bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Capitolizing on Divine Qualities
Authors: Clark Anna J.
Published: January 2008

This chapter focuses on the late second and early first centuries bc and considers the temple foundations and refoundations that are attested for this period, including the competition of Marius with Catulus and with Sulla. Many of these cluster around the Forum and Capitol. The most important hill in Rome was reshaped in terms of divine qualities, creating and recharging both cognitive and physical spaces. The chapter also explores the flowering of numismatic imagery in the same years, from the 130s bc. This opening up of the coin-field as a resource was itself presided over by moneta, and other divine qualities, represented as female figure, head, or attribute with accompanying legend, began to form a fruitful means of framing and expressing a variety of numismatic messages.
On the Civic Stage
Authors: Clark Anna J.
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines different ways in which people came into contact with temples, statues, and other representations of divine qualities. It explores festivals and rites honouring divine qualities; senate‐meetings in temples to divine qualities, and the extent to which this created opportunities for contemporaries and later writers to draw on the qualities in question; visits to artwork in temples; setting up statues of people in temples; the use of temples as reference points; and the reporting of prodigies involving temples or statues. The geographical and social range of those making surviving epigraphic dedications to individual divine qualities is explored. Taken together, these varied engagements show that divine qualities continued to be ‘good to think with’ for a variety of people both in and outside Rome, from senators to slaves.
Introduction
Authors: Sewell‐Rutter N. J.
Published: January 2008

This introductory chapter begins with a brief discussion of the characteristics of a Greek tragedy. It then explains the purpose of the book, which is to shed new light on one of the central concerns of tragedy, and contribute to the understanding of the peculiar quiddity of this inescapably absorbing genre. An overview of the succeeding chapters is presented.
Inherited Guilt
Authors: Sewell‐Rutter N. J.
Published: January 2008

This chapter pursues a line of enquiry suggested by the consideration of Herodotus in Chapter 1. It asks whether those unfortunate descendants in tragedy who are punished for the sins of their fathers are presented as innocent in and of themselves. It also considers the functioning of inherited guilt, its place and its workings within the architecture and the emotional and conceptual dynamics of the plays in which it appears. It argues that the study of inherited guilt must take account of the intimate and indissoluble connection between the dramatic and emotional aspect of tragedy and its conceptual burden in order to do justice to the richness and complexity of these texts. The tragedians do not examine inherited guilt aridly or in a vacuum: they weave it into the structure of their plays, introducing it at crucial moments and making it a central part of the emotional dynamics of the texts.
Curses
Authors: Sewell‐Rutter N. J.
Published: January 2008

This chapter investigates the highly charged and emotive utterance that is the tragic curse, and considers its status as a causal factor in those plays in which it is important. It starts by distinguishing the concept of a curse from that of inherited guilt. It then identifies the essence of the tragic curse by means of a thought-experiment involving the substitution of defixiones (the so-called ‘curse-tablets’ or ‘binding spells’) in some tragic passages where in fact we find curses. It argues that the consideration of tragic curses raises a crucial issue concerning the hierarchy of interpretative priorities that we bring to our engagement with these texts. The investigation of curses thus strikes at the heart of the interpretation of tragedy.
6 Fate, Freedom, Decision Making: Eteocles and Others
Authors: Sewell‐Rutter N. J.
Published: January 2008

This chapter investigates the agency and decision-making processes of the mortals in tragedy on whom the weight of supernatural causation rests. It considers successively fate, mortal freedom, and the processes of decision, with particular emphasis on the so-called ‘decision’ scene of Eteocles in Aeschylus' Septem contra Thebas. This last phase of the investigation does not pretend to be exhaustive in itself, but rather seeks to examine certain relevant aspects of these phenomena as they present themselves to the student of familial corruption and supernatural causation. It asks how divine necessity meshes with mortal agency in certain relevant cases, and whether the former imperils the latter.
Conclusion
Authors: Sewell‐Rutter N. J.
Published: January 2008

This concluding chapter presents a synthesis of the discussions in the preceding chapters. It argues that issues of familial interaction, causation, human action, and moral responsibility in Attic tragedy are by no means settled; and that interpreters of these endlessly absorbing and undeniably intoxicating texts ignore them at their peril.
Feeding the Democracy
Authors: Moreno Alfonso
Published: January 2008

This study shows how Classical Athens, the largest and historically most important of the Greek city‐states, depended for its survival on a supply of grain from overseas sources, especially (in the fifth century bc) the conquered territories of its Aegean empire, and (in the fourth century) the distant steppes of Scythia (modern Ukraine and southern Russia). This trade was central to Athenian politics, and is here found to have been organized and controlled by powerful elites, a conclusion that challenges prevailing interpretations of Athenian democracy. New light is also cast on the nature of Athenian imperialism; the relationship of the city of Athens and its countryside; the relevance to the Athenian economy of fourth‐century rhetorical and philosophical schools (particularly that of Isocrates) and other elite networks; and the history of the Bosporan Kingdom in the northern Black Sea. A wealth of ancient textual evidence (from history, oratory, and drama) is presented alongside archaeology, aerial photography, epigraphy, and iconography. Revolutionary new discoveries, like the Grain‐Tax Law of 374/3 bc, and the vast building complexes lining the Crimean coast of the Azov Sea, are discussed comprehensively with older evidence, like the golden treasures from Graeco‐Scythian graves. Decades of foreign scholarship and discovery (especially in Russian) are synthesized and made accessible to English readers. Moving from the edges of the Greek world, to the islands of the Aegean, to the prosperous demes of Attica and the courtrooms and popular assemblies of Athens, this book presents a sweeping reinterpretation of Athenian economy and society.
1 The Emergence of Ambrosiaster
Authors: Lunn-Rockliffe Sophie
Published: January 2008

The chapter begins by explaining that two major Latin works, a set of Commentaries on all the Pauline epistles save Hebrews, and 127 Quaestiones on the Old and New Testaments are now known as the work of a single author, an anonymous author who has for over 300 years been referred to as Ambrosiaster. There have been several distinct stages in the emergence of Ambrosiaster. In the earliest phase of their circulation, portions of the Quaestiones and Commentaries were attributed by their readers to various different authors or they were said to be written anonymously. This confusion over the authorship of Ambrosiaster's works is further reflected in the manuscript tradition.
3 Ambrosiaster's Ecclesiastical Context
Authors: Lunn-Rockliffe Sophie
Published: January 2008

This chapter explores Ambrosiaster's position in and attitude towards the Roman church in the 370s and 380s. Some of the Quaestiones in particular contain clues that leads to the belief that they originated as sermons or lectures, and the possibility that Ambrosiaster wrote homiletic texts suggests he was, in fact, a cleric. The Quaestiones are given precedence in this analysis, because they are less uniform in nature than the Commentaries and contain more clues to the circumstances of their composition and delivery.
4 Social Hierarchies
Authors: Lunn-Rockliffe Sophie
Published: January 2008

This chapter explores Ambrosiaster's attitudes toward natural social hierarchies in creation. These attitudes provide the necessary starting point for any investigation of his ideas about political, institutionalized forms of domination (such as that of the emperor over his subjects) because he used the same language for both sorts of hierarchy, which allowed him to narrow the gap between social and political forms of domination. Ambrosiaster presented man and woman's domination over the animals and man's domination over woman as inherently natural, ordained at the very moment of creation by God. Slavery, however — considered both metaphysically as slavery to sin and literally as institutional slavery — was identified as a postlapsarian system of subjection and therefore unnatural.
6 Divine Kingship
Authors: Lunn-Rockliffe Sophie
Published: January 2008

This chapter explores Ambrosiaster's ideas about kingship and emperorship (interchangeable in his usage). His ideas drew together themes from his cosmology, anthropology, and ecclesiology. He insisted that God's singularity was reflected in the creation of a single man, and in the existence of kings and bishops. A recurring feature of his writing on kings, often scriptural kings, is that they had the ‘image of God’.
Omitted Quotation Marks
Authors: Cappelen Herman , Lepore Ernie
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines the phenomenon of omitted quotation marks (D11). Some theorists hold that quotation marks (or any other linguistic indicator) are unrequired for quotation. The data that allegedly support this claim are considered. It is argued that the data marshaled in support of the Quotation Without Quotation Marks thesis are not only irrelevant to traditional theories of quotation; there are plenty of strategies traditional theories can use to accommodate it.
‘Impure’ Direct Quotes
Authors: Cappelen Herman , Lepore Ernie
Published: January 2008

Some theorists argue that the data surrounding the practice of mixed quotation establish that it is not a real form of quotation (and in so doing they present a particular interpretation of (D7) and (D8)). In particular, these theorists argue that quotation marks in mixed quotes can be dropped without a loss of meaning. This chapter examines these data and their various interpretations. It is argued that “impure quotes” do not pose a challenge to a theory of quotation, though they do present a challenge for a theory of the saying relation.
Introduction
Authors: Brown David
Published: January 2008

This introductory chapter begins with a summary of the book, which is intended as a sequel to God and Enchantment of Place: Reclaiming Human Experience. The book continues the work of its predecessor in showing the range of artistic and cultural experience that theology must pay more attention to. But while God and Enchantment of Place focused on place, this book focuses on the human body — how the body might mediate the experience of God. An overview of the three parts of the book is presented.
Food and Drink
Authors: Brown David
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines food and drink in all its variety, in particular the impact they had historically on people's perceptions. The discussion exposes the degree to which modern attitudes to food and drink necessarily — or only accidentally — preclude mediation of the divine through our experience of the various ways in which our bodies are sustained. The first part of the chapter is devoted to food. The second part examines the symbolism of water and wine first before turning to more general questions about drink and the various other ways in which it is given symbolic significance. In the case of water and wine, attention is drawn to how closer examination of the multivalent character of their symbolism has the potential to enrich current understandings of the two major Christian sacraments. The final section considers the various ways in which both alcoholic and non-alcoholic stimulants (tea and coffee in particular) have, in appropriate contexts, also been seen as opening the human mind to wider perceptions of reality.
Classical Music
Authors: Brown David
Published: January 2008

This chapter explores the religious experience through the power of music, in particular classical music. It begins with a detailed discussion of the sort of reservations that generated Christian resistance to instrumental music. It then considers the neglected features of the biblical witness that, in fact, strongly support a more positive approach, not least in the book of Chronicles. It is argued that as in the Temple's worship envisaged in Chronicles, so elsewhere music can help break down the barriers between the invisible world of the divine and our own. In other words, certain features of music help an already present God to be perceived. The works of some key composers in the classical tradition are examined, including Bach, Haydn, Beethoven, Schubert, Mahler, and Bruckner.
Pop Music
Authors: Brown David
Published: January 2008

This chapter explores the aesthetics of pop music in general and then focuses on how specific artists might facilitate religious experience. It examines not just ‘light’ popular music, but also the various types to which Christians have sometimes taken most exception, among them hard rock and rap. Artists considered include the Beatles, Madonna, Bob Dylan, Bruce Springsteen, U2, Nick Cave, and The Bad Seeds.
Blues, Musicals and Opera
Authors: Brown David
Published: January 2008

This chapter begins by exploring how blues, jazz, and soul originated out of spirituals and in part as a legitimate protest against the failure of the religious genre to deal adequately with life and all its problems. Opera, for some aficionados, has become an alternative to religion, not least in the way it opens up the viewer and listener to a world of mystery or magic. Whether there is any essential conflict between opera and religion is examined. It is argued that the themes of such music rightly widen the range of religious experience beyond the church door. Without such a contribution Christianity would be seriously impoverished, given that its worship fights shy of so many of the dilemmas of ordinary life.
Healing and Presence
Authors: Brown David
Published: January 2008

This chapter explores the powerful connections made between religion and medicine in the ancient world. It is shown that despite its lack of often basic knowledge of the body, the ancient world often exhibited a more integrated conception of health than the modern world does now.
4 Policy, Politics, and Political Determinism
Authors: Echevarria II Antulio J.
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses how Clausewitz saw the relationship between war and policy and war and politics. Some scholars have focused more on the former than the latter. In parts of On War, Clausewitz succumbed to political determinism, excluding the roles of culture and technology in warfare, or subsuming them under the term politics.
Introduction
Authors: Strachan Hew , Herberg‐Rothe Andreas
Published: January 2008

Since the end of the Cold War, the status of Clausewitz's On War as the pre-eminent text on its subject has been challenged, most notably by Martin van Creveld, John Keegan, and Mary Kaldor. Their criticisms have rested on assumptions about the perceived changes in war's character since the end of the Cold War, but they have not always distinguished between what is genuinely new and what seems to be new. Moreover, their reading of On War has itself been unduly shaped by the considerations which dominated in the Cold War. The chapters in this book are based on a more inclusive reading of the original text.
1 Clausewitz and the Dialectics of War
Authors: Strachan Hew
Published: January 2008

Clausewitz's On War aroused controversy from its first publication in 1832-4, and the validity of its interpretation of war's nature was challenged in the wake of both world wars and in the Cold War. Those who condemn Clausewitz today as the exponent of an outdated form of inter-state war therefore form part of a familiar tradition. They are however guilty of reading Clausewitz's text selectively. Because he used dialectics as a means to understanding war, he himself provided counters to many of his best known propositions.
The Instrument: Clausewitz on Aims and Objectives in War
Authors: Moran Daniel
Published: January 2008

This chapter analyzes Clausewitz's arguments about the instrumental nature of war, and considers the degree to which political aims and objectives may guide military operations. Clausewitz's ideas in this area have not lost their saliency under modern conditions, while some forms of violence may be more amenable to instrumental analysis than others. An understanding of military aims and objectives, while essential to strategic clarity, does not afford complete intellectual mastery over the multifaceted reality of war, nor does it guarantee strategic success.
Moral Forces in War
Authors: Kleemeier Ulrike
Published: January 2008

Human emotions play a critical role in Clausewitz's account of war, since for him feelings are the foundation on which reason builds. War, he says, is characterized by disorder: efforts to manage it are subject to what he calls ‘friction’. One of the principal sources of friction is human weakness, and by the same token human strengths are needed to enable effectiveness in war. Clausewitz describes a ‘military genius’ as a commander who combines passion with reason. This synthesis confers powers of judgement and coup d'oeil, which depend both on emotional intelligence and on courage. Clausewitz distinguished between physical bravery on the one hand and the need for resolution in adversity on the other: the latter is what enables a commander to act on the basis of his insights. Significantly, Clausewitz did not see obedience as a necessary moral force in war.
13 Clausewitz and Information Warfare
Authors: Lonsdale David
Published: January 2008

Many of the theories on war in the information age predict substantial changes to the character of war. Should these changes come to pass, the very nature of war could be transformed. This could have significant implications for Clausewitz's work, which is regarded as the literary manifestation of the nature of war. However, the nature of war is far more robust than many modern theorists suggest. This robustness emanates from the core elements of strategy, which ensure that war remains an uncertain, non-linear human activity as Clausewitz identified.
14 Clausewitz and the Two Temptations of Modern Strategic Thinking
Authors: Durieux Benoît
Published: January 2008

Clausewitz provides the framework required to analyze the strategic debate because he developed a theory about the theory of war. From this perspective, the different strategic doctrines and theories prevalent today illustrate two temptations which reflect two possible readings of Clausewitz regarding the most effective way to use military force. First, the temptation of ideal war consists of using extreme, instantaneous violence in relative isolation from the political context. Secondly, the temptation of non-violent war considers using limited violence for a longer time in complete continuity with the political environment. But these two temptations may be misleading. Clausewitzian theory provides interesting insights into how to understand their limits and to avoid their pitfalls.
15 Civil–Military Relations and Democracies
Authors: Bredow Wilfried von
Published: January 2008

Clausewitz's famous contention about war as the continuation of politics is part of an implicit theory of civil-military relations based on the primacy of politics. Both the explicit and the implicit assumptions of Clausewitz have frequently been criticized from different viewpoints. They are, however, empirically sound and can be used as cornerstones for a normative theory of democratic control of the armed forces.
16 Clausewitz and a New Containment: the Limitation of War and Violence
Authors: Herberg-Rothe Andreas
Published: January 2008

We are witnessing a worldwide expansion of war and the removal of restraints on the use of violence. These trends should be countered by what George Kennan called in 1987, a new form of containment. This ‘new containment’ must be different from that of the Cold War, although based on some similar principles. It must combine traditional, military containment on the one hand with a range of opportunities for cooperation on the other. The ideas which Clausewitz developed in the last stages of his thinking provide the basis for a concept of containment, in the sense of a sustained and ongoing limitation, which accepts the use of force but circumscribes it.
Introduction
Authors: Foley Michael
Published: January 2008

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the apparent lack of ideological engagement in American society. It argues that the United States possesses a little-understood ability to engage in deep conflicts over political ideas, while at the same time reducing adversarial positions to legitimate derivatives of American history and development. The normal processes of American politics have both the means and the motivation to engage in profound disputes over political ideas but without succumbing to the intractability and entirety of European ideological conflicts. An overview of the chapters in the book is presented.
2 The Individual
Authors: Foley Michael
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses the linkage between American liberty and individualism. This linkage has a long and complex set of origins. It includes the autonomous and voluntarist impulses of an immigrant culture; the individualized nature of divine contact and salvation in the Protestant tradition; the geographical dispersal of settlement over remote areas; and the decentralizing forces associated with the oceanic distance between America and centres of European hierarchy and imperial outreach. These and other strands, which stimulated and supported an individualistic outlook, receive their strongest expression in America's signature attachment to natural rights and, in particular, to the political logic of John Locke's theory of the state.
4 Democracy
Authors: Foley Michael
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses the complaints and critiques about the composition of American democracy, i.e., not only what American democracy consists of but what it should consist of to be both authentically American and authentically democratic. What is evident from the contested nature of American democracy is that empirical assessments of its performance are not only guided by normative judgements, but are themselves vehicles of disputes between and amongst other ideas with competing claims upon American priorities.
6 Equality
Authors: Foley Michael
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses the egalitarian principle in American society. It presents three outlooks on equality: equality as given, equality as process, and equality in the breach. It then considers the ‘racial problem’ involving Black Americans, the feminist challenge to equality, and barriers to complete social equality.
9 Order
Authors: Foley Michael
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses the issue of order in American society. Topics covered include the foundations of order, government action into the private sphere of individual liberty on the grounds of preventing disorder, response to terrorism, order as a constitutional principle, social control and conspiracy, and criminal justice and private security.
10 Capitalism
Authors: Foley Michael
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses American capitalism. Capitalism has not only become integrally related to the growth of the United States into a global industrial power, but in doing so has acquired an iconic property as the generic expression of American ideas and experience. Just as capitalism has played a role in giving definition to America's social identity and historical position, so the United States has emerged as the exemplar of capitalist organization and the defining reference point by which its merits and demerits as an economic and ethical system is adjudged.
11 Pluralism
Authors: Foley Michael
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines pluralism in the United States. In addition to being a descriptive summary of American politics, pluralism also ranks as a comprehensive system of cause and effect which serves to account for all the relationships and processes between society and government. Thus, pluralism does not simply propound the existence of interest groups engaged in political decision-making. It assumes the property of a general law of political existence by presupposing that all the constituent elements of political activity are ultimately reducible to the base units of group interests, group motivations, and group demands. The limits of pluralism, and cultural pluralism and multiculturalism are discussed.
3 On Getting One's Retaliation in First
Authors: Uniacke Suzanne
Published: January 2008

This chapter provides a general, philosophical account of the use of harmful force in self-defence as a type of retaliation. It argues that pre-emption — the use of harmful force for prevention — is not an act of self-defence. The associations between the concepts of retaliation, self-defence, and pre-emption are discussed.
5 Justifying Preventive War
Authors: Buchanan Allen
Published: January 2008

This chapter attempts to strengthen the institutionalist approach to the justification of preventive war. It seeks to refute the claim that preventive war as such is unjust because it involves violations of the rights of at least some of those who are targeted in the preventive action. It argues that even the strongest ‘rights-based’ objection is incapable of supporting the assertion that preventive war is never morally permissible and that properly designed institutions provide an effective reply to the consequentialist objections.
7 Preventive War and Human Rights
Authors: Luban David
Published: January 2008

This chapter responds to some objections to an earlier argument that proposed a theory of preventive war. This theory sought to assimilate preventive war to self-defence, but only under restricted conditions; it argued against a general rule permitting states confronting distant or immature threats to launch preventive wars, on the ground that such a permission would license too many wars; it also argued that a more restricted principle, permitting preventive wars against rogue states where the distant threat involves weapons of mass destruction (WMD), can be justified; and also it stated that the permission to launch preventive war is nonproxyable; and finally it argued that the threat a rogue state poses must be a physical threat against the homeland of the state launching a preventive war. The chapter elaborates aspects of the theory that were obscurely stated or underdeveloped in the first go-around. It focuses on the so-called ‘rights objection’ that launching preventive war is wrong because it inflicts death and destruction on people who have done nothing to forfeit their rights against such violence.
8 Preventive War, What Is It Good For?
Authors: Sinnott-Armstrong Walter
Published: January 2008

This chapter argues that although Bush's preventive war in Iraq is morally wrong, and his policy is too broad, some exceptional preventive wars can still be morally justified. It develops and defends a version of consequentialism about war. It then criticizes the relevant part of the most common deontological alternative — just war theory. Finally, all of this theory is applied to preventive war in general and Bush's war and policy in particular.
What Would a Justified Preventive Military Attack Look Like?
Authors: Shue Henry
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses the characteristics of a justified preventive military action. These are that (i) it must be limited to the effective elimination, including the prevention of the return, of the danger that justifies it; (ii) it must be undertaken only when military action is urgent; (iii) it must be based on well-verified, solid intelligence collected by a highly competent agency; and (iv) it must be substantively multilateral, that is, based on principles justifiable on the basis of reasons broadly acceptable internationally.
3 Outward FDI and the Competitiveness of Latin American Firms
Authors: Tavares Márcia
Published: January 2008

This chapter describes recent trends in the internationalization of Latin American companies through foreign direct investment (FDI). Focusing on the larger Latin American investors, the chapter undertakes a qualitative analysis of how outward investment has contributed to the competitiveness of Latin American firms; the factors that are specific to the Latin American business environment that have contributed to the success of the region's firms in their direct investments abroad; and the main challenges faced by these companies when investing outside their home countries. The analysis is based on interviews of firms in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Mexico conducted by the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), as well as publicly available corporate information and secondary sources.
4 Cycles of Creation and Destruction of Production Capacity and the Development of New Export and Technological Capabilities in Latin America
Authors: Katz Jorge
Published: January 2008

For more than three decades, Latin American countries have opened up their economies to foreign competition, de-regulated markets, and privatized economic activities at different times and with varying degrees of success. Such actions involved a major departure in policy regime from the inward-oriented, state-led regime, which prevailed in the immediate post-war period. The new regime — together with the rapid process of globalization of the world economy that occurred throughout the 1990's — induced a major transformation of the economic, institutional, and technological scenario of each one of the countries in the region. This chapter examines how the new policy regime affected growth, international competitiveness, equity, and the development of domestic technological capabilities.
13 Sustainable Management of Korean Firms: A Case Study of Yuhan–Kimberly and Its Implications for Latin American Firms
Authors: Cho Dong-Sung , Chang Keum-Young
Published: January 2008

This chapter identifies the mechanisms used by Korean companies for success and their implications for Latin American firms. Yuhan-Kimberly, a joint venture company established between Kimberly-Clark, a multinational firm based in the US, and Yuhan Corporation, a Korean pharmaceutical company, is studied. Since 1985, Yuhan-Kimberly has practiced innovation, ethics, corporate social responsibility, and environment management, while upholding the corporate philosophy of one of its parent companies, Yuhan Corporation. As a result, Yuhan-Kimberly has beaten Korea-based global firms such as Samsung Electronics Co. and Hyundai Motors Co. to become the most respected company of the Korean people. In addition, it ranked first in market dominance, a status that could only be earned through a combination of market share and customer loyalty. Thus, the company has set a new benchmark for sustainable management. This chapter examines the success factors of Yuhan-Kimberly using the SER-M model to redefine the concept of ‘sustainable management’ and study the mechanism of its management. Three factors are identified as components of the mechanism: the composition of factors, the sequence of factor deployment, and the timing of sequence in the factor deployment.
2 Secular Decline in Relative Commodity Prices: A Brief Review of the Literature
Authors: Razzaque Mohammad A. , Osafa‐Kwaako Philip , Grynberg Roman
Published: January 2008

This chapter provides a review of literature surrounding the secular decline of relative commodity prices, confirming a general consensus within the international community since the late 1980s of the existence of a long run declining trend in the relative prices of commodities.
4 Analysis of Movements in the Productivity and Prices of Selected Tropical Commodities in Developing Countries, 1970 to 2002
Authors: Fleming Euan , Rao Prasada , Fleming Pauline
Published: January 2008

This chapter investigates whether productivity gains are compensating for falling commodity prices. The study, focusing on tropical commodity dependent developing countries, found that very few of the countries had achieved rates of productivity gain that even matched, let alone counteracted, the rate of change in real prices.
5 Commodity Value Chains Compression—Coffee, Cocoa, and Sugar
Authors: Choraria Jaya
Published: January 2008

This chapter details a study of commodity value chain compression for coffee, cocoa, and sugar. The study uses time series data of prices along entire commodity chains from raw material in a commodity exporting developing country to final retail produce in a developed consuming country, in order to provide descriptive analysis of the evolution of farm gate-to-retail price spreads. Comparisons are made across the commodities studied and across countries in order to provide insight into the causes of changes in the farm gate-to-retail price spread over time.
Overview
Authors: Mattoo Aaditya , Stern Robert M.
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses the four modes of supply of services that are covered by the GATS, the sources of services data, and the services growth experiences of selected countries and regions. It then notes how services reform can promote efficiency and growth at the sectoral level and economy-wide, pointing out that the benefits of services liberalization may be diminished by flaws in reform programs, the failure to provide for greater services access for the poor, and the need to take adjustment costs into account. The chapter argues that domestic policy reforms should recognize the importance of increasing competition among service providers; the need for appropriate sequencing of reforms; and reduction of the importance of national monopolies. Further, it stresses that international engagement is crucial to buttress domestic reform in order to achieve reciprocal liberalization, greater credibility of reform, provision of external assistance to facilitate domestic adjustment, reinforcement of the reform process, and promotion of greater harmonization and integration of policies. The ongoing GATS negotiations are an important and essential framework to support the international liberalization of services, and should include the design of arrangements for aid to developing countries to help promote services trade and promote greater cooperation on temporary migration. There may also be greater scope for achieving deeper integration of particular services sectors by means of regional services agreements.
The Basic Economics of Services Trade
Authors: Copeland Brian , Mattoo Aaditya
Published: January 2008

This chapter starts with a brief overview on how services are traded and the different modes of service supply that include: cross-border trade, consumption abroad, foreign direct investment, and labor movement. It then reviews the reasons for trade in services together with the sources of potential welfare as well as the effects of services liberalization on income distribution. It notes that these issues are very similar to the standard analysis of trade in goods and factors. Next the interactions among the different modes of supply are discussed. These interactions are important because restrictions on some modes (such as labor mobility) may either render some services non-tradable, or may force service providers to use another (possibly less efficient) mode. An analysis is then provided of the effects of some of the most common barriers to trade in services, noting in particular how the effects of trade liberalization cannot be analyzed independently of the domestic regulatory system. The relative merits of trade agreements versus unilateral liberalization of services trade are discussed.
Measurring Trade in Services
Authors: Maurer Andreas , Marcus Yann , Magdeleine Joscelyn , d'Andrea Barbara
Published: January 2008

This chapter provides a general overview that sets out the economic importance of services and the concept of trade in services as illustrated in the GATS four modes of supply. The relevant statistical framework recently developed on the basis of two major statistical domains is then set out, with a focus on key concepts related to trade between residents and non-residents as defined in international guidelines and with statistics on operations of services foreign affiliates. Also discussed are the current state of play with regard to statistics on the presence of natural persons; the different methods that statisticians use to collect statistics on trade in services; indications of the statistics that are currently available; and recent developments in the domain of statistics on trade in services. Finally, a review of US statistical practices for measuring trade in services is presented.
The Temporary Movement of Workers to Provide Services (GATS Mode 4)
Authors: Winters L. Alan
Published: January 2008

This chapter considers the case and the means for liberalizing the temporary flow of labor between countries for the purpose of providing services: mode 4 of the GATS. Despite being until now a mere bit-player in the GATS, mode 4 is at last starting to command some attention from negotiators and policy makers. The attention is long overdue, especially since serious efforts to liberalize the temporary movement of natural persons (TM) from developing to developed member countries could generate very large mutual benefits. The chapter comprises seven parts: (1) the extent and nature of TM and the barriers to it, and the ways in which we might think of and model the liberalization of mode 4; (2) estimates of the benefits of mode 4 liberalization treating it as akin to migration; (3) the simple gains from TM of persons as part of mode 4 liberalization based on computable models estimates; (4) ways in which the polar forms of thinking about TM may be relaxed in future empirical exercises to try to refine the estimates of the effects of liberalization; (5) practical issues that may be negotiated in the GATS to make TM a reality; (6) the benefits GATS mode 4 may bring to countries wanting to liberalize TM; and (7) arguments for and technicalities of compensating domestic workers who are disadvantaged by inflows of workers from abroad. The addenda to the chapter contain discussion of US experience with the temporary movement of service providers and mode 4 issues in the Latin American context.
Women Against the Vote
Authors: Bush Julia
Published: January 2008

This book provides the first full history of the female campaign against votes for women in late 19th- and early 20th-century Britain. By 1914, the National League for Opposing Woman Suffrage was dominated by the self-consciously masculine leadership of Lord Cromer and Lord Curzon, but also heavily dependent upon an impressive cadre of women leaders. An overwhelmingly female membership rivalled the suffrage organizations in numbers, though not in levels of activism. The first half of the book explores the motives and ideals of women against the vote. The provenance of their opposition is analyzed through three overlapping groups: maternal reformers, women writers, and imperialist ladies. In the second half of the book, a detailed study of anti-suffrage organizations and their supporters reveals that partnership between the sexes was seldom straightforward, even for a movement dedicated to separate and complementary gender roles. Anti-suffragism was divided by internal conflicts between men and women, and between reformers and ultra-conservatives, as it fuelled the suffrage conflict and wider contemporary debates over the Woman Question. Women pursued their own agendas within organized anti-suffragism, demonstrating their affinity with the mainstream social conservatism of the British women's movement and continuously collaborating with moderate suffragists in non-political social action. The rediscovered history of female anti-suffragism provides new perspectives on campaigns both for and against the vote. It also makes a significant contribution to the wider history of Victorian and Edwardian women's social ideas and public activism.
Maternal Reformers and Education
Authors: Bush Julia
Published: January 2008

The maternal reformers were the most important leadership group among the women anti-suffragists. Their ideas underpinned what became known, after 1908, as the forward policy: a positive version of female anti-suffragism which aimed to enhance women's gendered participation in public life as social reformers and participants in local government, whilst sparing them from the polluting rigours of parliamentary politics. This chapter opens with a discussion of the growing importance of maternalism in Victorian Britain. A group of leading anti-suffragist maternal reformers is identified, including Mary Ward, Louise Creighton, Ethel Harrison, Elizabeth Wordsworth, and Lucy Soulsby. An outline is presented of their formative years and personal experiences of female education. This is followed by a discussion of their ideas and activities as maternalist educational reformers in late Victorian Oxford and elsewhere. Despite varied life experiences, these women shared important ideals which were relevant to wider female anti-suffragism.
Women Writers
Authors: Bush Julia
Published: January 2008

The anti-suffrage cause was very fortunate in its women writers. Opponents of votes for women included many of the best-selling female novelists of the day and a number of prominent women writers on social issues. This chapter considers the relationship between women writers and women readers, and the role of the New Woman as a late 19th-century literary icon. The novels of Charlotte Yonge, Eliza Lynn Linton, Mary Ward, and Marie Corelli are discussed in relation to these authors' anti-suffrage beliefs, and their fears of the deeper threat which suffragism posed to gender relations and the established social order. The same writers' journalism frequently spelt out such threats in lurid detail. The final section of the chapter returns to issues of social service and social reform. Some anti-suffrage reformers made their impact upon social thinking through their writings as well as through social action, including Octavia Hill, Beatrice Webb, and Florence Bell.
The Women's National Anti‐Suffrage League
Authors: Bush Julia
Published: January 2008

The Women's National Anti-Suffrage League (WNASL) was launched in July 1908 to counter a new threat of imminent female enfranchisement. As a Women's League, it was developed on the basis of anti-suffrage views and traditions of female activism which extended back to the 1889 Appeal. During the two years of its independent existence, the WNASL formed over a hundred local branches, published leaflets and the monthly Anti-Suffrage Review, gathered hundreds of thousands of petition signatures, and achieved recognition from a sympathetic Prime Minister. It also began to organize its own local government activities so as to underline the existence of positive alternatives to the parliamentary franchise. The chapter analyzes these developments, concluding that the WNASL deserves to be understood on its own terms rather than merely as a precursor of the mixed-sex National League for Opposing Woman Suffrage (1910-18).
A Retrospective View of Failure
Authors: Bush Julia
Published: January 2008

This final chapter weighs up the extent to which anti-suffrage hopes of protecting and reinforcing distinctive gender roles were matched by developments in public life in the inter-war years. The post-war careers of former anti-suffrage leaders illustrate their new opportunities for gendered public service. Gender continuity and change are evaluated in relation to parliamentary politics and government, before turning to the evolution of the non-political women's movement. This retrospective survey prepares the way for conclusions on the women anti-suffragists' long-term historical importance. Women leaders were always at the heart of organized anti-suffragism. Their role was often distinctive and sometimes creative. Anti-suffragism was a women's social cause, and found widespread support within the British women's movement as well as among the female public. The histories of suffragism and anti-suffragism are closer than has often been assumed. Though anti-suffrage women failed to hold back democracy, they succeeded in giving voice to important currents of conservative opinion.
Escape-Tragedies
Authors: Wright Matthew
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines the critical reception of the escape-tragedies in 19th- and 20th-century scholarship. The plays have often been thought ‘un-tragic’ for various reasons. The chapter explores exactly what it means to say that a play is, or is not, ‘tragic’, and examines how and in what ways genre has affected scholarly understanding of the plays. A case is made for reading Helen, Andromeda, and Iphigenia as a connected trilogy.
Afterword
Authors: Wright Matthew
Published: January 2008

This short conclusion sums up the argument of the book as a whole. It repeats the view that the escape-tragedies are a trilogy, or at least a thematically connected group of plays very closely linked. It is argued that the escape-tragedies are in fact ‘tragic’ in not only a historical, Greek sense of the word, but also in a looser, ahistorical sense: they are profoundly dark, pessimistic plays which raise awful questions about human life.
Introduction: The Elusive Gregory
Authors: Ludlow Morwenna
Published: January 2008

This introductory chapter begins with a profile of Gregory of Nyssa. It then explores the reasons behind the popularity of Gregory of Nyssa among contemporary writers. An overview of the four parts of the book is presented.
2 Philosophy and the Gospel
Authors: Ludlow Morwenna
Published: January 2008

This chapter explores three related claims made by Torrance, and shows the way in which they are related to his fundamental assumptions about the relation between early Christianity and Hellenistic philosophy and the way in which Gregory of Nazianzus differs from the other two Cappadocians. The first claim is that Gregory of Nazianzus sees the three divine persons as ‘substantive relations’, whereas the other two Cappadocians see them as ‘modes of being’ (tropoi huparxeōs). Second is that for Basil and Gregory of Nyssa ousia is an ‘abstract’ and ‘impersonal’ concept. Thirdly, Torrance describes as ‘rather dualist’ the distinction which Basil and Gregory of Nyssa tend to draw between the transcendent unknowable ‘Being of God’ and ‘the uncreated energies of his self-revelation’. The chapter examines some other factors which influence Torrance's reading of Gregory of Nyssa, notably his reading of Cappadocian analogies and his response to debates in contemporary theology about the doctrine of the Trinity.
4 Reading Gregory of Nyssa's Trinitarian Theology
Authors: Ludlow Morwenna
Published: January 2008

This chapter presents some suggestions about what the four readings of Gregory of Nyssa studied so far say about how Gregory is now read; to what extent these readings reflect developments in recent trinitarian theology, and to what extent they reflect ambiguities in Gregory's own thought. It argues that the four theologians (Torrance, Jenson, Zizioulas, and Brown) differ slightly in the extent to which they think the difference between East and West is merely one of perspective, or is a more substantial difference in theological concepts.