bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Language Learning as Technology of the Self
Authors: Sung-Yul Park Joseph
Published: September 2021

This chapter explores how the act of English language learning came to be framed as a moral project during the Korean English fever, focusing on the role that such aspects of morality played in rationalizing the social inequalities reproduced and exacerbated through the neoliberal promotion of English. Its analysis focuses on representation of successful learners of English in the conservative press, which frequently published stories of elite English language learners throughout the English fever. The chapter shows how these stories consistently downplayed the privileged provenance of the successful learners, and instead highlighted the extraordinary effort they put into learning English, presenting them as moral figures—ideal neoliberal subjects who immerse themselves in careful and ethical management of oneself. It is through such representations that English language learning came to reframed as a Foucauldian technology of the self, and a moral responsibility for neoliberal self-development.
Deferring to the Other
Authors: Sung-Yul Park Joseph
Published: September 2021

This chapter discusses how the notion of linguistic insecurity can illuminate the processes by which essentialist conceptions of language and identity—in particular, the persistent colonial ideology of nativeness—contribute to the hegemonic status of English in neoliberalism. This chapter conceptualizes linguistic insecurity in terms of tensions that speakers experience between conflicting language ideologies. Focusing on the case of Korean mid-level managers working in non-Korean multinational corporations abroad, the chapter argues that the notion of linguistic insecurity allows us to explore how conflicting ideologies about English in neoliberalism—one in which English is valorized as a commodifiable resource available to anyone through projects of self-development, and one in which who counts as a legitimate speaker of English is defined in ethnonational terms—can jointly create a sense of insecurity in those who are traditionally considered non-native speakers of English, and rationalize the inequalities they are subjected to in neoliberalism.
Conclusions
Authors: Sung-Yul Park Joseph
Published: September 2021

This chapter closes this book by summarizing the arguments made in the previous chapters and considering the implications for the study of language and political economy. Subjectivities of English in neoliberalism jointly work to present neoliberal subjecthood as the ideal way of living, thereby rationalizing the structures of control inherent in neoliberalism. Research on language and political economy has much to gain by attending to aspects of subjectivity that underlie the way language gets incorporated into the conditions of the changing economy, as language serves as an important channel through which neoliberalism extends its control over our minds, bodies, and sense of being. For this, we need to recognize that subjective experiences of being a language user is fraught with tensions based on material relations, and make them a serious focus for the study of language and political economy.
Charleston Mad
Authors: Mordden Ethan
Published: September 2021

This chapter investigates how the revue became all the rage in the 1910s. At this time, the London Hippodrome specialized in showing big variety shows. Joy-Land! (1915) was typical of this type of show, each number calling up gala visuals and gigantic ensembles. In the 1920s, Charles B. Cochran reinvented revue as a small but arty performance. It became sophisticated in not only its material but its fizzy performing talent. In the 1910s, however, size mattered as well as the emerging American style. The furor for the American sound, stimulated by local dance bands adopting the American style, led producers to hire American songwriters. The chapter looks at titles such as The Cabaret Girl (1922), The Maid Of the Mountains (1917), Chu Chin Chow (1916), and The Bing Boys Are Here (1916). The chapter also studies Mister Cinders (1929), which became the most vital British musical of this era.
Applied Cross-Cultural Data Analysis for Social Work
Authors: Tran Thanh V. , Chan Keith T.
Published: September 2021

Applied Cross-Cultural Data Analysis for Social Work is a research guide which provides a hands-on approach for learning and understanding data analysis techniques for examining and interpreting data for the purpose of cultural group comparisons. This book aims to provide practical applications in statistical approaches of data analyses that are commonly used in cross-cultural research and evaluation. Readers are presented with step-by-step illustrations in the use of descriptive, bivariate, and multivariate statistics to compare cross-cultural populations using large-scale, population-based survey data. These techniques have important applications in health, mental health, and social science research relevant to social work and other helping professions, especially in providing a framework of evidence to examine health disparities using population-health data. For each statistical approach discussed in this book, we explain the underlying purpose, basic assumptions, types of variables, application of the Stata statistical package, the presentation of statistical findings, and the interpretation of results. Unlike previous guides on statistical approaches and data analysis in social work, this book explains and demonstrates the strategies of cross-cultural data analysis using descriptive and bivariate analysis, multiple regression, additive and multiplicative interaction, mediation, and SEM and HLM for subgroup analysis and cross-cultural comparisons. This book also includes sample syntax from Stata for social work researchers to conduct cross-cultural analysis with their own research.
Introduction
Authors: Milstein Sara J.
Published: September 2021

The law collection genre is rooted in Mesopotamia, beginning with the Sumerian Laws of Ur-Namma in the third millennium BCE. Over the next millennium, similar collections were produced in Mesopotamia, the most famous being the Laws of Hammurabi. The Assyrians and Hittites also put this genre to use in their own contexts. It has long been taken for granted that certain biblical units—specifically, Exodus 20–23, Deuteronomy 12–26, and Priestly law—likewise reflect “native” adaptations of the Near Eastern genre. Close examination of these texts, however, indicates that they are closer in form and function to the Mesopotamian genre of legal-pedagogical texts. Mesopotamian scribes produced a wide range of legal-oriented school-texts, including fictional cases, sample contracts, and legal phrasebooks. When Exodus 20–23 and Deuteronomy 12–26 are examined against the backdrop of these Mesopotamian legal-pedagogical texts, the pedagogical roots of what scholars call “biblical law” begin to emerge.
A ‘New’ Law of Cooperation: Collective Action across Regimes for the Promotion of Public Goods and Values versus Fragmentation
Authors: Stoll Peter-Tobias
Published: September 2021

Many efforts of international cooperation serve to organize global public goods, to set up regimes for global commons, and to promote fundamental values. Friedmann welcomed these developments as a law of cooperation, where states go beyond merely coordinating sovereign interests but indeed reach out for collective action. Friedmann’s diagnosis correctly described the essence of today’s international law and its developments. Diverse international regimes exist, particularly in areas such as human rights, environmental protection, and economic relations. However, public goods and fundamental values can hardly be achieved by those regimes in separation. A proper interaction across the various agreements and regimes is vital. States should join to achieve common ends. A ‘new’ law of cooperation is needed, aimed at promoting public goods and values across the diverse regimes and concerned about the integrity of the international legal order also addressing dimensions of efficiency and legitimacy.
Metamaterials
Authors: Sutton Adrian P
Published: September 2021

Metamaterials are composites that have extended the concept of a material. They derive their properties from strong coupling between carefully designed and positioned structural units within them and an incident elastic or electromagnetic wave. They are paragons of materials design. In certain frequency ranges of the incident wave they may display properties that no other materials have ever shown, such as negative refraction. First, an elastic metamaterial demonstrates the principle. Electromagnetic metamaterials have been designed using transformation optics to cloak an object and make it invisible in a certain range of frequencies. The concept of metamaterials has been applied to protect cities and coastal regions from seismic waves and ocean waves.
The Middle-Income Trap and Premature Deindustrialization in South Africa
Authors: Andreoni Antonio , Tregenna Fiona
Published: September 2021

South Africa has been experiencing premature deindustrialization and poor growth over an extended period of time. Premature deindustrialization is among the key factors locking many middle-income countries in a trap of stagnant growth and thwarting their catching-up with advanced economies. Premature deindustrialization shrinks middle-income countries’ opportunities for technological development, and also their capacity to add value in global value chains (GVCs), which reduces their scope for the sustained increases in productivity required for catching up. This chapter analyses key structural factors contributing to a ‘middle-income technology trap’. Throughout the chapter, reference is made to the divergent experiences of three middle-income comparator countries to South Africa: Brazil, China, and Malaysia. Building on this framework, the chapter presents new econometric evidence of premature deindustrialization in South Africa through an international comparative lens. By studying the relationship between countries’ GDP per capita and their shares of manufacturing in total employment, the chapter identifies the level of GDP per capita and share of manufacturing in total employment associated with the ‘turning point’ at which the share of manufacturing levels off and begins to decline. The chapter groups countries into four categories based on their (de)industrialization dynamics, and identifies possible premature deindustrializers, among which South Africa is found. South Africa’s lack of structural transformation helps to explain its failure to escape the middle-income technology trap.
Global Value Chains, ‘In-Out-In’ Industrialization, and the Global Patterns of Sectoral Value Addition
Authors: Andreoni Antonio , Lee Keun , Torreggiani Sofia
Published: September 2021

Since the emergence and diffusion of regional and global value chains, production-chain development has always played a key role in shaping countries’ structural transformation. Over the years, the geographical breadth, length, and depth of these chains have changed significantly. Building on the catching-up experience of South Korea and China, this chapter investigates the conditions and processes under which today’s catching-up economies can benefit from integrating into global value chains (GVCs). The chapter empirically documents how successful catching-up has been associated with an ‘in-out-in’ industrialization process of GVC integration, where countries first ‘couple’ by entering GVCs in low value-added segments, then ‘decouple’ by building domestic supply chains and upgrading existing local capabilities, and finally ‘recouple’ by performing high value-addition activities in GVCs. The chapter also assesses the extent to which middle-income countries like South Africa have managed to increase their sectoral value addition in this global production settlement over the last two decades. The chapter finds that today’s middle-income countries have experienced different fortunes at the country and sectoral level when it comes to increasing domestic value addition. The chapter concludes by reflecting on possible future scenarios arising in the post-Covid-19 international context and the emergence of potential new industrialization models.
Statistical Issues in the Estimation of Functional Responses
Authors: DeLong John P.
Published: September 2021

In this chapter I cover some key issues in fitting functional response models to data and determining the values of parameters. Because some of these issues have been covered elsewhere, here I focus on the nature of foraging trial data and why noise, stochasticity, and individual variation pose particular challenges for understanding functional responses. I examine several data sets to illustrate methods of determining differences in functional response parameters and types. I also show through simulations that individual variation in functional response parameters may account for the noisiness of foraging data and also lead to underestimates of both space clearance rate and handling time in curve-fitting approaches.
Challenges for the Future of Functional Response Research
Authors: DeLong John P.
Published: September 2021

Being recognized for more than 70 years and estimated thousands of times, with numerous analyses of compilations, it would seem there is a lot we should know about functional responses. Indeed, we know some of the ways in which functional responses vary, how foraging mechanisms combine to determine, to at least some extent, functional response parameters, and how functional responses influence community interactions from biocontrol impacts to invasive predators to food webs. I suggest, however, that there remains a considerable amount that we do not know, in particular for field-based functional responses, multi-species functional responses, individual variation, behavioral mechanisms, and the impact and evolution of underlying traits. I suggest these areas should be high priorities for future work on functional responses.
Access, Quality, and the Global Learning Crisis
Authors: Kabay Sarah
Published: September 2021

Around the world, 250 million children cannot read, write, or perform basic mathematics. They represent almost 40 percent of all primary school-aged children. This situation has come to be called the “Global Learning Crisis,” and it is one of the most critical challenges facing the world today. Work to address this situation depends on how it is understood. Typically, the Global Learning Crisis and efforts to improve primary education are defined in relation to two terms: access and quality. This book is focused on the connection between them. In a mixed-methods case study, this book provides detailed, contextualized analysis of Ugandan primary education. As one of the first countries in sub-Saharan Africa to enact dramatic and far-reaching primary education policy, Uganda serves as a compelling case study. With both quantitative and qualitative data from over 400 Ugandan schools and communities, the book analyzes grade repetition, private primary schools, and school fees, viewing each issue as an illustration of the connection between access to education and education quality. This analysis finds evidence of a positive association, challenging a key assumption that there is a trade-off or disconnect between efforts to improve access to education and efforts to improve education quality. The book concludes that embracing the complexity of education systems and focusing on dynamics where improvements in access and quality can be mutually reinforcing can be a new approach for improving basic education in contexts around the world.
Private Primary Schools
Authors: Kabay Sarah
Published: September 2021

Over the past two decades, private primary schools have become one of the most contentious topics of research in the field of international education. In particular, “low-cost” or “low-fee” private primary schools has received a lot of attention. The crux of the issue can be described in terms of access and quality. The promise of the private sector is that it could provide a higher-quality alternative to public education, and one that might be more cost-effective. The threat of the private sector is that it might deepen educational inequality, providing access to quality education for only some children and potentially making education worse for others. This chapter reviews some of the research on the subject and then analyzes transfer to private primary schools, comparing the educational experience of children in these schools with that of children in the government schools from which they transferred. Analysis accordingly aligns with questions of access (what predicts transfer to private school) and quality (what differences (or similarities) exist between government and private primary schools).
Future Contingents and the Logic of Temporal Omniscience
Authors: Todd Patrick , Rabern Brian
Published: September 2021

Perhaps one of the chief objections to open future views is that they must deny a principle we may call “Retro-closure”: roughly, if something is the case, then it was the case that it would be the case. Certain theorists, however—supervaluationists and relativists—have attempted to maintain both the open future view, and Retro-closure. In this chapter, the author argues (with Brian Rabern) that this combination of views is untenable: we must take our pick between the open future and Retro-closure. They argue that this combination of views results either in an unacceptable form of changing the past, or instead implausibly rules out the (former) existence of an omniscient being. In the appendix to this chapter, Todd argues that we can plausibly do without the Retro-closure principle, and that the principle, while intuitive, is not nearly so obvious as many have seemed to suppose.
Situating Contingency in the Path of International Law
Authors: Venzke Ingo
Published: September 2021

This introduction situates thinking about contingency on the field of what is possible, bounded by necessity, on one side, and chance on the other. It shows what makes the search for contingency in the course of international law so politically charged and so valuable—its link with human freedom. Expanding on the agenda behind the present volume, the chapter discusses how searching for contingency might facilitate change in the present for a different future. In contrast to other projects, asking about past possibilities offers an account for why something that may seem desirable has not materialised. Such an account must guide those on pathways of transformation in their sobering search for change. What would actually have made a difference in the course of international law, and what still can? Overall, the chapter highlights three sites of contingency: in the law’s contextualisation; the reading of its context; and the rendering of its history.
What If the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea had Entered into Force Unamended
Authors: Oude Elferink Alex
Published: September 2021

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Convention) was adopted in 1982 and entered into force in 1994 and is generally considered to be a success story. That success in part it attributed to the adaptation of the mining regime for the deep seabed contained in Part XI of the Convention prior to its entry into force. The chapter considers whether the law of the sea might have development differently in the absence of such adaptation, looking at two scenarios: ‘business as usual’ and ‘dystopia’. After sketching these scenarios, the chapter further assesses the likelihood of a number of the elements they have in common. In concluding, it is observed that the law of the sea might have developed differently had states failed to reach an agreement on the adjustment of Part XI of the Convention prior to its entry into force. The conclusion also consider the question whether the Convention, which was adopted after more than ten years of complex negotiations, actually was ‘too big to fail’. It is submitted that the Convention would not have failed by design. However, the analysis of the counterfactuals suggests that the consultations on Part XI might have been stalled, and developments might have slowly eroded the basis for a compromise. Still, it is unlikely that this would have resulted in a radically different law of the sea regime, but there likely would have been more conflicting claims, leading to less effective cooperation and higher transaction costs.
Bandung’s Fate
Authors: Crow Kevin
Published: September 2021

This chapter argues that the 1955 Bandung Conference’s anticlimactic impact is most usefully understood in the present as inevitable, yet its normative surplus remains valuable. It describes a collection of conditions that manifest in what it terms ‘Bandung’s fate’: a narrow understanding of Bandung’s legal utility in its immediate present that was in many ways preordained. The chapter argues that pre-1955 discourses in the ‘First World’ created a place for Bandung in its immediate aftermath from which it could not escape, and it draws this understanding primarily from newspaper reporting from major outlets in the First World and contemporaneous reports from Indonesia’s National Archives that detail Indonesia’s understandings of First World perceptions of Bandung. After contrasting these with reports that detail perceptions from the ‘Third World’, the chapter suggests that for the nations that controlled international law, Bandung served preordained purposes that undermined its immediate impact. However, recent scholarship revisiting and revising the story of Bandung, along with renewed interest in what the failure of the NIEO can teach us in the present, indicates that the Conference created a ‘normative surplus’—an unveiling of acceptable norms at a particular point uncodified in law. In specifying elements of Bandung’s ‘normative surplus’ that could be revived, the chapter attempts to recast Bandung not as a story of possibilities lost but a catalyst for new possibilities in the present and future.
What the Listeners Want
Authors: Faragher Megan
Published: September 2021

In 1942, Val Gielgud and John Dickson Carr wrote and produced a pair of plays: Inspector Silence Takes the Air and Thirteen to the Gallows. Both are set in the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) studios during wartime, and both dramatized dead air and dead bodies. Gielgud, as a high-level radio-producer, feared that the BBC was broadcasting into a void. The emergence of the Listener Research Department, a unit designed to assess listener sentiment about BBC programming, promised to usher in an institution with a more responsive relationship to its audience. But these plays, featuring BBC technicians as villains, criticize the BBC’s Reithian self-conception as an unliteral force to produce and manufacture public taste, a tendency in constant tension with the burgeoning science of listener research. This chapter traces the ambivalent responses to the wireless as both a method of controlling public opinion and a medium with the potential to facilitate psychographic congruity across populations. Those outside the BBC expressed equal parts concern and optimism about the ability of wireless technology to shape its audiences. Recognizing the BBC’s power to move listeners, Olaf Stapledon’s short story “A World of Sound” is the first of his works to theorize the sonic sphere as a means of transcending individual consciousness; radio-centric telepathy would later become a crux to his aesthetic project, with novels like Star Marker imagining radio waves as a means of decentralizing authority and enabling individuals to access the public consciousness directly and make collective decisions.
Fundamental Aspects of Audio and Music Signals
Authors: Lazzarini Victor
Published: September 2021

This chapter introduces and explores some basic aspects of audio and music signal processing. It first looks at analogue signals, developing in good detail the concepts of frequency, phase, and amplitude, supported by some mathematics. Simple manipulation of signals is discussed and its effects on sound waveforms are shown. The key concept of discrete signals, and the discretisation process involved in sampling is introduced. The chapter concludes with the definition of digital audio.
Non-Linear Synthesis of Spectra
Authors: Lazzarini Victor
Published: September 2021

This chapter turns away from the linear world of the Fourier transform and introduces the concepts related to non-linear operations as a means of spectral modification through waveshaping. The idea of non-linear functions applied to simple sinusoidal signals is explored from various perspectives. Closed-form summation formulae are first shown as examples of non-linear techniques. This is followed by a thorough discussion of phase and frequency modulation methods, themselves also shown to be based on the application of non-linear waveshaping methods. This is complemented by the techniques of phase distortion and the more general vector phase shaping algorithm. A look into adaptive forms of frequency modulation is followed by a complete study of polynomial and other forms of waveshaping.
Introduction
Authors: Tomás António
Published: September 2021

Undoubtedly, Cabral was one of the most successful guerrilla leaders in the world. Through the movement he created, the PAIGC, he not only contributed to the liberation of Guinea-Bissau from Portuguese colonialism, but he also produced revolutionary theory. Furthermore, his quest for independence was also instrumental to the end of the Portuguese colonial regime and dictatorship itself. This introduction asks the question: almost five decades since his tragic killing in the hand of his own men, and the independence of Guinea and Cape Verde, how can the legacy of Cabral be re-interpreted in the lights of the political trajectory these countries of Lusophone Africa have followed?
Engineer and Clandestine Militant
Authors: Tomás António
Published: September 2021

In 1952, Cabral obtains his degree in agronomy, with a dissertation on peasants in the South of Portugal, Alentejo, and moves to Guinea-Bissau, as the director of an experimental farm. From 1952 to 1959, Cabral will be involved in various subversive activities against Portuguese colonialism without relinquishing his official position in the colonial administration. It is in fact as an agronomist, working mainly for colonial agricultural farms that Cabral visits Angola a couple of times and becomes the main point of contact between nationalists in Lisbon and other parts of Europe and those who were in the Portuguese-dominated African countries.
The Cape Verdean Question
Authors: Tomás António
Published: September 2021

With the attacks to the Portuguese barracks in 1963 that launched the PAIGC into the anticolonial war, the movement led by Cabral weighted the importance of extending the conflict to Cape Verde. A strategy was devised, and international supported from Cuba and Soviet Union was secured. The death of Che Guevara in the jungle of Bolivia, in 1967, the difficulty in recruiting the personnel for the operation, forced PAIGC into reconsidering the operation. In the end, Cabral’s movement settled to the notion that war did not have to be extended to Cape Verde, since a bullet shot in Guinea was a contribution to independence of Cape Verde. However, putting both Cape Verde and Guinea in the path of independence, but concentrating all the effort in one single territory, created resentment against the Cape Verdeans.
Freddie Mercury
Authors: Braae Nick
Published: September 2021

This chapter analyses and interprets the singing of Freddie Mercury. It is argued that the singer utilised four predominant voice types—powerful, gritty, sincere, exaggerated—which were defined by combinations of vocal techniques. These voice types often aligned with stylistic contexts but were also utilised to emphasise the structural dynamics of songs, such as moving from a lighter tone (e.g. sincere) to a powerful tone at the onset of a pre-chorus. Furthermore, Mercury’s deployment of these voice types in incongruous stylistic contexts (e.g. a breathy tone in a hard rock song), along with the ambiguity as to whether he possessed a ‘true’ voice, may be read as queer vocal strategies that challenge heteronormative conventions of male rock singing. It is argued that his vocal aesthetic was influenced by Liza Minnelli and Marilyn Monroe—theatrical voices—which underscores his ability to present a distinct performance identity.
The Musical World(s) of Queen
Authors: Braae Nick
Published: September 2021

This chapter begins from the premise that’s Queen idiolect or ‘sound’ was distinct in popular music. Using the concept of ‘style planets’, the idiolect characteristics are connected to numerous and varied stylistic sources including 1970s hard rock, 1970s Baroque pop, 1960s pop, soul, and pre-WWII American popular song. These influences are identified in the textural structures, performance gestures, and harmonic choices. Using the concept of ‘musical worlding’, it is suggested that a hypothetical listener might regard Queen’s idiolect as predominantly placed within the world of hard rock, but made to sound distinct and unique because of the integration of seemingly incongruous style influences within their songs. This analysis is conducted with primary reference to ‘We Are the Champions’
Slavery in Europe during Antiquity and the First Millennium
Authors: Brink Stefan
Published: September 2021

In this chapter I give an overview of research on slavery (for some parts) of Western Europe in the first Millennium: The Roman Empire, Francia, Anglo-Saxon England, Ireland and Visigothic Spain. The difficulties of properly defining the legal status—whether free or unfree—for terms such as coloni, villani, bordari, cottari, famulus, servus etc. are discussed, and it is shown that in some areas and during some periods the legal status can differ. This is to serve as a background for our discussion of a Scandinavian slavery.
Thralls’ Names in Scandinavia
Authors: Brink Stefan
Published: September 2021

Thanks to the Old Norse literature we have an large corpus of slave names to consider. When analysing these names, we arrive at the unfortunate conclusion that in many (most?) cases these names look like fictious, generative names, created to fit with the thrall topoi in the narrative. This is evident in the enumeration of thrall names in the poem Rígsþula, where all the names for male and female slaves are highly derogatory, obviously to make a statement of these unfree people being firmly at the bottom of society and to be looked upon with contempt. There are some names on slaves which have an origin in Celtic language, which are interesting, and some probably have a historical background. In the will of freed slaves, mentioned before, all former slaves have ordinary personal names that we find among free people. This raises the question if freed slaves took or were given a new, proper and Christian name at the manumission.
The Special Case of Älmeboda Parish in Southern Småland
Authors: Brink Stefan
Published: September 2021

The parish of Älmeboda in Southern Sweden may perhaps be used as a unique case where we find slave names in place names. The parish did see a large colonization in former woodland in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. This colonization may have been an organized venture by some large land-owner, potentially the Church, where plots of land (måla) was divided up and given cottagers to become rent-paying tenants. What is unique in this case, is that the personal names in these place-names very often are extremely derogatory, which could be taken as an indication that the tenants were former slaves.
The Status of Slaves in Prehistoric Scandinavian Society
Authors: Brink Stefan
Published: September 2021

In this final chapter I am trying to sum up the discussion and to present some kind of theory of how Viking-Age slavery looked like. The hypothesis is that Scandinavian Vikings were a major player in the emerging slave trade in Europe, but the poor people they seized in both the East and the West, mainly were sold off at slave markets. What the Scandinavians desired was probably not bonded humans to bring home to Scandinavia as slaves, but precious metal, especially silver. The many hoards with huge deposits of silver, found in Scandinavia, especially on Gotland, may therefore be the result of an intensive and lucrative slave trade. This hypothesis also leads to another assumption, namely that the number of slaves in Viking-Age Scandinavia was not that great; to label Scandinavia during this era a “slave society” is therefore, probably, misleading. Another hypothesis pursued is that slavery and freedom are difficult to see as absolute categories. There were in some cases a gliding scale between a free and an unfree; a legally unfree person could have a socially elevated position, and so on.
Excursus Trelleborg
Authors: Brink Stefan
Published: September 2021

In this excursus the enigmatic Viking-Age ringforts, called trelleborgar, are discussed. The name is difficult to understand and etymologize, and the background to the fortresses, and how they were built, are also questions difficult to answer.
“An Established Law of Our Nature”
Authors: Steward Gary L.
Published: September 2021

This chapter explores the American clergy’s arguments for political resistance as they developed in the 1770s, as British actions toward the colonists became more aggressive and ultimately intolerable to the colonists. As certain pockets of colonial society suffered greatly under British attempts to coerce submission, the clergy increasingly turned to arguments for self-defense as a basis of justifying resistance. The natural right of self-defense had long been recognized as a legitimate ground for taking up arms and for engaging in defensive warfare. Arguments published in earlier centuries were reprinted in America and encouraged the colonists to understand their expressions of political resistance in terms of self-defense.
The Most Important Shot in Popular Cinema
Authors: Cutting James E.
Published: September 2021

In this chapter, evidence is presented that the most important shot in cinema is the reaction shot—a shot of an unspeaking character reacting to an event. In particular, those at the end of a conversation have increased dramatically during the past 70 years. Much discussion of the reaction shot has focused on the Kuleshov effect, the empathic response of viewers to the mere juxtaposition of a character’s emotionless face with content. There seems to be little experimental support for this effect in isolation. The chapter then explores the nature of reaction-shot facial expressions in movies during the past 70 years. Results show a distinctly non-Kuleshovian bent. Instead of characters being expressionless, they show mild arousal and mild displeasure. This is consistent with the notion that viewers need hints to employ theory-of-mind considerations in evaluating these shots.
Continuity, Discontinuity, and Scenes
Authors: Cutting James E.
Published: September 2021

Continuity is the smooth flow of movies, whereas discontinuity is an interruption. Continuity generally rules within scenes, and discontinuity is fostered between them. Movie scenes are psychological events, and they have beginnings, middles, and ends. These manifest themselves in shot durations that go from longer to shorter to longer again, creating an arc. Shot scales show a similar arc—long shots, moving to medium shots and medium close-ups, and then often backing away. Scenes typically take place in a single location, with a fixed set of characters, over a small but continuous time period. Narrational shifts to a new scene occur when any one of these three dimensions is changed. This chapter discusses examples covering all seven possible shifts. It also discusses, with examples, Walter Murch’s Rule of Six, an ordered ranking of editing principles. This leads to a discussion of the less-than-overwhelming importance the 180-degree rule.
The Web and Flow of Popular Cinema
Authors: Cutting James E.
Published: September 2021

Rhythm is a much-discussed term in film theory. This chapter examines the patterns of shot durations, motion, luminance, and clutter across the length of movies in two ways. First, it averages across a century’s worth of movies adjusting for their differential lengths. Results reveal patterns that map well onto the larger narrative parts of movies. Moreover, these patterns have evolved only relatively recently—since the 1960s for shot durations and motion, and perhaps only since the 1990s for luminance, clutter, and syntagmas. Second, it focuses on patterns within each movie. Many accounts of cinematic rhythm refer to human movement, which provides an entrée into understanding the rhythms, indeed polyrhythms, of whole movies. Walking, breathing, and heartbeats all have a fractal rhythm—and so do movies. This suggests that the skills of filmmakers are attuned to rhythms in movies that are not unlike those of the human body.
Tito's Secret Empire
Authors: Klinger William , Kuljis Denis
Published: September 2021

This groundbreaking biography of Marshal Tito of Yugoslavia presents many startling new revelations, among them his role as an international revolutionary leader and his relationship with Winston Churchill. It highlights his early years as a Comintern operative, the context for his later politics as a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). The authors argue that in the 1940s, between the dissolution of the Comintern and the rise of NAM, Tito's influence and ambition were far wider than has been understood, extending to Italy, France, Greece and Spain via the international communist networks established during the Spanish Civil War. The book discloses for the first time the connection between Tito's expulsion from the Cominform and the Rome assassination attempt on the Italian Communist Party leader, Palmiro Togliatti — the man who had plotted to overthrow Tito. The book offers a pivotal contribution to our understanding of Tito as a figure of real, rather than imagined, global significance. The book will reward those who are interested in the history of international Communism, the Cold War and the Non-Aligned Movement, or in Tito the man — one of the most significant leaders of the twentieth century.
Strategy and Control
Authors: Valmisa Mercedes
Published: September 2021

Chapter 3 makes use of the military literature to identify, analyze, and contrast different models of efficacious action in early China. These models intend not to reflect purist and transcendent ways of action. They are a description of the possible solutions to the problem of efficacious action found in our extant military materials. There are certain attitudes that can be better understood under the rubric of a particular model (or meta-model) of agency. Sometimes we need to do the work of assembling these attitudes together and endowing them with a name. At other times, the attitudes are found already conceptualized as a model of action in the texts themselves. Overall, discourses on military agency address situations that can potentially be controlled, even if partially, such as devising strategies to win a battle.
Crete in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Llewellyn-Smith Michael
Published: September 2021

Venizelos was born and brought up in Crete under Ottoman rule, and the island shaped his early career. The author gives an account of Ottoman government of Crete in the 19th century, and how Greek independence attracted the Cretans. Crete's mixed populations of Christians and Muslims developed at different speeds. Uprisings by Christians in 1821, 1866 and later aimed at securing Crete's union (enosis) with Greece. The Great Powers, especially Britain, France, and Russia, had helped secure Greek independence, while delaying Cretan union, so as to preserve the integrity of the Ottoman empire. This was the Cretan Question, part of the wider Eastern Question. The 19th century saw the development of the Great Idea (megali idea) of incorporating in the Greek kingdom as many Greek communities from outside as possible. Civil society was developing in Crete in the second half of the19th century, and as the Cretan Christians increased in wealth and population, the Muslims were largely left behind.
The Therisso Uprising1
Authors: Llewellyn-Smith Michael
Published: September 2021

After preliminary propaganda and gathering of likeminded Cretans Venizelos launched the Therisso uprising on 10 March 1905 with declarations of Union, the Greek flag, and the trimmings of a Cretan uprising. The place was chosen for its inaccessibility, the timing to preempt the assembly elections of March 1905 which would favor the prince and his regime. Venizelos set the aim as union of Crete with Greece, or as near as possible convergence of Cretan government with Greek. At this stage the departure of the prince was not announced as an aim though it soon became clear that it was. The weakness of Venizelos's case was that the prince still represented Crete's quest for union, and was still popular. The uprising was a gamble but Venizelos had calculated the odds. He believed that the liberal Powers would not use force to suppress his movement. His aim was to undermine the prince's regime of 'despotism' and force the Powers to treat with the insurgent leaders, and strengthen the regime of autonomy. This was a battle for opinions, of the Cretans, the Greeks and the Powers. The most difficult target was the Greek king and government. The Powers however were already beginning to lose confidence in the prince.
A Wider Stage
Authors: Llewellyn-Smith Michael
Published: September 2021

Venizelos's arrived in Athens in early September 1910. He addressed the people in a major speech in Constitution Square, making clear that he would work with the King, since 'crowned democracy' best fitted the political culture of the Greek people. He looked to the King to lead the reform program. He announced that he would create a new political party from like-minded people committed to new and liberal ideas. For the rest he condemned the failures of the old political world, over emigration, security, agriculture and industry, indeed across the board, and promised better. The speech quickly acquired mythical status, partly for the forthright way in which he squashed hecklers who cried out for fundamental changes in the constitution (i.e. affecting the prerogatives of the Crown). He defended limited constitutional changes. Foreign affairs hardly featured. This debut was rapidly followed by his appointment as prime minister, following the failure of the old party leaders to pick up the baton, and by his confirmation through new elections which gave him the desired majority in parliament. This was a brilliant start to his political career in Greece.
A New Constitution
Authors: Llewellyn-Smith Michael
Published: September 2021

Constitutional reform was the first task required, in order to relaunch the political process stymied by Goudi. Venizelos with his experience of Cretan constitution making was well equipped to guide the debates, 42 in all, which formulated a new charter. This was grist to his mill. He set out, preserving the fundamental balance between the institutions (Crown and parliament) established in the 1864 constitution, to modernize the political and social systems, enhance justice, fairness and freedoms, and provide more of a role for the state in the economy. The chapter considers in detail the question of land reform, in particular what to do about the large latifundia in Thessaly worked by sharecroppers. Here the solution reached was to provide for expropriation for reasons of public benefit rather than only public necessity, thus opening the way to later land reform. The constitution provided for compulsory free education at the primary level. In sum the new constitution provided a good basis for a renewed political process through a fairer and more modern political system.
What Next for Greece?
Authors: Llewellyn-Smith Michael
Published: September 2021

Success in war, including gains in territory and population, left big problems for Greece of reconstruction, economic recovery, refugee settlement, exploitation of the New Lands. The influx of Muslims from Macedonia to Asia Minor led Turkey to respond by dumping Christians from the Asia Minor littoral at Salonika and on the Aegean coast. This seriously further upset Greece's relations with Turkey. The linked problems of Northern Epirus/Albania and the Aegean islands was resolved painfully for Greece by the Great Powers, which obliged Greece to withdraw from Albania. The islands remained in Greek hands, but still claimed by Turkey. In the face of this, a naval arms race developed between Turkey and Greece, both making procurements designed to secure superiority in the Aegean. Thus a series of problems were building up for Venizelos. Direct negotiations with Turkey did not succeed. War seemed probable. Venizelos was travelling to Brussels for direct talks with the Grand Vizier on the range of issues, including a possible exchange of Christian and Muslim populations, when the Grand Duke was assassinated in Sarajevo, and Venizelos felt obliged to return to Athens to deal with the serious issues raised by the July crisis and the outbreak of the Great War.
Ibn Khaldun’s ‘Asabiyya and Sects
Authors: Bishara Azmi
Published: September 2021

This chapter explains the political reality of sectarianism as a political discourse that transforms even the majority group into a ta’ifa, which is a new phenomenon. It observes that this is the product of the crisis of the Arab state and that the issue lies not with confessional or religious diversity per se but with the failure of the process of building states on the basis of citizenship. This chapter further argues that the adoption of Ibn Khaldun’s concepts to explain the ascendance of despotic regimes in Arab states through sectarian ‘asabiyya is not a helpful theoretical framework. Ibn Khaldun’s work describes how dynasties took power by making use of the close-knit solidarity of the tribe, before the emergence of modern states. Modern despotic regimes are not produced by ‘asabiyya, but, in fact, they produce it.
Nothing Eternal About It
Authors: Bishara Azmi
Published: September 2021

This chapter addresses the common claims that sectarianism is either an ancient Arab phenomenon that has always existed and will always exist or a foreign conspiracy intended to divide the Arabs. It shows that both of these propositions abdicate responsibility for explaining a sectarianism cast as fundamentally inscrutable. In fact, this chapter argues that before the Ottoman Tanzimat reforms, there was no political public sphere in the Islamic World, and thus political sectarianism simply could not have existed. However, the chapter also observes that both Arab governments and opposition movements have drawn increasingly on primordial ties to strengthen their authority or make their case, with local loyalties often forming the basis of ruling elites. Rural people have fallen back on traditional social structures, while urbanites have suffered from social atomization and gone looking for alternative identities. As the state’s authority declined, sectarian and local identities took its place.
Sectarianism from Popular Participation in the Public Sphere to a Barrier to Participation
Authors: Bishara Azmi
Published: September 2021

This chapter discusses the transformation of sectarianism from a channel for public participation in the political sphere into an obstacle to this participation. Identity politics, which includes sectarianism, means popular participation in service of political interests presented as the interests (in our case) of the ta’ifa. And although this sectarianism politicizes the masses and drives them into the public sphere, it nonetheless quickly becomes an obstacle to popular participation, and specifically to democratic transformation. It is no coincidence that there are no federations or confederations of ta’ifas. A federation in a modern state is either merely administrative or based on ethnic and cultural units. But collective rights are possible in a liberal democracy, assuming that they are based on citizens’ rights.