bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Culture or Contiguity
Authors: Henderson Errol A.
Published: March 2007

This study examines the relationships among cultural factors, contiguity, and the onset of interstate war. These concerns are nested within a larger debate about “ethnic conflict” that assumes the salience of cultural variables in interstate conflict. Arguing that much of the research on ethnic conflict assumes rather than demonstrates the salience of cultural factors on conflict, the analysis is grounded in a comparison of the relative weight of ethnic and religious similarity among state dyads in predicting the frequency of interstate war. A logit regression is specified and tested for pairs of states in the system from 1820 to 1989. Controlling for contiguity, ethnic similarity has a direct association with war, whereas religious dissimilarity is inversely correlated with war. Cultural variables are neither monolithic nor unidirectional in their impact on conflict. Scholars should eschew the promulgation of problematic categories such as ethnic conflict and instead move toward systematically determining the salience of ethnic and religious factors in international conflict.
Free Trade and Arms Races
Authors: Reuveny Rafael , Maxwell John
Published: March 2007

To examine the effect of free trade between two potential political rivals on their respective accumulation of weapons, the authors use a model in which utility maximization, the economics of trade and comparative advantage, production of weapons and consumption goods, depreciation of weapons stocks, technological spillover from production to national security, and the accumulation of capital are represented in an infinite horizon setting. In a neoclassical two-goods model of trade, each actor specializes in producing the good of its comparative advantage and engages in trade. Each country derives positive utility from consumption and its own stock of weapons. The impact of the foreign country's weapons stock on the home country's utility is negative (in the case of rivals). The authors use dynamic optimization to show that whether free trade leads to a rise or a decline in each country's stock of weapons relative to no trade depends on the relative marginal utilities of the consumption goods and weapons.
Alliance Formation, Alliance Expansion, and the Core
Authors: Sandler Todd
Published: March 2007

This article presents a simple cooperative game theory representation of alliance formation and expansion to counter a conventional threat along the allies' borders. Mutual defense gains, derived from allying, arise from interior borders that no longer require protection. Spatial and locational attributes of the allies are crucial when identifying the gains from mutual defense and the distribution of these gains. The same number of allies can have vastly different cores depending on their spatial configurations. Extensions to the baseline case consider transaction costs, natural defenses, guerrilla warfare, and risk concerns. An application to the NATO alliance indicates that the theory has much to say about which additional Partnership for Peace countries are likely to join NATO after the three Visegrad countries.
History and Future of Development in Cross-Cultural Psychology
Authors: Keller Heidi , Greenfield Patricia M.
Published: March 2007

Our theme is that better integration of a developmental approach into cross-cultural psychology can enhance the future of cross-cultural psychology—methodologically, theoretically, and empirically. Methodologically, developmental psychology contributes contextualized procedures, such as naturalistic observation, suitable for studying behavior in its cultural context. Theoretically, developmentalists point to the fact that the culturally constructed behavior of adults can be viewed as an endpoint along a developmental pathway and that adults provide cultural socialization to the next generation. Theoretically, development also leads to an understanding of how the biologically-grounded factor of maturational stage influences both the process and content of cultural learning. Empirically, a developmental approach leads researchers to investigate the culture-specific shape of developmental stages. These culture-specific developmental patterns are selections from among a set of biologically evolved propensities. As development progresses, culture-specific stages cohere into developmental pathways. Two pathways leading to independent and interdependent construals of the self are identified.
A Cultural Model of Learning
Authors: Li Jin
Published: March 2007

This study examined the Chinese model of learning from an emic perspective. Instead of Western research concepts of learning, the Chinese folk term hao-xue-xin, in English “heart and mind for wanting to learn,” was used. Prototypical methods were employed to collect written descriptions of Chinese ideal learners from college students. Cluster analyses of these data showed that Chinese learners view learning as a process of moral striving called self-perfection. The Chinese model stresses seeking knowledge and cultivating a passion for lifelong learning, fostering diligence, enduring hardship, persistence, concentration, “studying hard” regardless of obstacles, and feeling “shame-guilt” for lack of desire to learn. Theoretical as well as empirical implications for further cross-cultural research are discussed.
Assessing the Cross-Cultural Applicability of Affective and Cognitive Components of Attitude
Authors: Cervellon Marie-Cécile , Dubé Laurette
Published: March 2007

This research tests the cross-cultural applicability of the affective and cognitive component model of attitude using within-group and multigroup confirmatory factor analysis in the context of food attitudes. French from France and Chinese from the People’s Republic of China were selected for their differences in cultural orientation toward food; the French display strong affective-cognitive ambivalence, whereas the Chinese have a balanced attitude toward food. The third group, English-Canadian Chinese, allows investigation into the consequences of acculturation on the attitude structure. Results strongly support the cross-cultural applicability of the affective-cognitive model. The affective-cognitive model was validated within groups, and invariance in model measurement was established across groups. In addition, cross-cultural differences and similarities in the latent means and in the pattern of correlations between affective and cognitive components were consistent with theoretically derived expectations.
The Life Game: Survival Strategies in Ethiopian Folktales
Authors: Korten David C.
Published: March 2007

A content analysis of behavior patterns in 129 Ethiopian folktales to identify rules governing payoffs in the game of everyday living as perceived in the traditional Ethiopian culture is presented. The study concluded that Ethiopians tend to view the life game as zero-sum, non-shared sum, and yielding at best a limited payoff. This view results in a set of survival strategies based on self-protection, deception, and revenge aimed either at maintaining the status quo or advancing oneself at the expense of others. Perceived opportunities for initiative and cooperation in service to the community are limited. Personal efficacy is perceived as present in interpersonal exchanges, but not in exchanges with the impersonal environment.
A Cross-Cultural Study of Aggression and Crime
Authors: Allen Martin G.
Published: March 2007

The relationships of agression and crime to variables of childhood experience, adult behavior, and social structure were studied cross-culturally. The expression of aggression and crime was rated for many cultures. These ratings were then correlated with ratings of ego strength and sub-groups of the ego strength scale (Allen, 1963), variables of childhood experience (Whiting & Child, 1953; Barry, Bacon, & Child, 1967), and variables of social structure (Barry, Bacon, & Child, 1967; Ethnology, 1962, 1963). The results of the correlations are discussed with reference to some theories of aggression, crime, and suicide.
Ethnic Variations in the Expression of Depression
Authors: Marsella Anthony J. , Kinzie David , Gordon Paul
Published: March 2007

Samples of Americans of Japanese, Chinese, and European ancestry evidencing clinical levels of depression were administered a depression symptom checklist, and the results were submitted to a factor analysis. Groups differed with respect to the functional dimensions expressed by the patterns. In general, existential symptoms dominated the patterns of the Japanese and Caucasians, while somatic symptoms were more characteristic of the Chinese. In addition, the Japanese evidenced an interpersonal symptom pattern, and both oriental groups manifested a cognitive symptom pattern. A theory was proposed which suggested that symptoms are related to extensions of the self-conditioned via socialization experiences. The role of individual differences, stress, and cultural definitions of disorder in determining the expression of depression was also discussed.
A Cross-Cultural Comparison of the Social Desirability Variable
Authors: Ghei Som N.
Published: March 2007

College students from India and the United States rated a set of 42 personality statements on a nine-point scale ranging from extremely socially desirable to extremely socially undesirable. These ratings were found to be similar not only for subjects from distinct linguistic regions within India but also for subjects from India and the United States. The relationship between ratings of social desirability of personality statements and the probability of endorsement of the same statements was also observed to be quite similar across the two cultures.
A Cross-Cultural Comparison of the Structure of Vocational Interests
Authors: Meir Elchanan I. , Sohlberg Shaul , Barak Azy
Published: March 2007

Cole and Hanson (1971) and Edwards and Whitney (1972) analyzed responses of American Ss to several interest inventories. They found the occupational fields to have the following circular configuration in terms of Holland's (1966) classification of occupations: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprise, and Conventional. Two interest inventories were constructed on the basis of Roe's (1956) classification of occupations and were administered to 170 Arab samples and to three samples of Jewish Ss with n's of 231, 220, and 296. The structure of the occupational fields emerged from a smallest-space analysis. It was found that vocational interests have a similar circular configuration in Western and non-Western cultures.
Linguistic Development and Conceptual Ization
Authors: Lemon Nigel
Published: March 2007

A repertory grid technique was used to investigate the effect of development in a weaker language on conceptualization in that language. Form II and Form IV secondary school pupils in Tanzania were administered repertory tests with elements consisting of either persons or countries in both English and Swahili. Comparison of English and Swahili grids showed that language deficit reduces the polarization of judgments made using constructs articulated in the weaker language, although no differences in construct relationships vere observed. Differences in integration of construct relationships and polarization of judgment appeared to be related to the social appropriateness of each language for conceptualizing the elements in question. Implications of these results for the relationship between language and conceptualization are discussed.
Achievement Motivation in Children of Three Ethnic Groups in the United States
Authors: Ramirez Manuel , Price-Williams Douglass R.
Published: March 2007

Children of three ethnic groups in the United States-Anglos, Blacks, and Mexican Americans-were asked to tell a story to each of seven line drawings depicting persons in a setting related to education. Stories were scored for n Achievement and family achievement (oriented toward achievement goals from which the family would benefit or that would gain recognition from family members). The results showed that Mexican-American and Black children scored higher on family achievement than did Anglo children. Anglos, however, scored higher on n Achievement. On those cards depicting parental figures, however, Mexican-American and Black children tended to score higher on n Achievement than Anglo children. Females in all three ethnic groups scored lower on n Achievement but higher on family achievement than males. It was concluded that contextual conditions are most important in expression of achievement motivation and that the particular form in which achievement is expressed is determined by the definition that culture gives to it.
Orientation Errors in Copying by Children in Hong Kong
Authors: Goodnow Jacqueline J. , Young Brian M. , Kvan Eric
Published: March 2007

Hong Kong children in two age groups (3-4 years and 6-7 years) were asked to copy a number of geometric shapes. Orientation errors were found to correspond with two types of error observed in U.S. samples: inversions of shapes regarded by children as having "right-side-up" and "wrong-side up" positions, when presented for copying in a "wrong-side up" orientation; and left-right reversal of a shape inconsistent with the usual sequence of strokes in young children's copying. The results suggest the presence of common features in the way perception of a visual pattern is translated into a copied form.
An Attributional Analysis of Adult Nigerians' Perception of Moral Behavior
Authors: Ugwuegbu Denis Chimaeze E.
Published: March 2007

Adult Nigerians' attitudes toward unethical behavior were examined. The subjects were given an opportunity to infer the actor's motive in a fashion parallel to Kelley's hypothesis that actions motivated by gain would be evaluated more negatively than similar actions motivated by a desire to prevent loss. The subjects were also informed of the consequences of the behavior. Ninety Nigerian students read transcripts of a case against a student who stole his examination papers either (1) to avoid failure, (2) for no specific reason, or (3) to enhance his chances of success. The consequences of the behavior were either negative for the actor alone or the actor and some others. The data indicate that adult Nigerians engage in moral judgment in terms of objective rather than subjective intent.
The Relationship of Test Familiarity to Extreme Response Styles in Bedouin and Moroccan Boys
Authors: Shapiro Alvin H. , Rosenblood Lorne , Berlyne Geoffrey M. , Finberg John
Published: March 2007

Two separate experiments were reanalyzed to investigate the hypothesis that test familiarity influences style of response. IQ and attitude questionnaire responses of 47 Israeli male Bedouin adolescents were compared to 85 of their more Western-oriented Moroccan peers. Both groups showed evidence of a response style biased toward the extreme right of multiple choice arrays which was, however, more reliable among the Bedouins. English language exposure was presumed to have influenced the differential results. Researchers were cautioned to be aware of response style problems as a legitimate concern.
Demand for Participation
Authors: Orpen Christopher
Published: March 2007

Employee attitudes toward participation in decision-making were examined in a questionnaire study of 87 black and 72 white clerks in South Africa. Unlike previous studies, their attitudes toward direct and indirect forms of influence as well as participation in local, medium, and distant decisions were separately assessed. There were no differences in the amounts of participation desired by the black and white clerks, but the black clerks felt they were offered significantly less opportunities than did the white clerks. Perceived influence in decision-making was positively related to job satisfaction, but desired influence was negatively related to job satisfaction in both groups. It is argued that the amount of participation desired may depend upon the strength of "basic needs" rather than work experiences and that effective distant participation may depend upon first involving employees in decision-making at the local level.
Multiattributional Causality
Authors: Chandler Theodore A. , Shama Deborah D. , Wolf Fredric M. , Planchard Sara K.
Published: March 2007

This study elaborated upon the internal-external locus of control dimension in cross-national achievement research by including a measure of a stable-unstable dimension, four individual causal attributions (ability, effort, context, and luck), and success and failure conditions. Subjects were 684 university students from India, Japan, South Africa, the United States, and Yugoslavia, majoring in education, social science, and physical science. Results supported the usefulness of this expanded perspective in understanding beliefs of responsibility for achievement outcomes. Subjects across all countries attributed their achievement more to their own effort (internal, unstable) than to ability, luck, or context. Differences among countries were significant for attributions to ability, context, and luck and for the stability composite. Differences among the countries for effort attributions and overall internality were not statistically significant. Across countries individuals made differential attributions depending upon the success or failure of their achievement-related behavior.
Interlingual Interference in Naming Color Words
Authors: Kiyak H. Asuman
Published: March 2007

The Stroop Color-word test was administered to two groups of bilinguals to assess the relative influence of interlingual versus intralingual interference. Subjects included 10 native Turkish speakers whose second language was English and 10 native English speakers who spoke Turkish fluently. Each subject was asked to vocalize color names in Turkish and in English, using a control list (XXX), a Turkish list, and an English list of color words written in a contrasting color ink from the meaning of the color word. Intralingual interference was greater than interlingual for American subjects, but Turks experienced both forms of interference almost equally. Overall interference was greater for Americans. Results suggest that interlingual interference may be related to familiarity with a language. Implications for assessing fluency in a second language are discussed.
Moral Orientation and Moral Judgment in Adolescents in Hong Kong, Mainland China, and England
Authors: Ma Hing Keung
Published: March 2007

The orientation to perform affective, altruistic, and self-actualizing acts and to abide by the law in hypothetical moral dilemmas was studied in adolescents from Hong Kong, mainland China, and England. It was found that one's orientation to gratify psychological needs decreased consistently in the following order: belongingness, affective and giving, esteem and social, and self-actualization needs. The relation between moral orientation and moral judgment was significant and positive across the three cultural samples. In addition, Chinese subjects showed a stronger orientation to perform affective and altruistic acts and to abide by the law than did English subjects. English female subjects also showed a stronger orientation to perform affective and altruistic acts and to abide by the law than did English male subjects.
Public Concerns about LLRW Facility Siting
Authors: Vari Anna , Kemp Ray , Mumpower Jeryl L
Published: March 2007

A comparative analysis of public concerns about siting low-level radioactive waste (LLRW) disposal facilities in the United States (specifically New York State), the United Kingdom, and Hungary was performed. The analysis was based on publicly expressed responses to LLRW siting processes, plans, or decisions in each country. A typology of public concerns was developed. There was a substantial similarity in the concerns expressed in all the three countries. Fifteen of the twenty concerns were observed in all three, and another two were shared by two. However, there were differences in the relative importance of the concerns and the nature of specific arguments. The results suggest that idiosyncratic economic, social, and political factors significantly influence the importance of various concerns and proposed alternative solutions to LLRW management.
A Cross-Cultural View of Positive Mental Health
Authors: Minsel Beate , Becker Peter , Korchin Sheldon J.
Published: March 2007

Student teachers, working teachers, and retired teachers (N = 595) from four countries (France, Germany, Greece, and the United States) completed a questionnaire containing 186 items in Likert format with instructions to describe the mentally healthy person. Principal component analyses of item responses showed two cross-culturally invariant orthogonal factors, which were interpreted as High versus Low Mental Health and High versus Low Behavior Control. Factor loadings revealed a circumplex structure similar to that repeatedly found by Becker in studies of self-description of personality. Four scales were constructed representing the two main axes and the two diagonals of the circumplex structure. The scales were named Mental Health, Behavior Control, Social Adaptation versus Social Maladaptiveness, and Self-Actualization versus Inhibition. Analyses of variance showed cultural and age differences, which were interpreted as reflecting different degrees of permissiveness, varying self-concepts, and of differences in economic wealth of the countries studied.
The Behavioral Intentions Questionnaire
Authors: McInerney Dennis M.
Published: March 2007

In the present study exploratory factor analysis is used to establish the etic validity of the Triandis model (as represented by the Behavioral Intentions Questionnaire) for each of three Australian cultural groups: Aboriginal, Anglo, and Migrant. It is also used to determine the emic content of the variables relevant to each of the groups. Multiple regression analysis is used to establish and compare the key predictors of behavioral intention based on the factor analytic studies for the three cultural groups. The ability of the factor score derived model to predict intention is compared with a raw score model.
A Cross-Cultural Study of Story Memory
Authors: Harris Richard Jackson , Schoen Lawrence M. , Hensley Deana L.
Published: March 2007

This study examines some of the effects of culturally based knowledge on memory for stories about people performing common activities. Monocultural college students in (a) the United States and (b) Mexico read three brief stories about people going on a date, going home from the office for lunch, and starting a new semester of school. There were two versions of each story, consistent with either a U.S. or a Mexican cultural script. A modified recognition memory test for information in the stories occurred at one of three different delay intervals (immediately after reading the stories, 1/24 hour later, or 1 week later). Results showed that, after 1 week, both groups of subjects misremembered the stories from the other culture as being more like their own culture than they in fact were. The findings were consistent with previous monocultural research and argue that any theory of the effects of script-based knowledge on memory must consider the cultural origin of that knowledge. Problems associated with use of the script or schema construct to describe such knowledge were considered.
A Cross-Cultural Study of Task Persistence of Young Children in Japan and the United States
Authors: Binco Priscilla M.A.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that Japanese children do demonstrate higher task persistence, under noncompetitive conditions, than their peers in the United States. The subjects for the study were 107 first-grade students in Japan and 86 first-grade students in the United States from four elementary schools in each country. The research was designed to include three major independent variables: culture, school type, and sex. The results supported the hypothesis in demonstrating greater persistence by Japanese children, compared to their American peers. Type of school or sex of the pupil did not have any significant effect on task persistence.
The Relationship of Value Orientation to Moral Cognition
Authors: Stander Valerie , Jensen Larry
Published: March 2007

This research explores the proposition of Gilligan's 1982 work that there are two possible moral orientations—justice and caring. She takes issue with the work of Kohlberg because his stage theory proceeds toward a single orientation of justice and autonomy. Both women and non-Western cultures have been accused of failure to achieve Kohlberg's post conventional (justice-oriented) stage of moral reasoning. It was hypothesized that this is because they favor a caring ethic. The World View Questionnaire was administered to groups of American and Chinese students. The results found that women favor a caring orientation. The Chinese population quite significantly favored a justice orientation. This last result may be evidence of patterns of change in Chinese value systems.
Effects of Physical Attractiveness, Sex, and Type of Crime on Mock Juror Decisions
Authors: Wuensch Karl L. , Chia Rosina C. , Castellow Wilbur A. , Chuang Chong-Jen , Cheng Bor-Shiuan
Published: March 2007

A study previously conducted with American college students was replicated with Chinese college students. The Chinese subjects read a description of either a burglary or a swindle where the defendant was either male or female, physically attractive or unattractive, and Chinese or American. A biographical sketch and a photograph of the defendant were attached to the description of the crime. Subjects were asked to indicate the length of sentence appropriate for the crime, rate the seriousness of the crime, and rate the defendant on 12 personal characteristics. Results indicated that (a) female subjects gave longer sentences for the crime of burglary but only when the defendant was American; (b) attractiveness was associated with lenient sentencing for American burglars but with stringent sentencing for American swindlers; (c) Chinese women gave more lenient sentences to female defendants than to male defendants; (d) American defendants, regardless of the crime, were rated more than favorably than Chinese defendants; (e) attractive defendants were rated more favorably on 6 of the 12 personal characteristics; and (f) the swindler was rated more favorably than the burglar on 7 of the 12 personal characteristics.
Parental Discipline in Anglo, Greek, Lebanese, and Vietnamese Cultures
Authors: Papps Fiona , Walker Michael , Trimboli Antonieta , Trimboli Carmelina
Published: March 2007

The disciplinary practices used by mothers to control their children in four ethnic groups in Australia are compared from a developmental perspective. A vignette approach was used in which each mother was asked to say how she would deal with 12 situations involving her oldest child at 8 years of age and at 4 years of age. The responses were coded as power assertion, love withdrawal, induction, and permissiveness. Twenty mothers of each of the ethnic groups, Geek, Lebanese, Vietamese, and Anglo, from the same socioeconomic level and geographic area were randomly chosen from lists of families that met the criteria for inclusion in the study. The results showed that for all four groups of mothers, power assertion was the most frequently used disciplinary technique. However, power assertion was reported less frequently by the Vietnamese mothers than by mothers from the other ethnic groups. Inductive techniques were relatively more often used with 4-year-old children and mothers were relatively more permissive with 8-year-old children.
Indigenization and Development of the Discipline
Authors: Adair John G. , Pandey Janak , Begum Hamida Akhtar , Puhan Biranchi N. , Vohra Neharika
Published: March 2007

Surveys were conducted of the attitudes and opinions of Indian and Bangladeshi psychologists. A series of questions assessed their perceptions of the intellectual climate within universities, their research publication preferences and practices within both national and foreign journals, and the communality of their opinions regarding research priorities and practices within their national psychology. Differences between countries, and within-sample comparisons of psychologists with and without foreign experience and strong preferences to publish in foreign journals revealed some insights about the development of the discipline that may generalize to other developing countries. Strategies for overcoming the lack of a constructive intellectual climate, a major obstacle to discipline development in India and Bangladesh, are considered
Development of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory
Authors: Cheung Fanny M. , Leung Kwok , Fan Ruth M. , Song Wei-Zheng , Zhang Jian-Xin , Zhang Jian-Ping
Published: March 2007

A combined "emic-etic" approach was adopted to develop an indigenous omnibus personality inventory for the Chinese people. The Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI) consists of constructs selected specifically in consideration of the Chinese culture as well as scales covering personality constructs commonly found in English-language psychological tests. Preliminary results confirmed the robust structure of the scales related to Chinese tradition among random samples of subjects in the People's Republic of China and in Hong Kong. This article reports the psychometric properties of the CPAI. It also outlines the steps in the construction of the CPAI, which adapted personality assessment methods used in Western countries for developing a culturally relevant instrument in a non-Western culture. The methodology provides an example for the development of indigenous personality inventories in other non-Western cultures.
Self-Enhancement, Generality of Self-Evaluation, and Affectivity in Israel and Singapore
Authors: Kurman Jenny , Sriram N.
Published: March 2007

Previous findings from Israel show that self-evaluations are more positive than objective criteria and that they become more positive at more general levels of self-evaluation (Kurman & Eshel, 1996). This article examines whether this manifestation of self-enhancement exists in a more collectivistic culture. Academic self-evaluations obtained from eighth graders in Singapore and Israel revealed self-enhancement in both cultures. For Israelis, there was a trend of increasing self-enhancement at more general levels of self-evaluation. In contrast, the magnitude of Singaporeans' self-enhancement was not influenced by the generality of self-evaluation. Self-enhancement was positively related to well-being and self-esteem in both cultures. Taken together, the findings suggest that the weaker self-enhancement in Singapore does not necessarily imply the absence of the self-enhancement motive.
Dimensionality and Hierarchy of the Sdq in a Non-Western Milieu
Authors: Abu-Hilal Maher M. , Aalhussain Abdul-Qader A.
Published: March 2007

This study tested the construct validity and invariance of a multidimensional measure of self-concept, the Self-Description Questionnaire (SDQ-I), on a non-Western sample of boys and girls. Separate exploratory factor analyses of data from a sample of 566 students (302 boys, 264 girls) clearly identified five of the seven proposed factors. The covariance analysis supported a seven-factor model for boys and girls. The number of factors and the pattern of factor loading and uniqueness were invariant across genders. Factor covariances were not clearly invariant across genders, thus providing support for the differential socialization hypothesis. That is, the Arab girls made a better distinction of their worthiness in different areas than boys did. A model with two higher-order factors was found to be better than models with one or three higher-order factors. Coefficients alpha for the subscales ranged from .74 to .92 for girls and .76 to .93 for boys.
Some Observations with Regard to a Missing Elephant
Authors: Michael Donald N.
Published: March 2007

What is happening to the human race is too complex, interconnected, and dynamic to comprehend. Acknowledging that we don’t know what we’re talking about carries significant implications for how we perceive ourselves as persons and how we conduct our activities. Unavoidable sources of our ignorance include the following: (a) too much and too little information to reach knowledgeable consensus and interpretation within the time available for action; (b) no shared set of value priorities; (c) no agreement on how much context is necessary to be responsible for actions and interpretations; (d) spoken/written language cannot adequately map the complexity; (e) absence of reliable boundaries; (f) self-amplifying, unpredictable acting-out of the shadow; and (g) governance becomes uniquely problematic. Living constructively with these circumstances depends on (a) recognizing that we seek meaning, although, unavoidably, we live in illusions; (b) acknowledging the vulnerability and finiteness of ourselves and our projects; (c) lacking pride and arrogance in the conviction that we know what must be done and how to do it; (d) acting in the spirit of hope, not optimism; (e) acting in the spirit of “tentative commitment”; (f) being “context alert”; (g) being a learner/teacher; and (h) practicing compassion for all who must live and act under these conditions.
The Spiritual Poverty of Rational-Emotive Therapy
Authors: Finley Robert
Published: March 2007

Rational-emotive therapy (RET) claims to be "humanistic" and derived from the philosophy of the ancient Stoics. The philosophical assumptions evident in Albert Ellis's writings, however, reveal a truer basis of RET to be the philosophy of logical positivism RET cannot be both humanistic and positivistic, for the former affirms and the latter denies the spiritual possibilities of the human being Quotations from principle writers show the Stoics to be grounded in spiritual dimensions which Ellis explicitly rejects. Analysis suggests RET to be philosophically naive and confused. The tone and content of Ellis's writings reveal the evangelical faith of the true believer, which is detrimental in a human services profession.
Breaking the Taboos: Further Reflections On Mothering
Authors: Robbins Joan Hamerman
Published: March 2007

Three books have touched me deeply and expanded my consciousness. Each book is concerned with mothering or being mothered and the central role this has played in women's and men's lives. Everything we know about the human condition flows from the initial contact of the infant with its mother. Throughout our history we have not been able to separate child bearing from child rearing. For myriad reasons women have kept mothering their own special experience. In perpetuating this arrangement we all suffer: women by not experiencing their power in the wider world, men by not learning first hand how to be caring and nurturing humans, and infants by not having a primary experience of intimacy with fathers.

The books discussed in this article offered me a framework within which to view these complex themes. The richness of the material lies in the perspec tive developed by these women writers. In this article I share my responses to these works, and then move on to indicate how my own thinking was in fluenced.
A Homeopathic Model of Psychotherapy
Authors: Riebel Linda
Published: March 2007

This article sets forth a theoretical model for psychotherapy. Distinction is made between allopathic techniques, which oppose the problem, and homeopathic techniques, which prescribe the problem as a means of treatment. Five techniques are reviewed: psychoanalysis, catharsis, Gestalt awareness techniques, Rogerian acceptance, and paradoxical intention strategies. The literature of each is briefly reviewed and concepts that support the thesis of this article are discussed. The hypothesis is advanced that these techniques constitute a homeopathic approach to psychotherapy, in that (in different ways) each calls on the client to continue to have or to intensify experience already present. Contrasting techniques (psychosurgery, drugs, ECT, certain behavior modification techniques, exhortation, and confrontation) are characterized as allopathic. Differences between the two models are delineated and the rationales and advantages of the homeopathic model are discussed. Parallels between the homeopathic model and the humanistic tradition are drawn.
Reflections on a Workshop with Carl Rogers
Authors: Slack Sylvia
Published: March 2007

This article is a recalling of the feelings that I experienced when I participated in two interviews with Carl Rogers in a summer workshop at Texas Woman's University. After the last day of the workshop, I viewed video tapes of the two interviews and then noted my impressions and feelings about the entire experience, both as a participant and as a spectator.
Realizing the Promise of Humanistic Education
Authors: Bell Lee , Schniedewind Nancy
Published: March 2007

This article proposes an integration of critical theory and humanistic education. Strengths and limitations of each approach are discussed and the positive outcomes of their synthesis suggested. A model for liberatory education is proposed that incorporates the pedagogical skills of the humanists with the social analysis of the critical theorists. Examples of such integration in the work of educators in various fields are described.
Extending Mindfulness to Everyday Life
Authors: Tart Charles T.
Published: March 2007

The great spiritual traditions agree that the cultivation of mindfulness is central. Without mindfulness we live in a state of distorted perceptions and fantasies, acting inappropriately with reference to our own true nature and the reality of the immediate situation, and consequently creating stupid and useless suffering. This article is oriented toward those readers already convinced of the value of cultivating increased mindfulness, so I shall not attempt to prove its value here: I have discussed this elsewhere (Tart, 1986), as well as the way modern psychological knowledge supports it. Although the traditions advocate developing mindfulness in all situations of life, advocacy, skillful training, and emphasis are not the same thing. Much traditional Buddhist practice, in particular, effectively puts its emphasis on formal sitting without engaging in extensive and specific training for mindfulness in everyday life. Because traditional Buddhist practice is a major influence on people interested in meditation, the apparent lack of means for generalizing mindfulness to everyday life can be a serious problem for many Westerners, especially because most of us want to enliven all of life through our growth practices, not retire to a life of solitary meditation. This article discusses ways in which elements of a less well-known mindfulness cultivation tradition, the Gurdjieff training, may be used to increase mindfulness in everyday life situations and to facilitate the generalization of mindfulness from intensive meditation sessions to everyday life. Some specific training exercises are presented, as well as the principles of devising such exercises.
Evolution, Emptiness and the Fantasy Self
Authors: Muzika Edward G.
Published: March 2007

Current psychoanalytic thinking emphasizes understanding the development of self in the infant and in therapy, while Eastern religions investigate the phenomenology of the self-especially its representational, spatial, and temporal composition. Western therapies examine developmental roots of self-disorders, while Eastern thinking regards even normal self-development as pathological, and claims that the self must be transcended. In this article, representative Eastern and Western concepts of self are investigated, as well as the current debate between transpersonal and existential psychologists concerning psychological evolution and the ultimate goals of therapy. A synthesis of these viewpoints is offered, and a phenomenological therapy is presented, based on object relations theory, existential/humanist therapy, and Buddhist meditation techniques.
A Brief History of the Human Science Research Conference
Authors: Aanstoos Chris
Published: March 2007

The International Human Science Research Conference has now met annually since 1982, and its 10th meeting is already being planned for next year. This decade of activity on behalf of human science research has reached the point of meriting serious reflection on its significance. In this article, the history of those meetings is reviewed and their future prospects are examined. Lastly, a brief analysis is offered of the place of this gathering within the broad domain of human studies.
Behaviorism and Existentialism Revisited
Authors: Gruba-McCallister Efrank P.
Published: March 2007

In the article "Behaviorism and Existentialism Revisited," Woolfolk and Sass (1988) seek to draw certain parallels and affinities between these two schools of thought. However, in carefully analyzing some of these affinities from a theory-construction approach (Rychlak, 1981), it is discovered that these similarities are more superficial than substantive. Particular attention is given to differences between these two schools regarding the nature of subjectivity and free will.
Skinner, Maslow, and Psilocybin
Authors: Gable Robert S.
Published: March 2007

This article describes a personal experience of altered consciousness as a result of ingesting "magic mushrooms" (psilocybin). It also briefly notes the reactions of Fred Skinner and Abraham Maslow to a report to them of this experience made by the author when he was a graduate student 30 years ago. Familiarity with the effects of hallucinogens may facilitate communication with terminally ill individuals, and such substances may serve as efficacious tools for actualizing visionary potential.
The Great Chain of Being
Authors: Wilber Ken
Published: March 2007

This essay presents a brief summary of the great chain of being, as historically conceived and as it is reappearing in modern evolutionary and system theories. It particularly addresses the misconception that the notion of "hierarchy" is abstract and linear and reiterates Arthur Koestler's point that "hierarchy," which is a holistic concept of fields within fields, really ought to be called "holoarchy." The implications for psychology of the great holoarchy of being are briefly addressed, and the comprehensive nature of the great chain is related to various modern schools of psychology.
Neophobia, Ontological Insecurity, and Existential Choice Following Trauma
Authors: Smith Martin R. , Jones Ellen T.
Published: March 2007

This article offers a model for understanding the paradoxical behavior of adult survivors of child abuse. Reinforcement theory predicts AUTHORS' NOTE: We gratefully acknowledge Katharine Thompson and Gladys Patterson for their invaluable assistance in developing concepts and preparing this article. The concepts in this article were first publicly presented by Martin R. Smith and Marjorie K. TIoomim during a lecture entitled "The Psychology of Trauma and Shock" at the C.L.A.R.E. Foundation, Los Angeles, August 1986. that organisms will seek pleasure and avoid pain, yet adults abused in childhood continue in self-injurious and self-damaging patterns of behavior with no seeming regard for hedonic (feeling) consequences. This model proposes that, following chronic trauma, the neocortex loses its capacity to rationally evaluate and guide behavior and is relegated to simply ratifying a primitive form of rote, inflexible, subcortical mediation of behavior. The primary purpose of this subcortical meditation is to maintain a state of dissociation that keeps the mental, emotional, and behavioral aspects of early trauma from becoming conscious. This behavior is termed neophobic, derived from neophobia, meaning fear of the new. Subcortical mediation has an ontological reinforcement because it is concerned with the existential problem of making choices that seem to ensure survival even when the choices are irrational in terms of selfpreservation. The therapeutic requirements are to carefully and gently extinguish neophobic perseveration in dissociation, restore neocortical ability for rational choice making, and assist in mourning the loss of ontological well-being.
Reflections on Fritz Perls
Authors: Rosanes-Berrett Marilyn B.
Published: March 2007

This article is in response to two articles in thisjournal, one by Laura Perls and the other by Ilene Serlin. It is a personal portrait dedicated on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the birth of Fritz Perls to the man and his work, by a former patient and long-time friend and colleague. It is also a description of the troubled relationship between Laura and Fritz, which seems to have polarized their respective followers. The author, who knew both Fritz and-Laura Perls very well, was deeply touched by Fritz and his work and believes that Laura and her followers have misrepresented and devalued his contributions.
Reflections on the Buber-Rogers Dialogue
Authors: Friedman Maurice
Published: March 2007

After setting the stage of the dialogue between Martin Buber and Carl Rogers in Michigan in 1957, which the author moderated, the article discusses the close relationship between Rogers's writings and Buber's "healing through meeting." The first major issue that arose in the dialogue was that of "the problematic of mutuality"-Rogers's seeming insistence that Buber's I-Thou relationship implies total mutuality in the therapy relationship and Buber's stress that there is a normative limitation of mutuality both because of the structure of the therapy relationship and the limits of resources of the client. The second major issue was that of acceptance and confirmation. Rogers held that through the therapist's acceptance of the client, the client actualizes himself or herself. Buber held that acceptance is the beginning of relationship but that real healing through meeting demands confirmation too, which includes helping the client in his or her inner conflict between the desire to find and follow one's unique personal direction and the aimless whirl that resists direction. Rogers equated acceptance and confirmation because he held that human nature is good and therefore to be trusted. Buber held that the human being is neither good nor evil but polar. Rogers tended to make dialogue the means to self-actualization, whereas Buber saw self-actualization as the by-product of dialogue.
Descendants of Nazi Perpetrators: Seven Years after the First Interviews
Authors: Bar-On Dan
Published: March 2007

Numerous publications describe the original sample of descendants' of Nazi perpetrators in Germany: the silencingby both their families and the German society of their parents' participation in the extermination process during the Third Reich, their working-through process, the 'double wall" phenomenon between them and their parents, the logic of the descendants' moral arguments, their parents' paradoxical morality, the descendants' identification and pseudoidentification with the victims (Bar-On, 1989a, 1989b, 1990a, 1990b, 1991b; Bar-On & Charny, 1992; Bar-On & Gaon, 1991; Rosenthal & Bar-On, 1992). In addition, several television programs and journalists have interviewed the German self-help group that evolved as a by-product of this study.2 The present aiscussion is a follow-up of that study, 712 years after the initial interviews took place, and concentrates on three perspectives: (1) The perspective of the German interviewees: In what way did the numerous interviews, the group work, or both affect their life perspective? (2) the positive and negative roles of the media in this process; and (3) the role of the author as interviewer, participator, observer.