bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Como empresas consolidam a presença em mercados estrangeiros? considerações sobre o processo de internacionalização
Authors: Scherer Flavia Luciane
Published: January 2013

This theoretical article aims to raise considerations regarding the internationalization of companies, with emphasis on issues underlying the maintenance and growth of its operations in foreign markets. In the academic environment, was quickly perceived that increased globalization has led to new perspectives in terms of companies' performance in a context of high competition. This movement propelled the growing interest in the study of the phenomenon of globalization and the processes involved in the management of companies operating in foreign markets. In this article, we proceeded to the presentation of approaches to the study of internationalization, which led to the conclusion that the studies referenced - in the fields of organizational theory and marketing / international business - do not present theoretical constructs that allow the invetigation of the consolidation as the final step in the internationalization process. It seems to be the timely pursuit of variables and indicators that lead to proper characterization and analysis of this period. Understand how companies remained working abroad, profitably, can generate useful insighst to planning for stimulus to internationalization, as well as providing the necessary advancement of the body of theoretical knowledge about the subject.
Estilos de aprendizagem e níveis de comprometimento organizacional: uma abordagem com residentes multiprofissionais da saúde
Authors: Schiemer Vargas Katiuscia , Birrer Jucelaine Arend , Minello Italo Fernando
Published: January 2013

The paper discusses the relationship between learning styles (EA) and the levels of the organizational commitment (OC) of the multidisciplinary health for a Multidisciplinary Residency Program in Health from a Federal Institution of Higher Education. It is characterized as a case study quantitative descriptive. To collect data we used the Inventory of Kolb EA (1976) and the Scale of CO Meyer, Allen and Smith (1993), validated in Brazil by Medeiros and Enders (1998). As a result, we have: (i) regarding the EA, the EA divergent prevailed, however, were found among the all respondents EA defined by Kolb (1976), (​​ii) with respect to CO, there is so predominantly affective commitment to the Residency Program and, opposite, there is a minor compromise in the level instrumental and affiliated; regarding the relationship between EA and CO level, there is a correlation between EA and diverging assimilator with levels 3 and 4, CO, however the EA accommodative and convergent bear no relation to the CO levels.
Educação para a inovação
Authors: Giroletti Domingos Antonio , Lima Reginaldo De Jesus Carvalho , Patah Leandro Alves
Published: January 2013

This article attempts to discuss the Brazilian development in the second decade of the XXI century, its main challenges and bow to overcome them. It is discussed the relationship between education and innovation as well as its linkage with the development process. It departs from the analysis of the world scenario after the economist crisis of 2008 and the implications for Brazil’s economy. The relationship between education and innovation is examined and special attention is given to the role of the educational system and how it can contribute to prepare more innovative people, better adjusted to the present time and to the changes that we are living. Another focus of analysis refers to the need to increase a culture of innovation among us, adopting proper strategies to improve it and to surpass some resistances against its improvement, especially among university students and professors due to the confusion between innovation and globalization and globalization and capitalistic exploration. Finally, it will be necessary to transform globalization as an economic process into a project of civilization.
Trabalho, educação e família: perspectivas para a pessoa com deficiência intelectual
Authors: Rosa Fernanda Duarte , Denari Fátima Elisabeth
Published: January 2013

http://dx.doi.org/10.5902/1984686X4842 A realidade vivenciada por pessoas portadoras de deficiências tem se tornado foco de estudos e discussões, principalmente no que diz respeito à sua inclusão e integração social. As leis se colocam a favor de mudanças, no entanto o que vemos na prática ainda está longe de ser um panorama ideal e de real igualdade de oportunidades de inserção. Quando falamos de pessoas com Deficiência Intelectual (DI) em idade adulta, verificamos que se trata de um assunto ainda pouco explorado, porém inserido neste complexo cenário vivenciado por pessoas portadoras de deficiências, um cenário ainda permeado pelo estigma e pela exclusão. A maioria destas pessoas se encontra fora do mercado de trabalho, muitas sendo alocadas no ensino de Jovens e Adultos (EJA) e ainda dependentes de seus familiares. Este estudo visa compreender a realidade vivida por um adulto com DI e sua família, identificando as características de sua rotina, demandas e serviços de apoio existentes. Para isto, este trabalho utilizou como método a análise de conteúdo, com o uso de uma entrevista. Verificou-se nos relatos obtidos que a família estudada se mostra aparentemente dentro do panorama verificado na literatura sobre pessoas portadoras de deficiência, o adulto com DI não se encontra inserido no mercado de trabalho e é totalmente dependente economicamente dos pais, no entanto, existem expectativas futuras otimistas e um olhar positivo para a deficiência, vista como parte do cotidiano e não como uma sobrecarga para a família.Palavras-chave: Deficiência intelectual; Adulto; Estudo de caso.
Educação inclusiva e exclusão social
Authors: Bissoto Maria Luisa
Published: January 2013

http://dx.doi.org/10.5902/1984686X5434 Analisam-se criticamente premissas subjacentes à Educação Inclusiva, argumentando-se que essa somente poderá ser bem sucedidamente efetivada quando compreendida num contexto mais amplo de inclusão e exclusão social. Metodologicamente, esse é um trabalho de discussão conceitual, e se apoia em documentos nacionais e internacionais de referência sobre a Educação Inclusiva, escolhidos por sistematizarem e caracterizarem diferentes práticas educacionais e sociais inclusivas, favorecendo o debate sobre esse tema. Como resultado dessa análise conclui-se que é essencial para a Educação Inclusiva que as instituições educacionais revejam seus objetivos e razões de existência social. Nas considerações finais defende-se que a Educação seja compreendida como o ato de favorecer e acolher os esforços dos sujeitos em suas tentativas de envolverem-se na rede de engajamentos sociais, que sustenta o viver. Isso inclui a aceitação de outras interpretações da realidade e a compreensão de que uma ação educacional efetivamente inclusiva não pode ficar restrita aos muros das instituições. Exige a participação de toda coletividade. Perspectivas capazes de favorecer ações educacionais e sociais inclusivas são sugeridas.Palavras-chave: Educação inclusiva; Inclusão social; comunidade.
Inclusão escolar: carências e desafios da formação e atuação profissional
Authors: Terra Ricardo Nogueira , Gomes Claudia Gomes
Published: January 2013

http://dx.doi.org/10.5902/1984686X5629 Com base nas propostas que possibilitam o acesso e permanência de alunos com necessidades educacionais especiais (NEEs) no ensino regular, promulgadas pelas legislações nacionais e internacionais, que discussão das ações educacionais inclusivas, ganha foro, e também deflagra as carências e os desafios ao se considerar a implementação de uma escola acolhedora a todos os alunos indistintamente. Assim, este estudo interessado nos impasses e desafios que cercam a questão nas escolas de Alfenas/MG, lançou como objetivo caracterizar o preparo profissional dos professores, no que se refere aos aspectos de formação inicial e continuada, assim como o conhecimento dos aspectos legais e jurídicos que cercam as políticas públicas educacionais inclusivas. Este estudo contou com uma amostra de 60 professores, atuantes em duas escolas uma da rede municipal e outra da rede estadual de uma cidade da região do Sul de Minas Gerais/MG. Para a coleta de dados junto aos professores, foi utilizado como instrumento de pesquisa um questionário que foi analisado quantitativamente. Pôde-se considerar que de modo geral, os professores apresentam uma formação acadêmica adequada quanto aos cursos de graduação e pos-graduação, 51,7% da amostra apontam ter realizado cursos específicos de formação para a inclusão, no entanto, 84,5% da amostra consideram-se despreparados para esse processo, assim como em relação ao conhecimento das legislações, podê-se evidenciar que uma parcela significativa aponta não conhecer as legislações específicas que cercam a questão. Assim, conclui-se que existe a necessidade de questionamentos tanto na qualidade e eficácia dos cursos de formação inicial e continuada oferecida aos professores.Palavras-chaves: Formação docente; Inclusão; Necessidades educacionais especiais.
Níveis de envolvimento de uma criança com Síndrome de Down em contextos de inclusão e Educação Especial
Authors: Cruz Eduardo Chaves , Esteves Letícia Monteiro , Bertelli Rosangela
Published: January 2013

http://dx.doi.org/10.5902/1984686X5644 As crianças com necessidades educativas especiais (NEE) estão, sempre que possível, inseridas em turmas do ensino regular. A inclusão traz uma série de benefícios tanto para as crianças regulares quanto para aquelas com NEE. O presente estudo avaliou a qualidade do envolvimento de uma criança com síndrome de Down inserida numa turma de primeiro ano primário do ensino regular, em dois contextos de ensino aprendizagem: contexto de inclusão e contexto de educação especial. O estudo avaliou também o empenhamento da professora relativamente à criança com NEE, em contexto de inclusão e em contexto de educação especial. Os resultados obtidos evidenciaram que os níveis de envolvimento da criança nas atividades de sala de aula eram mais satisfatórios no contexto de educação especial. Diretamente proporcional ao envolvimento da criança era o empenhamento da professora, que atingiu níveis mais baixos de empenhamento nas atividades de sala de aula no contexto de inclusão.Palavras-chave: Inclusão; Níveis de envolvimento; Níveis de empenhamento.
A interação entre crianças surdas no contexto de uma escola de Educação Infantil
Authors: Silvestre Carolina Oliveira Jimenez , Lourenço Erica Aparecida Garrutti de
Published: January 2013

http://dx.doi.org/10.5902/1984686X6160 Este artigo objetiva conhecer como se dá interação entre crianças surdas na Educação Infantil. A metodologia pautou-se na observação em campo de uma turma de Educação Infantil em uma escola especializada na Educação de Surdos da Rede Municipal de São Paulo. Foram realizadas também entrevistas com a professora da turma observada e a coordenadora. Como outros procedimentos de coleta de dados, analisou-se o Projeto Político Pedagógico da escola e realizou-se uma atividade dirigida com as crianças. Os resultados revelaram que as interações entre as crianças surdas ocorrem naturalmente, visto que essas crianças compartilham de uma mesma língua, a Língua de Sinais e da mesma cultura. A escola pesquisada tem como meta respeitar a língua, a cultura e a identidade surda, tendo a preocupação em centrar-se no uso da LIBRAS como forma de comunicação para o favorecimento da aprendizagem da criança surda.Palavras-chave: Educação de surdos; Interação entre crianças; EducaçãoInfantil; Bilinguismo.
Editorial – Revista Educação Especial
Authors: Naujorks Maria Inês
Published: January 2013

http://dx.doi.org/10.5902/1984686X7545
Acadian migration, Canada to Louisiana
Authors: Shockley Candice N.
Published: January 2013

The deportation of nearly 10,000 Acadians from their native lands during the 18th century often overshadows the distinctive culture and identity of the Acadians themselves. Heavily influenced by benevolent relationships with the native Míkmaq people, intensely independent, fiercely protective of their families, and exceptionally industrious, the Acadians carved their communities out of the wilderness of northeastern North America only to be cast out of their homes, scattered, and relegated to poverty by the British government. In spite of their circumstances, however, the Acadians clung to their identity as a people, creating a New Acadia in Louisiana that endures to the present day.
Adoption and migration
Authors: Condit‐Shrestha Kelly
Published: January 2013

According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs/Population Division (UNDESA) (2009: 65), “There is no universally accepted definition of a domestic adoption.” While adoption implies the permanent transferral of a child away from the biological parent(s) to another person, the reasons, motivations, social practices, as well as the legal and cultural parameters of adoption have changed dramatically and unevenly in the modern era of nation‐states.
African Maghreb, migration to the European Union, 1980–present
Authors: Djane Kabran Aristide
Published: January 2013

A growing body of research on migration between Africa and Western Europe, conducted from 1990 to 2012, focuses on new demographic forms of population mobility from Africa and the countries of the European Union via the Maghreb. Migration, encompassing more countries and a growing population, reflects growing socioeconomic inequality between poor countries of the global South and the global North and escalating political conflict. The forces of migration are multidimensional, resulting from poverty, political instability, and violent conflict within and between African countries. The generalization of the restrictive visa entry system for African migrants traveling to Europe through the Schengen Area system, legislated by the European Union, constitutes a geopolitical dilemma of legislative proportions.
Africa, Fulbe migrations
Authors: Adesina Oluwakemi Abiodun
Published: January 2013

The Fulbe are one of the most mobile pastoral groups in the world. They are spread throughout West Africa, even extending across the continent to the eastern parts of the Republic of Sudan (Boesen 2007: 31). The group has for centuries been part of the history, sociology, and ecology of West Africa, maintaining and also spreading their distinctive ways of life and identity. The Fulbe have historically been classified racially into two groups, comprising the Fulani pastoralists, and the sedentary Fulbe (Ajayi & Espie 1965).
Africa, gender and migration
Authors: Kuti Tolulope Esther
Published: January 2013

The mobility of people within and across national territories has remained one of the most remarkable endeavors over human histories. Migration as a human undertaking is a significant question of concern, social policy, national legislation, and multilateral relations. Migration influences virtually all national institutions and social structures in countries of origin and destination. As a matter of routine, when people move they embark on a journey of hope and uncertainty whether within or across international borders. While the dominant pattern of migration over the past 500 years, since the beginning of European colonization, has been from Europe to the global South, in the post‐ World War II era migration trends have become more complex, and more people are traveling from developing countries of Africa, the Americas, and Asia to Europe, North America, and Australasia. Yet, according to the
Human Development Report
(UNDP 2009: 1–2) most movement across the globe does not even take place between countries, but internal mobility from rural to urban regions within countries. Approximately 740 million people are classified as internal migrants worldwide – almost four times larger than the number of international migrants. Among those who have moved across national borders, just over a third moved from a developing to a developed country – fewer than 70 million people. Most of the world's 200 million international migrants have traveled between developed countries; with about 86 million economically active. This population data suggests that human migration will remain a critical policy question of the 21st century. Most international migrants (more than three‐quarters) travel to a country with a higher level of human development than their country of origin, especially within regions and continents. In the past 40 years, women have represented a larger share of internal and transnational migrants than ever before, drawn by growing demand from the global North for domestic service, hospitality, entertainment, and even manufacturing services (UNDP 2009).
Africa, internal migration
Authors: Akeju David O.
Published: January 2013

In this essay, internal migration is conceived as human movement within the boundaries of African territory. Internal migration in Africa is precipitated mainly by the socioeconomic and political system which is undergoing continuous modification as events in one part of the system cause a repercussion in another. As such, the African socioeconomic and political environment is seen as one of change: of an increasing degree of commercialization and industrialization, of rising health and educational standards, of changing government policies and better transportation services. Thus internal migration in Africa is largely determined by social, political, and economic development (Onokerhoraye 1993; de Haas 2009). Sub‐Saharan African has the highest coefficient of variation in the net migration rate accommodating the top four countries, and 22 of the top 50 in the past fifty years (Lucas 2005). The recent rise in internal migration has been linked directly to the force of urbanization as well as to social and capitalist economic transformation which tend to affect human population (de Haas 2009).
Africa, medieval era migrations: an overview
Authors: Bechhaus‐Gerst Marianne
Published: January 2013

An overview article dealing with migrations within a continent over a period of a thousand years must inevitably be sketchy and can at best give some examples. Nowadays about 2,500 languages are spoken by at least as many ethnic, political, or societal groups. The picture is complicated by the fact that languages do not necessarily correspond to ethnic, political, societal, or cultural entities and there is no reason to assume that the situation was different during the period under consideration. Quite the contrary is the case. Linguistic, archaeological, and historical studies have shown that languages and cultures have disappeared in the course of time. Migrations of people(s), but also of ideas, religions, goods, and many more took place permanently somewhere on the continent, and the reconstruction of these different events and processes has only just begun and will never be complete.
Africa, commerce and pre‐colonial migration
Authors: Afani Ali
Published: January 2013

If there is anything that has characterized African civilization throughout the ages, it is the culture of buying and selling. Trading in staples (fresh farm produce of all kinds) defined the way members of different communities intermingled. Palm oil, peanuts, and gum, especially Senegalese gum, were some of the key articles exchanged (Eltis & Jennings 1988: 946). Contrary to popular belief, commerce was well developed in Africa prior to the coming of Europeans. According to Quinn 1972, the region of Niumi, on the north bank near the western mouth of the River Gambia, for example, served as a center, commercial enough to link that part of Africa not only to the Saharan region, but also to the Atlantic trade routes. This has been so throughout the ages because Africans are known for their extravagant spending habits. Laying out inordinate sums of money on trinkets and sometimes on expensive precious stones (gold, for example) is common.
Air travel
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: January 2013

In this era of globalization, the crossing of borders has become commonplace, with air travel serving as the preferred mode of transport from one border to the next. This has put commercial airlines in a precarious position as the “gatekeepers” of border control, forcing them into a relationship with state officials who need to reconcile the economics of tourism with restrictive public sentiments toward migration.
Albanian‐speaking migration, mid‐19th century to present
Authors: Dahinden Janine
Published: January 2013

In the past two decades Albania and the former Yugoslavia have become associated with some of Europe's most dramatic emigration movements. During the four decades of the communist regime, the Republic of Albania was a blind spot in the imagination of Europe and the world. It was brought back into the collective consciousness in 1991 when media all over the world showed dramatic pictures of impoverished and desperate men arriving in overcrowded ships in southern Italy: Albania had its “boat people.” In addition, Albanian populations living in the former Yugoslavia, particularly Kosovo‐Albanians, gained a world audience in 1998 when tens of thousands of refugees arrived not only in Europe, but also in Albania and other neighboring countries, after the outbreak of open war in Kosovo. However, migration in this world region cannot be reduced simply to such key moments; a historical perspective reveals that migration has been a constitutional aspect of the Balkans for a long time.
Anglo‐Saxon migrations
Authors: Hills Catherine M.
Published: January 2013

During the 5th centuryCEBritain ceased to be part of the Roman empire and became a group of small warring territories, from which eventually emerged the medieval kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Wales. This process involved population movements around the Irish and North Sea coastal regions, of which the most substantial was that of the Anglo‐Saxons from northern Germany and southern Scandinavia into eastern England. The historical, archaeological, linguistic, and biological evidence for that migration is often read as telling a simple story of the replacement of native Briton by Germanic Anglo‐Saxon in the south and east of England. This origin myth of the English has had continuing political power because it has been seen as the basis for the distinction between the English, Scots, and Welsh. The political dimension has also been a factor in alternative versions of the story, stressing the unity of all British people rather than their differences, and playing down the scale of the migrations. It is the reason why the story still has significance and is still hotly debated, with no consensus yet agreed to as to the absolute or relative numbers of natives or immigrants.
Anthropology of migration
Authors: Brettell Caroline B.
Published: January 2013

Physical anthropologists would argue that the migration of human populations is as old as the emergence of hominids. Anthropological archaeologists point to early migratory movements among prehistoric hunters and gatherers as well as among the people who built the ancient civilizations of the old and new worlds. Historical anthropologists who have worked with archival records have demonstrated that the movement of individuals in and out of local communities in Europe, Latin America, China, and Japan has been going on for centuries. Assumptions about migratory human populations were also clearly embedded in the diffusionist theoretical approaches of early 20th century cultural anthropology in both Europe and the United States. However, much of the research carried out by social and cultural anthropologists during the first half of the 20th century paid little attention to migration because many ethnographers were working with a bounded concept of culture and a static structural‐functional theoretical paradigm.
Arab Gulf Cooperation Council in Southwest Asia migration
Authors: Dito Mohammed
Published: January 2013

Few countries in the world have debated as long and hard on the nature and consequences of migration as have the member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC): the United Arab Emirates, the State of Bahrain, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the Sultanate of Oman, the State of Qatar, the State of Kuwait. The discovery of oil in the countries around the Gulf countries in the mid‐20th century was a strategic geopolitical factor that shaped much of the modernization process of these countries, a process that has witnessed a radical acceleration especially in the aftermath of the oil crisis of October 1973. Labor migration to these countries opened new opportunities for millions of migrant workers, especially from other Arab and later from Southeast Asian countries.
Argentina, migration, mid‐19th century to present
Authors: Cegarra Susana Novick and Vanina Modolo, translated by Carlos
Published: January 2013

The territory of the current Argentine Republic has a long‐standing migratory tradition, which has played – and still plays – a key role in the way its society, culture, and population are structured. Historically we can differentiate three periods: the early migrations, from the 18th century to 1880; the mass migrations, from 1881 to World War I; and the contemporary migrations, from the beginning of World War I onwards (Devoto 2003).
Armenian diaspora
Authors: Gevorkyan Aleksandr V.
Published: January 2013

The republic of Armenia is a small and landlocked post‐Soviet country of roughly three million people at the southern tip of the Caucasus Mountains. Armenia is also a large internationally dispersed expatriate population – the Armenian diaspora (spjurq), stitched in the nation's history. With a conceptual homeland as unifying ideal, Armenian is one of the “classic” diasporas (Brubaker 2005), with the Jewish and Greek. The relationship between the country and its diaspora intensified with Armenia's independence in 1991.
Ascetics, missionaries, and pilgrims, medieval era
Authors: Lohse Tillmann
Published: January 2013

Every year during the medieval millennium thousands of men and women in Europe, Asia, and northern Africa were on the move for religious reasons. Monks, nuns, and other ascetics traveled many miles to certain confraternities or isolated areas in search of spiritual guidance, theological instruction, solitude, homelessness, and alienation. Missionaries left their homes to propagate their own religious beliefs to strangers in other lands. Pilgrims headed for sacred places to observe religious rules; to do penance; to fulfill a vow; to receive a conditional bequest; to make a request; to seek a cure, an indulgence, fertility, or purification; to pursue meditation; to achieve merit or other (sometimes also rather profane) goals. Thus ascetics, missionaries, and pilgrims may well be distinguished with respect to their specific objectives, but frequently the boundaries between these three groups were rather fluid. Furthermore ascetics, missionaries, and pilgrims were not migrants per se; some of them might be better characterized as travelers, while others never left their homes at all. Therefore, given the current state of global historical research, generalizing statements are difficult to make and each case requires close examination.
Asian and minority banks
Authors: Hum Tarry
Published: January 2013

The United States has a long history of minority banks formed to meet the credit needs of populations excluded from mainstream financial institutions. For example, mutual aid associations such as the African Union Society, established in 1780, were the earliest form of a minority‐owned financial institution, and black‐owned banks became significant in numbers starting in the late 1880s (Immergluck 2004).
Asian indentured immigration to the Caribbean, 1838–1917
Authors: Lai Walton Look
Published: January 2013

Indian and Chinese immigration into the Caribbean region is intimately bound up with the fortunes of the regional sugar industry, the elements of which by the mid‐19th century were at various different stages of development. All had been affected by the British abolition of the slave trade in 1807. In Cuba, where the industry was still in high‐growth mode, with an insatiable demand for labor which kept expanding precisely when the drying up of traditional supplies became a real prospect, the slave trade continued under Portuguese and Spanish flags until mid‐century, when indentured Chinese importation picked up, after 1847. In Trinidad and British Guiana, taken over by the British in 1797 and 1815 respectively, the potential of the industry for further development was threatened not only by the ending of the slave trade, but by Emancipation in 1833, which led to a wholesale exodus of ex‐slave labor out of the estates and into the larger colonial economy. In the older British sugar islands (Jamaica, Barbados, and the Leeward islands), the results were the same, but there was also the added factor of soil exhaustion and outmoded production methods in a century when expanding global sugar demand and new sources of global production were threatening to make all the sugar islands uncompetitive. Added to this, the entire British West Indian industry suffered when the British government, as part of its general movement towards free trade and elimination of protection for its agricultural sector, abolished traditional preferential access to the British market with the passing of the Sugar Duties Act in 1846.
Asian migration to Australia
Authors: Kee Pookong
Published: January 2013

Asian immigration has been an integral part of the Australian experience since the mid‐19th century. The experience, however, has been colored by episodes of controversy which impacted significantly on the lives of Asian immigrants and their descendants as well as Australia's relations with Asia.
Asylum
Authors: Oxford Connie
Published: January 2013

Asylum is a distinctive immigration status that is granted to migrants who fear that they will be persecuted if they return to their home country. Asylum‐seekers are different from other migrants, such as those who leave their country for economic reasons or to reunite with family members, because they have either been persecuted or fear that they will be persecuted if they remain in their country of origin. Asylum is often classified as a form of forced migration. The assumption is that the fear of persecution is so dire that one is left with no other choice except to migrate. Asylum is certainly not the only form of forced migration as many are driven from their homes as a result of civil war or environmental catastrophe without having suffered persecution.
Atlantic early modern migrations and economic globalization
Authors: Rönnbäck Klas
Published: January 2013

Throughout the early modern period, from about the 16th to the 18th centuries, there was a steady stream of people migrating across the Atlantic to the Americas, both voluntarily and involuntarily. Some migrants were fleeing from religious or political persecution. Migrants in the form of soldiers, administrators, and other servants of the state of were also necessary for the European nations to colonize the continent. Labor migration was, however, for a long time, the most important factor.
Australia, internal migration
Authors: Bell Martin
Published: January 2013

Australia is a nation of immigrants and mobility has long been an essential dimension of its social and economic life. The indigenous Aboriginal population displays a distinctive form of mobility that dates back as far as 40,000 years, reflecting a close relationship with the land, traditional cultural practice, and strong kin networks (Taylor & Bell 2004). However, it was the coming of European settlement, from 1788, coupled with the unique physical geography of the continent that has shaped contemporary patterns and processes of internal migration.
Australia, migration, early 20th century to present
Authors: Mason Robert
Published: January 2013

Australia's modern history has been defined by the country's experience of migration and its associated sociocultural debates. The Australian constitution, enacted in 1901, created the new Commonwealth of Australia from the six hitherto separate British colonies of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia. The new country's identity was far from settled however, despite its shared imperial British heritage. The new nation was acutely conscious of its whiteness and the land's supposedly rugged and underdeveloped nature. The consequence was to be a highly masculinized society, predicated on the need to preserve and expand its north European pioneering values. The new Commonwealth of Australia was profoundly conscious of its geographical position, close to Asia and far from other white populations (with the exception of New Zealand).
Belgium, migration, 1946 to present
Authors: Martiniello Marco
Published: January 2013

The small piece of land in the heart of Europe that came to be known as Belgium when the Belgian state was created in 1830 has always been a region of invasion, immigration, emigration, and transit (Morelli 2004). For example, the Roman empire extended to Belgium and left traces that are still visible in several Belgian cities. Immigration never ceased but it has taken different forms over time. The aim of this essay is not to describe Belgian migration history in an exhaustive manner but to show how immigration has shaped Belgian society since the end of World War II by distinguishing three periods: 1946–74, 1974–89, and 1989–2011. The final part of the essay will deal with the issue of immigrant integration.
Biodiversity, climate change, and migration
Authors: Ogouwalé Euloge
Published: January 2013

The presence of species in an environment largely depends on local climate. Global warming and reduced precipitation entail more and faster changes in regional climate, which species will not always have time to adjust to because of the loss of biodiversity. Some of them will tend to move, to find a favorable climate for their survival. This essay is based on an analysis of existing literature which provides insight into links between climate change, biodiversity, and the migration of human, animal, and plant populations, over time and space.
Brain drain, brain gain, India
Authors: Khadria Binod
Published: January 2013

The origin of the concept of “brain drain” is often attributed to the large scale migration of British doctors to the US in the late 1950s and early 1960s, followed in turn by the exodus of Asian doctors from the Indian subcontinent to the UK in the 1960s (Khadria 2007). The value‐loaded concept implied loss of human capital, embodied in the human brain, when highly qualified people moved away from the country of origin that invested in their education (and health), settled down in a foreign land permanently, and contributed to the development and growth of that country of abode. The loss of human capital through brain drain has been primarily looked at in binary terms of a monetary “investment loss” and/or a “skill loss” of the workforce initially (Sen 1973), and later in generic terms of an erosion of the all‐encompassing index of average “productiveness” of the workforce (Khadria 1999). The concept of “brain gain” was simply the flip side of the brain drain, signifying the benefits that the relatively more developed countries of destination derived from the immigration of highly qualified foreign nationals. Ironically, it has been only recently that the connotation has shifted to imply the benefits that the country of origin could derive when its own nationals returned from abroad, presumably with value added in their human capital from the experience gained overseas.
Brazil: emigration, 1968 to present
Authors: Goza Franklin
Published: January 2013

Throughout much of its history, Brazil was a primary destination for both voluntary and involuntary immigrants from many corners of the globe. It is estimated that Brazil received more than three million African slaves from 1538 to 1850 (Telles 2004). During this 300‐year period large numbers of voluntary immigrants also arrived from Portugal and many other European nations. However, it was from the 1880s to the 1940s that Brazil experienced massive immigration from numerous nations, especially Italy, Portugal, Germany, Japan, Lebanon, and Spain. During this period, it is estimated that approximately 800,000 Italians and 200,000 Japanese arrived (Rios‐Neto 2005). Given that from the 1940s Brazil experienced significant improvements in economic and social conditions, culminating with the Brazilian “economic miracle” (a period that lasted from 1968 to 1974 and saw the Brazilian economy grow at rates of 10 percent or higher per year), few would have anticipated that Brazil would become a large‐scale exporter of citizens searching for a better life elsewhere. However, this is exactly what occurred. The main reason for the tremendous surge in outmigration was the worsening Brazilian economy (Goza 1994; Margolis 1994). The 1980s, sometimes referred to as the Brazilian “lost decade,” was a time when hyperinflation and recession prevailed and ultimately stimulated the exodus of hundreds of thousands of Brazilians.
Brazil: internal migration
Authors: de Lima Amaral Ernesto Friedrich
Published: January 2013

Internal migration has been decisive in the process of rapid urbanization that has occurred throughout Brazil in recent decades. Between 1950 and 2000, Brazil's urban population grew from 36 percent to 81 percent of the total population (Table 1). During this period, the country underwent major transformations and became an industrial and urban, rather than an agricultural and rural, society. High levels of migration from the countryside to urban areas and agricultural frontiers occurred. Internal migration flows were heaviest in movements from the northeastern to the southeastern states. The usual explanation for this movement references poverty and the lack of job opportunities in the northeast combined with the concentration of industries in the southeast, mainly in the state of São Paulo. Migration from the northeast to the southeast was characterized by a rural‐to‐urban migration in the 1960s and 1970s.
Brazil: migration and demographic change, 1800–1975
Authors: Graham Douglas
Published: January 2013

Brazil stands out – along with the United States – as one of the few countries in the world to have experienced both large‐scale slave imports and substantial inflows of European immigrants – albeit at different stages of its history. Given its continent‐sized territory, it is not surprising that major migratory eras would have impacted regional growth throughout Brazilian history. In the 17th and 18th centuries northeast Brazil dominated the Portuguese colony through the cultivation and processing of sugar cane. The indigenous population proved unable or unwilling to withstand the rigors of plantation labor; therefore colonial authorities promoted the use of slave labor from Africa. From the inception of the imports of slave labor in the early 16th century until the termination of the trade in 1851, shipping records show that approximately 4.8 million Africans were coercively sent to Brazil from Africa (Eltis 2002: 61–64). This high number grows out of the high slave mortality rates in Brazilian conditions combined with the elastic supply of imported slaves. These slave imports constituted the first and the largest migratory inflow in Brazilian history. Africans, with their direct and indirect (mixed ancestry) descendants, through manumissions and assimilation with other ethnic groups, made up a majority of the Brazilian population until the early decades of the 20th century.
British Isles, medieval colonization
Authors: Sarnowsky Jürgen
Published: January 2013

Much of the political and ethnic structure of the British Isles today has been shaped by invasions and colonizations that happened during the medieval period, mainly in the early and central Middle Ages. When Roman rule in England broke down in the 4th century, the western parts of Scotland were conquered and settled from Ireland, and the Gaelic kingdom of Dalriada was established. In the south, the period of Romano‐British rule was finally ended by the invasions and settlement of the Angles, Saxons, and other people from northwestern Europe. In the struggle against the British, from about 500, they formed several kingdoms, of which Wessex rose to supremacy. This rise was related to the invasions of the Vikings, which already had started in the 8th century. While Norse invaders raided and settled in Scotland and Ireland, in England there were mostly Danish settlements, especially in the north and east. Within 30 years of Wessex overcoming the Norse domination of York, new Danish invasions started in 980, which led to the formation of an Anglo‐Danish kingdom under Cnut in 1016.
Canada: migration to the United States
Authors: Takai Yukari
Published: January 2013

In his book entitledMingling of American and Canadian peoples, migration scholar Marcus Lee Hansen charts population movements across the Canada–US border since the 17th century. Over two and a half million Canadians are estimated to have moved and settled in the United States from 1840 to 1930 (Lavoie 1973). The extent of this human movement led Hansen to depict the phenomenon as one that constituted “the largest single reciprocity in international migration history” (Hansen 1940: v).
Canada: gender and migration
Authors: Stasiulis Daiva
Published: January 2013

The multidisciplinary scholarship on migration to Canada is increasingly attentive to how gender – as ideology and a set of social relations – has centrally shaped immigration policies, patterns, and outcomes for different migrant and diasporic communities, regions, and the country as a whole. While some Canadian migration scholars have long argued that migration is gendered (Boyd 1986), researchers and policy‐makers have for the most part ignored female migrants and women left behind, and failed to consider how gender should be taken into account in analysis of male as well as female migration. Only recently has migration scholarship gone beyond counting women migrants to consider gender a key organizing principle of the reasons, processes, and outcomes of migration. This intensified interest has no doubt been provoked by the “feminisation of migration,” i.e., an increase in international female migration, that is, in the Canadian context, on a par with male migration (Castles & Miller 2009).
Indigenous migrations, Canada
Authors: Cooke Martin
Published: January 2013

The geographic movement of Indigenous peoples in Canada is an important topic but one often poorly understood by scholars of the country. Although the indigenous population is a critical aspect of Canadian history and contemporary Canadian social policy, there are often misconceptions about the dynamics of these migration streams, and their consequences for Canadian demography and policy.
Caribbean migration to Canada
Authors: Flynn Karen
Published: January 2013

Migration has long been a feature of Caribbean societies. Created first as a result of the Atlantic slave trade, and later due to other involuntary forms of migration such as that produced by indentured servitude from India, Caribbean territories such as Trinidad & Tobago, Guyana, Jamaica, Barbados, and Haiti are generally viewed as migration‐oriented societies. Emancipation and independence from colonial powers did little to transform the economic and social reality of these societies. In response, Caribbean people began to move internally to find employment. With the agricultural expansion of fruit company production in Central America, Caribbean people found work on banana plantations in Costa Rica. Others moved to Panama, where their labor was critical in the construction of the Panama Canal and railways in the early 20th century.
Caribbean: culture and migration
Authors: Kempadoo Roshini
Published: January 2013

According to the eminent cultural theorist Stuart Hall “Migration has been a constant motif of the Caribbean story” (1999: 1). Migration is the single most common trope that can be associated with the Caribbean. The Caribbean colonial plantation economies were mostly constituted as one of the earliest “planetary empires” producing what Mintz describes as “fare” and produce for its factory workers in Britain and France to stem their hunger and dissuade political unrest. Mintz uses Konetzke's term in order to refer to the way in which the European empires were reconceived as spanning whole oceans and continents since the 16th century (Mintz & Price 1985). With the decimation of the island's indigenous peoples, the Caribbean's current population mainly originates from European economic migrants as plantation owners, government officials, military personnel, and tradesmen; African slaves transported in their millions to the plantations; and hundreds of thousands of indentured laborers recruited for the post‐slavery plantations, mostly originating from India, China, and Portugal, under a semi‐negotiated economic arrangement with some promise of return.
Caribbean: gender and migration
Authors: Trotz Alissa
Published: January 2013

Migration and movement are frequently described as a defining feature of the Caribbean and of Caribbean sensibilities (Carnegie 2002, Thomas‐Hope 1992), a space containing those countries in the Americas that were among the first to endure the displacement of indigenous peoples and the interruption of their movement across the region by the inauguration of European colonization. The establishment of new routes in the service of an emergent global capitalist economy would bring the world to the Caribbean, first through the development of the Atlantic slave trade that delivered populations from Africa, and then after the abolition of slavery, by the introduction of populations from China, India, Portugal, and the Middle East.
Caste and international migration, India to the UK
Authors: Dhanda Meena
Published: January 2013

The paths of those who leave home for foreign lands are rarely straight or simple. Very seldom is there a yellow brick road leading to an emerald city. Some people need to escape from hopelessness. Others are beckoned by the allure of promises. Sometimes the direction of the journey may unexpectedly change and at other times the decisions of others leave the travelers with no choice but to go with the flow. In different ways – destiny, irrationality, and the desire for the unknown – surge people forward in just the same way as compulsions of a more palpable kind, such as economic advancement and fleeing from persecution, play their part in making people leave home for foreign lands. The same vagaries of chance also apply to the “decisions” people make to stay put in a foreign land and not return “home.” How does the caste of a person – high or low – impact upon their experience of migration?
Central America: gender and migration
Authors: Menjívar Cecilia
Published: January 2013

Central American women and men have a long history of migration to the United States. Since the start of the 20th century, Guatemalans, Salvadorans, Nicaraguans, Costa Ricans, and Hondurans have migrated to various US cities. For instance, Salvadoran and Nicaraguan coffee growers traveled to San Francisco for business motives and pleasure in the early 1900s. Arriving on commercial ships that transported bananas from Honduras to the United States around the same time, Hondurans became acquainted with opportunities in the United States and began settling in New Orleans. But in spite of this enduring migration, Central Americans had remained relatively invisible, sometimes “passing,” or often being mistaken, for Mexicans. They constituted a relatively small group and early immigrants arrived at a time when immigration laws were far more relaxed. And although a significant proportion of the early migrants were men, over time Central American migration has shown variations in its gender composition that have contributed important knowledge to more general discussions about gender and migration.