bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Electron excitation: Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) and scanning Auger microscopy (SAM)
Authors: Riviere J C
Published: November 2023

The secondary electrons ejected from the sample surface will have all kinetic energies from the primary energy to zero, as shown in the lower curve of Fig. 4.1. Superimposed on the continuous inelastic distribution will be peaks due to Auger emission at energies characteristic of the sample material, according to the process described in Fig. 2.1. The technique of AES still to an overwhelming extent records the Auger peaks as the differential distribution of which a portion is shown in the upper part of Fig. 2.1. Although the primary energy may be several keV, the kinetic energy range normally covered in AES is typically from 20-1000 eV. There are two reasons for this. Firstly, nearly all elements will have usable Auger features in that region, and there is little point when carrying out a routine analysis in using peaks at higher energies, particularly since the electrons of higher energy will have greater average escape depths and therefore be less typical of the surface.
Electron excitation: cathodoluminescence spectroscopy (CLS)
Authors: Riviere J C
Published: November 2023

Cathodoluminescence has been known for many years, but its use as a surface analytical technique is only fairly recent. Even now its use in this way is uncommon, but, as will be seen later, it may have some unique contribution to make in the study of interfaces that cannot easily be reached by the more conventional techniques.
Ion excitation: ion scattering spectroscopy (ISS)
Authors: Riviere J C
Published: November 2023

The use of ion scattering from solids as an analytical technique has now a long history because in fact ‘ion scattering’ actually encompasses several techniques according to the chosen energy range of the ion. According to the classification of Armour,1 these techniques can be labelled Low Energy Ion Scattering (LEIS}, with primary ion energies in the range 100 eV to 10 keV, Medium Energy Ion Scattering (MEIS) from 100 to 200 keV, and High Energy Ion Scattering (HEIS), from 1 to 2 MeV. Of these LEIS is more usually called Ion Scattering Spectroscopy (ISS) and HEIS is always called Rutherford Back Scattering (RBS). For the reasons given later ISS is the only surface-specific variation, although the higher energy forms are certainly surface sensitive, and this chapter is therefore devoted to ISS alone.
High field excitation: inelastic electron tunnelling spectroscopy (IETS)
Authors: Riviere J C
Published: November 2023

Although certainly a surface-specific technique, JETS is unique amongst the techniques described in this volume in that it does not require an ultra-high vacuum environment for its operation, and has hardly ever been used in vacuum. The description that follows below will make it clear why vacuum is not necessary, and also why it should be regarded as a high field technique. JETS was originated in 1966 by Jaklevic and Lambe, and measures the vibrational spectra of molecules adsorbed on the insulator surface of a metal/insulator/metal sandwich, usually called a junction. The technique therefore has very close affinities with those other techniques such as HREELS and RAIRS (q.v.) that also measure vibrational spectra. As will be seen later, there are advantages and disadvantages in each of the vibrational spectroscopic techniques when inter-compared, and the choice of which to use depends on the particular system to be analysed.
Solid Helium Three
Authors: Dobbs E R
Published: November 2023

One of the hottest topics in low temperature physics during the last two decades has been the revelation of the astonishing properties of crystals of the rare isotope of helium, helium three. This book provides the first complete account of these properties. In it, experimental measurements are described and the development of their interpretation is discussed. Beginning with the phase diagram and thermal properties of this uniquely quantum crystal, Professor Dobbs introduces current theories of solid helium and compares their predictions with measurements of the ground state, elastic and thermal properties, and phonon spectra. the extraordinary magnetic properties are described and discussed in chapters on the paramagnetism, antiferromagnetism and ferromagnetism of the different phases of solid heliu. the text concludes with chapters on the growth of crystals, their defects and studies of monolayers, bilayers, and multilayers grown on a variety of substrates. This book provides an introduction to the extensive literature, particularly that published since 1980, for research staff and students in physics and physical chemistry with an interest in current developments in condensed matter.
Ferromagnetism in the h.c.p. phase
Authors: Dobbs E R
Published: November 2023

In the basal plane of the h.c.p. lattice the atoms are arranged in triangles, as shown in Fig. 6.1. There are two kinds of three-particle exchange cycle: in Fig. 6.1(a), the nearest neighbours in the upper and lower basal planes (shown by the smaller solid circle) are central, while in Fig. 6.1(b) they are peripheral.
The Theory of Critical Phenomena
Authors: Binney J J , Dowrick N J , Fisher A J , Newman M E J
Published: November 2023

The successful calculation of critical exponents for continuous phase transitions is one of the main achievements of theoretical physics over the last quarter-century. This was achieved through the use of scaling and field-theoretic techniques which have since become standard equipment in many areas of physics, especially quantum field theory. This book provides a thorough introduction to these techniques. Continuous phase transitions are introduced, then the necessary statistical mechanics is summarized, followed by standard models, some exact solutions and techniques for numerical simulations. The real-space renormalization group and mean-field theory are then explained and illustrated. The final chapters cover the Landau-Ginzburg model, from physical motivation, through diagrammatic perturbation theory and renormalization to the renormalization group and the calculation of critical exponents above and below the critical temperature.
Monte Carlo methods
Authors: Krauth Werner
Published: November 2023

Starting with this chapter, we embark on a journey into the fascinating realms of statistical mechanics and computational physics. We set out to study a host of classical and quantum problems, all of value as models and with numerous applications and generalizations. Many computational methods will be visited, by choice or by necessity. Not all of these methods are, however, properly speaking, computer algorithms. Nevertheless, they often help us tackle, and understand, properties of physical systems. Sometimes we can even say that computational methods give numerically exact solutions, because few questions remain unanswered. Among all the computational techniques in this book, one stands out: the Monte Carlo method.
Neighbourhood scale effects of species diversity on biological invasions and their relationship to community patterns
Authors: Levine J M , Kennedy T , Naeem S
Published: November 2023

Concern over the consequences of species loss has generated tremendous interest in how species diversity affects ecosystem processes (Naeem et al. 1994; Tilman and Downing 1994; Chapin et al. 1998; Hector et al. 1999). Resistance to biological invasions has been a process of particular interest because exotic species are well documented to have large ecological and economic impacts (Mooney and Drake 1986; Drake and Mooney 1989; Vitousek et al. 1997). Furthermore, that diverse communities better resist biological invasions is a classic notion in ecology, credited to Elton (1958), but also implicit in island biogeography (MacArthur and Wilson 1967) and species packing (MacArthur 1970, 1972) theories. Recently, however, this commonly held notion has become controversial (Enserink 1999).
Contributions of aquatic model systems to our understanding of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning
Authors: Petchey O L , Morin P J , Hulot F D , Loreau M , McGrady-Steed J , Naeem S
Published: November 2023

Biodiversity has been shown to affect ecosystem functioning in an assortment of ecosystems (McGrady-Steed et al. 1997; Naeem and Li 1997; van der Heijden et al. 1998b; Hector et al. 1999; Petchey et al. 1999; Hulot et al. 2000; Naeem et al. 2000a; Norberg 2000; Emmerson et al. 2001; Ruesink and Srivastava 2001). These studies continue to guide the development of theories that relate diver sity to the magnitude and stability of ecosystem functioning (Loreau 2000a). In a simple world, the existence of comparable findings from a wide range of systems would suggest a general relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. However, reviews show that effects of diversity vary widely among systems (Schlapfer and Schmid 1999; Schwartz et al. 2000; Loreau et al. 2001). For example, increasing plant diversity increases grass land primary productivity across Europe (Hector et al. 1999), while the diversity of soil microbes has affected functioning in some experiments (van der Heijden et al. 1998b) but not in others (Mikola and Seta.la 1998a).
Implementations of the renormalization group
Authors: Yeomans J M
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 8 we gave an introduction to the formalism of the renormalization group. A renormalization transformation changes the scale of a system by a factor b. Systems at criticality flow to fixed points under the transformation and their critical exponents and scaling behaviour are determined by linearizing the recursion equations about the fixed point. The aim of this chapter is two-fold: firstly to illustrate these ideas by giving several examples of renormalization group transformations and secondly to demonstrate the ways in which they can be used to calculate critical properties. Our examples are divided into three classes. In Section 9.1, we shall consider a one-dimensional model where the recursion relations can be written down exactly. The drawback of this as a canonical example is that any critical behaviour is at zero temperature. The decimation transformation presented in one dimension is an example of a real-space transformation and the second task, in Section 9.2, is to show how these may be used approximately to treat models in higher dimensions. Thirdly, in Section 9.5, we shall mention the E-expansion where the renormalization takes place in momentum space. This enables an understanding of the crossover to mean-field behaviour. However, the formalism is somewhat involved and the details are beyond the scope of this book.
X-Ray Scattering and Absorption by Magnetic Materials
Authors: Lovesey S W , Collins S P
Published: November 2023

This is the first book devoted to the use of X-ray beam techniques to study magnetic properties of materials. It covers both experimental and theoretical issues. The three main topics are dichroism, elastic scattering (both non-resonant and resonant diffraction) and spectroscopy. In the past decade there has been an expansion of activity in the field, driven by the availability of intense, tuneable and highly polarized X-ray beams from synchrtron facilities. The pace of events is likely to continue with the start of new (3rd generation) facilities, including the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Grenoble, and the Advanced Light Source, Argonne National Laboratory. USA.
Compton scattering
Authors: Lovesey S W , Collins S P
Published: November 2023

Very few physicists will have escaped an encounter with Compton scattering. For a host of reasons - both good and bad - many of us have been forced to consider this most fundamental limit of the scattering process.
Theoretical framework
Authors: Lovesey S W , Collins S P
Published: November 2023

At various points in the book, e.g. § §1.1, 4.2.4, we have mentioned that there is a unifying concept in photon absorption and scattering, in so much as they are derived from a common scattering amplitude. The latter is the bedrock of a theoretical framework, firmly based on quantum electrodynamics, for the interpretation at an atomic level of detail of the measured signals. In consequence, it is appropriate to devote a chapter to a discussion of the scattering amplitude, and the measurable quantities derived from it, namely the attenuation coefficient, and elastic and inelastic cross-sections.
Magnetic Measurements
Authors: Chikazumi Sōshin , Graham, Jr C D
Published: November 2023

There are various methods of producing magnetic fields. The appropriate method depends on the intensity, the volume, and the uniformity (in space and in time) of the field required. In this book, magnetic fields are measured in amperes per meter (Am−1 ), although for high magnetic fields the tesla (T) is a more convenient unit. For conversion factors between Am−1 and Oe or T, see Appendix 6.
Ferromagnetism
Authors: Chikazumi Sōshin , Graham, Jr C D
Published: November 2023

The termferromagnetismis used to characterize strongly magnetic behavior, such as the strong attraction of a material to a permanent magnet. The origin of this strong magnetism is the presence of a spontaneous magnetization produced by a parallel alignment of spins. Instead of a parallel alignment of all the spins, there can be an anti-parallel alignment of unequal spins. This also results in a spontaneous magnetization, which we callferrimagnetism.In this book we describe either of these cases, both of which lead to the presence of spontaneous magnetization, as ferromagnetism in a wide sense; this term then includes both ferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism. In this section we discuss the origin and nature of ferromagnetism in a narrow sense.
Quarks Bound by Chiral Fields
Authors: Ripka Georges
Published: November 2023

The structure of light hadrons is dominated by the spontaneously broken chiral symmetry of the strongly interacting (QCD) vacuum. Low energy properties of light hadrons can be described in terms of quarks interacting with chiral fields. This book gives a comprehensive account of a large class of models which describe the restoration of chiral symmetry at high temperature and density, the effective interactions between quarks, mesons as solutions of the Beth-Salpeter equation, and baryons in terms of solitons which rotate in flavor space. An in-depth analysis of regularization is given, including regularization by delocalized fields. Symmetry conserving approximations are formulated using both path integral and Feynmann graph methods. The style is pedagogical and well suited to graduate and PhD students who want to learn the techniques used in present day research. It can also serve as a reference for research and lecture courses.
Microstructure and magnetic domains
Authors: Hadjipanayis G C
Published: November 2023

Hard magnetic materials are characterized by large coercive fields. The progress in developing coercivity has been remarkable [Liv80]; values have increased from 20 kA/m in magnet steels to over 3 MA/min SmCo5 [Str78, Liv81] and 18 MA/m in SmCos- xNi x at cryogenic temperatures [Oes78]. Advances have been achieved by an interplay between theoretical models, experimental measurements and microstructure studies, all aimed at understanding the mechanisms of magnetization reversal.
Physical Optics
Authors: Akhmanov S A , Nikitin S YU
Published: November 2023

Based on a course offered at Moscow State University, this text comprehensively presents the fundamentals of modern physical optics. The concepts of classical and quantum radiation theories, nonlinear physics, statistics, and Fourier transformations are shown to form the bedrock of modern optics and optical physics. Subjects include lasers, nonlinear optics, optical spectroscopy, and optical fields. The material is much more topical than that in conventional textbooks, and it provides a picture of physical optics as an expert would see it, but in a form accessible to a student.
Polarization of light
Authors: Akhmanov S A , Nikitin S YU
Published: November 2023

The transverse nature of an optical wave. The polarization states of a plane harmonic wave—elliptical, circular, and linear polarizations. Non-monochromatic light-the natural polarization. Experimental methods of polarization measurement.
The interference of light
Authors: Akhmanov S A , Nikitin S YU
Published: November 2023

Interference phenomena in optics. Young’s experiment. The Michelson interferometer. The interference of monochromatic waves. The interference of non-monochromatic light. The interference of a random optical wave. Multiple-beam interference. The Fabry-Perot interferometer. Eigenmodes and the quality factor of a laser resonator.
The coherence of light
Authors: Akhmanov S A , Nikitin S YU
Published: November 2023

The temporal coherence of light—coherence time and coherence length. The spatial coherence of light—the coherence radius. A model of a random optical field. Calculation of the interference pattern obtained with the Young interferometer. The measurement of coherence and the coherence of radiation emitted by real sources of light.
Diffraction by periodic structures
Authors: Akhmanov S A , Nikitin S YU
Published: November 2023

Diffraction gratings. The physics of light diffraction by a grating. The equation of a diffraction grating. A mathematical description of diffraction of a plane wave by a grating. Diffraction by two-dimensional periodic structures. Diffraction by three-dimensional periodic structures. X-ray diffraction in perfect crystals. X-ray diffraction analysis.
The physics of the interaction of light with matter
Authors: Akhmanov S A , Nikitin S YU
Published: November 2023

A model of a continuum and Maxwell’s equations. The material equations. Classification of media. A plane monochromatic optical wave in a linear homogeneous isotropic medium. Complex dielectric permittivity, linear optical susceptibility, and the complex index of refraction. The classical oscillator model of a medium.
Optical phenomena at a boundary between two media
Authors: Akhmanov S A , Nikitin S YU
Published: November 2023

Reflection and refraction at a separation boundary. Boundary conditions for the electromagnetic field. The geometry of reflection and refraction—Snell’s law. Total internal reflection. Energy relations for reflection and refraction-Fresnel’s formulae. The Brewster effect. Variation of the optical wave phase on reflection and refraction. Reflection of light for normal incidence. The antireflective coating. The reflection of light for oblique incidence. The reflection of light by a metal surface.
Non-linear optics
Authors: Akhmanov S A , Nikitin S YU
Published: November 2023

Fundamental effects of non-linear optics and the mechanisms of optical non-linearity. Violation of the superposition principle for intense optical waves in a medium. The material equation of a non-linear medium. Non-linear polarization. Non-linear sus-ceptibility. An ensemble of non-linear oscillators as a classical model of a non-linear medium. Optical rectification. This chapter is devoted to the physics of the interaction of intense laser radiation with matter. Fundamental effects of non-linear optics are considered, theoretical foundations are presented, and applications of non-linear optical phenomena are discussed.
Liquid crystals: Main types and properties
Authors: Gennes P G De , Prost J
Published: November 2023

During our years in high school, we have all been taught that matter only exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. However, this is not quite correct. In particular, certain organic materials do not show a single transition from solid to liquid, but rather a cascade of transitions involving new phases. The mechanical properties and the symmetry properties of these phases are intermediate between those of a liquid and those of a crystal. For this reason, they have often been called liquid crystals. A more proper name is ‘meso-morphic phases’ (mesomorphic: of intermediate form).
Long- And Short-Range Order In Nematics
Authors: Gennes P G De , Prost J
Published: November 2023

The nematic phase has a lower symmetry than the high-temperature isotropic liquid. We express this qualitatively by saying that the nematic phase is ‘more ordered’. To put this on a quantitative basis, we need to define an order parameter that is non-zero in the nematic phase but that vanishes, for symmetry reasons, in the isotropic phase. In some physical systems an adequate choice of the order parameter is obvious. For instance, in a ferromagnet, the order parameter is the magnetization M; this is a vector with three independent components M,,. In a nematic phase the choice is less trivial and we shall have to proceed in successive steps.
Thermodynamics of mixing
Authors: Rubinstein Michael , Colby Ralph H
Published: November 2023

Mixtures are systems consisting of two or more different chemical species. Binary mixtures consist of only two different species. An example of a binary mixture is a blend of polystyrene and polybutadiene. Mixtures with three components are called ternary. An example of a ternary mixture is a solution of polystyrene and polybutadiene in toluene. If the mixture is uniform and all components of the mixture are intermixed on a molecular scale, the mixture is called homogeneous. An example of a homogeneous mixture is a polymer solution in a good solvent. If the mixture consists of several different phases (regions with different compositions), it is called heterogeneous. An example of a heterogeneous mixture is that of oil and water. Whether an equilibrium state of a given mixture is homogeneous or heterogeneous is determined by the composition dependence of the entropy and energy changes on mixing. Entropy always favours mixing, but energetic interactions between species can either promote or inhibit mixing.
Systematic or unsystematic, is that the question? Some reflections on the science, art, and politics of reviewing research evidence
Authors: Hammersley Martyn
Published: November 2023

Literature reviews play a crucial role in providing the bridge between research and various areas of policy-making and practice, including those concerned with health inequalities. This is because the practical use of research must take in the whole range of findings on a topic, not just the results from one or two studies. Indeed, the increasing tendency for the mass media to report evidence from single studies in controversial areas is a matter for concern.
The roles of music in society: the ethnomusicological perspective
Authors: Gregory Andrew H
Published: November 2023

Most studies on the psychology of music are set within the context of West ern musical and cultural traditions. However, in many other cultures both the style of the music and its role in society are quite different. This area of study is particularly interesting both for its own sake and because it allows conclusions from studies on the psychology of Western music to be looked at from a different perspective.
Musical taste in adolescence
Authors: Zillmann Dolf , Gan Su-lin
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we first sketch the enormity of adolescents’ consumption of, and apparent fascination with, various forms of music. After a brief excursion into the massification versus diversity controversy over popular music, we present and critically analyse efforts at explaining the enjoyment of music by adolescents on the basis of their own introspective assessments and rationalizations. We then turn to the mostly experimental social psychological exploration of music appreciation, and we ascertain the influence of social, individual, and situational factors in light of the available research evidence. Much attention is given to the great appeal of music expressing defiance of authority and of music celebrating love found or bemoaning love lost. The chapter concludes with an abridged review of social-psychological research that addresses the question of whether or not the massive consumption of particular forms of popular music, especially music of the rebellious variety, can foster and strengthen socially and societally relevant beliefs and dispositions of adolescents.
Environmental factors in the development of musical performance skill over the life span
Authors: Davidson Jane W , Howe, Michael J A , Sloboda John A
Published: November 2023

The ethnomusicologist, J. Messenger, who was studying the Anang lbibo Tribe in Nigeria in 1958, gave the following account of their musical activities: We were constantly amazed at the musical abilities displayed by these people, especially by the children who, before the age of five, can sing hundreds of songs, both individually and in choral groups, and, in addition, are able to play several percussion instruments and have learned dozens of intricate dance movements, calling for incredible muscular control. We searched in vain for the ‘non-musical’ person, finding it difficult to make enquiries about tone-deafness and its assumed effects because the Anang language possesses no comparable concept ... They will not admit, as we tried so hard to get them to, that there are those that lack the requisite abilities. This same attitude applies to the other aesthetic areas. Some dancers, singers, and weavers are considered more skilled than most, but everyone can dance and sing well (Messenger 1958, pp. 20-2).
Early theories of mind: what the theory theory can tell us about autism
Authors: Gopnik Alison , Capps Lisa , Meltzoff Andrew N
Published: November 2023

In the first edition of this book we presented a hypothesis about the early development of children’s understanding of the mind (Meltzoff and Gopnik 1993).We suggested that normally-developing children are born linking their own minds and the minds of others. This ability is most clearly evidenced in the innate capacity to imitate facial expressions. This primitive link means that, later on in development, further discoveries about other people’s minds are easily and naturally extended to knowledge of our own minds, and vice versa. We suggested that this initial link between the self and others may be missing in at least some cases of autism.
The Brain and Emotion
Authors: Rolls Edmund T
Published: November 2023

The Brain and Emotion presents a modern neuroscience-based approach to information processing in the brain, and deals especially with the information processing involved in emotion, motivation, and reward. It uncovers many fundamental principles about how the brain works and about brain design through evolution by natural selection. The topics covered include: *Emotion * Hunger * Thirst * Brain-stimulation reward * The pharmacology of reward, and brain systems for action * Sexual behaviour * Consciousness and emotional feelings * The adaptive value of emotion, and its importance in brain design * Neural networks involved in emotion.
International law
Authors: Fidler David P
Published: November 2023

In the national context, governments have primary responsibility for the production and/or finance of public goods. In the international context, however, no central government exists to structure interstate relations, and as such states interact in a condition of “anarchy.” International law, as “a body of rules governing the mutual interaction not only of states but of other agents in international politics,” emerges from this anarchical structure of international relations (Bull 1977).
Global public goods for health: Use and limitations
Authors: Smith Richard D , Woodward David
Published: November 2023

A considerable body of expert opinion and knowledge has been brought together in this volume to assess the relevance and implications of the global public good ( GPG) concept as applied to health. Although each chapter has been written independently, there is a surprising amount of consensus on aspects of the GPG concept that are of value, and also those that present possible dangers.
Quantum Chaos and Quantum Dots
Authors: Nakamura Katsuhiro , Harayama Takahisa
Published: November 2023

Dynamics of billiard balls and their role in physics have received wide attention since the monumental lecture by Lord Kelvin at the turn of the 19th century. Billiards can nowadays be created as quantum dots in the microscopic world enabling one to envisage the so-called quantum chaos, i.e. quantum manifestation of chaos of billiard balls. In fact, owing to recent progress in advanced technology, nanoscale quantum dots, such as chaotic stadium and antidot lattices analogous to the Sinai Billiard, can be fabricated at the interface of semiconductor heterojunctions. This book begins its exploration of the effect of chaotic electron dynamics on ballistic quantum transport in quantum dots with a puzzling experiment on resistance fluctuations for stadium and circle dots. Throughout the text, major attention is paid to the semiclassical theory which makes it possible to interpret quantum phenomena in the language of the classical world. Chapters one to four are concerned with the elementary statistical methods (curvature, Lyapunov exponent, Kolmogorov-Sinai entropy and escape rate), which are needed for a semiclassical description of transport in quantum dots. Chapters five to ten discuss the topical subjects in the field, including the ballistic weak localization, Altshuler-Aronov-Spivak oscillation, partial time-reversal symmetry, persistent current, Arnold diffusion and Coulomb blockade.
Semiclassical Quantization and Thermodynamics of Mesoscopic Systems
Authors: Nakamura Katsuhiro , Harayama Takahisa
Published: November 2023

In contrast to the contents so far, the description from here deals with topical themes, which are rather special and the accompanying explanation might not be self-contained, Readers, if necessary, are recommended to gain supplemental knowledge from references listed at the end of the book. As for the present section, see references (Gutzwiller[5, 8-10], Balian and Bloch[14,15], Berry and Mount[ll], Berry and Tabor [12], Brack and Bhaduri[6], Cvitanovic et al.[7]).
How Do Infants come to control the organs speech?
Authors: Locke John L
Published: November 2023

Speaking involves the production of syllables. The most typical of these begin with a labial or lingual constriction, which starts to relax with the onset of vocalization and mandibular descent. The perceptible result is a consonant-vowel syllable. In development, the organs involved in this activity are operative at birth in sucking, and later in the year, in chewing and babbling. These activities usually antedate, by several months, movements of the same organs in replication of sounds heard in spoken words. Thus, a theory of the development of speech-motor control must address the infant's initial attempts to achieve speech sounds with structures that already have long histories of vegetative and vocal service.
Searching For The Weak Link In The Speech Production Chain Of People Who Stutter: A Motor Skill Approach
Authors: Lieshout Pascal H H M Van , Hulstijn Wouter , Peters Herman F M
Published: November 2023

This statement from Charles van Riper reflects on the nature of stuttering and casts little doubt about the involvement of the speech motor system in stuttering. In this chapter, we will provide arguments and empirical evidence that stuttering can be linked to the speech motor system, but not necessarily in terms of a 'speech motor disorder'. Rather, the central theme of our chapter will be that, for people who stutter (PWS), the speech motor control system is the weak link in the chain of events that lead to the production of speech. A weak link in terms of limited skill or ability to prepare and perform the motor actions that are required to implement the various demands imposed by cognitive, linguistic, emotional, and motor aspects of speech (Hulstijn and van Lieshout 1998).
The Role Of The Syllable In Disorders Of Spoken Language Production
Authors: Ziegler Wolfram , Maassen Ben
Published: November 2023

The syllable plays an important role in the production and the understanding of spoken language, as well as in language acquisition. Evidence for this comes from different sources: from phonological theory, from phonetics, from theories of language development, and from psycholinguistic studies of speaking and of language comprehension in adults. This chapter gives an overview of data demonstrating that the syllabic organization of speech also influences the way in which spoken language breaks down in conditions of an impaired phonological or speech motor system in children and adults. It reviews results from studies of aphasic patients with phonological encoding problems, from patients with apraxia of speech, or with other motor speech problems, and from children with developmental speech motor disorders, which demonstrate that the error patterns seen in these groups reflect the structural principles of syllabicity.
Laser Control of Atoms and Molecules
Authors: Letokhov Vladilen
Published: November 2023

Rather different problems can be lumped together under the general term 'laser control of atoms and molecules'. They include the laser selection of atomic and molecular velocities for the purpose of Doppler-free spectroscopy, laser control of the position and velocity of atoms (i.e. laser trapping and cooling of atoms), and laser control of atomic and molecular processes (ionization, dissociation) with a view of detecting single atoms and molecules and particularly separating isotopes and nuclear isomers. Over the last decades the principal problems posed have been successfully solved, and many of them have evolved remarkably in the subsequent investigations of the international research community. For example, the solution of the problem of laser cooling and trapping of atoms has given birth to the new field of the physics of ultracold matter, i.e. quantum atomic and molecular gases. The laser non-coherent control of uni-molecular processes has found an interesting extension in the field of laser coherent control of molecules. The concept of laser control of position has been successfully demonstrated with microparticles (optical tweezers), concurrently with investigations into atomic control. The laser photo-ionization of molecules on surfaces has led to the development of novel techniques of laser-assisted mass spectrometry of macromolecules, and so on. The aim of this book is to review these topics from a unified or 'coherent' point of view. It will be useful for many readers in various fields of laser science and its applications.
Development and Neurophysiology of Mentalizing
Authors: Frith Uta , FrithI Christopher D
Published: November 2023

The mentalizing (theory of mind) system of the brain is probably in operation from around 18 months of age, allowing implicit attribution of intentions and other mental states. Between the ages of 4 and 6 years explicit mentalizing becomes possible, and from this age children are able to explain the misleading reasons that have given rise to a false belief. Neuroimaging studies of mentalizing have so far only been carried out in adults. They reveal a system with three components consistently activated during both implicit and explicit mentalizing tasks: medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC), temporal poles and posterior superior temporal sulcus (STS). The functions of these components can be elucidated, to some extent, from their role in other tasks used in neuroimaging studies.
Cost-effectiveness analysis
Authors: Drummond Michael E , Sculpher Mark J , Torrance George W , O’Brien Bernie J , Stoddart Greg L
Published: November 2023

Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is one form of full economic evaluation where both the costs and consequences of health programmes or treatments are examined. Therefore, all the points discussed in Chapter 4 on cost analysis apply here also. This chapter introduces some additional issues that need to be confronted when undertaking a CEA; in addition to the general introduction, it contains a study design exercise in Section 5.2, followed by a critical appraisal exercise in Section 5.3.
Economic evaluation using decision analytic modelling
Authors: Drummond Michael E , Sculpher Mark J , Torrance George W , O’Brien Bernie J , Stoddart Greg L
Published: November 2023

The ultimate purpose of economic evaluation is to inform different types of decision-makers about the efficient allocation of health care resources. In recent years, economic evaluation has been increasingly undertaken for specific decision­makers, who formally require economic evidence (Hjelmgren et al. 2001). For exam­ple, a number of health care systems now use economic evaluation to help them decide whether new health technologies (particularly pharmaceuticals) represent suf­ficient value for money to be funded.
Some Mathematical Tools For Compressible Flows
Authors: Novotný A , Straškraba I
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with several auxiliary results of functional analysis which will be broadly used especially in Chapters 4 and 7. In Section 3.1 we prove Friedrich’s lemma about commutators and investigate the renormalized solutions to the steady continuity equation. Section 3.2 is devoted to spaces of vector fields with summable divergence. In Section 3.3 we investigate the equation div v = f in various domains with compact or noncompact boundaries. In Section 3.4 we recall some useful results from the theory of monotone operators and from convex analysis.
The isolobal analogy
Authors: Jean Yves
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 2, the dorbitals (and, in some cases, the s, p, or s–phybrid orbitals on the metal) were constructed for many types of MLncomplexes in which the ligands have σ-type interactions with the metal. The shapes and relative energies of these orbitals depend on the number of ligands and their geometrical arrangement around the metal. Naturally, any π-type interactions that are present also play a role. Thus, the dorbitals in the octahedral complex [WCl6] (six π-donor ligands) are different from those in the octahedral complex [W(CO)  6] (six π-acceptor ligands). But ‘there is a time for detail and there is a time for generality’ : in both cases, the dorbitals are split 3 + 2, with three degenerate orbitals (the t2gblock) lower in energy than the two degenerate orbitals of the egblock, and this result is characteristic of alloctahedral ML6 complexes. In the same way, the orbital structure of AHnmolecules or fragments (or more generally ARn), in which A is a main-group element, depends essentially on the number and geometrical arrangement of the substituents on the central atom. But beyond the obvious difference created by the presence of dorbitals in organometallic complexes, there are resemblances between the molecular orbitals (MO) of MLncomplexes and those of AHnmolecules.
Knots, links, and diagrams
Authors: Gilbert N D , Porter T
Published: November 2023

Interlaced or knotted patterns and forms are encountered in many settings. Their occurrence may be essential, as in the practical applications of knot tying, or inconvenient, as with a knotted shoelace or inextricably entangled garden hose. Interlacing motifs are the basis for much Celtic and Islamic art, and language is enriched by many figures of speech referring to knots. Our subject is how mathematics gets into knots and our aim is to knit a coherent theory of knots from the raveled strands of our cultural and practical fascination.
Knot and link polynomials
Authors: Gilbert N D , Porter T
Published: November 2023

Polynomial invariants of knots and links have played an important part in knot theory since the work of J.W. Alexander (1928). The appearance in 1984 of a new polynomial invariant, found by V.F.R. Jones, led to an upsurge in research activity and to a number of striking advances in our knowledge of knots and links and their representation by diagrams, as well as to new interactions between knot theory, geometry, and quantum physics. In recognition of his achievements, Jones was awarded a Fields Medal (the equivalent in mathematics of a Nobel Prize) at the 1990 International Congress of Mathematicians. Jones discovered his polynomial as an offshoot of work in a quite different area-the theory of operator algebras. He tells the story in Jones (1985). Subsequently, Alexander’s and Jones’ polynomials were generalized in a two-variable polynomial; this generalization was accomplished virtually simultaneously by several groups of mathematicians, using a variety of approaches.
Covering spaces
Authors: Gilbert N D , Porter T
Published: November 2023

The fundamental group n1(X, x0) of a topological space X at a basepoint x0 describes the variety of possible closed paths in X at x0• Does the algebraic structure of n1(X, x0) reflect further features of the topological nature of X? In this chapter we shall see that the collection of subgroups of n1(X, x0) corresponds to a collection of topological spaces that map to X: the covering spaces of X. A covering space preserves the local features of X but its overall topological structure is generally more simple. Questions about X can often be transferred into more tractable questions about a covering space. Our applications will concentrate on the covering spaces of graphs, which we use to prove two theorems about free groups: the Nielsen-Schreier theorem, which says that a subgroup of a free group is itself free; and the Schreier index formula for the number of free generators of a subgroup of a free group. Further, we show how to discover free generators for the relation subgroup of a group presentation from its Cayley quiver.
Surface properties: adsorption of atoms and molecules
Authors: Prutton M
Published: November 2023

A wide variety of events can occur when a molecule impinges upon a surface. It may be specularly reflected with no loss of energy, or it may suffer a redistribution of momentum and be diffracted by the surface, again with no loss of energy. Alternatively, and more usually, it will lose energy to the atoms in the surface by exciting them vibrationally or electronically. If it loses only a small amount of its energy and does not become bound to the surface it may be inelastically reflected. On the other hand, it may lose sufficient energy to become effectively bound to the surface with a strength that will depend upon the particular kinds of atoms involved.
Low Frequency Scattering
Authors: Dassios George , Kleinman Ralph
Published: November 2023

This book for the first time unifies the theories of acoustic, electromagnetic, and elastic waves and discusses the many physical and geometric aspects of their interactions with obstacles. It offers a complete introduction to scattering theory, and goes on to discuss low frequency scattering in particular. A significant number of results are previously unpublished, and the book fills many gaps in the existing literature. Included is an extended bibliography covering the whole existing literature on low frequency scattering, making this an invaluable reference for researchers.
Theory of Nuclear Reactions
Authors: Fröbrich P , Lipperheide R
Published: November 2023

This textbook was written because the authors failed to find a comprehensive text for a course on non-relativistic nuclear reactions. The book combines a thorough theoretical approach with applications to recent experimental results. The main formalisms used to describe nuclear reactions are explained clearly and coherently, and the reader is led from basic laws to the final formulae used to calculate measurable quantities. Topics treated include quantal and semi-classical potential scattering, the formal theory of nuclear reactions, including the theory of the optical model, and direct reactions and coupled-channel systems. Also included are compound nucleus reactions and fusion, dissipation fluctuations in deep-inelastic collisions, fusion, and heavy-ion induced fission. The book will be welcomed by lecturers, graduate students, and researchers in nuclear and atomic physics.
The third logical value of Lukasiewicz
Authors: Malinowski Grzegorz
Published: November 2023

The actual introduction of a third logical value by Lukasiewicz (1920), next to truth and falsity, was preceded by thorough philosophical studies. Their crowning achievement was a three-valued propositional calculus which, from the point of view of logic, represented a standard line of approach. However, in view of the surprisingly rich motivation substantiating the new logic and also the hopes it produced, its exceptional position has been maintained. The present chapter is an overview of the origin and basic properties of the three-valued logic of Lukasiewicz.
Logic algebras and matrices
Authors: Malinowski Grzegorz
Published: November 2023

First, algebraic interpretation structures for propositional languages within the classical Fregean semantic framework are derived. Next, functional completeness, the property of finite logic algebras which warrants the biggest expressive power of the corresponding bunch of connectives, is discussed. In the end, matrices, i.e. algebras with distinguished elements serving as models for propositional calculi, are introduced.
Three-valuedness of Kleene and Bochvar
Authors: Malinowski Grzegorz
Published: November 2023

Kleene (1938, 1952) and Bochvar (1938) are the founders of the original three-valued constructions motivated epistemologically by the indeterminacy or absurdity of some propositions at a certain stage of scientific investigation. The assumed status of the third logical value is somewhat different from the classical values of truth and falsity. The resulting logics, both propositional and predicate, are simulaneously allied to and distant from the classical logic. In what follows the fundamentals of these epistemologically established systems of logic are discussed. Further, we give an overall exposition of two related constructions motivated by partiality in associating (classical) truth-values to sentences: supervaluations and the partial logic.
Embeddings of Heyting Algebras
Authors: Jongh Dick de , Visser Albert
Published: November 2023

In this paper we study embeddings ofHeyting algebras (Ha’s). Itis pointed out that such embeddings are naturally connected with Derived Rules and with propositional theories. We consider the Ha’s embeddable in the Ha of the Intuitionistic Propositional Calculus (IPC), i.e. the free Ha on N0 generators, those embeddable in the Ha of Heyting’s Arithmetic (HA) and those embeddable in the Ha of HA*, a ‘natural’ extension of HA. We prove the following theorems. The same Ha’s on finitely many generators are embeddable in the Ha of IPC and in the Ha of Boolean (or: Brouwerean) combinations of :>sentences of HA. The Ha’s on finitely many generators embeddable in the Ha ofIPC are finitely presented. There is a non-recursive Ha on three generators that can be embedded in the Ha of HA. Every recursively enumerable prime Ha is embeddable in the Ha of HA*.
On the Logical Strength of Nash-Williams’ Theorem on Transfinite Sequences
Authors: Marcone Alberto
Published: November 2023

We show that Nash-Williams’ theorem asserting that the countable transfinite sequences of elements of a better-quasi-orderingordered by embeddability form a better-quasi-ordering is provable in the subsystem of second order arithmetic [ineq]but is not equivalent to [ineq]. We obtain some partial results towards the proof of this theorem in the weaker subsystem ATRo and we show that the minimality lemmas typical of wqo and bqo theory imply [ineq] CAo and hence cannot be used in such a proof.
A Growth Dichotomy for 0-minimal Expansions of Ordered Fields
Authors: Miller Chris
Published: November 2023

Let ℜ  be an a-minimal expansion of the ordered field of real numbers. Then either ℜ  defines (without parameters) the real exponential function ex; or, for every ultimately nonzero ℜ-definable function f : ℝ → ℝ there exist a nonzero c E ℝ and a 0-definable real power function xr such that f(x) = cx + o(x) as x → + ∞.