bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Decline of Small Communities
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the decline of small communities in the Middle West. In 1980, 76 percent of all the incorporated towns and cities in the Middle West had fewer than 1,500 people. The region's nine states ranked first through ninth nationally (not counting Alaska) in having the highest proportion of small towns this size. These figures indicate that the Middle West was defined by its small communities. The chapter considers the changing size of communities in the Middle West, focusing on how small towns were being affected by and responding to stable or declining populations. It also explores three factors that influenced the trajectory of Middle Western towns: oil, agriculture, and the military. Finally, it discusses the efforts of residents of small communities to keep their towns as livable and attractive as possible.
From Towns to Sprawling Suburbs
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the growth of sprawling suburbs and exurbs around the Middle West's largest cities. Housing developments on the outskirts of Wichita, Omaha, St. Louis, and a few other cities became increasingly common during World War II and in the 1950s as the farm population declined. As the farm population dwindled, people fleeing the region entirely or gravitating to Dallas and Houston (where new jobs were more abundant) became a more likely scenario. The chapter explains how this reshuffling led to the emptying of farms and small towns and also to the rise of new centers of population, not in the cities but adjacent to them. It also considers how edge cities have become an important feature of social life in the Middle West. It shows that edge cities were not only communities of housing developments and shopping malls, but also the location of the region's growing industrial sector.
Afterword
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: November 2017

This afterword summarizes the book's main findings about the social transformations that the Middle West has experienced since the 1950s. It explains how the decade after World War II presented a multitude of problems for nearly everyone. Roads, electricity, telephone service, and machinery had all been put on hold by the Great Depression and the war. Marginal farmers were unable to make the transition. They did not have the capital to purchase additional land, to mechanize, or to invest in livestock. Ultimately, their failure nevertheless served the region and the nation. Farming became better capitalized and more efficient as a result. The heartland was redefining itself, and the author believes that the Middle West's emphasis on friendliness, hospitality, and native ingenuity owes much to the reinvention of its heritage that occurred in the 1950s and 1960s.
The Exchange Model
Authors: Balasko Yves
Published: November 2017

The exchange model is the simplest of all general equilibrium models. Studying it will show us the directions to follow when studying more complex models like those that include production or take explicitly into account time and uncertainty. This chapter introduces the exchange model defined by the equilibrium manifold and the natural projection. It presents proof that the equilibrium manifold is indeed a smooth manifold. The smooth manifold structure implies that the natural projection is a smooth map. In terms of comparative statics, this tells us that equilibrium prices can be considered as depending linearly on the fundamentals defining an economy in sufficiently small neighborhoods of regular equilibria.
Applications of the Global Coordinate System
Authors: Balasko Yves
Published: November 2017

The global coordinate system for the equilibrium manifold follows from: (1) the determination of the unique fiber F(b) through the equilibrium (ρ‎, ω‎) where b = φ‎((ρ‎, ω‎) = (ρ‎, ρ‎ · ρ‎1, …, ρ‎ · ρ‎m); and (2) the determination of the location of the equilibrium (ρ‎, ω‎) within the fiber F(b) viewed as a linear space of dimension (ℓ − 1)(m − 1) and, therefore, parameterized by (ℓ − 1)(m − 1) coordinates. If there is little leeway in determining the fiber F(b) through the equilibrium (ρ‎, ω‎), there are different ways of representing the equilibrium (ρ‎, ω‎) within its fiber F(b). This leads to the definition of coordinate systems (A) and (B) for the equilibrium manifold. This chapter defines these two coordinate systems and applies them to obtain an analytical characterization of the critical equilibria, i.e., the critical points of the natural projection.
Production with Constant Returns
Authors: Balasko Yves
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the net supply correspondence of a constant returns to scale firms under suitable convexity and smoothness assumptions. These assumptions are comparable to those used in the previous chapters for consumers and production with decreasing returns to scale. The chapter starts by formulating constant returns to scale production by way of production sets with arbitrary numbers of inputs and outputs. It then addresses the profit maximization problem of a constant returns to scale firm. That problem does not always have a solution. More accurately, if some feasible activity yields a strictly positive profit at some given prices, then it suffices to consider an arbitrarily large multiple of that activity vector to get a feasible activity that yields an arbitrarily large profit at the same prices. The firm can then make an arbitrarily large profit.
Involvement
Authors: Chaves Mark
Published: November 2017

This chapter studies religious involvement, which mainly means attendance at weekend worship services. The strong connection between religious involvement and family life in the United States points to a larger conclusion. Religious involvement trends are not fundamentally altered by specific events such as terrorist attacks or natural disasters or financial crises. Such events may cause some changes in religious involvement, but those changes are usually short-lived. More fundamental and lasting change in American religious involvement is produced by demographic changes, especially changes in family and household patterns. As such, religious involvement is softening because one of the most religiously involved demographic groups—married couples with children—is shrinking as a proportion of American society.
Market Logic in the Era of Pure Science
Authors: Berman Elizabeth Popp
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a survey of the postwar golden era, when the logic of science was strong and increases in federal funding were large and steady. Yet even in this period, market logic was present. It looks at records from the early 1960s that suggest that universities were not as unfriendly to market logic as one might assume, and describes several experiments made with market-logic practices during this era. But while such activities were not unheard of, sustaining them was difficult, and they did not have a large impact on the university at the time. By the late 1960s, however, changes were starting to undermine the system of federal funding that had supported the logic of science, and these would eventually open the door to other ways of thinking.
Patenting University Inventions
Authors: Berman Elizabeth Popp
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the development of a new market-logic practice in academic science, namely the patenting of university inventions. It begins by reviewing the origins of this practice, then tracks its early development as well as limits to its growth and spread. It then goes on to examine policy decisions that removed these limits and replaced them with incentives, and considers how political concern with the economic impact of innovation contributed to these decisions. The chapter concludes with a look at the subsequent takeoff of this practice, followed by a discussion of the conditions that appear to have been necessary for this takeoff to occur.
Different Ways of Life
Authors: Scaff Lawrence A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines Max Weber's journey through five states—Atlanta, Georgia; Chattanooga and Knoxville, Tennessee; Asheville and Greensboro, North Carolina; Richmond, Virginia; and Washington, D.C.—that gave him an opportunity to meet American relatives. Max and Marianne Weber's ten days in those five states included visits with descendents of Georg Friedrich Fallenstein and his first wife, Elisabeth Benecke, as well as a meeting with Max's mother, Helene Weber. The condition of the “colonial children” (as the family referred to them) and their prospects in the New World had been under discussion in the family for years. The chapter describes the Webers' itinerary, which included an off-season vacation retreat in Asheville and a trip to Mt. Airy, where Weber was able to observe religion in action. It also explores Weber's notion of what he called the “cool objectivity of sociation.”
Letters-to-Numbers Problems
Authors: Laughlin Patrick R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at letters-to-numbers problems, an interesting class of problems that entail many insightful strategies. Letters-to-numbers problems strongly fulfill the four conditions of demonstrability of Laughlin and Ellis (1986) and are thus highly intellective. Condition 1 is that the group members must agree on a conceptual system. Condition 2 is that there must be sufficient information. Condition 3 is that the member(s) who do not know the correct answer should be able to recognize it if it is proposed by another group member. Condition 4 is that the member(s) who do know the correct answer have sufficient ability, motivation, and time to demonstrate it to the incorrect member(s).
Social Choice Theory
Authors: Laughlin Patrick R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses social choice theory, an axiomatic and deductive approach to societal problem solving by existing or possible voting procedures. Social choice theory in economics and political science considers how the members of a society such as voters or policy makers may make societal decisions such as selection among competing candidates to office or policies by existing or possible voting systems. Thus, social combination models and social choice theory address the same basic issue: the aggregation of group member preferences to a collective group response. As a historical example, the representatives from the American colonies who met at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 faced a multitude of judgmental issues on the composition, powers, and procedures of their government. Over four months, they achieved consensus on the U.S. Constitution. Once this consensus on judgmental issues was achieved, the U.S. Constitution became a conceptual system and guide for group problem solving for subsequent generations of Americans.
The Symplectic Representation and the Torelli Group
Authors: Farb Benson , Margalit Dan
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the basic properties and applications of a symplectic representation, denoted by Ψ‎, and its kernel, called the Torelli group. After describing the algebraic intersection number as a symplectic form, the chapter presents three different proofs of the surjectivity of Ψ‎, each illustrating a different theme. It also illustrates the usefulness of the symplectic representation by two applications to understanding the algebraic structure of Mod(S). First, the chapter explains how this representation is used by Serre to prove the theorem that Mod(Sɡ) has a torsion-free subgroup of finite index. It thens uses the symplectic representation to prove, following Ivanov, the following theorem of Grossman: Mod(Sɡ) is residually finite. It also considers some of the pioneering work of Dennis Johnson on the Torelli group. In particular, a Johnson homomorphism is constructed and some of its applications are given.
The Birth of Soviet Biopolitics
Authors: Collier Stephen J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter outlines the developments against which one can understand the emergence of Soviet city-building—painting a picture of successive formations of government from Petrine absolutism to Soviet total planning. In the Soviet period, the city emerges precisely as that space in which large-scale readjustments of the population's distribution and way of life can be governmentally managed. The chapter then traces the articulation and subsequent redeployment of two critical instruments of government—budgets and infrastructures. Initially developed in the state-building and modernizing projects of the Russian absolutist state, these instruments were turned—first in the late tsarist period, then in the Soviet period—to various subsequent tasks of development and social welfare, and embedded in the mechanisms of Soviet planning. Their present significance lies, in part, in the fact that they were identified as critical targets of neoliberal reform after Soviet breakup, and will thus be crucial for assessing the postsocialist fate of Soviet social modernity.
City-building
Authors: Collier Stephen J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the urbanist discussions of the late 1920s and early 1930s in which city-building was articulated as a form of total planning applied to problems of social modernity. The 1920s were a fertile period of experimentation with the reconstruction of daily life, and leading figures of the architectural avant-garde explored the possibility that architecture could be an instrument for generating new forms of sociality and, ultimately, men and women of a new type. However, by the late 1920s these discussions were being reoriented by the turn toward forced industrialization. Meanwhile, Soviet discussions of settlement in the early 1930s began to treat population as a mass of human individuals whose labor could be instrumentally deployed in production.
State and Private, Red and White
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores some quintessentially philosophical questions about violence and terrorism: Is violence “special,” demanding a particular kind of moral treatment? Can a state properly be called “terrorist”? Is there anything worthwhile in the old radical distinction between “red” terror and “white” terror? The chapter begins with a prior question, whether philosophy has anything to contribute to the discussion of violence in the first place. It suggests that the philosophical treatment of violence, and particularly of terrorist violence, suffers more than most political philosophy from a disproportion between the inevitable and proper impracticality of philosophical inquiry and the all too urgent practicality of the problems addressed. The chapter considers the characteristics of terrorist states before concluding with an analysis of the connection between terrorism and ordinary warfare.
The Right to Kill in Cold Blood
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines whether the death penalty violates human rights. It begins with a discussion of the argument that all punishment must be inflicted in cold blood; whatever damage we do to others not in cold blood is not punishment but self-defense or revenge. It asserts that we may inflict whatever punishment is necessary to deter wrongdoing and that the death penalty raises no questions of justice that are different in kind from those raised by other forms of punishment, but that death as contrasted with incarceration may be thought to raise questions about irreversibility that are different in degree. It also considers the claim that a failure of fairness in the criminal justice system makes all punishment suspect. Finally, it tackles the question of how we should discuss the penalty of death by drawing on the views of Joseph de Maistre.
Hobbes’s Political Philosophy
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines some questions in Thomas Hobbes's political philosophy, with the objective of identifying what, if anything, Hobbes thought to be the central problem, or problems, of politics. It links these questions to an account of why the state of nature is so intolerable, of how we may leave it, and whether the manner of our leaving is well explained by Hobbes. The chapter also considers the implications for Hobbes's account of the rights and duties of the sovereign, along with the contentious issue of the subject's right, in extremis, to reject his sovereign and rebel. Finally, it analyzes Hobbes's account of the nature of punishment, his conception of the law of nature, his theory of political obligation, the role (or lack of a role) of religious belief in his political system, and his views on liberty.
Hobbes, Toleration, and the Inner Life
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines Thomas Hobbes's views on toleration and the inner life. Throughout Leviathan, Hobbes is hostile to religious dissent and claims for freedom of speech; he is eager to keep universities firmly under control, and does not hide his thoughts about what is and what is not under governmental control. He argues that states that take no care to secure doctrinal and liturgical uniformity are storing up trouble for themselves; precisely because opinion does matter, the sovereign must ensure a good deal of uniformity in opinion. The chapter considers Hobbes's account of religion and shows that that Hobbesian natural theology is extremely agnostic. It suggests that most of what we ordinarily think is valuable in the inner life was thought valuable by Hobbes, and that he is inclined to let men alone but not to offer a principled defense of toleration.
Locke on Freedom
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how John Locke's account of government in his Two Treatises can be a solution to the problem of reconciling freedom and authority—a central problem of liberal politics. It argues that Lockean individualism allows the individual no ultimate freedom to decide his or her own ends—these being set by God—but disagrees with the notion that this sort of freedom is necessary to a defense of the rule of law. The chapter first considers the connections between liberty and Locke's account of property, as well as the connections between freedom and republicanism, before discussing Hannah Arendt and Sheldon Wolin's dismissal of liberalism as an essentially “privatized” view of the world. It suggests that Locke's vision of freedom is not a particularly political one, although this is not a knockout blow for the “privatization” thesis.
Utilitarianism and Bureaucracy
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines John Stuart Mill's views on utilitarianism and bureaucracy, with particular emphasis on those dilemmas about administration that we can see in his writings. It first offers some remarks about the case of nineteenth-century administrative reform, and more specifically the extent to which we explain the changes in the organization, recruitment, and functions of the English bureaucracy as a result of deliberate planning by ideologically sophisticated reformers. It then analyzes Mill's views on the civil service—its role, its mode of recruitment, and so on—in order to assemble a tolerably clear picture of the kinds of difficulty that confront the utilitarian theorist of politics. It suggests that Mill's arguments show us how utilitarian theories could be strengthened and weakened by influences from such unlikely sources as Samuel Taylor Coleridge's romantic conservatism and the continental liberalism of Wilhelm von Humboldt and Alexis de Tocqueville.
Isaiah Berlin
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines Isaiah Berlin's political theory, with a particular focus on his argument for a kind of liberalism suited to a pluralist culture such as our own. It also asks why Berlin did not confront more directly the difficulty that all commentators have addressed: that pluralism is not particularly the natural ally of liberalism. After some biographical background, the chapter moves to Berlin as a historian of ideas, a student of distinctively Russian social and political themes, and a defender of a distinctively pluralist, anti-utopian liberalism. The division is artificial in the extreme, and the issues raised in each area of discussion are inextricably intertwined. The not particularly liberal Niccolo Machiavelli is invoked in aid of a liberal moral pluralism, as is the much more liberal Russian Alexander Herzen.
Alexis de Tocqueville
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter offers a reading of Alexis de Tocqueville's Democracy in America, arguing that the book was not a philosophical analysis of the concept of democracy, nor a simple narrative of the origins of American political institutions, but a form of political theory that used historical evidence to teach general lessons about the prospects for politics in the present. The chapter first places Tocqueville in his times and among his family before discussing his journey to America in 1831. It then considers the three major themes that might be extracted from the second volume of Democracy: the quality of intellectual and cultural life in an egalitarian society; the stability or proneness to revolutionary upheaval of such societies; and Tocqueville's final and most distinctive thoughts on democratic despotism, or what one might term quiet totalitarianism.
Utility and Ownership
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the utilitarian account of property rights and argues that property rights are not basic rights of the kind utilitarianism is commonly said to misrepresent. It suggests that the utilitarian rejection of rights as a fundamental component in morality does create problems at the point at which a utilitarian's liberal intuitions come into conflict with the demands of the general welfare; but the rights that these intuitions seem to presuppose are not property rights. The chapter also considers John Stuart Mill's claim that all property is the creature of the law with his defense of individual liberty in On Liberty. It concludes with a discussion of four familiar issues in the theory of property: the problem of “initial appropriation” of unowned things; the state's rights of taxation and compulsory purchase; the legitimacy of slavery; and whether we “own” our bodies.
Liberty and Socialism
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines whether socialism may be more consistent with liberty than capitalism is. It concentrates on two issues, one related to property and the other to education. It first considers whether the abolition of private property rights in the means of production would in itself be an assault on freedom. Some defenders of socialism, as well as its critics, think of socialism as the search for justice, welfare, or fraternity at the expense of freedom—or “bourgeois freedoms.” The chapter proceeds by discussing whether a “no-ownership” regime would allow room for greater or lesser intellectual freedom, for a more or less libertarian educational system. It argues that serious socialism must be concerned with constitutional issues, and especially with issues of decentralization, on the one hand, and the protection of individuals against maladministration, on the other.
Freedom and Money
Authors: Cohen G. A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains a disagreement that Cohen had with his teacher and friend, Isaiah Berlin, about freedom and, more particularly, about the relationship between freedom and money. Contrary to the very influential things that Isaiah wrote, Cohen argues that lack of money, poverty, carries with it lack of freedom. He regards this as an overwhelmingly obvious truth, one that is worth defending only because it has been so influentially denied. While lack of money, poverty, is not the only circumstance that restricts a person's freedom, it is one of them, and one of the most important of them. To put the point more precisely—there are lots of things that, because they are poor, poor people are not free to do, things that nonpoor people are, by contrast, indeed free to do.
The Ramsey Rule
Authors: Gollier Christian
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents the main argument in favor of a positive discount rate. In a growing economy, future generations will consume more goods and services than we do. In this context, investing for the future is equivalent to asking poor consumers to sacrifice more of their consumption for the benefit for wealthier people. Because of inequality aversion, one would be ready to do so only if the rate of return of these investment projects is large enough to compensate for the increased intertemporal inequalities that these projects would generate. The Ramsey rule quantifies this wealth effect. In fact, several experts have used the Ramsey rule to make recommendations on the choice of the discount rate to evaluate public policies, in particular toward climate change.
Evaluation of Risky Projects
Authors: Gollier Christian
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides a short overview of the main concepts, ideas, and tools that have been produced by more than fifty years of research in the evaluation of risky projects and risky assets. It is devoted to the analysis of the risk premium for risky projects that should be added to the discount rate for safe projects. Here, valuing risky projects introduces a new dimension to the theory of investment. We have shown that this new dimension can be treated by transforming each future cash flow into its certainty equivalent. By doing this, one is back to the problem of evaluating a safe project, and the discount rates discussed in this book can be used.
Rescuing Conservatism: A Defense of Existing Value
Authors: Cohen G. A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores modes of finding oneself in the other. The conservatism defended here is Hegelian: in each of three cases that this chapter distinguishes—namely, that of accepting the given, of valuing the valuable, and of valuing the valued—the subject is at peace with the object. For decades, the author has harbored strongly conservative, that is, strongly small-c conservative, opinions, on many matters that are not matters of justice. This chapter is thus meant to mount exposition and the beginnings of a defense of what Cohen believes to be his widely, although perhaps not universally, shared, conservative attitude.
Stellar-Mass Black Holes
Authors: Bailyn Charles D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines stellar-mass black holes. The empirical study of black holes began in the 1960s with the discovery of quasars and the advent of X-ray astronomy. X-ray detectors could detect X-rays coming from a particular direction—as the instrument rotated, the detector scanned the sky. It was not expected that X-ray sources from outside the solar system would be detectable. However, it was quickly discovered that there were strong X-ray sources that appeared in the same position in every scan. The inferred luminosity of the sources was hundreds or thousands of times brighter than the Sun. When coincident optical stars were identified, they proved to be relatively faint. Thus, it was clear that a new class of celestial sources must exist whose radiation is predominantly in the form of X-rays, with a total luminosity comparable to or greater than that of ordinary stars.
Black Hole Spin
Authors: Bailyn Charles D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the spin of a black hole. The spin is usually described as a nondimensional parameter, which can range from zero (a nonspinning black hole) to one (a situation described as “maximally spinning”). The differences in space-time between a nonspinning Schwarzschild black hole and a Kerr black hole of the same mass have potentially observable effects. The most obvious of these differences is the position of the innermost stable circular orbit (ISCO), which has a significant effect on the inner edge of an accretion disk. It is through determination of the physical size of the ISCO that the spins of black holes are determined.
Perpetual Peace and Fichte’s Theory of the State
Authors: Nakhimovsky Isaac
Published: November 2017

This chapter recounts how Fichte's theory of the state was profoundly shaped by his encounter with Rousseau, Sieyès, and Kant. Fichte developed a more radical version of the constitutional theory that had been advanced by Sieyès and Kant during the French Revolution, one that sought to improve upon Rousseau's description of constitutional government and to institutionalize his account of popular sovereignty. According to his many German admirers, it was Sieyès, and not his Jacobin opponents, who was the real inheritor of Rousseau, because the kind of egalitarian democracy demanded by Robespierre and others was unable to function as a government of laws in a modern European state. Fichte declared that he had produced the definitive statement of this Sieyèsian constitutionalism and claimed he had captured its true spirit by showing how it did not permanently exclude the possibility of far more egalitarian systems than those proposed by either Sieyès or Kant.
Commerce and the European Commonwealth in 1800
Authors: Nakhimovsky Isaac
Published: November 2017

This chapter shows how Fichte's response to Kant's essay Perpetual Peace culminated in The Closed Commercial State. Kant's essay defined the legal character of a peaceful international community. It also identified the historical processes favoring the emergence of an increasingly legalized and demilitarized European states system. The Closed Commercial State elaborated Kant's historical model into an account of the rise of global trade and its impact on state formation. Fichte concluded that the pacification of Europe envisioned by Kant was predicated on a resolution to the conflicts unleashed by heightened economic competition, both between and within states. In making this argument, Fichte developed an account of commerce and international relations that was closely aligned with contemporary pro-French and anti-English views of global trade and the European states system. Like Kant's Perpetual Peace, Fichte's Closed Commercial State was a highly abstracted theoretical investigation occasioned by a French diplomatic initiative championed by Sieyès. However, Fichte was much more willing than Kant to work out the details of a reform strategy predicated on Sieyès's efforts to engineer a French-led restructuring of the European balance of power.
Later Alexandrian Developments
Authors: Katz Victor J. , Parshall Karen Hunger
Published: November 2017

This chapter traces the development of mathematics in the vibrant research and cultural complex that began to coalesce around the Museum and Library in Alexandria around 300 BCE. This distinguished scholastic history lasted even during the Roman takeover of the city in 27 BCE, as scholars continued to gather and work at the Museum despite the unsettled social climate. Among them, Diophantus (fl. 250 CE) produced one of the first Greek texts that can be said to have both a heritage and a history that may be termed algebraic—namely, his compilation of problems entitled Arithmetica. Only ten books remain of the original thirteen Arithmetica, and the chapter provides a sampling of these.
Algebraic Thought in Medieval Islam
Authors: Katz Victor J. , Parshall Karen Hunger
Published: November 2017

This chapter turns to the realm of Islamic mathematics, which lasted longer than both the era of classical Greek mathematics and the age of “modern mathematics.” In the Islamic world, mathematics arose in various centers linked by networks of communication, primarily using the Arabic language, that persisted despite the general absence of political unity. Scholars turned to Greek and Mesopotamian sources, and also drew from a wellspring of “subscientific” sources. Islamic scholars during the first few hundred years of Islamic rule did more than just bring these sources together, however. They amalgamated them into a new whole and infused their mathematics with what they felt was divine inspiration, however, attitudes toward mathematical studies would change according to religious mandate. This chapter explores the history of Islamic mathematics as well as the algebraic formulations attributed to Islamic scholars.
The Emergence of Modern Algebra
Authors: Katz Victor J. , Parshall Karen Hunger
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores how the topography of algebra had changed significantly by the first decade of the twentieth century. It studies the progress made since the developments described in the last chapter; such as a vast extension of the notion of “integer” as well as in a new body of algebraic thought. The chapter also reveals another key characteristic of the evolving topography of algebra—the increasingly international dialogue between mathematicians in Great Britain, on the continent, in the United States, and elsewhere. In addition, the axiomatization of specific algebraic entities and the structural approach to algebra is studied here in more depth.
Epilogue
Authors: Saint-Amand Pierre
Published: November 2017

This epilogue explains how the scholars featured in the book hardly typify the legacy of the Enlightenment. Their aesthetics of the minimum, their desire for less, their calculated refusal of ambition, are unseemly. Next to those movers and shakers who championed the spirit of Voltaire, transforming his values into an ideology of productivity and efficiency, the lazy cut a rather pathetic figure. The chapter illustrates how laziness and politics are incompatible. Today, elections are won by competing in the omnipresent field of action and speed. Laziness is castigated in the name of a labor that is newly upgraded in the context of authority, order, and respect. The chapter then looks at one of eighteenth century's salient figures, Georges-Jacques Danton, whose work offers a stunning example of the incompatibility between laziness and politics.
What’s Wrong with Their Mice?
Authors: Rose Nikolas , Abi-Rached Joelle M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the use of animals to explore issues relating to human cognition, emotion, volition, and their pathologies. Researchers who use animal models in their work point to similarities in the genomes of the two species, in the structure of mouse and human brain, in patterns of brain activation, in neural mechanisms at the cellular and molecular level, in responses to drugs and so forth, perhaps with reference to evolution and the principle of conservation across species when it comes to the most basic aspects of living organisms, including their brains. The chapter then examines four interconnected themes: the question of the artificiality of the laboratory situation within which animal experiments are conducted; the idea of a model in behavioral and psychiatric research; the specificity of the human and the elision of history and human sociality; and the problem of translation.
Making and Remaking Alzheimer Disease
Authors: Lock Margaret
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the “discovery” of Alzheimer disease (AD) and a somewhat condensed genealogy of its history to the present time. Emphasis is given to the virtual disappearance of AD for over four decades after its initial identification, followed by its rediscovery in the late 1960s in association with government and medical recognition of aging populations and their impending burden on society. The chapter also discusses the consolidation of what has been the dominant research paradigm in AD research for the past four decades-the amyloid cascade hypothesis, grounded in localization theory. Throughout the study, difficulties in attempting to unravel the entanglement of “normal” aging from dementia, evident from Alois Alzheimer's time, are pointed out.
Transcending Entrenched Tensions
Authors: Lock Margaret
Published: November 2017

This chapter turns to the global concern about aging societies, and the so-called epidemic of aging. It argues that a public health approach to aging and Alzheimer's will have a much greater effect in reducing the incidence of Alzheimer disease (AD) worldwide than will the technologically oriented molecular approach currently being heralded as a paradigm shift. Should such an approach be effective, and there is little evidence to date to be optimistic that this will be the case, the extent of investment in advanced medical facilities and highly trained expertise required to put it in place is not realistic beyond wealthy segments of the world, especially given the global economy of the present and the increasing gaps between rich and poor.
Introduction
Authors: Grossman Joanna L. , Friedman Lawrence M.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter takes a brief look at family law in the United States as it changed over twentieth century and the start of the twenty-first. “Family law” refers to a particular branch of the law—mostly about marriage, divorce, child custody, family property, adoption, and some related matters. However, this chapter also briefly considers other parts of the law that touch on the family in an important way, such as inheritance or the intersection between criminal law and family affairs. The chapter then considers the changes to family law in this expanded sense. In part, the changes were continuations of trends that started in the nineteenth century; but in part they were completely new. Perhaps the single most important trend was the decline of the traditional family, the family as it was understood in the nineteenth century, the family of the Bible and conventional morality.
Marriage and the State
Authors: Grossman Joanna L. , Friedman Lawrence M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the rise and fall of marriage restrictions rooted in racism and eugenics, as well as the persistence of other, more enduring, impediments to marriage—like bigamy, incest, and youth. Central to the story of state marriage regulation is the establishment, beginning in the 1960s, of constitutional protection for the “right” to marry, which limited, at least at the margins, the freedom of states to impose certain restrictions on marriage. But also central, in a system dominated by state law, are the rules of interstate marriage recognition, which dictate whether marriages travel across state lines. In broad brush, this chapter tells a story of increasing marital freedom, reined in only by a handful of seemingly immoveable social norms.
The End of Heart Balm
Authors: Grossman Joanna L. , Friedman Lawrence M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the decline and fall of a group of closely related causes of action: breach of promise of marriage, alienation of affections, criminal conversation, and perhaps even civil and criminal actions for “seduction.” The story here is tangled and complex; no one factor explains why these causes of action lost ground. But they are connected with the social meaning of marriage, and very notably, with one striking twentieth-century development: the sexual revolution—specifically, the end of the idea that only married people were entitled, legitimately, to have sexual intercourse. These causes of action lived in the shadow of traditional marriage, and depended for their validity on traditional marriage. As it declined, they too receded into history, although not entirely.
The Extended Family: Elder Law and the Law of Inheritance
Authors: Grossman Joanna L. , Friedman Lawrence M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter deals with the complexities of succession, specifically in the ways money is shared with other members of the family. Family members not only earn money from work; some family members also inherit money from dead relatives, or get gifts from living ones. Other members give money away, during their lifetimes, or after death. Parents obviously have to pay for everything their children need, and grown children sometimes support old, sick, and destitute parents. When a family member dies, typically they leave whatever money or assets remain to members of the family. And while books, law school curricula, and legal practice treat family law and the law of succession as entirely different subjects, this chapter deals away with those distinctions in order to reveal how these subjects impact family life and family law.
Love as an Analytic Tool
Authors: Silverman Chloe
Published: November 2017

This book examines the evolution of the diagnostic category of autism as people have understood it in different places and times, with a particular focus on the importance of affect in biomedical research during the second half of the twentieth century and the first few years of the twenty-first. It considers the degree to which representation of autism depends on particular institutional and epistemological arrangements; shifts the focus from psychiatrists, epidemiologists, and geneticists to parents, counselors, diagnosticians, and lawyers, as they try to make sense of and apply systematic, authoritative knowledge in their daily lives and work; and highlights the centrality of love as a way of knowing about bodies, persons, and relationships in biomedicine. This introduction provides an overview of theories of love in biomedicine, the ethics of treating autism and how it relates to the question of moral personhood, the history of diagnosis of autism, biosociality and contested illnesses, and the book's methodology.
Interlude
Authors: Silverman Chloe
Published: November 2017

Disability studies in the university emerged from the disability rights movement of the 1970s and 1980s. Conversations about autism are inevitably also about issues that have occupied both scholars and activists. They range from philosophical questions about defining disability and the ethics of treatment to policies regarding access to health care and living supports, deinstitutionalization and patient’s rights, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), and inclusive education....
What the World Needs Now: Learning About and Acting on Autism Research
Authors: Silverman Chloe
Published: November 2017

This conclusion returns to the question of love as both a subject and a method for research on autism. Many researchers now agree with parents that although autism is a useful term for describing a common behavioral syndrome, it is one that offers few insights into the particular biology of individual children. It may say even less about adults because, in addition to the biological and cognitive diffrences among them, they have been shaped by experiences over a lifetime. This conclusion reviews the evidence for love's centrality to the work of producing knowledge about autism and in particular the importance of parents' caring as a source of insights about autistic children. It also considers the issues that these arguments raise about knowledge production in the field of science studies. Finally, it explains how we can move forward from here to include other neglected voices in autism research, in particular people on the autism spectrum.
Type A Weyl Group Multiple Dirichlet Series
Authors: Brubaker Ben , Bump Daniel , Friedberg Solomon
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes Type A Weyl group multiple Dirichlet series. It begins by defining the basic shape of the class of Weyl group multiple Dirichlet series. To do so, the following parameters are introduced: Φ‎, a reduced root system; n, a positive integer; F, an algebraic number field containing the group μ‎₂ₙ of 2n-th roots of unity; S, a finite set of places of F containing all the archimedean places, all places ramified over a ℚ; and an r-tuple of nonzero S-integers. In the language of representation theory, the weight of the basis vector corresponding to the Gelfand-Tsetlin pattern can be read from differences of consecutive row sums in the pattern. The chapter considers in this case expressions of the weight of the pattern up to an affine linear transformation.
Crystals and Gelfand-Tsetlin Patterns
Authors: Brubaker Ben , Bump Daniel , Friedberg Solomon
Published: November 2017

This chapter translates the definitions of the Weyl group multiple Dirichlet series into the language of crystal bases. It reinterprets the entries in these arrays and the accompanying boxing and circling rules in terms of the Kashiwara operators. Thus, what appeared as a pair of unmotivated functions on Gelfand-Tsetlin patterns in the previous chapter now takes on intrinsic representation theoretic meaning. The discussion is restricted to crystals of Cartan type Aᵣ. The Weyl vector, denoted by ρ‎, is considered as an element of the weight lattice, and the bijection between Gelfand-Tsetlin patterns and tableaux is described. The chapter also examines the λ‎-part of the multiple Dirichlet series in terms of crystal graphs.
Statement B Implies Statement A
Authors: Brubaker Ben , Bump Daniel , Friedberg Solomon
Published: November 2017

This chapter recalls the use of the Schützenberger involution on Gelfand-Tsetlin patterns to prove that Statement B implies Statement A. These statements will be discussed two more times in the later chapters of the book. Chapter 18 reinterprets both Statements A and B in terms of crystals, and directly proves that the reinterpreted Statement B implies the reinterpreted Statement A in Theorem 18.2. Then Chapter 19 again reinterprets Statements A and B in a different context, and yet again directly proves that the reinterpreted Statement B implies the reinterpreted Statement A in Theorem 19.10. The current chapter shows that the Schützenberger involution qᵣ can be formulated in terms of operations on short Gelfand-Tsetlin patterns. To facilitate the inductive proof, relevant equations are used.
Types
Authors: Brubaker Ben , Bump Daniel , Friedberg Solomon
Published: November 2017

This chapter divides the prototypes into much smaller units called types. It fixes a top and bottom row, and therefore a cartoon. For each episode ε‎ of the cartoon, the chapter fixes an integer κ‎subscript Greek small letter epsilon. Then the set of all short Gelfand-Tsetlin patterns with the given top and bottom rows is called a type. Thus two patterns are in the same type if and only if they have the same top and bottom rows (and hence the same cartoon), and if the sum of the first (middle) row elements in each episode is the same for both patterns. The possible episodes may be grouped into four classes: Class I, II, III, and IV.
Knowability
Authors: Brubaker Ben , Bump Daniel , Friedberg Solomon
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces the Knowability Lemma, which explains when products of Gauss sums associated to elements of a preaccordion are explicitly evaluable as polynomials in q, the order of the residue class field. It considers an episode in the cartoon associated to the short Gelfand-Tsetlin pattern and the three cases that apply according to the Knowability Lemma, two of which are maximality and knowability. Knowability is not important for the proof that Statement C implies Statement B. The chapter discusses the cases where ε‎ is Class II or Class I, leaving the remaining two cases to the reader. It also describes the variant of the argument for the case that ε‎ is of Class I, again leaving the two other cases to the reader.
Introduction: Socialism and History
Authors: Bevir Mark
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the book's main themes. This book traces ways in which people collectively made various socialist projects in a complex world of mass literacy and popular politics. It explores the traditions against the background of which people turned to socialism and the dilemmas that prompted them to do so. It asks how people crafted and conceived of the diverse socialisms to which they adhered. Throughout, it concentrates on the period from 1880 to 1900. The bulk of the book consists of three parts, each covering one of the main strands of British socialism recognized at that time, namely, Marxism, Fabianism, and ethical socialism. Each part contains four chapters dealing with the leading theorists and organizations of the relevant strand of British socialism. The aim is in part to narrate the rise of British socialism as a belief system that later gained some kind of expression in an organized party and a state formation. It also shows how the diversity of British socialism was poorly captured by that party and state formation.