bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Inspiring Artistry
Authors: Pinzino Mary Ellen
Published: December 2021

Chapter 3 examines song and its role in the development of children’s artistry. It addresses the need for songs of increasing musical difficulty throughout childhood, and how rhythm, melody, and text, individually and together, affect the development of children’s artistry musically, expressively, and vocally. This chapter offers musical examples and songs that demonstrate the progression of children’s artistry in song with children as young as five through advanced choristers. Chapter 3 presents the findings of many years of classroom research on song as it relates to both music learning and the choral art in the development of children’s artistry. It brings together research on music learning and the process of choral development to highlight the need for songs for the development of children’s artistry that compel the musical mind, prompt artistic expression, and enable vocal technique throughout childhood. It applies concepts presented in the first chapter and practices presented in the second chapter in the context of song, the vehicle for the expression of children’s artistry in both the music classroom and children’s chorus. Songs and principles presented in this chapter can also be used with older singers.
The Right to Higher Education
Authors: Martin Christopher
Published: December 2021

Is higher education a right, or a privilege? The author argues that all citizens in a free and open society should have an unconditional right to higher education. Such an education should be costless for the individual and open to everyone regardless of talent. A readiness and willingness to learn should be the only qualification. It should offer opportunities that benefit citizens with different interests and goals in life. And it should aim, as its foundational moral purpose, to help citizens from all walks of life live better, freer lives. Using concepts and ideas from liberal political philosophy, the author argues that access to educational goods and services is something to which all citizens have a right over a full life. Such goods, it is argued, play a key role in helping citizens realize self-determined goals. Higher education should therefore be understood as a basic social institution responsible for ensuring that all citizens can access such “autonomy-supporting” goods. The book examines the implications of this justification of the right to higher education for questions of educational justice, political authority, distributive justice, civic education, and personal autonomy.
The Right to Higher Education and Political Authority
Authors: Martin Christopher
Published: December 2021

This chapter provides an account of the nature and scope of political authority over higher education. The account sets out a proactive role for the state the autonomous flourishing of adults. It affirms the idea that the liberal state’s educational obligations to citizens extend beyond a basic or compulsory education, not only for reasons of political justice, but also because it is politically legitimate for the state to do so. The chapter defends this account against the concern that such authority is too paternalistic, and gives examples of how this conception of authority would apply (and not apply) to higher education.
What Should the Right to Higher Education Look Like?
Authors: Martin Christopher
Published: December 2021

This chapter addresses some key objections to the right to higher education and provides a fuller picture of what this right can look like at the level of public policy and institutional practice. First, the chapter revisits the broader rationale for the argument in order to show how a rights-based conception of can better inform public debate about the justice, fairness, and purposes of higher education. Second, it applies this account to Martin Trow’s famous conceptualization of higher education systems into “elite,” “mass,” and “universal” stages of growth and development in order to demonstrate how the right to higher education can inform higher education policy. Finally, it addresses the worry that the right to higher education overstates the importance of post-compulsory education for a liberal society. Here the chapter engages with issues about the role of higher education in the promotion of human welfare and the level of “idealization” built into the argument.
When Cities Lobby
Authors: Payson Julia
Published: December 2021

When Cities Lobby tells the story of what happens when city officials rely on professional lobbyists to represent their interests in state government. In a political environment characterized by intense urban-rural polarization and growing hostility between cities and state legislatures, the ability to lobby can be a powerful tool for city leaders seeking to amplify their voices in state politics. The cities that lobby at the highest rates include large urban centers that have been historically underrepresented in our federal system—and, increasingly, blue-leaning cities engaged in preemption battles against Republican-led legislatures. But high-income places have also figured out how to strategically use lobbyists, and these communities have become particularly adept at lobbying to secure additional grant money and shift state funding in a direction that favors them. How did we end up with a system where political officials in different levels of government often choose to pay lobbyists to facilitate communication between them, and are the potential benefits worth the costs? When Cities Lobby demonstrates that the answer is deeply rooted in both the nature of the federal system and the evolution of the professional lobbying industry. And while some states have recently debated measures to restrict lobbying by local governments, these efforts will likely do more harm than good in the absence of structural reforms to the lobbying industry more broadly.
Who Gets What? City Lobbying and State Transfers
Authors: Payson Julia
Published: December 2021

This chapter uses a variety of panel data methods to estimate the returns to lobbying for individual municipalities. When cities start lobbying, they receive significantly more revenue from the state in the following year compared to other cities. But not all localities benefit equally. In particular, wealthy communities with higher median incomes tend to receive substantially more revenue after lobbying than less affluent municipalities. The chapter concludes by discussing some of the mechanisms that might be driving these results. While higher-income cities don’t spend more money on lobbying, they do spread their efforts across a greater number of bills, and they appear to be particularly savvy at using their lobbyists to advocate for shovel-ready projects that make attractive funding targets for state officials.
Stability and Change in Everyday Knowledge: From Taken for Granted to Social Representation
Authors: Emiliani Francesca
Published: December 2021

What do we talk about when we talk about everyday life? This chapter considers everyday life as a “metasystem” in Moscovici’s terms, a normative system that checks and organizes knowledge and thought. Looking at social representations theory, the chapter considers the structuring power of this metasystem, referring to two kinds of research where the absence (for deprived children) or suspension (in the first COVID-19 lockdown in Italy) of everyday life causes delays in children’s development and dismay in adults. The suspension of ordinary life highlights the social representation of “normality.” The structure of the “everyday life” metasystem is largely taken for granted, and this calls into question the relationship between the taken-for-granted and the knowledge that constructs social representations or, in other words, between stability and change in common knowledge.
The Contribution of Social Representations Theory for a Social Psychology of Communication Laboratory
Authors: Camargo Brigido V. , Bousfield Andréa Barbará S.
Published: December 2021

This chapter describes the mission and research of the Social Psychology of Communication and Cognition Laboratory (Laboratório de Psicologia Social da Comunicação e Cognição) at the Federal University of Santa Catarina (LACCOS–UFSC). After explaining how the lab was set up, the authors illustrate the communication systems model from the social representations perspective. This goes beyond previous communication paradigms that use metaphors like the machine, the organism, or Frankenstein and toward a contextualized conception of social communication. Studies conducted by the Lab exemplify how change and continuity might be experimentally explored. Some of them concern scientific knowledge on HIV/AIDS and show how to tackle the dialogical knowledge generated by the ternary Ego-Alter-Object view proposed by means of experimental designs in the social representation domain. The chapter closes with some considerations on the COVID-19 pandemic and the dynamics of social representations.
The Living Organ Donor as Patient
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman , Thistlethwaite, Jr. J. Richard
Published: December 2021

This is a book about living solid organ donors as patients in their own right. This book is premised on the supposition that the field of living donor organ transplantation is ethical, even if some specific applications are not, eg, pre-mortem organ procurement of an imminently dying patient. When Joseph Murray performed the first successful living kidney donor transplant in 1954, he thought this would be a temporary stopgap. Today, however, the goal of adequate organ supply without living donors remains elusive. If anything, the supply:demand ratio is worse. In this book, a five-principle living donor ethics framework is developed and used to examine the ethical issues raised by living donor selection demographics, innovative attempts to increase living organ donation, and living donor decision-making and risk thresholds. This ethics framework uses the three principles of the Belmont Report modified to organ transplantation (respect for persons, beneficence, and justice) supplemented by the principles of vulnerability and of special relationships creating special obligations. The approach requires that the transplant community fully embraces living organ donors (and prospective living organ donors) as patients to whom special obligations are owed. Only when living organ donors are regarded as patients in their own right and have a living donor advocate team dedicated to their well-being can the moral boundaries of living solid organ donation be determined and realized. This book provides theoretical arguments and practice guidelines, complemented by case studies, to ensure that living donors are given the full respect and care they deserve.
Living Donor Liver Transplantation for Acute Liver Failure
Authors: Friedman Lainie , Thistlethwaite, Jr J. Richard
Published: December 2021

Acute liver failure (ALF), or fulminant hepatic failure, affects approximately two to three thousand patients (adults and children) annually in the United States and accounts for approximately eight percent of all liver transplants. Liver transplant for ALF is complicated by the fact that many patients who present with ALF spontaneously recover; however, the severe time constraints that ALF poses means that patients with ALF are usually listed for deceased donor liver transplant, and potential living donors begin donor evaluations even before it is known whether a transplant will be necessary. ALF was initially a contraindication to living donor liver transplantation (LDLT) both because of poor outcomes and because of concerns that the living donors did not have adequate time to give an informed and voluntary consent. Results have improved and ALF in now an accepted indication for LDLT. This chapter examines the ethical issues raised by LDLT in the setting of ALF.
The Imminently Dying Donor
Authors: Friedman Lainie , Thistlethwaite, Jr J. Richard
Published: December 2021

As the supply-demand gap for organs for transplantation grows, transplant programs are more accepting of less healthy donors. This chapter focuses on the extreme case: whether and when individuals who have life-limiting conditions (LLC) should be considered for living organ donation. Two types of cases are examined: living donation by individuals with advanced progressive severe debilitating disease for whom there is no ameliorative therapy; and pre-mortem living donation by individuals who are imminently dying or would die of the donation process itself. With appropriate safeguards, some donations by individuals with LLC could be ethical. Pre-mortem donations challenge the dead donor rule (DDR), an ethical norm that prohibits organ procurement until after the individual is dead. The chapter argues that attempts to circumvent the DDR fail to respect the living donor as a patient in his or her own right.
Questioning the Premise
Authors: Friedman Lainie , Thistlethwaite, Jr J. Richard
Published: December 2021

Given the gap between demand and supply, living donation is not going away any time soon. This chapter explores the book’s initial premise that the field of living donor organ transplantation is ethical, even if some specific applications are not, eg pre-mortem organ procurement of an imminently dying patient. Concerns regarding the appropriate moral limits to living solid organ donation by both eminent transplant physicians (Joseph Murray, Felix Rapaport) and the social scientists (Renée Fox, Judith Swazey) embedded in evaluating the practice are explored. This chapter reiterates the book’s primary position: only if living organ donors are regarded as patients in their own right can the moral limits of living solid organ donation be realized and living donors be given the full respect that they deserve.
¡Canta Conmigo!
Authors: Gibson Rachel
Published: December 2021

Sing, play, move, create, and experience joy with living musical traditions from Guatemala and Nicaragua. Suitable for use in families, schools, or community centers, this resource contains a playful collection of 90 songs, singing games, chants, and games the author learned from teachers, children, and families while living in several communities in both countries. While the majority of the songs are in Spanish, a few in a Mayan language, Kaqchikel, are included. Field videos, audio recordings, and select song histories are available on the companion website to witness the music in authentic contexts, guide in pronunciation, and trace musical origins. Ethnographic descriptions of locations where songs were learned and personal biographies of a few singers written in Kaqchikel or Spanish and translated to English allow the reader to develop a connection to the land and the musicians. Culturally responsive and sustaining teaching pedagogies are discussed alongside strategies to responsibly include the music in school curriculums. A brief history of Central America and an overview of music genres in the region are included to frame this song collection within historic, cultural, and musical contexts. ¡Ven a cantar y jugar! Come sing and play! The song pages are playfully and thoughtfully illustrated by Sucely Puluc from Guatemala.
Suggestions for Teachers
Authors: Gibson Rachel
Published: December 2021

Part 1 includes the following: Suggestions for Teachers provides strategies for how to responsibly teach and include the music into curriculums. Themes discussed include cultural contexts, authentic transmission practices, honoring song histories, Indigenous Music, and culturally responsive and sustaining pedagogies. Living Traditions: Children’s Music in Guatemala and Nicaragua reviews children’s music traditions and singing cultures in these two countries. Overview: Central America, Guatemala, and Nicaragua includes brief summaries of the region’s geography, climate, languages, national instrument, demographics, and economies. Fieldwork Locations describes the sites where songs were learned to set the scenes for repertoire. Biographies, which are written by the informants and presented in English, Spanish, and Kaqchikel, are included to learn about the lives of the musicians who shared music for this book.
Culturally Responsive and Sustaining Pedagogies
Authors: Gibson Rachel
Published: December 2021

Part 3: Beyond the Songs contains three chapters. “Culturally Responsive and Sustaining Pedagogies” presents summaries of these teaching approaches alongside strategies to responsibly integrate the repertoire into school curriculums. “Music in Central America” is a brief overview of the diverse and rich music genres of the region and how historic events introduced, shaped, and eradicated music traditions. Genres described include music in the classic Mayan period, folkloric dance, Spanish music, the marimba, Nueva Canción, Garifuna music, Miskitu music, and current traditions. “A Brief History of Central America” provides a historical context for the song collection. Beginning with the first civilizations and ending with current events, this chapter chronicles the political history of the region, including the involvement of the U.S. government in business affairs and civil wars. This overview allows the reader to develop an awareness of the effects of colonization, continued foreign involvement, current political situations, and a basic understanding of human migration patterns from Central America to North America.
Variantism about Responsibility
Authors: Doris John M. , Knobe Joshua , Woolfolk Robert L.
Published: December 2021

This chapter argues that experimental assessment of intuition pumps in the moral responsibility literature presses a dilemma on philosophically orthodox approaches to moral responsibility, which frequently maintain both invariantism and conservativism. Invariantist approaches maintain that there are exceptionlessly relevant criteria for responsibility attribution, while conservative approaches maintain that folk theories of responsibility are (defeasible, but substantial) constraints of philosophical theories of responsibility. However, the experimental record suggests that folk theory is conspicuously variantist (or pluralist) and evinces little commitment to exceptionlessly relevant attribution criteria. Therefore, invariantism and conservativism cannot be simultaneously maintained. Implications for theory choice and revision are discussed.
Heated Agreement
Authors: Doris John M.
Published: December 2021

This chapter was originally a contribution to a book symposium on Robert Adams’ A Theory of Virtue (2006), which develops an extended response to the arguments for character skepticism put forth in Doris’ Lack of Character (2002). It is argued that despite the differences between them, the works are actually in considerable agreement, both methodologically and substantively, when it comes to the fundamentals of moral psychology. Both sides agree that philosophical moral psychology ought to be empirically informed, and both sides agree that traditional conceptions of character traits require revision in light of empirical information.
Making Good
Authors: Doris John M.
Published: December 2021

This chapter assesses the “skill analogy” prominent in virtue ethics, which proposes that virtue be understood as a kind of expertise. Using the performance science literature, with special attention to skill development in chess, it is argued that the skill analogy is empirically undersupported, because a surprisingly limited amount is known about the development of skills in general, and “moral skills” in particular. It is further argued, given what is known about the domain specificity of expertise, that if virtues are to be understood along the lines of skills, they will have to be understood as highly domain specific, rather than as the highly general virtues of tradition.
The Future of Character
Authors: Doris John M.
Published: December 2021

This chapter advances and refines the author’s character skepticism in light of the extensive commentary in philosophy, and significant developments in psychology, that have emerged since his original contributions to the debate (e.g., Doris, 1998, 2002). Among the topics discussed are methodological issues in philosophy and psychology; controversy concerning classic studies; the interpretation of effect sizes; theory choice and revision; a pluralistic conception of ethical thought.
Sovereign Wealth Funds and International Regulation
Authors: Thatcher Mark , Vlandas Tim
Published: December 2021

This chapter discusses the rise of Sovereign Wealth Funds (SWFs) as an example of the wider phenomenon of overseas state investment. It sets out the striking expansion in the number and financial size of SWFs, most of which are located in the Middle East and Asia, and then summarizes the lively debates about whether SWF investments are a threat to the West and how they should be regulated at the international level. It then considers the international legal and normative framework that has been created to regulate SWFs, as well as the key relevant elements of the EU’s policies and legal regulation. It concludes that there is little evidence that a binding international regulatory framework that strongly constrains the choices of recipient countries through law or norms has been established. Thus, much scope for national choices about policies towards SWF equity investments remains.
The UK Wimbledon Strategy
Authors: Thatcher Mark , Vlandas Tim
Published: December 2021

Although also labelled a ‘liberal’ market economy, the UK has strongly pursued internationalized statism in stark contrast to the US. It has followed a ‘Wimbledon’ strategy of seeking to attract Sovereign Wealth Funds (SWFs) from all over the world even if they take large stakes in prominent British firms. Both formal and informal instruments have been actively used to welcome SWFs, who have taken significant stakes in leading British firms in strategic sectors and bought nationally symbolic buildings and brands. The UK has followed strong internationalized statism thanks to the dominance of the political executive in policy making that has allowed it to frame SWF investments in terms of economic governance rather than national security and the weakness of the legislature in raising concerns. Despite domestic privatizations, it has welcomed overseas state capital that has reinforced existing strategies of aiding privileged sectors such as finance.
Directed Internationalized Statism in Germany
Authors: Thatcher Mark , Vlandas Tim
Published: December 2021

Germany has been seen as relatively closed to overseas equity purchases because of its corporate governance system based on insiders. Yet, after an initial period of debate, it has followed policies of directed internationalized statism towards Sovereign Wealth Funds (SWFs). A powerful coalition of the federal finance and economics ministries, together with representatives of firms, has argued that openness to SWF investment offers export orders and patient capital, in contrast to short-term private investors. The coalition has followed policies of welcoming and seeking SWF investment in industrial firms, large and small. Although a new legislative framework for non-European share purchases has been established, its powers have never been used against SWFs. The German case shows how economic and finance ministries, and representatives of companies, are able to use SWFs to reinforce key elements of the German model of capitalism such as patient capital and export-led growth.
Foreign States in Domestic Markets
Authors: Thatcher Mark , Vlandas Tim
Published: December 2021

Comparison of the four countries shows that internationalized statism has developed in the UK, France, and Germany in ways that appear surprising given both popular and academic writings, although there are important cross-national differences in its forms. The US has seen the lowest level of internationalized statism, whereas the UK has pursued extensive and undirected internationalized statism. France and Germany occupy intermediate and more directed forms of internationalized statism. The findings cannot be fully explained by the Sovereign Wealth Funds’ (SWFs’) countries of origin and their choice of investments and also run counter to several expectations about the role of the state and general economic openness. Instead, the chapter offers a political and statist analysis of the growth of internationalized statism by looking within the state, notably at its structure, and the political strategies of policy makers. It also develops wider implications for political economy debates. The findings add to new statist arguments that the state is an active participant in internationalized and liberalized financial markets. Policy makers can use overseas state investors to pursue their domestic political strategies and adapt traditional forms of ‘industrial policies’. Internationalized statism shows that states can use developments in financial markets to find new resources and allies from overseas states to govern their domestic economies. By bringing in the state as an international investor, it shows how liberalization and internationalization can offer novel opportunities for states.
Shaping the city (c. AD 52–60)
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

This chapter describes how London was rebuilt in a major phase of urban redesign likely to date c. AD 52, perhaps when an earlier supply-base was converted into a city. This involved a significant degree of cadastral reform. These works were probably initiated by the governor Didius Gallus. Busy construction programmes of the 50s involved the introduction of a new street grid, London’s first waterfront revetments, warehouses around the forum, and new bathhouses on the borders of town. A sacred precinct may also have been established around natural springs on a hillside overlooking the town. London’s first suburbs were established, and included workshops built and used following pre-Roman technologies. The contrast presented by these unusual and peripheral sites is used to argue the marginal status of British communities within the Roman city. A further programme of urban expansion dating c. AD 60 is also described.
The Hadrianic fire (c. AD 125–35)
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

London north of the river was burnt to the ground in a fire that evidence suggests took place c. AD 125–6, with rebuilding underway c. AD 127–8. The evidence for the extent and date of this fire is summarized. The nature of the evidence, and parallels that can be drawn with London’s Boudican destruction, allows it to be suggested that London was deliberately burnt as an act of war. Historical sources hint at a major British war during Hadrian’s reign, although these leave us uncertain as to where and when it took place. The evidence of London’s destruction adds important new evidence to aid our interpretation of these sources. Following London’s destruction a new fort was built on the northern margins of town, the adjacent amphitheatre was rebuilt in stone, the harbour was rebuilt, and a new urban district laid out in the upper Walbrook valley. The architecture of these new building works is described.
The Walbrook skulls
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

Many disturbed burials, including the river-rolled crania known to archaeology as the Walbrook skulls, are dated to the period following the rebuilding of London after the Hadrianic fire. This rebuilding involved the construction of a new road on the north side of the city which may have connected London with a ford over the river Fleet near King’s Cross. The road was built over partly articulated human body parts, and subsequently attracted a cemetery that included instances of execution and corpse abuse. Hundreds of reworked human crania have been found in waterlogged contexts where this road bridged the Walbrook and at other locations in the Hadrianic city. Various ideas accounting for this evidence are reviewed. Drawing on ancient sources and ethnographic parallels it is suggested that some of the remains were war dead and the victims of retributive violence, subjected to post-mortem corpse abuse, denial of burial leading to body fragmentation, and dedication to watery places on liminal locations in necrophobic ritual. The intensification of such practices in Hadrianic London may have been occasioned by a war that destroyed the city c. AD 125/126. Some of the partially articulated human remains might even mark the site of a battlefield or execution ground.
Fifth-century landscapes
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

The desertion of Roman London around the end of the fourth century is contrasted with settlement continuity within its rural hinterland. The failure of the Roman administration resulted in the abandonment of most urban properties. Although some suburban villas may have suffered a similar fate, others saw continued occupation into the fifth century. The most compelling evidence for such continuity comes from the site of the likely villa at St Martin-in-the-Fields by Trafalgar Square. Other rural sites, some first occupied in the Iron Age, remained as focal points for later activities represented by sporadic finds of early Saxon material in Southwark and at sites along the Fleet valley. The contrast that these sites present with the evidence from the City suggests that the evacuation of the city had little immediate impact on the management of the surrounding rural landscape. Saxon settlement occurred at some remove from Roman retreat. Other suburban villas may have been abandoned, only to attract later church foundations because of their identity as late antique sites with potential Christian associations. London’s late Saxon revival was the consequence of later political choices.
Afterword
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

This short section reasserts and summarizes some of the key conclusions to the book, explaining how London responded to the strategic choices of Roman emperors and governors, initially as a gateway emporium and subsequently as a defended administrative enclave. Episodes of systematic change were also provoked by exogenous shock, and the effects of war and plague can be identified in the archaeological record from London. Imperial inputs helped London to recover from such events, but the city was wholly a creature of Rome and otherwise lacking in social capital. Its eventual failure was a direct product of the failure of the Roman administration. Some directions for future research are considered.
Informal Accountability, Distrust, and Speaking Out
Authors: Knights Mark
Published: December 2021

Accountability did not operate solely through formal audits, institutions or legal processes; informal and public forms of accountability were also particularly important, not least as a pressure on Parliament, the East India Company and other institutions (often themselves seen as corrupt), to increase their oversight of officers. Such public accountability could take many forms but the chapter focuses on people (often officials themselves) who made public revelations when they felt that formal accountability mechanisms had failed. These men might now be called ‘whistle-blowers’ but in the pre-modern period their behaviour struggled to achieve legitimacy. The chapter surveys the variety of their motives and shows how they fought to expose and remedy corruption, often using print to do so, before sketching the negative ways in which their institutions reacted to their complaints and publicity.
National Identities and Nation-building
Authors: Holtug Nils
Published: December 2021

This chapter demonstrates just how preoccupied contemporary liberal democracies are with the impact of immigration on social cohesion, and how they have responded to such concerns with nation-building policies and an emphasis on shared values. More specifically, four country cases are considered, namely Canada, Denmark, France, and the UK. Similarities and differences in how they have responded to concerns about diversity and social cohesion are explained. These responses invoke nation-building, relying to various degrees on nationalist, liberal, republican, and multicultural community conceptions, that is, conceptions of the social basis for intergroup relations and cooperation.
Social Justice
Authors: Holtug Nils
Published: December 2021

Chapter 4 turns to normative political philosophy and introduces and defends the liberal egalitarian framework that provides the normative basis for assessments of policies that aim to promote social cohesion in diverse liberal democracies. Apart from the basic liberties, this framework includes a concern for equality, where a distinction between equality of opportunity and luck egalitarianism is introduced, and versions of each are developed, and it is pointed out that both these egalitarian theories can be used to support the conclusions about immigration and integration policies that are developed in the book. It is also argued that both theories should be sensitive to inequality of religious and cultural opportunities and that the concern for equality sometimes speaks in favour of multicultural policies.
Global Justice
Authors: Holtug Nils
Published: December 2021

This chapter turns to a normative premise in the social cohesion argument for restrictive immigration policies, according to which states should bring about (substantive) equality. This premise assumes a particular version of egalitarianism, according to which equality has domestic scope only (the focus is, after all, only on the impact of immigration in the receiving society). However, it is argued that equality has global scope. It is also argued that immigration, and in particular South–North migration, has a positive impact on global equality, due to the fact that migrants can achieve a higher standard of living and tend to send back remittances to their families in their country of origin. A number of objections to this argument are also considered, and it is argued that while immigration policy is not the most important policy for improving global equality, more open borders nevertheless have a role to play.
Exiles as Stakeholders
Authors: Vasanthakumar Ashwini
Published: December 2021

This chapter examines how much influence exiles are entitled to wield in the homeland. I situate this question in the broader boundary problem in democratic theory: how to determine who is entitled to participate in collective decision-making. I examine two leading principles of inclusion, and then elaborate on and apply the stakeholder principle: insofar as exiles have particular interests at stake, they are entitled to a correspondingly weighty say. The stakeholder principle admits of a hierarchy of stake and say, which protects against the moral hazards of ‘long-distance nationalism’ while reaffirming that identification alone entitles exiles to some say. I outline three types of interests exiles can have at stake and illustrate the competing interests within a stakeholder community, and the problem of some exiles having disproportionate influence. The stakeholder principle correctly diagnoses worries about ‘armchair revolutionaries’: the problem with exile influence is not when exiles have a say, but when they have too much of a say relative to others.
Conclusion
Authors: Vasanthakumar Ashwini
Published: December 2021

This concluding chapter summarizes the argument: it outlines the roles exiles play in the homeland and the corrective functions these roles can perform. It explores two tensions that run through exile politics: first, between exiles’ duties to assist those in the homeland and their entitlement to pursue their own ideals and interests; and second, between exiles’ reliance on third parties to enable exiles’ different roles and their ability to correct asymmetries with third parties. It concludes by briefly considers the implications of exile politics for duties to exiles.
The Historiography of Philosophy
Authors: Frede Michael
Published: December 2021

This book presents the Nellie Wallace lectures which Michael Frede gave in Oxford in 1989–90. These lectures discuss how the history of philosophy has been studied and how it should be studied. There are three systematical approaches to the history of philosophy which run under the same heading ‘history of philosophy’ and deal with the same material, but they are distinct enterprises: philosophical doxography, philosophical history of philosophy, and historical history of philosophy. All three enterprises are perfectly legitimate, but the lectures give priority to the historical history of philosophy, since the other two ultimately have to rely on its findings. Thus, the lectures start by showing how the historical history of philosophy differs from the two philosophical studies of the history of philosophy. They then examine the historical discipline in more detail, and finally look into the consequences of its practice.
Explanation
Authors: Frede Michael
Published: December 2021

This chapter discusses the explanation of historical philosophical views. Strictly speaking, the explanation of the philosophical view is the task of the philosopher. What the historian is concerned with is the historical fact that a certain view was held by a certain person in a certain context, the historical fact that this view came to be held by a whole group of philosophers, the historical fact that it became part of the state of the art to think of it as an acceptable or even a true view. Thus, historians do not explain the philosophical view in terms of what they take to be reasons for it but in terms of the reasons for which it was actually held because they were thought to constitute adequate grounds for holding it. The question then arises why a philosopher would hold this to be adequate grounds for the view. And in the simplest case, the answers will be in terms of another historical fact; namely that, by the standards of the time, this would have seemed to be adequate grounds to philosophers then, which raises the further question of why philosophers then would have taken this to be adequate grounds. At this point, one could go on to explain this by referring to further historical facts; namely, the fact that philosophers of the time would have explained this in such and such a way.
Development for All
Authors: Schulze Marianne
Published: December 2021

Development efforts—the provision of support to countries with lesser economic resources—have long overlooked persons with disabilities. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) tries to rectify this with a stand-alone provision on inclusive development, ensuring that efforts to accelerate economic growth and related factors are inclusive of and accessible to persons with disabilities. This chapter discusses the rationale behind the stand-alone provision and the potential it holds for more equitable and inclusive growth, including the role that technology plays in increasing accessibility.
Addressing the Drivers of Digital Technology for Disability-Inclusive Development
Authors: McClain-Nhlapo Charlotte , Raja Deepti Samant
Published: December 2021

Digital technologies represent the fastest, broadest, and deepest technical change experienced in international development, affecting every sector. Inclusive and accessible technology increases access by persons with disabilities to markets, spaces, and services. This has raised opportunities as well as the stakes, to ensure that technology-driven development is inclusive of the diverse needs of persons with disabilities. Digital ecosystems can evolve to advance toward the social inclusion, economic self-sufficiency, and resilience of persons with disabilities. There are success stories, but also continuing inequities and gaps in access, affordability, and usage of technology by persons with disabilities. Ultimately, investments in infrastructure, skills, regulation, and institutions are necessary to ensure accessible and inclusive digital development.
The Role of Technical Standards in Improving Digital Accessibility in Under-Resourced Regions and Communities
Authors: Brewer Judy , Abou-Zahra Shadi
Published: December 2021

People with disabilities in under-resourced communities, including in low-income and lower middle-income countries and in many Indigenous communities, have not yet benefited as much from digital accessibility as have people with disabilities in higher-income regions. This chapter addresses factors that contribute to these disparities and describes the role of standards in promoting digital accessibility. It describes barriers to participation, approaches that can help improve opportunities for people from under-resourced communities to engage in development of accessibility standards and accessible technologies, and steps that can increase promotion and uptake of digital accessibility standards in under-resourced regions and communities.
Digital Inclusion in the Global South
Authors: Beaumon Betsy
Published: December 2021

How can the next generation of digital products and servces best serve individuals with disabilities in the Global South? Local advocates, content, and tool developers can leverage global digital initiatives in education, employment, data, and standards to improve inclusion for people with disabilities in the connected digital age. To succeed, products and services must be inclusive, sustainable, and locally relevant. This chapter explores examples of programs that deeply engage people with disabilities in the Global South as developers, employees, and/or individual users; utilize open, global standards; increase collaboration to raise the voices of people with disabilities; and consider new challenges brought about by technology as it rapidly evolves.
Multi-Country Comparison of ICT and Educational Accessibility for Blind Students
Authors: Pavithran Sachin , Legorreta Maria Hernandez
Published: December 2021

This chapter discusses the importance of information and communications technology (ICT) and educational accessibility for blind and low-vision students, with a focus on policy and implementation strengths, barriers, and areas of improvement in three diverse countries: India, Mexico, and the United Arab Emirates. These three countries each have inclusive education policies, but implementation is lacking. Respective policy development must include implementation plans and adequate funding. Common obstacles include large populations, prejudice, inadequate teacher training, lack of infrastructure, and poverty in rural areas. Common recommendations are recognition that ICT is complex and vital for improved educational access, teacher development, inclusion, and employment outcomes. Notably, these countries must each consider innovative ways for students to access ICT and education. This will take much more concentrated efforts, as well as funding allocations, by governments, organizations, and other stakeholders in the education system.
Kaplan’sSystem and Process
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: December 2021

In this note Wight critically analyses Morton Kaplan’s System and Process in International Politics. While ‘positivist theorists’ aspiring to scientific rigour have belittled philosophical works on topics such as the just war or natural law as ‘tautologous or platitudinous’, these theorists have themselves constructed ‘new edifices of tautology and platitude’. Kaplan, for example, restates ‘simple and obvious truths, in the impressive special language of his theory’. Wight lists other shortcomings. Kaplan’s ‘historical limitedness’ reflects his ‘small range of historical reference’. Kaplan’s reliance on the abstractions of game theory leads to ‘the unintentional effect’ of ‘trivialization’ of ‘the awful issues of peace and war’. Furthermore, Kaplan’s ‘analytical jargon atomises and disintegrates reality’, and this results in ‘dehumanization’ and ‘hypostatization’ of the abstractions. Finally, ‘Objectivity becomes moral neutrality’, with ‘moral content … drained off, and then added again to the stew in pinches of recognition as “parameters” or “values”’.
The Causes of War
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: December 2021

This essay focuses on the various motives of decision-makers responsible for state policy. While smaller and weaker powers often choose to capitulate to threats, states prepared to use force have been inspired by distinct combinations of motives. These have included winning independence, imposing domination, promoting allegiance to an ideology, gaining economic advantages, and resisting the rise to supremacy of a political-military competitor. Fear of the loss of security and autonomy may lead to preventive war or intervention to maintain a favourable balance of power. While leaders as prominent as Napoleon and Bismarck have referred to deterministic models of causation in some circumstances, ‘the motive of mutual fear’ may predominate. Compared to their important role in medieval litigation, irredentist wars intended to settle legal and territorial claims have become vestigial, but they may be regarded as modern versions of wars for rights.
Correspondence about war inThe Listener, October–November 1955
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: December 2021

John Connell responded to Martin Wight’s BBC broadcast, ‘War and International Politics’, published in The Listener, 13 October 1955, by asserting that Wight had presented a ‘misleading and incomplete definition’ of ‘the aim of foreign policy’—that is, in Wight’s words, ‘to preserve the balance of power’. In Connell’s view, ‘the basic purpose of foreign policy’ is ‘to preserve and enhance the security, prosperity, and welfare of this country’. Connell accused Wight of supplying ‘the very grammar of appeasement’ at a time ‘in which a whole new vast wave of appeasement is imminent’. Wight replied that Connell’s definition of the goal of foreign policy was ‘included’ in his own, because the balance of power is ‘the condition of the independence and liberties of states’. Wight observed that appeasement is ‘a language’ that he ‘never learned’, and that ‘western diplomacy at the moment does not lead’ him ‘to believe that “a whole new vast wave of appeasement is imminent”’.
Fortune’s Banter
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: December 2021

In this essay Wight surveyed concepts and events from Graeco-Roman antiquity to modern times dealing with the impact on international politics of chance, destiny, fate, fortune, freedom, irony, luck, necessity, providence, tragedy, and will. The ancient sources cited include Horace, Plutarch, Polybius, Thucydides, and Virgil. The political philosophers considered range from Machiavelli to Burke and Marx. Among the reflective political leaders cited are Bismarck, Cavour, Cromwell, Gladstone, Lincoln, Lloyd George, and Napoleon. The twentieth-century decision-makers quoted extend from Adenauer, Churchill, de Gaulle, Dulles, and Roosevelt to Hitler and Mussolini. Wight distinguished between ‘opportunism of ends’ and ‘opportunism of means’. Opportunism that creates propitious circumstances may overlap with opportunism that waits for—and prepares for—a favourable time and seizes the chance at hand. Unintended, unexpected, and ironical consequences abound in international politics.
Review of Hugh Ross Williamson,Charles and Cromwell(London: Duckworth, 1946)
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: December 2021

Wight notes that Williamson’s account of the English Civil War follows ‘the romantic view of history’ as ‘the relationship or interaction of characters’ in sometimes tragic circumstances. Williamson ‘shows a good dramatic sense’, Wight observes, in his narrative of events involving Cromwell and King Charles I of England; but the book fails to show insight on ‘the deeper dialectic of conservative and revolutionary psychology. It illuminates neither the particular clash between the Anglicanism of the King and the Independency of the Lieutenant-General, nor the general problem of political morals in a revolutionary situation.’ Cromwell and Charles were both ‘compelled to political methods which in private circumstances they would have condemned’. Owing in part to Williamson’s ‘life-long Cromwellian fervour’, the book does not attain ‘a high level of political literacy’, nor does it demonstrate deep discernment about the history of these conflicts.