bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Merchants and Planters
Authors: Morgan Kenneth
Published: November 2023

The chief white personnel who sustained slavery and the slave trade in the British Empire were merchants and planters. Merchants in the slave trade and in associated lines of commerce shipping goods to and fro across the Atlantic were found at the ports of London, Liverpool, Bristol, and Glasgow and at some lesser ports such as Lancaster and Whitehaven.
Slave Demography and Family Life
Authors: Morgan Kenneth
Published: November 2023

The demographic composition of the slave population shaped the parameters of slave life in North America and the Caribbean. Sex ratios, age structure, and the relative proportion of African and creole slaves influenced reproductive rates, family formation, and black culture. Though the relative proportion of males and females in the Atlantic slave trade varied over time and by region, generally there was a demographic imbalance. Males outnumbered females, often by a ratio of two to one.
Slave Resistance and Rebellion
Authors: Morgan Kenneth
Published: November 2023

Resistance to bondage by slaves occurred frequently, as one might expect in a situation where unequal power relationships defined the position of masters and unfree labourers. The most obvious and major form of resistance was collective rebellion, but slave resistance ranged far beyond revolt to incorporate other strategies intended to combat bondage. For slaves, unwillingness to perform work adequately, either because their condition stimulated opposition or because they were badly treated, was a common act of resistance.
The Abolition of the British Slave Trade
Authors: Morgan Kenneth
Published: November 2023

When the British slave trade reached its peak in the quarter-century before the American Revolution, few could have predicted that the entire ‘Guinea’ traffic from Africa would be abolished by parliamentary statute shortly after the turn of the nineteenth century. Slavery and the slave trade appeared to be so much a part of the peopling and maritime strength of the British Empire, and so necessary to maintain sugar plantations in the Caribbean, that to imagine a British imperial world without a regular supply of new black cargoes would have been fanciful.
Reputational control over Scientific Work And The Growth Of Employment Opportunities For Scientists
Authors: Whitley Richard
Published: November 2023

Reputational work organizations do not need to control jobs and labour markets to ensure their control over work and practitioners as long as the reputations they control are socially prestigious and lead to material rewards indirectly. In this respect they are different from craft and professional systems of work administration - at least analytically. The sciences existed as such systems of work direction and control before labour markets in scientific skills became established and, of course, reputational means of work control remain important even when practically all scientific work is produced by employees. However, the development of jobs tied to reputations, and of employment organizations oriented primarily to intellectual goals as defined and controlled by practitioners, resulted in substantial changes in the organization and control of scientific work. In particular, the combination of training programmes, certification agency, jobs and facilities in universities was a powerful influence on the structure of the sciences. In this chapter I shall discuss some aspects of this development in the general context of changing relations between employment organizations and reputational work organizations.
Women and Industrial Relations
Authors: Greene Anne-Marie
Published: November 2023

Industrial relations continues to be a field which is dominated by men. The Annual British Universities Industrial Relations Association Conference (BUIRA), as one of the key events in the conference season for British industrial relations academics is a case in point. At the conference in 2001, held in Manchester, there were 121 named contributors in the published abstracts, of whom forty-two were women. The significance of such a comparison is that not only do women account for only 35 per cent of the industrial relations researchers at such a conference, but that (to borrow a phrase used with regard to collective bargaining in the context of a similarly male dominated trade union movement), ‘the absence of women at the table has to be part of the explanation for the absence of women on the table’ (Colling and Dickens 1998: 32 original emphasis). In other words, the lack of women researchers will mean a neglect of women as subject matter.
Decentralization, Participation and the Poor
Authors: Angell Alan , Lowden Pamela , Thorp Rosemary
Published: November 2023

This chapter reviews what is happening at the local level in efforts to work with the poor. It needs to be stressed that we are not addressing the issue of outcomes in terms of poverty reduction. This would have required a different fieldwork design, and is an extremely complex undertaking. Nor is our principal focus on the programmes being carried out. Rather, our concern is the evolving institutional context at the local level in its potential to enhance participatory approaches to poverty reduction. At issue is how far reality differs from the emerging consensus on the necessary components of effective strategies to improve the lives of the poorest: that is, strategies based on integrated approaches to enhance local organizational capacity and generate synergies among the key actors so as to build virtuous circles of change. The key actors are national and local governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and community organizations.
Introduction
Authors: Estella Antonio
Published: November 2023

The aim of this work is twofold. First, it aims to construct an alternative and more complete legal critique of the principle of subsidiarity. Secondly, it attempts to analyse the problem of the implementation of subsidiarity by the European Court of Justice and to explain the Court’s case-law on the principle. The principle of subsidiarity has been examined at length in legal and political science literature over the past five years. The number of analyses of the subject since its introduction into the European Community Treaty (ECT) is so overwhelming that it is necessary to begin this essay by justifying the need for yet another work on subsidiarity. This Introduction is therefore intended to explain the relevance of this work.
Growth
Authors: Estella Antonio
Published: November 2023

Current legitimacy problems affecting relations between the centre and the periphery in the European Community system are the result of the growth of the Community powers. At the higher level of abstraction, this may be defined as the degree or Level of control that Community institutions have upon their environment. Such a definition suggests, more concretely, that the process of growth involves two different but related dimensions. On one hand, there is the vertical dimension of the growth process. By ‘vertical growth’ I mean the process through which sets of policies (entire or partial) move from being under the control of Member States’ public authorities to being under the control of Community institutions. On the other hand there is the process of horizontal Community expansion. The expression ‘horizon tal growth’ refers to how powers are managed and implemented by Community institutions. Horizontal growth involves not only the development of the Community institutions’ respective powers, but also the evolution of voting procedures.
Subsidiarity before the Court
Authors: Estella Antonio
Published: November 2023

Courts which undertake judicial review of legislative functions may be viewed as counter-majoritarian institutions (Estella, 1999e). Although not all democratic systems incorporate judicial review of legislation as a mechanism addressed to counter-balance the majoritarian bias which is often involved therein, where review of legislation exists, the main reason for that is precisely to temper the excesses to which a strict implementation of the majoritarian principle may lead. It can therefore be said that judicial review of legislation (as a counter-majoritarian mechanism) constitutes an important part of what has been defined as the ‘methodology of democracy’ (La Torre, 1994).
Conclusions: Still Local Economies in Global Capitalism?
Authors: Crouch Colin , Trigilia Carlo
Published: November 2023

The preceding chapters have assessed the role of local production systems (LPSs) in manufacturing industries in four large European countries. These systems comprise geographical areas of economic specialization in which small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are particularly important, in terms of numbers of both productive units and employees. LPSs exist where there are either particular competitive advantages for participation by clusters of SMEs as opposed to large corporations, or where such clusters at least stand as good a chance as large firms. Small firms may work through a more or less intense co-operation among themselves, or with larger firms located in the same area, or by making use of local facilities provided by governmental or other external agencies-or a combination of all three. These possibilities exist in sectors that share two characteristics. First, the production process is divisible into a number of different levels, each giving scope to specialized firms; second, product markets are fragmented and variable over time and space, giving advantages to niche rather than mass producers.
The Role of Demandable Debt in Structuring Optimal Banking Arrangements
Authors: Calomiris Charles W , Kahn Charles M
Published: November 2023

For centuries, the vast majority of externally financed investments have been funded by banks, for which demandable-debt instruments (bank notes and checking accounts) have been the principal source of funds. The goal of this chapter is to explain the emergence of demandable-debt banking historically as the primary means of external finance in the economy.
Private and Public Supply of Liquidity
Authors: Holmstrom Bengt , Tirole Jean
Published: November 2023

This chapter addresses a basic, yet unresolved, question: Do private assets provide sufficient liquidity for the efficient functioning of the productive sector? Or does the state have a role in supplying additional liquidity and regulating it through adjustments in the stock of government securities or by other means? These questions presume a demand for liquidity, where liquidity refers to the availability of instruments (market and nonmarket) that can be used to transfer wealth across periods.1 Part of this demand will, of course, come from consumers who want to implement their optimal intertemporal consumption plans. Indeed, papers that have addressed the sufficiency of liquidity have typically focused on the consumer sector (see Section V).
Financial Intermediation versus Stock Markets in a Dynamic lntertemporal Model
Authors: Bhattacharya Sudipto , Fulghieri, Paolo , Rovelli Riccardo
Published: November 2023

Models of intertemporal liquidity risks, or “preference shocks’ -developed in Bryant [1980] and further examined in the works of Diamond and Dybvig [1983]. Bhattacharya and Gale [1987], and Jacklin [1987] among others-have recently been extended to the realm of on going dynamic overlapping generations (OLG) economies (see Bencivenga and Smith [1991], Qi [1994], Fulghieri and Rovelli [1993], and Dutta and Kapur [1994]). These models may be used to evaluate the essential tradeoffs which arise in two distinct areas of current debate.
Unique Equilibrium in a Model of Self-Fulfilling Currency Attacks
Authors: Morris Stephen , Shin Hyun-Song
Published: November 2023

Speculative attacks are sometimes triggered without warning, and without any apparent change in the economic fundamentals. Commentators who have attempted to explain episodes of speculative crises have pointed to the selffulfilling nature of the belief in an imminent speculative attack. If speculators believe that a currency will come under attack, their actions in anticipation of this precipitate the crisis itself, while if they believe that a currency is not in danger of imminent attack, their inaction spares the currency from attack, thereby vindicating their initial beliefs.
Optimal Design of Bank Bailouts: The Case of Transition Economies
Authors: Aghion Philippe , Bolton, Patrick , Fries Steven
Published: November 2023

In most recent banking crises bank regulators have been caught off their guard and have been forced to respond to the crisis in a hurry without the support of an institutional or legal framework designed to deal with bank failures. Unfortunately most bank regulations (and in particular the BIS regulations) are concerned with the exante problem of how to avoid bank failures, and few rules have been devised on how to deal with bank failures when they occur.
Financial Markets, Intermediaries, and lntertemporal Smoothing
Authors: Allen Franklin , Gale Douglas
Published: November 2023

In the early 1970s, most industrialized countries were adversely affected by a sharp rise in oil prices. This “oil shock” had a dramatic effect on the value of U.S. firms. As illustrated in Figure 1, the real value of shares listed on the New York Stock Exchange fell by almost half compared to their value at the peak in 1972. This collapse in share prices had a severe negative impact on the wealth of any investor whose portfolio contained a significant amount of stocks. Any investor who was forced to liquidate stocks after market prices fell would have suffered from lower consumption over the remainder of his or her life. Retirees in particular might have been affected in this way.
Cause of Action Preclusion: Cause of Action Estoppel and Former Recovery
Authors: Barnett Peter R
Published: November 2023

Where proceedings are brought (or continued) by an opponent upon a 4.01 claim that has already been determined by a foreign court, and that foreign judgment falls to be recognised under the traditional rules of the common law or related statutes, the strategy which one might adopt should one wish to preclude the subsequent contradiction or reassertion of the opponent’s claim would typically be as follows:
Subjects and Objects
Authors: Adger David
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we address the question of the position of the subject in clause structure and we look at the syntactic dependencies that both subjects and objects enter into. We proposed, in Chapter 4, that subjects of transitive verbs are Merged in the specifier of a little 𝓋.
Wh-Movement
Authors: Adger David
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter we saw that clauses were headed by a functional projection which we labelled C. We saw evidence for C in matrix questions, as well as in embedded clauses. This evidence came from the phenomenon of Subject Auxiliary Inversion (SAI), which we analysed as movement of C to T driven by an strong [Q*] feature which is the value given to an uninterpretable [uclause-type] feature on T.
Mrs Penrose and Neoclassical Theory
Authors: Richardson G B
Published: November 2023

Mrs Penrose’s theory of the growth of the firm is widely known and accepted. It has not, however, been fully integrated into standard microeconomics. This was no simple oversight on Mrs Penrose’s part; in the foreword to the third edition of her book, she states quite explicitly, in relation to neoclassical theory, that it is not, in her opinion ‘useful to attempt to “integrate” the two approaches’. My own view is that some integration is not only useful, but necessary, for I believe that only by incorporating Penrosean ideas can some ‘traditional theory’ be put right. I shall consider, in this paper, two parts of our subject of which this seems to me true: first, that which deals with the adjustment of supply to demand, and, second, that which seeks to account for the necessity of intra-firm planning within market economies.
Edith Penrose and Economics
Authors: Marris Robin
Published: November 2023

I may be a couple of years younger than George Richardson but I also have reached my anecdotage. I am probably going to be somewhat more critical of The Theory of the Growth of the Finn (hereinafter The Growth of the Firm; Penrose, 1959) in the positive sense of the word, than other contributors, but claim that right in view of my special relationship with Edith and her work. I wrote the first academic review of The Growth of the Firm, I wrote Edith’s entry in the New Palgrave and I wrote her obituary in the Guardian.
Hercules and Penrose
Authors: Kay Neil
Published: November 2023

Penrose’s The Theory of the Growth of the Firm (1959) is now rightly regarded by many as one of the most important modern contributions to the theory of the firm. It has become one of the most widely cited texts in economics and her contribution is being increasingly recognised in a variety of ways, including the project to which this paper is a contribution. We are concerned here with a little known aspect of potential rele vance to the development of the book, her paper on the Hercules Powder Company published in Business History Review in 1960. TI1e Hercules paper is important for a number of reasons.
Internal variability in competence †
Authors: Seuren Pieter A M
Published: November 2023

To the non-linguist one of the most obvious facts about natural languages is the availability of ranges of, often subtly, differing ways of expressing the same linguistic meaning, where the differences correlate with values on non-linguistic parameters. Every speaker of a language knows that certain features in his or other persons’ speech indicate, not the linguistic meaning carried by the message, but associations with geographical area, with social class, with kinds of interactional situation, with age, with a profession, with a religion, etc. The differences show themselves in lexical selection, choice of grammatical construction, choice of pronunciation-i.e. choices throughout the grammar. Even though most speakers are not aware, and cannot make themselves aware, of the precise features carrying the variable associations (except, sometimes, for a few prominent features which then acquire a special symbolic value),1 the associations are nevertheless registered by listeners.2 To know a language does not only mean having the ability of converting meanings into well-formed strings of symbols and vice versa, but also being able to distinguish, to some extent, between standard, substandard, formal, informal, dialectally and sociolectally marked forms of speech. An ideal speaker-listener would have command, both active and passive, of all varieties occurring in the community where the language in question is spoken. Obviously, such ideally competent people hardly occur in real life. But equally obviously, real people hardly ever have a linguistic competence which is entirely homogeneous: we all have active and passive command of a fairly wide range of varieties. A foreign learner whose competence is restricted to one variety
Tense and aspect in Sranan †
Authors: Seuren Pieter A M
Published: November 2023

Sranan, the main Creole language of Surinam, is increasingly being studied professionally by linguists, both Creolists and theoretical linguists. And with good reason: apart from the fact that improved knowledge of the structure of the language, its history, the conditions and varieties of its use may be of assistance to the Sranan-speaking community on the way towards full emancipation of the language,1 it also has some very interesting features from the point of view of theoretical linguistics. This chapter is devoted to one particularly interesting chapter in the grammar of Sranan, the verbal system with its tenses and its aspects.

Sranan speakers themselves as well as those who have tried to learn the language later in life are aware of the complications brought about by the particles e, ben, and o, which together establish a very elegant system of tenses and aspects. In the past, this system has been the object of systematic linguistic study by Voorhoeve (1957, 1962). Although this study owes much to Voorhoeve’s work, it is totally different in method, approach, and results. I shall not give a comprehensive discussion and criticism of Voorhoeve’s work, but rather limit myself to occasional comments. A full discussion would take up considerable space and might distract from the purpose of this chapter, which is to provide an analysis and a description of the verbal system of Sranan in the light of present-day theory and knowledge.
London: The Elusive Community
Authors: Pimlott Ben , Rao Nirmala
Published: November 2023

As there, or can there be, a genuine London community? To deny the possibility would be to reject the combined rhetoric of left and right for more than a generation. Yet the assumption that such a community-whether of interests or of sentiment-exists can be seen to be, if not entirely false, then over-simplified. All government has roots. In Britain, this political truth, keenly appreciated in central administration, has been repeatedly ignored in the handling of local affairs. Where the centre has evolved incrementally, the tendency in dealing with the periphery has been to tear up existing arrangements and start again. Yet the repeated experience has been that, sooner or later, old patterns reassert themselves. Indeed, the history of British local government, which is medieval in origin and was radically adapted and developed in the nineteenth century, is fundamental to any understanding of contemporary practice and needs.
A New Government for London
Authors: Pimlott Ben , Rao Nirmala
Published: November 2023

Minister for London, Nick Raynsford prepared the ground. The first stage was to seek, and get, public endorsement. To achieve this a London referendum bill was included in the Queen’s speech, offering Londoners the opportunity to express their view on whether or not to have an elected mayor as the cen trepiece of a new Greater London Authority. The referendum was set for May 1998, with a view to inaugurating the new authority, and mayor, two years later.
London On the Move?
Authors: Pimlott Ben , Rao Nirmala
Published: November 2023

It is through relationships between the GLA and other London-wide bodies that much of the Mayor’s strategic influence will be exerted. Roads and pub lic transport were the dominant political issues during the life of the GLC, from the ill-fated motorway box to the short-lived Fare’s Fair policy. Now, under the 1999 Act, Transport for London (TfL), a new body, has absorbed the functions of a range of agencies, including some of those of the Government Office for London. Responsibility for London Regional Transport, the opera tor, passes to TFL once agreement has been reached on financing the modernization of the underground. This takes place outside the Mayor’s transport strategy, which addresses a wide range of issues and is directed to public transport improvements and restriction of the motor car.
Renewing London
Authors: Pimlott Ben , Rao Nirmala
Published: November 2023

London was the first ‘world city’. In the mid-nineteenth century it had no rivals for the size of its population, the vigour of its economy, or the inter national importance of its commerce. Yet its ability to attract people and investment was not without cost. The British capital became a byword for the strains of urban development, giving rise to apocalyptic visions of ‘The Infernal Wen’ (Sheppard 1971). For much of the twentieth century, policy makers sought to contain and constrain its expansion. Celebrating London as an engine of growth fell out of fashion and, in the period immediately after the Second World War, the priority became to move people and jobs out of London to new towns and assisted areas. The radical policies of one era, how ever, became the discarded conservatism of the next: population decanting, an enthusiasm that began with 1940s reconstruction, lasted only a generation. Decentralization policy was sharply reversed in the late 1970s, partly in response to the 1971 census, which showed a dramatic turnaround in London’s population and employment growth. Attempts to limit London by exporting people and industry were abandoned. At the same time, the ‘inner city problem’ came into focus.
Exporting Management: Neo-imperialism and Global Consumerism
Authors: Gabriel Yiannis , Sturdy Andrew
Published: November 2023

The transfer of knowledge across societies is not a recent phenomenon and does not require the movement of electrons in cyberspace. In earlier societies, religious missionaries and mercenaries (‘soldiers of fortune’) were key agents of the diffusion of religious and military knowledge, respectively. Explorers and navigators acted as disseminators of scientific and technical knowledge, along with stories, legends, and myths from distant lands. Some of this knowledge assumed the form of gifts, exchanged by representatives of different cultures, while some was traded for money or goods. Throughout the Cold War, the transfer of knowledge in the guise of charitable donations became a powerful weapon and/ or inducement, as the super-powers tried to recruit other countries to their way of life and of thinking and doing (cf. Locke 1989; Djelic 1998).
Italy
Authors: Bianco Magda
Published: November 2023

The Italian corporate governance system has a number of peculiarities compared with the better known Anglo-Saxon or Continental systems. As opposed to the AngloSaxon countries, public companies are still rare and the separation between ownership and control is limited. Contrary to the Continental systems, banks and financial companies have played a limited role in ownership structures. Instead, ownership is extremely concentrated, as in most other European countries. In 1999 the largest shareholder in listed companies owned on average 44 per cent of voting rights (weighted by market capitalization); the three largest shareholders owned 50 per cent In a representative sample of manufacturing companies (mainly non-listed) the largest shareholder owned (in 1999) 64 per cent (73 per cent if weighted by employees, see Bianchi, Bianco, and Enriques 1998). The stock market was until recently relatively small, but has recently experienced a rapid growth. At the end of 1999, market capitalization represented 65 per cent of Italian GDP.
The Netherlands
Authors: de Jong Abe
Published: November 2023

Corporate governance structures determine the relationships between management and financiers. As in any other country, in the Netherlands a set of instruments exists that motivates managers, disciplines managers, and allows managers to hide from disciplining forces. In the Netherlands several studies in Dutch and international journals and the public debate have paid attention to specific governance devices that prevail. In this overview I discuss these devices and their impact on corporate performance.
Developments in the Law Relating to Remedies in Practice and Procedure
Authors: rogers* Christy
Published: November 2023

The recent case of Ludlow Music Inc v. Williams and others  1 was cause for consideration of the factors influencing the exercise of the court’s discretion to refuse permanent injunctive relief for infringement of copyright.

The case concerned a complaint that the claimant’s copyright in a song entitled ‘I am the Way’, by Woody Guthrie, and a parody of it by Loudon Wainwright III, was infringed by a song entitled ‘Jesus in a Camper Van’ included on the second album recorded by Robbie Williams. It was common ground that the defendants had copied (although not precisely) two lines, amounting to one of the four verses, of the Loudon Wainwright lyrics, and that there was no musical similarity at all between the works. The defendants had sought the claimant’s permission to use the lyrics, but rejected the claimant’s demand for a 50 per cent share of the royalties attributable to the work. The defendants offered 10 per cent copyright ownership and, pending agreement, manufactured copies of the album stating on the sleeve that the lyrics were reproduced ‘by kind permission’ of the claimant.
Lilian Edwards and Charlotte Waelde, Law and the Internet: A Framework for Electronic Commerce Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2nd edn., 2000, xxxvii + 396 pp. (£25).
Authors: Gibbons Thomas
Published: November 2023

Internet law is a growing area of academic and practitioner interest. The Internet is the third major area of convergence in communications, in addition to the media and telecommunications. It presents a fascinating number of novel scenarios in which to apply existing law, whilst also raising challenges that require completely different law. The first edition of this book, with the sub-title, ‘Regulating Cyberspace’, was concerned with a mixture of intellectual property law, contract and commercial law, and media law. This edition continues to deal with all those issues but the emphasis has shifted towards the issues that are relevant to e-commerce. The format remains the same, however; the editors have assembled a collection of experts to write analytical and critical essays about the topical challenges that the Internet poses for the law, both intellectually and practically. For those who are unfamiliar or lack confidence with the technology, the book opens with a chapter that is an introduction for lawyers. But it also sets the tone for the treatment of the other subjects, in distinguishing three levels—of physical infrastructure, service infrastructure and e-commerce itself.
Stanley Lai, The Copyright Protection of Computer Software in the United Kingdom , Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2000, xxvii + 250 pp. (hb £40).
Authors: Booton David
Published: November 2023

This book sets out to investigate the scope of copyright protection for computer software in the United Kingdom. The work’s stated aim is ‘to make a reasoned and well-argued case for the incorporation of US infringement methodology into UK software copyright analysis’ (p.1). In addition, the book seeks to clarify the scope of copyright protection and, as well as addressing infringement methodology, there is also consideration of the legal issues that surround the practice of reverse engineering together with consideration of the defences to infringement as these apply particularly to copyright in software.
Gender and the Court of Justice
Authors: Shaw Jo
Published: November 2023

This chapter seeks to uncover and explain the relevance of the concept of ‘gender’ in the context of the role of the Court of Justice within the legal and political order of the European Union. The Court remains an important subject of analysis within the discipline of European Union legal studies, both because of its institutional position within the system of the EU as political and legal order reaching deep into each of the domestic systems directly implicated in the EU, and because the normative effects of its pronouncementson questions of gender have a unique geographical spread. They are not only binding within the legal systems of the fifteen current Member States, but also influence in strong ways both the legal systems of the states belonging to the European Economic Area and those of the candidate countries in the current Enlargement rounds which are tied to the EU by association agreements man dating the pre-emptive introduction into the domestic legal order of much of the acquis communautaire.
Introduction to the Synchrony: Sketch of Some Grammatical Phenomena
Authors: Harris Alice c.
Published: November 2023

The goal of this chapter is to provide basic information on the grammar that is essential to a complete understanding of examples. Accordingly, it sketches the declension system, the use of the most important cases, the tense–aspect–mood (TAM) system, person marking (PMs), voice, and word order. Like other parts of the book, this chapter describes primarily the situation today in the subdialect spoken in Okt’omber, and secondarily the Vartašen dialect as attested in published texts beginning with Schiefner (1863). More complete descriptions of the grammar can be found in Schiefner (1863), Dirr (1904), Jeiranišvili (1971), Pančvi3e (1974), Schulze (1982), and Schulze-Fürhoff (1994b).
Clitic Properties
Authors: Harris Alice c.
Published: November 2023

The primary goal of this chapter is to show that PMs in Udi are clitics, not affixes. This is an important part of the overall goals of this work, since I must establish that PMs are clitics before I can show, in Chapter 6, that they are endoclitics. I approach this problem by considering the definitions and diagnostic criteria proposed in the literature to distinguish clitics from other grammatical items. I begin with Zwicky and Pullum (1983) in §5.1, move to Klavans (1985) in §5.2, and then to Scalise (1984) in §5.3, and a comparison with Romance clitics in §5.4. In §5.5 I briefly discuss the problem that Udi PMs have properties reminiscent of agreement, and I conclude with a general assessment in §5.6. In §5.1.6, other particles are considered, and it is shown that they are clitics.
The Position of Clitics in Udi
Authors: Harris Alice c.
Published: November 2023

It has been claimed that endoclitics do not exist (e.g. Klavans 1985). On the other hand, it has been suggested that Pashto is a language in which clitics occur inside the verb. Kaisse (1981, 1985: 132 – 43) showed that in Pashto, the clitics at issue always follow a morpheme; they do not occur inside a morpheme. Roberts (1997) has argued recently that the morpheme at issue is, in fact, part of the verb; thus on his analysis the clitics are endoclitic, of the intermorphemic variety. In this chapter it is shown that in Udi, too, intermorphemic clitics occur. It is shown in addition that in Udi clitics occur inside monomorphemic verb roots. As discussed in Chapter 1, the position of the PM in Udi has never been fully described. The most complete statement is that of Schulze (1982: 168 – 9), cited in §1.4.1, and repeated as Table 6.1 below. (Recall that PZ = my PM, V = verb, T = TAM marker, Vn = the nominal incorporated into the verb, and HV = light verb.) Examples I have elicited and collected in texts require us to recognize additional patterns; 6’ is only a variant of Schulze’s pattern 6.
Focus Clefts and the Origins of Focus in Udi
Authors: Harris Alice c.
Published: November 2023

The focus-marking property of PMs in Udi, while not unique among languages of the world, is quite remarkable. An investigation of its origin and that of the partially similar focus marking in other languages of the North East Caucasian family explains a number of aspects of the current system. Given the contacts of Udi with other languages during the last two millennia, the development of the category of person (in agreement) is likely to have been influenced by Azeri (Azerbaijani), Georgian, Armenian, Persian, and other non-NEC languages. Development of focus marking is also likely to have been influenced by these sources, but especially by Azeri, which has both focus clefts and at least some of the kinds of focus word order found in Turkish. According to the criteria established by Thomason and Kaufman (1988: 57 –64), evidence for the likelihood of influence by Azeri in these aspects of the grammar is the fact that Udi has also been influenced by this language (as well as others) in other subsystems, notably the lexicon, with obvious borrowings such as ba  γ ‘garden’, buz ‘ice’, vaxt’ ‘time’ (Azeri vaxt), q’ona  γ ‘guest’ (Azeri qonaq).3 Nevertheless, the person agreement system developed by Udi is entirely unlike anything in Azeri or the other contact languages, in the sense that only in Udi have we identified such a variety of positions under specific conditions (see Chapter 6), and only Udi has PMs that invade verbs, even monomorphemic verb roots. For this reason, and because internal mechanisms are often involved even in instances of contact, we must look also for internal causes, internal mechanisms, and internal explanations.
Changes in Case-Marking Patterns
Authors: Harris Alice c.
Published: November 2023

Three changes in case-marking patterns distinguish Udi from its roots in PL and PNEC. At least two of these changes are related to changes in the verb described in Chapter 9. The purpose of this chapter is to explore these changes and relate them to language universals. As background for this chapter, the reader should recall from §8.2 that the general case marking inherited from PL required subjects of transitives to be in the ergative case, direct objects and subjects of intransitives in the absolutive, and indirect objects in the dative. Udi also inherited a special case pattern traditionally called inversion, in which experiencers are in the dative, and stimuli in the absolutive. Changes from these inherited patterns are the subject of this chapter. In §n.1 I describe the synchronic use of the absolutive and dative cases to mark direct objects, and in §n.2 I examine the grammatical changes that brought this about. §n.3 focuses on the change from the strictly absolutive marking of intransitive subjects, while §11.4 briefly describes the loss of the inversion construction.
A Practical Introduction to Phonetics
Authors: Catford J C
Published: November 2023

An understanding of phonetics - of the mechanisms of speech, of how the sounds of language are produced, and of how they can be analysed and classified - is an essential acquirement for all those who have to deal with language and languages either theoretically or practically. This book is an introduction to general phonetics which explores the entire range of human sounds, systematically covering all types of modification of speech (breath, voice, whisper, creak, etc.), articulation (the ways in which the air stream is finally modulated to generate specific types of sound), and prosodic features (stress, syllable, tone, intonation, etc.). In addition, there is a chapter on sound systems - the ways in which particular languages utilize and systematize the universal sound-producing potential of man. The entire range of phonetic categories is introduced in 124 'experiments', to be carried out in the readrer's own vocal tract. In this way, the reader acquires a personal awareness of the principles of phonetic analysis and classification rather than a merely intellectual knowledge of them. This highly practical approach is informed throughout by recent research, particularly in the aerodynamics and acoustics of speech. NEW TO THE SECOND EDITION: New format and text design Updated usage of phonetic symobls in line with the most recent International Phonetic Alphabet Chart (1996) Revisions to 9 figures Text updated and clarified for ease of reading Revised further reading section with recent publications and more attention to aerodynamics, acoustics, and prosodies New references to the most important new publications
Basic Components of Speech
Authors: Catford J C
Published: November 2023

The first step in the study of phonetics is to discover, experimentally, the basic components that go into the production of any speech-sound.We begin by producing a prolonged [f]-sound—the first sound in the words ‘first’, ‘four’, and last sound in #x2018;huff’, ‘puff’, and so on. While making the sound one must think about what is going on—that is, one must analyse the production of the sound introspectively, by taking note of the kinaesthetic sensations, the feelings of contact and movement associated with it.
The Nature of the Rights
Authors: Clayton Richard , Tomlinson Hugh
Published: November 2023

The rights to privacy and respect for the home are less well established in human rights jurisprudence than traditional civil rights such as life, liberty or freedom from slavery. Although the right of persons to be secure in their homes from un reasonable searches has long been acknowledged, a more general right to privacy and respect for the home was only clearly recognised in the twentieth century. Most modern international human rights instruments now protect the right of the individual to ‘privacy’ or ‘private life’, but the limits of the right are still not clearly defined.
The Law Under the European Convention
Authors: Clayton Richard , Tomlinson Hugh
Published: November 2023

There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.
The Law Under the European Convention
Authors: Clayton Richard , Tomlinson Hugh
Published: November 2023

Everyone has the right to freedom of expression. This right shall include freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority and regardless of frontiers. This Article shall not prevent States from requiring the licensing of broadcasting, television or cinema enterprises.
‘Rariu Doesn’t Rhyme with Western Medicine’: Lay Beliefs and Illness Networks in Kenya
Authors: Luke Nancy , Warriner Ina , Watkins Susan Cotts
Published: November 2023

In the course of research on the role of conversational networks in women’s health behaviours and family planning usage in South Nyanza District,1 Kenya, we uncovered a reproductive health condition that rural Luo women call rariu. Women refer to this cluster of symptoms by placing their arm across their abdomen, often bending at the waist. When asked about women’s health problems in semi-structured interviews, one-third of the women mentioned rariu and described its symptoms.
Abortion in Egypt: Official Constraints and Popular Practices
Authors: Huntington Dale
Published: November 2023

The analysis of abortion practices is complicated by the interplay of a wide range of issues that will confound a narrowly conceived review. Clearly, contraceptive practices are intimately related to abortion. In addition, societal norms, religious beliefs, and legal restrictions will influence not only women’s practices but their willingness to discuss abortion with researchers. Tolerance for a degree of ambiguity is required for those seeking information on societal level indicators of abortion activity. Great sensitivity is an asset for understanding personal behaviours.

These challenges aside, one point is incontestably clear with respect to the study of abortion activity. In settings where access to abortion is restricted, many women will still resort to an unsafe practice to end an unwanted pregnancy and as a result they will have to seek emergency medical care for complications.
Re-theorizing Reproductive Health and Rights in the Light of Feminist Cross-cultural Research
Authors: Petchesky Rosalind P
Published: November 2023

By now, as the wealth of analyses presented in this volume attests, it should not be necessary to defend either qualitative methods or cross-cultural comparisons in the field of population studies. Due largely to the influence on both policy and theory of women’s health movements around the globe in the 1980s and 1990s (Garcia Moreno and Claro 1994; Petchesky 1997), the mainstream discourse of the field has shifted in a number of new directions:
Introduction
Authors: Cheung Tai Ming
Published: November 2023

In the spring of 1985, the mighty Chinese any ro1led into battle. Its mission was to stonn the commanding heights of the country’s booming economy and claim a stake in its prosperity. This was no military putsch though. Instead of charging forward with bayonets and tanks, soldiers were only banned with business plans and tax breaks.

This opening offensive turned into one of the most challenging, protracted, and grue11ing campaigns ever waged by the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), which had found itself in dire financial straits after being relentlessly savaged by years of deep budget cuts. Enormous effort and resources were invested to build a vast but loosely connected commercial empire stretching into virtually every comer of the economy and abroad.
The Historical Roots of the Military Business Complex from Imperial Times to the Communist Era
Authors: Cheung Tai Ming
Published: November 2023

Although the Chinese military business complex was only forma11y established in the mid-1980s, its roots can be traced back many centuries. Chinese armies have been intensively engaged in economic activities ever since the dawning of the country’s civilization more than 4,000 years ago. A defining characteristic of traditional Chinese military culture stretching from pre-imperial through to imperial times and ultimately to the Communist era was that armies had to be wholly or partia11y self-sufficient. They received only limited fiscal support from their civilian masters and had to forage to meet their own needs. A key tenet of Chinese imperial political culture was that a low tax base was essential to the well-being of the country and showed the true proof of an emperor’s benevolence.
The Military Business Complex in the Regions and Overseas
Authors: Cheung Tai Ming
Published: November 2023

PLA enterprises were scattered throughout China during the 1980s and I 990s. Their distribution and the nature of their commercial operations closely resembled the regional structure of the national economy. In booming coastal provinces in eastern and southern China, they were heavily concentrated in foreign trade, tourism, and other service industries. Their counterparts in inland western and central regions were more involved in agricultural and industrial manufacturing activities.
The Rewards of Military Commercialism
Authors: Cheung Tai Ming
Published: November 2023

Commercialism brought rich rewards to the PLA. Billions of dollars of profits were earned, millions of soldiers learnt civilian work skills, and hundreds of thousands of jobs were created for demobilized personnel and family dependants. Production earnings were mostly spent on upgrading living conditions among the rank and file, although a limited amount was used to upgrade combat capabilities. Barracks were renovated, food rations raised, and subsidies added to basic wages. This helped to boost troop morale and allowed the armed forces to be left not too far behind the steady rise in national living standards in the reform era.
The Drawbacks
Authors: Cheung Tai Ming
Published: November 2023

Military chiefs had few illusions they might be opening up a Pandora’s box of woes when they gave the go-ahead for commercial operations in 1985. They only had to look back ten years earlier when embezzlement, profiteering, and other abuses became rampant after army factories and hospitals were granted limited economic autonomy. This time around though, the cash-strapped military brass hoped that the economic returns would outweigh the drawbacks. There was also wishful thinking that the excesses of commercialism could be contained through administrative regulation and ideological indoctrination.

These expectations were short-lived. Within a few months of the approval being given for the PLA ‘s engagement in business, a clean-up of army-backed trading companies had to be conducted to curb rampant economic abuses. From then on, the military authorities were fighting a rearguard action to limit the spread of malpractices and economic crimes by military units and their business enterprises. Despite regular crackdowns, corruption, smuggling, and other vices became increasingly rampant and huge sums of undeclared profits and misappropriated assets were megally siphoned off by individuals and institutions.
The Distribution of Household Appliances: A Keiretsu Distribution System
Authors: Niida Hiroshi
Published: November 2023

The distribution of household electrical appliances (excluding computers) has long been considered a typical example of Japan’s “keiretsu distribution system”, together with that of automobiles. Major electric appliances have been sold through various keiretsu marketing channels of the appliance keiretsu distribution system. A keiretsu distribution system is loosely defined as a distribution channel of whole-salers and retailers organized under a manufacturer’s common marketing strategy. Thus, it resembles a directed (or vertical) marketing channel in the United States.