bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
COMMERCE, CULTURE, AND THE RISE OF ENGLISH POWER
Authors: CLARK GEOFFREY
Published: November 2006

Barclays: the business of banking, 1690–1996. By Margaret Ackrill and Leslie Hannah. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Pp. xxi+481. ISBN 0-521-79035-2. £45.00.

The worlds of the East India Company. Edited by H. V. Bowen, Margarette Lincoln, and Nigel Rigby. Woodbridge: Boydell, 2002. Pp. xvii+246. ISBN 0-85115-877-3. £45.00.

Kingship and crown finance under James VI and I, 1603–1625. By John Cramsie. Woodbridge: Boydell, 2002. Pp. xi+242. ISBN 0-86193-259-5. £50.00.

Mammon's music: literature and economics in the age of Milton. By Blair Hoxby. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. Pp. xii+320. ISBN 0-300-09378-0. $45.00.

Usury, interest, and the Reformation. By Eric Kerridge. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002. Pp. 206. ISBN 0-7546-0688-0. £55.00.

The rise of commercial empires: England and the Netherlands in the age of mercantilism, 1650–1770. By David Ormrod. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Pp. xvii+400. ISBN 0-521-81926-1. £55.00.

The rhetoric of credit: merchants in early modern writing. By Ceri Sullivan. London: Associated University Presses, 2002. Pp. 217. ISBN 0-8386-3926-7. £38.00.

The unshackling of the European economy from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries was achieved, ironically, by the forging of new and stronger chains of trade and credit within nations, across regions, and around the globe. The seven books under review explore that process from different disciplinary standpoints, but chiefly as it affected England, the country that would become emblematic of commercial advancement and under whose sway the modern capitalist system emerged. How England managed this feat financially and commercially, politically and culturally, amidst the shifting opportunities and perils of these centuries is answered with an often impressive sophistication and imagination that take us well beyond hackneyed analyses prompted by the Weber–Tawney thesis.
ENT surgery, blood and Jehovah's Witnesses
Authors: Woolley S L , Smith D R K
Published: November 2006

Surgical procedures in otolaryngology are often associated with the need for blood transfusions. Homologous blood transfusions carry risks and may be unacceptable to some patient groups. The Jehovah's Witness Society is known to many because of its stance on blood products. Refusal of potentially life-saving treatment creates ethical dilemmas for treating clinicians. Throughout the world, Jehovah's Witnesses have fought for the right to refuse blood products. This article examines the need for blood in otolaryngological procedures, surgical strategies to reduce blood loss, the beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses regarding the acceptability of blood, and procedures and legal stances adopted when treating Jehovah's Witnesses.
Sarcoidosis of the external ear – literature review and report of a case
Authors: Adelola O A , Fernandez R , Ahmad R , Leamy M , Moriarty B G
Published: November 2006

External ear manifestations of sarcoidosis are rare. We review six cases in the literature and also report a case. The otolaryngologist plays an important role in making the diagnosis because of the ease of biopsy in all cases of sarcoidosis of the external ear.
Clinical findings and PDS mutations in 15 patients with hearing loss and dilatation of the vestibular aqueduct
Authors: Courtmans I , Mancilla V , Ligny C , Hilbert P , Mansbach A L , Maldergem L Van
Published: November 2006

Following systematic skull imaging of hundred and sixty seven individuals attending a medical referral centre for the deaf in Brussels, Belgium, fifteen patients (9 per cent) aged between two and 25 years were diagnosed with dilatation of the vestibular aqueduct. Careful audiological study, with a baseline assessment then longitudinal follow up, indicated mild to profound deafness with a progressive course (i.e. an average loss of 3.3 dB per year) and frequent dizziness. Sequencing of PDS was performed in all individuals. Alterations of this gene (either homozygous, heterozygous or compound heterozygous base changes) were found in 53 per cent of patients with a large vestibular aqueduct. Four new mutations (two missense, a splice site and a four base pair insertion) were described. We were unable to confirm a correlation between homozygosity, heterozygosity and a Pendred or deafness-only phenotype.
Nasal insertion of St John's wort: an unusual cause of epistaxis
Authors: Crampsey D P , Douglas C M , Cooke L D
Published: November 2006

We report a case of severe unilateral epistaxis requiring surgical arrest of bleeding, via endoscopic sphenopalatine artery ligation and anterior ethmoidal artery ligation. This followed recreational nasal insertion of St John's wort (Hypericum perforatum). Interactions between this substance and prescribed drugs have been described following oral ingestion. However, this unusual case highlights a further, worrying potential rhinological side effect of this substance.
Transtympanic versus intramuscular steroid administration in a histamine-induced inflammatory middle-ear model
Authors: Chimona T S , Panayiotides J G , Papadakis C E , Helidonis E S , Velegrakis G A
Published: November 2006

Objectives: Assessment of the histopathologic effect of transtympanic and intramuscular administration of dexamethasone in an in vivo experimental animal model of middle-ear mucosal inflammation.

Methods: Fifty healthy rabbits weighting 1500–1800 g were randomly divided in three groups. In 10 animals (control group), 0.5 ml of a 20 mg/ml histamine solution was injected transtympanically. In 20 rabbits (group A), histamine challenge followed a three day intramuscular pretreatment with dexamethasone at 1 mg/kg per day. In 20 rabbits (group B), histamine challenge followed pretreatment with dexamethasone via a transtympanic route (0.3 ml, 1.2 mg dexamethasone). Middle-ear mucosa was obtained for histopathology 30 minutes after histamine administration. The following parameters were assessed: inflammation, acute inflammatory component, presence of eosinophils, inflammatory activity and fibrosis.

Results: Oedema, vascular dilatation and congestion, inflammation, the presence of an acute (polymorphonuclear) inflammatory component, the presence of eosinophils, and inflammatory activity were found to be of a lesser grade in the mucosae of group B. All differences were found to be statistically highly significant (p<0.01) using the Mann–Whitney test.

Conclusion: Our findings validate the transtympanic route of dexamethasone administration in counteracting histamine effects.
Is Moral Obligation Objective or Subjective?
Authors: ZIMMERMAN MICHAEL J.
Published: November 2006

Many philosophers hold that whether an act is overall morally obligatory is an ‘objective’ matter, many that it is a ‘subjective’ matter, and some that it is both. The idea that it is or can be both may seem to promise a helpful answer to the question ‘What ought I to do when I do not know what I ought to do?’ In this article, three broad views are distinguished regarding what it is that obligation essentially concerns: the maximization of actual value, the maximization of expected value, and the perceived maximization of actual value. The first and third views are rejected; the second view is then refined and defended. The unfortunate upshot is that there may be no very helpful answer to the question just mentioned. As to the question posed in the title of the article, the answer unsurprisingly depends on what ‘objective’ and ‘subjective’ are taken to mean.
Deconstructing Welfare: Reflections on Stephen Darwall's Welfare and Rational Care
Authors: WOLF SUSAN
Published: November 2006

In his book Welfare and Rational Care, Stephen Darwall proposes to give an account of human welfare. Or rather, he offers two accounts, a metaethical and a normative account. The two accounts, he suggests, are somewhat supportive of each other though they are logically independent.
Darwall on Welfare as Rational Care
Authors: GRIFFIN JAMES
Published: November 2006

Darwall's subject is a person's welfare – or to use his synonyms, a person's ‘good’, ‘interest’, ‘well-being’, ‘benefit’, or ‘eudaimonia’. Darwall is satisfied that there is a univocal notion here. I am unsure and shall come back to that question at the end.
Continuum sea ice rheology determined from subcontinuum mechanics
Authors: Taylor P. D. , Feltham D. L. , Sammonds P. R. , Hatton D.
Published: November 2006

A method is presented to calculate the continuum‐scale sea ice stress as an imposed, continuum‐scale strain‐rate is varied. The continuum‐scale stress is calculated as the area‐average of the stresses within the floes and leads in a region (the continuum element). The continuum‐scale stress depends upon: the imposed strain rate; the subcontinuum scale, material rheology of sea ice; the chosen configuration of sea ice floes and leads; and a prescribed rule for determining the motion of the floes in response to the continuum‐scale strain‐rate. We calculated plastic yield curves and flow rules associated with subcontinuum scale, material sea ice rheologies with elliptic, linear and modified Coulombic elliptic plastic yield curves, and with square, diamond and irregular, convex polygon‐shaped floes. For the case of a tiling of square floes, only for particular orientations of the leads have the principal axes of strain rate and calculated continuum‐scale sea ice stress aligned, and these have been investigated analytically. The ensemble average of calculated sea ice stress for square floes with uniform orientation with respect to the principal axes of strain rate yielded alignment of average stress and strain‐rate principal axes and an isotropic, continuum‐scale sea ice rheology. We present a lemon‐shaped yield curve with normal flow rule, derived from ensemble averages of sea ice stress, suitable for direct inclusion into the current generation of sea ice models. This continuum‐scale sea ice rheology directly relates the size (strength) of the continuum‐scale yield curve to the material compressive strength.
Understanding projections of sea level rise in a Hadley Centre coupled climate model
Authors: Lowe Jason A. , Gregory Jonathan M.
Published: November 2006

Sea level changes resulting from CO2‐induced climate changes in ocean density and circulation have been investigated in a series of idealised experiments with the Hadley Centre HadCM3 AOGCM. Changes in the mass of the ocean were not included. In the global mean, salinity changes have a negligible effect compared with the thermal expansion of the ocean. Regionally, sea level changes are projected to deviate greatly from the global mean (standard deviation is 40% of the mean). Changes in surface fluxes of heat, freshwater and wind stress are all found to produce significant and distinct regional sea level changes, wind stress changes being the most important and the cause of several pronounced local features, while heat and freshwater flux changes affect large parts of the North Atlantic and Southern Ocean. Regional change is related mainly to density changes, with a relatively small contribution in mid and high latitudes from change in the barotropic circulation. Regional density change has an important contribution from redistribution of ocean heat content. In general, unlike in the global mean, the regional pattern of sea level change due to density change appears to be influenced almost as much by salinity changes as by temperature changes, often in opposition. Such compensation is particularly marked in the North Atlantic, where it is consistent with recent observed changes. We suggest that density compensation is not a property of climate change specifically, but a general behavior of the ocean.
Sediment Cd and Mo accumulation in the oxygen‐minimum zone off western Baja California linked to global climate over the past 52 kyr
Authors: Dean Walter E. , Zheng Yan , Ortiz Joseph D. , van Geen Alexander
Published: November 2006

Concentrations of organic carbon (orgC), cadmium (Cd), and molybdenum (Mo) were measured in two sediment cores raised from depths of 430 and 700 m within the oxygen‐minimum zone (OMZ) off southern Baja California at a temporal resolution of ∼0.5 kyr over the past 52 kyr. These records are supplemented with diffuse spectral reflectance (DSR) measurements obtained on board ship soon after collection at a resolution of ∼0.05 kyr. In the core from 700 m depth, a component extracted from the DSR data and the three geochemical proxies generally vary in concert with each other and over a wide range (4–22% orgC; 1–40 mg/kg Cd; 5–120 mg/kg Mo). Intervals of increased orgC, Cd, and Mo accumulation generally correspond to warm periods recorded in the oxygen‐isotopic composition of Greenland ice, with the exception of the Bolling/Allerod which is only weakly expressed off Baja California. Concentrations of the biogenic proxies are higher in the core from 430 m depth, but erratic sediment accumulation before 15 ka precludes dating of the older intervals that are laminated and contain elevated orgC, Cd, and Mo concentrations. The new data provide further evidence of an intimate teleconnection between global climate and the intensity of the OMZ and/or productivity along the western margin of North America. On the basis of a comparison with Cd and Mo records collected elsewhere in the region, we conclude that productivity may actually have varied off southern Baja California by no more than a factor of 2 over the past 52 kyr.
Cadmium measurements in coral skeleton using isotope dilution–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry
Authors: Matthews Kathryn A. , McDonough William F. , Grottoli Andréa G.
Published: November 2006

Here a method for the precise analysis of Cd/Ca in coral skeleton using inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP‐MS) is presented. Isotope dilution and gravimetric standards with internal standardization were used for Cd and Ca determination, respectively. Separation of alkaline earth metals from Cd using ion chromatography reduced the high total dissolved solids while maintaining a strong Cd signal. Repeated Cd/Ca measurements of a coral standard yielded a precision of ±2.2% (one standard deviation as a fraction of signal). Analyses of reference materials (BCR‐1, BHVO‐1, W‐2, GSR‐3, GSR‐6, CACB‐1, JCp‐1, and JCt‐1) fell within established ranges, with a precision comparable to other ICP‐MS measurements. Advantages of this approach over existing methods for corals are as follows: (1) reduced introduction of high‐concentration elements into the mass spectrometer, (2) sample requirements as low as 15 mg (i.e., ≥1 pmol Cd/sample), and (3) determination of multiple element ratios on the same sample aliquot with a precision of ±7% or better.
Redox and speciation micromapping using dispersive X‐ray absorption spectroscopy: Application to iron in chlorite mineral of a metamorphic rock thin section
Authors: Muñoz Manuel , De Andrade Vincent , Vidal Olivier , Lewin Eric , Pascarelli Sakura , Susini Jean
Published: November 2006

The first dispersive μ‐XANES mapping is presented here. The experiments have been conducted at the iron K‐edge, on the “Dispersive‐EXAFS” beamline of the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (France). The mapping has been performed on a polished thin section of 30 μm of a natural metamorphic rock including different types of minerals. Because of the high X‐ray absorption due to the thickness of the glass sample holder (∼1 mm), the data have been collected in the fluorescence mode using the so‐called “Turbo‐XAFS” design. The effective spot size was approximately 10 × 10 microns, and an area 390 × 180 microns in size was mapped. Improvements of the acquisition process allowed collection of each XANES spectrum in 1.5 s and with a step size of 5 microns so that 2808 spectra with full XANES information were collected. Then, automatic procedures for data reduction and mapping reconstruction were developed using Matlab®. The results are maps of iron content, oxidation state, and speciation, with a 5 μm spatial resolution after two‐dimensional deconvolution. Subsequent analyses of the reconstructed images provide some quantitative calibrations.
Equatorward translation of the Vitoria Eddy in a numerical simulation
Authors: Campos Edmo J. D.
Published: November 2006

The Vitoria Eddy is a cyclonic vortex in the Brazil Current immediately to the South of the Vitoria‐Trindade Ridge. Schmid et al. (1995) observed one such eddy that initially translated to the northeast, for about 17 days, and then moved back to the south. In this letter we report results of an eddy‐resolving OGCM in which cyclonic eddies are formed in the same region. Although similar in structure to the observed feature, in our simulations the eddies present two different modes of translation. In one case, the eddy moves initially to the northeast, then remains stationary for a while, and finally moves back to the south. In the other, the eddy does not stop. It continues moving northward, crossing the Vitoria‐Trindade chain and the Abrolhos Bank. In spite of not being impossible, to our knowledge this second behavior has never been reported.
Re‐examination of the 2003 North American electrical blackout impacts on regional air quality
Authors: Hu Yongtao , Odman M. Talat , Russell Armistead G.
Published: November 2006

Aircraft measurements have been utilized to capitalize on the 2003 North American electrical blackout as an unplanned event providing a unique opportunity to assess the impacts of power plants on air quality. Here we adopt a modeling approach using CMAQ with a direct sensitivity technique, DDM‐3D, to quantify how emissions reductions from different sources impacted ozone and particulate matter. Simulated air quality fields were able to reproduce both the regular surface observations and airborne measurements before and during the blackout. Sensitivity results show that blackout‐linked power plant SO2 emissions reductions led to a sulfate concentration reduction of 22% at Selinsgrove, Pennsylvania, while power plant NOx emissions reductions had very limited (∼4%) impacts on O3. These results are lower than the estimates presented in previous studies. Results also suggest that over much of the region, on‐road mobile NOx emissions reductions linked to the blackout had a larger impact on O3.
Radiance assimilation in studying Hurricane Katrina
Authors: Liu Quanhua , Weng Fuzhong
Published: November 2006

The Gridpoint Statistical Interpolation (GSI) scheme released in June 2006 from the National Center for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) and the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model are used in this study for improving hurricane analysis. In addition to incorporating observations from conventional instruments and from operational satellites, Special Sensor Microwave Imager Sounder (SSMIS) measurements are assimilated through GSI. A “control‐run” using current NCEP analysis field and a “test‐run” using additional SSMIS data are compared. The error in forecasting the hurricane center after 30‐hour grew up dramatically for the control‐run while the error for the test‐run remains stable for the entire 48‐hour forecasting. The forecasting surface minimum pressure and maximum wind speed from the test‐run generally agree with observations better. Results for the test‐run also showed that the warm core at 200 hPa is strengthened and extended as Hurricane Katrina was developing toward its mature stage, which is consistent with SSMIS observations.
Hydrogen exosphere at Mars: Pickup protons and their acceleration at the bow shock
Authors: Dubinin E. , Fraenz M. , Woch J. , Barabash S. , Lundin R. , Yamauchi M.
Published: November 2006

Pickup protons (PIs) with a ring‐beam distribution originating from the extended hydrogen exosphere of Mars are observed by the ASPERA‐3 experiment onboard the Mars Express spacecraft at solar minimum conditions. PIs can contribute ∼1% to the solar wind number density at close distances to the flank bow shock. The observed fluxes of PIs indicate the existence of a dense hydrogen corona. The height profile of it is evaluated and compared to the models. At the bow shock, pickup protons experience an efficient reflection accompanied by ion energization in the motional electric field. Despite the small scale of the Martian bow shock the acceleration of PIs is rather effective and can operate for injection of pre‐energized ions into a subsequent acceleration process. The injection efficiency is derived to be about ≥20%. These results imply that similar processes at shocks with much larger scales (e.g. the termination shock) can be important for ion acceleration.
Can Small Businesses Help Reduce Employment Exclusion?
Authors: Kitching John
Published: November 2006

The author examines whether small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) can contribute to government social exclusion policy objectives through the employment of certain groups which are underrepresented in the UK workforce—the older workers, ethnic minorities, lone parents, and disabled people. Data on the recruitment practices of a panel of South London SMEs suggest that employment opportunities for these groups might be restricted, particularly for disabled people. In the absence of policy measures tackling employer practices and the stereotypical beliefs that underpin them, or to stimulate employer demand for labour, exclusion will be perpetuated. Supply-side policy interventions can help but are likely to increase opportunities for the most job-ready job seekers while further marginalising others.
Delivering ICT to Ethnic Minority Businesses: An Action-Research Approach
Authors: Beckinsale Martin , Ram Monder
Published: November 2006

Prompted by the recent discovery that ethnic minority businesses (EMBs) are not utilising information and communication technology (ICT) to the same degree as are other small and mediumsized enterprises (SMEs), policymakers have become interested in the promotion of ICT amongst EMBs. The authors assess a pilot initiative sponsored by the Department of Trade and Industry that aimed to stimulate ICT adoption amongst EMBs in the North West region of the United Kingdom. Our first objective was to evaluate the approach used to implement the initiative in the light of extant adoption models. Second, a comparative approach was deployed that included Asian-owned firms in Rusholme and Chinese businesses in Manchester's ‘Chinatown’; this permitted an assessment of the distinctiveness of delivery issues in respect of EMBs. The value of an action-research approach to policy evaluation is reflected upon. An action-research approach was adopted as a means of evaluating the initiative. We were involved at all stages; thus a longitudinal dimension is a further distinctive feature of the study. Both quantitative and qualitative data were gathered. The findings point to the importance of a contextually appropriate engagement strategy that embraces formal and informal business-support agencies. Accordingly, existing models of ICT adoption need to be refined and developed if they are to be applied to EMBs; the business-support needs of EMBs are not necessarily different from those of other SMEs, but there are potentially distinctive delivery issues; and a systematic application of an action-research approach can aid the process of policy evaluation. The findings have implications for policy delivery and therefore EMBs, offering actions that may be taken to improve public support across two diverse ethnic minority groups.
A Burden on Business? Reviewing the Evidence Base on Regulation and Small-Business Performance
Authors: Kitching John
Published: November 2006

The evidence base regarding the impact of regulation on small-business performance is reviewed. The substantive findings of various studies and their methodological approaches are critiqued. Many studies suffer from inadequate conceptualisation of ‘regulation’ and methodological shortcomings, and fail to investigate the causal mechanisms through which regulation contributes to business-performance outcomes. In some cases, they positively encourage superficial and misleading results. More sophisticated approaches, using qualitative data, demonstrate that regulations generate a variety of consequences and should not be conceptualised solely in terms of costs and constraints. Rather, regulation can impact upon small businesses directly and indirectly, and both constrain and enable and motivate business owners to act. The impact of regulation is contingent upon business owners' adaptations to particular interventions within the broader social contexts within which they operate. The implications for policymakers are discussed.
Current prescribing practices and opinions about growth hormone therapy: results of a nationwide survey of paediatric endocrinologists
Authors: Hardin Dana S. , Woo Jason , Butsch Robert , Huett Beverley
Published: November 2006

Background  With the advent of several new treatment indications for recombinant hGH, endocrinologists are being asked to make some difficult decisions regarding eligibility for treatment. The purpose of this study was to summarize prevailing attitudes about GH diagnosis and treatment among paediatric endocrinologists.

Methods  We sent surveys to all active US members of the Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society (LWPES) listed in the 2004–05 directory (excluding our own group of physicians). Thirty‐eight per cent of the surveys were returned and 182 met eligibility for analysis. Surveys were divided into four parts: demographic data, answers reflecting current diagnosis practices for GH deficiency and treatment with GH, attitudes and clinical practice for the idiopathic short stature (ISS) diagnosis, and four case studies. Through a series of questions, we elicited the influence towards prescribing GH of current height, growth velocity, predicted height, pubertal progression and other variables. Results were entered into a Microsoft Access database and statistical evaluation was conducted.

Results  Eighty‐eight per cent of respondents answered ‘no’ to the statement that there is good consensus on who should be treated with GH and over 90% answered ‘no’ to the statement that secretagogue testing was the best way to determine if a child would benefit from GH. Factors listed by respondents as important for prescribing GH include: growth velocity less than the 25th percentile, target height less than the 5th percentile and pubertal stage greater than Tanner 2. Current height was also important; however, answers varied as to what height percentile indicated the need for treatment. When queried about prescribing practices for nonstraightforward cases, 62% of respondents answered that the cost of GH influenced their decision to treat, 55% responded that concerns of future unknown side‐effects affected their decision and 37% noted family persistence influenced their decision. In response to queries about ISS, 82% answered that they were currently using the new indication and 69% answered that there was a need for the indication. The statement that short stature could be a disability received a ‘yes’ response from 78%. Answers to the four cases reflected lack of consensus, with one‐third of all respondents answering that they would treat each case, one‐third choosing to treat more than two of the cases and one‐third treating less than two of the cases.

Conclusion  Endocrinologists differed in their answers about cause for treatment with GH but in general favoured use of poor growth velocity, poor target height and low IGF‐1 levels as indications to treat a paediatric patient with GH.
Shrimp (Pandalus borealis) growth and timing of the spring phytoplankton bloom on the Newfoundland–Labrador Shelf
Authors: FUENTES‐YACO C. , KOELLER P. A. , SATHYENDRANATH S. , PLATT T.
Published: November 2006

We examined latitudinal and temporal changes in the availability of food for young shrimp (Pandalus borealis) on the Newfoundland–Labrador Shelf, using a suite of quantitative characteristics of the spring phytoplankton bloom determined from satellite ocean colour data, including bloom initiation time, maximum chlorophyll concentration, timing of the maximum, and bloom duration. We found significant correlations between bloom intensity, timing, and the size of young shrimp. The results are discussed in relation to the observation that, since the early 1990s, carapace lengths of shrimp have been decreasing in many Northwest Atlantic stocks.
Transdifferentiation of pulmonary arteriolar endothelial cells into smooth muscle‐like cells regulated by myocardin involved in hypoxia‐induced pulmonary vascular remodelling
Authors: Zhu Pengcheng , Huang Lei , Ge Xiaona , Yan Fei , Wu Renliang , Ao Qilin
Published: November 2006

Myocardin gene has been identified as a master regulator of smooth muscle cell differentiation. Smooth muscle cells play a critical role in the pathogenesis of hypoxia‐induced pulmonary hypertension (PH) and pulmonary vascular remodelling (PVR). The purpose of this study was to investigate the change of myocardin gene expression in the pulmonary vessels of hypoxia‐induced PH affected by Sildenafil treatment and the involvement of endothelial cells transdifferentiation into smooth muscle cells in the process of hypoxia‐induced PH and PVR. Myocardin and relative markers were investigated in animal models and cultured endothelial cells. Mean pulmonary artery pressure (mPAP) was measured. Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence were used to show the expression of smooth muscle α‐actin (SMA), in situ hybridization (ISH) and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR) were performed respectively to detect the myocardin and SMA expression at mRNA levels. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) induced suppression of myocardin in cultured cells. We confirmed that hypoxia induced the PH and PVR in rats. Sildenafil could attenuate the hypoxia‐induced PH. We found that myocardin mRNA expression is upregulated significantly in the hypoxic pulmonary vessels and cultured cells but downregulated in PH with Sildenafil treatment. The porcine pulmonary artery endothelial cells (PAECs) transdifferentiate into smooth muscle‐like cells in hypoxic culture while the transdifferentiation did not occur when SiRNA of myocardin was applied. Our results suggest that myocardin gene, as a marker of smooth muscle cell differentiation, was expressed in the pulmonary vessels in hypoxia‐induced PH rats, which could be downregulated by Sildenafil treatment, as well as in hypoxic cultured endothelial cells. Hypoxia induced the transdifferentiation of endothelial cells of vessels into smooth muscle‐like cells which was regulated by myocardin.
Expression of cyclooxygenase‐2, alpha 1‐acid‐glycoprotein and inducible nitric oxide synthase in the developing lesions of murine leprosy
Authors: Silva Miranda Mayra , Rodríguez Kendy Wek , Martínez Cordero Erasmo , Rojas‐Espinosa Oscar
Published: November 2006

Murine leprosy is a chronic disease of the mouse, the most popular animal model used in biomedical investigation, which is caused by Mycobacterium lepraemurium (MLM) whose characteristic lesion is the macrophage‐made granuloma. From onset to the end of the disease, the granuloma undergoes changes that gradually transform the environment into a more appropriate milieu for the growth of M. lepraemurium. The mechanisms that participate in the formation and maturation of the murine leprosy granulomas are not completely understood; however, microbial and host‐factors are believed to participate in their formation. In this study, we analysed the role of various pro‐inflammatory and anti‐inflammatory proteins in granulomas of murine leprosy after 21 weeks of infection. We assessed the expression of cyclooxygenase‐2 (COX‐2), alpha acid‐glycoprotein (AGP), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) at sequential stages of infection. We also looked for the nitric‐oxide nitrosylation product, nitrotyrosine (NT) in the granulomatous lesions of murine leprosy. We found that a pro‐inflammatory environment predominates in the early granulomas while an anti‐inflammatory environment predominates in late granulomas. No obvious signs of bacillary destruction were observed during the entire period of infection, but nitrosylation products and cell alterations were observed in granulomas in the advanced stages of disease. The change from a pro‐inflammatory to an anti‐inflammatory environment, which is probably driven by the bacillus itself, results in a more conducive environment for both bacillus replication and the disease progression.
Pollen–plant–climate relationships in sub‐Saharan Africa
Authors: Watrin Julie , Lézine Anne‐Marie , Gajewski Konrad , Vincens Annie
Published: November 2006

Aim  To demonstrate that incorporating the bioclimatic range of possible contributor plants leads to improved accuracy in interpreting the palaeoclimatic record of taxonomically complex pollen types.

Location  North Tropical Africa.

Methods  The geographical ranges of selected African plants were extracted from the literature and geo‐referenced. These plant ranges were compared with the pollen percentages obtained from a network of surface sediments. Climate‐response surfaces were graphed for each pollen taxon and each corresponding plant species.

Results  Several patterns can be identified, including taxa for which the pollen and plant distributions coincide, and others where the range limits diverge. Some pollen types display a reduced climate range compared with that of the corresponding plant species, due to low pollen production and/or dispersal. For other taxa, corresponding to high pollen producers such as pioneer taxa, pollen types display a larger climatic envelope than that of the corresponding plants. The number of species contained in a pollen taxon is an important factor, as the botanical species included in a taxon may have different geographical and climate distributions.

Main conclusions  The comparison between pollen and plant distributions is an essential step towards more precise vegetation and climate reconstructions in Africa, as it identifies taxa that have a high correspondence between pollen and plant distribution patterns. Our method is a useful tool to reassess biome reconstructions in Africa and to characterize accurately the vegetation and climate conditions at a regional scale, from pollen data.
Presence of a lethal protease in the extracellular products of Vibrio splendidus–Vibrio lentus related strains
Authors: Farto R , Armada SP , Montes M , Perez MJ , Nieto TP
Published: November 2006

The presence of a lethal extracellular 39‐kDa protease, a virulence determinant of a Listonella pelagia strain which produces vibriosis in turbot, was determined in the extracellular products (ECP) of 33 Vibrionaceae strains. Both immunological and enzymatic techniques distinguished this specific protease from other Vibrionaceae proteins. It was detected in 15% (5/33) of the ECPs assayed belonging to strains of the Vibrio splendidus–V. lentus related group isolated in Galician aquaculture systems (NW Spain). As these strains were associated with diseased octopus and cultured turbot, were able to colonize the internal organs of fish and produced a lethal ECP for fish, they are a potential risk for the health of reared aquatic organisms.
Infectious haemolytic anaemia causes jaundice outbreaks in seawater‐cultured coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum), in Chile
Authors: Smith P A , Larenas J , Contreras J , Cassigoli J , Venegas C , Rojas M E , Guajardo A , Pérez S , Díaz S
Published: November 2006

In the last 9 years, epizootics of an icterus condition has affected coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum), reared in seawater cages in southern regions of Chile. At necropsy, fish from field cases exhibited signs of jaundice accompanied by pale light‐brown livers and dark spleens. Histopathological and haematological results indicated that these fish presented haemolytic anaemia. After microbiological examination no bacterial or viral agents could be identified as aetiological agents of this disease. In an infectivity trial, coho salmon, Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., and rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), were inoculated intraperitoneally with a filtrate of an organ homogenate (0.45 μm) from a diseased coho salmon and held for 60 days in tanks supplied with fresh water. The disease was only reproduced in coho salmon in which mortalities, beginning at day 23 post‐inoculation (p.i.), reached a cumulative value of 24% at day 27 p.i. This condition was transmitted to non‐inoculated cohabiting coho salmon suggesting that it is a waterborne disease. Thus, this icteric condition is caused by an infectious form of haemolytic anaemia, probably of viral aetiology, and coho salmon are more susceptible than either Atlantic salmon or rainbow trout.
Presumptive detection of yellow head virus by reverse transcriptase‐polymerase chain reaction and dot‐blot hybridization in Litopenaeus vannamei and L. stylirostris cultured on the Northwest coast of Mexico
Authors: De La Rosa‐Vélez J , Cedano‐Thomas Y , Cid‐Becerra J , Méndez‐Payán J C , Vega‐Pérez C , Zambrano‐García J , Bonami J‐R
Published: November 2006

In order to assess the presence of yellow head virus (YHV) in shrimp farms along the Pacific coast of Mexico, 39 samples from 26 randomly chosen farms were analysed by means of reverse transcriptase‐polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR) and dot‐blot hybridization. Eleven samples were positive for YHV. The disease was reproduced by means of an infectivity bioassay performed with an extract of pleopods from the positive samples. Cumulative mortality reached 50% in 14 days. Four pairs of primers which amplified several YHV genome regions were designed and used to test dead and surviving shrimp from the bioassay by RT‐PCR, resulting in positive results for every expected amplicon. The results of this study provide presumptive evidence of the presence of YHV in Mexican shrimp farms at least during 1999–2000.
Whole body net ion fluxes, plasma electrolyte concentrations and haematology during a Loma salmonae infection in juvenile rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum)
Authors: Powell M D , Speare D J , Becker J A
Published: November 2006

Loma salmonae infections of salmonids culminate in the development of branchial xenomas and subsequent focal hyperplasia of the lamellar or filament epithelium following xenoma rupture and spore release. The effects of this acute branchial disruption upon net ionic flux rates and plasma electrolyte concentrations were determined in juvenile rainbow trout given an experimental oral exposure to L. salmonae. Mean numbers of branchial xenomas peaked at week 5 post‐exposure (PE), which coincided with a reduction in the specific growth rate, although there were no significant differences in mass, length or condition of Loma‐exposed fish compared with unexposed controls. Following exposure, negative net whole body Na+ and K+ fluxes decreased, whereas net Cl− fluxes remained unchanged compared with non‐exposed control fish. At week 3 PE during the initial branchial xenoma formation stage, there was a significant negative whole body net K+ flux in Loma‐exposed trout compared with other points during the exposure and subsequent infection. Additionally, Loma‐exposed fish had marginally elevated plasma Na+ and Cl− concentrations, whilst K+ levels remained unchanged, compared with control fish. Although there was a progressive decrease in leucocrit, haematocrit remained unchanged over the course of the Loma exposure and subsequent infection. These results suggest that ionic compensation can occur at the gills during the development of xenomas during exposure to L. salmonae and the resultant infection, therefore allowing defence of plasma electrolyte concentrations, unlike the acute ionic disturbances seen with some other parasitic diseases.
Treating experimentally induced vibriosis (Listonella anguillarum) in cod, Gadus morhua L., with florfenicol
Authors: Seljestokken B , Bergh Ø , Melingen G O , Rudra H , Hetlelid Olsen R , Samuelsen O B
Published: November 2006

This study was performed to determine the efficacy of orally administered florfenicol in the treatment of experimentally induced vibriosis (Listonella anguillarum) in cod, Gadus morhua. The L. anguillarum strain HI‐610 was used. This strain has a minimal inhibitory concentration value of 0.5 mg L−1 against florfenicol. Fifteen groups of 40 fish each were challenged by bath with 1.7 × 105 CFU mL−1 for 1 h. Three days following challenge, medication with florfenicol was introduced in 12 of the groups. The dosages used were 10 mg kg−1 day−1 for 10 consecutive days in marine or salmonid pellets, 10 mg kg−1 day−1 for five consecutive days in marine pellets or administered at days 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8 following initiation of treatment. Among challenged unmedicated fish mortality started at day 3 post‐challenge reaching a final cumulative mortality of 77% at day 15. The experiment was terminated at day 26. In the medicated groups, the majority of deaths occurred from days 3–7 post‐challenge reaching final cumulative mortalities of 31% and 52%, respectively, for the fish given marine and salmonid pellets for 10 consecutive days. The fish treated with medicated marine pellets for five consecutive days and at days 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8 (sequential feeding) following initiation of treatment had cumulative mortalities of 52% and 38%, respectively. Survival of medicated fish in all groups was significantly (P < 0.005) greater than survival of challenged unmedicated fish. Furthermore, a significant difference (P < 0.001) in survival was found between fish treated for 10 consecutive days using marine pellets and the groups using marine pellets for five consecutive days and salmonid pellets for 10 consecutive days. Twenty four hours following last medication, six fish had mean plasma concentrations of 3.3 ± 1.7 and 3.5 ± 2.8 μg mL−1, respectively, in fish treated for 10 consecutive days using marine and salmonid pellets. Corresponding values for fish treated for five consecutive days and by sequential feeding were 2.2 ± 2.3 and 1.7 ± 0.7 μg mL−1, respectively.
Queensland psychiatrists’ attitudes and perceptions of adults with intellectual disability
Authors: Edwards N. , Lennox N. , White P.
Published: November 2006

Background  Quality mental health care for adults with an intellectual disability (ID) depends upon the availability of appropriately trained and experienced psychiatrists. There have been few surveys of psychiatrists working with this population.

Method  This Australian study obtained psychiatrists’ attitudes to and perceptions of the mental health needs of adults with an ID. Training needs were also sought. The survey instrument used was a purposely designed, 28‐item self‐administered questionnaire featuring multiple‐choice and open‐ended questions.

Results  The majority of psychiatrists expressed concerns about treatment of this group, describing unmet needs. A total of 75% considered that antipsychotics were overused to control aggression, and 34% of psychiatrists were reluctant to treat adults with an ID. In total, 85% agreed that mental health in ID should be offered as a training option for psychiatric registrars, and that specialized mental health services would provide a high standard of care for this population.

Conclusion  Broad concerns are raised regarding pathways to mental health care for adults with an ID in Australia. An Australia‐wide training strategy needs to be developed. Partnerships between mental health, disability and community services that serve the mental health needs of this population, should actively seek to engage psychiatrists.
Risk factors for psychiatric disturbance in children with intellectual disability
Authors: Koskentausta T. , Iivanainen M. , Almqvist F.
Published: November 2006

Background  Children with intellectual disability (ID) have a higher risk for psychiatric disturbance than their peers with normal intelligence, but research data on risk factors are insufficient and partially conflicting.

Method  The subjects comprised 75 children with ID aged 6–13 years. Data were obtained from case files and the following four questionnaires completed by their parents or other carers: Developmental Behaviour Checklist, American Association of Mental Deficiency (AAMD) Adaptive Behavior Scale, a questionnaire on additional disabilities, and a questionnaire on family characteristics and child development.

Results  The risk of psychopathology was most significantly increased by moderate ID, limitations in adaptive behaviour, impaired language development, poor socialization, living with one biological parent, and low socio‐economic status of the family.

Conclusions  The risk of psychopathology in children with ID is increased by factors related to family characteristics and child development. Identifying these factors will help diagnose and possibly prevent psychiatric disorders in these children.
Melatonin and sleep disorders associated with intellectual disability: a clinical review
Authors: Sajith S. G. , Clarke D.
Published: November 2006

Background Melatonin is used to treat sleep disorders in both children and adults with intellectual disability (ID), although it has no product license for such use. The evidence for its efficacy, potential adverse effects and drug interactions are reviewed in the context of prescribing to people with ID.

Methods A literature search was performed using multiple electronic databases. More literature was obtained from the reference lists of papers gathered through the searches.

Results Most of the studies were uncontrolled and the few controlled trials available were of small size. Melatonin appears effective in reducing sleep onset latency and is probably effective in improving total sleep time in children and adolescents with ID. It appears to be ineffective in improving night‐time awakenings. Melatonin is relatively safe for short‐term use. Its safety for long‐term use is not established. Potential drug interactions, possible effects on puberty and concerns regarding the use of melatonin in epilepsy, asthma and depressive disorders are discussed.

Conclusions Melatonin appears to be an effective sleep‐initiator for children and adolescents with ID and probably has a similar effect for adults. There may be heterogeneity of response depending on the nature of the sleep problem and cause of the ID or associated disabilities. Further studies are necessary before firm conclusions can be drawn and guidelines for the use of melatonin for people with ID formulated.