bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The First London Companies
Authors: Gurr Andrew
Published: October 2011

The attraction of playing in London was by far the strongest influence on the playing companies, and the strongest factor determining their development between 1574 and 1642. No other place had the resource in population, let alone wealth, to let players offer their plays there on a regular daily basis. Playgoing as a distinctive, though relatively expensive, form of public entertainment was popular at all levels of society in Tudor England. Fixing the main playing-places in London, a process that started in the 1560s and became firm when the first custom-built playhouses appeared in the suburbs in the 1570s, was the key that unlocked many doors for the companies. The other giant factor that affected playing was the creation of the Queen’s Men in 1583. When the city opposed playgoing, the players built their theatres in the suburbs, outside the Lord Mayor’s jurisdiction. Very little direct evidence survives about the attitudes of patrons to their companies. A substantial part of this question about the possible relations between patrons and their companies belongs as much to religion as to politics.
Lording it Over the Players
Authors: Gurr Andrew
Published: October 2011

The main instruments of change in the years when the playing companies were first securing a foothold in London were the companies themselves, with their determination to establish a grip on the financial resources that the thousands of London’s paying customers offered them daily. The significant agents of change were the great lords of the Privy Council who gave them patronage. Until the companies acceded to royal patronage in 1603, three or four leading patrons led the fight against the city authorities’ opposition to playing. One figure looms particularly large in the story of how they secured their London foothold: Charles Howard, Lord Effingham, later Lord Admiral and later still the earl of Nottingham. Before looking at his actions in these years, though, it is appropriate to consider the first of the official controllers of companies, a man who was Howard’s kin and whom Howard patronized, Edmund Tilney. This chapter looks at the official controllers’ policies regarding playing companies, the plays performed by the companies, and the playhouses where they performed.
The Lesser Elizabethan Competitors: Oxford’s Hertford’s, and Chandos’s
Authors: Gurr Andrew
Published: October 2011

Throughout the Elizabethan period, playing companies were struggling to get a secure place in the steep hierarchy of players with noble patrons. That security meant heading for London, both as cause and effect of rising in the hierarchy. Some of the companies existed mainly during the last twenty years of Elizabeth’s reign, standing below and competing for distinction with the Queen’s Men. The strongest five of these competitors were Strange’s/Derby’s and Pembroke’s, the Chamberlain’s, the Admiral’s, and Worcester’s. This chapter deals with the other companies that at one time or another from 1580, however briefly, found a foothold in London: Oxford’s Men, Hertford’s Men, and Chandos’s Men. It focuses on their history, performances, the plays they performed, the playhouses where they performed, their playing sharers, and their travelling records.
The Origins of Modern Literary Yiddish: Concepts, Sources, and Strategies
Authors: Kerler Dov-Ber
Published: October 2011

Early Yiddish literature originated from the Western Yiddish. Eastern Yiddish later on added influencial components through its writings. That was the start of modern literature. Eastern Yiddish then proceeded to dominate well until the nineteenth century. This however, was not without various critics and scholars protesting against change. Again, traditions were stubborn and were not flexible. This chapter, however, discusses the old and new literature like two worlds, both interesting enough to discover and both respected for their artistic beauty. It examines the points of shifts between the two forms, termed as transition for reprinting and linguistic revision of old literature, and shifts for completely new translations of the later times. These both apply to the written and the spoken language.
Introduction
Authors: Kerler Dov-Ber
Published: October 2011

The Tsene rene re-edition in 1786 was one of the earliest in Yiddish literature to have an enormous amount of alteration to fit modern Eastern Yiddish. What is noteworthy is that this was done in an extremely organized manner. This was a narration of Biblical proportions and was considered to have a huge influence and popularity during its time. Its recognition prompted numerous re-prints and re-editions, with over 100 editions known. Tsene rene therefore served as a prototype for analysis of a substantial alteration to cater to modern literature. This included adaptations to High German, Western, and Central European forms. Four editions have been selected for comparison of the changes that occurred in this extensive act to modernize Yiddish literature, one that paved the way for other works to follow.
Linguistic Easternization ofTsene rene(Hanau, 1622; Amsterdam, 1726; Lemberg, 1786)
Authors: Kerler Dov-Ber
Published: October 2011

The emergence of colonies in Eastern and Western Europe urged writers to come up with works that fitted its readers. This chapter focuses and analyzes the changes that occurred with regard to syntax, morphology, spelling, and organization. One of the most prominent transitions is that of the forms of nouns, verbs, adverbs, and several other sentence compositions. They have been replaced dramatically to fit modern language. One consideration in this is that it must fit both Eastern and Western Yiddish dialects. It was at this time that the concept of Eastern Yiddish was closely related to modern literature, and was maintained as a norm.
Morpho-syntax
Authors: Kerler Dov-Ber
Published: October 2011

With regards to morpho-syntax, the changes were very visible in the featured writings. Among these was the removal of the definite article of certain nouns after the preposition, the presentation of the pronoun subject; and the deletion of the definite article after certain prepositions, of full attributive adjective declension, and of the role of short adjectives as a noun modifier. It is through these transformations that a fluid and organized construction towards modernization was possible. Some versions are not without conservatism, and it was presumed that the editors must have some sort of resistance, as adherence to traditional forms prevented extensive change. Even the Eastern Yiddish language had little impact on such versions.
Introduction
Authors: Kerler Dov-Ber
Published: October 2011

The late eighteenth century was a period of transition, a time of evolution, with the Yiddish literature transforming into its modern phase. The following chapters lend an analysis into the texts that cover this time. Although each has a similar core component, it is still noteworthy to examine each work in its distinct form. This is from the view of Eastern Yiddish language, and a detailed description on the continuing reformation is presented in this chapter. It also shows the influence of other regions, particularly those in the Northeast and Southeast. The chapter explores a vast field in the constant change and renovation of the Eastern Yiddish literature, and its struggle to receive a new adaptation in order to conform to the changing times.
Party Games: Le Crocheteur borgne and Cosi-Sancta
Authors: PEARSON ROGER
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses two of Voltaire's earliest works, which are believed to be Le Crocheteur borgne and Cosi-Sancta. These stories are considered to be tributes to Louise de Bourbon, the wife of Louis XIV's oldest legitimate son. Voltaire is believed to have written these stories during his stay in the house of the Duchesse du Maine at Sceaux.
Hearts and Minds: LʼIngénu
Authors: PEARSON ROGER
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses one of Voltaire's popular works, LʼIngénu, which is a comic satire which was published in July 1767. This work features a ‘noble savage’, and by the end of the story readers are left confused about what Voltaire was actually trying to say. The discussions included in this chapter are the relations and similarities LʼIngénu has with Rousseau, and the constant metamorphosis that goes on in the story. One concept introduced in this work is that of textual politics.
‘Lʼunivers en raccourci’: La Princesse de Babylone and Les Lettres dʼAmabed
Authors: PEARSON ROGER
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the dominating features of the two stories that follow LʼIngénu: La Princesse de Babylone and Les Lettres dʼAmabed. These stories seek to present the virtues of enlightenment on a universal basis and even provide a retreat from ambivalence in terms of the values of ‘civilisation’. As in most of Voltaire's contes, these stories feature a reality that is more remarkable and less excusable for seeming so utterly incredible.
Reading the Rhythm
Authors: Scott Clive
Published: October 2011

We are still a long way from knowing how to read the rhythms of free verse, a poetry which has been largely neglected by metrical theory. This study indicates the strategies of reading needed if justice is to be done to free verse's rhythmic versatility. The core of the book is an analysis of key French 20th-century poets and poems, including Perse's Éloges, Cendrars's Prose du Transsibérien, Dix-neuf poèmes élastiques, and Documentaires; Apollinaire's Calligrammes; Supervielle's Gravitations; and Reverdy's Sources de vent. Contemporary trends in the visual arts — Cubism, Futurism, Orphism, photography — are called upon as perceptual models to illuminate free verse, and a further perspective is added by the theme of travel and movement. In addition to the examination of the rhythms of free verse, and of its implications for our reading of regular verse, the book provides a study of modernist poetics.
Introductory Reflections on Rhythm and Metre
Authors: Scott Clive
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on the principles and attributes surrounding rhythm and metre. This chapter focuses on the way in which generative metrics has been an instrumental in removing rhythm from consciousness by subsuming it within metre. In this chapter several arguments and viewpoints concerning generic metrics and its impact on rhythm, prosody, and scansion are analyzed and assessed.
Blaise Cendrars, Dix-neuf poèmes élastiques(1919)
Authors: Scott Clive
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses Blaise Cendrars' poetry, in particular his Dix-neuf poèmes élastiques and the prevailing prosody of Orphism surrounding his poetry. In this chapter, the elements of rhythm, prosody, scansion, and metre are evaluated and assessed in Cendrars'Dix-neuf poèmes élastiques within the principles and context of the new visual art movement Orphism.
Pierre Reverdy, Sources Du Vent(1929)
Authors: Scott Clive
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses Pierre Reverdy, his poem Gravitations, and his opinion and reflections of the reading of verses, of the aesthetic principles of Cubism, and of the experimental approach of calligrammes. This chapter largely focuses on the rhythmic, metric, and prosodic features of Reverdy's poems. In this chapter, the Cubist principles which were the source of meaning in Reverdy's poems, which are structural in relationships rather than in content, and which are more abstract and conceptual rather than concrete and autobiographical are discussed and analyzed.
Monstrous Inversions: Decadence and Degeneration in Galdόs'sÁngel Guerra
Authors: JAGOE CATHERINE
Published: October 2011

The notion of inevitable decline or degeneration produced an aesthetic movement that revolved around a group of ‘decadent’ or Symbolist writers and painters of the late 19th century whose subjects and style had a considerable impact on European and American literature. United in their belief that God, morality, love, and nature were shibboleths of a pre-Darwinian age, the decadents were dedicated to maximising the sensations of the moment. Using Charles Baudelaire's Fleurs du mal as a model, they explored the strange terrain of sexual perversions, exoticism, and the occult. Decadents espoused a ‘love of art for art's sake’, unimpeded by any extra-aesthetic considerations. While their aesthetic theory is clearly alien to Benito Pérez Galdós's outlook, which is deeply concerned with morality and very far from the ‘art for art's sake’ of the aesthetes, some of their subject-matter does find its way into Ángel Guerra, in nuanced form.
Exoticism and the Politics of Difference in Late Nineteenth-Century Spanish Periodicals
Authors: CHARNON-DEUTSCH LOU
Published: October 2011

This chapter's exoticism is a psychological mediation that plays a role both in international identity politics and in national sexual ideologies that determine gender roles at the level of the individual family. The fetishism of the female body not only interacted with the hierarchical positions of masculinity and femininity in bourgeois society: in its simultaneous disavowal and insistence upon difference, it constituted a favoured medium to explore what was both threatening and necessary to male subjectivity. When one attempts to determine the ideal consumer of the hundreds of illustrations and narratives that presented a sexualised version of the non-European woman, and the ways that this literature impacted on Spanish gender ideology, the obvious conclusion to reach is that, as masters of this and nearly every other system of representation, it was primarily men who indulged in the pleasurable reading of exotic sexuality.
The BBC and Funding
Authors: Tracey Michael
Published: October 2011

The agony of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) was only just beginning, a slow but relentless assault on the political and fiscal integrity of the Corporation by a Conservative government bent on changing the BBC. The then Home Secretary, Douglas Hurd, declaimed that the licence fee was not ‘eternal’. Apparently, the government was considering establishing—as part of its examination of renewal of the BBC royal charter—a Public Service Broadcasting Council, partly funded by the licence fees which had hitherto gone only to the BBC. The context in which this was taking place was clear: the rise of the ‘new media’ of cable and satellite; the effective privatising of the ITV system, which in effect shed public service obligations despite an alleged commitment to ‘quality’; and a consistent policy of squeezing the real value of the licence fee.
Conquerors, Culture, and Communication: The Foundation of Post-war Japanese Broadcasting
Authors: Tracey Michael
Published: October 2011

The extraordinary feature of the development of broadcasting policy in immediate post-war Japan is that one can so readily see the formation of the cultural geology. The American policy-making machinery had in fact been split between advocates of a soft peace and a hard peace, between those who believed in ripping apart the whole fabric of Japanese society and those who argued for taking the continuing strengths and merits of Japan and building on them, through such institutions as broadcasting. Joseph Ballantine, Director of the Office of Far Eastern Affairs, was also a member of a key State Department committee known as the Coordinating Committee, one of a system of committees preparing policy papers for the period of occupation. Eugene Dorman, another influential figure who worked very closely with Ballantine, viewed the programme of the Occupation from the same perspective.
Video Kombat and Highway-Building
Authors: Tracey Michael
Published: October 2011

1993 was a time when waves of corporate decisions broke on the shores of the old order, when the imperative of commerce and the immanent characteristics of technology seemed to be approaching critical mass. It was also a time when the collisions between old and new became contained within very particular events and individual biographies. Two men in particular figured prominently in what was to prove to be an extraordinary year in communications. John Malone of Tele-Communications Inc. and John Birt of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) both sought to capture, and shape to their own ends, the shifting ecology of the media. Malone seemed to be the master of ceremonies, organising the theatre of the new, setting the scene for the twenty-first century. Birt desperately tried to change the BBC as an organisation without appearing to betray its traditions. His was very much the highwire act, without a net.
Cognition, Emotion, Brain-Processes, and Narration
Authors: Grodal Torben
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents a general outline of the way in which the brain processes information and the connections between this processing and the basic structures of visual fiction. It describes the ways in which basic forms of aesthetic experience are related to perceptual, associational, and sequential structures, and to innate autonomic emotional reactions. It provides models of the experiential flow, based on the mental flow from perception via emotional evaluation and cognitions to enaction; and it shows that experienced modal qualities of the flow (intense, saturated, tense, and autonomic experiences) are effects of the mental flow as cued by narratives.
Comic Fictions
Authors: Grodal Torben
Published: October 2011

This chapter provides new descriptions of central dimensions in comic fictions. It discusses comic fictions as hypotheses of reality-status and shows that the perception of humour is an illocutionary mental act, related to an autonomic response, laughter, at a high level of arousal and mental overload. It discusses the relations between the comic and pleasure, and the role of empathy and voluntary acts as exemplified in our relations to clowns. It also discusses the role of the comic in narrative sequences, especially the way in which, as a parasympathetic reaction, it supports ‘fusion’ and incorporation.
Melodrama, Lyrics, and Autonomic Response
Authors: Grodal Torben
Published: October 2011

This chapter analyses aspects of the melodrama, emphasizing especially its nature as a conflict between active and passive reactions. It illustrates lyrical and melodramatic patterns in Gone With the Wind and Vertigo, with emphasis on the relations between temporal rearrangements and passive, lyrical, or melodramatic-autonomic mechanism, and on the mechanisms of relabelling arousal.
Observing the Forms
Authors: Ballaster Ros
Published: October 2011

This chapter takes issue with the ‘myth’ of the female reader in the 18th century, which has tended to represent women's amatory fiction as a sub-cultural form servicing degraded popular taste and bearing little or no relation to the political and ideological mainstream. It is argued that the depiction of the women reader in contemporary periodical and prose fiction was not a realistic representation, but a formal device that served to introduce new concepts concerning the male political subject and his relation to the state. The chapter outlines prevailing conventions in amatory fiction in the last decades of the 17th century in Britain, developed from French models; it explores the specific formal and ideological properties of the French romance, the nouvelle, the scandal chronicle, and epistolary fiction.
The Golden Sandal of Hermes
Authors: Fisch Harold
Published: October 2011

This chapter explores another striking image which Blake introduces into his account of the descent of Milton/Raphael into his garden at Felpham. It is the image of the golden sandal bound on the foot of the poet-speaker as the bearer of a continuing mission. This golden sandal is also related to Milton’s account of the dispatch of Raphael to Adam in Book V of Paradise Lost. It is of course the golden, winged sandal of Hermes, the messenger of the gods, whom Milton had conflated with the figure of Raphael. Blake, too, well understood the significance of Hermes in the epic tradition as a whole. He is remembering not only the description of the messenger and his accoutrements in Paradise Lost but also the descent of Mercury in Virgil’s Aeneid.
Hyperbole and the Love-Mad Woman: George III, ‘Rosa Matilda’, and Jane Austen in 1811
Authors: Small Helen
Published: October 2011

‘Rosa Matilda’ and Jane Austen come together in their demonstration of the extent to which the story of a woman's ‘madness from love’ had become not merely conventional but unavoidably so. The attack on sentimentalism brought with it a new scepticism about the desirability of indulging readers with stories about women who lose their minds when they lose their lovers — a scepticism for which Austen is well known, but which shows even in the writing of Charlotte Dacre. Meanwhile, George III furnishes the historian of madness with the most potent symbol of, and justification for, the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries' concern with madness.
Rites of Passage
Authors: Ekirch A. Roger
Published: October 2011

After the merchants and traders offered to ship convicts from England to America, the British government handed over this task to them and thus this ended the role of the government in transportation. Parliament enacted a trade regulation designed to curb the bargains from the merchants and to make sure that convicts were actually going to reach American shores. The shipboard journey spanned from six to eight weeks and the life of convicts fully remained in the hands of merchants and traders. Most of these merchants were corrupt and they cared little about the lives of the convicts in their care, they also made profit from the sale of these convicts in America. Most merchants tried to limit the expenses on the transportation of convicts by restricting water and other provisions. The convicts were not treated at all well.
Trouble in the Chesapeake?
Authors: Ekirch A. Roger
Published: October 2011

The American shores became a dumping ground for British criminals and these criminals posed a serious threat to the provincial society of America and they spread lawlessness across the county. These transported white convicts were responsible for most of the crimes committed during the 18th century in America. Transportation did not change the moral character of the imported convicts and most of them remained involved in crime and other evil activities. In 1721, Maryland's provincial court stated that criminal prosecutions increased after the transportation of these white convicts. Then Governor Gooch also blamed increased lawlessness in Virginia on the transported convicts. However, these uprisings were rare in Chesapeake because many convicts migrated to new localities after the expiry of their servitude, hence diffusing any threat to the social peace.
Boteler v. Boteler The battered wife, 1656–1675
Authors: Stone Lawrence
Published: October 2011

The story of Lady Anne Boteler provides a good example of how much a woman was prepared to endure in the late 17th century before seeking to separate from her husband. The daughter of Sir Robert Austen, a Kentish baronet, in 1656 she made what at the time would have been thought of as a very good marriage to Sir Oliver Boteler, the heir to another and rather richer baronet family of Kent. Sir Oliver claimed that Anne behaved ‘disrespectfully’ towards him, but he gave no examples. Marital cruelty occurred intermittently, but with an increasing degree of seriousness, from 1664 to 1671. It took several forms, both physical and mental, and involved attacks not only upon Anne but upon her children, too.
Otway v. Otway Private and public separation, 1790–1811
Authors: Stone Lawrence
Published: October 2011

What this story brings out so vividly is the intense concern by family friends and legal advisers to avoid the shame and disgrace of airing domestic grievances in open court. On the other hand, such was the obstinacy of Henry Otway that the two critical issues upon which the resolution of the separation negotiations depended were unable to be resolved. These two were, first, a substantial maintenance allowance for Sarah, bearing in mind that the bulk of the fortune of Henry Otway had come from her; and, secondly, some compromise over the custody of the children. Sarah insisted on having full custody of the three girls, with arrangements for visits to their father, conceding to her husband custody of the three boys, but demanding visiting rights to them.
‘The even progression of life’
Authors: Godwin Peter , Hancock Ian
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on developments after Rhodesia became a republic on 2 March 1970. The British foreign secretary announced that the assumption of republican status was illegal and warned civil servants that they would be considered to have joined the rebellion if they remained at their desk. There were no mass resignations. The government, having failed to provide pomp and circumstance, could hardly blame the local press for showing more interest in the Apollo 13 space mission. The constitution replaced the previous system of divided rolls, based on franchise qualifications, with two racial rolls: one for Europeans and the other for Africans.
‘This void in our national life’
Authors: Godwin Peter , Hancock Ian
Published: October 2011

Two themes stand out in the domestic history of White Rhodesia between 1973 and 1975. First, the war and the events in southern Africa were already changing the political agenda and the Rhodesian way of life. Secondly, most Rhodesians reacted to the new circumstances by affirming the dominant value of the past. Neither the world outside nor the threats from the inside figured prominently in the day-to-day outlook of communities whose version of reality had prepared them to enjoy the good and to absorb or deflect the unpleasant.
The Town Governments of Holland
Authors: Price J. L.
Published: October 2011

A comparative approach is made possible by the fact that, despite their great differences in size, the government systems within the eighteen voting towns in Holland were sufficiently similar to make a relatively brief general discussion possible, though it cannot do justice to the rich variety of local institutions and practices. All of the town governments had more or less the same components, but the way in which these worked, and in particular the location of final political power within the governments, varied considerably from town to town. The main elements of government were the schout, the representative of the sovereign and chief police official; the burgemeesters, responsible for the day-to-day administration of the town; the schepenen, the local court of law; and the vroedschap, concerned with general policy. Also the schout, burgemeesters, and schepenen together formed a body (often called the gerecht) to issue local ordinances and deal with relatively minor administrative matters.
Religion, the Reformed Church, and Urban Politics
Authors: Price J. L.
Published: October 2011

Religion in general, and the Reformed Church in particular, played an important role in the politics of the towns of Holland, not only in the first decades of the 17th century, when the clash between remonstrants and contraremonstrants was a dominant issue, but throughout the rest of the century. The Reformed Church had a peculiar position in the political life of the Dutch state because it functioned as one of the few unifying symbols which the decentralised and heterogeneous Dutch Republic possessed. As the official church it had a political significance which the other churches and sects lacked: while membership of the church or attendance at its services was not imposed on the inhabitants of the country at large, it was nevertheless in an important sense the state church and all holders of public office at every level were supposed to be members.
The Power of the Princes of Orange
Authors: Price J. L.
Published: October 2011

The princes of Orange have to be brought into any consideration of the role of the province of Holland in the politics of the Dutch Republic because they, not any or all of the other provinces, were its main rivals for the leadership of the state throughout the 17th century and, indeed, throughout the whole history of the Republic. What makes this structural opposition particularly intriguing is that, while Holland's power and influence were based on distinctly mundane sources, primarily economic strength, the princes derived their peculiar place within the Republic's political system from a complex and sometimes even bizarre combination of specific powers and offices, together with an indispensable charismatic element. This chapter is concerned with their political influence in the Republic as a whole.
Labour on the Prairies
Authors: ADELMAN JEREMY
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the labour supply conditions in the Canadian prairies. The prairies, so far from the concentrations of populations in central Canada, and cut off by the pre-Cambrian shield through Ontario, presented intractable obstacles to enjoying an effective supply of labour. This chapter describes immigration policy, immigration to the prairies from 1890 to 1914, the homesteader dependency on the labour market, and tenancy on the prairies. Migrants to the Canadian west were different and were determined to become permanent members of the region's economy. Their strategy of economic advancement was based on the prospect of landownership, to reap all the earnings themselves and realize capital gains at some future date.
Traditional Law: The Patriarchal Family and Pressures for Change
Authors: Wagner William G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter describes the Imperial family law as being partial to the patriarchal family, i.e., practicing principles of patriarchal authority, unequal status, and patrilineal kinship. It provides a comparison between the Imperial Law and the Western European Law regarding rights, obligations, and authority within the family. Petitions on changes to be made to the law, particularly on separation and divorce, are also presented.
The Possibilities of Judicial Revision
Authors: Wagner William G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter looks at how the high court redefined property and inheritance law based on social and economic needs, with a wider range of revision compared with those for the family law. The high court geared toward limiting patrimonial property by giving owners more options on disposing patrimonial property, rather than by a complete abolition within the kin-group. A move to define the attributes of testamentary power is also described.
Structures of Authority the County and the Sessions
Authors: Eastwood David
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the Quarter Sessions, which emerged as the principal focus of authority within English local government and was less firmly grounded in statutory powers than that of the parish. The power of the Quarter Sessions as an agency of government lay in magistrates' statutory duty to ensure that parishes and other subordinate bodies discharged their responsibilities adequately and legally, and in the Quarter Sessions constituting the court of appeal on most local administrative matters. This chapter also discusses its developments, offices and officials, and procedures and reform.
Goths and Romans 332–489
Authors: Heather Peter
Published: October 2011

This book examines the collision of Goths and Romans in the fourth and fifth centuries. In these years Gothic tribes played a major role in the destruction of the western half of the Roman Empire, establishing successor states in southern France and Spain (the Visigoths) and in Italy (the Ostrogoths). Our understanding of the Goths in this ‘Migration Period’ has been based upon the Gothic historian Jordanes, whose mid-sixth-century Getica suggests that the Visigoths and Ostrogoths entered the Empire already established as coherent groups and simply conquered new territories. Using more contemporary sources, the author is able to show that, on the contrary, Visigoths and Ostrogoths were new and unprecedentedly large social groupings, and that many Gothic societies failed even to survive the upheavals of the Migration Period. This study explores the complicated interactions with Roman power, which both prompted the creation of the Visigoths and Ostrogoths around newly emergent dynasties and helped bring about the fall of the Roman Empire.
Territories and Boundaries
Authors: Scott Tom
Published: October 2011

The vagueness and permeability of the Upper Rhine's natural frontiers in the later Middle Ages were reflected in the boundaries of territorial authority. Only the Vosges, separating the lordships of Alsace from the duchy of Lorraine, constituted in any sense a political frontier. On the right bank of the river, the territories of the margraves of Baden, the counts of Fürstenberg, and the Habsburg archdukes all rode effortlessly over the ridges of the Black Forest mountains. Still less did the river Rhine itself mark a clear political divide. Aside from the enclaves of the secular territory of the bishops of Basel on the right bank around Schliengen and Istein, and the district of Beinheim on the left bank opposite Rastatt which the margraves of Baden had acquired in the fourteenth century, it was above all the extensive Habsburg possessions on the Upper Rhine, known collectively as Outer Austria, which spanned the river. Here the Rhine served only as a convenient distinction between administrative districts.
The Regional Provisioning of Meat
Authors: Scott Tom
Published: October 2011

In Germany, the sixteenth century ushered in the great age of what was known as good police, when governments for the first time began actively to intervene in economic and commercial affairs for reasons other than the purely fiscal (the raising of taxes). At imperial and territorial level, the authorities began to tackle issues such as monopolies, price-rigging, and forestalling, as well as seeking to regulate and secure supplies of essential commodities. Issues of welfare were also part of good police, as princes and magistrates struggled to come to grips with the plague of the age — vagrancy and begging by the poor, the homeless, and unemployed or discharged mercenaries. In relatively self-contained territories such as Bavaria or Württemberg, edicts to enforce good police flowed unimpeded from princely chanceries. Throughout the sixteenth century, the police assemblies of the Rappen league in the Upper Rhine addressed two fundamental issues — the provisioning and price regulation of meat and grain — which were of existential importance in an age of rising population and gathering inflation.
The Regional Provisioning of Grain
Authors: Scott Tom
Published: October 2011

Unlike the constant struggle to regulate the meat market on the southern Upper Rhine, the provisioning of grain rarely presented the authorities with a serious challenge until the last third of the sixteenth century, when a series of harvest failures, possibly exacerbated by demographic pressure, led to repeated bouts of dearth and famine. The authorities' only concern was to prevent Fürkauf, understood in this context not as a general hostility to commerce or towards foreigners, but in the exact sense of forestalling, pre-empting the workings of a free market by buying corn on the ear directly from the peasantry or at unlicensed markets in the countryside. The desire to conserve dwindling stocks of grain within a given territory prompted bans on exports, although these were subject to innumerable exceptions. Whereas with meat the Rappen league had depended on supplies brought into its area either from its fringes or from abroad, with grain its members traded freely throughout the Upper Rhine.
Waiting for Stunde Null Exiled Leaders and Resistance Cadres
Authors: Major Patrick
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the prehistory of the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (KPD) in West Germany before 1945. The Republic's final years had conditioned the political behaviour of the post-war KPD. In 1932, the KPD made a quantitative success in terms of vote and membership. However, most of the votes were protest votes and the vast majority of a fluctuating mass membership were unemployed and difficult to integrate into a stable Communist milieu. After the war, the KPD returned to a significantly different social condition, and its readjustment process lasted well into the 1950s. The Nazi persecution also kept the Communist resistance cadres in a form of suspended animation, unable to return to leadership.
Sammlungspolitik in the Wilderness The KPD’s Extra-Parliamentary Campaigns
Authors: Major Patrick
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the efforts of the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (KPD) to establish political alliances outside parliament in West Germany. It argues that the KPD failed to take advantage of the rearmament issue to alter the political allegiance of voters. Based on an analysis of the 1953 Bundestag, it is clear that the KPD was not able to use any remilitarization to its advantage. And despite the instrumentalization of the KPD leadership's initiatives, there were undoubtedly loyal pacifists among the party's campaigners.
From Mass Party to Cadre Party The Organization of the KPD
Authors: Major Patrick
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the evolution of the organizational structure of the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (KPD) in West Germany from a mass party to a party of professional revolutionary cadres. Under the exceptional circumstances of late Weimar, the KPD was unable to preserve its mass base under the Nazi regime and it was forced into an ultra-conspiratory role. After emerging from this illegality, the KPD broke off isolation and decided to become not only a proletarian mass party but a Volkspartei with national appeal.
J. F C. Fuller: Positivism, Evolution, Fascism, and Future Warfare
Authors: Gat Azar
Published: October 2011

John Frederick Charles Fuller was known for his intellectual intensity, wide-ranging interests and literary scope. In 1930s he was involved in Oswald Mosley's British Union of Fascists. This involvement was seen as an unfortunate event in his career, mainly attributed to his eccentric personality or to fascist emphasis on order and all things military. This chapter aims to discuss and advance some of the propositions about the life and standpoint of Fuller on the issue of fascism. This chapter discusses Fuller's development as intellectual before he became a military thinker. The chapter also discusses his formative years and its influence in moulding him as a participant in the proto-fascist mood. Discussion also includes his interest in and major contributions to his own military profession. Discussed as well is his vision of the mechanization of warfare which was spurred by his outlook and interests.
German Right-Wing Radicalism, Strategic Adventurism, and Mechanized Warfare
Authors: Gat Azar
Published: October 2011

German fascism is inevitably marked by Nazism which had created a great impact across the modern German, Western, and the world history. However the Nationalist Socialist party and its leader, Adolf Hitler only became significant political forces in the beginning of the 1930s. Their emergence to power only came about when a complex circumstance catapulted them into power hence paving an excuse where they can exhibit their gruesomeness in a grand scale manner. This chapter discusses the emergence of German right-wing radicalism which took shape in the late nineteenth century in the wake of Germany's industrialization. This chapter focuses on Adolf Hitler's regime and its attitude towards modernist fascism. Of all fascist movements, Hitler's regime was the least modern. Hitler suppressed the most radical and avant-garde elements of his movements after assuming power. On the other hand, Hitler and his regime exalted the most spectacular and dynamic products of technology. They associated themselves with and made extensive use of aircraft and fast car. Nazism and the orientation of the right-wing radicals within the armed forces redirected German rearmament towards modern means of war, revolutionary doctrines, and radical operational schemes.
Anselm and His Canonical Sources
Authors: Cushing Kathleen G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses Anselm and his canonical resources, looking at new sources and methods in reform collections, the Pseudo-Isidore, the 74T, Cardinal Deusdedit’s Collectio canonum, and other genuine and patristic resources. The single most important of Anselm’s formal and material resources was the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals. An important source of the Pseudo-Isidorian texts was the Diversorum partum sententie sive Collectio in LXXIV titulos digesta or the 74T, which accounted for some 101 texts. The 74T was one of the earliest and one of the most significant of the reform collections. It also served as a formal source for a number of post-Gregorian collections. Meanwhile, Cardinal Deusdedit’s Collectio canonum has been called the second of the major Gregorian collections.
The Hecatomb and the Church’s Silence?
Authors: KERR DONAL A.
Published: October 2011

The total failure of the potato resulted in death on a massive scale through hunger, disease, and exposure during the winter of 1847. Although by the standards of the time, there had been a major outlay of public money, the relief schemes were overwhelmed by the scale of the disaster. The soup kitchens, Russell’s tardy but most effective measure, were not in operation until the end of March or later. During that long and bitter winter, hundreds of thousands of peasants died. A world was disappearing as a whole class of people perished or emigrated, and what was once one of the most densely populated areas in Europe saw farms, hamlets, and villages abandoned. An important reason why the bishops took no collective action was that they were themselves disunited. Their annual meetings, long a source of unity and strength, had become the occasion for enervating wrangling.
Recriminations: Viceroy’s Memorandum and Bishops’ Memorial
Authors: KERR DONAL A.
Published: October 2011

By May 1847, the second and most disastrous year of the Famine, with its horrendous death-toll, was over. The failure and death of Daniel O'Connell and the feeling of helplessness in the country when faced with a disaster on the scale of the Famine, had convinced many of the clergy of the futility of the campaign for repeal. Notwithstanding Clarendon’s complaints, it was unrealistic to expect the priests to view elections through the eyes of an English Whig. The Famine and its horrors constituted the backdrop to the election while, politically, the struggle was between those who were loyal to the memory of O'Connell and his constitutional movement and those who were not. In an extraordinary memorial, the bishops went beyond the strict bounds of religion to criticize the existing social order, condemn government policy, and express principles of social justice.
Body Language
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses how the responses to Quakers' body language reveal a great deal about general attitudes to civility and bodily control at that time. Friends' unusual body language is an important factor in providing an explanation on the hostility they encountered in local society. Much advice was given about the correct use of the physical body during the early modern period. The principal method of acknowledging the status of life of an individual was through the medium of the physical body. The bodily style of Quakers was related to Friends' experience of spiritual rebirth and the path to heavenly perfection.
Gospel Order
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on the notion of a disciplinary process or ‘Gospel Order’. Gospel Order had existed since the early years of the movement but it was not extensive and not organized. The crucial step in empowering the Society to police members' behaviour more effectively was the intervention of George Fox. He urged the creation of a network of particular, monthly, and quarterly meetings in the late 1660s. The consensus among historians is that the main aim of Quaker discipline was to maintain the reputation of the Society.
Spreading Forth the Truth
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the role of Quaker books and pamphlets. These allow Friends to evangelize and let them fortify themselves with the truth through reading and contemplation. Quaker schools and teachers acted as barriers between the children of Friends and outsiders. The literacy rates of Quakers showed Quaker separatism, since an incentive to develop literacy in the sect was provided by the need to educate members with the values of faith, which were acquired through reading of the scriptures and Quaker books.
From Lollards to Quakers
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN
Published: October 2011

This chapter answers the questions: To what extent were itinerant ministers like Parnel responsible for the early growth of the movement? Should people attribute the success of the early movement to the heroic labours of early Quaker evangelists alone? The influence of itinerant preachers should be acknowledged, but it is possible that the rise of interest in the new faith owed much to its ministers.
The Pastoral Arts of the Rhetor Pomerius
Authors: Leyser Conrad
Published: October 2011

This chapter begins with a scene painted by the North African rhetor Julianus Pomerius, in his On the Contemplative Life, composed in southern Gaul in the early years of the sixth century. Although rarely recognized as such, the work is cast as a dialogue. As Robert Markus has emphasized, what Pomerius in fact composed was a handbook for pastors, encouraging them to participate in an ascetic understanding of moral authority and pastoral responsibility. These priorities are announced at once: having promised to define ‘in a few words’ the nature of the contemplative life, Pomerius offers to consider ‘whether one charged with ruling a Church can become a sharer in contemplative virtue’. This question in turn leads on to a host of others, all of which presume a concern with the moral exercise of episcopal office. Taken together, the evidence generated around Pomerius reveals a network of rich and cultured clerics and laity in southern Gaul and beyond, with particular interests in the ascetic life and its promotion throughout the Catholic Church.
The Anonymity ofThe Rule of St Benedict
Authors: Leyser Conrad
Published: October 2011

There can be few more vivid illustrations of the moral power of humility than that afforded by The Rule of St Benedict. Its appeal is readily ascribed precisely to its winning lack of self-importance. This chapter argues that the author of the Rule’s determination to write for beginners represented not merely a generalized modesty, but a particular resolve to establish a monastic community and a language of authority which did not presume a high, or even a uniform, level of ascetic competence among its members. The Rule solves the problem of asceticism and community that had specifically defeated John Cassian: how experts and beginners could live together in a monastery.
Vodka
Authors: Christian David
Published: October 2011

Vodka consists in principle (and sometimes in practice) of little more than pure alcohol and water. Of these two, it is, of course, the alcohol that is the active ingredient. The word ‘alcohol’ has two distinct meanings. To the chemist, it means a group of simple organic molecules, or molecules containing carbon. The simplest organic molecules are the hydrocarbons. On earth, alcohol appears most commonly as one by-product (the other being carbon dioxide) of a series of reactions in which energy is released through the breakdown of glucose during the chemical reaction known as fermentation. This chapter considers the chemistry of vodka, some definitions of vodka and vino, additives mixed with vodka, alcoholic drinks that can be found in Russian taverns in the middle of the 19th century, and the role of vodka as object of use and bearer of wealth in Russia.