bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Dyer Christopher
Published: August 2022

The conclusion sums up the whole book, emphasizing the paradox of the position of peasants who lived frugal and communal lives, while engaged in markets as producers and consumers. Peasants might resist change in some circumstances, but were also innovators in farming. They gained freedom and were able to react to circumstances and plan for the future. They were active in industry, and contributed in a number of ways to urban growth. They played a part in politics and religion, showing their administrative skills by collecting taxes and building churches. They were much involved in the modernization for which the foundations were laid well before 1500.
Law Beyond the Shadow of the State
Authors: Mac Amhlaigh Cormac S.
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines in detail the puzzles raised by one instance of constitutional plurality in the light of the conclusions of the previous chapter: the question of international law. Like other forms of transnational law, international law operates in the context of a ‘world state gap’; that is, the absence of a single centralized coercive authority which makes, adjudicates, and enforces its norms. It examines the problems associated with the ‘world state gap’ and how it has been managed in accounts of international law as a legal system by Kelsen and Hart as well as more contemporary accounts. It concludes that the circumstances of constitutional pluralism entail instances of legal systems which conform both with Kelsen’s monistic account of international law as well as more pluralistic Hartian-inspired accounts. Both accounts, then, are relevant to other non-state transnational legal systems which share the ‘world state gap’ in common with international law.
Foundations of body-part grammar
Authors: Lehmann Christian
Published: August 2022

The chapter surveys body-part grammar. Body-part concepts are semantically relational, providing an argument position for their associated whole. In affectedness, they bear a sympathetic relation to their whole. In actions, they participate in the control their whole executes. They are also locations on their body. The semantic relationality may be grammaticalized as inalienability. Possessed nominals based on a body-part term then often have special morphological and syntactic properties. However, many languages subdivide the field of body-part terms based on such criteria as controllability or replaceability, and this may surface in two or more possessive classes into which body-part terms are subdivided. Syntactic constructions crucially involving body-part terms are systematized as follows: (1) Constructions dedicated to the possessive relation: this may be ascribed to the whole or to the part; and this may happen inside a referring expression or in a predication. (2) Propositions attributing some property to a body part: this may or may not instead be attributed to its whole. (3) Propositions comprising both terms of the possessive relation as arguments to some non-possessive predicate: The main choice here is between coding the possessive relation in a possessed nominal and leaving the participant relation of the whole uncoded, or coding the participant relation and leaving the possessive relation to inference. The most important participant relations are, for the whole, actor, undergoer, and indirectus, and for the body-part term, undergoer, instrument, and location. The sympathetic relation between whole and part gives rise to several constructions which are specific for body-part terms. The set of body-part terms emerges as a lexical field, and also as constitutive of a conceptual domain with its own grammar.
Pathways and patterns of metaphor and metonymy in Mixtepec-Mixtec body-part terms
Authors: Bowers Jack
Published: August 2022

In accordance with published data from several related varieties of Mixtecan, and numerous other languages, Mixtepec-Mixtec body-part terms feature expansive networks of extended senses as the head components of compounds, in multi-word expressions and in polysemous forms. Parts of the body which have given rise to other meanings in Mixtepec Mixtec and/or in other forms of Mixtec are: ‘head’, ‘face’, ‘foot’, ‘leg’, ‘back’, ‘hand/arm’, ‘belly/stomach’, ‘mouth’. Of these, as is the case in related Mixtecan varieties, ‘face’ and ‘foot’ are the most productive and have undergone multiple stages of extensions.
Body-part categorization and grammar in Piaroa
Authors: Labrada Jorge Emilio Rosés
Published: August 2022

This chapter provides an in-depth description of body-part terms and their grammar in Piaroa, a language in the Sáliban family spoken in Venezuela and Colombia. Based on fieldwork data, it presents a comprehensive inventory of body-part terms as well as terms in other areas of the lexicon related to the body. This chapter also investigates the morphosyntax of body-part terms in Piaroa, with special attention to how they are formed and how they behave syntactically. Both their morphology and syntax show that Piaroa body-part terms are grammatically inanimate. This finding underscores the variable and language-specific character of body-part term categorization, adding to the crosslinguistic understanding of this domain.
A typology of body-part words in Eastern Tukanoan languages
Authors: Silva W. D. L.
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines adnominal possessive constructions in eighteen Tukanoan languages and presents an analysis that attempts to explain the variations in the types of possessive constructions. Moreover, this chapter presents a proposal for the development of overt possessive marking and the emergence of an alienability distinction in Tukanoan languages. In the languages of this family that distinguish between alienable and inalienable nouns, body parts and kinship terms together form a class of inalienable nouns. Finally, this chapter shows how language contact may have motivated the emergence of the alienability distinction in these languages.
Body-part terms in Baure and Paunaka
Authors: Danielsen Swintha , Terhart Lena
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines body parts in Baure and Paunaka, two closely related Arawak languages of Bolivia. In both languages body-part terms belong to the class of inalienable nouns, and thus they also play a role in compounding and incorporation. Possession is marked in a similar way in the two languages; however, they differ when expressing non-possession of a body part. There are considerable similarities and differences in the body-part terms themselves, with some being clearly cognates and others showing no or only minor relatedness. In both languages word formation created complex body-part terms, where some processes and peculiarities are shared, however, even among the most basic body part terms, Baure and Paunaka have different ways of deriving or generalizing terms, such as the words for ‘hand/finger/toe’. The denomination of body parts tells us about concepts in the body’s segmentation into distinct parts, where the two languages’ concepts are distinct from dominant Spanish. A broader typological survey with a comparison of different colexification strategies demonstrates the places of Baure and Paunaka within the global sample. Finally, body parts also play a role in spatial reference in both languages, though in different ways.
Topicality, affectedness, and body-part grammar
Authors: Mithun Marianne
Published: August 2022

Perhaps the most common distinction expressed in body-part grammar is alienability: possession of body parts and some other entities is often indicated with one grammatical construction, while possession of other objects is indicated with another. Because of this pervasiveness, it can be tempting to assume that if there are two different constructions involving body parts in a language, the difference will be alienability. Things can be more interesting, however, in ways both subtle and far-reaching. A closer look at the forms and usages of body-part terms in some unrelated languages indigenous to North America shows that what might at first appear to be possessive constructions, sometimes called ‘external possession’, actually convey distinctions of topicality and affectedness instead. Furthermore, the bases underlying such constructions can affect the shapes of neighboring languages.
Body-part terms in Mapudungun
Authors: Hasler Felipe , Poblete Mariana , Sandoval Consuelo , Neira Felipe , Aristegui Daniela , Pineda Ricardo
Published: August 2022

This chapter identifies four word-formation strategies for body-part terms in Mapudungun: Coining of simple forms, derivation, compounding, and reduplication. Semantically opaque components in the latter two shed light on different diachronic stages coexisting in the synchronic language. An analysis of the syntactic behavior of body-part terms reveals the existence of oppositions related to inalienability in nominal and verbal possession. In relation to the morphosyntactic coding of the body part and its whole, two main constructions are identified. If the affectation of the body part is foregrounded, its possessive relation to the whole also tends to be coded overtly, whereas if the affectedness of a body-part is backgrounded, its possessive relation to the whole tends to be implied. Therefore, in Mapudungun, we find constructions where the possessive and sympathetic interpretations of the meronymic relationship coexist, and this coexistence is typologically marked.
Plant and animal body-part terms in Shiwulu grammar
Authors: Valenzuela Pilar M.
Published: August 2022

The chapter offers an account of the principal constructions involving body-part terms in Shiwilu (aka Jebero), a critically endangered polysynthetic language from the Peruvian Amazon and one of the two members that make up the Kawapanan family. First, Shiwilu features a set of over twenty classifiers. These are, typically, monosyllabic bound roots that appear in a remarkable number of morphosyntactic environments (Valenzuela 2016a, 2019). There are very close formal and semantic resemblances between inanimate classifiers and independent nouns designating parts of plants and animals; hence, the diachronic relationship between them is explored. Second, it is argued that three classifiers whose meanings are associated with ‘tree trunk’, ‘skin/bark’, and ‘body’ have developed into instrumental, habitual-agent, and resultative nominalizers, respectively. This constitutes a diachronic change from grammatical morphemes to even more strongly grammaticalized ones. Third, classifiers and certain nouns, especially those that denote body parts, may incorporate into the verb mainly to create new vocabulary for nameworthy concepts or to manipulate the flow of information in discourse (Mithun 1984, 1986, 1994). Various types of compounded verbs are analyzed, including some conveying physiological states, customary activities or states, and emotions; the latter can involve the internal organ noun kankan ‘liver’. Some discourse consequences of noun/classifier incorporation are also examined. Finally, it is shown that incorporated items can refer not only to the clausal O and S, but also to the A. This characteristic is very rarely attested in the world’s languages.
Training
Authors: Potter Lois
Published: August 2022

Both drama schools and national theatres were late arrivals in the anglophone world. Chapter 2, Training, looks at different kinds of actor training, past and present: repertory acting, university (as exemplified by the large number of Cambridge graduates in the early years of the National Theatre and RSC), drama school, and, post-school, in theatre companies with a training mission. The definition of a classical actor traditionally involves physical and vocal characteristics associated with a higher social class, and gives rise to debate over whether actors should try to lose their original accents, something that can affect their sense of identity. Given the high cost of drama school and the high unemployment rate for actors, it is worth asking whether (as has recently been argued in The Class Ceiling by Friedman and Laurison) acting, and Shakespearean acting in particular, is becoming a profession only for the well-off.
Directors
Authors: Potter Lois
Published: August 2022

Directors, the subject of Chapter 3, are in many ways like teachers and the variety of functions they have to serve makes their job, as Harriet Walter notes, difficult to define and difficult to perform satisfactorily. Arguing that directors are largely responsible for the idea that Shakespeare is ‘high culture’, this chapter looks at the rehearsal process and at the way both actors and directors deal with the three-way tension between author, actor, and director (including the special problems of the actress and the female director). Those who think the director has too much power have tried to create a director-less theatre. Attempts to ‘do without’ directors have included the Blackfriars Renaissance season, the Read Not Dead performances run by Globe Education, and the early attempts of Michelle Terry to create a democratic ensemble at the Globe. Like ‘great acting’, great directing may be incompatible with some political and social ideals.
Audiences
Authors: Potter Lois
Published: August 2022

While audience response used to be crucial to the future of a play in the theatre, the increasing gentrification of audiences has led to complaints that they are too polite. However, they have also been blamed for reacting audibly to performances, as at the reconstructed Globe. Even so, many Shakespeare productions now openly encourage actor–audience interaction. Chapter 6 surveys changing attitudes to applause, laughter, unexpected topical relevance (e.g. references to the weather), and moments when things go wrong, often reflected in theatrical anecdotes. It also looks briefly at some of the theories about cognition and imitation that attempt to account for the pleasure audiences find when they are simultaneously inside and outside the theatrical illusion.
Putting Properties First
Authors: Tugby Matthew
Published: August 2022

This philosophical work is about the metaphysical preconditions of natural science. It develops and defends a new metaphysical theory of natural modality called ‘Modal Platonism’, which puts properties first in the metaphysical hierarchy. According to this theory, natural properties—such as mass and charge—are ontologically fundamental entities which ground the laws of nature and the dispositions of things. The theory differs from other ‘properties-first’ approaches in two main ways. First, it views properties as Platonic universals, which exist even if they are not instantiated. Second, the theory rejects the popular idea that properties are identical with, or essentially dependent upon, dispositions. Instead, Modal Platonism views properties as qualities which necessarily ground dispositions and other modal phenomena. This theory, it is argued, solves a range of puzzles regarding dispositions and laws. Given that natural modality is a necessary precondition for scientific enquiry, Modal Platonism promises to provide a plausible metaphysical framework for all natural science.
Solving the Entailment and Governance Problems
Authors: Tugby Matthew
Published: August 2022

This chapter shows how the theory developed thus far solves two problems which afflict rival accounts of natural modality. First, it seems that law statements should entail that certain regularities hold in the concrete world, but some theories of natural modality fail to show how such entailments hold. Using the relational account of dispositional directedness, it is demonstrated that the relevant law statements entail dispositional regularities, and that this entailment requires only the rules of first-order logic. A second well-known problem concerns how the modal relationships between properties can govern dispositional patterns in the concrete world. It is shown that Modal Platonism avoids this second problem because it views modal relations as grounded entities which are not metaphysically substantial enough to play a governing role.
Quantum Physics of Semiconductor Materials and Devices
Authors: Jena Debdeep
Published: August 2022

Semiconductors today touch every aspect of our lives. Semiconductor materials and devices are at the heart of solar cells for clean energy, in every component of computers and mobile devices that power the information age, in tools used to design new medicine to treat diseases, in tools used for decoding the genome, to devices for quantum computation and communication, to exploring the far reaches of space. This book introduces senior undergraduate and early graduate students to the physics underlying semiconductor materials and their rich range of applications. It is of interest to scientists, engineers, practitioners, policy makers, and enthusiasts of the science and art of semiconductors because it makes transparent the reason for their immense scientific, technological, social, and economic impact. Semiconductor physics rests on the pillars of condensed matter physics, statistical physics, electromagnetic theory, and quantum mechanics. These concepts are presented riogorously with lavish illustrations so that a student with limited prior exposure will learn and apply them to semiconductors. A deeper understanding of these core concepts is signifcantly amplified by connecting to the physical properties of semiconductors and by showing precisely how the quantum physics drives the rich range of device applications ranging from diodes to transistors, lasers, and qubits. The historical roots of the subject are presented to highlight it as a unique human endeavor and to celebrate the pioneering spirit of the people who have made this field possible, and with the goal of encouraging the young generation to join the ongoing semiconductor revolution.
Towards a Theory of Age Discrimination Law
Authors: Blackham Alysia
Published: August 2022

This chapter provides a theoretical and normative account of age discrimination law, grounded in the enduring tensions and ambivalences endemic to age discrimination. Drawing on discrimination law theory and theories of intersectionality and vulnerability as they relate to age, the chapter considers the normative basis and rationale for addressing age discrimination in employment. It argues that there are at least two areas in which the market is unable to resolve issues of age discrimination without regulatory intervention: in relation to dignity and age-based stereotypes; and in relation to redistribution and disadvantage. The chapter argues that age is an essential lens for interrogating discrimination and inequality.
Claiming
Authors: Blackham Alysia
Published: August 2022

This chapter critically considers the process of claiming using empirical mixed method case studies of the enforcement of age discrimination law in the United Kingdom and Australia. Drawing on enquiry and claim statistics from statutory agencies and community legal centres, qualitative expert interviews, and a survey of advocates, the chapter considers why age discrimination claims are so infrequent, given the reported prevalence of age discrimination in employment. The chapter argues that the perceived costs of claiming far outweigh the perceived benefits. The chapter highlights the fundamental limits of relying on individual claims to address age discrimination, even at this preliminary stage of enforcement, and identifies clear gaps in enforcement, especially for younger workers.
Negotiation and Alternative Dispute Resolution
Authors: Blackham Alysia
Published: August 2022

This chapter considers the theoretical and practical impact of negotiation and alternative dispute resolution (ADR), as key components of the individual enforcement model, on the landscape of age discrimination law. Focusing on empirical mixed method case studies of the enforcement of age discrimination law in the United Kingdom and Australia, the chapter draws on statistics from statutory agencies, tribunals, and courts; qualitative and quantitative content analysis of conciliation case files held by Australian equality agencies; qualitative expert interviews; and a survey of advocates, to consider how ADR is shaping the enforcement of age discrimination law. The chapter argues that ADR offers important benefits to the parties involved, and to the justice system generally. However, the extent to which it is directing age discrimination claims away from public forums is a risk to legal development. The chapter puts forward options for improving ADR processes to better balance these risks and benefits, including around targeted transparency and systematic data collection, limiting reliance on non-disclosure agreements, prioritizing intensive conciliation, and referring matters beyond ADR processes.
Conclusion
Authors: Blackham Alysia
Published: August 2022

This chapter concludes the volume by reconsidering the tensions embedded in age discrimination law. It argues that reforming age discrimination law requires overcoming social ambivalence towards age equality by countering the perceived tensions inherent in age discrimination law and its enforcement. The chapter argues for a holistic and coordinated approach to advancing age equality, grounded in intergenerational solidarity and informed by consistent data collection and structured transparency. It concludes with a call to action for employers, governments, statutory equality agencies, unions, researchers, and the legal profession. It argues for a fundamental shift in community values and cultural change to respect and value age equality.
Kerry and Frege on Concept and Object
Authors: Picardi Eva
Published: August 2022

After describing the philosophical background of Kerry’s work, an account is given of the way Kerry proposed to supplement Bolzano’s conception of logic with a psychological account of the mental acts underlying mathematical judgements. In his writings Kerry criticized Frege’s work and Kerry’s views were subsequently attacked by Frege. The following two issues were central to this controversy: (a) the relation between the content of a concept and the object of a concept; (b) the logical roles of the definite article. It is argued that, not only did Frege in 1892 offer an unconvincing solution to Kerry’s puzzle concerning ‘the concept horse’, but that Frege also overlooked the many criticisms levelled by Kerry against the notion of an (indefinite) extension on which his own definition of number was based.
Internationalizing Civil and Colonial Wars
Authors: van Dijk Boyd
Published: August 2022

Chapter 3 provides a new genealogy of Common Article 3, which regulates wars within states and empires (what were termed “non-international armed conflicts”). This was the first binding international legal provision in history that challenged states’ absolute sovereignty in their domestic and colonial affairs for humanitarian purposes. The book revives the neglected history of how this central provision, which has received both praise and criticism since 1949, unexpectedly came into being. In reconstructing the contingencies through which the article emerged, this chapter complicates some of the subsequent perspectives that have grown up around it. While some have branded Common Article 3 a failure, for many it remains the most innovative outcome of the entire drafting process. Moving beyond these dichotomies, this chapter provides an in-depth analysis of how attempts to internationalize so-called internal wars were profoundly shaped by the dynamics of imperialism and the Cold War.
Ireland, Revolution, and the English Modernist Imagination
Authors: Patten Eve
Published: August 2022

This book asks how English authors of the early to mid-twentieth century responded to the nationalist revolution in neighbouring Ireland in their work and explores this response as an expression of anxieties about, and aspirations within, England itself. Drawing predominantly on novels of this period, but also on letters, travelogues, literary criticism, and memoir, it illustrates how Irish affairs provided a marginal but pervasive point of reference for a wide range of canonical authors in England, including Wyndham Lewis, Virginia Woolf, D.H. Lawrence, Graham Greene, and Evelyn Waugh, and for lesser-known figures such as Ethel Mannin, George Thomson, and T.H. White. The book surveys these and other incidental writers within the broad framework of literary modernism, an arc seen to run in temporal parallel to Ireland’s revolutionary trajectory from rebellion to independence. In this context, it addresses two distinct aspects of the Irish-English relationship as it features in the literature of the time: first, the uneasy recognition of a fundamental similarity between the two countries in terms of their potential for violent revolutionary instability, and second, the proleptic engagement of Irish events to prefigure, imaginatively, the potential course of England’s evolution from the Armistice to the Second World War. Tracing these effects, this book offers a topical renegotiation of the connections between Irish and English literary culture, nationalism, and political ideology, together with a new perspective on the Irish sources engaged by English literary modernism.
Education, Emotion, and Virtue
Authors: Champion Michael W.
Published: August 2022

This chapter explores how emotions shape Dorotheus’ educational project. For Dorotheus, emotions direct attention, motivate action, and achieve the transformation of perception, thought, and being which is the goal of ascetic education. Emotions also provide the foundations for communal monastic life by relating monks to one another. They are therefore central to education’s role in shaping identity and developing a sense of intersubjectivity and shared culture. The chapter examines how emotion is deployed to connect ascetic paideia to other sites of late-antique education. It offers an affective reading of Dorotheus’ moral psychology and distinguishes his thought from Stoic readings of passions and thoughts and other ascetic accounts. Dorotheus’ affective moral psychology explains why emotion is a key aspect of his pedagogy, and why he thinks that changing emotions results in ethical and social changes. As in the case of epistemology, humility plays a key role in organizing emotions and virtues.
Conclusion
Authors: Champion Michael W.
Published: August 2022

This chapter concludes the study by surveying key findings in the light of Dorotheus’ theory of mind and soul and his theory of culture and social relations. The cultural model of education outlined in the first chapter helps to provide a framework by which to evaluate how Dorotheus’ ascetic education was involved in processes of cultural reproduction, reconfiguration, and transformation. Dorotheus’ account of providential history generates his version of ascetic education by shaping his anthropology and understanding of culture. Distinctive elements of his thought emerge, including his epistemic and affective account of humility, his conviction that education is transformative, and the affectivism which shapes his epistemology and ethics. Dorotheus’ ascetic education is intimately connected to other forms of education in late antiquity (including philosophy, rhetoric, and medicine) and aims at the transformation of individuals and communities.
Formal account
Authors: Koev Todor
Published: August 2022

This chapter presents Update Semantics for Parentheticals, a formal tool for analyzing force operators and their effects on the context. It is argued that parenthetical meaning is introduced by force operators that explicitly represent propositional information via propositional variables. Such variables keep parenthetical meaning relatively independent and also allow us to represent metalinguistic effects, such as asserting or questioning. It is also demonstrated how the analysis of parentheticals can be derived compositionally and how semantic composition presents the distinction between pure and impure parentheticals in a new light. Finally, the core empirical puzzles about parentheticals are all linked to the fact that parentheticals are headed by force operators.
From split to remerged Fin in Romanian supine complements
Authors: Dragomirescu Adina , Hill Virginia
Published: August 2022

This chapter argues that the CP structure of supine complement clauses has changed from Old to regional Modern Romanian insofar as Fin is split in Old and standard Modern Romanian, but remerged in the Northern varieties of Modern Romanian. This change arises from syntactic analogy between the supine complements and the subjunctive and infinitive complements, which, diachronically, precede the supines and undergo the remerging of their Fin node in Old Romanian.
The recategorization of modals in English
Authors: Haeberli Eric , Ihsane Tabea
Published: August 2022

The history of modals in English has played a prominent role in diachronic generative syntax (cf. Lightfoot 1979 and much subsequent work). There is some consensus that modals underwent a reanalysis at the beginning of the Early Modern English period, which changed their categorial status from lexical to functional. Accounts differ with respect to whether this recategorization involved a radical change from V to T or whether this transition was less abrupt in that modals were already categorially distinct in some way as compared to regular main verbs in the earlier history of English. In this chapter, we examine the diachronic development of the distribution of modals with respect to adverbs with the aim of evaluating these proposals. Furthermore, we show that quantitative data involving modals and adverbs provide new evidence for the dating of the reanalysis of the modals.
P-incorporation in the history of Icelandic
Authors: Jónsson Jóhannes Gísli , Stefánsdóttir Brynhildur
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines preposition incorporation (P-incorporation) in Older Icelandic, i.e. leftward movement of a preposition which adjoins to the left of a main verb or participle. As expected, P-incorporation in Older Icelandic obeys the Head Movement Constraint (HMC) and the Adjunct Condition, whether the [P+V/Part] complex forms a morphological word or not. In the latter case, excorporation from the [P+V/Part] complex is possible. P-incorporation requires the presence of a bare PP complement but this option was lost in the 19th century when, according to our hypothesis, the presence of the categorizing head p became obligatory in all PPs. P-incorporation became impossible as a result as it would inevitably violate the HMC or improper movement. Finally, it is shown that P-incorporation cannot take place from an OV-structure, a restriction that can be derived if OV-orders require leftward movement of the verbal complement.
From Old to Modern Icelandic
Authors: Viðarsson Heimir F.
Published: August 2022

This chapter explores historical changes in the licensing of dative case in Icelandic. It is shown that datives in Old Norse could be licensed syntactically in a high or low position. Except for attested cases where a distinct dative is merged in both these positions simultaneously, the dative tends to be ambiguous between a high (=affected) and a low (=possessive) reading. In Modern Icelandic, in contrast, syntactically high datives require prepositional marking and the low possessor typically occurs in NP-internal position. According to Van de Velde and Lamiroy (2017), there is an inverse correlation between the extent of the grammaticalization of the definite article and the retention of external possessors cross-linguistically. This proposal is evaluated from the perspective of Old Norse-Icelandic, based furthermore on the idea that the absorption of datives into the NP domain is driven by increasing configurationality due to the Head Preference Principle (Van Gelderen 2009c, 2011b).
A Feminist Critique of Approaches to International Criminal Justice in the Age of Identity Politics
Authors: Campbell Kirsten , Mlinarević Gorana
Published: August 2022

This chapter undertakes a feminist analysis of the problem of ‘gender’ in international criminal law (ICL) using the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) as a case study. It examines the construction of ‘gender’ within the positive legal norms and the jurisprudence of the ICTY, focusing on conflict-related sexual violence cases. The authors’ critical analysis reveals the gendered framework and values of ICL, and brings into question the gender-neutrality of international criminal justice. It shows the blind spots of this framework, and how it still operates to exclude gender as such. Studying the gendered framework of ICL illuminates the broader ‘gender trouble’ of international humanitarian law (IHL) as a protective and penal regime, and offers an important insight into the gendered operation of conflict and its legal regulation at the international level.
Gender Dimensions of Forced Marriage in International Criminal Law
Authors: O’Brien Melanie
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines the gender dimensions of forced marriage in international criminal law (ICL), focusing on forced marriage in mass atrocities, as considered by international criminal courts and tribunals. This analysis specifically situates the context of forced marriage in three atrocity situation case studies—Sierra Leone, Cambodia, and Uganda—as a highly gendered crime designed to control women, regardless of the specific conditions within which the crime occurs. The examination looks at the findings of three international courts (the Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL), the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC), and the International Criminal Court (ICC)) with regards to forced marriage. It demonstrates that ICL is a long way from acknowledging the highly gendered nature of this special crime and from providing adequate justice to victims of forced marriage in atrocity situations.
‘Gender-Inclusivity’ in the International Criminal Court’s First Reparations Proceedings
Authors: O’Donohue Jonathan , Grey Rosemary
Published: August 2022

In its first cases, the International Criminal Court (ICC) developed principles for ordering reparations that commit to applying ‘gender-inclusive’ procedures to ensure reparations are accessible to all victims. This is significant given that gendered barriers often exclude victims from participating in reparation processes and accessing full and effective reparations to address the harm they have suffered, which reinforces patterns of gender-based discrimination. Reflecting on the measures taken by the ICC in the Lubanga, Katanga, Al Mahdi, and Bemba cases, as well as academic literature on gender and reparations, this chapter considers and proposes a conceptual framework for assessing the gender inclusivity of the ICC’s procedures.
Gender and the Implementation of International Criminal Law in the Latin American Region
Authors: Kravetz Daniela
Published: August 2022

This chapter analyses the challenges and opportunities presented by the international criminal law (ICL) framework from a gender perspective when it comes to national implementation, focusing on Latin America. National prosecutions are a key element of international criminal justice. For instance, under the principle of complementarity, the International Criminal Court (ICC) is conceived as a court of last resort, with national prosecutions taking precedence. ‘Tribunal fatigue’ among some members of the international community is likely to lead to international criminal justice happening principally at the national level. Given this, it is critical to understand the particular gendered factors at play in national legal systems. This chapter explains the significant future potential of national jurisdictions for addressing gender-based crimes under the framework of ICL. Drawing on past experience, with a focus on insights from extensive work done in national systems in Latin America, it considers challenges associated with addressing gender-based crimes, including overcoming many of the same misconceptions of gender evident in the international arena, along with their specific national manifestations. The chapter concludes with insights for addressing such challenges.
A Transcendental Argument for the Principle of Possibility
Authors: Leech Jessica
Published: August 2022

In the Analytic of Principles of the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant offers transcendental arguments to show how each of the categories, and synthetic a priori principles arising from them, are necessary conditions of possible experience. Accordingly, we may expect to find such arguments for the modal categories and their principles in the Postulates of Empirical Thinking (the relevant part of the Principles). The aim of this chapter is to reconstruct a transcendental argument for the principle of possibility, and to explain how the principle has a crucial role to play in Kant’s critical system. The proposed argument rests on Kant’s account of the nature of concepts in general, and the nature of pure concepts in particular. The principle of possibility is required as part of Kant’s account of concept-formation. The generality of concepts is made, not given, so a principle is required to ensure that pure concepts—in themselves unbound by empirical constraints—are appropriately restricted to empirical application. This is the role of the principle of possibility. If this account is correct, then it would seem that the modal categories play a much more central role in Kant’s theoretical philosophy than has previously been recognized. The principle of possibility ensures that the core elements of Kant’s philosophy—pure concepts of the understanding—have the right kind of content. In other words, the principle of possibility ensures that there are categories at all.
The Labyrinth of the Continuum
Authors: Jauernig Anja
Published: August 2022

The problem at the center of this chapter is how one can reconcile the continuity of space with a monadological theory of matter, according to which matter is ultimately composed of simple elements, a problem that greatly exercised Leibniz, the Wolffians, and Kant. The underlying purpose of this chapter is to illustrate a reading of Kant’s philosophical development, and of his relation to the Wolffians and Leibniz, according to which (a) this development was fueled by “home-grown” problems that arose within the framework of the Wolffian philosophy from which Kant started out, and (b) on his journey to critical idealism, Kant gradually moved away from Wolffianism, but closer to Leibniz, which, however, he came to realize only some years after the publication of the Critique of Pure Reason. This reading is illustrated by showing that the problem of how to reconcile the continuity of space with a monadological theory of matter is a problem that Kant inherits from Leibniz and the Wolffians, in whose thinking it already plays an important role, that Leibniz’s mature solution to the problem differs markedly from the Wolffian solution, and that Kant’s early, pre-Critical solution is largely Wolffian, while his later critical solution is largely Leibnizian, as he himself notes with gleeful satisfaction. The discussion also reveals that this problem is one of the key problems that fueled Kant’s philosophical development and, eventually, led him to the discovery of transcendental idealism.
Kant’s Conception of Cognition and Our Knowledge of Things in Themselves
Authors: Schafer Karl
Published: August 2022

This chapter develops a unified account Kant’s conception of cognition (Erkenntnis) and shows that this conception generates two crucial constraints on cognition of an object: (i) a real possibility constraint and (ii) a determinate content constraint. This account stresses the differences between Kant’s conception of cognition and our contemporary conception of propositional knowledge, while connecting together important strands in the recent scholarly literature on these topics. Finally, this improved understanding of cognition is used to better understand why Kant claims that we cannot cognize things in themselves, while also appearing to claim that we can know certain abstract facts about things in themselves in general.
Thing and Object
Authors: Stang Nicholas F.
Published: August 2022

Recent interpretations of Kant’s transcendental idealism have been split between “identity” readings, on which things in themselves and appearances are the same objects under two different descriptions, and “non-identity” readings, on which they are distinct objects. This chapter begins by isolating the notion of an object that has figured in these debates, which the author identifies as the quantificational notion of an object as the value of a bound variable. It is argued that Kant does have such a notion of an object, and that, on this conception of an object, appearances and things in themselves are distinct objects. However, in the second half of the chapter the author distinguishes the notion of an object from the notion of a thing (Ding), which he identifies as a being that possesses reality, i.e., intensively gradable causal force. It is argued that identity and non-identity readings are compatible, if they are understood appropriately: appearances and things in themselves are not the same objects, but they are the same things.
Kant’s Enigmatic Transition
Authors: Abaci Uygar
Published: August 2022

Despite his well-known critical restriction of human cognition to the domain of objects of sense, Kant also repeatedly asserts in his various Critical period texts that we can attain “practical cognition” and knowledge of the cardinal supersensible objects of traditional metaphysics, i.e., freedom, God, immortality or the afterlife (A796/B824; KpV 5:5; FM 20:295–300; KU §§88–91). Kant’s account of the structure and limits of theoretical cognition as well as whether there is a sense in which we can have any theoretical insight into the supersensible have attracted significant scholarly attention. Excellent work has also been done on Kant’s approach to the supersensible objects as articles of practical postulation and practical (rational) belief. Yet, Kant’s conception of practical cognition, both in general and with regard to the supersensible objects in particular, has not enjoyed a proportionate interest, perhaps because Kant’s use of the term “cognition” in this context is regarded as too loose to signify anything like full-fledged cognition as we know it from Kant’s theoretical works. This chapter argues that there is a rigorous sense in which what Kant refers to as the practical cognition of the supersensible is a genuine instance of cognition. Following a reconstruction of Kant’s theory of cognition in general, the author demonstrates how theoretical and practical cognition, respectively, both fit this general account and yet differ radically such that while the former is limited to the sensible the latter extends to the supersensible realm of objects.
Minimum number of nights for reliable estimation of habitual sleep using a consumer sleep tracker
Authors: Lau TeYang , Ong Ju Lynn , Ng Ben K L , Chan Lit Fai , Koek Daphne , Tan Chuen Seng , Müller-Riemenschneider Falk , Cheong Karen , Massar Stijn A A , Chee Michael W L
Published: August 2022

Study Objectives

To determine the minimum number of nights required to reliably estimate weekly and monthly mean sleep duration and sleep variability measures from a consumer sleep technology (CST) device (Fitbit).

Methods

Data comprised 107 144 nights from 1041 working adults aged 21–40 years. Intraclass correlation (ICC) analyses were conducted on both weekly and monthly time windows to determine the number of nights required to achieve ICC values of 0.60 and 0.80, corresponding to “good” and “very good” reliability thresholds. These minimum numbers were then validated on data collected 1-month and 1-year later.

Results

Minimally, 3 and 5 nights were required to obtain “good” and “very good” mean weekly total sleep time (TST) estimates, while 5 and 10 nights were required for monthly TST estimates. For weekday-only estimates, 2 and 3 nights were sufficient for weekly time windows while 3 and 7 nights sufficed for monthly time windows. Weekend-only estimates of monthly TST required 3 and 5 nights. TST variability required 5 and 6 nights for weekly time windows, and 11 and 18 nights for monthly time windows. Weekday-only weekly variability required 4 nights for both “good” and “very good” estimates while monthly variability required 9 and 14 nights. Weekend-only estimates of monthly variability required 5 and 7 nights. Error estimates made using data collected 1-month and 1-year later with these parameters were comparable to those associated with the original dataset.

Conclusions

Studies should consider the metric, measurement window of interest, and desired reliability threshold to decide on the minimum number of nights required to assess habitual sleep using CST devices.
Evolutionary and temporal dynamics of emerging influenza D virus in Europe (2009–22)
Authors: Gaudino Maria , Chiapponi Chiara , Moreno Ana , Zohari Siamak , O’Donovan Tom , Quinless Emma , Sausy Aurélie , Oliva Justine , Salem Elias , Fusade-Boyer Maxime , Meyer Gilles , Hübschen Judith M , Saegerman Claude , Ducatez Mariette F , Snoeck Chantal J
Published: August 2022

Influenza D virus (IDV) is an emerging influenza virus that was isolated for the first time in 2011 in the USA from swine with respiratory illness. Since then, IDV has been detected worldwide in different animal species, and it was also reported in humans. Molecular epidemiological studies revealed the circulation of two major clades, named D/OK and D/660. Additional divergent clades have been described but have been limited to specific geographic areas (i.e. Japan and California). In Europe, IDV was detected for the first time in France in 2012 and subsequently also in Italy, Luxembourg, Ireland, the UK, Switzerland, and Denmark. To understand the time of introduction and the evolutionary dynamics of IDV on the continent, molecular screening of bovine and swine clinical samples was carried out in different European countries, and phylogenetic analyses were performed on all available and newly generated sequences. Until recently, D/OK was the only clade detected in this area. Starting from 2019, an increase in D/660 clade detections was observed, accompanied by an increase in the overall viral genetic diversity and genetic reassortments. The time to the most recent common ancestor (tMRCA) of all existing IDV sequences was estimated as 1995—16 years before its discovery, indicating that the virus could have started its global spread in this time frame. Despite the D/OK and D/660 clades having a similar mean tMRCA (2007), the mean tMRCA for European D/OK sequences was estimated as January 2013 compared to July 2014 for European D/660 sequences. This indicated that the two clades were likely introduced on the European continent at different time points, as confirmed by virological screening findings. The mean nucleotide substitution rate of the hemagglutinin-esterase-fusion (HEF) glycoprotein segment was estimated as 1.403 × 10−3 substitutions/site/year, which is significantly higher than the one of the HEF of human influenza C virus (P < 0.0001). IDV genetic drift, the introduction of new clades on the continent, and multiple reassortment patterns shape the increasing viral diversity observed in the last years. Its elevated substitution rate, diffusion in various animal species, and the growing evidence pointing towards zoonotic potential justify continuous surveillance of this emerging influenza virus.