bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Study of Multimodal Motherese: The Role of Temporal Synchrony between Verbal Labels and Gestures
Authors: Gogate Lakshmi J. , Bahrick Lorraine E. , Watson Jilayne D.
Published: December 2004

This study examined European American and Hispanic American mothers' multimodal communication to their infants (N= 24). The infants were from three age groups representing three levels of lexical‐mapping development: prelexical (5 to 8 months), early‐lexical (9 to 17 months), and advanced‐lexical (21 to 30 months). Mothers taught their infants four target (novel) words by using distinct objects during a semistructured play episode. Recent research suggests that young infants rely on temporal synchrony to learn syllable–object relations, but later, the role of synchrony diminishes. Thus, mothers' target and nontarget naming were coded for synchrony and other communication styles. The results indicated that mothers used target words more often than nontarget words in synchrony with object motion and sometimes touch. Thus, ‘multimodal motherese’ likely highlights target word‐referent relations for infants. Further, mothers tailored their communication to infants' level of lexical‐mapping development. Mothers of prelexical infants used target words in synchrony with object motion more often than mothers of early‐ and advanced‐lexical infants. Mothers' decreasing use of synchrony across age parallels infants' decreasing reliance on synchrony, suggesting a dynamical and reciprocal environment–organismic relation.
Genetic and Environmental Covariation between Verbal and Nonverbal Cognitive Development in Infancy
Authors: Price Thomas S. , Eley Thalia C. , Dale Philip S. , Stevenson Jim , Sandino Kim , Plomin Robert
Published: December 2004

Despite cognitive neuroscience's emphasis on the modularity of cognitive processes, multivariate genetic research indicates that the same genetic factors largely affect diverse cognitive abilities, at least from middle childhood onward. We explored this issue for verbal and nonverbal cognitive development in infancy in a study of 1,937 pairs of same‐sex 2‐year‐old twins born in England and Wales in 1994. The twins were assessed by having their parents use a measure of productive vocabulary (the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory) and a novel measure of nonverbal cognitive abilities (Parent Report of Children's Ability). Verbal and nonverbal development correlated .42. A multivariate genetic analysis indicated that genetic factors were responsible for less than half of this phenotypic correlation. Moreover, the genetic correlation between verbal and nonverbal abilities was only .30, which indicates that genetic effects on verbal and nonverbal abilities are largely independent in infancy. These multivariate genetic results suggest that genetic effects on cognitive abilities are modular early in development and then become increasingly molar. The implications of this result for theories of cognitive development are discussed.
Developmental Differences in Visual and Auditory Processing of Complex Sentences
Authors: Booth James R. , Mac Whinney Brian , Harasaki Yasuaki
Published: December 2004

Children aged 8 through 11 (N= 250) were given a word‐by‐word sentence task in both the visual and auditory modes. The sentences included an object relative clause, a subject relative clause, or a conjoined verb phrase. Each sentence was followed by a true–false question, testing the subject of either the first or second verb. Participants were also given two memory span measures: digit span and reading span. High digit span children slowed down more at the transition from the main to the relative clause than did the low digit span children. The findings suggest the presence of a U‐shaped learning pattern for on‐line processing of restrictive relative clauses. Off‐line accuracy scores showed different patterns for good comprehenders and poor comprehenders. Poor comprehenders answered the second verb questions at levels that were consistently below chance. Their answers were based on an incorrect local attachment strategy that treated the second noun as the subject of the second verb. For example, they often answered yes to the question ‘The girl chases the policeman’ after the object relative sentence ‘The boy that the girl sees chases the policeman.’ Interestingly, low memory span poor comprehenders used the local attachment strategy less consistently than high memory span poor comprehenders, and all poor comprehenders used this strategy less consistently for harder than for easier sentences.
How Best to Utilize a Deficiency
Authors: Miller Patricia H.
Published: December 2004

This article is a commentary on Harriet Waters' discussion, in this issue, of strategy inefficiencies and strategy utilization, mediation, and production deficiencies. The author focuses on the importance and meaning of the degree of spontaneity in strategy production, and situates the concept of utilization deficiency within current work on strategy heterogeneity, contextual support, and situation‐specific skills.
Parent and Peer Contexts for Children's Moral Reasoning Development
Authors: Walker Lawrence J. , Hennig Karl H. , Krettenauer Tobias
Published: December 2004

This study addressed the polarization among theoretical perspectives in moral psychology regarding the relative significance of parents and peers in children's developing moral maturity. The sample was composed of 60 target children from late childhood and midadolescence, 60 parents, and 60 friends who participated in parent/child and friend/child dyadic discussions of a series of moral conflicts. The quality of parents' and friends' verbal interactions, ego functioning, and level of moral reasoning in these discussions was used to predict the rate of children's moral reasoning development over a 4‐year longitudinal interval. Results revealed that interactions with both parents and peers were predictive of children's development but that these two types of relationships influence development in rather different ways. Implications of the findings for the understanding of these socialization agents' roles in moral development are discussed.
Children's and Adults' Models for Predicting Teleological Action: The Development of a Biology‐Based Model
Authors: Opfer John E. , Gelman Susan A.
Published: December 2004

Understanding that only living things must act to gain self‐beneficial goals is important for developing a theory‐like understanding of the living world. This research studied the models that preschoolers, fifth graders, and adults use to guide their predictions of self‐beneficial, goal‐directed (i.e., teleological) action. Four possible models have been suggested: finalist, complexity based, biology based, and animal based. In Study 1, participants (N= 104) were assigned to one of two conditions that differed in whether a beneficial or neutral object was pictured; they were asked to predict whether animals, plants, machines, and simple artifacts would modify their movement in the direction of that object. Preschoolers' predictions were consistent with an animal‐based model, fifth graders' predictions were consistent with biology‐based and complexity‐based models, and adults' predictions were consistent with a biology‐based model. Analysis of both individual response patterns and explanations supported these findings, but also showed that a significant number of preschoolers and fifth graders were finalist, and that very few individual fifth graders followed a complexity‐based teleology. In Study 2, participants (N= 84) reported whether the animals, plants, machines, and simple artifacts in Study 1 had psychological capacities. All age groups attributed psychological capacities to animals at levels higher than other domains and at above‐chance levels. The evidence from these two studies suggests that preschoolers, unlike fifth graders and adults, predict teleological action for plants and animals on the basis of these entities' inferred psychological capacities.
Investigations of Temperament at Three to Seven Years: The Children's Behavior Questionnaire
Authors: Rothbart Mary K. , Ahadi Stephan A. , Hershey Karen L. , Fisher Phillip
Published: December 2004

This article reviews evidence on the reliability and validity of the Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ), and presents CBQ data on the structure of temperament in childhood. The CBQ is a caregiver report measure designed to provide a detailed assessment of temperament in children 3 to 7 years of age. Individual differences are assessed on 15 primary temperament characteristics: Positive Anticipation, Smiling/Laughter, High Intensity Pleasure, Activity Level, Impulsivity, Shyness, Discomfort, Fear, Anger/Frustration, Sadness, Soothability, Inhibitory Control, Attentional Focusing, Low Intensity Pleasure, and Perceptual Sensitivity. Factor analyses of CBQ scales reliably recover a three‐factor solution indicating three broad dimensions of temperament: Extraversion/Surgency, Negative Affectivity, and Effortful Control. This three‐factor solution also appears to be reliably recovered in ratings of children in other cultures (e.g., China and Japan). Evidence for convergent validity derives from confirmation of hypothesized relations between temperament and socialization‐relevant traits. In addition, parental agreement on CBQ ratings is substantial. The CBQ scales demonstrate adequate internal consistency, and may be used in studies requiring a highly differentiated yet integrated measure of temperament for children in this age range.
Infant – Mother Attachment among the Dogon of Mali
Authors: McMahan True Mary , Pisani Lelia , Oumar Fadimata
Published: December 2004

This study of mothers and infants from the Dogon ethnic group of Mali, West Africa examined three attachment hypotheses: (1) that infant attachment security is linked to the quality of mother – infant communication, (2) that mothers of secure infants respond more sensitively to their infants than do mothers of insecure infants, and (3) that infant disorganization is linked to maternal frightened or frightening behaviors. Participants were 27 mother – infant pairs from a rural town and 15 mother – infant pairs from two agrarian villages; infants ranged in age from 10 to 12.5 months at the first assessment. The distribution of the Strange Situation classifications was 67% secure, 0% avoidant, 8% resistant, and 25% disorganized. Infant attachment security was significantly related to the quality of mother – infant communication as observed in a well‐infant exam. The correlation between infant attachment security ratings and maternal sensitivity (assessed in the home) was modest and approached significance. Mothers of disorganized infants had significantly higher ratings of frightened or frightening behaviors. Maternal sensitivity predicted little of the variance in infant security; however, the addition of the frightened/frightening variable in the regression equation tripled the explained variance. The findings are discussed in light of Dogon childrearing practices and key tenets of attachment theory.
Attachment for Infants in Foster Care: The Role of Caregiver State of Mind
Authors: Dozier Mary , Stoval K. Chase , Albus Kathleen E. , Bates Brady
Published: December 2004

The concordance between foster mothers' attachment state of mind and foster infants' attachment quality was examined for 50 foster mother – infant dyads. Babies had been placed into the care of their foster mothers between birth and 20 months of age. Attachment quality was assessed between 12 and 24 months of age, at least 3 months after the infants' placement into foster care. The two‐way correspondence between maternal state of mind and infant attachment quality was 72%, κ= .43, similar to the level seen among biologically intact mother – infant dyads. Contrary to expectations, age at placement was not related to attachment quality. Rather, concordance between maternal state of mind and infant attachment was seen for relatively late‐placed babies, as well as early placed babies. These findings have two major implications. First, following a disruption in care during the first year and a half of life, babies appear capable of organizing their behavior around the availability of new caregivers. Second, these data argue for a nongenetic mechanism for the intergenerational transmission of attachment.
A Twin Study of Attachment in Preschool Children
Authors: O'Connor Thomas G. , Croft Carla M.
Published: December 2004

The degree to which individual differences in child – parent attachment were mediated by genetic, shared environmental, and nonshared environmental influences was investigated. One hundred and ten preschool‐aged twin pairs (N= 220) were assessed in the Strange Situation and coded using conventional four‐way classifications and a continuous measure of attachment security. The degree of sibling similarity in attachment was substantial, with an overall concordance rate of 67% at the secure/insecure level. The degree of concordance was equally high in monozygotic and dizygotic twin pairs, 70% and 64%, respectively, suggesting little genetic influence but a moderate degree of discordance. Twin similarity on the continuous measure of attachment security was r(57)= .48 and r(53)= .38 for monozygotic and dizygotic twin pairs, respectively, also consistent with a modest role for genetic influence but a significant effect for shared and nonshared environment. The implications for genetic influences on the environment and for understanding nonshared and shared environmental influences are discussed.
The Relation of Preschool Child‐Care Quality to Children's Cognitive and Social Developmental Trajectories through Second Grade
Authors: Peisner‐Feinberg Ellen S. , Burchinal Margaret R. , Clifford Richard M. , Culkin Mary L. , Howes Carollee , Kagan Sharon Lynn , Yazejian Noreen
Published: December 2004

The cognitive ad socioemotional development of 733 children was examined longitudinally from ages 4 to 8 years as a function of the quality of their preschool experiences in community child‐care centers, after adjusting for family selection factors related to child‐care quality and development. These results provide evidence that child‐care quality has a modest long‐term effect on children's patterns of cognitive and socioemotional development at least through kindergarten, and in some cases, through second grade. Differential effects on children's development were found for two aspects of child‐care quality. Observed classroom practices were related to children's language and academic skills, whereas the closeness of the teacher – child relationship was related to both cognitive and social skills, with the strongest effects for the latter. Moderating influences of family characteristics were observed for some outcomes, indicating stronger positive effects of child‐care quality for children from more at‐risk backgrounds. These findings contribute further evidence of the long‐term influences of the quality of child‐care environments on children's cognitive and social skills through the elementary school years and are consistent with a bioecological model of development that considers the multiple environmental contexts that the child experiences.
Classroom and Developmental Differences in a Path Model of Teacher Expectancy Effects
Authors: Kuklinski Margaret R. , Weinstein Rhona S.
Published: December 2004

A path model of teacher expectancy effects was evaluated in a sample of 376 first‐ through fifth‐grade urban elementary school children. The roles of two moderators (classroom perceived differential treatment environment and developmental differences) and one mediator (children's self‐expectations) of teacher expectancy effects on children's year‐end achievement were examined. Significant differences in effects and effect sizes are presented. Both classroom environment (high versus low in differential treatment, as seen through children's eyes) and developmental differences moderated the strength of teacher expectancy effects. Generally, stronger effects were found in classrooms in which expectancy‐related cues were more salient to children, but developmental differences moderated which effect was most pronounced. A significant age‐related decline in direct effects on ending achievement was interpreted as evidence that teacher expectations may tend to magnify achievement differences in the early grades, but serve to sustain them in later grades. Support for indirect effects (teacher expectations → children's self‐expectations → ending achievement) was limited to upper elementary grade classrooms perceived as high in differential treatment. In contrast to prior research that emphasized small effect sizes, the present analyses document several instances of moderate effects, primarily in classrooms in which expectancy‐related messages were most salient to children. These results underscore the importance of explicit attention to the inclusion of moderators, mediators, and multiple outcomes in efforts to understand teacher expectancy effects.
Maternal Mind–Mindedness and Attachment Security as Predictors of Theory of Mind Understanding
Authors: Meins Elizabeth , Fernyhough Charles , Wainwright Rachel , Das Gupta Mani , Fradley Emma , Tuckey Michelle
Published: December 2004

This study investigated relations between social interaction during infancy and children's subsequent theory of mind (ToM). Infant–mother pairs (N= 57) were observed in a free–play context at 6 months. Interactions were coded for (a) mothers’ use of mental state language that commented appropriately on the infants’ mental states, and (b) mothers’ use of mental state language that did not appropriately reflect their infants’ minds. A third variable was (c) security of attachment, which was assessed using the Strange Situation procedure at 12 months. Performance on a battery of ToM tasks at 45 and 48 months was positively correlated with (a), but was not related to (b) or (c). A regression analysis showed that mothers’ use of appropriate mental state comments independently predicted overall ToM performance, accounting for 11% of the variance. Children's verbal ability was the only other independent predictor of ToM performance, accounting for 16% of the variance. These findings represent the earliest known social predictor of individual differences in ToM.
Group Size Regulates Self–Assertive versus Self–Deprecating Responses to Interpersonal Competition
Authors: Benenson Joyce F. , Maiese Rebecca , Dolenszky Eva , Dolensky Nicole , Sinclair Nancy , Simpson Anna
Published: December 2004

The current study examined the hypothesis that group size can influence whether children display self–assertive versus self–deprecating responses to interpersonal competition, especially under stress. Twenty same–sex playgroups (N= 120) of 9– to 10–year–old children played a competitive game in groups and in dyads. Stress was induced by causing some of the children to lose the game and watch as their opponents received psychological and material rewards. Results demonstrated that both the dynamics of the game and individual reactions to stress varied consistently as a function of the social context. Individuals displayed more assertive behaviors in groups than in dyads. In contrast, individuals exhibited more self–deprecating behaviors in dyads than in groups. Given that under naturalistic conditions males are more likely than are females to interact in groups and females are more likely than are males to interact in dyads, group size provides one possible mechanism for the development of sex differences in self–assertive versus self–deprecating behaviors.
Co–Rumination in the Friendships of Girls and Boys
Authors: Rose Amanda J.
Published: December 2004

This research addresses a new construct, co–rumination. Co–rumination refers to extensively discussing and revisiting problems, speculating about problems, and focusing on negative feelings. Friendship research indicates that self–disclosure leads to close relationships; however, coping research indicates that dwelling on negative topics leads to emotional difficulties. Co–rumination is a single construct that integrates both perspectives and is proposed to be related both to positive friendship adjustment and problematic emotional adjustment. Third–, fifth–, seventh–, and ninth–grade participants (N= 608) responded to questionnaires, including a new measure of co–rumination. Co–rumination was related to high–quality, close friendships and aspects of depression and anxiety. Girls reported co–ruminating more than did boys, which helped to account for girls’ more positive friendship adjustment and greater internalizing symptoms. Other analyses addressed whether co–rumination and the related constructs of self–disclosure and rumination had different relations with friendship and emotional adjustment.
Child Care Research: An Editorial Perspective
Authors: Langlois Judith H. , Liben Lynn S.
Published: December 2004

The goals of Child Development's new From Another Perspective format are discussed, and an overview of the content of the inaugural From Another Perspective collection on child care effects is provided. The two lead articles suggest, respectively, that long hours in child care are related to children's later behavior problems and that child care may be physiologically challenging for young children. Commentaries focus on the need to examine a range of additional factors before drawing definitive conclusions about cause and effect. Among the issues discussed in the commentaries are the need to account for context, individual differences among children, and methodological challenges. The introductory editorial also overviews policy implications and directions for future research.
Morning‐to‐Afternoon Increases in Cortisol Concentrations for Infants and Toddlers at Child Care: Age Differences and Behavioral Correlates
Authors: Watamura Sarah E. , Donzella Bonny , Alwin Jan , Gunnar Megan R.
Published: December 2004

This study examined salivary cortisol, a stress–sensitive hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenocortical (HPA) axis hormone in 20 infants (12 females; M age=10.8 months) and 35 toddlers (20 females; M age=29.7 months) in full‐day, center‐based child care. Samples were taken at approximately 10:00 a.m. and 4:00 p.m. at child care and at home. At child care, 35% of infants and 71% of toddlers showed a rise in cortisol across the day; at home, 71% of infants and 64% of toddlers showed decreases. Toddlers who played more with peers exhibited lower cortisol. Controlling age, teacher‐reported social fearfulness predicted higher afternoon cortisol and larger cortisol increases across the day at child care. This phenomenon may indicate context‐specific activation of the HPA axis early in life.
Shared Care: Establishing a Balance Between Home and Child Care Settings
Authors: Ahnert Lieselotte , Lamb Michael E.
Published: December 2004

The onset of regular nonparental care for infants and toddlers has complex psychobiological and behavioral effects on their functioning both at home and in child care centers. Maladaptive behavior on the part of children who spend many hours in child care may reflect not the direct effects of nonparental care but the inability of parents to buffer the enhanced levels of stress experienced in child care. Successful adaptation demands careful equilibration of the contrasting limitations and benefits of the two environments, with parental care characterized by stress reduction and emotional regulation and providers' care characterized by emphasis on cognitive stimulation and behavioral regulation.
Some Controls Control Too Much
Authors: Newcombe Nora S.
Published: December 2004

Investigators of complex phenomena often seek to isolate variables of interest by statistical control. However, they run the risk of studying situations that do not exist in the real world, missing mediational links, and drawing incorrect policy conclusions. In the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Early Child Care Research Network article in this issue, amount of time in child care was studied controlling for family income and maternal depression. However, use of child care is closely linked with maternal employment, which increases family income and decreases maternal depression, which in turn are linked to children's socioemotional adjustment. Hence, the negative effects of amount of time in child care reported in the article are likely overestimated relative to causal pathways in the lives of real families.
Children, Stress, and Context: Integrating Basic, Clinical, and Experimental Prevention Research
Authors: Brotman Laurie Miller , Gouley Kathleen Kiely , Klein Rachel G. , Castellanos F. Xavier , Pine Daniel S.
Published: December 2004

Findings from the Watamura, Donzella, Alwin, and Gunnar (this issue) study support the growing recognition of the importance of context on physiology and affective and behavioral regulation early in human development. This discussion focuses on the role of context and development on hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal (HPA) axis regulation in young children. Discussed in this article are the Watamura et al. findings with regard to relevant animal studies, extension of these observations to samples of children at elevated risk for psychopathology, and experimental prevention studies with young children. It is contended that environmental factors operating at key points in development may shape affective and behavioral regulation as well as HPA axis function in children, much as environmental factors have been shown to shape HPA axis regulation in animals.
Integrating Biological, Behavioral, and Social Levels of Analysis in Early Child Development: Progress, Problems, and Prospects
Authors: Granger Douglas A. , Kivlighan Katie T.
Published: December 2004

Integration of noninvasive, biological measures into behavioral research has increased, but the interpretation of biobehavioral findings in relation to developmental outcomes is rarely straightforward. This commentary highlights the need for specific, theoretically derived hypotheses, multiple measures of behavioral and biological processes, and analytical strategies aimed at explaining interindividual differences in intraindividual change. It is suggested here that the next phase of biosocial research needs to move beyond description and toward development of mid‐level theories that will enable researchers to specify, test, and refine hypotheses of how biobehavioral processes interact with social‐contextual factors to influence development. These mid‐level biosocial models will be necessary to determine whether individual differences in children's adrenocortical activity confer risk or resilience because of early or cumulative exposure to nonparental care.
Racial Identity and Academic Attainment Among African American Adolescents
Authors: Chavous Tabbye M. , Bernat Debra Hilkene , Schmeelk‐Cone Karen , Caldwell Cleopatra H. , Kohn‐Wood Laura , Zimmerman Marc A.
Published: December 2004

In this study, the relationships between racial identity and academic outcomes for African American adolescents were explored. In examining race beliefs, the study differentiated among (a) importance of race (centrality), (b) group affect (private regard), and (c) perceptions of societal beliefs (public regard) among 606 African American 17‐year‐old adolescents. Using cluster analysis, profiles of racial identity variables were created, and these profile groups were related to educational beliefs, performance, and later attainment (high school completion and college attendance). Results indicated cluster differences across study outcomes. Also, the relationships between academic attitudes and academic attainment differed across groups. Finally, the paper includes a discussion on the need to consider variation in how minority youth think about group membership in better understanding their academic development.
Automatic Attention Cueing Through Eye Movement in 2‐Year‐Old Children With Autism
Authors: Chawarska Katarzyna , Klin Ami , Volkmar Fred
Published: December 2004

Automatic attention cueing by perceived changes in gaze direction was studied in 2‐year‐old children with autism and typically developing (TD) controls using a visual attention cueing paradigm. In Experiments 1 and 2 the cue consisted of an eye movement (Eyes) and a nonbiological movement (SimEyes), respectively. The results suggest that visual attention in children with autism and their TD counterparts is cued by perceived eye movement. Thus, although in naturalistic situations toddlers with autism do not follow the gaze of others, they are sensitive to directional cues inherent in eye movement. Cue‐specific differences in performance related to the level of engagement and cue‐processing time may suggest reliance on different underlying strategies for gaze processing in autism.
The Role of Language in the Development of False Belief Understanding: A Training Study
Authors: Lohmann Heidemarie , Tomasello Michael
Published: December 2004

The current study used a training methodology to determine whether different kinds of linguistic interaction play a causal role in children's development of false belief understanding. After 3 training sessions, 3‐year‐old children improved their false belief understanding both in a training condition involving perspective‐shifting discourse about deceptive objects (without mental state terms) and in a condition in which sentential complement syntax was used (without deceptive objects). Children did not improve in a condition in which they were exposed to deceptive objects without accompanying language. Children showed most improvement in a condition using both perspective‐shifting discourse and sentential complement syntax, suggesting that each of these types of linguistic experience plays an independent role in the ontogeny of false belief understanding.
Teacher–Student Relationships as Compensatory Resources for Aggressive Children
Authors: Meehan Barbara T. , Hughes Jan N. , Cavell Timothy A.
Published: December 2004

This 2‐year prospective investigation examined the association between the quality of teacher–student relationships and children's levels of aggression in a sample of 140 second‐ and third‐grade aggressive children (M age=8.18). Consistent with the proposed dual‐risk compensatory hypothesis, positive teacher–student relationships were more beneficial for aggressive African American and Hispanic children than for aggressive Caucasian children. Data did not support a moderating effect of negative parent–child relationship quality on the association between supportive teacher–student relationships and aggression. Findings underscore the importance of recruiting and preparing teachers capable of establishing supportive relationships with aggressive African American and Hispanic children. Results also suggest the need for multiple reporters of relationship quality in future research.
Preschool Outcomes of Children of Depressed Mothers: Role of Maternal Behavior, Contextual Risk, and Children's Brain Activity
Authors: Dawson Geraldine , Ashman Sharon B. , Panagiotides Heracles , Hessl David , Self Joanna , Yamada Emily , Embry Lara
Published: December 2004

Children of depressed mothers are at risk for behavioral and emotional problems. Infants of depressed mothers exhibit behavioral disturbances and atypical frontal brain activity. The mechanisms by which children develop such vulnerabilities are not clear. Three‐year‐old children of mothers with (N=65) and without (N=59) a history of depression were assessed in terms of behavior problems and brain electrical activity. Children of mothers with chronic depression exhibited lower frontal and parietal brain activation compared with children of mothers without depression and those whose depression remitted. Depressed mothers reported higher contextual risk (e.g., marital discord and stress) and their children had more behavior problems. Children's frontal brain activation and contextual risk level mediated the relation between maternal depression and child behavior problems.
A Prospective Investigation of Appraisals as Mediators of the Link Between Interparental Conflict and Child Adjustment
Authors: Grych John H. , Harold Gordon T. , Miles Claire J.
Published: December 2004

This longitudinal study tested the role of children's appraisals of threat and self‐blame as mediators of the association between interparental conflict and child adjustment in a sample of 298 Welsh children ages 11 to 12 years. Exposure to higher levels of interparental conflict at Time 1 predicted greater perceived threat and self‐blame at Time 2, after accounting for the effects of Time 1 adjustment and appraisals on later appraisals. Perceived threat in turn was associated with increased internalizing problems at Time 2, and self‐blame was associated with higher externalizing problems. The pattern of results was largely consistent for child and parent reports of conflict and for boys and girls, though some gender differences were found in associations between appraisals and adjustment.
Pathways to Understanding Mind: Construct Validity and Predictive Validity of Maternal Mind‐Mindedness
Authors: Meins Elizabeth , Fernyhough Charles , Wainwright Rachel , Clark‐Carter David , Das Gupta Mani , Fradley Emma , Tuckey Michelle
Published: December 2004

The construct validity of maternal mind‐mindedness (MM) was investigated in the context of its relations with children's later understanding of mind. MM measures were obtained from infant–mother (N=52) interactions at 6 months, and from maternal interviews at 48 months. Children's understanding of mind was assessed using theory of mind (ToM) tasks at 45 and 48 months, and a stream of consciousness (SoC) task at 55 months. One of the early MM measures—mothers' appropriate mind‐related comments—was a positive independent predictor of: (a) MM at 48 months, and (b) ToM and SoC performance at 45 to 55 months. Path analyses suggested direct links between mothers' use of appropriate mind‐related comments and children's later understanding of mind.
When Learning a Second Language Does Not Mean Losing the First: Bilingual Language Development in Low‐Income, Spanish‐Speaking Children Attending Bilingual Preschool
Authors: Winsler Adam , Díaz Rafael M. , Espinosa Linda , RodrÃ­guez James L.
Published: December 2004

This article discusses two investigations which explored the bilingual language development outcomes of comparable groups of low‐income, Spanish‐speaking, Mexican American children who either did or did not attended a bilingual (Spanish/English) preschool. Study 1 is a replication of a study by Rodríguez, Díaz, Duran, and Espinosa, involving a new sample of 26 children who attended bilingual preschool for one year and 20 control children who remained at home. Study 2 represents a 1‐year, longitudinal follow‐up of Rodríguez et al.'s, sample of children during and after the children spent another year at home or in the preschool. In both investigations, standardized, objective measures of three components of children's language proficiency (productive language, receptive language, and language complexity) in English and Spanish were obtained at the beginning and end of the academic year. Contrary to fears that have been expressed by some that early exposure to English would lead to children's native language loss, the results of both studies offered no evidence of Spanish proficiency loss for children attending bilingual preschool. Children who attended bilingual preschool, compared to those who remained at home, showed significant and parallel gains in Spanish language development as well as significant and greater increases in English language proficiency over time. Results are discussed in terms of the need for more systematic research to be conducted in this area to inform policy and practice in the early education and development of language‐minority children.
The Relations of Early Television Viewing to School Readiness and Vocabulary of Children from Low‐Income Families: The Early Window Project
Authors: Wright John C. , Huston Aletha C. , Murphy Kimberlee C. , St. Peters Michelle , PiÃ±on Marites , Scantlin Ronda , Kotler Jennifer
Published: December 2004

For two cohorts of children from low‐ to moderate‐income families, time‐use diaries of television viewing were collected over 3 years (from ages 2 – 5 and 4 – 7 years, respectively), and tests of reading, math, receptive vocabulary, and school readiness were administered annually. Relations between viewing and performance were tested in path analyses with controls for home environment quality and primary language (English or Spanish). Viewing child‐audience informative programs between ages 2 and 3 predicted high subsequent performance on all four measures of academic skills. For both cohorts, frequent viewers of general‐audience programs performed more poorly on subsequent tests than did infrequent viewers of such programs. Children's skills also predicted later viewing, supporting a bidirectional model. Children with good skills at age 5 selected more child‐audience informative programs and fewer cartoons in their early elementary years. Children with lower skills at age 3 shifted to viewing more general‐audience programs by ages 4 and 5. The results affirm the conclusion that the relations of television viewed to early academic skills depend primarily on the content of the programs viewed.
Phantoms and Fabrications: Young Children's Detection of Implausible Lies
Authors: Lee Kang , Cameron Catherine Ann , Doucette Joanne , Talwar Victoria
Published: December 2004

The present study investigated whether young children are gullible and readily deceived by another's lies. Specifically, this study examined whether young children believe a lie teller's statement when the statement violates their developing knowledge of a distinction between reality and fantasy. In the first three experiments 3– to 6–year–olds (N= 293) were presented with either a story or a live staged event in which an individual made an implausible statement about a misdeed (claiming that a ghost jumped out of a book and broke a glass). A significant age effect was obtained: 5– and 6–year–olds tended to report that the individual who made the implausible statement had actually committed the misdeed, whereas 3– and 4–year–olds tended to accept the claim of the protagonist. Experiment 4 revealed that 5– and 6–year–olds (N= 43) not only disbelieved an individual's implausible statement but also inferred that the individual was lying and had a deceptive intent. In contrast, Experiment 5 revealed that 3– and 4–year–olds (N= 41) had difficulty disbelieving an individual's implausible claim about an inanimate object (i.e., the claim that a chair came alive and broke the glass). The findings suggest that 5– and 6–year–olds are not so gullible as previously thought, and that they use their well–developed real–world knowledge to detect scapegoating lies. In contrast, many younger children tend to believe another's implausible lies, perhaps due to the fact that the knowledge needed to detect such lies has not yet been consolidated.
Japanese and American Children's Evaluations of Peer Exclusion, Tolerance of Differences, and Prescriptions for Conformity
Authors: Killen Melanie , Crystal David S. , Watanabe Hirozumi
Published: December 2004

Children and adolescents (N= 1,057), divided by gender, at fourth, seventh, and tenth grades, from two mid–sized cities in the United States and in Japan, were surveyed regarding their evaluations of peer group exclusion of atypical peers. Six reasons for atypicality were being aggressive, having an unconventional appearance, acting like a clown, demonstrating cross–gender behavior, being a slow runner, and having a sad personality. Analyses revealed significant effects for age, gender, country membership, and the context of exclusion. With age, children demonstrated context sensitivity, and believed that the excluded child should not change him– or herself to be accepted by the group. Across contexts, girls were less willing to exclude than were boys, and were more tolerant of differences. The context of exclusion had an effect on all forms of judgments about exclusion, and there were very few overall effects for culture. Most children disagreed with the decision to exclude, believed that they were different from the atypical child, and believed that the excluded child should change him– or herself to be accepted by the group. The results support a theory of developmental social cognition in which multiple sources of influence have a significant effect on social decision making involving the exclusion of others.
Neighborhood Income and Physical and Social Disorder in Canada: Associations with Young Children's Competencies
Authors: Kohen Dafna E. , Brooks–Gunn Jeanne , Leventhal Tama , Hertzman Clyde
Published: December 2004

This study examined the association of census level, observational, and parent–reported neighborhood characteristics on the verbal and behavioral competencies of a national sample of Canadian preschoolers (N= 3,350). Children's verbal ability scores were positively associated with residing in neighborhoods with affluent residents and negatively associated with residing in neighborhoods with poor residents and in neighborhoods with low cohesion, even after controlling for family socioeconomic factors. Behavior problem scores were higher when children lived in neighborhoods that had fewer affluent residents, high unemployment rates, and neighborhoods with low cohesion, after controlling for family socioeconomic factors. These findings are discussed in light of neighborhood studies of children in the United States in the mid–1990s.
How Money Matters for Young Children's Development: Parental Investment and Family Processes
Authors: Yeung W. Jean , Linver Miriam R. , Brooks–Gunn Jeanne
Published: December 2004

This study used data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics and its 1997 Child Development Supplement to examine how family income matters for young children's development. The sample included 753 children who were between ages 3 and 5 years in 1997. Two sets of mediating factors were examined that reflect two dominating views in the literature: (1) the investment perspective, and (2) the family process perspective. The study examined how two measures of income (stability and level) were associated with preschool children's developmental outcomes (Woodcock–Johnson [W–J] Achievement Test scores and the Behavior Problem Index [BPI]) through investment and family process pathways. Results supported the hypothesis that distinct mediating mechanisms operate on the association between income and different child outcomes. Much of the association between income and children's W–J scores was mediated by the family's ability to invest in providing a stimulating learning environment. In contrast, family income was associated with children's BPI scores primarily through maternal emotional distress and parenting practices. Level of income was associated with W–J letter–word scores and income stability was associated with W–J applied problem scores and BPI, even after all controls were included in the models.
Simultaneous Generation of Stereoscopic Views
Authors: Adelson Stephen J. , Bentley Jeffrey B. , Chong In Seok , Hodges Larry F. , Winograd Joseph
Published: December 2004

Currently almost all computer graphic stereoscopic images are generated by doubling the work required to create a single image. In this paper we derive and analyze algorithms for simultaneous generation of the two views necessary for a stereoscopic image. We begin with a discussion of the similarities of the two perspective views of a stereo pair. Following this, several graphics algorithms that have been optimized from known single‐view methods are described and performance results obtained from testing the new stereo algorithms against the originals are presented.
The Formal Specification of Level la of GKS
Authors: Damnjanovic Ljiljana B.
Published: December 2004

In this paper the formal specification of a part of level la of GKS is given in the algebraic specification language OBJ. It shows that it is possible to produce a formal specification of a substantial part of GKS which is of manageable size and complexity specifying the appropriate level of abstraction of the system and using a suitable formal technique.
Quadtrees, Transforms and Image Coding
Authors: Martin R.R. , Anguh M.M.
Published: December 2004

Transforms and quadtrees are both methods of representing information in an image in terms of the presence of information at differing length scales. This paper presents a mathematical relationship between these two approaches to describing images in the particular case when Walsh transforms are used. Furthermore, both methods have been used for the compression of images for transmission. This paper notes that under certain circumstances, quadtree compression produces identical results to Walsh transform coding, but requires less computational effort to do so. Remarks are also made about the differences between these approaches.
Inverse Displacement Mapping
Authors: Patterson J.W. , Hoggar S.G. , Logie J.R.
Published: December 2004

Inverse displacement mapping is a variant of displacement mapping which does not actually perturb the geometry of the surface being mapped. It is thus a true texture mapping technique which can be applied during rendering without breaking viewing pipeline discipline. The method works by first projecting probing rays into texture space and solving for a ray‐texture intersection there. Shadows can also be determined by mapping a probe from the intersection point towards the light source into texture space and seeing if an intersection results. Our implementation uses as much knowledge about the base surface as possible to speed up the ray‐surface intersection calculation. We have limited our treatment to spheres, cones, cylinders and planes, and our rendering method to ray casting, in order to contain the scope of this work up to the present. The inverse displacement mapping technique can, however, be applied more widely, for example as part of a full ray‐tracer, and also as part of the rendering pipeline for a wider class of smooth surfaces.
The GKS Input Model in Manifold
Authors: Soede Dirk , Arbab Farhad , Herman Ivan , Ten Hagen Paul J. W.
Published: December 2004

This paper describes the specification of the GKS input model in Manifold. The aim of the work reported in this paper was two‐fold: first, to review the communication patterns implied by the GKS input model, and second, to evaluate the suitability of the Manifold language as a tool for defining complex dynamic interaction patterns that are common in non‐trivial user interfaces.

The GKS input model is also adopted by all more recent ISO graphics standard documents. A more formal scrutiny of the inter‐communication of the components of this model, excluding the implementation details of their functionality, is instructive in itself. It can reveal directions for improvement of its shortcomings and for generalization of its strengths for the ongoing effort to define the functionality of future graphics packages.

Manifold is a language for describing inter‐process communications. Processes in Manifold communicate by means of buffered communication links called streams and by reacting to events raised asynchronously by other processes. Our experience shows that Manifold is a promising tool for describing systems of cooperating parallel processes. Our Manifold specification of the GKS input model offers a very flexible way to structure user defined logical input devices. Furthermore, it is simple and modular enough to allow easy extensions to include more functionality by local modifications. As such, it can serve as a basis for possible extensions and enhancements envisioned for future graphics packages.

1987 CR Categories: C.1.2, C.1.3, C.2.m, D.1.3, F.1.2, I.1.3, I.3.6, I.3.4.

1885 Mathematical Subject Classification: 68N99, 68Q10,68U05.