bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Statistics in Deterministic Sciences: An Introduction
Authors: Eshel Gidon
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the relevance of statistics in deterministic science. While most physical phenomena of concern to natural sciences are governed by fundamental, mostly known, physics, their application to such complex systems as the ocean, atmosphere, or ecosystems is monumentally difficult. For most such systems, the full problems—the values of all relevant variables at all space and time locations—are essentially intractable, even with the fastest computers. Hence, there is always more to the focus of inquiry that cannot be modeled; we must somehow fill in the gaps. This is where statistics come in. Until the state of the physical system under investigation is fully quantified (i.e., until the value of every dynamical variable is perfectly known at every point in space and time), there is a certain amount of indeterminacy in every statement made about the state of the system. The remainder of the chapter discusses probability distributions and degrees of freedom.
Introduction
Authors: Doebeli Michael
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides an overview of frequency-dependent selection—the phenomenon that the evolving population is part of the changing environment determining the evolutionary trajectory. Selection is frequency-dependent if the sign and magnitude of the correlations between heritable variation and reproductive variation change as a consequence of changes in the trait distribution that are themselves generated by such correlations. From the perspective of mathematical modeling, the realm of frequency dependence in evolution is larger than the realm of situations in which selection is not frequency dependent, because the absence of frequency dependence in a mathematical model of evolution essentially means that some parameters describing certain types of biological interactions are set to zero. Thus, in a suitable parameter space, frequency independence corresponds to the region around zero, while everything else corresponds to frequency dependence. In this way, frequency-dependent selection should therefore be considered the norm, not the exception, for evolutionary processes.
Adaptive Diversification Due to Predator-Prey Interactions
Authors: Doebeli Michael
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses adaptive diversification due to predator–prey interactions. It has long been recognized that consumption, that is, predation, can not only exert strong selection pressure on the consumer, but also on the consumed species. However, predation has traditionally received much less attention than competition as a cause for the origin and maintenance of diversity. By using adaptive dynamics theory as well as individual-based models, the chapter then illustrates that adaptive diversification in prey species due to frequency-dependent predator–prey interactions is a theoretically plausible scenario. It also describes conditions for diversification due to predator–prey interactions in classical Lotka–Volterra models, which requires analysis of coevolutionary dynamics between two interacting species, and hence of adaptive dynamics in two-dimensional phenotype spaces.
Experimental Evolution of Adaptive Diversification in Microbes
Authors: Doebeli Michael
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter argues that experimental evolution with microbes has emerged as a very attractive alternative to overcome the problem of long time scales in empirical studies of evolution. This is exemplified by the long-term evolution experiments of Richard Lenski, whose experimental Escherichia coli lines have evolved for more than 40,000 generations to date. Lenski and his many collaborators convincingly argued that the diversified strains have coexisted over long time periods, and hence that this diversification represents a case of asexual speciation. The ecological mechanism for diversification in this case appears to be related to crossfeeding, a scenario in which one strain or species persists by scavenging on nutrients that accumulate in the environment as metabolic byproducts of the coexisting strain. With crossfeeding, polymorphisms can be maintained even in simple environments with a single limiting resource such as glucose. This is an excellent example of frequency-dependent selection, as the fitness of the crossfeeder depends on the presence or absence of the glucose specialist.
“Unity within Diversity”: Intimacies and Public Discourses of Race and Ethnicity
Authors: Briones Matthew M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter illustrates how Kikuchi shrewdly understood that cultivating a relationship with a figure as influential as Louis Adamic could only help his future career and long-term interest in matters of race and ethnicity. After the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, Kikuchi indeed counted on the Adamics for practical and emotional support. Numerous later letters showed that Kikuchi considered Adamic's mentoring a welcome development, something he had lacked for so many years while away from his biological parents. However, despite Adamic sending Kikuchi many other similar texts, he rarely communicated with his acolyte at any great length or with any immediacy. As Kikuchi understood, his and Adamic's commonality had at least two sides: their visions and hopes for America coincided, and the two men's lives were similar versions of the immigrant's tale.
“It Could Just as Well Be Me”: Japanese American and African American GIs in the Army Diary
Authors: Briones Matthew M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at how Kikuchi found army life somewhat of a rude awakening after having spent two years living in Chicago, working on his master's degree in social work, and conducting research for JERS. It proved to be as much a mental challenge as a physical one: the bureaucracy of the military hierarchy and its conservative ideology were most surprising to Kikuchi. He discovered that deep-seated racism directed toward African American soldiers and civilians pervaded the army ranks, a difficult pill to swallow given his own position as a recently imprisoned Nisei. Nevertheless, he managed to retain an intense faith and belief in the power and potential of America's democracy, hoping that his individual service would, in some small measure, reflect the commitment of the Nisei as a whole.
The Birth of the Bureau, Coupled with the Birth of J. Edgar Hoover, Ensured the FBI’s Attention to African American Literature
Authors: Maxwell William J.
Published: November 2017

This part aims to add depth and detail to less-familiar portraits of Hoover as a young militant, and to establish the character of the also young law enforcement agency he joined in the wake of World War I. Explaining why Hoover and the Bureau began to pursue African American writing, it presents the first of five theses: namely, The birth of the Bureau, coupled with the birth of J. Edgar Hoover, ensured the FBI's attention to African American literature. Section 1 recounts how the pre-Hoover Bureau emerged amid the social divisions of early twentieth-century America, and how it cultivated both literary publicity and public anti-New Negroism to whet an undivided national appetite for federal policing. Section 2 examines how the pre-Bureau Hoover managed his surprising familiarity with Afro-America. Section 3 establishes that with Hoover's hiring by the Bureau during the first Red Scare and the dawn of Harlem's cultural rebirth, the FBI's racial and literary preoccupations only deepened. Under Hoover's watch, the earliest Harlem Renaissance writing became the common passion of Bureau anti-New Negroism and “lit.-cop federalism,” the latter defined as the effort to inject a compelling federal police presence into the U.S. print public sphere.
The FBI Helped to Define the Twentieth-Century Black Atlantic, Both Blocking and Forcing Its Flows
Authors: Maxwell William J.
Published: November 2017

This part marshals the largely uncompiled evidence of FBI author files to suggest that the worst suspicions about the stakeout of Paris noir were basically correct—that Wright was not too wrong, it follows, when he darkly joked that any African American “who is not paranoid is in serious shape,” at least if he or she sought literary license outside the United States during the Hoover era. Two decades before American involvement in World War II opened the floodgates of black Paris, the FBI began to influence the movements of expatriate Afro-modernists—this even as it manipulated “lit.-cop federalism” to nationalize itself in the mind of white America. In the French capital of black transnationalism, and satellites beyond, FBI agents and informers kept tabs on a network of black literary travelers they hoped to link by the vulnerabilities of statelessness alone. Thus, this book's fourth thesis: The FBI helped to define the twentieth-century Black Atlantic, both blocking and forcing its flows.
The Structure of Plant-Animal Mutualistic Networks
Authors: Bascompte Jordi , Jordano Pedro
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the structure of mutualistic networks. Despite their apparent complexity, mutualistic networks show repeated, universal structural patterns independent of species composition, size, and other ecological details. First, mutualistic networks are very heterogeneous: whereas the majority of species have only one or a few interactions, a few species are much more connected than expected by chance. Second, mutualistic networks are highly nested, that is, specialists interact with well-defined subsets of the species generalists interact with. Third, mutualistic networks are built on weak, asymmetric interactions among species. Fourth, mutualistic networks have a strong small-world property; that is, they simultaneously have a short path length among any pair of species and a high clustering coefficient. Finally, these networks are significantly modular—that is, there are small groups of species with morphological convergence of traits that interact strongly among themselves and more loosely with species from other modules. These modules can be regarded as the basic building blocks of mutualistic networks and their coevolutionary units.
The Rights of Migrant Workers
Authors: Ruhs Martin
Published: November 2017

This book examines how and why high-income countries restrict the rights of migrant workers as part of their labor immigration policies, along with the implications for policy debates about regulating labor migration and protecting migrants. It seeks to reframe the theoretical debates about the tensions between human rights and citizenship rights, the agency and interests of migrants and states, and the determinants and ethics of labor immigration policy. The book analyzes the characteristics and key features of labor immigration policies and restrictions of migrant rights in more than forty high-income countries as well as policy drivers in major migrant-receiving and migrant-sending countries. This introductory chapter explains the aims, approach, and main arguments of the book, as well as its terminology and scope, and provides an overview of the chapters that follow.
Nation-States, Labor Immigration, and Migrant Rights
Authors: Ruhs Martin
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the potential interrelationships between migrant rights and national policies for admitting migrant workers. It explains how we can expect high-income countries to regulate the rights of migrant workers as part of their labor immigration policies. It develops a basic approach that conceptualizes the design of labor immigration policy in high-income countries as a process that involves “choice under constraints.” It shows that nation-states decide on how to regulate the number, selection, and rights of migrant workers admitted in order to achieve a core set of four interrelated and sometimes competing policy goals: economic efficiency, distribution, national identity and social cohesion, and national security and public order. Although their importance and specific interpretations vary across countries, and over time, the chapter argues that each of these objectives constitutes a fundamental policy consideration that policymakers can and do purposefully pursue in all countries.
The Price of Rights
Authors: Ruhs Martin
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the implications of the analysis in this book for human rights debates and the rights-based approaches to migration advocated by many international organizations and nongovernmental organizations concerned with protecting and promoting the interests of migrant workers. It highlights the danger of a blind spot in human rights–based approaches to migration, which are often focused on protecting and promoting migrant rights without taking into account the consequences for nation-states' policies for admitting new migrant workers. The trade-off between openness and some specific migrant rights in high-income countries' labor immigration policies means that insisting on equality of rights for migrant workers can come at the price of more restrictive admission policies and, therefore, discourage the further liberalization of international labor migration.
Hidden Markov Processes: Basic Properties
Authors: Vidyasagar M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the basic properties of hidden Markov processes (HMPs) or hidden Markov models (HMMs), a special type of stochastic process. It begins with a discussion of three distinct types of HMMs and shows that they are all equivalent from the standpoint of their expressive power or modeling ability: Type 1 hidden Markov model, or a HMM of the deterministic function of a Markov chain type; hidden Markov model of Type 2, or a HMM of the random function of a Markov chain type; and hidden Markov model of Type 3, or a HMM of the joint Markov process type. The chapter also examines various issues related to the computation of likelihoods in a HMM before concluding with an overview of the Viterbi algorithm and the Baum–Welch algorithm.
Introduction and Overview
Authors: Marsden Peter V.
Published: November 2017

This book reports on social trends among U.S. adults between the early 1970s and the first decade of the 21st century. The chapters cover social and political phenomena arrayed across a wide spectrum. Some investigate and interpret changes in salient sociopolitical attitudes. Others ask whether confidence in major American institutions fell, or if connections to religious groups or other persons waned. Still others study shifts in how adults assessed their well-being as economic, political, and social conditions in U.S. society underwent sometimes-dramatic change. The 12 studies that follow rest on survey data assembled by the General Social Survey (GSS) project since 1972. This introductory chapter first provides context for these studies, drawing on prior research about change in the U.S. social, political, and economic landscape since the 1970s. Next comes an overview of this book's content, including some remarks about related GSS-based trend studies on other topics. It closes by briefly calling attention to the variety of approaches and explanations that the authors use when offering accounts for the patterns of change they report.
Public Opinion in the “Age of Reagan”
Authors: Manza Jeff , Heerwig Jennifer A. , McCabe Brian J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter asks whether conservatism in political affiliations, national spending priorities, and social issue stances grew between 1972 and 2006. Some trends certainly accord with this image: Discernably more adults described themselves as “conservative” and identified as Republicans. Moreover, conservatives became much more apt to identify as Republicans, and gaps between Republicans and Democrats on some social issues widened, signaling limited rises in some forms of polarization. Other findings, however, are at odds with claims of a rising conservative tide. For example, in most years more adults described themselves as “moderate” than as either liberal or conservative. Public opinion favored spending increases rather than reductions in many domestic arenas, though Americans were reticent to call for greater government intervention. The overall portrait of political attitude trends observed is decidedly qualified and mixed.
Trends in Confidence in Institutions, 1973–2006
Authors: Smith Tom W.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines trends in institutional confidence measured by the General Social Survey between 1973 and 2006. It begins by considering the construct of institutional confidence and describing the items and scales used to measure it. After presenting overall levels of confidence in 13 institutions during this period, it examines trends in general confidence scales and in individual institutions. Cohort analysis helps to illuminate these trends. The chapter next investigates correlates of institutional confidence, including experiences with specific institutions, party-in-power effects, education, misanthropy, opinionation, and a general demographic model. It briefly considers the relationship between institutional confidence and support for government programs and political matters. It closes by assessing the state and role of institutional confidence in contemporary society, and both general and event-driven models of trends in confidence.
Continuity and Change in American Religion, 1972–2008
Authors: Chaves Mark , Anderson Shawna
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes eight trends evident in the General Social Survey (GSS) between 1972 and 2008: (i) increased religious diversity; (ii) increased affiliation among Protestants with conservative and evangelical denominations; (iii) softening involvement with congregations; (iv) reduced belief in an inerrant Bible; (v) reduced confidence in the leaders of religious organizations; (vi) reduced tolerance of certain kinds of religious involvement in the public sphere; (vii) a tighter connection between religious service attendance and political, social, and religious conservatism; and (viii) the somewhat higher levels of diffusely spiritual attitudes. Some trends are indicated by a single repeated GSS item while others represent interpretations of a set of similarly trending items.
Trends in Informal Social Participation, 1974–2008
Authors: Marsden Peter V. , Srivastava Sameer B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter assesses trends in informal social connectedness over a 34-year period beginning in 1974, focusing on four forms of informal socializing measured regularly by the General Social Survey. In recent controversy and debate over this subject, some studies report contraction in social networks, contrasting with others that indicate stability. The chapter shows that the frequency of socializing with relatives, friends, and neighbors changed modestly, but in different directions. Neighboring exhibits the clearest drop, balanced to an extent by recent upward movements in seeing relatives and friends. Overall, no general network shrinkage appears to be under way. Socializing trends may reflect some restructuring of interpersonal networks, however, as other social changes proceed, including rising electronically mediated interaction and residential dispersion.
Religion and Happiness
Authors: Hout Michael , Greeley Andrew
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the link between happiness and religion. It draws on meaning-and-belonging theory to deduce that a religious affiliation heightens happiness through participation in collective religious rituals. Attendance and engagement appear key: a merely nominal religious affiliation makes people little happier. Notably, two religious foundations of happiness—affiliation with organized religious groups and attendance at services—have fallen. Softened religious engagement, then, may contribute to the slight downturn in general happiness. In fact, steady happiness is reported among those who participate frequently in religious services, but falling levels among those who are less involved. The chapter also considers the association between religion and happiness outside the United States using data from the International Social Survey Program, an international collaborative survey to which the General Social Survey contributes the American data.
Paths Out of Dixie
Authors: Mickey Robert
Published: November 2017

The transformation of the American South—from authoritarian to democratic rule—is the most important political development since World War II. It has re-sorted voters into parties, remapped presidential elections, and helped polarize Congress. Most important, it is the final step in America's democratization. This book illuminates this sea change by analyzing the democratization experiences of Georgia, Mississippi, and South Carolina. It argues that Southern states, from the 1890s until the early 1970s, constituted pockets of authoritarian rule trapped within and sustained by a federal democracy. These enclaves—devoted to cheap agricultural labor and white supremacy—were established by conservative Democrats to protect their careers and clients. From the abolition of the whites-only Democratic primary in 1944 until the national party reforms of the early 1970s, enclaves were battered and destroyed by a series of democratization pressures from inside and outside their borders. Drawing on archival research, the book traces how Deep South rulers—dissimilar in their internal conflict and political institutions—varied in their responses to these challenges. Ultimately, enclaves differed in their degree of violence, incorporation of African Americans, and reconciliation of Democrats with the national party. These diverse paths generated political and economic legacies that continue to reverberate today. Focusing on enclave rulers, their governance challenges, and the monumental achievements of their adversaries, the book shows how the struggles of the recent past have reshaped the South and, in so doing, America's political development.
“No Task for the Amateur or Hothead”
Authors: Mickey Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in Brown v. Board of Education, which struck down state-mandated segregation in public education, and its implications for southern authoritarian enclaves. With the Brown shock, Mississippi's rulers faced their first major black insurgency in decades. A standoff between the state's governors and the White Citizens' Council (WCC) forces led to a stalemate over the development of an effective coercive apparatus, with negative consequences for managing the desegregation crisis at the University of Mississippi. The chapter first considers the state of black education prior to Brown before discussing the crisis, triggered by the university's refusal to admit James Meredith—who was black— and Mississippi's resistance to the decision. It shows how a combination of intraelite dissensus and weak party–state capacities help explain the enclave's navigation of the desegregation crisis at the University of Mississippi.
“Integration with Dignity”
Authors: Mickey Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in Brown v. Board of Education sparked a crisis over the desegregation of Clemson College in South Carolina. Prior to Brown, South Carolina's rulers sought to preempt the invalidation of state-mandated segregation by improving black education. After the ruling, they launched a strategy of massive resistance: decrying, deterring, and deferring threats to white supremacy in the public sphere. The chapter first reviews the state of black education before Brown and South Carolina's attempts to preempt the decision. It then considers the state's responses to Brown in the 1950s and early 1960s, showing that its leaders attacked both white civil society and black protest organizations. It also describes how the state bolstered its institutional resources to manage democratization pressures and concludes with an assessment of how politicians capitalized on ruling party cohesion and an improved coercive apparatus to navigate the Clemson crisis.
“No, Not One”
Authors: Mickey Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in Brown v. Board of Education sparked a crisis over the desegregation of the University of Georgia (UGA) in Athens. On the eve of Brown, Georgia's ruling party remained controlled by the rural elites and white supremacist politicians composing the faction led by Governor Herman Talmadge. Through their massive resistance, enclave rulers successfully avoided the desegregation of state-supported schools for more than six years while also gaining headway in their repression of the statewide infrastructure of black protest. The chapter first reviews the state of black education in Georgia prior to Brown and the state's attempts to preempt the ruling before discussing how factional conflict affected rulers' development of new institutional defenses to ward off democratization pressures. It then considers the Talmadgeites' attacks on black protest throughout the 1950s and concludes by explaining how Georgia's rulers mishandled the UGA crisis.
The Allocation of Regulatory Powers Over Securities Markets
Authors: Lee Ruben
Published: November 2017

This chapter seeks to compare how different jurisdictions allocate regulatory powers over their securities markets. Rather than seek to present detailed descriptions of how any specific jurisdictions allocate such regulatory responsibilities, three surveys on the topic, covering various jurisdictions and institutions, are described and evaluated. The chapter is composed of four sections. The first two summarize key results from two surveys that examine the regulation of securities markets, and how regulatory powers over such markets are allocated—one prepared by the World Federation of Exchanges in 2004, and the other by the International Council of Securities Associations in 2006. The third section presents the results of a survey undertaken in 2006 for this book on how regulatory authority is allocated in eight jurisdictions with large securities markets. Conclusions are presented in the last section.
Who Should Regulate What?
Authors: Lee Ruben
Published: November 2017

The question of what regulatory authority over securities markets should be assigned to exchanges, central counterparties, and central securities depositories has long been controversial. This chapter explores this issue in the broader context of examining how regulatory powers should be allocated between government regulators, self-regulatory organizations, and other types of regulatory institutions. The chapter is composed of three sections. In the first, the complexity of the decision as to how to allocate regulatory powers in a jurisdiction is discussed. The second section lists and analyzes crucial factors and constraints that affect the relative merits of allocating regulatory powers to different types of institutions. The last section encapsulates these discussions and presents in a simple and accessible manner key lessons about how best to allocate regulatory powers in the securities markets. In order to do so, nine general propositions are articulated.
How Should Market Infrastructure Institution Governance Be Regulated?
Authors: Lee Ruben
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores what regulatory intervention in the governance of market infrastructure institutions is optimal. Attention is focused on how such intervention can enhance the realization of the three core objectives of securities markets regulation identified by International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO), namely the protection of investors, ensuring that markets are fair, efficient, and transparent, and the reduction of systemic risk. The chapter is divided into five sections. In the first, some preliminary comments are presented. In the next three sections, the manner in which regulatory intervention in the governance of market infrastructure institutions may promote each of the IOSCO core objectives in turn is examined. The last section encapsulates these discussions and presents key lessons about how best to regulate the governance of market infrastructure institutions. In order to do so, 16 general propositions are articulated.
German Morale After Tunisia
Authors: Neumann Franz
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the effect of Nazi defeat in Tunisia on German morale. The United Nations received many reports across a number of weeks of a marked deterioration in German “morale.” The defeat in Tunisia, according to these reports, drove home the lesson of Stalingrad and finally shattered the myth of Nazi Germany's invincibility, even for the Nazis. German propaganda was now having to concern itself seriously for the first time with the possibility of defeat. Tales of unrest, of war weariness, even of open opposition were appearing on every hand. For some observers, these items added up to a familiar pattern of impending collapse. The question became urgent whether, in fact, the United Nations had any ground for expecting Germany to repeat the debacle of 1918, from which Adolf Hitler learned a lesson.
Possible Patterns of German Collapse
Authors: Neumann Franz , Marcuse Herbert , Gilbert Felix
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the prospects facing Nazi Germany amid World War II by reviewing the patterns of German collapse in 1918. The breakdown of resistance in World War I was in the first instance a military phenomenon, though its course and outcome were determined by the social, economic, and political structure of the German nation as a whole. The high command recognized as early as August 13 that the war was definitely lost. Before discussing possible patterns of German collapse in 1944, the chapter examines the differences between 1918 and today. It then describes alternative courses that will remain open if the United Nations remain united—that is, if Germany's political warfare aimed at splitting them and at concluding a negotiated peace with either Russia or the Western Powers is unsuccessful. One scenario when the United Nations are split is for the Nazis to establish a shadow government to deal with Russia.
The Social and Political Effects of Air Raids on the German People: A Preliminary Survey
Authors: Neumann Franz
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the social and political effects of air raids on German morale during World War II. The strategic aerial bombing of Nazi Germany had increased to such an extent during the last twelve months that approximately 65,000 people were, at tbe time of the report, bombed out of their homes each week. The number of unusable destroyed houses in April 1944 totaled 1,600,000 in the Reich and the protected areas. A large number of the great industrial centers of Germany, such as Berlin, Hamburg, Bremen, the Ruhr district, Rostock, Hannover, Leipzig, Mannheim-Ludwigshafen, Stuttgart, Brunswick, Kassel, and Wiener-Neustadt had been severely damaged. The chapter considers the impact of the bombings on Germany's local defense program, the emergency relief measures implemented after the raids, problems of evacuation, the Nazi Party's propaganda reply to the raids, and how the bombings affected the German people, including the middle classes and workers.
The Abrogation of Nazi Laws in the Early Period of Mg
Authors: Kircheimer Otto
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines Nazi laws that must be abrogated in the early period of military government (MG). The report considers four major groups of laws that are in need of immediate abrogation: laws, and other legislative rules, which contradict the principle of the equality of all citizens before the law; measures wholly abrogating or restricting civil liberties; legislative measures which do not fit into the categories either of discriminatory laws or of laws restricting freedom, but the immediate abrogation of which would likewise appear to be imperative; and measures relating to the denazification of the judiciary and the ensuing necessity of suspending the activities of the courts for a certain period. The chapter also offers recommendations for the abrogation of discriminatory legislation and special privileges, non-discrimination in criminal law and procedures, and a general clause concerning the elimination of discrimination.
Policy Toward Revival of Old Parties and Establishment Of New Parties in Germany
Authors: Marcuse Herbert
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the policy toward the revival of old political parties and the establishment of new ones in post-war Germany from the point of view of the security of the occupying forces and the elimination of Nazism. It evaluates the prospective parties according to their probable attitude toward these two objectives of Allied military government. It also makes recommendations solely on the basis of these objectives. It is assumed, however, that the elimination of Nazism, as one of the purposes of the military occupation of Germany, includes the gradual restoration to the German people of the liberties necessary for the reconstruction of their society in a democratic form, which alone can eliminate the roots of Nazism in Germany. Accordingly, the parties and organizations which may be expected to oppose a democratic reconstruction of Germany are considered in relation to a possible revival of Nazism.
The Adaptation of Centralized European Controls of Raw Materials, Industry, And transport (October 30,1903)
Authors: Neumann Franz , Sweezy Paul
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on Germany's adaptation of centralized controls of European raw materials, industry, and transport. German economic controls aim to utilize all resources of occupied Europe, manpower, raw materials, machines and machine tools, railroads and other vehicles, industrial capacities, etc., for the German war effort. To achieve this, the report explains that the Germans have applied two methods: centralized machinery operating from Berlin and indigenous economic institutions that have been transformed so as to correspond to the German control patterns. Some of the major agencies regularly operating in German-occupied Europe are the Ministry of Armaments and Armament Production, German Purchasing Commissions for the Armed Forces under the Supreme Command of the Armed Forces, the organization of the Ministry of Economic Affairs, and the Commissioner General for Labor Supply. The chapter considers the technical and administrative problems involved in Germany's immediate post-war control over the European economy.
The “Statement on Atrocities” of the Moscow Tripartite Conference
Authors: Kircheimer Otto
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the “Statement on Atrocities,” which contains a joint declaration concerning war crimes and war criminals. Issued by the Tripartite Conference over the signatures of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Soviet Premier Josef Stalin, the report details that the declaration constitutes the first common announcement of intentions on the part of all three major powers. The chapter considers parallel statements issued on October 25, 1941, by Roosevelt and Churchill, which drew the attention of the world to the shooting of hostages during World War II and announced that retribution would be exacted from the guilty. It also addresses the question of the effect of the Moscow Declaration on Germany and the use which can be made of it in psychological warfare operations.
Problems Concerning the Treatment of War Criminals
Authors: Neumann Franz
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses problems concerning the treatment of war criminals. The report explains that the United Nations have announced as one of their major war aims the prosecution and punishment of war criminals. The Moscow “Statement on Atrocities,” following upon numerous official utterances of Allied leaders, has outlined certain procedures. The chapter considers additional steps that are deemed necessary to enable the Allied powers to implement the Moscow Statement and to coordinate their policy on war crimes and war criminals. For example, it is necessary to determine which of the manifold Axis policies and activities should be singled out as “war crimes.” Another issue that needs to be addressed concerns the arrest, detention, and extradition of war criminals.
Leadership Principle and Criminal Responsibility
Authors: Kircheimer Otto
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the leadership principle and criminal responsibility underlying the Nazi hierarchical organization. The report explains that according to Nazi theory, Nazi Germany's political community—built upon three basic pillars consisting of the Nazi Party, the state machine, and the military—is organized as an “order of leadership.” At the top of the structure was Adolf Hitler as Führer, but a great range of discretionary power was exercised by regional “sub-leaders” who were considered collaborators in the Nazi scheme. By drawing an analogy to the Nazi theory of leadership, a theory of incrimination in connection with war crimes might be developed which could be applied to fit the special circumstances arising under the Nazi hierarchy, and which might be much more comprehensible to an incriminated member of the Nazi Party or state than any technical established rule of law which might otherwise be followed.
The Potentials of World Communism
Authors: Marcuse Herbert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the potentials of international Communism, focusing on countries on the basis of their value as representatives of the different areas in which the ideology is now a significant factor in terms of the immediate availability of resources. The report traces the evolution and expansion of the Communist movement since its inception, noting how the main focus has shifted from the highly advanced countries of the West to the relatively backward area of the Eastern orbit. It suggests that Communism in the Eastern orbit has become a vast political, economic, and military system outside the capitalist world, with central power and direction located in the Soviet Union. The chapter also considers the Communist program, with particular emphasis on the “Two-Camp” theory and the chief components of the Communist plan today, including expansion in Asia. It concludes with an assessment of the assets and liabilities of world Communism.
Stable Isotopes and Radiocarbon
Authors: Bianchi Thomas S. , Canuel Elizabeth A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the basic principles surrounding the application of stable isotopes in natural ecosystems, which are based on variations in the relative abundance of lighter isotopes from chemical rather than nuclear processes. Due to faster reaction kinetics of the lighter isotope of an element, reaction products in nature can be enriched in the lighter isotope. These fractionation processes can be complex, but have proven to be useful in determining geothermometry and paleoclimatology, as well as sources of organic matter in ecological studies. The most common stable isotopes used in oceanic and estuarine studies are 18O, 2H, 13C, 15N, and 34S. The preference for using such isotopes is related to their low atomic mass, significant mass differences in isotopes, covalent character in bonding, multiple oxidations states, and sufficient abundance of the rare isotope. Living plants and animals in the biosphere contain a constant level of 14C, but when they die there is no further exchange with the atmosphere and the activity of 14C decreases with a half-life of 5730 ± 40 yr; this provides the basis for establishing the age of archeological objects and fossil remains.
Carbohydrates: Neutral and Minor Sugars
Authors: Bianchi Thomas S. , Canuel Elizabeth A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter covers carbohydrates, the most abundant class of biopolymers on Earth and significant components of water column particulate organic matter and dissolved organic matter in aquatic environments. Carbohydrates are important structural and storage molecules and are critical in the metabolism of terrestrial and aquatic organisms. Carbohydrates can be further divided into monosaccharides (simple sugars), disaccharides (two covalently linked monosaccharides), oligosaccharides (a few covalently linked monosaccharides), and polysaccharides (polymers made up of several mono- and disaccharide units). In phytoplankton, carbohydrates serve as important reservoirs of energy, structural support, and cellular signaling components. Carbohydrates make up approximately 20 to 40% of the cellular biomass in phytoplankton and 75% of the weight of vascular plants. Minor sugars, such as acidic sugars, amino sugars, and O-methyl sugars, tend to be more source-specific than major sugars and can potentially provide further information on the biogeochemical cycling of carbohydrates.
Isoprenoid Lipids: Steroids, Hopanoids, and Triterpenoids
Authors: Bianchi Thomas S. , Canuel Elizabeth A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses several classes of cyclic isoprenoids and their respective derivatives, which have proven to be important biomarkers that can be used to estimate algal and vascular plant contributions as well as diagenetic proxies. Sterols are a group of cyclic alcohols (typically between C26 and C30) that vary structurally in the number, stereochemistry, and position of double bonds as well as methyland ethyl-group substitutions on the side chain. Sterols are biosynthesized from isoprene units using the mevalonate pathway and are classified as triterpenes (i.e., consisting of six isoprene units). Marine organisms such as phytoplankton and zooplankton tend to be dominated by C27 and C28 sterols, while vascular plants have been shown to have a relatively high abundance of C29 sterols. The chapter shows that although C29 sterols are considered to be the dominant sterols found in vascular plants, these compounds may be present in certain epibenthic cyanobacteria and phytoplanktonic species, indicating that these compounds represent a very diverse and powerful suite of chemical biomarkers in aquatic ecosystems.
Of Modules, Motifs, and Whole Webs
Authors: McCann Kevin S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains the use of modular or motif-based theory to interpret the dynamics of whole food webs. According to Robert Holt, modules are “as motifs with muscles.” Holt's modular theory focuses on the implications of the strength of the interactions on the dynamics and persistence of these units. In this book, the term “module” means all motifs that include interaction strength, whereas the term “motif” represents all possible subsystem connections, including the trivial one-node/species case to the n-node/species cases. Part 2 considers the dynamics of important ecological modules or motifs such as populations, consumer–resource interactions, food chains, and omnivory, while Part 3 uses the logic attained from this modular or motif-based theory in order to elucidate the dynamics of whole food webs. The book argues that ecologists must make a concerted effort to understand how coupling different modules ultimately modifies flux within each individual module.
Lagged Consumer-Resource Dynamics
Authors: McCann Kevin S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the influence of biological lags on consumer–resource dynamics, with particular emphasis on how consumer–resource cycles, or the lack thereof, interact with population level dynamical phenomena. It first considers discrete consumer–resource interactions before discussing the dynamics of stage-structured consumer–resource interactions. It then explains how stage structure promotes the possibility of alternative stable states and changes consumer–resource interaction strength. It also shows how a change in population structure affects food web interactions and/or the strengths of food webs. Finally, it reviews empirical results that show how stage structure and food web interaction influence ecological stability. The chapter argues that weak and inherently stable consumer–resource interactions can mute a potentially unstable population level phenomenon, and that a dynamically decoupled stable stage class can strongly stabilize other stages and the consumer–resource interaction.
More Modules
Authors: McCann Kevin S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers four-species modules and the role of generalism (effectively a three-species module with a consumer feeding on two resources). It first examines how generalists affect the dynamics of food webs by focusing on a set of modules that contrast generalist consumer dynamics relative to the specialist case. It then discusses organismal trade-offs that play a role in governing the diamond food web module and the intraguild predation module, arguing that such tradeoffs influence the flux of matter, the organization of interaction strengths, and ultimately the stability of communities. The chapter also reviews empirical evidence showing that apparent competition and the diamond module with and without intraguild predation are ubiquitous, and that weak interactions in simple modules seem to promote less variable population dynamics.
Coupling Modules in Space: A Landscape Theory
Authors: McCann Kevin S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines food webs at the landscape scale by focusing on the large-scale food web architecture that is deeply constrained by space. It begins with a discussion of how variability in space, time, and food web structure, coupled with the ability of organisms to rapidly respond to variation, affect the maintenance of the food web and its functions. It then explains how individual traits such as body size and foraging behavior relate to food web structure in space and time. It also considers the role of spatial constraints on food webs and how the existence of fast–slow pathways coupled by mobile adaptive predators gives rise to spatial asynchrony in the resources. The chapter concludes with a review of some empirical examples to show that some food webs display the bird feeder effect and that resource coupling of distinct habitats appears to stabilize food webs.
Crown and Charter
Authors: Sabl Andrew
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores Hume's theory of fundamental conventions, of how “examples and precedents” come to count as “uniform and ancient.” Few deny that Hume regards both private and public law as matters of convention. But some have recognized that he regards certain conventions as fundamental: immune to alteration (except in the extremely long term, at least generations and more likely centuries) by the usual methods of political power and social change. The claim that Hume does believe in fundamental conventions, that he rests a distinctive form of constitutionalism on the foundations of custom and mutual advantage, is unusual. Part of the problem is that Hume for deliberate and political reasons avoids saying what counts as fundamental and how it becomes so.
Leadership and Constitutional Crises
Authors: Sabl Andrew
Published: November 2017

This chapter talks about what leadership can do to repair breaches in political conventions or to maintain them in the face of new configurations of power. When there are no stable political conventions at all—or when conquest or radical revolutions have torn existing ones up at the roots—leadership is as Machiavelli portrayed it in the Prince: a matter of force and guile, personal charisma and deliberate terror, whatever will convince people that the new leader's rule is relatively durable. But when long experience and relative satisfaction with the fruits of fundamental conventions have cemented the authority of an entire constitutional order, leadership takes the peaceful, bloodless form that political theorists rarely regard as the occasion of great heroism.