bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Acculturation of Greek Family Values
Authors: Georgas James , Berry John W. , Shaw Alex , Christakopoulou Sophia , Mylonas Kostas
Published: March 2007

This article brings together two areas of current interest in cross-cultural psychology: acculturation and values. Specifically, to what extent do the values held by individuals change as they undergo the experience of acculturation? The cross-cultural study of values frequently examines a broad array of values, but the present study focuses on Greek family values because family is a central cultural institution. Because policies of the host society affect the process of acculturation, it was expected that Greek family values would be sustained after immigration to Canada (where integration is the policy) more than they would after immigration to European countries (where assimilation is emphasized more). It was also predicted that older people and males would subscribe to these values to a greater extent than would younger people and females. A total of 16 samples (N= 951) from Greece, Canada, the Netherlands, and Germany were drawn for the study and were administered a 65-item questionnaire. The results demonstrated significant value change in relation to acculturation across countries and between generations. The joint process of "culture shedding" and "culture learning" was supported.
Identifying Cultural Differences in Items and Traits
Authors: Huang C. David , Church A. Timothy , Katigbak Marcia S.
Published: March 2007

The authors investigated the cross-cultural measurement equivalence of items in the English-language version of the NEO Personality Inventory, a measure of the five-factor personality model, in a different cultural context in which English is a language of instruction. The item responses of 432 Filipino and 610 American college students were analyzed. Three methods for detecting differential item functioning (DIF)-two based on item response theory-plus the Mantel-Haenszel method showed fairly good agreement in the detection of DIF items. Nearly 40% of the 180 items showed DIF. Several significant cultural mean differences that were found with the original raw scores were no longer significant when the authors analyzed "purified" scales obtained by deleting DIF items.
Variances in Levels of Individualism Across Two Cultures and Three Social Classes
Authors: Marshall Roger
Published: March 2007

This article reports an investigation of the orientation toward individualism or collectivism of groups of people from high, middle, and low socioeconomic classes in Indonesia and New Zealand. Analysis reveals that social class has a stronger effect on individualism than does culture.
Individualist-Collectivist Tendencies in a Turkish Sample
Authors: Göregenli Melek
Published: March 2007

In this research, we aimed to find out to what extent social behaviors related to individualism-collectivism are exhibited in the Turkish culture. The individualism-collectivism scale used in this research was developed by Hui and Triandis, and a total of 316 subjects were questioned. Main effects for behavior categories and target groups were significant. Post hoc significance tests were then conducted. There were significant differences between all target groups in their average IND-COL scores except between mother and siblings. In the social behavior categories, all categories were significantly different from each other in their IND-COL scores.
Objective Study of Abnormal Personality in Cross-Cultural Settings
Authors: Butcher James N. , Lim Jeeyoung , Nezami Elahe
Published: March 2007

The cross-cultural use of objective instruments to assess personality and psychopathology has increased markedly in recent times. The most widely used clinical personality inventory in international settings is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI/MMPI-2.) The present article describes the procedures characteristically followed by international scholars to adapt the MMPI-2 for their clinical applications. Steps in the translation and adaptation process are described and methods of assuring test equivalence discussed. A number of international MMPI-2-based research programs are highlighted and some limitations to the application of the MMPI-2 in cross-cultural research are noted.
Cultural Diversity and Work Group Effectiveness
Authors: Thomas David C.
Published: March 2007

Changes in workforce demographics resulting from globalization, combined with the rising popularity of team-based management techniques, has resulted in a practical concern with the management of multicultural groups. In this experimental study, three mechanisms that are proposed to influence group effectiveness are examined. Results supported the notion that the cultural diversity of the group, the sociocultural norms of group members, and their relative cultural distance from each other influence work group effectiveness. Culturally homogeneous groups had higher performance than did culturally heterogeneous groups on five group tasks. The degree of collectivist orientations of group members was directly related to their evaluations of group processes, and their relative cultural distance from each other influenced their perceptions of group receptiveness. A comparison of the results of this study with previous research indicates the importance of the group task and process-related feedback on group performance. Implications of these findings are discussed.
Emotion Regulation in Early Childhood
Authors: Friedlmeier Wolfgang , Trommsdorff Gisela
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study is to analyze toddlers’ regulation of negative emotions in two cultures. A general sequential model of emotion regulation is specified that takes emotional reaction, goal-directed behavior strategies, and the interactive process between child and mother into account. Two-year-old Japanese ( n = 20) and German ( n = 20) girls and their mothers were observed in a quasi-natural interaction in which the girls experienced a playmate’s distress (the mothers were present). The features of the sequential model were measured. Mothers’ sensitivity was assessed in a structured mother-child interaction. The sequential model was confirmed for the German sample and modified in regard to the regulation of distance for the Japanese sample. The Japanese mothers displayed more sensitive and contingent behavior. Culture-specific differences in regard to the distribution of children’s regulation patterns and qualities of mother-child interactions demonstrate the effects of different socialization practices with respect to socioemotional development.
A. R. Luria: A Humanistic Legacy
Authors: Good Sally Rasor
Published: March 2007

A. R. Luria is recognized as one of the greatest neurologists and neuropsychologists of the 20th century. His prolific works span a variety of subjects and offer new discoveries in the brain-behavior relationship. Nevertheless, it is the thesis of this article that Luria’s humanistic legacy, his romantic science, crowns his many achievements and provides us with insight into the possibilities of resolving the tension between the nomothetic and ideographic approaches within psychology.
Beyond the Ego: Toward Transpersonal Models of the Person and Psychotherapy
Authors: Walsh Roger N. , Vaughan Frances
Published: March 2007

All psychologies posit either explicit or implicit models of the person which shape perception, organize experience, and determine methods of inquiry. A transpersonal model, like a humanistic model, focuses on the human potential for growth, health, and well-being. It goes beyond existing models to include self-transcendence, and it emphasizes the centrality of conscious ness in shaping experience and enhancing well-being.
A Social History and Analysis of the Lsd Controversy
Authors: Baumeister Roy F. , Placidi Kathleen S.
Published: March 2007

The evolution of LSD use and the controversy surrounding it are reviewed. LSD is treated as a powerful drug whose mind-revealing effects embodied the potential for both psychological harm and personal insight. Predominant motives for LSD use appear to have shifted from desire for self-exploration to a desire for fun. Early LSD use, stimulated by curiosity and adventure seeking, focused on the personal, existential, and spiritual insights attributed (sometimes erroneously) to the drug. Opposition to LSD developed as LSD became a focus or symbol for generational conflict, parental worries, political dissent, irrational behavior and violence, personal cognitive dissonance, and threat to traditional values and institutions. LSD use declined because changes in the social conditions confronting youth created a desire for a type of drug experience LSD was ill-suited to provide, and because changes in users' attitudes and preparations changed the nature of the LSD experience. The relation of drug preference to social conditions, the attributional biases concerning drugs, and the similarities between LSD proponents' and opponents' behavior are discussed.
Notes for a Final Exam
Authors: South David
Published: March 2007

A humanistic psychologist looks at the probability of nuclear war and at some of our common attitudes that are making it difficult to prevent.
War as a Species Disorder
Authors: Kull Steven
Published: March 2007

The species-destructive potential of nuclear arms has lead to the growing perspective that the human race is suffering from some major disorder. Growing evidence suggests that all war is a type of species disorder. Contrary to the popular idea that war is rooted in our animal past and a perennial feature of human behavior, there are compelling reasons to believe that war is a dramatic deviation from the behavior of pre-human life forms, and that even within human evolution it is a relatively new development. This article suggests that war may be seen as a side effect of the development of the human cortex, producing a capacity for abstract, ideological meanings to override survival concerns. Various studies of personalities high in support of military behavior have found a tendency toward greater rigidity in cognitive processes, suggesting that such rigidity may play a role in overriding survival concerns. Certain paradigm shifts in Western culture are explored as having a corrective potential by emphasizing non-absolute and globalistic perspectives.
A Developmental Approach to Variability in Experience of Self
Authors: Pazy Asya
Published: March 2007

Much more attention has been devoted to the consistency of behavior and experience than to their variable nature. This study aims to reestablish the balance between these two by focusing on variability in experience of self. Three types of variability are defined: (a) phenomenal variability, (b) contextual variation, and (c) polarization in self. The major hypothesis states that as one progresses in level of ego development (as conceptualized by Loevinger, 1976) there is increased variability in self-experience. The empirical methodology is primarily phenomenological in that its various measurement devices look at the experience of the people studied from their own viewpoints and utilize their own personal dimensions of reality construction.

The major hypothesis was strongly confirmed. It was found that ego development and variability of self-experience were positively associated. With higher ego development there was more identification of variability in phenomenal experience of self, more valuing of the quality of variability, more contextual variation, and more polarization in self. It also was found that at lower levels of ego development, variation in the negatively evaluated aspects of the self was more restricted compared to variation in the positively evaluated aspects. Finally, higher levels of ego development were associated with greater recognition of negative aspects of self.
Toward a More Human Science of the Person
Authors: Rogers Carl R.
Published: March 2007

This article grew out of my concern that humanistic psychology is having relatively little impact on mainstream psychology in the United States. The major reason seems to be the lack of significant humanistically oriented research. Humanistic psychologists have been dissatisfied with the logical-positivism that is traditional in experimental psychology. I, and others, have for many years insisted on the need for new models of science. To my surprise and delight, a surge of new books and articles in the past five years has been supplying those new models, and I briefly describe a number of them. They all agree that the mechanistic operationalism is one mode of gaining new knowlege, but only one. Under various labels they present new ways, all based on an "indwelling" of the investigator in the feelings, attitudes, and perceptions of those being studied and in the data collected. There is clearly no one best method for all investigations. One must choose the means or model best adapted to the particular question being asked.
The Rust Workshop
Authors: Rogers Carl R.
Published: March 2007

This is an account of a unique international four-day workshop, focused on "The Central American Challenge." Among the fifty participants were high-level government officials, especially from Central America, and other leading political and professional figures, from seventeen countries in all. It was a person-to-person encounter, in a private retreat setting, permitting freedom of expression and interaction. The facilitators were experienced in a person-centered way of working. The article describes the group, the group process, and its culmination, discusses errors and difficulties, and examines the elements that appear to account for the progress made.
Passion Bearers and Peace Psychology
Authors: Greening Thomas
Published: March 2007

This article calls for a passionate psychology that develops and advocates ways to actualize the human potential for peace. This endeavor would combine current work in the United States and the U.S.S.R. on "the further reaches of human nature." Examples are given of Soviet and American "Passion Bearers." New ways are being developed to facilitate transcendence of Soviet-American antagonisms and ideological addictions. The two cultures share a pragmatic tradition of learning from painful past experiences, including self-inflicted ones.

Ideologies separate us.

Dreams and anguish bring us together.

Eugene Ionesco
Building the Image of Peace
Authors: Solomon Lawrence N.
Published: March 2007

The "world at peace" remains today as illusive an image as was the concept of "megadeaths" a decade ago. But although concerted efforts have been made to build a realistic image of the horrors of nuclear destruction, no parallel effort has been made to build an equally realistic image of a peaceful world, nor to build an image of the procedures through which one goes in order to attain such a goal. Such goal-setting and visualization processes would enhance and guide contemporary peacemaking. Some examples of current efforts in this direction are presented.
Toward a Humanistic-Phenomenological Spirituality
Authors: Elkins David N. , Hedstrom L. James , Hughes Lori L. , Leaf J. Andrew , Saunders Cheryl
Published: March 2007

This is an account of research on spirituality being conducted by a group of professors and students at the Graduate School of Education and Psychology of Pepperdine University. The article presents a humanistic definition and description of spirituality based on the writings of Abraham Maslow, John Dewey, William James, Carl Jung, and others. A preliminary report is also made on the development of the Spiritual Orientation Inventory, a measure of spirituality based on the humanistic model and designed to assess the spirituality of those not affiliated with traditional religion.
The Case for Fundamentally Different Existential-Humanistic Psychologies
Authors: Mahrer Alvin R.
Published: March 2007

The thesis is that a strong case may be made in favor of fundamentally different existential-humanistic psychologies. Four arguments are offered, the first two of which set aside traditional reasons for preserving a single existential-humanistic psychology. The third argument holds that there are fundamentally different existential-humanistic positions on basic questions having to do with human personality and change. The fourth argument is that significantly different programs of practical implications and applications are generated by fundamentally different existential-humanistic psychologies. As a package, these four arguments support the thesis of fundamentally different existential-humanistic psychologies.
Nuclear Power and Social Transformation
Authors:   Ahp Board of Directors
Published: March 2007

We are in the midst of change, perhaps in the midst of a major evolutionary transformation of human civilization. The future may bring, as so many of us hope it will, the unfolding of an awesome and joyous new vision of human nature. It is also equally possible that it will bring disasters and great crises: economic, social, political, ecological. What happens tomorrow will be the result of what we do today: how we we live and work and play, and think and feel. The great sweep of evolution touches our daily lives, and we participate in it as we make our daily choices about how to be with ourselves, with others, with the social order, with the planet and the cosmos. Awareness of this brings a sense of responsibility; we reevaluate our lifestyles, explore alternatives, and consider our resources for directing change consciously and collectively.
God Is So Damn Boring
Authors: Wilber Ken
Published: March 2007

This essay is specifically a critique of Kirk's Schneider's "The Deified Self: A'Centaur' Response to Wilber and the Transpersonal Movement," but it also discusses and summarizes the essentials of the ongoing debate between existential-humanistic psychology and transpersonal psychology.
Adolescents' Contributing toward Others
Authors: Magen Zipora , Aharoni Rachel
Published: March 2007

The current study explored the interrelations between involvement in community service activities, level of expressed transpersonal commitment, and intensity of remembered positive experiences among adolescents. The Life Aspiration Questionnaire, Positive Experiences Questionnaire, and Extracurricular Activity Questionnaire were administered to 134 llth-and 12th-grade students involved in community service activities and to 126 of the adolescents' peers who were not participating in such activities. Involved adolescents were found to express higher levels of transpersonal commitment and a higher intensity of positive experiences. The two variables were found to be positively related for both involved and noninvolved adolescent groups. The results substantiated the contention that the ability to experience happiness and meaning in life was greater among those who were willing to give of themselves to others. The findings also constituted validation of the Life Aspiration Questionnaire, demonstrating the connection between word and deed in the transpersonal commitment of adolescents.
Helping the Helpless
Authors: Leary Timothy
Published: March 2007

During part of the time that the author taught graduate student seminars in psychology at Harvard University from 1960 to 1963, he traveled weekly to a Catholic orphanage in New Bedford, Massachusetts. There, he and graduate students worked with social workers and nuns to develop a program in which older children learned to help younger children. Consequently, children of all ages took more responsibility for running the school and planning their lives. This report on the program, presented at the Northeast Regional Conference of the American Public Welfare Association, Boston, in September 1961, has never before been published. It demonstrates the author's "existential-transactional" theory of behavior change, in which transactional means that the therapist must abandon the role of expert and openly collaborate with the client in figuring out a solution to his or her problems. Existential means that the therapist must leave the safety of the consulting room and get out there in the field where the client is experiencing unique problems and will be the one to solve those problems, using flexible concepts and methods growing out of the unique, changing situation. The therapist's role is essentially that of a coach in a game where the star player is the client. The coach can help, can point out mistakes, can share wisdom. But, in the last analysis, the person who does the job is the one out there in the field. This article illustrates how clients can be helped to overcome helplessness by stimulating them to action rather than by "doing something to" them.
Equal Pay—Past Experience, Future Directions: A Practitioner's Perspective
Authors: Rafferty Felicity
Published: March 2007

It has been the experience of the Professional Officers Association that the Industrial Relations Commission has not been the major stumbling block to the implementation of the principle of 'equal pay for work of equal value'. Rather, in the association's sphere of operations, the Commonwealth government has been the greatest obstacle to the implementation of equal pay in the predominantly female professions in its own area of employment, in spite of its stated commitment to the commission's 1972 equal pay decision. In recent years the pay equity lobby has tended to underestimate the influence of the federal government with regard to the application of equal pay. To increase the responsiveness of the system to demands for pay equity for women, greater pressure needs to be brought to bear on the government of the day at the national level by a well-organized women's lobby capable of ensuring that the government's policy commitment in this area is genuine, active and continuing.
Protecting the Natural Environment in Wartime: Ethical Considerations from the Just War Tradition
Authors: Reichberg Gregory , Syse Henrik
Published: March 2007

Environmental destruction in war - does that fall under the purview of ethics? Some claim that war itself is not a subject of ethics; others hold that ethics deals strictly with interhuman relationships, not with the relationship between human beings and nature. We argue that the just war ( bellum justum) tradition of moral reflection points in another direction. It provides an ethical vocabulary for assessing the impact of war on our natural environment. After some introductory comments on the relationship between ethical inquiry and the international laws of armed conflict, this article considers the conceptions of war and of nature which underlie just war thinking, with special emphasis on St Thomas Aquinas's formulation of this tradition. It specifically addresses two well-known debates: the debate between pacifists and realists on the one hand, and the debate between anthropocentric and non-anthropocentric views on nature on the other. Then, through an exposition and application of the criteria of competent authority, just cause, right intention, discrimination, and proportionality, as well as the rule of double effect, the article shows how just war arguments can clarify contemporary moral thinking about environmental damage in war.
Reading and Misreading the Ancient Evidence for Democratic Peace
Authors: Robinson Eric
Published: March 2007

In the course of the debate over the existence and possible explanations for democratic peace (the tendency of democracies not to fight wars with one another), some scholars have looked to the world of Classical Greece to bolster their claims about the phenomenon. This article critiques the best of these efforts, looking at the way the ancient evidence has been handled and the conclusions drawn therefrom. It is argued that while the ancient world is an entirely appropriate era to investigate with regard to the issue, the analyses offered thus far have not made a strong case for the existence of a Greek democratic peace. Indeed, contrary to what investigators had hoped to show, the evidence from the period in and around the Peloponnesian war indicates that not only did ancient democracies go to war with each other, they did so with relatively high frequency. Both quantitative and more traditional literary analyses support this conclusion. These results do not so much attack the general notion of democratic peace as offer a more fruitful way of using ancient history to help explain it: by focusing on the differences between ancient and modern democracies and their historical settings, future studies may be able to identify the factors which encourage or discourage democratic peace.
Armed Conflict, 1989-2000
Authors: Wallensteen Peter , Sollenberg Margareta
Published: March 2007

A total of 111 armed conflicts have been recorded for the years 1989-2000. Of these, 33 were active in 2000. This represents a decrease from 1999 and 1998, and it is the lowest number of armed conflicts recorded in the post-Cold War period. Seven interstate armed conflicts were recorded for the whole period, of which two were still active in 2000. The decrease in the number of armed conflicts is not sufficient to conclude that there will be a further decline. Conflicts have become increasingly complex in terms of number of actors and regional connections between those actors. There is a larger proportion of new and minor armed conflicts being resolved than long-running and complex major armed conflicts.
A Cognitive Theory of Deterrence
Authors: BEREJIKIAN JEFFREY D.
Published: March 2007

Prospect theory is an empirical model of choice that stands as the leading alternative to rationality for explaining decisions under conditions of risk. While many still defend the assumption of rationality as an appropriate starting point for the construction of international relations theory - deterrence theory especially - there is growing support for models of international politics grounded in the actual capacities of real-world decisionmakers. This article accepts that standard depictions of deterrence incentives capture much of the essential character of deterrent relationships. However, it substitutes cognitive assumptions in place of traditional rational choice. Using prospect theory, the article reconsiders three typical deterrence games. The new model of military deterrence put forth unearths a set of conditions that are required for successful deterrence and uncovers a set of causes for deterrence failures that run counter to conventional understanding.
War-weariness and Cumulative Effects: Victors, Vanquished, and Subsequent Interstate Intervention
Authors: PICKERING JEFFREY
Published: March 2007

It is often assumed that policymakers and populations grow weary from war. The costs associated with the use of military force are thought to become readily apparent in the wake of devastating conflicts, and support for military forays is expected to erode as a result. Although the notion is compelling, to date, empirical studies of war-weariness have yielded mixed results. This article re-examines war-weariness theory. It focuses upon a recent, but largely neglected, refinement in the theory as well as insights gleaned from the foreign-policy learning literature. The theory is recast with emphasis placed on the collective weight of consecutive war wins and consecutive war losses. War-weariness is postulated to follow a series of war defeats. A series of victories is assumed to produce the opposite effect. Bolstered by past success, decisionmakers in states that have a run of war wins should use military force more frequently. To test the article's hypotheses, time series, cross-section negative binomial and OLS regressions of 66 states for the period 1946-96 are employed. Interstate military intervention is the type of force analyzed. Intervention initiations are found to not only increase as states win successive wars, they also increase as war losses mount. This U-shaped relationship holds for large-scale interventions as well. Although these results provide little empirical support for a cumulative approach to war-weariness, they do suggest that a state's war record affects decisions to intervene militarily. In the realm of low-scale military force, the weight of the past does affect policymakers and is important for understanding contemporary policy.
Conflict, Civil War and Underdevelopment: An Introduction
Authors: MURSHED S. MANSOOB
Published: March 2007

Conflict has been a feature of human society since time immemorial. Disputes that arise may be organized around social class, ethnicity, religion, region, or some combination of these factors. The struggle can be over economic opportunities, as well as political and civil rights, among other contestable factors. In peaceful societies, conflict is channelled into nonviolent means and institutions for both its expression and resolution. Civil war is not necessarily irrational, but a product of certain objectives, therefore amenable to rational-choice analysis. In low-income countries, civil war makes poverty reduction and growth difficult to achieve. Many contemporary civil wars have an ethnic dimension, as ethnicity is a strong uniting force. Grievances, therefore, play a major part in contemporary conflict, but greed - the desire to control resources and capture rents - also enters into the calculus of conflict. Ultimately, open warfare cannot emerge inside a society with a functioning social contract, as greed and grievances are managed and conflict is contained in countries with properly operating institutions. Consequently, conflict resolution requires the reconstitution of the social contract.
Warlord Competition
Authors: SKAPERDAS STERGIOS
Published: March 2007

Warlords compete for turf that provides them with rents and `taxable' resources, but they can also offer a semblance of security within their respective territories. This article first examines two economic models of warlord competition. Because such competition takes place through the use of force or the threat of the use of force, more competition typically leads to lower material welfare as resources are wasted on unproductive arming and fighting. This is in contrast to ordinary economic models, in which typically greater competition leads to higher material welfare. Furthermore, rents from oil, diamonds, and even foreign aid crowd out production. In extreme cases, this crowding out of ordinary production can be complete, whereby all economic resources can be devoted to the unproductive competition for rents. The article then reviews factors that lead either to actual war or to peace in the shadow of war. Because war is destructive, human beings are typically risk averse, and there exist numerous complementarities in production and consumption, we can expect peace in the shadow of war to be most often preferable by all parties. Actual war can take place because of incomplete information about the preferences and capabilities of the adversaries but also, somewhat surprisingly, when the shadow of the future is sufficiently long.
Communication Across Conflict Lines: The Case of Ethnically Divided Cyprus
Authors: ANASTASIOU HARRY
Published: March 2007

This article explores the dynamics of nationalist communication, or better, of non-communication, between the rival Cypriot ethnic communities. The analysis shows how the protracted ethno-nationalist conflict that has stained the history of the Eastern Mediterranean island of Cyprus has affected, among other things, the process of communication between the Greek Cypriot and the Turkish Cypriot communities. A number of themes that occupy a central place in the conflict are explored from the vantage point of how each community understands and addresses them as it interacts with the other. The inquiry discloses that the interpretive mental frameworks by which the meaning of words, facts, events, behaviors, and phenomena have been perceived, recalled, understood, and transferred have become culturally and institutionally configured in such a way over the years as to often dissociate and even dismantle the very conditions by which intercommunal communication becomes possible. The article also examines the conditions and prospects of freeing communication from its entrapments in the `meaning patterns' of ethno-nationalist conflict, particularly in the context of the emerging bicommunal citizen peace movement. It shows how the germinating inter-ethnic dialogue in the spirit of peaceseeking rapprochement is commencing a process of deconstructing the traditional forms of conflictual, nationalist discourse while opening up new vistas of understanding, possibilities, and vision for the future.
The Erosion of Anti-Militaristic Principles in Contemporary Japan
Authors: Hook Glenn D.
Published: March 2007

The article examines militarization in contemporary Japan, as most saliently mamfest in increases in military spending and the buildup of military might, by focusing on the erosion of anti-militaristic principles. This includes the broader interpretation of Article 9 of the Constitution, which now permits certain 'offensive weaponry' and 'collective defense' type arrangements; the weakening of the 'three non-nuclear principles', which are not effective against port calls by US vessels laden with Tomahawk missiles and other nuclear-capable weapons; the relaxation of the ban on the export of defense-related technology, which from 1983 onwards makes an exception of exports to the United States; and the scrapping of the '1% ceiling' on military expenditures in the 1987 budget, which put an end to an important barrier to increases in military spending. The erosion of these principles has been facilitated by external factors — American pressure, the Soviet military buildup in the region, and the decline in Asian criticism of Japan's military presence — as well as by internal factors — a greater acceptance of the Self Defense Forces and the US-Japan Security Treaty on the part of the opposition parties as well as the public.
The Technological Imperative in Strategic Thought
Authors: Reppy Judith
Published: March 2007

In An Introduction to Strategic Studies: Military Technology and International Relations Barry Buzan presents an overview of the field of strategic studies organized around the concepts of anarchy in the international state system and the technological imperative. The rivalries of the international system are fed by the stream of new weapons, and attempts to reach a stable status quo, e.g., through a stable deterrence posture, are constantly confounded by technological change. Given the impossibility of stemming the flow of technology from the civil to the military sector, there is no way out of the security dilemma. It is argued here, however, that a more sophisticated understanding of the processes of technical innovation and diffusion leads to a different conclusion. New technology is the result of social and political choices, and as such is subject to political control. Other points discussed include Buzan's treatment of Soviet military doctrine and his analysis of alternative defense policies within the framework of strategic studies.
Utopianism in Peace Research: The Gandhian Heritage
Authors: SØRENSEN GEORG
Published: March 2007

The focus is on utopianism in peace research, defined as the trend which embraces the core value of peace to the extent where tensions and contradictions in the concept of peace are glossed over. The starting-point is Johan Galtung's definition of peace as the absence of both direct and structural violence. The definition is considered useful, but it is shown that it makes the achievement of peace extremely difficult. After a more concrete identification of the tensions and contradictions in the concept, the focus is on peace as the absence of violence. The entity of developmental violence is introduced and defined as violence which contributes to reduce the total sum of violence inflicted upon individuals, groups and nations. It is argued that the utopian trend in peace research, based on the Gandhian heritage, fails to recognize the existence of developmental violence and thus paints itself into a corner from which there is no satisfactory exit. The plea is for a more open, constructivist position which can make it possible to ask questions about blends of violence and non-violence and about situations where non-violence is infeasible.
Knowing the Rational Peasant: The Creation of Rival Incentive Structures in Vietnam
Authors: Maranto Robert , Tuchman Paula S.
Published: March 2007

This paper develops a rational model of individual participation in anti-regime activity based on the works of Tullock (1971), Mason (1986) and others, and applies it to the Vietnamese conflicts of the 1945-75 period. Concerns for physical security and expectations of victory by one side or another dominated the peasant `decision calculus' to the relative exclusion of such factors as ideology and provision of public goods. The critical factor in creating an attractive incentive structure is sound intelligence obtained through local forms of organization and coercion. Until the mid-1960s, the Viet Cong excelled in this regard, but subsequent governmental attention to local organization and deployment of forces narrowed the gap considerably, as did the Tet Offensive decimation of native Viet Cong forces in the South. Also contributing to this outcome were increased Viet Cong demands on the peasantry that made material rewards from supporting the anti-regime effort less appealing. The village emerges as the key unit in overcoming the free-rider problem in revolutionary participation. The apparent success within the village itself of the opposition or regime and behavior of local cadres or officials shaped villagers' perceptions of the credibility and capability of each side to threaten physical security. Villagers' judgment on the balance of terror at any time in turn conditioned their response to the various other incentives offered.
Emerging Late-Modern Reconstructivism
Authors: Patomäki Heikki
Published: March 2007

In contrast to mainstream International Relations and Peace Research, it is argued that the growing body of `critical theoretical' literature can be better grasped in terms of a return to particular, local and timely matters and to practical philosophy than as utterly relativist/nihilist meta-theorizing. In this review of recent books of Toulmin, Walker, Der Derian and Gill, it is thus appropriate to talk about an emerging `late-Modern reconstructivism'. The `return' to particular, local and timely does not mean sinking into the vice of parochialism. Rather, in Walker's terms, the point is that International Relations and Peace Research should be able to break with the Modern particular/universal and inside/outside dichotomies inherent in all standard accounts of political communities. It is finally also suggested how it might be plausible to reconstruct the notions of `world citizenship' and `global security community'.
Critic or Mediator? Sweden in World Politics, 1945-90
Authors: Bjereld Ulf
Published: March 2007

The article analyses Sweden as a critic and as a mediator and bridge-builder on the international arena since 1945. Some researchers have claimed that in the mid-1960s Sweden took on the role of critic at the expense of that of mediator. Was this true? Has Sweden's participation in international opinion-building had a negative effect on her usefulness as mediator or bridge-builder in international conflicts? And what role do the actions of a nation as critic play for the image of that state as an impartial mediator? First, the relevance of a mediator/bridge-builder's impartiality is discussed. Thereafter, Sweden as critic and mediator/bridge-builder since 1945 is presented. Sweden's actions in two concrete cases are focused on the Vietnam and Iran-Iraq wars. In both cases Sweden tried to combine the role of mediator and bridge-builder with that of critic. Finally, some general conclusions are formulated about the relationship between the role of critic and that of mediator/bridge-builder. The results show that in the mid-1960s Sweden began to take part in international opinion-building and to formulate criticism of other countries to a much greater extent than previously. But Sweden's taking on of the critic's role in the 1960s was not followed by a decrease in her mediation or bridge-building missions. The hypothesis that Sweden took on the critic's role at the expense of the mediator's role is thus not supported in this study. It is concluded that there are no objections to a country that wants to act as a mediator or bridge-builder taking an active part in international opinion-building or formulating criticism of other countries in terms of different issues. But restrictions on criticism and attitudes come up in conflicts where that country is also acting as a mediator or bridge-builder.
US Military Aid in the 1980s: A Global Analysis
Authors: Poe Steven C. , Meernik James
Published: March 2007

Although researchers have recently made some progress in explaining the outputs of the US economic aid decision-making process, their efforts to explain the allocation of US military aid have been rather disappointing. In this article, we follow previous studies that have assumed a two-stage process leading up to the allocation of military aid, while making three significant improvements over those efforts. First we employ a better model, including a variety of political, strategic, economic, and humanitarian variables we hypothesize to be related to the allocation of military aid. Second, we solve the `low n' difficulty that plagued previous research, by employing an extensive dataset that covers a global sample of countries covering the 1983-8 period. And third, unlike previous research where a two-stage process has been assumed, we employ a methodology that solves the difficulties associated with selection bias, which arises when two interrelated decisions are modeled separately. As a result of these improvements our results are much stronger than those of previous studies. We find that strategic, political, and economic interests, as well as human rights concerns and economic development, have been considered in the US military aid decision-making process.
Economic Interdependence: A Path to Peace or a Source of Interstate Conflict?
Authors: Barbieri Katherine
Published: March 2007

This article investigates the long-standing liberal hypothesis that trade ties facilitate interstate peace. Rather than assuming that trade will always promote peace, the author highlights the need to consider both the nature and context of economic linkages in assessing whether such ties are more likely to dampen or amplify interstate conflict. The study encompasses a diverse group of dyadic relationships for the period 1870-1938, 14,341 dyad years, and includes 270 militarized interstate disputes and 14 wars. After controlling for the potentially confounding influences of contiguity, regime type (joint democracy), relative capabilities, and alliance commitments, the author finds evidence that economic linkages have a dramatic influence on whether or not dyads engage in militarized disputes, but no influence on the occurrence of wars. Rather than inhibiting conflict, extensive economic interdependence increases the likelihood that dyads will engage in militarized interstate disputes. Peace through trade is most likely to arise among dyads composed of mutually dependent trading partners. Even then, the relationship between interdependence and conflict appears to be curvilinear, where low to moderate degrees of interdependence reduce the likelihood of dyadic disputes, and extensive economic linkages increase the probability of militarized disputes. Extreme interdependence, whether symmetrical or asymmetrical, has the greatest potential for increasing the likelihood of conflict.
National Interest, Humanitarianism or CNN: What Triggers UN Peace Enforcement After the Cold War?
Authors: Jakobsen Peter Viggo
Published: March 2007

This article undertakes a structured, focused comparison of five post-Cold War United Nations (UN) peace enforcement operations to determine why they were initiated. The roles played by five explanatory factors are examined in the operations in Kuwait, Northern Iraq, Somalia, Rwanda and Haiti. These factors are: a clear humanitarian and/or legal case, national interest, chance of success, domestic support and the CNN effect. Two distinct patterns leading to enforcement operations are identified: one driven by national interest, the other by humanitarian sentiment. A clear case for intervention (unambiguous interstate aggression or massive human suffering) is necessary for UN Security Council authorization, but the ensuing pattern depends on whether national interests are perceived to be at stake. Governments will work hard to mobilize support and accept a significant number of casualties when national interest is at stake. Humanitarian interventions, on the contrary, are driven by a combination of the CNN effect and good chances of success, as governments are reluctant to take casualties when national interests are not involved. The analysis concludes that UN enforcement operations will be the exception to the rule in the foreseeable future, and questions the conventional assumptions that broad domestic support and national interest are necessary conditions for enforcement operations as well as the widespread belief that the CNN effect drives humanitarian interventions.
Arms and Reconstruction in Post-Conflict Societies
Authors: Adekanye J. 'Bayo
Published: March 2007

Five case studies of international involvement in demilitarization/reconstruction processes are reviewed: Somalia (UNOSOM & UNITAF); Rhodesia/Zimbabwe; former Yugoslavia (UNPROFOR); Cambodia (UNTAC); and Mozambique (ONUMOZ). A central defect of these studies is that they do not include broader issues in their consideration of peace, nor do they contain any indications of the conditions for its sustenance in the post-settlement stage. Managing arms is only one aspect of a peace process. The transition process is more usefully conceptualized as a multifaceted one, in which military, political, psycho-social, humanitarian, as well as economic questions are seen as closely interwoven.
Ratification Processes and Conflict Termination
Authors: Frensley Nathalie J.
Published: March 2007

Three sets of assumptions about elite and constituent relations prevail in approaches to conflict termination. The `Interest-based', `Identity-based', and `Timing' approaches offer important insights into conflict termination processes but differ in how they conceive of the locus and direction of domestic political power during conflict termination. Despite such important differences, these contending approaches have not been tested comparatively. In this paper, I introduce the Dynamic Group approach and test it against these current approaches. The Dynamic Group approach differs from these others in that it is grounded in the two-level perspective on negotiation. The Dynamic Group approach treats the domestic locus and direction of power as variable (1) across cases and (2) across conflict stages within a given case. Accommodating such variation introduces the concept of domestic ratification as an important determinant of the success or failure of conflict settlement attempts. The Dynamic Group approach offers greater generalizability than the current approaches. Specifically, I demonstrate (1) that whereas these three contending approaches apply only to cases in which elite's and constituent's interests are consonant, the Dynamic Group approach covers cases of elite and constituent interest dissonance, and (2) that whereas the three approaches apply to no more than two stages of conflict termination, the Dynamic Group approach comprehends differential effects of four distinct stages. I demonstrate that the Dynamic Group approach best accounts for conflict-stage effects in the 1973 and 1985 attempts to settle the Northern Ireland conflict.