bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
What is History Now?
Authors: Cannadine David
Published: February 2012

This chapter presents the text of a lecture on the evolution of historical writing in Great Britain. It discusses the unchanging essentials and criticisms that constantly characterised disagreements and discussions about the purpose and nature of history. It also highlights the problems and possibilities of history now and in the future.
Geographical Knowledges/Political Powers
Authors: Harvey David
Published: February 2012

This chapter presents the text of a lecture on the role of geographical knowledges and political powers in the processes of social and ecological change. It explains the use of the plural knowledges to avoid the risk of assuming that there is some settled way of understanding a unified field such as geography. It discusses the significant differences between geographical knowledges held in different institutional settings and the geography taught and studied within departments that operate under that name.
Location and Dislocation: Ireland, Scotland and Wales in their Insular Alignment
Authors: Keith Robbins
Published: February 2012

This chapter presents the text of a lecture on the history of Ireland, Scotland and Wales. It addresses the ‘problematic’ which confronts any author who seeks to focus on Ireland/Scotland/Wales. It describes the situation of Ireland, Scotland and Wales in 1902, comments on the ‘disclocations’ which have occurred over the subsequent century and reflects on ‘relocations’ as they appear in 2002.
A Scottish Perspective
Authors: Cairns Craig
Published: February 2012

This chapter criticizes Keith Robbins' lecture on the history of Ireland, Scotland and Wales. It argues that Robbins' request for correspondence and dialogue contradicts his previous statement that History and Historians in the Twentieth Century provides no place for British historical writing in the twentieth century which had been written in the United Kingdom outside England. It also questions Robbins' use of a model of national culture which derives from and sustains the structure of English culture as the measure by which other national cultures are to be valued.
Introduction: Trust/Risk and Trust/Fear
Authors: Marková Ivana
Published: February 2012

It is not so long ago that Niklas Luhmann (1988) wrote that the study of trust has never been a topic in mainstream sociology, and others have echoed this claim with reference to other social sciences. Curiously, deep insights of Georg Simmel (1858–1918) on trust have been largely ignored or have been remembered only in minor references. Since the 1980s and 1990s, the subject of trust has become, quite suddenly, a theme of the day. Social and political scientists have embarked on this topic, posing theoretical and empirical questions. This book is concerned with trust/distrust in post-Communist Europe after the collapse of the Soviet bloc in 1989. It raises questions about trust and democracy, and how history, culture, and social psychology shape the nature and development of political phenomena. In this introduction, trust and different forms of rationality are discussed, along with trust/risk and trust/fear, mutual distrust and public security, socialization into fear, arbitrariness of decisions in a totalitarian regime, trust and legitimacy, and abuse of common sense.
Introduction
Authors: Peter France
Published: February 2012

Jean Sartre's fictional hero Roquentin believes that one cannot seriously take the task of writing one's life. For him, biography is an impossibility, a work of ‘pure imagination’ subjected to the biases of the writer and devoid of resemblance to the subject. In the early days, biographies served as testimony to the greatness a person. They served as models from which people could emulate the exemplary individual. Then, the essential thing was to tell a story based on external facts and on psychological plausibility. However, in the age of Rousseau's Confessions, it was argued that biographies were accounts of inner truths, and that self-revelation was only achieved by the person himself: ‘No man can write a man's life but himself’. Even in the days when new methods of understanding the life of a man were increasingly becoming available, biographies were often seen as suspect enterprises. They were often seen as approaches that obscure the proper comprehension of the literary process and as illusions of profound knowledge of the inner truth, when in fact biographers continue to approach biographies with misgivings. In spite of all the criticisms against biographies, they have remained of great interest. They reach out to a broad public as a literature in its own right and have played a vital role in the history of European culture. Biographies have served as an inspiration, as a celebration of the great personages of the nation, as an insight to the gender roles of the society, and so on.
Adding Stones to the Edifice: Patterns of German Biography
Authors: Paulin Roger
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the nature of German biographical tradition, which provides a glimpse into the erudition of biographies in German. German biographical tradition has always been seen as part of historiography, so that its development belongs rather to Wissenschaftsgeschicte than to belles-lettres. Furthermore, biographies within the German context function not just as a record of great names but as a hierarchy of cultural models, canonical literary figures, and representative individuals. As a determiner of national moral values, biography does more than merely memorialize. The biographical tradition of Germany tends to look at representative individuals and biographies as testaments and tangible representatives of the total forces – intellectual, moral, historical – of an age or culture. Seen in these terms, it is a product of national liberalism. The function of German biographical tradition is to annex the lives of the great for the overarching political and cultural ends, hence, biographies tended to be huge, philological, and supremely wissenschaftlich. This high significance of the function of biographies made such life-writing an endeavour inappropriate for the faint-hearted, thus limiting it to the aristocrats of the minds. This contributed to the end of German biographies, as narratives of lives were predominantly accounts of unapproachable geniuses.
Shaping Victorian Biography: From Anecdote to Bildungsroman
Authors: Shaffer Elinor S.
Published: February 2012

By the end of the eighteenth century, European countries sought new functions for biographies. As the appetite and scope for more facts increased, and the need for reshaping them into a matter of national pride became the imperative, the writing of life found new models. This chapter discusses the formation of new models of Victorian biography. In the early nineteenth century, James Field Stanfield wrote a full-scale book on biography and Karl von Morgenstern coined the term Bidungsroman. Both formulated the terms in which biography and novel were to be in close proximity, both in likeness and difference. According to Stanfield, biography must assist in understanding the human character. It should aim to elucidate the range of human possibilities and to impart improvements in education and conduct. Stanfield argued that biography is a serious history wherein the historian is obliged to tell the truth, although at the same time there is a need for censorship in order to protect certain parts of the audience who should be edified by their reading. In these Victorian biographies, the aim was for the improvement of the individual and of the human race; hence certain latitude for the discussion of negative examples is allowed to impart moral illustrations. However, the dominant theme in Victorian biographies was negative representations of living persons. As the Victorian biographies dwindled, a new ideal form, Bidungsroman, unified the clash of unvarnished fact and edification, and closed the gap between novel and biography.
Gender, Biography, and the Public Sphere
Authors: Ferres Kay
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses some of the ways biography – including biographers, the reading and uses of biography, and the practices that represent gender – has treated the problem of women's appearances in public life. The author focuses the discussion on questions of reputation and influence.
‘The Solace of Doubt’? Biographical Methodology after the Short Twentieth Century
Authors: Walter James
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses some of the trends in the twentieth century that have emerged in publications on how to write biographies, and emphasizes the trends of the past twenty years. Its focus is on English-language biography. It is suggested that one can understand the present debates as a rethinking of the suppositions of twentieth-century modernist biography.
The Civil Service
Authors: Bogdanor Vernon
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the history of the civil service in Great Britain. It suggests that the revolution in Whitehall during the last two decades of the twentieth century transformed the civil service, and that many of the public utilities nationalised by the post-war Attlee government were privatised. Other major changes include the reduction in the size of the civil service and the application of market disciplines to it.
Britain, Commonwealth and the End of Empire
Authors: Holland Robert
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the history of Great Britain, the British Commonwealth, and the end of the British Empire in the twentieth century, suggesting that the twentieth century ended in Britain as it began, with the constitutional structure of the United Kingdom a contested and vital subject of public discourse. It concludes that the transitions that characterised the Empire-Commonwealth over the twentieth century were ultimately constrained within the due process of British constitutionalism.
Raymond William Firth, 1901–2002
Authors: Davis J. H. R.
Published: February 2012

Raymond Firth was an anthropologist, working chiefly in the Pacific, Malaysia and London, in the fields of economics, religion and kinship. Firth held permanent teaching posts at Sydney (1930–2) and at the London School of Economics (1932–40, 1944–68). During the Second World War he served in Naval Intelligence; he became secretary of the Colonial Social Science Research Council in 1944–5, and was a founding member of the Association of Social Anthropologists of the United Kingdom and Commonwealth in 1946. Firth was a patient and generous teacher whose many graduate students remained loyal throughout their lives; he was an able and purposeful administrator of great integrity: no one alive can remember him doing a mean or malicious or self-interested act. In anthropology he was resolutely humane and empirical: his aim was always to convey the variety and complexity of people's experience, and to show how his theory was based on that understanding.
Hrothgar John Habakkuk, 1915–2002
Authors: Thompson F. M. L.
Published: February 2012

Hrothgar John Habakkuk was an outstanding economic historian, greatly admired Principal of Jesus College Oxford for seventeen years, and a distinguished Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University. The publication of his first book, in 1962, American and British Technology in the Nineteenth Century not only consolidated his position as one of the leading figures on the international stage, but also created a whole school of (mainly) American economic historians, who have paralleled in their vigour and significance the school of (mainly) British historians of landownership which grew out of his 1940 article. The book remains the most brilliant example of Hrothgar's historiographical methodology, the ‘marriage of history and theory’ expressed in the elegant prose of a master of the logical deduction of theoretical explanations from concrete empirical observations.
Richard Mervyn Hare, 1919–2002
Authors: Price A. W.
Published: February 2012

Richard Hare's ambition was to have united elements from Aristotle, Kant and Mill in a logically cogent way that solved the fundamental problems of ethics (though with unfinished business); and he usually believed himself to have achieved this. For much of his career, his ‘prescriptivism’ formed an important part of the curriculum, certainly in Britain. His disappointment was not to have persuaded others (an occasional ‘we prescriptivists’ was always uncertain of reference), and to have left no disciples; he once told John Lucas that this made his life a failure. Yet he leaves behind generations of pupils grateful for the transmission not of a doctrine but of a discipline; and posterity, while unlikely to ratify the logical validity of his theory, will admire it for its uniting of apparent opposites: freedom and reason, tradition and rationalism, eclecticism and rigour.
David Neil MacKenzie, 1926–2001
Authors: Paul Ludwig
Published: February 2012

David Neil Mackenzie passed away in Bangor on 13 October 2001, following multiple complications that resulted from heart disease from which he had suffered for some years. With him, Iranian Studies lost an outstanding representative, whose scholarly competence and interests spanned a broad range of ancient and modern Iranian languages: such comprehensiveness is becoming increasingly unusual in modern times. Several of MacKenzie's philological publications, especially those concerning (New Iranian) Kurdish and the two Middle Iranian languages, Middle Persian and Khwarezmian, have become well established as standard works of reference and will surely remain so for a long time.
Provincial towns: streets and squares, 1660–1750
Authors: Griffin Emma
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses two distinct forms of street recreation in the century that followed the Restoration. It begins with the almost forgotten tradition of bull-baiting in the early modern market place. The chapter also looks at the civic celebrations and street bonfires, which were made familiar in frequent descriptions by eighteenth-century urban elites and modern historians. It looks at the subtle changes in the ways civic authorities regarded these pastimes during the period.
Galen, Christians, logic
Authors: Barnes Jonathan
Published: February 2012

The three subjects — Galen, Christians, and logic — have two things in common. First, they are major aspects of the ancient world: Galen was one of the three most influential scientists of antiquity (alongside Aristotle and Ptolemy): the Christians eventually kidnapped the Empire; and logic is one of the few ancient sciences which is not entirely out of date. Second, they are of marginal interest to classical scholarship. Galen has his votaries; but there is too much of him, and his case exemplifies one of the iron laws of philology: the more of an author survives, the less he is read. The Christians were yet more voluminous. As for logic, it has rarely been loved. Galen was dissatisfied with the bipartite discipline of logic, so he invented what he termed ‘a third class of syllogism’, the class of relational arguments.
Rhetoric in mid-antiquity
Authors: Heath Malcolm
Published: February 2012

The book's concluding study presents the rhetorical education of the fourth century ad, not as the end but as only midway in the literary culture of Hellas, between Homer and the Byzantine emperor Manuel Palaeologus. The first section of this chapter examines the rhetoric from Homer to Byzantium, from the Iliad to Emperor Manuel II. The second section considers mid-antiquity's pivotal significance, when the Roman empire of Manuel — Greek, Christian and detached from Rome — began to take root. The third section examines a lengthy passage from the scholia to Demosthenes' speech On the False Embassy. The lecturer deploys, in what may seem obsessive detail, the formidably elaborate apparatus of contemporary rhetorical theory. The fourth section notes that his contemporaries and successors saw Menander primarily as a specialist in the kind of minute analysis of forensic and deliberative oratory.
The Early Iron Age Urban Forms of Cyprus
Authors: Iacovou Maria
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the local conditions, traditions, and forms of urban settlement in Cyprus during the Iron Age. It explains that almost to the very end of the Middle Bronze Age, Cyprus had remained a closed rural society, though it was by then completely surrounded by Mediterranean urban states and it was only by 1100 BC that new social and economic structures started to dictate the establishment and development of new population and power centers. The archaeological evidence of 800–600 BC stands testimony to the culmination of a long process of social evolution and urbanization.
Early Urbanization between 800 and 600 BC in the Pontine Region (South Lazio), the Salento Isthmus (Apulia), and the Sibaritide (Northern Calabria)
Authors: Attema Peter
Published: February 2012

This chapter compares the development of early urbanization between 800 and 600 BC in three Italian regions. These are the Pontine region in Central Italy, the Salento Isthmus in South Puglia, and the Sibaritide in the northern part of Calabria. The chapter analyses the long-term landscape and settlement dynamics in these regions and suggests that the dimensions of sites and the resulting site hierarchy serve in all cases to reveal processes of proto-urbanization and therefore changes in the complexity of society.
Statics and Dynamics: Ancient Mediterranean Urbanism
Authors: Purcell Nicholas
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the dynamics and statics of urbanism in ancient Mediterranean. It suggests that it is in the world of dynamics that much of the distinctiveness of Mediterranean urbanism in the first half of the first millennium is to be found. The chapter also argues that it is the social, economic, and political institutions of the unstable clustered communities of the region that made the urbanism of this period distinctive.
Reasoning and Belief in Victorian Mathematics
Authors: Cohen Daniel J.
Published: February 2012

This chapter focuses on the progress of mathematics in the nineteenth century. British mathematicians of this period showed interest in the formal aspects of mathematics, particularly in symbolic logic. Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead were among the most highly influential figures in Victorian mathematical circles due to their wide-ranging thought and institutional positions. Principia Mathematica (1910–1913), in which Russell and Whitehead equated logic and mathematics at the deepest level possible, was a culmination of the innovative mathematical research of the Victorian age.
Measuring the World: Exploration, Empire and the Reform of the Royal Geographical Society, c. 1874–93
Authors: Jones Max
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the relationship between geography, exploration and empire. It focuses on the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) and how it influenced the organisation of knowledge in Victorian Britain. It describes the transformation of the RGS, resulting from four forces in which new imperialism acted as catalyst rather than a cause: firstly, the scientific revolution unleashed by the publication of Darwin’s Origin of Species in 1859; secondly, the global rise of ideas of bureaucratic government and expertise; thirdly, the expansion of the British education system; and finally, the challenge posed by the inexorable extension of the map of the world.
Introduction
Authors: Bitis Alexander
Published: February 2012

This book aims to examine the role of the Russian army, government, and society in the Russo-Turkish and Russo-Persian military and diplomatic struggle in the Near East — the Balkans, Caucasus and Transcaucasia — between 1815 and 1833. It focuses on the ideas and activities of tsars Alexander I (r. 1801–25) and Nicholas 1 (r. 1825–55), the Russian Foreign Ministry and its diplomatic corps, the high command of the Second Army and Caucasus Corps, and domestic political groupings and educated society toward Eastern affairs. This chapter outlines the main trends in English and Russian historical writings.
The Diplomatic Background to the Eastern Question from Its Origins to 1821
Authors: Bitis Alexander
Published: February 2012

This chapter gives an overview of the military and diplomatic history of Russo-Turkish relations from their origins to 1815. It outlines the reasons for Russian military ascendancy over its eastern neighbour. It covers the Eastern question in the Balkans, regarding the Russo-Turkish relations from 1810 to 1821; the relations between Russia, Turkey and Persia to 1813; the origins of the ‘weak neighbour’ policy. Political concerns, primarily the fear of the European powers' potentially hostile reaction to a Russian forward policy had frustrated the aims of the army in 1821. This was a precedent destined to characterize much of Russian policy during the Eastern crisis of the 1820s.
The Development of the Imperial Russian Army up to the Early Reign of Nicholas I: Organization, Doctrine, and Politics
Authors: Bitis Alexander
Published: February 2012

This chapter covers the developments prior to 1801, the Imperial Army during the reign of Alexander I, the origins and programmes of the revolutionary ‘military intelligentsia’ from 1815 to 1825; the Caucasus Corps and the Second Army during 1816 to 1825; the character and policy of Nicholas I and the struggle against the ‘Russian Party’. The regime's belief in the existence of a Russian party certainly aids in understanding tsarist Eastern policy under Nicholas. On one hand, the regime attempted to defuse nationalist passions by presenting the war as a dispute between two courts. Alternatively, the domestic benefits of a forward Eastern policy were well understood. By leading his troops to a short and glorious war, Nicholas could enhance his image and deliver a public rebuke to Metternich.
The Second Army and the Greek Revolution, 1821–1822
Authors: Bitis Alexander
Published: February 2012

This chapter covers the outbreak of the Greek revolt in 1821 and the early diplomacy of the crisis. It considers the origins of Ypsilantis's revolt in 1820–21; the Tsarist reaction in 1821–22; the Second Army and the study of the Greek revolt. Following the receipt of reports from Pestel, lnzov, and other military agents, Kiselev established his Main Staff as the centre for the investigation of the Greek revolt. In early 1822, he informed lnzov of his intention to commission the writing of the first historical account of the revolution. To this end, Kiselev outlined the various areas of research that were still required. They related to the connection between the first Greek secret society and the Russian Hetairia movement; the role of Napoleon and the French revolutionaries in these societies; the level of co-ordination between the revolts of Ypsilantis and Vladimirescu; and the character of Ypsilantis.
War Planning and Diplomacy, 1819–1828
Authors: Bitis Alexander
Published: February 2012

This chapter covers the search for strategy, the Greek question in the period of Congress diplomacy from 1822 to 1825, the accession of Nicholas I and the drift to war. The previous research was accompanied by the formulation of an innovative war plan which envisaged, for the first time in Russian military history, the crossing of the Balkan mountain range and an assault on Constantinople One of Kiselev's first actions on becoming head of the Second Army's Main Staff in 1819 was to draw up a war plan against the Ottoman Empire. He was assisted in this enterprise by the large body of experience acquired by the Russian army during its five previous Turkish wars fought between 1711 and 1812.
The Treaty of Adrianople and Its International Consequences
Authors: Bitis Alexander
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the negotiations for the Treaty of Adrianople, the response of the other powers, and the implications Russia's Balkan crossing had for future strategy. When news of the peace of Adrianople arrived in St Petersburg the sense of euphoria was understandable. The treaty — through its strategic annexations and extension of Russia's commercial and political rights — served to weaken the Ottoman Empire while preserving its existence, thus complementing perfectly the committee's decision. The chapter also considers the British reaction to Adrianople and the execution and revision of Adrianople in 1830–32.
State Propaganda and Public Opinion during the Campaigns of 1828–1829
Authors: Bitis Alexander
Published: February 2012

This chapter, on public opinion, charts the growth and spread of nationalist sentiment in educated society during the Turkish war. It reveals the tension between the popular demand for unilateral, expansionist action and the conservative official tsarist policy which aimed at the conservation of the Ottoman Empire. It shows that official coverage of the 1828–9 war turned this conflict into the Russian Empire's first ‘media war’, and gave rise to the idea that popular nationalist sentiment might be harnessed as a means of ensuring the future stability of the regime. The discussion also considers the origins of the Third Section; the quest for social stability in 1826–9; the Cult of Nicholas; and public opinion during the 1829 campaign.
Military and Diplomatic Developments, 1830–1833: Preserving the Ottoman Empire and Countering the British Threat
Authors: Bitis Alexander
Published: February 2012

This chapter outlines the strategic implications of Russia's support of the Porte during the Mohammed Ali crisis and, following the formation of an anti-Russian Anglo-French coalition, Nicholas l's attempts to solve the army's manpower problems. The great event challenging Russia's somewhat guarded commitment to the preservation of the Ottoman Empire came in 1832–3 with the onset of the Mohammed Ali crisis. The ambitious Pasha of Egypt dreamed of conquering the Middle East to create an Arab empire and, like Mustafa, sought as his allies Muslims discontented by the Sultan's reforms. With France supporting Mohammed, the Sultan had little choice but to turn to Russia. The chapter also considers the Russian response and the Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi and its consequences.
Conclusions: Crimea and Beyond
Authors: Bitis Alexander
Published: February 2012

The Eastern crisis of the 1820s, the war of 1828–9, and the Russo-Turkish treaties of 1829 and 1833 collectively constituted the most decisive blows ever delivered to the Ottoman Empire by Russia. The confidence that Russian forces would win all major tactical encounters against an ‘Asiatic’ semi-regular enemy influenced the Russian strategists of the 1820s. Yet, the lingering feeling that Russia stretched the rules of the game in 1829 and the conviction that it overturned them by the terms of Unkiar-Skelessi in 1833 were to have crucial long-term significance for the Eastern Question. Nicholas was content to engage in brinkmanship and a succession of incidents and developments appeared to have set Russia and Britain on an inevitable collision course. After Nicholas, Catherine's dreams and the sense of Russia's historical destiny in the East would now continue to live on in the popular imagination.
What We Know Now
Authors: Runciman W. G.
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the information provided by the Hutton Report and the Butler Report concerning the bases of the British government's decision to join the U.S. in overturning Saddam Hussein for his alleged possession of weapons of mass destruction (WMD). It suggests that nothing revealed in the reports could bring an agreement to whether British Prime Minister Tony Blair was right in his decision, but those who have read the reports could surely conclude that the government, the intelligence services, and the BBC fell short of what have been expected of them at a time when Britain was on the brink of being taken into a war. It discusses the similarities between the Iraq War and the Suez Canal conflict.
O Brave New World? The Union of England and Scotland in 1603
Authors: Wormald Jenny
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the drama and tension of the accession, and the history of the Union of the Crowns in the lifetime of James. James VI was proclaimed King of England when Elizabeth died. It was ruthlessly silent about James' Anglo-Scottish ancestry. But what James VI had inherited from his Stuart ancestors, most notably James IV and the even more effective James V, was a lofty vision of the diplomatic importance of the King of Scots and his ability to have an impact on other European countries. In 1603, the brutal fact was that the Scots and the English disliked one another intensely. The theme of Anglo-Scottish hostility is briefly outlined. The Union of 1603 did have a profound impact on his style of kingship. It was also noted that the dearth of Tudor heirs contributed to the absolute problem of finding different kings for England and Scotland. When celebrating the fourth centenary of that momentous event, the toast was certainly to King James.
The English, the Scots, and the Dilemmas of Union, 1638–1654
Authors: Morrill John
Published: February 2012

At no point in the history of Britain and Ireland has the whole archipelago experienced such sustained and brutal internal war as in the 1640s and early 1650s. Alongside and largely underpinning the persistent Scottish demand for a confederal settlement, and a factor in the English preference for either an integrative union or no union at all was, of course, religion. There were two largely separate rebellions in Ireland in late 1641: by the Old English of the Pale and Munster and by the dispossessed and the exiled Gaelic Irish communities of Ulster. There has been a tension between calling the events of 1638–54 the War of the Three Kingdoms and the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The Covenant itself and the king's response both in making the Cessation in Ireland and in authorising Montrose's Scottish-Irish war in Scotland or the early months of 1645 are considered. It then describes the way the English and the Scots reacted to the crisis of the winter of 1648–9 and the wholly English act of regicide. The wars of the 1640s fragmented the political communities in England and in Scotland.
South Britons’ Reception of North Britons, 1707–1820
Authors: Langford Paul
Published: February 2012

This chapter explores the dark reception that the Scots received in eighteenth-century England. Scots obtained no new rights of residence by the Act of Union in 1707. Sauny the Scot was the eponymous hero of a doctored version of The Taming of the Shrew that placed Shakespeare's comedy in polite London society. Sauny's function was to protect the gentility and refinement of his master Petruchio. The Man of the World is ultimately a more serious story of a vicious and unprincipled Scotsman on the make. Anglo-Scottish personal unions multiplied after the parliamentary union. Language was perhaps increasingly the prime criterion of full acceptability. Growing awareness of Scotland as a country and a culture did not necessarily decrease prejudice. There is evidence of a marked increase in the flow of Scots into England in the last quarter of the eighteenth century and the first of the nineteenth, as the pace of economic growth south of the border intensified and its extent broadened.
Scottish Élites and the Indian Empire, 1700–1815
Authors: Devine T. M.
Published: February 2012

This chapter describes the ambitions of Scottish élites in India. The fears of English contemporaries about a growing Scottish presence in the East India Company (EIC) and the royal forces in India have been fully supported by modern research. Mortality rates among the Company's men were often horrendous. The assumption behind Linda Colley's thesis that India posts were not attractive to the sons of the metropolitan élites is unfounded for the post-1770 period. From modern researches, a powerful link can be established between British politics in the post-union period and the increasing preferment of Scots to posts at the periphery of empire. It was that East India postings became the foundation for bringing more political stability to Scotland and forging a stronger union.
After the Declaration of Perth: All Change!
Authors: Kellas James G.
Published: February 2012

This chapter talks about the leading Scottish National Party (SNP) politicians and how they talk of ‘a British society in conjunction with a Scottish state’. It also reports that it is ‘difficult to imagine an independent Scotland pursuing an anti-English policy’. There is no clear conflict between Scotland and England. Rather, the shifting conflicts mostly appear within the British parties (and between these and the SNP). The unionists as Scottish nationalists and the nationalists as unionists are explored. Conservatives saw the Scottish Office as a bulwark against nationalism and devolution. The Liberal Democrats changed stance on two counts. They had long supported federalism, but settled for devolution when that was offered by Labour in the late 1970s. Socialism and nationalism were combined in the service of the Scottish Labour Party. The changes and paradoxes in Scottish politics are elaborated. Two methods of explanation are apparent. The first is structural, the second ideological. It looks as if the structural analysis carries more weight than the ideological one. Independence is more problematic than devolution. The democratic ideology of the late twentieth century legitimised the sovereignty of the voting public, and with it the right of national self-determination.
Varieties of Nationalism in Scotland and England
Authors: Heath Anthony , Smith Shawna
Published: February 2012

This chapter shows that there is an inevitable asymmetry in the very nature and character of Scottish and English nationalism. In particular, it tries to examine the nature of unionism and nationalism in Scotland and England and the prospects for the union. Minority nationalism is the nationalism of politically subordinate groups that seek statehood. The chapter first explores three different aspects of nationalism, namely emotional attachments to Britain, perceptions of conflicts of interest between England and Scotland and constitutional preferences. It gets very different impressions of relations between England and Scotland depending on whether constitutional preferences, affective attachments or perceptions of national interest are considered. The data indicate that, whereas amongst older respondents higher education was linked with unionism, amongst the young it was accompanied by disengagement. The character and behaviour of unionists, nationalists, potential nationalists and disengaged post-nationalists, and the implications for relations between the two countries are elaborated. It is suspected that parties like the Referendum Party in 2001 and currently the UK Independence Party are the most likely to harness the potential for English nationalism and to direct it against Europe rather than against Scotland.
The Bellum Africum
Authors: Adams J. N.
Published: February 2012

This chapter first addresses the ‘invention’ of literary prose. It takes two lexical examples to demonstrate the traditional character of the language, partly from Caesar himself, and partly from the Bellum Africum. The presented three passages all report the successful return of a military unit to base. The Bellum Africum abounds in forms of expression that can be paralleled in Caesar, reflecting no doubt on the one hand imitation of Caesar and on the other joint use of traditional language. Its most distinctive feature is its diversity. The archaism, poeticism, colloquialism, and the imitation of Greek in the work are specifically elaborated. There are many correspondences of phraseology between the Bellum Africum and the genuine Caesarian works. Varro and the author of the Bellum Africum did not place their archaisms, colloquialisms, or poeticisms exclusively in special contexts while restricting themselves to ‘standard’ language in unmarked contexts.
William of Malmesbury and the Latin Classics Revisited
Authors: Thomson R. M.
Published: February 2012

William of Malmesbury was probably the greatest historian of England between Bede and Macaulay. He was born around 1090 and disappears from the historical record late in 1142; from childhood until the end of his life he was a monk of the ancient Benedictine foundation of Malmesbury in Wiltshire. The chapter mentions his florilegium, the Polyhistor, a compendium of information about ancient peoples and places that drew on both pagan and Christian writers of antiquity: there are eighteen pagan works. William’s invocation of ancient texts certainly adds dignity to his narrative, but it did not necessarily contribute to his historical accuracy. His classicizing occasionally led him to surprisingly unmonastic, and indeed un-Christian, sentiments and language.
The Idea of Joined-Up Government: A Historical Perspective
Authors: Hood Christopher
Published: February 2012

Joined-up government is a new term coined in the 1990s for an old administrative doctrine called ‘coordination’. In a general sense, coordination in the old administrative doctrine suggests that all of the parts of the executive government should be interconnected and complementary to one another. The aim of coordination in the government is to be able to present a single face to the people and to operate as a single unit on multiple yet interrelated problems. Historically, the idea and concept of government coordination is hard to trace as it is a nebulous one. It appears in several disciplinary literatures and spans many institutional and social domains. This chapter does not offer a historical outline of the term ‘joined-up term’ or of broader coordination doctrines in the government, rather it presents questions from a comparative-historical questions. The first question examines old and new aspects of the Blair New Labour doctrine of joined-up government. The second query tackles from an historical perspective some of the principal means that have been advanced for the linking of the parts of the executive government. The last question addresses the counter-doctrines to the idea of joined-up government.
JASP Meets JUG: Lessons of the 1975 Joint Approach to Social Policy for Joined-Up Government
Authors: Klein Rudolf , Plowden William
Published: February 2012

This chapter probes the points and lessons derived from the 1975 Joint Approach to Social Policy (JASP) for the joined-up government. For although JASP was effectively dead despite the high patronage and enthusiasm for it, the notion of coordination and integration was still very much alive. This chapter hence looks into the implementation of the JASP both at the central and local level in the hopes of determining factors which can inhibit or promote coordination. Presented in the chapter is a summary of the main points and conclusions derived from the careful analysis of the JASP where it has been found out that achieving joined-up government is a long overhaul if presented in a quick manner and its good points not exploited outside the boundaries of the academic community.
Joined-Up Government and Cabinet Government
Authors: Foster Christopher
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the diverging and converging points of the joined-up and the cabinet government. The chapter provides a background on the changes that have been ensued since the introduction of the joined-up government. In the first few sections of the chapter, the focus is on the importance of joined-up government, the failures that have graced joined-up government, the new institutions that have been created, and the improvements and innovations needed for the machinery of joined-up government. Particular focus is given on the five stages of policy development which are crucial in pinpointing the problems as well as the aspects needed for the joining-up horizontally. These five stages include: policy formation; public representation and a managerial explanation; good legislation; delivery; and major institutional or organizational innovation.
Joined-Up Government and the Civil Service
Authors: Page Edward C.
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses joined-up government and its effect on the civil service. The focus is on the different silo mentalities which are used to connote not being joined-up. In this chapter particular attention is given to the indiscriminate attack on silo and the implication that ‘everyone is guilty’ which leads to the avoidance of careful diagnosis of problems. Discussed herein are the different types of silo mentalities that exit on the basis of some of the academic literature. The chapter also discusses the different consequences that might arise from the silos including the consequences brought about by the silos into the typology of patterns of non-joined-up government. The chapter ends with a discussion on the implications of this typology to the civil service reform including the possible positive aspects of these implications.
Joined-Up Government for Local and Regional Institutions
Authors: Stoker Gerry
Published: February 2012

Joined-up government seems to be able to present itself in various forms of being understood in several ways. It is therefore subject to various interpretations and divergent views. Some contend that joined-up government is inherently centralizing hence it is disadvantageous for the devolved units of the government, some on the other hand argue that joined-up government is not essentially centralizing. This chapter evaluates New Labour's initial efforts at stimulating joining-up at the local level by detailing the rise of the multitude partnership bodies since New Labour rose into power. The chapter also discusses the top-down-driven policy style that New Labour adopted in their efforts for partnerships. This style caused chaotic repercussions in the local and regional governance. Discussed as well in the chapter are the ways in which New Labour tried to localize joined-up government. The first method was the premise of adopting autonomy for the local government to pursue community leadership at the local level while the second method proposed earned autonomy or constrained discretion wherein the local government can lead and yet be under the guidance of the central government. Both of these models of governance are considered here to determine whether they can be institutionalized. The last section of the chapter presents a discussion on the seemingly centralizing nature of joined-up government.
Joined-Up Government: Past, Present, and Future
Authors: Mulgan Geoff
Published: February 2012

The idea of ‘joined-up’ government which was first used by Tony Blair in 1997 has become a significant aspect of modern UK government. It has changed and influenced how structures are organized, how targets are set, how budgets are allocated and how the daily work of local agencies and professions are performed. The main reason for the interest in the concept of ‘joined-up’ government has been the recognition that some problems of the government do not fit into the neat departmental boundaries of good government. However ‘joined-up’ government has brought some changes; it is still in its infancy. Most departments of the government are still arranged in a vertical manner and this has been the case for almost fifty years and most of the joining-up of government agencies is the result of existing coordination between these departments rather than changes in the radical structure. This chapter discusses the background of British ‘joined-up’ government. It also discusses reforms the UK government has undertaken since 1997 to achieve the goal of a new government through integration and coordination. The chapter concludes with the possible direction of the future reforms on ‘joined-up’ government.
Propensities May Satisfy Bayes’s Theorem
Authors: Miller David
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the question of whether the propensity interpretation of probability is a genuine interpretation of the calculus of probability. One of the main points of interest can be found in the difficulty of understanding the term P(A\C), when the occurrence A is temporally or causally anterior to the occurrence C. The chapter is able to determine that an intelligible interpretation of the calculus of probability as a calculus of propensities exists. Although it is not obviously a correct interpretation, it is a factual matter whether propensities obey the calculus of probability.
The History of Sociology in Britain
Authors: Halsey A. H.
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the battle between literature and science for domination of sociology, a topic that has rather been neglected as a theme in the history of sociology in Britain if also perhaps overheated nowadays in exchanges over relativism between the denizens of ‘cultural studies’ and the proponents of a ‘science of society’. The chapter argues that, traditionally, the social territory belonged to literature and philosophy. A challenge was then raised by science especially in the nineteenth century. Then, especially in the twentieth century, social science developed so as to turn a binary contrast into a triangular one. Sociology had three sources in Western thought: one literary (political philosophy), one quasi-scientific (the philosophy of history), and one scientific (biology). It is no accident that both sociology and social policy were placed first at the London School of Economics, the Fabian institution invented and fostered by Sidney and Beatrice Webb in 1895.
On Relativity, Time Reckoning, and the Topology of Time Series
Authors: Torretti Roberto
Published: February 2012

This chapter devotes equal attention to special relativity and general relativity. It first describes the history of the analysis of distant simultaneity, up to and including Einstein's procedure in his revolutionary 1905 paper which introduced special relativity. In particular, the discussion relates Einstein's procedure to the ensuing philosophical debate about whether distant simultaneity is a matter of convention. As to general relativity, the discussion gives a brief sketch of Einstein's path towards his discovery of general relativity. Thereafter, it focuses on the topological structure of time or, more precisely, of timelike lines (worldlines) in spacetime. It discusses the closed timelike lines first found in an exact solution of general relativity by Godel; and the open timelike geodesics that get arbitrarily close to the initial singularity (Big Bang) in a Friedmann solution.
On the Emergence of Time in Quantum Gravity
Authors: Butterfield Jeremy , Isham Chris
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the idea that the treatment of time in present-day physical theories, general relativity and quantum theory, might be an approximation to a very different treatment in the as yet unknown quantum theory of gravity. It considers the general idea that one theory could be emergent from another, emergence being a relation analogous to, but weaker than, intertheoretic reduction. It also gives a broad description of the search for a quantum theory of gravity and some of its interpretative problems. Thereafter, the discussion focuses on the emergence of time in two specific quantum gravity programmes: quantum geometrodynamics and the Euclidean programme. It also addresses the so-called ‘problem of time’. It is really a cluster of problems; technical and conceptual, arising from how time is treated very differently in general relativity and quantum theory.