bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
What’s Fair?
Authors: Kessler-Harris Alice
Published: November 2023

American political mythology boasts a fairly well known story about the inclusion of sex as a protected category in the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Title VII of that act forbids discrimination in employment on the grounds of race, creed, color, or national origin as well as sex. It is the only provision of the original act to incorporate the word sex. Popular lore holds that sex was added to this title of the bill as something of a joke.1 And in fact there is significant evidence that Howard Smith, chair of the powerful House Rules Committee, a Virginia Democrat, and an ardent segregationist, believed that adding sex would discourage some members of the Congress from voting for civil rights for African Americans. Smith “really wanted to kill the civil rights bill,” recalled Assistant Secretary of Labor Esther Peterson.2 Adding sex would focus attention on what he believed was a ridiculous effort to alter long-standing habits of mind with regard to racial beliefs.
Laying the Foundation for Federal Family Planning Policy the Eisenhower-Kennedy Years
Authors: Critchlow Donald T
Published: November 2023

In the immediate aftermath of the Second world War, a global war from which the United States emerged as the predommant world power, most Americans felt a heady confidence m their future as a nation. There were those, however, who remamed less sangume about the future. A new enemy threatened humanity: rampant population growth. The fundamental cause of war, these people held, lay in a Malthusian paradox: as civilization advances, population grows at a geometric rate and eventually outdistances food supplies and natural resources. The consequence is famine, war, and death. While the exact population of the world remained unknown in 1945 (demography itself was a much less exact science at the time), it was apparent that many nations, especially in Asia and Africa, suffered from a population cnsis. The Second World war proved all too clearly the consequences of what happens when nations experience food and natural resource shortages and the lack of livmg space to support the1r populations. That there was a circularity to this reasonmg-the last war proved that there was a population crisis, and a population cnsis led to world conflict-did little to dissuade these neo-Malthusians from predicting an impending population explosion that would inevitably create the conditions for global political, social, and economic instability. To make the world safe for American democracy, global population needed to be controlled. American know-how and technology were needed to avert another war.
Implementing the Policy Revolution Under Johnson and Nixon
Authors: Critchlow Donald T
Published: November 2023

The Johnson administration made family planning integral to the Great Society’s War on Poverty. The election of Richard Nixon to the presidency in 1968 cast doubt on the prospects of federally supported family plannmg services under a Republican admm1stration. But Nixon proved to be even more enthusiastic about family plannmg, believmg that it offered a long-term solution to the perceived welfare problem, rismg social e>.l)enditures, and the higher incidence of out-of-wedlock births.
The Backlash Roman Catholics, Contraceptives, Abortion, and Sterilization
Authors: Critchlow Donald T
Published: November 2023

In 1968, the year Richard M. Nixon won the presidency, opposition to federal family planning came mostly from those groups sympathetic to the Great Society. Tll!S is to say that the Roman Catholic Church hierarchy supported Johnson’s War on Poverty, and for this reason it remamed hesitant to condemn outright federal support of family plannmg programs. Thus, the bishops took a position that insisted that federal family programs should be “noncoercive” by informing clients about various contraceptive methods, including the rhythm method. Similarly, the African-American community, particularly nationalists and Black Muslims, accused federal family planning programs of being “genocidal” but generally accepted, albeit critically, federal social programs. Finally, a growing number of feminists, while demanding the right of women to control their bodies through contraception and abortion, criticized federal family pro-grams as population control programs that targeted poor women and mmorities without attacking the underlying social causes of poverty.
Contesting the Policy Terrain After Roe: From Reagan to Clinton
Authors: Critchlow Donald T
Published: November 2023

“‘f7ollowmg the Bucharest conference, Rockefeller returned to the £ United States with a new vision regarding the meaning of family planning policy. In pursumg this new outlook, he sought to broaden the meanmg of population control to include econom1c development and bettermg the condition of women m developmg and developed nations of the world. Under Rockefeller, the Population Council underwent dramatic changes in personnel and set a new agenda in international family planning. This involved withdra,. wing from active involvement in family planning policy within the United States.
Sustaining and Serving the Community: Building Institutions for Social and Spiritual Welfare
Authors: Horton James Oliver , Horton Lois E
Published: November 2023

When the French traveler Alexis de Tocqueville toured the United States in the 1830s, he reported on those things he believed distinguished Americans from the French and from other Europeans. American society, he observed, was characterized by a multiplicity of associations formed for myriad purposes by people of every station. “Wherever at the head of some new undertaking you see the government in France, or a man of rank in England, in the United States you will be sure to find an association.” Tocqueville was describing white American citizens primarily, but his remarks captured the mood and strategy of African Americans emerging from bondage every bit as accurately. Throughout the late-eighteenth and into the nineteenth centuries black Americans joined together to address their common problems. Associations varied in their specific purposes, but each was aimed at promoting the welfare and survival of its members and the civil rights and freedom of African Americans generally.
The Growth of the Antebellum Antislavery Movement
Authors: Horton James Oliver , Horton Lois E
Published: November 2023

African Americans had witnessed many ominous developments during the 1820s, including congressional compromises with slavery’s power that brought the admission of Missouri to the Union as a slave state, the racial limits to Jacksonian democracy, and the violent attacks on Cincinnati’s black community that forced many to flee the city and led some to seek safety in Canada. As slavery expanded and the importance of slave products increased, slaveholders seemed surer of their political power. When the Supreme Court ruled in 1823 that South Carolina’s Negro Seaman’s Law was unconstitutional, the state refused to accept the contention that, as one South Carolinian paraphrased it, “South Carolina possesses no right to enact laws, guarding against the corruption and con sequent insubordination of her slaves.” Such state laws created special hazards for free black sailors, as throughout the Deep South they were either confined to their ships or incarcerated for the duration of their stay in port.
Introduction
Authors: Carson Anne , Shaw Michael
Published: November 2023

The long siege of Troy, a city on the coast of Asia Minor, is one of the major events in the world of Greek myth. The first surviving work of Greek literature, the Iliad of Homer, is largely concerned with it. The Iliad itself is about an event in the ninth year of that siege, a quarrel in the Greek camp between Agamemnon, the leader of the Greek rulers, and Achilles, their best warrior, that leads to Achilles’ withdrawal. This in tum leads to a series of events that end with the death of the Trojans’ best warrior, Hector. But in the course of that story, Homer tells us much of the earlier history of the war and reveals that after Hector’s death Troy’s fall will inevitably follow.
The Murder of the Institutionalized Patients
Authors: Barnett Victoria
Published: November 2023

In Nazi Germany, a selection process took place on both sides of the barbed wire. In the concentration camps, prisoners were graded like livestock. Those who were healthy and strong were put to work. All who were ill, too old, too young, weak, and not useful were “disposed of,” “eliminated,” “erased.” In Nazi Germany, there were many euphemisms for murder.
The War
Authors: Barnett Victoria
Published: November 2023

War Has Been Used to extenuate any number of moral lapses, and not just for soldiers. War’s hardships drive individuals into private retreat, where they become less concerned with the moral relevance of their lives than with simple survival. Their governments expect them to sacrifice. Food, fuel, and clothing may be rationed; civil liberties may be restricted or abolished. In the larger interests of the nation at war, territory previously private is claimed, and those who protest are spurned as traitors.
Volksschullehrerinnen: Bavarian Women Defining Themselves Through Their Profession
Authors: Schneider Joanne
Published: November 2023

only proper profession for a woman is at all times that of wife and mother. She should bear children and educate them (within the confines of the house). For her family she should given freely of herself from the heart of her feeling and loving soul. She should nurture and cultivate decorum, morality, fear of God and joy of life.
Engineers in Wilhelmian Germany:. Professionalization, Deprofessionalization, and the Development of Nonacademic Technical Education
Authors: Gispen Kees
Published: November 2023

American engineers, in the words of Robert Perrucci and Joel Gerstl,are a “profession without community.” This apt phrase applies to German engineers as well. Like their American counterparts, German engineers have always lacked the corporate solidarity one typically associates with the professions. In both the United States and Germany, moreover, changes and diversity in engineering education have been major influences in preventing the emergence of a professional community.
Femininity as a Vocation: Gender and Class Conflict in the Professionalization of German Social Work
Authors: Hong Young Sun
Published: November 2023

In 1899, for the first time ever, the “Girls’ and Women’s Groups for Social Work” in Berlin offered a twelve-month course for women interested in making a career of social work. Although at the end of the nineteenth century the idea of giving middle-class women formal education in social work was still very new, social work training by 1914 had been institutionalized in the form of female social work professional schools (soziale Frauenschulen) in several big cities because of the support of bourgeois feminists and charity reformers.
The Pursuit of the Common Good
Authors: Smith Jeffery A
Published: November 2023

Life In Eighteenth-Century America Was Radically Reordered By new wealth and by a new, more participatory kind of politics. By the eve of the Revolution, white colonists had what was evidently the highest average income in the world and a rising gross economic output that was already approximately 40 percent of Britain ‘s. 1 The gains were not evenly distributed, however. Gaps between the social classes were widening, particularly in northern cities where mansions were being built for the rich while almshouses and workhouses were being constructed for a growing population of the poor. In the early 1770s, the top 5 percent of taxpayers in Boston and Philadelphia held about half of the taxable assets in their communities.
Making the Republican Citizen
Authors: Smith Jeffery A
Published: November 2023

During The Revolutionary Era, Americans Were Self-consciously moving toward a national political system they called a republic. The federal Constitution, moreover, guaranteed each state a “Republican form of government.” The term “republic” could be defined negatively as a government without monarchical rule, and positively as a political system in which voters would, as Madison expressed it, select wise representatives to “refine and enlarge the public views” with a voice which may be “more consonant to the public good, than if pronounced by the people themselves convened for the purpose.” 1 The “first object” of such a government, Madison said in the Federalist, should be “the protection of different and unequal faculties of acquiring property.”
Conclusion: Finding the Future
Authors: Smith Jeffery A
Published: November 2023

Benjamin Franklin Bache Died A Month After Reaching Twenty nine years of age. His archrival in the journalistic debate over the future of the United States, John Fenno, succumbed to yellow fever four days later. Fenno had served Hamilton and the Federalist program for national stability and prosperity. Bache, like his grandfather, was among those Enlightenment egalitarians who promoted the idea of a magnanimous moral core for the American republic which associated virtue with utility and reason with a passion for justice.
Compositional Mapping of the Microstructure of Materials
Authors: Newbury D E , Marinenko R B , Myklebust, R L , Bright D S
Published: November 2023

Recent developments in electron probe microanalysis and secondary ion mass spectrometry techniques enable the analyst to prepare compositional maps of the microstructure of materials. The technique of compositional mapping involves performing a complete quantitative analysis at each beam location in the imaged field of view on the specimen. A digital image processor is used to view the resultant compositional maps in the form of images in which the gray or color scale is related directly to the concentrations of the elemental constituents that are present in the specimen. The images directly convey the sense of the spatial distribution and compositional interrelationships of the elemental constituents in the microstructure. The images are supported at every picture element by numerical values of the concentrations, as well as data on the statistical precision of the measurement. The combination of images and conventional numerical concentration data provides a powerful tool for microstructural analysis.
Processing Images and Selecting Regions of Interest
Authors: Bright D S , Newbury D E , Marinenko, R B , Steel, E B , Myklebust R L
Published: November 2023

Over the past decade, the development of laboratory computers has made possible the application of digital imaging techniques to a wide variety of photon, electron, and ion microscopes. Characterization of the microstructure of materials by these microscopy techniques can provide information on morphology, crystal structure, and elemental or molecular chemistry on a spatial scale ranging from micrometers to nanometers. Traditionally, image information from these microscopes was recorded exclusively by analog means such as film. The added dimension of digital imaging, where the image is recorded directly as digitized arrays of signals derived from detectors or is digitized from previously recorded analog images, gives the microscopist/analyst access to a powerful and wide-ranging suite of tools for the acquisition, enhancement, and interpretation of information derived from the microscope. Many of these tools were impractical or impossible in the realm of analog image manipulation. A second burst of development in the digital imaging field is now taking place with the advent of “computer-aided microscopy.” Computer-aided microscopy augments conventional digital imaging techniques with algorithms adapted from various fields of computer science. The aim of this approach is to develop tools that can function automatically to carry out image-analysis tasks that are too complex or time consuming to permit conventional interpretation by direct viewing of the image on a screen.
Image Analysis of the Microstructure of Materials
Authors: Russ J C
Published: November 2023

Image analysis is broadly defined as extracting a few (useful) numerical values from an image. The source of the image in the applications of interest here is generally a microscope of some kind discussed already in this book (light, electron, acoustic, etc.), but even unconventional images (e.g., electron diffraction patterns, as in Chapter 6) can be used. Images of this sort contain a great amount of information. One measure of this is the fact that they typically require from 50 kilobytes to several megabytes of computer storage to hold the brightness values of each pixel (picture element). Extracting the desired information from this mass is not easy. Even as sophisticated and powerful a computer as the human visual system cannot always accomplish it without aid. The computers used in most image-analysis systems are far less powerful, but with appropriate programming, and some guidance by a human who is knowledgeable about the material and how the image was obtained, they can often be used to obtain the desired result.
The Lesson of the Old Inscriptions
Authors: Robb Kevin
Published: November 2023

By the turn of the seventh century, the Greeks were using the Phoenician letters to do what Phoenicians had done with them for many generations. On diverse personal possessions, such as bowls, cups and the like, Greeks inscribed some proprietary marks, or possibly a name, a single word in the genitive of possession.
The Evidence of a Transitional Document
Authors: Robb Kevin
Published: November 2023

We now possess fragmentary evidence from the Archaic period for some written laws in some Greek cities, starting with Dreros in the middle of the seventh century, but only the Great Code from Gortyn is a complete document.
Double Agency as a Test Case
Authors: Hunsinger George
Published: November 2023

The deferred question may now be taken up of Barth’s possible rejoinder to the charge of incoherence in his presentation of divine sovereignty and human freedom. What could Barth possibly say that might rescue his conceptuality from logical collapse? How can he avoid the consequences of disrelation, and therefore finally of dualism, that seem to be so obviously entailed by his conception of the divine otherness? Moreover, how can he avoid the consequences of determinism, and therefore finally of monism, that seem to be so obviously entailed by his conception of the divine omnipotence? Don’t the conceptions of otherness and omnipotence entailed by his notion of asymmetry render impossible the intimacy and integrity he posits in his account of fellowship as the goal of vocation? Conversely, don’t the notions of intimacy and integrity require him to abandon his notion of asymmetry, if the viability of fellowship as he conceives it is to be sustained? Three points above all are to be developed in reply to such questions.
Conclusion: Christ the Center
Authors: Hunsinger George
Published: November 2023

Realism and rationalism have emerged from this study as the foundational motifs of Barth’s theology. As the motifs which govern truth as correspondence and truth as coherence, they provide faith with various methods by which to derive, test, and explicate its basic doctrinal beliefs. Realism provides a method of reading scripture which allows for analogical reference, both intratextually and extratextually.
Lesser Syria’s Dominance, 1974-1988
Authors: Pipes Daniel
Published: November 2023

While all Arabic-speaking residents of Greater Syria have been affected by the division of Greater Syria and had some role in the Pan-Syrian quest, Lesser Syrians have almost always been at the center of this effort. Alexandretta was claimed by Syria only; Sunnis in Lebanon wanted to reintegrate with Syria; the SSNP focused on Lebanese union with Syria; Palestinian Arabs looked primarily to the north; ‘Abdallah hoped to sit on a throne in Damascus; Iraqi leaders dreamed of a Fertile Crescent union with Lesser Syria; and so forth. Lesser Syria’s centrality results from many factors.
Changes In Lesser Syria
Authors: Pipes Daniel
Published: November 2023

In part, he did so because of changes on the ground. On the one hand, Asad came to power in 1970 and imposed, for the first time since independence in 1946, a strong, durable, and stable government on Syria. This then reopened the way to pursue the long-dormant goal of a united Syria. On the other hand, neighboring states turned inward. Lebanon experienced a complete breakdown of order; Egypt signed a peace treaty with Israel and dropped out of the inter-Arab arena; Iraq became wholly consumed by war with Iran; and the oilexporting countries lost power as their revenues declined. Internal conflicts plagued the PLO. As Asad’s rivals became preoccupied with other matters, the field opened to Syrian aggrandizement.
Numerical Methods of Transonic Flow Computation
Authors: Ramm Heinrich J
Published: November 2023

However much value analytical methods like the local linearization may have for the solution of certain transonic flow problems (see Sec. 5.1.1), their limitations become obvious when it is realized that they cannot describe the flow through a shock wave where the velocity is discontinuous and the acceleration is singular. This is because the requirements of such linearizations, namely, that either velocity or acceleration be constant, are at variance with these shock characteristics.
Transonic Wind Tunnel Testing
Authors: Ramm Heinrich J
Published: November 2023

From the preceding chapters it has become obvious that a purely theoretical treatment of most transonic problems is not possible, at least today. For a reasonable assurance of the accuracy of the theoretical results, comparisons with test data are still a necessity. Data for this purpose may be obtained from free-flight tests or from wind tunnel tests. Both kinds of tests have their limitations.

Free-flight tests may be quite accurate; however, their cost precludes the taking of large series of data. On the other hand, wind tunnel data may be obtained in large numbers at a reasonably low cost. However, they have two major sources of errors. First, it is impossible to create a transonic flow field matching exactly that of a free-flying object.
Personae: White/Black Faces - Black Masks
Authors: Huggins Nathan Irvin
Published: November 2023

Wallace Thurman’s tragedy was that he saw himself only too well through the eyes of those who could not really give him an accurate measure of his true talent. W. E. B. DuBois described this dilemma of Negro identity most clearly in his Souls of Black Folk. The Negro, he said, was a kind of seventh son, “born with a veil, and gifted with a second-sight in this American world.” It is a strange, prismatic vision because that world “yields him no true self-consciousness, but only lets him see himself through the revelation of the other world.” As if in a room of mirrors, the Negro stands among a collision of images such that reality is indistinguishable, impalpable, not self-determined. “It is a peculiar sensation,” DuBois continued, “this double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others, of measuring one’s soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity.” This remarkable and profound statement fails only to make explicit an important corollary: this “double-consciousness” opens to the Negro-through his own quest and passion
The Propriety Of Proprietary Prisons
Authors: Logan Charles H
Published: November 2023

The most strongly expressed, and least critically examined, objections to private prisons are those that are presented as statements of “principle.”Some of the government’s most vehement critics, especially when it comes to running prisons, nonetheless-for reasons of principle-are championing the government as the only suitable manager of these institutions. The ACLU, for example, regards imprisonment as among the “functions which rightfully belong to government.”1
Issues of Security
Authors: Logan Charles H
Published: November 2023

One of the strongest reservations about private contractors relates to their ability to run high security prisons. The former director of the Federal Bureau of Prisons, for example, has expressed doubts that private firms could ever run maximum security institutions. The Council of State Governments and the Urban Institute recommend that only minimum security facilities be contracted at this time. Their rationale for this appears to be based largely on the expectation that local communities will object to privately run maximum security institutions being located in their neighborhoods.
Ascetic and King: The Iconography of Avalokiteśvara and Nātha
Authors: Holt John Clifford
Published: November 2023

The iconographic traditions of Avalokite śvara and N ātha from the early medieval through the modem periods of Sri Lankan cultural history form a critical segment of this study. Sculptural images of the bodhisattva and the god provide a trail of anthropomorphic symbolism from the time of Ava lokite ś vara’s Mahayana cultic acceptance into the religious culture of the island in about the seventh or eighth century A.D. to Nātha’s identification with the future Buddha Maitreya within the folds of Sinhala Buddhism in the contemporary modem era.
Applying the Lessons of Mississippi
Authors: McAdam Doug
Published: November 2023

The Volunteers who fanned out from Mississippi following the summer were a changed lot. Politically they had become more radical as a result of their experiences in Mississippi, and personally they found themselves attracted to an embryonic counterculture stressing community and an ideology of personal liberation.
Exceptional Beginnings: The Fur Trade and Indian Labor
Authors: Cornell Stephen
Published: November 2023

In the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, Europe spun a web about the world, and in the process the world was remade. During those and subsequent years, various peoples, nations, and ideas would struggle within the grasp of that web. Some would flourish, some would disappear; but few would entirely escape the ever-expanding network of connections that made this world so very new.
Household Functions and Female Roles
Authors: Meyers Carol
Published: November 2023

If ever there were a situation in which the condescending phrase “only a wife and mother” should be expunged from descriptive language, the family household of early Israel should surely qualify. To use such words would be to impose an image of contemporary households, in which reproduction and homemaking characterize domestic life, on an ancient pattern of household activity that was far more extensive and also very different in character and form.
Scattering Theory and Bound States
Authors: Adler Stephen L
Published: November 2023

We proceed in this chapter to discuss scattering theory and related aspects of the bound-state problem in quaternionic quantum mechanics. We begin with a detailed discussion of a simple one-dimensional example, the delta function potential model. From this model will emerge the result (Adler, 1988) that will be the principal theme of this and the succeeding two chapters: with the standard ray representative choice of Sec. 4.2, for short-range potentials the asymptotic scattering states and the S-matrix in quaternionic quantum mechanics are always complex ℂ(1, i).
Further Multiparticle Topicst
Authors: Adler Stephen L
Published: November 2023

In the third section, we examine the implementation of statistical mechanical methods in quaternionic quantum mechanics. We define thermal averages and construct thermally averaged retarded and “temperature” Green’s functions, which obey the usual temporal boundary conditions, but which are no longer related to one another by analytic continuation in Fourier space.
Relativistic Single-Particle Wave Equations: Spin-0 and Spin-1/2
Authors: Adler Stephen L
Published: November 2023

We turn in this chapter and the next to a discussion of topics relating to relativistic single-particle equations in quaternionic quantum mechanics. In Secs. 11.1 through 11.3 we develop the theory of the quaternionic Klein-Gordon equation, and then proceed in Secs. 11.4 and 11.5 to develop the theory of the quaternionic Dirac equation.
More on Relativistic Wave Equations: The Spin-1 Gauge Potential, Lagrangian Formulations, and the Poincare Group
Authors: Adler Stephen L
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we continue the discussion of relativistic quaternionic wave equations that was initiated in Chapter 11. In the first section we discuss the relativistic quaternionic spin-I equation, including the source terms that relate it back to particles obeying the quaternionic Klein-Gordon and Dirac equations.
Honest Business: Neighborhoods and Saints
Authors: Blumberg Paul
Published: November 2023

Many writers in our study, in fact about 30 percent, reported working for honest businesses. Or, more accurately, 30 per cent of our writers said they were unaware of any deception in the businesses they worked for; there were undoubtedly many swindles hidden from many workers. Nonetheless there were in fact a large number of firms workers described as scrupulously honest. How did these firms differ from the dishonest ones? Not coincidentally, honest firms had the opposite characteristics of dishonest firms. Honest businesses, for example, normally do not deal with ignorant or helpless customers, nor with scarce or perishable goods.
The Sexual Organs
Authors: Henderson Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

Lysistrata, gradually announcing her plan to bring home the men by stopping the war, comes climactically to the principal sacrifice required of her troops:
Women’s Devotion to Adonis
Authors: Kraemer Ross Shepard
Published: November 2023

Although Greek women clearly venerated male deities, propitiating Asclepius for cures and seeking the vision of Apollo’s oracle at Delphi, little of most Greek women’s religious devotion seems directed toward the male Olympians. Rather the male gods most popular among women tend to be foreign, or to bear a foreign attribution. Women’s devotion to Greek goddesses tended to reinforce roles for women acceptable within the confines of low group and high grid, affirming their experiences as daughters, mothers, wives, and even widows. But this was by no means the case in all instances. Their devotion to two inale deities, Adonis and Dionysos, seems much more concerned with expressing and mitigating their frustration and oppression within communities characterized by severe gender antagonism. The worship of these male deities appears to provide women some opportunities to relax the specific constraints of insulation, in particular by rituals and concomitant beliefs and symbols that reduce isolation and increase autonomy. Interestingly, although both Adonis and Dionysos are male, each is closely associated with at least one goddess, and both are presented as foreign deities, although the importation of the worship of Dionysus, if it was that, occurred well before the classical period in ancient Greece, whereas Adonis probably arrived in the fifth century B.C.E.
Women’s Devotion to Dionysos
Authors: Kraemer Ross Shepard
Published: November 2023

Women’s proclivity for the worship of the Greek god Dionysos was legendary even in antiquity. Yet precisely what women did in the service of the god Dionysos is not easy to determine.1 Women and men alike took part in great public Athenian festivals dedicated to Dionysos, such as the Anthesteria, the Lenaia,2 and others characterized by intense concern for agricultural and human fertility. Most intriguing is the tantalizing evidence for women’s participation in ecstatic rites to Dionysos.
Women’s Religious Leadership and Offices in Retrospect
Authors: Kraemer Ross Shepard
Published: November 2023

So much of the discussion of women’s leadership in early Christian communities has been oriented toward modern Christian practice that the ancient issues are sometimes obscured. We have seen that in its promulgation of social reversals and eschatologically oriented asceticism, earliest Christianity licensed alternatives for women that included participation in the public sphere often reserved, in most of Greco-Roman antiquity, for males. In its earliest renunciation of prevailing social structures, the new Christian movement advocated an egalitarian community in which, at least in theory, the prevailing social distinctions were obliterated and all might participate equally in the tasks at hand, including the leadership of the community, however that might be construed. I am not as confident as some feminist scholars that such egalitarianism was intentionally directed toward the liberation of women, but the practical effect was the same.
Hesiod’s Myth of the Birth of the Cosmos
Authors: Tyrrell WM Blake , Brown Frieda S
Published: November 2023

Human beings, we assume, have always told stories about the world they inhabit. It would appear we cannot live in “unspoken” space. Verbalizing the world, however, goes beyond naming its features. A name confers upon a body of water meanings that it does not have as a natural phenomenon. A word, a sound we recognize as denoting something, makes a body of water a “river” which, in turn, can take on other meanings. It can be an obstacle, a borderline, an avenue for commerce, a source of food, gold, or pleasure, the place where a drowning occurred.
Introduction: Formulary
Authors: Smith Theophus H
Published: November 2023

Out of Afro-America too, “always something new.” The following pages disclose something new out of Afro-America. Here the sacred text of Western culture, the Bible, comes to view as a magical formulary for African Americans; a book of ritual prescriptions for reenvisioning and, therein, transforming history and culture. In this way the veracity of Pliny’s ancient proverb is confirmed. The claim ‘something new out of Africa’ is confirmed by a heretofore unacknowledged combination: the combining of (1) biblical interpretation, with (2) magical transformation, as practiced by the descendents of Africans in North America. Folk practices like conjure, of course, are as old as magic everywhere. What is innovative is a remarkably efficacious use of biblical figures, with a historically transformative and therapeutic intent, in the social imagination and political performances of black North Americans. The term “conjuring culture” expresses that magical intent as explicitly as possible. Once one knows what to look for, indeed, a conjurational employment of biblical figures becomes increasingly transparent—even compelling. Accordingly, throughout the following study I felt compelled not merely to explicate conjurational performances, but also to display them by mirroring, in the very style of presentation, the power and efficacy of conjuring-with-Scripture.
Spirituals
Authors: Smith Theophus H
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I explore conjure as a defining spirituality among black North Americans that bears both covert and transparent aspects. I focus first on the covert aspects that derive from traditional practices beginning in the slavery period. Second, I consider certain iconographic modes that allow for increased openness and transparency. In the first case, conjuring culture by means of biblical figures operates covertly in black America because conjure, in its traditional form as folk magic, has been censured and marginalized since the earliest days of missionary supervision of black Christianity. In reaction to such censure, the use of biblical figures to conjure culture involved a collective strategy to cloak, mask, or disguise conjurational operations by employing approved religious content—namely biblical and Christian content. In this connection the historian Albert Raboteau has reprised the much debated thesis of the anthropologist Melville Herskovits: that “some elements of African religion survived in the United States not as separate enclaves free of white influence but as aspects hidden under or blended with similar European forms.”2 Such legitimation strategies are rarely explicit and conscious, of course, and may even be forgotten or repressed if ever rendered transparent. My task in this book is to retrieve, from either disguise or repression, such conjurational strategies and intentions and thus render them as fully transparent as possible. With this task in mind I am responding in particular to Lucius Outlaw’s concerns for “the mediation of our people’s traditions; and, most importantly, the achievement of increased self-transparency.”3
Prophecy
Authors: Smith Theophus H
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I examine the black American tradition of social prophetism in terms of its shamanic and conjurational, and its therapeutic or homeopathic, elements. One of the most celebrated instances of the convergence of these elements was the Haitian revolution of 1791, when Toussaint L’Ouverture led a slave revolt that successfully overthrew the French. That victory featured the prominent use of Voodoo or Vodun to secure supernatural invincibility for the Haitian combatants. It even led, after the revolution, to attempts to establish Vodun as Haiti’s state religion. Moreover, the “conjuror’s doctrine of invincibility’’2 was a distinctive feature of slave revolts in the United States as well, notably in the betrayed 1822 conspiracy of Denmark Vesey in Charleston, South Carolina. Vesey preached from the Bible and espoused a radical Christianity on the one hand, but also relied solidly on the conjurational practices of his coconspirator, Gullah Jack. Furthermore we should recall the failed 1831 revolt and massacre of fifty-seven whites led by Nat Turner in Southampton County, Virginia, the bloodiest slave revolt in United States history.
The Indian Subcontinent: On the Way to Everywhere
Authors: Abu-Lughod Janet L
Published: November 2023

During medieval times the Indian subcontinent, particularly its southern end, served as both a natural link and a divider in the great sea route that connected the Mediterranean region and the Middle East with China. South India was a major and logical landfall, on whose west coast ships from Africa and Mesopotamia landed and on whose east coast westward-bound ships from China or the islands and peninsulas of Indonesia, Malaysia, or Thailand found safe harbor. Evidence from antiquity and even prehistoric times suggests that even before the most distant termini were in direct contact with one another, south India constituted a true “hinge”1 (albeit only for shorter segments) between the separate basins of the Indian Ocean-that great “highway” for the migration of peoples, for cultural diffusion, and for economic exchange. South India, as Stein notes (1982a), does not constitute a monolithic and undifferentiated “natural” unit, although it is conventionally identified as the Dravidian area south of the Krishna River and the watershed of its major tributary.
Introduction
Authors: Bayat Mangol
Published: November 2023

The Constitutional Revolution is generally viewed as a nationalist-religious movement led by concerned patriots, lay and clerical, whose political consciousness was aroused by European encroachment in the domestic affairs of Iran. “It was when they became convinced that their country was despised abroad,” wrote Edward Granville Browne, the most important Western scholar of Iranian culture at the time, “that their interests were betrayed for a vile price, and that their religion and their independent existence as a nation were alike threatened with destruction, that they began to demand a share in the government of their country.”1 Though Browne described the Constitutionalist “party” as one that stood for progress, freedom, and tolerance, he insisted that nationalism, “Persia for the Persians,” was the force that characterized the movement.
The Origin of Anthropomorphism
Authors: Guthrie Stewart Elliott
Published: November 2023

Faces and other human forms seem to pop out at us on all sides. Chance images in clouds, in landforms, and in ink blots present eyes, profiles, or whole figures. Voices murmur or whisper in wind and waves. We sec the world not only as alive but also as humanlike. Anthropomorphism pervades our thought and action. No one, however, has adequately explained it.
Introduction
Authors: Butcher-Younghans Sherry
Published: November 2023

Take the Art of Building-the strongest-proudest-most orderly-most enduring of the arts of man; that of which the produce is in the surest manner accumulative, and need not perish, or be replaced; but if once well done, will stand more strongly than the unbalanced rocks-more prevalently than the crumbling hills. The art is associated with all civic pride and sacred principle; with which men record their power-satisfy their enthusiasm-make sure their defence-define and make dear their habitation.
Where to Find the Help You Need
Authors: Butcher-Younghans Sherry
Published: November 2023

There Is An abundance of information about improving individual museums and enriching the museum field as a whole. These resources provide technical help, assist in locating services, and identify programs for continuing education and possible funding sources. Many are readily available, either at no cost or for a nominal fee.
Introduction
Authors: Dawson Doyne
Published: November 2023

The main aim of this book is to provide an outline account of one of the most distinctive traditions of ancient Greek political thought: the literary depiction of imaginary ideal societies practicing communal property and communal family life. The main justification for a new survey of this material is the emphasis I place upon the Stoic utopian tradition, which has been generally neglected by historians of Greek political thought, and particularly by historians of utopianism, most of whom, so far as the ancient world is concerned, begin and end with Plato.
The Stoic Utopia: A World Without Households
Authors: Dawson Doyne
Published: November 2023

Two traditions about the origins of Stoicism are represented in our sources: one that emphasized the Cynic connection, and one that tried to ignore it. We have seen that the Cynicizing tradition dominates the Cynic and Stoic doxographies of Diogenes Laertius. In this tradition Zeno was originally a Cynic, a principal disciple of Crates; Cynicism and Stoicism are complementary roads to philosophy; Cynicism is a Socratic school founded by Antisthenes. This interpretation can be traced back at least to the handbooks of Apollodorus in the late second century B.C., and I would argue that it can be traced back to Zeno. The objections to this view1 arise chiefly from the assumption that there must be some contradiction between the dignified ethics of the doxographies in Diogenes Laertius 6-7 and the bizarre moral teachings attributed to early Cynics in general and to early Cynic/Stoic utopians in particular.
Sin and Guilt in Faith Traditions: Issues for Self-Esteem
Authors: Hood Ralph W
Published: November 2023

The antipathy of contemporary psychology to religion is well established in the empirical literature (for reviews, see Spilka, Hood, & Gorsuch, 1985; Wulff, 1991). While the reasons for this antipathy are complex, one distinct factor that appears in the empirical literature is the decidedly different evaluations psychologists and religionists are likely to make with respect to guilt and related constructs such as shame and sin.
The Triumph of Practical Sophistry: Lines 1113-1302
Authors: O’regan Daphne Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

The short scenes that follow the debate of the logoi, the second parabasis (1115-30), the return of Pheidippides (1131-1213), and Strepsiades’ debates with the creditors (1214-1302), perform the traditional function of the iambic scenes-to play out in a variety of ways the “practical” effects of the first part of the play. The plot seems to present the triumphant progress of sophistic rhetoric, yet as the speakers enact what was promised by the agon and more, the wild incongruity of it all cannot help but startle.
Methods and Purposes
Authors: Keaney John J
Published: November 2023

If then Aristotle had no generic criteria to guide him, what criteria did he use? Initially, these flow from his intentions. Once the choice was made to split the work into a narrative part and a systematic part, that choice was both a restraining factor and a liberating factor. It restrained because a relation between the first and second parts had to be determined and, once determined, had to be fleshed out in detail. Once, however, this kind of need was filled, it seems that Aristotle was totally free to include in the narrative whatever he wished to. This is not to say that the contents of the narrative are randomly chosen. They are not, but they are not all, nor most of them, determined by the demands of the second part.
The Dating Formula
Authors: Keaney John J
Published: November 2023

The reason why Aristotle delayed the archon date to chapter 35 may be one of, or a combination of, three factors, historical, stylistic, and thematic. Historically, it is unclear exactly when the Thirty were established. It is possible that this took place before Pythodorus was selected as archon. If this uncertainty was in Aristotle’s sources, he may have delayed mentioning that archon until after he mentioned the establishment.
Research Limitations: Data Sources and Definitions
Authors: Spergel Irving A
Published: November 2023

The terms gang and gang problem are often ill-defined and amorphous. They may represent the interests and concerns of observers, from different types of organizations, professional or citizen groups, perceiving and responding to gang phenomena in terms of their expectations, organizational mission, or group experience as well as the “real” situation of gang crime. A gang problem is the antisocial or criminal behavior of a youth group, but it also includes the observer or organizational response to it. Both the objective facts of the problem and the organized perceptions of the facts must be considered in determining what will or will not be defined and/or done about gang phenomena. Sooner or later, for policy, program, theoretical, and research purposes, a common definition of the problem should be formulated. This is not to deny that gangs and gang problems differ along a variety of dimensions. But certain key dimensions must be consensually identified if we are to understand gang phenomena and take appropriate action.
Gang Member Demographics and Gang Subcultures
Authors: Spergel Irving A
Published: November 2023

This chapter continues the discussion of the gang problem, but in specific sociodemographic and related subcultural terms. The analysis of age, gender, and especially race/ethnic, gang characteristics suggests that there are distinctive gang subcultures, and therefore distinctive intervention approaches are required. These subcultures must be understood and their causes and special characteristics addressed through particular policy emphases. Large-scale social, economic, cultural, and political as well as local forces generate different patterns of poverty and social disorganization. These together, interactively, create distinctive subcultures. These forces, at both the national and the local level, must be addressed if the delinquent norms and behaviors of gang youth are to be prevented, modified, and controlled.
The Ecological Context
Authors: Spergel Irving A
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines the local social institutions and contexts that contribute to the development of gangs and that in tum are affected by gang problems. It focuses on the defective character of family, school, politics, and prison relationships, particularly as they create and interact with gangs. These local institutions or contexts are in significant measure products of the external environment-population movements, changing social and economic conditions, unemployment, racism, lack of resources, and ineffective governmental policies. However, the problem is most directly produced by defective local institutions and their fragmented interrelationships.