bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Rejecting the Appearance from Reality Criterion
Authors: van Fraassen Bas C.
Published: September 2008

Although this criterion is implicitly rejected in certain philosophical developments (Leibniz on contingent truth, supervenience views in philosophy of mind), it is in the Copenhagen development of quantum theory that this rejection is clearly exemplified. The famous Measurement Problem in the philosophy of quantum mechanics is not a problem from an empiricist point of view. What it marks is the methodological rejection of the Appearance from Reality Criterion in this new science. Whether or not physical science will maintain this form, the character of this episode in the history of science entails a new view of the norms that govern scientific practice.
Representation Of, Representation As
Authors: van Fraassen Bas C.
Published: September 2008

Resemblance is certainly not the be all and end all of representation. Even when representation is not purely symbolic, distortion and unlikeness can play a crucial role in how the representing is achieved. When resemblance is in fact the vehicle of representation, the representation relation derives from selective resemblance and selective non-resemblance, and just what the relevant selections are must be highlighted in such a way as to convey their role. If the selection or the highlighting is indicated by signs placed in the artifact itself, these need to be meaningful in order to play their role, and so the task of identification is pushed back but reappears as essentially unchanged. Thus, what determines the representation relationship can at best be a relation of what is in the artifact to factors neither in the artifact itself nor in what is being represented.
Imaging, Picturing, and Scaling
Authors: van Fraassen Bas C.
Published: September 2008

Resemblance comes in, not when we are answering the question — What is representation? — but rather when we address How does this or that representation represent, and how does it succeed? The various modes of representation here distinguished include imaging, picturing, and scaling. Imaging is representation that is effected through resemblance; picturing is imaging that carries the hallmarks of perspectivity. Mathematical representation of nature includes much imagery, and has so far always involved some features that, in retrospect, with hindsight, were seen as necessary failures in resemblance. Such representations can fall short through idealization, but can also achieve their success through systematic distortion.
Measurement as Representation: 2. Information
Authors: van Fraassen Bas C.
Published: September 2008

There is more to measurement than its physical correlate. A broad concept of measurement must accommodate both the constraints on its physical correlate and its function of information gathering, which requires that the measurement outcome is an event that has meaning. Measurement is itself a specific form of self-location, in a logical space. Topics discussed include measurement and number-assigning, scale as logical space, data models, and surface models. As long as we consider what happens in measurement purely from the theoretical point of view, the only criteria are theory-internal. The criteria of adequacy cannot go beyond coherence. That is why the theoretical point of view remains empty unless the problem of coordination is also faced and taken into account. To understand how theoretical parameters become coordinated, the historical process in which measurement procedures and theory evolve together have to be looked into, in a thoroughly entangled way. Nor can this evolution start in anything but prior meaningful discourse relating to what eventually will be delineated as the theory's domain.
6 A Longer‐Run View of the Earnings Distribution: The Great Compression and the Golden Age
Authors: Atkinson A. B.
Published: September 2008

This chapter examines the long run earnings data of five OECD countries: Canada, France, Germany, the United States, and the United Kingdom. It shows that the Anglo-Saxon countries have all seen large rises and falls in the deciles. Generalizations about the time path of change do not necessarily hold universally, but there appear to be three distinct phases in the pre-1980 period, which exhibit common features in several — but not all — of the five countries studied: compression of the earnings distribution in the 1930s and 1940s; rise in the top decile of the earnings distribution during the Golden Age from 1950 to the mid-1960s (with the exception of Germany), accompanied in some cases by falls in the bottom decile or lower quartile, and a ‘tilt’ at the very top; and narrowing of the distribution in the late 1960s and 1970s (stability of top decile in United States and Germany).
8 A Behavioural Model of Change in Differentials: The ‘Fanning Out’ at the Top of the Earnings Distribution
Authors: Atkinson A. B.
Published: September 2008

This chapter considers a behavioural model of changes in differentials, directed particularly at explaining the fanning out of the upper part of the earnings distribution. It suggests that changes may be observed in the extent to which earnings are governed by pay norms — changes corresponding to a switch from a redistributive norm to one where people are paid on their individual productivity, or vice versa. An external shock causes an abrupt reversal of direction and convergence to a new equilibrium. This could be caused by a change in the political climate, shifting the degree of conformity with the social norm, which is then magnified as more people change their behaviour. It could be caused by a change in the capital market, as where firms become more short term in their outlook, and less willing to invest in establishing a reputation.
9 Superstars and Pyramids: Two Complementary Explanations for Changes in Top Earnings
Authors: Atkinson A. B.
Published: September 2008

This chapter considers the explanation of top earnings that has received much recent attention: the superstar theory. Here, trade and technology have a clear role in expanding the reach of the most talented, and make the earnings gradient steeper. It argues that the superstar explanation should be complemented by a model of salaries in hierarchical organizations. Such a theory, where earnings depend on position in a pyramidal organization, cannot be enough on its own either.
Note 3 Superstars and Pyramids
Authors: Atkinson A. B.
Published: September 2008

This note describes the model of top earnings presented in Chapter 9. The model is a combination of superstar and hierarchical explanations. In the case of the superstar theory, there is no direct link to a functional form for the resulting distribution. At the same time, the ‘winner take all’ nature of the model suggests that it can be regarded as an extreme value process. The distribution of earnings in this case is given by the maximum values generated by the results of many separate ‘competitions’. If attention is limited to those values exceeding some specified threshold, then for a sufficiently high threshold the distribution function takes on the generalized Pareto form which has a Pareto upper tail.
H Germany
Authors: Atkinson A. B.
Published: September 2008

This chapter presents tables of data on Germany and an account of its increased earnings distribution. It shows that there has been a widening of earnings dispersion and a fanning out at the top. The existence for Germany of data for the late 1920s and 1930s allows an insight into a period, and a political experience (the rise of the Nazi dictatorship), whose distributional consequences have been little studied.
I Hungary
Authors: Atkinson A. B.
Published: September 2008

This chapter presents tables of data on Hungary and an account of its increased earnings distribution. It shows that the degree of earnings dispersion went through several cycles, with a widening of differentials registered during the economic reform period. The changes were, however, moderate compared with those after 1989 when there was a significant fall in the bottom decile relative to the median, and a large rise in the top decile, which formed part of a fanning out of the upper part of the distribution.
P Portugal
Authors: Atkinson A. B.
Published: September 2008

This chapter presents tables of data on Portugal and an account of its increased earnings distribution. The top earnings shares show no sign of a compression from 1936 to 1950, but there was a very definite fall in the decade following 1968. Over the period from 1982 to 2002, the bottom decile rose and then fell, but the top percentiles rose steadily. The decile ratio rose by more than a third, and there was an evident fanning-out in the upper part of the distribution.
R Switzerland
Authors: Atkinson A. B.
Published: September 2008

This chapter presents tables of data on Switzerland and an account of its increased earnings distribution. It shows that the evidence for the distribution of earnings in Switzerland is of too short a duration to allow strong conclusions to be drawn about the long-run evolution, and the differences between the two sources complicate the interpretation of shorter run movements.
S United Kingdom
Authors: Atkinson A. B.
Published: September 2008

This chapter presents tables of data on the United Kingdom and an account of its increased earnings distribution. It shows that there is evidence of widening dispersion from the mid 1950s to the mid-1960s. There was narrowing of the deciles from the late-1960s to 1977, with a large rise in the bottom decile. The bottom decile fell from 1977 to the end of the 1980s, after which it has stabilized, along with the rest of the bottom half of the distribution. The top decile has continued to rise, with a fanning out of the upper half of the earnings distribution.
T United States
Authors: Atkinson A. B.
Published: September 2008

This chapter presents tables of data on the United States and an account of its increased earnings distribution. It shows that the 1940s were a period of wage compression; the 1950s saw a large reversal of this compression, continuing at the top into the early 1960s. The mid-1960s and 1970s were a period of hiatus. The bottom decile fell in the 1980s, but then recovered some of the lost ground in the 1990s. The top decile rose in the 1980s, paused, and then continued its upward path, so that by 2005 it was above the equivalent of its 1939 value. There has been a distinct ‘fanning out’ of the upper part of the US earnings distribution.
Introduction
Authors: Schroeder Mark
Published: September 2008

This chapter introduces metaethical expressivism, explains its main sources of interest over earlier noncognitivist theories, and illustrates how it has been applied to many topics across all different areas of philosophy. The progress which proponents such as Allan Gibbard and Simon Blackburn have made in developing expressivist theories is contrasted sharply with five major problems which remain unsolved, starting with an adequate account of what ‘express’ means. The concept of an argument from ‘license for optimism’ is introduced, and contrasted with the project of actually constructing an expressivist semantic theory. Finally, the chapter announces the main conclusions of the book and lays out its organization.
Its Solution
Authors: Schroeder Mark
Published: September 2008

This chapter employs the Basic Expressivist Maneuver to show how the negation problem can be solved, by appeal only to A-type inconsistency. To do so, expressivists must give up the idea that normative predicates semantically correspond to primitive attitudes, and allow that all normative sentences express a single attitude, to which different predicates contribute different contents. This attitude is called ‘being for’. Four explanations are offered of the elegance and attractiveness of the resulting account, and it is argued that it is the only way to solve the negation problem by appeal to expressivist-respectable assumptions. A possible objection is addressed.
Biforcated Attitude Semantics
Authors: Schroeder Mark
Published: September 2008

This chapter sets out the principles of biforcated attitude semantics and proves that, like the semantics of Chapters 5 and 6, it yields a language with the correct logical properties. Biforcated attitude semantics modifies the semantics of Chapter 6 by treating sentences as expressing pairs of states of being for. It is noted that this move creates at least two major complications in our treatment of the logical properties of the language, but proven, up to a lemma, that in this language the theorems of classical logic are all and only the sentences that it is inconsistent to reject under any interpretation. This yields a way of accounting for the logical properties of the language. A new problem — the new negation problem — is raised, and the lemma in the proof is discharged in an appendix to the chapter.
Assigning Truth‐Conditions
Authors: Schroeder Mark
Published: September 2008

This chapter shows that the new negation problem generalizes, and that biforcated attitude semantics does not, in general, assign complex descriptive sentences to mental states that are commitment-equivalent to beliefs in the corresponding complex descriptive contents, creating a problem for how to assign truth condition to complex descriptive sentences. Nevertheless, it is argued that given certain possibly defensible assumptions, every complex descriptive sentence will express a mental state that commits to the belief in the corresponding complex descriptive content, and hence that truth-conditions can be assigned to complex descriptive sentences in this way. This is proven in an appendix to the chapter.
An Alternative Approach
Authors: Schroeder Mark
Published: September 2008

This chapter offers an alternative approach to assigning truth conditions to complex descriptive sentences. Truth conditions are first motivated as a kind of composite of the assertability conditions on sentences and mistake conditions on mental states. It is then suggested that given biforcated attitude semantics, plausible assumptions about what mistake conditions will involve can be used to assign the right truth conditions to complex descriptive sentences — a result which is proven in an appendix to the chapter. It is further suggested that given an appropriate semantics for ‘believes that’, the expressivist can go on to maintain that the states expressed by complex descriptive sentences really are beliefs, after all.
Nondescriptivist Semantics
Authors: Schroeder Mark
Published: September 2008

This chapter explores how biforcated attitude semantics might be exploited in order to develop nondescriptivist treatments in other philosophical domains. A strategy for applying biforcated attitude semantics to an arbitrary domain is developed, as well as a toy expressivist theory of indicative conditionals. A more sophisticated account of truth is developed, which predicts that ‘P’ and ‘it is true that P’ are equivalent but have different semantic contents, and on which ‘true’ is nondescriptive, corresponding to no property. It is shown, further, how such an account can be exploited to solve expressivist problems about disagreement and validity.
The Structure of Objects
Authors: Koslicki Kathrin
Published: September 2008

The main purpose of this book is to give an analysis of ordinary material objects, those material objects to which we take ourselves to be committed in ordinary, scientifically informed discourse. Particular focus is placed on the question of how the parts of such objects are related to the wholes which they compose. Many philosophers today find themselves in the grip of an exceedingly deflationary conception of what it means to be an object, according to which any plurality of objects, no matter how disparate or gerry-mandered, itself composes an object, even if the objects in question fail to exhibit interesting similarities, internal unity, cohesion, or causal interaction amongst each other. This commitment to initially counterintuitive objects follows from the belief that no principled set of criteria is available by means of which to distinguish intuitively gerry-mandered objects from common-sensical ones. The project of this book is to persuade the reader that systematic principles by means of which composition can be restricted can be found, and hence, that we need not embrace this deflationary approach to the question of what it means to be an object. To this end, a more full-blooded neo-Aristotelian account of parthood and composition is developed according to which objects are structured wholes: it is integral to the existence and identity of an object, on this conception, that its parts exhibit a certain manner of arrangement. This structure-based conception of parthood and composition is explored in detail, along with some of its historical precursors as well as some of its contemporary competitors.
Ordinary Objects as Mereological Sums
Authors: Koslicki Kathrin
Published: September 2008

The thesis that ordinary material objects are mereological sums in the standard sense has been remarkably popular among three-dimensionalists and four-dimensionalists alike. This chapter considers two prominent representatives: Judith Jarvis Thomson, for the three-dimensionalist camp; and David Lewis, for the four-dimensionalist camp. The question of why Thomson's temporalized and modalized version of standard mereology still does not adequately capture the characteristics of ordinary material objects is postponed until Chapter 4. The remainder of the chapter considers Lewis' argument in favor of Unrestricted Composition, in particular in the recently expanded version offered in Theodore Sider's, Four-Dimensionalism: An Ontology of Persistence and Time; as well as Lewis' defence of the Composition-as-Identity Thesis in his Parts of Classes. It is argued that the three-dimensionalist need not be swayed by either component of Lewis' view, since they are ultimately founded on question-begging reasoning.
A Different Kind of Whole
Authors: Koslicki Kathrin
Published: September 2008

This chapter returns to the question, postponed in Chapter 2: why, from a three-dimensionalist perspective, the properties of ordinary material objects are not already adequately accounted for by Thomson's modified and weakened version of standard mereology. To this end, the work of Kit Fine is examined, who, in a series of papers, has provided powerful reasons for abandoning the standard conception of composition. In its stead, Fine proposes an alternative, neo-Aristotelian model, which is in some respects close to the positive framework advocated later in this book. The chapter begins by examining Fine's reasons for parting ways with the standard conception; these reasons are found to be utterly persuasive and fatal to the standard conception. The later sections of the chapter provide a detailed discussion of Fine's own positive proposal and indicate in what respects it might be found to be unsatisfactory.
Objects as Structured Wholes
Authors: Koslicki Kathrin
Published: September 2008

This chapter demonstrates that a structure-based neo-Aristotelian mereology for ordinary material objects can be defended utilizing a single relation of parthood with relatively straightforward formal properties. A substantive restriction on composition can be derived from a comparatively minimal and metaphysically neutral independently motivated ontology of kinds. The thoroughly mereological conception of composition defended here recommends itself based on Leibniz's Law and the Weak Supplementation Principle. Among its benefits are the following: it yields the Uniqueness of Composition as a derived principle; it contributes to the Problem of Constitution and, possibly, the Grounding Problem; and it clarifies the relation between a whole and both its material and its structural components. Finally, it is demonstrated how, on the approach defended here, wholes can be thought of as both ontologically committing and genuinely unified, despite the apparent Aristotelian regress caused by a never-ending demand for further principles of unity.
In Defense of Kinds
Authors: Koslicki Kathrin
Published: September 2008

This chapter defends a commitment to an ontology of kinds for the special case of natural kinds; such a commitment plays an important role in motivating and underwriting the structure-based and restricted conception of parthood and composition outlined in the previous chapter. The special case of natural kinds is intended as an illustration of how a commitment to a certain class of kinds in general, or to specific kinds among them, may be generated on the basis of extra-mereological considerations. The belief in the existence of natural kinds, for example, may be supported by an appeal to their role in prediction and explanation; particularly noteworthy in this respect is the weight borne by scientific natural kinds (e.g., physical, chemical and biological kinds) in (i) inductive arguments, (ii) the laws of nature, and (iii) causal explanations.
System estimation from metabolic time-series data
Authors: Goel Gautam , Chou I-Chun , Voit Eberhard O.
Published: September 2008

Motivation: At the center of computational systems biology are mathematical models that capture the dynamics of biological systems and offer novel insights. The bottleneck in the construction of these models is presently the identification of model parameters that make the model consistent with observed data. Dynamic flux estimation (DFE) is a novel methodological framework for estimating parameters for models of metabolic systems from time-series data. DFE consists of two distinct phases, an entirely model-free and assumption-free data analysis and a model-based mathematical characterization of process representations. The model-free phase reveals inconsistencies within the data, and between data and the alleged system topology, while the model-based phase allows quantitative diagnostics of whether—or to what degree—the assumed mathematical formulations are appropriate or in need of improvement. Hallmarks of DFE are the facility to: diagnose data and model consistency; circumvent undue compensation of errors; determine functional representations of fluxes uncontaminated by errors in other fluxes and pinpoint sources of remaining errors. Our results suggest that the proposed approach is more effective and robust than presently available methods for deriving metabolic models from time-series data. Its avoidance of error compensation among process descriptions promises significantly improved extrapolability toward new data or experimental conditions.

Contact:  eberhard.voit@bme.gatech.edu

Supplementary information:  Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Redetermination of the structure and dielectric properties of bis(thiourea) pyridinium iodide – a new ferroelectric inclusion compound
Authors: Małuszyńska H. , Czarnecki P. , Fojud Z. , Wąsicki J.
Published: September 2008

The crystal structure of bis(thiourea) pyridinium iodide (T2PyI) was previously determined at 295 and 110 K [Prout, Heyes, Dobson, McDaid, Maris, Mueller & Seaman (2000). Chem. Mater. 12, 3561–3569] and the two phases were described in the space groups Cmcm and P21
cn, respectively. Because differential scanning calorimetry revealed two phase transitions, at 161 and 141 K, a redetermination of the structure of T2pyI at 295, 155 and 110 K has been undertaken, and the following sequence of space groups obtained: Cmcm (I) → C2cm (II) → P21
cn (III). The high- (I) and low-temperature (III) phases confirmed the results reported in the previous study. In the new intermediate phase II, the mirror plane perpendicular to the x axis vanishes and the crystal structure loses the centre of symmetry. In phases I and II the pyridinium cations are strongly dynamically disordered, while in the low-temperature phase III the cations are well ordered. In all three phases the thiourea–iodine hydrogen-bonded sublattice is very well ordered. Dielectric measurements show that the intermediate and low-temperature phases are ferroelectric and that 161 K is the Curie point of a new ferroelectric crystal.
Hydrogen-bond patterns and the structures of 1,4-cyclohexanediol: 2:1 cis:trans-1,4-cyclohexanediol
Authors: Loehlin James H. , Lee Michelle , Woo Christina M.
Published: September 2008

The structure of a co-crystal with both trans and cis isomers of 1,4-cyclohexanediol (1,4-CHD) is reported. The intermolecular hydrogen-bond patterns are described and compared with those of the all trans structure, using the graph-set model. A second crystal with possible cis/trans disorder is also described. The results of molecular modeling of the simple isomers and conformers are compared with the known structures.
Orientational disorder and phase transitions in crystals of (NH4)2NbOF5
Authors: Udovenko Anatoly A. , Laptash Natalia M.
Published: September 2008

Ammonium oxopentafluoroniobate, (NH4)2NbOF5, was synthesized in a single-crystal form and the structures of its different phases were determined by X-ray diffraction at three temperatures: phase (I) at 297 K, phase (II) at 233 K and phase (III) at 198 K. The distorted [NbOF5]2− octahedra are of similar geometry in all three structures, with the central atom shifted towards the O atom. The structure of (I) is disordered, with three spatial orientations of the [NbOF5]2− octahedron related by a jump rotation around the pseudo-threefold local axis such that the disorder observed is of a dynamic nature. As the temperature decreases, the compound undergoes two phase transitions. The first is accompanied by full anionic ordering and partial ordering of the ammonium groups (phase II). The structure of (III) is completely ordered. The F and O atoms in the structures investigated were identified via the Nb—X (X = O and F) distances. The crystals of all three phases are twinned.
Polymorphism in cyclohexanol
Authors: Ibberson Richard M. , Parsons Simon , Allan David R. , Bell Anthony M. T.
Published: September 2008

The crystal structures and phase behaviour of phase II and the metastable phases III′ and III of cyclohexanol, C6H11OH, have been determined using high-resolution neutron powder, synchrotron X-ray powder and single-crystal X-ray diffraction techniques. Cyclohexanol-II is formed by a transition from the plastic phase I cubic structure at 265 K and crystallizes in a tetragonal structure, space group P\bar 42_1c (Z′ = 1), in which the molecules are arranged in a hydrogen-bonded tetrameric ring motif. The structures of phases III′ and III are monoclinic, space groups P21/c (Z′ = 3) and Pc (Z′ = 2), respectively, and are characterized by the formation of hydrogen-bonded molecular chains with a threefold-helical and wave-like nature, respectively. Phase III crystallizes at 195 K from a sample of phase I that is supercooled to ca 100 K. Alternatively, phase III may be grown via phase III′, the latter transforming from supercooled phase I at ca 200 K. Phase III′ is particularly unstable and is metastable with respect to both I and II. Its growth is realised only under very restricted conditions, thus making its characterization especially challenging. The cyclohexanol molecules adopt a chair conformation in all three phases with the hydroxyl groups in an equatorial orientation. No evidence was found indicating hydroxyl groups adopting an axial orientation, contrary to the majority of spectroscopic literature on solid-state cyclohexanol; however, the H atom of the equatorial OH groups is found to adopt both in-plane and out-of-plane orientations.
Experiences of Peer Evaluation of the Leicester Teenage Pregnancy Prevention Strategy
Authors: Fleming Jennie , Goodman Chong Hannah , Skinner Alison
Published: September 2008

The Centre for Social Action was commissioned by the Leicester City Council to evaluate its Teenage Pregnancy Prevention Strategy. This was a multi‐stage project with a central element of consulting with young people. This article outlines the process that was followed in order to recruit, train and support young people through the process of being peer researchers. Issues covered include retention of interested young people, experiences of training peer evaluators and supporting them throughout the project. The added value of using peer evaluators will be discussed and recommendations given for those wanting to work with young people as researchers in future.
Trade and health: how World Trade Organization (WTO) law affects alcohol and public health
Authors: Baumberg Ben , Anderson Peter
Published: September 2008

Aims The alcohol field is becoming more aware of the consequences of world trade law for alcohol policies. However, there is a need for greater clarity about the different effects of trade on alcohol‐related harm.

Methods A comprehensive review of all literature on alcohol and world trade [including World Trade Organization (WTO) disputes on alcohol], supported by a more selective review of other relevant cases, academic reports and the grey literature on trade and health.

Results The burden of WTO law on alcohol policies depends upon the type of policy in question. Purely protectionist policies are likely to be struck down, which may lead to increases in alcohol‐related harm. Partly protectionist and partly health‐motivated policies are also at risk of being struck down. However, purely health‐motivated policies are likely to be defended by the WTO—and to the extent that policy makers misunderstand this, they are needlessly avoiding effective ways of reducing alcohol‐related harm.

Conclusions WTO agreements contain genuine and substantial risks to alcohol policies, and various ways of minimizing future risks are suggested. However, the ‘chilling effect’ of mistakenly overestimating these constraints should be avoided. Health policy makers should decide on which policies to pursue based primarily on considerations of effectiveness, ethics and politics rather than legality. As long as any effect of these policies on trade is minimized, they are overwhelmingly likely to win any challenges at the WTO.
The performance of elements of a ‘level of response to alcohol’‐based model of drinking behaviors in 13‐year‐olds
Authors: Schuckit Marc A. , Smith Tom L. , Trim Ryan , Heron Jon , Horwood Jeremy , Davis John M. , Hibbeln Joseph R. ,   the ALSPAC Study Team
Published: September 2008

Aim  The goals of this paper are to evaluate whether drinking practices among peers mediates the relationship between a low level of response (LR) to alcohol and a person's heavier drinking and alcohol‐related problems in 12–14‐year‐olds.

Design  Correlations and structural equation models (SEM) were used to test a hypothesized model of the relationships among key variables in adolescents from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), a longitudinal birth cohort study in Bristol, England.

Participants  These included 688 boys (40.4%) and girls who were offspring of the pregnant women who had been selected as ALSPAC participants in 1991 and 1992. The offspring were interviewed at about age 13 years, and those who had ever consumed a full drink completed the Self‐Report of the Effects of Alcohol (SRE) questionnaire indicating the number of drinks required for up to four effects early in their drinking histories. A higher number of drinks required for effects indicated a low LR per drink consumed.

Findings  The SEM explained 58% of the variance of the alcohol pattern, and had good fit characteristics. A low LR was related to heavier drinking and more alcohol problems both directly and as mediated partially by drinking in peers. The model performed well across the narrow age range, and applied equally well in boys and girls.

Conclusions  The perceived drinking practices of peers is a potentially important mediator of how a low LR to alcohol relates to drinking practices during early adolescence. The findings may be useful in developing approaches to prevent heavier drinking in this young group.
Economic theory and evidence on smoking behavior of adults
Authors: Sloan Frank A. , Wang Yang
Published: September 2008

Aims To describe: (i) three alternative conceptual frameworks used by economists to study addictive behaviors: rational, imperfectly rational and irrational addiction; (ii) empirical economic evidence on each framework and specific channels to explain adult smoking matched to the frameworks; and (iii) policy implications for each framework.

Methods A systematic review and appraisal of important theoretical and empirical economic studies on smoking.

Results There is some empirical support for each framework. For rational and imperfectly rational addiction there is some evidence that anticipated future cigarette prices influence current cigarette consumption, and quitting costs are high for smokers. Smokers are more risk‐tolerant in the financial domain than are others and tend to attach a lower value to being in good health. Findings on differences in rates of time preference by smoking status are mixed; however, short‐term rates are higher than long‐term rates for both smokers and non‐smokers, a stylized fact consistent with hyperbolic discounting. The economic literature lends no empirical support to the view that mature adults smoke because they underestimate the probability of harm to health from smoking. In support of the irrationality framework, smokers tend to be more impulsive than others in domains not related directly to smoking, implying that they may be sensitive to cues that trigger smoking.

Conclusions Much promising economic research uses the imperfectly rational addiction framework, but empirical research based on this framework is still in its infancy.
Identification of insulin resistance in Asian Indian adolescents: classification and regression tree (CART) and logistic regression based classification rules
Authors: Goel Ruchika , Misra Anoop , Kondal Dimple , Pandey Ravindra M. , Vikram Naval K. , Wasir Jasjeet S. , Dhingra Vibha , Luthra Kalpana
Published: September 2008

Objective  Biochemical measures for assessment of insulin resistance are not cost‐effective in resource‐constrained developing countries. Using classification and regression tree (CART) and multivariate logistic regression, we aimed to develop simple predictive decision models based on routine clinical and biochemical parameters to predict insulin resistance in apparently healthy Asian Indian adolescents.

Design  Community based cross‐sectional study.

Subjects and patients  Data of apparently healthy 793 adolescents (aged 14–19 years) were used for analysis. WHO's multistage cluster sampling design was used for data collection.

Methods and measurements  Homeostasis Model of Assessment value > 75th centile was used as cut‐off for defining the main outcome variable insulin resistance. CART was used to develop the decision tree models and multivariate logistic regression used to develop the clinical prediction score.

Results  Three classification trees and an equation for prediction score were developed and internally validated.

The three decision trees were termed as CART I, CART II and CART III, respectively. CART I based on anthropometric parameters alone has sensitivity 88·2%, specificity 50·1% and area under receiver operating characteristic curve (aROC) 77·8%. CART II based on anthropometric and routine biochemical parameters has sensitivity 94·5%, specificity 38·3% and aROC 73·6%. CART III based on all anthropometric, biochemical and clinical parameters together has sensitivity 70·7%, specificity 79·2% and aROC 77·4%.

Prediction score for insulin resistance = 1 × (waist circumference) + 1·1 × (percentage body fat) + 1·6 × (triceps skin‐fold thickness) – 1·9 × (gender). A score cut‐off of > 0 (using values marked for each) was a marker of insulin resistance in the study population (sensitivity 82·4%, specificity 56·7%, and aROC 73·4%).

Conclusion  These simple and cost‐effective classification rules may be used to predict insulin resistance and implement population based preventive interventions in Asian Indian adolescents.
Hypothyroidism is associated with signs of endothelial dysfunction despite 1‐year replacement therapy with levothyroxine
Authors: Clausen P. , Mersebach H. , Nielsen B. , Feldt‐Rasmussen B. , Feldt‐Rasmussen U.
Published: September 2008

Objective  Hypothyroidism is associated with elevated cardiovascular risk, not fully explained by classical risk factors. Instead, endothelial dysfunction may link hypothyroidism to atherosclerosis. The effect of levothyroxine substitution on endothelial function has been sparsely studied and the results are unclear. This study tested endothelial function as estimated by concomitant measurements of endothelial dependent vascular dilatory capacity and plasma concentration of von Willebrand factor antigen in patients with hypothyroidism and further examined the impact of subsequent levothyroxine substitution.

Design and patients  Sixteen consecutive patients (13 women, 3 men, aged 46 ± 11 years) with hypothyroidism were included and compared to 16 matched healthy controls (13 women, 3 men, aged 49 ± 11 years). Patients with hypothyroidism were reexamined after 3, 6 and 12 months of levothyroxine substitution.

Measurements  Dilatory responses of the brachial artery to post‐ischaemic increased blood flow (endothelium‐dependent flow‐associated dilatation) and to nitroglycerin (endothelium‐independent nitroglycerin induced dilatation) were measured by ultrasound. Plasma concentrations of von Willebrand factor antigen were measured by ELISA.

Results  Flow‐associated dilatation was impaired in patients with hypothyroidism as compared to controls (102·7 ± 3·6 vs. 105·6 ± 3·8%, P = 0·04) whereas no differences in plasma concentration of von Willebrand factor antigen were found. One year levothyroxine substitution did not improve flow‐associated dilatation and was associated with an increase of the plasma von Willebrand factor antigen concentration.

Conclusions  Hypothyroid patients are characterized by endothelial dysfunction sustained despite long‐term levothyroxine substitution and potentially increasing the risk of atherosclerosis. Different estimates of endothelial dysfunction seem unequally influenced by hypothyroidism.
Increased epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) volume in type 2 diabetes mellitus and association with metabolic syndrome and severity of coronary atherosclerosis
Authors: Wang Chao‐Ping , Hsu Hui‐Ling , Hung Wei‐Chin , Yu Teng‐Hung , Chen Yen‐Hsun , Chiu Cheng‐An , Lu Li‐Fen , Chung Fu‐Mei , Shin Shyi‐Jang , Lee Yau‐Jiunn
Published: September 2008

Objective  Epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) is a part of visceral fat deposited around the heart between the pericardium and myocardium along the distribution of coronary arteries. EAT thickness is reported to be associated with coronary atherosclerosis; however, no study has measured EAT volume in patients with type 2 diabetes or investigate its association with coronary artery disease.

Design  A hospital‐based case control study.

Patients  A total of 49 patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and 78 nondiabetic controls were studied.

Measurements  Cardiac multislice computed tomography was used to measure EAT volume, Gensini score, coronary artery calcium score and, coronary lesions. The relationships between EAT volume, markers of coronary atherosclerosis and anthropometric and biochemical parameters of metabolic syndrome (MetS) were investigated.

Results  EAT volume was significantly higher in patients with T2DM than in nondiabetic subjects (166·1 ± 60·6 cm3 vs. 123·4 ± 41·8 cm3, P < 0·0001). Logistic regression analysis revealed independent and significant associations between EAT and diabetic status. EAT volume was significantly associated with components of MetS (BMI, waist circumference, fasting serum glucose, total cholesterol, HDL‐cholesterol, and triglycerides levels), Gensini score, coronary lesions, coronary disease and coronary calcium scores. Univariate, multivariate and trend analyses confirmed that EAT volume was associated with MetS component clustering and the coronary atherosclerosis index.

Conclusions  The analytical results indicate that EAT volume is increased in T2DM patients and is associated with unfavourable components of MetS and coronary atherosclerosis. The close anatomical relationship between EAT and the coronary arteries, combined with other evidence indicating that EAT is a biologically active adipokine‐secreting tissue, suggest that EAT participates in the pathogenesis of diabetic coronary atherosclerosis.
Increase of human papillomavirus‐16 E7‐specific T helper type 1 response in peripheral blood of cervical cancer patients after radiotherapy
Authors: Delgado Félix Giovanni , Martínez Elizabeth , Céspedes María Angélica , Bravo María Mercedes , Navas María Cristina , Cómbita Rojas Alba Lucía
Published: September 2008

It has been suggested that tumour cell lysis by gamma‐radiation induces a tumoral antigen release eliciting an immune response. It is not clear how a specific immune response in cervical cancer patients is developed after radiotherapy. This study is an attempt to investigate the role of the human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV‐16) E7‐specific T helper response before and after radiotherapy. Lymphocytes were isolated from 32 cervical cancer patients before and after radiotherapy and from 16 healthy women. They were stimulated for 12 hr with autologous HPV‐16 E7‐pulsed monocyte‐derived dendritic cells or directly with HPV‐16 E7 synthetic peptides: E751–70, E765–84 and E779–98. The cells were stained for CD4, CD69, intracellular interferon‐γ (IFN‐γ) and interleukin‐4 (IL‐4) cytokines and analysed by flow cytometry. A specific CD4+ CD69+ IFN‐γ+ immune response against HPV‐16 E779–98 peptide was observed in 10 of 14 patients (71·4%) after treatment, compared with 4 of 14 (28·5%) before radiotherapy (P = 0·039); however, this response was not associated with a successful clinical response. Before treatment, 5 of 31 patients showed a HPV‐16 E779–98‐specific T helper type 2 (Th2) response. Interestingly, this response was significantly associated with a decrease in disease‐free survival (P = 0·027). These results suggest that a Th2‐type cellular response could be useful as a predictor of recurrence and poor prognosis. An increase of the HPV‐specific immune response was observed after radiotherapy; however, it is not enough to control completely the disease after treatment. Our results support that the E7‐specific T‐cell IFN‐γ response in cervical cancer patients, rather than reflecting the host’s capability of controlling tumour growth, might be an indicator for disease severity.
Adult thymus transplantation with allogeneic intra‐bone marrow–bone marrow transplantation from same donor induces high thymopoiesis, mild graft‐versus‐host reaction and strong graft‐versus‐tumour effects
Authors: Miyake Takashi , Hosaka Naoki , Cui Wenhao , Nishida Teruhisa , Takaki Takashi , Inaba Muneo , Kamiyama Yasuo , Ikehara Susumu
Published: September 2008

Although allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (BMT) plus donor lymphocyte infusion (DLI) is performed for solid tumours to enhance graft‐versus‐tumour (GVT) effects, a graft‐versus‐host reaction (GVHR) is also elicited. We carried out intra‐bone marrow–bone marrow transplantation (IBM‐BMT) plus adult thymus transplantation (ATT) from the same donor to supply alloreactive T cells continually. Normal mice treated with IBM‐BMT + ATT survived for a long time with high donor‐derived thymopoiesis and mild GVHR. The percentage of CD4+ FoxP3+ regulatory T cells in the spleen of the mice treated with IBM‐BMT + ATT was lower than in normal B6 mice or mice treated with IBM‐BMT alone, but higher than in mice treated with IBM‐BMT + DLI; the mice treated with IBM‐BMT + DLI showed severe GVHR. In tumour‐bearing mice, tumour growth was more strongly inhibited by IBM‐BMT + ATT than by IBM‐BMT alone. Mice treated with IBM‐BMT + a high dose of DLI also showed tumour regression comparable to that of mice treated with IBM‐BMT + ATT but died early of GVHD. By contrast, mice treated with IBM‐BMT + a low dose of DLI showed longer survival but less tumour regression than the mice treated with IBM‐BMT + ATT. Histologically, significant numbers of CD8+ T cells were found to have infiltrated the tumour in the mice treated with IBM‐BMT + ATT. The number of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase‐mediated dUTP‐biotin nick end‐labelling (TUNEL)‐positive apoptotic tumour cells also significantly increased in the mice treated with IBM‐BMT + ATT. Allogeneic IBM‐BMT + ATT thus can induce high thymopoiesis, preserving strong GVT effects without severe GVHR.
Type I Streptococcus pneumoniae carbohydrate utilizes a nitric oxide and MHC II‐dependent pathway for antigen presentation
Authors: Velez Christopher D. , Lewis Colleen J. , Kasper Dennis L. , Cobb Brian A.
Published: September 2008

Some pathogenic bacteria form thick capsules that both block immune responses through inhibition of complement deposition and phagocytosis and stimulate a weak response resulting from a lack of T‐cell involvement. Contrary to this model, capsular polysaccharides from 23 serotypes of Streptococcus pneumoniae have been successfully used in a multivalent vaccine in the absence of a carrier protein. Furthermore, type I pneumococcal polysaccharide (Sp1) has been shown to activate T cells in vivo and in vitro via an uncharacterized mechanism. In the present report, we demonstrate that Sp1 utilizes the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II pathway in antigen‐presenting cells (APCs) for processing and presentation. APCs internalize and process Sp1 through a nitric oxide‐dependent mechanism and, once inside the cell, it associates with MHC II proteins in an H‐2M‐dependent manner that leads to in vivo T‐cell activation. These results establish that Sp1 activates T cells which can lead to abscess formation in mice through an H‐2M‐dependent polysaccharide antigen presentation pathway in APCs, potentially contributing to pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine efficacy through the recruitment of T‐cell help.
Genomic expression analysis by single‐cell mRNA differential display of quiescent CD8 T cells from tumour‐infiltrating lymphocytes obtained from in vivo liver tumours
Authors: Zhang Wei , Ding Jianqing , Qu Yan , Hu Hongliang , Lin Meihua , Datta Amit , Larson Alan , Liu George E. , Li Biaoru
Published: September 2008

We performed a genomic study combining single‐cell mRNA differential display and RNA subtractive hybridization to elucidate CD8 T‐cell quiescence/ignorance. By comparing actively maintained quiescent CD8 T cells from liver tumour tumour‐infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) with quiescent T cells at the single‐cell level, we identified differentially expressed candidate genes by high‐throughput screening and comparative analysis of expressed sequence tags (ESTs). While genes for the T‐cell receptor, tumour necrosis factor (TNF) receptor, TNF‐related apoptpsis inducing ligand (TRAIL) and perforin were down‐regulated, key genes such as Tob, transforming growth factor (TGF)‐β, lung Krüpple‐like factor (LKLF), Sno‐A, Ski, Myc, Ets‐2 repressor factor (ERF) and RE1‐silencing transcription factor (REST/NRSF) complex were highly expressed in the quiescent TIL CD8 cells. Real‐time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) further confirmed these results. A regulation model is proposed for actively maintained quiescence in CD8 T cells, including three components: up‐regulation of the TGF‐β pathway, a shift in the MYC web and inhibition of the cell cycle.