bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Funding for Social Science Research: International and Corporate
Authors: Mishra Ram Kumar , Raveendran Jayasree
Published: May 2017

This chapter focusses on the social science research (SSR) funding from non-governmental sources. It was observed that the International donors and corporate are important and rapidly emerging source of funding in India. The funding by these two sources comes in the form of development grants for research project on priority issues like poverty alleviation, women empowerment, health, education and others stemming out of the millennium development goals or now, the sustainable development goals. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) of the companies also increased manifold. The study found that the funding support to education has increased during the reference period, on the priority issues like health and sanitation, women’s empowerment, poverty eradication, and protection of nation heritage and culture.
The pursuit of justice
Authors: Gunn Steven
Published: May 2017

The new men were essential agents of Henry’s judicial policy and of its continuation under Cardinal Wolsey. They were active at the centre in the council courts and in the counties as justices of the peace and sheriffs. They arbitrated many disputes, kept prisons, and punished others who kept prisons laxly. They were engaged in disputes between ecclesiastical and secular jurisdiction, sometimes as peacemakers but often as promoters of the common law against the canon law. They implemented social and environmental policies over drainage, enclosure, vagrancy, and military recruitment.
Law and power
Authors: Gunn Steven
Published: May 2017

The new men knew how to use the law to pursue their own interests as well as the king’s. They hired talented lawyers to handle their business and deftly chose different courts for different kinds of suits—chancery, king’s bench, common pleas, and others—or arbitration for complex disputes. Several of them acquired bad reputations for abusing their power, but the king and their fellow councillors stood ready to rein them in, most obviously at the fall of Empson and Dudley, but also in the recurrent troubles of Sir John Hussey.
The profits of power
Authors: Gunn Steven
Published: May 2017

The new men profited from their positions in royal service to a striking degree. The richest assembled fortunes equal to those of all but the wealthiest noblemen. Offices brought fees and annuities; clients gave gifts and pensions. The king did not endow them with large landed estates, though he made a few significant grants. He did promote lucrative marriages for his servants and gave them profitable wardships, but marriage and wardship alike might prove harder to convert into lasting wealth than at first appeared.
Expenditure and status
Authors: Gunn Steven
Published: May 2017

The new men spent their money to display the rising social status that underpinned their exercise of power. They were enthusiastic builders, usually of brick houses with imposing towers and courtyards. Inside their homes they displayed rich textiles, wooden panelling, and impressive quantities of gold and silver plate. Their clothes were calculated to show wealth, but in some cases smacked of sobriety and in others of pretension. They rode fine horses, hunted in style, and bought fine food and drink, exercising hospitality to cement their social influence. Their funerals and tombs aimed to show the status their careers had brought to them and their descendants.
What Is Talent?
Authors: Browning Birch P.
Published: May 2017

Although most adults believe that musical ability is a talent—an inherited gif—this chapter discusses how, in fact, musical ability is based on life experiences and hard work. It shows that the acquisition of excellence is almost always the result of deliberate practice, a set of behaviors consciously designed to promote long-term growth. The amounts of practice time of high-achieving and lower-achieving music students are compared. The factors of autonomy, mastery, and purpose are presented; learning how to learn and practice deliberately is itself a process that must be learned and practiced deliberately. A planning process for deliberate practice is presented, and a practice worksheet form is provided.
Music as Subject Matter
Authors: Browning Birch P.
Published: May 2017

This chapter discusses what makes music an activity or a discipline worthy of study and what about music is worthy of study. It shows how music, like all disciplines worthy of study, can be understood to have cognitive, psychomotor, and affective components. Understanding the hierarchies in each facet and the relationship between the various facets helps teachers understand what music should be taught and in what ways. Music was long considered a fringe subject, but in 2014 it became a core subject in the national curriculum. Leaders within the field have written standards—curriculum guidelines—to help music teachers understand what students should know and be able to do as a consequence of music study.
How Students Acquire Musical Understanding
Authors: Browning Birch P.
Published: May 2017

The chapter describes how initial musical learning occurs as infants are exposed to motherese, or infant-directed speech, and react to aural stimuli by encoding information. The aural-oral feedback loop by which babies learn sounds is illustrated. The chapter also covers children’s acquisition of an understanding of local musical culture through acculturation. Subsequent formal instruction enables students to perceive, think about, perform, and create music. The developmental process for understanding music notation is shown to be remarkably similar to thatfor learning oral and written language. The outcomes of formal instruction are covered, including the ability to understand music from a variety of perspectives, which enables the rapid acquisition of new repertoire. Musical understanding is described as the synthesis of and interaction between musical knowledge and musical skill, with the goal of self-regulation in learning
Meaningful Curriculum
Authors: Browning Birch P.
Published: May 2017

This chapter describes the many possible definitions of the term curriculum, including the series of courses needed to complete a program or the educational materials for a topic of study. From a wider perspective, curriculum encompasses all the decisions about the goals, content, and methods and materials of instruction that are directly related to the intentional outcomes of instruction. The decisions about what is included reflect the values and philosophy of education held by those who make curricular decisions. The programs and methods of the well-known childhood music educators Dalcroze, Kodály, Orff, Suzuki, and Gordon are discussed. The author also covers the Comprehensive Musicianship Through Performance (CMP) series for secondary students in depth and discusses various scholars’ visions for music curriculum. Effective music curriculum must prepare students for musical independence via authentic music-making: listening, performing, composing, and improvising.
Coda
Authors: Browning Birch P.
Published: May 2017

This chapter is a retrospective view of some of the key topics from the text. The concept of deliberate practice introduced earlier is extended to deliberate learning. Steps to assure deliberate learning, including setting high goals and making a plan to reach them, focusing on the fundamentals, sharing one’s work for input from colleagues, managing time and staying on task, and developing a firm work ethic, are outlined. Transforming the myth of talent into the habit of hard work is reviewed and encouraged. The reader-student is asked to carefully consider how he or she will build and project the desired identity and roles as a musician and a pedagogue in a suitable community of practice. Probing questions are asked about the reader-student’s growth process and advances in understanding many key concepts and processes that inform the work of becoming a musician-pedagogue.
The Chemical Landscape
Authors: Patisaul Heather B. , Belcher Scott M.
Published: May 2017

This introductory chapter aims to provide an initial overview of the connections between current trends of increasing prevalence of behavioral disorders in children, which persist through adulthood, and increasing exposures to man-made environmental chemicals. A foundational definition of endocrine disruptors is presented and is contrasted with traditional definitions of reproductive and endocrine toxicity. Historical and current examples of specific disorders in humans and wildlife species associated with endocrine disruptor exposures are presented. Current trends of the rapid development of new chemicals and how they come to market with little or no safety testing are examined. Using lead as a case study of how chemical policy has been driven by corporate interests, rather than public health and safety, the chapter introduces the origins of chemical safety and policy based on proof of harm. Key concepts and controversy surrounding the acceptance of the “endocrine disruptor hypothesis” are examined.
Defining Endocrine Disruption
Authors: Patisaul Heather B. , Belcher Scott M.
Published: May 2017

Chapter 2 reviews the origin of the concept of endocrine disruption and presents a comprehensive treatment of the changing and often competing definitions of endocrine disruptors. The factors influencing the different definitions, impacts of including specific terms, such as “adverse” or “harm,” in this definition, and the important influences surrounding a specific definition are examined. Building on this background, the concept and definition of “neuroendocrine disruption” as “an exogenous chemical substance or mixture that alters the structure or function(s) of the neuroendocrine system” are presented. The distinctions between neurotoxicity and neuroendocrine disruption are delineated, and sources of endocrine-disrupting compound (EDC) exposures from man-made chemicals and “natural” compounds are discussed. Key concepts related to EDC action, including critical windows of sensitivity, early life exposure and later in life disease, multigenerational effects, non-linear and non-monotonic dose responses, low-dose and sex-specific effects, along with key toxicological definitions, are presented.
Endocrine Disruptors and Neurobehavioral Disorders
Authors: Patisaul Heather B. , Belcher Scott M.
Published: May 2017

This chapter focuses on the role environmental pollutants are playing in the rapidly rising rate of neurodevelopmental disorders in children. The available EDC data are summarized and analyzed in relation to whether or not evidence supports a role for EDCs as contributing to neural disorders. The distinction between endocrine disruption and neurotoxicity is established by focusing on the differences between toxicants, toxins, and altered endocrine/neuroendocrine effects in organizational alterations of the brain. Evidence from experimental systems demonstrating effects of EDCs on the developing brain and the potential roles for EDCs as bad actors in rising rates of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are presented in detail. Additional impacts of EDCs on neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinsons’s disease, are reviewed. The mechanisms of rotenone and paraquat neurodegeneration are compared and contrasted with the evidence and mechanisms of actions for organochlorine and organophosphate pesticides in Parkinsons’s disease.
The American Welfare State
Authors: Klosko George
Published: May 2017

Background on the American welfare state. What we mean by welfare states; early history of American welfare state; causal factors in regard to how it developed, and the American welfare state in comparative perspective. We also look at the role of political justification in the development of American welfare programs.
Old and New Liberalism
Authors: Klosko George
Published: May 2017

Lockean political ideas, including problems with negative and positive rights, and correlativity in regard to the latter. Comparison with new liberalism of T. H. Green and L. T. Hobhouse.
Conclusion
Authors: Klosko George
Published: May 2017

Recap of the main argument of the book and implications. Criticism of equality of opportunity as a basis for welfare programs, in comparison to “moderate liberalism.” Other possible justifications for welfare programs, including values of equality and independence. The absence of strong arguments for welfare programs in American political culture.
Effects of environmental factors and landscape features on movement patterns of Florida black bears
Authors: Karelus Dana L , McCown J Walter , Scheick Brian K , van de Kerk Madelon , Bolker Benjamin M , Oli Madan K
Published: May 2017

A greater understanding of how environmental factors and anthropogenic landscape features influence animal movements can inform management and potentially aid in mitigating human–wildlife conflicts. We investigated the movement patterns of 16 Florida black bears (Ursus americanus floridanus; 6 females, 10 males) in north-central Florida at multiple temporal scales using GPS data collected from 2011 to 2014. We calculated bi-hourly step-lengths and directional persistence, as well as daily and weekly observed displacements and expected displacements. We used those movement metrics as response variables in linear mixed models and tested for effects of sex, season, and landscape features. We found that step-lengths of males were generally longer than step-lengths of females, and both sexes had the shortest step-lengths during the daytime. Bears moved more slowly (shorter step-lengths) and exhibited less directed movement when near creeks, in forested wetlands, and in marsh habitats, possibly indicating foraging behavior. In urban areas, bears moved more quickly (longer step-lengths) and along more directed paths. The results were similar across all temporal scales. Major roads tended to act as a semipermeable barrier to bear movement. Males crossed major roads more frequently than females but both sexes crossed major roads much less frequently than minor roads. Our findings regarding the influence of landscape and habitat features on movement patterns of Florida black bears could be useful for planning effective wildlife corridors and understanding how future residential or commercial development and road expansions may affect animal movement.
Big Data Research in Neurosurgery: A Critical Look at this Popular New Study Design
Authors: Oravec Chesney S , Motiwala Mustafa , Reed Kevin , Kondziolka Douglas , Barker Fred G , Michael L Madison , Klimo Paul
Published: May 2017

The use of “big data” in neurosurgical research has become increasingly popular. However, using this type of data comes with limitations. This study aimed to shed light on this new approach to clinical research. We compiled a list of commonly used databases that were not specifically created to study neurosurgical procedures, conditions, or diseases. Three North American journals were manually searched for articles published since 2000 utilizing these and other non-neurosurgery-specific databases. A number of data points per article were collected, tallied, and analyzed.

A total of 324 articles were identified since 2000 with an exponential increase since 2011 (257/324, 79%). The Journal of Neurosurgery Publishing Group published the greatest total number (n = 200). The National Inpatient Sample was the most commonly used database (n = 136). The average study size was 114 841 subjects (range, 30-4 146 777). The most prevalent topics were vascular (n = 77) and neuro-oncology (n = 66). When categorizing study objective (recognizing that many papers reported more than 1 type of study objective), “Outcomes” was the most common (n = 154). The top 10 institutions by primary or senior author accounted for 45%–50% of all publications. Harvard Medical School was the top institution, using this research technique with 59 representations (31 by primary author and 28 by senior).

The increasing use of data from non-neurosurgery-specific databases presents a unique challenge to the interpretation and application of the study conclusions. The limitations of these studies must be more strongly considered in designing and interpreting these studies.
The SAFARI Score to Assess the Risk of Convulsive Seizure During Admission for Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
Authors: Jaja Blessing N R , Schweizer Tom A , Claassen Jan , Le Roux Peter , Mayer Stephan A , Macdonald R Loch ,   SAHIT Collaborators, Noble Adam , Molyneux Andrew , Quinn Audrey , Schatlo Bawarjan , Lo Benjamin , Jaja Blessing N R , Hanggi Daniel , Hasan David , Wong George K C , Etminan Nima , Lantigua Hector , Fukuda Hitoshi , Torner James , Singh Jeff , Suarez Jose I , Spears Julian , Schaller Karl , Stienen Martin N , Vergouwen Mervyn D I , Cusimano Michael D , Todd Michael , Tseng Ming-Yuan , Le Roux Peter , Macdonald R Loch , Johnston S Claiborne , Yamagata Sen , Mayer Stephan , Schenk Thomas , Schweizer Tom A , van den Bergh Walter
Published: May 2017

BACKGROUND

Seizure is a significant complication in patients under acute admission for aneurysmal SAH and could result in poor outcomes. Treatment strategies to optimize management will benefit from methods to better identify at-risk patients.

OBJECTIVE

To develop and validate a risk score for convulsive seizure during acute admission for SAH.

METHODS

A risk score was developed in 1500 patients from a single tertiary hospital and externally validated in 852 patients. Candidate predictors were identified by systematic review of the literature and were included in a backward stepwise logistic regression model with in-hospital seizure as a dependent variable. The risk score was assessed for discrimination using the area under the receiver operator characteristics curve (AUC) and for calibration using a goodness-of-fit test.

RESULTS

The SAFARI score, based on 4 items (age ≥ 60 yr, seizure occurrence before hospitalization, ruptured aneurysm in the anterior circulation, and hydrocephalus requiring cerebrospinal fluid diversion), had AUC = 0.77, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.73-0.82 in the development cohort. The validation cohort had AUC = 0.65, 95% CI 0.56-0.73. A calibrated increase in the risk of seizure was noted with increasing SAFARI score points.

CONCLUSION

The SAFARI score is a simple tool that adequately stratified SAH patients according to their risk for seizure using a few readily derived predictor items. It may contribute to a more individualized management of seizure following SAH.
Comparison Between Carbapenems and β-Lactam/β-Lactamase Inhibitors in the Treatment for Bloodstream Infections Caused by Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Authors: Muhammed Maged , Flokas Myrto Eleni , Detsis Marios , Alevizakos Michail , Mylonakis Eleftherios
Published: May 2017

Background

Carbapenems are widely used for the management of bloodstream infections (BSIs) caused by extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (ESBL-PE). However, the wide use of carbapenems has been associated with carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae development.

Methods

We searched the PubMed and Scopus databases (last search date was on June 1, 2016) looking for studies that reported mortality in adult patients with ESBL-PE BSIs that were treated with carbapenems or β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitors (BL/BLIs).

Results

Fourteen studies reported mortality data in adult patients with ESBL-PE BSI that were treated with carbapenems or BL/BLIs. Among them, 13 studies reported extractable data on empiric therapy, with no statistically significant difference in mortality of patients with ESBL-PE BSI that were treated empirically with carbapenems (22.1%; 121 of 547), compared with those that received empiric BL/BLIs (20.5%; 109 of 531; relative risk [RR], 1.05; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.83–1.37; I2 = 20.7%; P = .241). In addition, 7 studies reported data on definitive therapy. In total, 767 patients (79.3%) received carbapenems and 199 patients (20.6%) received BL/BLIs as definitive therapy, and there was again no statistically significant difference (RR, 0.62; 95% CI, 0.25–1.52; I2 = 84.6%; P < .001). Regarding specific pathogens, the use of empiric BL/BLIs in patients with BSI due to ESBL-Escherichia coli was not associated with a statistically significant difference in mortality (RR, 1.014; 95% CI, 0.491–2.095; I2 = 62.5%; P = .046), compared with the use of empiric carbapenems.

Conclusions

These data do not support the wide use of carbapenems as empiric therapy, and BL/BLIs might be effective agents for initial/empiric therapy for patients with BSI caused by likely ESBL-PE, and especially ESBL-E coli.
Pipeline Embolization Device for Pericallosal Artery Aneurysms: A Retrospective Single Center Safety and Efficacy Study
Authors: De Macedo Rodrigues Katyucia , Kühn Anna Luisa , Tamura Takamitsu , Dabus Guilherme , Kan Peter , Marosfoi Miklos G , Lozano J Diego , Perras Mary , Brooks Christopher , Howk Mary C , Hou Samuel Y , Rex David E , Massari Francesco , Gounis Matthew J , Wakhloo Ajay K , Puri Ajit S
Published: May 2017

BACKGROUND

Pericallosal artery aneurysm treatment may be challenging using traditional endovascular techniques.

OBJECTIVE

To demonstrate the feasibility, efficacy, and safety of endovascular treatment of pericallosal artery aneurysm using flow diverters.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective review of our institutional database from July 2013 through July 2016 and identified 7 subjects with a pericallosal artery aneurysm treated with the Pipeline embolization device (ev3 Neurovascular, Medtronic, Dublin, Ireland) and at least 1 follow-up angiogram. Technical feasibility, procedural complication, angiographic results, and clinical outcome were evaluated.

RESULTS

Placement of the Pipeline embolization device was successful in all cases without evidence of procedural complication. Five out of 7 subjects showed a complete aneurysm occlusion at 6- to 12-mo follow-up angiogram. The 2 subjects with persistent aneurysm filling showed decreased aneurysm sac volume on follow-up angiograms (96% and 60%). There was no evidence of in-implant stenosis or intimal hyperplasia. No thromboembolic or hemorrhagic complications were seen during the follow-up period. Only 1 patient had a transient change in Modified Rankin scale score from baseline as a result of different unrelated procedure.

CONCLUSION

Our preliminary results demonstrate feasibility of the use of flow diverter stent for treatment of aneurysms of the pericallosal artery with rate of aneurysm occlusion comparable to literature and without evidence of increased procedural or short-term morbidity. A long-term and larger cohort study is needed to validate our findings.
Design and Analysis of Time Series Experiments
Authors: McCleary Richard , McDowall David , Bartos Bradley
Published: May 2017

Design and Analysis of Time Series Experiments develops a comprehensive set of models and methods for drawing causal inferences from time series. Example analyses of social, behavioral, and biomedical time series illustrate a general strategy for building AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) impact models. The classic Box-Jenkins-Tiao model-building strategy is supplemented with recent auxiliary tests for transformation, differencing, and model selection. The validity of causal inferences is approached from two complementary directions. The four-validity system of Cook and Campbell relies on ruling out discrete threats to statistical conclusion, internal, construct, and external validity. The Rubin system causal model relies on the identification of counterfactual time series. The two approaches to causal validity are shown to be complementary and are illustrated with a construction of a synthetic control time series. Example analyses make optimal use of graphical illustrations. Mathematical methods used in the example analyses are explicated in technical appendices, including expectation algebra, sequences and series, maximum likelihood, Box-Cox transformation analyses and probability.
Introduction
Authors: McCleary Richard , McDowall David , Bartos Bradley J.
Published: May 2017

Chapter 1 introduces three categories of time series designs: descriptive, correlational, and interrupted time series designs. The evolution from a two-validity system to a four-validity system (including internal, external, statistical conclusion, and construct validities) is then described. Situations where the added expense of a time series design is warranted fall into two overlapping categories. The first category consists of situations where the nature of the underlying phenomenon is obscured by trends and cycles. A well-constructed time series model may reveal the nature of the underlying phenomenon. The second category consists of situations where a known intervention and an appropriate control time series are available. In those situations, a well-designed time series experiment can support explicitly causal inferences that are not supported by less expensive before-after designs. The chapter concludes with an outline and summary of the book’s subsequent chapters.
Intervention Modeling
Authors: McCleary Richard , McDowall David , Bartos Bradley J.
Published: May 2017

The general AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model can be written as the sum of noise and exogenous components. If an exogenous impact is trivially small, the noise component can be identified with the conventional modeling strategy. If the impact is nontrivial or unknown, the sample AutoCorrelation Function (ACF) will be distorted in unknown ways. Although this problem can be solved most simply when the outcome of interest time series is long and well-behaved, these time series are unfortunately uncommon. The preferred alternative requires that the structure of the intervention is known, allowing the noise function to be identified from the residualized time series. Although few substantive theories specify the “true” structure of the intervention, most specify the dichotomous onset and duration of an impact. Chapter 5 describes this strategy for building an ARIMA intervention model and demonstrates its application to example interventions with abrupt and permanent, gradually accruing, gradually decaying, and complex impacts.
Internal Validity
Authors: McCleary Richard , McDowall David , Bartos Bradley J.
Published: May 2017

Chapter 7 begins with an outline and description of five threats to internal validity common to time series designs: history, maturation, instrumentation, regression, and selection. Given the fundamental role of prediction in the modern scientific method, scientific hypotheses are necessarily causal. After an outline of the evolving definition of “causality” in the social sciences, contemporary Rubin causality or counterfactual causality is introduced. Under the assumption that subjects were randomly assigned to the treatment and control groups, Rubin’s causal model allows one to estimate the unobserved causal parameter from observed data. Control time series are chosen so as to render plausible threats to internal validity implausible. An appropriate control time series may not exist, however, an ideal time series may be possible to construct. Synthetic control group models construct a control time series that optimally recreates the treated unit’s preintervention trend using a combination of untreated donor pool units.
Resources and Rights
Authors: Armstrong Chris
Published: May 2017

This chapter has four goals. First, it seeks to define natural resources, differentiating them from other goods with which a theory of justice might be concerned. Second, it discusses the diversity of natural resources, and highlights the ways in which this diversity might become matter for a theory of resource justice. Third, it clarifies the focus of a theory of natural resource justice, and engages with some competing views about what the focus of such a theory should be. Fourth, it provides a conceptual framework for thinking about issues of resource justice, by sketching an account of the most important rights we might have over natural resources.
The Ocean’s Riches
Authors: Armstrong Chris
Published: May 2017

This chapter discusses the resources contained in or under the world’s oceans, which have been somewhat neglected by political theorists but which are hugely significant. It first discusses the case of fishing rights, in which we have seen a mixture of extended state control and unconstrained exploitation in the area beyond state jurisdiction, and shows that this approach has failed to deliver on either intra-generational justice or sustainability. It then discusses the mineral resources contained in the portions of the seabed which still fall beyond state control. Agreement has been reached, under the auspices of the International Seabed Authority, to harness the exploitation of these potentially valuable minerals to promote global equality. The chapter welcomes this development and identifies some wider lessons we might draw from it for the struggle to put resources to work to promote global equality.
Profits and Sustainability
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: May 2017

The book tells the unknown story of entrepreneurs who believed business could help create a more sustainable world. It challenges the received point of view that such green entrepreneurs are a recent phenomenon, and instead traces their origins much further back in the convictions of people committed to unusual lifestyles, in the zeal of radicals, and in the often unsuccessful efforts of visionaries to bring a new world into being long before the world was ready for it. This book looks at many such individuals in the United States, Europe, and elsewhere, and in industries as diverse as architecture, natural beauty, organic food, recycling, solar and wind energy, and sustainable finance. In each industry, the book explores the drivers of green entrepreneurship over time, how businesses were built, and the lessons to be learned. It is shown that it was only from the 1980s that green businesses were able to break out of marginal positions, yet the scaling of such businesses and the rise of corporate environmentalism raised new issues of legitimacy. The historical achievement of green entrepreneurs remains that through their willingness to be unconventional, they opened up new ways of thinking about sustainability, and have laid the foundations for the sustainable world of the future.
Pioneering in Food and Energy
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: May 2017

This chapter looks at green business between the 1930s and the 1950s, when most policy-makers, voters, and consumers had little interest in the natural environment. It considers organic food, natural beauty, wind and solar energy, and architecture. This was a very challenging period for green entrepreneurship. Wind and solar were wholly unable to compete with conventional fuels. Most consumers had little interest in organic food or cosmetic products using plants rather than chemical ingredients. Ecological architects had few clients. The figures considered here all worked on the margins of the business world—some were downright eccentric—and they achieved little towards legitimizing their alternative views in the eyes of consumers and others. Yet in retrospect they were laying foundations for the future.
Earthrise and the Rise of Green Business
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: May 2017

This chapter examines green entrepreneurship in the waste and tourist industries before 1980. Both industries were products of economic success, but had bad environmental outcomes. In both industries the profit motive of conventional business was preeminent. Green entrepreneurs were few and far between, although they were also not entirely absent. In the waste industry, even before the 1920s, a handful of entrepreneurs developed clear ecological arguments, and basic processes for sorting and recycling waste materials still used today. In tourism, railroad companies and other conventional businesses sometimes played proactive roles in seeking to prevent environmental despoliation. Later proto eco-tourism businesses were created.
Making Money by Saving the World
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: May 2017

This chapter examines the spread of standards and certification in green industries including IFOAM in organic food, ECOCERT in beauty, BREEAM and LEED in building, and Green Globe in tourism. These were the work of a set of institutional entrepreneurs who argued that standards and certification were the path to credibility but the evidence on impact is mixed. Conflicting or confusing certification schemes, as in beauty, were a problem for the growth of an industry. However, standards and certification often needed to be set at such a level that they were seen as being in reach of most participants. As a result there was some tendency for a race to the bottom. Standards and certification also resulted in misaligned incentives and the potential for gaming. Above all, certification shed light on the contested meaning of sustainability.
Can Finance Change the World?
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: May 2017

The chapter examines the role of government in green industries from 1980 to the present, using the examples of waste management and wind and solar energy. In waste, privatization and more stringent regulation encouraged the growth of global waste management companies, with huge differences in outcomes. The United States remained a laggard in recycling compared to Germany. In energy, the state of California virtually created the modern wind and solar industries in the 1980s; European governments, especially Denmark and Germany, made Europe the global center for renewable energy in the 1990s; the Chinese government made China and Chinese companies dominant in renewable energy from the 2000s. In all three cases there were significant inefficiencies in outcomes.
The Green Team
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: May 2017

This chapter examines the greening of large conventional firms since 1980, the acquisition of many green entrepreneurial firms, and the rise of “greenwashing.” While noting that this development appeared to signal the success of green business, and the scaling needed for sustainability to make a real impact, there were also major problems. In particular, there were frequent and large gaps between corporate rhetoric and reality, threatening consumer disillusion and making it harder for more genuinely green firms to make their distinctive case. Corporate environmentalism was also constrained by the huge pressure on firms to meet quarterly returns, making it hard for large corporations to pursue truly radical sustainability strategies.
Corporate Environmentalism and the Boundaries of Sustainability
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: May 2017

This chapter reviews the history of green entrepreneurship, arguing that green entrepreneurship was shaped by four different temporal contexts between the mid-nineteenth century and the present day. Although there were significant achievements over the entire period, it was only in the most recent era that green business achieved legitimacy and scale. Green entrepreneurs often had religious and ideological motivations, but they were shaped by their institutional and temporal context. They created new markets and categories through selling their ideas and products, and by imagining the meaning of sustainability. They faced hard challenges, which encouraged clustering which provided proximity advantages and higher trust levels. Combining profits and sustainability has always been difficult, and the spread of corporate environmentalism in recent decades has not helped. Although commercial success often eluded pioneers, by a willingness to think outside of traditional boxes, they have opened up new ways of thinking about sustainability.
Definitions and concepts
Authors: Coolen A.C.C. , Annibale A. , Roberts E.S.
Published: May 2017

A network is specified by its links and nodes. However, it can be described by a much wider range of interesting and important topological features. This chapter introduces how a network can be characterized by its microscopic topological features and macroscopic topological features. Microscopic features introduced are degree and clustering coefficients. Macroscopic topological features introduced are the degree distribution; correlation between degrees of connected nodes; modularity; and, the eigenvalue spectrum (which counts the number of closed paths in the graph).
Random graph ensembles
Authors: Coolen A.C.C. , Annibale A. , Roberts E.S.
Published: May 2017

This chapter presents some theoretical tools for defining random graph ensembles systematically via soft or hard topological constraints including working through some properties of the Erdös-Rényi random graph ensemble, which is the simplest non-trivial random graph ensemble where links appear between two nodes with a fixed probability p. The chapter sets out the central representation of graph generation as the result of a discrete-time Markovian stochastic process. This unites the two flavours of graph generation approaches – because they can be viewed as simply moving forwards or backwards through this representation. It is possible to define a random graph by an algorithm, and then calculate the associated stationary probability. The alternative approach is to specify sampling weights and then to construct an algorithm that will have these weights as the stationary probabilities upon convergence.
Network growth algorithms
Authors: Coolen A.C.C. , Annibale A. , Roberts E.S.
Published: May 2017

Growth processes are a fundamentally different approach compared to probability-driven exponential models covered in earlier chapters. This chapter studies how growth rules can be designed to mimic processes observed in the real world, and how the process can be mathematically analyzed in order to obtain information about the likely topological properties of the resulting networks. The configuration (stub joining) model is described, including a careful discussion of how bias can be introduced if backtracking is used instead of restarting if stubs join to form a self or double link. The second class of models looked at is preferential attachment. The simplest variants of this are analyzed with a master equation approach, in order to introduce this technique as a way of obtaining analytical information about the expected properties of the generated graphs. Extensive references are provided to the numerous variants and extensions of both of these models.
Evolution, genetics, and systematics
Authors: Ayala Francisco J. , Cela-Conde Camilo J.
Published: May 2017

This chapter starts with the general principles of the theory of evolution by natural selection advanced by Darwin and the Mendelian theory of heredity. Next comes consideration of the “new-Darwinian synthesis” or “synthetic theory,” which integrates both precedents into what has become the current paradigm of the life sciences. Molecular evolution and population genetics follow, including epigenetic processes. Next, special models of selection are considered, such as sexual selection and the models that account for altruistic behavior. After the mechanisms of speciation, the main concepts of systematics are explored, which facilitate understanding of different traits. The chapter finally explores the fundamental concepts of taxonomy and the methods from phenetics to cladistics, that makes it possible to evaluate the diversity of organisms and the methods for dating the fossil record.
Taxonomy
Authors: Ayala Francisco J. , Cela-Conde Camilo J.
Published: May 2017

This chapter examines the hominin tribe as it branches off within the hominoid diversification. It considers the differences between humans and chimpanzees, and explores the systems of classification of the human lineage. Next come the different adaptive strategies of the various genera of the human lineage. An outcome of different adaptations are the derived characteristic human traits, from large brains to bipedalism, which is the only apomorphy universally shared by the human lineage. Bipedalism is analyzed in detail, morphologically as well as functionally, including biomechanical features, comparing fossil exemplars to preserved footprints. The final issue explored is the narrowing of the birth canal caused by different degrees of bipedalism. Bipedalism changed somewhat its function when adjusting to running in the open savannas.
The hominin lineage
Authors: Ayala Francisco J. , Cela-Conde Camilo J.
Published: May 2017

This chapter describes the origin of the human lineage within the evolution of the hominoids, which raises the difficult issue of how to integrate the evolution of dentition and terrestrial locomotion. Next is the investigation of the appearance and initial dispersal of the hominins toward the end of the Miocene, with particular attention to the models of colonization of new territories as a function of climate changes. The hypothesis of the adaptation to the open savanna by bipedalism is explored. Finally, there is a summary description of the different deposits and localities of the main African localities with human fossils, pointing out the different geological formations and exemplars found in each deposit, including two sites north of the Rift Valley of great importance: Toros-Menalla (Tchad) and Dmanisi (Georgia).
Lithic traditions: tool-making
Authors: Ayala Francisco J. , Cela-Conde Camilo J.
Published: May 2017

This chapter is dedicated to the lithic traditions. It analyzes the pre-cultural cores and flakes produced by chimpanzees for cracking nuts and the evidence of their using bones as tools. Next, the chapter describes the first lithic tradition (Mode 1 or Oldowan), the transition from Mode 1 to 2 (Acheulean culture), and the process for producing the first Acheulean tool, the biface. Mode 2 dispersal separates, by means of the “Movius line,” the localities in Africa, Europe, and Western Asia, which display bifaces, and those in Eastern Asia, which lack them. The cultural use of fire precedes the transition from Mode 2 to Mode 3 (Mousterian). The description of the Mousterian culture and the transition to Mode 4 (Aurignacian) raise the issue of the human “modern mind.” The transition from the Middle Stone Age to the African Late Stone Age ends this chapter.
Hominin transition to Upper Pliocene
Authors: Ayala Francisco J. , Cela-Conde Camilo J.
Published: May 2017

This chapter analyzes the transition of the hominins from the Middle Pleistocene to the Late Pleistocene. Two alternative models are explored, the “Multiregional Hypothesis” (MH) and the “Replacement Hypothesis,” and how each model evaluates the existing relationships between the taxa Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens. Next is the investigation of the transitional (or “archaic,” if this grade is taken into account) exemplars found in Europe, Africa, and Asia and their evolutionary significance. In particular, the comparison between H. erectus and H. sapiens in China and Java is investigated, as the main foundation of the MH. The chapter ends with the surprising discovery of Homo floresiensis and its description and interpretations concerning its taxonomic and phylogenetic significance. The correlation between brain development and technological progress is at odds with the attribution of perforators, microblades, and fishing hooks to a hominin with a small cranial volume, similar to that of Australopithecus afarensis.
A Review of Real-Estate Indices
Authors: Tunaru Radu S.
Published: May 2017

This chapter presents the main real-estate indices used worldwide for investment purposes and on which derivatives contracts are very likely to be issued. It is important to know the type of real-estate index based on the method of construction. The chapter contains a description of the main real-estate indices used in real-estate derivatives contracts, indices that are built using various methodologies such as hedonic, repeat sales, appraisal, or transaction based. Themethod of construction of the real-estate index should be taken into consideration when modelling the real-estate indices. The stylized facts about the real-estate indices are important not only for a better understanding of the real-estate investmentmarket per se but also for better model construction for pricing real-estate derivatives. Serial correlation is amajor feature of real-estate indices as demonstrated comprehensibly in this chapter and in general this is positive short-term, and negative medium-term. Longer-term serial correlationmay switch back to being positive, albeit weakly positive, or disappear as in the case of daily calculated indices. Taking into account the stylized features of real-estate indices is necessary to avoid model risk.
Conclusions and Where Next
Authors: Tunaru Radu S.
Published: May 2017

This chapter gathers the main findings in the book and highlights the principal ideas surrounding real-estate derivatives as an emerging necessary asset class. It also sketches future directions of research in both academic and practitioner terms. In addition, it gives some indication of how real-estate derivatives may become crucial in relation to stress testing for the top tier banks and financial institutions in the near future.
The Conflict over Nuclear Energy
Authors: Brouard Sylvain , Dolezal Martin , Guinaudeau Isabelle , Hutter Swen
Published: May 2017

This chapter provides an account of the contestation of nuclear energy in Western Europe and beyond. It presents a new compilation of comparative public opinion data on nuclear energy, original data on protest behaviour directed against nuclear energy, and a systematic account of the development of Green parties. The focus is on the covariation of these factors with the behaviour of the established political parties and system properties (Kitschelt’s ‘openness’). The main function of the chapter is to show the relative strength of the ‘natural enemies’ of nuclear energy—concerned citizens, protest movements, and Green parties—in the countries covered by case studies (and beyond, where possible) and to understand how they interact. The chapter argues that neither public opinion critical to nuclear energy nor sizeable protest behaviour is sufficient to introduce anti-nuclear policy change.
The Will of the People? Swedish Nuclear Power Policy
Authors: Holmberg Sören , Hedberg Per
Published: May 2017

Sweden started its nuclear programme in the early 1950s. Initially it was generally welcomed as modernization and even supported by environmentalists. The issue became more contested in the 1970s, when protests began and the Centre Party turned anti-nuclear. In the 1980s, the phasing out of nuclear energy until 2010 was decided as a consequence of a referendum. In 2010, however, the parliament decided to allow building a new generation of nuclear power plants. After the Fukushima disaster a new phase of nuclear energy confinement began in 2014 as a consequence of a Red-Green coalition coming to power. Over the years most Swedish parties have reversed their positions on the nuclear power issue. Policy reversals were triggered by party competition and government replacement and reflected changes in public opinion as well as coalition politics.
Introduction
Authors: Stewart Edmund
Published: May 2017

The Introduction sets out the problem: why was tragedy a central part of Greek culture and how did this come about? It reviews scholarship on the ancient context of Greek tragedy and suggests new solutions to this problem. Drawing on research in network theory, this chapter aims to show that tragedy should not be seen primarily as an Athenian ‘export’; rather its dissemination was the result of a complex web of interactions between Greek communities. Tragedy travelled because poets and audience members themselves travelled. A key reason for the mobility of poets is that they were professionals from an early period, in search of Panhellenic fame, prizes, and patronage from an early period.