bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cooperation in fishes
Authors: Dugatkin Lee Alan
Published: November 2023

Every so often behavioral ecologists need to remind themselves that there are over 22,000 species of teleost fishes alone (Pitcher, 1986)—more than all other vertebrates combined! Many of these species take well to the laboratory, where they reproduce quickly and proficiently. It should therefore come as no surprise that some of the best-controlled studies in optimal foraging theory, sexual selection, sexual allocation, parental care, and, yes, cooperative behavior have been undertaken using fishes (see Pitcher, 1986; Godin, 1996). That being said, it may seem strange that fish are so commonly used for research on cooperation. After all, fishes are “lower” vertebrates and were thought by many, therefore, to have a relatively simple behavioral repertoire. Evidence, however, shows this view to be manifestly false (Dugatkin and Wilson, 1993; Dugatkin and Sih, 1995) and indicates that some teleost species contain a rich repertoire of complex social behaviors, many of which appear to be very labile. In this chapter, I will examine cooperation in teleost fishes in the context of egg trading, helpers-at-the nest, “cleaning” behavior, cannibalism, foraging, alarm substances, mobbing behavior, and predator inspection and try, whenever possible, to place these studies within the framework of the cooperator’s dilemma.
Cooperation in birds
Authors: Dugatkin Lee Alan
Published: November 2023

Ornithologists, perhaps more than any other “ologists” in biology, are likely to have found their calling early in life, and all seem to have a picture of themselves at age three, with birding binoculars in hand. As such, it should not be surprising that the literature on social behavior in birds is large indeed. In this chapter, I will discuss a number of different types of avian cooperative behavior and, as always, tie it back to theory, whenever possible. In particular we will look at cooperation in the context of territoriality, hunting, food sharing, alarm calls, and mobbing.
Introduction
Authors: Philips Michael
Published: November 2023

Since the end of World War II, much moral philosophy has been driven by the question, “What can be said in condemnation of Nazis and other moral monsters that is not merely an expression of personal preference?” Many contributors to this discussion have accepted some thing like the following stark assumption: either there is some set of moral standards binding on human beings (or rational agents) as such, or there is no rationally defensible objection to the behavior of Adolf Hitler, Pol Pot, and their like. Here the term “morality” is typically used as if it were the name of this set of universal standards (rather than a general term). Society, conscience, or religion may demand one thing. Morality may demand another. Unfortunately, all attempts to defend descriptions of these standards have faced formidable obstacles. So much so that many hearty souls—trusting philosophical argument more than their own deepest prereflective convictions—have abandoned the effort and declared the objective chimerical. Given the stark assumption, their skepticism amounts to the view that there is no more rational justification for opposing murder, torture, theft, or betrayal than there is for preferring the taste of chocolate to that of vanilla. But few are happy with this conclusion, and no one (to my knowledge) acts as if his own moral convictions were mere matters of taste.1
Intuitionism and Wide Reflective Equilibrium
Authors: Philips Michael
Published: November 2023

Universalism holds that there is a set of ranked or weighted moral standards binding on rational agents as such that is sufficient for the moral life. Agreement on rankings is essential. After all, the universalist believes that there is one morality. But if we agree that killing and promise breaking are wrong, and you believe that it is worse to break a promise, but I believe it is worse to kill, there is an important moral difference between us. To the extent that we disagree on rank ings and weighings, we will disagree about judgments in particular cases; and clearly, to the extent that we disagree about cases for that reason, we have different moral outlooks or subscribe to different moralities. In the limiting case, we might agree on all the same standards but so disagree on weights that we disagree in every case in which considerations conflict, that is, in almost every case. In this case, it is ridiculous to say that we hold the same morality. We simply believe that the same kinds of considerations are morally relevant. The universalist wants more. Roughly, she wants a morality binding on rational beings that produces uniform agreement on decidable cases.1 This requires that rational beings accept the same standards and rank or weigh them in roughly the same way.
Reason, Persons, and Contracts
Authors: Philips Michael
Published: November 2023

If we can’t arrive at universal standards by appealing to intuitions, perhaps some other method will do.’ Iwo alternatives now have considerable support: respect for persons and contractarianism. The first attempts to derive moral standards from the nature of persons. The second attempts to derive them by considering what rational agents would agree to under certain bargaining conditions. Sometimes these methods are fused. Thus, for example, Rawls and certain other contractarians design the contract situation on the basis of theories about the nature of persons, and the results are supposed to express what it is to respect persons (or treat persons as persons). Often, however, they are each presented independently of the other, and it is best to begin by considering them as such. I will begin with respect for persons. The question is, how far can this take us down the road to a universal morality?
Ethics as Social Artifact
Authors: Philips Michael
Published: November 2023

According to universalism, the purpose of moral inquiry is to discover universal moral standards, that is, the contents of a super code. Advocates of this view admit that consensus on results is difficult to reach: the path is littered with bad arguments, conceptual confusions, false empirical beliefs, and partisan distortions. But, they claim, there is a truth of the matter and our methods are capable of discovering it.
Goods and Evils
Authors: Philips Michael
Published: November 2023

In chapter 5 I argued that we can make many effective criticisms of moral standards without appealing to an abstract theory of the good. But I also acknowledged that our evaluation of some criticisms will depend on our choice between competing packages of goods and evils (or, more accurately, a/distributions of them). In at least some cases these choices will be controversial, and to discover the degree to which these controversies are subject to reason we need an abstract theory of the good. This chapter develops such a theory and explores its implications for evaluating moral standards. It concludes with an illustration of the power of ESA at the domain level by showing how that approach enables us to think systematically about business ethics.
Ethics and Agents
Authors: Philips Michael
Published: November 2023

ESA is a theory about how to evaluate moral standards. It tells us how to decide whether prevailing moral standards are justified. And, if they are not justified, it tells us how to evaluate proposed revisions or substitutions. But it remains unclear at this point what ESA entails for individuals. More specifically, we want to know (1) what does morality require of me? and (2) how ought I to judge the actions (and character) of others?
Vaudeville Days
Authors: Robinson Ray
Published: November 2023

The New York Times described him as being “ridiculous as an actor,” while the Chicago Tribune wrote that nothing ever seen before on the boards was as awful as his emoting.
The Celluloid Coast
Authors: Robinson Ray
Published: November 2023

After his arrival, he worked for three dollars a day as a glove cutter in a small upstate New York town. But he had made up his mind that gloves would not be his future. In 1913, in an almost incomprehensible metamor­phosis, he allied himself with his brother-in-law, Jesse L. Lasky; and with a former actor, Cecil B. DeMille, to form a motion-picture company. The three men set up shop in an abandoned barn in Hollywood, California, where the sun never failed to shine.
Symbiosis: Evolution in Action
Authors: Sapp Jan
Published: November 2023

Lichenologists of the late nineteenth century frequently told stories of how lichens perhaps more than any other groups of plants had been neglected by previous generations of botanists, how the few who did study them did so on the side and subjected them to great abuse through their careless study.2 The reasons for this, it was argued, were not hard to find. These plants possessed few qualities to make them conspicuous; as a rule, they are neither striking in color, size, or form, nor do they possess marked useful or harmful properties. Some lichens had been claimed to be useful in the arts and medicine. During the wars of 1812 and 1815 fevers of all sorts were prevalent in military hospitals. Quinine, which was the popular remedy, became scarce because of the enormous quantities consumed and because of the commercial blockade of Europe. The Austrian government therefore offered a prize of five hundred ducats for the discovery of a cheap, readily available substitute for quinine. The prize was won when lichen was proposed as a substitute, but it was soon found that the medicinal properties of lichen were unsatisfactory and the remedy was abandoned by physicians. Nonetheless, the peasantry of various countries still believe in the healing properties of various lichens. In Sweden Peltigera aphthosa was boiled in milk and given to children afflicted with “thrush.” Decoctions of various lichens were employed for intermittent fevers. Sir John Franklin and his companions made use of this lichen during their arctic voyages, and its use to prevent the disease known as “Iceland scurvy” continued during the nineteenth century.
The Pasteurization of Les Symbiotes
Authors: Sapp Jan
Published: November 2023

As soon as it appeared, Dr. Portier’s book excited impassioned critiques. For some it was a work that was destined to revolutionize biology, for others it was work made from hastily constructed hypotheses and from experiments which left room for discussion. Admirers and detractors are in agreement, however, in saying that it is rare to find, in a scientific book, originality and boldness of views uniting themselves in a way more favourable to clarity of exposition and seduction of style.
Child Survival
Authors: Sommer Alfred , West Keith P
Published: November 2023

Where it is the limiting nutrient, vitamin A deficiency causes anemia, growth retardation and xerophthalmia; increases the incidence and/or severity of infectious episodes; and reduces childhood survival. Reduced survival is the most severe and potentially the most widespread consequence of vitamin A deficiency, and the one that has generated the most interest recently. The international Child Survival Initiative, a program directed at reducing the 14 million childhood deaths each year, has helped focus attention on mortality. Improvement in vitamin A status is now viewed as one of the most cost-effective measures to achieve the Initiative’s goal, joining immunization, breast-feeding and related strategies.

Vitamin A-deficient animals die much earlier and at a far higher rate than vitamin-A sufficient controls. Under experimental conditions of gradual, progressive deficiency, mortality begins to take its toll even before the appearance of xerophthalmia (Fig. 2-1 ). Indeed, one of the problems in creating an experimental animal model to study xerophthalmia has been keeping such animals alive long enough to develop ocular changes.
Xerophthalmia and Keratomalacia
Authors: Sommer Alfred , West Keith P
Published: November 2023

Xerophthalmia (xeros, dry; ophthalmia, inflamed eye) is a constellation of ocular manifestations long associated with vitamin A deficiency, representing the “classical” presentation and (with rare exceptions) pathognomonic signs and symptoms of this particular form of malnutrition. In some ways, xerophthalmia has been too closely associated with vitamin A deficiency:

• while xerophthalmia is the leading cause of acquired pediatric blindness in the world, responsible for 5 million–10 million cases of milder ocular disease (XN-X2) every year, it is sufficiently infrequent on a population-wide basis that health officials have often overlooked its existence and therefore have been misled into assuming that vitamin A deficiency was absent or not a significant health problem.
Anemia and Iron Metabolism
Authors: Sommer Alfred , West Keith P
Published: November 2023

Anemia has long been recognized as a potential consequence of vitamin A deficiency. Soon after the discovery of vitamin A, Bloch noted that Danish orphans with xerophthalmia were “weak and thin, markedly anemic.” Wolbach and Howe noticed loss of stem cells in the marrow of vitamin A-deficient rats; with advanced deficiency they found an even more striking void of hematopoietic and lymphoid cells, accompanied by heavy hemosiderin deposits in the spleen. Hematopoietic disturbances characterized by a fall in hemoglobin (Hb) and pallor of red blood cells preceded eye signs and inanition in vitamin A-deficient rats. Koessler was convinced that “blood regeneration” could not take place without vitamin A, and he prescribed a vitamin A and carotenoid-rich diet for anemia. Berglund described a form of anemia in China that he thought was secondary to vitamin A deficiency and that responded to cod liver oil. Blackfan and Wolbach observed sequestered iron deposits (as hemosiderin) in the liver or spleen of almost all malnourished infants who had died with histopathologic evidence of vitamin A deficiency.
Growth
Authors: Sommer Alfred , West Keith P
Published: November 2023

Mammalian growth requires vitamin A. A mixed diet apparently satisfactory in energy and all other nutrients will not sustain growth, vigor, or life in a young animal without a minimum amount of vitamin A. This discovery, made eighty years ago by McCollum and Davis and almost concurrently by Osborne and Mendell, provoked an enduring interest in the nature, timing and sequence, mechanisms, conditioning factors, and consequences of vitamin A deficiency. As a result, the growth response to changes in vitamin A nutriture has been reliably established in several animal models. Inevitably, this has proven difficult to study in children due to the numerous influences on their growth that are difficult to control.

The basic growth response to vitamin A in well-controlled animal experiments provides insight into this relationship in children. More important, it also establishes approximate thresholds at which vitamin A deficiency may restrict child growth, other factors remaining stable.
Biochemistry of Vitamin A and Carotenoids
Authors: Sommer Alfred , West Keith P
Published: November 2023

Our understanding of the biochemistry of vision developed much more rapidly than that of cellular differentiation. Since the identification in 1987 of nuclear receptors for retinoic acid that induce gene expression, however, we have been rapidly gaining insight into the nature of the latter process. Our past and present knowledge about vitamin A and carotenoids has been summarized elsewhere.

Nature, insofar as possible, protects us from the ill effects of both inadequate and excessive intakes of the vitamin. The physiological and biochemical processes underlying this protection are described in this chapter.

Vitamin A and more than 600 carotenoids have been crystallized and fully characterized by a variety of chemical and physical methods. Furthermore, vitamin A and many of its analogs, as well as selected carotenoids, have been synthesized chemically from simple, readily available precursors. Mainly because of the structure of conjugated double bonds that are characteristic of both vitamin A and carotenoids, these substances are sensitive to oxidation.
The Relationship between lmmunocompetence and Vitamin A Status
Authors: Sommer Alfred , West Keith P
Published: November 2023

A role for vitamin A in maintaining the structure and function of the immune system was recognized in very general terms as early as the 1920s. Based on a comprehensive light-microscopic study of vitamin A-deficient rats, Wolbach and Howe1 concluded that deficiency is associated with marked morphological alterations in the epithelia of numerous organs (e.g., the trachea and cornea). The tissues of vitamin A-deficient rats showed abnormal keratinization in place of the normal mucus-secreting phenotype, and abnormal flattening (squamous metaplasia) in place of the normal columnar or cuboidal form. In the lymphoid organs, thymic atrophy was observed with advanced vitamin A deficiency, and cellular changes indicative of accumulation of debris were described in the lymph nodes. Wolbach and Howe commented that these epithelial changes occurred quite apart from evidence of infection. A few years later, Green and Mellanby reported that vitamin A-deficient rats often died with histopathologic evidence of infection, in contrast to their well-nourished counterparts. From a study of morbidity and mortality in rats infected with a specific pathogen (paratyphoid bacillus), Lassen concluded that both vitamin A-deficient and control rats became infected, but that few of the vitamin A-deficient rats recovered from their infection.
The Genetic Epidemiology of Alcoholism1-33
Authors: Hesselbrock Victor M
Published: November 2023

Genetic epidemiology is a relatively new discipline that seeks to unravel the sources of family resemblance. It focuses on the etiology, distribution, and control of diseases in biologically related individuals and on the inherited causes of diseases in populations. Both biological and cultural inheritance are subsumed under the rubric of “inherited.” Cultural inheritance is defined to include any social, behavioral, nutritional, or other factor that is nonrandomly distributed among families. Further, the set of relatives investigated may be as closely related as twins or as extended in relationship as a particular ethnic group (Morton, 1982). As such, genetic epidemiology provides a strong theoretical and methodological background for the study of the genetic basis of alcoholism, including the transmission of alcohol-related problems from affected parents to their offspring.
Genetic Determinants of Alcoholic Subtypes
Authors: Hesselbrock Michie N
Published: November 2023

It is generally accepted that not all alcoholics are alike. Alcoholics are heterogeneous in terms of the etiology of their disorder, their demographic characteristics, alcohol use patterns and history, presence of comorbid psychiatric disorders, and patterns of other substance use. Different family backgrounds, different rearing environments, and a variety of biological, social, and psychiatric problems are also associated with chronic alcohol use. These factors may influence treatment-seeking behavior, treatment outcomes, and the life course of alcoholism. Over the years researchers and clinicians have sought ways to describe and synthesize the wide range of behavior patterns and the variety of problems resulting from alcohol abuse in a systematic and structured manner.
The Hero-King
Authors: Walker Henry J
Published: November 2023

A considerable portion of the myth of Theseus is devoted to his image as a youth on the verge of manhood, someone who has yet to prove himself as a hero, but the death of his father makes him the king of Athens. As a young ephebe, he is ipso facto a marginal figure, but even when he is presented as a mature hero, Athenian myth must come to terms with the in congruity of having a king in a polis, especially in the eternally democratic polis of Athens. Even as an adult hero, he is still an anomalous figure who can only with considerable difficulty be integrated into the world of the polis.
The Democratic Ruler
Authors: Walker Henry J
Published: November 2023

In his work, The Republic, Cicero tells how Cato often used to compare the constitution of Rome with those of the Greek states. Cato would criticize the latter because they were created at one moment in time by a single legislator, whereas the Roman constitution developed little by little through the ages, and it grew like an organic being while remaining always the same. Both the Athenian constitution is the worst of all. The others may be a bit simplistic, being the work of one man, but Athens has had dozens of constitutions so that it is practically impossible to name all the legislators who were involved in it.
The Aging Gut
Authors: Janowitz Henry D
Published: November 2023

In the United States, the 65 and over age group is the fastest growing sector of the population and currently numbers about 30 million. According to careful population projections, by the year 2050 one out of every eight of us will be 75 years or older. What effect does the normal aging process have on our gastrointestinal tract? As we age, many of us lose weight despite a good appetite, a good diet, and the absence of any obvious diseases of the intestine or other parts of the body. Part of this is because the intestine does not function as effectively as it did in earlier years, and we consequently absorb less of our intestinal contents. The long list of substances that the body may no longer absorb as well as it once did includes vitamin Bl and B12, vitamin D, vitamin A and its precursor substance beta-carotene, and folic acid (the vitamin needed to build red blood cells and hemoglobin).
The Abdominal Pain Without a Name
Authors: Janowitz Henry D
Published: November 2023

There are, unfortunately, instances in which someone complains of a chronic abdominal pain for which no cause is found, even after a prolonged serious search is made. Not only the pain, but the fact that our doctors cannot give us a diagnostic label for the cause, increases our anxiety. Fortunately, these cases are uncommon, but not so rare as to be unusual. Sometimes the cause of the original problem clears up but the pain persists. Other times, all disease has been removed by abdominal surgery, yet pain persists. It is like the pain of a “phantom limb”: the limb is gone but the pain persists. Sufferers go from doctor to doctor and submit to endless repetition of uninformative tests seeking relief. The pain without a name is no joke.
Introduction
Authors: Cobb James C
Published: November 2023

When We Sang “Dixie” in assembly at my elementary school in the early 1950s, I always wondered why we were saying “away down South” when we were already in Georgia, about as “down South” as you could get. I would have been really confused, I’m sure, had I known then that this song, which a bunch of southern white kids were belting out with such fervor, was supposedly written by an Ohioan of Irish descent and first performed in blackface on Broadway in 1859. Only years later would I understand that the initial popularity of “Dixie” among New Yorkers had reflected an already well-established tendency among northern whites to see the South as a primitive and exotic land distinctly apart from the rest of America. The subsequent metamorphosis of this otherwise unremarkable little minstrel ditty into the favorite marching anthem, first of fire-eating secessionists and then of fire-breathing segregationists, testified as well to the readiness of white southerners to embrace and defend even the most controversial aspects of their region’s distinctiveness.
Cavalier and Yankee: The origins of southern “otherness”
Authors: Cobb James C
Published: November 2023

Like All Questions Of Identity, the point at which “southern” began to convey sociocultural as well as geographic distinctions is largely a matter of perception. Initially, the American colonies were most likely to be divided between the “eastern” colonies of New England and the”southern” ones, which included the remainder stretching from New York all the way down to Georgia. Gradually, however, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware became the “middle” colonies, leaving “southern” to apply only to Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia.
The Southern Renaissance and the Revolt against the New South Creed
Authors: Cobb James C
Published: November 2023

Daniel J. Singal has pointed to the pervasive influence of the New South Creed and its role in retarding the growth of intellectual modernism in the region. Because it was grounded so firmly and rigidly in a carefully constructed historical narrative, the weight of New South orthodoxy fell heavily on an emerging cadre of southern historians who faced especially strong pressure to fit their version of the region’s past within the framework of the New South identity. To question the New South Creed’s historical tenets “at any point,” C. Vann Woodward explained, “was not only to make judgments about history, but to pass judgment on the legitimacy of the social order sustained by the assumptions questioned.” Consequently, the early postbellum generations of southern historians were expected to occupy themselves with “vindicating, justifying, rationalizing, and often celebrating the present order;’ and as the outspoken John Spencer Basset pointed out in 1897, anyone who failed to do so faced “denunciation as a traitor and a mercenary defiler of his birthplace.”
The Mind of the South
Authors: Cobb James C
Published: November 2023

The Literary And Scholarly Participants in the Southern Renaissance were not alone in their struggle to understand the relationship between past and present in a society that seemed to be hurtling irreversibly toward a showdown with the forces of change. As the region struggled to rise from the depths of the Great Depression only to teeter on the brink of World War II, other southerners poured out thoughtful and yet intensely personal, emotionally freighted impressions of the South as it had been, as it was now, and as they hoped or feared it might become.
Blackness and Southernness: African Americans Look South Toward Home
Authors: Cobb James C
Published: November 2023

Twenty-Seven Years After Her Arrival as one of the first two black students at the University of Georgia had helped trigger a riot, Charlayne Hunter-Gault came back to address the graduating class of 1988. Though not nearly so dramatic as her first appearance on campus, her return on this occasion was in some ways no less significant. She was speaking at commencement, but her remarks would have been equally appropriate for homecoming. Hunter-Gault established this theme at the outset, noting in language that contrasted starkly with the hateful rhetoric-”Two, four, six, eight, We don’t want to integrate, Eight, six four, two, We don’t want no jigaboo”-that had greeted her on her initial visit to the campus, that it was “good to be back home again. In a place that I have always thought of as’our place.”‘ If, on the one hand, Hunter-Gault’s remarks were remarkably gracious and even conciliatory, they were also noteworthy in the matter-of-factness with which she assured her mostly southern white listeners that the South was her home, too.
Divided By A Common Past: History And Identity: History And Identity In The Contemporary South
Authors: Cobb James C
Published: November 2023

By The End Of The Twentieth Century, a common desire among both blacks and whites to reclaim their sense of regional identity seemed to have the potential to further racial reconciliation in the South. W. J. Cash had argued, “Negro entered into white man as profoundly as white man entered into Negro” in the South, and Ralph Ellison put it more succinctly when he insisted, shortly before his death in 1994, that “you can’t be Southern without being black and you can’t be a black Southerner without being white.” Charlayne Hunter-Gault assured her largely white audience at the University of Georgia in 1988 that the South was the nation’s only “true melting pot;’ insisting that regardless of race, southerners were “sui generis in the way we talk, our preference for fried food, and, above all, our manifest humility as we fulfill our hopes and dreams.” ‘‘As we shared our destiny,” she added, perhaps a bit wishfully, “we came to know each other in new aspects, and I believe we came to acknowledge and respect both each other’s abilities and each other’s ways of life.”
Nice Work: Thoughts and Observations on Gershwin’s Last Songs
Authors: Gilbert Steven E
Published: November 2023

In the two years between the premiere of Porgy and Bess and the end of his life, George Gershwin returned to writing songs. With one exception“By Strauss,” the sole Gershwin contribution to the 1936 revue The Show Is On, whose skillful and subtle parody of nineteenth-century cliche gives lie to canards about what Gershwin did not know-these songs were written for films: Shall We Dance and A Damsel in Distress (both 1937 and both starring Fred Astaire), and The Goldwyn Follies (1938). Posthumous scores for The Shocking Miss Pilgrim (1946) and Kiss Me, Stupid (1964) were assembled by Ira Gershwin and, in the first of these, Kay Swift from previously written songs and sketches.
The Medical Mandarins
Authors: Weisz George
Published: November 2023

This wide-ranging and imaginative book examines the social and scientific role of the French Academy of Medicine from its creation in 1820 to the outbreak of the Second World War. The first chapters focus on the institution and its activities, including the evaluation of medical innovations and the cultivation of professional memory through eulogies and institutional art. Weisz argues that the Academy was gradually transformed from a low-status public institution that was central to French medical science in the nineteenth century to an “establishment” institution largely irrelevant to medical science but playing a key role in public health policy. The second half of the book uses the activities and literary productions of the Academy to explore broader issues of medical history. The Academy’s role in the regulation and scientific study of mineral waters illuminates processes of discipline formation in medical science and explores the therapeutic specificity of French medicine. Academic debates are used to investigate the appropriation of new research techniques like animal experimentation and quantification in therapeutic reasoning. Academic eulogies provide a starting point for the evolving medical and scientific reputation of Laennec, the inventor of ausculation, Using techniques of prosopography applied to the membership of the Academy, Weisz goes on to analyze the role of the Parisian medical elite in French medicine and its social place within the French bourgeoisie. His concluding chapter examines the emerging self-images of this Parisian elite in academic eulogies.
Academic Debate and Therapeutic Reasoning in the Mid-Nineteenth Century
Authors: Weisz George
Published: November 2023

Having examined academic debates as a scientific genre (Chapter 3), I go on in this chapter to analyze a number of therapeutic debates that occupied the Academy of Medicine in the mid-nineteenth century. By concentrating on this “golden age” of academic debate, I hope to cast some light on three aspects of medicine in nineteenth century France. First, I am interested in the nature of therapeutic reasoning, a task which remains complex and messy in our own day. Second, I will be particularly concerned with the ways in which members of the Parisian medical elite, in the multi disciplinary setting of the academy, succeeded or failed in reaching consensus about scientific “facts” at a time when medical science was undergoing what can be de scribed only as a medical revolution. Finally, I am interested in the influence that the Parisian medical elite, and the Academy of Medicine in particular, wielded over French medical science.
Ethical Theory and Medical Ethics
Authors: Freeman John M , Mcdonnell Kevin
Published: November 2023

In both popular and professional language, the terms moral and ethical are used in several senses. Public officials are sometimes guilty of “unethical” behavior, while people who violate a law dealing with sexual activity are arrested on “morals” charges. College courses on ethics are often taught by moral philosophers. Although moral is sometimes used as a word of praise, as in “She is a very moral person,” on other occasions it has a wider and more neutral meaning, as in “Euthanasia is a moral issue.”
1919–1920
Authors: Bordman Gerald
Published: November 2023

The armistice was less than a year old when the next season began. The nation as a whole was looking forward to a period of peace and prosperity. But not everything was rosy. President Wilson, strenuously fighting for a League of Nations to maintain world stability, suffered a stroke-details of which were withheld from the public. But his partisan opponents in Congress, more aware of the seriousness of his illness, seized on it to scuttle America’s interest in and cooperation with the new body. High-minded or simply snobbish conservative groups and uglier reactionary ones on the order of the Ku Klux Klan were recruiting and becoming vocal. American clergymen, smug in the reflected glory of victory, urged a new sort of “preparedness”-this time preaching a crusade to destroy the forces of immorality. And no small number of those forces, they insisted, were controlling influences in the theatre. John Roach Straton, pastor of New York’s Calvary Baptist Church, typifying the sanctimonious meddlers, took pen in hand to write in Theatre that the stage must be placed under “proper control” because “the three greatest foundation stones of our Anglo-Saxon civilization ... the home, the purity of women, and the sanctity of the Sabbath” were gravely imperiled by modern plays. He instructed readers: “You will let the editors of your newspapers know what you think of their ‘dramatic critics,’ when they give a clean bill of health . . . to performances that dig up unspeakable moral filth,’’ and he exhorted those who continued to read to “never cease” their efforts until they have “rescued” the drama from “the unholy hands that today are strangling it to death.” Theatre lovers and theatre folk naturally demurred, although some oldtimers, such as Daniel Frohman, did lament that “romance and sentiment” had been supplanted by “sex and sensation.” The political left was also increasingly active, as Broadway would learn all too soon, with labor unions flexing their muscles and more extreme idealists extolling the promises of a new Russia in place of the genuine achievements of an older America. Of course, the economy was not all that it should be. The withdrawal of wartime farm subsidies began a precipitous slide in farm incomes, and by 1920 a post-war recession, which hit bottom in 1921, was apparent even at some box offices (although most straight plays were able to ask for and get a $3.30 top). Soon after, the economy seemed to rebound, albeit its underlying problems were ignored. So in the short run self-righteous troublemakers were more of a nuisance to the theatre . than were cash flow problems. Indeed, though the 1920s technically would not begin until January of 1921, the “Roaring 1\venties”-that “Era of Wonderful Nonsense,’’ those “Annees folles” as the French would eventually call them-were under way.
1923–1924
Authors: Bordman Gerald
Published: November 2023

One fine season followed another. Late in the new theatrical year, Variety, surveying the crop of attractions available to theatregoers at the moment, characterized it as “of the first order.” In his annual Best Plays, Burns Mantle commented, “The general quality of the drama was higher than it ever has been before. There were fewer trivial plays and . . . of cheap farces there were practically none at all.” The number of productions inched up, while ticket prices held steady or, in a few instances, tried some inching up of their own. However, while the season was busy from beginning to end, its early months brought in few major successes. Bucking historical patterns, most of them came in later. And for all the season’s excellences, there was no standout hit, no runaway smash.
1951-1952
Authors: Bordman Gerald
Published: November 2023

Quantitatively the number of novelties held steady in the new season. But although the Daily News’s John Chapman, writing as editor of the Best Plays series, thought the theatrical year had been “not too bad,” he acknowledged that his colleagues generally put a less kind value on it. The public apparently agreed with the dissenters. Only one play ran for more than a year, and only four others ran even six months, with one of these, Gigi, still ending up in the loss column despite 219 performances. Seasons rarely got off to flying starts, and this season was no exception. Echoing one of last year’s features, it began with a London hit that found no welcome on Broadway. Aimee Stuart’s Lace on Her Petticoat (9- 4-51, Booth) was set in 1890 Scotland and examined the problem of class distinctions.
1955-1956
Authors: Bordman Gerald
Published: November 2023

“Qualitatively and quantitatively,” the Times commented at season’s end, “it has been one of the most successful in a decade.” In his Best Plays Louis Kronenberger rated it “the most rewarding in years.” Dissenters could point to a paucity of good musicals, albeit the two best were My Fair Lady and The Most Happy Fella. And among straight plays, however good, a discouraging number came from overseas or were adaptations of novels or even television shows. Why the Times was so happy about the quantity of shows is more puzzling, since its figure of thirty-nine new plays (Variety counted thirty-five) was nowhere near a few recent highs. And its seemingly lofty total of eightyeight productions stemmed from its considering each offering of some major foreign repertory groups individually.
1956-1957
Authors: Bordman Gerald
Published: November 2023

It was, at best, an uneven season that led to disparate evaluations. In the Best Plays Louis Kronenberger slapped it down as “depressingly bad.” Variety deemed it merely “n.s.g.” (read, not so good). The Times, in its year-end review, passed up the chance to pass judgment. If there were areas of agreement they were on the growing strength of Off Broadway and the on going revival of Eugene O’Neill-a resurrection which gave the season its finest “new” play. At the box office a slow inflation continued. More plays asked and received a $6.90 top, while a $4.60 top became virtually extinct. The combination of a rise in prices and a drop in quality allowed only thirteen novelties and two revivals to run beyond 100 performances, and only seven of these made a profit.
1962-1963
Authors: Bordman Gerald
Published: November 2023

Once more, it was not a very good season. In his second year as editor of the Best Plays, Henry Hewes lamented, “The deterioration of the New York climate for theatrical production . . . became mercilessly apparent in a 1962-63 season generally regarded as the worst.” Only two of Hewes’s ten best were native dramas (although a third was an American play which failed off Broadway). Even the Pulitzer committee turned its back on the stage, though not without controversy. Depending on whose tally was accepted, somewhere between thirty-four and thirty-six novelties premiered on Broadway. As with last season, the one piece of good news for playgoers was that ticket prices held steady. Little excitement was generated either on or off Broadway until mid-September. The season’s first hits were unveiled downtown.
1963-1964
Authors: Bordman Gerald
Published: November 2023

Although tallies of how many novelties reached Broadway in the new season ranged widely from thirty-five to forty-two (a sharper discrepancy than usual), there was little disagreement that the theatrical year once again was largely lack luster. No fewer than six entries folded after their first performance. And at season’s end neither the Critics Circle nor the Pulitzer committee saw fit to garland an American play. (Oddly enough, one of this season’s late entries did win both prizes next year). Off Broadway remained relatively busy all summer and produced one reasonably long-run hit during the warm weather, Lewis John Carlino’s Cages (6-13-63, York), a double bill of one-acters. Both plays featured Jack Warden and Shelley Winters.
The Swing Era
Authors: Gioia Ted
Published: November 2023

The onset of the Great Depression had a chilling effect on the jazz world, as it did on the whole entertainment industry. Record sales in the United States had surpassed one hundred million in 1927, but by 1932 only six million were sold—a staggering decline of over 90 percent! Small record companies, a flourishing sector of entrepreneurial activity during the previous decade, shut their doors one by one, and a whole industry appeared to be on the verge of extinction. During this same period, the growing popularity of talking movies led many theaters to halt the elaborate live shows that had previously been a staple of popular entertainment in most cities, further reducing paying jobs for musicians.
Freedom and Beyond
Authors: Gioia Ted
Published: November 2023

“Freedom” stood out as a politically charged word in American public discourse during the late 195Os and early 1960s—it would be hard, in fact, to find a term more explosive, more laden with depths of meaning, or proclaimed with more emotion during these tumultuous years. This one-time truism of civics classes and refrain from the nation’s founding documents now took on new force, in the process outlining a sharp divide in the country’s social and economic structures. The civil rights movement of the clay raised it aloft as a battle cry, held it forth as a goal, and asserted it as a first principle on which all else clepcnclecl. It could no longer be put out of mind as an empty phrase or accepted as a fait accompli in American society. “Freedom” was very much something to live for, or, for a few, even to die for.
The National Pastime
Authors: Pope S W
Published: November 2023

Unlike all other major American team sports, professional major-league baseball gained cultural primacy in the United States long before the amateur and semiprofessional games. Although amateur and semiprofessional play sustained the game as the national pastime for more than a century, professional baseball fundamentally shaped the way that most Americans have played and thought about the sport. The creation of the National League in 1876 spawned the key elements-league structure; territorial franchise monopolies; annual championship tournaments; the “reserve clause”; assignment of game officials; and revenue sharing-that dominated commercialized American sports for more than a century. Given the fact that basketball was not invented until 1891 and that professional football only materialized in institutional form in the 1920s, baseball was the only leading American professional sport until after World War I. Despite the ascendancy of amateurism during the late nineteenth century, professional baseball, although an anomaly for its time, provided a model for Americans in understanding big-time commercialized sports.
Thanksgiving Football Rituals
Authors: Pope S W
Published: November 2023

In 1893 a four-hour Thanksgiving Day parade of horse-drawn coaches traveled up New York’s Fifth Avenue and wove through Harlem to the Polo Grounds, where more than 40,000 spectators watched Princeton beat a strongly favored Yale team 6 to 0.

For several days prior to the well-publicized event, “fakirs swarmed uptown like an invading army,” noted the renowned writer Richard Harding Davis, “with banners and flags and artificial flowers in the true [school] colors, and with tiny leather footballs and buttons and rosettes and ribbons and tin horns and countless varieties of [school] badges.” Manhattan shop windows were adorned with photographs of the collegiate football stars, and the “legitimate gambling on Wall Street was neglected for the greater interest of betting on the game.” Many Americans like Davis (who was paid $500 for his featured article in Harper’s Weekly) recognized the Thanksgiving Day football game as “the greatest sporting event and spectacle combined that this country has to show”; “Thanksgiving Day is no longer a solemn festival to God for mercies given,” he wrote, “it is a holiday granted by the State and the nation to see a game of football.” The most prominent dialect-speaking fictional character of early-twentieth-century American humor, Mr. Dooley, confidently pierced such intellectual explanations with the homespun wisdom and brogue of a working-class Irish saloonkeeper from Chicago’s South Side.
Synthetic Antibodies
Authors: Rosenblum Jonathan S , Barbas Carlos F
Published: November 2023

Antibodies are the immune system’s solution to the problem of molecular recognition. They are generated and evolved by the immune system to bind with high affinity to molecules the host has never before encountered. In an organism, an antigenic challenge is met with an order of 100 million different antibody molecules. From this primary response, the highest-affinity binders are selected for maturation through somatic mutation. Antibodies with infinitely many specificities can be produced in this manner. Indeed, the survival of the host may depend on it. A primary response typically has members with micromolar dissociation constants, while somatic mutation expeditiously increases binding by three to five orders of magnitude.
Engineering the Antibody Combining Site by Codon-Based Mutagenesis in a Filamentous Phage Display System
Authors: Glaser Scott , Kristensson Karin , Chilton Todd , Huse William
Published: November 2023

Codon-based mutagenesis, as applied to antibody engineering, is a general method for rapidly and efficiently increasing antibody affinity and for altering specificity towards an antigen. Antibody binding properties can be modified up to 100-fold without devising special screening procedures or requiring detailed antibody structural information. Randomized sequence libraries constructed within the antibody variable region by codon-based mutagenesis and screened by panning, filter lift, or enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA) yield functionally modified antibodies at a frequency of three orders of magnitude greater as compared to traditional mutagenesis techniques.
Music as Literature
Authors: Daverio John
Published: November 2023

Less than half a year after matriculating as a law student at the University of Leipzig, Schumann had already determined to continue his studies elsewhere. Writing to his mother on 3 August 1828, he broached the idea of resettling in Heidelberg, ostensibly to attend the lectures of the great jurists Karl Mittermaier and Anton Friedrich Thibaut, but also for the less clearly defined purpose of counteracting his steadily growing malaise by expanding his range of intellectual contacts. According to his only partially realized plan, he would leave Leipzig just after the winter semester of 1829, spend a year at the University of Heidelberg, and return to Leipzig by Easter 1830 to complete his law degree. At some level, then, Schumann did perhaps intend to see his legal studies through to their conclusion, or, what is more likely, he deluded himself into thinking he might do so. En route to Heidelberg in May 1829, he had an experience that offers a more telling premonition of the direction his future would take. Stricken with an “extraordinary desire” to play the piano while passing through Frankfurt on 14 May, he strolled into a piano dealer’s shop, introduced himself as the valet of an English nobleman interested in purchasing an instrument, installed himself at a piano, and played to his heart’s content for three hours. Although he promised to return in two days with a definitive answer from his master, he was by that time, as he proudly related the anecdote to his mother, already in Rtidesheim drinking Rtidesheimer beer.