bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Toll‐Like Receptors
Authors: O'Connell Sarah , McKernan Declan P
Published: April 2017

Toll‐like receptors (TLRs) are pattern recognition receptors involved in innate immunity. TLRs are expressed both intracellularly and on cell surfaces. They recognise pathogen‐associated molecular patterns on molecules associated with bacteria, fungi and viruses. TLR protein signalling culminates in the production of chemicals known as cytokines which control the inflammatory response. TLRs are expressed on a wide variety of immune and nonimmune cells and are involved in a variety of biological activities. TLR signalling is tightly regulated to prevent unnecessary inflammation. Genetic mutation of these receptors has been associated with a variety of diseases. The receptors are involved in the pathologies of conditions such as cardiovascular disease, neurodegeneration and rheumatoid arthritis. The expression of TLRs varies with cell type, age, sex and disease progression. Attempts to target TLRs pharmacologically have had some success in disease models.

Key Concepts

Toll‐like receptors recognise similar molecular patterns on bacteria and viruses.

Toll‐like receptors can relay the presence of microorganisms to intracellular protein networks.

Cytokine molecules are synthesised and released as a consequence of toll‐like receptor activation.

Toll‐like receptor activity is highly regulated in cells to prevent unnecessary inflammation.

Toll‐like receptor expression varies in different tissues and disease states.

Mutations in toll‐like receptor genes have been associated with an array of diseases.

Targeting toll‐like receptors with drugs may prove to be therapeutically beneficial.
Genetic Testing of Children: A Clinical Perspective
Authors: Jain Vani , Procter Annie
Published: April 2017

It is generally well recognised and accepted that opportunities exist to test individuals for genetic disorders; however, the application of such genetic testing during childhood is subject to controversy and debate. The views of the child, parent and professional must be considered and how these views are weighted will vary with each and every case. For conditions where there is a recognised medical treatment, childhood genetic testing is generally justified. However, testing children for carrier status or predictively for an adult‐onset condition should be approached with extreme caution. The introduction of more sophisticated genetic testing methods such as array CGH and next‐generation sequencing has another level of complexity, with the increased identification of incidental findings and variants of uncertain significance. The advent of direct‐to‐consumer testing and advances in prenatal and newborn testing have also influenced the debate about testing in childhood.

Key Concepts

Genetic tests may be diagnostic, predictive or assess carrier status.

Genetic testing may be performed prenatally, in the newborn period, in childhood, adulthood or on stored DNA from deceased relatives.

Childhood genetic testing is generally instigated by parents/guardians, but the views and opinions of children must be sought.

Testing in childhood that is performed predictively or to assess carrier status takes away the child's right to decide on testing for themselves when older.

New genetic testing technologies increase the diagnostic rate but may identify uncertain or incidental findings.
Endopolyploidy in Plants
Authors: Leitch Ilia J , Dodsworth Steven
Published: April 2017

Endopolyploidy is a general term describing the multiplication of nuclear DNA within the cell. In plants, this takes place via several mechanisms but mainly through the process of endoreduplication. Endoreduplication involves the replication of chromosomal deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) without intervening mitoses and no obvious chromatin condensation/decondensation, with chromatids staying united either at the centromere or rarely, along their entire length. The occurrence of this form of endopolyploidy is uneven across plants; thus far, it has not been detected in some lineages (e.g. liverworts), whereas it is common in angiosperms (flowering plants), where very high levels (up to 24 567C) of endopolyploidy have been reported in some tissues. Internal and external factors contribute to the mechanisms underlying endopolyploidy, which can be seen as a key part of the developmental flexibility of plants. Recent work has shown that endopolyploidy may also play an important role in the response of plants to environmental stress.

Key Concepts

The frequency of endopolyploidy varies across different lineages of land plants.

Three types of endopolyploidy have been reported in plants – endocycles, endomitosis and progressive partial endoreduplication, of which the endocycle is the most common.

Endopolyploidy can reach very high levels in some plant cells (up to 24 567C).

Endopolyploidy can lead to an increase in cell size, especially when the number of endocycles is high.

The switch from the mitotic cell cycle to the endocycle involves changes in the regulation and abundance of a variety of cyclin‐dependent kinases (CDKs), cyclins (CYC) and regulatory proteins/transcription factors.

Endopolyploidy is common in reproductive tissues of plants, for example the nutritive tissue of the endosperm in seeds.

The onset of endopolyploidy is induced in some cell tissues in response to stress.
Contribution of Transposable Elements to Human Proteins
Authors: Makałowski Wojciech , Kischka Tabea , Makałowska Izabela
Published: April 2017

More than half of the human genome originated in transposable elements (TEs). Although these segments are mostly located in intronic and intergenic regions, some of them can be found in protein‐coding exons. Moreover, some functionally important genes evolved from TEs. These genes are involved in major biological processes such as immunity, replication, reproduction, cell proliferation and apoptosis. In addition, TEs contribute to human proteome indirectly by retrocopying messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) molecules back to the genome and creating new variants of the existing genes, which in turn can evolve a new function or new expression pattern. This demonstrates the importance of TEs as a genomic pool of coding sequences for the creation and evolution of gene functions.

Key Concepts

More than half of the human genome originated in transposable elements and they have profound consequences for the genome evolution.

Transposable elements contribute to the human proteome either directly by co‐option of TE‐originated sequences or indirectly by using TE's molecular machinery to duplicate existing genetic material.

Retrogenes are byproducts of L1 element activity.

Human genes can be shuffled by the process called genome transduction that involves "leaking" transcription of a transposon.

Transposons moving around the genome can alter expression profile of the host genes.
Use of Next‐Generation Sequencing in Forensic Genetics
Authors: Børsting Claus , Morling Niels
Published: April 2017

The main purpose of forensic science institutions is to provide scientifically based investigations to the judicial system and assist society as a whole with objective analyses of evidence.

Ten years ago, the invention of clonal amplification by emulsion PCR or bridge PCR inspired a technical revolution in DNA sequencing commonly known as next‐generation sequencing (NGS). New methods and platforms were invented, all with the same purpose of sequencing massive numbers of DNA molecules simultaneously. These methods are of obvious interest to forensic genetic practitioners, who are frequently faced with the challenge of genotyping limited and degraded DNA material extracted from irreplaceable trace samples. NGS may be superior to the existing techniques and offers new exiting possibilities to the end users of forensic investigations.

Key Concepts

Next‐generation sequencing (NGS) is based on simultaneous clonal amplification of millions of individual DNA molecules and parallel sequencing of the generated products.

Fragment length analyses of PCR‐amplified short tandem repeats (STRs) have been the preferred method for human identification in forensic genetic case work for more than two decades.

The multiplexing capability of PCR‐NGS and sequencing capacity of NGS platforms make it possible to type different types of markers (STRs, SNPs and INDELs) in one assay, which increases the available information, saves time and reduces the overall cost of the investigation.

Human identification and forensic phenotyping may be accomplished simultaneously by typing human identification and phenotypical markers in one PCR‐NGS assay.

Detailed sequence information of STRs increases the statistical weight of the DNA evidence and may aid mixture interpretation.

Genome or transcriptome sequencing of samples from deceased makes it possible to combine forensic pathology with medical genetics and forensic toxicology with pharmacogenetics.
Maternal Inheritance of Rank
Authors: Berman Carol M.
Published: April 2017

In many primate species, females acquire ranks in their group's dominance hierarchy that are immediately below their mothers, in effect inheriting their mother's rank. Sisters may also rank in reverse order of age. In these species, the status that a female attains depends primarily on social influences during development, rather than genetic factors. Youngsters first acquire their mother's rank among peers, probably through processes involving maternal social transmission and active intervention by mothers in infants' disputes. Older immature females subsequently target older lower‐born females and are able to surpass them in rank, provided they have support from their mothers and/or other female kin. However, rank acquisition varies within and between species. Females may not inherit their mother's rank or may do so only initially, surpassing them later in life. Current explanations for variation focus on the availability and profitability of alliances in different contexts.
Male Greetings
Authors: Marco Arianna De
Published: April 2017

In several primate species, males regularly interact through ritualized exchanges known as greetings. Such interactions have mainly been reported in baboons and several species of macaques. Greetings involve various affiliative submissive signals, and can include grasps and mounts. Baboon greetings are rather tense and have a strong dominance component, whereas macaque greetings appear less stereotyped and more relaxed: partners may be face to face, and the influence of dominance rank remains limited. Various functions have been proposed for greeting interactions, and they probably differ according to species. Greetings may be used to decrease social tension, appease partners, communicate about dominance relationships, and test or reinforce social relationships.
Exudate Feeding
Authors: Porter Leila M.
Published: April 2017

Exudates are substances produced by plants which do not contain living cells; they include nectar, sap, gum, latex, and resin. Exudates vary considerably in their biochemical composition, their function, and the frequency and quantity with which they are produced. Primates can consume nectar, sap, and latex; however, most primates consume gums. Primates of the Callitrichinae, Galaginae, and Cheirogaleidae show the greatest anatomical specializations for exudate foraging and digestion. Adaptations for exudativory include chisel‐like incisors for scraping and gouging, claw‐like nails for clinging to tree trunks, and enlarged cecums where microbes ferment gums into digestible molecules. Unlike other plant foods, many exudates are available year‐round: likely as a result of this benefit, exudativory has evolved numerous times in a variety of primate taxonomic groups.
Guenon, Arboreal
Authors: Jaffe Karin E.
Published: April 2017

Guenons are a large and diverse group of small‐ to medium‐sized African monkeys in the subfamily Cercopithecinae, the cheek‐pouch monkeys. The term “guenon,” broadly used, refers to all genera within the tribe Cercopithecini, which, historically, has included one to six genera. The arboreal guenons include members of the genus
Cercopithecus
and the arboreal basal guenon
Miopithecus
, and divisions within the tribe are based on recent molecular work that suggests guenons should be separated into an arboreal clade and a semiterrestrial clade.
Plesiadapiform
Authors: Silcox Mary T.
Published: April 2017

Plesiadapiforms are extinct mammals from the Paleocene and Eocene of North America, Europe, and Asia. They include the oldest forms that have been considered members of the Order Primates, dating to just after the extinction of the nonavian dinosaurs. There are 11 distinct families of plesiadapiforms, including over 140 named species, documenting an impressive diversity of different dental adaptations. As such, they can be argued to represent the first adaptive radiation of primates.
Sanctuaries—
E
urope
Authors: Hevesi Rachel
Published: April 2017

Sanctuaries and rescue centers provide shelter to primates from a variety of different sources; from situations where legislation has been transgressed and confiscation occurs, to owners voluntarily choosing to release animals from their charge. The origins of the animals are commonly from private homes, zoos, research laboratories, or the entertainment industries; they may be wild or captive born. Sanctuaries and rescue centers have similar functions but may be differentiated in the following way: Sanctuaries provide lifetime or long‐term shelter, care, and rehabilitation. Rescue centers provide short‐term shelter, care, and rehabilitation with the goal of finding a more suitable placement for longer‐term stay elsewhere. Many facilities combine the different approaches. Facilities face a variety of organizational, legal, and welfare challenges. There is no single legal European definition of a sanctuary or rescue center. Legal status varies from one country to another. As a result, aims, objectives, and standards in sanctuaries and rescue centers vary considerably, from one institution to another, across Europe.
Affiliative Contacts and Greetings
Authors: Dias Pedro Américo D. , Rangel‐Negrín Ariadna
Published: April 2017

Nonhuman primates exchange many different types of affiliative social interactions that involve body contact. From subtle touches to elaborate greeting ceremonies, affiliative interactions involving body contact have been reported in nearly all primate species that have been observed to date. Descriptions of primate affiliative contacts and greetings may be found in published ethograms. In this entry, we provide examples of some of the more distinctive affiliative contacts and greetings of primates, as well as of the contexts in which these occur.
Vertebral Column
Authors: Russo Gabrielle A.
Published: April 2017

The vertebral column (i.e., the spine) is a segmented bony structure in the body that extends in midline from the cranial base to the pelvis, and then beyond as a coccyx or tail. Typical vertebrae (the individual segments) share bony features that reflect the vertebral column's major functions as a whole, including a body to receive and transmit forces, a neural arch to protect the spinal cord, processes for muscle attachment and leverage, and paired articular processes (zygapophyses) to govern intervertebral movements. Progressing caudally, the size and shape of these bony features changes such that the vertebral column can be subdivided into five regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and postsacral (coccygeal or caudal). There is considerable morphological variation across primates within these five regions.
Sexual Selection
Authors: Lewis Rebecca J.
Published: April 2017

Sexual selection was Charles Darwin's solution to the problem that extravagant ornaments and weapons observed in some species seem to hinder survival and thus are expected to be opposed by natural selection. He proposed that competition for mates leads to the evolution of traits that improve an individual's probability of mating, and thus reproductive success. Mechanisms of mate competition can include contest competition, sperm competition, endurance rivalry, scramble competition, mate choice, and sexual conflict. While modifications have been proposed over the years, sexual selection remains one of the most important bodies of theory informing primate studies.
Skeletal Aging
Authors: Turnquist Jean E.
Published: April 2017

Like other aspects of the life cycle, skeletal aging has its own specific pattern. Infant and juvenile development is dominated by rapid growth and ossification of skeletal elements, which slows in early adulthood with the attainment of adult size and morphology. Age changes in the middle of the life cycle are outwardly less evident but are reflected in the changing internal structure of the bones and the beginning of degenerative diseases, with little obvious impact on external morphology or behavior. With further maturity, the aging of the skeleton becomes evident with the progression of osteoarthritis (degenerative joint disease), spondyloarthropathy, osteoporosis, and other pathologies. Although timing varies across species, the consistent general patterns of skeletal change help to accurately age individuals. Captivity appears to affect the timing and severity of both early and late age‐related changes, but there is a lack of consistency among studies and species.
Termite Fishing
Authors: Lonsdorf Elizabeth V.
Published: April 2017

The discovery that wild chimpanzees make and use tools to fish for termites was a ground‐breaking finding that forced a re‐evaluation of what differentiates humans from other animals. Since this discovery, termite fishing has been documented in several wild populations and has been deemed to be a key example of a cultural behavior in chimpanzees. Chimpanzees in different study sites have varying termite‐fishing techniques and some use a set of multiple tools. Young chimpanzees do not acquire this skill until between five and six years of age and female youngsters acquire it faster than males.
Sanctuaries—
N
orth
A
merica
Authors: Davis Sarah Baeckler
Published: April 2017

Primate sanctuaries in North America have been in existence for decades to provide lifetime care to primates rescued and retired from the pet trade, the entertainment trade, and the research industry. Although hundreds of animal facilities across North America purport to be sanctuaries, many do not meet the high standards required to be a true sanctuary.
Aggression
Authors: Bernstein Irwin S.
Published: April 2017

Aggression has no universal and exclusive “structure” (as Tinbergen used the term); it has multiple causes and serves multiple functions. As such, a definition is elusive and yet we generally agree on identifying aggression. In common usage we sometimes call anyone who initiates an interaction, or is persistent, or uses risky procedures “aggressive,” but this is likely just overextension of the word. We are also prone to view aggression moralistically, but that only adds confusion. Males are often described as being more aggressive than females and this is attributed to testosterone, but neither statement has empirical support. Many commonly held beliefs about aggression being due to crowding or frustration have not been borne out. Aggression can destroy a group, but societies cannot exist without aggression. Aggression is controlled by multiple mechanisms in nonhuman primates, both innate and social.
Hurricanes and Cyclones
Authors: Pavelka Mary , Behie Alison
Published: April 2017

As severe storms increase with rising sea surface temperatures, primate populations are being increasingly impacted by hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons. Research sites in the path of these storms have access to both pre‐ and post‐event data, making it possible for us to begin to assess their impact on primates and the forests that they inhabit, and reveal an array of demographic, dietary, and physiological responses.
Jolly,Alison
Authors: Sussman† Robert W.
Published: April 2017

Dr. Alison Jolly was a primatologist who worked on the behavioral ecology and conservation of Malagasy lemurs. Her main interest wasLemur catta(the ring‐tailed lemur). She wrote scientific and popular books and articles and books for children. Jolly's work on Madagascar conservation is highly recognized.
Pleistocene Primates
Authors: Frost Stephen R.
Published: April 2017

Pleistocene primates are broadly similar to living forms and fossils have been found in Africa, Asia, Europe, Madagascar, the Greater Antilles, and South America. Nonetheless, most species known from the Pleistocene are extinct, as are the majority of genera. While many species are similar in size to living forms, most are larger, with the largest known strepsirhine, platyrrhine, Old World monkey, and ape all from the Pleistocene. It is also apparent that large forms were much more likely to go extinct at the end of the Pleistocene than were their smaller close relatives.
Ex situPrimate Conservation
Authors: Ferrie Gina M.
Published: April 2017

Ex situpopulation management, the practice of maintaining genetically and demographically robust populations outside of their natural habitat and under the care of humans, is one strategy that has been utilized in conserving species. There are three main roles forex situpopulations of primates. Zoos and otherex situbreeding centers manage populations as genetic reservoirs, with a goal of maintaining genetic variability. These populations can also inform conservation strategies by providing information to the scientists that study them. Finally,ex situprimate populations can educate and raise awareness about the threats facing primates. The future of primate conservation calls for an approach that integratesin situconservation practices withex situmanaged populations, with conservation management strategies that include both types of populations.
Play
Authors: Graham Kerrie Lewis
Published: April 2017

Play behavior is most usually associated with young animals, although certainly it can continue into adulthood in many species. Play is prominent in many mammalian taxa (including primates, rodents, and carnivores), and, in recent years, play has been identified in nonmammalian species that we may not previously have considered playful at all, such as birds, octopuses, wasps, spiders, and fish. It is important to remember, however, that although there appears to be a strong motivation for the young of many species to engage in play, play has not been identified in the vast majority of species at the phylum level. Thus the future of play research should concentrate on these patterns, to establish how and why play differs markedly in appearance, frequency, and complexity across the animal kingdom.
Omnivory
Authors: Lambert Joanna E.
Published: April 2017

Omnivory is a general feeding category describing a strategy in which food is consumed from more than one trophic level. With a few key exceptions (specialized carnivores: tarsiers, some galagos, and lorises; specialized herbivores: colobines), most primate species consume both plant and animal foods and are therefore omnivorous. However, omnivory as a descriptor of diet provides only a general indication of a species' adaptations for acquiring and processing food, and does little to illuminate the tremendous diversity of feeding and foraging strategies seen among primates.
Karyotype
Authors: Stanyon Roscoe
Published: April 2017

A karyotype is an arrangement of the chromosomes of a species, usually according to length and centromere position. It is the result of cytogenetic analysis at the light microscope level. The first karyotypes for primates were based on gross staining of the chromosomes, and little other than the number and overall morphology of chromosomes were distinguished. More detailed information was provided by chromosome banding, and more recently by the introduction of molecular methods in cytogenetics.
Fluorescence
in situ
Hybridization
Authors: Stanyon Roscoe
Published: April 2017

Fluorescence
in situ
hybridization (FISH) is a molecular cytogenetic technique used to physically map DNA sequences on chromosomes. In FISH, DNA probes are most often hybridized to target DNA in metaphase chromosomes spread on slides (
in situ
). FISH probes are variable in size. The largest FISH probes are chromosome “paints,” which are made by flow sorting, followed by PCR amplification. Chromosome paints are specific for individual, whole chromosomes. Chromosome paints have been used to map the chromosome homology between humans and many primate species. Smaller cloned DNA probes, for example bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs), can reveal intrachromosomal rearrangements such as inversions. Comparisons between primate species using BAC–FISH have been used to identify differences in marker order between primate species. A cladistic analysis helped establish the polarity of changes in marker order. One outcome was the discovery that centromere shifts or evolutionary new centromeres (ENC) have been a common feature of chromosome evolution in primates.
van S
chaik,
C
arel
P
Authors: Delgado Roberto A.
Published: April 2017

Dr. Carel P. van Schaik (b. 1953, the Netherlands) stands among the leading theoreticians and empiricists in animal behavior, biological anthropology, and evolutionary primatology. Through his studies on nonhuman primates, Dr. van Schaik has increased tremendously the understanding of the origins and evolution of cooperation, infanticide by males, life history patterns, the role of sexual selection, complex social systems, the socioecological model, and tool use and material culture. Dr. van Schaik's contributions to the understanding of primate behavioral biology and human evolution include books, co‐edited volumes, and publication of seminal papers in peer‐reviewed journals; his training of graduate and undergraduate students, as well as post‐doctoral researchers; and building capacity among a new generation of Indonesian scientists and conservationists.
Alloprimate
Authors: Loudon James E.
Published: April 2017

Alloprimate
or “other primate” refers to those species within the Order Primates that are not human. The term alloprimate (as opposed to “nonhuman primate”) reflects a less anthropocentric view of those primate species that live alongside humans. The geographic expansion of humans has led to human–alloprimate interplays throughout many regions of the world. Ethnographic accounts demonstrate that many peoples imbue alloprimates with human virtues. Systematic study of humans and alloprimates through an evolutionary lens highlights our commonalities, and reveals behavioral qualities associated with personhood. These qualities include complex, emotional, and social lives. Conceiving of alloprimates as persons or person‐like is easy for humans, who are themselves hypersocial and readily form psychological and physiological bonds with kin, strangers, and other animal species. Human–alloprimate studies can provide insights into our relationships with other animals in the Anthropocene, an epoch characterized by rapid and dramatic change to environments worldwide.
Altmann, Jeanne
Authors: Onyango Patrick Ogola
Published: April 2017

Jeanne Altmann's attention to detail and remarkable sense of focus enabled her to overcome difficulties early in her career in order to give to science a wide‐ranging toolset, including her classic work on observational methods and behavioral sampling techniques. In addition, Jeanne's research, which highlighted the complex forces shaping female reproductive outcomes, profoundly changed a long‐held view that females were a homogenous group with little variation in reproductive success among them. Together with her husband Stuart, Jeanne founded what is now one of the longest longitudinal studies of nonhuman primates in the wild. The Amboseli Baboon Research Project has provided Jeanne, her students, and her collaborators the opportunity to understand how baboons navigate the challenges in their habitat, including predation and foraging, in a complex social milieu. Taken together, Jeanne's persistent commitment to the highest standards of methodological rigor and research quality embody her scientific vision, which has greatly advanced her field.
Zoos
Authors: Ross Stephen R.
Published: April 2017

A wide variety of primate species have existed in zoological parks around the world for over a century. They have long been a particularly popular species, due in part to their active and complex behavior. Modern zoos have the potential to play a substantial role for primate species in terms of conservation efforts (including reintroductions,ex situpopulation management, and conservation education).Ex situresearch with primate species living in zoos is potentially productive, given the rise of naturalistic environments and the growing interest by zoo professionals in science. While considering the potential unique factors of the zoo environment (including potential visitor effects), there is growing consensus that zoos can and do have significant potential to play a role in the study and conservation of primates around the world.
Urbanization (and Primate Conservation)
Authors: Bicca‐Marques Júlio César
Published: April 2017

Rural exodus and growing urban populations force cities to encroach on natural ecosystems and promote a decrease in their quality with regard to native biodiversity. Nonhuman primates are particularly negatively affected by urbanization. The few Old World and New World monkeys that cope well in urban settings face many risks and show changes in behavior. The most common change is a reliance on human‐provided food or refuse. Food provisioning is the major driver of human–nonhuman primate conflict, which in turn influences people's perceptions of monkeys and the management strategies that they adopt to solve the conflict. Management strategies range from changing people's behavior to translocating or culling problem individuals. An increase in the contact with humans and their pets tends to facilitate the bidirectional exchange of pathogens. Finally, the promotion of connectivity with nature may be a positive outcome of the contact of people with primates in urban settings.
Cognition
Authors: Völter Christoph J. , Call Josep
Published: April 2017

Cognition refers to the process of encoding, storing, and using information to solve ecological and social problems. Primate cognition is particularly concerned with pinpointing the mental representations and the cognitive processes underlying complex technological or social behavior, their function, and their evolutionary origins. Interspecific comparisons play a very prominent role in primate cognition as they constitute the raw material for making inferences about cognitive evolution, which has been a major focus in this field. Two main factors have been suggested to be critical for the evolution of primate cognition: sociality and feeding ecology. This entry covers the major findings, evolutionary accounts, and historical roots, as well as the current directions in primate cognition research.
Euprimate(s)
Authors: Fleagle John G.
Published: April 2017

Euprimate is a term used to designate the phylogenetic group composed of all living species and their close relatives when other more primitive mammals, such as plesiadapiforms, are included in the mammalian Order Primates. This phylogenetic group is also referred to as “Primate of Modern Aspect,” or crown primates.
Social Networks
Authors: King Andrew J. , Fürtbauer Ines
Published: April 2017

Many primates live in social groups because, on average, it pays to do so. While being in a group can increase competition for resources or the likelihood of contracting a disease, group living also provides more pairs of eyes for locating food sources and identifying potential threats. To evaluate the importance of social relationships requires an understanding of the different interactions that link all group members. Studying a variety of different social interactions that link all group members is hard because neither the interactions among individuals nor the different ways individuals interact are independent. Social network analysis is the study of social groups as networks of nodes connected by social ties. Using a social network approach provides a standardized and flexible framework to study social behavior, enabling primatologists to investigate the acquisition of information, novel behaviors, or even the transmission of pathogens and parasites both within and between social groups.
Howler Monkey (Alouatta)
Authors: Kowalewski Martin M. , Raño Mariana
Published: April 2017

Howler monkeys (genusAlouatta) comprise some 12 species of fruit‐, leaf‐, and flower‐feeding New World primates that range from southern Mexico through southern Argentina and Brazil. They are arboreal and sexually dimorphic (and sexual dichromatic in two species). Some characteristics shared with other Atelinae (species in the same subfamily asAlouatta) are large body mass, a prehensile tail, and modified hyoid bone that allows them to perform their howling.
Fomite
Authors: Whittier Christopher A.
Published: April 2017

A fomite is an inanimate object capable of transmitting an infectious agent from one individual to another. Fomites include surfaces, such as counters and doorknobs, as well as objects, such as clothing, gloves, or silverware. Fomite transmission differs from transmission by living organisms, which are typically called vectors.
Shoulder
Authors: Larson Susan G.
Published: April 2017

The scapula and clavicle comprise the shoulder linking the forelimb to the axial skeleton at the sternoclavicular joint. Because primates use their forelimbs in diverse ways, their shoulder complex is characterized by the need for mobility. The scapula's position within layers of muscle permits relatively free motion on the ribcage, and augments the mobility displayed by the shoulder joint itself. Morphological differences in the components of the shoulder complex among primates can be related to whether that mobility needs to be restricted to maintain stability, or enhanced to confer a wider range of motion.
Mittermeier, Russell
A
Authors: Rylands Anthony B.
Published: April 2017

Russell A. Mittermeier was born in New York in 1949. His interest in primates and tropical forests was inspired by frequent visits to the Bronx Zoo and the American Museum of Natural History, and from reading Edgar Rice Burroughs' tales of Tarzan. He received his doctorate in Biological Anthropology from Harvard University in 1977 and spent 11 years at World Wildlife Fund—US as Director of its Primate Program and as Vice‐President for Science. In 1989, he joined the nongovernmental organization Conservation International as its President, and in 2014 was appointed its Executive Vice‐Chair.
Microsatellite Markers
Authors: Fiore Anthony Di
Published: April 2017

Microsatellite markers are genetic loci that consist of sequential repeats of a short motif of one to six nucleotide bases. These loci are ubiquitous within the genome and can be highly variable both within and between populations. Multilocus microsatellite marker genotypes are used in a variety of molecular applications, such as assessing individual identity, determining paternity and maternity, estimating the relatedness of pairs of individuals, and inferring population structure and demographic history.
DNA
Fingerprint
Authors: Fiore Anthony Di
Published: April 2017

A DNA fingerprint is a set of molecular character states that can be used to uniquely identify an individual. DNA fingerprints are constructed by assaying multiple variable regions of the genome—often sites containing repetitive DNA—using a variety of methods. The original method of DNA fingerprinting required large amounts of starting DNA, but most current methods employ the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and are effective even for low‐yield or degraded samples, such as those commonly recovered in forensic cases and field studies.
Prevalence
Authors: Wolf Tiffany M. , Travis Dominic A.
Published: April 2017

Prevalence is the proportion or percentage of cases of disease in a population at a particular point in time. Prevalence is often confused or used interchangeably with the term incidence. However, incidence is the rate of new cases of disease over a period of time in a specified population. Although prevalence estimations are often challenged in wildlife and primate studies by incomplete population data and lack of validated screening tests, prevalence is an important measure for evaluating population‐level disease impacts and risks.
Primates in Folklore
Authors: Cormier Loretta A.
Published: April 2017

Due to the physical and behavioral similarities of wild primates to human beings, they figure heavily in the folktales and folk beliefs of cultures that share habitats with nonhuman primates. While it is far beyond the scope of this entry to provide an exhaustive account of all the folklore that references wild primates, patterns do exist in the way that nonhuman primates tend to be represented in folklore in terms of roles, processes, and beliefs. Two common roles of wild primates are as culture heroes and tricksters. Two common processes occurring in tales with wild primates are transformation and reciprocation. While folk beliefs are myriad, two common categories of belief are totemism and magic.
Asian Origin Theory
Authors: Jaeger Jean‐Jacques
Published: April 2017

The Asian origins theory suggests that the origin and the earliest evolutionary steps of anthropoid primates occurred in Asia, rather than in Africa as previously believed. In such a model, the earliest anthropoid primates would have dispersed from Asia to Africa during several events that occurred between 45 and 34 million years ago. This would explain the absence of anthropoids in Africa before the late Middle Eocene (39 million years ago). After their dispersal from Asia, anthropoid primates radiated in Africa, filling numerous empty ecological niches. Data that have emerged over the past 20 years in Asia and Africa strongly support an Asian origin of anthropoid primates, but as the Asian fossil record is still scarce, the Asian origins hypothesis is hotly debated.
Long‐Term Field Studies—Africa
Authors: Chapman Colin A. , Corriveau Amélie , Schoof Valérie A. M. , Paim Fernanda Pozzan , Valenta Kim
Published: April 2017

Primates are long‐lived animals with complex life histories, which slowly impact their environment through seed dispersal and herbivory. As a result, short‐term studies only provide a snapshot of a primate's life and poorly represent their environmental effects. Therefore long‐term studies are needed. The need for long‐term studies has taken on urgency because humans are changing the environment, particularly in Africa. For example, assessments suggest that global temperatures could increase by 5.8°C this century. Our ability to predict primate responses to climate change is poor. In areas becoming hotter and drier, food trees will die and primates will die along with them, or move. All forests occupied by primates are changing, either representing succession resulting from previous anthropogenic disturbance or because of climate change.
Mating Patterns
Authors: Starkweather Kathrine E. , Munds Rachel A.
Published: April 2017

All known primate species employ one of four primary mating patterns: monogamy, polygyny, polyandry, and promiscuity or polygynandry. Each mating pattern is practiced by particular species of primates that share certain organizational, physiological, and ecological features, and the particular pattern employed by each species is most likely a result of the males' ability within the species to monopolize and defend mating access to females. This ability is primarily dependent upon sexual dimorphism, philopatry, and female dispersal across the landscape. In this entry, each of these factors is discussed, along with their relevance to mating patterns. Each of the four mating patterns is also discussed, with examples given of primate species who employ each pattern. Human mating patterns are outlined as well.
Picornaviruses
Authors: Oberste M. Steven , Nix W. Allan
Published: April 2017

Viruses in five of the 29 picornavirus genera have been detected in Old World monkeys or great apes, including in lemurs, macaques, baboons, mandrills, orangutans, chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas. The original simian picornaviruses were isolated beginning in the 1950s from primate cell cultures used in basic research and vaccine production, or from specimens from healthy or ill primates used in biomedical research. For the most part, evidence for direct causation of illness is lacking, but cardioviruses have been linked with epizootics in captive primates, as well as other animals, and simian hepatitis A virus has been shown to cause hepatitis in certain Old World and New World monkeys. New simian picornaviruses, mostly enteroviruses, continue to be discovered by RT‐PCR and sequencing of specimens from wild and captive primates.
Fur Rubbing
Authors: Baker Mary
Published: April 2017

Fur rubbing is a form of self‐anointment in which pungent and/or physically stimulating substances are applied over the entire body in a stereotypical manner. Most widely reported among capuchin monkeys, it is also seen in other nonhuman primates. This behavior is thought to enhance fitness by reducing the risk of infection.
NorthAmerican Primate Fossil Record
Authors: Anemone Robert L. , Nachman Brett
Published: April 2017

Primates were an important component of the Early Cenozoic fossil record of North American mammals. Archaic primate‐like mammals known as Plesiadapiformes were common during the Paleocene epoch, while Euprimates appeared during a period of marked global warming at the beginning of the Eocene, most likely as migrants from East Asia across a high‐latitude forested belt that connected Asia, North America, and Europe. Two major groups of Primates (the lemur‐like Adapoidea and tarsier‐like Omomyoidea) flourished during the Early and Middle Eocene, but deteriorating climate (i.e., cooling and drying) resulted in greatly decreased primate diversity in the Late Eocene. A single rare and enigmatic fossil primate (Ekgmowechashala) is known from the Oligocene of North America, and when it disappeared at about 26 million years ago, the story of North American fossil primates came to an end.
Predation
Authors: Miller Lynne E.
Published: April 2017

Predation is thought to have a major impact on primate fitness and may have played a significant role in morphological and behavioral adaptations. Records of predator attacks are few, but predators are known to attack certain primates at high rates. Observations, along with experimental work controlling predator encounters through models, have revealed clear patterns in primate antipredator behavior. In response to predation risk, primates may adopt cryptic behaviors, seek refuges in trees or thick cover, scan their environments in search of predators, emit alarm calls to deter predator attack, and even mob potential predators. The formation of social groups, including mixed‐species groups, may reduce predation risk for the individual. Primates are also known to modify their patterns of foraging, ranging, and sleeping to avoid predator encounters. Humans represent a fundamentally unique type of predator, able to strike at enormous distances and to develop extensive cultural databanks about prey behavior. Although human hunting of primates is not a new phenomenon, the growing bushmeat industry is threatening many endangered species with extinction.
Y
amagiwa,
J
uichi
Authors: Takenoshita Yuji
Published: April 2017

Juichi Yamagiwa (born 1952) is a Japanese primatologist and anthropologist. President of Kyoto University since 2014, he has headed the Primate Society of Japan (2005–09) and International Primatological Society (2008–12) as president and the journal
Primates
(2011–14) as editor‐in‐chief. Yamagiwa is best known for his great contribution to gorilla study and conservation. He began his career as a primatologist in 1975, under the supervision of Jun'ichiro Itani. After two years of study on wild Japanese macaques in Yakushima Island, he pursued fieldwork on eastern lowland gorillas (1978–79, 1987 to present), mountain gorillas (1980–82), and western lowland gorillas (1995 to present). He plays an active role in gorilla conservation, closely collaborating with local populations.
Human–Nonhuman Primate Disease Transmission
Authors: Engel Gregory A. , Besnard Fiona
Published: April 2017

Physiologic and behavioral similarities between humans and nonhuman primates (NHPs) make them vulnerable to infection with a similar range of pathogens. “Immunological naiveté” of NHPs to human pathogens (and vice versa) may lead to significant morbidity and mortality when infection with an unfamiliar pathogen occurs. Cross‐species transmission of infections occurs through various routes and in diverse contexts. The human/NHP interface provides a context for zoonotic as well as anthropozoonotic transmission, posing a public health threat to human populations and a conservation threat to NHP populations.
Folia Primatologica
Authors: Nekaris K. A. I. , Racevska Elena
Published: April 2017

Folia Primatologica
is one of the top‐rated primatology journals. Published bimonthly by S. Karger AG, Basel, Switzerland, this peer‐reviewed journal covers a wide range of topics, such as molecular biology, ecology, conservation, paleontology, functional anatomy, systematics, and social behavior.
Folia Primatologica
was founded in 1963 by Adolph H. Schultz, Josef Biegert, Helmut Hofer, and Dietrich Starck, while current editors‐in‐chief are Anna Nekaris and Christophe Soligo. It is the official journal of the European Federation of Primatology and Primate Society of Great Britain.
Ancient
DNA
Authors: Harkins Kelly M.
Published: April 2017

Since the 1980s, ancient DNA research has progressed from the isolation of a few mitochondrial DNA fragments to the reconstruction of entire nuclear genomes from once‐living organisms, as far back as 700,000 years ago. This genetic information, made possible by current DNA sequencing technology, enables evolutionary analyses at timescales that are otherwise unobservable. Paleogenomes of ancient and extinct humans provide a new baseline from which to examine primate evolution. Bioinformatic and statistical methods developed for paleogenomic data permit phylogenetic and demographic reconstructions, and these data are used to inform population genetics, taxonomy, estimates of hybridization and adaptation, molecular clock calibration, the emergence of hominin‐specific traits, and the impact of climate and human activity on genetic diversity. Although the tropical habitat of most nonhuman primates often inhibits the preservation of DNA after death, specimens curated in museum collections hold promise for ancient DNA research.
J
apan
M
onkey
C
entre
Authors: Cardinal Claire
Published: April 2017

The Japan Monkey Centre (JMC) was established as a zoological gardens and research center in 1956. It is located in the city of Inuyama, Japan. The Centre aims to promote knowledge and education of nonhuman primates through its research and education programs. Research into primate behavior, ecology, and physiology is carried out in the Centre's laboratories and in Japanese and international field sites. The animal collection includes 67 species of primate and other mammals and reptiles, exhibited indoors and in outside enclosures. The visitor attraction also includes a museum, petting zoo, amusement park, and outdoor pool. The international primatological journal
Primates
is produced by JMC in collaboration with the Japanese Primatological Society.