bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
BALANCING THE RIGHT TO HABILITATION WITH THE RIGHT TO PERSONAL LIBERTIES: THE RIGHTS OF PEOPLE WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES TO EAT TOO MANY DOUGHNUTS AND TAKE A NAP
Authors: Bannerman Diane J. , Sheldon Jan B. , Sherman James A. , Harchik Alan E.
Published: March 2006

In the pursuit of efficient habilitation, many service providers exercise a great deal of control over the lives of clients with developmental disabilities. For example, service providers often choose the client's habilitative goals, determine the daily schedule, and regulate access to preferred activities. This paper examines the advantages and disadvantages of allowing clients to exercise personal liberties, such as the right to choose and refuse daily activities. On one hand, poor choices on the part of the client could hinder habilitation. On the other hand, moral and legal issues arise when the client's right to choice is abridged. Recommendations are offered to protect both the right to habilitation and the freedom to choose.
THE SELF‐INJURY TRAUMA (SIT) SCALE: A METHOD FOR QUANTIFYING SURFACE TISSUE DAMAGE CAUSED BY SELF‐INJURIOUS BEHAVIOR
Authors: Iwata Brian A. , Pace Gary M. , Kissel Robert C. , Nau Paul A. , Farber Jon M.
Published: March 2006

A method is described for classifying and quantifying surface tissue damage caused by self‐injurious behavior. The Self‐Injury Trauma Scale permits differentiation of self‐injurious behavior according to topography, location of the injury on the body, type of injury, number of injuries, and estimate of severity. Fifty pairs of independently scored records were subjected to interrater reliability analyses, and the following mean (median) percentage agreement scores were obtained: overall agreement, 97% (98%); location of injury, 99% (100%); type of injury, 96% (100%); number of injuries, 89% (100%); and severity of injury, 94% (100%). Percentage agreement also was calculated for three summary scores: Number Index, 90%; Severity Index, 92%; and Estimate of Current Risk, 100%. Potential applications and limitations of the scale are discussed.
TEACHING CHILDREN WITH AUTISM TO INITIATE TO PEERS: EFFECTS OF A SCRIPT‐FADING PROCEDURE
Authors: Krantz Patricia J. , McClannahan Lynn E.
Published: March 2006

A script that was systematically faded from end to beginning was used to teach peer initiations about recently completed, current, and future activities. The effectiveness of the script‐fading procedure was assessed via a multiple baseline design across 4 children with autism. During baseline, the children seldom initiated to peers, although all had previously acquired some functional expressive language and sometimes spontaneously addressed adults. When the script was introduced, peer initiations increased, and as the script was faded, unscripted initiations increased. With the minimal written prompts available in the final fading steps, initiations generalized to a different setting, time, teacher, and activity; and for 3 of the 4 children, peer initiations were maintained at a 2‐month follow‐up. After the script was faded, the participants' levels of peer initiations were within the same range as a normative sample of 3 nondisabled youngsters. The script‐fading procedure enabled children with severe social and verbal deficits to practice context‐specific, peer‐directed generative language that was not prompted by adults or peer confederates.
MOMENTUM VERSUS EXTINCTION EFFECTS IN THE TREATMENT OF SELF‐INJURIOUS ESCAPE BEHAVIOR
Authors: Zarcone Jennifer R. , Iwata Brian A. , Hughes Christine E. , Vollmer Timothy R.
Published: March 2006

An individual's self‐injurious escape behavior was treated using a high‐probability instructional sequence with and without extinction. When presented alone, the high‐probability sequence did not reduce self‐injurious behavior. When escape extinction was implemented either alone or in combination with the high‐probability sequence, self‐injury decreased and compliance increased, suggesting that extinction may be a necessary component of the treatment for behavior problems maintained by escape.
REDUCTION OF SELF‐INJURIOUS HAND MOUTHING USING RESPONSE BLOCKING
Authors: Reid Dennis H. , Parsons Marsha B. , Phillips James F. , Green Carolyn W.
Published: March 2006

We evaluated a response‐blocking procedure for reducing the self‐injurious hand mouthing of 2 adults with profound disabilities. The procedure reduced mouthing in both cases. The results suggest research is warranted to delineate the behavioral process responsible for the effect of response blocking and to determine the procedure's long‐term utility.
REDUCTION OF SEVERE BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS IN THE COMMUNITY USING A MULTICOMPONENT TREATMENT APPROACH
Authors: Carr Edward G. , Carlson Jane I.
Published: March 2006

Problem behavior often prevents community integration of people with developmental disabilities. Therefore, we evaluated a multicomponent approach for remediating problem behavior in public community settings (specifically, supermarkets). We selected treatments based on hypotheses about the variables controlling the problem behavior (hypothesis‐driven model). The multicomponent intervention included choice making, embedding, functional communication training, building tolerance for delay of reinforcement, and presenting discriminative stimuli for nonproblem behavior. Treatment progress was monitored using measures of latency and task completion rather than traditional measures of frequency and time sampling. Results showed substantial increases in task completion and duration of time spent in supermarkets without problem behavior. Outcomes were socially validated by group‐home staff and cashiers. We discuss how the intervention approach taken can resolve some of the issues involved in assessing, measuring, and treating problem behavior in the community.
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT OF MULTIPLY CONTROLLED SELF‐INJURY
Authors: Smith Richard G. , Iwata Brian A. , Vollmer Timothy R. , Zarcone Jennifer R.
Published: March 2006

A functional analysis of the self‐injurious behavior (SIB) of 3 adults with profound developmental disabilities showed that each engaged in SIB in more than one assessment condition. Such outcomes may result from a failure to isolate the variable maintaining SIB, or they may reflect multiple sources of control over SIB. In order to identify more clearly the determinants of SIB, each subject was exposed to a series of treatments appropriate to one or both of the apparent functions of SIB. These treatments, applied sequentially on baselines appropriate to each behavioral function, identified the maintaining variables for SIB through differential outcomes across baselines. Results indicated that the SIB of 2 subjects was multiply controlled, confirming the outcomes of the functional analysis. However, the SIB of the 3rd subject was eliminated using a treatment designed for a single function, suggesting spurious results of the original assessment. Alternative interpretations of undifferentiated assessment data are discussed, as are analysis and treatment issues related to multiply determined behavior disorders.
VALIDATING PREDICTED ACTIVITY PREFERENCES OF INDIVIDUALS WITH SEVERE DISABILITIES
Authors: Newton J. Stephen , Ard William R. , Horner Robert H.
Published: March 2006

We examined the accuracy of 24 staff members' predictions of activities preferred by 14 individuals with severe disabilities. For each of 144 activities, staff members assigned a client preference rating of “likes a lot,” “likes,” or “dislikes.” Two activities from each category were randomly selected for each individual with disabilities. Pairs of selected activities were presented to the individuals, who were prompted to choose an activity. Staff members' activity preference ratings correctly predicted the choices made by the individuals with disabilities for 78% of the trials. The more divergent the preference ratings of the paired activities, the more likely staff members were to predict correctly the activity selected by a participant.
FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT AND TREATMENT OF LIFE‐THREATENING DRUG INGESTION IN A DUALLY DIAGNOSED YOUTH
Authors: Chapman Susan , Fisher Wayne , Piazza Cathleen C. , Kurtz Patricia F.
Published: March 2006

Few data exist on operant mechanisms associated with drug overdose. In this investigation, a functional analysis indicated that life‐threatening drug ingestion exhibited by a dually diagnosed youth was maintained by negative reinforcement. An operant intervention, derived from behavioral assessment data, reduced drug ingestion to near‐zero levels.
EFFECTS OF INVENTED SPELLING AND DIRECT INSTRUCTION ON SPELLING PERFORMANCE OF SECOND‐GRADE BOYS
Authors: Gettinger Maribeth
Published: March 2006

Four second‐grade boys, 2 rated by their classroom teacher as below average and 2 as above average in basic language skills, participated in a 16‐week spelling investigation. The participants alternately received, in counterbalanced order, 5 weeks of an invented spelling approach that incorporated 15‐min creative writing periods and 5 weeks of direct instruction that involved 15‐min periods of guided practice on spelling word lists. At the end of 10 weeks, each condition was replicated for 3 additional weeks. Although direct instruction resulted in more targeted words spelled correctly, invented spelling resulted in more nontargeted words spelled correctly, higher preference ratings by children, and higher teacher ratings of the quality of 3 of the children's writing samples.
DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF SELF‐MONITORING ATTENTION, ACCURACY, AND PRODUCTIVITY
Authors: Maag John W. , Reid Robert , DiGangi Samuel A.
Published: March 2006

Effects of self‐monitoring on‐task behavior, academic productivity, and academic accuracy were assessed with 6 elementary‐school students with learning disabilities in their general education classroom using a mathematics task. Following baseline, the three self‐monitoring conditions were introduced using a multiple schedule design during independent practice sessions. Although all three interventions yielded improvements in either arithmetic productivity, accuracy, or on‐task behavior, self‐monitoring academic productivity or accuracy was generally superior. Differential results were obtained across age groups: fourth graders' mathematics performance improved most when self‐monitoring productivity, whereas sixth graders' performance improved most when self‐monitoring accuracy.
TREATMENT OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN AUTISM THROUGH THE MODIFICATION OF PIVOTAL SOCIAL SKILLS
Authors: Koegel Robert L. , Frea William D.
Published: March 2006

We examined acquisition of individual social communicative behaviors and generalization across other social behaviors in 2 children with autism. The results of a multiple baseline design showed that the children's treated social behaviors improved rapidly and that there were generalized changes in untreated social behaviors. These improvements were accompanied by increases in subjective ratings of the overall appropriateness of the children's social interactions. The results suggest the possibility of identifying pivotal response classes of social communicative behavior that may facilitate the understanding of social behavior in autism as well as improve peer interactions, social integration, and social development.
AN EVALUATION OF TWO METHODS FOR INCREASING SELF‐INITIATED VERBALIZATIONS IN AUTISTIC CHILDREN
Authors: Matson Johnny L. , Sevin Jay A. , Box Margaret L. , Francis Kelley L. , Sevin Bart M.
Published: March 2006

Three children with autism and mental retardation were treated for deficits in self‐initiated speech. A novel treatment package employing visual cue fading was compared with a graduated time‐delay procedure previously shown to be effective for increasing self‐initiated language. Both treatments included training multiple self‐initiated verbalizations using multiple therapists and settings. Both treatments were efffective, with no differences in measures of acquisition of target phrases, maintenance of behavioral gains, acquisition with additional therapists and settings, and social validity.
TREATING CHRONIC FOOD REFUSAL IN YOUNG CHILDREN: HOME‐BASED PARENT TRAINING
Authors: Werle Mary A. , Murphy Tria B. , Budd Karen S.
Published: March 2006

We evaluated the effects of a behavioral parent training program on parent and child feeding‐related behaviors in the home. We trained mothers to initiate regular offerings of previously rejected (target) foods and to provide contingent attention (i.e., specific prompts, positive reinforcement) to increase their child's acceptance of nonpreferred foods. For 1 subject, we also directed training at increasing self‐eating. Results of a nonconcurrent multiple baseline design across 3 mother‐child dyads demonstrated that, with training, all mothers increased offerings of target foods and use of specific prompts, and 2 mothers increased levels of positive attention. In turn, children increased their acceptance of target foods and self‐eating, thus demonstrating the functional effects of parent training on in‐home mealtimes. Temporary increases in food refusals occurred when treatment was initiated but declined as treatment continued. We discuss the results in terms of the potential benefits and limitations of a home‐based treatment model.
CHANGING PROTECTIVE AND RISKY BEHAVIORS TO PREVENT CHILD‐TO‐PARENT TRANSMISSION OF CYTOMEGALOVIRUS
Authors: Finney Jack W. , Miller Kathryn M. , Adler Stuart P.
Published: March 2006

Child‐to‐parent transmission of cytomegalovirus may be reduced by increasing protective behaviors (handwashing and glove use) and decreasing risky behaviors (intimate contact between child and parent). This study showed that an educational intervention resulted in increases in reported and objective measures of protective behaviors and decreases in reported risky behaviors. Further study must determine if changes in protective and risky behavior are maintained and prevent cytomegalovirus transmission.
APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS AT WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY: A BRIEF HISTORY
Authors: Hawkins Robert P. , Chase Philip N. , Scotti Joseph R.
Published: March 2006

The development of an emphasis on applied behavior analysis in the Department of Psychology at West Virginia University is traced. The emphasis began primarily in the early 1970s, under the leadership of Roger Maley and Jon Krapfl, and has continued to expand and evolve with the participation of numerous behavior analysts and behavior therapists, both inside and outside the department. The development has been facilitated by several factors: establishment of a strong behavioral emphasis in the three Clinical graduate programs; change of the graduate program in Experimental Psychology to a program in basic Behavior Analysis; development of nonclinical applied behavior analysis within the Behavior Analysis program; establishment of a joint graduate program with Educational Psychology; establishment of a Community/Systems graduate program; and organization of numerous conferences. Several factors are described that seem to assure a stable role for behavior analysis in the department: a stable and supportive “culture” within the department; American Psychological Association accreditation of the clinical training; a good reputation both within the university and in psychology; and a broader community of behavior analysts and behavior therapists.
ON SYSTEMS ANALYSIS IN AUTISM INTERVENTION PROGRAMS
Authors: McClannahan Lynn E. , Krantz Patricia J.
Published: March 2006

Although intervention technology has grown substantially during the past quarter century, the design of intervention systems has not grown apace. This paper examines organizational arrangements that enhance and diminish treatment effectiveness and argues that defining, measuring, and manipulating systemic antecedent and consequent variables are as important as assessment and intervention on an individual client's behalf.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A TREATMENT‐RESEARCH PROJECT FOR DEVELOPMENTALLY DISABLED AND AUTISTIC CHILDREN
Authors: Lovaas O. Ivar
Published: March 2006

This paper describes the development and main results over the last 30 years from the treatment‐research project with developmentally disabled (autistic) children in the Psychology Department at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). Three important dimensions in treatment research are addressed. The first pertains to the role of serendipity or accidental discoveries, the second to the importance of pursuing inductive rather than theory‐driven research, and the third to the importance of adding in a cumulative and step‐wise manner to improve treatment adequacy. Data from various areas of treatment research have been used to illustrate new directions for the project. These illustrations center on early and successful attempts to isolate experimentally the environmental variables that control self‐injury, failure to observe response and stimulus generalization with subsequent loss of treatment gains, and the main results of intensive and early behavioral intervention in the child's natural environment. Effective treatment for severe behavioral disorders is seen to require early intervention carried out during all or most of the child's waking hours, addressing all significant behaviors in all of the child's environments, by all significant persons, for many years.
TEACHING CHILDREN WITH AUTISM TO USE PHOTOGRAPHIC ACTIVITY SCHEDULES: MAINTENANCE AND GENERALIZATION OF COMPLEX RESPONSE CHAINS
Authors: MacDuff Gregory S. , Krantz Patricia J. , McClannahan Lynn E.
Published: March 2006

We used a graduated guidance procedure to teach 4 boys with autism to follow photographic activity schedules to increase on‐task and on‐schedule behavior. The multiple baseline across participants design included baseline, teaching, maintenance, resequencing of photographs, and generalization to novel photographs phases. The results indicated that photographic activity schedules (albums depicting after‐school activities) produced sustained engagement, and skills generalized to a new sequence of photographs and to new photographs. The acquisition of schedule‐following skills enabled these children with severe developmental disabilities to display lengthy response chains, independently change activities, and change activities in different group home settings in the absence of immediate supervision and prompts from others.
PROMOTING PRINCIPALS' MANAGERIAL INVOLVEMENT IN INSTRUCTIONAL IMPROVEMENT
Authors: Gillat Alex , Sulzer‐Azaroff Beth
Published: March 2006

Studies of school leadership suggest that visiting classrooms, emphasizing achievement and training, and supporting teachers are important indicators of the effectiveness of school principals. The utility of a behavior‐analytic program to support the enhancement of these behaviors in 2 school principals and the impact of their involvement upon teachers' and students' performances in three classes were examined in two experiments, one at an elementary school and another at a secondary school. Treatment conditions consisted of helping the principal or teacher to schedule his or her time and to use goal setting, feedback, and praise. A withdrawal design (Experiment 1) and a multiple baseline across classrooms (Experiment 2) showed that the principal's and teacher's rates of praise, feedback, and goal setting increased during the intervention, and were associated with improvements in the academic performance of the students. In the future, school psychologists might analyze the impact of involving themselves in supporting the principal's involvement in improving students' and teachers' performances or in playing a similar leadership role themselves.
BEHAVIORAL PERSISTENCE AND VARIABILITY DURING EXTINCTION OF SELF‐INJURY MAINTAINED BY ESCAPE
Authors: Goh Han‐Leong , Iwata Brian A.
Published: March 2006

The self‐injurious escape behavior of a developmentally disabled adult was treated with extinction. Results of a reversal design showed substantial bursts of responding when extinction was introduced and reintroduced: self‐injury remained at a variable and elevated rate for some time before stable, low rates were observed. Data on aggression, a nontarget behavior during both baseline and treatment, showed a pattern similar to that seen for self‐injury during the extinction conditions.
EFFECTS OF ACTIVE STUDENT RESPONSE DURING ERROR CORRECTION ON THE ACQUISITION, MAINTENANCE, AND GENERALIZATION OF SCIENCE VOCABULARY BY ELEMENTARY STUDENTS: A SYSTEMATIC REPLICATION
Authors: Drevno Gregg E. , Kimball Jonathan W. , Possi Mwajabu K. , Heward William L. , Gardner Ralph , Barbetta Patricia M.
Published: March 2006

We compared active student response (ASR) error correction and no‐response (NR) error correction while teaching science terms to 5 elementary students. When a student erred on ASR terms, the teacher modeled the definition and the student repeated it. When a student erred on NR terms, the teacher modeled the definition while the student looked at the vocabulary card. ASR error correction was superior on each of the study's seven dependent variables.
TOWARD A FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF SELF‐INJURY
Authors: Iwata Brian A. , Dorsey Michael F. , Slifer Keith J. , Bauman Kenneth E. , Richman Gina S.
Published: March 2006

This study describes the use of an operant methodology to assess functional relationships between self‐injury and specific environmental events. The self‐injurious behaviors of nine developmentally disabled subjects were observed during periods of brief, repeated exposure to a series of analogue conditions. Each condition differed along one or more of the following dimensions: (1) play materials (present vs absent), (2) experimenter demands (high vs low), and (3) social attention (absent vs noncontingent vs contingent). Results showed a great deal of both between and within‐subject variability. However, in six of the nine subjects, higher levels of self‐injury were consistently associated with a specific stimulus condition, suggesting that within‐subject variability was a function of distinct features of the social and/or physical environment. These data are discussed in light of previously suggested hypotheses for the motivation of self‐injury, with particular emphasis on their implications for the selection of suitable treatments.
THE FUNCTIONS OF SELF‐INJURIOUS BEHAVIOR: AN EXPERIMENTAL‐EPIDEMIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
Authors: Iwata Brian A. , Pace Gary M. , Dorsey Michael F. , Zarcone Jennifer R. , Vollmer Timothy R. , Smith Richard G. , Rodgers Teresa A. , Lerman Dorothea C. , Shore Bridget A. , Mazaleski Jodi L. , Goh Han‐Leong , Cowdery Glynnis Edwards , Kalsher Michael J. , McCosh Kay C. , Willis Kimberly D.
Published: March 2006

Data are summarized from 152 single‐subject analyses of the reinforcing functions of self‐injurious behavior (SIB). Individuals with developmental disabilities referred for assessment and/or treatment over an 11‐year period were exposed to a series of conditions in which the effects of antecedent and consequent events on SIB were examined systematically by way of multielement, reversal, or combined designs. Data were collected during approximately 4,000 experimental sessions (1,000 hr), with the length of assessment for individuals ranging from 8 to 66 sessions (M = 26.2) conducted over 2 to 16.5 hr (M = 6.5). Differential or uniformly high responding was observed in 145 (95.4%) of the cases. Social‐negative reinforcement (escape from task demands or other sources of aversive stimulation) accounted for 58 cases, which was the largest proportion of the sample (38.1%). Social‐positive reinforcement (either attention or access to food or materials) accounted for 40 (26.3%) of the cases, automatic (sensory) reinforcement accounted for 39 (25.7%), and multiple controlling variables accounted for 8 (5.3%). Seven sets of data (4.6%) showed either cyclical or inconsistent patterns of responding that were uninterpretable. Overall results indicated that functional analysis methodologies are extremely effective in identifying the environmental determinants of SIB on an individual basis and, subsequently, in guiding the process of treatment selection. Furthermore, an accumulation of assessment data from such analyses across a large number of individuals provides perhaps the most rigorous approach to an epidemiological study of behavioral function.
GENERATING HYPOTHESES ABOUT THE FUNCTION OF STUDENT PROBLEM BEHAVIOR BY OBSERVING TEACHER BEHAVIOR
Authors: Taylor Jill C. , Romanczyk Raymond G.
Published: March 2006

We examined whether, as predicted by research on child effects, we could generate hypotheses about the function of student problem behavior by observing the amount of attention teachers provided to students. In the first phase of the study, we observed the amount of attention teachers distributed among small groups of students who exhibited problem behavior in individual or small‐group instructional settings (problem behavior presumably maintained by attention or escape). Based on the amount of attention each student received, we generated hypotheses about the function of his or her problem behavior. In the second phase of the study, we determined the accuracy of these predictions by conducting a brief functional assessment with each student. Results confirmed that, for 14 of the 15 students, we were able to generate accurate hypotheses about the function of their problem behavior. These results suggest the potential efficacy of using the amount of attention teachers distribute among groups of students to generate empirically based hypotheses about the function of student problem behavior maintained by attention and/or escape. These results also illustrate the efficiency of this procedure; by observing teacher behavior, we were able to generate hypotheses about the function of problem behavior for several students at one time.
FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF SEPARATE TOPOGRAPHIES OF ABERRANT BEHAVIOR
Authors: Derby K. Mark , Wacker David P. , Peck Stephanie , Sasso Gary , DeRaad Agnes , Berg Wendy , Asmus Jennifer , Ulrich Sonya
Published: March 2006

We conducted a functional analysis of distinct topographies of aberrant behavior displayed by 4 clients. We first analyzed the behaviors in an aggregate fashion and then separated the behaviors to formulate hypotheses about the maintaining variables for each behavior. The procedures were used in a two‐phase experiment. During Phase 1, two extended functional analyses were completed, one in an inpatient unit and one in a special education classroom. During Phase 2, two brief functional analyses were completed in an outpatient clinic. Results indicated that hypotheses of separate functions for distinct behaviors can be generated using both extended and brief functional analyses when the results are graphed in the aggregate and are separated by response topography. The results also suggest that these methods can improve the accuracy of data interpretation and treatment selection.
THE SIGNIFICANCE AND FUTURE OF FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS METHODOLOGIES
Authors: Mace F. Charles
Published: March 2006

Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, and Richman (1982) presented the first comprehensive and standardized methodology for identifying operant functions of aberrant behavior. This essay discusses the significance functional analysis has had for applied behavior analysis. The methodology has lessened the field's reliance on default technologies and promoted analysis of environment‐behavior interactions maintaining target responses as the basis for selecting treatments. It has also contributed to the integration of basic and applied research. Future directions for this research are suggested.
FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT: CONTRIBUTIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Authors: Horner Robert H.
Published: March 2006

Functional assessment is at once redefining the standards for clinical interventions and reemphasizing the importance of studying basic behavioral mechanisms. This commentary describes one perception of what we are learning from current research on functional assessment and suggests directions for the future.
THE IMPACT OF FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY ON OUTPATIENT CLINIC SERVICES
Authors: Wacker David P. , Berg Wendy K. , Cooper Linda J. , Derby K. Mark , Steege Mark W. , Northup John , Sasso Gary
Published: March 2006

The impact of the article by Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, and Richman (1982) on research in severe behavior disorders has been impressive. Equally impressive, however, but not as fully recognized, has been the impact of this methodology on the routine professional activities of those who employ functional analysis methods in their daily work. As one example of this impact, we describe the evolution of assessment procedures based on “brief functional analysis” methodology in our outpatient clinics. Less apparent have been the collateral effects that occur from using these procedures. Interactions with clients and colleagues have changed in ways that result in increased positive reinforcement. In this article, we briefly discuss the positive impact functional analysis has had on one specific work behavior—outpatient clinic assessment—and describe some of the generalized effects we have experienced in related aspects of our daily professional activities.
PROGRAMMING FOR SURVIVAL: A MEETING SYSTEM THAT SURVIVES 8 YEARS LATER
Authors: Welsh Thomas M. , Miller L. Keith , Altus Deborah E.
Published: March 2006

Effective and useful interventions often deteriorate when researchers withdraw their direct supervision. We tested the survival of an intervention designed to produce effective weekly meetings in a student housing cooperative without direct researcher supervision. Chairperson performance, proposals completed per hour, and ratings of chairperson performance all increased when resident staff used a training manual, prompting checklist, and performance reviews. Eight years of follow‐up revealed continuing high levels of meeting effectiveness. This study demonstrates a methodology for the direct observation and experimental analysis of intervention survival.
TEACHING DAILY LIVING SKILLS TO CHILDREN WITH AUTISM IN UNSUPERVISED SETTINGS THROUGH PICTORIAL SELF‐MANAGEMENT
Authors: Pierce Karen L. , Schreibman Laura
Published: March 2006

We investigated the efficacy of pictorial self‐management to teach daily living skills to 3 low‐functioning children with autism. Stimulus and response generalization, stimulus control of self‐management materials, and maintenance of behavior change were also assessed. Results showed that children with autism could successfully use pictures to manage their behavior in the absence of a treatment provider, generalize their behavior across settings and tasks, and maintain behaviors at follow‐up. In addition, when compared to baseline, all children showed a substantial decrease in stereotypic behaviors. When picture order was manipulated in stimulus control probes, the children followed the new picture sequence, suggesting that the pictures were controlling their behavior. Further, a savings effect was demonstrated, in that 2 subjects reached criterion on second and third behaviors within less than 25% of original training time.
EFFECTS OF IMPOSED POSTFEEDBACK DELAYS IN PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION
Authors: Crosbie John , Kelly Glenn
Published: March 2006

Imposed postfeedback delays promote discrimination training; the present experiments determined whether they also improve performance in programmed instruction. In two experiments, college students completed 45 sets of Holland and Skinner's (1961) programmed text on behavior analysis in a computerized format in a three‐component multiple schedule. In Experiment 1, the conditions were (a) no delay between questions, (b) a 10‐s delay after each question (noncontingent delay), and (c) a 10‐s delay after each question answered incorrectly (contingent delay). Noncontingent delay produced better performance than no delay and contingent delay. To determine whether performance increased in the noncontingent delay condition because subjects studied the material during delay periods, Experiment 2 tested three conditions: (a) no delay between questions, (b) a 10‐s delay after each question (noncontingent delay), and (c) a 10‐s delay after each question with the screen blank during the delay period. Noncontingent delay produced better performance than no delay, but there was no difference in performance between no delay and noncontingent delay with blank screen. Hence, noncontingent delay improved performance because students used delay periods to study. Furthermore, subjects preferred noncontingent delay to the other conditions, and session time increased only slightly.
CHOICE MAKING TO PROMOTE ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR FOR STUDENTS WITH EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL CHALLENGES
Authors: Dunlap Glen , DePerczel Maria , Clarke Shelley , Wilson Diane , Wright Suzanne , White Ronnie , Gomez Arcadia
Published: March 2006

Two analyses investigated the effects of choice making on the responding of elementary school students with emotional and behavioral challenges. In the first analysis, 2 participants were given choices from menus of academic tasks, all of which were pertinent to their educational objectives in English and spelling, respectively. Reversal designs showed that the choice‐making conditions increased task engagement and reduced disruptive behavior for both students. An additional analysis was performed with a 3rd student in an effort to further distinguish the effects of choice making from preference. In this study, one of the no‐choice phases was yoked to a previous choice‐making condition. This analysis demonstrated that the choice‐making condition was superior to baseline and yoked control phases as determined by levels of task engagement and disruptive behavior. The findings of the two analyses contribute information relevant to students with emotional and behavioral disorders, and to a growing literature on the desirable effects of choice making for students with disabilities and challenging behaviors.
THE EFFECTS OF ATTENTIONAL SHIFT TRAINING ON THE EXECUTION OF SOCCER SKILLS: A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION
Authors: Ziegler Susan G.
Published: March 2006

One of the most important skills in soccer is the ability to respond quickly and accurately to the changing demands of the competitive environment (i.e., position of ball, teammates, opponents). A multiple baseline design across 4 male collegiate soccer players was used to determine the effectiveness of an attentional training program on the execution of targeted soccer skills. The treatment included information and laboratory attentional shift exercises followed by practice of attentional shifting skills on the execution of different soccer exercises. Following treatment, the accuracy of execution of the experimental soccer drill improved.
THE EFFECTS OF CHOICE AND TASK PREFERENCE ON THE WORK PERFORMANCE OF ADULTS WITH SEVERE DISABILITIES
Authors: Bambara Linda M. , Ager Christina , Koger Freya
Published: March 2006

We evaluated the effects of choice versus the assignment of tasks of varying preferences on the work engagement of adults with severe disabilities. The combined results of two experiments suggest that the relative preference for a task may be an important variable in the effectiveness of choice for some individuals.
PREFERENCE FOR REINFORCERS UNDER VARYING SCHEDULE ARRANGEMENTS: A BEHAVIORAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Authors: Tustin R. Don
Published: March 2006

The field of behavioral economics combines concepts from economics and operant conditioning to examine the influence of schedules or price on preference for reinforcers. Three case studies are reported in which behavioral economic analyses were used to assess relative preference for reinforcers shown by people with intellectual disabilities when schedule requirements varied. The studies examined (a) preference for different reinforcers, (b) substitutability of reinforcers, and (c) changes in preference as a function of schedule requirements.
EFFECTS OF HIGH‐PROBABILITY REQUESTS ON THE SOCIAL INTERACTIONS OF YOUNG CHILDREN WITH SEVERE DISABILITIES
Authors: Davis Carol Ann , Brady Michael P. , Hamilton Richard , McEvoy Mary A. , Williams Robert E.
Published: March 2006

High‐probability requests were used to increase social interactions in 3 young boys with severe disabilities who had been identified as severely socially withdrawn. A multiple baseline design across participants was used to evaluate the effects of high‐probability request intervention on (a) social initiations, (b) social responses, (c) continued interactions, and (d) performance of high‐ and low‐probability requests. The students were observed in a second setting to examine generalization effects across peers who did not participate in the training sequence and settings. The results demonstrated that the high‐probability requests increased the students' responsiveness to low‐probability requests to initiate social behavior. Increases were also found in (a) unprompted initiations and extended interactions to the training peers, (b) unprompted initiations and extended interactions to peers who were not involved in the training procedure, and (c) generalized unprompted initiations and interactions in a second nontraining setting. The students maintained increased levels of initiations and interactions after all prompts were removed from both the training and nontraining settings.
EFFECTS OF RESPONSE CARDS ON STUDENT PARTICIPATION AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT: A SYSTEMATIC REPLICATION WITH INNER‐CITY STUDENTS DURING WHOLE‐CLASS SCIENCE INSTRUCTION
Authors: Gardner Ralph , Heward William L. , Grossi Teresa A.
Published: March 2006

We evaluated the use of response cards during science instruction in a fifth‐grade inner‐city classroom. The experiment consisted of two methods of student participation—hand raising and write‐on response cards—alternated in an ABAB design. During hand raising, the teacher called upon 1 student who had raised his or her hand in response to the teacher's question. During the response‐card condition, each student was provided with a laminated board on which to write one‐ or two‐word answers in response to each question asked by the teacher. Frequency of active student response was 14 times higher with response cards than with hand raising. All 22 students scored higher on next‐day quizzes and on 2‐week review tests that followed instruction with response cards than they did on quizzes and tests that covered facts and concepts taught with the hand‐raising procedure.
NODALITY EFFECTS DURING EQUIVALENCE CLASS FORMATION: AN EXTENSION TO SIGHT‐WORD READING AND CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT
Authors: Kennedy Craig H. , Itkonen Tiina , Lindquist Kristin
Published: March 2006

Three students with moderate disabilities were taught to read and match‐to‐sample sight words comprising stimulus sets based upon the four food groups. We taught students conditional discriminations within four four‐member sets using a single‐sample/four‐comparison procedure. Students were taught A‐B, B‐C, and C‐D conditional discriminations for each of the four potential stimulus classes. Subsequent probes tested for relations based upon symmetry and one‐node and two‐node transitivity. The performances for all students indicated that symmetric relations emerged before one‐node transitive relations, and that one‐node transitive relations emerged before two‐node transitive relations. These results are consistent with a pattern of responding, referred to as a “nodality effect,” in which relations with fewer nodes are demonstrated prior to the demonstration of relations with a greater number of nodes. These results extend this area of research to sight‐word reading for students with moderate disabilities.
USING ASSESSMENT‐BASED CURRICULAR INTERVENTION TO IMPROVE THE CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR OF A STUDENT WITH EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL CHALLENGES
Authors: Kern Lee , Childs Karen E. , Dunlap Glen , Clarke Shelley , Falk George D.
Published: March 2006

We evaluated a process of descriptive assessment, functional assessment, and assessment‐based intervention with an elementary‐school child who was described as having emotional and behavioral challenges, but who also exhibited above‐average intelligence and communication skills. During a hypothesis‐development phase, information was gathered from several sources including an interview that was conducted directly with the participant. Descriptive information collected during this phase produced five hypotheses about variables maintaining the problem behavior that were then tested experimentally in the classroom environment. The resulting functional assessment data supported the hypotheses. Intervention packages based on the hypotheses were implemented sequentially across English, spelling, and math classes. The interventions were successful in increasing on‐task behavior, and the improvements were maintained for the remainder of the school year.
SELF‐ AND CROSS‐CITATIONS IN THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS AND THE JOURNAL OF THE EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF BEHAVIOR: 1983–1992
Authors: Poling Alan , Alling Ken , Fuqua R. Wayne
Published: March 2006

We examined self‐ and cross‐citation practices in JABA and JEAB from 1983 through 1992. Mean levels of self‐citation for JABA and for JEAB were 22.6% and 36.1%, respectively. Overall, 2.4% of JABA citations were JEAB articles, and 0.6% of JEAB citations were JABA articles, which suggests limited integration of basic and applied research.
OVERCOMING AN AUTISTIC CHILD'S FAILURE TO ACQUIRE A TACT REPERTOIRE
Authors: Partington James W. , Sundberg Mark L. , Newhouse Lisa , Spengler Schelley M.
Published: March 2006

A 6‐year‐old nonvocal autistic girl who had acquired over 30 signs as mands (requests), simple intraverbals (English‐sign translations), and imitative responses repeatedly failed to acquire a tact (labeling) repertoire. It was speculated that the verbal stimulus “What is that?” blocked the establishment of stimulus control by nonverbal stimuli. When procedures to transfer stimulus control from verbal to nonverbal stimuli were implemented, the subject quickly learned to tact all 18 target stimuli.
REPLICATION OF A HIGH‐PROBABILITY REQUEST SEQUENCE WITH VARIED INTERPROMPT TIMES IN A PRESCHOOL SETTING
Authors: Houlihan Daniel , Jacobson Lori , Brandon Paul K.
Published: March 2006

An intervention for noncompliance consisting of a series of requests promoting a high probability of compliance followed either 5 s or 20 s later by a request with a low probability of compliance was implemented with a preschool child with autism. Results indicated that applications of the request sequence with a shorter interprompt time resulted in higher rates of compliance, and longer interprompt times resulted in near‐baseline rates of compliance.
USING STUDENT‐MANAGED INTERVENTIONS TO INCREASE HOMEWORK COMPLETION AND ACCURACY
Authors: Olympia Daniel E. , Sheridan Susan M. , Jenson William R. , Andrews Debra
Published: March 2006

We examined the effectiveness of self‐managed individual and group contingency procedures in improving the completion and accuracy rates of daily mathematics homework assignments. A group of sixth‐grade students having homework difficulties in mathematics were selected for the study. There was substantial improvement in the amount of homework completed over baseline for a majority of the students, whereas the results for accuracy were mixed. Students who participated in the self‐management training made significant gains on standardized measures of academic achievement and curriculum‐based measures of classroom performance. Parents also reported significantly fewer problems associated with homework completion following the intervention. Students who were allowed to select their own performance goals made superior improvements in the number of homework assignments returned compared to students who were given a specified goal by the classroom teacher. Parents, subjects, and the classroom teacher responded positively on consumer satisfaction measures following termination of the study.
OVERT “MEDIATING” BEHAVIOR DURING TEMPORALLY SPACED RESPONDING1
Authors: Laties Victor G. , Weiss Bernard , Clark Richard L. , Reynolds Michael D.
Published: March 2006

A rat was trained on a schedule that programmed reinforcements only when a minimum waiting time between successive responses was exceeded (DRL schedule). It was observed to fill much of the pause between lever presses with a stereotyped behavioral chain: it would take its tail in its mouth and nibble it. This behavior was shown to be functionally related to the efficiency with which the subject spaced its responses. It is thought to have served as mediating behavior, providing discriminating stimuli for appropriate lever presses.
ESCAPE BEHAVIOR UNDER CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT AS A FUNCTION OF AVERSIVE LIGHT INTENSITY1
Authors: Kaplan Michael , Jackson Bruce , Sparer Richard
Published: March 2006

In 11 male albino rats, lever‐pressing responses, maintained under a CRF escape schedule with light as the aversive stimulus, were examined at each of five intensities, viz., 2.5, 18, 105, 190, and 386 ft‐C. The function relating reciprocal of latency of the escape response to aversive light intensity passed through a maximum.
ANTAGONISM OF A BEHAVIORAL EFFECT OF d‐AMPHETAMINE BY CHLORPROMAZINE IN THE PIGEON1
Authors: Davis Joel L.
Published: March 2006

A dose of d‐amphetamine which completely suppressed all responding was administered to each of five pigeons under an FR 30 schedule. When the pigeons were treated with chlorpromazine after 45 min or more, responding was restored. When d‐amphetamine and chlorpromazine were administered simultaneously to three other pigeons, responding was better maintained than after d‐amphetamine alone. This study confirms a previous finding that chlorpromazine can antagonize the rate‐decreasing effect of d‐amphetamine.
OPERANT DISCRIMINATION OF AN INTEROCEPTIVE STIMULUS IN RHESUS MONKEYS1
Authors: Slucki Henry , Adam Gyorgi , Porter Robert W.
Published: March 2006

Five rhesus macaques monkeys surgically prepared with Thiry small intestinal (jejunum) loops and implanted brain electrodes were restrained in primate chairs and kept on 23‐hr deprivation‐feeding cycle. After being trained to press a lever for sugar pills on an FR 25 schedule of reinforcement, a discrimination training procedure was established. Lever presses were reinforced during the SD—a non‐aversive mechanical stimulus applied to the internal walls of the Thiry loop by rhythmic inflation‐deflation of a small latex balloon by air at the rate of one cycle per sec at 100 mm Hg pressure. The SΔ was the absence of the visceral stimulation. The monkeys successfully discriminated between presence and absence of the internal stimulus. A discrimination reversal was attempted and completed on one monkey. The results clearly show operant discrimination based on an interoceptive stimulus. Cortical and subcortical EEG records reflected the onset but not termination of the visceral stimulation.
A NOTE ON TIME OUT FROM AVOIDANCE WITH THE CHIMPANZEE1
Authors: Findley J. D. , Ames L. L.
Published: March 2006

Fixed‐interval responding which produced time out from shock avoidance schedules was established in a chimpanzee. Two widely differing discriminated avoidance schedules were employed in a multiple schedule arrangement. Differences in fixed interval rate were found to be related both to the schedule from which the subject was escaping and to the amount of training.