bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Into the Wild Blue Yonder
Authors: Piantadosi Claude A
Published: November 2023

The Earth’s gaseous atmosphere is an essential part of the biosphere of the planet. It provides the O2 required by most forms of life, a stable thermal environment, and protection from the harmful effects of cosmic radiation. Only the very closest atmospheric region to the surface of the Earth, which extends from sea level to an altitude of about 16 kilometers (10 miles), can support aerobic life. This is a mere 3% of the complete atmosphere of the planet. The thinness of the air above this life-sustaining envelope, however, has not prevented humans from testing their limits against it.

By convention the atmosphere is divided into a series of layers, or concentric shells, characterized primarily by their thermal properties. This structural arrangement, known as the International Standard Atmosphere, divides the atmosphere into five regions: the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the ionosphere (thermosphere), and the exosphere (Fig. 16.1). These regions are separated by theoretical boundaries known as pauses.
G Whiz
Authors: Piantadosi Claude A
Published: November 2023

The human body, like that of all terrestrial animals, evolved under the influence of Earth’s gravity. In an evolutionary sense, physiological adaptation to gravity in vertebrate animals has been best exploited by birds. For humans and other ground-dwelling vertebrates, relatively modest deviations above or below normal gravitational field strength disturb physiological homeostasis. Life scientists do not yet agree on the principles that govern physiological effects in greater or lesser gravitational fields than that on Earth. What they do agree on is the importance of the hypothesis that a continuous relationship exists between the effects of extremes of gravity on the body.

The concept that hypergravity and microgravity are two extremes of a spectrum is known as the continuity principle. The issue of whether this principle reflects the true nature of the adaptive responses to high and low gravitational force is being thoroughly scrutinized because it may be critical to the success of long-duration space flights. The operating assumption is that the adverse effects of microgravity can be counteracted by acceleration, or hypergravity.
Varieties of Synesthetic Experience
Authors: Tyler Christopher W
Published: November 2023

Synesthesia is often associated with a limited subset of sensory associations, particularly colors with music, colors with numbers, and sounds with shapes. But as a concept it embraces any cross-sensory association and even cross-modality association within senses, such as color with shape, for example. Indeed, the commonly reported association between color and number is itself an association between a sensory attribute and the conceptual attribute of number, which is not associated.
Binding of Graphemes and Synesthetic Colors in Color-Graphemic Synesthesia
Authors: Smilek Daniel , Dixon Mike J , Merikle Philip M
Published: November 2023

Most people experience their visual environment as consisting of meaningful whole objects. How does the visual system combine, or in other words bind, various visual and semantic properties together to create the experience of perceiving meaningful whole objects? We address this question by describing the unusual conscious experiences that accompany color-graphemic synesthesia. Individuals with color-graphemic synesthesia report experiencing vivid colors whenever they view achromatic graphemes. For some of these individuals, the synesthetic colors are experienced as color overlays that appear to be atop, or in other words, bound to, the visually presented graphemes. We were interested in studying colorgraphemic synesthesia in the hope that the unusual binding that occurs in synesthesia might inform us about the processes involved in the general experience of perceiving objects as meaningful wholes.
The Emergence of the Human Mind: Some Clues from Synesthesia
Authors: Ramachandran V S , Hubbard Edward M
Published: November 2023

For a phenomenon to gain wide acceptance, three different criteria must be First, the phenomenon must be real, in the sense of being reliably repeatable. Second, there should be at least some potential candidate explanations, and third, the phenomenon must have broad implications beyond the narrow of one specialty. Without all three in place, a phenomenon will be regarded as an anomaly (see Kuhn, 1962) and will not succeed in attracting the attention of the community. For example, telepathy criterion three; it has vast implications if true. The problem is that it doesn’t satisfy criterion one and certainly not two.
Conclusion: Swinging Pendulums
Authors: Farley John
Published: November 2023

The International Health Division did not simply disappear in 1951. It left a legacy of ideas and methods that were carried over into the WHO, particularly into its Global Malaria Eradication Program. Both the closure of the Health Division and the beginning of the malaria eradication program coincided with a mood of optimism toward the world’s health problems. Publication of Paul Russell’s Mastery of Malaria in 1955, with the message that the world was about to be relieved of this disease, only reinforced that feeling. At the same time, the First World had come to believe in an “ideology of development,”-foreign aid could narrow the gap between what were optimistically labeled “developing” and “developed” countries. Attacks on disease plus development aid were assumed to be the means by which poorer countries could progress, become modernized and thus westernized. But by the end of the “United Nations Development Decade” of the 1960s, victory in both the disease and economic spheres seemed as far away as ever and optimism waned.
The Embouchure
Authors: Campos Frank Gabriel
Published: November 2023

There are three components to the physical mechanism that produces a tone on a brass instrument: the embouchure, the oral cavity, and the airstream. Efficient performance lies in the balance and coordination of these three factors. When one or more of these elements is not doing its job correctly or sufficiently, the others will be called upon to pick up the load, resulting in poor form and bad performance habits. This imbalance is the primary reason for tone production problems.
“A Narrow Squeak”
Authors: Ferling John
Published: November 2023

Adams was just as careful not to reveal an interest in the presidency, and for a time he struck a posture of indecision even while writing to Abigail. His family had claims on him, but so did the nation, he anguished. He found the prospect of becoming “the Butt of Party Malevolence” to be “bitter nauseous and unwholesome.” Yet he must consider his character. His reputation would be destroyed if it was thought he had turned his back on the presidency at this critical juncture.
“We Beat You by Superior Management”
Authors: Ferling John
Published: November 2023

Many of the actions taken by President Adams in the first months of 1800 bear the stamp of a man seeking to rehabilitate himself on the eve of an uphill election battle. Attuned to the apparent changes in popular sentiment, Adams asked Congress to reduce expenditures while he suspended further enlistments in the Provisional Army and stopped signing commissions for prospective officers. In the spring, in the wake of his actions, moderates of all shades combined to pass congressional legislation that discharged those in the service. The Provisional Army was history. Meanwhile, Adams took steps to shore up his base in the South. He tried, but failed, to dilute the authority of the Treasury Department, and made clear his displeasure with the Bank of the United States, at least as it had been constituted in 1791.
“The Intention of Our Fellow Citizens”
Authors: Ferling John
Published: November 2023

On Election Day—December 3—the presidential electors, according to the Constitution, were to “meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves.” While the electors traveled to their respective capitals at the beginning of December, politicians everywhere devoured rumors and crunched numbers. No one was better at this than Jefferson. Each day a combination of news and scuttlebutt reached the common table at Conrad and McMunn’s, where Jefferson lived in Washington, and he gleaned further information in the Senate cloakroom on Capitol Hill. Jefferson was savvy enough to separate the legitimate reports from the bogus, and by early December he knew that he had been disappointed in Rhode Island, which would give him nothing in the electoral college. However, by then he also knew that Pennsylvania would participate. A last-minute compromise had been reached between the state’s House and Senate that gave the Republicans eight electors and the Federalists seven. It was less than he had hoped for and less than he had won there in 1796, but more than he would have gotten had the deadlock persisted. As Election Day dawned, Jefferson was back where he had been a couple of months earlier: the outcome was too close to call, and South Carolina remained the key.
“Give Them the Horrors”
Authors: Ferling John
Published: November 2023

The election of 1800 had ended in a tie between the Republican nominees, a further sign that the Constitutional procedure for electing presidents was archaic. The problem arose because the framers, having failed to foresee the emergence of political parties, vested each presidential elector with two votes. Shortsighted in that respect, the Framers nonetheless had expected that it would be commonplace for no one to win in the electoral college. Thinking that two candidates would sometimes tie with more than a majority of the electoral votes, or more likely that no candidate would secure a majority, the Framers had anticipated that the electoral college would in fact often serve as a nominating panel that selected candidates from among whom the House of Representatives would choose the president.
Temperature-Induced Developmental Plasticity in Ectotherms
Authors: Johnston Lan A , Wilson Robbie S
Published: November 2023

Temperature-induced developmental plasticity is known to influence thermal tolerance, the rate and timing of development, and body size at maturity, and to produce persistent effects on the adult phenotype. Molecular signaling controls all aspects of cell function including mitosis, protein synthesis, differentiation, and the commitment of stem cells to particular lineages. Signals include proteins (transcription factors, growth factors, and hormones), metabolites (second messengers), and microRNAs (21- to 24-nucleotide noncoding RNAs) involved in RNA:RNA, RNA:DNA, and RNA:protein interactions (Lau et al. 2001). The spatial and temporal milieu of signaling molecules is known to change during ontogeny with each successive developmental event. It is the subtle variations in the chemical milieu of signaling molecules that give rise to developmental plasticity. For example, light and sound are transduced via complex signaling pathways to produce the changes in brain chemistry, which direct the development of the mammalian visual and auditory systems (Nedivi et al. 1996). In this example, plasticity is actually a requirement for normal development.
The Belmont Report
Authors: Beauchamp Tom L
Published: November 2023

The Belmont Report is a short document on moral principles that was published in 1978 by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (National Commission). Since that time it has provided a basic framework for analyzing ethical issues that arise during medical research in the United States and in many other countries.
Regulations for the Protection of Humans in Research in the United States The Common Rule
Authors: Porter Joan P , Koski Greg
Published: November 2023

Ethics and regulation of research with humans have coexisted in a somewhat uneasy relationship in the United States for the past 60 years. Wartime atrocities committed by Nazi doctors and scientists under the guise of “medical experimentation” set the stage for increasing awareness in the United States of ethical issues raised by experimentation on humans, even though few U.S. scientists at the time viewed their own work as “unethical” During the 1950s and 1960s, concerns about ethics and human research continued to spread within the U.S. scientific community and among the public as reports of abuses of human subjects in research, including children, became increasingly frequent. The monumental work by Jay Katz provides a scholarly account and analysis of several troubling cases of human experimentation in the United States prior to revelation of the so-called Tuskegee Syphilis Study conducted by the U.S. Public Health Service from 1932 to 1972 (see Chapter 8). Similarly, the 1996 final report of the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments provides a detailed and sometimes chilling account of studies conducted by U.S. physicians and scientists with the support of the U.S. government during the years of the Cold War.
Four Paradigms of Clinical Research and Research Oversight
Authors: Emanuel Ezekiel J , Grady Christine
Published: November 2023

The understanding of appropriate ethical protections for participants of biomedical research has not been static. It has developed over time, with the evolution of biomedical research as well as social values. Since World War II, four major paradigms of research and research oversight have been operative in the United States. These paradigms incorporate different values and provide different approaches to research oversight and the protection of research participants.
Behavioral and Social Science Research
Authors: Levine Felice J , Skedsvold Paula R
Published: November 2023

Ethical issues in the conduct of behavioral and social science research with human participants involve considerations that are as diverse as the range of disciplines and fields that constitute these sciences. The methods, study populations, and issues being examined in studying behavioral and social processes all come into play in designing and implementing ethically sound research. This chapter provides an overview of the history of ethical considerations in the conduct of behavioral and social science research; addresses underlying ethical considerations that animate these fields of inquiry; unpacks the complexity of making ethical determinations, especially in the context of challenging circumstances, study populations, or methods; and raises issues—some unresolved—that merit consideration in planning for and reviewing research.
Research Involving Economically Disadvantaged Participants
Authors: Levine Carol
Published: November 2023

A hypothetical institutional review board (IRB) meets to discuss three hypothetical protocols. In the first, investigators propose to study the effectiveness of a new antianxiety drug that has been shown to be safe in Phase I trials. Participants will be eligible if they demonstrate high levels of stress on a validated screening instrument, are not currently taking another antianxiety drug, and have no significant medical problems. The procedures include several blood draws, physical exams, and hour-long interviews over the course of six months. The participants will be paid $500 on completion of the study. The IRB approves the study with only a few minor changes to the consent form.
Research With Fetuses, Embryos, and Stem Cells
Authors: Green Ronald M
Published: November 2023

Biomedical research involving the human embryo or fetus raises a host of ethical questions. Because the embryo or fetus cannot consent to be a research subject, who is morally entitled to authorize research involving it? The fetus has a unique relationship to the mother, and their interests can sometimes conflict. How should these different claims be balanced? Intensifying all these questions are sharp disagreements over the moral status of the embryo and the fetus, raising the question of whether either really has any claims on us. All these questions make embryo and fetal research one of the most controversial topics in biomedicine today.
The Origins and Policies That Govern Institutional Review Boards
Authors: McCarthy Charles R
Published: November 2023

Major turning points in history are often recognized only in hindsight. One example of a significant historical change that went almost unnoticed at the time is the statement made by James A. Shannon, director of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), before the National Advisory Health Council (NAHC) on September 28, 1965.
Data and Safety Monitoring Boards
Authors: Friedman Lawrence M , Schron Eleanor B
Published: November 2023

All research studies involving people need ongoing oversight. For many, probably most, clinical research studies, this oversight is provided by the investigators, under the aegis of the local institution in which the research is being conducted, and with the oversight of the institutional review board (IRB) or its equivalent. Certain kinds of clinical research studies, though, might require different kinds of oversight. This oversight is not necessarily more intensive, but the features specific to the study might call for modifications in the oversight.
Conflict of Interest in Medical Research Historical Developments
Authors: Lemmens Trudo
Published: November 2023

The topic of conflict of interest in medical research has become one of the standard issues in any textbook on research ethics and, particularly in the past decade, has also become a core component of the medical and bioethics literature. More than half of the articles on this subject published in the medical literature since 1966 were published since 1999. The significant increase in the number of such publications is undoubtedly related to the growing role of financial interests in the biomedical research enterprise. Particularly, since the 1980s, following the passage of the Bayh-Dole Act in the United States, which explicitly allowed the commercialization of federally funded research and promoted the patenting of biomedical inventions,1 the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries have taken on a more important role in biomedical research. Their influence has expanded through increased industry sponsorship of academic research and as a result of the growth in industry-organized research. The increase in the volume of conflict of interest commentaries, analyses, and policies is the most striking development, but there has also been noticeable shift in focus. Although the conflict of interest debate has historically focused on the conflicts faced by individual investigators, increasing attention is being paid to larger institutional and professional pressures that result from the commercialization of research and of academia. But the issue of conflict of interest is not new and is not exclusively associated with the context of commercialized research.
Emotions: The Legacy of James and Freud
Authors: Deigh John
Published: November 2023

The theoretical study of emotions in both philosophy and psychology has undergone revolutionary changes over the last one hundred years. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, emotions were commonly conceived of as discrete, episodic, and purely affective states of consciousness, states whose connection to cognition, physiological activity, and conduct was that of either cause to effect or the converse. By now they are generally under-stood as complex states of mind whose existence is not separable from that of other mental states, restricted to episodes, purely affective, or connected to cognition, physiological activity, and conduct strictly as a cause or an effect.
Cognitivism in the Theory of Emotions
Authors: Deigh John
Published: November 2023

Cognitivism now dominates the philosophical study of emotions. Its ascen-dancy in this area parallels the ascendancy of cognitivism in the philoso-phy of mind generally. Yet the two trends have independent sources. In the philosophy of mind, cognitivism arose from unhappiness with the various behaviorist programs that prevailed at midcentury in psychology and philoso-phy. In the philosophical study of emotions, it arose from unhappiness with affective conceptions of the phenomenon that had been a staple of British empiricism for more than two centuries.
Localized Scleroderma Limited, Localized, Diffuse, Generalized, Systemic, and Not-So-Systemic: What’s In a Name?
Authors: Mayes Maureen D
Published: November 2023

scleroderma is divided into several different types, and the terminology can be confusing even to medical professionals. It is easy to confuse localized and limited scleroderma— and sometimes even doctors get confused by these terms, since they certainly sound similar. But they refer to very different forms of the disease. I would much prefer that the entire terminology be changed for greater clarification, but I don’t make the rules. This chapter will deal with localized scleroderma, and chapters 3 and 4 will discuss the systemic form. The word localized is used to indicate that this form of scleroderma is confined to a specific area of skin and does not affect internal organ systems. Localized scleroderma is more common in children than in adults but can occur in both. In my practice (which is mostly adults) the youngest child I have seen with morphea (a type of localized scleroderma) was three years old, although it can start in the first few months of life. My oldest morphea patient was 86 when it started and is now over 90.
Scleroderma And The Kidneys
Authors: Mayes Maureen D
Published: November 2023

Kidney involvement occurs in about 20 percent of scleroderma patients. While the good news is that 80 percent of patients will never get this complication, the bad news is that it is difficult to predict which 20 percent will be affected. Kidney problems occur most frequently in the first five years after the diagnosis and tend to happen in those individuals with diffuse skin involvement, that is, with skin thickness that extends to the upper arms or the trunk. Although this is generally true, scleroderma kidney disease can affect others as well. As I said before, throughout this book it will become clear that there are many exceptions to the rule when it comes to scleroderma patients. Kidneys are damaged in scleroderma due to a sudden and severe increase in blood pressure, referred to as malignant phase hypertension, which is also called scleroderma.
Overlap Syndromes And Sclerodermalike Conditions
Authors: Mayes Maureen D
Published: November 2023

In most cases, the autoimmune connective tissue diseases— rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, scleroderma, polymyositis, and dermatomyositis—occur as separate entities. Occasionally, more than one of these diseases will coexist in the same patient, and these people are said to have overlap syndromes, with features of two or more diseases. Sjogren’s syndrome (dry eyes and dry mouth) is the exception in that it usually coexists with the above diseases, although there are cases when it occurs alone. Sometimes one connective tissue disease will exist by itself for several years before the features of another condition develop. This tends to cause confusion in people who, having been told that they have one disease, are then told that they have another. Since many symptoms are similar among these diseases, making the diagnosis of one versus another can be difficult, particularly in the early stages.
Introduction
Authors: Gordon Bonnie , Feldman Martha
Published: November 2023

This volume is an attempt to understand the courtesan and her arts by creating a dialogue about different courtesan cultures. Though hardly a universal phenomenon, courtesanship has recurred in specific times and places, from precolonial India and ancient Greece to imperial China, Renaissance Italy, and Edo Japan. Invariably courtesans have been accompanied by a repertory of rhetorical, gestural, sonic, and visual idioms that complement their sensual power. The essays that follow explore the conditions that have allowed courtesan cultures to evolve and thrive, or caused them to perish. Intimately tied to these conditions are the courtesan’s arts. In each case, the factors that motivate, sustain, and destroy courtesan cultures prove to be intimately bound up with the status of courtesans as bearers of artistic traditions and the ways the arts are pressed into service as shapers of culture. Whether drawn in Lucian’s mock salacious tones or instructed by the inventories of the Kamasutra, courtesans have been obscure objects of desire who have fascinated their observers, past and present. Indeed, throughout the world they have tended to go by a common cache of epithets: ambiguous and furtive, veiled but showy, performative, and meretricious. They are gracious and deferential, yet mobile in status and sometimes even in class.
Royalty’s Courtesans and God’s Mortal Wives: Keepers of Culture in Precolonial India
Authors: Srinivasan Doris M
Published: November 2023

The Indian courtesan pervades precolonial art, literature, mythology, texts on rituals, polity, pleasure, and law books in the three major religions founded on Indian soil. Yet as much as she captivates, she also eludes. Why? Because her actions, her character, her mystique, are relayed to us by outsiders to her world, or to traditional India. Her own voice has remained faint until fairly modern times. This essay introduces different voices that describe the Indian courtesan over a vast stretch of history. What becomes clear is that two options for power were open to the precolonial Indian woman: that of the sexually liberated and educated courtesan or the pure, sexually controlled, uneducated wife.
The Magic Flute
Authors: Blakeman Edward
Published: November 2023

The success of the first season of the Société des instruments à vent seems to have provoked in Taffanel’s mind thoughts about the direction his career should be taking. Should he continue as an orchestral player when he had long ago achieved all that he could? What about his activities as a soloist, his new Society, composition, even conducting? He had a realistic and pragmatic view of the world, however, as he showed in a letter to one of his relations in Bordeaux, Joseph Celly: You must understand, Joseph, we live in a fundamentally confident, materialistic age. If the arts find a place in it, it is a more and more limited one, and it is becoming increasingly diﬃcult to make a career.
Toward a New Career
Authors: Blakeman Edward
Published: November 2023

The award of the Légion d’honneur at the end of 1889 put an official seal of approval on Taffanel’s career as a flute player, but also heralded its end. Taffanel himself must have felt he had arrived at a watershed. He was at the peak of his abilities as a flutist; he had established a whole new profile for the instrument; he had led a great revival in chamber music for wind instruments; and he was only forty-five. As already noted (see chapter 6), Taffanel’s role in organizing and directing the Société des instruments à vent had also pointed him in another direction: Therefore, when, on 25 January [1890], at the Opéra, he mounted the podium as third conductor to direct Faust, it was, it is true, the first time that he had found himself in charge of an orchestra; but he had been gradually familiarizing himself with the skills required and, helped by his innate ability, he was ready to be an excellent conductor.
Wielding the Baton
Authors: Blakeman Edward
Published: November 2023

While Taffanel’s career as a flute player received ever increasing acclaim, his career as a conductor proved more controversial. It rapidly became apparent that since he had emerged into a wider public arena he was subject to much closer scrutiny than before, by people with all sorts of vested interests and partisan aﬃliations. The veteran violinist Charles Dancla, for example, took the opportunity in his memoirs of 1893 to fire a broadside against any conductor who had not previously been a violinist. “As the strings are the heart of the orchestra,” he argued, this was only logical.
Teaching the Flute
Authors: Blakeman Edward
Published: November 2023

While Taffanel was discussing the details of his biography with Hugues Imbert on 3 June 1893, his career was about to take yet another new turn. That same day Henri Altès tendered his formal resignation as professor of flute at the Conservatoire. He was sixty-seven and in rapidly failing health. “I have no strength even to come to the Conservatoire to carry out the examination of my students,” he wrote in a personal letter soon after to the director, Ambroise Thomas, and he enclosed a written report and suggested that the concours piece for that summer should be Tulou’s Fourth Solo.1 No doubt as a compliment to Altès, the set piece was changed to his own Eighth Solo. Altès died just over two years later on 24 July 1895 in a Paris nursing home, leaving as next of kin only his younger brother, the conductor Ernest Altès. October came, and with a new academic year approaching, a replacement flute professor had to be found at the Conservatoire. A sheet of paper preserved in the archives lists the candidates: “Cantié, Hennebains, de Vroye, Donjon, Bertram,” with their dates of birth and the year when each one had gained a premier prix.
Predaceous Herbivores and Herbivorous Predators The Biology of Omnivores and the Ecology of Omnivore-Prey Interactions
Authors: Eubanks Micky D
Published: November 2023

Until recently, omnivory (i.e., feeding at multiple trophic levels) was thought to be rare in nature. It is now realized that omnivory is a widespread feeding habit and that there are thousands of invertebrate and vertebrate omnivores. We are, however, just beginning to understand the ecological consequences of feeding at multiple trophic levels for omnivore-prey interactions. This chapter focuses on the large number of animal species that consume both prey and plant food. The goal of the chapter is to highlight the life history traits of omnivores that affect their interactions with prey and to examine what we know about the effect of these traits on the ecology of omnivore-prey interactions.
Iron, Steam, And National Union The Battle of Hampton Roads March 8-9, 1862
Authors: Symonds Craig L
Published: November 2023

If The Mastery Of The Frontier Was The Nation’S First Great challenge, the second, and arguably its most traumatic, was the need to resolve the question of its own character as a democratic republic. Westward expansion eventually forced the nation’s leaders to confront the question of whether slavery, too, should be allowed to expand. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 had banned slavery from the territory that was later secured by Perry’s victory in 1813, and consequently both Indiana (1816) and Illinois (1818) came into the Union as free states. But both Mississippi (1817) and Alabama (1819) entered as slave states. In 1819, the year Perry died of yellow fever, the territory of Missouri applied for admission. Since there were already several thousand black slaves working the rich bottomlands of the Missouri River, it naturally sought admission as a slave state. During the congressional debate, however, Representative James Talmadge of New York rose to offer an amendment that would make slavery illegal in Missouri as a condition of its admission. Southerners were first horrified, then outraged. Despite the small number of slaves in Missouri, the stakes were enormous because the passage of Talmadge’s amendment would establish the precedent that Congress could restrict the growth of slavery in the American West.
Naval Aviation And World War The Battle of Midway June 4, 1942
Authors: Symonds Craig L
Published: November 2023

If Dewey’S Victory In Manila Bay Signaled America’S debut as a world power, U.S. participation in the Great War of 1914-18 confirmed it. Shocked by the German policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, the United States entered the war in 1917 just as the original combatants were exhausting themselves. As a result, not only did the United States avoid the massive casualties endured by the other combatants in the bloody fighting on the Western Front from 1914 to 1917, it also tipped the balance of forces at just the right moment to help determine the outcome. American industrial capacity played a significant role by producing the cargo ships, transports, and escorts, in both record time and record numbers, to overcome the German U-boat menace. This might have marked the moment when the United States emerged as a preeminent even dominant-world power. But it proved to be a false dawn. Americans in 1918 were not yet ready to don the mantle (and the responsibility) of world power, a fact signaled by the Senate’s rejection of both the Versailles Treaty and membership in die League of Nations.
Linguistic Rhythm and the Acquisition of Language
Authors: Mehler Jacques , Nespor Marina
Published: November 2023

In organisms endowed with a disposition to acquire grammar, the beginnings of language learning can be detected at the onset of life (Chomsky 1965, 1980). Under the assumption that some universal properties of grammar are part of the human genetic endowment, we still have to explain how particular languages are acquired. One strong hypothesis that is currently under evaluation is that an essential aspect of language acquisition consists in the setting of parameters to the value that corresponds to the first language of exposure, hereafter L1. Basically, the genetic endowment can be thought of as switches that are to be set to the values that characterize the grammatical properties of L1. Whether there is an initial value of these parameters and how often they can be switched to take another value (for instance, to account for the presence of another language in the learning situation) is currently being explored. The grammars of natural languages are limited by the values that the parameters can take. There may, of course, be a noise generator, as described for the expression of other biological properties (Changeux & Dehaene 1989), in which case a novel situation may arise.
The Middle East
Authors: Gregg Gary S
Published: November 2023

For over a decade the Middle East has monopolized news headlines in the West. Journalists and commentators regularly speculate that the region’s turmoil may stem from the psychological momentum of its cultural traditions or of a “tribal” or “fatalistic” mentality. Yet few studies of the region’s cultural psychology have provided a critical synthesis of psychological research on Middle Eastern societies. Drawing on autobiographies, literary works, ethnographic accounts, and life-history interviews, The Middle East: A Cultural Psychology offers the first comprehensive summary of psychological writings on the region, covering works by psychologists, anthropologists, and sociologists written in English, Arabic, and French. Rejecting stereotypic descriptions of the “Arab mind” or “Muslim mentality,” Gary Gregg adopts a life-span development framework, examining influences on development in the context of recent work in cultural psychology, and compares Middle Eastern patterns less with Western middle class norms than with those described for the region’s neighbors: Hindu India, sub-Saharan Africa, and the Mediterranean shore of Europe. The psychological writings overwhelmingly suggest that the region’s strife stems much less from a stubborn adherence to tradition and resistance to modernity than from widespread frustration with broken promises of modernization - with the slow and halting pace of economic progress and democratization. A sophisticated account of the Middle East’s cultural psychology, this book provides students, researchers, policy-makers, and all those interested in the culture and psychology of the region with invaluable insight into the lives, families, and social relationships of Middle Easterners as they struggle to reconcile the lure of Westernized life-styles with traditional values.
Misunderstandings
Authors: Gregg Gary S
Published: November 2023

This Chapter briefly traces the history of Western images of the Arab-Muslim world, and reviews the most prominent “ministereotypes” created by Western writers, artists, and scholars. It then discusses the following five crucial misunderstandings of MENA societies, which lay blame for the region’s current economic and political problems on its traditional culture or mentality.
Honor and Islam Shaping Emotions, Traits, and Selves
Authors: Gregg Gary S
Published: November 2023

This Chapter describes the primary value systems of MENA societies. Ethnographies from nearly all MENA cultures suggest that the region is characterized by two predominant value systems and their associated interpersonal etiquettes and self-care practices: that of “honor-and-modesty” and that of Islam. Neither are distinctive to MENA, but their conjunction in that region gives it much of its cultural—and psychological—character. These values intertwine and merge at many points, but they also remain surprisingly autonomous and self-contained and often come into conflict, as Islam articulates higher principles that indict exploitative pursuits of honor and tyrannical rule. From toddlerhood on, these systems are learned in different settings and in different languages and they cultivate different kinds of sentiments and motives. The designating of sacred places (mosques and tombs), objects (the Quran), and activities (prayer, recitation) that can only be entered in conditions of purity, together with the organization of daily, weekly, and yearly time as oscillations of pollution and purity, work to elaborate honor and Islam as contrapuntal, if not contradictory, systems.
Mature Adulthood
Authors: Gregg Gary S
Published: November 2023

Western theories of adult development appear to have limited applicability to MENA societies. While little research has been conducted specifically on development, four key issues emerge from studies of adults. First, MENA psychologists have adapted Western measures of several important personality traits (specifically intraversion-extraversion, neuroticism, and the “Big Five” traits), and also found evidence that anxiety levels are higher in MENA than in Western and some other developing societies.
What Leads to Dryness?
Authors: Smith Janine , Morrison MD Serena
Published: November 2023

Sjogren’s Syndrome affects the exocrine glands, which produce saliva and tears. Two of the key features of Sjogren’s syndrome are dry eye (also called keratoconjunctivitis sicca or KCS) and dry mouth (also called xerostomia). What is the cause of this dryness? In this chapter, the normal function and disease-related dysfunction of the lacrimal and salivary glands affected in Sjogren’s syndrome will be discussed. Then theories about the cause of the dryness will be considered.
Sjogren’s Syndrome: A Genetic and Immunologic Perspective
Authors: Hashish Lama , Sawalha MD Amr , Harley John B , Fox Robert
Published: November 2023

Sjogren’s Syndrome is an autoimmune disorder that presents when one’s genetic predisposition combines with environmental or infectious factors. Further, there are neural and hormonal influences. This chapter reviews how these factors interact with the immune system to produce Sjogren’s syndrome.
The Dry Mouth: A Dental Perspective On Sjogren’s
Authors: Wu Ava J , Daniels Troy E
Published: November 2023

Sometimes A Dentist IS the first to diagnose Sjogren’s. Dry mouth is a common complaint that can have many causes. This symptom is often referred to as xerostomia. It is usually caused by a decrease in the amount and quality of saliva, but because it is a subjective perception, abnormalities in salivary function may not be observed in all patients with this complaint. Almost all Sjogren’s syndrome patients experience some degree of dry mouth.
Treatment of Dry Eye
Authors: Lemp Michael A
Published: November 2023

The Eyes Are Frequently affected in Sjogren’s syndrome, with dry eye one of the most common manifestations. Because vision connects us to the outside world, disruption of visual perceptions has a profound impact on our relationship to the world and our sense of well-being.
Complementary and Alternative Therapies for SJogren’s Syndrome
Authors: Venuturupalli Swamy
Published: November 2023

Sjogren’s Syndrome is a chronic autoimmune condition characterized by the sicca syndrome complex. Oftentimes Sjogren’s is associated with other autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). An estimated 35-50 percent of patients with Sjogren’s have an inflammatory arthritis similar to rheumatoid arthritis, and approximately 50 percent of patients have symptoms suggestive of fibromyalgia (a chronic pain syndrome with significant muscle soreness).
How Are Drugs Tested for Sjogren’s?
Authors: Pillemer Stanley R
Published: November 2023

Relatively Few Drugs Have been thoroughly tested for the treatment of Sjogren’s syndrome. Current treatment for Sjogren’s is aimed at the symptoms, inflammation and complications of the disease. While a number of preparations are available for treating the complications of Sjogren’s, such as those for yeast infections, which can exacerbate problems with mouth or vaginal dryness, and compounds for treatment of dry itchy skin, these medications and products were not expressively tested and approved for Sjogren’s. Thus far, the only drugs approved for Sjogren’s are for the dry mouth and dry eye symptoms of the disease. These drugs mark a major step forward in treating Sjogren’s patients. However, few drugs to treat Sjogren’s systemically have been tested, and no definitive evidence is available at this time showing that drugs that target the immune system are beneficial in Sjogren’s.
The Tree of Life and the Grand Synthesis of Biology
Authors: Hillis David M
Published: November 2023

In the 1980s, there was rapid growth of the field of phylogenetics. The developments were so extensive that at the 1988 Nobel symposium titled “The Hierarchy of Life” (Fernholm et al. 1989), one participant wondered aloud if young biologists could be attracted into the field given that “all the big questions have been answered.” I doubted that pronouncement; from my view, the field of phylogenetics was still in its nascent stages. I thought most of the big and interesting questions, as well as the major challenges, awaited us in the future. Morris Goodman agreed, and he described his vision for “a new age of exploration that promises to bring to fruition Darwin’s dream of reconstructing the true genealogical history of life” (Goodman 1989:43). In many ways, that symposium did represent a turning point for phylogenetics, and the symposium that represents the subject of this book shows just how far we have come since the 1980s. The advances in progress on the Tree of Life have been greater in the 1990s than in all previous years combined, and the prognosis for the future has never been brighter.
Trinidad
Authors: Jones Howard
Published: November 2023

Washington’s policymakers meanwhile shifted the emphasis from infiltration to invasion by developing Operation Trinidad, a plan that moved forward almost in concert with their concern that Castro would attack the American naval base at Guantanamo and force a war. From the moment Castro came to power, the United States feared that he would try to nullify or renounce the 1903 treaty granting America’s hold on that small piece of land. An attack, the Joint Chiefs grimly asserted, would constitute an act of war.
Loving the Wild in Postwar America
Authors: Harvey Mark
Published: November 2023

The most striking development in Americans’ relationship with wilderness following World War II was its soaring popularity. Bolstered by the nation’s triumph in the war and ready to celebrate, Americans took to the nation’s roadways and eagerly made their way to places where they saw wildlife in their natural habitats, along with geysers and boiling mud pots, deep canyons, giant waterfalls, and snow-capped peaks. For many Americans and travelers from abroad, such spectacles provided an enticing taste of wilderness with a minimal exertion of effort, often from an automobile or from a vantage only a few steps away from the road. Others, though, found their wilderness far removed from cars and roadways, typically in the backcountry of national parks or forests, where spectacular animals, plants, and scenery less often were seen. While people found wilderness in different locales, all seemed to view it as a place where nature was in its purest form and where the contrast with urban, suburban, and rural landscapes was starkly clear. As growing numbers also realized that wilderness lands, despite their great popularity, were at risk of being reduced in size or ecological integrity because of weak laws governing their protection, a movement emerged to establish a national wilderness system, which culminated in passage of the Wilderness Act of 1964.
Fighting Like Men Civil War Dilemmas of Abolitionist Manhood
Authors: Kantrowitz Stephen
Published: November 2023

In the decade before the Civil War, many of Massachusetts’s black and white abolitionist men mobilized themselves into unofficial armies against the slave power. They did much else, of course, some of it in collaboration with one another as well as with black and white women: speaking and petitioning against slavery, producing and distributing abolitionist literature, and providing aid to fugitives. But when it came to conceiving of themselves as soldiers in the war against slavery, black and white abolitionist men in the Bay State took dramatically different routes. Black men formed militia units and sought acceptance by the state, while white men assembled in secret societies and drilled for confrontation with slaveholders and their henchmen.
Mary Walker, Mary Surratt, and Some Thoughts on Gender in the Civil War
Authors: Leonard Elizabeth D
Published: November 2023

The study of gender and the Civil War has come a long way in the last two decades. Back in the late 1980s, graduate students might take otherwise fascinating graduate seminars on the war that nevertheless completely ignored women’s involvement in, and their experience of, that crucial event. In a parallel manner, equally fascinating graduate seminars on women in American history omitted virtually all references to the Civil War. Fortunately, as readers of this collection of essays clearly know, many fine scholars have been busy over the last twenty years adding significantly and expertly to our knowledge and understanding of the intersection of gender (and of women specifically) and the American Civil War. I hope that I, too, have contributed some valuable insights, and in the essay that follows I will ponder anew the more salient ones.
Embattled Manhood and New England Writers, 1860–1870
Authors: Stauffer John
Published: November 2023

Emerson captured the temper of the times. “War is a realist,” he wrote in his journal in 1862; “[it] shatters everything flimsy & shifty, sets aside all false issues, & breaks through all that is not [as] real as itself.” Antebellum notions of manhood, which for Emerson encompassed idealism, were among those “flimsy & shifty” things that, like the nation itself, would be transformed by war. For war, “like its own cannonade, comes crushing in through . . . walls that have stood fifty or sixty years as if they were solid.” Emerson felt sure that manhood and the country would be revitalized: “War disorganizes, but it also organizes; it forces individuals & states to combine & act with larger views.”
The National or Universal in the Twenties
Authors: Fulcher Jane F
Published: November 2023

The composer Gabriel Faure passed away at a most inopportune moment politically-several months after the victory of the Cartel des Gauches, a left electoral alliance of Radicals and Socialists, over its adversaries to the right. Not having had time to define its policies on all cultural issues, the new government ceded to the pressures of an experienced, conservative functionary in the Ministry of Fine Arts, Paul Leon.1 Having known the composer for years, and being a great advocate of Faure’s music, Leon insisted that he receive the full panoply of grandiose “obseques nationales.” This, after all, had been the case with Faure’s former teacher and mentor, Camille Saint-Saens, for whom Leon had arranged a similar ceremony only three years before.