bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Clarifications
Authors: Howell David
Published: January 2010

Will Lawther, active in the Durham Miners' Association (DMA) since 1907, was a leading and gaoled member of Red Chopwell's Council of Action during the General Strike. Within the DMA in the 1920s, he was associated with the Left; appropriately and controversially the Chopwell Lodge banner was decorated with images of Keir Hardie, Karl Marx, and Nikolai Lenin. As a Left activist, Lawther had political ambitions, and in 1929 he was elected Labour Member for Barnard Castle. Two years later, he addressed a May Day rally in the Durham coalfield. Oswald Mosley's New Party was two months old; the collapse of the second Labour Government was less than four months away. Lawther's speech remembered the 1926 stoppage selectively and developed a contrast that would become central to the Labour Party's political identity.
Contests and Contingencies
Authors: Howell David
Published: January 2010

In the Trades Union Congress (TUC) meeting in September 1931, the mood was set by Arthur Hayday in his Presidential address. Hayday, an experienced Labour backbencher, drew the moral of the crisis; ‘courageous and determined action by the national bodies invested with authority in the labour and trade union movement has saved the working class from destruction’. This rhetoric was followed by the calm of Walter Citrine, lucidly chronicling the trade union involvement in the August events. Ramsay MacDonald and Philip Snowden were presented as having capitulated to a deflationary policy resisted by the TUC since the restoration of the Gold Standard. Later in the week delegates debated a report on the financial crisis. The debate was brief; the vote was unanimous. A more emotional passage in the proceedings came with the speech by the Labour Party's fraternal delegate, Arthur Henderson.
Britain, Switzerland, and the Second World War
Authors: Wylie Neville
Published: January 2010

This is the first comprehensive study of British policy towards Switzerland during the Second World War. Switzerland occupied an ambiguous place in British belligerency. While epitomizing the kind of political values Britain claimed to uphold in declaring war against Nazi Germany in 1939, its inexorable drift into the Axis orbit after mid-1940 inevitably prevented British officials from isolating Anglo-Swiss relations from Britain's broader diplomatic and strategic objectives. The book situates British policy towards Switzerland within the history of the British blockade and financial warfare campaign, the Holocaust, Anglo-American relations, and the Allied strategic bombing offensive. It argues that Britain was more successful in benefiting from Swiss neutrality than has hitherto been assumed, especially in the acquisition of manufactured goods, secret intelligence and humanitarian services. London retained a stake in the maintenance of Swiss neutrality long after the severance of direct communications in June 1940. At base, however, British policy was shaped by a set of entrenched beliefs about Switzerland and Swiss neutrality that proved resistant to change, despite the growing evidence of Swiss-German economic and financial collaboration. British policy towards Switzerland rested on a view of Swiss neutrality that was forged as much from the preconceptions of British officials as from a dispassionate reading of Switzerland's place in the war.
A Fresh Look at Early Castles
Authors: COULSON CHARLES L. H.
Published: January 2010

To speak of ‘fortresses and society’ is, indeed, a truism. As soon as wealth for survival was accumulated, notably harvested grain and domesticated animals, demarcation and defence were required. For appreciating how natural fortresses were to normal ancient and medieval societies (and how various) a long perspective is essential. This chapter offers a revised perspective on castles during the medieval period by looking at the aesthetic, artistic, symbolic, and demonstrative elements in the design of fortresses rather than their presumed purpose as forms of local defence. It discusses fortresses in transition in medieval England and France; the response of the Carolingian Empire to the impact of internal disintegration and external attacks by the Norsemen penetrating far up the fine navigable river systems (particularly the Somme, Seine, and Loire); and the emergence of fortresses as a form of social reconstruction.
Variety Violated: Some Conceptual Problems
Authors: COULSON CHARLES L. H.
Published: January 2010

Until the conflict between the diffuse reality and the narrow perception is resolved, the centrality of castles (in all their manifestations) to society as a whole will remain obscured. The ‘military’ straitjacket falsifies them. Viewing them as adjuncts to the chivalric lifestyle is better, but still insufficient. Without question, the castellated and fortified style of building was aristocratic, and undoubtedly it spread early and fully as widely as the noble ethos itself. Nearly all the forms, from the Gallo-Roman cathedral city of the 5th century to the gun-forts, built to the order of Henry VIII at the end of his reign (1538-1547) along the south and south-east coast of England, were known to contemporaries as castra or castella. This chapter addresses the problems of nomenclature related to castles and fortresses in England and France during the medieval period.
Some Social Relations of ‘Castles and Fortresses’
Authors: COULSON CHARLES L. H.
Published: January 2010

It is because a far broader and looser sense of the castle operated in the medieval sphere, whether the period be early, middle, or late, that the social interactions of fortresses were so diffuse and pervasive. These elusive connotations, corrections, and resonances are explored in the present chapter. Although as a tool of analysis, even as a hypothesis, the modern construct of the castle carries with it too many false associations to continue to be useful, its dominance of the modern popular mind is not likely to change. Taking their tone from ecclesiastical denunciations of castles used against the Church, historians have supposed that the dukes of Normandy, and the kings of England, restrictively licensed castle-building on a systematic basis. The sometimes obsessive preoccupation of England and north-west France with earthworks as castles par excellence is not due to a different original ‘military’ culture, but to historical accident.
Noble Military ‘Liberties’, Ethos and Ethics
Authors: COULSON CHARLES L. H.
Published: January 2010

That fortresses were a basic ingredient of the medieval period, rather than an instrument of civil war waged by an anti-social minority, appears more fully by considering the medieval ‘arms ban’. Militant architecture and weaponry of all kinds have much in common as icons of rank and power. But whereas fortifying itself was rarely an act of force and did not ordinarily endanger the peace or jeopardize the public interest, the unrestrained use of weapons might well do both. New castles were peacefully sanctioned by local seignorial authority, with or without royal involvement in France, most often with it in England but preventing the associated noble liberty of arms-bearing from wreaking the havoc occasionally caused by large-scale state-sponsored violence called for constant vigilance. For good and for ill, castles were an integral feature of the noble and larger society which produced them, participating as much in its economic and cultural life as, albeit marginally overall, in its military activities.
Castle-Lords, Castle-Lordships, and Noble Civilization
Authors: COULSON CHARLES L. H.
Published: January 2010

Because the lords of castles were public figures involved in local and even ‘national’ government during the medieval period, none of them can be regarded as what today would be a ‘private citizen’. This chapter discusses the more personal aspects of noble architectural ambition in medieval England and France so as to show more of the practical implications and individual vicissitudes, and examines how closely jurisdictional powers were associated with castle-status. It also presents a range of case-studies involving relationships between greater lords in which fortresses were crucial. Some 13th- and 14th-century examples are presented showing that in England, the social, tenurial, and economic eminence of the castle conferred power, but also imposed responsibilities. The chapter also explores castellation and jurisdiction as insignia of nobility.
Colonization and Fortresses
Authors: COULSON CHARLES L. H.
Published: January 2010

What ensured the continual relationship of castles to colonization was not so much the resistance it sometimes had to contend with, but rather the stamp of new lordship that fortresses set upon the whole transformation. In the British Isles, next to Wales, the largest-scale working out of such changes, apart from the Norman Conquest itself, occurred in Ireland from the late 12th century. This chapter provides some comparative illustrations, chiefly drawn from French records. Because castles with dependent townships are so common, entire fortress-town complexes being called the castle, or the walled-town itself having the title castrum or castellum, the plantation of new towns is an essential part of the picture and is accordingly dealt with in the present chapter. The term bastide, although naturalized to some extent in English, characterizes town-colonization in south-western France so effectively that it has been retained as a French borrowing from the late Latin bastida or building.
Epilogue
Authors: COULSON CHARLES L. H.
Published: January 2010

This book has focused on the human and social aspects of castle-building in England, France, and Ireland during the medieval period, to reconcile the civilized with the violent aspects of medieval society, as they are perceived today. Writing about the glories of late-medieval architecture, Wim Swaan saw the problem as summed up by Johan Huizinga's remark that medieval life ‘bore the mixed smell of blood and roses’. Perhaps the main contribution to knowledge to be made by studying castles and fortresses in proper breadth is to shed some light on the aspirations and adversities of noblemen and ladies, ecclesiastics, townspeople, and of the great rural majority, and on their civilized achievements, institutional as well as architectural, in the western European middle ages.
5 The Pre-Reform Community
Authors: NIGHTINGALE JOHN
Published: January 2010

A look at Gorze's lay patrons has revealed a religious community surrounded by a host of nobles and landowners who came to the abbey to make donations, seek grants, and perhaps be feted by their relations within the community on the great feast days. The habit of granting out lands for limited periods was always pregnant with inherent dangers. Yet the fact that families as powerful as the Bosonids made successive donations to retain Gorze's estates suggests that these estates were not easily transformed into the hereditary possessions of such families. Indeed in some cases, the opposite process occurs wherein hereditary possessions were gradually transformed into lands held as precariae from the monastery. Gorze's charters attest both to the replacement of regular abbots by priors acting under the orders of lay abbots or the bishops of Metz, and to the apportionment of incomes between abbot or overlord and the monks.
11 A New Foundation and its Donors: Bouxières-aux-Dames
Authors: NIGHTINGALE JOHN
Published: January 2010

Bishop Gauzelin of Toul founded a community of nuns at Bouxiêres-aux-Dames in the early 930s to resound to his own future well-being. Bouxiêres's actual possession lists reveal that episcopal donations were swamped by those of nobles, most notably donations made for daughters and donations made by widows; here, as elsewhere, monastic patronage was driven by the desire and ability of widows to gain a greater degree of security in their otherwise precarious existence. This evidence is worth looking at in considerable detail since it provides the key to Bouxiêres's prosperity, revealing why such a nunnery was patronised and how this patronage gave it close links with a network of important and interrelated families whose interests ranged far beyond those of both the nunnery and its lords, the bishops of Toul. The existence of these rival patrons may well explain why the bishops of Toul continued to be so generous to the abbey.
Introduction
Authors: NIGHTINGALE JOHN
Published: January 2010

Saint-Maximin was on a grander scale than Gorze or the episcopal foundations of Toul. However, the destruction of the abbey and its archives by the Norse in 882 and the complex web of Merovingian and Carolingian traditions which the later community elaborated to redress this loss have made its early history far from clear. The abbey does not stand out as a powerhouse of the Carolingian religious and cultural renaissance, but this may simply be due to the loss of manuscripts and treasures in 882. What is not in doubt is the huge scale of Saint-Maximin's early endowment. The abbey's most important estates were of a size which points to their acquisition in the Merovingian and early Carolingian periods. Certainly, by the period of this study, the abbey's importance in the landscape of power is well-attested.
15 The Private Charters
Authors: NIGHTINGALE JOHN
Published: January 2010

Saint-Maximin's private charters from before the monastic reform of 934 offer a glimpse into the religious community's internal life, its sense of identity, and its relations with lay patrons. As a group they indicate that Saint-Maximin, like Prum, Stavelot-Malmédy, and Gorze, had a flourishing scriptorium which was served by specialists who produced charters according to long-established patterns. Distinct formulae can be established for the abbey's charters of donation, precaria, and exchange. Not only do the charters pre-dating 934 follow set patterns and employ similar phrases, but several of those from the decades after 934 are directly based on them. All charters of the 920s are drawn up by a single individual, Ogo, who is styled cancellarius in the 923 charter and can be identified with Saint-Maximin's first reform abbot. As with the royal diplomata, the use of traditional formulae did not impose rigid descriptions which could not be altered to reflect new situations.
17 Expansion, Endowment, and Restitution
Authors: NIGHTINGALE JOHN
Published: January 2010

Any attempt to account for Saint-Maximin's prominence as a centre of monastic reform expertise in early medieval Lotharingia must look at the abbey's material prosperity as well as its religious practices. Prosperity might be furthered by the reputation of a community's saints and prayers, but equally contemporaries were inclined to see the size of an abbey's buildings and community as evidence of its spirituality. It was Ogo's achievement in reconstructing the abbey and increasing the size of its community which merited entry alongside his obit in Saint-Maximin's necrology. In terms of buildings and membership, Saint-Maximin's reform did not cause a rupture with the past so much as herald a new era of expansion. For all the elements of continuity in the membership of Saint-Maximin's community, it seems clear that the number of monks increased under Ogo. The expansion in buildings and numbers was neither funded by a new endowment nor the result of a far-reaching restitution associated with the reform.
Epilogue
Authors: NIGHTINGALE JOHN
Published: January 2010

The narratives of the later monastic reform in early medieval Lotharingia might look back on the activities of their predecessors as worthless and contemptible but, in the absence of a better alternative, the latter had continued to be esteemed. It is for such reasons that this book has looked beyond spiritual and religious roles to consider the wider ways in which monasteries and their landholdings were an inescapable part of aristocratic life, intimately enmeshed in a noble family's inheritance strategies, its prestige, and its very notion of being. To appreciate the vitality and importance of monasteries in the 9th and 10th centuries, it is necessary to focus on land transactions as well as religious roles. Monasteries depended on patrons, but it is also true that patrons depended on the monasteries for the preservation of their chosen heirs' power and inheritance in the face of the claims of rival kin. Here the monasteries were as much patrons as patronised.
Development and Reform in the Irish Church, 1618–1645
Authors: hAnnrachÁin Tadhg Ó
Published: January 2010

An understanding of the development of the Catholic Church in Ireland in the decades prior to GianBattista Rinuccini's nunciature is integral to an understanding of his mission. Despite the revolutionary changes of the 1640s which made it possible, the creation of the Irish nunciature was firmly rooted in previous Roman policy. In certain ways indeed, the provision of a nuncio to Ireland in 1645 was merely the elaboration of the consciously tridentine policy of strengthening the Irish hierarchy which had been applied to the island over the previous thirty years. The aftermath of the Council of Trent saw the emergence of the pastoral bishop as the key figure in the implementation of religious reform in most of Catholic Europe. The major exception to this rule were Catholic communities like those of England, Holland, or Transylvania which were subject to the jurisdiction of a Protestant state.
The Background and Formation of the Nuncio
Authors: hAnnrachÁin Tadhg Ó
Published: January 2010

The archbishop of Fermo, GianBattista Rinuccini, arrived at Kenmare in County Kerry, Ireland in October 1645. That Rinuccini carried the stamp of 17th-century Italian Catholicism is undeniable. But like ‘absolutist king’, the phrase ‘tridentine bishop’ is a convenient shorthand to describe a complex reality. There were many tridentine bishops, far more than absolutist kings. A bishop such as Rinuccini, born eight years after the archbishop of Milan's death, saw himself as another participant and shaper in a tradition of Catholic reform. It is as a variation rather than a replication of the counter-reformation theme that the archbishop of Fermo can best be understood. Rinuccini brought a rich cocktail of experience to bear upon his work as nuncio to the Confederate Catholics of Ireland. Prior to his nunciature, Rinuccini was reluctant to focus on the possibility that in his own era ecclesiastical authority might be forced to exert itself against Catholic temporal powers.
Conclusion
Authors: hAnnrachÁin Tadhg Ó
Published: January 2010

Barely eight months after GianBattista Rinuccini's departure from Ireland, the Cromwellian conquest began. In some respects, it is ironic that neither the nuncio, nor Owen Roe O'Neill, the two figures of this time easiest to portray as Catholic crusaders, directly engaged in the struggle against God's Englishman. That conflict between the Catholic population of Ireland and the saints of the English revolution was certainly harsh enough to qualify as another outcrop of the ferocity of the European religious wars, and it distinguished the Irish experience of the interregnum from anywhere else in the archipelago. Rinuccini was not the only papal nuncio retreating to Italy in the late 1640s following the collapse of his mission. Fabio Chigi, the papal delegate at Munster, had endured a similar fate following the Treaty of Westphalia. Both the Chigi and the Rinuccini nunciatures were creations of the period covered in this book and their frames of reference were remarkably similar.
The ‘Era of Recognition’ During the 1970s and ’80s—Foundations for a Modern Jurisprudence
Authors: McHUGH P.G.
Published: January 2010

This chapter describes the early phase in modern history during which the old, ingrained paternalism was replaced by fresher legal principles endorsing aboriginal agency. These principles acknowledged the unique constitutional position of aboriginal peoples and their claim to self-determination. However, that recognition still had to be made within the overarching framework of each legal system and, as became increasingly apparent, in response to the variable situation of each group. Once the foundational modern principles were established — essentially the achievement of the era of recognition in the 1970s and 1980s — their fulfilment in particular cases became the piecemeal brick-by-brick task of the post-recognition period. The chapter considers the early period during the 1970s and 1980s when each jurisdiction re-fashioned its laws as it re-addressed the enduring questions of sovereignty and status.
Living Together Less Contentiously—The Jurisprudence of Reconciliation in the 1990s
Authors: McHUGH P.G.
Published: January 2010

‘Reconciliation’ emerged in the early 1990s as a new theme driving relations between aboriginal peoples and the settler-states of North America and Australasia. This was a theme that did not posit closure and finality in those relations, but signified a more conscious attempt within each settler-state to erect structures for the management of an ongoing relationship with its tribal peoples. Reconciliation could not be possible without recognition. Recognition entailed not only the conferral by the settler-state legal system of substantive aboriginal rights. For aboriginal peoples it also involved the acknowledgment by the settler-state of the impropriety of past conduct in breach of those rights. This chapter discusses a jurisprudence of reconciliation, reconciliation through claims settlement; and claims mechanisms in Canada, New Zealand, and Australia.
1 Introduction
Authors: REDMAYNE MIKE
Published: January 2010

This introductory chapter presents the main focus of the book, which is the use of expert evidence in the criminal process. It explains that expert evidence presents a number of challenges to the legal system and that what links them, perhaps, is the need to defer to, yet exert a degree of control over, the experts employed in it. It presents brief details of what the next chapters are all about.
3 Probability Models in Forensic Science
Authors: REDMAYNE MIKE
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins by examining in detail the important role that interpretation plays in forensic science. It suggests two reasons for stressing interpretation: the significance of trace evidence often depends on the information available to the forensic scientist and on the assumptions he brings to his work, and the way the evidence is used in court. It discusses the importance of Bayesianism in forensic science and how it offers insights that classical statistics do not, which make it appear to offer decision-makers more accurate information about the value of scientific evidence. It explains that the use of fingerprint evidence may give absolute identifications. It also explores several probability models in forensic science.
4 Presenting Probabilities in Court
Authors: REDMAYNE MIKE
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins by discussing several problems in presenting the probabilities in court. It then makes an analysis of how probabilities are evaluated in court through empirical research. It also discusses the use of likelihood ratios in verbal conventions, frequencies, error rates, specifying alternative hypotheses, and precision and pragmatism. Moreover, it presents several database problems encountered and other evidence types used when presenting statistical evidence in courts.
6 The Admissibility of Expert Evidence: (2) The Rule in R. v. Turner
Authors: REDMAYNE MIKE
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines the exclusionary rule in R. v. Turner. It shows that the Turner rule works well in keeping bad expert evidence out of courts. It adds that the Turner rule does not encourage careful analysis of expert evidence and that can lead to bad decisions. It argues that, as the amount of expert evidence available to the criminal courts increases, less dependence on traditional objections should be given.
Introduction
Authors: STEVENSON PATRICK
Published: January 2010

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of prevailing theories about linguistic and communicative differences between east and west German speech communities. It then elaborates on the purpose of the book, which is to provide a study of sociolinguistic disunity that sets the contemporary situation in a broader historical context that draws out not only the self-evident discontinuities in this history, but also in the important continuities. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
Conclusions
Authors: STEVENSON PATRICK
Published: January 2010

This concluding chapter resumes some of the fundamental questions raised in the course of the study and considers ways of interpreting linguistic encounters between east and west Germany in the broader relevance of this specific issue to the study of sociolinguistic conflict in general.
Helium Three
Authors: Dobbs Roland
Published: January 2010

The condensed phases of helium three provide an exciting laboratory for many fundamental questions in condensed matter physics. Due to its light mass and weak interatomic potential, the condensed phases of helium display quantum effects more dramatically than any other atomic system. Intuition based on classical experience is often misleading in these phases: the solid phase for instance is less ordered at low temperature than the liquid phase. The book covers all the low temperature properties of helium three as liquid, superfluid, and solid. It provides an introduction to the extensive literature on helium three from the point of view of an experimentalist, and includes the analogy of its properties with the cosmological ‘big bang’.
Fermi gas
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

The properties of liquid 3He change as temperature is lowered from those typical of a classical, monoatomic liquid above 1 K to those of a Fermi gas with interactions, or Fermi liquid, and finally below a few millikelvin to a Fermi superfluid. This chapter reviews the statistical mechanism of a Fermi gas. Its predictions are compared with early measurements of the equilibrium, thermal, magnetic, and acoustical properties of liquid 3He.
Fermi liquid in equilibrium
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter describes a semi-phenomenological theory due to Landau that accounts for a wide range of experimental results. The theory also predicts a new form of acoustic propagation, termed zero sound.
Further theories
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter reviews theoretical developments since the 1960s. These theories are of two basic types: microscopic theories, in which the ground-state properties are calculated from the mass of the 3He atom and the interatomic pair, and phenomenological theories that are alternatives to, or extensions of, Landau's theory.
Basic properties
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter introduces the basic properties of and theory of 3He-4He mixtures. Topics discussed include effective quadratic interaction, molar volumes and the phase diagram, chemical potential and osmotic pressure, propagation of sound, quasiparticle energy spectrum, microscopic theory, heat capacity and effective mass, magnetic susceptibility, and phase separation and solubility.
Transport properties
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines the transport properties of 3He-4He mixtures. It outlines the theory for the transport coefficient over a wide range of temperatures and then discusses experiments that measure that viscosity coefficient. It also presents further measurements of the thermal conductivity coefficient, including the propagation of heat pulse, and discusses diffusion coefficients.
Theory of spin-polarized solutions
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

Very dilute solutions of 3He in superfluid 4He behave as an almost ideal Fermi gas at millikelvin temperatures, which can be strongly polarized in high magnetic fields. This has enabled studies of their equilibrium, transport, and dynamical spin properties to be made over a wide range of temperatures, concentrations, and polarizations covering systems that are highly degenerate to those that are non-degenerate. This chapter discusses polarized Fermi gas, model theories, equilibrium theories, transport properties, and spin dynamics.
Low-dimensional structures
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins with a discussion of the theory of two-dimensional (2D) Fermi fluid. Two important substrates, nucleopore and aerogel, are described as an introduction to the experiments on heat capacity, propagation of third sound, magnetization, and surface superfluidity.
Solutions of 4He in 3He
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

Although there have been both theoretical and experimental studies of dilute solutions of 4He in normal 3He for many years, significant results at millikelvin temperatures have been achieved only in the last decade. This was primarily because the solubility of 4He in 3He approached zero exponentially as T approached 0, unlike that of 3He in 4He, which remain at about 6.4% at T = 0. Consequently only a few properties of these solutions have been measured and adequately explained. This chapter discusses the basic properties studied in the 1970s, followed by developments in both theory and experimentation since 1988.
Superfluidity
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter shows that the superfluid properties of the A and B phases of superfluid 3He are similar, but are different from those of 4He. First, the pseudoisotropic B phase demonstrates both quantized circulation and the Landau criterion for superfluidity. Measurements of critical velocities, persistent currents, critical currents, and dissipation in flow experiments on the B phase are discussed. In the anisotropic A phase, superflow is a complex phenomenon, and some of the vortices and textures it can support are described.
Collective modes
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses collective modes in the A and B phases of superfluid 3He. Topics covered include classification of resonances, B phase spectroscopy, and A phase spectroscopy.
Rotating superfluid
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses experiments on superfluid 3He rotation. It focuses on vortex formation on both phases of the superfluid and on the interpretation of experiments that probe them with NMR, negative ions, ultrasonics, and optics.
Paramagnetism
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

Early measurements of the magnetic properties of solid 3He were made over a range of pressures that include both the b.c.c. and h.c.p. phases, but were limited to temperatures above a few millikelvin. At these temperatures, the nuclear spins of 3He atom are completely disordered, giving a contribution to the entropry of Ss = R ln(2l + 1) = Rln2, which disappears at some low temperature Tc, when the spins are ordered. Until the discovery of nuclear ordering in 1974, theory and experimentation were aimed at reducing Tc and the nature of the transition. This chapter reviews these developments and shows that the paramagnetic state of solid 3He is now well understood.
Crystal shapes and defects
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter describes the way in which 3He crystals grow and change in shape under gravity. Topics covered include crystal growth, vacancies, spin polarons and magnons, and dislocations.
Low-dimensional structures
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins with a discussion of the establishment of a phase diagram for a monolayer of 3He from heat capacity measurements. It then presents accounts of recent studies of the magnetic and thermal properties of first, second, and higher layers of 3He in graphite, together with some interactions of 2D 3He with other substrates.
Three Chaotic Systems
Authors: Hilborn Robert C.
Published: January 2010

This chapter introduces chaotic behaviour by examining three systems — an electronic circuit, an iterated map model (the logistic map), and a set of differential equations (the Lorenz model) — and their behaviour in state space (phase space). Bifurcations are introduced as changes in dynamical behaviour as parameters describing the systems are changed. Similar features such as period-doubling are demonstrated. The chapter also introduces the basic vocabulary needed to describe nonlinear behaviour. The distinction between linear behaviour and nonlinear behaviour is emphasized. Chaotic behaviour provides a new paradigm to explain complex behaviour and the implications of this new paradigm are discussed, including the loss of predictability for chaotic systems even though their underlying mathematical descriptions are deterministic. Bifurcation diagrams and attractors provide powerful visual presentations of how behaviour changes as parameters are varied.
Intermittency and Crises
Authors: Hilborn Robert C.
Published: January 2010

This chapter explores the transition from periodic behaviour to chaotic behaviour via intermittency when a system exhibits a mix of what appears to be regular behaviour and chaotic behaviour. State space descriptions provide an explanation of the origin of intermittency. Four different types of intermittency are introduced and several experimental observations of intermittency are described. A crisis bifurcation of chaotic system occurs when a strange attractor (in state space) suddenly changes in size or suddenly disappears. A state space explanation of a crisis is introduced and used to understand an experimental observation of this event.
INTRODUCTION
Authors: Casten R. F.
Published: January 2010

This book explains nuclear structure b building on a few elementary physical ideas. It discusses the shell structure of nuclei, starting with the independent particle model and going on to the shell model for multiparticle configurations. Collective models for even-even nuclei are also considered, starting with macroscopic models of vibrational and rotational motion. It covers the evolution of nuclear structure with nucleon number, as well as odd-mass deformed nuclei, the Nilsson model and its consequences, and exotic nuclei and radioactive beams. This book presents two principal facts: namely, the beautiful richness and variety of nuclear physics and the extent to which we can understand nuclear data and models by invoking a few extremely basic ideas and drawing upon arguments that are physically transparent and intuitive. Many of the arguments presented in the book are based on a few basic simple ideas, including the short-range nature of the nuclear force, the effects of the Pauli principle, and two-state mixing.
THE SHELL MODEL: TWO-PARTICLE CONFIGURATIONS
Authors: Casten R. F.
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines the effects of residual interactions that lead to all the correlations, configurations mixing, and collectivity that characterizes most atomic nuclei. First, the problem of multinucleon configurations — ‘valence’ configurations of two or more particles outside a core, which is usually assumed to consist of inert closed shells — is addressed. Two issues are considered: first, which angular momentum (J) values are allowed by the Pauli principle, and, second, what are the effects of the interactions. The simplest case of two identical nucleons in the same or different orbits is explored, followed by the case of two non-identical nucleons (proton and neutron) and the role of isospin and exchange terms in the residual interaction. All these are carried out for two-particle configurations.
MULTIPARTICLE CONFIGURATIONS
Authors: Casten R. F.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses multiparticle (n > 2) configurations of valence nucleons. The discussion begins by considering which values of the total angular momentum are permissible for an n-particle system, focusing on the restrictions imposed by the Pauli principle. This issue can be approached using the so-called m-scheme, which is illustrated by looking at the case of three identical nucleons in a d5/2 orbit. This chapter also examines the coefficients of fractional parentage, the seniority scheme in multiparticle configurations, and pairing correlations. Some examples of multiparticle configurations are given.
THE DEFORMED SHELL MODEL OR NILSSON MODEL
Authors: Casten R. F.
Published: January 2010

This chapter describes the basic single-particle model applicable to nearly all deformed nuclei — the Nilsson model. This model is one of the most successful nuclear models ever developed, accounting for most of the observed features of single-particle levels in hundreds of deformed nuclei. Essentially a single-particle model, the Nilsson model has enjoyed particular success in the interpretation of single nucleon transfer reactions. Even before discussing this model, we are faced with a conceptual difficulty arising from the nonspherical shape, or the separation of the motion of an individual nucleon around the nucleus from rotations of the nucleus itself in space. This issue is not only of formal interest, but raises the possibility that the separability of these motions may be rather poor for extremely high rotational velocities. The application of the Nilsson model to odd mass deformed nuclei is discussed, along with prolate and oblate shapes as well as the interplay between Nilsson structure and rotational motion.
NILSSON MODEL: APPLICATIONS AND REFINEMENTS
Authors: Casten R. F.
Published: January 2010

The description of odd mass deformed nuclei in terms of Nilsson orbits and their configuration-mixed nonspherical wave functions has been an extremely successful model for more than four decades. One of its most appealing features is that it is extremely easy to test empirically and to measure the detailed shell model composition of individual Nilsson wave functions. Single nucleon transfer reactions provide a direct and specific measure of each successive component in the Nilsson wave functions. This chapter discusses the applications and refinements of the Nilsson model, with emphasis on the Coriolis interaction in deformed nuclei, Coriolis mixing and single nucleon transfer cross sections, unique parity states, hexadecapole deformations and unique parity states, Coriolis effects at higher spins, and rotation aligned coupling.
MICROSCOPIC TREATMENT OF COLLECTIVE VIBRATIONS
Authors: Casten R. F.
Published: January 2010

A microscopic approach to deriving the structure, energies and systematics of collective states from the shell model appears in two forms, the Tamm-Dancoff approximation and the random phase approximation (RPA). The reader who is at all versed in nuclear structure physics may have encountered calculations carried out in the RPA or references to such techniques. This chapter presents a simple derivation and discusses the basic ideas involved, and then illustrates the techniques with a particular calculation for rare earth nuclei. The end result is a set of predictions for comparison with experiment as well as a deeper understanding of the microscopic nature of many aspects of collective behavior. It allows predictions of the basic structure of particular collective states without detailed or complex calculations. Simply by visual inspection of a Nilsson diagram, the energy behavior of collective vibrations can be predicted. This chapter also discusses the structure of collective vibrations and vibrations in deformed nuclei.
Exciton–phonon interaction in quantum wells
Authors: Akimov A.V
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the interaction of two-dimensional excitons with phonons. The specific feature of the exciton-phonon interaction is the importance of both electrons and holes coupled by Coulomb interaction. The main interest here is to review the role that acoustic phonons play in exciton dynamics. In GaAs/AlGaAs quantum wells the excitons are strongly pronounced in the optical spectra as narrow spectral lines, which makes optical methods the main instrument for the studies of exciton-phonon interactions. Experiments are described where the excitons become a tool for phonon spectroscopy providing valuable information about the dynamical properties of phonons in semiconductor nanostructures. The chapter describes details of experimental work and also presents the results of calculations describing the effect of phonons on the energy distribution of two-dimensional (2-D) excitons in single and double quantum wells.
Anomalies in Quantum Field Theory
Authors: Bertlmann Reinhold A.
Published: January 2010

The anomaly, which forms the central part of this book, is the failure of classical symmetry to survive the process of quantization and regularization. The study of anomalies is the key to a deeper understanding of quantum field theory and has played an increasingly important role in the theory over the past twenty years. This book presents all the different aspects of the study of anomalies in an accessible and self-contained way. Much emphasis is now being placed on the formulation of the theory using the mathematical ideas of differential geometry and topology. This approach is followed here, and the derivations and calculations are given explicitly. Topics discussed include the relevant ideas from differential geometry and topology and the application of these paths (path integrals, differential forms, homotopy operators, etc.) to the study of anomalies. Chapters are devoted to abelian and nonabelian anomalies, consistent and covariant anomalies, and gravitational anomalies.
Introduction
Authors: Bertlmann Reinhold A.
Published: January 2010

This introductory chapter begins with a historical background of the anomalies discussed in this book, axial- or the chiral anomaly corresponding to an axial- or chiral fermion current. It then discusses developments in the understanding of anomalies. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
Chern–Simons form, homotopy operator and anomaly
Authors: Bertlmann Reinhold A.
Published: January 2010

The Chern–Simons form and the homotopy operator plays an important role in connection with anomalies. In fact, the anomaly can be calculated on pure algebraic grounds from a variation of the Chern–Simons form using a homotopy operator. This chapter begins with a discussion of a symmetric invariant polynomial of fields, which is the starting point for deriving the Chern–Simons form and ‘transgression formula’. It then proves the important Poincaré lemma and introduces in this connection a homotopy operator. A generalization of the ‘transgression’ — the Cartan homotopy formula — follows. The homotopy formula is applied to a Chern–Simons form with gauge transformed fields, and the non-Abelian anomaly is derived in this way. Finally, the chapter presents a general formula for the variation of the Chern–Simons form, which expresses the anomaly.
Consistent anomaly
Authors: Bertlmann Reinhold A.
Published: January 2010

Chapter 4 introduced the anomaly as the breakdown of a classical conservation law. This chapter investigates the anomaly further in light of gauge transformations. Section 8.1 introduces an infinitestimal gauge operator, generalize to a BRS operator, and find its representation in the functional space of the gauge potentials and Faddeev–Popov ghosts. Section 8.2 discusses the anomalous Ward identity in terms of functional derivatives and subsequently derives the equation which determines the anomaly — the Wess–Zumino consistency condition — in the gauge transformation variant and in the BRS variant. Section 8.3 presents the different aspects of the anomaly equation, such as the algebra-, the cocycle-, and the cohomology aspects.
Covariant anomaly
Authors: Bertlmann Reinhold A.
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins by introducing the Bardeen–Zummo polynomial, which relates the consistent- to the covariant anomaly. It discusses the features of the covariant type. This discussion is reformulated using differential forms on the space-time maniforld M (Section 10.2) as well as differential forms on the Sp (Capital Alpha), the space of all gauge connections (Section 10.3). Finally, the chapter extends the anomalies to nonlocal forms over Sp Α).
Index and anomaly
Authors: Bertlmann Reinhold A.
Published: January 2010

This chapter studies the role of anomaly in the topology of gauge theories. It shows that the anomaly also has a ‘natural’ explanation; it occurs as an obstruction in certain nontrivial bundles and it is determined completely by a topological quantity — the index. Section 11.1 discusses the relation of the single anomaly to the Atiyah–Singer index theorem. Section 11.2 describes the geometric-topological character of the non-Abelian index anomaly in the context of index theorems. Section 11.3 shows the connection between the index of the Weyl operator and the heat kernel of the Laplacian, shedding light on Fujikawa's regularization procedure. Section 11.4 presents the Atiyah–Singer index theorem for the case of YM fields. Section 11.15 introduces a special Dirac operator which is equivalent to the Wely operator, and calculates the non-Abelian anomaly, Bardeen's result, by the path integral method. It also explains the procedure of Alvarez–Gaum é — how to determine the non-Abelian anomaly by a generalized index theorem.
An Introduction to Particle Accelerators
Authors: Wilson Edmund
Published: January 2010

Many scientists and engineers spend their lives designing, constructing, and running accelerators, yet few universities include a study of them in their curricula. This book is a straightforward introduction used by undergraduates and postgraduate students as well as by professional staff attending the summer schools run by the big accelerator laboratories. Research physicists should read it for important background. It covers the essentials of the subject for accelerator physicists and engineers, and is at the level of the introductory courses provided by the CERN and US Accelerator schools. Its style is to give enough information to understand the subject without an excess of mathematics or theory. The text includes exercises and answers to focus the attention of the reader on the calculations necessary to design a new machine. After a chapter on the history of the accelerators, four chapters cover the dynamics of particle beams as they are guided and focused by the magnets of a synchrotron or storage ring and as they are accelerated by rf cavities. Another two chapters cover linear and non-linear effects from imperfect fields. There are chapters on synchrotron radiation, colliders, instabilities, and on future acceleration techniques. A chapter describes the applications of the ten thousand or more accelerators in the world ranging from the linear accelerators used for cancer therapy, through those used in industry and in other fields of research, to the giant ‘atom smashers’ at international particle physics laboratories. A final chapter is to stimulate new ideas for future acceleration techniques.
History of accelerators
Authors: Wilson E. J. N.
Published: January 2010

This chapter is a historical account of the principal kinds of accelerators built in the last century—each with ever-increasing energy to resolve sub atomic physics with ever-increasing resolution. Starting from electrostatic accelerators, it describes the invention of the betatron or ray-transformer, linear accelerators, cyclotrons, and the synchrotrons and storage rings of today. The understanding of phase stability made synchrotrons possible. Later the invention of strong focusing replaced weak focusing and enabled considerable economies in magnet bulk. Finally, the development of superconducting magnets allowed much higher energies to be reached without increasing the ring diameter. Each of these steps played an important part in reaching higher energies. The chapter lists the many applications of accelerators in medicine, industry, and research. It also describes the principle of fixed field alternating gradient accelerators, invented in the 1950s and recently revived for a number of topical applications.