bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sound propagation in the time-domain by the Split-Operator technique
Authors: Bosquetti Diogenes , Sánchez-Dehesa José
Published: August 2005

This work presents a finite-difference scheme to study the scattering of sound in the time-domain. It can be applied to heterogeneous fluids in any dimensionality. The scheme is based on the split-operator technique introduced in quantum mechanics to solve the time-dependent Schrödinger equation. This scheme presents advantages in comparison with the usual finite-difference time-domain algorithms. Its main characteristics are: a) its precision is of the order (Δt)3; b) it can work with non-homogeneous space-discretizations; and c) it satisfies the energy conservation law. Here, the scheme is also applied to solve four simple tests cases in one-dimensional space.
Introduction: WHAT IS A CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY FIELD SCHOOL AND WHAT IS IT GOOD FOR?
Authors: Iris Madelyn
Published: August 2005

A field school experience remains the exception rather than the common experience for most undergraduate and pre‐dissertation graduate students in social/cultural anthropology. There are a growing number of programs that describe themselves as anthropology field schools, but fewer that emphasize a research experience and in‐depth exposure to ethnographic and other qualitative methods. This bulletin offers detailed descriptions of four types of programs: “problem‐focused” field schools, “instructor‐driven” programs, “applied” anthropology field schools, and the “study‐tour” model. Other chapters include descriptions of the field school experience from the student perspective; a long‐term reflection on the influence of the field school summer on career development; the importance of mentorship; the relationship between field schools, service learning, and homestay experiences; ethical issues; and guidelines for choosing a field school.
REHABILITATION, RESISTANCE, AND RETURN: SERVICE LEARNING AND THE QUEST FOR CIVIL SOCIETY IN BOSNIA
Authors: Van Arsdale Peter
Published: August 2005

In 1996, shortly after termination of the Bosnian civil war and the signing of the Dayton Peace Accords, the University of Denver established a service learning program in the Balkans. Now, about to enter its eighth consecutive year of operation, “Project Bosnia” has become the university's longest‐running service learning/field school initiative. Each summer, from ten to 15 students (representing disciplines as diverse as anthropology, international relations, and law) participate in on‐site, agency‐based activities that allow them to hone both their community outreach and applied research skills. Some serve as summer school teachers in the small town of Vares. Many work with refugees and internally displaced persons in Sarajevo, the capitol. Placement agencies include the International Commission on Missing Persons, America's Development Foundation, the International Crisis Group, World Vision, the Mine Action Center, and the United Nations High Commission for Refugees. In‐class, academic work directed by the author complements each student's fieldwork.
LEARNING THROUGH DOING: THE IMPORTANCE OF FIELDWORK IN THE EDUCATION OF THE UNDERGRADUATE
Authors: Timmer Andria
Published: August 2005

There is little need to defend the centrality of fieldwork in the discipline of anthropology. Anthropological research conducted without “going into the field” (often for at least a year) is highly questionable. However, despite such an emphasis on fieldwork in anthropology, undergraduate students are still trained in the fashion of early “armchair anthropologists.” A true understanding of anthropology does not come from books, films, or lectures, the tools of the trade for most undergraduate anthropologists. It comes from being “in the field” (wherever that may be) and experiencing the joy, loneliness, culture shock, and language barriers that come along with it. Undergraduates should be allowed to experience as much as possible and make as many mistakes as possible. They are ready to accept the challenge of approaching another culture or community face to face and are ready to accept the vast amounts of knowledge that will come from this encounter.
ROLE NEGOTIATIONS AMONG STUDENTS AND NATIVE SPONSORS IN AN ETHNOGRAPHIC FIELD SCHOOL
Authors: Nichols William
Published: August 2005

This chapter examines how the relationship between the community sponsor or host and a student's own research goals interrelate. The common issues all students face as they enter the field include establishing rapport, identifying potential participants, and setting reasonable expectations for themselves and their hosts. A good field experience rests on trust and the positive relationship established by the fieldworker, whether student or professional. In the initial stages of rapport building, students are usually extremely careful of their relationships. The ability to situate one's self within the community as an ethnographer is one of the most important skills required of young researchers, and this skill is best acquired through guided practice. For faculty, providing such guidance requires a delicate triangle of approaches, evenly balanced in terms of supervision, support, and knowing when to let a student muddle through on her own. Fieldwork is still, to a great extent, a “seat of the pants” experience. To adequately capture this dynamic, a field school experience should provide enough opportunities for self‐directed action as possible, while always ensuring that in the end, the student succeeds. Two of the most beneficial skills or traits for successful fieldwork are patience and flexibility. As most students say, and as other chapters in this volume illustrate, the field school experience is most often a catalyst for growth, maturation, and increased self‐awareness. It is also a major contributor to a student's choice of a future career.
MENTORSHIP AND THE FIELD SCHOOL EXPERIENCE
Authors: Wallace Tim
Published: August 2005

This chapter discusses the benefits to both students and faculty program directors who participate in ethnographic field schools. Mentoring is a productive way to teach students that enables them to learn by doing. Although there are many stresses and strains in conducting mentor‐structured programs, the payoffs are great as the directors gently lead their students into developing deeper understanding of anthropology and ethnography. This approach often provides the best way for students to decide if they have the “right stuff” to be anthropologists, and their mentors provide them with the encouragement and support necessary to find out for themselves.
ETHICAL ISSUES AND OTHER THINGS TO THINK ABOUT
Authors: Iris Madelyn
Published: August 2005

Ethnographic or cultural anthropology field schools often present students and faculty with numerous ethical issues or considerations. Many of these relate to students' behavior when participating in a program that extends beyond the normal classroom setting. For example, there are always concerns about student safety, health, and well‐being as well as concerns for the safety, health, and well being of residents and citizens of the host community. In addition, there are concerns about the reputation of the program director, the program itself, and the relationships of other students in the program to their hosts. Sponsoring institutions also carry concerns about liability and reputation. To a large extent, this stems form the fact that fieldwork is a 24/7 commitment and students and faculty are, in a sense, always on stage. Students are often challenged by behavioral and social norms that are very different than their own. Finally, there are many concerns that arise related to the conduct of ethical research. This chapter discusses the many ethical issues that can arise during the course of the fieldwork experience, and provides examples of how these have been dealt with by experienced field school directors.
APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY AND HERITAGE TOURISM PLANNING: WORKING FOR THE WESTERN ERIE CANAL HERITAGE CORRIDOR PLANNING COMMISSION
Authors: MASON AMANDA
Published: August 2005

Using a case study approach, this article demonstrates how applied anthropological research can be used in heritage tourism planning, specifically in regions designated by state or federal government as “heritage areas.” The participatory nature of ethnographic research not only identifies the ideas, perspectives, and needs that are vital to an effective heritage tourism plan, it also brings together the individuals and agencies that will become actively involved in the implementation of the plan. This reduces the distinction between the phases of planning and acting and promotes ownership and involvement in the tourism strategy. Because of this, both the ethnographic research process and the data it generates are complimentary components of community‐based tourism planning. Also discussed are some common issues that arise in heritage tourism planning, such as conflicting stakeholder desires for resources, community frustration or exhaustion with the planning process, and mixed definitions of the concept of “heritage.”
KEEPING THE PEOPLE IN THE PARKS: A CASE STUDY FROM GUATEMALA
Authors: WALLACE TIM , DIAMENTE DANIELA N.
Published: August 2005

Ecotourism is seen as a mechanism by which environmental conservation can be promoted and attained. Nevertheless, nature conservation NGOs do not really understand that ecotourism has unforeseen consequences. Anthropologists can be good mediators between the conservation NGOs and the communities that are the targets of their ecotourism projects. This paper describes a case study in which the authors were indirectly consultants for The Nature Conservancy in Guatemala and the manner in which they served as a social conscience for the NGO. The authors also served as assistants in developing a collaborative network for tourism projects that have had direct benefits both in the short run and in the long run for the communities participating in those projects. The conclusion drawn from the case study is that applied anthropologists can play a significant role in mitigating the negative economic effects of conservation projects that are designed mainly to help wildlife rather than people. These anthropologists may also have a role in helping local communities benefit from the ecotourism development efforts of nature conservation‐oriented NGOs, which are often found as part of the requirements for receiving funding from their donors.
GENERATING THEORY, TOURISM, AND “WORLD HERITAGE” IN INDONESIA: ETHICAL QUANDARIES FOR ANTHROPOLOGISTS IN AN ERA OF TOURIST MANIAD
Authors: ADAMS KATHLEEN M.
Published: August 2005

This article is broadly concerned with the unique ethical quandaries anthropologists face when conducting research in touristic milieus, as well as the ethical dilemmas that ensue once we have left the field and are engaged in constructing theoretically informed portraits of the communities we researched. Specifically, drawing on experiences in two contrasting Indonesian field settings (Tana Toraja and Alor), I explore the ways in which contemporary anthropological theories about culture, identity, and identity politics can collide with local perceptions and local tourism‐generating aspirations, placing researchers in potentially problematic ethical terrain.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL TOURISM: LOOKING FOR ANSWERS ALONG MEXICO'S MAYA RIVIERA
Authors: WALKER CAMERON
Published: August 2005

Located on the Caribbean coast of Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula, the village of Cancún was radically transformed when mass tourism development began there in the early 1970s. Cancún and the surrounding “Maya Riviera” quickly became a wildly popular tourism destination offering a variety of cultural experiences, including visits to ancient Maya archaeological sites. Now, some of those archaeological sites are in danger of being “loved to death,” while others are only just beginning to appear on the tourist radar. There is increasing pressure to balance tourist accessibility with conservation of the ancient buildings and to find a balance that incorporates architectural and ecological conservation, management of the tourist procession through the site, and effective interpretation of the site to enhance the visitor experience. Sites need to be presented within historical, temporal, and geographical contexts, and tourists must be educated about the host region and local indigenous cultures to enhance the tourism experience and encourage tourist behaviors that promote sustainability at the site.
What have gonadotrophin overexpressing transgenic mice taught us about gonadal function?
Authors: Rulli Susana B , Huhtaniemi Ilpo
Published: August 2005

The two gonadotrophins, follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinising hormone, are pivotal regulators of the development and maintenance of normal fertility by maintaining testicular and ovarian endocrine function and gametogenesis. Too low gonadotrophin secretion, i.e. hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism, is a common cause of infertility. But there are also physiological and pathophysiological conditions where gonadotrophin secretion and/or action are either transiently or chronically elevated, such as pregnancy, pituitary tumours, polycystic ovarian syndrome, activating gonadotrophin receptor mutations, perimenopause and menopause. These situations can be either the primary or secondary cause of infertility and gonadal pathologies in both sexes. Also the role of gonadotrophins as tumour promoters is possible. Recently, the possibility to combine information from genetically modified mice and human phenotypes in connection with mutations of gonadotrophin or gonadotrophin receptor genes has elucidated many less well known mechanisms involved in dysregulation of gonadotrophin function. Among the genetically modified mouse models, transgenic mice with gonadotrophin hypersecretion have been developed during the last few years. In this review, we describe the key findings on transgenic mouse models overexpressing gonadotrophins and present their possible implications in related human pathologies. In addition, we provide examples of genetic mouse models with secondary effects on gonadotrophin production and, consequently, on gonadal function.
Procurement of construction projects in local government
Authors: Wamuziri S. , Seywright A.
Published: August 2005

This paper provides an evaluation of changes in procurement of capital projects in local government in recent years. These changes have been driven partly by changes in legislation regarding compulsory competitive tendering, best value and more lately prudential finance legislation. They have also been driven by developments in industry procurement practices, particularly following publication of the Latham and Egan reports. Results of research seeking to assess current practice regarding procurement of capital projects in local authorities following publication of the National Procurement Strategy in October 2003 are presented. The organisation of the procurement function, use of standard forms of contract, e-procurement, capability and arrangements for procurement-related training are discussed including use of external consultants. The overall conclusion is that local authorities are at various stages of development regarding implementation of the National Procurement Strategy. Although most of them have in place training arrangements to develop skills of technical and procurement staff, many local authorities will continue to use external consultants. Moreover, 75% of local authorities see use of external consultants to provide professional advice in various elements of project procurement as a long-term measure.
Briefing: Citizen engagement and public services consultation
Authors: Huxford R.
Published: August 2005

This briefing sheet is a summary of the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister's consultation document Citizen Engagement and Public Services: Why Neighbourhoods Matter, published on 31 January 2005 as part of the Urban Summit.
Briefing: Walking and Cycling: An Action Plan
Authors: Hope-Dunbar Juliet , Huxford Robert
Published: August 2005

This briefing sheet is a summary of the 62-page Department for Transport document Walking and Cycling: An Action Plan, published June 2004.
Municipal engineering—yesterday, today and tomorrow
Authors: Sanders J.
Published: August 2005

This paper seeks to show how changes in the approach to the delivery, management and techniques of municipal engineering in the UK have evolved and, in turn, influenced political and professional skills and policies. It will consider how greater sophistication, integration and adoption of a more holistic approach by professionals within government and changes in the accountability of politicians and the democratic process are leading to a broader definition of the role of the municipal engineer in the UK. The paper will also suggest how individuals, professional institutions and employers can work towards the skills and knowledge required by a modern municipal engineer.
Assessment of Exposures To Pneumoconiosis‐Producing Mineral Dusts
Authors: Ayer Howard E. , Rice Carol H.
Published: August 2005

Pneumoconiosis is produced by significant long‐term exposure to certain mineral dusts of particle sizes that can penetrate to the gas exchange region of the lungs. Thus, assessment of exposure may include size separation as well as measurement of concentration and composition of the dusts. When the dust is fibrous, as the various forms of asbestos, the assessment is by collection of air samples, light microscopic fiber counts of the samples, and possibly electron microscopic identification of the fiber types. For all other minerals with particles of regular shapes, current methods of assessment use air sampling devices that discriminate against particles too large to penetrate to the sensitive regions of the lung. The dust collected is then identified as the “respirable” fraction, using an international definition of the fraction. Chemical or physical analysis of the samples may then be required.

Assessment also includes the length and pattern of exposure. For estimation of pneumoconiosis hazard the cumulative exposure over a period of days, weeks, months and years is considered. Air sampling for hazard estimation is typically done over full working shifts. For design of efficient control measures those tasks or operations that produce the major portions of the exposures must be identified. To accomplish this identification, the minute by minute exposure pattern may be required.

The principal pneumoconiosis‐producing dusts as they are now recognized in the United States are

Those containing free crystalline silica (quartz or cristobalite).

Coal dust (both bituminous and anthracite).

Asbestos (chrysotile, amosite, crocidolite, anthophyllite and tremolite).

Other minerals may also produce lung fibrosis, but usually only at very much higher concentrations.

As with other physical and chemical hazards, it is impossible to predict with certainty the precise hazard to a particular individual. The degree of pneumoconiosis hazard from respirable coal dust depends not only on the cumulative exposure, but in a not well understood manner to the chemical and mineralogical composition of the seam being mined. To these differences in collective hazard is added the differences in individual susceptibility of the people exposed. For this reason, the concentration limits and measurement methods are intended to protect the more susceptible individuals against the agents with greater potential to cause disease. Further changes in the limits and measurement methods may be expected, but if experience is a guide, they will be decade by decade rather than year by year.

This chapter describes the methods in use at the beginning of the twenty‐first century, and the development of these methods over a major part of the twentieth century.
Analytical Methods
Authors: Lieckfield Robert G.
Published: August 2005

The laboratory analysis of occupational health samples is an important aspect of determining occupational health exposures. The accurate determination of workplace exposures begins with the selection of an appropriate sampling device and continues through the analysis of the collected samples in the industrial hygiene laboratory. The focus of this chapter is on the methods used in the analysis of industrial hygiene samples.

Industrial hygiene chemistry covers a wide diversity of chemical substances found in modern industry with hundreds more being added yearly. The complexity of this field is compounded by the need to identify and quantify trace quantities of organic and inorganic substances in the presence of numerous potential interferences.

The industrial hygiene analytical laboratory incorporates a substantial number and wide‐array of chemical and instrumental methods. The majority of industrial hygiene analyses are performed using one of the following techniques:

Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS)

Electron Microscopy (Transmission and scanning microscopes)

Gas Chromatography (GC)

High‐Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

Inductively Coupled Argon Plasma Spectrophotometry (ICAP)

Ion Chromatography (IC)

Optical Microscopy (Phase‐contrast and polarized‐light microscopes)

Ultraviolet/Visible Spectrophotometry

X‐ray Diffraction

Gravimetric

Additional methods used, although not as common, include titration, ion‐selective electrode, inductively coupled argon plasma/mass spectrometry (ICP/MS), and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). A basic understanding of the analytical methods and techniques is essential to the industrial hygienist, allowing for the proper interpretation of the reported laboratory results.

The technology of laboratory instrumentation evolved through the development of both operating design and microprocessing advancements. These technology gains provided for the commercialization and the significantly lower cost of sophisticated instrumentation to the industrial hygiene community.
Calibration
Authors: Lippmann Morton
Published: August 2005

Proper interpretation of any environmental measurement depends on an appreciation of its accuracy, precision, and whether it is representative of the condition or exposure of interest. This chapter is concerned primarily with the accuracy and precision of industrial hygiene measurements. Although considerations of the location, duration, and frequency of measurements may be equally or even more important in the evaluation of potential hazards, they require knowledge of the process variables, the kinds of hazard and/or toxic effect that may result from exposures, and their temporal variations. Such considerations, which require the exercise of professional judgment, are beyond the scope of this chapter.

The accuracy of a given measurement depends on a variety of different factors including the sensitivity of the analytical method, its specificity for the agent or energy being measured, the interferences introduced by cocontaminants or other radiant energies, and the changes in response resulting from variations in ambient conditions or instrument power levels. In some cases the influence of these variables can be defined by laboratory calibration, providing a basis for correcting a field sample or instrument reading response. In cases such as the effect of variable line voltage on an instrument's response, they can be avoided by modifications in the circuitry or by the addition of a constant voltage transformer. When the effects of the interferences cannot be controlled or well defined, it may still be desirable to make field measurements, especially in range‐finding and exploratory surveys. The interpretation of any such measurements is greatly aided by an appreciation of the extent of the uncertainties. Laboratory calibrations can provide the basis for such an appreciation.

It is important to document the nature and frequency of calibrations and calibration checks to meet legal as well as scientific requirements. Measurements made to document the presence or absence of excessive exposures are only as reliable as the calibrations upon which they are based. Formalized calibration audit procedures established by federal agencies provide a basis for quality assurance where they apply. They can also provide a systematic framework for developing appropriate calibration procedures for situations not governed by specific reporting requirements.

State and local air monitoring networks that are collecting data for compliance purposes are required to have an external performance audit on an annual basis.
Ionizing Radiation
Authors: Cember Herman
Published: August 2005

Ionizing radiation may be defined as electromagnetic (X‐rays and gamma rays) and particle radiation (alpha and beta particles, electrons, neutrons, and protons) with sufficient energy to disrupt an atom or a molecule. This is done by knocking out an electron, thereby “ionizing” the atom or molecule.

Knowledge of radiation and safety problems associated with its use goes back more than 100 years, with the discovery, in 1895, of X‐rays by Wilhelm Roentgen. On the same day that Roentgen announced his discovery, Emile Grubbe, a physicist working in Chicago with an apparatus similar to Roentgen's, developed severe skin burns after handling an energized cathode ray tube similar to the one used by Roentgen. This was the first work‐related injury from radiation. In 1896, Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity while working with an ore called pitchblende. Investigation revealed three different radiations that originated in the ore. Becquerel called these radiations alpha, beta, and gamma rays. (Later investigations showed that X‐rays and gamma rays were the same type of radiation.)

The discovery of these radiations opened new fields of scientific investigation and uses for these radiations. Parallel with the studies of the physics and chemistry of radiation and radioactive materials were researches into their biomedical effects. With this expanded use of radiation there were further reports of harmful effects, such as skin burns and hair loss when X‐rays were used in medical diagnosis. In 1899 the first case of a cancer, a basal cell carcinoma on a woman's face was cured by X‐rays. In 1906, two French physiologists, Bergonie and Tribendeau, published their classical paper on the relative radiosensitivity of different cells and tissues. They found that the less differentiated a cell was, and the more frequently it divided, the more radiosensitive it was. From then until now, we have found nothing to contradict their observations. However, much is understood now about the molecular biology basis for their findings. Since then, an enormous amount of information on the nature of the interaction of radiation with living tissue, and on the dose–effect and dose–response relationships has been amassed. Sources of information, such as the experiences of the radium dial painters, early radiologists, and the uranium miners, showed that occupational overexposures led to harmful effects. Other major sources of information include the populations that had been medically exposed to diagnostic and therapeutic radiation, the survivors of the atomic bombings in Japan, radiation accidents, epidemiological studies of populations exposed to low level radiation from nuclear facilities and from natural background. This body of knowledge forms the scientific basis for the radiation safety standards currently in use. After radiation safety guidelines were developed, occupational exposures that were within the radiation safety guidelines did not lead to harmful biomedical effects.
Biohazards and Occupational Disease
Authors: Heinsohn Patricia A.
Published: August 2005

Microbes inhabit every environmental niche on the earth, and some have adapted to survival under extremely harsh conditions. Most do not cause disease in humans or animals. Indeed, they have many beneficial uses. Fungi can deteriorate organic materials, including, textiles, leather, wood, foods, paper, and paint. Molds synthesize chemical reagents and medicines and are used in food fermentation, pest control, and other industrial processes. This chapter deals only with microorganisms that can cause occupational disease.
Potential Exposures In the Manufacturing Industry—Their Recognition and Control
Authors: Burgess William A.
Published: August 2005

The conventional approach in an introduction of the occupational health practitioner to the health hazards in industry is to provide an industry by industry check list of the major chemical and physical exposures and the available control methods. This approach is not used in this chapter. Rather, a limited number of operations are presented in some detail with the topics weighted toward metal, chemical, and rubber products. Although the selection represents only a fraction of the major industrial workplaces, the issues that are identified can be used to evaluate health risks in many other work settings. Where possible, comments are made on the health status of today's workforce, and if exposure data are available, summary information is noted. Although the details of control approaches cannot be presented in this brief review, the proven control techniques are cited.
Industrial Hygienist's Liability Under Law
Authors: Allan Ralph E.
Published: August 2005

The complex area of toxic‐substance law and regulation is one of the fastest growing areas of the law, and industrial hygiene activity is an inherent component of this exploding legal area. Society is mandating that irresponsibility in reference to toxic substance management be dealt with immediately in order to protect the current and future health of the earth's population. The occupational and environmental health issues are complex and in many instances rest largely upon inferences derived at the very frontiers of science and technology. Lawyers and courts assume their roles in adjudicating complex social issues not easily resolvable whether dealing in the areas of administrative, civil, or criminal law. It is therefore important that the industrial hygienist in the process of anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and control of health hazards in the workplace and community understand their responsibility in the legal system in order to assist more favorably in unraveling some of the most complicated legal issues that have ever needed resolution in our society.

The practice of industrial hygiene has dramatically changed since the early days of the profession. At one time, the industrial hygienist had to be concerned only about being able to recognize the factors and stresses associated with work and work operations and to understand their effects on humans and their well‐being; to evaluate, on the basis of experience and with the aid of quantitative measurement techniques, the magnitude of these stresses in terms of the ability to impair health and well‐being; and to prescribe methods to eliminate, control, or reduce such stresses when necessary to alleviate their adverse effects. Presently, environmental and safety responsibilities have added to traditional industrial hygiene practice, creating some uncertainty in the basic definition of industrial hygiene practice. In order to assist in clarifying the definition of industrial hygiene practice, the American Industrial Hygiene Association is launching a broad project to document guidelines and standards of good practice aimed at helping industrial hygiene professionals in their everyday practice.

Presently, not only must an industrial hygienist perform his or her duties with the ever‐present thought that whatever is done may become the subject of litigation, but he or she also must deal with an ever‐expanding definition of industrial hygiene functions and responsibilities. Needless to say, it is not sufficient to do just an adequate job. Industrial hygienists are in a position to practice one of the most interesting areas of professional interaction in an ever‐changing professional environment. In addition to the actual performance of the work and the understanding of the legal parameters related to the work, elements of importance include the definition, standards of practice, and the Code of Ethics for industrial hygiene.
The History and Biological Basis of Occupational Exposure Limits for Chemical Agents
Authors: Paustenbach Dennis J.
Published: August 2005

Over the past 50 years, many organizations in numerous countries have proposed occupational exposure limits (OEL) for airborne contaminants. The limits or guidelines that have gradually become the most widely accepted both in the United States and in most other countries are those issued annually by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) and are termed Threshold Limit Values® (TLVs).

The usefulness of establishing OELs for potentially harmful agents in the working environment has been demonstrated repeatedly since their inception. It has been claimed that whenever these limits have been implemented in a particular industry, no worker has been shown to have sustained serious adverse effects on his health as a result of exposure to these concentrations of an industrial chemical. Although this statement is arguable with respect to the acceptability of OELs for those chemicals established before 1980 and later found to be carcinogenic, there is little doubt that hundreds of thousands of persons have avoided serious effects of workplace exposure due to their existence.

The contribution of OELs to the prevention or minimization of disease is widely accepted, but for many years such limits did not exist, and even when they did, they were often not observed.

Although it is not possible for any single book chapter to discuss how each of the various biological issues that need to be considered when establishing an OEL should be quantitatively accounted for, most of them have at least been generally addressed here. It should be clear from the discussion that the process for setting OELs remains remarkably similar to those that were used in the late 1940s but that the quality and quantity of data used to set these limits, as well as the methodology, has evolved with our increased level of scientific understanding. It is also clear that as occupational health professionals develop a better understanding of toxicology and medicine, techniques for quantitatively accounting for pharmacokinetic differences among chemicals, and better knowledge of the mechanisms of action of toxicants, more refined approaches for identifying safe levels of exposure will be developed. Hopefully, the end result will be that future occupational exposure limits will be based on the best scientific principles and, therefore, our confidence that workers will be protected at these limits will be even greater than it is today.
Health Promotion In the Workplace
Authors: Toeppen-Sprigg B. , Schmidt K. , Hart A.
Published: August 2005

Worksite health promotion programs first appeared in industry during the 1970s. Interest in these programs has grown exponentially since then. In the late 1970s and early 1980s less than 5% of employers had employee health promotion programs. The 1992
National Survey of Worksite Health Promotion Program Activities
revealed that 81% of workplaces offered at least one health promotion initiative, compared to 66% at the time of the previous survey in 1985. The majority of the companies with health promotion programs stated that health care cost containment and improved worker health and safety were the primary goals of their health promotion programs. It is unclear how many of these programs attained their stated goals. Indeed, only 12% of the companies surveyed reported that they conducted a formal program evaluation.

The purpose of this chapter is to present a broad overview of the concept and application of outcome‐based worksite health promotion. The theory behind worksite health promotion is reviewed, including the definitions of health and health promotion and the theoretical frameworks that attempt to explain how people decide whether or not to participate in these programs. Worksite health promotion is defined and several program‐planning models discussed.

Following this review of the basics, there is a discussion of outcome analysis as a means to evaluate the effectiveness of worksite programs. Several examples of successful health promotion programs within industry are reviewed. The chapter concludes with an overview of the trends that will affect the delivery of health promotion services in the future and suggested approaches to address these challenges.
Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems
Authors: Redinger Charles F. , Levine Steven P.
Published: August 2005

As organizations become globally integrated, occupational health and safety (OHS) professionals are forced to focus on the strategic management of their organizations. In this environment, new approaches to OHS integration with business functions and performance measurement become critical. Compliance with varying national regulations is a challenging starting point. International consensus standards add an increasingly interesting dimension to this challenge. For OHS professionals to play a key role in their organizations, they need to understand existing management system approaches, know how to develop and implement such systems, and understand the conformity‐assessment structures that affect these systems.

The objective of this chapter is to provide an overview of necessary information to understanding OHS management system issues. Various aspects of formal occupational health and safety management systems (OHSMS) and conformity assessment structures are addressed. The topics contained here are important to industrial hygienists as increased emphasis is being placed on strategic management and “beyond compliance” strategies to reduce OHS injuries, illness, and fatalities.
Business Analysis for Health and Safety Professionals—The State of the Art
Authors: Birkner Lawrence R. , Brandt Michael T.
Published: August 2005

Increasingly, environmental, health, and safety (EHS) practitioners are reporting that it is becoming more difficult to sell investments in health and safety, and environmental management. Global competition, government downsizing—including ongoing efforts to re‐engineer Safety and Health regulatory agencies and their underlying legislation changes in technology, and the overall drive by organizations to improve operating efficiency have placed added pressure on EHS practitioners. This pressure manifests itself by placing increased financial accountability on all staff functions, including EHS.

Business, economics, and environmental management literature have increasingly devoted space for articles concerning such topics as performance measures, quality management, cost control and management, cost and benefit analyses, environmental liabilities, business and environmental management integration, EHS management systems, and EHS performance and the valuation of firms, among many other topics. It is clear that the expectations of senior executives for EHS performance have changed. EHS practitioners must continue to come to the workplace with exceptional academic education and training in the sciences and engineering, but business and communication tools are also needed to successfully meet the new performance challenges.

This chapter presents the basic concepts of financial and quality management tools to plan, manage, measure, and control EHS activities, so they may be considered as investments and not pure cost. The goal of this chapter is to demonstrate that EHS practitioners can begin to integrate their technical disciplines into the “business of business”. In some cases, the business and financial tools presented are not commonly used by EHS organizations today. In such instances, the discussion focuses on advantages and benefits of using such tools. By using the tools presented in this chapter practitioners will be better able to manage EHS activities to drive improved EHS performance and to facilitate greater line management interest and involvement in this critical business function. These tools are useful to all EHS practitioners, regardless of whether they organizationally reside in private, public or nonprofit sectors of the economy.
Industrial Hygiene Education, Training, and Information Exchange
Authors: George Dennis K. , Flynn Michael R.
Published: August 2005

As defined by the American Industrial Hygiene Association, industrial hygiene is principally an applied discipline dedicated to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and control of environmental factors or stresses arising in the occupational environment that may cause sickness, impaired health and well‐being, or significant discomfort among workers or among citizens of the community. These factors or stresses may be chemical (e.g., solvents, heavy metals), physical (e.g., noise, heat stress), biological (e.g., bloodborne pathogens, tuberculosis), or ergonomic (e.g., manual materials handling, repetitive motion) in nature and may arise in virtually any sector of the occupational environment. Practitioners in the field of industrial hygiene must be able to:

Identify situations in the workplace that pose a potential threat of adverse consequences to employee health and well‐being,

Determine the nature and extent of this risk through extensive investigation of all pertinent background information and qualitative and quantitative assessment of the environmental stressors involved,

Judge the acceptability or unacceptability of the risk upon careful observation of all relevant factors and thorough analysis of all pertinent qualitative and quantitative data.

Design and implement adequate measures of remediation for those situations posing unacceptable risk.

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the reader to various outlets for industrial hygiene education, training, and information exchange. It is intended to provide guidance for those seeking their first degree in industrial hygiene, those wishing to update their educational credentials, and for those attempting to identify resources enabling them to remain regularly updated and informed on responsible and ethical industrial hygiene practice. For the purposes of this chapter, the word “education” is used to refer to the acquisition of knowledge in a formal, academic setting, typically occurring in the context of a college or university curriculum and ultimately leading to the award of a formal degree. The process of pursing information outside of an academic, “degree‐seeking” program of study is termed training, continuing education, or professional development. This avenue encompasses a wide variety of information delivery systems and formats such as seminars, workshops, short courses, self‐paced/self‐study courses, etc. A brief discussion of various mechanisms and forums of information exchange such as printed materials (e.g., journals), personal interactions (e.g., conferences, meetings), and electronic interfaces (e.g., listserves, web pages, etc.) is also included. Please note that this material is by no means exhaustive. The reader is encouraged to consider this chapter as a beginning point for further exploration.
Environmental Control In the Workplace: Water, Food, Insects, and Rodents
Authors: Shapiro Maurice A. , Barron Gerald M.
Published: August 2005

Environmental control consists of maintaining and improving the general environment of the workplace. Exposures to pathogenic organisms and toxic substances in the environment, e.g., in drinking water, can and do lead to illness among employees. Moreover, an industrial establishment which provides its workers with a food service lacking sanitary food handling facilities and practices that afford protection, invites the possible disaster of widespread foodborne infection. Discussions include provisions of a safe, potable, and adequate water supply; assurance of a safe food supply; control and elimination of insects and rodents; general environmental control; maintenance of general cleanliness, and the environmental engineer in industry.
Air Pollution Controls
Authors: Golembiewski Mark A. , Cooper Fredrick I.
Published: August 2005

This chapter focuses on the requirement for air pollution control, principles of air cleaning, selection of suitable control methods, and economic and energy resources needed to install and operate emission control systems of various types.
Agricultural Hygiene
Authors: Popendorf William , Donham Kelley J.
Published: August 2005

Agriculture was and in most places still is, a disciplined life style that has bred strong character and high morals in virtually every culture. But such attributes are probably more the necessities of successful agriculture than its natural benefit. Modern agriculture, as practiced by Western cultures, is not the bucolic, healthful working environment fantasized in media classics such as Laura Ingalls Wilder'sFarmer Boy. Whatever it was, agriculture is changing or facing change everywhere. While some cultures (and indeed some crops within all cultures) have yet to make the transition from human to animal to mechanized power, or from chemical to genetically engineered tools, where these transitions have occurred, production per farmer has increased. Unfortunately, so too have health and safety stresses upon farmers. Twenty years ago agriculture was the third most hazardous occupation. Although conditions within general industry improved during the intervening years, agriculture has been exempt of mandated safety and health services. Today agriculture is the most hazardous occupational group in the United States. In fact, modern farm life has recently been described as “A Harvest of Harm.”

This chapter hopes to address the needs and interests of industrial hygienists, as opposed to other reviews of agricultural hazards. It first describes the dilemma of agriculture as both an industry and as a way of life. Selected health hazards that are either characteristic of or unique to agriculture are then reviewed. A topical overview of hazardous processes, physical, biological and chemical agents, and diseases of concern in agriculture is given. The selected topics have been organized into acute and cumulative trauma, respiratory hazards, pesticides, veterinary chemicals, zoonoses, dermatoses, physical hazards, cancer, and mental stresses. The chapter concludes with a discussion of how the traditional industrial hygiene components of anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and control might be applied to agriculture, potential policies to stimulate industrial hygiene and safety services on the farm and ranch, and approaches employed in other countries to deliver such services. While the problems discussed are world wide, this chapter will focus on U.S. agriculture.
Indoor Air Quality In Nonindustrial Occupational Environments
Authors: Morey Philip R. , Horner Elliott , Epstien Barbara L. , Worthan Anthony G. , Black Marilyn S.
Published: August 2005

Indoor air in occupied buildings is always more polluted from human‐sourced contaminants than the air outside the building. This is true for modern buildings constructed during the past decade as well as for primitive shelters erected centuries or millennia ago. It follows that a continuous source of outdoor air is required to prevent the degradation of indoor air from contaminants arising from people and their activities. This was realized historically by the inventors of roof vents for exhaust of fire smoke and by early designers of openable windows for introduction of make‐up (outdoor) air.

Major sources on indoor air pollutants are discussed, i.e., microbials, allergens, volatile organic compounds, pesticides, combustion products, tobacco smoke, radon, and particulates. Sampling of these pollutants and interpretation of data are included. Varied approaches to indoor air quality studies, ventilation, protocols and guidelines, and control are discussed.