bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Molecular Farming in Plants
Authors: Biemelt Sophia , Sonnewald Uwe
Published: September 2006

The commonly used term ‘molecular farming’ describes the large‐scale production of valuable proteins in transgenic plants, including antibodies, vaccines, other pharmaceuticals and industrial proteins. Compared to traditionally used systems such as microbial cultures, plants offer many advantages with respect to economy, quality and safety, although constraints concerning protein yield and public acceptance must be overcome before the plant's full potential can be exploited.
Mammalian Pheromones
Authors: Fadool Debra Ann
Published: September 2006

Pheromones are a vehicle for chemical communication in vertebrates and serve to relay information important for reproduction, mate selection, species and gender identification and social status. Activation of cellular signalling cascades in the vomeronasal organ combined with hormonal changes mediating reproduction are driven by pheromones that must be transduced from an external chemical message into an electrical signal read by the central nervous system.
Neuroethology
Authors: Solis Michele M , Perkel David J
Published: September 2006

Neuroethology is a branch of neuroscience that explores the neural mechanisms of naturally occurring animal behaviour. This approach takes advantage of the variety of behaviours and nervous systems found among different species to understand how evolution shaped each organism to its environmental niche, and to reveal general principles of the structure and function of the nervous system.
Stem Cells and Treatment of Neurodegenerative Disorders
Authors: Limke Tobi L , Rao Mahendra S
Published: September 2006

Cell‐based therapy using neural stem and progenitor cells offers great hope for treating neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson and Huntington diseases. Therapeutic strategies include cell replacement through transplantation of exogenous cells, cell replacement through mobilization of endogenous cells and delivery of therapeutic agents through transplantation of genetically engineered cells.
Patch‐clamp Technique
Authors: Hamill Owen P
Published: September 2006

The patch‐clamp technique enables the measurement of single membrane ion channel currents that underlie a wide variety of electrical and ionic signalling mechanisms in living cells. Biophysically, it provides the unique opportunity to follow in real time the conformational transitions of single membrane channel proteins with microsecond resolution and can be used as a functional membrane protein assay that is far more sensitive than traditional methods.
Regeneration of Functional Neuronal Connections
Authors: Schwab Martin E , Buchli Anita
Published: September 2006

Major differences exist in the molecular processes of nerve fibre regeneration in peripheral nerves and the central nervous system (CNS: brain and spinal cord) of higher animals and humans that allow spontaneous functional recovery to occur only in the peripheral nervous system. Some of the mechanisms blocking fibre regeneration in the CNS can now be experimentally influenced in animal models leading to improved recovery after spinal cord injury or stroke.
National Institutes of Health (NIH)
Authors: Harden Victoria A , Hannaway Caroline
Published: September 2006

The National Institutes of Health (NIH), founded in 1887, is the United States federal government's principal agency for the support of medical research both at its campus in Bethesda, Maryland, and through grants and contracts awarded to biomedical research scientists at institutions across the United States, and, to a more limited extent, in other countries. Its mission is science in pursuit of fundamental knowledge about the nature and behaviour of living systems and the application of that knowledge to extend healthy life and reduce the burdens of illness and disability.
Medical Research Council (MRC)
Authors: Neil David Langley
Published: September 2006

The Medical Research Council (MRC) is a national nondepartmental public body with executive responsibilities, established by Royal Charter in 1920 and funded mainly by the UK Government. The MRC's primary function is to promote, develop and support UK biomedical research aimed at improving human health.
Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB)
Authors: Perutz Max F
Published: September 2006

The Laboratory opened in 1962 in Cambridge, UK. Its goal is to interpret biological phenomena at the molecular level by a wide range of studies on the structure of proteins, nucleic acids, membranes, organelles and viruses, and by research on the mechanisms and control of gene expression and the three‐dimensional organization of cells.
Novartis Foundation
Authors: Chadwick Derek J
Published: September 2006

The Novartis Foundation, founded in 1949 and located in the United Kingdom, is a scientific and educational charity whose mission is to promote the study and general knowledge of science and in particular to encourage international cooperation in scientific research.
Institut Pasteur and Satellite Institutes
Authors: Gachelin Gabriel
Published: September 2006

The Institut Pasteur is a French private institution devoted to research in the biomedical sciences and a renowned postgraduate teaching institution. Its research focuses on microbes with emphasis on parasitic, bacterial and viral genomics and pathogenesis and host–microbe relationships; developmental biology and neurobiology are newer fields of research at the institute.
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Authors: Witkowski JA
Published: September 2006

Founded in 1890 at Cold Spring Harbor, New York, USA, the laboratory is a research and educational institution with research programmes focusing on cancer, genomics, neurobiology and plant genetics.
Rockefeller Foundation: Biomedical and Life Sciences Offshoots
Authors: Abir‐Am Pnina G
Published: September 2006

Established in 1913 in New York City, New York, USA, the Rockefeller Foundation was the most influential philanthropic foundation sponsoring the biomedical and life sciences in the first half of the twentieth century. It emerged as a key policy maker in steering the course of biological progress as part of a global strategy to promote social stability.
Howard Hughes Medical Institute
Authors: Choppin Purnell W , Bearn Alexander G
Published: September 2006

The Howard Hughes Medical Institute was founded in 1953 and has its headquarters located at Chevy Chase, Maryland, USA. One of the world's largest philanthropies, its primary purpose is promotion of knowledge within the field of basic sciences (principally in the field of biomedical research and science education).
National Institute for Medical Research (
NIMR
)
Authors: King Rodney W
Published: September 2006

The National Institute for Medical Research was founded in 1914 in London, UK. It is the oldest and largest of the Medical Research Council's research units. The Institute is a dedicated research centre with programmes focusing on Genes and Cellular Controls, Infections and Immunity, Neurosciences and Structural Biology.
Boussingault, Jean Baptiste
Authors: Carpenter KJ
Published: September 2006

1802–1887 French chemist, and pioneer in nutritional research.
Aykroyd, Wallace Ruddell
Authors: Carpenter KJ
Published: September 2006

1899–1979 British physician who studied nutrition problems in Newfoundland and India, and was a pioneer organizer of international collaboration in this field.
Chick, Harriette
Authors: Carpenter KJ
Published: September 2006

1875–1977 British nutritionist who did pioneer work on rickets and B vitamins.
Romer, Alfred Sherwood
Authors: Cain Joe
Published: September 2006

1894–1973 American vertebrate palaeontologist and museum director whose textbooks and community leadership shaped his discipline for generations, and who revolutionized the study of fossil reptiles.
Protein Export from the Endoplasmic Reticulum to the Cytosol: Methods
Authors: McCracken Ardythe A , Brodsky Jeffrey L
Published: September 2006

ER‐associated protein degradation, a component of protein quality control in the secretory pathway, is a process by which aberrant proteins of the ER are selected for export, via retro‐translocation, to the cytosol for subsequent degradation by the proteasome.
Hummingbirds (Trochilidae)
Authors: Calder William A
Published: September 2006

The hummingbirds (of order Apodiformes) are very small birds, mostly with iridescent plumage. Their ‘wrist and hand’ wing articulation derives lift on both the up‐ and down‐strokes, permitting stationary, upward and reverse hovering. They subsist on flower nectar, tree sap and small insects.
Plant Defences against Fungal Attack: Recognition and Signal Transduction
Authors: Funnell Deanna L , Schardl Christopher L
Published: September 2006

Recognition by a plant of pathogen invasion initiates activation of proteins and of gene transcription in plant cells at the site of infection and at a distance from infection.
Altruism – A Philosophical Analysis
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: September 2006

Altruism can be defined in both biological and psychological senses. Biological altruists are organisms that act so as to raise the expected reproductive success of other organisms by reducing their own reproductive success. Whereas psychological altruism is more difficult to define.
Fitness: Philosophical Problems
Authors: Maclaurin James B
Published: September 2006

A philosophical discussion of conceptual and theoretical issues raised by the scientific use of the term ‘fitness’ to describe a property of evolving systems.
Philosophy of the Life Sciences
Authors: Hull David L
Published: September 2006

Biologists and philosophers of science have joined together to explicate some of the more philosophical issues that arise in the life sciences, primarily in evolutionary biology.
Adaptationist Claims – Conceptual Problems
Authors: Horvath Christopher D
Published: September 2006

Adaptationism is the name for a general approach in evolutionary biology that emphasizes the importance of natural selection above all other evolutionary processes. In 1978, Gould and Lewontin published a now classic critique of adaptationism, launching a fierce debate about both the empirical and conceptual adequacy of this approach.
Progress: A Philosophical Analysis
Authors: Shanahan Timothy
Published: September 2006

Does evolution manifest progress? Biologists have answered this question in various ways, but as yet no consensus has emerged. A persistent stumbling block to reaching agreement has been vagueness and imprecision with regard to the idea of progress. Progress requires both direction and improvement, but these concepts are also problematic, and require careful philosophical analysis.
History of Protein Chemistry
Authors: Hunter Graeme K
Published: September 2006

Protein chemistry may be defined as the study of the structure and chemical properties of proteins.
History of Neurochemistry
Authors: Agranoff Bernard W
Published: September 2006

Neurochemistry, the biochemistry of the nervous system, became a recognized research discipline in the 1950s, but its origins can be traced to antiquity.
Wetlands
Authors: Richardson Curtis J
Published: September 2006

Wetland ecosystems have water at or near the surface of the ground for much of the year. The native plants and animals in these ecosystems are adapted to life in saturated soil conditions, which can include intermittent flooding, anoxia and potentially harsh soil chemistries.
Evolution of Ecosystems: Terrestrial
Authors: Elias Scott A
Published: September 2006

As life has evolved on Earth, it has been organized into biological communities of increasing complexity. These communities are temporary associations of species that shift in response to environmental disturbances.
Protein Phosphatases
Authors: Wishart Matthew J , Guan Kun‐Liang
Published: September 2006

Eukaryotic protein phosphatases are generally classified according to substrate specificity and three‐dimensional structure into two large groups: protein serine/threonine phosphatases, metalloproteins that dephosphorylate substrates via a single‐step reaction involving a metal‐activated water molecule, and protein tyrosine phosphatases, which contain an active‐site cysteine thiolate that forms a phosphoenzyme intermediate prior to nucleophilic breakdown by an activated water.
Biotechnology Intellectual Property – Bioethical Issues
Authors: Wilson Jack
Published: September 2006

Biotechnology intellectual property consists of patents and trade secrets held on organisms, genes and products derived from them. Intellectual property law has been applied to biotechnological innovations and there are ethical concerns raised by its protection of biotechnological inventions.
Medical Futility
Authors: Loeben Gregory S
Published: September 2006

Medical futility is a modern concept increasingly invoked in end‐of‐life decision‐making. It is used both to describe certain situations and to justify refusing treatment as a response to those situations.
Bioethics of New Assisted Reproduction
Authors: Purdy Laura
Published: September 2006

New methods of assisted reproduction such as
in vitro
fertilization and intracytoplasmic sperm injection raise important moral issues. These include informed consent and a variety of consequentialist and structural concerns.
Bioethics of Organ Transplantation
Authors: Caplan Art
Published: September 2006

There is no consensus about what constitutes fair distribution with respect to scarce resources. There are theories of justice that would direct resources to those most likely to benefit from them, to those who are seen as most deserving, to those who are seen as likely to make the greatest social contribution in the future, to those willing to pay the highest price for them, to those who have the greatest responsibility for nurturing the lives of others, to those likely to enjoy the highest quality of life, or through a random system of allocation such as a lottery.
Ethics of Research: Protection of Human Subjects
Authors: Gifford Fred
Published: September 2006

Research involving human subjects is invaluable for answering both scientific and clinical questions, especially those centred on making medical intervention as effective and safe as possible. But it raises a number of difficult moral issues: such experimentation can impose risk, questions arise about the adequacy of informed consent, and clinical research creates a tension between the roles of clinical therapist and research scientist.
Bioethics in Embryonic Research
Authors: McGee Glenn , Philpott Sean , Kuhn Vanessa , Robertson‐Kraft Claire , Patrizio Pasquale
Published: September 2006

Embryonic research has raised questions throughout the history of its practice, particularly given the recent developments in fetal and stem cell research.
Global Change – Contemporary Concerns
Authors: Raven John A
Published: September 2006

Current changes in the global environment are at rates unprecedented in the last million years. These changes are influencing many aspects of human activity and wellbeing.
Franklin, Rosalind Elsie
Authors: Klug Aaron
Published: September 2006

1920

–

1958

English

physical chemist and X‐ray crystallographer

who played a

key role in the discovery of the three‐dimensional structure of DNA.
Motor Proteins in
DNA
Metabolism: Structures and Mechanisms
Authors: Bujalowski Wlodzimierz
Published: September 2006

Major processes of DNA metabolism such as replication, recombination and repair, require mechanical, vectorial translocation of enzymes along the nucleic acid. Enzymes involved in these processes, particularly helicases and polymerases, must possess motor protein capabilities to be able to perform their functions.
Black, Joseph
Authors: Issitt John
Published: September 2006

(1728–1799) French‐born Scottish chemist noted for his work on carbon dioxide and the nature of heat.
Brenner, Sydney
Authors: Witkowski JA
Published: September 2006

1927

–

British

scientist

who played a major role in the

development of molecular genetics and established a major new field of research on the nematode worm
Caenorhabditis elegans
.
Bridges, Calvin Blackman
Authors: Winchester EG
Published: September 2006

1889

–

1938

American

geneticist

who

pioneered the first genome project

.
Herbert McLean Evans
Authors: Long Diana E
Published: September 2006

1882

–

1971

American

anatomist and biologist

whose scientific achievements included,

the discovery of Evans blue dye (widely used for estimating mammalian and human blood volume), biological analysis of the oestrus cycle in the rat, the isolation and analysis of the hormones of the anterior pituitary, and the discovery and initial characterization of vitamin E

.
Finlay, Carlos Juan
Authors: Power HJ
Published: September 2006

1833

–

1915

Cuban

doctor

, who

implicated
Aedes aegypti
mosquitoes in the transmission of yellow fever

.
History of Malaria
Authors: Power Helen Joy
Published: September 2006

The history of malaria is concerned with the prehistory of malaria parasites, the clinical description of febrile illnesses associated with swamps and marshes and the identification of the four human malaria parasites and the mosquito vector. Through understanding of the life cycle methods of control (pre DDT) and treatment were developed and attempts made to achieve global eradication.
Bruce, David
Authors: Power HJ
Published: September 2006

1855

–

1931

Australian

‐born

British

doctor

who discovered

the bacterial aetiology of brucellosis and the parasite responsible for cattle trypanosomiasis

.
Leishman, William Boog
Authors: Power Helen J
Published: September 2006

1865

–

1926

Scottish

bacteriologist

,

pathologist

and

protozoologist

who shared

the discovery of the parasite of kala‐azar

with Charles Donovan.
Montagnier, Luc
Authors: Wainberg Mark A
Published: September 2006

1930

–

French‐born

virologist

who

shared in the discovery of HIV‐1 in 1983

.
Priestley, Joseph
Authors: Power Helen J
Published: September 2006

(1733–1804) British natural philosopher and pneumatic chemist,whose interest in gases led to the discovery of oxygen and understanding of its role in combustion and respiration.
Scharrer, Berta Vogel
Authors: Magner Lois N
Published: September 2006

1906–1995 German‐born American physiologist who was one of the founders of neuroendocrinology.
Smith, James Leonard Brierley
Authors: Spargo PE
Published: September 2006

1897

–

1968

South African

ichthyologist

particularly associated with the

discovery, identification and nature of the coelacanth

.
Herophilus
Authors: von Staden Heinrich
Published: September 2006

c
330–260
BC
Greek pioneer of systematic human dissection who made numerous anatomical and physiological discoveries.
Erasistratus
Authors: von Staden Heinrich
Published: September 2006

c
315–240
BC
Greek practitioner of systematic human dissection who used experiments to verify his physiological hypotheses.
Wellcome, Henry Solomon
Authors: Power HJ
Published: September 2006

1853–1936 American‐born British pharmacist, businessman and philanthropist.
History of Penicillin
Authors: Quirke Viviane M
Published: September 2006

Penicillin was the first broad‐spectrum antibiotic. It revolutionized the treatment of infectious diseases, and became an instrument of mass medical care in the aftermath of World War II. Deep‐fermentation methods, which had been developed for the production of penicillin during the war, gave rise to the antibiotics industry, and contributed to the new biotechnology industry which appeared in the 1970s. For all these reasons, penicillin had a major impact on the second half of the twentieth century.
History of Oral Contraceptives
Authors: Djerassi Carl
Published: September 2006

Progesterone is one of the naturally occurring female sex hormones, acting as nature's contraceptive by preventing women from conceiving during pregnancy. It required the efforts of organic chemists to synthesize steroids that mimic the biological activity of the natural hormone and that are effective by oral administration.
Regulatory Genes in Plant Development: MADS
Authors: Ma Hong
Published: September 2006

MADS‐box genes are found in all major groups of eukaryotes, and members of this large gene family have important regulatory functions in plant development. In particular, several MADS‐box genes are critical for specifying the identity of flower organs.
Sensory Processing in Invertebrate Motor Systems
Authors: Büschges Ansgar , Schmidt Joachim , Wolf Harald
Published: September 2006

In invertebrates (as in vertebrates), vision, chemical and mechanical senses, and audition are the main sensory modalities employed for orientation in the environment, locomotor control and equilibrium. The control of posture, limb and body movements is achieved by integrating sensory input with motor control function in neuronal networks with particular topography, connectivity patterns and emerging processing capabilities.
Locomotion in Invertebrates
Authors: DeMont M Edwin , Ford Matthew D , Mitchell Sean C
Published: September 2006

The invertebrates utilize a diversity of mechanisms to move. This diversity is evident by examining the variety of arrangements of muscles found within the skeletal system, and the structure of the components comprising the skeletal support system itself.
Reproduction and Life Cycles in Invertebrates
Authors: Olive Peter JW
Published: September 2006

The patterns of reproduction among the invertebrates are much more varied than those of vertebrates. Male and female functions can occur in the same individual either sequentially or at the same time. Various patterns of asexual reproduction may be observed, although these are almost always combined with sexual reproduction at some stage in the life cycle.
Archaeal Genomes
Authors: Atlas Ronald M , Drell Daniel , Fraser Claire
Published: September 2006

The genomes of a number of archaeal species have been fully sequenced. Analyses of these genomes are providing useful insights into the evolution and functioning of diverse archaea, helping to understand the diverse physiological properties of archaea and their relationships to bacteria and eukarya.
Lister, Joseph
Authors: Bynum WF
Published: September 2006

1827–1912 British surgeon whose introduction of antiseptic methods in surgery helped create modern operative technique.
Conservation Biology in Action: Case Studies
Authors: Primack Richard
Published: September 2006

Conservation biology is a crisis discipline focused on protecting the biological diversity of our world. The field endeavours not only to study biological diversity, but more importantly, to take action – tailored to the threats faced by species and ecosystems, and to local circumstances – that will halt or reverse environmental destruction.
Collectins
Authors: Ruddy Marcella Kuhlman , Takahashi Kazue , Stehle Thilo , Ezekowitz Alan
Published: September 2006

Collectins are proteins of the mammalian innate immune system, circulating pattern‐recognition molecules involved in recognizing and clearing pathogens in an antibody‐independent way. The family of these proteins contains six main members. Collectins contain carbohydrate‐recognition domains that bind simple sugars and this ability is fundamental to their ability to recognize self from nonself.
Precopulatory Reproductive Strategies
Authors: Pizzari Tommaso
Published: September 2006

The quality and number of young produced by an organism contribute to the spread of its genes, and thus its evolutionary performance depends crucially on its reproductive success. Precopulatory reproductive strategies are the first step towards such success.
Signalling and Reception
Authors: Lindström Leena , Kotiaho Janne S
Published: September 2006

Communication, a widespread natural phenomenon, occurs in both animals and plants. Signals are evolved traits that transfer information from one individual (the signaller) to another (the receiver); they can occur in any sensory modality.
Interspecific Coevolution
Authors: Weiblen George D
Published: September 2006

Interspecific coevolution occurs when two or more species are agents of selection on each other and respond to each other through reciprocal genetic changes that increase fitness.
Eusociality and Cooperation
Authors: Keller Laurent , Chapuisat Michel
Published: September 2006

The evolution of eusociality, here defined as the emergence of societies with reproductive division of labour and cooperative brood care, has occurred under specific ecological, genetic and life history conditions. Although sophisticated levels of cooperation have evolved in the largest and more complex societies, conflicts among individuals are still common because, in contrast to cells of an organism, they are not genetically identical.
Human Behavioural Ecology
Authors: Mulder Monique Borgerhoff
Published: September 2006

Human behavioural ecology emerged in the mid‐1970s as a result of applying the theory of evolution by natural selection to the study of human behaviour. Using explicit models to derive hypotheses that are tested with quantitative data primarily drawn from traditional human communities, it offers a natural science of sociocultural diversity.
Gnetales
Authors: Carmichael Jeffrey Scott
Published: September 2006

The Gnetales (
Ephedra
,
Gnetum
and
Welwitschia
) is an intriguing group of nonflowering seed plants (gymnosperms). These plants are closely related to angiosperms and possess many angiosperm‐like features.
Monocotyledons
Authors: Stevens Peter F
Published: September 2006

The uses, ecology, fossil history and distribution of the monocots is summarized. The phylogeny of monocots is outlined, emphasizing the importance of the herbaceous habit in particular, but also 3‐merous flowers, septal nectaries etc., for their diversification.
Asterids
Authors: Bremer Birgitta
Published: September 2006

The informal angiosperm group asterids consists of 107 families and over 80 000 species. It is named after the genus
Aster
of the Asteraceae family. Today 10 orders, viz. Cornales, Ericales, Garryales, Gentianales, Lamiales, Solanales, Aquifoliales, Apiales, Asteriales, and Dipsacales, are included in the group.
Zea mays
(Maize, Corn)
Authors: Vincent P Leszek D
Published: September 2006

Zea mays
(maize, corn) is a member of the grass family (Poaceae). It has been an important food crop since ancient times, especially among the peoples of Central and South America
Laurales
Authors: Renner Susanne S
Published: September 2006

The Laurales are an order of flowering plants comprising seven families that contain some 2500–2800 species in 85–90 genera. Most Laurales are tropical trees.
Piperales
Authors: Marquis Robert J
Published: September 2006

The Piperales are herbs (or shrubs, small trees, and vines). Because of their close affinity to monocots, based on molecular and morphological data, and their great age, the Piperales are included in the group known as palaeoherbs.
Acorales (Sweet Flag)
Authors: Bogner Josef
Published: September 2006

The Acorales contains only one family, the Acoraceae, with only one genus,
Acorus
, with two species and a few varieties. The species
Acorus calamus
and
A. gramineus
are both medicinally and horticulturally of importance.
Dioscoreales (Yams)
Authors: Bharathan Geeta
Published: September 2006

Dioscoreales are a group of largely tropical, often climbing, plants with broad, reticulate‐veined leaves that make them look like ‘dicots’. The group contains plants that are important to humans as food and medicine, and includes the ‘true’ yams (
Dioscorea
). Yams may be among the earliest domesticated crops, and may be intimately connected with early human history and migrations.
Pandanales (Screw Pine)
Authors: Cox Paul Alan
Published: September 2006

The Pandanales, a group of economically important monocotyledons, consisting of trees, shrubs and vines of a single family, the Pandanaceae, are confined to the old world tropics. These plants have a remarkable diversity of pollinators, which yield insights to the relationships between pollination and the evolution of plant‐breeding systems.
Zingiberales (Gingers and Bananas)
Authors: Prince Linda M , Kress W John
Published: September 2006

The Zingiberales is a group of plants including gingers, bananas, heliconias and prayer plants. This group is made up of eight families distributed in tropical areas of Africa, the Americas, Asia and the South Pacific. Members are generally herbaceous, play an important ecological role in their native habitats, and are a source of foods, spices, medicines and ornamentals.
Santalales (Mistletoe)
Authors: Nickrent Daniel L
Published: September 2006

Mistletoes are flowering plants in the sandalwood order (Santalales) that parasitize the branches of trees and shrubs. Mistletoes have evolved approximately five times in the order and are important in forest ecology, pathology and medicine.
Saxifraga (Saxifrages)
Authors: Soltis Douglas E
Published: September 2006

The common name saxifrage may be used in a narrow sense to refer to members of the large genus
Saxifraga
(as well as the genus
Micranthes
) or in a broader sense to refer to the entire family Saxifragaceae.
Rosales (Rose)
Authors: Campbell Christopher S
Published: September 2006

The order Rosales contains about 8000 species, including many of economic and ecological importance. The nine families of this order are divided into three major subgroups: the rose family (Rosaceae), the urticoids (figs, nettles and relatives), and the rhamnoids (buckthorns and relatives).
Fagales (Oak)
Authors: Manos Paul S
Published: September 2006

The order Fagales is a well‐defined group of woody flowering plants with considerable economic and ecological importance. Common species include the alders, bayberries, beeches, beefwoods, chestnuts, hickories, oaks, walnuts and southern beeches.
Ericales (Rhododendron)
Authors: Smets Erik , Pyck Nancy
Published: September 2006

The angiosperm order Ericales consists of 25 families and about 11 150 species. A great variety of life forms is present and representatives of Ericales can be found worldwide. The order contains many economically and horticulturally important plants.
Garryales
Authors: Stevens Peter F
Published: September 2006

Garryales are a small order of asterid I families with rather small flowers, sister to the usually larger‐flowered and much more diverse and speciose Lamiales, Gentianales and Solanales.
Bacterial Membrane Transport: Superfamilies of Transport Proteins
Authors: Maloney Peter C
Published: September 2006

Bacteria have solute transport systems enabling them to accumulate needed nutrients, extrude unwanted byproducts and modify their cytoplasmic content of salts so as to maintain a composition conducive to growth and development. Most bacterial transport systems resemble their counterparts in eukaryotic cells, and similar principles operate in both cell types. Two widely spread superfamilies of solute transporters, the ion‐coupled systems that take part in chemiosmotic circuits, and the ABC solute ATPases, whose operation is linked to ATP hydrolysis, are universally distributed among living cells and account for a large fraction of their membrane transport activities.
DNA Replication: Prokaryotes and Yeast
Authors: Hoelz Derek J , Hickey Robert J , Malkas Linda H
Published: September 2006

An organism's ability to pass on genetic information to further generations requires the accurate reproduction of its genomic DNA, a process termed DNA replication. Examination of the events that take place during DNA replication has revealed numerous well‐orchestrated protein–protein interactions and enzymatic reactions, which ultimately leads to synthesis of an essentially identical replica of the cell's complete genome.
Capillary Blotting of
RNA
and
DNA
Gels
Authors: Southern Edwin M
Published: September 2006

Quite often the gel electrophoretic migration pattern of individual components in a DNA or RNA sample is determined not by analysing the gel but rather by analysing an image of the gel created by blotting the gel on to membrane. One of the simplest procedures is capillary blotting.
Restriction Mapping of Cloned
DNA
Authors: Woodward K
Published: September 2006

The procedure of restriction mapping involves cleavage of DNA with a variety of restriction endonucleases, followed by separation of the DNA by gel electrophoresis and determination of the number and molecular weight of the fragments generated. Single and double enzyme digests are usually performed and, by comparing the sizes of the fragments generated, cleavage sites for each
restriction endonuclease
can be localized with respect to one another and a physical map of the DNA can be constructed. An alternative method involves linearizing the DNA, radiolabelling the ends of the DNA fragments, followed by partial digestion using restriction endonucleases with frequent cleavage sites. The fragments are electrophoresed, detected by autoradiography and the cleavage sites are mapped with respect to the end label.
Northern Blotting
Authors: Woodgate L , Mills K
Published: September 2006

The relative levels of mRNA expression between populations of cells or species can be analysed by Northern blotting.
Filamentous Phage Display
Authors: Palmer Donald B , Lorenzo Claudia De
Published: September 2006

Bacteriophage display systems have been developed to allow the selection of a protein or peptide based on its ability to bind to a selected target molecule. The antibody‐display approach uses filamentous phage that express combinations of randomly assembled pairs of heavy and light chain genes either as a single chain antibody fragment or
fragment antigen binding (Fab) format. These proteins are fused to the phage minor coat protein, pIII, to allow their expression and display on the surface of the phage, where they are available to bind antigen. Phage(s) expressing a particular sFv/Fab are enriched by panning on an immobilized target. Various antibody‐display phage libraries have been described and this system provides an alternative and powerful tool in generating specific antibodies.
Protein Quantitation: Bradford Method
Authors: Gebauer W
Published: September 2006

Protein quantitation according to the Bradford method.
Quantification of DNA and RNA: A Spectrophotometric Method
Authors: Lieb Bernhard
Published: September 2006

Spectophotometric quantification is a very exact method of quantifying the content of nucleic acids in any sample. The purity of the sample can be simultaneously checked very easily.
Production of Polyclonal Antibodies in Rabbits
Authors: Liddell JE
Published: September 2006

Polyclonal antibodies are produced by the immunization of laboratory rabbits with an immunogenic protein and the subsequent harvesting of antiserum. For smaller, less immunogenic proteins and peptides, conjugation of the molecule to a carrier protein is necessary before immunization.
Antibody Purification by Ammonium Sulfate Precipitation
Authors: Liddell JE
Published: September 2006

Ammonium sulfate precipitation of an antiserum or ascitic fluid will provide a crude immunoglobulin fraction free of other serum proteins. Purity is sufficient for the immunoglobulin to be used for labelling procedures or coating to an assay plate.
Radioactive Labelling of Antibodies
Authors: Liddell JE
Published: September 2006

Radioactive labelling of antibodies with
125
Iodine (
125
I) by the chloramine T method is suitable for use in radioimmunoassays.
Enzyme Labelling of Antibodies
Authors: Liddell JE
Published: September 2006

Antibodies can be labelled with an enzyme such as horseradish peroxidase using the modified periodate method. A variety of different substrates are available giving soluble or insoluble products depending on the desired application.
PCR‐mediated Mutagenesis
Authors: Chamberlain J
Published: September 2006

PCR allows a defined sequence to be amplified with high specificity from complex mixtures of DNA. However, when starting with cloned DNA as a template, the PCR can be performed under relaxed stringency conditions that allow short primers or primers containing significant mismatches with the template to amplify the cloned DNA. These features can be used to alter the sequence of a cloned template by the use of PCR primers with single or multiple base changes relative to the cloned template. Similarly, primers can be designed that will either add or remove sequences from the final amplified product. In this manner a large number of defined mutations can be introduced rapidly into cloned genes by PCR.
Conjugation of Proteins with Horseradish Peroxidase (HRP)
Authors: Gjøen Tor , Berg Trond
Published: September 2006

The intracellular pathway of endocytosed ligands can be followed by density shift methods. When the ligand is conjugated to an enzyme like horseradish peroxidase (HRP), the organelle can be made denser by the addition of a substrate for this enzyme, diaminobenzidine (DAB). When this substrate is metabolized in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H
2
O
2
), an insoluble aggregate is formed and the organelle will increase in density.
Quantification of DNA and RNA: a Quantitative Visual Comparison
Authors: Lieb Bernhard
Published: September 2006

The analytical procedure for the quantification of DNA and RNA described is the quantitative visual comparison of an unknown sample with known standards. This is quick and easy to do, suitable for amounts of sample as small as 10 ng.
Alkaline Blotting of DNA Gels
Authors: Southern Edwin M
Published: September 2006

Quite often the gel electrophoretic migration pattern of individual components in a sample is determined not by analysing the gel but rather by analysing an image of the gel created by blotting the gel on to membrane. One of the simplest procedures is capillary blotting. However, for blotting DNA gels using Zeta‐Probe, the blotting can be done in alkali, in which case the denatured DNA becomes fixed to the filter.
Staining, Viewing and Photography of Gels and Estimation of Fragment Sizes
Authors: Southern Edwin M
Published: September 2006

DNA and RNA are both readily stained by ethidium bromide. This method of detection is very sensitive and will detect very small amounts of sample. Once stained, the gels can be photographed to provide a permanent record.
Gel Electrophoresis of
RNA
in Denaturing Formaldehyde Agarose Gels
Authors: Southern Edwin M
Published: September 2006

Formaldehyde reacts with RNA, and when RNA is heated in the presence of formaldehyde all secondary structures are removed. Hence, gel electrophoresis of RNA in agarose gels containing formaldehyde provides a good denaturing gel system.
Method for the Concentration of RNA and DNA Samples
Authors: Southern Edwin M
Published: September 2006

In some cases, RNA or DNA obtained from a particular procedure will be too dilute for subsequent experimental work and needs to be concentrated. A description of how this can be done using either precipitation or solvent extraction methods is presented.
Restriction Enzyme Digests of DNA in Agarose Plugs for Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis
Authors: Southern Edwin M
Published: September 2006

Chromosomal DNA of many eukaryotes is too large to be separated by pulsed field gel electrophoresis. DNA can be digested in agarose plugs for pulsed field gel electrophoresis.
Radiolabelling Nucleic Acids: Generating DNA Probes by Random Priming
Authors: Sheardown S
Published: September 2006

The ability to label nucleic acids is one of the most fundamental techniques in molecular biology. Radiolabelling is still the method of choice for the most sensitive applications and also in situations where it would be difficult to visualize a nonradioactive label, such as the gel mobility shift assay where the probe remains within the gel matrix.
Recovery of DNA from Polyacrylamide or Agarose by Electroelution
Authors: Jones P
Published: September 2006

Electroelution uses the migration of charged molecules, in much the same way as gel electrophoresis, to transfer nucleic acid from a gel segment into buffer around the segment.
Manifold Dot or Slot Blotting of DNA on to Nitrocellulose or Uncharged Nylon Membrane
Authors: Beauchamp J
Published: September 2006

Manifold dot or slot blotting of DNA on to nitrocellulose or uncharged nylon membranes are described together as they involve the same steps but differ in the buffers used and in the method of post‐blotting fixation.
Isolation of Plasmid DNA from
E. coli
Authors: Jones P
Published: September 2006

The use of plasmid DNA is the keystone of DNA analysis because it allows easy manipulation and maintenance of defined heterologous DNA fragments. The

Escherichia coli

bacterial system is very versatile, allowing rapid DNA replication and informed gene manipulation.
Isolation of Mononuclear Cells from Human Blood (Density Barrier Sedimentation)
Authors: Graham John M , Rickwood David
Published: September 2006

Mononuclear cells (lymphocytes and monocytes) can be isolated from other blood cell elements on the basis of their lower density. There are three variations of the basic method: (1) sedimentation on to a density barrier using diatrizoate (plus a polysaccharide) or Nycodenz or iodixanol; (2) flotation after raising the density of the plasma by mixing blood with Nycodenz or iodixanol; (3) flotation through an iodixanol density barrier.
Homogenization of Tissue Culture Cells in Suspension
Authors: Graham John M
Published: September 2006

For this procedure, the cells are first swollen in a buffered hypo‐osmotic medium containing potassium chloride, magnesium acetate and dithiothreitol to render the plasma membrane more susceptible to subsequent homogenization. After pelleting the cells, most of the ‘swelling’ medium is removed; the cells are resuspended in the residual medium and homogenized by Dounce homogenization.
Preparation of Nuclei from a Homogenate using a Sucrose Barrier
Authors: Graham John M
Published: September 2006

Nuclei can be prepared from a homogenate using a sucrose barrier.
Isolation of Mitochondria from a Homogenate using a Sucrose Density Gradient
Authors: Graham John M
Published: September 2006

Mitochondria can be purified from a light mitochondrial fraction in a continuous sucrose gradient using a swinging‐bucket rotor.
Gene Localization byin situHybridization: FISH
Authors: Ekong R , Povey S
Published: September 2006

The fluorescent detection of nucleic acid sequences ranging from single genes to the whole genome in chromosomes and interphase nuclei fixed on glass slides.
Western Blotting Analysis of Translation Products
Authors: Whitehouse D , Lovegrove J
Published: September 2006

Western blotting (immunoblotting) is a system for the immunological detection of specific proteins that have been transferred from a polyacrylamide gel to an immobilizing membrane. Proteins transferred to immobilizing filter membranes, such as nitrocellulose, are well suited to high‐sensitivity solid‐phase immunoassay detection techniques.
snoRNAs: Biogenesis, Structure and Function
Authors: Dragon François , Lemay Vincent , Trahan Christian
Published: September 2006

The small nucleolar (sno) ribonucleic acids (RNAs) are mainly involved in the modification and processing of ribosomal RNA precursors, however, some are used to modify small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs), messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and transfer RNAs (tRNAs). They function in the form of ribonucleoproteins (snoRNPs).
Carnivorous Plants
Authors: Lönnig Wolf‐Ekkehard , Becker Heinz‐Albert
Published: September 2006

Carnivorous plants include some 500 plant species of various angiosperm orders and families that – by enormously different and ingenious trap mechanisms – catch small animals (mostly insects) and subsequently digest them.
Ketone Bodies
Authors: Morio Beatrice , Wolfe Robert R
Published: September 2006

Ketone bodies are water‐soluble equivalents of fatty acids. They can substitute for glucose when glucose becomes limited in physiological and pathological states.
Chromosomes: Noncoding DNA (Including Satellite DNA)
Authors: Moran John V , Morrish Tammy A
Published: September 2006

Noncoding DNA comprises a substantial fraction of the genomes of higher eukaryotes. It consists largely of introns, simple repetitive DNA sequences, and sequences derived from mobile genetic elements (i.e. transposable elements).
Leishmaniases
Authors: Chang Kwang‐Poo
Published: September 2006

Leishmaniases are diseases transmitted by sand flies. These diseases are largely zoonotic, but sometimes anthroponotic, and have a spectrum of clinical manifestations ranging from self‐healing cutaneous lesions to visceralization with fatal consequences. The causative agents are the trypanosomatid protozoa
Leishmania
, widespread in temperate, tropical and subtropical areas. Intralysosomal parasitism of macrophages is a key feature for these parasites in considering molecular mechanisms of their virulence relevant to developing effective drugs and vaccines needed.
Restriction Enzymes
Authors: Mani Mala , Kandavelou Karthikeyan , Chandrasegaran Srinivasan
Published: September 2006

Type II restriction enzymes are the molecular scissors that catalyse the double‐strand cleavage of DNA at specific base sequences. In the future it may be possible to design/engineer chimaeric nucleases to target a specific DNA site within a genome.
Ligation: Theory and Practice
Authors: Kandavelou Karthikeyan , Mani Mala , Reddy Sekhar PM , Chandrasegaran Srinivasan
Published: September 2006

Ligation is the process by which NAD DNA ligases catalyse the formation of phosphodiester bonds between juxtaposed 3′‐hydroxyl group and 5′‐phosphate termini in duplex deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Ligases use adenosine triphosphate or nicotinamide–adenine dinucleotide (NAD) as cofactors for this covalent joining of DNA.
Human Gene Therapy
Authors: Ioannou Panos A
Published: September 2006

Human gene therapy is the treatment of human diseases with deoxyribonucleic acid fragments comprising whole genes or parts of genes.
Mutagenesis: Site‐specific
Authors: El‐Gewely M Raafat , Fenton Chris , Kjeldsen Elisabeth , Xu Hao
Published: September 2006

Site‐specific mutagenesis techniques are aimed at the precise substitution, insertion or deletion of any coding sequence
in vitro
. More recently, however, such precise alterations are also being developed for
in vivo
gene/genome modifications. These techniques are revolutionizing our understanding of the genetic and molecular mechanisms in several biological systems, which could lead to the development of new enzymes, therapeutics as well as improved agricultural applications.
Antibiotic Resistance Plasmids in Bacteria
Authors: Clewell Don B
Published: September 2006

Antibiotic resistance plasmids are bacterial extrachromosomal elements that carry genes conferring resistance to one or more antibiotics. They are notorious for their ability to transfer conjugatively between bacterial species and are significantly involved in the emergence and dissemination of multiple drug resistance.
Semliki Forest Virus
Expression System
Authors: Sjöberg Mathilda , Ekström Maria
Published: September 2006

Eukaryotic cells can be programmed to synthesize foreign proteins by infection with recombinant
Semliki Forest virus
. The foreign protein is produced at a high level from about 4 h after infection, whereas cell‐derived protein synthesis is shut down.
Surface Plasmon Resonance
Authors: Fivash Matthew J
Published: September 2006

Surface plasmon resonance is an optical resonance effect where the backside of a thin conductive mirror affects the angle at which there is a minimum of reflected light.
Stress‐induced Premature Senescence (
SIPS
)
Authors: Toussaint Olivier , Salmon Michel , Pascal Thierry , Magalhaes Joao Pedro , Chainiaux Florence
Published: September 2006

Replicative senescence is a process in which normal proliferative cells lose replicative potential and acquire specific biomarkers as a result of serial passages in culture. Stress‐induced premature senescence (SIPS) is the long‐term appearance of the biomarkers of replicative senescence after exposure of human diploid cells to subcytotoxic stress. The processes of signal transduction triggering SIPS are now better understood, as well as the changes in protein expression taking place in SIPS. SIPS could play a role in the tissue changes occurring with
in vivo
ageing, as biomarkers of replicative senescence also appear after repeated exposure of human diploid fibroblasts not only to various types of oxidative stress but also to proinflammatory cytokines.