bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Measuring Governance
Authors: Hollyer James R.
Published: November 2018

Researchers typically construct measures of governance through one of two methods (or some combination thereof): aggregation of the responses of a set of expert respondents to survey questionnaires, or aggregation of some set of factual data. This chapter examines the benefits and drawbacks to each methodology. By relying on expert respondents, researchers are able to ensure that a broad range of varied inputs inform their governance index. This methodology benefits from flexibility. By relying on carefully selected factual data and defined aggregation rules, researchers are able to ensure transparency and reliability, but typically restrict the set of information that influences their index. This chapter argues that, all else being equal, indexes that rely on objective inputs are more appropriate for theory testing, while those that rely on expert perceptions are more appropriate for ranking and assessment exercises.
The Opportunities and Limitations of Crowdsourcing Policy Indicators
Authors: Osimo David
Published: November 2018

This chapter aims to explore how crowdsourcing can be used for gathering data in the context of governance indicators. Crowdsourcing has been applied in recent years to many human activities, from analysing galaxies to reviewing consumer products, but governance indicators can appear too technical for non-experts to participate in. The chapter begins by illustrating the traditional challenges in data collection. It then analyses a set of real-life cases of policy crowdsourcing to understand the benefits and risks that crowdsourcing entails. Based on these cases, the chapter illustrates how crowdsourcing can help address some of the core challenges of data collection for governance indicators, and in particular it extracts key lessons learned and recommendations. It concludes that crowdsourcing can be helpful provided it is carefully designed and focuses on the quality, rather than quantity, of contributions.
Towards Contribution Analysis
Authors: Hodge R. Anthony
Published: November 2018

Since the early 1990s, at least forty-five initiatives have been mounted to improve the environmental and social performance of the mining industry. Many changes in the formal legal and regulatory systems have also been introduced. However, no systematic approach has been adopted to test whether this effort is making a difference. Without such monitoring of success, the tension between companies, communities, and governments regarding the role of mining in society will continue. This chapter makes the case for using ‘contribution analysis’ to fill this gap, a systematic means to assess and track mining’s contribution to human and ecosystem well-being over the full project and product life cycles. This is a higher test than current practice. It brings out a fuller picture of the positives and negatives of natural resources and their management, provides greater opportunity for the perspectives of all interests to be heard, and is fairer.
Local Content, Supply Chains, and Shared Infrastructure
Authors: Östensson Olle
Published: November 2018

Local content policies for extractive industries have attracted increased interest. Local content requirements are often included in legislation or contracts. Such efforts may be constrained by low capacity of potential suppliers, low skills, and the general business environment. A number of extractive industry companies have introduced supplier development programmes that attempt to reduce the constraints and skill gaps. Government industrial policies on local content vary: some prescribe quantitative targets for local content, while others focus on improving skills and raising the capacity of domestic industry. Infrastructure built for extractive industries can often be used by other economic activities. Difficulties in finding suitable financing arrangements have, however, limited the number of successful multi-user extractive industry-related infrastructure projects.
Choices for Spending Government Revenue
Authors: Witter Sophie , Jakobsen Maja
Published: November 2018

This chapter examines a broad range of opportunities for addressing the pressing human development needs of low-income countries by using new oil, gas, and mineral discoveries. It assesses how much of an impact can be made on the funding gaps for health and education by new oil and gas revenues, and what other uses of those revenues are likely to arise. The chapter argues that there is a strong case for investing natural resources revenues in social sectors, as they provide an opportunity to help to close the financing gaps in the African countries examined. However, the chapter also highlights that the political economy risks of this revenue stream are higher than for other types of revenues. Finally, it illustrates how a simple diagnostic framework can be used to help to guide social-sector investment decisions in the light of new natural resources revenues.
Capturing Economic and Social Benefits at the Community Level
Authors: Slack Keith
Published: November 2018

Civil society organizations have played various roles in promoting the capture of benefits from and protection against the negative impacts of extractive industries. Payment disclosure is one potentially powerful tool for such organizations to promote greater local benefit capture. Practitioners and academics have noted, however, that transparency alone does not equate to accountability. This is true in the extractive sectors, where political dynamics pose serious obstacles. The cases of Ghana and Peru provide examples of these dynamics. Strategies for overcoming them include strengthening the technical capacity of civil society organizations, providing civic education, targeting interventions better, and learning more deeply from positive examples.
The Liminal Origins of Italian Democracy
Authors: Forlenza Rosario
Published: November 2018

This chapter conceptualizes the end of Fascism and the beginning of the civil war, after the armistice of September 8, 1943, as the collapse of the markers of certainty and the beginning of a liminal period of chaos and political, as well as existential, uncertainty. It takes the reader for a ride in what was a confusing and bewildering scenario that followed the removal of the Duce, the collapse of the nation, the dissolution of the structure of power, and the disintegration of national unity. A situation of pure liminality and radical uncertainty, pulling and pushing, imbued with a deep sense of disorientation and confusion pervaded all sectors of Italian society: the governmental level, the army units inside and outside the country, as well as people in the cities and in the countryside. Yet, it was precisely this situation of uncertainty that paved the way for passage to democracy.
The City Commune and the Assumption of a Public Role
Authors: Gamberini Andrea
Published: November 2018

This chapter examines the affirmation of the commune in the context of the urban political scene: first as one of the many forces present in the city (together with the bishop and certain aristocratic families endowed with specific rights and powers), then as a single hegemonic force. In less than a century, the communal citizen passed from an extra legem condition to one of full recognition as a public power—something that took place thanks to a complex conceptual work of elaboration that owed much to the clash with Barbarossa and even more to the encounter with the Roman legal tradition. The chapter shows that it was, in fact, on this terrain that the doctores built the legal foundations of citizen autonomy: a process which, while slow and non-linear, gave rise to exceptional results.
The Territorial Aristocracies
Authors: Gamberini Andrea
Published: November 2018

This chapter looks into the political culture of landed aristocracy and explores how it changed over time following the advent of the princely state. The discipline imposed by the prince on the nobles involved, at least in principle, burdensome renunciations, which included the abandonment of all those aspects of noble culture incompatible with the culture of the principality, starting with ius ad bellum, the right to carry weapons freely, the possession of castra (fortresses of various sizes) and fortalices, with associated government prerogatives, ritual violence, and so on, none of which rights were acknowledged by the prince. This gave rise to tension and conflict.
‘Pacta servanda sunt’
Authors: Gamberini Andrea
Published: November 2018

Guelphism/Ghibellinism was not the only political culture that enjoyed success all across the domain. In the second half of the fifteenth century, assisted by the advent of a dynasty with a legitimacy based on fairly shaky ground, the pacts of submission between the duke and the territorial bodies increasingly became the foundation upon which the new Sforza state was based. The contractualist culture adopted by the communities also played a part here, with the latter determined to confer an authentically constitutional significance on those agreements. While the prince tended to include them in the sphere of Visconti tradition, thus attributing a gracious (and therefore revocable) character to the concessions, the subjects tended to bind them to argumentation of a contractual kind (e.g. the remuneration of a service, a fidelity deserving of recompense, the inveterate observance of a practice followed by former dukes, etc.).
Concluding Note
Authors: Gamberini Andrea
Published: November 2018

This chapter summarizes all the main points and issues addressed in previous chapters (both in Part I and in Part II), with the aim of highlighting the common thread that runs through the entire work. The result is a new reading of the state-building process at the end of the Middle Ages. The limitations of attempts by governors to present the political principles that inspired their acts as shared and universally recognized are revealed by a historical analysis firmly intent on investigating the existence, in particular territorial or social ambits, of other political cultures which based obedience to authority on different, and frequently original, ideals.
Conclusion
Authors: Brazil Kevin
Published: November 2018

In conclusion, this short chapter surveys the ways in which the novelists discussed in this book have become reference points for contemporary debates about the legacy of modernism and experimentation among novelists such as Teju Cole, Zadie Smith, and Ben Lerner. It also surveys how contemporary novelists’ engagements with art are being driven by different concerns than those of earlier writers—attempts to blur the lines between autobiography and fiction, or to recover the political and aesthetic potential of wonder and enchantment. In doing so, it shows how the interactions between art and the novel traced in this book have become part of literary history.
Introduction
Authors: Brazil Kevin
Published: November 2018

Art has long served as a privileged foil for novelists looking to reflect on their craft. The Introduction outlines how interactions between art and the novel changed in the postwar period, as some novelists used an engagement with art as a means to rethink the novel’s relationship to history. It also sets out the book’s critique of postmodernism as the dominant concept for thinking about interactions between art and literature in the period, and situates the book within debates in literary studies about the relationship between historicist and formalist methods, as well as within the historiography of modernist art.
Paradoxes of the Heart
Authors: Milbank Alison
Published: November 2018

Brockden Brown is linked to British rational dissenters such as the Aikins and William Godwin in Chapter 5. Their positive theological anthropology, which denies human fallenness, is evidenced in Godwin’s Enquiry Concerning Political Justice in which familial and social bonds are denied in favour of a utilitarian social benefit. This leads to a difficulty in imagining what Mrs Barabauld called ‘the paradox of the heart’. Godwin’s novel, Caleb Williams, begins to admit an inner duality in the subject. Brockden Brown’s Wieland further questions political Whig secularized Providentialism and the utopian anthropology of rational dissent. The elder Wieland spontaneously combusts in a seemingly supernatural fashion. His ‘enlightened’ children are haunted by unexplained voices, causing the son to kill his family. Although the voices are revealed as natural, events begin to open a fissure in the modern, atomized, and buffered self and the possibility of a more paradoxical account of the subject.
Supernatural Naturalism
Authors: Milbank Alison
Published: November 2018

Carlyle’s ‘Natural Supernaturalism’ or synthesis of idealism and realism is interpreted by Mark Abrams as an immanentizing project. This is questioned in Chapter 12 by analysing ghost stories by women writers who reverse this trajectory to anchor the real in a supernatural cause. They use realism to open a transcendent depth in the material object. Emily Brontë’s lovers in Wuthering Heights seek to burst the limits of the material but are left in a liminal spectrality. Elizabeth Gaskell uses the reality of the supernatural to question the refusal of original sin by rational dissent. Margaret Oliphant’s Dantesque ghost stories establish the supernatural as the truly real positively in ‘A Beleaguered City’ and more problematically in ‘A Library Window’. Finally Charlotte Brontë’s supposedly new psychological Gothic is shown to be wholly traditional and to yoke feminist and theological desires for liberation in an apocalyptic union of body and soul.
Epilogue
Authors: Milbank Alison
Published: November 2018

The premises of the book are reprised in the Epilogue to argue for an intensification of religious themes as the Protestant downgrading of spiritual mediating practices leads to a hollowed out secular materialism, requiring a more sympathetic recuperation of Catholic sacramentality, even to establish the spiritual Protestant subject. Recent Gothic fiction by Sarah Perry, Andrew Hurley, and James Robertson illustrates the ongoing importance of Whig, Catholic, and Scottish Calvinist modes of Gothic in contemporary fiction, which questions the limits of the natural.
People Movement in the Climate Change Context
Authors: Thornton Fanny
Published: November 2018

A scene-setting chapter which presents in some detail the nexus between climate change and people movement. It explores the anthropogenic nature of climate change and the extent to which certain events or disturbances are attributable to man-made climate change, a connection vital to the justice theory–based analysis to follow. The chapter then explores knowledge of the links between climate change, its effects, people, their setting, and people movement. These factors interact, and a linear connection between a climatic event, its effects, and the movement of people does not necessarily exist. The challenges this presents for both a legal and justice-based analysis are highlighted. The chapter concludes that interesting questions about responsibility are nevertheless raised, which are best explored from a justice angle.
People Movement in the Climate Change Context and International Law
Authors: Thornton Fanny
Published: November 2018

A contextual chapter which presents the prevailing analysis of climate change and people movement from an international law standpoint. International law scholarship has played a part in framing, and drawing attention to, the topic of climate change and people movement. In particular, it has made some strides in exploring and uncovering the relevance (or lack thereof) of many of public international law’s sub-branches (refugee law, human rights law, humanitarian law, etc.) to addressing such movement. The chapter synthesizes the field’s findings and highlights why further infusing it with justice dimensions is both vital and credible.
Conclusion
Authors: Thornton Fanny
Published: November 2018

The chapter collates the major themes and outcomes which have emerged in the preceding chapters. Key insights gained through the application of a justice framework are identified and situated in the context also of possible limitations of a justice approach. The Conclusion, finally, highlights gaps that the book was unable to address and recommends possible worthwhile avenues for further study.
‘Control and Communication’
Authors: Roach Rebecca
Published: November 2018

This chapter traces the fortunes of the interview in the years after the Second World War. At mid-century the interview was becoming increasingly associated with the surveillance of citizens and cybernetics. In turn, interviews were no longer considered a product of co-production but rather as an interrogative profiling device—as publicized by Senator McCarthy among others. Innovative broadcasters such as Mike Wallace began to adopt their own interrogative style of interviewing toward the profilers in an attempt to foster a critically engaged citizenry. But it was in the infamous Treason case of Ezra Pound that questions around the subject’s analytical control in the era of New Criticism came to a head for the literary community. Meanwhile, for some avant-garde authors including William Burroughs and Jack Kerouac, the interrogative possibilities of interviewing established it as a useful means for creating a countercultural project able to counter New Criticism.
The Future of National Development Banks
Authors: Griffith-Jones Stephany , Ocampo José Antonio , Rezende Felipe , Schclarek Alfredo , Brei Michael
Published: November 2018

In the wake of the global financial crisis, there is growing consensus that national development banks play a valuable role in development finance. This chapter looks first at the theoretical background justifying the need for development banks. The chapter then describes empirically some of the key features of national development banks, including their lending and funding structure. Finally, it analyses in depth five main functions which national development banks perform: (i) providing countercyclical lending; (ii) promoting innovation and structural transformation; (iii) enhancing financial inclusion; (iv) supporting infrastructure investment; and (v) supporting the provision of public goods, and particularly combatting climate change.
China Development Bank
Authors: Xu Qiyuan
Published: November 2018

Established in 1994, the China Development Bank was soon on the verge of bankruptcy, but then it miraculously recovered in early 2000s. Now with total assets of USD 1.85 trillion, CDB ranks as one of the largest and most dynamic national development banks in the world. This chapter explores in detail the CDB’s role in light of China’s transition economy. CDB is a key contributor to the establishment of an adequate local government credit system and a facilitator for infrastructure construction. Therefore, CDB’s role goes beyond financing infrastructure. It is above all a shaper of the government credit system, and one of the starting points for understanding China’s economy.
Encounter with Friedrich Albert Lange
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: November 2018

This chapter describes Cohen’s relationship with Friedrich Albert Lange, who was his supporter and advocate. Despite the friendship between the two, it is argued that Cohen and Lange were philosophical antipodes: that Lange was a nominalist, empiricist, and champion of psychologism, Cohen a Platonist, rationalist, and opponent of psychologism. Even in ethics, Lange was an advocate of sentimentalism rather than Kantian-style rationalism.
Jewish Writings, 1880–1889
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: November 2018

This chapter examines Cohen’s Jewish writings in the 1880s, a crucial decade for him because it marks the beginning of his struggle with antisemitism. Cohen defends a communitarian doctrine against the liberalism of Kant, Mendelssohn, and Lazarus; his doctrine stresses the value of social unity above that of individual liberty. Cohen envisages a fusion of Judaism and Christianity to ensure this unity. He stresses the great value of religion and race to maintain and ensure unity, a doctrine which he will later abandon. A final section deals with Cohen’s stance in the Fenner trial, when Cohen was asked to serve as an advisor. This was one of the first trials to try someone for defamation of a public religion.
System of Ethics
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: November 2018

This chapter is an examination of Cohen’s major work on ethics, Ethik des reinen Willens. It tries to explain its subtle and unstated relation to Cohen’s Judaism: Cohen saw his ethics as laying the groundwork for Judaism, although it was not explicitly apologetic. Cohen attempts to justify two central concepts of Judaism: God and messianism. In addition to these interests, Cohen develops a theory of the will which attempts to be a synthesis of voluntarism and rationalism: the will exists independent of reason as primitive feeling; but it reaches its highest development in reason. Cohen devotes much attention to the relations between ethics and religion, anthropology and law. He thinks that ethics is best grounded on law, which proved to be a controversial doctrine.
Jewish Writings, 1910–1915
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: November 2018

In the years 1910–1915 Cohen wrote on several topics related to Judaism and philosophy. One concerns the relationship between Kant’s philosophy and Judaism. Cohen argues that there is an inner affinity between them: that they show the same rationalism, the same ethics of duty, and the same devotion to autonomy. Another concerns the relationship between Spinoza and Judaism. Cohen now turns against Spinoza whom he once admired. He fears that Spinoza’s philosophy is giving aid to antisemitism because it offers the same interpretation of Judaism as the antisemites: both see Judaism as a strictly political doctrine having no abiding ethical ideals. During these years Cohen continues to defend Judaism against Christian misinterpretations, which claim that Judaism is a religion of the law rather than the spirit.
Causes and Controversies, 1914–1917
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: November 2018

This chapter first covers Cohen’s writings during the First World War, when he wrote propaganda for the German cause. These years also mark the beginning of Cohen’s quarrel with the Zionists, especially Martin Buber. Cohen defended a cosmopolitan interpretation of Judaism, according to which it is not attached to any specific country but has a universal mission to serve mankind. He rejected therefore the ethnic and nationalist interpretation of Judaism of the Zionists. In 1916 Cohen and Paul Natorp became involved in a heated battle with Bruno Bauch, a proto-Nazi sympathizer who was the editor of Kant-Studien. The quarrel ended with Bauch’s resignation, though for decades thereafter nationalist sympathizers complained about the pro-Jewish bias of Kant-Studien. A final section examines Cohen’s dispute with Ernst Troeltsch about Judaism.
Last Jewish Writings, 1915–1918
Authors: Beiser Frederick C.
Published: November 2018

The Jewish writings of these final years develop themes of the earlier years. Cohen continues to explore one of his favorite topics: the affinity of German and Jewish character. Despite his cosmopolitan conception of Judaism, Cohen still thought that the Jews were most at home in Germany. Yet, despite his belief in the special affinity between Germans and Jews, Cohen still shows his cosmopolitanism by his sympathy for the Ostjuden; he maintains that they should be freed from the many immigration controls imposed on them. Cohen continues to worry about the growing weakening of Jewish communities in Germany, and argues, as Socrates did in the Crito, that people have a special obligation to stay within the communities which nurtured them. In a remarkable 1916 lecture on Plato and the prophets Cohen argues that they are the two major ethical voices in the Western world: Plato gave the West a rational form while the prophets gave it moral content. Cohen now reduces his earlier striving for a unity of religions down to the demand for a unity of conscience.
Moral Advice and Joint Agency
Authors: Wiland Eric
Published: November 2018

There are many alleged problems with trusting another person’s moral testimony, perhaps the most prominent of which is that it fails to deliver moral understanding. Without moral understanding, one cannot do the right thing for the right reason, and so acting on trusted moral testimony lacks moral worth. This chapter, however, argues that moral advice differs from moral testimony, differs from it in a way that enables a defender of moral advice to parry this worry about moral worth. The basic idea is that an advisor and an advisee can together constitute a joint agent, and that this joint agent’s action can indeed have moral worth. So while the advisee himself might not do the right thing for the right reason (this because all alone he lacks the right reason), and while the advisor herself might not do the right thing for the right reason (this because all alone she does not do the right thing), they together do the right thing for the right reason.
The Anti-Inflammatory Basis of Equality
Authors: Rozeboom Grant J.
Published: November 2018

We are moral equals, but in virtue of what? The most plausible answers to this question have pointed to our higher agential capacities, but we vary in the degrees to which we possess those capacities. How could they ground our equal moral standing, then? This chapter argues that they do so only indirectly. Our moral equality is most directly grounded in a social practice of equality, a practice that serves the purpose of mitigating our tendencies toward control and domination that interpreters of Rousseau call “inflamed amour-propre.” We qualify as participants in this practice of equality by possessing certain agential capacities, but it is our participation in the practice, and not the capacities themselves, that makes us moral equals. Thus, in contrast with recent accounts that simply posit a threshold above which capacity-variations are ignored, this chapter proposes moving from a capacity-based to a practice-based view of moral equality.
Comparative Data on High Participation Systems
Authors: Clancy Patrick , Marginson Simon
Published: November 2018

This chapter provides and discusses existing comparative data on higher education participation between various countries. The chapter starts with a review of the principal measures of participation, noting an inevitable tradeoff between optimum statistical measures and what is feasible given data limitations. After surveying participation in higher education in all countries, and noting that almost three-quarters have achieved enrolment ratios of at least 15 per cent, the chapter provides more detailed comparisons of the OECD member countries. The chapter proposes a composite Higher Education Participation Index which combines enrolment and output measures.
High Participation Society
Authors: Smolentseva Anna
Published: November 2018

The chapter asks the ultimate question about high participation systems (HPS) of higher education: what kind of society is it when the majority of young people have higher education? It reviews theories and concepts developed in two disciplinary traditions: social sciences (structural functionalism, neo-institutionalism, etc.) and educational philosophy (Bildung and growth theory among others). Those two strands of scholarship highlight two key dimensions in the relations between higher education and society: the social/occupational structure, and socialization as human development/self-formation. The Bildung idea of a dual human nature, both determined by the world and being self-determining, largely corresponds to these two disciplinary approaches and opens up an intellectual space for further cross-disciplinary, multi-dimensional research on the meanings of HPS higher education for individuals and society.
Towards Universal Access Amid Demographic Decline: High Participation Higher Education in Japan
Authors: Yonezawa Akiyoshi , Huang Futao
Published: November 2018

This chapter provides a detailed and extensive assessment of Japan’s high participation system (HPS) of higher education, in historical perspective, and reflects on the changes in governance, functional differentiation, diversification between institutions in the form of vertical stratification, and the challenges for social equality and equity. The country case largely complies with the HPS propositions, with some national variations. The role of the state has been particularly important in shaping system differentiation; it has fostered functional diversification among universities and other post-secondary institutions, and has also concentrated public investment in selected universities. Stratification is enhanced by neo-liberal competition policy and the official positioning of the top universities as responding to globalization. The deliberate pursuit of functional diversification has modified the secular tendency to reduced diversity of institutional type, but not eliminated it. A shrinking population and economy have created more challenges for designing a sustainable future vision of higher education.
Headquarters Economy Attributes and Strategy/Policy Foundations
Authors: Shaver J. Myles
Published: November 2018

This chapter highlights the advantages that stem from a headquarters economy compared to other regional economies such as industry clusters or creative economies. It then presents an overarching structure from which to consider public policies that can aid and sustain headquarters economies, and corporate strategies that tap into and aid headquarters economies. In doing this, the chapter highlights managers as key decision-makers who make purposeful choices of where they work and reside. It identifies four key constituents that affect such managerial choices. These constituents are companies, governments, non-governmental organizations, and other individuals within the managerial talent pool.
Five Novel Insights for Regional Economies and Company Strategies
Authors: Shaver J. Myles
Published: November 2018

This chapter identifies five unique insights from this research that advance current discourse about regional economic development, and the role that businesses play in shaping it. First, there are regional advantages that stem from a talent base whose skills are applicable across many industries or sectors of the economy. Second, different factors play prominent roles in attracting and retaining talent. For managerial and administrative talent, economic opportunities play the primary role for talent attraction; quality of life factors play a more important role for talent retention. Third, talent is often more geographically bound than the companies that employ this talent. Fourth, hidden headquarters comprise a significant amount of headquarters activity. Fifth, there is often a difference in the quality of life factors that play an important role in attracting or retaining talent, compared to a region’s quality of life strengths.
Prevalence of Headquarters Economies
Authors: Shaver J. Myles
Published: November 2018

This chapter presents metropolitan areas around the world with concentrations of headquarters of the world’s largest companies. From here, the chapter discusses how the insights from the research presented in the book can be applied across many different metropolitan areas. Of note is that a headquarters economy need not be an exclusive source of regional vitality. It can co-exist with other sources of regional vitality; however, focusing exclusively on these other sources can mask the importance of the headquarters economy dynamics. The chapter then revisits the importance of considering headquarters as pools of managerial talent and the implications that stem from this. It concludes by discussing limitations of the research and avenues for further development.
Climate Change and the Future of International Order
Authors: Gupta Joyeeta
Published: November 2018

On the basis of the scientific consensus on the dangers of climate change, this issue emerged as a partial order in the 1990s and was developed as an international regime in five phases. This chapter analyzes how the functional order evolved throughout the phases, and assesses the respective approaches, actors, and implications. Major steps for the development of the regime were the Kyoto Protocol (KP) and the Paris Agreement (PA) though the international agreements at times and the fight against climate change in general lack the full support from several key states like the USA, China, Japan, and Russia. The order lost its predictability but retains its legitimacy, leading, however, to questionable prospects on its effectiveness. Therefore, its greatest challenge may be to change the approach from international legal action to the restructuring of societies.
Aligning Security Needs for Order in Cyberspace
Authors: Cavelty Myriam Dunn
Published: November 2018

Due to heightened threat perceptions, states are currently expanding their coercive power in cyberspace. They attempt to reduce the risk of escalation in (cybered-)conflict through traditional norms building. At the same time, their strategic actions remain the biggest threat to stability. Cyber-exploitations are a major part of the problem, hindering the removal of known insecurities, thus reducing the effectiveness of any future order. At the same time, the forceful role that states aspire to play in cyber-security has led to questions of legitimacy. The security arrangements that emerged in the 1990s, focused on protection and risk management, had a high degree of legitimacy because they built on a pragmatic solution of distributed security provision. Unless a future order in cyberspace takes into account the interests of companies and consumers who shape this domain in peacetime, it will be met with considerable resistance, with high costs for all sides.
The Middle Eastern Regional Order
Authors: Perthes Volker , Maull Hanns W.
Published: November 2018

The Middle East has long been dominated by conflict interactions, both among Arab states and with the non-Arab regional powers Israel and Iran. Yet despite much violence and wars the old order in the Middle East—established at the end of World War I—was remarkably stable until 2011, when it disintegrated as a result of the “Arab spring.” The principal cause for this has been the weakness of the Arab states. Outside powers have been invited into the region to compensate for those weaknesses, but they have also exploited them. The disastrous US intervention in Iraq 2003 for a while dampened the willingness of outside powers to intervene, but since the intervention in Libya 2011 there has been a return to interventionism. None of these has been able, however, to overcome the principal dilemma of the region: the weakness of the Arab states.
The United States and Regional Security Orders in the Middle East, East Asia, and Europe
Authors: Overhaus Marco
Published: November 2018

The USA is still the only power with the capability to have a major impact—for better or for worse—on the security orders in all major geographical regions of the world, most notably the Near/Middle East, East Asia, and Europe. A review of the major dynamics in regional orders shows that seven decades of American hegemony have always been short of the liberal ideal-type expectations—well before Donald Trump entered the scene. However, the Trump administration sees the international and regional security orders primarily as arenas for power competition in which economic and military might are the most relevant currencies. While the erosion of regional security orders is not primarily the result of the deeds and omissions in Washington, the missing liberal hegemon will make it much harder to reverse the trend and to rebuild these orders from within and from the outside.
China and the Struggle over the Future of International Order
Authors: Pang Zhongying
Published: November 2018

This chapter discusses China’s changing attitude, doctrine, and policy actions towards international order and offers some tentative findings on the complexity of China’s role in the struggle over the future of international order. This complexity results from China’s efforts simultaneously to consolidate its presence in the existing international order but also to reform existing global governance institutions. The ambition to seek an alternative international order makes it, at least to some extent, a revisionist state. While pursuing an agenda to reform the existing international order from within, China additionally has begun to sponsor an unprecedented number of new international institutions and initiatives of its own, such as the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) and the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). How this will play out will depend above all on the interaction of China with a USA still wedded to its hegemonic role in world politics.
Breaking the Metal Ceiling
Authors: Campos Francisco , Goldstein Markus , McGorman Laura , Boudet Ana Maria Munoz , Pimhidzai Obert
Published: November 2018

Evidence from developed and developing countries indicates that there is significant gender segregation within the labour market, with women more likely to work in low-productivity sectors or less profitable businesses. This chapter looks at occupational segregation which significantly contributes to the earnings gender gap worldwide. The chapter studies the differences in outcomes for male and female enterprises and their sectors in sub-Saharan Africa, a region of high female labour market participation and entrepreneurship. Data on Uganda show that women breaking into male-dominated sectors make as much as men, and three times more than women staying in female-dominated sectors. Factors including entrepreneurial skill/abilities and credit/human capital constraints do not explain women’s sectoral choices. However, information about profitability of their small enterprises, male role models’ influence, and exposure to the sector from family and friends are critical in helping women circumvent or overcome norms undergirding occupational segregation.
Eradicating Women-Hurting Customs
Authors: Platteau Jean-Philippe , Camilotti Giulia , Auriol Emmanuelle
Published: November 2018

Since the birth of modern development economics in the period immediately following the Second World War, attention has been mostly directed to the determinants of long-term economic growth performance and, in a subsequent stage, to issues of income distribution and poverty reduction. Social engineering refers to deliberate attempts, often under the form of legislative moves, to promote changes in customs and norms that hurt the interests of marginalized population groups. This implies discussing the main possible interaction frameworks leading to anti-women equilibria, and deriving policy implications from the corresponding games. The theoretical arguments are illustrated by examples drawn from available empirical works, thus providing a reasoned survey of the literature. This chapter explores the analytical conditions under which social engineering is more or less likely to succeed than more indirect approaches when it comes to suppressing gender-biased customs.
Introduction
Authors: van Aaken Anne , Motoc Iulia , Vasel Johann Justus
Published: November 2018

There are many ways of looking at the relationship between international human rights law (IHRL) and general international law. One may look at the influence of IHRL on general international law, or at the reverse influence, using a method of tracing judgments and their influence on other international courts. One may also discuss the relationship under the heading of fragmentation, taking a broader, systemic, and institutional view. This introduction embeds the specified topics treated in the book which we deem exemplary, namely sources, interpretation, jurisdiction, state responsibility, and immunity in this discussion, looking at both ways of influence. This book explores the interaction effects arising in the context of human rights between the European Convention on Human Rights and general international law. Some of the chapters suggest reconciling methods and convergence whereas others stress the danger of fragmentation. There is no single view which fits all issue areas of international law but judicial dialogue is of utmost importance to ensure the sustainable development of the law for the benefit of human rights.
Humility and Human Flourishing
Authors: Austin Michael W.
Published: November 2018

This chapter explores several ways in which humility is conducive to human flourishing. It claims that humility is rational, benefits its possessor, and contributes to its possessor being good qua human. It considers the relationship between humility and the theological virtues of faith, hope, and love, as well as its connections to the cardinal virtues of prudence, fortitude, justice, and temperance. It argues that humility plays a key role in the process of theosis. It also argues that humility prevents (or at least hinders) vice in human beings, in particular the seven capital vices of envy, vainglory, sloth, avarice, anger, gluttony, lust, and the primary capital vice, pride.
Conclusion
Authors: Austin Michael W.
Published: November 2018

This brief concluding chapter includes a summary of the book’s main points, chapter by chapter. It also includes a brief meditation on the portion of John’s gospel, John 13:1–17, in which Jesus serves his disciples by washing their feet. The act itself expresses humility, a fact that is underscored by the reversal of social roles that it exemplifies. It is especially striking that Jesus washes the feet of Judas, who would soon betray him. This reversal of social roles not only exemplifies the moral virtue of humility, it also provides a model for followers of Christ to imitate in daily life. The foot washing can also serve as a reminder to those who seek to exemplify the Christian virtue of humility, namely, that there are opportunities to do so in small, everyday situations.
Self and Role: Transformational Agency in Organizations
Authors: Herzog Lisa
Published: November 2018

This chapter discusses the relationship individuals have to their organizational roles. Based on two real-life examples, it discusses the pitfalls of complete identification with, but also of complete psychological separation from, one’s organizational role. Organizational roles need to be integrated into processes of moral reflection and moral learning. The chapter introduces the notion of ‘transformational agency’ for describing how individuals can remain committed to basic moral norms and put the results of their reflections about their organizational roles into practice. Drawing on Albert Hirschman’s notions of ‘exit’ and ‘voice’, various transformational strategies are discussed. Together, they lead to an attitude of critical loyalty towards organizations. Finally, the chapter asks how organizations can support moral reflection and transformational agency on the part of individuals.
Civilians and Theories of War
Authors: Bowd Stephen D.
Published: November 2018

Justifications for the killing of civilians by soldiers rested on an array of theological and legal texts elaborated from classical and medieval sources. These texts focused on the notion of war as a punishment for human sin, but also suggested that war was a just chastisement. Therefore, in the just war tradition writers paid more attention to the causes of war than to its conduct. It was only in a gradual and piecemeal fashion that some protection for groups of civilians, including women, clergy, and children, was developed. However, it was not until c.1700 that a more secular basis for understanding war emerged and began to replace the just war framework with an international law of war. Even then, the civilian did not fully emerge as a notionally protected figure.
The Machiavellian Massacre
Authors: Bowd Stephen D.
Published: November 2018

The Italian Wars dominated the life of Machiavelli (1469–1527) who from 1498 to 1512 served the republic of Florence. As a result of his contact with some of the key figures in the wars, including the French king and Cesare Borgia, and as a consequence of his experiences of establishing Florentine military measures which failed in 1512 with the bloody sack of Prato, Machiavelli wrote extensively on the causes of Italian weakness and offered possible military and political cures. For Machiavelli the harsh necessity of war, including massacres, was a vital part of the process of strengthening Italy just as the sack of Rome at the hands of the French in 390 BC had led the Roman republic on to greatness. In this way, the Machiavellian massacre was quite different from that envisaged by contemporary humanists and it owed very little to the sinful premise of just war theory.
‘With Pain/Pen’
Authors: Bowd Stephen D.
Published: November 2018

The Italian Wars stimulated an enormous poetic response which drew on the literary traditions of the peninsula—including history writing—and fed or shaped a widespread demand for news and for rapid reflections on the political and military situation. The sack of the city and the massacre of civilians formed an important part of this output. Poets on all sides listed massacres and described individual atrocities. They might blame human sin, Italian weakness, or barbarian national character for these events; or they might attribute them to divine providence or justify them according to the laws and customs of just war. More rarely did the civilian receive much attention. The forms in which they wrote ranged from the classical Latin epic to the mock epic in terza rima, sonnet, or lament.
Of Milkshake and Boxers
Authors: de Shalit Avner
Published: November 2018

If immigrants do settle in the city, is there an integration model which can sustain a sense of place and which is morally superior to other models? Based on research in Jerusalem, Berlin, and Amsterdam, Chapter 3 claims that immigrants challenge the city’s coherency on three levels: sociological, axiological (of values), and psychological. It is argued that different cities are able to cope with different levels of this challenge and that in Amsterdam, the Milkshake city, all three levels are met in a process of mutual assimilation and the formation of hybrid personalities. Nevertheless, it cannot be argued that this model is morally superior because these models derive from different historical and political circumstances.
The Trial of the Kaiser
Authors: Schabas William A.
Published: November 2018

Today’s elaborate system of international criminal justice originates in proposals at the end of the First World War to try Kaiser Wilhelm II before an international criminal tribunal. In the weeks following 11 November 1918, the British, French, and Italian Governments agreed on a trial. Lloyd George campaigned for re-election on the slogan ‘Hang the Kaiser’. The Kaiser had fled to the Netherlands, possibly after receiving signals from the Dutch Queen that he would be welcome. Renegade US soldiers led by a former Senator failed in a bizarre attempt to take him prisoner and bring him to Paris. During the Peace Conference, the Commission on Responsibilities brought international lawyers together for the first time to debate international criminal justice. They recommended trial of the Kaiser by an international tribunal for war crimes, but not for starting the war or violating Belgian neutrality. The Americans were opposed to any prosecution. However, President Wilson changed his mind and agreed to trial for a ‘supreme offence against international morality’. This became a clause in the Treaty of Versailles, one of the few that the Germans tried to resist. Although the Allies threatened a range of measures if the former Emperor was not surrendered, the Dutch refused and the demands were dropped in March 1920. The Kaiser lived out his life in a castle near Utrecht, dying of natural causes in June 1941. Hitler sent a wreath to the funeral.