bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Irène and Frédéric Joliot–Curie – Artificial Radioactivity (1934)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

In Episode 48, we told the story how, early in 1932, the Joliot–Curies barely missed the discovery of the neutron but made observations which helped Chadwick find it. In 1935, the year in which Chadwick was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics, the young couple received the same honour in chemistry. They had produced radioactive elements not normally existing on earth.
A New Kind of Liquid: Superfluid Helium (1937)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

Early in January 1938, two letters to the editor appeared on adjacent pages of Nature, describing a hitherto unknown state of matter, superfluidity of helium. Author of the first letter [1], dated 3 December 1937, was Kapitza who worked in an institute in Moscow which had specially been erected for him. The second letter [2], dated 22 December, was signed by Allen and Misener who did their research in Cambridge, also in an institute planned and built for Kapitza.
Fermi Builds a Nuclear Reactor (1942)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

The discovery of nuclear fission (Episode 60) had two important aspects: one scientific, the other technical. A nucleus could be split in two and in the process an enormous amount of energy was liberated. Lise Meitner had quite accurately estimated 200 MeV to be the energy set free in one fission process. The typical chemical binding energy of one molecule, gained, for instance, by burning one atom of carbon with two atoms of oxygen to one molecule of carbon dioxide, is on the order of 1 eV. The two numbers differ by eight orders of magnitude! A hectic activity began in many laboratories on both sides of the Atlantic. A review article [1] reports on nearly a hundred papers about fission published within less than a year after its discovery. In Europe Joliot [2], in independent work, saw fission products only days after Frisch. In the United States the news was spread by Bohr, who came on 16 January 1939 to participate in a conference and to stay on for several months at the Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton. Only two weeks earlier, Fermi, the world expert on neutrons, had arrived in New York to work at Columbia University. Under his leadership the first nuclear reactor would be built and made to operate within less than four years. Although its construction was motivated by military reasons, we relate the story here
The Lamb Shift (1947)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

In 1947, Lamb and Retherford performed an experiment on hydrogen atoms demonstrating a deviation from Dirac’s relativistic theory of the electron of 1928. Although until then this theory described the observed hydrogen spectrum within the high precision achieved by experiment, it was known to be plagued by fundamental difficulties. Still more accurate data were needed to test and stimulate theoretical ideas. The measurements of Lamb and Retherford led, within a few years, to the completion of quantum  electrodynamics (QED) as we now know it.
Strange Particles (1947)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

The discovery of the π meson (Episode 66) was taken as the proof of Yukawa’s meson theory and therefore accepted by physicists with satisfaction. Half a year later, in December 1947, the observation of additional particles with strange, unexpected properties was announced by Rochester and Butler from the University of Manchester.
Glaser’s Bubble Chamber (1953)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

For at least a decade, the late 1950s and all through the 1960s, most discoveries in particle physics were made with a new kind of detector, the bubble  chamber, exposed to beams of particles produced by accelerators. The bubble chamber was invented by Donald Glaser who was searching for a track detector adapted to the needs of high-energy particle physics and, only a little later, forged by Luis Alvarez and his group into an indispensable tool.
Antimatter (1955)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

In Episode 64 we described the invention of a new type of particle accelerator, the synchrotron, and mentioned that the US Atomic Energy Commission, in 1948, approved funds to build two large synchrotrons, one accelerating protons to an energy of 3 GeV (the Cosmotron) at Brookhaven and one of 6 GeV (the Bevatron) at Berkeley. The latter energy was chosen because that would suffice for the production of antiprotons if such particles existed. It was generally expected there would be an antiproton, i.e., a particle with the proton mass but of opposite (negative) charge as partner of the proton in the same way as there was the positron as antiparticle of the electron (Episode 49). (That expectation was, however, by no means a certainty. Because it had an anomalous magnetic moment the proton was assumed to have a substructure; it might not be an elementary particle in the same sense as the electron was.)
Superconductivity Explained by Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer (1957)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

In May 1950, Bardeen received a phone call from Bernard Serin from Rutgers University in New Brunswick which alerted him to a new experimental development in superconductivity. Bardeen was still working at the Bell Laboratories, where, a little more than two years ago, he and Brattain had invented the first transistor (Episode 69). Since Shockley, the leader of their research group, was pursuing the development of the next type of transistor on his own, Bardeen was looking for a new research topic. The phone call made him return to superconductivity, a field on which he had tried his hand nearly ten years earlier at Harvard. Before we can discuss the work of Bardeen and his group [1,2] we have to mention at least a few of the advances in superconductivity since its discovery in 1911 (Episode 18).
The Mössbauer Effect (1958)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

A simple and most instructive experiment, shown in many lectures for beginners in physics, is the demonstration of resonant absorption and resonant fluorescence (also called resonant scattering) with yellow sodium light. A beam of light produced by a lamp, in which a glow discharge is maintained in sodium vapour, is directed through an evacuated glass globe containing some metallic sodium. The beam falls on a screen behind the globe, producing a bright yellow patch. As the globe is heated and thus fills with sodium vapour, the yellow patch loses intensity and at the same time the incident beam becomes visible as a yellow glow within the glass globe. Excited sodium atoms in the lamp perform a transition to the ground state by emitting light quanta of energy E  0. These, in turn, can excite atoms in the globe and thus be absorbed from the beam. The excited atoms return to their ground state, again by emitting quanta of the energy E  0 and causing a visible glow where the incident light beam passes.
A Fourth Quark – Charm (1974)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

At noon on 11 November 1974, in a seminar at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC), a discovery was announced which strongly influenced particle physics; for some time one even spoke of the November Revolution . Not only was the discovery important but it had been made independently by two groups, working on either coast of the United States, and not till that very morning had they heard of each other’s success. These were the groups of Ting from MIT, experimenting with the proton synchrotron at Brookhaven, and a collaboration between Stanford and Berkeley and initiated by Richter, working at an electron–positron collider at Stanford. A meeting of a SLAC advisory committee, of which Ting was an external member, had been scheduled for the morning of 11 November. As Richter remembers [1], Ting said to him before the meeting: ‘Burt, I have some interesting physics to tell you about.’ His response was: ‘Sam, I have some interesting physics to tell you about!’ When they had told each other, the meeting was cut short and the noon-time seminar was announced.
W and Z Boson Discovered (1983)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

Rubbia1 was born in Gorizia (also Görz or Gurize), a town in the north-east of Italy, which for centuries had been influenced by Austrians, Italians, and Slovenians and, in 1945, became part of Yugoslavia. Rubbia’s family – his father was an electrical engineer, his mother a school teacher – fled to Venice and then to Udine. He studied at the prestigious Scuola Normale Superiore in Pisa, Fermi’s alma mater, and obtained his doctorate under Conversi2. In 1958 Rubbia went to Columbia University.
Bose–Einstein Condensation of Atoms (1995)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

Einstein used double quotes on two words, because in the concept of an ideal gas there is no interaction between its constituents, whereas condensation and saturation are properties of a real gas of interacting atoms or molecules. The ‘interaction’ bringing about Bose–Einstein condensation is the symmetry requirement for multi-particle wave functions of bosons, sometimes called exchange force (see page 176). For this to become effective, the wave functions of individual bosons have to overlap, i.e., the average (or thermal ) de Broglie wavelength of the bosons has to be on the order of or larger than the average distance between them. In other words, a Bose–Einstein condensate is expected to form if the ratio of wavelength and distance exceeds a certain value. (The third power of this ratio is called phase-space density, see margin.) At very low temperature the average distance can be quite large; interactions between bosons become unimportant and the situation of an ideal gas is well approximated. We saw in Episode 97 how such temperatures for samples of neutral atoms were reached. These methods, greatly simplified and extended, were the basis for the achievement of Bose–Einstein condensates by the groups ofWieman and Cornell [2] and of Ketterle [3] in 1995, seventy years after Einstein’s prediction.
Cooling and Trapping Neutral Atoms (1985)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund
Published: November 2023

Atomic beams, pioneered by Stern (Episodes 30 and 52), opened the way to study non-interacting atoms which, essentially, have only one component in velocity, namely, that in beam direction. Ions could even be confined in a trap(Episode 80) with small values of all three velocity components. We shall see now how that was achieved also for neutral atoms. A measure of quality for a gas of trapped atoms is its temperature, i.e., the average kinetic energy of the atoms expressed in Kelvin. By carefully exploiting the inner structure of atoms it became possible, with the help of laser light and magnetic fields, to cool and trap small samples of highly dilute atomic gases, reaching temperatures as low as 180 nK (180 × 10‒9 K).
Quarks and leptons and their interactions
Authors: Perkins D H
Published: November 2023

High-energy particle physics is concerned with the study of the fundamental constituents of matter and the interactions between them. Experiments in this field have been carried out with giant accelerators and their associated detection equipment, which have probed the structure of matter down to very small scales, of order 10 m, that is, about one hundredth of the radius of a proton. In contrast, astrophysics is concerned with the structure and evolution of the universe in the large, including the study of the behaviour of matter and radiation on enormous scales, up to around 10 m. The experimental observations have been made with telescopes on the Earth or on satellites, covering the visible, infrared, and ultraviolet regions of the spectrum, as well as with detectors of radio waves, X-rays, γ-rays, and neutrinos. These have revealed an astonishing range of extra-terrestrial phenomena from the most distant regions of the cosmos. In describing this scientific adventure into what is, even today, still very largely unknown territory, the object of this text has been to show how studies of particles on a laboratory scale have helped in our understanding of the development of the universe, and conversely how celestial observations have, in turn, shed light on our understanding of particle interactions. Although in this chapter we discuss the constitution of matter as determined by accelerator experiments on Earth, it is becoming clear that on cosmological scales, other quite different forms of matter and energy may be important or even dominant, as will be discussed in the later chapters. Nevertheless, it is clear that a thorough understanding of the properties and interactions of elementary particles in laboratory experiments is essential in the discussion of astrophysical phenomena on the grandest scales.
Visualizing data
Authors: Heijden Hans Van Der
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter, we have been concerned with the construction of aggregate tables: frequency tables, summary tables, cross-tabulations, and pivot tables. We shall now move on to the visualization of these tables. Although charts often use aggregated data as the basis, it is also possible to visualize transaction data without any aggregation.
Equal Pay And Discrimination
Authors: Palca Julia , Taylor Catherine
Published: November 2023

Employers who adopt discriminatory practices do so at their peril. The Equal Pay Act 1970 (EqPA 1970), the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 (SDA 1975), the Race Relations Act 1976 (RRA 1976), the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (DDA 1995), the Employment Equality (Religion or Belief ) Regulations 2003, SI 2003/1660 (RBR 2003), the Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003, SI 2003/1661 (SOR 2003), and the Employment Equality (Age) Regulations 2006, SI 2006/1031 (EEAR 2006) between them provide that employers cannot discriminate between people of different sexes and races, against those who intend to undergo, are undergoing or who have undergone gender reassignment, against those who suffer from a disability, against employees because of their religion or belief or sexual orientation or age in their selection procedures, contractual terms, and treatment of employees. In addition, Article 141 (formerly Article 119) of the EC Treaty, and the Equal Treatment Directive (76/207/EEC [1976] OJ L39/40, as amended by Directive 2002/73/EC [2002] OJ L269/15) give additional protection to employees who are discriminated against on grounds of sex. There is also protection from discrimination of those who are or are not trade union members (see para 6.23), take up other offices as part of their employment or who are whistle-blowers (see para 7.94), those who work part-time (see paras 4.61–4.68), and those who work under fixed-term contracts (see paras 1.92 above and 7.114 below).
Rights On Maternity And Adoption
Authors: Palca Julia , Taylor Catherine
Published: November 2023

On 6 April 2003, as part of the UK Government’s ‘family-friendly’ initiative, simplified and enhanced rights relating to maternity came into force. At the same time, a completely new set of rights, relating to adoption, were introduced. The scheme of the new rights relating to adoption follows the existing maternity scheme closely. These rights were improved in 2006 in relation to employees whose expected week of childbirth begins on or after 1 April 2007. So employees on both childbirth and adoption are entitled to receive a minimum period of 52 weeks’ leave. Over and above those basic rights, the employee will have other rights subject to the employee having sufficient length of employment. These rights include the right to receive maternity or adoption pay for up to 39 weeks and to return to work (although the specific terms of that right will still depend on the length of the leave taken). This chapter will cover all of these rights as well as the connected rights relating to antenatal care and the suspension from work for maternity-related reasons.
Transfer Of Undertakings
Authors: Palca Julia , Taylor Catherine
Published: November 2023

When an undertaking is transferred by one party to another, the Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of Employment) Regulations 2006, SI 2006/246 (TUPE 2006) operate so as to preserve, to a substantial extent, the employee’s statutory and contractual employment rights which he had before the transfer. TUPE 2006 implement Council Directive 2001/23/EC (the ‘Acquired Rights Directive’). They revoke the Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of Employment) Regulations 1981 (TUPE 1981). Although they are similar to TUPE 1981, they take advantage of certain policy options conferred by the Directive. TUPE 2006 applies to any relevant transfer that takes place on or after 6 April 2006. The Government has issued guidance to accompany TUPE 2006: ‘Employment Rights on the Transfer of an Undertaking—A Guide to the 2006 TUPE Regulations for Employees, Employers and Representatives’ (the ‘Government Guidance’). Whilst this is not legally binding, it will no doubt be referred to by the courts and employment tribunals.
Approximate Solutions
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe
Published: November 2023

The exact solutions of one-dimensional systems discussed in the previous chapter are particularly simple and mathematically elegant. Unfortunately, they are more an exception than a rule: for higher dimensional lattices, the computation of the partition functions of statistical models usually poses a formidable problem from a mathematical point of view. For that reason, it is of the utmost importance to develop some approximate methods that permit us to analyze the most relevant physical aspects and to extract an estimate of critical exponents or other thermodynamic quantities. In this chapter we will discuss several approximate solutions of the Ising model and its generalizations.
Duality of the Two-dimensional Ising Model
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we will begin our study of the Ising model on the two-dimensional lattice. In two dimensions the model has a phase transition, with critical exponents that have different values from those obtained in the mean field approximation. For this reason, it provides an important example of critical phenomena. As we will see in great detail in this chapter and in the next, among all exactly solved models of statistical mechanics, the two-dimensional Ising model is not only the one that has been most studied but it is also the model that has given a series of deep mathematical and physical results. Many solutions of the model stand out for the ingenious methods used, such as the theory of determinants, combinatorial approaches, Grassmann variables, or elliptic functions. Many results have deeply influenced the understanding of critical phenomena and have strongly stimulated new fields of research. Ideas that have matured within the study of the two-dimensional Ising model, such as the duality between its highand low-temperature phases, have been readily generalized to other systems of statistical mechanics and have also found important and fundamental applications in other important areas such as, for instance, quantum field theory. Equally fundamental is the discovery that in the vicinity of the critical point, the dynamics of the model can be described from the relativistic Dirac equation for Majorana fermions.
Quantum Field Theory
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe
Published: November 2023

The statistical models we have analyzed so far are defined on a lattice and they have a microscopic length-scale given by the lattice spacing a. In all these models there is, however, another length-scale provided by the correlation length : this is a function of the coupling constants and can be varied by varying the external parameters of the systems.
Renormalization Group
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe
Published: November 2023

At a critical point, the correlation length diverges: the statistical influctuations extend on all scales of the system and any attempt to solve the dynamics by taking into account only a finite number of degrees of freedom fails. In the absence of an exact solution of the model under consideration, the computation of the critical exponents is often obtained only by numerical methods and Monte Carlo simulations.
Conformal Field Theory
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapters we have seen that, coming close to a critical point, the correlation length of a statistical system diverges and consequently there are influctuations on all possible scales. In such a regime, the properties of the statistical systems can be efficiently described by a quantum field theory.
Minimal Conformal Models
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we discuss a particular class of conformal theories, the so-called minimal models. The peculiarity of these models consists in the finite number of their conformal families that close an OPE. The anomalous dimensions of the conformal fields and the central charge of these theories can be computed exactly and, in particular, assume rational values. Furthermore, of the minimal models we can explicitly compute both the correlation functions of the order parameters and the partition function on a torus, i.e on a cylinder with periodic boundary conditions on both directions. Their mathematical elegance is accompanied by an important physical interpretation: as discussed in more detail in Chapter 14, the conformal minimal models describe the scaling limit of an infinite number of statistical models with a discrete symmetry, among which we find the Ising model, the tricritical Ising model, the Potts model, the Yang–Lee edge singularity, etc. In addition, the unitary minimal models can be put in correspondence with the critical Landau–Ginzburg theories with power interaction.
Integrable Quantum Field Theories
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe
Published: November 2023

An integrable quantum field theory is characterized by an infinite number of conserved charges. In classical mechanics, the existence of a sufficient number of integrals of motion allows us to pass from the initial coordinates and momenta to the angle-action variables, thus finding the exact solution of the equation of motion by quadrature. Similarly, if in a quantum field theory there are an infinite number of conservation laws, we can derive the exact mass spectrum of its excitations, the S-matrix of the scattering processes, the correlation functions, the thermodynamics, and so on, in short its exact solution. For reasons that will become clearer later, non-trivial integrable quantum field theories can only occur in (1 + 1) dimensions.1 In higher dimensions, in fact, they are either free theories or models with non-local interactions. Hence we focus our attention only on two-dimensional models.
Exact S-Matrices
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we present the exact S-matrix associated to several two-dimensional statistical models away from their critical point. Closing the bootstrap procedure, one is able to find at the same time the set of all amplitudes and the mass spectrum of the theory. A crucial step in the determination of the scattering amplitudes is the knowledge of the spectrum of the spins relative to the conserved currents. In the first sections we address the minimal S-matrix of several officritical statistical systems. Many of these examples are related to the Toda field theories previously discussed. Later we use the minimal S-matrices of the statistical models to determine the exact S-matrices of the lagrangian Toda field theories. The scattering amplitudes of the Toda field theories shows an important symmetry of these models under the weak–strong duality transformation g 8π/g of their coupling constant. At the end of the chapter we discuss the exact S-matrix of the Sine–Gordon model, with a series of comments on its interesting features, and the quantum group reductions which lead to the general S-matrices of integrable deformations of conformal field theories.
Thermodynamical Bethe Ansatz
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe
Published: November 2023

The thermodynamics of a quantum field theory in an infinite volume can be determined by its S-matrix. This idea, originally proposed by R. Dashen, S.K. Ma, and H.J. Berstein, has been widely used to study the thermal properties of the integrable field theories in (1 + 1) dimensions. The reason consists of the particularly simple properties of these scattering matrices, as discussed in the previous two chapters, and the possibility to generalize to the relativistic case the thermodynamics Bethe ansatz (TBA) techniques successfully applied to non-relativistic problems by C.N. Yang and C.P. Yang. In the TBA approach, the derivation of the thermodynamics of a purely elastic scattering theory reduces to finding the solution of a set of nonlinear integral equations that rule the energies of the particle excitations and their statistical distribution.
Criminalization and Jurisdiction
Authors: Sambei Arvinder , Plessis Anton du , Polaine Martin
Published: November 2023

As seen in Chapter 2, the international legal framework contained in the universal instruments includes criminalization requirements which cover most types of terrorist act. This chapter will examine those provisions in some detail, and will also highlight the approaches States have used to incorporate them into national law. If criminalization is the tool for effective prosecutions, then jurisdictional provisions provide the means by which the tool can set to work; accordingly, the later focus of this chapter is jurisdiction. It is the second of the universal instruments, The Hague Convention, which is the first to contain penal provisions; the Tokyo Convention addresses jurisdiction, but not criminalization.
Human Rights in the Context of Counter-Terrorism
Authors: Sambei Arvinder , Plessis Anton du , Polaine Martin
Published: November 2023

The aim of this chapter is to give an overview of the engagement of human rights law within the law enforcement measures when dealing with acts of terrorism rather than the use of force or military response to such acts. The laws of war or international humanitarian law (IHL) govern the conduct of the latter response and the establishment of the controversial detention facility at Guantanamo Bay which is governed exclusively by the laws of war. It is, however, important to say at the outset that there have been some attempts to merge the two disciplines within the context of counter-terrorism, in particular, on the arguments being raised by defence on the issue of self-defence.
Risk, Documents, and The Exchange-Based Market
Authors: Castagnino John-Peter
Published: November 2023

Participants in the derivative markets, whether the exchange-based markets or the OTC markets, are exposed to the same basic counterparty risk, which is the risk that a counterparty fails to perform its obligations, whether to make a payment or to make a delivery. A key difference between the exchange-based market and the OTC market is the manner in which counterparty risk is controlled. The exchange-based market is supported by the clearing and margining system, which is introduced in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3. One aspect of counterparty risk is the risk that the counterparty might become insolvent and thereby become incapable of making a payment or delivery. As Chapter 7 explains, insolvency risk in the OTC market is controlled through the use of collateral, and as this chapter explains, insolvency risk in the exchange-based market that is subject to English law is in part neutralized by the legislative foundation underpinning that market. These legislative provisions have a fairly powerful and wide-reaching effect on the usual and familiar processes of the English law of insolvency, albeit tempered by certain exceptions to preserve the overall balance of relative interests.
Defining the Risk Map
Authors: Castagnino John-Peter
Published: November 2023

One of the themes which resonates through this book is risk. Risk may be considered from two perspectives with respect to derivatives. From one point of view, derivatives have emerged as a means of either neutralizing risk, that is, hedging against the crystallization of risk, or exploiting risk, that is, speculating on risk and the price attached to it. Any consideration of the purpose generally of derivatives, and how they function, must be undertaken with reference to the risks underlying the particular transactions and being transferred under those transactions. Hopefully this book shows how this is achieved. However, derivatives must be used in an appropriate and controlled fashion if the considerable benefits and potential that they offer are to be realized, and the considerable damage that they are capable of inflicting, often accompanied by sensationalistic media headlines, is to be avoided. Therefore derivatives must be used within an appropriate framework which promotes the control of risk, by ensuring that only suitable transactions are entered into which achieve the required economic effect, the performance of those transactions is monitored, and remedial action is taken if necessary. The maintenance of adequate financial resources is an important part of controlling risk, as Chapter 10 explains, more so now that the discipline embraces not only credit risk but also market risk and operational risk. This chapter shows how that overall framework for risk control might be established.
Random variables and random processes
Authors: Pottier No¨elle
Published: November 2023

In statistical physics, we are led to consider the physical quantities characterizing the macroscopic state of a system consisting of a large number of particles as statistical averages of the corresponding microscopic quantities. The macroscopic variables, thus defined as averages, are accompanied by ﬂuctuations due to the thermal agitation of the associated microscopic degrees of freedom. When the system under study is out of equilibrium, the temporal evolutions of the means and of the ﬂuctuations have to be taken into account in the description and the modelization of the phenomena concerning it. Random variables and random processes are thus essential tools of nonequilibrium statistical physics.
Statistical description of out-of-equilibrium systems
Authors: Pottier No¨elle
Published: November 2023

In most problems discussed in this book, the material systems under consideration, be they gaseous, liquid, or solid, are composed of a very large number of particles. When such a system is in equilibrium (or in local equilibrium), its macroscopic state may be parametrized by a limited number of extensive variables (or by their local densities). On the other hand, its microscopic state is not known exactly: the number of microscopic degrees of freedom coming into play is indeed so huge that it is completely impossible to have at one’s disposal a full knowledge of the system at this level.
Transport coeﬃcients
Authors: Pottier No¨elle
Published: November 2023

Solving the kinetic equations is a tricky problem. The main technical diﬃculties of this resolution arise from the complicated form of the collision integral. This is particularly apparent in the case of the Boltzmann equation for dilute classical gases, whose collision integral is quadratic with respect to the distribution function. Even the kinetic equation of the Lorentz gas, in which the collision integral is linear, cannot in general be solved in a simple way.
From the Boltzmann equation to the hydrodynamic equations
Authors: Pottier No¨elle
Published: November 2023

In a dilute classical gas of molecules undergoing binary collisions, the Boltzmann equation describes the evolution of the distribution function over a time interval intermediate between the duration of a collision and the relaxation time towards a local equilibrium. This kinetic stage of the evolution is followed by a hydrodynamic one, involving time intervals much longer than the relaxation time. The gas is then close to a local equilibrium state described by a reduced number of relevant variables, namely, the local density, the local mean velocity, and the local temperature. The evolution of these variables is governed by the hydrodynamic equations, which can be deduced from the Boltzmann equation.
Brownian motion: the Langevin model
Authors: Pottier No¨elle
Published: November 2023

In 1827, the botanist R. Brown discovered under the microscope the incessant and irregular motion of small pollen particles suspended in water. He also remarked that small mineral particles behave exactly in the same way (such an observation is important, since it precludes to attributing this phenomenon to some ‘vital force’ specific to biological objects). In a general way, a particle in suspension in a ﬂuid executes a Brownian motion when its mass is much larger than the mass of one of the ﬂuid’s molecules.
Linear responses and equilibrium correlations
Authors: Pottier No¨elle
Published: November 2023

This constitutes an introduction to linear response theory. As it will be seen in the following , this theory allows us to express the response properties of systems slightly departing from equilibrium in terms of the equilibrium correlation functions of the relevant dynamical variables. Adopting here an introductory approach, we limit ourselves to presenting in a general framework the linear response functions, on the one hand, and the equilibrium correlation functions, on the other hand. We do not aim, at this stage, to establish explicitly the link existing between these two types of quantities.
Quantum theory of electronic transport
Authors: Pottier No¨elle
Published: November 2023

According to the semiclassical theories of electrical conduction, in a solid, be it either a metal or a semiconductor, the electrons of a given band obey, between collisions, the semiclassical equations of motion, this fact being counterbalanced by the scattering due to phonons and lattice defects. In this approach, the scattering cross-sections as well as the band structures are computed quantum-mechanically, whereas the balance equations only take into account average occupation probabilities. The scatterers situated at diﬀerent places are assumed to act incoherently.
Thermal transport coeﬃcients
Authors: Pottier No¨elle
Published: November 2023

In a ﬂuid, the gradients of density, of mean velocity, or of temperature give rise to ‘thermal forces’ internal to the system under study. Since the corresponding perturbations are not described by a Hamiltonian, it is not a priori possible to obtain the response to these forces or the associated generalized susceptibilities by directly applying the linear response theory, since this formalism was originally developed for the responses to the mechanical perturbations described by a Hamiltonian.
Article 1: Principles
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor
Published: November 2023

The four paragraphs of Article 1 cover four different subjects, i.e. a very general description of the conditions for the application of anti-dumping measures (paragraph 1), a definition of the concept of dumping (paragraph 2), the determination of the exporting country of the dumped products (paragraph 3), and the definition of the like product (paragraph 4). Anti-dumping duties are not a penalty for earlier behaviour but a protective and preventive measure against unfair competition resulting from dumping practices. Article 1(1) lays down that ‘[a]n anti-dumping duty may be applied to any dumped product whose release for free circulation in the Community causes injury’. This provision follows paragraphs 1 and 2 of Article VI of the GATT 1947. The latter stipulations condemn injurious dumping and authorize the signatories to the GATT to take action against such imports.
Article 2: Determination of Dumping
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor
Published: November 2023

Article 2 contains the rules on how dumping is established. It implements the principles laid down in Article VI of the GATT 1947, as far as dumping is concerned, and in Article 2 of the WTO Anti-dumping Agreement, while the injury requirement is dealt with in Article 3. An exporter cannot reject the allegation of dumping on the ground that the level of prices in the Community forced it to export at below the normal value. Dumping exists where the normal value of the product in question on the exporter’s domestic market exceeds the export price. Dumping is therefore not measured in terms of undercutting of prices charged by Community producers on the Community market. Rather, price undercutting is an element that enters into play only at the subsequent stage of determining whether or not the Community industry is suffering Injury from dumping.
Article 4: Community Industry
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor
Published: November 2023

According to the chapeau of Article 4(1) the term ‘Community industry’ shall be interpreted as ‘referring to the Community producers as a whole of the like product or to those of them whose collective output of the product constitutes a major proportion, as defined in Article 5(4), of the total Community production of those products . . .’. The term ‘Community industry’ denotes one of the basic concepts of anti-dumping law. It is essentially important in two respects. First, it refers to the locus standi of complainant companies which wish to initiate an anti-dumping proceeding (cf paragraphs 1 and 4 of Article 5). Secondly, it is the section of industry in the Community on which the effects of dumped imports, i.e. injury, have to be measured (cf Article 3).
Article 8: Undertakings
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor
Published: November 2023

An exporter that has been found to be dumping can, by giving an undertaking, commit itself to raise its export prices to a level which eliminates the injurious effects of dumping. Imports into the Community froman exporter from which the Commission has accepted an undertaking, and which are in conformity with the undertaking by virtue of Article 9(5), are exempt from the anti-dumping duty imposed. Anti-dumping duties and undertakings are deemed to have equal effect. In recent practice, however, the imposition of anti-dumping duties is more frequent than the acceptance of undertakings.
Article 10: Retroactivity
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor
Published: November 2023

Article 10(1) lays down the basic principle that anti-dumping duties cannot be collected retroactively. An exception to this rule is only possible in the circumstances provided for in Articles 10(2), (4), (5), 11(4), 12 (5) and 13(3). The corresponding provisions of the WTO Anti-dumping Agreement can be found in its Article 10. The rules on retroactivity contained in Basic Regulation 2423/88 and the Tokyo Round GATT Anti-dumping Code were difficult to apply in so far as they went beyond the definitive collection of provisional anti-dumping duties. The rules contained in the Uruguay Round WTO Antidumping Agreement did not significantly clarify this issue. The Community’s anti-dumping law therefore set up a system which links the retroactive collection of anti-dumping duties with prior registration of imports pursuant to Article 14(5) unless the collection of provisional anti-dumping duties is concerned.
Article 13: Circumvention
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor
Published: November 2023

Article 13 allows the extension of anti-dumping duties to imports from third countries of like products, or parts thereof, when circumvention of the anti-dumping measures is taking place. Provisions on anti-circumvention of anti-dumping measures were first introduced by the Community in 1987 and were aimed at covering assembly operations within the Community for which a very high number of components were used from the country against which anti-dumping measures had been taken. These so-called ‘screw-driver operations’ were characterized by extremely low levels of both employment and transfer of technological know-how. Similar rules, but applying also to assembly operations in third countries, were implemented shortly afterwards by the US. The ever-increasing globalization of economy and rapidly growing possibilities to relocate production facilities from one country to another added a further dimension to the problem of circumvention. Production and assembly of goods can be rapidly shifted from one country to another. The problem is therefore that anti-dumping measures adopted against imports from one country may never be effective, or soon be rendered ineffective, if manufacturers choose to supply their traditional markets from plants located in other parts of the world.
Learning-by-doing in wind electricity production—who learns and why does it matter to differentiate? A case study of germany
Authors: Schumacher Katja , Kohlhaas Michael
Published: November 2023

In economic models of energy or climate policy, endogenous technological change is generally modelled as the result of investment in research and development (R&D) or of learning-by-doing. Both channels are based on the idea that there is a stock of ‘knowledge’, which accumulates in reaction to an economic activity such as production or R&D. This knowledge in?uences production possibilities (or sometimes also consumption). In the first case (R&D), a stock of knowledge or human capital is generated through investment into research and development activities. Model parameters, such as price changes induced by policy measures, may lead to increased investment into the stock of knowledge capital with its subsequent effects on production possibilities and productivity. In the second case (learning-by-doing), knowledge accumulation is based on experience in producing or using a specifi c technology or process. The application of specifi c technologies, which may be encouraged by policy measures or other model parameters, then results in a decline of production costs as experience with this technology accumulates.
Unilateral Versus Multilateral Climate Change Policy: A Quantitative Economic Analysis Of Competitiveness Implications
Authors: Alexeeva-Talebi Victoria
Published: November 2023

In 2000, the European Council launched the Lisbon process establishing the issue of competitiveness as a priority area for European Union (EU) policy. The impact of new environmental regulations on competitiveness has thereby become one of the major issues of concern to the European policy-makers. Not surprisingly, the European Council’s decision in March 2007 to take the leading role in international climate protection has in?amed controversial debates on potential adverse competitiveness impacts of more stringent environmental policy in the EU. In order to limit global climate change, the EU has endorsed to achieve unilaterally at least a 20 per cent reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 2020 compared to the 1990 levels. Provided that other industrialized countries commit to comparable emission reduction targets, the European Council has supported an EU objective of a 30 per cent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2020.
An Analysis Of Spain’s Legal Framework For The Promotion Of Electricity From Res And Energy Efficiency: Positive Effects Achieved So Far And Remaining Legal, Administrative, And Structural Barriers
Authors: Larragán FJ de Cendra de
Published: November 2023

Emissions associated with the production and consumption of electricity account for the lion’s share of total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Spain, and dampen its prospects of complying with its target under the Kyoto Protocol. Significant reductions in emissions can be achieved by increasing the share of renewable energy, encouraging energy substitution and energy efficiency, and reducing energy demand. However, the aim of reducing GHG emissions must be understood in the context of the other objectives of energy policy, namely ensuring that electricity prices remain as low as possible, guaranteeing security of supply, and fostering (or preventing?) competition in the market. Low electricity prices and security of supply remain dominant objectives in Spain’s current economic context, given high oil prices and the economic and fi nancial crises.
Public Choice Over Efficiency: The Case Of Road Traffic Management
Authors: Nash Jonathan Remy
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I will consider the diagnoses that the two dominant competing economic explanations for the development of governance regimes—public choice and economic efficiency—offer for the problem of traffic congestion. Traffic congestion is a growing problem on the world’s roads. As land development continues to consume more previously unoccupied land, more people drive more vehicles greater distances. The resulting traffic has many deleterious effects for society, including time delays (for both people and freight), magnification of the environmental impact of driving, and increases in ‘road rage’.
Discussing Climate Change Policy Instruments For Energy-Intensive Sectors In The European Union
Authors: Soares Claudia Dias
Published: November 2023

In March 2000, European Union (EU) heads of states and governments agreed on making the EU ‘the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion’. To achieve this goal, an overall strategy should be applied, aimed at preparing the transition to a knowledge-based economy and society by better policies for the information society and research and development (R&D), as well as by stepping up the process of structural reform for competitiveness and innovation and by completing the internal market; modernizing the European social model, investing in people and combating social exclusion; and sustaining the healthy economic outlook and favourable growth prospects by applying an appropriate macro-economic policy mix.
Direct fiscal aid for renewable energy development: a positive cue from the commission?
Authors: Ni Ghiollarnáth Carol
Published: November 2023

The Kyoto Protocol calls for the ‘development and increased use of new and renewable forms of energy’ and traditional fiscal policy is a tool pursued by the ratifying countries to this end. The majority of academic discourse addressing fiscal policy in the context of the Kyoto Protocol in Europe, however, concentrates on the implementation of energy taxes (indirect tax policy), and exemptions and reductions thereof, to the neglect of direct tax measures—and this is not due to the inexistence of direct tax policy. This chapter uncovers the direct corporate income tax incentives for the development of renewable energy in three case studies in the EU—the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Ireland, in an attempt to begin to address this lacuna in fiscal academic discourse in Europe.
Stimulating The Use Of Renewable Energy In The Canadian Residential Sector With Economic Instruments
Authors: Chalifour Nathalie , Taylor Amy
Published: November 2023

Renewable energy offers the promise of electricity and heat with significantly reduced environmental impacts compared to conventional energy sources. Efforts by the Canadian federal and provincial governments have played an important role in helping to establish a market for large-scale renewable projects, but markets for mediumand small-scale projects, such as those that would be used by homeowners, have not developed as quickly.

Existing homeowners and new home buyers today are increasingly interested in considering ‘green’ forms of energy for their nest, whether through renovations or new construction. They are motivated by a variety of factors, including the potential for long-term savings and reducing their energy footprint. Renewable energy technologies can help to meet household energy needs with reduced greenhouse gas emissions and local air pollution. Increasing distributed power sources also boosts the robustness of the country’s energy networks, not only reducing demand for centralized supply, but also reducing losses and costs associated with shipping or transmitting energy from its source to its end use. The possibility of realizing these benefi ts through increased deployment of renewable technologies, however, depends largely on where people live. While production and use of renewable energy is on the increase around the world, the availability and cost of technologies varies widely.