bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Determination of Total Ammonia in Mainstream Smoke
Authors: Huang CB , Bassfield R , Dabney B , Hsu F
Published: July 2016

Ammonia is generated in mainstream smoke (MSS) from multiple precursors in tobacco such as amino acids, proteins, nitrates and ammonium salts. Ammonia derived from both the particulate and vapor phases is measured with the particulate phase contributing greater than 80% of the total ammonia. The general approach of the analytical methods involved the collection of MSS by either electrostatic precipitation (EP) or impingers with acidic solution combined with Cambridge filters (CF, 44 or 92 mm) and the analysis of ammonium cations by ion chromatography (IC) with a conductivity detector. The available results from both internal testing and external literature for 1R4F Kentucky reference cigarettes, smoked under Federal Trade Commission (FTC) puffing conditions, showed a wide range of yields from approximately 5 to 18 µg/cig of ammonia. To investigate possible causes for this wide range and to optimize the analytical method, several parameters deemed critical to the results were studied using 1R4F. They include the type of acids (hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid and malic acid), acid strength (0.005 M to 0.1 M), trapping efficiency and sample stability. The study showed that the type and concentration of acids was not significantly related to the total ammonia content in MSS. The study also indicated that the size and type of trapping devices, such as CF pads, acid treated CF pads and EP tube, did not significantly affect the trapping efficiency.
Growth and Water Relations of Sun-cured Tobacco Irrigated with Saline Water
Authors: Angelino G , Ascione S , Ruggiero C
Published: July 2016

We have investigated the effects of saline irrigation on growth and water relations of two sun-cured tobacco genotypes, Xp102 and Px107, which belong to the Xanthia and Perustitza tobacco ecotypes, respectively. We compared three commercial sea salt concentrations of the irrigation water (0.25%, 0.5%, and 1% w/v) plus a non-salinized control, corresponding to an electrical conductivity (ECw) of 4.4, 8.5, 15.7, 0.5 dS m-1 and osmotic potentials of -0.22, -0.35, -0.73, -0.02 MPa, respectively. The ECsoil increased with the salinity of the irrigation water. At high salinity (1%), the soil where Px107 plants were grown showed a significantly higher salinity compared to the soil of Xp102. For both genotypes, the soil water content increased at increasing salinity and during the growth season. Increasing salinity progressively reduced the leaf turgor pressure and enhanced the cellular osmotic adjustment. The latter resulted to be more pronounced in Px107 compared to Xp102 (0.36 vs. 0.20 MPa). At higher salinity (0.5% and 1%), both genotypes showed reduced leaf surface area, dry matter accumulation, water use, net assimilation rate (NAR) and crop growth rate (CGR). Px107 roots were more sensitive than shoot to salinity (3% reduction per dS m-1) and compared to Xp102 roots, which showed a reduced development only at 1% salinity. Assessment of plant salt tolerance according to the Maas and Hoffman model revealed a slope of 1-2% for both genotypes, indicating that these tobaccos are relatively more salt tolerant compared to other species.
Formation and Reduction of Carbon Monoxide
Authors: Rostami AA , Hajaligol MR , Li P , Rabiei S , Rostami MS
Published: July 2016

The total amounts of carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the mainstream smoke of a burning cigarette during a steady draw were measured by a non-dispersive infrared (IR) technique for a variety of flow rates. The temperature profiles in the cigarette were also measured under the same flow conditions. The data were used in a diffusion model to estimate the concentrations of these gases downstream of the pyrolysis zone. The contribution of pyrolysis in the generation of these gases was calculated using a kinetic model. The remaining CO and CO2 are attributed to processes occurring in the combustion zone. The calculated mean concentrations of carbon oxides behind the pyrolysis zone are in reasonable agreement with the experimental data. The contributions of pyrolysis and combustion to the formation of CO were found to be approximately 1/3 and 2/3 respectively. The results show that the peak temperature rises with an increase in the mainstream flow rate in the limited range of 0 to 200 mL/min. As a result, the concentrations of carbon oxides behind the pyrolysis zone also increase with the flow rate and reach plateaus at higher flow rates.
Mainstream Smoke Chemical Analyses for 2R4F Kentucky Reference Cigarette
Authors: Chen PX , Moldoveanu SC
Published: July 2016

A new reference cigarette, 2R4F, has been designed to replace the 1R4F Kentucky reference cigarette. This new cigarette has virtually the same blend composition as the 1R4F cigarette. However, the 1R4F cigarette was made in 1983 and the variation in the tobacco from crop year to crop year as well as the difference in the age of the two cigarettes were expected to generate differences in the smoke chemistry. A study done for the quantitation of more than 44 analytes in smoke, including most compounds considered as biologically active, is presented in this report. The analyses were performed by six independent laboratories using a variety of analytical techniques. The smoking was performed using International Standard (ISO) recommendations. The results showed only small differences between the two cigarettes regarding ‘tar', nicotine and carbon monoxide (CO), as well as for aminonaphthalenes, resorcinol, and some aldehydes. Although the two reference cigarettes were made as close as possible, the concentrations of a significant number of analytes in the smoke differed between 10% to 30%. Specific trace compounds in the blend such as metals and tobacco specific nitrosamines (TSNA), which may influence the smoke composition, were also different between the two cigarettes. The level of lead, in particular, was very different in tobacco between 1983 and 2002.
Cigarette Mouth Insertion Depths Among Chinese Smokers
Authors: Hu Q , Liu Z , Ma J , Peng L , Bai H
Published: July 2016

Vent blocking - where filter ventilation holes are intentionally or unintentionally, partly or completely covered by smokers’ lips during smoking - is an aspect of smoking behavior which can alter mainstream smoke yields. This study was designed to determine if, and to what extent ventilation holes were blocked by smokers’ lips in two cohorts of Chinese smokers. In this study, two groups of samples were collected. One group (1742 butts) was collected randomly from public places in six chosen cities. Another (1037 butts) was obtained by collecting the butts from identified smokers in Kunming. In this paper, the mouth insertion depth among Chinese smokers was studied for the first time by a staining method employing ninhydrin in ethanol. The results indicate that Chinese smokers exhibit a mouth insertion depth ranging from 1 to 17 mm with an average value of 7.5 AA± 2 mm. In this study, 95% of the ventilated filters examined showed that the vent zone was neither completely nor partially covered by smokers’ lips.
Protein Transfer in Mainstream and Sidestream Cigarette Smoke
Authors: Voisine R , Côté F , Verreault J , Porter A
Published: July 2016

Protein transfer in tobacco smoke has been studied using the protease, Savinase™, as a model protein. Mainstream and sidestream smoke were collected from cigarettes to which Savinase had been added at various concentrations. Savinase was extracted from the smoke condensate with an organic solvent system before being precipitated and further identified by denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and Western immunoblotting. The detection limit of the method, based on addition of Savinase to the smoke condensate, was 25 µg in mainstream and 100 µg in sidestream smoke. At a Savinase concentration of 6000 µg per gram of tobacco, the methodology allows the detection of protein transfer as low as 0.009% and 0.054% in mainstream and sidestream smoke, respectively. Using this approach, it was shown that there is no detectable Savinase in the mainstream and sidestream smoke of filtered and unfiltered cigarettes containing up to 6000 µg of Savinase per gram of tobacco. These facts strongly suggest that there is no significant transfer of protein from tobacco into cigarette smoke.
Compensation for the Effects of Ambient Conditions on the Calibration of Multi-Capillary Pressure Drop Standards
Authors: Colard S , Trinkies W , Cholet G , Camm B , Austin M , Gualandris R
Published: July 2016

Cigarette draw resistance and filter pressure drop (PD) are both major physical parameters for the tobacco industry. Therefore these parameters must be measured reliably. For these measurements, specific equipment calibrated with PD transfer standards is used. Each transfer standard must have a known and stable PD value, such standards usually being composed of several capillary tubes associated in parallel. However, PD values are modified by ambient conditions during calibration of such standards, i.e. by temperature and relative humidity (RH) of air, and atmospheric pressure. In order to reduce the influence of these ambient factors, a simplified model was developed for compensating the effects of ambient conditions on the calibration of multi-capillary PD standards.
Gas Chromatographic-Selected Ion Monitoring-Mass Spectrometric Determination of Cigarette Mainstream Smoke Components with Sensory Attributes
Authors: Coleman WM
Published: July 2016

A new method has been developed that detects significant quantitative differences in the amounts of pyrazines, pyridines, furfurals, carboxylic acids, b-damascenone, sclareolide, and megastigmatrienones in the mainstream smoke of a series of five commercial cigarettes. This new quantitative method is based on the gas chromatographic-selected ion monitoring-mass spectrometric (GC-SIM-MS) determination of the selected smoke constituents. The accuracy and precision of the approach were well within acceptable parameters with the majority of cases relative standard deviation (RSD) values consistently around 5%. Sample preparation was simple requiring only the dissolution of the trapped particulate material in a known volume of methanol followed by injection of this clear dark colored solution into the gas chromatograph. This approach represents an advance in the technology in terms of higher sample throughput and less sample workup. Certain products demonstrated consistent trends in concentration of specific chemical classes. The mainstream smoke from a University of Kentucky reference cigarette, 2R4F, was included for reference purposes. These results are applicable in the overall evaluation of the components responsible for the taste associated with cigarette products.
A Collaborative Study for the Determination of Tobacco Specific Nitrosamines in Tobacco
Authors: Morgan WT , Reece JB , Risner CH , Bennett CB , Midgett CH , Johnson KS , Burton HR
Published: July 2016

The manuscript presents results from a collaborative study by 15 different laboratories using two different methods to determine tobacco specific nitrosamines (TSNAs) in tobacco and was performed under the auspices of the Tobacco Science Research Conference Analytical Methods Committee (TSRC-AMC). Although it is apparent that some of the laboratories failed to follow the provided protocols, both methods proved robust for determining TSNAs in a variety of different tobacco types. Twelve laboratories extracted the tobacco sample using an alkaline-methylene chloride extraction (Method 1) and nine used a buffer to extract the tobacco sample (Method 2). Six laboratories performed both methods. All participants used gas chromatography (GC) to separate the TSNAs and chemiluminescence detection. Method 1 used N-hexyl-N-nitroso-1-hexanamine (NDHA) as a surrogate (added prior to extraction) internal standard for quantitation. Method 2 used N-nitrosoguvacoline (NG) as the surrogate internal standard, NDHA as a chromatographic (added after extraction, prior to analysis) internal standard and external standard quantitation. After demonstrating that the average accuracy of both methods was at least about 92% through recovery studies, eight different tobacco types were analyzed in triplicate by each method. Means, reproducibility (precision between laboratories) and repeatability (precision within a laboratory) of results were determined for each method. After statistical analyses, it was established that both methods were capable of analyzing a variety of tobacco types and repeatability between methods was not significantly different. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantitation (LOQ) were lower for Method 2 as compared to Method 1 when using the surrogate internal standard. Reproducibility variation, analyzed as the coefficient of variation, was 6% lower for Method 2 vs. Method 1 for N-nitrosonornicotine (NNN) and directionally 12% lower for 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK). Method 2 using NDHA as the chromatographic internal standard has been recommended by the TSRC-AMC for use as a reference method. However, Method 1 using NDHA as surrogate internal standard is favored by four of the study participants because of lower chemical and material costs and higher sample throughput.
Dioxin Levels in Mainstream Smoke from Cigarettes with Different TPM Deliveries
Authors: Smith CJ , Sykes DC , Cantrell DW , Moldoveanu SC
Published: July 2016

The presence of dioxin-like compounds, such as chlorinated dibenzodioxins, chlorinated dibenzofurans and chlorinated biphenyls, in mainstream cigarette smoke has been investigated for seven cigarette brands covering a range of ‘tar’ deliveries from 1 mg to 14 mg. Adjusted per milligram of total particulate matter (TPM), ultra-light cigarettes had the highest concentrations of toxic equivalents (TEQ) of 10 fg/mg TPM. As the ‘tar’ delivery increased, lower concentration values were found in lights and full-flavor cigarettes. Calculated on the basis of a pack of twenty cigarettes, mainstream smoke from the ultra-lights and lights products produced values around 200 fg TEQ, and the full-flavor brand produced 575 fg TEQ per pack. Levels of TEQ from dioxin-like compounds in the tobacco section of four cigarette brands did not show significant differences and were similar to previous literature findings.
Quantification of Selected Vapour-Phase Compounds using Thermal Desorption-Gas Chromatography
Authors: McLaughlin DWJ , Bell RE , Graham DJ , McKeivor R
Published: July 2016

A robust method for the analysis of selected vapour phase (VP) compounds in mainstream smoke (MSS) is described. Cigarettes are smoked on a rotary smoking machine and the VP that passes through the Cambridge filter pad collected in a TedlarA¯ bag. On completion of smoking, the bag contents are sampled onto an adsorption tube containing a mixed carbon bed. The tube is subsequently analysed on an automated thermal desorption (TD) system coupled to a gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) using a PoraPLOT-Q column. Quantification of 14 volatile compounds including the major carbonyls is achieved. Details of the method validation data are included in this paper. This method has been used to analyse the VP of cigarette MSS over a wide range of ‘tar’ deliveries and configurations with excellent repeatability. Results for the University of Kentucky reference cigarette 1R4F are in good agreement with reported values.
The Effect of Inhalation Volume and Breath-Hold Duration on the Retention of Nicotine and Solanesol in the Human Respiratory Tract and on Subsequent Plasma Nicotine Concentrations During Cigarette Smoking
Authors: Armitage AK , Dixon M , Frost BE , Mariner DC , Sinclair NM
Published: July 2016

The influence of inhalation depth and breath-hold duration on the retention of nicotine and solanesol in the human respiratory tract and on nicotine uptake was studied in ten cigarette smokers. In a first series of experiments, the subjects took seven puffs from a 10 mg ‘tar’ yield, test cigarette and a fixed volume of air (0, 75, 250, 500 or 1000 mL, as required by the protocol) was inhaled after each puff in order to give a controlled ‘depth’ of inhalation. The inhalation was drawn from a bag containing the required volume of air. Following a 2 s breath-hold, subjects exhaled normally, with the first exhalation after each puff passing through a single acidified filter pad for collection of the non-retained nicotine and solanesol. Blood samples were taken before and at intervals during and after smoking for the sessions with 0, 75 and 500 mL inhalation volumes for determination of plasma nicotine and carboxyhaemoglobin levels. Another series of experiments was conducted with a fixed inhalation volume (500 mL) and two further breath-hold durations (0 and 10 s) in addition to 2 s from above. Nicotine and solanesol retentions were measured for each breath-hold condition. The amounts of nicotine retained within the respiratory system, expressed as a percentage of the amount taken into the mouth, were consistently higher than the corresponding values for solanesol in all five inhalation conditions (0-1000 mL, 2 s breath-hold). Nicotine retention increased from 46.5% at zero inhalation to 99.5% at 1000 mL inhalation (2 s breath-hold) and from 98.0% at zero breath-hold to 99.9% at 10 s breath-hold (500 mL inhalation). Solanesol retention increased from 34.2% at zero inhalation volume to 71.9% at 1000 mL inhalation (2 s breath-hold) and from 51.8% at zero breath-hold to 87.6% at 10 s breath-hold (500 mL inhalation). Plasma nicotine decreased from pre-smoking levels after zero inhalation indicating that the nicotine retained within the mouth was poorly absorbed into the systemic circulation. After 75 mL inhalation, plasma nicotine levels were significantly greater than for zero inhalation but not significantly less than after 500 mL inhalation except at the time of maximum nicotine concentration. As in every experimental condition, a higher percentage of nicotine than solanesol was retained within the respiratory tract, it was concluded that the difference in retention of the moderately volatile nicotine and the non-volatile solanesol is consistent with the concept of nicotine evaporation from smoke particles and the subsequent efficient retention in the airways of gaseous nicotine. The retention of solanesol followed the expected pattern of particulate deposition i.e., an increase with both increasing depth of inhalation and breath-hold duration. However, nicotine retention was almost complete even at shallow inhalations and short breath-hold durations.
Investigations of IsogenomicAlloplasmics of Flue-Cured Tobacco Nicotianatabacum cv. Wislica
Authors: Berbec A , Laskowska D
Published: July 2016

Cytoplasms of fifteen wild Nicotianae and a male sterile cytoplasm (cms) from N. tabacum were bred into the genome of a standard Polish flue-cured cultivar Wislica. The sixteen iso-genomic alloplasmics were compared for expression of male sterility and for some traits related to field performance. In cmsN. bigelovii, N. debneyi, N. exigua, N. megalosiphonor N. suaveolens stamens were absent, in cmsN. tabacum, N. glauca, N. goodspeedii or N. undulata stamens were absent or rudimentary, in cmsN. eastii, N. glutinosa or N. plumbaginifoliastamen tissue became petaloid, in those from N. knightiana and N. raimondiithey were morphologically normal. Female organ morphology was changed in cmsN. goodspeedii, N. occidentalis, N. exigua, N. debneyior N. bigelovii, seed set was reduced only in cmsN. occidentalis. Plant height in most alloplasmics was similar to that of the fertile variety but was strongly depressed by the cytoplasms of N. glutinosa, N. eastiiand N. plumbaginifolia. Leaf area was positively affected by N. amplexicaulis, N. bigeloviiand N. undulatacytoplasms, unaffected by N. suaveolens, N. tabacumand N. glaucacytoplasms and negatively affected by the remaining cytoplasms mostly because of the narrowing of the leaf blade. Cured leaf yields from cmsN. bigelovii were higher than those of Wislica. Leaf yields from cmsN. amplexicaulis, N. suaveolens, N. glauca or N. tabacum were not affected by the alien cytoplasm, whereas those from the remaining alloplasmics were depressed to different extents. Increased incidence of PVY and white spots (mostly attributable to Cercospora sp.) were observed on many of the alloplasmics especially on cmsN. exigua and N. suaveolens(PVY) and increased white spots only on cmsN. bigelovii, N. exigua, N. occidentalis and N. undulata.
Evidence for Peroxynitrite and Cognates in Whole Smoke
Authors: Perini FR , Robinson EA
Published: July 2016

The peroxynitrite anion (ONOO-), a major product of the gas-phase interaction between the superoxide radical and nitric oxide, has been detected by ion chromatography (IC) for the first time. IC analyses of cigarette whole mainstream smoke collected in deionized water (DiW), using a Dionex 4500i IC, a Dionex AS11 column, an aqueous sodium hydroxide linear gradient with conductivity suppression from 1-20 mMNaOH, and conductivity coupled with diode array detection, revealed an unknown singly charged anion I incompletely resolved from nitrite. Gradient modification produced baseline resolution of I from nitrite and from a number of additional, previously undetected anions associated with smoke samples. Possible candidates for the unexpected smoke sample anion, including bromide, cyanide, and hydrogen hyponitrite were rejected for possible correspondence with the new smoke species on the basis of concentration range and chemical behavior. Chemical, chromatographic, and spectroscopic evidence supported the assignment of this smoke component as ONOO-. Mineral acid immediately destroyed I in the collected aqueous smoke medium. Both the retention time and the ultraviolet spectrum (UV) maximum at 302 nm for I were identical to those for synthetic peroxynitrite. The smoke from full flavor [28.5-30.4 mg total particulate matter (TPM)] filter cigarettes contained 2.4-3.3 µg/cig of this species. Levels were 4 to 5 times higher, up to 13 µg/cig, in cigarettes with the filters removed.
Puff-by-Puff Analysis of Selected Mainstream Smoke Constituents in The Kentucky Reference 2R4F Cigarette
Authors: Wagner KA , Higby R , Stutt K
Published: July 2016

A method has been developed to perform mainstream smoke (MSS) chemical analysis on individual cigarette puffs using standard equipment typically found in a smoke chemistry laboratory. The method allows for accurate delivery profiling of smoke constituents as the cigarette is consumed. This methodology can be applied to both gas- and particulate phase species.
The Effects of Filter Ventilation on Flavor Constituents in Cigarette Smoke
Authors: Jing Y , Gong C , Xian K , Wang C , Lu P
Published: July 2016

The deliveries of 20 added flavor constituents, total particulate matter (TPM), nicotine, ‘tar’ carbon monoxide and water in cigarette mainstream smoke were studied when filter ventilation was 0, 10%, 30%, 50% and 70%, respectively. The flavor substance test was done by addition of standard samples. The flavor constituents in cigarette smoke condensate were separated by simultaneous distillation-extraction (SDE) and capillary gas chromatography (GC). The flavor constituents were identified and determined quantitatively by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and GC. The flavors studied were methylpyrazine, furaldehyde, 5-methylfuraldehyde, benzaldehyde, 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, trimethylpyrazine, 2-acetylpyridine, phenylacetaldehyde, acetophenone, linalool, b-phenylethyl alcohol, isophorone, oxoisophorone, benzyl acetate, menthol, ethyl octanoate, b-damascenone, b-damascone, geranylacetone and b-ionone. The deliveries of TPM, nicotine, ‘tar’ carbon monoxide and water in mainstream smoke were determined according to International Standard methods. It was found that the flavor constituents and routine components in mainstream smoke decreased in different proportions as the filter ventilation increased. Carbon monoxide and ‘tar’ decreased more than nicotine. The flavor constituents with lower boiling points and lower molecular weights decreased more than those with higher boiling points and higher molecular weights. With the increase of filter ventilation, not only is the amount of smoke components reduced and the smoke taste weakened, but also the composition of smoke is modified and the quality of aroma changed slightly. These findings should be considered when developing low-‘tar’ cigarettes through the use of filter ventilation technology.
Distribution of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons between the Particulate and the Gas Phase of Mainstream Cigarette Smoke in Relation to Cigarette Technological Characteristics
Authors: Kalaitzoglou M , Samara C
Published: July 2016

Particulate- and gas-phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in the mainstream smoke (MSS) of 59 manufactured cigarette brands (commercially available brands of unknown tobacco and blend type) with variable ‘tar’ yields and physical/technological characteristics. Depending on the existence/absence of filter, the ‘tar’ yield indicated on the packet, and the cigarette length and diameter, the examined cigarette brands were classified into 15 groups: non filter (NF), high (H), medium (M), light (L), super light (SL), ultra light (UL), one-tar yields (O), 100 mm long cigarettes (H-100, L-100, SL-100, UL-100, O-100), and slim cigarettes (SL-SLIM, UL-SLIM, O-SLIM). Cigarettes were smoked in a reference smoking machine equipped with glass fibre filters for collection of PAHs bound to total particulate matter (TPM), and polyurethane foam plugs (PUF) for collection of gas-phase PAHs. The relationships of gas- and particulate-phase concentrations of PAHs (ng/cig) with the contents of typical MSS components, such as TPM, ‘tar’, nicotine and carbon monoxide were investigated. In addition, the phase partitioning of PAHs in MSS was evaluated in relation to the technological characteristics of cigarettes.
Changes in Anatomic Structure of Burley Tobacco under the Influence of Irrigation and Fertilization
Authors: Pelivanoska V , Filiposki K , Trajkoski J
Published: July 2016

Investigations were made with the new burley variety B 2/93, bred in the Tobacco Institute Prilep, on alluvial soil type in the producing region of Ohrid and Struga. Four rates of nitrogen fertilizer (55, 100, 150, and 200 kg ha-1) and a constant rate of phosphorus and potassium were applied in the investigation.

Based on the results obtained, it can be stated that fertilization and irrigation have a significant influence on the anatomic structure of burley tobacco leaf. The best developed anatomic structure, with harmonically increased palisade and spongy parenchyma, was found in the variant fertilized with 150 kg ha-1 N. The cells of the parenchyma are not dense, and the spongy cells are few and irregularly distributed, forming large intercellular spaces between them. As a result of the interactive effect of irrigation and fertilization, this treatment is distinguished by a thick and soft leaf lamina with excellent adsorptive power, high filling capacity and, consequently, better quality.
Evaluation of Combustion of a Shredded Tobacco Bed Using a Reactor to Produce Reverse Smolder: Influence of Properties Related to Mass Transfer on Combustion of the Bed
Authors: Nagao A , Yamada Y , Miura K , Horio M
Published: July 2016

The combustion mechanism of a shredded tobacco bed during puffing has been investigated. To evaluate changes in the burning rate of the shredded tobacco bed in the region close to the paper char-line, an experimental study was carried out on the reverse combustion of the shredded tobacco bed packed in a furnace. Measurements of the temperature in the shredded tobacco bed were conducted to calculate the combustion propagation rate. The combustion propagation rate decreased with an increase in the tobacco shred width, the tobacco packing density, and with a decrease in the air flow velocity. To investigate differences in the combustion propagation rate, the oxygen transfer coefficient of the shredded tobacco bed was evaluated using the effective diameter of the tobacco shred and the effective surface area of the shredded tobacco bed. The combustion propagation rate of the shredded tobacco bed increased with the oxygen transfer coefficient of the shredded tobacco bed. Furthermore, the weight loss of the cigarette during puffing was evaluated. The weight loss of the cigarette during puffing showed an increase with an increase in the oxygen transfer coefficient of the shredded tobacco bed.
Separation and Identification of Sucrose Esters from Turkish Tobacco Using Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
Authors: Ashraf-Khorassani M , Nazem N , Taylor LT , Coleman WM
Published: July 2016

Tetra-acylated sucrose esters (SE) in Turkish tobacco extracts have been separated and identified using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). An enriched fraction of SE from semi-preparative normal phase liquid chromatography of the methylene chloride extract was chosen for characterization. Several types of SE were observed that differed primarily in placement of the acyl functionality on either the glucose or the fructose fragment. In addition to acetyl, the other three observed acyl substitution patterns were governed by the presence of butyl, pentyl, and hexyl alkyl substituents. Within each type of SE, there were observed several homologs differing by a methylene moiety. Within each homolog, a number of isomeric components were found. The presence of unsaturation in one of the acyl alkyl substituents gave rise to another homologous series wherein isomers of the same mass were discovered. The information on the substitution pattern of SE using this new LC-MS approach was very similar to that obtained previously on tobacco samples employing gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) of derivatized sucrose esters.
A Low-Cost System for Measuring ppb-Level NO2
Authors: Oh IH
Published: July 2016

A low-cost system to measure low-level nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in an atmosphere was developed. Its major component included a sensor comprising filter paper treated with 3,3’-dimethylbenzidine (o-tolidine), a compound that reacts with NO2to generate color proportional to the NO2contacted. In addition to the system development, its utility was optimized and the characteristics of the sensor were defined. Originally developed to determine the NO2levels during direct-fired tobacco curing, the system may be used to determine the NO2levels in other situations.
Lethal and Sterile Effects of X-ray Irradiation on Cigarette Beetle, Lasiodermaserricorne (F.) (Coleoptera: Anobiidae)
Authors: Imai T , Onozawa M , Takekawa T , Shakudo T
Published: July 2016

The effects of X-ray irradiation on mortality and sterility of the cigarette beetle, Lasiodermaserricorne (F.), were studied at doses ranging from 0.05 to 0.2 kGy. Irradiation above 0.1 kGy prevented eggs and larvae from developing to the adult stage. The irradiated larvae remained at the larval or pupal stages for months without further development and ultimately died of desiccation. Irradiation did not affect the viability of pupae and adults but seriously affected their fertility. Females were completely sterilized above 0.1 kGy, although males retained weakened fertility at all doses tested. These results suggest that X-ray irradiation at 0.1 kGy can completely break the reproductive cycle of the cigarette beetle, even though the action is not immediate, and therefore it would be applicable for the disinfestation of stored tobacco.
Measuring Pressure Drop Under Non Ideal Conditions
Authors: Austin M
Published: July 2016

The method of measurement of the pressure drop (PD) of cigarette filter rods and the draw resistance of cigarettes is defined in ISO 6565-2002 (1). This standard defines the calibration and use of a transfer standard to calibrate the measuring instrument and also defines the measurement procedure for cigarette and filter samples. The procedure described in the standard assumes that the measurement conditions are constant and that the sample is in equilibrium with the measurement environment.

In 2001, the Cooperation Center for Scientific Research Relative to Tobacco (CORESTA) formed a Task Force to investigate the problems associated with the calibration of PD transfer standards that are caused, primarily, by environmental effects. The work of this task force has lead to the harmonisation of the calibration methods between supplier laboratories and to a method for compensation for the effects of atmospheric conditions. These together have considerably reduced the inter-laboratory differences and will eventually lead to a revision of the CORESTA Recommended Method and ISO 6565 Standard.

During the work of this Task Force, it has become evident that further work will be necessary to deal with similar errors encountered during the calibration of PD measurement instruments and during the PD measurement of cigarette and filter rod samples. These errors occur in real measurement situations due to the problems in meeting the ISO 6565 conditions and other necessary requirements. This can give rise to errors in the indicated PD and can considerably degrade the confidence that can be placed in the results.

This paper examines many of the practical problems in the measurement of PD and attempts to estimate the type and magnitude of the errors that might be experienced.
The Ability of the FTC Method to Quantify Nicotine as a Function of Ammonia in Mainstream Smoke
Authors: Callicutt CH , Cox RH , Farthing D , Hsu FS , Johnson L , Laffoon S , Lee P , Kinser RD , Podraza KF , Sanders EB , Seeman JI
Published: July 2016

Whether ammonia-forming ingredients added to tobacco and ammonia in smoke affect the ability of the Cambridge filter pad to trap nicotine in the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) method was examined. Three commercial cigarettes, two industry reference cigarettes, and four specially designed test cigarettes were used in this study to represent cigarettes with different construction and mainstream (MS) smoke yield characteristics. One of the commercial cigarettes, a US 1998 Marlboro Lights¯ King Size cigarette, was used as a control cigarette for the four experimental test cigarettes. The test cigarettes differed from the control cigarette as follows: first, a reduction in ammonia-forming ingredients added to the reconstituted tobaccos; second, no ammonia-forming ingredients added to the reconstituted tobacco; third, no ingredients at all added to the reconstituted tobaccos; and fourth, no ingredients at all added to the entire tobacco blend. An XAD-4 tube was placed downstream of the standard Cambridge filter pad in the FTC method to trap the gas-vapor phase nicotine for subsequent analysis. The Cambridge filter pad used in the FTC method was determined to provide greater than 99% trapping efficiency for MS smoke nicotine from cigarettes with widely different soluble ammonia levels in filler and MS smoke ammonia yields.
Validation of Methods for Determining Consumer Smoked Cigarette Yields from Cigarette Filter Analysis
Authors: Shepperd CJ , St Charles FK , Lien M , Dixon M
Published: July 2016

Methods based on the analyses of cigarette filters have been used to estimate ‘tar’ and nicotine yields to smokers. These methods rely on the measurement of filtration efficiencies (FEs). However FEs may be influenced by both cigarette design features e.g., type of filter and levels of filter ventilation, and human smoking behaviour factors such as puff flow-rates and cigarette butt lengths. Two filter analysis methods are considered in our study. One is based on the analysis of whole filters using average values of FEs obtained from a range of machine smoking regimes. The other, a ‘part filter’ method, analyses a 10 mm section from the mouth end of the filter where the FE remains relatively constant irrespective of puff flow rates and butt lengths. Human puffing behaviour records were obtained from 10 smokers, each smoking six commercial cigarettes ranging from 1 mg to 12 mg ‘tar’ yields [International Standard (ISO) values]. These records were used to drive a human smoke duplicator and the resulting ‘tar’ and nicotine yields obtained from duplication were compared with the estimates obtained from ‘whole’ and ‘part filter’ analysis. The results indicated that whilst both filter methods gave good correlations with nicotine and ‘tar’ yields obtained from smoke duplication, the ‘part filter’ method was less susceptible to the effect of nicotine condensation and changes in FEs and hence gave a more accurate assessment of yields than the ‘whole filter’ method.
Influence of Puffing Parameters and Filter Vent Blocking Condition on Nicotine Fate in a Burning Cigarette - Part 1. Full Flavor Cigarettes
Authors: Yu J , Taylor LT , Aref S , Bodnar JA , Borgerding MF
Published: July 2016

Cigarette testing regulations based on more intensive puffing conditions than standard Federal Trade Commission/International Organisation for Standardization (FTC/ISO) conditions, together with intentional filter vent-blocking of cigarettes during testing, are currently required in some countries. Recently, an initial recommendation under the auspices of the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, has called for international machine-testing of cigarettes with a 55 cc/30 s/2 s puffing regimen after 100% filter vent-blocking. While much is currently known regarding changes in smoke yields with different machine smoking parameters, a more limited understanding of potential changes in smoke composition exists. In the present work, the influence of smoking conditions on nicotine fate in a burning cigarette was studied by gas chromatography with atomic emission detection (GC-AED) using core-injected nicotine-d4. Tobacco rods were injected via a syringe to a fixed length with a constant volume of a methanol solution of known concentration of deuterated nicotine. Four different puffing conditions and two different vent-blocking conditions were studied. GC with mass spectrometric detection was used to identify the deuterium-labeled compounds that gave an enhanced deuterium AED-response. A comparison of the distribution of compounds containing deuterium in the mainstream smoke, sidestream smoke, and cigarette remains (butt and ash) of a full flavor cigarette brand under the four smoking conditions studied indicated that a greater percentage of labeled nicotine remained intact during the smoking process as the intensity of the puffing regimen increased. As smoking regimen intensity increased, the amounts of nicotine pyrolysis and oxidation products detected in sidestream smoke decreased, while marginal increases in these compounds were observed in mainstream smoke and in the cigarette butt. The sidestream/mainstream nicotine ratio decreased significantly as smoking intensity increased. Small amounts of intact nicotine were observed in the sidestream vapor phase; however, nicotine was not observed in mainstream vapor phase samples.
Determination of Nicotine in Smoke Condensate by Ion Chromatography Coupled to Ultraviolet Detection
Authors: Geiss O , Kotzias D
Published: July 2016

A new method for the determination of the nicotine content of tobacco smoke condensate is described. The smoke condensate of the mainstream smoke was collected in a glass fibre filter trap and dissolved in isopropanol. The nicotine content of an aliquot of this solution was determined by ion chromatography (IC) coupled with ultraviolet (UV) detection against external calibration and the nicotine content of the whole smoke condensate was calculated. The nicotine content determined in each run by IC was compared with the results obtained by gas chromatography (GC) according to the International Standard (ISO) method 10315. The present method represents a potential alternative to the GC method. A sensitive and rapid method for the determination of nicotine in smoke condensate using IC with a standard ion chromatography column was developed.
Commentary: Standards for Half a Lifetime - A Personal Memoir
Authors: Adams PI
Published: July 2016

I was very honoured when the Editors asked me to writesome account of my many years in the tobacco industrywith particular reference to my activities in the TechnicalCommittee ISO/ TC 126 “Tobacco and tobacco products”of the International Organization for Standardization(ISO).
Obituary: Dr. Richard Roland Baker
Authors: Thornton R
Published: July 2016

Richard Baker died at Easter 2007 after a very short illness. It is sad that he died so soon after his retirement from the British American Tobacco Company at the end of 2005, and just as he was beginning to enjoy his new life, even though tobacco science still had a part to play.

In 2006 Richard received the Tobacco Science Research Conference Lifetime Achievement Award, and at this time Thomas Perfetti, in this journal, described his distinguished scientific career in some detail. I will not repeat the list of these remarkable achievements, but can only add that he may well be the only scientist ever to be awarded the ultimate research degree, a D. Sc., by a British University for research activities while working for a tobacco company. Bearing in mind anti-tobacco sentiment this was a breath-taking achievement.

Richard joined B.A.T. in 1971 and came to live quite near us on the outskirts of Southampton. We got to know Richard and Jackie well. Being a few years older several of the younger Thornton's then acted as baby-sitters as the younger Baker's appeared on the scene. Richard's enthusiasm for jogging and long-distance running was well known. As he jogged by the entrance to my house on foggy mornings he became a well-known health hazard, both to himself and to me.

Richard's interests also included local politics and schools and indicated his great interest in people and their well-being. He was a kind and thoughtful colleague. When we moved house in 1976 Richard and Jackie sent us a good luck card, repeated in 1994 when we moved, briefly and spectacularly, to New Delhi.

Richard's last years were evidently as full as ever, and he was still publishing scientific papers in his role as a Consultant. He was close to his family and children. Grandchildren, of whom he was very fond, had arrived. Richard and Jackie had also acquired a holiday home in their beloved Lake District in N.W. England.

I, and everyone who met him, will have fond recollections of Richard as a delightful person and as an outstanding scientist, and above all we would like Jackie to know how we regarded him.
Determination of Environmental Tobacco Smoke from a Second-Generation Electrically Heated Cigarette Smoking System and Conventional Cigarettes
Authors: Oey J , Lau RW , Roethig HJ
Published: July 2016

This substudy of a randomized, controlled, forced switching, open-label, parallel-group clinical study in a total of 100 healthy adult male and female smokers compared environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) produced from smoking a second generation electrically heated cigarette smoking system (EHCSS), two conventional cigarettes, and no-smoking. Concentrations of air constituents including respirable suspended particulate matter (RSP), carbon monoxide (CO), and total volatile organic compounds (TVOCs) and ETS markers including solanesol-related particulate matter (Sol-PM), ultraviolet absorbing particulate matter (UVPM), fluorescing particulate matter (FPM), nicotine and 3-ethenylpyridine (3-EP) were measured in a ventilated, furnished conference room over a period of 2 hours on separate occasions. Except for TVOCs, concentrations of air constituents and ETS markers were reduced by 40% to more than 90% when adult smokers were smoking the EHCSS as compared to smoking conventional cigarettes. CO and most ETS marker concentrations were in the same range as no-smoking.
Determination of Hydroxybenzenes in Exhaled Cigarette Smoke
Authors: Moldoveanu S , Coleman W III , Wilkins J
Published: July 2016

This study describes the results regarding the evaluation of retention efficiency by humans of hydroxybenzenes (phenols) from mainstream cigarette smoke. Over twenty phenols were evaluated in the exhaled smoke of a commercial cigarette with 10.6 mg ‘tar’ [U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) ‘tar’ is defined as the weight of total particulate matter minus nicotine and water]. The test was performed on ten human subjects. The exhaled smoke was collected using a vacuum assisted technique that avoids strain in exhaling the smoke. The study showed that the phenols were retained with high efficiency from cigarette smoke, typically above 80%. Only 4-ethylresorcinol, and C3-dihydroxybenzenes (C3 indicating any alkyl with three carbon atoms) were retained less efficiently with retention values around 70%. The high retention of this class of compounds was expected since phenols are polar compounds with relatively low molecular weights between 94 (for phenol) and 152 (for a propyl-dihydroxybenzene).
Evaluation of Aroma in Oriental Tobaccos as Based On Valeric Acid Gas Chromatography
Authors: Dagnon S , Tasheva R , Stoilova A , Christeva D , Edreva A
Published: July 2016

Levels of valeric acids (isovaleric and 3-methylvaleric) in leaves and smoke of different tobacco types were quantified by capillary gas chromatography (GC) using flame ionization detector (FID). The aroma characteristics of the smoke were scored by sensory evaluation. It was found that leaves of Oriental and burley tobaccos contain higher amounts of both valeric acid derivatives than Virginia tobaccos containing isovaleric acid but no 3-methylvaleric acid. Strong correlation between the aroma and pleasantness scores of smoke and the content of valeric acids in the leaves of Oriental tobaccos was observed, while it was not the case for leaves of Virginia and burley tobaccos. In all tobacco types no correlation between smoking characteristics and the content of valeric acids in the smoke was established. Regression models involving leaf isovaleric acid were developed that can be used to evaluate aroma and pleasantness of smoke in Oriental tobaccos. The data obtained allow the following conclusions to be drawn: a) 3-methylvaleric acid may be a chemical marker to distinguish Virginia tobaccos from Oriental and burley tobaccos; b) isovaleric acid content in leaves of Oriental tobaccos may be used for objective aroma evaluation that can be exploited for breeding and market purposes.
A Diels-Alder Reaction Between A Cigarette Mainstream Smoke Component and Benzoquinone
Authors: Coleman WM
Published: July 2016

A notable amount of research has been placed toward understanding the roles of benzoquinone (Q) and hydroquinone (HQ) in the chemistry and toxicity of cigarette smoke. To further understanding of the roles of these compounds in cigarette smoke, a series of reactions were performed wherein the levels and chemistries of Q and HQ were monitored after having been added to selected phases of the mainstream smoke from 2R4F cigarettes. Through the application of both fundamental organic chemistry reaction mechanistic principles and qualitative analysis of smoke chemistry, a new reaction pathway for mainstream smoke components was elucidated. During the course of these investigations, the presence of a product from a Diels-Alder reaction between a 2R4F cigarette mainstream smoke component and Q was discovered. Data from carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance (13C NMR), gas chromatography-atomic emission detection (GC-AED), and gas chromatography-mass selective detection (GC-MSD) revealed a Diels-Alder reaction product resulting from the reaction of benzoquinone (Q), a dienophile, and 1,3-cyclopentadiene, a diene, to yield tricyclo[6.2.1.02,7] undeca-4,9-diene-3,6-dione, more commonly referred to as cyclopentadienebenzoquinone. The reaction between Q and 1,3-cyclopentadiene was observed to have occurred when fresh mainstream vapor phase smoke (MSVP) from a 2R4F cigarette, captured in acetone, was subsequently treated with Q. Other 13C containing species were detected but inadequate signal to noise values prevented structural assignments. Accompanying the Diels-Alder reaction was an additional reaction of Q to form hydroquinone (HQ). These reactions provide additional information on the complexity of cigarette smoke, particularly as it relates to possible reactions involving Q and HQ and other cigarette smoke components.