bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Servicewomen Of World War II
Authors: Campbell D'Ann
Published: March 2007

In World War II, 350,000 women served in the American military. Was this service a critical event in their lives as it has been in the lives of many men? This article describes background characteristics of women who served and their reasons for volunteering, and focuses on some short-and long-term effects of this service on their attitudes and values. The work is based on surveys taken at the time (but not analyzed), and on a questionnaire developed by the author and filled out by 338 women veterans of the Army and Navy Nurse Corps, the WAC, WAVES, Marine Corp Women's Reserve, and SPARS.
The Nato Alliance And the INF Treaty
Authors: Kirkey Christopher
Published: March 2007

The INF Treaty of December 1987 has focused renewed attention on the central military and political issues that lie at the heart of NATO. Defenders of the treaty claim that the first ever theater nuclear force agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union is clearly in the Alliance's interest. On the other hand, critics of the treaty perceive fundamental weaknesses arising from the arms elimination pact-weaknesses that may interfere with NATO's objectives. Common points of disagreement include the effects on the Alliance deterrence posture, the state of political cohesion within NATO, the possibility of further nuclear weapons reductions, the strength of the European conventional force balance, and the role of the United States as ultimate guarantor of European NATO's security. An examination of these arguments suggests that, on balance, the assertions made by the proponents of the treaty are marginally more persuasive. Furthermore, the treaty process offers the collective political leadership of the Alliance some valuable insights on how to manage the tensions that attend any extended deterrent relationship.
Determninants of Enlistments in the U.S. Army Reserve
Authors: Mehay Stephen L.
Published: March 2007

Existing research on manpower supply to the Selected Reserves has provided only sketchy evidence at best on the effects of such important supply factors as pay, unemployment, and recruitment policies. This paper provides improved empirical estimates of the supply relationships underlying Army Reserve enlistments using a data base composed of 967 local Reserve-market" areas.A market area is constructed as a circle with a radius of 35 miles from an existing Army Reserve Center. The empirical results provide plausible estimated elasticities of the reserve-civilian pay ratio, local unemployment and migration rates, recruiters, mission, and interservice competition. These estimates offer a more solid foundation for setting future reserve recruiting, compensation, and manpower policies.
The Polar Sea Voyage and the Northwest Passage Dispute
Authors: Briggs Philip J.
Published: March 2007

This study examines the Northwest Passage controversy between the United States and Canada beginning with the U.S. Coast Guard icebreaker Polar Sea voyage through the passage without permission from the Canadian Government in August 1985 to the signing of the executive agreement on Arctic cooperation in January 1988. Particular focus is placed upon U.S. national interests in the Arctic region, Canadian public opinion and governmental reaction to the Polar Sea voyage, and U.S. freedom of the seas policy as exercised during the Reagan administration. The implications of the dispute upon NATO and the role of the Soviet Union are noted. A concluding analysis of this event is included, as well as a prescription for future cooperation by developing a Canadian-American Northwest Passage Coast Guard Patrol.
The Delegitimization of Nudear Deterrence?
Authors: Yost David S.
Published: March 2007

Contrary to some widespread impressions, public ambivalence about nuclear deterrence is not a new phenomenon in Western societies but has existed since at least the mid-1950s. However, mass public acceptance of nuclear deterrence policies does not seem to have eroded significantly, except in West Germany. On the other hand, some delegitimization of nuclear deterrence has emerged in important sectors of the elite and attentive publics in Britain, West Germany, and the United States. Future public support for nuclear deterrence will probably be influenced by factors both outside and within the North Atlantic community, but the choices made by Western leadership elites will be of crucial significance in dealing with the elite-mass public gap on some issues (e.g., firstuse policies) and the trends that have tended to delegitimize nuclear deterrence in some sectors of the elite and attentive publics.
The U.S. Print Media and the Conventional Military Balance in Europe
Authors: Roy Denny
Published: March 2007

Many analysts of the conventional military balance between NATO and Warsaw Pact forces in Europe argue that the U.S. press presents an unduly pessimistic picture of NATO's capability to withstand an invasion by Soviet-bloc conventional forces. This article seeks to substantiate and to explain this alleged incongruity between strategy experts and the American media.

The first section presents the findings of a quantitative study of four influential publications over a three-year period. These findings indicate that the U.S. press does indeed underrepresent the more optimistic assessments of NATO's conventional military capability.

The second section offers a twofold explanation for this phenomenon, arguing that the media's pessimism stems from the complexity of the issue and from the inherent advantages held by the conventional wisdom promulgated by self-interested U.S. government officials.
Effects of Service in Vietnam on Canadian Forces Military Personnel
Authors: Stretch Robert H.
Published: March 2007

While the readjustment of combat veterans of the Vietnam War has been studied extensively since the end of that conflict, no studies have focused on the readjustment problems of noncombatants serving in a peacekeeping capacity. Results are presented from a study of the psychosocial adjustment of 121 current and former Canadian Forces military personnel who served in Vietnam as members of an international peacekeeping force during the period of U.S. involvement in the war. These results indicate that the majority of Canadian Forces personnel have not suffered significant long-term adverse effects resulting from service in Vietnam. For a minority of respondents, however, service in Vietnam proved to be very stressful, resulting in symptoms of a stress reaction called Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The importance of war zone and postwar experiences in the development and continuation of PTSD are discussed. Policy implications for future Canadian Forces peacekeeping efforts are presented.
The Education of Military Officers in the Federal Republic of Germany
Authors: Thompson Wayne C. , Peltier Marc D.
Published: March 2007

In 1973 West Germany's first military universities opened in Hamburg and Munich. Because of the German past, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) has serious reservations about the very idea of military power and armed forces. The founding of the military universities engendered intense public debate over the military's role in a new democratic society and the kind of education its soldiers need. The article examines the historical and political circumstances surrounding the creation of the Bundeswehr universities, the arguments for and against their founding and their curricula and student life. The Bundeswehr continues to face major challenges in legitimizing and maintaining a modern and credible military force in a society that is ultrasensitive to all things military and in which many citizens place an absolute value on peace. The Bundeswehr universities have largely achieved their founders' goals: to attract a sufficient number of talented officers willing to defend their country and able to meet the technological and leadership challenges required by the FRG's armed forces and society.
Congressional Oversight of the Department of Defense: Reconsidering the Conventional Wisdom
Authors: Lindsay James M.
Published: March 2007

Observers often complain that Congress slights defense oversight. Their conclusions, however, are typically based on the assumption that the House and Senate will act like bureaucracies capable of comprehensive, systematic, and dispassionate oversight. Yet Congress is a political institution, and its ability to oversee defense issues is limited by its institutional makeup and by the nature of defense policy. As a result, the tendency to treat Congress as if it were a bureaucracy produces inflated expectations about congressional oversight. It also obscures the incentives that encourage legislators to conduct oversight-namely, parochialism, ambition, and duty. Although Congress does more oversight than critics acknowledge, congressional oversight is not flawless. Most reform proposals focus on structural changes at the Pentagon or on Capitol Hill. The key to improving congressional oversight, however, lies in reducing the ideological bias of the defense committees.
Stress and Suicide in the U.S. Army: Effects of Relocation on Service Members' Mental Health
Authors: Rothberg Joseph M.
Published: March 2007

The evidence from sociological and epidemiological studies indicates that people who migrate or move their residence tend to have higher rates of suicide than nonmovers. The periodic reassignment and relocation of soldiers places them, in theory, at higher risk for suicide. There are no prior reports of the relationship between Army moves and suicides. The findings of the current report are that the correlation of moves and suicide is not present for the majority of the soldiers but is present for the youngest third of the Army population. Some aspects of the individual and social dynamics that may influence the relation between relocation and suicide are provided, and some issues about the applicability of status-integration theory to relocation-related suicides are raised.
Revising the War Powers Act
Authors: Nathan James A.
Published: March 2007

The issues that prompted the passing of the War Powers Act will continue to bedevil us again if Congress does not prepare to meet the future with seriously asserted procedures to regularize its relationship to the executive branch regarding a recourse to arms.

There were unintended ambiguities and unforeseen exigencies in the original war powers legislation that have confounded systematic application of that act. Also inhibiting Congress has been an acceptance of an incorrect formula-that the War Powers Act 'report" triggers the withdrawal of U.S. troops no later than 90 days after they were first committed. In fact, it is not the report that triggers the 90-day clock, but the military activity itself that starts the 90-day clock, irrespective of any report.

An improved War Powers Act would require the executive to provide reports that are more timely and more extensive. It would rethink the obligation that troops return within 90 days. And it would compel more thorough consultations pursuant to any military undertaking. An improved war powers statute would come to grips with the "standing" of Congress in court and the financing of any proposed military undertaking.
The People's Liberation Army and China's Crisis
Authors: Gregor A. James
Published: March 2007

The suppression of the prodemocracy movement on the Chinese mainland in June 1989 has left American sinologists uncertain about the future political and security roles of the People's Liberation Army. The current policy of the leadership in Beijing seems to be to charge the PLA with the suppression of domestic "class enemies"—a responsibility not embraced with enthusiasm.

Together with that development is another that apparently redefines the traditional security responsibilities of the PLA. Since at least 1985, the Communist Chinese leadership has argued that a major conflict involving the principal military powers is very unlikely. "Small wars," it is maintained, calculated to resolve territorial and national interest conflicts are far more likely. The apparent intention is to groom the PLA for such an environment.

The rulers of China may well view nationalistic, irredentist wars not only as an occasion to resolve some external problems, but as an opportunity to reconsecrate the military to Communist party purpose.
Military Professionalism, Education, and Political Behavior in Mexico
Authors: Ackroyd William S.
Published: March 2007

While the level of Mexican military professionalism and adoption of an internal mission suggest the probability of intervention, stability and civilian domination of the polity have been the norm for over 50 years. The findings of this study suggest two reasons for this condition. First, the core values held by the Mexican military link civilian political institutions with the nation and the Revolution. Second, while the level of military professionalism is high, it is perceived as being below the level of civilian professionalism. The result is a relatively low level of military political efficacy, which diminishes military interest and confidence in political participation. The study also suggests that the influence of military education/professionalization is only one of several forces that lead to overt entry of the military into the polity.
Why the People's Army Fired on the People: The Chinese Military and Tiananmen
Authors: Scobell Andrew
Published: March 2007

The People's Liberation Army played the decisive role in crushing the 1989 student prodemocracy movement in the People's Republic of China. The actual process by which the PLA became involved in the crisis can be broken down into three phases. First, a divided and indecisive Chinese Communist Party leadership presides over an unprecedented outpouring of public discontent. Second, after much delay, top CCP leaders decide to impose martial law, and units of the PLA try unsuccessfully to enter downtown Beijing and break up the protests. Finally, top CCP leaders order troops to use deadly force. On 3-4 June 1989, troops open fire on crowds and succeed in ending the demonstrations, at a cost of hundreds of deaths and thousands of injuries. The PLA's involvement in the incident has had serious and immediate results for the military, including a marked decline in public prestige and a drop in morale. Over the long term, the 1989 events in China coupled with communism's global crisis suggest that the natural evolution of the CCP-PLA relationship from symbiotic to coalitional may increase the likelihood of an eventual army-party split.
The Navy as Social Provider in Vieques, Puerto Rico
Authors: Grusky Sara
Published: March 2007

This article examines a controversial economic development program sponsored by the Navy in Vieques, Puerto Rico. The program was designed to bring jobs to the unemployed population of Vieques by encouraging large defense contractors to subcontract to companies willing to locate operations on the island. Although the Navy's program has not been successful in stimulating the local economy, it is an important example of military "civic-action" programs that reflect a broader concept of the military mission-one more inclusive of social and economic considerations. The program is also an example of the nature of cooperation between the Navy and the business community in support of U.S. national-security interests and shows both the possibilities and the pitfalls of an economicdevelopment effort dependent on defense contracting. The poor outcome is attributed to the development model itself as well as to the larger context of social conflict between the Navy and Vieques residents and the relationship of this conflict to the motivation, content, and outcome of the Navy's development program. The article analyzes the Navy's failed effort in Vieques from both these perspectives.
Comparing Army Reserve Forces: A Tale of Multiple Ironies, Conflicting Realities, and More Certain Prospects
Authors: Walker Wallace Earl
Published: March 2007

In spite of the "total force" policy, Army reserve forces are fraught with ironies, contradictions, and paradoxes and continue to be at odds with the regular Army. And yet, reserve forces perform a variety of essential military roles both nationally and locally, the most important of which is serving as the popular face of the Army. It seems clear that the reserves will play a more significant role in the post-cold war era. Over the next decade military reformers will force the Army to rely more heavily on reservists in a newly redesigned total force. Thus the question is not whether changes in the Army's reliance on reserve forces will be imposed by outsiders, but whether these changes will occur with or without the Army's active support. In the 1990s the Congress is also likely to increase the relative status of Army reserve components. Indeed, reserve forces may become the great pork barrel in American politics during the 1990s.
Canadian Militia Mobilization and Deployment for War: The Iceland Experience of 1940
Authors: Bittner Donald F.
Published: March 2007

Current Canadian defense policies envision not only defense of the national territory, but a possible commitment of military forces overseas either through Canada's obligations as a member of NATO or the United Nations. In meeting these potential responsibilities, Ottawa would have to rely upon the reserves since the country's regular forces are small and time is required to raise, organize, equip, and train forces from a nonexisting prior base. Government declarations about the reserves have noted defects of which officers, regular and militia, are very cognizant. What would happen if Canada must send nonregular forces overseas under such conditions? This has occurred twice in the twentieth century; at the beginning of each conflict, Canadian forces were sent abroad, unprepared for war. This article will examine, as a case study, what happened in summer and autumn 1940 when one such brigade, "Z" Force, deployed to Iceland. Events are viewed from the perspective of an infantry ground force, "from the bottom up." An analysis of what occurred then can provide insight into what could happen when and if militia forces are again mobilized and deployed abroad before they are operationally ready for such service.
A Note on the Regional Impact of Military Retirees
Authors: Hefner Frank L.
Published: March 2007

Retirees are increasingly viewed as a growth industry. One aspect of military spending that has not been investigated is the impact on state economies of military pension payments. Using an input-output model, the total economic activity and jobs impacts of military pensions are determined for each state.
Obesity and Its Relation to Physical Fitness in the U.S. Military
Authors: Vogel James A.
Published: March 2007

As the result of new emphasis placed upon physical fitness and body fatness in June 1981 (DoD directive no. 1308.1), obesity has largely disappeared from the armed forces. Each service has developed an upperlimit for body fat based on one or more of the following criteria: physical performance, military appearance, and health. Physical fitness or the capacity for physical performance is related to body fatness and/or muscularity, depending on the nature of the physical task. Aerobic fitness (e.g., running) is negatively related to body fat content but unrelated to strength fitness, while strength fitness (e.g., lifting) is unrelated to fatness but positively related to muscle mass. Implementation and enforcement of standards for both fatness and muscularity will increase physical readiness and conserve manpower of our military forces.
A Stakeholder Management Perspective on Military Health Care
Authors: Blair John D. , Stanley Jay , Whitehead Carlton J.
Published: March 2007

Expectations of the U.S. military health care system are becoming more numerous and complex. A managerial approach that encompasses recognition of economic, political, and structural variables is required. The article presents a "stakeholder management" perspective that incorporates a classification of types of stakeholders and details strategies for dealing with each type. This is illustrated through the "Coordinated Care" program that the Department of Defense is planning to implement for CHAMPUS (Civilian Health and Medical Program of the Uniformed Services).
PTSD and Agent Orange: Implications for a Sociology of Veterans' Issues
Authors: Scott Wilbur J.
Published: March 2007

Two major controversies have marked the readjustment of Vietnam veterans to civilian life. The first surrounds the introduction of the diagnosis, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, into the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual. The second concerns the debate over harmful effects on veterans of an herbicide widely used by the U.S. military in Vietnam, Agent Orange. Following a constructivist approach to social problems and disease, this article describes the politics of the two controversies and provides a preliminary "theory" for making sense of veterans' issues.
Chemical Warfare: Act of Intimidation or Desperation?
Authors: Mandel Robert
Published: March 2007

Recently the international community has experienced unprecedented alarm about the threat of chemical weapons. One crucial uninvestigated question concerning these munitions is whether they are arms of desperation, used defensively later in conflicts as a last resort, or arms of intimidation, used offensively earlier in conflicts to terrorize the victims. This study explores this question through a systematic survey of all confirmed cases of the use of chemical weapons in interstate wars since World War I, encompassing the Italo-Ethiopian War of 1935-36, the Sino-Japanese War of 1937-45, the Egyptian-Yemeni War of 1963-67, the Soviet-Afghan War of 1979-1988, and the Iraq-Iran War of 1980-1988. The findings indicate that all of the cases evidenced an offensive intimidation mentality except for the Iraq-Iran War, which displayed a defensive desperation mindset.
Opportunity or Obligation? Redefining Germany's Military Role Outside of NATO
Authors: Clemens Clay
Published: March 2007

For decades, deployment of the German Bundeswehr beyond the NATO Treaty area has been officially regarded as unconstitutional, a position that also reflected a broad ambivalence in postwar Germany about the use of military power. While this attitude remains largely unchanged, Bonn's leaders have recently begun discussing a less restrictive policy on out-of-area commitments. They want united Germany to be seen as a fully sovereign international actor, willing to fulfill its commitments as a member of the United Nations, NATO, and the European Community, and able to help enforce international law or support humanitarian missions. Yet the deep aversion to policies based on military power has hindered development of a broad consensus in favor of any step beyond participation in UN peacekeeping operations. German politicians feel caught between what they regard as the expectations of the world community and their own country's "culture of caution."
Defense Planning and the Nigerian Armed Forces Modernization Process (1970-991):An Institutional Analysis
Authors: Bassey Celestine O.
Published: March 2007

One of the most problematic and intractable areas of public policy in Nigeria since the civil war concerns the development of a professional defense establishment adequate enough to meet the challenges arising from the altered parameters of its security environment. This article is at once a review and a critique of the major facets of this modernization and augmentation process of the Nigerian armed forces within the operative context of the new dimensions in threat perception and the strategic parameters that guided Nigerian military planning since the civil war in 1970. The major focus, therefore, will of necessity center on the structural decisions concerning the procurement, allocation, and organization of the "men, money, and material" that are intended to sustain Nigeria's strategic policy in the African region.
Soldier Recruitment to the British Army: A Spatial and Social Methodology for Analysis and Monitoring
Authors: Dandeker Christopher , Strachan Alan
Published: March 2007

This article reports on the findings of a study undertaken for the Army Eastern District into applications and recruitment in the county of Essex. The data were for one year, 4 January 1988-3 January 1989, and were taken from the 951 DAR1 forms of young people who applied to join the Army. The data were entered and manipulated using INGRES and SPSS-X and the mapping, based on POSTCODE/Grid Referencing, used the GIMMS 5.1 computer mapping package. The study established the feasibility of creating applications/recruitment databases for monitoring the recruitment process. It also demonstrated the value of social and spatial analysis in gaining an understanding of where applicants and recruits come from and their relationship to the local pool of young people (data available from the National Census). This type of information is essential for the development of management information systems to ensure cost effective targeting of recruitment resources. The report recommends the extension of the methodology in a full-scale study and also highlights the need for a greater understanding of young people's aspirations and attitudes to both civilian and armed forces jobs.
Technonationalism in U.S. Japanese Security Relations: The FSX Controversy
Authors: Walsh J. Richard
Published: March 2007

In early 1989, the Bush administration prepared to submit for congressional review the FSX co-development project. The project quickly became an object of technonationalism; critics charged that the FSX was another example of defense technology transfer that would undermine U.S. economic competitiveness. This article examines the roots of the FSX controversy in the rising technonationalism, the procedural and substantive issues surrounding interagency review and clarification of the agreement, and the congressional and public debate over the degree of reciprocity in technology transfer. The article concludes with an assessment of the consequences of the FSX controversy for future defense technology cooperation.
Management of Budgetary Decline in the Department of Defense in Response to the End of the Cold War
Authors: Jones L. R.
Published: March 2007

This study analyzes the decisions and actions of the President, Congress, and Pentagon leadership for 1989 to 1992 to reduce the defense budget for the period 1990 to 1997. The objective of this research is to indicate how the Department of Defense developed and began to execute plans for significant downsizing. Management of declining budgets by DoD is evaluated employing a framework for analysis of fiscal stress in public sector organizations. Major force structure reductions and cuts in DoD operational and capital budget accounts are analyzed. Weapons system terminations and military and civilian personnel cuts are detailed. Efforts to improve DoD efficiency through implementation of the Defense Management Report are assessed. Military base closure and realignment is reviewed. Redefinition of the base force structure in response to revised threat assessment and changes in the international security policy environment including improved East-West relations, reduced probability of conventional war, tactical and strategic nuclear disarmament, and operation Desert Storm also is addressed.
What Code? Or, No Great Escapes: The Code of Conduct and Other Dreams of Resistance
Authors: Gruner Elliott
Published: March 2007

The Gulf War POW experience confronts us once again with a gap between conduct dictated by the Armed Forces Code of Conduct and actual experience. In the 1990s the differences among the popular lore surrounding POW conduct, expectations written into the Code of Conduct, and POW experiences could not be more pronounced. Many now accept that the Code of Conduct is, at best, "not enough" for POWs. The policy on POW conduct in the United States Armed Forces needs a fresh look. The U.S. should bring its POW policies into line with conduct that it condones. Otherwise it is left to American POWs suffering in some distant prison to decide for themselves that the Code of Conduct is irrelevant.
General Intellectual Achievement, Enlistment Intentions, and Racial Representativeness in the U.S. Military
Authors: Gorman Linda , Thomas George W.
Published: March 2007

Debates about the racial representativeness of the U.S. military often fail to consider whether the racial composition of those who want to join the military reflects that of the general population. Using a sample of young men from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, this article examines the effects of four different specifications of the independent variables race, poverty status, high school enrollment, age, and test score on an individual's enlistment intentions. The coefficient estimates were maximum likelihood estimates of a logistic regression model with an ordinal dependent variable. The results suggest that enlistment intentions depend heavily on intellectual achievement and poverty as well as race, and that models ignoring this may attribute false importance to the effects of race on intentions to enlist.
Chinese Women in the People's Liberation Army: Professionals or Quasi-Professionals?
Authors: Li Xiaolin
Published: March 2007

This article provides an updated description of the contemporary functions and status of Chinese military women, and addresses the question of whether these women are professionals, by examining the People's Liberation Army's officially published materials and the author's interviews with ten Chinese women colonels and two women generals. Derived from a tradition of the utilization of women in unconventional warfare and irregular military formation, Chinese military women serve in traditional female roles and their functions are supportive both in peacetime and wartime. Due to their lengthy service and training and job assignment as professionals and quasi-professionals, these women have made the military service the locus of their careers.
Ethnic Conflict, Unit Performance, and the Soviet Armed Forces
Authors: Ball Deborah Yarsike
Published: March 2007

The Commonwealth of Independent States is struggling to create a central military command at the same time that individual members of the Commonwealth are forging their own national armies. Although the former task appears to be more daunting, the difficulties in creating stable, functional territorial armies should not be underestimated. Difficulties will arise because the states themselves are multinational in makeup and will have to contend with ethnic problems among their servicemen. Utilizing data from a survey of former Soviet citizens, the author tested two competing hypotheses about the impact of the Soviet military on ethnic relations in the now defunct Soviet empire in order to increase understanding of some of the difficulties that the newly independent states will confront as they establish their own militaries. The impact of ethnic tensions on military performance was also examined. The results provide no basis for claims that the Soviet military either exacerbated or mitigated ethnic conflict. However, ethnic relations had a profound impact on military performance. This article discusses the implications of these findings for the successor states to the Soviet Union.
Amazonia: Democracy, Ecology, and Brazilian Military Prerogatives in the 1990s
Authors: Zirker Daniel , Henberg Marvin
Published: March 2007

Continuing control over the political and developmental policies of Amazonia has become perhaps the last best hope of the Brazilian military establishment, which has seen its principal raisons d'etre-the threats traditionally thought to be posed by foreign enemies and internal subversion-disappear in recent years. Alfred Stepan has clarified the unusually high level of "military prerogatives" exercised in the post-1985 Brazilian political system, which relate to a wider theoretical consideration of political and biological diversity and are linked both directly and analogously, particularly in the Amazon region. In this regard, the direction of development policy in the greater Amazon region suggests the relevance of this military "policy prerogative" to the future of civil-military relations in Brazil, and the survival of one of the world's last great wildernesses.
Military Recognition of Family Concerns: Revolutionary War To 1993
Authors: Albano Sondra
Published: March 2007

This article explores the evolution of military recognition of family concerns from the Revolutionary War to the present, culminating in the development of a federally funded, worldwide network of military Family Centers. Demographic change played a large role in the military capacity to maintain itself as a dramatic influx of family members during the 1960s and the need to maintain a large volunteer force, in synergy with a strong tradition of spouse volunteerism, led to the development of the family center system. The military's relationship with its families from 1775 to 1993 has been characterized by several trends: from neglect to concern; from informal mechanisms and an implied obligation to a formal, institutionalized policy response; and from locally determined, ad hoc, reactive measures to comprehensive, federally funded, planned services. As work and family boundaries shift, both the military and private corporate sectors are examining ways to better accommodate the needs of both family and workplace through programmatic and policy initiatives.
"An Opportunity to Show Their Epalets and Feathers": The South Carolina Militia During the First Secession Crisis, 1848-1851
Authors: Eysturlid Lee W.
Published: March 2007

In the years between 1848 and 1851 South Carolina experienced a radicalization in its politics. This article attempts to show how the militia played an integral part in this process, in that it provided both internal security and a political forum. The discussion will show that while the military capability of the militia may have decreased, its symbolic value remained important.

The article asserts that the mandatory militia gatherings that were held with regularity throughout the state provided an inherent political platform for South Carolina's leadership. The ability to reach the greater part of the state's electorate allowed for the propagation of the secessionist message.
National Security and Democracy in the United States
Authors: Segal David R.
Published: March 2007

The values of national security and democracy are sometimes necessarily in conflict, and one may be compromised in defense of the other. The history of national security concerns in the United States of America can be seen as a continuing pragmatic attempt to balance fundamental democratic values and ideals against elements of their defense that have at times intruded upon the rule of law, individual freedoms, and popular participation in policy debate and decision making by an informed citizenry. The balancing of national security and democracy is an ongoing process, but the long-term trend in the United States seems to be toward an increasing emphasis on democratic process.
Militarism, The United States, and The Cold War
Authors: Van Tuyll Hubert P.
Published: March 2007

This article examines the major definitions of militarism (militarization, cultural behavior, and national policy), surveys the treatment of the subject in recent literature, and considers whether militarism has actually become more prevalent in the United States during, and as a result of, the Cold War. The evidence suggests an affirmative answer if the militarization and national policy definitions are applied. Further study is needed, however, before a conclusion can be drawn regarding cultural behavior.
Military Retirees: A Portrait of the Community
Authors: Snyder William P.
Published: March 2007

This article examines five aspects of the retired military community. First, because of ongoing reductions of U.S. forces, the retiree population is growing rapidly; it will number about 1.9 million members by the year 2000. Second, military retirement costs will reach $38.40 billion and amount to 15-17% of defense outlays by the end of the decade. Third, the end of the Cold War and concern about the federal deficit have weakened political support for retiree entitlements. As a result, military retirees can expect an erosion of benefits over the remainder of this decade-despite improved representational strategies by the retiree associations. Fourth, recent military retirees are encountering delays in obtaining civilian employment; in response, they have become more willing to accept less attractive or less remunerative positions. Finally, California, Florida, Texas, and other sunbelt states are attractive retirement locales. Access to a military facility, however, remains an important element in residence decisions.
New Perspectives on the Military Profession: The I/O Model and Esprit de Corps Reevaluated
Authors: Sørensen Henning
Published: March 2007

This article describes two debates, "from institution to occupation" (I/O) and Esprit de Corps that have been of major importance for the present understanding of the concept of the military as a profession. Charles Moskos's original "I/O" model and Morris Janowitz's reaction are recapitulated, as is the concept of Esprit de Corps presented by Samuel P. Huntington and Morris Janowitz. It is demonstrated that the Moskos-Janowitz dispute is based upon different definitions of the "I/O" shift and not upon the existence and the extent of such a shift, while Huntington and Janowitz had no common understanding of either the existence, extent, or concepts connected to the "Esprit de Corps." Therefore, in contrast to common interpretation, it is argued that Moskos and Janowitz are much more in agreement than Huntington and Janowitz. Subsequently, it is demonstrated that in both cases, the approach taken by the three authors was biased due to a lack of conceptual clarification and of empirical testing. Finally, the analysis of the two debates makes it possible to redefine the military as a profession as a multidimensional concept.
Sexual Harassment in the U.S. Military: Individualized and Environmental Contexts
Authors: Firestone Juanita M. , Harris Richard J.
Published: March 2007

Using data from the "1988 DoD Survey of Sex Roles in the Active-Duty Military," this research focuses on individual experience and understanding of sexual harassment in the military work environment as well as impacts of organization context on this behavioral arena. Our results indicate that there is a pervasive pattern of sexual harassment, especially of women, that spans rank and work site contexts. Because the survey was conducted prior to the extensive publicity associated with the Clarence Thomas hearings and the Tailhook scandal, it is possible that respondents understated the extent of different types of harassment. We find that a general harassment environment is highly predictive of individualistic harassment experiences of women and men. We conclude that controlling overt sexual commentary and public behavior is essential for producing a positive nonharassing work situation.
The Socioeconomic Benefits to Military Families of Home-Basing of Armed Forces
Authors: Lakhani Hyder
Published: March 2007

The home-basing or relocation of military units from Outside Continental United States (OCONUS) to Continental United States (CONUS) and the proposed increase in time from three to six years at CONUS locations is hypothesized to generate considerable socioeconomic benefits. Analysis of the Survey of Army Families, 1987, and Army Family Survey Research data reveal that home-basing is likely to improve quality of spouse employment and the quality of family life of soldiers. An increase in time at a location by three years is likely to increase spouse earnings by 14 percent. An increase in spouse employment due to home-basing is also associated with an increase in spouse's satisfaction with Army life which, in turn, tends to increase spouse's desire for soldier-husband's retention in the Army. The home-basing is also likely to reduce child care costs to the Army and to the soldiers because of lower child care costs in CONUS relative to OCONUS. Three limitations of home-basing and Army policy measures for mitigating them are also discussed.
"An Electoral Mutiny?" Zhirinovsky and the Russian Armed Forces
Authors: Nichols Thomas M.
Published: March 2007

Why did the members of the Russian Armed Forces support the ultranationalist Liberal Democratic Party of Vladimir Zhirinovsky in the December 1993 Russian elections, abandoning Boris Yeltsin at the polls and confounding observers who had until then assumed that the army was under firm political control? This article examines the depth of military support for Zhirinovsky, and explains that support as (1) a result of residual "Sovietism" in the military that resulted in strong affinity for Zhirinovsky's calls for a Soviet/Imperial restoration; (2) a reaction against being used by Yeltsin against the Parliament in October 1993; and (3) general military agreement with the tone and substance of Zhirinovsky's attacks on the Russian political establishment. The article suggests that the Russian military has already emerged as an independent political force, and there is little hope in the near future that Yeltsin will be able to reestablish full political control.
Capabilities-Based Defense Planning: The Australian Experience
Authors: Young Thomas-Durell
Published: March 2007

Obliged by regional political and security developments, Australia has been forced to experiment with a capabilities-based defense planning for over 20 years. The ultimate success of the planning methodology is validated by the fact that the Australian Defence Force is now capable of executing a larger number of nationally determined tasks than was possible in the past. Australian experience demonstrates that greater jointness can be developed, but only after significant changes have been made to the force development bureaucracy. While perhaps not all of the Australian experience is relevant to every country, it does provide a successful model of a capabilities-based defense planning and force development model, which emphasizes the maximum use of jointness capabilities.
South Mrican Civil-Military Relations in Transition: Issues and Influences
Authors: Griffiths Robert J.
Published: March 2007

One of the crucial elements of democratization efforts currently under way in South Africa is the establishment of a democratic pattern of civil-military relations. The important issues in this transition process are control and composition of a future South African armed forces. Influential variables that have an impact on this process are military professionalism, the corporate interests of the armed forces, the threat of violence, the method of democratization, and support for reform both within the military and in the larger society. This article outlines the political interaction of actors and influences in an effort to increase our understanding of this essential component of democratization.
Vietnam-Era Military Service: A Test of the Class-Bias Thesis
Authors: Wilson Thomas C.
Published: March 2007

In this study, the thesis that the burden of the Vietnam War disproportionately fell on poor Americans is tested with national survey data. It is found that the Vietnam era was not an equal-opportunity era for military service. But Vietnam-era class bias benefited only a relative few near the top of the social hierarchy, and only modestly worked to the detriment of those in the remaining social strata.
Peacekeeping Doctrine and Conflict Resolution Techniques
Authors: Last David M.
Published: March 2007

The world hopes that peacekeeping missions will not merely freeze conflicts but help to restore peace. This requires integration of the tactical and operational levels to support the strategic aim of deescalating violence and reconciling communities. Canadian experience in Cyprus shows that appropriate techniques exist at the tactical level, where peacekeepers have used arbitration, go-between mediation, and conciliation. Principled negotiation, consultation, and problem solving workshops are other techniques which might be used. Peacekeeping can do more than keep belligerents apart if it is seen as a military operation in which the enemy of the force is violent conflict and the belligerents are allies. To defeat a conflict the balance of military and civilian involvement will change as the violence diminishes.
The Evolving Clinton Doctrine on the Use of Force
Authors: Stevenson Charles A.
Published: March 2007

The Clinton Administration has developed and applied a fairly detailed set of guidelines on the use of force. The Clinton criteria are derived in large measure from official military doctrine promulgated by Gen. Colin Powell, but they have been modified particularly in light of U.S. experience in Somalia. The current consensus doctrine calls for overwhelming force in defense of vital national interests in order to achieve a quick, decisive victory with low U.S. casualties. When important but not vital interests are involved, and costs and risks are commensurate with those interests, limited military means may be used for limited political objectives. In all cases, military operations should have clearly defined and achievable missions, with measurable milestones and an exit strategy to guard against mission creep. Public and congressional support is deemed advisable but not necessary. This article illustrates the application of this doctrine in Somalia, Haiti, and Bosnia.
Cohesion and Readiness in Gender-Integrated Combat Service Support Units: The Impact of Acceptance of Women and Gender Ratio
Authors: Rosen Leora N. , Durand Doris B. , Bliese Paul D. , Halverson Ronald R. , Rothberg Joseph M. , Harrison Nancy L.
Published: March 2007

Cohesion, combat readiness and acceptance of women were examined among male and female junior enlisted soldiers and male noncommissioned officers (NCOs) in 19 combat service support companies. The proportion of junior enlisted females in each company was negatively correlated with mean cohesion and readiness scores for junior enlisted males. The proportion of NCO females was significantly correlated with the proportion of soldiers who said they did not expect to deploy with their units, which in turn was negatively correlated with cohesion for male NCOs. For junior enlisted males, results indicated that cohesion and combat readiness increased with increased acceptance of women, but decreased as the proportion of females in the unit increased. Furthermore, acceptance of women decreased as the proportion of females in the unit increased. The results are interpreted in the light of two competing hypotheses regarding minority proportional representation-the tokenism hypothesis and the minority-proportion discrimination hypothesis.