bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Lamentations, book
of
Authors: Miller Charles William
Published: December 2012

The destruction of Jerusalem and its temple in 587/6
BCE
, by the Babylonians, was awatershed moment in the history of ancient Israelite history and religion. To commemorate that event, an unknown author (or authors) created the biblical book of Lamentations, which is a collection of five poems written in Hebrew. The poems offer the reader little factual information about the destruction, but instead provide an emotional tour‐de‐force that exploits language, image, and structure to examine the events and their aftermath from multiple perspectives.
Machaerus, Jordan
Authors: McLaren James
Published: December 2012

The Hasmonean and Herodian period fortress‐palace of Machaerus is located at the top of Qal‘at al‐Mishnaqa in Jordan, approximately 6 km to the east of the Dead Sea.
Messianism, Jewish
Authors: Collins John J.
Published: December 2012

The word “Messiah” is derived from the Hebrewmashiach, “anointed one.” The Greek equivalent is christos/Christ. In the Hebrew Bible, themashiach par excellencewas the king (e.g., Ps 2:2), but the term could also be applied to the high priest (Lev 4:3, 5,16, 6:15). In 1 Kings 19:16 Elijah was told to anoint Elisha as prophet. A prophet claims to have been anointed in Isaiah 61:1.
Moses, Jewish and pagan image of
Authors: Bloch René
Published: December 2012

Moses is the central figure of the Torah with the books Exodus to Deuteronomy being also to some extent his biography. The Torah presents Moses as a unique prophet of Israel, as a mediator in direct contact with God (Deut 34:10–12), but prohibited from entering the promised land.
Onias, Temple of
Authors: Capponi Livia
Published: December 2012

A Jewish temple in Egypt survived for some years after the fall of Jerusalem of 70
CE
and that of Masada, until its destruction was ordered by Vespasian in 73, for fear that it could become a focus of revolution.
Peraea (Jewish Transjordan)
Authors: Zimmerle William
Published: December 2012

The region identified in the New Testament Gospels as “beyond the Jordan,” Peraea was the
regio
that extended east of the Jordan River, and was cited in the writings of the Roman‐Jewish historian Josephus as the area extending south to north from Machaerus, Jordan to Pella, and east to west from Philadelphia to the River Jordan.
Pharisees
Authors: McLaren James
Published: December 2012

The Pharisees were a Jewish group known to have existed in the late Hellenistic and early Roman periods, who espoused distinctive views about the Jewish way of life. Their name, possibly a self‐designation, is derived frompršmeaning “separate.”
Philo, Pseudo‐,Biblical Antiquities
Authors: Almagor Eran
Published: December 2012

Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarumis the name given to a Jewish pseudepigraphical work in Latin that recasts biblical stories with alterations, omissions, or embellishments, and was transmitted together with the works of Philo of Alexandria but was clearly not written by him.
Rufus of Samaria
Authors: Kottek Samuel
Published: December 2012

Rufus of Samaria was a Palestinian physician, a contemporary of Galen (second century
CE
), who was established in Rome.
Ruth, Book of
Authors: Zakovitch Yair
Published: December 2012

The book is named after its heroine, a young Moabite widow who leaves her land and family to follow her mother‐in‐law to Bethlehem in Judah, where she will become the great‐grandmother of King David.
Sabbath
Authors: Doering Lutz
Published: December 2012

In ancient Judaism, the Sabbath is the concluding seventh day of the week and as such a day of rest and joy, as well as communal gathering and study.
Simon the Just
Authors: Amitay Ory
Published: December 2012

Simon the Just (
ha‐tzadiq
) is the name ascribed by Josephus and a variety of rabbinic sources to two Jerusalem high priests during the Hellenistic period. The pair, a grandfather and his grandson, presided at both ends of the third century
BCE
.
Church administration and offices
Authors: Destephen Sylvain
Published: December 2012

First, we must distinguish between the study of church administration; the study of church territorial organization, which belongs to the field of historical geography; and the study of ecclesiastical representative institutions, which falls under the scope of the history of church councils.
Germanic languages
Authors: Wolfe Brendan N.
Published: December 2012

The Germanic languages are a family of Indo‐European (IE) dialects spoken in antiquity, primarily in northeastern Europe.
Hadith
Authors: Melchert Christopher
Published: December 2012

Hadith means “speech” in Arabic.
Hijra
Authors: Sijpesteijn Petra M.
Published: December 2012

This term is usually associated with Muhammad's flight from Mecca to Medina, which Muslim tradition places in September 622
CE
.
Hippiatrica
Authors: McCabe Anne
Published: December 2012

The text known as theHippiatricais a compilation of excerpts from seven Late Antique treatises: the Greek veterinary manuals of Apsyrtus, Eumelus, Hippocrates, Hierocles, and Theomnestus; a Greek translation of the Latin text of Pelagonius; and the chapter on horses in the Greek agricultural compilation of Vindanius Anatolius of Berytus.
Jones, A. H. M. (1904–1970)
Authors: Gwynn David M.
Published: December 2012

Arnold Hugh Martin Jones (1904–70) was Professor of Ancient History at University College, London (1946–51) and Professor of Ancient History at Cambridge University (1951–70). His numerous writings include several seminal studies of the cities of the Hellenistic and Roman world and one of the first great works dedicated to the later Roman Empire.
Liber Pontificalis
Authors: Caseau Béatrice
Published: December 2012

TheLiber Pontificalis ecclesiae romanae, or “Book of the bishops of the Roman church,” is a compilation of biographies of popes starting with St. Peter and ending at the time of Pope Hadrian II (867–72), although some manuscripts end with Pope Stephen V (885–91). Subsequent additions were made to theLiber pontificalis, which extended papal biographies up to the fifteenth century. The manuscript tradition is complex, as theLiber pontificaliswas issued in anumber of succeeding redactions and editions.
Metallurgy, Late Antiquity
Authors: Friedman Hannah
Published: December 2012

Metallurgy was practiced extensively in Late Antiquity (fourth to seventh centuries
CE
).
Rusafa (Sergiopolis)
Authors: Klein Konstantin M.
Published: December 2012

The fortress of Rusafa, 25 km south of the Euphrates and 60 km east of al‐Raqqa, was part of the eastern Romanlimesand became a major center of pilgrimage for Christians and Muslims around the tomb of the military saint Sergius.
Severus of Antioch
Authors: Menze Volker
Published: December 2012

Severus (ca. 465–538) was patriarch of Antioch in 512–518 and one of the most influential non‐Chalcedonian theologians.
Isidore of Seville
Authors: Wood Jamie
Published: December 2012

Isidore (ca. 560–636CE) was bishop of Seville, metropolitan bishop of the ecclesiastical province of Baetica, and advisor to the Visigothic kings of Spain in the first third of the seventh century.
Mazzarino, Santo (1916–1987)
Authors: Traina Giusto
Published: December 2012

Santo Mazzarino (Catania, 1916–Rome, 1987) was an Italian ancient historian.
R
iegl,
A
loïs (1858–1905)
Authors: Traina Giusto
Published: December 2012

Alois Riegl (Linz, 1858–Vienna, 1905) was an Austrian art historian. He read humanities and art history in Vienna, where he became a curator at the k.k. Österreichisches Museum für Kunst und Industrie (1887), subsequently developing an interest in decoration, ornament, and stylistic processes.
Aequitas
Authors: Tuori Kaius
Published: December 2012

Aequitas
is a Roman moral and legal term meaning fairness and justness.
Aequitas
may refer to: (1) equity in general as a virtue or moral quality; (2) the technical legal term
aequitas
; or (3) the personification of the virtue, the goddess
Aequitas
.
Apophasis
Authors: Wallace Robert W.
Published: December 2012

In classical Athenian legal and constitutional contexts,
apophainein
(“make known”, “report”) was used generally of reports to official bodies.
Bonorum possessio
Authors: Schermaier Martin J. , Dedek Helge
Published: December 2012

Bonorum possessio
, “possession of goods,” is a technical legal term that describes the right to possession of an inheritance established by an order issued by the Praetor.
Causidicus
Authors: Alexander Michael C.
Published: December 2012

Derived from the Latin phrase
causam dicere
(“to plead a case”),
causidicus
refers to an advocate, or the person who pleads a case for others (also called a
patronus
).
Cyrene edicts
Authors: Peachin Michael
Published: December 2012

In 1927, an inscription that had recently been discovered by Italian excavators in the Agora of ancient Cyrene (belonging to the Roman province Crete and Cyrene) was published.
Demosiosis
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

In Athenian law, confiscation of property (
demosiosis
) was a penalty used for certain serious offenses.
Diatheke
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

Athenian law required that legitimate sons (
gnesioi
), those who were born from a formally wedded mother, inherit the property of their father on his death. If there were no legitimate sons, the property would go to legitimate daughters (Isaeus 3.42, 68). If there were no descendants, the property went to collaterals in a fixed order. An Athenian could not therefore use a will to name an heir of his own choice. As a result, the will (
diatheke
or
diathekai
) served two basic purposes in Athenian law.
Divinatio
Authors: Alexander Michael C.
Published: December 2012

Divinatiois the stage in a Roman criminal trial in which applicants for the role of prosecutor can compete to be chosen to perform this function.
Dolus malus
Authors: Abbot James C.
Published: December 2012

For many public and private offenses, Roman law looked to a person's mental state to assess liability. Perhaps as early as the
TWELVE TABLES
,
dolo malo
, “with bad (i.e., wrongful) intent,” signaled that liability was restricted to intentional commission of an offense.
Dominium
Authors: Kehoe Dennis
Published: December 2012

In the Roman law of property, the termdominiumdenoted ownership, a carefully defined right that was to be distinguished from the lawful occupation of property, or possession (Kaser 1971: 119–34, 400–47).
Ius Latii
Authors: Straumann Benjamin
Published: December 2012

Between the dissolution of the Latin League in 338
BCE
and the bestowal of Roman citizenship on all free inhabitants of the Italian peninsula after the Social War in 89
BCE
,
ius Latii
, the Latin right, designated the legal status of those free Latins who enjoyed the rights of commerce and intermarriage with Roman citizens as well as the
ius migrandi
.
Tenancy, Greek and Roman
Authors: Kehoe Dennis
Published: December 2012

Farm tenancy, involving one person cultivating the land belonging to another in exchange for some kind of payment, was a basic institution in the ancient economy, as it is in virtually all preindustrial agrarian economies.
Testamentum
Authors: Schermaier Martin J. , Dedek Helge
Published: December 2012

Testamentumis a will: the expression of those wishes that a person – the testator – intends to take effect only upon his death.
Achaia
Authors: Lafond Yves
Published: December 2012

The historical region of Achaia covered the northern coast of the Peloponnese and can be divided into three large and geographically distinct areas: the central area, dominated by the Panachaikon massif, which acts as a natural border between east and west; the mountain ranges of Erymanthos and of Aroania to the south; and the Gulf of Corinth to the north (
see
Corinthian Gulf).
Acrocorinth
Authors: Freitag Klaus
Published: December 2012

Located in the territory of Corinth, Acrocorinth is the name of Table Mountain on which a strong fortification was built. Because of its height of 575 m, it is visible from all directions.
Aiolis
Authors: Iren Kaan
Published: December 2012

Aiolis could be considered in two parts: island and land, which could also be divided into southern and northern Aiolis. Island‐Aiolis consists of Lesbos, Nasos, and Tenedos. Southern Aiolis is, broadly speaking, between Smyrnean and Elaitic Gulfs, and Northern Aiolis is the offshore from Elaitic Gulf to Ilion.
Aitolia
Authors: Scholten Joseph B.
Published: December 2012

Aitolia is a region in the west central Greek mainland. Inhabited by the late Paleolithic era, if not earlier, it had a large population by the Classical and Hellenistic ages (Thuc. 3.94.4). Aitolia's rugged topography, however, had a profound impact on the sociopolitical development of these inhabitants – the Aitolians – whose behaviors were frequently seen by the outside Greek world as uncouth, and sometimes as un‐Hellenic.
Aigina
Authors: Baxter Kristen , Figueira Thomas J.
Published: December 2012

The island of Aigina (85.9 km2) is located in the Saronic Gulf, about 29.6 km from the Piraeus. Archaic and early Classical Aigina was a strong commercial and naval power, with two harbors and anemporion(Dem.Against Aristocrates211; EphorusFGrH70 F 176; cf. Ps.‐SkylaxPeriplus53).
Alabanda
Authors: Blümel Wolfgang
Published: December 2012

Alabanda

was an ancient city in Caria, ca. 11 km west of Çine, situated on and below two adjacent hills extending northwards into the plain, its modern name being Doğanyurt (formerly Araphisar).
Arcadia
Authors: Roy James
Published: December 2012

Arcadia, the central region of the Peloponnese, is made up of mountains among which lie basins and valleys with good but limited cultivable land. In Antiquity it had no direct access to the sea, except when Triphylia became Arcadian in the fourth and third centuries
BCE
.
Delion
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

The city of Delion in Boiotia, at its northeast border with Attica, near the Euboean Gulf, midway between Aulis and Oropos, was the site of a sanctuary of Apollo, made using Delos as a model (Strabo 9.2.7).
Euboea
Authors: Reber Karl
Published: December 2012

With a surface area of 3530 km
2
, Euboea is the second largest island in Greece after Crete.
Lindos
Authors: Higbie Carolyn
Published: December 2012

Lindos was one of three Dorian cities (Ialysos, Kameiros) on the island of Rhodes, off the coast of Asia Minor and northeast of Crete. In a sanctuary on its acropolis was a temple to Athena Lindia. Lindos preserved its long history, stretching back from the age of heroes through the Hellenistic monarchies, in an inscription known as the Lindian Chronicle.
Muses of Helikon sanctuary
Authors: Fappas Ioannis
Published: December 2012

The Helikon sanctuary is one of the most famous sanctuaries of Greek antiquity, situated in a picturesque valley of the Helikon Mountain in Boiotia, close to Thespiai and Askra, the homeland of Hesiod.
Nicaea
Authors: Corsten Thomas
Published: December 2012

Nicaea is a city in northwestern Asia Minor on the eastern shore of the Lacus Ascanius, and is now modern Iznik.
Olynthos
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

The site of Olynthos, which was destroyed by Philip II of Macedon in 348
BCE
, was in the center of the plain at the head of the Gulf of Torone, which extends between the peninsulas of Pallene and Sithonia of the Chalcidice.
Orontes
Authors: Zimmerle William
Published: December 2012

The Orontes River (Arabic
Nahr al‐‘Āṣt̄)
is one of the main rivers of the Levant, flowing for about 400 km through modern‐day Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey. Like the Nile River in Egypt, the Orontes flows upstream from the south to the north, beginning in the Al‐Biqā‘ (Bekaa) Valley, voyaging through Lebanon and Turkey, and emptying into the Mediterranean Sea near Samandaği.
Pagasai
Authors: Boehm Ryan
Published: December 2012

Pagasai was a Thessalian
polis
situated in the
tetras
(district) of Pelasgiotis at a strategic position on the western shore of the Pagasitic Gulf.
Patrai
Authors: Brown Amelia R.
Published: December 2012

Patrai, modern Patras, chief port of western Greece, lies on the northwest coast of the Peloponnese, outside the narrows of the Gulf of Corinth, facing the Ionian Sea.
Peparethos
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Peparethos is an island of the Northern Sporades group. Its modern name is Skopelos. Its main settlement and harbor, Skopelos, is on the east coast within an inlet.
Phaselis
Authors: Brandt Hartwin
Published: December 2012

In the early first century
CE
the ancient geographer Strabo praised the city of Phaselis for its beauty and its three natural harbors (Strabo 14.3.9), but he was not sure whether to call it a Lycian or a Pamphylian city. In fact, Phaselis played a special role in the Lycian–Pamphylian border area.
Scythia
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Scythia lay north of the Black Sea, extending from the Carpathian Mountains on the west to the Don River on the east (Hdt. 4.21).
Stratonikeia
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Stratonikeia was originally settled by Carians as Chrysaoris or Idrias (Paus. 5.21.10).
Stratos
Authors: Freitag Klaus
Published: December 2012

In Classical times, Stratos was the most important
polls
in Akarnania (Thuc. 2.80, 2.81.2–5, 2.102.2, 3.106.1).
T
hespiai
Authors: Schachter Albert
Published: December 2012

Thespiai (called Thespeia in the Homeric Catalogue of Ships:
Il
. 2.494) was a
polis
in Boiotia, at the foot of Mount Helikon, west of Thebes (their urban centers were 15 km apart).
Troizen
Authors: Gaukroger Louise
Published: December 2012

Troizen is located in the northeast of the Peloponnese, to the south west of Athens. The city had a strong link with Athens beginning with the Athenian King Aegeus.
Araxes
Authors: Rapin Claude
Published: December 2012

Araxes is the ancient name of the present Aras River, which flows south of the Caucasus (
Caucasus Mountain
) from the region of Erzurum (Turkey) and reaches the coast of the Caspian Sea in south Azerbaijan after having joined the Kura River (ancient Cyrus).
Aizanoi
Authors: Hülden Oliver
Published: December 2012

Aizanoi is situated in western Phrygia close to modern Çavdarhisar. The name of the citytraces back to Azan, the son of the Arcadian king Arkas and the nymph Erato (Paus. 8.4.3).
Lampsakos
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Lampsakos is located in the Troad on the southern side of the Hellespont, on the coast road, about midway between the ancient sites of Abydos and Parium.
Nikopolis ad Istrum
Authors: Poulter Andrew
Published: December 2012

The city was founded ca. 110CEby the emperor Trajan in commemoration of his victory over the Dacians in 106.
Priests and priestesses, Egypt
Authors: Bednarski Andrew
Published: December 2012

Both of these terms are misleading translations of titles connected to temple functionaries. The bearers of these titles need to have been neither well versed in religious doctrine nor full‐time employees of a religious institution. Confusion over these titles has also arisen by their translation as “prophet.” The typical Egyptian priest's duties in fact focused on the maintenance of the temple and on cult figures’ daily needs, not on prophecy.
Ahmose Nefertiry
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Ahmose‐Nefertiry was a daughter of Seqenenre Taa and Ahhotep, being nursed as a child by the Lady Rai. She subsequently became sister‐wife of Ahmose I, and mother of Amenhotep I, together with at least prince Ahmose‐ankh and princess Sitamun.
Animal mummies
Authors: Ikram Salima
Published: December 2012

The Egyptians mummified animals (Ikram 2005) as well as humans. Mummification was carried out in order to preserve the body so that the soul (ka andba) could inhabit it in the Afterlife, or, in some instances, to preserve meat against spoilage for eternity (Ikram 2005: ch. 2).
Animals, Egyptian sacred
Authors: Ikram Salima
Published: December 2012

The ancient Egyptians believed that the gods were manifest on earth in the form of their totemic animal that was worshipped as a sacred or cult animal. The god's “divine essence” was thought to enter into the animal, transforming it into a divinity.
Ay
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

The career of Ay spanned the middle years of the fourteenth centuryBCE, first as an army officer and administrator, and finally as king of Egypt.
Tell el‐Balamun
Authors: Wilson Penelope
Published: December 2012

Tell el‐Balamun takes its name from the ancient Pa‐iu‐en‐Amun “The Island of Amun,” part of the ancient city at the site, also known as Sma‐Behdet.
Khufu (Cheops/Kheops)
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Khufu (more fully Khnumkhufu; Greek: Kheops) was the second king of the 4th Egyptian Dynasty, the son of Sneferu and his wife, Hetepheres. He seems to have reigned for a little over two decades, but little is known of the events of that time, apart from some activities in remote quarrying locations. Khufu's one certainly identified wife was Meryetyotes I, with a second lady, Henutsen, known from later sources. The king had at least six sons – two of whom, Djedefre and Khafre), subsequently occupied the throne – and three daughters. A number of members of the royal family occupied senior governmental posts, including that of vizier.
Curses, Egypt
Authors: Régen Isabelle
Published: December 2012

In modern collective imagination, ancient Egypt is closely connected with the curse of the pharaohs. The most popular expression of it is the so‐called curse of King Tutankhamun (18th Dynasty), which appeared in the media less than one year after the discovery of his tomb in 1922 and was related to supposedly mysterious deaths (Silverman 1988).
Drama, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Gillam Robyn
Published: December 2012

Drama is performance characterized by narrative, dialogic structure.
Edfu
Authors: Moeller Nadine
Published: December 2012

The town of Edfu is situated on the west bank of the Nile (24°58′37.92″ N and 32°52′19.72″ E), halfway between Luxor and Aswan.
Education, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Zinn Katharina
Published: December 2012

Unlike modern societies, in ancient Egypt the child's world was not separated from that of the adult.
Games, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Piccione Peter A.
Published: December 2012

Games and game‐playing were popular activities of adults and children in ancient Egypt.
Gardens, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Warburton David A.
Published: December 2012

Ancient Egyptian gardens were of two types: pleasure gardens and productive gardens.
Hierakonpolis
Authors: Friedman Renee
Published: December 2012

Hierakonpolis (ancient Nekhen and modern Kom el Ahmar) is a major site of the Egyptian Predynastic and Early Dynastic Period.
Humor and satire, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Lazaridis Nikolaos
Published: December 2012

The meaning of humor, as a culture‐and individual‐bound social activity, the effectiveness of which is entangled in the subtleties of human interaction and communication, is incommunicable (cf. Guglielmi 1979a; Apte 1985: 13–14; Palmer 1994: 11 ff.).
Khnum
Authors: von Pilgrim Cornelius
Published: December 2012

Khnum belongs to the earliest gods represented in ancient Egyptian sources and maintains his importance until the last days of Egyptian religion. The Egyptian name Hnmw can be traced back to a Semitic root meaning “ram.”
Kom el‐Hisn
Authors: Smith Stuart Tyson
Published: December 2012

Kom el‐Hisn, ancient Imu, lies in the western Nile Delta close to the edge of the desert, and served as the capital of the third nome of Lower Egypt from the New Kingdom onward.
Meidum
Authors: Warden Leslie Anne
Published: December 2012

Meidum, ancient

d
d snfrw

(“Sneferu endures”), is an archaeological site on the west bank of the Nile, in the Fayyum depression. It is best known for its 4th Dynasty pyramid, referred to simply as the “Meidum Pyramid,” which is flanked by a non‐royal cemetery. Meidum is the southernmost royal necropolis of the Old Kingdom.
Mendes
Authors: Adams Matthew J.
Published: December 2012

Mendes, in the eastern Nile Delta, consists of two tells, Tell el‐Rub'a (Greek: Mendes) and Tell Timai (Greek: Thmuis), which were originally connected. Between them, occupation lasted from the early fourth millenniumBCEthrough the ninth centuryCE.
Menkaure (Mycerinus)
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Menkaure (Greek Mykerinos) was a king of the 4th Egyptian Dynasty. His mother's name began with the letter “K,” probably Khamerernebty (I); his father appears to have been his predecessor, Khafre (Chephren). Menkaure seems to have had at least two wives, one of them probably Khamerenebty II, and at least one son, Khuenre. It is unclear how Menkaure's successor, Shepseskaf, was related to him. Virtually nothing is known of the events of his reign, which the Turin King List seems to indicate lasted eighteen years.
Psamtik/Psammetichus I–III
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Psamtik was the name borne by three kings of the Egyptian 26th Dynasty, and may have been of Libyan origin.
Ptah
Authors: Lazaridis Nikolaos
Published: December 2012

Ptah was an ancient Egyptian deity, whose cult probably originated in the city of Memphis.
Qaa
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

The Horus Qaa was the last king of the 1st Egyptian Dynasty.
Ebro
Authors: Hunt Patrick
Published: December 2012

The Ebro is a major river of Spain flowing southeastward through the entire peninsula south of the Pyrenees Mountains, whose streams also feed it.
La Graufesenque
Authors: Schaad Daniel
Published: December 2012

Archaeologists have linked this toponym to one of the Roman Empire's largest production and marketing centers of sigillata ware. It is a settlement whose ancient name –
Condatomago
(
s
) (
Tab. Peut
.) – referred to its topographical (
condate
: confluence) and economic situation (
magos
: market) within the territory of the Ruteni, in the province of Aquitania. In the second and first centuries
BCE
it shared its eastern boundaries with the Gabali and Volcae Arecomici and, from the Augustan period on, the cities of the province of Gallia Narbonensis.
Lepcis Magna
Authors: Rossiter Jeremy
Published: December 2012

Lepcis Magna is one of three towns (the others were Sabratha and Oea) which with their extensive territories formed much of the Late Roman province of Tripolitania in North Africa in what is now western Libya.
Pola
Authors: Starac Alka
Published: December 2012

In 46–45
BCE
Julius Caesar established a Roman citizen colony named Iulia Pola Pollentia Herculanea on a bay at the southwest end of the Istrian peninsula, atop a walled Histrian hillfort settlement inhabited since the beginning of the Iron Age.
Siscia (Sisak, Croatia)
Authors: Ilić Olivera
Published: December 2012

Siscia was located on an important crossroads of road and river transportation.
Spalatum (Split, Spalato): Diocletian's Palace
Authors: Schrunk Ivancica , Studer‐Karlen Manuela
Published: December 2012

Spalatum is the traditional name for the location of Diocletian 's palace, which was transformed into a city in the early Byzantine time and still constitutes the urban core of Split on the coast of central Dalmatia in Croatia.
Vindonissa (Brugg, Switzerland)
Authors: Carroll Maureen
Published: December 2012

The Swiss site of Vindonissa (modern Windisch) is located strategically on a terrace overlooking the confluence of the Aare and Reuss rivers.
Nuraghi
Authors: van Dommelen Peter
Published: December 2012

Nuraghe is the term for the large stone towers that are characteristic of the island of Sardinia.
Akephalos
Authors: Pollard Elizabeth Ann
Published: December 2012

The Greek adjective
akephalos
, literally “headless,” was used as the name or title of a divine power of the Greco‐Egyptian magical tradition. Greco‐Egyptian papyri and amulets, from the third to fifth centuries
CE
, mention a Headless One who appears to be efficacious in spells for revelation (
PGM
2.1–64, 7.222–49, 8.64–110).
Ananke
Authors: Smith Amy C.
Published: December 2012

Ananke, Homeric “compulsion,” becomes an important philosophical term among the pre‐Socratics. To Thales it is the natural necessity that powers all phenomena and compels divinities to epiphany (71 A12 DK).
Asiarch
Authors: Burrell Barbara
Published: December 2012

Though long subject to debate, the preponderance of (mainly inscriptional) evidence shows that Asiarch was another term for the chief priest (
archiereus
) of Asia, who presided over both the provincial cult of the Roman emperors and the
koinon
of Asia in general.
Belenus
Authors: Haeussler Ralph
Published: December 2012

Belenus
(earlier spelling
Belinos
) is a Celtic theonym principally attested in Cisalpine Gaul, Noricum, and Southern Gaul.
Demeter
Authors: Wallensten Jenny
Published: December 2012

Demeter was one of the most important deities in the ancient Greek pantheon.
Endovellicus
Authors: Edmondson Jonathan
Published: December 2012

Of all local gods in Rome's western provinces, one of the best attested is Endovellicus, whose sanctuary at São Miguel da Mota (Alandroal, Portugal) dominated the landscape near the frontier between the territories of Emerita (Mérida) and Ebora (Évora) in Lusitania.
Fire, in cult, Greece and Rome
Authors: Hitch Sarah
Published: December 2012

Fire was an essential component of most cults in the ancient Greek and Roman world, either as the medium for transportation of sacrificial offerings to the gods above or as a symbol of the spiritual health of the community.
Genius
Authors: Mueller Hans‐Friedrich
Published: December 2012

A man's
genius
is the living spirit that actively animates or, more literally, “produces” and “creates” (Latin
gignere
) him while he remains alive.
Graces
Authors: Smith Amy C.
Published: December 2012

The Graces, known by their Greek name Charites (sing. Charis) are young and benevolent models of feminine grace. Homer does not specify their number and ages, but Hesiod explains that they are three daughters of Zeus and Eurynome (a daughter of Okeanos), named Aglaia, Euphrosyne, and Thaleia (Theog. 907–9); they live with Himeros (Desire) on Olympos, beside the Muses (Theog. 64); and they assisted with the birth of Pandora (Op. 73).
Herakles (Hercules)
Authors: Blanshard Alastair J. L.
Published: December 2012

Herakles (Latin Hercules) was a Greek hero, the son of Alkmene and Zeus, who after his death received divine honors.
Juno
Authors: Scopacasa Rafael
Published: December 2012

Juno was a major Italian goddess and one of the main deities in Rome, where, since the Early Republic, she was queen of the Capitol.
Oschophoria
Authors: Taylor Martha C.
Published: December 2012

The Oschophoria was an Athenian festival celebrated in the Fall month of Pyanopsion and organized by thegenosof Salaminioi.
Seers andSortilegi, Roman World
Authors: Klingshirn William E.
Published: December 2012

Seers (vates) in the Roman world practiced divination on the basis of divine inspiration that came to them in an altered state of consciousness.Sortilegipracticed divination on the basis of lots (sortes) whose verbal or nonverbal messages they interpreted for clients.
Zoroastrianism
Authors: De Jong Albert
Published: December 2012

Zoroastrianism is the modern, western, name for the religion of ancient Iran. The name is derived from that of the religion's founder, Zarathushtra, known in the west as Zoroaster.
Canabae
Authors: Eaton Jonathan
Published: December 2012

The term
canabae
refers to the civilian settlements that grew up outside legionary forts. The word itself derives from the Latin
canaba,
meaning a hut or hovel.
Canabae
share some similarities with
vici
.
Carinus (Marcus Aurelius Carinus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond
Published: December 2012

Carinus (born ca. 250/255CE;PLREI 181;PIR2A 1475) was Roman emperor from 282 to 285. A serious problem in assessing Carinus is the prejudice of the sources, which present him as debauched, the seducer of the wives of the nobility, and even as the husband of nine successive wives (Historia Augusta, Car.16.7); he put innocent men to death on false charges, even those who had taunted him at school. Such stories, when they are not the fiction of the sources, are likely to be the spin of emperors who succeeded him. One wife only, Magnia Urbica, with the style Augusta, is known from inscriptions and coins.
Carus (Marcus Aurelius Carus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond
Published: December 2012

From Narbo, Carus was Roman emperor from 282 to 283CE. Unprecedentedly, he did not ask ratification from the Senate, or even, it seems, visit Rome while emperor (for so little did Rome now count); he scored a noteworthy though indecisive victory over Persia.
Contubernium
Authors: Sage Michael
Published: December 2012

In a military context, acontuberniumsignified a group of soldiers who ate and slept together. In temporary camps, they shared a leather tent and a mule to carry the tent and other heavy loads; while in permanent encampment, they were assigned two rooms in the barracks: one for sleeping and the other for storage. This was the basic infantry both in the legions and in the auxiliary forces of the imperial period.
Cornelius Palma Frontonianus, Aulus
Authors: Fündling Jörg
Published: December 2012

Palma (
PIR
2
C 1412), evidently from a non‐consular or even non‐senatorial family, must have played an important role in the events that led to Trajan's adoption by Nerva in 97
CE
.
Diocletian (Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond
Published: December 2012

Diocletian was Roman emperor from 284CEuntil his abdication in 305 (PIR2A 1627;PLRE1.253–4;RE142). His date of birth was probably December 22, ca. 243 (he was sixty‐eight at his death in 312).
Equites singulares Augusti
Authors: Zahariade Mihail
Published: December 2012

There were two types of such a corps,
equites singulares Augusti
, referring to the corps that protected the emperor, and
equites singulares legati Augusti
, which served as guards of the provincial governors. The expression
singularis
is in fact older and has two distinct meanings. It began by designating a military charge of ordinance and order; each officer of any rank had in almost all the regiments men charged to execute their orders. It also applied to the detachments formed in the provinces of cavalry men of different nations and chosen individually.
Excubiae
Authors: Ng Michael
Published: December 2012

The Roman army maintained guard posts both within camps and also in areas under its control. These guard posts were known as
excubiae
and the guards (
excubitores
) at these posts would also be the ones who received the watchword or orders, via the Tesserarius, from commanding officers at headquarters (Veg.
Mil
. 2.7). Some of the more well known of these guard posts belonged to the paramilitary
cohortes vigilum
at Rome during the Imperial period. The Vigiles maintained a watch at night for potential fires and low‐level crime, whose perpetrators would be brought before the
praefectus vigilum
or higher authorities. In addition to each cohort's main camp, where the soldiers were primarily based, there were the smaller substations:
excubitoria
. Each cohort maintained two of these substations from which they made patrols. There was one
excubitorium
for each of the fourteen regions in the city of Rome, ensuring equal coverage throughout the city.
Fabri
, military
Authors: Sage Michael
Published: December 2012

Fabri
, artisans or workmen, formed part of the Roman army at least from the Servian reform of the mid‐sixth century
BCE
. They were organized in two separate centuries, at least one of which specialized in wood‐working. There is no evidence for an overall commander of these workmen, though from the mid‐first century
BCE
we have evidence for the appointed post of
praefectus fabrum.
The position must originally have entailed the command of the
fabri.
They appear not to have engaged in combat. It is likely that the size of these units varied depending on the requirements of specific campaigns.
Geta (Publius Septimius Geta Augustus)
Authors: Bingham Sandra J.
Published: December 2012

Publius Septimius Geta, born March 7, 189
CE
, became joint emperor with his father, Septimius Severus, and his elder brother, Caracalla, in 209, having been Caesar since 198.
Imperator
Authors: Milne Kathryn H.
Published: December 2012

The term
imperator
is first attested as an epithet of Jupiter, and may have originally held religious associations.
Iulius Civilis, Gaius
Authors: Thornton Daniel James
Published: December 2012

Gaius Iulius Civilis was the Germanic leader of a Batavian rebellion against Rome in the tumultuous year 69CE.
Iulius Severus, Sextus
Authors: Thornton Daniel James
Published: December 2012

Sextus Julius Severus was a prominent Roman military commander under Trajan and Hadrian, whose most conspicuous posts include a series of tenures as governor of the provinces of Dacia Superior.
Lusius Quietus
Authors: Stern Gaius
Published: December 2012

Lusius Quietus (
PIR
2
L 439) was a Moorish officer in the Roman army, whose father had earned citizenship through military service.
Maximian (Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Augustus)
Authors: Davis Raymond
Published: December 2012

The colleague of Diocletian as Roman emperor, and his partner in carrying through many reforms, Maximian (
PIR
2
A 1628;
RE
1;
PLRE
1.573–4) was the son of humble shopkeepers.
Medicine, Roman military
Authors: Salazar Christine F.
Published: December 2012

The Roman army – especially that of the imperial period – was the first to have what we would recognize as an organized medical service for all, including the rank and file.
Optio
Authors: Sage Michael
Published: December 2012

The
optio
(from Latin
optare
, to wish for or choose; Veg.
Mil
. 2.7) was a junior officer who ranked below the centurion.
Polyaenus
Authors: Geus Klaus
Published: December 2012

Polyaenus (born before 100
CE
) was a
rhetor
who dedicated his work
Strategemata
to the Roman emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus shortly after the outbreak of the Parthian War (161
CE
).
Praefectus
Authors: Sage Michael
Published: December 2012

Apraefectuswas an agent appointed by a Roman magistrate to perform a specific task for a definite period of time.
Testudo
Authors: Zahariade Mihail
Published: December 2012

Testudo
was a defense formation used by Roman soldiers in the legions to protect themselves from the intense shooting of hostile projectiles such as arrows, spears, and small boulders.
Trajan's column
Authors: Mccarty Matthew M.
Published: December 2012

Trajan's column, dedicated in May 113
CE
, consists of a pedestal decorated with images of captured arms and a column with spiral freeze commemorating Trajan's (r. 98–117) successful campaigns in Dacia (modern Romania).
Tribunus militum
Authors: Sage Michael
Published: December 2012

Thetribunus militumwas a staff officer in the legion.
Julia Domna
Authors: Lusnia Susann S.
Published: December 2012

Julia Domna, born in Emesa (Herodian 5.3.2;
Epit. de Caes
. 21.1, 23.2; 6–22), was married to Septimius Severus in 187
CE
.
Amicitia
Authors: Verboven Koenraad S.
Published: December 2012

Roman friendship (amicitia) was a voluntary relation between two persons ideally based on affection but strongly regulated by ethical norms and social expectations.
Appuleius Saturninus, Lucius
Authors: Sampson Gareth C.
Published: December 2012

Lucius Appuleius Saturninus (?–100
BCE
) was a three‐time holder of the plebeian tribunate (103, 100, and 99), who used the office to undermine the power of the Senate, in the manner of the Gracchi. Throughout his career he acted in concert with Gaius Servilius Glaucia and was a sometime ally of Gaius Marius. He was murdered in the Senate house during a riot in Rome in late 100.
Cassius Vecellinus, Spurius
Authors: Forsythe Gary
Published: December 2012

Spurius Cassius Vecellinus was consul three times (502, 493, and 486BCE), first of the three demagogues of the Early Roman Republic, and the only Cassius attested for that period.
Antikythera Mechanism
Authors: Hannah Robert
Published: December 2012

Discovered in 1901 in a shipwreck, the Antikythera Mechanism comprises eightytwo corroded Bronze fragments of an astronomical instrument, probably dating to the second centuryBCE.
Antiochos of Athens
Authors: Greenbaum Dorian Gieseler
Published: December 2012

Antiochos of Athens (
fl
. second century
CE
?) wrote important astrological treatises, now lost, which were summarized and excerpted by later writers.
Astrology, Greece and Rome
Authors: Hübner Wolfgang
Published: December 2012

The obvious termastrologiawas employed by the Presocratics andaristotleto signify all kinds of heavenly science, whereas the Platonists preferred the unconventional termastronomia,perhaps because of the double meaning of its second part,nomosas “law” and “melody,” which appears to refer to the Pythagorean idea of spherical harmony. The model of the harmony of the spheres correlates the distances between the planets with the proportions of musical intervals. The Pythagoreans and PLATO integrated the study of the heavens into a universal cosmology that also included human beings. Until the eighteenth century the termastrologiacould signify both kinds of star lore.
Biology
Authors: Mouracade John
Published: December 2012

One of the dangers in discussing ancient biology (or any ancient topic) is that it is too easy to create the false impression that there is a subject, concept, or field of inquiry that we entirely share with the ancients.
Dorotheus of Sidon
Authors: Lewis A. M.
Published: December 2012

Dorotheus (
fl.
25–75
CE
) is best known as the author of an influential Greek astrological text addressed to his student Hermes.
Geminos
Authors: Evans James
Published: December 2012

Geminos (Greek, first centuryBCE) was author ofIntroduction to the Phenomena, an elementary survey of astronomy.
Harmonics
Authors: Hagel Stefan
Published: December 2012

The ancient science ofHarmonikeencompassed a theoretical and practical understanding of musical pitches.
Maps, Greece and Rome
Authors: Winkle Christian
Published: December 2012

Maps are graphical representations of space as surveyed and/or designed by man. There is no doubt about the fact that maps of various nature were well known in the ancient world, but it is far from clear which concepts of space these maps were based upon.
Nigidius Figulus
Authors: Bowen Alan C.
Published: December 2012

Nigidius Figulus was a shadowy but influential intellectual of the first century
BCE
.
P
olemon,
M
arcus
A
ntonius
Authors: Favreau Anne‐Marie
Published: December 2012

Polemon of Laodikeia (ca. 88–144
CE
) is one of the most famous Sophists of the second century
CE
.
Ptolemy (astronomer, mathematician)
Authors: Jones Alexander
Published: December 2012

Ptolemy (born about 105CE, died about 170) composed treatises and monographs on a wide range of mathematical and physical sciences and especially on astronomy.
Retrospective diagnosis
Authors: Moog Ferdinand Peter
Published: December 2012

Retrospective diagnosis aims at identifying the illnesses of people who died long ago, mostly of well‐known historical persons, on the basis of available information. Laymen wrongly regard this procedure – which among experts is a highly contentious issue – as the chief task of medical history. However, most publications of this kind are written not by medical historians, but by clinical physicians with ambitions to be historians or by historians interested in medicine.
Science, Roman
Authors: Lehoux Daryn
Published: December 2012

Not all scholars will be quick to agree that Roman approaches to understanding the natural world can be described as “science” without at least some qualification, nor that those intellectual projects can be straightforwardly understood as Roman, originating as they almost always do in Greek predecessors.
S
erenus
S
ammonicus,
Q
uintus
Authors: Oberhelman Steven M.
Published: December 2012

Quintus Serenus Sammonicus (d. 211
CE
) was a Roman antiquarian and writer of an important medical pharmacopoeia,
Liber medicinalis
.
Sundials
Authors: Hannah Robert
Published: December 2012

The word “sundial” usually refers to a device that tells the time through the day, as opposed to a simple meridian line, which indicates only midday. The earliest evidence for sundial technology in the Mediterranean comes from Egypt and Mesopotamia. In Egypt, from the middle of the second millenniumBCE, L‐shaped shadow clocks measured the shadow cast through the day, although how is still debated. From ca. 1000BCEin Mesopotamia, there survive written tables of shadow lengths between sunrise and sunset. These tables presuppose some physical means of casting those shadows.
Technology, Roman
Authors: Nikolic Milorad
Published: December 2012

The demand‐driven application of physical principles and their technical mastery for practical purposes was, in the Roman period, left to skilled practitioners who derived their skill from personal experience, apprenticeship, and probably from sub‐literary technical manuals that were in circulation among professionals in the same field.
Acculturation
Authors: Cherry David
Published: December 2012

In the broadest sense, the term refers to the process of continuous first‐hand interaction between two or more autonomous culture systems and the sociocultural change that results.
Actor, actress
Authors: Puk Alexander
Published: December 2012

According to ancient tradition, a first acting performance was introduced by Thespis in the sixth centuryBCEby adding dialogue to purely choral parts.
Andron
Authors: Naerebout Frederick G.
Published: December 2012

In a Greek dwelling, the
andron
or
andronitis
is the men's quarters, as opposed to the
gunaikonitis
, the women's quarters.
Blindness
Authors: Arzt‐Grabner Peter
Published: December 2012

According to modern pathology, different terms or descriptions for blindness do not always clarify the particular type of disease or defect.
Census
Authors: Huebner Sabine R.
Published: December 2012

Our modern term “census” comes from the Latin wordcensere, “to count” or “to estimate.” The procedure of counting people is already attested in our earliest historical records.
Childhood, Greece and Rome
Authors: Kleijwegt Marc
Published: December 2012

In the Greco‐Roman world, childhood was believed to last from birth to the age of twelve for girls and fourteen for boys, when biological maturity set in.
Chiton(tunic)
Authors: Cleland Liza
Published: December 2012

In Greek,chitonwas the main word for “tunic,” the everyday garment of Greek dress: worn long or short, on one or both shoulders, belted or unbelted, with short or long sleeves, by men, women and children.
Cleruchs, Egypt
Authors: Thompson Dorothy J.
Published: December 2012

Cleruchs were the army settlers in Ptolemaic Egypt, who were endowed by the king with a plot of land (kleros) to provide a livelihood and a home base when they were not employed on active service.
Corruption
Authors: Behrwald Ralf
Published: December 2012

Misbehavior by public officers induced by material or other advantages, a universal phenomenon, is of heuristic value in either (1) the observation of changing degrees of corruption (often in the context of models of decline, currently largely discredited), or (2) the analysis of situations in which different sets of values collide, so that labeling a certain behavior as corrupt is controversial. In antiquity, such conflicts frequently arose between ethical standards of equality or good governance, and the norms and codes of aristocratic groups.
Cosmetics, Greece and Rome
Authors: Watson Patricia
Published: December 2012

The Greek term from which the English noun “cosmetics” is derived (
kosmetika
) referred to substances which protected and preserved the hair, skin, eyes, and teeth. The use of these was distinguished from
to kommotikon
: the artificial enhancement of the appearance with face‐whitener, rouge, and eye makeup. Both types of cosmetic were widely employed by Greek and Roman women of all classes, including respectable married women, despite the strictures of moralists.
Cubiculum(bedroom)
Authors: Kleibl Kathrin
Published: December 2012

Cubiculum(dormitorium, pl.cubicula– probably cognate withcubus(“cube”) orcubare(“to lie down”)) is the Latin term for a private room in a Roman house. Acubiculumcan serve as a bedchamber, a relaxation room, or a room where to receive intimate friends and conduct confidential business.