bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Winter and spring warming result in delayed spring phenology on the Tibetan Plateau
Authors: Yu Haiying , Luedeling Eike , Xu Jianchu
Published: November 2010

Climate change has caused advances in spring phases of many plant species. Theoretically, however, strong warming in winter could slow the fulfillment of chilling requirements, which may delay spring phenology. This phenomenon should be particularly pronounced in regions that are experiencing rapid temperature increases and are characterized by highly temperature-responsive vegetation. To test this hypothesis, we used the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index ratio method to determine the beginning, end, and length of the growing season of meadow and steppe vegetation of the Tibetan Plateau in Western China between 1982 and 2006. We then correlated observed phenological dates with monthly temperatures for the entire period on record. For both vegetation types, spring phenology initially advanced, but started retreating in the mid-1990s in spite of continued warming. Together with an advancing end of the growing season for steppe vegetation, this led to a shortening of the growing period. Partial least-squares regression indicated that temperatures in both winter and spring had strong effects on spring phenology. Although warm springs led to an advance of the growing season, warm conditions in winter caused a delay of the spring phases. This delay appeared to be related to later fulfillment of chilling requirements. Because most plants from temperate and cold climates experience a period of dormancy in winter, it seems likely that similar effects occur in other environments. Continued warming may strengthen this effect and attenuate or even reverse the advancing trend in spring phenology that has dominated climate-change responses of plants thus far.
UNC-45/CRO1/She4p (UCS) protein forms elongated dimer and joins two myosin heads near their actin binding region
Authors: Shi Hang , Blobel Günter
Published: November 2010

UNC-45/CRO1/She4p (UCS) proteins have variously been proposed to affect the folding, stability, and ATPase activity of myosins. They are the only proteins known to interact directly with the motor domain. To gain more insight into UCS function, we determined the atomic structure of the yeast UCS protein, She4p, at 2.9 Å resolution. We found that 16 helical repeats are organized into an L-shaped superhelix with an amphipathic N-terminal helix dangling off the short arm of the L-shaped molecule. In the crystal, She4p forms a 193-Å-long, zigzag-shaped dimer through three distinct and evolutionary conserved interfaces. We have identified She4p’s C-terminal region as a ligand for a 27-residue-long epitope on the myosin motor domain. Remarkably, this region consists of two adjacent, but distinct, binding epitopes localized at the nucleotide-responsive cleft between the nucleotide- and actin-filament-binding sites. One epitope is situated inside the cleft, the other outside the cleft. After ATP hydrolysis and Pi ejection, the cleft narrows at its base from 20 to 12 Å thereby occluding the inside the cleft epitope, while leaving the adjacent, outside the cleft binding epitope accessible to UCS binding. Hence, one cycle of higher and lower binding affinity would accompany one ATP hydrolysis cycle and a single step in the walk on an actin filament rope. We propose that a UCS dimer links two myosins at their motor domains and thereby functions as one of the determinants for step size of myosin on actin filaments.
Repression by an auxin/indole acetic acid protein connects auxin signaling with heat shock factor-mediated seed longevity
Authors: Carranco Raúl , Espinosa José Manuel , Prieto-Dapena Pilar , Almoguera Concepción , Jordano Juan
Published: November 2010

The plant hormone auxin regulates growth and development by modulating the stability of auxin/indole acetic acid (Aux/IAA) proteins, which in turn repress auxin response factors (ARFs) transcriptional regulators. In transient assays performed in immature sunflower embryos, we observed that the Aux/IAA protein HaIAA27 represses transcriptional activation by HaHSFA9, a heat shock transcription factor (HSF). We also found that HaIAA27 is stabilized in immature sunflower embryos, where we could show bimolecular fluorescence complementation interaction between native forms of HaIAA27 and HaHSFA9. An auxin-resistant form of HaIAA27 was overexpressed in transgenic tobacco seeds, leading to effects consistent with down-regulation of the orthologHSFA9gene, effects not seen with the native HaIAA27 form. Repression of HSFs by HaIAA27 is thus likely alleviated by auxin in maturing seeds. We show that HSFs such as HaHSFA9 are targets of Aux/IAA protein repression. Because HaHSFA9 controls a genetic program involved in seed longevity and embryonic desiccation tolerance, our findings would suggest a mechanism by which these processes can be auxin regulated. Aux/IAA-mediated repression involves transcription factors distinct from ARFs. This finding widens interpretation of auxin responses.
Neuroglobin, cytoglobin, and myoglobin contribute to hypoxia adaptation of the subterranean mole rat
Spalax
Authors: Avivi Aaron , Gerlach Frank , Joel Alma , Reuss Stefan , Burmester Thorsten , Nevo Eviatar , Hankeln Thomas
Published: November 2010

The subterranean mole rat
Spalax
is an excellent model for studying adaptation of a mammal toward chronic environmental hypoxia. Neuroglobin (Ngb) and cytoglobin (Cygb) are O
2
-binding respiratory proteins and thus candidates for being involved in molecular hypoxia adaptations of
Spalax
. Ngb is expressed primarily in vertebrate nerves, whereas Cygb is found in extracellular matrix-producing cells and in some neurons. The physiological functions of both proteins are not fully understood but discussed with regard to O
2
supply, the detoxification of reactive oxygen or nitrogen species, and apoptosis protection.
Spalax
Ngb
and
Cygb
coding sequences are strongly conserved. However, mRNA and protein levels of
Ngb
in
Spalax
brain are 3-fold higher than in
Rattus norvegicus
under normoxia. Importantly,
Spalax
expresses Ngb in neurons and additionally in glia, whereas in hypoxia-sensitive rodents Ngb expression is limited to neurons. Hypoxia causes an approximately 2-fold down-regulation of Ngb mRNA in brain of rat and mole rat. A parallel regulatory response was found for myoglobin (Mb) in
Spalax
and rat muscle, suggesting similar functions of Mb and Ngb.
Cygb
also revealed an augmented normoxic expression in
Spalax
vs. rat brain, but not in heart or liver, indicating distinct tissue-specific functions. Hypoxia induced
Cygb
transcription in heart and liver of both mammals, with the most prominent mRNA up-regulation (12-fold) in
Spalax
heart. Our data suggest that tissue globins contribute to the remarkable tolerance of
Spalax
toward environmental hypoxia. This is consistent with the proposed cytoprotective effect of Ngb and Cygb under pathological hypoxic/ischemic conditions in mammals.
microRNA
miR-275
is indispensable for blood digestion and egg development in the mosquito
Aedes aegypti
Authors: Bryant Bart , Macdonald Warren , Raikhel Alexander S.
Published: November 2010

The mosquito
Aedes aegypti
is the major vector of arboviral diseases, particularly of Dengue fever, of which there are more than 100 million cases annually. Mosquitoes, such as
A. aegypti
, serve as vectors for disease pathogens because they require vertebrate blood for their egg production. Pathogen transmission is tightly linked to repeated cycles of obligatory blood feeding and egg maturation. Thus, the understanding of mechanisms governing egg production is necessary to develop approaches that limit the spread of mosquito-borne diseases. Previous studies have identified critical roles of hormonal- and nutrition-based target of rapamycin (TOR) pathways in controlling blood-meal–mediated egg maturation in mosquitoes. In this work, we uncovered another essential regulator of blood-meal–activated processes, the microRNA
miR-275
. The depletion of this microRNA in
A. aegypti
females after injection of its specific antagomir resulted in severe defects in blood digestion, fluid excretion, and egg development, clearly demonstrating that
miR-275
is indispensable for these physiological processes.
miR-275
exhibits an expression profile that suggests its regulation by a steroid hormone, 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E). In vitro organ culture experiments demonstrated that
miR-275
is induced by this hormone in the presence of amino acids, indicative of a dual regulation by 20E and TOR. This report has uncovered the critical importance of microRNAs in controlling blood-meal–activated physiological events required for completion of egg development in mosquito disease vectors.
On the grammar of pain
Authors: Halliday M.A.K.
Published: November 2010

The lexicogrammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experience, a resource whereby experience is transformed into meaning. One of the most challenging areas of human experience is that of pain. If we investigate the grammar of pain in modern English, using evidence from a corpus, a short text, and paradigms of typical expressions in everyday speech, we find that pain is categorized in varying ways, as process, quality and thing, and construed as various different kinds of process. This variation constructs pain as a uniquely complex domain of experience, one that cannot be located within any simply defined region of semantic space.
Resources for attitudinal meaning
Authors: Lemke Jay L.
Published: November 2010

Lexicogrammatical resources enable us to construct attitudinal stances not only toward interlocutors and audiences but also toward the ideational content of propositions and proposals. Seven semantic dimensions of evaluative orientations to propositions are identified and compared to those for clause modality. A sample corpus of newspaper editorials is used to illustrate the resources which realize these evaluative meanings in connected running text. Examples are also given of several interesting text-semantic phenomena that arise from the prosodic realization of attitudinal-orientational meanings in connected text, including attitudinal cohesion and syntactic, projective, and extended prospective and retrospective propagation of evaluative meanings. It is proposed that evaluative meanings should play a significant role in discourse analysis of social heteroglossia and individual and collective identity.
The silence of the words
Authors: Veltman Robert
Published: November 2010

This study argues for a reformulation of the semiotic and characteristically linguistic construct of Duality of Patterning. Since the Duality principle was originally formulated, linguists have generally accepted the 'barrier' enshrined in Duality, said to separate the levels of Expression (in particular, its Phonological component) and Wording (Vocabulary and Grammar). However, there was always criticism of the strong formulations of Duality, some from precursors of functional models of language, notably Systemic-Functional Grammar (SFG). On the other hand, although SFG has made a rich and original contribution to the understanding of intonation systems and has controversially defended a 'natural', permeable relation between Wording and Meaning, it has allowed the principle of Duality to be treated uncontroversially. There are also a number of flourishing misunderstandings about Duality, which this study will explain and rectify: its alleged bond with Arbitrariness and with 'meaningless' phonemes rather than contrastive phonetic features. In this study, Duality is characterised as a permeable relation rather than a strict barrier. Much evidence in natural languages and in the literature supports this less rigid view of Duality: Pike, Jakobson, Firth and, more recently, Halliday (1992) following Lemke (1984).
The nature and virtues of the German language in the Bavarian periodical ‘Parnassus boicus’ (1722–1740)
Authors: Scaglione Aldo
Published: November 2010

A close analysis of the Bavarian periodicalParnassus Boicus(1722–1740) discloses several aspects of interest to the linguistic historian. Besides a polemical and proto-nationalistic view of German as a language for heroes, the editors defended, against the French-oriented critical stanceà laGottsched which was-beginning to have the upper hand, a marked sympathy for periodic syntax, which they claimed as most natural to German, as well as a strong preference for the chancery style.
Edward Sapir and the Prague School
Authors: Eramian Gregory M.
Published: November 2010

This paper explores the intriguing and hitherto neglected question of contact between Edward Sapir (1884–1939) and members of the Prague Linguistic Circle (1926–1939) concerning the development of phonemic theory. The point of departure is Cain’s (1980) conjecture that the Prague Anglicists (Mathesius, Trnka, and Vachek) were more likely to have encountered the writings of Sapir than Sapir was to have read Jakobson’s and Trubetzkoy’s Czech and Russian publications. Sapir’s published theoretical works provide no evidence of contact with or knowledge of classical Prague School phonology. However, a thorough study of the relevant Prague School publications reveals that three of Sapir’s theoretical writings and three of his language monographs were well known to some of its members. Interestingly, three of the seven references to Sapir by the Anglicists appear in their German and Czech writings, while the largest number of references to Sapir occur in Trubetzkoy’s published scholarly works and letters written primarily in German and Russian. Trubetzkoy’s letters provide valuable supplementary evidence of personal communication between him and Sapir. Collation of material in the letters with passages in Trubetzkoy’s publications reveals that Sapir and members of the Prague School (Jakob-son, Mathesius, Trubetzkoy) were in personal contact from 1929, three years after the founding of the Circle. It also emerges that Trubetzkoy had read Sapir (1925) in a copy of the journal Language which Mathesius had lent to him as early as 1928, while Sapir had read vol. 1 of the Travaux and commented favorably on it to Trubetzkoy in 1929. Although Sapir and the Prague School developed their views on phonemic theory independently, Trubetzkoy’s articles and letters occasionally reveal fairly technical discussion of theoretical points and problems in the phonological systems of specific languages raised by Sapir. Finally, the letters provide convincing evidence that Trubetzkoy and Sapir shared an ongoing professional concern with advancing the cause of phonology in the international linguistic community. Sapir and members of the Prague School expended considerable effort toward a favorable reception of phonology by the American linguists (e.g., Leonard Bloomfield, Boas, Kent, Kurath, and Twaddell). In this connection, Sapir was very actively involved in the American branch of the Internationale phonologische Arbeitsgemeinschaft from its inception in 1932 during the Second International Congress of Phonetic Sciences in Amsterdam. Although Sapir and Trubetzkoy appear never to have met in person, the IP A turned out to serve as a pivotal link between Sapir and Trubetzkoy and, by extension, between the Linguistic Society of America and the Prague Linguistic Circle.
The abandonment of nómos in Greek linguistic thought
Authors: Joseph John E.
Published: November 2010

Coseriu (1977) has contended that Aristotle’s abandonment of the term nómos as the counterpart to phýsis represented a clear and willful break from the earlier tradition of linguistic thought. The present article examines a semantic change that nómos (originally “custom”) was undergoing in 5th century Attic Greek, when it became the technical term for a statute law. This change rendered it no longer appropriate in considerations of language. Hence, even if Aristotle had wanted to maintain the term nómos in its late Sophistic sense, he could not have done so. The Aristotelian approach to language may thus maintain a greater continuity with the past than is often recognized. The history of the terms which came to replace nómos as the opposite of phýsis is also surveyed.
Dionysius thrax vs marcus varro
Authors: Taylor Daniel J.
Published: November 2010

This article critically assesses how Dionysius and Varro differ with respect to particular matters of linguistic theory and practice. It emphasizes the absence of declensions in Dionysius’ Téchnē (and in subsequent Greek grammar), his inability to distinguish between derivation and inflection, and the confusion – both conceptual and descriptive – in his account of conjugation, all of which are topics that Varro addresses elegantly and with linguistic sophistication. Dionysius therefore compares unfavorably with Varro in these respects, and the author concludes, suggestively, that Varro is responsible for transforming the Alexandrian word-class system of grammar into the word-and-paradigm system that is the Roman ars grammatica.
Reflections on the history of dependency notions in linguistics
Authors: Percival W. Keith
Published: November 2010

This paper outlines the history of dependency notions from Antiquity to the present century. Although the notion of syntactic dependency was unknown in Antiquity, the idea of semantic dependency was foreshadowed in early definitions of the minor parts of speech, i.e., parts of speech other than the noun and the verb. In part, this happened because logicians had originally posited only the two major parts of speech, and grammarians then formulated their definitions of the minor parts of speech in relation to those of the noun and the verb. The adverb, for instance, was defined as augmenting or diminishing the meaning of the verb. The first writer who used (if not coined) a special term to refer to the notion that some words specify or ‘determine’ the meanings of the subject noun and the verbal predicate was Boethius (ca. 500 A.D.), and in this way the notion of ‘determination’ was launched. As a result of the subsequent popularity of Boethius’s logical works, ‘determination’ was adopted and extensively utilized by Latin grammarians from the 12th century on. In the 13th century, it was complemented by the term ‘dependency’, which was the logical converse of ‘determination’. Grammarians claimed that a dependency relation exists between the members of all constructions. The vogue of ‘dependency’ declined even before the advent of Renaissance humanism, while ‘determination’ survived. In the early modern period, the terminological repertory expanded. Thus, in the 18th century, French grammarians coined the terms ‘modification’ (Buffier) and ‘complement’ (Du Marsais). The 20th century has been marked by a further increase of new terms. Inspired by Tesnière’s posthumousElèments de syntaxe structurale(1959), some linguists have also proposed formalized dependency theories as alternatives to phrase-structure grammar.
Liberalism in Lockean Linguistics
Authors: Taylor Talbot J.
Published: November 2010

In the Essay concerning human understanding (1690) John Locke (1632–1704) suggests that man misunderstands the relationship between ideas, words, and things, assuming that there exists a ‘double conformity’. This assumption is at the core of our misunderstanding of our epistemological status, the misunderstanding from which Locke must free his readers if they are to grasp the foundations of human knowledge. To this extent Locke is a communicational sceptic. He believes that the linguistic communication of ideas is ‘imperfect’. Left to our natural powers to form ideas and signify them by words, we will too often fail to convey our thoughts to our hearers. The remedy to this ‘imperfection’ is for us to constrain the exercise of our linguistic powers. There is thus an interesting parallel between the structure of Locke’s discussion of language in the Essay and his discussion of political power in the Second Treatise on Government (1689). In the latter Locke then traces the roots of political norms to the individual’s sacrifice of a share of their own natural freedoms and powers to political authority, so that social anarchy can be avoided. In the same way the normative prescriptions offered in the Essay, by restricting the individual’s basic linguistic freedom, are designed to avoid the communicational anarchy that would result if all individuals exercised their linguistic freedom to express themselves as they choose. Locke thus takes communication to occur, not as a result of chance or of a pre-existing conformity between words and ideas, but rather as a result of the linguistic agent’s voluntary constraint of his/her semiotic freedom.
Wilhelm Von Humboldt and North American Ethnolinguistics
Authors: Koerner E. F. Konrad
Published: November 2010

Noam Chomsky’s frequent references to the work of Wilhelm von Humboldt during the 1960s produced a considerable revival of interest in this 19th-century scholar in North America. This paper demonstrates that there has been a long-standing influence of Humboldt’s ideas on American linguistics and that no ‘rediscovery’ was required. Although Humboldt’s first contacts with North-American scholars goes back to 1803, the present paper is confined to the posthumous phase of his influence which begins with the work of Heymann Steinthal (1823–1899) from about 1850 onwards. This was also a time when many young Americans went to Germany to complete their education; for instance William Dwight Whitney (1827–1894) spent several years at the universities of Tübingen and Berlin (1850–1854), and in his writings on general linguistics one can trace Humboldtian ideas. In 1885 Daniel G. Brinton (1837–1899) published an English translation of a manuscript by Humboldt on the structure of the verb in Amerindian languages. A year later Franz Boas (1858–1942) arrived from Berlin soon to establish himself as the foremost anthropologist with a strong interest in native language and culture. From then on we encounter Humboldtian ideas in the work of a number of North American anthropological linguists, most notably in the work of Edward Sapir (1884–1939). This is not only true with regard to matters of language classification and typology but also with regard to the philosophy of language, specifically, the relationship between a particular language structure and the kind of thinking it reflects or determines on the part of its speakers. Humboldtian ideas of ‘linguistic relativity’, enunciated in the writings of Whitney, Brinton, Boas, and others, were subsequently developed further by Sapir’s student Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897–1941). The transmission of the so-called Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis – which still today is attracting interest among cultural anthropologists and social psychologists, not only in North America – is the focus of the remainder of the paper. A general Humboldtian approach to language and culture, it is argued, is still present in the work of Dell Hymes and several of his students.
Competence vs. performance; theoretical vs. applied
Authors: Newmeyer Frederick J.
Published: November 2010

The past 30 years have seen marked shifts in the generative grammarians’ view of the nature of linguistic competence. The rule-oriented period of early Transformational Grammar, which was ushered in by the publication of Chomsky’sSyntactic Structuresin 1957, gave way a decade later to the principle-oriented period of Generative Semantics. By the mid-1970s, the rule-oriented Lexicalist framework had replaced Generative Semantics. Since around 1981, the principle-oriented Principles & Parameters approach is the one to which a majority of generative syntacticians hold allegiance. Each shift in the generativists’ view of the nature of competence has been accompanied by a revised view of how concepts derived from generative syntax might be applied to second language teaching. Since 1957, three different strategies for applying the theory have been propounded: the ‘mechanical’, the ‘terminological’, and the ‘implicational’, each of which has been instantiated during each period in the development of generative syntax. The paper closes with some speculative remarks about the feasibility of applying generativist theory to second language teaching.
La Postériorité Lexicographique De Nebrija
Authors: Lépinette Brigitte
Published: November 2010

L’objet de cette étude est une série de dictionnaires bilingues latin-français, lesVocabularius Nebrissensis(1511–1541) qui constituent une partie de l’héritage lexicographique de l’humaniste Antonio E. de Nebrija en France. Nous montrons quelle est la source de la nomenclature de ces lexiques traduits en français à partir d’un dictionnaire latin-catalan(Busa, Barcelone 1507) qui était lui-même une version duLexicon(1492–1506) latin-espagnol de Nebrija. Nous décrivons la nomenclature duVocabularius Nebrissensisavec ses suppressions et ajouts par rapport à l’original ainsi que le contenu des articles. Nous constatons que ceux-ci sont de deux sortes. Ce sont (a) des développement traductifs; (b) des gloses et de commentaires; nous en comparons ces articles à ceux des monolingues latins (surtout leCatholiconlatin-latin). L’examen des contenus du dictionnaire nous amène à la conclusion que l’œuvre de Nebrija a été utilisée dans un lexique latin-français exécuté par un compilateur qui semble ne pas avoir saisi toute l’originalité du travail réalisé par l’auteur de la nomenclature qu’il a empruntée.
The Notion of ‘Underlying Levels’ in the Arabic Grammatical Tradition
Authors: Versteegh Kees
Published: November 2010

Even ‘naive’ speakers use a distinction between actual, realized speech with its ‘literal’ meaning, and an underlying level of ‘what is actually meant’. Such a distinction is made because speakers instinctively feel that very often actual speech does not represent exactly what the speaker intends to say. In this paper it is claimed that this non-technical distinction lies at the basis of a technical distinction between a surface structure of speech and an underlying level. In the technical stage of Arabic grammar the emphasis shifts from an analysis of the underlying intention of the speaker towards an explanation of the syntactic form of actual speech, which is mapped onto an underlying representation. Both in the Classical Greek and the Arabic/Islamic tradition we find a development from an early stage of exegetical activity, in which the intention of the speaker or the text is elaborated by positing an underlying level of semantic representation, towards a technical distinction between a surface level and an underlying level. The difference between the two traditions lies in the fact that Greek linguistics was more semantically oriented, whereas in Arabic grammar the main tool of the grammarians, the taqdîr, was basically an instrument to explain the syntactic structure of speech, in line with the predominantly formal approach of the Arabic grammarians. Compared with modern linguistic theory, both traditions have in common that they do not look for an underlying level of meaning that is universal to all languages. The main reason for this difference is that neither Greek nor Arabic linguists were interested in the study of other languages.
La Nueva gramática de la lengua castellana de martínez de noboa
Authors: Maquieira Marina
Published: November 2010

This paper examines a treatise on Spanish grammar, i.e., a particular grammar which follows the tradition of French philosophical grammar. Bachiller D. Antonio Martínez de Noboa’s work, published in 1839, appears in a century when the Spanish grammatical tradition is at its best. Texts like Vicente Salvá’s (1786–1849) and of course Andrés Bello’s (1781–1865) have in recent years attracted the attention of researchers. However, Martínez de Noboa’s work is much less known, although Gómez Asencio (1981, 1985) did highlight its importance in his two indispensable studies of the period between 1771 and 1847. The Nueva Gramática de la lengua Castellana is indebted to the framework set by José Gómez de Hermosilla (1835) and Jacobo Saqueniza (1828), although it does include some original observations. This paper examines the structure of the work in question and aims to show how it is in global terms a unified text combining different aspects, of which the most striking is without doubt the syntactic one. With this aim in mind certain specific examples of the analogy pertaining to syntax have been studied. First those he himself highlighted, e.g., the article/pronoun and verb and then those comments on syntax which are logically pertinent, e.g., conjunctions. Noboa himself was cited as was Saqueniza as having been responsible for the introduction of distinction between coordinate and subordinate conjunctions in Spanish grammar, along with the distinction between simple and complex clauses. On the purely syntactic level, it was also Noboa who refined the whole notion of verbal government. Finally, there is a brief summary of the section dedicated to pronunciation and spelling which are also considered by the author to be in some way related to the other parts of the grammar. In sum, what makes this work particularly interesting is undoubtedly the emphasis on syntax as more studies had been carried out on morphology than in any other area up until the 19th century and continued after Noboa to monopolise questions concerning grammar throughout this century.
Las primeras propuestas de ‘Selección de Norma’ para el gallego
Authors: Fernández Mauro
Published: November 2010

Linguistic sttudies of Galician began in the last third of the 18th century with Father Martín Sarmiento (1695–1772). Since the tradition of writing in this language had been interrupted towards the end of the 15th century, its later recovery required certain decisions on what the model for ‘good Galician’ would be as well as on the norm for the writing system. In this article, I will explore the various destinies of the available options: (1) the adherence to actual speech; (2) the adherence to an archaic available norm; and (3) the approach to the Portuguese norm, which in its extreme formulation, assumes the adoption of this language as the high variant and the written form of Galician. A close examination of prefaces and introductions to grammars, dictionaries, and other relevant texts shows a clear preference for the first solution. ‘Good Galician’ would thus be the one spoken by the people, in all its diversity, with some exclusions which varied according to the author: In some cases, important towns and urban variants were excluded; in others, the mountainous regions and the areas bordering with Castile; and in certain cases, the ‘people’ only meant ‘the best’ in each town. Options 2 and 3 made a timid appearance towards the end of 19th century even though 3 gained acceptance throughout the 20th century, specially in the last twenty years.
William Dwight Whitney and the Social Dimension of Lexical Diffusion
Authors: Alter Stephen G.
Published: November 2010

The paper traces how the American linguist William Dwight Whitney (1827–1894) and his intellectual descendants anticipated, and in part influenced, modern-day discussions of ‘lexical diffusion’, the piecemeal spread of phonological changes both through an individual speaker’s word-inventory and speaker-to-speaker through an entire community. Whitney regarded these two processes as inextricably linked; he also stressed comparison between different speech communities in search of locally distinct diffusionary patterns that challenged the Neogrammarian regularity hypothesis. Recent discussions of these and other aspects of lexical diffusion suggest that comparative-local studies, such as Whitney pioneered, remain essential for working out the explanatory nexus between lexical diffusion’s internally-phonological and social contexts.
Autoimmune skin inflammation is dependent on plasmacytoid dendritic cell activation by nucleic acids via TLR7 and TLR9
Authors: Guiducci Cristiana , Tripodo Claudio , Gong Mei , Sangaletti Sabina , Colombo Mario P. , Coffman Robert L. , Barrat Franck J.
Published: November 2010

Recognition of endogenous DNA and RNA by cells expressing TLR7 and TLR9 is an important contributor to the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus and has been suggested to contribute to cutaneous lupus and to a group of related inflammatory skin diseases termed interface dermatitis. We have developed a mouse model of TLR7- and TLR9-dependent skin inflammation using tape stripping. In normal mice, this resulted in a rapid but transient inflammatory cell infiltration accompanied by induction of type I IFN production by plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDCs) and release of extracellular traps and proinflammatory cytokines by neutrophils. These responses were strongly reduced in MyD88-deficient mice and in mice treated with a bifunctional inhibitor of TLR7 and TLR9. In contrast, in lupus-prone (NZBxNZW)F1 mice, tape stripping induced the development of chronic lesions characterized by a persistent type I IFN gene signature and many clinical and histological features of cutaneous lupus. Depletion of PDCs before injury prevented the development of skin lesions, whereas treatment with a bifunctional TLR7/9 inhibitor before tape stripping or after the initial lesion was established led to a significant reduction of the disease. These data suggest that inhibitors of TLR7 and TLR9 signaling have potential therapeutic application for the treatment of interface dermatitis.
Interleukin 1 receptor signaling regulates DUBA expression and facilitates Toll-like receptor 9–driven antiinflammatory cytokine production
Authors: González-Navajas Jose M. , Law Jason , Nguyen Kim Phung , Bhargava Meha , Corr Mary Patricia , Varki Nissi , Eckmann Lars , Hoffman Hal M. , Lee Jongdae , Raz Eyal
Published: November 2010

The interleukin 1 receptor (IL-1R) and the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are highly homologous innate immune receptors that provide the first line of defense against infection. We show that IL-1R type I (IL-1RI) is essential for TLR9-dependent activation of tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 3 (TRAF3) and for production of the antiinflammatory cytokines IL-10 and type I interferon (IFN). Noncanonical K63-linked ubiquitination of TRAF3, which is essential for type I IFN and IL-10 production, was impaired in Il1r1−/− CD11c+ dendritic cells. In contrast, degradative ubiquitination of TRAF3 was not affected in the absence of IL-1R1 signaling. Deubiquitinating enzyme A (DUBA), which selectively cleaves K63-linked ubiquitin chains from TRAF3, was up-regulated in the absence of IL-1R1 signaling. DUBA short interference RNA augmented the TLR9-dependent type I IFN response. Mice deficient in IL-1RI signaling showed reduced expression of IL-10 and type I IFN and increased susceptibility to dextran sulphate sodium–induced colitis and failed to mount a protective type I IFN response after TLR9 ligand (CpG) administration. Our data identifies a new molecular pathway by which IL-1 signaling attenuates TLR9-mediated proinflammatory responses.
Time-resolved luminescence of the coupled quantum dot–microcavity system: general theory
Authors: Van Hieu Nguyen , Bich Ha Nguyen
Published: November 2010

The general theory of the time-resolved luminescence of the coupled system consisting of a single-mode microcavity and a two-level quantum dot containing one electron placed inside this microcavity is presented. It is based on the study of the time evolution of the density matrix of a larger system consisting of one electron in the two-level quantum dot, single-mode photons in the microcavity and external photons in a spatial region in which the emitted photons are detected. The decoherence of the system is taken into account in the Markov approximation. The explicit analytical form of the time dependence of the intensity of the emitted photon beam is established. It depends not only on the physical parameters of the system but also contains the matrix elements determining the initial condition of the luminescence process.
Biocontrol Treatments Confer Protection Against Verticillium dahliae Infection of Potato by Inducing Antimicrobial Metabolites
Authors: El Hadrami A. , Adam L. R. , Daayf F.
Published: November 2010

Verticillium wilt, caused by Verticillium dahliae Kleb., is a serious potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) disease worldwide, and biocontrol represents a promising eco-friendly strategy to reduce its impact. We used extracts from Canada milk vetch (CMV) and a set of four V. dahliae–antagonistic bacterial strains to coat potato seeds at planting and examined the degree of protection provided against V. dahliae as well as accumulation of soluble phenolics as markers for induced resistance. All tested treatments were effective in reducing disease severity, and CMV showed the highest level of protection. In this treatment, flavonol-glycoside rutin was a highly abundant compound induced in potato tissues, with levels two to three times higher than those detected in noninoculated controls and V. dahliae–inoculated plants. We investigated dose-dependent effects of rutin on V. dahliae growth and sporulation in vitro and in planta. The effect of rutin on mycelial growth was inconsistent between disk assay and amended medium experiments. On the other hand, significant reduction of V. dahliae sporulation in vitro was consistently observed starting at 300 and 100 μM for isolates Vd-9 and Vd-21, respectively. We successfully detected 2-protocatechuoylphloroglucinolcarboxylic acid (2-PCPGCA) using ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, indicating that V. dahliae dioxygenally oxidizes quercetin. Quercetin, as an aglycone, is freed from the sugar moiety by glucosidases and rhamnosidases produced by the fungus and is a substrate for quercetinases. The occurrence of quercetinases in V. dahliae provides a background to formulate a hypothesis about how by-product 2-PCPGCA may be interfering with potato defenses.
First Report of Bark Dieback on Blueberry Caused by Botryosphaeria dothidea in Korea
Authors: Choi I. Y.
Published: November 2010

This study was conducted to identify the causal organism of bark dieback disease of highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) observed in Korea. Blueberry, a woody plant that is native to North America, belongs to the family Ericaceae and genus Vaccinium. Of the 400 species of blueberry in the world, most are distributed in the tropics of Malaysia and Southeast Asia. Highbush blueberry is abundantly grown in Canada and the United States and has become a popular commercial crop in Korea for products such as jam, wine, and sauce. Bark dieback disease of blueberry was found in Sunchang (<5% incidence), Jeollabuk-do, Korea in July 2009. Typical symptoms of the disease were blight and dieback on the stems with lesions extending along entire branches. Morphological examination revealed that the perithecia were of the globose type with a nipple, 155 to 490 (374.6) μm, and brown on the dead bark. Asci were bitunicate and clavate or cylindrical with dimensions of 63 to 125 × 16 to 20 μm and containing eight ascospores. Ascospores were of the long ovoid type with dimensions of 13.2 to 23.7 (17.98) × 25.4 to 41.1 (33.21) μm. From extracted genomic DNA, the internal transcribed spacer (ITS)-5.8S ribosomal DNA region was amplified with universal primers ITS1 (5′-TCCGTAGGTGAACCTGCGG-3′) and ITS4 (5′-TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC-3′). A BLAST search of GenBank with the ITS sequence revealed that the Sunchang isolate (GenBank Accession No. HQ384217) had 99 to 100% sequence identity with the following Botryosphaeria dothidea accessions: FJ517657, AJ938005, FJ478129, FJ171723, and AJ938004. Phylogenetic analysis with the Sunchang isolate, B. dothidea strains, and related species revealed that the B. dothidea isolate and strains comprised a monophyletic group distinguished from other Botryosphaeria spp. including B. ribis, B. parva, B. protearum, B. lutea, B. australis, B. rhodina, B. obtuse, and B. stevensii (2). On the basis of morphological and molecular results, the isolate was identified as B. dothidea (Moug.) Ces. & De Not. A culture of B. dothidea isolate was grown on potato dextrose agar (PDA) for 10 days. A 5-mm plug was inoculated into stem wounds created with a No. 2 cork borer in 20 2-year-old disease-free blueberry plants grown in a greenhouse. Six plants inoculated with only PDA plugs served as noninoculated controls. The wounds were covered with Parafilm. After 3 months, the Parafilm was removed and black lesions were observed at the fungal inoculation sites, while no lesion was observed on the control plants. To complete Koch's postulates, the fungus was reisolated from the lesions and confirmed to be B. Dothidea (1). There is an urgent need to determine the spread of this disease in Korea, estimate the losses, and develop methods for reducing damage through biological and eco-friendly cultural control methods.

References: (1) D. Jurc et al. Plant Pathol. 55:299, 2006. (2) B. Slippers et al. Mycologia 96:83, 2004.
Witches'-Broom Disease of Lime Affects Seed Germination and Seedling Growth But Is Not Seed Transmissible
Authors: Faghihi M. M. , Bagheri A. N. , Bahrami H. R. , Hasanzadeh H. , Rezazadeh R. , Siampour M. , Samavi S. , Salehi M. , Izadpanah K.
Published: November 2010

Witches'-broom disease of lime (WBDL), caused by ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma aurantifolia’, has devastated many Mexican lime orchards and is currently a threat to lime production in neighboring provinces of southern Iran. Several reports have suggested transmission and spread of WBDL phytoplasma through the seed of infected plants. In the present study, claims of seed transmission of this phytoplasma were examined. Fruit were collected from infected trees in the infested areas of Minab (Hormozgan Province) and from symptomless trees in noninfested areas. Lime seed from symptomless and witches'-broom–affected trees were sown in separate beds in an insect-proof screenhouse and the resulting seedlings were examined for phytoplasmal infection. Leaf, stem, and root samples were collected from both groups of seedlings every 3 months for 2 years and tested for WBDL phytoplasma using direct and nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Repeated PCR tests on the seedlings did not reveal the presence of phytoplasmal DNA. Likewise, symptoms of the disease were not observed on these seedlings after 2 years. PCR assays detected the phytoplasma in coats of some seed from infected trees; however, no excised embryos were positive for the phytoplasma. All positive PCR results were confirmed by restriction fragment length polymorphism assay. One-year-old seedlings derived from seed of noninfected plants appeared more vigorous in terms of height, number of leaves, and fresh weight of shoot compared with those from infected trees. The germination percentage, mean daily germination, peak value, and germination value were significantly higher for seed of fruit from noninfected trees and seed from fruit on asymptomatic branches of infected trees than those from fruit on symptomatic branches of infected trees.
First Report of Nigrospora sphaerica Causing Leaf Spots on Chinese Wisteria: A New Host of the Pathogen
Authors: Soylu S. , Dervis S. , Soylu E. M.
Published: November 2010

Chinese wisteria, Wisteria sinensis (Sims) DC., is a woody, twining vine and is commonly cultivated as an ornamental for its foliage and striking, drooping racemes of white, pink, or lavender sweet pea-like flower. Distinct leaf spots were observed in several gardens, retail nurseries, and parks located in Hatay Province since May 2009. The primary infection zones are frequently observed on the leaf margins and apices, brown, up to 2 mm in diameter, and often surrounded by a yellow zone. Foliar symptoms are characterized by grayish, round, semicircular or irregular-shaped, numerous spots (up to 9 mm in diameter) with dark brown borders and the appearance of black, granular structure within the dead leaf tissues. A fungus was consistently isolated from symptomatic tissues on potato dextrose agar (PDA). Fungal colonies were initially white, becoming light to dark gray with the onset of sporulation with black, spherical to subspherical single-celled conidia (15 to 18 × 12 to 15 μm), which were borne on a hyaline vesicle at the tip of the conidiophore. These characteristics agree with published descriptions of Nigrospora sphaerica (Sacc.) E.W. Mason 1927 (1,3). To fulfill Koch's postulates, a conidial suspension (106 conidia per ml) collected from PDA cultures was used to spray inoculate leaves of potted 3-year-old Chinese wisteria plants. Inoculated plants were kept for 48 h in polyethylene bags and maintained in a controlled environment chamber at 20°C with a 12-h photoperiod. The bags were removed after 3 days. In addition, five 3-year-old plants were sprayed with sterile water to serve as controls. After 14 to 20 days, inoculated leaves showed infection symptoms similar to those observed on naturally infected leaves with N. sphaerica. The pathogen was reisolated from the margins of necrotic tissues, but not from the controls. Although N. sphaerica is frequently encountered as a secondary invader or as a saprophyte on many plant species, this fungal agent is also known as a leaf pathogen on several hosts worldwide (2,4). To our knowledge, this is the first report of N. sphaerica as a leaf pathogen of Chinese wisteria in Turkey or worldwide.

References: (1) M. B. Ellis. Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes. CMI, Kew, Surrey, UK, 1971. (2) D. F. Farr and A. Y. Rossman. Fungal Databases. Systematic Mycology and Microbiology Laboratory. Online publication. ARS, USDA. Retrieved 28 October from http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/ , 2010. (3) P. M. Kirk. IMI Descr. Fungi Bact. 106:1056, 1991. (4) E. R. Wright et al. Plant Dis. 92:171, 2008.
Novel Neonatal Piglet Models of Surgical Short Bowel Syndrome With Intestinal Failure
Authors: Turner Justine M , Wales Paul W , Nation Patrick N , Wizzard Pamela , Pendlebury Christine , Sergi Consolato , Ball Ron O , Pencharz Paul B
Published: November 2010

Objectives:

Short bowel syndrome occurring after surgery for acquired or congenital intestinal abnormalities causes considerable neonatal morbidity and mortality. Animal models are a valuable research tool for this problem; however, few successful neonatal models have been developed and most do not include distal intestinal resection as seen commonly in human babies. We report novel piglet models addressing these gaps.

Subjects and Methods:

Neonatal piglets (1–6 days) underwent venous and gastric catheter insertion and 75% intestinal resection. Group 1 (n = 6) had midintestinal resection with jejunoileal anastomosis; group 2 (n = 5) had distal intestinal resection with jejunocolic anastomosis; group 3 (n = 5) were sham controls; and group 4 (n = 5) were sow reared. Postoperatively, groups 1 to 3 piglets commenced parenteral nutrition (PN), and enteral nutrition was introduced and advanced using a standard regimen. Data collection included days on PN, weight gain, fat absorption, small intestine lengthening, and bowel/liver histology.

Results:

Group 2 piglets had more days on PN (P = 0.008), less weight gain (P = 0.027), and greater malabsorption (P = 0.012). They did not show small intestine lengthening and had more cholestatic liver disease. Group 1 piglets had histological evident intestinal adaptation and 1.5‐fold intestinal lengthening (P = 0.001).

Conclusions:

These novel piglet models of short bowel syndrome are the first to represent the full clinical spectrum of intestinal failure as observed in human neonates. By considering the impact of different short bowel anatomy on potential for adaptation and growth, these animal models are a significant advance. They permit evaluation of new therapies to promote intestinal adaptation and reduce complications, such as cholestasis.