bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Rise of People’s Movements and Organizations of Struggle
Authors: Rodríguez Miles V.
Published: August 2022

Chapter Two traces the rise of popular movements and unique organizations of struggle in the early years after the Mexican Revolution. It details the creation of the Partido Comunista de México (Communist Party of Mexico, PCM); the Confederación de Transportes y Comunicaciones (Confederation of Transport and Communication Workers, CTC); and the Liga Nacional Campesina (National Peasant League, LNC). These organizations formed the foundations for unusual alignments and relationships later in the decade.
Participatory Institutions and Extractive Conflict
Authors: Jaskoski Maiah
Published: August 2022

This chapter introduces varied ways that communities in hydrocarbon and mining zones have utilized participatory institutions in extractive conflict, and summarizes how the book draws on and contributes to the literatures on social conflict in extractive industries, theories of institutional change, and participatory institutions that incorporate civil society into local policymaking. The chapter also reviews the logic employed in the selection of thirty extractive conflicts in Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru for the study, and introduces the book’s causal framework for understanding variation in community uses of participatory institutions. The argument centers on certain challenges to participation that communities in the conflicts faced: the trials of initiating participatory events, gaining inclusion in participatory processes, and, for included communities, expressing views about extraction at the participatory stage.
Participatory Institutions and Their Underlying Boundaries
Authors: Jaskoski Maiah
Published: August 2022

Communities impacted by extraction may participate in the approval of hydrocarbon and mining projects in Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru, through prior consultation (in all three countries), the environmental impact study hearing (in Colombia and Peru), and popular consultation (in Colombia). Access to these participatory institutions is determined by different boundaries: (1) boundaries between subnational and central state authority, (2) the geographic delineation of communities impacted by planned extraction, and (3) the lines defining representatives of an affected community relative to the community at large. Contestation over the boundaries leads to debates about which communities can be included in participatory events, which actor(s) speak on behalf of impacted communities, and whether a participatory process is appropriate.
Boundary Struggles in Latin America’s Extractive Zones
Authors: Jaskoski Maiah
Published: August 2022

An examination of thirty conflicts facilitates the exploration of relationships among community cohesion, goals, experience with extraction, and uses of participatory institutions. The analysis shows how communities with different objectives have utilized participatory institutions to influence development outcomes, in cohesive and divided contexts. Participatory institutions that in normal times might serve as tools of the state and of extractive firms to co-opt, weaken, and control communities were assets for communities that mobilized in the face of extraction. “Mere” participatory procedures proved powerful. Formal procedures caused different community behaviors that were linked tightly to—but that did not necessarily follow—those rules. And the boundaries and classifications associated with participatory procedures brought tensions over the drawing of the lines and over the prioritization of some categories over others. Those struggles contributed to and organized extractive conflict. Ultimately, the participatory procedures that states implement to manage communities and further extraction can generate conflict, thwarting state development goals.
Some Sources of Skepticism
Authors: Mele Alfred R.
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines two kinds of route to the conclusion that free will does not exist. The first features the device of setting the bar for free will absurdly high, and the second highlights a pair of familiar philosophical arguments—the No Free Will Either Way Argument and the Impossible Regress Argument. In response to the first route, data from survey-style studies in social psychology and experimental philosophy are used to show that certain lofty alleged requirements for free will—for example, that free will depends on the existence of souls—in addition to being philosophically unsupported, are not supported by the majority of nonspecialists. Related data on moral responsibility are also presented. The two philosophical arguments are examined and shown to be faulty.
More Skeptical Arguments
Authors: Mele Alfred R.
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines a pair of arguments for the nonexistence of free will. One of them is based on the idea that free will depends on agent causation, which is causation of an effect by an agent rather than by events. The other argument is based on the idea that free actions must be uncaused. Both arguments are argued to be unpersuasive. It is argued, more specifically, that we lack good reason to believe that free will depends on agent causation and that this is true as well of the claim that free actions must be uncaused. The chapter’s primary aim is to explain certain incompatibilist ideas about free will more fully than previous chapters did while also extending the discussion of skepticism about free will that began in chapter 6.
Introduction
Authors: Blanchette Jude
Published: August 2022

The prologue looks at the death of Mao Zedong in 1976. Regardless of how one reacted to the news of Mao’s death, everyone knew that China would never be the same. In his 27 years as the undisputed ruler of the People’s Republic, he had achieved near godlike status. Mao had created a totalitarian system in the truest sense of the word: Comrade Mao and the CCP had near total control over the individual, including what people were allowed to think and where they worked and lived. With his sudden disappearance, the Chinese people confronted, not only a spiritual, political, and cultural vacuum, but also an existential question: where did China go from here? And more immediately, who would lead them there? The decisions Communist Party leadership would make to address these questions in the coming months and years would have enormous repercussions for China, and for the world.
Hard Truths
Authors: Blanchette Jude
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines how the period between 2004 and 2006 was marked by an explosion of open intellectual and ideological debate in China. By the early 2000s, an embryonic pan-leftist movement was taking root, and for all its ideological differences (and they were many), it was held together by a common lament—that the Communist Party was abandoning socialism and embracing economic growth at all costs, to the benefit of an elite few, at the expense of the majority, especially China’s workers and peasants. But if marginalization was drawing leftists together, technology was enabling them to communicate, and to share their message with a wider audience. Disenfranchised intellectuals and activists were turning to the internet to share and develop ideas, and to experience a sense of political participation in a political system that discouraged and punished activism. The chapter then looks at how the Beijing Utopia Cultural Communications Corporation Limited (“Utopia”) opened a bookstore in 2003 to provide “a meeting and discussion site for pan-Leftist scholars.” It also considers economist Lang Xianping’s speech at Fudan University, during which he accused some of China’s best-known entrepreneurs and companies of appropriating state assets under the guise of a type of legal acquisition known as a “management buyout” (MBO).
Neither Dogmatism Nor Relativism
Authors: Levine Alan
Published: August 2022

This chapter provides a chronological road map to our disharmonious present moment while also complicating our understanding of “the politics of truth.” The essay traces major conceptions of truth in Western philosophy from Socratic skepticism and medieval faith to enlightenment optimism and postmodern rejection, arguing that aspects of all these belief traditions are alive and kicking, forming in our polity a kind of “metaphysical pluralism.” To navigate our current pluralist or fractured conceptions of truth, the chapter argues that we should strive to avoid both excessive dogmatism and relativism.
Lies, Damned Lies, and American Democracy
Authors: Shapiro Robert Y.
Published: August 2022

This chapter documents the rising tide of dishonesty in American politics and its democratic consequences. Lying is certainly not a new feature of American politics, but the visibility and blatant use of such dishonesty by political elites appears to have reached new heights in recent times. Shapiro discusses the history of such conduct, including a pattern of deceit in recent presidential administrations, as well as the reasons for the rise of “damned lies” and their damaging effects. He then asks whether the traditional mechanisms and institutions in place in American society are up to the challenge of fighting this truth war. Ultimately, Shapiro points to the importance of an information environment in which the media embraces its “watchdog” role and government officials and experts resist and stall damned lies.
American Hubris
Authors: Barker David C , Marietta Morgan , DeTamble Ryan
Published: August 2022

This chapter introduces a new concept to the empirical scholarly lexicon: epistemic hubris—which is defined as unwarranted certitude when it comes to one’s factual perceptions. Although the evidence is clear with respect to many important politico-factual disputes, it is not with respect to many others. The authors finds that Americans—Democrats and Republicans alike—tend to express certainty toward such blurred realities about 40% of the time, and that such unwarranted certitude, or hubris, is aggravated among men, younger people, partisans, those who are heavy news consumers, those who are highly active on social media, and—especially—those with strong value commitments. Finally, The authors observe that such epistemic hubris is strongly predictive of an unwillingness to accept legislative compromises with partisan adversaries.
Conspiracy Stress or Relief? Learned Helplessness and Conspiratorial Thinking
Authors: Farhart Christina E , Miller Joanne M. , Saunders Kyle L.
Published: August 2022

This chapter investigates another possible cause of conspiracy theory belief: learned helplessness. Learned helplessness arises when individuals perceive themselves as unable to avoid negative situations in their lives or to affect desired change. Such perceptions become incorporated into the self-concept and manifest as feelings of anxiety or loss of control. Drawing on nationally representative panel data sets, the authors demonstrate that learned helplessness increases the likelihood of conspiratorial thinking and that, importantly, this relationship appears to be bidirectional—over time, conspiratorial thinking also tends to increase learned helplessness. This account has important implications for the demand-side account of conspiracy theory origins.
Authoritarianism, Fact-Checking, and Citizens’ Response to Presidential Election Information
Authors: Wintersieck Amanda
Published: August 2022

This chapter focuses on the differentiating impact of personality. To better understand how authoritarianism in the public influences individuals’ responses to fact-checking opportunities and information, the author analyzes an original experiment conducted during the 2016 presidential election. She finds that those who score low versus high in authoritarianism choose different fact-check sources, with those lower in authoritarianism preferring more neutral sources. Importantly, the success of the fact-checks themselves is mixed and influenced in complex ways by the interaction of authoritarianism and partisanship. These findings highlight the fact that “on average” effects of corrective information likely hide considerable variation at the individual level.
Combatting the Anti-Muslim Rhetoric of the 2016 Presidential Campaign
Authors: Fridkin Kim , Courey Jillian
Published: August 2022

The chapter authors develop an online survey experiment to examine how corrective news can influence people’s views about Muslims and Syrian refugees during the 2016 presidential campaign. The survey experiment varies the ideological source of the news (i.e., FOX News, MSNBC, Reuters), while keeping the news content identical across conditions. The survey experiment found that people who read positive information about Muslims in an article attributed to FOX News learn significantly less from the news article, compared to people who read the same story attributed to MSNBC or Reuters. People assigned to the FOX News article become less positive in their views of Muslims, Syrian refugees, and Syrian refugee policy compared to people reading the same article attributed to MSNBC and Reuters. The authors argue that the disfluency experienced by readers of a FOX News article presenting positive news about Muslims led people in the FOX News condition to develop less positive views of Muslims and Muslim-related policies. The study suggests that the news media can help mediate the impact of anti-Muslim rhetoric from politicians by presenting corrective facts. The influence of the news, however, depends on the source. Understanding the potential power and limits of corrective news is critical in today’s highly polarized media environment.
Citizen Deliberation as a Correction
Authors: Reedy Justin , Anderson Chris , Conte Paola
Published: August 2022

Public discourse on political issues is often rife with factual misinformation and misperceptions. One avenue for helping correct and protect against false empirical beliefs is the use of deliberative mini-publics, which provide some of the benefits of a vibrant process of deliberation both to its immediate participants and to the wider public. We analyze one such mini-public discussing a risk-related ballot measure, the 2016 Arizona Citizens’ Initiative Review on a proposed recreational marijuana measure, to determine how a deliberative intervention may help address factual misperceptions. The taboo nature of marijuana use in the United States contributes to widespread misinformation about marijuana consumption, creating fertile ground for our analysis. We examine how the output of deliberative mini-publics, such as a group’s statement of its key findings, can affect voters’ misperceptions and reduce misinformation in the electorate.
Introduction
Authors: Godbold Jr. E. Stanly
Published: August 2022

This Introduction to the second volume in a dual biography of Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter briefly summarizes the first volume and introduces the second volume. The first volume covers their lives from birth through the end of his governorship in 1975, with emphasis upon their personal lives, their philosophy of governing, and their rise through the declining Jim Crow Era into state and national prominence. Picking up the narrative with Carter’s 1976 presidential campaign, this book discusses his presidency, failed 1980 campaign for reelection, and long post-presidency as co-founder with Rosalynn of the Carter Center. Driven by the example of his father Earl Carter and Admiral Hyman Rickover, Jimmy Carter, with his wife Rosalynn’s help, won the White House and became a leading international champion of peace.
Governing Carter Style
Authors: Godbold Jr. E. Stanly
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses how Carter practiced personal diplomacy as he came to know US allies and enemies. Although he yearned to be loved by Jewish Americans, he found that they had difficulties in accepting his Baptist religion and attitude toward Israel. He risked failure by pursuing Panama Canal treaties despite the insistence of Rosalynn and other advisers that he should wait until his second term. He took a place of honor and respect among Western leaders at an economic summit in London, but he found West German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt difficult and the allies not always in agreement about how to thwart the Soviet threat. He pushed a major Energy bill through Congress and made clear that he favored social reforms that would favor minorities and help the middle and lower classes. He planned to honor his campaign promises.
Quests for Justice
Authors: Godbold Jr. E. Stanly
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses Carter’s work on the Panama treaty, Middle East peace and Iran. When Carter read the 1903 treaty that granted the US permission to lease a strip of land across the Isthmus of Panama and build a canal, he declared that it was unjust and vowed to continue the effort of his predecessors to negotiate new treaties with Panama. In his drive to bring peace to the Middle East, he supported the security of Israel but also wanted human rights for the Palestinians who lived within its border. Iran became a special problem because it supplied much of the oil to the West, but the shah mercilessly persecuted those who threatened his regime and arrogantly believed that as an oil producer he could force Carter to kowtow to him. He was wrong.
The Revolutionaries
Authors: Godbold Jr. E. Stanly
Published: August 2022

This chapter reviews the work of Chapter 13 The Revolutionaries Anwar Sadat, Menachem Begin, and Jimmy Carter, revolutionaries who changed the course of history with their determination to bring peace to the Middle East, a determination that produced the Camp David Accords. Sadat defied history when he went to Jerusalem to inform the Israelis that he was serious about wanting peace. Carter took a chance on halting the SALT II treating negotiations with the Soviet Union when he agreed to be the mediator between Israel and Egypt and leave the Soviet Union and all other nations out of the discussions. Jimmy and Rosalynn made a dramatic trip to seven nations at the end of 1977. Standing in the snow in front of the Nike, the monument to Polish heroes in Warsaw, they stated unequivocally that they favored freedom and human rights everywhere, including in Soviet satellite states. They objected to the sequestering of religion in Poland, favored returning the Holy Crown of St. Stephen back to the Hungarian people, hoped to alleviate poverty in India, and seemed uneasy celebrating the New Year with the shah and empress of Iran. At home, they questioned the loyalty of health, education, and welfare Secretary Joseph Califano, and searched for a solution to a farmers strike.
SALT II, Enemies, and Allies
Authors: Godbold Jr. E. Stanly
Published: August 2022

This chapter turns to international affairs, relating how Carter went to Vienna to meet with Leonid Brezhnev and sign the SALT II agreement with the Soviet Union. After several days of negotiations the two heads of state came to an agreement, and Brezhnev sealed it with a kiss on Carter’s cheek. Horrified, Rosalynn feared it would make Carter look weak and subservient to the Soviet Union. The chapter goes on to relate how when Carter met with US allies in Japan at a G-7 summit, they showed no enthusiasm for the arms limitations agreement that Carter had signed. Senator Ted Kennedy indicated that he would campaign against his fellow Democrat Carter for the presidential nomination.
A Surprise in October
Authors: Godbold Jr. E. Stanly
Published: August 2022

This chapter focuses on the month before the November 1980 election, when events that possibly determined the outcome took place primarily in secret. Despite rumors that Carter planned an October Surprise by gaining freedom for the hostages, he had no such plan. The frightened Republicans determined that the outcome of the election depended upon the status of the hostages. William Casey, chair of the Reagan campaign, met a representative of Khomeini in Madrid and promised him that the Iranian money that Carter had impounded would be returned to Iran if the Iranians would surrender the hostages to the Reagan people. Casey, Vice Presidential candidate George H. W. Bush, and other top officials in the Reagan campaign met secretly in a Paris hotel with Khomeini’s representatives, apparently making the same offer. In the United States both candidates battled for the South. Reagan kicked off his campaign in Neshoba County, Mississippi, where the Ku Klux Klan had murdered three civil rights workers in 1964. Carter started his campaign in Tuscumbia, Alabama, the home of Helen Keller, with his emphasis on justice for all. He condemned the Ku Klux Klan which met him at the airport and demonstrated against him.
“Cootie Man” among The Elders
Authors: Godbold Jr. E. Stanly
Published: August 2022

This chapter shows how Carter’s persistent and increasingly strident criticism of his successors in the White House caused him to stand apart from the group of current and living former presidents. So obvious was his polite ostracism, that one Republican journalist labeled him the “cootie man” in that exclusive club. Stubborn and immune to such criticism, Carter pushed on to monitor elections, in Africa, Nepal, and Israel. He wrote a tribute to his mother, A Remarkable Mother, and he associated with the Covenant Baptists who practiced racial and gender equality. He published a portion of his White House Diary in which he had been brutally frank in recording his opinion of some of the national and international leaders he had met, and had also included personal asides about Rosalynn and other family members.
Governing Children
Authors: Gash Alison L. , Tichenor Daniel J.
Published: August 2022

This chapter focuses on how children have been governed over time. It moves chronologically through history from the time when children were viewed as parental property to when they were viewed as rights-bearing individuals demanding special protection from the state until reaching the age of majority. The chapter goes on to map diverse laws, policies, and practices regulating children, considering whether they advance significant control or autonomy for young people and whether they primarily serve “the best interests of the child” or other interests. This chapter helps readers make sense of the distinctive means and rationales for governing children through four categories: paternalism, subjugation, membership, and abandonment.
The Political Agency of Young People
Authors: Gash Alison L. , Tichenor Daniel J.
Published: August 2022

This chapter focuses on young people as leaders, advocating for their own interests. It charts the many moments throughout history when young people have charted their own course—and have transformed policies and institutions. The chapter tells the story of young heroes like Diane Nash who faced death while leading scores of other students to dismantle Southern racial apartheid and the Dreamers who challenged President Obama and, later, Donald Trump while risking deportation. It introduces climate change activists who organized international protests on the bus ride to school and the March for Our Lives leaders who led millions in protest—while being vilified by public officials—as well as the young Black Lives Matter heroes whose words and actions catalyzed a nation and the transgender students who faced verbal and physical attacks while demanding decency and policy reform. Finally, the chapter considers the multitudes of other young people who used their passion and command of social media to transform the practice of politics.
Centering Children in Democratic Politics
Authors: Gash Alison L. , Tichenor Daniel J.
Published: August 2022

This chapter brings together the discussions in previous chapters and highlights the centrality of young people in democratic politics, despite the lack of attention paid to them. Beginning with the politics of control—when, how, and why children are governed—moving on to the use of children as symbols or tools in democratic politics, through their mobilization as activists, the chapter shows that young people are part of politics. It also examines age or childhood status as a key category of difference that, combined with gender, race, class, immigration status, or sexual orientation, results in extensive systems of inequality. The chapter concludes by analyzing the critical space that children occupy between being political dependents and becoming full citizens, exploring their roles as consequential stakeholders, catalysts, and agents of political reform.
Islamic Ethics
Authors: Sachedina Abdulaziz
Published: August 2022

Islamic Ethics introduces the centrality of ethics as the most critical subject in directing the religious-social practice of the Muslim community. It introduces the field of ethics by reinvestigating the Islamic juridical heritage in the classical sources and their application in the contemporary Muslim societies. Until now, Islamic ethics has been studied as part of the philosophical discourse that has been greatly influenced by the Greek ethical tradition traced back to Aristotle. This study marks the departure from that Orientalist approach to uncover the path followed by Muslim legal scholars in the development of the juridical methodology to derive the Shari‘a. The juridical methodology is deeply rooted in Islamic textual sources—the Qur’an and the Sunna (Tradition)—and the scholarly appraisal of these sources. Islamic texts are imbued with moral principles that have guided the religious-moral practice (the orthopraxy) in all its private and public facets to provide reliable practice for the organization of the community and its institutions. The important finding of the present study underscores the close working relationship between religious and secular in Islamic ethics, simply because of the integrated nature of God’s rights and human rights in juridical theology. The study demonstrates the need to go beyond philosophical ethics to underscore the importance of ethics to the formulation of religious-moral procedures based on reason and revelation in Muslim interpretive jurisprudence.
The Genesis of Moral Reasoning in Religious Ethics
Authors: Sachedina Abdulaziz
Published: August 2022

This chapter takes up the origins of legal-moral reasoning that became an indispensable part of formulating the deontological ethics of Islamic juridical tradition. The idea that obedience to the divine law was the path that all believers needed to undertake was firmly extracted from direct commandments of the Qur’an elaborated by the Tradition. Hence, the scriptural guidance in Islam connected the ultimate salvation to adherence to the orthopraxy. Muslims were not only obligated to discover God’s will in acts of obedience; they were also required to extrapolate the juridical ethics that guaranteed the discovering of the path to salvation for all those who performed righteous acts. The scope of interpretive jurisprudence was to provide methodological procedures to ascertain the reliability of orthopraxy derived from revelatory sources like the Qur’an and the Tradition. The chapter traces the evolution of legal-ethical reasoning.
The Ethics of the Aura
Authors: Lesch Charles H.T.
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines Jürgen Habermas’s discursive theory of solidarity by identifying and critiquing its central thesis: the “linguistification of the sacred.” Whereas Max Weber famously thought that rational modernity enfeebles solidarity, Habermas argues that reasoned deliberation inherits “the aura,” a quality of religion’s socially binding power. Habermas’ stress on language, the chapter argues, is partly justified: Shared discourse does get us some of the way to solidarity. Yet by tracing the sources of Habermas’s “linguistification of the sacred” to Émile Durkheim’s sociology of religion and Walter Benjamin’s theory of language, the chapter shows that Habermas’ rational program for solidarity falls short in one crucial respect. While shared discourse cultivates a basic tolerance of others, it lacks the power to transport us beyond our narrow interests. Nonrational and prelinguistic aspects of our psychology—remainders of religious forms of experience—continue to be decisive. European philosophy’s aspiration to achieve a rational solidarity via secularization remains unrealized.
Solidarity in a Secular Age
Authors: Lesch Charles H.T.
Published: August 2022

What does it feel like for an ordinary person to show solidarity with others? How does he experience his self’s passage through sacrifice, fate, and destiny? And can he do so without the shelter of a pristine ideal, in a world marked by complexity and contradiction? Philosophy—dedicated to abstraction and logical consistency—cannot fully answer these questions. Perhaps literature can. George Eliot’s Daniel Deronda offers readers an array of moral types: Mirah Lapidoth, a young girl whose vulnerability awakens Deronda’s moral energies; Mordechai Cohen, a prophetic figure who gives those energies a definite shape; Lord Grandcourt, a domineering antiethicist; and Gwendolen Harleth, an unformed ego at the crossroads between selfishness and altruism. Its special quality is to reveal how concepts are worked out in practice, how ethical ideals respond not to thought-experiments but a real world suffused by power. And it is Eliot’s careful orchestration of these tensions that makes Deronda an ideal study in how we might achieve solidarity in a secular age.
China’s First Two Cycles
Authors: Orlik Thomas
Published: August 2022

This chapter describes 1989 as a bad year for China as the Tiananmen Square incident left a scar on the soul of the country. It talks about the image of “tank man,” a loan protestor standing in the path of a phalanx of armored vehicles, that seared into the global consciousness. It also explores how the incident with the tank man was considered the closest reform-era China came to regime collapse. The chapter recounts how China suffered something close to a financial crisis and economic hard landing in 1998. It mentions Guangdong International Trust and Investment Company, which had used its government backing to raise funds from investors at home and abroad and had collapsed under $4.3 billion in debt, the money squandered on real estate, hotels, and securities trading.
This Time Is Different?
Authors: Orlik Thomas
Published: August 2022

This chapter mentions Liu He, chief economic advisor to President Xi Jinping, who delved into the history of the great depression of the 1930s and the great financial crisis of 2008 to predict what changes may happen in the future by understanding past events. It talks about how Liu and members of his team that were plucked from the elite of China’s financial policy makers examined past financial crisis for clues on how to avoid a repeat. It also recounts multiple mini-bubbles in China that started with hopes for a game-changing innovative and ended in disaster for investors. The chapter cites the stock market boom and bust in 2015 as a recent example, which started with the promise of an influx of funds from Hong Kong. It covers the peer-to-peer lending bubble, with tiny one-man, one-lap top, one-ash tray operations that promise to use leading-edge artificial intelligence to eliminate defaults.
Introduction
Authors: Schab Alon
Published: August 2022

The Introduction discusses connections between historically informed performance and performance material. For decades, there has been an intricate relationship between the early music revival and musicological study: despite the mutual suspicion, early music performers have been enjoying supplies of newly-rediscovered repertoire, musicologists were receiving public recognition. The chapter describes three skills—transcribing, editing, and arranging—that may help in finding one’s own artistic voice. Performers are encouraged to combine scholarly responsibility with relation to the use of historical sources on the one hand, and creative initiative on the other hand. The chapter examines two opposite approaches to the historically informed performance—interference and non-interference.
“The ear must be chief umpire” (Intuition and Critical Editing)
Authors: Schab Alon
Published: August 2022

This chapter evaluates the advantages and the disadvantages of using intuition to resolve textual problems in a musical source. It focuses on the common problems of missing accidentals and redundant accidentals—a problem that preoccupies modern performs as it did performers already in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The chapter encourages performers to distinguish between cases where intuition offers a useful guide to solving textual problems, and cases where the use of intuition goes against the very essence of a historically informed approach. The case studies, taken from the works of Henry Purcell, range from the occasional occurrence of false relations in cadential context to the extreme chromaticism of Purcell’s fantasias.
Historically Informed Arrangement
Authors: Schab Alon
Published: August 2022

The chapter considers the creative task of arrangement, and alerts readers to those levels of the composition that the performer must re-examine for the potential implications to the arrangement process. It shows how generic and instrumental idioms affect the musical source text, presents analyses of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century arrangements, and examines the apparent priorities of and the techniques used by arrangers from that period—omission and addition of parts, change of scoring and elaboration of polyphonic texture. The insight from these original arrangements is then implemented and demonstrated in a process of arranging extensive excerpts from works by Sweelinck, Van Eyck, Bach, and Huwet.
Political Theologies of Justice
Authors: Puett Michael
Published: August 2022

This chapter is a comparative exploration of some of the major philosophical and religious views concerning meritocracy that have flourished in Eurasia and the varying ways these views have been put into the practice. The primary point of departure for the comparisons are the political theologies of meritocracy that arose in China. I explore when and why these political theologies arose and trace the roles they played in later Chinese history. From this point of departure, I draw comparisons with the views of meritocracy that arose elsewhere in Eurasia. My goal throughout is to trace the implications of these different political theologies for the history of Eurasia.
Merit in the Mirror of Democracy
Authors: Varshney Ashutosh
Published: August 2022

Can democracy and meritocracy be joined together, or is their relationship marked by an underlying tension? Since independence (1947), this question has been sharply posed in India. India opted for a universal-franchise democracy, but it also instituted a variety of affirmative action for the lower Hindu castes, covering political representation, public employment, and education. Given the deep-seated inequities of the caste system, meritocracy in India came to be equated with the maintenance of a historically inherited domination of upper castes and the persistence of a historically forced subjection of lower castes. Meritocracy was thus manifestly in tension with democracy, not the least because the lower castes were numerically many times larger than the upper castes and, using universal franchise, would before long come to exercise greater voting power. Merit could not easily be separated from inherited privilege, which India’s democracy has continued to attack.
The National College Entrance Examination and the Myth of Meritocracy in Post-Mao China
Authors: Howlett Zachary M.
Published: August 2022

China’s National College Entrance Exam, known as the gaokao, is taken by ten million high school seniors every year. The gaokao enshrines the Chinese ideal of open, anonymous, and competitive meritocracy. In a society dominated by social connections or guanxi, the exam is widely regarded as the only relatively fair social competition. But skyrocketing social inequality in the post-Mao era (1977–present) has produced wide chasms in exam scores and outcomes between different regions and socioeconomic groups. Why do people nevertheless allow themselves to be recruited into the ideology and social practice of exam-based meritocracy? The gaokao is a fateful rite of passage in which people strive to personify cultural virtues, including diligence, grit, composure, filial piety, quality, and divine favor or luck. Gaokao-based meritocracy is mythical in both senses of the word: an inspiring cultural model and a chimeric ideal.
The Singaporean Meritocracy
Authors: Chua Vincent , Morck Randall , Yeung Bernard
Published: August 2022

Singapore rose from third to first world in a single generation and embraced meritocracy. This, however, has led to some stress points common to all advanced societies. Singapore’s meritocracy, in developing human capital, relies on test-based metrics that make it vulnerable to Goodhart’s Law: “any number used in policy decisions soon ceases to be useful for policy decisions.” Meritocratically successful parents can game grades by allocating disproportionate resources to increase their children’s test scores, which over time, can harden social stratification by separating elite families from others. This becomes a stable Nash equilibrium that is increasingly difficult to disrupt. The Singapore government counters this with more bursaries, less streaming, antidiscrimination workplace regulations, and a national program of skills upgrading and lifelong learning. Sustaining a meritocracy that uplifts all groups, narrows inequalities, and upholds social cohesion remains a formidable challenge in many advanced societies.
Reading Candrakīrti
Authors: Yakherds The
Published: August 2022

Candrakīrti is arguably the most influential Mādhyamika commentator on Nāgārjuna in Tibet, and Atiśa was one of the key Indian scholars responsible for the introduction of Candrakīrti’s interpretation of Madhyamaka to the Plateau. This chapter examines Candrakīrti’s reading of Nāgārjuna, particularly his analysis of the doctrine of emptiness (śūnyatā) and how Indian thinkers (particularly Jayānanda), and later Tibetan exegetes (particularly Tsongkhapa), interpreted his thought. Was Candrakīrti a global error theorist? Did he advocate a version of epistemological coherentism? What are the implications of Candrakīrti’s assertion that Mādhyamikas accept all of the epistemic instruments (pramāṇa) employed by ordinary people? Does Candrakīrti’s denunciation of Bhāviveka’s use of probative arguments entail that Mādhyamikas can only employ reductios in critiques of opponents?
Tsongkhapa, Buddhahood, and Epistemic Authority
Authors: Yakherds The
Published: August 2022

This chapter focuses on Candrakīrti’s characterization of buddhahood and its philosophical implications. What does it mean for buddhas to be omniscient? How can they relate to ordinary beings, whose perceptions are thoroughly overlaid with falsity? We examine how Tsongkhapa might respond to Taktsang’s critique, particularly how he elaborates a system in which epistemic normativity is possible despite the universality of perceptual error in ordinary beings. To perceive relative truth does not necessarily entail that one is deceived by it. Buddhas are able to navigate the relative and skillfully adapt their teachings to the proclivities of their audiences; they simultaneously transcend the ordinary and operate within it. Tsongkhapa’s presentation of Buddhist meditative practice is central to a potential rebuttal of Taktsang: Buddhas engage in nonconceptual meditation over the course of innumerable lifetimes; as a result, they can effortlessly navigate the errors of relative truths while perceiving phenomena from the perspective of ultimate truth.
Tenets Anyone?
Authors: Yakherds The
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines Jamyang Shepa’s response to Taktsang, which is more polemical than philosophical. Structured in the form of a dialectical debate, Jamyang Shepa accuses his opponent of a total of twenty-seven “contradictions” that he believes are implied by Taktsang’s critique of Tsongkhapa. Most of these are either denied or not stated by Taktsang, but Jamyang Shepa ignores Taktsang’s claim that he follows a reductio approach and only refutes his opponents without adopting any position himself. Jamyang Shepa assumes that Taktsang endorses the contrary of the positions he critiques in Tsongkhapa’s system, and he adds additional “contradictions” that he believes follow from them. Jamyang Shepa’s approach is not particularly satisfying as philosophy, but it is an interesting example of how polemics are pursued in Tibetan intellectual circles.
The End of Growth and the Return of Ideology
Authors: Moore Scott M.
Published: August 2022

China’s partial acceptance of market economics fueled its record-breaking growth in the decades following the Cultural Revolution. But after 2008, growth rates began to slow, and China embarked on a perilous transition to high-income country status. Slowing growth cast a sharper light on China’s many development challenges, including low social capital, stark divides in educational attainment, and yawning inequality. During this period, fierce and long-running ideological debates over the role of markets flared anew, denting China’s domestic political consensus. At the time same, Beijing doubled down on authoritarian, nationalistic, and protectionist policies in many areas, setting China on a collision course with other major powers just as the world needed collective action more than ever.
For a Dollar and a Dream
Authors: Cohen Jonathan D.
Published: August 2022

Every week, one in eight Americans places a bet on the dream of a life-changing lottery jackpot. Americans spend more on lottery tickets annually than on video streaming services, concert tickets, books, and movie tickets combined. The typical story is that lotteries are a tax on poor people who do not understand basic probability. The reality is more complicated. For a Dollar and a Dream shows how the economic conditions of the late twentieth century led millions of Americans to judge the long odds of a jackpot to be their best chance at a new life. As the rich got richer and as rates of social mobility stagnated, many turned to the lottery as their only chance at the American Dream. Gamblers are not the only ones who bet on betting. Drawing on archives from 17 states, this book illustrates that states legalized gambling hoping to hit a jackpot of their own. As mid-twentieth-century prosperity unraveled, taxpayers and policymakers wanted government to provide public services but did not want to pay for them. Enter lotteries. Even as evidence emerged that lotteries provided only a small percentage of state revenue, and even as data mounted about their appeal to the poor, states kept enacting them, kept advertising, and kept adding new games, desperate for their long-shot gamble to pay off. For a Dollar and a Dream charts the untold history of the nation’s lottery system, revealing how players and policymakers alike got hooked on hopes for a windfall.
Introduction
Authors: Cohen Jonathan D.
Published: August 2022

Every year, Americans spend over $91 billion on lottery tickets. Lotteries have a long history in the United States, but particular historical circumstances hastened Americans’ appetite for a jackpot in the late twentieth and early twenty-first century. As economic insecurity increased, upward mobility stagnated, and inequality grew, more and more people turned to the long odds of a lottery jackpot as their last, best, and only chance at a new life. States bet on betting, too. Between 1963 and 2018, 45 states legalized lotteries hoping that state-run gambling represented a panacea. Voters and policymakers wanted to increase state services but did not want to pay for them with new taxes. Lotteries appeared to present an easy, nontax solution. It quickly became clear that lotteries disproportionately appealed to the poor and could not meet expectations. Nonetheless, hoping for a windfall, governors and gamblers alike went all in on lotteries.
Rivers of Gold
Authors: Cohen Jonathan D.
Published: August 2022

In the early 1980s, the lottery industry convinced voters angry over taxes to legalize gambling to help bolster state revenue. In search of new markets for its products, Scientific Games Inc., the creator of instant, scratch off lottery tickets, persuaded voters in California and six other states that lotteries offered a solution for stressed state budgets. In the aftermath of the tax revolt, voters were desperate to reinstitute state services without reinstituting high property taxes. The company drafted legislation and hired signature gatherers to put lottery initiatives on state ballots. These proposals tied lotteries to particular state programs—education or public parks, for example—and told voters that if they supported this program, then they should support a lottery. By taking advantage of the ballot initiative process and voters angry over taxes, Scientific Games restarted the spread of state lotteries.
This Could Be Your Ticket Out
Authors: Cohen Jonathan D.
Published: August 2022

State lottery commissions use advertising to attract lower-income and nonwhite gamblers to bet a dollar on the dream of a life-changing jackpot. Advertising highlights the contradiction inherent in the fact that lotteries are a state agency designed to raise money for government. While the state normally discourages harmful vices, legislators hoping for tax-free revenue have a direct incentive to promote gambling. This chapter examines Illinois Lottery advertising in communities of color in the 1980s and early 1990s, advertising that painted a lottery win as the ultimate fantasy, one promised to be just one more ticket away. The popularity of lottery tickets in lower-income and nonwhite communities is not simply the result of bettors’ poor financial decision-making or a natural result of economic inequality but the purposeful product of state-funded promotions that paint gambling as a reliable path to the good life.
Selling Hope
Authors: Cohen Jonathan D.
Published: August 2022

The promise of a panacea for education brought lotteries to the South in the 1990s. This chapter shows how Governor Zell Miller led the movement for a lottery in Georgia. Miller proposed that the lottery fund a new college merit scholarship and universal pre-kindergarten. Amid a regional political realignment, lotteries helped Democrats like Miller stave off Republican opponents by offering a new nontax source of state revenue. Though Georgia’s evangelical community mobilized against the lottery, many socially conservative white suburbanites supported lotteries because they anticipated benefiting from the new revenue. Following its enactment, Georgia’s lottery programs became a model for other southern states. Yet these programs have turned lotteries into a doubly regressive enterprise, as the gambling losses of poor and black players fund the education of white middle-class suburbanites across the region.