bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Passing On
Authors: Rose Francis
Published: October 2023

Increasing attention has been given recently to the situation where a plaintiff charges to a third party (or, more commonly in practice, a number of third parties) a payment made to a defendant for which the defendant should make restitution. For example, the plaintiff raises the prices payable by third party customers in order to pay a tax unlawfully levied by a defendant revenue authority. If the plaintiff is entitled to restitution from the defendant, can the defendant plead as a defence that the plaintiff has passed on the burden of the tax to third parties? The situations in which the issue of passing on has arisen are ones in which the defendant has been liable either to restore his enrichment in full (e.g., where a totally invalid tax has been levied)1 or to restore part of his enrichment (e.g., where a tax has exceeded the lawful amount).2 The current inquiry is concerned only with the amount of such payments for which restitution is due.
Why Bulk Discounts in Multiple Offence Sentencing?
Authors: Areborg Nils J
Published: October 2023

The law of most countries provides for mitigation for first offenders, with the result that a repeat offender receives a more severe sentence. The law of most countries also provides for a discount where an offender has committed more than one crime and the court sentences him on one occasion for these. (I will use the term ‘bulk discount’ for such discounts.) For the recidivist, the second crime costs more than the first one. For the multiple offender, the second crime costs less than the first one.
Interpreting Interpretation
Authors: Moore Michael S
Published: October 2023

There is a simple life-cycle for metaphors. They are born of fresh insight about an unnoticed similarity, wither with over-use, and die by becoming so familiar that they are treated as established senses of words. Intellectual fashions are like metaphors in this respect. Although they may begin life fresh and full of promise, they eventually become the tired counters in a patter that prevents insight rather than conveys it.
Legislators’ Intentions and Unintentional Legislation
Authors: Waldron Jeremy
Published: October 2023

In this paper, I shall discuss the latest attempt in analytic jurisprudence to revive the view that reference to legislators’ intentions should play a role in the interpretation of statutes whose texts leave issues of meaning, purpose, or application unclear or controversial. I use ‘revive· advisedly: reference to legislative intention in one form or another is reasonably common among judges in the United States, and the appeal to ‘original intent’ is common too in the politics of American constitutional law. Philosophically, however, the idea of appealing beyond the statutory text to what legislators are thought to have intended has been subject to such powerful criticisms, most notably by Ronald Dworkin, that one is surprised to find it appearing again in anything other than a trivial form in respectable academic jurisprudence.
International Law and Infectious Diseases
Authors: Fidler David P
Published: October 2023

International Law and Infectious Diseases is the first comprehensive analysis of the intersection between international law and infectious diseases. Infectious diseases pose a global threat, and international law plays an important but under-explored role in infectious disease control. The book analyses the globalization of public health; and it examines the history of international law in this area, the International Health Regulations, and international law on trade, human rights, armed conflict and arms control, and the environment. Fidler develops the concepts of microbialpolitik and global health jurisprudence to provide a political perspective and a framework for future legal action. The aim of this series of monographs is to publish important and original pieces of research on all aspects of public international law. Topics that are given particular prominence are those, which, while of interest to the academic lawyer, also have important bearing on issues which, touch the actual conduct of international relations. None the less the series is wide in scope and includes monographs on the history and philosophical foundations of international law.
Britain and European Integration: Of Sovereignty, Slow Adaptation, and Semi-Detachment
Authors: Bulmer Simon
Published: October 2023

Against this background it is scarcely surprising that the United Kingdom continues to be regarded as a ‘semi-detached’ member of the European Community. Yet things have changed. The EC’s decisions in 1988 to reform the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), and the more equitable basis for budgetary contributions in the period since 1984 have weakened some of Britain’s grievances against the EC. Moreover, the programme for completion of the EC’s internal market has brought a much closer identity of purpose between the EC’s objectives and those of the Conservative Government. Finally, by the end of 1988 the key British political forces, including the Labour party, the Scottish and Welsh nationalists, the trade union movement, and industrialists had joined those already ‘thinking European’. Of the established UK parties, it is the Ulster Unionists which remain as bastions of opposition to the EC.
The Political Parties1
Authors: Ashford Nigel
Published: October 2023

The role of the political parties in determining Britain’s approach to membership, policies, and future of the EC has been great. They contributed to the slow adjustment of British politics by the failure to present clear and consistent views of Britain’s relations with Europe; undermined the role of government as gatekeeper by domesticating membership of the EC as an issue but failing to develop views on European issues; and reinforced the semi¬ detached image of Britain in the rest of the Community by their failure to co-operate effectively with their fellow parties in the EC. Europe could have been integrated more effectively into British politics if either there had been a party consensus that membership of the EC was in the national interest, or there had been a sharp distinction between the parties on their attitudes to Europe, which would have encouraged a clearer appreciation of the issues involve.
Australia and New Zealand
Authors: Hughes Colin A
Published: October 2023

The political systems of Australia and New Zealand are ‘noted for their general similarity’,1 yet in the electoral sphere there are significant variations. Size is an obvious difference likely to influence electioneering: Australia’s national electorate is five times as numerous as New Zealand’s and spread over almost thirty times the area. But both are highly urbanized societies whose rural constituencies are a minority interest which has declined in importance for most of the century. Australia has compulsory voting, both have compulsory enrolment. But turn-out figures in New Zealand are not very much below the Australian level.
Conclusion
Authors: Butler David , Ranney Austin
Published: October 2023

Each chapter in this book has described the unique way in which particular democracies conduct some aspects of their elections today. But every chapter has also highlighted some common elements in electioneering; and everywhere there can be found similar changes which have overtaken electioneering since 1945. It remains for us to explore the similarities and the differences, the main themes and the principal variations.
Moral Topophilia: The Significations of Landscape in Indian Oleographs
Authors: Pinney Christopher
Published: October 2023

This chapter is concerned with the depiction oflandscape in a genre of popular Indian art. These landscapes are represented through a stylized aesthetic which expresses a historical and moral topophilia.1 They frequently give visible form to the intersection and conflict of, on the one hand, a folk model of historical decay and, on the other, a nationalist political language of modernity. I refer to these mass-produced depictions as ‘oleographs’2 while others refer to them as ‘calendar art’ or ‘bazaar art’. Although this artform is ‘now sedimented as an authentic Indian “kitsch’” (P. Uberoi 1990: 43), it is a product of a colonial hybridity in which Indian and European styles were mixed. Patricia Uberoi has argued that the Indianization of this hybrid form of representation should be understood within the context of a rising cultural nationalism which sought to construct an appropriate past through a new traditionalizing Hinduism. This was recognized by nationalists of the time: the printing press established in Bombay in 1892 by Ravi Varma (who ‘perfected’ the style and ensured its mass reproduction and India-wide penetration)3 was patronized by moderate nationalists such as Gokhale, Ranade, and Dadabhai Naoroji (Guha-Thakurta 1986: 188), and Surendranath Banerjea claimed that these images ‘were working towards a re-instatement of national culture in the same way as their nationalist speeches were’ (ibid.). Uberoi is particularly concerned with the articulation of feminine identity with this new ‘national ethos’; here I will argue that the limited appearance of’landscape’ can be read for similar clues. It has often been noted that within Indian art there has been remarkably little that could properly be described as ‘landscape’ as understood in the Western tradition. However, both the presence and absence of’landscape’ in oleographs and the relationship between ‘place’ and ‘space’ reveal much about the construction of this new national Hinduized identity (inflected through landscape as ‘the land’ or ‘the nation’) and its continuing negotiation.
EU Cohesion Policy in Greece: The Tension Between Bureaucratic Centralism and Regionalism
Authors: Ioakimidis P C
Published: October 2023

Greece joined the European Union in January 1981 as its tenth member. It had been an associate member for almost twenty years. The country opted for European membership primarily to consolidate its young democratic institutions, although the prospect of economic benefits was also a powerful factor.

This chapter will examine the impact of EU membership on a very limited area of Greek political development, the territorial structure of politics. It will try to determine whether and, if so, to what extent EU membership has altered the political balance between the centre and the periphery. Put in concrete terms, the main question is whether the implementation of EU cohesion policy has generated pressures for the decentralization of political power in the traditionally highly centralized Greek state.
Policy Networks and Policy-Making in the European Union: A Critical Appraisal
Authors: Rhodes R A W , Bache Ian , George Stephen
Published: October 2023

It is commonplace to treat policy-making in the European Union (EU) as distinctive. The EU is neither a federation nor an inter-governmental body, although it has features of both. The policy process varies and does not conform to a single pattern or model (Nugent 1994: 297). However, this chapter adopts a different approach because it does not start with the differences between the EU and the member states. It focuses on similarities and asks whether models of policy-making known to be useful in analysing member states are also useful for analysing EU policy-making. It assumes that all governmental units confront similar imperatives and respond in similar ways. In particular, it examines critically the literature on policy networks and asks whether this idea is useful for understanding EU policy-making.
Exploring and Explaining Variation in EU Cohesion Policy
Authors: Marks Gary
Published: October 2023

It is often said that policy-making varies decisively across policy areas in the European Union. However, when one takes a closer look at most policy areas, it soon becomes clear that they are far from homogeneous. This is certainly the case in the European Union’s cohesion or structural policy, which involves successive phases of financial bargaining, institutional design, and the creation, negotiation, implementation, and monitoring of regional development plans. The point of departure of this chapter is that to understand the political dynamics of cohesion policy, one must disaggregate the policy into its component parts, each of which, I shall argue, has a distinctive logic.
The European Issue in British Politics
Authors: Gamble Andrew
Published: October 2023

Britain’s relationship with the European Union has been one of the dominant issues of British politics in the last fifty years. It has also been one of the most divisive. The debate has moved through a number of phases. The British government initially refused to participate in the negotiations which led to the setting up of the European communities in the 1950s. It then applied to join in the 1960s and was twice rebuffed. Entry was finally negotiated in 1971 and Britain became a full member in 1973.
A ‘Rosy’ Map of Europe? Labour Parliamentarians and European Integration
Authors: Baker David , Seawright David
Published: October 2023

The raw nerves of division within the Conservative Party over European integration, with consequent problems for party management, are well documented in this book and elsewhere (Baker et al. 1994a). Labour divisions over European integration clearly exist, but what is the extent of those divisions and how might they obstruct a Labour government? Tony Blair was quick to denounce Tory claims of greater division within Labour ranks: ‘Of course, Conservatives are fond of pointing out that there are divisions in the Labour Party too. This is a glib line ... the Labour divisions, unlike the Tory ones, are largely part of the past.’
The Decline of Mortality in Europe
Authors: Schofield Roger , Reher David
Published: October 2023

At first glance, the historical development of mortality in Europe can be easily and quickly summarized. Pre-decline patterns typical of most Ancien Regime societies were characterized by high overall levels, punctuated by periodic bouts with epidemics caused by infectious disease (plague, smallpox, typhus, etc.). During the eighteenth century, and chiefly thanks to ever more efficient government intervention, the incidence of crisis mortality diminished drastically in most of Europe. It was the ‘stabilisation of mortality’ as Michael Flim called it, and was essential to the subsequent spurt in European growth rates. With the reduction of epidemics, endemic infectious diseases became relatively more important and gains in life i:xpectancy slowed considerably. It was not until the latter part of the nineteenth century that mortality once again declined sharply in most areas of Europe. Child mortality and, somewhat later, infant mortality were responsible for much of this decline, though gains in life expectancy affected all age groups. Mortality improvement was due mostly to the decline in diseases such as diarrhoea and tuberculosis. The third period of mortality decline began after World War II, spread throughout the world, and seems inextricably, though not exclusively, linked to the discovery and use of sulpha drugs and antibiotics.
The Attenuation of Mortality Crises and the Decline of Mortality
Authors: Perrenoud Alfred
Published: October 2023

If this chapter had been written a few years ago, the questions with which I am concerned in this paper would have appeared simple; it seemed selfevident that the secular fall in mortality had been caused primarily by a reduction in the importance of mortality crises, which were a fixed feature of the old demographic regime. It was also thought that these crises played an important part in the determination of population growth, ‘the regulator par excellence-perhaps better termed the destroyer of population growth’.’When looked at from this point of view, the old demographic regime seems to have been subject to periodic fluctuations in mortality, which appeared as a dynamic variable in the interaction between the economy, population, and society. Equilibrium between population and resources seemed to be determined as much by ecological constraints as by food supplies, technology, and social organization. The forces which acted as a brake on population growth were inherent in the system and closely dependent on one another.
Health Transition and Cause-Specific Mortality
Authors: Caselli Graziella
Published: October 2023

At the beginning of the eighteenth century man had not yet succeeded in mastering the forces of nature, and life expectancy, which was short even in normal times, was affected by subsistence crises and famines which resulted in misery and extremely high death rates. The effects of these crises were often made worse by epidemics of plague and other fevers.This series of crises which lasted until the early decades of the nineteenth century, the most important of which affected the Baltic and Scandinavian regions and other areas in north-eastern Europe in 1708-09, was followed in most countries of central and northern Europe by a period when subsistence crises became rarer and affected mortality less. Epidemics, however, continued and typhus, smallpox, dysentery, and influenza were recorded throughout the eighteenth and a large part of the nineteenth centuries, but they were less lethal and less widespread than formerly. After the middle of the eighteenth century, the less serious nature of the crises was reflected by lower levels of mortality. Life expectancy began to increase in Sweden, Denmark, Norway, England, and France and had reached a figure of between 40 and 42 years by the early nineteenth century.
Variable Trends in Economic Time Series
Authors: Stock James H , Watson Mark W
Published: October 2023

The two most striking historical features of aggregate output are its sustained long run growth and its recurrent fluctuations around this growth path. Real per capita GNP, consumption and investment in the United States during the postwar era are plotted in Figure 1. Both growth and deviations from the growth trend-often referred to as ‘business cycles’-are apparent in each series. Over horizons of a few years, these shorter cyclical swings can be. pronounced; for example, the 1953, 1957, and 1974 recessions are .evident as substantial temporary declines in aggregate activity. These cyclical fluctuations are, however, dwarfed in magnitude by the secular expansion of output. But just as there are cyclical swings in output, so too are there variations in the growth trend: growth in GNP in the 1960s was much stronger than it was in the 1950s. Thus, changes in long-run patterns of growth are an important feature of postwar aggregate economic activity.
Nicholas Kaldor
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando
Published: October 2023

Nicholas Kaldor (1908-1986) was one of this century's most original thinkers on economics, his influence on British economic policy second only to that of Keynes. This book traces the development of Kaldor's thought as it underwent a remarkable evolution from his membership of the Austrian neoclassical school to his embracing of radical Keynesianism. He was also extremely quick to grasp essential changes in economic reality and to forge analytical tools to explain them. Although he was innovative from 1938 onwards, much of his seminal work belongs to a coherent project of research which made him, together with Joan Robinson and Michal Kalecki, a leading representative of the post-Keynesian school, an outstanding critic of the neoclassical theory of equilibrium, growth, and distribution, and a convinced opponent of the monetarist school. The book also seeks to show how economic policy and political economy were closely connected in Kaldor's work. It was this that made Kaldor one of the most lucid and radical champions of the economic policies which, by blending political freedom with social justice, have been the outstanding feature of the great European tradition of social democracy.
The Process of Privatization
Authors: Bos Dieter
Published: October 2023

When dealing with the process of privatization, we have to answer questions about how to move from public to private ownership: should the right to produce and sell particular goods be auctioned off to that private firm which offers the highest bid? Or should the public firm be transformed into a shareholding company and the shares be sold to the public? Should the government employ an underwriter? How should the government set the offer price of the shares? Should the offer price be fixed a priori and the potential investors be rationed by quantity (offer for sale), or should the potential investors be requested to bid for the shares and the shares be rationed by price (tender offer)? Should privatization be used to promote widespread share ownership of small investors to achieve a ‘people’s capitalism’? To what extent should the employees of the privatized firm be encouraged to buy shares? Two particularly well-known authors of the principal-agent literature1 have presented a fundamental privatization theorem. This theorem ‘provides conditions under which all of the government’s objectives can be attained by an appropriately designed auction of the rights to produce a given product or service’ (Sappington and Stiglitz, 1987: 568). It is a general theorem which shows under which conditions privatization is optimal. The conditions are rather strict, hence for practical purposes it is more important to discuss ‘privatization failures’, i.e. the reasons why the conditions of the fundamental theorem do not hold. When discussing these failures we learn a lot about the process of privatization.
Incentives and Efficiency in Public and Privatized Firms
Authors: Bos Dieter
Published: October 2023

The productive results of any firm are due to the interaction of various economic actors which can be modelled in a three-tier setting. In a public enterprise the first tier consists of the government. In a fully privatized firm the first tier consists of the private shareholders. In the next tier of a public enterprise we typically have a planning board, which makes general decisions on prices, wages, and output and input quantities. In a fully private firm these decisions are ordinarily made by senior management personnel. The third tier contains lower-level ‘technological’ management personnel who decide on ‘how efficiently’ the output is produced. (In a simple Leibenstein view of the world, this is expressed as how near the actual production comes to the frontier.)
Efficiency and Privatization
Authors: Bos Dieter
Published: October 2023

Let us consider an enterprise which undergoes a shift from 100 percent public ownership to 100 percent private ownership. The enterprise operates in a monopolistic environment: it is not necessarily a monopoly in the strict sense, but the market is not fully competitive either. When publicly owned, the enterprise does not exploit its monopolistic market position. However, will the management be given the right incentives to work X-efficiently? On the other hand, when privately owned, the enterprise exploits its monopolistic position, because in this chapter we exclude any regulation of the privatized firm. However, profit maximization should imply the best incentives for X-efficient operations.
The Common Agricultural Policy
Authors: Fennell Rosemary
Published: October 2023

The Common Agricultural Policy: Continuity and Change is a major retrospective analysis of the CAP since its inception, set against the background of agricultural policy in Western Europe since the end of the Second World War. The topics covered include the development of the CAP, in particular the early dominance of the market policy contrary to the original intention; the struggle to introduce a structural policy and its subsequent unsatisfactory record; the uneasy relationship between market policy and trade policy; the question of agricultural incomes; and the broadening of policy horizons since the mid-1980s, particularly to include environmental issues. The book concludes with a discussion of some unresolved issues, including the role and appropriateness of a sectoral policy in today's circumstances.
Foreign Trade in the Tokugawa Period— Particularly with Korea
Authors: Tashiro Kazui
Published: October 2023

However, recent scholarship has begun to reevaluate sakoku in terms of both the international and domestic concerns of the day, namely, the establishment of a Japanese world order in East Asia and securing the legitimacy of the Tokugawa regime (Toby 1984: 173). Such studies reveal that sakoku was an affirmative policy meant to shape and control international relations along lines desired by the Tokugawa shogunate, rather than an attempt to avoid or take a passive stance toward contact with foreign countries.
Domains and Their Economic Policies
Authors: Nishikawa Shunsaku , Amano Masatoshi
Published: October 2023

It was customary in the Tokugawa period to speak of the “three-hundred lords (daimyo),” but the number of holders of domains rated at greater than 10,000 koku (approximately 50,000 bushels), which was the precise definition of the daimyo status, was a little more than 260.
World Population Growth: Trends and Prospects,1960-2020
Authors: Demeny Paul
Published: October 2023

Understanding the changing relationships between population and resources presupposes a quantitative grasp on the underlying dynamics of demographic change. This is a tall order, but one that the existing corpus of demographic literature now can fulfill better than was the case just a few decades ago. Magnitudes of the main components of global demographic change-such as the number of entries into the human population by birth and the number of exits through death-are still not known with a high degree of accuracy. But we might claim, for example, that the global number of births in 1993 was 144 million and the number of deaths in the same year was 51 million (thus yielding a net 1993 population increase of 93 million), and be reasonably confident that the true figures lie within 5 percent, plus or minus, of these estimates.
The Japanese Bureaucracy and Economic Development: Structuring a Proactive Civil Service
Authors: Pempel T J , Muramatsu Michio
Published: October 2023

For centuries, cross-national investigation has been a vital lens through which people have gained insights on their own societies. From Aristotle to Tocqueville, individuals have studied other societies with an eye toward improving their own. In the contemporary world, policymakers and scholars alike examine the experiences of various countries searching for learnable lessons. This search is particularly vigorous among statemakers involved in actively structuring, or restructuring, their own societies, such as is happening today in many of the developing countries and in Eastern Europe. But it is widespread among more well-established regimes as well, as politicians and policymakers search continually for better ways to achieve their desired ends.
Institutional Analysis of Fertility
Authors: McNicoll Geoffrey
Published: October 2023

Few would deny that societies have a legitimate interest in their demographic futures. This is perhaps clearest in the case of immigration, which is subjected to often-stringent control at virtually any national border as an accepted exercise of national sovereignty. For natural in crease, the excess of births over deaths, there is potentially an analogous social interest, although the intrinsic decentralization of this case and the countervailing individual interests that are involved render any organized societal response much more difficult.
The Relevance of Malthus for the Study of Mortality Today: Long-Run Influences on Health, Mortality, Labour Force Participation, and Population Growth
Authors: Fogel Robert
Published: October 2023

Research during the past two decades has produced significant advances in the description and explanation of the secular decline in mortality. My assigned task in this chapter is to reconsider Malthus 's theory of mortality on the basis of these findings and to assess what aspects of his theory might remain relevant to policy-makers in both rich and poor countries. In the course of this chapter I will argue that the secular decline in mortality, which began during the eighteenth century, is still in progress and will probably continue for another century or more. The evolutionary perspective presented in this chapter focuses not only on the environment, which from the standpoint of human health and prosperity has become much more favourable than it was in Malthus 's time, but also on changes in human physiology over the past three centuries which affect both economic and biomedical processes. A great deal of emphasis is placed on the interconnectedness of events and processes over the life cycle and, by implication, between generations.
American Marriage Formation in the 1980s: How Important was Women’s Economic Independence?
Authors: Oppenheimer Valerie Kincade , Lew Vivian
Published: October 2023

A dramatic rise in the timing of US marriages has been occurring during the past twenty years (Espenshade 1985; Rodgers and Thornton 1985). Between 1970 and 1990 the proportion of 25-year-old women who had never married rose from 14 to 42 per cent; in the 1980s alone, the rise was from 29 to 42 per cent. The prevalence of non-marriage may also be growing, though it is still too soon to determine by how much; but the proportion of 30-year-old women who were still single increased from only 6.6 per cent in 1970 to 11.7 per cent in 1980 and then to 19 per cent in 1990 (US Bureau of the Census 1991, Table B). Probably the most widely accepted explanation of these trends attributes them to women’s greater reluctance to marry because of their growing economic independence.1 That economic independence is thought to be due, first, to women’s increasing employment and, second, for some groups of women, to the presumed greater availability of welfare benefits. This theme is variously elaborated by economists and sociologists, feminists, and right-wing conservatives alike.
Women’s Roles and Women’s Poverty
Authors: Mclanahan Sara S , Casper, Lynne M , Sorensen Annemette
Published: October 2023

Women’s roles have changed dramatically over the past several decades. Whereas in the early 1950s women in Western industrialized countries devoted most of their adult Hves to domestic work and child-rearing activities, today more and more women are pursuing careers outside the home and combining home production with market work. Similarly, whereas in the early 1950s most women married and stayed married to the same partner for their entire life, today women are delaying marriage, cohabiting, divorcing, and changing partners more frequently. (See Lesthaeghe in this volume for a detailed description of these changes and the forces that underlie them.)
India Economic Development and Social Opportunity
Authors: Dréze Jean , Sen Amartya
Published: October 2023

An analysis of endemic deprivation in India and of the role of public action in addressing that problem. The analysis is based on a broad view of economic development, focusing on human well-being and `social opportunity' rather than on the standard indicators of economic growth. India's success in reducing endemic deprivation since Independence has been quite limited. Recent diagnoses of this failure of policy have concentrated on the counterproductive role of government regulation, and on the need for economic incentives to accelerate the growth of the economy. This book argues that an assessment of India's failure to eliminate basic deprivations has to go beyond this limited focus, and to take note of the role played in that failure by inadequate public involvement in the provision of basic education, health care, social security, and related fields, Even the fostering of fast and participatory economic growth requires some basic social change, which is not addressed by liberalization and economic incentives. The authors also discuss the historical antecedents of these political and social neglects, including the distortion of policy priorities arising from inequalities of political power. Following on from this, the book considers the scope for public action to address these earlier biases and achieve a transformation of policy priorities. The introductory chapter presents the motivation, focus, and approach of the book. Chapter 2 discusses the respective roles of the market mechanism and government action in economic development and discusses the particular role of public involvement in the fields of health and education. In chapters 3 and 4, international comparisons of development experiences are brought to bear on the diagnosis of India's successes and failures. These two chapters also discuss the lessons to be learnt from the contrasting development experiences of different states within India, with particular attention to Kerala's outstanding success in social fields. Chapter 5 considers the role of public action and political organization in promoting social opportunities. Attention is drawn, in particular, to the part played by widespread illiteracy in suppressing that process and perpetuating social inequalities. The issue of basic education is further examined in chapter 6, which includes a critical assessment of public policy in this field. Chapter 7 discusses the specific problem on gender inequality, and the role of women's agency in the expansion of social opportunities for both women and men. The concluding chapter consolidates the argument and discusses the policy implication of the analyses presented. A statistical appendix presents a comparative picture of India and other developing countries, and also the comparative performance of different states within India.
International Trade, Factor Movements, and the Environment
Authors: Rauscher Michael
Published: October 2023

Trade and the environment has become a major area of international political dispute. This study investigates the interdependencies between environmental policies and international trade policies. * Does liberalization of international goods and factor markets cause environmental disruption and welfare losses? * Will countries institute lax ecological regulations to favor their domestic producers? * Should trade restrictions be used for environmental reasons and can environmental policy instruments be used to achieve trade-related objectives? * Should there be what the author terms a `green GATT'? The approach is mainly theoretical, and uses traditional trade models like Hekscher--Ohlin as well as non-competitive models of the `new' trade theory and public choice. Some other important but often neglected aspects, such as trade in hazardous wastes and the foreign debt problem, with the possibility of debt-for-nature swaps, are also considered. Finally International Trade, Factor Movements, and the Environment addresses institutional issues on both national and international levels. The book will be essential reading for all international and environmental economists.
The History, Methodology, and Main Findings of the Matlab Project in Bangladesh
Authors: Aziz K M A , Mosley W Henry
Published: October 2023

The Matlab population is the largest population under continuous surveillance in the world. The project was established in 1963 by the Pakistan-SEATO Cholera Research Laboratory (PSCRL), the predecessor of the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDR,B) for the purpose of field-testing cholera vaccines. The organization of the Matlab field operations was driven from the outset by rigid technical and ethical requirements for the implementation of prospective double-blind, controlled vaccine field trials. These high scientific standards have been applied to field operations in Matlab ever since.
Sexual Relations Between Migrating Populations (Vietnamese with Mexican and Anglo) and HIV/STD Infections in Southern California
Authors: Carrier Joseph , Nguyen Bang , Su Sammy
Published: October 2023

This chapter explores findings from a one’year ethnosexual field investigation conducted in 1992 by the author and his Vietnamese American colleagues on the relationship between the sexual behaviours of men of Vietnamese origin with their Vietnamese, Mexican, and Anglo American sex partners and HIV/STD infections in the County of Orange, located in Southern California. It provides an excellent example of some consequences of the sexual mixing of migrating popu lations and illustrates how these findings might assist health educators formulate meaningful programmes for the prevention and control of HIV/STD infections.The chapter also presents historical ethnography on sexual behaviours in Vietnam, and surveys research findings of three limited studies of the sexual behaviours of Vietnamese Americans living in Los Angeles in 1988, in San Francisco in 1991, and in Orange County in the fall of 1992. Finally, a compari son will be made of the field research findings with the survey research findings to illustrate the limitations of survey research methodology in mapping out the sexual geography of populations like the Vietnamese where very little is known about their sexual behaviours.
The Bundesbank and Financial Markets
Authors: Franke Günter
Published: October 2023

Article 3 of the Bundesbank Act stipulates that the Bundesbank regulates the amount of money in circulation and of credit supplied to the economy, and arranges for the execution of payment transactions. Its goal is to safeguard the currency, meaning to safeguard the value of money. This assignment does not answer the question of the extent to which the Bundesbank is supposed to exert its influence on the management of financial intermediaries and the regulation of financial markets. A restrictive interpretation limits the duties of the central bank to deploying its array of monetary policy instruments to safeguard the value of money, trusting in the forces of free competition. It is expected that such forces will induce Financial intermediaries to manage their businesses prudently and effectively, inhibit trading in Financial instruments which cause more harm than good, and encourage the development of Financial instruments which are desirable for the economy as a whole, as well as the rules for trading them. The consequence is the evolution of efficient Financial markets which guarantee fair Financial contracts for all market participants.
Gender and Demographic Change: What Do We Know?
Authors: Mason Karen Oppenheim
Published: October 2023

This chapter reviews what is known about the relationship between gender systems and demographic change. The potential importance of society’s gender organization for demographic change (especially for change in fertility and mortality) has been recognized widely only since the early 1980s, when authors such as John Caldwell (1982) and Nancy Folbre (1983) first described how patriarchal family systems act to maintain high fertility. Although research on female employment and fertility stretches back into the early portion of the century, studies explicitly concerned with gender systems and their impact on demographic change are relatively new. Indeed, investigation of this topic is recent enough that we are only beginning to understand how to conduct high-quality research on it. Even less well understood than the impact of gender systems on demographic change is the equally important link between demographic change and shifts in gender relations that result in a more equal balance of power and well-being between women and men. In the interests of encouraging better research, this chapter discusses several reasons for the preliminary state of our knowledge as well as reviewing what we already know.
Ownership and Community Interests in China’s Rural Enterprises
Authors: Young Susan
Published: October 2023

The pressing contrast between state and non-state performance in China’s economic reforms, against the background of the proposed wholesale dis-mantling of the state economy in the former socialist countries of Eastern Europe, made ownership reform an inescapable issue for China by the late 1980s. Unavoidably, much of the debate was informed by the stark progression in economic performance from state enterprises, which responded only sluggishly to reforms, to the dynamic rural collective enterprises, to the newly revived private sector, which showed the fastest growth of all. When all is said and done, the ongoing efforts to reform state enterprises have basically centred around the problem of how to make them behave as much like private enterprises as possible, without actually privatizing them.
China Deconstructs? The Future of the Chinese Empire-State in a Historical Perspective
Authors: Bøckman Harald
Published: October 2023

The bottom line of any assessment of the future development of China—be it economic, cultural, social, or political—is its survival in its present or some modified form. Only a dozen years ago, such a problematique would swiftly be relegated to the files of the oddities of futuristic research. Today, it is a theme that is being discussed as an important issue not only outside China, but also seriously—albeit reluctantly—within China as well.
Participant Observation in Demographic Research: Fieldwork Experiences in a Ghanaian Community
Authors: Geest Sjaak Van Der
Published: October 2023

The anthropologist engaging in demographic research risks getting lost in a forest of paradoxes. Nowhere are intimate personal feelings—let us call them love and passion—and national public interests so closely interwined as in the birth of children. Movements in the dark come to light nine months later and become hard data for policy-makers. The birth of a child is both a matter for cold statistics and a subject of human emotion. The same can be said about the end of a person’s life. Death, the most devastating human experience one can think of, will eventually be transformed into demographic data. The shock of paradox reaches the level of absurdist theatre when the state attempts to break into the intimacy of lovers and publicly holds technical devices in front of them to persuade them to prevent the birth of another child.
Trade Shocks in Developing Countries
Authors: Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem
Published: October 2023

Developing countries frequently experience trade shocks and the policy implications of this have been debated for decades.This important book is Volume 2 of a comparative study covering 23 countries, using a common methodology to estimate the effects of shocks. The conventional wisdom has been that private agents, in particular peasant farmers, could not be trusted to use windfalls wisely. This was, and continues to be, the main rationale for stabilising taxation of export crops. The convention was also that windfalls accruing to the public sector were a bane since governments had low savings rates. The evidence in this definitive study supports neither generalisation. Trade shocks typically lead to high savings rates, irrespective of whether they accrue to private producers or to the government. However, the case studies find substantial policy errors so that windfalls are often not translated efficiently into permanent income increases and indeed often lead to a reduction in output. The studies argue for a drastic revision of the case for government action in response to trade shocks. Volume 1 deals with Africa, Volume 2 with Asia and Latin America.
Sustainable Development in Mineral Economies
Authors: Auty Richard M , Mikesell Raymond E
Published: October 2023

The mineral economies comprise approximately one-fifth of developing countries. They face special problems in achieving sustainable development, and have as a group been less successful than resource-deficient neighbours. This book examines the apparent paradox, detailing the current problems facing the mineral economies and the future policies necessary to overcome these problems. Nine countries are studied: Botswana, Chile, Colombia, Indonesia, Jamaica, Namibia, Papua New Guinea, Peru, and Trinidad and Tobago. The authors argue that the key factor is not the sustainability of the mineral production that initially generates growth, but the maintenance of the economic and social conditions for sustaining that growth. They draw upon recent progress in environmental and natural resource accounting to show how this can be achieved, and also assess the socio-political factors that often constrain sustainable development.
Introduction: Understanding Governance
Authors: Pierre Jon
Published: October 2023

Perhaps the most significant development in the advanced industrialized democracies over the past couple of decades has been the erosion of traditional bases of political power. The institutional strength of the nation state has been challenged from several different sources.
Urban Political Science and the Challenge of Urban Governance
Authors: Stoker Gerry
Published: October 2023

The study of urban politics has been prone to some of the same cycles and trends as the wider field of political science (Stoker, 1998a). Fifty years ago—as in political science in general—the focus was on institutions. Urban politics was the study of city government: its legal competences and structure and its core actors—mayors, councillors, bureaucrats. The literature was often descriptive and generally concerned with examining semi-constitutional questions and administrative doctrines about the appropriateness of local autonomy or how best politicians could hold bureaucrats to account without undermining the distinctive contribution of each.
Societal Governance: Levels, Modes, and Orders of Social–Political Interaction
Authors: Kooiman Jan
Published: October 2023

In today’s shared-power, no-one-in-charge, interdependent world, public problems and issues spill over organizational and institutional boundaries. Many people are affected by problems like global warming, AIDS, homelessness, drug abuse, crime, growing poverty among children, and teen pregnancy, but no one person, group or organization has the necessary power or authority to solve these problems. Instead, organizations and institutions must share objectives, resources, activities, power, or some of their authority in order to achieve collective gains or minimize losses.
Legal Repression of Extreme-Right Parties and Racial Discrimination*
Authors: Fennema Meindert
Published: October 2023

Natural rights were formulated for the first time as an authoritative political statement in the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America (1776): ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights … ‘. In 1776 these rights still had to be elaborated in positive law. The founding fathers in general regarded slavery as a relic of the past and most of them found it repulsive. Yet some ten years later in Philadelphia, they wrote a Constitution that made it virtually impossible to outlaw it. It forbade Congress to interfere with the slave trade for twenty years to come and required putting down slave rebellions wherever they might occur. It denied slaves the right to sue in federal courts (Lazare 1998: 16). So the United States was slow indeed in the legal implementation of natural rights. It took some 200 years before these rights were fully applied to all African-Americans.