bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
International Relations from Below
Authors: Blaney David L. , Inayatullah Naeem
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the concept of ‘international relations from below’. ‘International relations from below’ reminds us that conventional international relations — whether structural realist, liberal institutionalist, or constructivist — treats states or groups as parts that are logically independent of the larger systems of capitalism or modernity, and that this methodological device serves political purposes. In the guise of ‘science’, ontological individualism works to deflect our attention from the co-constitution of times and places. While one hand severs holistic threads in order to present states as monadic entities, the other hand pedagogically asserts that the present of the advanced states is the model for those that lag behind. In revealing this sleight of hand, ‘international relations from below’ suggests that contemporary international relations is an expression of the Western theory of progress. It brings our attention to the relation between wholes and parts — to whether development occurs within the boundaries of states or for the system as a whole, and to the unproductive separation between economics and the analysis of capitalism, on the one side, and representational strategies and cultural analysis, on the other. In so doing, it takes advantage of its status as ‘constitutive other’ to foreground international relations' potential as that aspect of social theory that dedicates itself to studying relations of self and other. And it offers us resources for imagining the future beyond those offered by both conventional and critical ‘international relations from above’.
The Failure of Static and the Need for Dynamic Approaches to International Relations
Authors: Rosecrance Richard
Published: September 2009

The perennial difficulty in the study of international relations is that general theories holding statically over time are unsatisfactory. The leading theories — emphasizing a single concept (‘realism’, ‘constructivism’, ‘liberalism’, and so on) — themselves either are unfalsifiable, or if falsifiable, are false. Both international and domestic factors have to be taken into account in order to develop a reasonable static approach to how nations behave. A three-variable conspectus that comprises: international restraints and availabilities; leadership preconceptions; and domestic restraints and pressures can explain international outcomes more fully than any of these variables taken individually. A regression equation, in short, is necessary. The coefficients of this equation, however, may have changed over time, with international coefficients having less strength than they once did and domestic ones more strength. These claims are elaborated in the first half of this article. The second half concentrates on some dynamic features of the international system that point to the possibility of different and more cooperative outcomes in the years ahead as the influence and content of these factors undergo change.
Public Management
Authors: Lynn Laurence E.
Published: September 2009

This article views public management broadly as encompassing the organizational structures, managerial practices, and institutionalized values by which officials enact the will of sovereign authority, whether that authority is prince, parliament, or civil society. Public management, in other words, is regarded as synonymous with public administration. As for whether or not there is a distinctive public management, there is widespread professional acknowledgement that constitutions, collective goods production, and electoral institutions create distinctive managerial challenges that justify a separate field. Thus defined, the field of public management is surely of older vintage than American scholars have been wont to assert and is arguably even older than the popular starting point for administrative histories.
Bureaucracy in the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Meier Kenneth J. , Hill Gregory C.
Published: September 2009

Although numerous scholars claim the eminent demise of bureaucracy, this article argues that bureaucracy will not only survive in the twenty-first century but will flourish. The core of the argument is that the large-scale tasks that government must perform—national defense, a social welfare system, political monitoring of the economy, etc.—will remain key functions of governments in the twenty-first century and that bureaucracies, likely public but possibly private, will continue to be the most effective way to do these tasks. Bureaucracy has weathered other calls for its demise before; current efforts are likely to meet similar fates. After a brief discussion of definitions and the meaning of bureaucracy, the major sections of this article deal with six challenges to bureaucracy. Some of these challenges are intellectual; others are part of real-world ongoing reform efforts in a variety of countries.
Law and Public Administration
Authors: Bertelli Anthony Michael
Published: September 2009

The focus of this article is on what might be termed national administrative law, in contrast to international administrative law that governs international organizations such as the World Bank or United Nations tribunals. In democratic states, administrative law for present purposes includes mechanisms: to redress harm to individuals inflicted by government in the pursuit of government objectives, and for positive control of government agencies by branches of government with sovereign authority in lawmaking, e.g., the United States Congress. The latter function is more apparent in separation-of-powers systems, though it has parliamentary analogs. It is part constitutional and rights-oriented, and part procedural. Courts, chief executives, and bureaus themselves demarcate administrative powers.
Economic Perspectives on Public Organizations
Authors: Vining Aidan R. , Weimer David L.
Published: September 2009

This article aims to relate some of the core ideas of NPM (new public management) directly to their economic foundations by reviewing relevant theory and empirical evidence. This overview is limited in two ways. First, it focuses on the more strategic end of the NPM agenda and says little about important tactical issues, such as improving accounting procedures within agencies, more visionary leadership, or the potential of performance auditing. As far as present knowledge encompasses, economics offers little specific advice to public managers about these issues. The article focuses, therefore, on issues such as contracting-out and privatization that are believed to be informed by economics. Second, the focus is primarily normative, though managers' motivations cannot, and should not, be completely ignored. Some positive theory proponents believe that a primarily normative focus is largely a waste of time—that contracting-out decisions, for example, will be driven by bureaucratic self-interest, however complex that self-interest is to model.
Rethinking Leadership in Public Organizations
Authors: Denis Jean-Louis , Langley Ann , Rouleau Linda
Published: September 2009

The notion of leadership has a long history in the administrative sciences and in popular management writings. Leadership is at the heart of what seems to make things happen in groups, organizations, or societies. This article first provides an overview of some of the dominant conceptions of leadership in the scholarly literature on organizational behavior and management. It then examines previous treatments of this topic in the public administration literature before offering three alternative conceptions that merit further development. These conceptions are grounded in a series of novel developments in sociology and organization theory that can enrich thinking about leadership in public organizations because they recognize the pluralistic nature of the organizational context within which the leaders of public sector organizations operate as well as the dynamic and collective nature of leadership processes in these settings.
Organizational Cultures in the Public Services
Authors: Dingwall Robert , Strangleman Tim
Published: September 2009

This article considers how an important social scientific concept became a management fad. It begins with the idea of culture and its history in organizational studies. It then looks at contemporary debates about the way that an understanding of culture may contribute to successful management and concludes by considering whether there are differences between public and private sectors that are relevant to this task. Anthropologists have traditionally seen the study of culture as a defining feature of their discipline: Social anthropologists, in studying the institutionalised social relationships that are their primary concern, have found it essential to take account of the ideas and values which are associated with them, that is, of their cultural content. No account of a social relationship in human terms can be complete unless it includes reference to what it means to the people who have it. Culture does not have a material existence, although physical objects may be treated as cultural artefacts, by virtue of the meanings that people assign to them.
NGOS and Contracting
Authors: Smith Steven Rathgeb
Published: September 2009

The basic argument of this article is that the emergent role of NGOs as providers of public services has created new and complicated public management dilemmas. In terms of structure, this article provides an overview and historical perspective on government contracting with NGOs and offers a conceptual framework to understand the relationship between government and NGOs in the contracting relationship. Next, it focuses on the management and policy challenges posed by contracting, then details the implications for citizenship of the greater reliance on NGOs for public service delivery. Finally, it discusses contracting in the context of current trends in public management and the implications of these trends on the users of public services and the citizenry more generally.
International Public Management
Authors: Mathiasen David
Published: September 2009

The rapid growth of international public management during the past two decades has gone largely unnoticed. Public sector institutions across the globe have been changing management practices, often using new (to them) approaches adopted from other countries. International institutions have been assembling knowledge about public management systems, developing guidelines for adopting them and fielding advisory teams to apply them to individual county circumstances. Profit-making consulting firms and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have built up substantial rosters of advisors on public management practice and stand ready to dispatch them to almost any part of the world, in some cases under conditions of hardship or danger. Thousands of documents on improving public management exist in file drawers and on computer disks around the world. Most are unanalysed and many ignored.
Strategic Complexity in International Business
Authors: Buckley Peter , Casson Mark
Published: September 2009

In retrospect there have been significant theoretical achievements in international business (IB) over the past forty years, but the prospects are not so good. This article provides a prospective view of international business. If IB is to regain its influence within the social sciences as a whole, it is necessary to reintegrate it into mainstream intellectual debate. One way in which this can be done is to introduce more refined analytical techniques into IB theory. This article recommends that the rational action approach to modelling should be expanded in order to address a wider range of IB issues. It provides practical examples of how this can be done, based mainly on recent work. The rational action approach has achieved its greatest successes in addressing economic issues, but it can also elucidate issues in strategic management and organizational behaviour.
Multilateral Institutions and Policies
Authors: Brewer Thomas L. , Young Stephen
Published: September 2009

The topic of this article — the multilateral regime for FDI — lies within the domain of international business studies that focus on multinational enterprises and their political environment. The topic is of increasing importance for MNEs' strategies and operations. Because of its centrality in the international trade–investment–technology transfer system, the World Trade Organization (WTO) is the specific focus of this article, though there is also some discussion of regional and bilateral agreements because they interact and overlap with WTO agreements. The relevance of the WTO to business strategy is evident in a variety of ways — in existing agreements, in negotiations to revise those agreements, in disputes, and in the expansion of its membership.
The Multinational Enterprise as an Organization
Authors: Westney Eleanor , Zaheer Srilata
Published: September 2009

An essential feature of the MNE is that internationalization of activities is a process that unfolds across time and space. Historically, a company typically started as a domestic enterprise and became more international over time, as the number of countries in which it operated, the number of subunits which it had to manage, and the range of activities in which it was engaged, expanded. The basic assumption that the activities and features of its organization would change predictably with internationalization has given models of the MNE a strongly evolutionary character. Although evolutionary theory has often been associated with highly deterministic theories of environmental selection, there are many variants that allow for strategic choices and for multiple evolutionary paths.
International Financial Management and Multinational Enterprises
Authors: Bowe Michael
Published: September 2009

This article provides a selective, critical survey of the academic literature on the financial management policy of multinational enterprises (MNEs). The focus of much current research interest can be captured in two major themes which also dominate this analysis. The first is financial management policy in relation to the increasing volatility of real and financial asset prices in the international financial environment within which MNEs operate. This dictates one theme of this article: the impact of financial risk, in particular market risk, on MNEs and an appraisal of evolving financial risk management practices. The second theme is international market segmentation. The globalization of international business activity has evolved along with a trend towards increasing financial market integration, particularly in capital markets.
Intelligence and Cognitive Abilities at Work
Authors: Furnham Adrian
Published: September 2009

Few areas of psychology attract as much discussion and debate as the topic of intelligence, more particularly, the use of intelligence tests in selection at work. More academic researchers have been attacked, hounded, sacked, and vilified for what they have written about intelligence than about any other topic. There is also still considerable debate about the role of intelligence testing in the educational settings. However, the science and the practice of intelligence testing remain far apart because of the history of misunderstanding, misapplications, and political differences. It remains difficult, even with supposedly disinterested scientists, to have an evidence-based debate about the origin of individual differences in intelligence, the measurement of intelligence, and the application of tests in commercial and educational settings.
Advances in Training Evaluation Research
Authors: Ford J. Kevin , Sinha Ruchi
Published: September 2009

Training evaluation is the systematic collection of descriptive and judgmental information necessary to make effective training decisions. A key characteristic of a systematic approach to training evaluation is an emphasis on the continuous use of feedback. This process, which includes both formative and summative evaluation strategies, can aid in identifying, collecting, and providing information to make a variety of instructional decisions. This article reviews the progress which has been made in evaluation science that has particular relevance to workplace training programs. It first focuses on the implications of the changing nature of work for conducting effective training evaluation. Second, the article describes how the field of training evaluation has progressed in terms of criterion development, measurement issues, and methodology issues. Third, it discusses the key challenges that remain in the field which require additional theory development and research.
Cross‐cultural Differences in Personnel Psychology
Authors: Smith Peter B.
Published: September 2009

In recent decades, substantial advances have been made in the creation of systematic procedures for the conduct of policies relevant to an organization's human resources. These developments present challenges to the validity of personnel practices that have been honed in monocultural settings. Put rather too crudely, companies must either modify their practices to accommodate the increasing diversity of their workforces, or they must find ways to create sufficiently uniform organizational cultures to permit the retention of the procedures developed earlier. An early indication of the difficulties inherent in the second of these options was provided by Hofstede's survey of IBM employees. This article discusses the conceptual framework provided by Hofstede's project. It then considers some of the major ways in which cultural variations may affect organizational behavior. The article draws on both nation-level and individual-level concepts in detailing a cultural perspective on several key issues relevant to personnel psychology.
Selection and Training for Work Adjustment and Adaptability
Authors: Hesketh Beryl , Griffin Barbara
Published: September 2009

This article outlines a conceptual framework for integrating recent developments in understanding the individual difference variables that directly influence and interact with situational variables in optimizing work adjustment and adaptive performance. It begins by outlining the components of the Theory of Work Adjustment, including an explanation of the dynamic aspects of the theory. A particular focus of the framework is on the dynamic attainment of achievement goals and the role that information and communication technology (ICT) can play when there is a turbulent and changing set of situational factors and job requirements. The article takes a futuristic approach and challenges the readers to consider the implications of the rapidly developing field of ICT for traditional models of selection and training.
Archaeology
Authors: Bartlett John R.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses archaeology's impact on biblical scholarship, especially over the last two centuries. It describes the Christian pilgrims, explorers, travellers, map makers, and military surveyors who paved the way for the archaeologists. It focuses on twentieth-century archaeology in Palestine/Israel, demonstrating archaeology's growing independence as a discipline, and its effect on modern understanding of the Bible's presentation of history.
Ancient Near Eastern Studies: Egypt
Authors: Kitchen Kenneth
Published: September 2009

This article looks at the impact of ancient Near Eastern studies on biblical scholarship. Before 1800, no accurate first-hand knowledge of Egypt's ancient remains was available to compare with biblical mentions of that land and its ancient civilization. During the nineteenth century, detailed pioneering exploration of Egypt and Nubia led to extensive recording and major publications of the visible monuments and inscriptions, while decipherment of ancient Egypt's hieroglyphic and other scripts, along with their language, finally opened the way towards recovering three millennia of history, literature, and social organization, including religious belief and practice.
Qumran Studies
Authors: Davies Philip
Published: September 2009

The Dead Sea Scrolls have undoubtedly provoked biblical scholarship into completely new ways of thinking about the manner in which the biblical literature originated and was transmitted, interpreted, and canonized. In the areas of text and canon, much has been learned, and a good deal of discussion generated; in respect of Hebrew linguistics, the nature and variety of Qumran Hebrew has also been much debated, though with rather less acknowledged impact on other aspects of biblical studies. This article first looks at Qumran evidence for the ‘Bible’ itself, relating to the emergence of a scriptural canon and the textual characteristics of its components. It then considers the way in which the Qumran literature ‘extends’ scripture through rewriting and interpretation, and the broader issues raised by the Scrolls about the nature and function of the Jewish scriptures.
Diaspora and Rabbinic Judaism
Authors: Hezser Catherine
Published: September 2009

This article discusses how the study of the history, literature, and religious beliefs and practices of ancient Jews in the Land of Israel and the Diaspora provides the proper background and context for the study of the later books of the Hebrew Bible, the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, and the New Testament writings. From the time of the Babylonian exile, and especially from Hellenistic times onwards, a vibrant Jewish Diaspora existed alongside the Jewish community in the Land of Israel. During the time of the Second Temple (520 BCE to 70 CE) and throughout rabbinic times, Israel remained the centre of world Jewry. The books of the Hebrew Bible and the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha were written by Jews who lived in the Diaspora or the Land of Israel; the books of the New Testament were written by Jewish and Gentile Christians in various Diaspora locations that also had Jewish communities. Thus, the direct experience of Jewish life or the indirect knowledge of and interaction with Jews would have had an impact on the literature that the biblical authors created.
Language and Translation of the Old Testament
Authors: Elwolde John
Published: September 2009

This article begins with a brief linguistic sketch of the Hebrew and Aramaic of the Bible. It then focuses on the inherent difficulty of ascertaining meaning in the Hebrew Bible (or, in the Christian tradition, the Old Testament, without the deutero-canonical, or apocryphal, books), from both a textual and a linguistic perspective. The lens through which the issue is viewed is mainly that of translations, in particular the most important of the ancient versions, the Old Greek (more loosely, the Septuagint, or LXX, much of which was completed in the late third and second centuries BCE), but also other ancient versions and modern translations.
Prophecy
Authors: Rooke Deborah
Published: September 2009

According to Jewish tradition, the canon of the Hebrew Bible, which forms the basis of the Christian Old Testament, is divided into three parts: Law, Prophets, and Writings. The division known as ‘Prophets’ consists of the historical books Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings (also known collectively as the ‘Former Prophets’) as well as the books more commonly recognized as prophetic by Christianity: that is, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the so-called Book of the Twelve, from Hosea to Malachi. These fifteen works from Isaiah to Malachi are also known collectively as the ‘Latter Prophets’. This article focuses on the major prophets, consisting of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, and the twelve minor prophets from Hosea to Malachi. It gives a brief overview of scholarly issues that pertain to the prophetic books in general and highlights issues which are particularly associated with individual books.
The Growth of the Apocrypha
Authors: Salvesen Alison G.
Published: September 2009

Both apocryphal and pseudepigraphical works are increasingly studied at an academic level for what they reveal of the religious preoccupations of their writers and the communities that first received them. The apocryphal writings in particular are a valuable witness to the many strands of Judaism during the period when the Second Temple stood in Jerusalem, spanning roughly the time period between the composition of the Hebrew Bible and the writings of the New Testament. This article discusses apocryphal writings covering several different genres, sometimes even within the same book. These include wisdom literature, which gives advice for right conduct and a successful life, linked to a religious outlook; apocalyptic writing, offering hope of momentous supernatural intervention at the end of history in order to save the people of God, sometimes through the agency of an anointed one or ‘Messiah’; historiography or writing that purports to be history; edifying stories, which are essentially folk tales with a religious message; rewritten Bible, where a familiar story from Scripture is retold with different emphases; and prayers and psalms that may have had a liturgical or devotional function.
The Growth of the New Testament
Authors: Court John M.
Published: September 2009

This article surveys the growth of the New Testament. The story of the movement in the first centuries towards the canon of the New Testament has three particularly significant historical features, or catalysts, and three literary aspects. The historical catalysts are, first, the existence in the first centuries of groups with alternative Christian philosophies, often labelled ‘Gnostic’; if their rationale is too different, they need to be held at a distance. Second, there is the influence, in the mid-second century, of Marcion, whose programme was to exclude both the Old Testament texts and any elements that echoed the Old within the New Testament. And third, there was a second-century movement, known as Montanism, which emphasized the elements of prophecy, continuing charismatic inspiration, and a revolutionary view of the future. The three significant literary aspects concern the gospels, the epistles, and the other texts with apostolic associations. Revelation is the culmination of the church's self-understanding and the climax of the process of growth of the New Testament.
Archaeology
Authors: Bartlett John R.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the contributions of archaeology to biblical scholarship. Biblical scholarship needs the archaeologist as it needs the anthropologist, the epigraphist, the philologist, the Assyriologist, the classical scholar, the student of Qumran, the rabbinic scholar, and others for the interpretation of the biblical writings. Archaeology is not so much a method of biblical scholarship as an intellectual discipline and practice, incorporating many methods and subject to many methodologies, assisting the modern interpretation of the Bible.
Form, Source, and Redaction Criticism
Authors: Floss Johannes P.
Published: September 2009

This article looks at form criticism, source/literary criticism, and redaction criticism. Form criticism, like source criticism, literary criticism, and redaction criticism, is a scientific method of interpreting the texts of the Old Testament. Literary criticism constitutes the first methodological step on the path to seeking the origin and provenance of a text. Further steps (including form criticism and redaction criticism) must follow later, in order to place a stratum or source in its proper place within a larger textual whole where possible. Here, the term ‘literary criticism’ is used rather than ‘source criticism’. Redaction criticism concerns itself with form and not with content. Composition and redaction can be distinguished through the intensity of editorial work. Composition can be recognized by a more intensive engagement with the units and the way that they are fitted together and built into episodes to achieve a desired end. Redaction tends to put the individual texts next to each other, but in an uncoordinated way.
Rhetorical and New Literary Criticism
Authors: Mitchell Margaret M.
Published: September 2009

This article provides a sketch of some historically significant moments in the emergence of rhetorical and literary-critical approaches to biblical texts, and gives some methodological pointers and resources for those who seek to comprehend and exercise them. Rhetorical criticism understands a text as dynamic in the sense that it is an instance of communicative persuasion, ‘a set of means chosen and organized with an eye to an audience rather than to self-expression or pure making’. Literary criticism involves a close reading of precise details of the text viewed as a unity (deflecting overemphasis on historical context or the historical information to be gained from it when treated it as a source) and appreciates especially the dynamism of the world inside the text, as a system of complex and meaningful interactions among its constituent parts.
Feminist Criticism and Related Aspects
Authors: Wacker Marie-Theres
Published: September 2009

Christian feminist exegesis has other procedures and thematic concerns compared with a Jewish feminist engagement with the Bible; and criticism of society, politics, and the economy is not carried out with the same sharpness by all of these. Lesbian and queer (gender-confusing) exegetical approaches bring in yet other perspectives. The designation ‘queer’ indicates in addition the debate about the deconstruction of ‘gender’ which, from its side, also brings pressure to define afresh the contours of ‘feminist’ theology and exegesis. This article deals first with basic hermeneutical questions, and then turns to methodological perspectives.
Biblical Theology
Authors: Janowski Bernd
Published: September 2009

This article gives an overview of the basic problems in biblical theology from the point of view of how they have developed since the beginnings of biblical theological work in the seventeenth century and how they appear today. This sketch of the problems will therefore concern itself less with a discussion of details than with major trends and contexts. After a definition of the term ‘biblical theology’ and a brief outline of the history of interpretation, there follows a sketch of those problems that are at present most intensively discussed. The main emphasis will be on the Old Testament and its significance for a theology of the whole Bible.
Jewish Interpretation of the Bible
Authors: Magonet Jonathan
Published: September 2009

This article discusses Jewish interpretation of the Bible. It begins with a brief historical overview that will help establish the framework for the forms of Jewish interpretation that emerged. It then covers the approach of Midrash, medieval Jewish exegesis, the Wissenschaft movement of the nineteenth century, and the renewed Jewish scholarly interest in the Hebrew Bible in the twentieth century.
Introduction
Authors: McLaughlin Brian P.
Published: September 2009

The philosophy of mind is a core area of philosophy. It has roots tracing back to ancient Greece, where the idea that the soul is distinct from the body originated. Philosophy of mind flourished during much of the period from the publication in the seventeenth century of René Descartes's magnificent works on the mind to the first quarter of the twentieth century, which closed with the publication of C. D. Broad's The Mind and Its Place in Nature. With the rise of behaviourism in the second quarter of that century, however, philosophical interest in the mind waned. Still, some mid-twentieth-century work stands out. With the fall of behaviourism in the late 1950s and early 1960s and the rise of cognitive science, interest in the mind and in its place in nature was renewed — and with enormous vigour. Since then research in the philosophy of mind has been booming.
Dualism
Authors: Lowe E. J.
Published: September 2009

Dualism in contemporary philosophy of mind comes in many different varieties, but following long-standing tradition is normally divided into two main kinds: substance dualism and property dualism, the former maintaining the distinctness of mental and physical substances and the latter maintaining the distinctness of mental and physical properties. By a substance, in this context, is standardly meant an individual object, or bearer of properties, not a kind of stuff. However, much of the contemporary debate concerning dualism in fact focuses on the relationship between mental and physical events or states, largely because it is these that are commonly supposed to be the relata of causal relations and causal considerations play a very important role in that debate. This might lead one to suppose that a third main kind of dualism should be recognized, namely event or state dualism, maintaining the distinctness of mental and physical events or states.
Epiphenomenalism
Authors: Walter Sven
Published: September 2009

Epiphenomenalism is not only at odds with our intuitive conception of ourselves as autonomous agents. It also faces a whole series of theoretical difficulties. Among other things, it appears to undermine freedom of the will, the possibility of an evolutionary account of the mind, our conviction that others enjoy a mental life similar to ours, the application of epistemic norms like justification, warrant, or reasonableness to processes of belief formation, the distinction between reasons for an action and the reasons for which it was performed, and our ability to refer to, have knowledge of, and have memories about mental states. This article briefly sketches two of the most important of them, saying why the epiphenomenalist's standard response to them appears unsatisfactory. Then it considers an issue that has so far been mostly neglected; namely, the question of which account of causation would allow for a coherent formulation of the epiphenomenalist's position. Finally, it suggests an alternative version of epiphenomenalism, which, though not free from problems, may be superior to the traditional version.
What is Property Physicalism?
Authors: Beckermann Ansgar
Published: September 2009

Since the days of Democritus, Plato, and Aristotle the main concern of philosophers of mind has been whether there is an independent realm of the mental beyond the realm of the physical. This question has mainly been understood as that of whether there are independent mental substances — souls or selves. Most of what has been written in the philosophy of mind during the last seventy to eighty years, however, has instead been concerned with the question of whether there are independent or irreducible mental properties. To many it has seemed obviously true that there are no mental substances, but with properties things are different. The history of answers to questions such as ‘Is being in pain or thinking about Paris really something physical?’ (including the answers associated with logical behaviourism, the identity theory, functionalism, and supervenience theories) has been told time and again. Nonetheless, it is worth taking a new look at it.
Thinking
Authors: Antony Louise
Published: September 2009

Human language is not the only naturally occurring symbol system. There are many animals other than human beings that communicate by means of signs or signals; vervet monkeys, for example, have specialized warning cries for different kinds of predators. And some animal-communication systems even have a rudimentary syntax: the dances performed by certain honey bees have structural elements that tell other bees the direction and distance from the hive of a nectar source. But what's distinctive of human language — and the feature that Descartes was highlighting — is that the syntax of human language permits us to take parts of signs and recombine them with parts of other signs.
Other Minds
Authors: Avramides Anita
Published: September 2009

It is a serious question both in philosophy and the history of ideas just how our conception of mind has evolved. There is something of a consensus that Descartes introduced a particular conception and one, interestingly, that can be seen to take shape against the backdrop of an evolving scientific conception of the world. This scientific account of the world had no room for mind, and Descartes helped things along by hiving off the mind, so to speak, into its own realm. In Descartes's world-view mind and body are distinct, and distinct substances.
Introspection
Authors: Macdonald Cynthia
Published: September 2009

‘Introspection’ is a term used by philosophers to refer to a special method or means by which one comes to know certain of one's own mental states; specifically, one's current conscious states. It derives from the Latin ‘spicere’, meaning ‘look’, and ‘intra’, meaning ‘within’; introspection is a process of looking inward. Introspectionist accounts of self-knowledge fall within the broader domain of theories of self-knowledge, understood as views about the nature of and basis for one's knowledge of one's own mental states, including one's beliefs, desires, conscious thinkings, and sensations. Theories of self-knowledge are motivated by the apparent need to account for a number of striking features of at least some such knowledge, which ordinary empirical knowledge, including knowledge of the mental states of others, is typically thought to lack.
Economic Theory and Business History
Authors: Lamoreaux Naomi R. , Raff Daniel M. G. , Temin Peter
Published: September 2009

This article emphasizes the uneasy and sometimes tension-filled relationship that has long existed between business history and mainstream economic theorists. Since business history first emerged as a distinct field of research in the early twentieth century, most practitioners have made little use of economics in their work and some have been downright hostile to the idea that economic theory could improve the writing of business history. The development of new bodies of theory in the last several decades, particularly the economics of asymmetric information, transaction-cost economics, and game theory, has changed the situation to a considerable extent. Over the last couple of decades, scholars have used economic theory to forge new links between business history and developments in the other social-science disciplines. They have revisited in illuminating ways topics ranging from early trading companies to modern financial institutions.
Business History and Economic Development
Authors: Lazonick William
Published: September 2009

An innovative enterprise develops productive resources to differentiate itself from its rivals, and utilizes the productive resources which it has developed to generate the higher-quality, lower-cost products that are the source of its competitive advantage. Government investments in education and research form indispensable foundations for business investments in innovation. Governments may also seek to ensure that the outcome of innovative enterprise is indeed economic development. This article presents a summary of the “historical experience” that is deemed to be relevant to a theory of innovative enterprise. Given space constraints, it is confined, historically and comparatively, to the cases of Japan and the United States. In conclusion, the article indicates the importance of a theory of innovative enterprise for understanding the role of the state in economic development.
Business History and Management Studie
Authors: Kipping Matthias , Üsdiken Behlül
Published: September 2009

The purpose of this article is to give an overview of the changing relationship between business history and management studies since the 1950s, with a particular focus on the contributions made by business historians to management research. It also assesses the potential for future collaboration among scholars from the two fields. The article's main argument is that while both were close at the beginning of the period, they subsequently moved apart. Most business historians are working in history or, less frequently, in economic-history departments rather than business schools or management departments. Business historians have their own academic associations, which are not affiliated with the major learned societies in the management field, such as the Academy of Management. The same is true for publications in academic journals, where there has been little crossover.
Globalization
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: September 2009

Globalization is a central issue in business history. The radical shrinking of distance that began in the nineteenth century, but which had a much-longer history, transformed the business of firms and entrepreneurs, and the world in which they operated. By the twenty-first century, few firms anywhere in the world, even small enterprises, were unaffected by some aspect of globalization, while large corporations were at the heart of the process. Until recently, much of the business-history literature on globalization was focused on the history of multinationals. There are many literature reviews on this domain. This literature is now being explicitly integrated within the history of globalization. This article extends this approach by focusing on the contribution of business historians to understanding the history of globalization. It suggests that as global perspectives progressively replace national ones, new research agendas and methodologies will need to be employed.
Cartels
Authors: Fear Jeffrey
Published: September 2009

The strategy of most major business firms has to take into consideration cartels. This article discusses how firms can expect to behave inside cartels (firms as unitary actors), and how cartels altered corporate strategy and organizational development (decision making and internal processes). It offers an array of different cartel types that blur the distinction between legitimate cooperation and illegitimate collusion. It is actually difficult to decide when a cartel is a cartel and what cartel success means, let alone if it acts inefficiently or destructively. The article argues that the voluminous scale and scope of cartels before 1939, together with lingering cartelization after 1945 in Europe and Japan, means that any analysis of entrepreneurship, corporate strategy, and organization, as well as national economic development, must incorporate the impact of cartels. It also discusses the impact of cartels on economic and corporate development.
Marketing and Distribution
Authors: Fitzgerald Robert
Published: September 2009

The origins of “modern” marketing are connected to increase in real wages, the choices generated by disposable incomes, transport and communication systems, the building of national markets, and urbanization. If the economic and social opportunities were to be fulfilled, businesses needed to innovate products and systems, and they succeeded with the manufacturing and distribution of standardized goods. The assumption of the marketing orientation, which started with the wishes of consumers, was a response by many leading enterprises to the greater individual spending power of the consumer. In several important cases, it brought the increasing segmentation of formerly homogenous markets. Market research assisted the process of product development, and the use of psychological analysis challenged the simplicities of “narrow” economics.
Accounting, Information, and Communication Systems
Authors: Boyns Trevor
Published: September 2009

The purpose of this article is to examine the relationship between the historical development of accounting, information, and communication systems and business organizations since the late eighteenth century. Its findings are based largely on research conducted by accounting and business historians during the last quarter of the century, a period in which accounting history, once a niche area of research heavily focused on the development of double-entry bookkeeping, has been brought more firmly into the business-history fold. This reflects the work of those historians who have focused their attention on the development of cost/management accounting practices within firms, and the “new” accounting historians who have examined the wider relationship between accounting and the organizations and society within which it is embedded.
Political Psychology and Choice
Authors: Mutz Diana C.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses political psychology and choice, starting with an overview of the recent emphasis on the importance of emotion in understanding political choices. This is followed by a discussion of the research that deals with the ability of citizens to process information without any bias. It then highlights the contributions of methodological innovations to an understanding of political psychology. The article concludes with several reflections on the political psychologists' emphasis on the importance of information, cognition, and rationality in research for the past few decades.
Individual Modernity
Authors: Welzel Christian
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the concept of individual modernity, which deals with the psychological characteristics that are supposed to become dominant among individuals as societies undergo modernization. It discusses the individual modernity scale, which helps measure specifically modern psychological orientations among individuals. Civic culture and individual modernity is discussed further in the article. The two variants of modernity, theories of modern value change, and the two sets of modern values are some of the other topics covered in the article.
Democratization: Perspectives from Global Citizenries
Authors: Shin Doh Chull
Published: September 2009

This article presents an analysis that highlights the regional differences in institutional and cultural dynamics, by comparing the reactions of citizens to democratic change across these regions. It explains the notion of democratization and also clarifies several key conceptual issues. It studies the evolution of the current wave of global democratization, which was popularized by Huntington as a third wave. How citizen involvement in democratic regime change has affected the survival and growth of new democracies is also examined. The article also presents comparisons of the levels of popular demands for and institutional supplies of democracy, and the breadth, strength, and depth of popular commitment to democracy.
Perspectives on Electoral Behavior
Authors: Heath Anthony
Published: September 2009

This article focuses on different perspectives on electoral behaviour. Most of the article is spent identifying possible future trends in comparative research on electoral behaviour. The growth of comparative research is shown to reflect a number of different factors, namely: the spread of democracy around the world, the increasing availability of good quality data, and the emergence of real-world phenomena.
Political Representation and Democracy
Authors: Weßels Bernhard
Published: September 2009

This article discusses political representation and democracy, and argues that the character and quality of policy representation varies. These would depend on the institutional settings of democracies — the candidate selection and the electoral system — where the institutions provide incentives or disincentives for representatives to be responsive. The article explores the theoretical backbone of political representation and presents a review of related literature, with regards to the impact of institutions on representatives, their relation with voters, and policy representation.
The Socialization of Epistemology
Authors: Antony Louise
Published: September 2009

This article analyses the so-called socialization of epistemology and its relevance in political analysis. It criticizes the type of objectivity portrayed in the television show Dragnet and discusses the social ecology of objectivity and attempts to naturalize the study of knowledge. It argues that epistemology has political value and that it is important to understand the social dimensions of knowing to become the kind of knowers crucial to the health of a democratic society. It explains that false epistemologies can be and are used as ideological tools that degrade our social situation.