bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Hazard rates and causes of death in a captive group of crab‐eating monkeys (Macaca fascicularis)
Authors: Luder Hans U.
Published: June 2005

In an attempt to examine possible associations between stages of agespecific mortality and various causes of death, vital records of 159 male and 192 female crab‐eating monkeys (Macaca fascicularis), housed as a single group, were analyzed. Survival and hazard rates associated with each of five distinct categories of causes of death were estimated for males and females, using the nonparametric kernel method. The obtained overall survival and hazard functions were similar to those reported previously for rhesus monkeys. Among two stages identified in age‐specific mortality, the first stage, characterized by rapidly decreasing hazard rates up to about 1.5–2 years of age, was discriminated by the occurrence of deaths due to unfitness for postnatal life. The second stage lasted up to the age of 10–15 years and was largely characterized by a high incidence of violent deaths. The respective hazard rates in males and females attained peaks during the early reproductive period of life and markedly decreased thereafter. This pattern was interpreted to indicate that second stage mortality is unlikely related to senescence, but rather, seems to depend on extrinsic environmental factors. Thus, when considering overall hazard rates in Macaca fascicularis, the onset of senescence, as a result of the specific aspects of simian reproduction, may be hidden from view, and mortality due to aging may only be appreciable after 10 to 15 years of age. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Milk secretion in pregnancy among free‐ranging Japanese macaques
Authors: Tanaka Ichirou , Hayama Shin‐Ichi , Nigi Hideo
Published: June 2005

Milking under anesthesia in pregnant free‐ranging Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) directly revealed lactation in gestation at Jigokudani Monkey Park, the Shiga Heights, Nagano Prefecture, Japan, from 12 to 14 February 1992. Multiparae secreted milk at 76–97 days of estimated fertilization age when the birth intervals to the next offspring were 2 years. The observation of sucking behavior from February 1991 to March 1992 indicated that concurrent suckling by these multiparae terminated approximately 70 days before the next parturition after the growth of fetuses had accelerated and the embryos survived the crisis of abortion. Thus, Japanese macaque mothers appear to hedge maternal investment with concurrent lactation against possible miscarriage. Two nulliparous pregnant females secreted milk 3 months before the first parturition although they had no suckers. The first preparation of lactation appears to require the duration of longer than 3 months in nulliparae although worked mammary glands appear to be able to resume within 1 month in multiparae. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
A review of hormonal factors influencing the sexual and aggressive behavior of macaques
Authors: Michael Richard P. , Zumpe Doris
Published: June 2005

The effects of gonadal hormones on the sexual and aggressive behavior of adult macaques are reviewed. Similarities among findings from field, colony, and laboratory studies strengthen the view that testosterone facilitates the sexual and aggressive behavior of males, while sexual and perhaps aggressive behavior by the female is mainly dependent on estradiol, which increases both the sexual motivation of the female and her attractiveness to males. Differences between results from different settings help to emphasize the role of environmental and social factors in modulating the effects of hormones. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Infant kidnapping and co‐mothering in Japanese macaques
Authors: Schino Gabriele , Aureli Filippo , D'Amato Francesca R. , D'Antoni Monica , Pandolfi Nicoletta , Troisi Alfonso
Published: June 2005

The fatal kidnapping of a Japanese macaque infant is described. Kidnapping was followed by a long period (10 weeks) of co‐mothering. Quantitative recording showed that both the biological mother (a 8‐year‐old, low‐ranking, multiparous female) and the kidnapper (a 4‐year‐old, high‐ranking female with no maternal experience) displayed an affectionate style of mothering and never responded negatively to the infant's demands for contact. Given the large maternal investment on the part of the kidnapper, we suggest that the fatal outcome for the infant was not the result of reproductive competition. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Genetic differences among subspecies of the saddle‐back tamarin (Saguinus fuscicollis):evidence from hybrids
Authors: Cheverud James M. , Jacobs Susan C. , Moore Allen J.
Published: June 2005

The subspecies of saddle‐back tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis) are known to be chromatically and morphologically diverse but little is known of the genetic basis for the observed morphological variation. The morphology of first generation subspecific hybrids can be compared to that of the parental subspecies to provide information on the extent and nature of genetic differences in morphology between subspecies. We compare two groups of saddle‐back tamarin hybrids (S. f. illigeri × S. f. lagonotus and S. f. illigeri × S. f. leucogenys) to pure‐bred members of their parental subspecies. These crosses were examined for heterosis, caused by allele frequency differences between the subspecies in combination with directional dominance.

Thirty‐nine craniofacial measurements were derived from three‐dimensional coordinates of landmarks on 355 adult tamarin skulls. These measurements were corrected for sex differences and differences due to environment (wild‐derived vs. laboratory‐born) prior to analysis of hybridity. Sex differences were minimal for these traits. Environment had a more significant effect on craniofacial morphology. Laboratory environments produce larger faces but smaller orbits, anterior cranial vaults, and cranial bases.

Significant heterosis was found for many individual traits and for the first principal component representing size and size‐related shape measurements in the S. f. illigeri × S. f. lagonotus cross. The smaller samples involved in the S. f. illigeri× S. f. leucogenys cross led to a much lower number of statistically significant results, although most traits did display heterosis. Heterosis for craniofacial size was nearly statistically significant. These results suggest that there are large differences in allele frequencies among these subspecies of saddle‐back tamarin for genes affecting craniofacial morphology. Based on these data we suggest that these subspecies are likely to be independent, largely isolated, evolutionary units. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Survey of the long‐tailed macaques introduced onto Tinjil Island, Indonesia
Authors: Kyes Randall C.
Published: June 2005

From February 1988 though June 1990, 475 adult long‐tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) were released on Tinjil Island to establish a breeding program that will provide monkeys for biomedical research while contributing to Indonesia's primate conservation efforts. A survey was conducted during the summer of 1990 to assess the status of the island's population. Basic demographic data were consistent with those from other field studies of long‐tailed macaques, and estimates of reproductivity suggest a successful breeding program. The facility established on Tinjil Island should serve as a useful model for future primate resource and conservation programs. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Anogenital swelling in pregnant chimpanzees of Gombe National Park
Authors: Wallis Janette , Goodall Jane
Published: June 2005

Previous studies show that anogenital swelling patterns of pregnant chimpanzees in captivity are correlated with the female's age during pregnancy and are associated with changes in social behavior. The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether the anogenital swelling patterns of free‐ranging pregnant chimpanzees resemble those reported for captive chimpanzees. We reviewed the records of 47 pregnancies experienced by 20 female chimpanzees living in Gombe National Park from 1975 to 1992. Percentage scores for swelling during each trimester and for the overall occurrence of various levels of swelling were obtained by dividing the frequency by the total number of days the subject was observed (i.e., 28 days of swelling/165 days observation = 17.2% anogenital swelling for that pregnancy). Subjects exhibited anogenital swelling an average of 25.1% of the days observed during pregnancy, yet reached maximum only 9.4% of the time. Anogenital swelling occurred less frequently as pregnancy progressed, averaging 40.8, 27.3, and 2.7% in the first, second, and third trimesters, respectively. As seen in captive chimpanzees, young pregnant females at Gombe showed anogenital swelling more often than did older ones (r = −.65, P < .0001). These findings are consistent with reports of behavior associated with anogenital swelling (e.g., intercommunity transfer of young females exhibiting anogenital swelling). © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Rank, relationships, and responses to intruders among adult male vervet monkeys
Authors: Schuster Richard , Raleigh Michael J. , McGuire Michael T. , Torigoe David
Published: June 2005

We examined the influences of dyadic relationships among captive adult male vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus) on behavior directed toward caged “intruder” males placed inside subjects' enclosures. Subjects were all 9 adult male residents from three stable social groups, each of which contained 3 adult males, at least 3 adult females, and their immature offspring. Every male was observed in two 3‐hour sessions, each time with one of the 2 other adult males from his group. Observation sessions consisted of six consecutive 30‐min stages in which group composition and the presence of the intruder were manipulated. All groups exhibited a stable, linear male dominance hierarchy prior to and throughout the study. In each group, there was one pair of males, when together, in which each member exhibited higher rates of intruder‐directed approach and aggressive behaviors than when either animal was paired with the third male of his social group. Such pairs were also distinguished by high levels of within‐pair agonistic interactions. The higher‐ranking member of each dyad was the most aggressive male toward the intruder in his social group, although only one of these animals was the dominant male of his group. Mutual facilitation of aggression against intruding males is interpreted as cooperative behavior benefitting both males by increasing the likelihood of repelling a potential competitor for resident females. Such cooperation provides further evidence in nonhuman primates for cohesive male‐male dyads between animals whose social interactions are characterized by agonism. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Detection of urinary gonadotropins in callitrichid monkeys with a sensitive immunoassay based upan a unique monoclonal antibody
Authors: Ziegler Toni E. , Matteri Robert L. , Wegner Frederick H.
Published: June 2005

A radioimmunological method for measuring urinary luteinizing hormone (LH) and chorionic gonadotropin (CG) excretion in the family Callitrichidae is described. The method uses a monoclonal antibody that will be available in virtually unlimited quantity. Several polyclonal antisera that have been useful for the detection of callitrichid gonadotropins are near depletion. The monoclonal antibody‐based RIA provided similar results when compared with the mouse Leydig cell bioassay for LH and a previously validated polyclonal antibody‐based RIA. When the monoclonal antibody is used for immunodetection of Saguinus oedipus LH by non‐reducing SDS‐PAGE, a single entity is recognized that corresponds with the molecular weight range of bioactive LH and appears to be in the normal range for LH in nonhuman primates. LH and CG were detected by the monoclonal antibody‐based RIA in urine from representatives of species from all genera of callitrichids. Hormonal profiles of daily urine samples revealed the detection of the preovulatory LH surge by both RIA methods in the cotton‐top tamarin (Saguinus Oedipus) and pygmy marmoset (Cebuella pygmea) and the increase CG due to pregnancy in both species. Serial dilutions of midcycle and pregnancy urine from Saguinus, Callithrix, Leontopithecus, and Cebuella exhibited parallelism when compared with our in‐house reference standard of rhesus monkey CG. Cultured Saguinus oedipus pituitary cells showed an increased release of LH when challenged by gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) providing further support that the monoclonal antibody‐based RIA measures LH in this species. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Selected endocrine parameters of the adult male chimpanzee
Authors: Young Leona G. , Gould Kenneth G. , Smithwick Eleanor B.
Published: June 2005

This study provides baseline data on reproductive endocrine parameters of the male chimpanzee. A colony group of 47 male chimpanzees were classified by age as juvenile, ages 4–6 years (n = 7); adolescent, ages 7–9 (n = 9); and adult, ages 10–33 years (n = 31). Blood samples (n = 112) obtained from these animals [juveniles (n = ll), adolescents (n = 25), and adults (n = 76)] were analyzed for testosterone (T), luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). There was a significant increase (mean ± SE) in T (ng/ml) between the juvenile (0.2 ± 0.1) and adolescent group (2.4 ± 0.3) and between the adolescent (2.4 ± 0.3) and the 10–14‒year‐old adult age group (4.2 ± 0.2). T peaked at 15–24 years of age and then declined. There was a significant difference in T between animals aged 20–24 years (5.3 ± 0.4) and 25–29 years (3.0 ± 0.4). There was no significant change in serum LH (mlU/ml) with age. Serum FSH (mlU/ml) increased significantly between 4–6 years of age (90.0 ± 11.6) and 10–14 years of age (120.5 ± 8.3), plateaued between 10 and 19 years of age and was significantly lower in males older than 20 years (92.6 ± 4.2).

Blood samples (n = 5) obtained from an experimental group of six adult male chimpanzees, ages 10 to 15 years, were analyzed for T, LH, and FSH, Pituitary response to challenge with exogenous GnRH and to hypotha‐lamic stimulation with NMA also was assessed. T, LH, and FSH in the experimental group did not differ significantly from animals of equivalent age in the colony group. Challenge with 50, 100, 200, and 500μg GnRH stimulated LH release. The response was not directly dose related. Challenge with 3 and 6 mg/kg NMA stimulated LH release. The response was dose related. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Progressive improvement in the transfer of maternal antibody across the order Primates
Authors: Coe Christopher L. , Lubach Gabriele R. , Izard Kay M.
Published: June 2005

Antibody levels were determined in adults and newborn offspring of five primate species. This cross‐species comparison of intant IgG levels indicated that prosimians and New World monkeys transfer lower levels of maternal antibody via placental transmission than do Old World monkeys, apes, and humans. The evolutionary trend toward an increased reliance on prenatal antibody transfer in the higher primates appears to be most pronounced in the human infant, because our placenta has evolved an active transport process that elevates IgG in the full‐term fetus over maternal levels. Higher IgG levels in the young infant ensure a more prolonged and successful period of passive immunity against pathogens previously encountered by the mother. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Monitoring female reproductive function by measurement of fecal estrogen and progesterone metabolites in the white‐faced saki (Pithecia pithecia)
Authors: Shideler S. E. , Savage A. , Ortuno A. M. , Moorman E. A. , Lasley B. L.
Published: June 2005

A simple method for extracting and measuring ovarian steroids in feces is applied to the ovarian cycle, pregnancy, parturition, and period of lactational amenorrhea in Pithecia pithecia. Small amounts of wet, unmixed feces were combined with a modified phosphate buffer, shaken, centrifuged, and decanted, and the supernatant was directly measured for estrogen and progesterone metabolites by enzyme immunoassays. Urinary estrogen and progesterone metabolite measurements were compared to paired fecal measurements to determine the degree to which fecal hormone levels detected the same ovarian events as urinary measurements. The correlation coefficients for the relationship between urinary and fecal hormones for individual animals studied (n = 5) were found to be statistically significant in every case except one sexually immature animal. The application of the method presented here demonstrates that simple solubilization and non‐radiometric measurement of ovarian steroids excreted in feces reliably reflect reproductive events in Pithecia pithecia. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Ecological strategies of woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha) at Tinigua National Park, Colombia
Authors: Stevenson Pablo R. , Quinones Marcela J. , Ahumada Jorge A.
Published: June 2005

Information on the use of space, activity patterns, diet, and social interactions were recorded for a group of woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha) during 13 months at Tinigua National Park, Macarena, Colombia. In this region, fruit abundance changes throughout the year with a peak during March–April (beginning of the rainy season) and less fruit during September‐November (end of rainy season). Woolly monkeys spent most of their time in mature forest where fruit abundance is higher than in opendegraded or flooded forests. Changes in habitat used by monkeys were coupled with changes in fruit supply across vegetation types. On an annual basis, woolly monkeys spent 24% of point samples locomoting, 36% resting, 36% feeding, and 4% on other activities. However, these proportions varied across the year depending on fruit availability. Based on instantaneous samples, the diet consisted mostly of fruits (60%), arthropods (23%), vegetative parts and flowers (17%), and other items (1%). Non‐lactating females and juveniles spent more time eating insects than adult males and lactating females; however, significant differences between classes were detected only during the period of fruit scarcity. These differences are probably due to the high extent to which non‐lactating females and juveniles were excluded from fruiting trees by males. The high proportion of arthropods in their diet is unusual for primates with large body size and is a possible factor influencing group cohesiveness in woolly monkeys. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Effective use of a joystick by an infant monkey
Authors: Andrews Michael W.
Published: June 2005

The acquisition of the ability to use a joystick to maintain contact between a cursor and moving target is described for an infant bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata). The infant was first exposed to a very elementary joystick task while living in a social group at the age of 3.5 months. With task difficulty increased in small increments over a total of only 9 weeks of access to the tasks, the infant was able to maintain contact with a small moving target for over 2.5 sec by the age of 7.5 months. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Benefits and costs of resident males to females in white‐faced capuchins, Cebus capucinus
Authors: Rose Lisa M.
Published: June 2005

Some benefits and costs of resident males to females are examined in white‐faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus) at Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica. A total of 380 hours of focal data were collected on adults in two groups, between January and July 1991. The results of this study suggest that for females, males provide some greater benefits, and impose some higher costs than do other females. Males are more vigilant than females, and are somewhat more successful in detecting predators. To the extent that predator protection is a major benefit of group living, this benefit seems to derive more from males than from females. Increased contest competition is the major cost of group living, and the study suggests that females bear a higher proportion of this cost than males. More foraging related agonism occurs between males and females than between females, more aggression occurs between than within sexes, and female foraging success is negatively associated with agonistic interactions involving males. However, female foraging success is negatively affected by the proximity of other females, and not by the proximity of males. Differences in the distribution of male benefits and costs according to female dominance rank are suggested. © Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Age‐specific birth rate and lifetime reproductive success of chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea
Authors: Sugiyama Yukimaru
Published: June 2005

Preliminary calculations of the age‐specific birth rate for wild female chimpanzees were based on demographic records from a long‐term study at Bossou, Republic of Guinea. Primiparous age was 12‐14 years. Birth rate for a female reached a peak of 0.333 a year at 20‐23 years, and then decreased until menopause at more than 40 years of age. Mean birth rate for a female of more than 12 years was 0.197 a year. Mean interbirth interval was 4.6 years overall, but 5.1 years, if all cases in which the previous infant had died within its first three years were excluded. Infant survival rate for the first four years was 0.727 and that of juveniles (four to seven years) was 0.714; however, that of adolescents (eight to 11 years) was only 0.222. Some adolescents who disappeared from Bossou are thought to have migrated to adjacent habitats. From age‐specific birth rate and survival rate, the lifetime reproductive success was calculated as only 0.74 offspring per female. This rose to 2.39 when adolescent survival rate was assumed to be the same as that of juveniles. This must be less than the minimum reproductive success required for continued survival of the population. The recent and continuing degradation of the environment will lead to the extermination of this species from the area in the near future. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Predation on a yellow baboon (Papio cynocephalus cynocephalus) by a lioness in the Tana River National Primate Reserve, Kenya
Authors: Condit Vicki K. , Smith E. O.
Published: June 2005

Predation on an adult female yellow baboon (Papio cynocephalus cynocephalus) by a lioness is reported. This predation occurred in full daylight within 10 m of the observer. The high incidence of disappearances of adult females from the study troop during a one‐year period is reported and the potential long‐term demographic effects upon the troop resulting from this one year's high number of disappearances discussed. These disappearances may be due to predation. We suggest that lion predation upon baboons, and baboon deaths and disappearances in general, in the Tana Reserve, may be inversely related to rainfall. We also report that there does not appear to be a long‐term sex difference in vulnerability to death or disappearance. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Heart rate patterns under stress in three species of macaques
Authors: Clarke A. Susan , Mason William A. , Mendoza Sally P.
Published: June 2005

Cardiac responses during one hour exposures to three stressful experimental conditions were compared among juvenile females of three species of the genus Macaca (M. mulatta, M. radiata, and M. fascicularis). M. fascicularis showed the highest overall heart rate, and M. mulatta the lowest, in all three conditions. The principal difference between species was in the pattern of change in heart rate over the test sessions. Heart rate declined during the hour for all three species in the first two conditions (home cage novel environment), and the change was most rapid in M. mulatta and slowest in M. fascicularis. In the third and most stressful condition (physical restraint), each species showed a distinct temporal pattern. Heart rate increased over the hour in M. fascicularis, declined in M. radiata, and increased rapidly then declined gradually in M. mulatta. Individual differences in heart rate tended to be consistent within and across conditions. Correlations between behavioral measures of somatic activity and heart rate were generally modest. The results are in accord with other behavioral and physiological differences obtained for the same subjects, and suggest that responses to environmental stimuli reflect fundamental aspects of temperament that may vary substantially even among closely related species. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Callicebus torquatus is not a white‐sand specialist
Authors: Defler Thomas R.
Published: June 2005

The hypothesis of Kinzey and Gentry [Primate Ecology: Problem Oriented Field Studies. New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1979] that Callicebus torquatus may be specialized for living in vegetation on white sand was evaluated by reviewing all observations I made of this species, where the substrate had been noted, and including some collection sites of J. Hernández Camacho. There was no evidence for the white‐sand hypothesis. Instead, Callicebus torquatus was found to prefer upland and flooded forests that are tall and well stratified, and growing on many soil types, including white sand. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
How big were early hominids?
Authors: McHenry Henry M.
Published: June 2005

The recent discovery of new postcranial fossils, particularly associated body parts, of several Plio‐Pleistocene hominids provides a new opportunity to assess body size in human evolution.1 Body size plays a central role in the biology of animals because of its relationship to brain size, feeding behavior, habitat preference, social behavior, and much more. Unfortunately, the prediction of body weight from fossils is inherently inaccurate because skeletal size does not reflect body size exactly and because the fossils are from species having body proportions for which there are no analogues among modern species. The approach here is to find the relationship between body size and skeletal size in ape and human specimens of known body weight at death and to apply this knowledge to the hominid fossils, using a variety of statistical methods, knowledge of the associated partial skeletons of the of early hominids, formulae derived from a modern human sample, and, finally, common sense. The following modal weights for males and females emerge: Australopithecus afarensis, 45 and 29 kg; A. africanus, 41 and 30 kg; A. robustus, 40 and 32 kg; A. boisei, 49 and 34 kg; H. habilis, 52 and 32 kg. The best known African early H. erectus were much larger with weights ranging from 55 kg on up. These estimates imply that (1) in the earliest hominid species and the “robust” australopithecines body sizes remained small relative to modern standards, but between 2.0 and 1.7 m.y.a. there was a rapid increase to essentially modern body size with the appearance of Homo erectus; (2) the earliest species had a degree of body size sexual dimorphism well above that seen in modern humans but below that seen in modern gorillas and orangs which implies (along with other evidence) a social organization characterized by kin‐related, multi‐male groups with females who were not kin‐related; (3) relative brain sizes increased through time; (4) there were two divergent trends in relative cheek‐tooth size—a steady increase through time from A. afarensis to A. africanus to the “robust” australopithecines, and a decrease beginning with H. habilis to H. erectus to H. sapiens.
Primate ecology, rainforest conservation, and economic development: Building a national park in Madagascar
Authors: Wright Patricia C.
Published: June 2005

At the end of the twentieth century, the future of primate ecology is interlocked with that of the world's tropical forests. Most primate species occur in rainforests, which are disappearing at an astounding rate.1,2 It is clear that conservation of tropical forests and their rich faunas must take place within the context of the economic development of the countries in which they are situated. Further, the conservation of these resources must prove valuable to the peoples who own them.3–6 The international community, including World Bank and USAid, have made it a priority to fund projects combining rural development programs linked with park management.7 In 1987, the Malagasy government asked me to help them establish a national park at Ranomafana, in southeast Madagascar. This article provides a brief description of the route we followed establishing this park. Undoubtedly, many of the problems and opportunities we faced, and the solutions we arrived at, were unique to Madagascar at this particular time; others, I hope, will be broadly applicable to conservation efforts throughout the world.
Pedigree discriminant analysis of two French Canadian Tay‐Sachs families
Authors: Keats Bronya J. B. , Elston Robert C. , Andermann Eva , Rao D. C.
Published: June 2005

Two French Canadian families among whom the Tay‐Sachs allele is segregating are analyzed to investigate whether there is residual phenotypic familial covariation over and above that from major gene segregation. The traits analyzed are functions of hexosaminidase A (HEXA) and hexosaminidase B (HEXB) levels, and a combination of segregation and discriminant analysis is used to find a function of HEXA and HEXB levels to discriminate between carriers and noncarriers in this French Canadian population. We found that residual familial covariation is significant for the ratio HEXA/(HEXA + HEXB), the statistic generally used to determine if an individual is likely to be a carrier of the Tay‐Sachs allele in Ashkenazi Jewish populations. This suggests that the ratio may not be appropriate for the French Canadian group and that the mutation may be different from that in Ashkenazi Jews. A linear function is calculated that gives improved discrimination between carriers and noncarriers for the two French Canadian pedigrees studied.
Genetic etiology of gastric carcinoma: II. Segregation analysis of gastric pH, nitrate, and nitrite
Authors: Bonney George E. , Elston Robert C. , Correa Pelayo , Tannenbaum Steven R. , Haenszel William , Zavala Diego E. , Fontham Elizabeth , Zarama Guillermo , Gordillo Guido , Cuello Carlos , Rao D. C.
Published: June 2005

A study of gastric pH, nitrate, and nitrite in 110 families collected as part of a cohort from the Narino region of Colombia is presented. All three traits are familial and have a significant linearly increasing age trend. Gastric pH has a clear bimodal distribution but does not show Mendelian segregation. The nitrate distribution is slightly skewed, but generational heterogeneity explains the data best. Gastric nitrite is also biomodal with a clear break at concentration 1.08 μg/ml, and 74% of the observations at zero concentration; it shows a recessive Mendelian segregation with significant residual spouse correlation. This model also fits the data best when nitrite is dichotomized into detected (measurable) and undetected values. The estimated frequency of the recessive allele is .57, so that an estimated 32% of the population sampled are recessives. Recessives whose spouses have measuarable nitrite have an estimated penetrance of 99.3% at age 30 years, whereas those whose spouses have zero or undetected nitrite have a penetrance of only 8.8% at age 30 years. It appears that gastric nitrite, and, from our previous study of these families, chronic atrophic gastritis are important biologic markers for the early identification of persons predisposed to gastric cancer.
Linkage and segregation analyses of apolipoproteins A1 and B, and lipoprotein cholesterol levels in a large pedigree with excess coronary heart disease: The Bogalusa heart study
Authors: Amos Christopher I. , Elston Robert C. , Srinivasan Sathanur R. , Wilson Alexander F. , Cresanta James L. , Ward Laura J. , Berenson Gerald S. , Rao D. C.
Published: June 2005

Robust methods were employed, using data from a single large pedigree, to screen serum apolipoprotein A1 and B levels, serum lipoprotein cholesterol levels, and ratios of serum lipoprotein cholesterol fractions to apolipoprotein A1 and B levels for genetic linkage to 31 polymorphic markers. Segregation analyses were performed for each of the apolipoprotein and lipoprotein cholesterol fractions to obtain estimates for use in applying likelihood methods of linkage analysis. Trait‐marker combinations for which linkages were suggested from the robust methods were then reexamined for linkage using the likelihood (lod score) method. Results from the segregation analyses were consistent with major gene determination of apo B and HDL‐C levels, the HDL‐C to apo A1 ratio, the LDL‐C to apo B ratio, and a measure of relative content of cholesterol in HDL‐C and LDL‐C. Linkage between haptoglobin and the HDL‐C/apo A1 ratio was suggested, with a lod score of 1.72 at θ = 0.05.
A Monte Carlo evaluation of three statistical methods used in path analysis
Authors: McGue M. , Wette R. , Rao D. C. , MacCluer J. W.
Published: June 2005

Results of a Monte Carlo study to investigate the properties of three statistical methods used extensively in path analysis of family data are presented. All three methods are based on the maximum likelihood principle and involve the assumptions of multivariate normality and large sample (asymptotic) statistical properties. The methods differ, however, in the specification of the likelihood function. Given a set of correlation estimates, method 1 maximizes the likelihood function under the stipulation that the estimates are independent. Method 2 differs from the former by allowing for covariances among the correlation estimators. Method 3 involves (direct) maximization of the likelihood function for the individual family observations assuming multivariate normality for the vector of family observations. The Monte Carlo study investigated validity of the test statistics and confidence intervals and evaluated the relative efficiency and bias of the parameter estimates based on 1,000 replications of each of several simulation conditions. The effects of violating the two basic assumptions, multivariate normality and asymptotic theory, were investigated by comparing results for non‐normally vs normally distributed family data and for small vs large sample sizes. It is shown that method 3 provides valid statistical inferences under multivariate normality and that it is generally robust against minor departures from normality. Method 2 is also robust against minor deviations from normality, but it is sensitive to small sample sizes. Method 1 yields highly conservative test statistics under all conditions studied.
Repeated‐measures model for the investigation of temporal trends using longitudinal family studies: Application to systolic blood pressure
Authors: Province M. A. , Tishler P. , Rao D. C. , Eaves Lindon J.
Published: June 2005

A contemporary path model for the analysis of familial resemblance is extended to incorporate repeated measurements on the entire pedigree over time, in order to assess age‐related changes in familiality. The parameters of the model can be defined as arbitrary functions of the ages, age differences, or cohabitation times of the family members at the exact time of measurement. Tracking of the phenotypes is decomposed into a familial and a nonfamilial component, which vares with both the time span between measurements and the ages at measurement. Some of the family members may have data missing on one or more visits, and the visits may be unequally spaced both within and across families. The method incorporates all measurements available from all visits into a single model. The model is applied to longitudinal data on systolic blood pressure in 490 East Boston families measured two times at 3‐year intervals. Evidence for some nonfamilial tracking is found. Additionally, significant temporal trends are demonstrated in the familiality as a function of age, t2(A), which appears to be near zero at birth, grow to a maximum of about 40% at around age 30, and then appears to monotonically decrease again. No evidence was found for temporal trends in marital resemblance or residual sibling environmental effects. This model provides an objective method of investigating developmental changes in the correlational structure of families over time using repeated‐measures and of estimating continuous changes in familiality with age.
Path analysis under generalized marital resemblance: Evaluation of the assumptions underlying the mixed homogamy model by the Monte Carlo method
Authors: McGue M. , Wette R. , Rao D. C. , Elston Robert C.
Published: June 2005

Path analysis of nuclear family data has been widely applied to resolve genetic and environmental sources of familial resemblance. Here we report the results of a systematic evaluation of the effects of departures from five modeling assumptions often made when analyzing nuclear family data; i) the observed environmental index is unaffected by the genotype, ii) the basis of marital resemblance is correctly specified in the model, iii) there are no intergenerational differences in either the genetic or cultural heritability, iv) there is no genetic dominance, and v) there is no genotype by family environment interaction. “Deterministic simulations” identified various situations where model misspecification could lead to substantial bias in the estimation of the heritabilities. For these situations, “stochastic simulations” were performed to determine whether the “goodness‐of‐fit” test used in path analysis would correctly reject the misspecified model. In samples of 500 nuclear families, each comprising two parents and two children, the goodness‐of‐fit test was found to be sensitive to misspecifications of the source of marital resemblance and the existence of intergenerational differences in heritabilities, although reduced power would make the test less sensitive in smaller samples. The test was largely insensitive to misspecifications of possible genetic effects on the environmental index, and to the existence of multiplicative interaction between the genotype and familial environment. When genetic effects on the index are ignored, the genetic heritability (h2) is understimated, the cultural heritability (c2) is overestimated, but h2 + c2 remains unchanged. Neglecting the interaction was found to result in an overestimate of h2.
Mixed model segregation analysis of LDL‐C concentration with genotype–covariate interaction
Authors: Konigsberg Lyle W. , Blangero John , Kammerer Candace M. , Mott Glen E. , Vogler G. P.
Published: June 2005

Mixed model complex segregation analyses have in the past ignored the possibility of genotype–covariate interaction. Only in the nonmixed model with polygenic heritability equal to zero have segregation analyses been performed that allowed for genotype specific regression of the phenotype on covariates. We present an extension of Hasstedt's [1982] mixed model likelihood approximation which does allow for genotype–covariate interaction in the mixed model. Following description of this approximation, we validate the likelihood calculation by a Monte Carlo procedure based on the actual pedigree and missing data structure used in a complex segregation analysis of low density plus very low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL‐C + VLDL‐C) in baboons. The observed averages of the bootstrap parameter estimates adequately recover the generating values, which included parameters specifying genotype–covariate interaction. We then applied both a traditional complex segregation analysis and an analysis with genotype–covariate interaction to test for the presence of a major locus affecting LDL‐C levels in baboons. The model including genotype–covariate interaction was significantly different from the model without interactions, and strongly supported the hypothesis that there is a segregating Mendelian locus as opposed to a random environmental factor. This major locus accounts for approximately 46% of the variance in LDL‐C levels, as compared to 40% explained by a locus with no genotype‐covariate interaction.
Clustering of hepatocellular carcinoma in Alaska Native families
Authors: Alberts Steven R. , Lanier Anne P. , McMahon Brian J. , Harpster Annette , Bulkow Lisa R. , Heyward William L. , Murray Christine , Vogler G. P.
Published: June 2005

Alaska Natives have a high incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), with regional, ethnic, village, and familial clustering. During 1969–1988, 15 of the 45 incident cases of HCC in Alaska Natives occurred in 5 families. This report presents epidemiologic, virologic, and immunogenetic data on these 5 families. The results of hepatitis B virus (HBV) serologic testing indicates that HBV infection was an important factor in 4 of the 5 families. Human lymphocyte antigen (HLA) testing was performed in 3 families. The HLA results are reviewed in relationship to the familial clustering of HCC.
Estimation of the frequency of isoform–genotype discrepancies at the apolipoprotein E locus in heterozygotes for the isoforms
Authors: Mailly F. , Moll P. , Kottke B. A. , Kamboh M. I. , Humphries S. E. , Ferrell R. E. , Chakravarti Aravinda
Published: June 2005

Estimates of the impact of apolipoprotein E (apo E) alleles coding for the three common isoforms on plasma lipid levels assume genetic homogeneity among the genotype classes. To test this assumption, we have determined the apo E genotype at the two common polymorphic sites (amino acids 112 and 158) by DNA amplification and hybridisation with allele‐specific oligoprobes, in 195 unrelated Caucasian participants of the Rochester Family Heart Study previously classified as heterozygotes by isoelectric focusing (IEF). Fourteen discordant samples were initially detected. Repeat typing of these samples by both methods resolved nine discrepancies and analysis of additional blood samples from the remaining five individuals eliminated a further four discrepancies. The only truly discordant allele was found in a female subject who had an E3 isoform with the common E2 (Cys112, Cys158) genotype. Transmission of this allele from the mother was demonstrated. From these results, we estimate the frequency of discrepancies between isoforms and common genotypes to be 0.25% in this population. Allele misclassification was caused by poor amplification of the DNA in six samples and superimposition of glycosylated and nonglycosylated apo E isoforms on isoelectric focusing gels in five samples. We conclude that the assumption of genetic homogeneity among genotype classes is valid and that misclassification due to technical difficulties is more frequent than true discordancies. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Preliminary ordering of multiple linked loci using pairwise linkage data
Authors: Falk C. T. , Chakravarti Aravinda
Published: June 2005

A method is presented for the preliminary ordering of loci on a chromosome using pairwise linkage data. The method is based on the biologically reasonable assumption that the ‘true’ order of a set of linked loci will be the one that minimizes the total length of the chromosome segment. Here the ‘length’ is defined as the sum of adjacent recombination fractions. The method searches for the optimal order, represented by a minimum distance map (MDMAP), even when it is not possible to examine the n!/2 possible distinct orders for n loci. A computerized approach, using the simulated annealing algorithm of Kirkpatrick et al. [1983], forms the basis of the method. It can be applied to data from radiation hybrid experiments as well as that from conventional family linkage studies. The technique is applied to several sets of published data to illustrate how it performs in practice. The advantages and the disadvantages of the method are discussed so that it will be clear under what conditions it is likely to work well. When data sets are ‘complete,’ in the sense that all possible pairwise recombination fractions have estimates, and when no large clusters of extremely tightly linked loci are present, the method produces ordered sets of loci that agree well with those generated by other, more complex methods. Any discrepancies that occur are likely to be with respect to the orientation of nearest‐neighbor loci, where relative order cannot be reliably established by any method. The method thus provides a simple, rapid means of obtaining a preliminary order for a set of loci known to be in the same linkage group. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Molecular basis of a unique African Variant (A‐IV 5) of human apolipoprotein A‐IV and its significance in lipid metabolism
Authors: Ilyas Kamboh M. , Williams Edward R. , Law John C. , Aston Christopher E. , Bunker Clareann H. , Ferrell Robert E. , Pollitzer William S.
Published: June 2005

Human apolipoprotein A‐IV (apoA‐IV) exhibits a genetically determined structural polymorphism amenable to analysis by isoelectric focusing and immunoblotting techniques. We have determined the allele frequency and molecular basis of a unique ApoA‐IV*5 allele which is widely distributed among blacks but is absent in other populations. The frequency of the ApoA‐IV*5 allele in blacks (N = 308) was estimated to be 3.2%. In comparison to the common ApoA‐IV*1 allele, analysis of coding and non‐coding sequences of the ApoA‐IV*5 allele revealed an in‐frame insertion of 12 nucleotides near the carboxyl terminal region of the mature protein. The insertion involves an exact duplication of the second of the four repeats and codes for 4 amino acids glutamic acid (GAA), glutamine (CAG), glutamine (CAG), and glutamine (CAG) and is responsible for the charge shift of the the apoA‐IV 5 isoform slightly toward the anode as compared to the wild type apoA‐IV 1 isoform on the isoelectric focusing gel. This in‐frame insertion occurs in a region which is highly conserved among rat, mouse, and humans. In addition to the 12 nucleotide insertion, the four individuals sequenced for the ApoA‐IV*5 allele also revealed a same‐sense mutation by replacing G to T at the third position of codon 316. Our preliminary data suggest that this unqiue black allele marker may be of potentially significance in studies of human lipid metabolism and in microevolution. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Longitudinal study of the association between ABO phenotype and total serum cholesterol level in a Japanese cohort
Authors: Lennie Wong F. , Kodama Kazunori , Sasaki Hideo , Yamada Michiko , Hamilton Howard B.
Published: June 2005

The relationship between ABO blood phenotype and total serum cholesterol (TC) level was examined in a Japanese population to determine whether an elevated TC level is associated with phenotype A, as has been demonstrated in many West European populations. Such studies in nonwhite populations are scarce, and findings generally failed to demonstrate the relationship. Inconsistent results from cross‐sectional studies of various racial groups with widely varying ages raised an age effect as a possible explanatory factor. It was also suggested that the ABO–TC association may not be apparent in populations with low fat intake or low mean cholesterol level. These hypotheses are addressed by examining long‐term TC data collected serially from the unexposed controls of the atomic bomb survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki who were participants of the Adult Health Study program at the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission‐Radiation Effects Research Foundation between 1958 and 1986. The statistical method of growth curve analysis, through the mixed effect model of Laird and Ware [1982], was used to model age‐dependent changes in cholesterol levels within individuals. The effects of the ABO polymorphism in modifying the resultant growth curve are examined. We demonstrate that TC levels are elevated on average by about 4 mg/dl in phenotype A compared to non‐A in the Japanese (P < 0.00001), and that this relationship is maintained from early to late adulthood, independent of sex, body mass index, cohort status, or city of residence. Thus, phenotype A individuals may be more predisposed to cardiovascular disease through one of its major risk factors. This is the first study of the ABO–cholesterol association in the Japanese, and the first based on a cohort with longitudinally collected TC data. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.