bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
American Use of Opiates, 1776–1842
Authors: Gray Elizabeth Kelly
Published: January 2023

Many white Americans in the Early Republic used opiates medically, and while some became dependent on them, addiction was misunderstood, which led to tensions within families. Drugs such as laudanum were effective painkillers and sleep agents. Because few people had access to a doctor, opiate sales were unrestricted. Many people, especially white women, self-medicated with them and then, upon experiencing euphoria or their sedative effects, continued using them. Some public scorn was directed at elites who used opiates due to their indulgent lifestyle, and there was public concern with overdoses. Public attention to “habituation,” the era’s term for addiction, rarely appeared before the 1830s, because users could hide their use. Within some households, however, there had been tension. Many habitués and their families assumed that they could end their use with willpower. Therefore, when users could not meet their responsibilities, continued use led to misunderstanding within families.
Introduction
Authors: Brakman Reiser Dana , Dean Steven A.
Published: January 2023

The risks posed by for-profit philanthropy for the public—typically dashed expectations—tend to be easy for ordinary Americans to understand. Today’s wealthy donors, by contrast, would be hard-pressed to picture themselves in a world once inhabited by titans like Rockefeller: a world where trust has been lost and the entire project of private philanthropy has become suspect. When corporations conduct philanthropy through each of their business divisions, when investment companies offer charitable giving accounts to their mutual fund customers, when donors opt for a limited liability company as the hub of their philanthropic operations, the lines between charity and business become murky. Cavalierly discarding the private foundation as the philanthropic vehicle of choice leaves the public’s trust in elite visions of the good vulnerable. If lost, the public may seize control of a greater share of elite wealth, endangering the entire project of philanthropy writ large.
The Philanthropy LLC
Authors: Brakman Reiser Dana , Dean Steven A.
Published: January 2023

Philanthropy limited liability companies (LLCs) have increasingly displaced the private foundation. The foundation ensures that elite giving lives up to its promises, so its decline should set off alarm bells. The flexibility of the LLC undoes the accountability delivered by the foundation. This innovation permits donors to delay their giving, allows them to make for-profit investments while engaging in transactions with for-profit businesses, and enables them to selectively disclose information about their activities. Philanthropy LLCs unshackle elites, allowing them in theory to deliver benefits surpassing those created through foundations. Timing giving to moments of society’s greatest need rather than following the foundation’s rigid formula, for example, could impact more lives. But the public would need to embrace a philanthropy LLC’s promises to do good without the accountability safeguards provided by the foundation. A betrayal could shatter the public’s trust in elite giving, with consequences for all of philanthropy.
Strategic Corporate Philanthropy
Authors: Brakman Reiser Dana , Dean Steven A.
Published: January 2023

Large multinational corporations increasingly align their charitable giving as closely as possible to their business models, even sometimes dismantling corporate foundations and transferring their former grantmaking activities to divisions within the sponsoring company. Google pioneered this effort a decade ago; Pearson and General Motors followed suit in 2014 and 2017, respectively. Rejecting conventional methods offers these corporations flexibility, privacy, and control while sacrificing few of the tax advantages of giving. In a business world saturated by win–win discourse, linking profit-making and social good allows corporate charitable grants, product donations, and employee giving programs to address environmental damage in regions where businesses operate, smooth corporate donors’ supply chains, and increase satisfaction among their labor pools. Contemporary corporate philanthropy serves as a signal of commitment to the needs of investors and other stakeholders. Unfortunately, it has outgrown its regulatory framework, leaving only corporations themselves to reassure that their “giving” serves the public.
Pilgrims, monks, and digs
Authors: Dark Ken
Published: January 2023

This chapter discusses written sources and archaeological evidence for first-century Nazareth. The lack of written evidence for Nazareth at any time in the first millennium ad is examined and the archaeology of Jewish rock-cut tombs and of the Church of the Annunciation site re-evaluated. Twenty-first-century fieldwork (both excavations and surveys) other than by the Nazareth Archaeological Project—the principal subject of this book—is outlined. The resulting evidence is shown to confirm the existence of a first-century farming community at Nazareth and to enable its identification with the place called Nazareth in the Gospels.
Amazing discoveries
Authors: Dark Ken
Published: January 2023

This chapter begins discussion of the Sisters of Nazareth site itself by examining the archaeological work of the nineteenth-century nuns of the convent. It shows that it was the nuns themselves who, between the 1880s and 1914, discovered the archaeological site beneath their convent and established an outline of the sequence of activity represented there. This was at least among the first archaeological excavations anywhere in the world initiated, organized, and directed by a woman, and with a principally female team—possibly the very first. As such, the late nineteenth-century convent superior, Mère Giraud, deserves recognition as a global pioneer of the role of women in archaeological research.
Setting the record straight
Authors: Dark Ken
Published: January 2023

This chapter explains and describes twenty-first-century archaeological research on the Sisters of Nazareth convent by the author’s Nazareth Archaeological Project. Outlining discoveries relating to the first-century occupation of the site, the chapter continues to consider the interpretation of these, showing that the earliest activity on the site was first-century domestic occupation. Later in the Roman period a Christian cave-church was constructed next to the first-century structure, and both the first-century structure and cave-church were eventually encompassed within the crypt (cellar) of a large and impressive Byzantine church—probably Nazareth’s Byzantine cathedral. This church was disused before the Crusader period, but rebuilt and restored to use by the Crusaders, before being destroyed by fire. Three written descriptions—from the late fourth, late seventh, and early twelfth centuries—are shown to be about the site, identifying it firmly with the Church of the Nutrition, the most important hitherto ‘lost’ pilgrimage church in the Byzantine Holy Land. The Church of the Nutrition was dedicated to the upbringing of Jesus Christ, and believed to include the house where this occurred in its crypt.
Boundaries of International Data Privacy Law
Authors: Yilma Kinfe
Published: January 2023

This chapter examines the extent to which the international data protection framework offers effective protections to data privacy. With its genesis closely aligned with the human right to privacy framework, international data privacy law forms the second component of international privacy law. The chapter considers whether this strand of international privacy law attends to the data protection dimension of the ‘privacy problem’ in the digital age. It argues that the international data privacy framework is normatively outdated, highly fragmented, and devoid of clear institutional arrangements so as to offer meaningful protection of data privacy. Drawing a parallel to the human right to privacy framework, the chapter further locates factors for the present weak structures of international data privacy law in Cold War political controversies and the overall apathy towards privacy in key standard setting processes at the United Nations.
Meaning, Scope, and Significance of Informal Lawmaking in the Law of the Sea
Authors: Klein Natalie
Published: January 2023

This chapter introduces the extent of informal lawmaking in the law of the sea. It elaborates on the meaning of informal law and the process of informal lawmaking, particularly as compared to formal sources of international law. To examine the scope of informal lawmaking, the chapter analyses not only the substance of the varied agreements under discussion, but also the actors involved in the process of reaching those agreements. There is an assessment of the normative value of informal lawmaking, and especially the normative intent and normative effect that may arise in creating and applying informal agreements. The final part of the chapter foreshadows the diverse ways that informal lawmaking may have significance for the law of the sea. These impacts range from the application of Article 311 of the LOSC and contribution to formal law by treaty interpretation or estoppel, through to very practical outcomes.
Informal Lawmaking in Maritime Migration
Authors: Papanicolopulu Irini
Published: January 2023

The flow of ‘boat migration’ across the world’s oceans involves the intersection of different formal agreements: the LOSC, the Safety of Life at Sea Convention, the Search and Rescue Convention, and the Migrant Smuggling Protocol. The scale of boat migration has prompted a series of informal agreements, including the 2004 Guidelines on the Treatment of Persons Rescued at Sea, and an agreement between the EU and Turkey. In addition, individual countries have pursued informal agreements with diverse actors, such as the code of conduct between Italy and the non-governmental organizations undertaking rescues in the Mediterranean. This chapter examines the use of informal lawmaking in response to migration flows across the Mediterranean. It assesses informal acts in formal settings, and informal acts by informal actors, finding that informal lawmaking provides an easier way out of the system of international law for states, but an easier way into the system for non-state actors.
Sea Level Rise and the Law of the Sea
Authors: Oral Nilüfer , Bektaş Tutku
Published: January 2023

Climate change-induced sea level rise will result in the loss of baselines from which maritime zones are established, the partial or complete inundation of islands, and concomitant loss of valuable maritime entitlements. The consequences sea level rise on baselines, insular features, and maritime entitlements, in many ways, straddle the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Developments concerning sea level rise at the informal level of lawmaking are increasing. They include the 2013 ‘Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts’ under the UNFCCC; the initiative by small island developing states on the Accelerated Modalities of Action Pathway; studies by Committees of the International Law Association; and now the work of the International Law Commission on Sea level rise in relation to international law. This chapter will analyse the key contributions of informal lawmaking in the progressive development of international law to meet the challenges of sea level rise.
Professors, Housewives, and Playboys
Authors: Klotz Kelsey
Published: January 2023

Chapter 2 focuses on Brubeck’s conversion of new audiences to jazz in the 1950s. His method, shared by Columbia and advertisers using his image, was to promote an image of respectability, which was deployed in mainstream publications, advertisements, and personal appearances in which he performed the role of jazz authority figure. With this image, Brubeck found entrance to suburban homes, college campuses, and mainstream magazines—places jazz had rarely been found previously. In their overwhelming support of Brubeck and his music, white, middle-, and upper-middle-class mainstream audiences bought into the notion that their thoughtful appreciation of his music could provide evidence of their own intellect and respectability. This chapter offers three case studies focusing on spaces and audiences that had the most to gain from Brubeck’s respectability: Boston’s Storyville club, fans who described themselves as housewives, and Playboy audiences.
Fichte on the Value of Rational Agency
Authors: Kosch Michelle
Published: January 2023

This chapter investigates Fichte’s distinctive approach to questions of membership in the moral community—to the question of who is a bearer of rights. If, with Kant, we answer “rational beings,” Fichte thinks we are left with an epistemological question about how we know who the rational beings are. He argues that the epistemological question is settled (only) through interaction, as rationality and freedom gradually become manifest in cooperative behavior. The moral community is made up of those who reliably engage cooperatively. The result is that membership in the moral community does not extend to all human beings, and it extends to beings who are not human.
Worldly Politics and Divine Institutions
Authors: Perez Nahshon
Published: January 2023

Worldly Politics and Divine Institutions explores the entanglement of religion and government in a comparative, case-based analysis of several major court cases from the European Court of Human Rights, the US Supreme Court, and the Supreme Court of the UK. The entanglement of religion and state is prevalent in many democratic countries. However, it is understudied. Worldly Politics and Divine Institutions aims to fill this blind spot. Categories and cases such as discrimination conducted by governmentally funded religious associations and the governmental endorsement of religious symbols in public spaces create hybrid institutions that are difficult to analyze, compare, and manage. The structuring of an adequate, novel framework of analysis and comparison is one core goal of Worldly Politics and Divine Institutions.
Security, 1946–1950
Authors: Zeiler Thomas W.
Published: January 2023

President Harry Truman deviated from the prior planning for trade universalism through a world trade institution, the International Trade Organization, as the Cold War emerged after World War II. He announced a mid-year conference on world trade and employment to expand global commerce, not wanting to provoke a rupture with the Soviet Union but intending to defend free-enterprise capitalism, a bastion of democracy itself, through the power and hegemony of the United States in the world arena. The capitalist peace now meant capitalist security, and this transformation greatly affected the trade agenda, including difficult renewals of the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act and the ultimately aborted try to ratify the International Trade Organization. The Cold War now reshaped the trade agenda toward a focus on the so-called Free World rather than the world at large.
Icehouse Climates
Authors: Summerhayes Colin
Published: January 2023

Over the past 1,000 million years, Earth’s climate oscillated between warm greenhouse climates (abundant CO2), when sea level was high, and cold icehouse climates (low CO2), when sea level was low and large ice sheets were common. At times between 1,000 and 500 million years ago Earth was a “snowball” covered in ice from poles to tropics. Icehouse climates with polar ice developed around 445 million years ago, 300 million years ago, and over the past 34 million years (when the Antarctic ice sheet formed). Northern hemisphere ice sheets developed over the past 2.6 million years, when climates oscillated from warm to cold in Milankovitch Cycles. Human civilization developed in a warm Milankovitch Cycle peaking about 12,000 years ago. Plate tectonics drove rises in CO2 when volcanism was abundant. Chemical weathering of mountains drove falls in CO2. As trees evolved, they also sucked CO2 out of the air.
East Antarctica—The World’s Biggest Ice Cube
Authors: Summerhayes Colin
Published: January 2023

This chapter tours East Antarctica, starting with geographic discovery, and examining the science currently carried out there, including the drilling of the Dronning Maud Land Ice Core, which provides a climate history for the past 150,000 years. Beneath the ice sheet lies a hidden mountain range—the Gamburtsev Mountains. A visit to an emperor penguin colony provides insights into the life and possible future of these animals as the climate warms. On balance, East Antarctica remains cold and is not losing much ice. Warm ocean water is beginning to penetrate beneath the Totten Glacier, which could raise sea level by 3–4 meters (10–13 ft) if it melts. Melting of ice shelves from beneath will flood the Southern Ocean with a cold freshwater layer that will extend the area of sea ice, keeping the climate cool perhaps for a couple of centuries. Freshwater coastal lakes provide surprises, as do frozen lakes inland.
West Antarctica and Dry Valleys
Authors: Summerhayes Colin
Published: January 2023

West Antarctica has warmed by c.2°C (3.6°F) over the past 100 years. Ice shelves at the terminations of the large Pine Island and Thwaites Glaciers are melting from beneath. Antarctica has lost about 5 Gt of ice since 1980, mostly from that process. Much of West Antarctica is a widening and subsiding rift basin occupied by the sea, on which floats the Ross Ice Shelf. Mount Erebus is an active volcano in the rift valley. Incursions of warm ocean water beneath the ice shelf have melted it away in the past (e.g., Pliocene, 3.5 million years ago) and will do again if global warming reaches 2°C (3.6°F) (which would be twice that near the pole). Marie Byrd Land has high heat flow and under-ice volcanoes, possibly because it is located over a hot mantle plume. Local atmospheric conditions have encouraged the development of lakes and microscopic life in the Dry Valleys.
The Arctic
Authors: Summerhayes Colin
Published: January 2023

The Arctic has had sea ice for 40 million years. There have been small ice sheets in the Arctic since Miocene time (5–10 million years ago). Major ice sheets formed in Pleistocene time, covering northern Europe and North America. Declining Milankovitch insolation cooled the Arctic over the past 12,000 years. Through polar amplification, it is now warmer than it has been for 40,000 years and summer sea ice has declined since 1978. Glaciers are retreating everywhere. Ice cores show that in mid-glacial periods the climate oscillated rapidly with up to 10°C (18°F) warming in as little as 50 years. In the long warm interglacial 400,000 years ago, Greenland’s ice sheet was confined to the northeast coast. Since 1900, Greenland experienced warm events driven by changes in the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation. These explain the warming of the 1930s. Siberia now has heat waves and wildfires. Melting permafrost may become a major source of methane.
The Third Pole—Mountain Ice
Authors: Summerhayes Colin
Published: January 2023

Melting mountain ice contributes to sea level rise. During the last glacial maximum an ice cap covered the Alps. Major glaciers formed ice streams that carved deep U-shaped valleys. The most recent Alpine advance occurred between 1820–1865 at the end of the Little Ice Age, followed by glacier retreats of 1–2 km. Advances and retreats reflect the influence of tropical volcanic eruptions and sunspot cycles (e.g., the Maunder Minimum). Sunspots do not explain modern warming—being as abundant in 1980 as in colder periods (1780 and 1855). Except locally (e.g., New Zealand), the snow line has climbed 400–500 m. Himalayan glaciers lost 25% of their mass in the last 40 years. Retreats reverse advances that began 5,000 years ago as Earth moved into a neoglacial period. Collapses of mountain ice fronts and meltwater lake dams cause major floods. Loss of glacial ice will diminish summer water supplies in arid regions.
Go East, Young Man
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter
Published: January 2023

This chapter covers Reisner’s undergraduate years at Harvard University and introduces the reader to the early history of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. It describes his mentor, Professor David Gordon Lyon, the country’s first Assyriology professor, then chronicles his year spent back home in Indianapolis after graduation. After working in a law firm, coaching the Purdue football team, and earning money canvassing neighborhoods for the census, Reisner returned to Harvard for his MA (1891) and PhD (1893) in Semitic languages. He marries Mary Putnam Bronson in Indianapolis, finishes up his studies at Harvard, and then the couple heads to Germany for three years on a Harvard fellowship.
Focus on Nubia: The Kerma Kingdom
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter
Published: January 2023

Searching for a Middle Kingdom site, and keen to determine the southern penetration of his Nubian “C Group” culture, Reisner embarked on an excavation reconnaissance trip to the Sudan. Learning of irrigation projects threatening the site of Kerma by the Third Cataract, he changed his plans to focus exclusively on this site, which, despite evidence of an indigenous culture, he interpreted as an Egyptian outpost that took on local burial customs. The statue of the Egyptian elite lady Sennuwy was found (by assistant Louis C. West) in tumulus K III. Back at Giza, Reisner found many of the now famous “reserve heads” in disturbed contexts at the bottom of several mastaba burial shafts. Dows Dunham joined the expedition in 1914. Reisner took a survey camel expedition with just a few companions from Kerma to Wadi Halfa and then visited Sir Henry Wellcome at Gebel Moya, solving several of his archaeological problems.
Finale
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter
Published: January 2023

As war broke in 1939, the expedition prepared air-raid shelters at Harvard Camp and buried many of the records in selected tomb shafts. Reisner’s new “office” and sleeping quarters was a rock-cut tomb in the Eastern Cemetery. William Stevenson Smith returned to America via a circuitous route owing to the dangers of international waters. Reisner sent his wife and daughter home in June 1940; their adventurous route took them to Palestine, Basra, Karachi, Bombay, and then around South Africa to New York. Having suffered a stroke in 1939, in 1941 his speech became more slurred, and his body eventually betrayed him. Frank Allen, Evelyn Perkins, and Mohamed and Mahmud Said effectively ran the expedition, following his wishes wherever possible, and continuing work on the Giza Necropolis manuscripts, while Alexander Floroff and Nicholas Melnikoff kept the drawings going. Harvard Camp became overrun with soldiers, target practice, and the sounds of war on Egypt’s western border. For the final months of his life, Reisner was blind, dumb, and mostly bedridden at Harvard Camp. He died on June 6, 1942, and was buried in the American Cemetery in Old Cairo.
Theocritean Spaces 1
Authors: Thalmann William G.
Published: January 2023

After initial discussion of literary representations of space, this chapter examines the construction of space in Idylls set in the bucolic world and in cities. Bucolic space is depicted in a selective and highly stylized way. Parts of Idylls 5, 1, and 7 are discussed in detail. Human culture never fully fits into the natural world, and questions of placelessness and the fluidity of identities speak to the condition of Greeks after Alexander’s conquests. Domestic space, interiors and exteriors, and the relations between buildings figure prominently in the urban Idylls, and these spatial relations encapsulate the main themes of the poems. In Idyll 15, the royal palace exerts a centripetal force on the population of Alexandria and on the flow of goods from the empire as a whole.
Theocritean Spaces 2
Authors: Thalmann William G.
Published: January 2023

Idylls on mythological themes portray heroes who were important to the Ptolemies’ self-representation, Herakles and the Dioskouroi. Idyll 13 condenses epic treatments of the Argonautic myth to focus on a single place and on Herakles not as a warrior but as a lover who loses his beloved. Idyll 24 treats an episode from his infancy within domestic space, and correspondingly a woman, his mother, takes a commanding role. The spatial contrast between the two narratives of Idyll 22 underpins the moral contrast. Space is the vehicle for praise of rulers in the encomiastic poem. Bucolic space provides a vision of peace and prosperity under Hieron II, the extensive space of empire and the vertical relations between earth and Olympos depict the Ptolemies’ wealth and power, and Alexandria is shown drawing into itself people from elsewhere who would otherwise be rootless.
The Poetics of Absence
Authors: Thalmann William G.
Published: January 2023

This chapter discusses absences from the spaces Theocritus constructs and their constitutive role in the production of song within the poems and of Theocritean poetry itself. Absence arouses eros, which by definition cannot be fulfilled and remain desire. And so herdsmen sing to their beloveds whom they cannot possess. Idyll 1 portrays the founding event of bucolic poetry as the death of its archetypal singer-hero, Daphnis, from unfulfilled love and the concomitant loss of complete harmony between humans and nature. Thyrsis, who sings about his death, seems to be trying to reconstitute Daphnis’s song without fully doing so, and the audience or reader is told that Thyrsis’s singing is sweet but cannot hear it because it is mediated by Theocritus. So the bucolic world and its music can never fully be grasped. The dynamics of absence and desire are also examined in Idylls 3, 7, and 6 and in the non-bucolic 2 and 13.
How Understanding the Integumentary System Can Benefit Mental Health Clinicians
Authors: Marilyn Weaver Lewis , Liyun Wu , Zachary Allan Hagen
Published: January 2023

STEM-H for Mental Health Clinicians, Chapter 8, discusses the integumentary system beginning at gestation and ending at old age. The chapter discusses the structure and function of skin as a barrier from the environment. Both nonmalignant and malignant types of skin cancer are discussed as signature illnesses. Burns and their treatments using skin grafts are presented as technological interventions. Patient-controlled analgesia is an example of engineering. Burden from caring for loved ones who have suffered burns is discussed. Understanding this chapter will give clinicians the vocabulary needed to communicate with medical team members on a hospital burn unit or in community or private practice with patients and their families. Understanding the suffering inherent in being burned will help mental health clinicians develop empathy and understand the difficulty with pain management.
Fire and Rain
Authors: Eisenberg Carolyn Woods
Published: January 2023

This book offers a narrative of the way national security decisions formed at the highest levels of government affect the lives of individuals at home and abroad. By drawing these connections, the text looks at policy decisions about Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, and conveys their significance. It contextualizes Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger's decisions within a wider institutional and societal framework. While recognizing the distinctive personalities and ideas of these two men, the study broadly conveys the competing roles and impact of the professional military, the Congress, and a mobilized peace movement. Drawing upon a vast collection of declassified documents, the text presents an important reinterpretation of the Nixon administration's relations with the Soviet Union and China vis a vis the war in Southeast Asia. It argues that in their desperate effort to overcome, or at least overshadow, their failure in Vietnam, Nixon and Kissinger made major concessions to both nations in the field of arms control, their response to the India–Pakistan war, and the diplomacy surrounding Taiwan—much of this secret. Despite policymakers' claims that the Vietnam War was a “national security” necessity that would demonstrate American strength to the communist superpowers and “credibility” to friendly governments, the historical record suggests a different reality.
Introduction
Authors: Eisenberg Carolyn Woods
Published: January 2023

This introductory chapter begins by looking at the articles of wimpeachment concerning Richard Nixon. These articles pertained to domestic crimes linked to the Watergate break-in and subsequent investigations that followed. By excluding foreign military activities from these articles, the House Judiciary Committee framed how events of that time have been remembered since. Although the illegal actions of Nixon’s domestic officials were heavily emphasized, the role of National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger was effectively spared congressional scrutiny or critique. This book examines the Nixon administration’s conduct of war in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, and the resulting diplomacy with the Soviet Union and China. To understand US policy during this period requires situating Nixon and Kissinger within the wider context of the people, the social and political institutions, the prevailing ideology, and the existing practices that framed their decision-making.
“I See Death Coming Up the Hill”
Authors: Eisenberg Carolyn Woods
Published: January 2023

This chapter discusses the decision by Nixon and Kissinger to wiretap selected officials and journalists because news of the secret Cambodia bombing was leaked. The chapter also investigates how, during the earliest months of the Nixon presidency, the number of American deaths was equivalent to the losses sustained during the Tet offensive. Yet in contrast to the previous year, the Vietnam War had ceased to dominate the news, with the result that significant military developments were unexplained or ignored. Across the United States, the still-climbing American casualties were being experienced as family and community tragedies. The spiking casualty rate was due in part to local enemy attacks and General Abrams’ aggressive military strategy. The chapter describes the American attempt to secure Dong Ap Bia Mountain at the Laotian border. This pointless enterprise, with its costly forays up Hill 937, resulted in many deaths and injuries. Survivors called the mountain “Hamburger Hill” because of the many chopped-up soldiers. It triggered significant protest in the United States, including denunciations by Senator Ted Kennedy.
“The Idealists Are the Builders”
Authors: Eisenberg Carolyn Woods
Published: January 2023

This chapter discusses the report titled “US Foreign Policy for the 1970s: a New Strategy of Peace,” completed by Kissinger’s staff and issued by Nixon. The document surveyed international problems, advocating for an improved relationship with Russia and China now that the rivalry between them was manifest. A flowery conclusion was addressed to the nation’s youth, emphasizing that there was “no greater idealism, no higher adventure than taking a realistic road for peace.” Despite this rhetoric, Kissinger is unable to find common ground in the Paris negotiations with Le Duc Tho. For the administration, a peaceful world was one in which American military supremacy was unchallenged and where most countries were governed by regimes friendly to the United. States. The chapter describes the disastrous impact of this attitude in Laos and the cost to the civilians there, as uncovered by Fred Branfman.
“Hit ‘Em in the Gut”
Authors: Eisenberg Carolyn Woods
Published: January 2023

This chapter explains further US intervention in Cambodia. America’s secret bombing has destabilized the country, with North Vietnamese troops going deeper into the countryside and Prince Sihanouk overthrown in a military coup led by Lon Nol. The chapter discusses the rise of the Khmer Rouge and the Nixon administration’s decision to send US and South Vietnamese troops into Cambodia. This action was opposed by the Secretary of State Rogers and Secretary of Defense Laird, but Nixon and Kissinger have responded affirmatively to the pressure of the military, notably Admiral John McCain. This internal conflict results in the rise of General Alexander Haig as Kissinger’s trusted deputy and the resignations of others on the NSC staff. The chapter describes the various ways the Nixon administration is supporting Prince Sihanouk’s successor.
“The Greatest Success”
Authors: Eisenberg Carolyn Woods
Published: January 2023

Despite the wavering support from the US elite for Richard Nixon’s war policy, the president and Henry Kissinger were still counting on the “silent majority”—the millions of less affluent white citizens across the country whose hostility to antiwar protestors could be siphoned into support for the administration’s policies. That sentiment was expressed in the “hardhat riot” on Wall Street when pro-war workers physically attacked peace demonstrators. The impact of the US invasion of Cambodia on the local populace is examined, most importantly the increase in sympathy for the Khmer Rouge. Three captured US reporters—Richard Dudman, Michael Morrow, and Elizabeth Pond—observed the radicalization of the countryside as their captors moved them from place to place. The chapter also discusses the passage of the Cooper–Church Amendment in the Senate, prohibiting the use of funds for retaining US ground forces in Cambodia, along with other restrictions on US military activity there.
“Something Like a Moron . . . ”
Authors: Eisenberg Carolyn Woods
Published: January 2023

Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger faced an ongoing problem after the withdrawal of US troops from Cambodia: how to prevent the enemy from conducting a large-scale offensive during the interval before the presidential election in 1972. This chapter explains the resulting decision to have the Army of South Vietnam (ARVN) enter Laos in early 1971 to block North Vietnamese soldiers and supplies from moving down the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The critical actor in this planning was General Alexander Haig, who was the link between Nixon and Kissinger in Washington and General Creighton Abrams and President Thieu in Saigon. Secretary Rogers and CIA Director Richard Helms opposed the plan. In Vientiane, US Ambassador Godley enlisted Souvanna Phouma’s reluctant support. On the eve of the operation, Daniel Ellsberg confronted Henry Kissinger at an MIT gathering about the prospect of civilian casualties.
“Man of Peace”
Authors: Eisenberg Carolyn Woods
Published: January 2023

From the earliest days of his administration, Richard Nixon had been interested in tamping down US–Soviet rivalry, both for its own sake and to obtain help pressuring Hanoi. However, during the administration’s first two years, not much had been accomplished. This chapter describes Kissinger’s conduct of arms control issues with Dobrynin and examines his missteps, including the separation of an ABM Treaty from an “understanding” on offensive nuclear weapons. It highlights the exclusion of the State Department and SALT negotiator Gerard Smith and argues that Kissinger’s concessions on arms control reflect the president’s need for a successful summit. It also discusses Kissinger’s role in completing a Berlin agreement while excluding Secretary Rogers. Despite Kissinger’s active diplomacy with the Russians and Chinese, this did not change Hanoi’s negotiation position. Meanwhile in South Vietnam, President Thieu’s undemocratic approach to elections backfires.
“A Terrific Letdown”
Authors: Eisenberg Carolyn Woods
Published: January 2023

This chapter focuses on US bombing of North Vietnamese cities (“the Christmas bombing”) and the events leading to the signing of the Paris Peace Agreement on January 23, 1973. This bombing campaign, also known as Linebacker II, was falsely justified by Nixon and Kissinger as a response to North Vietnam’s abandonment of the peace talks. In fact, it was the opposition of President Thieu that had derailed the peace negotiations. Four Americans, including singer Joan Baez, who had come to Hanoi on a mission from the Committee of Liaison with Families of Servicemen Detained in North Vietnam, are trapped in the city when the bombing begins. Drawing on their accounts, the chapter describes the impact of the bombing on North Vietnamese inhabitants, including the destruction of Bach Mai hospital. It highlights the outrage of people around the world. Although the air assault was to continue until December 31, President Nixon was determined to sign the peace agreement afterward, believing that a new Congress would otherwise cut off the funds. The chapter explains that the proposed peace agreement was primarily designed to get all US troops and POWs home, rather than bring a cessation of fighting. It describes the efforts to compel President Thieu to accept it, despite his belief that the deal would facilitate an enemy victory. As Nixon moves toward his second inauguration the Watergate scandal is growing because of the involvement of Howard Hunt and Chuck Colson.
Conclusion
Authors: Boswell Matthew , Rowland Antony
Published: January 2023

In the conclusion, we explore how virtual Holocaust memory links to wider debates about connectivity, connective memory, and the “digital gothic.” Andrew Hoskins, alongside many other contributors to Digital Memory Studies (2018), offers a dystopian version of connectivity that is reminiscent of Jean Baudrillard’s apocalyptic vision of the first wave of digital media in the early 1980s. Gothic discourse permeates Hoskins’ ruminations on the end of collective memory: the prospect of eternal digital memory “haunts” us, the digital mob struggles to escape its “shadow,” hyperconnectivity is a “tyranny,” recording “terrorizes” the present, and “ensnaring” technology “chills all our futures.” Nevertheless, Hoskins indicates a fissure in the digital gothic when he refers to the “opening up of new ways of finding, sorting, sifting, using, seeing [that] both imprisons and liberates active human remembering and forgetting.” The overwhelming dystopian vision of Digital Memory Studies—that includes Wulf Kansteiner’s attack on the Dimensions in Testimony holograms—needs to be tempered with the more productive elements of connective memory afforded by our examples of digital representations of the Holocaust. The reordering of the past “by and through multiple connectivities of times, actors, and events” can be a beneficent as well as dystopian process.
Conceptual, Technical, and Ethical Problems with Cost-Effectiveness
Authors: Hausman Daniel M.
Published: January 2023

This chapter explores further conceptual problems that need to be resolved before cost-effectiveness can be put into practice, and it introduces the ethical objections to which the rest of this book is devoted. The chapter first returns to the questions concerning what sort of generic health measure provides the information wanted for the purposes of allocating health care. It then discusses technical questions that must be settled before cost-effectiveness can be calculated. Next, it discusses discounting: Should a health benefit, which is not available until some point in the future, be as valuable as the benefit would be if it were available now? The chapter then discusses age weighting. Should an additional quality-adjusted life year be equally valuable regardless of the age of the recipient? Finally, the chapter presents four “fairness” objections: fair chances, severity, aggregation, and discrimination.
Elite Politics
Authors: Willis Michael J.
Published: January 2023

Bouteflika became president in 1999. He was widely expected to fail in any attempt to forge a path that was independent from the military leadership that had dominated the leadership of the state during the 1900s. However, he was gradually able to assert himself through exploiting the leading roles he had been given in foreign affairs and securing an end to the civil conflict. He marginalized senior miliary officers by forging an alliance with the security services of the DRS against the army. This alliance broke apart during Bouteflika's third presidential term when the DRS was marginalized. However, Bouteflika's rapidly declining health led to increasing uncertainty as to who was leading the country. Bouteflika's decision to run for a fifth presidential term in 2019 led to mass protests that forced his resignation. The head of the military, Ahmed Gaid Salah, emerged as the dominant figure but the lack of upheaval following Gaid Salah's death at the end of 2019 illustrated that analyses focusing on individuals mistake the political dynamics of elite politics in Algeria that is best understood as a cartel of group interests that comprises the ANP, the security services, and the presidency.
Conclusion
Authors: Willis Michael J.
Published: January 2023

The resignation of Bouteflika as president in 2019 marked the fall of the second pillar of the political order established in Algeria from 1999 following the disintegration of the first pillar through the collapse in energy prices from 2014. The third pillar of civil peace did not collapse but expressed its metamorphosis through the non-violent mass protests from 2019 thus representing a conscious choice by ordinary Algerians to avoid repeating bloody precedents in Algeria's recent past. The legacy and symbolism of the original liberation struggle remain important but the passage of time and generations is likely to alter that, not in terms of individual leaders, but in the continued assertion of a restive third generation since independence that demands fundamental change and reform. Such demands were first made and resisted in the 1980s 1990s but re-emerged in a new form in 2019. It seems that they have been successfully resisted once more but are likely to reassert themselves again, perhaps in another new form.
Racial Nativism
Authors: Duyvendak Jan Willem , Kešić Josip
Published: January 2023

This chapter focuses on the role of racialization and racism in contemporary nativism, drawing primarily on Dutch and, to a lesser degree, on French and U.S. examples. The chapter first analyzes the heated debates about the Dutch blackface character Black Pete to show how Dutch nativism frames Black anti-racists as foreign threats who are undermining the nation’s cultural identity. Next, the chapter focuses on the increasing normalization of racial nativism in the Dutch right-wing mainstream. Here, racialization and racism toward people of color have become more frequent and more explicit. The presence of racial others is perceived as a threat to the imagined racial purity and cultural homogeneity of the nation. Whereas anti-Black racism is still actively denied, anti-White racism by Black people and alienated elites has become a central trope of the nativist victim narrative. Thus, this chapter shows the complex ways in which racism and nativism intersect in the West.
Introduction
Authors: Mackay Ronnie , Brookbanks Warren
Published: January 2023

The introductory chapter explores a number of themes which emphasize the highly differential character of the insanity defence across many jurisdictions. It confronts the fact that little is known about how the defence operates in different jurisdictions. The chapter explores various theories governing the origins and purposes of the defence. It notes that lack of rationality is the core of many expressions of the defence, often to the exclusion of volitional or emotional elements. The chapter investigates the claim, amongst others, that the defence should concern itself with an inquiry into a person’s character rather than capacity for choice, but ultimately recognizes that the former is unduly problematical. In exploring the theoretical basis for the insanity defence, the chapter notes the diversity of standards and rationales for assessing criminal capacity. The debate around the abolition of the defence is discussed, together with an extended discussion on the enduring claims for a rationality basis for the defence. This includes whether the rationality standard is capable of accommodating a volitional limb. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the defence’s ‘problematical’ nature in light of the enduring challenges it presents for lawyers, psychiatrists, legislators, and the general public alike.
Legal Insanity in the Netherlands
Authors: Meynen Gerben
Published: January 2023

This chapter discusses the characteristics of the insanity defence in the Dutch criminal justice system. In the Netherlands, a state with a moderately inquisitorial system, insanity evaluations can be ordered by the prosecution or by the court. In only a small minority of cases is the defence raised by the defendant. A first characteristic of the Dutch insanity defence is that there is no legal criterion specifying the conditions under which the presence of a mental illness substantiates an insanity plea. This is different from other legal systems, where the criteria for insanity are usually specified—an example is the M’Naghten Rule in Anglo-American jurisdictions. A second characteristic is that, while many jurisdictions use the dichotomy ‘sane’ versus ‘insane’, in the Netherlands three levels of criminal responsibility are used: responsibility, diminished responsibility, and (complete) insanity. A third characteristic concerns the fact that forensic psychiatrists and psychologists must render an explicit opinion about the defendant's (degree of) criminal responsibility (in the absence of a legal criterion for insanity). These three features of the Dutch system remain a topic of debate. This chapter discusses the Dutch regulations and case law, together with relevant practical problems and scholarly reflections.
Introduction
Authors: Braga Anthony A. , Cook Philip J.
Published: January 2023

Gun violence surged in American cities with the 2020 arrival of the COVID-19 pandemic. Effective policing is an essential component of any comprehensive effort to reduce gun violence. Many observers are skeptical of this position given the troubled relationship between the police and minority communities that experience a vastly disproportionate number of shootings. Recent innovations in policing make it possible to prevent shootings in a legitimate manner that respects individual rights. Properly motivated police departments can implement proactive strategies to control repeat gun offenders and gun violence hot spot areas. The police can strengthen shooting investigations to hold violent offenders accountable, disrupt cycles of violence, and deliver justice to victims. Working with federal law enforcement partners, police can work to disrupt the illegal supply of guns to violent criminals. Equally important, police departments can reduce lethal use of force by having clear rules of engagement and personnel rules that ensure accountability.
The Social Burden of Gun Violence
Authors: Braga Anthony A. , Cook Philip J.
Published: January 2023

The social burden of gun violence involves more than just the actual victims. Social costs include the widespread fear and trauma that stem from the threat of gun violence and the required vigilance to avoid victimization. The social costs of gun violence have been estimated at $80 billion per year (1998), an amount that is far higher today. Interpersonal gun violence includes mass shootings, officer-involved shootings, and political assassinations. Most gun assaults involve more common circumstances such as domestic conflicts, arguments, robberies, retaliatory gang violence, and drug disputes. The victims and suspects in routine gun violence are overwhelmingly young, male, and Black. Guns provide the means to kill someone quickly, at a distance, with little skill or strength required. Gun use in violent attacks matters greatly because victims are more likely to die from gunshot wounds. Reducing gun violence is cost-effective and supports social justice.