bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The fireblight monitoring network in northern Italy: origin and development
Authors: MAZZUCCHI U.
Published: April 2008

One of the measures adopted in Italy against Erwinia amylovora has been to set up a national monitoring network for early detection of primary foci following long‐distance spread. This network was divided into three interregional networks (Northern, Adriatic and Tyrrhenian) plus two island networks, in Sicilia and Sardegna. The Northern network lies between the crest of the Alps and the Apennines, stretching down to the Conero promontory, and consists of eight regions (Piemonte, Val d'Aosta, Liguria, Lombardia, Veneto, Emilia‐Romagna, Marche and Friuli‐Venezia Giulia) and two autonomous provinces (Trento and Bolzano). It was completed in 1992 and consists of 3601 monitoring points, with one or more host plants susceptible to Erwinia amylovora, at intervals of about 5 km. Inspections are performed twice a year (May–June and September–October). The Northern network has four diagnostic centres which analyse the samples sent by the inspectors and identify the isolates. A description is given of the origin and development of this network.
Inventaire des maladies de I'olivier en Tunisie
Authors: BOULILA M. , MAHJOUB M.
Published: April 2008

L'ensemble des maladies de I'olivier entraine des chutes de rendement considérables et représente une menace permanente pour I'oléiculture tunisienne. Les enquectes sur le terrain et les analyses au laboratoire ont permis d'observer les maladies de I'olivier déjè connues dans le pays, dans les oliveraies et en pépiniéres. II s'agit notamment de la tuberculose (Pseudomonas syringae pv. savastanoi), de I'oeil de paon (Spilocaea oleagina), de la fumagine, du jaunissement et de la momification du fruit (Glomerella cingulata), maladies bien connus dans I'ensemble du bassin Mediterranéen. Par ailleurs, des champignons ont étè récemment isolés dans des cas de dépéissement et de pourridié, en l'occurrence Rhizoctonia bataticola, Fusarium solani, F. oxysporum, Armillaria mellea et Corticium rolfsii. La nature et la biologie des maladies, leur répartition géographique et leurs sympdmes sont discutés, ainsi que les mesures de lutte susceptibles d'enrayer leur diffusion et de limiter leur danger.
Nematological problems, production systems and Mediterranean environments1
Authors: BELLO A. , ESCUER M. , ARIAS M.
Published: April 2008

The characteristic phytonematological problems in areas with Mediterranean climate are analysed. The problems are, in order of economical importance, root‐knot nematodes, cyst nematodes, virus vectors, endoparasitic nematodes, stem nematodes, citrus nematode and ectoparasitic nematodes. The interest in getting alternative control techniques supported by production systems is stated. Nematodes were already differentiated in the Pliocene, at the end of the Tertiary, the period in which the Mediterranean climate appeared. Two structural elements are distinguished in the nematofauna and are defined as a characteristic temperate environment group and a tropical group. These two groups are found in Mediterranean environments according to environmental characteristics conditioned by geomorphology and, above all, since the Neolithic, by agrarian systems through cultural techniques. The importance of agrarian production systems, as an alternative control for plant parasitic nematodes in the Mediterranean region, is pointed out. Control alternatives are considered that are based on the capability of such systems to keep the environmental and spatial heterogeneity, that allows the nematode populations regulation and spatio‐temporal isolation, avoiding, in this way, the epidemic development and dispersion of pathogenic species.
Plant protection problems caused by phytonematodes in Greece1
Authors: VLACHOPOULOS E. G.
Published: April 2008

The major nematode pests of cultivated plants in Greece include root‐knot nematodes Meloidogyne spp. (in almost all plants except citrus), cyst‐forming nematodes Globodera rostochiensis, G. pallida (in potato), Heterodera avenae (in cereals), Ditylenchus dipsaci (in vegetables and ornamental plants) and Tylenchulus semipenetrans (in citrus). Based on observations made on samples examined at Benaki Phytopathological Institute, it was confirmed that serious infestation of new kiwi orchards with Meloidogyne spp. originated from seedlings infested at the nursery. Also the wide distribution of the nematode Tylenchulus semipenetrans in citrus orchards was mainly attributed to infested seedlings. The above observations led us, in 1985, to the decision to study the nematological fauna of nurseries in Greece.
Potato cyst nematodes in the Canary Islands: an epidemiologic model for the Mediterranean region1
Authors: BELLO A. , GONZALEZ J. A.
Published: April 2008

This work describes studies done on the Canary Islands in order to support the elaboration of quarantine and control legislation for potato cyst nematodes which take into account the special agroecological characteristics of the Mediterranean region. The interest of the islands for epidemiological studies is based on the occurrence of the oldest potato crops in the Old World and the use of several local cultivars and traditional management cropping systems. Also, the environmental conditions allow field experiments to be performed throughout the year. The phytonematological problems of the potato crop on the Canary Islands is reported and the absence of Ditylenchus destructor, D. dipsaci, Nacobbus aberrans, Rotylenchulus reniformis and trichodorids pointed out. The cyst nematodes, Globodera rostochiensis and G. pallida were found to cause severe damage to the crop and were studied in detail by field trials at Tenerife. Continuous growing of the cv. Cara, with the H1 gene conferring resistance to G. rostochiensis (pathotypes Ro1 and Ro4), exerted selection pressure for G. pallida. Under the edaphic and climatic conditions of Tenerife, nematicide application was found to be inefficient for controlling potato cyst nematodes. Alternative control techniques based on traditional management systems and on the use of environmentally adverse conditions were investigated.
The relationship between species within the Xiphinema americanum‐group (Nematoda: Dorylaimida)1
Authors: LAMBERTI F. , CIANCIO A.
Published: April 2008

Principal components and hierarchical cluster analysis based on morphometric characters of the type populations of the 39 species attributed to the Xiphinema americanum‐group confirmed the occurrence of five subgroups. The use of a single character is generally insufficient to characterize a species because of the wide intra‐population and intra‐specific variations. Hierarchical cluster analysis, although impractical for species/population identification, appears useful in the study of the relationships between species or groups of species.
Use of green leaves from olive trees as soil amendment for the control of Meloidogyne1
Authors: VOUYOUKALOU E.
Published: April 2008

Plant extracts have been used against nematodes mainly in the third‐world countries. The possibility of using leaves of olive trees for reducing populations of nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) in the soil was investigated in the present work. The root‐knot incidence in tomato roots was reduced as well as the presence of nematodes in the soil. The methanol extract of the leaves inhibited hatching of the eggs almost completely.
Distribution of Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (San José scale) in Switzerland based on interpolated pheromone trap data
Authors: SCHAUB L. P. , MANI E. , BLOESCH B. , SCHWALLER F.
Published: April 2008

A geographic information system was used to create a surface representation of 1990 pheromone‐trap catch data of Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (San José scale) in Switzerland. The interpolation took the mountainous topography into consideration. The comparison of Q. perniciosus‐infested regions and regions of tree‐fruit production indicates that major tree‐fruit production regions of Switzerland at risk are still free from Q. perniciosus.
Japanese pear black spot and apple alternaria blotch
Authors: DICKENS J. S. W. , COOK R. T. A.
Published: April 2008

The pathogenicity and taxonomy of 15 isolates ofAlternariaspp. from pear and apple were compared. Only isolates from Asian pear (Pyrus pyrifolia) from Italy and Korea were virulent on leaves and young fruits of the susceptible Asian pear cv. Nijisseiki. Their conidial morphology was typical ofA. gaisen(=A. kikuchiana). Only isolates ofA. malifrom USA were virulent on susceptible American apple cvs Indo and Red Gold. No virulence was demonstrated in any isolate/host combination among isolates from stem infections of Asian and European pear (Pyrus communis), leaf spots of European apple, and ripe fruit rots of Chinese pear (Pyrus ussuriensis), European pear and apple. These non‐virulent isolates could be readily distinguished fromA. gaisenandA. maliby their pattern of branching of conidial chains, the branching associated withA. alternata sensu strictobeing most common among non‐virulent isolates. This limited survey implies thatA. gaisenis only virulent to Asian pear and the toxigenic form ofA. malito certain American apple cultivars; also thatA. gaisenis not established outside eastern Asia or the toxigenic form ofA. malioutside eastern Asia and parts of USA.
New methods of diagnosis in plant pathology – perspectives and pitfalls 1
Authors: JANSE J. D.
Published: April 2008

As a spin‐off from fundamental molecular biological research, there has been a remarkable increase in new methods for diagnosis (i.e. detection and identification) in recent years. Because of their origin, these new methods all have in common that they use structural elements of the target organisms such as nucleic acids, lipids, fatty acids, proteins, polyamines and polysaccharides as a basis. These structural elements are either used as templates for development of so‐called probes for detection (and identification) or they are placed into man‐made patterns and used for identification/classification. The article presents the advantages and perspectives of the new methods compared with conventional ones. It may be noted that, in many studies, the specificity and reproducibility of the new methods has not been adequately treated or has even been only assumed. These features, which are closely linked with experimental and sampling error, lead to the principal pitfalls of the new methods, which are also reviewed.
Immunodetection of Botrytis allii, the causal agent of neck rot of onion bulbs 1
Authors: LINFIELD C. A. , LYONS N. F. , KENNY S. R.
Published: April 2008

Polyclonal antisera for the immunological detection of Botrytis allii were raised from cell wall, cytoplasmic and surface plate washings of two isolates of the pathogen. These antisera were used to develop an indirect ELISA for the detection of latent B. allii infection in stored onion bulbs. The antisera did not react with healthy onion tissue and showed only minimal recognition of fungi from other genera. Some cross reactivity was observed with B. cinerea but not with other Botrytis species tested. In many instances following infection, fungal antigen could be detected earlier by ELISA than by direct plating. In tests on bulbs from a commercial store, the level of B. allii infection was found to be 3.3% by both ELISA and direct plating, but this result was achieved 7 days sooner by ELISA.
Détection du mildiou du pois (Peronospora viciae) par méthode immunoenzymatique (ELISA) dans les lots de semences 1
Authors: CORBIÈRE R. , MOLINERO V. , LEFÈBVRE A. , SPIRE D.
Published: April 2008

Un sérum polyclonal a été produit en utilisant les conidiophores broyés de Peronospora viciae comme immunogène. Deux méthodes ELISA ont été comparées: une méthode indirecte (ACP‐ELISA) et une méthode sandwich révélée avec un système d'amplification à la biotinestreptavidine (DAS‐ELISA‐biotine). En DAS‐ELISA‐biotine, le champignon mélangéà des graines saines était mieux révélé qu'en ACP‐ELISA; 2,5ng de protéines de P. viciae par ml pouvaient alors être détectés. Les principaux agents pathogènes et saprophytes des graines de pois (13 genres testés) n'étaient pas reconnus en DAS‐ELISA‐biotine. Cette méthode a été appliquée à l'analyse de lots de graines. Pour chaque lot, 32 groupes de 30 graines ont été prélevés et le tampon de lavage des graines a été analysé après une nuit de macération des graines, sous agitation. Des graines individuelles ont également été testées. La majorité des lots analysés présentaient un faible degré d'infection (de 2,5 à 10 ng de protéines fongiques par ml). De plus, le degré d'infection des graines individuelles était très hétérogène au sein d'un lot. Cette méthode ELISA s'est avérée plus fiable que la méthode traditionnelle (observation microscopique des oospores dans l'eau de lavage des graines) employée actuellement pour détecter le mildiou dans les lots de graines.
A monoclonal antibody immunoassay for the detection of Nectria galligena in apple fruit and woody tissues 1
Authors: DEWEY F. M. , LI R. , SWINBURNE T.
Published: April 2008

Relatively rapid, highly specific monoclonal antibody‐based enzyme‐linked immunosorbent and immunofluorescent assays have been developed to detect and visualize Nectria galligena in woody tissue. Hybridoma cell lines were raised by co‐immunization of mice with extracts from freeze‐dried cultures of N. galligena and murine polyclonal antiserum to a related pathogen, N. haematococca. This method appeared to reduce the number of hybridoma cell lines that secreted cross‐reactive antibodies. From two fusions, ten cell lines that recognized N. galligena and not N. cinnabarina were raised. Hybridoma supernatants were screened by ELISA using antigen‐coated wells. Monoclonal antibodies from one cell line, NG‐IE4, proved useful in the detection of the pathogen in woody tissue by ELISA and antibodies from another cell line, NG‐DF11, have been used to immunolocalize the fungus in woody tissue by immunofluorescence. Further applications are ongoing.
Serological detection of resting spores of Plasmodiophora brassicae in soil 1
Authors: WHITE J. G. , WAKEHAM A. J.
Published: April 2008

Polyclonal antisera were raised to whole and sonicated fractions of resting spores of Plasmodiophora brassicae, the causal agent of clubroot disease. Cross reactivity of antisera was assessed against a wide range of soil‐borne pathogens. Antiserum raised to whole resting spores was used to probe artificially infested soils by indirect immunofluorescence. Resting spores could be detected at a concentration as low as to 1 × 102 spores per g in artificially infested soil, and were readily identified in naturally infested soils, with negligible fluorescence in soil thought to be clubroot‐free. Antiserum raised to sonicated fractions of the resting spore was used in an indirect ELISA assay of soil. When bound antiserum was labelled with anti‐rabbit IgG conjugated to alkaline phosphatase, there was a negative correlation between absorbance levels and resting spore numbers in artificially infested soil. In contrast a close to linear response, with a correlation coefficient of 0.971, was recorded when infested soils were assayed with bound antiserum labelled with protein‐A peroxidase.
Isozyme analysis for characterization of Ganoderma strains from south‐east Asia 1
Authors: MILLER R. N. G. , HOLDERNESS M. , BRIDGE P. D. , PATERSON R. R. M. , HUSSIN M. Z. , MEON SARIAH
Published: April 2008

Extracellular pectinase isozymes were determined by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) for isolates of Ganoderma collected from a range of hosts and environments in south‐east Asia. Findings indicate these techniques to be of use in the differentiation of strains isolated from different hosts and environments. Average linkage cluster analysis of pectinase isozyme banding patterns separated isolates according to host of origin.
Identification of races of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. dianthi by DNA fingerprinting and vegetative compatibility 1
Authors: WAALWIJK C. , BAAYEN R. P.
Published: April 2008

Knowledge on the geographic distribution of races of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. dianthi and F. redolens f.sp. dianthi, causal agents of wilt disease of carnation, is of considerable importance to carnation breeders. The traditional way of identifying such races is by testing on differential cultivars but this is time‐consuming and not always reliable. In order to improve and accelerate the identification of new isolates, we have compared data from inoculation assays with several other methods. Sixty isolates, comprising all races of F.o. dianthi known to date, were analysed along with a number of isolates of F. redolens from carnation as well as F. oxysporum and F. redolens from other crops. The methods included VCG determination, where complementary mutants blocked in nitrate metabolism are assayed for their capability to form heterokaryons, analysis of RFLP patterns, using different genomic DNA fragments as probes, PCR analysis of the ITS region of the rDNA cistron, and RAPD analysis. The data obtained with these methods indicates that ITS‐PCR discriminates at species level, while RFLP analysis with two independent DNA probes differentiates between VCGs.
Multidisciplinary characterization of fungal plant pathogens 1
Authors: BRIDGE P. D. , HOLDERNESS M. , PATERSON R. R. M. , RUTHERFORD M.
Published: April 2008

Current procedures for the characterization of fungal plant pathogens are generally based on morphological, biochemical, molecular or pathological techniques. Individual techniques have been used successfully in the characterization of pathogens at different levels, including definition of host and geographic ranges, and differentiation of subgroups within these. The methods used for the characterization of fungal plant pathogens generally fall into two groups, either‘genetic', i.e. based on traditional genetics, DNA sequences and polymorphisms, or‘functional', i.e. based on particular phenotypic activities such as secondary metabolism, enzyme activities or pathogenicity. Many of the modern genetic methods have been extremely useful in specific cases, although techniques such as DNA polymorphisms are not always suitable for subsequent diagnostic regimes. Integration of genetic techniques with functional characters can provide a very powerful tool for the characterization of fungal plant pathogens, particularly in respect of host and cultivar‐specific populations. Recent studies based around such an approach have included vascular wilt isolates of Fusarium oxysporum, and Rhizoctonia solani from rice.
Detection of Phytophthora nicotianae in Nicotiana spp. by indirect ELIS A — first results 1
Authors: GABLER J.
Published: April 2008

We have developed an immuno assay for pathogen diagnosis in tomato, based on a polyclonal genus‐specific antiserum originally raised against Phytophthora nicotianae. This has been used for the quantitative evaluation of differences in the resistance level of Nicotiana genotypes to P. nicotianae.
Pulsed‐field gel electrophoresis analysis of Pseudomonas solanacearum1
Authors: SMITH J. J. , OFFORD L.C. , HOLDERNESS M. , SADDLER G. S.
Published: April 2008

Genetic diversity within the bacterial plant pathogen Pseudomonas solanacearum was determined by genomic digestion with rare‐cutting endonuclease enzymes. The resultant DNA fragments were separated by pulsed‐field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). The method was shown to be appropriate for analysis of races 1,2 and 3 and it is amenable to ecological studies on closely related bacteria.
Development of a PCR‐based detection method for Xanthomonas campestris pv. translucens1
Authors: MAES M. , GARBEVA P.
Published: April 2008

Comparative sequence analysis of the ribosomal DNA of Xanthomonas campestris pv. translucens and of taxonomically related bacteria led to the development of a PCR‐mediated detection method for bacterial pathogens in the translucens/graminis complex of X. campestris. In these bacteria, a single 156‐bp fragment was synthesized. Other phytobacteria, taxonomically related to X.c. translucens or X.c. graminis or present on their plant hosts, did not show a PCR product on agarose gel electrophoresis. The detection system was used to screen bacterial populations in wheat and barley seed lots from American and Belgian production.
Development and evaluation of ELISA assays incorporating monoclonal antibodies for the detection of potato A potyvirus 1
Authors: BROWNING I. A. , BURNS R. , GEORGE E. L. , DARLING M.
Published: April 2008

Potato A potyvirus (PVA) was purified and used to immunize a balb/c mouse which had previously been rendered tolerant to plant sap. Three hybridoma‐cell lines were selected which produced monoclonal antibodies Mab 58/6, Mab 58/7 and Mab 58/0. A rabbit polyclonal antiserum was also produced. The antibodies were incorporated in ELISA assays which were evaluated in field trials using potato leaf samples submitted for virus testing in support of the Scottish Seed Potato Classification Scheme in 1992/1993. An assay using Mab 58/6 as probe identified all PVA‐positive samples during the test periods, but in 1991 a rare isolate was not detected by this assay. There was no cross reactivity with other viruses intercepted. An assay employing Mab 58/0 as coating antibody and conjugate also detected all PVA‐positive samples during the test periods, but there was slight cross reactivity with PVYN and PVV. An indirect assay using polyclonal antibodies to coat and Mab 58/7 to probe detected 17 glasshouse‐maintained PVA isolates, but in a field trial three out of 18 cases of PVA were not detected. There was no cross reactivity with other viruses intercepted.
Use of tissue‐print immunoassay for the practical diagnosis of tomato spotted wilt tospovirus 1
Authors: LOURO D.
Published: April 2008

A tissue‐print immunoassay was developed for the detection of TSWV by direct printing of freshly cut tissue surfaces on nitrocellulose membranes. The adsorbed viral antigens were revealed by treating the blots with goat antibodies to biotin labelled with alkaline phosphatase. This indirect immunological method enables the reliable detection of TSWV in tissue blots from field samples of tomato, capsicum, chrysanthemum, gladiolus, hydrangea and oleander plants. In some cases, when ELISA tests gave negative or erratic results, TSWV antigens were readily detected in small cell clusters in the tissue blots. Considering the uneven distribution of TSWV in the plants, it is critical to sample from different tissues to select the best material for assaying. The tissue‐print immunoassay has the advantage of enabling specific diagnosis with the localization of the virus in the tissues. Thus, it might be a useful tool in tissue sampling for cytopathological studies. In addition, it is a simple, rapid and cheap method suitable for testing both small and large numbers of samples. Therefore, it is a technique which offers good prospects for critical diagnosis in quarantine cases and plant health certification programmes.
Detection of plant viruses by molecular hybridization using non‐radioactive probes 1
Authors: KUMMERT J. , COLINET D. , LEPOIVRE P.
Published: April 2008

In the context of the phytosanitary legislation governing the trade of plants, accurate highly sensitive and rapid techniques of virus detection need to be developed. Such objectives can be achieved by molecular hybridization and PCR. Specific nucleic acid sequences of RNA viruses can be directly recognized by hybridization in the presence of labelled complementary DNA (cDNA) probes, synthesized either from purified viral RNA, from ds‐RNA from infected plants, or from total RNA preparations from infected plants by RT‐PCR. After characterization and selection, specific cDNA are cloned in bacteria by means of recombinant plasmids, allowing continuous availability of identical and homologous probes. Techniques of non‐radioactive labelling, which can reach similar levels of sensitivity and specificity to the previous exclusive use of radioactivity, are used. Specific probes are generally hybridized to viral nucleic acid sequences from plant samples immobilized on solid support (dot‐blot hybridization). Several examples for different viruses and host plants are presented, demonstrating the possibilities of the use of molecular hybridization for diagnosis of virus infection in plants.
Insect hydrocarbons: analysis, structures and functions 1
Authors: PENNANEC'H M. , PHO D. B. , PECHINE J.‐M. , JALLON J.‐M.
Published: April 2008

Hydrocarbons are excellent markers for insects, as they are permanent and abundant components of their cuticle. They are present in the epicuticle, which is the most external layer of this cuticle, and they are very simple molecules, containing only carbon and hydrogen. They are linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated and contain 20 to 50 carbons. A highly sensitive method for their characterization is gas chromatography (GC) with capillary columns and various detectors, including mass spectrometry which gives structural information directly. Various biological aspects of these molecules are discussed in relation to species specificity, population polymorphism and physiological variations, and are illustrated by examples mainly from Diptera. In addition to their role in the protection of the animal, hydrocarbons actively participate in stimulation of sexual behaviour and recognition of castes and colonies for social insects. Field applications have been designed to control these insects.
The use of monoclonal antibodies for the identification and quantification of potato cyst nematodes 1
Authors: EVANS K. , CURTIS R. H. , ROBINSON M. P. , YEUNG M.
Published: April 2008

Experiments were conducted on methods of preparation of samples of cysts, eggs and larvae of Globodera rostochiensis and G. pallida in order to improve the efficiency of immunoassay as a tool for identification and quantification of nematodes in soil. Monoclonal antibodies, which specifically recognize each of the two species of potato cyst nematode and do not cross‐react with other species of soil nematodes, were used in ELISA tests. It was shown that free larvae react less well to monoclonal antibodies than cysts and eggs and that a large proportion of the relevant antigens comes from the vitelline fluid of eggs. Dead eggs and non‐viable components of the cyst (e.g. cyst wall, egg shell) have little or no antigenicity. Of 13 different chemical extractants tested for release of antigens from cysts, CTAB and especially 1% urea were shown to be more effective than the standard extractant PBS. Sonication of cysts was the best of a number of chemical, physical and antigen release procedures. There was a good quantitative relationship between optical density readings, in indirect and DAS‐ELISA, and numbers of nematodes extracted from soil, but further work is needed in order for the test to work directly on soil samples.
Schemes and methods for production and certification of virus‐free grapevine planting material 1
Authors: POP I. V.
Published: April 2008

Based on experience in Romania and data from the literature, a scheme for the production of certified grapevine propagating material is presented. In addition, details of the test methods for determining presence of grapevine viruses are described.
Detection methods for pests in plant germplasm introduced into Brazil for research purposes 1
Authors: BATISTA M. F. , MARINHO V. L. A. , FONSECA M. E. N.
Published: April 2008

The National Center for Genetic Resources and Biotechnology (CENARGEN/EMBRAPA) is responsible for the introduction, exchange and post‐entry quarantine of plant germplasm in Brazil. CENARGEN handles about 12000 accessions per year including imported, exported and domestic transit material. The quarantine service is composed of six laboratories dealing with insects, fungi, bacteria, nematodes, virus and viroids, and tissue culture, respectively. There are also facilities for fumigation and for chemical and heat treatments. The detection methods used in the inspections are described, and results on the pests detected are presented.
Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) for the territories of the European Union (as PRA area) onBursaphelenchus xylophilusand its vectors in the genusMonochamus
Authors: EVANS H. F. , McNAMARA D. G. , BRAASCH H. , CHADOEUF J. , MAGNUSSON C.
Published: April 2008

An analysis of the risk to the countries of the European Union from a possible introduction ofBursaphelenchus xylophilusand its vectors in the genusMonochamusis performed by assembling relevant biological, climatic and commercial information. The risks presented by different trade pathways are assessed and phytosanitary measures to reduce the risks are proposed. The conclusion of the PRA, based on EPPO PRA guideline no. 1, is that these pests present a serious risk to European coniferous forests.
Occurrence of halo spot in barley caused by Pseudoseptoria donacis in Argentina
Authors: CARMONA M. , BARRETO D. , FORTUGNO C.
Published: April 2008

Barley is an important malting crop extensively cultivated in the province of Buenos Aires (AR). In 1992, an unusual disease was detected with a prevalence of 8% on 36 commercial fields examined in this province. The pattern of the disease, the characteristics of the pathogen and the test for pathogenicity indicated that the causal agent was Pseudoseptoria donacis.
PASO – computer‐aided models for decision making in plant protection 1
Authors: KLEINHENZ B. , JÖRG E. , GUTSCHE V. , KLUGE E. , ROSSBERG D.
Published: April 2008

During the 3‐year (1993/1996) PASO pilot project, 10 forecasting models or expert systems were introduced into plant protection practice. The models were developed for pests and diseases of arable and vegetable crops, and of apple. The pilot project was run and partly funded by the German Federal Ministry of Agriculture, with the participation of 13 regional plant protection services. These forecasting models and expert systems aim to ensure better timing and reduction of the use of plant protection products, as well as the introduction of biological products. The 10 models are run under a uniform desktop system. A flexible computer program daily provides the models with weather data from different types of agrometeorological stations. For model validation and to demonstrate the effectiveness of the models, large‐scale trials were laid out by the plant protection advisory services. The results of the forecasting models and expert systems are transferred to farmers by plant protection advisers and warning services.
Control of fungal diseases in winter wheat with appropriate dose rates and weather‐based decision support systems 1
Authors: SCHEPERS H. T. A. M. , BOUMA E. , FRAHM J. , VOLK T. , SECHER B. J. M.
Published: April 2008

Fungicide inputs in cereals have to be reduced, in order to sustain gross margins and reduce environmental side effects. This can be achieved by using fungicide programmes in which doses and timing of fungicides are influenced by detailed knowledge on inherent properties of the fungicides, cultivar resistance and epidemic development of diseases in relation to crop stage and weather conditions. In 1994 and 1995, field trials were carried out in winter wheat in which strategies using full and reduced rates at fixed growth stages were compared with the computerized weather‐based decision support systems PC Plant Protection and PRO_PLANT. A further strategy was included in which timing and dosage of fungicides was based on expert judgement of the interactions of growth stage, disease pressure, weather conditions and cultivar resistance. Effective control of septoria diseases, brown rust and powdery mildew was achieved by all programmes. There was no programme that always resulted in the highest yield and gross margin.
Influence of weather parameters on efficacy of reduced dosages of herbicides in winter wheat 1
Authors: BOUMA E. , VAN DER WEIDE R. Y. , FLOOT H. W. G.
Published: April 2008

During 1994 and 1995, the efficacy of reduced dosages of herbicides under different weather circumstances was tested. Effective control of the weeds present in winter wheat fields was possible by foliar application of reduced dosages of a (spray) mixture of bifenox/mecoprop (Verigal) and fluroxypyr (Starane). Even a quarter of the normal dose resulted in adequate control in number or weight of weeds, provided the environmental conditions before spraying were good. After 3–4 days with high radiation, low RH and dry weather, however, control was insufficient. In 1995, the control of non‐hardened Veronica hederifolia with a 12.5% dosage was at least as good as the control of hardened Veronica with a full dosage.
Verification of immunofluorescence colony‐staining of Erwinia carotovora subsp. atroseptica by reisolation and immunodiffusion or PCR
Authors: VAN DER WOLF J. M. , KASTELEIN P. , VAN BECKHOVEN J. R. C. M. , VAN DEN BRINK M. , DE VRIES P. M.
Published: April 2008

In this study, the reliability and efficiency of three procedures for verification of IFC‐positive colonies of Erwinia carotovora subsp. atroseptica were compared: (1) PCR amplification, (2) reisolation on a non‐selective medium (trypticase soy agar) followed by direct immunodiffusion (TSA‐DID), developed for isolation of target and cross‐reacting bacteria, and (3) reisolation on a selective medium (crystal‐violet pectate) and characterization of selected isolates with Ouchterlony double diffusion (DLCVP‐ODD), developed for isolation of pectinolytic Erwinia spp. The reliability of a PCR amplification procedure for characterization of E.c. atroseptica was evaluated. Specific amplification products could be produced from DNA of all 187 European strains of the bacterium, while no amplification products were obtained from DNA of four distinctive serological groups of bacteria cross‐reacting with antibodies against E.c. atroseptica, nor from DNA of randomly selected saprophytic bacteria isolated from potato peel extracts. All 60 immunofluorescent‐positive target colonies from a potato peel extract with added E.c. atroseptica tested were positive by PCR compared with 68 and 72% successful determinations by TSA‐DID and DLCVP‐ODD, respectively. PCR enabled verification of fluorescent colonies from IFC preparations of naturally infected seed lots with an efficiency of 93%, compared with 48 and 71% successful determinations by TSA‐DID and DLCVP‐ODD, respectively. It is concluded that PCR is useful for routine confirmation of the identity of fluorescent colonies in IFC.
Test results of electronic control units for field sprayers and future trends1
Authors: JAHNS G. , RIETZ S.
Published: April 2008

The BBA has designed and contructed it test stand for thc electronic control units of field sprayers, and drawn up test guidelines. The dynamic and static characteristics of 10 electronic control units on the market have recently been examined. Examples of the results of these examinations are given. Future trends in the field of electronically controlled field sprayers are discussed. The present stand‐alone units will be replaced by the agricultural BUS system (LBS) (DIN 9684 and ISO/TC23/SC19/WGI). Satellite position‐finding systems (c.g. GPS) may be used. Specifications can be developed for site‐specific application of plant protection products, initially including simultaneous dosage of several products and site characteristics. It is doubtful for the moment whether such systems can react to the state of the crop or to indices of pest presence.
Testing of crop protection equipment in use in Europe1
Authors: HEESTERMANS J. M. A. J.
Published: April 2008

A comparative analysis has been made of the testing of field and orchard sprayers in European countries, and of glasshouse sprayers in The Netherlands. The tests are mostly voluntary. but there is movement towards compulsory testing. The elements of sprayer perforniance and construction which are tested are summarized. The main defects encountered in testing spray equipment in The Netherlands are presented.
Testing of field sprayers already in use in Germany1
Authors: RIPKE F. O.
Published: April 2008

A legal basis for testing plant protection equipment alreidy in use has existed in Germany since 1992‐07‐01, This includes compulsory testing at 2‐year intervals ofall equipment used in agricultural areas. The Federal Lander are responsible for authorizing official test points, which issue a standard test sticker. The standards for the testing equipment and the technical requirements for the plant protection equipment are defined in BBA guidelines. The test requirements concern: transmission, pump. agitator, tank. instruments, pipes. filters, booms and nozzles.
Application of plant protection products by helicopter in Germany (legislation, requirements, guidelines, use in vineyards and forests, drift)1
Authors: SCHMIDT K.
Published: April 2008

In Germany, application of plant protection products by helicopter is only common in steep‐sloped vineyards and in forests, where the use of conventional sprayers is nearly impossible. Because environment pollution, especially drift, is much higher than with ground equipment, the use of helicopters is subject to plant protection legislation as well as to air traffic regulations. BBA guidelines have been developed for application of plant protection products with aircraft. Each air‐borne application must be based on a contract respecting these guidelines and must be reported to the proper authorities and announced to the public. The working airfields must be properly equipped and applications may only be performed under authorized weather conditions. The equipment of the aircraft must fulfil standards, especially for the spray tanks, the spray boom and the control devices, and so must the service stations on the ground.
The use of aeroplanes for plant protection in and out of Europe1
Authors: ROWINSKI R. S.
Published: April 2008

This paper presents the development of agricultural aviation in the years 1950 to 1990 and the possibilities for using aeroplanes and helicopters in different branches of the national economy. The advantages and limitations of the use of this technique and the possibilities for applying agricultural aeroplanes and helicopters in Europe and other continents are discussed. The establishment of a World Aviation Help Service (WAHS) under UN auspices is suggested in conclusion.
Technical review of the EPPO Workshop on Application Technology in Plant Protection1
Authors: GANZELMEIER H.
Published: April 2008

The presentations. discussions and exhibition of equipment of the EPPO Workshop on Application Technology in Plant Protection were orientated towards field sprayers. air‐assisted sprayers. pedestrian equipment, and aerial applications. An evaluation of this equipment is given here on the basis of six criteria: general remarks. quality of application. contamination of the environment/operator exposure, EPPO/EU/national difkrences, innovations, need for future action. There are some deficiencies in the generally accepted rules for the application of plant protection products. Correcting these could be a task for technical experts from EPPO countries in future.
Viruses and virus diseases of grapevine in Lebanon
Authors: HAIDAR M. M. , DIGIARO M. , KHOURY W. , SAVINO V.
Published: April 2008

Grapevines were surveyed for the presence of virus and virus‐like diseases in the main viticultural areas of Lebanon (Bekaa valley, Mount Lebanon, South and North Lebanon). Symptoms of rugose wood were observed in vines ofall cultivars and areas surveyed, whereas leafroll was observed only in some vineyards of the Bekaa valley and, to a lesser extent, in South Lebanon on cvs Tfaifihi, Cinsaut and Cardinal. Symptoms of fanleaf and of phytoplasma‐induced yellows were also observed with low frequency in the Bekaa valley on wine‐grape cultivars. ELISA tests showed that 53% of 1536 Vitis vinifera vines individually checked were infected by one or more viruses. Grapevine trichovirus A (GVA) was the prevailing virus (32.4%), followed by grapevine fleck virus (GFkV) (19.5%) and grapevine leafroll‐associated closterovirus 3 (GLRaV‐3) (12.4%). Grapevine leafroll‐associated closterovirus 1 (GLRaV‐l), grapevine trichovirus B (GVB) and grapevine fanleaf nepovirus (GFLV) were also detected to a lesser extent, their incidence ranging between 1.1 and 3.6%.
Invasive pests (‘biological pollutants’) and US forests: whose problem, who pays?
Authors: WALLNER W. E.
Published: April 2008

Invasive pests, or ‘biological pollutants’, are among the most serious threats to biological diversity in the forest ecosystems of the USA. Additionally, they can disrupt forest management practices and cause enormous financial losses. In the USA, as elsewhere, the receiving country inherits the problem and, along with its citizenry, bears the permanent economic costs. The incidence of the introduction of invasive pests, the pathways utilized, and their economic and ecological impacts are presented using Dutch elm disease (Ophiostoma ulmi), chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica), gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar), and other pests as examples. The permanency of ecological impacts and associated economic costs needs to be considered in discussions with other National Plant Protection Organizations in designing and adopting mutual agreements and protocols. Suggestions are given for addressing these impending needs in view of expanding global trade.
Precautions for and experiences with introduction of exotic biological control agents into the former USSR1
Authors: ORLINSKII A. D.
Published: April 2008

The experience of introducing more than 120 species of exotic biological control agents for use against more than 40 species of pests during 70 years in the countries of the former USSR is analysed. The examples of biological protection of citrus orchards and some other programmes using biological control agents are described in more detail. The precautionary measures elaborated for these programmes consist of: (1) the prohibition of use by insufficiently qualified persons or non‐State organizations; (2) phytosanitary procedures preventing the spread of quarantine pests; (3) elimination from the biological control material of any hyperparasites, diseases or other accidentally introduced organisms under adequate quarantine conditions; (4) investigations at the place of release of the biological control agent into the environment.
Biological control in the Maltese Islands — past initiatives and future programmes1
Authors: MIFSUD D.
Published: April 2008

Past records of introduced predators and parasites for biological control programmes in the Maltese Islands are reviewed. Literature on this subject is very limited, difficult to obtain and to confirm. During the last 10 years, several exotic pest species were accidentally introduced into the Maltese Islands, including Aleurothrixus floccosus, Bemisia tabaci, Liriomyza spp., Frankliniella occidentalis and Phyllocnistis citrella. Natural enemies have been imported to control these pests. These include Dacnusa sibirica and Diglyphus isaea for the control of leafminers; Encarsia formosa, Eretmocerus californicus and Macrolophus caliginosus for regulation of Bemisia tabaci; Cales noacki against Aleurothrixus floccosus; Orius laevigatus, O. insidiosus and Neoseiulus cucumeris against thrips; Aphidius colemani and Aphidoletes aphidimyza for the control of glasshouse aphids and Phytoseiulus persimilis and Amblyseius californicus for the control of the red spider mite. Encarsia lutea and Eretmocerus mundus have been recorded from Bemisia tabaci in Malta. Faunistic studies of parasitic Hymenoptera occurring in Malta are currently being carried out. The data is presented and the significance of utilizing local natural enemies is briefly discussed.
Biopesticides — harmonization of registration requirements within EU Directive 91/414 — an industry view1
Authors: NEALE M. C.
Published: April 2008

A range of biopesticides (including, as active substances, bacteria, viruses, fungi, nematodes, protozoa and beneficial insects) is now commercially available for control of insect pests, fungal and bacterial diseases and weeds. The term biopesticide can include pheromones, insect and plant growth regulators, plant extracts, transgenic plants and macroorganisms as well as microorganisms. However, world biopesticide sales in 1990 were estimated to be 120 million USD, representing less than 0.5% of the world's agrochemical market. Out of this, approximately 90% of the biopesticide sales are represented by the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis for the control of insect pests. Nevertheless, biopesticide sales are estimated to be increasing at 10–25% per annum and sales by the year 2000 are estimated to reach 1000 million USD. This paper looks at the current commercial status and the constraints that are facing industry concerning changing registration, particularly in Europe, the absence of harmonized data requirements, and the increasing costs and delays in registrations that deter the development of new biopesticides.
Efficacy evaluation of biological pesticides in the UK1
Authors: TAYLOR N. J.
Published: April 2008

General principles of efficacy evaluation of plant protection products (both chemical and biological) in the UK registration system, under the Control of Pesticides Regulations 1986, are described. The UK perspective on efficacy evaluation of biological pesticides is discussed, highlighting differences and similarities between consideration of biological and chemical pesticides. Changes in efficacy evaluation of biological pesticides expected from implementation of the EU Directive 91/414/EEC are summarized.
Procedures and policies in the USA regarding precautions in the introduction of classical biological control agents
Authors: KNUTSON L. , COULSON J. R.
Published: April 2008

Classical biological control, the introduction of exotic natural enemies to control non‐indigenous insect pests and weeds, has been practised in the USA for over 100 years. To date, there have been no fully documented, substantial negative results, and many important insect pests and weeds have been successfully controlled. Over the past decade, concern about the safety of biocontrol agents has increased in line with concern for general health of the natural, native biota. This concern has focused primarily on endangered, threatened, and listed species of plants, but is broadening to include most other organisms. Scientists, administrators and others involved in the process have long recognized the need to ensure that natural enemies of weeds do not attack commercially or horticulturally important plants and to ensure that natural enemies of insects do not attack beneficial species. Procedures for testing the host specificity of the natural enemies of weeds in their area of origin, before shipment to the country of release, have been developed to quite high levels of reliability but there is need for further improvements. Further host‐specificity testing is often required in quarantine in the USA. The rigour of this system is helped by the fact that all applications for permission to introduce biocontrol agents are examined by an Inter‐agency Technical Advisory Committee for Biological Control of Weeds (TAGBCW) before import permits are issued by the relevant authority (USDA APHIS/PPQ). TAGBCW review includes study of research plans and of lists of host plants for testing host specificity; it also analyses and offers advice on potential conflicts of interest. A ‘TAGBCW’ could be recommended for the European Union. With regard to natural enemies of insect pests, there is relatively little need for host‐range testing of most parasitoids because these are generally co‐evolved and intimately related organisms that are restricted to one or a few host species. Concern about the potential impact of oligophagous predators on non‐target organisms has increased recently and is a developing field of research. Some operating procedures that involve safety are discussed. The import permit system in the USA is presented, and two suggestions for changes in European permit procedures are suggested. Past regulatory procedures for classical biological control in the USA are described, and the current situation is presented.