bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Financing Jesuit Missions
Authors: Vermote Frederik
Published: November 2017

This chapter outlines the less studied finances of Jesuit overseas missions in the early modern period, drawing from incomplete sources for Portuguese Asia and more substantial primary sources (and secondary literature) for Spanish America. It discusses several conceptual points: How did Jesuits and outsiders reflect on their wealth? How and why was the relationship between God and Mammon problematic? In what regions were the Jesuits wealthy, and was this a result of Jesuit managerial skills? The chapter provides an overview of Jesuit missions’ finances through four sources of income: state patronage, private benefactors, trade, and lands/properties. While it is impossible to exhaustively discuss the finances of every Jesuit mission through these categories, female donors and the finances of Jesuit missions in China are given special attention.
The Presidency and Decision Making
Authors: Brattebo Douglas M. , Lansford Tom
Published: November 2017

Given the wide latitude that the U.S. president has in security policy, successive chief executives have created different structures and systems to develop and implement their foreign and defense agendas. One result has been dramatic differences in how information and options reach the president as each chief executive seeks to construct and maintain an advisory system that reflects his or her personal style and preferences. Among the various approaches, multiple advocacy has emerged as the most effective and efficient decision-making process to ensure that presidents consider a full range of security options and steer a more prudent course according to the advisory system.
Encryption Wars
Authors: Etzioni Amitai
Published: November 2017

All societies face a constant tug of war between protecting individual rights and ensuring the needs of various common goods, especially public safety and homeland security. At any point in time, one side or the other may gain too much power and must be scaled back. The chapter examines this issue by dealing with encryption, drawing on the lessons of the Crypto Wars of the 1990s and the legal case between Apple and the FBI in the wake of the San Bernardino terrorist attack in 2016. Beyond specifics, the chapter deals with a new, liberal communitarian approach, to sorting out where the balance lies between individual rights and the common good.
James Buchanan and Gordon Tullock,The Calculus of Consent
Authors: Thrasher John , Gaus Gerald
Published: November 2017

The Calculus of Consent: Logical Foundations of Constitutional Democracy is a groundbreaking work in democratic theory. This chapter argues that it is of continued relevance today, due both to its methodological innovations and its use of those innovative techniques to solve the fundamental problem of democratic justification. In Calculus, James Buchanan and Gordon Tullock fuse economic methods, political theory, and the normative project of showing how democratic institutions of a particular sort can be justified contractually, creating a unique form of democratic contractualism that came to be known as “Constitutional Political Economy” and the more general research program of “Public Choice Theory.” Although these pioneering techniques have been integrated into mainstream political theory, the interest of their normative project has not been similarly appreciated.
Phillip Pettit,Republicanism
Authors: Beaumont Elizabeth
Published: November 2017

Since the 1960s, political and legal thought has been influenced by a republican revival. Philip Pettit’s Republicanism (1997) offers the most ambitious philosophical contribution to this revival: a blueprint for constitutional governance and citizenship organized around a principle of freedom as non-domination. This chapter examines Pettit’s conception of freedom and effort to reconfigure republicanism into a more inclusive, egalitarian, and cosmopolitan theory. It then considers Republicanism’s influence, and some criticisms and further inquiries the project invites, including the relation to liberalism, risks of state overreach, sufficiency of non-domination for freedom, discounting of democratic participation, and limits of law and institutions. While these criticisms are potent, they do not diminish Pettit’s venture. Rather, they indicate the vigor of his neo-republican vision, and its role in expanding debate over the problem of domination and the ongoing challenges of addressing it through political institutions, law, and civic life.
Sovereign Wealth Funds and Private Equity
Authors: Wright Mike , Amess Kevin
Published: November 2017

While the vast majority of SWFs invest in public equity and fixed income vehicles, about half invest in private equity (PE). PE includes several different types of funds investing in companies at different stages of development. Some 78% of SWFs investing in PE invest in buyouts stage funds; 72% in venture capital stage funds; 66% in growth stage funds, while 56% invest in funds investing in companies at the expansion stage. Only 41% have a strategy to invest in distressed company funds while 38% invest in the secondaries funds market. Some 14% of institutional capital raised by PE equity funds in 2015 came from sovereign wealth. This chapter argues that SWF investment in PE funds is more likely to be part of an investment strategy that seeks to maximize returns because investment in PE funds does not afford the SWF direct control over firms bought using PE funds.
The Norwegian Government Pension Fund Global and the Implications of its Activities for Stakeholders
Authors: Wood Geoffrey , O'Sullivan Noel , Goergen Marc , Baric Marijana
Published: November 2017

The chapter discusses the role and impact of the Norwegian Government Pension Fund Global (NGPFG) (which has some $873 billion of assets), explaining its objectives, its characteristics and also providing some details of the extent of its investments, specifically investments in firm equity. It discusses the NGPFG’s behavior as a shareholder that seeks to influence corporate behavior from within, the high levels of transparency exhibited and the ethical standards expected from the NGPFG and its role in the broader scheme of international politics/relations. The chapter concludes with thoughts for further research on the NGPFG and its activities.
Is it Possible to Avoid the St Augustine Syndrome of Fiscal Procrastination?
Authors: Parrado Eric
Published: November 2017

Chile has managed to avoid the St Augustine Syndrome of fiscal procrastination. This has required the prudent management of both fiscal flows and stocks. On the one hand, a fiscal policy rule has permitted Chile to save in sunny good times and to spend extraordinary resources on rainy days. The stabilizing fiscal policy rule has been key to smooth fiscal expenditure and avoiding the economic sins present in several countries: those of deficit bias and procyclicality. On the other hand, the management of fiscal stocks through its sovereign wealth funds (SWFs) has transformed Chile into an international example of transparency, good management, and responsibility. This sounds easy but it requires both political courage and economic responsibility. Several lessons could be learned from this which would be useful for other countries in any stage of development.
The China Investment Corporation
Authors: Balding Christopher , Chastagner Kevin
Published: November 2017

China’s sovereign wealth fund (SWF), the China Investment Corporation (CIC), was established in 2007 and has grown to become the fourth largest SWF in the world with assets and offices spanning the globe. This chapter looks at the range of unique factors that need to be understood in order to place the CIC in context. When China decided to form its own SWF, it decided to do so by borrowing from the central bank in a complicated swap transaction in order to highlight the CIC’s independence from existing entities like the People’s Bank of China and the State Administration of Foreign Exchange. While most SWFs grow from an excess of natural resource wealth, the Chinese SWF is unique in that it grew out of years of current account surpluses accumulated from ensuring a fixed exchange rate. The chapter discusses the macroeconomic interplay between China and the CIC.
Sovereign Wealth Funds in the Persian Gulf States
Authors: Bahgat Gawdat
Published: November 2017

The period from early 2000s to 2014 witnessed unprecedented and sustained high oil prices transforming the main oil and gas exporters in the Persian Gulf into major players in global finance. The Islamic Republic of Iran and the six GCC member states (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates) have been using these massive oil revenues to assert their economic and political leverage on the regional and international scene. A key component of this effort has been the creation of sovereign wealth funds (SWFs). This chapter examines the SWFs in Iran and the GCC states. It includes discussion of the emergence and evolution of the oil and gas industry in the region, analysis of the sharp drop in oil prices since 2014 and how this cycle is different from previous ones, and detailed examination (based on limited data availability) of Iran’s and the GCC’s major SWFs.
Sovereign Wealth Funds
Authors: Fernandes Nuno
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines investments of sovereign wealth funds (SWFs) in publicly traded firms, focusing on how these investments impact firms, and the potential channels through which their effects materialize. Using data that includes SWF holdings in 8,000 firms in 58 countries, we find that SWF investments have a positive effect on firm valuations and operating performance. The results are not driven by any particular SWF and are stronger for foreign SWF holdings. Additionally, we find evidence that after a large investment by SWFs, firms have better monitoring, expand their international operations, and are able to raise more capital as a consequence of the SWF investment. In terms of determinants of their holdings, we find that SWFs prefer large and profitable firms that enjoy significant external visibility. Additionally, they tend not to invest heavily in firms in high-tech industries or those operating in areas involving intensive research and development.
Co-Investments of Sovereign Wealth Funds in Private Equity
Authors: McCahery Joseph A. , de Roode F. Alexander
Published: November 2017

Direct investments are the preferred vehicle for large institutional investors to have control over their portfolio investments. This chapter studies the deal structure of direct investments by sovereign wealth funds (SWFs) in private equity transactions. Its analyses of direct investments are based on data from Global Corporate Venturing. It finds that SWFs shift from investing in private equity funds to originating and co-investing together with private equity funds in deals. The choice for co-investment affects deal size, risk-bearing, fees and returns. Overall, results of research conducted for this chapter show the strong interest of SWFs in direct investments in developed markets.
The Use of Debt by Sovereign Wealth Funds
Authors: Lugo Stefano , Bertoni Fabio
Published: November 2017

This chapter documents the use of debt capital by sovereign wealth funds (SWFs)—a growing and under-researched phenomenon. Three reasons are given for this. First: debt can help SWFs reach their target portfolio size. (Some do not receive regular inflows from their governments to increase their assets under management (AUM). Second: the development of capital markets is a key objective for most of the countries that have created an SWF, and debt may be especially useful for the development of the bond market. SWF bonds are quasi-governmental securities that can be used as collateral and create a reference yield curve. Third: the use of debt capital is particularly appropriate for portfolio SWFs investing in concentrated portfolios of selected companies for strategic and financial reasons. SWFs are more likely to use debt when they are non-commodity-based, come from countries with relatively less developed bond markets, and have a strategic investment style.
Sovereign Wealth Fund Investments and Industry Performance
Authors: Béreau Sophie , Gnabo Jean-Yves , Kerkour Malik , Raymond Hélène
Published: November 2017

In the past decade, sovereign wealth funds (SWFs) have been very active in western economies with massive liquidity injections and numerous stakes in various strategic areas. While a vast literature has documented their influence on firms’ behavior and equity valuation, their impact on the whole economy has been largely unexplored. This chapter investigates the aggregate impact of SWFs’ investments at the industrial level. Using a panel of ten European countries from 2006 to 2012, a relevant instrumental variables strategy is used to circumvent potential double causality between returns of the recipient countries’ stock market indices and SWFs’ investments. The results show a positive and significant impact of SWFs’ investments for five sectoral indices out of ten. Looking at conditional effects, it does not find that this relationship is affected by either the availability of alternative sources of financing in the economy—consistent with the liquidity argument—or different volatility regimes.
Sovereign Wealth Funds in Central and Eastern Europe
Authors: Wiśniewski Piotr
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) activity of sovereign wealth funds (SWFs) from two perspectives: CEE-based SWFs operating internationally and CEE as hosts to international SWF investments. The scales of both activities are marginal in global terms, yet the SWF footprint can be significant in isolated CEE industries or investment targets. While new SWFs are unlikely to emerge in CEE, the scale of global SWF allocation to the region is set to expand in line with diversification and growth opportunities. CEE should strive to improve its investment climate, including competitiveness of financial industries. The existing CEE-based (Russian) SWFs would benefit from deregulation, transparency and commitment to performance metrics, yet they remain a hostage to the future shape of Russian, and world macroeconomic policy.
Populism in Western Europe
Authors: Taggart Paul
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines populism in contemporary Western Europe. The argument is made that populism in this region tends to primarily focus on four different issues as a result of the national context in which it arises. The chapter illustrates how various populist parties in Western Europe focus on these four issues of immigration, regionalism, corruption, and Euroskepticism. The argument is made that we can only understand populism in this region if we also understand that populism politicizes these issues. The argument is also that these issue areas, taken at their broadest meaning, constitute attacks on the core pillars of contemporary Western Europe and therefore that populist forces tell us about the fault lines of politics in the region.
Populism and Fascism
Authors: Eatwell Roger
Published: November 2017

Populism and fascism are identified by their foundational ideologies. In the case of “thin” populist ideology the core matrices are: (1) the plain people, (2) self-serving elites, and (3) rule by popular will. In the case of fascism they are the creation of: (1) the holistic nation, (2) a “new man,” and (3) a third way authoritarian state. These are then used to assess contested later manifestations, including Peronism, Donald Trump, and the French Front National. A problem in categorization is that whilst populism and fascism differ notably ideologically, in practice the latter has borrowed aspects of populist discourse and style, and populism can degenerate into leader-oriented authoritarian and exclusionary politics.
Populism and the Media
Authors: Manucci Luca
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses three aspects of the relationship between populist discourses and the media: the process of mediatization of politics, the impact of media populism on democratic quality, and the link between new media and populism. The aim is to summarize theories and results present in the relevant literature, while advancing a more sophisticated framework for analysis based on a clear definition of populism as an ideology articulated discursively. In particular, the chapter proposes to consider the media sphere and the political realm as an integrated system for the production of user-friendly political news, thus overcoming the fictitious opposition between media and political-logic. Populist discourses should therefore be considered as the result of a constant flow of direct, indirect, and mixed interactions between political and media actors.
Populism
Authors: Weyland Kurt
Published: November 2017

This article criticizes economic, discursive, and ideological definitions of populism and advocates and further develops a political-strategic conceptualization. The resulting definition emphasizes personalistic leadership that rests on direct, unmediated, uninstitutionalized support from large masses of mostly unorganized followers. This definition captures the flexibility and opportunism of populism and accounts for the striking volatility of populists’ political fate. The article offers a clear distinction between populism and fascism and introduces a gradated conceptualization of populism to depict leaders’ varying combinations of political strategies more precisely.
Populism and the Question of How to Respond to It
Authors: Kaltwasser Cristóbal Rovira
Published: November 2017

Given that populist forces maintain a difficult relationship with democracy, there is an open debate about how to respond to their rise. This contribution addresses this question by developing a framework for analysis that identifies who are the actors that at the domestic and external level can try to deal with the populist challenge. Moreover, different types of responses to the emergence of populism are depicted. In addition, this contribution maintains that advancing a radical approach against populism might generate more harm than good, since “fighting fire with fire” can end up giving more validity and visibility to the discourse advanced by populist forces.
Populism as a Threat to Liberal Democracy
Authors: Rummens Stefan
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that liberal democracy and populism, despite both being committed to the idea of popular sovereignty, rely on incompatible conceptualizations of the demos and, consequently, embody antagonistic and irreconcilable understandings of the concept of democracy. It subsequently challenges the wide-spread assumption that populism might have beneficial effects. Although populism operates as a symptom, signaling an underlying malfunctioning of our liberal democratic system, it can never itself function as the remedial corrective. Instead, it should be considered an important threat to democracy, which ought to be countered by actions aiming to remedy both the symptom and the underlying problem.
Populism and the Idea of The People
Authors: Espejo Paulina Ochoa
Published: November 2017

The idea of “the people” motivates populist politics, but scholars are often skeptical that it can justify the populists’ claims. Who then are “the people” that both populists and democrats invoke? This chapter describes the logical paradoxes that arise when defining a democratic people and a long-standing debate on the nature and function of the demos in a democracy. These show that scholars’ definitions and judgments of populism depend on whether they conceive of the people as a historical fact (as populists do) or as a hypothetical ideal for guiding legislation (the liberals’ view). The chapter proposes instead an account of the democratic “people as process.” This account explains why populists betray the democratic ideals they claim to endorse.
Populism in the Socialist Imagination
Authors: Olson Kevin
Published: November 2017

Socialism is typically portrayed as a deeply populist doctrine, yet it often has difficulties reconciling populism with more centrally socialist ideals. As a result, populism is both a consistent preoccupation and a recurring problem for socialists. This chapter traces these shifting tensions through three episodes in socialism’s development: the works of Karl Marx, Auguste Blanqui, and Eduard Bernstein. Each manifests the tensions in complex and subtle ways. Ultimately, the contemporary forms of social democracy that have descended from this heritage provide the means for a potential reconciliation, establishing the material conditions for a radically populist politics.
Populism in Latin America
Authors: de la Torre Carlos
Published: November 2017

Since the 1930s and 1940s until the present, populist leaders have dominated Latin America’s political landscapes. This chapter explains the commonalities and differences between the different subtypes of Latin American populism—classical, neoliberal, and radical. It examines why these different manifestations of populism emerged, and their democratizing and inclusionary promises while seeking power. Then it analyzes their impact on democracy after gaining office. Whereas populists seeking power promise to include the excluded, once in power populists attacked the institutions of liberal democracy, grabbed power, aimed to control social movements and civil society, and clashed with the privately owned media.
Hope and Children’s Health
Authors: Rapoff Michael , Freche Ron
Published: November 2017

Childhood is a critical time to develop hopeful thinking that can help children cope with challenges in general and those related to maintaining or improving their health. The purpose of this chapter is to (a) define hope as it applies to children and the growth of hope across developmental stages; (b) describe the way family members, teachers, and other significant adults can foster hope in children; (c) review studies on the relationship between hope and pediatric health and illness, including studies on health promotion, adherence to chronic pediatric diseases, and coping with a chronic pediatric disease; and (d) share knowledge related to patients with chronic pediatric diseases and how they maintain hope given the additional challenges they face in their lives.
Hope in the Midst of Terminal Illness
Authors: Hill Douglas L. , Feudnter Chris
Published: November 2017

Although palliative and hospice care services are increasingly available, many adults and children still die without this kind of support or receive it only in the last few days of life, as many patients, family members, and clinicians equate the initiation of these services with loss of hope. This chapter presents a model of how hopeful patterns of thinking and a balance of positive and negative affect may facilitate a regoaling process in which individuals transition from cure-seeking goals to other personally meaningful goals that are attainable at the end of life or while living with a serious chronic illness. Understanding different forms of hopeful thinking, goals, and self-concepts among dying patients and their families can help clinicians provide support through this difficult experience and achieve better quality of life and symptom management for patients and better quality of life and long-term adjustment for family members.
Hope and Coping in Individuals with Specific Learning Disorder
Authors: Al-Yagon Michal , Margalit Malka
Published: November 2017

This chapter reviews and integrates empirical findings regarding hope as a major personal resource among individuals with specific learning disorder (SLD). First, it describes the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fifth edition; DSM-5) diagnostic criteria for SLD and briefly illustrates the major difficulties that individuals with SLD may experience in the academic, social, emotional, and behavioral domains. Next, it presents an overview of the empirical literature regarding hope as reported by children and adolescents with SLD in different age groups and its relations with additional personal resources such as the sense of coherence and coping with age-appropriate academic and social challenges. Possible factors that may contribute to the lower resources found in SLD and their implications are explored, as well as future research directions and interventional implications.
Future Directions in the Science of Hope
Authors: Gallagher Matthew W. , Cheavens Jennifer S. , Edwards Lisa M. , Feldman David , Gum Amber M. , Marques Susana C. , Rand Kevin L. , Ritschel Lorie A. , Pedrotti Jennifer Teramoto , Shorey Hal
Published: November 2017

The scientific study of hope has progressed rapidly since Rick Snyder first published his theoretical model of hope and developed assessments for quantifying individual differences in hope, but much work remains to more fully understand when, how, and why hope promotes resilience and human flourishing. The field has lost the titans of hope in Rick Snyder and Shane Lopez and is now led by the second generation of hope scientists. In this chapter, a collection of prominent hope researchers share their thoughts on future directions in studying hope. These topics include improving the understanding of how to promote hope; identifying the influence of hope on both positive outcomes such as meaning, healthy coping, and healthy relationships and negative outcomes such as depression; and more generally how hope can help promote flourishing communities. These topics and the researchers studying them represent the future of hope, which has never been brighter.
The Will and the Ways in School
Authors: Pedrotti Jennifer Teramoto
Published: November 2017

The school environment is a key place in which to address development of numerous positive traits and characteristics. Hope is a one construct that addresses goal-setting and progress and is linked to many other positive behaviors and characteristics including resilience, optimism, school and athletic achievement, and well-being in general. Grounding today’s children in skills and mindsets that assist them in determining how to get the things they what they want in life may help them to stay on healthy tracks academically throughout their scholastic career. Past and current research has shown that hope is easily instilled and that it can be increased through simple interventions in a variety of different populations. School personnel such as teachers, counselors, and administrators can all play a role in the development of this trait and can help to direct parents in using the hope model with children as well.
Baptist
Authors: Harmon Steven R.
Published: November 2017

While the Baptist tradition has not always been associated with ecumenical engagement in the minds of its observers or of Baptists themselves, this chapter highlights the overt and implicit ecumenical commitments that historically have marked this free church tradition. These include the congregational interdependence that is a dimension of Baptist ecclesiology, Baptist participation in the institutions of the modern ecumenical movement, Baptist participation in formal ecumenical dialogue, Baptist involvement in church union discussions, and the manner in which the Baptist tradition has received various aspects of other Christian traditions. The chapter proposes that the paradigm of receptive ecumenism reframes Baptist identity as being more ecumenically open than previously appreciated and has the potential to encourage new forms of Baptist contribution to ecumenical convergence.
Introduction
Authors: Fortescue Michael , Mithun Marianne , Evans Nicholas
Published: November 2017

The first chapter of The Oxford Handbook of Polysynthesis introduces the notion of polysynthesis and the related issues that the volume addresses, such as complexity, the definition of the word, the nature of the lexicon, idiomaticity, and typological features such as argument structure and head marking. It also outlines the part structure of the volume: Part I addresses polysynthesis from different perspectives; Part II contains areal studies of those geographical regions of the world where polysynthesis is particularly common, such as the Arctic and Sub-Arctic and northern Australia; Part III examines diachronic topics such as language contact and language obsolescence; Part IV looks at acquisition issues in different polysynthetic languages.
The Anthropological Setting of Polysynthesis
Authors: Trudgill Peter
Published: November 2017

A sociolinguistically oriented study of polysynthesis literature reveals one rather striking observation. Varieties often cited as being incontrovertibly polysynthetic include languages from many different language families and different areas of the world. But many of these languages have a number of social characteristics in common: they are spoken in relatively small, traditional, non-industrialized communities, over relatively small territories. This chapter suggests that this is not a coincidence. There seems to be considerable agreement in the literature, for instance, that polysynthetic languages are ‘highly’, ‘extremely’, or ‘extraordinarily’ complex. And the literature on polysynthesis abounds in descriptors referring to their complexity as ‘exuberant’, ‘unusual’, ‘spectacular’, ‘baroque’, ‘rich’, ‘daunting’, and ‘startling’. This tallies nicely with the suggestion (Trudgill 2011) that linguistic complexity is particularly associated with relatively small, isolated, stable communities which have dense social-network structures; and is relatively unlikely to be found in large, high-contact (for example urban, colonial, standard) language varieties.
What are the Limits of Polysynthesis?
Authors: Fortescue Michael
Published: November 2017

Of the various labels for morphological types currently in use by typologists ‘polysynthesis’ has proved to be the most difficult to pin down. For some it just represents an extreme on the dimension of synthesis (one of Sapir’s two major typological axes), while for others it is an independent category or parameter involving incorporation and bound pronominals with far-reaching morphosyntactic ramifications. If the nub of polysynthesis is the packing of a lot of material into single verb forms that would be expressed as independent words in less synthetic languages, what exactly is the nature of and limitations on this ‘material’? This chapter investigates the limits—both upwards and downwards—of what the term is generally understood to cover and suggests a rule-of-thumb definition. Cognitive constraints on its maximal extent are also considered.
Polysynthetic Structures of Lowland Amazonia
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y.
Published: November 2017

Lowland Amazonia is the locus of substantial linguistic diversity in terms of genetic affiliation, language structure, and numbers of languages. This chapter will focus on the distribution of types of polysynthetic patterns within Lowland Amazonia, with special attention to the spread, and the types, of noun incorporation. The highest concentration of polysynthetic languages in Amazonia is the region south of the Amazon River, spanning adjacent regions of Peru, Brazil, and Bolivia. Polysynthetic patterns can be reconstructed for the protolanguages of some families, such as Panoan, Harakmbet, and possibly Arawá. Polysynthetic patterns in Arawak family (by far the largest in terms of its geographical spread) are often due to areal diffusion. We will focus on a number of mechanisms for the development of polysynthesis in established linguistic areas, for example the Vaupés River Basin linguistic area, and on a number of established instances of intensive language contact.
Polysynthesis in Northern Australia
Authors: Evans Nicholas
Published: November 2017

This chapter surveys the polysynthetic languages of northern Australia, across four families in three non-contiguous regions: Gunwinyguan (Arnhem Land), Tiwi (Bathurst and Melville Islands), and Southern and Western Daly (Daly River). All are non-Pama-Nyungan. It contextualizes the more detailed treatments of Dalabon (Ch. 43), Southern and Western Daly (Ch. 44), and the acquisition of Murrinh-patha (Ch. 26) by bringing out the typological similarities and differences in polysynthetic languages, with a particular focus on pathways of change between more and less polysynthetic structures. Australian polysynthetic languages exhibit little morphological fusion, and all are basically templatic. However, there are significant differences in noun and verb incorporation, applicatives and other valency-changing operations, and the degree of subordinating morphology, illustrated by comparing the closely related Dalabon and Bininj Gun-wok. Perhaps the biggest difference is the presence of a bipartite structure in the Southern Daly languages. The chapter closes by surveying the main trajectories by which morphological complexity increases or diminishes in the languages of northern Australia.
Western Apache, a Southern Athabaskan Language
Authors: de Reuse Willem J.
Published: November 2017

Western Apache belongs to the Southern or Apachean branch of the Athabaskan language family, (Nadene phylum) and is spoken by ca. 6,000 people in central and eastern Arizona, USA. Since there are very few children acquiring the language, it is endangered. The Western Apache noun word is morphologically simple, but the verb word is unusually complex. It can be characterized morphologically by what Sapir called “interrupted synthesis”, that is, a complex interdigitation of functionally diverse prefixal elements: inflectional prefixes, derivational prefixes, and thematic prefixes. Furthermore, the Athabaskan polysynthetic word is also characterized by extensive fusion or contraction of short prefix elements, prefix slippage, and haplology. As a result, the Athabaskan verb word is often between two and four syllables long, which is quite short when compared to words in more “orthodox” polysynthetic language families (Woodbury, Chapter 30, this volume) such as Eskimo-Aleut, Chukotko-Kamchatkan, and Wakashan.
Polysynthesis in Nuuchahnulth, a Wakashan Language
Authors: Nakayama Toshihide
Published: November 2017

Nuuchahnulth is a Southern Wakashan language spoken in British Columbia, Canada. It is a verb-initial head-marking language and is almost exclusively suffixing morphologically. The language exhibits polysynthesis involving holophrasis but does not allow compounding. Instead, it has numerous suffixes with heavy lexical content, traditionally termed ‘lexical suffixes’. This lexical suffixation serves as the central mechanism in Nuuchahnulth for bringing multiple lexically heavy morphemes into a word. The complexity of actual polysynthetic words in this language seems rather limited compared to what is reported to be possible in Eskimo languages. There are cases where similar semantic content can be expressed either synthetically using a polysynthetic word or analytically as separate words. When such an alternation is possible, discourse-pragmatic considerations, particularly discourse referentiality of the object of the predicate, play a major role in the choice of constructions.
Nawatl (Uto-Aztecan)
Authors: Canger Una
Published: November 2017

A brief introduction places the language, Nawatl, geographically and chronologically, with emphasis on dialect diversity and the long-documented history of the language. The dialect spoken in one community in Northern Puebla is in focus in the following. Basic typological features of this dialect are presented. A valency system based on verb derivation is outlined. A conceptual approach to valency is adopted, and it leads to no recognition of anti-passive in Nawatl. A suffix, ta/te:, the function of which is to broadly suspend referentiality to subject, object, and possessor, is presented. Reduplication is shown to be equally broadly used with several meanings. A brief presentation of a second Nawatl dialect shows that Nawatl dialects cannot all be said to display equally strong polysynthetic features.
Argument Marking in the Polysynthetic Verb and Its Implications
Authors: Mithun Marianne
Published: November 2017

It is generally agreed that the essence of polysynthesis goes beyond sheer numbers of morphemes per word, but which other properties might be criterial is unclear. Most frequently cited is the marking of core arguments within the verb, such that the key elements of the clause, predicate, and arguments, are contained within that one word. Also often cited are noun incorporation, applicatives, rich inventories of adverbial affixes, and pragmatically motivated word order. But argument marking on the verb is not categorical: pronominal affix paradigms show a range of differential marking patterns dependent on various semantic and grammatical features, none reliably predictive of other characteristics typically associated with polysynthesis. Yet these characteristics tend to cluster, indicating that they are not reflections of a single, underlying governing principle, but rather constitute structural complexes that emerge from constellations of cognitive and social factors favoring the development and maintenance of complex morphologies.
Polysynthesis in Dalabon
Authors: Evans Nicholas
Published: November 2017

This chapter gives a sketch of how polysynthesis behaves in Dalabon, a polysynthetic language of Arnhem Land belonging to the Gunwinyguan family. It focuses on synchronic issues; some additional features of Dalabon which are better understood in a diachronic perspective and hence require comparative data from other Gunwinyguan languages are discussed in Chapter 19. Particularly interesting are the rich set of adverbial prefixes to the verb, the complex methods for modifying valency (stem thematic alternations, applicatives, and reflexive/reciprocal suffixes), the rich incorporation possibilities for both nouns and (more limited) verbal stems, and the existence of a number of types of subordinating morphology.
The Importance of Ownership
Authors: Michie Jonathan
Published: November 2017

Following the 2007–08 global financial crisis and subsequent years of stagnation in many economies, there remains no consensus alternative to ‘capitalism unleashed’. This chapter considers that alternative. Just as the rise of capitalism led to the co-operative, Marxian, and other critiques, and just as the crisis of the 1930s led to Keynesianism and social democracy across much of Western Europe and a new international order as fashioned at Bretton Woods, so the failure of capitalism unleashed needs to herald a new era of global economic development—sustainable environmentally, economically, and socially. This will require a greater degree of corporate diversity, with a range of corporate forms—private, state, and co-operative and mutual. This is needed to make the productive system more resilient. It would also be a way of tackling the otherwise relentless spiral of ever greater inequality.
Community Co-operatives and Co-operatives Providing Public Services
Authors: Mori Pier Angelo
Published: November 2017

The community co-operatives that are spreading today in many parts of the world are the arrival point of an evolutionary process that has seen the progressive shift of co-operatives’ focus from specific social and professional groups to society as a whole. Since the term ‘community co-operative’ is relatively new and similar institutions are named differently at different times, the first task is to elucidate the concept. Its basic elements are community goods, territory, and citizenship, which are discussed with reference to factual cases. We then discuss differences between new community co-operatives and old ones. In the second part we review some data about them, with a special focus on customer-owned providers of public services. The chapter closes with a discussion of the economic reasons why citizen participation through consumer ownership this organizational mode is more likely to expand today in response to privatization failures than it did in the past.
How to Think about Global Employee Ownership
Authors: Rodgers Loren
Published: November 2017

Motivated by data on the impact of stock compensation, many companies wish to provide their employees with an ownership interest in their stock. Whether they use stock options, direct share ownership, or other approaches to employee ownership, those companies must adapt their plan design to the specifics of labour law, securities’ requirements, tax regimes, privacy laws, and other issues in various countries. This article suggests guidelines for companies to design their plans by reviewing best practices in equity compensation, beginning with single-country employers and then expanding to companies with international employees. Companies are wise to begin with their ideal plan design and then adapt it to reflect legal requirements, taking into account that some companies must accommodate the requirements of multiple countries. The form of employee stock compensation will affect the development of ownership cultures at these companies, and therefore the impact of employee ownership on the companies’ performance.
Evidence
Authors: Blasi Joseph R. , Freeman Richard B. , Kruse Douglas L.
Published: November 2017

Sharing the fruits of labour with workers has led to initiatives of both profit-sharing and worker ownership. Several decades of research shows that firms with worker ownership and profit-sharing tend to do better on average. A variety of studies, those comparing firms before and after they initiated worker ownership, those comparing workers in the same firm with and without worker ownership, and those looking at combinations of worker ownership and profit-sharing, find the same results. Evidence from large groups of firms and large samples of workers show that a supportive corporate culture is generally necessary for worker ownership to function best. Cash profit-sharing in the short term tends to strengthen the economic performance edge.
Are Co-operatives Small? Evidence from the World Co-operative Monitor
Authors: Carini Chiara , Carpita Maurizio
Published: November 2017

There is a widespread belief that co-operatives are small-sized enterprises. However, some reports highlight that co-operatives have larger dimensions in certain areas than other types of companies. Starting from this premise, this paper contributes to the existing literature by providing empirical evidence on the size of co-operatives in different areas of the world, and by analysing data from approximately 2,000 co-operatives and mutual organizations from fifty-six different countries. These data are taken from the World Co-operative Monitor, a project promoted by the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) in collaboration with the European Research Institute on Co-operative and Social Enterprises (Euricse). The purpose of the project is to take a step forward in measuring the dimensions of co-operatives and to make an initial attempt at quantifying the economic and social impact of the largest co-operatives worldwide.
The Mondragón Experience
Authors: Barandiaran Xabier , Lezaun Javier
Published: November 2017

The town of Mondragón in the Basque Country is home to one of the largest and most significant experiences of co-operative organization and workers’ self-management anywhere in the world. The Mondragón co-operative movement, born in the 1950s around the local technical training college and a handful of small industrial firms, encompasses today more than one hundred co-operative firms operating in ninety-seven countries and generating an aggregate revenue of €12bn. In this chapter we review the historical origins of the Mondragón experience and the goals that guided the first co-operative projects. After describing the key organizational principles and governance mechanisms of individual co-operatives and of the Mondragón group as a whole, we will examine the rapid expansion and internationalization of some of the most emblematic Mondragón firms—a process that has led to a difficult balance between the maintenance of the original co-operative principles at home and an increasing reliance on capitalist forms of ownership and production abroad. We conclude by discussing the impact of the recent economic downturn on the Mondragón group and its system of inter-co-operative solidarity, and by reflecting on the future prospects for this far-reaching experiment in collective ownership and democratic governance.
Moving Towards 100% Employee Ownership Through ESOPs
Authors: Tischer Daniel , Hoffmire John
Published: November 2017

The literature on Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs) has developed significantly over the past decades. Yet, despite ESOPs being well conceptualized, the deals struck in the real world are often more complex endeavours than suggested. While there are examples of ESOP deals as a one-stage process, it is often the case that ownership is transferred in multiple steps financed through subordinated debt. In addressing this added complexity, we will introduce concepts of ESOPs before providing a detailed description of what an add-on transaction entails. In doing so, we are particularly interested in describing key steps with focus on the impact on business and employee-owners. The paper will provide readers with additional insights into the widely used practice of multi-tranche ESOPs. Understanding the agents involved in the process, as well as the impact and potential pitfalls of add-on transactions are crucial factors in developing ESOPs as an alternative to external buy-outs.
Social Co-operatives in Italy
Authors: Depedri Sara
Published: November 2017

Starting from the 1970s, some co-operatives distinguished themselves for their interest in producing social services and for their social aims. They emerged in order to answer new needs arising in society, and specifically the difficulties faced by welfare systems. Co-operatives started to assume a new role as welfare providers and suppliers of general-interest services and work integration of disadvantaged people. This new co-operative form first emerged in Italy during the 1980s as a bottom-up phenomenon. The first regulation on social co-operatives was enacted in Italy by Law 381/1991. This chapter illustrates the emergence, the evolution, and the most recent trends of Italian social co-operation in order to define the main traits that helped social co-operatives become a successful organizational form in the provision of welfare services. This chapter also contributes to evaluating the added value of this co-operative form in the socio-economic context.
Co-operatives and the Transformation of the German Energy Sector
Authors: Hanisch Markus
Published: November 2017

Over the last decades, the discussion on climate change, together with catastrophic events in the power sector, has raised global interest for radical policy changes. Since the year 2000, Germany´s Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG) has been a forerunner in triggering large-scale decentralized deployment of renewable energy. Although built on a relatively large social consensus, the consequences of the German ‘Energiewende’ have also raised conflicts between communities and investor-oriented project developers. This chapter reviews the increasing role of energy co-operatives as means to involve civil society, mitigate conflicts in planning, and distribute subsidies more evenly among a variety of often rural stakeholders.
Developing and Sustaining Communities
Authors: Ketilson Lou Hammond
Published: November 2017

Although globalization has many facets, a key marker is the increasing domination of market relations over other kinds of social relations. This phenomenon has created an increased interest in alternative forms of economic development more consistent with community values, as well as an increased attention to the nature and importance of social relationships in themselves and as preconditions for economic success. This chapter provides numerous examples of the role that social economy and, in particular, co-operatives play in developing and sustaining communities in Canada, by building and strengthening physical, personal, and social infrastructures in remote, rural, and indigenous areas, as well as in urban settings.