bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
From puzzles to research topics: selected problems of combinatorics
Authors: Cofman Judita
Published: November 2023

Various puzzles prompted important research in combinatorics and related fields of mathematics. Euler’s 36 officers problem is a famous example: 36 officers of 6 ranks and from 6 regiments have to be arranged in a 6 x 6 square formation so that every row and every column of the formation includes officers of each rank and each regiment. Euler’s study of the above puzzle initiated the study of Latin squares which nowadays play an important role in statistics and in various branches of discrete mathematics. Our aim in the first part of this chapter is to explain the connection between the puzzle and Latin squares, to solve problems on Latin rectangles and Latin squares (in Section 10.1), and to point out an important link between Latin squares and a class of non-Euclidean geometries the finite projective planes (in Section 10.2).
Chapter I
Authors: Cofman Judita
Published: November 2023

Denote by P  n the number of different ways of painting a house with n floors, in accordance with the restrictions of the problem.
Transformations And Steep Fronts
Authors: Baines M J
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we look at the moving grid problem from the so-called Lagrangian point of view and re-write the MFE procedure in new variables. We then introduce the Legendre transformation which plays a central role in the structure of the MFE method, at least for first-order PDE’s. Finally, we discuss the analytic behaviour of shocks and steep fronts, whose numerical description is the motivation for MFE.
Exact Semi-Discrete Mfe Solutions
Authors: Baines M J
Published: November 2023

Using the Lagrangian point of view, we can single out a class of first-order PDEs for which the residual minimization part of MFE is unnecessary, simply because the residual can be made identically zero (Baines 1985c, Baines 1985a, Baines 1991). This is a consequence of the fact that, for this class of PDEs, the driving function ℒU already lies in the space spanned by the α’s and β’s, called the tangent plane of the approximating manifold (see (Miller and Miller 1981)). For these PDEs, therefore, no L2 projection is required and approximate solutions can be constructed directly without residual minimization.
Mfe And Moving Best Fits
Authors: Baines M J
Published: November 2023

As we have seen in Chapter 9, the advantage of studying best fits to continuous functions by piecewise discontinuous linear or constant functions with variable nodes is that the inherent nonlinearities in the calculation of the nodal positions are much easier to handle. Moreover the steps in the iteration procedure of the algorithm generating these fits are completely local and singularities can be avoided. We shall use this study to obtain a new perspective on MFE, with the possibilities of avoiding singularities altogether and devising an extension of MFE to piecewise constant functions.
Sums Of Squares And Gauss Sums
Authors: Rose H E
Published: November 2023

The concepts introduced so far form the basis for the major topics to be discussed in this chapter, they are Gauss sums and, to begin with, the representation of integers as sums of squares. Consider the proposition: if p is a prime and p = 1 (mod 4), then the Diophantine equation has an integer solution. This result. which is generally attributed to Fermat, is one of the seminal theorems of number theory. Both the ideas associated with its many proofs and the study of its extensions and generalizations have had a major influence on the development of the subject. We shall discuss the infinite descent method, and then use it to prove Fermat’s result and some related results including Lagrange’s four square theorem. In Chapters 9 and 10 we shall treat the general arithmetic theory of quadratic forms.
Quadratic Forms
Authors: Rose H E
Published: November 2023

Gauss was the first to study quadratic forms in a systematic way, his famous book published in 180 l and called Disquisiriones A.rirhmeticae (see Gauss 1966). is largely taken up with this topic. Although he brought together a number of results from earlier mathematicians. many of the basic ideas and theorems are due to him and were first presented in Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. For example. he realized the fundamental importance of the equivalence of forms (Section 1) and introduced the notation of composition which is central to the theory of binary forms (Chapter 10).
Quasistatic cycles in dynamic linear thermoelasticity
Authors: Day W A
Published: November 2023

This paper is prompted by considerations drawn from thermodynamics. The origins of thermodynamics lie in attempts to understand the operations of heat engines. Reduced to its essentials, a heat engine is a deformable body immersed in a heat bath whose temperature is periodic; the body is subjected to a periodically-varying pressure whose period coincides with that of the heat bath, and, in practice, the pressure is adjusted so as to extract a positive amount of work in each cycle that the body performs. Because this situation is central within thermodynamics it is of considerable interest to develop techniques which will determine exactly, or at least provide tolerable approximations to, the temperature and displacement fields within the body.
Bending of a beam or wide strip
Authors: Shield R T
Published: November 2023

The small-strain pure bending of a rectangular beam or wide strip is treated using finite-deformation theory with consistent neglect of higher-order terms. The equation determined by Lamb using shell theory for the shape of the middle surface is found to apply for all width-to-thickness ratios.
Linear dynamical stability in constrained thermoelasticity II. Deformation-entropy constraints
Authors: Scott N H
Published: November 2023

The theory of infinitesimal disturbances of a uniform reference configuration Be of a constrained heat-conducting elastic body, developed in part I, is adapted here to the situation in which the constraint links the deformation and the entropy. There are now only three modes of plane-harmonic-wave propagation and, in contrast to the findings of part I, they all turn out to be linearly stable under conditions of a conventional kind on the material constants in Be. An a priori case is thereby established for the acceptability in thermomechanics of this type of constraint. The properties of the modes are investigated in some detail and compared with the corresponding solutions in the absence of a constraint. A limiting procedure is formulated which yields, as extreme cases, the secular equations for the constrained and unconstrained bodies.
A Construction for Groups
Authors: Hoffman P N , Humphreys J F
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we shall describe a binary operation within a certain class of objects, each of which is a group with extra structure. This construction can he used to determine the structure of the centralizer of an element of, and so we shall be able to deduce information about the conjugacy classes of S˜n. In later chapters, the construction will play a role in the definition of certain representations.
Software for shape-preserving spline interpolation
Authors: Reinsch Christian H
Published: November 2023

Interpolation and smoothing of discrete data belong to the basic tasks of numerical analysis like solving linear equations and eigenvalue problems, or finding polynomial roots. The successful technique of using piecewise polynomials as a basis is theoretically justified by a minimum principle. This remains valid if shape preservation is added as a constraint, although the construction process is then non-linear. We discuss robust algorithms with good convergence rates, to be used in public program libraries.
Subharmonic and plurisubharmonic functions
Authors: Klimek Maciej
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we begin our study of plurisubharmonic functions; they will play the central part throughout the remaining chapters. First, however, we present a comprehensive account of some fundamental properties of harmonic, pluriharmonic, and subharmonic functions. We also give some examples of applications of these functions in complex analysis. This is followed by a short exposition of some fundamental properties of plurisubharmonic functions. The analogies between plurisubharmonicity, pseudoconvexity, and convexity (of functions and sets, respectively) are explored in the exercises closing the chapter.
Maximal functions with logarithmic singularities
Authors: Klimek Maciej
Published: November 2023

The aim of this chapter is to show that in Cn one can introduce pluricomplex Green functions which generalize the one-variable Green functions with logarithmic poles. In the course of our study of pluricomplex Green functions it will be necessary to apply the Monge-Ampere operator to some unbounded plurisubharmonic functions. In this particular case, only a very simple modification of the definition of the Monge-Ampere operator will be required.
Preliminaries
Authors: Györi I , Ladas G
Published: November 2023

Oscillation theory begins in Chapter 2. The aim in this chapter is to present some preliminary results which will be used throughout the book. In this respect, this is almost a self-contained monograph. The reader may glance at the material covered in this chapter and then proceed to Chapter 2.
The Second World War: the emergence of government computing centres
Authors: Croarken Mary
Published: November 2023

The work of Comrie, Hartree, and Lennard-Jones during the 1930s had done much to develop both calculating machines and computing techniques. Hartree and Lennard-Jones had also been instrumental in providing computing resources for particular groups of scientists. However, by 1939 the only organization to which scientific workers in government research establishments could apply for computational advice or practical assistance was Comrie’s Scientific Computing Service (the SCS).
Post-war computing service centres
Authors: Croarken Mary
Published: November 2023

The NPL Mathematics Division was set up to act as a national computing centre to serve most of Britain’s computing needs. It epitomized the centralization concept both by providing computing services of all kinds and by carrying out research into new computing machinery and numerical techniques. The existence of the NPL Mathematics Division did not prevent several other institutions from developing computing centres of their own. Perhaps the most well-known British scientific computing service centre, other than the NPL Mathematics Division, was the Scientific Computing Service run by L. J. Comrie.
Monotone logic programming*
Authors: Blairt† Howard A , Brown Allen L , Subrahmanian§ ‡ Jr. V S
Published: November 2023

We propose a notion of an abstract logic. Based on this notion, we define abstract logic programs to be sets of sentences of an abstract logic. When these abstract logics possess certain logical properties (some properties considered are compactness, finitariness, and monotone consequence relations) we show how to develop a fixed point, model-state-theoretic and proof theoretic semantics for such programs. The work of Fitting on developing a generalized semantics for multivalued logic programming is extended here to arbitrary abstract logics. We present examples to show how our semantics is robust enough to be applicable to various non-classical logics like temporal logic and multivalued logics, as well as to extensions of classical logic programming such as disjunctive logic programming. We also show how some aspects of the declarative semantics of distributed logic programming, particularly the work of Ramanujam, can be incorporated into our framework.
Basic defeasible logic
Authors: Nute* Donald
Published: November 2023

Defeasible logics are nonmonotonic formalisms. A consistent defeasible theory can contain the defeasible rule A⇒ p, the antecedent A of the rule, and the complement ,p of its consequent. Conflicts between defeasible rules with incompatible consequents are resolved using an explicit superiority relation on rules or a method for deter mining which of two rules has the more specific antecedent. Proofs are trees whose nodes are labelled by defeasible theories, wffs of the logic, and a + or a – to show that the wff is derivable or is demonstrably not derivable from the theory. Defeasible logics are defined as sets of conditions on nodes of proof trees. A family of defeasible logics is described in which familiar examples of nonmonotonic reasoning can be represented and intuitively correct results can be derived from them. These defeasible logics are decidable.
Converting sentences to clausal form
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

In many cases when we set out to formulate some problem with the eventual aim of solving it using a logic program it is convenient to write down the assumptions directly in clausal-form logic. Sometimes, however, it may be more natural to write them down initially in unrestricted first-order logic and subsequently convert them into clausal-form.
Problem solving and theorem proving
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

The problem-solving mechanism of logic programming is fundamentally a theorem proving (inferential) mechanism. As indicated earlier in the course, our aim is to characterize computation as the inference-driven manipulation of knowledge. More concretely, the interpreters that we employ to execute logic programs are just automated theorem provers, so that we might expect proof theory to tell us something about their capabilities and limitations.
The Herbrand domain
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

When we compose a logic program we do so with some 'real—world' domain in mind. But, as remarked earlier, the computer cannot (normally) operate directly upon that domain—instead, its workings are confined to its own internal domain comprising just the symbols representable within it. In the logic programming context that domain is called the Herbrand domain (or Herbrand universe), and is determined wholly by the language (set of sentences) L in which we formulate our programs and queries. Accordingly, we denote it either by HL or—when the choice of language is clear in the current context-by—just H.
Inference systems for clausal form
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

In this Theme we take a preliminary look at the issue of how one might set up an automated problem solver capable of investigating problems formulated in clausal-form logic.

It is worth observing straightaway that clausal-form logic can be approximated by the much simpler system of propositional (variable-free) logic. The approximation is facilitated by recognizing that only the Herbrand domain H need be considered. This is because any model for a clause-set over some realworld domain necessarily has an isomorphic (structurally-identical) model over H-in effect, those two models are just renamings of one another. According to the approximation, any clause of the form is shorthand for a set of implicitly-conjoined ground clauses
Resolution for propositional logic
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

Resolution comprises a single inference rule applicable to clausal-form logic. Briefly, from any two clauses having an appropriate form, resolution derives a new clause as their consequence. It is best explained by first showing how it works in the special case of propositional clausal form.

Therefore suppose that we have any set of propositional clauses. A resolution step entails first selecting any two of these clauses, called the parents for this step, constrained only by the requirement that some literal A in one parent be complementary to some literal -,A in the other parent (two literals are complementary when one is the negation of the other). Thus the parents must take the forms:
Extending resolution to predicate logic
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

In order to deal with clauses of predicate logic, the propositional resolution inference rule described in Theme 26 must be supplemented by the implicit use of a further sound inference rule known as universal instantiation:

Here is a simple example, in which the clauses’ assumed outermost universal quantifiers are, as usual, omitted from the presentation. Given the parent clauses

The ‘likes’ literals that we wish to make complementary by applying the substitution then refer respectively to two subsets of HxH. The substitution 0 effectively identifies the intersection of these two subsets, and it is this that is then referred to by the complementary ‘likes’ literals, as indicated in Figure 28.1.
The procedural interpretation
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

Writing down clauses is a process of defining relations. On what grounds does such a process deserve to be called programming rather than merely defining? Arguably, it becomes a programming process when-and only when-the particular composition of the clauses reflects a particular way of solving the queries posed to them. One way of confen-ing such a property upon clauses is to assign to them a procedural interpretation. Under such an interpretation clauses acquire procedural significance, complementing the definitional (or declarative) significance confened upon them by their logical interpretation. By providing an interpretation which reflects the computational machinery used for problem solving we acquire a basis on which to choose computationally-effective clauses; without it, our programs’ efficacies would be subject wholly to the mercy of our (unintelligent) interpreter. A computational interpretation is the essential difference between a logic and a computational logic.
Partial evaluation of programs
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

In general, a program caters for a multitude of cases; we know that the execution of a most-general query to a relation will extract from the program all the possible cases covered by that relation. Sometimes, however, we are interested only in particular queries-or in particular classes of query-which make more specialized uses of the program. Under this assumption it is generally more efficient to specialize the program itself before executing the queries, so that it will not waste time considering cases that can no longer arise. The standard technique for specializing a program in this way is partial evaluation. As an example, consider this simple program for testing whether a list L is (strictly) ordered:3
The closed-world assumption
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

Given any sentence-set P, the closed-world assumption is the assumption that P determines all the knowledge there is to be had about the relations named in our language. Thus, if we consider any proposition q about such a relation then q is taken to be true exactly when P implies q, but is otherwise taken to be false. Consider an example from daily life. Whenever I walk to my local sweet-shop I assume that I will not be waylaid by a tiger, since if tigers roamed my neigh bourhood then I would surely be already aware of it. The proposition that tigers lie in wait for me is not implied by anything I know about my local world and so I take it to be false, thereby permitting me to visit the sweet-shop without trepidation. It is not, of course, always appropriate to apply the closed-world assumption. For example, I know that I might well be waylaid on the way to the sweet-shop by my children demanding their pocket money. It would be unreasonable for me to tell them that I had brought no small change with me owing to an assumption that they would never ask me for any. In deciding to take some small change with me I apply the open-world assumption, according to which the proposition that my children will be lying in wait for me when I set out to the shop is not necessarily false.
Program completion in propositional logic
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

The completion of a program P is a particular set of sentences which we denote by Comp(P). In some texts you will find it called instead the completed database of P and denoted there by CDB(P).

Like the construction CW A(P), the completion provides a consequence­oriented meaning for default inference under the closed-world assumption. Unlike CW A(P), however, it can be written down more-or-less directly and is consistent for all well-structured programs. In general it is also a more economical construction in that it implies, but does not necessarily declare, various negative propositions which CW A(P) would have to declare explicitly. In the case of propositional logic the construction is particularly simple:
Mathematical characterization of finite failure
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

Theme 46 established that, for any definite program P, there exists a particularly simple way of constructing its success set SS(P) using the Tp function: starting with the bottom element ¢ in our lattice of interpretations, repeated application of this function generates a monotonically-increasing chain

It so happens that there is a somewhat similar method of constructing the finite failure set FF(P). In order to appreciate its rationale it is useful to understand clearly the process by which a ground query ?q finitely fails from a definite program P. In particular we need to consider the depth within which the failure occurs.

The simplest way for ?q to fail finitely is for there to be no clause in P whose heading unifies with q-equivalently, for there to be no clause in G(P) having q as its heading. In this case the failure is said to occur within depth k=l. Relative to the given program P there may be many atoms qEB(P) for which this is so. The set of all such atoms is denoted by FF(P, 1) and can be characterized very easily using the
Termination analysis
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

Termination analysis focuses on questions about the finiteness or otherwise of computations. There are a number of contexts in which analysis of this kind can be useful. Perhaps the most familiar of these is where a program interpreter is equipped with a loop-detector whose purpose is to recognize and/or bypass loops (infinite computations). We hinted at another use in the previous Theme, where loop-detection was implicit in a demonstration that a tree was infinitely failed and hence that two programs were computationally equivalent.

Despite its obvious importance, termination analysis has for a long time been a relatively neglected subject amongst logic programming researchers, in contrast to the large body of knowledge about termination already developed for other programming formalisms. It is not clear why this is so, although it could be argued that the logic programmers have been preoccupied with supposedly more exciting issues. The last few years have nevertheless seen a considerable increase in interest, leading to a variety of proposed methods of analysis. It would, however, be premature here to attempt a state-of-the-art summary. In particular, the space available in this Theme permits only a brief excursion into the subject.
Inverting the Resolution Principle
Authors: Muggleton S H
Published: November 2023

In this paper we describe the current status of an ongoing research project investigating a novel form of Machine Learning in which the learner’s vocabulary is enriched by the machine suggesting useful new descriptive terms for the user to accept or reject. An algorithm called Duce has been shown to be effective along these lines in developing and extending propositional theories within a chess endgame domain and a diagnostic domain of neuro-psychology. By showing that Duce’s trans formational operators are based on reversing the steps of a resolution proof we show that Duce’s learning method is sufficient for learning any propositional theory.
Combinatory Logic
Authors: Hankin Chris
Published: November 2023

The λ.-calculus was invented in a historical period which was very active for Mathematical Logic. Inspired by Hilbert, many mathematicians were trying to capture the notion of effective calculability. Within the space of ten years the λ.-calculus, Recursive Function Theory and Turing Machines were all invented. This chapter presents an equally important calculus from that era: Combinatory Logic. We start by introducing the notation and basic theory. All of the theory that we have developed for the λ.-calculus could be recast for Combinatory Logic. Rather than do that we briefly summarise the key results. In the second section we consider the relationship between Combinatory Logic and the λ.-calculus in more detail. The final topic in this chapter concerns the notion of a basis: the identification of a set of (λ.-)terms from which all of the terms can be generated using only application.
Regulation of Human Cognition and its Growth
Authors: Trevarthen C
Published: November 2023

I will present a psychobiologist’s view, citing three directions of research that have been fruitful in the past 25 years. Unlike technical structures which are constructed from without, living organisms grow from within. Cells dividing from the fertilized egg receive their genes and interact under the regulation of gene-produced molecules that determine the cells’ cohesivness, mobility, multiplication, and capacity to survive in competition for essential substances. Messenger molecules pass between cells, changing gene transcription and directing populations of cells towards different life functions in specialized organs. Out of the undifferentiated multicellular mass an integrated individual forms—in the case of an animal, a perceptuomotor individual that will displace, orient, search, and choose objects, making selective use of the environment to maintain and develop its adaptive activities and structure. These activities are formed in a nervous system that carries nerve cell action potentials throughout the body. Molecular messengers (neurohormones), related to those that pattern gene expression, are transmitted at synapses to target cells, to control the intensity and selectivity of behaviour, patterning the animal’s motivation.
On dealing with dynamic utility of learned knowledge
Authors: Suwa Masaki , Motoda Hiroshi
Published: November 2023

Cost-effective utility of learned knowledge consists of two parts; the cumulative matching costs of testing to apply the knowledge in problems and the cumulative speed-up effects its application has on problem-solving time. To evaluate these two factors correctly, measuring dynamic utility of learned knowledge when it is actually applied to problems is required. In that scheme, however, since the utility value of knowledge is in general negative before its application brings about speed-up effects in some problems, we encounter a new issue. What kind of strategy should be taken to retain and/or discard knowledge with currently negative utility value during a training session? This is important because it determines the available set of knowledge to be provided for the subsequent problem in each stage within a training session. The strategy taken greatly affects not only the problem-solving costs incurred in a training session but also the kind of knowledge that gains a positive estimation at the end of the training session and thus will be provided for a test session. This issue is crucial especially in situations where there are strong interactions of co-existing knowledge during a training session.
Learning Logic Programs and Regularities from Examples by Inductive Inference
Authors: Akiba S , Sato T
Published: November 2023

Although these regularities expressed in terms of clauses cannot be part of logic programs, they are expected to play an important role in program understanding and optimization. Researchers, however, do not seem to have shown enough interest in their discovery. Actually, most ILP systems do not seek clauses beyond logic programs (Kijsirikul et al. 1992a, 1992b; Muggleton and Feng 1990; Shapiro 1982).
Legal responsibility and causation
Authors: Good J
Published: November 2023

Convincing explications are quoted for the degrees to which an event F tends to be necessary, or sufficient, for a later one E, and are called the necessitivity or necessitude ( Qnec) and sufficientivity or sufficitude ( Qsuf) of F for E. They pertain to ethical responsibility. Formulaic relationships between Qnec, Qsuf, W (weight of evidence), and probability, are mentioned thus gluing the concepts together. (Hence causal networks≈probability networks.) Their legal interpretations are considered. An explication for ‘legal responsibility’ is mentioned, and is a plausible explication of the degree to which Factually (physically) caused E.
Personalized mail agent using inductive logic programming
Authors: Mizoguchi Fumio , Ohwada Hayato
Published: November 2023

This paper describes an inductive logic programming method to design a personalized E-mail agent (PMAIL). ln this approach, a profile is acquired from a user’s mail, including characteristics such as category, priority and preference. After saving the user’s mail handling behavior, PMAIL progressively produces logical rules that characterize new mails and provide the users with prior knowledge of the mail’s character. Since these rules are comprehensive and readable, PMAIL has the advantage of explicit interaction for personal service. The competence of PMAIL depends upon the performance of the induced rules; therefore we have undertaken an empirical study which introduces a variety of performance measures, such as predictive accuracy. In this study, we show how PMAIL’s learning parameters affect its performance and how induced rules are applied to enhance achieving its task. The present study indicates the expressive and potential power of inductive logic programming towards realizing personalized systems.
Debugging for a declarative programming language
Authors: Lloyd J W
Published: November 2023

This paper investigates debugging in declarative programming languages, concentrating specifically on the integrated functional and logic programming language Escher. The Escher language has types and modules, higher-order and meta-programming facilities, and declarative input/output. It also has a collection of system modules, providing numerous operations on standard data types such as integers, lists, characters, strings, sets, and programs.

After a brief introduction to the Escher language, a framework for declaratively debugging Escher programs is presented and an implementation of this framework is illustrated by an example. The paper concludes with a discussion of the practicalities of declarative debugging and some open problems.
The Turing-Wilkinson lecture series on the Automatic Computing Engine*
Authors: Copeland B Jack
Published: November 2023

On l October 1945 Turing was appointed to the newly-formed Mathematics Division of the National Physical Laboratory, his brief to design an electronic stored-program digital computer. The lectures published here, given by Turing and his assistant J.H. Wilkinson in December 1946-February 1947, add substantially to our knowledge of Turing’s design. The lectures detail the evolution of the design from Version V of early 1946 through Version VI to Version VII.

On 8 December 1943, the world’s first large-scale special-purpose electronic digital computer came into operation, at the Government Code and Cypher School, Bletchley Park, England.
Repairs to Turing’s Universal Computing Machine
Authors: Davies D W
Published: November 2023

On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem, published by the London Mathematical Society in 1937, must be one of the most important and influential papers in the history of mathematical logic. It resolved the decision problem posed by Hilbert, gave an intuitive yet precise definition of computability and anticipated the stored-program computer which is central to today’s technology.

Its author, the young Alan Turing, was to become one of the World War II codebreakers, using electronic calculators to speed up the running of his algorithms and then one of the first builders and programmers of stored-program machines. His work on artificial intelligence and morphogenesis was remarkable for its foresight.
The biological analogy
Authors: Louw Eric , Duffy Neil
Published: November 2023

The term ‘virus’ immediately suggests a biological analogy for the phenomenon of computer viruses. Many authors have recognized the striking resemblances between biological and computer viruses. However, nobody has so far provided anything better than a superficial discussion of these similarities. This may stem from an excusably poor grasp of biological phenomena amongst computer scientists. Be that as it may, the section that follows will attempt to show that the analogy is worth pursuing, and that biology may offer some important insights into the future of computer viruses in particular, and of information technology in general.
A New Technique: Truth Value Sets As Signs
Authors: Hahnle Reiner
Published: November 2023

As before stated we defer the discussion of first-order logics until the next chapter and deal only with propositional logics in the present one. Moreover, we assume that the languages under consideration contain no 0-place connectives. These are possible to accommodate, although they make the definitions unnecessarily complicated. We sketch what must be changed at the end of Section 4.3.
Uniform Notation Regained: Regular Logics
Authors: Hahnle Reiner
Published: November 2023

Two of the questions that were raised at the end of Chapter 3 are still open, namely the problem of introducing satisfactory quantifier rules, and the classification problem for many-valued tableau rules. The sets-as-signs notion from the preceding chapter, while answering the other two questions, also posed some new problems, namely the theoretically vast number of signs and the non-trivial computation of rules. The last problem has been alleviated in Section 4.5, but the need for FM tools seems to be unjustified for relatively simple logics.
The classification of Appendicularia
Authors: Fenaux R
Published: November 2023

The Classification of Appendicularia (Tunicata). History and Current State (Fenaux, 1993) may be consulted for a more extended and detailed account of the classification, and its historical development, than is possible in this chapter. The keys for determination given here follow the principles explained by Lohmann and Biickmann (1926) and revised by Lohmann in 1933-1934, with additions and modifications. For the Oikopleuridae they are primarily based on the structure of the digestive tract, but for the Fritillariidae on very diverse criteria. For these reasons, and particularly for the Fritillariidae, numerous characters must be used to determine the species. Because they are particularly fragile, appendicularians are frequently determined with difficulty. Problems with collection and preservation techniques are responsible for much of this difficulty (Fenaux, 1976a), but even with living or perfectly preserved specimens, there may be some doubt of the exact determination, for several main reasons.
Monitoring butterfly movements
Authors: Shreeve Tim G
Published: November 2023

Whereas the success of a mated adult female depends on its ability to locate and use appropriate egg-laying sites, that of a male depends on its ability to find and mate with fertile females. To fulfil these functions adults must use resources in the habitat, such as food and roosting sites, and in the process of doing so maintain an adequate heat budget to be active as well as to avoid predators. Thus, the area occupied by a population of adults must consist of at least four functional categories of habitat: mating areas, egg-laying areas, foraging areas, and refuges or roosting sites.
Egg Size
Authors: Lank David B
Published: November 2023

Egg production by females appears to be the rate-limiting step in Snow Goose reproduction. This chapter focuses on the phenotypic and genetic patterns of egg size variation in the Snow Geese of La Pérouse Bay and develops a model to account for them. Snow Geese are under strong directional selection for larger clutch size, and nutrient reserves, mainly accumulated during the spring migration, determine in large part the number of eggs laid (Ankney and Macinnes 1978). If birds are allocating limited nutrient reserves to egg production, one might imagine that egg size as well as clutch size would be affected. By adjusting egg size, a fixed amount of reserves could be apportioned either to x eggs of a certain size, x − 1 larger eggs, or x + 1 smaller eggs. In theory, then, birds could increase their clutch size, as favoured by selection, without changing the proportion of their reserves allocated to reproduction, by laying smaller eggs. On the other hand, smaller eggs might produce smaller goslings with a lower chance of survival, at least in some years (Ankney and Bisset 1976). ⩖ hat do our data from Snow Geese show
Synthesis and conclusions
Authors: Lank David B
Published: November 2023

About half a century ago, biologists reached a broad consensus that four fundamental processes could account for evolutionary change within populations. Natural selection, gene flow, genetic drift, and the generation of new variability through mutation were recognized as the major processes moulding the genetic variation of populations. Since that consensus, ecological geneticists and others have tried to determine precisely how these sources of genetic stability and change have interacted to determine the current evolutionary status of populations and might operate in the future to determine the trajectory of particular populations in their environments. The long term goal of these studies has been to generate robust statements about the relative importance or domains of evolutionary processes in nature, and to suggest and test refinements to theoretical population genetics models which predict how evolution should proceed under particular conditions.
Introduction
Authors: Kruuk Hans
Published: November 2023

Shetland 1988, a balmy April morning. The Sound in front of me was like a sheet of blue silk, with just the distant murmur of moving water as a reminder that there were tides here. Miles away across the huge expanse of sea lay Yell, with its gently curving outline of low yellow hills. I could hear the crooning of a raft of eider ducks, and a gannet hurried past: a scene close to perfection.
Spatial organization, holts, and habitat
Authors: Kruuk Hans
Published: November 2023

In carnivores, more than in most other mammals, there is a large variety of spacing patterns, of many different social systems and dispersions—but there are also similarities. Almost all carnivores are territorial, defending an area against others of the same species (Ewer 1973), even if only against particular categories of conspecifics. Usually such an area has a clear and well-defined border, and the ‘owner’ reinforces territorial claims with aggression, and scent marks of some kind. In many species such territories are inhabited by almost totally solitary individuals, but there are also group-living carnivores, living in small, tight packs, or in widely dispersed groups, defending the borders of their own group territory against other packs, or clans, or prides, or whatever their group system is called. In short, we recognize a simple distinction between group-living and solitary species (Sandell 1989).
The Zebra Finch
Authors: Zann Richard A
Published: November 2023

The Australian Zebra Finch is widely used by researchers and teachers in many scientific disciplines where it is the preferred subject for investigations ranging from anatomy and physiology to behavioural development and evolutionary ecology. This monograph is the first to synthesize the information on this colourful species that has accumulated during the past thirty years. It summarizes and integrates much of the laboratory work and places it in the context of the biology of the animals in the wild, with an emphasis on behaviour and ecology. This leads to a detailed understanding of Zebra Finch adaptations and life history that will further enhance the value of the species for researchers and students in behaviour, ecology, and other fields. Aviculturists who keep these attractive birds will also find much of interest in this book.
Feeding ecology
Authors: Zann Richard A
Published: November 2023

All the Australian estrildines feed on the seeds of grasses, but no species concentrates on them to the same extent as Zebra Finches. Six quantitative studies of diet have been published since Immelmann’s (1962a, 1965a) original observations, and despite differences in habitat and climate among the studies, they agree on two aspects, namely the rarity of insects and the rarity of seeds other than those of grasses. The picture of the diet is fairly complete in southeastern and central Australia but in other parts of the distribution information is scanty, especially that for breeding birds. The role played by half-ripe seeds during the breeding season would be a fruitful area of research for nutritional physiologists.
Parasitism and host density dependence
Authors: Hassell Michael P
Published: November 2023

The host-parasitoid models described in Chapter 2 have hour basic features: discrete and synchronised generations; a description of host survival from parasitism, f(·); a host rate of increase, λ; and a further parameter, c, converting hosts parasitised in generation t to searching parasitoid females in the following generation t + 1. Together these embrace a huge amount of host and parasitoid biology. Thus the function f(·) includes everything affecting the success of the searching parasitoids in finding and parasitising the Nt hosts.
Structure of the human insulin like growth factors: relationship to function
Authors: Brande J L Van den
Published: November 2023

It has long been known that the insulin-like activity in serum, which is not suppressible by insulin antibodies (NSILA-S), is associated with molecules of more than 100 kDa (Froesch et al. 1963). The discovery that most of the activity is released upon acidification as a peptide fraction of about 7 kDa (Jakob et al. 1968) brought within reach the possibility of purifying and sequencing these peptides. The finding that sulphation factor, thought to be the mediator of the growth-hormone effect on growth (Salmon and Daughaday 1957), showed a similar behaviour (Van Wyk et al. 1969) and that the mitogenic peptide fraction isolated from medium conditioned by Buffalo rat liver cells (multiplication-stimulating activity, MSA) (Dulak and Temin 1973) was a member of the same family (Rechler et al. 1978) put research groups with initially quite divergent interests on to the same track. It still was no easy task. The concentration of the insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) is not especially high in any tissue. Cohn fraction IV of human plasma or full serum or plasma were used as source, yielding bulky intermediate fractions, and large losses were the rule. Even today it remains a difficult task to purify natural TGFs.
Novel Structures In Symbiosis
Authors: Douglas A E
Published: November 2023

Symbiosis has influenced the body form of hosts and (for complex multicellular hosts) the anatomy of particular organ systems. The morphological changes linked with symbiosis are usually associated with the housing of the symbionts and enhanced access to the symbionts’ metabolic capabilities. The magnitude of the effect varies widely, however, between associations. For example, light capture by the symbiotic algae in marine bivalves of the genus Tridacna (the giant clams) is promoted by the asymmetric growth and greatly expanded siphonal tissue of the clam, but the freshwater bivalves Anodonta and Unio display no substantive morphological modifications linked to the symbiosis with algae. For some hosts, the morphological consequences of symbiosis are profound. Four instances of morphological innovations are considered in this chapter:
How Symbioses Are Formed
Authors: Douglas A E
Published: November 2023

Research on the formation of symbioses includes four topics. 1. Identification of the source of the partner. A host may acquire its symbionts either from the environment or directly from another host. In many associations, the symbionts are transferred directly from a hostparent to its offspring, and this process is known as vertical transmission. 2. Establishment of the symbiosis. It is usual to consider the development of an association as a series of stages, each stage dependent on the successful completion of the previous stage. As a hypothetical example, an association between an animal host and microbial symbiont may include contact, internalization of the microorganism, and initiation of nutrient transfer. 3. Specificity of the association. This refers to the taxonomic range of partners with which an organism can form a symbiosis. Specificity is a consequence of both the degree of specialization of an organism for its partner, and its capacity to select and discriminate between alternative potential partners.
Introduction—an appreciation of the palms
Authors: Tomlinson P B
Published: November 2023

‘The heavier palms are the big game of the plant world.’ L. H. Bailey (1933).

‘Palms are exceptionally good subjects for interdisciplinary study.’ Uhl and Moore (1977a).

‘A minute anatomical examination of the Palms is of especial importance in regard to the anatomy and physiology of plants, because the characters of the Monocotyledons are most clearly exhibited in them, and they therefore afford the most favourable means of acquiring satisfactory ideas of the structure and growth of this great class of plant.’ Hugh von Mohl (1849).
Flower
Authors: Tomlinson P B
Published: November 2023

Palm flowers can be described in terms of the ‘type’ common to many monocotyledonous families, i.e. with a trimerous construction based on the floral formula three sepals, three petals, six stamens (in two whorls of three), and three carpels. Commonly, there is a bracteole below the flower, a structure that is helpful in interpreting the morphology of the ultimate floral units where these represent condensed monochasia. In palms, the flower is always actinomorphic, the gynoecium superior and each carpel has a single ovule. There is considerable variation of this pattern, some of which is related to sexual dimorphism. Departures from trimery are rare, multiplication of functional stamens well beyond six is common, carpels are least commonly apocarpous and when synocarpous there is often only one functional carpel, but with evidence of the two aborted ones (pseudomonomery). Perfect flowers which are regularly trimerous and with three separate carpels are considered to represent the ancestral condition. They are found in nine genera of the coryphoid group and this is considered by Moore (1973b), and Moore and Uhl (1982) as evidence that the coryphoid palms are closest to ancestral palms. Unisexual flowers with three free carpels occur in Nypa and Phoenix.
Defences
Authors: Tomlinson P B
Published: November 2023

In addition to the main structural organs like leaf, stem, and root that carry out evident functions of assimilation, absorption, transport, and mechanical support, there is a diversity of structural and histological features to which may be ascribed some protective function—largely against herbivorous predators (Plate 15), but also against pathogens, especially fungal parasites. The protective function is often conjectural because little experimental work has been done to demonstrate the effectiveness of a given feature although circumstantial evidence can be strong, especially when large structures like spines are considered. Uhl and Moore (1973) suggest that the ultimate protection is of pollen and ovules, i.e. organs associated with gamete production and sexual reproduction, but all parts of a life cycle need to be protected. The vegetative phase of the palm is particularly vulnerable because each axis has only a single apical meristem, usually without any regenerative capacity if it is damaged.