bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Scientific Realism and the Romantic Reaction Against Reason
Authors: Goldman Steven L.
Published: December 2021

A so-called Romantic counterpoint to the proclamation of the hegemony of reason by Enlightenment thinkers blossomed in the nineteenth century in the form of philosophies that explicitly challenged the rationalist domination of Western philosophy and the truth claims of modern science. Thinkers such as Kierkegaard, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, and Bergson formulated philosophies in which reason played only a limited role either in understanding human affairs or in apprehending reality. For Kierkegaard, reality transcended reason, while for Schopenhauer, human will was the ultimate reality. For Nietzsche, will was the dominant feature of humanity, which guaranteed that reason could not achieve a synoptic understanding of experience, let alone apprehend reality: reasoning could at best achieve partial perspectives on human experience. Bergson offered the most developed alternative to reason, especially modern science-based reasoning, to penetrate experience to reality.
Taking Sides
Authors: Goldman Steven L.
Published: December 2021

From the 1970s on, the treatment of modern science as simultaneously an induction-based account of experience and a deduction-based account of reality became an increasingly contentious issue in the academic world. A great deal was at stake in how one answered the question of whether scientific knowledge was objective and validated by its correspondence with reality. Respect and privileged social status were accorded to science, not to mention public support for research. At the same time, however, scientists faced the more fundamental question of whether there existed a neutral arbiter of questions relating to truth, or at least truths about the world. Philosophers and social scientists lined up on both sides of this issue, either attacking scientific knowledge as a socially constructed belief system or defending it as objective and correlated with reality.
Egypt, Old to New Kingdom (2686–1069 BCE)
Authors: García Juan Carlos Moreno
Published: December 2021

Imperial expansion was rather exceptional in pharaonic Egypt, mostly limited to the second half of the second millennium BCE. The reasons behind the conquest of the southern Levant and northern Sudan are related to several factors: the emergence of nearby states whose interests might collide with those of Egypt; the development of a dense network of international exchanges encompassing the Eastern Mediterranean and the Near East, in which Egypt was ideally located to control much of the supply of African gold, ivory, and precious items; and control over the circuits through which these goods circulated, both at their origin and at their arrival points. However, imperial expansion was hardly an Egyptian unilateral affair, as it should cope with the interests of the elites of the conquered areas as well as with those of emerging actors in Egyptian society (army, traders) in order to ensure a durable domination.
Śrīvijaya
Authors: Miksic John N.
Published: December 2021

The name Śrīvijaya, found in inscriptions in Sumatra and references in Chinese, Indian, and Arabic sources, was first recognized as that of a kingdom in 1918. From a capital in south Sumatra, Śrīvijaya exercised influence over a string of ports from south Thailand to west Borneo and possibly Java from the late seventh to eleventh century. In 1025 the capital Palembang was overthrown by an invasion from the Chola kingdom of southern India, but Palembang remained an influential port-polity until it was incorporated into the Netherlands East Indies in the nineteenth century. This empire flourished due to its position on the maritime trade route between East, Southeast, South, and West Asia as well as East Africa. As an empire based on control of trade routes rather than land, it occupies an unusual position in the study of empires.
Caliphs, Popes, Emperors, Kings, and Sultans
Authors: Tullberg Jacob
Published: December 2021

After the fall of the Carolingian and the Abbasid empires, the Catholic and the Islamic worlds developed into cultural commonwealths rather than political empires. And yet, concepts of universal empire remained a constituting aspect of both. In the post-Carolingian world, both the secular emperor and the pope employed imperial strategies toward regional rulers. This was also the case in the Islamic world, where the Caliphate for centuries remained indispensable for the legitimacy of regional sultanates. It is argued that the higher degree of stability enjoyed by the Christian regional monarchies in the later part of the Middle Ages can be ascribed to differences between regional royal law in Catholic monarchies and universal Shar‘ia law in the Islamic world.
The Aztec Empire
Authors: Smith Michael E. , Sergheraert Maëlle
Published: December 2021

The Aztec Empire (1428–1521 CE) grew out of a system of small city-states that covered central Mexico starting in the twelfth century CE. Armies from the capital, Tenochtitlan, conquered over 500 polities throughout what is today central and southern Mexico. The empire employed indirect control of its provinces, with inner provinces paying regular taxes and outer provinces acting as client states to guard imperial borders. Few or no services were provided by the empire in provincial areas. The imperial capital, Tenochtitlan, was a large, wealthy, and complex urban center of 200,000 inhabitants. The Aztec Empire came to an end with conquest by Hernando Cortés in 1521.
The Inca Empire
Authors: Covey R. Alan
Published: December 2021

This chapter reviews the power and developmental trajectory of the Inca Empire, which dominated Andean South America from ca. 1400 until the 1530s. Opening with an overview of Spanish colonial chronicles, Andean environmental diversity, and the archaeological evidence for pre-Inca states, the discussion uses Michael Mann’s “IEMP” formulation of social power to describe Inca power in the Andean world. Inca military power evolved from the earliest imperial campaigns to the frontier wars that were underway at the time of the European invasions. Inca economic and political power demonstrates the articulation of provincial strategies that were implemented to varying degrees on diverse Andean landscapes. Inca ideological power—meaning, norms, aesthetics, and ritual practices—promoted specific beliefs and rituals, while accommodating a wide range of local practices. These variations in provincial rule reflect Andean diversity, as well as the ways that Inca imperial strategies evolved over several generations of expansion and consolidation.
The Mughal Empire
Authors: Kinra Rajeev
Published: December 2021

From its establishment in 1526 by Zahir al-Din Muhammad Babur, the Mughal Empire would grow over roughly the next two centuries into one of the largest, most populous, and most influential states of the early modern era. This chapter provides a historical overview of the Mughal Empire from the early conquests of Babur to the early phase of British colonial expansion in India in the eighteenth century. The chapter outlines the ideological underpinnings of the empire, drawing upon Turko-Mongol, Persianate, Greco-Hellenic, Islamicate, and Indic ideas of rulership, as well as the practicalities of building an effective administrative system accommodating the diverse religious, tribal, and ethnic communities and social classes of the Indian subcontinent. Finally, the chapter analyzes the empire’s economic tools for managing a vast agrarian economy, and some of the artistic developments reconciling Indian and Persian traditions with the mosaic of religious and intellectual ideas flourishing at the Mughal court.
America’s Global Imperium
Authors: Preston Andrew
Published: December 2021

After 1945, and especially after 1989, the United States wielded overwhelming power on a previously unimaginable global dimension. The scale and reach of America’s unprecedented power transcends the normal confines of the nation-state. US officials, often in conjunction with private corporations and non-governmental organizations, manage a vast international network of political alliances, legal obligations, diplomatic treaties, economic relationships, and military commitments, all for the purpose of maintaining a world system established by presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman during the 1940s. It is this dominant position that has led observers to describe the United States in imperial terms. This view of the modern United States as an imperialist power is based on the theory that empire does not have to be based on the control of territory. In this sense, if the twentieth-century United States was an imperial power, it was an extra-territorial one. However, this theory of empire is not universally shared, and so this chapter also assesses the competing historiographical and theoretical claims as to whether the modern United States has been an empire; and, if it is, what kind. The most common type of imperialism associated with the modern United States is liberal empire.
How Real Democracy Really Works
Authors: Brennan Jason
Published: December 2021

Most people’s models of democracy do not match how democracies in fact perform or could be made to perform under realistic circumstances. They think citizens form their political affiliations on the basis of their beliefs and values. When citizens vote, they support politicians who will advance their favored ideas. In the end, democracies deliver, if not the will of the people, at least a compromise position among their separate wills. In contrast, Brennan will argue, the empirical work shows that most citizens lack any stable ideology or political beliefs, and their political affiliations are largely arbitrary. Their votes do not communicate their genuine support for different policies or values. Citizens are ignorant, misinformed, and tribalistic despite lacking firm beliefs. As a result, the more power we give them, the more we suffer the consequences. Whatever we say about democracy, we need to be realistic about how people behave.
Democracy: Maybe Less Is More
Authors: Brennan Jason
Published: December 2021

In any functional democratic system, some decisions are left to experts (who may be overseen indirectly by the people), while others are directly in the hands of the people. How to allocate these decision rights is a persistent problem in democratic theory. This chapter argues that competence is a crucial criterion in deciding the question of who decides. Further, part of the solution to the persistent pathologies of democracy is to reduce the sphere of politics and also the sphere of political control. Certain issues, such as trade policy, immigration policy, central banking interest rates, who serves as district attorney or judge, and various kinds of regulation, should be kept out of democracy’s hands—for everybody’s own good.
Let’s Try Real Democracy
Authors: Brennan Jason
Published: December 2021

This chapter lays out a general theoretical case for democracy, specifically the kind of democracy that democratic theorists call “deliberative democracy,” which traces the legitimacy of laws and policies to the reasoned exchange of arguments among free and equal citizens. The chapter shows the benefits of distributing political decision-power in an inclusive and egalitarian manner, especially in the deliberative phase of the legislative process. The core idea is that many minds deliberating together are better than few when it comes to dealing with the uncertainty and complexity of the world and figuring out solutions that work for all within it.
Objections
Authors: Brennan Jason
Published: December 2021

This chapter addresses theoretical and empirical objections that critics have presented against the epistemic argument for democracy presented in the previous chapter (the argument from collective wisdom). The objections this chapter addresses include those based on the average voter’s alleged incompetence and systematic biases, as well as those that challenge the relevance of deductive arguments for democracy. The metrics by which political scientists and economists claim to measure voters’ incompetence are elitist and the argument “garbage in, garbage out” on which people like Brennan rely to criticize democracy fail to take into account the fact that collective intelligence is not a linear function of individual competence but an emergent property that crucially depends on group properties, including cognitive diversity, and thus not captured by Brennan’s purely individualistic framework. Inferring from individual input to collective outcomes is thus neither empirical nor demonstrative. Systematic biases would be, and often are, a problem for democracy but not more than for oligarchies of knowers. In a free and diverse public sphere the public and its democratic representatives have more opportunities to debias themselves, at least over time, than small groups of homogenously thinking elites.
“Make No Little Plans”
Authors: Forestal Jennifer
Published: December 2021

The concluding chapter turns back to wider questions of democracy, taking up some of the challenges associated with the book’s project of democratizing digital environments. In particular, it addresses the authoritarian impulses of architecture—and the corresponding lack of faith in citizens that leads us to cede the work of building to others in the first place—as well as the “proper” role of experts in any project of democratization. It responds to these challenges by reaffirming a democratic faith in citizens’ capacities and highlighting the role of the built environment in nurturing them; by redesigning our digital environments, it argues, we can create conditions for these currently under-realized capacities to flourish. The chapter concludes by outlining strategies through which experts and citizens might collaborate to rebuild digital spaces democratically.
I Felt It Was Me on Trial
Authors: Chen Yuan-tsung
Published: December 2021

Yuan-tsung reunited with two friends from her Chongqing days, Yu Dayin and her husband, Zeng Zhaolun, who took her to a meeting of the Political Consultative Conference, where she witnessed Mao’s withering attack on Liang Shumin, a Confucian scholar, who criticized Mao’s agricultural policy. This was followed by Mao’s purge of Hu Feng, a maverick literary critic, who had criticized Mao’s dictates on culture and had written a manifesto challenging them. The two incidents led Yuan-tsung to come to some painful political realizations—among them that writing under Mao’s reign was a life-and-death matter.
A Purge in Reverse
Authors: Chen Yuan-tsung
Published: December 2021

After Khrushchev’s denunciation of Stalin, Mao announced his so-called liberalizing movement, the Hundred Flowers Campaign, which was really a trap to get opponents and doubters of his magnificence to expose themselves. Before she was aware of the purpose of the campaign, Yuan-tsung took her manuscript out of the drawer in which it was hidden and looked forward to the glorious moment of its publication in what she thought would be a new, freer atmosphere. She planned to go back to Shanghai. She split with Jack. But just before publication, Mao savagely cracked down on his critics. During the Anti-Rightist Purge, she burned her own manuscript.
The Mob Rule
Authors: Chen Yuan-tsung
Published: December 2021

In 1966, the Cultural Revolution broke out. Chen Yi, the foreign minister and Zhou Enlai’s right-hand man, sent a message to Jack, through Comrade Xia on a secret errand, that he would grant Jack an exit visa if he applied for one. But soon Mao’s Red Guards ran amok. Chen Yi was pushed aside. Jack, no longer protected by his family’s reputation and his own connections, was assaulted and not allowed to leave the compound of the Foreign Languages Bureau, where he worked on the English edition of the Peking Review. Yuan-tsung, however, was mobile. She went to see the Red Guards rally at Tiananmen; each of the participants held the Little Red Book, the compilation of Mao’s quotes.
Forced into Exile and Fighting Back
Authors: Chen Yuan-tsung
Published: December 2021

The Red Guards, backed by the Maoist military representatives stationed in Jack’s office, cajoled Yuan-tsung and Jack into going to the backwater Upper Felicity Village, which was the Red Guards’ final solution to the problem of disposing of the couple. But Yuan-tsung reconnected with Jack’s American brother-in-law, Jay Leyda, who was teaching at York University in Canada. Eventually, with the secret help of a fellow victim Yuan-tsung had met by happenstance on a bus, and despite some letters intercepted by Red Guards, Jack was able to get messages from Leyda. Leyda succeeded in organizing a speech tour for Jack to Canadian and American universities, and informed Zhou Enlai of it. On the prime minister’s personal order, Jack was brought back to Beijing and granted exit visas for the family. After the tour of Chinese cities arranged by Zhou Enlai, Jack, Yuan-tsung, and their son left China in May 1971, two months before Kissinger’s secret visit to China in July.
Metaphors of Eucharistic Presence
Authors: Shaver Stephen R.
Published: December 2021

One of the most challenging questions for Christian ecumenical theology is how the relationship between the eucharistic bread and wine and Jesus Christ’s body and blood can be appropriately described. This book takes a new approach to controverted questions of eucharistic presence by drawing on cognitive linguistics. Arguing that human cognition is grounded in sensorimotor experience and that phenomena such as metaphor and conceptual blending are basic building blocks of thought, the book proposes that inherited models of eucharistic presence are not necessarily mutually exclusive but can serve as complementary members of a shared ecumenical repertoire. The central element of this repertoire is the motif of identity, grounded in the Synoptic and Pauline institution narratives. The book argues that the statement “The eucharistic bread and wine are the body and blood of Christ” can be understood both as figurative and as true in the proper sense, thus resolving a church-dividing dichotomy. The identity motif is complemented by four major non-scriptural motifs: representation, change, containment, and conduit. Each motif with its entailments is explored in depth, and suggestions for ecumenical reconciliation in both doctrine and practices are offered. The book also provides an introduction to cognitive linguistics and offers suggestions for further reading in that field.
Conceptual Blending and Two Ways of Feeding on Jesus
Authors: Shaver Stephen R.
Published: December 2021

Chapter 3 continues the introduction to cognitive linguistics begun in Chapter 2 by exploring conceptual blending, a second-generation development within the field. It presents two strands of Christian piety related to eating and drinking, one based on the eucharistic elements and the other on feeding spiritually on Jesus through scripture and prayer. The author traces these pieties to two scriptural blends of opposite metaphoric directionality, BREAD IS JESUS and JESUS IS BREAD—or, more precisely, THIS LOAF AND WINE ARE JESUS’S BODY AND BLOOD and JESUS’S FLESH AND BLOOD ARE HEAVENLY LIFE-GIVING BREAD AND DRINK. The former arises from the Synoptic and Pauline institution narratives and supports the idea of sacramental communion; the latter arises from John 6 and supports spiritual communion. Both blends are analyzed in detail. The author writes that all Christians can accept Johannine spiritual communion but that an ecumenical divide remains regarding the Synoptic/Pauline blend.
Change
Authors: Shaver Stephen R.
Published: December 2021

This is the first of three chapters exploring motifs based on spatial imagery. It argues that much Christian language about eucharistic presence is based on the primary metaphor CHANGE IS MOTION (and, to lesser extents, CHANGING IS BEING MADE and CHANGING IS BEING BORN). Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions rely heavily on change imagery, while Lutheran and Reformed traditions have been cautious about its use partly because of an insistence that the eucharistic elements remain bread and wine. The chapter argues that the change motif should form part of a multiply metaphorical ecumenical theology of eucharistic presence and that there are resources in Lutheran and Reformed traditions that can facilitate its acceptance. It also argues that high-sacramental traditions in turn should be willing to affirm that the consecrated elements are bread and wine—though not ordinary bread and wine.
Analyzing Group Data
Authors: Auerbach Charles
Published: December 2021

This chapter covers tests of statistical significance that can be used to compare data across phases. These are used to determine whether observed outcomes are likely the result of an intervention or, more likely, the result of chance. The purpose of a statistical test is to determine how likely it is that the analyst is making an incorrect decision by rejecting the null hypothesis and accepting the alternative one. A number of tests of significance are presented in this chapter: statistical process control charts (SPCs), proportion/frequency, chi-square, the conservative dual criteria (CDC), robust conservative dual criteria (RCDC), the t test, and analysis of variance (ANOVA). How and when to use each of these are also discussed. The method for transforming autocorrelated data and merging data sets is discussed. Once new data sets are created using the Append() function, they can be tested for Type I error using the techniques discussed in the chapter.
Meta-Analysis in Single-Subject Evaluation Research
Authors: Auerbach Charles
Published: December 2021

Meta-analytic techniques can be used to aggregate evaluation results across studies. In the case of single-subject research designs, we could combine findings from evaluations with 5, 10 or 20 clients to determine, on average, how effective an intervention is. This is a more complex and sophisticated way of understanding differences across studies than reporting those changes qualitatively or simply reporting the individual effect sizes for each study. In this chapter, the authors discuss why meta-analysis is important to consider in single-subject research, particularly in the context of building research evidence. They then demonstrate how to do this using SSD for R functions. Building upon effect sizes, introduced in Chapter 4, the authors illustrate the conditions under which it is appropriate to use traditional effect sizes to conduct meta-analyses, how to introduce intervening variables, and how to evaluate statistical output. Additionally, the authors discuss and illustrate the computation and interpretation of a mean Non-Overlap of All Pairs in situations which traditional effect sizes cannot be used.
Character Trouble
Authors: Doris John M.
Published: December 2021

This book collects a sampling of Doris’ essays in moral psychology, from 1998 to 2021. Methodologically, the approach is thoroughly interdisciplinary, especially focused on philosophy and psychology. Substantively, the essays focus on issues having to do with moral character and morally responsible agency, and the ways in which human psychology orders, and fails to order, ethically significant behavior. Cumulatively, the essays give a sense of some of the major debates in interdisciplinary moral psychology, starting with its emergence as a distinct field of inquiry in the 1990s.
Introduction
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

This chapter introduces the study and explains why Roman London, the ancient city known as Londinium, is so important. The Roman site is contained largely within the bounds of the City of London, with an important trans-pontine settlement at Southwark. The intensity of research undertaken here allows an unusually detailed description of the course of change, to which many absolute dates can be attached. The arguments of the book are then summarized, with a brief chapter-by-chapter review of its contents forming a brisk historical narrative. The work is presented as making a substantial contribution to Romano-British archaeology and the study of ancient history in general.
Exile
Authors: Vasanthakumar Ashwini
Published: December 2021

This chapter provides an overview of exile as a historical practice and identifies some of the functions that exile performs. It then provides a definition of exile and elaborates on three key elements: territorial absence, public pressure, and an orientation of return. It distinguishes exile from closely related concepts, such as diasporas and refugees. It provides a typology of exile politics where, given exiles’ goals and methods, exiles act as revolutionaries, dissidents, social innovators, and immigrant activists. This typology is intended only to illustrate the varying nature of exile politics and to help situate some of the case studies that will be relied on throughout the book.
Exiles as Co-Authors
Authors: Vasanthakumar Ashwini
Published: December 2021

This chapter explores shared identity as a basis for exile politics. It provides a dialogical account of individual and social or collective identities that conceives of these as a narrative. It then provides an overview of associative obligations and argues that shared identity generates special duties that can account for why exiles go beyond the minimal duty to assist. Shared identity can help address obstacles to collective action and make these more extensive efforts practicable and effective. Exile complicates identity, however. Exile engenders greater pluralism in exile and exile provides a site for identities suppressed back home to survive and flourish, ensuring that marginalized perspectives are given some expression. This pluralism, however, can hinder prospects for collective action, and lead to systematic divergences between the homeland and those in exile. Exile politics’ ameliorative function back home is in tension with, although not necessarily fatal to, its ability to perform a corrective function abroad.
Is There a Philosophy of Statesmanship?
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: December 2021

This essay assumes that readers will be familiar with Wight’s analysis distinguishing three traditions of thinking about international politics and will therefore recognize ‘three types’. The ‘three groups’, Wight observes, consist of (1) ‘idealists’ and ‘revolutionaries’ and ‘Utopians’ committed to serving the ‘general will’ and ‘the cause’; (2) ‘moralists’ and ‘Grotians’ dedicated to upholding treaties and the rule of law; and (3) ‘realists’ and ‘Machiavellians’ concerned with calculating how to defend and advance ‘the national interest’. With regard to survival imperatives, however, Wight holds that ‘all statesmen are realists’. He also qualifies this exposition of three traditions of thinking about international relations by pointing out that some Grotians and moralists have championed ‘a different Utopia’, an ideal distinct from the revolutionary uniformity sought by certain religions and ideologies. This different Utopia was the League of Nations, an institution designed to bring about a peaceful universal legal order. The League’s advocates expected a majority of nations, backed by world public opinion, to maintain peace and order through rational appeals and, if necessary, economic sanctions, with war as a final recourse to restore international amity.
International Legitimacy
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: December 2021

Wight defined international legitimacy as ‘the collective judgment of international society about rightful membership of the family of nations’. International legitimacy derived mainly from prescription and dynasticism, the customary rule of hereditary monarchs, until the American and French Revolutions instituted the popular and democratic principle of the consent of the governed. The increasing reliance on popular politics led to the triumph of national self-determination in the 1919 peace settlement, with certain exceptions, notably the decision not to conduct a plebiscite in Alsace-Lorraine. New principles, such as territorial contiguity and integrity, influenced decisions about the legitimacy of the frontiers of the states formed from the breakup of European colonial empires after the Second World War. India, for example, referred to the principle of territorial integrity to justify the acquisition of Hyderabad and Goa. Critics of colonial arrangements have regarded them as illegitimate and unacceptable by definition. A state seeking independence via secession can succeed in its bid for self-determination only if it can gain sufficient external support. Therefore Biafra’s bid failed while that of Bangladesh succeeded. Communist principles of legitimacy emphasize the self-determination of the proletariat under the guidance of the Communist party. Legitimacy principles are subject to pragmatic constraints, and in practice governments generally recognize whoever controls state power.
What Confers Political Legitimacy in a Modern Society?
Authors: Wight Martin
Published: December 2021

In this essay Wight considered several sources of legitimacy for a modern Western society. A well-functioning state bureaucracy is a necessity. Popular consultation involving the consent of the governed is also essential. In Britain elective parliamentary democracy meets this need. Citizens must agree on the principle of respecting current laws pending their revision through legal channels. A new authoritative source of legitimacy may replace an old one if citizens transfer their loyalty to it. Time may either heal the injured and legitimate the results of social conflicts or exacerbate antagonisms. Communist regimes and right-wing autocrats such as General Franco in Spain and the Shah of Iran appealed to a principle of ‘legitimation by success’. Other legitimation myths have included ‘childhood ideas of Robin Hood’, ‘the siege’, and ‘the pilgrimage’, but the most fundamental source of legitimacy resides in the blood shed for a society’s independence and the rebirth of its great founding principles. This bloodshed justifies the society’s rededication to pursuing its unfinished work. An opposing question concerns the individual dissenter’s political legitimacy, which must hinge on certain criteria (such as rationality and conscientiousness) to win moral respect. The ‘rationalist illusion’ supposes that citizens can be critical spectators in the proceedings of their own society and its politics. Such detachment is not attainable, and derives from the fallacy that political life can be reduced to the conscious and purposeful management of material needs.
The phenomenology of continuous improvement
Authors: Toner John , Gail Montero Barbara , Moran Aidan
Published: December 2021

In this chapter, the phenomenon of continuous improvement is introduced and it is suggested that conscious processes play a crucial role in the maintenance and improvement of performance proficiency among skilled performers. This thesis is intriguing because it runs counter to a body of research warning us of the perils of thinking too much, or even at all, about highly practised movement. By contrast, it argues that continuous improvement is mediated by a performer’s ability to reflect and consciously guide their action during practice and performance. It critically evaluates some of the dominant paradigms in the skill acquisition literature, including information processing approaches and theories of embodiment, and explains why the book’s stance is intellectualist and pragmatic in nature. Lastly, it provides an overview of the remaining chapters in the book.
Cattle, Women, and Wells
Authors: Toulmin Camilla
Published: December 2021

This book describes the choices open to farming families in the Sahelian village of Kala, in central Mali. Life in this drought-prone region is harsh and full of risk to health, crops, and livestock, yet there are also opportunities open to the hard-working, audacious and lucky, bringing considerable returns if the timing is right. Three inter-related themes underlie the analysis of production and investment decisions faced by households; the role of risk, the long timeframe within which decisions are made, and the close links between economic performance and household size and organisation. Climatic variability and demographic uncertainty lie at the heart of domestic structures; the extreme vulnerability faced by single individuals means people cluster in large kin-based groups, pooling risks and providing protection. The very limited development of labour markets means that households rely almost entirely on their own members for their workforce, and generating the capital needed for investing in ploughs, wells, carts and livestock must stem from a good year’s grain surplus and migration earnings. Based on field-research over the period 1980-82, this study illustrates a successful response to making ends meet in a land abundant region, despite high risks of drought. A follow-up study of this village was published in 2020: Land, Investment, and Migration. Thirty-five years of village life in Mali (OUP).
Introducing Investment Options
Authors: Toulmin Camilla
Published: December 2021

This chapter offers a brief survey of how the investment literature deals with risk and uncertainty, and examines the reasons for variation in returns between farmers from the principal assets – wells, oxen plough-teams, breeding cattle. Simple decision-making models derive criteria for choosing between investment options according to the net present value, internal rate of return, and payback period associated with a given pattern of returns over time. Portfolio models presents the rationale for investment in a range of assets, the returns from which are poorly correlated. Farmers differ in terms of their access to factors of production, the scale of their activities, the opportunity cost of capital, and vulnerability to risk. Four idealised household types – A, B, C, D – are described in order to compare the flow of returns from the three principal investments – wells, oxen plough-teams, and breeding cattle.
Oxen Plough Teams
Authors: Toulmin Camilla
Published: December 2021

Oxen-drawn ploughs are used for cultivating the land and weeding millet fields, allowing a much larger area to be farmed than would be possible by hand. This chapter presents the distribution of oxen and plough-team equipment between village households, alongside patterns of sales and purchases of animals and their costs. Alternatives to buying animals and equipment are investigated, such as borrowing animals, and hire of plough teams, before examining the difficulties faced by those households without their own plough-team. The costs of acquiring and maintaining a plough team, and flow of returns over a five-year period are presented. Returns to investment in a plough team are shown for the four household types, A, B, C, D, in terms of net-present-value and payback period, depending on choices made about expansion of land area cultivated over a five year period. The chapter explores the importance of joint investment in both a well and oxen plough-team, before turning to an assessment of risk to oxen plough-team investment, and the flexibility of capital held in this form.
Conclusions
Authors: Toulmin Camilla
Published: December 2021

There are three central interlinked areas of economic and social life of significance for Bambara farming households in Kala: annual millet production, returns from various investments – wells, plough-teams, breeding cattle - and longer term returns from child-rearing, marriage and household management. Success in each field reinforces success in the other two fields as, for example, when a good millet harvest can fund another marriage which will generate a replenishment of labour in the longer term. People face highly variable returns to farming and investment, and must continually react to changing climatic and economic circumstances, by altering patterns of crop production and investment. Some households do better than others, since their scale and strategy enable them to deal with uncertainty, and risks. Equally, mastery of a successful investment portfolio enables a household to re-invest surplus in marriage and expansion of the domestic group, ensuring greater resilience to future shocks, especially demographic. Nevertheless, there are certain forces operating at higher level - environmental trends, weak institutions, poor governance of land – which are difficult for Kala’s farmers to address.
A Real Entity Theory of Company Law
Authors: Micheler Eva
Published: December 2021

This chapter provides an overview of a real entity theory of company law. It begins by exploring three main theories of the company. The first theory explains the company as a contract; it forms the basis on which agency theory builds. The second theory conceives the company as a concession of the state, while the third theory characterizes the company as a real entity. The chapter then looks at a modern version of real entity theory and its application to company law. According to real entity theory, organizations or firms are social phenomenon outside of the law and they are autonomous actors in their own right. This occurs because human beings change their behaviour when they act as members of a group or an organization. Company law finds this phenomenon and evolves with a view to supporting autonomous action by organizations.
Corporate Actions
Authors: Micheler Eva
Published: December 2021

This chapter evaluates the rules that determine the attribution of the actions of human actors to companies. These contain elements that demonstrate that company law is designed for the operation of organizations and that therefore a real entity theory is best suited to explain the law as it stands, and also to formulate normative recommendations. Indeed, conceiving companies as serving real entities helps to explain the approach taken by the law in relation to corporate criminal liability. Companies are actors whose acts are sometimes determined by their shareholders and directors. But they do not fully control what companies do. Companies act autonomously through habits and procedures that have formed between the individuals who act for and contribute to them. These procedures cause companies to become independent of their individual actors and can lead to blameworthy conduct.
The Political Soul
Authors: Wilburn Josh
Published: December 2021

The Political Soul examines the relationship between Plato’s views on psychology and his political philosophy over the course of his career, focusing on his account of the spirited part of the tripartite soul, or thumos, and spirited motivation. It argues that spirit is the distinctively social or political part of the human soul for Plato: it is the source of the desires, emotions, and sensitivities that make it possible for people to form cooperative relationships with one another, interact politically, influence and absorb one another’s values through cultural modes and social processes, and protect their communities. Such emotions prominently include not only the aggressive or competitive qualities for which thumos is well-known, but also the feelings of attachment, love, friendship, and civic fellowship that bind families and communities together and make cities possible in the first place. Because spirit is the political part of the soul in this sense, moreover, two social and political challenges that occupy Plato throughout his career—namely, how to educate citizens properly in virtue and how to maintain unity and stability in political communities—cannot be addressed and resolved, on his view, without proper attention to the spirited aspects of human psychology.
Hedging (into) Property?—Invisible Trade Secrets and International Trade in Goods
Authors: Lee Nari
Published: December 2021

Trade secrets can encompass all forms of intellectual property subject matter, as well as other types of data, information, and knowledge that may not meet the threshold of eligibility for intellectual property rights. Trade secret protection may be used to prolong existing exclusivity or to hedge the balance of interests that the law aims to seek through restrictions to such exclusivity. Against this backdrop, this chapter asks whether, and to what extent, the law of trade secrets can be used privately to create a regime of property rules in an age of digitised trading, using the recently adopted EU Directive on trade secrets as an example. It asks whether the forms of protection and enforcement required under the EU Directive make it a de facto property right, hedging a liability regime into a proprietary regime, which is created unilaterally by ensuring secrecy and by imposing a duty of confidence.
Technical Assistance as a Hedge to Intellectual Property Exclusivity
Authors: Acquah Daniel
Published: December 2021

This chapter assesses the connection between neo-colonialism and intellectual property. An essential part of the process of neo-colonialism by economic means is the establishment of a legal framework of IP that confers legally enforceable rights that support and safeguard economic penetration and control. This process includes, in a similar way as in colonial times, the guarantee of protection of foreign property rights in developing countries. The TRIPS Agreement and other hard norms, such as TRIPS-plus bilateral trade treaties concluded between the EU and developing countries, further contribute to such neo-colonial control. They promote a particular vision of economic ordering that seeks to increase the level of IP protection beyond that required by TRIPS. However, an often overlooked but essential aspect of such control is that, once these treaties have been concluded, the US, the EU, and other leading industrialised trading blocs actively offer technical assistance with implementation. The chapter argues that such technical assistance further hedges IP's exclusivity through a form of Trojan Horse IP approach and by establishing an elite IP community in developing countries that sees things from the perspective of the dominant industrialized country.
The Revitalisation of the Object and Purpose of the TRIPS Agreement
Authors: Geiger Christophe , Desaunettes-Barbero Luc
Published: December 2021

The limited role the objectives and principles of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) (Arts 7 and 8) have played so far in the interpretation and implementation of its substantive provisions has often been criticised. The WTO Panel and Appellate Body Reports in the ‘Australia—Plain Packaging’ dispute are likely to change this situation for the future as, for the first time, the World Trade Organization (WTO) dispute settlement bodies fully engaged with Arts 7 and 8 to interpret Art 20 relative to the use of trade marks. Reliance on these provisions led the Panel and the Appellate Body to conclude that there are legitimate reasons for which Members may encumber trade mark use. The awakening of these two long dormant provisions could have a fundamental impact in offering the possibility of a more flexible reading of TRIPS. It could indeed secure the adaptability of intellectual property rights to the evolution of economic, technological and social circumstances by guaranteeing a more balanced interpretation of the limitations and exceptions included in the Agreement, for example, as advocated several years ago by a group of international IP scholars in the ‘Declaration on a balanced interpretation of the three-step test’. Furthermore, the use of these two provisions could serve as a gateway for the taking into account of ethical imperatives, supported by international human rights in the interpretation of the TRIPS norms, such as, for example, public health imperatives, crucial in the context of pandemics. Such a reading has been advocated in the past and the ‘Plain Packaging’ reports might lead to a more frequent and welcome reliance on human rights arguments in the context of international trade law.
Introduction
Authors: Whitehouse Harvey
Published: December 2021

All around the world and throughout known history, human beings have come together to dance, sing, chant, give thanks, mark changes in life, or celebrate communal achievements. These activities always entail the performance of closely stipulated actions, often using unusual artefacts or displaying distinctive hairstyles, clothing, or body decorations. Each cultural group acts as a vast repository of unique rules for how to do these things. In this introductory chapter, the aim is to capture some the diversity of cultural rituals, survey various efforts to explain that diversity, and introduce the theory of modes of religiosity around which the book as a whole is constructed.
Overimitation and the Ritual Stance
Authors: Whitehouse Harvey
Published: December 2021

To engage in ritual is to adopt a unique stance on behaviour—one that forfeits all hope of ever discovering a causal structure in the actions involved. Rituals are causally opaque not only in a provisional or potentially resolvable way but irretrievably so. Psychologists describe the copying of such behaviour as ‘overimitation’—the uniquely human tendency to imitate actions modelled by others that have no transparent instrumental rationale but are simply that way because it is the established convention. This chapter explores the evolutionary origins of the ritual stance, as well as some of the many ways in which cultural systems exploit it to create magic, meaning, and mythology.
A Monument to Succession
Authors: Akkerman Nadine
Published: December 2021

This chapter begins by describing the monumentalisation of Elizabeth Stuart's grandmother Mary, Queen of Scots, and of her godmother Elizabeth I in preparation for the wedding of the century – Elizabeth Stuart to the Elector Palatine-in-waiting Frederick V in 1613. Frederick arrived in England with one purpose in mind: to marry England's only princess. It then returns to Elizabeth’s birth, detailing the arguments over her baptism and naming after Elizabeth I. It considers her upbringing at the hands of the Catholic Lady Livingstone, and the subsequent friction with the Scottish Kirk. Following the death of the English Queen Elizabeth I and awaiting James VI of Scotland’s accession as James I of England, Elizabeth’s mother Queen Anna rode to Stirling Castle to claim her son, the heir to the throne, Prince Henry. Though the arguments with his guardians the Mars would lead to Anna’s miscarrying, she prevailed and was soon en route south with Henry and Elizabeth by her side, though the small and sickly Charles remained in the north. The journey south presented many opportunities for the English to seek position with the new royal family, and none took advantage so skillfully as the Haringtons, who were soon named as guardians to the Princess Elizabeth. Even though it is possible that Henry and Elizabeth had never met before their journey to England, they became almost inseparable, as matching portraits of them suggest. As the political dance of marriage proposals began, Elizabeth and Henry left Windsor to set up a joint court at Oatlands.