bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Factors influencing healthcare provider respondent fatigue answering a globally administered in-app survey
Authors: O’Reilly-Shah Vikas N.
Published: September 2017

Background

Respondent fatigue, also known as survey fatigue, is a common problem in the collection of survey data. Factors that are known to influence respondent fatigue include survey length, survey topic, question complexity, and open-ended question type. There is a great deal of interest in understanding the drivers of physician survey responsiveness due to the value of information received from these practitioners. With the recent explosion of mobile smartphone technology, it has been possible to obtain survey data from users of mobile applications (apps) on a question-by-question basis. The author obtained basic demographic survey data as well as survey data related to an anesthesiology-specific drug called sugammadex and leveraged nonresponse rates to examine factors that influenced respondent fatigue.

Methods

Primary data were collected between December 2015 and February 2017. Surveys and in-app analytics were collected from global users of a mobile anesthesia calculator app. Key independent variables were user country, healthcare provider role, rating of importance of the app to personal practice, length of time in practice, and frequency of app use. Key dependent variable was the metric of respondent fatigue.

Results

Provider role and World Bank country income level were predictive of the rate of respondent fatigue for this in-app survey. Importance of the app to the provider and length of time in practice were moderately associated with fatigue. Frequency of app use was not associated. This study focused on a survey with a topic closely related to the subject area of the app. Respondent fatigue rates will likely change dramatically if the topic does not align closely.

Discussion

Although apps may serve as powerful platforms for data collection, responses rates to in-app surveys may differ on the basis of important respondent characteristics. Studies should be carefully designed to mitigate fatigue as well as powered with the understanding of the respondent characteristics that may have higher rates of respondent fatigue.
Metabolically active CD4+ T cells expressing Glut1 and OX40 preferentially harbor HIV during in vitro infection
Authors: Palmer Clovis S. , Duette Gabriel A. , Wagner Marc C. E. , Henstridge Darren C. , Saleh Suah , Pereira Candida , Zhou Jingling , Simar David , Lewin Sharon R. , Ostrowski Matias , McCune Joseph M. , Crowe Suzanne M.
Published: September 2017

High glucose transporter 1 (Glut1) surface expression is associated with increased glycolytic activity in activated CD4+ T cells. Phosphatidylinositide 3‐kinases (PI3K) activation measured by p‐Akt and OX40 is elevated in CD4+Glut1+ T cells from HIV+ subjects. TCR engagement of CD4+Glut1+ T cells from HIV+ subjects demonstrates hyperresponsive PI3K‐mammalian target of rapamycin signaling. High basal Glut1 and OX40 on CD4+ T cells from combination antiretroviral therapy (cART)‐treated HIV+ patients represent a sufficiently metabolically active state permissive for HIV infection in vitro without external stimuli. The majority of CD4+OX40+ T cells express Glut1, thus OX40 rather than Glut1 itself may facilitate HIV infection. Furthermore, infection of CD4+ T cells is limited by p110γ PI3K inhibition. Modulating glucose metabolism may limit cellular activation and prevent residual HIV replication in ‘virologically suppressed’ cART‐treated HIV+ persons.
Investigating Segmentation in Cascadia: Anisotropic Crustal Structure and Mantle Wedge Serpentinization from Receiver Functions
Authors: Krueger Hannah E. , Wirth Erin A.
Published: September 2017

The Cascadia subduction zone exhibits along‐strike segmentation in structure, processes, and seismogenic behavior. While characterization of seismic anisotropy can constrain deformation processes at depth, the character of seismic anisotropy in Cascadia remains poorly understood. This is primarily due to a lack of seismicity in the subducting Juan de Fuca slab, which limits shear wave splitting and other seismological analyses that interrogate the fine‐scale anisotropic structure of the crust and mantle wedge. We investigate lower crustal anisotropy and mantle wedge structure by computing P‐to‐S receiver functions at 12 broadband seismic stations along the Cascadia subduction zone. We observe P‐to‐SV converted energy consistent with previously estimated Moho depths. Several stations exhibit evidence of an “inverted Moho” (i.e., a downward velocity decrease across the crust‐mantle boundary), indicative of a serpentinized mantle wedge. Stations with an underlying hydrated mantle wedge appear prevalent from northern Washington to central Oregon, but sparse in southern Oregon and northern California. Transverse component receiver functions are complex, suggesting anisotropic and/or dipping crustal structure. To constrain the orientation of crustal anisotropy we compute synthetic receiver functions using manual forward modeling. We determine that the lower crust shows variable orientations of anisotropy along‐strike, with highly complex anisotropy in northern Cascadia, and generally NW‐SE and NE‐SW orientations of slow‐axis anisotropy in central and southern Cascadia, respectively. The orientations of anisotropy from this work generally agree with those inferred from shear wave splitting of tremor studies at similar locations, lending confidence to this relatively new method of inferring seismic anisotropy from slow earthquakes.
The Influence of Gravity on the Displacement Field Produced by Fault Slip
Authors: Gómez Demián D. , Bevis Michael , Pan Ernian , Smalley Robert
Published: September 2017

We calculated surface displacements produced by a synthetic megathrust earthquake using two spherical, layered, elastic dislocation models which differ only in that one model accounts for the coupling between elasticity and gravity and the other does not. We show that including gravity perturbs the displacement field differently in the near‐, medium‐, and far‐fields. As a result, slip inversions based on an Earth model without gravity cannot simultaneously fit the near‐, medium‐ and far‐field displacements generated using a forward model including gravity. This suggests that the spatially systematic misfits between observations and dislocation predictions seen in the literature arise, at least in part, because these studies are based on models that neglect gravity. Although the magnitude of the far‐field displacements is small compared to those of the near‐field, our slip inversions show the most improvement when we both up‐weight the far‐field observations and use a physically consistent model in the inversion.
Oxygen Ebullition From Lakes
Authors: Koschorreck M. , Hentschel I. , Boehrer B.
Published: September 2017

The exchange of oxygen between lakes and the atmosphere is assumed to be driven by diffusion. Here we show that lakes can emit significant amounts of O2 by emerging gas bubbles—a process called ebullition. We found very high proportions of 17 ± 10% O2 (maximum 34%) in emerging gas bubbles in two shallow eutrophic reservoirs. In the studied reservoirs, O2 emission by ebullition was of similar magnitude as diffusive O2 fluxes. By reanalyzing previous studies, we show that the process is ubiquitous and probably quantitatively relevant in many places. We present evidence that O2 in bubbles originates both from photosynthetic oxygen production and hence bubble formation in the oxic water and from stripping by emerging methane bubbles. Ebullition can turn lakes undersaturated in respect to the atmosphere into a net O2 source. Neglecting O2 ebullition leads to an overestimation of lake internal respiration.
In Situ Stress and Pore Pressure in the Deep Interior of the Nankai Accretionary Prism, Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Site C0002
Authors: Kitajima Hiroko , Saffer Demian , Sone Hiroki , Tobin Harold , Hirose Takehiro
Published: September 2017

Strength and slip behaviors of subduction megathrusts are controlled by the physical properties and stress state not only of the fault zones themselves but also the adjacent wall rocks in overriding and subducting plates. In the Nankai Trough, a 3 km deep riser borehole at Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Site C0002 was drilled into the Kumano fore‐arc basin and the underlying accretionary prism. We quantify the full in situ stress tensor and pore pressure at Site C0002 by integrating drilling data, geophysical logging, and downhole measurements using empirical relations that describe sediment compaction behavior as a function of loading path. The Kumano Basin is loaded in uniaxial vertical strain conditions, whereas the prism below is loaded with greater differential stress, has a modestly elevated pore pressure, and lies in a strike‐slip faulting regime. This can be reconciled with slip on the megathrust fault if the horizontal stresses vary with time or depth and/or if shear stress along the megathrust is low.
Estuarine Sediment Dissolved Organic Matter Dynamics in an Enhanced Sediment Flux Model
Authors: Clark J. Blake , Long Wen , Hood Raleigh R.
Published: September 2017

Sediment derived dissolved organic matter (DOM) can comprise a substantial portion of the organic carbon budget in coastal bottom waters, yet it is often neglected in coastal carbon cycle models. In most modern sediment‐water column flux models, biologically mediated reactions that remineralize particulate organic matter (POM) into inorganic compounds are simplified. In reality, organic matter remineralization is a complex suite of reactions that include DOM intermediate compounds. To better represent the sequential breakdown of POM and remineralization of DOM, a DOM state variable was built into a widely used sediment flux model. In the model, DOM is created in the sediment by hydrolysis of POM, and all organic matter passes through the DOM pool before remineralization. The model was run for 11 years and tuned to reproduce observed sediment flux data collected in Chesapeake Bay and then used to assess the role of DOM in sediment organic matter dynamics. Sediment‐water column fluxes of DOM are highly variable both on seasonal and interannual scales, with substantial variability among stations in both magnitude and flux direction. Across all stations, semilabile and inert DOM is lost and labile DOM is taken up into the reactive first layer of the modeled sediment, with the net flux a balance of the two processes. The improved sediment flux model can be utilized to better understand the role of sediment biogeochemistry in the estuarine and coastal carbon cycle and shed light on difficult to measure processes involving DOM intermediate compounds.
Strong Gradients in Forest Sensitivity to Climate Change Revealed by Dynamics of Forest Fire Cycles in the Post Little Ice Age Era
Authors: Drobyshev Igor , Bergeron Yves , Girardin Martin P. , Gauthier Sylvie , Ols Clémentine , Ojal John
Published: September 2017

The length of the fire cycle is a critical factor affecting the vegetation cover in boreal and temperate regions. However, its responses to climate change remain poorly understood. We reanalyzed data from earlier studies of forest age structures at the landscape level, in order to map the evolution of regional fire cycles across Eastern North American boreal and temperate forests, following the termination of the Little Ice Age (LIA). We demonstrated a well‐defined spatial pattern of post‐LIA changes in the length of fire cycles toward lower fire activity during the 1800s and 1900s. The western section of Eastern North America (west of 77°W) experienced a decline in fire activity as early as the first half of the 1800s. By contrast, the eastern section showed these declines as late as the early 1900s. During a regionally fire‐prone period of the 1910s–1920s, forests in the western section of Eastern boreal North America burned more than forests in the eastern section. The climate appeared to dominate over vegetation composition and human impacts in shaping the geographical pattern of the post‐LIA change in fire activity. Changes in the atmospheric circulation patterns following the termination of the LIA, specifically changes in Arctic Oscillation and the strengthening of the Continental Polar Trough, were likely drivers of the regional fire dynamics.
Fibroblasts promote the collective invasion of ameloblastoma tumor cells in a 3D coculture model
Authors: Fuchigami Takao , Koyama Hirofumi , Kishida Michiko , Nishizawa Yoshiaki , Iijima Mikio , Kibe Toshiro , Ueda Masahiro , Kiyono Tohru , Maniwa Yoshimasa , Nakamura Norifumi , Kishida Shosei
Published: September 2017

Ameloblastoma is a benign tumor of the odontogenic epithelium with several histological subtypes. All subtypes of ameloblastoma contain abundant stroma; the tumor cells invade collectively into the surrounding tissues without losing intratumor cell attachments. However, the molecular mechanisms mediating ameloblastoma invasion remain unclear. Here, we evaluated the functional significance of the interactions between ameloblastoma tumor cells and stromal fibroblasts on collective cellular invasion using a three‐dimensional cultivation method, double‐layered collagen gel hemisphere (DL‐CGH) culture. The AM‐1 plexiform and AM‐3 follicular human ameloblastoma cell lines and HFF‐2 human fibroblasts were labeled with GFP and DsRed, respectively. Collective cellular invasion of ameloblastoma cells was assessed in the presence or absence of fibroblasts. Notably, without fibroblasts, AM‐1 cells formed sharp, plexiform‐like invasive processes, whereas AM‐3 cells formed a series of blunt processes often observed during collective migration. In comparison, under the cocultures with HFF‐2 fibroblasts, AM‐3 cells formed tuft‐like invasive processes and collectively invaded into outer layer more than that observed with AM‐1 cells. Moreover, HFF‐2 fibroblasts localized to the tips of the invasive tumor processes. These findings suggest that tumor‐associated cells assist tumor cell invasion. Microscopic analysis of sectioned three‐dimensional cultures revealed that AM‐3/HFF‐2 hemispheres were histologically similar to follicular ameloblastoma tumor samples. Therefore, our findings suggest that ameloblastoma subtypes exhibit distinct invasion patterns and that fibroblasts promote collective tumor invasion in follicular ameloblastoma.
Endomembrane and Cytoskeleton Interrelationships in Higher Plants
Authors: Hawes Chris , Saint‐Jore Claude , Brandizzi Federica
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Pharmacological Experiments Have Indicated the Importance of the Actin Cytoskeleton

In vivoImaging of Endomembrane Organelles Reveals Dependence on the Cytoskeleton

Transport betweenERandGolgi may be Independent of the Cytoskeleton: Evidence from Pharmacological and Photobleaching Studies

Acknowledgements
Retrograde Transport from theGolgi
Authors: Denecke Jürgen
Published: September 2017

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Why should Proteins and Membranes Recycle Back to theER?

Retrograde Transport of Soluble Proteins

From Where Does Retrieval of Soluble Proteins Occur?

Retrograde Transport of Membrane Spanning Proteins

Conclusions

Acknowledgements
Phosphorus: Back to the Roots
Authors: Lambers Hans , Plaxton William C.
Published: September 2017

Phosphorus (P) is a pivotal nutrient for all life on Earth. It is poorly mobile in soil and inorganic P concentrations in the soil solution are <0.6 to 11μM. Organic P concentrations in the soil solution tend to be higher, but organic P needs to be hydrolysed before it can be taken up by plant roots. Such hydrolysis involves phosphatases that are either released from the roots or derived from microorganisms in the rhizosphere. A large fraction of soil P is sorbed onto soil particles, and hence is unavailable to most plants. Roots that release large amounts of P‐solubilising carboxylates can access some of this sorbed P. Rates of P uptake from the soil solution are determined predominantly by the movement of P in soil. Root traits that enhance P movement in soil increase P acquisition; however, the kinetic properties of P transporters that take up this P have little effect on net P uptake. The downregulation of genes encoding these transporters is important to avoid P toxicity at a high P supply. Species or genotypes that lack the capacity to downregulate their P‐uptake capacity typically show P‐toxicity symptoms at a high P supply. Mycorrhizal symbionts increase the soil volume that is available for P acquisition. Attempts to select or engineer genotypes with greater P‐uptake capacities should consider both root and soil characteristics, including soil microorganisms such as mycorrhizal fungi.
Metabolomics of Plant Phosphorus‐Starvation Response
Authors: Jones Chris , Hatier Jean‐Hugues , Cao Mingshu , Fraser Karl , Rasmussen Susanne
Published: September 2017

Plant metabolism is significantly affected by environmental stresses, such as phosphorus starvation, and plants have evolved various strategies to cope with this pressure. Metabolomics is a measure of the overall metabolic response and, particularly in association with other ‘omic’ technologies and some more traditional science disciplines such as plant physiology, provides an invaluable tool for the characterisation of plant material when subjected to these stresses. Recent advances establishing this technology platform have been enabled by significant improvements in analytical instrumentation, complemented by the development of substantial database resources. This chapter describes how these advances have been used to advance the understanding of plant responses to stresses, and how this capability offers new opportunities to begin to unravel the complex mechanisms that facilitate these responses. The diversity of biochemical reactions captured by metabolomics studies can also be used to identify and select plants with improved P‐uptake and metabolism. It is suggested how this can be applied as part of a whole‐systems approach towards the development of more P‐efficient cultivars.
Metabolic Adaptations of the Non‐Mycotrophic Proteaceae to Soils with Low Phosphorus Availability
Authors: Lambers Hans , Clode Peta L. , Hawkins Heidi‐Jayne , Laliberté Etienne , Oliveira Rafael S. , Reddell Paul , Shane Michael W. , Stitt Mark , Weston Peter
Published: September 2017

Proteaceae are almost all non‐mycorrhizal and most species produce proteoid (= cluster) roots when grown in low‐phosphorus (P) soils. In south‐western Australia and the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa, Proteaceae have diversified more than anywhere else, and occur on the most severely P‐impoverished soils in the landscape. Several traits related to their P nutrition account for the success of south‐western Australian Proteaceae on P‐impoverished soils: (i) a P‐acquisition strategy based on carboxylate release from ephemeral cluster roots, which allows the species to ‘mine’ P that is ‘sorbed’ to soil particles; (ii) efficient use of P in photosynthesis, based on a very low investment in ribosomal RNA, extensive replacement of phospholipids by lipids that do not contain P, and allocation of P to photosynthetic cells and not epidermal cells; (iii) a very high P‐remobilisation efficiency; and (iv) a high seed P content. Proteaceae in southern South America do have a P‐acquisition strategy based on carboxylate release, but lack the other P‐efficiency traits. They occur on soils that contain vast amounts of P, but with a very low P availability, and invest less biomass in cluster roots. However, these ephemeral structures live somewhat longer and release far more carboxylates when compared with Proteaceae from south‐western Australia. The various aspects of P nutrition in Proteaceae across the world are discussed in a phylogenetic context.
Mycorrhizal Associations and Phosphorus Acquisition: From Cells to Ecosystems
Authors: Smith Sally E. , Anderson Ian C. , Smith F. Andrew
Published: September 2017

The vast majority of terrestrial plants form some type of mycorrhizal association. In this chapter, attention is focused on the most common and widespread types: arbuscular mycorrhizas and ectomycorrhizas. The former are well known to play key roles in plant uptake of soluble inorganic phosphorus (Pi), via the arbuscular mycorrhizal (
AM
) uptake pathway. This pathway involves cell types and Pi transporters that are different from those utilised by the direct, epidermal, plant uptake pathway, and recent studies have indicated considerable interplay between the two pathways. Although less attention has been paid to the roles of ectomycorrhizas in P uptake, it is increasingly clear that this symbiosis is involved not only in soluble Pi uptake but also in the solubilisation of insoluble Pi and the mobilisation of organic P via phosphatases. Hence, these mycorrhizas likely play significant roles in nutrient turnover in forest ecosystems. For both mycorrhizal types there is considerable variation in outcomes in terms of P uptake and plant growth, depending on the identity of plant and fungal symbionts. It is emphasised that experiments with single plants and fungi in pots are unlikely to be good predictors of outcomes in the field, due to such factors as complex plant–fungal assemblages, interplant competition and plant densities.
Action Assembly Theory
Authors: Greene John O.
Published: September 2017

Action assembly theory (AAT) seeks to explain message behavior (both verbal and nonverbal) by describing the system of mental structures and processes that give rise to those behaviors (→ Message Production). As such, AAT is a member of the broader class of cognitive theories of message production. AAT, in turn, is itself an umbrella category for any of a variety of actual and potential specific theories that share certain central features, most prominently the notion that actions are created by integrating (or assembling) elemental features represented in → Memory in code systems reflecting multiple levels of abstraction. Two distinct exemplars of this class are found in Greene (1984, 1997).
Action Assembly Theory
Authors: Greene John O.
Published: September 2017

Action assembly theory (AAT) seeks to explain message behavior (both verbal and nonverbal) by describing the system of mental structures and processes that give rise to those behaviors (→ Message Production). As such, AAT is a member of the broader class of cognitive theories of message production. AAT, in turn, is itself an umbrella category for any of a variety of actual and potential specific theories that share certain central features, most prominently the notion that actions are created by integrating (or assembling) elemental features represented in → memory in code systems reflecting multiple levels of abstraction. Two distinct exemplars of this class are found in Greene (1984, 1997).
Advertising: Global Industry
Authors: Sinclair John
Published: September 2017

Advertising is the key link in the mutually sustained global expansion of consumer goods and services industries and the media of communication that carry their commercial messages. In this structural context, → advertising is much more than the → Images and brand names (→ Brands; Branding) that form the surface of → consumer culture. It is the life‐blood of the media, and the motive force behind media industry development. Further, it is the publicly most visible dimension of → Marketing, that is, the cultural industry that seeks to connect the producers of consumer goods and services with their potential markets, and in fact, to bring those markets into being. This integrated institutional relationship between production and consumption, with the advertising agency at its center, may be referred to as the “manufacturing–marketing–media complex.”
Advertising: Responses across the Life‐Span
Authors: Buijzen Moniek
Published: September 2017

Advertising responses are the thoughts, emotions, and behaviors generated by exposure to a commercial message (Petty & Cacioppo 1996). Responses to → advertising can be divided intothree general types: cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses. Studies on cognitive responses focus on recall or recognition of advertisements and brands. Affective response studies concentrate on likes and dislikes of advertisements and brands. Finally, behavioral response studies investigate the extent to which people are persuaded by advertisements; for instance, to purchase the advertised brand.
Amateur Photography and Movies
Authors: Chalfen Richard
Published: September 2017

While the invention of the camera and advancement of → photography are best known in the contexts of the history of technology or the emergence of a new art form, cameras have been used for more than commercial concerns, scientific interests, or artistic work. From the earliest use of the camera and the emergence of consumer models of camera technology, nonprofessional photography has had an important parallel history. Ordinary people have taken their cameras home to produce the most frequent of all photographic imagery on a worldwide basis, namely the personal, nonprofessional production and use of personal pictures including snapshots, family albums, home movies, home video, and, more recently, family websites and even personal camera‐phone images. Amateurs have played a significant role in advancing the visual documentation of the everyday, of the private features of family life. Results have been highly valued in personal ways but far less so in commercial or scholarly contexts.
Art as Communication
Authors: Griffin Michael
Published: September 2017

Since the modern era in the west, art has increasingly been defined as distinct from communication. Since Kant and Hume, discriminations of sensory beauty and “delicacy of taste” have been invoked in judgments of → aesthetic value that separate those forms of communication that qualify as art from those that do not. Gross has argued that an important part of the process of art appreciation is the “perception and evaluation of the competence displayed by the artist” (Gross 1973, 124). That is, does the reader or viewer attribute skill on the part of the artist to “the selecting, transforming, and ordering of the elements” (Gross 1973, 127) that constitute the work of art, and see these creative actions as intentional? For Gross these demonstrations of competence may be appreciated anonymously, as examples of conventionally recognized ability or talent, but most often they depend upon the valorization of an individual artist, the repository of the skill that is distinguished.
Attention
Authors: McDonald Daniel G.
Published: September 2017

The concept of attention is one of the oldest and most commonly used in the communication literature. The concept is fraught with connotations that typically have little to do with the use of attention in a particular study because of its origins in vernacular language and the difficulty in separating everyday meaning from scientific meaning. To make matters more complicated, as Michell (1990) has noted, different operations often define different concepts, suggesting hundreds of attention concepts in the communication literature alone.
Attention to Media Content across the Life‐Span
Authors: Lorch Elizabeth
Published: September 2017

Children, adolescents, and adults use many types of media. These include varieties that do not require input from the user, such as print media, movies, → Video tapes, DVDs, music, and television, as well as those with more extensive interactive possibilities (→ Interactivity, Concept of), such as → video games, computer applications, and → Internet resources. As the media landscape has become more varied and extensive, children and adolescents in particular have increased use of these newer media (Rideout et al. 2005). However, at all ages studied, → Television has maintained its place as the most commonly used medium (→ Media Use across the Life‐Span). Further, characteristics of television enable a variety of measures of → attention (e.g., eye movements, visual orientation to the screen, probe responses to events). Perhaps for these reasons, television is the focus of most studies of attention to media. Developmental differences in attention have been studied most systematically across childhood and adolescence, with far fewer studies examining attention to media in adults, especially in older adults (→ Attending to the Mass Media; Developmental Communication).
Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs, Media Effects on
Authors: Shrum L. J.
Published: September 2017

Because of the extensive penetration of media into society, and the different purposes and types of information conveyed, there are a number of possible media effects. For the sake of simplicity, these possible media purposes are categorized as those intended to persuade (e.g., → advertising, → propaganda), inform (e.g., → news), or entertain (e.g., narrative television, film). In addition, these effects operate on different aspects of the person, affecting their beliefs (mental association between objects and attributes), → attitudes (evaluations of objects), and values (abstract ideals).
Attribution Processes
Authors: Manusov Valerie
Published: September 2017

Attribution
s
are the cognitive and communicative processes involved in making sense of why someone acted the way he or she did. This → sense‐making usually revolves around attempts to determine the
cause
(i.e., why) and/or
who is responsible
for an action. Studied initially as a largely internal, psychological process (e.g., Heider 1958), researchers in communication often look to verbal explanations as examples of expressed or communicated attributions (e.g., Burleson 1986; Roghaar & Vangelisti 1996). Generally, attribution processes are considered an offshoot of people's tendency to want to understand the world around them. This sense‐making transpires in our thoughts (cognitive attributions), and we talk it out with others (communicated attributions). In fact, as we talk about why we think someone acted as he or she did, we often change our minds about the attribution we originally held (→ Psychology in Communication Processes; Cognition).
Audiences, Female
Authors: Ross Karen
Published: September 2017

The ways in which “the audience” has been conceptualized have moved, historically, through an arc from passive to active to interactive, and the embodied audience has become fragmented as the media industry tries to deliver niche audiences to particular advertisers. One such segmented audience is that of the group “women,” even though an archetypal “woman” does not actually exist. However, many researchers have nonetheless focused on the ways in which women, as a specifically gendered audience, have reacted to and engaged with media such as TV and film, and how they consume genres which are supposed to be especially appealing to women, such as soaps, romantic fiction, and magazines. Work in this field has often been feminist in orientation and has mostly focused on women's relationship with texts, although some work makes comparisons between women and men in terms of their enjoyment of particular media forms. However, the history of researchers' engagement with the female audience is, in some ways, exemplified by the overdetermination of research studies on soaps and magazines.
Avatars and Agents
Authors: Wang Ning , Rizzo Skip
Published: September 2017

The term “avatar” derives from the Sanskrit word
avatāra
, meaning “incarnation” and has been used to describe a deliberate descent of a higher being into mortal realms for special purposes. Avatar also has a long history of use in Hindu texts to characterize the human appearance on earth of various Hindu gods such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Ganesha. More recently, avatar has become a
popular term in new media technology
to describe the digital representation, human or otherwise, of a real person in a virtual world. This use of the term emerged initially as a text construct in multiple user dungeons (MUDs), text‐based social gathering points and chatrooms that became popular in the early days of the → Internet, and then later on to describe a two‐dimensional icon used on Internet forums (Damer 1997; Fink 1999; Blackwood 2006) and other digital communities or the form of a three‐dimensional human model used in computer games (Lessig 2000). For example, a person can use an avatar to represent himself or herself in a meeting held in an online virtual environment such as
Second Life
or similarly as a tutor in the course of conducting a distance learning activity.
Channel/Program Loyalty
Authors: Stipp Horst
Published: September 2017

The issue of viewer loyalty has received some attention from academics, but it is of vital interest to broadcasters. Since the beginning of → Television, stations and networks have tried to promote viewer loyalty in order to increase ratings, advertising revenue, and profits (→ Advertising, Economics of; Markets of the Media). In fact, the way US broadcasters devise programming schedules – with most programs being shown daily or weekly at the same time – is designed to maximize loyalty. Branding strategies and campaigns have the same goal (→ Branding). However, looking at the history of television, it is clear that technological developments have changed television behavior and have strongly affected viewer loyalty. The following describes in more detail the changes in the US but the pattern would apply to most industrialized countries with multichannel television systems.
Competition in Media Systems
Authors: Picard Robert
Published: September 2017

Media enterprises operating under various types of media systems globally all have incentives to perform well and compete with other media units and types for resources and a variety of rewards. The differences in how performance is determined and types of rewards provided vary among the systems, however.
Expectancy Value Model
Authors: Doll Jörg , Ajzen Icek
Published: September 2017

Human beings have a natural tendency to react with some degree of positive or negative affect to any object or concept of psychological significance (Fishbein & Ajzen 1975; Eagly & Chaiken 1993). We like or dislike certain people, support or oppose various policies, regard some activities as pleasant and others as unpleasant, have favorable views of certain television programs but unfavorable views of others, and so forth. The expectancy value (EV) model is concerned with the origins and structure of these “social attitudes” (Feather 1982; → Attitudes).
Expectancy Value Model
Authors: Doll Jörg , Ajzen Icek
Published: September 2017

Human beings have a natural tendency to react with some degree of positive or negative affect to any object or concept of psychological significance (Fishbein & Ajzen 1975; Eagly & Chaiken 1993). We like or dislike certain people, support or oppose various policies, regard some activities as pleasant and others as unpleasant, have favorable views of certain television programs but unfavorable views of others, and so forth. The expectancy value (EV) model is concerned with the origins and structure of these “social attitudes” (Feather 1982; → Attitudes).
Feminist Media
Authors: Steiner Linda
Published: September 2017

Around the world, → newspapers, → magazines, → cable and → satellite television, → radio broadcasts, → documentary film, and now especially → Internet sites produced by, for, and about women have been crucial to the processes of challenging and resisting dominant conceptions of women, as well as celebrating new and liberatory visions of womanhood. Until the 1960s, outlets run by women, even when they were directly oppositional, rarely self‐identified as “feminist.” Nonetheless, “feminist media” usefully describes media that consistently advocate expansive political, social, and cultural roles for women and expose gender oppression (interstructured with oppression by sexual orientation, class, “race,” ethnicity, and religion, or other bases of invidious distinction). Sympathizers and advocates can thereby redefine news, share information unavailable in mainstream media, and, just as importantly, nurture a feminist community. Participants experiment with alternative ways of organizing their work, articulate their own ethical standards, and develop their media skills (→ Femininity and Feminine Values; Feminist Communication Ethics).
Graphic Design
Authors: Soar Matt , Wallace Jacqueline
Published: September 2017

“Graphic design” refers, in essence, to the artful arrangement of images and text on a variety of surfaces and in a range of forms, most commonly in print or digital media. Typical pieces of graphic design include: posters; → books and jacket covers; brochures and flyers; → magazines and → newspapers; logos, trademarks, → branding and corporate identities; product packaging; annual reports; T‐shirts; signage and way‐finding systems; websites; interface and application design for mobile devices; and motion graphics (e.g., film title sequences, TV station promos). Related activities include product design, exhibition and information design, type design and → typography, and design for interactivity (websites, kiosks, mobile apps; → Design; Interactivity, Concept of).
Human–Computer Interaction
Authors: Nardi Bonnie A. , Kallinikos Jannis
Published: September 2017

Every computational device must allow for some form of interaction with its user. Human–computer interaction is the discipline that studies how people interact with computational devices and the implications that the design of the human–machine interface has for this interaction. The discipline also investigates wider communal and social implications associated with user interface design and the use of digital systems and artifacts.
Image Restoration Theory
Authors: Benoit William L.
Published: September 2017

Image restoration theory – referred to as “image repair theory” in recent literature, to imply that an image might be improved but not completelyrestored– addresses the question of what a person or organization can say when accused or suspected of wrongdoing. Our reputation is vital both for our self‐esteem and because reputation influences how others will treat us. Bicyclist Lance Armstrong failed to repair his image from accusations of illegal doping. Tylenol, on the other hand, did repair its image after its capsules were poisoned. Countries also engage in image repair: Saudi Arabia ran a series of advertisements to distance itself from the 9/11 tragedy (many of the terrorists were from Saudi Arabia, including Osama bin Laden). A favorable → image is desirable, so tarnished images need repair.
Information Processing: Stereotypes
Authors: Manusov Valerie , Kurylo Anastacia
Published: September 2017

Stereotypes are typically conceived of as cognitive categorizations of people into groups that are accompanied by descriptors of group members (→ stereotypes). Early discussions of stereotypes referenced them as “pictures” of groups or “types” of people (Lippmann 1922/1965). According to researchers, many attributes are used as a basis of stereotype‐based categorization, including race, sex, age, class, religion, and body type (see, e.g., Schneider 2004). Stereotypes provide cognitive benefits, much like other schemas (Fiske & Taylor 1984). As a form of categorization, for example, stereotypes function as energy‐saving devices (Macrae et al. 1994) and cognitive tools (Gilbert & Hixon 1991) that preserve → information‐processing resources, because they allow people to “chunk” information into familiar and, therefore, meaningful units (Hamilton & Sherman 1994).
Information Scanning
Authors: Hornik Robert , Niederdeppe Jeff
Published: September 2017

Information scanning concerns information acquisition from routine patterns of exposure to mediated and interpersonal sources. The essential idea is that even when individuals are not actively seeking information on a specific topic, routine use of media and interactions with other people yield exposures to information that affect knowledge, beliefs, and behavior. For many issues and behaviors, scanning may be far more frequent than active information seeking. While influence per scanned exposure may be less than for each instance of sought exposure, the cumulative effects of scanning may often be greater, given their greater volume (→ Exposure to Communication Content; Selective Exposure; Information Processing).
Interview, Qualitative
Authors: Schlütz Daniela , Möhring Wiebke
Published: September 2017

At first sight, a scientific → interview resembles a common conversation, a qualitative interview even more so than a standardized one (→ Interview, Standardized). Unlike a day‐to‐day conversation, however, such an interview takes place in an artificial situation, follows specific rules, and, not least, aims at reaching a predefined goal. An open‐ended interview can be conducted for two different reasons. It may be explorative, which means that it is used to gather a first understanding of a topic, a deeper insight into the relevant dimensions in question, and an idea of the terms used in describing these dimensions. An explorative interview is only the first part in a series of other, usually standardized, research steps. A qualitative interview, on the other hand, is a method of inquiry in its own right. It is theoretically rooted in Mead's symbolic interactionism (Carreira da Silva 2007; → Symbolic Interaction; Verstehen vs Erklären). The high value of open‐ended interviews lies in the fact that respondents are allowed to tell it “their way” with a minimum of direction, thus offering their individual understanding of the topic in question in the context of and from their social position. Qualitative interviewing does not seek to produce statistical evidence but provides deep insights in individual sense‐making processes.
Journalism Education
Authors: Becker Lee B.
Published: September 2017

Journalism education historically has been instruction for work in the news departments of media organizations, both print and electronic. Journalistic instruction can take place before journalists enter the workforce, during early employment, and at later career stages. It can involve practical training in the skills of the journalist and broader education about the context of that work (→ Professionalization of Journalism). The training can cover skills in reporting (information gathering and evaluation), writing (language use and storytelling techniques, including photography, videography, and graphics), and editing (including story presentation and integration into the news format). Education about the context of journalism can include topics such as the social setting and impact of news, journalism history and law, and news ethics.
Journalists' Role Perception
Authors: Donsbach Wolfgang
Published: September 2017

An important concept to apply in describing how journalists in different cultures and media systems understand their work and its social function is
role perceptions
. These can have a strong influence on journalists' professional behavior and thus can explain differences between news cultures. The term “role” originates from theater, and sociology adopted the term to designate the whole set of expectations that other people have of the holder of a certain social position. Those expectations then create the perceptions that the holders of the roles have in their social environment and accept as legitimate, and consequently their perceptions guide their attitudes and behaviors. Thus, journalists' role perceptions can be defined as generalized expectations which journalists believe exist in society and among different stakeholders, which they see as normatively acceptable, and which influence their behavior on the job.
Online Research
Authors: Schweiger Wolfgang
Published: September 2017

The term “online research” refers to two different concepts which are often confused: (1) applying online methods in social research, and (2) social research of online phenomena. The first part of this entry sketches the most important empirical methods and their online version. The second part briefly illustrates how selected online phenomena or research questions can be methodically addressed.
Organization–Public Relationships
Authors: Heath Robert L.
Published: September 2017

Relationship is one of many topics academics and practitioners use to define public relations by examining how it accomplishes the roles it plays on behalf of organizations and others' interests in society. This topic is at least 60 years old (Cutlip & Center 1952). As it matured, Scott Cutlip, Allen Center, and Glen Broom (2000) observed that the trend in the United States is for public relations to be less focused on one‐way, self‐interested persuasion and more on mutuality, reciprocation, and the idea of “between.” Exploring such themes, organization–public relationship (OPR) research strives to understand what defines the quality of relationships between each organization and its key publics and how such relationships affect other outcomes. Emphasizing such themes, these authors posed a definition: “Public relations is the management function that establishes and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the publics on whom its success or failure depends” (2000, 6). Challenging researchers to dig more deeply and think more precisely about OPR, Broom, Casey, and Ritchey (1997) called for studies that build on a conceptual foundation that addresses antecedents, variables of relationship quality, and outcomes.
Organizational Ethics
Authors: Deetz Stanley , Cheney George
Published: September 2017

Organizational ethics includes the consideration of a wide number of issues of rights, responsibilities, values, and proper conduct in contemporary organizations and in organizations' relations to host societies. Conceptions and studies of organizational ethics have focused on both internal practices and social consequences and have been descriptive as well as normative. Unsurprisingly, questions of organizational ethics are prominent today in the wake of major scandals in all sectors and the acknowledged global social, economic, and environmental impacts of large organizations such as multinational corporations. While many organizational ethics studies still focus on individual behavior and issues primarily linked to compliance with organizational policies, communication scholars have become increasingly interested in ethical issues focusing on values, culture, governance, and → corporate social responsibility, drawing on concepts developed from critical communication theory and cognate areas (May 2006; Deetz & Irvin 2008; → Organizational Communication: Critical Approaches).
P2P Networking
Authors: Dini Paolo , Krause Paul
Published: September 2017

The emergence of peer‐to‐peer (P2P) networking shows that technological determinism can be turned on its head: rather than socio‐economic systems being determined by technological developments, sometimes technology can be determined by its users. Although in general the coupling goes both ways, P2P networking culminates the progression in computer architectures from mainframes through minicomputers, workstations, PCs, and client–server architectures, as information and communication technology (ICT) gradually adapted over a 50‐year span to the needs and behavior of its users (→ Communication Networks). In contrast to the master–slave or client–server architecture, in a P2P network each node has the same status and can issue requests to or respond to requests from any other node.
L
afayette,
M
arquis de (1757–1834)
Authors: Richardson Annette
Published: September 2017

Marie Joseph Paul Yves Roche Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, was a wealthy French aristocrat who participated in several revolutions, including the American Revolution, the Great French Revolution (and Counterrevolution), and the July Revolution of 1830.