bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Methodology for Assessing the Human Factors Impacts of Increased Automation
Authors: Sheppard Sylvia B. , Murphy Elizabeth D. , Stewart Lisa J.
Published: January 2012

This paper describes a new methodology for evaluating the personnel-related aspects of a current system and for predicting the effects of proposed changes to the system resulting from increasing levels of automation. The methodology is the product of an interdisciplinary approach in which systems analysis, human factors, computer science, and cognitive psychology have provided the necessary knowledge bases. Although the methodology will be applied initially to the ground control operations at NASA-Godclard Space Flight Center, it can be generalized to a variety of application areas.
IDEF-O, a Tool for Planning and Problem Solving
Authors: Funke Douglas J. , Bachert Robert F.
Published: January 2012

The objective of this paper is to describe the IDEF-0 (Integrated Computer Aided Manufacturing (ICAM) Definition Part 0) language and to show how it can be utilized as an effective planning and problem solving tool. The relationship between specific requirements of the system planning process, as reflected in current models of systems planning, and features of the IDEF-0 language are examined.
Queuing Network Theory Applied to Manned System Performance Prediction
Authors: Chubb Gerald P. , Miller Richard A.
Published: January 2012

This paper is a condensation of material presented in greater detail elsewhere (Kornfeld, et. al, 1985). An attempt is made to show the development of a queuing network theory model and how that model might be used for quantitative human factors analysis of a hypothetical message handling system. The system is postulated to consist of a menu-driven report preparation process with a pressure/touch sensitive screen for detecting operator control actions based upon human information processing and decision-making that occur when messages arrive at an operator's console.
The Iterative Design of a New Text Editor
Authors: Good Michael
Published: January 2012

Iterative design has been strongly recommended as part of a basic design philosophy for building measurably easy-to-use computer software. Iterative design was a major technique for meeting the specified usability goals for Eve, a new text editor for the VAX/VMS operating system. There was no adverse effect on the project schedule. Users' problems followed similar patterns to those encountered in earlier laboratory experiments on operating systems.
Designing Industrial Workspaces to be More Livable
Authors: Wiklund Michael E.
Published: January 2012

Industrial workspaces can be designed to be more livable. Achieving this goal is a function of implementing human factors engineering approaches and principles in the industrial workspace design process. Applying well-defined design principles can yield clear improvements in workspace livability without significantly increasing facility development costs. The benefits of such improvements are greater job satisfaction among workers and associated improvements in job performance.
Human Factors in IBM
Authors: Thomas John C.
Published: January 2012

Ensuring the long-term usability and usefulness of real computer systems is a complex process. I report on some of the ways that IBM attempts to promote good human factors in their products.
Displays, Acquisition and Performance
Authors: Silver Laura D.
Published: January 2012

Relationships among display forms, visual acquisition, and worker productivity are not well understood. This research investigated three methods of using the VDT with and without hardcopy, with a productivity ratio of seconds per correction as the dependent performance measure for a simplified editing task Three treatment conditions were used. 1) (HR) the manuscript to be edited (target manuscript) was displayed on the VDT with the subject positioning the hardcopy (source manuscript) by preference; 2) (HF) an experimental method with a fixed position source manuscript directly below the VDT; and 3) (SS) an experimental method using 2 windows to display the target manuscript in the top half of the screen and the source manuscript in the bottom half The experimental hypothesis was that the split screen method would provide a significantly more productive method of display than the others The counterbalanced design used four groups of 12 subjects, each performing one of the hardcopy conditions and the split screen condition Findings indicate that the SS method is not more productive than the others, regardless of hardcopy placement Paired t-tests show that productivity improves significantly in both hardcopy conditions following the SS method ANOVAs show that the task order is significant in accounting for productivity variances but prior experience is not
The Relative Effectiveness of Alternative Selection Strategies in Menu Driven Computer Programs
Authors: Shinar David , Stern Helman I. , Bubis Gad , Ingram David
Published: January 2012

The relative efficacy in learning to use different option selection techniques in menu driven programs was evaluated via response time to identical menus, requiring selection of an option out of 2 to 9 alternatives. Negatively accelerating exponential learning functions were obtained for the use of a pointer to note the selected option, keying the number of the option and keying a meaningful letter code (initial) of the option selected. Statistically and practically significant advantage was shown for the letter code, in particular when the number of options was greater than 5. Effects of practice with menu driven programs in general vs. familiarity with a specific program were also demonstrated.
Optimizing the Set of Highlighted Options on Video Display Terminal Menus
Authors: Fisher Donald L. , Coury Bruce G. , Tengs Tammy O.
Published: January 2012

Highlighting is typically used to draw individuals' attention to a particular area or word on a video display terminal menu. In many cases it serves a useful function. For example, highlighting can potentially speed the search for important information. However, highlighting can also slow the search for important information. Clearly, the function of highlighting is subverted when search times are slowed. The objective of the research to be reported is to develop a method for determining the optimal set of highlighted options in alphanumeric menus. This optimal set is defined as that set of options which produces the fastest search times for a given menu. The method can be used for any combination of highlighting attributes (e.g., reverse video, blinking, color).
Warnings: Do They Make a Difference?
Authors: Godfrey Sandra S. , Rothstein Pamela R. , Laughery Kenneth R.
Published: January 2012

Four experiments Were conducted in order to determine Whether Warnings are effective and to identify factors that influence their effectiveness. Warnings were posted on a copy machine, a public telephone, a Water fountain, and two sets of doors. The first two warnings were effective in that most people did not use the copy machine and the telephone when they had the warnings on them. The warning on the water fountain was not effective when a single, small warning was used. When that warning plus a larger, more forceful warning was used, most people did not drink from the fountain. The warnings on the doors were not obeyed when a convenient alternative exit was not available. However, when the warning directed people to a nearby, convenient exit, most of them obeyed it. Warning with a low cost of compliance are apparently more effective. The results indicate that warnings can be effective, but not unless they are well designed in appearance and content.
Vdt Strain: Psychological Strain or Physical Basis?
Authors: Smith Michael J.
Published: January 2012

Segments of the human factors and occupational health communities believe that visual and muscular complaints of VDT operators strongly reflect psychological discrepancies in the workplace as much as improper ergonomic design. These individuals feel that poor job and organizational design create working conditions conducive to worker dissatisfaction and general complaining, and that VDT operator complaints are due to a transference of this dissatisfaction to the technology. The current study examined psychosocial factors, job satisfaction, environmental conditions and workstation design in regard to VDT operator health complaints in a believed to be low stress VDT population to assess this hypothesis. Data collected from 194 computer programmers working at VDTs were compared with findings from prior studies (Smith et al, 1981; Sauter et al, 1983). The results of this study indicated that this group of VDT operators had higher satisfaction scores, lower job demands and lower stress levels than VDT operators in prior studies, but had a similar prevalence of visual and muscular health complaints. Ergonomic evaluations indicated that the majority of workstations examined did not conform to the recommendations in the literature. These findings strongly suggest that job dissatisfaction and psychosocial stress are not primary determinants of VDT operator visual and muscular health complaints.
Applicability of Using the CAR-II Model in Design and Evaluation of Multioperator Workstations with Shared Controls
Authors: Morrissey Stephen J. , Herring B. E. , Gennetti M. G.
Published: January 2012

This study was done to show how a computerized workstation design program could be used to design and evaluate workstations having multiple operators with shared or common controls. To do this the Computerized Assessment of Reach program (CAR) was used to evaluate the cockpit of the OH-58A (Huey) helicopter. This same program was then used to demonstrate methods of cockpit redesign.
Predicting Performance in High Technology Fields Using Rate Measures
Authors: Terranova Michele , Jones Robert J. , Morgan Ben B.
Published: January 2012

Modern organizations require dynamic, and cognitively-complex, information-bases from their personnel. Methodology and knowledge requirements change constantly with new technological innovations. The use of traditional paper-and-pencil measures of achievement and ability cannot accurately assess learning acquisition in novel situations. Prediction criteria based on rate at which information is acquired rely less on past experience and education, and more on changes in performance over time. The present research, based on these information-processing assessment techniques, used Computerized Experimental Learning Techniques (CELTS) to measure rate and level of learning. These CELTS were used to predict the performance of students enrolled in Computer Science, Electrical Engineering, and Mechanical Engineering classes. CELT-based learning level parameters contributed to prediction of course grade in the Computer Science and Engineering courses. Unique contributions of CELT learning rate measures were also determined after the variance in students' grade point averages were accounted for. Applications of the current research are important in the development of selection criteria for dynamic personnel postions. Future research is needed to document specific cognitive requirements of individual professions, and to develop computer-based techniques which assess these functions.
Training Characteristics of the Criterion Task Set Workload Assessment Battery
Authors: Schlegel Robert E. , Shingledecker Clark A.
Published: January 2012

An evaluation of the Criterion Task Set was performed to determine the training requirements for the various tasks. Twenty subjects were divided into four groups. One group trained on all nine tasks in the battery. The other three groups trained on different three-task subsets. All subjects trained for two hours per day on five consecutive days. Response time, accuracy and subjective workload measures were obtained for each trial.

The required number of trials for stable performance ranged from two to six with a mode of five. Slight improvements were observed on some tasks after eight to ten trials. Performance by the group trained on all nine tasks was equivalent on half of the tasks and worse on the other half. Subjective workload ratings were highly correlated with the actual performance scores.
An Evaluation of Commercially Available Plastic Handled Knife Handles
Authors: Cochran David J. , Howe Daniel R. , Riley Michael W.
Published: January 2012

Recently considerable attention has been paid to hand tool design which has been caused by a near epidemic level of cases of carpal tunnel syndrome, tendonitis, tenosynovitis, and de Quervain's disease. Workers who use knives in meat packing are particularly susceptible to these occupational diseases. Five brands of meat packing knives with plastic handles were tested using a battery of 11 tests. These tests evaluated force capabilities using each of the knives. In addition, a standard cylindrical handle was tested as a control. The results indicated that the different handles performed differently depending upon the cutting orientation. This indicates that one handle cannot be chosen for all meat packing jobs. One handle, however, when evaluated using the ranks on all 11 tests is shown to be superior to the others tested.
Auditory Distance Judgments in Noise, with and without Hearing Protection
Authors: McMurtry Patrick L. , Mershon Donald H.
Published: January 2012

Previous studies of the effects of hearing protective devices (HPDs) on auditory localization have all been concerned with directional judgments. The present study examined the influence of such devices upon judgments of distance under conditions of noise. Blindfolded observers were required to verbally report the apparent distance to a target sound under one of three conditions: quiet (60 dBA), noise (90 dBA) or noise (90 dBA) while wearing inserted foam plugs. Judgments in quiet were found to be reasonably correct. The presence of high-level noise, however, decreased the judged distances significantly. The use of the HPD neither improved these latter judgments, nor did it produce any further error. The findings are fully consistent with present understanding of the bases for auditory distance perception.
Simulation of the After-Reach Hazard on Dual Palm Button Workstations
Authors: Pizatella Timothy J. , Moll Michael B.
Published: January 2012

This paper describes a study of the after-reach hazard using a power press simulator. The after-reach hazard occurs when a worker reaches into the point of operation on a power press after initiating the downstroke of the press ram. The hand reaching capabilities of industrial power press operators were measured to quantify hand reach speed and to determine variables which may affect after-reach movement times. The results of this study identified three variables which may be important in characterizing a worker's ability to make rapid hand reach movements: age, gender, and the location of the dual palm button workstation. Another key finding was that male workers, 30 years of age and younger, had the fastest hand reach speed of all groups tested and appear to be at the greatest risk of sustaining a traumatic injury due to the after-reach hazard.
Teleoperation of Legged Vehicles: Unique Problems Associated with Walking and Foot Placement
Authors: Gerth Richard J. , Beringer Dennis B. , Mundt James C.
Published: January 2012

Teleoperation of legged walking vehicles poses some interesting problems in display and control design. Informational needs associated with individual foot placement when traversing rough terrain are explained. Problems faced in meeting those needs and vision, display, and control system options are presented. Future research is also described.
Applying Programmable Display Pushbuttons to Manned Space Operations
Authors: Burns Michael J. , Warren Dianne L.
Published: January 2012

American manned spacecraft have used a large number of discrete dedicated switches and buttons to allow astronauts to monitor and control system functions. In the decade or so since the Space Shuttle was designed, there have been many improvements in the area of control multifunctionality. One of these advances is the development of programmable display pushbuttons (PDPs), which are illuminated pushbuttons with displays consisting of a matrix of LEDs that can show preprogrammed information in the form of alphanumerics or symbols. Our work is designed to study the parameters affecting the usefulness of PDPs in manned space operations. We are simulating the performance of complex Space Shuttle tasks by comparing current procedures and procedures involving the use of PDPs. This paper discusses issues that arose in the course of designing the user-PDP interface for one typical Space Shuttle task.
Problem Solving Training — A Factor in Debugging Computer Programs
Authors: Kahn Arthur
Published: January 2012

This research demonstrates problem solving training using tasks that require deductive reasoning and intellectual knowledge can influence the ability of programmers to debug source code. Professional programmers were assigned to either the control or experimental groups. The experimental group participated in 10 training sessions. At the completion of these sessions, all subjects were required to locate the bugs in test source code. Performance measure was time to locate the bugs. The performance of the experimental group was signifivantlly better than the control group. The results are discussed from the behavior point of view.
The Problem of Explanation: Placing Computer Generated Answers in Context
Authors: Roth E. M. , Butterworth G. , Loftus M. J.
Published: January 2012

This paper discusses an important human factors issue faced by computerized decision support systems that output solutions or recommendations: how to provide the user the necessary information to follow and evaluate the answer given. It describes how the problem was dealt with in the case of a particular decision support system (SPECAPPRAISAL), developed to aid nuclear power plant operations staff in evaluating regulatory compliance.
Man-Machine Interface Issues in the Design of An Automated Decision System
Authors: Watson C. D. , Eastman M. C. , Woodsy D. D.
Published: January 2012

This paper describes issues in building an effective interface between an automated decision system and the human user of that system's output. Designing an interface so that the user can understand and evaluate the output is an important issue, especially with advances in technology that increase the potential for decision automation. The specific issues addressed during the design application discussed here are: 1) the development of an object display to present the output of an automated decision system when the decision can be only partially automated and 2) presenting the logic used in automated decisions to a human user. The application is a decision system developed to help nuclear power plant operators determine what response should be made during severe emergencies. The logic is executed by a computer to produce real time output using on-line sensor data.
Habit/Ability in Constrained/Constraining Environments
Authors: Parsons H. McIlvaine
Published: January 2012

The design of “normal” habitats permits considerable flexibility for those who design them and considerable freedom of action and movement for those who live in them. Such is not the case, however, for some settings where constraints are imposed on both designers and residents due to the total environment, as on Navy ships or in space, or due to the nature of the residents, as in correctional institutions or nursing homes. From a human factors perspective, are there any common design problems and solutions despite the obvious disparities between these settings? This panel session reviews human factors research in each of them.
The Toll of Technology on Job Commitment and an Implementation Process to Prevent It
Authors: Endsley Mica Robertson
Published: January 2012

An investigation of technological change revealed decreases in job commitment among employees. Decrements in commitment were found to be directly associated with several aspects of the job change and employee attitudes. The implications of these findings for organizations and individuals involved in technological change are discussed, and a model for implementing technological change is introduced.
Cockpit Automation Technology: A Further Look
Authors: McNeese Michael D. , Warren Rik , Woodson Capt Brian K. , Armstrong Harry G.
Published: January 2012

Cockpit automation is receiving much attention for both commercial and military applications. In particular, Aretz (1984) presented an overview of a United States Air Force Advanced Development Program aimed at developing a structured human factors crew station design methodology. In the past year, lessons have been learned, thinking has matured, and as is inevitable, new questions have arisen. This paper discusses several of these questions and issues. These further thoughts indicate that a well human factored methodology is no simple matter, yet remains important to develop.
A Study of a Location Task
Authors: Bishu Ram R. , Drury Colin G.
Published: January 2012

A location task, in which a worker must locate a point in space given information on its position, has much in common with a Choice Reaction Time (CRT) task. One particular task, wiring of electronic components, was studied by measuring location time as a function of total information per stimulus. A linear relationship was found, confirming Hicks Law, but systematic deviations from the line were noted. Further analysis showed differential rates of information processing and suggested a two-stage strategy. The first stage corresponded to the usual binary classification in CRT studies, while the second had similarities to an exhaustive serial search.
Bibliometric Modeling of Human Factors
Authors: O'Hare John J.
Published: January 2012

Citation frequencies of publications in a review article on engineering psychology, primarily for the period 1976 to 1983, were analyzed by a bibliometric technique to assess their conceptual organization and development over that time frame. One of the technical areas described in the review of those publications, the attentional aspects of engineering psychology, was isolated by this technique and its salient feature identified as the measurement of mental workload. It was inferred that the other technical areas not delineated by this technique may not be developing in a systematic fashion with shared concepts, methodologies, and terminology.
Fractional Factorials in Psychology: An: Examination of the Basis for the Holistic Approach
Authors: Kramer Keith E. , Southward G. Morris
Published: January 2012

Statistical methods and experimental designs are used by the researcher to collect and analyze data. One of the most commonly used treatment designs is the analysis of variance. Simon (1976) has examined data from fourteen years of experiments published in the Human Factors journal that were analyzed using this approach. One of his conclusions is that interactions of three or more variables are negligible. To take advantage of this Simon (1973, 1977) has proposed using fractional factorials in psychological research. This investigation examined Simon's analysis and conclusions and questions the use of fractional factorials without proper theoretical justification. An empirical investigation of fractional factorials using computer simulation techniques examined the effect of confounding when the assumption that high order interactions are negligible is violated. The results show that in certain cases biases of unconfounded and confounded effects can result.
Nuclear Power Plant Training Simulator Fidelity Assessment
Authors: Carter Richard J. , Laughery R. Ronald
Published: January 2012

The fidelity assessment portion, of a methodology for evaluating nuclear power plant simulation facilities in regards to their appropriateness for conducting the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's operating test, was described. The need for fidelity assessment, data sources, and fidelity data which need to be collected were addressed. Fidelity data recording, collection, and analysis was discussed. The processes for drawing conclusions from the fidelity assessment and evaluating the adequacy of the simulator control-room layout were presented.
A Transfer of Training Study in the Nuclear Power Industry: From Simulation to Live Performance
Authors: Maddox Michael E. , Johnson William B. , Frey Paul R.
Published: January 2012

Since 1982, a research project has been underway to develop, introduce, and evaluate simulation-oriented computer-based instruction (SO/CBI) as a method to train diagnostic skills for emergency diesel generators in the commercial nuclear power industry. The first and second phases of this three-part study were reported at the 1983 and 1984 Human Factors Annual Meeting, respectively. The final phase, evaluation, is described in this paper. This evaluation used an analysis of variance experimental design to assess students' transfer from SO/CBI or control training to actual on-the-job diagnostic performance in a nuclear power station. The results are based on a sample of 39 plant operators and technicians. In general, this study showed that students receiving SO/CBI performed as well as students who had received training via traditional techniques (e.g., lecture, plant walkthrough, etc.). In addition to this summary finding, maintenance technicians who received SO/CBI made significantly fewer serious diagnostic errors.
Concepts for Generic Software for the Computer Control of Maintenance Simulation
Authors: Roth J. Thomas
Published: January 2012

This paper reviews the effectiveness and application of computer controlled simulation for maintenance training, and discusses an approach to enhance the training cost-effectiveness and life-cycle affordability through the development of generic, “tailorable” software for simulation control and implementation. A multi-leveled, generic software architecture is described a high level of abstraction, and suggestions for developing an initial capability for generic simulation software are presented.
Human Factors Influencing Wind Tunnel Productivity — A Case Study
Authors: Benel Denise C. R. , Boulette Margery Davidson , Avery Larry W.
Published: January 2012

For most advanced control systems employing ADP technology, the operator-computer interface has become the principal focus of the man-machine interaction. As such, it represents the most critical element to be assessed during a human factors evaluation. Inadequacies in information flow and other characteristics of the interface can degrade system performance below levels necessary for functional effectiveness. Phase I activities of this Small Business Innovative Research Project involved a review of wind tunnel control rooms at the Von Karman Gas Dynamics Facility, Arnold Engineering Development Center. This effort included identification and analysis of problem areas, proposal of an evaluation of proposed improvements, and development of a plan for a complete control room enhancement program.
Color Coding Re-Viewed
Authors: Weitzman Donald O.
Published: January 2012

The advantages and disadvantages of color coding in information displays are summarized, based on the available experimental data. The necessity of analyzing the observers task in making decisions about the application of color to displays is stressed. Nevertheless, it is shown that if certain conditions are met as to luminance, subtense and chromaticity of the light signals, all normal observers and a majority of color-deficient observers can make the necessary identifications to aid performance. Recommendations are made for the effective use of color in complex information displays.
Design and Evaluation of a Frontal Bag for Mail Carrying
Authors: Ashton Nina A.
Published: January 2012

A frontal mailbag was designed which loads the spine centrally, and distributes the weight over both shoulders. The new mailbag was compared with the traditional lateral mailbag. Ten males walked on a treadmill while carrying the two bags weighted with varying loads and physiological measures were taken. Heart rate and oxygen consumption were significantly lower when the load was carried in the new design than when carried in the traditional mailbag. In addition, heart rate and oxygen consumption increased at a slower rate for the new bag design than it did for the traditional mailbag. Results clearly showed the new frontal bag to be the physiologically superior way of carrying loads when compared to the traditional lateral mailbag design.
On Determination of Spinal Stresses Generated While Performing Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Manual Lifting Tasks
Authors: Mital Anil , Kromodihardjo Sudiyono
Published: January 2012

This paper describes the development, and subsequent use, of a three-dimensional kinetic biomechanical model for determining compressive and shear forces generated in the human spine during symmetric and asymmetric manual lifting tasks. Using the model, task variables such as couplings and box-size were investigated. Biomechanical analyses of data indicated that asymmetrical lifting, lifting larger boxes, or lifting boxes without handles is more stressful compared to symmetrical lifting, lifting compact boxes, or lifting boxes with handles.
A Comparison of Operator Performance in Manual and Automated Versions of a Dynamic Decision-making Task
Authors: Wickens Christopher D. , Yeh Yei-Yu , Fuld Robert B. , Hodel Scotte
Published: January 2012

Two dynamic decision tasks have been designed to investigate operator behavior in manual and automated systems. Rationale for the study and the nature of the tasks are detailed.
A Basis for Explaining the Conflicting Results in Performance on CRT and Paper Displays
Authors: Koubek Richard J. , Janardan Chaya Garg
Published: January 2012

Several studies examining performance differences in reading when text is presented on paper and Cathode Ray Tubes have found performance deficits in reading speed when using a CRT. Some of these studies Indicate that performance deficits may be more pronounced on visually Intensive tasks such as proofreading. This study attempts to extend and explain these results by examining performance differences between display mode (Paper versus CRT) and processing type (Top-down versus Bottom-up) for a spatially oriented problem solving task. The results, when combined with a previous study, Indicate that a significant CRT performance deficit exists for bottom-up processing tasks while no differences were found for top-down processing tasks.
The Structure of Information in Online and Paper Technical Manuals
Authors: Weldon Linda J. , Koved Larry , Shneiderman Ben
Published: January 2012

An experiment was conducted to compare online computer manuals to paper manuals. For each type of manual there were two different database structures – a linear (sequential) structure and a tree structure. The results showed that people using the paper manuals were faster at performing a switch setting task based on information in the manual than were people using the online manuals. No significant differences were found in speed of performance between the linear and tree structures. Nor were there any differences in the number of correct switch settings for the different types of manuals. The subjective evaluation data revealed that the online manuals were rated as better and judged to be more organized than the paper manuals.
Spatial Scale in Detection and Recognition: Implications for Image Processing
Authors: Howard James H.
Published: January 2012

Reflected light contains information about the spatial structure of the physical world at many levels. Recent perceptual research has indicated that the human visual system makes use of this information in image interpretation. Two experiments examined the role of spatial scale in the detection and recognition of simple visual images. Results indicate that information at a gross spatial scale (low spatial frequency) is particularly important for detection, whereas information at a fine spatial scale (high spatial frequency) is more significant for recognition. Some practial implications of these findings are noted.
A Demonstration of Tunnel Vision: Foveal Load and Instructional Set are Both Important
Authors: Williams Leonard J.
Published: January 2012

The present study demonstrated that an Increase in foveal cognitive load can have a substantial detrimental effect on the processing of information from para- and perifoveal regions of the same display. Also, an instructional set which biased subjects to distribute most of their attentional resources to the foveal (primary) task resulted in much poorer performance on the parafoveal (secondary) task than an instructional set which biased subjects to allocate attentional resources over the entire display.

Although reaction times on the secondary task became slower with increases in the eccentricity of the secondary task stimuli, the rate of reaction time increase was greatest for the condition that combined high foveal cognitive load with a foveal attentional bias. The results are interpreted in terms of a tunnel-vision model.
Eye and Head Response to an Attention Cue in a Dual Task Paradigm
Authors: Calhoun Gloria L. , Arbak Christopher J. , Janson William P.
Published: January 2012

Eight subjects were used to characterize eye and head movements in response to a cue to refixate. The subjects' tasks were to complete a centrally located task and identify vertically peripheral targets. Eye and head reaction time as well as conventional performance measures were recorded. The results showed that the eye and head movement pattern obtained with vertically displaced targets was not identical with those previously obtained with horizontally displaced targets. The results also indicated that eye reaction time, with hard tracking, increases the farther a target is vertically displaced from the centrally located task and head reaction time decreases with the presence of a verbal cue prior to target presentation. Manual reaction time did not, however, decrease with a cue. These results suggest that such unobtrusive measures may be valuable in the design of attention cueing systems.
Training Technology in the 1990s: Development, Applications, and Research Issues
Authors: Salas Eduardo
Published: January 2012

Due to the long lead times required for budgeting and acquisition, military training systems for 1990 and beyond are being designed today. Past practice has been to use actual equipment, sometimes modified for training, as the training equipment of choice. Cost factors, risk to equipment, risk to personnel, limited availability of this equipment, and limited training effectiveness have made this questionable as the primary training development approach of the future.

The objective of this symposium is to provide an opportunity for discussion of current and future design applications and research issues relevant to military training systems. The application of human factors principles and scientific study to the incorporation of emerging technology (i.e., embedded training, expert systems, voice simulation, dynamic displays) into training systems will be stressed. Issues such as human performance limitations, performance measurement, human/computer interaction, skill requirements, and decision making will be considered as well as the more traditional human factors topics, such as operator station design, displays, controls, etc. Examples of current and future training systems and technologies as well as research programs addressing the aforementioned issues will be presented. Discussants will explore the implications of these development, applications, and research issues from their own perspective (academic or industry).
Display, Control, and Software Evaluation Requirements for Emerging Tactical Army Computer Systems
Authors: Benel Denise C.R. , Avery Larry W.
Published: January 2012

The soldier-computer interface (SCI) has become increasingly the principal focus of the man-machine interaction. As such, it represents a critical element to be assessed during human factors engineering test and evaluation. Inadequate design of displays and input/output devices such as keyboards can degrade system performance below levels necessary for functional effectiveness. Delays and errors that occur at the operator's console are translated directly into reduced system effectiveness. Adequate human factors test and evaluation requires the development and application of a sound methodology and criteria for testing and evaluating the effectiveness of display and input-output devices of the soldier-computer interface. This paper reviews the development of the methodology and criteria used to assess the SCI by the U.S. Army Test and Evaluation Command (TECOM).
Human Factors Implications of Project Forecast II: Aircrew Combat Mission Enhancement (ACME) Technology
Authors: Alluisi Earl A.
Published: January 2012

Aircrew combat mission enhancement (ACME) technology consists of the hardware, software, and associated interfaces and integration that will enable aircrews to reach the acme of tactical air combat performance. In time of peace, ACME technology provides the realistically complex scenarios necessary for effective combat mission training. In time of war, it provides the real-time, updated, combat-arena visual scenes of a combat mission rehearsal enhancer, especially when it is coupled to the capabilities envisioned with the virtual cockpit technology and its use in future tactical aircraft systems.
Rapidly Reconfigurable Crewstation
Authors: Reising John M. , Butterbaugh Larry C.
Published: January 2012

Currently, the task of designing a new crewstation is a long and tedious process. The modern practice of using digital graphics as the information medium in system design has eased the requirement for physical changes, but the software burden has increased significantly. Analysis of the development process reveals that the conceptual stage is a relatively small percentage of the overall design effort. The remainder of the development process is concerned with implementation of that concept. However, the implementation process is, to a large degree, procedural in nature. It is the procedural process that the Rapidly Reconfigurable Crewstation program seeks to automate. Its objective is to be able to create an entirely new crewstation within one working day.
The Criterion Task Set: Validation and Application
Authors: Shingledecker Clark A
Published: January 2012

The Criterion Task Set (CTS) is a battery of performance tasks which was developed at the Air Force Armstrong Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory. Based on an information processing stage/resource model of human performance, the CTS was designed to evaluate the relative sensitivity, diagnosticity and intrusiveness of available measures of operator workload. It has also been employed as a performance assessment instrument to evaluate the effects of stressors on hypothesized independent sources of performance capability.

Since the completion of original developmental research and the implementation of the CTS in a standard hardware/software system, a number of researchers have employed the battery in applied human performance studies and in efforts which have contributed to its further refinement. The objectives of this symposium are to present accounts of six of these research projects and to provide a forum for individuals who are currently using the CTS or who are interested in potential applications of this performance assessment system.

The papers presented in the symposium include a report of a large-scale validation project which has formed the basis for a CTS data base (Schlegel, Gilliland and Schlegel), as well as a study aimed at improvement of one of the tasks comprising the battery (Eggemeier and Amell). The remaining four papers describe applications of the CTS to the investigation of physiological (Wilson and McCloskey) and subjective (Acton, Reid and Perez) workload metrics, and to the study of individual differences (Gilliland, Schlegel and Dannels) and subjective arousal states (Kimball and Pond).
Visual Probability Monitoring: Effects of Display Load and Signal Discriminability
Authors: Eggemeier F. Thomas , Amell John R.
Published: January 2012

The Criterion Task Set (CTS) is a standardized battery of loading tasks developed for application to a variety of performance assessment problems, including evaluations of workload metrics and the effects of stressors on performance. One feature of the CTS that facilitates its application is a set of guidelines that specify standard loading levels for manipulation of difficulty on each task. This standardization is necessary for comparative evaluations of workload metrics and stressors, and therefore represents an essential feature of the CTS.

The baseline version of the CTS includes nine primary loading tasks that represent a range of information processing functions. Perceptual input and stimulus identification functions are represented in the CTS by the Probability Monitoring (PM) task, which requires that subjects detect the occurrence of signals on a visual display. The PM display includes a variable number of dials, each consisting of a pointer that moves randomly with respect to a center reference mark. When a signal occurs, pointer movement becomes nonrandom or biased, such that a disproportionate number of moves occurs on one side of the reference mark. Difficulty of the task can be manipulated by varying the display load (number of dials) or the discriminability of the signals (Shingledecker, 1984). Signal discriminability is varied by changes in the percentage of movements that occur on the biased side of the center reference. Previous work has indicated that a 95% bias can be more readily detected than an 85% bias, and that the latter is more rapidly detected than a 75% bias.

Current work with the CTS involves continued evaluation and refinement of tasks from the baseline version of the battery. The present work evaluated the effect of display load and signal discriminability in an updated version of the PM task. The new version incorporated a faster pointer movement rate (5 moves per second) than had been used in the previous task. This change was implemented to permit inclusion of more signals per experimental session than had been possible with the baseline version of the task. Since the new version differed substantially from its predecessor, the present study was conducted to evaluate the need to specify new standard loading levels for the task.
Two and Three-Dimensional Biomechanical Torso Models for Pushing and Pulling
Authors: Lee K.S. , Chaffin D.B. , Aghazadeh F.
Published: January 2012

This paper presents a two and three-dimensional biomechanical torso models for pushing and pulling. The three-dimensional model was developed by dividing the erector spinae and rectus abdominis muscle force components into right and left side and by adding the right and left oblique muscle force components to the two-dimensional model. This paper also presents the results of the muscle forces predicted by the two-dimensional model. The predicted muscle forces were compared with the measured EMG(rms) values (root-mean-square electromyogram values) from the corresponding muscles while pushing and pulling. Three different types of isometric pushing and pulling, namely trunk pushing and pulling, hand pushing and pulling in an erect posture with hips braced and hand pushing and pulling in a free posture at three differrent handle heights were studied. The results show that a simple two-dimensional biomechanical model with only one muscle active at a time may not be appropriate for the estimation of the muscle forces on the lower back.
The Effects of Expectation on Trunk Loading
Authors: Marras W. S. , Lavender S. A. , Rangarajulu S. L.
Published: January 2012

The literature has reported that there is a link between sudden unexpected load handling and the risk of a low back injury. It was hypothesized that sudden unexpected loads would create excessive forces upon the trunk due to the overcompensation of the trunk muscles. An experiment was performed to test this theory and quantify the degree of overcompensation. Subjects were asked to hold a box in a static lift position while weights ranging from 5 to 20 pounds were dropped into the box from a constant height. Under some conditions (expected) the subjects were permitted to observe the weight drop while under other conditions (unexpected) the subjects were deprived of visual and auditory cues during the weight drop. Generally, it was found that during sudden unexpected loading the trunk response resembled an expected loading of twice the weight value. These findings may provide guidelines for work situations where unexpected loading conditions are common.
A Knowledge-Based Expert System for the Analysis of Risk of Overexertion in Manual Lifting
Authors: Karwowski W. , Mulholland N. O. , Ward T. L.
Published: January 2012

A knowledge–based expert system (LIFTAN) for analysis of manual lifting tasks is described. The system, written in MacLISP and implemented on a DEC-10 mainframe computer, consists of three modules: a knowledge base, a general purpose inference engine, and a human interface with explanation capabilities. The system allows a non-expert in the field of manual lifting to utilize the relevant knowledge and apply it to analyze specific work situations. It can also be used as intelligent computer-assisted instruction for engineering students.
How Does the Population Interpret Warning Signals?
Authors: Leonard S. David , Matthews David , Karnes Edward W.
Published: January 2012

The experiment concerns the problem of responding appropriately to warnings. Some organizations, such as the military and the American National Standards Institute have adopted particular meanings for certain signal words. The population at large is not trained in these respects. Therefore, it is not known how they interpret different signal words. In keeping with the assumption that the stronger the warning, the more likely it will be heeded, an effort was made to determine how the population in general differentiates levels of warnings. The study examined population stereotypes for various signal words. Contrary to some studies (cf. Karnes and Leonard, 1986), no differences were found in ratings of perception of risk to different signal words. Further, size of the signal word and color of the signal word had no effect on perception of risk. Statements of consequences of disregarding the warnings and type of risk situation did affect rated perception of risk. Also, circumstances in which the subjects might be placed affected ratings of likelihood of disregarding warnings. These results were discussed in terms of an adaptation level of information for perception of risk.
Maintenance Training Simulator Instructor Station and Student Station Design Specification
Authors: Carroll Robert J. , Dwyer Daniel J.
Published: January 2012

This paper discusses the methodology and results of a recent study conducted for the Naval Training Systems Center to develop a generic Prime Item Development Specification for maintenance training simulator (MTS) instructor and student stations (Carroll, et. al, 1986). The approach taken was to develop a classification scheme for MTSs, develop a MTS instructor station/student station attribute taxonomy, conduct a commonality analysis of instructor/student station features among the different types of MTSs, and conduct a survey of MTSs to examine their characteristics and query instructors on their perception of the effectiveness, of instructor station/student station features. The survey results revealed that instructors gave high effectiveness ratings to most of the existing instructor station and student station features. The homogeneity of responses across MTS types indicates that instructor station and student station requirements are a function of the instructional requirements associated with providing maintenance training via a training device, rather than being determined by MTS physical or functional characteristics. The study results were applied to the development of a model specification for MTS instructor station and student station design.