bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Overview of surveillance tools in oil spill response – responders' view based on case studies
Authors: Januszewska Marta
Published: December 2021

With a growing market of new technologies in surveillance for oil spill response, it has become increasingly difficult for users to understand which surveillance tool is best suited for their requirements. Oil Spill Response Organisation's (OSROs) such as Oil Spill Response Limited (OSRL) require an easily-deployable, yet durable solution available to be utilised in a range of working conditions. The surveillance platform and type of sensor will be heavily influenced by the response scenario.

This paper provides an overview of surveillance platforms such as the surveillance kite, UAV's (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) and tethered balloon utilised by OSRL in different response scenarios on real incidents. The examples include offshore and shoreline incidents and exercises with offshore and shoreline response elements. In each of the examples the focus will be on the advantages and disadvantages of the surveillance tool chosen for the task, and lessons learned from each case/experience.
Advances in Underwater Oil Plume Detection Capabilities
Authors: Conmy Robyn N. , DiPinto Lisa , Kukulya Amy , Garcia-Pineda Oscar , Graettinger George , Sundaravadivelu Devi , Gloekler Melissa , Hall Alexander , Fischell Erin , Gomez-Ibanez Daniel
Published: December 2021

Historically, visual observation is an emergency responder's first ‘tool’ in identifying spilled oil. Optical detection has since expanded to include a myriad of signals from space, aircraft, drone, vessel and submersible platforms that can provide critical information for decision-making during spill response efforts. Spill monitoring efforts below the air-water interface have been vastly improved by advances with in situ optical sensors and vehicle platform technology. Optical techniques using fluorescence, scattering, and holography offer a means to determine dissolved versus droplet fractions, provide oil concentration estimates and serve as proxies for dispersion efficiency. For subsurface spills over large space and time scales, Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) can be used to provide subsurface plume footprints and estimate oil concentrations. For smaller, more frequent spills, tethered compact Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) may be more appropriate as they are easy to deploy for rapid detection.

Two underwater oil detection technologies have been developed: (1) A Remote Environmental Monitoring UnitS (REMUS-600) AUV equipped with fluorescence and backscatter SeaOWL UV-A (Oil-in-Water Locator; Sea-Bird Scientific WET Labs Inc.), holographic imager (HoloCam; SeaScan, Inc), hydrographic information, video camera, CTD and a water/oil sampler. (2) A tethered ROV system (DTG2, Deep Trekker Inc.) equipped with video camera, UviLux (Chelsea Technologies Group, Inc) fluorometer, a CTD and water/oil sampler. Calibration and validation tests of the sensor suite were conducted at the Coastal Response Research Center flume tank (NH, USA). Oil concentration estimates were verified by chemical analysis of hydrocarbons and particle size analysis (LISST 200X, Sequoia, Inc). Operational performance of the ROV platform and sensors was evaluated at the Ohmsett wave tank (NJ, USA). Field performance of the REMUS and sensor suite was evaluated at natural seeps near Santa Barbara, CA. This research demonstrates the forensic value of in situ optical data for improved understanding of the behavior and transport of spilled oil below the air-sea interface.
Development of the Global Equipment Inventory and Network for Subsea Well Response
Authors: Munro Neil A , Myers Andy R
Published: December 2021

ABSTRACT 1141381

The Montara (2009) and Macondo (2010) incidents resulted in step change in safety for the oil & gas industry. Since then many improvements have been implemented to keep the highest standard of safety in drilling operations. Through industry collaboration subsea well response equipment not available at the time of these incidents is now globally accessible.

Technology continues to be developed to provide comprehensive response capabilities. A recent area of focus for industry was how to cap an incident well in water depths less than 600 meters where vertical access may not be possible due to hydrocarbons at surface and a possible gas boil in the case of a gas well. An innovative concept was developed, manufactured and tested to deal with a loss of well control event in shallow water.

The Offset Installation System (OIS) allows a capping stack to be deployed and installed on a blowing out well in shallow water, deployed and controlled by vessels offset from the incident well. In addition, the OIS can be used for debris clearance, removal of the lower marine riser package (LMRP), and deployment of other subsea response hardware.

By virtue of their source control operational function capping stacks are relatively large and heavy pieces of hardware. Despite these physical characteristics, there is expectation by stakeholders and international regulators for capability to transport capping stack equipment across significant distances in an expeditious manner to respond to an incident. For remote areas of the globe, capping stacks air transported as a single unit could provide an effective solution.

A key objective in responding to a subsea loss of well control event is the ability to effectively mobilise source control equipment and trained personnel to readily manage an emergency response scenario in a timely manner globally. A number of companies with a range of capabilities will be required to provide a comprehensive response. To further assist, initiatives focused on personnel resources have been developed including a global subsea response network, and continuing industry collaboration for mutual aid of personnel.

This paper will provide information on the development of the global subsea response equipment inventory available to industry. Latest developments such as OIS and air freightable capping stacks for transportation to remote areas will be discussed in detail as well as the above-mentioned initiatives for personnel.
Controlling mechanisms of burning rate enhancement while using Flame Refluxer technology during in situ burning of crude oil spills
Authors: Sauer Nathaniel , Pi Xiaoyue , Arsava Kemal , Rangwala Ali
Published: December 2021

The focus of this study is to quantify the controlling mechanisms, which increases the burning rate of a pool fire using a Flame RefluxerTM. Part of the Flame RefluxerTM, is exposed to the fire and is heated up transferring heat to the fuel pool layer to which it extends. This enhances the conventional heat transfer that occurs only through the pool surface by transferring the heat from a fire to an in-depth layer of the liquid. Both sensible heat and heat of vaporization are supplied at increased rates by the submerged material. As an additional important effect, nucleate boiling onsets at the surface of the inserted material that generates bubbles of fuel vapor. These bubbles are transported to the surface of the pool, where they burst and release the v0061por to the gas-phase. While doing so, additional processes such as formation of micron-sized droplets or small jets of liquid fuel from the break point occur. This phenomenon causes additional fuel in liquid phase transported to the gas-phase, where they vaporize, ignite and burn in heterogeneous mode. Therefore, the processes involved in FR occur in three steps; enhancement of heat transfer to the liquid causing nucleate boiling, formation of bubbles and their transport, and dynamics of bubble breakage at the pool surface causing transfer of liquid fuel in the form of tiny droplets or jets towards the gas-phase. This study analyzes the influence of bubbles on the burning behavior of a pool fire using a simple experiment involving burning ethanol as a fuel. Ethanol is used due to its transparency and hence bubble behavior is easily observable on the heater surface. A 5cm x 5cm glass enclosure constantly replenished with ethanol serves as the burning pool. A solid aluminum block (8.8 cm tall x 3.6 cm wide x 1.2 cm thick) is placed in the flame to act as the Flame RefluxerTM. Bubble counts and burning rate measurements indicate the influence of the bubbles on the overall burning rate of the liquid pool.
How well prepared are countries in Latin America and the Caribbean? A Benchmarking Assessment for Oil Spill Preparedness and Response
Authors: Taylor Elliott , Moyano Miguel , Miranda Darío , Richards Matt
Published: December 2021

Abstract ID 667973

A guide for best practices in spill response preparedness was presented to the international community over ten years ago during the 2008 IOSC. The published guide was the compiled effort of multiple government and industry stakeholder workshops representing the spill response community. Through ARPEL initiatives, the guide was transitioned into a free, user-friendly, spill response/readiness evaluation tool for oil spills (RETOS™) and its accompanying manual. RETOS™ is a scalable self-assessment tool that uses a broad suite of planning and readiness assessment criteria broken down into ten different categories to identify gaps in a response program. RETOS™ has subsequently been used in over 50 countries to assess the status of oil spill readiness and preparedness for national to local facility spill response programs. The benchmarking evaluation identifies gaps and opportunities for improvement, priority areas for development, and establishes a baseline against which program improvements and regional, or complementary, response programs can be gauged.

RETOS use in Caribbean and Latin America countries, instigated through the RAC-REMPEITC and ARPEL, has promoted national plan development, program improvements, and regional cooperation. National programs assessed at a base level using the RETOS™ application revealed scores between approximately 30 and 90% in these regions. National assessments from countries throughout region and a survey of RETOS users, most of whom utilized the tools for assessing national spill response programs, reveal areas that are common challenges for many of the small island and/or developing nations. These encompass financial matters, training and exercises, and sustained improvement. Several countries in the region have conducted subsequent assessments and in some cases have shown as much as 60% improvements in program readiness.

When RETOS™ is used on a regional scale, specific national program gaps can be compiled and analyzed regionally. This analysis can drive future IMO activities to address regional gaps and areas for improvement, highlight specific areas for bi-lateral and multi-lateral mutual aid agreements, and can provide regional solutions to national problems, such as creating and maintaining a database of oil spill equipment and experts available in the countries of the Region. Updates to the ARPEL RETOS™ tool and Manual, continued published guidance on best-practices, and repeated self-assessment efforts are recommended to sustain spill readiness improvements. The RETOS™ tool has proven to be an integral part of national and regional oil spill program assessment and directly contributes to overall oil spill program improvements.
Heat-related knowledge, perceptions, and needs among oil spill cleanup responders
Authors: Jacklitsch Brenda
Published: December 2021

BACKGROUND: Occupational exposure to heat and hot environments can result in heat-related illness (HRI), injury, and death among workers, particularly those in outdoor environments such as oil spill cleanup responders. Education and training can help prevent these detrimental heat-related health outcomes. PURPOSE: This study assessed: heat-related knowledge, perceptions, and barriers among oil spill cleanup responders, and heat-related training and educational materials currently used and desired. METHODS: A needs assessment was completed by 65 oil spill cleanup responders regarding their occupational heat-related experiences during oil spill cleanup activities and training needs. RESULTS: Most respondents had 25 or more years' experience (52.4%), worked for companies with 19 or fewer employees (53.5%), and were not classified as safety and health professionals (67.7%). Responders reported experiencing HRI risk factors, such as, high temperatures (71.9%) and humidity (85.9%), and wearing personal protective equipment (PPE) and clothing ensembles (96.9%), respirators (71.9%), and personal flotation devices (78.1%). Many reported experiencing symptoms of HRI (41.5%), and 11% reported experiencing heat exhaustion. While most respondents were knowledgeable of heat stress, they were least knowledgeable about: differentiating between heat exhaustion and heat stroke (12.5% responded correctly), salt tablet usage (62.5% responded correctly), effects of air conditioning on acclimatization (70.3% responded correctly), and previous HRI as a risk factor (73.4% responded correctly). Respondents reported they perceived heat stress to be severe and that HRIs affect workers; and most reported feeling confident in recognizing signs and symptoms of HRI, and knowing what to do if a coworker became ill. While multiple prevention controls were reported, only one in four reported using an acclimatization plan. The most common training and education received included just-in-time training (68.9%) and printed materials (50.8%). The most desirable future training and education products were smartphone or tablet applications (61.0%), printed materials (51.2%), and online training (46.3%). DISCUSSION: Oil spill cleanup responders are at high risk for HRI, injury, and death; and those responsible for their training need to be knowledgeable about all the aspects of occupational heat stress. Findings from this study may be beneficial to safety and health professionals and health educators, particularly those interested in developing heat stress training and educational materials for oil spill cleanup responders.
Evaluation and Comparison of Current Emulsification Algorithms and Their Uncertainty in Oil Spill Modeling Software
Authors: Gilman Lindsey , Bess Amanda , Drollette Brian , Danmeier Don , Murray Karen
Published: December 2021

Oil spill risk assessments (OSRAs) do not currently distinguish between potentially more toxic, fresh crude oil and less toxic, highly-weathered residues which limits the understanding of the highest risk areas to prioritize mitigation measures and allocate response resources. Fate and trajectory models, used commonly for OSRA, have advanced significantly over the last five years now with enhanced ability to model chemical and physical parameters at greater resolution. Using this enhanced resolution, modelers may be able to provide some indication of the weathered state of the oil as input to the OSRA. In order to evaluate the degree of certainty in such a prediction, it is necessary to better understand the uncertainty in the modeled weathering processes that influence the toxicity of the oil. Emulsification plays a significant role in modeling of oil thickness (and therefore photo-modification), evaporation, and dissolution which are important modulators of oil toxicity. In this project, the emulsification algorithms of three currently available fate and trajectory models, ADIOS, OILMAP/SIMAP, and OSCAR, were evaluated to gain a better understanding of the degree of certainty in the modeled weathered state of oil.

In this work, the basis of emulsification algorithms implemented in the models referenced above were identified, and it was found that each of these models incorporates emulsification differently. ADIOS2 relies on emulsification data gathered from mixing oil and water in a food processor. An updated version of ADIOS2 (ADIOS3) is based on a new formulation that is dependent on measured SARA components of the oil, but is still under construction and is not yet implemented. OILMAP/SIMAP use the algorithm presented in Mackay and Zagorski (1982). OSCAR uses a water uptake algorithm that was calibrated to in-house laboratory experiments. Further investigation into the development of each of these emulsification algorithms provided insight into the degree of uncertainty in these models and their input parameters, and what oil types may not be appropriately characterized by the implemented emulsification model. Additionally, the impact of that uncertainty on oil fate was investigated by evaluating the changes in the amount of emulsification when modifying user input parameters within realistic assumption ranges. The findings and comparison of the implementation of these emulsification algorithms and the sensitivity of the results to different inputs is presented here.
Resourcing the next industry defining spill
Authors: Hall Sarah , Rouse Dave , Foley Paul , Montgomery Aaron
Published: December 2021

The Deepwater Horizon (DWH) response was unprecedented in scale and complexity. In addition to testing the limits of Industry's technical knowledge, it required a sustained response of personnel effort over several years. At the peak of the response, some 47,000+ responders were deployed across five states. For any future incident of similar scale the challenges of resourcing must be considered now, to ensure a timely, efficient and effective response can be achieved.

Whilst the contribution of every responder is important, it is clear that some command and field roles are more critical than others. For these key roles there are a limited number of individuals with the knowledge, experience, credibility and personality to successfully take them on. Furthermore, accessing these individuals - having up-to-date contact details, maintaining business continuity and assuring their competency - is a challenge.

Another common preparedness gap is that most exercises do not test the process for mobilising people past the first few days (thereby not learning lessons about the time it takes) or consider the challenge of putting people in place with the right skill set during a prolonged response. DWH was resourced using the ‘little black book' of contacts from oil spill response organisations (OSROs), Oil and Gas operators, scientific experts and the local communities. Whilst successful, there were lessons to learn from the approach.

In the last 10 years the expectations from regulators, public and other stakeholders on the speed, transparency and effectiveness of response have multiplied. To meet these growing expectations a more robust and efficient way of putting the right people, in the right place at the right time is required. This poster discusses the merits and suggests a potential mechanism for a globally aligned mutual response network.

Oil spill response cooperatives are ideally positioned to identify key roles, the people who could fill them, assure their capability and readiness, and address the barriers which slow down mobilisation such as agreeing contracting terms and rates. This poster will lay out the challenges that both Industry and OSROs face in resourcing the next industry defining spill. It will set out how an oil spill mutual response network answers these questions. It will also reinforce why collaboration and cooperation, key principles of Tiered Preparedness and Response, will continue to be the most efficient and effective way of accessing capability and maximising Industry's preparedness to respond to the next big incident.
Analysis of oil spill impacts along pipelines and the fate of sensitive environments in Nigeria
Authors: Mahmoud I. Mahmoud
Published: December 2021

This study shows how mapping post-oil spill incidents can provide insights into the fate of sensitive ecosystems and serve as a decision-support tool for reducing the negative socio-environmental impacts of oil spills. The incidence of oil spills along pipelines have expanded in extent into habitats of sensitive natural ecosystems and threatens biodiversity conservation in Nigeria. These oil spills, directly and indirectly, influence critical ecosystems functioning such as protected areas, wildlife, wetlands, waterbodies, marine animals and plants, natural vegetation types and arable lands for food production. The geo-visualised oil spill records overlaid on GoogleEarth images provided geo-locational insights and intelligence that aid inferences on the impacts of oil spill incidents using geospatial mapping tools and web-service to support decision-making purposes in the oil spill management cycle. Furthermore, geospatial analysis of oil spills data from 2006 to 2019 along the ~5000 km of pipelines with the 2017 World Database of Protected Areas revealed numerous perils oil spills pose to the proper functioning and sustainability of terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Results showed that ~630 verified oil spills occurred in the forest reserves along the pipelines. Approximately 120 verified oil spills were recorded in game reserves and ~210 verified oil spills occurred in Ramsar site-wetlands of international importance. The oil spills that occurred along these pipelines are threats to the existence of intact tropical rain forests, savannah forests and protected areas since they intersect critical ecosystems. Numerous terrestrial and marine inhabitant were affected by oil spill events including land and underground water pollution, loss of human livelihood, heavy metal pollution, loss of farmland and damage of animal habitat. This assessment showed that the fusion of relevant environmental dataset is crucial in evaluating the fate, sensitivity and vulnerability of landscapes to oil spills using geo-mapping and geo-visualization concepts. In the context of achieving environmental sustainability and smart oil pipeline provisioning in line with the global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), it is essential to use Geo-information tools such as integrated spatial planning and land-use concepts to evaluate potential perils linked to oil infrastructure development. Outcomes from impact assessment research of this kind should be incorporated as strategic tools for developing informed conservation economy policies, industry practices and good environmental governance mechanism for robust decision-making in the oil and gas sector of Nigeria towards attaining local-scale SDGs.
Monitoring sea surface oil slicks; a combined approach using advances in satellite radar, AIS and Metocean information
Authors: Jeffery Will , Roberts Claire , Sivanesan Zhelini
Published: December 2021

In recent decades, industrial activity in the marine environment has dramatically increased. Dense offshore infrastructure combined with an increase in shipping activity creates a complex blend of potential oil pollution and environmental risk.

Over the last year, CGG Satellite Mapping, supported by the European Space Agency's business applications, Oil Spill Response Limited and key oil and gas companies, created and managed a SeaScope monitoring demonstration service. SeaScope confirms the presence or absence of slicks around infrastructure; reports on the integrity of operations based on slicks observed; identifies the potential origins of pollution slicks or permitted discharge; and has the ability to distinguish between pollution and natural seepage by using routine satellite monitoring.

This paper describes how advances in Earth observation radar combined with AIS (Automatic Identification System), metocean data and experts trained in the interpretation of offshore satellite imagery, can be used to regularly monitor sea surface oil slicks and notify offshore operators of anomalous events within the vicinity of offshore infrastructure and high density shipping areas.
Coastal Communities and Response Planning
Authors: Lowry Michael , Heaney Lincoln
Published: December 2021

The Coastal Response Program is a Western Canada Marine Response Corporation (WCMRC) initiative that brings existing response programs under one umbrella. The objective is to enhance these interrelated initiatives and ensure they have coordinated support to maintain an operational ready state. The program improves WCMRC's overall capacity by building strong relationships with industry, coastal communities and First Nations by involving them in spill response in a meaningful way. This paper will provide an update on how WCMRC is rolling out the program on Canada's west coast and will discuss some of the benefits and challenges that WCMRC has experienced. While local issues will bring unique challenges to every jurisdiction, some of the broader principles of the community involvement under the Coastal Response Program can help other response organizations and coastal communities be better prepared.
Response Options for an Offshore Deepwater Blow-Out, A Generic Evaluation of Individual and Combined Response Strategies
Authors: Brandvik Per Johan , Skancke Jørgen , Daae Ragnhild , Sørheim Kristin , Daling Per S. , Hofstad Karina Heitnes , Rantrud Øystein , McKeever Thomas
Published: December 2021

The low oil recovery rates reported during Macondo (3–5% of the released oil) have caused discussions regarding the efficiency of mechanical recovery compared to other oil spill response options. These low recovery rates have unfortunately been used as reference recovery rates in several later modelling studies and oil spill response analysis. Multiple factors could explain these low rates, such as operational priorities, where dispersants and/or in situ burning are given priority before mechanical recovery; extended safety zones; availability of adequate equipment and storage capacity of collected oil; the number of units available; the level of training and the available remote sensing support to guide operations.

This study uses the OSCAR oil spill model to simulate a deep-water oil release to evaluate the effect of different response options both separately and in combination. The evaluated response options are subsea dispersant injection, mechanical recovery, and a combination of these.

As expected, Subsea Dispersant Injection (SSDI) was highly effective and resulted in a significant reduction in residual surface oil (8% of released oil volume, versus 28% for the non-response option, NR). However, using large offshore oil recovery systems also reduced residual surface oil with a similar amount (9% of released oil volume).

These results deviate significantly from the efficiency numbers reported after the Macondo incident and from later modelling studies scaled after the Macondo recovery rates. The increased efficiency of mechanical reported in this study is mainly due to inclusion of updated descriptions of response capabilities, reduced exclusion zone, a more realistic representation of surface oil distribution and modelling of response units' interactions with oil, (efficient oil recovery only on thick parts of the oil slick).

The response capabilities and efficiency numbers for the different response options used in this study are based on equipment specifications from multiple response providers and authorities (Norwegian Clean Seas organisation (NOFO), Oil Spill Response (OSRL), Norwegian Coastal Administration (NCA), US Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) and others). These capabilities are justified by well-established contingency plans, offshore exercises and annual equipment performance testing with oil.
Large scale exercise in Norway – Exercise Frohavet 2019
Authors: Fiksdal Gry Eide , Fullwood Cathrine Floen
Published: December 2021

« October 8th at 1630 hours: Equinor reports loss of well control on the exploration well «Staalull». Large amounts of crude oil flow continuously from the seabed at the depth of 1200 feet. An oil spill from the exploration well has a potential for landfall within five days. The oil characteristics are unknown. Equinor is unable to control the well and needs to start planning for a relief well. This may take several months. »

This is a potential scenario for a major oil spill and the exercise planned for the Norwegian coast, October 2019. Approximately 600 responders were involved.

The intention was to test Equinor and NOFO (The Norwegian Clean Seas Association for Operating Companies) and their ability to handle a long-lasting oil spill in a safe and secure manner – within all barriers.

The exercise involved Equinor CMT (Crisis Management Team), IMT (Incident Management Team), NOFO, offshore and nearshore vessels, aircraft, digital SCAT (Shoreline Cleanup and Assessment Technique) surveys and beach cleaning operations at different locations onshore.

The main goal of the exercise was interaction and communication within and between the different response organisations. The intermediate objectives were 1) establish a common situational awareness and 2) communicate accurate information at the right time to affected parties.

The exercise took place at seven different locations in Norway and establishment and maintenance of situational awareness throughout the response organisation was crucial to the effective handling of the incident. This required effective communication and information sharing throughout all levels. The incident management is based on the Incident Command System (ICS), but modified to align with Norwegian conditions.

During the exercise we performed an extensive evaluation of all the organisations; with feedback to and from the personnel involved. The result of the evaluation, lessons learned, and implementation of improvements within the organisations involved, will improve the Norwegian industry's ability to manage long-lasting oils spills in the future.
Recent Development on Herder Commercialization
Authors: Nedwed Tim , Pegau Scott , Stone Karen
Published: December 2021

Herders (also known as surface collecting agents) are made of surface active compounds (surfactants). They reduce the surface tension of water and thereby change the spreading behavior of immiscible liquids, such as an oil slick, floating on the surface. Oil slicks that have spread too thin to burn can be re-thickened if herders are sprayed on the water surface around a slick. Once the slick is thickened, it is amenable to in situ burning without the need for fire-resistant boom. Herders are listed as surface collecting agents on the National Contingency Product Schedule administered by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA, 2019) for use in US waters. Herders are commercially available and oil spill response organizations have the capability to utilize herders.

A new joint industry / government agency project was recently initiated to develop a novel herder delivery and ignition system. The initial plan is to develop a remotely operated surface vehicle (RSV) that will deliver herder from an onboard reservoir and a system to ignite herded slicks. The RSV we are developing has 10–12 hours of operation time, a range of 500 miles and can travel at speeds of up to 65 miles/hour. The RSV can be deployed from a helicopter that has a cargo hook, a boat, and potentially a fixed-wing aircraft that has an appropriately sized hatch. The vision is rapid deployed to a remote spill location using a helicopter (or a fixed-wing aircraft) and operated from this platform until a response vessel arrives on the scene. The response vessel can then take over RSV control freeing the aircraft for other duties.

This paper will describe the planned development and testing of the RSV and other progress toward herder commercialization.
ESA Section 7: Pre-spill Planning Updates and Emergency Consultations
Authors: LaMorte LCDR John
Published: December 2021

In 2001 the United States Coast Guard (USCG) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (collectively referred to as Action Agencies) along with the Department of the Interior's (DOI) United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), and the Department of Commerce (DOC) National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) (collectively referred to as the Services) signed the 2001 Inter-agency Memorandum of Agreement (MOA)1. The purpose of this 2001 MOA was to “identify and incorporate plans and procedures to protect listed species and designated critical habitat during spill planning and response activities” (USCG, EPA, USFWS, and NMFS, 2001). The procedures outlined in the 2001 MOA are based on the need to meet legal requirements set forth in the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (NCP) (Title 40 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Part 300 [40 CFR § 300]), the Clean Water Act of 1972, and the Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 [16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.]. The 2001 MOA established procedures to improve the conservation of listed species and the oil spill planning and response procedures delineated in the NCP. Streamlining this process is required by section 7(a)(1) of the ESA. (USCG, 2018).

The MOA also coordinates the consultation requirements specified in the ESA regulations, 50 C.F.R. § 402, with pollution response responsibilities outlined in the NCP. It addresses three areas of oil spill response: 1) pre-spill planning activities; 2) spill response event activities; and 3) post-spill activities. (USCG, 2018). Though this document outlined procedures for how the Action Agencies and the Services were to comply with ESA Section 7, there still existed ambiguities and lack of national level guidance on how agencies were to comply with ESA Section 7. More specifically, these concerns pertained to pre-spill, emergency, and post-response operations. To alleviate the demand in the field for further ESA Section 7 guidance the National Response Team (NRT)2 established the NEC Subcommittee which quickly began developing guidance for federal agencies in order to assist these agencies maintain environmental compliance for oil and hazardous substance incident response operations. This paper will provide an update from the 2017 IOSC ESA presentation, discuss what products the NEC is currently developing and how previous NEC products have since been implemented.
Marine Mammals and Respiration: Evidence of Poor Pulmonary Health in Bottlenose Dolphins Following the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
Authors: Smith Cynthia R. , Rowles Teresa K. , Gomez Forrest M. , Colegrove Kathleen M. , Takeshita Ryan , Zolman Eric S. , Balmer Brian C. , Wells Randall S. , Townsend Forrest I. , Schwacke Lori H.
Published: December 2021

The Deepwater Horizon (DWH) disaster resulted in large-scale contamination of bays, sounds, and estuaries in the northern Gulf of Mexico (GoM), home to multiple stocks of bottlenose dolphins. Inhalation, direct aspiration, ingestion with subsequent aspiration, and dermal absorption of oil and its toxic components were all considered possible routes of exposure for dolphins living within the oil spill footprint. To determine if dolphins were adversely impacted, capture-release health assessments were performed in heavily-oiled Barataria Bay (BB), Louisiana, and in Sarasota Bay (SB), Florida, a comparison site with no DWH oil contamination. Initial studies were conducted as part of a Natural Resource Damage Assessment (2011–2014), with follow-on studies supported by the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative (2016–2018). To specifically evaluate pulmonary health, transthoracic ultrasound techniques previously developed for managed dolphins were applied to wild dolphins. Results showed that BB dolphins were ~5 times more likely to have moderate to severe lung disease than SB dolphins in 2011, the year following the spill. Concurrent pathology investigations of dead dolphins in the northern GoM reported similar pulmonary findings. In 2013 and 2014, moderate to severe lung disease persisted among BB dolphins, and remained elevated relative to the prevalence at the SB comparison site. More recent live animal health assessments (2016–2018) showed long-term persistence and potential worsening of moderate to severe lung disease in BB dolphins, specifically in animals alive during the oil spill (prevalence of 0.20, 0.35, and 0.55 in 2016, 2017, and 2018, respectively). Long-term monitoring of dolphin populations is critical to fully understand the potential for and timeline of individual and population recovery from the impacts of a large-scale oil spill event, as well as the cost-benefit trade-offs for restoration activities. In particular, BB dolphins provide valuable insight into the long-lasting effects of oil and oil-related contaminants on animal, human, and ecosystem health.
A Risk-Based Approach to the Sustainable Management of Spill Response Equipment
Authors: Tan Z.H. , Ong S.B.
Published: December 2021

ABSTRACT>

Spill response equipment is often kept for prolonged periods until required; such equipment would be operated continuously when deployed, often under harsh conditions detrimental to any equipment. Uncertainty in the reliability of response equipment bears significant risks to operational safety and incident management, especially in critical operations that have a widespread impact during an incident.

A qualitative risk assessment was conducted on OSRL's equipment stockpile, considering their known history of breakdown (probability) and foreseeable impact (severity) during an incident. The resultant matrix categorises them into five different risk levels from low to very high.

Response equipment is categorised in accordance with OSRL's prescribed service life, a set of guidance documents based on the organisation's operational experience and consultation with various manufacturers and other users, forming baseline data of the stockpile. Coupled with the results from the risk assessment conducted, it provides a wider understanding of response equipment from a risk-based perspective. The existing equipment risk profile is mapped out using the above method to provide a high-level overview to decision-makers. Upon discussion with stakeholders, the desired position on the risk profile can be achieved by replacing identified critical equipment or extending the service life of non-critical equipment. A risk-based approach allows a logical prioritisation of actions to be undertaken, in line with the organisation's strategy and enables decision-makers to make plans for a sustainable equipment reinvigoration program over a projected budget and period.

With continual monitoring and assessment in place during planned maintenance, timely feedback can be provided to decision-makers on any changes to risk profile in the equipment stockpile; this not only helps in accurately updating the equipment condition, but also enables the early detection of equipment failure and prompts timely actions for resolution.

Response equipment constitutes a valuable resource in response readiness; an evolved approach to the management of response equipment is discussed here and can be applied for Tier 1 and 2 response equipment to assure equipment reliability.
Ten Years of Advances in Oil Spill Preparedness and Response: A Summary of Key International Industry Programs
Authors: Santner R. , Cramer M.
Published: December 2021

In light of the Deepwater Horizon accident, the oil and gas industry has undertaken various national and global initiatives to advance our knowledge, understanding and approach to oil spill preparedness and response. Notable amongst these, are the IPIECAIOGP (International Association of Oil and Gas Producers) Oil Spill Response Joint Industry Project (OSR-JIP) and the American Petroleum Institute's Joint Industry Task Force (APIJITF). These alone represent million dollars of investment and the collective contribution of hundreds of subject matter experts from around the world.

The above two initiatives have produced numerous technical reports, good practice guides and recommended practices that have offered significant advances in industry's oil spill preparedness and response capabilities. Additionally, the various research projects conducted primarily by API have greatly enhanced the understanding of the efficacy and fate and effects of selected response options with a focus on subsea dispersant injection.

This paper provides an overview and assessment of the key outcomes of these programs as well as highlighting some of the key breakthrough projects including spill impact mitigation assessment (SIMA), incident management, tiered provision of response capability, wildlife response and dispersants. The authors also describe briefly how the industry has continued this legacy through ongoing API and IPIECA/IOGP programs, together with a brief exploration of the full extent of value which may be derived from these kinds of initiatives.
The Evolution and Implementation of Tiered Preparedness & Response
Authors: Foley Paul , Caetano Claudia , Bly Lucy , Nicoll Andrew , Jenkins Rhys , Ming Lee Nai , Heng Thomas , Keane Andrew
Published: December 2021

Simply put, responders and planners define response capability in terms of “what it is”, “how much” and “by when”. The types of capability define the “what”, for example the ability to apply dispersant to a surface slick at sea or the ability to mount an aerial surveillance operation to track and monitor the oil (and the response effort) makes up the Toolbox that responders have at their disposal to mitigate impacts of an oil spill. The IPIECA Good Practice Guide on Tiered Preparedness and Response (TPR) recognises 15 such response capabilities that could be required for any given spill scenario and is a direct output from the Joint Industry Project on Oil Spill Response following the Macondo incident in 2010.

The “how-much” introduces a quantification of the capability and it is important to recognise that capability is not just a physical measure of the hardware itself (i.e. “six skimmers”) but should include assumptions about the trained manpower to deploy, and the logistical support needed to fully enable the resource to be effective.

“By-when” implies a time element that is critical in cascading remote resource effectively. It follows that some capability is required to be immediately available to enable a local response to be initiated quickly and effectively whilst other capabilities, usually only required for larger or more complex spills, can be introduced on a longer lead-time.

To help visualise the dynamics of “what”, “how-much and “by-when”, the IPIECA Guide provides a simple model to illustrate the provision of response capability for any given oil spill risk in the form of a wheel with 15 segments representing each element of capability. Each segment is further divided to illustrate the three tiers of cascading capability (Tier 1, near the centre representing capability immediately available, Tier 2 showing intermediate capability, and Tier 3 around the periphery to indicate additional, possibly internationally-sourced capability that necessitates a longer lead time required for the largest or most complex spills.)

Planners typically use the tool when matching resources to the identified risk, as it can usefully highlight any gaps that may exist in the provision of capability.

This paper draws upon the experience of Oil Spill Response Limited (OSRL) in applying and using the Guide and the TPR wheel, both in planning and in response. Case history evidence will be used to illustrate the benefits and limitations of this industry-adopted planning and response approach.
Advances in Global Industry Response Capability for Source Control
Authors: Guinn Mitch , Castille Craig
Published: December 2021

Within a two-year period from 2009 through 2010, two major loss of containment incidents were experienced by the industry - Montara and Deepwater Horizon/Macondo. The reputation of the industry and its ability to self-regulate were questioned. Proposing a relief well as the primary recovery option was challenged, and after the failures of initial recovery efforts at Macondo, the US Dept. of Interior imposed a drilling moratorium to allow for the development of more effective response technologies. Several operator-led initiatives were commissioned: ExxonMobil initiated the establishment of the Marine Well Containment Company (MWCC) with Shell, Chevron and ConocoPhillips as founding members. MWCC was initially configured for large companies with multi-disciplined resources to support a full-scale response.Noble Energy and other operators, together with Helix Energy Solution Group (HESG), established an alternate option to MWCC that was built around the mutual aid model. Helix Well Containment Group (HWCG, and later just HWCG, LLC) was better adapted to the needs of small to mid-sized companies.The International Association of Oil & Gas Producers (IOGP) established the Global Industry Response Group (GIRG), consisting of its worldwide membership of oil and gas producers, and tasked it with developing a plan to address the response deficiencies discovered during the Macondo incident. The initial GIRG report (May 2011) launched the Subsea Well Response Project (SWRP), which was charged with developing a design basis for subsea capping and containment systems.The GIRG report also founded the Wells Experts Committee and its Subsea Well Source Control Response Sub-committee which now acts as an industry center for knowledge and sharing.The SWRP was founded and led by nine of the world's largest oil & gas operators and upon project completion, Oil Spill Response, Ltd. (OSRL), was selected to manage the capping and containment equipment.In addition, some operators and multiple well control organizations developed a variety of additional capping stacks and debris removal equipment packages.

During development, response equipment and systems were risk-assessed and tested via tabletop exercises. Knowledge was shared across the industry, and as the new equipment packages became physically available, a range of full-scale exercises were conducted which included physically loading aircraft and vessels and deploying equipment on abandoned wells.

This paper steps back through the careful forethought in the development of these systems and shares some insights and strategic thinking behind the rationale of different response options and how they are strategically located to provide a global response.