bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
From data to phenomena
Authors: Massimi Michela
Published: June 2022

This chapter takes the first step in clarifying the ontology of nature that perspectival realism licenses. It begins by identifying main insights from three philosophical traditions: the empirical roots of scientific knowledge; its modal nature; and its pertaining to us as epistemic agents. A perspectival realist is committed to all three. It then goes back to Bogen and Woodward’s distinction between data and phenomena, and presents the ‘evidential inference problem’: under what distinctively epistemic grounds do data provide evidence that a particular phenomenon is real? It shows how by understanding phenomena along new lines here proposed, the evidential inference problem gets dissolved. It argues that a satisfactory answer to the evidential inference problem is not within easy reach of either stringent empiricism or metaphysically rich dispositional versions of realism. And it explains the perspectival realist answer to the evidential inference problem. Such an answer is articulated first via a brief survey of recent trends in philosophy of science and philosophy of physics that go in a kindred direction to the one that is advocated here. The chapter proposes a phenomena-first approach to ontology that is spelled out in terms of stable events, modally robust phenomena, and perspectival data-to-phenomena inferences.
Introduction
Authors: Waksman Steve
Published: June 2022

Live music matters because of the depth and intensity of experience that it projects to its audiences; because of the ways in which it instantiates deeply held values shared by a wide swathe of the listening public—or deeply held values that become the basis for conflict between one constituency and another; because it has served as one of the primary means according to which people have come together in collective enjoyment. It also matters because it has served as one of the driving engines in the business of music and the industrialization of music production. Live Music in America places all of these factors in the foreground at different times, viewing performers, audiences, media commentators, and a variety of live music producers (promoters, agents, sound and stage technicians) as central players who have shaped what live music means and how it has evolved. This introduction explores the historical character of the term “live music” and the qualities of “liveness” that constitute musical performance as a distinct sort of cultural practice, emphasizing the central place of live music in the public life of the US.
Staging the Spiritual
Authors: Waksman Steve
Published: June 2022

The Fisk Jubilee Singers played an integral role in making the black spiritual into a publicly recognized genre of song. They were also the first African American singing group to become widely recognized outside the context of blackface minstrelsy. With the emergence of the Jubilee Singers, and their extensive concert tours throughout the US and Europe during the decade of the 1870s, black music became dramatically repositioned as an element of American public life. This is not to say that the Fisk Singers escaped the legacy of minstrelsy in one fell swoop. Blackface performance remained very much a part of the cultural environment in which the Jubilee Singers dwelled. Nonetheless, the Fisk Jubilee Singers in their performances and their wider touring endeavors demonstrated and typified a new mobility among African Americans that was both literal and figurative. Furthermore, the Singers exemplify the status accorded to music in the years after the Civil War as a potential source of reconciliation and a voice of conscience against the continued specter of violence and racial reaction, most evident in their performances at the massive 1872 World Peace Jubilee organized by bandmaster Patrick Gilmore.
Culture High and Low
Authors: Waksman Steve
Published: June 2022

The move of jazz into the concert hall was more than an effort to provoke a shift in the music’s standing from “low” to “high.” Observed over the long term, the period from the mid-1920s to the mid-1940s, from the time of Paul Whiteman’s “Experiment” to the further consolidation of the jazz concert with the advent of Norman Granz’s Jazz at the Philharmonic, saw substantial reconfiguration of the “highbrow”/“lowbrow” divide in American musical culture. To fully grasp the nature of this historical moment requires a wide-angle lens of the sort that has largely been lacking in scholarship on jazz and American classical music alike, to comprehend how changes in the one area laid the groundwork for changes in the other. During these same years American classical music underwent major transformations of its own directed toward the goal of building the largest possible audience for American concert music. When classical music of the time is viewed not through the efforts of major composers and their works but through the efforts of concert promoters, booking agencies, and media outlets seeking to sell the music to the public at large, the separation between art and commerce that “highbrow” musical values have long sought to uphold withers away. For jazz to make its move into the world of concert music then begins to appear as a move toward, not away from, a mass audience.
Other Approaches
Authors: Miller Scott A.
Published: June 2022

This chapter addresses three topics. Most theory-of-mind research has focused on mental states, and thus understanding of beliefs, desires, emotions, and so forth. Mental states, however, are not the only mental content of interest; rather such states both follow from and lead to mental actions (thinking, guessing, inferring, etc.). The first section of the chapter discusses knowledge of mental actions. The second section addresses beliefs about the targets for mental state attributions, with a focus on both general status variables (e.g., age, gender, culture) and specific familiarity as possible determinants of response. Also considered is work on so-called extraordinary minds—specifically, beliefs about God and beliefs about robots. Finally, the concluding section of the chapter discusses what children believe about mind and brain and the relation between the two concepts.
Social (Investment) Partners?
Authors: Durazzi Niccolo , Geyer Leonard
Published: June 2022

The chapter develops a framework to study trade unions’ preferences toward social investment policies and their likely impact on social investment policymaking. The framework suggests that unions’ preferences for and impact on social investment policies depend on a set of micro-level features (i.e., the composition of union membership), meso-level characteristics (i.e., unions’ organizational characteristics), and macro-level relationships between unions and governments. Combining these three analytical levels, the chapter proposes four ideal-typical “contexts” characterized by different expected preferences for and impact on social investment policy. Case studies of Austria, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom are employed to illustrate the framework. Altogether the chapter shows that where unions are centralized and encompassing and enjoy institutionalized involvement in policymaking, they are protagonists in the development of social investment policies. Where, on the other hand, these conditions are partly or entirely missing, unions tend to take a more skeptical—or even antagonistic—position.
Justice in the West
Authors: Lebow Richard Ned , Zhang Feng
Published: June 2022

We argue that most principles of justice can be reduced to those of fairness and equality. We discuss the evolution of these principles, the meanings in ancient and modern times, and the shift away from fairness toward equality in the modern era. We argue that both conceptions find traction in today’s West and that some of the most intense political struggles concern that applicability to specific domains and the trade-offs that must be made between them. We further contend that the historical shift in precedence from fairness to equality has been a principal underlying cause of political instability in the modern era.
Justice in Confucianism
Authors: Lebow Richard Ned , Zhang Feng
Published: June 2022

Confucians build an elaborate theory of justice with two additional concepts: ren (仁‎ humaneness) and li (禮‎ ritual propriety). They ground justice internally in the emotional foundation of ren practiced through the principle of universal but differential care, and identify its external realization in the rules, norms, and institutions of li. Confucian justice is based on an elastic ethic of universal but differential care, and harmony is its ultimate goal. It espouses a strong principle of fairness and a subdued principle of equality. There is an inescapable tension between fairness and equality in Confucian thought, with fairness nearly always trumping equality.
Reimagining World Order
Authors: Lebow Richard Ned , Zhang Feng
Published: June 2022

This chapter extends the book’s discussion of order to the global level. Its analysis is based on the same principles of justice used to restructure Sino-American relations, with some modifications. It describes minor and major pathways to orders that give greater emphasis to equality, but in a way that satisfies the interests and status of those committed to fairness. These two principles cannot be fully reconciled outside of utopias, but conflicts between them can be reduced or finessed and an order created that many diverse states and peoples would have a stronger interest in supporting. A more robust order in turn would enable many more practical and symbolic rewards. Working within these guidelines, the chapter explores several kinds of possible orders and pathways to them.
“In the Tub of Diogenes”
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: June 2022

Because of his controversial, contrarian individualism, John Leland spent his final decades marginalized from Baptist and evangelical life in America. The antebellum period was a golden age of evangelical expansion and organization in America, a day of unprecedented numerical growth, institution-building, and cultural influence. But Leland aggressively opposed the evangelical alliance of moral crusader Lyman Beecher. He saw in Beecher’s “moral societies” yet another attempt by New England elites to gain social control, wed the church and the state, and suppress individual consciences. He was particularly vocal in his opposition to Sunday mail legislation. Leland also criticized the denomination-building Baptists of the era, especially their efforts at missions fundraising and the establishment of educational institutions. Leland was one of the most prominent voices in a dissident grassroots movement against organized, denominational Christianity in antebellum America, and became a guiding spirit for the Primitive Baptists.
Belief, Credibility, and Credulity across Time and Space
Authors: Tutino Stefania
Published: June 2022

This chapter demonstrates the effects that credibility had on the history and geography of the early modern Catholic Church, as its leaders tried to balance their increasingly global missionary ambitions with their increasingly pronounced attention to historical and documentary authenticity. This chapter focuses on the story and afterlife of two seventeenth-century Jesuit missionaries, Marcello Mastrilli and Giulio Mancinelli. Both of them at one point were the object of so much devotion that the Jesuit superiors thought of them as plausible candidates for canonization (and, in the case of Mancinelli, a formal canonization process was actually initiated); by the end of the seventeenth century, the Roman Curia regarded them with suspicion, if not outright hostility. This chapter argues that the reasons for this shift lie in the newfound centrality of credibility.
Conclusion
Authors: Tutino Stefania
Published: June 2022

This chapter provides some reflections on the significance of this book both for the study of early modern Catholicism and for our current moral and epistemological situation. The previous chapters have shown the difficulties that the intellectual and institutional leaders of the Roman Church faced when trying to assess the role of credibility in the process of embracing faith. This was a difficult task, because relying too much on credibility would have meant denying any space for the supernatural intervention of God’s grace and opening oneself up to all sorts of doubts; relying too little on credibility would have meant indulging in and encouraging credulity and thus becoming vulnerable to superstition. This difficulty was not due to early modern dogmatism; it is part and parcel of the human condition, in which knowing always exists alongside with, and never takes the place of, believing.
Recoding Power
Authors: Rothstein Sidney A.
Published: June 2022

This book outlines tactics that workers can use to build power in the current episode of economic transition. As rich capitalist democracies increasingly embrace digital transformation as a strategy to drive economic growth, policymakers have dismantled labor’s traditional power-resources—especially institutions for social protection and the unions that support and enforce them—leaving workers on their own to defend against rising economic inequality and spreading precarity. Moreover, with the ascendance of financialization, managers have adopted the discourse of market fundamentalism, which is particularly effective at persuading workers that building power is impossible. Recoding Power draws on four in-depth case studies of mass layoffs at tech firms in the United States and Germany to show how workers can develop creative tactics to “recode” management’s discursive techniques for control, transforming them from obstacles into resources for collective action. When workers put workplace discourse at the center of their tactics for mobilizing, they can develop the strategic capacity and economic leverage necessary to defend against the threat of job loss. Foregrounding workers’ lived experiences in the workplace, Recoding Power develops an account of actually existing digital transformation that illustrates how the path of capitalist development is shaped not by economic necessity, but by political creativity.
Counterhegemonic Tactics
Authors: Rothstein Sidney A.
Published: June 2022

Chapter 6 traces how workers at Siemens saved thousands of jobs by mobilizing against layoffs. Similar to the other cases, management established market fundamentalism as hegemonic in the workplace, framing employment conditions as determined by markets. In contrast to the other cases, however, organizers at Siemens developed counterhegemonic tactics to recode management’s discourse, which allowed them to attribute employment conditions to factors within workers’ control and to do so in a discourse that workers found credible. Workers at Siemens mobilized because they believed that collective action could be effective in protecting their jobs. In the end, they were right. In addition to making mobilization possible, workers at Siemens made it effective by enforcing national institutions in order to make job cuts prohibitively expensive, thereby forcing management to rescind layoffs.
In the Shadow of the French Revolution, 1788–1815
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael
Published: June 2022

The European wars following the French Revolution drew a reluctant United States into conflicts with Great Britain and France. While the Federalist Party, whose presidents were George Washington and John Adams, generally sought to conciliate the European powers, the republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, took a more confrontational approach. Jefferson imposed an embargo on American exports and Madison presided over the War of 1812 with Great Britain. The war ended in 1815, after the British had invaded the United States, with no significant changes to the pre-war status quo. During this period the United States also expanded the territory under its control through the Louisiana Purchase.
The Contest of Systems, 1945–1953
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael
Published: June 2022

The United States and the Soviet Union, allies during World War II, became rivals in the half decade following that war’s end. The Soviet imposition of communist rule on the countries of Eastern Europe played a major part in beginning what came to be known as the Cold War. That conflict pitted against each other two countries with radically different political and economic systems, both armed with nuclear weapons, that opposed each other around the world. The outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 made the conflict a military as well as a political and economic one for the United States and spread it to East Asia. It involved the United States in almost four years of fighting.
The New World Order, 1990–2001
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael
Published: June 2022

The United States emerged from the Cold War with no serious rivals, an unprecedented circumstance. It used its unchallenged power to form and lead a coalition that evicted Iraq from neighboring Kuwait, which Iraq had invaded. The American government sent military forces to Somalia, Haiti, Bosnia, and Kosovo in an effort to rescue distressed people and promote American values, a policy that became known as humanitarian intervention. During these years the United States relied on the ongoing process of international economic integration, known as globalization, to foster peace and prosperity around the world. By expanding its European alliance system, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), while excluding Russia from it, the Clinton administration alienated the Russians. It also tried but failed to promote a political settlement between Israel and the Palestinians.
Eco-Warriors
Authors: Caradonna Jeremy L.
Published: June 2022

This chapter skips ahead to the Post-War period and explores the connections between the environmental movement and sustainability. The argument is that the modern environmental movement fundamentally reshaped and reoriented sustainability, and was much influenced by environmental scientists, from Rachel Carson and Barry Commoner, to Paul Ehrlich and David Suzuki. The chapter also shows how the concerns of sustainability filtered into policy, academia, political parties, and mainstream culture.
Eco-Nomics
Authors: Caradonna Jeremy L.
Published: June 2022

This chapter focuses on the formation of ecological economics in the 1960s and 1970s, which became the foundation of the modern economics of sustainability. The chapter focuses on leading thinkers, groups, and works in this period, including the influential writings of Herman Daly and the Club of Rome, which were central to the "limits to growth" debate. The main argument is that modern sustainability is heavily indebted to this new branch of economics, which began with assumptions about biophysical limits and argued that a growth-oriented economy and society would eventually bump up against catastrophe. This chapter is the most comprehensive summary of the early history of ecological economics in press, and explains in detail the problematic assumptions of neoclassical economics regarding growth, technology, and the natural world.
Bank Resistance to Institutionalizing Accountability as Justice
Authors: Park Susan
Published: June 2022

Once norms were established, bank management engaged in strategies to avoid it. The banks acquiesced in accepting the periodic reviews of the accountability mechanisms but they avoided the norm by designing highly technical mechanisms that were difficult to access. The Banks provided ceremonial information in response to investigations and often failed to enact remedies. All the banks would defy the norm by denying that their operations led to harm. The banks would also circumvent the investigation process. In more extreme cases bank management would undertake manipulation by seeking to influence the criteria on which they were being investigated, control staff, and pressure people not to make claims. Member states oversaw the mechanisms through periodic reviews. The contentiousness of the reviews varied across the banks. The chapter documents US interventions to defend accountability as justice in egregious cases using its power of the purse, vote, and voice.
Tyranny and Religion
Authors: Al-Kawakibi Abdul Rahman
Published: June 2022

Tyranny deviates religion from its important social role to supporting the dictator. Tyrants encourage Sufism. The tyrant uses divine right, sacred names and features to support his oppression of the nation. The author discusses Islam, God, and similarities and differences between political and religious tyrannies.
Tyranny and Wealth
Authors: Al-Kawakibi Abdul Rahman
Published: June 2022

The author discusses the importance of economy in the functioning of a society. All of what is important in life can be sold and bought or exchanged. The author also discusses the role of women in society, the role of economical production methods in history, and the significance of land ownership. The chapter also looks at early ideas about social security, usury, and socialism, as compared with tyranny.
Challenging the Violence of the State through a Movement to End Poverty
Authors: Theoharis Liz , Sandweiss-Back Noam
Published: June 2022

This chapter discusses how America's recent history is bloodied with examples of how government positions create unlivable conditions for the poor in the richest country in the world that are nothing less than violence of the highest order. After the Great Recession of 2008, the very speculators and financial institutions that were responsible for the devastating crash were bailed out by the Obama administration, and twelve years later, in March 2020, the Federal Reserve materialized over a trillion dollars to buoy Wall Street in the days immediately following the COVID-19 shutdown. Meanwhile, the U.S. government offered threadbare and temporary support to most citizens and completely locked out millions in undocumented communities, homeless encampments, prisons, and more. Indeed, the poor, minority, and marginalized communities have suffered the most. Notably, the suffering comes in two forms: from the disease and from a shredded social safety net, seemingly designed to bail out only the wealthiest. Nonviolent mass social awakening, the chapter contends, is the only way these systems of violence can be undone.
From Righteous to Responsive
Authors: Neufeldt Reina C.
Published: June 2022

This chapter investigates how individual unwillingness to examine core values can provide unmerited justification for certain policies and prevent important and thoughtful deliberation with affected parties. It offers several recommendations for promoting ethical reflection and humility in peacebuilding, which in turn can democratize leadership opportunities. In particular, the chapter proposes an “action-reflection” model to help peacebuilding practitioners think clearly and ethically about the implications of their good interventions. Critical self-reflection along these lines is also necessary within peacebuilding organizations, especially if these organizations want to avoid falling into patterns that have been shown to limit individual members' ability to reflect ethically. This includes, for example, groupthink scenarios and a focus on procedures and process over substantive outcomes. Without a mechanism for such action-reflection, it becomes exceedingly difficult for the peacebuilder to avoid co-optation, to balance donor demands with local integrity, or to decide how to formulate, prioritize, and change goals in shifting contexts.
Whither the Villains?
Authors: Nathan Laurie
Published: June 2022

This chapter describes the dilemmas that arise in mediating armed conflict between violent states, insurgents, and external actors like the United Nations and the African Union. The author is a scholar as well as a longtime conflict mediator with the UN and African Union. The chapter examines how mediation efforts often require compromises with armed groups that can leave accountability and justice demands off the table. It then explores AU mediation efforts in Côte d'Ivoire (2010–2011), Libya (2011), and Syria (2011–2018). It characterizes the trade-offs between securing immediate peace and protection of civilians and the long-term pursuit of justice as fundamentally a situational incompatibility of good norms, where a hard choice is required among norms that are both desirable and, in different circumstances, generally compatible.
Why the Peacebuilding Field Needs Clear and Accessible Standards of Research Ethics
Authors: Hume Elizabeth , Baumgardner-Zuzik Jessica
Published: June 2022

This chapter highlights the need for rigorous research in crafting viable and effective peacebuilding programs. Across the field, there is relatively little by way of sustained reflection, empirical data, or ethical guidelines that would help one navigate wicked ethical problems. This chapter is especially focused on research that privileges technical mastery and methodological sophistication while ignoring issues of context, the rights and moral standing of research subjects (including vulnerable civilians), and asymmetric power relations. The authors work at the Alliance for Peacebuilding, a central player in modern peacebuilding, with over 120 member organizations from across the humanitarian aid and development worlds, as well as major academic research institutions. The chapter lays out a set of practical guidelines for ethically informed research that underscores the need for conflict sensitivity, protections for vulnerable research populations, and clearer standards for program design, implementation, and monitoring.
The Great Alliance Debate
Authors: Poling Gregory B.
Published: June 2022

This chapter explores the fraught negotiations over renewal of the U.S.-Philippines Military Bases Agreement in the aftermath of the fall of Saigon, the Nixon Doctrine, and the passage of the War Powers Act, which fueled worries about U.S. willingness to defend its remaining allies. The South China Sea became an integral part of these debates as the Philippines pursued new oil exploration in the area and sought assurances that attacks on its forces either at sea or on disputed islands would trigger alliance obligations. The chapter concludes with the temporary resolution of the debate during the Carter administration, but questions about mutual defense obligations in the South China Sea would resurface and haunt the alliance for decades.
Hard Power and People Power
Authors: Poling Gregory B.
Published: June 2022

This chapter examines the shifts in Chinese naval power and intentions, regional geopolitics, and the political environment in the Philippines during the 1980s. It provides an overview of China’s occupations in the Spratly Islands at the end of the decade, and Vietnam’s responses, leading to the 1988 Battle of Johnson Reef. The chapter explores the domestic upheavals of the latter Marcos administration and its overthrow in the 1986 People Power Revolution. The chapter ends with the failure of the United States and Philippines to secure passage of a new basing agreement and the subsequent departure of U.S. forces from the country, which would have a major impact on subsequent dynamics in the South China Sea disputes.
Diplomacy Disappointed
Authors: Poling Gregory B.
Published: June 2022

This chapter examines the expansion of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and its emergent role in managing the South China Sea disputes during the 1990s and 2000s. It explains how new provocations by Beijing, particularly the occupation of Mischief Reef and its subsequent militarization, fueled Southeast Asian anxieties and kickstarted the negotiations that eventually led to the disappointing 2002 Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea. The chapter tracks the repeated failures to implement that document and other unsuccessful attempts at joint development and cooperation. It also explores China’s shifting claims, including the elevation of the nine-dash line and “historic rights,” which led to heightened U.S. concerns about freedom of navigation.
Arbitration and Artificial Islands
Authors: Poling Gregory B.
Published: June 2022

This chapter traces the new dynamics introduced to the South China Sea disputes by the dual Chinese provocations of 2014: the deployment of a deep-water drilling rig over the continental shelf claimed by Vietnam and the launch of a massive island-building campaign in the Spratly Islands. These activities accelerated tensions that had been building for several years between China and the United States, and between China and its Southeast Asian neighbors. But despite belatedly recognizing the scale of the challenge, the Obama administration became trapped in the rhetoric of “freedom of navigation” and only managed to effectively rally international pressure against Beijing in early 2016. That progress was quickly undermined by the election of Rodrigo Duterte as president of the Philippines and his decision to set aside his country’s landmark arbitration victory over China.
A Course to Steer
Authors: Poling Gregory B.
Published: June 2022

This chapter examines the steady deterioration of the strategic environment in the South China Sea for the United States and its allies over the course of the presidencies of Rodrigo Duterte in the Philippines and Donald Trump in the United States. It looks back at the lessons learned over the course of the book regarding U.S. interests and how to pursue them. It argues that it is not too late to secure freedom of the seas and defend U.S. credibility with the Philippines and its other allies. A combination of short-term deterrence and long-term diplomatic pressure could incentivize Beijing to seek compromises that the United States and the wider international community could live with, but the space to do so is shrinking rapidly.
A Theory of Subjective Wellbeing
Authors: Fabian Mark
Published: June 2022

The study of “subjective wellbeing” has seen explosive growth in recent decades, opening important new discourses in personality and social psychology, happiness economics, and moral philosophy. Now it is moving into the policy domain. In this it has arguably overstepped its limits. The shallow theoretical base of subjective wellbeing research, the limitations of its measurement instruments, and its ethical naivety make policymaking on the basis of its findings a risky venture. The present volume is an attempt to shore up these weaknesses and set subjective wellbeing scholarship on a course for several more decades of growth and maturation. It presents a theory of subjective wellbeing in two parts. The first is the subjective wellbeing production function—a model of wellbeing as outcome. The second is the coalescence of being—a model of the self-actualization process by which wellbeing is achieved. This two-part model integrates ideas from subjective wellbeing studies with complementary ideas in analytical and continental philosophy, clinical, moral, and developmental psychology, and welfare economics. Importantly, this theory is ethically sensitive, bridging the gap between the philosophical and psychological perspectives on wellbeing in a way that illuminates the complexities facing the application of subjective wellbeing in public policy. The book also provides a thorough review of various ways in which subjective wellbeing can be studied empirically, and the hard trade-offs we face between long surveys that capture the richness of the concept and the parsimony required by social surveys and policy analysis.
Hedonia
Authors: Fabian Mark
Published: June 2022

This chapter outlines the many things we have learned from hedonic psychology and happiness economics about the nature of subjective wellbeing and how to acquire it. It covers stylized facts about wellbeing like the hedonic treadmill, as well as various hedonic techniques like gratitude, mindfulness, and satisficing rather than maximizing. A key argument of the chapter is that this “hedonic” understanding is not enough to grasp subjective wellbeing holistically. It is conceptually straightforward to show that someone can be in a good mood and even satisfied with their life overall, while still displaying intuitively compelling indicators of illbeing like ennui, listlessness, anxiety, loneliness, and lack of purpose. These variables find their roots in the eudaimonia and conscience dimensions, which together constitute existential as opposed to hedonic satisfaction.
Conscience
Authors: Fabian Mark
Published: June 2022

One of the most underappreciated aspects of subjective wellbeing is the need for life to feel valuable. This was the principal concern of existentialist philosophy in the early to mid-twentieth century. Philosophers like Nietzsche, Beauvoir, and Sartre and psychologists like Frankl, Rogers, Fromm, and Jung were concerned that the decline of rural and religious life in Europe would open an existential vacuum. People would consequently experience nausea (the feeling that life is pointless), a lack of seriousness (the feeling that morality is made up and not binding), and anguish (the feeling that one’s identity is always in flux). This chapter links these ideas to more recent empirical scholarship in psychology that attests to the importance of meaning, virtue, and identity in promoting subjective wellbeing. It closes with a review of existentialism’s underdeveloped solutions to these problems, upon which the coalescence of being builds.
Introduction
Authors: Beck Colin J. , Bukovansky Mlada , Chenoweth Erica , Lawson George , Nepstad Sharon Erickson , Ritter Daniel P.
Published: June 2022

The opening chapter provides an overview of the various ways revolutions have evolved over the past two centuries. It highlights how contemporary revolutionary movements tend to be unarmed, urban, cross-class coalitions that aim at relatively limited goals such as the resignation of a despot or an end to corruption. In contrast, 19th- and 20th-century revolutions were usually armed, class-based, ideologically oriented projects that aimed for comprehensive social transformation. The chapter also provides a brief overview of the four “generations” of revolutionary theory, noting their limits and revealing how none of these theoretical approaches adequately capture the experience of revolution in the 21st century. Finally, the Introduction provides a road map of the book: Part I aims to deconstruct the dichotomous ways that scholars think about revolutions, and Part II provides guidance on new ways of doing revolutions research.
The Social-Political Dichotomy
Authors: Beck Colin J. , Bukovansky Mlada , Chenoweth Erica , Lawson George , Nepstad Sharon Erickson , Ritter Daniel P.
Published: June 2022

Chapter 1 challenges the dichotomous categorizing of revolutions as either social or political. This is a long-standing practice within the field but it is problematic because it conceals other possible outcomes. For instance, many movements are able to oust existing regime leaders but are not able to fully transform rules of governance or institutions under state control (such as the judicial system or the armed forces). In other words, the actors aimed for political revolution but achieved only regime change or executive leadership change. This dichotomy shapes researchers’ thinking about revolutions as events—those explosive moments when insurgents seize state power and oust incumbent rulers—rather than the longer process of changing governance rules and state institutions. A processual view rather than an event-based view shows that revolutionary processes are not linear and unidirectional. A revolutionary regime may move toward a new system, such as democracy, then regress back toward its old system. Hence revolutions may not entail a tidy, direct transition from one type of system to another; state transformation may instead reflect an erratic trajectory. These dynamics are illustrated through an examination of Ukraine’s Orange Revolution in 2004 and the Euromaidan Revolution of 2014.
Political Theory and the Dichotomies of Revolution
Authors: Beck Colin J. , Bukovansky Mlada , Chenoweth Erica , Lawson George , Nepstad Sharon Erickson , Ritter Daniel P.
Published: June 2022

Chapter 6 argues that political theory can help explain emergent properties of revolutionary struggles that are unfolding now. Hannah Arendt’s book, On Revolution, departs from the social science model that seeks to generate empirically verifiable propositions about causal dynamics. She asserts the normativity of revolution and embraces “the political” as a decisive sphere of human action. Her ideas value the emancipatory and innovative potential of revolutions and decry their co-optation, derailment, or violent suppression. She invites scholars to evaluate as well as explain revolutionary processes and outcomes. She critiques the revolutionary tradition established by the French Revolution and perpetuated by Marxists, which defines freedom as liberation from economic misery. For Arendt, this social-economic emphasis of revolutionary theory has neglected the political emphasis, which is about the creation of something new and the freedom to participate in community life. This chapter reflects on the way Arendt’s work explores and challenges current theoretical dichotomies and discusses some of the ways it has influenced and aggravated writers concerned with colonial emancipation and racial subjugation.
Methodological Approaches to Studying Revolution
Authors: Beck Colin J. , Bukovansky Mlada , Chenoweth Erica , Lawson George , Nepstad Sharon Erickson , Ritter Daniel P.
Published: June 2022

This chapter explores a common tension in research methodology. Much research in revolution studies is comparative, focused on cases and a qualitative understanding of particular events through reference to other events. However, recent work has challenged case-specific knowledge of revolutions by demonstrating its shortcomings and the potential of larger comparisons and cross-national, statistical investigation. This is a false dichotomy. A comparative approach does not necessitate denying the advantages of quantitative strategies, nor does the demonstration of average effects in a population deny the utility of case-specific knowledge. This suggests that debates over the generalizability (or lack thereof) of revolutionary theories rest on false premises. Rather, scholars should be clear about the scope conditions of a proffered theory so that future researchers can use it appropriately through application to new cases, elaboration of causal mechanisms, or extension to new levels of analysis. Also, methodology is always in dialogue with theory. An essential issue is recognizing how casing—selection of not only particular instances but also the unit of analysis of those instances—shapes causal stories. The solution to these dichotomies—comparison versus quantification, generalization versus specificity, theory versus method—is self-conscious methodological reflection. Scholars of revolution should be frank about what their methodological choices do: what is gained and lost, how implications are affected, how others should use the conclusions. Reflection of this sort overcomes recursive epistemological debates.
Introduction
Authors: Clary Christopher
Published: June 2022

This introduction chapter presents the questions that motivate the book. When and why do rivals pursue cooperation or conflict with one another? When is escalation more likely when crises do emerge, and when is de-escalation of those crises more difficult? Why is peacemaking so challenging even when it seems it might benefit rival states? The chapter proposes an explanation, called leader primacy theory, which predicts that the degree of state responsiveness to strategic incentives will vary based on the presence or absence of concentrated foreign policy authority within a state. The chapter outlines the empirical approach used to test this theory against competing alternative explanations. The India-Pakistan rivalry offers an especially compelling case for examination, for reasons detailed in the chapter. The remaining chapters of the book and their relationship with the argument are also previewed.
Rivals, Leaders, and Change
Authors: Clary Christopher
Published: June 2022

This chapter discusses why understanding interstate rivalry is central to understanding international conflict. It then introduces and explains leader primacy theory, a new framework for understanding the causes of peacebuilding and war-making in enduring rivalries. Leader primacy theory argues that international incentives are mediated by the domestic political context within each rival state, namely, whether a leader has concentrated executive authority over foreign policy decision-making. The chapter examines why fractured foreign policy authority is associated with the perpetuation of rivalry or the escalation of violence within rivalry. Using historical examples from many different contexts, the chapter also describes how strategic incentives and the concentration of foreign policy authority, the two principal variables underlying leader primacy theory, will be measured in the remainder of the book.
Nehru, Ayub, and the Indus Waters Treaty
Authors: Clary Christopher
Published: June 2022

This chapter describes the military coup of Ayub Khan in Pakistan and the fractured and chaotic leadership environment that preceded it. It discusses the multifront stalemate in India-Pakistan negotiations in the mid-1950s over Kashmir, border delimitations elsewhere along the India-Pakistan boundary, and over the distribution of water rights for irrigation involving the Indus River system. It introduces the Cooch-Behar enclaves and the agreement between Jawaharlal Nehru and Feroz Khan Noon that sought to resolve the irksome territorial problem. It discusses Ayub Khan’s success working with Nehru in resolving several border disputes as well as finalizing the text for an Indus Waters Treaty. It concludes by discussing how an Indian judicial ruling and political clamor over the Cooch-Behar enclaves settlement weakened Nehru’s hand on territorial issues and ended this short burst of dispute resolution in the rivalry.
Dhaka, Simla, and an Incomplete Peace
Authors: Clary Christopher
Published: June 2022

This chapter traces the rise of Indira Gandhi in India, before turning to Pakistan’s political difficulties in the late 1960s. Elections in 1970 led Pakistan to its gravest political crisis since independence, and ultimately resulted in a brutal military campaign to repress East Pakistani political aspirations. That campaign in turn generated a large refugee crisis, giving India moral and pragmatic reasons to intervene in East Pakistan. Throughout the crisis, Pakistan’s military dictator, Yahya Khan, found his room for maneuver limited by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, complicating domestic and international negotiations. Pakistan’s decisive defeat in 1971, however, did not produce a lopsided settlement in India’s favor. Bhutto, who replaced Yahya as Pakistan’s leader, used his political weakness to argue persuasively against the far-reaching Simla Accord with India. However, as Bhutto’s political position improved, he demonstrated a willingness and ability to make meaningful concessions to normalize relations with India and a new Bangladesh.
Unity and Catholicity in Christ
Authors: DeMeuse Eric J.
Published: June 2022

Debates concerning the relationship between Tridentine Catholicism and Catholicism after Vatican II dominate theological conversation today, particularly with regard to understandings of the Church and its engagement with the world. Current historical narratives paint ecclesiology after the Council of Trent as dominated by juridical concerns, uniformity, and institutionalism. Purportedly neglected are the spiritual, diverse, and missional aspects of the Church. This book challenges such narratives by investigating the Spanish Jesuit Francisco Suárez’s theology of ecclesial unity and catholicity. The author shows how Suárez wrestles with the new demands of his time and anticipates later ecumenical developments in twentieth-century Catholic ecclesiology. Early modern expansion prompted theologians after Trent to reckon with the ecclesial status of baptized Protestants, the Greek Orthodox, and nonbelievers in the New World. It further prompted reflection on the universality, or catholicity, of the Church, and how the Church’s mission to the nations serves her greater unity in Christ. Throughout this exposition, the author reveals Suárez’s vision of the Church to be deeply spiritual, diverse, and missional—not at the expense of the institutional, but as its necessary and life-giving source. This book further explores not only Suárez’s speculative ecclesiology, but how the unity and catholicity of the body of Christ is lived out in the worship and works of the faithful, and, most notably, in the charism of his own religious order, the Society of Jesus. Suárez thus shows his readers what the spiritual dynamic between Christic unity and missional catholicity should look like in the Church.
The Christic Unity of the Church
Authors: DeMeuse Eric J.
Published: June 2022

This chapter examines the sources, method, and rationale grounding Suárez’s definition of ecclesial unity and membership. Suárez’s primarily spiritual and interior understanding of ecclesial unity differs from that of many of his Catholic contemporaries (resembling instead his Protestant contemporaries), yet it is a faithful but creative recovery of Aquinas, maintaining the priority of Christic union as the basis of ecclesial union. This radical emphasis on a Christological “form” of ecclesial unity bears implications for Suárez’s conception of the members of the Church, particularly for those on the fringes of ecclesial membership—mortal sinners, catechumens, schismatics, the baptized children of heretics, the Greeks, and those who have never heard the gospel. Suárez’s treatment of these persons enables him to recognize Church membership as to some degree a scalar (or gradated) category, even admitting the category of unio imperfecta, a distant anticipation of Vatican II’s formal recognition of degrees of communion.
The Missional Catholicity of the Church
Authors: DeMeuse Eric J.
Published: June 2022

This chapter examines Suárez’s understanding of the catholicity of the Church, or how the ecclesial body united by the bond of Christ is “catholic,” a term that Suárez considers synonymous with “universal or common.” Like his definition of the Church and his conception of ecclesial unity, catholicity is fundamentally Christological. This chapter traces Suárez’s doctrine of catholicity from his early career in Rome through his polemics with James I. Contrary to narratives that present early modern understandings of catholicity as overly concerned with uniformity and quantitative, geographic expanse, this chapter argues that the Christological foundation of catholicity in Suárez’s thought prompts him (1) to acknowledge the diversity of persons and gifts in the Church as an expression of her catholicity and (2) to recognize in catholicity the interior, supernatural, and missional impulse at the heart of the Church—an impulse that seeks the salvation of souls, not the conquering of peoples.