bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
B
eck,
A
aron
T
. (1921– )
Authors: Staff
Published: January 2010

A native of Providence, Rhode Island, Aaron T. Beck has had an interest in psychiatry and psychology as far back as he can remember. At Brown University he was associate editor for the Brown
Daily Herald
and received a number of honors and awards, including Phi Beta Kappa, the Francis Wayland Scholarship, the Bennett Essay Award, and the Gaston Prize for Oratory. After graduating magna cum laude in 1942, he embarked on a career in medicine at Yale Medical School, receiving his M.D. in 1946. He participated in rotating internship, followed by a residency in pathology at Rhode Island Hospital.
Beck Depression Inventory‐
II
Authors: Dozois David J. A.
Published: January 2010

The Beck Depression Inventory‐II (BDI‐II) is a 21‐item self‐administered inventory designed to measure the intensity of depressive symptoms in adults and adolescents (Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996). Respondents are instructed to indicate which statement best describes how they felt during the past two weeks including today. Items are rated on a 4‐point (0 to 3) scale, with total scores obtained by summing the ratings for all items. Scores ranging between 0 and 13 are indicative of minimal depression; scores that fall between 14 and 19 are considered to reflect a mild level of depression; scores of 20 to 28 are considered moderate; and a score ranging from 29 to 63 is labeled severe. The BDI‐II requires approximately 5–10 minutes to complete and is appropriate for individuals 13 to 80 years of age.
Behavior Modification
Authors: Sarafino Edward P.
Published: January 2010

Behavior modification is the field of study that focuses on using principles of learning and cognition to understand and change people's behavior (Sarafino, 2001). Although not all experts in this field would include cognitive processes in the definition (see Lee, 1992; Sweet & Loizeaux, 1991; Wolpe, 1993), these processes have been widely adopted and applied by behavior modification professionals since the early 1970s (Dobson, 1988; Kazdin, 1978; Mahoney, 1993; Williams, Watts, MacLeod, & Mathews, 1988).
Behavioral Activation
Authors: Hubley Samuel , Dimidjian Sona
Published: January 2010

Behavioral activation (BA) is a structured psychosocial treatment for depression based on the assumption that people with depression develop maladaptive patterns of behavioral responses to life's problems that reduce their ability to experience positive reward in their environments and impair effective problem solving. It is suggested both that such patterns can maintain depression over time and that interrupting such patterns can alleviate depression and reduce subsequent risk for relapse. Thus, BA is aimed at helping depressed clients activate and reengage in their environments in ways that maximize contact with positive reward and facilitate effective problem solving.
Behavioral Modeling
Authors: Dowrick Peter W.
Published: January 2010

Much human learning takes place sitting and watching or just happening to notice what someone else is doing. Indeed, moresocial learningoccurs from observing others than from engaging in actual social interactions and the subsequent positive or negative outcomes. Observation provides information about what may be learned (alternative behaviors, potential consequences, etc.). Whereas such information may be ignored or misunderstood, observation under the right circumstances can result in rapid changes in learning and performance.
Behavioral Pediatrics
Authors: Phillips Sheridan
Published: January 2010

Behavioral pediatrics is a multidisciplinary field whose focus is on psychosocial aspects of child and adolescent health. Because the topic is so broad, the field includes knowledge and skills from clinical and developmental psychology, education, environmental design, law, nursing, nutrition, pediatrics, physical education, psychiatry, and social work. Practically, however, most professionals with special expertise in behavioral pediatrics are pediatricians. For example, 79% of the members of the Society for Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics are MDs (most of whom are pediatricians); the non‐MD members are largely PhD psychologists but also include attorneys, educators, nurses, nutritionists, psychiatrists, and social workers (N. Ritchey, personal communication, April 11, 2008). Non‐MDs also contribute disproportionately to the scientific basis for behavioral pediatric practice, as seen in a new textbook (Wolraich et al., 2008) in which 51% of the authors are not physicians (78% of these are psychologists).
Birth Order
Authors: Bogaert Anthony F.
Published: January 2010

Birth order has often been viewed as an important determinant of personality. In the early 1900s, the psychoanalyst Alfred Adler argued that birth order influences parental care directed toward, and the dynamics among, siblings. According to Adler, firstborns receive a favoured position from parents. However, in multiple sibling households, firstborns must also contend with feelings of being “dethroned” as parental attention is diverted towards younger siblings. Middle‐borns, particularly second‐borns, may struggle with the feeling of inferiority as they compete with their older, stronger rivals. Last‐borns may be pampered, spoiled, and may need to deal with constant upward comparisons. As a result, they may seek situations, including careers, where they try to forge a unique identity.
Boredom and Boredom Proneness
Authors: Farmer Richard F. , Sundberg Norman D.
Published: January 2010

Boredom is a state most people experience at one time or another. Many cultures have words that refer to experiences consistent with boredom: “ennui” (French), “Langeweile” (German), “malal” and “dajira” (Arabic), “khaali” (Hindi), “bosan” (Indonesian), “na buwa” (Taiwanese), “taikutsu” (Japanese), “jidooham (Korean), and “wuliau” (Chinese). Whereas terms such as
boring, bored, or boredom
refer to a state or temporary conditions,
boredom proneness
refers to a trait‐like condition or frequently reoccurring experience.
Brain Development
Authors: Immordino‐Yang Mary Helen , Fischer Kurt W.
Published: January 2010

Unlike the predominant conceptions from a few decades back, brain development is currently understood to be an active, dynamic process, involving complex interactions between a person's biological predispositions, physical environment, and social nurturance. Rather than a hardwired, purely genetically programmed system, children's experiences actively organize their brain over time, in accordance with biological principles and constraints (Johnson, 2001). In turn, children's own neuropsychological profiles of strengths and weaknesses shapes the way they perceive and behave in the world. As they grow and develop, physiological and sociocultural processes work together in intricate, nuanced patterns to sculpt their brain's development.
Brain Injuries
Authors: Oscar‐Berman Marlene , Mosher Susan M.
Published: January 2010

The brain can suffer injury in diverse ways: metabolic or structural abnormalities that are genetically inherited or perinatally induced; trauma from civilian accidents or military combat; toxicity from drugs, heavy metals, or poisonous gases; malnutrition; infections or diseases; tumors; cerebrovascular accidents (stroke); surgical removal of brain tissue for relief of epilepsy, intractable pain, or serious psychiatric symptomatology; and aging‐related disorders (e.g., Alzheimer's disease).
Bullying
Authors: Berger Kathleen Stassen
Published: January 2010

Bullying is quite distinct from normal child interaction, which may seem rough to some observers but is mutual, enjoyable, and friendly. By contrast, bullying is always repeated, intentionally harmful, and imposed on someone weaker. Taken together, these three characteristics make bullying not only unfair, but also destructive. Bullying harms the victims (who may become depressed lifelong), the bullies (who risk serious injury or prison if they do not change their behavior), and everyone else. Severe bullying was once thought to be rare, only physical, and confined to schools. Research has found each of these assumptions to be false.
C
alkins,
M
ary
W
hiton (1863–1930)
Authors: Lichtenstein P. E.
Published: January 2010

Mary W. Calkins attended Smith College where she studied classics and philosophy. After graduating in 1884, she worked with William James. When Hugo Munsterberg came to Harvard, Calkins worked for three years in his laboratory. Despite the fact that Calkins successfully defended her dissertation to a distinguished committee including William James, Hugo Munsterberg, and Josiah Royce, because of her gender the university records show that the successful examination was noted but that the PhD was never awarded. She later rejected the offer of a PhD from Radcliffe. At Wellesley College, where she taught, she established a psychological laboratory that she directed for 10 years. During this period she invented the method of paired associates for the study of memory.
Canadian Psychological Association
Authors: Cohen Karen R.
Published: January 2010

The Canadian Psychological Association (CPA), founded in 1939 and incorporated as a not‐for‐profit corporation in 1950, is Canada's national association of psychologists. It is a voluntary association for the profession and discipline of psychology. As such, it serves as an advocacy body; meeting the needs of its members as well as contributing psychological knowledge and expertise for the welfare of Canadians and Canadian society. The CPA is not a regulatory body for the practice of psychology—this latter activity is the responsibility of provincial and territorial regulatory bodies for each of the health professions.
Career Counseling
Authors: Herr Edwin L.
Published: January 2010

Career counseling can be thought of in at least three ways: one, as a single intervention that can assist clients with career behavior, issues, and problems; second, as a process that is overarching and includes various interventions that can be combined in different configurations to support the career counseling process and the needs of a given client; and third, as a continuum of career counseling and related interventions that make up a subspecialty within the general class of counseling (Gysbers, Heppner, & Johnston, 2003). This continuum responds to a wide‐range of content that clients bring to career counselors, such as situational and personal dilemmas, unemployment, underemployment, job dissatisfaction, relationship problems with co‐workers or supervisors, inadequate work skills, and family conflicts related to work.
Central Limit Theorem
Authors: Anderson Carolyn J.
Published: January 2010

Many statistical inferential procedures such as hypothesis testing and the estimation of confidence intervals are based on the assumption that the distribution of a sample statistic is normal. The Central Limit Theorem (CLT) often justifies the assumption that the distribution of a sample statistic (e.g., mean, sum score, and test statistic) is normal. The Central Limit Theorem states that, for a large sample of
n
observations from a population with a finite mean and variance, the sampling distribution of the sum or mean of samples of size
n
is approximately normal.
Central Nervous System
Authors: Enfield Roger E.
Published: January 2010

The central nervous system (CNS) refers to the portion of the nervous system that lies within the skull and spinal column and receives nervous impulses from sense receptors throughout the organism, regulates bodily processes, and organizes and directs behavior. Anatomically, the CNS comprises the brain and spinal cord, which float within the cranial cavity of the skull and the vertebral canal of the spinal column in a liquid matrix calledcerebrospinal fluid; this fluid also fills hollow space and serves as a protective cushion against damage. CNS tissue is further protected by three enfolding membranes called the meninges. The outer and toughest of the three, thedura mater, attaches to skull and spine, encasing the spongyarachnoid membranewithin which the cerebrospinal fluid circulates. The softpia materis contiguous with the outer layer of brain and cord.
Child Guidance Clinics
Authors: Wright J. Brooke , Flanagan Kelly S.
Published: January 2010

The National Committee for Mental Hygiene marshaled the child guidance clinic movement, which spanned the decades of the 1920s to 1940s. Child guidance clinics (CGCs) were established for the psychiatric study, treatment, and prevention of juvenile delinquency and conduct and personality disorders in 3‐ to 17‐year‐old non‐mentally retarded children. The CGC approach to children's mental health represented a shift from traditional treatment models, which were largely individual psychoanalytically oriented play therapy conducted by a psychiatrist or psychologist, toward more innovative modes of intervention. Further, the era of CGCs represented the first time that the mental health of children was considered an independently important focus for treatment.
Child Maltreatment
Authors: Miller Alec L. , Klein Dena A.
Published: January 2010

Each year, nearly 3 million suspected cases of child maltreatment are reported in the United States (Wekerle, Miller, Wolfe, & Spindel, 2006). Nearly 1 million cases are substantiated, although the true incidence is likely far greater than these estimates suggest. Abuse or neglect can fundamentally alter a child's developmental trajectory with long‐term detrimental effects on physical, emotional, social/interpersonal, and behavioral health outcomes. Research studies find, however, that with appropriate and timely interventions, maltreated children can grow up to experience healthy and productive lives.
Child Neglect
Authors: Berger Kathleen Stassen
Published: January 2010

Child abuse and child neglect are the two forms of child maltreatment. Both hurt children: abuse through deliberate action and neglect through omission of necessary action. Because of the pioneering work of thousands of professionals and lay people over the past half century, child abuse is now often (but not always) recognized and reported. As a result, children who are physically beaten, sexually exploited, and otherwise harmed are noticed and sometimes rescued.
Childhood Psychosis
Authors: Daley Melita , Cannon Tyrone
Published: January 2010

Psychotic symptoms are rather uncommon in the overall psychopathology presenting in childhood and adolescence. However, affective psychoses (psychosis associated with mood disorders), dissociative psychoses (psychosis associated with PTSD or dissociative identity disorder), and psychoses associated with or secondary to substance abuse are commonly seen in clinical practice. Although the existence of childhood schizophrenia has been recognized since the early twentieth century (Kraepelin, 1919), the term “childhood psychosis” before the 1960s was used to refer to a heterogeneous group of pervasive developmental disorders without hallucinations and delusions. It was not until the 1980s that childhood‐onset schizophrenia (COS) was formally differentiated from autistic disorder, and that was after evidence was established that the clinical picture, family history, age of onset, and course of the two disorders were different. Even today, high rates of misdiagnosis remain, because transient psychotic symptoms can occur in healthy children, and fleeting hallucinations are not uncommon in nonpsychotic children, especially in the face of severe stress and anxiety. There is an increasing focus on COS as a neurodevelopmental disorder that is associated with deficits in cognition, affect, and social functioning (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry [AACAP], 2001).
C
lark,
K
enneth
B
. (1914–2005)
Authors: Staff
Published: January 2010

Kenneth B. Clark was brought to New York City by his mother when he was four. He attended schools in Harlem and graduated from George Washington High School in 1931. He received the BS and MA from Howard University and the PhD degree in psychology from Columbia University in 1940.
Classroom Behavior
Authors: Wentzel Kathryn R.
Published: January 2010

Classroom behavior has been studied most often as a form of social competency that contributes to a student's overall adjustment to school. Typically, classroom behavior is defined with respect to negative or maladaptive behavioral styles (e.g., aggressive, inattentive, or disruptive behavior) or to prosocial and socially responsible competencies such as cooperative and prosocial interactions and self‐regulated behavior. These behavioral styles are manifest in the degree to which students adhere to social rules and expectations reflecting cooperation, respect for others, and positive forms of group participation that govern social interactions with teachers and peers in the classroom.
Client‐Centered Therapy
Authors: Knight Tracy A.
Published: January 2010

Client‐centered therapy—also referred to as person‐centered therapy and Rogerian therapy—is a major approach to counseling and psychotherapy developed by Carl R. Rogers. A fundamental clinical framework informing the humanistic psychology movement, client‐centered therapy and its theoretical basis stand in stark contrast to theories and psychotherapies that reduce human beings to components. The client‐centered approach maintains that human beings can only be understood as wholes, through their individual subjective experiences. Another difference between client‐centered therapy and most approaches to psychotherapy is that client‐centered therapy “definitely rejects the medical model which involves looking for pathology and developing a specific diagnosis, or thinking of treatment in terms of cure” (Rogers, 2007, p. 1). Client‐centered therapy posits specific attributes of a “good life” beyond the relative absence of psychopathology; it was designed to provide the conditions that encourage natural human growth and development toward the realization of the individual's potentials. Throughout his lengthy career, Rogers contributed numerous theoretical constructs and propositions that marked the evolution of his perspective. However, the central concept that serves as the core of his approach is the
actualizing tendency.
Clinical Judgment
Authors: Schwartz Alan
Published: January 2010

Clinical judgment is the cognitive process by which a clinician estimates a clinically relevant parameter for an individual patient or client. The product of that process (the parameter itself) may also be referred to as “a clinical judgment.” Although there are many parameters that a clinician might estimate, the two most important classes of parameters are, broadly speaking, probabilities of a clinical event and values for clinical states.
Clinical Psychology
Authors: Plante Thomas G.
Published: January 2010

For decades clinical psychology has been the most popular specialty area within psychology at the graduate, postgraduate, and professional levels (American Psychological Association, 2001; Mayne, Norcross, & Sayette, 2006). The remarkable amount of public attention that clinical psychologists such as Phillip McGraw (aka Dr. Phil) receive, as well as the frequency with which clinical psychologists are portrayed in movies, television programs, novels, and other media outlets is a testament to the popularity and intrigue of clinical psychology among the general population. This article overviews the field of clinical psychology and provides information about definitions, training, employment settings, activities, subspecialties, and current and future trends.
Cocaine‐Related Disorders
Authors: Schumacher Joseph E. , Milby Jesse B. , Batey David S.
Published: January 2010

Cocaine, produced from the coca plant, is self‐administered as a reinforcing substance in various preparations (e.g., coca leaves, coca paste, cocaine hydrochloride, and cocaine alkaloid). These preparations differ in potency due to varying levels of purity and route of administration. Chewing coca leaves or smoking of coca paste in combination with tobacco and marijuana is common among native populations in Central and South America, where coca is grown. Cocaine hydrochloride powder is usually “snorted” through the nostrils or dissolved in water and injected intravenously, and it is sometimes mixed with heroin, which is called a “speedball.” “Crack” is cocaine alkaloid that is extracted from its powdered salt by processing it into small “rocks.” Crack is easily vaporized and inhaled, and its effects have a rapid onset. Crack also can be broken down with citrus juice and injected, but it is most commonly smoked. Cocaine mixed with alcohol results in the production by the liver of a potent stimulant, Cocaethylene.
Cognitive Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy
Authors: McCullough James P.
Published: January 2010

The Cognitive Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy (CBASP; Keller, McCullough, Klein, Arnow, Dunner, Gelenberg et al., 2000; McCullough, 1984, 2000, 2006) is a psychological treatment program developed specifically for chronically depressed patients (Klein, in press; McCullough, Klein, Borian, Howland, Riso, Keller, et al., 2003). In theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000), chronic depression is a unipolar affective disorder lasting a minimum of two years; without adequate treatment, and the patient more often than not faces a lifetime of psychosocial disability. Early (prior to age 21) and late‐onset are the diagnostic descriptors indicating when the disorder began. The clinical course among chronically depressed patients includes several types of profiles. Two of the more common ones are (1) an early‐onset of dysthymia beginning at 12–13 years of age followed by a continuing course that includes one or more episodes of major depression—a clinical profile labeled “double depression”; and (2) a late‐onset course exacerbated at age 25–26 with a major depressive episode that almost never fully remits. Approximately 23% of late‐onset adults who have their first episode do not recover, and the course becomes chronic. Without adequate regimes of medication and psychotherapy, prognosis for recovery for both types is poor, and even with treatment, the ever‐present danger of relapse and recurrence remains a serious threat throughout the lifespan.
Cognitive Development
Authors: Byrnes James P.
Published: January 2010

The termcognitive developmentrefers to age changes in the ability to acquire, manipulate, or reason about information in particular contexts. When the intellectual capacities of at least two age groups are compared and the oldest group has not yet reached middle age, changes in performance are usually for the better, in the sense that they reflect improvements of one kind or another (e.g., those in the older group recall more information; those in the older group draw more appropriate inferences). It is not possible to summarize all of the details of what is known about cognitive development in a single brief article. Readers interested in more comprehensive treatments should consult sources such as Byrnes (2008), Bjorklund (2004), or Siegler and Alibali (2004). In the present overview, some general age trends in the structural and functional aspects of cognition are presented in order to provide a sense of the kinds of important and influential changes that occur.
Cognitive Maps
Authors: Golledge Reginald
Published: January 2010

Cognitive mapping
is the process of encoding sensed data and storing, decoding, representing, and internally manipulating these data in working memory for use in completing tasks or solving problems. A
cognitive map
is a hypothetical concept constructed from one's experiences in the real world. The concept is hypothetical because, as yet, there is no evidence that environmental information is stored in memory in a cartographic‐like fashion, but it does appear that, on an as‐needed basis, an individual can draw on these encoded data and create a working image to assist in performing certain spatial tasks or solving spatial problems. To do this requires knowledge of location, place, environmental objects, and spatial relations.
Colombia, Psychology in
Authors: Cruz Julio Eduardo , Carrillo Sonia
Published: January 2010

This article presents a brief synthesis of the antecedents and current state of psychology in Colombia. First, historical information about early authors, events, and practices in the development of the discipline is presented. Then, information on the state of psychology as a discipline and as a profession is organized around indicators of development suggested by the International Union of Psychological Science: development of training programs, scientific research, professional associations, and legal recognition of the profession.
Communication Skills Training
Authors: Evans David R.
Published: January 2010

Communication skills training has developed over the past 50 years and has been applied to training a range of professionals and paraprofessionals, other occupational groups, patients, and students. The range of health professionals exposed to communication skills training is extensive, including physicians, dentists, nurses, psychologists, and pharmacists. There are several meta‐analytical studies showing that the impact of training with these health professional groups is positive, enhancing professional–patient communication and patient satisfaction (Smith et al., 2007). Other professional and paraprofessional groups, for whom communication skills training is a key element of their education, are counselors, social workers, helpline workers, aviation personnel, and insurance company employees, to name but a few.
Comorbidity
Authors: Piotrowski Nancy A.
Published: January 2010

Individuals seeking healthcare commonly present with more than one problem. Psychologists typically describe these individuals as having comorbid conditions. Professionals note this status because conditions may interact. In fact, comorbidity is present in approximately half of the individuals presenting in clinical settings.
Compulsions
Authors: Tolin David F.
Published: January 2010

Compulsions, along with obsessions, are a hallmark feature of obsessive‐compulsive disorder (OCD). According to
DSM‐IV‐TR
(American Psychiatric Association, 2000), compulsions are “repetitive behaviors…or mental acts…the goal of which is to prevent or reduce anxiety or distress” (p. 418). Although behaviors resembling compulsions occur at a range of frequencies in the normal population, in order to be considered pathological the compulsions must be associated with either intense distress or functional impairment. Impairment from compulsions can be quite severe, with some individuals spending several hours per day performing rituals, feeling unable to stop and attend to their daily responsibilities. The label “compulsion” has been applied to a broad range of repetitive behaviors, including excessive drinking, gambling, and shopping, but, these behaviors are differentiated from true compulsions by the function they serve. This function is described in detail in this article.
Computer‐Based Test Interpretation
Authors: Butcher James N.
Published: January 2010

Personality assessment has become an integral component in clinical and forensic psychological practice. Moreover, practitioners have increasingly come to rely on computers in conducting personality assessments by using them to assist in conducting clinical interviews; obtaining self‐reports of symptoms, attitudes, and behavior; summarizing and integrating test correlates; and developing psychological reports to summarize test results (Atlis, Hahn, & Butcher, 2006).
Conduct Disorder
Authors: Lochman John E. , Barry Tammy D.
Published: January 2010

Within the framework of theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000), conduct disorder is one of the Disruptive Behavior Disorders that are usually first diagnosed in childhood or adolescence. Conduct disorder (CD) is a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior that violates societal norms or the basic rights of others (APA, 2000) and that consists of (1) aggressive behavior that threatens or causes physical harm to other people or animals (e.g., bullies, threatens, or intimidates others); (2) nonaggressive conduct that causes property loss or damage (e.g., fire‐setting); (3) deceitfulness or theft (e.g., breaking into someone's house or car); and (4) serious violation of rules (e.g., truancy). To be diagnosed, at least 3 of 15 possible symptoms must have been displayed during the past 12 months. Childhood‐onset CD is differentiated from adolescent onset when at least one of the behavioral characteristics is evident before age 10.
Conduction Aphasia
Authors: Quigg Mark
Published: January 2010

Conduction aphasia is a specific language deficit that consists of impaired repetition that is disproportionate to any defects in fluency or comprehension. Literal paraphasias—errors in which incorrect syllables are substituted within words for correct ones—are frequent and are exacerbated by attempts at repetition. In contrast to Wernicke's aphasia, patients are aware of their deficit and have no difficulty in comprehension. Ideomotor apraxias—inability to perform a manual task despite comprehending its goal—can also be present. To neurologists, conduction aphasia is an important clinical finding because it reliably indicates a brain lesion involving the dominant posterior perisylvian regions. To cognitive neuroscientists, conduction aphasia stands at the center of a long‐standing debate on whether complex behaviors are created from the joining of simple cortical regions or are mediated by more specialized cortex.
Consumer Psychology
Authors: Hoyer Wayne D. , Jacoby Jacob
Published: January 2010

As a discipline, consumer psychology employs distinctively psychological concepts and methods to study consumer behavior. Consumer behavior refers to the decisions and overt behavior involving the acquisition, consumption, and disposal of time and offerings (goods, services, and ideas) by decision‐making units. Consumer behavior is pervasive, universal, and all encompassing. It involves choices made during every waking moment of virtually all human beings in all societies and cultures.
Consumer Research
Authors: Palmer Edward L.
Published: January 2010

Every one of us is a consumer. Daily we are bombarded with many product messages ranging from cars to homes to beauty products to cat food to services. The exposure we experience is not accidental. Much careful research has gone into discovering what we view, what we listen to, what we read, and what we do. Current highly‐sophisticated technologies have made this an ever‐more‐exacting “science” in learning who each one of us is, developing our individual portrait, and sending us the messages tailored to our portrait.
Contextualism
Authors: Hayes Steven C.
Published: January 2010

Contextualism is a philosophy of science based on modern variants of American pragmatism. The core analytic unit of contextualism or pragmatism is the ongoing act in context: the common sense situated action. It is doing as it is being done, such as in hunting, shopping, or making love. This has sometimes been termed the “historical act,” but not in the sense of a thing done in the past. Rather, the term “historical act” recognizes that acts occur not just in a current situational context, but also as part of a stream of purposive acts in an individual's life. In practical terms, contextualists (1) focus on the whole behavioral event, (2) are continuously sensitive to the role of context in understanding the nature and function of this event, and (3) maintain a firm grasp on a pragmatic truth criterion. Contextualism is commonly distinguished from mechanism, formism, teleological perspectives, organicism, and other broad philosophical approaches.
Contingency Tables
Authors: Wearden Stanley
Published: January 2010

A contingency table is an array of counts or frequencies arranged in a two‐way table usually consisting of
r
≥ 2 rows and
c
≥ 2 columns. The name comes about from the statistical test used to determine if the relative frequency for a cell in the table is contingent on the marginal frequencies for the row and column in which it's found. Hence, the null hypothesis is one of independence,

, and the alternative is association,

. The test of significance is called “contingency chi square” and is computed with the following formula:

urn:x-wiley:9780470479216:media:corpsy0226:xm3
Conversion Disorder
Authors: Roelofs Karin , Spinhoven Philip
Published: January 2010

Conversion disorder is a mental disturbance in which patients present with neurological symptoms such as paralysis, numbness, or blindness, but for which no neurological or other organic explanation can be identified. Instead, psychological mechanisms are believed to cause the symptoms. Conversion symptoms were initially described in the context of hysteria. The term “conversion disorder” was originated by the physicians Josef Breuer and Sigmund Freud, who suggested that negative emotions were repressed and “converted” into physical symptoms. Other adjectives frequently used to describe conversion symptoms are “psychogenic,” “pseudoneurological,” or “medically unexplained” bodily symptoms. Known for millennia, this disorder has always been subject to debate and conceptual confusion. This is reflected, for example, in the manner in which the disorder is currently classified within the two major current nosologies. In theInternational Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems(ICD‐10: WHO, 1992) conversion disorder is a dissociative disorder; in theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM‐IV‐TR: APA, 2000) it is a type of somatoform disorder.
Coping Behavior
Authors: Tennen Howard , Litt Mark D.
Published: January 2010

Coping refers to the thoughts and behaviors people use to deal with stressful situations. Although most psychologists limit the concept of coping to conscious and intentional efforts to manage stressful encounters, some theorists have argued that more automatic and unintentional ways of dealing with stressful circumstances should also be included within the coping rubric.
Coping Skills Training
Authors: Litt Mark D. , Tennen Howard
Published: January 2010

Cognitive‐behavioral therapy is among the most influential theories in psychology today. The foundation of this theory is the idea that the person plays a key role in controlling his or her own emotional well‐being and health. According to cognitive behavioral theory, adaptational outcomes are in part a function of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that ameliorate or exacerbate psychological distress. To the extent that maladaptive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are learned, they can also be unlearned or replaced.
Creative Thinking
Authors: Kaufman James C. , Plucker Jonathan A.
Published: January 2010

Creativity is among the most promising and optimistic aspects of the human experience; few constructs have the capacity to benefit people's experiences as comprehensively. This potential ranges from the very personal—arts‐based therapeutic interventions, well‐designed museum installations and programs—to the societal—educating more creative scientists, creating a national strategy to enhance the arts, producing unique solutions to diplomatic and military problems. Increasingly, our colleagues in other countries are seizing on the potential benefits of an increased focus on creativity, as are many of their ministries of education and culture (e.g., Kaufman & Sternberg, 2006). The question is not “In what areas can creativity be useful?” but rather “How does creativity apply in each and every area?”
Criminal Responsibility
Authors: Zapf Patricia A.
Published: January 2010

The issue of criminal responsibility, or insanity, has to do with an individual's mental state at the time of the offense. The basic philosophy—which stems back to the earliest recordings of Hebrew law and is still in effect throughout the United States, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, England, Wales, and other countries—is that to convict a person charged with a crime, he or she must be considered responsible for his or her criminal behavior. That is, the criminal behavior must have been a product of free will. If a defendant's behavior was not a product of free will, then he or she should not be held responsible for the crime.
Criminology
Authors: Heide Kathleen M.
Published: January 2010

Criminology is the scientific study of crime and criminal behavior. It encompasses criminal law, the measurement of crime, theories of criminal offending, types of offenders, and society's responses to offenders. Criminology is an interdisciplinary field, drawing from many disciplines including psychology, psychiatry, sociology, biology, public health, law, political science, criminal justice, economics, and geography.
Crisis Intervention
Authors: Wiger Donald E.
Published: January 2010

A crisis is a collapse in one's ability to solve problems or cope with a situation in which the person's existing strategies for coping do not work. Whether a crisis is situational or developmental, the person in crisis is not able to regain homeostasis or balance by the usual means of coping typically employed. The term crisis is easily misunderstood if one views it in terms of an event or situation. In mental health terms, a crisis is not the traumatic event, but rather a person's reaction to it. The same event could be devastating for one individual and not affect another.
Cross‐Cultural Psychology
Authors: Takooshian Harold
Published: January 2010

Cross‐cultural psychology is the scientific study of human behavior across cultural or national boundaries (Adler & Gielen, 2002). It is based on the two premises that (1) our culture deeply impacts all aspects of our psyche, including perception, cognition, development, personality, abnormality, and social behavior; and (2) for scientific psychology to be accurate, it must study these cultural variations rather than overlook them.
Culture and Depression
Authors: Lawal‐Solarin Foluso M. Williams
Published: January 2010

Understanding the relationship between culture and depression is crucial to effectively assessing and treating this disorder in all populations. Traditional conceptualizations of depression tend to minimize or totally ignore the role of cultural factors in the experience, expression, course, and treatment of depressive symptoms. As a result, most assessment techniques and therapeutic approaches lack empirical support in the treatment of cultural minorities. Therefore, it is important to realize and compensate for the limitations of such approaches with this population. This article identifies and discusses cultural factors that are particularly relevant in the assessment and treatment of depressive disorders. General guidelines for work with depressed individuals from cultural minority groups are also discussed.
Culture and Psychotherapy
Authors: Leong Frederick T. L. , Lannert Brittany K.
Published: January 2010

In its broadest sense, culture refers to the sum of socially learned behaviors, attitudes, values, symbols, systems of thought, and concepts of the universe that distinguish one individual or group of people from another. Culture is both universal and particular; no individual is immune from the effects of culture or is totally dominated by it. A growing movement toward including multicultural perspectives in the development, evaluation, and provision of psychotherapy seeks to recognize the fundamental importance of culture in shaping the incidence, expression, and subjective interpretation of psychological distress, as well as remedy the significant deficits of established therapeutic methods and practices developed according to White European‐American, middle‐class norms and perspectives.
Current Psychotherapies
Authors: Wedding Danny
Published: January 2010

Psychotherapy cannot be defined with any precision, and it is not entirely clear when a supportive conversation becomes counseling or when counseling becomes psychotherapy. Raymond Corsini (1914–2008), until his recent death one of the world's leading psychotherapy scholars, defined psychotherapy as follows:

Psychotherapy is a formal process of interaction between two parties, each party usually consisting of one person but with the possibility that there may be two or more people in each party, for the purpose of amelioration of distress in one of the two parties relative to any or all of the following areas of disability or malfunction: cognitive functions (disorders of thinking), affective functions (suffering or emotional discomforts), or behavioral functions (inadequacy of behavior). The therapist who takes part in this interaction has some theory of personality's origins, development, maintenance, and change, applies some method of treatment logically related to the theory, and has professional and legal approval to act as a therapist. (Corsini, 2008, p. 1)
Dance/Movement Therapy
Authors: Serlin Ilene A.
Published: January 2010

Celebrating its 40th year as an organized healthcare profession, dance/movement therapy is one of the original mind/body therapies. Integrating ancient healing practices of movement, meditation, and imagery, it is uniquely suited to take its place as a cost‐effective, interpersonal practice in a newly reinvented healthcare system. This article explores the history of dance/movement therapy and its current modes of practice as a psychodynamic, growth‐oriented, and international healthcare profession.
Deafness and Hearing Loss
Authors: Albertini John A.
Published: January 2010

Estimates of the prevalence of hearing loss vary widely within and across countries. As one indicator, over 30 million Americans (10% of the population) have significant, chronic hearing losses, and almost 2 million are deaf in both ears. Variation in the degree of hearing loss, age of hearing loss onset, and the etiologies of the losses influence the way and extent to which deafness affects psychological functioning.
Delusional Disorder
Authors: Bowie Christopher R.
Published: January 2010

Several definitions of delusions have been advanced. Common features of these descriptions include the presence of a false belief or set of beliefs that fall outside of a person's cultural or subcultural values and are held with extraordinary conviction. The beliefs are held in spite of being unsubstantiated, in the face of evidence to the contrary, and/or in opposition to the beliefs of almost all others. Delusions are differentiated from other erroneous thoughts such as phobias and obsessions in that they are illogical, accepted by the individual as true, held with tenacity, and often implausible.
Dependent Personality Disorder
Authors: Bornstein Robert F.
Published: January 2010

Some people are overly dependent, unable to make decisions on their own, needing frequent advice and reassurance, and alienating those around them with neediness and clinging insecurity. Studies show that when dependent personality traits become rigid and inflexible they can have myriad negative effects on social and occupational functioning (Bornstein, 1993, 2005). When dependency is both intense and pervasive, adversely affecting many different aspects of a person's life, it may indicate the presence of dependent personality disorder (DPD).
Depersonalization Disorder
Authors: Blanco‐Campal Alberto
Published: January 2010

Depersonalization (DP) is classified in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐IV‐TR) as a dissociative disorder defined as “persistent or recurrent experiences of feeling detached from, and as if one is an outside observer of, one's mental processes or body (e.g. feeling like one is in a dream)” (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000, p. 532). DP commonly co‐occurs with the phenomena of derealization (DR), defined as “the sense that the external world is strange or unreal” (APA, 2000, p. 530).
Depression
Authors: Steidtmann Dana , Ingram Rick
Published: January 2010

Within psychology, the term depression is typically used to refer to a Major Depressive Episode. A depressive episode is most frequently part of a Major Depressive Disorder, but it may also be a part of bipolar or cyclothymic disorders in which there is fluctuation between periods of excessively elevated moods and depression.
Depressive Personality Disorder
Authors: Huprich Steven K.
Published: January 2010

Since 1994, the American Psychiatric Association has been considering the proposal of Depressive Personality Disorder (DPD) for inclusion in future editions of theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition(DSM‐IV; American Psychiatric Association, [APA], 1994). The disorder and related syndromes have had a rich history in the history of philosophy, disease classification, and psychiatry, going back to the Greek philosophers who described melancholic character as one of four basic character types. According to the DSM‐IV (APA, 1994) and DSM‐IV‐TR (APA, 2000), individuals are diagnosed with DPD when they meet five of the seven following criteria: (1) usual mood is joyless, cheerless, and dysphoric; (2) the self‐concept centers around feelings of worthlessness and the individual has low self‐esteem; (3) the individual is self‐critical; (4) the individual broods or worries frequently; (5) the individual is negative or critical of others; (6) the individual is pessimistic; and (7) the individual often feels guilty or remorseful. DSM‐IV (APA, 1994) states that this disorder is not to be diagnosed when these criteria “occur exclusively during Major Depressive Episodes” of if they are “better accounted for by Dysthymic Disorder” (APA, 1994, p. 733).
Developmental Psychology
Authors: Overton Willis F.
Published: January 2010

Developmental psychology (DP) may be broadly defined as the scientific study of systematic changes of an organism's behavior and the psychological processes that behavior reflects. Developmental psychology is one of the main branches of psychology, and as such it subsumes a number of subdisciplines including child psychology, adolescent psychology, life‐span psychology, and human development.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (
DSM
‐
IV
‐
TR
)
Authors: Segal Daniel L.
Published: January 2010

The
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
, fourth edition, text revision (DSM‐IV‐TR) (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000) is a compendium of mental disorders, a listing of the criteria used to diagnose them, and a detailed system for their definition, organization, and classification. Put simply, it is the primary diagnostic manual for mental health professionals in the United States and much of the Western world. Diagnosis refers to the identification and labeling of a mental disorder by examination and analysis. Mental health professionals diagnose individuals based on the symptoms that they report experiencing and the signs of illness with which they present. The DSM‐IV‐TR aids professionals in understanding and diagnosing mental disorders through its provision of explicit diagnostic criteria and an official classification system.
Diagnostic Classification
Authors: Widiger Thomas A.
Published: January 2010

The
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM) is the classification of psychopathology developed under the authority of the American Psychiatric Association (APA). The current version of this diagnostic manual is DSM‐IV‐TR (APA, 2000), standing for the fourth edition, text revision. Included within are the diagnostic criteria for such mental disorders as major depressive disorder, social phobia, panic disorder, nicotine dependence, alcohol abuse, schizophrenia, mental retardation, pedophilia, attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder, mathematics disorder, stuttering, dissociative identity disorder, borderline personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder, pathological gambling, frotteurism, nightmare disorder, and many others.