bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction: What Is Economics?
Authors: Chambers Samuel A.
Published: January 2022

The Introduction presents the basic idea of economic forces and relations, and explains that such forces are historically contingent, not natural or inevitable.
Social Orders and Economic Relations
Authors: Chambers Samuel A.
Published: January 2022

Chapter 1, “Social Orders and Economic Relations,” provides a theory of society founded on the concept of social orders. Social orders develop historically; hence the forces or “laws” that structure those orders prove to be historically contingent. The chapter offers a critique of “state of nature” theories, or “Robinsonades,” which naturalize “economics” as transhistorical. Finally, the chapter begins to explore some implications of this approach for how we explain outcomes in political economy.
Money
Authors: Chambers Samuel A.
Published: January 2022

Chapter 4, “Money,” shows that money is not a commodity or any entity of intrinsic value, but a relation of credit/debt. Money is always a social relation because it always involves two parties (creditor and debtor) and a relation to the future.
Commodities
Authors: Chambers Samuel A.
Published: January 2022

Chapter 5, “Commodities,” theorizes the nature of commodities and distinguishes them from natural resources. Commodities are produced goods with a twofold existence as use-values and exchange-values.
From Shame to Guilt
Authors: van Doorn-Harder Nelly
Published: January 2022

This chapter discusses the strategies advocates for Muslim women’s rights use to change Indonesian mindsets about child marriage, one of which is “guilting” a girl’s male guardian. Advocates create new frames of reference by recruiting religious, civil, and political leaders who cooperate in reinterpreting religious texts, thus creating new understandings of the rights of women. Evoking various levels of guilt and shame in a girl’s guardian, as well as among close relatives, often involves reference to larger projects of national growth, pride, and well-being. Indirectly, the advocates accuse male actors of obstructing the nation’s future. In the Indonesian landscape of emotions, shame and guilt intersect, and references in Bahasa Indonesia to shame (malu) prevail over guilt (salah). Causing someone to feel shame precedes guilt. Guilt needs shame. Transforming mindsets about fixed ideas and showcasing behavioral changes is a slow, difficult process. As a result, these efforts, while effective in the long run, often proceed without visible results.
The Art of Apology
Authors: Lotter Maria-Sibylla
Published: January 2022

Political apologies fulfill important functions that cannot be assumed by other practices in coming to terms with historical injustice. Since an apology implies an admission of guilt, but a political apology rarely fulfills the criteria for a collective attribution of guilt in a moral or legal sense, political apologies by proxy are notoriously ambiguous and open to interpretation. Following Hannah Arendt, I distinguish between the political and the moral meanings and functions of addressing guilt and responsibility. I examine the artistic nature of this practice and the conditions under which the symbolic gesture can be understood as sincere and authentic. Subsequently, I explore some of the risks, misunderstandings, and deceptions that are especially associated with apology by proxy.
Disputes over Germany’s War Guilt
Authors: de Mazza Ethel Matala
Published: January 2022

World War I constitutes a turning point in political and legal dealings with war crimes. Whereas peace treaties, especially since the Thirty Years’ War, used to evade questions of guilt and granted amnesty to the belligerent parties, the treaties sealed in the Paris Peace Conference in 1919–1920 moved away from this long-established custom. Drawing on recent studies in history and political science, this remarkable shift emerges both as result of and motor for the modernization of international relations. World War I served the Allies as precedent to prove their commitment to legal principles and to transform the battlefield of interstate conflicts into a sphere civilized by law. Against this backdrop, the productivity of guilt emerged in two ways. On the one hand, guilt became a category of legal importance and served as a powerful agent of change within the process of building transnational coalitions for new principles of international law. On the other hand, the bold advance of Kurt Eisner, then prime minister of Bavaria, who published secret documents in order to admit the guilt of imperial Germany, should be recognized as an early effort to accept political responsibility to foster new bonds between former enemies.
What is a will?
Authors: Hieronymi Pamela
Published: January 2022

This chapter presents two contrasting pictures of the will. On the first, “the will” is a psychological structure or module within a person that originates spontaneous or endogenous activity, independently of external influence. On the second, “the will” is that collection of ordinary states of mind (cares, concerns, beliefs, desires, commitments, fears, etc.) that generates intentional, voluntary, or responsible activity—it is the functioning together of those aspects of mind that account for human activity. A challenge is posed for each. The challenge for the first is to say how the outputs of this module are the activity of the person. The challenge for the second is to say how psychological activity that might be entirely explained by a person’s history and environment can nonetheless be free and responsible activity. The replies take up an important question about the role of consciousness in each picture.
How can we determine whether or not we have free will?
Authors: Mele Alfred R.
Published: January 2022

This chapter performs two main tasks. First, it sets the stage for an answer to the question of how we can determine whether or not we have free will by articulating two competing proposals about what would suffice for freely making a decision to do something. Second, it identifies what we would have to learn in order to know that the conditions set out in those proposals are satisfied and what we would have to learn in order to know that these conditions are not satisfied. Both proposals appeal to consciousness, reasonableness, being well-informed, and the absence of undue pressure. They differ in that one of the proposals can be satisfied even if determinism is true, but the other one cannot.
What kind of behavioral experiments, if any, could determine whether anyone has free will?
Authors: Bayne Tim
Published: January 2022

This chapter considers three approaches to the question “What kind of behavioral experiments, if any, could determine whether anyone has free will?” The first approach might be adopted by those who hold that some agents (e.g., young children and non-human animals) lack free will, whereas others (e.g., neurotypical humans) possess it. Given this perspective, behavioral experiments that distinguish infants and non-human animals from neurotypical human agents could be relevant to adjudicating whether a target individual has free will. A second approach is skeptical that anyone has free will. The worries that animate most free-will skeptics cannot be resolved by appeal to behavioral experiments. A third approach concerns the concept of free will. Here, there is a rich literature in experimental philosophy that employs behavioral methods to clarify the ordinary concept of free will.
How is responsibility related to free will, control, and action?
Authors: Yaffe Gideon
Published: January 2022

This chapter describes answers philosophers have given to the question of whether something for which a person is responsible must be (1) action—that is, something she does rather than something that merely befalls her—which is (2) under her control, (3) freely chosen, and (4) freely performed.
What evidence is there that intentions are represented in the brain?
Authors: Haynes John-Dylan
Published: January 2022

Intentions come in several kinds, including motor, cued, self-chosen, proximal, and distal. Each kind of intention requires distinct methods of investigation and recruits different brain activity. This chapter discusses the nature of intentions, neuroscientific work on the different kinds of intentions, the involvement of motivation, and intention-predictive brain signals.
Introduction
Authors: Rühlig Tim Nicholas
Published: January 2022

The Introduction establishes the book’s central research questions, introduces the reader to China’s contradictory approach to state control, and highlights the limitations of the existing literature while also summarizing the book’s core argument. The People’s Republic of China claims that sovereignty is the guiding principle of its foreign policy. State control, which is constitutive of sovereignty, could serve as a “regulative idea” that shapes a China-led international order. Instead of consistently following this regulative idea, however, China’s foreign policy is contradictory and China is sometimes willing to compromise the principle of state control. These contradictions shape how China is able to influence the future international order. China’s foreign policy contradictions are rooted in its domestic vulnerabilities. This means that instead of replacing it with an alternative “China Model,” China’s rise will lead to a fragmentation, pluralization, and particularization of the international order.
A Humble Worker in the Colored Ranks
Authors: Lee John W.I.
Published: January 2022

This chapter focuses on John Wesley Gilbert’s life and career from 1891 to 1910, a period in which he earned a reputation as “the finest Greek scholar in the South” and became nationally known as an educator and civic leader. The chapter begins by examining the scholarly networks that tied Gilbert to the members of the American Philological Association (APA) and the Archaeological Institute of America (AIA) and describes Gilbert’s attendance at the 1900 joint APA-AIA conference held in Philadelphia. The chapter examines the successes of Paine Institute (which became Paine College in 1903) under the joint leadership of Gilbert and Paine president George Williams Walker, as well as the increasing financial stress Paine came under from 1906 onward. The chapter also discusses Gilbert’s community and church work, including his involvement in numerous civic organizations in Augusta as well as his 1901 trip to London as a member of the Colored Methodist Episcopal (CME) delegation to the Ecumenical Methodist Conference. The chapter shows how Gilbert’s life was affected by the growth of Jim Crow segregation in the American South and explains the pressing financial needs that forced him to devote much of his time after 1906 to fundraising for Paine. The chapter closes in 1911, with the deaths of Gilbert’s mentor and father figure George Williams Walker and of his mother Sarah Thomas.
The Old Veteran
Authors: Lee John W.I.
Published: January 2022

This chapter focuses on the final decade of Gilbert’s life, following his return from the Belgian Congo. It shows how racism within the MECS and lack of commitment within the CME prevented Gilbert from returning as a missionary to the Congo, despite the great success of his trip with Lambuth. The chapter traces Gilbert’s continuing educational and civic work in Augusta and beyond, paying special attention to the crucial role he played in keeping Paine College alive during the years after 1911. The chapter closes by examining the circumstances of Gilbert’s extended illness, which confined him to bed from 1921 onward, and by describing his death in 1923.
Protesting the PreambleNormative Pronouncements and Feminist Jurisprudence in the Security Council
Authors: Heathcote Gina
Published: January 2022

This chapter examines the refinement of feminist legal arguments in the output of the UN Security Council through a close reading of Security Council resolution preambles and their changing format over the life of the Council. The chapter demonstrates how feminist legal arguments—from protests to institutional contributions—are changed, adapted, and neglected within Security Council output. The chapter examines the role of the preamble in thematic resolutions issued by the Security Council, including those on women, peace, and security and in situation-specific resolutions. The chapter uses examples of feminist protest in Sudan and Security Council resolutions on Sudan to examine the journey of legal arguments from protest to preamble to Security Council operative paragraphs.
An Overview of Informal Politics in the Middle East
Authors: Mirgani Suzi
Published: January 2022

The culture of politics within any system of governance is influenced by how states and societies interact with each other, and how these relationships are mediated by existing political institutions—whether formal or informal. This study highlights two different types of informal political engagement in the Middle East: civil action that works in tandem with the state apparatus, and civil action that poses a challenge to the state—in either case, these are informal political engagements that can and have achieved tangible results for particular groups of people, as well as for the state. For many, it is not a choice to engage in informal political activity and civil mobilization, but a necessity in order to secure, collectively, some kind of social security through communal reciprocity and everyday activism. Ironically, because these “self-help” schemes are allowing certain social groups to get by, and are reducing their instinct to make demands and to seek subsistence from the state, authorities often turn a blind eye to informal activities. Not only are people discouraged from political action and dissent, they are simultaneously—and seemingly paradoxically—encouraged to seek their own betterment, often leading to the many politicized groups and associations discussed in this chapter.
Çay Politics
Authors: Guida Michelangelo
Published: January 2022

Public life in Turkey is characterized, if not dominated, by interpersonal relations. This chapter demonstrates how, in addition to formal campaigning, Turkish political parties must resort to a series of informal tools to maintain or gain consent. The AK Parti is a movement that uses informality as a tool to mobilize votes, including the exploitation of “kin-like networks.” In a big city like Istanbul, besides conventional political meetings, parties prefer door-to-door political campaigning, visiting families, businesses, and associations of immigrants, finding a sohbet (intimate conversation) and a glass of tea to be much more successful. This chapter presents two examples of kin-like groups and their role in vote mobilization: the local elections in Üsküdar in the political campaign of 2009, and the case of the “communal vote” (birleşik oy)—literally, “united vote”—in the province of Şanlıurfa (Urfa).
Shiʿa-State Relations in Qatar
Authors: Cozzi Paulino R. Robles-Gil
Published: January 2022

Shiʿi communities have existed as minorities in Qatar for at least two centuries. However, their daily lives and navigation in public space have gone through processes of negotiation with the Sunni establishment. At the establishment of Qatar as a modern state, the strong and uniform status quo of the “nation” left little room for minorities to assert themselves. This chapter explains how the Shiʿa in Qatar have adapted to this specific context and created a particular way of being Shiʿi in a state that claims to adhere to the teachings of Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd Al-Wahhab. It also describes the mechanisms developed by the state to accommodate the Islamic internal other. After examining from the existing theories of sectarianism, and exploring domestic sociopolitical dynamics, this study presents the complex layers of the arrangements that enable a peaceful coexistence of Shiʿa in Qatar. This study shows that despite some tacitly accepted constraints, a collaborative scheme prevails in the Shiʿa-state relations; this scheme is not carried out in the formal political stage but, rather, through unofficial channels and alternative strategies that are put in place in an almost normalized fashion.
Voluntary Associations as Social Micromovements
Authors: Benessaiah Nejm
Published: January 2022

This study adds to the literature on informal politics by providing a new perspective on the governance of natural resources—specifically, the changing political culture of an Algerian oasis region, with a focus on agricultural civic organizations. While forbidden from formal political activity, voluntary associations in Algeria are inherently political due to their collective nature. In this study, I suggest that associational activity has wider implications for social and political change in Algeria, involving gradual cultural change. I characterize the agents of this change as social micromovements, which differ from ordinary social movements whose aim is for society-wide transformations. Social micromovements are instead focused on making changes at the local level through small, incremental adjustments to culturally acceptable forms of social organization. This type of theorization is important, especially at a time when the focus has been on sudden revolutionary change, resulting mostly in disappointment in achieving democratic change in the Middle East, and chaos involving regime strengthening through disastrous foreign intervention or the force of counter social movements.
A Forward March Halted
Authors: Serrano Mónica
Published: January 2022

Chapter 4 focuses on a particularly critical moment in the changing character of the War on Drugs: UNGASS 2016. It explains why UNGASS 2016 produced high expectations for a breakthrough in the transformation of the War on Drugs, and why these expectations were subsequently not met. The lack of both a clear blueprint for reform and sound leadership among the countries that demanded adjustments to the International Drug Control Regime were detrimental to advancing concrete changes. Overall, the chapter argues that UNGASS 2016 facilitated entry points for working toward more balanced and comprehensive drug policies, highlighting the importance of human rights, public health, and development. Nonetheless, it closed the door to substantial change in the interpretation of the International Drug Control Regime and with it, to meaningful transformation of the War on Drugs.
South America
Authors: Durán-Martínez Angélica
Published: January 2022

Chapter 5 focuses on South America, the region where global cocaine flows originate, and where reform and debates about new domestic drug policies are likely to emerge. Despite the consensus on the need for change, this chapter argues there is little consensus on what this change entails, and that most governments still support the legal cornerstones of the International Drug Control Regime. The chapter contends that three factors influence the region’s endorsement for change: first, evolving US foreign policy; second, growing violence in the region; and third, changes in supply chain networks of cocaine. These have made intraregional and domestic markets more prominent, encouraging governments to recognize that drug policies have generated new problems. The chapter concludes by assessing the possibilities and obstacles for drug policy reform in the region.
Mexico and Central America
Authors: Ricart Carlos A. Pérez
Published: January 2022

Chapter 6 focuses on Mexico and Central America, the major transit zone between cocaine production in South America and the US market. It highlights US influence and soaring violence as factors that determine the region’s position in the international drug policy debate. The chapter argues that, instead of reducing harm in the region, the International Drug Control Regime has triggered collateral damage in Central America that outweighs its success in deterring the illicit production, trafficking, and consumption of drugs. It shows that the negative effects of the International Drug Control Regime are more visible in producer and transit countries because prohibitionist drug policies have transferred a large portion of social and financial costs onto them.
Russia
Authors: Stepanova Ekaterina
Published: January 2022

Chapter 10 assesses Russia’s position in the International Drug Control Regime. It explains that the country has undergone a shift in its dynamics and patterns of illicitly used drugs, and outlines Russia’s unique circumstances as a major global illicit drug market and the single largest country market for Afghan heroin. The chapter also elaborates on Russia’s composite stance on the liberalization of drug use and a reform or ‘upgrade’ of the International Drug Control Regime. It argues that the shift to heroin dominance in 2000 was the result of two developments: first, the overproduction of opiates and unprecedented increase in Afghanistan’s opiate output in the early twenty-first century; and second, the economic situation in Central Asia, including the growing dependence of the region’s economies and populations on licit and illicit cross-border trade.
The 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda and the War on Drugs
Authors: Sagredo Javier
Published: January 2022

Chapter 13 argues for a human development approach to drug policy. Taking the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development as a reference point, it reflects upon the basic premises that would be included in a development-based approach. Pinpointing the negative impacts that the War on Drugs has had on the most vulnerable people and on development more broadly, it contends that such an approach would improve the International Drug Control Regime’s effectiveness and reduce the harms associated with its implementation.
Conclusion
Authors: Idler Annette , Vergara Juan Carlos Garzón
Published: January 2022

The conclusion synthesizes the overall contribution of the book. It reflects on how, since the United States’ declaration of the so-called War on Drugs fifty years ago, the paradigm has gone global, with manifold faces across different regions, and how it has changed its character over time. It proposes to transform the War on Drugs paradigm and presents seven recommendations on a way forward. It discusses both short-term and long-term considerations for more effective drug policies. Finally, the chapter points to the implications that the transformation of the War on Drugs paradigm can have for effectuating positive change in other areas of global affairs, such as the War on Terror.
What Do Local Party Chairs Do?
Authors: Doherty David , Dowling Conor M. , Miller Michael G.
Published: January 2022

Chapter 3 draws on evidence from our national survey and in-depth interviews with chairs from across the country to examine what local party chairs do to serve their party. Party chairs find volunteers, lease office space, and coordinate countless events They view these efforts as crucial to raising the visibility of the local party and generating interest, and ultimately votes, come election day. Local chairs also interface with state party organizations and “up ballot” campaigns to provide the labor that it takes to build a winning campaign. The chapter highlights the fact that these local efforts have implications not only for the outcomes of local elections, but also for the broader party's brand.
Chairs and Candidates: Recruiting and Support
Authors: Doherty David , Dowling Conor M. , Miller Michael G.
Published: January 2022

For many people, the decision to enter politics is not an easy or obvious one. Local party organizations play a crucial role in the electoral process by identifying prospective candidates, including those who may have never considered running for office. Chapter 4 reports findings from the interviews and survey of chairs and demonstrates that chairs actively search for people from their communities to run for low-level offices. These efforts have immediate consequences in terms of who ends up in local office, as well as downstream consequences in that experience in local office is often a stepping stone for those who ultimately run for higher office. If chairs can convince their targets to run, they then provide advice and support to aid fledgling campaigns. From the perspective of a neophyte candidate who may know practically nothing about how to organize a campaign, this early advice can provide an important boost.
Local Parties and Election Outcomes
Authors: Doherty David , Dowling Conor M. , Miller Michael G.
Published: January 2022

Chapter 5 assesses whether candidates running in areas where their local party organization is active tend to perform better than those running in otherwise similar areas, but where the organization is less active. We examine the relationship between local party activity and outcomes in races for state legislature and Sheriff, as well as for federal elections. Our evidence indicates that local party efforts can affect both federal and local election outcomes. Notably, these relationships only emerge in contexts where the party is electorally disadvantaged. This suggests that party efforts in areas where the party is unlikely to win elections at the county level are particularly likely to improve the electoral fortunes of their party’s candidates up and down the ballot. This underscores the ability of small local parties to project their power outward, with ripple effects that shape broader politics at all levels of American government.
Candidate Gender
Authors: Doherty David , Dowling Conor M. , Miller Michael G.
Published: January 2022

Women continue to be under-represented in elected office in the United States. Chapter 8 assesses whether chairs view women candidates as less viable, as well as whether voters are less inclined to support women candidates. The experimental findings offer little support for the notion that chairs systematically view women candidates as less likely to win, a pattern that is consistent with the (lack of) gender effects that emerge among voters. This said, although some of the chairs interviewed in person said they view gender as irrelevant, most viewed women candidates as tending to have distinctive advantages and, in some cases, disadvantages. The most common theme that arose in the interviews was the perception—consistent with evidence from existing work—that women candidates tend to be more qualified and harder working, entering a race only when they are well-prepared and conditions are ripe.
Candidate Race and Ethnicity
Authors: Doherty David , Dowling Conor M. , Miller Michael G.
Published: January 2022

Chapter 9 considers whether chairs view non-white candidates as less likely to win. The results of the experiment reveal pronounced effects tied to candidates’ race for chairs but not voters. Both Democratic and Republican chairs viewed black and Latinx candidates as substantially less likely to win than white candidates. Further analysis of the experimental data offers little support for the notion that the effects of a candidate’s race/ethnicity are driven by chairs’ inferences about the candidate’s other background characteristics. Chairs’ perceptions regarding the disadvantage faced by minority candidates are sensitive to context, however, particularly among Democrats. Among Democratic county chairs, the perceived penalty for minority candidates varies with the concentration of minority residents in the county. Even among Democratic chairs, however, the expectation that minority candidates will not fare as well as white candidates manifests in all but a small share of counties with particularly high concentrations of minority residents.
Candidates’ Policy Dispositions
Authors: Doherty David , Dowling Conor M. , Miller Michael G.
Published: January 2022

Chapter 10 explores how chairs evaluate candidates’ policy stances. We find that party chairs and voters respond similarly to candidates’ positions on economic policy and abortion. However, chairs from both parties appear to underestimate voters’ willingness to support candidates who support stricter gun laws. We also see differences on how chairs assess candidates who signal a willingness to compromise: Democratic chairs are more likely to choose compromisers, but Republicans are less likely to do so. That said, chairs in both parties underestimate their voters’ willingness to choose “compromiser” candidates. Chairs’ apparent misperceptions about what voters demand may lead them to unintentionally seek out or promote candidates whose dispositions fail to mirror voters’ preferences.
Post-War Military Roots
Authors: Mulloy Garren
Published: January 2022

Despite being demilitarized after defeat, and dominant pacifist narratives, Japanese armed forces continued to exist and be engaged in operations during the post-war period. This chapter examines the military legacies of Japan’s empire, how such legacy forces were exploited by other countries, how individuals coped with the post-war situation, and how a thread of imperial naval legacy formed the core of Japan’s post-imperial armed forces. It then examines the pivotal role of the Korean War in the development of naval forces and the creation of a National Police Reserve, and how the merged National Safety Forces provided a base upon which the Japan Self-Defense Forces were founded. This provides insight into the transformation of Japan from empire, defeat, and post-war occupation and demilitarization to democracy, revival, and Cold War re-armament within a decade. This decade would become known for the emergent Yoshida Doctrine, devoting sufficient resources to defense to ensure US support without jeopardizing economic revival, which came to symbolize Japanese security.
Conclusion
Authors: Mulloy Garren
Published: January 2022

A common perception of post-war Japanese defense is that it only began in 1954, military forces were abolished and constitutionally prohibited, with extreme dependency upon US military might, Japan therefore being an abnormal, incomparable country. This book has illustrated that Japanese imperial legacy forces continued in fragmented ways, providing threads of continuity, together with the National Police Reserve, for establishing Japan Self-Defense Forces with prominent civilian institutional aspects. It also details how each Force could develop so differently, and yet resemble aspects of both Japanese society and overseas militaries, each Force having markedly differing public perceptions and engagement with US allies. The Forces gradually cultivated public acceptance, legitimacy, and respect through civil support, disaster relief duties, and initially controversial overseas missions, with national defense and regional security roles only emerging as solid ground for public support with the challenges from China and North Korea. In conclusion, the Forces and other Japanese security actors, such as police, intelligence agencies, and the Japan Coast Guard, are evaluated for their capabilities and failings, and the strategic and legislative frameworks within which they operate, an assessment made of how the defenders of Japan transformed from 1946.
The Experience of Historical-Critical Research Into the Laws of Military Art (Positive Strategy)
Authors: Leer Genrikh Antonovich
Published: January 2022

General of the Infantry Genrikh Antonovich Leer (1829–1904) is considered one of the founding fathers of Russian strategic thinking. At the peak of his career, he was the director of the Nicholas General Staff Academy, a member of the Imperial St Petersburg Academy of Sciences, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and the St Petersburg Imperial University. During his career, he authored many works on military history, strategy and tactics, some of which were translated into German. This chapter is a translation of the ‘Introduction’ from Leer’s seminal work Opyt kritiko-istoricheskogo issledovaniya zakonov vedeniya voyny (polozhitel’naya strategiya) [The Experience of Historical-Critical Research into the Laws of Military Art (Positive Strategy)]. In this work, Leer not only set the course for the Russian ship of independent strategic thinking, but also equipped it with the required methodological sails.
Introduction
Authors: Jackson Ashley
Published: January 2022

This chapter provides an overview of the book, methodology and chapter outline. Since 2001, civilians played a critical role in influencing the Taliban’s tactical calculus and overarching strategy. This chapter outlines a framework for understanding the civilian– insurgent relationship and how it shaped the course of the Afghan War. It summarizes the key arguments and approach, and provides background about civilian negotiation with the Taliban in Afghanistan.
Dancing with Whoever Is There
Authors: Jackson Ashley
Published: January 2022

Chapter 2 explores the broader social, cultural and political history of Afghanistan. It is by no means a complete overview, but provides enough backstory for readers not well versed on Afghanistan to under- stand the historical and social context relevant to civilian–insurgent relations. The chapter begins by investigating social relations and the nature of social capital in Afghanistan. It then provides a brief summary of Afghanistan’s political conflicts since 1978, with particular focus on the ascent of the post-2001 Taliban insurgency.
Coercion, Co-option, and Co-operation
Authors: Jackson Ashley
Published: January 2022

Chapter 3 focuses on the Taliban’s experience, strategy and tactics in engaging with civilians. It traces the Taliban’s ascent from 2001 onwards, examining how their attitudes toward civilians evolved. It is framed through the lens of negotiation, looking separately at its interests and leverage more broadly, including use of violence, coercion and persuasion. It concludes with a discussion of how the Taliban has leveraged its social capital with the population.
Conclusion
Authors: Jackson Ashley
Published: January 2022

The conclusion first outlines some of the assumptions about Afghanistan that this book has sought to challenge. It then explores how insights from this book, regarding the relationship between Afghan civilians and the Taliban, might be relevant to other conflicts, and to our understanding of civil war more broadly.
Debating the Draining of the Fucine Lake
Authors: Reitz-Joosse Bettina
Published: January 2022

This chapter discusses literary representations of large-scale engineering projects. Against the briefly sketched background of larger Roman debates about large-scale construction projects, especially those manipulating the boundaries between land and water, it focuses on one particular engineering project of which several literary accounts survive: the emperor Claudius’s attempted draining of the Fucine Lake in Central Italy. Pliny the Elder, Tacitus, and Suetonius employ different strategies in describing this large-scale intervention in nature, which consisted of the digging of an underground tunnel connecting the lake to the nearby river Liris. The chapter treats the accounts of these three authors in turn, arguing that their descriptions engage each other on a number of themes, and that they are part of a larger debate concerning the legitimacy of human intervention in nature. Of special importance for this moral dimension of representations of construction are the themes of visibility, appearance and reality, violence and war against nature, and of the crossing of boundaries.
Conclusion
Authors: Reitz-Joosse Bettina
Published: January 2022

The Conclusion of this book explores the theme of architectural destruction, both physical and literary. It recapitulates and contextualizes the results of the study by considering the reversal of construction: representations of destruction and demolition. Revisiting inscriptions and visual representations, the chapter demonstrates how construction and destruction are often effectively played off against each other—only the existence of the alternative can give each activity its full meaning. The Conclusion then analyses this interaction between building and destruction in a passage of Pliny’s Panegyricus which deals with the physical demolition of images of Domitian, but at the same time also performs a literary demolition of Statius’s Silvae 1.1 and the representation of the erection of such images in that text.
I, Warbot
Authors: Payne Kenneth
Published: January 2022

Artificial Intelligence is going to war. Intelligent weapon systems are here today, and many more are on the way tomorrow. Already, they're reshaping conflict—from the chaos of battle, with pilotless drones, robot tanks and uninhabited submersibles, to the headquarters far from the action, where generals and politicians use technology to weigh up what to do. AI changes how we fight, and even how likely it is that we will.
In battle, warbots will be faster, more agile and more deadly than today's crewed weapons. New tactics and concepts will emerge, with spoofing and swarming to fool and overwhelm enemies. Strategies are changing too. When will an intelligent machine escalate, and how can it be deterred? Can robots predict the future? And what happens to the 'art of war' as machines themselves become creative?
Autonomous warfare makes many people uneasy. An international campaign against 'killer robots' hopes to ban AI from conflict. But the genie is out--AI weapons are too useful for states to outlaw. Still, crafting sensible rules for warbots is possible. This book shows how it might be done.
i-Battle is Joined
Authors: Payne Kenneth
Published: January 2022

Today’s AI will soon have an impact on the sorts of weapons and concepts employed in battle, altering the ‘fighting power’ of modern armed forces. Uninhabited platforms, like aircraft and submarines will work together in new ways, including swarming. Algorithms have already defeated top fighter pilots in simulated combat. There is much uncertainty over the implications, including for tactics, leadership, organizational structure and weapons design. Different national cultures will profoundly shape the way in which military AI is developed and deployed.
The Art of i-War
Authors: Payne Kenneth
Published: January 2022

Strategy requires creativity and imagination. AI can be creative in a limited sense, by exploring its domain and finding new, useful options. Human creativity is richer, with the potential to combine options in new ways, or even to transform the domain entirely.
Rules for Warbots
Authors: Payne Kenneth
Published: January 2022

Human ethics are a product of our evolution and cultural development. In warfare, they stress proportionality and discrimination. Justice in warfare is already imperfect, and will be further complicated by lethal, intelligent machines. Regulating warbots, however, will be tricky and perhaps impossible. There is too great an incentive to acquire AI weapons, and it would be easy to cheat on any agreement. One solution is to foster our own unilateral liberal norms, which would stress human control.
The Politician
Authors: Dollbaum Jan Matti , Lallouet Morvan , Noble Ben
Published: January 2022

This chapter traces Navalny’s political trajectory. Navalny started his career in the beginning of the 2000s in the liberal party Yabloko. Frustrated by the decline of the opposition in Russia, he embarked on a new course, attempting to combine liberalism and nationalism—a move that remains controversial to this day. The chapter follows Navalny’s political career by focusing on the ideas he has espoused, as well as the organisations he built and the strategies he adopted. Navalny came second in the 2013 Moscow mayoral elections, but soon became the victim of his relative success: he was barred from electoral and party politics altogether, being denied a place on the 2018 presidential election ballot. He was forced to devise alternative strategies, including a tactical voting project called “Smart Voting”. By putting Navalny’s trajectory in the context of evolving authoritarianism, the chapter sheds light on the last twenty years in Russian politics.
The Kremlin V. Navalny
Authors: Dollbaum Jan Matti , Lallouet Morvan , Noble Ben
Published: January 2022

Whereas previous chapters put Navalny and his movement front and centre, this chapter reverses the perspective, showing how the Kremlin has reacted to the challenges that Navalny and others have mounted against Putin’s authoritarian rule. The chapter focuses on five dimensions: public regime support; freedom of information; civil society; protest; and elections. The chapter documents: (1) how Putin has sought to build emotional connections with Russian citizens; (2) how the Kremlin has made it increasingly difficult to obtain information on officials and their alleged fortunes; (3) how civil society has been divided into those considered desirable and undesirable by the authorities; (4) how the Kremlin's approach to protest has changed from management to blatant repression; and (5) how the opposition and the Kremlin are engaged in an spiral of escalation, resulting in ever-decreasing space for independent politics. The chapter closes with an assessment of the nature of Russia’s political regime.
Navalny and the Future of Russia
Authors: Dollbaum Jan Matti , Lallouet Morvan , Noble Ben
Published: January 2022

This final chapter begins by charting developments following Navalny’s return to Russia in 2021: his detention, sentencing to time in jail, the protests these moves triggered, and his early days in a prison colony. The chapter then steps back, drawing together and reflecting on the different dimensions covered in individual chapters, including asking whether Navalny has achieved what he wanted in politics. The chapter also reflects on a number of questions raised in the book: Is Navalny a revolutionary? Is he a true democrat, a populist—or even a racist? The chapter concludes that the evolution of authoritarianism in Russia shows that the Kremlin takes Navalny and his movement extremely seriously. The chapter finally discusses the role the West could play in Navalny’s fate—and concludes that it will be limited: Navalny’s future will be decided in Russia.
Hinduism’s Black Atlantic itinerary
Authors: Shankar Shobana
Published: January 2022

This chapter explores how, since the 1970s, Ghanaians and Nigerians have found Indian religions to be attractive alternatives to Christianity and Islam and similar to African indigenous religions. They have also questioned religious orthodoxies, including casteism, Brahminism, purity taboos, and gender hierarchies. The Ghanaian-led Hindu Monastery of Africa features the first African Hindu monk Ghanananda to become a guru to African and Indian disciples. Another example is the American-origin Hare Krishna Movement (ISKCON). African exploration of Hinduism has allowed new Indian migrants from South India to Africa to openly celebrate religious rituals emphasizing folk practices and sexually ambiguous deities rejected by high-caste Hinduism. These new Indian migrants to West Africa embrace more social and cultural intercourse with Africans than earlier Indian diasporas did. These vibrant scenes are the little-recognized background for cultural dissent, anti-racism, and anti-casteism.
Conclusion
Authors: Shankar Shobana
Published: January 2022

A critical lever in African-Indian negotiations has been race as a changing and contested terrain: from challenging white supremacy to critiques of inequality within the Global South. Against this historical balancing act between Africa and India, alarmist cries over Asia’s new “scramble for Africa” seem to be an overreaction. Africans have negotiated with Indians on their own terms; Indians, including embassy staff in West Africa, recognize cultural and racial sensitivities arising from the history of the Indian diaspora in eastern and southern Africa. Although economic growth, improved relations with the U.S., and competition with China have brought India greater global influence in the neoliberal era, African migrants in India and critics in Africa and the diaspora challenge Indian power and protest historical racism in the #gandhimustfall movement, contemporary anti-Blackness in India and the Indian diaspora, and Hindu nationalism. African-Indian entanglements must be understood in all their complexity.
The Nasrids Foundation of a Dynasty
Authors: Rodgers Helen , Cavendish Stephen
Published: January 2022

This chapter shows how, as the majority of al-Andalus fell to the northern Iberian Christian kingdoms, Granada survived as an independent emirate for another 250 years. This was due in no small part to the military and diplomatic skills of the early Nasrid kings. Ibn al-Ahmar, a farmer from the area around Jaen became the first of these and he laid the foundations for what was to be the jewel in Granada’s crown: the Alhambra. Later rulers would add to this imposing fortress, bringing to it an aspect to the Nasrid dynasty for which they are famed: their love for art and poetry. This period saw alliances made and broken between the first Nasrid kings and their Castilian counterparts Ferdinand III and Alfonso X, and attempts on the part of the Christians to destabilize the ruling family through alliances with the rebellious Malaga branch of the Nasrids, the Banu Ashquilula.
The Nasrids Splendour and Decline
Authors: Rodgers Helen , Cavendish Stephen
Published: January 2022

This chapter looks at Granada’s most glorious period, as well as charting the start of its decline. During the reigns of Yusuf I and his son Muhammad V, the Nasrid dynasty reached its heights. This was the period when three poet-viziers decorated the walls of the Alhambra with its celebrated poetry. During this period Granada attracted visitors of the renown of Ibn Battuta and Ibn Khaldun, and its silk industry was celebrated far and wide. But these years of glory were not to last; by the fifteenth century, infighting between rival branches of the Nasrids was causing instability in the kingdom and this would eventually allow the Christian kingdoms to the north to resume the Reconquista.
The Reconquista
Authors: Rodgers Helen , Cavendish Stephen
Published: January 2022

This chapter covers the final decade of the Nasrid dynasty, as one by one towns across the emirate fell to the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, recently united through the marriage of Isabella and Ferdinand. It wasn’t just Christian attacks that brought about the end of Muslim Granada; the city’s chances of survival were also diminished through infighting within the ruling family itself. Records from the time, including that of Hernando de Baeza, Boabdil’s Castilian translator, provide fascinating accounts of events within the kingdom, such as the infamous murder of the Abencerrajes inside the Alhambra.
Horace I, King of Granada
Authors: Rodgers Helen , Cavendish Stephen
Published: January 2022

This chapter focuses on Granada during the time of the French occupation of Spain, when Napoleon’s General Sebastiani, a great admirer of the Orient, took up residence as Granada’s governor. He greeted visitors in the style, he supposed, of a Moorish King and his fascination for the Moorish heritage of the city was trumped only by his modernizing zeal. During this period, Granada saw both progress and destruction. Street lighting appeared for the first time, and gardens were laid out; however, art and valuables were looted and some of Granada’s most important monuments were drastically changed. This included during the final act of French withdrawal: when large stretches of the Alhambra walls were blown up, causing more destruction to the great monument in one morning than all the years of neglect following the culmination of the Reconquista.