bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Intragroup Conflict in Nonprofit Sport Boards
Authors: Hamm-Kerwin Shannon , Doherty Alison
Published: August 2016

Conflict can significantly influence the performance of a group and the attitudes of their members. As with any organizational group, conflict is expected within the boards of nonprofit organizations. The purpose of this paper was to examine the nature of intragroup conflict in nonprofit sport boards, and its impact on perceived decision quality, board member satisfaction, and commitment to the board. Seventy-four provincial sport organization board members were surveyed. The results indicated that task, relationship, and process conflict were negatively related to decision quality, satisfaction, and commitment, and relationship conflict was the most influential variable on all three outcomes. The mediating effect of relationship conflict on the conflict to outcomes associations was also uncovered. The findings have implications for the management of relationship conflict in this context, as well as the management of task and process conflict which may trigger relationship conflict. Several areas for future research are presented.
Decision Making in Major Sport Events Over Time: Parameters, Drivers, and Strategies
Authors: Parent Milena M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this article was to examine how the decision-making process changes as a major sport event’s organizing committee moves from the planning to the implementation to the wrap-up modes. A case study of the 1999 Pan American Games, its organizing committee, and its stakeholders was built by means of interviews and archival material. Velocity impacted decision making in different ways. First, the importance of the time, context, and resources parameters changed, as did the model of decision making (from administrative to garbage can to rational). As well, four drivers of decision making (structural dimensions, stakeholder interactions, information management, and personal characteristics) were found. A key strategy for decision makers faced with an increasing velocity environment was planning for the need to react (come Games time) through risk assessments and contingency plans.
Not Playing the Game: Why Sport Sponsorship Relationships Break Down
Authors: Farrelly Francis
Published: August 2016

This paper provides a critical assessment of the sponsorship relationship by examining relationship-related causes of termination. Based on a comprehensive investigation of major sport organizations and their sponsors spanning four years, the findings reveal partners at cross-purposes due to changing perceptions of value, opportunity, and responsibility. Related problems involving strategic versus tactical intent, commitment asymmetry, and sponsorship capability gap are identified. The research develops our understanding of the interfirm dynamics of sport sponsorship relationships including how they should be managed to avoid termination. Recommendations to prevent sponsorship termination and improve relationship outcomes, and directions for future research are provided.
An Application of Fuzzy Logic to Service Quality Research: A Case of Fitness Service
Authors: Martínez Jose A. , Ko Yong Jae , Martínez Laura
Published: August 2016

This research focused on measuring perceived quality in the context of sport and fitness services using a novel approach in sport management: fuzzy logic. Several analytical procedures have been depicted to operate with fuzzy techniques, which may be applied to empirical research by a wide range of researchers in the sport literature, as well as sport managers. This study showed that fuzzy logic is an attractive method to increase the value of the information collected from customers’ evaluations. The implemented procedure overcomes the disadvantages of the research focused on the third-person approach, and minimizes the categorization bias and interaction bias derived from the relationship between verbal and numerical labels. An empirical study of two samples of consumers from two fitness centers illustrates the advantages of this method.
Should They Play? Market Value of Corporate Partnerships With Professional Sport Leagues
Authors: Lei Shi , Ghosh Chinmoy , Srinivasan Han
Published: August 2016

Corporate partnerships with professional sport leagues are growing rapidly. How can we assess the value of such partnerships? Using an event study method, this research examined the economic effects of corporate partnerships with six professional sport organizations (NFL, MLB, NBA, NASCAR, NHL, and PGA). Three new interesting results were found. (1) Though a partnering firm experiences a net-of-market increase in shareholders’ value of 2.93% from a new corporate partnership with a professional sport league at the two-day window (0, +1), renewals of corporate partnerships induced a significant net-of-market decrease of 1.12% during the same window of time. (2) Cross-sectional analysis revealed that superior performing firms as well as firms with higher institutional and moderate managerial ownership benefitted more than the average, and (3) the integrations of the partnerships with other business strategies elicited different responses from the investment community. Overall, a strategic implication was that marketing-focused partnerships in financially sound, well-managed firms contributed the most to enhancement in shareholders’ wealth.
Internationalizing Ourselves: Realities, Opportunities, and Challenges
Authors: Danylchuk Karen
Published: August 2016

Internationalization is a very relevant topic on university campuses and most universities include a commitment to it in their mission statement or strategic plans. Over the years, universities have realized the importance of providing students with an international perspective that will prepare them to succeed in an increasingly globalized world. The globalization of the sport industry makes our field an ideal medium for addressing the concept of internationalization. As leaders in the field of sport management, we must ensure that we teach, research, and advocate from an international perspective. This paper discusses how we as sport management academicians and students might prepare ourselves to become global citizens by internationalizing ourselves through our teaching, research, and service. A commentary on the status of internationalization in our field as well as suggestions for change is provided.
The Rutgers Women’s Basketball and Don Imus Controversy (RUIMUS): White Privilege, New Racism, and the Implications for College Sport Management
Authors: Gill Emmett L.
Published: August 2016

The following is a narrative and critique of the Rutgers University Women’s Basketball Team/Don Imus Morning Show (RUIMUS) controversy. Using a convenience sample of regional and national media accounts and observations this piece summarizes the confirmed events of the RUIMUS controversy. The first objective of the manuscript is to provide a synopsis of the RUIMUS controversy. The second purpose is to explore how White privilege (McIntosh, 2003), new racism (Littlefield, 2008), sexism and their intersection operated during the lifespan of the RUIMUS controversy. The analyses illustrated the presence of the core elements of White privilege, new racism, sexism and double jeopardy, along with accounts of alienation, racial ambiguity, masculine characterizations and becoming visible through a prolonged controversy. The practical implications of these findings for sport managers are presented, and include postcontroversy student-athlete counseling, social and corrective justice, and proactive communications.
The Frequency of Nonresponse Analyses in the Journal of Sport Management
Authors: Jordan Jeremy S. , Walker Matthew , Kent Aubrey , Inoue Yuhei
Published: August 2016

The failure to adequately address nonresponse issues in survey research may lead to nonresponse bias in overall survey estimates, which can severely restrict researchers’ ability to make inferences to a target population. This study was designed to assess the frequency of nonresponse analyses in articles published in the Journal of Sport Management (JSM). All articles from the years 1987 through 2008 published in JSM (N = 371) were content analyzed based on a previously established coding scheme as well as additional indicators. The results revealed that only a small number of articles reported the use of nonresponse analyses as a means to control for nonresponse error.
Gender and Sexually Suggestive Images in Sports Blogs
Authors: Clavio Galen , Eagleman Andrea N.
Published: August 2016

Prior research into the portrayal of females in sport media has demonstrated that females are given less written coverage than males (e.g., Fink & Kensicki, 2002), and that the coverage given is more sexual in nature (Hardin, Lynn, & Walsdorf, 2005). Internet-based sports blogs have become both an alternative and a competitor to traditional sport media (Fleming, 2008; Hardin & Zhong, 2009; King, 2009). As such, it becomes necessary to examine the portrayal of females in sports blogs, to compare the medium’s content to traditional forms of sport media, and to establish a baseline for future research. Utilizing content analysis of the 10 most popular sports blogs, the study discovered that males received significantly more photographic coverage in sports blogs than did females, and that female portrayals were far more likely to be sexually suggestive in nature. These and other findings are discussed, and recommendations for future studies are included.
An Investigation into Professional Athlete Philanthropy: Why Charity Is Part of the Game
Authors: Babiak Kathy , Mills Brian , Tainsky Scott , Juravich Matthew
Published: August 2016

This study explored the philanthropic landscape of professional athletes and their charitable foundations. This research also investigated factors influencing the formation of philanthropic foundations among this group of individuals. First, data were collected to identify athletes in four professional North American sport leagues who had formed charitable foundations. Then, 36 interviews were conducted with athletes, foundation directors, league and team executives and a sport agent to explore the motives and beliefs about philanthropy in professional sport. Using the theory of planned behavior, this paper identified the factors considered in the formation of charitable foundations in this unique group, primarily focusing on attitudes (altruistic and self-interested), perceived behavioral control, subjective norms, self-identity and moral obligation as antecedents to athlete philanthropic activity. The paper also discusses the unique context in which these individuals operate, some of the particular constraints they face, and identifies opportunities for athlete foundations and their partners.
Is It Still “In the Game”, or Has Amateurism Left the Building? NCAA Student-Athletes’ Perceptions of Commercial Activity and Sports Video Games
Authors: Kaburakis Anastasios , Pierce David A. , Cianfrone Beth A. , Paule Amanda L.
Published: August 2016

The NCAA maintains a balance between amateurism and the increasing need for generating revenue. In this balancing act, there are various policy considerations and legal constraints. These legal and policy entanglements bore such class action suits as Keller v. Electronic Arts, National Collegiate Athletic Association, and Collegiate Licensing Company (2009) and O’Bannon v. National Collegiate Athletic Association and Collegiate Licensing Company (2009), which question current revenue generating practices of the NCAA. The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of NCAA Division I men’s football and basketball student-athletes toward amateurism and the particular use of student-athletes’ likenesses in college sports video games. Findings point to a lack of clarity and understanding of the agreements and consent forms student-athletes sign annually. Respondents demonstrated confusion in regard to financial aid opportunities, parameters of their scholarships, and whether they endorse commercial products. A majority of respondents expressed the desire to receive additional compensation. Recommendations include clarification and focused rules’ education from compliance and financial aid officers, as well as introducing new amateurism policy, concurrently avoiding costly litigation.
Maximizing Positive Social Impacts: Strategies for Sustaining and Leveraging the Benefits of Intercommunity Sport Events in Divided Societies
Authors: Schulenkorf Nico , Edwards Deborah
Published: August 2016

Building on the evidence of social impacts generated by sport events, there is a need for research to identify strategies suitable for maximizing event benefits for disparate interest communities. This paper investigates the opportunities and strategic means for sustaining and leveraging social event benefits arising from intercommunity sport events in the ethnically divided Sri Lanka. Following an interpretive mode of inquiry, findings are derived from the analysis of two focus groups and 35 in-depth interviews with Sinhalese, Tamil, Muslim and international event stakeholders. To maximize event benefits, findings suggest that event organizers and host communities focus strategically on children as catalysts for change; increase ethnically mixed team sport activities; provide event-related sociocultural opportunities; combine large-scale events with regular sport-for-development programs; and engage in social, cultural, political and educational event leverage. By implementing these strategies and tactics, intercommunity sport events are likely to contribute to local capacity building and inclusive social change, which can have flow-on effects to the wider community. These findings extend the academic literature on strategic event planning, management and leverage, as they provide a focus on community event leverage for social purposes in a developing world context—an area which has thus far received limited empirical research.
Developing an Instrument to Measure the Social Impact of Sport: Social Capital, Collective Identities, Health Literacy, Well-Being and Human Capital
Authors: Lee Seung Pil , Cornwell T. Bettina , Babiak Kathy
Published: August 2016

The objective of this study is to develop an instrument to measure the social impact of sport. While there is a rich literature suggesting and measuring the ways in which sport contributes to society, no broad, encompassing scale has been developed. A measure of this type is useful if sport initiatives are to gain social, political and financial support, especially in the form of corporate sponsorship. The proposed “Social Impact of Sport Scale” includes the dimensions of social capital, collective identities, health literacy, well-being and human capital. In addition to development of a detailed 75 item composite scale stemming largely from past measurement, a shorter set of global measures is also examined. A convenience sample of university students is used in scale development as well as a partial test of the scale in context. Results find support for the detailed scale and for the short global measure instrument. In addition, the partial test of the scale in a context of sport experience relevant to students is reported. The value of the scale in use and areas of future research are discussed.
Salary Equalization for Baseball Free Agents Confronting Different State Tax Regimes
Authors: Veliotis Stanley
Published: August 2016

This paper derives equivalent gross salary for Major League Baseball free agents weighing offers from teams based in states with different income tax rates. After discussing tax law applicable to professional sports teams’ players, including “jock taxes” and the interrelationship of state and federal taxes, this paper builds several models to determine equivalent salary. A base-case derivation, oversimplified by ignoring nonsalary income and Medicare tax, demonstrates that salary adjustment from a more tax expensive state’s team requires solely a state (but not federal) tax gross-up. Subsequent derivations, introducing nonsalary income and Medicare tax, demonstrate full Medicare but small federal tax gross-ups are also required. This paper applies the model to equalize salary offers from two teams in different states in a highly stylized example approximating the 2010 free agency of pitcher Cliff Lee. Aspects of the models may also be used to inform other sports’ players of their after-tax income if salary caps limit the ability to receive adequately grossed-up salaries.
Examining Sense of Community in Sport: Developing the Multidimensional ‘SCS’ Scale
Authors: Warner Stacy , Kerwin Shannon , Walker Matthew
Published: August 2016

As scholars conduct more research on the social benefits of community sport, the need for an instrument to measure sense of community is increasingly necessary. Utilizing previous grounded theory research specific to sport and community building, the purpose of this study was to test previous sport and sense of community theory through the creation and validation of a measurement scale to gauge sense of community. The authors tested a 21-item tool comprised of 6-subscales (i.e., Administrative Consideration, Common Interest, Competition, Equity in Administrative Decisions, Leadership, and Social Spaces) among samples of young sport participants using the three-phase method of item generation, confirmatory analyses, and concurrent validation. The resulting analyses yielded a valid and reliable instrument to measure sense of community in sport. This research suggests refinement to previous sport and sense of community theory and provides needed utility for this theory that has been grounded in the sport experience.
The Industrial Organization of Sport Coaches: Road Cycling as a Distinguished Case
Authors: Larson Daniel J. , Maxcy Joel
Published: August 2016

The structural components of sports competitions and the characteristics of sport practices vary significantly. These differences may translate into different optimal employment arrangements for the professional coaches (those who prepare teams and athletes for competitions). While there has been academic inquiry into the practice of sport coaching, there has been little apparent research into the industrial organization of sport coaches. This paper presents a formal model of the coaching practice. The coaching roles as strategists and trainers are distinguished, variation in the significance of the connections in the nexus of team to individual relations is identified, and the various methods of sport preparation are classified. Predictions of the employment arrangements based on model parameters are made and related to some established stylized facts and survey results from both cycling training coaches and athletes. The model and data corroborate that cycling coaches be hired by the individual athletes not their cycling teams. JEL classifications: J22, J24, L23, L83
Costs: The Rest of the Economic Impact Story
Authors: Crompton John L. , Howard Dennis R.
Published: August 2016

Economic impact studies are frequently commissioned to justify investments in sport projects. However, decisions also should include a consideration of a project’s costs since it is the net return on investment that should drive decisions. Whenever taxpayer funds are expended on a sports project there is an opportunity cost. Three types of opportunity cost are discussed. Explicit costs are those for which a government entity “writes a check.” They are comprised of event costs, land and infrastructure costs, and operations and maintenance costs. Implicit costs are those which remain “hidden” from most taxpayers: foregone property taxes, strategic underestimation of capital costs, displacement costs, and an inequitable nexus between payers and beneficiaries. External costs are those incurred by taxpayers beyond the boundaries of a local jurisdiction.
Understanding Change in National Sport Organizations: An Integration of Theoretical Perspectives
Authors: Slack Trevor , Hinings Bob
Published: August 2016

Increased interest in organizational change (i.e., shifts in an organization's structure, strategy, and processes) has led to considerable diversity in the theoretical approaches used to explain the phenomenon. This theoretical diversity has caused some scholars to suggest that a more complete understanding of organizational phenomena such as change is obtained when different theoretical perspectives are used in conjunction with one another. This paper examines a process of change that has been occurring in Canadian national sport organizations. Utilizing the theoretical approaches found in work on resource dependence theory, institutional theory, organizational culture, and the role of transformational leaders in managing change, the paper shows how these approaches explain different aspects of the change process. It also shows how a more complete understanding of change may be gained by using more than one theoretical perspective.
A Framework for the Analysis of Strategy in Nonprofit Sport Organizations
Authors: Thibault Lucie , Slack Trevor , Hinings Bob
Published: August 2016

In order to anticipate changes and challenges in their environments, sport organizations must formulate strategies. The purpose of this paper is to develop a framework for the study of strategy formulation in nonprofit sport organizations. Based predominantly on MacMillan's (1983) work on the nonprofit sector, and using Canadian national sport organizations as an illustration, this study identified several strategic imperatives to uncover the types of strategies that could be undertaken by nonprofit sport organizations. The imperatives were grouped into two dimensions; program attractiveness and competitive position. Under program attractiveness, the following imperatives were considered: “fundability,” size of client base, volunteer appeal, and support group appeal. The dimension of competitive position included the imperatives of equipment costs and affiliation fees. The two dimensions were juxtaposed on a matrix to produce four strategic types: enhancers, innovators, refiners, and explorers. The characteristics of these types and their implications for nonprofit sport organizations are discussed.
Morgan and the Metaphors: Implications for Sport Management Research
Authors: Slack Trevor
Published: August 2016

According to Morgan, our understanding of organizational life can be informed by a number of images of organization. In this article it is argued that in sport management research one or two of these images have dominated the field, to the exclusion of others. As such, we have developed only a partial and limited view of the organizational and managerial reality of sport organizations. If we are to enhance our understanding of the structure and processes of sport organizations we need to explore alternative images of these organizations, as this will ultimately help us produce better managers.
A Test of the Job Characteristics Model with Administrative Positions in Physical Education and Sport
Authors: Cleave Shirley
Published: August 2016

This study examined the appropriateness of using Hackman and Oldham's (1976, 1980) Job Characteristics Model with a sample of university physical education and sport administrators (NV = 217). The Job Characteristics Model specifies certain relationships between the design characteristics of a job and the levels of motivation, satisfaction, and productivity experienced by the worker. It also considers the effect of individual differences in moderating the relationships. The results of this study showed strong support for only some components of the theoretical model. In particular some relationships involving growth satisfaction and autonomy were not as predicted by the model. In addition, individual differences did not function as moderators of the relationships in the model. While theoretical models can be useful in helping to explain phenomena in the field of sport management, researchers in the field must continue to test the applicability of models developed in other fields.
Undergraduate and Graduate Sport Management Curricular Models: A Perspective
Authors: Kelley Dennie R. , Beitel Patricia A. , DeSensi Joy T. , Blanton Mary Dale
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this paper is to present undergraduate and graduate sport management curricular models which provide a perspective that higher education sport management professionals can use to solve curricular problems described in the literature and to implement the NASPE/NASSM guidelines. The five sport management concentrations, which have similar objectives and services but occur in different settings or serve different clientele, include (a) Sport for Leisure/Recreation, (b) Sport and Athletics, (c) Sport Merchandising, (d) Hostelries/Travel, and (e) Recreation Agencies. The models (a) differentiate purposes, content, and entry-level positions for each degree level; (b) provide evidence for which concentrations need to be part of each curriculum; (c) define a professional core; (d) describe the concentration specialization requirements; (e) differentiate the culminating experiences for each degree; and (f) provide the distinctive characteristics of undergraduate and graduate programs.
A Leadership Discussion with Dr. Bernard Bass
Authors: Weese W. James
Published: August 2016

Sport management scholars and practitioners alike hold tremendous interest in the area of leadership. Recent developments in the area, particularly regarding transformational leadership, offer great promise to both groups. This article contains a discussion with internationally famous leadership scholar Dr. Bernard Bass about the current thinking and future direction for leadership theory development. A summary of that discussion is presented along with implications for sport management scholars and practitioners.
Distributive Justice in Intercollegiate Athletics: Development of an Instrument
Authors: Hums Mary A. , Chelladurai Packianathan
Published: August 2016

This study examined the development of an instrument to assess the views held by NCAA male and female coaches and administrators concerning the principles of distributive justice used in the allocation of resources in athletic departments. The steps in the development of the instrument, including the use of a panel of experts, a pilot study, and a confirmatory study, are presented. Scenarios were developed describing situations involving either distribution or retribution of three different resources within athletic departments; money, facilities, or support services. The eight allocation principles listed under each scenario were (a) equality of treatment, (b) equality of results, and (c) equality of opportunity; contributions based on (d) productivity, (e) spectator appeal, (f) effort, and (g) ability; and (h) need. Subjects were asked to rate the justness of each allocation principle in each scenario and to choose which allocation principle they would implement in that scenario.
Strategic Planning for Nonprofit Sport Organizations: Empirical Verification of a Framework
Authors: Slack Trevor , Hinings Bob
Published: August 2016

While it is one of the central topics in the study of organizations, the concept of strategy has received little attention in the sport management literature. This paper is, in part, designed to help fill some of this void. Specifically, the purpose of the paper is to empirically verify a framework proposed by Thibault, Slack, and Hinings (1993) for the analysis of strategy in nonprofit sport organizations and to locate a sample of national level sport organizations within this framework according to their strategic type. The results of the study support the existence and utility of the two dimensions identified in Thibault et al.'s framework. They also reveal that there are common characteristics within the organizations that constitute each of the framework's four strategic types. The identification of these characteristics provides us with a preliminary understanding of the strategic initiatives being pursued by those sport organizations.
Policy Analysis in Sport Management
Authors: Chalip Laurence
Published: August 2016

Over the past two decades, policy analysis has developed as a collection of formal methods to enhance policy design and implementation. Interpretive and critical methods for policy analysis have recently been advocated as a way to clarify the parameters of policy problems and thereby improve policy formulation and implementation. The heuristic basis for interpretive and critical policy analysis is consistent with contemporary findings in the psychology of decision making. Formal methods for interpretive and critical policy analysis are elaborated and illustrated via application to the drafting of the U.S. Amateur Sports Act (PL 95-606). It is shown that the methods illumine decision processes that have caused sport development to become subordinate to the administrative rationalization of American Olympic sport governance.
Economic Impact Analysis of Sports Facilities and Events: Eleven Sources of Misapplication
Authors: Crompton John L.
Published: August 2016

Many sports events, facilities, and franchises are subsidized either directly or indirectly by investments from public sector funds. The scarcity of tax dollars has led to growing public scrutiny of their allocation; in this environment there is likely to be an increased use of economic impact analysis to support public subsidy of these events. Many of these analyses report inaccurate results. In this paper, 11 major contributors to the inaccuracy are presented and discussed. They include the following: using sales instead of household income multipliers; misrepresenting employment multipliers; using incremental instead of normal multiplier coefficients; failing to accurately define the impacted-area; including local spectators; failing to exclude “time-switchers” and “casuals;” using “fudged” multiplier coefficients; claiming total instead of marginal economic benefits; confusing turnover and multiplier; omitting opportunity costs; and measuring only benefits while omitting costs.
Organizational Effectiveness of Finnish Sports Clubs
Authors: Koski Pasi
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to analyze the organizational effectiveness of Finnish sports clubs (n = 835) from an open systems perspective. Five dimensions of effectiveness were examined, including the ability to obtain resources, internal atmosphere, efficiency of the throughput process, realization of aims, and general level of activity. All dimensions except internal atmosphere were intercorrelated. The findings indicated that many features of effectiveness were largely linked to the size of the membership, ideological orientation, and organizational environment. Success orientation was found to be incompatible with a relaxed atmosphere.
The Effects of Team Loyalty and Selected Stadium Factors on Spectator Attendance
Authors: Wakefield Kirk L. , Sloan Hugh J.
Published: August 2016

Having loyal fans and a winning team generally results in higher attendance at games. However, university and professional team administrators are beginning to recognize the importance of marketing the stadium experience as more than just the game. Drawing from data collected from spectators at five Southeastern Conference football stadiums, the effects of team loyalty, stadium parking, stadium cleanliness, perceived crowding, food service, and fan behavior control on spectators' desire to stay and attend games at the stadium were investigated. Covariance structural modeling (e.g., LISREL) was employed to test the causal relationships among the hypothesized relationships. The results support the premise that although team loyalty strongly affects attendance, stadium design and stadium services also directly influence spectators' desire to stay, and hence, attend games at the stadium.
Does Decision Making Make a Difference? Patterns of Change Within Canadian National Sport Organizations
Authors: Kikulis Lisa M. , Slack Trevor , Hinings Bob
Published: August 2016

The theoretical rationale underpinning this study was that decision making structures are tightly coupled to the core values of organizations and thus have a high impact on organizational design change. Taking a fine-grained approach to the analysis of decision making, the purpose of this study was to determine whether amateur sport organizations have shifted away from the dominant paradigm of volunteer-led decision making in favor of professional staff authority and autonomy over strategic decisions. Data from a population of 36 Canadian national sport organizations were used to show that changes in decision making have occurred. However, the shift in control from volunteers to professionals has not been established. In addition, change in decision making varied according to the direction of change, the decision making dimension, and the decision topic.
The Diffusion of Innovations in Sport Organizations: An Evaluative Framework
Authors: Newell Sue , Swan Jacky
Published: August 2016

The level of participation and degree of excellence attained within a given sport is dependent, at least in part, on how that sport is organized. Sport has traditionally been organized in an ad hoc way, relying on volunteers who were committed to the particular sport. It is now clear that to encourage higher levels of participation and international excellence, new ideas about organizing need to be diffused to those involved in the management of sport. The literature from the business environment demonstrates that the process of innovation requires, first, that new ideas be diffused to organizations and, second, that these ideas then be translated via a process of organizational change within the adopting organization so that their usage is appropriate. This literature demonstrates that these processes of diffusion and appropriation are problematic and heavily dependent on the contextual features of the adopting organization. This paper presents a framework for understanding these diffusion and appropriation processes within sportorganizations and emphasizes the importance of inter organizational networks.
The Professionalization of Sport Psychology: Legal Considerations
Authors: Harrison Raymond P. , Feltz Deborah L.
Published: August 2016

Sport psychology by its very title implies that it is a specialty within psychology. However, many sport psychologists have primary allegiance to other fields besides psychology, and many are not licensed or even eligible for licensing to practice psychology. Problems which have occurred for other psychological specialties are reviewed as a means of predicting conflicts which might arise between unlicensed sport psychologists and state psychology licensing boards. Several alternative responses are outlined by which sport psychologists might minimize future legal conflicts. In any event, sport psychologists should begin now to anticipate these difficulties and prepare means for dealing with them.
Perception in Sport: Basketball
Authors: Allard Fran , Graham Sheree , Paarsalu Maret E.
Published: August 2016

Performance of basketball players and nonplayers was compared on a task requiring the recall of slides of basketball games after a 4-second view of each slide. All slides viewed depicted basketball games; one half of the slides contained structured game information (slide represented an offensive play in progress) and the other half of the slides showed unstructured game information (slide represented a turnover or rebound). As has been found for skilled chess, bridge, and Go players, basketball players were superior to nonplayers in recall for structured slides only. Furthermore, players were superior to nonplayers in a recognition task for both structured and unstructured slides, showing that players' superiority in the experimental tasks is a function of encoding information to a deeper level than nonplayers.
An Analysis of Home and Away Game Performance of Male College Basketball Teams
Authors: Varca Philip E.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the performance of men's basketball teams playing on their home court and away from home. In order to counterbalance playing sites and team ability, the performance of 10 league schools using a round-robin schedule was studied. Home teams won significantly more often than their visiting opponents. As predicted, home teams significantly outperformed their opponents in terms of functionally aggressive behavior, such as rebounds, steals, and blocked shots. Also, as predicted, visiting teams displayed significantly more dysfunctional aggression, such as fouls. There were no significant differences between home and away teams with respect to fine motor movements, such as field goal and free throw percentages. It appears that the salient behavioral dimension differentiating home and away play is aggressive behavior. Several theoretical models were explored for explaining the present findings and promoting future research.
Cognitive and Biofeedback Training for Stress Reduction with University Athletes
Authors: De Witt Daniel J.
Published: August 2016

Cognitive training is a broad term referring to a wide variety of psychological techniques that help individuals alter their own thoughts and perceptions. Biofeedback training allows individuals to become aware of typical patterns of physiological responding to environmental events. Two studies investigated whether a training program which combined these techniques would help athletes reduce competitive stress reactions and improve competitive performance. Studies of football players and basketball players found statistically significant differences (p < .05) between pre- and posttreatment comparisons of performance ratings. In the second study, a treatment group improved performance whereas a contact control group did not. Subjects in the treatment condition reported feeling more comfortable and confident in discussions subsequent to the training.
Attributions and Performance: An Empirical Test of Kukla's Theory
Authors: Yukelson David , Weinberg Robert S. , Jackson Stephen West Allen
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to test Kukla's attributional theory of performance and to address the mediating link between causal attribution and subsequent action in a competitive motor task. Two experiments were conducted: the first was designed to determine the effect of perceived task difficulty and attributional instructions on the ball-tossing performance of high achievers while competing against a standard of excellence. Results indicated that high achievers performed with greater intensity when receiving an effort rather than ability-oriented instructional set and when they perceive themselves to be behind a normative score of their classmates. To refine and clarify results found in Experiment 1, low as well as high achievers were added to the second study and were placed in face-to-face competition instead of a competition against a standard of excellence. Results from the performance data in Experiment 2 supported Kukla's theory in that high achievers performed best when they perceived themselves to be behind an opponent's score midway through the experiment, whereas low achievers performed best when they perceived themselves to be ahead. Results from the cognitive assessment procedure, however, failed to support the performance findings. Implications for the viability of Kukla's attributional theory of performance and problems related to the assessment of cognitive states are discussed.
Physical Attractiveness: Effects on Teacher Expectations and Dyadic Interactions in Elementary Age Children
Authors: Martinek Thomas J.
Published: August 2016

This study describes the effects of physical attractiveness on teacher expectations and specific teacher-student interactions. Two physical education specialists and their classes served as subjects for the study. Graduate students (n = 30) were asked to rate 141 second, fourth, and sixth grade children from a black and white photo taken of each child. A total of 100 students, from the upper and lower thirds in each grade for both teachers, comprised the sample. Teacher expectations were determined by asking the teachers to rate students according to how they expected each to perform in terms of: (a) physical performance, (b) social relations with peers, (c) cooperative behavior in class, and (d) ability to reason. A dyadic version of Cheffers Adaptation to Flanders Interaction Analysis System was the observational tool used to describe the teacher-student behaviors. Two 2 × 2 × 3 MANOVAs showed that high attractive students were expected to do better in physical performance and to be more socially integrative with peers than low attractive groups. In addition, high attractive students in the sixth grade received more acceptance of their ideas from their teachers.
An Analysis of Motivation in Children's Sport: The Role of Perceived Competence in Participation
Authors: Roberts Glyn C. , Kleiber Douglas A. , Duda Joan L.
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the relationship of sport participation to perceived competence. Perceived competence is considered to be an important determinant of achievement motivation and behavior. Male and female fourth and fifth graders (N = 143) were given Harter's (Note 1) Perceived Competence Scales and were interviewed to determine their involvement in organized sport activities. Further, the children were asked to give their perceptions of competence relative to teammates, general attributions about sport outcomes, and their persistence and expectancies of future success. The results revealed that participants in organized sports were higher in perceived competence, were more persistent, and had higher expectations of future success. The causal attributions of participant children were ability oriented and generally supported the perceived competence findings. The results are consistent with the statement that perceived competence in physical skills has an important influence on the participation and motivation of children in sport contexts.
Spectator Moods at an Aggressive Sports Event
Authors: Russell Gordon W.
Published: August 2016

Mood scales were administered to spectators attending an especially violent ice hockey game (n = 117) and a relatively nonviolent game (n = 159). Subjects completed the scales either prior to the opening face-off, during the first or second period intermissions, or immediately following the match. The between-subjects design revealed an increase in spectator hostility accompanied by a quadratic arousal function for the violent game. The relationship between hostility (and arousal) and the period of play was best described by an inverted-U function. Arousal decreased at the nonviolent match. Other mood states were largely unaffected by the two games. The results were discussed with reference to three models of spectator moods in which outcome is featured as a major variable.
Some Methodological Perspectives on the Analysis of Team Games
Authors: Gould Peter , Greenawalt Nancy Jo
Published: August 2016

The cross-disciplinary perspectives of the physical educator and human geographer are used to illustrate methodological approaches to the analysis of team games. Spatial transformations of player configurations raise questions of two-dimensional, or Euclidean, regression, from which residuals create inter-pretable vector fields. Asymmetries in team play raise questions of the “winds of influence” blowing through appropriate spaces as graphic summaries of team dynamics. The meteorological analogy is explored further as teams create pressure surfaces, or forcing functions, which control the “flow of the game.” Finally, an algebraic topological language of structure is suggested to describe the dynamics of player-polyhedra by defining a relation upon a set of players engaged in a game.
A Psychometric Analysis of an Inventory for Assessing Children's Attitudes Toward Physical Activity1
Authors: Schutz Robert W. , Smoll Frank L. , Wood Terry M.
Published: August 2016

Simon and Smoll's (1974) inventory for assessing children's attitudes toward physical activity (CATPA) has been used in numerous studies of children's at-titudinal dispositions and their relationships to a variety of situational and dispositional variables. Recent research revealing low attitude-behavior relationships and instability across time has raised questions about the psychometric properties of the CATPA inventory. The purpose of this research was to psychometrically analyze the six attitude subdomains of this semantic differential inventory and derive recommendations for its modification. The first of three studies reported herein included a four-phase analysis of the CATPA scores of 1,752 children, the results of which indicated that (a) three of the original eight bipolar adjectives were not good discriminators, (b) internal consistencies were high and were not improved by reciprocal average reweighting, and (c) a seven-factor structure emerged, differing from the underlying six-factor theoretical model. In Study 2 a revised CATPA inventory was administered to 1,895 boys and girls. The findings supported the inventory revisions and suggested the necessity for dichotomizing one of the six original attitude sub-domains. Study 3 incorporated the derived rescoring procedures in the reanalysis of earlier attitudinal investigations. Results revealed that modifying the scales neither changed the nature or strength of attitude-behavior relationships nor did it affect the intraindividual stability of CATPA over a period of time. The revised CATPA inventory was deemed to be an improvement over the original instrument because of its superior psychometric characteristics and reduced length, thereby making it more efficient for administrative purposes.
The Effect of Preexisting and Manipulated Self-efficacy on a Competitive Muscular Endurance Task
Authors: Weinberg Robert S. , Gould Daniel , Yukelson David , Jackson Allen
Published: August 2016

This investigation was designed to determine the effects of preexisting and manipulated self-efficacy on competitive motor performance. Male (n = 46) and female (n = 46) subjects were classified as being high or low in preexisting self-efficacy before the experiment began and were randomly assigned to either a high- or low-manipulated self-efficacy condition in a 2 × 2 × 2 (sex by self-efficacy by manipulated efficacy) design. Efficacy was manipulated by having subjects compete against a confederate on a muscular leg-endurance task where the confederate was said to be either a varsity track athlete (low-manipulated self-efficacy) or an individual who had had knee surgery (high-manipulated self-efficacy). To create aversive consequences, the experiment was rigged so that subjects lost in competition on the two muscular leg endurance task trials they performed. Both preexisting and manipulated self-efficacy were found to significantly influence performance, with preexisting self-efficacy influencing performance only on Trial 1 and manipulated self-efficacy only on Trial 2. The findings support Bandura's (1977) theory of self-efficacy and are discussed in terms of the permeability of initial efficacy states.
Mental Practice and Knowledge of Results in the Learning of a Perceptual Motor Skill
Authors: Zecker Steven G.
Published: August 2016

Although mental practice has often been demonstrated to result in improved learning of a motor skill, theoretical accounts of the reasons for this improvement are lacking. The present experiment examined the role of knowledge of results (KR) in motor skill learning, because KR is believed to be crucial to such learning, yet is lacking during mental practice. Subjects in four conditions (mental practice, physical practice, physical practice without KR, and control), tossed beanbags at a target. Results showed that of the four conditions, mental practice showed the largest performance increment, whereas physical practice showed a decrement attributed to massed practice without adequate rest periods. Results suggest that (a) knowledge of results is not always essential for improved performance; (b) mental practice is most beneficial following sufficient experience with the task; and (c) mental practice may be best suited for a massed practice learning situation.