bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Second Republic: Austria Seen as a Continuum
Authors: Binder Dieter A.
Published: March 2009

TheOldAustrofascistsreturned from the concentration camps and from their time of suffering and brought back with them some democratic convictions. That was the “Austrian miracle,” as Leopold Figl used to say. Those on the Left who had emigrated remained mostly wherever they were, for safety's sake. Only a few returned to their homeland, where, in the beginning, they were not very welcome. In the distressful postwar situation, the politicians, all of whose reputations had become somewhat tarnished since 1934, remembered an aging Social Democrat who was beyond suspicion, a politician who in 1918 had already founded a “Republic of German-Austria’ and who, because of his consistent call for the annexation (Anschluβ) of Austria by Germany, had lived through the Nazi period unmolested in Gloggnitz. That is how Karl Renner first became federal chancellor and later was elected president of Austria. Under pressure from the Allies he discarded his pet idea of Anschluβ, became an Austrian in his old age, and was eventually honored with a monument by Alfred Hrdlička that all of Austria mocked because it was created by a “Communist,” and because it portrayed the sovereign [Landesvater] the way he really looked.
Habsburg Household or Habsburg Government? A Sixteenth-Century Administrative Dilemma
Authors: Fichtner Paula Sutter
Published: March 2009

Luck,Opportunism, andpersistence made the Habsburgs the predominant ruling house of Europe by 1527. The extent of the lands under their control awed both their neighbors and themselves. Emperor Ferdinand I, who, as Archduke Ferdinand I, added the venerable crowns of Bohemia and Hungary to his family's titles, later attributed his good fortune and that of his line as a whole to their staunch support of Catholicism.
Commentary: Central Europe Is Elsewhere
Authors: Beller Steven
Published: March 2009

Paul robert magocsi has written an informative and intelligent article about the relationship between the various nation-states of central Europe that found themselves behind the Iron Curtain and their respective national diasporas in North America. His comparison of the relationship between the countries and their diasporas at the “temporal nodes” of 1918 and 1989 suggests that the real difference between the two was that in 1918 the ideal of the nation-state was in the ascendancy, both in America and among the various central European national groups, whereas in 1989 the American diasporas were still beholden to the nation-state ideal at a time when their counterparts “back home” had moved on from the outdated nation-state ideal to embrace the supranational—or at least multinational—ideal of the European Union. This explains the relative importance of the diasporas in 1918 and their unimportance in 1989. Given the parameters of his subject, this is in general a useful and thoughtful thesis. There are, however, some points of detail that I would like to address; and, particularly for those who are interested in Austrian history and notions of Central Europe (with a capital “C”), there are broader aspects to the question, outside the given parameters, that merit discussion. It is to these broader aspects, centering on what we mean by “central European diasporas” and indeed “central Europe,” that the following commentary is mainly devoted.
The National and Social Origins of Parish Priests in the Archdiocese of Vienna, 1800–1870
Authors: Bowman William D.
Published: March 2009

Under The Influence of Enlightenment ideals of rational administration and cameralist notions of increasing the productivity and welfare of the populace, Joseph II and his ministers embarked on an aggressive program of reform for the Habsburg monarchy in the late eighteenth century. Their view as to what needed change was wide-ranging, but among their chief concerns was the desire to restructure the relationship between the Catholic church and Austrian society. As the largest and most powerful religious denomination in the Habsburg monarchy, the Catholic church possessed immense human and material resources, which could possibly be exploited to benefit the Austrian people and state. For Joseph II, the process whereby Catholicism could best be put to use in Austrian society necessarily involved seizing partial administrative control over the Catholic church. The Catholic church, he believed, did not distribute material and moral benefit to the Austrian people evenly, and changing this situation required the active intervention of the Austrian government.
The Austro-Hungarian Naval Officer Corps, 1867–1918
Authors: Sondhaus Lawrence
Published: March 2009

Two Decades Ago, Holger Herwig'sThe German Naval Officer Corps: A Social and Political History, 1890–1918(1973) chronicled the story of the new military elite that rose to prominence when imperial Germany went to sea: a corps that sought to emulate the traditions of the Prussian army, its middle-class officers eager to embrace the values and attitudes of the more aristocratic army officer corps.1 Recently Istvan Deak's excellent workBeyond Nationalism: A Social and Political History of the Habsburg Officer Corps, 1848–1918(1990) has provided a comprehensive picture of the officer corps of the Habsburg army.2 Like imperial Germany, Austria-Hungary was a central European land power with few long-standing traditions at sea, but differences in social composition, training, and outlook distinguished the Austro-Hungarian naval officer corps from its German counterpart. Within the Dual Monarchy the navy had to deal with the nationality question and other challenges that also faced the army, but in many respects its officer corps reflected the diversity of the empire more than the Habsburg army officer corps did, contributing to the navy's relatively more successful record as a multinational institution.
The National Movement in the Greek Orthodox Church in the Habsburg Monarchy
Authors: Turczynski Emanuel
Published: March 2009

After the Habsburg empire rose to the position of a great power and successfully defended itself against the expansionist drives of Ottoman imperialism, both the population and the territory of the southeastern part of the monarchy began to increase. As a consequence of this expansion, an increasing number of Orthodox peoples were incorporated into the multinational empire on various legal bases. The Orthodox population of the empire certainly did not constitute anything resembling an undivided unit, whether in regard to the language which the people spoke or the length of time they lived in the area or belonged to the Habsburg monarchy. A real community of interests existed only insofar as folklore, tradition, and their common legal struggle for religious freedom were concerned. This was especially true of the Serbs and the Rumanians. During the course of their struggle to attain religious freedom a hierarchical social structure, dominated by the Serbian higher clergy, came into being which remained in existence for a long period of time.
A Few Random Remarks
Authors: R.J.R.
Published: March 2009

For this volume of the Yearbook a few minor changes have been made in the original plans as outlined in the preface. In order to include in a single volume all articles bearing on the nationality question in the Habsburg empire, Walter Goldinger's essay on “The Nationality Question in Austrian Education” is published in Pt. 3 of this volume rather than in Vol. IV, as originally announced. Moreover, the editorial staff concluded that a work of this nature should be provided with an index. Finding space for these two additions, however, has necessitated a departure from the original plan of including a lengthy summary outlining the various points of view expressed by the participants of the conference.
Metternich versus Chateaubriand: Austria, France, and the Conclave of 1829
Authors: Reinerman Alan J.
Published: March 2009

The consensus on the moral aspect of the Papal election of 1829 expressed in the above statements represents an unusual agreement between two men who seldom agreed about anything, least of all about the conclave of 1829, which had been a battleground for their conflicting interests. This battle between two old rivals, their last conflict, as it turned out, adds interest to an event that was in itself important for the course of Restoration history. Although Chateaubriand's role has been studied, primarily from the viewpoint of literary rather than of diplomatic history, Metternich's part has been strangely ignored. Since it was the Austrian chancellor rather than the French ambassador who won this particular encounter, Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich deserves greater attention from historians than he has received. Consequently, this article is devoted primarily to the Austrian side of the struggle to elect a Pope in 1829.
Ignaz Seipel as European Statesman
Authors: von Klemperer Klemens
Published: March 2009

European historians and statesmen of the postwar period have little inclination to admire the statesmen of the period between the two world wars. In history books one reads again and again of the mediocrity, if not inadequacy, of those who presided over European affairs at that time. This judgment may apply to most of the statesmen of Great Britain and France and also to the majority of those in the Weimar Republic and its sister republic, Austria. When Hermann Bahr prepared the young priest, Ignaz Seipel, for a political career, he warned him of the “shortage” of “literate politicians” in Austria. And yet one should not too quickly generalize this phenomenon of mediocrity.
Jelačič and the Frontier in Modern History
Authors: Vucinich Wayne
Published: March 2009

Professor Rothenberg writes that his purpose was not to restate the case for or against Jelačić or to give yet another account of the complicated relationship between Zagreb, Pest, and Vienna. But it is not at all clear what the precise thesis of his paper is. The paper, based largely on archival materials and other primary sources, makes two very worthwhile contributions. It presents an excellent discussion of the appointment of Jelačić (whom the author considers “more a political general than a first rate field commander”) to the office of ban and Jelačić military and political activities during the crucial months of 1848 and 1849. And it enables us to understand more easily some of the more complicated aspects of Croatia's political history at that time.
An 1853 Formula for Ottoman Victory
Authors: Gooch Brison D.
Published: March 2009

Eighteen hundred and fifty-three was a fateful year in European diplomacy. The irritating and danger-laden Eastern Question once more moved out of the control of Europe's statesmen; and when the Ottoman and Russian empires locked in combat French and British leaders moved rapidly to form an alliance with the Turks. While objecting to implications by Tsar Nicholas that the government in Constantinople was “sick” and “dying,” the western nations testified to the validity of his remarks by their actions. Turkish moribundity was taken for granted in the next two years, and Turkey's allies were to treat her virtually as a satellite.
The Aftermath of Anschluβ: Disillusioned Germans or Budding Austrian Patriots?
Authors: Williams Maurice
Published: March 2009

In March, 1938, Germany annexed the Republic of Austria, ending that small country's brief experiment with democracy. Seemingly, the Austrian struggle to establish a national identity had been resolved. By proclaiming the reunion of Austria with Germany, the National Socialist Reich gave its answer to the riddle which had divided citizens of the First Republic for nearly twenty years: was Austria a “German state” and part of the German Reich, or was it a country with an independent identity?Anschluβappeared to provide the solution.
The Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv: Its History, Holdings, and Use
Authors: Neck Rudolf
Published: March 2009

When the old master of German historical research and historiography Leopold von Ranke congratulated the Austrian historian Alfred von Arneth on his appointment as director of the Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv on August 11, 1868, he pointed out that it was “the most important archive for German history.”1 A hundred years ago access to archives in general and those of the Habsburg empire in particular was very limited. Everywhere, archival material was still subject to a strict preliminary censorship before scholars could examine it, and most holdings were not available for research purposes. Yet, in spite of all these restrictions, Ranke could with a good conscience shower the Vienna archive with words of praise. Today the abundance of the treasures of the Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv, which are so generously put at the disposal of the researcher, proves Ranke's judgment to have been accurate. In many ways the archive deserves words of even higher praise than Ranke's, because it will always be a first-rate research center not only for German history but also for that of a large part of Europe. In historical significance it is now surpassed only by the Vatican archive in Rome; otherwise, it measures up well with all other archives, including those of Western Europe.2
The History of Austria in United States and Canadian Dissertations
Authors: Epstein Fritz T.
Published: March 2009

Warren F. Kuehl's list of United States and Canadian doctoral dissertations in history is an important American bibliographical reference work which no historian can afford to neglect. Yet, scholars of the history of the Habsburg monarchy find it difficult to make effective use of this valuable bibliography, for the bulk of the entries which are of potential interest to specialists in the field are listed under numerous subdivisions and are not consolidated under appropriate headings in the topical index. For instance, numerous dissertations dealing with nineteenth-century alliances, with multilateral negotiations involving the Austrian empire, such as the Congresses of Vienna, Paris, and Berlin, or with the diplomatic relations of the Habsburg monarchy and the Austrian Republic with neighboring states are listed under such diverse headings as “Eastern Question,” “Europe, Diplomacy,” “Alliance System and Concert of Europe,” or “Near East.” While most scholars use library catalogs largely for finding works written by particular authors, those who peruse dissertation lists are more often interested in ascertaining what has been written on specific topics.
R. John Rath: Historian
Authors: Grab Alexander , Judson Pieter M. , Miller James
Published: March 2009

In All likelihood, Reuben John Rath will be best remembered by Austrian historians for his achievements as an “academic entrepreneur, ” if only because enterprises like the Austrian History Yearbook have provided a common institutional bond that unites all of us in the field. Nonetheless, there are many scholars who will recognize him most for more solitary scholarly endeavors that he pursued with such persistence in European archives and with such painstaking care at the controls of a manual type-writer. Six decades of scholarship have produced three books and more than thirty articles in field-specific journals like the Journal of Central European Affairs, the Austrian History Yearbook, and Der Donauraum, as well as in the American Historical Review and the Journal of Modern History. Moreover, his work has made lasting contributions to three discrete fields of modern Austrian history. Hence the need to divide this historiographical retrospective into three segments on Napoleonic and Restoration Italy (by Alexander Grab), the Revolutions of 1848 (by Pieter M. Judson), and Engelbert Dollfuβ(by James Miller).
Austria between East and West: Budapest and Berlin, 1918–1919
Authors: Low Alfred D.
Published: March 2009

Situated in the very heart of Europe, German-Austria, pitiful remainder of the once glorious and powerful Habsburg empire, was in the immediate postwar period subject to influences from both the East and the West: from distant Russia, swept by revolution and civil war and anxious to spread the gospel of Bolshevism beyond her uncertain borders, and from the victorious democratic and capitalist West, especially France and Great Britain. The Entente seemed determined to protect Austria and Central Europe from the two chief dangers which loomed on the horizon: the thrust into neighboring Austria of the newly established Soviet Hungarian Republic—the second Soviet regime in the world—and Anschluss with the new German Republic—a union which would strengthen and aggrandize the Reich at a time when weakening the German colossus and preventing its resurgence seemed to the Western Powers to be imperative.
The Search for a Fatherland
Authors: Suval Stanley
Published: March 2009

The destruction of the Habsburg monarchy forced the Austrian Germans to make a wholly unforeseen and, with few exceptions, a heretofore unthinkable decision about their destiny. The rump Austria of 1919 was too weak to command the allegiance of all its citizens. Many Austrians, despairing of mastering the economic and political problems in Vienna, searched for an easier solution: the realization of the forbidden but still anticipated unification with their conationals in the German Republic. For it seemed in retrospect that only their Habsburg loyalties had separated them from the main channel of the Germanic stream. Often Austrian civic virtues seemed to them to have been bought at some rummage sale of political ideas—the symbols of imperial order, the loyalties of political Catholicism, a collection of Francis Joseph's virtues—hardly the raw material from which to build patriotism in postwar Austria.
Between Bourbon and Habsburg: Elite Political Identities at Freiburg im Breisgau, 1651–1715
Authors: Wallace Peter G.
Published: March 2009

In his classic analysis of state building by the Austrian Habsburgs in early modern Central Europe, R. J. W. Evans argues that the dynasty's eventual success in asserting its will over a conglomerate of separate, coherent territories with time-honored claims to political liberties followed the sometimes troubled trajectory of crown-aristocratic relations. The cultural impetus for political centralization was the mix of reform within the Catholic Church and counterreform measures taken against powerful Protestant subjects among the nobles and civic elites. By the 1650s the ability of Habsburg officials in Vienna to govern effectively the dynasty's various holdings rested firmly on a dyarchy of the ruling house and regional nobles who shared a common baroque Catholic faith and an investment in a system of court patronage that fostered collaboration rather than resistance in the far-flung empire.
When Film Became National:“Talkies” and the Anti-German Demonstrations of 1930 in Prague
Authors: Wingfield Nancy Meriwether
Published: March 2009

Film wasa relatively new commercial-entertainment medium in the summer of 1930, and newerstill were the “talkies.” Unforeseen cultural difficulties accompanied the advent of sound films, to which spoken language gave an intrinsic national character. Language accentuated national differences in feeling and thought, and since audiences could no longer “naturalize” films, they could not adopt the imaginative content of sound films as their own “cultural territory.” American audiences mocked the nasal English accents in British films, while the British hissed American accents and Parisians greeted the first American ”talkie” with cries of “Speak French!” In Czechoslovakia, historical circumstances complicated popular reaction to sound films. With the founding of the state in 1918, Czechs had rejected their Austrian legacy and attempted to enforce a Czech character in all aspects of public life.
Comments
Authors: Hausler Wolfgang
Published: March 2009

Rabinbach has made a valuable contribution to the study of the Jewish migration within the Habsburg monarchy, the most noteworthy phenomenon of which was the wholesale mass movement of Galician Jews to Vienna during the second half of the nineteenth century. The author, relying mainly on contemporary statistical records for source material, ably documents the increase in Jewish inhabitants in Vienna from one to ten percent of the total population during this period.
“By and By We Shall Have an Enlightened Populace”: Moral Optimism and the Fine Arts in Late-Eighteenth-Century Austria
Authors: Wangermann Ernst
Published: March 2009

I should like to begin by recalling my own occasional points of contact with Robert Kann. When his first book, the great two-volume work on the nationality problem in the Habsburg Empire, was published, I was a student about to embark on research on eighteenth-century Austria, and took little notice of any large works not on my research period. Later, teaching nineteenth-century European history, I came to appreciate its wide range and deep insights. By the time his highly original Study in Austrian Intellectual History was published in 1960, my career as a historian had prospered sufficiently for me to be offered this book for review by a leading British historical periodical. I commented very positively on his analysis of Abraham a Sancta Clara. Turning to the chapters on Joseph von Sonnenfels, however, I took the opportunity of presenting some results of my own research on Sonnenfels, which had only just been published and which I thought called some of his judgments into question. Unlike many Central European academics of his generation, Robert Kann did not resent criticism by a younger colleague; hence I have memories of some pleasant and stimulating meetings with him in Vienna during the time he held an honorary professorship there.
Reform Catholicism and Religious Enlightenment
Authors: Sorkin David
Published: March 2009

The nature and scope of Reform Catholicism has been debated intermittently since the movement's emergence in the eighteenth century. The debate has peaked at those moments in which the movement's legacy became most relevant to the contemporary religious and political scene, and the period of the past few decades has been one of those moments.2Reform Catholicism in the Holy Roman Empire has long been misunderstood because the politicization of the 1760s and 1770s and the radicalization of the 1780s and 1790s have cast the earlier stages into obscurity or disrepute.
Vienna 1900 Revisited: Paradigms and Problems
Authors: Janik Allan
Published: March 2009

The pleasure and honor attached to delivering the Kann Lecture is only outweighed by the responsibility of pursuing the high ideal of scholarship set by Professor Kann. Thus, to deliver the Kann Lecture is an especially daunting task if the challenge is to do justice to the multifarious developments in the field of Austrian cultural history since the appearance of his penetratingStudy in Austrian Intellectual History. It will become clear in the course of my lecture that my praise of Kann is more than a pro forma courtesy. However, I should indicate at once that my concern is with his contribution—alas neglected—to the discussion ofmethodin Austrian cultural studies.
Some Reflections on the Habsburg Empire and Its Legacy in the Nationalities Question
Authors: Wank Solomon
Published: March 2009

The startling events of the last five years in Eastern Europe have led to a surprising nostalgia for the Austro-Hungarian monarchy and Emperor Francis Joseph in the lands of the former Habsburg Empire. Politicians and journalists in Europe and America now compare the old empire to the disoriented East Central Europe of today and hold up the former as a positive model for a supranational organization. The current wave of nostalgia has been helped along by some recent historical works that certainly were not written for that purpose, but that contain generous assessments of the monarchy's positive qualities. For example, István Deák, in his highly acclaimed book,Beyond Nationalism: A Social and Political History of the Habsburg Officer Corps, 1848–1918, strongly recommends that the “Habsburg experiment” in supranational organization be reexamined: “I am convinced that we can find here a positive lesson while the post-1918 history of the central and east central European nation-states can only show US what to avoid.” Similar positive statements can be found in the recently published works of Alan Sked, Barbara Jelavich, and F. R. Bridge.
Hungarian Contradictions
Authors: Pók Attila
Published: March 2009

It is always a risky venture to comment on an article that focuses on issues that lie outside one's own immediate research—risky because one is not familiar with most of the primary sources and with many of the controversies among the specialists in the field. On the other hand, as the gynecologist is just as much a doctor as an ophthalmologist or a surgeon, and they all aim at curing their patients of disease, historians specializing in various fields also belong to the same guild. A perspective from a certain distance can be especially useful if two historians ask closely related questions about the social, intellectual, and political history of a region they both belong to, but make attempts at the answers using differing materials from different epochs.
Realpolitik or Concert Diplomacy: The Debate over Austrian Foreign Policy in the 1860's
Authors: Elrod Richard B.
Published: March 2009

The third quarter of the nineteenth century witnessed momentous changes in the style of European diplomacy and statecraft. The generation of Klemens von Metternich, Alexander I, and Viscount Castlereagh gave way to that of Louis Napoleon, Viscount Palmerston, Camillo Benso di Cavour, and Otto von Bismarck. The previous conservative consensus among the great powers that had feared war and revolution and valued harmony, peace, and stability succumbed to other ideas and attitudes that accentuated the diversity and the rivalry of the European family of states. The precepts of Concert diplomacy that had formerly regulated relations between the powers were no longer obeyed or respected. Between 1854 and 1871 Europe experienced five wars involving great powers; from 1815 to 1854 there had been only two. Obviously the old european system that had discouraged direct challenges and confrontations was crumbling.
Richard von Kralik's Search for a Fatherland
Authors: Large David C.
Published: March 2009

“A great idea,” observed Robert Musil in hisThe Man without Qualities, is typically found in “a kind of molten state, as a result of which the ego enters into infinite expanses and the expanse of the universe enters into the ego, whereby it ceases to be possible to recognize what belongs to oneself and what to the infinite.” No wonder that “at every attempt to get hold of it in cold words it evaporates into nothingness.”
Comments
Authors: Ackerl Isabella
Published: March 2009

At first glance, Richard Kralik, historian of many interests, cultural philosopher, and poet, would seem to have almost nothing in common with the philosopher Hans Eibl. It is not at all understandable how these two learned men, to whom every-day politics was alien, were of any considerable influence on the forming of political-ideological opinion of students. Kralik and Eibl belonged to that group of intellectuals of Catholic and nationalist leaning who supplied, with their speeches and writings, the intellectual armament of an apparently harmonious combination of Catholicism, German nationalism, and National Socialism.
The Serbs in Austria-Hungary
Authors: Vucinich Wayne S.
Published: March 2009

That there is as yet no good history of the Serbs in Austria-Hungary is not surprising. Such a work would have to treat not one but several separate Serbian communities. A number of Serbs had lived on imperial lands from the time they colonized the Balkans, but most of them settled in Austria-Hungary after the Ottoman invasion of the Balkan Peninsula in the fourteenth century.2 Some Serbian communities in Austria-Hungary were more oppressed than others and had less opportunity for social advancement. Certain of them were blessed with rich lands that yielded abundant crops, while others were settled on starved lands from which they could barely earn a living. A few made their homes astride important trade routes and near major centers of civilization and others in relatively isolated communities. A small minority became successful merchants and artisans and some of them amassed fair-sized fortunes. There were among the Serbs well-to-do landowners (including the Serbian Church) and a handful of Serbs who had titles. Eventually a number of Serbs became distinguished as high ranking officers in the emperor's army and as scholars and professional men.3 But most Serbs in Austria-Hungary were peasants and remained so.
The Serbs as an Integrating and Disintegrating Factor
Authors: Djordjević Dimitrije
Published: March 2009

The development of nineteenth century Europe was marked by the evolution of the principle of nationalism, the democratization of political and social life, an economic boom, the progress of technology, and a spirit of realism and materialism in both science and culture. The diffusion of new national, social, and political ideas inevitably seriously disturbed the established order. Whereas in countries with a relatively homogeneous population from the point of view of nationality the resulting conflicts assumed the form of internal social and political crises, in multinational states such as the Habsburg and Ottoman empires national movements became disintegrating forces. Under the pressure of self-conscious nationalities, the old nationally heterogeneous monarchies entered their final period of crisis and gave way before those national forces which represented the dominant movements and ideas of a new era. The old integrating forces—the socially dominant feudal nobility and the army and bureaucracy, which were the most cohesive political elements and which were permeated with absolutism and legitimism—were destroyed by new and disintegrative nationalist and democratic movements that championed ideas of national, social, and political freedom. All the great national liberation movements of nineteenth century Europe from the time of the unification of the Italian and German nations and the liberation of the peoples of the Balkans until the collapse of the Habsburg and Ottoman empires took place at the expense of these two empires. The national crisis caused by the disintegrative aspirations of the various peoples within its boundaries made it difficult for the Habsburg monarchy to adjust to the new currents of democracy and social reform. As a result, the nationality question became more and more closely linked with the growing internal social and economic crisis. At the beginning of the twentieth century these three forces merged into a violent centrifugal force.
The Croatian Problem in the Habsburg Empire in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Jelavich Charles
Published: March 2009

The fundamental fact in the nationality issue in Croatia in the nineteenth century is that by 1914 the majority of the most influential political leaders of the Croats assumed that the indefinite survival of an independent united Croatia, based on the national principle alone, was a political and international impossibility. Once having accepted this premise, which was based on careful consideration of the conditions of their historical past and their position in Europe, the Croatian leaders were compelled to seek a solution to their political future which was in conflict with the major trend of the nineteenth century, namely, the political unification of ethnically homogeneous people into a sovereign state. Although there was a strong nationalist movement in Croatia, which aimed at the creation of an independent state, it could not deal with the realities of the Croatian position. Practical considerations thus left the Croatians with two alternatives: they could either remain within the framework of the Habsburg empire, in union with Vienna or Budapest or both; or they could join with the Serbs and Slovenes in a federal South Slav state. The story of nineteenth-century nationalism in Croatia centers on the vacillation between these two possibilities. The aim at all times was to find the combination which would best protect the Croatian national individuality, since Croatia alone did not have the necessary prerequisites for a completely independent national existence.2
Comments
Authors: Lederer Ivo J.
Published: March 2009

By the turn of the twentieth century the disintegrative role of the nationalities in the Habsburg empire had gained a momentum that would probably have been impossible to arrest. But whether, in the larger scheme, it was the nationalities or military debility and other factors that sealed the fate of the empire is an issue which will doubtless continue to produce dissent.
The Poles as an Integrating and Disintegrating Factor
Authors: Wereszycki Henryk
Published: March 2009

The question of whether the Poles were an integrating or a disintegrating factor within the Habsburg monarchy has yet to be fully studied by Polish historians. Up to now they have concerned themselves mainly with the part played by the Austrian empire in the history of the Polish nation after the eighteenth century partitions and have overlooked the role of the Poles in the Austrian empire. They have concentrated their attention on the fate of the territories of the historic Polish state which fell under Habsburg rule and have studied the social, cultural, and political transformations which affected Galicia during the century and a half of Austrian domination. Polish historians have even studied the contributions made by former Habsburg subjects to the reconstruction of the Polish state after the dissolution of the monarchy, but they have rarely discussed the part which the Poles took in the political life of the multinational empire.
The Challenge of Industrialization: The Catholic Church and the Working Class in and around Vienna, 1815–1848
Authors: Gordon Bertram M.
Published: March 2009

The period from the fall of Napoleon in 1815 to the March, 1848, Revolution brought to the Habsburg empire the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution, with all its attendant social evils. Increasing poverty, vice, and crime presented a growing challenge to the Catholic clergy, traditionally the custodians of moral standards in the monarchy. In the larger cities, most notably in Vienna, priests and bishops could no longer ignore the social problems arising in the expanding industrial towns. This study seeks to explore the extent to which Austrian churchmen, particularly those in the archdiocese of Vienna, where the greatest industrial activity occurred, involved themselves in the problems of the increasing numbers of factory workers in the new towns surrounding the capital during the period before 1848.
Count Buol and the Metternich Tradition
Authors: Austensen Roy A.
Published: March 2009

In 1835 the Sardinian Minister in Vienna, Count Vittorio Amadeo Bertone di Sambuy, wrote that Count Karl Ferdinand von Buol-Schauenstein, then Austrian envoy to Baden, was a man of whom there had been “great expectations,” which somehow had never been realized. Sambuy spoke too soon, of course, since Buol subsequently occupied some of the most sensitive and prestigious posts in the Austrian service, including those at Turin, St. Petersburg, and London, and ended his long career serving as Austrian foreign minister from 1852 to 1859. But many historians, taking the lead from a few of his contemporaries, have continued to write that Buol did not live up to expectations of one who belonged to the Metternichian school of diplomacy. Austrian historians in particular have been hard on him, universally judging him as quite unfit for the office of foreign minister. Heinrich von Srbik, probably the most widely respected modern interpreter of the Metternich tradition, referred to Buol as a “weak copy of the original Schwarzenberg.” Srbik, Heinrich Friedjung, Richard Charmatz, and others blamed him for the decline of Austria's prestige in Europe after the death of Prince Felix Schwarzenberg and for the difficulties Austria faced in Germany, the Near East, and Italy during the course of his ministry. In their view, Metternich and Schwarzenberg had always secured for Austria the alliances necessary for her to maintain her power and influence in Europe. Buol, on the other hand, squandered the legacy of Austrian prestige and good relations with foreign powers left to him by Schwarzenberg through high-handedness and incompetence.”
Trends in qualitative research in language teaching since 2000
Authors: Richards Keith
Published: March 2009

This paper reviews developments in qualitative research in language teaching since the year 2000, focusing on its contributions to the field and identifying issues that emerge. Its aims are to identify those areas in language teaching where qualitative research has the greatest potential and indicate what needs to be done to further improve the quality of its contribution. The paper begins by highlighting current trends and debates in the general area of qualitative research and offering a working definition of the term. At its core is an overview of developments in the new millennium based on the analysis of papers published in 15 journals related to the field of language teaching and a more detailed description, drawn from a range of sources, of exemplary contributions during that period. Issues of quality are also considered, using illustrative cases to point to aspects of published research that deserve closer attention in future work, and key publications on qualitative research practice are reviewed.
Collision-free trajectory control for multiple robots based on neural optimization network
Authors: Lee Jihong , Bien Zeungnam
Published: March 2009

A collision-free trajectory control for multiple robots is proposed. The proposed method is based on the concept of neural optimization network. The positions or configurations of robots are taken as the variables of the neural circuit, and the energy of network is determined by combining various functions, in which one function is to make each robot approach to its goal and another helps each robot from colliding with other robots or obstacles. Also a differential equation of the circuit which tends to minimize the energy is derived. A new method for describing collision between articulated arms is presented and some heuristic method to improve the feasibility and the safety of the trajectory is proposed. Also illustrative simulation results for mobile robots and articulated robot arms are presented.
Robotic picking of citrus
Authors: Harrell R.C. , Adsit P.D. , Munilla R.D. , Slaughter D.C.
Published: March 2009

A prototype robot for picking citrus is described which utilized real-time, color machine vision to vision-servo the robot on a targeted fruit. A programming technique is presented which simplified development of the task-level, robot control program. An economic evaluation of robotic harvesting in Florida determined that robotic harvesting would be approximately 50 percent more expensive than conventional hand harvesting. Harvest inefficiency was identified as the most influential factor affecting robotic harvesting economics. Field trial performance is summarized and the potential of commercial robotic harvesting discussed.
Robotics and prawn-handling
Authors: Kassler Michael
Published: March 2009

Prawns are a significant marine resource in Australia and elsewhere, but their processing after the harvest is a very labour-intensive operation. Every prawn is presently hand packed. The possibility of utilising machine vision and robots to automate this operation has been investigated. Experiments indicate that machine vision can classify prawns into mass-related categories better than people now do, and that prawn orientation can be determined by this means. Although at the present state of technology it appears infeasible for robots to make up the multi-layer fixed-weight packs of prawns as is now done manually, a change to single-layer variable-weight packs should allow this process to be automated and would offer significant advantages to the Australian industry.
Design of a compact statically balanced direct-drive manipulator
Authors: Abdel-Rahman Tarek M. , Elbestawi M.A.
Published: March 2009

This paper addresses the conceptual design of direct-drive manipulators which have good promise for high speed, high precision manipulation. In the design methodology presented, the procedure begins by considering the kinematic aspects and ends by configuring manipulator structures with promising kinematic and dynamic characteristics. Based on the conceptual design considerations, a novel 3 DOF (RRR) direct-drive manipulator is proposed and analyzed. The manipulator structure has only five links and a compact configuration. Manipulator kinematics and dynamics are analyzed. Design guidelines are derived for static balancing of the manipulator and for minimizing the inertias driven by the motors. Operational configurations that either improve or worsen the kinematic and dynamic behaviour or characteristics of the manipulator are identified. The proposed design has an advantage over many currently known direct-drive manipulators for achieving two desirable mechanical features, namely: static balancing and compactness (smaller driven inertias).
On the design of a direct drive 5-bar-linkage manipulator
Authors: Huissoon J. P. , Wang D.
Published: March 2009

The 5-bar-linkage manipulator configuration is well suited to many industrial robotic applications. Aside from kinematic suitability, the dynamic equations are greatly simplified due to a decoupling of the manipulator inertia matrix. The design also lends itself to the use of direct drive motors. However, these motors must be capable of providing a high continuous torque to counter gravitational loading in the conventional manipulator design. In this paper, the static and dynamic design of the 5-bar-linkage manipulator is analysed. A technique is proposed whereby the motor torque requirements may be reduced to a fraction of those required in the conventional design, while simultaneously retaining the advantage of a decoupled inertia matrix. Details of a prototype manipulator and experimental results of its performance are presented.
Controlling a manipulator using sensory motor interaction
Authors: Gurfinkel' V. S. , Devyanin E. A. , Lensky A. V. , Mozhzhevelov S. B. , Formal'sky A. M. , Shneider A. Yu
Published: March 2009

The control of a robot manipulator with force sensors in the gripping tips is considered. The sensors measure three components of the force. Complicated motions of the manipulator are complied from basic movements, and the paper describes how the operation of grasping an arbitrarily positioned object is constructed from the basic movements. A mathematical model of the basic procedure of keeping contact with the object is considered.
Editorials
Authors: Chilver Henry , Engelberger J. F. , Baker Kenneth
Published: March 2009

Of all the fields of modern technology, robotics is likely to be one of the most influential in changing the very nature of our society.

In the past, the term "robot" has tended to conjure up pictures of automatonlike machines, often seen as a threat to people themselves. The concept of the robot goes back many decades, but-with the introduction of modern microelectronics - the whole field of robotics has been given a new impetus and exciting prospects. We can achieve almost automatic manufacture of a whole range of goods and products. Moreover, these can be made by robots with consistency of quality, both in mass production and in smaller batches. The manufacturing operations which can be automated are not only those of assembly but also of joining.
R & D in human aspects of robotic technology
Authors: Taylor John E.
Published: March 2009

The author stresses the need for relevant empirical data concerning the organizational and human factors resulting from the introduction of robots. After discussing automation in industry and business, as well as military and space applications, the author identifies the problems and consequences arising out of robotization in industry. He concludes with a plea for meshing the robot and social technologies in order to bring about economic and technological revitalization.
Co-operation of robots in gripping tasks: the exchange problem
Authors: Zapata René , Dauchez Pierre , Coiffet Philippe
Published: March 2009

A grasping task is often the first stage to be carried out in an assembly or handling task. This paper points out one aspect of the grasping problem: How to manipulate an industrial part with robots in order to bring it to the right location and orientation according to a desired task (assembly, storage, movement,…)?
A new elastic structure for a compliant robot wrist
Authors: Havlík Štefan
Published: March 2009

A new elastic structure of a robot wrist, which exhibits a six decree of freedom flexural capability, is described. Force and compliance analysis is made, and algorithms for geometrical parameter synthesis are proposed. Owing to the technological simplicity of the designed structure, it is possible to construct cost-effective compliance devices. The intended use is to permit the assembly of close tolerance parts with industrial robots having relatively low positional accuracy. It could also be applied to other manual or automatic matching operations.
Robots and mining: the implications for Australian industry in the 1980's
Authors: Kassler M.
Published: March 2009

After elucidating the terms ‘mining’ and ‘robot’, a historical background to the problem of mining is described, with emphasis on the use of technology. Various reasons for the increasing utilisation of technology are discussed, as regards the mechanisation of existing operations and those unachievable without new technology. It is asserted that the mining industry has a number of particular features that make increasing mechanisation especially attractive. The point is made that the ultimate stage of the historical tendency towards the use of new technology is fully automatic mining, a goal that may not be realised, however, in the next decade.

The above historical discussion is followed by a critical appraisal of the conservative nature of the Australian industry and the study of the various factors that contribute to the slow uptake of new technology in mining.

Attention is then concentrated on the general problem of robots and mining. It is shown that worldwide there were no applications of robots to mining up to the end of 1981. A wide study has been carried out to identify some uses of robots in mining, but without success.

The next topic to be discussed is the widespread confusion about robots and teleoperators. The fundamental difference between the two is underlined, and particular attention is paid to Thring's teleoperator mining concept (telechiric mining). It is emphasized that telechiric mining will have no significant impact upon Australian mining in this decade.

These pessimistic asssessments are followed by claims that in some areas robotic concepts, though not robots themselves, could have a considerable effect on mining automation in the 1980's, both in Australia and elsewhere. The following projects are enumerated as possible candidates for applying robotic concepts: Surface mining; Mine development; Underground coal transport; Coal winning; Coal preparation. In order to make progress, it is recommended that a robotics expert ought to be included in the interdisciplinary teams studying the problem of mining automation.

The last part of this paper is devoted to Australia's need for robotic mining. A list of systems involving robotic concepts is presented that may be realised in the current decade. It is maintained that Australia ought to develop a few of such systems for the domestic and international markets, and that the short-term needs of the Australian mining industry are fundamentally different from those of other Australian industries as regards robots. Hence, decisions regarding robots for mining should be made independently from those appertaining to automation problems of other industries.