bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Caine Barbara
Published: November 2023

This book began as a study of the Strachey women and grew out of my research on the history of English feminism. As I was working through the records of the women’s suffrage movement in 1994, I came increasingly to think that the story of Jane Strachey and her daughters, Philippa and Pernel, offered a rare insight into British feminist interests and activities spanning two generations and more than half a century, from the 1890s until the 1950s. An added interest was provided by one of Jane’s daughters-in-law, Ray Strachey, whose book, The Cause, still remains one of the best-known histories of the British women’s movement. Ray married into the Strachey family in 1911, bringing into the Strachey story both a woman who combined a working life with marriage and a particularly close female friendship.
Does Linguistic Competence Require Knowledge of Language?
Authors: Matthews Robert J
Published: November 2023

Among the most basic tenets of modern linguistic theory are the claims that competence in speaking and understanding a natural language requires knowledge of that language, that such knowledge is propositional in nature, and that it is the task of linguistic theory to characterize this propositional knowledge. More than a few philosophers have challenged these three tenets. They argue either that what linguists call ‘knowledge’ of language does not deserve the name, or if it does, then ordinary speakers do not have it, or if they do have it, then they do not use it, or if they do use it, then it is not propositional, or if it is propositional and speakers do use it, then at least such knowledge is not what linguistic theory in fact characterizes. So in one way or another, linguists are mistaken in their basic supposition that linguistic competence requires knowledge of language of a sort that a linguistic theory might characterize.
Remembering, Imagining, and the First Person
Authors: Higginbotham James
Published: November 2023

It iswidely supposed that certain uses of anaphoric forms (pronouns, reflexives, and others to be discussed below) give rise to peculiarly ‘first-personal’ interpretations, and it has become customary following David Lewis (1979) to call these interpretations de se.
Comparative Vocal Production and the Evolution of Speech: Reinterpreting the Descent of the Larynx
Authors: Fitch W Tecumseh
Published: November 2023

Since Darwin the comparative method has been recognized as one of the most powerful tools for deriving and testing hypotheses about evolution. The comparative method provides a principled way to use empirical data from living animals to deduce the behavioural abilities of extinct common ancestors, along with clues to the adaptive function of those abilities. For example, in the study of the evolution of speech, analysis of the vocal behaviour of non-human primates can help identify homologies (characteristics shared by common descent), which in turn allow us to infer the presence or absence of particular characteristics in shared ancestors. Second, examples of convergent evolution (where similar traits have evolved independently in different lineages, presumably due to similar selective forces) can provide clues to the types of problems that particular morphological or behavioural mechanisms are ‘designed’ to solve. Unfortunately, we know much more about human speech than we do about vocal communication in any other species, and thus the empirical database for comparative study is weaker than desirable.
Sexual Display as a Syntactical Vehicle: The Evolution of Syntax in Birdsong and Human Language through Sexual Selection
Authors: Okanoya Kazuo
Published: November 2023

In addition to natural selection, sexual selection is another Darwinian force that enables evolution. Sexual selection functions when a member of one sex selects an individual of the other sex as their reproductive partner based on particular traits. The traits do not necessarily have survival value: an arbitrary trait without survival value could evolve by sexual selection, just because one sex prefers that trait in the other sex. The idea of sexual selection was first presented by Darwin (1871),and was advanced by Fisher, Hamilton, and Zahavi, among others (Cronin 1991). Darwin saw the possibility of applying this idea to explain the origin of language, but until recently there have been few attempts to pursue this. Where, in recent years, sexual selection has been invoked, it has focused on functional properties (Dunbar 1996; Miller 2000), not syntactic ones.
Dual Processing in Protolanguage: Performance without Competence
Authors: Wray Alison
Published: November 2023

There is a considerable body of research on formulaicity in language, spanning over 150 years and encompassing adult and child, native and nonnative, normal and aphasic speech and writing (see Wray 1999 and 2002 for reviews). A plausible way of accounting for the linguistic patterns revealed by this research is to recognize two distinct processing strategies (e.g. Becker 1975; Bolinger 1976; Ellis 1996; Langacker 1987; Sinclair 1991; Wray 1992). An analytic1 strategy combines individual morphemes and words by means of grammatical rules to offer us the scope to say anything that we might ever wish to, whether or not we have said, or encountered, it before.
Did Language Evolve from Manual Gestures?
Authors: Corballis Michael C
Published: November 2023

The theory that language evolved from manual gestures rather than vocalizations goes back at least to Condillac in 1746, but was given its modern shape by Hewes in 1973. Since then, supporting evidence has continued to accumulate. However, the theory has not found wide acceptance. One reason may be that it is seen to undermine the huge body of work on phonological aspects of language, and on the notion that ‘speech is special’ (Liberman 1982: 148). Another is that it may seem to lack parsimony. Speech seems so much a natural part of the human condition that one might ask why it should be necessary to postulate that language emerged from an entirely different channel of communication.
The State: The View from Within
Authors: Alexander Catherine
Published: November 2023

The state is understood by the bureaucrats who work in the central headquarters of the General Directorate of the Sugar Corporation quite differently from their colleagues in far-flung outposts. For these officials, physically situated within the central bureaucracy, the state is experienced more as a series of endlessly shifting relations between groups and cliques, all inside the bureaucracy but profoundly affected by the volatile political environment in which they are embedded. Just as diving beneath the skin reveals only interconnecting nerves and sinews fraying into ever finer strands so, at close quarters, the whole vanishes to be replaced with connections.
The Practice of Contracts
Authors: Alexander Catherine
Published: November 2023

Gokalp’s maxim cited above was repeated to me several times in the Erzurum factory, in western factories, and in the Sugar General Directorate (GD). Clearly, the idea of a social level giving meaning to the individual components continues to resonate, even if not generally spoken of in the nationalist terms in which it was first conceived. Government officials, workers, and farmers all used this idea to try to convey the importance of co-operation, mutual aid, and the voluntaristic reaching out beyond the self to transcend the self. Rationalizations were also given, rooted either in an idea of quid pro quo, ‘do as you would be done by’, or more mystical sources1 whereby a merging with Allah is seen to be paralleled, or enacted through a dissolution of the boundaries of self into love of one’s fellow man.
The Forging of a Colonial Army 1921–1930
Authors: Balfour Sebastian
Published: November 2023

The disaster of Anual transformed the meaning of the colonial war for both soldiers and civilians. The driving force of the professionals of the colonial army in the months and years that followed was a spirit of compulsive revenge. Many officers and soldiers had lost comrades in the debacle. As in all wars, the loss of close friends encouraged murderous aggression among the survivors and erased any lingering sense of guilt at the methods used to avenge their death.
Repression and Conspiracy
Authors: Balfour Sebastian
Published: November 2023

The proclamation of the Republic on 14 April 1931 was greeted with deeply contradictory responses within Spain. For many Spaniards, the Republic rep- resented the ﬁrst real democracy in a country hitherto ruled by an oligarchy backed by a reactionary clergy and a repressive military establishment. Primo de Rivera had resigned in January 1930 after his regime had become discredited and died two months later in exile in Paris. He was replaced by General Dámaso Berenguer, whose aim had been to engineer a return to the pre- dictatorship constitutional monarchy. But neither he nor his military successor were able to overcome the shift in popular opinion against the monarchy that had gathered pace since Primo de Rivera seized power with the king’s blessing in 1923.
The Vice-Viceroy: India 1872-1876
Authors: Owen Roger
Published: November 2023

Lord Northbrook and Evelyn Baring travelled out to India together in March-April 1872, leaving Northbrook’ s two surviving children, Frank (21), who had been appointed as one of the Viceroy’ s aides-de-camp, and Emma (18), to join them later, when the weather was less hot. They took the train to Marseilles, a boat to Alexandria, and another train to Cairo, where they were entertained in great style by the ruler, the Khedive Ismail Pasha. It was Earing’ s first visit to the city in which he would live for so much of the rest of his life.
Cracking the Whip 1892-1895
Authors: Owen Roger
Published: November 2023

Baring, who chose the name of his birthplace as his title when he became Lord Cromer in March 1892, faced two new and related problems which had to be surmounted before he could establish his power in Egypt on a permanent basis. One was the sudden death of the Khedive Taufiq in January 1892, followed by the accession of his new and untried son Abbas Hilmi, now Abbas II. The other was the long-awaited return of what proved to be Gladstone’ s last Liberal government in the autumn with a majority of ministers who still supported the idea of British evacuation.
Years of Economic Success 1900-1904
Authors: Owen Roger
Published: November 2023

The year 1898 marked a famous victory not only over the Khalifa’ s army but also over the French. In the first place France had been outmanoeuvred in its attempt to use the Caisse to prevent Egypt’ s reserves from being spent on both the military expedition and the proposed dam at Aswan. Secondly, the appearance of Cassel, as well as his ability to work with local bankers like the Suares brothers, who had formerly been closely identified with French capital, opened up the way for British investment in a way that Cromer had long been trying to promote.
The Paradigmatic Structure Of Person Marking
Authors: Cysouw Michael
Published: November 2023

This book explores person markers, the linguistic elements that provide points of reference to speech-act participants. Michael Cysouw develops a new framework for the typology of person marking based on the rejection of the notion of plurality for its analysis. When a mother says “Mummy is going to say goodnight now”, Mummy is the person marker in a way that in English is confined to mothers but which is used more commonly in some other languages and may also be characteristic of much earlier forms. Dr Cysouw divides the person markers of 400 languages into paradigms. He considers how the structure of these person paradigms relates to their function. His investigation provides a clear account of how person markers work syntactically, pragmatically, and semantically as well as giving fresh insights into aspects of linguistic change, language-relatedness, and the interfaces between discourse, syntax, and semantics. The combination of a typological and a comparative approach results in the first outline of a cognitive map of the paradigmatic structure of person marking.
Group Marking: Redefining Plurality in the Pronominal Domain
Authors: Cysouw Michael
Published: November 2023

After singular comes non-singular. In this chapter, the first-cautious-steps are taken into the domain of non-singular pronominal reference. The diversity of non-singular pronominal marking is so extensive that all the following chapters will deal with some aspect of this theme. In this chapter, the basic framework for the analysis of non-singular marking will be developed. The main objective of this chapter is to redefine the notion of plurality in the pronominal domain. The notion GROUP is proposed to replace plurality. This perspective is not completely different from the traditional one. The difference between ‘plural’ and ‘group’ only amounts to a small change, but the new perspective allows for a cross-linguistically more sensible typology. A few consequences of the new definition are discussed in this chapter, but the full typology on the basis of this perspective is postponed to the next chapter. This chapter starts with a discussion of the definition of the phenomena to be reviewed. These definitional aspects of non-singular marking will be discussed in Section 3.2. Next, the terminology needed to talk about non-singular marking will be discussed in Section 3.3. In this section, the problems with the traditional notion of plurality in the pronominal domain are summarized. The notion GROUP is proposed to improve on the deficiencies of plural. Equipped with a proper definition and terminology of group marking, I will review the theoretically possible categories within these definitional boundaries in Section 3.4. A complete typology on the basis of the possible categories turns out to be rather laborious.
Victims and Voyeurs: Travelling in Famine Ireland
Authors: Fegan Melissa
Published: November 2023

In spite of-or because of-its reputation for poverty, violence, and frequent famines, Ireland proved an attractive destination in the decades between the Act of Union and the Great Famine. English and foreign aristocrats, political and social commentators, philanthropists, economists, poets, journalists, and bona-fide travel writers thronged to this unlikely holiday resort.
The Immigrant’s Evasion: The Subtext of Trollope’s ‘Famine’ Novels
Authors: Fegan Melissa
Published: November 2023

In September 1841 the 26-year-old unknown Anthony Trollope arrived in Ireland to take up the position of clerk to the Post-Office Surveyor in Banagher, King’s County. When he returned to England eighteen years later, he had established a reputation as a highly efficient trouble-shooter, and as the promising author of several novels and travel-books, including The Warden and Barchester Towers. He had been commissioned to write a leading serial for the Cornhill Magazine–Framley Parsonage–and was poised on the brink of his first major success.
A Victorian Wanderer
Authors: Bergonzi Bernard
Published: November 2023

A biography of Matthew Arnold’s Catholic younger brother Tom, a scholar, teacher, and self-styled ‘wanderer’. Arnold’s path in life took him, after a brilliant start at Oxford, to colonial New Zealand, to Tasmania, to Dublin, back to Oxford, and once more to Dublin, where he died in 1900. His spiritual wanderings led him into the Catholic Church, then out of it for some years, and finally back to it. He was close both to Matthew and to John Henry Newman, and his relations with them show unfamiliar aspects of these eminent Victorians. As a young man, Tom Arnold knew the elderly Wordsworth, and Arthur Hugh Clough was his closest friend. He was acquainted with such celebrated Oxford personalities as Benjamin Jowett, Mark Pattison, and Lewis Carroll; as a Professor of English in Dublin he was a colleague of Gerard Manley Hopkins; and in the last year of his life he read and approved of an undergraduate essay by James Joyce. The book makes an original contribution to Victorian studies at the same time as telling an absorbing human story. An appendix contains a previously unpublished letter from Matthew Arnold to his brother.
The Phonology And Morphology Of Arabic
Authors: Watson Janet C E
Published: November 2023

This book is the first comprehensive account of the phonology and morphology of Arabic. It is a pioneering work of scholarship, based on the author's research in the region. Arabic is a Semitic language spoken by some 250 million people in an area stretching from Morocco in the West to parts of Iran in the East. Apart from its great intrinsic interest, the importance of the language for phonological and morphological theory lies, as the author shows, in its rich root-and-pattern morphology and its large set of guttural consonants. Dr Watson focuses on two eastern dialects, Cairene and San'ani. Cairene is typical of an advanced urban Mediterranean dialect and has a cultural importance throughout the Arab world; it is also the variety learned by most foreign speakers of Arabic. San'ani, spoken in Yemen, is representative of a conservative peninsula dialect. In addition the book makes extensive reference to other dialects as well as to classical and Modern Standard Arabic. The volume opens with an overview of the history and varieties of Arabic, and of the study of phonology within the Arab linguistic tradition. Successive chapters then cover dialectal differences and similarities, and the position of Arabic within Semitic; the phoneme system and the representation of phonological features; the syllable and syllabification; word stress; derivational morphology; inflectional morphology; lexical phonology; and post-lexical phonology. The Phonology and Morphology of Arabic will be of great interest to Arabists and comparative Semiticists, as well as to phonologists, morphologists, and linguists more generally.
The Phonology of Catalan
Authors: Wheeler Max W
Published: November 2023

This is the most comprehensive account of Catalan phonology ever published. Catalan is a Romance language, occupying a position somewhere between French, Spanish, and Italian. It is the first language of six and a half million people in the northeastern Spain and of the peoples of Andorra, French Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, and a small region of Sardinia. Dr Wheeler describes Barcelona pronunciation and the major varieties of western Catalonia, Valencia, and Majorca, and considers social and stylistic variation. The author's approach is through a clear, pragmatic version of orthodox Optimality Theory and is informed by close attention to articulatory phonetics. He includes a substantial account of post-lexical (phrasal) phonology and has designed his approach to be of maximum use to those seeking either to understand the phonology and morphology of Catalan and its varieties or to set these within a comparative or typological perspective. After an introduction to the varieties of Catalan the author devotes chapters to segment inventories; syllable structure; phrasal phonology; coda voicing; coda place; cluster reduction; epenthesis; stress and prosody; word phonology and allomorphy; and the syllabification of pronominal clitics. The book is fully referenced and contains a comprehensive bibliography. It is likely to be the standard account of its subject for many years.
Phonological Primitives and Segment Inventories
Authors: Wheeler Max W
Published: November 2023

In this section I introduce the major consonant types found in Catalan (Julià 2002). Table 2.1 sets out the consonant types, according to articulatory criteria. Not all the distinctions in the table are phonemic. The labels for place of articulation correspond to the realization of consonants in the contexts least affected by coarticulation, that is, basically, prevocalic position. A more precise classification of the place of articulation of coronals identifies [t], [d]/[ð] as having both dental and alveolar contact; [λ] and [ɲ] are front alveolo-palatal; and [⎰]/[3] and [t⎰]/[d3] are back alveolo-palatal (Recasens abd Pallarès 2001b). The discussion theen foucuses on issues of phonemic interpretation, phonemic contrast, and lexcial incidence, drawing attention to some interesting differences between Catalan dialects.
Phrasal Phonology: Vowel Sandhi
Authors: Wheeler Max W
Published: November 2023

The issue of vowel sandhi in Catalan is one of considerable complexity and challenge. Chapter 4 in Recasens (1993) is a rich (and dense) source of data, and of interpretation; the data I treat here is largely from this source. To see the wood for the trees is no small challenge. Many words in Catalan are vowel-initial or vowel-final. When a vowel-final and vowel-initial word are adjacent in a phrase, one of four possible outcomes is at issue: hiatus (no change to the shape of the words as uttered in isolation), and three types of syllable reductions which are deviations from ‘faithfulness’: glide formation (if one of the vowels in contact is high), fusion (if the vowels in contact are identical), and elision. (Fusion might be thought to be subsumed under elision, but for the moment it is convenient to keep them apart.) Broadly speaking we might expect unfaithfulness to a V.V sequence, involving reduction, to be driven by the Onset constraint (syllables should have onsets: see Chapter 3). In fact, Onset hardly ever proves to be the crucial constraint.
Cluster Reduction
Authors: Wheeler Max W
Published: November 2023

One of the phenomena of Catalan phonology that has given rise to some discussion in the phonological literature is ‘homorganic stop deletion’, the process by which, for example, pont/pent/ ‘bridge’ is pronounced [pen] in most of Catalonia and in Ibiza. This process is usually linked to a more general one of cluster reduction affecting complex codas. In many varieties, a preconsonantal coda is generally limited to two consonants; thus parts baixes/part + z + a ∫ a + z/ ‘lower parts’ is pronounced [ parz. β aS∫ s], a reduction process that has yet more far- reaching effects in Majorcan. In Majorcan, with a limited exception, no more than one consonant can stand in a pre-consonantal coda, so in that variety parts baixesis pronounced [ par β aS∫ s]. Dols (2002) gives a survey of clusters and cluster reduction in Catalan. Within Generative Phonology Catalan homorganic stop deletion has been treated by Lleó (1970: 25–9), Wheeler (1975/9: 280–87), Mascaró (1983: 100–11; 1985; 1989), Iverson (1993a, 1993b), Morales (1995), and Bonet & Lloret (1998: 108–14). These authors were largely concerned with correctly identifying the limits of the phenomenon, and formulating deletion rules accordingly. Majorcan clusters in particular are the focus in Dols (1993; 2001). Optimality perspectives on cluster deletion were introduced to the Catalan data by Colina (1995) and by Jiménez (1996a; 1999: 189–242). Jiménez’s account provides data (especially Valencian) and inspiration for the treatment offered here, though there are significant differences. As usual, Recasens provides comprehensive data (1993: 167–9, 196–201, and esp. 1991b: 181–351 for dialect variation). Majorcan data originally assembled by Bibiloni are set out in Dols (1993), and given an Optimality account in Dols (2000: 311–48). The works of Dols (1993; 2000) are the source of most of the Majorcan data presented here. I use the general terminology ‘cluster reduction’ so as not to prejudice the interpretation of the phenomenon. From the perspective of OT correspondence theory, reduction could reflect deletion in the strict sense (with Max violation), or alternatively, fusion (with some IDENT violation, along with Uniformity violation).
Stress, Feet, and Phrases
Authors: Wheeler Max W
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with the suprasegmental phenomena of stress and rhythm in Catalan. The main part offers an analysis of lexical accent; then in (§9.6) a provisional account of rhythm in the intonation phrase is suggested. With some limitations to be described shortly, the position of word stress in Catalan is contrastive.
Introduction: Debating Desert and Justice
Authors: Olsaretti Serena
Published: November 2023

The view that desert and justice are intimately related has a troubled history. Aristotle thought it obvious that ‘all men agree that what is just in distribution must be according to desert in some sense’,1 but desert has been largely absent from contemporary discussions about distributive justice, and its decline predicted by more than one observer over the last few decades.2 However, desert has never completely lost its hold on theorizing about justice, and recently a number of moral and political philosophers have joined more long-standing desert theorists3 in examining this notion and its role for distributive justice.4 This volume is testimony to a growing interest in desert.
Distributive Justice and Compensatory Desert
Authors: Olsaretti Serena
Published: November 2023

The idea that inequalities in earned incomes can be deserved as compensation for job-related costs enjoys some currency even among theorists who are otherwise sceptical about justifying economic rewards by appeal to desert. Joel Feinberg, for instance, holds that, although we frequently make claims of economic desert, such claims cannot be defended in so far as they appeal to ideas of reward for moral worthiness or ability, or to the idea of deserving prizes for displaying special skills. The only way in which earned incomes may be seen as deserved, Feinberg continues, is by viewing them as compensatory payments for exceptionally costly or hazardous work.1 Other desert theorists are sympathetic to the ideal of compensatory desert and to giving it some role in justifying economic rewards, claiming that at least some such rewards are deserved compensation for the costs people incur in their occupations.2
‘The World in a Grain of Sand’: Large-Scale Urban Development Projects and the Dynamics of ‘Glocal’ Transformations
Authors: Swyngedouw Erik , Moulaert Frank , Rodríguez Arantxa
Published: November 2023

This book is structured around the view that large-scale Urban Development Projects (UDPs) are the embodiment of processes that operate in and over a variety of scales, from the local to the global. These urban interventions are as it were ‘grains of sand’, albeit of a particularly rough-edged variety, that hold the world’s complex socio-spatial and political-economic configuration in their crystalline structure. They are part of a process of profound restructuring that over the past few decades has transformed the urban landscape in unexpected, perplexing, and often disturbing ways.
Facing Fiscal Crisis: Urban Flagship Projects in Berlin
Authors: HauBermann Hartmut , Simons Katja
Published: November 2023

Great changes have taken place in Berlin since 1990. Reunification brought about a profound transformation of the political and socio-economic life of the city, as well as transforming its spatial structure. Several interrelated processes shape this dynamic urban redevelopment: the transformation from a socialist to a capitalist order in the East, spatial changes as a consequence of reunification, and the restructuring of the urban economy. A major change has been the post-socialist transition of the Eastern part of the city, which has altered all conditions for urban development (Hau13ermann 1997).
Urban Development for Competitiveness and Cohesion: The Expo 98 Urban Project in Lisbon
Authors: Cabral Joao , Rato Berta
Published: November 2023

The Expo 98 urban project on the east side of Lisbon started as an event to celebrate Portuguese discoveries. The promotion of, and justification for, the location of the Expo in the old industrial eastern part of Lisbon was that the implementation of this Urban Development Plan (UDP) would contribute to the regeneration of a derelict and neglected part of the city. The financial and institutional investment necessary for putting together this enterprise was also justified as a key element of the national strategy to assert the position of Lisbon as a capital city in the European Union.
Writings In General Linguistics
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

Ferdinand de Saussure's Cours de linguistique générale was posthumously composed by his students from the notes they had made at his lectures. The book became one of the most influential works of the twentieth century, giving direction to modern linguistics and inspiration to literary and cultural theory. Before he died Saussure told friends he was writing up the lectures himself but no evidence of this was found. Eighty years later in 1996 a manuscript in Saussure's hand was discovered in the orangerie of his family house in Geneva. This proved to be the missing original of the great work. It is published now in English for the first time in an edition edited by Simon Bouquet and Rudolf Engler, and translated and introduced by Carol Sanders and Matthew Pires, all leading Saussure scholars. The book includes an earlier discovered manuscript on the philosophy of language, Saussure's own notes for lectures, and a comprehensive bibliography of major work on Saussure from 1970 to 2004. It is remarkable that for eighty years the understanding of Saussure's thought has depended on an incomplete and non-definitive text, the sometimes aphoristic formulations of which gave rise to many creative interpretations and arguments for and against Saussure. Did he, or did he not, see language as a-social and a-historical? Did he, or did he not, rule out the study of speech within linguistics? Was he a reductionist? These disputes and many others can now be resolved on basis of the work now published. This reveals new depth and subtetly in Saussure's thoughts on the nature and complex workings of language, particularly his famous binary oppositions between form and meaning, the sign and what is signified, and language (langue) and its performance (parole).
The Litratur Of Ancient Sumer
Authors: Black Jeremy , Cunningham Graham , Robson Eleanor , Zólyomi Brá
Published: November 2023

This anthology of Sumerian literature constitutes the most comprehensive collection ever published, and includes examples of most of the different types of composition written in the language, from narrative myths and lyrical hymns to proverbs and love poetry. The translations have benefited both from the work of many scholars and from our ever-increasing understanding of Sumerian. In addition to reflecting the advances made by modern scholarship, the translations are written in clear, accessible English. An extensive introduction discusses the literary qualities of the works, the people who created and copied them in ancient Iraq, and how the study of Sumerian literature has evolved over the last 150 years.
Entrepreneurs
Authors: Langdon John
Published: November 2023

Given the large number of mills and the capital needed to construct and maintain them, some entrepreneurial spirit at least was clearly alive in the late medieval milling industry. Even in the darkest period of the mid-fifteenth century, there were people willing to risk their time and money in milling. Yet, defining what constituted an entrepreneur has been difficult to do for any time in history, and the later Middle Ages are no exception. Part of this involves uncertainty over the nature of capital at the time. From at least the thirteenth century onwards, England was effectively a monetized economy, even when bullion was scarce. As a result, the rents, securities, and capital advancement for milling construction expressed in cash terms in various manorial and other documents probably should be considered as exactly that-that is, payments in coin.
Language Policy and Language Rights
Authors: Bradley David
Published: November 2023

In most countries along the Pacific Rim, there is an increasing mismatch between official policy, which has become progressively more liberal and supportive of minority linguistic and other rights, and the reality of continuing loss of indigenous minority languages. This is partly because assimilationist policies, explicit or implicit, had been under way for centuries or millennia before recent changes; and because members of minority groups themselves choose for economic and social reasons to continue to assimilate, despite now having nominal linguistic rights. As countries develop and economic security is approached, many governments allow their minorities the luxury of some language and cultural rights. This does not change the underlying attitude of the majority group, and it also does not necessarily lead to a positive change in the attitudes and choices of members of minority groups.
Minority Languages of China
Authors: Poa Dory , LaPolla Randy J
Published: November 2023

This chapter looks at language endangerment in the People ‘s Republic of China, focusing on three of the main factors that influence language maintenance in China today: increased contact due to population movements and changes in the economy; the population policies of the government, particularly the identification of nationalities and languages; and the education system, particularly bilingual education. Finally, we give a brief account of the major efforts to document endangered languages. China officially recognizes fifty-six nationalities (minzú), with the Han nationality comprising about 91.5 per cent of the population of 1.24 billion people, and the other fifty-five nationalities plus 734,438 unclassified people making up only 8.5 per cent of the population (2000 census).
Native Languages of Alaska
Authors: Krauss Michael E
Published: November 2023

Alaska is the original American homeland of two great language families, Eskimo-Aleut and Athabaskan-Eyak-Tlingit, both of which have spread dramatically beyond Alaska. Conversely, two minor families have recently also spread into extreme south-eastern Alaska. One is Haida, one or two languages, the northern variety of which spread from the Queen Charlotte Islands to southern Prince of Wales Island during the eighteenth century, and the other is Tsimshianic, three or four languages, the Coastal variety of which spread to Annette Island in 1887. Eskimo-Aleut spread from Alaska far east over the Canadian Arctic to reach Greenland 1,000 years ago, but all the deeper diversity of the family is still in Alaska (and neighbouring Russia: Chukotka and the Commander Islands).
Background
Authors: Ackroyd Marcus , Brockliss Laurence , Moss Michael , Retford Kate , Stevenson John
Published: November 2023

According to the census of 1811, 57 per cent of the population of the British Isles lived in England and Wales, 33 per cent in Ireland, and only 10 per cent in Scotland. Recruits into the army medical service, on the other hand, were disproportionately drawn from north of the Tweed. The country of birth of 312 of the 454 army surgeons who comprise the database cohort is recorded on the pro forma that they were required to fill in at the end of the French wars. In addition, the putative origins of a further 114 can be deduced from the information that the pro forma provides about the cohort’s apprenticeship.1
Army Careers
Authors: Ackroyd Marcus , Brockliss Laurence , Moss Michael , Retford Kate , Stevenson John
Published: November 2023

Throughout the French wars anyone who aspired to become an army medical officer had first to demonstrate orally his knowledge of surgery before one of the royal colleges and then, from 1798, his abilities as a physician before the Army Medical Board. Even those with a medical degree had to take the army surgical diploma: only those who were already members of one of the colleges of surgery by dint of their having taken its general licence were exempt.1 Candidates could choose to be examined for a simple assistant’s diploma at a cost of 1 guinea or a regimental surgeon’s qualification at 3 guineas, rising to 2 and 5 respectively in 1810.2 Obviously, those who took the former had to appear for a second time before one of the college boards of examiners if they wanted to progress in the medical corps.
Enquiring Minds
Authors: Ackroyd Marcus , Brockliss Laurence , Moss Michael , Retford Kate , Stevenson John
Published: November 2023

In 1793 Edward Walsh, an alumnus of Edinburgh University and of Trinity College Dublin, and a future physician to the forces, published his Bagatelles, or Poetical Sketches, a compendium of verse, epigrams, and translations. By the author’s own concession, the pieces—among them his rendition of the Marseillaise—were of ‘unequal merit’,1 a barely visible feature of the contemporary literary landscape in the year of Thomas Paine’s The Age of Reason and William Blake’s Visions of the Daughters of Albion. Yet Walsh’s mere Bagatelles, published four years before he joined the service, are indicative of the reach and scope of a significant proportion of our cohort’s interests beyond their professional careers in medical practice, including Walsh’s own much more substantial reflections resulting from his experience of the Dutch campaign of 1799.2
Presuppositions, Truth Values, and Expressing Propositions
Authors: Glanzberg Michael
Published: November 2023

Philosophers like to talk about propositions. There are many reasons for this. Perhaps the most common is that philosophers are sometimes more interested in the content of a thought or utterance than in the particular sentence or utterance that might express it on some occasion. Propositions are offered as these contents. Like many philosophical notions, this one has been the subject of extensive debate. For instance, it has been challenged on the basis of Quinean queasiness about intensional objects, and Chomskian qualms about the explanatory value of truth-conditional semantics. These are foundational worries about the notion of proposition. But there is another kind of worry about propositions, which leads to the topic of this chapter.
Contested Images of Gender
Authors: Hohnen Pernille
Published: November 2023

The Gariūnai market as a non-Lithuanian space may be connected with several antagonistic ethnic discourses inside and outside the market as well as with changes in the principles for constructing national and ethnic differences after Lithuania’s independence. However, the ‘disorder’ of the market can also be examined from another angle: images of gender, gender roles, and gender identities.
Work versus Trading
Authors: Hohnen Pernille
Published: November 2023

The conceptualization of Gariū nai as bardakas may be further illuminated by turning to a third and final theme, the changes of practice and discourses of ‘work’ in Soviet society and in the recently established Lithuanian State. Although I have placed it last, the changing perceptions of work and related ideas of the workplace and unemployment that are being revealed in the market appear in many ways to be fundamental to the previous two themes as well.
Creative Plagiarism: Agostino Nifo’s De regnandi peritia
Authors: Anglo Sydney
Published: November 2023

In 1521 Agostino Nifo, Professor of Philosophy at the University of Pisa, published a treatise on the behaviour of the best princes, which he dedicated to the insignificant rulers of the insignificant town of Sessa. It dealt with the necessity of prudence, justice, modesty, clemency, piety, honesty, magniflcence, liberality, fortitude, and temperance; the desirability of such skills as painting, music, athletics, and a knowledge of history; and with the worldly glory and eternal beatitude to be enjoyed by the ruler possessing these virtues and accomplishments.
In the Wake of Gentillet: The Evolution of the ‘Machiavel’ Stereotype in France and England
Authors: Anglo Sydney
Published: November 2023

The first edition of Gentillet’s masterpiece had been published anonymously in Geneva; and the earliest response came, appropriately, from the Italian community there. Not only had their Florentine compatriot Machiavelli been attacked (which probably did not bother them unduly) but their whole nation had been scorned and reviled. Gentillet had generously acknowledged the possibility that there were, among the Italians, some virtuous people: ‘for there is not so bad a ground, which amongst diverse and sundrie evill plants, bringeth not out some good’. Indeed, he continued, a virtuous Italian was to be especially praised ‘because they are rare, and for that it is no triviall and common thing in Italie to be a vertuous and good man’.
Systematic Immorality: The Courtier’s Art
Authors: Anglo Sydney
Published: November 2023

‘Machiavellisme: subtill policie, cunning roguerie’. This is how Randle Cotgrave defined the word ‘Machiavellisme’ in his great Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues.1 By the beginning of the seventeenth century, Machiavelli’s name had been transformed from a proper to a common, and thoroughly improper, noun; and, as we have seen, his reputation had become so malodorous that, in Donne’s Ignatius his Conclave, published in the same year as Cotgrave’s Dictionarie, Loyola uses it to destroy Machiavel’s case for entry into Lucifer’s inner sanctum. It is not so much that Machiavel had not caused harmful innovations, but rather that everybody recognized him as a thoroughly bad lot and, as Cotgrave makes clear, his name had become synonymous not merely with political duplicity but rather with ‘cunning roguery’ in general. Indeed, by far the greater number of references to his name are of this kind. He came to personify the worldly-wise man who aims to succeed by any means, and this use of his name as a generalized term of opprobrium was so widespread that it is scarcely worth noting examples.
A Computational Model of the Semantics of Tense and Aspect
Authors: Passonneau Rebecca J
Published: November 2023

The PUNDIT text-processing system extracts temporal information about real-world situations from short message texts. This involves three complementary analyses. First, PUNDIT determines whether a situation has actual time associated with it. A reference to a possible or potential situation, for example, would need a different treatment. Second, it determines the temporal structure of the predicated situation, or the manner in which it evolves through time. Finally, it analyzes the temporal location of the actual situations with respect to the time of text production or to the times of other situations.
A Critical Examination of Allen’s Theory of Action and Time
Authors: Galton Antony
Published: November 2023

It has been recognized for some years now that in many areas of artificial intelligence there is a pressing need for efficient ways of representing everyday reasoning about time. Amongst the work that has been most influential in this area is that of Allen (1981, 1983, 1984) and McDermott (1982). McDermott identifies an adequate treatment of continuous change as one of the key requirements for a system to be able to reason about time realistically, and Allen, while not dealing explicitly with continuous change, mentions examples which involve it (e.g. a ball falling onto a table, a block on a rotating table).
Temporal Interpretation, Discourse Relations, and Commonsense Entailment*
Authors: Lascarides Alex , Asher Nicholas
Published: November 2023

An essential part of text interpretation involves calculating the relations between the events described. But sentential syntax and compositional semantics alone don’t provide the basis for doing this. The sentences in (1) and (2) have the same syntax, and so using compositional semantics one would predict that the events stand in similar temporal relations. But in (1) the order in which the events are described matches their temporal order, whereas in (2) descriptive order mismatches temporal order. At least, these are the natural interpretations of (1) and (2) unless the reader has information to the contrary. Similarly, the syntax of the sentences in texts (3) and (4) are similar, but the natural interpretations are different.
Tense as Discourse Anaphor
Authors: Webber Bonnie Lynn
Published: November 2023

Two types of expressions have previously been described in these terms: definite pronouns and certain definite noun phrases (NPs). Researchers in computational linguistics and in artificial intelligence have called these expressions anaphors (cf., Woods 1978, Sidner 1983, Bobrow 1986, Hirst 1981, Webber 1983). Linguists, however, have used this term somewhat differently. Many have restricted its use to expressions (usually pronouns) that can be treated analogously to variables in a logical language (Chomsky 1980).
A Multilingual Approach to Annotating and Extracting Temporal Information*
Authors: Wilson George , Mani Inderjeet , Sundheim Beth , Ferro Lisa
Published: November 2023

The processing of temporal information poses numerous challenges for NLP. Progress on these challenges may be accelerated through the use of corpus-based methods. This paper introduces a set of guidelines for annotating time expressions with a canonicalized representation of the times they refer to, and describes methods for extracting such time expressions from multiple languages. Applications that can benefit include information extraction (e.g., normalizing temporal references for database entry), question answering (answering ‘‘when’’ questions), summarization (temporally ordering information), machine translation (translating and normalizing temporal references), and information visualization (viewing event chronologies).
Assigning Time-Stamps to Event-Clauses
Authors: Filatova Elena , Hovy Eduard
Published: November 2023

Linguists who have analyzed news stories (Schokkenbroek, 1999; Bell, 1997; Ohtsuka and Brewer, 1992, etc.) noticed that ‘‘narratives are about more than one event and these events are temporally ordered. Though it seems most logical to recapitulate events in the order in which they happened, i.e. in chronological order, the events are often presented in a different sequence’’(Schokkenbroek, 1999). The same paper states that ‘‘it is important to reconstruct the underlying event order for narrative analysis to assign meaning to the sequence in which the events are narrated at the level of discourse structure.
From Temporal Expressions to Temporal Information: Semantic Tagging of News Messages
Authors: Schilder Frank , Habel Christopher
Published: November 2023

This paper describes a semantic tagging system that extracts temporal information from news messages. Temporal expressions are defined for this system as chunks of text that express some sort of direct or inferred temporal information. The set of these expressions investigated in the present paper includes dates (e.g. 08.04.2001), prepositional phrases (PPs) containing some time expression (e.g. on Friday), and verbs referring to a situation (e.g. opened ). Related work by Mani and Wilson (2000) focuses only on the core temporal expressions neglecting the temporal information conveyed by prepositions (e.g. Friday vs. by Friday).
The Specification Language TimeML
Authors: Pustejovsky James , Ingria Robert , Sauri´ Roser , O Jos E´ Castan˜ , Littman Jessica , Gaizauskas Rob , Setzer Andrea , Katz, Graham , Mani Inderjeet
Published: November 2023

The automatic recognition of temporal and event expressions in natural language text has recently become an active area of research in computational linguistics and semantics. In this paper, we report on TimeML, a specification language for events and temporal expressions, which was developed in the context of a six-month workshop, TERQAS, funded under the auspices of the AQUAINT program. The ARDA-funded program AQUAINT is a multiproject effort to improve the performance of question answering systems over free text, such as that encountered on the Web.