bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Device to Determine Position Rapidly Without Calculation
Authors: Randić Leo
Published: January 2010

The problem of the determination of the observer's position on the Earth can be most easily solved in terms of the equatorial coordinates of the observer's zenith. From Fig. 1, in which the inner circle represents the Earth and the outer circle the celestial sphere, it can be seen that the zenithal point on the celestial sphere is its intersection with the prolongation of the radius to the observer's position. The geographical latitude of the observer is equal to the declination of the observer's zenith, and the geographical longitude is equal to the difference between Greenwich sidereal time (G.S.T.) and the right ascension of the observer's zenith. We can obtain G.S.T. by interpolation from a nautical almanac or directly from a separate watch or clock set to keep sidereal time.
Hydrographic Surveys by Officers of the Navy under the later Stuarts
Authors: Naish G. P. B.
Published: January 2010

We are told by Captain Greenvile Collins that Charles II was ‘A great lover of the noble art of navigation’. I think his brother, James, Duke of York, who became the Lord High Admiral at the happy Restoration in 1660, shared the same enthusiasm. Members of the Royal Society, including distinguished seamen, studied mathematics, mechanics and optics. The time was ripe for improvements to be tried out, under royal patronage, in ship design and construction as well as in the navigation of ships. English methods began to be regarded as not only the best but even as unnecessarily exacting, and we are told that Davis's backstaff was known as the English Quadrant by the French, and the English log and log-line for estimating a ship's speed through the water was better than the simpler methods popular with Spanish, Portuguese and Dutch mariners.
II—The Golden Age of Navigation
Authors: Villiers Alan
Published: January 2010

I went to sail with the Arabs after selling the ship Joseph Conrad, which had proved too expensive for a private citizen to continue to run indefinitely as his own school-ship. I had always wanted to see something of Arab navigation because they were the pioneers. Semitic navigators and mathematicians were among the experts gathered by Prince Henry the Navigator at the school at Sagres, in Portugal, and the dhow voyages of the western Indian Ocean were very old. But I found that today the Arab dhow-captains do not ‘navigate’, as such: they apply personal knowledge to coasting passages, even though the passages cover some thousands of miles. For example, in a big double-ended dhow of the type known as a boom, from Kuwait, I sailed some 8000 miles in about eight months—down the east coast of Africa with the favouring north-east monsoon, as far almost as the monsoon blew, and then back again up the coast in the transitional period between the monsoons.
Unification of the Abridged Nautical Almanac and the American Nautical Almanac
Authors: Clemence G. M. , Sadler D. H.
Published: January 2010

Announcement. As from the editions for the year 1958 the Abridged Nautical Almanac and the American Nautical Almanac will become identical in content, and will be reproduced from identical material, apart from the title pages and covers; they will for the time being retain their present titles, and will continue to be printed and published separately in the United Kingdom and the United States. The unified Almanac will be produced jointly by H.M. Nautical Almanac Office of the Royal Greenwich Observatory, Herstmonceux, and the Nautical Almanac Office of the U.S. Naval Observatory in Washington, to meet the general requirements for surface navigation in the two countries.

Unification became a possibility with the decision to prepare copy for the Abridged Nautical Almanac on the card-controlled typewriter in H.M. Nautical Almanac Office; this machine is identical with that at the U.S. Naval Observatory, which has been used to prepare copy for the American Nautical Almanac since 1950. A large number of arrangements were tried for the daily pages, some with one day to the page or two days to the opening, and others with three days to the opening. The consensus of opinion in the United Kingdom favoured the latter form, which is already in use in the American Nautical Almanac. This opened the way to a detailed investigation into an arrangement that would prove acceptable to users and producers in both countries. The unified Almanac is the result of this collaboration.
Where Do We Go From Here? Some Thoughts on the Air Traffic Control Problem
Authors: Fraser D. O.
Published: January 2010

Impatience is frequently expressed at the slow rate of progress in improving the efficiency of air traffic control. It is being expressed most forcibly at this time in the United States, because the military services require the separation problem to be solved for the large numbers of military jet flights, and because civil jet aeroplanes have been ordered by the airlines and will soon appear on the Federal Airways. Although a great deal of basic study has been made of the problem of air traffic control, it is becoming clear that there is no panacea for its solution. Air traffic control is concerned with the safe expeditious flow of air traffic. This involves a number of separate but interrelated problems both in the aircraft and on the ground. Thus we see a programme of development on a very wide front involving navigation aids, communications, radar performance and presentation, data display and so on. Progress in any one field may affect the requirements in another, and so it is most necessary for all concerned to have a clear view of the situation as a whole in order that they may see the wood as well as the trees. Lively discussion of the subject can therefore be most fruitful, both among those directly concerned—the pilots and the controllers—and among the specialists in the various branches of development.
Handling Ships in Narrow Waters
Authors: Wynne-Edwards C. J.
Published: January 2010

When, over twenty years ago, Admiral J. A. G. Troup wrote his admirable book On the Bridge, he said that he had searched his soul to find a reason for burdening even one of his brethren with his observations on handling ships. That his diffidence was quite unfounded is, of course, proved by the fact that his book, at any rate in naval circles, has become a near classic. The fact is that there is remarkably little real opportunity for junior officers at sea to gain experience in the actual manœuvring of ships in restricted waters, and aspiring shipmasters will seize with avidity any crumbs of knowledge which may fall from the table of the experienced. And, while it is clearly true that much practical experience is essential, that experience will be dearly bought and largely wasted if the underlying principles are not clearly understood, and unless the practitioner learns what he must look for, and what will affect the issue. How often has one made, or heard others make, some such remark as ‘and then the wind caught her bows and I couldn't do a damn' thing about it’. But on reflection one realized that the observation should have been qualified by the admission that one had got into what, in sailing parlance, is known as ‘the hopeless position’, and should never have been there at all if a proper appreciation of the problem had been made.
A Modern View of Lunar Distances
Authors: Almanac Office H.M. Nautical
Published: January 2010

In 1766 Nevil Maskelyne, fifth Astronomer Royal, compiled and published the first edition of The Nautical Almanac and Astronomical Ephemeris, designed to make practicable the determination of longitude at sea by the method of lunar distances. To mark the occasion of the two-hundredth anniversary of this event the staff of H.M. Nautical Almanac Office presents an objective assessment of the method of determining longitude by the measurement of lunar distances, in terms of modern knowledge, outlook, notation and computing facilities.

Reference to contemporary publications has been deliberately avoided; the story of the development of methods and techniques for the observation and reduction of lunar distances requires, and deserves, a separate study.
Separation Standards—II
Authors: Reich P. G.
Published: January 2010

In the first part of this series of papers an outline was given of the approach made at the Royal Aircraft Establishment to the problems of estimating collision risk and of specifying the quality of navigation needed to make separation standards safe. It was stressed that estimates should be based on intensive observation of flying errors, rather than on speculative theories, and that it is more feasible to develop ‘upper limit’ estimating techniques than those which purport to give the exact risk. In summary, a list of seven ‘requirements’ was given, as a reminder of the essential principles which can so easily be overlooked in the piecemeal task of relating separation standards to collision risk.

The purpose of this paper is to show some of the theoretical techniques which have been developed at R.A.E. to satisfy five of these requirements. (The remaining two do not call for special techniques and will be dealt with when practical applications are described in Part III.) The paper contains three Appendixes, dealing with the frequency of losing separation in one dimension, the computation of P's from the assumed tail shapes, and the treatment of relative errors. These are not included here but will appear in the off-printed version which may be obtained from the Royal Aircraft Establishment.

Both this paper and the paper that follows by Mr. Attwooll are crown copyright and are reproduced with the permission of H.M. Stationery Office.
The Statistics of Collisions at Sea—II
Authors: Wylie F. J. , Deacon D.
Published: January 2010

This report may be regarded as a continuation of that which appeared in Volume 16, No. 1, page 47 of this Journal. The results are based on precisely the same premises and are shown in the graphs as five-year averages. The graphs are drawn somewhat differently but the scales adopted illustrate the trends rather more clearly. As they cover the period of the last assessment as well as the subsequent three years, it will save referring back if the premises are restated.
Visual Direction Indication for Ships
Authors: Wepster A.
Published: January 2010

Already many years ago Captain A. Vreugdenhil proposed the use of visual aids to supplement the sound signals used to indicate changes in heading. His idea of using visual aids was based on the erratic behaviour of sound and the consequent possibility of misinterpretation of sound signals.

Choosing between two possible systems, the directional illuminated arrow and, for example, flashing lights, he preferred and constructed an illuminated arrow, visible as such from a distance of approximately 1½—2 miles. He was against the use of synchronous flashing lights, pointing out the large difference in speed of propagation between sound and light signals and consequent possibility of errors when different sound signals are given in quick succession.
The Vinland Map
Authors: Skelton R. A.
Published: January 2010

The January issue of the Journal (pp. 124–5) contained a summary of Professor E. G. R. Taylor's views on the Vinland Map. To the courtesy of the Editor I owe the opportunity both to read this note in proof and to comment on it in the present issue. I have not seen Professor Taylor's complete study nor her drawings. She expressed some of her misgivings to me in correspondence after (in 1962) seeing a photocopy of the map and reading in typescript my study of the map, which is included in the recently published monograph.
Sight Reduction Tables for Marine Navigation
Authors: Blythe J. H. , Duncombe R. L. , Sadler D. H.
Published: January 2010

The purpose of this article is to describe the new tables, with the above title, which are shortly to be published by the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office as H.O. Pub. No. 229.

Historical Survey. The most comprehensive tables designed for the application of the intercept method of plotting position lines in the practice of astronomical navigation at sea are the well-known Tables of Computed Altitude and Azimuth, originally published in the years 1936–1945 as H.O. Pub. No. 214 by the U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office (as it was then called). These are by no means the earliest of such tables in concept and objective, for Lord Kelvin, generally considered the father of modern navigation methods, expressed interest in tables from which solutions could be extracted direct; he recognized, however, that the tabulation of 903 × 603 or 157,464,000,000 solutions, which would be required to avoid interpolation, was quite impracticable.
Inertial Navigation in Relation to Animal Navigation
Authors: Barlow John S.
Published: January 2010

The remarkably successful development in recent years of inertial navigation systems suggests a reconsideration in this light of the phenomenon of animal navigation, the physiological basis of which has not been fully established. Some of the aspects of inertial navigation which may be particularly relevant to possible biological analogues are considered. Aspects of animal navigation and orientation that are particularly suggestive of inertial navigation are also treated. The physiology of the biological sensory mechanisms that could form the sensing elements of the biological inertial systems are outlined. Some suggestions are advanced for further investigations.
‘The Mathematical Practitioners of Hanoverian England’
Authors: Cotter C. H.
Published: January 2010

The Imposing structure of modern science and technology is a triumph of man's endeavour, and the story of its development, at last being closely investigated by the scientific historian, is gradually being unfolded. It is largely with the flowering of the practical mathematical arts, out of which modern science and technology have sprung, and with special reference to the English scientists, technologists, practitioners and teachers who collectively made this possible, that Professor Taylor writes in her latest book The Mathematical Practitioners of Hanoverian England.
Longitude without Time
Authors: Evans J. J.
Published: January 2010

The problem of determining longitude without reference to a timepiece is one which even today commands the interest of a number of mathematicians, astronomers and navigators. Having recently undertaken a crossing of the Atlantic in a small boat, I was particularly interested in Mr. Chichester's article and Mr. Sadler's comments in the January edition of this Journal.

The use of the visible horizon as a reference point for measuring the lunar distance from a celestial body is described in some of the older books on Nautical Astronomy. One method consists of observing the altitudes of the Moon and second body on opposite sides of the meridian and thence computing their respective hour angles. The sum of their hour angles is then equivalent to the difference in right ascensions of the two bodies. With this information, the lunar distance can readily be found and compared with tabulated or calculated lunar distances for given instants of G.M.T. to obtain the G.M.T. of observation. Mr. Chichester's variation of the method is certainly ingenious, and the need to compare lunar distances is thereby dispensed with. I cannot, however, see any reason why intervals as large as one hour between plots should be necessary: the overall size of the plot could well be reduced to one-sixth of the size, without loss of accuracy, by using times say 5 min. on each side of the ‘guessed at’ G.M.T.
Collision Regulations and the Courts
Authors: George B. D. G.
Published: January 2010

The Rules for Navigation were established originally by custom and prudence some 400 years ago, but they were not presented in a codified form until 1863. Since then they have been modified several times, with the most recent modification becoming effective in September 1965.

The Rules apply to all British ships, together with those belonging to signatory countries of the International Conference on Safety of Life at Sea, 1960. They apply also to all ships navigating within British territorial waters, but, in areas governed by local rules, they serve to supplement not to override those local rules.
Loran C
Authors: Powell C. , Woods A. R.
Published: January 2010

The Loran C radio position-fixing system has been described in technical detail at international conferences and elsewhere. This paper tries to convey the general ‘feel’ of the system and its characteristics and to indicate, with as few irrelevancies as possible, what sort of process makes the two readout counters go round and give the navigator his position fix. The equipment to which the paper refers is the AN/SPN-31 marine Loran C receiver, which was designed and produced by Decca to a U.S. Bureau of Ships specification. Individual makes of Loran C set differ in various ways, but SPN-31 will serve for illustrative purposes.
Bad Language
Authors: Anderson E. W.
Published: January 2010

Summary

Examples have been given of certain words which seem to be used correctly by navigators where there is any chance of ambiguity. It is suggested that, if these and other terms can be formally denned and agreed by the Institutes of Navigation, bad language will gradually die out and confusion in navigation terminology will be reduced to a minimum. A similar exercise might also be undertaken with regard to abbreviations.

It may be that the British Institute of Navigation working with other English-speaking Institutes of Navigation could make a start by defining certain words in the hope that they will gradually come to be used with a specific meaning. The alternative is a continuation of the present chaos whereby an official body such as the Airlines Electronics Engineering Committee can decide that ‘course’ and ‘track’ have the same meaning and therefore that a direction is a line.

This note is published with the kind permission of Mr. K. Fearnside, Technical Director of Smiths Aviation Division, but is not intended to represent Company views. Mr. M. W. Richey's advice and help is gratefully acknowledged.
The Exponential Integral Frequency Distribution
Authors: Parker J. B.
Published: January 2010

In a recent note, D. A. Lloyd has obtained a formula for the frequency distribution of time dependent errors in terms of the exponential integral

This note clarifies Lloyd's derivations by referring to a theoretically identical, though conceptually different, time-independent, physical model, relates this distribution to one described by Anderson and concludes with a short appreciation of the role of the negative exponential distribution in navigational studies.
A Radar Display for Collision Avoidance
Authors: Clissold P. C. H.
Published: January 2010

It is, I believe, generally agreed that if the aspect of a ship could be seen on the radar screen from a range of 4 or 5 miles down, the information provided by the radar picture would be sufficient to prevent collisions from occurring. The aspect cannot be directly observed on an ordinary 3-cm. marine radar, but I think such a set could be modified in the following way to enable the aspect to be shown.
Marine Traffic Engineering
Authors: Toyoda Seiji , Fujii Yahei
Published: January 2010

Marine traffic engineering is defined as the study of marine traffic and the application of such studies to improvements in navigation facilities and traffic regulation. The authors review recent Japanese work in this field.

Since the mountainous terrain of Japan hindered the development of road transport, goods have mainly been sent by ship, from the earliest times until the end of the last century. The rapid economic recovery of Japan after the Second World War owes much to the industrial belt along the coast which may be called the ‘Water Megalopolis’, with more than 70 million inhabitants. Shipping provides the greater part of both interzonal and international transport and consequently there is severe traffic congestion, accentuated by the presence of more than 200,000 fishing vessels.
The Master in Changing Times
Authors: Buzek F. J. , Wepster A.
Published: January 2010

The collision, in October 1970 in the English Channel, between the Liberian registered tankers Pacific Glory and Allegro may be thought to have brought an element of timeliness to the arguments advanced in this paper in favour of an international disciplinary court of justice and international standards for certificates of competency.

Dr. Buzek is both a Master Mariner and a Doctor at Law; Captain Wepster, the Institute's gold medallist for 1970, is with the Holland America Line.

In a speech before the seventh meeting of the Cultural Council of Europe, Dr. Mansholt expressed the opinion that in our highly industrialized western world, the time has arrived when environment is of equal importance with economy. On a world-wide scale we need general agreements on acceptable noise levels and pollution, with binding rules for industry, transport and agriculture as well as international control on the observance of these rules.
Practical Manœuvres to Avoid Collision at Sea
Authors: Jones K. D.
Published: January 2010

The problem of avoiding collisions at sea, particularly in restricted visibility, is not likely to have one simple solution. Indeed there are three main areas which need separate consideration because of their different requirements. First, in rivers and estuaries, port approaches and narrow passages traffic is rigidly confined. Second, in waters adjacent to coastlines and in some other areas dense traffic has limited space in which to manœuvre. Third, in the open sea there are fewer encounters and unlimited manœuvring space. It seems probable that the best solution to the first of these problems will be found in shore surveillance of the traffic and regulation of the traffic flow by a licensed authority. Prescribed routes with perhaps speed limits and policing may solve the second, but only ratification of an internationally accepted rule of behaviour will satisfy the third requirement. This paper proposes to develop a set of manœuvres which may be applied as a rule which will be accepted as a possible solution to the third requirement.
The Costs and Benefits of Air Navigation and Control Systems
Authors: Heath J. B.
Published: January 2010

There is no doubt that the increasing size and speed of aircraft, and in particular the continuing growth in air traffic movements, pose unique problems for the development and use of efficient and safe methods of air navigation and control. The scientific, technological and operational difficulties involved are, of course, quite fundamental. This paper, however, is based on the propositions that such technological opportunities and regulatory systems as may be developed necessarily affect directly or indirectly the use of real resources; and insofar as these resources have a value in alternative uses, they incur costs on the community (as well as prospectively providing benefits). Situations involving economic choice, therefore, necessarily are involved. Air navigation and control systems are not immune from the general objective of achieving an efficient overall distribution of national resources.
Flight in Poor Visibility
Authors: Proctor J. D.
Published: January 2010

“Visual meteorological conditions” (v.m.c.) specifies a forward visibility of at least, say, 5 miles, horizontal distance from cloud of at least, say, 2000 ft., and vertical distance from cloud of at least, say, 500 ft. At any instant, therefore, the airspace may comprise (a) v.m.c. areas (or strictly speaking volumes), and (b) non-v.m.c. areas. The dividing lines (or strictly speaking surfaces) between them may be perceptible or their positions predictable by the aircrew or they may not. If they are neither perceptible nor predictable, then the aircrew cannot possibly ensure that their aircraft does not enter any non-v.m.c. area and it cannot possibly ensure compliance with instructions to ‘maintain v.m.c.’. Whether the aircraft is in a v.m.c. area or in a non-v.m.c. area may be perceptible by the aircrew or it may not. If it is perceptible and if the aircraft immediately reverses direction in a small space, then the aircrew will almost but not quite be able to ‘maintain v.m.c.’. In some cases very small infractions of non-v.m.c. areas may be permissible; in others, not.
Area Navigation and the Associated Display Methods
Authors: Karwath Karl E.
Published: January 2010

It seems appropriate first to define and explain the term Area Navigation that lately has almost become a slogan in discussions on short-range radio navigation aids. The term itself does not convey much because virtually any radio navigation system permits navigation in the area of coverage of the associated ground stations; for a systematic classification of navigation systems, the term Area Navigation (herein called ANAV) is unsatisfactory. It can be understood only in the context of air traffic control requirements. For a long while the requirements of short-range navigation systems were almost exclusively governed by the needs of air traffic control systems based on an airways concept. When during recent years A.T.C. methods became less associated with a fixed route structure, especially in the terminal area, the requirements to be met by a navigation system changed accordingly. There now appears to be a general trend for area navigation capability to become available as a substitute for a point-to-point navigation system.
Rhumb-line Failings
Authors: McKenzie J. S.
Published: January 2010

Turner has chosen in a recent paper to criticize Moss for inaccurate methods and observes that the inherent inconsistencies are ‘educationally objectionable’. However, he who criticizes must be prepared to be criticized in turn, and when a computer program of the standard evidenced in the printout of PROGRAM 2 is put forward as a general solution to the rhumb-line problem, and one which will enable the navigator to compute his tracks rapidly and accurately, we must needs examine it closely. Such an examination shows that, at the very least, the programmed solution offered is ‘computerizationally objectionable’.
The Control of Ships' Speed in Heavy Weather
Authors: Lewison G. R. G.
Published: January 2010

The description by Captain Evans and Captain Burger of the damage sustained by the MV. Geestport suggests that at the time of the impact it was night and that therefore it was difficult for the officers to suit the ship speed to the waves. In general a decrease of ship speed in given sea conditions will have little effect upon pitch motion, but vertical motion, or heave, will be lessened, and because of changed phase relationships, the relative vertical motion between ship bow and wave will be markedly reduced. The choice of a prudent speed for a particular situation at present depends upon the judgment of individual Masters. Some are too cautious, and waste time at sea, while others are too daring, so that their ship suffers damage. It should be possible to select a speed which cuts the risk of damage to a relatively small one while the minimum possible time is lost. A particular Master might be able to judge his speed well, but how can such wisdom be transmitted to others?
The Air Analogy at Sea
Authors: Van Hooff J. F. Drijfhout
Published: January 2010

The recent spate of collisions and groundings in the Dover Strait and its approaches lend some urgency to Admiral Van Hooff's paper in which he calls for the introduction of traffic information in regions at sea where the traffic may be controlled by local authority after the fashion of air traffic control. The author was until recently Director-General of Pilotage and Aids to Navigation in the Netherlands Ministry of Defence.

The number of voices that maintain that the conduct of ships about the sea, particularly when approaching ports or other focal areas, should be regimented in a similar way to aircraft when under Air Traffic Control, has been steadily on the increase.
Influence on Land and Airspace Demands of Control Techniques in Current Use
Authors: Reich P. G.
Published: January 2010

The main concern of this paper is with the limitations of techniques already commonly applied, and in the more promising points of application for new technology in navigation, surveillance and traffic control. In seeking the latter, some of the current trends in other fields, particularly aircraft design, are taken into account. Considerable emphasis is placed on the efficient use of land at airports, in view of the strength of feelings aroused in ‘the community’ by the questions of apportionment and exploitation of land resources.
Area Navigation
Authors: Robinson W. P.
Published: January 2010

The following discussion took place at an open meeting of the Technical Committee, held at the Royal Aeronautical Society in London on 20 January 1971 with Mr. H. E. Smith in the Chair, the introductory discussion paper being presented by Mr. W. P. Robinson, Senior Navigation Superintendent of B.O.A.C.

The interest in area navigation has been stimulated by the knowledge that in many areas of the world air traffic density is expected to exceed the capacity of the existing A.T.C. system in the foreseeable future. Nevertheless, it is important to realize that air traffic delays often result from a lack of airport capacity rather than deficiencies in the air traffic services. Airport capacity is a subject in itself; it is our task to examine how we can improve the present A.T.C. system by the use of area navigation.
Distance by Vertical Angle
Authors: Cotter Charles H.
Published: January 2010

Since the appearance of the note by Sayers in 1968, followed by the publication of the table by Thompson in 1969, and having myself described the method which was the subject of Sayers' and Thompson's communications, in a work on seamanship in 1962, I have searched for the origin of the method whereby an observer may find his distance off a ship or floating mark by means of a sextant observation of the vertical angle between the visible or sea horizon and the waterline of the ship or mark whose distance off is required.
A Note on Research Using Computers
Authors: Robinson C. A.
Published: January 2010

Lately there have been a number of articles and discussions in the Journal involving the use of computer programs to solve navigational problems. As one often involved in complex programming systems, I have some strong views on the subject. We are not an institution of programmers, and the few of us who have some programming knowledge, a very useful asset, are usually limited to one or possibly two languages. I would doubt if many people who could follow B. J. Moss's ALGOL could also follow R. J. Turner's FORTRAN. Thus it seems strange that authors should go to the trouble of publishing the routines by which they do their calculations. After all, most of us are only interested in the method of attack and the answers rather than computer techniques.
Sea Pilotage Today: I—Remote Pilotage
Authors: Van Hooff Drijfhout
Published: January 2010

The recent developments at the Gironde-estuary have aroused great interest and, particularly in ports where radar installations covering the approaches are in operation today, the question arises whether the adoption of some such scheme would be feasible and advantageous.

Considerable experience with shore—based radar assistance had been gained over the years, but so far information only has been supplied and never advice. It was reasoned that only the men on the spot—master and pilot on the bridge—can decide what is to be done; advice from the shore, given without proper knowledge of what goes on on board, has been looked upon as dangerous.
Sea Pilotage Today: II—The Problem of Super-Tankers
Authors: Janes F. V.
Published: January 2010

The problems posed by the ever increasing size of tankers are not those of ‘bigness’ alone, or even at all. Southampton has been accustomed to the world's largest ships since the turn of the century; such as instanced by the Aquitania of 43,000 tons gross of pre-1914, the Majestic, 53,000, Normandie, 73,000 and Queen Mary of 83,000 between the wars, and since, the Queen Elizabeth, 85,000 and more recently France, the longest ship in the world, at 1043 ft. All these ships, however, are quadruple screwed, and for that matter there is not a cargo or passenger ship of more than 14,000 tons gross coming to the port which is not at least twin-screw. It had always been supposed that there was a limit to the size of ship which could be safely manœuvred with a single screw in confined spaces. The advent of the single-screw mammoth tanker, turbine engined, has put a new angle on this problem, but pilots generally are not at all sure that this is in the best interests of safety.
The Alignment of Aircraft Navigation Sub-systems
Authors: Clifford P. H. R.
Published: January 2010

Much attention has been given in the past to the need for aligning navigational systems in the horizontal and the vertical planes. The alignment problem has, in the main, been that of aligning inertial navigators or gyro platforms, but the problem also affects all navigation and attack equipment.

In the past insufficient consideration has been given to the alignment of navigational sub-systems (including missile guidance systems) to the aircraft on which they are carried. The Experimental Navigation Division of the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment is investigating current methods of aligning equipments to aircraft with a view to improving them and recommending a future policy for the overall alignment of navigation and weapon systems, for service and civil aircraft.
The Attainment of Precision in Celestial Navigation
Authors: Gordon Robert B.
Published: January 2010

There are two approaches to the study of errors in astronomical observations at sea. One is to collect as much information as one can from practising navigators; the other, described here, is to carry out controlled experiments with the object of breaking down the variouscausesof error, a virtually impossible task if the first approach is adopted. In both cases a large mass of data must be carefully studied and analysed, and this is particularly important where one aims to resolve the errors into separate components (those due to dip uncertainties, horizon, body, degree of twilight, and sea state).
The Long-range Navigation of Civil Aircraft
Authors: Hampton D. E. , Mills J. R.
Published: January 2010

This paper, which was presented at an Ordinary Meeting of the Institute held in London on 15 November 1963, sets out to comment on certain aspects of the long-range navigation of civil aircraft. It concentrates on three areas where there seems to be room for improvement: reliability (a failure rate of 1 : 10 is suggested); the integration of navigation information into a single system and display; standardization of navigation facilities so that all aircraft can use the same basic system.

It is concluded that a reliable system is required down to ground level, an indication of reliability should be presented to the pilot, that high reliabilities can be obtained by comparison of ground-based and self-contained aids, that a navigation computer is necessary to reduce the information to a presentable form, and that the use of very low frequencies seems to be the most promising way of developing an aid along these lines.
Congestion in Terminal Areas
Authors: Ratcliffe S.
Published: January 2010

Terminal area A.T.C. must provide each aircraft with access to a network of different facilities. If these each treat their customers on a “first-come first-served” basis, congestion arises which could be avoided by more comprehensive planning. In a large busy terminal area it is at present necessary to decentralize the control process to avoid overloading the human controllers and it is then hard to avoid using “firstcome first-served”. This undesirable trend can be reversed if we hand over part of the decision-making process to an electronic computer.

This paper will be presented for discussion at the Eastbourne tripartite conference, 12–14 May.
Radar Displays
Authors: Glasgow J. A.
Published: January 2010

In a recent contribution to Forum by Commandant L. Oudet (Journal, 17, 88) the problem of the rational form that marine radar displays should take has been raised. The old argument of ‘ship's head upwards’ or ‘north upwards’ may be resolved by a combination of the best of both systems without compromise to either school of thought.

Before starting on how this may be achieved a short digression on terminology should not be out of place. The advantages in the use of a ‘north upwards’ display, i.e. true bearings, lack of smear, accurate plotting and the ability to add ‘true motion’ do not stem fundamentally from the fact that north is at the top but because the picture is ‘compass stabilized’. The ‘north up’ condition is purely a matter of convenience. The ‘north upwards’ display would be better termed ‘compass stabilized north upwards’.
Ministry of Transport Examinations
Authors: Stephenson G. E.
Published: January 2010

If the day is not far off when communication satellites will lessen a navigator's dependence on conventional astronomical aids it is surely overdue for the deletion of obsolescent and superfluous items from the M.O.T. syllabus for candidates.

Of the three ‘standard’ formulae for finding a position line from an altitude of a celestial body (ex observer's meridian) only one, Marcq St. Hilaire, is in general use at sea today. The other two, Longitude by Chronometer and Latitude by Ex-meridian, depend for survival on the patronage of the Ministry of Transport and the Nautical Schools.
Grid Navigation
Authors: Garbasz J.
Published: January 2010

The use of the Greenaway grid (curved) lines has enabled us to measure grid directions correctly on a Lambert chart (in middle latitudes). However, due to the fact that some charts are printed with only straight grid lines (such as the NAT 3071), a transport rate correction was devised which is supposed to combine both the correction for Earth rotation and the correction required because of the straight grid lines.

Whilst the idea is an interesting one, a basic mistake is introduced which leads to serious errors in grid direction measurement.
The Selection of Stars for Astronomical Navigation
Authors: Sadler D. H.
Published: January 2010

Nature has provided few bright stars and these are unevenly distributed in the sky. Even for air navigation it is necessary to use stars fainter than the first magnitude. There is then a choice which rapidly widens as the limiting magnitude is decreased. Brightness is not the sole criterion; distributipn is also of importance. In choosing a number of stars for use in astronomical navigation, no two people can be expected to give precisely the same weight to small variations of brightness and distribution; there thus arise different selections for similar purposes. The navigator, however, expects that the star he knows and observes will be catered for in such lists; he cannot be expected to remember that a particular star (no fainter and perhaps even brighter than neighbouring stars) is in one list but not in others. Any rule which seeks to include all stars brighter than a given limiting magnitude results in too long a list and an uneven distribution. There is thus a strong case for the selection of a list of stars, to which permanent names and numbers can be attached, which can be used for all purposes of astronomical navigation.
Bitopological duality for distributive lattices and Heyting algebras
Authors: BEZHANISHVILI GURAM , BEZHANISHVILI NICK , GABELAIA DAVID , KURZ ALEXANDER
Published: January 2010

We introduce pairwise Stone spaces as a bitopological generalisation of Stone spaces – the duals of Boolean algebras – and show that they are exactly the bitopological duals of bounded distributive lattices. The categoryPStoneof pairwise Stone spaces is isomorphic to the categorySpecof spectral spaces and to the categoryPriesof Priestley spaces. In fact, the isomorphism ofSpecandPriesis most naturally seen throughPStoneby first establishing thatPriesis isomorphic toPStone, and then showing thatPStoneis isomorphic toSpec. We provide the bitopological and spectral descriptions of many algebraic concepts important in the study of distributive lattices. We also give new bitopological and spectral dualities for Heyting algebras, thereby providing two new alternatives to Esakia's duality.
Three-Dimensional Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy of Biological Specimens
Authors: de Jonge Niels , Sougrat Rachid , Northan Brian M. , Pennycook Stephen J.
Published: January 2010

A three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction of the cytoskeleton and a clathrin-coated pit in mammalian cells has been achieved from a focal-series of images recorded in an aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM). The specimen was a metallic replica of the biological structure comprising Pt nanoparticles 2–3 nm in diameter, with a high stability under electron beam radiation. The 3D dataset was processed by an automated deconvolution procedure. The lateral resolution was 1.1 nm, set by pixel size. Particles differing by only 10 nm in vertical position were identified as separate objects with greater than 20% dip in contrast between them. We refer to this value as the axial resolution of the deconvolution or reconstruction, the ability to recognize two objects, which were unresolved in the original dataset. The resolution of the reconstruction is comparable to that achieved by tilt-series transmission electron microscopy. However, the focal-series method does not require mechanical tilting and is therefore much faster. 3D STEM images were also recorded of the Golgi ribbon in conventional thin sections containing 3T3 cells with a comparable axial resolution in the deconvolved dataset.
Cryomesh™: A New Substrate for Cryo-Electron Microscopy
Authors: Yoshioka Craig , Carragher Bridget , Potter Clinton S.
Published: January 2010

Here we evaluate a new grid substrate developed by ProtoChips Inc. (Raleigh, NC) for cryo-transmission electron microscopy. The new grids are fabricated from doped silicon carbide using processes adapted from the semiconductor industry. A major motivating purpose in the development of these grids was to increase the low-temperature conductivity of the substrate, a characteristic that is thought to affect the appearance of beam-induced movement (BIM) in transmission electron microscope (TEM) images of biological specimens. BIM degrades the quality of data and is especially severe when frozen biological specimens are tilted in the microscope. Our results show that this new substrate does indeed have a significant impact on reducing the appearance and severity of beam-induced movement in TEM images of tilted cryo-preserved samples. Furthermore, while we have not been able to ascertain the exact causes underlying the BIM phenomenon, we have evidence that the rigidity and flatness of these grids may play a major role in its reduction. This improvement in the reliability of imaging at tilt has a significant impact on using data collection methods such as random conical tilt or orthogonal tilt reconstruction with cryo-preserved samples. Reduction in BIM also has the potential for improving the resolution of three-dimensional cryo-reconstructions in general.
Efficient local unfolding with ancestor stacks
Authors: PUEBLA GERMÁN , ALBERT ELVIRA , HERMENEGILDO MANUEL
Published: January 2010

The most successful unfolding rules used nowadays in the partial evaluation of logic programs are based on well quasi orders (wqo) applied over (covering) ancestors, i.e., a subsequence of the atoms selected during a derivation. Ancestor (sub)sequences are used to increase the specialization power of unfolding while still guaranteeing termination and also to reduce the number of atoms for which the wqo has to be checked. Unfortunately, maintaining the structure of the ancestor relation during unfolding introduces significant overhead. We propose an efficient, practical local unfolding rule based on the notion of covering ancestors which can be used in combination with a wqo and allows a stack-based implementation without losing any opportunities for specialization. Using our technique, certain nonleftmost unfoldings are allowed as long as local unfolding is performed, i.e., we cover depth-first strategies. To deal with practical programs, we propose assertion-based techniques which allow our approach to treat programs that include (Prolog) built-ins and external predicates in a very extensible manner, for the case of leftmost unfolding. Finally, we report on our implementation of these techniques embedded in a practical partial evaluator, which shows that our techniques, in addition to dealing with practical programs, are also significantly more efficient in time and somewhat more efficient in memory than traditional tree-based implementations.
Defending Sovereign Statehood Against Transforming the Union Into a State
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: January 2010

German Constitutional Court decision of 30 June 2009 on the compatibility of the Lisbon Treaty with the German Constitution – Overview of earlier case-law – Analysis of the judgment – Comparison with earlier case-law – The Court's reference to sovereignty – The concept of democratic legitimacy – Participation of the German Parliament – Transformation of the EU into a state – Creeping evisceration of state legislative authority – Assessment of the judgment
The Franco-German Constitutional Divide
Authors: Reestman Jan-Herman
Published: January 2010

German Constitutional Court decision of 30 June 2009 on the compatibility of the Lisbon Treaty with the German Constitution – ‘Identity’ key word of the Lissabon-Urteil – The national identity clause in the current Union Treaty – Nation: people and state; diachronic and synchronic identity – Constitutional patriotism – The national identity clause in the Lisbon Union Treaty – Volksidentität and state identity – Verfassungsidentität: diachronic identity – Identité constitutionnelle de la France: synchronic identity – confidence and diffidence in the Union
Constitutional History: Chance or Grand Design?
Authors: van Caenegem R.C.
Published: January 2010

Two interpretations of constitutional history: product of chance or of design – Written v. unwritten constitutions – Political and historical backdrop of constitutional development – Evolution of interpretation of specific constitutional texts – Chances of a global constitution
Montesquieu, Methodological Pluralism and Comparative Constitutional Law
Authors: Zucca Lorenzo
Published: January 2010

Montesquieu's lessons for modern comparative constitutional law – The Spirit of the Laws – The textual bias of normative constitutionalism – The utility of other disciplines to comparative constitutional law – Constitutions as more than mere texts
Embedded and open star clusters: basic questions
Authors: Zinnecker Hans
Published: January 2010

This paper provides an introduction to IAU Symposium 266 on star clusters as basic building blocks in space and time. We define clusters as bound systems and discriminate them from general stellar clusterings or groups and unbound associations. We give a few examples of young, embedded, compact clusters which may evolve into looser, open clusters after dynamical relaxation due to mass loss and secular relaxation processes. We ask how and where star clusters form (in normal and interacting galaxies) and provide statistics of open clusters in terms of cluster masses and ages in the solar neighborhood (where observational data are most complete). Finally, we list a number of basic questions for current and future star cluster research and discuss the prospects for cluster studies with the next generation infrared and submillimeter telescopes (Herschel; JWST, E–ELT; ALMA, NOEMA).
Physics and modes of star cluster formation
Authors: Bate Matthew R.
Published: January 2010

I review the progress made in understanding the physics and modes of star cluster formation through the use of direct self-gravitating hydrodynamical simulations, including those that have recently been performed incorporating radiative transfer and magnetic fields.