bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The synthesis of preference: Bridging behavioral decision research and marketing science
Authors: Kivetz Ran , Netzer Oded , Schrift Rom
Published: October 2008

Scientific inquiry often advances in triadic waves of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. We concur with Simonson [Simonson, I., (2008). Will I Like a “Medium” Pillow: Another Look at Constructed and Inherent Preferences. Journal of Consumer Psychology, this issue.] that BDT's antithesis of preference construction, positioned against the normative utility thesis, may have swung the pendulum too far. Contrary to BDT's focus on constructed preference, inherent preferences — or what may be considered dispositions — are ubiquitous and critical determinants of choice. Thus, a synthesis in decision research is proposed, one in which researchers better bridge inherent and constructed preferences, or more broadly, marketing science and BDT. Such a synthesis, although uncertain and difficult, has the potential to explain the origins of inherent preferences, their slow evolution over time, and their interaction with constructed preferences. In this commentary, we discuss the synthesis between constructed and inherent preferences and how such a synthesis could be conceptualized and modeled. We conclude by suggesting some ways in which behavioral economics might evolve.
Regarding inherent preferences
Authors: Simonson Itamar
Published: October 2008

Commentators offer different perspectives on and reactions to the target article's [Simonson, I. (2008). Will I like a “medium” pillow: Another look at constructed and inherent preferences. Journal of Consumer Psychology] reassessment of research and findings used to support the conclusion that preferences are inherently constructive and of the inherent preference concept. Focusing on the latter, this reply elaborates on and develops the notion of inherent preferences. Even before tasting a licorice candy or chili peppers for the first time, trying out the Nintendo Wii, and so on, the degree of dis/like for such objects is assumed to be largely determined, though such dispositions might be masked by context and other forces of construction. Dormant inherent preferences are not un/conscious and are not implicit or explicit, stored attitudes. They are likely to evolve while still dormant, due to changes in preference components that determine the overall disposition to like the composite object. I conclude with a discussion of the falsifiability and the study of inherent preferences.
Tell me a story: Crafting and publishing research in consumer psychology
Authors: Peracchio Laura A. , Escalas Jennifer Edson
Published: October 2008

This paper provides a narrative framework for writing empirical research papers in consumer psychology. The components of this framework include focusing on the research contribution, maintaining a consistent plot structure, creating a story with constructs and variables as the main characters, minimizing subplots, and polishing the writing. We assert that integrating a narrative within a research paper enhances the likelihood of publication.
Of great art and untalented artists: Effort information and the flexible construction of judgmental heuristics
Authors: Cho Hyejeung , Schwarz Norbert
Published: October 2008

Past research (Kruger, Wirtz, Van Boven, & Altermatt, 2004) proposed that people use the effort of the producer as a heuristic for the quality of the product. In contrast, two experiments show that consumers' inferences from effort information are highly malleable. Participants were either explicitly exposed to one of two applicable naive theories (“good‐art‐takes‐effort” vs. “good‐art‐takes‐talent”) or the order of judgment was reversed (quality judgment first vs. talent judgment first) to activate different naive theories more subtly. In both cases, participants only inferred high quality from high effort when an “effort” theory was rendered accessible, but not when a “talent” theory was rendered accessible. We conclude that judgment tasks prime naive theories that can serve as inference rules, illustrating that heuristics can be constructed on the spot.
Art and the brand: The role of visual art in enhancing brand extendibility
Authors: Hagtvedt Henrik , Patrick Vanessa M.
Published: October 2008

We investigate a tool, namely visual art, which enables firms to increase the extendibility of their brands. Extant research proposes that successful brand extensions depend on favorable brand image and high perceived fit between the brand and the extension category. We propose that the presence of art has a positive influence on brand image (via a transfer of luxury perceptions from art onto the brand) and enhances perceived fit (via increased cognitive flexibility), resulting in more favorable brand extension evaluations. A pilot study and two experiments demonstrate that the presence of visual art favorably influences brand image perceptions and enhances perceptions of category fit. Mediation analysis reveals that together these factors explain the influence of visual art on brand extendibility.
The impact of implicit theories on responses to problem‐solving print advertisements
Authors: Hung Iris W. , Wyer Robert S.
Published: October 2008

Consumers may bring two implicit theories to bear on their interpretation of an advertisement: the theory that communications in general are intended to be informative and accurate and a domain‐specific theory that ad claims are often exaggerated. The relative impact of these theories depends on both the ambiguity of the ad content and the motivation to think about its implications. Participants viewed ads describing the problem that a product purports to solve and the results of using it. When the ad's implications were ambiguous, participants interpreted the ad's literal implications in a way that was plausible but they were unmotivated to expend the additional effort required to invoke the theory that ad claims are exaggerated. Consequently, they evaluated the product favorably. When the product's literal implications were easy to construe, however, participants' implicit theory that ad claims are exaggerated had the predominant influence on their liking for the product. The relative impact of participants' implicit theories was influenced by both the cognitive load that participants experienced at the time they viewed the ad and by unobtrusively priming theory‐related concepts before the ad was presented.
Using visualization to alter the balance between desirability and feasibility during choice
Authors: Cohen Joel B. , Belyavsky Julia , Silk Tim
Published: October 2008

We extend Wyer, Hung and Jiang's (2008) analysis of visualization to consider how it could overcome the tendency for consumers to focus much more heavily on end states and goals that products and services are intended to meet and underweight the steps consumers need to take to bring about those outcomes. We summarize related literature on consumers' mental construal of end state desirability in relation to feasibility and apply it to rebate redemption, where there is strong evidence that consumers make suboptimal economic decisions that underweight redemption feasibility. Our data confirm benefits for visualization but only for those who have a propensity to visualize. Both visualization and equivalent thought about rebate redemption steps produce choice reversals and attitude–behavior inconsistency.
Thyroid enlargement and its relationship to clinicopathological parameters and T4 status in suspected hyperthyroid cats
Authors: Boretti Felicitas S. , Sieber-Ruckstuhl Nadja S. , Gerber Bernhard , Laluha Peter , Baumgartner Claudia , Lutz Hans , Hofmann-Lehmann Regina , Reusch Claudia E.
Published: October 2008

To relate thyroid size to routine blood parameters and T4 status the ventral neck of 161 cats with clinical signs consistent with hyperthyroidism was examined by two independent observers using a semi-quantitative palpation system. Thyroid gland size of each side was scored from 0 (non-palpable) to a maximum of 6 (>25 mm). In 127 of the 161 cats, at least one thyroid gland was palpable. The palpation score was significantly correlated with the T4 concentration. The 17 hyperthyroid cats had significantly higher palpation scores than the 110 euthyroid cats. Euthyroid animals with a palpation score ≥3 were significantly older, had higher body weights, lower alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase, phosphate, and urine specific gravity, but higher lipase and creatinine concentrations than hyperthyroid cats. Our study demonstrates that although no reliable conclusion on the functional status of the thyroid can be drawn based on its size the likelihood of hyperthyroidism increases with increasing size of the gland.
A 24,700-yr paleolimnological history from the Peruvian Andes
Authors: Hillyer Rachel , Valencia Bryan G. , Bush Mark B. , Silman Miles R. , Steinitz-Kannan Miriam
Published: October 2008

A new paleolimnological dataset from Lake Pacucha (13 °S, 3095 m elevation) in the Peruvian Andes provides evidence of changes in lake level over the past 24,700 yr. A late-glacial highstand in lake level gave way to an early-Holocene lowstand. This transition appears to have paralleled precessional changes that would have reduced insolation during the wet-season. The occurrence of benthic/salt-tolerant diatoms and CaCO3deposition suggest that the lake had lost much of its volume by c. 10,000 cal yr BP. Pronounced Holocene oscillations in lake level included a second phase of low lake level and heightened volatility lasting from c. 8300 to 5000 cal yr BP. While a polymictic lake formed at c. 5000 cal yr BP. These relatively wet conditions were interrupted by a series of drier events, the most pronounced of which occurred at c. 750 cal yr BP. Paleolimnological changes in the Holocene were more rapid than those of either the last glacial maximum or the deglacial period.
Multiple cosmogenic nuclides document complex Pleistocene exposure history of glacial drifts in Terra Nova Bay (northern Victoria Land, Antarctica)
Authors: Di Nicola Luigia , Strasky Stefan , Schlüchter Christian , Salvatore Maria Cristina , Akçar Naki , Kubik Peter W. , Christl Marcus , Kasper Haino Uwe , Wieler Rainer , Baroni Carlo
Published: October 2008

Geomorphological and glacial geological surveys and multiple cosmogenic nuclide analyses (10Be, 26Al, and 21Ne) allowed us to reconstruct the chronology of variations prior to the last glacial maximum of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) and valley glaciers in the Terra Nova Bay region. Glacially scoured coastal piedmonts with round-topped mountains occur below the highest local erosional trimline. They represent relict landscape features eroded by extensive ice overriding the whole coastal area before at least 6 Ma (pre-dating the build-up of the Mt. Melbourne volcanic field). Since then, summit surfaces were continuously exposed and well preserved under polar condition with negligible erosion rates on the order of 17 cm/Ma. Complex older drifts rest on deglaciated areas above the younger late-Pleistocene glacial drift and below the previously overridden summits. The combination of stable and radionuclide isotopes documents complex exposure histories with substantial periods of burial combined with minimal erosion. The areas below rounded summits were repeatedly exposed and buried by ice from local and outlet glaciers. The exposure ages of the older drift(s) indicate multiple Pleistocene glacial cycles, which did not significantly modify the pre-existing landscape.
Construing Consumer Decision Making
Authors: Lynch John G. , Zauberman Gal
Published: October 2008

Understanding how consumers represent outcomes and weigh different decision criteria is critical to consumer behavior research. Construal‐level theory articulates how psychological distance alters the mental representation of inputs and the effective weight given to “high‐level” and “low‐level” criteria. Trope, Liberman, and Wakslak (2007) provide a review of this literature. In this commentary, we illustrate the relevance of construal‐level theory to issues in consumer psychology, particularly consumer decision making. We highlight specific questions that researchers could address by considering consumer behavior within the framework of changes in construal. We focus our discussion on how construal levels affect consideration sets and how shifts in weight from high‐level to low‐level features might lead to consumer regret and dissatisfaction. Construal level can help us understand follow‐through on stated intentions for “really new” products and illuminate public‐policy issues such as consumer saving for retirement and nonredemption of rebates. We identify open issues related to how construal levels for the same object evolve over time and whether resources differ in terms of how susceptible they are to psychological distance effects.
Changing False Beliefs from Repeated Advertising: The Role of Claim‐Refutation Alignment
Authors: Venkataramani Johar Gita , Roggeveen Anne L.
Published: October 2008

This research addresses refutation of false beliefs formed on the basis of repeated exposure to advertisements. Experiment 1 explores belief in the refutation as a function of the perceptual details shared (alignment) between the claim and the refutation as manipulated by whether the original claim was direct (assertion) or indirect (implication). Experiment 2 then examines whether this effect will carry through to belief in the original claim after exposure to the refutation. Findings indicate that direct refutations of indirect claims are believed more than refutations of direct claims. However, direct refutations of direct claims are more effective in reducing belief in the original claim. We argue that recollection of the original claim facilitates automatic updating of belief in that claim. Experiment 3 demonstrates that an alternative cue (a logo) in a refutation that facilitates recall of the original claim enables reduction of belief in the original indirect claim; this finding helps to pin down the mechanism—recall of the original claim—underlying belief updating. Further, Experiment 3 finds that multiple cues to recalling the original claim may prevent the automatic updating process. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
Approach‐Avoidance Motivation and the Use of Affect as Information
Authors: Kramer Thomas , Yoon Song‐Oh
Published: October 2008

Individuals often rely on their affect for information. However, positive or negative affect may not be informative for individuals who are more prone to feel affect of this particular valence in general, unless they chronically monitor their internal states. A series of studies demonstrates that differences in individuals’ internal versus external focus of attention and in trait affective valence associated with their approach versus avoidance motivation determine reliance on affect as information. Specifically, our findings show that while positive affect is used as an input in product satisfaction judgments regardless of individuals’ approach versus avoidance motivation, negative affect is used only by individuals with a predominant approach motivation.
A Meditation on Mediation: Evidence That Structural Equations Models Perform Better Than Regressions
Authors: Iacobucci Dawn , Saldanha Neela , Deng Xiaoyan
Published: October 2008

In this paper, we suggest ways to improve mediation analysis practice among consumer behavior researchers. We review the current methodology and demonstrate the superiority of structural equations modeling, both for assessing the classic mediation questions and for enabling researchers to extend beyond these basic inquiries. A series of simulations are presented to support the claim that the approach is superior. In addition to statistical demonstrations, logical arguments are presented, particularly regarding the introduction of a fourth construct into the mediation system. We close the paper with new prescriptive instructions for mediation analyses.
Emotions, Decisions, and the Brain
Authors: Shiv Baba
Published: October 2008

This article presents a commentary on the Appraisal‐Tendency Framework (ATF) developed by Lerner and her colleagues. The article explores ways by which the ATF can be extended including (a) incorporating elements from other frameworks, (b) incorporating the role of arousal, (c) exploring individual‐difference factors, and (d) examining the neural correlates of some of the key elements of the ATF. The article concludes with a discussion of the promise that decision neuroscience offers to further enrich an already exciting and thriving area of research in emotion and decision making.
Emotion Appraisal Tendencies and Carryover: How, Why, and … Therefore?
Authors: Yates Frank J.
Published: October 2008

The effects and ideas described by Han, Lerner, and Keltner (2007) are fascinating and important. Rightly so, they are likely to capture researchers’ and practitioners’ attention for some time. This commentary offers several questions (and speculations as to possible answers) that hopefully will be the focus of some of that attention. One theoretical question concerns the mechanisms whereby emotional carryover effects occur and the purposes that such effects might serve. A practical one is about the prescriptive implications of carryover effects and appraisal tendency influences more generally, particularly in concrete, real‐life decision situations.
Feelings and Consumer Decision Making: Extending the Appraisal‐Tendency Framework
Authors: Lerner Jennifer S. , Han Seunghee , Keltner Dacher
Published: October 2008

The target article (Han, Lerner, & Keltner, 2007) presents the Appraisal‐Tendency Framework as a basis for predicting the influence of specific emotions on consumer decision making. The 3 thought‐provoking commentaries by Shiv (2007); Yates (2007); and Cavanaugh, Bettman, Luce, and Payne (2007) highlighted the need to (a) distinguish different types of emotional inputs; (b) specify constructs and mechanisms more concretely; and (c) extend the framework in new, creative ways. This response integrates the specific comments into overarching themes and addresses them.
What is aLeather Ironor aBird Phone?Using Conceptual Combinations to Generate and Understand New Product Concepts
Authors: Gill Tripat , Dube Laurette
Published: October 2008

This article introduces the framework of conceptual combinations, which underlies the creative ability to combine existing concepts to create new ones. Using this framework, two creative processes are identified, namely, (a) property mapping (PM), which entails combining concepts by transferring a property from one concept to another (e.g., shape in the case ofnotebook computers);and (b) relation linking (RL), which entails linking the two combining concepts by a thematic relation (e.g., the “locative” relation indesktop computers).The effect of these processes on the comprehension of new product concepts is investigated in two experimental studies. In Study 1 it is shown that novel products created by RL are easier to interpret than the ones created by PM. In Study 2 it is found that new products combining concepts from different super‐ordinate categories are more likely interpreted by RL, and are easier to comprehend than the ones from the same super‐ordinate category, which use PM. The theoretical and managerial implications of using conceptual combinations in the context of new product ideation are discussed.
Mapping the Hierarchical Structure of Coping: Unifying Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives
Authors: Duhachek Adam , Oakley James L.
Published: October 2008

Consumer researchers have become increasingly interested in the study of coping. This research contributes to this emerging paradigm by investigating structural theories of coping using a hierarchical modeling approach to better understand the basic dimensional properties of this multifaceted construct. This research makes gains along several fronts. First, the authors empirically examine a new lower order theory of coping based on a comprehensive synthesis of the literature, reconciling nomenclatural and conceptual redundancies found in the structure of coping literature. Analyses across 2 studies using different methods offer support for a 2‐dimensional higher order model of coping. Finally, a third study using an experimental approach validates these findings by showing unique effects relating an approach‐avoidance based higher order model to theoretically predicted emotional antecedents. By examining the mapping of lower order coping strategies onto several higher order coping theories, this research addresses the extant disjuncture between coping theory and measurement found in the literature and offers reconciliation between these 2 perspectives. The findings suggest the need for future coping research to focus on other 2‐dimensional theories beyond problem‐focused versus emotion‐focused coping. The findings build on the synergies among the many coping perspectives, and the implications of a better understanding of coping's hierarchical structure for consumer researchers is discussed.
When Consumers’ Self‐Image Motives Fail
Authors: Kruger Justin , Galak Jeff , Burrus Jeremy
Published: October 2008

Self‐image motives and “sacrosanct beliefs” are powerful motivators of consumer judgment and decision making. The sacrosanct belief that one is rational, for instance, can cause consumers to justify seemingly unwise economic decisions. This article outlines some of the occasions when self‐image motives appear to fail. For instance, although consumers occasionally pat themselves on the back for making questionable purchase decisions, at other times they find fault in perfectly reasonable ones. These and other recent findings provide an exception to the more general rule outlined by Dunning (2007).
The I That Buys: Narcissists as Consumers
Authors: Sedikides Constantine , Gregg Aiden P. , Cisek Sylwia , Hart Claire M.
Published: October 2008

Which people are most swayed by self‐image motives and hence most likely to make consumer choices in line with those motives? This article contends that the answer is narcissists—individuals who see themselves, and who want others to see them, as special, superior, and entitled and who are prone to exhibitionism and vanity. This work hypothesizes that narcissists will, to validate their excessively positive self‐views, strive to purchase the high‐prestige products (i.e., expensive, exclusive, new, and flashy). In so doing, they will regulate their own esteem by increasing their apparent status and consequently earning others’ admiration and envy. This article also hypothesizes that narcissists will show greater interest in the symbolic than utilitarian value of products and will exhibit, even controlling for self‐esteem, more pronounced self‐enhancement phenomena such as endowment and self‐signaling effects.
Self‐Image Motives: Further Thoughts and Reflections
Authors: Dunning David
Published: October 2008

The commentaries provided by Kruger, Galek, and Burrus and Sedikides, Gregg, Cisek, and Hart spark some speculations concerning future questions to study. The belief harmonization approach may provide an explanation, for example, for why people tend to be more dissatisfied with complex rather than simple decisions. In addition, if individual differences in self‐esteem and related constructs matter, then the impact of self‐image motives on consumer behavior, from a historical perspective, may be increasing.
Understanding Voter Vengeance
Authors: Bechwati Nada Nasr , Morrin Maureen
Published: October 2008

This article proposes that, in electoral contexts, decision makers may experience a desire for vengeance or a desire to “get even” with an entity, such as a political candidate, in response to a perceived wrongdoing. This article draws on research from the domains of psychology and sociology to develop a theoretical framework for examining factors that may influence the extent to which voters exact revenge on political candidates with their voting behavior. The results of 3 experiments are reported in which voters are shown to exact revenge on a candidate who has won an earlier round of elections by defeating a favored candidate. This process is mediated by damage to self‐identity and is strengthened by perceived share of blame attributed to the perpetrator candidate. This research shows how vengeful voters are delighted when a perpetrator candidate later performs poorly while in office. This research also shows how making salient a shared affiliation with the perpetrator candidate (such as race or university major) can attenuate vengeful voting behavior. The research builds on a growing body of work that explores negative and potentially counterproductive emotions in choice contexts.
Biases in Predicting Preferences for the Whole Visual Patterns from Product Fragments
Authors: Zhao Shenghui , Meyer Robert J.
Published: October 2008

This research examines the ability of consumers to predict the appeal of complete visual patterns from small sample fragments. In a task designed to mimic the dilemma of choosing wallpaper from small swatches, study participants are shown fragments taken from a large pattern design and are asked to predict how attractive they would find the complete image. Drawing on prior research on affective forecasting, predictions are hypothesized to be driven by an anchoring‐and‐adjustment process that skews forecasts toward the attractiveness of fragments when judged in isolation. Results from 3 laboratory studies support this basic hypothesis: Respondents consistently overestimate the degree to which their initial reactions to fragments predict their subsequent evaluations of wholes. The size of this projection bias is, in turn, conditioned by such moderators as prior familiarity with product fragment, cognitive load, and visualization abilities—effects that are consistent with an anchoring‐and‐adjustment explanation for the data.
The interaction of endorser attractiveness and involvement in persuasion depends on the goal that guides message processing
Authors: Shavitt Sharon , Swan Suzanne , Lowrey Tina M. , Wänke Michaela
Published: October 2008

Previous research on the persuasive effects of ad cues, such as endorser attractiveness, has shown that these cues often serve as shortcuts to product evaluation when recipients are not motivated to process product information. In this article, the role of message cues was hypothesized to depend as much on the types of motives that guide message processing as on the degree of motivation. In an experiment, different goal‐relevant attributes were made salient prior to viewing a target ad for a restaurant. The attractiveness of endorsers in the ad and the level of motivation to process the ad (involvement) were also manipulated. When the salient attributes were relevant to sensory gratification (e.g., taste and aroma), endorser attractiveness influenced evaluations of the restaurant under low but not high involvement. When the salient attributes were relevant to public image goals (e.g., creating a good social impression), endorser attractiveness influenced evaluations under high but not low involvement. Analysis of subjects' listed thoughts suggested that, when sensory attributes were salient, the persuasive impact of endorser attractiveness occured via a relatively peripheral route. However, when image attributes were salient, the effect of endorser attractiveness occurred through a more central route, providing information that was processed elaborately when motivation to process was high.
Attitudinal effects of character‐based versus competence‐based negative political communications
Authors: Homer Pamela M. , Batra Rajeev
Published: October 2008

Many political communications are negative in nature, but not much is known of the situations in which such communications are more damaging to the targeted political candidate. We hypothesized and experimentally demonstrated that (a) negative political communications are more successful in damaging overall voter attitudes toward the targeted candidate than positive communications are in raising such attitudes, (b) such negative communications are more effective in changing those beliefs about the targeted candidate that concern character (likability and trustworthiness) than in modifying competence (expertise‐related) beliefs, and (c) these attitude‐changing effects are greater when voters form their overall attitudes toward the targeted candidate more on the basis of character beliefs than competence ones. Implications of these results are discussed for public policy and for attitude theory.
The role of country of origin in product evaluations: Informational and standard‐of‐comparison effects
Authors: Li Wai‐Kwan , Wyer Robert S.
Published: October 2008

There are at least four different ways in which the country of origin of a product could affect its evaluations: (a) as a product attribute whose implications combine with other attributes to influence evaluations, (b) as a signal to infer more specific product characteristics, (c) as a heuristic (to simplify the evaluation task), and (d) as a standard relative to which the product is compared. The manner in which country of origin is used in evaluations was expected to depend on subjects' familiarity with the product being judged, the amount of attribute information available, the importance of the evaluation, and the order in which country‐of‐origin and intrinsic attribute information was received. In fact, country of origin appeared to function in three of the four ways considered, but there was little evidence that it served as a heuristic in any condition. Results confirm the need to consider the use of country‐of‐origin information in several different capacities simultaneously rather than assuming that its effects result from a single underlying process.
Mood, Awareness, and Product Evaluation
Authors: Gorn Gerald J. , Goldberg Marvin E. , Basu Kunal
Published: October 2008

This study investigated the effects of mood on product evaluation. Subjects were asked to evaluate the stereo speakers on which they heard music that induced either a good or a bad mood. Subjects' awareness of the music as the source of their mood was manipulated to be high or low. The results of this 2 x 2 design suggested that under low source awareness, mood biased the evaluation of the speakers, in that subjects evaluated the speakers more favorably when in a good mood than in a bad mood. By contrast, under high source awareness there was no difference in speaker evaluations between those in a good or bad mood. A consideration of those in a good or bad mood suggested that it was only the former who were able to correct for the bias in their evaluations when made more aware of the source of their mood. These results suggested that even when motivated to attend to an outside stimulus and to evaluate it objectively, those in a bad mood may have a limited ability to do so.
Gender differences in the impact of core and relational aspects of services on the evaluation of service encounters
Authors: Iacobucci Dawn , Ostrom Amy
Published: October 2008

Research in services marketing suggests that services consist of two components: (a) the core service (e.g., the dinner served at a nice restaurant) and (b) the relationship between the service provider and the client (e.g., the friendliness of the waiter). These dimensions are logical analogues to those in the social psychological literature describing leaders effective at task‐oriented behaviors (i.e., those focused on getting the job done) and social‐oriented behaviors (i.e., those leaders focused on maintaining group cohesion). A third literature, on gender differences, consistently describes men as agentic (i.e., goal oriented) and women as communal (socially oriented).

A synthesis of the ideas from these literatures suggests hypotheses regarding which factors should be most influential to male and female consumers in determining customer satisfaction with service encounters. The results from three experiments provide support for the hypothesis that women may be generally more sensitive to relational aspects of a service encounter and men to core aspects, though there appear to be several factors moderating these findings which are not easily explained in a simple, unified theory.
The effect of irrelevant preference arguments on consumer choice
Authors: Simonson Itamar , Nowlis Stephen M. , Simonson Yael
Published: October 2008

Consumers are often exposed to the arguments used by other consumers for supporting or rejecting particular alternatives, through word‐of‐mouth, testimonial ads, or other means. We propose that a reason for preferring a particular alternative that is irrelevant to the consumer receiving the communication tends to decrease the alternative's choice probability. Similarly, an irrelevant reason used to reject an alternative can enhance its choice probability. These propositions were supported in two studies in which respondents were told that, due to budget constraints, each questionnaire was designed for use by two respondents. In all cases, we systematically manipulated the choices and reasons provided by “Respondent I,” and the (real) subjects became the second respondent. As predicted, subjects were less likely to choose the alternatives selected by “Respondent 1” if the choices were supported by idiosyncratic (and irrelevant to most subjects) reasons (e.g., “I chose Breyer's ice cream because it is kosher”) and more likely to choose alternatives that were rejected for irrelevant reasons (e.g., “Quality Inn does not have a sauna”). Alternative explanations for the effects of irrelevant preference arguments are explored. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of the findings.
Gender casting in television toy advertisements: Distributions, message content analysis, and evaluations
Authors: Rajecki D.W. , Dame Jill Ann , Creek Kelly Jo , Barrickman P.J. , Reid Catherine A. , Appleby Drew C.
Published: October 2008

This article offers new information about real‐life frequency distributions, voiced‐message characteristics, and adults' suitability evaluations of children's TV ads that promote gender‐linked toys. A survey of 856 recent commercials showed that toy ads were sharply compartmentalized regarding live gender representation and roles. The designs of two subsequent studies were defined in terms of all‐boy, boy‐and‐girl, and, all‐girl casts. In the first, voiced messages in toy ads were examined with the Minnesota Contextual Content Analysis text‐reading computer program. Results were that all‐boy ads were characterized by a practical subtext, boy‐and‐girl ads were seen to have a traditional or normative thrust, and all‐girl ads were emotional in tone. In the second study, adults evaluated selected toys in ads on behalf of boy and girl targets. All‐boy ad products were seen as suitable only for boy targets, all‐girl ad products were seen as suitable only for girl targets, but boy‐and‐girl ad products were judged generally suitable for both targets. The three sets of data led to the conclusion that toys in ads continue to be linked with gender stereotypes and to the suggestion that this trend might be on the increase.
Consumers' categorization processes: An examination with two alternative methodological paradigms
Authors: Basu Kunal
Published: October 2008

Discriminating between analytic and nonanalytic categorization mechanisms can be of value in designing marketing stimuli that facilitate consumers' acceptance of a product/brand. Two methodological paradigms were employed, the first involving the outcome of categorization judgments made by consumers for unfamiliar products/brands. The second, based on the retrieval of exemplars acquired during category learning and verification of their match with the target, was subjected to its first empirical examination. Both the category judgment and verification paradigms were found to be promising in terms of model identification. Potential complimentarities between the two, as well as operational refinements are suggested.
An approach to investigating the emotional determinants of consumption durations: Why do people consume what they consume for as long as they consume it?
Authors: Holbrook Morris B. , Gardner Meryl P.
Published: October 2008

Previous work in consumer research has left questions concerning the duration of consumption largely unexplored and, in particular, has neglected the possible role of emotions in determining the length of time that consumers devote to consumption experiences. This study proposes an approach to investigating these questions and illustrates its application to the context of examining the connection between emotional responses and listening receptivity to music. Specifically, Russell, Weiss, and Mendelsohn's (1989) Affect Grid was used to select a set of musical stimuli judged as varying widely in pleasure and arousal. In an individually administered listening task, 58 subjects listened to these musical selections in different random orders for as long as they wanted before rating their feelings on the Affect Grid. Listening time was measured unobtrusively when rewinding the tapes between sessions with subjects. As hypothesized, the results show that log (tempo) strongly affects arousal, that listening time follows a nonmonotonic relation which peaks at intermediate levels of arousal, and that these peaks shift from left to right as pleasure increases.
Multitrait–multimethod matrices in consumer research: Critique and new developments
Authors: Bagozzi Richard P. , Yi Youjae
Published: October 2008

In this article we address problems with recently proposed methods for examining construct validity and we introduce alternatives. With respect to the firstorder confirmatory factor analysis model, shortcomings in the application of the method to multitrait‐multimethod data are considered. The correlated uniqueness model is then presented as an alternative when ill‐defined solutions arise in first‐order confirmatory factor analyses or when method and trait variance are confounded. Procedures are then developed for investigating important hypotheses in the application of the direct product model. These procedures were not considered in previous treatments. Finally, panel models are shown to be adaptable to certain investigations of construct validity.
Giving voice to the gift: The use of projective techniques to recover lost meanings
Authors: McGrath Mary Ann , Sherry John F. , Levy Sidney J.
Published: October 2008

The field of consumer–object relations has recently emerged as a significant area of inquiry. Renewed attention has been devoted to understanding the meanings of gift giving as a result of this emergence. In this study, we employ projective techniques to uncover meanings that are less accessible by more direct measures. We analyze these meanings, and demonstrate the utility of projective techniques as a complement to other methods of investigation.
Differences in the relative influence of product attributes under alternative processing conditions: Attribute importance versus attribute ease of imagability
Authors: Keller Punam Anand , McGill Ann L.
Published: October 2008

We present two experiments that test whether ease of imagability can shift the influence of a product attribute without affecting its assessed importance in the decision. Results of the experiments indicate that more easily imagined attributes may have a disproportionate influence when subjects use imagery in the evaluation, but not when they engage in more analytical processing. Experiments 1 and 2 differ in the manner in which method of evaluation (imagery based vs. nonimagery based) was manipulated. In Experiment 1, use of imagery was manipulated through explicit instructions to either engage in or refrain from using imagery, whereas use of imagery was manipulated in Experiment 2 by varying the overall value of the alternatives. Results of Experiment 2 indicate that subjects who were asked to evaluate alternatives that were described in generally positive terms used imagery in the evaluation, placing greater emphasis on the easily imagined attributes, whereas subjects who were asked to evaluate alternatives that were described in generally negative terms or mixed positive and negative terms did not use imagery, basing their evaluations on attribute importance. Our findings support the hypothesis that consumers may at times evaluate alternatives by using an imagery heuristic, which involves imagining the actual experience with an alternative and assessing the desirability of the alternative according to the affective response to this imagined experience.
Program involvement and ad/program consistency as moderators of program context effects
Authors: Feltham Tammi S. , Arnold Stephen J.
Published: October 2008

Program involvement and ad/program consistency are two variables that are invoked to explain the effects of advertising context. This study examines the main effects and the interactive effects of these factors. Using a mean structures, multiple‐group, multivariate analysis of covariance, we find that increased program involvement has a positive main effect on ad attitudes, brand attitudes, and purchase intent. Consistency between the program and the ad has similar effects on these measures. An interaction effect suggests that program involvement has an effect only when the ad is inconsistent with the program context. Among other findings, an inconsistent ad is more easily remembered.
A Conceptualization of Motives to Seek Privacy for Nondeviant Consumption
Authors: Goodwin Cathy
Published: October 2008

Consumer research has emphasized self‐presentational aspects of consumption. People display possessions to communicate information about themselves and are expected to conceal possessions and activities which are generally regarded as deviant. This article focuses on concealment of purchase, use, possession, and consumption of nondeviant products, experiences, and services. Qualitative data suggest that consumers seek privacy to enhance the quality of the consumption experience, to avoid interference from disapproving reference groups, and to resolve cognitive discomfort associated with self‐discrepancy. Several important directions for further research emerge.
The Nature and Role of Salesperson Perceptions: The Interactive Effects of Salesperson/Customer Personalities
Authors: Fine Leslie M. , Schumann David W.
Published: October 2008

Selling is a social situation in which two people come together for a specific purpose and, in doing so, influence each other. Although customers' perceptions and outcomes have often been explored in the context of personal selling, salespersons' perceptions and outcomes have received far less attention. Each customer brings to the interaction a unique combination of personal characteristics and needs, and the influence of the customer's characteristics on the salesperson should be examined. We report on a laboratory experiment designed to assess the impact of the interactive effect of the salesperson's and the customer's level of self‐monitoring on salespersons' perceptions. Results show that there is an interactive effect of the salesperson's personality and the customer's personality on the salesperson's perceptions. More positive outcomes were evident when the self‐monitoring levels of the dyad partners were different. A high self‐monitoring salesperson experiences greater benefits and judges the interaction more positively when the customer is a low self‐monitor. Low self‐monitoring salespeople judge the interaction more positively when the customer is a high self‐monitor. We conclude that the attitude and behavior consistency of a low self‐monitor provides clear direction to the high self‐monitoring partner, who seeks cues from the partner to guide behavior.
Autobiographical Memories, Affect, and Consumer Information Processing
Authors: Baumgartner Hans , Sujan Mita , Bettman James R.
Published: October 2008

The results of three experiments suggest that consumers' autobiographical memories involving products and product usage experiences are affectively charged. Furthermore, the three experiments demonstrate that the retrieval of autobiographical memories impacts information processing. When autobiographical memories are evoked, there is reduced analysis of product information. There is also clear evidence that cuing autobiographical memories influences ad evaluations. Support for the notion that the affect generated by cuing autobiographical memories influences brand evaluations is weaker. Also, the results demonstrate that autobiographical memories are naturally and spontaneously evoked in response to some types of ads and generate feelings of empathy for the characters and situations in the ad. Thus, together the experiments suggest an avenue for impacting consumer judgments that has not been investigated previously.
Self‐Referent Processing in Perceptions of Verbal and Visual Commercial Information
Authors: Debevec Kathleen , Romeo Jean B.
Published: October 2008

We examined how visual information in an ad may interact with and influence processing of verbal information and facilitate or inhibit self‐referent judgments. Self‐referencing is viewed as a mediator between individuals' perceptions of verbal and visual stimuli in advertising and their subsequent attitudes and intentions. A 3 × 2 experimental design was used to examine the effects of three verbal copy strategies (self copy, product benefit copy, and typical user copy) and two visual image strategies (product featured or typical users featured). To enhance realism, the study was conducted in the context of testing a new experimental magazine. The verbal focus of an ad was shown to encourage varying levels of self‐referencing and differential attitudes and intentions when a product visual was featured, but not when a slice‐of‐life setting was featured. Self copy (copy written in the second person vernacular) accompanied by the product visual was the most effective strategy in encouraging self‐referencing and favorable attitudes and intentions.
The Nature of Attitude Accessibility and Attitude Confidence: A Triangulated Experiment
Authors: Berger Ida E.
Published: October 2008

In this article, I introduce and test the notion that attitude accessibility and attitude confidence are distinct psychological constructs, exerting independent influences on attitude‐behavior consistency. I argue that in deliberative decisionmaking situations, attitude confidence is a more influential moderator of attitude‐behavior consistency than attitude accessibility. Support for these propositions is provided by the results of an experiment that empirically triangulates the constructs and examines their influence on the attitude‐behavior relationship. Specific implications of the approach and the results for advertising strategy are discussed.
Spontaneous Inference Processes in Advertising: Effects of Need for Cognition and Self‐Monitoring on Inference Generation and Utilization
Authors: Stayman Douglas M. , Kardes Frank R.
Published: October 2008

Two studies were conducted to investigate the role of individual differences in inference and persuasion. In Study 1, elaborative processing was operationalized by using need for cognition as a blocking variable, whereas in Study 2, elaborative processing was manipulated by using an involvement‐enhancing ad execution. In both studies, message recipients were more likely to draw inferences about omitted conclusions when elaborative processing was likely (vs. unlikely). Furthermore, both studies revealed that inferences about omitted conclusions had a greater impact on the attitudinal judgments of low (vs. high) self‐monitors, provided that the relevant inferences had been formed prior to attitude formation. Theoretical and applied implications of these findings are discussed.