bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Challenge of Social Corrosion
Authors: Heath Anthony F. , Garratt Elisabeth , Kashyap Ridhi , Li Yaojun , Richards Lindsay
Published: November 2018

Has increasing inequality and ethnic diversity served to corrode social cohesion in Britain? The evidence discussed in this chapter suggests that in many respects, such as levels of national pride, social trust, and civic engagement, Britain has not in fact changed all that much since the 1950s and 1960s. Nor is Britain all that out of line with peer countries. However, there are long-standing problems of social division, low trust, and disconnection from politics, albeit sometimes taking new forms. In some respects, then, Britain is not all that cohesive. Moreover, there are some new emerging challenges such as declining election turnout, especially among young people, and declining sense of British identity in Ireland and Scotland. However, these emerging challenges cannot be blamed on inequality and diversity. Instead, the explanations, and the solutions, are more likely to be specific and political.
Progress in Tackling Beveridge’s Five Giants
Authors: Heath Anthony F. , Garratt Elisabeth , Kashyap Ridhi , Li Yaojun , Richards Lindsay
Published: November 2018

The concluding chapter of the book summarizes the evidence about social progress in Britain, and the extent to which Britain has been successful in tackling Beveridge’s five giants. It shows how patterns differ between the different domains of social progress and in which domains disadvantaged groups fell behind. The chapter also reviews how Britain’s progress compared with that in peer countries. In some cases the evidence suggests that common features were evident in all eight countries, whereas in other cases, notably material prosperity, life expectancy, and unemployment, there were significant deviations from the experience of peer countries. The chapter uses these comparisons to explore whether Margaret Thatcher’s 1980s reform package improved Britain’s economic and labour market performance and whether it had unwanted side effects in the form of reduced equality of opportunity and social cohesion.
The Value Fulfillment Theory of Well-Being
Authors: Tiberius Valerie
Published: November 2018

According to the value fulfillment theory, our lives go well to the extent that we pursue, and fulfill or realize, our appropriate values. This chapter focuses on what values are, how they can be improved, and why we should consider them over time. To value something in the fullest sense is to have a relatively stable pattern of emotions and desires with respect to it and to take these attitudes to give you reasons for action and (for the most important values) standards for evaluating how your life is going. Appropriate values, then, are the objects of relatively sustainable and integrated emotions, desires, and judgments.
The Sociology of Punishment and the Effects of Imprisonment on Families
Authors: Condry Rachel , Smith Peter Scharff
Published: November 2018

This chapter considers the impact of criminal justice and particularly prison upon the families of offenders and the ways in which they are drawn into the realm of punishment. It explores how imprisonment creates, reproduces, and reinforces patterns of social inequality. The chapter shows how prisoners’ families occupy an odd position of an increasing visibility in the academic realm. Much earlier work on prisoners’ families was concerned with identifying the difficulties they faced and how this might be addressed through policy measures. In more recent years, however, studies have begun to explore deeper theoretical, legal, and sociological questions which have important implications for criminology and criminal justice, the sociology of punishment, human rights, and the broader study of social justice.
Prisoners’ Families and the Problem of Social Justice
Authors: Condry Rachel
Published: November 2018

This chapter explores the wide-ranging impact of imprisonment upon the lives of the families of prisoners and the entrenched social inequalities that this both generates and reinforces. It considers the concept of social justice and whether it is useful to this enterprise. The chapter furthermore questions why the families of prisoners are faced with many difficulties. It applies theories of social justice to the consequences experienced by families of prisoners and asks whether or not those consequences are consistent with the principles of these theories. In a democratic society that claims to be organised around principles of equal citizenship, the chapter argues that there is a need to fully consider how and why families of prisoners (as innocent citizens) are affected by punishment inflicted by the state.
How Much Might Mass Imprisonment Affect Childhood Inequality?
Authors: Wakefield Sara , Wildeman Christopher
Published: November 2018

This chapter first briefly introduces readers of some arguments made in an earlier work, Children of the Prison Boom (2013). This book made three core arguments, the first of which was that 25 per cent of recent birth cohorts of African-American children could expect to experience the imprisonment of a father. In addition, the book outlined a host of theoretical mechanisms through which paternal incarceration could affect child wellbeing. Finally, Children of the Prison Boom generates estimates of how mass imprisonment might have affected Black-White inequality in childhood wellbeing in the United States. The chapter then broadens these arguments beyond the narrow confines of the United States and the Black-White dichotomy.
‘Everyone is in damage control’
Authors: Halsey Mark
Published: November 2018

This chapter draws on data from the Generations Through Prison project to explore the familial impacts of incarceration from the perspectives of second and third generation prisoners. Focusing on the intimate relations lost, ‘suspended’, or recreated, the chapter examines how intergenerational incarceration intensifies the pains of imprisonment. The argument here is that irrespective of the ties among those who serve time with immediate and/or extended family members, the deleterious effects of incarceration outweigh the positive dimensions. Further, for intergenerational prisoners serving time ‘on their own’ — that is, without the ‘dividend’ of extended or immediate family — the search for close ties remains key to coping with prison life. As shall be seen, most of the participants in this research had very few, if any, intimates in the community who supported them while incarcerated or who would offer support once released.
The Legally Sanctioned Stigmatization of Prisoners Families
Authors: Hutton Marie
Published: November 2018

This chapter demonstrates empirically how the five elements of stigma identified in Link and Phelan’s (2001) classic schema (labelling, negative stereotyping, seperateness, status loss, and discrimination) manifested in the rules and procedures around visiting and was therefore legally sanctioned. It highlights the ways in which prisoners’ families’ were labelled. The chapter then describes how, upon entering the prison as social visitors, families suffered a loss of status as their ‘outside’ identities were erased while simultaneously being subjected to a form of (associative) discrimination. Despite both social and ‘official’ visitors entering the prison as ‘outsiders’, there were important differences around how they were processed, the extent to which they were searched, and the location and conditions under which their visits took place. These differences were always to the detriment of prisoners’ families, who were ultimately treated as untrustworthy and inferior bodies in comparison to those entering for ‘official’ purposes.
Introduction: The Translation History of Virgil
Authors: Braund Susanna , Torlone Zara Martirosova
Published: November 2018

The introduction describes the broad landscape of translation of Virgil from both the theoretical and the practical perspectives. It then explains the genesis of the volume and indicates how the individual chapters, each one of which is summarized, fit into the complex tapestry of Virgilian translation activity through the centuries and across the world. The volume editors indicate points of connection between the chapters in order to render the whole greater than the sum of its parts. Braund and Torlone emphasize that a project such as this could look like a (rather large) collection of case studies; they therefore consider it important to extrapolate larger phenomena from the specifics presented here
Successes and Failures in Virgilian Translation
Authors: Kallendorf Craig
Published: November 2018

This chapter’s discussion of premodern Virgilian translations, those that predate 1850, provides an important historical background to the different directions of Virgilian translations in Europe and beyond. While Kallendorf avoids offering aesthetic judgements on any of these translations, the statistics provided in this chapter shed light on the role that Virgilian translations played in their respective cultures. The most noteworthy part of this study, however, is that Kallendorf brings back from obscurity such translations as those of Perrin and Le Plat, Delille and Cynyngham, Marot and Gresset, emphasizing that, regardless of their aesthetic quality, translations can never be ranked only in terms of failure or success, because each one has elements of both and each one contributes to future attempts.
Translation Theory into Practice
Authors: Mistretta Marco Romani
Published: November 2018

For Jacques Delille, whose translation of the Georgics is explored in this chapter, Virgil was more than a poetic influence; he was the fons and origo of poetry itself. In the age of Enlightenment with its rising interest in agricultural treatises, Delille’s translation of the Georgics acquired a wide appeal. His life-long work on his Géorgiques displays Delille’s aspiration to emulate the Virgilian text and to appropriate his poetics in the quest to intertwine, in his own poetic work, the physical, the aesthetic, and the moral worlds. In that quest, however, as Romani Mistretta shows, Delille’s Virgil becomes not only the herald of agricultural wisdom but also a master of poetic harmony, and the translator manages to blur the lines between ‘translation’ and ‘commentary’ as he contextualizes antiquity within the cultural framing and the cultural craving of his own epoch.
Wordsworth’s Translation of Aeneid 1–3 and the Earlier Tradition of English Translations of Virgil
Authors: Hardie Philip
Published: November 2018

William Wordsworth’s translation of the first three books of the Aeneid are the focus of this chapter. As a major translation project by a major English poet, this work of Wordsworth can be compared with the Aeneid of Dryden (with whom he competes) and with Pope’s Iliad. Hardie considers Wordsworth’s undertaking not only within the longer history of English translations of the Aeneid, but also within the larger history of English poetry. In his anxious literary competition with Dryden, Wordsworth chooses the rhyming couplet for his translation to show how a different verse movement and vocabulary can produce another version of the classic English Aeneid.
Between Voß and Schröder
Authors: Eigler Ulrich
Published: November 2018

This chapter argues that German translations of Virgil are the result of a complicated process, in which history of reception and history of translations move alongside one another. It explores the interaction between translations of Virgil and translations of Homer, giving particular attention to the role of the authoritative translation of Homer by Johann Heinrich Voß. It demonstrates that the discourse on translations of Virgil since the eighteenth century is deeply entwined with literary, aesthetic, and political questions, which are closely entangled with the German struggle for unity and cultural identity. The chapter tries to show this by looking briefly at translations of the Aeneid beginning with Friedrich Schiller’s experimental work, focusing particularly on the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
A Cultural Theology of Salvation
Authors: Marsh Clive
Published: November 2018

This book offers a demonstration of how theological ideas ‘work’ in the contemporary West. It does this through an exploration of the Christian doctrine of salvation. It is acknowledged that doctrine develops as it interweaves with life experience and as humanity evolves. Doctrine cannot simply repeat what has gone before, even as it recognizes the value and richness of the traditions Christianity carries with it. The focus of the book is on how salvation is to be understood and articulated now, when ‘redemption’ language is widely used outside Christianity, and when redemptive experiences are reported in response to the arts, popular culture, media, and through counselling. The book assesses what is to be made of such material theologically and addresses the question whether salvation discussions have anything to do with contemporary interest in ‘happiness’. The first part of the book sets the inquiry within the context of how theology operates as a discipline and the cultural climate in which theology has to be done. The second part undertakes a number of case studies (in art, music, TV, film, positive psychology, and economic life) exploring how the concerns of a doctrine of salvation are, in practice, being addressed directly and indirectly in Western culture. The third part distils the results of the case studies within a contemporary Christian exposition of salvation. The conclusion offers a practical summary of the book’s findings.
Salvation in Art and Music
Authors: Marsh Clive
Published: November 2018

This chapter engages with two well-known works of art: the Isenheim altarpiece and Handel’s Messiah. It considers both the content and the reception and use of the two works, as examples of high art, but also as artistic products which have, respectively, become the focus of tourism and popular classical music. The way in which each purveys an understanding of Christian redemption is examined both for Christian believers and for Western citizens more broadly. At the heart of the exposition is the way that the artistic forms of the two works –as visual art and music—themselves contribute to the understanding of salvation presented and received.
The Shape of Soteriology
Authors: Marsh Clive
Published: November 2018

This chapter distils from the previous four chapters seven key areas which are identified as crucial for developing a contemporary Christian doctrine of salvation. The ‘shape’ of salvation is presented as an exposition of what one is saved from and for, by whom/what one is saved, and what one is saved into. In filling in this ‘template’ the seven areas which need exploring are: a broad definition of sin; the affective dimension of salvation; salvation is a present (and not just a post-death) experience; whether human action contributes to the experience of salvation; social salvation; institutional forms of social salvation; the hiddenness of God.
Salvation in Contemporary Christian Understanding
Authors: Marsh Clive
Published: November 2018

Bringing the interim explorations of Chapter 7 into closer dialogue with the inherited content of Christian tradition, this chapter expounds a series of insights which are vital for the doctrine of salvation. It takes up the themes of sin, human worth and creativity, freedom, salvation as gift, church and community, and the future as they impinge upon and are in large part shaped by the way that salvation is defined. In the process, the chapter acknowledges how the doctrine of salvation links to other themes within Christian systematic theology whilst focusing upon the aspects of salvation which the cultural-theological method followed highlight as needing to be addressed in the present.
Conclusion: What, then, Is Salvation?
Authors: Marsh Clive
Published: November 2018

The Conclusion draws out some practical consequences from what the inquiry has discovered people are saved ‘from’, ‘for’, ‘by’, and ‘into’. Following a recap of the significance of the theological methodology used throughout the work, it presents a summary of salvation’s content under ten headings: ultimate well-being, health, acceptance, being forgiven, forgiving, safety, celebration, happiness, contentment, and blessedness. Under each heading the attempt is made to accentuate in practice what the experience of salvation amounts to, by referring to the material from Part II, to life experience, and to the Christian Bible, where appropriate. The emphasis on the contemporary meaning of salvation is maintained throughout.
Interoception and the autonomic nervous system: Bottom-up meets top-down
Authors: Berntson Gary G. , Gianaros Peter J. , Tsakiris Manos
Published: November 2018

Although the efferent role of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) in homeostasis has long been recognized, afferent aspects of the ANS—especially interoception—are increasingly recognized to be equally important. Interoception is fundamental to the regulation of internal physiology, particularly as it is coordinated with contextually determined and adaptive behavioral processes. A cardinal but often underappreciated feature of interoception is its role in myriad cognitive and affective processes that are integrated in health and disease. This chapter introduces the concept of interoception and outlines its historical origins and applications in multiple domains of psychology and psychobiology. It provides an overview of its peripheral and central neural substrates, and it outlines how this construct is best conceptualized within a multi-system and multi-level regulatory framework.
Interoceptive appraisal and mental health
Authors: Farb Norman A. S. , Logie Kyle
Published: November 2018

Interoception is the process of sensing the body’s internal state. An emerging neurobiological model supports the idea that subjective well-being is influenced by how physiological changes are detected and appraised. Contemplative interventions such as mindfulness training, which appear efficacious in reducing emotional distress, may operate by promoting curiosity and flexibility in this appraisal process. This chapter reviews evidence about the relationship between interceptive appraisal and mental health, including an account of how contemplative training modulates interoceptive networks to alter interoceptive appraisal tendencies. New measures are needed to distinguish the effects of appraisal tendencies from more implicit effects of physiological change. To support this endeavour, pilot data is introduced from a novel, respiration-focused task that experimentally manipulates interoceptive awareness, and by extension the need for interoceptive appraisal, within a given level of physiological arousal. Potential applications of this task for exploring the influence of interoceptive appraisal on affect, cognition, and behavior are discussed.
Poor People on the Front Line: The Impacts of Climate Change on Poverty in 2030
Authors: Rozenberg Julie , Hallegatte Stéphane
Published: November 2018

The impacts of climate change on poverty depend on the magnitude of climate change, but also on socio-economic trends. An analysis of hundreds of baseline scenarios for future economic development shows that the drivers of poverty eradication differ across countries. In this chapter, two representative scenarios are selected from these hundreds, one optimistic and one pessimistic regarding poverty. Results from sector analyses of climate change impacts—in agriculture, health, and natural disasters—are introduced in the two scenarios. By 2030, climate change is found to have a significant impact on poverty. But the magnitude of these impacts depends on development choices. In the optimistic scenario with rapid, inclusive, and climate-informed development, climate change increases poverty by between 3 million and 16 million in 2030. The increase in poverty reaches between 35 million and 122 million if development is delayed and less inclusive in the pessimistic scenario.
Governing the Commons to Promote Global Justice: Climate Change Mitigation and Rent Taxation
Authors: Jakob Michael , Edenhofer Ottmar , Kornek Ulrike , Lenzi Dominic , Minx Jan
Published: November 2018

Climate change mitigation means restricting the use of the atmosphere as a disposal space for greenhouse gas emissions, which would create a novel scarcity rent. Appropriating this rent via fiscal policies, such as taxes, together with already existing scarcity rents of land and natural resources, could be an economically efficient source of public revenues to advance human development objectives. This chapter discusses how an international climate agreement would turn the atmosphere into a common property regime and describes equity principles that determine how the resulting climate rent is distributed. It then estimates how carbon pricing in combination with appropriate revenue recycling could advance human development goals. It also considers equity aspects of distributing land and natural resource rents as well as the potential of these rents to promote global justice. Finally, it assesses the political feasibility of combining rent taxation with targeted investment, drawing conclusions for the potential implementation of such an approach.
Equity Implications of the COP21 Intended Nationally Determined Contributions to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Authors: Rose Adam , Wei Dan , Bento Antonio
Published: November 2018

This chapter examines the equity implications of the “bottom-up” approach to climate change negotiations by analyzing the individual country unconditional greenhouse gas reduction pledges specified in the COP21 Agreement of 2015. It compares the implications before and after emissions trading in terms of the standard equity metrics of the Gini coefficient and Atkinson index for three major countries/regions: the European Union, China, and California. The chapter adapts a nonlinear programming model well suited to this purpose that determines the equilibrium emissions allowance price, mitigation costs, and allowance purchases and sales from trading. It also tests the sensitivity of the results to macroeconomic conditions and technological change. The findings are that the pledges made at COP21 reflect substantial inequality in general and run counter to most equity principles. They are definitely a major departure from the Egalitarian, Vertical, and Rawlsian equity principles proposed for many years by developing countries.
Climate Change and Inequity: How to Think about Inequities in Different Dimensions
Authors: Hassoun Nicole , Herlitz Anders
Published: November 2018

This chapter introduces a new framework for thinking about climate justice. Climate change and climate negotiations actualize equity considerations in at least three relevant dimensions: distributions of benefits and burdens across countries, within countries, and across individuals in the world. Our proposed framework enables researchers and policymakers to visualize and combine different equity considerations in these dimensions in a novel way. The simplicity of the framework can facilitate putting equity considerations back on the table in international negotiations. The flexibility of the framework enables expansions and incorporations of other equity considerations, for example intergenerational equity.
The Social Cost of Carbon from Theory to Trump
Authors: Kelleher J. Paul
Published: November 2018

The social cost of carbon (SCC) is a central concept in climate change economics. This chapter explains the SCC and investigates it philosophically. As is widely acknowledged, any SCC calculation requires the analyst to make choices about the infamous topic of discount rates. But to understand the nature and role of discount rates, one must understand how each of these economic concepts—and indeed the SCC concept itself—is yoked to the concept of a value function, whose job is to take ways the world could be across indefinite timespans and to rank them from better to worse. A great deal, therefore, turns on the details of the value function and on just what is meant by “better” and “worse.” This chapter seeks to explicate these and related issues, and then to situate them within the evolving landscape of federal climate policy in the United States.
Introduction
Authors: Pattison George
Published: November 2018

The Introduction sets out the overall programme of the three-part Philosophy of Christian Life: the phenomenology of the devout life, the rhetorics of the word, and the metaphysics of love, focusing respectively on desire, language, and love in Christian life. It presents the work as philosophical in that it accepts the limits of human reason and common sense rather than revelation or dogma and is concerned to make or to justify some truth claims. It acknowledges that focusing on practice requires a different approach to truth from philosophies of religion that start with propositions about God: the example of Augustine as well as of some contemporary philosophers such as John Cottingham shows this to be nevertheless possible.
Why Phenomenology?
Authors: Pattison George
Published: November 2018

This chapter sets out the rationale for adopting a phenomenological approach to the devout life literature. Distinguishing the present approach from versions of the phenomenology of religion dominant in mid-twentieth-century approaches to religion, an alternative model is found in Heidegger’s early lectures on Paul. These illustrate that alongside its striving to achieve a maximally pure intuition of its subject matter, phenomenology will also be necessarily interpretative and existential. Although phenomenology is limited to what shows itself and therefore cannot pass judgement on the existence of God, it can deal with God insofar as God appears within the activity and passivity of human existence. From Hegel onward, it has also shown itself open to seeing the self as twofold and thus more than a simple subjective agent, opening the way to an understanding of the self as essentially spiritual.
The Annihilated Self
Authors: Pattison George
Published: November 2018

The devout life literature requires the self to see itself as nothing—but what does this mean? The dialectic of being and non-being has a long history in Western metaphysics, but in the wake of the Copernican revolution nothingness is no longer a relative element in the great chain of being but something more absolute. With the help of Fénelon’s proof for the existence of God from human imperfection, it is shown how the devout self is figured as suspended between being and nothingness, dependent entirely on God for being. In this situation, Descartes’s assurance regarding the ontological basis of human existence is unsustainable. Yet even in the face of annihilation, the soul may still love God and practise a grateful acknowledgement of God’s good gifts.
The localized electron: magnetic properties
Authors: Launay Jean-Pierre , Verdaguer Michel
Published: November 2018

After preliminaries about electron properties, and definitions in magnetism, one treats the magnetism of mononuclear complexes, in particular spin cross-over, showing the role of cooperativity and the sensitivity to external perturbations. Orbital interactions and exchange interaction are explained in binuclear model systems, using orbital overlap and orthogonality concepts to explain antiferromagnetic or ferromagnetic coupling. The phenomenologically useful Spin Hamiltonian is defined. The concepts are then applied to extended molecular magnetic systems, leading to molecular magnetic materials of various dimensionalities exhibiting bulk ferro- or ferrimagnetism. An illustration is provided by Prussian Blue analogues. Magnetic anisotropy is introduced. It is shown that in some cases, a slow relaxation of magnetization arises and gives rise to appealing single-ion magnets, single-molecule magnets or single-chain magnets, a route to store information at the molecular level.
The mastered electron: molecular electronics and spintronics, molecular machines
Authors: Launay Jean-Pierre , Verdaguer Michel
Published: November 2018

After a historical account of the evolution which led to the concept of Molecular Electronics, the “Hybrid Molecular Electronics” approach (that is, molecules connected to nanosized metallic electrodes) is discussed. The different types of transport (one-step, two-step with different forms of tunnelling) are described, including the case where the molecule is paramagnetic (Kondo resonance). Several molecular achievements are presented: wires, diodes, memory cells, field-effect transistors, switches, using molecules, but also carbon nanotubes. A spin-off result is the possibility of imaging Molecular Orbitals. The emerging field of molecular spintronics is presented. Besides hybrid devices, examples are given of electronic functionalities using ensembles of molecules, either in solution (logical functions) or in the solid state (memory elements). The relation with the domain of Quantum Computing is presented, including the particular domain of Quantum Hamiltonian Computing. The chapter finishes by an introduction to molecular machines, with the problem of the directional control of their motion.
Beyond Measurement
Authors: Fukuyama Francis , Recanatini Francesca
Published: November 2018

Since the 1990s, governance and anti-corruption have become preoccupations of the international development and research communities, leading to the proliferation of sophisticated measures, which, while a critical starting point, have not had significant impact at the country level. This chapter examines approaches to reducing corruption, including structural state reform, simplification and reduction of administrative discretion, transparency and accountability, international agreements and conventions, and anti-corruption bodies. While some approaches have produced results in specific areas, their impact has been limited. The chapter argues that we should think about corruption differently, not as a market distortion or unethical behaviour but as a misallocation of power. To address corruption requires interventions that reallocate power among stakeholders. The limited success in addressing corruption suggests that policy-makers and the international community have not been able to reallocate power, mostly due to lack of political leverage to discipline entrenched local actors.
Considerations on the Method of Constructing Governance Indices
Authors: Stanig Piero
Published: November 2018

Seemingly technical decisions about estimation are highly consequential in terms of results and interpretation of composite indices of governance. This chapter argues that the choice of the aggregation rule defines an iso-governance curve or, alternatively, a governance production function. Iso-governance curves are loaded with substance. Hence, it might be desirable to pay attention to theory when designing methodology to arrive at a composite index of governance. The chapter also suggests that discrete methods of classification hold some promise for projects that aim at measuring governance. In this case, empirical exercises would isolate ‘syndromes of governance’ rather than rank countries from best to worst performer. The chapter concludes with some considerations about the role of governance indices in state-of-the-art political science and political economy.
The Copper Sector, Fiscal Rules, and Stabilization Funds in Chile
Authors: Solimano Andres , Guajardo Diego Calderón
Published: November 2018

Historically Chile’s economy has been dominated by mineral products (mainly copper) as a source of exports and fiscal revenues. Copper prices and other commodity prices are often volatile. Since the 1980s the authorities have developed various mechanisms to cope with copper price shocks and dampen their effects on the business cycle. These mechanisms include a fiscal rule and a stabilization fund under a flexible exchange rate and an inflation-targeting regime. Apparently, this macro framework has been associated (causality is another matter) with reasonably good macro outcomes. However, this framework entails more discretion and less flexibility than often portrayed. (i) The mechanisms described include frequent revisions in the target fiscal surplus. (ii) Sovereign wealth funds, while defining rules for accumulating resources in good times, provide no rules for using them in bad times. (iii) They entail a possible bias towards over-accumulation of funds, with an ensuing opportunity cost.
Protecting the Environment during and after Resource Extraction
Authors: Bell Ruth Greenspan
Published: November 2018

Natural resources extraction inevitably imposes environmental damage including diversion of scarce water away from pressing local needs, disruption of fragile ecosystems, and longer-range and often irreparable harm. These fall most forcefully on the local populations at or near the extraction sites but also beyond. Effective regulation of extractive industries is critical to balance immediate needs with longer-term considerations. Unfortunately, much extraction takes place in countries with weak institutions and poor success rates in addressing any of their environmental challenges and often rampant corruption undercutting fair application of rules. This chapter concludes that improving practices requires a long and sustained commitment from everyone involved—the countries and industry.
Downstream Activities
Authors: Östensson Olle , Löf Anton
Published: November 2018

This chapter discusses the practical possibilities of achieving increased downstream processing in extractive industries and the policies that are commonly used for this purpose. It reviews the reasons why forward vertical integration is not always an optimal choice for extractive industry companies. It finds little support for the argument that differences in market power dictate the geography of downstream processing. The degree of vertical integration appears to be mainly driven by production economics. Market-determined processing margins fluctuate, which raises the risks of investing in downstream processing capacity. Industrial policy for downstream processing is discussed based on experiences in India, Indonesia, Zambia, and Tanzania. Results so far seem to indicate that unintended consequences dominate the outcomes.
On the Edge of Democracy
Authors: Forlenza Rosario
Published: November 2018

This book links the emergence of democracy in Italy after World War II to human experiences and the symbolic formation of meaning in a time of political and existential uncertainty. Between 1943 and 1948 Italians experienced the most intense period of the war, with its hardship and violence, and the most intense period of social, economic, and political reconstruction, with its hopes and vitality. Unlike conventional accounts that focus on institutions, ideologies, and political norms, On the Edge of Democracy examines the aspirations, expectations, and hopes of real people in real time—the social dramas the individuals engaged with. Adopting an anthropological approach, it sees the process of democratization in Italy as analogous to a ritual passage, in which social order was suspended and then reasserted following a liminal time during which ideas and beliefs were reformulated and new meanings, symbols, and identities emerged. The period of civil war 1943–5, especially, was a time of brutality and dramatic violence as well as a critical juncture of creative existential pluralism. The events during the period following the collapse of Fascism and the disintegration of national unity created a new popular consciousness and changed the relationships among individuals, and between individual and political power. Existential crisis and lived experiences during this period of uncertainty generated new meanings, interpretations, and hopes that shaped post-Fascist democracy. Democracy in Italy was the consequence of ordinary’s people reactions to, and symbolization of, the circumstances which they went through in those extraordinary times.
Between East and West
Authors: Forlenza Rosario
Published: November 2018

This chapter deals with the growing influence of both Soviet and domestic Communism on the evolution of democracy and the political transformation of Italy. It inserts the political and existential choices of the fledgling democratic society into the overarching context of the time, which was the incipient Cold War. Italy was a microcosm of this global context, because the most important political forces, the Catholics and the Communists, operated with the myth of freedom/America and the myth of the Soviet Union respectively. Yet the struggle was not exclusively pervaded and marked by contrast, fear, and opposition. Party political opponents had fought together in the anti-fascist Resistance and had collaborated in the organization of the democratic institutional arrangement and in the writing of the republican Constitution. The apparently ideological struggle between Catholics and communists was in reality a search for order and meaning between two contested sovereignties.
Democracy and the Power of Memory
Authors: Forlenza Rosario
Published: November 2018

This chapter focusses on the memory of the war experience, which developed through varying narrative reconstructions and played a formative role in the self-understanding and self-construction of the nation. Postwar Italy was characterized by selective memory regimes that produced new symbolic representations of the nation. The chapter inserts narratives of a new beginning (second Risorgimento) of post-fascist Italy as a democratic nation into the sea of contested memories, driven by sacrifice, victimhood, and the existential trope of rebirth. It weaves together different aspects of remembering and forgetting, the problematic status of the Resistance, and the role of the Allies in portraying Italians as having been seduced by the evil Germans, thus alleviating them from responsibility. The proposition here is that the fluctuation of the narratives of the Resistance in the politics of republican Italy must engage with the symbolic dimension and the non-rational mode of action and reflection.
Meanings of Democracy
Authors: Forlenza Rosario
Published: November 2018

This chapter analyzes the liminal time of the war as a critical interstice of creative pluralism, and explores the various meanings of democracy that emerged from the transformative experiences of Italians in the years 1943–5. The chapter criticizes the rationalist approaches that distinguish between beginning and end, between clear-cut positions either in terms of party allegiance, institutional affiliation, or ideological commitment. It examines the argument for what had been called the “grey zone” of the fluid, unfinished, chaotic, and bewildering. Furthermore, it explores the strategies of resistance formulated by subordinate groups, the very important case of the role of women, and the heightened sense of social equality that developed during and despite the war. It makes the case for the foundation of democratic politics in the individual and collective experiences of undergoing social dramas and being forced to make political and existential choices.
Conclusion
Authors: Forlenza Rosario
Published: November 2018

The Conclusion contrasts the dominant structuralist and functionalist approaches to democracy and democratization, with the concept of the passage to democracy as an endogenous process of historical and symbolic articulation, and as the symbolization of lived experiences that engender transformations in consciousness, meanings, and beliefs. Rather than assuming a universal and externally determined model for the democratic process, it makes use of the Italian case to argue that democracy is a lengthy and ongoing narrative, and a process of meaning-formation in the context of political and existential uncertainty. Democratizing processes are determined not by socio-economic and cultural factors, not by the pursuit of strategies by the elites, but by a complex interweaving of individual and collective reaction to revolution, war, and dictatorship.
Evolutionary Processes
Authors: Thurner Stefan , Hanel Rudolf , Klimekl Peter
Published: November 2018

Evolutionary processes combine many features of complex systems: they are algorithmic; states co-evolve with interactions; they show power law statistics; they are selforganized critical; and they are driven non-equilibrium systems. Evolution is a dynamical process that changes the composition of large sets of interconnected elements, entities, or species over time. The essence of evolutionary processes is that, through the interaction of existing entities with each other and with their environment, they give rise to an open-ended process of creation and destruction of new entities. Evolutionary processes are critical, co-evolutionary, and combinatorial, meaning that thew entities are created from combinations of existing ones. We review the concepts of the replicator equation, fitness landscapes, cascading events, the adjacent possible. We review several classical quantitative approaches to evolutionary dynamics such as the NK model and the Bak–Snappen model. We propose a general and universal framework for evolutionary dynamics that is critical, co-evolutionary, and combinatorial.
Special Functions and Approximations
Authors: Thurner Stefan , Hanel Rudolf , Klimekl Peter
Published: November 2018

The chapter contains the most important mathematical forumas that are used throughout the book. This collection should make the book self-contained. The chapter also contains some useful approximations that are used several times in the text.
Case Studies of School-Level Governance Dynamics in the Eastern Cape
Authors: Brian Levy , Shumane Lawule
Published: November 2018

This chapter explores some micro-level governance and political economy determinants of performance over time in four schools in low-income communities in the Butterworth district of the Eastern Cape. Using process tracing methodologies, the chapter explores the interactions over time between school-level leadership, the bureaucracy, school governing bodies, and the broader community—and how they impact school-level performance. There was no evidence of effective support by the bureaucracy for the educational mission of the schools. But there was striking evidence in three of the four case study schools of the role of participatory governance by SGBs, communities, and parents as a partial institutional substitute, offsetting to some extent the weaknesses of hierarchy. The findings offer encouragement that non-hierarchical entry points for improving educational outcomes indeed have some potential to achieve gains.
Experimentation and Conceptualization in the Field of Urban Expansion and the Construction of Territory
Authors: Gamberini Andrea
Published: November 2018

One of the main manifestations of the commune’s ambition to act as a public power was assuredly control over the territory surrounding the city. As this chapter shows, the question was lucidly addressed by the cives themselves, who, in the years of the wars against Frederick I, claimed full control over the comitatus, despite the territorial conception that the emperor still entertained with regard to diocesan space. It was precisely this conflict between commune and empire that became the litmus test for one of the main clashes between political cultures in the twelfth century.
The Political Cultures of the City and the Territory
Authors: Gamberini Andrea
Published: November 2018

The projection of the city commune beyond the walls raised the issue of confrontation not only with imperial political culture, but also with that of the territorial bodies. The civitates initiated a dialogue with the latter which initially valorized those elements in common above all—those, in other words, on which it was possible to build agreements. These ranged from the allodiality of power to the culture of possession, to feudalism, etc.—elements consistent with a policy of expansion that in these initial stages generally took place peacefully. One case apart was the political culture of territoriality, which jurists from a later age summed up with the formula iurisdictio cohaeret territorio: not unknown to the society of the countryside, it acquired increasing importance only when the civil courts, called upon to resolve jurisdictional litigation between lords, elected it as the ordering principle of the power struggles in the countryside.
Some Cornerstones of City and Communal Ideology
Authors: Gamberini Andrea
Published: November 2018

This chapter focuses on the originality of the communal political experience, which took shape around the horizontal ties between the cives, whose strength was able to break the traditional nexus between power and social pre-eminence, even that of the emperor himself. Libertas, in terms of political autonomy based on custom, then became one of the structuring words of the great narrative elaborated by the communes, part of a broader ideology of civil life that, through an ancient lexicon (consul, res publica, iurisdictio, etc.), articulated a completely new kind of content. The chapter then focuses on the threshold represented by the advent of the Societas Populi, which introduced the category of bonum commune.
Between unitas and aequalitas
Authors: Gamberini Andrea
Published: November 2018

This chapter focuses on political life within the city commune. Although each political group tended to represent itself as ‘the whole’, division in the political body not only existed but was in fact a constituent part of communal experience, where a variety of different social groups and sectors confronted one another in increasingly regulated and disciplined forms. To see how the ideologies of unity came to terms with the theme of plurality means, therefore, investigating phenomena in the context of political culture, such as the organization of assemblies, the decision-making process, and the mediation of councils. In this respect the chapter casts light on the development of new civic values, such as aequalitas, and fresh legal principles, such as quod omnes tangit ab omnibus comprobetur—what affects everybody must be agreed upon by everybody—which succeeded not only in justifying collective decision-making but also in establishing the principle of representation.
The Ideologues of Communal Political Culture
Authors: Gamberini Andrea
Published: November 2018

This chapter focuses on the immense work of refoundation of political language and culture carried out by two groups in the communal age: the experts of the Ars dictandi and the jurists. The former, through the reworking of materials from the distant past (ancient republicanism, Cicero, then, from the end of the thirteenth century, also Aristotle), came to identify the essence of politics in the government of the community through justice, which alone could guarantee peace and collective profit. The latter, meanwhile, developed the instruments to affirm the primacy of the commune both within and outside the city. The effect was twofold: to legitimize the efforts of the commune, committed to promoting itself as a public power, and to lay the foundations for a relationship with the jurists that would become osmotic and pregnant with consequences.
The Political Cultures of the contado
Authors: Gamberini Andrea
Published: November 2018

This chapter analyses power relations in the countryside, focusing on the relationships between the lords of the castle and the dependent peasants. The aim is twofold: on the one hand, to highlight the absence of a shared political culture and, on the other, to describe the individual ideas of each social group (the culture of violence promulgated by the lords, the attempt to establish pacts on the part of the peasants, the role of conflict in implementing political ties, etc.). In the face of such divergence, the chapter investigates the ways in which opposing political cultures could coexist and interact.