bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Gastropod phylogeny — challenges for the 90s
Authors: Ponder Winston F , Lindberg David R
Published: November 2023

Relatively little attention was paid to gastropod higher classification for much of the 1900s, in marked contrast to the considerable literature that flowered last century. During that time there were several studies based on single organ systems, those of Troschel [(and Thiele) (1856-1893) on radulae and Bouvier (1887) on nervous systems, being particularly influential examples. Such speculation virtually ended following the publication of Thiele’s (1929-1931) Handbuch. His scheme of gastropod classification was adopted, essentially unchanged, by the synoptic works of Wenz (1938-1944), the Treatise (Knight, et al., 1960; Moore, 1960) and Boss (1982). Few alternative schemes were proposed prior to the mid 1980’s, the most notable being that of Golikov and Starobogatov (1975). However, in the last 15 years there has been a surge of new interest in gastropod phylogeny (e.g. Graham, 1985; Haszprunar 1988; Ponder, 1988; Bieler, 1992), largely as a result of the stimulus provided by L. v. Salvini-Plawen and G. Haszprunar (e.g. Salvini-Plawen, 1980; Salvini-Plawen and Haszprunar, 1987; Haszprunar, 1985a, b, 1988).
Phylogeny and relationships of neogastropoda
Authors: Kantor Yuri L
Published: November 2023

The Neogastropoda is an order of gastropods which is rather well defined both conchologically and anatomically, and is usually considered to be monophyletic. Doubts concerning the monophyly of Neogastropoda were cast by Golikov and Starobogatov (1988), who split Neogastropoda into two superorders, which in their opinion, originated independently from different ancestors. This suggestion was almost exclusively based on their ideas of the evolution of radula.
Crab predation as a selective agent on shelled gastropods: a case study of calliostoma zizyphinum (prosobranchia: trochidae)
Authors: Preston S Jane , Roberts David , Montgomery W Ian
Published: November 2023

Predation is an important cause of evolutionary change in both predators and prey. In predator-prey interactions, selective forces may be high, increasing individual survival by promoting anti-predatory traits in prey and enhancing the capacity of a predator to procure its prey (Vermeij, 1982a,c). Predation by a number of crab species on gastropod prey has been used frequently to model such predator/prey interactions. There is much evidence indicating that crabs attack and consume shelled prey. Cancer antennarius (Stimpson) is reported to be a predator on Tegula funebralis (Adams) (Abbot and Haderlie, 1980) and operculae of this snail have been found in the crab’s gut (Geller, 1982). The abundance of broken shells with shell injuries matching damage inflicted by Carcinus maenas (L.) in the laboratory, suggests that such crab predation is common (Hadlock, 1980).
Conservation
Authors: Kushlan James A , Hancock James A
Published: November 2023

As a group of birds so intimately engaged in the human-dominated environment, herons face conservation issues throughout the world. Some species and populations are at risk, a few are on the very brink of extinction. Other species have limited ranges or habitat scope. Many appear secure, but depend for their status on habitats supplied by human activities. Other species are vigorously expanding their range and population sizes. As noted in each of the species accounts, even the most common species require conservation attention directed to their habitat needs, whereas the very rare ones require immediate attention and action to prevent their extinction.
Rufescent Tiger-Heron Tigrisoma lineatum
Authors: Kushlan James A , Hancock James A
Published: November 2023

well-watered Caribbean slope in forests up to 750 m. In Colombia, it occurs along mountain streams up to 1539 m. The southern race is found in forested hill country, and in more open forest (Yamashita and de Paula Valle 1990). The Fasciated Tiger-Heron is a solitary species. It feeds by Walking slowly along the banks of fast- flowing rivers or along mid river gravel beds. It also Stands very still waiting for prey on river rocks, from the bank, or on gravel or sand bars. It feeds in the open, not necessarily under tree cover, but none the less is not very conspicuous (Ridgely and Gwynne 1993).
New Guinea Tiger-Heron Zonerodius heliosylus
Authors: Kushlan James A , Hancock James A
Published: November 2023

fish, at first well digested (Rossi 1958). The chick is fed only at night, apparently only once per night. Adults shade the young from the sun, both adults and young using gular fluttering to stay cool (Dyrcz 1999). Nothing is documented on chick development and nothing is known about breeding success. Nothing is known of the population biology of the species. The species is very widespread, large overall, and probably stable (Morales 2000). However, as a species of forested wetlands and streams, it is not often reported, although not particularly shy (Han- cock 1999).
White-crested Tiger-Heron Tigriornis leucolophus
Authors: Kushlan James A , Hancock James A
Published: November 2023

Other names: White-crested Tiger Bittern, African Bittern, White-crested Bittern in English; Avetigre Africana in Spanish; Onoré à huppe blache in French;Weißschopfreiher in German. Tigrisoma leucolopha Jardine, 1846. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. p. xvii: ‘Western Africa’ = Old Caladara or Bonny Rivers region (Nigeria). The White-crested Tiger-Heron is a slender, medium, cryptically coloured, black and buff barred heron with a white crest, visible when erected.
What is melanism?
Authors: Majerus Michael E N
Published: November 2023

The ‘colour’ black is a strong motif in life. It conjures dark, mysterious, and fre

selves wraiths. Indeed, Shakespeare, in sonnet 147, describes one who has driven their lover to madness and death as being ‘as black as hell’. The association with death extends further to the clothes worn in many cultures when mourning the passing of a loved one. The blackening of skin in bruising is a short lived reminder of painful injury, while a black mark results from bad behaviour. Black in several Oriental nations is a badge of servitude, slavery, and low birth. In the City of London, Black Monday was so-named to commemorate a stock exchange crash, although Black Monday also refers to 14 April 1360 when many men and horses of Edward Ill’s army, lying outside Paris, died of exposure. We refer to a relative who behaves antisocially as the black sheep of the family. Our word blackguard seems to point to this meaning; the Latin niger sometimes being used to mean bad or unpropitious. To be black-balled generally means to be excluded from some club or society. The term originates from the practice of voting on whether or not a prospective candidate should be admitted by placing coloured balls into a box, a white or red ball being usually used to indicate acceptance, and a black ball to indicate rejection. Judges used to wear a black cap when they passed the sentence of death on a prisoner. Black arts were and are practised by conjurors, wizards, witches, and warlocks, who professed to have dealings with the devil; black here meaning diabolical or wicked, possibly derived from nigromancy, a corruption of necromancy.
The diversity of melanics
Authors: Majerus Michael E N
Published: November 2023

On a sign by a car park at a distillery in Pitlocherie it says: ‘Here you will find more black trees than in the Black Forest’. A quick glance around and the reason for the sign is easy to see. All the trunks, branches and twigs of all the trees and shrubs in the vicinity are as black as soot. These include pines and firs of various species, beeches, birches, rhododendrons, flowering cherry, and mountain ash (Plate la). The reason for the apparent melanism of these trees is explained on the notice. The atmosphere around the distillery is so loaded with alcohol, that black yeasts grow all over the woody parts of the trees. Close examination of the trunks does indeed reveal fungal colonies, although the fungi in question are not true yeasts. Rather, they are a sooty mould, Ayreobaccidium pullulans, which is sometimes called ‘black yeast’. The reason that this fungus is black is that the mycelia are heavily melanised, possibly as a screening defence against ultraviolet (UV) light in high light conditions (Hudson, personal communication).
Melanism in ladybirds
Authors: Majerus Michael E N
Published: November 2023

The Lepidoptera have been pre-eminent in the study of the evolution and maintenance of melanism. However, as mentioned in Chapter 1, there have been many studies of melanism in other groups. Some, such as the work on the spittlebug, Philaneus spunarius, do little more than confirm that evolutionary phenomena, first described in moth or butterfly species, are also relevant to other taxa.
The coalescent process and background selection
Authors: Hudson R R , Kaplan N L
Published: November 2023

Gene trees or gene genealogies, which represent the history of a sample of genes from a population are fascinating objects whose statistical properties have recently been investigated under a few models (for example Kingman (1982), Tajima (1983), Slatkin (1989), Hudson (1990) and Hey (1991)). Different models can lead to gene trees with very different shapes and sizes. Examples of gene trees under three different models are shown in Fig. 4.1. Though gene trees are not directly observable entities, important observable quantities are indirectly related to them. It frequently aids our intuition, as well as mathematical analysis, to think about genetic variation as a by-product of gene genealogical (or coalescent) processes which generate gene trees. In fact, consideration of gene genealogies often leads to simple results concerning directly observable quantities. Incidentally, the gene genealogical approach also leads to efficient computer simulation algorithms for studying sampling distributions (Hudson 1990).
Applications of intraspecific phylogenetics
Authors: Crandall Keith A , Templeton Alan R
Published: November 2023

Recent advances in population genetics theory, especially coalescent theory (Tavaré 1984; Watterson 1984; Ewens 1990; Hudson 1990), coupled with an explosion of molecular techniques have allowed detailed phylogenetic information at the population level. Such genealogical relationships are termed gene trees, allele trees, or haplotype trees (we use haplotype throughout this chapter) in which different haplotypes are the operational taxonomic units. Avise and colleagues were the first to utilize this powerful molecular phylogenetic approach for studies of population genetics, especially relating to biogeographic patterns (Avise et al. 1987; Avise 1989, 1994). Their approach explores qualitatively the relationship between lineage divergence and the extent of geographical partitioning among haplotypes.
Testing the time axis of phylogenies
Authors: Benton M J
Published: November 2023

Phylogenetic trees produced from morphological or molecular information are generally represented with a horizontal axis that represents clade diversity and a vertical axis that represents character-state change. The nodal order of branching may be calibrated as a time axis by the addition of stratigraphic information about the occurrence of fossils in geological time. There is no other, independent, source of information for calibrating the time of cladogenetic events in phylogenies, and yet many doubts have been expressed about the trustworthiness of the fossil record. This subject will be explored further, and a case will be made for the use of stratigraphic and palaeontological data in producing and in testing phylogenies.
Molecular phylogenies and host-parasite cospeciation: gophers and lice as a model system
Authors: Page Roderic D M , Hafner Mark S
Published: November 2023

This chapter outlines a general theoretical and methodological framework for comparing phylogenies of hosts and parasites to address a broad variety of evolutionary questions that could not otherwise be investigated by independent study of either group. The rationale, advantages, and limitations of this approach (known generally as the comparative method) have been discussed elsewhere (Harvey and Pagel 1991), as has the long and illustrious history of host- parasite studies in general (Brooks and McLennan 1993). Here, we illustrate how the application of new and powerful molecular techniques to comparative studies of host-parasite phylogeny enables study of an entirely new domain of topics That could not be explored with non-molecular data.
The evolution of body plans: HOM/Hox cluster evolution, model systems, and the importance of phylogeny
Authors: Meyer Axel
Published: November 2023

Most evolutionary biologists wish to explain evolutionary patterns in the astonishing diversity among organisms. Developmental biologists ultimately hope to explain the developmental mechanisms that are at the basis for the wide array of Baupläne that characterize and differentiate phyla. In trying to understand biological diversification, albeit at different levels of inquiry, is where the interests of developmental biologists and evolutionary biologists meet. Moreover, developmental processes evolve just like other aspects of organisms. However, development is, in most evolutionary research, treated like a black box and most developmental biologists in turn typically do not recognize the potential contribution that evolutionary biology can make to the understanding of development.
Gas-phase electron diffraction
Authors: Hargittai István
Published: November 2023

The gas electron diffraction technique of molecular structure determination is based on the phenomenon that a beam of fast electrons is scattered by the potential from the charge distribution in the molecule. The resulting interference pattern depends on the molecular geometry, to wit the relative positions of the atomic nuclei and the intramolecular motion. Gas electron diffraction is one of the few experimental techniques able to determine molecular geometry in the vapor phase. The other principal technique is high-resolution (microwave and modern laser) spectroscopy, see Chapters 3 and 4. There are about 150 papers published per annum on gas electron diffraction structure analysis, theory, and methodological development. The Sektion für Spektren und Strukturdokumentation at the University of Ulm keeps a record of all relevant literature, compiles and disseminates a biannual newsletter and a catalog with structural data, and publishes a virtually complete annotated bibliography (Buck et al. 1981; Herde et al. 1985). A special value of the Ulm bibliographies is that they feature theoretical and methodological papers as well as reviews, technical reports, etc., in addition to the structural papers. Early structural data have been compiled by Sutton (1958, 1965), followed by two Landolt-Börnstein volumes (Callomon et al. 1976, 1987) providing coverage through to 1984.
Cancer: chemotherapy
Authors: Bensasson R v. , Land E J , Truscott T G
Published: November 2023

The first compound tested for antitumour activity by the National Cancer Institute of the USA was the simple quinone, 2-methyl-p-benzoquinone. Since 1955 over 1500potential drugs have been screened for antitumour activity, the majority of which are quinones.
Cancer: photodynamic therapy (PDT)
Authors: Bensasson R v. , Land E J , Truscott T G
Published: November 2023

It is about one hundred years since the in vivo photosensitivity associated with porphyrins was established (see, for example, Meyer-Betz I913). The relatively new, photochemotherapeutic cancer treatment known as photo dynamic therapy (PDT) is closely .related to such a photosensitivity (photo dynamic) effect (see Chapter 9). This cancer treatment has experienced a huge upsurge in research activity in the last decade or so, substantially initiated by the pioneering work of Dougherty (see, for example, Dougherty et al. 1978).
Iron and human disease
Authors: Symons M C R , Gutteridge J M C
Published: November 2023

An average adult human male contains some 4.5 g of iron, absorbs about 1 mg of iron each day, and when in iron-balance (Fig. 9.1) excretes the same amount. Since the total plasma iron turnover is around 35 mg per day, the body displays extremely efficient mechanisms for preserving iron. Slight disturbances in this delicate balance can push the body into iron overload or into iron-deficiency. It has been estimated that worldwide, today, some 500 million people are iron-deficient and several million are iron-overloaded. There are no specific mechanisms for the excretion of iron; loss occurring by the turnover of intestinal cells, in sweat, facces, urine, and by menstrual bleeding in women.
Multi-Component Boiling And Condensation
Authors: Collie John G , Eng F R S F , John R , Phil Thome D
Published: November 2023

Previous chapters have only considered the behaviour of pure single component fluids during evaporation and condensation. However, in the petrochemical industries in particular, many processes involve the evaporation (and condensation) of binary (n = 2) and multicomponent (n > 2) mixtures where n is the number of components. In the boiling of binary and multicomponent mixtures, the heat transfer and the mass transfer processes are closely linked, with the evaporation rate usually being limited by the mass transfer processes. This is significantly different from single-component systems where interfacial mass transfer rates are normally very high.
Control Theory of Non-linear Mechanical Systems
Authors: Arimoto Suguru
Published: November 2023

This book introduces a new framework for non-linear analysis and control of intelligent machines such as robot arms, mechanical hands, and other advanced mechatronic systems. It clarifies the physical and mathematical prinicples underlying the complicated dynamics of non-linear mechanical systems and deals with the design of controllers that enable sophisticated tasks to be executed. A new concept called `non-linear position-dependent circuits' plays a crucial role, together with passivity analysis as a generalization of the impedance concept. Adaptability and learnability of robot arms and hands as intelligent machines are also analysed through visible expressions of their dynamics via corresponding non-linear circuits and generalized impedance concepts. This approach may mark a milestone not only in development of a control theory for advanced mechatronics systems but also in the long path toward understanding the mysteries of motor control in the human central nervous system.
Selected engineering formulae
Authors: Cook James L
Published: November 2023

It is used to compute confidence intervals for an estimate of the population mean calculated from sample data, where the population has unknown mean and variance but is assumed to be normal.
Frictional Contact-impact Problems
Authors: Zhong Zhi-Hua
Published: November 2023

In Chapters 4 and 5, tangential contact forces between two contacting boundaries were not considered, i.e. frictional effects were neglected. In reality, however, friction phenomena exist wherever contacts occur. In many engineering applications, the effects of friction may play very important roles. In metal-forming processes, for example, frictional effects between the work piece and the die will strongly influence the forming process and the quality of the product. This chapter is thus devoted to discussion of numerical procedure for contact problems with friction.
Advanced Kinetic Theory
Authors: Woods L C
Published: November 2023

Introduction the right-hand term in (6.1) is the rate at which¢ is changed by particle dynamics, i.e. by body force accelerations like gravity and accelerations due to particle c:ollisiorrn. An exact, finite expression for δ ϕ/ δt docs not exist, but a good approximation to it will be given in §7.3.1. Maxwell was able to complete the calculation of expressions for the viscosity and conductivity only for molecules having inverse fifth-power repulsion (see §3.l.3).
Second-Order Kinetic Theory
Authors: Woods L C
Published: November 2023

Introduction our purpose in this chapter is to calculate and apply the second-order terms q and Π in the Knudsen number expansions for the heat flux vector q and the viscous stress tensor Π, namely One expects (q + q) and (Π + Π) to be more accurate representations of q and Π than the first-order terms alone, but with the second-order terms more in the role of small corrections than substantial changes. Were the terms described as being ‘second order’ comparable in magnitude to the first-order terms, this would be a signal, either that there was some deviant flow pattern making the first-order terms singularly small, or that the theory was beyond its range -of validity. The first circumstance prevails in magnetoplasm ’as, when strong magnetic fields strongly suppress cross-field, first-order transport, leaving second-order terms dominant (see 11.4.2). We shall test the importance of second-order terms in a neutral gas later in the chapter by considering the cases of ultrasonic sound waves and strong shock waves, ,examples with Knudsen numbers larger than usual and for which good experimental data is available.
Cavitation
Authors: Zdravkovich M M
Published: November 2023

‘Cavitation is a most unpleasant hydrodynamic phenomenon, whose harmful effects are both widespread and obvious, and seriously handicap many areas of science and engineering. Conversely, its basic nature has long been veiled in mystery and only recently is it beginning to be understood’ wrote Knapp et al. (197GB).
Quartum cohomology
Authors: Guest Martin A
Published: November 2023

The motivation for quantum cohomology comes from symplectic geometry and from physics (see [26]). We shall just proceed directly to a deﬁnition, in which quantum cohomology is simply ordinary cohomology but with a new ‘quantum product ‘ which extends the usualcup product. The structure constants of the quantum product are numbers denoted by A B C D, where D varies in H  2  (M; Z), and when D 0 we obtain the structure constants of ordinary cohomology. These numbers are called 3-point Gromov–Witten invariants. They are invariants of the symplectic structure of M, although this aspect will not play a direct role in this book.
The quantum D-module
Authors: Guest Martin A
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we shall discuss quantum cohomology using the D-module terminology of Chapter 4. The introduction of D-modules here is not artiﬁcial; Floer cohomology gives another approach to quantum cohomology, and a natural D-module structure on Floer cohomology was discovered by A. Givental (see [47] and [48]). This Floer cohomology D-module structure could be regarded as the ‘geometric ‘ origin of the D-module structure of quantum cohomology. However, at this point, it is technically easier to proceed by deﬁning the quantum D-module directly in terms of the quantum product.
Integrable systems
Authors: Guest Martin A
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 4 we met the KdV equation, one of the most famous integrable systems or ‘soliton equations ‘ ever studied. To some extent it overshadows the family to which it belongs: since there is no universally accepted defination of integrable system, as a first approximation one could say that an integrable system is a partial differential equation which is analogous to the KdV equation. In this chapter we shall look at the KdV equation and some other well known integrable systems. There are hundreds of treatments of the KdV equation in the pure and applied mathematical literature, but it is an equation with many facets, and our exposition will emphasize D-modules and analogies with quantum cohomology.
Integrable systems and quantum cohomology
Authors: Guest Martin A
Published: November 2023

In this final chapter we look at the map W : CrGr(s+1) in the case of quantum cohomology and, more generally, abstract quantum cohomology. That is, we apply the fundamental construction of Chapter 8 to the situation of Chapters 5 and 6. It should not be surprising that this yields beneﬁts, as the map W is a geometrical manifestation of the quantum cohomology D-module, and we have seen already that W is of great importance in other integrable systems such as the KdV equation and the harmonic map equation. In fact these expectations will be exceeded handsomely: in the case of the quantum cohomology of a Calabi–Yau manifold, W can be interpreted as a variation of Hodge structure (VHS) on a ‘mirror dual’ Calabi–Yau manifold.
Deliberating with one’s body: me and my second self
Authors: Berthoz Alain
Published: November 2023

Perception is decision making. Perception of the body, too, follows this rule. Here I would like to propose a new idea: we are basically two beings. Neurologists had this intuition almost a hundred years ago, when they proposed the idea of the body schema [2]. Another example of this intuition is the concept of a mirror image. An infant only recognizes himself in the mirror after a certain age. The image of the double in the mirror becomes possible with the construction of the body schema. The fact that we cohabit with another self is dramatically expressed by the kind of ‘out-of-body’ illusions exploited by quacks as parapsychological phenomena, but whose neural basis we are beginning to discern (see n. 12).
Infant rhythms: Expressions of musical companionship
Authors: Mazokopaki Katerina , Kugiumutzakis Giannis
Published: November 2023

Many scholars accept that it is in our nature to be musical—that the sound of music, and the ritual use of music in the life of the community, must have accompanied human beings from the evolutionary origins of mankind. Some believe that the talent for song and dance is what first made the evolution of social life of human beings different from other animals, and that with this talent arose the capacity to use language and make culture (Donald 1991; Brown 2000; Mithen 2005). In our evolutionary past music may well have been present to celebrate every stage of life: from gestation until death, and beyond. There is evidence that the pleasures of making and hearing musical sounds were known to the Cro-Magnon people 40,000 years ago (Farb 1978; Cross and Morley, Chapter 3, this volume).
My Intended Burial and Why*y
Authors: Hamilton William D
Published: November 2023

There seem to be people incurably fascinated by insects. I am one of them. The interest arises untaught in infancy and harsh experiences of childhood seem to do little to change it. I remember a walk to a wild blackberry patch just after the war and my mother teaching one of my sisters not to be scared of the spiders that were common on huge orb webs among the blackberries. Our big garden Araneus loves to build right in front of the best, ripest berries, as if it knows that these are good places to catch flies. Of course, the webs often intercepted our hands as well. The spiders, however, were never aggressive; when disturbed they would run and hide among leaves. But they were fat and looked—well, spidery, and quite off putting even to me. My mother on this occasion set a spider to walk on her hand; then she encouraged my sister to do the same. I was impressed. Shortly, I too picked one out of its web and placed it on my hand: it walked a few paces, then bit me quite painfully.
Haploid Dynamic Polymorphism In A Host With Matching Parasites: Effects Of Mutation/ Subdivision, Linkage, And Patterns Of Selectiony
Authors: Hamilton W D
Published: November 2023

A deterministic genetic simulation of the coevolution of a sexual haploid host species with an asexual parasite is described in which parasites gain by matching and hosts by unmatching alleles at three linked and corresponding loci. Realistic parameter states without mutation or population subdivision can generate permanent dynamic polymorphism; however, polymorphism is preserved under wider conditions if mutation and/or migration in a meta- population is present. Other factors favorable to polymorphism include weak selection, ‘zero-sum ’ patterns of fitness interaction, fast breeding of parasites, and low rather than high or zero recombination. Hard selection was most protective to polymorphism in large populations, but multiple-infection soft (truncation) selection was more protective in small populations.
Nonlinearity, Chaos, and Complexity
Authors: Bertuglia Cristoforo Sergio , Vaio Franco
Published: November 2023

Covering a broad range of topics, this text provides a comprehensive survey of the modeling of chaotic dynamics and complexity in the natural and social sciences. Its attention to models in both the physical and social sciences and the detailed philosophical approach make this a unique text in the midst of many current books on chaos and complexity. Including an extensive index and bibliography along with numerous examples and simplified models, this is an ideal course text.
Methodology and metaphysics in the development of Dedekind’s theory of ideals
Authors: Avigad Jeremy
Published: November 2023

1 Introduction

Philosophical concerns rarely force their way into the average mathematician’s workday. But, in extreme circumstances, fundamental questions can arise as to the legitimacy of a certain manner of proceeding, say, as to whether a particular object should be granted ontological status, or whether a certain conclusion is epistemologically warranted. There are then two distinct views as to the role that philosophy should play in such a situation. On the first view, the mathematician is called upon to turn to the counsel of philosophers, in much the same way as a nation considering an action of dubious international legality is called upon to turn to the United Nations for guidance. After due consideration of appropriate regulations and guidelines (and, possibly, debate between representatives of different philosophical factions), the philosophers render a decision, by which the dutiful mathematician abides.
A Path to the Epistemology of Mathematics: Homotopy Theory
Authors: Marquis Jean-Pierre
Published: November 2023

The history of topology provides, a typical shortcut of the history of mathematics. Algebraic topology finds its origin, on the one hand, from the examination of problems arising in other parts of mathematics, notably functions of one complex variable and algebraic geometry, and on the other hand, from its own developments (like the Hauptvermutung); their solution requires new methods and techniques, and the reflection on these methods leads to new kinds of problems (theory of algorithms or decidability, for instance) or sparks the creation of new notions or theories (such as categories or homological algebra) which will allow instructive synthesis by shedding a new light on questions found in other chapters of mathematics, or that will even provide tools that will lead to significant progress in the study of other types of problems. (Hirsch, 1978, 260–261; our translation).
Nested sampling
Authors: Sivia D S
Published: November 2023

The resurgence of interest in the Bayesian approach to data analysis has been driven, in practical terms, partly by the rapid development of computer hardware and partly by the advent of larger-scale problems. This chapter discusses some of the modern numerical techniques that are useful for doing Bayesian calculations when analytical approximations are inadequate; in particular, it focuses on the novel idea of nested sampling.
Quantification
Authors: Sivia D S
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we extend the basic exploratory techniques of Chapter 9, aiming to answer the perennial questions ‘What ‘s there, and how much? ‘. As so often in algorithm design, there are some nice tricks to be found. Here are some of them. We now consider problems in which the discrete states of a system are assigned different prior probabilities, which cannot usefully be transformed to uniformity. It is possible to choose potential transitions at random, as before. Indeed, many writers recommend just that, using rejections to control the desired non-uniformity, as in Metropolis exploration described in Section 9.4.4. Our view, though, is that most priors are sufficiently simple to be explored efficiently without rejection, and that the insight required to accomplish this is worthwhile.
Core mechanisms of word learning
Authors: Markson Lori
Published: November 2023

Children’s striking ability to learn new words quickly and efficiently has spurred scholars to pinpoint the mechanism at its core. An ongoing controversy has concerned whether word learning results from a domain-specific mechanism or depends on more general abilities. One prevalent view is that children utilize multiple cues when acquiring new word meanings, suggesting a host of capacities may be influential in this process. Such capacities include more general cognitive abilities of attention and memory, lexical-specific constraints, and sensitivity to the intentions of others.
Extremal quasiconformal mappings
Authors: Fletcher A , Markovic V
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we investigate extremal quasiconformal mappings, which are extremal in the sense of minimizing the ∞ over all Beltrami differentials corresponding to quasiconformal mappings in the Teichmuoller equivalence class. Extremal mappings always exist, but need not be unique, as is shown in several examples. We show how extremality is equivalent to infinitesimal extremality, which is a notion of extremality in a linear vector space, and hence easier to work with than extremality in the Teichmuoller equivalence relation. Grootzsch’s argument is extended to the Main Inequality which, amongst many applications, can be used to show that Beltrami differentials of the special Teichmuoller type are uniquely extremal. See [43] for Reich’s survey article on external quasiconformal mappings.
Isomorphisms of Teichmu¨ller space
Authors: Fletcher A , Markovic V
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we show how the Kobayashi metric is equal to the Teichmuoller metric on T (M ) and investigate how this relates to biholomorphic maps between Teichmuoller spaces. We will classify all biholomorphic maps between two Teichmuoller spaces by reducing the problem to the cotangent space. That is, all surjective linear isometries between Bergman spaces of Riemann surfaces of non-exceptional type are geometric, which in particular implies that the two Riemann surfaces are conformally related.
Building statistical models to analyze species distributions
Authors: Gelfand Alan E , Latimer Andrew , Wu Shanshan , Silander John A
Published: November 2023

Models of the geographic distributions of species have wide application in ecology. But the nonspatial, single-level regression models that ecologists typically employ do not deal with problems of sampling irregularity or spatial dependence, and do not adequately quantify uncertainty. We show here how to build statistical models that can handle these features of spatial prediction and provide richer, more powerful inference about species niche relations, distributions, and the effects of human disturbance. We begin with a familiar generalized linear model and build in additional features, including spatial random effects and hierarchical levels.
Implications of vulnerability to hurricane damage for long-term survival of tropical tree species: a Bayesian hierarchical analysis
Authors: Ogle Kiona , Uriarte María , Thompson Jill , Johnstone Jill , Jones Andy , Lin Yiching , McIntire Eliot J B , Zimmerman Jess K
Published: November 2023

Tropical forests in the Caribbean are often subject to catastrophic disturbances by hurricanes. Despite the high frequency and intensity of hurricanes in this region, their effect on tropical forest dynamics remain poorly understood. In an effort to better understand the importance of hurricanes to a Puerto Rican tropical forest, we employ Bayesian statistical methods to identify factors that may determine the response of individual trees to hurricane damage. These factors include the effect of tree size and taxonomic identity on the vulnerability of trees to wind damage and the effect of wind damage, tree size, and crowding on individual survival following a hurricane event.
Hierarchical Bayesian spatio–temporal models for population spread
Authors: Wikle Christopher K , Hooten Mevin B
Published: November 2023

There is a long history in the ecological sciences concerning the development of mathematical models for describing the distribution of organisms over time and space. Although such models have sometimes been evaluated by comparison to observations, they have seldom been “fit” to data in a formal statistical sense. Thus, uncertainties regarding data, model, and parameters are not readily accounted for in such analyses. Alternatively, realistic statistical models for spatio–temporal processes in ecology often require that one estimate a very large number of parameters. This is typically not possible given the relatively limited amount of data collected over space and time.
Photosynthetic organelles and endosymbiosis
Authors: Sommer M S , Gould S B , Kawach O , Klemme C , Voß C , Maier, U -G , Zauner S
Published: November 2023

Current hypotheses regarding the origin of photosynthetic eukaryotes argue for a single acquisition of plastids in the common ancestor of red and green algae, and the little-known glaucophytes. All remaining photosynthetic eukaryotes, including stramenopiles (heterokonts), dinoflagellates, euglenophytes, chlorarachniophytes, and cryptophytes, acquired the capability to photosynthesize by the engulfment of a phototrophic eukaryote. This Chapter summarizes current knowledge about evolution involving these diverse symbiotic events.
Hypnosis And Neuroscience: Implications For The Altered State Debate
Authors: Lynn Steven Jay , Kirsch Irving , Knox Josh , Fassler, Oliver , Lilienfeld Scott O
Published: November 2023

For more than 200 years, the phenomena of hypnosis have intrigued the scientific com- munity and the general public. During hypnosis, many people appear to lose control over normally voluntary behaviour; some exhibit temporary, selective amnesia; they report seeing and hearing things that are not present and not seeing or hearing things that are present. Additionally, suggested responses often have an involuntary or automatic quality. Behaviour and reported experiences of this sort seem so extraordinary that it is not surprising that both laypersons and workers in the field of hypnosis have assumed they were due to an altered state of consciousness or ‘trance ‘ (e.g. Hilgard 1965; Spiegel and Spiegel 1978; Erickson 1980; Edmonston 1981; Spiegel 1998). According to Kallio and Revonsuo (2003), the central question regarding hypnosis as an altered state of consciousness (ASC) is whether a special hypnotic state gives rise to altered experiences produced by suggestion. Many altered state proponents also believe that enhanced suggestibility is one of the features of trance.
Ito Calculus
Authors: Field Timothy R
Published: November 2023

This chapter develops the basic tools of the Ito calculus that flow from the development of the Brownian motion or Wiener process in Chapter 1. We emphasize those particular techniques that are relevant to the detailed analysis of the scattering processes encountered in the chapters that follow.
Stochastic Differential Geometry
Authors: Field Timothy R
Published: November 2023

The chapter further develops the theory of (non-degenerate) diffusion processes, considered as existing on an arbitrary manifold ℳ, from the point of view of stochastic differential geometry. In this description the diffusion tensor plays an essential underlying role in supplying the metrical structure of the manifold. We develop the kinematics of various quantities that arise naturally in this geometrical context, and explain their potential significance in a physical (scattering) context. This more abstract geometrical interpretation should prove illuminating for the pure mathematical reader, in terms of our treatment of the dynamics of the vector scattering processes encountered in subsequent chapters.
Rayleigh Scattering
Authors: Field Timothy R
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we develop the stochastic dynamical theory of Rayleigh scattering, from the point of view of a random walk model. Physically this is appropriate to forward and backward scattering experiments where the scattering population is effectively constant over the observation period. From a theoretical point of view, the purpose of the chapter is to present a self-contained derivation that follows essentially from first principles. We shall see how the development, according to a random walk model pertaining to the components of the scattered field, leads to an elegant mathematical derivation of the Ornstein–Uhlenbeck process for the resultant amplitude. This derivation of the scattering dynamics, motivated by a physical model (the coherent superposition of a number of randomly phased scattered wave components) is of inherent pure mathematical interest, as well as being satisfying from a theoretical physics point of view.
Dynamics of K-Scattering
Authors: Field Timothy R
Published: November 2023

We derive the stochastic dynamics of the complex-valued amplitude resulting from coherent scattering from a random population of scatterers when this becomes asymptotically large. Considerations of a random walk model, introduced by Jakeman, are used to derive stochastic differential equations (SDEs) for the amplitude and corresponding intensity and phase stochastic processes. An analysis of the correlation structure in the fluctuations is provided and interpreted geometrically in terms of the gauge invariant properties of the field and the Markov property. A Fokker–Planck description for the evolution of the probability density is given and the equilibrium and detailed balance conditions are shown to hold. Expressions for the intensity autocorrelation function and power spectral density are provided in closed form. The practical implications of the stochastic theory are discussed.
Models of Weak Scattering
Authors: Field Timothy R
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we extend the K-scattering model of Chapter 8, in which the continuous time dynamics of the K-scattering process were derived, to include the effect of the presence of a coherent off set or ‘signal’ in the scattering amplitude. The weak scattering amplitudes are characterized in terms of continuous time biased random walk models, and the corresponding stochastic dynamics derived. The stochastic differential geometry of the resultant amplitude fluctuations is derived in relation to that of pure K-scattering. Asymptotic distributions of amplitude, intensity and phase are provided, and the condition for detailed balance shown to hold.
Generating functions and their applications
Authors: Grimmett Geoffrey R , Stirzaker David R
Published: November 2023

A key method for studying distributions is via transforms such as the probability generating function of a discrete random variable, or the moment generating function and characteristic function of a general random variable. Such transforms are particularly suited to the study of sums of independent random variables, and their areas of application include renewal theory, random walks, and branching processes. The inversion theorem tells how to obtain the distribution function from knowledge of its characteristic function. The continuity theorem allows us to use characteristic functions in studying limits of random variables. Two principal applications are to the law of large numbers and the central limit theorem. The theory of large deviations concerns the estimation of probabilities of ‘exponentially unlikely’ events.
Introduction
Authors: Garthwaite Paul , Jolliffe Ian , Jones Byron
Published: November 2023

Statistics is a very broad subject, with applications in a vast number of different fields. At heart it is an applied subject, but it would be unsatisfactory if each application had to be tackled separately, devising fresh techniques for each new problem. For this reason, a body of common statistical theory has been developed so that most problems can be tackled within the same framework.
Properties of estimators
Authors: Garthwaite Paul , Jolliffe Ian , Jones Byron
Published: November 2023

Suppose that we have a random sample (x  1  , x  2  ,..., xn ) from a probability distribution with p.d.f. f (x ; θ ), and that we wish to use the values x  1  , x  2  ,…, xn to estimate θ , which is unknown. In particular, let θ (x  1  , x  2  ,…, xn ) be a function of x  1  , x  2  ,…, xn which we use as a (point) estimate of θ ; the corresponding function θ (X  1  , X  2  ,…, Xn ) of the r.vs X  1  , X  2  ,…, Xn , which is itself an r.v., is an estimator for θ .
Physiological adaptive strategies
Authors: Nevo Eviatar
Published: November 2023

Little is yet known about the sense physiology of subterranean mammals. However, it is now evident in subterranean mammals, as elsewhere, that regression and progression evolution are intimately coupled, and structural and functional sense organs and brain reductions are linked with structural and functional expansions or hypotrophies. In the case of S. ehrenbergi, the overall brain size is significantly larger than that of the white rat, when allometry is considered (Mann et al., 1997, Frahm et al., 1997). These provide in subterranean mammals an outstanding demonstration of the evolutionary tinkering (Jacob, 1977), leading to adaptations to the unique subterranean ecotope.
The theory of evolution: structure, challenges, and prospects
Authors: Nevo Eviatar
Published: November 2023

Based on the multidisciplinary global research programme of subterranean mammals presented in the Evidence section, I will explore some of the current challenges to evolutionary theory and highlight only some of the unresolved problems of adaptation and speciation listed in the introduction. I argue that nothing learned from the evolution of subterranean mammals should change the basic postulates of evolutionary theory. Basically, the multidisciplinary, comparative evidence presented at all levels, from the molecular to the organismal, strongly supports the fundamental conceptual framework of the synthetic theory of evolution (Mayr and Provine, 1980). Currently, the ‘synthetic’ epithet is often omitted and the theory is simply known as the Theory of Evolution (Ayala and Fitch, 1997). Evolutionary theory is continuously expanding and being enriched, eliminating, by the process of cultural selection, wrong concepts and sub-hypotheses.
Chromosomal evolution
Authors: Nevo Eviatar
Published: November 2023

Here I will discuss several hypotheses related to chromosomal evolution in speciation and adaptation. For a critique on the involvement of chromosome evolution in speciation and adaptation see Patton and Sherwood (1983).
Morphology of the peripheral arterial chemoreceptors
Authors: Daly M de Burgh
Published: November 2023

The early history of the discovery of the paraganglia and the chromaffin system and their relation to the peripheral arterial chemoreceptorsisdiscussed. This isfollowed by an account of the location and structural organization of peripheral arterial chemoreceptor tissue with particular emphasis on the carotid body which contains two principal cell types. A feature of the chemoreceptors is their rich vascularity and high specific blood flow. In contrast to the carotid bodies, the distribution of thoracic chemoreceptors is diffuse and varies enormously not only between species but also between animals of the same species. These chemoreceptorsare classified into four main groups, based on their precise anatomical location, innervation, and blood supply. Aggregations of ‘glomus’ tissue with a chemoreceptor function at other sites, for example, along the course of the abdominal vagus nerves, referred to as abdominal chemoreceptors, are also described.
Discovery of the respiratory functions
Authors: Daly M de Burgh
Published: November 2023

Structures which we now recognize as the aortic bodies and carotid bodies were established histologically long before their functions were described, and this aspect of the peripheral arterial chemoreceptors has been discussed in detail in Chapter 2.