bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Can parent‐to‐parent consultation improve the effectiveness of the Maudsley model of family‐based treatment for anorexia nervosa? A randomized control trial
Authors: Rhodes Paul , Baillee Andrew , Brown Jac , Madden Sloane
Published: August 2010

Objective: This paper describes a preliminary randomized control trial that explores the use of parent‐to‐parent consultations as a potential augmentation to the Maudsley model of family‐based treatment for anorexia.

Method: Twenty families were randomized into two groups, ten receiving standard treatment and ten receiving an additional parent‐to‐parent consultation early on in treatment. Measures of parental efficacy (Parents versus Anorexia Scale), patient distress (Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale) and percentage ideal body weight were taken each week. The effects of parent‐to‐parent consultations on parental efficacy and weight were analysed by comparing data with random effects models.

Results: A significant treatment effect was found, with parent‐to‐parent consultations leading to a small increase in the rate of weight restoration.

Conclusion: This practice has the potential to enhance weight restoration when included in the Maudsley model of family‐based treatment for anorexia nervosa. Research that tests more potent forms of intervention may also have merit.
Learning as a context for differences and differences as a context for learning
Authors: Burnham John , Alvis Palma Diane , Whitehouse Lisa
Published: August 2010

In this paper we describe how we, as two trainers with multiple differences, engaged with a group of trainees in a process of deconstructing the differences between the participants in the training group, using the acronym Social GRRAACCEESS as a heuristic. We will explore how these differences reflexively influenced the process of learning, through teaching, training and supervision, within the group.
Being there, experiencing and creating space for dialogue: about working with children in family therapy
Authors: Rober Peter
Published: August 2010

While most authors agree that it is important to mobilize the active participation of children in the family therapy session, a lot of family therapists exclude children from participating because they do not feel comfortable with children. Teaching family therapists to feel more comfortable around children is a good idea, but perhaps it is not enough. In this article, the author reflects on the complexity of the issue of the comfort of the therapist in a session with children and families. In the discussion of the case story of Elly and her mother, practitioners are reminded that the therapist's experiencing in the session can help her to understand something of what goes on in the families she is working with.
Training family therapy students in conceptual and observation skills relating to the therapeutic alliance: an evaluation
Authors: Carpenter John , Escudero Valentin , Rivett Mark
Published: August 2010

This paper describes a training intervention to develop students' conceptual and observation skills relating to the therapeutic alliance (TA) in family therapy. An evaluation methodology was developed and piloted. The knowledge and observation skills of family therapy students pre‐ and post‐training were assessed in comparison to a non‐intervention group of experienced clinicians. Students' mean scores on the knowledge measure improved significantly from 43 per cent to 74 per cent (p<0.001) and on the observation test from 43 per cent to 65 per cent, although this failed to reach statistical significance (p=0.08). There were no significant changes in the clinicians' scores over the same period. The clinicians' knowledge was higher initially, but the students had caught up after six months.

In conclusion, training students in conceptual and observational skills relating to the therapeutic alliance may have a measurable effect. A ‘stepwise’ methodology for demonstrating the relationship between training in TA and outcomes for families is proposed.
Beyond a single standard: levels of evidence approach for evaluating marriage and family therapy research and practice
Authors: Sexton Thomas L. , Kinser Jeremy C. , Hanes Christopher W.
Published: August 2010

Randomized clinical trial (RCT) research has come to dominate the research landscape of marriage and family therapy (MFT). Despite becoming the ‘gold standard’ for evaluating clinical research and clinical practices, there is a growing debate regarding the reliance on RCTs as the primary basis for evaluating clinical intervention in MFT. Given the natural diversity of clients, settings and clinical problems faced by practitioners and the relational and recursive interactional process of MFT, one of the major challenges for the field of MFT will be to come to grips with the research–practice gap by moving beyond a single methodological standard through adopting a ‘levels of evidence’ approach as a framework that promotes diverse research methods, different methodological criteria (depending on the method), and evaluation based on the accumulated type of evidence needed to answer a specific policy, clinical practice choice, or within a model clinical decision.
Changes in the patient's identity in the context of a psychiatric system – an empirical study
Authors: Barbaro Bogdan de , Opoczyńska Małgorzata , Rostworowska Maria , Drożdżowicz Lucyna , Golański Marcin
Published: August 2010

The aim of this paper is to provide a description of a significant process which takes place during a first psychiatric hospitalization and to shed some light on its context. This process involves a transformation of an individual considered mentally disturbed into a psychiatric patient which affects the person's identity. The ‘person’ becomes a ‘psychiatric patient’. Although it is self‐evident that a patient never stops being a person, the context of the first hospitalization merits attention as it is the time when the patient is in most danger of being objectified and depersonalized. The paper describes a study of forty‐six patients hospitalized for the first time on a psychiatric ward and their seventy‐five parents. Their narratives from the beginning and the end of stay in hospital were compared and the language used during the introductory consultation and discharge consultation analysed. In this process an important role is played by patients' parents. The parents' narratives are seen to change in a direction of acceptance but at the same time a process of stigmatization is apparent.
Emotional dances: therapeutic dialogues as embodied systems
Authors: Bertrando Paolo , Gilli Gabriella
Published: August 2010

The mind/body dualism, although scarcely relevant in clinical practice, remains unsolved theoretically. The pragmatic wisdom of the founders of family therapy, which implied that bodies and minds in therapy were one, has been easily forgotten. Such a situation had practical results, leading to naive solutions, both on the materialistic and idealistic sides, represented by biological psychiatry on the one side, and by most postmodern therapies on the other. This article proposes to consider the role of emotions in therapeutic dialogue to solve this dilemma within the field of systemic therapy.
Facing Up to the Centre: The Emergence of Regional Elite Associations in Angola's Political Transition Process
Authors: Ruigrok Inge
Published: August 2010

This article compares two regional elite associations in Angola's southern Huíla province — the Associação dos Naturais e Amigos de Kuvango, Jamba e Chipindo (Anakujachi — Association of Natives and Friends of Kuvango, Jamba and Chipindo) and the Associação Solidariedade Nyaneka‐Humbi (SNH — Nyaneka‐Humbi Solidarity Association). It demonstrates how these associations have gained increasing political significance through their representation of local interests. This is facilitated by deeply felt social and political exclusion resulting from war and a centralized state that hardly reaches the periphery where these associations are based. Until now, the central Angolan state has refused to grant the regions more autonomy despite an official gradualismo decentralization policy which introduces elected bodies at district level. In response, the strategy of these associations has been to ensure that their representatives obtain positions within the state, both nationally and locally, so that they could represent the interests of their specific region. Using the example of these regional elite associations, the article retraces the struggle over resources and citizenship, which is embedded in contemporary urban–rural interactions that mark political change in Huíla province.
Maintenant, on sait qui est qui: Statehood and Political Reconfiguration in Northern Côte d’Ivoire
Authors: Förster Till
Published: August 2010

The transformation of statehood in the rebel‐held northern half of Côte d’Ivoire builds on the reconfiguration of the social and political order. Though the state as an institution has almost ceased to exist, statehood as the practices that refer to it persists. This article examines the negotiations between the different non‐state actors and how these interactions shape, through everyday practices, the understanding of what a state should and should not do. The widely used saying of ‘Now one knows who is who’ answers the older expression that one does not know who is who. Before the crisis broke out in 2002, it was often difficult to distinguish between security providers and criminals. At that time, the police and gendarmerie could be either, while, through the rebellion, role ascriptions became clear and distinct. This article argues that the normative expectations of statehood are thus embedded in the general reconfiguration of society that has led to more stability and reliability of social roles.
Union Learning Funds and Trade Union Revitalization: A New Tool in the Toolkit?
Authors: Findlay Patricia , Warhurst Chris
Published: August 2010

This article examines the potential of union‐led learning through union learning funds to contribute to trade union revitalization. Empirical data are drawn from an evaluation of the Scottish Union Learning Fund. Findings suggest that union‐led learning can contribute to revitalization by enhancing relationship building with members, potential members, employers and government. However, problems exist in each case, and the findings suggest that a more strategic orientation to learning is required by unions.
Going Public with Good Governance: evidence from China
Authors: Li Larry , Naughton Tony
Published: August 2010

Board characteristics have not been a significant area of study in the IPO literature. We focus on the emerging corporate governance reform in China to investigate the relationship between a range of board characteristics and IPO initial returns and long‐term performance. We find evidence that board size is positively related to short‐term returns, while in the long‐term, a positive relationship exists between performance and the voluntary post‐listing separation of the roles of CEO and Chair of the Board. Our long‐term results suggest that at least some Chinese listed firms are actively and voluntarily moving toward better governance structures.
A User Community‐Based Approach to Leveraging Technological Competences: An Exploratory Case Study of a Technology Start‐Up from MIT
Authors: Keinz Peter , Prügl Reinhard
Published: August 2010

Many studies highlight the impact of technology commercialization on innovation and wealth creation. However, this impact could be far greater, especially as many technologies developed with high costs and effort remain vastly underutilized. One important reason for this problem can be found at the front end of the technological competence leveraging process: searching for market opportunities for a technology is a formidable challenge. In many cases, alternative fields of application (or even a single viable market opportunity) for a given technology are simply unknown to the entity in charge of commercialization. Based on an extensive literature review, we identify two major shortcomings at the front end of the technological competence leveraging process which contribute to the underutilization problem: (1) the local search behaviour of the commercializing entity and (2) the use of solution‐based instead of problem‐based search specifications. On the basis of these insights, we discuss the potential role of user communities in the search for (additional) market opportunities for a given technology, a process usually referred to as technological competence leveraging. We then empirically explore a user community‐based approach in an illustrative case study with a start‐up from MIT. Our findings show that when users were included in the search process, the number of potential markets in which the technology could be applied was five times higher, and more far‐distant application areas as well as application areas previously unknown to the technology holder were reached. In addition, we discover design principles for a user community‐based search process, providing practitioners with a hands‐on guideline for employing a user community‐based approach to technological competence leveraging.
Active Labour Market Programmes, Job Search and Job Finding in Denmark
Authors: Amilon Anna
Published: August 2010

This paper investigates whether the probability to search for a job and search intensity increase as the start of an Active Labour Market Programme (ALMP) approaches. Further, it investigates whether job search is correlated with job finding. Although previous studies have shown that the chance of job finding increases as the start of an ALMP approaches, it remains an open question what causes this ‘threat effect’. Results show that job search increases as programme start approaches and that there is a positive correlation between job search and job finding. The threat effect can therefore at least partly be attributed to increased job search.
Gentlemanly Masculinities as Represented by the Late Georgian Gentleman's Magazine
Authors: STAFFORD WILLIAM
Published: August 2010

Almost half of the pages of the Gentleman's Magazine 1785–1815 consisted of readers’ contributions in the form of letters and obituaries, making it an excellent source for representations of elite masculinities. They convey abundant evidence of the social and cultural priority of gentlemen over gentlewomen, and contrary to some recent assertions by scholars furnish no evidence of a ‘gender panic’ or retreat from ‘gender play’. They imply no overmastering urge to separate manliness from ‘feminine’ characteristics such as domesticity, connectedness, sensibility and gentleness. The predominantly reflected masculinity of this source is polite, responsible and educated; but evidence of disapproval of other masculinities – of irresponsible youth, and of the ‘rough’ style of the libertine or sportsman – indicates that there was no single ‘hegemonic’ elite masculinity. Nor was the preferred masculinity of the majority of the magazine's contributors entirely consistent. Conversation was highly esteemed by contributors; but there was a persistent tension between impartial, liberal, candid debate – talking for truth – and aggressive argument – talking for victory. The latter is pervasively characterized by the language of the duel, and this tension reflects an unresolved conflict between a ‘Christian’ masculinity of politeness and a masculinity of honour.
Temporary Triumph in Timişoara: Unrest among Romanian Students in 1956
Authors: GRANVILLE JOHANNA
Published: August 2010

Between 1952 and 1965, the one‐party regime under Gheorghe Gheorghiu‐Dej ranked as one of the most totalitarian of all communist bloc countries. Aware of the revolutionary ferment in neighbouring Hungary in 1956, the Romanian leaders took strict measures to prevent similar unrest occurring in their own country, including a ban on all meetings numbering more than three individuals. And yet, on 30 October over 2,000 students from the Polytechnic Institute in Timişoara met with party officials and demanded changes in living and study conditions, as well as the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Romania. Another 800 to 1,000 students convened on 31 October, calling for the release of students who had been arrested the day before. If the Dej regime's measures prevented mass demonstrations in cities such as Bucharest, Cluj and Iaşi, how did they initially fail in the case of Timişoara? How were the students in this city able to speak out so freely? Drawing on memoirs, archival documents and recent scholarship, this article will answer these questions, referring to psychological, logistical and historical factors. These include discrepancies between the Romanian and Hungarian media that sparked curiosity about events in Hungary; cramped dormitory rooms that actually facilitated student meetings; and a tradition of anti‐communist protest prevalent since 1945 in the Banat region. While the students did not prevail in 1956, they set a vital precedent for the Timişoarans who launched the Romanian Revolution thirty‐three years later in 1989.
Effect of Item Level Social Desirability on Factor Structure Stability
Authors: Sisco Howard , Reilly Richard R.
Published: August 2010

This study examined the effect of item‐level social desirability as a threat to construct validity for both a five‐factor biodata and personality inventory. Seven hundred and five participants were randomly assigned to either an Answer Honestly or Faking condition. All participants completed a biodata inventory and a NEO‐Five‐Factor Inventory. Both inventories' items were divided by low/high social desirability value (SDV) scores and grouped together. Differences between samples' covariance matrices and factor structure fit were then analyzed. It was predicted that items grouped by low SDV compared with those grouped by high SDV, would result in smaller changes in covariance matrices across conditions, and more closely retain factor structures consistent with the Five‐Factor Model. Although the results of this study supported predictions that covariance matrices changed less for low‐SDV items, overall results indicate that item‐level social desirability did not degrade the factor structure.
Do Assessors Have Too Much on their Plates? The Effects of Simultaneously Rating Multiple Assessment Center Candidates on Rating Quality
Authors: Melchers Klaus G. , Kleinmann Martin , Prinz Marion A.
Published: August 2010

It has been suggested that the large cognitive demands during the observation of assessment center (AC) participants can impair the quality of the assessors' ratings. An aspect that is especially relevant in this regard is the number of candidates that assessors have to observe simultaneously during group discussions, which are one of the most commonly used AC exercises. The present research evaluated potential impairments of the quality of the assessors' ratings (construct‐ and criterion‐related validity and rating accuracy) related to the number of to‐be‐observed candidates. Study 1 (N=1046) was a quasi‐experimental field study and Study 2 (N=71) was an experimental laboratory study. Both studies found significant impairments of assessors' rating quality when a larger in comparison to a lower number of candidates had to be observed simultaneously. These results suggest that assessors should not have to observe too many candidates at the same time during AC group discussions.
Staffing Services Quality and Innovativeness in Pharmaceutical Companies
Authors: Matías‐Reche Fernando , García‐Morales Víctor Jesús , Martín‐Tapia Inmaculada
Published: August 2010

This paper examines whether the main dimensions of staffing services quality have any effect on innovativeness. A resource‐based view of human resource management is used as theoretical approach. A questionnaire was sent to the CEOs of an international sample of pharmaceutical companies. A regression analysis was used to test hypotheses about the influence of the staffing services quality dimensions on innovativeness. The main findings are that all but one of the staffing services quality dimensions considered have significant, positive effects on innovativeness. Candidate quality is the dimension that affects innovativeness most, while timeliness has no significant effect.
A case review of the MRI features in alternating Tolosa–Hunt syndrome
Authors: Guedes BVS , da Rocha AJ , Zuppani HB , da Silva CJ , Sanvito WL
Published: August 2010

Tolosa–Hunt syndrome (THS) consists of a painful ophthalmoplegia with typical features in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The recurring nature of this affliction has been known since its first description. However, compromise of the contralateral cavernous sinus, known as alternating THS, is very rare and has never been examined using MRI. We report clinical data, laboratory data and imaging features of a patient with alternating THS. According to our literature review, this is the first MRI study of THS.
Community and family contact: an evaluation of small community homes for adults with severe and profound mental handicaps
Authors: de Kock Ursula , Saxby Helen , Thomas Mair , Felce David
Published: August 2010

Two studies examined the frequency of community and family contacts of 10 adults with severe and profound mental handicaps living in small, community‐based homes, first with their previous institutional experience and second in comparison with adults with similar handicaps living in larger community units.

Adults in the small homes used community amenities significantly more than they did when in institutions and also significantly more than residents of larger community units. They experienced greater family contact than when they lived in more distant institutions, but not significantly more than residents of larger community units which also served local areas. Within the small homes, people newly admitted from their family homes had significantly greater family involvement than those transferred from institutions. The results are related to the characteristics of the residential settings, such as location, staff factors, operational policy, and autonomy of management.
Evaluation in practice: moving from a “problem” ward to a staffed flat
Authors: McHatton Mary , Collins Graham , Brooks Elizabeth
Published: August 2010

The move of six men living in a ward for people with severe behavioural problems to a domestic‐scale flat within a mental handicap hospital was evaluated. The evaluation was carried out using the resources of a typical mental handicap service. The life style of the men showed some significant improvements in constructive engagement and decreases in inappropriate behaviour. The men's personal contacts with staff were greatly increased, their personal skills were improved, and they had a greater involvement in domestic activities and choices. However, there were no corresponding changes in participation in community life, and the need for homes to be located within the community is discussed.
Room management and target‐setting in a classroom for pupils with severe mental handicaps
Authors: Pope Catherine
Published: August 2010

Room management has been developed and researched in an attempt to improve aspects of the quality of life of children and adults with mental handicaps. The effect of this procedure was evaluated in a classroom for pupils with severe mental handicaps. Following a baseline, the system was implemented with eight pupils and monitored for five weeks. Subsequently, the additional component of interest, weekly target‐setting, was included for half the group for a further five weeks. The progress of each of the eight pupils on target skills and “control” target skills was assessed, and the results were compared. The rate of skill acquisition by pupils for whom targets were set did not differ significantly from that of the control pupils. The target‐setting procedure did not have an adverse effect on pupil or staff behaviour within the room management procedure. The implications of including a teaching element within the room manager role are discussed.
Home from home: a survey of independent living schemes for people with mental handicaps
Authors: Booth Tim , Phillips David , Berry Stewart , Jones Denis , Lee Mike , Matthews James , Melotte Chris , Pritlove Jeremy
Published: August 2010

This paper presents the findings of a major survey of independent living schemes (ILS) by the Joint Unit for Social Services Research. The survey covered 149 schemes, accommodating 349 people in four different parts of the country. Detailed information is given on the characteristics of the schemes and on the characteristics of their occupants. Four different management models are defined using the evidence from the survey, and key features of the ILS population are identified.
Sexual abuse and mental handicap: preliminary findings of a community‐based study
Authors: Dunne Timothy P. , Power Anne
Published: August 2010

In recent years sexual abuse has been acknowledged by society at large to be a significant problem. However, very little has been written about sexual abuse of people with mental handicaps. This paper documents the findings of a three‐year study of 13 victims of sexual abuse each of whom had a mental handicap. Parallels are drawn with research knowledge of sexual abuse and its effects on “normal” victims. Any differences which emerged are noted.

The major finding of this study is the possibility that behaviour problems and “acting out” behaviour of people with mental handicaps may be significant indicators of sexual abuse having taken place, in people who do not have the verbal skills to say to others what has happened to them. New areas of research are indicated to compare with this data.
The role of “carers” of people with mental handicaps: an observational study across contexts
Authors: Abraham Charles , Lindsay William , Lawrenson Helen
Published: August 2010

An observational study of the work activities of professional carers of people with mental handicaps is reported. Work profiles across four contexts are compared: a hospital ward, a rehabilitation hospital ward, a social work hostel, and a commmunity mental handicap nursing unit. Somewhat different rehabilitative services were offered to comparable client groups across the four care contexts.

Anticipated differences between the work profiles of hospital and community carers were less evident than expected. Significant differences, across contexts, were found in the amount of staff involvement in clients' personal care, housekeeping, clothing management, and leisure time. Important differences between the role of community mental handicap nurses and hospital‐based nurses were observed, especially in relation to consultation with relatives and escorted transport. The study also revealed that work profiles across units were similar, to the extent that very little staff time appeared to be devoted to supervision and teaching activities. Socialisation with clients was uniformly high across contexts.

Interpretations of these observations, and implications for the training of care staff concerned with the rehabilitation of people with mental handicaps, are discussed.
EPIDEMIOLOGY OF CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR
Authors: Qureshi Hazel , Alborz Alison
Published: August 2010

This paper describes the results of an epidemiological survey focused upon people with mental handicap who show behaviour problems. The survey was carried out in seven Health Districts in the North West. An operational definition of behaviour problems is constructed which is based on the use of specific resources, or the particular consequences of behaviour in terms of injury to self or others, destruction or damage to property, or severe social disruption. Rates of prevalence of individuals whose behaviour meets the definition are given across a range of locations, and for adults and children. Following this, information collected about each individual identified is used to restrict attention to people showing more severe problems. The variation in rates of prevalence across Districts is investigated, showing that there are higher rates in Districts which include cities. An age and location profile of the group of people showing more severe problems, in a hypothetical average District, demonstrates a likely increase in the numbers of young adults with challenging behaviour requiring community services, but also suggests that the total numbers of people involved in a given District will be sufficiently small to mean that individualised planning of services is entirely possible.
ENGAGEMENT IN MEANINGFUL ACTIVITY IN DAY CENTRES: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY
Authors: Pettipher Charlotte , Mansell Jim
Published: August 2010

Observational measures of client engagement and staff‐client contact were taken of 33 people attending a day centre for adults with mental handicap. A low ability group were engaged in constructive activity for 22%, a middle ability group for 46% and a high ability group for 66% of the observations. Assuming a notional 5‐hour ‘working’ day in the centre, people in the low ability group were engaged for, on average, 66 minutes; people in the middle group for 2 hours 18 minutes; and people in the high ability group for 3 hours 18 minutes. The most common disengagement code for the highest ability group (53% of disengaged observations) was ‘inactivity’ ‐ people were either spectating or doing nothing although they had materials available. For the middle and low ability groups the most common codes were ‘waiting’ (e.g. for staff, client, materials to work with) and ‘not allowed or enabled to participate in activity by member(s) of staff (e.g. not included in a team game, not given necessary materials with which to participate, not given anything to do). Together these accounted for over half of the ‘disengaged‘ time of the middle and low ability groups: i.e. the low ability group spent, on average, 2 hours and 18 minutes waiting or not enabled to participate out of a notional 5 hour ‘working’ day. The implications of these results are discussed.
NEW LONG‐STAY PATIENTS AT A MENTAL HANDICAP HOSPITAL
Authors: Khan Asaf M. , Cumella Stuart , Krishnan Vallepur , Iqbal Mohamed , Corbett John , Clarke David
Published: August 2010

Legislative changes and the development of community mental handicap services make it essential to identify the future requirement for mental handicap hospitals. One means of doing this is to look at patients who become long‐stay hospital residents despite the existence of community‐based services. This paper reports a study of 31 new long‐stay patients in an English mental handicap hospital. Most were young, male, mobile and physically‐active. Half had either social impairments and/or communication disabilities, three‐fifths had psychiatric disorders, and four‐fifths were severe or potential management problems because of disturbed behaviour. The characteristics of this group reflect the absence of alternative provision for patients with mental illness and/or disturbed behaviour, and these will need to be developed before mental handicap hospitals are closed.
THE READABILITY AND HUMAN INTEREST OF INFORMATION LEAFLETS FROM MAJOR BRITISH CHARITIES: AN UNINTELLIGIBLE, BORING REPLICATION?
Authors: Sturmey Peter
Published: August 2010

A sample of 32 leaflets designed for parents, carestaff and the general public by four major charities for people with mental handicaps were analysed for their readability and human interest. Approximately one‐third had some human interest and had reading ages under 18 years, however, a further third of leaflets had none or minimal human interest and reading ages over 18 years.
GENERIC FAMILY SUPPORT SERVICES: ARE PARENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITY CATERED FOR?
Authors: Llewellyn Gwynnyth
Published: August 2010

Overall, the results of training programmes for parents with learning disability (LD) are positively reported. These training programmes are generally provided through specialist services. However, ordinary life principles dictate that people with LD be catered for in generic services. In this study community based generic family support services were surveyed in one Australian state, New South Wales, to determine whether assistance was provided to parents with LD. The results show that only a small proportion of these services (20%) catered for these parents. Type, content and frequency of parent education and training was predominantly determined on an individual needs basis. The parent education and training provided is discussed in relation to programme components thought necessary to ensure successful training outcomes. Possible reasons why the majority of services do not include parents with LD are also presented.
THE ERRORS OF FADING AND THE SHAPE OF THINGS TO COME: A RESPONSE TO JONES AND EAYRS
Authors: Ager Alastair
Published: August 2010

Jones & Eayrs (1992) provide a valuable critique of the use of errorless learning procedures with individuals with learning disabilities. The current paper concurs with the generally negative conclusions of this review regarding procedures involving the use, and intended subsequent fading, of task‐irrelevant prompting stimuli. The value of this fading approach is contrasted, however, with the impact of shaping procedures which involve the enhancement or adjustment of task‐relevant cues. Shaping procedures appear to avoid many of the problems highlighted by Jones & Eayrs. Further, they offer the prospect of a powerful intervention technology consistent with behaviour‐analytic approaches and yet in sympathy with more intuitive understandings of what constitute effective learning environments.
ERRORLESS LEARNING REVISITED: TOWARDS AN EFFECTIVE TEACHING STRATEGY
Authors: Jones Robert S. P. , Eayrs Caroline B.
Published: August 2010

There are many valid points made in the Ager paper and both authors concur with the central argument of using shaping procedures which involve the enhancement of naturally occurring cues. In addition, we suggest two other further points of focus involving the motivational aspects of the teaching environment and the development of self‐regulatory skills.
CHALLENGING BEHAVIOUR IN SCHOOLS FOR PUPILS WITH SEVERE LEARNING DIFFICULTIES
Authors: Kiernan Chris , Kiernan Diana
Published: August 2010

A postal survey concerning the prevalence of challenging behaviour in day schools for pupils with severe learning difficulties, covering one in six schools in England and Wales, is reported. Definitions of particular challenging behaviours were operationalised and an overall rating of management difficulty was shown to be reasonably consistently applied across schools. There were unexplained differences in the reported prevalence of challenging behaviour across schools but the ‘average’ school of 60 pupils would be expected to identify around five more difficult pupils and a further nine pupils who showed less difficult challenging behaviour. Differences between Independently mobile (IM), and non‐independently mobile (NIM), pupils in abilities and the pattern of challenging behaviour emerged. Data are discussed in the context of possible training needs of schools.
AN AUDIT OF PHYSICAL HEALTH NEEDS OF ADULTS WITH PROFOUND LEARNING DISABILITY IN A HOSPITAL POPULATION
Authors: Ganesh S. , Potter J. , Fraser W.
Published: August 2010

This paper highlights the potential physical health problems of people with profound learning disability in a hospital population. Assessments were made under seven probable health care needs of this population. Uncomplicated Body Mass Index (BMI) <20 (underweight) was a common finding, but low Body Mass Index alone was of little significance in this population. The majority of participants had well controlled epilepsy, were vulnerable to pressure sores, and prone to constipation. The number of consultations with a doctor were similar to the general population, but all had regular annual physical examinations. A small but significant number of people required a high level of health care which can only be provided with a high level of nursing care and regular medical support. The implications of the recent shift of focus of the National Health Service and its effect on this population is discussed.
THE SEXUAL ABUSE OF ADULTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES: REPORT OF A SECOND TWO‐YEAR INCIDENCE SURVEY
Authors: Brown Hilary , Stein June , Turk Vicky
Published: August 2010

This paper reports the results of the second part of the largest UK incidence survey to date of the sexual abuse of adults with learning disabilities. A mandate was sought from the relevant statutory agencies and a standard questionnaire filled in by service managers or practitioners for each case/incident reported which fitted the definitions and parameters of the survey. The results confirm the pattern of abuse which emerged from the earlier study, i.e. that both women and men are at risk, that perpetrators are predominantly men and usually known rather than strangers. One important difference was a significant increase in the proportion of cases, of abuse of men with learning disabilities reported. Despite the increase in awareness and sources of information about adult abuse, service agencies have not developed coordinated systems for reporting or recording instances of sexual abuse. Data collection continues to be patchy and ad hoc. The level of reporting has not changed but there is some evidence that people who had been victimised received more appropriate help. Devolution of services within a new mixed market of care requires that additional safeguards are put in place to protect vulnerable adults.
THE ALL‐OR‐NONE PRINCIPLE
Authors: RITCHIE A. D.
Published: August 2010

1. The all‐or‐none character of the heart beat is briefly considered, and, in contrast, some processes which are graded. A theoretical discussion follows emphasising the relation between an all‐or‐none process and a refractory phase following excitation. Some chemical analogies are mentioned.

2. The difficulties surrounding the question of conduction with a decrement are discussed and the necessity for observations on single physiological units.

3. The all‐or‐none character of the nervous impulse, which the older macroscopic observations strongly supported, is now placed beyond doubt by the investigation of action potentials in single nerve fibres.

4. The case of skeletal muscle is not so easily settled, but the conclusion appears to be that its contractile process is all‐or‐none. Apparent exceptions and anomalies are discussed.

5. Among vertebrate smooth muscles and various invertebrate muscles there is evidence of all‐or‐none behaviour in certain types at least. But it would be premature to conclude that they are all similar.
CONVERGENT EVOLUTION IN INVERTEBRATES
Authors: MOORE JANET , WILLMER PAT
Published: August 2010

Resemblance between animal taxa may be due to convergence rather than to recent common ancestry. Constraints on biological materials and adaptation to particular habits or habitats will produce widespread convergence. How may we distinguish the two causes of resemblance? The relationship between convergence and taxonomy is discussed, demonstrating that the choice of taxonomic method will itself determine the extent to which convergence is perceived. In particular, cladistic analysis based on parsimony will tend to minimise and thus conceal convergence: neither the resulting cladogram nor a consistency index derived from it can be used to assess the prevalence of convergence. With any taxonomic system, there can be no substitute for evaluation of the morphological characters used. Complementary use of molecular characters shows promise: we wait further understanding of constraints in genetic evolution and of the possibilities of convergence at this level also.

These general principles are illustrated with a range of examples from within and between invertebrate phyla: the phylogeny of Cnidaria and Platyhelminthes cannot be traced with certainty, but where the fossil record allows clear rooting, as for the echinoderms and in particular the echinoids, combination of morphological and molecular methods has made much progress. Sub‐groups within a phylum, for example opisthobranch molluscs and the dipteran Phoridae, may show an uncontested phylogeny, and here studies have precisely identified convergence and shown that it may be the commoner cause of resemblance. Adaptation to exacting environments shown by terrestial and freshwater nemertines may also result in a predominance of convergent resemblance.

Traditional grouping of phyla breaks down on re‐examination of supposedly key characters, such as segmentation, body cavities, germ layers and symmetry, each of which must have had multiple origins: nor are developmental stages (especially not larvae) a reliable guide to relationships. Demarcation of phyla may be difficult, as with arthropods, and location of phyla is even more difficult, due to their early and rapid radiation. Over‐simplified definition of characters has bedevilled invertebrate classification and the use of molecular data has not yet resolved the major controversies.

The question ‘How common is convergence?’ remains unanswered and may be unanswerable. Our examples indicate that even the minimum detectable levels of convergence are often high, and we conclude that at all levels convergence has been greatly underestimated.
200 YEARS OF AMPHIBIAN WATER ECONOMY: FROM ROBERT TOWNSON TO THE PRESENT
Authors: JØRGENSEN C. BARKER
Published: August 2010

In the 1790s, Robert Townson established the main features of the water economy of terrestrial amphibians: rapid evaporative water loss in dry surroundings,‘drinking’ by absorption of water through the abdominal skin pressed against moist substrates, and use of the urinary bladder as a reservoir from which water is reabsorbed on land. This knowledge was of little interest to the establishment in the first half of the nineteenth century of experimental physiology as a basic medical discipline, when frogs became models in the elucidation of general physiological processes. Townson's pioneer contributions to amphibian physiology were forgotten for 200 years (Jørgensen 1994 b). Durig (1901) and particularly Overton (1904) restored knowledge about amphibian water economy to the level reached by Townson, but the papers had little impact on the young science of animal physiology because they primarily aimed at elucidating the transport of fluids across membranes. Frog skin remained a model preparation in such studies throughout the century. With the establishment of terrestrial ecology early in the century, the relations of animals, including amphibians, to water became a central theme. Concurrently with comparative studies of amphibian water economy in an ecological setting, the subject proceeded as an aspect of animal osmoregulation. Adolph (1920‐1930) and Rey (1937 a) established the highly dynamic nature of water balance in amphibians in water and on land. Their observations indicated functional links between environment, skin and kidneys, the nature of which remained to be explored. Thorson & Svihla (1943) reopened the ecological approach in a comparative study of the relations between amphibian habitat and tolerance of dehydration. By mid‐century, the central themes of amphibian adaptations to terrestrial modes of life were re‐established, except for the function of the bladder as a water‐depot. During the following decades, a rich literature appeared, particularly focusing on adaptations of amphibians to arid environments. Thus, in the 1970s, it was found that ‘waterproofing’ of the highly permeable skins by means of skin secretions had evolved independently in several families of tropical arboreal frogs, and that a number of amphibians that aestivate whilst burrowed in dry soil could reduce evaporation by forming cocoons from shed strata cornea. In 1950–1970 the role of bladder urine as a water depot in terrestrial amphibians was recognized: this did not change the established view of water balance in terrestrial amphibians as alternating between dehydration on land and rehydration in response to the deficit in body water. Amphibians may, however, maintain normal water balance whether the ambient medium is water or air by means of little understood integrated mechanisms in control of cutaneous drinking behaviour, water permeability of the skin and bladder wall, and urine production.
CHARACTERS, CONGRUENCE AND QUALITY: A STUDY OF NEUROANATOMICAL AND TRADITIONAL DATA IN CAECILIAN PHYLOGENY
Authors: WILKINSON MARK
Published: August 2010

Previous phylogenetic analyses of caecilian neuroanatomical data yield results that are difficult to reconcile with those based upon more traditional morphological and molecular data. A review of the literature reveals problems in both the analyses and the data upon which the analyses were based. Revision of the neuroanatomical data resolves some, but not all, of these problems and yields a data set that, based on comparative measures of data quality, appears to represent some improvement over previous treatments. An extended data set of more traditional primarily morphological data is developed to facilitate the evaluation of caecilian relationships and the quality and utility of neuroanatomical and more traditional data. Separate and combined analyses of the neuroanatomical and traditional data produce a variety of results dependent upon character weighting, with little congruence among the results of the separate analyses and little support for relationships among the ‘higher’ caecilians with the combined data. Randomization tests indicate that: (i) there is significantly less incompatibility within each data set than that expected by chance alone; (2) the between‐data‐set incompatibility is significantly greater than that expected for random partitions of characters so the two data sets are significantly heterogeneous; (3) the neuroanatomical data appear generally of lower quality than the traditional data; (4) the neuroanatomical data are more compatible with the traditional data than are phylogenetically uninformative data. The lower quality of the neuroanatomical data may reflect small sample sizes. In addition, a subset of the neuroanatomical characters supports an unconventional grouping of all those caecilians with the most rudimentary eyes, which may reflect concerted homoplasy. Although the neuroanatomical data may be of lower quality than the traditional data, their compatibility with the traditional data suggests that they cannot be dismissed as phylogenetically meaningless. Conclusions on caecilian relationships are constrained by the conflict between the neuroanatomical and traditional data, the sensitivity of the combined analyses to weighting schemes, and by the limited support for the majority of groups in the majority of the analyses. Those hypotheses that are well supported are uncontroversial, although some have not been tested previously by numerical phylogenetic analyses. However, the data do not justify an hypothesis of ‘higher’ caecilian phylogeny that is both well resolved and well supported.