bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Contamination of the Water Table by an Oil Spill at the Presidente Getulio Vargas Refinery – Repar, Municipality of Araucaria, Paraná
Authors: Bastos Neto Artur Cezar , Luna Caicedo Nelson Oswaldo , Melo Clarissa Lovato , Finott Alexandra
Published: January 2013

This paper presents the results of the evaluation of contamination in the Saldanha Creek basin, caused by an oil spill at Refinaria Presidente Getúlio Vargas belonging to PETROBRAS, in Araucária – state of Paraná, which occurred on July 16, 2000. The oil reached Saldanha stream following 4 distinct paths and, over its course, overflowed the canal banks contaminating a total of 17.70 hectares of existing wetlands. The oil infiltration into the subsoil occurred in two main areas: (1) around the scraper, which is where most of the oil was infiltrated (approximately 43,000 liters of oil in free phase); (2) in Wetland 4, where the contaminant is mainly adsorbed to the soil particles. The characteristics of the former favor the implementation of a subsurface drainage system, with an oil separator. In the second, flooding the area would allow the removal of part of the contaminant by a difference of density, and part with a reactive barrier to which the groundwater flow would be induced.
In-Situ Burning of Orimulsion: Small-Scale Burns
Authors: Fingas Merv , MacKay Ron
Published: January 2013

Orimulsion is a heavy bitumen dispersed into water with a surfactant. In general, in-situ burning has not been considered as a countermeasure for Orimulsion because of the nature of Orimulsion and the perception that the product could not be ignited. If it could be ignited, then combustion may not be sustained. This study examined the feasibility of burning Orimulsion at three small laboratory scales. Tests were conducted on three scales or diameters of approximately 5 cm, 10 cm, and 50 cm. Burning at the smallest scale was conducted in a Cleveland Open Cup apparatus, which was run in standard mode. A special pan was built for larger-scale burns. All tests were conducted on saltwater which resulted in the bitumen separating from the water in the Orimulsion. The Cleveland Open Cup apparatus was used to determine whether sufficient vapours could be generated to begin combustion. In 2 burns out of 9, limited burning of vapours was started. The same apparatus was also used to measure whether sustained flame impingement would result in successful combustion. This latter experiment was also successful in most cases. The larger scale combustion tests were conducted in a special pan and were ignited using diesel fuel as a primer. In all cases, quantitative removal of Orimulsion was achieved, although re-ignition was required in some burns. Orimulsion burns with frequent mini-explosions of entrained water droplets still in the bitumen. Some of these mini-explosions were large enough to extinguish the flame, if the burn area was not large enough. This did not occur on large-scale burns. Thus the potential for successful burning increases with the size of the burn. The amount of diesel ignitor required was found to be about 1 mm in thickness in the given starting area. Large-scale burns were ignited from an area less than 30% of the total area.
Taking a Step Back. Exercises as Training Opportunities.
Authors: Gleason Joseph
Published: January 2013

Historically, many response exercises conducted by the United States Coast Guard and other oil spill response stakeholders have been conducted as functional or full-scale exercises. With the increased demands placed on many U.S. agencies as a result of the terrorist attacks of September 11’ 2001, there is a greater need than ever to ensure that time spent in training and exercises produces positive and tangible results for the participants. In preparation for the joint US/Canadian response exercise, CANUSLANT 2002, the U.S. and Canadian Coast Guards decided to take a step back and look at the lessons learned from previous exercises. Based on this review, the Joint Response Team (JRT) decided to focus CANUSLANT 2002 as a training opportunity and to work on the lessons learned that were repeatedly identified in earlier CANUSLANT exercises. Perhaps the most common exercise conducted in oil spill response is the functional “command post” exercise where exercise participants are assigned to ICS (Incident Command System) staff elements. Participants then respond to an exercise scenario and prescripted injects that are provided to drive participant actions. With personnel turnover, transfers, and increased operational demands, many exercise participants struggle through the crisis phase of an incident scenario and never have the opportunity to learn what it is they are supposed to be doing. When all is said and done, many exercise participants are often simply go home happy that the exercise is over and done with. The goal for CANUSLANT 2002 was to produce an exercise where the participants accomplished something tangible; that long pending issues would be discussed and perhaps even resolved. The Exercise Design Team hoped that the participants walked away from the exercise saying that it was time well spent and not simply thankful that the exercise was over. This paper outlines the factors that led to the success of the CANUSLANT 2002 cross border response exercise. This paper also highlights some of the fundamentals for varying your approach to exercises to achieve tangible results while providing personnel the skills and training required to respond in the event of a real disaster.
Numerical Model for Estimation of Pipeline Oil Spill Volumes
Authors: Reed Mark , Hetland Ben , Johansen Øistein , Høverstad Boye , Emilsen Morten H. , Buffington Sharon
Published: January 2013

The Minerals Management Service Pipeline Oil Spill Volume Estimation Model (POSVEM) is a computer-based methodology to estimate discharges from seafloor pipelines. The system is composed of a Release Module and a Near Field Module, linked together with necessary databases through a Graphical User Interface (GUI). The GUI allows the user to sketch a platform – pipeline layout, enter characteristic parameters, and run a quasi-3-phase flow model to estimate the volume of potential or actual leaks. Inputs to the model are parameters describing the configuration and characteristics of a pipeline system, the fluid it contains, and the leak or break from which the discharge occurs. Key outputs are the evolution of the release rate over time, the total mass of oil released, and the mean thickness of any eventual surface slick being formed. Test applications of the software are described.
Erika Oil Spill: Responding in Difficult-to-Access Coves and on Cliffs
Authors: Kerambrun Loïc
Published: January 2013

Endless stretches of cliffs with deep coves and caves were coated with Heavy Fuel Oil during the Erika oil spill. Professional rope workers were called in to help clean the cliffs and the coves as most of them were located in protected reserves. This was the very first time that such a technique was used to clean up pollution and it turned out to be original if only because of the size of the job to be done. The clean-up operation lasted two and a half years, involved over 800 work sites and the rope workers cleaned up more than 50 of them. As a rule, cliffs that are hard to access are not cleaned up if only for safety and logistics reasons. There were various reasons why so many work sites had to be set up during the Erika clean-up, namely: the nature and the quantities of the HFO, the ecological, amenity and heritage importance of the area, the know how and the complementarity of the rope workers and the clean-up companies that continually improved their techniques and their efficiency as time went by. Thanks to compliance with rules and safety standards there were no accidents.
The M/V New Amity Response: Balancing Safety, Environment, and Commerce During an Emergency Oil Spill Response
Authors: Cook Kevin , Arnhart Richard , Henry Charlie
Published: January 2013

On 22 September 2001, a collision occurred between the M/V NEW AMITY and barge, NMS No. 1486 in the Houston Ship Channel. The collision resulted in damage to a single skinned fuel tank of the NEW AMITY and created an oil spill in Upper Galveston Bay near Morgans Point, Texas. The double-hulled cargo oil tanks on the NEW AMITY were not damaged. Additionally, none of the tanks on the NMS No. 1486 were damaged. Immediately after the incident, the damaged tanker was directed by the Coast Guard Captain of the Port (COTP) and Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC) to proeceed to the nearest lay berth. The Port of Houston Barbours Cut container terminal was less that a mile away and the tanker arrived while still leaking oil. A reported 36,000 gallons of IFO-380 was released before the source could be controlled; much of the oil being trapped under the pier structures within Barbours Cut. The oil spill impacted some 20 miles of shoreline habitat including salt marshes, sand and shell beaches, and riprap. The decision to move the vessel into Barbours Cut set the stage for a challenging, but ultimately successful spill response and cleanup. It was uniquely characterized by the difficult task of balancing safety, environmental, and commercial concerns during spill response. Response actions were conducted with the goal of minimizing impacts to commerce without compromising the environmental response and worker safety. The Shoreline Cleanup and Assessment Team (or SCAT) process was used to insure that environmental issues were addressed with participation of trustee agencies and to develop cleanup endpoints. Considering the volume of oil released into a sensitive estuarine system, the long-term impacts to the environment were relatively minor. To expedite cleanup, the entire 1.1 mile overhanging dock facility was cleared and four tugs were used to provide a unique method to flush oil out from under the dock into collection areas and open water mechanical skimming systems. Additionally, surface washing agents were used to enhance vessel and hard structure cleanup. Despite the extended response and difficult conditions, no major injuries were reported during the response. A complicating factor throughout was that the spill occurred just eleven days after the September 11th terrorist attack, as U.S. Coast Guard resources and local media were focused on maritime homeland security.
Oil-Spill Risk Analysis for Assessing Environmental Impacts
Authors: Ji Zhen-Gang , Johnson Walter R. , Price James M. , Marshall Charles F.
Published: January 2013

The Minerals Management Service (MMS), an agency of the U.S. Department of the Interior, maintains a leasing program for commercial oil and gas development on the Outer Continental Shelf in U.S. territorial waters. The MMS performs an oil-spill risk analysis (OSRA) using, in part, a statistical model of hypothetical oil-spill trajectories. The OSRA Model is driven by analyzed sea surface winds and model-generated ocean surface currents. Instead of focusing on individual oil-spill events, the OSRA examines oil-spill risks over long periods of time, ranging from 5 years to decades. The OSRA Model calculates thousands of oil-spill trajectories over extended areas of the U. S. continental shelf and tabulates the frequencies with which the simulated oil-spills contact the geographic boundaries of designated natural resources within a specified number of days after the simulated spill events. A key element of OSRA Model runs is the particle trajectory simulation based on wind velocities and surface ocean currents. It is critical that the trajectory model has a numerical scheme that is stable, accurate, and efficient. Currently, two numerical schemes are incorporated into the model: the Eulerian scheme and the 4th order Runge-Kutta scheme. To test the numerical schemes, a set of analytical solutions to the Navier-Stokes equations is developed. The analytical velocities and particle trajectories are compared with the numerical solutions from the two numerical schemes. The stability and efficiency of the two schemes are discussed. Applying the model to the Gulf of Mexico using 9 years of winds and ocean currents, we find that the OSRA Model with the 4th order Runge-Kutta scheme is much more efficient and able to better represent the circulation patterns and particle movements in the Gulf of Mexico.
Ephemeral Data Collection During the Emergency Phase of a Spill: Protocols on Design and Methods
Authors: Michel Jacqueline , Zengel Scott , Hinkeldey Heidi , Helton Doug
Published: January 2013

During the emergency phase of an oil or hazardous material spill, natural resource managers and trustees must quickly develop and implement study plans to collect ephemeral data on the extent and degree of contamination and the potential biological injury resulting from the spill. Various groups have developed comprehensive manuals and guidelines, yet these documents have proven to be too difficult to use during the chaotic, early days of a spill emergency. To provide better guidance, a series of brief (two-to-three pages) protocol summaries have been prepared for the types of sampling activities likely to be conducted during the emergency phase of spill, supporting both response and natural resource damage assessment (NRDA) objectives. Previously protocols were prepared for collection of samples of the source oil(s), water samples, intertidal sediments, subtidal sediments, and shellfish tissues for chemical and histopathological analysis. New protocols have been prepared for: Biota/Tarball Stranding Documentation; Salt Marsh Reconnaissance; Intertidal Infauna Sampling; Stranded Oil Quantification on Beaches; Sunken Oil Pathways; and Bird Injury Quantification.
Results of a Three Year Monitoring Programme on the Natural Recovery of Vegetation after the Erika Oil Spill: Lessons for Adapting Response Techniques
Authors: Poncet Florence , Laruelle Franck , Ragot Rémy , Tintilier Frederic
Published: January 2013

The Erika oil spill and the attendant cleaning operations it required have impacted almost every type of Breton shoreline, habitats and plant communities on shingle and sandy beaches, rocky cliffs, marshlands and dunes. The French Ministry of the Environment (Ministère de l'écologie et du développement durable) launched an impact assessment in 2000 on oil spill clean-up operations and the recovery of impacted vegetation via the «Réseau de suivi des conséquences écologiques et écotoxicologiques de la marée noire résultant du naufrage de l'Erika» (Monitoring network of the ecological and ecotoxicological consequences of the Erika oil spill). The Cedre and the Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest are dealing with the terrestrial vegetation program. Vegetation was surveyed in sixty locations where one hundred quadrates were recorded covering all vegetation types including all the degrees of oiling and the varying amounts of damage resulting from the removal of the HFO. A few examples of the oiled areas are discussed. The three year monitoring program shows a high degree of persistence of the HFO in uncleaned quadrates of a number of habitats. The FO 6 did no really serious damage in terms of mortality, vegetation cover and species composition. The survey illustrates how gentle manual oil removal techniques can enhance vegetation recovery within the space of a few years. It also exemplifies how some techniques have a very negative impact such as HWHP washing which only serves to delay recovery.
The Investigation to Identify the SS Jacob Luckenbach – Using Technology to Locate a Hidden Source of Oil that Caused Years of Impacts and the Future Implications of Sunken Shipwrecks
Authors: McGrath Gabrielle G. , Parker-Hall Heather A. , Tarpley John A. , Nack Alan
Published: January 2013

From 1992 until 2002, oiled birds, predominantly common murres, were found along the central California coastline during the winter months, but no significant oil slicks were observed. These repeat “mystery” oil spills puzzled investigators for 10 years while several similar cases of bird impacts occurred from November through February to varying degrees each year. In 2001, the same pattern began yet again. The response to oiled wildlife was the most significant to date. Extending over 220 miles of coastline, more than 2000 birds were recovered and transported for care to California's Oiled Wildlife Care Network (OWCN) facility. Motivated by this serious threat to wildlife, federal and state investigators utilized the historical data collected in previous cases combined with current technology to solve the mystery. An extensive Oil Spill Source Identification Task Force was formed consisting of 20 federal and state agents working together to get to the source of the problem. Through these current technologies, including oil sample analysis; satellite, aerial, and on-water observations; and hindcasting, the Task Force was able to eliminate alternative possibilities and focus the investigation on the last potential source, a sunken shipwreck. The Task Force sifted through four different databases of sunken vessels indicating over 700 shipwrecks off of the San Francisco coast alone to establish eight ships as potential targets. During the first underwater search planned to visually investigate each of these vessels, oil was located in the surface waters above the SS JACOB LUCKENBACH, a C-3 freighter sunk in 1953, 17 miles southwest of the Golden Gate Bridge. Analyses of oil samples collected from the vessel's tanks confirmed the LUCKENBACH as the source impacting California seabirds. Further research showed that all possible responsible parties have been absolved of any liability regarding the sinking of the LUCKENBACH. After spending over $3 million on the 1997–1998 and 2001–2002 incidents for the wildlife response alone and with no party from which to recover the funds, the spill response community is faced with an enormous financial task for the future: responding to inevitable oil spills off the coasts of the United States from thousands of deteriorating shipwrecks sunk decades ago with, in most cases, no responsible parties.
Use of In Situ Burning as an Oil Spill Response Tool: Follow-Up of Four Case Studies
Authors: Michel Jacqueline , Nixon Zach , Hinkeldey Heidi
Published: January 2013

Four in situ burning sites that varied widely in the physical setting, oil type, timing of the burn, and post-burn treatment were assessed 0.5–1.5 years post-burn: two condensate spills in intertidal marshes at Mosquito Bay, LA in April 2001 and near Sabine Lake, LA in February 2000; crude oil spill in a ponded wetland in Minnesota in July 2000; and a spill of diesel in a salt flat/wetland north of Great Salt Lake, UT in January 2000. When used quickly after a release, burning is most effective at reducing damage to vegetation and the areal extent of impact. Where crude oil was burned within hours after the release at the Minnesota site, the impact area was restricted to 3 acres. In contrast, the diesel in the Utah spill spread over 38 acres within 3 days. The window of opportunity for in situ burning to be an effective means of oil removal can be days to months, depending on the spill conditions. The condensate spill at Mosquito Bay site was effectively burned 6–7 days after the release was reported. For spills with snow and ice cover, burning may still be effective months later. In fact, it may be necessary to consider additional burns during thaw periods and during the final thaw. Burning will not reduce the toxic effects of the oil that occurred prior to the burn. It can, however, be very effective at reducing the extent and degree of impacts by quickly removing the remaining oil. In three of the four case studies, the area burned was significantly larger than the oiled area (up to 10 x). Healthy, green, unoiled vegetation is not always an effective fire break, particularly downwind; fires can quickly jump the kinds of fire breaks placed during spill emergencies in wetlands (e.g., vegetation laid down by the passage of airboats).
Development of a New Insurance Protocol for Marine Casualty Response
Authors: Garger Andrew J. , Hobbie Richard H.
Published: January 2013

Marine casualty response has become increasingly complex. Many responsible parties (R.P.'s) do not have the financial resources to fund the potentially high cost of spill response and other aspects of a casualty and they must rely on their various marine insurers, including hull, protection and indemnity, and pollution to cooperate in a timely and effective response. While underwriters have traditionally worked together to coordinate their response and solve response issues, clear responsibility for certain aspects of response has become blurred because environmental concerns are playing a greater role in salvage, firefighting and other aspects of marine casualties. The pollution liability insurers are increasingly being asked to both finance and oversee aspects of marine casualty response that have traditionally been part of the responsibility of other insurance interests. Increased environmental sensitivity, however, should not lead to a shift in the traditional roles of marine insurers in responding to marine casualties. Instead, the marine insurance industry must look to new ways to address the interplay of their coverages to ensure timely casualty response and funding of all necessary operations. This paper will outline possible approaches to address this issue and explore the problems of establishing a market protocol. The protocol could address initial funding of the casualty response and the use of dispute resolution mechanisms such as arbitration. There may also be value in developing a United States agreement along the lines of the Special Compensation P & I Clause (SCOPIC) and there may also be a need to create a new open salvage contract.
Lessons Learned Through Area Exercises in an Inland Region
Authors: Wolf Martha
Published: January 2013

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Region VIII (R8) has completed planning and exercising in seven of its designated Sub-Areas. This paper takes a brief journey through the analyzation of the results of the planning and exercising that has taken place by compiling lessons learned by profession and examines the actions taken to change and improve the response plans. A brief summary of the extensive background of activities which have occurred by constituents includes developed written plans, guidelines, and exercises for seven designated Sub-Areas of the Region.
Lessons Learned from 2002 Spill of National Significance (SONS) Exercise Gulf of Mexico
Authors: Drieu Michael , Lynch Patrick , Jensen Pete , Doane Chris , Brolin John , Zukowski Chris
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) hosted the 2002 SONS Gulf National Incident Commander (NIC) Exercise in New Orleans, Louisiana on 23–25 April 2002 and the 2002 SONS Gulf Executive Seminar in Washington, D. C. on 26 April 2002. This massive effort was accomplished through almost two years of planning by a government/industry workgroup representing the USCG, Texas General Land Office (TGLO), Louisiana Oil Spill Coordinator's Office, ExxonMobil, Stolt-Nielsen Transportation Group, and Environmental Protection Agency Region VI. The original SONS exercise was scheduled to exercise the Nation's ability to respond to a SONS in a two-part format. The terrorist attacks at the Pentagon and the World Trade Center in September 2001 required that the original SONS exercise plans be delayed and amended. The final SONS exercise format was a three-part series. The first part involved tabletop discussions with port-level responders to determine what actions and issues would result from the exercise scenarios. The second part was a multi-day NIC tabletop exercise to understand the roles and responsibilities of the NIC by exploring the NIC's reactions to the scenarios and the issues raised by the affected ports. The third part was an executive-level seminar attended by senior federal government and industry executives as well as elected officials to discuss reactions to national-level issues identified by the NIC and to enhance interagency communication at the headquarters level.
Optimizing Offshore Combat of Oil Spills – Development of New Booms and Helicopter Based Application of Dispersants
Authors: Brekne Tharald M. , Holmemo Sigmund , Skeie Geir M.
Published: January 2013

There is an increasing focus on offshore combat of oil spills on the Norwegian Continental Shelf (NCS). One result of this focus is a change from field specific to area specific contingency, moving from many medium sized oil spill combat vessels, to fewer and more robust systems and vessels. An important element in the emerging configuration is the use of helicopter based chemical dispersant systems, permanently located on offshore installations. An increasing diversity, of oil types being produced, configuration of installations, water depths and geographic location, are all factors that require a robust, mobile and flexible oil spill response. The Norwegian Clean Seas Association for Operating Companies (NOFO) has recently initiated development of new technology, as projects under NOFO's Research & Development Programme. Three of these projects address the development of improved heavy offshore booms, applying new principles for containment of oil, and a heavy duty skimmer optimized for mobility. A fourth project addresses the development of a system for helicopter based application of chemical dispersants, optimized for offshore storage and maintenance. This paper presents the status for and experience from these projects, as well as the plan for testing and verification of this new technology.
Certification of Oil Spill Skimmers
Authors: Johannessen Bjørn Olaf , Mjelde Alvar , Nåvik Kristin , Gabrielsen Jan Eilert
Published: January 2013

Det Norske Veritas in co-operation with The Norwegian State Pollution Control Authority completed in 2002 the development of a technical framework for a comprehensive assessment of oil spill skimmers. The development has resulted in the three main standards/procedures:Standard for Assessment of Safety, Functionality and Quality of Oil Spill SkimmersStandard for Performance testing of Oil Spill SkimmersProcedure for Preparation of Emulsion for Testing of Oil Spill Response Equipment

These standards form the basis for a skimmer certification system that is now being offered by DNV to skimmer manufacturers internationally. The assessment scheme may also provide regulating authorities with a set of criteria on which to base future requirements imposed on the equipment producing industry.

The skimmer certification is a type approval system and involves two separate phases. The first phase focuses on safety, functionality, quality and documentation; and is carried out based on inspection of the unit, design drawings and documentation. The second phase assesses oil spill recovery capability through physical performance testing in controlled conditions.

This paper describes the skimmer assessment process, outlines the content of the two assessment phases, and gives a brief description of the three newly developed standards.
Emergency and Long-Term Restoration Planning for The 1999 Olympic Pipe Line Company Spill, whatcom Creek, Bellingham, Washington, USA1
Authors: Helton Douglas , Doty Daniel
Published: January 2013

The restoration planning efforts for the June 10, 1999, Olympic Pipe Line Company gasoline spill illustrate the benefits of cooperative and restoration-based damage assessment. The Incident resulted in the release of approximately 236,000 gallons of gasoline into Whatcom Creek, Bellingham, Washington. The spilled gasoline ignited, burning much of the riparian vegetation including a large section of mature forest in an urban park. The combination of the spill and fire resulted in the complete elimination of terrestrial and aquatic biota in several miles of the creek. Affected biota included several species of juvenile salmonids, including chinook salmon, which are listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act. The Incident also resulted in recreational fishing and park closures. The Oil Pollution Act regulations require the Trustees to invite the Responsible Party to participate in the damage assessment and restoration process. By working together, restoration of injured resources and services may be achieved more rapidly and costeffectively. Shortly after the Incident, the Trustees and the Company recognized that a cooperative process would reduce duplication of studies, increase the cost-effectiveness of the assessment process, increase sharing of information, decrease the likelihood of litigation, and, most importantly, speed the restoration process. Another benefit of the cooperation was the ability to accomplish restoration goals in coordination with the emergency response activities. This paper summarizes the overall Incident and discusses the restoration planning process, including the emergency and long-term restoration actions.
Fast Water Response Equipment Performance in Two Inland Rivers1
Authors: Drieu Michael D. , Hansen Kurt
Published: January 2013

About 70% of the oil transported on United States waterways between 1992 and 1997 were on waterways with currents that routinely exceed one knot. About 58 percent of all of the oil spilled (by volume) also occurred on these waterways. Approximately 80% of these waterways are in the Western Rivers and Mississippi River Marine Transportation System, which are safeguarded under the jurisdiction of six Marine Safety Offices (MSOs) and three Groups in the Eighth Coast Guard (CG) District. The U.S. Coast Guard Research & Development (CG R&D) Center has been evaluating the state-of-the-art of containment and cleanup of oil in currents over 1 knot since 1997. Three types of equipment from the previous CG R&D Center's evaluations, boom deflector, boom vane and oil spill Flow-Diverter, were further evaluated in the field exercises along with the Coast Guard's only pre-deployed Vessel Of Opportunity Skimming System (VOSS) in the inland rivers region. These two exercises were the first time the VOSS system was used in the Eighth District rivers. Partnerships helped to facilitate first time deployment of the VOSS on a commercial ferry and a CG River Tender. The first exercise evaluated the Boom Vane, boom deflector and the St. Louis-based CG VOSS, which was deployed from State of Illinois Department of Natural Resources’ (ILDNR) ferry in Grafton, Illinois in May 2001. In the other exercise, the flow-diverter was deployed from a small boat and the CG VOSS, was deployed from the CG River Tender, CGC CIMARRON in Paducah, KY in August 2002. These exercises demonstrated the usefulness of these advance systems in fast water environments.
Financial Implications of Hypothetical San Francisco Bay Oil Spill Scenarios: Response, Socioeconomic, and Natural Resource Damage Costs
Authors: Etkin Dagmar Schmidt , French-McCoy Deborah , Jennings Jill , Whittier Nicole , Subbayya Sankar , Saunders William , Dalton Colleen
Published: January 2013

This study provides a comprehensive examination of the use of trajectory modeling to estimate financial impacts of oil spills, including natural resource damages, response costs, and socioeconomic costs, as well as an opportunity to examine how spill size, oil type, response strategy, and probabilistic trajectory factors impact costs. The inclusion of NRDA, response, and socioeconomic costs in the modeling allows for an assessment of the relative proportion of NRDA costs to response and socioeconomic costs to further support the findings of past studies that refute the myth that NRDA costs are the overriding factors in most spill cases. The study demonstrates the overall financial and NRDA benefits of dispersant use. Estimated total bio-economic costs for oil spill scenarios involving four oil types and three spill sizes for two locations in San Francisco Bay, were modeled. Assuming present-day mechanical-only response, total costs range from $30 to $520 million. Estimated total bioeconomic costs would be reduced to $11 to $113 million if dispersants were used with high effectiveness. Dispersant use would reduce response costs, and if used effectively, could reduce NRDA and socioeconomic damages substantially, as both of these costs are driven by the amount of surface and shoreline oiling.
Emergency Marsh Restoration as Part of Response to the Swanson Creek (Maryland) Oil Spill
Authors: Gundlach Erich R. , Baca Bart , Barry David C.
Published: January 2013

This oil spill on 7 April 2000 offers a case example where marsh restoration was made as part of the response effort to successfully enhance environmental recovery at a marsh heavily contaminated from a pipeline break (126,000–139,000 gallons of Numbers 2 and 6 fuel oils, >46,000 gallons eventually recovered). Marsh operations guided by U.S. EPA included mechanical trenching, limited low-to-moderate pressure flushing, hand recovery using sorbent pads and working from placed boardwalks, and the aerial application of fertilizer (bio-stimulation). After proving that planting would be successful in pilot plots and in a heavily damaged portion of the marsh, almost all of ‘ground zero’ (W01A) was hand-planted between 21 June and 31 July 2000 with 24,048 plugs of Spartina alterniflora and 1,728 plugs of S. patens (saltmeadow cordgrass). Both species were locally grown, nursery stock from native seed. Plants were placed in a 3” (8 cm) diameter hole containing 10 grams of slow release fertilizer and back-filled with washed masonry sand. Field surveys indicate recovery of 70–80% after one year and near complete recovery two years after. In spite of no apparent credit being given for replanting by government-lead Damage Assessment studies (NOAA et al., 2002), results clearly indicate that proactive planting during the response results in an environmental benefit and reduces the time needed for marsh recovery after an incident.
Practical Considerations in the Recovery of Oil from Sunken and Abandoned Vessels
Authors: Findlay Abigail
Published: January 2013

The world has a legacy from its maritime history; sunken vessels from wars, casualties from accidents and storms and abandoned vessels from former marine operations. All have the potential to be environmental “time bombs” if left to their own devices. In recent years there have been a number of operations to investigate and potentially salvage these wrecks, some of which are in increasingly poor condition and beginning to show signs of structural failure. Operations such as the Blucher in Norway, Royal Oak in Scapa Flow, UK, and the Erika in the Bay of Biscay have all presented technological and environmental challenges to salvors. This paper will investigate one such operation that has presented a unique set of challenges, namely the recovery of the fuel oil from a collection of whale catchers abandoned in Grytviken harbour in the South Atlantic. The extreme remoteness of the location has meant that the operation can only be carried out after a number of detailed surveys. The logistics issues of transporting the personnel and the equipment to the island were a major consideration in the planning of the operation. All potential scenarios had to be considered in advance and contingencies put in place since additional or replacement equipment would not be readily available either at a nearby location or within a reasonable timescale. The issues of safety of personnel, access to the vessels and the handling of equipment on to the vessels all had to be addressed. The removal of the oil, its subsequent temporary storage and its ultimate disposal will all be covered in the paper. The whole operation is set against the backdrop of one of the worlds’ wilderness areas which is in the process of being rejuvenated after the ravages of both natural events and manmade activities.
Integrating Data, Resources, and Capabilities in the Great Lakes: Impacting Federal, State, Tribal, Local, and Private Partnerships through the Area Committee
Authors: Rayburn Thomas
Published: January 2013

The Great Lakes of the United States and Canada comprise, essentially, a closed freshwater system in which over 31 million individuals coexist within the industrial, agricultural, and recreational economies of the region. With annual replacement rates of less than one percent, pollutants introduced into the Great Lakes can, over time, concentrate, resuspend, and infiltrate the biologic system through annual lake turnover, navigational dredging, and cycling through the food web. Past spills of oil and hazardous substances resulted in highly elevated levels of byproducts such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heavy metals like mercury, and toxics including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). These have resulted in stream degradation, fish consumption advisories, fish kills, and beach closures, with impacts felt at the local, watershed, regional, and binational levels. Traditionally, in the Great Lakes, local and regional policy groups have interacted with the Federal government through such programs as Areas of Concern (AOC) and the LakeWide Management Plan (LaMP) process; but these venues have not allowed direct interaction with the response and remedial community at any level. Area Committees, on the other hand, and also operating at more or less the local level and with a broad spectrum of participation, are uniquely situated to evolve and assist with specific issues on a timely basis. The coordinative and collaborative abilities of the Area Committee allow for initiating timely information gathering, focused decision-making, and action implementation, if necessary. The benefits of Area Committee involvement are two fold and profit both the policy and response groups in the Great Lakes.The concerns, historic practices, and larger-scale/longer-term vision can be vetted through the policy groups to the Area Committee.The Area Committee can, in turn, influence its members in specific directions through modified scopes of investigation and training/exercising that specifically address Area responsibilities.

The Area Committee's ability to expand its audience and augment its knowledge base is critical to developing a fully integrated multi-tiered and multi-missioned planning, preparedness, and response community.
Technical Innovation in Light Aircraft Aerial Dispersant Application Systems
Authors: Salt David , Stockham Roger , Byers Stuart
Published: January 2013

Recent changes in legislation within the United Kingdom created pressure for change in the response strategies applicable in the UK offshore environment. To meet the new requirements, innovative technology was required which was capable of speedily delivering a payload of approximately one ton of dispersant. To provide a cost efficient solution, a system was developed capable of being mounted on a non-dedicated aircraft, which can be rapidly adapted to meet the response requirements. This paper describes the design criteria for the system and goes on to detail the development, construction and flight testing programme for the dispersant pods. It then goes on to briefly describe the operational response system which has been established to provide a response for the offshore operators in the United Kingdom Continental Shelf (UKCS). The development represents a significant step forward in providing a low cost, effective solution to changing response requirements using innovative engineering solutions, allowing for potential application in other parts of the world.
Multivariate Analysis of Community Structure Over Ten Years Following the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
Authors: Gilfillan E.S. , Page D.S. , Parker K.R.
Published: January 2013

A 1990/1991 shoreline ecology program to assess the fate and effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound was updated in 1998 and 1999. This update included a sediment sampling program for organisms at “worst case” sites and at randomly chosen reference sites. Correspondence analysis (CA), a statistical method that examines animal communities in terms of their similarity, was used to define community structure Statistical analysis of the degree of similarity between communities was used to assess effects of site-specific variables (sediment grain size, total organic carbon (TOC) and wave energy), interannual variation, and degree of oiling. Interannual variability had a significant effect on community structure, whereas site specific variables and degree of oiling did not. Differences in communities between 1998 and other years were particularly dramatic. The importance of interannual change demonstrates the importance of multi-year sampling and of appropriate study designs for separating impact effects from the natural occurring environmental factors which affect biological communities.
Global Challenges to Preparedness and Response Regimes
Authors: Steen Alexis , Pond Robert , Salt David , deBettencourt Michael , Julian Michael , Liebert Thomas
Published: January 2013

The International Oil Spill Conference sponsored a workshop entitled “Global Challenges to Preparedness and Response” held in London, England, November 12–14, 2002. The Workshop brought more than 25 government, industry, and nongovernmental organizations representatives together to analyze the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats relative to government-led and industry-led response regimes around the world. Over the course of three days, a team of facilitators led participants through a series of response scenarios, alternating between small break out sessions followed by plenary sessions, to develop consensus on a framework for preparedness and response. Each scenario built on previous ones to further participant understanding and concurrence on the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats facing regimes around the world. Participants rapidly concluded that all responses to significant incidents are government-led, with varying degrees of industry involvement. The framework for successful regimes was identified. The Workshop conclusions encompass three broad areas: 1) similarities and differences among models and regimes; 2) benefits of international conventions; and 3) critical elements in the preparedness cycle. Participants put forth specific challenges (recommendations for action) to all nations.
Application of In-Situ Burning During the Mosquito Bay Oil Spill: Observations and Trade-Off Discussion
Authors: Henry Charlie , Thumm Stephen , Brolin John , Cuty Patrick , Michel Jacqueline
Published: January 2013

On 11 April 2001, the Unified Command received permission from the Regional Response Team (RRT6) to conduct a series of in-situ burns at an oil spill site in a remote coastal marsh adjacent to Mosquito Bay, Louisiana. Approximately 12 acres of marsh were contaminated with an estimated 1000 bbl of condensate crude oil. Because the spill was largely contained in low areas of remote interior marsh, conventional oil recovery techniques and mitigation would have caused unacceptable physical marsh impact; therefore, in-situ burning was considered the most environmentally friendly approach to minimize impact from the spill. Overall, the application of in-situ burning was considered a positive environmental trade-off since any manual response in such a sensitive marsh would involve greater negative environmental trade-offs. This paper focuses on an overview of the incident and the scientific and environmental issues that were evaluated and presented to the Unified Command in making the final decision to use in-situ burning as a mitigation technique.
An Application of Worst Case Scenario Concept in Oil Spill Response Planning for Offshore Drilling Operation in Brazil
Authors: Ferreira Hélder O. , Cabrai Alexandre , Junior Álvaro Souza
Published: January 2013

The Brazilian oil and gas E&P sector has been experiencing important changes since the end of the state monopoly in 1998. These changes include a new regulatory environment which is still under construction, in particular the requirements for environmental protection. In this context, Resolution 293 of Brazilian National Environmental Council (CONAMA) was enacted regulating Facility Response Plans for oil spill incidents. These plans, which should be approved by the competent authority, include a vulnerability analysis that should discuss the probability of oil reaching certain areas as well as the environmental sensitivity of these areas. Oil spill modeling is an important tool to estimating the areas likely to be affected by an oil spill. Although oil spill modeling is also part of the environmental studies required in the environmental permitting process for oil E&P activities, there are not well defined criteria to compose the oil spill scenarios to be modeled. In order to demonstrate the impacts of different approaches in the results of oil spill modeling, a case study is presented related to an offshore drilling activity.
Large Wave Tank Dispersant Effectiveness Testing in Cold Water
Authors: Belore Randy
Published: January 2013

Research experiments were completed to determine the viability of using chemical dispersants on two crude oils in very cold water conditions. Tests were completed at Ohmsett (the National Oil Spill Response Test Facility in Leonardo, New Jersey) in late February and early March of 2002. Ohmsett is a large outdoor, above-ground concrete tank (203 m long by 20 m wide by 3.4 m deep) filled with 9.84 million gallons of salt water. The tank has a wave-generating paddle, a wave-dissipating beach, and mobile bridges that transport equipment over its surface. A refrigeration unit was installed to ensure that the water was kept at near freezing temperatures during the entire test program. A total of twelve large-scale tests were completed. Corexit 9500 and Corexit 9527 were applied to fresh and weathered Hibernia and Alaska North Slope crude oils, on cold water (-0.5 to 2.4 °C), at dispersant-to-oil ratios (DORs) ranging from 1:14 to 1:81. The average wave amplitude for the tests ranged between 16.5 and 22.5 cm and the average wave period was between 1.7 and 1.9 seconds. The effectiveness of the dispersant in each test was documented through extensive video records and by measurement of the residual oil remaining within the containment boom at the end of each test. The results clearly show that both dispersants were effective in dispersing the two crude oils tested in cold-water conditions.
Remediation of Floating Vegetable Oil Spills by Sedimentation Followed by Anaerobic Biodegradation
Authors: Li Zhengkai , Downer Robert J. , Wrenn Brian A.
Published: January 2013

Floating vegetable oil can be effectively removed from the water surface and the water column as negatively buoyant oil-mineral aggregates by addition of a dense mineral, such as clay. In bench-scale experiments, it is possible to remove virtually all of the floating oil by addition of a sufficiently large dose of clay (>10 g clay/g oil). Once present in the sediments, vegetable oil can be completely transformed to harmless end products (e.g., carbon dioxide and methane) by naturally occurring microbial populations. Transient production of toxic intermediates (probably free fatty acids), measured as a reduction in sediment EC50 using the Microtox Solid-Phase Test (SPT), was observed during anaerobic biodegradation. The EC50 is the sediment concentration required to reduce light emission by bioluminescent bacteria by 50%. Addition of amorphous ferric hydroxide as an alternative electron acceptor stimulated the rate of vegetable oil biodegradation, but had no effect on the Microtox EC50. Alternative factors, including clay and calcium, were tested for their ability to reduce the transient toxicity by reducing the bioavailability of the free fatty acids. Calcium, and especially calcium plus clay, reduced the rate and extent of vegetable oil biodegradation but had no effect on the sediment toxicity as measured by the Microtox SPT. Only oil biodegradation significantly reduced the sediment toxicity.