of the saints and exposes the strategic ways that these authors made writings about the saints into a literature for religious and cultural reforms that German humanists promoted through much else of their activity. Writing saints’ lives provided these Renaissance scholars a way to investigate Germany's medieval past, to reconstruct and exalt its greatness, and to advocate programs of religious and cultural reform. Reforming Saints proposes that these German humanists thus showed themselves to be much like their Italian contemporaries, many of whom were engaged in similar projects. Moreover, these compositions provided later authors, polemicists, and philologists in Catholic Europe – from Counter‐Reformation preachers in Switzerland to seventeenth‐century Bollandists in Brussels – a legacy to draw from and use for different purposes by the end of the sixteenth century.
2 Interventions, Causal Effects, and Causal Relevance
Authors: Steel Daniel P.
Published: January 2008

This chapter presents and explicates several concepts—namely, those listed in the chapter title—concerning causality and probability that play a fundamental role in the treatment of extrapolation in heterogeneous populations developed in the remainder of the book. Although the concepts of intervention and causal effect are mostly borrowed from other authors, an original definition of positive and negative relevance for examples involving quantitative variables is provided.
7 Reduction and Corrective Asymmetry
Authors: Steel Daniel P.
Published: January 2008

This chapter explores the relationship between reductionism and the mechanisms approach to extrapolation. It maintains that the mechanisms approach is committed to reductionism only insofar as it requires that micro-mechanisms are typically correctively asymmetric with regard to macro-level generalizations, and that corrective asymmetry in this sense is consistent with pluralism.
1 Introduction
Authors: Carruthers Peter , Laurence Stephen , Stich Stephen
Published: January 2008

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of nativism, empiricism, and the Innate Mind project. It then considers the future of the nativism-empiricism debate. An overview of the chapters in this book is then presented.
3 Genes, Environments, and Concepts of Biological Inheritance
Authors: Mameli Matteo
Published: January 2008

The term inheritance is often used to talk about biological traits. It can be argued that in this context this term is used to express two different concepts. The first refers to the processes responsible for the reliable reoccurrence of biological features within lineages. The second refers to the processes responsible for the reliable reoccurrence of phenotypic differences between lineages. These two concepts are referred to as the concept of F-inheritance and the concept of D-inheritance, respectively. The F stands for ‘features that reoccur within lineages’, and the D stands for ‘differences that reoccur between lineages’. The current orthodoxy is that, apart from those few human traits that are under the direct influence of cultural processes, genetic transmission is the only process responsible both for the reliable reoccurrence of traits within lineages and for the reliable reoccurrence of differences between lineages. That is, leaving cultural processes aside, both F-inheritance and D-inheritance coincide with genetic transmission. This chapter argues that the received views of F-inheritance and D-inheritance are wrong. It examines and rejects some of the claims that Richard Dawkins makes in The Extended Phenotype. It is argued that Dawkins's attempt to hold on to a genecentric view of D-inheritance is unsuccessful. His discussion is used to show exactly how the view defended here differs from various versions of the accepted orthodoxy.
7 Where Integers Come From
Authors: Leslie Alan M. , Gallistel C. R. , Gelman Rochel
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines the innate basis of our concepts of the positive integers. In practice, real valued variables are never exactly equal; nor is it easy to specify an algorithm for establishing exact equality between two random Gaussian variables. Furthermore, because number concepts must support arithmetic inference, a necessary part of the psychological foundations is the integer concept ONE. ONE is required because it is the multiplicative identity element for which no other value, approximate or exact, can be substituted. Moreover, ONE is required by the successor function, which generates all the other positive integers. It is argued that an essential constraint on any proposal for discrete (integer-valued rather than real-valued) mental symbols is computational compatibility with the real- (or rational-) valued mental magnitudes that represent continuous quantity. These constraints rule out most current proposals that postulate systems of discrete numerons or other symbols representing only very small numbers. Alternative proposals are considered.
15 Innate Constraints on Judgment and Decision‐Making?
Authors: Santos Laurie R. , Lakshminarayanan Venkat
Published: January 2008

This chapter explores the possibility that human judgment and decision-making heuristics may have an innate component. It begins by providing a brief review of this heuristic approach, exploring what little is known about the role of experience in the emergence of these biases over the course of human development. It then reviews how a comparative-developmental approach allows us to address directly which aspects of our heuristics are innate, universal, and evolutionarily ancient. It adopts insights from comparative cognition to investigate origins of two classic judgmental biases — loss aversion and reference dependence. It presents evidence that humans and nonhumans exhibit analogous judgmental biases previously thought to be uniquely human, and further argues that these shared behaviours result from a common and possibly innate ancestry. The chapter concludes by postulating that examining the innateness of seemingly maladaptive behaviours such as reference dependence and loss aversion may provide insight into the psychological machinery that drives both accurate and biased decision-making.
17 Some Innate Foundations of Social and Moral Cognition
Authors: Wynn Karen
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines the innate basis of social cognition in young infants. It reviews evidence showing that infants not only have a set of innate expectations regarding the behaviour of inanimate objects, but also a set of expectations about the properties and likely behaviour of intentional agents. It discusses recent evidence showing not only that young infants' understanding of agency is genuinely mentalistic in character (in particular, involving ascriptions of goals and intentions to agents, rather than just behavioural tendencies), but also that they evaluate agents and their actions as ‘good’ or ‘bad’ from an early age.
A Theology of Criticism
Authors: Murphy Michael P.
Published: January 2008

The turn of the millennium has brought with it a vigorous revival in the interdisciplinary study of theology and art. The notion of a Catholic imagination, however, as a specific category of aesthetics, lacks thematic and theological coherence. More often, the idea of a Catholic imagination functions at this time as a deeply felt intuition about the organic connections that exist among theological insights, cultural background, and literary expression. The book explores the many ways that the theological work of Hans Urs von Balthasar (1905–1988) provides the model, content, and optic for demonstrating the credibility and range of a Catholic imagination. Since Balthasar views arts and literatures precisely as theologies, the book surveys a broad array of poetry, drama, fiction, and film and sets these readings against the central aspects of Balthasar's theological program. A major consequence of this study is the recovery of the legitimate place of a distinct “theological imagination” in the critical study of literary and narrative art. The book also argues that Balthasar's voice both complements and challenges contemporary critical theory and contends that postmodern interpretive methodology, with its careful critique of entrenched philosophical assumptions and reiterated codes of meaning, is not the threat to theological meaning that many fear. On the contrary, postmodernism can provide both literary critics and theologians alike with the tools that assess, challenge, and celebrate the theological imagination as it is depicted in literary art today.
Hippocampal place fields
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil
Published: January 2008

Possibly the most influential view of the hippocampus has been that it processes spatial information and that the firing patterns of its cells represent ‘place fields’. While ‘place field’ is often a succinct way of describing the pattern of firing, this chapter reviews a variety of data showing that hippocampal fields are not uniquely spatial. Even more spatially correlated fields have properties that are inconsistent with encoding of position in spatial coordinates and are, instead, consistent with the firing of hippocampal cells when particular goals are available. On this view, cells that fire in the same place may be encoding quite different goals — and do so to allow the hippocampus to detect goal conflict.
Memory and the septo-hippocampal system
Authors: Gray Jeffrey A. , McNaughton Neil
Published: January 2008

This chapter reviews data on amnesia in humans and other animals. It argues that hippocampal ‘amnesia’ does not result from changes in a particular type of memory and does not depend primarily on effects of delay and context. Relational memory, configural memory, semantic encoding, recognition memory, working memory, temporal buffering, and spatial memory are all shown to fail as an explanation of hippocampal sensitivity of learning and memory. The nature of hippocampal deficits, both in tasks involving memory and those involving innate responses, are more consistent with the view that hippocampal damage removes the capacity to select between strongly competing, conflicting goals by increased avoidance of one of the alternatives — in many memory tasks this adds up to the capacity to eliminate interference of whatever origin.
The state of the art in electronic digital computing in Britain and the United States (1947)
Authors: Huskey Harry D.
Published: January 2008

This chapter presents a report by Harry D. Huskey. Huskey came to the NPL ACE Section in January 1947 from the United States, where he had been involved with the ENIAC and its projected successor, the EDVAC. Shortly after Huskey's arrival Womersley suggested that he visit Manchester and Cambridge and prepare a report that set out the status of each of the several computer projects in Britain and the United States. Topics covered here include memory, input and output, computing machine, logical aspects, and checking.
The Evolution of Flowers
Authors: Glover Beverley J.
Published: January 2008

Flowers are relatively recent innovations. The first land plants arose around 470 million years ago, but fossil evidence indicates that only after another 340 million years did the angiosperms (flowering plants) appear. However, following their appearance in the fossil record of the early Cretaceous period, the angiosperms spread geographically from their point of origin in the tropics and diversified dramatically to become the ecologically dominant plant group in the great majority of terrestrial habitats. This extraordinary radiation into an enormous range of morphological diversity took a mere 40 million years. This chapter examines the origin of the flowering plants, and then looks in detail at those first flowers, considering their morphology, their development, and their diversification.
The Autonomous Pathways for Floral Inhibition and Induction
Authors: Glover Beverley J.
Published: January 2008

The autonomous pathways for floral inhibition and induction are central to the entire process of floral transition in Arabidopsis. The floral inhibition pathway acts throughout the plant's life to ensure flowering does not occur until the appropriate environmental, developmental, and physiological cues have been received. The inhibition pathway operates through a single protein repressing the transcription of genes necessary for the floral transition to occur at the shoot apical meristem. The autonomous induction pathway is equally essential to the life history of a weedy annual. Unlike long-lived perennial plants, Arabidopsis does not have the option to delay flowering indefinitely until perfect environmental conditions are perceived. Instead, the autonomous induction pathway acts antagonistically to the inhibition pathway to ensure that the plant flowers eventually, irrespective of a lack of inductive environmental signals.
Changes at the Shoot Apical Meristem in Response to Floral Induction
Authors: Glover Beverley J.
Published: January 2008

This chapter considers the changes that occur at the shoot apical meristem once the decision to flower has been taken by the plant. These changes involve the expression of a succession of floral meristem identity genes, which convert the meristem to the reproductive state. Floral meristem identity genes can be defined as those genes that specify the floral fate of lateral meristems arising from a reproductive shoot apical meristem. At the same time, it is important that apical meristem indeterminacy is maintained, to allow multiple flowers to be produced. Later chapters in this section will analyse the development of the floral organs from a floral meristem, and the development of the all-important gametes within the reproductive organs themselves.
Enhancing Flower Colour
Authors: Glover Beverley J.
Published: January 2008

The production of coloured tissues, particularly insect-attracting petals, depends upon the synthesis of pigments. Plants are able to mix, modify and enhance pigments to produce a vast array of final petal colours. These colours are usually distributed across the flower in patterns, which vary in their degree of regularity and complexity between different species. While colour contrast is much more important than pattern for attracting pollinators from a distance, pattern becomes important at close range and allows animals to distinguish between flowers of different species and to learn to ‘handle’ flowers. This chapter considers the effects of mixing pigments together, the regulation of pigment distribution in the flower, and the use of metals, pH, and cell shape to modify the final colour of the flower.
Gravitational Waves
Authors: Maggiore Michele
Published: January 2008

This book deals with all aspects of gravitational-wave physics, both theoretical and experimental. This first volume deals with gravitational wave (GW) theory and experiments. Part I discusses the theory of GWs, re-deriving afresh and in a coherent way all the results presented. Both the geometrical and the field-theoretical approach to general relativity are discussed. The generation of GWs is discussed first in linearized theory (including the general multipole expansion) and then within the post-Newtonian formalism. Many important calculations (inspiral of compact binaries, GW emission by rotating or precessing bodies, infall into black holes, etc.) are presented. The observation of GWs emission from the change in the orbital period of binary pulsar, such as the Hulse-Taylor pulsar and the double pulsar, is also explained, and the pulsar timing formula is derived. Part II discusses the principles of GW experiments, going into the detail of the functioning of both interferometers and resonant-mass detectors. One chapter is devoted to the data analysis techniques relevant for GW experiments.
Retrieving the Dynamic Personalism of Aquinas
Authors: Klein Terrance W.
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines the contributions of Aquinas, arguing that his work remains trenchantly pertinent, though it stands in need of three retrievals to prevent contemporary distortions. The first considers the meaning of ‘nature’in Thomas's thought, which is a way of asking about God's relationship to the world. The second retrieval concerns the ultimate meaning of ‘form’ in Thomistic thought. Aquinas spoke of grace as an accidental modification of form (ST I-II q. 110 a. 2). The fact that very few words in that phrase mean anything to the modern ear explains an ‘upward ontological drift’ in popular recapitulations of the saint's work. The chapter concludes with a third retrieval, an examination of the neglected, noetic character of grace in the thought of Aquinas, or how it is that what Wittgenstein called ‘the world’ begins to speak.
2 The Contingent Nature of National Business Systems: Types of States and Complementary Institutions
Authors: Whitley Richard
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses the four ideal types of states (arm's length, dominant developmental, business corporatist, and inclusive corporatist) that combine with particular features of allied institutions to constitute particular institutional regimes. It argues that the national specificity and distinctiveness of business systems depends on the extent to which characteristics of states and related institutions are complementary in their implications for firms and markets, as well as the active structuring and coordination of interest groups and their interrelationships with state agencies. As long as the nation state remains the primary unit of political competition and legitimacy, and the definer and upholder of private property rights, in addition to being the predominant influence on labour market institutions, many characteristics of business systems will continue to vary significantly across national boundaries.
6 The Institutional Structuring of Organizational Capabilities: Variations in Authority Sharing and Organizational Careers
Authors: Whitley Richard
Published: January 2008

This chapter explores the connection between institutional frameworks and variations in authority sharing and organizational careers, such that firms in contrasting institutional contexts are encouraged to develop different kinds of capabilities. These capabilities affect firms' competitive effectiveness in different sub-sectors, especially their ability to develop cumulative or radical innovations, such that economies with contrasting institutional arrangements develop relative strengths and weaknesses in different kinds of industries. In particular, employers' establishment of distinctive types of organizational careers in variously coordinated market economies influence employees' willingness to commit themselves to the continuous improvement of firms' knowledge and collective problem solving capacities, and hence enhance companies' learning capabilities.
9 Project‐Based Firms: New Organizational Form or Variations on a Theme?
Authors: Whitley Richard
Published: January 2008

This chapter analyses the growing significance of inter-firm networks and project-based firms in many industries, which some claim heralds major changes in dominant economic forms. Rather than assuming that all such enterprises are basically the same, the chapter distinguishes between four ideal types of project-based firms in terms of the singularity of their goals, on the one hand, and the separation and stability of the division of labour, on the other hand. These ideal types vary in their importance across subsectors with different output characteristics, such as appropriability, modularity, and technological cumulativeness, and processes, such as client involvement. They also are more or less likely to become prevalent in contrasting institutional environments, which means that the establishment of the Silicon Valley type of economic organization as the dominant form is improbable in many societies.
Introduction
Authors: Gunn Steven , Grummitt David , Cools Hans
Published: January 2008

This chapter introduces the nobility in England and the Netherlands, and the role of war in the relationship between the princes and noblemen. Though noble land-holding and political influence varied from region to region, both polities had an elite of wealthy lords — often influential at court — as provincial governors or lords lieutenant, and as the leaders of affinities among the gentry or lesser nobility. The Percy earls of Northumberland were great lords in the north of England, and the Howard dukes of Norfolk and earls of Surrey office-holders at court, with estates concentrated in the south. The Croÿ counts of Roeulx confronted the French as governors of Artois and Flanders, while the Egmond counts of Buren held lands on the borders of Holland and Brabant, and mostly campaigned against Guelders.
Costs and Rewards
Authors: Gunn Steven , Grummitt David , Cools Hans
Published: January 2008

This chapter asks what risks war posed to the nobility and what profits it offered. Captivity and ransom, injury and death were greater threats in the Netherlands, though real enough in England; so was the devastation of estates. The wages of war left most noblemen out of pocket, but they found compensation in other ways: large fees for military posts, profits from prisoners, and plunder were all more important in the Netherlands; titles, lands, and offices from a grateful king more so in England. Similarly successful command seems to have been a more direct route to political influence in the England of Henry VIII, than in the Netherlands of the regents Margaret of Austria and Mary of Hungary.
The Other Virgil
Authors: Kallendorf Craig
Published: January 2008

This book tells the story of how a classic like the Aeneid can say different things to different people. As a school text it was generally taught to support the values and ideals of a succession of postclassical societies. But between 1500 and 1800, a number of unusually sensitive readers responded to cues in the text that call into question what the poem appears to be supporting. This book focuses on the literary works written by these readers to show how they used the Aeneid as a model for poems that probed and challenged the dominant values of their society, just as Virgil had done centuries before. Some of these poems are not as well known today as they should be, but others, like Milton's Paradise Lost and Shakespeare's The Tempest, are; in the latter case, the poems can be understood in new ways once their relationship to the ‘other Virgil’ is made clear.
Ions and electrons in liquid helium
Authors: Borghesani Armando Francesco
Published: January 2008

In liquid helium, an electron is surrounded by a cavity called an electron bubble of 20 Ångstroms in diameter. A positive helium ion is solvated by an electrostriction induced solid helium-ice shell called a snowball of 7 Ångstroms in diameter. By studying their transport properties, these objects are well suited for the testing of the microscopic properties of superfluidity. At low temperatures and with small electric fields, the drift velocity of the charges depends on their interaction with the elementary excitations of the superfluid: phonons, rotons, and 3He atomic impurities. At higher fields, ions produce quantized vortex rings and vortex lines and studying these sheds light on quantum hydrodynamics. In the fermionic liquid, the 3He isotope ion transport properties display important pieces of information on the coupling of a charge to a Fermi liquid and on the richer topological structure of the superfluid phases appearing at ultralow temperatures. In the normal liquid phases of both isotopes, ions and electrons are used to probe classical hydrodynamics at the λ-transition and at the liquid-vapor transition at which long-range critical fluctuations of the appropriate order parameter occur. Several experiments have investigated the structure of electron bubbles. Electron drift velocity measurements in dense helium gas have elucidated the dynamics of electron bubble formation. This book provides a review of the more than forty-year-long experimental and theoretical research on the transport properties of electrons and ions in liquid and gaseous helium.
MOTION OF CHARGED QUANTIZED VORTEX RINGS IN SUPERFLUID HE II
Authors: Borghesani A.F.
Published: January 2008

This chapter describes the motion of charged quantized vortex rings in superfluid He II. The experimental results are presented and discussed. The striking behavior of the energy-velocity relationship for charged vortex rings is presented in detail. The experimental results give a simple picture of an ion delocalized on the vortex ring circumference. Modern calculations of vortex dynamics have more or less confirmed this naive picture. The measurements of the mobility of the charged vortex rings have elucidated the role of the interaction of the ring with the elementary excitations of the superfluid, and have allowed the researchers to determine the structural characteristics of the rings.
ION TRANSPORT IN NORMAL LIQUID 3HE
Authors: Borghesani A.F.
Published: January 2008

This chapter starts the review of the transport properties of ions and electrons in liquid 3He. In contrast with its 4He bosonic companion, the lighter helium isotope is made of fermions. It is a physical example of a Fermi liquid. It is thus expected that ions couple to the liquid in a peculiar way that can be investigated by studying how they drift under the action of an electric field. The ion transport in normal liquid 3He at high temperatures (T>1 K), well above its superfluid transitions, is discussed.
1 Introduction
Authors: Rueda David
Published: January 2008

This chapter begins by presenting the main argument of the book, namely asking whether the well-known assumption that social democratic governments will defend the interests of labour is valid. It then describes some of the elements that distinguish the book's analysis from many others in the comparative political economy literature. An overview of the succeeding chapters is presented.
2 Governments and Policy: The Insider–Outsider Partisanship Model
Authors: Rueda David
Published: January 2008

This chapter analyses the transformations in party strategies that result from new voter demands and political-economic conditions. It presents a model that attempts to put together two important but often unrelated literatures: one focusing on electoral competition and the other on comparative political economy institutions. It argues that comparing and identifying social democratic governments with low unemployment and conservative ones with low inflation is not productive. This identification is based on the assumption that labour is disproportionately affected by unemployment, which is inaccurate. It is shown that labour is divided into those with secure employment (insiders) and those without (outsiders) and that the electoral goals of social democratic parties are sometimes best served by pursuing policies that benefit insiders while ignoring the interests of outsiders.
3 The Preferences of Insiders and Outsiders: Testing the Model's Assumptions about Individual Interests
Authors: Rueda David
Published: January 2008

This chapter has two main goals: to produce data that provide a complete picture of the preferences of insiders, outsiders, and upscale groups; and to test whether these preferences fit into the partisanship model proposed in this book. The chapter proceeds as follows. The first section provides a brief explanation of the survey used in the analysis and the way insiders, outsiders, and upscale groups have been categorized. The second section offers a detailed explanation of the individual preferences implied in the insider-outsider model and an initial and descriptive assessment of their accuracy. The third section contains a systematic multilevel analysis of the individual preferences of insiders, outsiders, and upscale groups. The fourth section introduces the two macro factors which, in Chapter 2, were hypothesized to affect the differences between insiders and outsiders: job security and corporatism. The final section presents multilevel maximum likelihood models estimating the effects of job security and corporatism. The results corroborate the model's claims: lower levels of employment protection do indeed make insiders more like outsiders (i.e., more supportive of labour market policy). The results support an economic insider-outsider interpretation of the effects of corporatism on insider preferences.
Underdetermination and Evidence
Authors: Bird Alexander
Published: January 2008

This chapter shows that the sceptical empiricist argument, and by extension any argument like it, fails. It considers the concept of evidence, endorsing Williamson's view that all and only knowledge is evidence, (E=K). In particular, it considers the alternative view that only observational knowledge is evidence. Bas van Fraassen's constructive empiricism is then studied. Some commentators employ a caricature of constructive empiricism that takes the same argument. In fact, van Fraassen is careful to distance himself from scepticism about theories and to take constructive empiricism to be a view about the aim of science. It is argued that van Fraassen ought to be committed to the sceptical conclusion, and that constructive empiricism is implicitly committed to the above argument.
Legitimacy after the Cold War
Authors: Clark Ian
Published: January 2008

This chapter sketches the theoretical terrain to be reviewed in the remainder of the book in order to trace what has been happening to international legitimacy since the end of the Cold War. The post-Cold War revival of legitimacy and the elements of contemporary legitimacy are discussed.
Legitimacy and Rightful Membership
Authors: Clark Ian
Published: January 2008

This chapter revisits the recurrent matter of rightful membership as it now manifests itself in contemporary conditions. It argues that recent tendencies in international society's development of that aspect of international legitimacy that deals with rightful membership point towards two starkly different conclusions. On the one hand, they invite the judgement that more so than at any earlier historical period, the two dimensions of legitimacy — the domestic and the international — have been brought into intimate relationship with each other. On the other hand, such a conception has brought to the fore the tension between international society's own commitment to a certain form of state, as appropriate for membership, and the seemingly divergent basis of its own pragmatic and pluralistic activities.
1 From Crisis to Uncertainty: Calculating Athenian Grain Production
Authors: Moreno Alfonso
Published: January 2008

This chapter attempts to calculate the grain production and carrying capacity of Attica by analyzing five key variables: land, use of the land, crop yields, population, and consumption. Previous scholarly attempts to calculate these variables are surveyed. As part of the study of land, soil and climate are examined, as well as the extent of arable space, taking into account the use of terracing. As part of the study of land use, the conventional and revised models of Greek farming are compared. The results confirm the continuing usefulness of the former, which would indicate that half of the cultivable land of Attica required fallowing each year, and that natural fertilizers were insufficiently available to overcome this need or to escape relatively low yields. It is argued that the figures of imported grain transmitted by Demosthenes are reliable, and that recent attempts to demonstrate the opposite are unsatisfactory.
Euonymon: The Agriculture and Economy of the Classical Athenian Deme
Authors: Moreno Alfonso
Published: January 2008

This chapter presents a case study of the agriculture and economy of the large suburban deme Euonymon. Archaeological evidence from this deme and its neighbors on the southern Athenian plain and the coastal strip of Attica west of Hymettos is examined, particularly aerial photography showing the systematic use of terracing and roads. The deme's demography and economy are examined in the context of the pattern of settlement in the countryside, and the coordinated efforts of neighboring communities. It is argued that the intensive cultivation of cash crops (especially olives), the economic and social interdependence of neighbouring Attic demes, and their reliance on the urban market of Athens, were the basis of the economy of the Athenian countryside in the Classical period. The division sometimes seen by modern scholars between urban and rural life in Athens is therefore fundamentally incorrect.
The Fruits of Empire
Authors: Moreno Alfonso
Published: January 2008

This chapter presents the evidence of Athens' economic exploitation of its Aegean empire in the fifth century bc, particularly the colonization of overseas territories and the division of land into an allotment system (cleruchies) in some cases clearly designed to produce grain surpluses for shipment to Athens. Special attention is given to Euboea and its role as Athens' chief fifth‐century granary, protected by a system of fortifications largely disregarded by previous scholarship. The Peloponnesian War and the political crisis of 411 bc which led to the loss of most of the island are examined in detail. The Athenian method of obtaining grain in the form of taxes is studied in the light of a new interpretation of the recently published Grain‐Tax Law of Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros of the year 374/3 bc.
5 Work and Family in Conflict? The Impact of Work Demands on Family Life
Authors: Scherer Stefani , Steiber Nadia
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines difficulties of reconciling work and family demands in six European countries; looks at divergences in experiences among different sectors of the workforce, different family types, and household employment patterns; and gauges the extent to which such experiences are mediated by different institutional structures. It considers the extent to which successful conciliation between paid work and family life may be facilitated by ‘family-friendly’ social and employment policy and explores alternative explanations of cross-country variations, focusing on national variations in the system of employment regulation. Finally, it examines whether there are general trends towards higher or lower levels of work-family conflict.
The Proper Name and the Definite Description Theories
Authors: Cappelen Herman , Lepore Ernie
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines the Proper Name and Definite Description Theories. According to Quine and Tarski, quotations lack semantic structure (their position is often misleadingly called the “Proper Name Theory”.) According to (other passages by) Quine and Tarski, and also Geach, quotations are structured definite descriptions. The Definite Description Theory fails for reasons very similar to those that undermine the Proper Name Theory. It is argued that quotation appears to provide a counter-example to Neale's NC theory: Every meaningful noun phrase (NP) in natural language is either a semantically unstructured, referring expression (singular term) or else a semantically structured, restricted quantifier. Quotation expressions don't fit easily into either of the two categories Neale claims that all noun phrases belong to (and quotation expressions are, at least sometimes, noun phrases). The versions of the Proper Name and Description Theories discussed in this chapter were at the centre of the semantics for quotation until Davidson's paper “Quotation”. Since then there have been few, if any, attempts to resurrect these theories.
The Demonstrative Theory
Authors: Cappelen Herman , Lepore Ernie
Published: January 2008

This chapter focuses on Donald Davidson's paper “Quotation”, which is the most discussed and influential paper on quotation. Davidson's view is alternatively called “the Demonstrative Theory of Quotation” or “the Paratactic Theory of Quotation”. The strengths and weaknesses of the Demonstrative Theory are discussed. It is argued that seen in its historical context, Davidson's proposal is extraordinarily interesting and highly original. It took into account data that no other theory at the time could accommodate, and took the device of quotation more seriously than any other theory at the time did. However, it is now time to leave that theory firmly behind. The subject has moved to a point where we are much clearer on the totality of data and the relevant facts about syntax and semantics than Davidson was. As a result, the Demonstrative Theory is no longer a useful starting point.
The Minimal Theory
Authors: Cappelen Herman , Lepore Ernie
Published: January 2008

The following disquotational schema for quotation was noted in Chapter 3: (QS) “e” quotes “e” (where “e” is replaceable by any quotable item). The Minimal Theory of Quotation (MT) is the view that QS is the semantic rule for quotation. MT presumes a principle of Containment — Containment: For any quotable item e, if a quotation expression Q quotes e, then e is contained in Q. This chapter develops the semantic ramifications of MT in some detail; in particular, it aims to explain how MT is compatible with the practices of pure, direct, and mixed quotation.
Clausewitz and Contemporary War
Authors: Echevarria II Antulio J.
Published: January 2008

This book sheds light on Clausewitz's purpose in writing On War, and the methodology he employed. While many scholars agree that Clausewitz's work is frequently misunderstood, almost none have explored his methodology to see whether it might enhance our understanding of his concepts. This book lays out Clausewitz's purpose and methodology in a brisk and straightforward style. It then uses that as a basis for understanding his contributions to the ever growing body of knowledge of war. The specific contributions this study addresses are Clausewitz's theories concerning the nature of war, the relationship between war and politics, and several of the major principles of strategy he examined. These theories and principles lie at the heart of the current debates over the nature of contemporary conflict. They also underpin much of the instruction that prepares military and civilian leaders for their roles in the development and execution of military strategy. This book is organized into three parts. The first provides students with background information concerning Clausewitz's purpose and method. The second lays out his theories regarding the nature of war, his ideas concerning the relationship between war and policy, and the complementary balance between friction and military genius. The final part examines his concept of strategy, and several of his strategic principles, particularly the centre of gravity, and reveals how they relate to contemporary war. Together, these themes represent the core of what professional military curricula usually cover of Clausewitz.
6 Combat, War's only Means
Authors: Echevarria II Antulio J.
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses the centrality of combat, or violence, in Clausewitz's theory. He laid the groundwork for a Copernican-style revolution in military theory by placing violence at the center of the universe of war in the same way that Copernicus placed the sun at the center of the celestial universe.
3 Clausewitz's On War: Problems of Text and Translation
Authors: Honig Jan Willem
Published: January 2008

The chapter contends that Clausewitz's Vom Kriege exhibits far greater fundamental tensions in the original language than is apparent from the popular and widely acclaimed English translation (On War) by Michael Howard and Peter Paret. Their text compromises the ability of English readers to understand and evaluate critically the two issues which lie at the heart of Clausewitz's engagement with the problem of war. On the issue of political control over the instrument of war, the translation suggests more precision and coherence than is warranted, while on the issue of the overwhelming and constant need in war to make the enemy defenceless, it obscures the original's far greater clarity, consistency, and coherence. The German Clausewitz is thus far more reactionary than the English Clausewitz suggests.
9 On Defence as the Stronger Form of War
Authors: Sumida Jon
Published: January 2008

Confusion about the meaning of On War is in large part attributable to the failure to recognize the importance of Clausewitz's contention that defence is a stronger form of war than offence. This argument is supported by three interlocking propositions, namely: that war is an extension of policy (or politics) by other means; that policy both affects and is affected by the course of armed conflict; and that policy affects the attacker more than the defender. In particular, Clausewitz believed that a defender capable of waging guerrilla war could not be overcome by a much more powerful attacker.