bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
5 Fragment of a Commentary on Pindar, Olympian 10
Authors: Barrett W. S.
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents a fragment of a commentary on Pindar's ode, Olympian 10.
17 New Identifications in P. Oxy. 2180 (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus)
Authors: Barrett W. S.
Published: September 2007

This papyrus, the tattered remains (about 1,000 letters) of an elegant roll, was edited by C. H. Roberts in vol. xviii of The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, published in 1941. Out of a total of fifty-three fragments he located twenty-nine; the twenty-four which he left unlocated are mere scraps, averaging six-and-a-half letters (maximum twelve, minimum two), with about a third of their letters represented by ambiguous and sometimes minimal remains. This chapter summarizes the following: (a) hitherto unknown, and possibly true: 524, 528; (b) hitherto unknown, and evidently false: 109, 438; (c) agreeing with a true variant against a false: 294, 461, 525; (d) agreeing with the medieval tradition in a reading which is commonly corrected: 200.
20 A Note on the Jerusalem Palimpsest of Euripides
Authors: Barrett W. S.
Published: September 2007

This chapter confronts the question of the original order of the plays contained in the Jerusalem palimpsest. This is perhaps a trivial question, but it is one which admits of a quite certain answer.
23 Shorter Notes
Authors: Barrett W. S.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses works by several writers including Pindar, Sophocles, and Euripedes. Among these are Pindar's Nemean 4. 23, Sophocles' Antigone 411 f., and Euripides' Alkestis.
Introduction: What is a Letter?
Authors: Gibson Roy K. , Morrison A. D.
Published: September 2007

This introduction ponders the question of what defines a letter as used by some authors over other types of document. One way of deciding where the boundary between letters and other forms of text lies, and whether this is a worthwhile question to pose, is to consider borderline cases. Two such cases — the history of the classification as letters of various Greek poems, more recently thought not to qualify as letters, and Cicero's De Officiis — are examined. It is asserted that the epistolary character of an individual text is often guaranteed by its place within a larger group of epistolary texts, such as in a letter-collection whose function is to guide the reader as to the need to read its constituent texts as letters. It is concluded that the only way to achieve a full appreciation of letter-collections is to take seriously their claims to epistolarity, and by remembering that the letter is not a type of text devoid of formal, structural, and thematic connections with other types of text.
5 The Importance of Form in Seneca's Philosophical Letters
Authors: Inwood Brad
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines what makes Seneca's philosophical letters work the way they do for their readers and why they were written the way they were. In this discussion, it is suggested that some of the striking features of the letters owe more than has yet been appreciated to the influence of the models Seneca had in view when he composed the collection and the formal constraints imposed by the epistolary genre. Based on Seneca's character and motivation, the chapter explores why he wrote in epistolary form, or why, at the end of a long life and a long and tumultuous political career, and (perhaps most relevant) at the end of a brilliant literary career of unmatched versatility, he wrote letters in the first place.
10 Back to Fronto: Doctor and Patient in his Correspondence with an Emperor
Authors: Freisenbruch Annelise
Published: September 2007

This chapter re-evaluates Fronto's letters within the traditions of epistolary scholarship and against the backdrop of a surge of interest in the epistolarity of the letter collections of antiquity. Because Fronto has a valuable role to play in the call for a reassessment of the Roman letter-writing voice and identity, his correspondence with his pupil, emperor-in-the-making Marcus Aurelius, is examined. The recurring narrative of sickness and health that features in over eighty of the extant letters between Fronto and Marcus Aurelius is examined, with a particular emphasis on the ailments of the former. This chapter explores the pressing question of whether Fronto and Marcus Aurelius' letters should be regarded as simply reflecting the trend of their age to open up about one's state of health, or whether there is something more pointed, more calculated about such an epistolary narrative.
13 Mixed Messages: The Play of Epistolary Codes in Two Late Antique Latin Correspondences
Authors: Ebbeler Jennifer
Published: September 2007

This chapter considers two celebrated epistolary relationships from the 4th century AD: the famously dysfunctional correspondence of Augustine and Jerome, and the reputedly bitter final years of Ausonius' correspondence with his former pupil Paulinus. In both of these exchanges, epistolary codes are cleverly manipulated to remarkable rhetorical effect; and any explication of what went wrong (or right) in these complicated letter exchanges requires close attention to the ‘rules’ of the epistolary game. In the case of Augustine and Jerome, the chapter argues that the discernible hostilities in the correspondence arise because Augustine deliberately refuses to play the iuuenis to Jerome's senex and instead represents himself as Jerome's exegetical equal. In the case of Ausonius and Paulinus, on the other hand, it is precisely through their careful adherence to the codes of father-son letters that evidence for a persistent amicitia can be seen despite apparent tensions.
14 St Patrick and the Art of Allusion
Authors: Fear Andrew
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses how St Patrick used a letter, known as the Epistola, to campaign for the excommunication of Coroticus' men until they take penance and free their captives, although the letter makes it clear that Patrick holds out little hope that such repentance will be forthcoming. Coroticus is a warlord in Britain who, some time in the first 3rd of the 5th century AD, launched a slave raid on the coast of Ireland, at a time when St Patrick was holding a mass baptism of catechumens. The attack produced a bumper crop of captives for the raiders. A request was made by St Patrick to the attacker to agree terms for ransoming those abducted, but Coroticus refused. This provoked the saint to write Epistola, which falls into a distinct sub-genre of epistolary writing, the Open Letter, where it is made explicit that the intended audience is larger than simply the ostensible addressee in order that the addressee's sins, or more rarely praises, are broadcast as widely as possible.
Propertius 1. 5 (1974)
Authors: Lyne R.O.A.M.
Published: September 2007

This paper suggests a reading in line 19 different from that of the vulgate, and offers clarification of the sense and point of 25-6, thus contributing to a fuller appreciation of the poem and a clearer picture of its structure.
Scilicet et tempus ueniet…: Vergil, Georgics 1. 463–514 (1974)
Authors: Lyne R.O.A.M.
Published: September 2007

This is another commentary-style close reading, this time of a key passage of Virgil, which brings out much significant detail and its symbolic ideological value and political function.
Seruitium Amoris (1979)
Authors: Lyne R.O.A.M.
Published: September 2007

This paper is a classic treatment of the metaphor of servitude to the mistress as extensively deployed in Latin love-elegy, and argues that it was effectively invented by Propertius.
Vergil and the Politics of War (1983)
Authors: Lyne R.O.A.M.
Published: September 2007

This paper uses Roman theory on war to show a gap between Aeneas' ideals and practice in the warfare of the Aeneid, and suggests important truths about imperialism and war.
Love and Death: Laodamia and Protesilaus in Catullus, Propertius, and Others (1998)
Authors: Lyne R.O.A.M.
Published: September 2007

This paper takes a completely positive view of extreme love, as seen in Catullus' Laodamia. In this it follows The Latin Love Poets. But its view of Propertius fascinatingly combines the polemical author, ‘taking issue’ with another text, and the tortured author, whose subversion of his own vision subverts his attempt to confute Catullus.
17 Horace Odes Book 1 and the Alexandrian Edition of Alcaeus (2005)
Authors: Lyne R.O.A.M.
Published: September 2007

This paper argues that the opening sequence of Horace's first book of Odes picks up that of Alcaeus' lost first lyric book.
Kant and the Historical Turn
Authors: Ameriks Karl
Published: September 2007

Immanuel Kant's work changed the course of modern philosophy; this book examines how. The book compares the philosophical system set out in Kant's Critiques with the work of the major philosophers before and after him (Descartes, Berkeley, Hume, Reid, Jacobi, Reinhold, the early German Romantics, Hegel, Feuerbach, and Marx). A systematic introduction argues that complexities in the interpretation of Kant's system led to a new emphasis on history, subjectivity, and aesthetics. This emphasis defined a distinctive interpretive style of philosophizing that has become especially influential and fruitful once again in our own time. The individual chapters provide case studies in support of the thesis that late 18th-century reactions to Kant initiated an ‘historical turn’, after which historical and systematic considerations became joined in a way that fundamentally distinguishes philosophy from science and art, without falling back into mere historicism. In this way it is shown that philosophy's ‘historical turn’ is both similar to and unlike the turn to history undertaken by most other disciplines in this era. Part One argues that close attention to the historical context of Kant's philosophy is crucial to avoiding frequent misunderstandings that have arisen in comparing Kant with other major modern philosophers. Part Two contends that it was mainly the writing of Kant's first major interpreter that led to special philosophical emphasis on history in other major post-Kantian thinkers. Part Three argues that Hegel's system and its influence on post-Hegelians were determined largely by variations on Reinhold's historical turn. Part Four engages with major contemporary philosophers who have combined a study of particular themes in Kant and German Idealism with an appreciation for phenomena closely associated with the general notion of an historical turn in philosophy.
Reinhold on Systematicity, Popularity, and the Historical Turn
Authors: Ameriks Karl
Published: September 2007

This chapter explores the way in which the historical turn provided an ever more relevant fallback position for Reinhold as he continued to run into difficulties in accounting for the ‘fate’ of the far from universal acceptance of the Critical philosophy — even after the publication of the Letters and his much more systematic Elementary-Philosophy. The first section of this chapter offers an account of the features central to the distinctively historical character of philosophical texts in general, and of how this makes philosophical writing both like and unlike science and art. In the second section, it is argued that the specific features of the initial historical turn in philosophy are not to be found very much earlier or later than Reinhold's Critical phase. Although several systematic features of Reinhold's work can make it appear as if history is a secondary interest for him, this presumption is easily overcome by a closer look at his full career and his deep involvement with radical social change ever since his early years in the Austrian reform movement.
Hegel's Aesthetics: New Perspectives on its Response to Kant and Romanticism
Authors: Ameriks Karl
Published: September 2007

This chapter considers Hegel's claim that earlier aesthetic theory was not adequately ‘objective’, and Jean-Marie Schaeffer's contentions that the differences between Hegel's aesthetics and others in the classical German tradition are relatively insignificant because the tradition as a whole suffers from an overly unified ‘speculative’ and ‘ontological’ orientation. It argues that both Hegel and Schaeffer overlook significant and defensible ‘objective’ strands in the aesthetics and general philosophy of Kant and the Early Romantics.
On Beiser's German Idealism
Authors: Ameriks Karl
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents a brief discussion of Frederick Beiser's massive German Idealism: The Struggle against Subjectivism 1781-1801, which focuses mainly on the treatment of Kant and concerns about subjectivism. It agrees with Beiser that, contrary to still common presumptions, the philosophy of Kant and the later Idealists is primarily oriented against, rather than toward, a position of subjectivism. It further argues that rather than speaking of a ‘diminishing role’ of subjectivism in this era, it can be held that with Kant the era was solidly anti-subjectivist from the start.
How some people became farmers
Authors: Murphy Denis J.
Published: September 2007

This chapter shows how farming developed in Eurasia from increasingly intrusive plant management, which sometimes elicited rapid genetic responses from a few plants (especially cereals and pulses), coupled with a sudden climatic deterioration that removed many alternative food resources for human populations in the Near East. From 12,800-11,600 BP, the Younger Dryas Interval resulted in markedly cooler, drier conditions across much of Eurasia. Semi-sedentary hunter-gatherers in the Near East were forced to rely increasingly on the collection of wild cereals as other edible plants and all kinds of animals became much scarcer. The intense management of cereals like rye and barley favoured ‘domestication friendly’ mutations, such as large seed size and non-shattering seed heads. By 11,800 BP, the first domesticated rye variety was being cultivated in the Syrian village of Abu Hureyra. Over the next few millennia, domesticated versions of wheat, barley, and pulses were being grown across the Levant.
Evolution of agrourban cultures: I The Near East
Authors: Murphy Denis J.
Published: September 2007

In the Near East, farming started in the Levant and northern Mesopotamia and, by 9,000 BP, was established across much of the region. Farming villages grew into towns that gradually increased in size and techno-social complexity. This development was punctuated by at least three serious aridification events in 8,200, 5,200, and 4,200 BP that led to the partial abandonment of rainfed farming and dramatic reductions in social complexity. A momentous development was the invention of irrigation by the Samarrans after 8,000 BP. This allowed the colonization of southern Mesopotamia and the evolution of the first true urban cultures in Sumerian centres such as Ur and Uruk. Sumerian agriculture was dominated by intensively farmed barley monocultures controlled by elites who developed writing, organized warfare, imperialism, and ruled over an increasingly coercively managed subject population.
Evolution of agrourban cultures: II South and east Asia
Authors: Murphy Denis J.
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on the Indus Valley region and China, where complex agro-urban cultures evolved at about the same time as in the Near East. Wheat and barley farming originated in the Kachhi Plain at least 9,000 BP and then spread to the Indus Valley. By 5,500 BP, flourishing urban centres had sprung up throughout this vast region. These impressively organized cities were managed by elites without the trappings of power and warfare found in contemporary Mesopotamia. Around 4,000 BP, the Indus Valley civilization was extinguished in what may have been a climate related catastrophe. Chinese agriculture began with broomcorn millet cultivation in the northern Yellow River catchment, but early urban cultures also collapsed around 4,000 BP, possibly due to climate change. In southern China, rice farming possibly started before 10,000 BP in the Yangtze Basin, but intensive paddy cultivation was not practiced until 3,000 BP.
Origins and Growth of the Hollywood Motion-Picture Industry: The First Three Decades
Authors: Scott Allen J.
Published: September 2007

This chapter analyses the forces that prompted a relocation in the early 20th century of the US film industry from New York to Hollywood. First, even though there were many other conceivable locations, Southern California was a suitable location for film production in the winter months due to the climate and the scenic landscape. Second, an unfavorable institutional set-up — particularly for independent motion producers — fostered a growing accumulation of movie production facilities in Hollywood. That led to various experiments, entry and exit, and created a sufficient agglomeration of activity (‘critical mass’) for take-off. Third, a new business model was invented. Thomas Ince, who arrived in 1911 in Southern California, established a new studio and re-organized the production process.
2 Strains in the Fabric
Authors: Ryder Alan
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the factors that eventually led to the civil war which altered Catalonia's history. These include the traumas of the pulmonary plague (the Black Death) and bubonic plague, economic recession, currency instability, and conflicts involving succession to the throne following the extinction of the Catalan dynasty which had ruled since the county of Barcelona was united with the kingdom of Aragon in 1137.
6 A Peasantry Expectant
Authors: Ryder Alan
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on the efforts of remensas to promote their cause and the opposition they faced. In March 1452, Alfonso instructed Queen Maria to protect the remensas from harassment and ensure that they freely pursued their plea. Like that of the Busca, the cause of the remensas had to contend in the Neapolitan court with the influence of its enemies. Prominent among these were the deputies dispatched there by the Catalan Corts in December 1451. Pleading the Constitutions of Catalonia, they argued for an annulment or at least suspension of the remensa action.
15 In Extremis, France
Authors: Ryder Alan
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on the Catalan's search for a new leader following the death of Pedro in a time still filled with public disquiet and desperatation on the battlefronts. Sentiment and a desire to clothe rebellion with a semblance of legitimacy led them to search yet again in the genealogical tree of their ancestral rulers, among whose remaining branches the only one offering promise of adequate support now flourished in France. René of Anjou looked to be the answer to their dilemma. In addition to a Catalan ancestry, he had an impeccable record of hostility to the Trastámars, French estates within easy reach of Catalonia, a son and grandson to ensure dynastic continuity, and above all a claim upon the goodwill of Louis XI in return for services rendered during the war of the Bien Publique.
19 The Monarch Triumphant
Authors: Ryder Alan
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on the civil war in Catalan. Juan's single-minded pursuit of the consequences of his fatal bargain with France kept Catalonia at war. It was governed, or more often misgoverned, by regional captains, and scant attention was paid either to the issues which had provoked civil war or to the grave consequences of that conflict.
Rensch's rule in insects: patterns among and within species
Authors: Blanckenhorn Wolf U. , Meier Rudolf , Teder Tiit
Published: September 2007

Rensch's rule is a common pattern of allometry for sexual size dimorphism among animal species. This chapter evaluates Rensch's rule in insects, using three levels of analysis. When comparisons are made among species, Rensch's rule is not more common than that which would be expected by chance: it occurs in Diptera (flies) and Heteroptera (Gerridae; water striders), but not in other insect groups. Comparisons among populations within species also show little evidence of Rensch's rule, although when the populations were ordered by latitude, Rensch's rule was more common than that which would be expected by chance. Within populations, body size tends to be more phenotypically plastic in females than in males, resulting in allometry opposite to Rensch's rule. Data on scathophagid and sepsid flies show that patterns across the three levels of comparison do not correspond well. Thus, in insects, neither the allometric patterns nor their causative processes can be generalized among taxa or among levels of analysis.
Variation in selection, phenotypic plasticity, and the ecology of sexual size dimorphism in two seed-feeding beetles
Authors: Fox Charles W. , Stillwell R. Craig , Moya-Laraño Jordi
Published: September 2007

This chapter reviews recent studies on two seed beetle species with contrasting sexual size dimorphism (SSD): males are larger in Stator limbatus and females are larger in Callosobruchus maculatus. Male ejaculate size clearly affects male fitness in S. limbatus via both fecundity and sexual selection, but not in C. maculatus. Female S. limbatus lay more eggs when mating with large males, reflecting either direct nutritional benefits obtained from male ejaculates or increased female allocation of resources following mating with large males. This difference in patterns of sex-specific selection between the species contributes to explaining the difference in SSD between the two species. However, variation in SSD, both within and among species of seed beetles, is also caused by differential phenotypic plasticity of the sexes. The implications of this for overall patterns such as Rensch's rule are discussed.
Dimorphism in the hartebeest
Authors: Capellini Isabella
Published: September 2007

Sexual selection often favours sexual size dimorphism (SSD) in body size and fighting structures, since large males with massive weaponry achieve high reproductive success. However, sexual selection may be opposed by natural selection. This chapter describes a test of this hypothesis based on comparisons of sexual dimorphism, mating systems (sexual selection), and environmental variables (natural selection) among subspecies of hartebeest — a group of African savannah antelopes. The potential for polygyny explains dimorphism in fighting structures across hartebeest subspecies although it does not predict dimorphism in body size, suggesting that sexual selection toward large dimorphism is opposed by natural selection for smaller size. In addition to sexual selection, SSD in hartebeest may be influenced by antipredator advantages of small and agile males, intra-sexual competition for food and/or mates among female hartebeest, and fecundity selection.
Sex differences: genetic, physiological, and ecological mechanisms
Authors: Rhen Turk
Published: September 2007

Females and males share the same genome, which places a significant constraint on the evolution of sex differences. This chapter begins with a review of current theory explaining the initial evolution of anisogamy and subsequent differentiation of the sexes. It then describes four mechanisms that relieve constraints on sexual differentiation: (i) genetic differences between the sexes; (ii) sex-limited or differential expression of autosomal loci; (iii) trans-generational epigenetic effects; and (iv) phenotypic plasticity for sexual traits (i.e., environmental influences on sexual development). All four mechanisms have evolved convergently in different evolutionary lineages. The chapter closes by advocating research programmes that integrate evolutionary and mechanistic approaches to discover how sex-specific selection interacts with genetic (and physiological) variation to produce sexual dimorphism.
The genetic architecture of sexual dimorphism: the potential roles of genomic imprinting and condition-dependence
Authors: Bonduriansky Russell
Published: September 2007

The first section of this chapter presents new theory showing that sex-specific patterns of genomic imprinting may play a role in the genetic architecture and expression of sexually dimorphic traits. Empirical evidence tentatively supports this novel theory. The second section considers the potential role of condition dependence in the evolution of sexual dimorphism. Life history theory predicts that sexual dimorphism and condition dependence will co-evolve because the degree of exaggeration of male secondary sexual traits by sexual selection is expected to reflect the viability costs of trait expression and, therefore, the benefits of condition dependence. This prediction is supported by positive covariation of sexual dimorphism and condition dependence among morphological traits. Condition dependence of male traits is also expected to reduce intersexual genetic correlations, and thus mitigate intralocus sexual conflict and facilitate the evolution of sexual dimorphism.
Gilbert Murray on Greek Literature: The Great/Greek Man's Burden
Authors: Griffith Mark
Published: September 2007

This chapter argues that Murray is best seen as a man who articulated contemporary concerns with supreme skill in a period of transition. It cites two main phases, or two modes to Gilbert Murray's career as a Greek scholar. The first (‘mode A’) was that of an upwardly-mobile professional classicist of the conventional kind, self-consciously engaged in close philological analysis and on-going debate with rival scholars. The second (‘mode B’) was aimed instead at a wider audience, including many non-classicists, and largely eschewed the apparatus of professional scholarship.
‘Macte nova virtute, puer!’: Gilbert Murray as Mentor and Friend to J. A. K. Thomson
Authors: McManus Barbara F.
Published: September 2007

Gilbert Murray devoted a considerable amount of time and energy to mentoring younger scholars and so any modern reassessment of the man should include information about this aspect of his contribution to the field of Classics. Murray's mentoring relationship with J. A. K. Thomson is significant not only for its extent and duration, but also for the fact that over time Murray formed a close personal friendship with another classicist. This chapter draws upon the long and remarkably unguarded correspondence between the two men to examine such questions as what led Murray to become a lifetime patron and promoter of Thomson and his work, why he ultimately drew Thomson into the sanctum of his personal life, and what this relationship reveals about Murray's ideals, personal judgments, and sense of fun.
Gilbert Murray and Psychic Research
Authors: Lowe N. J.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses Murray's experiments in telepathy. It is argued that Murray was England's leading telepath, and that the account of Murray's experiments in this underlines with especial force the width of Murray's interests and achievements.
Endowment definition
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy
Published: September 2007

This chapter begins with a discussion of educational endowments, focusing on those of the colleges and universities in the UK. It presents a background of educational endowments of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge followed by a description of data collection methods used for the study. Restricted versus unrestricted funds, size of endowment assets, higher education funding in the UK, funding of Ivy League universities compared to Oxford and Cambridge, and the accounting of endowments are discussed.
Investment objective
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy
Published: September 2007

In the world of endowment management, where the investment horizon may extend over centuries, investment decisions to support the objectives of endowed institutions pose a unique set of challenges. This chapter addresses the issues surrounding the definition of the investment objective. The establishment of a benchmark or policy portfolio for some endowments is a way of defining the investment objective, with the benchmark asset allocation reflecting that objective. Thus, the benchmark allocation of assets is responsible for providing resources for current operations while preserving purchasing power of assets in the long term. The benchmark therefore reflects the institution's approach to various aspects of managing the endowment, including risk.
LINEAR CAUCHY PROBLEM WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS
Authors: Benzoni-Gavage Sylvie , Serre Denis
Published: September 2007

For first-order systems, the well-posedness of the Cauchy problem is equivalent to an algebraic condition on the symbol of the operator: the hyperbolicity. The hyperbolic Cauchy problem has the property of finite velocity of propagation (support, singularities). Important classes are those of symmetric (or symmetrizable) and constantly hyperbolic operators (i.e., with constant multiplicity eigenvalues). Hyperbolic polynomials are interesting on their own. Dispersion can be studied through Strichartz estimates. The adjoint of an hyperbolic operator is hyperbolic.
A CLASSIFICATION OF LINEAR IBVPs
Authors: Benzoni-Gavage Sylvie , Serre Denis
Published: September 2007

Besides strongly well-posed (with a uniform K.-L. condition) and strongly ill-posed (where K.-L. fails) IBVPs, there are interesting problems that are only C∞-well posed, but with a loss of finitely many derivatives in the estimates. This class turns out to persist under small disturbances of the operators.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR EULER EQUATIONS
Authors: Benzoni-Gavage Sylvie , Serre Denis
Published: September 2007

The nature of an IBVP for a gas depends on the sign of the normal velocity, and on the sub- and super-sonicity. This chapter proceeds to a classification, describing which boundary conditions are dissipative in the classical sense. It gives an explicit though simple construction of the Lopatinskii determinant. It then provides an explicit form of a dissipative Kreiss' symmetrizer under the uniform K.-L. condition. This construction turns out to be much more elegant than the one made in Chapter 5 for general IBVPs.
Foundations of a Measurement‐Theoretic Account of the Attitudes
Authors: Matthews Robert J.
Published: September 2007

This chapter begins with a brief introduction to the numerical measurement theory upon which the ‘measurement-theoretic’ account of the attitudes will be modeled. Topics covered include the historical development of measurement theory, homomorphisms and other structural relations; representation, abstraction, idealization, and representational artifacts; a second-order intensional version of measurement theory; and measure predicates. It is argued that the significance of measurement theory lies primarily in the justification and explanation it provides for established measurement practices, thereby providing an understanding of the empirical content of our measurement claims.
Tunneling Phenomenon
Authors: Chen C. Julian
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents basic experimental methods and the basic theory of tunneling. The classical metal-insulator-metal tunneling junction experiment of Giaever, designed to verify the Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer theory of superconductivity, is the motivation for Bardeen to invent his perturbation theory of tunneling. That Bardeen theory then became the starting point of the most useful models of STM. Section 2.2 presents the Bardeen tunneling theory from time-dependent perturbation theory of quantum mechanics, starting from a one-dimensional case, then proceeds to three-dimensional version with wave-function corrections. The Bardeen theory in second-quantization format, the transfer-Hamiltonian formalism, is also presented. As extensions of the original Bardeen theory, the theories and experiments of inelastic tunneling and spin-polarized tunneling are discussed in depth.
Cicero's Philosophy of History
Authors: Fox Matthew
Published: September 2007

Cicero has long been seen to embody the values of the Roman Republic. This study of Cicero's use of history reveals that rather than promoting his own values, Cicero uses historical representation to explore the difficulties of finding any ideological coherence in Rome's political or cultural traditions. The book looks to the scepticism of Cicero's philosophical education for an understanding of his perspective on Rome's history, and argues that neglect of the sceptical tradition has transformed the doubting, ambiguous Cicero into the confident proponent of a form of Roman identity formed in his own image. The close reading of a range of his theoretical works make up much of the book: De republica, De oratore, Brutus, and De divinatione are treated in detail, and a range of other works are also discussed. The book explores Cicero's ironic attitude towards Roman history, and connects it to the use of irony in mainstream Latin historians, in particular Sallust and Tacitus. It also examines Cicero's approach to the history of rhetoric at Rome. The book concludes with a study of a little-read treatise on Cicero from the early 18th century, by the radical thinker John Toland, which sheds new light on the history of Cicero's reception. Cicero's use of history shows the flexibility of his understanding of Roman identity. The book argues against the image of Cicero as a writer hoping to coerce his readers into identifying himself and his own achievements with the dominant ideologies of Rome.
2 Struggle, Compensation, and Argument in Cicero's Philosophy
Authors: Fox Matthew
Published: September 2007

This chapter explores in more detail two different ways of providing a context to the reading of Cicero's philosophy: the tradition of Academic scepticism in philosophy, inaugurated by Plato, which stressed the open-endedness of philosophical enquiry; and also Cicero's own ambivalence about the relevance of philosophy to public life and politics. The chapter examines the concept of compensation: how philosophy acted as a compensation for Cicero's marginalization from the world of politics. The effect of such compensation on the character of the philosophy is ambiguous. Close reading suggests a constant awareness of the mismatch between Cicero's literary and political ambitions, and that Cicero was under no illusions as to the marginal relationship between philosophy and Roman history. Rhetoric is a central element in this ambiguous relationship.
Genre
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: September 2007

Literary genres include works of history and philosophy, models, allegories, moral and metaphysical fables (which Plato called ‘myths’), and historical fables. These differ in respect of whether works of the genre have a truth-value, and of whether and how that value is a function of the truth-value of the component sentences. For example, in moral fables, in contrast to works of history, truth-value belongs to the whole work but not to its individual sentences. Putting a chunk of writing into a larger or different context may change its meaning entirely. Context includes literary context (the surrounding sentences, which help to determine genre), social context (the authorship and intended audience), and cultural context.
Moral Teaching
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: September 2007

Humans are subject to four kinds of moral obligation: necessary obligations, obligations necessary unless God dispenses us from them, obligations imposed by God on all humans, and obligations imposed by God on some humans. God's reasons for imposing an obligation may be either to coordinate the performance of our obligations, or to get us to engage in acts which otherwise would be only supererogatory in order to make us naturally very good people. This chapter examines some of the currently controversial claims of traditional Christian morality (about sexual matters, abortion, and the ordination of women) and some claims controversial in the past (about usury and slavery). It argues that in general, they are either necessary truths or such as God had some reason to make obligatory (at least for past generations). Hence, it is plausible to suppose that in general these traditional claims are revealed truths.
1 Origen on Christ as Mediator
Authors: Robertson Jon M.
Published: September 2007

This chapter briefly analyses Origen's view of the mediation of God through the Word, which gives background to the study of the three 4th-century theologians, as well as providing a methodological framework for this study. It is shown that contrary to the opinion of many, Origen actually emphasized a ‘unity of substance’ between the Father, Son, and Spirit, which entailed incorporeality (with its concomitant invisibility) and the utter simplicity of being which only belongs to ‘the species of deity’ (deitatis species). Origin also wanted to maintain the distinction between the Father and Son, even as he asserted their mutual activity. As a consequence of this ‘substantial unity’ between the Father and the Son, a true mediation of the knowledge of God can take place through the Son. It is only through the divine nature itself that the knowledge of God can be obtained. Only God is a proper mediator of God.
8 Pastoral Care
Authors: Albert Jones David
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the role of the clergy in pastoral care in their parishes. It considers the expectations of the Church's Canons and the bishops. It considers the evidence for parochial visiting, care for the sick and the dying, including drawing up people's wills, and the administration of charity. It also explores their role as chair of the parish vestry, and in the administration and reform of the Poor Law. It investigates their role in the moral oversight of the residents of their parish; the part religious societies played in improving the spiritual and moral lives of parishioners, and their role as a reconciler in their parish; the significance of the appointment of many clergy as justices of the peace in the later 18th century; and the impact of this on their role.
4 The Rome Statute and the Constitution of World Society
Authors: Ralph Jason
Published: September 2007

This chapter demonstrates how the Rome Statute creates a Court that is legally separate from the society of states. To the extent that it gives victims of core crimes a means of legal redress that they would not otherwise have, the Statute helps to constitute ‘world’ as opposed to ‘international’ society. This claim is qualified by noting how the Court will in many respects be dependent on state support and by highlighting how the concessions that were made to the values of international society (i.e. sovereign consent and international order between states) complicates the Court's claim to be independent. As background to this analysis, the chapter summarises the various ways in which the English School have sought to define world society. It also describes how the UN Security Council's creation of ad hoc courts extended a ‘solidarist moment’, which was ultimately weakened by the charge of selective justice and the material costs of setting up and running such courts.
7 Intelligence and Decision Making before the War with Iraq
Authors: Pfiffner James P.
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the use of intelligence by George W. Bush and his administration in decision making before the war in Iraq. It is argued that as the administration moved toward war, decision making was neither deliberate nor deliberative, but consisted of a series of decisions that cumulatively led to war. The administration's arguments that Iraq was closely linked to al-Qaeda, and that it possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMD) that were a threat to the United States, are analyzed. The intelligence produced by the intelligence community was sketchy and ambiguous; political officials in the administration, however, presented it with unwarranted certainty to bolster their case for war. The administration sought to shape the conclusions of intelligence agencies and downplayed or ignored contrary evidence and the reservations of intelligence professionals. As a result of flawed decision making, the administration went to war in Iraq under misperceptions that resulted in the undermining of US credibility throughout the world.
A Close Run In with Death
Authors: Murphy Francesca Aran
Published: September 2007

This chapter first reiterates the argument of Chapter III under the form that proving God's existence via the distinction of essence and existence is ultimately experiential, coming down to a psychological conviction that death, as endangering my existence, is poetically unjust. A better argument for God's existence would begin below the level of conceptual language, starting from animality and movement. It then describes Etienne Gilson's re-statement of Thomas' Five Ways (moves, causes, necessity/contingency, perfections, design), in order to give a satisfactory argument for God's existence, that is, Hans Urs von Balthasar's ‘four distinctions’. Based on the ‘Five Ways’ and building on their empirical character, the ‘four distinctions’ give an argument to God which is primarily objective and realistic, but which takes the subject and his experience into account, by beginning from the dialogue between mother and child which first ‘moves’ the child into reality.
6 Cinematizing the Trinity
Authors: Murphy Francesca Aran
Published: September 2007

This chapter argues that the grammatical Thomism of Herbert McCabe and the story Barthianism of Hans Frei are as modalist or Sabellian as the full-blown story Thomism of Robert Jenson. On the one hand, if one applies the descriptive or narrative method to the Trinity and its works in salvation history, one ‘person’ will appear after another, as in modalism. On the other hand, this will not even achieve its stated aim of doing justice to the temporality of salvation history, since all three persons will be actualizations of a single, static, and immobile story. Although the narrative theological dissolution of the persons of the Trinity into a series of relationships may not be wholly grounded in texts of either Barth or Aquinas, the classical Augustinian method nonetheless undermines the historical force of the Biblical salvation history, with its descriptions of the persons of the Trinity, and therefore is not a stable basis from which to avoid modalism. This chapter proposes that the modern challenge can be met to show how the economic Trinity really exhibits the immanent, eternal Trinity by considering the historical missions of Son and Spirit, not just as the reflection or illustration of, but as the ‘expression’ of the divine Love. This approach to Trinitarian theology strengthens rather than diminishes the force of its reference to three persons, by keeping the Biblical descriptions in sight.
Morphology: basic notions
Authors: Booij Geert
Published: September 2007

Morphology deals with the internal structure of words. Morphological rules specify how new words and word forms are formed and function as redundancy rules with respect to existing complex words in the lexicon. Morphology is therefore important for the description of languages and the theory of grammar.
6 Inflectional systems
Authors: Booij Geert
Published: September 2007

Languages sometimes give complex systems for the expression of inflectional properties, in which inflection classes play an essential role. An inflectional class is a set of words with the same kind of inflectional marking. Word forms are presented in paradigms, and the assumption of paradigm implies the introduction of notions such as suppletion and periphrasis.
2 Austerity, Privatization and Deregulation
Authors: GLYN ANDREW
Published: September 2007

This chapter outlines the counter-revolution in macroeconomic policy which brought forth a period of tight monetary policy and fiscal austerity imposed in the name of defeating inflation. This was followed by the unwinding of much of the detailed government intervention into particular sectors and markets which had characterized the previous decades. Privatization and the deregulation of the industries concerned, the substitution of private sector sources of supply for public sector in-house service provision, and the deregulation of labour markets are all aspects of this process.
5 Labour’s Retreats
Authors: Glyn Andrew
Published: September 2007

This chapter reviews the patterns of employment, wages, and working conditions across the OECD countries. Topics covered include employment and structural change, the declining position of the low-skilled, work hours, employment protection, unemployment benefits, and union decline.
‘Our Profound Ignorance’: Causal Realism and the Failure to Detect Necessity
Authors: Kail P. J. E.
Published: September 2007

If projection works against a contrast with detection, why cannot we detect necessity? This chapter examines Hume's reasons for denying that we can have an idea of necessary connexion in order to show both its sophistication and its compatibility with the supposition of genuine undetectable powers. It argues that Hume exploits a conception of what it would be to have an impression of power (the Bare Thought) that allows us to evade the key objection to realism.
The Gold: Good, Evil, Belief and Desire
Authors: Kail P. J. E.
Published: September 2007

The previous chapter discussed the projection of pleasure and pain. This chapter examines the status of the projected, namely pleasure and pain. It is argued that Hume's treatment of these states is consistent with a form of metaphysical hedonism, whereby pleasure and pain are thought essentially valuable or aversion-worthy. ‘Of the influencing motives of the will’ and Hume's attack on moral rationalism are re-read in the light of this claim.
Metaphor, Simile, and Allegory as Ornaments of Style
Authors: Innes Doreen
Published: September 2007

This chapter gives a detailed survey of surviving ancient discussions of metaphor, simile, and allegory as ‘non-literal’ tropes of ornamentation. The absence of metaphor and simile from Horace’s discussions of literary style is raised as a puzzle, and explained by Horace’s wish to avoid hackneyed theory in favour of practical exemplification.
Figures of Allegory from Homer to Latin Epic
Authors: Laird Andrew
Published: September 2007

This chapter eschews an aprioristic approach to the identification and analysis of allegory in ancient texts, instead seeking guidance from the texts themselves. Epic treatment of reflexive conventions, such as the messenger speech, suggest that epic is aware of itself as allegory — that is, as a medium whose message cannot be straightforwardly read off. Furthermore, it expects the reader to construct (not ‘find’) its meaning, so that allegorical exegesis converges in the end with interpretation. It turns out that ancient philosophical allegorists are closer to the mark than ancient rhetorical texts, which are limited in their account of allegory as a trope.
Origen on Christ, Tropology, and Exegesis
Authors: Edwards Mark
Published: September 2007

This chapter argues that the three levels of exegesis in Origen’s theory of Scriptural allegory correspond to three different linguistic ‘tropes’. Metaphor is proper to the ‘bodily’ level of scripture, and our imitative relationship to Christ through ethical progress; metonymy to the ‘psychic’ level, and our understanding of Christ by study of the cosmos created through him; and synecdoche to the ‘spiritual’ level, and our relationship to Christ as ‘all in all’.
Environmental Statistics and the National Accounts
Authors: Weale Martin
Published: September 2007

This chapter begins by surveying some of the solutions which have been adopted to the problem of environmental and natural resource accounting. Measures of national income such as GNP/GDP from the systems of national accounts (SNA) until recently did not reflect changes in environmental resources. The roles of both physical and monetary systems of environmental statistics are discussed, and it is shown how these can be incorporated into the SNA scheme. A possible means of using such a statistical framework for the basis of economic analysis is then discussed and illustrated with particular reference to Indonesia. It is suggested that a social accounts matrix can be extended to include ‘environmental multipliers’ which capture the effects on the environment. While such multipliers do not show all the environmental implications, they do demonstrate that modelling environmental effects is possible using just a little more information than is available in a typical social accounting matrix.