bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Euripides
Authors: Cairns Douglas L
Published: November 2023

Euripides offers the student of aidōs a range of occurrences which can only be paralleled by the Homeric poems. This is not simply a consequence of the fact that he survives in greater bulk than do the other tragedians, for even within individual plays aidōs and its relatives often occur with considerable frequency. The relative domesticity of setting in many of his plays means that Euripides is often as useful a source of sociological data on aidōs as is Homer, but in general the data which emerge regarding the contexts in which aidōs is at home rarely make a significant difference to the conclusions we have been able to glean from Homer and others. In the following, then, I have attempted to concentrate on that which is new, significant, or of great thematic importance in the interpretation of individual plays. Thus while I begin by discussing, in turn, self- and other-regarding uses of aidōs (and the ways in which these are inextricably linked) and conclude with a survey of passages which extol the value of aidōs, the most important sections of this chapter focus on new, retrospective usages of the verbs aideomai and aischunomai and their relationship to concepts of conscience (5.3), and on the place of aidōs in attitudes towards sex and sexuality (5.4), in which connection many interesting questions are raised by the Hippolytus in particular.
The Poet as Hero
Authors: Lefkowitz Mary R
Published: November 2023

The old proverb πολλα ψεν´δονται αοιδοí (‘poets tell a lot of lies’) can still more accurately be applied to their biographers. Even the more plausible and psychologically tempting details in the lives of ancient literary figures derive from these authors’ fictional works, poems, and dramas, and not from the kind of source material biographers use today, letters, documents, eyewitness testimony. Critics and readers eager to establish some historical correlation between any ancient poet’s life and his work should expect to be disappointed. But even if the ancient Hves are useless to the historian or critic trying to explain what in Euripides’ experience compelled him to write about Medea, these stories are of interest to mythologists. If we stop being angry with the Lives for failing to be historical, and look at them rather as myths or fairy tales, some informative patterns begin to emerge.
Autobiographical Fiction in Pindar
Authors: Lefkowitz Mary R
Published: November 2023

Who is the Tin Pindar’s odes? In ‘The First Person in Pindar’ I had intended to prove ‘conclusively’ that the T in the victory odes could never represent any speaker other than the poet; that passages where the scholia said the chorus spoke in its own person could always be better understood as statements in the person of the poet. I suggested that in lyric poetry who was speaking where could be distinguished on the basis of style: statements by the poet always pertained to his art and tended to be expressed in particular recurring metaphors; but statements made by the chorus had a strikingly different subject-matter. The members of the chorus talked about themselves in their choral role; they described who they were, how they looked, what they were doing at the moment. I did not realize at the time that my attempt to describe the characteristics of the poet’s ‘I’ was simply another way of saying that poets’ statements about themselves followed defined conventions. And it was more than a decade later when I realized that what poets said about themselves and their role represented a virtual mythology of poetic behaviour.
Pindar’s Pythian 5
Authors: Lefkowitz Mary R
Published: November 2023

Pindar never wrote a ‘typical’ ode that would suit one occasion and could then be quickly reapplied to another. Even in odes written in the same year for brothers-in-law who won at Olympia, when he uses the same analogy about the preeminence of water and gold, he manages to leave the distinct impression that Hieron, who won what would have been regarded as a lesser victory than Theron’s, has achieved the greater degree of success (0. 1. 1-7, 3. 42-5). In none of the extant odes does Pindar make more precise reference to the customs and topography of the city he celebrates than in P. 5, or offer more praise to a man who was not the official victor. He gives comparatively little space to the narration of the myth, and his choice of metaphor throughout seems far less daring than in some of his more famous odes.
Introduction
Authors: Hutchinson G O
Published: November 2023

This book aspires to further a little the growing interest in a major and magnificent period of Latin literature. Of recent years, most of the texts have been splendidly edited; on individual works, and parts of them, excellent commentaries and valuable studies have been produced. There remains a place, perhaps, for criticism which seeks to take both a larger and a closer view, both exploring the similarities and differences between various kinds of literature in the period, and bringing out in detail some of the artistry and the basic aesthetic concerns that underlie it. Classicists tend to be more familiar with some authors of this time than with its literature in general; and undergraduates, and even scholars, often dwell insufficiently on the extraordinary manner of writing iri many of the authors, which so crucially affects the character of their works.
Wit
Authors: Hutchinson G O
Published: November 2023

Verbal ingenuity and paradox are central to the literature of this period, and particularly to the high poetry .If we largely ignored this element, we would make the works more accessible and straightforward, but we would be false to the whole texture and feel of the writing. If we treated it with amused contempt, we would merely create an obstacle to enjoying properly this unusual and brilliant literature. It will become apparent that often wit, even in high genres, plainly modifies or disrupts seriousness and elevation. When this happens regularly in an author obviously in command of his technique, we cannot plausibly suppose him oblivious to the effect; nor can we ascribe that effect to a lower order of intention, as if his real purpose to write straightforwardly moving literature were constantly thwarted by the obtrusion of a base but unresisted urge to be clever. If we suppose in him a unitary intention to produce a complicated sort of writing, we could still deplore it, and indict the perversity of the age; but it would be humbler and more interesting to discover whether we might not ourselves widen our literary experience and pleasure by attempting (however provisionally) a more sympathetic understanding.
Death In Prose
Authors: Hutchinson G O
Published: November 2023

The subject of death brings the non-comic genres to their nearest contact. As we have seen elsewhere, significant death serves more than anything to mark out high literature, and it offers it supreme opportunities for sublimity. Furthermore, the literature of this period is especially pervaded and perfused by shared conceptions of noble death: conceptions not of the relation of death to an afterlife, a subject on which even the philosopher offers no fixed doctrine, but of violent death, resolutely faced, as an achievement and a victory over fortune, slavery, physical power. The origins of these conceptions are manifold; the reasons for their importance in this literature arc also manifold, and the relative weight and the connections of those reasons can hardly be determined at all closely. Our object here will be to consider some individual treatments of death.
Typology of Growth Disorders
Authors: Dasen Véronique
Published: November 2023

Dwarfism is commonly defined as an abnormally short stature over three standard deviations below the mean height of a population of the same age and sex.1 In western countries this includes persons of 1.50 m. and under; most affected people are between 1 m. and 1.40 m. in height, but some can be as short as 70 cm.2 Disorders of the growth process may have many causes, ranging from genetic defects to hormone deficiencies, metabolic and nutritional diseases, which induce a great variety of skeletal abnormalities.3 Since the mid-1970s about a hundred forms of dwarfism with distinct etiology and physical features have been identified.
Physical Minorities
Authors: Dasen Véronique
Published: November 2023

We may begin to understand the position of dwarfs in Egyptian society through a survey of Egyptian attitudes towards other categories of physical deviance, at birth and later in life. There is little evidence on the occurrence of congenital anomalies in ancient Egypt. Monstrous births were not recorded in long lists as in the ancient Mesopotamian omen series summa izbu ‘if a foetus . . .’.1 This may be due to the fact that Egyptians generally did not fear abnormal births as inauspicious. As evil was usually banished from language, they may also have been reluctant to report misfortunes.
Conclusion
Authors: Dasen Véronique
Published: November 2023

The image of short-statured people in Egypt is essentially positive. Their physical anomaly was not only tolerated, but accepted and valued as a divine mark for its religious associations. On a mythical level, dwarfs were closely associated with solar and rejuvenating powers. Their abnormal bodies with short bent limbs were equated with that of the sacred scarab-beetle Khepri, one of the main hypostases of the sun-god Re. They stand on the side of humans, especially of children and women, in the crucial times of transition between life and death, repelling evil and bringing regeneration. Yet these benevolent deities remained marginal to the conventional pantheon and to systems of representation. Ptah-Pataikoi appear mostly in amuletic forms, while Bes is not shown in the main areas of temple relief, but in more specialized contexts associated with Hathor.
Human Dwarfs
Authors: Dasen Véronique
Published: November 2023

Literary sources on pathological short people go back to the fifth century bc. There are only a few allusions in works of fiction. Dwarfs do not occur as characters in the plots of Greek drama, not even in the comic works of Aristophanes, but this may be due to the chances of discovery.
Ars Medicinae: Man’s Use of Nature in Medicine
Authors: Beagon Mary
Published: November 2023

The centrality of man in Pliny’s universe suggests that Nature’s most important task is to support the existence of the human race. Much praise is lavished on her provision of remedia which ensure humana salus. Here. it would seem. is a promising field for man̎s activity in nature. To be skilled in the art of healing fellow men should earn Pliny’s highest praise. After all, for man to aid man is, by his own definition. godlike (2. 18). Instead, medici are the victims of a lengthy tirade. initiated by quotation from Cato and embellished by Pliny himself (29. 13 ff.). However, this passage makes two things clear: Pliny says that it is the ars, not medicina itself. which is under attack. By this. he means not so much the body of theory. as the body of people who practise it. the medical profession. who consisted mostly of Greeks. Pliny’s criticism of medicine is. in fact. criticism of the way man’s activity can misuse Nature̎s most basic gifts. a theme by now familiar from the preceding studies of Pliny’s thought. Indeed. by examining how the ars can be said to have corrupted medicina. we encounter many of the Plinian ideas on the use and abuse of ratio, such as the questions of false ingenuity, caeca subtilitas, and the balance of theory and practice. The motivation both of the practitioners and of the patients themselves brings up familiar ideas on the right attitude to life generally. These include the contrast between idle luxury and the independent self-sufficiency of the individual. and Pliny’s humanitarian ideal.
Introduction: Literature and Rhetoric 1n the Second Century CE
Authors: Rutherford Ian
Published: November 2023

The subject of this study is the relationship between a literature and a stylistic theory. The literature is the Greek literature of the so-called Second Sophistic, the renaissance of Greek culture which began in the first century CE and flourished through the second century CE, reaching a peak in the reigns of Hadrian (117–38 CE), Antoninus Pius (138–61 CE), and Marcus Aurelius (161–80 CE).1 The literary masters of this era are the great epideictic orators, the ‘sophists’ who gave the movement its name, such as Dio of Prusa, Herodes Atticus, Aelius Aristides, Polemo of Laodicea, Dionysius of Miletus, Scopelion of Clazomenae, or Lollianus of Ephesus. Few of their rhetorical works survive, with the exception of the extant speeches of Aelius Aristides, and most of our evidence for their careers and their works comes from Flavius Philostratus whose Lives of the Sophists dates from the early third century CE.
Politikos and Panegurikos: The Reading List in PerIIdean
Authors: Rutherford Ian
Published: November 2023

A statement at the end of the section indicates that Hermogenes sees Demosthenes and all the orators mentioned in 2. 11 except for Critias as belonging to a traditional group of ten (Antiphon of Rhamnous and Antiphon the Sophist apparently count as one for this purpose) (403. 13 ff.). This is one of the first clear statements of the existence of a canon of ten orators. This testimony can be set alongside a passage from Lives of the Sophists, according to which the associates of Herodes Atticus flattered him with the observation that he belonged in the canon of the ten, and Herodes modestly replied that he was at any rate better than Andocides (suggesting that Andocides is tenth in the canon of ten, as he is in Hermogenes’ list). The notion of a canon of ten may well not go back much before the period of these authors.
Aelius Aristides
Authors: Rutherford Ian
Published: November 2023

The figure of Aelius Aristides looms large in the background of literary rhetoric of the second century CE. There are three main connections between him and idea-theory: (a) he is one of only two contemporary authors mentioned in Peri ldeon, and is cited twice; (b) excerpts from his works appear in Peri Politikou Logou—hence the former attribution of Peri Politikou Logou and Peri Aphelous Logou to Aristides; (c) a passage from Peri Tou Paraphthegmatos, which happens to be one of the passages cited in Peri Politikou Logou and which I have already discussed in Chapter II, does in fact have a great deal in common with idea-theory. I should also repeat (d) that, as I mentioned in Chapter IV, there is an intriguing parallel between the encomium of prose in the Hymn to Sarapis and the implication of Hermogenes’ reading list that prose is a superior medium to poetry.
The Sources
Authors: Forbes Irving P M C
Published: November 2023

Before attempting to classify and interpret the myths themselves I shall consider the literary sources in which they appear.1 This will serve two functions. First, it seems helpful for the understanding of the myths to have some general idea of the contexts in which they appear and the sort literary uses to which they are put. Secondly, there is the more specific question of their date of origin. It is often suggested that the stories of meta-morphosis, most of which do not appear before the Alexandrian period, are largely the invention of the Hellenistic poets. As we have little evidence for the meta morphosis myths apart from the literary sources it is difficult to draw any conclusions on external grounds, and one can only attempt to answer the question by examining the nature and purpose of these poems and of the earlier works that neglected these stories. It is necessary to consider both whether these stories are late inventions and whether this means they are myths of a different status from the earlier ones.
Birds
Authors: Forbes Irving P M C
Published: November 2023

In many ways the stories of mammals form a group of their own. The great mass of transformation stories describe the change of men into birds, plants, and stones; they tend to be first of all terminal, in the sense that transformation ends the story in which it occurs and the transformed person remains permanently in his new state, and secondly, and more basically, aetiological, in that they explain the creation not merely of one animal but of a whole species. Unlike, for instance, Io, the heroes of the bird stories live on in the birds around us. The transformation of Lycaon was, of course, of this type, hut most animal changes are not.
Plants
Authors: Forbes Irving P M C
Published: November 2023

There are certain features common to all or most of the stories of transformations into plants. Heroes of these stories are often early or primitive men. Natural forces and natural symbolism tend to play a much more important part than in the stories of birds or animals. The heroines are often daughters of rivers or the earth; the sun, winds, or water are often important characters in these stories; and the transformation is most usually worked by the earth. But in spite of these common elements the stories fall into certain obvious groups.
The Oxyrhynchite Nome
Authors: Rowlandson Jane
Published: November 2023

Almost all the texts used in this study come from finds at the site of Oxyrhynchus itself; but their subject matter concerns the agricultural area of the nome, stretching from over 40 km to the north of the metropolis to about 25 km to the south. This territory contained about a hundred villages, some evidently quite large, as well as numerous smaller settlements. In principle, a distinction existed between komai (villages) and epoikia (‘tied’ estate villages); however, some of the latter tended to develop into ordinary villages, and were sometimes eventually officially recognized as komai. The annual inundation necessitated a highly nucleated pattern of settlement, with villages situated on higher ground than the surrounding arable fields, although vineyards and orchards, which were not inundated, could have buildings associated with them.
Purification: A Science of Division
Authors: Parker Robert
Published: November 2023

In the longest extant analysis of the activity called katharmos, Plato in the Sophist presents it as an aspect of the ‘science of division’. ‘Of the kind of division that retains what is better but expels the worse, I do know the name … every division of that kind is universally known as a purification.’ The purifications envisaged here by Plato are purely physical - washing, carding of wool, and the like - but such physical acts of division are readily and unconsciously exploited to create divisions of a different kind. We see this from Dickens’s lawyer Mr Jaggers:

I embrace this opportunity of remarking that he washed his clients off, as if he were a surgeon or a dentist. He had a closet in his room, fitted up for the purpose, which smelt of scented soap, like a perfumer’s shop … When I and my friends repaired to him at six o’clock next day, he seemed to have been engaged on a case of a darker complexion than usual, for we found him with his head butted into this closet, not only washing his hands, but laving his face and gargling his throat…
Sacrilege
Authors: Parker Robert
Published: November 2023

A chapter on sacrilege in a book about pollution perhaps requires justification. In contrast to murder, there is, it might be argued, nothing dirty about temple-robbing; the temple-robber seeking cleansing in a foreign home is not among the standard personnel of mythology, and sacred laws, or exegetic traditions, relating to the purification of the sacrilegious are not attested. Sacrilege has sometimes, therefore, been excluded, implicitly or explicitly, from the possible categories of pollution even in serious and significant discussions.
Curses, Family Curses, and The Structure of Rights
Authors: Parker Robert
Published: November 2023

When mortals violated the sacred in the directest of the ways that were discussed in the previous chapter, the consequence was that ‘an agos came upon them.’ Agos is here a spontaneous and automatic product of transgression. As was noted in the introduction, however, it could also be invoked against offenders in curses: ‘let an agos come upon those who have sworn the oath should they transgress it.’ Though curses often demand simply that the offender should ‘be destroyed himself and his family’, they sometimes specify familiar consequences of pollution: crop-failure, sterility of animals, monstrous births of humans. The Amphictyonic oath contains a provision of this kind, and continues ‘And may they never sacrifice without offence to Apollo or Artemis or …’. It is the impossibility of sacrificing ‘without offence’ that, according to Antiphon, often indicates the presence of a pollution, and that revealed to the Spartans that ‘the wrath of Talthybius had struck upon them’ for the murder of Xerxes’ heralds.
Introduction: Novator Turbatorque Priscarum Legum ?
Authors: Grubbs Judith Evans
Published: November 2023

In a letter to the Senate, Julian concluded his denunciation of the emperor Constantius with the charge that Constantius’ father (Julian’s uncle) Constantine had been an ‘innovator and disturber of the ancient laws and of custom received long ago’. Many modern scholars, who see Constantine as a radical innovator responsible for the introduction into the Roman legal system of fundamentally non-Roman concepts derived from Christian and ‘oriental’ sources, have agreed with Julian’s description. More recent work on late Roman law, however, suggests that it is time to reassess the traditional view of Constantine’s legislation.
Perspectives on Constantine’s Legislation
Authors: Grubbs Judith Evans
Published: November 2023

Thorough examination of Constantine’s legislation on marriage does not support the often expressed view that his marriage laws clearly reflect Christian teachings and a peculiarly ‘Christian’ spirit. This misconception has arisen in part from a misunderstanding of the social and legal context of the laws themselves. Thus a law on abduction marriage has been misinterpreted as a rape law, and a one-sentence fragment whose original context is unknown and which (as we have it) says only that a married man cannot keep a concubine in his house, is said to be introducing ‘Christian morality’ into Roman law, although it simply states explicitly what had always been assumed implicitly in Roman law and practice.
Introduction
Authors: Grainger John D
Published: November 2023

Explaining the title of a book may well be a mistake, for, if it needs to be explained, should it not be changed? Nevertheless I will essay here a justification of my title, for both of the words in it pose problems.
The Ptolemaic Peace, 287-225 BC
Authors: Grainger John D
Published: November 2023

The Ptolemaic acquisition of four-fifths of mainland Phoenicia proved to be definitive. The inability of Demetrios Poliorketes or Seleukos Nikator to challenge Ptolemaic control was evident from the first. Demetrios went down to humiliation, desertion, defeat, and capture by Seleukos in 285 and died in 283. Seleukos himself had announced his policy of no war, no peace with Ptolemy as early as 30 I, and busied himself in building up his strength, partly in defence, partly with a view to acquiring yet more territory. As it happened he found Asia Minor his most lucrative field of operations, until he was killed in 28I, characteristically in the act of acquiring yet more territory.
Introduction
Authors: Griffin Miriam T
Published: November 2023

‘Without the testimony of Tacitus, Seneca the statesman could hardly exist.’ Syme’s tribute to the historian contains a remarkable fact about the statesman: he did not discuss his political career or his policies, though he wrote voluminously and in the first person. Only the Apocolocyntosis and De Clementia appear to betray directly his preoccupations as amicus principis. Are the rest of his works simply irrelevant to his political career? This problem is part of a wider one, for it is not merely Seneca the statesman that his works fail to reveal — it is Seneca the man. The surviving prose works, though addressed to contemporaries and concerned with practical moral problems, tell us little about Seneca’s external life or about the people and events that formed its setting.
Orestes
Authors: Lloyd Michael
Published: November 2023

The debate between Orestes and Tyndareus in Orestes is the most subtle and complex of all Euripides’ agones. Many problems of interpretation are raised by the two main speeches themselves, and questions also arise about the relationship of the debate both to the immediate action and to the overall themes of the play. The earlier part of the play has presented the desperate situation in which Orestes and Electra find themselves, and revealed that Menelaus is their only hope of salvation (52-6). The agon comes in the long second episode (348-806), which contrasts Menelaus’ failure to live up to their hopes with the ready help offered by the loyal friend Pylades.
The Megarian Decree
Authors: Brunt P A
Published: November 2023

It has become the accepted view that the decree by which Megarians were excluded from the Attic agora and the harbours of the Athenian empire was passed in 433 or 432 and that it had a significant place among the chain of events leading to the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war. Precisely what significance is not indeed a matter of agreement. Those who explain the outbreak of that war by trade rivalries between Athens and the leading commercial cities of the Peloponnese naturally regard it as a stroke of commercial imperialism on the part of Athens which helped to drive her competitors to the breaking point. Beloch, who holds that Pericles forced on the war to preserve his own power at Athens and that the decree was one of the measures by which he succeeded in doing this, thinks that the indignation it aroused was the decisive factor that led the Peloponnesian allies to reject Archi damus’ advice and resolve on immediate war.
The Speeches of Apollodoros I: Authorship
Authors: Trevett Jeremy
Published: November 2023

The authorship of the speeches delivered by Apollodoros is a topic which has generated considerable scholarly discussion. A complete solution to the problem would require us to provide answers to the following three separate questions. First, how many of the speeches are correctly attributed to Demosthenes and how many are spurious? Second, are the spurious speeches the work of a single author? Third, if these speeches were written by one man, can we identify him? In this chapter a variety of criteria will be applied in an attempt to produce a definitive answer to these questions. We shall consider not only the speeches which Apollodoros certainly delivered (45, 46, 49, 50, 52, 5 3, 59), but also those which have been associated with them on grounds either of style (47) or of content (51). Before examining the evidence, we should consider briefly the views of earlier scholars.
Athens
Authors: Taplin Oliver
Published: November 2023

‘Comic angels’? This is my proposed answer to the riddles set by a vase-painting which has surfaced on the seventeenth-floor of a New York apartment-block after 2,300 years or more beneath the ground somewhere in southern Italy. The solution stands at the overlap of the several circles of interest which occupy this book. These interacting ‘fields’ might be schematized as: The intersections of these four fields produce a fifth set of interests, cultural implications which are, in effect, further prerequisites: the appreciation of Athenian drama overseas, and an awareness at Athens that drama has a potential audience beyond Attica.
Paratragedy and Paraiconography
Authors: Taplin Oliver
Published: November 2023

The juxtaposition of Aigisthos and Pyrrhias with their comic angels gives a fresh sense of the reverence and irreverence of their respective genres. While tragedy aspired to appear handsome and noble, comedy was bulging and disrespectful, with an overemphasis on the parts which should be decently concealed. In keeping with this, it was also of the essence of comedy to travesty, subvert, distort, over-inflate, deflate. Almost every activity or discourse, high or low, Athenian or alien, public or private, was fair game, from the law to philosophy, from oracles to dithyrambs, from the Olympian gods to the dignitaries present in the theatre. And comedy’s high-flown non-identical twin, tragedy, was, of course, an especially favoured victim, paratragedized in endless ways.
Introduction: From the Fora to the Macella
Authors: Frayn Joan M
Published: November 2023

MARKETS and fairs formed part of the infrastructure of ancient commerce: an examination of their organization should therefore reveal to some extent the relationship between producer and consumer in the Roman period in Italy and the types of transaction involved. Changes in the siting and arrangement of the markets were only one feature of the extensive urban development in Italy between the end of the Punic Wars and the early years of the principate, but the study of them may lead us to ask and attempt to answer certain questions.
Markets in Italy outside Rome
Authors: Frayn Joan M
Published: November 2023

IT is reasonable to suppose that most Italian towns of the Roman period had regular markets of a general or in some cases a specialized nature, as they do today, and we have evidence of many of these. De Ruyt lists twenty-six macellain Italy, and there were probably more which have not yet been traced, hut these were markets devoted exclusively to the sale of food, and they were held in buildings of some elaboration, often representing the bene factions of prominent citizens.
Livestock Markets
Authors: Frayn Joan M
Published: November 2023

It would seem that most Roman towns in Italy had at some time in or near them a livestock market. We know the terms used for these: forum boarium(or bovarium), forum pecuarium, forum suarium,and we know the whereabouts of some of them. A great deal about them, however, is obscure.
Emendatio: From the Editio Princeps to the First Aldine
Authors: Gaisser Julia Haig
Published: November 2023

After being lost to sight for a thousand years Catullus came to light again in a single corrupt manuscript, the Veronensis, on the very eve of the Renaissance. An ‘exile returning from a distant land’, as Benvenuto Campesani describes him, he had narrowly survived the neglect and vicissitudes of the Middle Ages, and he was scarred and mutilated from his passage.
Parodia: Catullus and the Res Publica Litterarum
Authors: Gaisser Julia Haig
Published: November 2023

The distinctive qualities of 4 inspired the only parody of a whole poem that survives from Antiquity, the 10th Catalepton.2No one knows the author of Cat al.10, but in the Renaissance he was most often identified with the young Vergil; and the Vergilian aura and authority prevailed in spite of the caution or protests of individual scholars. Vergil (as we shall call him) produced a parody so close to the original that the texts of the two poems have been used to correct each other.
The Consequences of Adrianople Rebuilding the Army
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G
Published: November 2023

After the heavy losses incurred at the battle of Adrianople’ Theodosius I, the new emperor of the Eastern Empire, tried desperately to rebuild his field army. Peasants were called up and even miners. Units were transferred from the eastern frontier. Above all, Goths were enrolled on a very large scale, a dangerous procedure considering that they were to be used against their compatriots. They were mingled with Romans in the units of the army and, if Zosimus i to be believed/ came to form a majority of the troops. To reduce the proportion of newly-enrolled Goths in the Balkan army some were sent to Egypt, to be replaced by individuals transferred from units of the Egyptian army.” Not surprisingly the new army did not prove very effective. In 380 it suffered a serious defeat, for which leakage of military information by Goths on the Roman side to the enemy was thought to be largely responsible.
The Rich, the Poor, and the West
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G
Published: November 2023

Chrysostom antagonized some very wealthy and powerful persons, and no doubt others who were simply rich. According to ‘Martyrius’ at least some of the wealthy claimed that they dared not go to church because when he preached about the misdeeds of the rich all the congregation looked at them. Others complained that by words and deeds Chrysostom was preventing them from making money in their customary way. There is no reason to doubt that his outspoken attempts to awaken the social conscience of the well-to-do caused irritation and annoyance. ‘Martyrius’ further gives the impression that the poor and the sick were behind Chrysostom.
Bishop and Public Li£e in the Cyrenaica of Synesius
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G
Published: November 2023

This study has dealt with two aspects of the transformation of society in Late Antiquity: demilitarization and Christianization. The first resulted in the inability or unwillingness of the inhabitants of the Later Empire to rally to the defence of the Empire against foreign invaders. One consequence of the second was the growth of the power of the bishops which introduced new possibilities and new tensions. Of the nature of these possibilities and tensions the career of John Chrysostom provides an unusually well documented illustration. Chrysostom, however, was scarcely typical. As bishop of the capital he occupied a unique position, and in any case he was an exceptional man. We come closer to average experience by looking at the life and career of Synesius–even though Synesius was in many ways an unusual man to become bishop.
Wounding
Authors: Saunders Trevor J
Published: November 2023

The Athenian contrives a transition from homicide to woundings ( traumata) by linking the former to the education and nurture of the ‘living soul’ (presumably because murder terminates that state), and woundings to the education and nurture of the body. The law on woundings is set out in an order which reverses that of the law of homicide, in that the most serious cases come first; it is preceded by one lengthy preamble and an even longer discussion on a principle of legislation; and the first substantive section (A) is supplemented by a passage on the adoption of an heir into families without male issue, from which the lot-holder is lost by execution or permanent banishment.A didactic preamble (874e8-875d6) may be summarized as follows: ‘The necessity of making communal good paramount over the private, and the difficulty of finding an absolute ruler who is sufficiently wise and altruistic to follow that principle rather than line his own pockets,jointly require law and regulation, to prevent our lives becoming like those of wild beasts.’
Introduction
Authors: West M L
Published: November 2023

Music, Musik, musique, musica, muzsika, muzyka, musiikki, miizik, miwsig: the world owes the word to the Greeks. Melody, harmony, symphony, polyphony: these too. Orchestra, organ, chorus, chord, tone, baritone, tonic, diatonic, diapason, chromatic, rhythm, syncopation: all from Greek. Ancient Greek culture was permeated with music. Probably no other people in history has made more frequent reference to music and musical activity in its literature and art. Yet the subject is practically ignored by nearly all who study that culture or teach about it. Sometimes its very existence seems to be barely acknowledged. In a justly celebrated book on the Lesbian poets we read that it is a natural assumption that all or almost all Sappho’s poems ‘were recited by herself informally to her companions’. The isles of Greece, the isles of Greece, where burning Sappho loved and recited? In that generally admirable volume The Oxford History of the Classical World (1986) we look in vain for a section on Greek music.
Music in Greek Life
Authors: West M L
Published: November 2023

Beyond the North Wind there lies a paradise that no traveller can reach either by land or by sea. It is the country of the Hyperboreans, that blessed people whom Apollo loves and with whom he spends the winter months of every year. Untouched by illness or old age, in perpetual peace and ease, they adorn their heads with bright wreaths and spend their days in cheerful feasting, and the Muse, in accord with their ways, does not forsake that land: dance-choruses of girls are everywhere, and the assertive voices of lyres and resounding shawms are ever astir.
Stringed Instruments
Authors: West M L
Published: November 2023

The problem of classifying the musical instruments of the world’s peoples on scientific principles has long exercised musicologists. The most influential system is the one devised by E. M. von Horn hostel and C. Sachs, which operates with four main categories (and many subdivisions): idiophones (that is, instruments made from sonorous materials that will yield a sound simply by being struck, shaken, rubbed, etc.), aerophones, membranophones, and chordophones.1 For our purposes, however, the familiar layman’s classification into stringed, wind, and percussion instruments will serve perfectly well. It corresponds, incidentally, to a classification recognized by some ancient writers.
Melody and Form
Authors: West M L
Published: November 2023

Despite our poverty in actual music from Antiquity, it is possible to say a certain amount about the character of Greek melody. Ancient sources make occasional reference to melodic features of the music of certain composers or styles. The extant musical documents, few and fragmentary though they are, add appreciably to our understanding. Even from pieces of which only a dozen bars or notes survive, we may get some sense of whether the music has a tonal centre, whether it tends to dwell on particular notes or is constantly moving up and down, whether this movement is predominantly between adjacent degrees of the scale or across larger intervals, to what extent syllables of the song are divided between two or more notes.
The Musical Documents
Authors: West M L
Published: November 2023

We come now to the musical documents themselves. First I will present a catalogue of the specimens of Greek music so far known, however fragmentary. It is arranged as far as possible chronologically. References are provided to Pohlmann’s Denkmiiler altgriech ischer Musik and to other selected secondary literature, especially to publications containing photographs of the originals. The catalogue is followed by transcriptions of most of the pieces, with Greek texts transliterated and translated and with observations on the music. The items asterisked in the catalogue are those treated more fully in the transcription section.
Epilogue
Authors: West M L
Published: November 2023

Greece occupies a unique position at the interface of two continents. Such is the layout of seas and lands that no other country of Europe is so exposed to the warm breath of Asia. ‘Europe’ and ‘Asia’ in this context are no empty cartographic labels, but weighty shorthand terms: they stand for two great cultural arenas, not coextensive with the Europe and Asia of atlases but conveniently designated by these names.
Chapter Headings
Authors: Cameron Averil , Hall Stuart G
Published: November 2023

In the manuscripts the whole VC is divided into chapters, the numbering of which is still used for reference. The headings of these chapters go back to an early editor or copyist, and not to Eusebius himself (see Introd., § I). Since they have their own historic interest, and occasionally provide useful information, a translation of them is presented here, on the basis of the Greek text in pp. 3-13 of Winkelmann ‘s edition. The headings and subheadings in the Plan (Introd., § 5) and in the translation itself have been made by the present translators, who believe they are a better guide to Eusebius ‘ plan and thought.
Pagans, Jews, and Christians from the First to the Third Century
Authors: Mitchell Stephen
Published: November 2023

Not every city visited by Paul was an Antioch. Expelled from there and from Iconium, he and Barnabas continued along the Roman via Sebaste to Lystra, also a Roman colony on a modest scale, but with a large native element in the population. The inhabitants, impressed by the miraculous cure of a lame man, hailed the visitors in their native Lycaonian language as manifest gods, Zeus and Hermes, and the priest of Zeus, whose temple lay in front of the city, was scarcely restrained from sacrificing oxen to them. Paul and Barnabas responded with a speech that was designed to appeal to people whose culture and religious beliefs had little urban sophistication, and who were pagans, not Jews or Jewish sympathizers. God had never been absent from their lives in former times, but had allowed men to go their own way. His benevolence was shown by his care for a rural population: ‘he sends you rain from heaven and crops in their seasons, filling your hearts with nourishment and good cheer ’.
Augustus
Authors: Herbert-Brown Geraldine
Published: November 2023

The present study of Augustus begins with book 2 of the Fasti. After the death of the Princeps in ad 14, Ovid redesigned the proem and Julian entries to book 1 for the purpose of incorporating into the calendar the poem’s new dedicatee, Caesar Germanicus. Ovid’s Augustan anniversaries for January, written in exile, contain themes and ideas more reflective of the early Principate of Tiberius, so these have been reserved for study in the section on Germanicus (Ch. 5).
Julius Caesar
Authors: Herbert-Brown Geraldine
Published: November 2023

Ovid’s portrayal of Julius Caesar in the Fasti will be dealt with against the background of controversy recently raised about the posthumous role assigned Caesar in the reign of his heir. Critics have long noted the low profile accorded Julius by Augustan poets, and have long suspected that the initiative for this proceeded directly from Augustus himself. The critic lending greatest currency to this view is Sir Ronald Syme, who repeatedly stated that, after Actium, Caesar’s heir, having become undisputed master of Rome, began to dissociate himself from his father as he sought to establish the appearance of continuity with a legitimate government, avowing Republican rather than absolutist ideals. In consequence, Julius’ claims gradually began to recede and lose ground. It is for this reason that Caesar attracted so little attention in the poetry of the age, the principal record of Augustus’ manipulation of opinion on the subject.
Pontic-Danubian Themes
Authors: Batty Roger
Published: November 2023

South-eastern Europe has found itself for most of its history at the juncture of two spheres of influence. To the south and west the classical civilizations of the Graeco-Roman world dominated the political and cultural landscape of the Mediterranean. They left a legacy that has flourished into modern times: historians have long emphasized the importance of the Roman invasion of the Balkans, the establishment of towns and cities, and the stability brought by long intervals of imperial rule. The same accolade, though often muted by hostile western and Christian traditions and grudging in its praise, has been accorded to the Ottomans in the five centuries of their sway.
Vagantes sine Cultu vel Legibus
Authors: Batty Roger
Published: November 2023

The first part of this book explored a number of key themes in the history of the Pontic-Danubian region. The examples used to illustrate them came from the Middle Ages and early modern periods—roughly speaking, from the fourth to the nineteenth century ad. Part II of this book, however, is concerned with the world of prehistory; we need to see whether our chosen themes were equally present at an earlier time. This is another essential background to a discussion of the Roman period. It is designed to put the latter into its proper context. Having some ideas about common social patterns both before and after Roman rule, we may then understand the changes which occurred at that time more readily.
Rome and the Nomads
Authors: Batty Roger
Published: November 2023

Almost twenty years ago, a notable paper was presented to the International Congress of Frontier Studies by the Roman historian Brent Shaw, entitled, ‘Fear and Loathing: The Nomad Menace and Roman Africa’.1 This was a seminal piece for many Roman historians. Previously, Roman–nomad relations seemed to be epitomized by Domitian’s alleged extermination of the Nasamones—a conflict to the death. Yet, Shaw’s piece exposed many modern and ancient myths about nomadic peoples: that they had easily identifiable types of social organization; that they were fully autarkic; that they were purely nomadic. In doing so, his work showed that many accounts of North Africa in the Roman period had been ill considered; they had painted the nomads’ relationship with the authorities as one of permanent conflict and military repression.
The Pastoral Economy in the Roman Period
Authors: Batty Roger
Published: November 2023

The Syrian writer of mimes, Publilius Syrus, was no yokel. Most of his lines were penned for the urbanite. In the aphorism above, however, he caught the favour of rural life well. Rural life was communal life; shared goals and shared duties were the prerequisite for success. Farming was not an occupation for individualists: without the guarantee of security for both person and crop, or assistance at harvest time and in the home, it was a thankless business.1 Epictetus, too, could furnish his listeners with a country dweller’s wisdom: livestock had each their own worth; even today, horses and cattle are still regarded as the most desirable possessions. These maxims encapsulate much ancient wisdom on farming.
Polis, Household, and Reciprocity in Homer
Authors: Seaford Richard
Published: November 2023

‘A city-state (polis) is its men.’ This definition, offered in Thucydides’ report of a speech to desperate troops far from home, has an element of paradox. In its earliest usage polis meant a (fortified) place. The Athenians, Thucydides also tells us (2. 15), ‘still call the Acropolis “polis”, because they used to live there’. The Athenian polis of the fifth century BC is both a place, an urban centre with the territory it controls, and an exclusive community-of citizens, who perform collective ritual, make war together, participate in public affairs, and are governed by a single political and judicial authority.
Death Ritual and Reciprocal Violence in the Polis
Authors: Seaford Richard
Published: November 2023

My focus now shifts towards Athens. This is both because we are comparatively well informed about state-formation there and because of the importance of Athenian tragedy to my overall argument. The funerary legislation, which illustrates how the developing polis might change the practice and perception of ritual, is best documented for Athens. But I also set out (in roughly chronological order) the evidence for its occurrence elsewhere. This is partly because the full range of evidence helps to illuminate the particular Athenian case, but also because in general the historical developments I will delineate in Chapters 3, 4, and 6 were not confined to Attica, and I will deploy them to illuminate the Panhellenic Homer (Ch. 5) no less than Attic tragedy.
Collective Death Ritual
Authors: Seaford Richard
Published: November 2023

In 3§b we noted the various respects in which the Athenian public funeral for the war dead reverses Athenian restrictions on the private funeral. The effect of prescribing for lavish public funerals practices restricted in private ones may have been to transfer the solidarity that comes from attachment to the dead from a narrow circle of kin to the citizen body as a whole. For example, praise of the dead was, ‘some time after’ Solon’s law, prohibited except in public funerals by someone publicly appointed for that purpose (3 §a). Of this the best-known example is the speech, reported by Thucydides, in which Perikles combined praise of the dead with enhancement of the collective identity of his audience as Athenians.