bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Marguerite de Navarre and the Androgynous Portrait of Francois Ier*
Authors: Meyer Barbara Hochstetler
Published: April 2006

Celluy qui dit ta grace, eloquence & scavoir

Ne estre plus grands que humains, de pres ne t'a peu veoir

Et à qui ton parler ne sent divinité

De termes et propos n'entend la gravità.

De l'Empire du Monde est ta presence digne,

Et ta voix ne dit chose humaine, mais divine.

Combien doncques diray l'Ame pleine de grace,

Si outre les Mortelz tu as parolle et Face?

Clement Marot, Epigramme

Poem Bestowing upon François IER the essence of divinity was not a flattering aberration but an example of imagery that became emblematic of his long reign. As Anne-Marie Lecoq has shown in her incisive analyses of many laudatory illuminated treatises and poems and extravagant royal entries with theatrical enactments, the king was glorified by an allegorical symbolism often intricately interwoven with Christian typology as deemed appropriate, indeed necessary, for “un roi très chrétien” who was the brave, virtuous, pious elect of God.
Intertextual Labyrinths: Ariadne's Lament in Montaigne's "Sur des vers de Virgile"*
Authors: Wiesmann Marc-André
Published: April 2006

This study reconstructs the thematic and literary presence of a labyrinth in Montaigne's "Sur des vers de Virgile." Indispensable to such a reconstruction will be a consideration of Catullus's epithalamium on the marriage of Peleus and Thetis from which are derived the hexameters textually anchoring the labyrinth in Montaigne's text. I will then place these verses in their French surroundings and pursue the insights that an awareness of the Catullan context makes available for interpretations of the essay.
Reading through Galileo's Telescope: Margaret Cavendish and the Experience of Reading*
Authors: Spiller Elizabeth A.
Published: April 2006

This essay reassesses the role of reading in the context of seventeenth-century natural philosophy by analyzing Galileo Galilei's Starry Messenger and Margaret Cavendish's The Blazing World. The unreliability of telescopic vision becomes a dominant metaphor for the unreliability of reading printed texts. Where Galileo sought to put the reader in his own position as a scientific observer by making reading a form of observation, Cavendish used the telescopic image to show how readers become the makers of their own fictions. From the recognition that reading and observation finally reveal our relationship to the world rather than the world itself comes what will ultimately be the modern assumption that acts of observation are also acts of reading.
Flemish versus Netherlandish: A Discourse of Nationalism
Authors: Deam Lisa
Published: April 2006

This essay shows how scholarship on fifteenth-century Flemish panel painting became intertwined with efforts at national identity-building in nineteenth and early twentieth-century Europe. Paintings such as Jan van Eyck's Ghent Altarpiece were not only dispersed across regional and national boundaries, but were intellectually appropriated for competing national programs. The paintings consequently became a site of conflict between the Latin and Germanic traditions. These conflicts are clearly visible through the shifting terminology of this art, variously claimed as “Flemish” and “Netherlandish.” Such nationalist discourses shaped future scholarship on Flemish painting and contributed to its perceived inferiority vis-à-vis the Southern artistic tradition.
Women, Charity and Community in Early Modern Venice: The Casa delle Zitelle
Authors: Chojnacka Monica
Published: April 2006

This article examines the Casa delle Zitelle, a charitable institution for young women at risk of falling into prostitution, in early modern Venice. Founded by a group of deeply religious noblewomen, the Casa reflected the social anxieties of the time that linked social ills to prostitution, as well as a new spirit of social activism inspired by religious conviction on the part of the city's elite. The Casa also created a new type of female community that drew both on familial structures and the traditional female networks that were characteristic of Venetian neighborhoods.
Christian Pessimism on the Walls of the Vatican Galleria delle carte geografiche
Authors: Goffart Walter
Published: April 2006

The Vatican Map Gallery (1579-81) contains fifty-one historical paintings in its vault and twenty-three historical vignettes on its monumental maps of Italy. Inspired by an early-Christian conception of the past, the vault paintings illustrate a "perfect" history, typified by saints' miracles. The contrasting vignettes demand more painstaking interpretation. Embedded in geography, they appear to exemplify a terrestrial history (reminiscent of Orosius) that, when not bathed in blood, teaches the vanity of earthbound strivings. Maps for history did not again take this form.
Luisa de Carvajal's Counter-Reformation Journey to Selfhood (1566-1614)
Authors: Rhodes Elizabeth
Published: April 2006

Luisa de Carvajal y Mendoza, a wealthy Spanish noblewoman, lived as a missionary in London preaching, teaching, and doing charitable work on behalf of the Catholic underground from 1605 to 1614. Although the early loss of her parents and other close family members in rapid succession and the abuses she suffered at the hands of her guardian uncle might appear to have disadvantaged her, Carvajal transformed her misfortunes into advantages by using them to intensify her embrace of penitential piety and traditional Catholic virtues as exemplified by saints' lives. Her manifestation of those virtues inspired religious authorities to accept her as a missionary, against substantial odds. She thus provides evidence of how Counter-Reformation practices and beliefs facilitated some exceptional women's achievements.
Hamlet and Counter-Humanism
Authors: Knowles Ronald
Published: April 2006

This essay interprets the question of subjectivity in Hamlet by reappraising Renaissance skepticism and by reexamining the medieval debate concerning the misery of man's existence, and the Renaissance celebration of man. A central concern is the significance of the commonplace in humanist rhetoric and dialectic, by which Stoic and Christian thought depreciates passion. In his anguish Hamlet discovers a unique subjectivity as he attempts to reject the wisdom of tradition. But the nature of thought cannot be separated from the nature of the mind that thinks, and Hamlet's selfhood capitulates to the role.
The Witches of Dürer and Hans Baldung Grien*
Authors: Sullivan Margaret A.
Published: April 2006

This study seeks to demonstrate that the timing, subject, and audience for the art of Dürer and Hans Baldung Grien all argue against the view that the witches in their prints and drawings were a reaction to actual witch-hunts, trials, or malevolent treatises such as theMalleus maleficiarum. The witch craze did not gain momentum until late in the sixteenth century while the witches of Dürer and Hans Baldung Grien belong to an earlier era. They are more plausible as a response to humanist interest in the poetry and satire of the classical world, and are better understood as poetic constructions created to serve artistic goals and satisfy a humanist audience.
Leonardo Bruni, Florentine Traitor? Bruni, the Medici, and an Aretine Conspiracy of 1437*
Authors: Field Arthur
Published: April 2006

This study weighs the evidence for Leonardo Bruni's estrangement from the emerging Medici party (from the 1420s) and the Medici regime (from 1434). Bruni had ties to both the Mediceans and their oligarch opponents, although ties with the latter appear to be stronger, particularly in terms of Bruni's humanist relations. While Bruni stayed on as Chancellor of Florence when the Medici took over in 1434, some recent studies suggest that the Medicean government was making things difficult for him. The study finally reproduces a report from the Milanese Chancery of 1437 stating that Bruni will support a rebellion in Arezzo against Florence, which will result in the "destruction and ruin of the Florentines."
"Pleasure Reconciled to Virtue": William Cavendish, Ben Jonson, and the Decorative Scheme of Bolsover Castle*
Authors: Raylor Timothy
Published: April 2006

The iconography of Bolsover Castle is much appreciated but little understood. This is because we have not recognized its dynamic, theatrical character, which centers on — indeed, implies the presence of its seventeenth-century owner, William Cavendish, duke of Newcastle. Read in terms of Cavendish's self-conception as a figure of patriachal authority and Herculean passions, the castle emerges as a witty apologia for its owner — and perhaps even as a site for the pursuit of his amours. This reading sheds new light upon the relationship between Cavendish, Bolsover, and Ben Jonson, who provided the text for a royal visit to Bolsover in 1634.
Environmental Security and Freshwater Resources: Ecosystem Regime Building
Authors: Brunnée Jutta , Toope Stephen J.
Published: April 2006

We have previously argued that international environmental law does not adequately promote environmental security because it has failed to adopt an ecosystem orientation.
In this paper we suggest that environmental security in the context of freshwater resources can only be achieved through a sophisticated understanding of regime formation
and elaboration, linked with a determined pursuit of ecosystem orientation. Our underlying assumptions are twofold. First, the protection of shared water supplies is a “good” worth promoting, whether for intrinsic or instrumental reasons. Second, whenever a resource is shared, particularly a resource that can easily be exhausted or degraded,disputes between the states involved are inevitable. Perhaps surprisingly, we have suggested that the security dimension of the problem relates not only to the potential for disputes, but also—even primarily—to the first of our underlying assumptions. Thus,scarcities of resources should also cause concern when they threaten to undermine either the way of life of a given human population or internal structures of governance and activity through the fostering of subnational conflict and the significant reduction of options for action. In this sense we agree with Richard Ullman's now-famous attempt to redefine the very concept of security. In his view, and ours, a threat to security includes

[any] action or sequence of events that (1) threatens drastically and over a relatively brief span of time to degrade the quality of life for the inhabitants of a state, or (2) threatens significantly to narrow the policy choices available to the government of a state or to private, nongovernmental entities (persons, groups, corporations)within the state.
Jurisprudence of the Foreign Claims Settlement Commission: Iran Claims
Authors: Lillich Richard B. , Bederman David J.
Published: April 2006

The Foreign Claims Settlement Commission (Commission or FCSC) was granted jurisdiction to determine the validity and amounts of certain claims by U.S. nationals against Iran by the Iran Claims Act and the 1990 Settlement Agreement (lump sum settlement) between the United States and Iran. The Iran Claims Act, a 1985 statute enacted in anticipation of the lump sum agreement settling U.S. “small claims” against Iran, required the Commission to apply:

(1)

the terms of any settlement agreement [lump sum settlement];

(2)

the relevant provisions of the Declarations of the Government of the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria of January 19, 1981, giving consideration to interpretations thereof by the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal; and

(3)

applicable principles of international law, justice, and equity.
Contemporary Practice of the United States Relating to International Law
Authors: (Leich) Marian Nash
Published: April 2006

On March 3,1997, President William J. Clinton transmitted to the Senate for its advice and consent to ratification as a treaty the Agreement Between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of Hong Kong for the Surrender of Fugitive Offenders, signed at Hong Kong on December 20,1996. In his letter of transmittal, President Clinton pointed out that, upon its entry into force, the Agreement would “enhance cooperation between the law enforcement communities of the United States and Hong Kong, and … provide a framework and basic protections for extraditions after the reversion of Hong Kong to the sovereignty of the People’s Republic of China on July 1, 1997.” The President continued:

Given the absence of an extradition treaty with the People’s Republic of China, this Treaty would provide the means to continue an extradition relationship with Hong Kong after reversion and avoid a gap in law enforcement. It will thereby make a significant contribution to international law enforcement efforts.

The provisions of this Agreement follow generally the form and content of extradition treaties recently concluded by the United States. In addition, the Agreement contains several provisions specially designed in light of the particular status of Hong Kong. The Agreement’s basic protections for fugitives are also made expressly applicable to fugitives surrendered by the two parties before the new treaty enters into force.
Jamaica Withdraws the Right of Individual Petition under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
Authors: Schiffrin Natalia
Published: April 2006

In October 1997, a little-noticed event took place at the United Nations that may roll back the international legal protection of human rights. Jamaica became the first country to denounce the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), and thus withdrew the right of individual petition to the UN Human Rights Committee (Committee). Although it is provided for under the Protocol’s Article 12, no state has previously made such a denunciation.
The Work of the Sixth Committee at the Fifty-Second Session of the UN General Assembly
Authors: Morris Virginia , Bourloyannis-Vrailas M.-Christiane
Published: April 2006

At the fifty-second session of the General Assembly, the Sixth (Legal) Committee reviewed the annual reports of the International Law Commission (ILC), the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), the Special Committee on the Charter of the United Nations and on the Strengthening of the Role of the Organization (Special Committee) and the Committee on Relations with the Host Country (Host Country Committee). The Sixth Committee also considered proposals for three new legal instruments relating to (1) the establishment of a permanent international criminal court, (2) international terrorism and (3) jurisdictional immunities of states and their property, as well as other topics concerning the United Nations internal justice system, the United Nations Decade of International Law (Decade) and the United Nations Programme of Assistance in the Teaching, Study, Dissemination and Wider Appreciation of International Law. The topics are discussed in the order in which they were considered by the committee.
Defining “Crimes Against Humanity” at the Rome Conference
Authors: Robinson Darryl
Published: April 2006

On July 17, 1998, the UN Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (Rome Conference) adopted the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC). One of the many significant provisions of the ICC statute is Article 7, which defines “crimes against humanity” for the purpose of the ICC. A significant difference between the definition in the ICC statute and the major precedents on crimes against humanity is that the former definition was not imposed by victors (as were those in the Nuremberg and Tokyo Charters) or by the Security Council (as were those in the Statutes of the Yugoslavia and Rwanda Tribunals). In contrast, Article 7 was developed through multilateral negotiations involving 160 states. For this reason, one could reasonably expect Article 7 to be more detailed than previous definitions, given the interest of participating states in knowing the precise contours of the corresponding obligations they would be undertaking. For the same reason, one might expect the definition to be more restrictive than previous definitions. Fortunately, although the definition in the ICC statute is more detailed than previous definitions, it generally seems to reflect most of the positive developments identified in recent authorities. For example, the definition does not require any nexus to armed conflict, does not require proof of a discriminatory motive, and recognizes the crime of apartheid and enforced disappearance as inhumane acts.
NATO Status of Forces Agreement—primary right to exercise jurisdiction—offenses committed in performance of official duty—judicial review of characterization of such offenses—double jeopardy
Authors: Oxman Bernard H. , Ciampi Annalisa
Published: April 2006

Public Prosecutor v. Ashby. Judgment No. 161/98.

Court of Trento, Italy, July 13, 1998.

On February 3, 1998, a U.S. Marine EA-6B aircraft, redeployed at Aviano air base as part of Operation Deliberate Guard in support of the multinational Stabilization Force (SFOR) in Bosnia, was on a low-level training mission over northern Italy when it severed the wires of the cable car at the Cermis ski resort near Cavalese, causing the deaths of twenty people. Because the exercise of criminal action is mandatory under Article 112 of the Italian Constitution, the public prosecutor decided that he had to institute preliminary investigations immediately, with a view to determining whether to prosecute. On July 13, 1998, an Italian judge, in a preliminary hearing, rejected the prosecutor's request that seven U.S. servicemen stand trial for the cable-car accident. The judge found that, under Article VII, paragraph 3(a) (ii) of the NATO Status of Forces Agreement (NATO SOFA), the United States, as the sending state, had the primary right to exercise jurisdiction over the case and that jurisdiction had not been waived. Accordingly, the judge dismissed the case.
Policy-Oriented Jurisprudence and Human Rights Abuses in Internal Conflict: Toward a World Public Order of Human Dignity
Authors: Wiessner Siegfried , Willard Andrew R.
Published: April 2006

Real problems, like the problem posed, are not amenable to simple solutions. Human rights abuses in internal conflicts usually have roots deep in history and the collective psyche of the individuals and groups involved. To prevent them, the certain prospect of a swift punitive reaction on the international plane might have a useful deterrent effect. But if a violent conflict or genocide is in progress, the expectation of punishment may not by itself be likely to end the conflict. Ironically, it may prolong the plight of the persecuted, since persecutors may conclude that they have no alternative but to fight to the bitter end to avoid the consequences of their misdeeds. To deal with major incidents of unauthorized coercion and violence, an amnesty for the violators might contribute to a lessening of the toll in blood of a particular ethnic or religious rage. But that, again, might be an incomplete reaction, since the victims of the atrocities committed will not find solace, satisfaction or rehabilitation. Nor will persons who may be pathologically violent be removed from circulation. Where society remains unreconciled, jarred, conflicted—in a state of continual animosity between warring families, clans or ethnic, religious or social groups—“cold” war might heat up and erupt at any time in the future even more violently than before. Thus, truth commissions have been established in various contexts at least to shine the light of searching inquiry on situations in which truth has always been the first casualty. Still, such agencies alone might not suffice to bring about social reconciliation and restoration. Neither might bodies set up to mete out justice in the form of civil compensation. International criminal courts may send a message to people elsewhere contemplating massive violations, but they may do nothing to reconstruct the civil society that has been disrupted.
International Relations Theory, International Law, and the Regime Governing Atrocities in Internal Conflicts
Authors: Abbott Kenneth W.
Published: April 2006

Over the last ten years, international relations (IR) theory, a branch of political science, has animated some of the most exciting scholarship in international law.1 If a true joint discipline has not yet emerged,2 scholars in both fields have clearly established the value of interdisciplinary cross-fertilization. Yet IR—like international law—comprises several distinct theoretical approaches or “methods.” While this complexity makes interactions between the disciplines especially rich, it also makes them difficult to explore concisely. This essay thus constitutes something of a minisymposium in itself: it summarizes the four principal schools of IR theory—conventionally identified as “realist,” “institutionalist,” “liberal” and “constructivist”—and then applies them to the norms and institutions governing serious violations of human dignity during internal conflicts (the “atrocities regime”).
Feminist Methods in International Law
Authors: Charlesworth Hilary
Published: April 2006

I have mixed feelings about participating in this symposium as the feminist voice. On the one hand, I want to support the symposium editors’ attempt to broaden the standard categories of international legal methodologies by including feminism in this undertaking. On the other hand, I am conscious of the limits of my analysis and its unrepresentativeness—the particularity of my nationality, race, class, sexuality, education and profession shapes my outlook and ideas on international law. I clearly cannot speak for all women participants in and observers of the international legal system. I also hope that one day I will stop being positioned always as a feminist and will qualify as a fully fledged international lawyer. My reservations are also more general because presenting feminism as one of seven rival methodological traditions may give a false sense of its nature. The symposium editors’ memorandum to the participants encouraged a certain competitiveness: we were asked, “Why is your method better than others?” I cannot answer this question. I do not see feminist methods as ready alternatives to any of the other methods represented in this symposium. Feminist methods emphasize conversations and dialogue rather than the production of a single, triumphant truth.1 They will not lead to neat “legal” answers because they are challenging the very categories of “law” and “nonlaw.” Feminist methods seek to expose and question the limited bases of international law’s claim to objectivity and impartiality and insist on the importance of gender relations as a category of analysis. The term “gender” here refers to the social construction of differences between women and men and ideas of “femininity” and “masculinity”—the excess cultural baggage associated with biological sex.
The First Site Visit of the International Court of Justice in Fulfillment of its Judicial Function
Authors: Tomka Peter , Wordsworth Samuel S.
Published: April 2006

On April 1-4, 1997, the International Court of Justice visited the sites of the Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project in Slovakia and Hungary. This was the first site visit that the Court has undertaken in fulfillment of its judicial function and was therefore an occasion of particular interest to international jurists.
Rwandan Genocide and the International Law of Radio Jamming
Authors: Metzl Jamie Frederic
Published: April 2006

Since its first transatlantic use in 1901, the radio has proven a remarkably powerful and versatile tool. It was used to incite racial hatred in Nazi Germany, Bosnia and Rwanda. Through Vatican Radio and other outlets, it has been harnessed to inspire love and peace. It has been used as an implement both to wage war and to coordinate relief activities in the aftermath of disaster. International broadcast stations like Radio Free Europe and Radio Martí have been viewed by some as a force of liberation, and by others as a tool of imperialism and hegemony.
The Facts
Authors: Charney Jonathan I. , Reisman W. Michael
Published: April 2006

On February 17, 1992, police found the body of Ruth Dickie in her apartment in Arlington County, Virginia. She had been stabbed to death and her assailant had attempted to rape her. Six months later, Angel Francisco Breard was apprehended in the course of an attempted rape in Washington, D.C., and also became a suspect in Dickie’s murder, for which he was subsequendy indicted. As summarized in the appellate review of Breard’s conviction by the Supreme Court of Virginia,
State responsibility in private civil action—sovereign immunity—immunity for jus cogens violations— belligerent occupation—peace treaties
Authors: Oxman Bernard H. , Bantekas Ilias
Published: April 2006

Prefecture of Voiotia v. Federal Republic of Germany. Case No. 137/1997.

Court of First Instance of Leivadia, Greece, October 30, 1997.

On November 27, 1995, the Prefecture of Voiotia (soudiern Greece) and other claimants, in their individual capacity, brought a claim of indemnity before the Court of First Instance of Leivadia against the German state. The plaintiffs based their claims on atrocities (willful murder and destruction of private property) committed by German occupation forces against the persons and property of die village of Distomo in Voiotia on June 10, 1944. They sought compensation for the material and mental damage suffered as a result of those atrocities, which were specifically described in their briefs. The Greek Foreign Office forwarded the complaint to the German Foreign Office, which rejected and returned it to the Greek Embassy on the grounds that the suit impaired the sovereign rights of the German state. Germany was not represented at trial. The court awarded damages to the individual claimants of 9,448,105,000 drachmas (approximately $30 million).
Father of the Bride: Fathers, Daughters, and Dowries in Late Medieval and Early Renaissance Venice
Authors: Queller Donald E. , Madden Thomas F.
Published: April 2006

In February 1382 Franceschina Grimani took as her husband Giacobello Trevisan, son of Stefano. A few months later, in May, another young noble girl, Franceschina Querini, married Bernardo Giustinian, son of the prosperous nobleman Orsato Giustinian. Despite the similarities shared by these two Venetian brides, one important factor separated them. Franceschina Grimani's father was Nicolò Grimani of Santa Sofia parish. According to theestimoof 1379, Nicolò's real wealth totaled approximately 30,000 ducats, making him one of the wealthiest men in Venice. In contrast, Franceschina Querini's father Marco possessed only 2,000 ducats in real wealth according to the same estimo. Despite the huge disparity between the economic fortunes of these two fathers of the bride, both of their daughters brought equal dowries of 1,000 ducats to their marriages.
Aristotelians, Platonists, and the Missing Ockhamists: Philosophical Liberty in Pre-Reformation Italy
Authors: Monfasani John
Published: April 2006

Sherlock Holmes Once Solved A mystery because a dog did not bark. Similarly, to understand the relatively wide freedom enjoyed by philosophers in pre-Reformation Italy, we have to understand as much what was there as what was not. The absent Ockhamists are critical to the tale. But more central are the Aristotelians, and, more specifically, Aristotelians of an Averroistic stamp, who were unquestionably there.

Despite their doctrine of the unicity of the intellect, their consequent rejection of personal immortality as philosophically tenable, their denial of creation, and their determination to divorce philosophical discourse from the requirements of faith which provoked several condemnations at Paris and Oxford in the later thirteenth century, Averroists thrived in Renaissance Italy.
A Hidden Sphinx by Agnolo Bronzino, “ex tabula Cebetis Thebani”
Authors: Moffitt John F.
Published: April 2006

In 1568 Giorgio Vasari Described (from already dim memories) a now-famous allegorical painting that had been painted by Bronzino (Agnolo Allori) for Cosimo I de’ Medici. Now usually known as The Exposure of Luxury, the picture in the National Gallery in London seems by general acknowledgement to have been done around 1545 (Fig. I). According to Vasari's recollection Bronzino had “made a picture of singular beauty” that was sent to the king of France, François I. As best as Vasari could recall, the particulars of its complicated iconographic program were all devoted to variations on an erotic theme inasmuch as the picture included figures of “a nude Venus with [her son] Cupid, who was [shown] kissing her, and alongside [them] there were [other representations of] ‘Pleasure - il Piacere’ and ‘Idle Sport - il Giuoco’ accompanied by other ‘Loves-Amori.’
Montaigne's Consubstantial Book
Authors: Boyle Marjorie O'Rourke
Published: April 2006

Jen'ay pas plus faict mon livre que mon livre m'a faict, livre consubstantiel à son autheur … ” (I have not made my book any more than my book has made me, a book consubstantial with its author). That was no ordinary assertion in plain language. Montaigne explained hisEssaisas “concerned with my own self, an integral part of my life; not concerned with some third-hand extraneous purpose, like all other books.” Its subject was uniquely himself. His usage of the term “consubstantial” projected his design beyond the literary theory of imitation into a theological paradigm of divinity.

Acknowledging that “well-known phrase” and “famous declaration,” literary criticism has much interpreted Montaigne's “consubstantial” book. Yet the slight mention of the word itself has been both undocumented and inaccurate.
Reconstructing the Word: the Political Prophecies of Elizabeth Barton (1506-1534)
Authors: Watt Diane
Published: April 2006

On 20 April 1534, a twenty-eight year-old Benedictine nun from the convent of St Sepulchre's in Canterbury was hanged at Tyburn alongside her confessor and a number of their associates. The nun was Elizabeth Barton, a former servant from the parish of Aldington in Kent. Barton and her companions were attainted of treason by a Parliamentary Act which asserts that they maliciously opposed Henry VIII's divorce from Katherine of Aragon and “‘traterously attempted many notable actes intendyng therbye the disturbaunce of the pease and tranquyllytie of this Realme.”
Panormita's Reply to His Critics: The Hermaphroditus and the Literary Defense
Authors: O'Connor Eugene
Published: April 2006

In her discussion of Imitatio, Julia Haig Gaisser describes how humanist scholars and poets justified their light, titillating compositions, based on Catullus, Martial, and The Priapea, by invoking the ancient literary defense, whose purpose was essentially to ward off potential critics or else to justify their oeuvre by making a sharp distinction between their life and their art. One locus classicus is Catullus 16.5-6: “Nam castum esse decet pium poetam/ ipsum, versiculos nihil necesse est” (The devoted poet ought to be chaste himself, his verses need not be so). Another is Martial, Epigrams 1.4.8, which, modeled as it is on Ovid, Tristia 2.354, speaks not of poets in general but of Martial himself: “Lasciva est nobis pagina, vita proba“ (My writing is lascivious, my life pure). The classical defensio or apologia was thus revived and given new meaning by the humanists as they sought to justify their literary endeavors in light of an emerging and ultimately puritanical sense of decorum.
Opening Public Space: The Peace Arbitrator and Rural Politicization, 1861-1864
Authors: Easley Roxanne
Published: April 2006

The peace arbitrator was created in 1861 to be the main administrative autiiority in the countryside during die implementation of emancipation. In this article Roxanne Easley examines the institution of peace arbitrator and its role in mediating interests and fostering communication between landlord and peasant and as a potential generative agent of civil society in the postemancipation countryside. After the initial shock of confrontation between landowners and peasants, coercion, arbitrariness, and custom began to share public space with dialogue, process, and law in the solution of public disputes. The peace arbitrator, as die point of intersection for each group’s ideology(ies) and as instructor in formal communication, was at the heart of this change. But a permanent, fully institutionalized vehicle for mediating public interests did not fit with the autocracy’s vision of orderly social change nor with its habitual compartmentalization of die social estates. In response to this threat, the state first neutralized the unusual public principles that underlay the institution of peace arbitrator and then eliminated it in 1874. Easley explores the unintended growth of public politicization in rural Russia as a consequence of emancipation and the boundaries of autocratic reformism.
Creating Soviet Industry: The House That Stalin Built
Authors: Gregory Paul R. , Markevich Andrei
Published: April 2006

This article uses the Soviet state and party archives to describe the workings of a key Soviet economic institution and is designed to serve as a bridge between historical and economic research in the archives. Drawing on the archival records concerning the People’s Commissariats for Heavy and Light Industry, Paul R. Gregory and Andrei Markevich examine how these commissariats interacted with both superiors and subordinates. The principal/agent conflict between vertical orders and "economic rents" from unsanctioned horizontal dealings provide the theoretical framework. Gregory and Markevich explore such disfunctionalities as the tendency to conceal information, to act opportunistically, and to build autarkies as well as the primary measure used to combat these tendencies: splitting the commissariat up.
Death and the Cardinal: The Two Bodies of Guillaume d’Estouteville*
Authors: Gill Meredith J.
Published: April 2006

This article examines the circumstances of the death of Cardinal Guillaume d'Estouteville (d. 1483) and his plans for burial in his Roman church of Sant'Agostino and in the Cathedral of Rouen of which he was archbishop. I argue that the cardinal planned for his body to be interred near the high altar of Sant'Agostino, in a monument since lost, while his heart was to be taken to Rouen and buried in the crossing of the cathedral. By means of an analysis of burial practices in Italy and France, I propose that d'Estouteville's designs anticipated such grandiose sixteenth-century projects as those of Julius II (d. 1513) and Cardinal Georges d'Amboise (d.1510).
Elections of Abbesses and Notions of Identity in Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-Century Italy, with Special Reference to Venice*
Authors: Lowe Kate
Published: April 2006

Ceremonies of election to abbess were occasions of great display. Election to this highest of offices was the defining moment of a successful nun's life, and thereafter self-identity became crucial. This article examines an anatomy of an election of 1509 by a nun from San Zaccaria in Venice; the illustrated chronicle of Santa Maria delle Vergini in Venice dated 1523, written by an anonymous nun; and the visual representation (in a range of media) of various abbesses from Florence, Pavia, and Venice. Success in election conferred the possibility of personality and consequently legitimated personalized representation.
Nuns and Their Art: The Case of San Zaccaria in Renaissance Venice*
Authors: Radke Gary M.
Published: April 2006

This article discusses the ways in which fifteenth-century nuns financed, shaped and used works of art and architecture at the Benedictine convent of San Zaccaria in Venice. Evidence from chronicles, account books, liturgical manuscripts, reports of visits to the convent, and inscriptions on the works of art themselves shows that the nuns viewed art within their convent extremely proprietarily. While they accepted subsidies from the civic government, indulgences from popes, privileges from Byzantine emperors, and donations from private patrons, the nuns paid close attention to the administration of commissions within the convent church and committed substantial funds to artistic projects, making them their own.
Tasso’s enchantress, Tasso’s captive woman*
Authors: Gough Melinda J.
Published: April 2006

This essay offers two discoveries concerning lasso's poetics. First, it identifies in theDiscourses on the Heroic Poema critique of allegory on both aesthetic and moral grounds, one that explainsJerusalem Delivered'sabandonment of the “temptress-turned-hag” motif Second, it demonstrates that Armida and Erminia are closely linked to the “captive woman “ topos used by Jerome and Boccaccio to justify Christian adaptations of pagan literature and rhetoric. It is the hermeneutic dimension of this motif that allows Tasso plausibly to convert these beautiful pagan women (and the poetic pleasures they embody) to the exigencies of Christian epic.
Equality through Protection: The Politics of Women's Employment in Postwar Poland, 1945-1956
Authors: Fidelis Malgorzata
Published: April 2006

In this article, Malgorzata Fidelis analyzes the role of gender in postwar Polish employment policies and shop floor culture and casts a new light on east European Stalinism and de-Stalinization. Focusing on the reconstruction and implementation of protective labor legislation for women, Fidelis argues that the communist definition of gender was a recast version of the western liberal notion of immutable sexual difference positioned in the body. At the same time, Polish society participated in defining gender at the site of production, most visibly in the de-Stalinization backlash against women, who had entered male-dominated skilled jobs in heavy industry under Stalinism. The party-state's use of women's reproductive function as a justification to remove women from men's jobs suggests that east European de-Stalinization needs to be reexamined in light of its different meaning for women and men.
From Higher Party Schools to Academies of State Service: The Marketization of Bureaucratic Training in Russia
Authors: Huskey Eugene
Published: April 2006

What does a postcommunist regime do with its bureaucratic inheritance? Without a replacement bureaucracy at hand, the political leadership in Russia had no choice but to govern through state employees whose values and patterns of behavior were instilled in the Soviet era. Given this reality, one might have expected Russian reformers—and their overseas supporters— to have developed an aggressive and comprehensive policy on retraining officials of state. But instead of a coordinated effort to educate new and existing personnel in a spirit of public, rather than state, service, one finds only a gradual and haphazard reform of bureaucratic training. In this article, Eugene Huskey argues that the driving force behind such training has been the market in higher and continuing education and not a conscious and consistent policy emanating from the presidency or other central institutions of state. The major player in that market is the system of state service academies, which inherited many of their faculty and facilities from the old Higher Party Schools of the communist era. But the market, taken together with the fragmentation of state power, has consistently undermined attempts by the academies to serve as the sole purveyors of training to the bureaucracy. What is as yet unclear is whether the marketization of bureaucratic education and re-education, which discourages the emergence of a coherent national approach to remaking the bureaucracy, is facilitating or impeding the modernization and liberalization of Russian officialdom.
Explaining the 2000 Lithuanian Parliamentary Elections: An Application of Contextual and New Institutional Approaches
Authors: Clark Terry D. , Prekevičius Nerijus
Published: April 2006

Lithuania’s 2000 parliamentary elections were the first in the post-Soviet era to fail to produce a majority government. Further, neither the Homeland Union nor the Democratic Labor Party entered into the ruling coalition. In this article, Terry D. Clark and Nerijus Prekevičius explore two different ways of explaining why this occurred. To answer the broader question, the first approach focuses on the particular events that occurred in the run-up to the elections. To consider why particular parties fared better or worse than expected, the second approach evaluates a set of rational choice approaches, including spatial analysis. Neither approach is preferable to the other; instead, they are complementary, each helping to resolve certain questions that are appropriate to the particular approach. To conclude, they consider the implications of their findings for the consolidation of Lithuania’s party system.
Spatial Innovations in the Chevet of Saint-Germain-des-Prés
Authors: Clark William W.
Published: April 2006

The recent renovations on the interior and exterior of the chevet of Saint-Germain-des-Prés have revealed one of the more important and successful spatial experiments in early Gothic architecture. Identification of the original elements and precise analysis of their visual role in the chevet design reveal a pattern of progressive decorative enrichment culminating in the main vessel and clerestory, as well as a systematic definition of three different architectural spaces. Each chapel is articulated as a separate, centrally focused, individual unit of space, and the ambulatory is simultaneously a series of repeating units and a continuous longitudinal corridor of space. In the main vessel the individual architectural members are subordinated to the unity of this principal liturgical space. Finally, analysis confirms that the flying buttresses on the chevet exterior are later additions and not part of the original conception.
Charles Beasley, Architect (1827-1913): Issues and Images
Authors: Weitze Karen J.
Published: April 2006

The biographical study of this central California builder-architect of the late 19th century presents an idiosyncratic slice of ethnic social history, focusing on an architect's reactions to the slavery issue, 1850-1865, and to the controversy of Chinese immigration in California, 1880-1900. The lengthy career-70 years-of an American builder-architect, contributes to our understanding of the profession's middle echelon during the 1845-1915 period. In this regard, James Fergusson's History of Architecture, London, 1873-1876, assumes importance as a pattern book employed by California designers. Beasley's Agricultural Pavilion of 1887 in Stockton pushes back the earliest known date of a "Chinese" design by 20 years. Knowledge of his career raises questions regarding the factual and interpretative history of San Francisco's Chinatown, 1906-1912. This article is based on a documents search, including census records, cemetery files, newspaper archives, photograph collections, and miscellaneous histories and pamphlets. These were supplemented by an interview with the Beasley heirs, written correspondence, work with the Pioneer Museum and Haggin Galleries, and participation in the Stockton Historic Buildings Survey.
Monumentality and the Rue Mallet-Stevens
Authors: Becherer Richard
Published: April 2006

This essay investigates the esthetics of Robert Mallet-Stevens, using the Rue Mallet-Stevens as a means to consider his ideology. Sigfried Giedion first underscored the major theme of Mallet-Stevens' architectural theory-monumentality-an idea which the critic exploited to denounce both the architect and his street. Giedion also initiated a negative current of opinion against Mallet-Stevens, accounting for the architect's descent into professional obscurity. Monumentality as a concept is a telling theme by which to assess the Rue Mallet-Stevens and its architect. Using Mallet-Stevens' broader understanding of monumentality rather than Giedion's, three different levels of interpretation can be established in the street-architectural, urbanistic, and visionary. Architectural and urbanistic evaluations are found in Mallet-Stevens' early formal preoccupations, especially with the Wagnerschule and de Stijl; they reflect as well pragmatic responses to city planning legislation. An artistic source apart from architecture promotes the visionary interpretation, the cinema. Film provided the meaning for Mallet-Stevens' innovative forms, especially by establishing an architectural iconography related to jazz-age Paris of the 1920s. Lastly, Mallet-Stevens' idea of monumentality and Giedion's functionalistic ideology will be juxtaposed. In the Rue Mallet-Stevens, both the urbanistic and historical context is addressed rather than ignored. Mallet-Stevens' theory, in contrast to the functionalist view that promoted an architectural rupture with the past, induced forms that recognize and build upon history in a positive way.
Harmonic Proportion and Palladio's "Quattro Libri"
Authors: Howard Deborah , Longair Malcolm
Published: April 2006

In 1949, Wittkower proposed that musical harmonic ratios were a principle underlying Palladio's designs illustrated in the ground plans of Book II of the Quattro libri. This theory, expounded in Part IV of Wittkower's Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism, has been widely accepted, despite the fact that his research was based on detailed analysis of only 8 of the 44 plans in Book II. In the present study, a systematic, quantitative analysis of all the plans in Book II of the Quattro libri is carried out to discover to what extent musical harmonic ratios were an important principle behind Palladio's ground plans. Our results show that Palladio did indeed have a definite preference for numbers which can be related in ratios corresponding to the standard musical intervals. However, he does not make any consistent attempt to render his designs completely harmonic. Only about two-thirds of all the dimensions in the Book II plans are numbers which can be incorporated into musical ratios. Palladio often made no attempt to make his published measurements accord with musical harmonies where this could have been done by minor alterations, such as insignificant changes in wall thicknesses. The actual buildings, too, show a preference for dimensions which can be related by harmonic ratios, although not quite to the extent of the plans published in the Quattro libri. A few, most notably the Villa Barbaro at Maser, are significantly more "harmonic" in the published versions than in reality. In view of Daniele Barbaro's well-known interest in harmonic proportion, it is significant that all the completely harmonic designs postdate Palladio's collaboration with Barbaro on the Vitruvius edition and the Villa at Maser. Most of the patrons of those designs closely based upon musical harmonies appear to have shared an interest in musical or architectural theory. While Palladio almost certainly used musical theory in some later designs, his dependence on musical harmonic proportion was by no means as great as Wittkower implied. Elsewhere, his preference for harmonic dimensions probably resulted either from his use of certain favorite room shapes, or from the practical advantages of using simple, easily divisible numbers.