bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Philosophical Resources for the Psychiatric Interview
Authors: Stanghellini Giovanni
Published: January 2014

This chapter: (1) reviews the basic tenets of mainstream psychiatric interviewing techniques; (2) analyzes the different ways of conceptualizing symptoms in the biomedical, psychodynamic, and phenomenological-hermeneutical paradigms; (3) describes the family of dispositives in use during the interview, that is the first- (subjective), second- (dialogical), and third-person (objective) mode of interviewing; (4) introduces three levels of the psychopathological inquiry: descriptive psychopathology, systematically studying conscious experiences, ordering and classifying them, and creating valid and reliable terminology; clinical psychopathology, pragmatically bridging relevant symptoms to diagnostic categories; structural psychopathology, assuming that the manifold of phenomena of a given mental disorder are a meaningful whole; and (5) provides a phenomenologically- and hermeneutically-informed flowchart for the psychiatric interview.
What is Mental Illness?
Authors: Bolton Derek
Published: January 2014

The question "What is mental illness?" raises many issues in many contexts, personal, social, legal, and scientific. This chapter reviews mental health problems as they appear to the person with the problems, and to family and friends-before the person attends the clinic and is given a diagnosis-a time in which whether there really is a problem, as opposed to life's normal troubles and variations, is undecided, as also the nature of the problem, if such it be, and the related matter what kind of expert advice should be sought. Once at the clinic, a diagnosis may be given-using criteria well-worked-out in the diagnostic manuals. The chapter discusses the conceptualizations of mental disorder in the diagnostic manuals, their rationale, and what can and cannot be reasonably expected of them. There are more position statements than definitions, and while they signal many dilemmas, they do not resolve them. Attempts to do so in the surrounding literature on the concept of mental illness are reviewed in the chapter, with conclusions favoring the features emphasized in the diagnostic manuals: distress and impairment. Finally the chapter considers how far the science may help draw boundaries around mental illness.
Vice and Mental Disorders
Authors: Sadler John Z.
Published: January 2014

The concept of vice-wrongful or criminal conduct-poses a metaphysical clash with the non-moral values of impairment, injury, and incapacity that drive illness/disorder concepts. Nevertheless, vice and disorder concepts have interpenetrated psychiatry past and present through practical social-service interactions between the mental health, adult and juvenile criminal justice, and intellectual disability systems. This chapter will unpack and briefly review the philosophical issues, including considerations of moral and legal responsibility, diagnostic constructs, and the medicalization of vice in contemporary psychiatry.
Thought Insertion, Self-Awareness, and Rationality
Authors: Roessler Johannes
Published: January 2014

This chapter argues that recent attempts to make sense of the delusion of thought insertion in terms of a distinction between two notions of thought ownership have been unsuccessful. It also proposes an alternative account, in which the delusion is to be interpreted in the light of its prehistory.
Causation and Mechanisms in Psychiatry
Authors: Campbell John
Published: January 2014

This chapter reviews the problem of finding the 'right level' of causal explanation in psychiatry. This is not a purely philosophical problem, but one that frequently arises in practice for psychiatrists. For most scientists, experiment is the crucial test of a causal hypothesis: for X to cause Y is for intervention on X to be reflected in a change in the value of Y. But this kind of approach cannot tell us the right "level" at which to specify the causes of a particular outcome. The natural idea is the right level is one that specifies the 'mechanism' by which Y is produced. But the notion of a "mechanism" in psychiatry is obviously problematic. This chapter attempts to locate the sources of the difficulty here, looking at both a priori and empirical views as to when a "mechanism" has been correctly specified.
Practical Neuropsychiatric Ethics
Authors: Foddy Bennett , Kahane Guy , Savulescu Julian
Published: January 2014

Philosophers have long been involved in the pursuit of a goal shared by researchers in psychiatry and the cognitive sciences: understanding the relationship between the functioning of the human mind and human well-being or suffering. For this reason there is a very large area of overlap between philosophical and psychiatric research. The overlap is particularly significant in the domain ofpractical ethics, which is concerned with understanding the moral dimension of policies and actions in the real world. This chapter reviews two distinct domains in which psychiatry and practical ethics overlap. First, issues in practical ethics arise out of new advances in psychopharmacology, including clinical and non-clinical use of new antidepressants drugs, the clinical use of placebo medications, and psychiatric drugs which enhance human cognition; these issues are frequently grouped under the banner of "neuroethics." Second, the understanding of fundamental questions in moral philosophy is being driven forward by evidence from psychology and psychiatry. Evidence from autism and the personality disorders is shedding light on the nature of moral motivation, while evidence from addiction and compulsion is generating progress in understanding moral responsibility. Finally, some areas are highlighted in which the science of psychiatry may benefit from the application of existing work in moral philosophy and practical ethics.
Placebo Effects in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy
Authors: Jopling David A.
Published: January 2014

This chapter begins by debunking some of the myths and misconceptions surrounding placebo effects, through a survey of some of the discoveries that have been made in the last fifty years about the range, frequency, and potency of placebo effects in medicine and psychiatry. It then looks at how placebo effects make an appearance in psychiatry and psychotherapy, particularly in the case of treatments of depression that involve psychoactive medication and/or talk therapy. Following this is a survey of some of the leading definitions of the placebo effect, as well as a survey of some of the leading explanatory theories. The chapter concludes with a discussion of some new directions in placebo research: namely, open-label placebos and the evolutionary origins of placebo effects.
Introduction
Authors: Allan Keith
Published: January 2014

In the Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics leading scholars from around the world explore and discuss the complex of interconnected approaches, skills, and tasks that has characterized the study of language for more than two-and-a-half millennia.
From IPA to Praat and Beyond
Authors: Loakes Deborah
Published: January 2014

In the late nineteenth century, the development of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the inception of acoustic analysis together were the starting point for phonetic analysis and interpretation as it is carried out today. From making a record of an utterance using an IPA transcription, to analyzing the vocal fold vibrations in a voiced consonant using speech analysis software, to assessing tongue–palate contact using articulatory tracking devices – the possibilities for transcribing and analyzing spoken language are multitudinous. In this chapter, some of the tools used in modern-day phonetic research, as well as their progress over time, are reviewed.
Discoverers of the Phoneme
Authors: van der Hulst Harry
Published: January 2014

This chapter covers the history of phonology starting with Jan Baudouin de Courtenay and Mikołai Kruszewsky (the Kazan School), followed by the impact of Ferdinand de Saussure’s structuralist ideas, which lead to the Prague School (N. S. Trubetzkoy, Nicolai van Wijk, Roman Jakobson). Subsequently, it covers Louis Hjelmslev’s glossematic theory, the London School (the prosodic analysis of J. R. Firth), and various American structuralists (Franz Boas, Edward Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield). Roman Jacobson reappears as the crucial link between the Prague School and generative phonology. Only brief remarks are made about current developments of this model. Developments in Western and Eastern Europe are also discussed. Throughout the chapter the goal is to highlight continuity and parallels between different a- and co-temporal models. The comparative remarks focus on such issues as the phonetic content of phonological units, the nature of phonological primes/features, phonological levels, rule ordering, whether phonology is different from morphosyntax, and how phonology relates to morphosyntax (“autonomy,” “interfaces”).
Word-Based Morphology from Aristotle to Modern WP (Word and Paradigm Models)
Authors: Blevins James P.
Published: January 2014

The word-based model has been fairly stable through most of its history. The Alexandrine model provides the basis for the later Latin grammars and in turn for subsequent descriptive and pedagogical presentations of classical grammar. An essentially classical word-based perspective likewise survives into the Neogrammarian period and remains relevant to morphological analysis in the field of historical linguistics. Although neglected during the early Bloomfieldian period, word-based approaches attracted renewed interest following the proposals of Hockett (1954) and Robins (1959). The explicit model set out by Matthews (1965, 1972) established word-based approaches on the same footing as other contemporary models. From this point of origin, the word-based tradition evolved into distinctive realizational and implicational branches, both of which remain under active development. The evolution of this tradition not only rehabilitated an ancient model, but also reacquainted modern audiences with the types of morphological patterns that had initially motivated its classical variants.
Noam Chomsky's Contribution to Linguistics
Authors: Freidin Robert
Published: January 2014

This sketch attempts to convey the magnitude of Chomsky’s contribution to linguistics by comparing his initial formulation of generative grammar with his structuralist predecessors’ approach to syntax and then comparing that formulation to the current perspective. In the intervening six decades, Chomsky: (a) constructed a formal theory of grammar and explored its foundations; (b) developed a cognitive/epistemological interpretation of the theory, leading to the biolinguistic perspective; (c) contributed major proposals for constraints on grammars resulting in a significant reduction in and simplification of the formal grammatical machinery; and (d) re-evaluated the theory of grammar in terms of language design, raising the possibility of empirical proposals about the language faculty as a biological entity with properties of economy, simplicity, and efficient computation. In redefining the science of language (a–d), Chomsky has wrought a revolution without precedent in the history of linguistics.
The Logico-philosophical Tradition
Authors: Seuren Pieter A. M.
Published: January 2014

The Aristotelian notion of proposition laid the foundations for subsequent theories of grammar and of truth and falsity. Eubulides (ca 405–330 BCE), one of the founders of the Stoa, anticipated most of the main themes of twentieth-century semantics (the Liar paradox, intensional contexts, presuppositions, vagueness). During the Middle Ages, logic was studied intensively, but labored under metaphysical and religious a-prioris. Subsequent centuries were relatively poor in this regard, until the twentieth century, when logic turned mathematical and clashed with natural intuitions. The main aim was to model natural language after the ideal of logical language, without much regard for the ecology of natural language or for its structural and other formal properties. Pragmatics was introduced to bridge the gap. Some now advocate a more integrated ecological perspective, deriving the logic of language from the meanings of the logical operators in natural language.
Language, the Mind, and the Brain
Authors: Garnham Alan
Published: January 2014

This chapter provides an historic overview of language, mind, and brain. After brief remarks on the mind and the body, the links between language and the mind, and language and the brain are considered. Although there has long been an interest in language and mind, the systematic scientific investigation of the relation between them began only with the establishment of psychology laboratories, and the sub-discipline psycholinguistics, in the 1870s, with its three main sub-branches: acquisition, comprehension, and production. Modern interest in language and the brain begins with Gall, and blossomed in the nineteenth century with the study of aphasic patients. In the last fifty years, new behavioral and neuroscientific techniques provide new ways of addressing questions about language and brain. In a parallel development – embodied cognition – interest has broadened from the brain to the (rest of the) body, and its role in language use.
Translation: the Intertranslatability of Languages; Translation and Language Teaching
Authors: Malmkjær Kirsten
Published: January 2014

The chapter addresses the question of the intertranslatability of languages by way of discussions of (i) Jakobson’s and Sapir’s views of the relationship between translation and contrastive/comparative linguistics, (ii) Quine’s and Davidson’s use of the notions of translation and interpretation in analytical philosophy of language, and (iii) major movements in twentieth-century translation studies. Finally, the arguments for and against the use of translation in language teaching are rehearsed, in light of the finding of one of the very few empirical studies of this issue.
Philosophy of Linguistics
Authors: Itkonen Esa
Published: January 2014

In the Western tradition, language has in general been investigated as embedded in the tripartite framework “language – mind – reality,” which embodies an isomorphic relation of signification in the left-to-right direction. In some later developments, to be sure, the ontological and psychological components of this framework have been de-emphasized to varying degrees. In actual linguistic investigations there has been an implicit tension between two descriptive ideals: on the one hand, the axiomatic goal of describing with maximal simplicity as much as possible of what is intuitively known to be the case; on the other, the goal of causally explaining what is observed to happen.
Shakespeare and Italian Poetry
Authors: Mortimer Anthony
Published: January 2014

Shakespeare’s poetry gains much by being read in the light of the Italian texts that founded both the genres he exploits: the Ovidian erotic narrative and the sonnet sequence. Italian poets such as Anguillara and Dolce had already adapted episodes from the Metamorphoses for stanzaic poems and their treatment of the Venus and Adonis story establishes the essential contours of Shakespeare’s version. Reading the Sonnets as part of a tradition that derives not only from Petrarch’s Canzoniere but also from Dante’s Vita Nuova illuminates such aspects of the genre as the relation between putative autobiography and exemplary narrative, stasis and progression, the sequence as open-ended form, and the corruption of vision. Finally, as an example of how Petrarchism enables some of the characteristic achievements of the late Renaissance, one may look briefly at the poetry of Michelangelo which foreshadows Shakespeare’s Sonnets by a thematic expansion which embraces problems of social and sexual identity and questions the validity of analogy as poetic argument.
Shakespearean Being
Authors: Tucker Herbert F.
Published: January 2014

Victorian poetry took Shakespeare up as both a guide and a challenge. The example of his sonnets and soliloquies stood behind the era’s pre-eminent formal developments in, respectively, lyric sequence and dramatic monologue. Phrasal allusion to Shakespeare was ubiquitous, often ingenious; deeper down, poets invoked him when exploring, or just revering, mysteries of identity made unprecedentedly urgent by the Victorian association between lyrical poetry and individual subjectivity. To this article of literary faith the poetic impersonality underwriting Shakespeare’s dramatic versatility posed a stumbling block, eliciting from some Victorians heavy polemical leverage and from others a ritual genuflection. Representative sonnets on the Bard by Arnold, Swinburne, and Browning variously exalt and query the poetics of transcendent being that, in a secularizing epoch, gathered around his name.
Shakespearean Poetry and the Romantics
Authors: O'Neill Michael
Published: January 2014

The response of the major Romantic poets to Shakespeare is multifaceted. But recognition of Shakespearean vitality and suggestiveness is pervasive. The chapter begins with a brief discussion of Blake’s colour-print ‘Pity’ and an account of pre-Romantic responses to Shakespeare (notably in the criticism of Henry Mackenzie and Samuel Johnson, and the poetry of Thomas Gray). It then explores, in turn, the responses of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley, and Keats to Shakespeare, discussing how the Romantics use Shakespearean resonances in their poetry: Wordsworth, for example, echoing a number of plays to suggestive effect in the concluding movement of Tintern Abbey; Coleridge alluding to Twelfth Night at the close of ‘The Nightingale’; Keats drawing on various texts in shaping the mingling of romance and anti-romance in The Eve of St. Agnes. The essay seeks to intimate the range and depth of Romantic poetry’s orchestration of the Shakespearean bequest.
The Sound of Shakespeare Thinking
Authors: Longenbach James
Published: January 2014

Thinking, Freud argued, begins as a pre-conscious activity, although we paradoxically become aware of it only in consciousness: whatever we know about thinking is already a representation of thinking. This chapter argues that Shakespeare in this sense invented what we most commonly recognize as the verbal embodiment of thinking. Contrasting 3 Henry VI with King John, it shows how, in the latter play, Shakespeare first constructed his signature representation of interiority in the highly disjunctive, self-revising speech of the Bastard. Moving on to examine the more fully ripened version of this kind of speech in King Lear and The Tempest, this chapter then shows how Shakespeare’s representations of thinking have inflected not only the history of the lyric poem in English (from Keats’s ‘Ode to a Nightingale’ to Louise Gluck’s ‘Before the Storm’) but also the novel (Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway).
‘To Show … and so to Publish’
Authors: Scott Charlotte
Published: January 2014

This chapter examines Shakespeare’s Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece within the context of the relationship between word and performance. Tracing the poems’ exploration of both action and affect, it examines the multiple forms through which representation becomes authoritative. Beginning with Venus, it focuses on the relationship between performance—sexual, artistic, theatrical, and authorial—and response, emotional, physical, and amorous. Developing the dynamic between action and affect, The Rape of Lucrece produces a complex relationship between knowledge and representation in which the legibility of the body emerges as a powerful and often destructive marker of authority. In this poem the language of print—reading, writing, interpreting, and reproducing—imaginatively reconstructs the body in action. Situating these narrative poems within the context of dramatic performance and textual authority, the chapter highlights the role of the narrative poems in the development of Shakespeare’s dramatic art.
Understanding Diversity as Culture
Authors: Salas Eduardo , Salazar Maritza R. , Gelfand Michele J.
Published: January 2014

Cultural diversity—the degree to which there are differences within and between individuals based on both subjective and objective components of culture—can affect individual and group processes. However, much is still unclear about the effects of cultural diversity. We review the literature on cultural diversity to assess the state of the art and to identify key issues for future research. This review emphasizes the importance of understanding different types of cultural diversity and their independent and combined effect on team performance. We identify key contributions to the study of cultural diversity and discuss frontiers for future research.
The Social and Psychological Experience of Stigma
Authors: Hebl Michelle R. , King Eden B.
Published: January 2014

In this chapter, focus is shifted from broad conceptualizations of diversity to the perspective that some differences are imbued with social value. Drawing from a rich tradition of stigma theory and research, we explore the intra- and interpersonal experiences of targets of stigma and their interaction partners. We review general theories about stigmatization, the nature of stigmatized attributes, manifestations of stigma, and consequences of stigma for individuals and their organizations. This synthesis guides important avenues for future research.
Demographic Diversity as Network Connections: Homophily and the Diversity–Performance Debate
Authors: Reagans Ray
Published: January 2014

Research documenting the influence of demographic diversity on informal social networks is reviewed and critiqued. I focus in particular on research describing the importance of demographic diversity in the development of strong interpersonal relationships. I also consider the importance of network connections between team members and with colleagues outside the team in mediating the association between demographic diversity and team performance. Internal and external relationships define a team’s social capital, and I illustrate how a focus on a team’s social capital helps to explain why the “diversity effect” on team performance varies from positive to negative. In my call for future research, in addition to a focus on demographic diversity, I emphasize the importance of considering more general dynamics and processes that either moderate or mediate the association between demographic diversity and important organizational outcomes.
Diversity Cognition and Climates
Authors: van Knippenberg Daan , Homan Astrid C. , van Ginkel Wendy P.
Published: January 2014

Demographic diversity at work can yield performance benefits but also invite psychological disengagement and be a source of interpersonal tension. In managing this double-edged sword of demographic diversity, the role of diversity cognition (beliefs, attitudes) and climates seems particularly promising, and in this chapter we take stock of the state of the science in this area. We conclude that research in diversity cognition and climates will benefit from more attention to diversity as a group characteristic to complement the dominant focus on demographic dissimilarity, and from more attention to the potential positive effects of diversity to complement the dominant emphasis on diversity’s potential negative effects. This is a conclusion that by and large holds across the study of individual diversity beliefs and attitudes, individual diversity climate perceptions, and shared diversity climate perceptions.
Diversity Staffing: Inclusive Personnel Recruitment and Selection Practices
Authors: Avery Derek R. , McKay Patrick F. , Volpone Sabrina D.
Published: January 2014

In this chapter, we discuss the research literature on diversity staffing to shed light on a topic that is increasingly important to both researchers and practitioners. To navigate the literature in this area, we organize our discussion around six basic questions confronting organizations as they pursue diversity during the recruitment and selection processes: (1) why should organizations staff for diversity, (2) who should recruit and select applicants, (3) what messages should organizations convey to job seekers, (4) when should organizations prioritize diversity staffing, (5) where should organizations recruit applicants, and (6) how should organizations select for diversity. We also discuss several existing gaps in the literature and identify directions for future research and practice.
Socioeconomic Trends: Broadening the Diversity Ecosystem
Authors: Barak Michàlle E. Mor , Travis Dnika J.
Published: January 2014

Socioeconomic trends, such as worker and employer migration, increased life expectancy, and educational gaps, continue to magnify the numbers and kinds of people who work together in organizations. This chapter identifies 10 major socioeconomic trends affecting today’s global workforce and reviews statistical data and research related to the effects of these trends on individual, group, and organizational outcomes. The authors examine the challenges and opportunities embedded in broadening the diversity ecosystem and offer future directions for research. Based on these socioeconomic trends, the authors conclude with a vision of inclusion for global diversity management.
Feminisms
Authors: Dhamoon Rita Kaur
Published: January 2014

Although it has been noted that the ways feminists historicize, explain, and define feminism are challenged and subject to interpretation, this article focuses on the idea that feminist debates show openness and plurality to further clarification, inquiry, and reflection. It studies the various ways of understanding feminism as well as its core features and methods of inquiry used by feminists. The article also discusses the modern debates among feminists and tries to identify some of the challenges and important contributions of feminist scholars to the study of politics.
Heteronormativity and Sexuality
Authors: Lind Amy C.
Published: January 2014

This article focuses on the concepts of heteronormativity and sexuality. It first discusses the recent attention given to sexuality by scholars of gender and politics along with the contributions feminist scholars have made to introduce or rethink both heteronormativity and sexuality. The article then studies four basic areas of inquiry into the relationship of sexuality to gender and politics, including the heteronormative dimensions of regional and global political institutions and policies. It also examines the historical trends in scholarship and the important modern debates that help shape the intersecting and interdisciplinary fields of sexuality, gender, and politics.
Gender Violence
Authors: Elman R. Amy
Published: January 2014

This article studies gender violence, which is considered as violence against women in most literature. In this article, however, gender violence refers to violence against both men and women. The discussion begins with an examination of the constraints and recent trends of gender violence. It then considers the efforts of several feminist theorists who politicized male violence and summarizes empirical work on the responses of different states and regions to the claims of women’s movements to stop gender violence and its consequences. The article also looks at the global level of governance to gender violence and three key developments.
Households, Families, and Social Reproduction
Authors: Razavi Shahrashoub
Published: January 2014

This article discusses social reproduction in terms of the household and family. It explains some of the terminology that is needed to understand the key debates and then shifts to the political economy of social reproduction and the relationship between capitalism and patriarchy. The article also discusses family policies that are considered to be central to their objectives and in a number of contexts. An empirical analysis of family—along with glimpses from families in East Asia, Western Europe, and Southern Africa—is also presented.
Gender, Care, and Welfare
Authors: Sainsbury Diane
Published: January 2014

This article takes a look at care, which is a highly centered and contested concept, and focuses on industrialized countries that have established welfare states. The first section presents a definition of care along with several conceptions of care. The second section focuses on the care dimension of welfare states and the different policy responses. The third section explains these policy responses, specifically on gender relations, the politics of care, and the economics of care. The article ends with a discussion of care in the European Union, international globalizations, and global migrations.
Organizing around Gender Identities
Authors: Kretschmer Kelsy , Meyer David S.
Published: January 2014

This article studies gender movements. The discussion focuses on social movements and not entirely on feminism or women’s movements, looking at the ways that gendered identities help shape movements, along with the ways that movements function in gendered environments. Next, it identifies and differentiates antifeminist, nonfeminist, and feminist movements, before studying the role of gender in each. The article also lists a wide range of movements, from racist contestations to labor and peace movements, and considers the participation of women in antifeminist movements.
The Comparative Study of Women’s Movements
Authors: Beckwith Karen
Published: January 2014

This article serves as a comparative study of women’s movements. It begins with a review of the definitions of women’s movements in recent scholarship and then turns to a study of the differences among women in movements, women’s movements, and feminist movements. The next section discusses the various approaches to women’s activism in and support for political movements, along with the question of what it means to study women’s movements in comparative perspective. Finally, the article examines the analytical leverage gained from a comparative analysis of women’s movements in terms of understandings of gender, politics, and intersection.
Women’s Policy Agencies and State Feminism
Authors: McBride Dorothy E. , Mazur Amy G.
Published: January 2014

This article uses the work of feminist researchers to describe the trend of women’s policy agencies and forwards several primary questions, issues, findings, and emerging research agendas. It presents an outline of the growth and spread of agencies during the twentieth century and addresses three assumptions central to the study of agencies and state feminism. The article concludes with a section on the methods, framework, research results, and theory of state feminism in Western postindustrial democracies. The discussion also references the work of the Research Network on Gender Politics and the State, whose results challenge the agencies’ effectiveness.
Policy Outputs
Authors: Blofield Merike , Haas Liesl
Published: January 2014

This article discusses policy outputs on gender equality. First it reviews literature that tries to categorize the policies promoting or reducing gender equality and then takes a look at the different stages of the policy process, where it introduces women’s reproductive capacities, the work–family nexus, and violence against women. The article also takes a look at the efforts of scholars to make the larger dynamics of gender equality more visible and discusses the variation present in the different stages of policy outputs.
Security, Conflict, and Militarization
Authors: Hansen Lene
Published: January 2014

This article investigates how “security” is imbued with gender and tries to provide an account of the core academic and political dynamics that arise when “gender” and “security” are combined. It begins with a section on the political ambiguities and dynamics that surround “security” and explains how combining gender and security summons some of the dichotomies of political life. This is followed by a discussion on the primary ways that gender and security have been linked in policy and academic discourse. The article then studies the claim that women are more peaceful than men and notes that, if this claim is true, it would imply that placing more women in positions of political power would produce a more secure world. It ends with a discussion of the ways gender can become a “referent object” for security, the concepts of masculinity and militarism, and the contribution of feminist security studies to security studies.
Managerial Economics
Authors: Rubin Paul H. , Dnes Anthony
Published: January 2014

This chapter assesses trends in managerial economics, in particular considering the extent to which a convergence may be occurring between managerial economics and mainstream work. Managerial economics is currently developing into “the new managerial economics” that incorporates much organizational economics, including the study of strategic interaction. New work does not so much displace the old, but is more in the nature of an augmentation because of an increased focus on organizational questions related to managing human resources.
The New Managerial Economics of Firm Growth
Authors: Teece David J.
Published: January 2014

This article argues that traditional managerial economics is too oriented toward short-run efficiency at the expense of an understanding of the requirements for long-run competitive advantage. To address innovation and growth, managerial economics must encompass intangible assets and capabilities. The article covers the management of intangible assets such as business models, organizational design, and intellectual property. It also discusses key ideas such as cospecialization, complementary assets, and increasing returns. These concepts are brought together in the Dynamic Capabilities framework, which has been the subject of an extensive strategic management literature. Dynamic capabilities, the strength of which determine the firm’s ability to address and shape changing business environments, require managers to adopt an entrepreneurial role. Managers, especially entrepreneurial managers, are too little represented in managerial economics. This lacuna weakens the ability of the field to understand and address the long-term needs of the modern business enterprise.
Strategies for Network Industries
Authors: Shy Oz
Published: January 2014

Firms' strategic behavior and managerial decision-making in network industries may differ from those in other industries. This happens because an increase in the demand for one brand need not reduce the demand for competing brands. In addition, consumers may be locked-in a particular standard, so they may bear a cost of switching to competing brands. Therefore, starting as early as from the design stage, managers must evaluate the implications of their choices of prices, technology standards, and the degree of compatibility of their own brands with the standards adopted by firms producing competing brands. This article analyzes some of the major issues facing managers operating in modern network industries.
Internalization Theory as the General Theory of International Strategic Management
Authors: Verbeke Alain , Kano Liena
Published: January 2014

This chapter analyzes internalization theory’s impact on international business (IB) research. It reviews internalization theory’s origins as well as its intellectual foundations, and discusses key applications of the theory in the IB sphere, inter alia, analysis of the multinational enterprise’s (MNE’s) entry mode choice, its international expansion strategies and internal governance, and the regionalizaton phenomenon. The analysis suggests that the contemporary version of internalization theory can enrich scholars’ understanding of a wide range of empirical phenomena, both in IB and in the broader field of strategic management. The chapter concludes with a prediction of internalization theory’s future contributions to management research.
Design and Implementation of Pay for Performance
Authors: Gibbs Michael
Published: January 2014

A large, mature and robust economics literature now provides a useful framework for understanding incentives. This chapter uses the lessons of that literature to discuss how to design and implement pay for performance in practice. A unified treatment of properties of numeric performance measures is provided, including how performance measures relate to employee knowledge and decision making. Subjective performance evaluation, and the tie of evaluations to rewards, are analyzed. Practical implementation issues, such as matching of pay for performance to job design, motivating creativity, and links between incentives and employee selection, are considered. The chapter concludes with suggested directions for future research.
Vertical Merger
Authors: Higgins Richard , Perelman Mark
Published: January 2014

This chapter addresses several theories of integration through merger of activities at successive stages of production and distribution under different market conditions. It provides analyses of the principal issues associated with vertical merger from the perspective of evaluating its competitive effects. In this regard, we concern ourselves with the profitability and the welfare effects of vertical merger between one or more firms in an input market and one or more firms in an output market. Our main conclusion is that vertical merger rarely is anticompetitive, but often harms competitors. Finally, this chapter evaluates antitrust agencies’ success in identifying market conditions that are predictive of the net competitive effects of vertical merger.
The Evolving Modern Theory of the Firm
Authors: Maness Robert , Wiggins Steven N.
Published: January 2014

This chapter examines the role played by firms in allocating resources in a modern economy, explaining when firms are superior to markets and the limits to firm size. The analysis begins by carefully examining what distinguishes firm allocation from markets. We then review the various theoretical approaches to determining the size of firms and the types of transactions that occur within firms versus within markets. These models can be grouped into four broad categories: transaction cost models, property rights models, adaptation models, and incentive system models. We review the distinctive predictions of these models regarding the size and scope of firms, and numerous empirical tests. We discuss these tests, their results and limitation, and current research challenges. We conclude with a discussion of directions for future research.
Managing Workplace Safety and Health
Authors: Kniesner Thomas , Leeth John D.
Published: January 2014

This entry explicates how market forces incent managers to be concerned with worker health and safety. It also notes how supplementing market forces are government actions intended to improve work-related health and safety. These include the legal system under tort laws, states’ workers’ compensation insurance Programs, research into the causes of health hazards at the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), and the federal government’s workplace regulations under the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA). An important empirical conclusion emerging is that the labor market, via the additional compensation workers require for exposure to health and safety risks, provides the largest economic incentive for managers making workplace decisions involving worker health-related well being.
Merger Strategies And Antitrust Concerns
Authors: Werden Gregory , Froeb Luke
Published: January 2014

This chapter explains the application of antitrust law to merger and acquisitions, especially horizontal transactions, which involve direct competitors. The chapter outlines the analysis the U.S. enforcement agencies set out in their Horizontal Merger Guidelines―a fact-intensive analysis focusing on the precise competitive interaction between the merging firms and the competitive environment in which they operate. The chapter focuses mainly on unilateral effects, which arise from the elimination of head-to-head competition between the merging firms. Several distinct unilateral effects are distinguished and illustrated with real-world examples. In particular, the chapter explains how modern economic analysis identifies the relatively few horizontal mergers and acquisitions found to violate antitrust law.
On the Profitability of Corporate Environmentalism
Authors: Lyon Thomas P. , Maxwell John
Published: January 2014

Corporations often take environmentally friendly actions that go beyond what is required by law. Whether such corporate environmentalism is a profitable form of corporate strategy, or altruism in the form of a sacrifice of profits in the public interest, has been hotly debated. This chapter offers a theoretical framework for understanding when proactive environmental management is profitable, incorporating market forces, government regulation, and pressures from civil society, sometimes referred to as private politics. It then reviews, summarizes and critiques the empirical evidence relating corporate profitability to corporate environmentalism and identifying specific sources of “green” profits. It concludes with perspectives on the most valuable lessons for managers and the most promising areas for further scholarly research.
The Italian Economy Seen from Abroad
Authors: De Cecco Marcello
Published: January 2014

Since it became a united country, Italy has been looked at with keen eyes by foreign economists, economic historians, and policy makers. They wanted to see whether it would be possible for the economy of a country, that had in the seventeenth and eighteenth century regressed to the role of agricultural raw material exporter after having been the premier site of European industry, trade and especially, finance, in the middle ages and the Renaissance, to redress itself and join the industrial revolution, making good use of its population and territory, which gave it the potential to be among the great powers of Europe. In this paper, several instances of this scrutiny are considered, focusing on foreign observers who concerned themselves with the Italian economy at different stages of its development. An attempt is made to see what influence their opinions had on Italian economic debate and Italian policy making.
Human Capital
Authors: Bertola Giuseppe , Sestito Paolo
Published: January 2014

The chapter reviews the evolution of educational institutions and outcomes over the 150 years since Italy's unification and discusses their interaction with national and regional growth patterns. Initial educational conditions across regions contributed to differentiate the early industrial take off in the late nineteenth century. Conversely, formal education does not appear to have played a major role in the post-war economic boom. The slowdown of Italy's economy since the 1990s may in part reflect interactions between the country's traditionally low human capital intensity and its new comparative advantage patterns. It may also be due in part to the deterioration of Italy's educational system's organization since the 1970s.
Democratization and Civic Capital
Authors: Guiso Luigi , Pinotti Paolo
Published: January 2014

This chapter documents a sharp reversal in electoral participation between the North and the South of Italy after the 1912 enfranchisement which extended voting rights from a limited élite to (almost) all adult males. When voting was restricted to the élite, electoral turnout was higher in the South but falls significantly below that in the North after the enfranchisement. This gap has never been bridged over the following century and participation remains lower in the South despite the enrichment of democratic institutions and extension of voting rights to women during the post-war democratic republic. This pattern is consistent with a simple theoretical framework in which individuals' voting in political elections is affected by private benefits and civic duty. Only elites can grab private benefits from participation in politics, and civic culture differs across communities. Extension of voting rights to non-elites results in a significant transfer of power to their political organizations only among populations with a high sense of civic duties. Together with the gap in participation between North and South our findings suggest that democratization can benefit non-elites only when the latter have already a high sense of civic capital and is unlikely to induce norms of civic behavior.
Real Exchange Rates, Trade, and Growth
Authors: Di Nino Virginia , Eichengreen Barry , Sbracia Massimo
Published: January 2014

What is the relationship between real exchange rate misalignments and economic growth? And what effect, if any, did undervaluations or overvaluations of the lira/euro have on Italy's growth? This chapter addresses these questions by presenting, first, three main facts: (i) there is a positive relationship between undervaluation and growth; (ii) this relationship is strong for developing countries and weak for advanced countries; (iii) these results tend to hold for both the pre- and the post-World War II period. Building a simple analytical model, we explore channels through which undervaluation may exert a positive effect on real GDP. We assume that productivity is higher in the tradable-goods than in the non-tradable-goods sector, and examine the roles of market structure, scale economies, and wage flexibility in channelling resources from the latter to the former sector, increasing exports and real GDP. We then turn to Italy and verify empirically that, as the theory suggests, undervaluation has positively affected its exports. Undervaluation has been helpful, in particular, to increase the exports of high-productivity sectors, such as most manufacturing industries. Finally, we describe the misalignments of the lira/euro since 1861, analyze their determinants and draw the implications for Italy's economic growth.
Technology, Firm Size, and Entrepreneurship
Authors: Amatori Franco , Bugamelli Matteo , Colli Andrea
Published: January 2014

Firms are one of the main characters of any economy and an excellent observatory for monitoring a nation's evolution. The history of Italy's productive system in the last 150 years is divided into three parts, corresponding to a similar number of industrial revolutions. While firms obtained excellent results in the first two, their inability to grow further inhibited the wide use of the Third Industrial Revolution's features, information and communication technologies. This became a serious obstacle for Italy reaching the international economic frontier. There are many causes-political and economic, macro and microeconomic, domestic and international-behind the turnaround in Italy's economic performance, but the key one was firm size. The argument is developed along three steps. First: firm size is positively correlated to innovation, internationalization, adoption of advanced technologies, and ability to face new competitive challenges; larger firms record higher productivity both in levels and growth rates. Second: the distribution of firms in terms of dimensions was adequate until the 1970s, but defective later on. Finally: because firm size is not a given (but an endogenous choice of entrepreneurs), this chapter examines some key entrepreneurs and managers so as to identify the main features of Italian entrepreneurship.