bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Applications of Magnetoencephalography to Autism Spectrum Disorder
Authors: Safar Kristina , Taylor Margot J. , Matsuzaki Junko , Roberts Timothy P. L.
Published: August 2020

Magnetoencephalography (MEG) has a unique combination of attributes allowing the probing of brain function, with resolution of space, time, and spectral content. These attributes lend themselves to the study of disorders characterized by no conspicuous structural brain anomalies, but rather anomalies of neural signals and communication. This chapter reviews the use of diverse MEG techniques and paradigms to study one such disorder, autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The authors focus on MEG as a probe of auditory and face processing anomalies in ASD. Impairments in auditory processing in ASD have been identified as objective markers of language and communication ability, general cognitive ability, and abnormal sensory sensitivity. Most MEG studies have observed that atypical auditory responses such as components of the early auditory evoked field (i.e., M50, M100), mismatch fields, or gamma-band oscillatory activity occur in individuals with ASD compared with typically developing children. Maturational trajectories of such measures also deviate from neurotypical patterns. Similarly, impairments in face perception are characteristic of ASD and have been a large focus of MEG studies, as a model probe for the social impairment phenotype. MEG research has demonstrated atypical source localization of activity during face processing in children through adults as well as in executive functions, including working memory and inhibition. Interregional differences in synchrony of neural oscillations have been elaborated by MEG in emotional face processing tasks, with visual perceptual processing underscoring gamma-band atypicalities in ASD. We highlight MEG as a promising approach for establishing clinical biomarkers of ASD and informing mechanistic neuroscience.
Biomarkers in Pediatric Magnetoencephalography
Authors: Stephen Julia M. , Solis Isabel , Pinner John F. L. , Candelaria-Cook Felicha T.
Published: August 2020

The use of magnetoencephalography (MEG) to understand alterations in brain development in children has increased rapidly over the past two decades. Investigators have argued that MEG is an ideal neuroimaging tool for children because the technology is quiet and it provides high-density sensor systems. This participant-friendly technology has led to exploration of the use of MEG to identify biomarkers for atypical brain development to facilitate early diagnosis and intervention. Prior studies provide evidence that MEG is sensitive to a number of pediatric clinical disorders demonstrated through significant differences (e.g., latency, amplitude, spectral power) in children with autism spectrum disorder, children born prematurely, and children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, to name a few. At the same time, differences in age range, stimulus parameters, and study population characteristics contribute to variability in results across independent laboratories. While the current studies provide strong evidence for the sensitivity of MEG to identify brain abnormalities in children, replication studies are needed to validate biomarkers of atypical brain development to identify children at risk for atypical brain development. Additional studies are also needed to understand the dynamic changes in these brain markers across the age spectrum. Finally, future directions include gaining a broader understanding of typical and atypical brain development to identify neural targets for intervention.
Bach
Authors: Schulenberg David
Published: August 2020

Bach is an entirely new volume in the “Master Musicians” series, replacing the old entry by Malcolm Boyd with updated coverage of the composer’s life and works. Tracing the composer’s biography from origins in Thuringia to mastery as cantor and music director at Leipzig, the book sets Bach in the cultural context of early modern Europe. Family life, social structure, and court culture are among the topics examined from the perspective of contemporary approaches to history. Bach’s work as student, organist, music director, and teacher is considered alongside his compositions, with discussions of representative examples from all the major categories, including concertos, cantatas, chamber music, and pieces for harpsichord and for organ. In addition to a handy list of works and other useful reference matter included in every volume of the series, this book is also accompanied by an online supplement that offers a glossary, a guide to further reading, and audio versions of the numerous music examples.
Bach the Concertmaster
Authors: Schulenberg David
Published: August 2020

Bach’s title as concertmaster was new in the early eighteenth century; at Weimar it implied direction of the court music ensemble, at least in the new vocal works that Bach was now expected to produce every four weeks. Beginning in 1714 he composed several dozen church cantatas on a regular basis, including BWV 182, 12, and 31. These were preceded by a handful of significant vocal works, among them the “Hunt Cantata” (BWV 208). But the greatest number of compositions from this period are for organ and keyboard, including the “Great Eighteen” chorales, the “Dorian” toccata and fugue, transcriptions of concertos, and the Chromatic Fantasia, all discussed in this chapter. Also considered is the influence of Telemann on Bach and his compositions.
The History and Future of Scientific Publishing
Authors: Kelly Alan
Published: August 2020

This chapter reviews the development of the modern scientific paper, from the sixteenth century forward, and explores the ways in which scientific information has been disseminated in the past. Great scientific advances of the past are discussed in the context of how they were first published, or otherwise brought to the attention of the broader scientific community, and the modern scientific publishing sector is explored. The types and categories of scientific journals are discussed, along with an overview of current publishing trends, such as the exponential increase in number of journals, changes in the ways in which researchers access the literature, and in particular the emergence and current state of open access journals. In addition, various ways in which journals are ranked are discussed, and key trends in such lists over the last ten years or so explored.
What Happens after Publication?
Authors: Kelly Alan
Published: August 2020

This chapter explores in detail what happens after a paper is published, in terms of the ways in which papers have an impact, the importance of subsequent citations, and how the importance of a paper to its parent field can be eventually judged. This is illustrated by following the citation trends of several key historical scientific papers (e.g., Watson and Crick on DNA, the first report of the identification of Buckminsterfullerene) and exploring rates of citation, the peak citation times, the manner in which the papers were referred to at different times, and, in general, the way in which ripples of information transfer across the scientific community. Examples of papers to which reaction was negative (e.g., the report on cold fusion) or mixed (NASA’s report of possible fossil micro-organisms in Martian rock) are also discussed.
Cinema Expanded
Authors: Walley Jonathan
Published: August 2020

Cinema Expanded: Avant-Garde Film in the Age of Intermedia is a comprehensive historical survey of expanded cinema from the mid-1960s to the present. It offers an historical and theoretical revision of the concept of expanded cinema, placing it in the context of avant-garde/experimental film history rather than the history of new media, intermedia, or multimedia. The book argues that while expanded cinema has taken an incredible variety of forms (including moving image installation, multi-screen films, live cinematic performance, light shows, shadow plays, computer-generated images, video art, sculptural objects, and texts), it is nonetheless best understood as an ongoing meditation by filmmakers on the nature of cinema, specifically, and on its relationship to the other arts. Cinema Expanded also extends its historical and theoretical scope to avant-garde film culture more generally, placing expanded cinema in that context while also considering what it has to tell us about the moving image in the art world and new media environment.
Introduction
Authors: Walley Jonathan
Published: August 2020

This chapter defines expanded cinema, traces its history broadly from the 1960s to the present, and reviews previous scholarly and critical literature on the subject. It argues that while expanded cinema has traditionally been seen as a rejection or abandonment of cinema in its conventional form, and as a form of “intermedia” or “new media,” with historical perspective it is better understood as an attempt to define and explore the limits and essences of cinema as an art form. While it takes forms commonly associated with the other arts (including installation, performance, sculptural objects, and even text), it is precisely by exploring this aesthetic territory that avant-garde/experimental filmmakers have tested the boundaries and clarified the specific nature of their art form. The introduction also defines the category of “avant-garde” or “experimental” cinema, defining it as a distinct cinematic culture and historical tradition, which represents a set of aesthetic and social values that can be traced through works of expanded cinema. The title of the introduction indicates the book’s larger argument: that expanded cinema does not represent the end of cinema as we know it, but its persistence, albeit in new and unconventional forms.
Cinema as Object I
Authors: Walley Jonathan
Published: August 2020

Chapter 4 looks at works of expanded cinema that emphasize what could be called a “sculptural” property—the physicality and tactility of a moving image medium (e.g. film, projectors, screens). These works isolate one material element of the film medium, such as the filmstrip, screen, or projector, removing it from its place in a system of machines and displaying it as an object in its own right. In doing so, such works break apart the unified machine of the cinematic apparatus, pulling the objects that constitute that apparatus out of the obscurity and endowing them with aesthetic qualities. In normal cinematic exhibition, these objects disappear, replaced by the ephemeral experience of watching the illusory images of light and shadow that they invisibly produce. Object-based works of expanded cinema reverse this process, returning the sense of mass, weight, and gravity to the materials of the medium, thereby forcing a new consideration of the possibilities film offers for direct, sensuous physical experiences. Such expanded cinema works include direct displays of filmstrips (e.g. woven forms made from celluloid), projectors, and other physical materials, objects, and technologies.
Cinema as Idea
Authors: Walley Jonathan
Published: August 2020

Chapter 6 considers works of expanded cinema that could be called “conceptual cinema.” “Conceptual,” here, refers to the belief that cinema among many avant-garde/experimental filmmakers and critics that cinema was ultimately a conceptual phenomenon, even when it took forms that seemed decidedly material. The term, or variants of it, was used in the 1960s and 1970s, often to refer to “imaginary” films, films planned or written but purposely never executed, and unprojected or unprojectable films. There are parallels between such conceptual cinematic works and conceptual art. In both cases, concepts, intentions, imagination, and discourse are taken to be as constitutive as art works as materials and physical processes. The objects of the film medium were, and continue to be, de-centered in favor of these less tangible, conceptual, or discursive dimensions of cinematic practice. While conceptual art will be a point of reference, chapter 6 will also show that a concept-based ontology of cinema emerged organically from within the history of avant-garde/experimental film. That is, it should not be thought of simply as a delayed response by filmmakers to prior art world developments, as if playing catch-up with their fellow artists.
Introduction
Authors: Platt Andrew R.
Published: August 2020

Starting in the 1660s, a number of philosophers argued for occasionalism, a doctrine that was first developed in medieval Islamic thought. The seventeenth-century thinkers who revived occasionalism—including Arnold Geulincx, Louis de la Forge, Gerauld de Cordemoy, and, most famously, Nicolas Malebranche—were deeply influenced by the philosophy of Descartes. This book will consider the relationship between Cartesianism and occasionalism, and examine the arguments that led Descartes’ followers to endorse occasionalism. It argues that the Cartesian occasionalists chose to adopt occasionalism as a way to defend and develop the Cartesian system—and that these theoretical motivations are crucial to understanding the force of their arguments for occasionalism. In order to understand the goals or motives of a historical figure such as Descartes or Malebranche, we can compare that figure to his or her historical counterparts. This Introduction explains the concept of a counterpart, following David Lewis.
Mind–Body Interactionism
Authors: Platt Andrew R.
Published: August 2020

Chapter 3 argues that Descartes’ views about mind–body interaction are internally consistent, and compatible with his more general views about causation; thus neither Descartes nor his followers were forced to reject interactionism to maintain mind–body dualism. In some later works, Descartes says that corporeal motions “give occasion” to the mind to form ideas, which are innate to the mind. Section 3.3 argues that these remarks are consistent with his claims in earlier texts that corporeal motions produce or bring about ideas in the mind. This causal theory of sensation seems to be inconsistent with general causal principles that Descartes endorses elsewhere—such as the principle that a cause must contain, “formally or eminently,” whatever it brings about in its effect. But sections 3.3 and 3.4 show that Descartes’ general statements about efficient causation are compatible with the view that bodily motions have the power to elicit sensations in the mind.
Form as Harmony in Rock Music
Authors: Nobile Drew
Published: August 2020

This book offers a theory of form aimed at rock and pop songs of the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. The core claim is that rock form derives from the interaction between thematic design and harmonic structure. Many aspects of a rock song—lyrical structure, instrumental texture, melodic design, etc.—ultimately trace back to the relationship between harmonic trajectory and formal layout. The book begins with a theory of rock harmony rooted in an adaptation of Schenkerian analysis and proceeds to demonstrate that rock music is based on a small set of formal-harmonic patterns used consistently across genres and decades. It is these formal-harmonic patterns—not generic successions of sections—that define rock’s individual forms. These forms provide a backdrop framing interpretations of specific songs, a lens through which we may comprehend their particular lyrical narratives, timbral signifiers, and broad expressive content. Though broadly theoretical in scope, this book is deeply analytical, demonstrating the value and utility of close reading of rock songs. Ultimately, the book defends a structural approach to rock analysis, arguing not only that such an approach is an important and valuable mode of engagement for rock but also that rock’s structural aspects deeply affect the way we perceive and interact with the repertoire.
Break Every Yoke
Authors: Dubler Joshua , Lloyd Vincent
Published: August 2020

Changes in the American religious landscape enabled the rise of mass incarceration. Religious ideas and practices also offer a key for ending mass incarceration. These are the bold claims advanced in Break Every Yoke, the joint work of two activist-scholars of American religion. Once, in an era not too long past, Americans, both incarcerated and free, spoke a language of social liberation animated by religion. In the era of mass incarceration, we have largely forgotten how to dream—and organize—this way. To end mass incarceration we must reclaim this lost tradition. Properly conceived, the movement we need must demand not prison reform but prison abolition. Break Every Yoke weaves religion into the stories about race, politics, law, and economics that conventionally account for the grotesque prison expansion of the last half century in the United States, and in so doing it sheds new light on one of our era’s biggest human catastrophes. By foregrounding the role of religion in the way political elites, religious institutions, and incarcerated activists talk about incarceration, Break Every Yoke is an effort to stretch the American moral imagination and contribute resources toward envisioning alternative ways of doing justice. By looking back to nineteenth-century abolitionism, and by turning to today’s grassroots activists, it argues for reclaiming the abolition “spirit.”
Why Not Prison Abolition?
Authors: Dubler Joshua , Lloyd Vincent W.
Published: August 2020

In a genealogical fashion, chapter 1 explores the processes, both historically and contemporarily, by which prisons are made “necessary” and abolition is rendered “impossible.” Drawing on interviews and published sources, the authors argue why, both on the merits and for the purposes of movement building, prison abolition, not prison reform, is the right position and the most propitious political frame with which to address mass incarceration. In spite of the secularist moorings of prison abolitionism, as a tradition abolitionism is, in its way, religious from the start. Winning prison reformers over to prison abolition will be well served by attending to and deepening abolitionism’s religious resonances.
The Spirit of Abolition
Authors: Dubler Joshua , Lloyd Vincent W.
Published: August 2020

In the fifty-eighth chapter of Isaiah, the Hebrew prophet exhorts the reader to transcend rote ritualism and engage directly in service to the poor, the suffering, and the oppressed. In exhorting his allies to do likewise, abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison drew on this language frequently, most canonically in his 1833 “Declaration of the National Anti-Slavery Convention” and his 1859 “Eulogy for John Brown.” In the generation in between, something extraordinary happened: the goal of ending slavery completely lurched from the cultural margins to the center. Inspired by this precedent, this chapter explores some of the extraordinary religious organizing taking place in the trenches under the banner of prison abolition, from Protestants and Catholics, to Muslims and Jews, to those who are spiritual but not religious.
Learning to Innovate
Authors: Stevens Casey
Published: August 2020

What is the likelihood of science and technology progress for biodiversity from the sustainable development goals? This chapter argues that it is higher than it may seem as a result of scientific developments ready for wide application and a structure of biodiversity governance able to spread innovation. The chapter initially argues that there are three potential fields for innovation under the specific targets of the sustainable development goals: integration of biodiversity with other spheres, ecosystem-based management, and remote sensing. Next, it argues that innovation is likely because the biodiversity governance system has developed localized centers for developing innovation with a system for transferring those findings across scales. It focuses specifically on the importance of the National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans developed under the Convention on Biological Diversity, the expert systems developed at the international level, and the ability of international organizations to implement innovative approaches to biodiversity governance. The conclusion is that there is a high potential for innovation, but that taking action after the Aichi biodiversity targets end in 2020 will be key.
Financing Environmental Science and Technological Innovation to Meet Sustainable Development Goals in Brazil
Authors: Machado Mariana , Young Carlos Eduardo F.
Published: August 2020

This chapter discusses the available financial mechanisms and public expenditures to foster research and development (R&D) applied to environmental conservation and sustainable use of natural resources in order to meet the Brazilian commitments to the sustainable development goals (SDGs). First, the authors estimate the financial needs for environmental-related R&D for the selected SDG. Then they analyze the specific characteristics of the Brazilian science, technology, and innovation (STI) financing system, and its strengths and barriers, especially the sectoral funds. Finally, they discuss possible improvements in STI funding policies to promote technological development aligned with the 2030 Agenda. The study shows a significant financial gap for environment-related R&D and that there is an urgent need to create alternative sources of funding and improvements of the existing financing mechanisms. Brazil has developed policies and financing mechanisms that have enabled the country to advance R&D indicators. However, the STI funding pattern results in project fragmentation and decreases the likelihood of resulting in innovative process and products. Besides increasing STI investment, it is also necessary to prioritize environmental-related R&D. Therefore, institutional and budgetary adjustments will be necessary to enhance the financial R&D efforts to help Brazil meet the environmental SDG targets.
Automated Vehicles and Sustainable Cities
Authors: Wang Rui , Oster Christopher
Published: August 2020

The adoption of realistic automated vehicle (AV) technologies in the near future could trigger a shift toward a more efficient, environmentally friendly, and socially inclusive urban transport system if appropriate policies are implemented. Despite this potential, however, AV technologies seem unlikely to revolutionize ground transportation in the near future given the challenges and uncertainties associated with highly automated (driverless) vehicles. This chapter analyzes the slow progress toward and challenges to highly automated vehicles, and proposes a list of AV technologies that are most likely to be widely adopted within the time framework of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The authors then discuss how near-future AV technologies may affect the ability of achieving the sustainable development goal (SDG) of sustainable cities and communities (SDG11) and interconnected SDGs on health (SDG3), energy and resources (SDGs 7 and 12), economy (SDG8), and the environment (SDGs 13–15). The chapter concludes with four policy recommendations (transit integration, infrastructure, pricing, and experience sharing) for cities to best utilize and adapt to near-future AV technologies in order to achieve SDGs.
Anti-Malarial Drug Development and Diffusion in an Era of Multidrug Resistance
Authors: Haan Freek de , Moors Ellen H.M.
Published: August 2020

The ability to ensure healthy lives and well-being (SDG3, healthy lives) is dependent on accessible and affordable healthcare for everyone in need. However, people in low and middle-income countries (LMICs) often lack access to health interventions such as innovative medicines to treat medical needs. This chapter develops a sustainable drug development and diffusion framework for LMICs. The framework is applied to evaluate a global health threat that challenges the achievement of SDG3 targets: the emergence of multidrug resistance to anti-malarial medicines. Malaria is a poverty-related infectious disease that is caused by parasites and transmitted through mosquitos. Malaria is well treatable and effective drugs do exist, but they often fail to reach the infected patients. These days, the first-line anti-malarial medicines are becoming less effective because of multidrug resistance. This requires urgent and coordinated action at the levels of drug development, diffusion, and utilization. The integrated framework evaluates this emerging health threat by discussing four themes: availability, affordability, accessibility, and acceptability. Moreover, the interdependence between those themes is assessed. Finally, policy implications are proposed to address this global health challenge and to proceed toward a sustainable system of drug development and diffusion in LMICs.
The Role of Animal-Source Foods in Sustainable, Ethical, and Optimal Human Diets
Authors: Bruyn Julia de , Bagnol Brigitte , Chan Hilary H. , Grace Delia , Mitchell Marisa E. V. , Nunn Michael J. , Wingett Kate , Wong Johanna T. , Alders Robyn G.
Published: August 2020

Achieving sustainable, ethical food systems in support of human and planetary health is among the greatest challenges facing the global community. Globally, 815 million people are chronically undernourished, 108 million children and 604 million adults are obese, and more than two billion people are at risk of micronutrient deficiencies. Animal-source foods (ASFs), including milk, meat, fish, and eggs, provide high-quality protein and a variety of micronutrients in forms readily absorbed and used by the human body. Current research continues to explore the nutritional contributions of ASFs, their interactions with other dietary components, and their role in healthy human growth and development. This chapter uses the framework of the sustainable development goals (SDGs) to consider the value of ASFs in human diets across a range of settings. It discusses opportunities for multidisciplinary efforts that harness science, technology, and innovation (STI) to mitigate risks of foodborne disease, to promote the efficient management of natural resources, to reduce nutrient losses within livestock value chains, and to support gender- and culturally sensitive communication around livestock management and human nutrition. In support of the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of sustainable development, this chapter proposes opportunities to meet the nutritional needs of current and future populations while supporting biodiversity and conserving scarce natural resources.
Transformation Governance for Sustainable Development
Authors: Wedig Karin
Published: August 2020

Aquaculture is instrumental for increasing global fish production, but its ecological effects can create new pressures on the fishing grounds that small-scale fisheries (SSFs) depend on. As a result, achievement of SDGs 1 (end poverty) and 2 (end hunger) in societies of the Global South is compromised, and that of SDG14 (sustainable marine resources) is complicated. Using new evidence from Lake Victoria, which harbors Africa’s largest inland SSFs and a fast-growing aquaculture industry, this chapter examines how science, technology, and innovation (STI) can support ecologically and socially sustainable governance of fisheries resources. The author argues that a sustainable expansion of aquaculture needs to protect the natural resources that small fishers depend on while maximizing their ability to benefit from fish-farming. STI-based solutions, if integrated in a transformation governance approach, can secure and expand contributions from capture fisheries and aquaculture to help achieve SDGs 1, 2, and 14. The concept of transformation governance is based on a threefold structure: to increase eco-efficiency, redistribute access to natural resources, and recognize eco-sufficiency as a guiding principle. By applying this threefold resource-governance approach, the potential for STI-based solutions to provide greater overall eco-efficiency is utilized, restrictions on total resource use prevent rebound effects, and the principle of redistribution promotes a focus on appropriate technologies for small-scale resource users.
Value Network Analysis for (Re)Organizing Business Models Toward the Sustainable Development Goals
Authors: Dentoni Domenico , Klerkx Laurens , Krussmann Felix
Published: August 2020

This chapter introduces the use of value network analysis (VNA) as a diagnostic tool for (re-)organizing business models seeking to contribute to the achievement of multiple sustainable development goals (SDGs). While VNA has already been widely applied to the study of technological innovation ecosystems, this chapter introduces its role for decision-makers in business models seeking to support sustainability transitions toward the SDGs. To demonstrate the approach, the authors apply VNA to the case of the Agricultural Commodity Exchange (ACE) in Malawi. The ACE represents a business model seeking to increase value-chain efficiency while including smallholder farmers to foster food security and reduce rural poverty and marginalization. The authors discuss how VNA can act also as a diagnostic tool for actors seeking to contribute to reduce poverty and hunger (SDGs 1 and 2); enhance economic growth and public infrastructure (SDGs 8 and 9); and foster cross-sector partnerships for sustainability (SDG17). The ACE case demonstrates that VNA provides several entry points for building strategic cross-sector partnerships that act as systemic instruments in science, technology, and innovation policy, coordinating actions to ensure that the right policy mix comes in place to tackle different SDG targets in an integrated way.
Conclusions and Future Policies for Meeting the Sustainable Development Goals
Authors: Adenle Ademola A. , Chertow Marian R. , Moors Ellen H.M. , Pannell David J.
Published: August 2020

The final chapter reviews contributions from throughout this book, drawing out common themes, differences, and key lessons. Previous studies indicate the potential role of science, technology, and innovation (STI) in tackling global challenges, yet in many developing countries, little attention is paid to harnessing STI in addressing these problems. The global development agenda, including the millennium development goals (MDGs), often underemphasized the potential for STI contributions, resulting in impacts that fell short of their potential. The chapter and other evidence presented in this book illustrate how a failure to provide the institutions and resources needed to build STI capacity, and a failure of key actors to engage synergistically, can be serious impediments to development. To conclude, the chapter sets out recommendations based on the insights provided in the earlier chapters.
Doing Justice, Preventing Crime
Authors: Tonry Michael
Published: August 2020

In the 2020s, no informed person disagrees that punishment policies and practices in the United States are unprincipled, chaotic, and much too often unjust. The financial costs are enormous. The moral cost is greater: countless individual injustices; mass incarceration; the world’s highest imprisonment rate; extreme disparities, especially affecting members of racial and ethnic minority groups; high rates of wrongful conviction; assembly-line case processing; and a general absence of respectful consideration of offenders’ interests, circumstances, and needs. The main ideas in this book about doing justice and preventing crime are simple: Treat people charged with and convicted of crimes justly, fairly, and even-handedly, as anyone would want done for themselves or their children. Take sympathetic account of the circumstances of peoples’ lives. Punish no one more severely than he or she deserves. Those propositions are implicit in the rule of law and its requirement that the human dignity of every person be respected. Three major structural changes are needed. First, selection of judges and prosecutors, and their day-to-day work, must be insulated from political influence. Second, mandatory minimum sentence, three-strikes, life without parole, truth in sentencing, and similar laws must be repealed. Third, correctional and prosecution systems must be centralized in unified state agencies.
Multiple Convictions
Authors: Tonry Michael
Published: August 2020

Little has been written about the sizable majority of defendants who are convicted of several offenses at the same time or have previously been convicted of others. That is not a small oversight. Efforts to address it expose fundamental conceptual problems. The biggest is the multiple offense paradox. Efforts to offer principled accounts of the sentencing of multiple offenses founder on it. In Western legal systems, individuals sentenced following multiple convictions receive a bulk discount that results in a lesser total punishment than if each conviction had resulted in the punishment normally imposed on a first offender convicted of a single offense. By contrast, sentences of people convicted of separate offenses in successive proceedings usually include recidivist premiums that result in harsher punishments, often much harsher, than first offenders receive for the same offense.
Deterrence
Authors: Tonry Michael
Published: August 2020

There is no need to choose between punishing offenders justly and preventing crime. Zero-sum games exist, but this is not one. It is in the nature of things that convictions and punishments have preventive effects. They are such miserable experiences that many offenders are mortified, decide “never again,” and stick to it. They reinforce important societal norms. Those involving confinement or restrictions on mobility incapacitate. To the extent that threats of punishment deter, they deter. To the extent that terms of imprisonment are proportionate, they deter rationally, reinforcing social norms about the relative seriousness of different crimes. There is substantial reason to be skeptical that increases in penalties, or harsher compared with milder penalties, have significant if any marginal deterrent effects. American criminal justice systems can be made much less expensive to operate, less punitive, and less characterized by unwanted collateral damage to offenders, their families, and their communities.
The New Testament (50–100)
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

This chapter focuses primarily on the New Testament, the charter document for Christian views of conversion. It examines the vocabulary of conversion and the multitudinous ways that Scripture depicts conversion. At a basic level, conversion in the New Testament is a personal response of faith to God’s saving activity in Jesus Christ: theologically, affirming certain beliefs about Jesus; ethically, conforming in behavior to Jesus; and sociologically, joining a community of followers of Jesus. Following a discussion of the vocabulary of conversion in the Old and New Testaments, the chapter discusses conversion in the Synoptic Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles (emphasizing the contrast to the pagan world and discussing household conversions), the Johannine writings, and the conversion of Paul. It concludes with comments about the relationship between baptism and conversion.
Late Antiquity and Early Medieval Europe (500–1000)
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the varieties and methods of Christian conversion in early medieval Europe. Christians made repeated attempts to adjust Christian convictions to the realities of people who practiced a variety of nature religions. Two cultural worlds interacted in a reciprocal process of adding and subtracting, creating and destroying. One way to understand the perspective of missionaries and the conundrum they faced is to think in terms of a sliding scale, varying in time and place; some aspects of pre-Christian beliefs were deemed incompatible whereas other pre-Christian rituals were accepted by absorption and adoption. At the bare minimum, conversion meant a transfer of loyalty or allegiance, confirmed by baptism. If there was rudimentary instruction, conversion meant familiarity with the Apostles’ Creed and the Lord’s Prayer and the acceptance of church authority. Methods of conversion varied, from “words” (proclamation of the word) to “deeds” (conversion through miracles and profaning paganism).
Rulers, Missionaries, Popes, and Patriarchs (400–1200)
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the contributions of monks, bishops, popes, and kings in spreading Christianity to the emerging kingdoms of Europe. With the exception of Ireland, the conversion of Europe was largely brought about by the mutually reinforcing interactions between missionaries and kings. In this symbiotic relationship, missionaries had something to give—the Christian message—and kings had something to get—the resources, prestige, and ideological underpinnings of the Church as they consolidated their power. The initial conversion of Europe was primarily an institutional or political, not a personal, conversion. Christian influence spread from the “top down,” that is, from rulers and kings and the upper-class and better-educated to the lower-class and less-educated people.
Conversion by Coercion
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

As Christian European society expanded geographically and as the Latin Church insisted on its universal rule, the perceived contamination of Christians by “religious aliens” accelerated intolerance by church and state authorities, mobs, and vigilante groups. This chapter examines the forced conversions of Jews and pagans. In four incidents of Jewish conversion, the threat of violence or of some kind of negative consequence (e.g., economic pressure) constituted if not forced conversions then certainly pressure to convert. Jews, however, were only one group, and a relatively small one, targeted for forcible Christian conversion. Throughout the medieval period, thousands of pagans were brought into the Christian fold by forcible means—from Charlemagne’s eighth-century campaign against the Saxons to the Sword Brothers’ thirteenth-century campaigns against the Lithuanians and Estonians.
Interior Conversion
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

In the early Middle Ages, the monastic model of conversion represented Christianity’s highest form of spirituality. Conversion meant becoming a religious or entering a religious order; it represented withdrawal into a cloistered community where the soul’s quest for perfection in imitation of Christ could be fully realized. Conversion signified a lifelong pursuit of God, a desire for a final conversion culminating in the beatific vision. By the High Middle Ages, however, this monastic model was increasingly challenged by friars and lay movements (e.g., Beguines, tertiaries, and the Devotio Moderna movement in the Low Countries). For them, conversion meant a call to return to the primitive church in active pursuit of holiness in the world, not a retreat into the confines of the monastery.
Protestants and Continental Reformers (1517–1600)
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

By the early sixteenth century, the call to conversion had moved in other and more radical directions, resulting initially in renewed personal spiritual commitment at odds with the Catholic Church and then moving to outright schism and a change of institutional commitment. Reformers such as Martin Luther and John Calvin experienced new and profound reorientations through their focus on the Bible and its teaching of salvation by faith alone, by grace alone, and through Christ alone. Anabaptists such as Menno Simons embraced these basic teachings but also placed emphasis on conversion (the “new birth”) as a life of discipleship. The reformers’ success in transmitting a thoroughgoing change of heart and mind to the populace, however, had mixed results. Political resistance, spiritual indifference, theological polemics, Catholic intransigence, and the persistence of ancient magic lore and occult practices ensured that the wholesale reformation of Europe, even in Protestant-controlled areas, would never become a reality.
Catholics in Colonial America (1500–1700)
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

Conversionary efforts in the New World mirrored attitudes and practices in the Old. Christendom remained as much a project in the New as in the Old, and thus religious differences remained as problematic in the Americas as they did in Europe. Images of military conflict—combat, battle, and victory—language familiar on the Continent—infused the outlook of early modern Catholic missionaries, whereas Spanish and French missionaries in the New World often had the arm of the state to protect them and, all too often, to coerce the natives. This chapter selectively examines initial missionary efforts in a variety of locations—Spanish missionary outreach in the Caribbean, Peru, and Alta California and French missions in North America. The depth of Native American conversions was as varied as the methods used to produce them. On a superficial level, conversion meant a transfer of loyalty or allegiance, often without a full knowledge of what that transfer entailed. Or, with defeat, conversion might represent a conscious acknowledgment of the more powerful Christian God over weaker traditional deities.
Protestant Entrance and Christian Expansion (1840–1950)
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

Beginning in the 1840s, Anglo-French gunboat diplomacy and “unequal treaties” forcibly opened China to European economic interests and, in so doing, introduced unprecedented opportunities for Christian expansion. Catholic missionaries and priests returned to nurture “Old Catholics” and plant new missions, and for the first time Protestants appeared on the scene with millennial hopes of reaching “China’s millions.” This chapter begins by giving general attention to reasons for the Chinese to reject or accept the Christian message. It then turns to specific discussions of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the China Inland Mission, “Pastor Xi” (Xi Liaozhi), and first-generation Fuzhou Protestants. It concludes with an examination of the views of American theological liberals who, beginning in the late nineteenth century, rejected the traditional Christian emphasis on the necessity of conversion.
Independent Protestant Movements (1930–Present)
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines independent Protestant movements in China from the 1930 to the present. In the early decades of the twentieth century, Protestant foreign missionaries encountered occasional and sometimes violent resistance in China. At the same time, independent Chinese movements and leaders increasingly displaced foreign-controlled Protestant denominations and mission agencies. Then, with the Communist takeover, the Chinese expelled all foreign missionaries and sought to stamp out the imperialist Western religion. Under these hostile circumstances, previously formed independent churches such as the True Jesus Church, the Jesus Family, and the Little Flock, along with independent evangelical pastors such as Wang Mingdao, provided the necessary resources for survival and even growth during the repressive Cultural Revolution (1966–76). With the easing of religious restrictions in 1979, China witnessed an unprecedented explosion of Christian conversions, particularly of the evangelical/Pentecostal variety. An estimated 1 million evangelical Christians now live in the coastal city of Wenzhou, and an increasing number of Chinese urban elites are turning to Christianity.
Welcome to the Machine
Authors: Hiskey Jonathan T. , Moseley Mason W.
Published: August 2020

Chapter 1 introduces the reader to the dominant-party machines of San Luis, Argentina, and the state of Mexico (Edomex), Mexico. Through this look at the political systems of two subnational units in two distinct countries separated by thousands of miles, this chapter also introduces the reader to the principal motivation guiding the subsequent analyses: How do such dominant-party enclaves affect the political attitudes and behaviors of citizens living within them? In Argentina and Mexico, like in much of the world, there are democracies that are being dragged down by subnational dominant-party enclaves. This reality has consequences for their citizens and for broader efforts to deepen democratic rule.
Conclusion
Authors: Hiskey Jonathan T. , Moseley Mason W.
Published: August 2020

This closing chapter summarizes the central argument in this book and the evidence supporting it. Beginning with a brief look at the merendero program initiated in 2017 by the Rodríguez-Saá machine in response to an electoral setback, this chapter offers a discussion of the findings of this book and the implications of this study for the consolidation of democracy in Argentina and Mexico. This study’s findings also have implications for the many other uneven emerging democracies around the world that confront the persistence of subnational political machines. Also addressed are the ways in which attention to subnational political processes can further the understanding of a society’s political culture and the forces that shape individuals’ attitudes toward and engagement with their political world. Finally, this chapter brings the reader’s attention to several avenues for future research that this book begins to explore.
The Mainstreaming of Racism in American Politics
Authors: Fording Richard C. , Schram Sanford F.
Published: August 2020

This chapter frames the book’s analysis and provides an overview of the subsequent chapters. It explains how racism today is manifested most significantly in white “outgroup hostility” toward Latinos and Muslims as well as African Americans. It highlights the importance of race-baiting elites in exploiting a transformed media landscape to stoke white outgroup hostility and thereby mainstream racism in American politics today. The chapter introduces and defines a number of key terms, including “racialized political narratives” that operate to racialize selected groups of people to be constructed as threatening “outgroups” in opposition to whites as the “ingroup.” It emphasizes that the “political opportunity structure” for white racial extremists became more open, especially with the rise of the Tea Party movement, leading to their increased participation in conventional politics. The chapter argues that these factors had already converged prior to 2016 for Donald Trump to exploit in winning the presidency, thereby accelerating the mainstreaming of racism in American politics by putting it at the center of public policymaking in the White House.
Pathways to Extraterritorial Voting
Authors: Burgess Katrina
Published: August 2020

Chapter 4 focuses on extraterritorial voting as the most formalized channel of migrant engagement in politics back home. After a brief history of voting from abroad in Turkey, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, and the Philippines, it introduces three competing models for explaining voter turnout: (1) a resource model based on migrant profiles; (2) an institutional model that focuses on electoral rules; and (3) a mobilization model that highlights party outreach. Combining data from the four cases with the results of large-n quantitative analysis developed elsewhere, the chapter argues that variations in turnout cannot be explained just by migrant profiles or institutional conditions but must also take into account extraterritorial mobilization by homeland parties. It concludes that the extent and nature of this mobilization are directly and integrally linked to the objectives and strategies of states engaged in diaspora-making.