bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
S
inclair,
U
pton (1878–1968)
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

Through some sixty publications Upton Sinclair ran through the gamut of America's institutions, seeking to end the exploitation of man by man and protect the American consumer. In his most famous work,
The Jungle
(1906), Sinclair exposed the conditions of the meatpacking industry in Chicago. After reading it, President Theodore Roosevelt ordered an investigation, commenting that while he disapproved of the way the book preached socialism he agreed that “radical action must be taken to do away with the efforts of arrogant and selfish greed on the part of the capitalist.” The passing of the Pure Food and Drugs Act (1906) and the Meat Inspection Act (1906) served as evidence of the impact the novel had in gaining public support for reform. It also inspired a movement in investigative journalism that President Roosevelt would coin “muckraking.”
S
ingh,
M
akhan (1913–1973)
Authors: Patel Zarina
Published: September 2017

Makhan Singh was the founder of the trade union movement in Kenya as well as a South Asian patriot who participated in the anticolonial struggle both in India and in Kenya. He was born and grew up in the Punjab during revolutionary times. His father, a modest carpenter, was a very religious Sikh. The combination of radical politics and humanitarian ideals shaped Makhan Singh's thinking. In 1927 he migrated to Nairobi, Kenya. A brilliant student but lacking financial resources, he joined his father's printing press. There he learned more about the exploitation of workers and colonial injustices and met with members of the Ghadr Party, an ally of India's Communist Party.
Situationists
Authors: Beaulieu Yannick
Published: September 2017

The Situationist International (SI) was a European organization seeking to construct circumstances to disrupt the mundane and jolt people out of the monotony of ordinary life within capitalist systems. Founded in 1957, SI was influenced by Marxism and the European artistic avant‐garde. In the 1960s, SI began advocating an array of sociopolitical reforms, but over the decade the group splintered into several organizations, including the Situationist Bauhaus, the Anti‐national, and the Second SI. In May 1968, the SI was at the center of the student uprisings in France.
S
lovakia, Dissidence in the 1970s
Authors: Kirschbaum Stanislav J.
Published: September 2017

The Helsinki Final Act, signed in 1975 by the United States, Canada, the Soviet Union, and most European states, including those from Central and Eastern Europe, guaranteed the borders and accepted the geopolitical situation created at the end of World War II. It also contained a series of provisions concerning respect for human rights, and some Central and Eastern European dissidents were able to use these provisions to challenge the communist regimes. Slovakians, however, expressed opposition primarily through personal religiosity and the activities of the secret church.
S
ojourner
T
ruth
O
rganization
Authors: Staudenmaier Michael
Published: September 2017

The Sojourner Truth Organization (STO) was a small revolutionary group that emphasized participation in mass struggles, opposed Stalinism as both politic and method, and contributed greatly to the development of the theory of white skin privilege, which it identified as the central impediment to the development of successful movements for social change within the United States. The organization was founded in late 1969 and existed until the mid–1980s, paralleling the historical trajectory of many larger and better‐known radical groups that developed in the aftermath of the new left. STO's unique contributions to revolutionary theory and strategy separate it from other outfits of the era.
Solidarity Federation
Authors: Franks Benjamin
Published: September 2017

The Solidarity Federation (SolFed) is an anarchosyndicalist organization and the British section of the International Workers Association (IWA), which counts among its number the Spanish union Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT), which was influential in the Spanish Civil War and the continuing resistance to Franco. SolFed is one of the few examples of a British anarchist group surviving across the generations. Its organizational origins lie in the Anarchist Federation of Britain (AFB) split in 1944, when a syndicalist majority gained prominence in the more general anarchist movement, although there are far older historical precursors in the radical unions organized by Rudolf Rocker and Jewish immigrant workers (Fishman 1975). The remaining syndicalist rump of the AFB retitled themselves the Syndicalist Workers Federation (SWF) in 1954, later becoming the Direct Action Movement (DAM) and latterly the Solidarity Federation (SolFed).
Sorel,Georges (1847–1922)
Authors: Shantz Jeff
Published: September 2017

Social theorist Georges Sorel developed a primarily intellectual version of syndicalism in the 1910s and 1920s in France. Revolutionary syndicalism, as this variant was known, saw working‐class direct action as the basis for a new society based on values of heroism and sacrifice, which, for Sorel, stood counter to the apathy and social degeneracy of bourgeois society. Syndicalism, and worker direct action, stood also as a refutation of the rule of society by bureaucratic and technocratic professionals. For Sorel, social movements were mobilized around inspirational “social myths” that condensed the hopes, desires, and aspirations of the movement in a striking and easily recognizable form.
S
ouphanouvong,
P
rince (1909–1995)
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

Leader of the Lao Issara (Free Lao) movement, Prince Souphanouvong, known as the Red Prince, led the Pathet Lao (Lao People) nationalist organization and was president of the country from December 2, 1975 to October 31, 1986.
Spartacist Uprising
Authors: Van Hoesen Brett M.
Published: September 2017

The Spartacist League (or Spartakusbund) was a German leftist, anti‐war organization formed during World War I under the name Gruppe Internationale (International Group). Leaders of the association included Rosa Luxemburg, Karl Liebknecht, and Franz Mehring. By 1916 the group had assumed its new name, the Spartakusbund, and shortly thereafter published its founding text,
The Junius Theses
.
Spiridonova, Maria (1884–1941)
Authors: Boniece Sally A.
Published: September 2017

A Socialist Revolutionary (SR) terrorist during the Russian Revolution of 1905–7 and a Left SR Party leader in the early Soviet era, Maria Aleksandrovna Spiridonova spent the greater part of her life in prison or administrative exile because of her legendary appeal as a revolutionary heroine and her opposition to the Bolshevik/Communist regime during the Russian Civil War. Using her personal charisma to enthrall mass audiences from what the SRs called the “toiling” classes, she worked tirelessly to advance the cause of international socialism through the empowerment of workers', peasants', and soldiers' councils or soviets. Although not a member of the short‐lived Bolshevik‐Left SR ministerial coalition in the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom) from November 1917 to March 1918, Spiridonova was elected chair of the Second and Third All‐Russian Congresses of Peasants' Soviets; she was also elected head of the Peasants' Section in the All‐Russian Soviet Executive Committee (VTsIK), thede factoparliament of the Soviet government that came to power in October 1917.
Student movement, Greece, 1990–1991
Authors: Boukalas Christos
Published: September 2017

In October 1990 secondary school students in Greece mobilized against an education reform bill introduced by the governing center‐right party Nea Dimokratia (New Democracy). At a time of prolonged political instability (1989–91) their movement would be the culminating event of popular struggle. Following a period of high‐profile political scandals and electoral crisis (1989–90), and a wave of strikes from across the public sector resisting the center‐right's privatization attempts, the students' struggle rallied popular opposition and became the most massive and prolonged gesture of resistance.
Student Movements
Authors: Roggero Gigi
Published: September 2017

In the history of modernity student movements have played a central role in protests, unrest, revolutions, and the formation of radical theories. A watershed can be indicated in the periodization of such movements: “Sixty‐Eight.” In fact, this is more an event than a date: it became the symbol of students' insurgency all over the world. At the same time, the temporal and spatial borders of this event need to be rethought, displacing the mainstream and mostly Eurocentric vision associated with it. On one hand, it is necessary to frame the students' “Sixty‐Eight” within the international workers', proletarian, and anti‐colonial struggles in the 1960s as well as the mobilizations against war and for civil rights. On the other hand, the student movements were not merely a western event. On the contrary, “Sixty‐Eight” can be seen as the first global revolutionary movement in modernity.
Student Non‐Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
Authors: Brown Susan Love
Published: September 2017

The Student Non‐Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was an organization founded on April 17, 1960 for the purpose of bringing together college students from all over the South who had participated in lunch counter sit‐ins so that they could engage fully in the leadership of the civil rights movement. Although SNCC was formed initially as the result of actions taken by the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to organize the students, SNCC remained independent of all other civil rights organizations, working in concert with them during the Freedom Rides and Freedom Summer. Eventually, members of SNCC became disillusioned with compromises made by older members of the civil rights movement and broke with their original philosophy of nonviolence and racial integration in favor of a Black Power approach that favored black exclusivity and self‐defense in the face of violence. Many scholars saw the formation of SNCC as marking a generational shift in the civil rights movement and the embrace by SNCC members of a Black Power ideology as the end of the movement.
Sudan, Aba Island Rebellion, 1970
Authors: Waskey Andrew J.
Published: September 2017

Sudan received its independence from the British in 1956. The movement for independence had pitted a number of political groups against the British. One of these was an Islamic party called the Umma (Nation) Party. Begun in the 1930s by Sadiq al‐Mahdi, the Umma Party sought complete independence. Sadiq was a grandson of Mohammad Ahmed al‐Mahdi who had successfully driven the British and the Turco‐Egyptian forces out of Sudan in the 1880s.
Swift, Jonathan (1667–1745)
Authors: Sonnelitter Karen
Published: September 2017

In the history of protest literature, few authors have been as successful as Jonathan Swift in making their dissident voices heard. Although he sometimes wielded his satirical pen on behalf of narrow partisan political interests, the universal themes of his best writing assure its immortality. His best‐known work,
Gulliver's Travels
, takes pomposity and the absurdity of the human condition as its subjects, and his
Battle of the Books
lampoons the self‐importance of scholarly discourse, but some of his most powerful satires take aim at wrongs done to his native Ireland. In
A Modest Proposal for Preventing the Children of Poor People in Ireland Being a Burden to Their Parents or Country, and for Making Them Beneficial to the Public
, Swift argued with deadpan seriousness that impoverished Irish families should breed children to be sold as culinary delicacies for the rich.
Syndicalism, France
Authors: Leberstein Stephen
Published: September 2017

The two decades before World War I were the “heroic” period for French syndicalism, one that saw it emerge as a major workers' movement pledged to revolution. Syndicalists were highly conscious of their class identity. Seeing in class consciousness an essential element of a revolutionary movement, they rejected parliamentary politics as a means to the new socialist society that would be organized by a working class they regarded as sufficient in its own right for this task.
Szabó, Ervin (1877–1918)
Authors: Bak János M.
Published: September 2017

Ervin Szabó, a Hungarian sociologist and anarchosyndicalist, was born in Slanica (now a lost village in Slovakia). After studies in Budapest and Vienna he became a librarian, and from 1911 director of the Budapest Municipal Library (now bearing his name), which he made into a modern public library. A member of the Social Democratic Party from 1900, he was co‐founder, with Oscar Jászi, of the journal
Huszadik Század (Twentieth Century)
, the organ of modern social science in Hungary, and a regular contributor to
Neue Zeit (New Times)
as well as, later on, to
Mouvement Socialiste (Socialist Movement)
. After failing to organize a successful opposition to the doctrinaire‐reformist Social Democratic Party in 1905, he came to be ever closer to anarchists at home and abroad.
Tagore, Saumyendranath (1901–1974)
Authors: Gupta Shatarupa Sen
Published: September 2017

Saumyendranath Tagore began his political career as a Gandhian but joined the Workers' and Peasants' Party (WPP) in April 1926. Thereafter, he began mobilizing the jute mill‐workers of Bengal to form the Bengal Jute Workers' Association. Both his success as a trade union activist and his attempts to win over revolutionary terrorists to the WPP made him a marked man. In order to avoid arrest, Tagore left for Europe in May 1927 with a mandate from the WPP. By June 1927 he was in Moscow where he presented a report on the political condition of India. He attended the Sixth Congress of the Comintern in 1928 as an Indian delegate, and expressed some limited unease with the Colonial Thesis, though he did hold that since the Indian bourgeoisie had much to gain from the British, any upsurge in the national revolution would make them oppose it.
Taiwan, Anti‐Imperialism and Nationalism
Authors: Greene J. Megan
Published: September 2017

Nationalism in Taiwan has in many ways been generated and refined through a series of protests of foreign imperialism. Taiwan has had a long history of imperialist conquest, which began with the Dutch in the seventeenth century and ended, according to many Taiwan nationalists, with the Guomindang (GMD) takeover of the island in 1945. Over this 300–year period, Taiwan was governed by Dutch, Chinese, and Japanese rulers, and although protests were infrequent, from the late nineteenth century on they took on an increasingly nationalistic character. In recent years, Taiwanese nationalists have drawn upon the island's colonial history to encourage its modern residents to resist efforts by the People's Republic of China (PRC) to take it over and turn it into a Chinese province.
T
aiwan, Land Reform
Authors: Greene J. Megan
Published: September 2017

Sometimes small revolutions occur as the consequence of state policy. An example of this phenomenon was the land reform of 1949 to 1953 in Taiwan. During this period, the Guomindang (GMD) government, which had taken control of Taiwan at the end of World War II, undertook a thorough land reform in an effort to disempower local elites, solve problems of economic inequity in the countryside, and carry through an economic strategy that had been espoused by the GMD founder, Sun Yatsen. Land reform resulted in a radical redistribution of wealth in the Taiwanese countryside which had a lasting effect on economics and politics through the twentieth century. It thus amounted to an essentially non‐violent, rural, economic “revolution from above” that was guided by a coercive state.
Taiwan, 2–28 protests, 1947
Authors: Greene J. Megan
Published: September 2017

In 1895 Taiwan was ceded by China's Qing court to the Japanese, who had defeated China in the Sino‐Japanese War (1894–5). With this act, Taiwan became Japan's first imperial colony, and it remained so for the next 50 years. After such a long colonial experience not all Taiwanese were pleased when, in 1945, Taiwan was returned to China in accordance with the terms of the Cairo Declaration of December 1, 1943 that was agreed upon by Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai‐shek), Winston Churchill, and Franklin Roosevelt. This displeasure increased as representatives of Jiang's Guomindang (GMD) government took over Taiwan and began to implement a new set of political, economic, and social policies that in many ways discriminated against the Japanized Taiwanese and sought to extract as many resources as possible from Taiwan to assist the GMD in their quest to solidify their control over mainland China. Rising tension between Taiwanese people and representatives of the GMD government culminated in a protest riot that began on February 28, 1947 and that led to a lengthy repression of the Taiwanese people.
Tecún Umán (d. 1524)
Authors: Zito Dima
Published: September 2017

Tecún Umán led the resistance of the Mayan Quiché people against the Spanish invasion in the highlands now called Guatemala and was killed in a battle by the conquistador Pedro de Alvarado.
Tiananmen Square Protests, 1989
Authors: Thompson Michael J.
Published: September 2017

The Tiananmen Square protests and the violent government crackdown on June 4, 1989 – known in China as the “June 4” movement – represent one of the most important political episodes in modern Chinese history. Indeed, although the epicenter of the protests and the crackdown itself occurred at Tiananmen Square in Beijing, major protests occurred in many large cities in China. The protests should therefore genuinely be seen as a movement and not as a series of isolated protests. Although there was universal condemnation of the crackdown in the West, the origins and aims of the protests themselves have remained ambiguous to many western observers.
Tiso, Josef (1887–1947)
Authors: Kirschbaum Stanislav J.
Published: September 2017

Josef Tiso, a Roman Catholic priest and politician, assumed leadership of the Slovak People's Party after the death of Andrej Hlinka (1864–1938) and served as prime minister and president of the First Slovakia Republic. His leadership of Slovakia during its first appearance as a nation‐state (1939–45) places Tiso among the most controversial figures in modern Slovak history. To some he was an outstanding statesman who preserved Slovakia from usurpation by Hungary, forestalled German occupation, and sought to contain the extremist tendencies within the Hlinka Slovak People's Party. Others hold him responsible for the break‐up of Czechoslovakia and Slovakia's collaboration with Nazi Germany in the deportation and death of Slovak Jews.
Tolstoy, Leo N. (1828–1910)
Authors: Christoyannopoulos Alexandre J. M. E.
Published: September 2017

Leo N. Tolstoy is one of the world's most esteemed authors of literature for his
War and Peace
(1869) and
Anna Karenina
(1887), but he is also the most famous proponent of Christian anarchist ideas. Although this more controversial part of his legacy was a target for suppression and misinformation during the Soviet era, his writings did influence figures like Mohandas Gandhi and Ammon Hennacy, as well as ordinary people in the wider pacifist movement.
Tulip Revolution, Kyrgyzstan
Authors: Beacháin Donnacha Ó
Published: September 2017

Askar Akaev said he wanted Kyrgyzstan to be “the Switzerland of Central Asia,” but when the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 the small country of five million people found itself ill‐prepared for independence. The economy went into free fall and poverty was widespread. Despite an early reputation for being a progressive liberal, President Akaev adopted an increasingly authoritarian and corrupt style of rule, alienating many sections of the Kyrgyz electorate and influential members of the political elite. On March 24, 2005 his rule came abruptly to an end when the presidential palace was seized and the Akaev family fled the country. While it is well known who was unhappy with Akaev's presidency and who benefited from his overthrow, to this day it is not clear who was responsible for ousting the Kyrgyz president.
Tunisian Independence Movement
Authors: Shekhawat Seema
Published: September 2017

The present‐day Republic of Tunisia, al‐Jumhuriyyah at‐Tunisiyyah, achieved independence from France on March 20, 1956. Its history, however, is one of occupation, with the final colonization phase being under France.
Tupamaros
Authors: Thimmel Stefan
Published: September 2017

The urban guerrilla movement called Tupamaros (officially described as the National Liberation Movement, Movimiento de Liberación Nacional – Tupamaros) (MLN‐T) was founded in 1963 in Uruguay and was composed mainly of trade unionists, socialists, and former members of the traditional Uruguayan Blanco Party. Its name was derived from the Peruvian rebel leader Túpac Amaru II (1738–81), who in 1780 led a rebellion of natives in the vice‐kingdom of Peru and was executed by the Spanish conquerors in 1781. One of the founders of Tupamaros was the attorney and trade unionist Raúl Sendic (1925–89).
Turkey, Protest and Revolution, 1800s–1923
Authors: Tür Özlem
Published: September 2017

Protest and social movements in the Turkish republic carry important continuities from the late Ottoman period. The reforms of the nineteenth century led to the development of a new group, the military bureaucracy, which became the central power in the administration of the Empire and later the Turkish republic. The reforms led also to the development of a duality between the center, represented by the reform‐minded military bureaucracy, and the periphery, which continued to stick to traditional values and norms albeit making use of the social mobility the reforms provided. This duality continued to evolve during the Turkish republic. Protest movements continued the legacy of this duality to a great extent in challenging state ideology.
United Irishmen
Authors: Sonnelitter Karen
Published: September 2017

The United Irish Society, or United Irishmen, was initially a liberal political organization in eighteenth‐century Ireland that sought parliamentary reform by legal means. It evolved into a radical republican organization with a massive underground army that launched the Great Rebellion of 1798 and aimed at forcefully ending British rule of Ireland and creating an independent republic.
U
ruguay, Labor and Populist Movements, 1965–Present
Authors: Zibechi Raul
Published: September 2017

In the mid–1950s, economic and political crisis was apparent in Uruguay. After a long period of domestic growth and the formation of a welfare state, Uruguay's fledgling domestic industry was battered by economic stagnation resulting from economic recovery in the core countries after the Korean War (1952) and dry weather, which reduced agricultural production.
Utopian Communities,
U
nited States
Authors: Goff Richard
Published: September 2017

In 1516 Thomas More, an English lawyer, statesman, and humanist scholar, published
Utopia
, a fantastic traveler's tale taking place in the “New World.” Inspired by the voyages of Amerigo Vespucci, More imagined an idyllic island nation governed by a communitarian and egalitarian ethos that sharply contrasted with the corruption and materialism of England. While More's book, part satire, part social critique, was never intended as blueprint for a society, the term “utopian” (which literally means “no place”) has since come to describe intentional attempts to create “perfect” societies, separated from the rest of the world.
Vaneigem, Raoul (b. 1934)
Authors: Farr Roger
Published: September 2017

Raoul Vaneigem is a writer and social philosopher born, and currently residing, in Belgium. He is the author of dozens of books and tracts on politics, literature, and the history of ideas, many of which have been written pseudonymously. Vaneigem's influence and reputation are largely due to his role as a leading theoretician for the Situationist International (SI), from the time he joined the organization in 1961 until his forced resignation in 1970. Along with Guy Debord, to whom he was introduced by the sociologist Henri Lefebvre, Vaneigem's work was instrumental in shaping the intellectual and political culture of France in the 1960s. His much‐cited book
Traité du savoir‐vivre à l'usage des jeunes générations
(1967; published in English as
The Revolution of Everyday Life)
, written in Paris between 1963 and 1965 and published in 1967, is often read, along with Debord's
Society of the Spectacle
, as having prompted the 1968 student and worker unrest in France.
Varlin, Eugène (1839–1871)
Authors: Buelinckx Erik
Published: September 2017

Eugène Varlin, a bookbinder born to a family of republican farmers in Voisins near Paris who became a vigorous proponent of workers' associations and cooperatives, was one of the most memorable participants in the Paris Commune of 1871.
Vietnam, Anti‐Colonial, Nationalist, and Communist Movements, 1900–1939
Authors: Hémery Daniel
Published: September 2017

Of all the national and revolutionary movements that emerged between World Wars I and II in the European colonial empires of Asia and Africa, those of Indochina were, aside from those of India, the most precocious, most diversified, most radical, and most dynamic.
Vinegar Hill/Castle Hill Rebellion, 1804
Authors: Moore Andrew
Published: September 2017

Unlike the Eureka rebellion at Ballarat, Victoria in 1854, Australian historians have been slow to recognize the 1804 convict revolt near present‐day Castle Hill in western Sydney as a legitimate expression of political resistance. Established in 1788, the fledgling British colony of New South Wales was then a place of penal servitude, small and isolated, but with a significant component of political rebels among its convict population. In the wake of the 1798 rebellion in Ireland at least 300 and probably more than 600 United Irishmen were transported to the infant thief colony. As a result New South Wales had a strong undercurrent of republicanism and a persistent anti‐authoritarianism to British rule. On March 5, 1804 about 200 convicts, principally Irishmen, confronted the NSW Corps at Vinegar Hill, thus named after a battle in the 1798 rebellion. According to Patrick O'Farrell, the Irish were led to rebel by semi‐mystical impulses, “frustrations, sickness of heart, and impulses of affront: in a word pride.” Lynette Ramsay Silver also implies that the rebels were merely homesick romantics.
Walesa, Lech (b. 1943)
Authors: Linch Amy
Published: September 2017

Lech Walesa (Wałȩsa) was co‐founder and leader of the Independent Self‐Governing Trade Union “Solidarity” (Niezależny Samora̧dny Zwiazek Zawodowy “Solidarność) through its decade of struggle against the communist regime in Poland. As the face and voice of Solidarity, Walesa is arguably the most significant figure in the revolution that precipitated the collapse of the Soviet Union. In 1989 he chaired the opposition delegation to the Round Table negotiations with the communist government that ended the communist monopoly over political and social life in Poland. In December 1990 he became the first freely elected president of Poland's Third Republic.
War Communism and the Rise of the Soviet Union
Authors: Mandel David
Published: September 2017

Contrary to the analyses and predictions of all currents in Russian Marxism, the revolution in Russia survived without the support of victorious revolutions in the West. But it survived in a much distorted form compared to the original project and at a terrible cost that was borne first of all by the revolution's main social support, the urban working class. How can one account for the victory of a revolutionary state that began its existence without any serious armed forces, with no experience in public administration, and which almost at once was confronted with the armed hostility of the propertied classes, who were supported by most of the intelligentsia, the old officer corps, as well as the most powerful capitalist states in the world?
Warren, Josiah (1798–1874)
Authors: Wilbur Shawn P.
Published: September 2017

Josiah Warren, “the peaceful revolutionist,” was an American writer, inventor, musician, and social experimenter. His system of “equitable commerce” influenced radical individualists such as Frances Wright, Stephen Pearl Andrews, Ezra Heywood, and Benjamin R. Tucker, and, through them, the American individualist anarchist tradition.
Wathbah
of 1948
Authors: Franzén Johan
Published: September 2017

In late 1947 and early 1948, Iraqi and British politicians sat down in London to “renegotiate” Iraqi‐British relations. Saleh Jabr, the prime minister, led the Iraqi delegation. His appointment in March 1947 had been intended to ease the pressure from the Shi'i part of the population. Being a Shi'i himself, it was thought that his appointment, as the first Shi'i to occupy that post, would appease growing anti‐British sentiment that had been brewing among the politically conscious since 1920.
Women's Movement,
A
nglophone
C
aribbean
Authors: Goldthree Reena N.
Published: September 2017

Since the late nineteenth century, women in the Anglophone Caribbean have demanded greater social, economic, and political rights by petitioning government officials, marching collectively for food and relief work, taking part in mass strikes and public demonstrations, organizing labor unions and political organizations, launching far‐reaching public education campaigns, and participating in Marxist‐oriented revolutionary struggles. Although historiography on protest politics in the region focuses overwhelmingly on the contributions of charismatic male trade union leaders and political figures, feminist historians and sociologists since the 1970s have convincingly challenged notions of female docility by highlighting the critical contributions of female activists. While the degree to which women have been involved in protest movements varies significantly by country and historical period, Anglophone Caribbean women have actively participated in all of the major social and political struggles of the past century, while also organizing autonomously to promote women's rights and gender equality.
Women's Movement,
I
taly
Authors: Fiorino Vinzia
Published: September 2017

In Italy, the Jacobin years (1796–9) and the revolutionary processes of 1848, linked to the struggle for national unity, are the two most important occasions of female commitment in the modern public sphere.
World Anti‐Slavery Convention,
L
ondon
Authors: Guinn Lisa
Published: September 2017

The World Anti‐Slavery Convention met in June 1840 in London. It brought together European and American abolitionist societies to discuss the issue of slavery. As its name suggests, this convention had the potential of influencing an international movement on the issue of abolition. However, what the convention is most remembered for is its influence on the rise of American women's rights. The convention is connected to women's rights because of two major events that occurred: Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, two of the most important women in the early American women's rights movement, met for the first time and came together in friendship and protest; and the “woman question” that had plagued the American abolitionist movement since the late 1830s was openly discussed on an international stage, prompting American women to equate their own secondary status with that of slaves and begin their own revolution for women's rights.
World Trade Organization (
WTO
) Protests,
C
ancun, 2003
Authors: Malig Mary Lou , Kwa Aileen
Published: September 2017

The fifth ministerial of the World Trade Organization (WTO) took place in Cancun, Mexico, from September 10 to 14, 2003. There were both internal “protests” by government negotiators and external protests by social movements, peoples' organizations, and activists, the combination of which contributed to the dramatic collapse of the ministerial.
Yemen Socialist Revolution of 1962
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

As with most of the Arabian Peninsula, Yemen has a long history of ethnic/clan/religious sect organization under the theocratic despotism of the imam as ruler. This rule has been periodically tested and challenged by discontented societal groups, particularly those of the Sunni Muslim persuasion. In 1839 the territorial concerns of the imam were altered by British influence, which increased in the southern and eastern portion of Yemen after the British captured the port of Aden in 1839. It was ruled as part of British India until 1937, when Aden was made a crown colony with the remaining land designated as East Aden and West Aden protectorates.
Young Hegelians
Authors: Deem Lynnette M.
Published: September 2017

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) was a popular name in the academic circles of the 1830s and 1840s, especially in Germany. Many groups were organized to (re)interpret Hegel's complex and unyielding view of history. The Young Hegelians represented Hegel's left‐wing advocates. Leaders of this idealist trend, including David Strauss, the Bauer brothers, Max Stirner, Ludwig Feuerbach, Karl Marx, and Friedrich Engels, sought bourgeois reform based on Hegel's dialectical worldview. The Young Hegelians accepted Hegel's dialectical approach, while disagreeing with many of his other conclusions.
Young Lords
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

The Young Lords were a Chicago street gang that emerged in the 1960s in the neighborhoods of Lincoln Park. The Chicago Young Lords were the sons and daughters of the first Puerto Rican immigrants and are credited with beginning a grassroots Latino movement in the United States. In 1966 the Young Lords became involved in the Division Street Riots, resulting from strained relations between the Chicago Police Department and the Puerto Rican community. In 1967, after serving a brief jail term, Jose “Cha Cha” Jimenez, one of the seven founding members of the Young Lords, sought to transform the street gang into an organization committed to human rights and the liberation of Puerto Rico.
Y
ugoslavia, Formation of the Non‐Aligned Movement
Authors: Kanzleiter Boris
Published: September 2017

The formal establishment of the non‐aligned movement (NAM) was the culmination of increasing convergence of its main member states who sought a path independent of the USSR and the US in the wake of the outbreak of the Cold War in 1948. The term “non‐alignment” itself was first coined by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru in 1954. A significant step toward the development of the NAM was the Bandung Conference in 1955 in Indonesia, in which leaders of Asian and African states who had gained independence from colonial rule after World War II participated. Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito took the initiative to form the NAM while Jawaharlal Nehru and Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt were visiting Yugoslavia in July 1956. Following the split with Moscow in 1948, the Yugoslav communists were looking increasingly for cooperation with the postcolonial states in Asia and Africa to counterbalance political pressure from the USSR and the US.
García Oliver, Juan (1902–1980)
Authors: Lee Andrew H.
Published: September 2017

A major figure in Spain's anarchosyndicalist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (National Labor Confederation, CNT) and Federación Anarquista Ibérica (Iberian Anarchist Federation, FAI), García Oliver was one of four anarchists who entered the Republican government in November 1936, becoming minister of justice. He, Francisco Ascaso Abadía, and Buenaventura Durruti, known as “the three musketeers,” were fierce opponents of reformism in the CNT. As a leading anarcho‐Bolshevik, García Oliver argued for a Leninist conception of revolution, a position not completely shared by the others. He supported the revolutionary tactics of the Republican period and the creation of a CNT–FAI militia, and was at the forefront of the successful resistance in Barcelona against the fascist coup, arguing for the CNT to seize power. Leaving the government in 1937, he remained active in politics, proposing the creation of a political party. He ended up in Mexico, supporting the exiled Republican government and defending his collaboration.
G
reece, Uprising December 2008
Authors: Vradis Antonios , Dalakoglou Dimitrios K.
Published: September 2017

On December 6, 2008, the cold‐blooded killing of 15‐year‐old Alexandros Grigoropoulos by Greek police in the Athens neighborhood of Exarcheia sparked an unprecedented wave of protests and rioting that came to extend across Athens, the majority of Greek cities and towns, and even beyond the country's own borders, with more than 200 protests reported across the world throughout that month.
Halfpenny, John (1935–2003)
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

John Halfpenny was a prominent trade unionist in Melbourne, Australia, who served as secretary of the Victorian Trades Hall Council from 1987 until 1995. During the Kennett premiership of Victoria (1992–9), Halfpenny mobilized several protests against changes in industrial relations and workers' rights, including the largest protest march in the history of the state.
Murray‐Smith, Stephen (1922–1988)
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

An author and leading member of the Communist Party of Australia, Stephen Murray‐Smith came from a family that had been heavily involved in shipping horses from Australia to India for use by the British army there.
Muste, A. J. (1885–1967)
Authors: Le Blanc Paul
Published: September 2017

Abraham Johannes Muste, more popularly known as A. J. Muste, born on January 8, 1885 in Zierikzee, the Netherlands, was a leading labor organizer and worker educator, socialist, and anti‐war activist. Influenced by pacifism in his formative years, Muste later adopted a Marxist‐Leninist revolutionary ideology before returning to pacifism at the end of his life. A minister in three Christian denominations, A. J. Muste was occasionally labeled “America's Gandhi” due to his central influence on twentieth‐century US social movements and his commitment to non‐violent protest.
Muzorewa, Abel (b. 1925)
Authors: Fourshey Catherine Cymone
Published: September 2017

Bishop Abel Muzorewa was the first black Southern Rhodesian elected to the position of prime minister. Following decades as an active agent in the struggle for black majority rule through protest and resistance to control of the nation by a white settler minority, Muzorewa was voted the premier of Zimbabwe‐Rhodesia, yet he served only six months (June–December 1979) before being replaced by Robert Mugabe. Although Muzorewa's political career included political accommodation, compromise, and negotiation, his early efforts mobilizing the African population of Zimbabwe against the British package known as the Pearce Proposals made him a threat to white settler interest. Seen as an agent of radical change, Muzorewa was removed from power and replaced by Mugabe, who was seen as less radical and more accommodating toward white interests. In particular, Muzorewa saw the Pearce Proposals as concerted British and white Rhodesian efforts to stave off African aspirations for majority rule.
Penichet, Antonio (?–1964)
Authors: Shaffer Kirwin R.
Published: September 2017

Antonio Penichet played key roles in the rise of anarchosyndicalism within Cuba's labor movement in the late 1910s and 1920s, both as a labor leader and as an anarchist cultural figure. Little is known of Penichet's early life. During the island's war for independence (1895–8), Spanish forces drove rural Cubans from their homes and into urban concentration camps as a way to empty the countryside of support for separatist fighters. One of the towns caught up in this
reconcetración
policy was Güines. Penichet escaped from Güines and arrived in Havana. He apprenticed to become a printer, eventually editing the printers' own
Memorándum Tipográfico
from 1913 to 1916. During these years Penichet did not steer the paper toward any recognizable anarchist trend. By 1918, though, Penichet emerged as a leading anarchosyndicalist figure in Cuba, and one increasingly influenced by the impact of the Bolshevik Revolution. In 1919, Penichet and other anarchosyndicalists were arrested for strike activities. Later that year, while in hiding, he published his first novel,
La vida de un pernicioso
, and a short story, “El soldado Rafael.” The latter was widely circulated in the Cuban labor movement and quickly drew the attention of Cuban authorities due to its call for a military–worker alliance (such as had occurred in Russia) to overthrow the Cuban state. Then in 1920, authorities accused (though never convicted) Penichet of conspiring with other anarchists to engage in a wave of bombings in Havana.
Perera, N. M. (1905–1979)
Authors: Ervin Charles Wesley
Published: September 2017

Born in Thotalanga, Ceylon, N. M. (Nanayakkarapathirage Martin) Perera attended Ceylon University College and in 1927 pursued his higher studies in London, where he earned a PhD from the London School of Economics. As Perera later recounted, it was his academic mentor, Harold Laski, who first opened his eyes to socialism. But it was his compatriot Philip Gunawardena, a secret Trotskyist within the British Communist Party, who drew him toward the revolutionary movement.
Pestaña Nuñez, Ángel (1889–1937)
Authors: Lee Andrew H.
Published: September 2017

An important moderate in the Spanish anarchosyndicalist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (National Labor Confederation, CNT), Pestaña Nuñez served various times as editor of its daily,
Solidaridad Obrera
(Workers' Solidarity), where in 1918 he exposed police collaboration with a German spy ring in Barcelona. A supporter of Seguí, in 1920 Pestaña was sent to Moscow as the CNT's delegate to the founding of the Red International of Unions (Profintern), but his reports on the persecution of anarchists in the USSR led the CNT to eventually reject affiliation. Pestaña survived several assassination attempts by employers' hired thugs. In 1931, he turned down an invitation to be the labor delegate to the Catalan regional government. That August, Pestaña signed “The Manifesto of the Thirty,” attacking the influence of the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (Iberian Anarchist Federation, FAI) in the CNT. Pestaña broke with this group, forming the Syndicalist Party, which sent two deputies (including Pestaña) to parliament in 1936. During the civil war he served in various capacities in the government, and he was readmitted to the CNT just before his death in December 1937.
Robin, Paul (1837–1912)
Authors: Buelinckx Erik
Published: September 2017

Born to a Catholic, patriotic, and bourgeois French family, Paul Robin can be regarded as the founder of an anarchist pedagogical system. For Robin, education was a means to hasten the revolution. Having completed his studies, he went to Belgium in 1865, meeting Proudhonist radicals, and began to synthesize theories about education into a libertarian educational system. In order to break the barrier between intellectual and manual labor, he argued, children should develop all their physical and intellectual faculties as individuals (in what became known as “integral education”), and as social beings they should give their potential for labor to the society they live in.
R
omania, Media, Images, and Popular Protest
Authors: Bogdan Jolan
Published: September 2017

Once news of an uprising in Timişoara, Romania, in December 1989 spread to other parts of the country, given the political climate in Eastern Europe at the time, a nationwide revolution was unavoidable. The media, having evolved as a key tool of the nomenclature under Ceauşescu, played a significant part in the aftermath of the regime's demise. Accustomed to the former leader's heavy use of media propaganda, the people turned to the liberation of television and radio with great hope. In the days following the revolution that erupted in Bucharest on December 20, 1989, the newly liberated television station broadcast many of the events transpiring in the city. News anchors apologized for lying to the public during the regime; revolutionaries appeared before the cameras and declared victory for the nation; and television staff invited the people to the station to testify about their experiences under Ceauşescu.
San Martín, Enrique Roig (1843–1889)
Authors: Shaffer Kirwin R.
Published: September 2017

Enrique Roig San Martín is recognized as one of the first great labor leaders in Cuba, promoting anarchosyndicalism as editor of the leading labor newspaper of the day,
El Productor
, in the decade before Cuba's last war for independence broke out in 1895. Born in Havana, Roig grew up in a comfortable professional family that allowed him to study medicine in Havana and Paris. Abandoning medical studies, he went to work in the island's expanding sugar industry, serving a stint managing a sugar mill. In 1882, he abandoned management and became allied with the island's working class, laboring as a cigar roller and accepting the editorship of
El Obrero
. That same year he helped to found the Centro de Instrucción y Recreo in Santiago de las Vegas, Cuba, thus reflecting his growing belief in the importance of educating workers and their children in the progressive ideas of the age. In July 1887, Roig became editor of the new (and soon to be most prominent) labor newspaper in Havana:
El Productor
, the official newspaper of the Junta Central de Artesanos de la Habana. Through this new role, coupled with his growing support for anarchosyndicalist ideas, Roig soon became involved in the burgeoning labor movement of Havana, serving in the leadership of the Círculo de Trabajadores and as secretary of the Junta Central. He would die soon after in 1889 at the age of 45 from complications related to diabetes.
Séverine (1855–1929)
Authors: Buelinckx Erik
Published: September 2017

Séverine, pseudonym of Caroline Rémy, was born in 1855 to a bourgeois family in Paris, France. She was a libertarian journalist, feminist, and human rights activist. After a tumultuous youth, she finally married Adrien Guébhard in 1885 when France legalized divorce, although throughout her life she overtly had other relationships. In 1879, she met Jules Vallès in Brussels and became his secretary and close friend for the rest of his life. With her husband's financial support, she funded the reappearance of Vallès's journal
Le Cri du Peuple
from 1883.
Tokar, Brian (b. 1955)
Authors: Vitale Alfred
Published: September 2017

Since the 1970s Brian Tokar has been an environmental activist and social ecologist, authoring four books and numerous articles addressing environmental issues such as genetic engineering, impacts of biotechnology on the environment, and social justice. His first book,
The Green Alternative: Creating an Ecological Future
(1987), examined green political movements and the politics of ecology and was followed by
Earth for Sale: Reclaiming Ecology in the Age of Corporate Greenwash
(1997), a critique of trends in environmentalism and a study of grassroots ecological movements. In 1999, he received a Project Censored award for a 1998 article in
The Ecologist
investigating the history of the Monsanto company. He next edited
Redesigning Life? The Worldwide Challenge to Genetic Engineering
(2001), a collection of work on biotechnology issues and the growing opposition to genetic engineering. His latest book,
Gene Traders: Biotechnology, World Trade, and the Globalization of Hunger
(2004), is an international collection addressing the role of trade agreements and international financial institutions in promoting genetic engineering and biotechnologies. Tokar received his MS degree in biophysics from Harvard and is currently a faculty member at Prescott College in Arizona, lecturing nationally and internationally, advocating grassroots activism for social justice and ecological issues, and serving as Biotechnology Project Director at the Institute for Social Ecology. He continues to network and disseminate information on GE food issues and is on the steering committee for the Stop GE Trees Campaign, exposing the links between biofuel development and the biotechnology industry.