bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Public Art Form: The Late 1950s to the 1970s
Authors: Stevenson Randall
Published: November 2023

The theatre is, or can be, the most public, the most clearly political of the art forms. Theatre is the place where the life of a society is shown in public to that society. (McGrath, A Good Night Out, p. 83) Poetry went through a difficult period, Chapter 8 suggested, in the later decades of the twentieth century. Drama, in the view of most critics, enjoyed an unusually successful one. Martin Esslin judged the later twentieth century ‘the most vigorous period of dramatic writing…since Elizabethan and Jacobean times’ (Shank (ed.), p. 180.
Double Lives’: Women’s Writing and Gender Difference
Authors: Stevenson Randall
Published: November 2023

‘Women writers seem best placed now to use the novel seriously to open out relatively unexplored areas of individual and social experience’, Ian McEwan commented in the New Review in Summer 1978 (p. 51). His remark reflected a growing recognition, by the late 1970s, that new and challenging areas had been opened up for the imagination—and in contemporary experience generally—by radically changing assumptions about gender. As Chapter 1 described, literature contributed significantly to these changes, not only by reflecting new outlooks and ideas, but often by initiating them— identifying and exploring, in imagination, potentials not yet much developed in society itself.
A Crisis of Gender?
Authors: Humble Nicola
Published: November 2023

For the generation that fought in it, and for those who came after, the Great War changed everything. As it became clear to most that the war was a bitter fiasco, old truths and authorities were called to account, and the sentimental pieties of the past challenged. The effect on gender roles was decisive: the traditional masculine values of honour, martial prowess, and emotional restraint were severely compromised by the futility of the mass-slaughter and the trauma that followed, while the delicate flower of English womanhood was transformed by the heavy labour of jobs in munitions factories and stints as ambulance drivers.
Lady Lazarus
Authors: Fenton James
Published: November 2023

Marianne Moore, Elizabeth Bishop, Sylvia Plath-Bryn Mawr class of 1909, Vassar class of 1934, Smith class of 1955, Iducated women of three generations who achieved pre-eminence as poets. That sounds like a circumlocution. It is a circumlocu tion, but I feel I would betray the spirit of Moore and Bishop by calling them women poets. Moore was a feminist, a suffragette, a Woman Who Did.1 Although it appears that marriage was never one of her ambitions, as it happened she made the sacrifice or renunciation common among the women of her time who had a vocation. She was drawn to the avant-garde, to modernism in the making, and if her creations are strikingly impersonal (so that even a poem purportedly about her father turns out to be a fiction), that impersonality is not untypical of modernism.
The Birth of a New Tradition
Authors: Tsouvalis Judith
Published: November 2023

To propagate itself every new idea is crystallised into formulas; to maintain itself it entrusts itself to a carefully recruited body of interpreters, who may sometimes actually be appropriately paid but at all events are subject to a higher authority charged with resolving doubts and suppressing deviations. Thus every new idea invariably ends by becoming a fixed idea, immobile and out of date. When it becomes official state doctrine there’s no more escape.
The Forestry Commission’s Reflective Turn
Authors: Tsouvalis Judith
Published: November 2023

In the early 1980s, the FC began to change. This chapter investigates what will be called the FC’s ‘reflective turn’, which describes a moment in the history of the FC when it began to problematize its ‘self’ and its practices. It responded to this act of problematization in two ways. First, by developing a new corporate identity, and, secondly, by developing a new forest vision based on the concepts of multi-purpose forestry, sustainability, and biodiversity. Both these responses will be investigated below. In the latter sections, extensive use will be made of original interview material.
The Situated Interpretation of Possessor-Raising
Authors: O’Connor Mary Catherine
Published: November 2023

In a relatively small number of languages, there appears to be an alternation between clauses containing an intact NP argument with a possessor and corresponding ‘possessor-raised’ clauses, in which the possessor NP and the possessed object both appear as independent constituents. Pairs like the following Northern Pomo1 examples are typical of the construction. In (Ia) the unremarkable NP ‘his knee’ is the direct object of the transitive verb ‘bum.’ In (I b), the possessor NP is no longer marked with the Oblique case, is no longer adjacent to the nominal ‘knee,’ and is marked in the accusative case.
Natural Law and Human Nature
Authors: George Robert P
Published: November 2023

The natural law theory originally proposed by Germain Grisez, and developed and defended over the past twenty-five years by Grisez, John Finnis, Joseph Boyle, William May, and Patrick Lee, among others, has been sternly criticized by many philosophers who are sympathetic to the idea of natural law.
Natural Law and the Separation of Law and Morals
Authors: Maccormick Neil
Published: November 2023

Some books make a radical impression upon the reader by the boldness and novelty of the theses they state; to write such a book is a rare and difficult achievement. It is scarcely easier, though, and no less rare, to make a radical impression by a careful restatement of an old idea, bringing old themes back to new life by the vigour and vividness with which they are translated into a contemporary idiom. That has been the achievement of John Finnis’s Natural Law and Natural Rights, a book which for British scholars has brought back to life the classical Thomistic/Aristotelian theory of natural law. A theory which more than one generation of thinkers had dismissed as an ancient and exploded fallacy kept alive only as the theological dogmatics of an authoritarian church was rescued from a whole complex of misunderstandings and misrepresentations. At the same time, it was exhibited as a thoroughly challenging account of law, fully capable of standing up to the theories which were regarded as having refuted and superseded it, while taking into account and accepting into its own setting some of the main insights or discoveries of these theories.
Platonism and the Study of Nature (Phaedo 95eff.)1
Authors: Mueller Ian
Published: November 2023

At 95e7 of the Phaedo Socrates says that defending his claim that the soul is immortal requires a ‘thoroughgoing inquiry’ into the ‘cause’ (aitia) of coming.to-be and ceasing-to-be (genesis andphthora) and being; he offers his ‘own experiences on these matters’.2 The putatively autobiographical account which follows is our earliest extant extended discussion of a fundamental question of scientific methodology: what constitutes a satisfactory explanation of natural ‘phenomena’? In recent decades a great deal has been written about this passage which has thrown considerable light on the details of Plato’s position. However, there is one central issue of interpretation on which a broad consensus has been reached, which I believe is mistaken.
Theoretical Orientation
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

The theoretical approach underlying my treatment of the possessive is cognitive grammar, as this has been developed by Ronald Langacker and others. In this book, besides presenting a cognitive grammar analysis of the possessive, I also undertake a confrontation of the cognitive grammar approach with some alternatives, in particular, those that have been pursued within the generative, and more recently, the government and binding (GB) paradigm, and its newest progeny, principles and parameters. The aim will be to show that cognitive grammar can offer a more economical, and more insightful account of the English possessive than these theoretical alternatives.
Other Possessive Constructions
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I deal with three further possessive constructions, each involving the use of a possessor phrase [NP POSS]. In each case, the possessor phrase is used independently of a postposed possessee noun.
The Tttring Test: Al’s Biggest Blind Alley?
Authors: Whitby Blay
Published: November 2023

Alan Turing’s 1950 paper, ‘Computing Machinery and Intelligence’, and the ‘Turing Test’ suggested in it are rightly seen as inspirational to the inception and development of artificial intelligence (Al). However, inspiration can soon become distraction in science, and it is not too early to begin to consider whether or not the Turing test is just such a distraction. What will be argued is that this is indeed the case with the Turing Test and AI.
The Intentional Stance and the Imitation Game
Authors: Narayanan Ajit
Published: November 2023

In Brainstorms Dennett (1981) proposes the following six conditions, each of which is necessary, of ‘personhood’. Although Dennett is concerned with ‘moral personhood’, rather than personhood as such, he believes that metaphysical personhood is a necessary condition of moral personhood. The six conditions are: rationality, intentionality, stance, reciprocity, verbal communication, and consciousness.
Minds, Machines, and Gödel: A Retrospect
Authors: Lucas J R
Published: November 2023

I must start with an apologia. My original paper, ‘Minds, Machines and Gödel’, was written in the wake of Turing’s 1950 paper in Mind, and was intended to show that minds were not Turing machines. Why, then, didn’t I couch the argument in terms of Turing’s theorem, which is easyish to prove and applies directly to Turing machines, instead of Gödel’s theorem, which is horrendously difficult to prove, and doesn’t so naturally or obviously apply to machines? The reason was that Gödel’s theorem gave me something more: it raises questions of truth which evidently bear on the nature of mind, whereas Turing’s theorem does not; it shows not only that the Gödelian well-formed formula is unprovable-in-the-system, but that it is true. It shows something about reasoning, that it is not completely rule-bound, so that we, who are rational, can transcend the rules of any particular logistic system, and construe the Gödelian well-formed formula not just as a string of symbols but as a proposition which is true. Turing’s theorem might well be applied to a computer which someone claimed to represent a human mind, but it is not so obvious that what the computer could not do, the mind could. But it is very obvious that we have a concept of truth. Even if it is not the summum bonum, it is a bonum, and one it is characteristic of minds to value.
Human versus Mechanical Intelligence
Authors: Gandy Robin
Published: November 2023

I believe that in about fifty years’ time it will be possible to programme computers, with a storage capacity of about 10 , to make them play the imitation game so well that an average interrogator will not have more than 70 percent chance of making the right identification after five minutes of questioning.
The Church-Turing Thesis: Its Nature and Status
Authors: Galton Antony
Published: November 2023

The Church-Turing thesis (CT), as it is usually understood, asserts the identity of two classes of functions, the effectively computable functions on the one hand, and the recursive (or Turing-machine computable) functions on the other. In support of this thesis, it is customary to cite the circumstance that all serious attempts to characterize the notion of an effectively computable function in precise mathematical terms have ended up by defining the same class of functions, albeit in quite different ways. Thus CT is supported by a series of theorems to the effect that these various characterizations of effective computability (viz. Turing-machine computability, general recursiveness, A-definability, Markov algorithm computability, and the rest) are extensionally equivalent.
The Demise of the Turing Machine tn Complexity Theory
Authors: Stewart Iain A
Published: November 2023

Computational complexity theory is essentially an aspect of recursive function theory involving the consideration of specified resources. These resources are usually those of time and space, where time and space are defined relative to the model of computation involved. Given that the model of computation used in recursive function theory is often the Turing machine (with most models related via the Church-Turing thesis, of course), it is not surprising that this model plays a central role in complexity theory, with the notion of time being the number of moves in a computation and that of space being the number of tape cells used. It is usually the case that restrictions are imposed on the Turing-machine model and that relationships between the classes of Turing machines so obtained are studied. For example, a well-known complexity class is P, the class of all deterministic polynomial-time Turing machines, obtained by imposing the restriction that this class should consist of those Turing machines which halt on all inputs and expend time polynomial in the length of the input string in any computation (the polynomial is fixed).
Religions and Language: the Myths of a Single Source and of Superiority
Authors: Calvet Louis-Jean
Published: November 2023

This much is obvious: the language wars that will be discussed through out this book would not have occurred in a world with only one language. At the origin of the conflict lies the multilingualism of the planet. It is not the only reason for the war but it is a necessary condition. If we examine a map of the world and look for populations and their languages under states and frontiers, we find ourselves faced with a vast jigsaw puzzle.
Case Studies: Language Planning and Nationalism
Authors: Calvet Louis-Jean
Published: November 2023

As in the previous examples, the origin of the Norwegian language problem is a political event. After three centuries (from 1523 to 1814) of domination over Norway, Denmark, which had been involved in the Napoleonic Wars on the side of Great Britain, was obliged by Bernadotte to abandon this domination and give way to Sweden (the Treaty of Kiel, 1814). Denmark had, however, tried a last-minute manoeuvre to avoid this loss of sovereignty, and granted Norway an extremely liberal constitution, called the ‘Eidsvold constitution’ and a parliament, the storting. These provisions, which Sweden accepted, led to the debates we shall now discuss.
Case Study: The Language Struggle of the Jivaro of Ecuador
Authors: Calvet Louis-Jean
Published: November 2023

Let us begin with some precise terminology: the ‘Jivaro’ never call themselves ‘Jivaro’ but ‘Shuar’. In fact, the term ‘jibaro’ means ‘peasant’ in Spanish, with a pejorative connotation, and was applied to the people living in Peruvian and Ecuadorian Amazonia by the first arrivals from the Iberian peninsula, in the sixteenth century. I have kept it for the title of this chapter, for reasons of clarity, since the Shuar are practically un known in Europe, as is their culture, especially if their famous practice of head-shrinking, the ‘tsantsas’, is excluded. But from now on I shall de scribe this people by using the name that they use: Shuar.
Hobbes: Ancient and Modem
Authors: Goldsmith M M
Published: November 2023

There is a strong case for regarding Hobbes as the first distinctively modern political philosopher. That case does not rely on Hobbes’s rejection of antiquity, even though he trenchantly repudiated at least some Greek and Roman political ideas. Nor does it rely on Hobbes’s ignorance or rejection of the political theory of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries: the natural law theories of the neo-scholastic ‘School of Salamanca’ and of Grotius, or the tracts of the monarchomachs and their opponents.
Introduction
Authors: Senft Gunter
Published: November 2023

The famous German poet Friedrich Schiller, in Act II, scene ii of his classic drama Wallensteins Tod, has his protagonist, General Wallenstein, recite the following: Eng ist die Welt, und das Gehirn ist weit-Leicht beieinander wohnen die Gedanken, Doch hart im Raume stoBen sich die Sachen. With these phrases Schiller describes exactly the problem linguists and anthropologists have to face in researching conceptions of space and spatial reference in different cultures and languages. Together with Jandl’s poem, this quotation forms a kind of motto for this anthology, which presents studies on space and spatial reference in Austronesian and Papuan languages.
Modifying, Switching, and Recalling Contexts
Authors: Emmott Catherine
Published: November 2023

Judging contextual continuity and change requires inference-making on the part of the reader. Chapter 4 suggested that narrative events may require the updating of overt and covert entity representations, yet, in a particular context, the reader must also assume some contextual continuity. These assumptions of continuity are necessary, but readers also need to recognize that contexts can change. Characters may move in and out of a location or, alternatively, the narrative may shift to a completely new context. This chapter explores these different types of context change and examines the mechanisms by which a context which has previously been activated may be reinstated.
Mental Representations, Inference-Making, and Reference Theory
Authors: Emmott Catherine
Published: November 2023

Previous chapters have argued that the notion of mental representations is needed to explain how information that has been provided at an earlier point in a text is available at subsequent points to supplement the literal words of the text. For narrative text, important mental representations are entity representations, which provide information about particular characters, and contextual frames, which monitor which characters are together in a location at any particular time. These representations explain the behaviour of characters and provide information which enables ‘shorthand’ forms such as pronouns to be interpreted.
Logical Consequence: Models and Modality
Authors: Shapiro Stewart
Published: November 2023

My long-standing interest in the notion of logical consequence became urgent when I was working on my recent book on higher-order logic (1991). The most common complaint is that second-order logic is out of bounds. as logic, because its consequence relation is not effective. Even though higher order logic is squarely within the prevailing model-theoretic tradition, its set of logical truths is not recursively enumerable-it is not even in the Kleene hierarchy.
The Iberian Peninsula: Conflicting Linguistic Nationalisms
Authors: Mar-Molinero Clare
Published: November 2023

The history of language and of nationalism in the Iberian Peninsula—that is, present-day Spain and Portugal—shows many of the same features as other Western European countries, reflecting the emergence of unified states from fragmented communities and medieval kingdoms. The story of a series of conquests, the most important of which being the Roman, characterizes the development of linguistic varieties in the peninsula. What distinguishes the peninsula, however, from neighbouring European areas, is the conquest and long occupation of large parts by the Arabic-speaking Moors. The influence that the latter left on the language and culture of Spain and Portugal, and the significance of the bringing together of potentially hostile groups during the Reconquista against a common enemy, cannot be overstated.
Basic Concepts of Grammatical Theory
Authors: McGregor William B
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we discuss some of the most fundamental concepts of grammatical theory, necessary for the elaboration of SG. The first section begins by discussing the notion of constituency and suggests that current conceptions are misguided. It proposes that constituency must be understood as the syntagmatic relationship between a part and the whole to which it belongs, specifically the function that the former serves in the latter. Following this, in section 2.2, we briefly discuss the classification of words into parts of speech categories. Section 2.3 goes on to argue that Saussure’s notion of the sign permits an understanding of the nature of constituents and functions, as well as the special relationship between them. This leads to a general discussion of the nature of meaning. In section 2.4 some important preliminaries are set out, through a discussion of the Saussurean dichotomy between syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships. It is argued that both types of relationship are fundamental to grammatical theory, and that they are mutually defining and logically independent; this means that neither can be replaced by the other. Finally, in section 2.5 we outline the contextual theory of meaning that informs SG.
Nominal and Locational Switching
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

Having discussed category switches for predicate adjectives, we will now proceed to explore category-switching for the two remaining nonverbal predicate classes. For both predicate nominals and locationals, category-switching is a rather rare phenomenon, which is why we can deal with N-switching and L-switching in one single chapter. The relative marginality of these types of switching is, of course, to be expected. Unlike adjectives, nominals and locationals have their own prototypical strategy, which makes these categories more resistent to partial takeover, as well as to takeover in general. For the same reason, those switches which do not feature the prototypical strategy for the category in question will be highly unlikely to occur. V-L-switching for nominals is marginal, and V-N-switching for locationals has not been attested at all.
Time as Spacetime
Authors: Nerlich Graham
Published: November 2023

The sore spot in the philosophy of time is, and always was, the idea that the present time is metaphysically remarkable whereas the present place is not. So the present time is, somehow, a burning topic, one which is tied, in the minds of many, to the vexed question whether or not time flows. There are two main but rather different ideas about all this: first, that it has something to do with language; second, that it is tied tightly to the way we experience the world. The first idea has led to a great deal of ingenious analysis of tensed language aiming either to show that, metaphysically, tense is deep or that it is shallow. The second theme has proved less approachable for, while the sense of something experientially primitive and striking about the present is strong, it proves difficult indeed to say what this highly intuitive feature is. I want to discuss both sorts of view.
Tense and Egocentricity in Fiction
Authors: Currie Gregory
Published: November 2023

Fictions are said to transport us to other times and places. Not literally, of course, but in imagination. On this view, the engrossed reader of Scott’;s The Talisman imagines things the book describes as occurring in twelfth-century Palestine, not as events long ago and far away, but as here and now. As such a reader, I do not imagine those events occurring in Australia in the late twentieth century, which is where I am actually located. Rather, I imagine that my here and now is the place and time of the novel. So it is said.
Miklukho-Maklai
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

Great changes were occurring on Rapanui. Following Father Zumbohm’s departure, the two remaining missionaries Father Roussel and Brother Escolan became the almost daily target of the megalomaniac Frenchman Dutrou Hornier and his henchmen. There were shootings and burnings. Dutrou Hornier claimed to rule the island. But only terror and desperation ruled Rapanui at the end of 1870.
Pebbles and Pearls
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

At the same time that Thomas Barthel in Germany and Knorozov, Butinov, and Fedorova in Russia were turning the study of Easter Island’s rongorongo script into a scientific discipline, the number of popular publications on the subject was skyrocketing. This sudden public awareness of rongorongo can doubtless be ascribed to the phenomenal interest in Rapanui that had been generated by Thor Heyerdahl’s Norwegian Expedition to Easter Island and the East Pacific in 1955-56, and especially by the remarkable commercial success of Heyerdahl’s later written account of this adventure, Aku-Aku (1958). (Tremendous changes were taking place on Rapanui, too, and a radical new life style for the Rapanui people was shortly to intrude on the island, for better or worse.) Most of these publications on rongorongo were superficial and erroneous. Few serious scholars braved a creative analysis of the script. Of these few, only a handful were properly trained linguists and epigraphers. And, all too typically, for most of even these, it was as if Barthel and the Russians had never set pen to paper.
Production
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

“The image-carving and stone-working traditions of Easter Island”, the American archaeologist Patrick C. McCoy (1979: 135-6) has written, “were superior to any in Polynesia”. And the zenith of the Rapanui woodcarver’s skill was rongorongo. Seldom has primitive art anywhere in the world reached such skilled perfection.
Statistics
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

It is as entertaining as it is informative to learn a few of the physical and chronological measures of the remarkable rongorongo script of Easter Island. Such a list for rongorongo has never been published before. It obtains only for authentic rongorongo inscriptions.
The Rongorongo Inscriptions
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

“Inscription” here signifies a sequence of two or more glyphs that have been incised for a proven or assumed non-ornamental purpose. With the physical description of the tablets, all measurements are given in maximum centimetres. If these measurements differ from those in the secondary literature, it is because I have measured nearly every artefact in situ.2 Glyph “totals” are only speculative, non-functional approximations, since the many glyphic fusions are ignored in the count. The constituent elements of the compounds as well as most affixes are counted separately. I have here adopted Barthel’s prudent custom of calling such counted glyphs “elements”.
Syntax of the Verb Cluster
Authors: Kathol Andreas
Published: November 2023

One of the hallmarks of modern feature-based theories such as HPSG or LFG is that much of the work that had been attributed to the transformational machinery in frameworks such as Government Binding theory is instead captured in terms of informational identity among different parts of different pieces of linguistic structure. us In HPSG, this is achieved by means of structure sharing. This notion is of particular relevance in the description of nonfinite complementation. On the common view approach, any dissociation between syntactic and semantic ‘subjecthood’, such as in subject-to-subject raising constructions, is achieved by means of trans formational relationships among syntactic tree representations. Lexicalist theories instead treat raising constructions in terms of a (partial) informational identity between the NP and VP dependents of the raising verb. In Pollard & Sag’s (1994) rendition of raising as structure sharing, the subcategorization information of the subject-raising verb consists of an NP subject and a VP complement. The subject required by that VP is not provided by means of some inaudible element (‘PRO’); rather the raising verb lexically states the token-identity between its own subject and the understood subject of the dependent VP predicate.
Tone
Authors: Fox Anthony
Published: November 2023

Pitch is not in itself a phonological feature; it is a phonetic feature with a variety of prosodic functions, and it can only be interpreted phonologically in the light of these different functions. These functions are usually assigned to one of three broad types: tone, accent, and intonation. The precise definitions of these, and the criteria for delimiting them, are, however, a matter of some controversy. Intonation can be distinguished from the other two first because its domain of application is the phrase or the sentence, rather than the word, and second because its function is discourse-oriented rather than lexical or grammatical. Pitch-accent involves the use of pitch in an accentual function, i.e. to give prominence to one particular element, as discussed in Chapter 3. Tone, finally, has lexical or grammatical significance, as an intrinsic property of a morpheme, word, or grammatical construction.
Plato’s Parmenides
Authors: Palmer John A
Published: November 2023

I shall suggest that Plato understood Parmenides as presenting in the deduction that comprises the bulk of BS a description of the cosmos in its intelligible aspect qua being. This description is compatible with a description of the cosmos considered from another perspective as a differentiated world system. We shall also see that the possibility of considering the cosmos from different perspectives and describing it in its different aspects relates in important ways to the problem of how one thing can have many names.
Individual Responsibility for Health
Authors: Beaufort Inez De
Published: November 2023

In these times of limited resources for health care, different criteria for the allocation of health care both on a micro- as well as on a macro- (societal) level are being discussed by philosophers, physicians, and policy-makers. I will discuss one of the criteria that has featured in the Netherlands, in quite heated debates, that is the responsibility of the individual for his or her own health. (More colloquially: does one have to pay for one ‘s faults and unhealthy habits?) Some people have a chronic unhealthy lifestyle: they smoke, drink, work too hard, eat junk food, and engage in ‘unsafe’ sexual adventures. Others have dangerous hobbies like hang gliding, parachute jumping, or participating in the Paris-Dakar rally.
Perplexity and the Figure of Socrates
Authors: Matthews Gareth B
Published: November 2023

No doubt some philosophers are much more given to perplexity than others. Certainly some of us admit to being perplexed much more readily than others do. Still, perplexity is so central to philosophy, to what interests us in philosophical questions in the first place, and to what keeps us awake at night thinking about them, that it is hard to imagine a good philosopher who is not thoroughly familiar with the bewilderingly unsettling experience of being philosophically perplexed.
Professionalized Perplexity: The Midwife
Authors: Matthews Gareth B
Published: November 2023

The writings of Plato give us three memorable images of Socrates. In the Apology Socrates describes himself as ‘a kind of gadfly’ for ‘a great and noble horse’, Athens, which, he says, needs to be stirred up (3oe). In the Meno, as we have seen, Socrates’ interlocutor characterizes him as a stingray who ‘makes anyone who comes close and touches it feel numb’ and unable to speak (8oa). Socrates, as I have emphasized, accepts the stingray image, provided that the stingray also stings itself, for, as he insists, he is himself as numb and perplexed as those he interrogates. The implication is clearly that some of the same questions that numb and perplex Socrates’ interlocutors also numb and perplex him. So the second image of Socrates is that of the self-stinging stingray.
Objectivity and Convergence
Authors: Skorupski John
Published: November 2023

truth depends upon agreement with the object, and in respect of it the judgements of each and every understanding must therefore be in agreement with each other (consentientia uni tertio, consentiunt inter se). The touchstone whereby we decide whether our holding a thing to be true is conviction or mere persuasion is there fore external, namely, the possibility of communicating it and of finding it to be valid for all human reason. For there is then at least a presumption that the ground of the agreement of all judgements with each other, notwithstanding the differing characters of individuals, rests upon the common ground, namely, upon the object, and that it is for this reason that they are all in agreement with the object-the truth of the judgement being thereby proved.1
Reasons and Reason
Authors: Skorupski John
Published: November 2023

We have reasons to believe, to act, to feel. We deal in reasons at every turn—for example I have reason to believe you covered for me in an emergency, reason to feel grateful and so reason to thank you in some more or less substantial way. What we make of a person turns on how that person responds or fails to respond to reasons in one or other of these three domains—belief, feeling, and action. Personality is the manner of one’s responsiveness to reasons. A testy person is more easily annoyed than he has reason to be. A credulous person believes when there is insufficient reason to believe. A precipitate person acts when there is insufficient reason to act.
Descartes: Heart and Soul
Authors: Voss Stephen
Published: November 2023

‘The preservation of health’, writes Descartes to the Marquess of Newcastle in October 1645, ‘has always been the principal end of my studies’ (AT IV, 329: CSMK, 275).1 In a famous passage in the Discourse on Method, to which we shall return, he explains why medical matters mean so much to him.
Faithfulness and Prosodic Circumscription
Authors: McCarthy John J
Published: November 2023

Faithfulness constraints have been an essential part of Optimality Theory (OT) since its inception (Prince and Smolensky 1991, 1993), but the form and function of faithfulness constraints have evolved. McCarthy and Prince (1995a) propose that faithfulness constraints are formalized within a Correspondence Theory of relations between representations. Correspondence Theory permits the statement of constraints demanding faithfulness to diverse linguistic entities, such as features, segments, and prosodic constituents. Furthermore, it generalizes faithfulness from its original role, comparing underlying and surface forms, to similar but distinct linguistic relations, such as comparing a stem to its reduplicative copy.
Derivational Residue: Hidden Rules in Optimality Theory
Authors: LaCharité Darlene , Paradis Carole
Published: November 2023

Optimality Theory (OT) (following McCarthy and Prince 1993; Prince and Smolensky 1993) has focused on the identification and articulation of ranked phonological constraints by test-driving phonological phenomena from a variety of languages through selected subsets of those constraints. OT’s goal has been to account for phonological generalizations within languages, and for differences among languages, using universal surface constraints that are prioritized on a language-specific basis, instead of using rules, derivations and intermediate representations, as in Chomsky and Halle (1968) (henceforth SPE).
Introduction and Methodology
Authors: May Simon
Published: November 2023

My aims in this book are threefold. The first is to scrutm1ze Nietzsche’s subtle critique of certain key concepts and values of traditional Judaeo-Christian morality and its secular embodiments--a critique that, I will argue, is far from uniformly hostile to that morality. Throughout I take traditional ‘morality’ to be simply one type of ethics, despite its claims to universal validity. And I take ‘ethics’ to be concerned with two general questions, to which the traditional ‘morality’ examined by Nietzsche supplies a very particular set of answers: namely, what is the ‘good’ life for agents? And what are the best means-virtues, values, and practices-for attaining it? How I regulate my behaviour towards others is, on this definition, only one aspect of the good and its attainment.
The New Ideal: ‘To become what one is’
Authors: May Simon
Published: November 2023

The aims of this concluding chapter of Part I are threefold: first, to summarize the conception of morality that Nietzsche repudiates; second, to propose that, of the various candidates for his new ideal, the one that is most consistent with his standard of ‘life-enhancement’ is to ‘become what one is’; and, third, to suggest that Nietzsche regards both his critique of morality and the new ethic he advances in its place as, in key respects, based on facts about what promotes or hinders (‘higher’) human flourishing-with the result that those who engage with Nietzsche’s philosophy cannot selectively ignore, with-out attempting to refute, certain elements that they may find distasteful, such as his conception of justice. In all three cases, I attempt to gather together the threads of previous chapters-in the first case, by highlighting the principal features of ‘morality’ that we have encountered in each chapter hitherto; in the second case, by reminding ourselves that any new Nietzschean ideal must be compatible with his three criteria of life-enhancement-a demand not met, I suggest, by either his doctrine of ‘Eternal Return’ or his conception of the ‘sovereign individual’ (or, indeed, of the ‘  Übermensch’); and, in the third case, by recalling the sense in which Nietzsche conceives of values as ‘objective’, and then tracing some disturbing consequences of a central Nietzschean hypothesis which we encountered in Chapter 3.1.2-namely, that creativity presupposes cruelty.
The Unconditional Value of Truth: Nietzsche’s Pioneering Critique
Authors: May Simon
Published: November 2023

Nietzsche’s critique of the value of truth – of the truth possessed in propositional, conscious knowledge – is, in the first instance, directed against the idea that it could be unconditioned: i.e. that its value is not dependent upon other valuations or needs.
The Unconditional Value of Truth: An Assessment of Nietzsche’s Critique
Authors: May Simon
Published: November 2023

The previous chapter attempted to set out the diverse elements of Nietzsche’s ‘experimental’ questioning of the value of truth. We saw that this critique of the value of truth in the name of the value of truth-this claim that we have been untruthful about the nature and value of our valuation of truth-is one of the most pioneering and powerful aspects of his philosophy. For it is very plausible that on a short-term calculus of utility, untruth is frequently more useful than truth, while on a long-term calculus of utility or, indeed, on the basis of ‘the character of existence’ as such, we simply cannot say Whether the greater advantage is on the side of the unconditionally mistrustful or of the unconditionally trusting’ or whether ‘injothing is needed more than the truth’ (GS, 344). Hence to suggest that the value of truth is unconditioned is simply to ‘affirm another world than the [real] world of life, nature, and history’ and thus ‘to negate ... this world’.
Nasal Vowel Evolution in Romance
Authors: Sampson Rodney
Published: November 2023

This book provides a complete, comparative, nongallocentric account of nasality in all the Romance languages. It demonstrates the central role of nasality in the history of sound changes in the languages of southern Europe. In doing so, it assembles a large amount of important philological and linguistic data previously dispersed and difficult to access, and organizes it in a way that allows the author (and will allow the reader) to analyse it systematically. Two introductory chapters discuss general principles of nasality and Romance nasalization. Subsequent chapters are then devoted to each language. The author considers all the standard varieties and a substantial range of non-standard varieties, and identifies broad characteristics of vowel nasalization in Romance. In the final chapter he makes a clear bridge between the data-rich discussion of individual languages and the isolation of language universals. This is will be the standard work in its field for many years. It will be of central interest to linguists and philologists of Romance, as well as to those concerned more generally to understand the causes, patterns, and processes of sound change.
Language Diversity: Changes in Time
Authors: Nettle Daniel
Published: November 2023

The previous chapter examined the distribution of languages in space. The approach was to take a snapshot of languages at one point in time (the present day), and assume that the pattern observed was some sort of equilibrium. The assumption of equilibrium proved to be useful, in so far as the patterns we observed did, by and large, bear a systematic relationship to ecology and geography.
Plato (C.428–347 Bc)
Authors: Bostock David
Published: November 2023

The best known and most widely studied of all the ancient Greek philosophers. He was an Athenian, born into a noble family, and might have been expected to play a part in the politics of that city. But in fact he came under the influence of Socrates, who fired him with an enthusiasm for philosophy. When Socrates was condemned to death and executed in 399, Plato gave up all thought of a political career, and left Athens in disgust. It issaid that he then travelled to various places, includ ing Egypt, but we have no trustworthy information on this part of his life, until we come to his first visit to Italy and Sicily in 387. From that visit he returned to Athens, and soon after founded his Academy, just outside the city. This may be regarded as the first ‘university’. Apart from two further visits to Sicily, in 367 and 361, he remained at the Academy until hisdeath in 347.
Augustine (354–430)
Authors: Kirwan Christopher
Published: November 2023

Saint, Bishop of Hippo Regius (now Annaba, Algeria), Doctor of the Western Church. His enormous influence on the doctrines of Western Christianity owes much to his skill and perseverance as a philosopher. In the history of philosophy itself he is a secondary figure, partly because he didn’t have the taste or leisure to acquire more than a scrappy knowledge of the 800-year tradition preceding him.
Thomas hobbes (1588–1679)
Authors: Gert Bernard
Published: November 2023

English philosopher, generally regarded as the founder of English moral and political philosophy. His most famous work is Leviathan (English edition 165r; Latin edition r668), but he published translations of Thucydides (1628) and Homer (1674–6) as well as a philosophical trilogy in Latin-De Corpore (1655), De Cive (1642; English translation, 1651). And De Homine (1658) covering logic, language, optics, human nature, law, and religion, as well as moral and political theory.
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832)
Authors: Harrison Ross
Published: November 2023

English philosopher who dreamed at a young age of founding a sect of philosophers called utilitarians and who lived to see his dream fulfilled. He also planned that his body when he died should be made into what he called an f auto-icon5 (that is, a representation of itself) so that it could be used as a monument to the founder of the sect. This intention was also fulfilled, so that to this day meetings of Benthamites sometimes take place in the actual presence of Bentham himself (who spends the rest of his time sitting in a glass box in University College London).
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860)
Authors: Sprigge T L S
Published: November 2023

German philosopher of inherited independent means, who gained distinction only towards the end of his life as a result, partly, of the notice taken of him in the British utilitarian journal the Westminster Review. His mother, who thoroughly disliked her son for his gloomy outlook, ran a literary salon in Weimar, frequented by Goethe, and this led to a short period of intellectual friendship during Schopenhauer’s youth, as Goethe initially thought Schopenhauer’s philosophy relevant for his own theory of colours. Schopenhauer arrived at his general philosophical position very early and all his works are developments of the same basic initial ideas. His chief inspirations were Plato, Kant, and the Upanishads. He is, in fact, the first (and remains among the few) Western philosophers to have related his thought to Hindu and Buddhist ideas. However, his most distinctive contribution to philosophy is in his insistence that Will is more basic than thought in both man and nature.
Gottlob Frege (1848–1925)
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

The founder of modern mathematical logic. As a logician and philosopher of logic he ranks with Aristotle; as a philosopher of mathematics he has had no peer throughout the history of the subject. After taking his doctorate in philosophy at Gottingen, he taught at the University of Jena from 1874 until his retirement in 1918; apart from his intellectual activity his life was uneventful and secluded. His work was little read in his lifetime, and for a long time his influence in philosophy was exercised mainly through the writings of others.
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980)
Authors: Baldwin Thomas
Published: November 2023

Sartre’s oeuvre is a unique phenomenon. No other major philosopher has also been a major playwright, novelist, political theorist, and literary critic. It is still too early to judge which facet of Sartre’s extraordinary genius posterity will regard as the most important, but since his philosophy permeates his other works, its enduring interest is assured.
The Particularist’s Progress
Authors: Dancy Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Many people seem willing to call themselves feminists with little idea of what they are committing themselves to. The same, in my experience, is true of particularism in the theory of moral reasons. There is a common suggestion that to be a particularist is, at the outset, only to admit that circumstances can make a difference. But if that were all that particularism amounted to, it would be uncontentious. In this chapter I lay out what I think one commits oneself to if one accepts the general claim that reasons are sensitive to context-a claim sometimes called holism in the theory of reasons, and of which moral particularism is merely one expression.
General Introduction
Authors: Eilan Naomi , McCarthy Rosaleen , Brewer Bill
Published: November 2023

The aim of these introductory remarks is to explain something of the rationale for holding a joint philosophy and psychology workshop on spatial representation, most of the papers delivered at which are collected in this volume. In Part I we give a very general and somewhat philosophically oriented description of why we believe issues of spatial representation are so central to an understanding of the way the mind represents the external world, by describing four basic but abstract ingredients in our conception of an external spatial world which we believe the chapters in this volume help to articulate. In section II we give a very brief summary of some of the major problems, philosophical and psychological, raised and discussed in the chapters in each of the five parts of the book.
Words and Concepts in the Brain
Authors: Damasio Hanna
Published: November 2023

The goal of my work is the understanding of the neural basis for certain cognitive processes and for certain behaviors. The level at which I work is the large-scale system level in the primate brain, specifically, in the human brain. I am interested in events at other levels, as for instance at cellular level or at the level of microcircuitry, or at the purely cognitive level, all of which are obviously necessary to get to a complete understanding of mind and brain phenomena, but my work is about the large-scale system level and this is the subject of this chapter.