bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Polymer Physics
Authors: Rubinstein Michael , Colby Ralph H
Published: November 2023

This is a polymer physics textbook for upper level undergraduates and first year graduate students. Any student with a working knowledge of calculus, physics and chemistry should be able to read this book. The essential tools of the polymer physical chemist or engineer are derived in this book without skipping any steps. The book is a self-contained treatise that could also serve as a useful reference for scientists and engineers working with polymers. While no prior knowledge of polymers is assumed, the book goes far beyond introductory polymer texts in the scope of what is covered. The fundamental concepts required to fully understand polymer melts, solutions and gels in terms of both static structure and dynamics are explained in detail. Problems at the end of each Chapter provide the reader with the opportunity to apply what has been learned to practice. The book is divided into four parts. After an introduction in Chapter 1, where the necessary concepts from a first course on polymers are summarized, the conformations of single polymer chains are treated in Part 1. Part 2 deals with the thermodynamics of polymer solutions and melts, including the conformations of chains in those states. Part 3 applies the concepts of Part 2 to the formation and properties of polymer networks. Finally, Part 4 explains the essential aspects of how polymers move in both melt and solution states. In all cases, attention is restricted to concepts that are firmly entrenched in the field.
Ideal chains
Authors: Rubinstein Michael , Colby Ralph H
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we consider the conformations of chains with no interactions between monomers that are far apart along the chain, even if they approach each other in space. Such chains are called ideal chains. This situation is never completely realized for real chains, but there are several types of polymeric systems with nearly ideal chains. Real chains interact with both their solvent and themselves. The relative strength of these interactions determines whether the monomers effectively attract or repel one another. In Chapter 3, we will learn that real chains in a solvent at low temperatures can be found in a collapsed conformation due to a dominance of attractive over repulsive interactions between monomers. At high temperatures, chains swell due to dominance of repulsive interactions. At a special intermediate temperature, called the 0-temperature, chains are in nearly ideal conformations because the attractive and repulsive parts of monomer-monomer interactions cancel each other. This 0-temperature is analogous to the Boyle temperature of a gas, where the ideal gas law happens to work at low pressures. Even more importantly, linear polymer melts and concentrated solutions have practically ideal chain conformations because the interactions between monomers are almost completely screened by surrounding chains.
Real chains
Authors: Rubinstein Michael , Colby Ralph H
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 2, we studied the conformations of an ideal chain that ignore interactions between monomers separated by many bonds along the chain. In this chapter we study the effect of these interactions on polymer conformations. To understand why these interactions are often important, we need to estimate the number of monomer-monomer contacts within a single coil. This number depends on the probability for a given monomer to encounter any other monomer that is separated from it by many bonds along the polymer.
Random branching gelation
Authors: Rubinstein Michael , Colby Ralph H
Published: November 2023

Everyday life encounters many materials in transition from liquid to solid, examples are preparing Jello® gelatin or mixing Epoxy glue. This fascinating phenomenon is called gelation and it is caused by the formation of crosslinks between polymer chains. In the above examples, these crosslinks are induced either by microcrystallization upon cooling (Jello) or by covalent bonds formed on mixing (Epoxy). The final state after crosslinking consists of linear polymer strands connected by crosslinks.
Ethnicity
Authors: Johnson Mark R D
Published: November 2023

The first major study of health inequalities in modern Britain, the Black Report (Black et al. 1980), highlighted the existence of ethnic or racial disparities in health, although a comprehensive review of the then available literature on ‘race and health’ (Johnson 1983) noted that ‘research writings on health issues which have relevance to the study of race and ethnic relations are a relatively recent phenomenon in the UK’, recording only 109 items and a dozen conference proceedings.
Mapping the life-world: a future research priority for public health
Authors: Kelly Michael P
Published: November 2023

This chapter sets out an idea which it is essential for public health to embrace. It is called the life-world. It is important to develop this as a programme of action for the direction of future research for two reasons. First, we do not have sharp enough tools to map the population in a way that fits its needs for intervention and which are sociologically meaningful (see Chapter 2). Our tools to describe inequalities in health and our knowledge of how to tackle them is very limited (Graham and Kelly 2004; Killoran and Kelly 2004). Life-world provides a device to understand the nature of the variegated population. Secondly,
Attitudes, social attitudes, and widespread beliefs
Authors: Bethlehem Douglas W
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter, to adopt for a moment L.L. Thurstone’s blunt and forthright style, is to consider whether the concept ‘attitude’ provides a sufficient structure for the study of widespread beliefs. Ancillary to this major question are a look at what psychology already knows about widespread beliefs, and a consideration of what psychology can peculiarly offer in relation to widespread beliefs and how psychology might approach their study in the future. The first substantive issue to address, then, is the nature of a widespread belief.This term is not yet a well-defined one, either operationally or conceptually. Clearly, for a social science, particularly the study of social psychology, some such concept is of great potential importance. What related concepts have been used in social psychology or allied studies Four major concepts come to mind: from anthropology, the concept myth', from sociology, the concept norm from the sociological side of social psychology, the concept social representation', and from the psychological side of social psychology, the concept stereotype. These are not, of course, the only concepts that might have been chosen from these fields, but each is an important concept, each is well identified with the field from which it has been chosen and typifies in some respects concepts used in that field.
The dynamics of public opinion
Authors: Himmelweit Hilde T
Published: November 2023

Public opinion is the expression by many individuals-it might be the public at large, particular segments of society, members of an institution, or a crowd-of sentiments, evaluations, or beliefs about societal issues. The term public opinion covers a wide range from evaluations of specific events or policy proposals, e.g. whether the police should be armed, to an examination of the relative priorities the public attaches to widely shared values. Some assessments ask for probabilistic or comparative probabilistic judgements relating, for example, to the economic health of the country a year from now; others assess the public’s general emotional state, e.g. apathy, optimism, or other states, or reactions to particular individuals, e.g. leaders of political parties; to groups such as Americans and Blacks, or to institutions such as the City, the monarchy, or Trade Unions. Others elicit the public’s attributions, in the case of unemployment, for example, whether this is due to government policy or to structural factors beyond any government’s control. Assessment of public opinion ranges from momentary impressions or evaluations, through an examination of beliefs, in the Fishbeinian sense, to the study of broadly held attitudes or the degree to which people subscribe to more enduring values, like patriotism or egalitarianism. Public opinion differs from privately held opinion in that it needs to be expressed and heard. The scope of public opinion goes beyond the results of systematic questioning of representative samples which began only in the 1930s with the pioneering work of Elmo Roper and Lazarsfeld. Rather, public opinion is manifested when by one means or another ‘those in the know’, which might be those in power, journalists, the 19th century coffee house clientele, as well as the people themselves hear of what the public thinks or feels. Marsh and Fraser (1989) offer a more extended discussion of conceptions of public opinion.
The political and social beliefs of adolescents
Authors: Michael Billig Raymond Cochrane
Published: November 2023

Much of the work on the political attitudes of young people looks at what is commonly called ‘political socialization’. This is unfortunate because the very concept of political socialization often draws attention to the continuities of social life, at the expense of overlooking the discontinuities. The concept of socialization, when applied to political attitudes or commitments, implies the task of successive generations is to learn the political and social beliefs appropriate to their familial and social environment. In this respect, successful socialization implies the intergenerational transmission, with modification, of political beliefs and attitudes. At the back of much of this work, is the image of a society reproducing itself across generations with the basic elements remaining essentially unchanged. However, a crucial feature of capitalist society may be discontinuity, rather than continuity. As Marx and Engels wrote in The Communist manifesto: ‘The bourgeoisie cannot exist without constantly revolutionising the instruments of production, and thereby the relations of production, and with them the whole relations of society’ (Marx and Engels 1968, p. 38). If we are to take seriously this diagnosis, then we should expect constant change in social relations, and under conditions of constant change, one would expect social relations, and social attitudes, to take more indeterminate forms than might be expected from reading some of the writings on ‘political socialization’. For our theories to capture the social psychological dimensions of this indeterminacy, we need a perspective which can encompass discontinuities and contradictions.
The social dimension in relative deprivation
Authors: Smith Patten
Published: November 2023

It is now commonly accepted that in the past social psychologists have been na’ive in assuming that generalizations arising from research on individuals’ psychological processes may be used to explain, without difficulty, social behaviour in social contexts. Recent developments, particularly in Europe, have emphasized the importance of analysing social psychological phenomena in ways which respect their social nature (e.g. Tajfel 1984). This chapter takes relative deprivation theory as a case in point, comparing ‘individualistic’ with ‘social’ approaches in two rather different respects. The first involves the obvious comparison between individualistic measures and apparently social measures of relative deprivation, that is egoistic and fraternalistic relative deprivation respectively. The second entails the more radical argument that relative deprivation theory will only achieve really substantial predictive and explanatory power when it succeeds in moving towards a genuinely social perspective such as one incorporating assessments of widespread and shared beliefs in the populations in question.The central idea in relative deprivation is that militant collective behaviour is better explained by reference to people’s sense or feelings of deprivation rather than by their absolute level of deprivation. Historians and political scientists have employed the concept to account for a variety of episodes of collective action from the French Revolution to the urban riots in America in the 1960s, having found that purely economic accounts were insufficient. Over and above such considerations people’s feelings of despair, discontent, and frustration arising from changed economic circumstances, comparisons with others or the perceptions of intolerable discrepancies between what they had and what they wanted, had to be recognized. This development is an acceptance of the fact that a satisfactory explanation must include a psychological dimension. So Hobsbawm and Rude (1970) wrote about the Captain Swing riots in Britain in the nineteenth century:
The organization of the frontal lobe
Authors: Passingham Richard
Published: November 2023

The preface promised to describe the functional organization of the frontal lobe. This chapter tries to make sense of the findings of earlier chapters. When one tries an exercise of the sort attempted here, some of the proposals are bound to be wrong. Hypotheses are informed guesses, and one cannot always guess correctly.
Structural and functional constraints on ethnic minority individuals in Britain
Authors: Hutnik Nimmi
Published: November 2023

I arrive at Heathrow (it is October 1982) and the woman who clears away my polystyrene cups and plastic tray is of Indian origin, hair tightly pulled back in the traditional juda, awkwardly dressed in trousers and an apron. Her eyes light up when I address her in Hindi. Outside, in the cold damp October air, there are buses waiting to take me-into London? to Oxford? to Southampton? The men in the drivers’ seats are also Indian. They, too, respond warmly when I say, ‘Oxford ke liye, ek ticket de dijiye’ (‘Please give me a ticket for Oxford’).
Ethnic identification, ethnic preference, and self-esteem
Authors: Hutnik Nimmi
Published: November 2023

One of the most fundamental facets of social identity is the individual’s identification with and preference for his/her ethnic group. For most people the development of this identification and preference is a simple process: there is little conflict in seeing oneself as French, Swedish, or British if one belongs to the majority group in each of these countries. However, for the ethnic minority individual the process of developing identification and preference for one’s own group is complicated by the fact that the group suffers inferior status relative to the majority group. Not all black and coloured children, for instance, identify with or prefer their own group. Rather, some of them seem to internalize white values about their group, namely, that their group is in some way inferior and they identify with and prefer the white group rather than their own. Observations of this unusual pattern of identification and preference led psychologists to believe that it must result in deleterious consequences for the individual’s level of self-esteem.
The salience, centrality, and valence of ethnicity
Authors: Hutnik Nimmi
Published: November 2023

In discussing the psychological consequences of ethnic minority group membership, Kurt Lewin (1935) pointed out that the characteristics of a social situation might cause some aspects of the person to become so salient as to determine the individual’s responses to the situation. Later, researchers have explicitly manipulated group membership salience and measured the effect on various social behaviours. Festinger (1950a) found that Catholics and Jews tended to vote for the person identified as a member of their group in a situation where the religious affiliation of the candidates was made known to them and they were required to elect a club officer. Lambert et al. (1960) demonstrated an increase in tolerance for pain when membership feelings of Christians versus Jews were made salient. Subsequently, social psychologists have developed an interest in implicitly manipulated group salience.
Styles of cultural adaptation
Authors: Hutnik Nimmi
Published: November 2023

Although inter-cultural exchanges are by no means a new phenomenon, the increasing ease with which people are able to travel across cultural boundaries has made cross-cultural contact the subject of much debate. Early models describing the experience of travelling, or sojourning, concentrated on the more unpleasant aspects of cross-cultural contact. A major early influence was Stonequist (1937) who, drawing upon the work of Park (1928), published a book, The marginal man, in which he envisaged immigrants as people caught between two cultures and feeling at home in neither. In 1960, Oberg introduced the notion of culture shock, in which entrance into a new culture is seen as a confusing and disorienting experience. About the same time (i.e. the late 1950s), the notion of the U-curve of adjustment was introduced. This model suggested that crosscultural sojourners progress through three main phases: an initial state of elation and optimism; a second stage of frustration, confusion, and depression; and a third in which there is a gradual increment in confidence and satisfaction with the new society (Coelho 1958; Deutsch and Won 1963). These early models were characterized by the notion that travelling produced a state of mental disorientation similar to that found in clinical subjects (Furnham and Bochner 1986).
Products, persons, and periods: historiometric analyses of compositional creativity
Authors: Simonton Dean Keith
Published: November 2023

Anyone well versed in the European music tradition must have some acquaintance with such compositions as the Missa Papae Marcelli, the Brandenburg Concerti, Eine kleine Nach,tmusik, Tristan und Isolde, La Mer, Das Lied von der Erde, and Le Sacre du Printemps. Such persons would also show some familiarity with the composers responsible for these masterpieces: Palestrina, Bach, Mozart, Wagner, Mahler, Debussy, and Stravinsky. And, finally, these well-educated individuals will have some awareness of the musical periods in which these composers conceived their works, whether the Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Romantic, Post-Romantic, Impressionist, or Modern eras. Moreover, musicologists devote considerable amount of time to discussing these and other products, persons, and periods in order to discern the nature of composition, the basis for a composer’s achievements, or the changes in musical style. Yet these three entities are not merely of interest to musicologists. Psychologists, too, can learn a great deal about musical creativity by a careful examination of the compositions, the composers, and the compositional eras that define the European music tradition.
Developing understandings of mind
Authors: Wellman Henry M , Lagattuta Kristin H
Published: November 2023

Humans are social creatures: we raise and are raised by others, live in family groups, co-operate, compete, and communicate. We not only live socially, we think socially. In particular, we develop numerous conceptions about people, about relationships, about groups, social institutions, conventions, manners and morals. The claim behind research on ‘theory of mind’ is that certain core understandings organize and enable this array of developing social perceptions, conceptions and beliefs. In particular, the claim is that our everyday understanding of persons is fundamentally mentalistic; we think of people in terms of their mental states—their beliefs, desires, hopes, goals, and inner feelings. Consequently, an everyday mentalism is ubiquitous and crucial to our understanding of the social world. Consider the following: you want to make someone happy, so you give her something she wants; you want an object that someone else also wants, so you deceive him into believing it is unavailable; you know something that others do not, so you tell them. These themes—wanting, pleasing, deceiving, informing—provide the fabric of everyday life, as well as that of great fiction and drama, and manifest our everyday understanding of persons as desiring, believing, emoting fellow beings.
Do chimpanzees use their gestures to instruct each other?
Authors: Povinelli Daniel J , O’Neill Daniela K
Published: November 2023

Several years ago, we asked ourselves the following question: when chimpanzees coordinate their activities to achieve what on the surface appears to be a common goal, is this co-operation mediated by an understanding of each other’s mental states? In this chapter, we offer our preliminary answer to this question-a question that remains undeniably important in efforts to reconstruct the evolution of social understanding.
The brain control of feeding and reward
Authors: Rolls Edmund T
Published: November 2023

In this chapter and Chapter 7 we consider the rewards relevant to drives such as eating and drinking. In these cases there are internal signals which indicate that there is a need for food or water. The food or water are rewards, in that the organism will work to obtain the food or water. The signals that make the food or water rewarding originate internally. In the case of hunger, the internal signals reflect the state of energy balance, reflecting stimuli such as plasma glucose and gastric distension. In the case of thirst, the internal signals reflect the volumes of the cellular and extracellular fluids. In both cases the hunger and thirst operate to maintain the constancy of the internal milieu. The signals operate to alter the reward value which food or water has for the hungry or thirsty organism. The reward signals are conveyed primarily by the taste, smell, and sight of food or water. In this chapter we will consider where in information processing in these sensory systems the sensory stimulation produced by food (or, similarly, water) is decoded not just as a physical stimulus, but is coded in terms of its reward value. An important aspect of brain organization is that these two aspects of information processing are kept separate, at least in primates including humans. Another important aspect of brain organization for these types of reward is that the learning of which visual stimuli are food or water, or are associated with food or water, takes places in specialized parts for the brain for this type of learning. This learning takes place in the brain after analysis of what the stimulus is.
Brain mechanisms for thirst
Authors: Rolls Edmund T
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we consider the rewards relevant to thirst and drinking. In the case of thirst there are internal signals which indicate that there is a need for water. The water is a reward, in that the organism will work to obtain the water. The signals that make the water rewarding originate internally. In the case of thirst, the internal signals reflect the volumes of the cellular and extracellular fluid. Thirst and drinking operate to maintain the constancy of the internal milieu. The internal signals operate to alter the reward value which water has for the thirsty organism. The reward signals are conveyed primarily by the taste and sight of water. In this chapter, we will consider where in information processing in these sensory systems the sensory stimulation produced by water is decoded not just as a physical stimulus, but is coded in terms of its reward value. An important aspect of brain organization is that these two aspects of information processing are kept separate, at least in primates including humans. Another important aspect of brain organization for this type of reward is that the learning of which visual stimuli are water, or are associated with water, takes place in specialized parts for the brain for this type of learning, which take place after analysis of what the stimulus is.
Reward, punishment, and emotion in brain design
Authors: Rolls Edmund T
Published: November 2023

We now confront the fundamental issue of why we, and other animals, are built to use rewards and punishments to guide or determine our behaviour. Why are we built to have emotions, as well as motivational states? Is there any reasonable alternative around which evolution could have built complex animals? In Section 10.2 I outline several types of brain design, with differing degrees of complexity, and suggest that evolution can operate with only some of these types of design.

A simple design principle is to incorporate mechanisms for taxes into the design of organisms. Taxes consist at their simplest of orientation towards stimuli in the environment, for example the bending of a plant towards light which results in maximum light collection by its photosynthetic surfaces. (When just turning rather than locomotion is possible, such responses are called tropisms.) With locomotion possible, as in animals, taxes include movements towards sources of nutrient, and movements away from hazards such as very high temperatures.
Global environment
Authors: McMichael Anthony J , Butler, Colin D , Ahern Michael J
Published: November 2023

Earth’s biophysical environment constitutes the basic “goods and services” upon which our existence depends (Costanza et al. 1997, Daily 1997). Although societies within a given environment have, through the millennia, learnt how to conserve natural resources, these environmental assets have often been taken for granted; the tendency being to exploit natural resources to increase the carrying capacity of the environment. This scale of exploitation has increased exponentially over the past two centuries, as human numbers have expanded and as the material land energy-intensity of economic activity has increased (Diamond 1997, Redman 1999, UNPDDESA 2001). Some of the longer-term consequences for human health are expected to be commensurately more serious.
Medical knowledge
Authors: Ghosh Jayati
Published: November 2023

Medical knowledge, central to the improvement of health, comprises a wide variety of elements, from the understanding of health risks, through the impact of preventive, diagnostic, curative, and palliative procedures, to the effect of different delivery systems for medical technologies. All these forms of knowledge are subject not only to public (government and non-profit organization) and commercial involvement, but often also to direct community interest in the form of “traditional” knowledge.
The Monte-Carlo method for the transport equations
Authors: Lapeyre B , Pardoux É , Sentis R
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we present the Monte-Carlo methods for the linear transport equations of the type described in Chapter 2. We shall first describe the principle of the two methods, known on the one hand as the ‘adjoint Monte-Carlo method’, which is based on the interpretation of the transport equation as a ‘retrograde Kolmogorov type’ equation (that is, we adopt viewpoint A of Section 2.6) and on the other hand ‘direct Monte-Carlo method’, which is based on the interpretation of the transport equation as a ‘Fokker-Planck type’ equation (viewpoint B). We shall then state convergence results for these methods, which follow easily from the results of Chapter 2, and from the law of large numbers.
Recent Developments In Brain Imaging Research In Stuttering
Authors: Nil Luc F De
Published: November 2023

Ever since the formulation of the cerebral dominance theory (Orton 1928), researchers have speculated about potential involvement of aberrant neural processes in the onset and development of stuttering. Much of the earlier research into the nature of these hypothesized brain processes was based largely on the use of behavioural observations and electromyographical measures. Relevant observations included the relative slowness of laryngeal, respiratory, and articulatory reaction times in stuttering individuals (Bakker and Brutten 1989; Watson et al. 1991; Van Lieshout et al. 1993), the effects of auditory delayed feedback on the speech fluency of non-stuttering and stuttering speakers (Harrington 1987; Fukawa et al. 1988; Kalinowski et al. 1996), differences in dichotic listening and dual task interference performance between stuttering and non-stuttering speakers
Physiologic Development Of Speech Production
Authors: Moore Christopher A
Published: November 2023

The emergence of speech production in infants signifies the attainment of a broad range of developmental capacities, including, among others, cognitive, perceptual, social, linguistic, and physiologic proficiencies. Among these areas of speech development, perhaps physiologic development remains least described and understood, primarily for reasons of experimental challenge; achieving experimental control and maintaining accurate physiologic measures in a toddler obviously present a host of difficulties. Unfortunately, this lack of uniformity in our understanding of the essential capacities underlying speech development precludes a complete model of communicative development. Moreover, most theoretical approaches are then forced to posit specific, though empirically unsupported, assumptions regarding the motor infrastructure upon which developing speech is built.
Stuttering And Internal Models For Sensorimotor Control: A Theoretical Perspective To Generate Testable Hypotheses
Authors: Max Ludo
Published: November 2023

Stuttering is characterized by disruptions in speech motor behavior (repeated or prolonged articulatory and phonatory actions) that result in sound and syllable repetitions, audible and inaudible sound prolongations, and broken words. The importance of this fact, that moments of stuttering are associated with disruptions in motor behavior, cannot be overemphasized. Clearly, the association itself does not warrant the conclusion that stuttering is a speech motor disorder, because the process may have broken down at a pre-motor level. Nevertheless, it does indicate that any role played by cognitive-linguistic or psychological-emotional processes in either the distal (related to etiology) or proximal (related to individual moments of stuttering) causes of stuttering requires an explanation of how disruptions in those processes would result in the articulatory and phonatory repetitive movements and fixed postures observed during stuttering.
The evolution of signal form
Authors: Smith John Maynard , Harper David
Published: November 2023

So far, we have had rather little to say about the form of signals. In Chapter 2, we were concerned primarily with the cost of producing a signal, and the relation between the cost and reliability of the signal, but its form was ignored. In contrast, the form of an index, discussed in Chapter 3, is crucial, since an index only works if its intensity is causally tied to the quality being signalled. But many signals are not indices; we now turn to various ideas that have been proposed to explain their form.
Cigarette science: Addiction by design
Authors: Fowles Jeff , Shusterman Dennis
Published: November 2023

The addictive property of cigarettes is widely attributed to the presence of the naturally occurring nicotine alkaloid in tobacco (U.S. Surgeon General 1988; U.S. National Institute on Drug Abuse 2000). Signs of addiction to nicotine can be seen in a matter of days following initiation of smoking (Charlton et al. 2000), and addiction is firmly established by one year of smoking (RCP 2000). However, although the physiological and biochemical impacts of nicotine on the central and peripheral nervous systems have been extensively studied and reviewed (U.S. Surgeon General 1988), the process of addiction to tobacco is still not entirely understood.
Tobacco in Africa: More than a health threat
Authors: Saloojee Yussuf
Published: November 2023

Tobacco control has not been assigned a high status as a public health concern in most of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Social and economic factors are therefore the main determinants of tobacco use on the continent. Urbanization, increased literacy, the entry of women into the workforce and higher disposable incomes are among factors facilitating the adoption of consumer patterns similar to those in higher-income countries, including increased cigarette smoking.
Tobacco use and risk of oral cancer
Authors: Zheng Tongzhang , Boyle Peter , Zhang Bing , Zhang Yawei , Owens Patricia H , Lan Qing , Wise John
Published: November 2023

Epidemiological studies from various populations have consistently shown that tobacco smoking (including filter- and non-filter cigarettes, cigars, and pipe tobacco) increases oral cancer risk. In sum, these results indicate that: ever-smokers experience an increased risk; current smokers have a higher risk than ex-smokers; those who started smoking at younger ages have a higher risk than those that started at later ages; risk increases with amount of cigarettes smoked per day, duration of smoking, and lifetime pack-years of smoking; smokers of filter cigarettes have lower risk than smokers of unfiltered cigarettes. Epidemiological studies have also shown that other factors may also contribute to the effect of smoking on oral cancer risk. For example, alcohol consumption dramatically increases the effect of tobacco smoking on the risk of oral cancer. Similarly, xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes, involved in the metabolism of tobacco carcinogens, have a significant impact on the relationship between tobacco smoking and oral cancer risk. Overall, based on very conservative estimates, about 46% of the cancers of the oral cavity and pharynx in men and 11% in women are attributable to smoking worldwide, with considerable variation by location (Parkin etal. 2000).
Tobacco and pancreas cancer
Authors: Maisonneuve Patrick
Published: November 2023

The risk of pancreatic cancer increases rapidly with age, with 80% of the cases being diagnosed after age 60. Pancreatic cancer has been predominantly a male disease, presumably because of past differences in smoking habits, but the sex ratio decreases with increasing age. Blacks are 50% more likely to contract pancreatic cancer than whites (Coughlin et al. 2000). The cause for this racial difference is poorly understood. There is little evidence to suggest that blacks smoke more than white, but suggestive evidence that there are racial differences in the ability to degrade carcinogens contained within tobacco smoke (Richie et al. 1997).
Genes, nicotine addiction, smoking behaviour, and cancer
Authors: Murphy Michael , Johnstone, Elaine C , Walton Robert
Published: November 2023

One of the most frustrating mistakes to be made is to be right for the wrong reasons. RA Fisher made many seminal contributions to statistical genetics. His instincts did not entirely mislead him in relation to smoking and (lung) cancer risk but have probably contributed to stunting the growth of behavioural genetic research. The resurgent interest in the relationship between genetic influences, smoking behaviour, and cancer has required both the laying of Fisher’s ghost (that some of the same genes determine both smoking behaviour and cancer risk) and depended on the recognition of the addictive principle, nicotine, lying at the heart of much tobacco use (Swan 1999a, 1999b). The story has unfolded since the 1950s, in fits and starts at first but more smoothly recently.
Introduction
Authors: Pelcé Pierre , Brujić Jasna , Costier Laurent
Published: November 2023

Many natural shapes are designed during their growth. Thus, if their rigidity is high enough their final state reflects the different mechanisms responsible for their development. Two classes arise: the first one corresponds to a state where the shape mimics the inhomogeneities of the matter of the given object. In this case the growth is mainly controlled by the structure of the object itself, independent of the state of the surrounding medium. The second one is more ornamented and results from growth instabilities of regular shapes. In the latter case the constituent matter can be homogeneous and isotropic. However, if shape heterogeneities occur, which are merely triggered by fluctuations in the surrounding media, they are amplified by the growth dynamics.
Simple growth forms
Authors: Pelcé Pierre , Brujić Jasna , Costier Laurent
Published: November 2023

According to equations (1.2) and (1.12) in paragraph 1.4, and (1.9) in paragraph 1.5 the velocity field w of a Newtonian and incompressible viscous fluid satisfies the Navier–Stokes equation. In specific cases such as a polymer flow we can take into account a small slipping velocity. In the case of an interface between two immiscible moving fluids we will assume that the velocities of the fluids on both sides of the interface are equal and equal to the velocity of the interface itself.
Towards morphogenesis
Authors: Pelcé Pierre , Brujić Jasna , Costier Laurent
Published: November 2023

The patterns in growth presented in this book can be united into a single class, the dynamics of curved fronts (Pelcé 1986), or fingered growth (Kessler et al. 1988). They only constitute one class of growth patterns which exist in nature, but it is the class which is certainly the most interesting in terms of the richness of their growth forms. These ornamented patterns, resulting from instabilities which in general associate a transport phenomenon with interfacial dynamics, are shown in the table below.
What Is Environmental Epidemiology?
Authors: Brunekreef Bert , Baker Dean , Nieuwenhuijsen Mark
Published: November 2023

Environmental epidemiology is a subspecialty of epidemiology, the basic science of public health. Epidemiology is the study of the distribution of health and disease in the population, and of the determinants of this distribution. Environmental epidemiology studies the effects of environmental exposures on health and disease in the population. The subject matter of environmental epidemiology is environmental health: this, in principle, covers all factors external to the human body which may affect health.
Study Design And Methods
Authors: Baker Dean
Published: November 2023

Chapter 2 reviewed the principles of epidemiology and defined classical study designs that are used in virtually all fields of epidemiology. This chapter will describe the role of these study designs in environmental epidemiology, provide examples of how these study designs have been used to investigate environmental health issues, and summarize the methods, strengths and limitations of these study designs in environmental epidemiology. Some study designs have played particularly prominent roles in environmental epidemiology, although they are not used as widely in other areas of epidemiology. Examples include the use of time-series studies and panel studies in air pollution research or the use of cluster studies to evaluate spatial patterns of environmentally related diseases. Chapter 8 will discuss the use and analysis of these special study designs.
Environmental Epidemiology In Developing Countries
Authors: Romieu Isabel , íGuez Horacio Riojas Rodr
Published: November 2023

In developing countries, as in other parts of the world, the burden of disease due to envi- ronmental exposure is close to 24 percent [1]. However, in developing countries, this burden is a mixture of old problems, mainly related to poor sanitation and hygiene and lack of infrastructure, and new ones related to mass urbanization and the increase of industrial production without strict environmental control, leading to an increase in exposure to chemicals such as air pollutants, heavy metals, pesticides and other toxic substances.
Laser trapping of atoms
Authors: Letokhov Vladilen
Published: November 2023

That the laser cooling and trapping of neutral atoms are interrelated has already been said in the introduction to Chapter 5. We shall, therefore, now consider various techniques whereby cold atoms can be trapped. All the known techniques for trapping laser-cooled neutral atoms can be classified according to a few basic methods. These basic methods are optical trapping using the forces of the electric dipole interaction between atoms and laser fields, magnetic trapping based on the use of the forces of the magnetic dipole interaction, mixed magneto-optical trapping using simultaneous interaction between atoms and magnetic and laser fields, and mixed gravitooptical and gravito-magnetic trapping. Traps for neutral atoms can have a wide variety of geometries and dimensions: (a) macroscopic traps with a size of a »λ, (b) microscopic traps with a size of a ≃λ/2, (c) various combinations of macroscopic and microscopic traps (one-, two-, and three-dimensional) in the case of optical lattices, and finally (d) nanoscopic traps with a size of a «λ/2.
Scaling responses
Authors: Streiner David L , Norman Geoffrey R
Published: November 2023

Having devised a set of questions using the methods outlined in the previous chapter, we must choose a method by which responses will be obtained. The choice of method is dictated, at least in part, by the nature of the question asked. For example, a question like ‘Have you ever gone to church?’ leads fairly directly to a response method consisting of two boxes, one labeled ‘Yes’ and the other ‘No’. By contrast, the question ‘How religious are you?’ does not dictate a simple two-category response, and a question like ‘Do you believe that religious instruction leads to racial prejudice?’ may require the use of more subtle and sophisticated techniques to obtain valid responses.
Generalizability theory
Authors: Streiner David L , Norman Geoffrey R
Published: November 2023

We saw that there are many approaches to estimating reliability, each of which generates a different coefficient. One can examine scores from the same observer on two viewings of the same stimulus (intra-observer), different observers of the same stimulus (inter-observer), different occasions separated by a short time interval (test–retest), different items (internal consistency), different forms of the scale (parallel forms), and so on. Further, these standard measures do not exhaust the possible sources of variance. For example, some measures, such as bone density or tender- ness, might be expected to be equal on both sides of the body (left–right reliability?), and skin color might be expected to be the same on the soles of hands and feet (top–bottom reliability?).
Soft Machines
Authors: Jones Richard A L
Published: November 2023

Enthusiasts look forward to a time when tiny machines reassemble matter and process information with unparalleled power and precision. But is their vision realistic? Where is the science heading? As nanotechnology (a new technology that many believe will transform society in the next one hundred years) rises higher in the news agenda and popular consciousness, there is a real need for a book which discusses clearly the science on which this technology will be based. Whilst it is most easy to simply imagine these tiny machines as scaled-down versions of the macroscopic machines we are all familiar with, the way things behave on small scales is quite different to the way they behave on large scales. Engineering on the nanoscale will use very different principles to those we are used to in our everyday lives, and the materials used in nanotehnology will be soft and mutable, rather than hard and unyielding."Soft Machines" explains in a lively and very accessible manner why the nanoworld is so different to the macro-world which we are all familiar with. Why does nature engineer things in the way it does, and how can we learn to use these unfamiliar principles to create valuable new materials and artefacts which will have a profound effect on medicine, electronics, energy and the environment in the twenty-first century. With a firmer understanding of the likely relationship between nanotechnology and nature itself, we can gain a much clearer notion of what dangers this powerful technology may potentially pose, as well as come to realise that nanotechnology will have more in common with biology than with conventional engineering.
Looking at the nanoworld
Authors: Jones Richard A L
Published: November 2023

The nanoworld was not invented by Richard Feynman or K. Eric Drexler. Long before the idea of nanotechnology was devised and the word coined, technologies and processes that humans depended on relied on the manipulation of matter at the nanoscale, even if the way these technologies produced their effects were not fully understood at the time. Take the invention of Indian ink by the ancient Egyptians or the discovery of how to make soap; both of these long-established materials undoubtedly rely on nanotechnology in the broad sense, and if these inventions were being made today then their inventors would no doubt be stressing their nanotechnological credentials as they attempted to raise capital for their start-up companies. What makes it possible to think of the nanoworld as a new realm of matter that we can explore and control is the availability of instruments that allow us to see into that realm. It only became possible to appreciate the vast extent of the universe beyond the Earth after the telescope had been discovered. So it is, that the invention of new microscopes, capable of picking out the details of the world on scales smaller than a micron, has enabled us to appreciate the scope of the nanoworld. Seeing is believing.
Wetware: chemical computing from bacteria to brains
Authors: Jones Richard A L
Published: November 2023

The connection between electricity and the way our brains and nervous systems work was made Jong ago. The Italian scientist Galvani famously made a dissected frog’s leg twitch by connecting a battery to it, and the idea that you can somehow jump-start a nervous system back into life by applying electricity to it irreversibly entered popular western culture in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. Thus, when the first electronic calculating machines—computers—were developed in the 1940s it was only too natural to think of them as analogues to our own nervous systems—’electronic brains’. As computers have become embedded in our everyday lives, it becomes even more difficult to avoid making analogies between the brain and computers. Yet these analogies are profoundly misleading. Yes, the action of both brains and computers both involve electricity in some way. But whereas, as we have seen, the action of a computer is based on the transport of electrons through materials, in nervous systems what moves are not electrons, but ions—whole, charged atoms and molecules. The mechanism by which these ions move around in their watery environment is nothing to do with the intrinsically quantum mechanical movement of electrons in semiconductors. Instead, at the heart of these mechanisms are the nowfamiliar companions of the wet nanoworld, Brownian motion and conformational change. The basic elements of logic in living creatures arc molecules, and the way information is moved around is not by the ghostly quantum mechanisms underlying electronic transport, but by the very physical movement of molecules, driven by that ever-present Brownian motion.
Single-molecule electronics
Authors: Jones Richard A L
Published: November 2023

I recently went to a seminar by a distinguished chemist about an aspect of his work on nano-materials. At the end of the seminar, in response to a question, he began musing about why biology never seemed to use electron transport— as we saw in the last chapter, biological electrical phenomena are dominated by the movement of ions. ‘Of course, biology doesn’t use electrons, for the same reason that you shouldn’t use a toaster in the bath’, I thought to myself, but I was too polite to say anything so sarcastic. Which was just as well, because I soon realised that there was a lot more to this question than the simple incompatibility of electricity and water.
The manifold nature of interpersonal relations: the quest for a common mechanism
Authors: Gallese Vittorio
Published: November 2023

It has been proposed that the capacity to code the ‘like me’ analogy between self and others constitutes a basic prerequisite and a starting point for social cognition. It is by means of this self/other equivalence that meaningful social bonds can be established, that we can recognize others as similar to us, that imitation can take place.