bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Victims, Informal Negotiations, and Prosecution Options
Authors: King Peter
Published: November 2023

In the unfolding drama of most property crime prosecutions the central role was played by the victim. As the foreign observer Cottu noted in 1820, ‘The right of prosecution ... is placed entirely in the hands of the offended party, who becomes ⃛ the sole arbiter of the fate of the offender, and can ⃛ either prosecute him with the utmost rigour of the law, or soften a part of its severity against him, by modifying the form of the indictment, or even pardon him altogether, by omitting to prefer any complaint against him.’ Between 1740 and 1820 officials only took responsibility for prosecutions involving property appropriation in very exceptional circumstances, such as major coining or forgery cases.1 It was the victim who provided the momentum, the driving force that moved a dispute towards a trial in the major courts. If the victim refused to react, the judicial system remained inert and ineffective. If the victim chose to take on the expensive, time-consuming, and often complex task of organizing the detection, arrest, and possible committal of the offender, he (or occasionally she) found that an array of discretionary powers fell into his hands. Despite the technical legal restraints designed to limit his discretion, in practice the victim had immense freedom of manoeuvre. Ifhe decided to call the process to a halt by making a settlement or applying informal sanctions, it was rarely possible to prevent him. Even after the committal proceedings, at which the magistrates decided whether or not to imprison the accused awaiting trial, prosecutors remained highly influential. Some undermined the trial process completely by failing to appear, while many influenced the verdict and final sentence by the type of charge they brought, by the way they brought it, and by petitioning the trial authorities for a particular outcome. The first chapter of this section on pretrial processes therefore focuses on the victims and their decisions—their initial reactions, their detection methods, their negotiations with suspects, and finally the choices they made between the committal proceedings and the trial. Chapters 3 and 4 then explore the assistance available to victims and the role of committal proceedings and of the summary courts.
Magistrates and Summary Courts
Authors: King Peter
Published: November 2023

Despite the assistance he or she sometimes received from others, it was the victim who decided whether or not to move the accused on to the next stage of the judicial process by taking him before a Justice of the Peace. The magistrates themselves rarely influenced this decision. Most eighteenth-century JPs were not directly concerned with the detection of offenders. A few diligent magistrates did sometimes involve themselves in advertising and apprehending suspects but such men were exceptional.
The Offenders: Property Crime and Life-Cycle Change
Authors: King Peter
Published: November 2023

Who was accused of property theft in the eighteenth-century courts? The evidence available is often minimal and summary offences are particularly difficult to contextualize for that reason, but by the 1780s new recording practices in the major courts enable a dimension previously neglected by historians to be analysed. That dimension is the life-cycle. Modern criminologists implicitly assume that most offenders are juveniles or young adults and this pattern has been confirmed by self-report studies and longitudinal surveys as well as by the statistics on prosecuted offenders; but although the early nineteenth-century rise of juvenile delinquency has been studied, eighteenth-century historians have yet to examine in detail the relationship between crime and life-cycle change.1 By focusing initially on the age structure of the accused, and by relating this evidence both to the experiences of certain key groups across the life-cycle, and to contemporary attitudes towards the regulation of different age ranges, this chapter will use that relationship as the core of a discussion of both male and female offenders. It will then assess more traditional concerns about the social status and the professional or casual nature of offenders, before drawing together all these threads in order to reassess historians’ traditional emphasis on the importance of severe economic hardship as an explanation of changing patterns of recorded crime. In doing so it will also explore the ways in which the vulnerability of different subgroups to formal prosecution was the product of the interaction between two forces-the selection policies used by victims, magistrates, etc., and the differing levels of appropriation indulged in by the offenders themselves.
Pardoning Policies: The Good Mind and the Bad
Authors: King Peter
Published: November 2023

Most conditional pardons were granted by the circuit judges at the end of the assizes before they moved on to the next county, and some clues about the criteria they used can be gleaned from the ways that hanging rates differed by offence, gender, and age (Chapter 8). However, they were not required to record their reasons for making these decisions and they very rarely did so, making it difficult to assess the impact of other aspects of these cases on pardoning decisions. Fortunately some of the prisoners who were not granted immediate reprieves petitioned the King for a pardon through the Secretary of State, and whenever a petition was received the trial judge was immediately asked to send a written report of the case. The many petitions, supporting letters, and judges’ reports that have survived from this process offer a rare window into the minds of the decision-makers, but even though the late eighteenth-century archive lacks the depth of documentation Gatrell found by the 1820s, these are complex documents that need to be treated with care. The judges’ reports were hidden transcripts, written in private between powerful people who did not expect the powerless prisoner ever to see their correspondence. The petitions, by contrast, are public transcripts written by the powerless to the powerful. Their language was therefore deferential, needful, tactical, or just plain desperate. Unlike the French, and usually murderrelated, petitions recently analysed by Natalie Zemon Davis, the English petitions very rarely contained carefully crafted narratives retelling the story of the prisoner’s crime in detail.
Conclusion: Law and Social Relations, 1740–1820
Authors: King Peter
Published: November 2023

The legal institutions of the eighteenth century were complex and full of ambiguities. Although for the sake of brevity historians often use phrases such as ‘the legitimacy of the law’ and ‘popular attitudes to the law’, the law was not, of course, as monolithic as this implies. The law held different meanings for different people and its pluralistic nature meant that each individual or social group might have a range of often contradictory experiences of legal institutions. There were important regional differences—between London and the provinces, for example, or between areas that had easy access to the different types of court and areas that did not. More important, the administration of the law was multifaceted. The punishments it imposed and the social groups that mobilized it changed fundamentally according to the type of offence being dealt with. For example, even the limited research so far published indicates that the laws relating to assault were extensively mobilized by the labouring poor, as were the opportunities offered by the summary courts to appeal for relief, to obtain unpaid wages, or to resolve a variety of other disputes. Given that a substantial number of labourers also brought theft prosecutions to the courts, it is clear that the eighteenth-century poor did not meet the law only as criminal sanction. However, it is equally apparent that in this period the criminal justice system did not process the central category of offenders focused on in this study—those who had appropriated others’ property—in an impartial or neutral way.
The Model and the Men
Authors: Fincham Kenneth
Published: November 2023

‘And who is sufficient for these things?’1 Jacobeans often applied this Pauline lament to the episcopal office. Bishop Lancelot Andrewes even had the phrase engraved on his seal,2 so daunting was the prevalent theory of episcopal government. The exemplar was the ‘apostolic’ or ‘primitive’ bishop, outlined in the pastoral epistles of St Paul, and embellished by the early Fathers. It was an image of great potency in early Stuart England, as the model for the Jacobean episcopate to imitate and against which to be judged by contemporaries. Although the pastoral ideal had been the common currency of Christendom for centuries, its features were brought out and sharpened in humanist writings in the early sixteenth century.3
Times Past and Present
Authors: Hastrcp Kirsten
Published: November 2023

In Icelandic, saga means both story and history. It is literally what is ‘said’ about previous events, periods, or people. Telling makes history. The Icelandic sagas are stories of different historical veracity, but the point is that in the concept of saga, story and history are one. In my conversations with Icelanders the notion would often be incurred in relating particular events, and although obviously the Icelanders are perfectly capable of distinguishing between truth and lie, this distinction is of less moment in the telling of the past than one would think. Knowledge (Jrcedi) is neutral in relation to the distinction between truth and lie: one’s learning may be somewhat wanting or wrong, but no lie; lies are made by people speaking against better knowledge (Sorensen 1993: 38). And that is the point; in telling what they know, or what they have been told, the Icelanders share what is ‘said’ with each other—and with the anthropologist. The story contains the knowledge of history and more often than not it is prefaced by a sagt er (‘it is said’), or if the content is less certain: munnmeelin segja (‘legend says’, or ‘speech goes’).
Why Kinship?
Authors: Edwards Jeanette
Published: November 2023

MY original interest in carrying out anthropological fieldwork in the Lancashire town of Bacup was to study ‘communication between providers and users of services’. Given a diet of arid, turgid, and unpeopled kinship systems as an undergraduate student, I imagined kinship was the least of my interests, and was not, I have to admit, looking for it. But I was looking for social class; convinced I would find miscommunication at the interface of what I then crudely conceptualized as middle-class service-providers and their working-class clientele. In 1987 and 1988, many Bacup residents seemed keen to talk about services, particularly with reference to local government. The already diminished manufacturing industry in the region was shrinking further and the weekly local newspaper reported, in almost every edition, the closure of one small business after another with its attendant job losses. There was little building going on in the town: a few new houses were being constructed but with private rather than state sponsorship; they were said to be affordable only by middle-class commuters moving to Bacup from ‘the city’.
Rural Reform and the Post-Collective Period
Authors: Sneath David
Published: November 2023

Introduction: China’s Economic Reforms

The third plenum of the eleventh Central Committee of the CCP, held in December 1978, saw the beginning of a new departure in the history of the Communist administration of China. The Maoist vision of the economy was replaced by Deng Xiaoping’s pragmatic policies for modernization. The Central Committee lessened direct Party control of the economy, and increased the power of the heads of the work units. Discussion began as to the reform of the People’s Communes, with the aim of increasing material incentives for good work. Reformers such as Chen Yun (and later Zhao Ziyang) emphasized’ the principle of distribution according to work’1 and in 1979 the Rural Responsibility System was approved, the first step towards decollectivization.
Order and Disorder in Melanesian Religion
Authors: Whitehouse Harvey
Published: November 2023

The contrasting modalities of codification and dissemination in Papua New Guinea, explored in the last chapter, raise issues at the heart of a long-standing debate about religious ‘order’ in Melanesia. The major differences between missionary Christianity and indigenous fertility cults bring to prominence a contrast between, on the one hand, relatively coherent, integrated, widely shared, and stable doctrinal systems and, on the other, comparatively unconnected, poorly shared, and innovative local cults. Arguably, this contrast has been obscured by a tendency for at least some anthropologists to envisage all Melanesian religions as doctrinal systems.
Coping with Uncertainty: Adaptive Responses to Drought and Livestock Disease in the Northern Kalahari
Authors: Hitchcock Robert K
Published: November 2023

An enduring but in many ways unfortunate image of Africa is that of a mal nourished child sitting in the sand at the edge of a refugee camp set in a bleak desert landscape. All too often, Africa is characterized as a kind of basket case, a continent beset by drought, famine, disease, and civil conflict (Kaplan 1996). Less attention tends to be paid in the media to African success stories, to the diverse and ingenious strategies used by communities, families, and individuals to cope with uncertainty and reduce risk, and to the innovative programmers employed by African governments and non-government organizations to predict, plan for, manage, and assess the impacts of changes in their socio-economic and environmental situations.
Drought as a Revelatory Crisis Revisited: An Exploration of Shifting Entitlements and Hierarchies
Authors: Solway Jacqueline S
Published: November 2023

In his analysis of the domestic mode of production Sahlins (1972: 124, 143) refers to a revelatory crisis as one of the few occasions outside of an ‘act of ethnographic will’ that exposes to the observer the central contradiction in that mode of production. The drought in southern Africa that occurred in Botswana in varying waves of intensity between 1979 and 1987 constituted such a revelatory crisis.’ It precipitated the interruption of socio economic patterns to a degree sufficient to lay bare contradictions in the existing order that had been latent or contained prior to the drought.
Syllabic Phonology
Authors: Odden David
Published: November 2023

Kimatuumbi has many rules relating to syllable structure, especially rules which conflate sequences of vowels. The first section of this chapter investigates syllable readjustments and compensatory lengthening, and the second considers other areas of Kimatuumbi grammar where prosodic structure is relevant. A nonlinear account of these phenomena provides an insightful explanation for compensatory lengthening, and allows a perspicuous statement of the rule for the language game Chaanchú úigu. Section 4.3 considers principles of syllabification for Kimatuumbi, and the final section investigates two word-internal rules of vowel shortening.
The Phonology Of Portuguese
Authors: Mateus Maria Helena , d’Andrade Ernesto
Published: November 2023

Portuguese emerged from vulgar Latin during the course of the third century. Influential in its development were successive invasions by Germanic peoples, Visigoths, and Moors, the latter of whom were finally evicted in the thirteenth century. As a consequence of the newly-independent kingdoms imperial achievements, Portuguese is the national language of Brazil and the official language of several African countries. Maria Helena Mateus and Ernesto dAndrade present a broad description and comparative analysis of the phonetics and phonology of European and Brazilian Portuguese. They begin by introducing the history of Portuguese and its principal varieties. Chapter 2 describes the phonetic characteristics of consonants, vowels, and glides, and Chapter 3 looks at prosodic structure. Chapters 4 and 5 present the general characteristics of Portuguese nominal and verbal systems, the former considering inflectional and the latter derivational processes. Chapter 6 examines stress, main, secondary, and echo, and Chapter 7 describes phonological processes that are not related to the morphological structure of the word, including the peculiar process of nazalization. The authors deploy current theoretical models to explain the rich variety of Portuguese phonology and interrelated aspects of morphology. This is by far the most comprehensive account of the subject to have appeared in English, and the most up-to-date in any language.
Collected Papers
Authors: Evans Gareth
Published: November 2023

This volume contains thirteen papers, including two previously unpublished, by Gareth Evans, a brilliant philosopher who died in 1980 at the age of 34. The treatments of problems about language are here informed by a lively sense of interconnections with issues in metaphysics and the problem of mind, and some of the papers are primarly directed to problems in these fields. Anyone who is concerned with the central questions of philosophy will be interested in this collection.
Literacy in a Pidgin Vernacular
Authors: Charpentier Jean-Michel
Published: November 2023

The 1953 Unesco monograph reflects the ambivalence of the time towards pidgin languages. On the one hand, pidgins do not appear at all in Appendix r, a ‘Tentative Classification of the Languages Spoken in the World Today’ (Unesco 1953: 139-43); on the other, pidgin appears among the terms defined at the beginning of the report of the meeting of specialists (held in 1951): ‘a language which has arisen as the result of contact between peoples of different languages, usually formed from a mixing of the languages’ (ibid. 46), and one of the seven case histories deals with ‘The Problem of “Pidgin” in the Trust Territory of New Guinea’ (ibid. 103-15). The tentative classification is organized by divisions into main stocks and families, a model based on the genetic metaphor with common ancestors for the different families; such a view excludes in principle the presence of ‘hybrid’ languages.
Motivations and Attitudes Influencing Vernacular Literacy: Four African Assessments
Authors: Fasold Ralph w.
Published: November 2023

When the 1953 Unesco report was published, it was largely taken for granted that literacy was generally desirable; the central argument of the report was that initial literacy instruction in the mother tongue was the most efficient way to achieve it. As Weinstein (1987) points out, the Unesco report was written from a particular ideological point of view. He points out that most of the thirteen members of the committee had a long-standing interest in non-European languages and many had previously been advocates of minority languages in education and literacy. Weinstein is careful to note that there is nothing wrong with an orientation in favour of such ideals as the development of non-European languages or linguistic self-determination or the preservation of cultural and linguistic pluralism or the psychological and educational well-being of the individual child. The Unesco committee expressed a sincere and reasonable point of view that its members held consistently both before and after publication of the report. One should simply be aware that a certain unquestioned ideological framework is assumed in the report and much subsequent discussion. With some forty years of hindsight it is clear that the psycholinguistic efficiency factor assumed in the report is not the only force operating on the success or failure of vernacular literacy programmes; in fact, it seems not to be even a major one.
Aristotle’s Definitions of Psuche
Authors: Ackrill J L
Published: November 2023

In spite of the doubt he expresses as to the possibility or usefulness of giving a general definition of psucheē, Aristotle does offer such a definition in De Anima 11. 1; indeed, he offers three. In this essay I wish to develop (in a simple, or even simpleminded, way) a main difficulty his formulae seem to involve, and to enquire into the root of the difficulty.
Aristotle on Action
Authors: Ackrill J L
Published: November 2023

Aristotle’s statements about action and choice seem to involve serious inconsistencies–and on topics central to ethics and to his Ethics. Here are some samples. Aristotle holds that when we choose to do something, we always choose with a view to some end, for the sake of something; but he also insists that a man who does a virtuous act is not doing it virtuously–is not displaying virtue–unless he has chosen it ‘for itself’.Actions are done for the sake of other things, and things we can do are not themselves the ends with a view to which we do them; yet action (praxis) differs from production (poiesis), according to Aristotle, precisely because it is its own end. In recommending the theoretical life, Aristotle says that whereas contemplation ‘aims at no end beyond itself’, fine actions do ‘aim at some end and are not desirable for their own sake’; but in recommending the life of action, he says that doing noble and good deeds is a thing desirable for its own sake, and that ‘those activities are desirable in themselves from which nothing is sought beyond the activity’.Passages like these suggest two problems.
Sentences and Clauses
Authors: Miller Jim , Weinert Regina
Published: November 2023

This first chapter on syntax asks a central question: what are the appropriate analytical units for the syntax of spontaneous spoken language? This important question has received different answers: either the same units apply as in the syntactic analysis of written language or a different but overlapping set is required. The position defended here is that the sentence should be regarded as a low-level discourse unit of written language, that clauses and phrases are units of both spoken and written language, and that sequences of clauses in spoken language may form clause complexes. The last section of the chapter argues that much spontaneous language does not even have a syntactic structure in which phrases combine into clauses or clauses into integrated clause complexes. Rather, the structure consists of blocks of syntax with little or no syntactic linkage and requiring from the listener a larger than usual exercise of inference based on contextual and world knowledge.
Noun Phrases: Complexity and Configuration
Authors: Miller Jim , Weinert Regina
Published: November 2023

Another property that varies between spontaneous spoken language and written language is the structure and complexity of phrases. This observation is not new. For Russian Sirotinina (1974: 79–80) establishes a scale of genres going from formal written language through academic spoken discourse, literary discourse, and informal letters to conversation. She observes that as one moves along the scale from formal writing to spontaneous speech the number of full nouns diminishes as does the number of adjectives. For full nouns she cites figures of 386 per 1,000 words in formal writing but only 142 in conversation; and for adjectives, 152 per 1,000 words in formal writing but only 39 in conversation. Krasil’nikova (1990: 20) also mentions the lack of complex and combined phrases but notes additional properties of NPs in spontaneous spoken Russian; typically only the final noun in an NP has a case affix, and in frequent phrasal combinations of words the case of the first word spreads to the other words (Krasil’nikova 1990: 31).
The What and the That: Theories of Singular Thought in Bradley, Russell, and the Early Wittgenstein
Authors: Levine James
Published: November 2023

As has become widely recognized in recent years, one of the fundamental differences between Frege and Russell concerns their views of the constituents of singular sentential ‘contents’. Frege and Russell agree that at least one purpose of a proper name is to stand for an object, and both agree that sentences containing proper names, as well as the contents such sentences express, are about the objects designated by the names in those sentences (if those names succeed in designating at all).
Thought’s Happy Suicide
Authors: Baldwin Thomas
Published: November 2023

In the appendix to Appearance and Reality Bradley says that the main thesis of the work is contained in chapter 15 on ‘Thought and Reality’. The central theme of that chapter is that reality lies beyond any system of thoughts, however harmonious and comprehensive: the pursuit of truth, which is an essential characteristic of thought, carries thought beyond itself-to the Absolute.
Bradley’s Doctrine of the Absolute
Authors: Sprigge T L S
Published: November 2023

There is a strong temptation, when attempting to interest philosophers of today in a historical thinker with currently unfashion able metaphysical commitments, to concentrate on aspects of his thought which seem independent of these. The result is often to relegate what was central from the thinker’s own point of view to the sidelines. One could point to several treatments of historical philosophers of this character.
Introduction
Authors: Vaux Bert
Published: November 2023

Armenian is one of the most widespread languages of the world, with distinct dialects located as far west as Transylvania and as far east as India. It has a rich literary history dating from the fourth century AD, when the Bible was translated into Classical Armenian. It is one of the most linguistically divergent of the Indo-European languages, having undergone a host of complicated phonological, morphological, and syntactic changes that continue to resist satisfactory analysis by historical linguists. The historical interest of the language derives in part from the significant lexical and grammatical influence of neighboring languages (primarily Iranian, Turkic, Anatolian, and Caucasian); none the less, a significant portion of the Armenian lexicon cannot be related to any known source.
Theoretical Background
Authors: Vaux Bert
Published: November 2023

The theory of phonology underlying this thesis is Rules and Representations Theory (RRT),1 as developed in Vaux (1993a), Halle and Vaux (1994), Calabrese (1995), and Halle (1995). RRT is concerned with the hierarchical organization of phonological features (Representations), and the ways in which these features interact within and between segments (Rules).
Syllabification
Authors: Vaux Bert
Published: November 2023

One of the first problems confronted by students of Armenian is the discrepancy between the orthography, which contains consonant clusters of as many as ten members, and the pronunciation, which displays relatively manageable clusters and any number of schwas, almost none of which are reflected in the orthography. A typical example is the word for ‘brilliant’, which is spelled  but pronounced [pa.las.thar.pa.las.thJr]. One immediately wonders whether the orthography directly represents underlying lexical representations which are subsequently altered by rules of epenthesis, or alternately that the schwas present in surface pronunciations are already present in underlying representations, and the orthography is underdetermined. If schwas are present in underlying representations we expect them to show the same distribution as other vowels in the Armenian inventory, and to defy attempts to predict their occurrence from principles of epenthesis. Conversely, if schwas are not present in underlying representations we expect their occurrences to be predictable from underlying representations by simple and universal principles. I argue in this chapter that the latter hypothesis is correct, and demonstrate that a modified version of the syllabification algorithm postulated as a component of Universal Grammar by Dell and Elmedlaoui (1985) accounts for the occurrence of Armenian schwas in a principled and elegant manner.
Prosodic Phenomena
Authors: Vaux Bert
Published: November 2023

The aim of this chapter is to provide a basic survey of some of the more interesting prosodic phenomena that appear in Armenian dialects. In each of the cases considered here, I present only a modicum of analysis in the hopes that others will be inspired to address these issues in greater detail. Section 8.1 deals with two types of reduplication found in both Armenian and Turkish. Section 8.2 presents the most common method of forming hypocoristics in SWA, which turns out to be almost identical to one of the preferred formations in English. Finally, section 8.3 sets out the extremely complicated facts of long-distance compensatory lengthening in the Syrian dialect of Svedia, and touches on diphthongization processes.
Two Concepts of Consciousness
Authors: Rosenthal David M
Published: November 2023

No mental phenomenon is more central than consciousness to an adequate understanding of the mind. Nor does any mental phenomenon seem more stubbornly to resist theoretical treatment. Consciousness is so basic to the way we think about the mind that it can be tempting to suppose that no mental states exist that are not conscious states. Indeed, it may even seem mysterious what sort of thing a mental state might be if it is not a conscious state. On this way oflooking at things, if any mental states do lack consciousness, they are exceptional cases that call for special explanation or qualification. Perhaps dispositional or cognitive states exist that are not conscious, but nonetheless count as mental states.
Pronouns and Complernentizers
Authors: Willis Dayid W E
Published: November 2023

The focus of discussion now returns to the status of the preverbal subject pronouns. During the eighteenth century, a series of changes in the syntax of these pronouns takes place. In this chapter I show that these changes represent a shift away from SVO orders in Welsh, and help to ensure the dominance of the VSO pattern in Contemporary Welsh. In order to do this, I look at a substantial body of texts from the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. For the first time in this study, it will be possible to distinguish sharply the separate development of the literary language and the vernacular, and also the emergence of regional syntactic variation within the vernacular. In presenting the divergent evidence of the different stylistic levels, I concentrate on the developments in the dialects rather than the literary language, in the belief that these allow an investigation into the mechanisms of natural linguistic change in a way that changes in the essentia1ly artificial literary language do not. Before looking at the syntactic changes in detail, I shall begin by discussing the sources of evidence in general, and the texts used in this chapter in particular.
Conclusion
Authors: Willis Dayid W E
Published: November 2023

This study has attempted to contribute to the understanding of a group of related questions in historical Welsh syntax, whilst at the same time investigating the ways in which syntactic change may universally operate. I shall now consider the main results of these enquiries.
A Limited Theory of the Family
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman
Published: November 2023

In the first part of Parents and Children: The Ethics of the Family, Jeffrey Blustein constructs a history of the philosophy of the family. He notes that it is complicated by the fact that there is no common meaning of what constitutes a family in the philosophical literature, and by the changing emotional and psychological significance of the family to its members.
Metaphysics A 7
Authors: Laks André
Published: November 2023

A 7 does not constitute a self-contained unit, but is the continuation of a discussion begun in A 6 whose official function it is to justify the thesis which Aristotle puts forth at the outset of the chapter: The lack of proportion between the treatment of the first series of predicates, which only takes up a few lines, if we set ‘necessity’ aside (supposing that ‘necessity’ should count as one of the specifications in the original list set out in (T) ), and the treatment of the supplementary characterizations thus is all the more striking. In view of the discussion to which the second series of predicates gives rise, the text of the thesis (T) might look like an introductory formulation.
Metaphysics A Io
Authors: Sedley David
Published: November 2023

I take Metaphysics A r o to function in relation to Metaphysics A as a whole roughly as follows. The key to the book’s search for a single ultimate principle lies in the thesis (A 4-5) that the principles of various substances, although differing according to the specific substance in question, are by analogy one and the same. In the case of the moving cause-the only non-immanent principle, and the one on which Aristotle’s attention increasingly focuses-this analogical unity amounts to the fact that each moving cause is in prior actuality what its respective matter is potentially. And since this prior actuality is the common factor unifying all moving causes, the ultimate mover must be supremely actual (A 6). In fact, it must function as a final cause: its pure actuality, being the best, must be an intellectual one (A 7 and 9). Aro now consolidates these findings by concentrating, no longer on the specifically intellectual activity of the prime mover, but on its characterization as unifying final cause. This mover is the ultimate cause which, directly or indirectly, inspires all beings to achieve the maximum actuality within their power.
Stress Assignment In Simplex Words
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert
Published: November 2023

Like all other Germanic languages, Norwegian has culminative word stress. The topic of this chapter is the constraints governing placement of stress in simplex words, that is, in cases where morphology has no influence. Section 6.1 wil1 serve as a general introduction to the problems that will be discussed in the sections to follow. In Section 6.2 earlier accounts of Norwegian stress will be surveyed, and in Section 6.3 the theoretical underpinnings of the analysis to follow will be presented. Section 6.4, which contains the analysis of UEN main stress assignment, can be seen as the central section of the chapter. In the following Section 6.5, noncyclic secondary stress will be discussed.
Orthographic Conventions
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert
Published: November 2023

In this chapter the relationship between letters and sound will be discussed. I assume that most speakers of Norwegian will have a set of correspondence rules that relate each letter to an unmarked sound value. In many cases we will be dealing with universal or near-universal relationships, as for example m, n,f= [m, n, f]. In other cases we have a language specific correspondence overruling the universal one, as in u= [u]. The emphasis will be on aspects of the orthography where the correspondence is not straightforward in this sense. Since Bokmål is the norm used by the great majority of UEN speakers, the relationship between UEN and Nynorsk wiU not be considered. The chapter is organized as foilows. Section 12. l is a short recapitulation of the ideology underlying Norwegian spelling, see also Chapter 1.2. In Section 12.2 the alphabet wilJ be presented. Section 12.3 will deal with the extent to which prosodic features are signalled in writing, while Sections 12.4 and 12.5 will be concerned with vowels and consonants respectively. The chapter will be closed by a brief section on diacritics.
Types of Information in a Dictionary of Synonyms
Authors: Apresjan Juri
Published: November 2023

The heading is made up of the synonym series itself ,that is of a group of lexemes with a substantial common part.In addition to synonyms of the usual kind—lexemes of the same part of speech derived from different roots-this dictionary treats the following as synonyms: (a) different parts of speech, as long as these can fulfil identical syntactic functions; particles and adverbs (Pushkin vladychestvovBelow we present the types of lexicographical information contained in the New Explanatory Dictionary of Russian Synonyms [Novyi ob”iasnitel’ nyi slovar’ russkogo iazyka], in the form of a brief survey of the zonal structure of its entries.
The Problem of Factivity: znat’ [to know] and its Synonyms
Authors: Apresjan Juri
Published: November 2023

This chapter is based on the material of the synonym series znat’ and vedat’ [ to know], written by the author for the New Explanatory Dictionary of Russian Synonyms. The general concept of this dictionary was set forth in J. Apresjan 1992b and J. Apresjan 1995b; see also Chapter 2 in this volume. Sample synonym series have also been published; see, for example, J. Apresjan et al. 1992, J. Apresjan et al. 1995 and Chapter 4 in this volume. The present chapter follows on directly from Chapter 4, on the verb schitat’ and its synonyms, and is in a sense a continuation of it. We shall begin with two preliminary remarks. The first concerns the lexemes selected for analysis and the second—systematic lexicography and the concept of the lexicographic type, which is fundamental to it.
Lexicographic Portraits (A Case Study of the Verb byt’ [to be])
Authors: Apresjan Juri
Published: November 2023

The term ‘portrait’, applied to the description of words, was introduced by Zholkovsky (1964b). There, however, portrayal was understood only as the full semantic account of a lexeme, achieved by placing it in the broadest possible range of contexts and testing its applicability for the description of the broadest possible range of situations.Views of the lexicographically relevant properties of lexemes have subsequently expanded considerably. In particular, a much fuller account of not only the semantic but also the co-occurrence properties of lexemes was undertaken in The Explanatory and Combinatorial Dictionary of Modern Russian (ECD) (Mel’cuk and Zholkovsky 1984). Another dictionary (Benson, Benson, Ilson 1986), based to a large extent on the ideas of ECD (but unfortunately not stating this explicitly), is also of interest.
Specifiers in Generative Grammar
Authors: Adger David , Plunkett Bernadette , Tsoulas George , Pintzuk Susan
Published: November 2023

Chomsky (1970), in developing X-bar theory, introduces the term specifier to refer to an element (or a number of elements) that combines with a bar-level projection of a particular category in the base component of the grammar: [Spec, N’] is then the determiner, [Spec, V’] is the auxiliary, and [Spec, A’] is the set of degree modifiers. Jackendoff (1977) made Chomsky’s proposal more explicit and paved the way for what became the standard view of specifier as an abbreviation over structural positions. This extended Chomsky’s insight that possessives in nominals and subjects in clauses had similar structural positions to specifiers, with the precise nature of the element in the specifier position determined by the lexical properties of the head element.
EPP without Spec, IP
Authors: Alexiadou Artemis , Anagnostopoulou Elena
Published: November 2023

In Chomsky (1995), it is assumed that checking of strong nominal features of a non-substantive category takes place in a Spec-head configuration. In this system it is actually the presence of such a strong feature that forces the structural realization of the specifier of a given head. A case in point is the checking of the Extended Projection Principle (EPP) feature. The EPP is defined in Chomsky (1995) as a D-feature on I which, when strong, forces the licensing of [Spec, IP] by either movement or merging of an XP. In this chapter, we show that the uniqueness and obligatoriness of [Spec, IP] as an overt subject position that characterizes languages like English does not hold cross-linguistically, We further demonstrate that the presence of a specifier for the checking of the EPP is not necessary and can be dispensed with.
Spec-Head Agreement and Overt Case in Arabic
Authors: Benmamoun Elabbas
Published: November 2023

In pre-Minimalist analyses of nominative and accusative Case in languages such as English, the standard assumption was that nominative Case is assigned in a Spec-head relation with I and accusative Case in a government configuration. Chomsky (1995), on the other hand, proposes a Minimalist theory of Structural Case that requires that it be checked exclusively in a Spec-head configuration. However, while the Spec-head requirement dispenses with government and the disjunction it introduces into the configurational requirements on structural Case, this theory introduces another disjunction with respect to the point in the derivation where the Case features are checked (by or after Spellout, essentially overtly or covertly). 1 Moreover, this theory departs from the original insight of Vergnaud (1982) that Case interfaces primarily with PF. In this chapter, I shall argue for (1), which maintains both Chomsky’s Minimalist proposal that Case is checked exclusively in a Spec-head configuration and Vergnaud’s insight that the Case module interfaces with PF. To do that I shall reanalyse Arabic data that on the surface seems to support the theory that Case can be checked after Spellout. I shall attempt to show that at an overt point in the derivation the two elements involved in Case checking are in a Spec-head configuration suitable for Case checking.
The Acquisition of Verb Movement and Spec-Head Relationships in Child Swedish
Authors: Lynn Santelmann
Published: November 2023

This chapter investigates the relationship between verb movement and XP movement in the verb-second (V2) languages by examining the acquisition of these two movements in child Swedish. The underlying question this chapter seeks to address is whether main clause verb movement and XP movement in the V2 languages are linked, or whether they are two independently motivated, but co-occurring movements. I will argue for the former analysis of V2.
Introduction
Authors: Siptdr Peter , Torkenczy Miklos
Published: November 2023

This book presents a rule-based account of the phonology of Hungarian. At a time when current phonological research is undergoing a radical shift of emphasis towards non-derivational models (Declarative Phonology, Government Phonology, Optimality Theory), this choice of framework calls for a brief comment. Our decision to use a derivational framework follows from our primary aims rather than our theoretical preferences. As (with the notable exception of vowel harmony) Hungarian phonology is relatively little discussed in the international literature, we wanted to cover as much ground as possible descriptively, and discuss the data in a manner which is coherent and yet transparent in the sense that it is readily accessible for phonologists of a wide range of theoretical affiliations and backgrounds. As the various non-derivational frameworks have very little in common and (some of) their (basic) assumptions are still in a state of flux, this has practically determined our decision. It is perhaps not surprising that while several (sometimes very complex) phenomena from various languages have been given non-derivational treatments, no comprehensive analysis of the sound pattern of a single language has been published in any of these non-derivational theories.
On Being and Essence: I
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

THE short treatise On Being and Essence (De Ente et Essentia) was written when St Thomas was a young man-while still a bachelor, according to his biographer. The exact date is not known, but it certainly was written during the early years of his first period in Paris before he proceeded to the mastership in r 2 56 at the age of 30. It quickly became popular as an introductory manual of metaphysics, and so provides us with a useful starting point for the study of Aquinas’ theory of Being. The treatise is heavily influenced by the eleventh-century Arabic philosopher Ibn Sina or Avicenna, whose Metaphysics is referred to in the very first lines of Aquinas’ prologue. ‘Being and Essence’, Avicenna is quoted as saying ‘are the first things grasped by the intellect’, and this is taken to show the importance of conceiving them correctly. The statement is puzzling: both concepts seem abstruse and sophisticated, and the words that express them are far from being the first words learnt by children in any language. Something else must clearly be meant.
Commentary on the Sentences
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

The Sentences of Peter Lombard, a twelfth-century Bishop of Paris, was a collection and discussion of texts from authoritative church documents and revered Christian writers. St Thomas’ principal task during his four years as a bachelor at the University of Paris (1252-6) was to lecture on this work. His commentary on the Sentences was written during the same period of his life as On Being and Essence. Unlike that work, it does not contain a systematic treatment of the philosophy of being. However, in the course of treating theological questions Aquinas addresses a number of relevant philosophical issues which illuminate and expand his early thought on these topics. Several texts clarify the relationship between universal and particular essences, and firmly reject any Platonic idea of extra-mental universals. One of the fullest is the following from a discussion of the nature of truth.
Commentaries on Aristotle’S Metaphysics
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

After returning to Paris in 1268, Aquinas was engaged in writing (in addition to the later parts of the Summa) a series of line-by-line commentaries on the works of Aristotle in Latin translations. The series began with a commentary on the De Anima shortly before he left Rome, and reached its climax with a commentary on the twelve books of the Metaphysics. This was begun shortly before Aquinas left Paris for his final academic posting in Naples, and it is this commentary that has most to teach us on the theory of being. Confrontation with the text of Aristotle, and reflection on the numerous and lively examples that illustrate his thinking, forced Aquinas to sharpen and define a number of the concepts of esse with which he had been working. There is a discipline called ‘first philosophy’, Aristotle tells us in the fourth book of the Metaphysics (1003a, 21 ff.), ‘which theorizes about Being qua being, and the things which belong to Being taken in itself’. The scope of this discipline is universal, since being is whatever is anything whatever. ‘Being’ is used in many senses; but the senses are related to each other by analogy, as the senses of ‘healthy’ are. The core sense of the word is that which applies to substances, and other things are beings because of their relationship to this prime analogate.