bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Marketing Efficiency of India's Horticultural Commodities under Different Supply Chains
Authors: Dastagiri M.B. , Kumar B. Ganesh , Hanumanthaiah C.V. , Paramsivam P. , Sidhu R.S. , Sudha M. , Mandal Subhasis , Singh Basantha , Chand Khem
Published: December 2012

India's horticulture sector is growing and playing a vital role in the continent's agricultural economy. India is the second largest producer of fruit and vegetables globally, but horticultural development is currently constrained by poor marketing. The gap between prices received by farmers and those paid by consumers is large, reflecting inefficient marketing arrangements. This study estimates the market costs, market margins, price spread, the producer's share of the consumer's rupee and the market efficiency of horticultural commodities under different supply chains, and suggests measures to improve marketing efficiency. The study was conducted in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Manipur and Mizoram, covering 29 crop types. The results show that, in the case of most commodities, marketing costs, marketing margins, transport costs and labour charges adversely affect marketing efficiency, and open market price, volume of produce handled and net price received increase market efficiency or have a positive effect. The highest marketing efficiency was found in the producer-to-consumer channel. Government policies should promote direct marketing models for more efficient horticultural marketing.
Modernizing Water Distribution Networks
Authors: Díaz J.A. Rodríguez , Urrestarazu L. Pérez , Poyato E. Camacho , Montesinos P.
Published: December 2012

In many arid and semi-arid countries, traditional irrigation schemes have been modernized, with open channel networks replaced by new on-demand pressurized systems. In this study, this conversion is evaluated using performance indicators derived both before and after the modernization of an irrigation district (Bembézar MD) in Andalusia, southern Spain. The analysis shows a reduction of approximately 40% in water diverted for irrigation due to a more efficient distribution system. However, this has led to changes in crop rotation, with higher-value and more water-demanding crops being introduced. As a consequence, crop evapotranspiration has increased considerably (21%). Modernization has also led to a dramatic increase (fourfold) in management, operation and maintenance costs. Much of this cost is due to the high energy dependency of the new pumped system (0.15 kWh/m3). Such costs were negligible prior to modernization due to the scheme being gravity-fed. The implications for modernizing such traditional schemes are highlighted.
Knowledge Networks for Sustainable Agriculture in England
Authors: Curry Nigel , Ingram Julie , Kirwan James , Maye Damian
Published: December 2012

The agricultural knowledge and information system (AKIS) in England has become more fragmented since the late 1980s. Its market orientation came just at the time of an increased need for non-market advice, particularly on the environment. Results from 11 face-to-face interviews and a workshop with a range of industry representatives suggest that this disjuncture and the unregulated nature of the AKIS have been frustrating for many in the agricultural community. These results support the literature in suggesting that sustainable agriculture (SA) has no consensual definition, but there is agreement that it requires a blend of market and non-market actions. Knowledge on SA is developing via retailers and consumers as well as farmers themselves, often through networks and co-learning, stimulated by regulatory requirements and grant information as well as profitability. There is much innovation in learning about SA within the AKIS, but its uptake is likely to be most strongly influenced by policy signals that provide incentives to farmers to farm more sustainably – for example, through the axes of the Rural Development Programme for England (RDPE) and a clearer justification as to why sustainable principles in agriculture make sound business sense for farmers.
Integrated Pest Management – Can it Contribute to Sustainable Food Production in Europe with Less Reliance on Conventional Pesticides?
Authors: Hillocks Rory J. , Cooper Jerry E.
Published: December 2012

A suite of European Union (EU) legislation under a thematic strategy on the Sustainable Use of Pesticides constitutes the policy instruments supporting the wishes of the European Parliament to achieve significant reductions in the use of conventional pesticides in EU agriculture. The adoption of integrated pest management (IPM) is the main pillar of the strategy to decrease pesticide use while maintaining or expanding present levels of European food production. This paper supports this approach in principle, but argues that the rapid pace of pesticide withdrawals will decrease farm output and/or the profitability of farming. Furthermore, there are insufficient IPM component technologies and systems available to farmers which offer practical and economically viable alternatives to fill the gap in the crop protection toolbox that widens with each additional pesticide removal.
Role of Legumes in Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security: An Indian Perspective
Authors: Das Anup , Ghosh P.K.
Published: December 2012

Because most animal food products are too expensive for the rural poor, a significant proportion of the Indian population suffers from both protein energy malnutrition and chronic energy deficiency. Statistics on food demand and fertilizer requirements highlight the dependence on foreign imports of fertilizer for food crop production. However, legume crops have a potentially important role to play in increasing indigenous nitrogen production, besides meeting human demands for protein and energy. Some legumes have the ability to solubilize otherwise unavailable phosphate by excreting organic acids from their roots, in addition to improving soil fertility. Legumes also help to restore soil organic matter and reduce pest and disease problems when used in rotation with non-leguminous crops. In the north-eastern Indian Himalaya, indigenous legumes such as rice bean, jack bean and tree bean are more nutritious than other legumes and offer major scope to restore soil fertility. This paper describes the importance of promoting legumes in the context of national food security.
Fertility-Preserving Surgery in Patients with Early Stage Cervical Carcinoma
Authors: Kardakis Spyridon
Published: December 2012

Fertility preservation is an important issue for patients in reproductive age with early stage cervical cancer. In view of recent developments, our purpose was to review and discuss available surgical alternatives. A literature search was conducted using PUBMED, including papers between 1980 and December 2011. In patients with stage IA1 cervical cancer, conization is a valid alternative. Patients with stage IA2-IB1 disease can be conservatively treated by radical trachelectomy. This is as well-established conservative approach and appears to be safe and effective in allowing a high chance of conception. Prematurity is the most serious issue in pregnancies following trachelectomy. Less invasive options such as simple trachelectomy or conization seem to be feasible for stages IA2-IB1, but more and better evidence is needed. Neoadjuvant therapy might allow conservative surgery to be performed also in patients with more extensive lesions. Ovarian transposition is important when adjuvant radiation is needed. In conclusion, available literature shows that there are interesting fertility-sparing treatment alternatives to the “golden standard” for the management of early cervical cancer in young women.
Tilted Bianchi Type IX Dust Fluid Cosmological Model in General Relativity
Authors: Bagora (Menaria) Anita
Published: December 2012

Some tilted Bianchi type IX dust fluid cosmological model is investigated. To get a deterministic model we assume that , where and are metric potentials and the fluid is pressureless, that is, . Some physical and geometric properties of the model are discussed. Also, we have discussed a special model in terms of only.
The Influence of Arsenic, Lead, and Mercury on the Development of Cardiovascular Diseases
Authors: Jennrich Peter
Published: December 2012

As a group, cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death worldwide. It killed twice as many people as infectious and parasitic disease and three times as many people as all forms of cancer. There are other crucial risk factors next to the major risk factors identified by the Framingham Heart Study. In the last few years, detailed studies showed the correlation between environmental pollution and the development of CVD. The question, which environmental toxin is particularly harmful, is answered by CERCLA Priority List of Hazardous Substances with the following toxins: arsenic, lead, and mercury. The effect of these potential toxic metals on the development of cardiovascular diseases includes pathomechanisms as the accumulation of free radicals, damage of endothelial nitric oxide synthase, lipid peroxidation, and endocrine influences. This leads to the damage of vascular endothelium, atherosclerosis, high blood pressure, and an increased mortality from cardiovascular diseases. The cardiovascular effects of arsenic, lead, and mercury exposure and its impact on cardiovascular mortality need to be included in the diagnosis and the treatment of CVD.
A Pharmacoeconomic Analysis of In-Hospital Costs Resulting from Reintubation in Preterm Infants Treated with Lucinactant, Beractant, or Poractant Alfa
Authors: Guardia Carlos G. , Moya Fernando R. , Sinha Sunil , Simmons Phillip D. , Segal Robert , Greenspan Jay S.
Published: December 2012

OBJECTIVES

Reintubation and subsequent mechanical ventilation (MV) in preterm infants after surfactant replacement therapy are associated with excess morbidity and mortality and likely increase in-hospital costs. Specific surfactant therapy selection for prevention of respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) in preterm infants receiving conventional MV may impact not only clinical outcomes but also pharmacoeconomic outcomes.

METHODS

We conducted a pharmacoeconomic analysis of the impact of surfactant selection and reintubation and subsequent MV of preterm infants on health care resource utilization. Rates of reintubation and duration of MV after reintubation were determined from 1546 preterm infants enrolled in two surfactant trials comparing lucinactant to beractant and poractant alfa. Hospital costs were obtained from a 2010 US database from 1564 preterm infants with RDS, with a direct cost of $2637 per day for MV in the neonatal intensive care unit. Cost of reintubation by study and treatment was estimated as the incidence of reintubation multiplied by days on MV therapy after reintubation multiplied by cost per day for direct MV costs, standardized per 100 surfactant-treated infants.

RESULTS

There were no differences between studies or treatment groups in the overall extubation rate. Average MV duration following reintubation was similar between groups in both trials; however, reintubation rates were significantly lower (p<0 05) for infants treated with lucinactant than for those receiving beractant or poractant alfa. The observed differences in reintubation rates resulted in a projected cost saving of $160,013 to $252,203 per 100 infants treated with lucinactant versus animal-derived surfactants.

CONCLUSIONS

In this analysis, higher reintubation rates following successful extubation in preterm infants receiving animal-derived surfactant preparations significantly increased estimated in-hospital costs, primarily due to excess costs associated with MV. This analysis suggests that surfactant selection may have a significant pharmacoeconomic impact on cost of patient care. Additional cost assessment of potential reduction in reintubation-associated morbidity is warranted.
Benzonatate Toxicity in a Teenager Resulting in Coma, Seizures, and Severe Metabolic Acidosis
Authors: Thimann Daniel A. , Huang Craig J. , Goto Collin S. , Feng Sing-Yi
Published: December 2012

We report a benzonatate overdose in a teenager resulting in life-threatening toxicity to increase awareness of this overdose, and discuss recent pediatric warnings and labeling information provided by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). After an overdose of benzonatate, a 13-yr-old female presented to our emergency department with coma, seizures, hypotension, prolonged QT interval on electrocardiogram, and metabolic acidosis. Benzonatate is an antitussive medication with sodium channel-blocking properties and local anesthetic effects on the respiratory stretch receptors due to a tetracaine-like metabolite. Overdose is reported to cause coma, seizures, hypotension, tachycardia, ventricular dysrhythmias, and cardiac arrest. The FDA recently issued a Drug Safety Communication warning that accidental benzonatate ingestion in children younger than 10 years of age have increased risk of death and added the new information to the Warnings and Precautions section of benzonatate's label.
Use of Recombinant Factor VIIa in a Pediatric Patient With Initial Presentation of Refractory Acute Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura and Severe Bleeding
Authors: Gurion Reut , Siu Anita , Weiss Aaron R. , Masterson Margaret
Published: December 2012

Severe bleeding in acute immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP) is rare but can cause significant complications to the patient. Here we report the case of a pediatric patient with acute ITP and hematuria refractory to anti-D immune globulin, high dose intravenous immunoglobulin G, and high dose steroids. Her hematuria was successfully treated with recombinant factor VIIa (rFVIIa). While further investigation on the use of rFVIIa in ITP is warranted, this case report contributes to the pediatric literature for its use during the course of an initial presentation of ITP with hemorrhagic complications.
Perturbations des tourbières de la région de Bécancour, Centre-du-Québec, entre 1966 et 2010
Authors: Avard Karine , Larocque Marie , Pellerin Stéphanie
Published: December 2012

Les tourbières abondent dans l’ensemble du Québec, mais celles de la vallée du Saint-Laurent subissent des pressions anthropiques majeures. Ces pressions et les pertes de superficies en tourbières qui en résultent sont à peu près inconnues. Nous avons mesuré la superficie occupée par les tourbières en 1966 et 2010 dans la région de Bécancour et identifié les perturbations récentes qu’elles ont subies à l’aide de la photo-interprétation et de validations sur le terrain. En 2010, les tourbières couvraient 17 500 ha, soit 6,1 % du territoire étudié. De cette superficie, 10 485 ha représentaient des tourbières encore intactes et 7 015 ha des tourbières ayant subi des perturbations limitées, notamment par la présence de canaux de drainage et de chemins forestiers. Entre 1966 et 2010, 5 433 ha de tourbières (près du quart des tourbières présentes en 1966) ont subi des perturbations irréversibles, principalement en raison de la culture de la canneberge (Vaccinium macrocarpon). Cette culture a connu un développement important au cours de la dernière décennie dans le Centre-du-Québec.
Doxorubicin blocks proliferation of cancer cells through proteolytic activation of CREB3L1
Authors: Denard Bray , Lee Ching , Ye Jin
Published: December 2012

Doxorubicin is used extensively for chemotherapy of diverse types of cancer, yet the mechanism through which it inhibits proliferation of cancer cells remains unclear. Here we report that doxorubicin stimulates de novo synthesis of ceramide, which in turn activates CREB3L1, a transcription factor synthesized as a membrane-bound precursor. Doxorubicin stimulates proteolytic cleavage of CREB3L1 by Site-1 Protease and Site-2 Protease, allowing the NH2-terminal domain of CREB3L1 to enter the nucleus where it activates transcription of genes encoding inhibitors of the cell cycle, includingp21. Knockdown of CREB3L1 mRNA in human hepatoma Huh7 cells and immortalized human fibroblast SV589 cells conferred increased resistance to doxorubicin, whereas overexpression of CREB3L1 in human breast cancer MCF-7 cells markedly enhanced the sensitivity of these cells to doxorubicin. These results suggest that measurement of CREB3L1 expression may be a useful biomarker in identifying cancer cells sensitive to doxorubicin.
Modelling dynamics in protein crystal structures by ensemble refinement
Authors: Burnley B Tom , Afonine Pavel V , Adams Paul D , Gros Piet
Published: December 2012

Single-structure models derived from X-ray data do not adequately account for the inherent, functionally important dynamics of protein molecules. We generated ensembles of structures by time-averaged refinement, where local molecular vibrations were sampled by molecular-dynamics (MD) simulation whilst global disorder was partitioned into an underlying overall translation–libration–screw (TLS) model. Modeling of 20 protein datasets at 1.1–3.1 Å resolution reduced cross-validated Rfree values by 0.3–4.9%, indicating that ensemble models fit the X-ray data better than single structures. The ensembles revealed that, while most proteins display a well-ordered core, some proteins exhibit a ‘molten core’ likely supporting functionally important dynamics in ligand binding, enzyme activity and protomer assembly. Order–disorder changes in HIV protease indicate a mechanism of entropy compensation for ordering the catalytic residues upon ligand binding by disordering specific core residues. Thus, ensemble refinement extracts dynamical details from the X-ray data that allow a more comprehensive understanding of structure–dynamics–function relationships.
Helping chromosomes and chromatids stay on track
Authors: Lacefield Soni
Published: December 2012

The prevention of premature interactions between microtubules and kinetochores is essential to ensuring that meiosis produces gametes with the correct number of chromosomes.
A
gar,
M
ichael
Authors: Agar Michael , Risager Karen
Published: December 2012

Michael Agar is a well‐known researcher in linguistic anthropology. In the field of applied linguistics more generally he is especially known for his path‐breaking work on “langua‐culture,” a concept that calls attention to the inextricable bond between language and culture.
Analyzing Spoken Corpora
Authors: McCarthy Michael , O'Keeffe Anne
Published: December 2012

Spoken corpora are collections of spoken texts, either in the form of transcripts alone or accompanied by audio or audiovisual recordings, stored in a computer and made available for analysis using customized software programs.
Corpus Linguistics: Overview
Authors: Stubbs Michael , Halbe Dorothea
Published: December 2012

Corpus linguistics means the use of computer‐assisted methods to study large quantities of real language. Such research is important for applied linguists because they investigate questions about actual language use. Due to advances in technology, researchers can discover new facts and test hypotheses about aspects of language which were not previously accessible to empirical observation. These include the frequencies of linguistic patterns as language varies over time and in different social settings and also many aspects of routine language use which are not obvious even to native speakers.
Arabic Standardization
Authors: Chakrani Brahim
Published: December 2012

Understanding the process of language standardization in the Arab world necessitates probing into the sociohistorical factors that motivate the attitudes that Arabs have toward their language. Records of the existence of standardized Arabic dates to the fifth century CE; yet it is unclear whether or not this standard is the literary outcome of many dialects or represents one particular dialect (Hourani, 2002). Local dialects of Arabic within the Arab peninsula contributed to the emergence of a standardized form of Arabic, called
fusha
(Standard Arabic [SA], literally “the eloquent language”). This resulted in an unprecedented amount of knowledge production, using the medium of SA.
Assessment Across Languages
Authors: Clark Martyn
Published: December 2012

When assessing scholastic knowledge of students for international comparisons, assessment facilitators must be sure that the different language versions of the test assess the same content across all the language groups in the comparison.
Assessment of Cultural Knowledge
Authors: Paige R. Michael , Stallman Madden Elizabeth
Published: December 2012

This entry examines the ways in which cultural knowledge is currently being defined and how it is being assessed.
Assessment of Listening
Authors: J. Ockey Gary
Published: December 2012

Listening is important for in‐person communication with estimates that it accounts for more than 45% of the time spent communicating (Feyten, 1991). Listening continues to become more important in virtual environments with the increase of communication through such technologies as video broadcasting and Skype. It follows that teaching and assessing the listening skill of second language learners is essential. Unfortunately, the assessment of second language listening comprehension has attracted little research attention (Buck, 2001), and as a result, understanding of how to best assess it is limited.
Assessment of Young English‐Language Learners
Authors: Espinosa Linda
Published: December 2012

Assessment of young English‐language learners (ELL) is an important issue internationally. In the USA, such assessment needs are being driven by the growth of the ELL population in the past two decades. Currently, 1 in 5 children aged 5–17 in the USA has a foreign‐born parent, and most of these children are growing up in a bilingual environment (Capps, Fixx, Ost, Reardon‐Anderson, & Passel, 2004). Young ELL children present particular assessment challenges because of the unstable nature of early growth and development; moreover, young ELLs can have widely varying levels of English comprehension, which makes it difficult to accurately interpret the assessment results. Despite the tremendous recent growth in the population of young ELL children, the corresponding development of a range of different types of appropriate measures and procedures for ELL children has not kept pace with this growing need. However, recently some positive developments have been made.
Bangla Academy
Authors: Mohsin Amena
Published: December 2012

A nation state is exclusionary by its very construction.
Bell, Allan
Authors: Smith Philippa
Published: December 2012

A dual career as a journalist and an academic set Allan Graham Bell (1947– ) on a pathway to international recognition for his exceptional contribution to the study of language and communication.
Bilingualism and Bilinguality
Authors: Wei Li
Published: December 2012

Bilingualism and bilinguality are a result of contacts between people speaking different languages. Hamers and Blanc (1983) in their bookBilingualité et bilinguismefirst made the distinction between the two concepts, with bilinguality referring to the effect of language contact on the individual and bilingualism referring to the effect on society as a whole.
Byrnes, Heidi
Authors: Ortega Lourdes
Published: December 2012

Heidi Byrnes (1944–) is among the most distinguished foreign language education scholars in the USA. Over more than three decades, her contributions have been characterized by a deeply intellectual commitment to investigating the nature of linguistic competencies that develop through foreign language instruction, and by her leadership in educational innovation and professionalism, where she is well known for having integrated research, praxis, and policy in an exemplary fashion.
Canada's Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages
Authors: Lamoureux Sylvie A.
Published: December 2012

The Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages is an important element to Canada's national language policy implementation and development (available online athttp://www.ocol_clo.gc.ca/html/index_e.php). In 1963, when tensions between French and English Canada challenged the very future of its Federation (1867), the federal government launched the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism to investigate the realities of bilingualism in Canada and make recommendations to strengthen the confederation based on the principles of two equal founding peoples, the English and the French. The Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages was created in 1969 as part of the firstOfficial Languages Actadopted by the Canadian Parliament, based on the recommendations of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism. The Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages provides policy makers with a mechanism to oversee the implementation of and compliance with a far‐reaching language policy meant to bridge two divided linguistics groups, the Anglophones and the Francophones, and their respective minorities.
Candlin, Christopher N.
Authors: Jones Rodney H.
Published: December 2012

Christopher N. Candlin (1940– ) is a major figure in applied linguistics, particularly in the areas of communicative language teaching and professional communication. He holds a BA in modern languages from Oxford, an MPhil in linguistics from Yale, and an honorary PhD from the University of Jyväskylä, Finland, and has held teaching and research posts at the University of Leeds, University of Lancaster, Macquarie University, City University of Hong Kong, and the Open University (UK). He has also held visiting and honorary professorships at a number of institutions including the University of Hawai'i, the East‐West Center, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, and University of Cardiff. Concurrent with these posts he established a number of important research institutes and centers including the Institute for English Language Education at the University of Lancaster in 1976, the Centre for Language in Social Life at the University of Lancaster in 1983, the National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research (NCELTR) at Macquarie University in 1987, which was a Commonwealth Key (National) Centre for Teaching & Research, and the Centre for Language in Social Life at Macquarie University, Sydney in 1994. He served as head of the department of linguistics and modern English language at the University of Lancaster between 1980 and 1983. He is currently senior research professor at Macquarie University. He has also been an important force in publishing in applied linguistics, editing 11 international book series with such publishers as Oxford University Press, Addison Wesley Longman, Routledge, and Palgrave Macmillan.
Clark, John L. D.
Authors: Clark Martyn
Published: December 2012

John Levan Demaree Clark (1936– ) has been influential in promulgating the use of direct testing methods in the assessment of speaking proficiency.
Common European Framework of Reference
Authors: Huhta Ari
Published: December 2012

This entry focuses on theCommon European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment(CEFR), which, in the words of a non‐European observer, is “one of the most ambitious examples of the gradual formation, shaping and … implementation of language education policies” (Byrnes, 2007, p. 641). The CEFR was designed by the Council of Europe (CoE), a pan‐European organization that promotes human rights, mutual understanding, parliamentary democracy, and the rule of law. It advocates linguistic rights and language learning as a way of enhancing mutual understanding, and plurilingualism—an individual's ability to use more than one language—is a key concept in CoE language policy (see CoE, 2008).
Comparing Groups With Multiple Dependent Variables
Authors: J. Sweet Shauna , Rupp André A.
Published: December 2012

Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) is a multivariate extension of the general linear model in which a linear combination ofp;continuous dependent variables is expressed as a function of one or more categorical independent variables/factors that are used to represent different treatments or experimental conditions. One might be interested in, for example, the effect of instructional feedback on second language learners' sociolinguistic competence, where the latter is measured by scores on multiple assessments that measure students' grammatical competence, pragmatic competence, as well as appropriate oral and written production of appropriate linguistic phrases across different real life contexts. Alternatively, one might be interested in the impact of the availability of different learning resources and type of instruction on students' performance on richly contextualized exams over time. Each of these is illustrative of questions that could be investigated using MANOVA; the first scenario reflects its use in a cross‐sectional setting whereas the second reflects its use in a longitudinal setting.
Comparing Two Related Samples
Authors: Jiang Xiangying
Published: December 2012

The related samples design, which compares the means of two groups that are related, is widely used in applied linguistics research.
Compound Words
Authors: Guevara Emiliano
Published: December 2012

Compounding is one of the two main processes of word formation in natural languages (the other one being derivation by affixes).
Computer‐Assisted Language Learning Effectiveness Research
Authors: Chapelle Carol A.
Published: December 2012

It seems like a simple enough question: Is computer‐assisted language learning effective for language learning? Indeed, researchers address this question in a variety of ways, but most language teachers and researchers would point out that the question is considerably more complex than it first appears.
Computer‐Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (
CAQDAS
)
Authors: Seror Jeremie
Published: December 2012

In seeking out techniques and guidelines best suited to conduct qualitative research, researchers are increasingly turning to the growing availability of computer software packages designed for qualitative research and data analysis.
Computer‐Assisted Translation
Authors: Dunne Keiran J.
Published: December 2012

Computer‐assisted translation (CAT), sometimes called computer‐aided translation or machine‐aided translation, is the process whereby a human translator is assisted by specialized software.
Conversation Analysis and Learning in Interaction
Authors: Koschmann Timothy
Published: December 2012

As can easily be seen from other entries, learning is a central topic in applied linguistics research.
Conversation Analysis and Lingua Franca
Authors: Firth Alan
Published: December 2012

This entry outlines an emerging body of research that deploys conversation analytic (CA) methodology and its theoretical underpinnings to explicate the micro‐details of talk and social interaction between people who communicate in a lingua franca (LF). An LF may be defined as a “contact” or “vehicular” language used by people who do not share a first language (L1) and who are not native speakers (NSs) or L1 speakers of the language being deployed. An example of an encounter where the language used may be characterized as an LF is an L1 speaker of Spanish interacting with an L1 speaker of Mandarin Chinesein French—in which case French is the LF. As this example indicates, a language's characterization as an LF is determined not by the characteristics of the linguistic code but by the relationship of its speakers to the language being deployed. The term “LF” does not describe or imply any particular level of speaker proficiency, linguistic sophistication, or communicative competence. Any language can function as an LF, although it is widely accepted that English has, in recent decades, become the world's preeminent LF (e.g. Jenkins, 2006). This is reflected in the fact that the bulk of empirical research has concentrated on how English has been used in its guise as an LF.
Conversation Analysis and Multimodality
Authors: Mortensen Kristian
Published: December 2012

In recent years, the number of conversation analysis (CA) publications and presentations that incorporate information about participants' bodily conduct has increased dramatically.
Corpora: English‐Language
Authors: Hoffmann Sebastian
Published: December 2012

This entry provides an overview of a selection of electronic language corpora that are avail‐able for the study of English at the time of writ‐ing (early 2010), including information about their availability and pricing as well as any specific corpus tools that are required to ac‐cess the data, where applicable.
Corpora: French‐Language
Authors: Williams Geoffrey
Published: December 2012

Corpus linguistics arrived late in France, but electronic text archives arrived early. The apparent contradiction lies in the defining of corpora and of corpus linguistics.
Corpora: Specialized
Authors: Warren Martin
Published: December 2012

In corpus linguistics, there is a distinction made between general corpora and specialized corpora.
Corpus Analysis for a Lexical Syllabus
Authors: Willis Dave , Willis Jane
Published: December 2012

A lexical syllabus for language learners sees lexis as central to syllabus design, aiming to cover the most frequent words and phrases of the target language, together with their most frequent meanings and uses and the combinations and patterns in which they typically occur.
Corpus Analysis of European Union Documents
Authors: Murphy Amanda
Published: December 2012

In linguistic terms, the European Union is a unique entity that boasts 23 official languages. Its institutions constantly generate texts in all languages, which is fertile ground for corpus linguists seeking large quantities of naturally occurring language. The overview presented here briefly considers the nature of these texts, the type of corpus‐based research that has been accomplished or is underway, and hypothesizes about future applications of corpus‐based research on EU documents.
Corpus Analysis of Historical Documents
Authors: Tranter Kate
Published: December 2012

Historical documents are often used in applied linguistics as a source for studying the structure and use of language in the past. Linguists compile corpora such as the Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers (ARCHER;http://www.llc.manchester.ac.uk/research/projects/archer/) or the Penn‐Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Early Modern English (PPCEME, 2004;http://www.ling.upenn.edu/hist‐corpora/PPCEME_RELEASE‐2/index.html), using a variety of text types and covering a wide period. They are used for diachronic linguistic studies, to show, for example, lexical or grammatical differences between Early Modern English and present‐day English (e.g., Hundt, 2007), or the structure of a particular language variety (e.g., Dollinger, 2008). In this way the analysis of historical corpora contributes to the understanding of earlier forms of a language and of language variety and change.
Corpus Analysis of Scientific and Medical Writing Across Time
Authors: Atkinson Dwight , Valle Ellen
Published: December 2012

Diachronic corpus linguistic studies have fundamentally deepened our knowledge of scientific and medical writing by revealing “language‐in‐the‐making”: how the literate technologies of scientific and medical research have developed, and what they have been developed for.
Corpus Linguistics: Historical Development
Authors: Hunston Susan
Published: December 2012

A number of features characterize corpus linguistics.
Critical Discourse Analysis
Authors: Forchtner Bernhard
Published: December 2012

Critical discourse analysis (CDA, nowadays also referred to as critical discourse studies) investigates naturally occurring written and spoken language beyond the sentence level, as well as other forms of meaning making, such as visuals and sounds, seeing them as irreducible elements in the (re)production of society. However,
critical
discourse analysis furthermore aims to demystify the role language plays in the (re)production of unjustified domination and inequality, and questions the social conditions in which these discourses are embedded. This has made CDA an increasingly popular, and still evolving, approach over the last two decades. This entry offers an introductory overview of the core principle, diverging strands, and controversies in the field.
Critical Discourse Analysis of Multilingual Interactions in the New Media
Authors: Chik Alice
Published: December 2012

User‐friendly Web 2.0 tools allow Internet users to participate on a much larger scale than ever before, without having the same requirement for expertise in computer literacy (O'Reilly, 2005).
Critical Discourse Analysis: History and New Developments
Authors: Bhatia Aditi
Published: December 2012

Critical discourse analysis (CDA) has often been regarded more as an alternative perspective to discourse analysis rather than a school or specialization (Van Dijk, 2001).
Critical English for Academic Purposes
Authors: Benesch Sarah
Published: December 2012

This entry traces critical English for academic purposes (CEAP) from its first publications, in the early 1990s, to its more recent offerings.
Critical Literacy
Authors: Janks Hilary
Published: December 2012

Critical literacy is a sociocultural orientation to literacy that takes seriously the relationship between meaning making and power.
Critiques of Language Policy and Planning
Authors: Ricento Thomas
Published: December 2012

We need to make a distinction at the outset between language policy and planning (LPP) as a purposeful activity carried out by elected officials, ministries of government, officially sanctioned bodies (such as school boards and language academies), community groups and organizations (such as churches), businesses, and families (who may, for example, wish to maintain the learning and use of a particular language which might not be taught in the schools), and the study of language policy and planning by academics.
Cultural Hybridity
Authors: Frello Birgitta
Published: December 2012

The concept of (cultural) hybridity has gained prominence within a broad range of cultural and social theories since the 1980s, most notably within postcolonial studies, cultural studies, and globalization theory. The importance and influence of hybridity theory is thus closely related to an increased awareness of global cultural flows, influences, and interdependences, both historically and contemporarily. Furthermore, focusing on hybridity and hybridization is a way of conceptualizing difference that aims to avoid and undermine ideas of boundedness and closed identity and hence also avoid the essentialism that haunts theories of multiculturalism for instance.
Cultural Identity
Authors: Joseph John E.
Published: December 2012

Identities are manifested in language, first, as the categories and labels that people attach to themselves and others to signal their belonging; second, as the indexed ways of speaking and behaving through which they perform their belonging; and third, as the interpretations that others make of those indices.
DeKeyser, Robert
Authors: Rebuschat Patrick
Published: December 2012

Robert DeKeyser is a Belgian applied linguist who is best known for his influential research and publications on the cognitive aspects underlying second language acquisition (SLA) and teaching.
Determining Language Proficiency in Legal Contexts
Authors: Van Naerssen Margaret
Published: December 2012

In any legal case the nature and quality of evidence is critical.
Discourse Analysis and Conversation Analysis
Authors: Marra Meredith
Published: December 2012

Discourse analysis (DA) is an umbrella term which refers to a range of qualitative frameworks used for the empirical examination of language in use.
Discourse Analysis in Literacy Research
Authors: Rogers Rebecca , Pini Mónica
Published: December 2012

Discourse analysis is a transdisciplinary set of theories and methods that have been widely used in literacy research. Over the past decade, there have been many empirical studies, edited books, essays, and reviews devoted to the areas of discourse studies generally and in literacy research in particular (e.g., Gee, 2002a; Collins & Blot, 2003; Burns & Morrell, 2005; Rex, et al., 2010). This is so because of the commensurability that exists between literacy research and discourse studies. Both are traditions that address language as a social semiotic practice that both constructs and represents the social world. Further, both address problems through a range of theoretical perspectives. Many of the problems that are addressed, particularly in a globalized world system, have to do with power and inequality. Discourse studies provide the tools for addressing the complexity of movement across literacy sites and practices in an increasingly global and digital world.
Discourse and Interaction: Quantitative Methods
Authors: Crawford Camiciottoli Belinda
Published: December 2012

In discourse studies, the terminteractional languagebroadly refers to language used by speakers and writers to establish and maintain interpersonal relations.
Discourse in Organizations
Authors: Sharma Abz , Grant David
Published: December 2012

The study ofdiscourse in organizations(also referred to in the literature as “organizational discourse studies”) focuses on
Discourse: Mixed Methods
Authors: Parmelee John H. , Perkins Stephynie C.
Published: December 2012

There are many fields where discourse can be studied, and there are many methods that can be used to study discourse. One such field is political communication, which includes US presidential campaign communication. Research on presidential campaign discourse tends to focus on the candidates' speeches, debates, and political advertising. However, while there are many studies that have examined the discourse found in presidential campaigns, only a few studies have done so using a mixed methods approach (Parmelee, Perkins, & Sayre, 2007). This article offers an example of how discourse can be studied in a more meaningful way using a mixed methods approach than by using any one method. One political ad—the first that Barack Obama's campaign released during his presidential run—is examined with a quantitative method (manifest content analysis), and a qualitative method (frame analysis), to demonstrate the value of mixed methods for studying campaign discourse.
Distance Language Learning
Authors: White Cynthia
Published: December 2012

Distance education offers individuals flexible access to language learning opportunities made possible by a range of technologies including print, audio, video, Web, and interactive conferencing. The evolution of large‐scale distance language education from print‐based correspondence courses came first with educational radio and broadcast television, then audio and videocassettes, and most recently computers with computer‐mediated communication (CMC), interactive multimedia and Web‐based video, audio, and multimedia. Ongoing innovation has offset one of the most significant limitations of distance language learning, namely the separation of teachers and learners, and made possible a range of technology‐mediated ways to develop interactive competence in the target language. Significant shifts in perspectives and practices have taken place from traditional paradigms focused on independent learning facilitated by self‐instructional materials to emerging paradigms focusing on learning as a social process supported largely by information and communication technologies. Distance learning contexts now comprise interconnected communities rather than a series of individual learners, opportunities for spoken online learning events, and authentic encounters with the target language culture and native speakers. The new ways of configuring and accessing distance language learning opportunities, independent of place and/or time, have been adopted by institutions as a means of expanding access to their courses. Changes in the positioning of distance learning opportunities from the margins to the mainstream have largely been due to the advent of CMC, combined with the demand for flexible access to language learning environments; distance language programs have been developed for less commonly taught languages such as Arabic, Chinese, Korean, and Basque, as well as for heritage languages such as Spanish and Italian. It would, however, be a mistake to equate distance learning opportunities with CMC, since a wide range of alternatives for distance learning exist, each with their related practices, including the use of telephone, radio broadcasts, video conferencing and interactive television, and Web 2.0 tools.
Eades, Diana
Authors: Haworth Kate
Published: December 2012

Dr Diana Eades (1953– ) is a key figure in the field of forensic linguistics (FL), especially due to her work on linguistic disadvantage faced by speakers of Aboriginal English in the Australian legal system. An important aspect of her work is a dedication to the practical, applied use of linguistic research for the furtherance of equality and justice, especially through increasing understanding within the legal system (and other professional groups) of the communicative challenges faced by speakers of nonstandard language varieties. Eades has been involved in FL since its earliest days, has acted as an expert linguistic witness in several cases, and has published extensively on FL‐related topics for over 20 years to date. Key publications include the 1995 edited collection,Language in Evidence: Issues Confronting Aboriginal and Multicultural Australia(Eades, 1995a);Courtroom Talk and Neocolonial Control(Eades, 2008a), a critical sociolinguistic analysis of language and power in the courtroom; andSociolinguistics and the Legal Process(Eades, 2010), an accessible introduction to this area. She continues to be an active and highly respected figure in the field.
Educational Research in Language Minority Students
Authors: Kibler Amanda , Hakuta Kenji
Published: December 2012

The term “language minority student” encompasses a wide range of individuals who span ethnicities, ages, cultures, social and economic backgrounds, immigration histories, and levels of first and second language proficiency.
Emerging Technologies for Language Learning
Authors: Godwin‐Jones Robert
Published: December 2012

It's not possible to predict with any degree of certainty future developments in hardware and software and what they might mean for language learning.
Endangered Languages
Authors: Quinn Conor McDonough
Published: December 2012

Languages that are threatened with the loss of natural generational transmission are referred to as endangered languages.
English for Medical Purposes
Authors: Skelton John
Published: December 2012

English for medical purposes (EMP), as applied linguists would call it, and communication skills in medicine, as medical educationalists would call it, have developed alongside each other over the last 40 years, though not always being fully aware of each other.
English for Nursing
Authors: Bosher Susan
Published: December 2012

English for nursing is a specialty within English for specific purposes (ESP), which attempts to understand and describe the many ways in which English is used in the clinical setting in nursing, as well as in nursing education.
English(es) and Academic Publishing
Authors: Ammon Ulrich
Published: December 2012

It is common knowledge that English is the global language of science, in written as well as oral communication, also used extensively by non‐Anglophones.
Epistemology and Ontology
Authors: Crookes Graham
Published: December 2012

Since the 19th century, central concepts related to knowledge, of interest to philosophers, educators, and scientists, have been analyzed using a small group of primary categories; the core three are metaphysics, epistemology, and axiology.
Explicit Learning in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Muñoz Carmen
Published: December 2012

An introduction to explicit learning needs to refer to implicit learning as well, either as the other extreme of a dichotomy or of a continuum.
Fairclough, Norman
Authors: Ouyang Huhua
Published: December 2012

Norman Fairclough (1941–) is currently emeritus professor of linguistics at Lancaster University.
Fairness in Language Assessment
Authors: Stoynoff Stephen
Published: December 2012

In the past few decades, the termtest fairnesshas been appearing with increasing frequency in the applied linguistics literature.