bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Review of the neotropical species of Big-headed Flies, genus Cephalosphaera(Diptera: Pipunculidae)
Authors: Rafael Jose Alber Tino
Published: November 2023

Big-headed flies are endoparasites of various families of Homoptera, especially Cicadellidae and Delphacidae, and are important as biological control agents, The adults are frequently seen hovering in and over vegetation; their flight is similar to that of Syrphidae. The female search for nymphs of leafhoppers and other Homoptera, as hosts in which to deposit their eggs. They snatch their prey with their legs and hold them using their strong tarsal claws. While in flight, they insert the egg into the host through the conjunctiva between the abdominal segments. The larvae develop to maturity within the hosts and at full size fill the entire body cavity. After escaping from the host, the larvae drop to the ground and pupate in the soil, in the ground litter, at the base of plants, or in crotches of trees.
The ecology of the lion tamarins, Leontopithecus: some intrageneric differences and comparisons with other callitrichids
Authors: Rylands Anthony B
Published: November 2023

The four lion tamarin species, Leontopithecus rosalia, L. chrysomelas, L. chrysopygus, and L. caissara (following Rosenberger and Coimbra-Filho 1984), occur exclusively in the Atlantic coastal forest of Brazil. Unlike the other callitrichid genera, their distributions are disjunct, and there is no evidence for them having been connected even in historic times (CoimbraFilho and Mittermeier 1973a; Coimbra-Filho 1976a; Hershkovitz 1977). They are the largest of the callitrichids, adults weighing more than 500-550 g. Carvalho and Carvalho (1989) obtained a mean adult weight of 572.5 g (range 516-647 g) for L. chrysopygus. Kleiman et al. (1986) give an adult weight for L. rosalia as 500 g or more. Despite the limited information available on the ecology of the lion tamarin species, it is evident that they may differ in certain key aspects, contrasting particularly the black lion tamarin with the remaining three coastal species. In addition, the lion tamarins show a number of traits regarding their habitat preferences, diet, ranging, and reproduction which set them apart from other callitrichids, and which undoubtedly contribute to their highly endangered status.
Introduction: flexibility and synergism of biological relationships in natural communities
Authors: Kawanabe Hiroya , Iwasaki Keiji
Published: November 2023

Recent advances in the organization of negative versus positive interactions There is a magnificent variety of intra- and interspecific relationships among organisms in biological communities, and communities exist as whole entities composed of interrelating elements. Ever since the earliest formalization of problems in ecology (Elton 1927), the analysis of community structure and organization has concentrated on negative relations (that is, one’s gain is another’s loss) between different species or heterospecific populations through competition, predation (including herbivory), and parasitism. While these negative relationships have long been investigated separately as food web analysis and niche theory, attempts to unite the heterogeneous relations have now introduced a fundamental framework for community ecology, i.e. that the competition or prey-predator interaction between two species is mitigated by predation, parasitism, competition with a third or more species, and various kinds of physical disturbances (Hairston et al. 1960; Paine 1966, 1980; Dayton 1971; Menge and Sutherland 1976).
Plant communities and the social organization and community structure of herbivorous mammals
Authors: Jarman Peter J
Published: November 2023

Explanations for the correlations, within taxa of mammalian herbivores, between species’ body size, type of food, habitat, anti-predator behaviour, and aspects of social organization (Crook and Gartlan 1966; Crook 1970; Estes 1974; Geist 1974; Jarman 1974, 1984; Clutton-Brock and Harvey 1977; Jarman and Coulson 1989) have hitherto taken a rather static view of the interactions between a species and its resources and environment. This chapter considers how a herbivore population’s use of a vegetation community affects other species, and how herbivore species may directly interact behaviourally. An understanding of these interactions may help us to recognize dynamic aspects of the structure of communities of mammalian herbivores.
The role of size variations within fish cohorts in competition, responses to predation, and apparent mutualisms
Authors: DeAngelis Donald L
Published: November 2023

The nature of community organization involves a number of basic questions and controversies that are far from settled. One question is whether communities are structured largely by what may be called deterministic processes (based on such phenomena as niche partitioning) or largely by stochastic processes. Fish community ecologists have supported both the deterministic view (Gorman and Karr 1978; Gatz 1979; Moyle and Vondracek 1985) and the stochastic view (Sale 1978, Grossman et al. 1982, 1985). A second question is whether, and to what extent, density dependence occurs within and between populations and has effects in regulating populations. Nicholson (1933), Hairston et al. (1960), and many others have stressed the importance of density dependence, but the alternative view that density dependence plays only a relatively small role has also been defended (Andrewartha and Birch 1954; Ehrlich and Birch 1967; Strong 1984). A third question involves the relative importance of indirect versus direct effect in communities. Much work on this theme is cited in other chapters in this volume.
Volatile allelochemicals that mediate interactions in a tritrophic system consisting of predatory mites, spider mites, and plants
Authors: Takabayashi Junji , Dicke Marcel
Published: November 2023

One of the significant aspects of plant growth and reproduction is the defence against herbivores. Apart from the well-documented direct defence aimed at herbivores by, for example, toxins, digestibility reducers, or repellents (Rhoades and Cates 1976; Schoonhoven 1981; Gibson and Pickett 1983), there are several examples of indirect defence by promotion of the effectiveness of natural enemies of herbivores (Price et al. 1980; Dicke and Sabelis 1988b). Indirect defence was only thought to have a constitutive nature, although it was known that many natural enemies of herbivores distinguish between odours of herbivore-infested plants and uninfested plants. Initial indications for the involvement of the plant in the production and emission of these odours (Roth et al. 1982; Loke et al. 1983; Sabelis and Van de Baan 1983) have led to chemical evidence that supports an active role of the plant in attracting natural enemies upon infestation by herbivores, and thus for induction of indirect defence by herbivore attack (Dicke and Sabelis 1988b, 1989; Dicke et al. 1990a, c; Turlings et al. 1990). The first of these examples relates to the induction of indirect defence in a tritrophic system consisting of Lima bean plants, spider mites, and predatory mites (Dicke and Sabelis 1988b; Dicke et al. 1990a).
Discussion: promoted coexistence through indirect effects: need for a new ecology of complexity
Authors: Patten Bernard C
Published: November 2023

The twentieth century is just about over. During it, a whole new era of postindustrial man-nature relationships was ushered in. All present indicators point to a continuance of current trends toward a deteriorating planetary capacity to sustain a high standard of human life. Decimation of resources, social and economic disruptions, and regional and international strife will be widespread as a result. We are seeing it now in instability and unrest around the world. Ecological knowledge will continue to be ignored by policymakers.
Ecological complexity-first acknowledge, then unravel
Authors: Rossiter Andrew
Published: November 2023

Complexity is an inherent property of most ecological phenomena, yet it is often completely ignored. The most common approach, to facilitate ease of treatment and analysis, has been to make biologically unrealistic simplifications. These circumvent the difficulties associated with complexity-solving a problem by ignoring it. Likewise, scale, whether at the temporal, spatial, or organizational level, is of major importance to the general validity of any ecological study, yet is also too often disregarded. It is essential that these shortcomings are acknowledged and a more comprehensive investigative approach is adopted, irrespective of the hierarchical level studied. For example, ecosystems are collections of communities, all biotic components of which are products of evolution. Evolution occurs at the level of the individual, and the nature of species and speciation is the ultimate process upon which all ecological diversity depends. Unless an awareness is shown of differences at least at the species level, the analysis of many ecological ideas concerning food web structure, niche partitioning, and other population processes may be partly or completely erroneous. But even at the population level, the complexity and diversity of interactions can be overwhelming. Until very recently, ecologists have shied away from addressing these problems.
Introduction
Authors: Hayward P J
Published: November 2023

From Shetland to Scilly, the British Isles extend through 11 degrees of latitude, a distance of about 1250 km. Between eastern England and western Ireland they range through 13 degrees of longitude, about 900 km. The northern and western boundaries of this region face the open Atlantic; oceanic influences, locally modified by geographical and topographical factors, largely modulate the character of the marine environment. The eastern side of the British Isles bounds a shallow epicontinental sea; oceanic influences in the North Sea decrease towards the south, where the proximity of the European landmass has a different modifying effect. In the south, the complex hydrography of the Channel results in rapidly changing physical characteristics along its length, again with discernible environmental consequences.
Sponges
Authors: Dyrynda P E J , Dyrynda Elisabeth. A
Published: November 2023

The sponges (Phylum Porifera) are sedentary, aquatic, fundamentally radially symmetrical invertebrates. They possess a minimal diversity of cells and the simplest grade of metazoan organization. They are filter feeders characterized by an internal monolayer of flagellated choanocytes collectively circulating one or more unidirectional water streams through the aquiferous system, a network of pores, canals, and chambers perforating the body.
Fish
Authors: Ryland J S
Published: November 2023

Fish (Subphylum Euchordata (vertebrata): Pisces) are sufficiently familiar to need little general introduction. It should be realized, however, that ‘Pisces’ does not represent a natural group but, corresponding to the word ‘fish’, embraces the jawless cyclostomes, the cartilaginous sharks and their allies (Chondrichthyes), and the bony fishes (Osteichthyes); each of these groupings constituting a separate and distinctive vertebrate class. Many of the technical terms refer primarily to bony fishes, but the names of fins and parts of the body apply equally to cartilaginous fishes.
Mutualistic viruses and the evolution of host ranges in endoparasitoid Hymenoptera
Authors: Whitfield James B
Published: November 2023

Parasitoids, by their very nature, must confront a wide array of risks and difficulties in their struggle for survival and reproduction. It is in the evolutionary ‘best interest’ of their hosts to evade attacks by parasitoids, and to direct whatever defences they have available towards any parasitoids that do manage to attack them. These reciprocal responses ensure that the nature of the interactions between parasitoids and host organisms is not static over evolutionary time, but instead changes, even if only in detail. One of the most basic aspects of the host-parasitoid interaction that can be influenced in this way is the spectrum of host organisms a parasitoid is able to attack, or, in other words, its host range.
Urban foxes (Vulpes vulpes):food acquisition, time and energy budgeting of a generalized predator
Authors: Saunders Glen , White Piran C L , Harris Stephen , Rayner Jeremy M V
Published: November 2023

Seven hundred and forty-nine fox stomachs were examined to determine dietary habits of foxes living in Bristol. Scavenged items accounted for a yearly average of 64% of the total diet by volume, with most of the remaining items varying with seasonal availability. The energy values of different food categories were estimated from the literature. A generalized model was constructed to estimate the total daily energy expenditure of urban foxes, incorporating seasonal variations in mass, activity and movement parameters obtained from radio tracking, but omitting the direct energy costs of reproduction. Mean body masses of both males and females were lowest in spring. Mean adult male body mass was highest in autumn and winter, 12.8% higher than in spring. Mean adult female body mass was highest in autumn, 22.3% higher than in spring. Mean total distance travelled per day was 8.77 km for males and 6.65 km for females. Mean daily time spent active was 8.8 h for males and 7.6 h for females.
Prey apportionment and related ecological relationships between large carnivores in Kruger National Park
Authors: Mills M G L , Biggs H C
Published: November 2023

Of the five large carnivores in the Kruger National Park, spotted hyaenas have the widest diet, eating more non-mammal food items than the others. They also scavenge more than the others, about half the biomass of food they consume. The diets of lions, leopards, cheetahs and African wild dogs overlap strikingly with regard to medium-sized and small mammals, particularly impala. Lions removed over 50% of the biomass of prey killed by the large predators in the main study area, having a particularly heavy influence on the wildebeest population. They may also deprive the smaller predators of impala. Hyaenas scavenged a substantial amount of food from lions, but only after the lions had finished eating. Hyaenas chased cheetahs off 14% of their kills, but were not seen to steal food from wild dogs. Lions were observed to kill wild dogs. Hyaenas and lions showed a preference for thickets and plains, leopards for thickets, hills and river banks, cheetahs for plains and wild dogs for thickets and hills. Impala had their highest preference ratio for thickets, followed by hills and plains. Hyaenas, lions and leopards are predominantly nocturnal, wild dogs are crepuscular and cheetahs kill mainly during the middle of the day. The large number of resident prey in the system favours lions and hyaenas. Leopards, with a wide diet and the ability to utilize habitats not favoured by most of the others, outnumber cheetahs and wild dogs. Cheetahs have to cope with sub optimal hunting conditions and pressure from spotted hyaenas. It is unclear why wild dogs, which are such efficient hunters in this area, are not more abundant.
Introduction
Authors: Kohn Alan J , Perron Frank E
Published: November 2023

Developmental modes among marine invertebrates range from the production of a few large offspring brooded by a protective mother, to the broadcast spawning of millions of tiny planktonic larvae that must fend for themselves as currents disperse them over a vast ocean. Both the existence of such dispersal capabilities and the dramatic differences between even similar taxa contrast conspicuously with most land and freshwater animals, and they must profoundly impact broad patterns of life history, geographic distribution, species longevity, and speciation rates.
Discussion, Synthesis, and Conclusions
Authors: Kohn Alan J , Perron Frank E
Published: November 2023

More than 250 species of Conus likely inhabit the vast tropical Indo-Pacific region. Our analyses of information from 62 of these indicate that several striking patterns and gradients occur among the quantifiable aspects of their reproductive biology.
Case histories in petroleum exploration I: elastic systems
Authors: Jones Robert Wynn
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with applications of micropalaeontology in petroleum exploration in elastic systems. The examples are selected so as to give as wide a geographic, geologic and stratigraphic coverage as possible and include Eastern Paratethys (Late Palaeogene to Pleisto-gene), the Niger Delta (Neogene to Pleistogene), the Mackenzie Delta, Arctic Canada (Palaeogene), the Gulf of Mexico (Neogene to Pleistogene), the Central and Northern North Sea ( Jurassic, Cretaceous and Palaeogene) and the South Atlantic (Mesozoic and Cenozoic).
Practical steps
Authors: Aitken M J
Published: November 2023

This and the next chapter indicate the basic steps and procedures involved in obtaining a date; Fig. 3.1 gives an overall outline of the practical stages. Before the sediment of any context is sampled, and the substantial effort of age determination put in motion, it is prudent to be certain that the sample has a meaningful relationship to the stratigraphy and/or geomorphology of the site, as indeed for any technique; likewise, consideration should be given to the degree of importance that the results would have and to whether the likely precision/accuracy would be adequate for the application concerned. But above all there is the question of whether the depositional bleaching is likely to have been adequate.
Cellular mechanisms of cholinergic control of neocortical and thalamic neuronal excitability
Authors: Mccormick D A
Published: November 2023

Central cholinergic systems have been implicated in the physiological processes which underlie a number of important behaviours and behavioural deficits including learning and memory, sleep-wake cycles, arousal and attentiveness, and Alzheimer’s disease (Steriade 1970; Krnjevic 1975; Singer 1977; Squire and Davis 1981; Coyle et al. 1983; Sakai 1985; Hobson and Steriade 1986; Richardson and DeLong l986a,b; Salamone 1986; Rasmussen and Dykes 1988). These, and other, studies have shown that certain groups of cholinergic neurons in the brain possess the ideal electrophysiological and anatomical properties to allow them to control the excitability of neurons in large portions of the central nervous system (CNS) including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and thalamus. The possibility that these cholinergic mechanisms may be involved in the ascending control of arousal is the subject of the present chapter.
Functional properties of septo-hippocampal neurons
Authors: Lamour Y , Senut M C , Bassant M H , Dutar P
Published: November 2023

The medial septal area contains neurons which innervate several structures in the central nervous system, including the hippocampal formation (through the fimbriafornix (Fi-Fx)) the olfactory bulb, the cingulate cortex, and the interpeduncular nucleus (De Olmos et al. 1978; Lamour et al. 1984a; Meibach and Siegel 1977; Price and Powell 1970; Raisman 1966; Swanson and Cowan 1979). The neurons of origin of these various pathways have a different topography within the medial septa! area. A significant proportion of these projection neurons are immunoreactive for ChAT, the synthesizing enzyme of ACh and are thus cholinergic.
Acetylcholine and neuronal plasticity in somatosensory cortex
Authors: Dykes R W
Published: November 2023

Many of the phenomena referred to as neuronal plasticity are long-lasting changes in function that come about through changes in the effectiveness of communication between neurons. Although some cases of neuronal plasticity have been shown to be due to sprouting of axons to establish new connections (Cotman and Nieto-Sampedro 1984), many changes in excitability appear to involve pre-existing synapses that are uncovered or strengthened in some way (Wall 1985; Merzenich et al. 1983a,b; Dykes and Metherate 1988). This chapter discusses processes to strengthen these pre-existing connections.
Kew Index For 1989 Ames At Generic Rank And Below
Authors: Davies R A , Lloyd K M
Published: November 2023

ABELIOPHYLLUM (Oleac.). distichum f eburneum T.B. Lee in J. Korean Pl. Taxon., 7(1-2): 22 (1976), without type— Korea. var. obtusicarpum T.B. Lee in J. Korean Pl. Taxon., 7(1–2): 22 (1976)—Korea. f viridicalycinum T.B. Lee in J. Korean Pl. Taxon., 7(1-2): 22 (1976), without type—Korea.
Perceptual and automatic aspects of the postural body scheme
Authors: Gurfinkel V S , Levick Yu. S
Published: November 2023

Posture can be defined as a body position that an animal or human being maintains for a relatively long time. Posture is characterized by a definite set of joint angles, the maintenance of which is provided by a number of reflex mechanisms. Nevertheless, it should be stressed that, in addition to the relative position of the body parts, the definite orientation of the body with respect to external space is also important. Special systems must exist to provide the capability for orientating the body with respect to a solid supporting surface, to the flow of air or water, to the gravitational field, or to the visual environment. Such spatial orientation is necessary not only for the maintenance of basic postural attitude but also for the performance of locomotor, manipulatory, and orientational movements. Our systematic thinking about the maintenance of the relative position of body parts must be supplemented by an analysis of the physiological mechanisms required for forming the basis of spatial orientation. The notion of spatial orientation apparently includes a set of different properties, such as the ability to form the concepts of verticality and horizontality, and to determine, for example, the directions of different objects in external space, their relative positions, and the distances to them. These aspects of spatial orientation are considered in other chapters. We are going to discuss only those aspects that are connected with the maintenance of posture.
Molecular biology
Authors: Nicholas F W
Published: November 2023

Molecular biology is a general term encompassing the manipulation of DNA and RNA in the laboratory. As well as providing powerful research tools, molecular biology is already being applied in vaccine production, veterinary diagnosis, manufacture of therapeutic proteins, detection of carriers of harmful genes, and in gene therapy. In the future, it will be increasingly difficult to find areas of animal health and production that are not substantially affected by this technology. In the following account, we shall review the most important features of this rapidly expanding field.
Single genes in populations
Authors: Nicholas F W
Published: November 2023

Most single-gene disorders are rare and consequently are not cause for great concern. Occasionally, however, a disorder due to a single gene reaches a high frequency among the animals belonging to one or a few breeders, or sometimes within a breed as a whole. The economic consequences of such an increase in frequency are sometimes quite severe, and breeders often ask how the disorder can be decreased in frequency, if not eliminated. In order to give useful advice, we need to know more than just simple Mendelian genetics; we must also understand the way in which genes behave within a herd or flock or kennel or cattery, or within a breed as a whole. In other words, we need to understand the basic principles of population genetics. The aim of this chapter is to explain those basic principles.
lmmunogenetics
Authors: Nicholas F W
Published: November 2023

If a foreign substance enters an animal or sometimes even if it just touches the animal’s skin, that animal automatically and unconsciously responds to the ‘attack’ by attempting to inactivate or destroy the foreign substance. Such a response is called an immune response, and the protection it provides is called immunity. There are two main types of immune response, each of which is brought about primarily by the action of a different type of lymphocyte (a type of white blood cell). Lymphocytes originate in the bone marrow stem cells. Those that migrate to the thymus become T lymphocytes (often called T cells), while those that migrate to the Bursa of Fabricius in chickens, or remain in the bone marrow in mammals, become B lymphocytes (B cells).
Relationship and inbreeding
Authors: Nicholas F W
Published: November 2023

The aim of this chapter is to provide an understanding of the concepts of relationship and inbreeding, which have important practical applications in the breeding of companion animals, the control of inherited diseases, the management of zoo populations and endangered species, the estimation of heritability, and in artificial selection programmes.
Crossing
Authors: Nicholas F W
Published: November 2023

Crossing is the mating of individuals from different populations (strains, breeds, or species). It is the second major method of exploiting genetic variation, selection being the first.
Infectious Diseases of Humans
Authors: Anderson Roy M , May Robert M
Published: November 2023

This book combines mathematical models with extensive use of epidemiological and other data, to achieve a better understanding of the overall dynamics of populations of pathogens or parasites and their human hosts. The authors thus provide an analytical framework for evaluating public health strategies aimed at controlling or eradicating particular infections. With rising concern for programmes of primary health care against such diseases as measles, malaria, river blindness, sleeping sickness, and schistosomiasis in developing countries, and the advent of HIV/AIDS and other `emerging viruses', such a framework is increasingly important. Throughout, the mathematics is used as a tool for thinking clearly about fundamental and applied problems relating to infectious diseases. The book is divided into two major parts, one dealing with microparasites (viruses, bacteria, and protozoans) and the other with macroparasites (helminths and parasitic arthropods). Each part begins with simple models, developed in a biologically intuitive way, and then goes on to develop more complicated and realistic models as tools for public health planning. A major contribution by two of the leaders in the field, this book synthesizes previous work in this rapidly growing area with much new material, combining work scattered between the ecological and medical literature.
Biology of host-microparasite associations
Authors: Anderson Roy M , May Robert M
Published: November 2023

Our operational definition of a microparasite encompasses a wide variety of different organisms ranging from simple viruses to ontogenetically complex organisms such as the malarial parasites. Their life cycles may be simple with transmission from person to person being direct, through contact with infective stages that are free-living in the environment, or through intimate contact between hosts such that no free-living phase occurs (e.g. the sexually transmitted infections), or through vectors or intermediate hosts within which parasite development or reproduction may or may not occur. Development during the life cycle may again be simple, as in the case of viral replication within a host cell and transmission between cells, or highly complex as in the alternate phases of asexual and sexual reproduction in the life cycles of the malarial or trypanosome protozoan parasites. We do not discuss here the recondite details that make each parasite life cycle distinct since this approach is well covered by other texts (see Fenner and White 1975; Cox 1982). Instead we focus on two areas: the first concerns immune responses to microparasitic infection and their consequences for population growth of a parasite within an individual host; and the second concerns the epidemiological data that are available (or can in practice be acquired) both to estimate model parameters and to test theoretical predictions.
Static aspects of eradication and control
Authors: Anderson Roy M , May Robert M
Published: November 2023

One important consequence of these indirect effects is that it is not necessary to immunize everyone in order to eradicate an infection. Once the vaccination coverage has reached some critical level, the microparasite will be unable to maintain its reproductive rate above unity. As it will never be possible to immunize every last individual, such indirect effects of ‘herd immunity’ are crucial in eradication programmes.
The ecology and genetics of host-parasite associations
Authors: Anderson Roy M , May Robert M
Published: November 2023

Our interest in the work described in this book originally grew out of our attempts to understand the extent to which parasites—broadly defined to include viral, bacterial, protozoan, and fungal pathogens along with the more conventionally defined helminth parasites—regulate the numerical abundance or geographical distribution of non-human animal populations. This is an area that ecologists have tended to neglect. A growing number of field, laboratory, and theoretical studies have focused on the possibility that predators may influence animal numbers or affect the geographical distribution of species, but only very recently have the ‘predatory’ effects of parasites begun to receive similar attention.
Herbivores, plant parasites, and plant diversity
Authors: Crawley M J , Pacala S W
Published: November 2023

The question of whether herbivorous animals in general, or plant parasites in particular, play a substantial role in plant community dynamics is unresolved. Some believe that herbivores are typically kept so scarce by their own natural enemies that they inflict no significant impact on plant performance and hence play an inconsequential role in plant community dynamics (Hairston et al. 1960). The implication is that interspecific plant competition is the driving force in plant community dynamics. On the other hand, others argue that herbivores can have a profound effect on plant community structure and function (Crawley 1983; Westoby 1985; McNaughton 1986). They point to the dramatic changes in plant community that result from the erection of fences to exclude vertebrate herbivores (Belsky 1986), and to the large scale eradication of alien weeds that can follow the importation and release of insect biocontrol agents (Crawley 1989a).
Developmental adaptations in nematodes
Authors: Hawdon J M , Schad G A
Published: November 2023

Nematodes are among the earth’s most successful groups of animals in the number of living species and in the variety of life styles they have adopted (Poinar 1983). There are an estimated 8000 fresh water and soil-dwelling species, 6500 marine species, and 15 000 parasites, including species parasitic in both plants and animals (Croll and Mathews 1977); the number of undescribed species is estimated to be as high as a million or more (Toft, Chapter 16, this volume).
Diencephalic amnesia
Authors: Graff-Radford Neill R , Tranel Daniel , Van Hoesen Gary W , Brandt Joan P
Published: November 2023

The anatomical basis and cognitive profile of diencephalic amnesia remain unclear. We report a two-part study. First, we studied four patients with bilateral medial thalamic infarctions using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and comprehensive neuropsychological testing. All patients were followed for more than one year. Using a stereotactic method, we plotted the lesions in an atlas delineating the probable structure involved. Second, in two monkeys, using autoradiography, we traced the pathway from the amygdala to the dorso-medial nucleus, paying particular attention to the intra-thalamic course of the amygdalo-thalamic projections.
Use of advance information in Parkinson’s disease
Authors: Lee Chuly , Brown Richard
Published: November 2023

In recent years, the question of cognitive function in patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) has attracted a growing amount of attention from neuropsychologists. From this empirical research base it has become clear that patients with PD are impaired on some aspects of cognitive function while they are unimpaired on others. There has been considerable interest in the apparent similarities between the pattern of cognitive deficits shown by patients with PD and those with damage to the prefrontal cortex (see Brown and Marsden 1990). However, while it may be a convenient ‘shorthand’ description, to talk of the ‘frontal’ deficit of PD, it tells us little of the processes that are actually going wrong. The situation is further complicated by the fact that the role of the frontal lobes themselves is far from clear. It is perhaps better, at this stage, to think in terms of the task conditions under which patients show normal and impaired performance. This may provide an essential first step in understanding the cognitive processes underlying the deficits.
Is there a frontal lobe dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease A comparison of the effects of Parkinson’s disease and circumscribed frontal lobe lesions in a maze learning task
Authors: Wallesch Claus-W , Karnath H Otto , Zimmermann Peter
Published: November 2023

A computerized maze task was constructed that allowed only partial vision of the maze structure presented on a computer screen and produced measurements for separate analysis of cognitive processes described as impaired both in Parkinson’s disease and frontal lobe pathology. Subjects were instructed to pass through the mazes (by pressing directional levers) as often as was necessary to complete the task without reaching a dead end.
Clinical-CT scan correlations in a prospective series of patients with acute left-hemispheric subcortical stroke
Authors: Vignolo Luigi A , Macario Maria Elena , Cappa Stefano F
Published: November 2023

Seven patients with CT-assessed left-hemispheric subcortical lesions were assessed in a prospective study of language disorders in the recent period after stroke. Only two patients with large haemorrhages had a persistent aphasia. Out of five cases with infarctions involving the paraventricular white matter, the internal capsule, or the postero-lateral thalamus, two patients had only transient language disorders, while aphasia was never reported in the other three. The present findings confirm that negative cases provide relevant information for clinico-anatomical correlation studies in subcortical aphasia.
Subcortical localization of ideomotor apraxia: a review and an
experimental study
Authors: Sala Sergio Della , Basso Anna , Laiacona Marcella , Papagno Costanza
Published: November 2023

The role of the deep structures in the genesis of cognitive disorders has recently been emphasized, since long-lasting aphasia (see Alexander (1989) for a review) and unilateral neglect (see Vallar and Perani (1987) for a review) have frequently been reported following a left- or right-hemisphere subcortical lesion. However, apraxia arising from deep lesions has only occasionally been reported. The term apraxia covers various disorders affecting the purposeful execution of deliberate movements, which cannot be explained by elementary motor-sensory disorders. When disruption arises at the stage of remembering the general configuration of the movement.
Biological adaptability of Australian Aboriginal people
Authors: Ulijaszek Stanley J
Published: November 2023

The Human Adaplability section of the International Biological Programme (IBP/HA) was launched in December 1962, with a conference at the CIBA Foundation in London. This lasted precisely for the duration of the last great London fog, a circumstance, which Collins and Weiner (1977) describe as ‘imposing a monastic seclusion on the participants who were thus obliged to remain together almost continuously for five days’. The outcome was a framework and policy for human biology research which was global in out reach. Although the main focus of the Australian IBP/HA programme was New Guinea, with studies of human biology, kuru, and multidisciplinary village based human ecology (Collins and Weiner 1977), there was a tradition of human biological research among Australian Aboriginal people which began in the 1920s, and which was pursued throughout the period of the IBP/HA Programme without fonnal initiation by the convenors of this programme. In retrospect, much of this work was highly innovative, and infonns our understanding of hunter-gatherer adaptations to the present day. In this chapter, the history of human biology research prior to, and during the Australian IBP/HA Programme among Australian Aboriginal people is out lined, and developments in human adaptability research subsequent to the IBP/ HA Programme described.
Circumpolar studies
Authors: Shephard Roy J
Published: November 2023

One important objective of the International Biological Programme Human Adaptability (IBP/HA) Project was to document the biological status of a wide range of indigenous populations while they were still living in the habitat to which they had adapted over the course of many centuries (Weiner 1964; Baker and Weiner 1966). The organizers recognized that many small populations, which had apparently made interesting adaptations to challenging local conditions, faced imminent acculturation to the culture and environment of a dominant ‘developed’ society. It was thus urgent to mount careful and detailed examination of both the habitat and biological adaptations before the process of acculturation was far advanced.
Prospects for Technical Cooperation in the Euphrates-Tigris Basin
Authors: Bilen Özden
Published: November 2023

Over the last decade, numerous reviews and studies have appeared in books and journals addressing the Middle East water issues. These have generally been diluted with multiple political arguments. A very sensitive and misused commodity by nature, water has often been manipulated by human beings driven by different aspirations and political ambitions. Several divergent views and political arguments have emerged concerning the use of transboundary rivers. It is not, however, the intention of this paper to go into the merits and demerits of these distinct approaches; rather it attempts to indicate some technical solutions which could help determine the supply and demand balance of the water required by the riparian countries in the Euphrates-Tigris basin.
Introduction
Authors: Helen M. Macbeth
Published: November 2023

In the eighteenth century a system of medicine based on humours was, for a brief time, rivalled by a medicine grounded in astrological prediction (Wright 1979). The former won the struggle for supremacy, to be replaced in its turn a century later by the triumph of a system of medicine based on pathological anatomy. A conventional explanation for the failure of astrological medicine is that it was ineffective: if the role of medicine is to intervene to alter the outcome of illness then astrological medicine could at best only have had a placebo effect. But this explanation of success and failure is to judge astrological medicine from the perspective of the present and not in its own terms. As well as relief from illness, astrological medicine offered predictions about the future course of life, of good fortune, marriages, and achievements. However, these are not the criteria by which it is now judged: past systems of medicine are evaluated by the criteria of the most recent. Thus, the current system of medicine holds certain outcomes as important and proceeds to evaluate rival systems of medicine in terms of success in achieving these particular outcomes; but from the perspectives of these superseded systems of medicine such criteria of success and failure may be less appropriate. From the view of a medicine based on astrological prediction, modern medicine stands condemned in not even attempting life course forecasts, never mind claiming any success in this area.
Sociological approaches to health outcomes
Authors: Davies Philip
Published: November 2023

Sociological approaches to health outcomes are built upon two basic tenets of the sociology of health and illness. The first of these is that individuals are social beings. By this, sociologists mean that human beings are not merely mechanical, biological entities but, rather, are creative agents who use their consciousness to create subjective and inter-subjective meanings through their interactions with others. That is to say, human beings are enmeshed in social, economic, occupational, cultural, religious, ethnic, and gender relations with other people, all of which influence how they view their everyday lives, give value and meaning to them, and create a sense of social reality. This view of individuals contrasts with the Cartesian separation of mind and body which has dominated Western philosophy since the seventeenth century and, amongst other things, has been partly responsible for the division of medicine and health care into somatic illness, which is usually dealt with by physical medicine, and mental illness, which is usually seen as the domain of psychological medicine and psychiatry (Szasz 1964; Capra 1982; Sacks 1990).
Scanning methods
Authors: Cotton Richard G H
Published: November 2023

It is legitimately asked ‘Why bother with setting up a scanning method when you can get the answer with sequencing?’ The answer to this question is not easy because it depends on the analysis to be performed as well as on the laboratory performing the analysis.

It is clear that if sequencing 500 bp tbok only a matter of minutes with little effort, there would be little call for scanning methods. However, the reality is that four sequencing reactions have to be performed and an electrophoretic gel poured, rqn and analysed. (It may be some years until the efforts of the Human Genome Ptoject will give us a really quick and reliable sequencing method.) Under the current circumstances the following reasons indicate there is a need for mutation scanning methods: they are used frequently to detect unknown (and even known) mutations.
Current strengths, weaknesses and future requirements for mutation detection methods
Authors: Cotton Richard G H
Published: November 2023

The problem with progress is that as soon as problems have been solved, new problems arise and this is certainly true of the era created by PCR technology. Maybe we will never attain the ideal, but always be questing towards it. In the context of this volume, both the system we are studying and the methodology itself has problems.
Immune defence: genetic control
Authors: Wakelin Derek , Apanius Victor
Published: November 2023

As will be apparent from other chapters in this book, birds act as hosts for a very wide variety of parasites. If an inclusive definition is used, then birds are infected by every major group of parasites, from viruses to arthropods. Surveys of infections show that individual birds are often heavily parasitized, both in terms of the number of species present and in terms of the number of parasites of a given species. Parasitic infections can be a major cause of morbidity and mortality in avian populations and undoubtedly play an important role in population regulation.
Birds as habitat for parasites
Authors: Crompton D W T
Published: November 2023

Ecology is the study of the mutual relations between organisms and their environments or, as is appropriate in part II of this book, between a wide variety of parasites (Table 13.1) and the environment provided by their avian hosts (Table 13.2). The aims of this review are to introduce the diversity of bird-parasite interactions, to outline the variety of microhabitats for parasites provided by birds, and to identify features of the alimentary tract, the blood system, the skin, and the nest as examples of particular microhabitats.
Plantation Silviculture in Europe
Authors: Savill Peter , Evans Julian , Auclair Daniel , Falck Jan
Published: November 2023

As pressures to preserve natural forest resources have increased, plantation forestry and its study have gained in importance. Plantation Silviculture in Europe is an up-to-date, timely, and comprehensive exploration of the principles that underlie the planting and maintaining of forest resources. Based on the excellent reception of Savill and Evans' Plantation Silviculture in Temperate Regions (OUP, 1986), which was largely UK-based, the inclusion of two European authors ensures that the scope of this new book extends across the entire continent. Plantation Silviculture in Europe provides a thorough overview of the central aspects of conventional plantation forestry, covering site preparation, choice of species, establishment and maintenance, nutrition, spacing, thinning and pruning, and protection. In addition, it acknowledges the changing emphasis and increasing diversity of contemporary forestry, and includes chapters on community woodlands, urban forests, plantings for amenity and sport, and energy crops. Throughout, an attempt is made to set practices in the context of the ecological and biological forest processes which underpin them. Plantation Silviculture also incorporates discussion of the many environmental, social and policy issues that surround forestry today. Concise and clearly written, this will be essential reading for graduate and undergraduate forestry students and forestry professionals alike. Likely to become the standard text throughout Europe, it also contains much material of relevance to foresters in North America, East Asia, and Australasia.
Production and long-term productivity in plantations
Authors: Savill Peter , Evans Julian , Auclair Daniel , Falck Jan
Published: November 2023

The main reasons for practising plantation forestry, rather than a system based on natural regeneration, are usually the predictability of yields and the relative ease of control of the production processes. The level of yields and the possible long-term risks involved in achieving them are among the most fundamental considerations in plantation forestry. Forestry differs from related land uses, like agriculture and horticulture, due to the longer production periods involved. Biomass has to be accumulated, normally over decades, before the trees have any financial value. For most other crops, the time of harvest is highly predictable, sometimes even within days, but in forests it can vary by many years.
Fire
Authors: Savill Peter , Evans Julian , Auclair Daniel , Falck Jan
Published: November 2023

Fire can be a spectacular and extremely destructive cause of damage to plantations. But, although the great majority of such fires in Europe are caused by human activities, fire has long been part of natural ecosystems, a point apt to be forgotten, though not irrelevant, when considering its threat to plantation forestry. A comprehensive account of the nature of forest fires in North America, their significance and their management, including fire fighting, is given by Pyne (1984). A great amount of work into the nature of fires and fire prevention in southern Europe, where fires occur every year, sometimes on vast areas, is currently in progress and present knowledge has been described in detail by Trabaud (1989), Delabraze (1990a), and Moreno and Oechel (1994).
Prey availability
Authors: Sutherland William J
Published: November 2023

Animals often appear to live amongst a superabundance of food. For example, for many thrushes, frogs, or damselfish there must often be as many prey in a square metre of substrate as an individual requires in a day. Herbivores are similarly often surrounded by abundant vegetation. Individuals may, however, starve amongst such apparent abundance and the reason, of course, is that not all of the food is available. Availability is thus a very important factor, yet it has received little attention as it is often hard to quantify.
Population regulation
Authors: Sutherland William J
Published: November 2023

This chapter will show how population size can be understood in relation to aspects of behaviour such as interference, depletion, and territoriality. Population size results from the interaction of density-dependent and densityindependent mortality and breeding output. In this chapter I will start by considering the links between foraging behaviour and the nature of densitydependent mortality and then between territorial behaviour and density¬dependent breeding output, and then show how both of these can be combined to give the equilibrium population size. It is then possible to explore the relationship between behavioural measures, such as the degree of interference or territorial behaviour, and population size.