bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Bracken: an increasing problem and a threat to health
Authors: Taylor J A
Published: July 2017

In the United Kingdom, for every two hectares of farming land lost each year to urban development and forestry, half to one hectare may be lost to bracken. At a wider-ranging level of assessment bracken is found in every continent of the world including Antarctica, and is already rapidly colonizing recently deforested areas of Brazil. Not only is it in direct competition with food and grazing plants, but it poses a serious threat to the health of animals and man.
Minimizing pesticide waste in orchard spraying
Authors: Morgan N G
Published: July 2017

Conventional high or low volume spraying of large widely-spaced orchard trees has been shown to be grossly inefficient. Whilst little more than a third of the spray may be totally wasted, much of the remainder is deposited by wind-borne drift, very unevenly, and many leaf surfaces may receive no deposit at all. Improvements in efficiency and economy are seen in the planting of dwarf hedgerow trees and the use of shielded re-circulating controlled-droplet sprayers.
Electrodynamic crop spraying
Authors: Coffee R A
Published: July 2017

The advent, largely in the past two decades, of highly-active but expensive pesticides, has been accompanied by the realization that most spraying operations are inefficient, wasteful, potentially hazardous to non-target organisms, and dependent on a plentiful supply of clean water. ULV techniques, particularly those using spinning-disc sprayers, have already radically changed spray technology. Charged-particle sprayers such as the Electrodyn may completely transform it.
Commercial uses for straw fibre
Authors: Staniforth A. R.
Published: July 2017

Whether or not it is the largest, or the last—both claims have been made—a vast untapped source of food, energy, and raw materials lies in the billions of tonnes of plant waste produced world-wide each year. Cereal straw accounts for a significant proportion of this and is attracting increasing attention as an animal feedingstuff and chemical feedstock. Its fibre also has many uses—in construction, insulation, packaging, and papermaking; its potential extends even to textile manufacture.
Economic aspects of pheromone trapping techniques for the control of Egyptian cotton leafworm
Authors: Gubbins K. E. , Campion D. G.
Published: July 2017

Pheromones are powerful specific insect attractants which can be used for the control of certain insect pests. The use of such a specialised technique has generally been considered appropriate in the Developed World. The possibility of using mass trapping for the control of the Egyptian cotton leafworm in Egypt is here examined with particular reference to the socio-economic factors operating in such a developing country. These must be considered if the technique is to have a chance of adoption.
African pastoralism
Authors: Rains A. Blair
Published: July 2017

Although Africa south of the Sahara has 160 million, or 12 per cent, of the world's cattle, beef meat is not a common item in the diet of the majority of the continent's 330 million people. Beef production per head is 40 per cent and milk production 20 per cent of the world average. It is estimated that all types of domestic livestock, excluding pigs and poultry, provide 11 kg meat per person per year plus the equivalent of 29 kg milk.
The future demand and supply of forest products
Authors: Hillis W. E.
Published: July 2017

That the world's timber resources are being depleted more rapidly than they are being renewed, and that the availability of different kinds of timber does not match present demands, is generally agreed. This review emphasises the seriousness of the situation by quantifying the supply and demand position. It urges the need for a much more integrated approach to the production and utilisation of forest products.
Prospects for Vicia faba L. in Northern Europe
Authors: Thompson R. , Taylor H.
Published: July 2017

Until recently the cultivation of Vicia faba L. in Europe has declined steadily in favour of more profitable crops. Latterly, however, its importance as an alternative to increasingly expensive imported protein has been recognized by the EEC and a subsidy offered to growers. This, coupled with the prospect of substantially increased yields by the introduction of new techniques, has made the crop economically much more attractive.
Dutch developments in soilless culture
Authors: Van Os E. A.
Published: July 2017

In the last few years soilless cultures have been vigorously developed in Holland. Although many different substrates have been used, rockwool is the most popular. The first Dutch experiments carried out by Verwer at the Institute of Agricultural Engineering in Wageningen used rockwool and nutrient film technique (NFT). Since then many new growing systems have been developed. Nutrient solutions and control equipment have been improved, while investment and annual costs have decreased. Initially, only cucumbers and tomatoes were grown on rockwool and NFT, but now peppers, eggplants, chrysanthemums, roses, carnations, and other crops are grown by this or related systems.
Genetic resources of rice
Authors: Chang T. T.
Published: July 2017

This article reviews the conservation, evaluation, and utilization of the enormous genetic resources in rice for the welfare of the world's 1.5 billion rice consumers and another 450 million people who depend on rice as a secondary staple. Potentials in the genetic resources for future use and areas for endeavour are also discussed.
Cocoa
Authors: Adomako D.
Published: July 2017

The economic importance of cocoa needs no emphasis: current production is around 1.6 million metric tons per annum, currently valued at about £2 billion. This article reviews the changing pattern of world production; new techniques of cultivation and processing; and the prevention and control of pests and diseases.
The cultivation of fibre flax
Authors: Sultana C.
Published: July 2017

Flax is one of the oldest textiles, having been in use for some seven thousand years. It is tough and durable and, as this article shows, its cultivation presents no major difficulties: under favourable conditions the yield per hectare can be twice that of cotton. It is, therefore, surprising that today flax represents no more than three per cent of the world textile market. This article suggests that flax may benefit from a general return to popular favour of natural textiles; improvement in linen cloth generally; and the development of blends of flax with other fibres.
Results from recent studies on nitrogen fertilizer efficiency in wetland rice
Authors: De Datta S. K. , Fillery I. R. P. , Craswell E. T.
Published: July 2017

Yields of rice can be substantially increased by the use of nitrogenous fertilizers, but the return to the producer depends very much on the mode of application. This article reviews the factors affecting the uptake of nitrogen by wetland rice, in terms of grain production, and the means by which experimentally achieved results can be translated into everyday farming practice.
Recent developments in beef carcass evaluation
Authors: Kempster A. J.
Published: July 2017

The carcass is central to improvements in the efficiency of beef production. Carcass quality is the primary measure of output and a key selection criterion; it is the focus of trade and of marketing efforts by farmers to adapt output to changing demand. This article reviews recent developments in the search for more accurate methods of assessing carcass quality in breeding programmes and in carcass classification and grading schemes.
CIMMYT's maize improvement programme
Authors: Sprague E. W. , Paliwal R. L.
Published: July 2017

Today, more than 70 countries grow maize on over 100 000 hectares annually, making maize the world's most widely distributed major crop. In terms of world cereal production, maize ranks third, closely following wheat and rice. During 1979–81, world maize production averaged about 420 million tons and was grown on roughly 130 million hectares: the importance of crop improvement research thus needs no emphasis.
Peroxides in seed coatings
Authors: Leaver J. P. , Roberts E. H.
Published: July 2017

Most seeds require the presence of oxygen during the early stages of germination and even in rice, where it is not essential, oxygen favours a good start. Recent research has explored the practical advantages of coating seeds with peroxide-containing dressings which will liberate oxygen at a controlled rate. Promising results have been obtained with rice in several countries, especially Japan, and to some extent with other crops, including sugar beet and winter wheat.
Strategies for improving rice production in eastern India
Authors: Datta S. K. De
Published: July 2017

In recent years nearly half the rice-growing area of India has been planted with improved varieties, but continuing poor yields in eastern India may cause overall production to fall short of future demands. This article outlines a strategy for improving production and stresses the need to consider the water regimes characteristic of the various areas involved.
The water requirements of livestock in Africa
Authors: Nicholson M. J.
Published: July 2017

This article discusses the water needs of livestock in Africa and other hot regions; the physiological utilization of water both within and between species; and suggests some ways of optimizing water use and using water as a management tool.
Arabica Coffee Production in Kenya: An Overview
Authors: Masaba D. M. , Owuor J. B. O. , Gathaara M. P. H.
Published: July 2017

Coffee is of basic importance to the Kenyan economy, producing about 30 per cent of the total foreign exchange earnings. In the 1960s severe losses from coffee berry disease led to the launching of an intensive breeding programme that has resulted in a new cultivar which is disease resistant, high yielding, and compact in growth and produces good quality arabica coffee.
Health and Disease in Farm Workers
Authors: Smith Donalda M.
Published: July 2017

Occupational diseases, such as silicosis in miners, are widespread but it is only comparatively recently that they have received the serious attention they demand. Leaving aside accidents associated with machinery and agrochemicals, farm workers are particularly liable to a large number of health hazards – physical, chemical, and biological. The nature of the industry – small groups of workers often employed in remote places under primitive conditions – makes it difficult to assess the real incidence of work-associated diseases and to organise effective treatment and preventive measures.
Grain Legumes in UK Agriculture
Authors: Heath M. C.
Published: July 2017

The neurosecretory cells are responsible in insects for the coordination and control of bodily functions such as feeding, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, and development. They do this by releasing substances called neurohormones into the body fluids. Many insecticides have been shown to have neurophysiological and potentially lethal effects upon neurosecretory cells. Many of the neurohormones are peptides, some similar to, if not identical with, peptides produced by nerve cells in vertebrates. It is possible that peptides unique to insects could be exploited for the development and production of safer and more specifically acting insecticides.

Decrease in profits is now a major concern to UK cereal farmers confronted with grain surpluses and tightening quality standards. Consequently, interest in alternative combinable crops is increasing, encouraged by EEC subsidies designed to stimulate production of protein- and oil-rich crops. Oilseed rape is already established as the leading cereal break crop, but grain legumes such as combining peas and faba beans are re-emerging as important components of UK crop rotations.
Irrigation Issues in Swaziland: Large-scale Projects
Authors: Carr M. K. V.
Published: July 2017

In Africa, Swaziland is atypical in being a small country. Nevertheless, it is agriculturally and climatically diverse and its problems are relevant to other sub Saharan countries. This article reviews large-scale irrigation schemes in the context of such factors as traditional land tenure, soil variation, crop management techniques, and availability of technical support. A later article will discuss problems of small-scale irrigation.
The Use of Wide Span Gantries in Agriculture
Authors: Tillett N. D. , Holt J. B.
Published: July 2017

As tractors and trailed equipment grow heavier, so too do problems arising from soil compaction below ploughing depth. There is, therefore, growing interest in the use of gantries straddling a wide bed. So far they have shown particular promise in horticulture, especially with crops such as cauliflowers where repeated selective harvesting is necessary. For cereal production there are still technical problems to be solved but there is an attractive possibility of greatly reduced energy requirement.
Trends in Agricultural Productivity: The UK, USA, and Greece Compared
Authors: Nix John , Edwards Angela
Published: July 2017

Productivity is susceptible of more than one definition, but this article concentrates on basic increases in outputs or decreases in inputs. The selected countries differ greatly in their economic and political status but this comparative review of the way in which six important agricultural parameters have changed since the beginning of the century reveals many points of similarity.
Crop Plant Genetic Engineering: Science Fiction to Science Fact
Authors: Dodds John H. , Jaynes Jesse M.
Published: July 2017

Recombinant DNA technology covers a wide range of biochemical techniques used to cut, splice, and move DNA from one organism to another. Genetic engineering began as a basic scientific study to learn more about gene expression and gene structure in bacteria. In the last 10 years the techniques of recombinant DNA technology have moved from the university research laboratory to the industrial production level. The techniques are applicable to all organisms and studies have been made of the genomes of viruses, bacteria, yeasts, animals, and plants. It is the latter, genetic engineering of plants, which is covered in this article.
Sweet Potato: A Potential Industrial and Staple Food Crop of Nigeria
Authors: Nwinyi S. C. O.
Published: July 2017

This article reviews the impact of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam) on the world economy, its uses, and efforts in Nigeria to popularize its cultivation and acceptability. The potential and average yields of 87 and 20–30 t/ha respectively (over a three–six month growing period) under improved management practices, its ecological flexibility, its low input requirements, the wide range of recipes based on its flour, and easy propagation by vine cuttings distinguish the sweet potato as a potentially important industrial and staple food crop. Problems relating to sweetness, dominant flavour, and the colour of the cooked product are identified as ones requiring solution if its acceptability is to be enhanced.
Inducible Systemic Resistance to Bacterial and Fungal Diseases in Plants
Authors: Taylor Philip N.
Published: July 2017

Plants, like animals, have resistance mechanisms which are activated only by inoculation with a pathogen. The activated resistance mechanism, initiated by a local infection, can be active throughout the whole plant, protecting it from disease for the remainder of its life. The induction of such latent resistance mechanisms may provide a new strategy for disease control in the future.
Wheat production in Southeast Asia: Potential and Constraints
Authors: Aggarwal Pramod Kumar
Published: July 2017

Although some wheat has in the past been grown in Southeast Asia, it is not at present a significant crop in this area. However, changing circumstances – in particular the need in some countries to diversify as a result of overproduction of rice – have led to increasing attention being directed to its possibilities. This article reviews the potential and the major constraints limiting wheat production in Southeast Asia.
Effect of Pesticides on the Feeding Habits of Fish
Authors: Muirhead-Thomson R. C.
Published: July 2017

Gross pollution of rivers and streams by pesticides can have a catastrophic effect on fish life. Lower degrees of contamination, however – such as occur after aerial spraying of neighbouring forests – frequently affect fish only indirectly, through their effect on the macro-invertebrates on which they feed. Low levels of insecticides commonly induce such organisms to loosen their attachment to the beds and sides of rivers and drift downstream. While this provides an immediate flush of food for the fish, it is followed by a period of famine as the depleted population of invertebrates slowly restores itself.
Agroforestry: Now and in the Future
Authors: Steppler Howard A. , Lundgren Bjorn O.
Published: July 2017

Agroforestry seems to validate the aphorism that there is nothing new under the sun – only recycled ideas. Although a new term, coined in 1977, it denotes an age-old practice of having trees mixed in the agricultural landscape. It also involves, however, study of the problems arising at the interface of agriculture and forestry, and the establishment of an organisation dedicated specifically to those problems.
Soviet Agriculture under the Restructuring Policies
Authors: Kuba Ferdinand
Published: July 2017

The agricultural sector has long been a serious weakness in the Soviet economy and has hitherto largely resisted all attempts at reform. Now, under Mr. Gorbachev's new policy of perestroika, a determined new attack is to be made. This article reviews the new policies and assesses their prospect of success. It acknowledges that the inertia of Soviet bureaucracy, the inbuilt resistance to change, and the popular demand for quick results without incurring painful penalties must be weighed in the balance against purely technological factors.
Incidence and Control of Classical Swine Fever, with Special Reference to the Situation in the EEC
Authors: Bendixen H. J.
Published: July 2017

Classical swine fever (CSF) has for almost a century been a serious problem for European pig producers, but concerted efforts in the Member States of the EEC have resulted in a marked reduction of the prevalence of the disease. The EEC is determined to eliminate it from its territory. This article describes the behaviour of the virus infection in pigs and the technical basis for control and eradication. Expansion and intensified production systems in the pig sector have made it difficult to control CSF and the necessity for structural changes in pig production is urged.
Recent Advances in Modelling Crop Response to Temperature
Authors: Vincent C. D.
Published: July 2017

Mathematical models to predict the effect of altering various parameters in real-life situations are now widely used. The complexity of the factors that control the growth of crops makes such modelling very difficult in the context of agriculture, but nevertheless some useful results have been obtained. This article reviews the progress that has been made in predicting the effect of air and soil temperature on the growth of plants.
New Light on an Old Technology: The Structure of Wheat Gluten and Its Role in Breadmaking
Authors: Shewry Peter R. , Tatham Arthur S.
Published: July 2017

Although all bread is made by essentially the same process, there is nevertheless considerable variation in the nature of the final product. This depends on a number of factors, among the most important of which is the gluten content of the flour used. This article reviews the chemistry and molecular structure of gluten in relation to the breadmaking properties of wheat.
Land Transformations During the Period of Pre-industrial Agriculture
Authors: Simmons I. G.
Published: July 2017

During the pre-industrial period of human history, agriculture in its various forms was central to the use of the land. Nevertheless, other land transformations took place, both for necessity and for pleasure. A small selection of some of these myriad changes are described here, to reinforce the view that although the Industrial Revolution was indeed a turning point in our relations with nature, it built upon centuries of previous experience of change.
Agricultural Fibres for Paper Pulp
Authors: Hunsigi Gururaj
Published: July 2017

The enormous demand for wood for paper-making has created serious and still growing environmental problems. This has led to a revival of interest in the possibility of making greater use of a variety of agricultural fibres as a source of paper pulp. This article reviews the present situation and explores the prospects for a substantial expansion, particularly in the utilization of sugarcane bagasse.
Siam Weed (Chromolaena odorata) and Crop Production in Nigeria
Authors: Lucas E. O.
Published: July 2017

Siam Weed was introduced to Nigeria in 1937, through the importation of timber species from Sri Lanka. It is now a serious weed of both arable and plantation crops in the country. Efforts to control it through manual, mechanical, chemical and biological means have met with little success. At present, the weed seems uncontrollable and suggestion is made that the new research focus should be on its possible industrial and pharmaceutical uses.
Meat Hygiene: Processing, Packaging, Preservation
Authors: Smulders Frans J. M. , Johnson Jennifer L.
Published: July 2017

Meat hygiene is a complex subject involving a variety of disciplines each impinging on the others. It is, moreover, impossible to examine an isolated aspect of the meat production chain since there are no isolated events. There are clear indications of the need to identify the responsibilities of all involved in meat production in regard to food safety and wholesomeness and to make these the basis of quality control decisions. Consumers themselves have an important part to play in minimizing the risk of infection from food-borne disease and improving their knowledge about food hygiene is a critical first step in the whole process.
Robotics and Automation in Agriculture
Authors: Marchant J. A. , Moncaster M. E.
Published: July 2017

Mechanization, that is to say the replacement of human or animal effort with machine power, has now proceeded to the point where most tasks in agriculture in the development world are mechanized. In some, control of the machine is carried out automatically rather than by a human operator. Although there is already a degree of automation, there is as yet very little use of artificial intelligence within machines on the farm. However, there is a great deal of research in progress on the integration of computer control, artificial intelligence, sensor ability and mechanical engineering. This paper describes briefly some examples of such work at AFRC Engineering which will lead to machines which can think for themselves.
Fertilizer Use on Farm Crops in Great Britain: Results from the Survey of Fertilizer Practice, 1969–88
Authors: Chalmers A. , Kershaw C. , Leech P.
Published: July 2017

Surveys to investigate how farmers use fertilizer in England and Wales began in 1942, prompted by the need for information which could be used immediately to determine a rational fertilizer import policy and also for allocation of scarce fertilizer resources during wartime. These surveys continued after the war in order to monitor trends in fertilizer use so that industry could predict future needs and advisory effort could be directed to situations where practice differed from recommendations based on experimental results. Environmental aspects of fertilizer use are now of greater public concern and this has increased the need for the information collected in the now annual national surveys of fertilizer practice. No other country in the world has monitored fertilizer practice in such depth over such a long period.
Crop Production on Chinese Farms
Authors: Tao Shen
Published: July 2017

This is the second in a series of occasional articles on the changing face of Chinese agriculture, looking at the effects of government policies on the productivity of farms. Rural economic reform since 1980 has done much to improve performance, and output of major crops such as grain, cotton and oilseeds has increased by a large margin. However, meagre government support for agriculture in the past 3 years has slowed down the rate of progress.
Social and Ethical Issues Surrounding Biotechnological Advance
Authors: Straughan Roger
Published: July 2017

The application of genetic manipulation to food production raises many social and ethical problems. Here the questions is it safe? is it fair? is it natural? are tackled from a philosophical perspective. The arguments against using the new technologies are examined critically, and the implications for consumers, such as labelling of the products of biotechnological processes, are considered.
The Impact of Agriculture on Water Quality
Authors: Cartwright Nick , Clark Lewis , Bird Peter
Published: July 2017

This paper provides an overview of water quality problems associated with agricultural activities, and initiatives aimed at their control, both in the UK and in Europe.
Integrated Farming: an Ecological Farming Approach in European Agriculture
Authors: El Titi Adel
Published: July 2017

European agriculture operates in challenging times as it faces uncertainties arising from economic, political, environmental and other pressures. In the arable sector, there are serious problems associated with overproduction and declining farm incomes as well as concerns about species decline and the pollution of ground and surface waters by agrochemicals. Such issues are forcing a fundamental re-orientation in agriculture. An Integrated Farming System (IFS) is identified as a most promising approach. It integrates natural regulatory components into farming activities with the aim of replacing purchased off-farm inputs, whilst maintaining farm income. Farm-scale trials across Europe indicate positive benefits of IFS. Yield potential does not deteriorate, agrochemical inputs are reduced and several agroecosystem components are enhanced without losses in financial returns. This paper discusses developments in IFS, together with possible technology transfer systems, in the context of the new, environmentally-orientated CEC-agropolicy to achieve sustainable agriculture in Europe.
Integrated Pest and Disease Management in Protected Crops
Authors: Fraser R.S.S.
Published: July 2017

Considerable progress has been made in developing integrated pest and disease management strategies for protected crops. Bacteria, nematodes, fungi and insect predators and parasites are used as biological control agents for pests and diseases and are combined with plant breeding for resistance, environmental control and informed intervention with minimal amounts of compatible pesticides. Some crops can already be grown with greatly reduced or no pesticide input. With others there is a need for further research on integrated pest and disease management strategies to develop sustainable systems of crop protection.
Using Crop Models for Sustainability and Environmental Quality Assessment
Authors: Singh Upendra , Thornton Philip K.
Published: July 2017

In this article, the question of how various aspects of sustainability can be studied is outlined, with particular reference to ways in which the efficiency of the agricultural research and development process can be enhanced. The role of crop simulation models as useful tools in sustainability research and in the assessment of environmental impact is discussed with reference to some of the collaborative model development and application activities of the International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC). Despite the fact that much development work is needed on crop simulation models, there are few practical alternatives to address the complex and interactive nature of sustainability issues and environmental impact assessments.
Irrigation Management Strategies for Improving the Performance of Irrigated Agriculture
Authors: Samad Madar , Merrey Doug , Vermillion Doug , Fuchs-Carsch Marian , Mohtadullah Khalid , Lenton Roberto
Published: July 2017

Only about 3% of the world's total water supply is fresh, and most of this (87%) is locked up in ice caps or glaciers, in the atmosphere or soil, or deep underground. Mankind's primary supply of freshwater is the renewable component (precipitation minus evapotranspiration) which flows through aquifers, streams and lakes. An estimated 3,240 cubic kilometers of fresh water are withdrawn annually. About 70% is for agriculture, mainly for irrigation. Although agriculture accounts for a large share of world water use, providing adequate water in a timely and reliable manner to irrigate crops is a formidable challenge in most parts of the developing world. It will be even more challenging over the next few decades. This paper examines some significant issues that the world must address in the remaining years of this century to ensure that irrigated agriculture achieves its potential.
The Control of Reproduction in Farmed Fish
Authors: Riley Elizabeth , Secombes Christopher
Published: July 2017

To raise fish successfully in captivity a producer often needs to control and manipulate fish reproduction. A variety of technologies is available to encourage species that do not breed naturally in captivity to alter the timing of reproduction for year-round production, to choose the sex of fish grown and even to prevent sexual maturation for improved fish growth.
Biotechnology and Disease Management
Authors: Tatner Mary F.
Published: July 2017

The application of biotechnology to disease management has led to considerable improvements in production of most livestock species and arable crops. Its use in aquaculture is less well developed, but there are several areas in which biotechnological approaches have led to advances in vaccine research, disease diagnosis, epidemiology and understanding of genetic influences on resistance or susceptibility.
Biosphere 2 Agriculture: Test Bed for Intensive, Sustainable, Non-Polluting Farming Systems
Authors: Nelson Mark , Silverstone Sally , Poynter Jane
Published: July 2017

Biosphere 2, a virtually airtight facility for the study of biospheric and ecosystem processes, includes an agricultural area of about 0.2 hectare for growing food for its eight crew members. Since the commencement of an initial two-year closure experiment, this agricultural system has operated without use of toxic chemicals which might pollute the small reservoirs of air, water and soil. It has produced some 90% of the nutritional needs of the crew. Foods produced comprise a wide variety of crops, including grains, starches, vegetables and fruit and a limited amount of milk, eggs, fish and meat from aquaculture and domestic animals, Waste products from both the humans and domestic animals are processed by means of anaerobic and aerobic microbial and plant systems. Inedible crop biomass and animal manure is composted. Since Biosphere 2 is designed for long-term operation and study, soil fertility must be maintained while supporting its diverse crop rotations and intensive production. The agricultural component in Biosphere 2 allows for study of its impact on overall biospheric health and dynamics, including effects on CO2 fluxes, nitrogen and other element cycling, and maintenance of good quality air and water.
Causes and Consequences of Change in the Mature Size of the Domestic Pig
Authors: Whittemore Colin T.
Published: July 2017

Size at maturity is relatively easily manipulated by genetic selection, and selection for increased growth rate, efficiency and leanness in pigs appears to have resulted in an increase of some 30% in mature size over 20 years. A relatively weak association between size maturity and age maturity has meant that selection for rapid protein growth has resulted in the creation of bigger animals. The Gompertz function is chosen as the preferred descriptor for animal growth, and its use allows demonstration of the link between growth rate and size at maturity. Increased mature size is associated with greater costs of maintenance for breeding populations, but also greater productivity and appetite in growing pigs and an improved (leaner) meat at the point of slaughter. Increasing mature size has consequences for, amongst other things, building design, optimum slaughter weight, determination of nutrient requirement, and the efficient production management of breeding sows which must now grow and breed simultaneously.
The Varroa mite, a Devastating Parasite of Western Honeybees and an Economic Threat to Beekeeping
Authors: Beetsma Joop
Published: July 2017

Beekeepers produce honey and wax, but the most Important aspect of beekeeping is the pollination of crops. Beekeeping with the western honeybee is threatened by the ectoparasite Varroa jacobsoni. which was first found on the eastern honeybee. If they are to provide the required number of colonies for pollination, and to produce honey and wax, beekeepers must be able to control the Varroa mite in their colonies. Without annual chemical treatments the colonies become heavily damaged and will eventually die, but using chemicals leads to residues in the honeybee products. Knowledge of the biology of the Varroa mite and its relationship with the honeybee colony now makes it possible to control the mite using biotechnical methods rather than chemicals. All such control treatments involve changes in colony management and Increased running costs, and therefore put up the prices of the products. The latest approach to the problem is selection of Varroa-tolerant honeybee strains.
Meeting Future Food Needs: the Potential Role of Potato in South Asia
Authors: Ahmed Saleem
Published: July 2017

It is cereals that are relied on to meet the food needs of the majority of the world's people. And for very good reasons: they are relatively easy to grow and harvest, and convenient to handle, store and cook. They also have high nutritional values. The development and spread of high-yielding wheat, rice and maize varieties in the 1960s and 70s — at a time when prospects of widespread famine loomed large in the minds of policymakers — increased the importance of cereals. It also postponed by about half a century the threat of the Malthusian catastrophe. But to what extent can we continue to hope for increases in cereal yields to help meet the increasing food demand of our spiralling population, especially when we seem to be running out of additional land to bring under cultivation? Perhaps instead of continuing to put all our eggs in one basket, we should consider examining the role of other food crops as well. In South Asia, potato appears to be a promising crop to consider. It yields 2–3 times more than cereals, and also provides more energy and protein per hectare.
Land Tenure and the Potential for the Adoption of Alley Farming in West Africa
Authors: Lawry S. , Stienbarger D. , Jabbar M. A.
Published: July 2017

Alley farming was developed as a means of maintaining soil fertility in fields under permanent cultivation in Africa, as population pressure makes the traditional practice of slash-and-burn combined with fallowing unsustainable. It is an agroforestry system under which food crops are grown in alleys formed by hedgerows of leguminous trees and shrubs. Studies have shown that it works, but farmers are only taking it up very slowly. Recent work suggests that land tenure might be a factor in the spread of alley cropping.
Agricultural Software Development in the Age of Electronic Communication
Authors: Thysen Iver
Published: July 2017

Global electronic communication has grown dramatically in recent years, and it makes heavy use of public domain software, produced on a voluntary basis and obtainable for most standard computer uses, This mode of cooperative software development could be successfully applied in agriculture, especially if cooperation between the software producers is increased and there is extensive use of electronic communication. A new European initiative, ENITA, has been set up to contribute to a new concerted mode of agricultural software development.
Decision Support Systems in Crop Protection
Authors: Knight Jonathan D. , Mumford John D.
Published: July 2017

All farmers and growers have at some time faced the decision of whether to control a pest in their crop. In order to make the correct decision the farmer needs access to, and an understanding of, sufficient information relevant to such pest problems. Decision support systems are able to help farmers make these difficult decisions by providing information in an easily understandable and quickly accessed form. The increasing use of computers by farmers for record-keeping and business management is putting the hardware necessary for the implementation of these systems onto more and more farms. The scarcity of expert advice, increasingly complex decisions and reduced economic margins all increase the importance of making the right pest management decision at the right time. It is against this background that decision support systems have an important role to play in the fight against losses caused by pests and diseases.
European Commission Research Policy Towards Non-Food Crops and Processing for Energy and Industrial Products
Authors: Mangan C. L.
Published: July 2017

The Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union has produced unacceptable crop surpluses. Now there is a drive to find alternative crops that will allow land to remain in production, and keep farmers employed, without contributing to these food mountains. Crops that yield industrial products, such as fibres and oleochemicals, or which can be used as renewable energy sources, have the added attraction that they are an environmentally friendly alternative to products from the oil industry. The European Commission (EC) is funding research into such non-food crops under its Framework Programmes, described here.
Plant Protection Projects in Developing Countries: The Present Situation
Authors: Gahukar R. T.
Published: July 2017

Plant protection has received a lot of attention in developing countries because of the serious pest problems they suffer and the hazards of synthetic pesticides. However, information on plant protection is often fragmentary if it is available at all. Here, an account is given of the planning, monitoring and evaluation of plant protection projects run by various agencies, this being the means by which statistics on plant protection and data on associated social and ecological aspects are gathered. The lack of back-up research, large scale extension, infrastructure facilities, credit availability and market accessibility are identified as constraints to plant protection projects in developing countries. Suggestions for improving these projects are discussed.
The Stagnation of Smallholder Agriculture in the Northern Region of Zambia: Problems, Conflicts and Production Systems
Authors: Nkowani Kenneth , Mcgregor Murray , Dent Barry
Published: July 2017

Food security is seriously threatened by the low productivity of smallholder farmers, endemic poverty and widespread land degradation in the Northern Region of Zambia, The challenge is how to raise smallholder productivity at farm level in the face of developmental conflicts caused by demographic change, economic growth, strife and insecurity. The government is caught between the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) drawn up to enable it to pay off its huge foreign debt on the one hand, and the need to cushion the vulnerable sections of society (mostly smallholder farmers) from the worst aspects of the monetary squeeze on the other, Current evidence points to a dangerous imbalance, with the poor being hit hardest, but there are further steps which could be taken to support smallholders.
Direct Distribution of Organic Produce: Sustainable Food Production in Industrialized Countries
Authors: Powell Jane
Published: July 2017

There is growing interest in local organic food nowadays, prompted by concerns about health, care of the environment and excessive transportation and packaging of produce. But conventional marketing systems are not really able to cater for such demands, because they operate on too large a scale. In recent years a solution to the problem has appeared: direct links between growers and consumers, within the same local area. Some of these are growing rapidly, opening up exciting possibilities for the development of sustainable food production and marketing, and for building new links between cities and the countryside.
The Cattle and Buffalo of Africa: Management
Authors: Hill D. H.
Published: July 2017

This article on the types, breeds and management of cattle and buffalo in Africa describes both traditional management systems and recent innovations, and considers the factors determining productivity, the environmental impact of pastoralism and the genetic improvement of African cattle.
Ethics, Morality and Crop Biotechnology. 1. Intrinsic Concerns
Authors: Straughan Roger
Published: July 2017

There are a variety of intrinsic concerns about the ethics of crop biotechnology, These concerns stem from a number of separable but loosely linked assumptions about the religious and moral status of the natural world and about the relationship that mankind should have with that world. Assumptions of this kind, some of which appear to be widely held, cannot be proved right or wrong, but they should be analysed in order to clarify the concepts and principles on which they depend. Some of the key questions are: Should religious believers see modern biotechnology as a blasphemous affront to God or a creative opportunity to work with him? Can any moral guidelines be provided by what happens in Nature? Can any charges of intrinsic moral wrongness be brought against crop biotechnology which are not equally applicable to traditional methods of selective breeding?
Biotechnological Aspects of Lignocellulose and Biomass Degradation
Authors: Halliwell Nigel , Halliwell Geoffrey
Published: July 2017

Vast amounts of lignocellulose/biomass are available, both naturally and as agricultural wastes, for exploitation as sources of chemical feedstocks, fuels, foods and feeds. In fact, cellulose is the only renewable biological resource available in sufficient quantity to support such large-scale industrial processes. The major constraints to these conversions and the utilization of lignocellulosic materials are economic. Apart from specially grown biomass crops the cellulose and hemicelluloses from crop residues show considerable potential for exploitation, especially as fossil fuels become depleted and less accessible. The problems may appear great but so too are the rewards.
Environmental Auditing in Agriculture: Pipe-dream or Practical Tool?
Authors: Edwards-Jones Gareth
Published: July 2017

Many non-agricultural businesses have environmental policies and seek to measure their impact on the environment through environmental auditing. In essence this requires that certain attributes of the company's interaction with the environment are quantified and monitored over time. In addition to enhancing environmental protection, financial advantages may also accrue from this process, and in theory the concept should be transferable to the agricultural situation. In practice, agricultural environmental auditing currently plays a role in ensuring compliance with certain production standards associated with ‘quality’ marketing schemes. Such schemes are unlikely to deliver environmental benefits on a large scale, but the alternative of a centrally organized auditing scheme which is related to payments from agricultural support budgets is probably too complex to be practicable.
Wildlife and Farming: Towards a Reconciliation
Authors: Smith R. Thornton , Atherden M. A. , Eyre S. R.
Published: July 2017

Aside from the views of pioneer thinkers and romantics, perception of the relationship between agriculture and the countryside by the general public has changed this century from acceptance of the status quo, to increasing consciousness of environmental problems. Recent global and European initiatives now form the basis of a strengthened package of anti-surplus and agri-environmental measures, which give some support to the enhancement of biodiversity, for instance by the redesign of fields. More fundamentally, there needs to be a more ecological approach to agricultural systems, and in particular a shift towards organic farming. Prospects for the latter must depend on an increased market share for home-grown organic produce, while both organic farming and wildlife initiatives will in the longer term depend on wider community participation, thus reversing a trend set at the start of the Industrial Revolution.
Sustainable Aquaculture for Small-scale Farmers: Need for a Balanced Model
Authors: Edwards Peter , Demaine Harvey , Innes-Taylor Nick , Turongruang Danai
Published: July 2017

Relatively few small-scale farmers culture fish, even in Asia, as the gap between the traditional supply — wild fish — and the demand has begun to widen only relatively recently. Rapid human population growth, overfishing and environmental degradation are providing a stimulus for the growth of aquaculture but sustainable systems of production remain to be developed for most areas. A balanced model involving both on-farm and off-farm resources is required to promote aquaculture so that it can fulfil its potential and contribute significantly to people's welfare. Rising expectations and the poor resource base of most small-scale farms dictate the need to intensify nutrient flows and productivity through increased levels of off-farm inputs, as outlined here for resource-poor northeast Thailand.
Industrial Markets for UK-grown Starch
Authors: Batchelor Sheila E. , Booth Elaine J. , Entwistle Garth , Walker Kerr C. , Morrison Ian , Mackay George , Rees Tom Ap , Hacking Andy
Published: July 2017

Starch is an important ingredient in a wide range of foods. It is used as a thickener, to adjust texture, to improve appearance or to act as a filler. The starch industry also supplies a diverse range of non-food industries with starch and starch derivatives. These markets account for almost half of the total production of the European starch Industry, but only 25% of the total UK starch supply. Of the 216 221 † of starch used for Industrial markets in the UK, 30% is imported potato starch, 57% is maize starch processed in the UK from imported maize, and only 13% is wheat starch, which may be both grown and processed in the UK. This article surveys some of the industrial markets for starch, highlighting recent changes which have occurred and pinpointing areas of potential development which may increase non-food use of UK-grown starch in the future. This article is based on the findings of a LINK project which was funded under the Crops for Industrial Use Programme by the BBSRC, EPSRC, SOAFD, HGCA and PMB.
A Land Management Based Approach to Integrated Striga hermonthica Control in sub-Saharan Africa
Authors: Berner Dana , Carsky Robert , Dashiell Kenton , Kling Jennifer , Manyong Victor
Published: July 2017

Striga hermonthica, an obligate root parasite of grasses, Is one of the most severe constraints to cereal production in sub-Saharan Africa. In the recent past, prior to increased production pressure on land, S. hermonthica was controlled in African farming systems by prolonged crop rotations with bush fallow. Because of increasing need for food and concomitant changes in land management practices, however, these fallow rotations are no longer extensively used. Shorter crop rotations and fallow periods have also led to declines in soil fertility which present a very serious threat to African food production. A sustainable solution will be an integrated approach that simultaneously addresses both of these major problems. An integrated programme that replaces traditional bush fallow rotation with non-host nitrogen-fixing legume rotations, using cultivars selected for efficacy in germinating S. hermonthica seeds, is outlined. The programme includes use of S. hermonthlca-free planting material, biological control, cultural control to enhance biological suppressiveness, host-plant resistance, and host-seed treatments.