bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Communicative Writing Profiles: An Investigation of the Transferability of a Multiple‐Trait Scoring Instrument Across ESL Writing Assessment Contexts *
Authors: Hamp‐Lyons Liz , Henning Grant
Published: October 2006

This study investigated the validity of using a multipletrait scoring procedure to obtain communicative writing profiles of the writing performance of adult nonnative English speakers in assessment contexts different from that for which the instrument was designed. Tran sferability could be of great benefit to those without the resources to design and pilot a multiple‐trait scoring instrument of their own. A modification of the New Profile Scale (NPS)was applied in the rating of 170 essays taken from two non‐NPS contexts, including 91 randomly selected essays of the Test of Written English and 79 essays written by a cohort of University of Michigan entering undergraduate nonnative English speaking students responding to the Michigan Writing Assessment.

The scoring method taken as a who leappeared to be highly reliable in composite assessment, appropriate for application to essays of different timed lengths and rhetorical modes, and appropriateto writers of different levels of educational preparation. However, whereas the subscales of Communicative Quality and Linguistic Accuracy tended to show individual discriminant validity, little psychometric support for reporting scores on seven or five components of writing was found. Arguments for transferring the NPS for use in new writing assessment contexts would thus be educational rather than statistical.
Integrating Formal and Functional Approaches to Language Teaching in French Immersion: An Experimental Study*
Authors: Day Elaine M. , Shapson Stan M.
Published: October 2006

This experimental study was designed to evaluate the effect on French language proficiency of an integrated formal, analytic and functional, communicative approach to second‐language teaching in French immersion. The impetus for the study arises from research indicating that immersion children show persistent weaknesses in their grammatical skills despite the fluent, functional proficiency they achieve in their second language. The experimental materials, which consist of a curriculum unit focusing on the conditional, were designed to provide opportunities for students to use the conditional in natural, communicative situations; reinforce their learning with systematic, linguistic games; and encourage their metalinguistic awareness. They were also designed to encourage integration of concepts learned in other subjects with language learning and to promote group work and cooperative learning. Pre‐, post‐, and follow‐up tests of oral and written French were administered to Grade 7 early French immersion Experimental and Control classes. The results showed that the Experimental group performed significantly higher in writing both in the post and follow‐up testing. Although this was not found for speaking, an examination of the individual class data revealed greater and more consistent growth in speaking for the Experimental than for the Control classes, suggesting that they benefited somewhat from the experimental treatment in this domain as well.
Methods and Results in the Study of Anxiety and Language Learning: A Review of the Literature*
Authors: MacIntyre Peter D. , Gardner Robert C.
Published: October 2006

Since Scovel's review of the literature in 1978, several studies have been conducted that consider the role of anxiety in language learning. This paper examines the perspectives from which foreign language anxiety research has been conducted, the instruments that have been used, and the results that have been reported. Three approaches to the study of anxiety are identified as the trait, state, and situation specific perspectives. The instruments chosen to measure anxiety have been quite varied, with several scales specifically intended to assess foreign language anxiety. The literature to be reviewed comes from studies of children, studies that have included anxiety in models of language learning, and finally, studies that are focused directly on the role of anxiety in language learning. With the advances in theory and measurement that have been made in the past decade or so, it is anticipated that foreign language anxiety will receive much more research consideration.
Learner Use of Strategies in Interaction: Typology and Teachability*
Authors: Rost Michael , Ross Steven
Published: October 2006

This paper reports on a two‐phase study of L2 learner use of listener feedback, particularly their use of clarification questions, in NS‐NNS discourse. The initial research questions of interest concerned the degree to which patterns in listener clarification questions could differentiate learners of varying proficiency, the degree to which use of clarification strategies (move types) could be explicitly taught (rather than developed alongside long‐term gains in proficiency), and the extent to which strategy use influenced actual understanding of listening passages.

The first phase of the study was designed to formulate a typology of clarification questions associated with learners along a continuum of L2 proficiency. In this phase of the study, four types of clarification questions were identified through discriminant analysis as being related to language proficiency. These move types are defined as global reprise, local reprise, forward inferencing, and continuation signals.

The second phase of the study was an elicitation experiment in which learners listened to a narrative and asked clarification questions. The study examined learner use of clarification questions in two distinct presentation settings (distant, video presentation and live, one‐on‐one presentation) and with three types of prior training in questioning strategies (global, local, and inferential). The experiment was designed to assess the effects of these presentation settings and of the prior training on learners’ ability to ask clarification questions of the native speakers and to summarize the story that they had heard. The results of this second phase of the study indicate that prior training of learners in specific questioning strategies can exert an effect on their subsequent behavior in interactions and can influence their immediate comprehension of a text as well.
Language Anxiety: Its Relationship to Other Anxieties and to Processing in Native and Second Languages*
Authors: MacIntyre Peter D. , Gardner R. C.
Published: October 2006

This study investigated the factor structure underlying 23 scales assessing both language anxiety as well as other forms of anxiety. Three factors were obtained and identified as Social Evaluation Anxiety, State Anxiety, and Language Anxiety. Correlations were obtained between scores based on these factors and measures of short‐term memory (a Digit Span test) and vocabulary production (a Thing Category test). These two measures were administered in both LI (English) and L2 (French) versions. It was shown that Language Anxiety was correlated significantly with both Digit Span and Thing Category scores, but only in L2. Further analyses indicated that the French tasks were more anxiety‐provoking than were the English ones and that for LI, digit span was more anxiety‐provoking than was vocabulary. These results are interpreted in terms of the deficits created by anxiety during the cognitive processing of L2 stimuli.
Awareness of Text Structure: Effects on Recall*
Authors: Carrell Patricia L.
Published: October 2006

Research in second language reading has shown relationships among reading comprehension, reading strategies, and metacognitive awareness of reading strategies (Block, 1986; Barnett, 1988; Carrell, 1989, Carrell, Pharis, & Liberto, 1989). Moreover, research with native speakers of English has shown differences in speakers’ awareness of particular expository text structures (comparison/contrast, description, causation, and problem/solution) and their recall of texts written in those structures (Richgels, McGee, Lomax, & Sheard, 1987). Whereas previous research in ESL has examined the effects of differences in rhetorical structure on learners’ recall of English narrative (Carrell, 1984a) and expository text (Carrell, 1984b, 1985), this ESL research has not investigated differences between learners’ awareness of particular text structures and their recall of texts written in those structures. Nor has the ESL research contrasted different measures of structure awareness. The study reported in this paper was designed to investigate these relationships in EFL/ESL reading.

Forty‐five high‐intermediate proficiency ESL students produced written recalls of both comparison/contrast and collection of description texts. In addition, two different measures of awareness were included: (1)use of organization in written recall, and (2) recognition of organization in response to a probe question. Results showed that there were no differences in levels of awareness, regardless of how it was measured, due to differences in text structure, nor were there any differences in the quantity of information recalled between text structures. However, there were differences in the quality of information recalled as a function of text structure. Finally, in terms of relationships between awareness and recall, subjects who used the structure of the reading passages to organize written recalls showed superior recall both quantitatively and qualitatively.
Critical Period Effects in Second Language Acquisition: The Effect of Written versus Auditory Materials on the Assessment of Grammatical Competence*
Authors: Johnson Jacqueline S.
Published: October 2006

Current research has supported the existence of a critical period for the acquisition of the grammar of a second language. In one study, native speakers of Chinese and Korean, who had arrived in the U.S. at varying ages, were tested on their knowledge of English grammar using an auditory grammaticality judgment task (Johnson & Newport, 1989). Subjects were tested only after having lived in the U.S. for many years as students or academicians. The present study asks whether the poorer performance exhibited by the older arrivals was due to their difficulty with English grammar or merely due to extragrammatical properties associated with an auditory task. The same subjects who participated in the earlier study were tested a year later using an untimed written version of the same test. A strong negative correlation was still observed between age of arrival and performance on the written test: r=‐.54 for subjects of all ages of arrival; r=‐.73 for subjects who arrived to the U.S. before adulthood. Performance was higher on the written version than on the auditory version, but only for the older arrivals. The possibility that earlier formal classroom training boosted the adult arrivals’ performance on the written test is discussed.
On the Measurement of Affective Variables in Second Language Learning
Authors: Gardner Robert C. , MacIntyre Peter D.
Published: October 2006

This study focuses on four issues concerning aspects of the validity of the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery. Data were obtained from 92 students of university‐level French. The first issue deals with whether the various subtests assess the attributes they are presumed to measure. A multitrait/multimethod analysis of three methods indicated that they did. The second issue focuses on the relationship of the subtests to higher order constructs. A factor analysis provided empirical support for the higher order constructs of Integrativeness, Attitudes Toward the Learning Situation, Language Anxiety, and Motivation. The third issue is concerned with whether the strategy used to measure affective variables influences their correlations with measures of achievement. The correlations obtained suggested that they did; moreover, some measures of achievement were less related to all affective measures than were others. The fourth issue directs attention to measures of integrative and instrumental orientation, their relationship to each other and to achievement. The results demonstrated more communality among integrative orientation items and measures than among instrumental orientation measures. Neither correlated that highly with achievement, but the correlations were slightly higher for measures of integrative orientation.
Language Dominance in Bilinguals’ Arithmetic Operations According to Their Language Use
Authors: Tamamaki Kinko
Published: October 2006

This study investigated the alleged persistence of first language dominance for arithmetic operations in bilinguals. Thirty two Japanese‐English bilinguals aged 19‐58 years solved arithmetic problems presented auditorily. They were required to respond verbally in the language in which the problems were presented. The problems were presented only in one language in each experimental session so that the participants did not have to switch between two languages. The participants were divided into short‐term and long‐term residents according to their length of residence in the U.S. and self‐estimated percentage of English use per day. Reaction time data from the two groups were then analyzed. For the short‐term residents, a strong dominance for calculation in Japanese was found, but this dominance decreased with increasing length of residence in the U.S. and their extent of English use. For the long‐term residents, reaction times in English and Japanese were virtually identical. Possible explanations for first language dominance are discussed.
Reading, Dictionaries, and Vocabulary Learning
Authors: Luppescu Stuart , Day Richard R.
Published: October 2006

This article focuses on the contribution to vocabulary learning of the use of bilingual dictionaries during reading by 293 Japanese university students studying English as a foreign language. The results of the study show that students who used a dictionary scored significantly better on a vocabulary test than students who did not use a dictionary. However, evidence appeared for differential item functioning: Some items were harder for the group that used dictionaries. A possible explanation for this tendency is that students who were unable to locate the appropriate gloss in the dictionary were misled as to the meaning of the word. Moreover, students who used a dictionary read nearly half as quickly as the group that did not use dictionaries.
Language Socialization in the Second Language Classroom
Authors: Poole Deborah
Published: October 2006

This paper examines the kinds of cultural messages a second language teacher displays through classroom interaction. The study analyzes teacher/student interaction in two beginning ESL classes in light of the language socialization perspective articulated by Ochs and Schieffelin, (1984; cf., Schieffelin & Ochs, 1986a; 1986b; Ochs 1988). This approach views the acquisition of linguistic and sociocultural knowledge as integral to one another, and points to the pervasive influence of cultural norms and ideologies on various forms of expert‐novice communication. The data demonstrate that routine interactional sequences in these classrooms are consistent with a number of Ochs and Schieffelin's interpretations of middle class American caregiver language and suggest that a teacher's language behavior is culturally motivated to an extent not generally acknowledged in most L2 literature. Discussion will focus specifically on how classroom discourse features encode cultural norms and beliefs with respect to (a) expert accommodation of novice incompetence, (b) task accomplishment, and (c) the display of asymmetry.
The Effect of Imagery‐Based Mnemonics on the Long‐Term Retention of Chinese Characters
Authors: Wang Alvin Y. , Thomas Margaret H.
Published: October 2006

Two studies compared the effects of imagery‐based instruction and rote learning on the long‐term recall of English translations of Chinese ideographs. Both studies used a 2×2 factorial design with Learning Condition (mnemonic vs. rote learning) and Time (immediate vs. delayed recall) as the between‐subjects factors. In Study 1 total exposure time to Chinese ideographs and their English equivalents was held constant for both learning conditions. Cued recall was tested immediately and after a two‐day delay. In Study 2 total exposure time for the rote learning group was increased so that the immediate recall performance for both learning conditions would be comparable. Also, the delayed retention period was lengthened to one week. Despite variations in procedure, the pattern of results obtained in both studies was the same: in no instance was there any indication that imagery‐based mnemonics conferred an advantage beyond the immediate test of recall. In fact, greater forgetting was found under conditions of mnemonic learning compared to rote learning. This finding is discussed within a theoretical framework emphasizing the differential long‐term effect of experimenter‐imposed versus subject‐generated encodings.
Affective Variables and a Less Commonly Taught Language: A Study in Beginning Japanese Classes*
Authors: Samimy Keiko Komiya , Tabuse Motoko
Published: October 2006

Learning a less commonly taught language or a “noncognate” language such as Japanese can be a daunting task for American students. The number of American students who are studying Asian languages at the university level‐in particular Japanese and Chinese‐is skyrocketing. Unfortunately, however, the attrition rate among these students is also very high.

The present study explored the possible relationships between affective variables (e.g., attitudes, motivation, classroom personality) and students' linguistic performance in beginning Japanese classes. It was hypothesized that the high difficulty level of this noncognate non‐IndoEuropean language would trigger strong negative affective reactions that would, in turn, affect their linguistic performance.

The results of the study indicate that motivation and attitudinal factors are critical in predicting students' success in Japanese. Classroom personality factors such as risktaking and discomfort were also found to be determinants of the students' final grades. In addition, negative changes in the students' attitude and motivation were observed when the results of the autumn quarter were compared with those of the spring quarter.

Based on these findings, recommendations are made to enhance students' motivation and attitude toward learning Japanese.
Lexical Development in Bilingual Infants and Toddlers: Comparison to Monolingual Norms
Authors: Pearson Barbara Zurer , Fernández Sylvia C. , Oller D. Kimbrough
Published: October 2006

This study compares lexical development in a sample of 25 simultaneous bilingual and 35 monolingual children for whom semilongitudinal data were collected between the ages of 8 and 30 months. A standardized parent report form, the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory (1989), was used to assess the children's receptive and productive vocabulary in English and/or Spanish. A methodology was devised to assess the degree of overlap between the bilingual children's lexical knowledge in one language and their knowledge in the other. Using the measures presented here, there was no statistical basis for concluding that the bilingual children were slower to develop early vocabulary than was the monolingual comparison group. The wide range of vocabulary sizes observed at these ages in normally developing children (Fenson et al., 1991) was observed in these bilingual children as well. The close correspondence of the pattern of the bilinguals' growth in two languages at once to monolinguals' growth in one suggests that norms for lexical development in bilinguals should be made with reference to the children's performance in two languages together.
Second Language Readers' Memory for Narrative Texts: Evidence for Structure‐Preserving Top‐Down Processing
Authors: Horiba Yukie , van den Broek Paul W. , Fletcher Charles R.
Published: October 2006

This study assessed the role that structural properties of texts play in the mental representations of second‐language (L2) readers. In particular, we investigated the extent to which 47 L2 readers of English used structural properties of a text (causal factors, story‐grammar category, and hierarchical level) to “fill in” gaps in their mental representations. L2 readers' recall protocols of narrative texts were analyzed and compared with those of 72 L1 readers of English using two scoring criteria: meaning‐preserving and structure‐preserving. The first credits information that is either verbatim or a close paraphrase of the original textual information; the second credits information that fulfills the same structural function as the original text unit. We found that L2 readers' structure‐preserving recalls were substantially higher than were their meaning‐preserving recalls, and that the effects of particular structural properties (i.e., causal connections and story‐grammar category) interacted with the scoring criterion. These results indicate that these L2 readers used top‐ down processing to preserve the structural integrity of a text.
Psycholinguistic Determinants of Foreign Language Vocabulary Learning
Authors: Ellis Nick C. , Beaton Alan
Published: October 2006

This paper reviews the psycholinguistic factors that affect ease of learning of foreign language (FL) vocabulary and investigates their role in 47 students' learning of German under Repetition, Keyword or “Own” strategy conditions. Native‐to‐foreign learning is shown to be easier the more the FL words conform to the phonological (0.40<r<0.63;p<.01) and orthographic (0.28<r<0.45; .05<p<.01) patterns of the native language. However, these relationships are less pronounced (not significant) in foreign‐to‐native learning. The part of speech (0.44<r<0.64;p<.01) and the imageability (0.37<r<0.53; .05<p<.01) of the concept are strong determinants of learnability, suggesting an important influence of meaningfulness. Keyword effectiveness, particularly in the case of receptive learning, is influenced by the part of speech and imageability of the keyword. But keywords must also share considerable acoustic similarity with their foreign words to be effective reminders in productive learning(r=0.61; p<.01). Otherwise learners must practice these novel phonotactic and orthographic patterns to consolidate them.
Patterns of Interaction in the Lexical Growth in Two Languages of Bilingual Infants and Toddlers
Authors: Pearson Barbara Zurer , Fernández Sylvia C.
Published: October 2006

We investigated the extent to which bilingual children follow the same patterns and timetable of lexical development as monolinguals. For a group of 20 simultaneous bilingual (English‐Spanish) infants, ages 10 to 30 months, we looked at the patterns of growth in one language in relation to growth in the other and also with respect to growth in both languages combined. The MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories (CDI), standardized parent report forms in Spanish and English, provided measures of lexical growth in two languages at varying intervals within the age range. We plotted the two single‐language measures, as well as Total and Total Conceptual language measures, across time, referenced on a second γ‐axis to the percent of the child's language environment that each language represented. For a subset of the children, we calculated the percentages of general nominals, social words, and verbs for each language to allow the characterization of the children's learning strategies as “referential” or “expressive” (Nelson, 1973). The rate and pace of development were similar to patterns observed in monolinguals. In addition, the vocabulary spurt was seen to occur in about the same percentage of children as has been observed in groups of monolingual children. The bilinguals differed from one another with respect to the relative independence of one language from the other, including the use of different learning strategies in the two languages by the same child.
Chronological and Stylistic Aspects of Second Language Acquisition of Consonant Clusters
Authors: Major Roy C.
Published: October 2006

This study tested a model of second language phonological acquisition that proposes a hierarchical relationship between language‐specific transfer processes and universal developmental processes in terms of chronology and style. The model claims that transfer processes decrease over time, while developmental processes increase and then decrease. The same patterns obtain as style becomes more formal. I tested the model by investigating initial and final consonant cluster production of four Brazilian learners of English. The speech sample included two styles‐reading a word list and reading a text. Two English‐speaking phoneticians transcribed the speech in detail and classified it into three categories: transfer substitutions, developmental substitutions, and native‐like productions. The results were mixed: the data supported claims of the model regarding chronology, but not the claims regarding style.
Research on Negotiation: What Does It Reveal About Second‐Language Learning Conditions, Processes, and Outcomes?
Authors: Pica Teresa
Published: October 2006

This article reviews insights into second‐language (L2) learning that have been revealed through over a decade of research on the social interaction and negotiation of L2 learners and their interlocutors, begining with the seminal work of Hatch (1978a, 197810) and Long (1980 et passim), and withereferenceto a corpus of informal, experimental, and classroom data from published studies. This research illustrates ways in which negotiation contributes to condi‐ tions, processes, and outcomes ofL2 learningby facilitating learners' comprehension and structural segmentation of L2 input, access to lexical form and meaning, and production of modified output. The research points out areas in which negotiation does not appear to assist L2 learning, especially with respect to the learner's need to access L2
Eliciting Speech Act Data in Japanese: The Effect of Questionnaire Type
Authors: Rose Kenneth R. , Ono Reiko
Published: October 2006

Speech act theory has greatly influenced both the study and teaching of language use; however, given its philosophical roots, it has been short on empirical support. In recent years numerous speech act studies have been conducted. In these studies, though, there has been little discussion of research methodology, specifically data collection techniques. This paper reports the results of a study (based on Rose, 1994), which addresses methodological validation in speech act research. We administered discourse‐completion tests (DCTs) and multiple‐choice questionnaires (MCQs), designed to elicit requests, to two groups of 36 Japanese female undergraduates. As with Rose (1994), there were significant differences in most situations (11 of 12), with those completing the MCQ choosing to opt out or hint more frequently than those completing the DCT. These results seem to indicate some serious problems with DCTs, which need to be addressed if they are to be used in speech act studies.
L1 and L2 Writers' Strategic and Linguistic Knowledge: A Model of Multiple‐Level Discourse Processing
Authors: Whalen Karen , Ménard Nathan
Published: October 2006

This study compared the cognitive processing of 12 anglophone second‐year French undergraduate students who were prompted to write an argumentative text in both L1 (English) and L2 (French). The students' speaking aloud protocols and textual drafts provided the basis of collected data. In the first part of the study, the writers' planning, evaluation, and revision strategies were (a) analyzed in terms of the pragmatic., textual, and linguistic manifestations of these processes and (b) compared for differences in processing behaviors between their L1 and L2 writing. In the second part, we measured linguistic processing occurrences to analyze their effect on more global processing behaviors at the pragmatic and textual levels. The linguistic constraints imposed by the writers' knowledge of the second language (French) point toward some significant differences in discourse level processing between L1 and L2 writing behaviors. However, the results reveal that the state of the writers' strategic knowledge and capacity for meaningful multiple‐level discourse processing explains the constraining effects of linguistic processing on L2 written discourse production.
Acquisition of Base‐Generated Topics by English‐Speaking Learners of Chinese
Authors: Yuan Boping
Published: October 2006

This study investigated the acquisition of base‐generated topics in Mandarin Chinese by 102 British university students learning Chinese as a second language. Chinese differs from English in that in Chinese the topic can be base‐generated, whereas in English it has to go through the process of movement. The hypothesis was that it would not be difficult for English speakers to acquire the base‐generated topic in Chinese because in the acquisition of Chinese, English‐speaking learners are exposed to positive evidence of base‐generated topics. However, this hypothesis was not confirmed; the learners acquired the base‐generated topics quite late. The difficulty the learners had in acquiring the base‐generated topic in Chinese could be due to a combination of several factors. The learners at elementary, intermediate, and higher‐intermediate stages may have adopted an incorrect parsing strategy in processing sentences with base‐generated topics. This incorrect parsing strategy diminished the triggering effect of the positive evidence for CP projection, absent at the initial state of the L2 acquisition of Chinese. In addition, there is misleading evidence in the learners' input data in support of the learners' adoption of the incorrect parsing strategy, which further delays the acquisition of the base‐generated topic in Chinese.
Conversational Styles in Language Proficiency Interviews
Authors: Young Richard
Published: October 2006

This study compares the conversational styles of intermediate and advanced learners of ESL in language proficiency interviews. Eleven intermediate learners and 12 advanced learners participated in a regular administration of the Cambridge First Certificate in English oral interview. I analyzed interview discourse constructed by both interviewer and nonnative speakers (NNSs), using a quantitative model of topical organization. I found differences in the amount of talk and rate of speaking (advanced learners talked more and faster than intermediate learners), in the extent of context dependence (advanced learners elaborated more in answers to questions), and in the ability to construct and sustain narratives (advanced learners did so, intermediate learners did not). There were no differences between the two groups in the frequency of initiation of new topics, nor in the reactivity to topics introduced by the interviewers. Interviewers did not vary in their interviewing style with the two groups. Some of these findings contradict what designers of language proficiency interviews claim to be proficiency‐related differences between NNSs. The discrepancies may be due to the format of the interview and/or to differing expectations of the interview by interviewers and NNSs from different cultures.
Second Language Processing at Different Ages: Do Younger Learners Pay More Attention to Prosodic Cues to Sentence Structure?
Authors: Harley Birgit , Howard Joan , Hart Doug
Published: October 2006

Seeking a processing explanation for the phonological merits of early age exposure to second language use, this study investigates the relationship between age of arrival in the L2 environment and a preference for prosodic versus syntactic cues to sentence interpretation in English. The learners were Cantonese‐speaking ESL students at Canadian schools: 13 students in Grade 2,27 students in Grades 7/8, and 16 in Grades 11/12. All had been in Canada for between 1 and 4 years. The students were asked to interpret ambiguous sentences with conflicting prosodic and syntactic cues to structure. In contrast to the pattern found for native English‐speaking students at the same grade levels, and contrary to predictions, the older ESL learners were found to be just as likely as the younger ones to attend to prosody rather than syntax.
The Vocabulary‐Learning Strategies of Foreign‐Language Students
Authors: Lawson Michael J. , Hogben Donald
Published: October 2006

Using a think‐aloud procedure, we observed the behavior of 15 university students in Australia with experience in Italian as they attempted to learn the meanings of new foreign language (Italian) words. The great majority of the procedures they used involved some form of repetition of the new words and their meanings‐mostly a simple reading of the dictionary‐like entries provided, or repetitions of the word‐meaning complexes. They gave relatively little attention to the physical or grammatical features of words, nor did they commonly use elaborative acquisition procedures. The lack of association between use of context and recall of word meaning is of major interest, given the stress placed on context by many researchers and commentators. Even when students did use the cues in the sentences to generate possible meanings for the target words, this did not help them establish representations for the meanings of the words. Consideration of the use of context in vocabulary acquisition suggests a need to distinguish between the use of context for generation of meaning of a new word and the use of context for acquisition of the meaning for subsequent recall.
Effects of Story Reading on Language
Authors: Vivas Eleonora
Published: October 2006

This article reports the results of an experimental investigation of the effects of a systematic, story‐reading‐aloud program on some language variables in 222 preschool and first‐grade children. They were randomly assigned to 3 groups: 2 experimental and 1 control. The program was carried out by the parents, at home, for the children in the Home‐Based Experimental group and by the teacher, at school, for the School‐Based Experimental children. I assessed the effects of the programs both on language comprehension (the understanding of syntactic structures and story comprehension) and on expressive language (syntactic structures and sentence repetition). Results indicated that both preschool and first‐grade children significantly increased their language comprehension and expression when listening to stories read aloud, either at home or at school. The program is discussed in terms of its usefulness in language stimulation and as an instrument for prevention of language difficulties.
Factors Affecting Composition Evaluation in an EFL Context: Cultural Rhetorical Pattern and Readers’Background
Authors: Kobayashi Hiroe , Rinnert Carol
Published: October 2006

We investigated how 465 readers with different backgrounds (differing L1, academic status, and amounts of writing instruction) evaluated 16 versions of Japanese university English as a foreign language (EFL) students’English compositions containing different culturally influenced rhetorical patterns (Japanese vs. American English) as well as two other features (coherence breaks and language use errors). Among other factors, including coherence and language use, culturally influenced rhetorical patterns affected assessment of EFL student writing on an analysis of effects topic. Overall, Japanese students who had not received English writing instruction preferred the Japanese rhetorical pattern, native English teachers favored the American rhetorical pattern, and Japanese students who had received English writing instruction and Japanese teachers valued features of both patterns. There were no significant differences between the two teacher groups in the overall assessment of the two rhetorical patterns, but Japanese English teachers, similar to Japanese students, gave significantly higher scores than native English teachers to the Japanese introduction. On a comparison/contrast topic, other discourse features, particularly paragraph level coherence problems, appeared to override rhetorical pattern in terms of influence on writing quality scores. The results suggest that a flexible approach to permissible rhetorical patterns and a greater emphasis on coherence may prove beneficial for EFL writing instruction.
The Similarity Differential Rate Hypothesis
Authors: Major Roy C. , Kim Eunyi
Published: October 2006

We explored 3 factors—similarity, dissimilarity, and markedness—as they relate to second language (L2) phonological acquisition. Previous studies have made claims about difficulty, order of acquisition, and ultimate achievement depending on L2 exposure but have often presented conflicting claims and results. This study incorporates similarity and dissimilarity into a hypothesis about rate of acquisition: The rate of acquisition for a dissimilar phenomenon is faster than for a similar phenomenon. Although not stated in the hypothesis, effects of markedness are accounted for: Degree of markedness, an intervening factor, can increase or decrease rate. The claims are strongly supported by analyses of two experiments investigating the acquisition of and of 10 adult Korean learners of English, as well as by reanalyses of data from previous studies. Although the evidence presented here deals exclusively with phonology, it should be possible to test the hypothesis for other linguistic phenomena.
SLA Theory Building: “Letting All the Flowers Bloom!”
Authors: Lantolf James P.
Published: October 2006

This article presents a postmodernist critical analysis of the SLA theory building‐literature as primarily represented in the writings of Beretta, Crookes, Eubank, Gregg, Long, and to some extent Schumann. I argue that there is no foundational reason to grant privileged status to the modernist view of SLA theory these scholars espouse. Scientific theories are metaphorical constructs that are elevated to theoretical status because they are “taken seriously” by their developers. All of which argues against cutting off any would‐be SLA theory before it has the opportunity to be taken seriously (i.e., to bloom).
ECONOMIC REFORM IN EASTERN EUROPE
Authors: Hare Paul
Published: October 2006

Abstract. Since the early 1960s, reforms in the traditional centralized model of a planned economy have been debated. In most of Eastern Europe, reforms have been confined to cautious ones seeking to improve central planning. But in Hungary, and to a small degree elsewhere, more radical reforms have taken root. These retain elements of planning but also introduce the institutions and policies needed to support a more active market orientation for the economy. Such reforms encounter limits when they begin to threaten, or call into question, established political structures and it is an open question how much further reforms can proceed in Hungary without political change.
CHAOTIC DYNAMICS IN ECONOMIC TIME‐SERIES
Authors: Frank Murray , Stengos Thanasis
Published: October 2006

Abstract. There has recently been considerable interest in chaotic dynamics in a variety of disciplines. This paper introduces and then surveys some of the associated literature and techniques. Applications to economic theory are discussed but the primary focus is on empirical applicability. In addition to surveying the literature we also provide an example of the use of these techniques in economics. We conclude by highlighting the importance of the techniques for empirical work as well as considering their context in econometric methodology.
PRICE DISCRIMINATION: A SURVEY OF THE THEORY
Authors: Phlips Louis
Published: October 2006

Abstract. The purpose of this survey is twofold. First, it introduces the reader to recent developments in the theory of price discrimination. Simultaneously, the exposition aims at being self‐contained and accessible to the non‐specialist reader. The paper is structured around Pigou's distinction between perfect, second‐degree and third‐degree price discrimination.
THE TRANSFORMATION PROBLEM
Authors: Desai Meghnad
Published: October 2006

Abstract. The history of the Marxian Transformation Problem is surveyed from 1885 to the present. Particular emphasis is placed on the less well‐known literature and the focus is on problems of interpretation rather than on technicalities. A substantial bibliography is provided.
BUBBLES AND FADS IN ASSET PRICES
Authors: Camerer Colin
Published: October 2006

Abstract. The article considers the possibility that asset prices might deviate from intrinsic values based on market fundamentals. Three broad categories of theory are surveyed: (a) growing bubbles (b) fads and (c) information bubbles. ‘Sunspot’theories are also discussed. The paper covers both theory and evidence, and directions for future research are discussed.
THE THEORY OF WARRANTY CONTRACTS
Authors: Emons Winand
Published: October 2006

Abstract. This paper surveys theories of the existence and design of warranty contracts. Insurance, signalling, and incentive motives are used to explain the existence of warranties. The incorporation of imperfections that prevent warranties from serving their basic purposes in a first‐best way describes actual warranty practices.
CHINESE EXPERIENCE IN THE INTRODUCTION OF A MARKET MECHANISM INTO A PLANNED ECONOMY: THE ROLE OF PRICING
Authors: Mao Yushi , Hare Paul
Published: October 2006

Abstract. A brief review is first presented of the changes in pricing institutions in China since 1949, with particular emphasis on the shift from an equilibrium price system to a distorted price system. The authors argue that distorted prices are harmful to economic growth even in a planned economy, since even an experienced economic planner can never escape from the full implications of a distorted price system. Examples are given showing the detrimental results of such a system. The central point of China's economic reform is the extension of decision‐making power to enterprises and the introduction of a market mechanism so as to improve microeconomic efficiency. But such a goal cannot easily be achieved due to the false information provided by the distorted price system. So price adjustment becomes an issue of primary importance, and the authors discuss the difficulties for price adjustment posed by various interest groups.
HYPERINFLATIONS: THEIR ORIGINS, DEVELOPMENT AND TERMINATION
Authors: Siklos Pierre L.
Published: October 2006

Abstract. This paper summarizes and critically surveys research on hyperinflation. Appraisal and review of the literature considers the origins, development, termination, and the lessons to be learned from hyperinflations. The historical evidence as well as the econometric evidence is analyzed. It is concluded that while the lessons to be learned from such episodes perhaps have been overstated a number of useful implications may be derived from studying hyperinflations, such as an understanding of the forces which link monetary and fiscal policies to inflation, and policy makers’role in influencing individuals’expectations.
COINTEGRATION AND UNIT ROOTS
Authors: Dolado Juan J. , Jenkinson Tim , Sosvilla‐Rivero Simon
Published: October 2006

Abstract. This paper provides an updated survey of a burgeoning literature on testing, estimation and model specification in the presence of integrated variables. Integrated variables are a specific class of non‐stationary variables which seem to characterise faithfully the properties of many macroeconomic time series. The analysis of cointegration develops out of the existence of unit roots and offers a generic route to test the validity of the equilibrium predictions of economic theories. Special emphasis is put on the empirical researcher's point of view.
THEORIES OF CHOICE UNDER IGNORANCE AND UNCERTAINTY
Authors: Kelsey David , Quiggin John
Published: October 2006

Abstract.In this paper, Knight's distinction between risk and uncertainty, and its significance for economic analysis are examined. The paper consists of a survey of some recent developments on the theory of choice under uncertainty and some applications of these theories to problems for which Bayesian Decision Theory has not proved entirely satisfactory. Two problems are examined in detail. The first is that of finance and insurance and the second is that of risktaking behaviour with special emphasis on lotteries.
LOCAL PAY DETERMINATION
Authors: Molho Ian
Published: October 2006

Abstract.Theoretical models of local pay are reviewed, ranging from neoclassical perspectives, unemployment/wage trade‐off models, and segmented labour market approaches. The empirical work on U.S. North‐South differentials is discussed. For the U.K., studies of the extent of and trends in geographical pay differentials are considered, as well as behavioural explanations focusing on the role of excess demand. The issue of adjustment processes is then discussed, both in theory and in relation to empirical work for the U.S. and U.K. This discussion focuses largely on geographical spillover effects, in terms of origins, evidence, and issues of identification. Finally, the impact of certain impediments in the adjustment process are considered, specifically in relation to the U.K. These concern the role and influence of national wage bargaining, as well as factors inhibiting labour migration, stemming from the housing market and the climate of the national labour market.
EVALUATING IMPACT EFFECTS OF TAX REFORMS
Authors: Lambert Peter J.
Published: October 2006

Abstract. This survey paper provides coverage of the inputs from the theory side which go into the empirical analysis of impact effects of tax reforms. Inequality, social welfare, progressivity and horizontal inequity effects are considered. The value judgements inherent in selecting the target group for analysis, specifying welfare through household utility, equivalizing incomes and otherwise incorporating differences in household needs into utilitarian analysis, are all explained. The evaluation procedures described include dominance checks and index comparisons. The inequality and social welfare tests are also applicable to other comparisons of income distribution. Standard computer software to sort, cumulate and compute covariances is all that is required to undertake the necessary computations using microdata.
ARCH MODELS: PROPERTIES, ESTIMATION AND TESTING
Authors: Bera Anil K. , Higgins Matthew L.
Published: October 2006

Abstract.The aim of this survey paper is to provide an account of some of the important developments in the autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH) model since its inception in a seminal paper by Engle (1982). This model takes account of many observed properties of asset prices, and therefore, various interpretations can be attributed to it. We start with the basic ARCH models and discuss their different interpretations. ARCH models have been generalized in different directions to accommodate more and more features of the real world. We provide a comprehensive treatment of many of the extensions of the original ARCH model. Next we discuss estimation and testing for ARCH models and note that these models lead to some interesting and unique problems. There have been numerous applications and we mention some of these as we present different models. The paper includes a glossary of the acronyms for the models we describe.
MODELS OF SELF‐EMPLOYMENT IN A COMPETITIVE MARKET
Authors: de Wit Gerrit
Published: October 2006

Abstract. A survey is given of models in the literature that can be used to explain the number of self‐employed individuals in the framework of a competitive market. Apart from giving a survey, this paper also intends to explain how the various models work. Thus, the connections between the various models can be shown.
OWNERSHIP, CONTROL, FINANCIAL STRUCTURE AND THE PERFORMANCE OF FIRMS
Authors: Short Helen
Published: October 2006

Abstract. The notion that the separation of ownership from control may create a divergence of interests between managers and shareholders has led to a large number of studies which investigate the influence of ownership structures upon a firm's financial structure and its performance. The purpose of this paper is to review and critically evaluate the literature that empirically analyses the effects of ownership and control structures on both the financial structure and the performance of the firm. In addition, further consideration is given to the dynamic relationships between ownership, control, financing and firm performance.