bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Red algal cellular biomass lowers circulating cholesterol concentrations in Syrian golden hamsters consuming hypercholesterolaemic diets
Authors: Harding Scott V. , Zhao Hai Lin , Marinangeli Christopher P. F. , Day Anthony G. , Dillon Harrison F. , Jain Deepak , Jones Peter J. H.
Published: June 2009

Preliminary evidence suggests that consumption ofPorphyridium cruentum(PC) biomass results in hypocholesterolaemic effects; however, mechanisms responsible have not been elucidated. The aim of the present study was to determine whether PC biomass lowers circulating cholesterol concentrations, dose dependently, in hamsters fed hypercholesterolaemic diets for 28 d and determine whether cholesterol biosynthesis is affected. Biomass added to diets at 2·5, 5 and 10 % resulted in 14, 38 and 53 % reductions (P < 0·001) in total plasma cholesterol, respectively, compared with a control diet. Similarly, non-HDL-cholesterol concentrations in the 5 and 10 % PC groups were reduced (P < 0·001) 28 and 45 %, respectively,v.controls. These effects were unrelated to cholesterol fractional synthesis rate (FSR), as this did not differ between either treatment or control animals. PC consumption had no effect on food intake, plasma glucose concentrations or energy expenditure, but percentage of body fat was lower (P < 0·001) in the 5 and 10 % PC groups compared with controls. These data show that PC reduces total plasma cholesterol and non-HDL-cholesterol when incorporated into the diet at levels as low as 2·5 %. The mechanism of action for this reduction may be related to increased excretion since food intakes and cholesterol FSR were not reduced in the animals receiving the PC. In conclusion, the use of PC biomass reduces circulating cholesterol, dose dependently, in hypercholesterolaemic hamsters but not via reductions in cholesterol FSR. There is potential for the use of this biomass as a functional ingredient to aid in the management of blood cholesterol concentrations.
New material of dsungaripterid pterosaurs (Pterosauria: Pterodactyloidea) from western Mongolia and its palaeoecological implications
Authors: LÜ JUNCHANG , AZUMA YOICHI , DONG ZHIMING , BARSBOLD RINCHEN , KOBAYASHI YOSHITSUGU , LEE YUONG-NAM
Published: June 2009

New material of dsungaripterid pterosaurs from the Early Cretaceous of Tatal, western Mongolia, allows the diagnoses of Dsungaripteridae andNoripterusto be amended. All pterosaurs found at Tatal belong to Dsungaripteridae (eitherDsungaripterusorNoripterus). The namePhobetoris a junior synonym ofNoripterus. The differing shapes of the anterior tips of skulls, differing tooth morphologies and the coexistence of bothDsungaripterusandNoripterusmay imply that they occupied distinct ecological niches.
Skeletal carbonate productivity and phosphogenesis at the lower–middle Cambrian transition of Scania, southern Sweden
Authors: ÁLVARO J. JAVIER , AHLBERG PER , AXHEIMER NIKLAS
Published: June 2009

The lower–middle Cambrian transitional interval of Scania is largely represented by condensed limestone beds, lithostratigraphically grouped in the Gislöv Formation (1–5.7 m thick), and the Forsemölla and Exsulans Limestone beds (lower part of the Alum Shale Formation, up to 4 m thick). The strata display a combination of skeletal carbonate productivity, episodic nucleation of phosphate hardground nodules, and polyphase reworking recorded on a platform bordering the NW corner of Baltica. The shell accumulations can be subdivided into three deepening-upward parasequences, separated by distinct erosive unconformities. The parasequences correspond biostratigraphically to theHolmia kjerulfi,Ornamentaspis?linnarssoniandPtychagnostus gibbuszones, the latter two generally being separated by a stratigraphic gap that includes the middle CambrianAcadoparadoxides oelandicusSuperzone. Except for the Exsulans Limestone, the carbonates reflect development of a prolific epibenthic biota, dominated by filter-feeding nonreefal chancelloriid–echinoderm–sponge meadows, rich in trilobites and brachiopods, and which were subjected to high-energy conditions. The absence of microbial mats or veneers encrusting the erosive surfaces of these event-concentration low-relief shoal complexes may be related to long hiatal episodes resulting in microboring proliferation. High levels of nutrient supply resulted in high primary productivity, eutrophic conditions, glauconite precipitation, phosphogenesis (in some case microbially mediated) and microendolithic infestation. An early-diagenetic mildly reducing environment is suggested by the presence of authigenic (subsequently reworked) pyrite, which contrasts with the syndepositional normal oxygenated conditions reflected by macroburrowing and the abundance of benthic fossils.
Nasopharyngeal amyloidosis: an unusual cause for epistaxis
Authors: Oluk M A , Murphy J
Published: June 2009

Objective:

We report the first case of nasal and nasopharyngeal amyloidosis secondary to multiple myeloma; this case also represents the fourth report of systemic nasal or nasopharyngeal amyloidosis.

Method:

Case report and review of the world literature concerning nasal and nasopharyngeal amyloidosis epidemiology, presentation and management.

Results:

Nasal and nasopharyngeal amyloidosis is rare. The presentation, clinical course and treatment are discussed for the presented patient. The amyloid tumour, which recurred in correlation with the progressive transformation of the multiple myeloma, was treated surgically. Subsequent localised radiotherapy decreased the size and growth rate of the tumour.

Conclusion:

Amyloid should be considered as a cause of resistant or recurrent epistaxis provided a mass lesion is seen on radiological imaging. Radiotherapy may be a treatment option in nasal and nasopharyngeal amyloidosis.
Solar coronal heating by plasma waves
Authors: BINGHAM R. , SHUKLA P. K. , ELIASSON B. , STENFLO L.
Published: June 2009

The solar coronal plasma is maintained at temperatures of millions of degrees, much hotter than the photosphere, which is at a temperature of just 6000 K. In this paper, the plasma particle heating based on the kinetic theory of wave–particle interactions involving kinetic Alfvén waves and lower-hybrid drift modes is presented. The solar coronal plasma is collisionless and therefore the heating must rely on turbulent wave heating models, such as lower-hybrid drift models at reconnection sites or the kinetic Alfvén waves. These turbulent wave modes are created by a variety of instabilities driven from below. The transition region at altitudes of about 2000 km is an important boundary chromosphere, since it separates the collision-dominated photosphere/chromosphere and the collisionless corona. The collisionless plasma of the corona is ideal for supporting kinetic wave–plasma interactions. Wave–particle interactions lead to anisotropic non-Maxwellian plasma distribution functions, which may be investigated by using spectral analysis procedures being developed at the present time.
Treating Drug Takers: What Results and Relapse Rates Don't Tell Us
Authors: Paxton Roger
Published: June 2009

People who take heroin, morphine, and other drugs of this type — the opioids — present difficult problems to the therapist. One London drug clinic psychiatrist described them as, “feckless and irresponsible” and even “chronic and untreatable” (Bewley, 1973). The results of treatments summarised below may seem to support these gloomy views, but alternative explanations for drug takers' behaviour in terms of pharmacological and social reinforcement contingencies are possible (e.g. Solomon and Marshall, 1973). The issue is clearly more than academic. If we regard them as untreatable, why treat them? Many people do consider them treatable, and in this paper conventional and behavioural treatments are briefly discussed. It is suggested that although recent behavioural approaches have improved on other treatments they still leave some central questions unanswered.
The Planning And Implementation Of A Parent Training Group To Teach Child Management
Authors: Geddes Rosemary , Petts Ann
Published: June 2009

The following discussion relates our experience of teaching behavioural techniques of child management to single-parent mothers. We found that these mothers were able to conceptualize the theories of child behaviour and apply them successfully to their own children through the use of behavioural programmes.

In teaching behavioural techniques to parents we had the following aims in mind:

1. To initiate behavioural change

2. To maintain behavioural change

3. To foster the group members' ability to anticipate future problems and to deal with these with the minimum of professional advice. Firmer control of their children would result in greater feelings of self confidence for the mothers.
When is a Behavioural Therapist not a Behavioural Therapist?
Authors: Butt T. W. , Sedlak Z. V.
Published: June 2009

A major stimulus to our paper has been our recent observation of Dr. Vic Meyer at a behavioural workshop. We are concerned therefore with the types of clinical problems which are presented by self-referred “neurotic”, primarily out-patient population. Dr. Meyer particularly excites our interest, since he is a clinician in the instigative mould which we favour. Furthermore he seems to have overcome, for himself at least, the problems we wish to discuss. We are uncomfortable with his claim, however, that he has done so by a rigid adherence to the sort of S-R behaviourist psychology that we can find in textbooks such as Kimble (1967) and other basic learning texts. We feel it to be important to spell out those areas where the term “behavioural” is ascribed to procedures which do not owe their origin to behaviour therapy and is used in some way to authorise and to furnish a rather empty post hoc description of them.
Critical Variables in Token Economy Systems: A Review of the Literature and a Description of Current Research
Authors: Fraser Douglas
Published: June 2009

There can be little doubt that ward-based operant programmes have achieved considerable success in relieving the handicaps of many chronic schizophrenic patients (Atthowe and Krasner, 1965; Ayllon and Azrin, 1968; Kazdin, 1977). In addition, there are now several comparative studies of the token economy (T.E.) and the more traditional therapeutic approaches. Osborne and Adams (1970), found improvements in certain target areas when a reinforcement programme was compared with the traditional form of institutional control in a school for the deaf. Further evidence for the superiority of operant methods over social therapy techniques is provided by Stoffelmayr, Faulkner and Mitchell (1973). The T.E. programme which they implemented, differed from the two social therapy regimes with which it was compared, primarily in that the programmes were devised, specifying the behaviours which were to be encouraged and in that these behaviours when they occurred, were systematically reinforced. The results showed that when the two forms of treatment were compared using direct observation and rating scale techniques, the T.E. regime was superior to social therapy in promoting the following changes: an increase in social interaction, a decrease in apathy (operationally defined), and an increase in self help skills.
Ethics, Procedures and Contingency Management
Authors: Hall John
Published: June 2009

The recognition that psychological theories, and methods of behaviour change derived from them, are value laden seems to be relatively recent. Vine (1977) has commented on the fact that ethical questions receive the least attention of any topic area in psychology examination questions. He believes that psychologists “are evidently impervious to all those many critics of psychology who object to our irresponsible methodologies, to our philosophical ignorance in recognising that data are theory-laden, and to our frequent and unrecognised prostitution of our discipline” (Vine, 1977, p.377). In view of attempts at restriction of behaviour modification practice already made in the United States and in Britain, it becomes a professional necessity, not a mere armchair luxury, to assess the ethical status of behaviour modification procedures.
Token Economy Research at St. Crispins Hospital
Authors: Elliott Peter
Published: June 2009

We have been engaged in running token economies at St. Crispin Hospital for four years; the initial impetus coming from a Research Grant from Oxford Regional Health Authority at the instigation of the Principal Psychologist here. The patient group we have concentrated on, is the severely chronic long stay male, averaging 25 to 30 years in the institution. In consequence, the goals of such schemes have so far been towards rehabilitation within the institution, by increasing the level of activities of chronically withdrawn patients and by restoring some of the most personal responsibilities for themselves, through the use of structured activities.
The evolution of a token economy in a Residential School for Maladjusted Junior Boys
Authors: Burland J. R.
Published: June 2009

Chelfham Mill School, Barnstaple, Devon, is a residential school designed on behavioural principles. (Burland, 1976). It is an independent residential school for 46 maladjusted boys aged 7–12 years with I.Q. range 70–95. The boys are referred through child guidance clinics and maintained by local education authorities. The staff consists of an educational psychologist, headteacher, deputy headteacher, social worker, 5 assistant teachers and 9 residential therapists. They have all been trained to use behaviour modification techniques and many of the staff have built up considerable practical expertise since the school was established in 1966.
Controlled Smoking: Models, Measures and Modification
Authors: Frederiksen Lee W.
Published: June 2009

There seems to be little doubt that smoking can be dangerous to your health. A growing body of scientific data has linked the excessive use of tobacco to an increased incidence of a wide range of disorders including cancer of the lung, bladder and oral cavity, cardiovascular disorders such as coronary heart disease and atherosclerosis and pulmonary disorders such as bronchitis and emphysema (USPHS, 1975, 1877). yet, the development of effective and durable treatments for smoking behavior has been an elusive goal. While there are some encouraging signs of progress, recent literature reviews (Bernstein & McAlister, 1976; Frederiksen & Simon, in press; Lichtenstein & Danaher, 1976) continue to conclude that the treatment of smoking is characterized by good initial success but very high rates of “relapse”. Despite our best efforts we are unable to effectively help anywhere from 20–80% of smokers attempting to quit. While the abovementioned reviewers agree that we do have far to go, they also argue that a “behavioral” approach offers us our best chance for advancement, both from a methodological and treatment outcome perspective.
Goal Choice of Alcoholics: Effects of Training Controlled Drinking Skills
Authors: Foy David W. , Rychtarik Robert G. , O'Brien Thomas P. , Nunn L. Bruce
Published: June 2009

Alcohol treatment outcome studies during the past twenty years have consistently reported that some alcoholics treated via abstinence orientated approaches obtain controlled responsible drinking (Selzer & Holloway, 1957; Bailey & Stewart, 1967; Davies, 1962). Moreover, recent outcome research suggests that controlled drink training may be an effective treatment at least for some abusive drinkers (e.g., Armour, Polich & Stambul, 1976; Caddy, Addington & Perkins, 1978; Sobell & Sobell, 1973;Vogler, Compton & Weissbach, 1975). Controlled drinking as a viable treatment goal for alcoholics, however, remains an area of continued controversy which appears to involve three major issues: (a) Do controlled drinking goals increase the probability of abusive drinking dispositions (Blume, 1977); (b) Are there unique characteristics of those alcoholics choosing controlled drinking goals (Bell, 1963; Lloyd & Salzberg, 1975; Miller & Caddy, 1977; Nathan, 1976); and, (c) Will controlled drink training encourage alcoholics to “try their luck” at other-than-abstinence goals (i.e., will it induce, “… despondent alcoholics to rationalize that the therapeutic goal of reducing excessive drinking to socially acceptable dimensions may be more easily attainable than complete abstinence” (Thimann, 1963, p.325)?
The Unitary Approach and Behaviour Modification within the Social Work Repertoire
Authors: Hudson Barbara L.
Published: June 2009

I'm going to describe the unitary approach, a recent model for social work, and then use the model to pinpoint the place of behavioural procedures.

Social Work is — or aspires to be — a profession that carries out a planned change process aimed at helping people who are having difficulty with life tasks. These tasks range from coping emotionally and practically with the birth of a handicapped child, to keeping within the rules of society, to obtaining the basic supplies: food, shelter and satisfying personal relationships, and they require emotional, cognitive and material resources.
Group In-Vivo Exposure Augmented by the Counselling of Significant Others in the Treatment of Agoraphobia
Authors: Jones R. B. , Sinnott A. , Fordham Ann Scott
Published: June 2009

Various investigations into the relative effectiveness of different treatment procedures with agoraphobic patients (e.g. Emmelkamp, 1974; Emmelkamp and Wessels, 1975) have shown that in-vivo exposure is a common factor in successful aproaches. Emmelkamp (1974) has suggested that in-vivo exposure is the essential element of treatment which may eventually result in habituation. He has also demonstrated (Emmelkamp and Emmelkamp-Benner 1975) that group treatment can be just as effective as the same approach used individually, which has obvious implications for cost-efficiency.
Some myths about cognitive-behaviour modification
Authors: Marzillier John S.
Published: June 2009

The integration of cognitive processes and behaviour change methods, generically known as cognitive-behaviour modification, has sparked off a series of heated arguments about the status of this hybrid (Greenspoon and Lamal, 1978; Ledwidge, 1978; 1979 (a); (b); Mahoney, 1974; 1977; Mahoney and Kazdin 1979; Meichenbaum 1977; 1979; Rachlin, 1977(a); (b); Wolpe, 1976; 1978). At the considerable risk of adding fuel to an already inflamed debate, I have drawn up a list of myths which the opposition to cognitive-behaviour modification has promulgated. Myths are, of course, a potent source of influence, and I am not at all sanguine that labelling the lines of opposition to cognitive-behaviour modification as ‘myths’ will change peoples' cognitions or behaviour. Nevertheless, in the interests of academic debate, and indeed in the pursuit of truth,* I have listed what seem to me to be the essential fallacies in the arguments against the cognitive-behavioural movement.
A Parent Group for Parents of Mentally Handicapped Children
Authors: Hutchings Judy , Fearns Keith , Williams John
Published: June 2009

This paper is a description of one parent teaching group and what we and the parents did. The group was run by a psychologist and two social workers.

In Gwynedd a service for mentally handicapped people is developing. For most of the pre-school children and some of the older ones this includes a Portage type home visiting where usually a psychologist and a specialist community nurse or sometimes a social worker visit and help the parents to set goals and teach new behaviour to their handicapped relatives. Often, too, they are trying to help parents to cope with difficult behaviour.
Meta-analysis of Comparative Therapy Outcome Research: a Critical Appraisal
Authors: Shapiro David A. , Shapiro Diana
Published: June 2009

Meta-analysis is a systematic and quantitative approach to reviewing empirical literature. Its claimed benefits of superior objectivity and dependability arise from its adoption of the methodological principles and methods of primary empirical research. This paper offers a critical appraisal of these claims, with special reference to the application of meta-analysis to the therapy outcome literature. Features examined include the numerical combination of results obtained in independent studies; search procedures and inclusion criteria; and the coding of objective and qualitative features of the source studies, which are then used to study the correlates of outcome via disaggregation and multiple regression analysis. The major criticisms reviewed include allegations of overgeneralization, indiscriminate inclusion of low quality data, and idiosyncratic and unacceptable conclusions. It is concluded that the continued application and refinement of meta-analysis in the field of therapy outcomes has an important contribution to make, although not to the exclusion of other methods of integrating data. It is predicted that methods and principles currently associated with meta-analysis will increasingly find a place in all reviews of extensive tracts of empirical literature.
A Comparison of two Methods of Teaching Behaviour Modification to Mental Handicap Nurses
Authors: Milne Derek L.
Published: June 2009

The purpose of this experiment, carried out with 24 subjects in a matched groups design, was to evaluate two alternative forms of nurse training in behaviour modification. Knowledge, attitude and a simulated applied measure were administered before and after two 3-day workshops with a structured interview at 6-month follow-up. The knowledge and applied measures indicated significant improvements in the “active” group only. There were no significant changes on the attitude measure for any of the four groups. Follow-up data provided criterion validity for the simulated applied measure and also suggested that nurses had retained their knowledge of behaviour modification.
The Use of a Token Economy to Regulate Household Behaviours
Authors: Masterson John F. , Vaux Alan C.
Published: June 2009

The failure of a high proportion of experimental communities has been attributed to disagreements among members about household chores. Differing performances and expectations frequently result in the household ceasing to be a pleasant place in which to live. The present study was carried out in a household of five graduate students. A point system based on the principles of the token economy was used to maintain required levels of behaviour in all members. Removal of the system for 2 weeks resulted in the total amount of work done remaining unchanged, but its distribution among the members changing immediately. Within the system problems could be solved by increasing or decreasing the points values of the behaviours in question. One such experiment, which successfully increased the number of original meals prepared by members, is described.
The Youth Club Project: a Community-Based Intervention for Shy Adolescents
Authors: Jackson Mary F. , Marzillier John S.
Published: June 2009

A therapeutic youth club incorporating two forms of social skills training was set up for shy adolescents. The practicalities of setting up the club are described. A preliminary evaluation of its effectiveness suggested that it was favourably received by the participants. A comparison between an active form of social skills training, involving behaviour role-play and feedback, and a discussion form, did not differentiate between the two types of training. Further evaluation research of the youth club is suggested by these preliminary findings.
The Management of Urinary Inhibition in Public by Graduated in vivo Exposure and Self-monitoring
Authors: Taylor Ian
Published: June 2009

In vivo exposure techniques have been applied to problems of urinary inhibition (or retention) in public on a number of occasions with considerable success (Lamontagne and Marks, 1973; Anderson, 1977; Ascher, 1979). In the present case-study in vivo exposure was combined with self-monitoring in the management of such a urinary difficulty.
Thought-stopping for Delusions and Hallucinations: A Pilot Study
Authors: Lamontagne Yves , Audet Nicole , Elie† Robert
Published: June 2009

A pilot controlled study was designed to evaluate the efficacy of the thought-stopping technique (T.S.) as a treatment for persecutory delusions and auditory hallucinations with chronic schizophrenics already treated with neuroleptics and to compare this combination with patients only treated with antipsychotic drugs. Medication was standardized for each patient and psychological measurements were recorded before and after treatment and during a 6-month follow-up. Results show significant differences in favor of the T.S. group mainly after treatment. Although T.S. was beneficial for chronic psychotics, other studies should be conducted with patients whose illness would be less severe and less chronic. The length of treatment as well as the cues that would serve to stop delusions and hallucinations also merit further investigation.
The Paradoxical Fear Response to Blood, Injury and Illness—A Treatment Report
Authors: Wardle Jane , Jarvis Martin
Published: June 2009

Stimuli related to blood, injury and illness (BII) evoke a unique psychophysiological response, with signs of both sympathetic and parasympathetic arousal. Fainting, which occurs commonly in BII phobias, may represent the extreme of this reponse pattern. Data from the assessment and cognitive–behavioural treatment of a BII phobic subject are presented. At assessment the patient showed a massive bradycardia and near loss of consciousness on exposure to blood. This responded rapidly to treatment, although with some desynchrony between subjective and autonomic responses.
A Case of Severe Obsessive–Compulsive Behaviour Treated by Nurse Therapists in an In-Patient Unit
Authors: de L. Horne David J. , McTiernan Gabriel , Strauss Nigel H. M.
Published: June 2009

The patient was an 18-year-old girl with a 2-year history of incapacitating Obsessive–compulsive avoidance behaviour for a severe germ phobia. Previous in-patient admissions had failed to produce any improvement. There were no staff in the hospital where she was admitted with any expertise in behaviour therapy so the author was called in as an outside consultant to advise on possible treatment.

A full assessment was made of the patient and the basic behavioural ideas of “modelling”, “flooding” and “avoidance behaviours” were introduced to the entire ward staff. It was decided to employ the ward sisters as the main therapists who were to act as “models”. Target behaviours for change were selected with the patient and baselines obtained before active treatment commenced. Target behaviours were handwashing, time spent in toilet, amount of toilet paper used, rituals before, during, and after showering. In addition, a “germ contamination” hierarchy was constructed. By the 18th week of in-patient treatment, all target behaviours, except going to the toilet to defecate, were under control. This latter behaviour eventually responded well several months later when she was no longer an in-patient. At 2-year follow-up, this girl was entirely free of all “germ” phobias and the associated obsessional avoidance and decontamination rituals.
A Role-Play Test of Parent–Child Interaction
Authors: Thorley Geoff , Yule William
Published: June 2009

A test instrument is presented which utilises role-play techniques to assess parenting skills in terms of behaviour modification techniques. The validity of the test is confirmed by its ability to measure established parenting skills as well as those acquired in a parent training exercise. The test should prove to be particularly useful in evaluating parent training programmes.
An Evaluation of Operant Training and Speech Therapy in the Language Rehabilitation of Moderate Aphasics
Authors: Lincoln N. B. , Pickersgill M. J. , Hankey A. I. , Hilton C. R.
Published: June 2009

Twenty-four moderately asphasic stroke patients attending a rehabilitation centre were treated for 4 weeks with speech therapy and for 4 weeks with either an operant training procedure, based on that devised by Goodkin (1966), or an attention placebo non-specific treatment. Speech therapy was given first to half the patients, while a quarter received operant training first and a quarter non-specific treatment. Results indicated no significant differences between the treatments. These treated patients were also compared in improvements in language abilities with nine moderately aphasic patients from hospitals with very limited speech therapy services. No significant differences between “treated” and “untreated” groups were found over a 4-week period. All groups of patients, however, showed some significant improvements in language abilities.
A Behavioural Treatment of Blepharospasm: Two Case Reports
Authors: Fielding Richard , Gunary Rachel
Published: June 2009

Blepharospasm is a distressing condition, characterized by a repetitive and spasmodic closing of the eyes, and/or an inability to open the eyes after blinking. The aetiology of the disorder remains obscure. The available literature tends towards viewing the condition as arising from or associated with neuropathological processes. Two cases of blepharospasm are presented here. Both were managed along purely behavioural lines, using massed practice and relaxation techniques. The results obtained strongly suggest a learning model, rather than a neuropathological model may best explain the condition. Possible mechanisms for the development and maintenance of blepharospasm are discussed.
Behavioral Concepts and Treatments of Neuroses: Comments on Marks
Authors: Wilson G. Terence
Published: June 2009

Marks's paper covers a wide range of different theoretical, clinical and methodological issues in the behavioral approach to the conceptualization and treatment of neurotic disorders. Accordingly, in response to the Editor's request to comment briefly on the paper, I shall necessarily be selective in the points I make, referring the reader to more extended discussions of these issues in other sources. Specifically, I address the following points: the applicability of behavior therapy; the nature and function of its theoretical underpinnings; research strategies; and recommendations for service delivery and training.
The Effects of Instructions and Reinforcement on the Handwriting of a 13-Year-Old Child in a Remedial School
Authors: Masterson John F. , Earls Helen , Taylor Deidre
Published: June 2009

The effects of instructions and reinforcement on the handwriting of a 13-year-old boy in special education were studied. Both variables were found to be effective. A simple scoring method was used. It was found that the scoring system was easily learned by the child, and was sufficiently reliable to merit continued use under certain circumstances.
Some Psychophysiological Issues in Behavioural Psychotherapy
Authors: Sartory Gudrun
Published: June 2009

Behaviour therapists are using psychophysiological measures to an increasing extent for evaluation of treatment outcome. The main areas of use which are discussed here comprise measures and concepts of treatment of phobic anxiety and clinical application of biofeedback procedures. Finally, a brief summary of measures of sexual arousal is given at the end.
The Use of Goal-Planning in a Group Home for Mentally Handicapped Adults
Authors: James Helen
Published: June 2009

A 1-year training programme carried out in a group home for mentally handicapped adults is described. A system of goal-planning was used, so that individual goals could be regularly set for clients and their progress monitored. Choice of goals was governed by an attempt to encourage clients to become more independent and more involved with the local community. The success of the training programme is described and the usefulness of the goal-planning procedure is discussed. Implications for residential care services are also briefly considered.
An Examination of the Effectiveness of Instructional Training and Response Cost Procedures in Controlling the Inappropriate Behaviour of Male Schizophrenic Patients
Authors: Fraser Douglas , Black David , Cockram Linda
Published: June 2009

The effectiveness of instructional training and response cost procedures in reducing the frequency of performance of a range of inappropriate behaviours in a group of nine long-term schizophrenic patients was examined in three distinct settings. Instructional training was found to be generally effective in controlling inappropriate behaviour. The effects of a combined instructional training and response cost procedure in further reducing the level of performance of inappropriate behaviour were confined to a small sub-group of patients and were only demonstrated in one specific setting.

Issues relating to the systematic nature of the instructional training procedure, to maintenance of change and to the role of response cost are discussed.
Why do Conditioned Responses Show Incrementation, while Unconditioned Responses Show Habituation?
Authors: Eysenck H. J.
Published: June 2009

This is a series of short invited contributions from therapists and research workers who have volunteered to answer the following question: “If your fairy godmother were to wave her magic wand and give you an immediate answer to a question or questions, without having to do the relevant research, what would you most like to know?”
A Brief Comment on Meta-analyses of Psychotherapy Outcome Research
Authors: Rachman S.
Published: June 2009

The article by Shapiro and Shapiro (1982) published in Behavioural Psychotherapy is one of three, or possibly four, which they have written on the subject of meta-analytic approaches to the evaluation of psychotherapy. Commenting on each of their articles would be burdensome for critics and tedious for readers. Wilson and Rachman (1982) have already written an evaluation of the Shapiros' position, and as Wilson (1982) gives an incisive and comprehensive critique of their Behavioural Psychotherapy article, I will confine myself to a few brief remarks.
Some Normative Goals for Conversation Training
Authors: Lindsay William R.
Published: June 2009

The conversation of three small groups of manual workers was observed in order to provide tangible goals for conversation training. A wide range of conversation styles emerged from the data, providing ranges of responding for various behaviours like percentages of short initiations, longer initiations, questions and length of latencies. Ranges of responding were also shown for the patterns of certain types of conversation involving initiations and reactions to these utterances. Despite the wide ranges of style in the conversation of the normal groups, their behaviour was in marked contrast to three small groups of socially inept psychiatric patients, in that, the patients were discrepant on every index of social behaviour. The study provides clear targets for conversation training programmes in terms of both the frequencies with which patients should engage in behaviour and the patterns of utterances with which patients might respond. To illustrate the way in which the data act as goals, patient groups are compared before and after treatment
The Generalization of Parent Responding to Community Settings: The Effects of Instructions, Plus Feedback, and Self-management Training
Authors: Sanders Matthew R.
Published: June 2009

This study examined the generalization effects of two parent training phases (instructions plus feedback and self-management training) on parents implementation of behavior modification skills in extra training settings in the community. Using a multiple baseline design across families two families were sequentially introduced to each training condition. Instructions plus feedback provided home-based training to the parents in both stimulus control techniques (instruction giving, prompting) and the use of consequences (reinforcement reprimands, extinction and time-out). Self-management training involved teaching parents to manage their own behavior in specific parenting situations. Training involved teaching parents self-monitoring, goal setting, and planning skills specific to their performance of parenting skills in a range of community settings.
The Use Made of Treatment: an Alternative Approach to the Evaluation of Alcoholism Services
Authors: Yates Fred E. , Norris Hugh
Published: June 2009

Despite much evaluative research on alcoholism services, the effectiveness of treatment is still an unsettled matter. The inconclusive results of empirical studies comparing different methods and extensive statistical analysis of their findings do not point a clear way forward for future evaluative efforts. Using a sample of follow-up data from an evaluation study of three residential units (not considered here) this report sets out to demonstrate that dynamics in individual drinking patterns make surveys of studies which have applied different outcome criteria very unreliable. The feasibility of the single controlled study in evaluation is also questioned and attributed to the inappropriate use of a “quality control” model. An alternative approach which avoids the methodological and practical difficulties of the conventional design examines the use made of treatment by clients. A more realistic account based on individual cases is urged which recognizes that seeking help for a drink problem is only one of a number of ways in which the treatment episode fits into the lives of problem drinkers. Some observational evidence is presented and a reinterpretation of Costello' successful and unsuccessful treatment groupings is made in support of a treatment-use approach to evaluation.
Treatment of Obsessions: Relevant v. Irrelevant Exposure
Authors: Emmelkamp Paul M. G. , Giesselbach Piet
Published: June 2009

Six patients suffering from obsessional ruminations were treated with prolonged exposure in imagination. Two variants were compared in a cross-over design: (1) relevant exposure, consisting of exposure to the obsessions and (2) irrelevant exposure, consisting of exposure to ordinary frightening experiences. Relevant exposure proved to be significantly superior to irrelevant exposure. The data of this study suggest that habituation training by means of prolonged exposure to obsessions is a valuable treatment but not the panacea for the treatment of obsessional ruminations.
The Late Betting Phenomenon in Relation to Type of Bet and Type of Race
Authors: Saunders Daniel M.
Published: June 2009

A survey of 982 betting slips collected within a U.K. bookmaker's office concluded that the vast majority of bets were placed just before the start, or off, of a race. Further analysis revealed that the shorter the race the nearer the majority of bets were placed to the off. Three types of bet were identified: the single bet that involved the backing of one runner in one race (type 1), the multiple bet that involved the backing of more than one runner in a single race (type 2), and the accumulator bet that involved the backing of one runner in each race but over a succession of races (type 3). It was concluded that for horse racing the majority of late bets were type 1, whereas in dog racing most late bets were of the type 2 variety. These results are discussed with reference to a number of theoretical interpretations.
Issues in the Training and Evaluation of Behaviour Modification Skills for Staff Working with Profoundly Retarded Multiply Handicapped Children
Authors: Hogg J. , Foxen T. , McBrien J.
Published: June 2009

Kiernan and Riddick's programme for training operant techniques was employed to teach behaviour modification to a variety of staff in a children's mental handicap hospital. The aim was to evaluate the course in relation to a carefully defined group of profoundly retarded multiply handicapped children. Evaluation of the course is described and significant improvement in trainees' skills with respect to the use of physical prompting and reinforcement noted. Some problems of staff in implementing the learnt technique are considered. Finally, the relation between the applicability of behavioural techniques and the characteristics of profoundly retarded multiply handicapped children is considered in the light of more detailed studies of their learning characteristics.
The Evaluation of Parent Intervention with Young Handicapped Children
Authors: Berry Ian , Wood Jim
Published: June 2009

The lack of a suitable technique and inadequate data from previous studies presents problems for the practitioner attempting to evaluate parent mediated intervention. Parent-training schemes tend to be either research oriented or service based. The evaluation of a long-term service presents difficulties while research work has limited application to studies of child change or parent–child interaction and attitude change. Teaching parents behavioural methods usually leads to positive child change therefore emphasis must now move to evaluating the teaching skills parents develop by being trained. Difficulties inherent in the use of multiple-success criteria and various modes of measurement are noted. Observational analysis, using V.T.R., is the most useful technique since it provides a direct record of the skills parents acquire. A practical system for evaluating parent behavioural training is suggested which can be adopted by the practitioner.
Effects of Training for Manuscript Handwriting on Generalization to Cursive Handwriting
Authors: Kau-To Leung Esther , Treblas Pat V. , Cooper John O. , Porter Jennifer Trap
Published: June 2009

A multiple baseline design across subjects was employed to study the effects of training for manuscript handwriting on cursive letter formation. Ten first grade students received training to increase their accuracy in manuscript writing. Following training, all 10 students demonstrated increased accuracy in untrained cursive letter formation. Cursive letters were practiced but untrained in that no feedback on correctness was given at any session.
Obsessions: an Experimental Investigation of Thought-stopping and Habituation Training
Authors: Likierman H. , Rachman S.
Published: June 2009

Several clinical deductions drawn from a 3-systems analysis of obsessions were tested in an experiment on 12 patients, each of whom received four sessions of habituation training or thought-stopping. The major predictions received only weak and inconsistent support. Moreover, the intrasession changes tended to fade in the inter-session intervals, and there were few signs of therapeutic advance.
The Effect of Sex Education with Disturbed Adolescents
Authors: Crawford David A. , Howells Kevin
Published: June 2009

The effects of a structured sex education programme on the knowledge and attitudes of a group of disturbed adolescent offenders with sexual problems were assessed. Sex education was found to improve sexual knowledge significantly, to lessen anxiety associated with sexual intercourse, and to produce a less anxious self concept. Sex education had no significant effect on sexual interest.
The Concept of Generalization in Behaviour Therapy
Authors: Lindsay William R. , Stoffelmayr Bertram E.
Published: June 2009

Several writers have been interested in the extent to which behaviour therapy techniques are derived from the principles of learning. The present paper reviews this issue with respect to stimulus generalization and response generalization in behaviour therapy. Generalization has been a problem because many therapists have reported that newly learned skills and behaviours have not transferred outside the treatment situation to settings in the patients' or clients' life. Reviewing the literature on stimulus generalization it is concluded that in research on learning theory, stimulus generalization is shown to occur along a single stimulus dimension while in the behaviour therapy literature researchers often attempt to produce generalization across many stimulus dimensions simultaneously and as a result generalization may be poor. It is suggested that subsequent therapy and research should be designed so that treatment situations and generalization situations differ on as few stimulus dimensions as possible, thus maximizing the probability of generalization. With respect to response generalization it is felt that the concept is weak as an explanation for behaviour change and it may be more useful to consider that behaviours are functionally related, so that changes in behaviour A will produce changes in behaviour B or that covert responses may account for changes in untreated behaviours. Finally, a recommendation is made that therapists be more precise about the stimulus dimensions along which they wish behaviour to generalize.
Beyond Hero-Innovation: Real Change in Unreal Systems
Authors: Praill Tony , Baldwin Steve
Published: June 2009

Properties of “traditional service systems” are compared with properties that might be expected to produce “consumer-orientated” services. Identification of necessary goals and processes to change traditional services to consumer-orientated services is a complex activity. Blueprints for individual systems are not offered; however, an attempt has been made to identify general guidelines which may be of use to practitioners who wish to initiate change.
The Effect of Different Combinations of Continuous and Partial Reinforcement Schedules on Response Persistence in Mentally Handicapped Children
Authors: Tierney Kevin J. , Smith Howard V.
Published: June 2009

Two experiments investigated the effects on persistence of behaviour in extinction of different training procedures, using mentally handicapped boys who were trained to place objects of different shapes into matching holes in a box for sensory reinforcers. In Experiment 1 two subjects were given three training procedures: (i) a C-C procedure, consisting of 80 trials of continuous reinforcement (CRF); (ii)a P-P procedure, consisting of 80 trials of variable ratio reinforcement (VR5); and (iii) a C-P procedure, consisting of 40 trials on CRF followed by 40 on VR5. Extinction occurred most quickly after C-C training, next quickest after P-P training. In experiment 2 with four boys, C-P training of 160 trials of CRF, followed by 120 trials of VR5, produced quicker extinction than P-P training of 280 trials of VR5 reinforcement. The implications of these results for training persistent behaviour in mentally handicapped people are discussed.
On the Validity of the Animal Model for Exposure Therapy (Flooding)
Authors: Baum Morrie
Published: June 2009

The generality of exposure effects in animal laboratory studies is reviewed. The validity of the animal model for exposure therapy is assessed using Bond's (1984) criteria. The specific criticisms of the animal model raised by Isaac Marks are responded to and discussed. It is concluded that the animal model for exposure therapy is substantially valid.
Extinction of Craving During Exposure to Drug-related Cues: Three Single Case Reports
Authors: Bradley Brendan P. , Moorey Stirling
Published: June 2009

Two opiate abusers and a solvent abuser were exposed to drug-related cues. Self-rated craving showed habituation within all sessions, although there was considerable variability between subjects in the time-course. Habituation between sessions also occurred, although this was less consistent. The level of craving was reduced in one case by a distraction procedure. Cognitive factors were investigated. For one subject anticipation of the stimulus led to high craving while for all three subjects drug-related imagery was associated with high levels of craving. Dysphoric mood states led to a re-emergence of craving (dishabituation) in two cases. One subject showed objective signs, and reported symptoms of opiate withdrawal during the exposure sessions. He had also shown needle-freak behaviour where the syringe and needle produced drugagonistic effects (pleasant, comfortable feelings or excitement). Implications of these results for the treatment of addiction are discussed.