bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sex, strain, and lateral differences in brain cytoarchitecture across a large mouse population
Authors: Elkind David , Hochgerner Hannah , Aloni Etay , Shental Noam , Zeisel Amit
Published: May 2023

The mouse brain is by far the most intensively studied among mammalian brains, yet basic measures of its cytoarchitecture remain obscure. For example, quantifying cell numbers, and the interplay of sex, strain, and individual variability in cell density and volume is out of reach for many regions. The Allen Mouse Brain Connectivity project produces high-resolution full brain images of hundreds of brains. Although these were created for a different purpose, they reveal details of neuroanatomy and cytoarchitecture. Here, we used this population to systematically characterize cell density and volume for each anatomical unit in the mouse brain. We developed a DNN-based segmentation pipeline that uses the autofluorescence intensities of images to segment cell nuclei even within the densest regions, such as the dentate gyrus. We applied our pipeline to 507 brains of males and females from C57BL/6J and FVB.CD1 strains. Globally, we found that increased overall brain volume does not result in uniform expansion across all regions. Moreover, region-specific density changes are often negatively correlated with the volume of the region; therefore, cell count does not scale linearly with volume. Many regions, including layer 2/3 across several cortical areas, showed distinct lateral bias. We identified strain-specific or sex-specific differences. For example, males tended to have more cells in extended amygdala and hypothalamic regions (MEA, BST, BLA, BMA, and LPO, AHN) while females had more cells in the orbital cortex (ORB). Yet, inter-individual variability was always greater than the effect size of a single qualifier. We provide the results of this analysis as an accessible resource for the community.
Judging the difficulty of perceptual decisions
Authors: Löffler Anne , Zylberberg Ariel , Shadlen Michael N , Wolpert Daniel M
Published: May 2023

Deciding how difficult it is going to be to perform a task allows us to choose between tasks, allocate appropriate resources, and predict future performance. To be useful for planning, difficulty judgments should not require completion of the task. Here, we examine the processes underlying difficulty judgments in a perceptual decision-making task. Participants viewed two patches of dynamic random dots, which were colored blue or yellow stochastically on each appearance. Stimulus coherence (the probability, pblue, of a dot being blue) varied across trials and patches thus establishing difficulty, |pblue −0.5|. Participants were asked to indicate for which patch it would be easier to decide the dominant color. Accuracy in difficulty decisions improved with the difference in the stimulus difficulties, whereas the reaction times were not determined solely by this quantity. For example, when the patches shared the same difficulty, reaction times were shorter for easier stimuli. A comparison of several models of difficulty judgment suggested that participants compare the absolute accumulated evidence from each stimulus and terminate their decision when they differed by a set amount. The model predicts that when the dominant color of each stimulus is known, reaction times should depend only on the difference in difficulty, which we confirm empirically. We also show that this model is preferred to one that compares the confidence one would have in making each decision. The results extend evidence accumulation models, used to explain choice, reaction time, and confidence to prospective judgments of difficulty.
THE USE OF MATHEMATICAL EXPERIMENTS PLANNING IN BUILDING MATERIALS QUALITY RESEARCH
Authors: Leonid Dvorkin  , Grzegorz Prokopski  , Vitaliy Marchuk  , Andriy Huts
Published: May 2023

The issue of ensuring the construction of materials and products, necessary quality characteristics and durability, is associated with the solution of many problems arising both in the construction industry enterprises and in the conditions of a construction site. Most of these (construction-technological) problems are solved due to the rational choice of raw materials, changes in the ratio between the main components, as well as production modes. The method of solving such problems assumes simultaneous consideration of many factors (composition, consumption of components, formation conditions, hardening, etc.) and providing many parameters (workability, strength, frost resistance, water resistance, etc.), which in practice is difficult to implement by traditional methods of experimentation because of high labor intensity of the work and the need for complex analysis. The article considers using methods of system analysis and mathematical planning of experiments in the study of building materials quality. Methods of obtaining mathematical models of various types, their interpretation and analysis, as well as the basic principles of using system analysis for solving the problems of building materials technology are presented. The technique of mathematical planning of experiments is presented. The main types of tasks solved with this method are analyzed, optimization criteria for solving problems of concrete technology are formulated. Methods for constructing linear and nonlinear models, their statistical analysis, and typical plans for carrying out experiments are presented.
THE RISK AS A MEASURE OF SYSTEM SAFETY
Authors: Janusz Rak  , Barbara Tchórzewska-Cieślak
Published: May 2023

Water supply system (WSS) is characterized by its continuous work and requires high reliability level for its operating as well as for its safety System operating is inseparably connected with the possibility that different failures (undesirable events) occur. The most often they have random character and then they can be described by the classical methods used in the reliability engineering including the probabilistic methods but sometimes they are the consequences of the events which can cause the catastrophic situation. Events of this type cause the so called domino effect that is a chain of the undesirable events which very often develops according to some definite scenarios. In many cases the consequences of such events can be very serious for water consumers as well as for water pipe companies. The basic measure describing WSS safety is risk and the elaboration of the model to analyze risk connected with WSS will allow to use the safety barriers properly. The paper presents paradigms of risk analysis in WSS in the aspect of improving safety for water consumers.
ASSESSMENT OF THE POSSIBILITIES OF AGRICULTURAL USE OF SEWAGE SLUDGE FROM SMALL, MEDIUM AND LARGE WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS
Authors: Czarnota Joanna , Justyna Kurcek  , Natalia Twaróg
Published: May 2023

The management of sewage sludge, generated at various stages of wastewater treatment, is still a significant problem. One of the possibilities of using sewage sludge, which is a valuable source of nutrients (carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus), is its use for agricultural purposes. Sludge can be used for fertilising when it meets the requirements with regard to the content of heavy metals, the number of eggs of intestinal parasites and Salmonella bacteria, and when the amount of organic substances and fertilising components is sufficient. That is why it is so important to know exactly the characteristics of sewage sludge. This allows determination of whether it can be used as fertiliser in agriculture. The study assesses the agricultural use of sewage sludge from three mechanical and biological wastewater treatment plants of different PE, produced in 2016-2018. The analysis was carried out on the basis of the physicochemical parameters of the sludge. Particular attention was paid to the fertilisation and sanitary properties, as well as the presence of heavy metals, which were largely influenced by such factors as: the size of the wastewater treatment plant, the method of sewage sludge treatment and sludge management, and the nature of the catchment area. The concentrations of particular substances in sludge from wastewater treatment plants differed from one another, and sometimes these were very large differences. The conducted analysis showed that sewage sludge, from both small and large wastewater treatment plants, has a significant potential as agricultural fertiliser due to the presence of minerals such as nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium.
STALOWA WOLA – THE CITY OF BIG INVESTMENTS. HISTORY, THE PRESENT, THE FUTURE
Authors: Anna Sikora  , Marek Kowal
Published: May 2023

After regaining independence in 1918, Poland faced the task of rebuilding its infrastructure. One of the main achievements, apart from the port of Gdynia, was Stalowa Wola – a city built on a “raw root” with a closed, avant-garde composition, which was largely realized.

The appearance of the city was influenced by the doctrines: modernist (including socialist modernism) and socialist realist. The article presents a design procedure model that can be used in the case of designing areas with the morphogenesis of a modernist city. The proposed method uses the theoretical considerations of Aldo Rossi and Jan Gehl and the elements of User Experience Design (UX).
HOW A NATURAL EDUCATION SHOULD ADDRESS ISSUES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Authors: Olena Mitrasova  , Andrii Mats
Published: May 2023

The purpose of the research is the creation of an effective didactic system through the integrated approach to the content of natural education with a special emphasis on professional orientation. Methods of the analysis, synthesis of knowledge, educational experiment, and mathematical statistics were used for the fulfillment of the purpose. The effective didactic system of interdisciplinary knowledge of  natural-science course, namely the water security course, was created. The educational experiment proved the effectiveness of building the educational content of the training course based on an integrated approach.
Proximate and Antinutrient Composition of Hura crepitans (Sandbox Tree) Seeds
Authors: Ukpong Etiowo George , Tom Janet Monday , Okon Okon Effiong , Effiong James Okon , Bobson Promise–Godsfavour Mfon
Published: May 2023

Analysis of proximate and antinutrient composition of Hura crepitans (Sandbox tree) seeds obtained from campus of Akwa Ibom State Polytechnic Ikot Osurua, Ikot Ekpene were carried out using standard analytical procedures. The result of the proximate composition analysis showed that H. crepitans seeds contain moisture content (13.875 ± 0.176%), crude fat (36.750±1.060%), crude fibre (0.5±0.000%), crude protein (36.625±0.884%), ash content (0.25±0.000%) and carbohydrate (25.875±0.200%). The result of the antinutrient analysis showed that H. crepitans seeds contain phytic acid (phytate) (0.615±0.002mg/100g), hydrogen cyanide (3.289±0.003mg/100g), oxalate (1.386±0.001mg/100g) and tannins (8.130±0.003mg/100g). Tannins had the highest concentration while phytate had the lowest concentration of all the antinutrients analyzed. The antinutrients can be removed during processing. The result of the proximate composition reveals high crude fat and protein contents of the seed of H. crepitans, showing that the seed is nutritional. Findings from this study therefore suggest intensified research on the seeds of H. crepitans so as to harness its potentials in the production of animal feed.
Application of Market Information System for Major Agricultural Commodities in Haryana (India)
Authors: Sain Veer , Bajwan Aarti , Singh Gulab
Published: May 2023

The study on “Application of Market Information System of Major Agricultural Commodities in Haryana” was carried out in Karnal, Ambala, Mahendergarh, Bhiwani and Sirsa districts of Haryana, selected purposively based on the highest area under the major agricultural commodities. Two blocks from each district i.e., from Karnal (Karnal and Assandh), Ambala (Naraingarh and Sahazadpur), Mahendergarh (Mahendergarh and Kanina), Bhiwani (Siwani and Tosham) and Sirsa (Dabwali and Baragudha) were selected purposively. From each district, four regulated markets were selected based on maximum arrival i.e., Basmati Rice from Karnal (Karnal, Gharaunda, Assandh and Taraori), maize from Ambala (Sahazadpur, Mullana, Naraingarh and Ambala city), mustard from Mahendergarh (Mahendergarh, Ateli, Kanina and Narnaul), gram from Bhiwani (Siwani, Charkhi Dadri, Tosham and Bhiwani) and cotton from Sirsa (Dabwali, Ellenabad, Sirsa and Kalanwali) under the major agricultural commodities. The total sample size consisted of 300 farmers, 200 traders and 20 market committees were surveyed. Out of the expectations of farmers on quality, prices in potential markets, price projections; only arrivals and prices were documented and disseminated with traditional/modern approach. Forecasting of prices showed that the prices of Basmati rice, maize, mustard, gram, and cotton in Karnal, Ambala, Mahendergarh, Bhiwani and Sirsa districts, respectively were moving in same trend as predicted.
Effect of Different Nutrient Media in Growth and Health of Tomato Seedlings in Arghakhanchi District (Nepal)
Authors: Panthi Samrat , Neupane Prativa , Bhusal Anita
Published: May 2023

This research was performed on March-May 2021 to evaluate the effects of different growth media on health and growth characteristics of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) seedlings. The experiment was laid in Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with five treatments and four replications. The different nutrient media used were FYM, Poultry Manure, Vermicompost and Cocopeat each with 1:1 mix with soil. The other nutrient medium being soil only as a control treatment. Seeds of Manisha variety were sown on the tray under the high-tech greenhouse nursery with respective treatments. Data entry and arrangement of collected data was done using MS Excel and further analysis was done using R-studio. At 14 days after sowing, FYM (93.33%) and Cocopeat (94.17%) had the highest germination percentage while control (70%) had the lowest percentage of germinated seedlings. Other parameters as seedling height (10.78 cm), plant stand (90.83%) and leaf number (10.75) were found higher in cocopeat +soil (1:1) treatment. Disease incidence (33.4%), however, was found higher in poultry manure. From this experiment, Cocopeat +soil (1:1) mix proved to be the best medium for raising tomato seedlings as disease incidence was low, germination percentage was higher including final plant stand, seedling height and leaf number as compared to other nutrient media.
Analysis of Value Chain Model of Sheep-Fattening Business in Langkat District
Authors: Marisa Julia , Sitepu Sukma Aditya , Rianto Aditiya Amanda
Published: May 2023

Aims: To increase the beef cattle business by minimizing business production costs.

Study Design: This research begins with preliminary studies such as conducting literature studies, problem identification, needs analysis, and system identification. Then conduct field observations and expert interviews. Best practice value chain analysis consists of several steps, which are both descriptive and analytical. Value chain analysis describes the overall market in which a particular value chain operates.

Place and Duration of Study: The research was conducted from November 2022-January 2023 in Sei Bingai District, Langkat Regency.

Methodology: The method used in this study is value chain analysis through mapping Hayami's value chain and added value.

Results: The value chain model for fattening sheep in the research area can be applied to improve performance through efficiency, integration of actors, and distribution channels to deliver to consumers. Based on data processing and analysis results, it is known that the problem of sheep value chain management is a constraint on resource input in the form of a shortage of sheep supply, so Langkat Regency still depends on supplies from other regions.

Conclusion: Mapping a value chain model based on actual business processes requires designing a supply chain solution to address critical aspects that hinder the smooth management of the sheep value chain.
Serratia marcescens Meningitis: Neonatal Case
Authors: Tahiri F. , Lalaoui A. , Kaouani D. , Bennaoui F. , Slitine N. El-Idrissi , Soraa N. , Maouainine F. M. R.
Published: May 2023

Serratia marcescens belongs to the Enterobacteriaceae family, commonly found in water, soil, animals, insects, plants. Although Serratia marcescens has low virulence, it causes nosocomial infections and outbreaks in extremely immunocompromised or critically ill patients, particularly in intensive care units, particularly neonatal units. This pathogen causes a wide range of clinical symptoms in newborns, including keratitis, conjunctivitis, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, surgical site infections, sepsis, bloodstream infection, and meningitis. The bloodstream is the most commonly infected location, followed by the respiratory tract and the gastrointestinal tract.  Serratia marcescens strains implicated in epidemic events have often proven to be multiresistant. Indeed, this species has an inherent resistance to multiple antibiotic families. Often, the particular source of infection cannot be determined. However, infected hands of healthcare professionals are thought to be a key vector for its spread. Infection of the central nervous system by this bacterium in the neonatal period leads to serious neurological sequelae with high mortality interest of early and adequate management. Through our work we report the clinical presentation, the positive diagnosis as well as the therapeutic management and the evolution of a newborn having presented a meningitis with Serratia marcescens complicated by ventriculitis.
Laboratory and Sonographic Assessment of Intestinal Parasitic Load of Peasant Farmers in Emekuku Village in Nigeria
Authors: Odumeru E. A. , Njoku C. B. , Ewurum C. , Agwunobi K.
Published: May 2023

Background: Intestinal parasites (IP) are organisms that live and strife within the host for harm or mutual benefit, is a global concern infecting over 3 billion people and causing morbidity in about 450 million people worldwide of which the developing countries are most affected, the majority being school children, rural dwellers, and peasant farmers. Parasitic load (PL) in our locality has not been assessed, or determined, and comparisons made based on biographic data of the peasant farmers.

Objective: The study was aimed at determining the PL of peasant farmers in Emekuku by Laboratory and Sonographic examinations.

Methods: A cross-sectional study design with a purposive non-probability sampling technique was used to select 126 subjects within the age group of 20 years to 90 years of both sexes. Stool specimens were collected, Wet preparation and Concentration Methods were used for laboratory investigation and comparisons were made. Sonography was used for the confirmation and characterization of IP. Data were analyzed with simple descriptive statistics and chi-square.

Results: Wet prep technique recorded 10 (7.94%) positive cases while the Concentration method recorded 44 (34.92%) positive cases (P < 0.05). Ascaris lumbricoides amongst other IPs had the highest manifestation in the study, most prevalent in the age group 80 to 89 years,10 (62.5%) and more occurring in the female 10 (15.87%) and significant (P =0.039967). Sonographic indices for confirmation of IP were 4 (80.0%) out of 5.

Conclusion: Sonography complements the role of Laboratory stool analysis for the presence, characterization, location, and complications of IP such as Ascaris lumbricoides.
Low Cost Zero till In situ Green Manuring for Kharif Rice-A Success Story
Authors: Ghorai Ankit Kumar , Ghorai Asesh Kumar
Published: May 2023

Low cost zero till in situ green manuring using plant species like dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) and sunnhemp (Crotalaria juncea) will eliminate the age old problems of large scale adoption of green manuring across the farming community. These two species germinated and grown well when sown before (as paira crop during last irrigation) or after rice harvest under zero till condition, with assured nor western rain/monsoon rain or with one post sowing irrigation (7.5 cm). The zero till paira dhaincha green manuring process opened up the scope of producing green manuring at lower cost and saves up to Rs.15000/ha over conventional rain fed green manuring system. Green manuring by dhaincha produced 50-60 tonnes of biomass at 35-40 DAS in alluvial (North 24 PGS),  lateritic (Purulia)  and clay soils (Paschim Medinipur), produced 30-50 q raw rice /ha and saved 20-27 kg (30 per cent) chemical nitrogen/ha. This green manure will help in quicker decomposition of rice straw left after combined harvest (3.5- 6,0 t/ha), minimise its field burning, sequester enough carbon to the soil. Fifty tonnes green biomass of dhaincha/sunnhemp, has the potential to absorb 15 tonnes CO2 from the atmosphere, sequesters 2 tonnes of carbon in soil, minimise environmental pollution, improve soil health, its structure and water holding capacity. This technique can be adopted in rice growing countries across the globe without difficulty.  Seed production dhaincha and sunnhemp  is possible by growing it as paira crop (40 kg/ha) within kharif rice which grows up to 45 cm height, produces healthy pods and matures by 70 days which otherwise takes 5-8 months in normal season. If the seed crop is not harvested in rice fallows, from shattered seeds, self-seeded zero till and rain fed dhaincha manure can be obtained in rice fallows.
Evaluation of Physico-chemical Parameters of Soil in Different Cropping Systems and their Co-relation with Earthworm Diversity
Authors: Kaur Arshpreet , Sidhu A. S. , Aulakh R. K. , Kaur Jagjot , Singh Amanpreet
Published: May 2023

Aim: The present study is an attempt to evaluate the impact of earthworm diversity on physico-chemical parameters of soil in different cropping systems (i.e. basmati-wheat, basmati-chickpea, soybean-wheat, moong-wheat) under organic and conventional farming systems.

Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at the School of Organic Farming, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India from June, 2020 to March 2021.

Methodology: The four earthworm species found during the study period are Metaphire posthuma, Lampito mauritti, Amynthas morissia and Travoscolides chengannure, which belong to two families i.e. Megascolicidae and Octochateidae. Out of these Travoscolides chengannure was reported for the first time in Punjab.

Results: The results indicate that richer earthworm diversity was found in the organic farming systems as compared to the conventional farming systems. The correlation analysis of earthworm abundance with the physicochemical parameters of soil in different farming systems revealed that the abundance of earthworms in organic farming system shows positive but non-significant correlation with pH, nitrogen and potassium levels. In conventional farming system, significant positive correlation (p=0.01) was found for organic carbon, electric conductivity and nitrogen.

Conclusion: The findings of this encourage switching from conventional to organic farming practices. These practices not only increase earthworm diversity, but enrich the soil with many major and micro-nutrients. The agriculture practices which are earthworm-friendly should be adopted for long-term soil productivity.
New Fe(III) Trichlorido Complex of a Bidentate N'-(thiophen-2-ylmethylene)isonicotinohydrazide Ligand: Synthesis, X-ray Structure, Spectral Characterization, and Electrochemistry Study
Authors: Gadiaga Dame , Sy Adama , Ndoye Cheikh , Traoré Bocar , Excoffier Grégory , Diouf Ousmane , Gaye Mohamed
Published: May 2023

Fe(III) complex of the hydrazone  from (E)-N'-(thiophen-2-ylmethylene)isonicotinohydrazide (HL) has been synthesized and characterized by elemental analysis, electrical conductance in non-aqueous solvents, FT-IR and electronic spectroscopies, room temperature magnetic measurement, electrochemistry study as well as by X-ray diffraction structure determination. In the complex, the ligand acts in its neutral bidentate form, coordinating through the carbonyl oxygen and azomethine nitrogen. A high spin octahedral geometry assigned to the Fe(III) complex were further confirmed by room temperature magnetic moment data. Elemental analysis showed that Fe(III) complex is composed of metal and ligands in a molar ratio of 1:1. This complex of Fe(III) is a neutral electrolyte in DMF solution. The electrochemistry study shows that a one electron process determined the electrochemical reaction is governed by an electron transfer with an irreversible process.  The structure of the complex has also been determined by X-ray diffraction revealing an octahedral environment around the Fe(III) ion.
A Review on Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 1st to 6th Report
Authors: Ekah B. J. , Akwagiobe J. U. , Udo S. O. , Ewona I. O.
Published: May 2023

This article reviews the first to sixth report of the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The types of greenhouse gases, sources of greenhouse gases and the impact of climate change on man, animals and the environment has been identified. The strategies to combat climate change has been studied in these reports. A review of these reports are necessary and it is an obligatory document required to combat the adverse effects of climate change and global warming.
Severe Maternal Morbidity Among Pregnant People With Opioid Use Disorder Enrolled in Medicaid
Authors: Auty Samantha G. , Frakt Austin B. , Shafer Paul R. , Stein Michael D. , Gordon Sarah H.
Published: January 2025

Importance

Pregnant people with opioid use disorder (OUD) are at high risk for potentially avoidable maternal morbidity. The majority of pregnant people with OUD receive health insurance through state Medicaid programs, but there is little comprehensive data on the burden of severe maternal morbidity (SMM)—a composite measure of adverse maternal health outcomes—among this high-risk group.

Objective

To estimate rates of SMM among Medicaid-enrolled pregnant people with OUD from 2016 to 2018.

Design, Setting, and Participants

Using the Transformed Medicaid Statistical Information System Analytic Files, this cross-sectional study identified 96 309 pregnant people with OUD enrolled in Medicaid in 47 states with 108 975 deliveries between March 1, 2016, and November 16, 2018. Data were analyzed from August 1, 2023, to September 1, 2024.

Main Outcome and Measures

SMM was identified using International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision diagnosis and procedure codes for 20 relevant conditions and was measured per 10 000 live births nationally and by state. Rates of SMM were also stratified by the timing of Medicaid enrollment before delivery.

Results

From 2016 to 2018, 96 309 Medicaid enrollees had a diagnosis of OUD before a live birth (108 975 deliveries). The mean (SD) age of Medicaid-enrolled pregnant people with OUD was 28.8 (5.0) years. The mean (SD) rate of OUD among pregnant people enrolled in Medicaid was 324.8 (260.9) per 10 000 live births across states. Among this group, the mean (SD) unadjusted rate of SMM excluding blood transfusions among those with OUD was 292.1 (112.3) per 10 000 live births, with these rates varying substantially across states, from 101.0 per 10 000 live births in South Dakota to 682.2 per 10 000 live births in California. Adjustment for enrollee characteristics and comorbidities did not meaningfully alter the estimated rate of SMM (305.6 [95% CI, 245.2-408.2] per 10 000 live births). Rates of SMM generally increased with decreased durations of Medicaid enrollment.

Conclusions and Relevance

This cross-sectional study of pregnant people enrolled in Medicaid found that the rate of OUD among this group was more than twice as high as previous estimates. Pregnant people with OUD face a disproportionately high risk of SMM, particularly those who enroll in Medicaid later in pregnancy. Targeted interventions that facilitate early Medicaid enrollment and coverage continuity may be needed to reduce the burden of adverse outcomes in this group.
Strengthening the bond with the scientific community: FEBS Open Bio in 2025
Authors: Fuentes Sara , De la Rosa Miguel A.
Published: January 2025

FEBS Open Bio remains dedicated to serving the scientific community by ensuring rapid publication of rigorous science and pioneering initiatives to support researchers. In this editorial, we reflect on a year of achievements, and look forward to the new developments planned for 2025.
Bilingualism and Speech Perception
Authors: Rojczyk Arkadiusz
Published: January 2025

Humans are born with an astonishingly effective capacity for speech perception. This capacity allows them to acquire their native language in a spontaneous and effortless manner. The studies on early bilingual perception show that infants are exceptionally successful at perceptually differentiating two or even more languages and directing their attention to individual‐specific phonetic properties of each language. However, when learning a foreign language later in life, it is a common experience that perception is not optimal, leading to many difficulties with correct identification of sounds and words. This entry succinctly discusses the phenomenon of bilingual speech perception to show how it works in simultaneous bilingualism and late bilingualism. The core of the argument is that, despite the widespread beliefs that humans lose sensitivity to categorize speech sounds in a foreign language with age, the accumulated research shows that the mechanisms underlying speech perception remain intact over the entire life span and that they are retrainable to accommodate phonetic properties in L2 that are absent in a native language.
Connectives
Authors: Bondi Marina
Published: January 2025

Connectives can be studied both as functional sentence elements and as elements of a textual or discourse grammar. The textual dimension introduced by text linguistics and discourse analysis has certainly intensified interest in their role. Attention is paid to the multifunctionality of connectives and to their independence from specific grammatical categories: connectives are seen as relational and organizational units, acting as instructions for the reader/hearer in many cognitive or semantic approaches. The study of connectors has been characterized by great terminological instability and by an emphasis on the complexity of the relations of these elements of textual grammar in the rapidly developing fields of semantics and pragmatics. Studies of connectives have often highlighted the problems of distinguishing semantic from pragmatic meaning in their use and attempts to arrive at a functional typology have been accompanied by an awareness that categories may be overlapping. The textual viewpoint developed by text linguistics and discourse analysis has rapidly inspired a wider range of different applied perspectives that can offer new insights into connectives. These include the following: discourse processing, argumentation, corpus‐based studies on variation and change, cross‐linguistic analysis, translation studies, studies on non‐native speakers, and learner corpora.
Grammar and Information Structure
Authors: Callies Marcus
Published: January 2025

This entry discusses the concept of information structure and several fundamental principles of information structure that govern the ordering of units of information within a sentence or utterance (constituent order, information status, and syntactic weight/heaviness) as well as related concepts (topic, focus, emphasis, intensification, and contrast). It then explains and exemplifies how information structure interacts with grammar and how it is encoded in linguistic structure by means of focus constructions.
Language Planning, Policy, and Multilingualism
Authors: Safont Pilar
Published: January 2025

The complexity of multilingualism may be manifested in the existing policies and planning arrangements that can be identified in many speech communities around the world. The present entry provides a global overview related to language planning and policy as an area of study (i.e., LPP) while adopting a multilingual perspective. Existing research illustrating the relationship between LPP and multilingualism is described at the societal and the individual level. On that account, this entry tackles education policies as an instance of macro LPP and family language policies as examples of micro planning. In addition to that, some challenges deriving from societal needs and existing research on LPP and multilingualism are presented. More specifically, we refer to issues like the rise of information and communications technology, e‐multilingualism, and the elaborate implementation of policies favoring gender‐neutral language use in multilingual settings.
Multiliteracies in Education
Authors: Kalantzis Mary , Cope Bill
Published: January 2025

After defining multiliteracies and providing a brief bibliographical background, this encyclopedia entry analyzes the socio‐linguistic context which prompted the development of this approach, the multiliteracies analysis of multimodal meaning, and pedagogical applications of multiliteracies. The entry concludes with a call for education justice supported by the precepts and practices of multiliteracies.
Pragmatics: An Overview
Authors: Taguchi Naoko , Kádár Dániel Z.
Published: January 2025

Pragmatics is a field of linguistics concerning linguistic forms and the meaning they produce in a social context. Second language (L2) pragmatics is a field of applied linguistics which investigates how L2 speakers use linguistic and nonlinguistic means to produce and understand meanings, how their use develops over time, and what factors affect this development. This entry provides an overview of these two interrelated fields and also underscores the interface between them. We survey major theories of pragmatics and discuss how they have been applied to L2 pragmatics research to advance our understanding of L2 pragmatic competence and development. The entry is concluded with future directions for the pragmatics–L2 pragmatics partnership. Intertwining pragmatics and L2 pragmatics in this entry is necessary because these areas represent the backbone of the current volume of the Encyclopedia.
Grammar in Standards and Varieties of English
Authors: Shaw Philip M.
Published: January 2025

Within a set of texts or interactions in any language, there is always variation in linguistic form (pronunciation/spelling, lexis, and grammar). The variation between geographical or social groups is captured by the terms
norm
(or
usage)
,
standard
, and
variety
. Because communities develop norms different from one another, many varieties of English (especially spoken) can be identified, with partly differing grammars. Non‐standard grammar can vary quite widely as a result of different inputs to different varieties or separate development. Some features are inherited from the learner English of early users; some rules may be simplified, others imported from the previous language of the community. Written Standard English is a high‐status variety first formulated around the end of the eighteenth century and now broadly uniform worldwide. Different communities adopt different versions of the standard, but there is little grammatical variation in these; the variation in language in use comes mainly from its non‐standard features. The advent of corpora of varieties of English has allowed us to see statistical variation among varieties, even standardized ones, that is otherwise invisible.
Connectives in French
Authors: Zufferey Sandrine , Degand Liesbeth
Published: January 2025

The study of French connectives has undergone significant evolution since the 1970s, with foundational research paving the way for the development of key concepts in discourse and pragmatics. This contribution provides an in‐depth examination of various French connectives, focusing on their linguistic functions, syntactic behaviors, and cross‐linguistic comparisons. It highlights the distinction between objective and subjective discourse relations, particularly in the usage of causal connectives like car, parce que, and puisque, and discusses their impact on language processing and comprehension. The article also explores the semantic differences and processing costs associated with these connectives, particularly in the context of native and non‐native speakers. Furthermore, it underscores the importance of prosodic cues in disambiguating the meanings of polyfunctional connectives and calls for further research into the complex form‐function mappings of connectives across languages. This comprehensive analysis contributes to a deeper understanding of how French connectives function within discourse and how they compare to their counterparts in other languages.
Corpus Linguistics: Quantitative Methods
Authors: Gries Stefan Th.
Published: January 2025

This chapter surveys the most frequent statistical methods in corpus linguistics. It first discusses specifically corpus‐linguistic statistics such as frequencies, dispersion, and association/keyness, before it turns to general statistical tools used for supervised learning/predictive modeling as well as unsupervised exploratory tools.
The Acquisition of Emotional Words
Authors: Ferré Pilar , Rodríguez‐Cuadrado Sara , Hinojosa José Antonio
Published: January 2025

Research on multilingualism and emotion has mostly evidenced a larger effect of emotional content of words in the first language (L1) respective to other languages known by the speaker (LX). In this entry, we review studies on the acquisition of emotional words in LX, addressing four issues that have sparked interest in researchers: the effect of emotional content in the acquisition of LX words in adult speakers; the role of acquisition context and teaching strategies on the emotionality of the new LX words; the effect of the conceptual/structural (non)equivalence across languages in the acquisition of emotion words; and the development of emotional vocabulary in monolingual and bilingual children. These studies show that emotional content facilitates LX word acquisition in adult learners, especially when the attachment of the new word labels to emotions is strengthened. However, the acquisition of emotion LX words can be hindered in cases of structural and conceptual non‐equivalence with the L1. Emotional content also facilitates word acquisition in the case of children's L1. Bilingual children develop their emotional language largely as monolinguals do, both when they are exposed to the two languages from birth and when they are immersed in a majority LX. These findings suggest the most determining factor in conferring the emotional tone to a language is not the L1‐LX status, but rather the context of acquisition and use. They also have important implications for LX teaching, suggesting strategies with which to facilitate the acquisition of new words and their attachment to emotions.
Listening as a Pedagogical Target
Authors: Goh Christine C. M.
Published: January 2025

Listening and speaking are two language skills for second language (L2) oral communication. Yet listening does not often get the attention it deserves because it is speaking that is often emphasized in oral communication activities. Many teachers believe that listening is a skill that learners can easily “pick up” if they spend sufficient time learning the language. At the same time, listening remains a skill that many teachers lack confidence in teaching. They lack theoretical understanding of L2 listening and pedagogical knowledge for it. This article explains what L2 listening entails and why it is important that listening is systematically taught and learned. It provides an overview of listening instruction approaches in the past six decades that respectively focused on text comprehension, oral communication, and learners and the learning process. It surveys some research that provides insights into factors that affect learners' listening comprehension and pedagogical interventions that hold promise for translation in day‐to‐day teaching in the classroom. Future directions for teaching and learning are highlighted.
Grammar and Applied Language Typology
Authors: Filipović Luna
Published: January 2025

This contribution introduces the framework of applied language typology (ALT). It focuses on certain typological contrasts between languages that pose difficulties in cross‐linguistic communication and in different practical contexts of language use. As such, ALT draws on many theoretical and applied linguistic insights about language contrasts at different levels of analysis (morphological, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic) in order to help us predict when, where, and why miscommunication may occur due to these contrasts and how to prevent or remedy this in concrete situations. The discussion includes different grammatical features, namely, the grammatical category of evidentiality, word order rules, construction meanings, and patterns for event lexicalization. Concrete examples are provided for the feature types in focus and their relevance is exemplified in different communicative contexts (e.g., legal or pedagogical). This paper also documents actual or potential difficulties that arise on occasions when these contrasting grammatical features are not adequately addressed or brought to awareness in real‐life situations (e.g., when interpreting for the police or in second language teaching). Further avenues are proposed for continuing research of this kind that includes more language pairs and more linguistic features. The conclusion offers arguments in favor of including ALT in the education of not only applied linguists and language professionals, such as translators and interpreters, but also of legal, medical, and other practitioners whose work is heavily reliant on appropriate language use, which in turn would be beneficial for users of various public services and for our increasingly multilingual and multicultural societies in general.
Assessment of Interactional Competence
Authors: Dai David Wei
Published: January 2025

Interactional Competence (IC) describes a language user's ability to interact with others in real‐world contexts that have rich social, cultural, and interpersonal cues. The notion of IC has attracted particular interest from language assessment researchers since existing speaking tests tend to focus on discrete linguistic abilities such as grammar and vocabulary while how these abilities are used for real‐world interpersonal communication is less emphasized. This entry discusses how an IC test construct can be defined, drawing on IC's constructivist epistemology and methodologies in Conversation Analysis and Membership Categorization Analysis. I present three current approaches to IC rubric development: the discourse approach, the synthesis approach, and the universal approach. As to IC task development, I first discuss what dialogic and monologic tasks can offer to IC assessment. This is followed by explaining two principled approaches to IC task development: the IC‐additive approach and the IC‐centered approach. There is a discussion on the value of needs analysis for developing IC tasks that are meaningful to test users. This entry concludes with three future research directions for IC assessment: (a) developing and validating more comprehensive IC constructs that cover the sequential, emotional, logical, moral, and categorial dimensions of IC; (b) investigating to what extent IC is influenced by general language proficiency and if IC is an ability that both L2 and L1 speakers need to be taught and assessed on; (c) exploring what technological advances such as artificial intelligence can offer to make IC assessment more accessible, especially to test‐takers of disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds.
The Moderating Role of Psychological Distress in the Relationship Between Postmodernism and Left‐Wing Authoritarianism
Authors: Deverson Sebastian , Delfabbro Paul , Georgiou Neophytos
Published: January 2025

In recent years increased interest towards the growth of political polarisation in many Western countries has focussed on extreme conservative views. However, less is known about ideologies on the opposing end of the spectrum that may also lead to antisocial activist behaviour and suppression of dissenting viewpoints. This study aimed to explore the factors associated with these beliefs with a particular focus on postmodern beliefs and the role of psychological distress as predictors of what has been termed left‐wing authoritarianism. A total of 365 participants completed measures of ideological beliefs, left‐wing authoritarianism and psychological distress. The study found that postmodern beliefs and distress predicted left‐wing authoritarianism. Contrary to expectations, the effect of postmodernism on left‐wing authoritarianism was stronger when distress was low. Future studies could extend these findings through a greater focus on other potential influences, and the possible moderating role these have on belief development.
Highly Flexible, Stretchable, and Compressible Lignin‐Based Hydrogel Sensors with Frost Resistance for Advanced Bionic Hand Control
Authors: Yang Jian , Yang Kang , An Xingye , Fan Zeyun , Li Yan , Yin Lingyu , Long Yinying , Pan Gangyuan , Liu Hongbin , Ni Yonghao
Published: January 2025

Bio‐based hydrogels, valued for their flexibility, tunable mechanical properties, and biocompatibility, are promising materials for wearable skins and sensing devices in bionic hand control systems. Lignin, a biopolymer rich in functional groups, can be modified into UV‐curable monomers, enabling the development of 3D‐printed hydrogels via photopolymerization. However, the inherent rigidity of lignin's aromatic rings, coupled with covalent cross‐linking between lignin and other monomers, often limits the hydrogel's stretchability (poor strain) and compressibility. Additional challenges, including poor moisture retention and freeze resistance, further hinder their wider application. In this study, a lignin‐based hydrogel is developed with high flexibility, tensile strain (≥350%), compressive strain (≈95%), and fatigue resistance (up to 10 000 cycles under 50% strain, and 200–800 cycles under 95% compressive strain), which is achieved by incorporating glycerol and lithium chloride to facilitate dynamic hydrogen and lithium ion bonds, while accordingly reducing covalent cross‐linking sites between monomers. The enhanced moisture retention and freeze resistance of hydrogels allow effective sensing performance at −40±1 °C. Afterward, using 3D printing technology, wearable tensile strain sensors and ripple‐shaped 3 × 3 Matrix hydrogel pressure sensors are fabricated, which demonstrated uniform stress distribution and improved performance in controlling complex bionic hand movements, underscoring their application in advancing human–machine interfaces.
Taking Advantage of Activation Potential Coincidence to Unlock Stable Direct Seawater Splitting
Authors: Yu Yang , Zhou Wei , Zhou Xiaohan , Yuan Junshu , Zhang Xuewei , Meng Xiaoxiao , Sun Fei , Gao Jihui , Zhao Guangbo
Published: January 2025

Electrochemical seawater splitting faces competing chlorine evolution reactions and chlorine corrosion, proposing significant obstacles to commercial applications. In this work, a feasible strategy is developed for the simultaneous oxidation of SO42− and CoFe LDH to form an intercalation SO42−/CoFe LDH, which achieves excellent OER performance (265.2 mV@100 mA cm−2) and satisfactory stability (1000 h@500 mA cm−2). The presence of SO42− is found to enhance the intrinsic activity of CoFe LDH and reduce the corrosion tendency of CoFe LDH. In situ Raman and selected area electron diffraction results demonstrated that CoFe LDH and SO42− are simultaneously generated and inserted into the LDH interlayer. DFT calculations further confirmed that the insertion of SO42− reduced the tendency of Cl− adsorption, which improved the OER selectivity. Finally, in the flow AEM electrolyzer, the SO42−/CoFe LDH and Pt/C system exhibited a voltage of only 2.264 V at 500 mA cm−2 and achieved stable operation in natural seawater for 150 h. The working efficiency in natural seawater is as high as 55.0% with the price per GGE H2 as low as $1.211, which is promising for a wide range of applications.