bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Diaspora Entrepreneurs and Contested States
Authors: Koinova Maria
Published: April 2021

Why do conflict-generated diasporas mobilize in contentious and non-contentious ways or use mixed strategies of contention? Why do they channel their homeland-oriented goals through host-states, transnational networks, and international organizations? This book develops a theory of socio-spatial positionality and its implications for the individual agency of diaspora entrepreneurs, moving beyond essentialized notions of diasporas as groups. Individual diaspora entrepreneurs operate in transnational social fields affecting their mobilizations beyond dynamics confined to host-states and original home-states. There are four types of diaspora entrepreneurs—Broker, Local, Distant, and Reserved—depending on the relative strength of their socio-spatial linkages to host-land, on the one hand, and original homeland and other global locations, on the other. A two-level typological theory captures nine causal pathways, unravelling how the socio-spatial linkages of these diaspora entrepreneurs interact with external factors: host-land foreign policies, homeland governments, parties, non-state actors, and critical events or limited global influences. Such pathways produce mobilization trajectories with varying levels of contention and methods of channelling homeland-oriented goals. Non-contentious pathways often occur when host-state foreign policies are convergent with the diaspora entrepreneurs’ goals, and when diaspora entrepreneurs can act autonomously. Dual-pronged contention pathways occur quite often, under the influence of homeland governments, non-state actors, and political parties. The most contentious pathway occurs in response to violent critical events in the homeland or adjacent to it fragile states. This book is informed by 300 interviews and a dataset of 146 interviews with diaspora entrepreneurs among the Albanian, Armenian, and Palestinian diasporas in the UK, Germany, France, Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland, as well as Kosovo and Armenia in the European neighbourhood.
Introduction
Authors: Petchey Owen L. , Beckerman Andrew P. , Cooper Natalie , Childs Dylan Z.
Published: April 2021

The goal of Insights from Data with R is to help you learn the most important tools in R, and the most important concepts, to allow you gain insights from data. After reading this book, and working along with the methods, you will have the tools to tackle a wide variety of challenges involved in getting insights from data using R. This chapter describes what we mean by ‘insights’ and introduces our overall workflow for gaining insights from data using R. We also introduce features of datasets that influence the types of insight one can gain, and introduce four workflow demonstrations, one of which is in the book, and three of which are online.
Workflow Demonstration part 1
Authors: Petchey Owen L. , Beckerman Andrew P. , Cooper Natalie , Childs Dylan Z.
Published: April 2021

This and the next chapter involve us working through the process of getting insights from data. We have chosen a research subject that should have some interest to us all: food. More specifically, what bats eat. In this chapter you will experience a clearly specified set of research questions, learn how the study was performed and why it was done that way, and learn how to prepare your computer, R, and RStudio for the project, and how to read the dataset into R. The chapter also covers how you can clean, tidy, and manipulate the data in R. These are the solid foundations from which robust and reliable insights can grow.
Getting to grips with ggplot2
Authors: Petchey Owen L. , Beckerman Andrew P. , Cooper Natalie , Childs Dylan Z.
Published: April 2021

We have made quite a few graphs already but only briefly explained how we did so, specifically using ggplot. We need a deeper understanding… hence this chapter. We focus on making graphs with ggplot2. The ggplot2 package can help us to produce quite complex visualizations, with elements such as graphical keys, without the need to write lines and lines of R code. It is, nevertheless, still flexible enough for us to tweak the appearance of a figure so that it meets our specific needs. This chapter describes the underlying principles of the grammar used in ggplot2, and then demonstrates various kinds of plots and modifications to plots that ggplot2 can implement.
Investment, Profitability, and Structural Change
Authors: Weiss John , Jalilian Hossein
Published: April 2021

This chapter explores the links between profitability, investment, and structural change. This is examined for the case of India, using both a historical overview and regression analysis. In a Kaldorian dynamic economy, the reallocation of investment provides the driver for resource reallocation, allowing more productive and profitable activities to expand and less productive and less profitable activities to contract. Thus, investment choices drive structural change, productivity growth, technological advance, and ultimately profits. Investment in turn responds to expected profits, which are driven by technical change, related productivity gains, and shifts in demand. The relationships are thus circular and cumulative, with this chapter testing for the presence of such relationships.
Technological Revolutions, Structural Change, and Catching up
Authors: Fagerberg Jan , Verspagen Bart
Published: April 2021

This chapter interprets the transition to a more sustainable type of growth as a technological revolution in progress. The chapter opens with a general discussion of the role of technological revolutions and structural change and economic growth, with special emphasis on the acquisition of foreign technology, exports, and catching-up-based growth. It then goes on to examine whether the transition to renewable energy can be seen as a technological revolution in line with the great technological revolutions of the past. The answer to this question is in the affirmative. The final section discusses the implications of this for catching-up-based growth in China and other developing countries.
How Has Globalization Affected the Economic Growth, Structural Change, and Poverty Reduction Linkages?
Authors: Aggarwal Aradhna
Published: April 2021

This chapter focuses on the complex relationships between structural change on the one hand and employment creation and poverty reduction on the other hand. It argues that globalization may have ambiguous effects on the relationships between growth and structural change by distorting domestic intersectoral linkages in the developing economies. As a result, structural change accompanied by the growth of output may not necessarily create additional employment and contribute to reductions in poverty. The key hypothesis of the chapter is that if economic growth is accompanied by productivity-enhancing structural change, it serves to generate high-productivity employment and ensures poverty reduction. The empirical results provide weak support for the hypothesis.
Structural Transformation, Old and New Industrial Policies, and Implications for Development
Authors: Felipe Jesus
Published: April 2021

This chapter discusses changes in economic thinking, particularly since the 1970s, with a focus on the role of structural transformation and industrial policy. The chapter argues that structural transformation is the essence of economic and industrial development, but with markets not providing enough incentives to encourage structural transformation (due to the existence of market failures ), industrial policy is necessary to induce changes in a country’s economic structure. Changes in economic thinking have led to different perspectives on industrial policy, as have developments such as the arrival of the World Trade Organization (WTO), which forced developing countries to rethink how to use industrial policy (as a result of banning certain subsidies aimed at protecting the domestic market). In the final section of the chapter the new characteristics of industrial policy are discussed. Examples from East and South Asia, Latin America, the United States, and the European Union are analysed.
Introduction
Authors: Haacke Paul
Published: April 2021

This introduction presents the book’s central argument about the shifting discourses of verticalism and modernism, develops close readings of exemplary texts, and addresses key theoretical debates about relations between nature, culture, and capitalist urbanization. In particular, it discusses the significance of architecture, urban space, and racial and colonial discourse in the film King Kong, especially in comparison to Hugo’s Notre Dame de Paris, offers a brief intellectual history of the dialectics of “up and down” and “high and low” from Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels to the writings of Marx and Engels and post-structuralist and contemporary theory, and re-examines theories of metaphor in phenomenology, psychoanalysis, linguistics, and modern poetics. It concludes with a brief summary of the five chapters that follow.
Vertiginous Aspiration
Authors: Haacke Paul
Published: April 2021

This chapter shows how the aesthetics of vertiginous aspiration and ironic transcendence became central for European writers who have come to be recognized as canonical modernists. It focuses in particular on Guillaume Apollinaire’s visions of “turning towers” in “Zone” and other poems dealing with Parisian modernity and cosmopolitanism; Franz Kafka’s “irony of transcendence” in various short stories and personal writings; Virginia Woolf’s “views from below” in novels like Mrs. Dalloway and To the Lighthouse to essays like “On Being Ill” and “The Leaning Tower”; and images of urban space, post-Christian philosophy, and the aesthetics and politics of sovereignty in James Joyce’s Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and Ulysses.
Enchanted Catastrophe
Authors: Haacke Paul
Published: April 2021

This chapter rethinks Le Corbusier’s idea of New York as an “enchanted catastrophe” by focusing on related concerns about architectural elevation and capitalist “creative destruction” in critical writings about the rise of the modernist American metropolis. In particular, it considers essays by Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright and novels by John Dos Passos as well as key French texts by Fernand Léger, Le Corbusier, Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, and Michel de Certeau, among others. In turn, it traces the post-World War II shift according to which Paris “lost its hegemony,” as Beauvoir put it, and New York appeared to replace it as the capital of the twentieth century.
Evolution of Central Banking
Authors: Branca Federica , Miquel-Flores Ixart , Mongelli Francesco Paolo
Published: April 2021

This chapter provides some observations regarding the evolution of central banking. It is noted that the practice of monetary policy and the scope of central banks have changed over time. The chapter reflects on the path to East African Economic and Monetary Union (EA-EMU). First, how does East Africa stand in terms of economic and financial convergence? Second, what are the milestones of central banking that all central banks of the EA-EMU should master? Third, which monetary lessons could the euro area offer? Fourth, what worked, and has not, in the euro area, what is being fixed? It is noted that East African countries have differences in income per capita, exchange rate volatility, domestic prices, and fiscal discipline. To support sustainable convergence, they should align their monetary policy frameworks and have solid fiscal arrangement.
Financial Innovation and Financial Inclusion
Authors: Collymore Bob
Published: April 2021

This chapter was written before the untimely death of Bob Collymore, Chief Executive Officer of Safaricom (the Kenyan telecommunications company). In many ways, the chapter offers testimony to his great ideas and legacy in innovation of mobile money that revolutionized the financial sector. The chapter narrates the journey of M-PESA from inception to its current state, the partnerships formed along the journey and supporting regulations thereof. The chapter also features the role of mobile money as a tool for financial inclusion and deepening. It is shown that the enabling policy and regulatory environment were critical for mobile money development in Kenya. It is also suggested that regulation should be market-led and proactive measures should be undertaken to enhance not only mobile money growth but also consumer protection.
Central Banking and Financial Inclusion
Authors: Rwangombwa John
Published: April 2021

The chapter examines the nexus between financial inclusion and central banking, and how the relationship impacts on conduct of monetary policy. It highlights the progress on financial inclusion in Africa, and how it influences the behaviour of firms and households, which in the long run affect the efficiency of monetary policy transmission mechanism. The financial risks associated with financial inclusion are well noted, including discussion on how the risks may compromise financial stability; suggestions are offered on actions that may be taken to support financial inclusion. The chapter also outlines the measures to be undertaken by financial institutions to further support financial inclusion and the key role of central banks in ensuring financial stability through its regulations, supervision, and licensing.
Powering Financial Inclusion through Innovative Payment Systems
Authors: Mugo Matu , Evelyne Kilonzo , Mariga Anne W.
Published: April 2021

Over the past 50 years, Kenya’s payments and banking systems have undergone both incremental and revolutionary modifications that have transformed Kenya’s financial landscape, from cash transactions to digital finance ecosystems. M-PESA, rolled out in 2007, undoubtedly has earned its place in Kenya’s Hall of Fame. The developments in the payments system have culminated in a more accessible, effective and efficient Kenyan payment system. This chapter tells the M-PESA story from the lens of a regulator, from conception to the eventual launch in March 2007. More importantly, the chapter tells other understated stories of payments and related banking sector innovations that have seen the level of financial inclusion in Kenya triple from 26 per cent in 2006 to over 75 per cent in 2016. The chapter provides lessons learnt in this transformational journey, one being the need for regulators to understand the business models underpinning innovations, risks thereon, and their mitigating factors.
‘Technologies of Responsibility’
Authors: Ashworth Andrew , Zedner Lucia
Published: April 2021

In her important monograph, In Search of Criminal Responsibility, Lacey explores changing relations between individual and state and charts the history of growing state ‘confidence in the possibility of shaping the habits and dispositions of citizenhood’ through the criminal law and other legal measures. She concludes, ‘we are seeing not so much a replacement of one paradigm of responsibility by another, but rather an accumulation of conceptions or “technologies” of responsibility.’ This chapter considers these controversial new hybrid legal orders such as the ASBO and its successors with which the state seeks to instil habits of respectable citizenship and to secure civil order. These diverse powers engraft new techniques of ‘responsibilization’ on to existing criminal laws, designed to police ‘irregular’ citizens who occupy precarious places at the margins, such as youth, those engaging in anti-social behaviour, the poor, and the homeless. Arguably these technologies do not signify the growth of state confidence so much as its resort to regulatory fixes to intractable problems of governance. It concludes by considering the implications of these developments for the attribution of responsibility both in and outside the criminal law.
Re-Situating Criminal Responsibility
Authors: Loughnan Arlie
Published: April 2021

Inspired by the work of Nicola Lacey as a leading critical criminal responsibility scholar, in my chapter, I offer a reflection on time and space and criminal responsibility. I introduce the notion of interstitial space as a useful analytical device to advance the field of critical scholarship on responsibility for crime. With a study of the intellectual sphere of comparative jurisprudence at around the turn of the twentieth century, which I suggest was an historical example of an interstitial space, I argue that such interstitial spaces form part of the story of the development of ideas of responsibility for crime. In comparative jurisprudence, national laws and legal systems were viewed from a transnational vantage point, and, as such, legal analysis was simultaneously embedded and disembedded, both tied to territorial space and free-floating. My examination of the first decades of the life of a key institutional text of comparative jurisprudence, the Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation, shows that discussion of crime, punishment, and criminal justice encompassed an informative discussion of responsibility, with the light of comparative jurisprudence revealing the connection between criminal responsibility and broader ideas about ‘civilization’ and ‘progress’, which themselves reflected power relations between states.
Atomic Force Microscopy
Authors: Chen C. Julian
Published: April 2021

This chapter discusses atomic force microscopy (AFM), focusing on the methods for atomic force detection. Although the force detection always requires a cantilever, there are two types of modes: the static mode and the dynamic mode. The general design and the typical method of manufacturing of the cantilevers are discussed. Two popular methods of static force detection are presented. The popular dynamic-force detection method, the tapping mode is described, especially the methods in liquids. The non-contact AFM, which has achieved atomic resolution in the weak attractive force regime, is discussed in detail. An elementary and transparent analysis of the principles, including the frequency shift, the second harmonics, and the average tunneling current, is presented. It requires only Newton’s equation and Fourier analysis, and the final results are analyzed over the entire range of vibrational amplitude. The implementation is briefly discussed.
The African Development Bank
Authors: Kraemer-Mbula Erika
Published: April 2021

This chapter demonstrates how the African Development Bank (AfDB) has been deeply shaped by the history of its continent. Fuelled by a sentiment of independence, the creation of the AfDB was driven by a determination to create a regional bank run by Africans, funded by Africans, and serving African needs. African governments’ desire for autonomy and the quest to break with distorted patterns created by Africa’s colonial past helped position the AfDB as the largest development institution dedicated solely to serve the needs of the continent. This chapter argues that, over the years and—despite significant institutional reform, including the acceptance of non-regional members in its Board from 1982, including the United States and former colonial powers—the AfDB has managed overall to preserve its ‘African identity’.
From Sub-Regional Industrial Financier to Latin America’s Main Development Bank
Authors: Brando Carlos Andrés
Published: April 2021

This chapter traces the historical evolution of the Andean Financial Corporation (CAF), according to its changing mandates, from its initial role as financial catalyst of economic integration to the expanding range of tasks it has assumed over time. The chapter analyses the most salient trends and changes in the CAF’s nearly fifty years of operations; specifically, by looking at patterns of loan allocations and the evolving origins of funding sources through the distinctive operational phases that have come to characterize concrete periods of its existence. The analysis shows, that by fulfilling the original mandate of treating less-developed countries within the group of founding members in preferential terms, the CAF conformed to one of the major political goals set by the Andean-region agreements which created the Corporation. Despite profound political change in all of the CAF’s founding countries, this regional development bank has managed to continue to operate according to its constitutive principles.
Conclusion
Authors: Sutton Rebecca
Published: April 2021

The final chapter opens with one last encounter from South Sudan, highlighting the importance of the temporal element to everyday distinction practices. As is shown, struggles over distinction unfold at the most micro of levels: within a single individual. Having deferred normative questions, the discussion now confronts the conundrum of whether a special status for humanitarian actors is desirable. A debate is presented between two composite perspectives: the ‘help the helpers’ view (in favour of a special status for humanitarian actors) and the ‘against humanitarian exceptionalism’ view (wary of a special status). Ultimately siding with the latter outlook, the monograph argues that caution is merited in the face of proposals to give humanitarian actors a special civilian status. Emphasizing the relational nature of distinction, the discussion considers whether further fragmentation of IHL’s civilian category might adversely impact all those civilians not singled out for special treatment. This is a live issue that extends beyond the realm of humanitarian actors: advocates are increasingly calling for more lex specialis for different types of civilians, such as children and journalists. After contemplating the implications of this wider investigation for a range of issues, such as humanitarian practice and the civilian concept, the discussion gestures towards potential avenues for further inquiry.
What is statistical mechanics?
Authors: Sethna James P.
Published: April 2021

Statistical mechanics explains the simple behavior of complex systems. It works by studying not a particular instance, but the typical behavior of a large collection (or ensemble) of systems, which is far easier to calculate. Entropy, free energies, order parameters, phases and phase transitions emerge as collective behaviors that are not manifest in the complex microscopic laws. This text will develop the statistical mechanical machinery needed to generate the new laws governing these emergent behaviors. Exercises in this chapter discuss emergence, Stirling’s formula, random matrix theory, small world networks, an NP complete problem, active matter, and topics in statistics.
Entropy
Authors: Sethna James P.
Published: April 2021

This chapter explores irreversibility, disorder, and ignorance as manifestations of entropy. Entropy measures irreversibility. The inevitable increase of entropy was discovered by analyzing a reversible heat engine, and implied the heat death of the Universe. Entropy measures disorder. Osmotic pressure is the entropy of ions in water; the residual entropy of glasses measures their atomic disorder. Entropy measures our ignorance about the world. Information entropy is used to compress messages and files on the Internet. Exercises span information entropy (burning information and Maxwell’s demon, reversible computation, card shuffling, Shannon entropy, entropy of DNA and aging, entropy of messy bedrooms, data compression), fundamentals of equilibration (Arnol’d cat map, proofs for and against entropy increase, phase conjugate mirrors), materials science (rubber bands and glasses), and astrophysics and cosmology (life at the end of the Universe, black hole entropy, Dyson spheres, cosmic nucleosynthesis and the arrow of time).
Order parameters, broken symmetry, and topology
Authors: Sethna James P.
Published: April 2021

This chapter introduces order parameters -- the reduction of a complex system of interacting particles into a few fields that describe the local equilibrium behavior at each point in the system. It introduces an organized approach to studying a new material system -- identify the broken symmetries, define the order parameter, examine the elementary excitations, and classify the topological defects. It uses order parameters to describe crystals and liquid crystals, superfluids and magnets. It touches upon broken gauge symmetries and the Anderson/Higgs mechanism and an analogue to braiding of non-abelian quantum particles. Exercises explore sound, second sound, and Goldstone’s theorem; fingerprints and soccer balls; Landau theory and other methods for generating emergent theories from symmetries and commutation relations; topological defects in magnets, liquid crystals, and superfluids, and defect entanglement.
Propositional and doxastic justification
Authors: Rosenkranz Sven
Published: April 2021

Drawing on the results of previous chapters, the proposal is made to interpret the complex operator ⌜¬K¬K⌝ as encoding propositional justification and the complex operator ⌜¬K¬K⌝ as encoding doxastic justification—where in each case justification is understood to be justification all things considered. Accordingly, not only propositional but also doxastic justification is construed as a feature of one’s epistemic situation rather than a feature of one’s beliefs. On this view, both types of justification are non-factive. The proposed account is defended against a number of putative counterexamples, the allegation that it confuses epistemic permissibility with epistemic blamelessness, and the charge that it fails to heed plausible reliabilist constraints on justification. At crucial junctures this defence relies on the availability of theorems governing the aforementioned complex operators that were proved in chapter 5.
Competing views
Authors: Rosenkranz Sven
Published: April 2021

The present account, which construes justification as a kind of epistemic possibility of knowing, or of being in a position to know, competes with three recently advanced theories of justification. Of these competitors, the first two construe doxastic justification as the metaphysical possibility of knowing. While they differ in some details, these views share certain problematic features: they fail to yield a corresponding account of propositional justification, have trouble vindicating an intuitive principle of closure for justified belief, and fail to comply with the independently plausible principle that if one has a justified belief, one is in no position to rule out that one has knowledge. The present account does not have these problematic features. According to the third competitor, |φ‎| is propositionally justified in one’s situation just in case it would be abnormal—and so require explanation—if |φ‎| were to be false in the presence of the evidence that one possesses in that situation. This normic theory of justification validates the principle that propositional justification agglomerates over conjunction, and in so doing, violates the constraint that propositions of the form ⌜φ‎ & ¬Kφ‎⌝ never be justified. It likewise contradicts the independently plausible principle that whenever |φ‎| is propositionally justified all things considered, |¬Kφ‎| is not. The present account does not face these problems, since it rejects the relevant agglomeration principle and treats the condition encoded by ⌜¬K¬Kφ‎⌝ as luminous.
Rethinking Sovereign Debt from Colonial Empires to Hegemony
Authors: Pénet Pierre , Zendejas Juan Flores
Published: April 2021

This descriptive chapter identifies the available narratives on the evolution of sovereign debt across the four historical clusters we have chosen to examine and show how this volume updates and complements existing research. Consistent with the diplomatic framework outlined in the introduction, we survey patterns of similarities and differences between clusters in terms of risk analysis, legal clauses, bargaining power, and conceptions of state responsibility. Our periodization will not surprise the reader inasmuch it broadly conforms to the conventional reading that the Great Depression and the collapse of the Bretton Woods system in 1971 were two critical junctures that deeply altered the form of creditor–debtor interactions in the sovereign sector. Yet, as we show below, this volume also makes substantial amendments to this conventional story. First, our focus on colonial history from the nineteenth-century building of empires to postcolonial transitions allows to diversify and identify discrepancies in the available narratives on each periods. Second, our attention to colonialism leads us to pay sustained attention to debt disputes arising during the postcolonial transitions of the 1960s–70s, a cluster of defaults which has not received sufficient scholarly attention. As explained below, our proposal to jointly analyse the historical threads of sovereign debt and colonialism allows for revisiting certain well-known cases of debt disputes and to examine previously unknown or little known events. The last section of this chapter presents the general organization of the volume as well as the list of selected case studies.
Maduro Bonds
Authors: Gulati Mitu , Panizza Ugo
Published: April 2021

For multiple decades, activists have sought to institute an international legal regime that limits the ability of despotic governments to borrow money and then shift those obligations onto more democratic successor governments. The goal of this chapter is to raise the possibility of an alternate legal path to raising the costs of borrowing for despotic regimes. All countries have systems of domestic laws that regulate agency relationships and try to deter corruption; otherwise the domestic economy would not function. Despotic governments are especially likely to engage in transactions that are legally problematic, since by definition, they lack the support of the populace; meaning that there is a high likelihood that actions that they take on behalf of the populace can be challenged as unrepresentative and contrary to the interests of the true principals. The foregoing conditions, if one translates them into the context of an ordinary principal–agent relationship, would constitute a voidable transaction in most modern legal systems. That means that if opposition parties in countries with despotic governments today were to monitor and make public the potential problems with debt issuances by their despotic rulers under their own local laws, it would raise the cost of capital for those despots. To support our argument, we use both the concrete example of the debt issuance shenanigans of the Maduro government in Venezuela and a more general analysis of the relationship between corruption, democracy, and a nation’s borrowing costs.
A Living Work of Art
Authors: Kox A. J. , Schatz H. F.
Published: April 2021

Hendrik Antoon Lorentz was one of the greatest physicists and mathematicians the Netherlands has ever known. Einstein called him “a living work of art, a perfect personality.” During his funeral in 1928, the entire Dutch nation mourned. The national telegraph service was suspended for three minutes and his passing was national and international front-page news. The cream of international science, an impressive list of dignitaries including the Prince Consort, and thousands of ordinary people turned out to see Lorentz being carried to his last resting place. This biography describes the life of Lorentz, from his early childhood as the son of a market gardener in the provincial town of Arnhem, to his death as a leading light in physics and international scientific cooperation and a trailblazer for Einstein’s relativity theory. A number of chapters shed light on his unique place in science, the importance of his ideas, his international conciliatory and scientific activities after World War One, his close friendship with Albert Einstein, and his important role as Einstein’s teacher and intellectual critic. By making use of recently discovered family correspondence, the author was able to show that there lies a true human being behind Lorentz’s façade of perfection. One chapter is devoted to Lorentz’s wife Aletta, a woman in her own right whose progressive feminist ideas were of considerable influence on those of her husband. Two separate chapters focus on his most important scientific achievements, in terms accessible to a general audience.
Aletta, woman in her own right
Authors: Kox A. J. , Schatz H. F.
Published: April 2021

Chapter 3 explains why it is valuable to devote a separate chapter to Aletta Lorentz Kaiser. It describes Aletta’s life and intelligent and ambitious personality and highlights the position of Dutch women more generally in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The chapter first focuses on the limitations of Aletta’s position as a professor’s wife in small-town Leiden, unable to do any paid work herself and constrained to being “the woman behind the important man.” It shows how she managed to circumvent these constraints and how she was able to carve out a position for herself, first in charitable work on behalf of needy women and later in the early Dutch feminist movement and the national struggle for women’s suffrage.
The new century
Authors: Kox A. J. , Schatz H. F.
Published: April 2021

Chapter 5 is a discussion of the rise of Dutch physics around 1900 based on three speeches, by Lorentz, Haga, and Zeeman, on the flourishing state of Dutch physics at the universities of Leiden, Amsterdam, and Groningen. All three speeches deal with the promise of the electromagnetic theory, electricity, and atomism and show that the electromagnetic world view was the center of attention in 1900. Dutch science was promoted by a new type of secondary education, the expansion of physics at Dutch universities, the modernization of the university curriculum, and the new, more individualistic view of science as a pursuit in its own right. Competition from places like Göttingen and Copenhagen gradually diminished the role of Leiden in physics, leading to the end of this “second golden age.”
Haarlem, Einstein, Ehrenfest, and Solvay
Authors: Kox A. J. , Schatz H. F.
Published: April 2021

Chapter 7 describes how Lorentz agreed to head the Physisch Kabinet of Teylers Foundation in Haarlem, including some background on Teylers, Haarlem, and Lorentz’s activities there. The scholarly as well as personal relationship between Lorentz and Einstein is also discussed, as well as Lorentz’s role in the first Solvay Conseil de Physique and the Solvay Institute and the search for Lorentz’s successor in Leiden; in particular, the attempts to interest Albert Einstein. Once Einstein had refused, Lorentz approached the Austrian physicist Paul Ehrenfest, whose appointment is described in detail. In 1912, Lorentz moved to Haarlem, while he continued to lecture in Leiden and attend to his national and international contacts. Eherenfest’s succession was successful, but mood swings and a sense of inadequacy increasingly made it impossible for him to withstand the professional pressures, and eventually he committed suicide in 1933.
Bread and Honey
Authors: Percy Martyn
Published: April 2021

This chapter provides some thoughts on the ideas of mutuality and economics from a philosophical and theological perspective. It explores the changing relationships between business, finance, social flourishing, and morality, suggesting that the myopia of the market economy derives from values and assumptions that prioritize the individual over the social, and wealth over wider concepts of flourishing. It describes the values that promote human flourishing and how they have come to be condensed in a single value of profit that has progressively dominated our lives and societies. The chapter lays the foundations for the values that underpin putting purpose into practice and the economics of mutuality.
The Meaning of Mutuality
Authors: Dolan Catherine , Angelov Bojan , Gilbert Paul
Published: April 2021

This chapter looks at how Mars regards the concept of mutuality as it is applied within its organization. What emerges is a considerable diversity of views about what it means and its significance. Even amongst the most senior levels of management and within the Mars family there is a significant divergence of attitudes towards it. While this ambiguity might be thought to be a source of confusion, it has also allowed different approaches to mutuality to be adopted resulting in a greater degree of experimentation and innovation than might otherwise have prevailed. To some, it is perceived as being predominantly about inclusive growth for the benefit of all parties; to others, it is the fact that it is neither charity nor amoral pursuit of profit that defines it; and to a third group, it is the long-term orientation predicated on enduring relationships that is of most significance.
Timberland and the Smallholder Farmers Alliance
Authors: Locke Hugh , McIlwraith Atlanta , Khalil Lionel , Roll Kate
Published: April 2021

Timberland designs, manufactures and sells footwear, clothes, and accessories for the outdoor. It is a good example of a business–nonprofit partnership. It has partnered with a Haitian non-profit organization, the Smallholder Farmers Alliance, with a view to creating a new supply chain to reintroduce organic Haitian-grown cotton and incentivize farmers to plant trees. From the start of the programme in 2010 it has grown to more than six thousand members in three thousand farms. It is an illustration of the results that can be achieved on the back of a strong understanding of the specific needs of farmers in a particular locality.
Dell
Authors: Koch Louise , Roberts Stephen , Ellis Justine Esta
Published: April 2021

The computer manufacturer Dell runs the world’s largest electronics take-back programme. It has recovered more than 800,000 tonnes of electronics since 2008. In the case of individual consumers it partners with freight companies in retrieving equipment from consumers’ homes and partners with Goodwill, a not-for-profit organization that seeks to make people independent through education and training, in running 2,000 locations across the United States where consumers can drop off any brand of used electronics. The article points to the commercial as well as the environmental savings resulting from the recycling programme and describes the process by which Dell has been able to achieve this.
Core Rights and Duties
Authors: Beale Anna
Published: April 2021

This chapter explains the principal concepts of discrimination defined in Part 2 of the Equality Act 2010. In general, discrimination is defined in the same way for each of the protected characteristics. There are important exceptions to this rule, in recognition of the particular needs of certain groups protected by the Act. For example, the distinctive nature of disability discrimination is recognized through the concepts of discrimination arising from disability and the duty to make reasonable adjustments. These are specific forms of discrimination which apply only to disability. Special provisions deal with absences from work because of gender reassignment and specific measures are set out to deal with pregnancy and maternity discrimination.
Enforcement
Authors: Craig Glynis
Published: April 2021

This chapter describes Part 9 of the Equality Act 2010. Part 9 sets out the procedure for seeking redress for contraventions of the Act. The Act deals separately with the civil courts procedure in relation to the provision of services, exercise of public functions, disposal and management of premises, education (other than in relation to disability) and associations, and the procedure of the employment tribunal in relation to work and equal pay. Although Part 9 does not deal with the enforcement powers of the Equality and Human Rights Commission which are set out in Part 1 of the Equality Act 2006, these are summarized for completeness. Part 10 is also included in respect of the enforcement of discriminatory terms in contracts and agreements.
Redressing the Balance: Positive Action, Quotas, Political Shortlists, and Associations
Authors: Crasnow QC Rachel
Published: April 2021

This chapter studies positive action to secure full equality in practice, assessing when it is permissible to take positive action in relation to equality issues. It also considers the specific issue of all-women shortlists for elected positions. The key provisions in the Equality Act 2010 are in Chapter 2 Positive Action, which is in Part 11 Advancement of Equality. Section 158 concerns Positive Action in general and section 159 concerns specifically Positive Action: Recruitment and Promotion. These sections intersect with other provisions of the Act, for instance those in which certain otherwise discriminatory conduct is rendered permissible by occupational requirements or because it is otherwise justified. These provisions all reflect core ideas in the centre of the equal treatment principle.
Protection of and Access to Relevant Data—General Issues
Authors: Liu Kung-Chung , Zheng Shufeng
Published: April 2021

This chapter discusses the protection of relevant data and issues that might block access to such data. There are at least three kinds of data, data specifically generated for the purpose of AI, big data, and copyright-protected data. Data specifically generated for AI should qualify as works worthy of copyright protection as compilations. If such data are public-sector information, measures that may facilitate the widest re-uses of public data should be taken. If such data are from the private sector, attention needs to be paid to whether these data are of critical importance and whether the use of competition law and/or ex ante regulation will be needed to ensure access. The issue of protection of big data should not be addressed in the sense of giving proprietary entitlement over big data to any entity. When looking at the private-sector components of big data, there are legal, technical and market factors working against the formation, accumulation, and free flow of big data. When looking at the public-sector components of big data, both the importance of open data and the re-use of public sector information come to the fore. Concerning the issue of accessing big data, there are barriers to its collection, storage, synthesis, analysis, and usage. However, behavioural barriers warrant special scrutiny. In that regard, competition law as an ex post remedy can be relied upon but is of limited use; therefore sector-specific regulation might be needed. As for copyright-protected data, the real issue is more about access than protection.
Ralstonia solanacearum Type III Effector RipJ Triggers Bacterial Wilt Resistance in Solanum pimpinellifolium
Authors: Pandey Ankita , Moon Hayoung , Choi Sera , Yoon Hayeon , Prokchorchik Maxim , Jayaraman Jay , Sujeevan Rajendran , Kang Yu Mi , McCann Honour C. , Segonzac Cécile , Kim Chul Min , Park Soon Ju , Sohn Kee Hoon
Published: April 2021

Ralstonia solanacearum causes bacterial wilt disease in solanaceous crops. Identification of avirulence type III-secreted effectors recognized by specific disease resistance proteins in host plant species is an important step toward developing durable resistance in crops. In the present study, we show that R. solanacearum effector RipJ functions as an avirulence determinant in Solanum pimpinellifolium LA2093. In all, 10 candidate avirulence effectors were shortlisted based on the effector repertoire comparison between avirulent Pe_9 and virulent Pe_1 strains. Infection assays with transgenic strain Pe_1 individually carrying a candidate avirulence effector from Pe_9 revealed that only RipJ elicits strong bacterial wilt resistance in S. pimpinellifolium LA2093. Furthermore, we identified that several RipJ natural variants do not induce bacterial wilt resistance in S. pimpinellifolium LA2093. RipJ belongs to the YopJ family of acetyltransferases. Our sequence analysis indicated the presence of partially conserved putative catalytic residues. Interestingly, the conserved amino acid residues in the acetyltransferase catalytic triad are not required for effector-triggered immunity. In addition, we show that RipJ does not autoacetylate its lysine residues. Our study reports the identification of the first R. solanacearum avirulence protein that triggers bacterial wilt resistance in tomato. We expect that our discovery of RipJ as an avirulence protein will accelerate the development of bacterial wilt-resistant tomato varieties in the future.

[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY 4.0 International license .
Integration of Transcriptomic and Proteomic Data Reveals the Possible Action Mechanism of the Antimicrobial Zhongshengmycin AgainstDidymella segeticola, the Causal Agent of Tea Leaf Spot
Authors: Ren Yafeng , Li Dongxue , Jiang Shilong , Wang Yu , Tang Qin , Huang Honglin , Wang Delu , Song Baoan , Chen Zhuo
Published: April 2021

Tea leaf spot, caused by the fungal phytopathogen Didymella segeticola, is an important foliar disease that can cause huge losses in the production and quality of tea, and there are no effective management measures to control the disease. This study screened a natural antimicrobial chemical for its activity against D. segeticola and studied its mode of action. Antifungal activity of the Streptomyces-derived antimicrobial zhongshengmycin (ZSM) against D. segeticola strain GZSQ-4 was assayed in vitro via the mycelial growth rate method. Optical microscopy and scanning and transmission electron microscopy were used to observe the morphological effects on hyphae treated with ZSM, with these studies complemented by transcriptomic, proteomic, and bioinformatic studies to identify the differentially expressed genes or differentially expressed proteins in hyphae treated with ZSM. Correlation analysis of transcriptomic and proteomic data were used to reveal the mode of action. The results indicated that ZSM could inhibit the growth of hyphae in vitro with a half-maximal effective concentration of 5.9 μg/ml, inducing some morphological changes in organelles, septa, and extracellular polysaccharides, targeting ribosomes to disturb translation, affecting the biosynthesis of some hyphal proteins at the messenger RNA and protein levels, and revealing correlations between findings from transcriptomes and proteomes.
Validation of Quantitative and Digital Polymerase Chain Reaction Assays Targeting the Mating Types of Phyllosticta citricarpa, the Causal Agent of Citrus Black Spot
Authors: Urbina Hector , Smith Taylor , Jones Callie , Sun Xiaoan , McVay John , Walker Caroline , Whilby Leroy , Hodges Greg , Smith Trevor
Published: April 2021

Citrus black spot (CBS) is a disease caused by the ascomycetous fungus Phyllosticta (formerly Guignardia) citricarpa (Botryosphaeriales, Pezizomycotina) currently present in citrus groves in five counties in southwest Florida. Within Florida, P. citricarpa shows limited reproduction via asexual sporulation due to the presence of only one (MAT1-2-1) of the two required mating types for sexual reproduction. Here, we present two novel PCR assays standardized in quantitative PCR (qPCR) and digital PCR (dPCR) platforms to distinguish both mating types (MAT1-1-1 and MAT1-2-1) of P. citricarpa to monitor for the potential introduction of the MAT1-1-1 mating type into Florida and a novel protocol for DNA extraction from asymptomatic leaves. During citrus harvesting season 2018 − 19, fruit lesions as well as asymptomatic leaves adjacent to symptomatic fruit and asymptomatic trees in CBS-infected groves were surveyed for P. citricarpa presence and mating types. Results support the presence of only the MAT1-2-1 mating type in Florida, after surveying more than 1,145 citrus fruit lesions. We also confirmed the limited dispersal ability of the asexual state of P. citricarpa in Florida in 10 groves using the enhanced capabilities of the dPCR platform in the detection of P. citricarpa directly from asymptomatic leaves with low pathogen inoculum.

[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license .