bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Humanitarians or Warriors?: Race, Gender, and Combat Status in Operation Restore Hope
Authors: Miller Laura L. , Moskos Charles
Published: June 2007

Operation Restore Hope was a confusing mission for American soldiers. Trained aswarriors, they were thrust into a humanitarian mission. Expecting to distribute food tograteful Somalis, they were attacked instead by the locals and were limited to security and guard duty. Soldiers' attitudes evolved through three stages: high expectations, disillusionment, and reconsideration. In the last stage, soldiers adopted one of two frameworks to cope with the ambiguity of the mission: warrior versus humanitarian. The former was more strongly associated with whites, men, and combat soldiers, who constructed negative stereotypes of Somalis and favored returning violence with violence. Blacks, women, and support soldiers tended to reject victim-blaming arguments seemingly imported from the United States. They maintained a humanitarian position, seeking explanations for Somali actions and distinguishing between clan warriors and needy refugees. Our data come from field observations, interviews, and surveys of Army troops who served in Somalia.
Civil-Military Relations in Ukraine, 1989-1991
Authors: Kuzio Taras
Published: June 2007

The article surveys civil-military relations in Ukraine during the last two years of the former USSR. It covers the role of political parties, civic groups, the media, parliament, and local councils in publicizing the demand for separate armed forces and the negative hostility towards Soviet institutions and Moscow's rule of Ukraine. The article also describes the growing awareness of interethnic violence and conscript brutality within the Soviet armed forces as factors that encouraged Ukrainians to view the Soviet security forces in an increasingly hostile manner. Finally, it points out how civic groups and public opinion helped to smooth the peaceful and rapid transition from Soviet armed forces to the security forces of independent Ukraine.
Military Decision in War: A Framework for Research
Authors: Kober Avi
Published: June 2007

This article offers a theoretical framework for the study of military decision in war. It identified central schools of thought and their approaches to the subject, and evaluates the status of military decision in our time. It then defines the concept of decision, deals with the relative importance of psychological and material factors in decision, and raises the question of whether decision at the strategic level is something that can actually exist. It also characterizes the decision process, analyzes the elements that shape its nature, points at indicators for identifying decision and the stage which the decision process has reached, and presents the conditions for the attainment of decision and the strategies available for bringing about a decision.
Nucear Deterrence, Arms Control, and Multipolarity: An Argument for Incremental Policy Change
Authors: Tkacik Michael Patrick
Published: June 2007

Changes in the international environment and potential deep cuts in nuclear arsenals have raised issues regarding central tenets of nuclear deterrence theory. This article examines three of the primary issues in the current debates: the [dis]utility of the theory and the weaponry: arms control and renewed calls for minimum deterrence; and multipolarity and nuclear weapons. It argues that, while continued deemphasis of nuclear weapons and deterrence theory seems desirable, in fact it is time to allow recent modifications to solidify before enacting more far-reaching changes.
German National Command Structures after Unification: A New German General Staff?
Authors: Young Thomas-Durell
Published: June 2007

The Bundeswehr was intentionally created in 1955 without the capability to exercise centralized operational control above the Army Corps, or at the joint, level. The reason for this situation was German and Allied anxiety over the recreation of a "Generalstab." With unification, Germany now requires the ability to employ the Bundeswehr in less than war operations, which, therefore, requires a modest national capability to direct operations outside of NATO wartime command structures, i.e., a "J-3." This article details the evolution in the development of the modest centralization of operational control structures in the German Ministry of Defense and within the three armed services themselves. Integral to understanding this slow and stilted evolution in the MoD and the Bundeswehr is the sensitivity that continues to overshadow many key aspects of civil-military relations in the Federal Republic of Germany.
Military Expenditures, Health, and Education: Bedfellows or Antagonists in Third World Development?
Authors: Adeola Francis O.
Published: June 2007

Whether military expenditure, health, and education are strange bed-fellows, antagonists, or complementary to modernization, economic development and the physical quality of life are the major questions addressed in this paper. Fundamental military roles in underdeveloped countries are discussed; and empirical cross-national analyses of aggregate data from the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA), the World Bank, and world political and social indicators, are used to test competing hypotheses. Educational expenditures as related to human capital formation and the percentage of labor force in industry are found to be the best allies in predicting economic development. Other findings indicate that military expenditures are adversarial (or antagonistic) to health and the physical quality of life. The theoretical and policy implications of the findings are discussed.
Gender Integration in Armed Forces: Recent Policy Developments in the United Kingdom
Authors: Dandeker Christopher , Segal Mady Wechsler
Published: June 2007

This article reports on recent developments in policy on gender integration in the United Kingdom's armed forces, whereby women's employment opportunities have widened significantly since the early 1980s. These changes include increases in women's representation and the number of positions they are allowed to occupy; abolition of the Women's Royal Army Corps (WRAC) and Women's Royal Naval Service (WRNS); assigning women to combat ships, and training women as jet fighter pilots. Drawing on official reports and statistics and formal interviews with military and civilian defense officials, we analyze the main factors that have led the United Kingdom to make these policy changes. These factors are: demographic pressures, sociocultural changes in gender definitions, legal constraints (particularly from the European Union), and changing views of policy makers on whether women can and should serve in combat roles. The article highlights a number of implications of the policy changes.
The Future of Peace Support Operations: Strategic Peacekeeping and Success
Authors: Dandeker Christopher , Gow James
Published: June 2007

This article uses the concept of "strategic peacekeeping" to understand peace support operations situated at a midpoint in the spectrum between observation missions, classic peacekeeping, and peace enforcement. Attempts to integrate enforcement measures into peace operations are not inherently contradictory and self-defeating, as some recent critics have suggested. Rather, they may be inevitable and necessary. Drawing on evidence from peace operations in the Republic of the Former Yugoslavia, two arguments are defended. First, the types of operation that require the possible mixing of consent and force to achieve success differ from traditional peacekeeping missions at the strategic level. For this reason, the term strategic peacekeeping is used to refer to situations in which an international force is inserted into a continuing conflict to assist in creating the conditions for conflict termination without taking sides in the conflict. Second, a strategic peacekeeping operation rests on particular conditions for success. These are not so much the consent of the conflicting parties, or the use of force alone, but the challenges of maintaining sufficient support (or a suitable absence of opposition) in the eyes of different audiences both in the host state and further afield. This should be understood as a process of legitimation.
Attitudes of Citizen-Soldiers Toward Military Missions in the Post-Cold War World
Authors: Segal David R. , Tiggle Ronald B.
Published: June 2007

The 28th six-month rotation of peacekeepers to the Sinai Multinational force and Observers (MFO) was an experiment to test the use of a composite force of reserve and active component soldiers for peacekeeping. This article presents analyses of the attitudes of reserve soldiers who volunteered for this mission, based on three waves of surveys conducted before and during the deployment. We focus on three sets of attitudes that bear on the way citizen-soldiers are likely to play the role of peacekeeper: perceptions of the likelihood of American forces being deployed for a range of missions over the next decade; attitudes toward foreigners and foreign experiences that might affect adjustment to multinational military environments; and attitudes toward the peacekeeping role. Like earlier active duty soldiers who have served in the Sinai MFO, our respondents regarded operations other than war to be considerably more likely than high intensity warfare in the future. However, their estimates of the likelihood of American involvement in actual hostilities was higher toward the end of the deployment than prior to the deployment. We did not find an emergence of a transcultural orientation among the soldiers. Most of them did not regard foreign nationals as trustworthy, and disagreed with the idea that people are pretty much alike across national boundaries. An increased number of soldiers seem to have been motivated to volunteer more by a desire for travel and new experiences than by a desire to work with and among people of other nationalities. The analysis of soldiers' attitudes toward various components of the peacekeeping mission showed a considerable degree of change. Although a majority of soldiers supported the basic peacekeeping norms of minimal use of force and reduction of conflict, the size of the majority decreased through the mission, and a strong majority denied that peacekeeping could be performed by unarmed personnel.
The Effectiveness of Economic Incentives for Career Commitment of Peacekeepers in the Sinai
Authors: Lakhani Hyder , Abod Elissa T.
Published: June 2007

This paper has two objectives. The first objective is to estimate the extent of financial gains or losses of Active Component (AC) and Reserve Component (RC) soldiers who volunteered for the Multinational Force and Observers (MFO) peacekeeping mission in the Sinai. The second objective is to estimate the effect of this gain/loss on the soldiers' intention to remain in their respective component until retirement. Data for a population of approximately 500 volunteers were collected during their predeployment training and Sinai deployment phases. Results of these data revealed that, overall, soldiers experienced financial gains during the deployment phase. The average financial gain exceeded the average loss. Financial gains were especially high for the RC. Regression results for the deployment phase data revealed that the volunteers were more likely to say that they intend to stay in their respective component until retirement if they made financial gains during deployment and if they were satisfied with Army life. Results of the Chow Test for equality of regression parameters showed that the coefficients in separate equations for the AC and RC were not significantly different during the more critical deployment phase. Implications of these results are discussed.
Limits of Nuclear Deterrence: The Strategic Risks and Dangers to Israel of False Hope
Authors: Beres Louis Renέ
Published: June 2007

Surrounded by still implacable enemies, some of which are rapidly developing chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons capabilities, Israel has now decided to base its very survival upon the unsteady foundations of nuclear deterrence. Although Jerusalem is taking ambitious steps to augment these fragile foundations with sophisticated active defenses (e.g., the "Arrow" ATBM), the Israeli deployment of antitactical ballistic missiles by the year 2000 will be inherently problematic. Moreover, the interim period of vulnerability will provide would-be aggressors with both an incentive and an opportunity to attack in the near term. With these facts in mind, this article points to various ways in which Israel should strengthen its nuclear deterrence posture and ways in which it should not seek security beyond the protections afforded by this posture. Thus, the argument identifies essential Israeli preparations for conventional preemptive attacks against certain enemy hard targets and for enhanced conventional deterrence. Finally, after examining some of the expected consequences of a regional nuclear war for Israel, it advances the case for a new Israeli strategic dialectic and looks productively at prospective deterrence benefits for Israel of preparations for the Samson Option, concluding with a plea that Israel's leaders promptly identify those precise configurations of nuclear deterrence, conventional deterrence, preemption, and multilayered active defenses that would be optimal for the Jewish State.
Atoms for Peace and Nuclear Hegemony: The Rhetorical Structure of a Cold War Campaign
Authors: Medhurst Martin J.
Published: June 2007

Dwight Eisenhower's Atoms for Peace program, far from being idealistic, propaganda for the sake of propaganda, or an inconsistent and contradictory part of arms control policy, was, instead, a carefully designed-and highly successful-component of the basic defense and foreign policy stance of the Eisenhower administration. As part of a coordinated campaign to achieve national security goals, Atoms for Peace can be seen as the rhetorical counterpart to the New Look doctrine. By diverting audience attention, paving the way for the nuclearization of NATO forces, and serving as the rationale for export of nuclear technologies, Atoms for Peace was a central component of the administration's national security strategy.
Warriors for Peace: The Next Generation of U.S. Military Leaders
Authors: Franke Volker C.
Published: June 2007

This article examines the extent to which military socialization at the United States Military Academy (USMA) at West Point prepares future officers cognitively for the changing security requirements of the post-Cold War world. The increasing involvement of U.S. armed forces in operations other than war (OOTW) requires officers to shift with mounting frequency from warfighting to peacekeeping and back again as missions change. The article contends that the Army's readiness to serve the nation's interests in the future can best be ensured if officers are committed to both the military's traditional combat roles and to its many new noncombat functions. Using survey methods, the article examines the social, political, and professional attitudes and values of cadets at the USMA in order to measure the effects of military socialization on their level of commitment to the Army's post-Cold War roles.
Do Attitudes Matter? The Military and Democratic Consolidation in Greece
Authors: Karakatsanis Neovi
Published: June 2007

This article examines the role of the military in processes of democratic consolidation by focusing on the case of the Greek military's extrication from power in 1974. Based on a series of elite in-depth interviews with former and current parliamentary deputies as well as retired military officers, it argues that the initial extrication of the military from power must be viewed as distinct from the issue of permanent withdrawal. Specifically, I find that attitudinal change, not simply behavioral submission to civilian control, is a fundamental condition for long-lasting civilian supremacy. That is, while behavioral support for democracy is adequate in the short term, attitudinal support is a necessary precondition for democratic consolidation in the long run. In sum, this analysis of the Greek military's extrication from power highlights the importance of achieving both behavioral and attitudinal support from the military before a newly democratized regime can be considered consolidated.
Spirituality and Academic Performance among African American College Students
Authors: Walker Katrina L. , Dixon Vicki
Published: June 2007

This study examines spirituality and religious participation among African American and European American college students. Although the terms spirituality and religious participation have been used interchangeably in some research literature, this study measured them as two distinct constructs. Of particular interest was the relationship between these variables and academic performance. A questionnaire developed by the research team was administered to 192 (109 European American, 83 African American) college students. Findings were consistent with previous research suggesting that African Americans have higher levels of spiritual beliefs and religious participation than European Americans do. Correlation analyses suggested that spiritual beliefs and religious participation were positively related to academic performance for both groups; however, pattern of the relationship was different. Beliefs and participation were salient for African Americans, whereas participation was salient for European Americans. The study raises the important questions of how to incorporate spirituality into programming as well as treatment and interventions.
An Exploration of the Relationship between Racial Identity Attitudes and the Perception of Racial Bias
Authors: Jefferson Stephen D. , Caldwell Robert
Published: June 2007

This study explored the relationship between specific theories of racial identity attitudes and the asymmetry hypothesis—which states that discriminatory acts perpetrated by the strong against the weak will be seen as more biased than similar acts perpetrated by the weak against the strong. Participants consisted of 92 African American undergraduate students who completed the Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS), the African Self-Consciousness Scale (ASC), and the Discriminatory Scenarios Questionnaire. Pro-Black attitudes were positively correlated with the attribution of more racial bias to White as compared to African American characters who were described as discriminating against individuals not of their racial group. No significant relationship was found between anti-Black attitudes and the attribution of racial bias. This study also investigated the relationship between the RIAS and the ASC.
Role of Student Background, Perceptions of Ethnic Fit, and Racial Identification in the Academic Adjustment of African American Students at a Predominantly White University
Authors: Chavous Tabbye , Rivas Deborah , Green Laurette , Helaire Lumas
Published: June 2007

Ethnic minority students’adjustment in majority college environments is related to the characteristics and experiences they bring to college as well as experiences on campus. In the present study, the authors explore the interaction of socioeconomic background and precollege intergroup contact opportunities among African American students (N = 215) at a predominantly White university. The authors also examine relationships among students’ racial identification (racial centrality), perceptions of ethnic fit at college (PEF), and academic adjustment (satisfaction, perceived competence, and performance) for students with differing precollege background profiles. Results indicate differing relationships with PEF across student background as well as differences in the relationships among students’racial centrality, PEF, and their academic adjustment. The findings are discussed in terms of the importance of examining heterogeneity within African Americans and in their subsequent educational experiences.
A Psychodynamic Approach to the Interpretation of 2 Corinthians 10–13
Authors: Bash Anthony
Published: June 2007

This article argues that it is possible to read texts using some of the postulates of modern psychology and that ‘psychodynamic criticism’ is a useful way to read some New Testament texts. In a test case, the writer argues that in 2 Cor. 10–13 Paul wrote what he did in part because of certain psychodynamic processes at work in his mind, principally those to do with the defences of displacement and denial. In consequence of the defences, Paul inappropriately blames the Corinthians, rather than himself or the group who had visited the Corinthians.
The Gospels for All Christians? A Response to Richard Bauckham
Authors: Sim David C.
Published: June 2007

Richard Bauckham has recently challenged the consensus view that the Gospels were written for local Christian communities. He suggests that this hypothesis has been more assumed than argued in Gospel scholarship, and he presents an alternative thesis that the Gospels were in fact written for all Christians. This study responds to both of these contentions. First, it maintains that Bauckham’s arguments in favour of his hypothesis do not stand up to scrutiny; they are largely circumstantial and lack concrete support. Secondly, it provides evidence that scholars have been correct to identify the intended readers of the Gospels with the local communities of the Evangelists.
A Note on Mark 8.38 and Q 12.8-9
Authors: Lambrecht Jan
Published: June 2007

With the help of an analysis of Mk 8.38 Paul Hoffmann’s presentation of Q 12.8-9 is critically discussed. The majority opinion is confirmed: the absence of the ‘Son of man’ in 12.8b as well as in 12.9b cannot be accepted. Moreover, a number of other data in the Markan verse (and its context) may assist specialists in their reconstruction of this double saying of Q, e.g., as to the active meaning of the personal verb and the presence of the angels ‘of God’in Q 12.9b. A fourfold methodological reflection is offered in between: on hypothetical reasoning, on the distinction between Rezeption (by Q or Mark) and Redaktion (by Matthew or Luke), on the insignificance of the authenticity question here and on the value of Markan overlap texts for the reconstruction of Q.
Aramaic Idiom and the Son of Man Problem: A Response to Owen and Shepherd
Authors: Casey Maurice
Published: June 2007

Aramaic was a relatively stable language for centuries before and after the time of Jesus. This stable situation has been clarified by the Dead Sea scrolls. The Aramaic scrolls can safely be used to reconstruct sayings of Jesus. However, they do not form a whole language, and there was no firm barrier between the Aramaic of the time of Jesus and later Aramaic, nor between East and West. We must therefore make careful use of later sources too. Aramaic sources from before the time of Jesus provide evidence of the optional use of the emphatic state in generic expressions. This forms the cultural and linguistic context for the idiomatic use of [UNKNOWN][UNKNOWN][UNKNOWN][UNKNOWN][UNKNOWN] in either the emphatic or absolute state, as attested in later sources.
The Good as God (Romans 5.7)
Authors: Martin Troy W.
Published: June 2007

Citing ancient authors who use the articular substantive adjective [UNKNOWN]γαθός/[UNKNOWN]γαθόν in reference to deity, this article proposes that ΤοÛ[UNKNOWN]γαθο[UNKNOWN] in Rom 5.7 designates God while δικαου refers to any righteous person. This distinction integrates Rom. 5.7 into an argument a minore ad majus with an ascending series from the ungodly to the righteous person and then to God. The structure of this argument emphasizes the anomaly of the statement in v. 6, which to maintain logical progression should read ‘no one dies for the ungodly’. This verse, however, affirms the contrary, namely that Christ died on behalf of the ungodly. Precisely this anomaly in the logical progression substantiates the commendation of God’s love reiterated in v. 8, which concludes the argument.
Paul and the Imperial Gospel at Thessaloniki
Authors: Harrison J. R.
Published: June 2007

The traditional explanations proposed for the pronounced eschatology of 1 Thessalonians are fundamentally flawed. This article argues that in romanized Thessaloniki, the presence of an aggressive imperial eschatology and the widespread circulation of Augustan apotheosis traditions competed with the early Christian proclamation of the risen and returning heavenly κύριος. In response, Paul injected heavily loaded Roman political terms into his presentation of Christ, transformed their ideological content to his theological and social advantage, and thereby overturned the absolutist claims of the imperial cult.
The Temptation of Jesus: The Eschatological Battle and the New Ethic of the First Followers of Jesus in Q
Authors: Schiavo Luigi
Published: June 2007

Analyses of Q which take the Sayings Source to have originated in Cynic/sapiential circles find difficulty in explaining the place of the temptation of Jesus in either narrative or theological terms in the signs source. This essay argues that the temptation story is a report of an ecstatic experience of Jesus, which involves a heavenly journey and the defeat of Satan. There are descriptions of cognate experiences in contemporary eschatological-apocalyptic literature and in Qumran. If this reconstruction is correct, then it will lead to a major revision of our understanding of the theology of Q.
The Apocalypse of John as an Account of a Visionary Experience: Notes on the Book’s Structure
Authors: Filho José Adriano
Published: June 2007

This article offers an analysis of the structure of Revelation. The arrangement of the material shows that it is related to the liturgy of the community to which the author belonged, and that it is grounded in the visionary experiences of worship. The vision that comes to the author ‘on the Lord’s day’ and the punctuation of the narrative with the expression ‘I was in the Spirit’ witness to the experiential nature of the work, and its grounding within the worshipping community. The ecstatic element allows for a compression of the present and the future, so that confidence is expressed in the actual victory of God even as the community finds its marginalization intensifying.
The Interim, Earthly Messianic Kingdom in Paul
Authors: Turner Seth
Published: June 2007

Nineteenth- and early twentieth-century scholarship often found an interim, earthly messianic kingdom in Paul’s thought. The twentieth century saw the gradual abandonment of this thesis. This move has been incorrect. 1 Thess. 4.13-18 and 1 Cor. 15.22-28 are best interpreted as evidence that Paul believed in a terrestrial interim reign. This kingdom does not (as earlier scholarship assumed) include a resurrection of the unjust at its end, as Paul thought only Christians were to be resurrected. Although this kingdom is not mentioned often, Paul’s thought is reasonably consistent in this matter, and there is no contradiction with other elements of his theology.
John for Readers of Mark? A Response to Richard Bauckham’s Proposal
Authors: Sproston North Wendy E.
Published: June 2007

This article is a response to Richard Bauckham’s second contribution to the influential volume The Gospels for All Christians, in which he proposes that the Fourth Gospel was not written specifically for the Johannine community but for Christians in general. Following a general summary of his argument, the response focuses largely on Bauckham’s exegesis of Jn 11.2, which, he claims, was unequivocally directed to readers who knew Mark’s Gospel but who had no knowledge of distinctively Johannine traditions. In the main section, Bauckham’s argument is summarized under five points, each of which is answered by detailed comment. This investigation finds that his interpretation of 11.2, which is the single basis upon which his whole case is constructed, is flawed.
Richard A. Horsley’s Hearing the Whole Story A Critical Review of its Postcolonial Slant
Authors: Gundry Robert H.
Published: June 2007

In Hearing the Whole Story Richard Horsley argues for a holistic view of Mark as narrative rather than theology or, more particularly, Christology. This view has Mark presenting Jesus as a prophet who opposes economic exploitation by Roman rulers and Judean elites and to this end appeals largely to oral rather than scriptural traditions. The opposition is nonviolent and oriented to village and family life rather than individual discipleship. At the expense of male disciples, women disciples take a leading role. The present review takes issue with such a reading of Mark by highlighting Markan Christology and calls to individual discipleship, by questioning a contrast between oral and scriptural traditions, and by noting the women’s failures.
Brothers in Brackets? A Plea for Rethinking the Use of [] in NA/UBS
Authors: Aasgaard Reidar
Published: June 2007

In their common main text, the last three editions of the Nestle-Aland Novum Testamentum Graece (NA) and the United Bible Societies’ Greek New Testaments (UBS) follow the long-established tradition of putting material of problematic authenticity within square brackets. Although there has over time taken place a development in these two publications towards a more positive assessment of the bracketed material, this has so far had no consequences with regard to their actual practice of bracketing. This article makes a sample inquiry into the authentic Pauline letters, viz. of some bracketed instances of address in the imperative ([ILLEGIBLE]). On the basis of external and internal criteria, and of the general tendency in important early manuscripts to omit certain types of material, it is argued that there are good reasons for reassessing the attitude and practice of bracketing in NA/UBS, preferably in order to reduce the amount of material in brackets.
You Can’t Always Do What You Want: Social Identity and Self-Presentational Determinants of the Choice to Work for a Low-Status Group
Authors: Barreto Manuela , Ellemers Naomi
Published: June 2007

Group members’ choice to work on individual or on group status improvement was examined as a function of degree of ingroup identification (low, high) and accountability of responses (anonymous, accountable to the ingroup). In Experiment 1 (N = 73), in line with the authors’ predictions, accountability elicited progroup behavior among low identifiers, whereas individualistic behavior was displayed when participants were anonymous. No similar effect of accountability was observed for high identifiers, who always chose for group status improvement. Experiment 2(N = 118) replicated and extended these findings. Degree of identification with the ingroup was shown to determine which contextual cues are likely to influence group members’ responses. The integration of traditionally separate models of social influence (self-presentation and social identity) is proposed. It is suggested that degree of identification with a group functions as a moderator of which type of influence the group is able to exert.
Motivated Impressions of a Powerholder: Accuracy Under Task Dependency and Misperception Under Evaluation Dependency
Authors: Stevens Laura E. , Fiske Susan T.
Published: June 2007

Two experiments assessed the impression-formation strategies used by asymmetrically dependent (powerless) people to form impressions of powerholders. The experiments contrast two types of asymmetrical dependency: task dependency (short-term, goal-oriented outcome contingency) and evaluation dependency (expecting evaluations of one’s performance or abilities). Experiment 1 hypothesized and found that asymmetrical task dependency increases accuracy-driven impression-formation processes: Task-dependent people attend to information that disconfirms initial expectancies about a powerholder and, if asymmetrical, do not discount trait information. Experiment 2 found that evaluation dependency increases motivated misperception to view the powerholder positively. Evaluation-dependent people attend to and then discount negative information, which is reflected in their ratings of a powerholder.
Intergroup Similarity and Subgroup Relations: Some Implications for Assimilation
Authors: Hornsey Matthew J. , Hogg Michael A.
Published: June 2007

Two studies examined the effects of perceptions of similarity on relations between subgroups (humanities and math-science students) that share an active superordinate category (University of Queensland student). Participants (N = 82) performed a non-interactive task during which perceptions of intersubgroup similarity (high or low) and level of categorization (at the superordinate level or at the superordinate and subgroup levels simultaneously) were manipulated ina2X2 between-groups design. Consistent with social identity theory, participants who had been categorized exclusively at the superordinate level discriminated more against a similar subgroup than a dissimilar one. However, when the subgroup and superordinate categories were activated simultaneously, a trend emerged that was consistent with the similarity-attraction hypothesis. A similar interaction emerged in Study 2 (N = 265), in which perceptions of similarity were measured rather than manipulated. The results were interpreted in terms of the motivation to retain ingroup distinctiveness.
The Roles of Motivation and Ability in Controlling the Consequences of Stereotype Suppression
Authors: Wyer Natalie A. , Sherman Jeffrey W. , Stroessner Steven J.
Published: June 2007

Two experiments investigated the conditions under which previously suppressed stereotypes are applied in impression formation. In Experiment 1, the extent to which a previously suppressed racial stereotype influenced subsequent impressions depended on the race of the target who was subsequently encountered. Whereas impressions of race-unspecified targets were assimilated to the stereotype following its suppression, no such effects were observed when the target belonged to the racial group whose stereotype had been initially suppressed. These results demonstrate that when perceivers are motivated to avoid stereotyping individuals, the influence of a stereotype that has been previously activated through suppression is minimized. Experiment 2 demonstrated that these processing goals effectively reduce the impact of suppression-activated stereotypes only when perceivers have sufficient capacity to enact the goals. These results suggest that both sufficient motivation and capacity are necessary to prevent heightened stereotyping following stereotype suppression.
Sex Differences in Emotional Awareness
Authors: Barrett Lisa Feldman , Lane Richard D. , Sechrest Lee , Schwartz Gary E.
Published: June 2007

The present study examined sex differences in the complexity and differentiation of people’s representations of emotional experience. Female participants from seven different samples, ranging in age, scholastic performance, socioeconomic status, and culture, scored higher on a performance test of emotional awareness than did male participants. Women consistently displayed more complexity and dif ferentiation in their articulations of emotional experiences than did men, even when the effect of verbal intelligence was controlled. Together, the findings suggest that a sex difference in display of emotional awareness is a stable, highly generalizable effect. Implications of these findings are presented.
A Source-Monitoring Analysis of Illusory Correlations
Authors: Klauer Karl Christoph , Meiser Thorsten
Published: June 2007

Source monitoring refers to the discrimination of the origin of information. The source-monitoring methodology, applied to illusory correlations in the formation of stereotypes, allows one to disentangle memory for behaviors from memory for the behaviors’ group origin and from response bias. In three studies, illusory correlations are found, and they are shown to reflect differential response bias rather than differential item or group memory. In addition, illusory correlations are found only along an evaluative dimension, not for a gender classification of group members. The results challenge so-called cognitive accounts of illusory correlations, such as the account by distinctiveness, whereas they can be reconciled with an account in terms of evaluative differentiation.
Public Self-Focus and Sex Differences in Behavioral Self-Handicapping: Does Increasing Self-Threat Still Make it “Just a Man’s Game?”
Authors: Hirt Edward R. , McCrea Sean M. , Kimble Charles E.
Published: June 2007

The present study examined the effects of public self-focus and participants’ sex on self-handicapping behavior. Research in the area of self-handicapping has consistently shown that men alone tend to self-handicap behaviorally. Because conditions of public self-focus tend to make the evaluative implications of per formance more salient, the authors hypothesized that people would self-handicap more when they are self-focused (as opposed to other-focused). Men and women were presented with an important intellectual evaluation and were allowed to practice for the upcoming test as much as they wanted. Results showed that men self-handicap more when they are self-focused but women do not behaviorally self-handicap under self-or other-focused conditions. Heightened concern over possible failure in self-focused conditions appeared to be the critical mediator in encouraging self-handicapping behavior among men.
Attitudinal Ambivalence Toward Parents and Attachment Style
Authors: Maio Gregory R. , Fincham Frank D. , Lycett Emma J.
Published: June 2007

Two studies tested whether children’s attitudinal ambivalence toward their parents is related to their attachment styles within relationships. Across both studies, children who were ambivalent toward their father were less securely attached in their relationships than were children who were nonambivalent toward their father. Study 1 also showed that the relation between attitudinal ambivalence and secure attachment in relationships was independent of attitude valence, attitudinal embeddedness, attitudinal inconsistency, and attitudinal commitment. Study 2 demonstrated that the relation between attitudinal ambivalence and general attachment style was mediated by children’s secure attachment to their father. There were similar relations between participants’ ambivalence toward their mother and their attachment styles in relationships, but these relations were weaker and less consistent across studies. An explanation for the unique effect of ambivalence toward fathers is discussed.
The Springs of Action: Affective and Analytical Information Processing in Choice
Authors: Peters Ellen , Slovic Paul
Published: June 2007

Affective processes were predicted to play a critical role in choices among complex stimuli. As hypothesized, self-report measures of individual differences in affective information processing were associated with choices in a task designed by Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, and Anderson (1994) to mimic the gains, losses, and uncertainties of real life decisions. The results were stronger when the processing of losses was considered separately from the processing of gains. Greater negative affectivity was associated with more avoidance of high-loss options; greater positive affectivity was associated with more choices from high-gain options. Both measures of affectivity added unique explanatory power to the prediction of choices among the decks over and above conscious knowledge about the decks. Affect appears to play an important role in guiding decisions and judgments.
Confluence of Self-Esteem Regulation Mechanisms: On Integrating the Self-Zoo
Authors: Tesser Abraham , Crepaz Nicole , Collins Jon C. , Cornell David , Beach Steven R. H.
Published: June 2007

The current literature describes a number of mechanisms by which self-esteem is affected and regulated. Using exemplars from three different families of such mechanisms—cognitive consistency, social comparison, and value expression—the three studies reported here (in addition to others in the literature) indicate that these qualitatively different mechanisms are not independent of one another. The evidence is interpreted as showing the unitary nature of self-esteem regulation and that individuals tend to be satisficers rather than maximizers regarding self-esteem.
Cognitive Dissonance and Experienced Negative Affect: Evidence that Dissonance Increases Experienced Negative Affect Even in the Absence of Aversive Consequences
Authors: Harmon-Jones Eddie
Published: June 2007

Research has suggested that the dissonance produced in the induced compliance paradigm is accompanied by experienced negative affect. This research, however, used a paradigm in which participants’ counterattitudinal action had the potential to bring about an aversive consequence, thus leaving the question of whether the dissonance produced in the absence of aversive consequences causes increased negative affect. Results from two experiments demonstrated that individuals report more negative affect following freely choosing (high choice) than following being told (low choice) to write a counterattitudinal statement that would produce no aversive consequences. The second experiment also demonstrated that the negative affect is reduced following attitude change and eliminated an alternative explanation of similar, past experiments. Discussion focuses on the implications of these findings.
Culture and Positive Illusions in Close Relationships: How My Relationships Are Better than Yours
Authors: Endo Yumi , Heine Steven J. , Lehman Darrin R.
Published: June 2007

Although routinely observed among North Americans, self-enhancing biases have been elusive in studies conducted with Japanese. The authors conducted two studies of relationship-serving biases (RSBs) with Japanese, Asian Canadian, and European Canadian participants. In both studies, members of all three cultural groups viewed their own relationships (with their best friend, their closest family member, and their romantic partner) as more positive than those of their peers, and to roughly the same extent. Of importance, however, (a) RSBs were largely uncorrelated with both self-esteem and self-serving biases and (b) Japanese (but not the other two cultural groups’) RSBs were paralleled by tendencies to view their relationship partners more positively than themselves. The authors suggest that relationship enhancement serves a different function than self-enhancement, aiding the individual’s quest for connection and belongingness with others.
Broad Dispositions, Broad Aspirations: The Intersection of Personality Traits and Major Life Goals
Authors: Roberts Brent W. , Robins Richard W.
Published: June 2007

Do personality traits predict the goals a person chooses to pursue in life? The present study examined the relation between personality traits and major life goals, which are broad, far-reaching agendas for important life domains (N = 672). The authors used both theoretical and empirical procedures to organize a set of life goals into thematic content clusters (economic, aesthetic, social, relationship, political, hedonistic, religious); the resulting goal clusters constitute a preliminary taxonomy of motive units based on the fundamental value domains identified in the literature. The authors examined gender differences on each goal cluster and related the goal clusters to individual differences in the Big Five and narcissism. High extraversion and low agreeableness (e.g., narcissism) was the most common profile associated with major life goals, and neuroticism was essentially unrelated to the importance of major life goals. Findings confirmed expectations derived from previous research and from Socioanalytic and narcissism theories.
Master of One’s Psychological Domain? Not Likely if One’s Self-Esteem is Unstable
Authors: Kernis Michael H. , Paradise Andrew W. , Whitaker Daniel J. , Wheatman Shannon R. , Goldman Brian N.
Published: June 2007

The authors examined the extent to which self-esteem (SE) stability relates to self-regulatory styles, self-concept clarity (SCC), and goal-related affect. The results supported the notion that individuals with unstable SE are not likely to possess a strong sense of self. Specifically, unstable as compared to stable SE was associated with (a) self-regulatory styles reflecting lower levels of self-determination, (b) lower SCC, and (c) goal-related affect characterized by greater tenseness and less interest. Theoretical implications are discussed.
Motivated Stereotyping of Women: She’s Fine if She Praised Me but Incompetent if She Criticized Me
Authors: Sinclair Lisa , Kunda Ziva
Published: June 2007

Motivation may provoke stereotype use. In a field study of students’ evaluations of university instructors and in a controlled experiment, participants viewed women as less competent than men after receiving negative evaluations from them but not after receiving positive evaluations. As a result, the evaluation of women depended more on the favorability of the feedback they provided than was the case for men. Most likely, this occurred because the motivation of criticized participants to salvage their self-views by disparaging their evaluator led them to use a stereotype that they would otherwise not have used. The stereotype was not used by participants praised by a woman or by participants who observed someone else receive praise or criticism from a woman; all these participants rated the woman just as highly as participants rated a man delivering comparable feedback.
How Pervasive is the Negativity Bias in Judgments Based on Character Appraisal?
Authors: Lupfer Michael B. , Weeks Matthew , Dupuis Susan
Published: June 2007

Two experiments examined the generality of the negativity bias, the tendency of perceivers to regard immoral behaviors as more informative or diagnostic about an individual’s personal traits than moral behaviors. Both experiments yielded results indicating that perceivers are prone to the bias when information about others is inconsistent in its moral implications but not when information is consistent. Two category-based explanations for the results were considered, one postulating a two-stage process and the other proposing a simpler process that emphasizes the activation of perceivers’ character schemas. The results of both experiments suggest that the negativity bias, although prevalent, is not as pervasive as sometimes thought to be and that character appraisals, once made, are not immutable.
Race in the Courtroom: Perceptions of Guilt and Dispositional Attributions
Authors: Sommers Samuel R. , Ellsworth Phoebe C.
Published: June 2007

The present studies compare the judgments of White and Black mock jurors in interracial trials. In Study 1, the defendant’s race did not influence White college students’ decisions but Black students demonstrated ingroup/outgroup bias in their guilt ratings and attributions for the defendant’s behavior. The aversive nature of modern racism suggests that Whites are motivated to appear nonprejudiced when racial issues are salient; therefore, the race salience of a trial summary was manipulated and given to noncollege students in Study 2. Once again, the defendant’s race did not influence Whites when racial issues were salient. But in the non-race-salient version of the same interracial case, White mock jurors rated the Black defendant more guilty, aggressive, and violent than the White defendant. Black mock jurors demonstrated same-race leniency in both versions of the trial, suggesting that racial issues are generally salient in the minds of Black jurors in interracial cases with Black defendants.