bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Ontogeny Of Action Systems: A Theory
Authors: Goldfield Eugene C
Published: November 2023

This chapter builds a theory of the development of action on the concepts of self-organization and selection in a mosaic of subsystem components developed in the previous two chapters. Here, I address questions such as: What is the role of spontaneous activity in development? Why do certain cooperativities and not others stabilize? What is the role of perception for the development of action? What is the basis for the emergence of novel behavioral forms (skills)?The earliest actions of humans, I argue, exhibit the properties of self organizing systems and exhibit attractor dynamics: (1) they are spontaneous, (1) their trajectories exhibit variability, and (3) they reveal specific spatiotemporal patterns (in dynamic descriptions derived from their kinematics). The earliest actions are only approximate solutions to the various adaptive tasks which confront the newborn in the sense that they are not yet fully useful in performing these tasks.
The Performatory Action System: Manual Activity
Authors: Goldfield Eugene C
Published: November 2023

In John Napier’s lovely book entitled Hands, the structure and function of the human hand is placed within the context of primate evolution. In the evolution of primates, we see how a change in habitat from living among low shrubs on the forest floor to living in trees where food was more plentiful may have resulted in modification of the structure of the hand, most notably, into a hand with an opposable thumb (see Fig. 11.1). As Napier notes, in the epigraph at the head of this chapter, size seemed to have played an important role in the evolution of prehensility. There may also have been concomitant changes in the central nervous system that capitalized on the opening up of a new range of possibilities for action (e.g., holding a fruit in one hand while opening it with the other, reaching out rapidly to catch a branch during a precipitous fall). One possibility, for example, is that neural circuits relating Broca’s region and prefrontal cortex became more highly specialized for control of co-articulation of the muscles of the hand and fingers as well as the vocal tract (Greenfield, 1991; Simonds & Scheibel, 1989). The processes discussed in Chapter 4 by which the brain is able to adapt to the structure of the body may have been involved during such evolutionary transformations of the hand (Purves, 1988).
The Oxygen Paradox
Authors: Rosen Gerald M , Britigan Bradley E , Halpern Howard J , Pou Sovitj
Published: November 2023

This prophetic observation by Priestley’ set the stage for one of the great adventures of modern science-solving the mystery of why 02, so crucial a fuel for the metabolic machinery of life, is yet so toxic to all creatures inhabiting this planet. Along the path of inquiry, many roads were taken. None were more important than the discovery of X-rays by R6ntgen in 1895, and the discoveries of the radioactive properties of uranium by Becquerel in 1896 and radium by Marie and Pierre Curie in 1898. Within a few short years, it was recognized that the radiation emitted from the Crookes tube and from specific isotopes of various elements had profound effects on H20. However, it was not until 1944 that this reaction was found to generate HO.
Spin Trapping Free Radicals Historical Perspective
Authors: Rosen Gerald M , Britigan Bradley E , Halpern Howard J , Pou Sovitj
Published: November 2023

In the late 1960s, when our knowledge of the biological significance of free raidcalls, such as 02--, was in its infancy, chemists began to develop techniques to study “the mechanisms of free radical reactions” (Chalfont, et al., 1968). One such approach focused on a rather simple reaction-the addition of free radicals to either nitrosoalkanes or nitrones (Mackor, et al., 1966, 1967, 1968; lwamura and Inamoto, 1967a, 1967b, 1970; Chalfont, et al., 1968; Janzen and Blackburn, 1968; Lagercrantz and Forshult, 1968). The resulting nitroxides were remarkably stable due to resonance delocalization of the unpaired electron (Griller and Ingold, 1976) along the bond connecting the nitrogen and oxygen atoms (Rozantsev, 1970a): From these early experiments, an innovative technology was born. At that time, few scientists, if any, realized the long-term significance of their observations. Nevertheless, within a few years this analytical tool began to open new vistas into the nature of cellular-derived free radicals.
The Chemistry of Spin Traps and Spin Trapped Adducts
Authors: Rosen Gerald M , Britigan Bradley E , Halpern Howard J , Pou Sovitj
Published: November 2023

By most accounts, the chemistry of nitrones is dominated by aldol condensations and addition reactions, as this functional group mirrors the reactivity of aldehydes and ketones (Bonnett, et al., 1959; Hamer and Macaluso, 1964; Torssell, 1988). The similarity of structure to these carbonyl groups plays a major role in the synthesis of this class of spin traps. In other situations, the reactivity of this func tional group can initiate unwanted side reactions, masking the ability to decipher whether a biologic event is mediated by a free radical (Forrester and Hepburn, 1971). For instance, one only needs to be mindful of the difficulty in assigning the source of DMPO-OH to appreciate the myriad of complex reactions involving these compounds (Floyd and Wiseman, 1979; Chew and Bolton, 1980; Nohl, et al., 1981; Tero-Kubota, et al., 1982; Rosen and Rauckman, 1984; Chandra and Symons, 1986; Janzen, et al., 1987; Makino, et al., 1989, 1990a, 1990b, 1992; Buettner and Mason, 1990; Hanna, et al., 1992; Nishi, et al., 1992; Rosen, et al., 1994).
The Use of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) in Conservation Genetics
Authors: Fritsch Peter , Rieseberc Loren H
Published: November 2023

A primary goal of conservation genetics is to estimate the level and distribution of genetic variation in endangered species. Genetic data are often critical to understanding the structure, evolutionary relationships, demographics, and taxonomy of populations, races, and species; thus, they often play a significant role in the formulation of appropriate management strategies directed toward the conservation of taxa (Beardmore, 1983; Allendorf and Leary, 1986; Lacy, 1988). Currently, the most popular and cost-effective means by which conservation geneticists infer variation at the molecular level is isozyme electrophoresis. Isozymes possess several positive attributes for use in genetic analysis: only small amounts of tissue are required, alleles exhibit simple Mendelian inheritance and codominant expression in most cases, and comparisons of homologous loci across populations and related species are straightforward (Schaal et al., 1991). Nevertheless, as applied to studies of genetic variation, isozymes have well-known limitations, the most serious of which are highly biased genomic sampling (only genes encoding soluble enzymes are surveyed) and the small number of loci (maximally about 40) available for study.
Population Genetics of Kenyan Impalas-Consequences for Conservation
Authors: Arctander Peter , Kat Pieter W , Simonsen Bot. , Siegismund Hans R
Published: November 2023

Genetic information is beginning to gain acceptance in the formulation of conservation strategies, especially for species threatened by extinction, and/or those being bred in captivity. However, it has become abundantly clear that our knowledge of the genetic structure of natural populations is less than optimal given the necessity to manage species increasingly represented by small popula¬ tions relegated to scattered reserves. In Africa, burgeoning human populations and their associated agricultural activities have generally confined wildlife to isolated protected areas. The designation of such reserves was based largely on their unsuitability for cultivation, and therefore they only accidentally represent areas of unique biological diversity. In addition, in eastern as well as southern Africa, wildlife is now being confined by fences erected as veterinary and/or agricultural cordons.
The Fixed Stars
Authors: Evans James
Published: November 2023

Precession is a slow revolution of the whole field of stars from west to east about the poles of the ecliptic. Figure 6.1 shows the positions of three constellations (Delphinus, Auriga, and Orion) on the celestial sphere, both for the present day and for 2,000 years ago. Each star has moved along a circular arc parallel to the ecliptic. Because the motion is parallel to the ecliptic, the stars’ ecliptic coordinates change in a simple way: the latitudes remain unchanged, while the longitudes increase at a steady rate. Although this rate is slow (i° in 72 years, or 50” per year) it adds up over long periods of time. In 2,000 years, the precession comes to some 28°, nearly a whole zodiac sign. Every star in the sky suffers this same change in longitude. The equatorial coordinates change in a much more complicated way. The right ascension does not change at a steady rate: the rate of change depends on the star’s position on the sphere. Moreover, the declination does not remain unaffected. Two thousand years ago, Orion was almost wholly south of the equator. But precession, parallel to the ecliptic, has carried Orion northward and its middle now lies on the equator.
Rethinking Culture as Models
Authors: Bruner Jerome
Published: November 2023

Over twenty years ago, just before undertaking my first fieldwork, I was hired by the Peace Corps Office in Western Samoa to work with their cross-cultural training of a new group of volunteers. My job was to speak to the newly arrived volunteers about Samoan culture. During the initial phase of training in the town of Apia, I lectured to these newcomers about Samoan history, food customs, the complex system of political titles, kinship obligations, and matters of local ettiquette. I found myself frequently referring to Samoan “culture” in my accounts, and when one of the volunteers asked me what anthropologists meant by “culture,” I was surprised to find myself at a loss for a simple answer. I struggled to articulate for the trainees some kind of all-purpose unit of culture that would clarify just what we were getting at. I do not remember what I said, but it presumably was neither very definitive nor especially convincing. Here, in a country that prided itself on being the last holdout of traditional Polynesian culture, culture seemed to be everywhere. But for that very reason it seemed to elude simple definition.
Mind Games: Cognitive Baseball
Authors: Bruner Jerome
Published: November 2023

An ethnographic conception of mind suggests an outside-in view of thinking. Though most of us consider thinking something that happens in the head, private and out of sight, social psychologists like Vygotsky and anthropologists like Geertz have stressed the public and social nature of thought. For Vygotskians, thinking is understood to be a form of “inner speech” derived from a conversational environment (Vygotsky, 1962). From this perspective, thinking is thoroughly social in nature—no matter how private it may seem. For Geertz, much of human thinking and feeling is modeled for individuals through public “templates” that are part of the everyday social landscape (Geertz, 1973b). Geertz’s most famous example of a social template is the Balinese cockfight, which he interpreted as a way in which Balinese model for themselves important aspects of (male) status rivalry in a format that is socially safe because it is considered merely a kind of play, albeit a particularly “deep” and psychologically engaging sort of play (Geertz, 1973f).
Interior Furnishings: Scenes from an American Foundational Schema
Authors: Bruner Jerome
Published: November 2023

Chapter 3 offered us a close look at a single American cultural model, the game of baseball. We saw how, in addition to its obvious role as pure entertainment, baseball models the problematical relationship between individualistic and communitarian values, enduring issues in American culture and history. The analysis also showed how this baseball model contributes to the structure of the American cultural model of love and marriage. This kind of cross-mapping between models is not uncommon. Models enter into complex relations with other cultural models. In some cases, (sub)-models are parts of larger encompassing models (D’Andrade, 1992:30 ff.). In other cases, as in the baseball example just cited, one model serves as a source for structuring a second model through a kind of analogical transfer. The transfer from baseball to dating is accomplished largely through language and involves the metaphorical mapping of baseball jargon onto important aspects of dating behavior. This cross-mapping between these two cultural domains is also accomplished in other ways. Marriage can become an actual part of a baseball game, creating a kind of metonymic transfer rather than metaphor. This happens when marriage proposals are flashed on the electronic board in ballparks or when newlyweds still in their wedding garb seat themselves behind home plate.
Technological Trends: The Neuromantic Frame of Mind
Authors: Bruner Jerome
Published: November 2023

The 1960s saw the emergence of a scientific study of language suited for the information age. Linguistics became a high-prestige science. I remember the excitement that overtook the English Department at Berkeley in the 1967 when the famous MIT linguist Noam Chomsky arrived in town to deliver the Beckman Lectures. I arrived early for every lecture and sat transfixed, with my notebook, near the front of the lecture hall, trying to understand what all the excitement was about.
Culture and the Problem of Meaning
Authors: Bruner Jerome
Published: November 2023

Over the course of the last twelve chapters, I have sketched a complex portrait of the cognitive life of culture and the cultural life of the mind. Beginning with the ecological brain, and an attempt to untangle the psychic unity muddle, I have tried to define culture as a dimension of the mind as well as a part of social reality. In outlining an ethnographic view of mind, I have used a series of cultural case studies as a rhetorical strategy to underscore the importance of specific cultural models in everyday thinking and feeling. Yet one of the the important goals of this book is to describe the cognitive “architecture” of cultural knowledge and its production. We are not quite there yet. The remaining job is to delineate a more explicitly psychological picture of culture processes.

Because we have traversed a varied and complex landscape in the ethnographic sections of the book, it would be useful here, in anticipation of turning our attention more directly to cognitive psychology, to retrace the major steps we have already taken up to this point. Let us recall the important issues raised by the ethnographic case studies.
The Startle-Matching Syndrome in Other Cultures
Authors: Simons Ronald C
Published: November 2023

The distribution of persons who not only hyperstartle but who also match and obey is quite curious. Although occasionally such a person may turn up almost anywhere, there are places in the world besides Malaysia and Indonesia where they are quite frequently encountered. People who exhibit the startle-matching syndrome appear to be numerous in Southeast Asia, but significant numbers of them can be found in an assortment of rather diverse cultural contexts as well-including Siberia, Lapland, Yemen, Japan (among the Ainu), and in North America along the eastern portion of the border between Canada and the United States.
Affective Neuroscience History and Major Concepts
Authors: Panksepp Jaak
Published: November 2023

Our emotional feelings reflect our ability to subjectively experience certain states of the nervous system. Although conscious feeling states are universally accepted as major distinguishing characteristics of human emotions, in animal research the issue of whether other organisms feel emotions is little more than aconceptual embarrassment. Such states remain difficult-some claim impossible-to study empirically. Since we cannot directly measure the internal experiences of others, whether animal or human, the study of emotional states must be indirect and based on empirically guided theoretical inferences. Because of such difficulties, there are presently no direct metrics by which we can unambiguously quantify changes in emotional states in any living creature. All objective bodily measures, from facial expressions to autonomic changes, are only vague approximations of the underlying neural dynamics-like ghostly tracks in the bubble chamber detectors of particle physics. Indeed, all integrative psychological processes arise from the interplay of brain ciruits that can be monitored, at present, only dimly and indirectly. Obviously, a careful study of behavioral actions is the most direct way to monitor emotions. However, many investigators who study behavior have argued that emotions, especially animal emotions, are illusory concepts outside the realm of scientific inquiry. As I will seek to demonstrate, that viewpoint is incorrect. Although much of behavioral control is elaborated by unconscious brain processes, both animals and humans do have similar affective feelings that are important contributors to their future behavioral tendencies. Unfortunately, the nature of human and animal emotions cannot be understood without brain research. Fortunately, a psycho-neurological analysis of animal emotions (via a careful study of how animal brains control certain behaviors) makes it possible to conceptualize the basic underlying nature of human emotions with some precision, thereby providing new insights into the functional organization of all mammalian brains. A strategy to achieve such a cross-species synthesis will be outlined here. It is based largely on the existence of many psychoneural homologies-the fact that the intrinsic nature of basic emotional systems has been remarkably well conserved during the course of mammalian evolution. Although there is a great deal of diversity in the detailed expressions of these systems across species, the conserved features allow us to finally understand some of the fundamental sources of human nature by studying the animal brain.
The Varieties of Emotional Systems in the Brain Theories, Taxonomies, and Semantics
Authors: Panksepp Jaak
Published: November 2023

Scholars down through the ages have disagreed about the number and nature of basic emotions. Investigators have not even agreed on the criteria to be used in the classification of emotions. A great deal has been written on such matters, but most of it remains controversial. Until recently, this question could not be approached from a neurological perspective. As we will see in this chapter, now it can. First, I will consider how we might define primary emotional systems, or “affect programs,” and then summarize the types of basic emotional circuits that exist in the brain. A limited number of powerful primal emotional circuits-those that appear to elaborate fear, anger, seeking, and sorrow-have now been sufficiently well characterized that they can be addressed cogently through brain research. These universally recognized emotions correspond to the “infantile” feelings that young children exhibit. But this is not a comprehensive list. There are surely others related to sexuality and other more subtle social processes, such as social bonding, separation distress, and play. All emotional taxonomies must remain open-ended until more is known about the brain. I will restrict my discussion here to items for which reasonably coherent evidence exists at the neural level. This does not mean we understand these systems fully, but we do have enough conceptual, neuroanatomical, and neurochemical evidence to make a solid start.
Neurostatics The Anatomy of the Brain/ Mind
Authors: Panksepp Jaak
Published: November 2023

Many who have considered the matter believe that an understanding of psychological and behavioral processes must initially guide our understanding of the functions of the brain. Less well appreciated is the fact that understanding of the brain can highlight the nature of psychological processes. Intellectual commerce is always a two-way street. Recent discoveries about the brain have finally established a foundation for a mechanistic understanding of the mind. Numerous new techniques now exist to illuminate brain-mind relations, and the painstaking collection of new information continues at a fever pitch. The “neuroscience revolution” of the last few decades has enabled us to conceptualize human nature in dramatically new ways, and the debate is shifting from the issue of whether mind emerges from brain to how specific mental states, traits, and abilities arise from the brain. The ongoing breakthroughs are so important that even remote disciplines such as philosophy, economics, and political science are beginning to pay close attention to what the psychologically oriented neuroscientists are doing. All past progress in this quest has been premised on acceptance of the “neuron doctrine”-the recognition that individual neurons are the fundamental units that transfer information throughout the brain. Just as each human being has individual qualities as a receiver and transmitter of information, so too does each neuron have such qualities, both electrical and chemical. But a single neuron does nothing important psychologically by itself. Psychological processes emerge from the neurodynamic interactions of many interconnected neurons (i.e., circuits or neuronal networks), yielding many yet unmeasured and unimagined complexities. Foreseeable progress in this field will arise from our ability to relate functionally coherent circuit systems to primitive (i.e., genetically dictated) psycho behavioral tendencies. However, there is yet no consensus as to how we can best overlay psychological principles upon brain processes. One thing, however, is beyond doubt: It cannot be done without an adequate appreciation of the subject matter of this chapter-the complexities of neuro-anatomy.
Neurodynamics The Electrical Languages of the Brain
Authors: Panksepp Jaak
Published: November 2023

The view of the brain as an “enchanted loom” is one of the most famous images of the nervous system in op-eration. To some extent it is an elegantly simple picture: Individual neurons convey information via a universal electrochemical process, speaking to other neurons in chemical dialects. But the simplicity is deceptive. It only provides the beginning of understanding as far as psychology is concerned. The study of the electrical responses of individual neurons has yet to give us a credible picture of the intrinsic neuro dynamics of the mind. There is a yet unfathomed internal harmony to brain functions, with many neural systems working together to produce mind. One of the best ways to approach the operations of the brain holistically and in real time is via electroencephalographic (EEG) measures, which can monitor the joint dendritic activities of large ensembles of neurons. A shortcoming of this technique is its inability to reveal the deep functions of the intact human brain. One of the most difficult problems is that the brain has so many endogenous subcortical functions (i.e., ones that were constructed through evolutionary selection rather than within the individual life experiences of an organism), and we cannot readily study such processes in humans using electrical recording procedures. In animals, we can demonstrate the role of specific subcortical circuits in various psycho behavioral processes via various interventions, but the dynamic electrical codes that operate within these circuits are difficult to decipher using objective procedures. There is a massive spontaneity of neuronal activity throughout the brain. It is as if we were confronted by many hieroglyphics, with no Rosetta stone. Although early theorists thought the machinery of the brain was only set into action by external stimuli impinging on the organism, we now know that, in addition to harvesting information from the various senses, the brain also has many internally generated activities that provide information from the ancestral past, thereby creating the innate functions of the mind. This is reflected in the ability of artificial brain stimulation to evoke coherent emotional behavior patterns and associated feeling states.
Neurodynamics Neurochemical Maps of the Brain
Authors: Panksepp Jaak
Published: November 2023

We have progressed remarkably far in the hundred years since Freud penned his materialistic thoughts as a young man in his late 20s. However, rather than neurons, the most important “material particles” we must now investigate are the many types of molecules that serve as neurotransmitters and receptors, which convey information from one neuron to another. On the basis of this knowledge, a neurobiological revolution has transformed psychiatry, and new discoveries will yield more powerful and specific medicines than have ever been available before. Without a thorough knowledge of transmitter “particles,” this would not be possible. The first neurotransmitters were discovered some four decades after Freud expressed his great hope for a scientific psychology, and now several dozen major systems have been well characterized. Many more remain to be discovered. We are beginning to understand how attention, emotions, and motivations, as well as perceptions and memories, are constructed through the synaptic chemistries that mediate information transmission in the brain. Information transfer within a single neu-ron is an electrical process, but at synapses the electrical language of the brain is momentarily converted into chemical transmitter languages. After transmitters cross the synaptic cleft and interact with specific receptor molecules, the neuronal messages are passed onward in cascades of biochemical events that convert the various chemical dialects back to electrical ones. Neuroscientists use immunocyto chemical techniques to visualize the chemical languages of neuronal circuits, relying on “detective-like” antibodies to identify and localize specific brain chemicals. This technique can also be used to vi-sualize the locations of various receptor fields, but a more commonly used technique is receptor autoradiography. In fact, we now have tools to visually examine the exquisitely patterned distributions of nearly all chemical systems of the brain. We can even describe where and when new peptide chemistries are transcribed from DNA using a technique called in situ hy-bridization. We can also measure the release of many neurotransmitters within specific parts of the brain in behaving animals. Finally, we are now in a position to understand how primitive emotions arise from specific neuro chemistries of the mammalian brain. This information is leading to a revolution in our conceptualization of human nature.
Acoustical Information Processing in the Auditory Thalamus and Cerebral Cortex
Authors: Ribaupierre François de
Published: November 2023

Acoustical information coding at the thalamocortical level h.as some characteristics that are shared with other sensory modalities and other characteristics that are more specific to the auditary system. Our knowledge has progressed towards a better definition of the neuronal response organization of the medial geniculate body and the auditory cortex (AC), revealing the existence of multiple parallel but partially interconnected pathways. The concept that different aspects of acoustical information are processed in parallel is thus morphologically supported but it is still only partly ,demonstrated at the functional level (see Chapter 1).
The Schwarzschild Metric Via Fock-Ivanenko 2-Vectors
Authors: Snygg John
Published: November 2023

About 10 years after his paper on special relativity, Albert Einstein published a series of papers establishing the general theory of relativity (1915a, 1915b, 1916). According to his theory, the path of a small test particle is that of a geodesic in curved space-time. Furthermore the metric for a mass free space must satisfy the equation.
Two Differential Operators
Authors: Snygg John
Published: November 2023

It should be noted that the sign for the exterior derivative d is well established and we have followed that convention. On the other hand, the sign convention for the codifferential operator δ is not so well established. For the case of a positive definite metric, our sign convention is identical to that used by Heinrich W. Guggenheimer (1977, p. 329). It is opposite to the sign used by Harley Flanders (1963, pp. 136-137).
Natural hybridization: Definitions and history
Authors: Arnold Michael L
Published: November 2023

Several terms used in this book need clear definitions. These include hybridization, hybrid, and hybrid zone. Harrison (1993) has discussed the various definitions of the term hybridization that have been used in scientific literature. Each of these relates to levels of divergence between the individuals that undergo reproduction. The extremes of these definitions are crosses between genetically distinct individuals, and between individuals from different species (Harrison, 1993). The former is frequently used by plant and animal breeders and the latter by evolutionary biologists. Harrison’s (1990) definition includes crosses between “individuals from two populations, or groups of populations, which are distinguishable on the basis of one or more heritable characters.” I have adopted this definition with the following modifications. First, natural hybridization involves matings that occur in a natural setting—this excludes cases of experimental hybridizations. Second, I will consider those crosses that are successful in producing some viable F1 progeny that possess some level of fertility. This latter restriction reflects my desire to focus on the potential ongoing evolutionary effects from hybrid generations past the initial F1. However, it is important to point out that almost all cases of natural hybridization result in at least a few viable individuals with some measure of fertility (e.g., Grant, 1963). Thus, when an author states that inviable or infertile offspring are produced, it is usually meant that the offspring are fewer in number or are less fertile relative to progeny from crosses between genetically more similar individuals. The reduction in levels of viability and fertility has led most authors to discount natural hybridization as an evolutionarily important process. This conclusion ignores the importance of rare events in evolution and is contradicted by actual cases where unlikely hybrid events have led to diversification (Arnold and Hodges, 1995a). The validity of the arguments presented in this book do not depend on hybrids being relatively common in nature. However, it is also apparent that natural hybridization does not usually lead to 100% inviability or infertility.
Reproductive parameters and natural hybridization
Authors: Arnold Michael L
Published: November 2023

A premise of this book is that natural hybridization occurs in numerous taxa and has a major evolutionary effect through the production of novel genotypes that are more fit than their progenitors in certain environments. Thus, mechanisms that limit or promote hybridization are of primary importance in determining the evolutionary trajectory of particular hybridization episodes. Further, as I will argue in Chapter 5, the relative difficulty in forming certain hybrid generations (i.e., F1 individuals) can affect where hybridization is most likely to occur (i.e., ecotones or disturbed habitats) and the pattern of further hybridization (e.g., predominance of B1 instead of F2 individuals). This in turn will determine which hybrid genotypes will be available for natural selection. In the present chapter I will illustrate some of the many mechanisms that can prevent hybridization. There are two reasons for covering this topic. First, the severe restrictions on hybrid formation stand in stark contrast to the extensive occurrence of natural hybridization in plants and animals. This seeming paradox, I will argue, is resolved by the hypothesis that once rare hybrids are formed, it is likely that positive selection favors some of the hybrid genotypes in certain environments. Thus, the occurrence of many hybrid zones in nature may reflect positive environment-dependent selection. Exogenous selection may indeed play a major role in the stabilization of hybrid types by favoring hybrids over parents in certain environments (see Chapter 5).
Coevolution between the Common Cuckoo and Its Major Hosts in Japan Stable versus Dynamic Specialization on Hosts
Authors: Nakamura Hiroshi , Kubota Satoshi , Suzuki Reiko
Published: November 2023

The common cuckoo Cuculus canorus is a brood parasite known to have laid its eggs in the nest of more than 125 species of passerine birds (Wyllie 1981). But many of these are rare or accidental hosts. Cuckoo populations in each region concentrate on only a few host species and individual female cuckoos are thought to specialize on just one host species and to mimic the eggs of that host species. The egg mimicry is believed to have evolved in relation to egg discrimination by host species (Chance 1940; Baker 1942; Wyllie 1981; Brooke and Davies 1988). In the parasitic relations between the cuckoo and its hosts, the latter gain no reproductive output at all due to the parasitic nestling’s eviction behavior (Davies and Brooke, this vol.).
Nest Defense by Potential Hosts of the Brown-Headed Cowbird Methodological Approaches, Benefits of Defense, and Coevolution
Authors: Sealy Spencer G , Neudorf diane L , Hobson Keith A , Gill sharon A
Published: November 2023

Brood parasites have evolved many adaptations that enhance the likelihood that their parasitic life style will be successful, but success for a parasite usually means reduced reproductive output for the hosts (Rothstein 1975, 1990; Payne 1977; May and Robinson 1985; Davies and Brooke 1988; Sealy 1992). Not surprisingly, many hosts have evolved ways of reducing the impact of parasitism on them. Some hosts eject parasitic eggs or desert parasitized clutches, but these behaviors may not recover all of the losses due to parasitism as hosts may already have lost an egg to the laying parasite.
Quality Control and the Important Questions in Avian Conspecific Brood Parasitism
Authors: Power Harry W
Published: November 2023

Recent years have seen a plethora of papers on conspecific brood parasitism (CBP) which have been uneven in quality and variable in the questions they address. This chapter attempts to establish minimal standards of quality control in biochemically based studies, and provide a uniform list of important questions to be addressed in such studies. It is hoped that the chapter will improve the quality of future studies of CBP, as Hickey’s (1943) A Guide to Bird Watching (Appendix C) improved life history studies. With both life history and CBP studies, the fundamental problem was and is the same: publication of a large body of work of such varying degree of quality and thoroughness that it presents an almost anarchic picture of natural phenomena, and in some cases confuses as much as it informs.
A
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

A’a-Nefer the name for the sacred bull at erment (Hermonthis), which was originally dedicated to the god mont. In time this animal played a part in the cultic ceremonies of other deities. (See apis, buchis and mnevis.)
D
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

Dagi listed as Dagy in some records; an official of the 11th Dynasty, serving as vizier and governor of the pyramidal city of mentuhotpe ii at deir el-bahri on the western shore of the Nile c. 2010 b.c. Dagi was the superintendent of the southern domains in Thebes, which was used as the home clan administrative center for the kings of the dynasties of the Middle Kingdom.
F
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

faience glassy manufactured substances of the ancient Egyptians. The process developed by the artisans of the Nile Valley may have been prompted by a desire to imitate highly prized turquoise, although there was a great diversity of color in faience. The usual Egyptian faience was composed of a quartz or crystal base, covered with a vitreous, alkaline com pound with calcium silicates to provide the colors and the glassy finish. The Egyptians called faience tjehenet.
H
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

Ha an ancient Egyptian god of fertility and the desert regions. In various eras he was regarded as a defender of Egypt’s borders and the protector of the throne. In the later periods he was honored in the seventh nome of Lower Egypt.
K
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

ka the ancient Egyptian term for a spiritual essence, which existed alongside human form and yet maintained individuality. The ka was an astral being, and yet it was also considered the guiding force for all human life. The Egyptians recognized the “double” aspect of the ka, and in some statues the kings were depicted as having an identical image at their side. While existing with the human being during his or her mortal life, the ka was the superior power in the realms beyond the grave. The term for death was “Going to one’s ka” or “Going to one’s ka in the sky.”
L
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

Labyrinth the Greek name given to the temple precinct of a pyramid complex consisting of many courts and colonnades, erected at Hawara beside the faiyum, by amenemhet iii of the 12th Dynasty (1844–1797 b.c.). Historically the structure has been identified as a palace, a mortuary complex, and as an administrative or cult center of the era. It is called the Labyrinth because of the complexity of its architectural design. Shafts, corridors and stone plugs were part of the original plan, all incorporated into the pyramid to protect the central burial chamber of the king. This portion of the pyramid was cut from a single block of granite and is estimated to have weighed about 110 tons. Twelve separate courts graced the Labyrinth, all facing one another in a lavish display of architectural skill.
M
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

>Ma’adi a predynastic site just south of modern Cairo, where the remains of oval and circular-shaped houses were discovered. Posts stuck into the ground appear to have served as the simple foundation for these structures, which were composed of mud daub and wattle originally. Interior hearths, an innovation in the predynastic eras, were also discovered as part of the designs of the houses at Ma’adi. There is little indication, however, that roofs were part of the architectural planning of the residences. Windbreaks and sheltering walls served as the only form of protection for the inhabitants in the beginning. Ma’adi was near the famed tura Quarry. (See egypt, predynastic.)
P
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

paddle dolls flat, painted wooden dolls deposited in the tombs of the Middle Kingdom. These figurines, crude by the artistic standards of the Egyptians, had elaborate hairstyles, composed of strings of mud and faience beads, which were laced with bits of straw. The design obviously mimicked the elaborate wigs worn in all eras. Paddle dolls were discovered in 11th Dynasty tombs. Their inclusion among the mortuary regalia is not fully understood. Some sources indicate that the dolls were provided as sexual companions or servants for the deceased.
Q
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

Qa’a the seventh king of the 1st Dynasty (c. 2065 b.c.). Little is known of his reign, but he is mentionedin the Abydos, Saqqara and Turin king lists. Stone vessels bearing his insignia were discovered under the pyramid of djoser.
U
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

uatch (or wadj) the ancient Egyptian name for green stones.
W
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

Wabet the “House of Purification,” where the bodies of the deceased were taken for the first stages of the embalming rituals vital to each funeral. In some eras the word was also applied to chambers in the valley temples of the great pyramids and mortuary complexes of the kings. (See mortuary rituals and valley temples.)
Proximal Minimization with D-Functions
Authors: Censor Yair , Zenios Stavros A
Published: November 2023

In the next chapters we will see how generalized distances, and projections derived from them, give rise to useful iterative algorithms. These include the multi projection algorithm, which is particularly suitable for the feasibility problem (see Chapter 5) and the various algorithms for optimization of Bregman functions (see Chapter 6). The use of generalized distances does not stop there. In this chapter we study the use of generalized distances for the regularization of optimization problems, and as a result we obtain a class of optimization algorithms called proximal minimization algorithms. These algorithms originally used Euclidean distances, and we show here how generalized distances can be incorporated. Later we examine how computational results shed light on the practical advantages of this approach (see Chapter 15).
Model Decomposition Algorithms
Authors: Censor Yair , Zenios Stavros A
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapters we studied algorithms that facilitate parallel computations due to the structure of their operations. Sometimes, however, it is the structure of the model of the problem at hand (that is suitable for some decomposition) that leads to efficient parallel computations. Large scale problems often display some characteristic sparsity pattern which is amenable to decomposition. In time-dependent optimization problems, for example, one has to optimize a given system at different points in time. Successive time periods are linked through the flow of inventory. It might be possible to partially optimize the operations of the system for each time period, while maintaining a level of inventory consistent with the optimal operating schedule of successive time periods. In large spatial systems (e.g., transportation or telecommunication problems) one has to optimize distinct geographical regions. Adjacent regions are linked through trading and the flow of traffic. Totally decentralized optimization is not possible, but it might be possible to partially optimize each region separately, while restricting the trading between adjacent regions to be consistent with each region’s optimal state.
Matrix Estimation Problems
Authors: Censor Yair , Zenios Stavros A
Published: November 2023

The problem of data inconsistency and measurement errors in the economic sciences has traditionally been a stumbling block in the development of formal economic models. Oscar Morgenstern devoted his 1963 book to the problem of inconsistency in economic measurements. The Cambridge Growth Project under the direction of Sir Richard Stone addressed (among other issues) this problem with particular focus on the estimation of tables of economic data that satisfy internal consistency conditions. One important outcome of the project was the book by Bacharach (1970) on the estimation of input-output tables. The problem of adjusting the entries of a large matrix to satisfy consistency requirements occurs frequently in economics as well as in urban planning, statistics, demography, and stochastic modeling. It is typically posed as follows:
Image Reconstruction from Projections
Authors: Censor Yair , Zenios Stavros A
Published: November 2023

For many significant problems in diverse fields of applications in science and technology an object-described by a vector or a function x-is related to some data y through a relation Ox = y. The recovery of x requires essentially the inversion, in some well-specified sense, of the operator 0. Such problems are known as inversion problems. The inversion problemsdiscussed in this chapter are those of image reconstruction from projections. We must caution the reader that projections in this context have a different meaning from the projections onto convex sets defined and used in Chapters 2 and 5. This double usage has historical roots and cannot be changed but the precise meaning can always be understood from the context.
Introduction
Authors: Reeves Keith
Published: November 2023

The United States has long cherished the belief that every individual has a “fair chance and an open road” to realize his or her dreams and aspirations. So it should come as no great surprise that there has been a dramatic sea change in the nation’s thinking regarding affirmative action.
Voting Discrimination against Black Candidates
Authors: Reeves Keith
Published: November 2023

Race is a factor. It’s there. Every Chicagoan knows it’s there.

Harold Washington, quoted on book jacket of Paul Kleppner, Chicago Divided On November 2, 1982, Democrat Tom Bradley lost his bid to become the nation’s first black elected governor by “the closest proportional margin in the history of California’s gubernatorial races, 49.3 percent to 48.1 percenta mere 93,000 votes out of more than 7.8 million votes cast.”1 Bradley’s raceblind, nonthreatening persona notwithstanding, racial appeals permeated the campaign’s contextual environment.2 For one, the campaign organization of Republican George Deukmejian, his opponent, made use of both racist mailings and racially toned political advertisements to garner white electoral support throughout the state, despite a pledge to avoid such racial tactics.
The Persistence of Racial Prejudice in the Electorate
Authors: Reeves Keith
Published: November 2023

Negative characterizations ef blacks remain prevalent in contemporary American society notwithstanding the changes that have taken place, and ... contrary to the conventional wisdom, these negative racial characterizations are openly and routinely expressed.
A
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

ABDAGAESES (fl. 1st century A.D.) A court official in the kingdom of PARTHIA who aided TIRIDATES in his ascent to the throne. In 35-36, King ARTABANUS III was forced from the throne of Parthia, and the Roman-backed Tiridates, a grandson of the old Parthian king, PHRAATES 111, was established as ruler. The historian Tacitus writes that Abdagaeses exerted control over Tiridates, preventing him from visiting the diverse and ever distrustful Parthian tribes, a policy that kept these clans from uniting behind Tiridates and resulted in civil war. In the face of the rebellion, Abdagaeses advised a retreat into Mesopotamia, claiming advantages were offered by the great rivers there. The Parthians viewed this as cowardice, and Tiridates was ousted from the monarchy. Nothing is recorded about the ultimate end of Abdagaeses. ABLABIUS, FLAVIUS (fl. 4th century A.D.) Prefect ,if the PRAETORIAN GUARD under CONSTANTINE THE GREAT, from 329 to 337. Ablabius governed the Eastern Empire as the personal representative of the emperor, with considerable powers at his disposal. His authority earned him the enmity of members of the imperial court, and his conversion to Christianity was considered a diplomatic move. For some years Ablabius dueled politically with the philosopher SOPATER, eventually winning the intellectual power ,struggle. His victory was short-lived; when CONSTANTIUS IIcame to the throne in 337, Ablabius was executed.