The effect of international travel restrictions on internal spread of COVID-19
Authors: Russell Timothy W , Wu Joseph T , Clifford Sam ,   CMMID COVID-19 working group, Edmunds W John , Kucharski Adam J. , Jit Mark 
Published: July 2020

Background

Countries have restricted international arrivals to delay the spread of COVID-19. These measures carry a high economic and social cost. They may have little impact on COVID-19 epidemics if there are many more cases resulting from local transmission compared to imported cases.

Methods

To inform decisions about international travel restrictions, we compared the ratio of expected COVID-19 cases from international travel (assuming no travel restrictions) to the expected COVID-19 cases arising from internal spread on an average day in May 2020 in each country. COVID-19 prevalence and incidence were estimated using a modelling framework that adjusts reported cases for under-ascertainment and asymptomatic infections.

Findings

With May 2019 travel volumes, imported cases account for <10% of total incidence in 103 (95% credible interval: 76 − 130) out of 142 countries, and <1% in 48 (95% CrI: 9 − 95). If we assume that travel would decrease compared to May 2019 even in the absence of formal restrictions, then imported cases account for <10% of total incidence in 109-123 countries and <1% in 61-88 countries (depending on the assumptions about travel reductions).

Interpretation

While countries can expect infected travellers to arrive in the absence of travel restrictions, in most countries these imported cases likely contribute little to local COVID-19 epidemics. Stringent travel restrictions may have limited impact on epidemic dynamics except in countries with low COVID-19 incidence and large numbers of arrivals from other countries.

Funding

Wellcome Trust, UK Department for International Development, European Commission, National Institute for Health Research, Medical Research Council, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

Research in context

Evidence before this study

Countries are at different stages of COVID-19 epidemics, so many have implemented policies to minimise the risk of importing cases via international travel. Such policies include border closures, flight suspensions, quarantine and self-isolation on international arrivals. Searching PubMed and MedRxiv using the search: (“covid” OR “coronavirus” OR “SARS-CoV-2”) AND (“travel” OR “restrictions” OR “flight” OR “flights” OR “border”) from 1 January – 10 July 2020 returned 118 and 84 studies respectively, of which 39 were relevant to our study. These studies either concentrated in detail on the risk of importation to specific countries or used a single epidemiological or travel dataset to estimate risk. Most of them focused on the risk of COVID-19 introduction from China or other countries with cases earlier in 2020. No study combined country-specific travel data, prevalence estimates and incidence estimates to assess the global risk of importation relative to current local transmission within countries.

Added value of this study

We combined data on airline passengers and flight frequencies with estimates of COVID-19 prevalence and incidence (adjusted for underreporting and asymptomatic cases), to estimate the risk of imported cases, relative to the level of local transmission in each country. This allows decision makers to determine where travel restriction policies make large contributions to slowing local transmission, and where they have very little overall effect.

Implications of all the available evidence

In most countries, imported cases would make a relatively small contribution to local transmission, so travel restrictions would have very little effect on epidemics. Countries where travel restrictions would have a large effect on local transmission are those with strong travel links to countries with high COVID-19 prevalence and/or countries which have successfully managed to control their local outbreaks.