bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
C
homsky,
N
oam (b. 1928)
Authors: Garland Christian
Published: September 2017

Noam Chomsky is a US political theorist and activist, and institute professor of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Besides his work in linguistics, Chomsky is internationally recognized as one of the most critically engaged public intellectuals alive today. Chomsky continues to be an unapologetic critic of both American foreign policy and its ambitions for geopolitical hegemony and the neoliberal turn of global capitalism, which he identifies in terms of class warfare waged from above against the needs and interests of the great majority. Chomsky is also an incisive critic of the ideological role of the mainstream corporate mass media, which, he maintains, “manufactures consent” toward the desirability of capitalism and the political powers supportive of it.
Civil Rights, United States, Black Power and Backlash, 1965–1978
Authors: Dubie Sven
Published: September 2017

A week after President Johnson signed into law the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the Los Angeles ghetto of Watts erupted into one of the worst urban conflagrations in the history of the country. Precipitated by a series of misunderstandings related to a routine traffic violation, longstanding resentment among blacks toward the Los Angeles Police Department – and fueled by lingering resentments over the mistreatment of voting rights marchers in Selma – the Watts riots lasted nearly a week and involved thousands of blacks over a large swath of the ghetto. Thirty‐four people died and nearly a thousand were injured; thousands more were arrested for violence and looting; and hundreds of individuals, mostly black, lost their homes or businesses. It took more than 14,000 national guardsmen and thousands of local police to quell the unrest. To mainstream civil rights leaders it was a disheartening setback and a painful reminder of how much work remained in the struggle for equality.
Claramunt Creu, Teresa (1861–1931)
Authors: Lee Andrew H.
Published: September 2017

A Catalan textile worker and prominent activist in the syndicalist milieu until her old age, Claramunt Creu argued for equality of the sexes and propaganda by the deed, opposing both Catalan nationalism and reformism in the unions. In 1891 her call for women to take charge of their own unions led to the Barcelona Women Workers' Organization (Agrupación de Trabajadoras de Barcelona), which specifically excluded men. Deported after the 1896 Cambios Nuevos bombing, she lived in France and England but returned in 1898 and campaigned for other Cambios Nuevos prisoners, forming an anarchist women's group in 1900.
Clarkson, Thomas (1760–1846)
Authors: Swaminathan Srividhya
Published: September 2017

Thomas Clarkson was one of only a few men who actively participated in both British campaigns for abolition: abolition of the slave trade and abolition of slavery. Born in Cambridgeshire, Clarkson attended the grammar school where his father was headmaster and later attended St. John's College in Cambridge. Though he was a good student, Clarkson's real academic accomplishment came when he won his second Latin essay prize for his
Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species, Particularly the African
(1785). In researching this work, Clarkson studied the writing of earlier anti‐slavery writers like Anthony Benezet, and he conceived a genuine horror for the practice of slavery.
Class, Poverty, and Revolution
Authors: Rubinson Paul
Published: September 2017

Any analysis that examines poverty, class, and inequality faces the challenge of dealing with numerous misconceptions about the poor and working classes. While popular culture conjures up images of tumultuous masses eager to overthrow the oppressive shackles of capitalism, any serious observer quickly finds that poor people have little access to media, so that assumptions and generalizations often speak for them. In politics, conventional wisdom often labels poor people as angry: beneath the surface of poverty churns a volatile mixture of resentment and entitlement, as the poor classes stand ready to unleash their desires through crime, violence, and even revolution. Such an image is a twisted evolution of ancient ideas, as observers since the times of ancient Greece have theorized that economic inequality leads deprived classes to rebel. Most famously in the nineteenth century, Karl Marx posited a formula for revolution, and in the process exhorted the working classes to rebel. Ever since, political leaders and ruling elites have feared the revolutionary power of the underprivileged.
Cobbett, William (1763–1835)
Authors: Dickinson H. T.
Published: September 2017

William Cobbett was an advocate of parliamentary reform and of England's poor. Born poor himself, he received almost no formal education, but read voraciously and learned to write. In 1783 he joined the British army, rising to the rank of sergeant major. On leaving the army, he wrote
The Soldier's Friend
(1792), a passionate indictment of the pay and treatment of the common soldier. Fearing retribution, he fled first to France and then to the United States, where he lived until 1800. In America Cobbett became a campaigning journalist, often writing as “Peter Porcupine.” Faced with prosecution for libel, he returned to England and, from January 1802 until his death, published the weekly
Political Register
, in which he set out his political and social views and serialized most of his more substantial publications.
Cochabamba Water Wars
Authors: Gómez Luis A.
Published: September 2017

Recognized as the twenty‐first century's first anti‐globalization victory, Cochabamba Bolivia's Water War is also considered to be the beginning of a new revolutionary cycle, from 2000 to 2005, in Bolivia. Under the rallying cry “The Water Is Ours” this city's (and surrounding countryside's) citizens resisted the privatization of their potable water and basic services, enabled by the Hugo Banzer Suárez administration to Aguas del Tunari, a subsidiary of the Bechtel corporation.
C
ohn‐
B
endit,
D
aniel (b. 1945)
Authors: McIntyre James R.
Published: September 2017

Daniel Cohn‐Bendit is a journalist, radical politician, and member of the European Parliament who first achieved widespread notice in France in the spring of 1968 when he played a minor role in the massive student demonstrations that rocked Paris and many other French cities in protest against the government of Charles de Gaulle. The son of German Jews who fled to France on the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, he moved back to Germany in 1958 to live with his father. He returned to France in 1966 in order to attend university in Nanterre, a northern suburb of Paris, and by the mid‐1960s was an anarchist and a communist. Both his politics and his hair color earned him the nickname “Danny the Red.”
Collins, Michael (1890–1922)
Authors: Mulligan William H.
Published: September 2017

Michael Collins was among the most important Irish republican military and political leaders in the struggle to free Ireland from British rule. He played a major part in the creation of both the Irish Republican Army and the Irish Free State.
C
olombia, Afro‐Colombian Movements and Anti‐Racist Protests
Authors: Zimmering Raina
Published: September 2017

The term Afro‐Colombians refers to Colombians of African ancestry. Their presence dates back to the first decade of the sixteenth century when Africans were imported to replace the declining indigenous population. Africans worked as slaves in gold mines, in large haciendas, on sugar cane plantations, and on cattle ranches, mainly in the departments of Chocó, Antioquia, Cauca, Valle del Cauca, and Nariño in western Colombia. In eastern Colombia, near the cities of Vélez, Cúcuta, Socorro, and Tunja, Africans manufactured textiles and worked in emerald mines outside Bogotá, and labored in tobacco and cotton fields as well as in artisan and domestic work. Today Afro‐Colombians make up 21 percent (9,154,537) of the population according to the National Administration Department of Statistics (DANE) of 2002. Due to discrimination, only 4.4 million Afro‐Colombians actively recognize their ancestry. They are concentrated on the northwest Caribbean coast and the Pacific coast in the department Chocó, in Cali, Cartagena, and Barranquilla. Indeed, Chocó began as a
palenque
, a town founded by escaped slaves known as
cimarrones
. Colombia has the third largest African‐descended population in the western hemisphere, following Brazil and the United States.
Combatants for Peace
Authors: Elhanan Elik
Published: September 2017

Combatants for Peace is an anti‐occupation movement made up of former Israeli soldiers and former Palestinian resistance fighters who have renounced violence and committed to work together for a just peace. The group professes an objection to all forms of violence and recognizes the Israeli occupation as the main source and primary form of violence in the conflict. The movement's goals are an end to the occupation, promotion of a non‐violent joint Israeli‐Palestinian resistance to the occupation, and the promotion of dialogue in the two societies as a path to genuine discourse and action.
Combination Laws and Revolutionary Trade Unionism
Authors: Webb Todd
Published: September 2017

Passed by the British parliament in 1799 and 1800, the Combination Laws were meant to curtail the early trade union movement in England and to stamp out what the government perceived as the danger of lower‐class revolution. In the event, these laws had the opposite effect: increasing the danger of subversion in the short term and the level and effectiveness of English trade unionism in the long term.
Communist Manifesto
Authors: Bluemel Helen
Published: September 2017

The
Communist Manifesto
, also published as the
Manifesto of the Communist Party
, was written by Germans Karl Marx (1818–83) and Frederick Engels (1820–95), and was first printed in London in February 1848. In the previous year both were assigned to write a theoretical and practical party program for the League of the Communists. This association was an international, clandestine organization of workers.
Communist Party of Australia
Authors: Beilharz Peter
Published: September 2017

Communism in Australia, as elsewhere, is a story that is both global and local; and as elsewhere, it combines exemplary behavior and work in the public sphere with tribalism and the dullness of left orthodoxy.
Communist Party, Germany
Authors: Schmidt Ingo
Published: September 2017

The Communist Party of Germany (Kommun‐istische Partei Deutschlands, KPD) was founded in the midst of the Revolution of 1918–19, which came at the end of World War I and swept away the German monarchy. Its founding members came from radical currents of the German Social Democratic Party (Sozial‐demokratische Partei Deutschlands, SPD) that had opposed the leadership's class collaboration and support of the war. After the revolutionary wave died down and the Weimar Republic was consolidated, the KPD organized workers and intellectuals who still sought revolutionary change. In its partly self‐imposed isolation, the party's impact on actual politics was rather limited. This lack of leverage became even more apparent during the Great Depression and the subsequent rise of Nazism. Paying an extremely high death toll, the KPD had been the most active organization in the anti‐Nazi resistance. After the downfall of the Nazi regime the party was transformed into the ruling party of East Germany's state socialism and was marginalized in capitalist West Germany. Some of the organizational roots of Germany's new Left Party, founded in 2007, are in the KPD and its East German successor, the Socialist Unity Party.
Communist Party NZ and the
N
ew
Z
ealand Revolutionary Left
Authors: Lubitz Leonard H.
Published: September 2017

Radical labor activism in New Zealand can be traced back to the nineteenth century. Various elements, including the Canterbury Working Men's Mutual Protection Society, formed in January 1871 at a gathering of approximately 600 in Christchurch's Cathedral Square to protest the high rate of unemployment, were exasperated by continued immigration into the virtually self‐ruled British colony. On March 12, 1872 the society became a branch of Marx and Engels' London‐based International Working Men's Association, otherwise known as the First International.
Communist Party of the United States of America (CPUSA)
Authors: Goldfield Michael
Published: September 2017

The Communist Party of the United States of America (CPUSA) is undoubtedly the most prominent and popular leftist party in US history. From the early 1930s to the early 1950s, it was an important influence in American society, not only in the labor movement and various protest movements, but also in cultural and artistic life, many state governments, and even for a short time in national politics. On the one hand, it was from the early 1920s to the late 1950s the dominant left‐wing group in the United States, highly interracial and ethnically diverse, the most militant and successful of trade union organizers, the foremost fighter for equality for African Americans, women, and other minorities, as well as the leading proponent in the struggle of the unemployed, students, and others – laudatory credentials for many. It would also become the unabashed, uncritical apologist for the brutal crimes of the Stalin regime in the Soviet Union; it was the unrelenting, sometimes repressive, critic of those on the left, whether political opponents, writers, or artists, who did not agree with it completely on the Soviet Union and other matters. And these questions only scratch the surface of the controversies.
Comte, Auguste (1798–1857)
Authors: Block Marcelline
Published: September 2017

Auguste Comte's place in the history of revolution and protest derives from his extensive contributions to social theory. He has been credited with being the first western sociologist and with coining the term “sociology” in 1838 to refer to the scientific study of society. He formulated and promulgated the philosophical doctrine known as positivism, and initiated the concept of altruism.
Comunero Movement
Authors: Roldan‐Figueroa Rady
Published: September 2017

The Comunero movement (
movimiento de las comunidades
), or Comuneros' Revolt was the first and last major uprising against the Hapsburgs in the kingdom of Castile. In 1516 Charles of Ghent became king of Castile and Aragon, as Charles I of Spain. He inherited his Spanish crown after the death of his maternal grandfather, Ferdinand II of Aragon (r. 1479–1516). He arrived in Spain in 1517, but he was not prepared to assume control of his Spanish possessions. Charles was raised in the Netherlands and was surrounded by Flemish advisors. He was ignorant of the customary practices and languages spoken in his new possessions. Elected king of Germany soon after the death of his paternal grandfather, Maximilian I (r. 1493–1519), Charles made arrangements to relocate his court to Germany, although he was not crowned until October 1520. The prospect of having an absentee king as well as resentment towards his foreign‐born attachés fueled popular resentment.
Concordia University Student Protests
Authors: Keefer Tom
Published: September 2017

Concordia University in Montreal, Quebec, has long been at the forefront of Canadian student activism. On January 29, 1969, a group of students protesting what they alleged as institutional racism within the university occupied the ninth floor of the Henry F. Hall building until they were dislodged by riot police on February 11. The ensuing confrontation – the most serious student disturbance in Canadian history – saw most of the university's student records destroyed as the computer lab went up in flames, resulting in the arrest of nearly 100 students. Some 30 years later, student activism at Concordia University was again in the headlines, this time for the prominent activity of anti‐globalization and Palestinian solidarity activists.
Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT)
Authors: Romanos Eduardo
Published: September 2017

The CNT was an anarchosyndicalist trade union in Spain which became a major labor organization and the beacon of international anarchism in the 1930s. It played a significant role during the Spanish Civil War, when its membership reached almost 2 million and engaged in the organization of a social revolution in the form of industrial and agrarian collectivization.
Confédération Générale du Travail and Syndicaliste Révolutionnaire
Authors: Zanco Jean‐Philippe
Published: September 2017

After the Waldeck‐Rousseau Act of March 21, 1884 legalized the
syndicats
(labor unions), a Fédération Nationale des Syndicats (National Federation of Unions) (FNS) was created in Lyon in October 1886, the first to try to unify the unions in a single movement. It quickly went through internal struggles: laborers, in fact, still lacked a clear ideology. Soon, however, the rise of anarchist ideas smoothed out ideological oppositions. The principle of the general strike, first proposed by the construction workers at the Congress of the FNS in Montluçon (1887), was massively endorsed at the Congress of Nantes (1894). A meeting called by the FNS and its rival the Fédération des Bourses du Travail (the Federation of Labor Exchanges, or FBT, run by the anarchists), about 30 local federations, 10 national professional federations, 20 labor exchanges, and 126 local craft chambers or union branches, met in Limoges on September 23–28, 1895. The Congress decided: “Among the various labor and professional associations of workers and clerks … is established a united and collective organization which will be called the Confédération Générale du Travail [CGT].”
Congo Armed Insurgency, Mobutu Decamps
Authors: Adeniran Adebusuyi I.
Published: September 2017

The Democratic Republic of Congo gained full independence from Belgium in June 1960 as the Republic of the Congo. After a series of political upheavals, Colonel Joseph‐Désiré Mobutu took control of the country in 1965. He eventually institutionalized a presidential system of government in 1970 when he was old enough to become the nation's president. To further his hold on power, President Mobutu changed the name of the country from Congo to Zaire (
Zadi
, “big water”), and his own name to Mobutu Sese Seko in 1972. Also in 1972, Mobutu's Popular Movement of the Revolution (MPR) became the only legal political party in Zaire.
Congo, Brazzaville Protest and Revolt
Authors: Omobowale Ayokunle Olumuyiwa
Published: September 2017

Congo Brazzaville was part of the pre‐colonial kingdom of Congo, which came under French rule during colonization. Principally, anti‐colonial protests in Congo Brazzaville were centered on the activities of charismatic leader Andre Matswa and the protests and ideology that followed his incarceration and eventual death.
Congo, Kinshasa Protest and Revolt
Authors: Omobowale Ayokunle Olumuyiwa
Published: September 2017

Congo had been in contact with Europe, especially the Portuguese, as far back as the fifteenth century, but it remained an independent kingdom until it officially came under French and Belgian rule in 1885. At that point the Congo, which was 80 times the size of Belgium and extended over 9,000,000 square miles, came under the rule of the Belgian king, Leopold II. Christened Congo Free State, the territory was treated as a private estate of the king until it was taken over by the Belgian parliament for direct administration after the atrocities committed by officials of the king, which generated widespread international and domestic criticism. Due to the Belgians' particularly brutal and oppressive rule in the Congo, major popular protest did not emerge until late in the 1950s.
CORE (Congress of Racial Equality)
Authors: Hatmaker Amy
Published: September 2017

The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) was one of the first groups that practiced non‐violent resistance in the civil rights struggle. Formed in 1942, CORE would be instrumental in the fight to secure desegregation of public spaces.
Cornelissen, Christianus Gerardus (1864–1942)
Authors: Wedman Homme
Published: September 2017

Christianus Cornelissen, a leading Dutch organizer and theorist of international revolutionary syndicalism, socialism, and anarchism, was born in Hertogenbosch, the son of a impoverished master carpenter. Aided by a state scholarship, he was educated to became a primary school teacher in Middelburg (1888–91). There, he became involved in the the movement for universal suffrage. While engaged politically in the electoral struggle, he became editor of local socialist periodicals and contributed to the socialist paper
Recht voor Allen
. In January 1892 he became second editor of this paper of the Dutch Social‐Democratic Federeration directed by Domela Nieuwenhuis. Cornelissen was a Marxist and in 1892 he published the first Dutch translation of The Communist Manifesto. His interpretation of Marxism was syndicalistic in 1891. In a letter to Nieuwenhuis he stated that because class struggle is economic, the unions must be the troops of the proletariat.
C
orrea,
R
afael (b. 1963)
Authors: Mutlak Natalie
Published: September 2017

Rafael Correa, a leftist economist, was elected president of Ecuador in November 2006. Correa, a self‐appointed “Christian Socialist,” postulates in line with Hugo Chávez of Venezuela and Evo Morales of Bolivia a twenty‐first‐century socialism. The first measures of his administration, such as the initiation of a constitutional reform and the rejection of economic control through the IMF, indicate a serious intent to promote political change in Ecuador.
COSATU (Congress of South African Trade Unions)
Authors: Barchiesi Franco
Published: September 2017

The Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) was launched in Durban on November 30, 1985 with approximately 450,000 members in 33 affiliated unions. It is South Africa's largest union federation, with a membership of 1.7 million in 2007 and 21 industrial affiliates.
Costa, Afonso Augusto da (1871–1937)
Authors: Hitchmough Sam
Published: September 2017

A lawyer and politician, Afonso Augusto da Costa was an important political figure in Portugal's revolutionary transition from monarchy to republic. He was leader of the Portuguese Republican Party (PRP), later becoming the Partido Democratico (Democratic Party), and went on to become a prime minister in the Portuguese First Republic.
Costa, Andrea (1851–1910)
Authors: Manfredi Marco
Published: September 2017

Andrea Costa is considered one of the fathers of Italian socialism and his life in some ways summarizes the excruciating evolution of socialism in Italy. Costa was born in Imola on November 29, 1851 into a very religious Catholic family of poor means. After finishing high school in 1870, he moved to Bologna, where he worked as a clerk to earn his living and enrolled at the local university. His career as a university student came to an abrupt end, however. In Bologna Costa came into contact with First Internationalists. These years were marked by enthusiasm for the Paris Commune, and Costa developed a positivist, humanitarian revolutionary socialism that led him to embrace Bakunin's ideas.
Cǒte d'Ivoire, Pre‐independence Protest and Liberation
Authors: Diabate Naminata
Published: September 2017

Cǒte d'Ivoire became a French colony at the end of the nineteenth century through the French decree of March 10, 1893. The country is an arbitrary construction of French colonialism, which lumped together diverse populations living in territories still unknown to the French. The history of protest and resistance in Cǒte d'Ivoire started with the contact with French colonialists in 1840, and continued throughout the early twentieth century, until independence was achieved in 1960.
Counterrecruitment
Authors: Pauli Benjamin J.
Published: September 2017

With the end of conscription in 1973, counter‐recruitment replaced draft resistance as a means of opposing war and militarism in the United States by cutting off the supply of military personnel at the source. One of the main tactics of counterrecruiters has been to educate students, parents, and the public at large about the realities of war, the abuses of military recruiters, the truth about military benefits, alternatives to military service, and the unique character of commitment to the military that distinguishes it from other careers.
Counterrevolution
Authors: Bronner Stephen Eric
Published: September 2017

Counterrevolution and revolution are both products of modernity. To be sure, the reaction against calls for change, no less than the demand for change, reaches back to the beginnings of political history. But the concept “counterrevolution” is a product of modernity as surely as the integrated economic, political, and ideological attempt to transform society that is now understood as “revolution.” For a bit more than a hundred years, throughout Europe and beyond, a burgeoning bourgeoisie with coalitional support from other classes began an attack upon theancien régime. Partisans of this undertaking sought to substitute capitalism for feudal social relations, a republic for the monarchical state, and a new secular ideology for religious dogma. With its insistence upon individual enterprise and scientific innovation, the liberal rule of law and the assault upon traditional authority, scientific reason and moral autonomy, the Enlightenment crystallized what became known as the age of democratic revolution.
Courbet, Gustave (1819–1877)
Authors: Herscher Walter R.
Published: September 2017

Gustave Courbet was a nineteenth‐century French Realist who countered the prevailing method of painting that idealized subjects. Courbet pledged to paint only what he saw. His art was revolutionary in style but not necessarily in political themes. Courbet's controversial paintings gained him notoriety and publicity at a time when conservatives equated Realist painters with political radicals. A general tenet of nineteenth‐century painting was that only important events should be painted on large canvases; however, Courbet intentionally painted everyday scenes on them, possibly suggesting that the common people were as important as the upper classes. During the February 1848 revolution that overthrew the July Monarchy, Courbet sketched an image of a man brandishing a rifle on a barricade for publication in a newspaper; however, he refused to fight in the revolution or the June insurrection.
Coxey's Army and the Unemployed Movement
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

By 1894, political demonstrations in the United States were perceived as a threat to American cities. This was largely due to the events that occurred at Chicago's Haymarket Square in 1888. However, this did not dissuade Jacob Coxey and Carl Browne from organizing a “petition in boots” that would serve as a precedent for a new type of national public protest in the United States. The nation was in the grip of a depression much like the Great Depression of the 1930s, and Coxey and his supporters had grown frustrated with government inaction. To alleviate the suffering of the working class, Coxey, a businessman from Ohio, proposed a number of programs that, though popular in the 1930s, were seen as too radical for the 1890s. He wanted the government to create jobs by hiring the unemployed to perform public works, specifically road improvements.
Crisis, The
Authors: Zeitler Michael
Published: September 2017

Since its inaugural issue under the editorship of W. E. B. Du Bois in November 1910,
The Crisis
, the official journal of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), has been at the forefront of the struggle for civil rights and economic justice in the United States. For a century, its articles and editorials have attacked Jim Crow segregation, agitated for anti‐lynching legislation, and promoted voting rights, equality in the courtroom, equal rights for women, and equal funding in education. Beginning with the sponsorship of Du Bois and his literary editor Jessie Fauset,
The Crisis
also promoted literature and the arts and provided a publishing venue for important black writers and artists such as Langston Hughes, Charles Chesnutt, Countee Cullen, Claude McKay, and Aaron Douglass. Currently published bi‐monthly with a circulation of 250,000,
The Crisis
continues in the twenty‐first century as the leading journal of African American politics, ideas, and culture.
Critical Mass
Authors: Boal Iain A. , Carlsson Chris
Published: September 2017

Critical Mass is the name given to the modern phenomenon of self‐organized, mass bike rides with a contrarian spirit. The history of cycling
en masse
stretches back to the late nineteenth century. In 1896 thousands of cyclists rode through San Francisco agitating for better roads; in Weimar Germany the workers' cycling association, Solidarity, was able to mobilize hundreds of thousands of demonstrators on wheels; in the early 1970s the new ecological sensibility prompted large rallies of cyclists with a green agenda in New York, Berlin, and elsewhere. The first Critical Mass ride took place in San Francisco in 1992 with just a few dozen cyclists. Within a year the number had reached a thousand, and since the mid‐1990s the monthly “organized coincidence” attracts on occasion over 5,000 self‐propelled celebrants – as much street theater as (semi)functional commute. The idea spread rapidly by word of mouth and later through the Internet. Critical Mass rides have been recorded in over 400 cities around the world, including Chicago, São Paulo, Milan, Budapest, Tokyo, Santiago, and Toronto.
Critical Theory
Authors: Bronner Stephen Eric
Published: September 2017

Critical theory as a philosophical tendency was formed within German culture, but the term was actually coined in the United States. It was in the Institute for Social Research, founded in 1923 in Frankfurt, that the “critical” project took shape. The first director of the institute, Carl Grunberg, and many of its early members – like Henryk Grossman, Fritz Sternberg, and Felix Weill – were primarily interested in the study of political economy, imperialism, and the history of the socialist labor movement. Max Horkheimer, who took over as the new director in 1930, changed this orientation. Seminars of an interdisciplinary sort were organized among the members of his “inner circle” and, ultimately, they would produce the major works of “critical theory” normally associated with the “Frankfurt School” after the institute moved to Columbia University in 1934 following the Nazi seizure of power. That circle was comprised of Leo Lowenthal – an expert in literary criticism – who joined the institute in 1926; and Theodor W. Adorno – who was considered valuable for his knowledge of music – and who began his collaboration with the institute in 1928, but only became an official member ten years later. Then there was Erich Fromm, a gifted psychologist, who started his nine‐year collaboration in 1930; Herbert Marcuse, a philosopher and former student of Martin Heidegger, who joined in 1933; and Walter Benjamin, the most unique of these thinkers, who never officially was a member at all.
Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658)
Authors: Richardson Annette
Published: September 2017

Oliver Cromwell was a Puritan member of parliament and leader of the forces that overthrew the monarchy during the English Civil War. Following the king's execution, Cromwell became Lord Protector of England from 1652 until his death in 1658.
Cuauhtémoc (1502–1525)
Authors: Espejel Leticia Pacheco
Published: September 2017

Cuauhtémoc was the son of Ahuitzol and an unknown mother. When Ahuitzol died in 1502, Cuauhtémoc's mother oversaw his education until he entered Calmécac, the school of the nobles, at the age of 15. At Calmécac he was educated in military matters and religion under strict discipline in order to prepare him for assuming power as governor of Tenochtitlán.
Cuba, Anti‐Racist Movement and the Partido Independiente de Color
Authors: Helg Aline
Published: September 2017

Cuba's Partido Independiente de Color (Independent Party of Color, 1908–12) stands out as the first black political party in the western hemisphere. Formed by Afro‐Cuban veterans of Cuba's war of independence to struggle for full racial integration in the republic, it rapidly gained thousands of supporters, threatening the white‐dominated two‐party political system. As a result, Cuban Congress outlawed the black party in 1910 and, as its members protested to regain legality in 1912, the Cuban army launched the racist massacre of 1912 that left thousands of Afro‐Cubans dead and put an end to the party.
Cuba, General Strikes Under Batista Regime, 1952–1958
Authors: Gonzalez Mike
Published: September 2017

Fulgencio Batista, who led the sergeants' revolt of 1933, had become the dominant presence in Cuban political life by the following year. He was not himself elected to office until 1940, but he largely controlled and shaped events in the intervening years through others. Thus he supported the government of Guiteras and Grau San Martin which took power (so to speak) in September 1933 with the express intention of realizing the radical demands of the movements of that year. Batista's sights were set on a future relationship with the United States, which was resolutely opposed to the Guiteras‐Grau coalition – though the US ambassador had been happy enough to sit on his hands while Machado fell. Batista knew that his project would not prosper while the radicals were in power, so he engineered the situation to have them replaced by Colonel Mendieta, head of the right‐wing Unión Nacionalista (Nationalist Union).
Cuba, Transition to Socialism and Government
Authors: Roman Peter
Published: September 2017

The Cuban Revolution triumphed in January 1959. From that point in time until the Organs of People's Power (Organos del Poder Popular, OPP) were established with the passage of the 1976 Constitution, Cuba experimented with a series of provisional governments. The Cuban Constitution was not a radical break in the political course of the Cuban Revolution, but a formalization, revitalization, and strengthening of past practices, with a new emphasis on decentralization and defining the roles of the Cuban Communisty Party (Partido Comunista de Cuba, PCC) and the government.
Cuban Revolutionary Government
Authors: Roman Peter
Published: September 2017

Cuba's system of representative government, the Organs of People's Power (Organos del Poder Popular, OPP), established in the 1976 Constitution, includes the Local Organs of People's Power (Organos Locales del Poder Popular, OLPP), consisting of 169 municipal assemblies and the nine provincial assemblies, and the National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional del Poder Popular, ANPP), which alone has legislative powers. Cuban representative government operates on the basis of consultation, oversight, conflict resolution, and consensus building.
Cuffe, Paul (1759–1817)
Authors: Tomek Beverly
Published: September 2017

Paul Cuffe, a wealthy black Quaker entrepreneur, shipowner, and captain from Westport, Massachusetts, was born to an African father and a Native American mother. He became one of the most successful blacks in the United States, owning with his family and other business partners at least two ships, a shipyard, a 200‐acre farm, a windmill, and a gristmill. He began his struggle for civil rights in 1777, when he pointed to the hypocrisy of the American colonists calling for “no taxation without representation” even while they taxed blacks yet denied them the right to vote. He was also known for his efforts at black education, but is best remembered for his involvement with African colonization through the British venture at Sierra Leone.
Curaçao, 1969 Uprising
Authors: Sharpe Michael Orlando
Published: September 2017

The events sparking the May 30, 1969 uprising known in Papiamento as the “trinta di mei,” in Willemstad, the capital of Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles, resulted from a labor dispute between workers and management couched within a racialized class hierarchy, with remnants that persist today. The uprising, causing loss of life, injuries, and millions of dollars in property damage, was a manifestation of the May Movement that crystallized in 1969 through mobilizing striking workers. The May Movement was led by Wilson “Papa” Godett and Amador Nita of the Frente Obrero Liberashon (FOL). The Curaçao uprising and threat of a general strike caused the government to resign and call new elections, and marked a significant transition from a mostly non‐black minority ruling elite to a majority black populist politics.
Cyprus, Protest and Revolt
Authors: Yiangou Anastasia
Published: September 2017

The main form of protest in Cyprus during modern times was the national anti‐colonial struggle (1955–9) led by the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosi Kiprion Agoniston, EOKA). The leading figures of this national movement were a former colonel of the Greek army, Georgios Grivas (of Cypriot descent), serving as its military leader, and Archbishop Makarios III, who held political responsibility. The movement was entrenched in the concept ofEnosis(union with Greece), supported by Greek Cypriots. The strategic considerations of the powers involved and safeguarding the Turkish Cypriot minority's interests (18 percent of the total population as opposed to 78 percent Greek Cypriots; the remaining 4 percent were Armenians, Maronites, and Latins) significantly influenced the future of the Cyprus question during the 1950s and eventually led to the formation of a self‐standing, independent Cypriot state in 1960. In 2004, Cyprus became a member of the European Union (EU).
Czechoslovakia, Resistance to Soviet Political and Economic Rule
Authors: Rossi Michael
Published: September 2017

General resistance to both the Soviet‐supported Czechoslovak Communist Party and communism as a form of government in Czechoslovakia was noticeably different from the organized protests and everyday forms of passive resistance in Poland, Hungary, and East Germany. This can be attributed to a number of factors present as early as 1946. First, Czechoslovakia enjoyed relative political freedom for a few years following the end of World War II. Unlike most states of Central and Eastern Europe, Czechoslovakia did not fall under the direct control of Moscow until 1948. Second, Czechoslovakia was one of the few countries in the immediate postwar period in which communists secured a sizable percentage of votes in the free elections of May 1946, winning 38 percent of the national vote and 40 percent in the Czech lands.
Dahomey Women's Army
Authors: Halloway Nada
Published: September 2017

War is generally seen as a masculine activity, and the historical assumption has been that women could not mentally endure the front lines of battle. However, the women of Dahomey have proven this assumption untrue for centuries. The “Amazons” of Dahomey – they were given this name by western observers who thought they resembled the Amazons of ancient Greece – began as bodyguards in the royal palace but evolved into a fighting unit in the late 1800s. The king trusted these women because they came from non‐Dahomean slaves who had no ties to any groups in any of the surrounding areas. In 1850, King Gezo changed the selection process by conscripting Dahomean women into the ranks. In 1840, they fought alongside the Dahomean male soldiers and gained notoriety for fierceness in battle. They did not flinch against Abeokuta's advancing army, even when their male counterparts fled the battlefield. Similarly, as France fought to colonize their nation during the Franco‐Dahomean War (1892–4), they took on the French army and the French, even with superior weaponry and the support of the Foreign Legion, suffered many casualties.
D
avis,
A
ngela (b. 1944)
Authors: Nuruddin Yusuf
Published: September 2017

Angela Davis is a political activist and Marxist philosopher. In 1970 this African American woman, a unique product of varied experiences – the Jim Crow South, left‐leaning activist parents, an elite and international education, a faculty appointment at UCLA, membership in the Communist Party of America (CPUSA), and solidarity with the black liberation movement – became a celebrated political prisoner and an internationally recognized revolutionary and symbol of black resistance.
De Silva, Colvin Reginald (1907–1989)
Authors: Ervin Charles Wesley
Published: September 2017

Born in Randombe, a village near Balapitiya, Ceylon, Colvin de Silva was a leading political activist, labor leader, Trotskyist theoretician, and popular orator in Sri Lanka. He went to England to pursue higher studies and was the youngest student ever to receive a doctorate from London University. While active in the Ceylon Students' Association in London, he met pro‐communist students and was recruited by the young communist firebrand, Philip Gunawardena, to a circle of Trotskyists in London.
Debs, Eugene (1855–1926)
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

Few individuals have ever conformed to the tradition of American radicalism quite like Eugene V. Debs. Both politician and agitator, Debs led the Socialist Party in America from its inception in 1901 to his death in 1926. From 1900 to 1920 he conducted five presidential campaigns as the socialist candidate, polling nearly 6 percent of the national vote in 1912. Born in 1855 at Terre Haute, Indiana, Debs dropped out of high school at age 14 and became a painter for the railways. By 1870 he was working as a fireman on the railroad and attending night classes at a local business college. It was on the railroads that Debs would first be exposed to organized labor as a member of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen, an organization that would later name him “grand secretary” in 1875.
Decembrists to the Rise of Russian Marxism
Authors: Lih Lars T.
Published: September 2017

The Russian revolutionary tradition of the nineteenth century was always heavily influenced by western models, coupled with a deep awareness of the need for modifications in order to fit local conditions. The model that eventually won out was European social democracy, particularly as exemplified by the German Social Democratic Party (SPD). By 1900 the centrality of the SPD model was accepted by both Russian socialist parties, that is, not only the Russian Worker Social Democratic Party (RWSDP) but also the Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (PSR), the party that claimed a direct lineage to the early Russian revolutionary tradition.
Deleuze, Gilles (1925–1995), Guattari, Félix (1930–1992), and the Global Justice Movement
Authors: Tormey Simon
Published: September 2017

Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari were French thinkers whose work, though once obscure, has come to be regarded as an important resource for the development of the theory and practice of the global justice movement (GJM), particularly the libertarian, horizontal, disaffiliated part of it. While their work is dense and difficult to digest for those uninitiated in the arcane world of contemporary French theory, many of the concepts they developed in their joint work have nonetheless passed into the lexicon of the GJM. These include most notably the concepts of the “rhizome,” “minoritarianism,” “deterritorialization,” “multiplicity,” and “nomadic” thought and practice. Deleuzo‐Guattarian themes have been picked up by a range of contemporary authors and activists, most notably Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, whose joint works
Empire
(2001) and Multitude (2004) are replete with terms borrowed from Deleuze and Guattari. The latter's work has informed the development of a variety of heterodox leftist currents, including primitivism (Feral Faun, John Zerzan), immediatism (Hakim Bey), insurrectionary anarchism (Alfredo Bonanno), and postanarchism (Todd May, Saul Newman) – all of which have adherents in the GJM.
Demerara Slave Rebellion, 1823
Authors: Muhr Thomas
Published: September 2017

The Demerara Slave Rebellion was one of several revolts that erupted in the Caribbean in the first decades of the nineteenth century. Founded as a Dutch colony in 1746, Demerara stretched for about 25 miles along the Caribbean coast east of the Demerara River (the “East Coast”), between the colonies of Berbice to the east and Essequibo to the west. The three colonies changed hands several times between the Dutch, French, and English, and all three became British in 1814. At the time of the rising, about 75,000 slaves lived in Demerara‐Essequibo, which were under a single Court of Policy. The colonies became Guyana's three provinces of the same names, and Demerara accommodates today's capital, Georgetown.
Despard, Colonel Edward Marcus (1751–1803) and the Despard Conspiracy
Authors: Conner Clifford D.
Published: September 2017

Edward Marcus Despard was hanged in 1803 for plotting to assassinate George III of England. He was an Irishman and he was a revolutionary, but was he an Irish revolutionary? The answer is not as obvious as it might seem.
Dessalines, Jean‐Jacques (1758–1806)
Authors: King Stewart R.
Published: September 2017

Jean‐Jacques Dessalines was probably born a slave on the Cormier plantation in Grande‐Rivère du Nord in the Northern Province of what is now Haiti. Haiti, then called Saint‐Domingue, was the Saudi Arabia of its day; the wealthiest place in the world. The wealth of sugar, coffee, indigo, and cotton was produced by half a million slaves laboring under the direction of about 50,000 free people, half of whom were white and half of African ancestry. Jean‐Jacques worked as a field hand and foreman on a large white‐owned plantation as a young man, and then at the age of 30 was sold to a free black man named Dessalines. Dessalines the master was apparently a small‐scale planter with a dozen or so slaves, and Jean‐Jacques, who took his last name as was customary for slaves, was a
commandeur
, or leading slave on his farm. In 1791 the Haitian Revolution broke out and Jean‐Jacques left his master to join the rebels.
Deutscher, Isaac (1907–1967)
Authors: Chattopadhyay Kunal
Published: September 2017

Isaac Deutscher, a Polish Jew, was a leading leftist critic of the Soviet Union under Stalinism. At the age of 16 he attracted attention as a poet. In 1926 he joined the underground Polish Communist Party and soon became the editor of its press. His 1933 essay on fascism, urging the relevance of a united front, caused his expulsion, as the line of the Comintern was to call social democrats fascists. From then, he was part of the international Trotskyist movement. According to his own testimony, he was the main author of the argument against founding the Fourth International in 1938.
D
evlin
M
cAliskey,
B
ernadette (b. 1947)
Authors: Halloway Nada
Published: September 2017

Bernadette Devlin emerged during Northern Ireland's “Troubles” as a leading activist and spokesperson in the struggles to defend the civil rights of the Catholic community and to demand a Northern Ireland free from British influence. In 1969 she was elected to the British parliament, where she served until 1974, utilizing every opportunity to speak out against injustice and oppression. For many decades she has been Northern Ireland's most prominent proponent of socialist‐republican views. According to her own autobiographical account, her political awakening occurred in October 1968 when, as a 21‐year‐old student, she was participating in a legal demonstration of the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association and witnessed the police savagely beating protesters with batons.
Dáz Soto y Gama, Antonio (1880–1967)
Authors: Sergi Vittorio
Published: September 2017

Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama was a journalist, politician, and agrarian leader. He was an active member of the radical opposition to the government of General Porfirio Díaz during the Mexican Revolution. After the civil war he followed the trajectory of the ruling classes from populism to more conservative and anti‐communist positions.