bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Antibodies in horses, mules and donkeys following monovalent vaccination against African horse sickness
Authors: Hamblin C. , Mellor P. S. , Graham S. D. , Hooghuis H. , Montejano R. C. , Cubillo M. A. , Boned J.
Published: May 2009

A total of 256 sera collected from three species of domesticated equidae in four different Spanish provinces were examined 1–4 months after the administration of attenuated monovalent African horse sickness virus (AHSV) serotype 4 vaccine. Approximately 10% of the sera were negative by ELISA, virus neutralization, agar gel immuno-diffusion and complement fixation tests. Similar negative reactions were recorded with sera from two ponies after experimental primary vaccination. The rapid rise in antibodies in sera from these two ponies, after a second dose of vaccine, suggested they would probably have been immune to challenge. It is therefore suggested that the apparent absence of antibodies against AHSV in some animals after primary vaccination may not necessarily indicate a total lack of protection.
Dissociation of alanine aminotransferase values in acute hepatitis A patients with and without past experience to the hepatitis B virus
Authors: Papachristou A. A. , Dumas A. S. , Katsouyannopoulos V. C.
Published: May 2009

Serological markers and peak serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) values of 140 in-patients with acute hepatitis, either type A (n= 90), or type B (n= 50) were prospectively assessed. In 23 out of the 90 patients with acute hepatitis A, evidence of previous experience with hepatitis B virus (HBV) was found, whereas 35 out of the 50 patients with acute hepatitis B had past contact with hepatitis A virus (HAV). The mean peak ALT values [S.D.] were significantly higher in hepatitis A patients with previous experience with HBV (1413 [704] i.u./l), when compared to those without such experience (842 [464] i.u./l, P < 0·001). Such a difference was not evident between acute hepatitis B patients, whether or not they had previous contact with HAV. We conclude that when acute hepatitis A is superimposed on past HBV infection an augmented transaminaemia, indicative of enhanced liver cell necrosis, takes place although a definite explanation is lacking. We suggest that individuals with markers of HBV infection should be early candidates for HAV immunization.
Rubella vaccines: past, present and future
Authors: Best J. M.
Published: May 2009

The association between rubella in pregnancy and congenital anomalies was first reported 50 years ago, by N. McAlister Gregg, an Australian ophthalmologist [1]. During the next 20 years his findings were confirmed by others (reviewed in [2]). However, the first reports of the isolation of rubella virus in cell cultures and development of tests for neutralizing antibodies were not published until 1962 [3, 4]. Subsequent studies conducted in the UK and North America during a pandemic of rubella in 1963–4, were therefore able to make a more accurate estimate of the risks of maternal rubella at different stages of pregnancy. It was estimated that about 30000 rubella-damaged babies were born in the USA alone in 1963–4 [5]. This emphasized the importance of developing a vaccine to prevent infection in pregnancy and thereby, the birth of babies with rubella-induced congenital defects.
Rubella in the United States: toward a strategy for disease control and elimination
Authors: Herrmann K. L.
Published: May 2009

More than 25 years have passed since the last rubella epidemic in the United States. The rubella pandemic of 1964–5 demonstrated clearly the extraordinary teratogenic potential of the rubella virus. In the United States alone, it is estimated that more than 12500000 cases of rubella occurred during the winter and spring of 1964–5. Congenital rubella infection occurred in an estimated 30000 pregnancies, 10000 resulting in fetal death or therapeutic abortion and 20000 resulting in infants born with congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) [1]. In contrast, during 1988, only 225 cases of rubella were reported to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in Atlanta, the lowest annual total since rubella became a nationally notifiable disease in 1966 [2]. However, in 1989, this downward trend of reported cases was interrupted, with the number of reported rubella cases in the United States increasing nearly twofold, and in 1990, the total increased another threefold (to more than 1000 cases) [3]. Although the 1990 reports represent the highest total since 1982, the overall incidence of rubella in the United States has still declined by more than 98% since 1969, the year rubella vaccine was licensed (Fig. 1).
Transmission ofHelicobacterspp. A challenge to the dogma of faecal-oral spread
Authors: Lee A. , Fox J. G. , Otto G. , Dick E. Hegedus , Krakowka S.
Published: May 2009

Faecal oral spread is claimed by many to be the mode of transmission of the gastric pathogenHelicobacter pylori. This idea is based not on experimental data but because the epidemiology ofH. pyloriinfection resembles that of other pathogens known to be spread by the faecal-oral route. This is in spite of the observation that no-one has been successful in culturingH. pylorifrom human stool. In this study, a series of transmission experiments are reported on animals infected with the gastric spirilla,Helicobacter felisand ‘Gastrospirillum hominis’. Germfree mice and rats infected withH. felisdid not transmit their infection to uninoculated mice despite prolonged contact in the same cage nor could the bacterium be isolated from their intestinal contents. This was confirmed in specific pathogen free mice where infected dams did not pass the helicobacter to their progeny. Similarly, mice infected with a human isolate of ‘Gastrospirillum hominis’ did not transmit the infection while in close contact with uninoculated mice. In contrast, in a limited series of experiments, bothH. pyloriandH. feliswere transmitted from infected gnotobiotic Beagle puppies to uninfected animals in the same enclosure. In addition, the gastric mucus from a cat with indigenous ‘Gastrospirillum’-like organisms was infectious for mice, whereas faecal content from the same animal was not. It is suggested that the difference between the murine and canine experiments is that the dogs are more likely to have oral-oral contact than rodents. Unlike dogs, mice and rats do not vomit and are coprophagous. It is concluded that the case for faecal-oral spread ofHelicobacterspecies is ‘not proven’ and that the inter-oral route is more likely.
The prevalence of Salmonella enteritidis and other Salmonella spp. among Canadian registered commercial chicken broiler flocks
Authors: Poppe C. , Irwin R. J. , Messier S. , Finley G. G. , Oggel J.
Published: May 2009

A nation-wide survey was conducted to estimate the prevalence of Salmonella enteritidis and other salmonellas among Canadian commercial broiler flocks. Environmental (litter and/or water) samples from 226 of 294 (76·9%) randomly selected flocks were contaminated with salmonellas. Litter samples were more often contaminated with salmonellas than water samples (47·4 ν 12·3%). Fifty different salmonella serovars were isolated. The most prevalent serovars were S. hadar, S. infantis, and S. schwarzengrund; they were isolated from samples of 98/294 (33·3%), 26/294 (8·8%), and 21/294 (7·1%) flocks, respectively. Feed samples of 39/290 (13·4%) flocks were contaminated with salmonellas. Salmonella enteritidis was isolated from the environmental samples of 9/294 (3·1%) flocks. Salmonella enteritidis phage type (PT) 8 was isolated from seven flocks, and PT 13a from two flocks.
The isolation ofListeriaspecies from fresh-water sites in Cheshire and North Wales
Authors: Frances N. , Hornby H. , Hunter P. R.
Published: May 2009

We report a study to determine the presence ofListeriaspecies in surface waters. One hundred ml volumes of 30 water samples taken from 21 different sites were analysed. Most of the samples examined were from ponds and lakes.Listeriaspecies were isolated on eight (27%) occasions, six of these isolates wereL. seeligeri, one wasL. innocuaand oneL. welshimeri. Although not statistically significant, coliform andEscherichia colicounts were higher in waters that were positive than were negative forListeriaspp. It is suggested that the low isolation rate of listeria in this study reflects the fact that most waters examined did not receive sewage outfalls. Water sports activities are unlikely to be a risk factor for listeriosis.
HSP 90, yeasts andCorynebacterium jeikeium
Authors: Matthews R. C.
Published: May 2009

Recovery from disseminated candidosis is associated with seroconversion to a 47 kDa breakdown product of the Heat Shock Protein (HSP) 90 ofCandida albicans.Cloning, sequencing and epitope mapping has allowed the delineation of the immunodominant epitopes LKVIRKNIVKKMIE and STDEPAGESA. Monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies specific to these epitopes are used to show that all strains ofC. albicanstested produce HSP 90 in both the yeast and mycelial phases. Homologous proteins are demonstrated inSaccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida parapsilosisandCorynebacterium jeikeiumbut not inTorulopsis glabrata.Evidence is presented for the existence of two distinct HSP 90s inC. albicans.The first of these is expressed constitutively whilst the second is produced on heat shocking the yeast from 23 to 37 °C.
The use of the PhP-KE biochemical fingerprinting system in epidemiological studies of faecalEnterobacter cloacaestrains from infants in Swedish neonatal wards
Authors: Kühn I. , Tullus K. , Burman L. G.
Published: May 2009

The PhenePlate (PhP) biochemical fingerprinting system is an automated method for typing of bacteria, based on the evaluation of the kinetics of biochemical reactions, performed in microtitre plates. In the present study the PhP-Klebsiella/Enterobacter (KE) system was evaluated for typing ofEnterobacter cloacaeand employed to study the epidemiology of faecalE. cloacaestrains isolated from infants in 22 Swedish neonatal wards. The PhP-KE system showed a high reproducibility and discrimination forE. cloacaeisolates. Among 64 epidemiologically unrelatedE. cloacaestrains, 49 distinct phenotypes were found, and the diversity index was 0·985.E. cloacaewas found as a part of the dominating Gram-negative aerobic bacterial flora in 83 out of 953 infants studied. The incidences ofE. cloacaecolonization varied between 0 and 35% in different wards, but in contrast to previous data forKlebsiellaspp. andEscherichia coli,there was little evidence of spread of particular strains in the wards. We also discuss two different measures of nosocomial transmission of bacterial strains: transmissible strains and epidemic index.
Cockroaches (BlattaandPeriplanetaspecies) as reservoirs of drug-resistant salmonellas
Authors: Devi S. J. N. , Murray C. J.
Published: May 2009

A total of 221 cockroaches (BlattaandPeriplanetaspp.), collected in hospitals, houses, animal sheds, grocery stores and restaurants, in yarious parts of South Kanara District, a south-west coastal region of India, were studied bacteriologically for the presence of various salmonellas. Salmonellas were isolated from 4·1% of these cockroaches. Nine strains of salmonellas were recovered, belonging to five serotypes –Salmonella bovismorbificans, S. oslo, S. typhimurium, S. mbandakaandS. braenderup, the former two being the commonest serotypes. All salmonellas were resistant to one or other of 11 antibacterial drugs used in the susceptibility test. Isolation of salmonellas from cockroaches collected from the livestock premises and human dwellings suggested that they may act as significant reservoirs of salmonella in nature. Recovery of serotypes, phage types and R- types that were commonly isolated from humans and animals of this locality, suggested a transmission role for cockroaches. By harbouring potentially pathogenic, drug-resistant salmonellas, these wandering arthropods may pose dangerous infective hazards to humans and animals.
A serosurvey for HTLV-I among high-risk populations and normal adults in Egypt
Authors: Constantine N. T. , Sheba M. Fathi , Corwin A. L. , Danahy R. S. , Callahan J. D. , Watts D. M.
Published: May 2009

The prevalence of antibodies to human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-1) was determined in high-risk groups and normal adults in Egypt. Among 647 individuals tested, 6 (0·9%) were confirmed positive by western blot analysis. These included 2 (0·7%) of 279 drug addicts, 1 (3·3%) of 30 patients with sexually transmitted diseases, and 3 (2·2%) of 133 healthy individuals. Antibody was not detected in 47 blood recipients or 158 prostitutes. There was no correlation between sex or geographical location and HTLV-I infection. Fifty-three of the 647 sera (8%) were initially reactive by ELISA, but only 12 sera were repeatedly reactive. Since only 4 of these repeatedly reactive sera were confirmed by the western blot, the frequency of false positives using the DuPont screening ELISA was 1·2% (8/643). Two additional sera, confirmed positive by western blot, had been reactive, but not repeatedly, by ELISA. In comparison to the prevalence of HTLV-I antibody among risk groups in many parts of the world, the prevalence in Egypt was low.
Seroepidemiology of arboviruses among seabirds and island residents of the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea
Authors: Humphery-Smith I. , Cybinski D. H. , Byrnes K. A. , St George T. D.
Published: May 2009

Duplicate neutralization tests were done on 401 avian and 101 human sera from island residents collected in the Coral Sea and on Australia's Great Barrier Reef against 19 known arboviruses. Antibodies to a potentially harmful flavivirus, Gadget's Gully virus, were equally present (4%) in both avian and human sera. Antibodies to another flavivirus, Murray Valley Encephalitis, and an ungrouped isolate, CSIRO 1499, were also present in both populations with non-significantly different incidences. Antibodies to Upolu, Johnston Atoll, Lake Clarendon, Taggert, Saumarez Reef and CSIRO 264 viruses were restricted to seabirds. Island residents with antibodies to Ross River and Barmah Forest viruses are thought to have been exposed to these viruses on the mainland as antibody to both viruses was absent among seabirds. These results indicate that consideration should be given to tick-associated arboviruses as potential public health hazards on islands where both seabird and human activities interact.
A mathematical model of rinderpest infection in cattle populations
Authors: Tillé A. , Lefèvre CL. , Pastoret P.-P. , Thiry E.
Published: May 2009

A mathematical model for the epidemiology of rinderpest was developed, starting from a simplified descriptive analysis of the disease. A formula for the calculation of the probability of infection of a susceptible animal was first established. A deterministic failure threshold of the infection was then deduced. Deterministic and stochastic approaches were adopted using iterative methods on a computer. These allowed a description of the spread and the variability of an infection process in a population to be made. An illustration of the use of this model showed that, in some cases, variability effects due to stochastic factors were very important. In these particular conditions, the use of the deterministic model alone was not adequate for a good description of the infection. Consequently, improvements of the model were proposed in order to make it more realistic and to allow its use for the evaluation of the efficiency of field operations.
Statistical methods applied in microbiology and epidemiology
Authors: Tillett H. E. , Carpenter R. G.
Published: May 2009

Those who work in any area of public health are exposed to large amounts of data and processed information. Some acquaintance with statistical methods can make that exposure more profitable. The objectives of this paper are to describe a suitable framework for governing scientific investigations which involve applied statistics, and to set down guidelines for research workers preparing material for publication. Final sections suggest further reading and give a brief description of some of the statistical software available to assist analysis.
Cryptosporidiosis in the Isle of Thanet; an outbreak associated with local drinking water
Authors: Joseph C. , Hamilton G. , O'Connors M. , Nicholas S. , Marshall R. , Stanwell-Smith R. , Sims R. , Ndawula E. , Casemore U. , Gallagher P. , Harnett P.
Published: May 2009

An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis occurred in the Isle of Thanet during December 1990 and January 1991. A total of 47 cases ranging in age from 2 months to 85 years were identified in residents from the Margate, Broadstairs and Ramsgate areas, with dates of onset of illness from 3 December to 14 January. A case-control study demonstrated a strong statistical association between illness and the consumption of unboiled tap water from a particular source, with evidence of a dose–response relationship. Although no cryptosporidial oocysts were identified in samples of untreated or treated water taken during the investigation, the results were consistent with the view that the source of infection was treated river water which was used to supplement borehole water.
Sudden unexplained death syndrome – a new manifestation in melioidosis?
Authors: Yap E. H. , Chan Y. C. , Goh K. T. , Chao T. C. , Heng B. H. , Thong T. W. , Tan H. C. , Thong K. T. , Jacob E. , Singh M.
Published: May 2009

The indirect haemagglutination (IHA) test using sensitized turkey erythrocytes and the indirect immunofluorescence assay (IgM-IFA) was confirmed to be sensitive in the detection of a recent or currentPseudomonas pseudomalleiinfection in 19 culture-confirmed Singapore melioidosis patients. All were found to have antibody titres from 4 to 32 768 in the IHA test and 10 to 320 in the IgM-IFA test. When these tests were employed on sera from 16 immigrant Thai construction workers who died of sudden unexplained death syndrome (SUDS) and 73 healthy Thai fellow workers, 93·8% and 68·8% of SUDS cases had IHA titre of ≥ 4 and IgM-IFA titre of ≥ 10 respectively, in contrast to 39·7% and 12·3% found among healthy Thai workers. These data indicate that at the time of death, most of the SUDS patients had an active infection withP. pseudomallei, possibly resulting from reactivation of a latent infection. The aetiological role ofP. pseudomalleias the major cause of SUDS is discussed.
Evaluation of enzyme immunoassay (EIA) as a screening method for hepatitis B markers in an open population
Authors: McCready J. A. , Morens D. , Fields H. A. , Coleman P. J. , Kane M. , Schatz G.
Published: May 2009

Commercially available kits for detection of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and hepatitis B surface antibody (anti-HBs) by enzyme immunoassay (EIA) were evaluated in American Samoa during a public health programme to eliminate the transmission of hepatitis B. The first 19184 serum specimens obtained, representing 68% of the total cooperating population, were initially tested for anti-HBs, and those without detectable antibody were tested for HBsAg. All the antigen-positive serum samples, and a selection of the antigen-and antibody-negative specimens were tested by radioimmunoassay (RIA) for detection of both markers. Compared with the standard tests, the EIA kits for anti-HBs and HBsAg performed well; sensitivity and specificity were 90·3 and 96·0%, respectively, for antibody, and 97·8 and 97·9% respectively for antigen. Substantial disagreement between the EIA and RIA tests for HBsAg was found only for specimens considered weakly reactive by EIA. Few differences were found between three EIA method options for follow-up HBsAg testing of weakly reactive serum specimens; each option contributed about equally to improved test specificity for these ‘borderline’ specimens. Based on their demonstrated equivalence to the standard RIA tests, we conclude that the EIA kits for anti-HBs and HBsAg detection are suitable for use in hepatitis B control programmes in open populations.
Salmonella arizonaein the United Kingdom from 1966 to 1990
Authors: Hall M. L. M. , Rowe B.
Published: May 2009

Salmonella arizonaeare rarely isolated in the UK. Since 1966 there have been sixty-six isolates from humans of whom 35% gave a recent history of foreign travel. Terrapins and snakes are potential sources of infection.
Epidemiology and microbiology of diarrhoea in young Aboriginal children in the Kimberley region of Western Australia
Authors: Gunzburg S. , Gracey M. , Burke V. , Chang B.
Published: May 2009

Infectious diarrhoea is common in young Australian Aborigines [1–3] and is one of the main causes for their unsatisfactory health standards with consequent widespread failure to thrive and undernutrition [4–5]. Most published reports relate to patients in hospital or to hospital admission statistics and give little indication of the extent or severity of diarrhoeal disease in children in Aboriginal communities.

The present investigation involved more than 100 Aboriginal children up to 5 years of age living in remote communities in the tropical north of Western Australia who were studied prospectively over a 12–month period.
Longitudinal study of toxoplasma seroprevalence in South Yorkshire
Authors: Walker J. , Nokes D. J. , Jennings R.
Published: May 2009

Serum samples collected from individuals of a wide range of ages in South Yorkshire between 1969 and 1990 provided the basis for a longitudinal seroprevalence survey of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies. Sera numbering 3868 were screened for T. gondii specific antibodies using a commercial latex agglutination test. The resultant temporal series of serological profiles revealed a rise, with age, in seroprevalence, the rate of which showed a decrease through time. A plateau of around 40–50% prevalence was attained by the 41- to 45-year age-class in 1969 which was not approached until the 66- to 70-year class in the 1988–90 data set. This trend for decline in seroprevalence was confirmed by statistical analysis for the age range 21–60 years. These results may be indicative of a decrease in the rate of toxoplasma exposure in this study community over the 20-year period. The survey of 1988–90 provides a base-line profile of present-day seroprevalence in which 11 % of individuals in the age range 16–45 years (roughly corresponding to the childbearing age-range) show evidence of past infection. The representative nature of the serum collection and public-health implications of these results are discussed.
Apramycin resistance plasmids inEscherichia coli: possible transfer toSalmonella typhimuriumin calves
Authors: Hunter J. E. B. , Shelley J. C. , Walton J. R. , Hart C. A. , Bennett M.
Published: May 2009

An outbreak of salmonellosis in calves was monitored for persistence ofSalmonella typhimuriumexcretion in faeces and the effect of treatment with apramycin. Prior to treatment apramycin-resistantEscherichia coliwere present but allS. typhimuriumisolates were sensitive. Following the treatment of six calves with apramycin, apramycin-resistantS. typhimuriumwere isolated from two treated calves and one untreated calf. Plasmid profiles ofE. coliandS. typhimuriumwere compared and plasmids conferring resistance to apramycin and several other antibiotics were transferred by conjugationin vitrofrom calfE. coliandS. typhimuriumisolates toE. coliK-12 and fromE. colitoS. typhimurium. The plasmids conjugated with high frequencyin vitrofromE. colitoS. typhimurium, and hybridized to a DNA probe specific for the gene encoding aminoglycoside acetyltransferase 3-IV (AAC(3)-IV) which confers resistance to apramycin, gentamicin, netilmicin and tobramycin.
Factors affecting carriage of Neisseria meningitidis among Greek military recruits
Authors: Blackwell C. C. , Tzanakaki G. , Kremastinou J. , Weir D. M. , Vakalis N. , Elton R. A. , Mentis A. , Fatouros N.
Published: May 2009

Greek military recruits (993) were examined for carriage of meningococci during July 1990. Blood, saliva and throat swab specimens were obtained and each recruit answered a questionnaire providing information on age, education (a measure of socioeconomic level), place of residence, smoking habits and recent infections.

The overall carriage rate was 25% but differed between the two camps: 79/432 (18%) in Camp A and 168/561 (30%) in Camp B (P < 0·0005). In Camp B, there were significantly higher proportions of recruits who were non-secretors (P < 0·0005), and/or heavy smokers (P < 0·0005). They were also younger ( < 19 years old) (P < 0·001), and on the whole had fewer years of education (P < 0·0005). By univariate analysis, carriage was significantly associated with smoking. By multiple logistic regression analysis, carriage was associated with smoking (P < 0·001), age (P < 0·01) and the camp in which the recruits were based (P < 0·01). Among recruits in Camp B, 15/38 (40%) of those with recent viral infections were carriers compared with 30% for the camp in general.
The epidemiology of varicella–zoster virus infections: the influence of varicella on the prevalence of herpes zoster
Authors: Garnett G. P. , Grenfell B. T.
Published: May 2009

This paper uses mathematical models and data analysis to examine the epidemiological implications of possible immunologically mediated links between patterns of varicella and herpes-zoster incidence in human communities. A review of previously published reports does not clarify whether or not there is a relationship between the incidence of varicella and the incidence of zoster. However, new analysis of data collected by the Royal College of General Practitioners provides indirect evidence for the hypothesis that a high intensity of varicella transmission suppresses viral reactivation. The significance of this finding for proposed varicella vaccination campaigns is explored by a review of published data on the use of the vaccine. No significant difference is shown to exist between the risk of zoster caused by the vaccine and the wild virus. A mathematical model is then developed to take into consideration the influence of the prevalence of varicella on viral reactivation and the impact of vaccination with attenuated virus, which may be able to recrudesce. Under some conditions, mass application of such vaccines may have the impact of increasing zoster incidence. The results presented here indicate that, before starting any vaccination programme against varicella, its consequences need to be assessed in much more depth.
Streptococcal pharyngitis in general practice. 2. A note on dual infection and transient urinary abnormalities
Authors: Higgins P. M.
Published: May 2009

In an uncompleted study in 1965 microscopic haematuria in the second or third week after acute pharyngitis was found four times more often in patients with either microbiological or clinical evidence of dual infection with both group A streptococci and a virus than in patients with evidence only of infection with group A streptococci.

Prospective studies of the role of viruses in the aetiology of transient haematuria and of acute post streptococcal glomerulonephritis are feasible in general practice and would be most productive if concentrated in children 5–9 years of age.
Splenomegaly in acute infections due to group A streptococci and viruses
Authors: Higgins P. M.
Published: May 2009

Over a period of 9 years in general practice temporary enlargement of the spleen was found in 29 episodes of pharyngitis or tonsillitis, in 2 episodes of acute upper respiratory tract infection other than pharyngitis and in 6 episodes of acute cervical lymphadenitis. In five patients more than one episode of illness associated with splenomegaly was recorded.

In 26 of the 37 episodes a possible aetiology was identified. Evidence only of infection with group A streptococci was found in 14 episodes, adenoviruses or coxsackie B viruses were isolated alone in 4 episodes and in 4 episodes the only finding was the presence in the blood of more than occasional atypical mononuclear cells; in 4 episodes there was evidence of both streptococcal and viral infection. Episodes with evidence of streptococcal infection only tended to be of shorter duration and to be more evenly distributed over the year than were episodes without such evidence. Temporary splenomegaly was noted also in two children with varicella (one of whom also had streptococcal infection) and in an adult with probable rubella.
An outbreak ofSalmonella dublininfection in England and Wales associated with a soft unpasteurized cows' milk cheese
Authors: Maguire H. , Cowden J. , Jacob M. , Rowe B. , Roberts D. , Bruce J. , Mitchell E.
Published: May 2009

An outbreak ofSalmonella dublininfection occurred in England and Wales in October to December 1989. Forty-two people were affected, mainly adults, and most lived in south-east England. Microbiological and epidemiological investigations implicated an imported Irish soft unpasteurized cows' milk cheese as the vehicle of infection. A case-control study showed a statistically significant association between infection and consumption of the suspect cheese (p = 0·001).Salmonella dublinwas subsequently isolated from cheeses obtained from the manufacturer's premises. Initial control measures included the withdrawal of the cheese from retail sale and a Food Hazard Warning to Environmental Health Departments, as well as a press release, from the Department of Health. Subsequently, a decision was taken by the manufacturer to pasteurize milk used in the production of cheese for the UK market and importation of the cheese resumed in June 1990.
Occurrence of quinolone resistance inStaphylococcus aureusfrom nosocomial infection
Authors: Witte W. , Grimm H.
Published: May 2009

Among 63Staphylococcus aureusisolates (one isolate per one patient) counted from infections (from August to November 1991) in hospital T., eight exhibited resistance to fluoroquinolones. Seven of these quinolone-resistant isolates were multiply- and methicillin-resistantS. aureus(QR-MRSA). The results of phage-, plasmid- and genotyping (pulsed field electrophoresis) revealed that six different strain-clones of these MRSA were spread in the hospital.In vitrospontaneous mutants resistant to fluoroquinolones are 1–-100-fold more frequent in MRSA than in otherS. aureuswhen selected on isosensitest-agar containing 1 μg/ml of ciprofloxacin. However, the same mutant frequencies were found in strain 8325–4 with and without the mecA-determinant. The resistance phenotype was stable over 30 generations of subculture in nutrient broth as well in natural quinolone resistant MRSA as in mutants of other types ofS.aureusselectedin vitro. The phenotypic association of quinolone resistance and MRSA is rather likely due to a higher frequency of spontaneous resistant mutants which are present in natural populations of MRSA. Data of chemotherapy prior to the isolation of 8. aureus show that three of seven patients from whom QR-MRSA were isolated were treated with a quinolone. In eight cases of infections with non-MRSA and quinolone treatment the isolatedS. aureusstrains werein vitrosensitive to quinolones.
Secretor status and humoral immune responses to Neisseria lactamica and Neisseria meningitidis
Authors: Zorgani A. A. , Stewart J. , Blackwell C. C. , Elton R. A. , Weir D. M.
Published: May 2009

Non-secretors of ABO blood group antigens are over-represented among patients with meningococcal diseases. Lower levels of secretory IgA reported for non-secretors have been suggested to compromise mucosal defences. Total serum and salivary IgG, IgA and IgM and levels of these isotypes specific for Neisseria lactamica and five isolates of meningococci were determined by ELISA for 357 pupils and staff of a secondary school in which an outbreak of meningitis occurred. There were no differences in total or specific levels of serum IgG, IgA or IgM or salivary IgG or IgA of secretors compared with non-secretors. Non-secretors had significantly lower levels of salivary IgM (P=0·022) A similar pattern was observed for levels of IgM specific for N. lactamica and five meningococcal isolates. The significance of these results is discussed with reference to the role of secretory IgM in protection of mucosal surfaces in infants.
Maternal prevalence of toxoplasma antibody based on anonymous neonatal serosurvey: a geographical analysis
Authors: Ades A. E. , Parker S. , Gilbert R. , Tookey P. A. , Berry T. , Hjelm M. , Wilcox A. H. , Cubitt D. , Peckham C. S.
Published: May 2009

A total of 12902 neonatal samples collected on absorbent paper for routine metabolic screening were tested anonymously for antibodies to toxoplasma. Seroprevalence varied from 19.5% in inner London, to 11.6% in suburban London, and 7.6% in non-metropolitan districts. Much of this variation appeared to be associated with the proportions of livebirths in each district to women born outside the UK. However, additional geographical variation remained and seroprevalence in UK-born women was estimated to be 12.7% in inner London, 7.5% in suburban London, and 5.5% in non-metropolitan areas. These estimates are considerably lower than any previously reported in antenatal sera in the UK. The wide geographical variation highlights a need for further research to determine the relative importance of different routes of transmission.
Wild ducks are the reservoir for only a limited number of influenza A subtypes
Authors: Sharp G. B. , Kawaoka Y. , Wright S. M. , Turner B. , Hinshaw V. , Webster R. G.
Published: May 2009

Analysis of cloacal samples collected from 12321 wild ducks in Alberta, Canada, from 1976 to 1990 showed influenza A infections to be seasonal, with prevalences increasing as the population became increasingly more dense. Viruses with 3 haemagglutinin (H3, H4, and H6) and 3 neuraminidase subtypes (N2, N6, and N8) were found consistently to infect both adult and juvenile ducks each year, indicating that wild ducks may be a reservoir for these viruses. In contrast, viruses with 7 haemagglutinin (H2, H5, H7, H8, H9, H11, and H12) and 3 neuraminidase subtypes (N1, N3, and N4) were not found for prolonged periods during the study; when they were found, they primarily infected juveniles at moderate levels. Whilst wild ducks appear to perpetuate some influenza A viruses, they apparently do not act as a reservoir for all such viruses.
Vaccination against hepatitis B: comparison of intradermal and intramuscular administration of plasma derived and recombinant vaccines
Authors: Payton C. D. , Scarisbrick D. A. , Sikotra S. , Flower A. J. E.
Published: May 2009

A retrospective analysis of levels of antibody to hepatitis B surface antigen in 1419 health care workers was carried out to compare the efficacy of intramuscular and intradermal administration of plasma derived and recombinant hepatitis B vaccines. No significant difference was detected between the response to intradermal and intramuscular plasma derived vaccine. However of those who received intramuscular recombinant vaccine 81.6%, 13.8% and 4.7% were good (> 100 miu/ml). low (10–99 miu/ml) and non-responders (< 10 miu/ml) respectively. compared with 51.1%, 29.8% and 19.2% of the intradermal group (P > 0.0001). Low dose intradermal administration of recombinant vaccine did not produce satisfactory levels of antibody to hepatitis B surface antigen.
The colonization of broiler chickens withCampylobacter jejuni: some epidemiological investigations
Authors: Humphery T. J. , Henley A. , Lanning D. G.
Published: May 2009

Between June 1990 and July 1991, broiler chickens from 49 flocks from 23 farms were examined for the carriage ofCampylobacter jejuniat slaughter. Thirty-seven flocks (76%) were campylobacter-positive. Prevalence of campylobacter-colon-ization was not associated with any of a variety of factors such as water source and broiler house floor structure. There was also no apparent seasonal variation in carriage. Investigations on one farm indicated that dipping boots in disinfectant before workers entered broiler houses either delayed or prevented colonization withC. jejuni.
A bacteriological survey of tuberculosis due to the human tubercle bacillus (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) in South-East England: 1984–91
Authors: Yates M. D. , Grange J. M.
Published: May 2009

The occurrence and nature of bacteriologically confirmed tuberculosis due toMycobacterium tuberculosisin South-East England in the period 1984–91 is reported and compared with the results of a study for 1977–83. Registered new cases reached a low of 1028 in 1988 but increased to 1252 in 1991. This appeared to be due to a halt in the previous decline in new cases of European patients, a small increase in the number of Indian subcontinent (ISC) patients and an increase in patients from Africa. A total of 122 patients, mostly of European ethnic origin, were known to be HIV positive. As in the 1977–83 study, disease in the ISC group affected younger patients than in the European group, tubercle bacilli were more frequently isolated from a non-pulmonary site in the ISC group (45%) than in the European group (19%) and there was a higher incidence of the South Indian variant ofM. tuberculosisin the former group (17%) than in the latter (9%). The overall incidence of drug resistance has not altered significantly since the 1977–83 study but 46 strains resistant to 3 or more drugs were isolated from 4099 ISC patients, compared with 3 of 4594 strains from European patients. Six of the 122 isolates from HIV positive patients were drug-resistant but none was multi-drug resistant.

The slight rise in registered bacteriologically proven cases of tuberculosis, the presence of multi-drug resistant strains, the occurrence of HIV-related tuberculosis and reports of the emergence of multi-drug-resistant HIV-related tuberculosis in other countries strongly indicate the need for continued careful surveillance.
Oropharyngeal production of pneumococcal capsular antigen and the potential for contamination of expectorated sputum samples in pneumococcal pneumonia
Authors: Venkatesan P. , Sole K. , Tang C. , Macfarlane J. T. , Finch R. G.
Published: May 2009

The presence of pneumococcal capsular antigen (PCA) in the oropharynx was sought in subjects without respiratory tract infection. Saliva specimens from 239 subjects were analysed by counter-current immunoelectrophoresis using ‘Omni-serum’. 15.5% gave positive reactions but only 24% of positive samples were typable and therefore due to pneumococcal or pneumococcal-like antigens. Given that oropharyngeal production of antigens occurs we investigated whether PCA in expectorated sputum arose from oropharyngeal contamination. Sixteen patients with pneumococcal pneumonia, and with sputum positive for PCA, were investigated in detail. On the basis of serotyping and concentration the PCA in sputum was thought to arise from the lower respiratory tract in all cases. This was confirmed by a simple, novel approach involving the comparison of concentrations in concomitant samples of saliva and sputum. Thus while oropharyngeal production of antigens poses a potential diagnostic problem the latter approach can be used to exclude contamination.
Sequence heterogeneity of theeaegene and detection of verotoxin-producingEscherichia coliusing serotype-specific primers
Authors: Louie M. , De Azavedo J. , Clarke R. , Borczyk A. , Lior H. , Richter M. , Brunton J.
Published: May 2009

The distribution of theEscherichia coliattaching and effacing (eae) gene in strains of verotoxin-producingE. coli(VTEC) isolated from cattle and humans was studied. The majority of strains isolated from humans with bloody diarrhoea or HUS and cattle with severe diarrhoea wereeae. positive (82 and 83% respectively). In contrast. 59% of VTEC isolated from asymptomatic cattle wereeaenegative and of the remaining 41 % that wereeaepositive, the majority were serotype O157.H7. The nucleotide sequence of the 3′ end of theeaegene of enteropathogenicE. coli(EPEC) of serotype O55.H7 was found to be almost identical to that of serotype O157. H7. Specific primers are described which detect theeaesequences of VTEC serotypes O157.H7, 0157.H−, and EPEC serotypes O55.H7 and O55.H−. The nucleotide sequence of the 3′ end of theeaegene of serotype O111.H8 differed significantly from that of O157.H7. Primers were developed to specifically identify theeaesequences of VTEC serotypes O111. H−and O111.H8. We conclude that whereas the majority of VTEC associated with disease in cattle and humans possess theeaegene, the gene itself may not be necessary to produce haemorrhagic colitis and HUS. Sequence heterogeneity in the 3′ end ofeaealleles of VTEC permits specific identification of subsets of these organisms.
Incidence and nature of peritoneal catheter biofilm determined by electron and confocal laser scanning microscopy
Authors: Gorman S. P. , Adair C. G. , Mawhinney W. M.
Published: May 2009

Thirty-two Tenckhoff catheters retrieved from continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis patients with a history of peritonitis were examined for microbial biofilm. Confocal laser scanning microscopy was successfully employed to visualize bacteria in biofilm occluded from view by scanning electron microscopy. Occluded but viable microbial biofilm was associated with 17 (81%) catheters from patients free from infection following renal transplant. Mixed isolate biofilm with two or more isolates of coagulase-negative staphylococci orStaphylococcus aureuswas found on 41% of these catheters. Clearly visible viable biofilm consisting exclusively ofPseudomonas aeruginosaoccurred on all four catheters removed due to recurrent peritonitis. Five (71%) catheters retrieved from patients transferred to haemodialysis had viable biofilm. Antibiotic sensitivities of the biofilm isolates were similar in profile to those reported for non-biofilm isolates from infected dialysate. Persistence of catheter biofilm despite direct contact with therapeutic levels of antibiotics in peritoneal dialysate requires that attention be directed towards improving antibiotic efficacy against peritonitis-causing bacteria in biofilm form.
Recognition of adenovirus types in faecal samples by Southern hybridization in South Australia
Authors: Mickan L. D. , Kok T.-W.
Published: May 2009

The distribution of adenovirus types in faecal samples of patients with suspected viral gastroenteritis from South Australia was determined during the 12-month period, July 1991–June 1992. There were 3299 samples tested and 226 (6·9%) were positive for adenovirus by enzyme immunoassay. Of these 226 samples. 154 (68%) were typed directly using virus DNA extracted from the faecal samples according to theSmaI,HindIII andBstEII restriction patterns and Southern hybridization analysis with pooled viral genomic DNA probes. In this group, 86% of the samples were from patients who were < 3 years of age. Enteric adenovirus types 40 and 41 accounted for 20 and 40% respectively, of these samples, and types 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 and 31 comprised the remainder. Type 40 was detected mainly in the winter and spring periods, and type 41 predominated in the autumn period. The majority of the non-enteric types were found during the late winter and spring periods.
Immunomagnetic separation as a sensitive method for isolatingEscherichia coliO157 from food samples
Authors: Wright D. J. , Chapman P. A. , Siddons C. A.
Published: May 2009

Minced beef samples inoculated withEscherichia coliO157 were cultured in buffered peptone water supplemented with vancomycin, cefsulodin and cefixime (BPW-VCC) and subcultured to cefixime tellurite sorbitol MacConkey (CT-SMAC) agar both directly and after immunomagnetic separation (IMS) of the organism with magnetic beads coated with an antibody againstE. coliO157 (Dynabeads anti-E. coli0157, Dynal, Oslo).E. coliO157 was recovered from initial inocula of 200 organisms/g by direct subculture and 2 organisms/g by IMS. Twelve strains ofE. coli0157 of different combinations of phage type, H antigen and toxin genotype were all recovered from initial inocula of two organisms/g by IMS. Nonspecific binding of other organisms to the magnetic beads could be reduced by washing of the beads in PBS with Tween-20 0·002–0.005%E. coliO157 was not bound by magnetic coated with an unrelated antibody.

During investigation of a dairy herd that was possibly linked to a small outbreak of infection withE. coliO157, the organism was isolated from 2 of 279 forestream milk samples from individual cattle; both isolates were made only by the IMS technique. IMS is rapid, technically simple, and a specific method for isolation ofE. coliO157 and will be useful in epidemiological studies.
Molecular epidemiology of recent United Kingdom isolates ofNeisseria meningitidisserogroup C
Authors: Yakubu D. E. , Abadi F. J. R. , Pennington T. H.
Published: May 2009

The genomes of 34 recent United Kingdom isolates ofNeisseria meningitidisserogroup C were examined by restriction enzyme digestion and by conventional and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Strains were assigned to groups on the basis of the Dice similarity coefficient; strains with values of >92% were considered to be clonally related. Twelve clones were identified by PFGE. Strains of two clonal groups predominated. Restriction endonuclease analyses using the ‘high frequency cleavage’ endonucleaseStuI and conventional electrophoresis gave 11 groups; in general it had lower resolving power than PFGE.
The distribution of Akabane virus in the Middle East
Authors: Taylor W. P. , Mellor P. S.
Published: May 2009

Serological evidence was used to confirm an outbreak of Akabane disease in cattle in the Turkish Province of Aydin in 1980. Thereafter, serum collections from the Middle East were screened for the presence of neutralizing antibodies to Akabane virus. The results indicate that the virus was present in a number of provinces on the south Turkish coast in 1979 and 1980 but that it probably did not persist into 1981; the virus had also been present on Cyprus in 1980 and on at least one previous occasion. There was also evidence of limited virus transmission in the Orontes river valley in Syria in 1979 and less precise evidence to show that occasional infection occurred in the lower Jordan river valley. The failure of Akabane virus to persist in southern Turkey for more than two years indicates that this area is open to epidemic rather than endemic infection. The presence of neutralizing antibodies in the eastern Turkish Provinces of Gaziantep and Diyarbakir suggests that this might be the route whereby Akabane virus occasionally invades the Middle East region.
Clonal analysis and virulence of Australian isolates ofStreptococcus suistype 2
Authors: Mwaniki C. G. , Robertson I. D. , Trott D. J. , Atyeo R. F. , Lee B. J. , Hampson D. J.
Published: May 2009

Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis was used to divide 124 Australian isolates ofStreptococcus suistype 2 into 17 electrophoretic types (ETs). Isolates in ET 1 were the most frequent cause of disease amongst Western Australian pigs, but isolates of ET 8 were more commonly associated with disease in other Australian states. Multiple isolates from 10 of 19 farms all belonged to the same ET, whilst isolates from the other farms belonged to between 2 and 4 different ETs. Some isolates could be differentiated further by DNA restriction endonuclease analysis, whilst others with the same restriction pattern were located in different, but closely-related ETs. Fourteen isolates were tested for their virulence in mice. Most caused disease if given in high numbers, but isolates in ET 1 were virulent at lower dose rates. This virulent clone also was distinguished by the fact that 80% of isolates produced extracellular factor (EF).
Population genetics ofMycobacterium tuberculosiscomplex in Scotland analysed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis
Authors: Olson E. S. , Forbes K. J. , Watt B. , Pennington T. H.
Published: May 2009

The results of typing of 121 strains in theMycobacterium tuberculosiscomplex by PFGE are presented. Every isolate from patients in Scotland over a 3-month period forM. tuberculosisand for 1 year forM. boviswere included along with several laboratory strains including those of BCG. The PFGE results suggest that the population structure of all the strains in this complex is distinctly simple with limited genetic diversity and also suggest thatM. bovisis not a distinct species.