bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A broad activity screen in support of a chemogenomic map for kinase signalling research and drug discovery
Authors: Gao Yinghong , Davies Stephen P. , Augustin Martin , Woodward Anna , Patel Umesh A. , Kovelman Robert , Harvey Kevin J.
Published: February 2013

Despite the development of a number of efficacious kinase inhibitors, the strategies for rational design of these compounds have been limited by target promiscuity. In an effort to better understand the nature of kinase inhibition across the kinome, especially as it relates to off-target effects, we screened a well-defined collection of kinase inhibitors using biochemical assays for inhibitory activity against 234 active human kinases and kinase complexes, representing all branches of the kinome tree. For our study we employed 158 small molecules initially identified in the literature as potent and specific inhibitors of kinases important as therapeutic targets and/or signal transduction regulators. Hierarchical clustering of these benchmark kinase inhibitors on the basis of their kinome activity profiles illustrates how they relate to chemical structure similarities and provides new insights into inhibitor specificity and potential applications for probing new targets. Using this broad dataset, we provide a framework for assessing polypharmacology. We not only discover likely off-target inhibitor activities and recommend specific inhibitors for existing targets, but also identify potential new uses for known small molecules.
Identification of thyroid hormone response elements in vivo using mice expressing a tagged thyroid hormone receptor α1
Authors: Dudazy-Gralla Susi , Nordström Kristina , Hofmann Peter Josef , Meseh Dina Abdul , Schomburg Lutz , Vennström Björn , Mittag Jens
Published: February 2013

TRα1 (thyroid hormone receptor α1) is well recognized for its importance in brain development. However, due to the difficulties in predicting TREs (thyroid hormone response elements) in silico and the lack of suitable antibodies against TRα1 for ChIP (chromatin immunoprecipitation), only a few direct TRα1 target genes have been identified in the brain. Here we demonstrate that mice expressing a TRα1–GFP (green fluorescent protein) fusion protein from the endogenous TRα locus provide a valuable animal model to identify TRα1 target genes. To this end, we analysed DNA–TRα1 interactions in vivo using ChIP with an anti-GFP antibody. We validated our system using established TREs from neurogranin and hairless, and by verifying additional TREs from known TRα1 target genes in brain and heart. Moreover, our model system enabled the identification of novel TRα1 target genes such as RNF166 (ring finger protein 166). Our results demonstrate that transgenic mice expressing a tagged nuclear receptor constitute a feasible approach to study receptor–DNA interactions in vivo, circumventing the need for specific antibodies. Models like the TRα1–GFP mice may thus pave the way for genome-wide mapping of nuclear receptor-binding sites, and advance the identification of novel target genes in vivo.
X-ray photoelectron diffraction study of dopant effects in La0.7X0.3MnO3 (X = La, Sr, Ca, Ce) thin films
Authors: Raisch C. , Langheinrich C. , Werner R. , Kleiner R. , Koelle D. , Glaser M. , Chassé T. , Chassé A.
Published: February 2013

We present and discuss element-specific x-ray photoelectron diffraction (XPD) patterns of La, Mn, O and the dopant ions Ca, Sr and Ce of various La0.7X0.3MnO (LXMO) films grown epitaxially on SrTiO3(001) substrates. The recorded XPD polar scans are explained in the framework of multiple-scattering cluster calculations, where in general a very good agreement between experimental and theoretical data has been found. Results for all thin films are compatible with a tetragonally distorted cubic perovskite structure with similar MnO6 network. Strong evidence for Mn-site termination was found in all thin films. Dopant locations on A-type sites were clearly confirmed for Sr in LSMO and Ca in LCMO films by means of XPD polar scans. The absence of surface-sensitive Ce3d diffraction features for Ce in LCeMO points to non-equivalent Ce sites and related near-surface disorder.
Novel microwave near-field sensors for material characterization, biology, and nanotechnology
Authors: Joffe R. , Kamenetskii E. O. , Shavit R.
Published: February 2013

The wide range of interesting electromagnetic behavior of contemporary materials requires that experimentalists working in this field master many diverse measurement techniques and have a broad understanding of condensed matter physics and biophysics. Measurement of the electromagnetic response of materials at microwave frequencies is important for both fundamental and practical reasons. In this paper, we propose a novel near-field microwave sensor with application to material characterization, biology, and nanotechnology. The sensor is based on a subwavelength ferrite-disk resonator with magnetic-dipolar-mode (MDM) oscillations. Strong energy concentration and unique topological structures of the near fields originated from the MDM resonators allow effective measuring material parameters in microwaves, both for ordinary structures and objects with chiral properties.
Electronic and interface properties of polyfluorene films on GaN for hybrid optoelectronic applications
Authors: Itskos G. , Xristodoulou X. , Iliopoulos E. , Ladas S. , Kennou S. , Neophytou M. , Choulis S.
Published: February 2013

Electronic and interface properties of spin-coated poly(9,9-dioctylfluorenyl-2,7-diyl) (PFO) films on GaN have been investigated in terms of their potential for optoelectronic applications. The PFO/GaN interface was studied by photoemission spectroscopy showing a type-II energy alignment with band offsets suitable for efficient photocurrent generation. The light harvesting potential is further supported by fluorescence experiments that show evidence of photo-induced electron transfer from PFO to GaN. The impact of polymer film thickness was probed using emission anisotropy and ellipsometry, indicating the presence of an ordered planar phase of PFO. The study has implications to hybrid optoelectronic devices employing the two important materials.
Study of the fast photoswitching of spin crossover nanoparticles outside and inside their thermal hysteresis loop
Authors: Gallé G. , Etrillard C. , Degert J. , Guillaume F. , Létard J.-F. , Freysz E.
Published: February 2013

We have studied the low spin to high spin phase transition induced by nanosecond laser pulses outside and within the thermal hysteresis loop of the [Fe(Htrz)2 trz](BF4)2-H2O spin crossover nanoparticles. We demonstrate that, whatever the temperature of the compound, the photo-switching is achieved in less than 12.5 ns. Outside the hysteresis loop, the photo-induced high spin state remains up to 100 μs and then relaxes. Within the thermal hysteresis loop, the photo-induced high spin state remains as long as the temperature of the sample is kept within the thermal loop. A Raman study indicates that the photo-switching can be completed using single laser pulse excitation.
Van der Waals interactions: Corrections from radiation in fluids
Authors: Waage Magnus H. , Høye Johan S.
Published: February 2013

We consider induced van der Waals interactions with corrections due to radiation in fluids consisting of polarizable hard spheres. The fluctuating polarizations are quantized while the positions of particles are treated classically. First the well known result for the induced Casimir free energy for a pair of particles is used to establish the resulting free energy at low density. The Casimir interaction includes the full effect of the quantized radiating electromagnetic field. Then the situation with electrostatic dipole-dipole interactions is considered for general density. For this situation the induced interactions are the van der Waals interactions, and we evaluate numerically the free energy based upon analytic results obtained earlier. These analytic results were obtained by extending methods of classical statistical mechanics to the path integral of quantum mechanics. We have realized that these methods can be extended to time-dependent interactions too. Thus we here also make the extension to the radiating dipole-dipole interaction between pairs of particles to obtain explicit results for more arbitrary fluid densities, and radiation corrections to the induced free energy are found both analytically and numerically.
Crystal structure of Co/Cu multilayers prepared by pulse potential electrodeposition with precisely controlled ultrathin layer thickness
Authors: Takane Naoto , Narita Hiroshi , Kurogouchi Yasuko , Arai Susumu
Published: February 2013

Co/Cu multilayers were electrodeposited in a single electrolyte using the pulse potential method and the layer thickness was precisely controlled in accordance with Faraday's law. X-ray diffraction revealed that multilayers with layer thicknesses in the range of 25–100 nm consisted of fcc-Co and fcc-Cu phases. For layers thinner than 10 nm, the fcc-Co and fcc-Cu phases merged to form a single crystal phase. When the layers were <1 nm, one diffraction peak of the single crystal phase became proportionally higher as the layer became thinner. The surface structure of multilayers also varied with the layer thickness.
Effect of an oxidizing environment on the phase structure of lead oxide nanowires
Authors: Hai Kuo , Tang Dongsheng , Wang Xiao-Gang
Published: February 2013

The effect of an oxidizing environment on the phase formation of lead oxide nanowires is reported. The phase structure, optical properties, sizes and morphologies of the nanowires have been investigated by atomic force microscopy, x-ray diffraction, and UV—Vis-NIR reflectance diffusion spectrums. The phase structure of the lead oxide nanowires is very sensitive to both the process temperature and the oxygen flow/oxygen partial pressure. Single phase oxide nanowires can be obtained only in a narrow, low temperature range and within a low oxygen partial pressure. The wire morphology of Pb nanowires has been perfectly maintained after being oxidized.
Relationships among perceived career support, affective commitment, and work engagement
Authors: Poon June M. L.
Published: February 2013

This study sought to test the predictive effects of perceived career support and affective commitment on work engagement. It was hypothesized that perceived career support would relate positively to work engagement and this relationship would be transmitted through affective commitment. Survey data were collected from 115 full‐time employees enrolled as part‐time graduate students in a large public university in Malaysia. Multiple regression analysis yielded results indicating that the relationship between perceived career support and work engagement was mediated by affective commitment. This finding suggests that employers can promote employee work engagement by ensuring employees perceive their organization to be supportive of their career and increasing employees' level of affective commitment.
Unfinished capital — unfinished state: How the modernization of Belgrade was prevented, 1890-1914
Authors: Stojanović Dubravka
Published: February 2013

Today's pictures of Belgrade are not much different from late-nineteenth-century descriptions: messy streets, uncompleted infrastructure projects, lack of coordinated urban plans and strategies. No doubt all of this shows that the weak Serbian society never raised sufficient funds to invest in a glamorous-looking capital city. The most frequent excuse to justify the poor-looking conditions of the national capital has been found in the nation's struggle to fulfill an uncompleted project for national unification. For more than two centuries, the modern Serbian elite has remained unsatisfied with current national boundaries. This paper will address the question of how those unfulfilled national aspirations can be detected in the urban fabric of Belgrade.
Analysis of current events: Identity mobilization in hybrid regimes: Language in Ukrainian politics
Authors: Charnysh Volha
Published: February 2013

In August, a new language law in Ukraine allowed cities and regions to elevate the status of any minority language spoken by at least 10% of their population to “official” alongside Ukrainian. I argue that the law fails to protect genuine linguistic minorities and is likely to further undermine linguistic diversity in certain Ukrainian regions. More important, the law prolongs the vicious circle between Ukraine's lack of democracy and its politicians’ reliance on identity cleavages to gather votes. I argue that the continuing exploitation of identity divides is increasing the popularity of extreme right parties and widening the gap in policy preferences between Ukrainian and Russian speakers. However, the current ethno-regional cleavages do not stand for irreconcilable identity attachments and their impact can be mitigated. The EU could contribute to this outcome by providing expert opinions on minority and language rights; demonstrating a commitment to Ukraine's territorial integrity and independence to de-securitize the minority rights discourse; and increasing individual-level contacts between the EU and Ukraine to promote a broader European identity.
Historiography of New Spain
Authors: Terraciano Kevin , Sousa Lisa
Published: February 2013

This article discusses intellectual, legal, urban, environmental, economic, and religious history and studies of Spaniards, blacks, and slavery in New Spain. The largest section deals with the Amerindian population, particularly with a corpus of historical studies that, employing indigenous-language sources, have unveiled the long-term survival and adaptation of native culture after the European conquest.
Colonial Spanish South America
Authors: Johnson Lyman L. , Socolow Susan M.
Published: February 2013

This article covers Spanish South America, particularly the Andean core of the empire but also a surprisingly rich historical literature on the River Plate, long a marginal corner of the Spanish Empire. The relative lack of surviving documents written in Quechua or other South American indigenous languages has prevented the development of a philological historiography analogous to that of New Spain. But increasingly informed by the work of archeologists, anthropologists, and ethnographers, historians of colonial South America have also revealed the remarkable endurance of native social, cultural, and even political practices during three centuries of Spanish colonial rule.
Race in Postabolition Afro-Latin America
Authors: Butler Kim D. , Helg Aline
Published: February 2013

This article discusses race relations in postabolition Afro-Latin America. It shows that, contrary to the Lusocentrism of the recent historiography on slavery, much has been written in the past few decades about race and blackness in the Caribbean and in Spanish America.
Indigenous Peoples and Nation-States in Spanish America, 1780–2000
Authors: Mallon Florencia E.
Published: February 2013

This article shifts the discussion of race from Afro- to Indo-America, focusing on a corpus of historical studies that underline how Amerindians, anti-Indian racism, and Indigenism have played a central role in the formation of nations and national identities along the mountainous backbone of Spanish America. With the crisis of the Spanish colonial system and the rise of independence movements, emerging elites interested in projects of nation-state formation entered into new forms of negotiation and confrontation with indigenous peoples and their visions for both inclusion and autonomy. While these negotiations differed markedly from those that had earlier taken place between Natives and the colonial state, they were conditioned by the forms of conquest and colonization that had gone before, as well as by emerging political, geographic, military, and economic distinctions among the newly independent societies.
The New Economic History of Latin America: Evolution and Recent Contributions
Authors: Coatsworth John H. , Summerhill William R.
Published: February 2013

This article on economic history explores a scholarly corpus whose robust empiricism stands out from the general antipositivist trends in the historical field and thus contributes a healthy element of disciplinary pluralism. The field originally rested on two pillars, neoclassical economic theory and cliometrics—that is, the use of quantitative methods, models from applied economics, and counterfactuals to test falsifiable hypotheses. But, inspired by the work of scholars such as the Nobel laureate Douglass North, recent practitioners have added a “new institutionalism” that aims to incorporate an increased sensibility towards cultural norms.
Popular Religion in Latin American Historiography
Authors: Román Reinaldo L. , Voekel Pamela
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the recent historiography of religion from the traditional field of church history. The emphasis shifts from the institutional and official to the quotidian and informal. The stress on popular religiosity comes across in the debate over syncretism discussed in the first section of the article. Did Catholicism absorb African and indigenous beliefs, in practice if not theologically, to form a sort of Latin American spiritual stew, as the Cuban anthropologist Fernando Ortiz once put it? Did this synthesis become more Christian with time? Did non-European belief systems survive relatively unadulterated, particularly in the understanding of the divine rather than form, as some revisionists proposed? Popular religiosity also occupies a central position in the historical debate about secularism, the nature of millenarianism, and the spread of Protestantism during the national period.
Classifying and Measuring Strengths of Character
Authors: Peterson Christopher , Park Nansook
Published: February 2013

What is the good of a person? Answers to this question lie at the heart of traditional moral philosophy as well as contemporary positive psychology. For the past few years, we have been involved in a project describing important strengths of character and ways to measure them. Our research program is sometimes identified as the Values in Action (VIA) project. The VIA classification includes two dozen strengths of character on which our research has focused. Various VIA measures comprise a family of assessment devices that measure individual differences in the strengths in the classification. The present contribution describes the process by which the VIA classification was created, the ways character strengths are measured, and empirical findings: distribution and demographics; correlates and consequences; origins and development; deliberate cultivation; interventions; and structure and trade-offs. Work is ongoing to refine our measures and to use empirical findings to generate theory. Especially important lines of future research include the relationship of character strengths to hard outcome measures, cultural differences and similarities, development, interventions, and the processes by which strengths of character give rise to actual behavior. Our project supports the premise of positive psychology that attention to good character sheds light on what makes life worth living.
Modeling Positive Human Health: From Covariance Structures to Dynamic Systems
Authors: Ong Anthony D. , Zautra Alex J.
Published: February 2013

In this chapter, we illustrate how recent advances in longitudinal methodology can be applied to diverse issues of interest to positive psychologists. The aim of the chapter is to describe how contemporary theories of well-being may be empirically evaluated using a variety of research designs and analytic techniques that can fully capture the complexity and dynamics of positive human health. Throughout, we identify unresolved methodological challenges associated with the measurement and analysis between- and of within-person phenomena and elaborate on the implications of these challenges for process research in positive psychology.
Positive Ethics: Themes and Variations
Authors: Handelsman Mitchell M. , Knapp Samuel , Gottlieb Michael C.
Published: February 2013

Psychology has a history of approaching ethics from a rule-based perspective. The APA Ethics Code was developed by focusing on problematic behaviors, and ethics training is often concerned with helping psychologists protect themselves from ethics complaints and lawsuits. Recently, many scholars have been focusing on positive approaches to ethics. Positive ethics shifts the emphasis from following rules and avoiding discipline to encouraging psychologists to aspire to their highest ethical ideals. Such a positive focus might help psychologists consider ethical issues in a broader context that could contribute to better decision making and better integration of professional rules with personal principles and values. Positive ethics might also contribute to a greater degree of openness so that psychologists feel freer to seek the assistance of others. We discuss several major trends in the literature under the themes of self-awareness, professional awareness, and global awareness. Self-awareness includes understanding our own values and motives. Being more reflective about our values may help us develop ethical sensitivity—the ability to recognize ethical dimensions in our work even when no dilemmas or conflicts exist. Self-awareness also includes taking care of ourselves in all areas of our lives, and developing virtues—character traits that allow us to fulfill both personal and professional moral motivations. Our second theme, professional awareness, includes ethical acculturation, which refers to integrating our personal and professional moralities throughout our professional development. We need to understand the moral traditions that underlie our ethical reasoning. We can also prevent many ethical problems and dilemmas by anticipating them, obtaining consultation, and engaging in continuing education. Our third theme—global awareness—includes multicultural sensitivity, political sensitivity, and civic virtue.
Flow Theory and Research
Authors: Nakamura Jeanne , Csikszentmihalyi Mihaly
Published: February 2013

This chapter describes flow, the experience of complete absorption in the present moment, and the experiential approach to positive psychology that it represents. We summarize the model of optimal experience and development that is associated with the concept of flow, and describe several ways of measuring flow, giving particular attention to the experience sampling method. We review some of the recent research concerning the outcomes and dynamics of flow, its conditions at school and work, and interventions that have been employed to foster flow. Finally, we identify some of the promising directions for flow research moving into the future.
The Positive Psychology of Emotional Intelligence
Authors: Salovey Peter , Mayer John D. , Caruso David , Yoo Seung Hee
Published: February 2013

Emotional intelligence is contextualized historically and defined as a set of four interrelated abilities focused on the processing of emotional information. These four abilities involve (a) perceiving emotions, (b) using emotions to facilitate cognitive activities, (c) understanding emotions, and (d) managing emotions in oneself and other people. Emotional intelligence is best measured as a set of abilities using tasks rather than self-judgment scales. When emotional intelligence is measured in this way it shows discriminant validity with respect to “cognitive” intelligence, personality traits, and social desirability, which is generally not the case for self-judgment measures. The ability-based measure of emotional intelligence most often used in research is the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), a reliable instrument that is associated with positive outcomes in social situations, families, educational settings, and the workplace. Promising interventions designed to improve emotional intelligence have been developed for school children and managers. The effectiveness of these interventions needs to be evaluated systematically.
Optimistic Explanatory Style
Authors: Peterson Christopher , Steen Tracy A.
Published: February 2013

So-called optimism has long given thoughtful people pause because of connotations of naiveté and denial, but optimism has become a more respectable stance, even among the sophisticated. Research has linked optimism to positive mood and good morale, to perseverance and effective problem solving, to achievement in a variety of domains, to popularity, to good health, and even to long life and freedom from trauma. In this chapter, we review what is known about one cognate of optimism—explanatory style, how people habitually explain the causes of events that occur to them. We trace the history of explanatory style research, which originated in studies of learned helplessness and depression as a way to make sense of the range of reactions in the wake of uncontrollable bad events. We focus on the neglected question of the origins of explanatory style, which seem to be multiple. We conclude by addressing issues that need to be considered by positive psychologists doing research on explanatory style. Research still focuses too much on negative outcomes, ignoring the premise of positive psychology that what makes life most worth living needs to be examined in its own right, not simply as the absence of problems.
Hope Theory
Authors: Rand Kevin L. , Cheavens Jennifer S.
Published: February 2013

Hope is defined as the perceived ability to produce pathways to achieve desired goals and to motivate oneself to use those pathways. The historical origins of hope theory are reviewed. Definitions and explanations are given for the core concepts of Snyder's (1994c) cognitive model of hope, including goals, pathways, and agency. Goals are abstract mental targets that guide human behaviors. Pathways thought entails the perceived ability to generate multiple routes to desired goals. Agency thought entails the perceived ability to initiate and sustain movement along a pathway. Emotions are conceptualized as sequelae of goal-directed thoughts and actions and function as feedback regarding perceived success or failure of a goal pursuit. A temporal model of the goal pursuit process is presented, and the roles of hope cognitions at each phase of the sequence are explained. Several scales constructed based on hope theory and used in research are described. Research on hope is reviewed. Higher hope corresponds with superior academic and athletic performance, greater physical and psychological well-being, and enhanced interpersonal relationships. Future directions for research and application of hope theory are suggested, including distinguishing hope from other personality constructs, examining potential group differences in hope, exploring possible maladaptive aspects of hope, and using hope theory to understand and ameliorate current global crises.
Curiosity and Interest: The Benefits of Thriving on Novelty and Challenge
Authors: Kashdan Todd B. , Silvia Paul J.
Published: February 2013

An imbalance exists between the role of curiosity as a motivational force in nearly all human endeavors and the lack of scientific attention given to the topic. In recent years, however, there has been a proliferation of concepts that capture the essence of curiosity—recognizing, seeking out, and showing a preference for the new. In this chapter, we combine this work to address the nature of curiosity, where it fits in the larger scheme of positive emotions, the advantages of being curious in social relationships, links between curiosity and elements of well-being, and how it has been used in interventions to improve people's quality of life. Our emphasis is on methodologically sophisticated findings that show how curiosity operates in the laboratory and everyday life, and how, under certain conditions, curiosity can be a profound source of strength or a liability. People who are regularly curious and willing to embrace the novelty, uncertainty, and challenges that are inevitable as we navigate the shoals of everyday life are at an advantage in creating a fulfilling existence compared with their less curious peers. Our brief review is designed to bring further attention to this neglected, underappreciated, human universal.
Relationship Connection: A Redux on the Role of Minding and the Quality of Feeling Special in the Enhancement of Closeness
Authors: Harvey John H. , Pauwels Brian G.
Published: February 2013

Achieving constructive relationship connections is an important step as an objective of positive psychology. In the context of a culture of dissolution in close relationships, minding serves as an antidote to the demise of feelings of closeness overtime. In this paper, we argue that minding the close relationship is a powerful pathway to developing and enhancing closeness. Minding is a combination of thought and behavior patterns that interact to create stability and feelings of closeness. Minding is formally defined as a reciprocal knowing process that occurs nonstop throughout the history of the relationship and that involves a complex package of interrelated thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. The components of minding are knowing and being known, achieved through reciprocal self-disclosure; attribution that is realistic about causality, but that also gives one's partner the benefit of doubt in questionable circumstances; acceptance of what one discovers in the knowing process and respect for one's partner revealed in this process; and reciprocity and continuity. The final component emphasizes the fact that minding must be done by both partners and that it is a never-ending process. The paper also describes other contemporary conceptions to which minding is closely related and addresses future direction for research on the minding process.
Adult Attachment Security: The Relational Scaffolding of Positive Psychology
Authors: Lopez Frederick G.
Published: February 2013

For over three decades, attachment theory has served as a versatile and generative framework for studying how the dynamics of close, enduring emotional bonds with others (i.e., attachments) affect psychosocial growth and development across the life span. Indeed, in recent years, a substantial literature on adult attachment has emerged that has probed the nature, correlates, and consequences of security in one's intimate adult relationships. Although this literature initially emphasized the adverse impacts of attachment insecurity on human functioning, contemporary studies are increasingly adopting a positive psychological perspective that explores the contributions of secure adult relationships to the promotion and maintenance of healthy and adaptive behavior within and across multiple life domains. This chapter highlights this shift in emphasis by first considering how the positive psychology roots of attachment theory, as well as advances in the conceptualization and measurement of adult attachment security, support these initiatives. Following this, a selection of recent studies specifically examining associations between adult attachment security and such relevant constructs as hope, optimism, positive affect, parenting and caregiving competence, academic and career-related motivation, altruistic behavior, and existential well-being are reviewed. Taken together, findings from this emergent literature suggest that adult attachment security can serve as a major organizational construct in the continuing development of positive psychology. Finally, some potentially fruitful directions for future research on the synergistic contributions of adult attachment security to human competence and well-being are briefly discussed.
Furthering the Science of Gratitude
Authors: Watkins Philip C. , Gelder Michael Van , Frias Araceli
Published: February 2013

In this chapter, we sought to strengthen the science of gratitude. We suggest effective approaches for studying gratitude, present a theoretical framework for researching gratitude, review recent gratitude research, and suggest directions and questions for future research, all in an attempt to encourage research on this important virtue. After presenting a brief historical background of gratitude, we define state and trait gratitude and describe several useful measurement tools. We review research that has examined traits that are associated with gratitude and show that grateful individuals have many salutary traits. We then overview research strategies that have been used to investigate gratitude and pay particular attention to successful experimental manipulations of gratitude. A number of studies have investigated the advantages of gratitude. Not only is gratitude strongly associated with happiness, but experimental studies have shown that gratitude actually enhances happiness. We propose several mechanisms whereby gratitude might enhance happiness. Gratitude may support happiness through enhancing enjoyment of benefits, relationships, self-esteem, and coping ability. Grateful processing of pleasant events may also enhance the accessibility of pleasant memories. Conversely, gratitude may support happiness by inhibiting envy and preventing depression. We conclude by presenting some concerns and prospects for the future of gratitude research. Continued understanding of this important emotion and virtue will do much to advance our understanding of the critical components of the good life.
Reality Negotiation
Authors: Higgins Raymond L. , Gallagher Matthew W.
Published: February 2013

This chapter presents an overview of the development and status of the reality negotiation construct and relates it to a variety of coping processes. The reality negotiation construct follows from the social constructionist tradition and first appeared in discussions of how excuses protect self-images by decreasing the causal linkage to negative outcomes. The reality negotiation construct was later expanded to include a discussion of how the process of hoping may be used to increase perceived linkage to positive outcomes. In the two decades since these constructs were first introduced, four individual differences measures have been developed, and the effects of these reality negotiation techniques have been studied extensively. Reality negotiation techniques can be both maladaptive and adaptive and have been shown to be associated with coping and social support in a variety of populations. The chapter concludes by highlighting a few areas in which reality negotiation research could expand to further its relevance and applicability to the field of positive psychology.
The Central Role of the Heart in Generating and Sustaining Positive Emotions
Authors: McCraty Rollin , Rees Robert A.
Published: February 2013

Scientific research has established a significant, complex, and highly sophisticated connection between the human heart and brain. The heart directly influences the activity of higher brain centers involved in perceptual and cognitive processing and in the creation of emotional experience. An important tool that provides a window into the activity occurring between the heart and brain is heart rate variability (HRV), an analytic tool that measures the beat-to-beat changes in heart rate. HRV is generated largely by interaction between the heart and brain via the neural signals flowing through the afferent (ascending) and efferent (descending) pathways of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system (ANS).

Research has shown that sustained positive emotions facilitate an emergent global shift in psycho-physiological functioning, which is marked by a distinct change in the rhythm of heart activity. This global shift generates a state of optimal functioning, characterized by increased synchronization, harmony, and efficiency in the interactions within and among the physiological, cognitive, and emotional systems. This state is called psychophysiological coherence. As people experience sincere positive feelings, the more ordered information flowing from the heart to the brain acts to facilitate cortical function and improve cognitive performance. These findings may help explain the significant shifts in perception, increased mental clarity, and heightened intuitive awareness many individuals report when practicing heart-centered, positive emotion—refocusing and restructuring techniques.
Toughness
Authors: Dienstbier Richard A. , Zillig Lisa M. Pytlik
Published: February 2013

This chapter presents an overview of the concept of toughness, which at the abstract level is about the harmony of physiological systems, and more concretely is about how the body influences the mind. Toughness theory begins with the recognition that there is a “training effect” for neuroendocrine systems. Following a review of the characteristics of interventions and training programs that can promote toughness, the authors present a model in which the effects of toughness are mediated by neuroendocrine systems such as the pituitary-adrenal-cortical system and the central nervous system. The elements of toughness (e.g., having a greater capacity for arousal and energy when needed) are proposed to promote positive outcomes by facilitating the use of adaptive coping strategies and improving emotional stability. Toughness therefore appears to be a promising concept within positive psychology in that it helps to explain how the dynamic interactions between psychological and somatic processes can promote positive outcomes.
Spirituality: The Search for the Sacred
Authors: Pargament Kenneth I. , Mahoney Annette
Published: February 2013

To the founding fathers of psychology, spiritual phenomena represented critically important topics for psychological study. Since the early part of the twentieth century, however, psychologists have tended to (a) ignore spirituality; (b) view spirituality as pathological; or (c) treat spirituality as a process that can be reduced to more basic underlying psychological, social, and physiological functions. Fortunately, this situation has begun to change (Weaver, Pargament, Flannelly, & Oppenheimer, 2006 ), for several good reasons. First, spirituality is a “cultural fact” (cf. Shafranske & Malony, 1996 ): the vast majority of Americans believe in God (90%), engage in prayer (90%), and feel that religion is very important or fairly important to them (84%) (Gallup, 2004 ; Poloma & Gallup, 1991 ). Second, as we will see, empirical studies have linked spirituality to a number of aspects of human functioning. Finally, in a more practical vein, the American Psychological Association has defined religiousness as a “cultural diversity” variable. Although it has received relatively less attention than other diversity variables, psychologists are no less ethically obligated to attend to this dimension and reduce potential biases in their professional work with clients of diverse religious backgrounds (see Principle D, Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct of APA, 1992).
Meaning in Life
Authors: Steger Michael F.
Published: February 2013

In this chapter, it is argued that meaning in life is an important variable for human well-being. Literature supporting this contention is reviewed, and complexities regarding defining meaning in life are discussed. Definitions of meaning have focused on several components, two of which appear central and unique to meaning in life, suggesting a conceptual framework of meaning in life comprised of two pillars: comprehension and purpose. Comprehension encompasses people's ability to find patterns, consistency, and significance in the many events and experiences in their lives, and their synthesis and distillation of the most salient, important, and motivating factors. People face the challenge of understanding their selves, the world around them, and their unique niche and interactions within the world, and the notion of comprehension unifies these domains of understanding. Purpose refers to highly motivating, long-term goals about which people are passionate and highly committed. In the framework presented in this chapter, it is suggested that people devote significant resources to the pursuit of their purposes and that the most effective and rewarding purposes arise from and are congruent with people's comprehension of their lives. Literature is reviewed regarding where meaning might come from, and other dimensions of meaning are considered (i.e., sources of meaning and search for meaning). Suggestions for future research are proposed.
The Organization and Development of Spatial Representation: Insights from Williams Syndrome
Authors: Landau Barbara
Published: February 2013

This chapter uses the case of Williams syndrome (WS) to provide insight into the nature of human spatial representation and its development under normal circumstances. The chapter has four sections. The first starts with a discussion of the hallmark pattern of spatial breakdown observed in people with WS when they carry out visuoconstructive tasks, such as drawing and block construction. The second and third sections document aspects of the WS profile. The fourth section proposes a speculative hypothesis on how the cognitive profile in WS emerges, emphasizing the role of developmental time tables in the emergence of normal spatial cognitive profiles as well as the WS profile. This hypothesis provides a new way of thinking about the relationships among genes, brains, and minds in spatial cognitive development. It moves us away from a static and simplistic view of how genetic differences might cause cognitive differences, and toward a view that emphasizes the role of normal development and developmental timetables.
Life Course Perspectives in Intellectual Disability Research: The Case of Family Caregiving
Authors: Esbensen Anna J. , Mailick Marsha R. , Krauss Marty Wyngaarden
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines how a life course perspective contributes to research on families of persons with intellectual disability (ID), highlighting the contribution to research on families of persons with specific genetic syndromes or defined disorders. It considers the applicability of general theories of family development to families of persons with ID. It discusses salient and enduring differences in family development based on having a member with ID. It then presents specific applications of a life course perspective, with a focus on family development when the child has a specific genetic syndrome or defined disorder. The chapter concludes with suggestions for future research.
Representationalism
Authors: Egan Frances
Published: February 2013

The article gives an overview of several distinct theses demonstrating representationalism in cognitive science. Strong representationalism is the view that representational mental states have a specific form, in particular, that they are functionally characterizable relations to internal representations. The proponents of strong representationalism typically suggest that the system of internal representations constitutes a language with a combinatorial syntax and semantics. Braddon-Mitchell and Jackson argued that mental representations might be more analogous to maps than to sentences. Waskan argued that mental representations are akin to scale models. Fodor and Fodor and Pylyshyn argued that certain pervasive features of thought can only be explained by the hypothesis that thought takes place in a linguistic medium. A physical symbol system (PSS) hypothesis is a version of strong representationalism, the idea that representational mental states are functionally characterizable relations to internal representations. The representational content has a significant role in computational models of cognitive capacities. The internal states and structures posited in computational theories of cognition are distally interpreted in such theories. The distal objects and properties that determine the representational content of the posited internal states and structures serve to type-individuate a computationally characterized mechanism. Strong Representationalism, as exemplified by the PSS hypothesis, construes mental processes as operations on internal representations.
Language in Cognition
Authors: Carruthers Peter
Published: February 2013

The article discusses the ways in which natural language might be implicated in human cognition. The Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky developed his ideas on the interrelations between language and thought, both in the course of child development and in mature human cognition. One of Vygostky's ideas concerned the ways in which the language deployed by adults can scaffold children's development, yielding what he called a ‘zone of proximal development’. He argued that what children can achieve alone and unaided is not a true reflection of their understanding. Vygotsky focused on the overt speech of children, arguing that it plays an important role in problem solving, partly by serving to focus their attention, and partly through repetition and rehearsal of adult guidance. Clark draws attention to the many ways in which language is used to support human cognition, ranging from shopping lists and post-it notes, to the mental rehearsal of remembered instructions and mnemonics, to the performance of complex arithmetic calculations on pieces of paper. Researchers have claimed that animals and pre-verbal infants possess a capacity for exact small-number judgment and comparison, for numbers up to three or four. There is also some evidence that natural language number-words might be constitutive of adult possession and deployment of exact number concepts, in addition to being developmentally necessary for their acquisition.
Theory of Mind
Authors: Goldman Alvin I.
Published: February 2013

The article provides an overview of ‘Theory of Mind’ (ToM) research, guided by two classifications. The first covers four competing approaches to mentalizing such as the theory-theory, modularity theory, rationality theory, and simulation theory. The second classification is the first-person/third-person contrast. Jerry Fodor claimed that commonsense psychology is so good at helping predict behavior that it is practically invisible. It works well because the intentional states it posits genuinely exist and possess the properties generally associated with them. The modularity model has two principal components. First, whereas the child-scientist approach claims that mentalizing utilizes domain-general cognitive equipment, the modularity approach posits one or more domain-specific modules, which use proprietary representations and computations for the mental domain. Second, the modularity approach holds that these modules are innate cognitive structures, which mature or come on line at preprogrammed stages and are not acquired through learning. The investigators concluded that autism impairs a domain-specific capacity dedicated to mentalizing. Gordon, Jane Heal, and Alvin Goldman explained simulation theory in such a way that mind readers simulate a target by trying to create similar mental states of their own as proxies or surrogates of those of the target. These initial pretend states are fed into the mind reader's own cognitive mechanisms to generate additional states, some of which are then imputed to the target.
“The Nature of Harmony”
Authors: Steege Benjamin
Published: February 2013

This article provides and introduction and translation of Riemann's “The Nature of Harmony”. The translation in this article provides an easy access to an important Riemann's own theoretical evolution, which was written at the moment when a budding psychological perspective was beginning to supersede Riemann's earlier acoustical and physiological perspective. Just as Riemann attempts to place his theoretical program within a historical trajectory, the article locates his work within the wider and broader historical and intellectual discourse of nineteenth-century physics, physiology, and psychology, highlighting the implied and overt polemics with Helmholtz and others that course through its pages.