bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
“When Then Came the Change”: The Fight against Disrepute
Authors: Williams Rhonda Y
Published: October 2023

In the 1950s, public housing still lured tenants like Frances Reives, who searched for an inexpensive yet “decent place” to “make a home.” In 1955 when Lafayette Courts opened, she and her daughter, Mary, who had migrated years earlier from Greensboro, North Carolina, moved in. By 1957 Reives had married and birthed another daughter, and life was a little easier—just a little—for a short time. Her husband did not like public hous-ing, but “he didn’t try to buy us a house,” and “I wasn’t moving in no more shacks.” Three more children and a rocky relationship later, Reives’s husband left.
Doing Justice and the Distractions from It
Authors: Robinson Paul H , Cahill Michael T
Published: October 2023

What if there were a law that prevented punishing someone we know to be a murderer or a rapist? Not merely a lack of evidence or some other regrettable problem impeding our ability to prosecute that particular case, but a law, a categorical rule, saying that we must let the person go, though we all agree he has committed a crime. Or what if there were a law that punished people as criminals, perhaps even sending them to prison, when they were known to be blameless? Again, not because of some tragic mistake or faulty perception of the facts, but because the law required us to punish someone we all agree is without fault.
Advancing Reliability
Authors: Robinson Paul H , Cahill Michael T
Published: October 2023

Another practical constraint cited as a justification for rules generating deviations from desert is a concern with reliability: either the untrustworthiness of specific pieces of evidence or the overall undependability of litigation outcomes more broadly. Unlike the rules proceeding from the fear of manipulation discussed in chapter 2, these rules do not respond to the peculiarly human element of potential deliberate abuse, but to the general, and unavoidable, difficulty of recreating past events. In other words, even if everyone is honest and nobody is trying to distort the result, there is still no guarantee that the result will be accurate, and in fact, there are various evidentiary problems that will make an accurate result difficult to obtain. For example, the difficulty of proving a defendant’s culpable state of mind—a fact that is necessarily a matter of speculation by all persons other than the defendant—can impose a serious burden on a prosecution charged with proving culpability beyond a reasonable doubt. Some appropriate efforts to punish the guilty might falter for lack of clear proof of culpability. It is therefore tempting to ease the prosecutorial burden by reducing the culpability requirement or by allowing indirect proof by other facts to facilitate or substitute for a finding of culpability.
Controlling Police and Prosecutors
Authors: Robinson Paul H , Cahill Michael T
Published: October 2023

sixth justification offered in support of deviations from desert is the need to curb misconduct by criminal-justice officials, whose zealous pursuit of criminals has the potential to overwhelm the desire for fair play and respect for individual rights. In turn, our desire to limit governmental intrusion and to promote procedural integrity sometimes appears to require a sacrifice of justice. What is at stake here is a tradeoff between the societal interest in effective law enforcement and the countervailing interest in preventing abusive or overly intrusive law enforcement.
Hacking the Nineteenth Century Babbage and Lovelace in The Difference Engine and Arcadia
Authors: Clayton Jay
Published: October 2023

Midway through William Gibson and Bruce Sterling’s The Difference Engine (1991), a historical science fiction set in nineteenth-century England, an automaton startles the protagonist Edward Mallory by whirring to life in the parlor of a foreign-service operative. The figure is a carved Japanese doll, fashioned entirely of bamboo, horsehair, and whalebone. It is lifelike enough to be mistaken for a kneeling lady, although stereotypes of the submissive Asian woman contribute to the deception. The urbane secret agent appears at ease with such marvels, so Mallory, who is jealous of his reputation as a scientist, recovers his composure with a show of expertise: he places the automaton in the context of other mechanical figures, com paring it to “one of those Jacquot-Droz toys, or Vaucanson’s famous duck” and observing that it moves with the precision of a “Maudsley lathe” (168).The habit of associating windup figures and clockwork dolls with the latest precision engineering from the workshops of Henry Maudslay, who got his start with Marc Brunel in Samuel Bentham’s dockyards, is an accurate reflection of early-nineteenth-century scientific culture.
Convergence of the Two Cultures A Geek’s Guide
Authors: Clayton Jay
Published: October 2023

Dickens was witness to the beginning of the two-culture split. In chap ter 3, I presented Mr. Pickwick as comically trapped between an older, undisciplined culture, which mixed science, literature, engineering, and the social sciences, and a newer, disciplinary culture, which was beginning to segregate literature from science, science from engineering, and the social sciences from all the rest. Dickens’s portly hero was at a loss about how to make the transition.
The Geopolitical Background
Authors: LeDonne John P
Published: October 2023

Aknowledge of the geopolitical context in which Russia’s grand strategy developed is a fundamental necessity. Not only did that context shape a global vision, it helps us understand the relative strengths and weaknesses of the rival powers engaged in a struggle for hegemony in the three theaters making up the Heartland, and it determined what was possible at a given time as well as the stakes involved in committing military power to the transformation of that vision into a blueprint for troop movements and diplomatic negotiations.

The western theater included the entire basin of the Baltic Sea and the broad corridor between the Dniepr and the Prut along the eastern curve of the Carpathian Mountains. The Baltic Basin was the aggregate of the basins of all the rivers flowing into the Gulf of Bothnia, the Gulf of Finland, and the Baltic proper, from Lubeck to Reval. The Norwegian Alps and the Elbe River descending from the Sudeten Mountains formed the outer periphery of the western theater and of the Heartland as well, beyond which began the European Coastland facing outward toward the Atlantic Ocean.
Client States and Societies
Authors: LeDonne John P
Published: October 2023

Russian grand strategy was an essentially political concept, recognizing no dis-continuity between peace and wartime. The decisions that shaped it proceeded from a consensus worked out among the ruling elite not only on military and economic policy but also on diplomatic relations with neighboring territories. Most of those territories were found within the Heartland. Some were core areas, others were frontiers between them and Russia. Russia’s diplomatic vision was largely confined to the Heartland. Muscovy and the empire—even if the term empire did not come into official use until Peter’s reign—had grown since the mid-sixteenth century by co-opting local elites and becoming a multi-clan and multi-ethnic political configuration, in which the tsar was the grand patron of a complex system of clientage. Much of Russian diplomacy in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries sought to expand this system of patronage, from which the Romanov house derived great prestige. Relations with peripheral states and societies were rooted in the traditional pattern of patron-client relationships at the Muscovite court. This brings us to the third principle underlying Russia’s emerging grand strategy: if one was the determination to carry out deep strategic penetrations within the Heartland and only occasionally beyond its periphery, and the second the deployment of the strategic force originally in the old Muscovite core, the third was the creation of a glacis of client states and societies beyond which there sometimes stretched an “invisible frontier” of client relationships with other peoples along the Heartland’s periphery or even beyond it.
Independence
Authors: Middlekauff Robert
Published: October 2023

While the British army was ending its long ordeal in Boston, the second Continental Congress was in the midst of deliberations that would end with the Declaration of Independence. The second Congress began its sessions on May 10, 1775, a day midway in the period marked out by the battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill. From the outset, the Congress suffered its own ordeal—a tortuous questioning of whether America could better protect its liberties inside or outside of the British empire.
Inside the Campaigns
Authors: Middlekauff Robert
Published: October 2023

In the battle of Eutaw Springs, South Carolina, the last major action of the Revolutionary War before Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown, over 500 Americans were killed and wounded. Nathanael Greene had led some 2200 men into the Springs; his casualties thus represented almost one-fourth of his army. More men would die in battles in the next two years, and others would suffer terrible wounds.
The Constitutional Convention
Authors: Middlekauff Robert
Published: October 2023

The delegates to the Constitutional Convention straggled into Philadelphia throughout most of May 1787. The state legislatures had not appointed delegates with undue speed, and those chosen found travel over rough roads slow and uncomfortable. May 14, the day set for the opening, came and went with only a few delegates present. Delay in getting the meeting started distressed those in the city who were committed to major reform because it suggested to them that others might not share their purposes.
The World from 1450 to 1700
Authors: Wills John E
Published: October 2023

In The World from 1450 to 1700, historian John Wills takes a fresh look at one of the most fascinating and tumultuous periods in world history. Assuming a global perspective, rather than the traditional Eurocentric view, Wills traces the interwoven changes that led from the world of Columbus, Luther, and the Mughal emperor Babur to the world of Locke, Louis XIV, and the Kangxi emperor. The book’s multi-centered approach explores historical events not in isolation but rather in a dynamic nexus of connections ranging from the Italian Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation to the Sikh, Hindu, and Confucian revivals; from the transformation of Japan in 1600 to the forced migrations of millions of African slaves; from the English Civil War and expanding Qing and Muscovite empires in Asia to new forms of scientific knowledge and parliamentary democracy in Europe. It is an interlocking world of change and movement, innovation and conquest, and Wills marshals his extraordinary narrative skill and breadth of learning to bring this period vibrantly to life.
Emergence of the Genus Homo
Authors: Tattersall Ian
Published: October 2023

It is widely assumed that our own genus, Homo, arose somewhere among the welter of australopith species. But nobody knows for sure which australopith was closest to our own ancestry. As always, the hunt is on for more fossils; but in the meantime there are several candidates for classification as the earliest known Homo. The first really ancient species of our genus to have been named is Homo habilis, described by Louis Leakey and two colleagues in 1964. The fossils—a rather fragmentary bunch consisting of a broken lower jaw, some pieces of braincase, and some hand bones—were found in Olduvai Gorge, a hot, dusty canyon in the Serengeti Plains of what is today Tanzania.
Cervantes’Don Quixote
Authors: Echevarría Roberto González
Published: October 2023

This casebook gathers a collection of ambitious essays about both parts of the novel (1605 and 1615) and also provides a general introduction and a bibliography. The essays range from Ramón Menéndez Pidal's seminal study of how Cervantes dealt with chivalric literature to Erich Auerbachs polemical study of Don Quixote as essentially a comic book by studying its mixture of styles, and include Leo Spitzer's masterful probe into the essential ambiguity of the novel through minute linguistic analysis of Cervantes prose. The book includes pieces by other major Cervantes scholars, such as Manuel Durán and Edward C. Riley, as well as younger scholars like Georgina Dopico-Black. All these essays ultimately seek to discover that which is peculiarly Cervantean in Don Quixote and why it is considered to be the first modern novel.
The Enchanted Dulcinea
Authors: Auerbach Erich
Published: October 2023

Ahora me libre Dios del diablo, respondió Sancho; ¿y es posible que tres hacaneas, o como se llaman, blancas como el ampo de la nieve, le parezcan a vuesa merced borricos? Vive el Señor, que me pele estas barbas si tal fuese verdad.
Don Quixote Story or History?
Authors: Wardropper Bruce W
Published: October 2023

Although today we call Don Quixote a novel, Cervantes did not. The modern Spanish word “novela” did not yet exist in the sense of an extended work of prose fiction; it could be applied only to the short story of Italian origin. The other family of words used to designate longer prose fiction derived from Latin “romanice”; in France “roman” covered fictional romance, but in Spain the equivalent word “romance” had been preempted for other purposes.1 There was thus no appellation for the early Spanish romance or novel. The chivalric and pastoral romances were called “libros”; the sentimental romances, “tratados,” or treatises; Francisco Delicado’s La lozana andaluza, a “retrato,” or portrait; the picaresque works, “vidas.” On his title pages Cervantes carefully refrains from saying what his work is: “El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha” and “Segunda parte del ingenioso caballero don Quijote de la Mancha.” The friend who advises him, in the prologue to part I, about the preliminaries to his work calls it simply a “book.” If, as the friend assumes, Don Quixote is essentially a parody of the libros de caballerías, one would think that the term designat-are those of sociology, not of morality, on which Cervantes has based his novel (though, as we have said, he offers us the conflict between different moral standards). The attitude of this critic, which seems to abound in the sense of Carl Becker (“the historian has become the successor of the theologian”), is, in my opinion, contingent on the presupposition that moral values are obsolete in a modern world given to the sociological explanation of history.
Linguistic Perspectivism in the Don Quijote
Authors: Leo Spitzer
Published: October 2023

Argumentum : here, the procedure will be to start from a particular feature of Cervantes’ novel which must strike any reader: the instability and variety of the names given to certain characters (and the variety of etymological explanations offered for these names), in order to find out what may be Cervantes’ psychological motive behind this polyonomasia (and polyetymologia). I see this as a deliberate refusal on the part of the author to make a final choice of one name (and one etymology): in other words, a desire to show the different aspects under which the character in question may appear to others. If this be true, then such a relativistic attitude must tinge other linguistic details in the novel; and, indeed, it is surely such an attitude that is behind the frequent debates (particularly between Quijote and Sancho), which never end conclusively, over the relative superiority of this or that word or phrase. It is as if language in general was seen by Cervantes from the angle of perspectivism. With this much settled, it will not be difficult to see (what, in fact, has been recognized by Américo Castro) that perspectivism informs 164 Leo Spitzer the structure of the novel as a whole: we find it in Cervantes’ treatment of the plot, of ideological themes, as well as in his attitude of distantiation toward the reader. And yet, beyond this perspectivism, we may sense the presence of something which is not subject to fluctuation: the immovable, immutable principle of the divine—which, perhaps, to some extent, is reflected in the earthly artifex himself: the novelist who assumes a near-divine power in his mastery of the material, in his own unshaken attitude toward the phenomena of his world (and even in his aloofness from the reader). And it is in this glorification of the artist that the main historical significance of the Spanish masterpiece is to be seen.
Physician-Humanist Interaction in the Eighteenth Century in the United States
Authors: Veatch Robert M
Published: October 2023

The close link between medicine and the humanities in late eighteenth-century Scotland and England provided the foundation for the emergence of a New World medical ethics. The Scottish medical schools, particularly Edinburgh, had far and away the greatest influence (Girdwood 1988, p. 39).1 Some 650 medical students from North America graduated with medical degrees from the University of Edinburgh between 1750 and 1850. Lesser numbers attended Glasgow as well as Aberdeen and St. Andrews. Benjamin Rush, the physician who signed the Declaration of Independence, got his medical degree from Edinburgh in 1768, during the era of John Gregory, William Cullen, and Alexander Monro, Primus.
A Compendium of Inherited Disorders and the Eye
Authors: Traboulsi Elias I
Published: October 2023

During the past two decades, our understanding of the molecular genetics of inherited eye diseases, their classification, and management has undergone a huge expansion as the field of human genetics has benefited from technological advances and increased interest by physicians and scientists in all fields. As a result, the amount of clinical and basic-science information on inherited systemic and eye diseases has become so large that general ophthalmologists, ophthalmic subspecialists, and physicians in other fields have found it difficult to keep up. This volume will act as a guide because it catalogues all the latest information about genetic diseases that involve the eye and presents it in a practical and accessible format. After an introductory chapter that reviews basic clinical and molecular-genetic principles, individual diseases and groups of diseases are listed alphabetically in order to make it as easy as possible to search for an entry. The material in each entry is a synthesis of numerous articles and reviews on the topic, accompanied by at least one high-quality illustration, at least one webpage of a patient support group or other organization related to the disease, and references that provide the original description of the disease, an excellent review, or useful illustrations. There is also a companion website containing electronic copies of all the illustrations to make it easy to use them in lectures. Health-care professionals who need immediate access to clinical and basic-science information on inherited systemic and eye diseases will find this volume indispensable.
G
Authors: Traboulsi Elias I
Published: October 2023

Progressive enlargement of the cornea and globe (buphthalmos) Corneal edema and breaks in Descemet’s membrane (Haabstriae), especially in early or intrauterine onset of intraocular pressure elevation Increasing myopia and optic nerve head cupping with uncontrolled intraocular pressure Symptoms are highly variable, but increased light sensitivity, squinting, and epiphorIa with exposure to even normal levels of light are typical. Some children may be completely asymptomatic, especially during the first few months of life.
P
Authors: Traboulsi Elias I
Published: October 2023

A maternal age effect has been described. This does not apply to 20% of cases, which are due to unbalanced translocations. In these families, the risk of recurrence is much higher. Trisomy 13 The critical region seems to be located in the portion 13q14 to terminus. 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 25,000 newborns Microcephaly and cerebral malformations, which may be very severe, such as holoprosencephaly Low-set ears Cleft lip and palate, often bilateral (80%) Polydactyly and clenched fist Rocker-bottom feet Rib abnormalities Severe cardiac malformations (80%) Renal and genital anomalies Microphthalmos of varying degrees of severity, from isolated iris or choroidal coloboma to anophthalmos or cyclopia Anterior segment dysgenesis, including corneal opacities, Peters anomaly, congenital glaucoma, and cataracts About one-half of the patients die within the first month of life, and only 25% survive after the sixth month of life.
U
Authors: Traboulsi Elias I
Published: October 2023

Hallgren estimated the frequency of Usher syndrome to be 3.0 in 100,000 in Scandinavia. According to Boughman et al., the prevalence in the United States is 4.4 in 100,000. The Usher syndromes constitute 2.5% of families with retinitis pigmentosa, and 24% to 54% of deafblind persons registered at the Helen Keller National Center for Deaf-Blind Youths and Adults have the syndrome. Thirty percent of deaf French Acadians in Louisiana have Usher syndrome, now identified as type 1C. There is genetic heterogeneity for USH1 in France. The gene in the families originating from the Poitou-Charentes region in western France (USH1A) maps to 14q32. The Acadian variety in Louisiana (USH1C) maps to 11p15.1, and the non-Acadian, non-14q variety (USH1B) maps to 11q13.5.
Depressants of the Central Nervous System: Alcohol, Barbiturates, and Benzodiazepines
Authors: Winger Gail , Woods James H , Hofmann Frederick G
Published: October 2023

Alcohol, barbiturate and nonbarbiturate sedative-hypnotic drugs, and the benzodiazepine minor tranquilizers are a chemically heterogeneous collection of compounds that have a great deal of pharmacology in common. Their profiles of action include disinhibition of behavior and reduction of anxiety following ingestion of small doses, sedation and ataxia following administration of intermediate doses, and anesthesia and coma after taking larger doses. Alcohol, primarily because it lacks potency (relatively large doses are required to produce these effects), has no clinical application as a sedative; barbiturates as clinically useful anxiolytic and hypnotic agents have been largely supplanted by the benzodiazepines; the benzodiazepines, in turn, have gained considerable popularity in the treatment of the widespread problems of anxiety and insomnia. This popularity itself has been a problem. The safety and effectiveness of the benzodiazepines, combined with the pervasiveness of the medical problems they are able to ameliorate, led to a large number of prescriptions in the 1970s (Woods et al., 1987). This, in turn, led to concerns about the possible overprescription and overuse of benzodiazepines. There are similarities and differences in the characteristics of the abuse patterns among these three classes of drugs. Alcohol, one of the few legally available recreational drugs, presents one of the most serious drug abuse problems in the United States. Barbiturate abuse occurs in a much smaller number of people, and these drugs are usually taken in conjunction with other drugs of abuse. Benzodiazepines are also usually abused in combination with other psychoactive drugs, but except in specific instances, drug abusers prefer barbiturates, if they are available, to
Developments within the Modern Era of Human Rights
Authors: Anaya S James
Published: October 2023

The preceding chapter demonstrated that the normative discourse and related patterns of official behavior in international law have long had implications for the status and rights of peoples who are indigenous to lands subject to colonization and its legacies. Shaped by Western perspectives and political power, inter-national law developed a complicity with the often brutal forces that wrested lands from indigenous peoples, suppressed their cultures and institutions, and left them among the poorest of the poor.
The Most Democratic Branch
Authors: Rosen Jeffrey
Published: October 2023

Many critics attack federal judges as anti-democratic elitists, activists out of step with the mainstream of American thought. But others argue that judges should stand alone as the ultimate guardians of American values, placing principle before the views of the people. In The Most Democratic Branch, Jeffrey Rosen disagrees with both assertions. Contrary to what interest groups may claim, he contends that, from the days of John Marshall right up to the present, the federal courts by and large have reflected the opinions of the mainstream. More important, he argues that the Supreme Court is most successful when it defers to the constitutional views of the American people, as represented most notably by Congress and the Presidency. And on the rare occasion when they departed from the consensus, the result has often been a disaster. To illustrate, Rosen provides a penetrating look at some of the most important Supreme Court cases in American history--cases involving racial equality, affirmative action, abortion, gay rights and gay marriage, the right to die, electoral disputes, and civil liberties in wartime. Rosen shows that the most notorious constitutional decisions in American history--the ones that have been most strenuously criticized, such as Dred Scott or Roe v. Wade--have gone against mainstream opinion. By contrast, the most successful decisions--from Marbury v. Madison to Brown v. Board of Education--have avoided imposing constitutional principles over the wishes of the people. Rosen concludes that the judiciary works best when it identifies the constitutional principles accepted by a majority of Americans, and enforces them unequivocally as fundamental law. Jeffrey Rosen is one of the most respected legal experts writing today, a regular contributor to The New York Times Magazine and the Legal Affairs Editor of The New Republic. The provocative arguments that he puts forth here are bound to fuel heated debate at a time when the federal judiciary is already the focus of fierce criticism.
Joschka Fischer and the Making of the Berlin Republic
Authors: Hockenos Paul
Published: October 2023

Over the course of his long and controversial career, Joschka Fischer evolved from an archetypal 1960s radical—a firebrand street activist—into a shrewd political insider, operating at the heights of German politics. In the 1980s he was one of the first elected Greens and went on to become Germany’s foreign minister from 1998 to 2005. His famous challenge to Donald Rumsfeld’s case for invading Iraq—“Excuse me, I am not convinced”—won him worldwide recognition, and the Bush administration’s contempt. Here is both a lively biography of Joschka Fischer and a gripping history ’from below’of postwar Germany. Paul Hockenos begins in the ruins of postwar Germany and guides us through the flashpoints of the late sixties and seventies, from the student protests and the terrorism of the Baader-Meinhof group to the evolution of Europe’s premier Green party, and brings us up to the present in the united Germany. He shows how the grassroots movements that became the German Greens challenged and changed the republic’s status quo, making postwar Germany more democratic, liberal and worldly along the way. Despite the ideological twists and turns of Fischer and his peers, the lessons of the Holocaust and the Nazi terror remained their constant coordinates. Hockenos traces that political journey, providing readers with unique insight into the impact that these movements and the Greens have had on Germany. Informed by hundreds of interviews with key figures and fellow travelers, Joschka Fischer and the Making of the Berlin Republic presents readers with one of the most intriguing personalities on the European scene, and paints a rich picture of the rebellious generation of 1968 that became the political elite of modern Germany.
The Inside Story
Authors: Harford Tim
Published: October 2023

Jerome K. Jerome̕s nineteenth-century comic travelogue Three Men in a Boat begins with Mr. Jerome flipping through a medical dictionary in the British Museum:I came to typhoid fever—read the symptoms—discovered that I had typhoid fever, must have had it for months with-out knowing it—wondered what else I had got; turned up St Vitus’s Dance—found, as I expected, that I had that too— began to get interested in my case, and determined to sift it to the bottom, and so started alphabetically—read up ague, and learnt that I was sickening for it, and that the acute stage would commence in about another fortnight. Bright’s disease, I was relieved to find, I had only in a modified form, and, so far as that was concerned, I might live for years. Cholera I had, with severe complications; and diphtheria I seemed to have been born with. I plodded conscientiously though the twenty-six letters, and the only malady I could conclude I had not got was housemaid’s knee.
The Men Who Knew the Value of Nothing
Authors: Harford Tim
Published: October 2023

Imagine hiring an economist to sell your house. He designs a clever-looking kind of auction, which he assures you should raise the $300,000 you think your house is worth. The bids come in, and to your horror and the economist’s embarrassment you somehow end up with less than $3,000. You’re left homeless and nearly penniless, your wife divorces you, and you spend the rest of your days in a dank basement.
The Odyssey of the Edwin
Authors: Leiner Frederick C
Published: October 2023

In March 1812, the brig Edwin sailed from her home port of Salem, Massachusetts, to New York, and then for Gibraltar and Malta, probably carrying a cargo of food and provisions for the British army garrisons there. The trading voyage of the Edwin was tinged with danger. She may have sailed with a British license to carry grain to supply Lord Wellington’s army in Spain—a lucrative business that violated American trade laws. Her owners, captain, and crew knew that in departing American waters, she was sailing in the face of an embargo the federal government planned to lay on American shipping, which President Madison presented to Congress on April 1, 1812, but was widely known to be in the offing. The Madison administration pushed for the 1812 embargo to allow thousands of American seamen aboard hundreds of American merchant ships to reach United States ports before the anticipated declaration of war with Britain. The new law did not stop the Edwin, which not only wanted to land her cargo at British-owned Mediterranean naval ports, but also expected to return with a load of import goods.
The Return
Authors: Leiner Frederick C
Published: October 2023

William Bainbridge arrived at Carthagena with the second squadron on August 5, thirty-four days out from Boston. Crowninshield had sent him his sailing orders on June 17, the very day Decatur’s squadron mauled and captured the Meshuda, a fact that no one in the United States could possibly have known for weeks to come. Crowninshield’s orders were clear and decisive. Bainbridge was to sail to the Mediterranean with the ships ready for sea at Boston, following the orders the department had sent to Decatur, as well as the State Department’s directives for concluding a peace treaty. Lest there be any doubt, the “object of the expedition,” Crowninshield explained, “is to obtain an honorable Peace with the Dey of Algiers, with whom we are at War, or to destroy his Fleet, Blockade his Ports, cut up his commerce, in short to practice against him and his people all the rigour of civilized Warfare, until he is compelled to make a Peace.
People Sources
Authors: Mann Thomas
Published: October 2023

So far we have examined seven major avenues of subject access to information: controlled vocabulary searches, systematic and focused browsing of subject-classified full texts, keyword searches, citation searches, related record searches, searches through published bibliographies, and those done via computers (accessing either library-subscription databases or open Web sites). Computer searches use elements of some of the other methods but add the possibility of post-coordinate Boolean combinations. The eighth major avenue—talking to people—is the one most favored by journalists, but it is also valuable for anyone else. It is particularly important for academic researchers not to overlook this method, as most academicians have developed an overly strong print bias, often unconsciously assuming that if needed information cannot be found in print, then it cannot be found at all. In recent years this bias has expanded along parallel lines to include Internet sources, but the underlying assumption is the same: “If it can’t be found on the Web, or in print, then the information doesn’t exist.” This belief has the undesirable result of inducing people to change their questions to fit whatever information they can find online or in print—even if it’s not what they really want—and to diminish the scope of their papers accordingly.
Venus
Authors: Bull Malcolm
Published: October 2023

Although Venus was the goddess of love, no one remembers her wedding to Vulcan, just the gossip that followed it. As Mercury said to Apollo in Lucian’s Dialogues of the Gods, what was a stunning girl like Venus doing with a crippled blacksmith for a husband? He was probably all sweaty and covered in soot from the forge. It was easy to see his point. From the Farnesina onwards, the workshop of Vulcan was often depicted over fire places, and you could sense the heat and the smoke as you approached. Venus is not always there, partly because she did not appear in the ancient relief that influenced the school of Raphael, but also because almost the only time she went to see her husband was when she seduced him into manufacturing arms for Aeneas (her son by another man). The story is found in Virgil and the scene is popular in sixteenth century northern art, beginning with Maarten van Heemskerck’s painting of 1536. Vulcan’s team of Cyclopes were making Jupiter’s thunderbolts when they were interrupted by Venus’s order. But that was not all they produced. Cornelis van Haarlem’s Venus and Vulcanof 1590 displays the range of Vulcan’s output, and the protoindustrial scale of his operation (Fig. 65). It is a clever painting, composed to look like a fireplace. Inside the hearth the group with raised hammers is from a print after Heemskerck – the motif relegated to the back of the shop like any superseded design.
Diana
Authors: Bull Malcolm
Published: October 2023

The one thing that seems to have exercised people about the sacrifice of Iphigenia is the way Agamemnon was depicted at the moment of his daughter’s death. Lured to the Greek camp at Aulis believing she is to marry Achilles, Iphigenia discovers that her life is the sacrifice required to satisfy Diana and secure a favourable wind that will allow the army to sail for Troy. The needs of the state must take precedence over familial affection, and the sacrifice goes ahead. According to Pliny, when Timanthes painted the scene he showed Calchas, the prophet who first demanded Iphigenia’s blood, as sad, Ulysses as sadder, and Menelaus as saddest of all. But Agamemnon was painted with his face veiled. Everyone had an opinion on this, both in antiquity and in the Renaissance. Alberti cited Timanthes’ composition as a good example of the communication of emotion in an istoria, and suggested that concealing Agamemnon’s reaction allowed the viewer to imagine his grief more effectively than depicting it. Sandys, following Quintilian, introduced a more cynical note: perhaps it was not (as Cicero had suggested) that ‘no pencill could express so franticke a sorrow’, but rather that Timanthes, ‘having spent the height of his fantasie . . . [and] despairing to finish the rest with like felicity . . . forbore to proceed any farther’. Montaigne had a psychological explanation. The painter had given to each spectator the appropriate degree of sorrow but when he came to the father he had to deal with a grief that was too painful for a person physically to express. In other words, the painter concealed Agamemnon’s face to conceal, but simultaneously to symbolize, the fact that Agamemnon’s face showed no emotion at all.
Apollo
Authors: Bull Malcolm
Published: October 2023

Messages were sometimes relayed across the centuries from antiquity with out anyone being there to receive them. The Renaissance did not make use of all the available information. A lot was just ignored. For example, in the Forum of ancient Rome there had been a statue of Marsyas standing with one arm raised and a wineskin over his shoulder. Servius said that such statues were placed in the centre of a city as a symbol of its freedom, and the statement was repeated by both Boccaccio and Cartari. But although civic liberty is central to Renaissance political thought, no statues of Marsyas were erected in the piazzas of Venice or republican Florence. Marsyas had acquired this role on account of his link with Liber/Bacchus. Yet whereas Tintoretto’s Bacchus and Ariadneexploits the association between Bacchus and liberty to celebrate Venetian freedom, Titian’s Marsyasknows nothing of it.
The Mirror
Authors: Bull Malcolm
Published: October 2023

Once in a while, the gods all got together for a party. The excuse varied. Bellini’s Feast of the Gods, the event at which Priapus disgraced himself, was a rustic feast in honour of Bacchus or Cybele. Weddings were usually big occasions. The banquet of Cupid and Psyche at the Farnesina was the prototype for many future celebrations. It is the end of the tale of Cupid and Psyche, but the scene doubtless owed its prominence on the ceiling of the loggia to the fact that Agostino Chigi, who hosted legendary parties, may well have dined in similar style. Bacchus served the wine, the Graces sprinkled balsam, the Muses sang, and Venus danced. But it was still more of a ritual than a party, which may be why, at the Palazzo Te, Giulio Romano just showed the sumptuous preparations and left viewers to have the party themselves. People must frequently have imagined themselves dining among the gods at such events. When Ficino wrote to Lorenzo de’ Medici to thank him for his past hospitality at the feast of St Cosmas, he spoke of it as a banquet of the gods like that described by Apuleius.
Deities, Themes, and Concepts
Authors: Hansen William
Published: October 2023

When a deity is away (or distracted or incapacitated or angry), his or her cosmic province ceases to function. Since it was time for Sisyphos to die, Thanatos (Death) came to fetch him, but the wily Sisyphos managed to bind Thanatos to a chair, whereupon humans and animals ceased to die. Only when Thanatos was freed did death once again become a feature of the world (scholiast Homer Iliad 6.153). In this story death occurs when the god Thanatos comes and fetches a person; accordingly, if the god is prevented from carrying persons away, no one dies. The theme of the incapacitated deity also appears in a myth in which the monster Typhon wrestled with Zeus and managed to remove the god’s sinews, leaving Zeus unable even to walk until his allies stole the sinews back (Apollodoros [Apollodorus] Library 1.6.3). In a different version, Typhon stole Zeus’s thunderbolts, and Zeus could not function as weather god until he had regained them.
Ukraine Enters the Age of Mass Politics
Authors: Yekelchyk Serhy
Published: October 2023

At the dawn of the twentieth century, Ukraine was absent from the political map of Europe. The border between the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires divided present-day Ukrainian territory into a larger eastern part and a smaller western one, whose historical trajectories were increasingly divergent. Eastern, or Dnepr, Ukraine had lost the last vestiges of political autonomy in the eighteenth century, and vague memories of Cossack glory and ancient freedoms were all that remained of the Ukrainian political tradition. Western Ukraine, the regions of eastern Galicia, Bukovina, and Transcarpathia, was even further removed from its historical statehood during the princely era. To patriotic intellectuals at the time, defining “Ukraine” on the basis of its regions' distant claims to historical autonomy appeared difficult. Instead, nineteenth-century nationalism provided a new idea of what Ukraine was, namely, a territory populated by ethnic Ukrainians. By the late nineteenth century, an imaginary Ukraine stretching through the possessions of both the Romanovs and the Habsburgs already existed in the minds of nationalist activists.
Soviet Ukraine in the ????s:The Ukrainization Drive
Authors: Yekelchyk Serhy
Published: October 2023

The Ukrainian lands that became part of the Soviet state were constituted as the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic. Although in 1936 for some reason the Kremlin reversed the word order, making Ukraine and other republics “Soviet Socialist,” the nature of the republic’s sovereignty changed little in the next seventy years. Moscow made all major decisions concerning Ukraine, and every political turn of the centre was immediately imitated in the Soviet Ukrainian capital of Kharkov. Nevertheless, Ukrainian statehood mattered. For the first time in modern history, eastern Ukrainians had a territorial entity with borders closely corresponding to the ethnic boundaries of Ukrainian settlement. A part of the Soviet Union, the Ukrainian republic nonetheless provided a symbolic national homeland for generations of Soviet Ukrainians.
Ukraine under Stalin's Heirs
Authors: Yekelchyk Serhy
Published: October 2023

Stalin died in March 1953, leaving his successors a multinational world power, a socialist state covering a sixth of the globe's dry land and controlling additional satellites in Europe and Asia. Having won the bloodiest war in human history, the Soviet Union quickly managed to restore its industrial base. The Kremlin had eliminated all enemies real and imagined, including the almost complete suppression of Ukrainian nationalist insurgents in the newly incorporated territories. Stalinist bureaucrats did not fully control the fabric of everyday life, but they boasted the creation of a new Soviet person. Indeed, throughout the country, an increasing number of citizens had internalized Communist ideology and Soviet patriotism. Yet, Stalin's heirs realized that they could no longer ask for sacrifices from the people without providing them with a better life. They repudiated terror and eliminated the worst irrational features of Stalinist governance, while preserving their commitment to the socialist project. For more than thirty years, the successors of Stalin tried to construct Soviet “normalcy”-a socialist society not burdened by wars, reconstructions, and the purging of enemies.
Politics in Verginia: 1758-1774
Authors: Nagel Paul C
Published: October 2023

While he could be as self-centered as Colonel Phil, Richard Henry’s nature was far more complex. Even his imposing presence was misleading, for he was actually frail. He suffered from epilepsy and he sometimes drank to excess. The fingers from his left hand were missing, blown off when a gun exploded during a mishap while hunting swans in 1767. He kept the deformity covered with black silk, leaving only the thumb exposed. Such delicacy, however, did not preclude Richard Henry’s being a fierce hater. A brutal political foe, yet he was just as strenuously affectionate and loyal toward his friends. Particularly, Richard Henry was devoted to his brothers, who often called him R.H. They appeared willing to follow his every command of which he uttered many, usually beginning: “You will “Because of animosity in the family toward Colonel Phil and because of the comradeship Richard Henry offered his brothers, his residence at Chantilly replaced Stratford as capital for the Lee family. Chantilly became the brothers’ rallying point. Even so, a walk of three miles was all that separated the two dwellings, and relations between Stratford and Chantilly were never broken.
Chapter Two
Authors: Parsons Lynn Hudson
Published: October 2023

In 1817 Andrew Jackson and John Quincy Adams each turned fifty. They belonged to what might be called the “second generation” of American political leaders, born in the eighteenth century but too young to have played any significant role in the outcome of either the American Revolution or the establishment of the Republic. (Jackson’s teenage confrontation with the British officer would nonetheless be highlighted in his presidential campaigns.) Their contemporaries, all of whom emerged on the national scene in the years following the War of 1812, included Henry Clay of Kentucky, John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, and Martin Van Buren of New York, each of whom was destined to play a significant role in the lives of both Jackson and Adams. The new president, James Monroe, however, belonged to the “first generation,” along with Washington, Jefferson, Madison, and John Adams. The “last of the cocked hats,” Monroe took the oath of office in March 1817 wearing the knee breeches and shoe buckles of an earlier day.
Chapter Three
Authors: Parsons Lynn Hudson
Published: October 2023

In 1824, for the first time, most American adult white males had the opportunity to participate in a presidential election. That year’s election is the first for which we have meaningful returns. It also remains the only election thus far to be resolved by the House of Representatives in accordance with the Constitution’s Twelfth Amendment. The House awarded the presidency to John Quincy Adams and denied it to Andrew Jackson, bringing about a permanent rupture between the two men. The outcome guaranteed that all future presidential elections would be conducted under rules not envisioned by the Founders of the Republic.
The Revelationist Tradition
Authors: Turvey Malcolm
Published: October 2023

We have seen how the belief that human vision fails to see the true nature of reality informs the work of Epstein, Vertov, Balázs, and Kracauer, and we have located the immediate sources of this belief. In this chapter I examine more closely the various truths about reality that are revealed by the cinema, according to these theorists, and ask whether the naked eye is really too weak to see them, as they argue.

Due to the influence of Bergson’s metaphysics, the most important of these truths for Epstein is mobility, and we have already examined the spatial implications of this concept for his flim theory, his claim that the cinema reveals the inner mobile essence or being of objects normally invisible to human sight.
The Lure of Visual Skepticism
Authors: Turvey Malcolm
Published: October 2023

A distrust of human vision has played a foundational role in flim theory. It helped give rise to the revelationist tradition within classical flim theory and has continued to inform flim theorizing since the 1960s. Where does this visual skepticism come from, and what explains its enduring appeal to flim theorists?

The answer can be found in artistic modernism where, as much recent scholarship in art history and other disciplines has demonstrated, there is a marked distrust of sight. Rosalind Krauss, for example, has argued that there is a reaction among certain avant-garde artists from the 1920s onward against an idealization of vision that, she believes, is a feature of much modernist art, especially abstract painting and sculpture.