bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Pride, Prejudice, and Political Economy
Authors: Bardon Adrian
Published: September 2019

This chapter examines the denialist roots of laissez-faire economic conservatism and “trickle-down” economics. It presents evidence that conservative denial in political economics is sustained by racism and classism. It also discusses the philosophical incoherence of right-wing libertarianism and explains how racism has played a historical role in libertarianism as well. Much of the sincere absurdity in political economy stems from the fundamental attribution error, a common bias wherein the failures of other individuals (and social identity groups) are attributed to aspects of character; one’s own problems are the result of uncontrollable circumstance. Another major factor in the perpetuation of inequality is status anxiety among racial and economic groups.
Afterword
Authors: Bardon Adrian
Published: September 2019

In this chapter, the author looks at suggestions about making science communication more effective. Proposals divide roughly into those that focus on information and science education and those that focus on framing issues more effectively. Each type of approach has some promise, but neither education nor messaging has been shown to be able to significantly counteract denialism. This chapter also examines the modest progress shown in local remediation efforts, where coalitions of persons with different views about politics and environmentalism nevertheless find common ground in collaborating on issues of mutual, local interest (such as saltwater intrusion into fresh water supplies).
A Theory of Ethnic Cleavages, Group Mobilization, and Conflict in Multiethnic States
Authors: Vogt Manuel
Published: September 2019

This chapter argues that the consequences of ethnic group mobilization depend on countries’ ethnic cleavage types. It introduces two ideal types of multiethnic societies: segmented unranked and stratified societies. The chapter traces the origins of these cleavage types back to the legacies of European overseas colonialism. It explains why the colonial settler states and the decolonized states constitute archetypical cases of stratified and segmented unranked societies, respectively. It then theorizes how these ethnic cleavage types affect the prevalence of different forms of conflict in multiethnic states today. In stratified societies, stable between-group hierarchies and a high degree of social integration deprive the marginalized groups of the capacity for armed rebellion and make the relative opportunity structure more conducive to peaceful direct action than to violence. In contrast, unstable group hierarchies and high social segmentation stimulate the capacity for violence and increase the relative opportunities for armed revolt compared to nonviolent strategies.
Who Selects Ministers?
Authors: Annesley Claire , Beckwith Karen , Franceschet Susan
Published: September 2019

Chapter 3 focuses on the political actors who are empowered to select ministers: predominantly presidents and prime ministers. It identifies all the rules, formal and informal, that determine whether selectors are empowered or constrained when constructing their cabinet. The chapter shows that, in most cases, presidents and prime ministers are strongly empowered to choose their minsters, although in some cases selectors are constrained by having to share powers with co-selectors from other parties (i.e. in coalition governments) and within their own party organization. The chapter categorizes the book’s seven country cases into three groups: one where formal and informal rules always empower a single selector, one where party rules have constrained selectors, and one where selectors are always constrained.
How to Qualify for Cabinet: Representational Criteria
Authors: Annesley Claire , Beckwith Karen , Franceschet Susan
Published: September 2019

Chapter 7 shows that aspirant ministers can qualify for cabinet appointment by meeting representational criteria, defined as membership in a politically relevant political, territorial, or socio-demographic group deemed important for legitimizing the cabinet team. In all country cases, a subset of ministrables qualify for appointment to cabinet on the basis of representational criteria, and all countries in the book’s data set employ representational criteria in defining the ministerial eligibility pool, even as specific representational criteria vary in number and content across cases. The chapter shows that regional representation is a strong prescriptive criterion in five countries (Australia, Canada, Germany, Spain, and the United Kingdom), and that race and ethnicity are prescribed as representational categories in Canada and the United States. The chapter finds that gender is the only representational category that appears across all countries, yet the magnitude of women’s inclusion varies significantly.
Concrete Floors and Cabinet Appointments
Authors: Annesley Claire , Beckwith Karen , Franceschet Susan
Published: September 2019

Chapter 11 answers the three research questions and summarizes the book’s findings in terms of the timing, magnitude, and persistence of women’s cabinet inclusion. It outlines the process for initiating, confirming, and sustaining “concrete floors” for women’s cabinet inclusion across each of the country cases. Concrete floors are the minimum number or proportion of women in cabinet for that ministerial team to be perceived as legitimate. The concept captures the process by which cabinets have been re-gendered to include ever greater numbers of women. The concrete floor helps to explain why presidents and prime ministers have not reverted to appointing all male-cabinets and, in most cases, have refrained from appointing fewer women to cabinet than their predecessors. The concrete floor also provides a strategic foothold for feminist activists who want to increase women’s presence in national politics, specifically in cabinets and shadow cabinets. The chapter concludes by identifying future research directions and the practical implications of the book’s findings.
“Down down with the Supreme Guide”
Authors: Holmes Amy Austin
Published: September 2019

During the first six months of Mohamed Morsi’s presidency, there was a great deal of collaboration between Morsi and the military. The Mubarak-era business elite also displayed a willingness to continue their profit-making schemes and showed little resistance to Morsi’s administration. American officials had vowed to support whoever won Egypt’s first real elections, and they believed a “democratic transition” was in the offing. Of the four key players, it was the citizenry who turned against Morsi first, including some of the very people who voted him into office. Opposition to Morsi began even before Tamarod emerged when he issued a Constitutional Declaration in the fall of 2012. Tamarod can be divided into two wings: one that was Nasserist, and another that was opposed to the military returning to power. Tamarod was not a creation of the deep state but a broad-based social movement, with all the diversity and contradictions that many big tent movements face, including the emergence of divisions between radicals and moderates and the co-optation of a few key leaders by the regime. The summer of 2013 constituted a watershed moment as the balance of power shifted back in favor of the military, heralding the beginning of the counterrevolution.
Statehood and Recognition in International Law: A Post-Colonial Invention
Authors: D’Aspremont Jean
Published: September 2019

This article seeks to lay bare some of the main conceptual, theoretical, and normative constructions that have informed the rise of the doctrine of statehood into one of the fundamental doctrines of international law and allowed it to continue to prove most influential in contemporary international legal discourses. In doing so, this article will make the point that the doctrine of statehood has been shaped by both modern and post-colonial heritages. It will be shown that the main components of the doctrine of statehood are very modern in that they are directly inherited from liberal legal thought. It will simultaneously be demonstrated that it is only in the second half of the twentieth century, and more precisely in the wake of the start of the decolonisation process, that all these modern components were assembled and organised in order to compose what is known today as the doctrine of statehood.
Introductory Note
Authors: Merrills John G.
Published: September 2019

In 2017 the International Court of Justice gave one judgment and made a number of orders. The judgment concerned preliminary objections in a maritime boundary case and the orders provisional measures of protection and the admissibility of certain counter-claims. These cases, although not very numerous, made a useful contribution to the development and application of internal law. In that year also no less than six new cases were begun, and one case was partially discontinued. The new cases were concerned with issues ranging from a land boundary question to compliance with two international law conventions, the revision and interpretation of a judgment, and the detention and trial of a national. The United Nations General Assembly also adopted a resolution requesting an advisory opinion. At the beginning of 2018 there were therefore seventeen cases on the Court's docket. In 2017 the Court also elected five judges to the bench in the regular triennial election.
Introductory Note
Authors: Reinisch August
Published: September 2019

In 2017, the jurisprudence of ICSID tribunals and ad hoc committees largely followed established lines. The jurisdictional decisions in Koch v. Venezuela and Bridgestone v. Panama evidenced that in spite of the lowered standards under the Salini-light test investment tribunals are still concerned about including normal sales transactions under the scope of investment agreements. They have similarly grappled with avoiding to fully open up their ratione personae jurisdiction to state-owned companies. On substantive issues, the tribunal in Bear Creek Mining v. Peru found an indirect (and unlawful) expropriation, whereas the tribunal in Eiser v. Spain held that the fundamental change of the regulatory regime in renewable energy violated the host state’s obligations under the Energy Charter Treaty’s fair and equitable treatment obligation. Various ICSID tribunals in the renewable energy cases against the Czech Republic, Italy and Spain, dealt with the stability and predictability obligations of host states under the FET standard in light of regulatory changes. The annulment committee in Suez v. Argentina (II) confirmed its limited power of reviewing ICSID awards.
Enhancing the Globe’s Governance, Struggling with Research and Politics
Authors: Weiss Thomas G.
Published: September 2019

This article for the annual exploration of “Recent Lines of Internationalist Thought” concerns the contemporary reality of international organizations and multilateral cooperation. More especially, the article explores the author’s analytical pursuit of global governance, both as a scholar and practitioner. Three specific focuses are the United Nations; the world organization’s under-appreciated contribution to key ideas, norms, principles, and standards; and the concept of sacrosanct state sovereignty, especially humanitarian action and the “responsibility to protect.”
Introduction: On Conservative Nationalism
Authors: Dueck Colin
Published: September 2019

This chapter summarizes the entire book. It argues that a kind of conservative American nationalism long predates the Trump presidency, and goes back to the American founding. Different aspects of conservative American nationalism have been incorporated into the Republican Party from its creation. Every Republican president since Theodore Roosevelt has tried to balance elements of this tradition with global US foreign policy priorities. Donald Trump was able to win his party’s nomination and rise to the presidency in part by challenging liberal internationalist assumptions. Yet in practice, he too has combined nationalist assumptions with global US foreign policy priorities. The long-term trend within the Republican party—predating Trump—is toward political populism, cultural conservatism, and white working-class voters, and this has international implications. Republican foreign policy nationalism is not about to disappear.
Nationalism, Internationalism, and American Conservatives
Authors: Dueck Colin
Published: September 2019

This chapter provides the framework for understanding American nationalism, liberal internationalism, and conservative foreign policy approaches in their various forms. The history, premises, and practices of American nationalism are recounted, from the American founding to the beginning of the twentieth century. Then the key elements of liberal internationalism are discussed, including their incorporation into American foreign policy beginning with Woodrow Wilson. Conservative American reactions to liberal internationalist policies are described and delineated into their own distinct categories as well. The context is thus set for a discussion of conservative American nationalism in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.
National versus Global
Authors: Dueck Colin
Published: September 2019

In this chapter, a brief summary of the Trump administration’s foreign policy is provided, along with an assessment of its chief strengths and weaknesses. Donald Trump initially won the presidency arguing that US allies were essentially free-riders. Apparently many of his earliest supporters agreed. This triggered great concern as to what his worldwide policies would be, if elected. In practice, as president, Trump did in fact pull US foreign policy in a sharply nationalist direction. At the same time, he did not actually dismantle overall existing US alliances, military bases, or forward presence overseas. In effect his foreign policy amounted to a kind of pressure campaign, directed against allies and adversaries alike, on commercial as well as strategic grounds. The advantages and disadvantages of that pressure campaign are assessed.
The Transitional Period within Byzantium
Authors: Ousterhout Robert G.
Published: September 2019

The economic downturn that followed the death of Justinian in 565 was followed by significant loss of territories, including the collapse of the Balkan frontier and the loss of North Africa and Italy. In the East, Byzantium continued to struggle against the Persians and, after 634, the Arabs. Within Byzantium, society was disrupted by the so-called Iconoclast Controversy (726–843). Until the late ninth century, there was limited architectural production, on a reduced scale.
Transformation at the Edges of Empire
Authors: Ousterhout Robert G.
Published: September 2019

During the seventh century in the Caucasus, Armenia and Georgia witnessed a remarkable period of architectural production and creativity. The Ṭur ‘Abdin witnessed a flourishing at the same time, while architecture in other areas, such as Cyprus, Egypt, and Nubia, developed in relative isolation. With the emergence of Islam in the Near East, by the end of the seventh century, new architectural forms were developed to serve the new religion, dependent on the earlier Byzantine tradition and probably executed by Byzantine artisans.
Contested Lands
Authors: Ousterhout Robert G.
Published: September 2019

Following the successful completion of the First Crusade and the foundation of the Crusader States in 1099, contacts between West and East increased, and this is reflected in the architecture. While most often seen solely in terms of French Romanesque and Gothic developments, Crusader architecture represents a union of local construction practices and a superficial overlay of French details, such as ribbed vaults and traceries. The close interaction of Western Europeans, Muslims, and Byzantines in the East is reflected in the architecture of the Ayyubids, Mamluks, and Seljuks in subsequent centuries.
The Exotic West
Authors: Ousterhout Robert G.
Published: September 2019

Increased contact between Byzantium and Western Europe found a variety of architectural manifestations. In Venice, an economic competitor with Constantinople, the imperial Church of the Holy Apostles was replicated at S. Marco as Venice constructed a legendary past for itself. In Norman Sicily of the twelfth century, with its multiethnic, religiously heterogeneous population, a new architecture developed that artfully juxtaposed Byzantine, Western European, and Islamic forms.
Palaiologan Constantinople and a New Architectural Idiom
Authors: Ousterhout Robert G.
Published: September 2019

Following the reconquest of Constantinople in 1261, the city experienced a brief cultural revival, marked by significant works of restoration and new construction to reconnect the city to its past glory. Older monastic establishments were expanded, often with large chapels for the privileged burials of the aristocracy. The new architectural style of the period is best represented by the Church of Christ in the Chora Monastery, the best preserved project of the period, characterized by small-scale relationships in its design, picturesque asymmetries, and the lack of a clear relationship between the exterior forms and the interior spaces.
Old and New
Authors: Ousterhout Robert G.
Published: September 2019

Despite the unpleasant realities of the period, Mount Athos and other monastic centers flourished in the Late Byzantine period. Thessalonike, as the second city of the empire with a long history, witnessed much construction in the late thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. While following the complexities of the new architecture of Constantinople, the construction in Thessalonike was primarily monastic rather than aristocratic in its patronage. By contrast, Mystras was a new city, whose organization was completely subject to the steep topography and the requirement of defense, lacking any evidence of orthogonal planning. Patronage was aristocratic, following the model of Constantinople, with which there were strong architectural connections.
Rival Powers
Authors: Ousterhout Robert G.
Published: September 2019

Following the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow ascended as the center of Orthodox Christianity, styling itself the “Third Rome.” While influenced by Italian architects and indigenous developments, later Russian architecture reflects the picturesque complexities of the Late Byzantine style. The Ottomans settled in Byzantine territory and relied on Byzantine masons to construct their earliest mosques. With the conquest, they began a competitive discourse with the Byzantine past, turning to the monumentality of Hagia Sophia as their chief source of inspiration. While both the Russians and the Ottomans looked to the Byzantines, their architectures developed in very different ways. Nevertheless, both might be regarded as Byzantium’s legitimate successors.
Diogenes vs. Demonax
Authors: Kuin Inger N. I.
Published: September 2019

Lucian of Samosata is an invaluable source for the activities of the philosophical schools in the 2nd century ce and their attitudes to laughter. But he can also be understood as a philosopher in his own right, especially for his views on the value of laughter in philosophy and on the potential of laughter as philosophy. This chapter analyzes these views in order to show that Lucian’s writings form a key stage in the history of laughter’s place in philosophical thought. Two prominent forms of philosophical laughter in Lucian are analyzed side by side: the improvisational, inclusive laughter of Demonax, and the exhibitionist, exclusive laughter of the Cynics, (Lucian’s) Diogenes in particular. This chapter argues that Demonax’s laughter ultimately comes closer to Lucian’s own mode of philosophical laughter than Diogenes’ laughter.
The Twists and Turns of Creativity
Authors: Nalbantian Suzanne
Published: September 2019

Suzanne Nalbantian provides an overarching synthesis of the conclusions about creativity arrived at by the neuroscientific and humanist contributors to this volume. She shows that the neuroscience chapters present a span of approaches, including a “workspace model” of the creative brain (Jean-Pierre Changeux), the role of the default mode network (Marcus Raichle), cognitive processing during dreaming (Robert Stickgold), the fundamental systems and cellular foundations of creativity (Jaak Panksepp, Alcino Silva, and John Bickle), and the importance of brain circuit plasticity in quantitative creative cognition (Geraint Wiggins and Charlotte Stagg). The psychologists Robert Sternberg, Oshin Vartanian, and Liane Gabora offer cognitive approaches based on phenomena of mind. Nancy Andreasen and Paul Matthews show how studies of exceptional brains—those marked by genius or those altered by disease or drugs—illuminate the mechanisms of creativity. The humanist contributors to this book provide a range of perspectives from those who analyze creativity as a trait of the individual (Suzanne Nalbantian, Suzette Henke, Mark Hussey, and John Onians) and those who view it as shaped by social context (Peter Schneck, Donald Wehrs, and John Foster). Personal narratives of the creative process are provided by the musician Bruce Adolphe and the contemporary novelist Richard Powers. All the contributors explore aspects of the conscious processing and spontaneous, nonconsious processing that define creativity, which this volume investigates through a unique, interdisciplinary optic.
Creativity
Authors: Matthews Paul M.
Published: September 2019

Creativity is not a phenomenon that arises from the brain in isolation; it has an experiential, sociopolitical, and cultural context. Nonetheless, studies of the brain illuminate mechanistic aspects of human creativity with a clarity sufficient clearly to allow some predictions of the potential for creativity and have suggested ways in which it can be enhanced. This chapter briefly reviews associations between creativity and disease, focusing on rare case studies of people with neurodegenerative disease affecting the frontal lobe and executive processing. These suggest that impaired frontal activity can enhance more creative behaviors under some conditions, a hypothesis confirmed by direct testing with transient, noninvasive electrical interference with frontal lobe functions in healthy volunteers. The use of some drugs also has been associated with increased creativity. Improved performance on tests of creative cognition by people with Parkinson’s disease after treatment with L-dopa has highlighted roles for dopamine and norepinephrine in modulating cognitive flexibility. However, most of the recent advances in understanding brain mechanisms of creativity from functional brain imaging studies have highlighted that creativity is not localizable to one or a few brain regions, but instead engages coordinated activities across major systems in the brain, including the default mode network and executive control, salience, or attentional networks. With information on genotype and patterns of brain activity, neuroscientists may be able to classify people for their potential creativity.
Memory Linking and Creativity
Authors: Silva Alcino J. , Bickle John
Published: September 2019

Human creativity intuitively seems beyond the reach of molecular, cellular, and circuit neuroscience. However, in this chapter, the authors propose that mechanisms that link memories across time have a critical role in a key aspect of human creativity, namely, the many ways in which distinct memories acquired on separate occasions can be related and connected in novel and generative ways. Recent work in mice suggests a detailed molecular, cellular, and systems neuroscience mechanism of memory linking that provides a framework for this key component of creativity in humans. This proposal shares some interesting features with psychological and systems-neurobiological accounts of human creativity but differs from such accounts since data in support of it are drawn from controlled interventional experiments in mice. Yet this purely mechanistic account raises a philosophical dilemma based on the intuitive differences between “mechanism” and “creativity.” The authors conclude the chapter with a brief exploration of this dilemma and its potential implications for a scientific explanation of the human creative process.
Creativity and the Self-Made Worldview
Authors: Gabora Liane
Published: September 2019

Creativity is usefully viewed from the perspective of personal “worldviews.” which describe the mind as experienced subjectively, from the inside. The worldview of an uncreative person reflects what they’ve been told, while the worldview of a creative person reflects what they’ve done with what they’ve been told to create a self-made worldview. The capacity to generate such a self-made worldview arose first with development of the capacity for one thought to trigger another thought. This chaining allows free-association, critical reflection, or complex behavioural thought sequences to be created and recalled for material with high psychological entropy to be restructured to form a new idea or perspective. However, a second capacity important for creative thought also is needed: contextual focus, the ability to adaptively shift between convergent and divergent modes of thought. Whereas chaining allows the connecting of closely related items in memory, contextual focus enables the forging of distant connections for sophisticated creative expression. Chaining is sufficient for “little-c”, everyday creative ideas, but contextual focus is need for the generation of those “big-C” creative ideas that define major conceptual shifts. These phenomena of mind arise at the level of the brain with coordinated activity of groups of collectively co-spiking neurons (neural cliques). Those that respond to more general or abstract aspects of a situation offer a straightforward mechanism for contextual focus, for example; with associative thought, as more aspects of a situation are taken into account, more neural cliques are recruited. Gabora’s global mind perspective highlights the evolutionary significance of creativity: cultural evolution became possible with the emergence of a creative worldviews that are self-organizing, self-mending, communally interacting, and self-propagating.
Henry James and the Creative Process
Authors: Schneck Peter
Published: September 2019

Creativity as a process may be said to constitute a particular mode of experience and to own a specific phenomenology which can be described, compared, and evaluated. Creativity can be viewed as a cultural practice whereby contextual factors, with the environment that lies outside the brain, must be considered beyond the exclusive biological and neural foundations of aesthetic experience. The work of Henry James presents a writer’s continuous attempt to come to a deeper understanding of the creative process at the center of his art, driven by an understanding of human experience as essentially based and grounded in creativity. Looking at James’s notebooks, his prefaces, and also some of his works, we can trace the creative process in all its complexity, as a particular mode of experience and also as a “method” or strategy to stimulate and sustain the creative state. James shows us that there are distinct features of “creative states” which are not exclusive to literary creativity. The diversity and innovativeness of human experience is a creative factor in itself, so that “everyday” little-c contributes to big-C. James’s thorough exploration of the creative process may be compared to more recent attempts in the sciences to understand creativity in cognition in general and literature in particular.
Contrasting Modes of Creativity
Authors: Foster John Burt
Published: September 2019

This chapter probes the distinction between higher and lower levels of artistic creativity developed in works by an intergenerational cohort of supremely gifted Russian writers, with Nietzsche’s disillusionment in Wagner as a parallel. In imagined renditions of exceptional achievement in music, painting, or fiction, Pushkin, Tolstoy, and Nabokov enact their own high literary aspirations even as they allow for rivalries with lesser talents, for the blindness and hostility of various authorities, and for the urgency imparted by Russian belatedness vis-à-vis the West. In Pushkin’s tragedy of Mozart poisoned by the lesser composer Salieri, inspiration, originality, and many-sidedness emerge as hallmarks of literary/artistic creativity at its fullest. These qualities reappear in the paintings of Tolstoy’s alter ego, the expatriate artist Mikhailov, which include a portrait of Anna Karenina that eclipses the artistic efforts of her lover Vronsky, and in the pseudo-memoir by Nabokov’s megalomaniacal murderer Hermann, whose grandiose delusions are punctured by the parodic virtuosity of the hidden real author. “Genius,” the honorific word often used for exceptional creativity, applies most directly to Pushkin’s portrayal of Mozart (as well as to Pushkin himself). But Tolstoy’s Mikhailov chapters undercut the exceptionality of genius with their dawning interest in emotional infectiousness, which can unite artists with their audiences. In a further qualification, Hermann’s belief in his own genius perverts the ideal of exceptional creativity, indeed reveals its purely destructive potential; while Nabokov in the background gives the issue another twist, in his dazzling experiments with parody as second-order creativity.
Conceptual Blending and Genre Invention from Chrétien de Troyes to Cervantes and Shakespeare
Authors: Wehrs Donald R.
Published: September 2019

This chapter explores the value of the theory of conceptual blending, originating in cognitive science and linguistics, for understanding the kind of literary creativity involved in major generic inventions, as exemplified by the work of Chrétien de Troyes, Cervantes, and Shakespeare. Conceptual blending describes how, when humans draw upon metaphors, analogues, and paradigms from two or more experiential or cultural domains, they “blend” together aspects of each source domain. They thereby create a newly imagined conceptual space in which new scenarios and mini-narratives test the cogency and elasticity of particular blends and determine whether they may be “run.” Because literary art invites readers to engage not just in simulations of represented content, but also in emulations of the processes by which authors and characters transform content, such art clearly depicts and encourages blending creativity. The chapter suggests that Chrétien draws on Abelard’s theology as well as Latin and Celtic sources as input domains, that Wolfram von Eschenbach’s c. 1210 Parzival does likewise, and that elements of Abelard’s theology congenial to literary innovation are rearticulated by Erasmus, thereby helping to prime the literary creativity of Shakespeare and Cervantes. Cultural memories of diverse established forms and ideas offer possibilities for associative combinations and predictive representations. In the writers most consequential for literary history, these move from “everyday” creativity to daring and innovative blending of genres, styles, and thoughts.
Introduction
Authors: Yoshihara Mari
Published: September 2019

Buried in the massive archives of Leonard Bernstein are many letters from two Japanese individuals: Kazuko Amano, who became a loyal fan of Bernstein in 1947, and Kunihiko Hashimoto, who fell deeply in love with Bernstein in 1979. What drove these two Japanese individuals to write, with such passion, diligence, and persistence, to this international celebrity so distant from their everyday reality? What was the nature of their love for, and relationships with, Bernstein? Why did Bernstein cherish these relationships so dearly? Was it purely coincidental that these two individuals were Japanese? Or were there specific factors that brought Bernstein and these Japanese individuals together? Why did Bernstein have such an impact on so many around the world? How did Bernstein, a quintessential American in so many ways, become the world maestro who reached and communicated so powerfully across borders?
Growing Pains
Authors: Yoshihara Mari
Published: September 2019

Leonard Bernstein conducting the inaugural concert of the Philharmonic Hall in Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts in 1962 symbolized the national and international status he had achieved. Through his close relationship with the Kennedy family and his continued ties to the White House, combined with his unrivaled place in the world of the performing arts, Bernstein was a prime candidate to lead the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. To manage the ever expanding scope of his work, Bernstein’s company, Amberson Enterprises, professionalized and corporatized its operations under Schuyler Chapin. But the popular leaning of the recording industry was beginning to cause some issues even for the foremost leader of American classical music.
The Maestro Pivots
Authors: Yoshihara Mari
Published: September 2019

With the arrival of Harry Kraut, Leonard Bernstein’s company Amberson entered a new phase of corporate enterprises that extended the maestro’s reach even further across the globe. Ironically, the enormous commercial success of West Side Story, the most American of Bernstein’s works, began to cause problems with some stakeholders, and Bernstein began to gradually pivot to the European market for publishing, recording, and films and videos. Bernstein joined the roster of the recording artists of Deutsche Grammophon upon the end of the contract with Columbia Records. The pivot exemplified the changes in the American music industry in the 1970s which made it increasingly challenging even for a musician of Bernstein’s caliber to conduct business in a way that was true to his artistic goals, economically sustainable, and culturally meaningful to a wide audience.
Japan Beckons
Authors: Yoshihara Mari
Published: September 2019

Leonard Bernstein’s tour of Japan with the New York Philharmonic in 1974 featured the heavy involvement of commercial entities, exemplified by the effective campaign by CBS/Sony to promote Bernstein’s recordings. With a sophisticated and rich classical music fan base and a rapidly growing economy, Japan was becoming a key market for Bernstein and the classical music market generally. Kazuko Amano, who was now settled in Tokyo after years of frequent relocation from one city to another, delighted in listening to Bernstein’s music again, as did her daughter Kikuko, who inherited her love of music and of Bernstein.
Unions and Reunion
Authors: Yoshihara Mari
Published: September 2019

The late 1970s were a particularly turbulent time for the Bernstein household. Bernstein, who had struggled with his homosexuality since his youth but had managed to build a happy family life with his wife Felicia and their three children, left the family to live with Tom Cothran in 1976. With Felicia’s cancer diagnosis shortly thereafter, Bernstein returned home and dedicated himself to her care until she passed away in 1978. After the cancellation of his tour with the New York Philharmonic that year, he returned to Japan in 1979 as a grieving widow. His reunion with Kazuko Amano that summer was especially emotional, as Amano was herself caring for her husband, who was in the last stages of cancer.
The Maestro’s Place in a Changing World
Authors: Yoshihara Mari
Published: September 2019

When Bernstein arrived in Japan in 1979, the global landscape of classical music was undergoing major transformations. Japan and South Korea were important producers and consumers of classical music, as reflected in the Philharmonic’s itinerary. Japan’s seemingly unrivaled technological and industrial power was symbolized by Sony’s release of the Walkman, which made the company’s name a household word around the globe. CBS/Sony played a central role in Bernstein’s tour, marking a clear contrast with Bernstein’s earlier Japan tours, which were led by government interests. To navigate the changing classical music market, Amberson further corporatized its operations, shaping and guarding the maestro’s image while propelling his reach far beyond the United States.
From Dear to Dearest
Authors: Yoshihara Mari
Published: September 2019

Kunihiko Hashimoto, a Japanese man who was young enough to be Leonard Bernstein’s son, met the maestro at the end of the New York Philharmonic’s Japan tour in the summer of 1979, and the two men spent the night together. Hashimoto immediately fell deeply in love and subsequently wrote many long, passionate letters to Bernstein that reveal the life-changing impact that the encounter with the maestro had for him. Hashimoto’s many letters eloquently demonstrate that his love for Bernstein was far more than romantic love and sexual attraction: it was admiration, awe, and worship for the man whom he clearly saw as truly great power.
Faith and Resolution
Authors: Yoshihara Mari
Published: September 2019

Kunihiko Hashimoto’s passionate love reached Bernstein, who flew him to Europe in August 1979. Their week together in Munich, Hamburg, and Positano gave Hashimoto’s love a more spiritual shape beyond romantic yearning and gave new meaning to his life. A year and a half later, Hashimoto flew to Munich to spend another week with Bernstein. Through these trips, Hashimoto began to see that in loving Bernstein, he was drawn to a spirit much bigger than the object of his personal love. He began to explore his own way of following the path, realizing his love for Bernstein while living his own life.
A Quiet Place
Authors: Yoshihara Mari
Published: September 2019

With a joint commission by the Houston Grand Opera, the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, and Teatro alla Scala, Leonard Bernstein undertook a serious new endeavor he had long wished for: the composition of a serious opera. By collaborating with librettist Stephen Wadsworth, Bernstein sought to create an “American opera” that took on real-life issues of the contemporary United States and expressed them in a distinctly American language. He centered the opera A Quiet Place on the issues of gender, sexuality, and family, which drove American politics during this period. The rising New Right turned “family values” into an ideology, the battle over which was further fueled by the AIDS epidemic. In the highly charged political environment of Houston, where the opera premiered, Bernstein challenged the prevailing social mores and eloquently advocated for AIDS research and support.
A Peaceful Place
Authors: Yoshihara Mari
Published: September 2019

Leonard Bernstein had been a vocal activist for nuclear disarmament since the early years of the Cold War, and the growing antinuclear movement in the 1970s and 1980s provided a platform for his advocacy. He renewed his commitment to the cause when President Reagan announced the “Star Wars” program in 1983. For his sixty-fifth birthday, friends and colleagues wore blue ribbons to show support for a nuclear weapons freeze. Bernstein himself gave an impassioned speech calling for an end to the nuclear arms race at a concert in Lawrence, Massachusetts, where he introduced to the audience a young conductor from Hiroshima, Eiji Oue.
Representing Lenny
Authors: Yoshihara Mari
Published: September 2019

Compared to the frequency of Hashimoto’s letters in the first few years of their relationship, his correspondence with Bernstein became much more sparse after he joined the Shiki Theatre Company in 1982. However, this did not reflect his weakening ties with Bernstein. Quite to the contrary, during Harry Kraut’s visit to Japan in the summer of 1984, Kunihiko Hashimoto served as his assistant and was subsequently appointed as Amberson’s Japan representative. No longer just a young man in love with Bernstein, Hashimoto was now a trusted professional working to realize the maestro’s goals. Beginning in the fall of 1984, Hashimoto worked to prepare for Bernstein’s Hiroshima Peace Concert to be held in August 1985, originally conceived by Mitsunori Sano.
A Summer of Prayer
Authors: Yoshihara Mari
Published: September 2019

Leonard Bernstein arrived in Hiroshima in August 1985 to conduct his peace concert to commemorate the fortieth anniversary of the atomic bombing of the city. Bernstein, the musicians, and the organizers had to carefully navigate the local, national, and global politics surrounding the commemoration. While demonstrating his deep understanding of the complexity of the issues, Bernstein spoke vocally for nuclear disarmament and also formed a personal bond with the young musicians and the audience. The three Japanese people he had the closest relationship to--Seiji Ozawa, Kazuko Amano, and Kunihiko Hashimoto--were all in Hiroshima to witness and share in Bernstein’s prayer for peace, and each found new ways of expressing their love and dedication to the maestro.
An Early Autumn
Authors: Yoshihara Mari
Published: September 2019

Only three weeks after the Hiroshima Peace Concert, Bernstein returned to Japan to tour with the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra (IPO). The days Bernstein and Hashimoto spent together during this tour were manifestations of their ripening relationship, both professional and personal. The IPO concerts took place amidst the volatile conflict in the Middle East, but the music Bernstein and the orchestra delivered clearly spoke across borders, and especially the performance of Mahler’s Symphony no. 9 became legendary. While many critics lauded the performance in the press, the most eloquent expression of what Bernstein communicated was Kazuko Amano’s letter to the maestro.
Turning Point
Authors: Yoshihara Mari
Published: September 2019

Kunihiko Hashimoto’s correspondence indicates that he relocated to Sydney, Australia, at the end of 1987. Although the reasons for his decision are unknown, he had apparently begun a whole new life. The following year, Bernstein’s seventieth birthday celebration was held at Tanglewood, Massachusetts. Among the Japanese names on the invitation list, most of whom were the maestro’s musical colleagues or business partners, were Kazuko Amano and Hashimoto Kunihiko. But there was a striking contrast between their places in the festivities. Amano made the long journey to attend the celebration despite her health concerns, whereas Hashimoto did not travel to Massachusetts and sent a card and a gift instead.
Cultivating New Soil
Authors: Yoshihara Mari
Published: September 2019

Upon the cancellation of the China portion of the proposed project, the organizers of Bernstein’s Asia tour had to quickly come up with an alternative plan. The city of Sapporo in Japan’s northern island of Hokkaido emerged as a possible site, and the organizers decided to create a music festival in which Bernstein would work with young musicians from the Pacific Rim region akin to the Tanglewood Festival to which he had long dedicated himself. Kunihiko Hashimoto was brought in from Sydney to help prepare for the planning of what came to be named the Pacific Music Festival (PMF). Despite the initial hesitancy of the city officials and much uncertainty during the preparation process, Bernstein arrived in Sapporo in June 1990 for the opening of the PMF.
Hezbollah, Carrying on the Islamic Resistance in Lebanon
Authors: Daher Aurélie
Published: September 2019

The 1982 Israeli invasion provoked a redistribution of militant affiliations by inserting a new line of separation, with activists henceforward having to choose between resisting the occupier and accepting a modus vivendi with it. Once again, things would develop in different ways in the capital and the Baalbek region—but also in the South.
Nevertheless, beyond fielding a flexible military unit for all who wanted to bear arms against Israel, most of the Shiite resistance networks were after something more: they wanted to set up an institutionalized structure of action. The creation of the Islamic Resistance in Lebanon and Hezbollah was prompted much less by an attempt to export the Iranian Revolution—a notion that Tehran by then already regarded as obsolete—than by the response to a Lebanese imperative. A short time after the invasion, with military training already under way, the representatives of the Shiite Islamic networks from the Bekaa and Beirut thus met for the purpose of jointly outlining a new organization in bold strokes.
Trajectory of an Islam of Resistance
Authors: Daher Aurélie
Published: September 2019

In June 1982, when Israeli tanks crossed the border and headed towards Beirut, Tel Aviv's troops has already been occupying a portion of Lebanon's territory that the Israelis called the "security zone" and that the Lebanese called "the occupied strip". They remained there for eighteen more years, until May 2000, when they left Lebanon, defeated by the IRL. A period of glory then started for the IRL and Hezbollah. Meanwhile, Hezbollah's style in its relationship to the Shia and the Lebanese in general remained hesitant for a few years, before going through a thorough transformation into what would be perceived as a "civilized" party "with clean hands".
Hezbollah, A Social Entrepreneur?
Authors: Daher Aurélie
Published: September 2019

It seems to be a universally accepted thesis that Hezbollah's mobilization derives its strength from the party's vast clientelist network of social and welfare institutions that are woven through the Shiite community. However, calling Hezbollah an employer and welfare organization, or even a "state within the state", overstates the case. There is no question that the party to some extent performs the functions of a state that for all intents and purposes is largely missing from the Shiite areas of the country. But Hezbollah does not have exclusive pride of place in this regard, since most Lebanese political parties, as well as many prominent political figures, for a long time have operated networks of social welfare associations, and continue to do so, quite dynamically in some cases. It is true that among all Lebanese extra-governmental institutions active in Shiite areas, Hezbollah ranks near the top, when it is not ranked first, but a careful reading of its performance relative to the community's size proves that the party cannot boast of being its welfare institution.
“New Middle East”, “Cedar Revolution”
Authors: Daher Aurélie
Published: September 2019

This chapter looks into the years that follow the Liberation of 2000, and the political redistribution of power after the Syrian withdrawal of 2005. The abductions of Israeli soldiers by the IRL and the prisoner exchanges with Tel-Aviv, the conservative Christian comeback on the domestic scene, the bittersweet relations with Prime Minister Rafic Hariri, the attacks of September 11 and the American "War on Terror" as well as the end of the Syrian tutelage on Lebanon, were all factors that were perceived as real threats for Hezbollah and the IRL. In reality, a certain Lebanese context, and regional and international considerations would turn these threats into opportunities for Hezbollah to strengthen its mobilization.
The Thirty-Three-Day War
Authors: Daher Aurélie
Published: September 2019

After 2004, the IRL made several attempts to kidnap Israeli soldiers in the border zone to use them as currency in exchanges. It finally succeeded on 12 July 2006, when one of its commando units attacked an Israeli patrol, killing six soldiers and capturing two others. Affirming that the kidnapping had involved a violation of Israeli sovereignty, the Ehud Olmert government set out their primary objectives: to recover the two kidnapped NCOs; "break Hezbollah"; and force the Lebanese government to implement Resolution 1559. It then ordered Operation Change of Direction, a series of air and ground attacks that observers and the public at large would soon call the Thirty-Three-Day War. The IRL came out of it victorious, and Tel Aviv put the Winograd Commission in charge of the investigation into the Israeli defeat.