bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ku poprawie jakości systemu, czyli logika racjonalizacji i ekonomizacji w kształtowaniu polityki szkolnictwa wyższego w Polsce
Authors: Dziedziczak‑Foltyn Agnieszka
Published: August 2017

The dynamic development of higher education in Poland of the last quarter
of a  century belongs to the most spectacular achievements of the system
transformation. That development, however, is virtually limited to a quantitative
progress which could be illustrated by the record high enrolment ratios (and the
number of higher education institutions), accompanied by a striking scarcity of
financial resources earmarked for this sector – several times lower than in the
leading European countries. A qualitative progress that Poland could be proud of,
however, did not follow. The economic and political change has led to a sudden
marketization of higher education, stimulating the processes of competitiveness,
unfortunately without policy makers’ paying adequate attention. At the same
time, together with the increasing European integration, Poland developed
modernization strategies in this sector. They focused on economic rationalization,
which was dictated by European policies and global challenges.  Therefore, the
changes in higher education took place under the banners of neoliberal reforms,
and included such slogans as new public management and managerialism. One
law after another has increasingly stressed that kind of logic in reforming higher
education institutions. It seems that in the situation of permanent underfunding
of the whole sector, that approach was meant to be a lifeline for Polish schools,
practically absent from the global world of science and higher education. The goal
of the paper is to present how the concept of economic improvement of higher
education in Poland evolved as a whole, mainly in the higher education policy and
legislative dimension, including the most significant consequences of the said
improvement for the quality of the entire system.

Keywords: higher education, reform of higher education, law on higher education,
higher education policy, economization, rationalization.
Mentoring Culture as Employees’ Career Success Factor in Polish Organizations
Authors: Marzec Izabela
Published: August 2017

Changes in employment relationships and the spread of flexible forms of employment call for the search for such methods of employee development that would better fit the needs of both employees and Polish organizations in a turbulent environment. Studies of litera‑ ture on the subject point out the importance of mentoring culture for the development of employees’ competences and their career success. This paper tries to answer the question: in what way creating the culture of mentoring can contribute to employee objective and subjective career success in organizations? This goal will be achieved by presenting the results of a survey research carried out in 155 organizations operating in southern Poland. Generally, the findings suggest that mentoring culture is positively related to subjective success but it is not connected with objective success of employees.
Korporacje jako konkurenci uniwersytetów na rynku usług edukacyjnych
Authors: Klich Jacek
Published: August 2017

Растущий доступ к информации и использование современных технологий
в сфере приобретения знаний и обмен знаниями требуют от университетов (которые
в традиционном смысле понимаются как центры получения знаний и квалификации),
изменения их стратегии. Одним из существенных факторов, заставляющим ввести
изменения, является расширение участия корпораций в подготовке кадров. Целью
статьи является попытка изложить позицию корпорации на рынке образовательных
услуг (главным образом в США) и выявление других образовательных проектов,
предпринимаемых корпорацией. Статья является попыткой ответить на вопрос,
в какой степени корпорации могут быть главным конкурентом для университетов.
В статье была использованв литература на эту тему, доступная в базах данных
Science Direct i  EBSCO и информации, доступные на интернетовых сайтах. Статья
не является глубоким, тщательным анализом этой проблемы, но она заставляет
серьёзно задуматься над изменяющейся ролью университетов в процессе высшего
образования.

Слова‑ключи: исследования управления, корпоративные университеты, образование
в корпорациях, обучение в корпорациях.
It’s about valence: Historical continuity or historical discontinuity as a threat to social identity
Authors: Roth Jenny , Huber Michaela , Juenger Annkatrin , Liu James H.
Published: August 2017

National identity is underpinned by historical representations. Recent research shows that narratives presenting an in-group’s history as discontinuous rather than continuous raise collective angst, suggesting that historical discontinuity threatens social identity. This previous research has focused on positive aspects of an in-group’s past. The present research aims to extend the findings to go beyond positive histories. We suggest that when the in-group’s actions in the past are presented as negative, historical continuity instead of discontinuity will increase perceived identity threat because a negative, continuous history threatens group members’ need for a positive social identity in the present. In an experiment with a sample size of N = 316, we manipulated the narrated valence of in-group actions during the historical event of the approval of the German constitutional law by framing the group’s actions in either positive or negative terms. In addition, we presented the in-group’s history as connected or disconnected to the in-group’s present. Results demonstrate that historical continuity only decreased identity threat compared to historical discontinuity when the in-group’s past behavior was presented as positive. When the in-group’s past was presented as negative, continuity even increased identity threat compared to historical discontinuity. These results were particularly pronounced for people who strongly identified with their national in-group. We discuss implications of the findings for political communication and managing a nation’s perception of social identity threat.
How do formal caregivers experience the sexuality of older adults? Beliefs and attitudes towards older adults’ sexuality
Authors: Monteiro Ana , von Humboldt Sofia , Leal Isabel
Published: August 2017

Aim

The way caregivers experience the sexuality of older adults has implications to their identity and sexual manifestations. There are few studies that focus on the meaning of caring of older adults, taking into account their sexuality. This study aims to explore the experiences of formal caregivers (FC) towards sexuality among older adults, and to obtain a description of their experiences.

Method

Complete data were available from six caregivers working in a nursing home. We used a sociodemographic questionnaire and topic interview guide. The data was subjected to content analysis.

Results

The most prevalent response of the interviewed participants for ‘beliefs about the interest in sexuality’ was ‘health limitations despite the desire’, for ‘observed behaviours related to sexual expression’ was ‘masturbation’, and for ‘reactions/behaviours due to the demonstration of sexual expression was ‘using humour”.

Conclusion

Future educational and intervention programs in the institution should take into account our findings to improve their efficacy on discussing these issues and to ultimately promote sexual wellbeing.
Impact of Climate Change on Sugarcane and Wheat Crops in District Hyderabad Sindh, Pakistan
Authors: Mohsin Ali Khatian  , Moula Bux Peerzado  , Arshad Ali Kaleri  , Rameez Raja Kaleri  , Allah Wasayo Kaleri  , Jay Kumar Soothar  , Mahendar Kumar  , Siraj Ahmed Baloch  , Mukesh Kumar Soothar
Published: August 2017

Present research was conducted to observe the effect of climatically changes on agricultural crops, especially focusing on major climatic variable changes such as (temperature and rainfall) on wheat and sugarcane productions. Therefore this study is attempt to examine the climate change impact on production of wheat and sugarcane crops in Hyderabad district to measure the fluctuations every month during last 12 years from 2002 to 2014. Thus the following objectives were studied. To examine climate change (temperature and rainfall) scenario in the study area. To observe climate change impact on sugarcane and wheat crops of Hyderabad district, and to see the effect of temperature on the growth performance of wheat and sugarcane crop since 2002 to 2014. Findings of the study shows positive impact on sugarcane and wheat crop. Moreover 1 oC temperature increases then wheat yield increases 30.04 kgs/acre. Similarly 1oC increase temperature increases sugarcane yield rise by the amount of 450 kgs/acre respectively. Additional, to see the average growth rate from 2002 to 2014, where it reveals that the temperature growth rate was increased 0.6 0C in April. While 1 oC increased in June which is highest growth rate, similarly in July and August were 0.5 0C and 0.5 0C was increased respectively, Kharif temperature having increasing trend. Moreover in Rabi season there is high fluctuation in February which was 0.4 oC. It Is concluded that in last the trend of temperature fluctuations from 2002 to 2014. in the Kharif season temperature in April, May, June, July, August and September were 2.4, 1.25, 6.1, 0.85, 2.75, 3.55, moreover the fluctuations of Rabi season in October, November, December, January, February, March were average 2, 1.42, 1, 2.3, 1.1, and 2.2 respectively.
Antagonistic potential of native agrocin-producing non-pathogenic Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain UHFBA-218 to control crown gall in peach
Authors: Sharma Aditi , Gupta A. K. , Khosla K. , Mahajan Rishi , Bharti  , Mahajan P. K.
Published: August 2017

A non-pathogenic agrocin-producing native isolate of Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain UHFBA-218 was tested as a biological control agent against the peach crown gall. This strain was compatible with all the recommended pesticides used in stone fruits in the integrated pest management (IPM) module, except for copper oxychloride, which was detrimental to its growth. Upon artificial co-inoculation of 4-wk-old plants of tomato var. Solan Gola with A. tumefaciens strain UHFBA-218 and tumorigenic A. tumefaciens strain Peach 2E-10, out of the 27 isolates recovered, six were transconjugants showing selective acquisition of tumorigenic factors as made evident by amplification with ipt and virD2 primers, whereas the rest of the isolates did not acquire any of these tumorigenic factors. A white stone powder-based formulation of this isolate (103.3 × 108 cfu g-1) retained appreciable viability for up to 6 months at room temperature. When peach roots and seeds were soaked in cell suspensions of different doses of a white stone powder-based bioformulation of UHFBA-218 before planting in the field, the number of plants with tumours was reduced, with the lowest incidence of crown gall being observed in the 0.1% UHFBA-218 root dip treatment, i.e. 1.48% and 0.80% during the years 2013 and 2014, respectively. No incidence of crown gall was observed in the three seed dip treatments, i.e. 30-min dip in UHFBA-218 followed by 1 h of shade drying, stratified seeds dipped for 30 min in 0.1% suspensions of strains UHFBA-218 or K84 followed by 1 h of shade drying before sowing, as compared with 14.76% incidence in untreated plants.
Holistic Layer of the Enterprise Architecture on the Basis of Process-Driven Organization
Authors: Alexa Stepan , Repa Vaclav
Published: August 2017

Growing complexity of the enterprise ecosystem along with the existence of legacy approaches in the organization can result in a number of challenges when maintaining the solid baseline of its information assets. The digital industry has, over past two decades, passed through rapid evolution triggered both by availability of new technologies, and business as well as operating and funding models. These enablers have direct impact on the way that organizations design and execute their business processes in order to maintain the alignment between their capabilities and targets. This trend implies that enterprises and organizations need to remain flexible by maintaining the alignment of their business and their infrastructure in a dynamically changing and integrated ecosystem. It has been widely recognized that the enterprise architecture as well as the process driven approaches provide tools used by organizations to explain how business, resources and other elements within the organization are related to each other. This article discusses the role, and associated value, that the enterprise architecture and process driven approach have when describing what constitutes the enterprise. At the same time it elaborates on principles and constructs of the model of the holistic layer of the enterprise architecture on the basis of process driven approach. The proposed model aims to combine a unified view on infrastructure and behavior of the enterprise with lean principles in order to identify and focus on key elements of the enterprise.
Structural dynamics of RbmA governs plasticity of Vibrio cholerae biofilms
Authors: Fong Jiunn CN , Rogers Andrew , Michael Alicia K , Parsley Nicole C , Cornell William-Cole , Lin Yu-Cheng , Singh Praveen K , Hartmann Raimo , Drescher Knut , Vinogradov Evgeny , Dietrich Lars EP , Partch Carrie L , Yildiz Fitnat H
Published: August 2017

Biofilm formation is critical for the infection cycle of Vibrio cholerae. Vibrio exopolysaccharides (VPS) and the matrix proteins RbmA, Bap1 and RbmC are required for the development of biofilm architecture. We demonstrate that RbmA binds VPS directly and uses a binary structural switch within its first fibronectin type III (FnIII-1) domain to control RbmA structural dynamics and the formation of VPS-dependent higher-order structures. The structural switch in FnIII-1 regulates interactions in trans with the FnIII-2 domain, leading to open (monomeric) or closed (dimeric) interfaces. The ability of RbmA to switch between open and closed states is important for V. cholerae biofilm formation, as RbmA variants with switches that are locked in either of the two states lead to biofilms with altered architecture and structural integrity.
Use of necrophagous insects as evidence of cadaver relocation: myth or reality?
Authors: Charabidze Damien , Gosselin Matthias , Hedouin Valéry
Published: August 2017

The use of insects as indicators of post-mortem displacement is discussed in many texts, courses and TV shows, and several studies addressing this issue have been published. Although the concept is widely cited, it is poorly understood, and only a few forensic cases have successfully applied such a method. The use of necrophagous insects as evidence of cadaver relocation actually involves a wide range of biological aspects. Distribution, microhabitat, phenology, behavioral ecology, and molecular analysis are among the research areas associated with this topic. This article provides the first review of the current knowledge and addresses the potential and limitations of different methods to evaluate their applicability. This work reveals numerous weaknesses and erroneous beliefs as well as many possibilities and research opportunities.
Microzooplankton grazing impact on the phytoplankton community at a coastal upwelling
Authors: Linacre Lorena , Lara-Lara J Rubén , Mirabal-Gómez Uriel , Durazo Reginaldo , Bazán-Guzmán Carmen
Published: August 2017

Experiments were carried out at a coastal upwelling site (ENSENADA station) off northern Baja California (México) during autumn 2015 (OCT-15) and spring 2016 (APR-16) to estimate phytoplankton daily growth (µo) and mortality (m) rates and to assess microzooplankton grazing impact (m:µo) on the phytoplankton community and specific autotrophic groups. In accordance with regional seasonality and under an environmental warming scenario due to the El Niño 2015–2016 event, significant differences in both hydrographic conditions and the growth–mortality dynamics of the phytoplankton community were observed between the 2 study periods. The µo and m estimates were, respectively, 0.120 ± 0.012 d–1 and 1.145 ± 0.049 d–1 for OCT-15 and 1.186 ± 0.002 d–1 and 0.409 ± 0.086 d–1 for APR-16. The results of this study suggest that the effects of the anomalous warming on the phytoplankton community were more evident in OCT-15. During that period, growth of the larger autotrophic components (diatoms) was severely controlled by the environmental limitation of nutrients caused by the sinking of the thermocline that resulted from the entrance of warm water to the region. Furthermore, microzooplankton exerted active grazing pressure on phytoplankton biomass (72% of chlorophyll a [Chla]) and primary production (PP = 0.20 µg Chla·L–1·d–1), with grazing impact >100% of PP. In APR-16, when the ecosystem apparently started returning to the spring conditions, a high value for PP (3.73 µg Chla·L–1·d–1) was estimated, with only one third of it being consumed by microzooplankton (34% of PP). The results of this research evidence the high dynamism of multivorous food webs coupled to the seasonal and interannual variability of coastal upwelling systems.
Subsurface flow in lowland river gravel bars
Authors: Bray E. N. , Dunne T.
Published: August 2017

Geomorphic and hydraulic processes, which form gravel bars in large lowland rivers, have distinctive characteristics that control the magnitude and spatial patterns of infiltration and exfiltration between rivers and their immediate subsurface environments. We present a bedform‐infiltration relation together with a set of field measurements along two reaches of the San Joaquin River, CA to illustrate the conditions required for infiltration and exfiltration of flow between a stream and its undulating bed, and a numerical model to investigate the factors that affect paths and residence times of flow through barforms at different discharges. It is shown that asymmetry of bar morphology is a first‐order control on the extent and location of infiltration, which would otherwise produce equal areas of infiltration and exfiltration under the assumption of sinusoidal bedforms. Hydraulic conductivity varies by orders of magnitude due to fine sediment accumulation and downstream coarsening related to the process of bar evolution. This systematic variability not only controls the magnitude of infiltration, but also the residence time of flow through the bed. The lowest hydraulic conductivity along the reach occurred where the difference between the topographic gradient and the water‐surface gradient is at a maximum and thus where infiltration would be greatest into a homogeneous bar, indicating the importance of managing sand supply to maintain the ventilation and flow through salmon spawning riffles. Numerical simulations corroborate our interpretation that infiltration patterns and rates are controlled by distinctive features of bar morphology.
The complexities of urban flood response: Flood frequency analyses for the Charlotte metropolitan region
Authors: Zhou Zhengzheng , Smith James A. , Yang Long , Baeck Mary Lynn , Chaney Molly , Ten Veldhuis Marie‐Claire , Deng Huiping , Liu Shuguang
Published: August 2017

We examine urban flood response through data‐driven analyses for a diverse sample of “small” watersheds (basin scale ranging from 7.0 to 111.1 km2) in the Charlotte Metropolitan region. These watersheds have experienced extensive urbanization and suburban development since the 1960s. The objective of this study is to develop a broad characterization of land surface and hydrometeorological controls of urban flood hydrology. Our analyses are based on peaks‐over‐threshold flood data developed from USGS streamflow observations and are motivated by problems of flood hazard characterization for urban regions. We examine flood‐producing rainfall using high‐resolution (1 km2 spatial resolution and 15 min time resolution), bias‐corrected radar rainfall fields that are developed through the Hydro‐NEXRAD system. The analyses focus on the 2001–2015 period. The results highlight the complexities of urban flood response. There are striking spatial heterogeneities in flood peak magnitudes, response times, and runoff ratios across the study region. These spatial heterogeneities are mainly linked to watershed scale, the distribution of impervious cover, and storm water management. Contrasting land surface properties also determine the mixture of flood‐generating mechanisms for a particular watershed. Warm‐season thunderstorm systems and tropical cyclones are main flood agents in Charlotte, with winter/spring storms playing a role in less‐urbanized watersheds. The mixture of flood agents exerts a strong impact on the upper tail of flood frequency distributions. Antecedent watershed wetness plays a minor role in urban flood response, compared with less‐urbanized watersheds. Implications for flood hazard characterization in urban watersheds and for advances in flood science are discussed.
Dissolved oxygen dynamics under ice: Three winters of high‐frequency data from Lake Tovel, Italy
Authors: Obertegger Ulrike , Obrador Biel , Flaim Giovanna
Published: August 2017

Under‐ice dissolved oxygen (DO) metabolism and DO depletion are poorly understood, limiting our ability to predict how changing winter conditions will affect lake ecosystems. We analyzed under‐ice DO dynamics based on high‐frequency (HF) data at two depths (5 and 25 m) for three winters (January–March 2014, 2015, and 2016) in oligotrophic Lake Tovel (1178 m above sea level; maximum depth 39 m). Specifically, we assessed diel metabolic rates based on HF data of DO, temperature, and light for winter 2016 and seasonal DO depletion rates based on HF data of DO for all three winters. For 2016, calculations of metabolic rates were possible only for 34% and 3% of days at 5 and 25 m, respectively; these metabolic rates generally indicated net heterotrophy at both depths. Low success in modeling metabolic rates was attributed to low diel DO variability and anomalous diel DO patterns, probably linked to under‐ice physical processes. Seasonal DO patterns for the three winters showed increasing, decreasing, or stable DO trends at 5 m while at 25 m patterns always showed decreasing DO trends but with different rates. Our multiyear study permitted us to hypothesize that the observed intraannual and interannual differences in DO depletion can be attributed to variable snow cover determining the penetration of radiation and thus photosynthesis. This study brings new insights to DO dynamics in ice‐covered systems, highlights the challenges linked to under‐ice lake metabolism, and advocates for a modeling approach that includes physical processes.
Learnability
Authors: Heinz Jeffrey , Riggle Jason
Published: August 2017

How can anything (such as a child or any other computing device) automatically acquire (any aspect of) a phonological grammar on the basis of its experience?
Self‐Organization in Phonology
Authors: Wedel Andrew
Published: August 2017

Structure can arise in a system in many different ways. Self‐organization is one general mechanism for structure formation which has relatively recently been explored as a possible contributor to patterns found in language. The aims of this chapter are: (i) to provide an overview of self‐organization as a general mechanism for structure formation; (ii) to describe some of the ways that self‐organizational processes can interact with other familiar mechanisms for structure formation; and (iii) to review selected work done to date which argues that particular phonological phenomena may arise through the contribution of self‐organizational mechanisms.
Autosegments
Authors: Leben William R.
Published: August 2017

Autosegments are the central unit of representation in what generativists came to call non‐linear phonology, an area described in earlier linguistic models under rubrics such as suprasegmentals (Trager and Bloch 1941), simultaneous components (Harris 1944), and prosodic analysis (Firth 1948). At the time auto‐segments were introduced by Goldsmith (1976), phonological and phonetic representations in the standard model of generative phonology were challenged for lack of adequate ways to express traditional prosodic features with the strictly segmental framework of Chomsky and Halle (1968;SPE). Even stress – widely regarded outside the generative school as a property of syllables – was treated as a feature on vowels inSPE(seechapter40:the footfor more discussion), which in fact had no use for the syllable as a unit of representation, though it did posit a feature [syllabic] on individual segments (chapter33:syllable‐internal structure).
Partially Nasal Segments
Authors: Riehl Anastasia K. , Cohn Abigail C.
Published: August 2017

Partially nasal segments, or those that are nasal for only a portion of their duration, contribute many interesting puzzles to the study of phonology. Prenasalized stops, such as /ŋg/ in the Fijian word /ŋgone/ ‘child’, or prestopped nasals, such as /pm/ in the Arrernte word /apmər/ ‘camp’, challenge our notion of the segment. If a segment, which we typically think of as being composed of a bundle of features each with a single specification, can be composed of contrasting values for a particular feature (in this case [nasal]), this raises a whole array of questions about the nature of segments. We explore some of these questions in this chapter.
Pharyngeals
Authors: Shahin Kimary
Published: August 2017

Pharyngeals are segments with primary or secondary articulation in the pharynx. They are sometimes referred to as “post‐velars” (e.g. Bessell and Czaykowska Higgins 1991; Bessell 1992). It is usually understood that the uvula is the topmost structure of the pharynx, and that the pharynx extends to, but excludes, the glottis (e.g. Carmody 1941 and Maddieson 2009, who states that the upper boundary is “around the uvula”). The term “pharyngeals” has been used in a second sense, to refer to segments, like [ħ ʕ], which are “pharyngeal” according to the IPA classification of places of articulation. They have been presumed to be articulated above the epiglottis and below the uvula. However, this is a misnomer because the place of articulation of those sounds is actually aryepiglottal, as will be explained (seechapter22:consonantal place of articulationfor more general discussion).
Final Consonants
Authors: Côté Marie‐Hélène
Published: August 2017

Final consonants, in the stem, the word, or the phrase, often display properties that set them apart from consonants in other positions. Basic principles of syllabification predict that final consonants are codas (see also
chapter
33:
syllable‐internal structure
) and, as such, are expected to pattern like non‐final codas. Final consonants thus pose an analytical challenge when this expectation is not fulfilled.
The Foot
Authors: Hammond Michael
Published: August 2017

The metrical foot organizes the syllables of words into higher‐order units built around stressed syllables.
The Iambic—Trochaic Law
Authors: Hyde Brett
Published: August 2017

In the development of metrical stress theory, several influential approaches (Hayes 1985, 1987, 1995; McCarthy and Prince 1986; Prince 1990) have employed the Iambic—Trochaic Law (ITL) to provide extralinguistic grounding for an account of the differences between iambic and trochaic stress systems (see alsochapterstress:phonotactic and phonetic evidence;chapterthe foot;chapterthe representation of word stress). The ITL, given in (1), is a statement about the naturalness of two types of rhythmic groupings in two different contexts. According to the ITL, sequences of elements that contrast in intensity most naturally divide into groups with trochaic prominence, and sequences of elements that contrast in duration most naturally divide into groups with iambic prominence.
Sign Syllables
Authors: Wilbur Ronnie
Published: August 2017

This chapter focuses on the notion of syllable in sign languages. Although there is now a consensus on the defining feature of a syllable in sign languages, i.e. that there must be a movement, the initial idea of having “syllables” in sign languages met with considerable resistance on its introduction in the early 1980s, in large part because sign languages are fundamentally monosyllabic languages (see Coulter 1982 on American Sign Language (ASL); similar evidence has been provided for Finnish Sign Language by Jantunen 2007). There was also a strong undercurrent that using concepts borrowed from spoken language linguistics for sign language phenomena would be problematic, if not inappropriate. However, I had an opportunity to ask my colleague Ray Kent, a speech researcher who was then editor of theJournal of Speech and Hearing Research, what he would require if 1 were to send his journal a paper on syllables in sign languages. He said he would look for evidence that the concept was linguistically meaningful and could be reliably measured, and his response will begin our tour on this topic. Actually, proving to spoken language researchers that there are syllables in sign languages on those two criteria was remarkably easy (Wilbur and Nolen 1986; Wilbur and Allen 1991). In contrast, the phonological representation of sub‐syllabic structure has been under constant and lively debate. Accordingly, the presentation of evidence for the existence of syllables will be brief, and the bulk of the chapter will focus on describing the issues of disagreement and providing evidence for an answer to the question of the representation of syllables in sign languages.
Quantity‐Sensitivity
Authors: Zec Draga
Published: August 2017

Quantity‐sensitivity is an important property of prosodic constituents, which are subclassified along this dimension as either light or heavy. In a typical hierarchical organization of prosodic units, as in (1) (Selkirk 1978, 1980; Nespor and Vogel 1986), each of the prosodic levels may be instantiated by constituents that vary in length, segment quality, or structural complexity (see
chapter
syllable‐internal structure; chapter 40: the foot; chapter 51: the phonological word; chapter 84: clitics; chapter 50: tonal alignment
).
Constraint Conjunction
Authors: Crowhurst Megan J.
Published: August 2017

… conjunctive interaction is from a formal point of view entirely natural in OT; indeed, in an important sense, itsabsencewould beunnatural. By this I mean simply that without conjunction, basic OT typologies are not strongly harmonically complete, but with conjunction, they are. (Smolensky 2006: 139)
Consonant–Vowel Place Feature Interactions
Authors: Padgett Jaye
Published: August 2017

Both consonants and vowels are formed with constrictions in the oral cavity, made by the lips, the tongue blade, the tongue body, and/or the tongue root. Since they make demands on the same organs, it should not be surprising that the place features of consonants can influence those of vowels and vice versa. Indeed, such interactions are common: consonants and vowels frequently assimilate in place to one another, or dissimilate. But the empirical territory is not simple, and attempts to understand consonant–vowel place interactions (henceforth “C–V interactions”) have led to much unresolved debate in phonological theory.
Morpheme Structure Constraints
Authors: Booij Geert
Published: August 2017

Morpheme structure constraints are constraints on the segmental make‐up of the morphemes of a language. A textbook example of such a constraint is thatbnikis an impossible morpheme of English, whereasblikis a possible English morpheme that happens not to exist. Hence,bnikis a systematic gap in the morpheme inventory of English, whereasblikis an accidental gap in this inventory. This can be taken to imply that there is a morpheme structure constraint that prevents English morphemes from beginning with a /b/ followed by a nasal consonant.
Frequency Effects
Authors: Frisch Stefan A.
Published: August 2017

This chapter provides a review of evidence that occurrence frequency has an influence on phonological patterns. The examination of quantitative or statistical patterns in phonology, and grammar more generally, pre‐dates the development of modern linguistic theory. For example, Zipf (1965) examined statistical properties of texts and noted a variety of effects that still have relevance in current theoretical discussions, such as the tendency for reduction of high‐frequency words. Bolinger (1961) and Herdan (1962) discussed gradience and statistical distribution as a natural middle ground between the grammatical extremes of the acceptable and the unacceptable. However, given the limitations both in the understanding of language structure and in the computational resources for conducting quantitative studies, this type of research did not gain much traction in the field of linguistics more generally. With the availability of lexical and usage corpora now available, and armed with the descriptive and theoretical advances of modern linguistic theory, a variety of authors are now arguing for the influence of frequency on phonological patterns in synchronic phonology and morphophonology, phonological acquisition, and diachronic phonology. In many ways, phonology is the ideal domain in which to study the potential role of frequency effects in grammar (Herdan 1962). The set of basic phonological units (phonemes or features) is relatively limited, these units are routinely combined in a reasonably static set of fixed forms (the lexicon), and productive combinations of these units in morphology are also limited in their variety of combination by that same fixed set of units. Morphophonological changes are triggered by phonological environments defined by features (chapter17:distinctive features) or phonemes (chapter11:the phoneme) and the results of the changes are within the same set of featural or phonemic varieties.
Sound Change
Authors: Hualde José Ignacio
Published: August 2017

This being a chapter on sound change in a series of volumes primarily concerned with synchronic phonology, it seems appropriate to begin by stating the relationship between synchronic and diachronic phonology that will be assumed here. As is well known, for the Neogrammarians a scientific investigation of language could only be undertaken from a historical perspective (Paul 1880). More recently some scholars of phonology have expressed somewhat similar views (see Good 2008a: 11–15 for discussion). Thus Blevins (2004) has argued that historical explanations must be given priority in accounts of synchronic phonological patterns. One of Blevins's main points, also expressed by other authors (e.g. Bybee 2008), is that the phonetic naturalness of phonological patterns is a consequence of their origin in common mechanisms of sound change.
Tonogenesis
Authors: Kingston John
Published: August 2017

Tones have frequently appeared and multiplied under the influence of the laryngeal articulations of adjacent consonants (§2–§4), but much more rarely under the influence of the vowels that bear them (§6). The laryngeal articulations of following consonants readily introduce tones into previously toneless languages, but those of preceding consonants far more often split existing tones than introduce them where there were none before (§5). Opposite tones can arise from the same ostensible phonological source, apparently because the source can be pronounced so as to raise or lower F0 (§3.2.2 and §4). Finally, tone can arise from prosodic as well as segmental sources (§7). In all these sound changes, a predictable or redundant F0 difference becomes contrastive – i.e. is “phonologized” – once the contrast that introduced it neutralizes. These changes show how easily languages blur the distinction between phonetics and phonology and undermine their autonomy over time.
Root‐Affix Asymmetries
Authors: Urbanczyk Suzanne
Published: August 2017

When taking stock of the phonological patterns found in the languages of the world, some patterns can be allocated to roots, some to affixes, and even more to when roots combine with affixes. As Jakobson (1965: 29) observed, “… roots as lexical and affixes as inflectional morphemes …” show asymmetric patterning, such that affixes “… illustrate a selected use of phonemes and their combinations.” For example, in Semitic languages pharyngeal consonants (chapter25:pharyngeals) are found in roots, but not in affixes (McCarthy and Prince 1995), and in many languages ejectives are only found in roots (Rose and Walker 2004; Bybee 2005). Examples from Classical Arabic (Semitic; McCarthy 2005) and Lushootseed (Salish; Bateset al. 1994) illustrate these patterns in (1) below.
Polish Syllable Structure
Authors: Bethin Christina Y.
Published: August 2017

The syllable as a phonological prosodic constituent serves to organize segment sequences in terms of sonority, associating sonority peaks/syllabic segments with syllable nuclei and non‐syllabic segments with syllable margins as onsets and codas (Blevins 1995; Zec 2007). The sequencing of segments within onsets and codas is also said to be governed by sonority, in that sonority rises toward the syllable peak and falls after it (Sievers 1881; Jespersen 1904); this has been formalized in the generative phonological literature as a sonority sequencing principle/generalization (Selkirk 1982, 1984; Clements 1990;chapter49:sonority). Because syllable structure is not contrastive, it is most likely created by syllabification processes as part of a phonological derivation or selected by a set of syllable structure constraints in an output‐oriented framework. In either case, certain organizational principles hold on segment sequencing within a syllable, and the question is how these properties of syllables are implemented. Polish has contributed to discussions on syllable structure primarily by virtue of its extraordinarily complex consonant clusters, which appear to violate the sonority sequencing generalization. It also has a set of nasal vowels that bear on the structure of the syllable nucleus, and vowel—zero alternations that interact with syllabification.
Barnes,Julian
Authors: Moseley Merritt
Published: August 2017

One of the most celebrated British novelists from the generation of celebrated novelists born between 1945 and 1950 (e.g., Amis, McEwan, Ackroyd), Julian Barnes is noted for his intellectual qualities, his cosmopolitan interests, and his restlessly inventive approach to fiction. Though he has written important non‐fiction and four detective novels, his exemplary achievement is in what the British call the “literary” novel (by contrast with the “popular” novel). Julian Barnes's works may well be the defining illustration of the literary novel.
B
eckett,
S
amuel
Authors: Mccarthy Patrick A.
Published: August 2017

Samuel Barclay Beckett, the younger son of William Frank and Maria Roe Beckett, was born on Good Friday, April 13, 1906, in Foxrock, south of Dublin. He came to regard the date as significant because it linked his birth with suffering and death. In
Company
the narrator, also born on Good Friday (“You first saw the light and cried at the close of the day when in darkness Christ at the ninth hour cried and died,” 4: 447), conjures up a scene, described previously in
The End
and
Malone Dies
, in which a small boy walking “hand in hand” with his mother asks if the sky “is not in reality much more distant than it appears.” She replies angrily, shaking off his hand and making “a cutting retort [he has] never forgotten” (4: 428). Scenes like this in his works imply that Beckett's childhood, as recalled much later, was often unhappy. Even so, he was close to his brother, Frank, and to his father, a quantity surveyor for a Dublin construction firm. Like his father, Beckett excelled at sports, including swimming, golf, rugby, tennis, boxing, and above all, cricket; the two also enjoyed long hikes. Their shared interests, and Bill Beckett's acceptance of their differences, helped to establish a bond of genuine affection between father and son. Beckett's relationship with his rigid and devout mother, however, was riddled with conflict and guilt. As Malone says of his own mother, “We were not often of the same mind” (2: 261).
B
ennett,
A
rnold
Authors: Saloman Randi
Published: August 2017

Enoch Arnold Bennett (May 27, 1867‐March 27, 1931) was a British novelist, critic, essayist, and playwright. He was born in the town of Hanley, Staffordshire, in the heart of the “Potteries” district of northern England – a region so named for its industrial character and preeminence in the making of ceramics. This area was immortalized by Bennett as the “Five Towns” of his best‐known works, which include the novels
Anna of the Five Towns
(1902a),
The Old Wives' Tale
(1908b),
Clayhanger
(1910a),
Hilda Lessways
(1911), and
These Twain
(1916), along with numerous short stories. His representations of life in the region in which he grew up were largely influenced by the naturalism of the French writers who inspired Bennett, most notably Balzac, Zola, de Maupassant, Flaubert, and the Goncourt brothers. Bennett was educated in local schools and raised in the Wesleyan Methodist tradition. His father qualified as a solicitor late in life, having previously worked as a potter and a schoolmaster. As an adolescent, Arnold, the eldest of the Bennetts six children, worked in his father's office. Bennett would later use the knowledge he gained from this apprenticeship to create vivid portraits of solicitors in works like
Whom God Hath Joined
(1906), a novel which traces two divorce cases through the courts. The fixation on parent‐child relationships in Bennett's work, and on the tyranny of overbearing fathers in particular, has been frequently noted. So too has the concern with – and genuine feeling for – the mundane details of everyday life, which characterizes Bennett's particular strain of realism, and clearly differentiates him from his high modernist contemporaries and successors.
Compton‐Burnett, Ivy
Authors: Crangle Sara
Published: August 2017

Ivy Compton‐Burnett was born in 1884 and died in 1969. Her father was James Compton Burnett, a well‐known British homoeopath. One of 13 children, Compton‐Burnett spent most of her childhood in Hove in the south of England. She then moved to London, where she shared a flat for 30 years with Margaret Jourdain, a writer and authority on English furniture.
C
onrad,
J
oseph
Authors: Peters John G.
Published: August 2017

Joseph Conrad has come to be seen as one of the most important British novelists of the twentieth century. His formal innovations and skeptical view of the world have influenced generations of subsequent writers, and his work has remained at the center of numerous critical debates since his time.
F
owles,
J
ohn
Authors: Lenz Brooke
Published: August 2017

Renowned for his erudition, his experimentation with literary form, and his exceptional storytelling abilities, John Fowles was unique in his generation of English authors for achieving (and maintaining) both popular success and critical acclaim. Though his work peaked in critical reputation by the early 1990s, Fowles remains one of the most popular and important authors of postwar British fiction.
F
rayn,
M
ichael
Authors: Moseley Merritt
Published: August 2017

Michael Frayn is a man of letters best known as a playwright and a novelist. He began his writing career, though, as a much admired author of topical satirical essays and was credited as one of the fathers of the “satire boom” of the 1960s; he has won fame as a translator, particularly of Anton Chekhov, and two of his books, including one published in 2006, are works of philosophy.
Greene,Graham
Authors: Diemert Brian
Published: August 2017

Born October 2, 1904, Graham Greene was, before his death on April 3, 1991, hailed by English reviewers as “our best living novelist.” The epithet is debatable, but Greene's prolific career – in fiction, journalism, criticism, cinema, even drama (eight plays), and poetry (Babbling April, 1925, is his first book) – undoubtedly made him a leader in British letters and fundamentally defined a particular milieu commentators dubbed “Greeneland,” a seedy world of ambiguous corruption through which redemptive possibilities are obscurely felt. Greene scoffed at the notion of “Greeneland,” arguing his descriptions reflected his reality, but an inclination to write about politically and religiously troubled locations, which he often visited with uncanny timing, gave his work an undeniable stamp. Greene is often identified with Catholicism and leftist politics, but his place in both camps is debatable.
Historical Fiction
Authors: Rousselot Elodie
Published: August 2017

Historical fiction is a subgenre of fiction that is set in a recognizable historical period and which presents a fictionalized account of key historical events or figures of that period. Early instances of the genre include some of the founding works of Western literature, such as Homer'sIliadandOdyssey, but it is in the nineteenth century, in the work of British and European authors, that historical fiction would be most prominently developed. Sir Walter Scott, for instance, appropriated the form and used it to promote a sense of Scottish national and cultural identity in the nineteenth century, as is visible in hisWaverleynovels (1814). In the twentieth century, however, important political events in the wake of both World Wars and the dismantling of the British Empire complicated the need to develop a common set of cultural images on which to establish a national identity; as a result, the place and function of historical fiction in British literature also became more complex. The returns to the past in literary works of the period partly had to do with a fascination with previous eras of uncontested British cultural and political superiority, but they also indicated a wish to understand the changed state of affairs in the present. These narratives tend to highlight parallels throughout history between tragic events of the past and those of the present by focusing on the role and responsibility of mankind in both. This is visible in such works as William Golding'sThe Spire(1964), which returns to fourteenth‐century England to narrate the construction of the spire of Salisbury Cathedral; the tale emphasizes the destructive nature of one man's single‐mindedness and the disregard for the cost of human lives involved in the building of the religious monument. Iris Murdoch'sThe Red and the Green(1965) is set in early twentieth‐century Ireland and recounts the events of the Easter Rebellion of 1916. Both texts return to well‐established events in British history to illuminate little‐known aspects of their development, or to adopt a lesser‐known perspective on those events. This is also the case of Barry Unsworth'sSacred Hunger(1992), which is set in the mid eighteenth century and revisits the slave trade from the perspective of a surgeon on board a slave ship.
H
ollinghurst,
A
lan
Authors: Mitchell Kaye
Published: August 2017

Alan Hollinghurst was born in Stroud, Gloucestershire on May 26, 1954. He studied English at Oxford University, and worked at the
Times Literary Supplement
from 1982 to 1995 (latterly as deputy editor). After publishing a poetry collection,
Confidential Chats with Boys
in 1982, Hollinghurst switched to prose and, although he has published only four novels to date, has already established himself as one of the most acclaimed prose stylists of his generation, with frequent comparisons to illustrious literary forebears (and key influences) such as Henry James and E. M. Forster. In 1993 Hollinghurst was selected as one of
Granta
's “Best of Young British Novelists,” and in 2004 he won the Booker Prize for
The Line of Beauty
.
J
ames,
P. D.
Authors: Priestman Martin
Published: August 2017

P. D. James holds an important place in the postwar repositioning of British crime fiction as serious literature, engaging convincingly with the contemporary world and filling out the classic whodunit formula with detailed psychological explorations of suspects and investigators alike. Born Phyllis Dorothy James in 1920, married in 1941 to Connor Bantry White and ennobled under Margaret Thatcher's government as Baroness James of Holland Park in 1990, she published her first novel,
Cover Her Face
, in 1962. This established the series detective with whom her name is most associated: Detective Chief Inspector (subsequently Superintendent and Commander) AdamDalgleish, who to date (2008) has featured in 14 of her 18 novels.