bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Toward a Theory of Self-Directed Learning: a Study of Experts Without Formal Training
Authors: Gibbons Maurice , Bailey Alan , Comeau Paul , Schmuck Joe , Seymour Sally , Wallace David
Published: March 2007

The authors analyzed the biographies of twenty acknowledged experts with out formal training beyond high school in search of commonalities that might suggest ways people become effectively self-directed in learning and accom plishment. Of the 154 characteristics identified, the fifty rated as most im portant were examined. They outline a pattern of education that is sharply focussed, active, experiential, self-directed, situational, and often personally challenging. They indicate a personality that is both traditional and radical, and they suggest a life theme of gathering purpose and drive. The authors transform their analyses into fourteen hypotheses about education, about a form of schooling that would prepare students for a life of self-directed learning and attainment.
Nonviolence and Satyagraha in Attenborough's Gandhi
Authors: Buck Lucien A.
Published: March 2007

Attenborough's movie furnishes a vivid portrayal of Gandhi's forceful, nonviolent, loving "search for truth." The unfolding of this strategy for Satyagraha demonstrates a set of values that provides a foundation for a humanistically oriented theory of personality. Most important, the artistic success of Gandhi underscores the continuing relevance of the values of Satyagraha for contemporary political and interpersonal affairs.
Developmental Jargon
Authors: Banks Norman M. , Gray J. James , Boys D.
Published: March 2007

As a collaborative contribution to the emerging professionalization of ongoing dialogue, this article is slanted toward clearing the air regarding important communications in the field of student/personal/human development. We conclude that infectious verbosity is rampant, and have correspondingly sold out.
Discovering Transpersonal Identity
Authors: Vaughan Frances
Published: March 2007

As we grow toward wholeness and become more conscious, the concept of the self goes through a series of transformations. The sense of self that emerges from a healthy integration of mind and body is the "real" or existential self that forms a coherent, organismic whole and interacts with the environment as an open living system. The self at this stage is concerned with authenticity, integrity, and self-determination. The problem at this level of identification is the inevitable confrontation with death and aloneness, alienation and despair in the face of meaninglessness. When existential identity is accepted and faced without self-deception, exclusive identification with the separate existential self may be transcended in awareness of the transpersonal self. The transpersonal self is not identified exclusively with the separate self, but has, by virtue of direct experience and disidentification from ego, discovered the universal ground of being that sustains it. Qualities of the transpersonal self are contrasted with qualities of the superego, and the necessity of facing the transpersonal shadow also is considered. Finally, the limitations of transpersonal identity are discussed in the light of possible transcendence of subject/object dualism. Identification with the transpersonal self as a guiding principle that gives unity to the mind is conceived as the final identification stemming from the duality perceived between self and other.
Soviet Family Clubs and the Russian Human Potential Movement
Authors: Cole Sheila
Published: March 2007

There is real interest in the idea of human potential among segments of the Soviet urban middle class. One form this interest has taken is for young families to band together in loosely organized "family clubs." The clubs enable them to cooperate to develop their own potential as human beings by helping to develop the potential of their children. Although the concerns and activities of these young Soviet families grow out of their recent experiences as Soviet citizens, there are many parallels with the human potential movement in the United States. The "family club" movement is encouraged by the Soviet press and, by implication, by the Soviet government, which has also encouraged relations with representatives of the human potential movement in the United States.
Privacy and Intimacy
Authors: Weiss Avrum Geurin
Published: March 2007

In the last few decades, there has been a growing interest in the topic of privacy and questions of the public's right to know versus an individual's right to privacy (Carrere, 1983). The psychological literature has focused on the value of self-disclosure as an important step toward wellness and building intimacy with others (Cozby, 1973). From this perspective, privacy is seen as an obstacle to intimacy, and the two are thought of as conflicting needs. In this article, I will suggest an interdependent rather than oppositional relationship between privacy and intimacy. Privacy will be described as the developmental foundation upon which genuine intimacy may be built.
A Human Science Study of Learning about "Learning"
Authors: Osborne John
Published: March 2007

Fourteen students in a graduate course on learning theories described their ideas about learning before and during the course. They were asked to comment upon the existential relevance of natural science and human science approaches to learning with particular reference to their intellectual and emotional reactions. Written protocols were thematically analyzed. The data indicated that all students shifted toward a more human science outlook on learning. Most found a theoretical home for the reservations, long held, about natural science learning. Most expressed surprise or unfamiliarity with existential-phenomenological ideas. The concept of coconstitutionality was the focus of considerable reflection. Most students reported that they experienced the learning process of the course in ways similar to those described in references studied in the course.
A Developmental Framework for Self-Actualization
Authors: Brennan Thomas P. , Piechowski Michael M.
Published: March 2007

This study presents a theoretical framework for personal growth leading to self-actualization, and case studies of individuals engaged in such growth. Maslow's description of self-actualizing people and Dabrowski's theory of emotional development are brought together for this purpose. We show that self-actualizing people can be found by means of an instrument for assessing levels of emotional development. People who are assessed at or near Dabrowski's Level 4 meet the criteria of self-actualizing growth. The degree of self-actualization can be assessed with the intensive interview guide developed for this purpose. The interview guide successfully met the objectives of this study. We have found that our self-actualizing individuals share a number of characteristics in common. They have a similar outlook and concern for humanity and its future. They have intensity, energy, and the persistence to work toward high ideals and a capacity to inspire others toward similar ideals. In their life histories, they share childhood giftedness, emotionally difficult and disruptive life experiences, and intense life-affirming experiences.
Meaning in Life Depth
Authors: Ebersole Peter , Quiring Gogi
Published: March 2007

A rating system for measuring meaning in life depth, the Meaning in Life Depth instrument (MILD), is described after clarification of some of the ambiguity surrounding the phrase, "meaning in life." To promote a more idiographic perspective, a number of examples are given concerning how statements by respondents about their life meanings are scored using the criteria of the MILD, and some problems and complexities of the scoring are discussed. Finally, a recommendation is made for further research, especially by clinicians, into meaning in life.
Resistance and Countertransference Issues with Spiritual and Religious Clients
Authors: Lannert Jonna L.
Published: March 2007

Mental health care professionals assist our clients in developing competency in coping with a wide range of personal problems. Psychoanalysts, therapists, and counselors feel free to explore occupational, family, sexual, interpersonal, and existential issues with their clients. Yet specifically spiritual and religious issues, also integral aspects of human experience, are frequently viewed with apprehension. Although it is becoming more and more apparent that there is a need for addressing spiritual/religious issues in therapy, there continues a traditional resistance by many practitioners on a variety of personal and professional grounds. When spiritual and religious issues surface, therapists are often inadvertently subject to countertransference reactions. This article examines the complexity of factors that contribute to resistance and countertransference reactions to these issues by mental health professionals today.
The Trauma of War
Authors: Coalson Bob
Published: March 2007

The backdrop of this article uses the experiences of several Vietnam veterans who journeyed to the Soviet Union and joined efforts with a group ofAfghantsi to heal the emotional wounds ofwar. The article accentuates the potential of war trauma survivors to collaborate and aid each other's recovery on an international scale. Treatment implications for the Afghantsi are highlighted, and a snapshot of how one Soviet program approaches treatment of post-traumatic stress problems is provided.
Reductionistic Biological Thinking and the Denial of Experience and Pain in Developmental Theories
Authors: Gruen Arno
Published: March 2007

The article questions current biological research in the behavioral field for both its reductionistic thinking as well as its disregard of the developmental process. The process of development cannot be understood merely as an unfolding of genetic forces. Research strategies attempting to do so distort the view of the actual relation of such forces to behavioral events. In doing so, they do violence to our views both of humans and of science. The quest for "objectivity" has blinded us to the obvious facts of our experience. This, in turn, has led to a pervasive misconception that controlling an emotion, such as pain, is the same as understanding what that emotion is as well as sharing it empathically. We have come to thinkwe know what is inborn and innate on the basis of a misconceived view of development. Such thinking expresses a generalized denial and devaluation of feelings.
The Romantic and the Postmodern
Authors: Sampson Edward E.
Published: March 2007

This critique takes issue with some of the central ideas reflected in Schneider’s article. In particular, concerns are raised both about the role of theory rather than historical contributions in shaping human experiences and the complexities involved in the search for an underlying universal sameness within individuals to resolve current social and personal problems. Universalism versus particularism or sameness versus difference is much more complex than Schneider’s article recognizes and presents us with a sorry history of abuses that we should hardly wish to replicate in the years ahead.
Reducing the Impact of Unemployment through Work-Sharing: Some Industrial Relations Considerations
Authors: Meltz Noah M. , Reid Frank
Published: March 2007

The Canadian Government has introduced a work-sharing program in which lay offs are avoided by reducing the work week and using unemployment insurance funds to pay workers short-time compensation. Compared to the lay-off alternative, there appear to be economic benefits to work-sharing for both management and employees. Reaction to the scheme has been generally positive at the union local level and the firm level, but it has been negative at the national level of both labour and management. These divergent views can be explained mainly as a result of short-run versus long-run perspectives.

Managers at the firm level see the immediate benefit of improved labour relations and the avoidance of the costs of hiring and training replacements for laid-off workers who do not respond when recalled. The national business leaders are more concerned with work incentive and efficiency aspects of work-sharing.
The Removal of Justice Staples and the Silent Forces of Industrial Relations
Authors: Kirby Michael
Published: March 2007

On 1 March 1989 the Australian Conciliation and Arbitration Commission was abolished and replaced by the Australian Industrial Relations Commission. All of the members of the old commission were appointed to the same office in the new except one, Justice Staples, a deputy president since 1975. Despite requests, no reasons were given to Justice Staples for his non-appointment in 1989 to the new commission. In Parliament, Prime Minister R. J. Hawke eventually explained it as based on the failure of successive presidents to assign Justice Staples duties. This paper places the events of Justice Staples's career in the Arbitration Commission in the context of the history of the commission and its predecessors. It outlines the controversy involving Justice Staples and how it first arose, and then traces the steps leading to his purported removal from office. The responses of the Australian legal profession, the judiciary, the media, the industrial relations community and parliamentarians are traced. Although the prime minister has declared that the concerns expressed in the legal profession are 'contrived nonsense', the author suggests that important conventions have been breached and that significant principles of universal application are involved in what happened to Justice Staples.
Modeling International Crises and the Political Use of Military Force by the USA
Authors: Meernik James
Published: March 2007

While the literature on the political use of military force by the USA has undergone tremendous growth in recent years, one crucial feature of this foreign policy activity has not been modeled - the conditions that give rise to the crises that precipitate a use of force. It is possible that many of the findings on the diversionary use of force obtain because of problems with selection effects. More uses of force may occur during certain periods simply because more crises occur during these times. Therefore, I explain how we may model crisis occurrence and the use of force to help us better understand the role of selection effects and the salience of domestic conditions in the decision to use force. I outline several hypotheses regarding the influence of domestic and crisis-specific factors to predict when opportunities to use force will occur and, given some opportunity, when a president will use military force. The results demonstrate that by not accounting for selection effects in the decision to use force by US presidents, we may have erroneously concluded that presidents use force to divert public attention.
Social Purpose and Militarized Disputes
Authors: Peet Curtis , Simon Marc V.
Published: March 2007

This study tests whether a government's social purpose helps account for the likelihood of states to engage in militarized disputes. Ruggie has argued that states whose social purpose reflected the `compromise of embedded liberalism' would be more cooperative in their economic relations and would promote the creation of economic regimes which reflected this social purpose. We investigate whether governments which possess this `embedded' liberal social purpose are also more cooperative in the security arena. We introduce two measures that provide insight into the nature of state/society relations which are consistent with the government's commitment to a liberal social purpose. These measures are negatively related to several aspects of militarized disputes. This is tested using binary time-series-cross-sectional analysis at the monad level while controlling for other important variables and for contamination caused by temporal and cross-sectional disturbances. This study identifies two state-level characteristics that indicate whether liberal social purpose states are more peaceful in general, in spite of the failure of measures of democracy to do the same.
European Integration in Identity Narratives in Estonia: A Quest for Security
Authors: KUUS MERJE
Published: March 2007

The article situates the Estonian discourse of national identity in the country's pursuits of EU and NATO membership. It first outlines the assumptions, concepts, and rhetorical devices through which the notion of national identity is constructed in discussions of international integration, and then highlights the policy ramifications of the identity discourse. The article concentrates on the three closely linked concepts - civilizational conflict, national territorial sovereignty, and security - that together constitute a core of identity debates in Estonia. While national identity in Estonia has hitherto been examined in the context of ethnic relations between the Estonian and the non-Estonian populations, this article analyzes identity debates, including issues of ethnicity, in the context of the country's pursuits of international integration. As identity is a central concept in Estonia's foreign, security, citizenship, and minority rights policies, the article exposes the claims that underpin these policies. The Estonian identity discourse contains strong arguments in favor of EU membership, yet several of its fundamental premises discursively construct this membership as harmful to Estonia. Both pro- and contra-EU arguments pivot particularly on claims about geopolitical and cultural threats. On the one hand, international integration is constructed as a security measure against the Russian threat. On the other hand, insofar as supranational institutions pressure Estonia to naturalize its Russian-speaking residents, who are construed as representatives of the Russian threat, international integration is also depicted as dangerous to Estonian identity. Estonian identity narratives thereby contradict governmental rhetoric of ethnic and European integration.
Building Peace in Sri Lanka: a Role for Civil Society?
Authors: ORJUELA CAMILLA
Published: March 2007

This article deals with civil society in the ethnically polarized violent conflict of Sri Lanka. It spells out the possible role of civil society in peacebuilding, while at the same time problematizing the civil-society concept and pointing to the problems faced by civil society in Sri Lanka in taking on this role. Civil-society actors in Sri Lanka strive to contribute to peace processes (1) addressing ethnic divides and public opinion with education and awareness-raising programmes, as well as cross-ethnic dialogue, (2) addressing politics with popular mobilization, advocacy work, and informal diplomacy, and (3) addressing economic issues through reconstruction and development. However, civil society in Sri Lanka has been weakened by political patronage and the protracted war. Like Sri Lankan society, it is to a large extent ethnically divided, and popular mobilization has through history been nationalist and violent rather than pro-peace. Although civic peace organizations work hard to take on a peacebuilding role, their activities are often project-oriented and top-down, rather than mass-based and bottom-up. Moreover, critical assessments of the impact of small-scale activities and analysis of the linkage between them and the larger conflict context (in which the work of similar organizations as well as external forces have to be taken into account) need to be further developed, by civil-society actors as well as researchers.
Ethnic Cleavage as a Component of Global Military Expenditures
Authors: Rosh Robert M.
Published: March 2007

This study argues that countries which are characterized by ethnic cleavage allocate a larger percentage of their resources to military expenditures in order to maintain control over ethnically diverse and fragmented populaces. The results of the statistical analysis undertaken contradict two previous empirical studies that had produced counter-intuitive results suggesting that there was no ethnic dimension to global militarization. Both an historical and a statistical cross-sectional analysis (for the year 1979) are employed in order to demonstrate that the greater the degree a country is characterized by ethnic cleavages the greater the percentage of its Gross National Product that will be allocated to military resources even after controlling for alternative explanations.
The Frontiers of International Humanitarian Law
Authors: Rosas Allan , Stenbäck Pär
Published: March 2007

Since ancient times, war has been regulated by certain rules and rituals. Modern restraints date back to the emergence of centralized states with standing armies. In the international legal order which has developed since then, the law of war (the ius in bello) has occupied a prominent place. This traditional law of war, and international law in general, was certainly inspired by humanitarian considerations (e.g., the protection of prisoners of war and of aliens). But such considerations found expression only through a predominant filter: the state interest. In the present century, international law to a large extent has become treaty-based, and directed towards regulating peacetime conditions. The very right of states to resort to war has been severely restrained, and especially during the last 25 years limitations have also been placed on their peacetime armaments. Moreover, a number of rules have been devised for the protection of the individual, not only in his capacity as a representative of a foreign state, but also as a human being as such. With these developments, the law of war finds itself in a markedly new setting. The fairly recent term 'international humanitarian law applicable in armed conflicts', which today covers a considerable part of the law of war, is an indication of this. The present article analyses the relationship between the concept of international humanitarian law applicable in armed conflicts and certain related fields of international law and puts forward some thoughts on the implications of recent trends for the future development of international humanitarian law and for the activities of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.
The Implications of the Pre-War Philippine Experience for Peace Research
Authors: Shalom Stephen Rosskamm
Published: March 2007

In the years before World War II, the Philippines attempted a defense plan that was, according to the officials in charge, explicitly modeled on Switzerland's approach to defense. The plan was a failure, for the Philippines was conquered and suffered greatly during the war. This article argues, however, that the Philippine defense plan was inconsistent in fundamental respects with the basic principles of the Swiss approach. The Philippine defense program did constitute a threat to others; Philippine foreign and economic policies were not neutral between other nations; positive inducements were not provided to discourage attack; and the nature of Philippine society did not assure the high morale of the citizenry.
The Probability of Nuclear War
Authors: Avenhaus Rudolf , Fichtner John , Brams Steven J. , Kilgour D. Marc
Published: March 2007

A theoretical analysis of the probability of nuclear war is developed that assumes a starting probability and an annual reduction factor. Whatever the starting probability is, a constant reduction factor leads to an eventual probability that is less than 1, whereas the eventual probability goes to 1 if there is no reduction or if the reduction proportion decreases at a constant rate. Numerical calculations and graphical results illustrate trade-offs between the starting probabilities and the reduction factors, demonstrating especially the significance of the latter. In addition, upper and lower limits for, and approximations of, the eventual probabilities - along with measures of the rate of convergence - are derived. The applicability of the analysis to lowering the probability of nuclear war is discussed, with particular attention paid to real-life factors that seem to affect this probability.
After the Shooting Stops: Insights on Postwar Economic Growth
Authors: Van Raemdonck Dirk C. , Diehi Paul F.
Published: March 2007

Most studies in peace research consider only the conditions preceding war, with little attention to the outcomes of war beyond how long it lasted, how many people were killed, or which state was victorious. This article reviews the research that has been done on postwar economic growth. We first outline two competing theoretical perspectives on the intrinsic effects of war on economic growth. A review of case studies of the World Wars and broader, cross-sectional studies follows. Generally, it is found that the immediate economic effects are negative; the long-term impact of war and the utility of external aid are uncertain. The impact of war seemed to be less intrinsic than it was conditioned by the policies pursued after the war. Generally, policies designed to restructure the domestic and international economies and promote international trade were successful in promoting postwar recovery. In the concluding section, we offer a number of suggestions for future research. These include a broader spatial-temporal domain for studies of war and economic growth and a consideration of microeconomic effects. Scholars are encouraged to consider three sets of variables in seeking to account for the wide variety of postwar economic experiences likely to be encountered in a broad-based study: characteristics of the war itself, characteristics of the state under scrutiny, and variations in postwar policy pursued by the state and the international community.
Camp David: Problem-Solving or Power Politics as Usual?
Authors: Princen Tom
Published: March 2007

To what extent can powerful mediators perform a facilitating function in their interventions and to what extent are they limited to striking separate deals with the protagonists? Put differently, can a powerful mediator only aim its intervention at payoff structures or can it attempt to influence the very nature of the parties' interactions? This article addresses these questions by analyzing one mediator's practice - President Jimmy Carter's efforts at Camp David - and his impact on the disputing parties. The article first examines the parties' contrasting views of the nature of the mediator's role and shows how this led not only to misunderstanding and frustration but also to missed opportunities. Next, the article argues that as much as Carter wanted to capture the advantages of a `facilitator', in the end, he was constrained by his position as President of the United States to play `power politics' as usual. The article concludes that his structural position, more than anything, accounts for the eventual peace treaty.
Linguistic Hegemony and Minority Resistance
Authors: Eriksen Thomas Hylland
Published: March 2007

On the one hand, cultural differences in the contemporary world seem to vanish rapidly. This is effected through homogenizing processes of economic and political integration into nation-states and into the global system, as well as the globalization of culture brought about through modern means of mass communication. On the other hand, recent decades have seen the widespread resurgence of ethnic sentiments and the revitalization of local cultural identities. This apparent paradox is here seen as an inherent aspect of modernity. The processes of integration into nation-states puts strong pressures on minorities to assimilate. For this reason, many minority languages are threatened. The article compares the situation of several linguistic minorities, focusing on their relationship with the nation-states to which they are subjected, their strategies of resistance, and problems in challenging linguistic hegemony. Perhaps paradoxically, cultural minorities may have to assimilate culturally in important respects in order to present their case effectively and thereby retain their minority identity. A main conclusion emerging from the comparisons is that states need not be nation-states relying on nationalist ideologies proclaiming the virtues of absolute cultural homogeneity. Although they may be unspectacular, forms of linguistic oppression are forms of oppression no less, and they demand the attention of peace and conflict researchers.
Rethinking Revolutions: The Cold War in the Third World
Authors: WESTAD ODD ARNE
Published: March 2007

The article critiques recent research on the foreign policies of late 20th-century revolutionary movements, and attempts to identify some basic elements in the ideology and organization of these policies. The author finds the search for foreign great power allies to be a vital element in the foreign policy practice of revolutionaries, and seeks to analyze how Great Power interests and local revolutionary aspirations interplayed in different cases (China, Iran, Angola). In conclusion, the author looks at how the Cold War international system influenced the chances for revolutionary success, and finds that the character of the Soviet-American conflict in many countries enhanced the potential for revolution by making it impossible for established regimes to monopolize foreign support.
How Children Think and Feel about War and Peace: An Australian Study
Authors: Hall Robin
Published: March 2007

Attention has been recently directed towards fathoming young people's responses to the nuclear threat, but the broader question of how they acquire and form attitudes to peace and war in general has been neglected. Based mainly on studies published in the 1960s and early 1970s, it is hypothesized that children's conceptions of, and attitudes towards, war and peace vary with age, gender, sources of information and exposure to media violence, perceived threats to Australian security and type of school attended. The hypotheses are tested using data obtained from a questionnaire and interview survey of 608 students aged 4-16 years in 10 government and non-government schools in NSW, Australia. By and large, the findings parallel those of previous studies on the age factor, though the assertions that children know more about war than peace and that older children are more likely to believe in innate human aggression are not confirmed. Some interesting differences emerge, however, with respect to the gender, school type, security and media exposure factors. Gender differences are unequivocally significant, as is type of school attended. Boys' attitudes are more militaristic, whilst girls' attitudes are more pacific, and acceptance of war is greater among children attending single-sex boys' and Private Protestant schools. But there are no strong connections between information sources or consumption of violent TV programmes and attitudes. The degree of security children feel is related to attitudes to war and some attention is given to discussing the paradox of children being generally threatened by war and non-accepting of it, yet supporting the use of violent defence. In this context, it is suggested that further research be conducted on children's ideas about just war. Additionally, it is suggested that more work be done on the dynamics by which school ethos influences attitudes, on media violence and attitudes and on the knowledge of very young children about peace and war.
Armed Conflict at the End of the Cold War, 1989-92
Authors: Wallensteen Peter , Axell Karin
Published: March 2007

Predictions for the post-Cold War era have varied from visions of a world in which war had become obsolete to one racked by ethnic and nationalist violence. This article reports data on three levels of armed conflict for the period 1989-92 and makes a first analysis of them. So far, neither the most pessimistic nor the most optimistic predictions are borne out. The number of armed conflicts has increased somewhat, but this is mainly due to an increase in minor armed conflicts, particularly from 1991 to 1992. Wars (involving more than 1000 deaths in a single year) and intermediate conflicts show little change over time. Analyzed by region Europe increasingly has become an arena for armed conflict while in Central and South America the number of armed conflicts was reduced during the four-year period. In Africa and Asia there was little change and in North America no armed conflict at all during this period. The ending of the Cold War has permitted conflicts to reemerge which had been suppressed rather than resolved. At the same time, the end of superpower rivalry has improved the conditions for containing and resolving conflicts and preventing their escalation. To date these two forces have kept each other in check.
Military Spending and Income Inequality
Authors: Abell John D.
Published: March 2007

While volumes have been written on the individual topics of military economics and income distribution, only scant attention has been paid to the potential impact of military spending on the distribution of a nation's income. The traditional academic focus on the military has centered on issues such as spending impacts on employment, income and inflation, or on whether industrialized countries, in particular the United States, have become too dependent upon the military for their economic well being. Above and beyond these concerns, there is evidence that military spending is associated with increasing income inequality. Among other reasons this association exists because of pay differentials in civilian vs. military related work (including direct armed forces activities as well as military contract work), because of fewer opportunities for women and minorities among military contractors, which then exacerbates existing gender and race pay differentials, and, lastly, because of the profitability of military related contracts relative to commercial production. The relationship between military spending and the distribution of income is examined for the United States during the post-Vietnam War period using time-series data. Empirical estimates reveal that military spending is indeed associated with increasing income inequality, after controlling for macro-economic variables such as taxes, economic growth, interest rates, inflation and non-military spending. The results are generally robust to alternative definitions of both the military spending and income distribution measures.
Thinking about the International System in the `Information Age': Theoretical Assumptions and Contradictions
Authors: Alleyne Mark D.
Published: March 2007

The coming of more efficient means of international communication, especially satellite television, have changed forever the character of international relations, leading many to assume that these developments will spawn an international system of democratic, peaceful states. This article is a critical analysis of these assumptions about the relationship between communications, democracy and international peace. The argument is that they are based upon specific theoretical premises that in reality have not informed the practice of international relations, especially by the states that have propagated this rhetoric the most. These premises are found in (a) liberal-democratic theory, and (b) liberal trade theory. This article compares and contrasts these theoretical assumptions about the impact of communications technologies upon international relations and illustrates the contradictions inherent in them. The finding that logically flows from this analysis is that even though it has now been proven that some states characterized as democracies do not go to war against each other, the dimension of communication in liberal democracies is worthy of further analysis by political scientists in the search for the specific dynamics of the relationship between democracies and international peace.
Internal Military Intervention in the United States
Authors: Adams David
Published: March 2007

Data on internal military interventions in the USA are presented for those periods in which they are available from US government sources: 1886-95, 1921-35 and 1943-90. Although the rate of intervention has varied from year to year and the targets of interventions have shifted from industrial workers to urban rioters, the overall rates of intervention have remained near the average during the years: about 18 interventions and 12,000 troops per year. A brief overview is given of the internal military interventions carried out before the Civil War (targeting especially American Indians and slaves), those between the Civil War and World War II, and those since World War II. Internal military surveillance has greatly increased during and after wars. There has been a tendency to blame the internal unrest which has led to military interventions on external enemies, which may have been a factor in preparation for external military action. In conclusion, the study of internal military intervention and the development of non-violent alternatives of conflict management are recommended to peace researchers and peace activists as a contribution to the abolition of war and militarism and to the construction of a culture of peace.
The Anthropology and Ethnography of Political Violence
Authors: Krohn-Hansen Christian
Published: March 2007

Two recent books have shown the fruitfulness of approaching the analysis of political violence and terror based on a set of general anthropological ideas about meaning formation, cosmology and ritual. One of these works in particular reveals links between what may be described as the cultural construction of political violence in modern industrialized contexts and the shaping of particular spatial and bodily symbolism among social actors. The other book has contributed to the field of cross-cultural studies of political violence by examining connections between the making of particular concepts of the past - or history - among groups of actors, and the suffering and perpetration of political violence. This study sheds general light on the relationship between collective remembering of violence and spirals of ethnic violence. This review essay also briefly assesses a third book, i.e. a collection of essays which discuss different aspects of what it means in theoretical, methodological, and ethical terms to carry out research based on fieldwork when political violence in the field is, or has until recently been, commonplace. Together the three volumes can be said to reveal central features of recent trends among anthropologists who investigate political violence.
Transcending Traditionalism: The Emergence of Non-State Military Formations in Afghanistan
Authors: Harpviken Kristian Berg
Published: March 2007

Non-state organizations with a state-like coercive capability are key actors in a number of internal wars. Often emerging in response to the threat of a state's coercive apparatus, they tend to maintain a life of their own after the initial threat has disappeared. A key analytical question is when non-state military organizations are likely to take on a permanent nature. This question has often been answered from a traditional-modern dichotomization, which this article deems inadequate. It is exactly the movements incorporating established community relations that are most likely to develop into large-scale, military effective, organizations. A version of collective action theory is proposed which emphasizes the role of community, opening up for an understanding of how and why `traditional' modes of social organization are central for `modern' organizations with large war-making capacity. This extended logic of collective action is used to analyse the emergence of various armed formations in Afghanistan since the coup in 1978. The article deals specifically with organizations emerging within two ethnic populations, the newly assertive Hazara, and the historically dominant Pashtun, including an analysis of the Taliban movement. It is argued that current international policy-making on Afghanistan is informed by analysis based on the traditional-modern dichotomy, neglecting crucial changes initiated by the war. The cases analysed here give considerable support for further applications of the extended logic of collective action, particularly to non-western case material.
Social Conditions for Political Violence: Red and White Terror in the Finnish Civil War of 1918
Authors: Arosalo Sirkka
Published: March 2007

This article is concerned with the role of social change as a breeding ground for violence. The focus is on the armed organization and especially the terror perpetrated outside of overt military operations both by the Reds and the Whites in the Finnish Civil War of 1918. The statistical analysis aims to find out how the economic and political situation of different social strata, both in industrial and agrarian society, linked up with violence. A total of 164 variables were included in the original analysis (Arosalo, 1994; Appendix 1); this article covers 35. The basic finding is that both terror and armed organization were associated with economic decline. More generally, economic crisis emerges as a prime mover of violence, political organization being a mediating factor: violence increases in conditions of economic decline, but decreases when the economy is booming. The structural analysis is accompanied by an institutional analysis to highlight the situation prevailing in Finnish society at that time. In economic terms, Finland was in a transitional stage, rapidly transforming from an agrarian into an industrial society. This may be compared with recent data (e.g. Wallensteen & Sollenberg, 1997) showing that most recent conflicts are internal and that they occur more frequently in Asian and African countries than in Europe and America. In other words, armed conflicts are more common in transitional societies than in more advanced countries. The systems of interaction in Finnish society are analysed on the basis of Galtung's theory of feudal interaction: power was highly centralized. The results of this investigation are similar to those reported by Rummel, who found that violence during the present century is associated with absolute and authoritarian power. In terms of Dahrendorf's regulation theory, interaction was unregulated; in terms of collective rationality, the interaction system was irrational.
Framing the Wars in the Gulf and in Bosnia: The Rhetorical Definitions of the Western Power Leaders in Action
Authors: Kuusisto Riikka
Published: March 2007

This article examines the rhetorical action of the Western major powers in defining two important international confrontations, the 1990-91 war against Saddam Hussein in the Gulf and the 1992-95 conflict among the Serbs, Croats and Muslims in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The leaders of the United States, Great Britain and France constructed the efforts of the anti-Iraq coalition as a `just war with a new world order as its goal' but represented the Bosnian strife as a `cruel and meaningless slaughter that outside forces can do very little about', and thereby selected appropriate policies for dealing with the situations. In their statements in the Gulf, the Iraqi president was made the ultimate enemy, dangerous and evil, who had to be crushed in order to make the world safe again. As to Bosnia, the evanescent enemies left the Western powers bewildered and unwilling to dictate any solutions. Besides framing the conflicts as heroic battles or tragic feuds, the Western leaders employed various metaphors to make the distant events and their policies seem significant and coherent. The apparently harmless and light-hearted comparisons with children's stories, card games, business deals, and sports competitions induced forceful action in the Gulf; by contrast, paralleling the situation with sad dramas, horrible nightmares, violent natural catastrophes, and treacherous morasses made decisive interference impossible in Bosnia. The Gulf metaphors made clear to all the folly of leaving the princess in the lurch, not playing a winning hand, passing up the chance for a great investment, or canceling the Cup Final. In Bosnia, the metaphors made it unthinkable to dash onto the stage to defend the scapegoat, act on the visions of a frightening dream, stand in the way of the whirlwind, or try to cross the quicksand.
Criminal Victimization During One's Life Course: The Effects of Previous Victimization and Patterns of Routine Activities
Authors: WITTEBROOD KARIN , NIEUWBEERTA PAUL
Published: March 2007

This study focuses on the effects of previous victimization and patterns of routine activities on the risk of falling victim to seven types of crime: sexual offense, assault, threat, burglary, personal larceny, car theft and bicycle theft. To examine these effects' individual life-course data on marital, fertility, residential, educational, employment and criminal histories were related to histories of criminal victimization. These data derived from a nationally representative survey administered in the Netherlands in 1996 to 1,939 individuals age 15 years or older. Logistic multilevel models were used in the analysis of the data. The results of the analyses suggest that individuals who have once been victims suffer a substantial higher risk of subsequent victimization. This effect of previous victimization can partly be explained by a real effect of previous victimization (state dependence), but more largely by the effects of patterns of routine activities (heterogeneity in the population).
Criteria of Status among Street Groups
Authors: Kobrin Solomon , Puntil Joseph , Peluso Emil
Published: March 2007

The major forms or styles of delinquency which may be found in the lower-class community are postulated by opportunity theory as a function of the relative availability of illegitimate opportunity. This feature of the theory was empirically tested by investigating a network of six street groups in a lower-class community in which there was evidence of variation in access to illegitimate opportunity. Four of the groups were found to have specifiable delinquent styles. Their patterns of delinquency were characterized as sophisticated, conspicuous, occupational, and versatile. The two groups found to be nondelinquent are de scribed as unconventional and respectable. The sophisticated and conspicuous delinquent groups are seen as representing Cloward and Ohlin's ideal criminal and conflict variants of the delinquent subculture, with their access to illegitimate opportu nity differing in accord with prediction from opportunity theo ry. Although not predicted, the versatile pattern was found to be predictable from the theory with minor modification. However, opportunity theory did not predict the occupational delinquent pattern. This finding suggests the need to modify the theory to include the variable of orientation to adult reference group.