bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Absence of thyroid hormone resistance in vitamin D–;resistant new world primates
Authors: Arbelle Jonathan E. , Gacad Mercedes A. , Spencer Carole A. , Adams John S.
Published: June 2005

New World primates express a form of sterol/steroid resistance resulting from the presence of a 58–60 kDa intracellular protein (IDBP) which competes with nuclear receptor proteins for binding of vitamin D metabolites and sex steroids. As the thyroid hormone receptor is a recognized member of the steroid/retinoid/vitamin D receptor gene superfamily, we sought to confirm previous data describing the existence of thyronine resistance in New World primate species and to determine whether IDBP was capable of binding ligands which confer transcriptional regulatory potential on thyroid hormone‐retinoid heterodimeric complexes. Circulating thyroid hormone levels were compared between vitamin D‐resistant New World primates and nonresistant Old World primates. Total triiodothyronine (T3), free T3 index, and free thyroxine were not different between New World and Old World primates. Thyroxine was significantly lower (P < 0.03) in New World than in Old World primates. T3 (1 pM‐1μM), 9‐cis retinoic acid (100 nM) and all‐trans retinoic acid (100 nM) were incapable of displacing 2 nM [3H]25‐hydroxyvitamin D3 from IDBP extracted from B95‐8 cells, a B‐lymphoblastoid cell line derived from the vitamin D‐resistant New World primate Callithrix jacchus. We conclude that the sterol/steroid‐resistant state characteristic of many genera of New World primates does not extend to thyroid hormones and that the IDBP responsible for vitamin D resistance does not bind T3, 9‐cis retinoic acid, and all‐trans retinoic acid. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Evidence of hybrid vigor in subspecific hybrids of the saddle‐back tamarin (Saguinus fuscicollis)
Authors: Jaquish Cashell E.
Published: June 2005

The effect of hybridization on infant survival was investigated in subspecific crosses of the saddle‐back tamarin (Saguinus fuscicollis) at the Oak Ridge Associated Universities (ORAU) Marmoset Research Center (Oak Ridge, TN). Cox Proportional Hazards Regression was used to compare infant survival between (1) pure subspecies, (2) F1, F2, and backcrossed hybrids, and (3) hybrids and their parental subspecies. Also, effects of management changes, sex, and litter size on infant survival were investigated. There were no significant differences in infant survival between the pure subspecies. Also, degree of hybridization (F1, F2, or backcross) did not have a significant effect on infant survival. Progeny of hybrid crosses between S. f. lagonotus and S. f. illigeri was found to have significantly (P < 0.05) higher infant survival than both of their parental subspecies. Individuals born after diet and management changes in the colony had significantly (P < 0.05) higher survival than those born before. There were no significant sex differences in infant survival. Individuals born into triplet litters had significantly (P < 0.05) lower survival than those born into twin litters. These results show heterosis (hybrid vigor) for infant survival in one subspecific S. fuscicollis cross (S. f. lagonotus × S. f. illigeri). The results suggest genetic divergence between the subspecies populations and possible reproductive isolation in the wild. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Troop extinction and fusion in wild Japanese macaques of Yakushima Island, Japan
Authors: Takahata Yukio , Suzuki Shigeru , Okayasu Naobi , Hill David
Published: June 2005

A wild Japanese macaque troop decreased in size because the birth rate dropped and infant mortality increased. In the 1989 mating season, the last male left the troop, and the remaining two females joined a neighboring troop. Thus, the troop ceased to exist as an independent troop. A lower limit to troop size may exist, below which a troop cannot effectively defend its range, forcing the females to join a larger troop. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Tinjil island, a natural habitat breeding facility of simian retrovirus‐free Macaca fascicularis
Authors: Pamungkas J. , Sajuthi D. , Lelana P. A. , Iskandriati D. , Joeniman B. , Kyes R. C. , Knitter G. H. , Watanabe R. A.
Published: June 2005

Institut Pertanian Bogor (Bogor Agricultural University) has established a collaborative agreement with the Indonesian Ministry of State for Population and Environment and the United States Primate Research Consortium, consisting of the University of Washington Regional Primate Research Center (UW‐RPRC), the Oregon Regional Primate Research Center (ORPRC), and the Bowman Gray School of Medicine at the Wake Forest University, to populate and manage a breeding facility of longtailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) on Tinjil island, a 6 km2 island off the southern coast of West Java, Indonesia.

Screening protocols have been established to select only simian retrovirus (SRV)‐free animals for the colony. Animals originating in either West Java or Sumatra were individually caged and screened over a period of 3‐5 months for the presence of SRV and tuberculosis. Whole blood specimens were taken from seronegative animals for virus isolation. Two months after the first screening, all negative animals were retested for SRV antibody and virus isolation. All animals remaining negative after this testing procedure and which have at least four consecutive negative TB tests were transported to the island. To date, 1,306 animals have been screened with 478 released to the island, and at least 750 babies were born on the island. Three batches of progeny of 45‐50 juveniles each have been retrieved from the island, and are being used in AIDS‐related research projects. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Allomaternal interactions in the Bolivian squirrel monkey (Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis)
Authors: Williams Lawrence , Gibson Susan , McDaniel Margaret , Bazzel Judson , Barnes Sue , Abee Christian
Published: June 2005

Allomaternal behavior is defined as maternal‐like interactions between an infant and some animal other than its natural mother. The occurrence of allomothering can have a profound influence on the life of the infant and on the animal with which the infant interacts. Allomaternal interactions were studied during the first 6 months of life in 50 Bolivian squirrel monkeys in two different social settings. Allomaternal interactions began during the first week of life. Sampling indicated that the infants spent 30% of their time on allomothers during the first 6 months of life. Dorsal clinging on allomothers occurred most frequently when the infants were younger and more dependent, and declined with the infant's growing independence. In addition, squirrel monkey infants nursed on allomothers, though the rates were lower than nursing on their dam. Four‐ to six‐year‐old young adult females accounted for most of the allomaternal interactions (53%), while adult females 7 to 9 years old provided 21% of the allomaternal interactions. A similar age‐related pattern was found for allomaternal nursing; however, reproductive status had a profound influence. Those females with a reproductive failure for the year provided 86% of the allomaternal nursing bouts. Allomaternal interactions were not based solely on kinship relationships. Future studies need to be directed toward establishing the proximal causes of allomaternal behavior in the squirrel monkey. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Male residence and association patterns in Costa Rican squirrel monkeys (Saimiri oerstedi)
Authors: Boinski Sue , Mitchell Carol L.
Published: June 2005

A model is developed to interpret the evolution of the unusual pattern of male residence and social structure in the Costa Rican squirrel monkey (Saimiri oerstedi). Observations of a wild population document that males 1) maintain close spatial and social associations with other males, especially other males in their birth cohort, but not females and infants; 2) exhibit negligible within‐troop male‐male aggression, high levels of antipredator vigilance, and frequent predator deterrence; 3) cooperate in aggressive olfactory investigation of females; and 4) maintain residence in their natal troop with their male birth cohort, eventually succeeding to reproductive positions in their natal troop. Less commonly, male age‐cohorts leave the troop well past reproductive maturity and usurp the reproductive male cohort in another troop. We suggest that this divergence from the social structure typical of male squirrel monkeys in Peru (males transient between troops, weak male‐male bonds, high within‐troop male aggression, little investment in anti‐predator behavior) arose because female S. oerstedi in Costa Rica are not philopatric. In Costa Rica, long term reproductive cooperation is likely advantageous to males, because of the frequent movement of female S. oerstedi between troops; the potential costs of inbreeding are reduced. Male S. oerstedi of all ages residing in the same troop, but especially those of the same age cohort, are predicted to have a much higher degree of genetic relatedness than adult females. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the public domain in the United States of America.
Phylogenetic approach to the study of tamarin and marmoset social systems
Authors: Garber Paul A.
Published: June 2005

Tamarins and marmosets (subfamily: Callitrichinae) are members of an ecologically and behaviorally diverse radiation of small‐bodied New World monkeys characterized by the production of twin offspring, intense female reproductive competition, reproductive suppression, cooperative infant care and evidence of what has been described as a highly flexible system of mating. In this review, I offer a phylogenetic approach to the study of callitrichine reproduction and mating systems. Beginning with the assumption that Callimico most closely resembles the ancestral tamarin and marmoset condition, I identify a set of primitive callitrichine behavioral and reproductive character states and reconstruct the sequence of derived behavioral and reproductive changes that define the basic social systems of Saguinus, Leontopithecus, Callithrix, and Cebuella. It is proposed that ancestral callitrichines lived in small multimale multifemale groups characterized by 1 or more reproductively active females, a single offspring at birth, rapid postnatal growth, delayed nonmaternal caregiving, and a polygynous mating pattern. The evolution of twinning in the common ancestor of all extant tamarins and marmosets increased the overall costs of infant care, resulting in enhanced female reproductive competition and a greater role for group members in providing for the young.

Specialized mechanisms of female reproductive competition appear to have evolved twice in callitrichine evolution. In the lineage leading to Leontopithecus, high levels of female intrasexual aggression and ovulatory synchrony play a primary role in the social control of fertility. In Saguinus, Callithrix, and Cebuella, female reproductive suppression has a stronger physiological basis, resulting in hormonally mediated infertility in subordinate adult females. In addition to having important implications for understanding differences in callitrichine breeding systems, these data suggest that Leontopithecus separated from the callitrichin line prior to the radiation of other tamarin and marmoset taxa. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Census, habitat preference, and polyspecific associations of six monkeys in the Lomako Forest, Zaire
Authors: McGraw Scott
Published: June 2005

This paper reports preliminary data on a number of poorly known cercopithecids inhabiting the Lomako Forest, Zaire. Data include those on density, biomass, group size, the relationship between group type (mono vs. polyspecific) and forest type (mixed primary, secondary, monodominant primary, and swamp), and vertical stratification. Species examined are Colobus angolensis, Cercocebus aterrimus, Cercopithecus wolfi, Cercopithecus ascanius, Cercopithecus neglectus, and Allenopithecus nigroviridis. The density and biomass for the Lomako Forest anthropoids (excluding Cercopithecus neglectus and A. nigroviridis) are 165 ind/km2 and 1,034 kg/km2, respectively. Cercopithecus wolfi and Colobus angolensis are found in group sizes similar to those reported from other sites while Cercopithecus ascanius, Cercocebus aterrimus, and A. nigroviridis display group sizes unique to the Lomako. While Colobus angolensis, Cercocebus aterrimus, Cercopithecus ascanius and Cercopithecus wolfi were found, to varying extents, in all four forest types, Cercopithecus neglectus and A. nigroviridis inhabited only swamp forest. The different species sort out along vertical continua both within and between the four forest types. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Organization of white adipose tissue in lemuridae
Authors: Pereira Michael E. , Pond Caroline M.
Published: June 2005

The gross anatomy of white adipose tissue was studied in seven carcasses representing three lemurid species (Lemur catta, Eulemur fulvus, E. mongoz) to validate in vivo methods of assessing fatness, and to contribute to a comprehensive database on the organization of adipose tissue in Mammalia. During the years preceding their deaths, subjects had been either caged or semi‐provisioned under semi‐captive conditions, and their body masses had been recorded several times annually. All specimens were as fat or fatter than anthropoid primates maintained for long periods under comparable conditions. At least eight superficial, four intra‐abdominal, and two intermuscular adipose depots were described, all of which were comparable to those described previously for macaques and humans. All typical mammalian depots were present. Many superficial depots adhered tightly to the skin and/or underlying muscles. The superficial “paunch” depot on the outer ventral wall of the abdomen, characteristic of anthropoid primates, was found in all specimens. The existence of this depot in lemurs suggests that it evolved early in Primates. As in monkeys and humans, the paunch was very variable in size, massive in obese specimens but almost absent in moderately lean ones, confirming that extensive accumulation and selective depletion of adipose tissue at this depot is a special feature of Primates. In some obese specimens, adipose tissue on the ventral and lateral thorax and on the inner dorsal wall of the abdomen, extending around the kidneys and into the pelvic canal, was also massive. The investigation allowed for improvement of protocols for external measurement in ongoing research on growth, mass, and fatness in ringtailed and redfronted lemurs. Comparisons of subjects' ranges of body mass change during adult life with masses of adipose tissue found upon dissection suggested that much of lemurs' predictable seasonal change in body mass is due to changes in the mass of white adipose tissue. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Cytogenetic analysis shows extensive genomic rearrangements between red howler (Alouatta seniculus, Linnaeus) subspecies
Authors: Stanyon R. , Tofanelli S. , Morescalchi M. A. , Agoramoorthy G. , Ryder O. A. , Wienberg J.
Published: June 2005

A comparison of the G‐banded karyotypes of two red howler subspecies, Alouatta seniculus arctoidea and A. s. sara, showed that they differed by at least 14 chromosomal rearrangements. Genomic reshuffling is so great that homologs between subspecies could not be found for some chromosome, while the assignment of homology for other chromosomes remains uncertain. The two red howlers, however, share an unusual X1X2Y1Y2/ X1X1X2X2 sex‐chromosome system that resulted from a Y‐autosome translocation, probably in a common ancestor. The great chromosomal variability resulting from rapid chromosomal evolution in howlers indicates that cytogenetic data could make an important contribution to resolving phylogenetic and conservation problems in this group of highly conspicuous New World Monkeys. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Role of loud calls in brown howlers, Alouatta fusca
Authors: Chiarello Adriano Garcia
Published: June 2005

The loud calls of brown howler monkeys were studied during a year at the Santa Genebra Reserve, in southeastern Brazil. The study group emitted roars and barks on a total of 47 occasions, the majority of which (92%) were restricted to intergroup visual encounters. Loud calls were also elicited by the roars of distant groups (6%) and during intragroup agonistic interactions (2%). Intergroup visual encounters (n = 42) occurred predominantly in seldom used quadrats of the study group home range. In these instances, the loud calls were produced chiefly by the adult male alone (69% of cases), while the study group's two adult females joined the male in the remaining cases. Intergroup physical aggression, such as chase and displacement, was observed during 15 encounters (35% of cases). A dawn chorus does not occur in Santa Genebra—the loud calls were heard most frequently in mid‐morning and again during mid‐afternoon—and they were more abundant during the dry season, when the availability of food (new leaves) in the forest was lower. The data presented here provide some support for the hypothesis that roars of howler adult males are used in assessment of opponents, providing an alternative to energetically expensive chases and fights. However, given the relatively high rate of physical aggression observed during intergroup encounters, a result probably related to the high density of howlers and the consequent high frequency of intergroup encounters observed in this forest (0.7/day), ritualized aggression, in the form of loud calling, is apparently often insufficient to settle disputes. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Reproduction in Coquerel's dwarf lemur (Mirza coquereli)
Authors: Stanger Kathrin F. , Coffman Barbara S. , Izard M. Kay
Published: June 2005

Most nocturnal Malagasy primates, as well as many diurnal species, are highly endangered in their natural habitat. Captive breeding programs have been established for many species, but detailed information on reproduction is only available for three nocturnal taxa: the mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus), the dwarf lemur (Cheirogaleus medius), and the greater dwarf lemur (Cheirogaleus major). In this study, we present data for another nocturnal Malagasy primate, Coquerel's dwarf lemur (Mirza coquereli), which has been propagated since 1982 at the Duke University Primate Center. Unlike all other Malagasy primates bred in captivity, M. coquereli cycles throughout the year, and is clearly less seasonal in its birth distribution than is C. medius or M. murinus. Estrous intervals ranged between 19 and 30.5 days. Estrus lasted no longer than 1 day. After an average gestation length of 89.2 days, litters of one or two were born. Females cycled for the first time between 8 and 15 months of age, and gave birth for the first time between 12.8 and 33.5 months of age. The earliest mating of a male leading to conception was observed at the age of 17 months. For males and females, an increase in daylength appears to trigger pubertal development. Males had seasonal changes in testicular volume which were not explained by covariation with body weight. Maximum testis size occurred in spring, when breeding activity was highest. The occurrence of year‐round reproduction in M. coquereli, and the absence of seasonal fattening and/or hibernation, along with their specialized winter diet, may be correlated. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Interbirth interval variation in three sympatric species of neotropical monkey
Authors: Fedigan Linda Marie , Rose Lisa M.
Published: June 2005

Relatively few papers have focused on interbirth intervals in primates, even though the spacing between births is one of the primary determinants of female reproductive success in long‐lived mammals. We present life history data from a ten‐year field study of Costa Rican capuchins (Cebus capucinus), howlers (Alouatta palliata), and spidei monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi). Analyses of intraspecific variability found no significant differences attributable to individual variation in age, parity, weight, or maternal rank. Loss of an infant significantly shortened the interbirth interval in all three species. There was no correlation between annual rainfall and birth rates, but there was a significant clustering of births in the dry season. Survival analyses demonstrated a significant difference between the median interbirth intervals of the three species. Howlers have the shortest intervals (19.9 months), capuchins exhibit longer intervals (26.36 months), and spider monkeys have the longest intervals (34.72 months;. This comparative pattern does not correspond to relative body weights of the three species, but does correspond to relative brain weights. Comparisons to other primates with similar life history characteristics demonstrate that interbirth intervals are best examined at the level of their three component phases: gestation, lactation, and cycling to re‐conception. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Temperament in nonhuman primates
Authors: Clarke A. Susan , Boinski Sue
Published: June 2005

Formerly applied to studies of responsivity in children, in more recent years the concept of temperament has been applied to nonhuman primates at the individual, species, and now population levels. While the concepts of temperament and personality have been less distinguished in nonhuman primate studies than in the human literature, temperamental and personality differences have now been identified among individual primates and among primate species in a number of studies. At the individual level, certain temperamental characteristics have been associated with age, sex, and most frequently rank. At the species level, temperamental profiles have been linked to intraspecific differences in social systems, sociodemographics, and features of life history and ecology. In this report we discuss the application of the temperament concept to nonhuman primates and review findings from studies of primate temperament at the individual, population, and species level. We also cite evidence for genetic and experiential influences on temperament in primates, outline concepts related to possible evolutionary influences on temperament, and discuss the possible relation of temperamental characteristics to social behavior and ecology in selected species. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Primate cognition: Comparing problems and skills
Authors: Byrne R. W.
Published: June 2005

Primate cognition is believed to have adapted during evolution in response to complexity, stemming from either social or environmental challenges. Arguments favoring one or another domain as the predominant spur to increased intelligence have been proposed on the basis of the inherent complexity of problems facing primates and the sophistication of their observed behavioral response. A review of recent findings shows that cognitive differences between primates are well revealed by naturally posed problems. Current evidence shows a sensitivity to fine social distinctions in haplorhine primates, associated with complex social manipulations and neocortical enlargement, compared to strepsirhines. Several aspects of foraging behavior also suggests cognitive sophistication in various primates. Depth of understanding, however, is greater in great apes than in monkeys; this applies to both spheres, social (e.g., comprehending mental states) and nonsocial (e.g., comprehending physical mechanism and hierarchical organization of behavior). The increased representational understanding in great apes is not associated either with more manipulative social actions or with neocortical enlargement, compared to monkeys. This evidence supports theories of a social origin of cognition for those aspects shared by monkeys and apes but not for the unique qualitative differences of great apes. Task complexity is difficult, perhaps impossible, to measure or compare across domains; any such comparison would certainly be premature at present for primates. Behavioral skill, though in principle simpler to compare, is at present difficult to assess when there is no common currency of theory‐building. With the aim of encouraging comparisons of data from laboratory and field and from social and technical problems, a preliminary exploration is made with a notation derived from artificial intelligence; this is shown to be capable of representing theories of complex behavior in both social and technical domains. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Heritability of age at first birth in captive olive baboons
Authors: Williams‐Blangero S. , Blangero J.
Published: June 2005

The evolution of life history traits is a topic of growing interest in primatology. Traits associated with fertility, such as age at menarche and age at first birth, have great significance for natural selection, and knowing the genetic basis of such demographic traits may improve our understanding of population dynamics. Knowledge of the heritability of reproductive traits may also have practical implications for the management of captive breeding colonies.

A maximum likelihood method was used to estimate heritability of age at first birth for a sample of female olive baboons resident at the Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research. Only animals born at the Foundation that were caged in mixed sex groups and that had previously given birth were included in the sample (n = 316). There were 117 independent individuals and 199 individuals in 35 pedigrees composed of 2 to 26 members. Age at first birth ranged from 3.85 years to 13.11 years.

Age at first birth is highly heritable (h2= 0.87) with no evidence for maternal effects or a dominance genetic component. This level of genetic variability in a fitness‐related trait is contrary to evolutionary expectation and may reflect the uniform environment of a captive breeding situation. Thus, the heritability observed in this population may be taken as an upper bound for that in natural populations. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Human behavioral ecology: II
Authors: Smith Eric Alden
Published: June 2005

Human behavioral ecology is an interdisciplinary field of study applying theory from evolutionary ecology to a variety of anthropological questions. In Part I of this essay,1which appeared in an earlier issue, I surveyed key theoretical and methodological elements of the field, and summarized representative studies and issues in the topical area of subsistence strategies. In Part II, I turn to studies of reproductive strategies, and those analyzing patterns of cooperation and competition in an ecological and adaptive framework. I conclude with a brief look at possible future developments in the field.
The stone age iceman from the Alps: The find and the current status of investigation
Authors: Sjøvold Torstein
Published: June 2005

On September 19, 1991, a body protruding from glacial ice was discovered in the Alps between Austria and Italy. Considered a forensic case, and having been found on Austrian soil according to initial information, it was transported to the Department of Forensic Medicine in Innsbruck. Rumors about the body not being recent were readily confirmed, and news about the body and accompanying equipment immediately spread all over the world. The body itself was shown to be a natural mummy, as opposed to a corpse that has been embedded in glacial ice for some time, where soft tissue generally changes into grave wax (adipocere). The mummy was male and was remarkably well preserved. The preserved condition of his equipment and some organic material was astonishingly good. Isotope dating of the body by means of the 14C method has given an age of about 3,300 BC, or Late Stone Age. A survey of the border, however, revealed that the body was found just on the Italian side (within the autonomous province South Tyrol), and not as first assumed, in Austria (the province Tyrol). But according to an agreement between South Tyrol and the University of Innsbruck, the body will be kept at the Department of Anatomy in Innsbruck for a period of at least three years for research purposes. The research is to be carried out on an international basis, and the first symposium about the find was held in Innsbruck, June 3–5, 1992.
Life history and the evolution of human maturation
Authors: Smith B. Holly
Published: June 2005

The Taung child, like fossils of other individuals who died before reaching adulthood, is a piece of the puzzle of the evolution of human growth and development, the puzzle of when, how, and why human “life history” evolved into its modern form. With regard to Taung, interest focuses on both itsrateof growth (maturation of the child in relation to its age) and itspatternof growth (synchrony of the elements of maturation). The meaning of rates and patterns of growth, as well as the interpretation of maturation of Taung or any other fossil mammal, are best understood through the broad perspectives provided by comparative study of mammalian life history and the techniques of allometry.
Lithic microwear analysis in archeology
Authors: Shea John J.
Published: June 2005

Stone tools are the most durable and ubiquitous residue of prehistoric hominid activity. For this reason, archeologists attempt to learn as much as possible about hominid behavior from the analysis of lithic artifacts. Lithic microwear analysis reconstructs aspects of stone‐tool use from patterned variation in the traces of microscopic wear on those tools. The analysis of lithic microwear traces has increased our understanding of how stone tools were used in contexts ranging from the early Pleistocene to the ethnographic present.
Ecological demography: A synthetic focus in evolutionary anthropology
Authors: Low Bobbi S.
Published: June 2005

The interests of evolutionary anthropologists, behavioral ecologists, and demographers converge on the ecology of human fertility. Ecological conditions influence the optimum pattern of maternal effort. Patterns of abortion, neglect, and infanticide vary with mothers' ability to invest in their children and children's ability to use that investment. As in most other mammals, the ecology of human fertility varies between the sexes: status and resource control are important for males, whereas reproductive value is crucial for females. In pre‐industrial societies, and even in monogamous societies in demographic transition, wealthy men had more children than did poorer men. This correlation, often assumed to have disappeared, persists today, with richer men still having more sexual access than others. Sex differences in the ecology of fertility mean that sex of the offspring, as well as birth order, influences parental investment. Because individual fertility varies with environment, it is not surprising that “natural” (uncontrolled) fertility varies across societies or that demographic transitions proceed locally, with occasional reverses, as individuals strive to maximize their lifetime reproductive success in changing, competitive, conditions.
What is mtDNA good for in the study of primate evolution?
Authors: Melnick Don J. , Hoelzer Guy A.
Published: June 2005

Recombinant DNA methods have made accessible the nuclear and organelle genomes of a vast array of plant and animal species.1–3 Although evolutionary biologists and anthropologists have begun to exploit the full range of these methods, a disproportionate share of this research has centered on the mitochondrial genome (mtDNA). Because of its small size, conserved organization, mode of inheritance, and combination of rapidly and slowly evolving regions, mtDNA (Fig. 1) has appeared in many ways to be the ideal molecule for evolutionary studies of primates.4,5 However, recent research on higher primates raises serious concerns about the utility of this molecule for evolutionary analysis in the absence of parallel data from the nuclear genome.6–8 These studies suggest that we need to rethink our research strategies and define more clearly what mtDNA can be used for in the study of primate evolution.
Climatic adaptation and hominid evolution: The thermoregulatory imperative
Authors: Ruff Christopher B.
Published: June 2005

Anthropologists have long recognized the existence among modern humans of geographical variations in body form that parallel climatic gradients, part of more general zoological phenomena commonly referred to as Bergmann's or Allen's “Rules”. These observations have rarely been applied to earlier hominids, in part because fossil skeletons usually are so incomplete that it is difficult to reconstruct body morphology accurately. However, within the past two decades two early hominids have been discovered that preserve enough of the skeleton to allow confident assessment of their body size and shape. Comparison of these specimens—the Australopithecus afarensis A.L. 288‐1 (“Lucy”) and the Homo erectus KNM‐WT 15000—with others that are less complete make it evident that the evolution of Homo erectus was accompanied by not only a marked increase in body size, but also a similarly dramatic increase in the linearity of body form. That is, relative to their heights, small australopithecines had very broad bodies, whereas large early Homo had narrow bodies. This difference in body form cannot be explained on the basis of obstetric or biomechanical factors, but is consistent with thermoregulatory constraints on body shape. Specifically, to maintain the same ratio of body surface area to body mass, which is an important thermoregulatory mechanism, increases in height should be accompanied by no change in body breadth, which is exactly what is seen in comparisons of A.L. 288‐1 and KNM‐WT 15000. Conversely, Neandertals living in colder climates had much wider bodies, which are adaptive for heat retention. Differences in limb length proportions between fossil hominids are also consistent with thermoregulatory principles and the geographic variation observed among modern humans. Climatic adaptation during hominid evolution may have wide‐ranging implications, not only with regard to interpreting body morphology, but also in relation to ecological scenarios, population movements, and the evolution of the brain.
Reification of social systems
Authors: Rowell Thelma E.
Published: June 2005

In his 1991 book, Intraspecific Variation in the Social Systems of Wild Vertebrates, Dale Lott1 reviews the evidence that a single social system does not characterize a species. Rather, he says, the longer a species is studied and the wider the range of habitats in which it is studied, the more variation is discovered. I strongly recommend this book as a concise review of recent studies on nonprimate vertebrates for anyone needing a comparative perspective on a question that deeply concerns students of primates. The clarity of Lott's exposition led me to ask several questions. If differences in the behavior of populations can be described in terms of differences in the behavior of individuals, what is gained by speaking in terms of a social system? What is a social system anyway? Is it possible that the social system is a concept that might actually get in the way of understanding social behavior?
Electron spin resonance dating in paleoanthropology
Authors: Grün Rainer
Published: June 2005

Many archeological and paleoanthropological sites cannot be dated by well established and common dating techniques such as uranium series (U‐series) or argon‐argon (40Ar/39Ar) because of the lack of materials that are suitable for these techniques. Most sites, however, contain bones and teeth, and the latter can be used to obtain electron spin resonance (ESR) age estimates. The theoretical age range of ESR dating accuracy lies between a few thousand and more than a million years. In practice, continuing uranium accumulation increases the uncertainty of ESR age assessments in such a way that most age assignments beyond 300,000 years are very uncertain.
Hominization in the rainforest: The chimpanzee's piece of the puzzle
Authors: Boesch‐Achermann Hedwige , Boesch Chrstophe
Published: June 2005

Many models of human evolution propose that key behavioral innovations were involved in the divergence of the human line from the ape line. An ecological reason, the shift from dense forests to a more open habitat, is suggested as the basis for these innovations. Primate models can be useful to our understanding of how environmental factors can affect such key behaviors. New results on forest chimpanzees demonstrate that for most patterns of behavior considered to favor a savanna model, the environmental influences are in opposition to the expectations. A new evaluation of the environmental influences on human evolution is required. We propose that either patterns of key human behaviors were inaccurately distinguished or that the hominization process started while the common ancestor of the chimpanzee and man was alive.
Locomotor energetics and hominid evolution
Authors: Steudel Karen L.
Published: June 2005

The presence of a bipedal gait in fossil apes is now recognized as the earliest paleontological evidence of the beginnings of the human lineage. Thus, the search for the selective pressure that led to the adoption of bipedal posture and gait is the search for the origins of the human adaptation. One of the most popular candidates for the origin of erect posture is its purported energetic advantage.1–4This argument is reevaluated in light of data on the energetic cost of locomotion in mammals and, particularly, data on the effect of bipedalism on cost. I go on to discuss what morphological traces we might expect to see of changes in the locomotor economy of our ancestors once bipedalism became established.
Are the early holocene cattle in the eastern sahara domestic or wild?
Authors: Wendorf Fred , Schild Romuald
Published: June 2005

Questions relating to the antiquity of domestic cattle in the Sahara are among the most controversial in North African prehistory. It is generally believed that cattle were first domesticated in southwest Asia, particularly Anatolia, or in southeast Europe, where their remains have been found in several sites dated between 9,000 and 8,000 years ago.1 The discovery, in several small sites in the Western Desert of Egypt, of large bovid bones identified as domestic cattle and having radiocarbon dates ranging between 9,500 and 8,000 B.P. has raised the possibility that there was a separate, independent center for cattle domestication in northeast Africa (Fig. 1).2–4 However, it has not been universally accepted that these bones are from cattle or, if so, that the cattle were domestic.
A whole new world of ancestors: Eocene anthropoideans from Africa
Authors: Simons Elwyn L. , Rasmussen Tab
Published: June 2005

The last decade has witnessed enormous gains in our knowledge of early anthro‐poidean primates,

“Anthropoidean” refers to members of the suborder Anthropoidea, whch contaings New and Old world monkeys, apes, and humans. These primates are also often called “simians,” “simiiforms” or “anthropoids;” the latter term is potentially confusing because it has often been used to refer only to the great apes.

the oldest known relatives of monkeys, apes and humans. Recent fossil finds in Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia, and Oman, along with the associated geological research at these sites, have radically changed our models of anthro‐poidean origins and differentiation. Instead of first appearing as robust‐jawed herbivorous primates in the earliest Oligocene, it is now apparent that there was radiation of small‐bodied, fruit‐and‐insect‐eating anthropoideans during the Eocene. These early forms included at least two oligopithecines (squirrel‐monkey‐sized primates with a catarrhine dental formula) and two early “parapithecid monkeys” (three‐premolared primates with lumpy, bunodont dentitions). In addition, several smaller species from Algeria and Egypt, ranging in size from pygmy marmosets to tamarins, are not definitely assignable to previously known families. Alongside the early anthropoideans, there are also at least four recently identified prosimian families. The continental Eocene of Africa—for years, little more than a blank on the paieontologi‐cal map—now comprises an increasingly productive field source of new data that is important in deciphering phyletic and adaptive aspects of the prosimian‐anthropoid transition.
The spread of language around the pacific rim
Authors: Nichols Johanna
Published: June 2005

The spread of humans around the Pacific rim, ultimately to colonize the Pacific and the New World, began about 50,000 years ago. The languages of Australasia and the New World are a reservoir of potential clues to the chronology, origins, and process of human colonization, and linguists are seeking methods to tap this reservoir. Standard linguistic comparative‐historical method is unable to reach back in time more than about 8,000 years because regular grammar change and vocabulary loss gradually remove its most important evidence. The oldest well‐established and reconstructable language families are about 6,000 years old. Therefore, tracing those families ever farther back in time is not a possible way of recovering deep linguistic prehistory. Rather, it is the very discretness of the nearly 300 distinct language families on earth that makes it possible to define populations, map the distribution of diagnostic structural features in language, and thereby trace the spread of languages and colonization around the Pacific rim to their origins in the upper Paleolithic.
Early food production in Africa
Authors: Bower John
Published: June 2005

The study of early food production in sub‐Saharan Africa is at least as challenging as it is rewarding. Problems arise in large degree from the scarcity of relevant archeological material, particularly the remains of domesticated plants from prehistoric sites. This is attributable to several factors, including poor preservation, difficulties in recovering such material, and the limited amount of work so far invested in obtaining it. But, problems notwithstanding, fresh data and new methodological approaches have revealed aspects of early African food production that are interesting in themselves, as well as in global perspective. For example, contrary to what occurred in most other parts of the world, livestock herding in Africa often predated the earliest evidence of cultivation of domesticated plants. Moreover, the initial spread of food production throughout much of sub‐Saharan Africa was accompanied by iron, rather than lithic, technology.

This overview of current knowledge about early African food production is aimed at highlighting developmental patterns while also exposing limitations in our understanding of these patterns. Because of Africa's vast size, uniform coverage in reasonable depth of all parts of the continent is not possible. Thus, for example, I will not explicitly cover the complex neolithic record from Africa's Mediterranean region. Instead, I will generally concentrate on bodies of data and lines of investigation that characterize distinctive features of the African version of initial steps in raising crops and animals.
Genetic epidemiology of coeliac disease
Authors: Tiwari J. L. , Betuel H. , Gebuhrer L. , Morton N. E. , Rao D. C.
Published: June 2005

Segregation analysis favors a gene additive on liability with a frequency of 0.022, which is nearly recessive on the penetrance scale. Less than one‐eighth of DR3 and DR7 haplotypes carry a determinant for coeliac disease. There is significant excess of DR3/7 heterozygotes among patients, indicating that the determinants are qualitatively different in DR3 and DR7 haplotypes. Linkage to HLA is highly significant (maximum lod score = 10.9). Evidence for recombination of 8% in males is attributed to residual errors in the model. We suggest an approach to a more precise model.
Aggregation of colon cancer in family data
Authors: Bale Sherri J. , Chakravarti Aravinda , Strong Louise C. , Rao D. C.
Published: June 2005

Although only a small proportion of common cancers show familial aggregation, studying such families can elucidate the roles of shared environment and genes in the development of neoplasia. We report an analysis of nine colon cancer pedigrees using new nonparametric objective methods to measure familial aggregation as a means of determining the existence of heterogeneity in the data. Each family was selected through a proband with nonpolyposis colon cancer who had a first‐degree relative with documented colon cancer. To assess the aggregation of different cancers in these families we employ a method which evaluates both excess number of cases as well as distribution by risk in family members. We find that eight of the nine families exhibit significant aggregation of colon cancer: endometrial cancer aggregates in three families, breast in none, kidney in one, and all sites in eight. In this way, we show that two families fit the criteria for Cancer Family Syndrome, and that one is not a high‐risk cancer family.
A genetic and environmental analysis of a twin family study of alcohol use, anxiety, and depression
Authors: Clifford Christine A. , Hopper John L. , Fulker David W. , Murray Robin M. , Rao D. C.
Published: June 2005

Alcohol consumption, anxiety, and depression were measured by questionnaire in 572 twin families ascertained from the Institute of Psychiatry (London) normal twin register, each family consisting of an adult twin pair, their parents, and siblings‐a total of 1,742 individuals. A multivariate normal model for pedigree analysis was applied to each variable, with power transformations fitted to maximise the fit with distributional assumptions. The effect of shared twin environment was estimated by considering the measured cohabitation history of twin pairs. For log‐transformed alcohol consumption, amongst current drinkers this effect was the same for MZ and DZ pairs but depended on the cohabitation status of pairs. For both anxiety and depression the effect was clearly not the same for MZ and DZ pairs. Therefore the basic assumption of the classical twin method appears to be invalid for all three traits. Estimates of heritability derived from these analyses were compared with those obtained (1) by applying the classical twin method to twin data only, and (2) by a pedigree analysis ignoring the effect of shared twin environment. For all variables there were considerable differences between estimates based on the three models. This study illustrates that data from twins and their relatives which includes information on cohabitation history might distinguish shared genes and shared environment as causes of familial aggregation. In these behavioral traits the effect of shared twin environment may depend on zygosity and play a major role in explaining familial aggregation in twin family data.
Huntington disease: Estimation of heterozygote status using linked genetic markers
Authors: Conneally P. Michael , Wallace Margaret R. , Gusella James F. , Wexler Nancy S. , Rao D. C.
Published: June 2005

The recent finding of a closely linked DNA marker to the Huntington Disease gene allows the opportunity for prenatal and preclinical diagnosis. The methodology for using these markers for prediction in late age of onset disorders is discussed. Since these methods are both difficult and complex for the majority of genetic counselors, a simple solution is suggested. This involves using the well known linkage program LIPED and running it twice for a given consultand, once assuming he carries the gene and once that he is homozygous normal. This will allow accurate predictions for counselors with limited backgrounds in pedigree analysis.