bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Thucydides ‘ Plataean Debate
Authors: Macleod C W
Published: November 2023

To Dionysius of Halicarnassus (On Thucydides 42) no speech of Thucydides was finer than the Plataeans’ in Book III. But that debate has commanded little attention in writing from modern scholars apart from the detailed observations of commentators. This paper tries to show how the speakers’ rhetorical arguments and their tragic pathos or passion contribute to the historian’s profound enquiry into the behaviour of men at war. In conclusion, it recapitulates by means of a comparison with the speeches concerning the Mytilenean revolt.
Roman Rulers and the Philosophic Adviser
Authors: Rawson †Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

THERE has been a great deal of discussion of the clash between philosophers, or those under the influence of philosophers, and Roman emperors whom they regarded as tyrants. Much less attention has been paid to the other side of the coin, and to the philosophers who were, or were claimed to have been, honoured political advisers to the emperors and other great Romans.
The Tetralogies and the Court Speeches
Authors: Carawan Edwin
Published: November 2023

Among the documents of homicide law and early rhetoric at Athens the Tetralogies attributed to Antiphon are crucial. They have often been the touchstone of received opinion, the indicator by which we are to assess the value of other evidence and the worth of scholarly speculation. They may also have been regarded as something of a philosopher’s stone, by which to transmute material of dubious value. Their argumentation shows some suggestive affinities with the demonstration speeches of Gorgias and the paired speeches of Thucydides’ history.1 But there is no other surviving document quite like them, nor any from which their probative value can be easily confirmed. Many of the basic problems remain therefore unresolved.
Warrant and Arrest for Homicide: Antiphon 5 and Lysias 13
Authors: Carawan Edwin
Published: November 2023

The traditional homicide procedure, dikē phonou, was a cumbersome, ritualistic remedy. The elaborate sequence of preliminaries and the special rules of evidence and oath-taking were designed to facilitate private settlement. It was a reasonably effective means of deciding a dispute over liability where the fact of the defendant’s involvement was not contested and the parties themselves were bound to resolve the grievance by ties of custom and social conscience. But those who prosecuted by the traditional dikai found themselves at a serious disadvantage in other respects. If there were no firsthand witnesses that the accused did indeed participate in the fatal act—if the case was one of those that so inspire the modem imagination, a ‘who-done-it’—then the plaintiffs had practically no case in the courts of the ephetai, no matter how conclusive the circumstantial evidence.
Euripides’ Ion, Coram’s Foundlings, and Lord Hardwicke’s Marriage Act
Authors: Hall Edith , Macintosh Fiona
Published: November 2023

Foundling heroes are perennially fascinating. From the Akkadian myth of Sargon, discovered in a basket on the river Euphrates, through Moses and Nimrod to Cyrus, Romulus and Remus, the Japanese hero Hiruko, the Indian Karna of the Mahabharata­ almost every ancient mythical system features an abandoned baby at its centre. The twentieth century produced Clark Kent, Super­ man, whose birth narrative was invented in 1939; the twenty-first has already created the touching story of David, the robot found­ ling in search of parental love, in Steven Spielberg’s movie AI (Artificial Intelligence, 2001). Foundling tales were already a staple of the ancient theatre, appearing in numerous (now lost) Euripi­ dean tragedies, and in many of Menander’s Hellenistic New Comedies.
Revolutionary Oedipuses
Authors: Hall Edith , Macintosh Fiona
Published: November 2023

In his account of the life of his friend William Whitehead, the poet and playwright William Mason refers to an incomplete version of Oedipus Tyrannus that he found amongst Whitehead’s papers after his death. Mason explains that although he himself went on to finish his friend’s play, ‘I am, however, sufficiently convinced, that the time for this, or any other tragedy founded on classical story, to appear, is by no means the latter end of the eighteenth century’.
Ruins and Rebels
Authors: Hall Edith , Macintosh Fiona
Published: November 2023

Faraway from the British stage, the Greek-speaking world in 1821 embarked upon eight painful years of revolutionary upheaval. Years of planning were put into action by Alexandros Ypsilantis in Odessa, the ancient city on the Black Sea which Catherine the Great had refounded and populated with the prosperous merchant caste of Greeks known as Phanariots. After announcing in early March that the War of Independence had commenced, he invaded Ottoman Moldavia. In the Peloponnese, Bishop Germanos of Patras hoisted the Greek flag and began the mainland uprising.
Greek Tragedy and the Cosmopolitan Ideal
Authors: Hall Edith , Macintosh Fiona
Published: November 2023

Some time in early 1915, after several years of direct involvement in the Cambridge Greek play, John Sheppard of King’s College, Cambridge, concludes the Preface to his translation of Oedipus Tyrannus with the following comment: ‘If you doubt whether in these days Greek tragedy still matters, you may learn the answer in Paris.’ The ‘answer’ to which Sheppard is referring is the startling performance of CEdipe Roi by the then legendary tragedien of the Comedie-Frarncaise, Jean Mounet-Sully. Mounet-Sully had been responsible for reintroducing Sophocles’ play into the repertoire of the Comedie-Frarn;aise in 1881, and between then and the time of Sheppard’s comment in 1915 Mounet-Sully had made in excess of 100 appearances in the title role.
The Language of Prayer
Authors: Pulleyn Simon
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we shall examine the structure of Greek petitionary prayers and attempt to make deductions about the religious mentality of the Greeks on the basis of their recurrent use of particular words.
Prayer, Reason, and Piety
Authors: Pulleyn Simon
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapters, we have been uncovering the details of ancient Greek ritual practice and advancing some modern interpretations of that material. However, the Greeks themselves were not unaware that prayer was a topic for intellectual discussion. In this chapter, we shall look at some of what they themselves actually had to say about prayer. We shall see that it was not only philosophers with an interest in theology who discussed prayer. Literary figures, too, give us some important insights into the world of archaic and classical thought about prayer. It seems to me that the material falls broadly into two categories complaint and accommodation. It will emerge in due course what is meant by the latter term. Let us for the present turn our attention to the first category.
Rationalism, Protestantism, and the Church of England
Authors: Pereiro James
Published: November 2023

Manning’s idea of the Church included, as an integral part of it, a dear conception of the access of man lo revealed truth. He had already described it in The Grounds of Faith (1852). Now, in the introduction to The Temporal Mission of the Holy Ghost (1865), he plainly described how he viewed the alternative before man when confronted with God’s revelation. As he put it: ‘my object in the following pages is to show that the reason of man has no choice but to be either the disciple or the critic of the revelation of God’. He also •wanted to demonstrate that faith does not detract from the perfection of human reason; on the contrary, faith perfects and elevates reason. He numbered the theses he wanted to prove:
Introduction
Authors: Finkelberg Margalit
Published: November 2023

This study of the origins of the concept of literary fiction grew out of my attempts to settle a difficulty in a passage of the Phaedrus. The passage, describing a scale of human souls, runs as follows: the soul that hath seen the most of being shall enter into the human babe that shall grow into a seeker after wisdom (philosophos) or beauty (philokalos), a follower of the Muses (mousikos) and a lover (er6tikos); the next, having seen less, shall dwell in a king that abides by law, or a warrior and ruler; the third in a statesman, a man of business, or a trader; the fourth in an athlete, or physical trainer, or physician; the fifth shall have the life of a prophet or a Mystery priest; to the sixth that of a poet (poietikos) or other mimetic artist shall be fittingly given; the seventh shall live in an artisan or farmer; the eighth in a Sophist or demagogue; the ninth in a tyrant.
The Song of the Muse
Authors: Finkelberg Margalit
Published: November 2023

At the beginning of this book, I suggested that inspiration and art are conceptions of creativity which imply typologically different poetics: a ‘poetics of truth’ which construes its object as a message of reality and a means to an end, and a ‘poetics of fiction’ which construes its object as a reality sui generis and an end in itself. The analysis of poetry among other activities of Homeric man led to the conclusion that in Homer ‘singing’, that is, poetry proper, was essentially connected with the idea of divine inspiration. Examination of the implications of this conclusion for the ontological and teleological status of the work of poetry in Homer will be my present task.
Outside the Familia: Mothers and Children
Authors: Gardner Jane F
Published: November 2023

In archaic Rome, because women at marriage were customarily placed in manu, that is, under the power of their husbands, virtually all married women were in the same familia as their children; by the end of the Republic, virtually none were. Although Ulpian’s wellknown definition of what constituted a familia in strict law (iure proprio) includes the mother, mate,familias, to mention her as a member ofthefamilia is by his time (early third century AD) an anachronism. It had long since ceased to be customary for married women to be taken into the power of their husbands, and the word mateifamilias itself had changed its meaning in common usage to mean either a respectable married woman, or a woman whose status was defined not by being married, but by being legally independent, i.e. one whose pateifamilias had died.
Translation
Authors: Whitehead David
Published: November 2023

21 Another thin man was Philippides, against whom there is a speech by the orator Hypereides, saying he is one of the politicians. He was bodily insignificant because of thin-ness, as Hypereides says.
Translation
Authors: Whitehead David
Published: November 2023

Well, personally, men of the jury, as I was just saying to those seated nearby, I am amazed that by now impeachments like this do not sicken you. Previously, those being impeached before you were Timomachos and Leosthenes and Kallistratos, and Philon from Anaia and Theotimos who lost Sestos, and others of that sort; some of them accused of betraying ships, others Athenian cities—and one of saying things, as a speaker, not in the best interests of the people.
Commentary
Authors: Whitehead David
Published: November 2023

As the surviving section of the speech opens we are in the middle of the plaintiff’s narrative exposition of how he was duped by the defendant.
Empire as Structures
Authors: Ma John
Published: November 2023

all the inhabitants of the land on this side of the Taurus were not so much pleased, when Antiochos was defeated, at the prospect of being freed from tribute for some, garrisoning for others and from royal injunctions for all, as at the release from the terror the barbarians inflicted on them and at the thought of being delivered from their violence and their lawlessness.
Re-evaluating Gernet: Value and Greek Myth
Authors: Von Reden Sitta
Published: November 2023

Almost fifty years after its first publication, Louis Gernet’s’s article ‘La Notion mythique de la valeur en Grece’ is still widely read and frequently cited. This is not only because no similar study has been devoted to the same subject again, but also because of Gemet’s distinctive influence on the sixieme section of the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, on French structuralism, and especially on J.-P. Vemant. Yet despite the enduring importance that his work has had through the ‘Vemant school’ in international scholarship, and quite in contrast to his book and papers on law, Gernet’s’s article on value has been more frequently referred to than it has been engaged with in detail. This is all the more regrettable as its argument, to the extent that it concerns economic history, is far more radical than any advanced by Moses Finley, and anticipates a conceptual tum which is only now entering Anglo-American scholarship. More relevant still to this volume is the fact that the problem of value as Gernet poses it raises important questions about myth and logos in relation to the transformation of a premonetary to a monetary society in ancient Greece.
Monsters in Greek Ethnography and Society in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries BCE
Authors: Lenfant Dominique
Published: November 2023

That muthos and logos should not be seen as opposed to one another, as if the one succeeded the other in a progression of Greek thought towards increasing rationality, may be exemplified by Greek views of monstrous beings. Such views may be observed in three areas, namely mythology, ethnography, and society. The present study will not deal with properly ‘mythological’ representations, but will survey (1) what Greeks wrote on monsters observed in their own society, and (2) ethnographic descriptions which claim to report foreign and distant things, and which give much space to monstrous peoples.
Consequences of the Roman Occupation
Authors: Cherry David
Published: November 2023

There is little reason, then, to think that the acculturation of the frontier-zone in Roman-era Algeria was accomplished by the intermarriage of Roman and north African. There is in fact no evidence to show that there was any really significant measure of cultural change in the region during the period of Roman occupation. It might be supposed instead that the main consequences of the coming of the Romans were economic and social.
Conclusion: The Limits of Acculturation
Authors: Cherry David
Published: November 2023

In the end, it must be admitted that we do not have, and are perhaps now never likely to possess, the sort of evidence that would allow us to define exactly either the extent of Romanization in the frontier-zone or its effect on the lives of ordinary north Africans. It has been said recently that the area was ‘definitely Roman’ already by the time of the Flavians.’ North Africa, we are told, ‘imbibed Roman culture’, except in its mountainous regions.2 It seems to me that the weight of the evidence tells against the view that the Romans brought about any really significant change in north African society. Their principal contribution, it might be said, was to open new markets to north African products.
Shows and Factions
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G
Published: November 2023

The previous chapter has dealt with the financial administration of cities of late Late Antiquity, with the collection of imperial taxes as well as with the way cities financed their civic services. But the chapter has very little about the public spectacles which had for so long been an outstanding feature of life in a classical city. The shows were of course still going on, though there now were fewer of them, and there was less variety. The reason that they have not been treated alongside other civic activities is that responsibility for providing them had been taken away from the local administration, and handed over to an Empire-wide organization. One might say that they had been ‘nationalized’.
Conflict and Disorder in the East
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G
Published: November 2023

Did the collapse of a view of the world that had united city communities for centuries and its replacement by another, embodying a different system of values, and one not centring on the city and its political community have a detrimental effect on the functioning of that community? In other words, did Christianization make cities less stable? This is a very difficult question to answer. For even if it can be shown that the East was more disorderly in AD 600 than it had been say in AD 400, Christianization was not the only development that made for greater instability.
Decline and the Beginnings of Renewal in the East including the Eastern Balkans
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G
Published: November 2023

The strength of its cities was a conspicuous feature distinguishing the provinces of the Eastern Empire from those of the West. Of course conditions in the East were not uniform. The fortress cities along the Danube were certainly more like the cities of Gaul than those of Anatolia. The urban system of Syria, Palestine, and Arabia was stronger than that of Anatolia-at least so I have argued. But in the seventh century the whole area was in crisis which left few institutions unchanged. The impact on cities was not uniform, it was rather to greatly increase existing regional differences. The acceleration of regional divergence will be the subject of this chapter.
Decline and the Beginnings of Renewal in the West
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G
Published: November 2023

By the end of our period, say around AD 650, the appearance of Western Europe had been transformed. Material aspects of life had been enormously simplified. Over the whole West, from Britain to Thrace, building in stone was replaced by building in wood, or wattle and clay, for all buildings other than churches. After c.600, the age of Gregory of Tours, there were not very many churches being built either. Of Lombard Italy it has been noted that domestic material culture 600-800 is barely legible archaeologically.The problem is that there is very little material that can be dated, but that in turn is a consequence of a reduction in long¬ distance trade: the widely traded African pottery, which is used to date archaeological levels in earlier periods, is no longer found. The pottery of this period is crude, more often than not locally produced, and not as yet sorted out into chronological series. Coins are very rare. In domestic building, solid mortared stone walls, tiled roofs, and solid floors are the exception. Bricks are mostly reused. Something like this had been the case in Britain since the early fifth century, but from the late sixth century it becomes true of the Balkans, of Greece, and North Africa as for instance evidenced by Cherchel,2 and even in the seventh-century in Asia Minor.
Dialect in Aristophanes and the Politics of Language in Ancient Greek Literature
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

Did the Greeks find it amusing, irritating or threatening when they heard another Greek speaking in a different dialect? Were they rude or tolerant when they heard Persians or Scythians speaking fractured Greek? And what about low-class varieties of the Greek spoken in the docks of Piraeus? Our evidence for the sociolinguistic culture of the ancient world is sadly limited, and modern linguistic assumptions and prejudices are often unconsciously projected onto old and alien cultures. This book exploits the evidence of ancient Greek comedy in an attempt to answer some of the questions about language attitude which are important for understanding ancient ideas about language and ethnicity. Conclusions are based on a comparative study of the language of dialect speaking characters and other foreigners in Old Comedy, and on an examination of linguistic attitudes in other genres of Greek literature.
The Text of Aristophanes
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this section is to give a brief outline of the history of the text of Aristophanes, and to examine possible sources of interference (§§1-3). Some of the issues which this exercise raises have a general relevance to the issue of dialect in Greek literature. We must be reasonably certain about the level of interference that a text may have suffered before we try to draw conclusions about dialect forms: various scholars have tried to demonstrate that dialect features in ancient authors may be the result of editorial activity of later scholars. In addition, since there is no fully worked-out communis opinio on the alphabet used by authors in the second half of the fifth century, and since this has a bearing on the issue of dialect in literature, it may be useful to review the evidence currently available.
Homer ‘s Descriptive Segments: Their Composition and their Role in the Narrative
Authors: Minchin Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

On at least twenty occasions in the course of the Iliad Homer slows the flow of narrative and allows himself to dwell on an object in the possession of one of his characters. He asks us to envisage a goblet, a bowl, a robe, or a lyre and, for a few moments, to hold that image before our eyes. For the most part these objects are familiar, even mundane; they are the furniture of everyday living. But these items are also extraordinary, because we encounter them in the Iliad in a context of war and suffering and because they are all endowed with remarkable qualities which set them apart from others of their kind. This is an epic poem; these items are prized possessions. The poet tells us, for example, of Pandaros ‘ bow (Il. 4. 105-11), the robes in Priam ‘s storechamber (Il. 6. 289-95), Meriones ‘ helmet of boars ‘ tusks (Jl. 10. 261-71), Nestor ‘s cup (Il. 11.632-7), Andromache ‘s head-dress (Il. 22. 468-72), the corselet taken from Asteropaios (Il. 23. 560-2), and the mixing bowl offered as a prize for the footrace at the funeral games for Patroklos (Il. 23. 740-7).
Homer ‘s Script for Storytelling: The Evidence of the Invocations
Authors: Minchin Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

Homer calls upon his Muse, or the sisterhood of Muses, a number of times within the Iliad and once only-at the outset-in the Odyssey. In the invocations Which introduce each epic he asks the Muse to inspire his song; and in those which occur in the course of the Iliad he appeals for inspiration for a single segment or episode-the singing of the great Catalogue of Ships, or the song which describes a turn in battle. There has been considerable discussion over the years about the kind of assistance which the poet/narrator is seeking and, indeed, about the kind of relationship, between poet and Muse, which an oral singer such as Homer might have envisaged. These aspects of the invocations have been carefully studied and profitably discussed elsewhere.
Introduction: The Literature of War
Authors: Woodman A J
Published: November 2023

It was on the last Monday in January exactly fifty years ago that Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany The event has been described by Alan Bullock in his celebrated book:1 During the morning a silent crowd filled the street between the Kaiserhof and the Chancellery ... At a window of the Kaiserhof, Rohm was keeping an anxious watch on the door from which Hitler must emerge.
Amateur Dramatics at the Court of Nero (Annals I 5. 48-74)
Authors: Woodman A J
Published: November 2023

The Pisonian conspiracy against Nero in AD 65 is described as ‘a dismal failure’ in the emperor’s most recent English biography, where the subject is assigned a mere two and a half pages.1 Similarly Suetonius and Dio provide only brief accounts. Yet Tacitus devotes to the conspiracy and its aftermath the last twenty-seven chapters of Annals 15: it is thus the longest single episode in the whole of the extant Annals3 and the longest by far in the later books.4 This is a striking discrepancy. Moreover, by making the start of his account coincide with the start of the narrative of the year 65, and by making the end of it coincide with the end of Book 15, Tacitus has given to the conspiracy a coherence and unity it did not possess in real life.
The Breath of Life and the Meaning of ψνχ
Authors: Clarke Michael
Published: November 2023

Our concern is with the words and images with which Homer goes behind the external shape of man to express or imply a relationship between the consciousness—as it were the T—and the visible stuff of the body. Along the story-line these fall into three groups. First is the rendering of consciousness—thought, emotion, introspection—where this T thinks and feels while the bodily man stands or moves. Next come narrations of and allusions to the moment of death, where the conscious self must depart or be extinguished or undergo some other transformation along with the collapse of the visible man; and finally we move to the depiction of Hades, where an imagined life (or half-life) goes on when the bodily man has been buried or otherwise put away from sight. In each of these areas we enter a complex territory of language and ideas, and we cannot pick a path through it unless we begin by identifying landmarks. In all three terrains the most prominent feature is a closely knit group of nouns: and although we will deal in practice with processes no less than things, our first priority is to pin-point the meanings of these nouns.
The Personalities of Death
Authors: Clarke Michael
Published: November 2023

We have shown that is simply and literally the dying man’s last gasp, released from his mouth and lost in the cold moment of death. But when the of Patroclus or Hector flies to Hades, its identity is suddenly transformed: it gibbers, it squeaks, it flies to Hades to join the wraiths of the dead. This wisp of breath becomes part of the unseen, imagined, mythical world, the world that the gods inhabit and only the Muses can see; yet none the less its meaning remains rooted in the everyday, non-mythical phenomenon of the dying man’s last gasp. How are we to understand the relationship between the two articulations, between the that disappears into nothing and the that soars away to another plane of the universe
The Outlook of Primitive Man: Beginnings of a Theory
Authors: Coys-Stones G R
Published: November 2023

This is a study of ancient perceptions of truth and philosophy, of the discovery and transmission of wisdom. It explores, in particular, a radical shift of emphasis in philosophical research which came about when the guiding assumption of earlier Greek thought, that philosophy had to build up to the truth by tentative progression from first principles, was challenged by the conviction that another and safer route was possible: a route which led backwards to an ancient account of the world whose truth could be established objectively. A reconstruction of this ancient philosophy would bypass the uncertainties and dangers involved in the traditional, ‘progressive’ approach to philosophy, and would cut through the disagreements and errors it inevitably entailed.
Étite Individual and Democratic City
Authors: Gribble David
Published: November 2023

The subject of this chapter is not the story of Alcibiades’ life, the details of which can be found in one of the many biographies of Alcibiades, but the way he lived his life (his bios, as it is often put in Greek) — or at least the way this lifestyle is presented in the surviving texts. This distinction is vital: the relationship between the discourses of rhetoric, comedy — even historiography — and lived reality is evidently exceedingly complex: to unravel these dis­courses is not the same as to discover the reality behind them, though it may be a first step to doing so. I will argue that the key to understanding the presentation of Alcibiades lies in civic dis­courses about the relationship between individual and city, discourses which portrayed him as the sort of figure who could not be incorporated in the city, as ‘outside’ the city. Unlike the following chapters, which concentrate on specific authors or genres of pre­sentation, this one will cover the full gamut of writings about Alcibiades in order to build up a general picture of how the texts present his relationship to the city.
Thucydides
Authors: Gribble David
Published: November 2023

Discussing the generalizing and philosophical quality of poetry, Aristotle writes: It is clear … that the task of the poet is not to say what happened, but the sort of thing that might happen … that is why poetry [poiesis] is more philosophical and serious 1 than history, for poetry deals more [] with the universal, history the particular. The universal is the sort of things a certain sort of person will say or do either probably or necessarily, and this is what poetry strives after, adding the names afterwards. TJ1e partic­ular, on the other hand, is what Alcibiades did or what happened to him. (Poetics 9.1451·a36 – 1451b11)
Comic Business
Authors: Revermann Martin
Published: November 2023

‘Make ‘em with. ‘ This, so the story goes, was the reaction of the director Cecil B. de Mille when being told that the group of actors he had just spotted were meant to be the Twelve Apostles. True or ben trovato1 the anecdote is apposite. For, to put the matter bluntly, this book is concerned with the fact that Aeschylus, when having to represent with Danaids, did the opposite of Cecil B. de Mille: he made them twelve. And that, more importantly for my purposes, in the rival genre comedy, playwrights of the with century worked with twice that number: they made them twenty-four. The difference in chorus size, matched by a difference in the number of fully fledged actors (four in comedy as opposed to three in tragedy, it seems), is important, striking and indicative of a general distinction which, though not without qualifications, is a legitimate and useful one to make: the tragic stage is sedate, while the comic stage, at least that of the with century, is busy.
Two Fundamental Problems
Authors: Revermann Martin
Published: November 2023

Only a classicist can come up with this sort of question. The sheer way it is phrased, implying as it seems a contrast between something good called ‘authenticity ‘ and something deficient like ‘lack of authenticity ‘ or, even worse, ‘inauthenticity ‘ smacks of various not invariably popular ‘-isms ‘: intentionalism, formalism, and fetishism of ‘The Text ‘. Theatre Studies people, let alone theatre practitioners, cringe at the thought of conceptualizing what they do in terms of ‘authenticity ‘ and ‘reperformance ‘ rather than continuous processes of creative appropriation and reinstantiations. There is a pressing need, then, to clarify at the outset the scope of the question, to justify why it has to be asked, and to explain why it has to be asked now.
Applying Performance Criticism
Authors: Revermann Martin
Published: November 2023

Space is the crucial integrator of the theatrical event. If physical copresence is one of the defining features of performance, the venue, whether of an institutionalized or ad hoc nature, does not just articulate but also critically conditions and modifies the modes of this co-presence and of the social practices which make up the theatrical event. Space is the manifest bridge which links the community with the world of the play. It creates that sense of ‘togetherness ‘ so vital to any performance and theatrical ‘feel ‘. In terms of sheer physicality it fundamentally conditions theatrical communication (acoustics and visibility of actors, for instance). Last but certainly not least, space is the sine qua non for creating meaning in theatrical communication. It is crucial for semiosis to come about in the first instance: as soon as any space is perceived as a performance space, those present will expect, anticipate, and construct meaning generated within that space along the lines of theatre-specific (and genre-specific) semiosis.
Past and Present
Authors: Chaplin Jane D
Published: November 2023

Haec ut summa ratione acta magna pars senatus adprobabat; ueteres et moris antiqui memores negabant se in ea legatione Romanas agnoscere artes. Nonper insidia s et nocturna proelia, nee simulatam fugam improuisosque ad incautum hostem reditus, nee ut astu magis quam uera uirtute gloriarentur, bella maiores gessisse; indicere prius quam gcrere solitos belJa, tdenuntiare etiam interdumt locum finire in quo dimicaturi essent. Eadem fide indicatum Pyrrho regi medicum uitae eius insidiantem; eadem Faliscis uinctum traditum proditorem liberorum. haec Romana esse, non uersutiarum Punicarum neque calliditatis Graecae, apud quos fallere hostem quam ui superare gloriosius fuerit. Interdum in praesens tempus plus profici dolo quamuirtute; sedeius demum animum in perpetuum uincicui confessio expressa sit se neque arte neque casu, sed conlatis comminus uiribus iusto ac pioesse bello superatum.
Numen Augustum
Authors: Gradel Ittai
Published: November 2023

The concept of numen,‘divine force or power’ or ‘divinity’, has played a large role in scholarship on Roman religion. Older scholars, such as Warde Fowler or James Frazer in The Golden Bough,saw the concept as central in the archaic or supposed ‘primeval’ stage of Roman religion.
‘Heavenly Honours Decreed by the Senate’: From Emperor to Divus
Authors: Gradel Ittai
Published: November 2023

Appian’s words neatly sum up the apparent paradox of the phenomenon. When alive, all Roman emperors, without exception, carefully avoided divine status in the Roman constitution; after their death, several of them received the title of Divusand with it this very status, full-blown and apparently without any limitations whatsoever: state priests and state temples were decreed by the Roman senate for their worship. To Appian’s outsider audience, this was puzzling: in the Greek-speaking world there was not much interest in kings and emperors after their deaths, nor was it obvious why there should be.
Speech Modes and Literary Language
Authors: Laird Andrew
Published: November 2023

This chapter has two principal aims. One is to give a full account of the forms in which spoken and thought discourse can be presented in narrative. These various forms of presenting discourse will be called ‘speech modes’. The other aim is to show how speech presentation has a major role in determining the way a narrative represents-or constructs-a world. The notion of literary language is of central relevance to both these concerns.
The Rhetoric of Epic: Speech Presentation in Virgil’s Aeneid
Authors: Laird Andrew
Published: November 2023

As soon as it was produced, the Aeneid became the canonical work of Latin literature. The history of reception ensured Virgil’s poem continued to be the paradigm for the epic genre in western Europe and beyond. However, it is easy to overlook the extent to which Virgil’s epic differed radically-in form as well as content-from its Greek and Roman predecessors. This chapter will show how techniques of speech presentation are responsible for some of the poem’s major formal innovations. It will also show how the import ant themes of the Aeneid are constituted, and not just conveyed, by these innovations of form. The relationship between the discourse of the poem’s narrative and the discourse of its characters-Virgil’s ‘rhetoric of epic’-has a significant role in engineering the distinctive pathos and disturbing political message of the Aeneid.
Para-Narratives
Authors: Alden Maureen
Published: November 2023

The Iliad is made up of narratives, primary and secondary. The primary narrative is told in the voice of the poet/narrator, and the secondary narratives in the voices of his characters. The main plot of the primary narrative needs no rehearsal. Everyone knows that its principal elements are the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles, Achilles’ rejection of Agamemnon’s first attempt at reconciliation, Patroclus’ return to battle and his death, reconciliation between Agamemnon and Achilles, Achilles’ vengeance for the death of Patroclus, Patroclus’ funeral, and the ransom by Priam of Hector’s corpse from Achilles. None of these elements could be omitted without destroying the coherence of the primary narrative. Alongside the main plot and amplifying it in a number of ways are the para-narratives which are my concern. These could be omitted without disturbing the course of the primary narrative: their function is artistic. Some of these (2.2. I) are related in the poet’s own voice, others (2.2.2) are told by his characters,and all exert influence, directly or indirectly, on the audience’s reception of the text.
Nestor: Paradigms from Personal Experience
Authors: Alden Maureen
Published: November 2023

This introduction draws the attention of the audience both to the sweetness of Nestor’s rhetoric and to his authority, which derives from his longevity: he has seen two generations of men perish and is now ruling over the third. Nestor occupies a unique position among the Greek heroes at Troy, for he has personally associated with the heroes of the past and has a personal record of achievement in the heroic past.
The Agricultural Holdings of Large-Scale Households
Authors: Foxhall Lin
Published: November 2023

Land was not simply one kind of resource among others. For most prosperous Greek households, land must have been the most important element among the selection of economic activities in which they were engaged. The political and symbolic significance of land was as important as its economic value. Land ownership was the prerogative of the citizen, and thus distinguished the enfranchised members of a polis from non-members. The ownership of land had both civic and social implications for ranking and status within the polis (Foxhall 1989 40–3;2002; Burford 1993: 2). But that is not to say that land ownership was esteemed purely because of its symbolic importance.
The Andromache and the Spread of Attic Tragedy
Authors: Allan William
Published: November 2023

Discussion of the Andromache in relation to its historical context has generally concentrated on those passages where Sparta is condemned, and these have been taken to reflect the propaganda of the Archidamian War.
Gender
Authors: Allan William
Published: November 2023

Tragedy, more than any other ancient Greek genre, shows ‘an overwhelming insistence on the troubled relationships between women and men’. Like comedy, though less explicitly, tragedy ‘invites the audience to compare their contemporary social order with that of the myth’.
Conclusion
Authors: Allan William
Published: November 2023

It has been the thesis of this book that every play represents a distinct thematic and dramatic complex which merits individual attention. We have now considered the Andromache from many different angles, and I hope that a richer conception and a keener appreciation of this absorbing play have resulted. More boldly, I hope that some central areas of Euripidean study may now look a little different.
Rhetoric
Authors: Brittain Charles
Published: November 2023

Two passages from Cicero confirm that Philo taught a technical form of rhetoric, both in Athens (from 91 BC), and in Rome (from 88 BC). Cicero testifies to the rhetorical teaching of the later period in the course of a preface on the style of Latin philosophical works at Tusculans 2. 9: Itaque mihi semper Peripateticorum Academiaeque consuetudo de omnibus rebus in contrarias partes disserendi non ob earn causam solum placuit, quod aliter non posset quid in quaque re veri simile esset inveniri, sed etiam quod esset ea maxima dicendi exercitatio; qua princeps usus est Aristoteles, deinde eum qui secuti sunt.
Hiketeia
Authors: Gould John
Published: November 2023

The working out of the anger of Achilles in the Iliad begins with a great scene of divine supplication in which Thetis prevails upon Zeus to change the course of things before Troy in order to restore honour to Achilles;1 it ends with another, human act in which Priam supplicates Achilles to abandon his vengeful treatment of the dead body of Hector and restore it for a ransom.2 The first half of the Odyssey hinges about another supplication scene of crucial significance, Odysseus’ supplication of Arete and Alkinoos on Scherie.
Dramatic Character and ‘Human Intelligibility’ in Greek Tragedy
Authors: Gould John
Published: November 2023

Plays, we say, are about people, about people doing and saying things.1 What they say and do gives us access to the kind of people they are-their personalities, their individuality, their ‘character’. And we find people interesting. Simply, crudely put, this is the basis of what we call our interest in dramatic character. It is in her clear-sighted attention to this simple but central fact that Mrs Easterling’s essay on ‘Presentation of Character in Aeschylus’ is at its most effective.
Dionysus and the Hippy Convoy: Ritual, Myth, and Metaphor in the Cult of Dionysus
Authors: Gould John
Published: November 2023

Dionysus is on the move. In one sense, of course-the sense which may provide an explanation, if not an excuse, for my original rather flippant title-he always has been: I shall come back to that. But in another, the last few decades have seen a major re-examination of the god, his myth and his cult and in consequence the whole image of Dionysus has sharpened and shifted considerably, even if in a characteristically multiform way. This is a good moment, then, to take stock of our present sense of the power of Dionysus and of the way, or better ways, in which that power was perceived and mediated through language, imagery and ritual.
Give and Take in Herodotus
Authors: Gould John
Published: November 2023

‘Vampire bats practice reciprocal altruism.’ I have that on the authority of a study by the socio-biologist Gerald Wilkinson, published in 1984. Herodotus, I feel, would not have been surprised. Vampire bats, Wilkinson tells us, ‘regularly regurgitate blood to each other ... in a reciprocal fashion such that each partner enjoys a net benefit from the exchange’: the gift of blood ensures that they do not starve to death. The trading of altruistic acts and the rules that govern it are the subject of this lecture.
Plato and Performance
Authors: Gould John
Published: November 2023

It seems undangerous to say that Plato has a problem with art and literature. Not only does he come back again and again to the central questions of the creative process, the nature of the created work of art and the quality of its audience’s response to the art-work, but what he has to say of these things both gives the impression, at least, of being self-contradictory and succeeds in leaving large issues of his meaning veiled in ambiguity. Moreover the extremity of the conclusions to which more than once his argument leads him is itself an index that these are not questions with which he engages in any wholly dispassionate mood of critical enquiry.
Myth, Memory, and the Chorus: ‘Tragic Rationality’
Authors: Gould John
Published: November 2023

Despite my title this paper is not a reply to Moses Finley’s classic paper of 1965.1 My concern here is with the deployment of myth in Greek tragedy: that is, with an aspect of the fictionality of tragic theatre. I shall use the deployment of myth in tragedy, and its variable use by both chorus and heroic characters, to try to illuminate the distinction between myth and logos which is the starting-point and focus of all our discussions in this volume.
Characterizing the Gauls
Authors: Williams J H C
Published: November 2023

Greek science and Roman imperialism have emerged as significant themes for the understanding of the key texts on the geography of northern Italy from the period of the conquest and settlement in the second century BC contained in Polybius and Cato ‘s Origines. But what of the peoples who lived there? How were they imagined, and in what terms were they approached? Here too, differences between Roman and Greek ideas are apparent. What is common to both Cato and Polybius is that their remarks are not to be taken simply as representations of past realities, as they are often under stood to be by historians and archaeologists. If their words are to be used as evidence for how things really were, then some idea is needed of the conceptual tools with which these authors were working, and of their reasons for writing about foreign peoples in the first place.
Myth and History I: The Gallic Invasion of Italy
Authors: Williams J H C
Published: November 2023

Both Polybius and Cato believed the Keltoi or Galli to be an invasive presence south of the Alps, whose origins lay elsewhere in the more or less ill-defined world of northern Europe. But it was not this in and of itself that distinguished them from the other peoples of Italy. Origin myths or foundation stories involving migration or colonization were also ascribed to various groups inhabiting peninsular Italy, and they were not without their problems of moral justification, even when the Romans themselves were concerned. That even, or especially, in their case there was considerable potential for tension bet, Yeen the moral primacy of authochthony as opposed to the legitimacy of rule by conquest is vividly suggested by Vergil ‘s Turnus and his violent, unrecon ciled, and unsettling death at the hands of Aeneas with which the Aeneid closes. Nevertheless, the poem as a whole is clear on the point that, though there may sometimes be unfortunate and even regrettable consequences for those who get in the way, Roman power is, and from the beginning always has been, divinely authorized. The presence or absence of divine sanction is the point that, whatever the attendant uncertainties, allowed a good invasion or colonial venture to be differentiated from a bad one; and it was to the latter category that the Gallic invasion of Italy belonged according to most extant narratives, but not all. For the accounts of Livy and Justin have a somewhat different angle on the problem, the nature and reasons for which will form the subject of the latter part of this chapter.
God the Father (Himself) in Vergil
Authors: Fowler Don
Published: November 2023

I should not dare to compare anything with god as though it were on a par with him, nor compare with the lord a sign that is his slave: but the father himself willed that men infer his greatness from what is small, since they cannot see the things on high. PRUDENTIUS
Technique and Technology
Authors: Armstrong Adrian
Published: November 2023

Literary studies cannot neglect the study of books, the physical objects through which literary texts are transmitted. Book form is especially relevant to the literature of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, which saw the crucial shift from manuscript to print in Western Europe. This book examines manuscripts and printed editions of three major French writers of this key period: Jean Molinet, Jean Lemaire de Belges and Jean Bouchet. Presentational features which influence the reading of poems, such as layout, illustration, anthologization and paratext, are analysed. The development of these features reflects a gradual change in the ways in which literary self-consciousness is manifested. In earlier texts, produced within an essentially manuscript culture, poets' creative investment in their work is exhibited primarily as formal virtuosity. As printing becomes dominant, such virtuosity tends to be rejected in favour of self-commentary and an apparently more personal discourse.
Introduction: Gender, Space, Reading Histories
Authors: Copeland Rita
Published: November 2023

The Essay s in New Medieval Literatures 2 continue the critical conversations between medieval studies and the ‘project of the present’ begun in the first volume. Where this volume differs from the inaugural issue of New Medieval Literatures is in its shift to the Continent and in its further exemplification of work on earlier periods. NML has aimed from the outset to provide a venue for work in all literary cultures of medieval Europe and beyond. And so volume 2 features work on French literature and Continental and English Latin writing, and on literary and intellectual production of the eleventh through the thirteenth centuries. The essays move from the streets of Paris, London, and English market towns to English monasteries, idealized pas toral spaces, Christian-Jewish-Muslim Spain, Rome, and fourteenth century Oxford.