bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Income Inequality and Our Health
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro
Published: April 2020

This chapter discusses the effects of income inequality on the health of the public. Countries or regions where there are wide gaps in income tend to be characterized by weaker social ties and less investment in the social and physical resources that create health. Thus, countries with more income inequality are less likely to have healthy air, water, and food; safe places to work and play; and affordable quality housing—all of which are necessary for health. For these reasons, income inequality should be a core focus of public health. By discussing income inequality, people will start to see the truth of what the data are telling them: money—who has it and who does not—is at the heart of health in the society. Until people address this, they will continue to see health gaps between those at the top of the economic ladder and those at the bottom.
Maybe the End of HIV
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro
Published: April 2020

This chapter focuses on HIV, which has been our most politically charged illness and a defining health challenge of our time. The world of HIV care over the last two decades has seen a great, almost miraculous, revolution. Today, a 35-year-old who was HIV-infected in 2018 and takes her daily medication adherently has the life expectancy of a 35-year-old without HIV infection. Monthly injections of long-acting HIV drugs look to be as good as daily pills at suppressing the virus, creating easier treatment. Despite these stunning advances, disparities in detection and care characterize the disease. The epidemic has shifted to groups that are hard to test, hard to get started on preventive care, and hard to keep on daily medication—persons who inject stimulants, men on the down-low, the mentally ill, the homeless, and the rural poor with no health insurance. Lack of information, lack of trust of providers, unfamiliarity with services, and refusals of testing and treatment due to social rejection and privacy concerns make the delivery of care more challenging for these groups. Even among persons enrolled in AIDS clinical trials who have found their way to cutting-edge medical treatment, blacks and Hispanics have poorer outcomes. As such, reaching an end to HIV will require new attention to health systems and social stigma, to geography, to housing and outreach, to the long work of public health.
Should Black Boxes Be Welcome in Medicine?
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro
Published: April 2020

This chapter explores the use of “black boxes” in surgeries. When an airplane goes down, there is an urgent search for the plane’s black box. The black box contains both the audio recording of all cockpit discussion, as well as a recording of flight instrument readings. These two flight recorders are required by international regulation and together offer the best possibility of learning what happened in the minutes preceding any aviation accident or incident. A version of this kind of recording technology—which captures medical conversation and physiological parameters, allowing for postsurgery analysis—is starting to make its way into the world of medicine. However, this new technology raises important questions: Will surgeons and other health professionals be put in malpractice jeopardy by such new information? Will patients and their families become more likely to sue? Will more information undermine patient trust? Ultimately, medicine aspires to create a culture of continual improvement. As such, one can imagine black box technology entering medicine widely over the next years.
In Social Media We Trust
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro
Published: April 2020

This chapter discusses the possible impact of micro-targeting in social media for health. For example, a hypothetical social media platform called InstaTwitBook had an algorithm that could accurately judge that a user was suicidal from changes in the language she communicated online. Then that site’s administrators could send this at-risk person a gentle message suggesting that she is showing warning signs of depression, or maybe even nudge her toward help by sending advertisements about local mental health counseling. What if 3,500 persons could be reliably identified and sent such messages this year, and that one in 100 messages would lead to care-seeking, averting 35 suicides? Would this not be worthwhile? And it is not just InstaTwitBook that has the power of detection. Phone companies may be able to tell from someone’s voice if he or she is depressed and use that information to identify who may benefit from mental health help. However, there are challenges that arise from this approach—challenges like inevitable inaccuracy, false-positive results, and the sending of notifications to persons who are not suicidal. As such, more research on this approach is needed, which would require social media companies to be more open to third-party investigators using their data.
Healthy Homes
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro
Published: April 2020

This chapter looks at how 16 million American children live in poverty, putting them at risk for delayed development, disease, and poor educational outcomes. The Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) is a pro-work, federal tool that has reduced or eliminated poverty for 13.2 million children. However, 20% of eligible households do not claim this tax credit. To lower the US poverty rate, which has plateaued, how might health systems help families maximize this economic credit? A 2018 program suggests it is possible to connect EITC-eligible families to free tax preparation through physician referral, fliers included with visit reminders, in-clinic advertising, and calls to families with upcoming appointments in the pediatric clinic, offering tax services 15 to 25 hours weekly, including evenings and weekends. The program was associated with increased filing rates, receipt of EITC, and use of free tax preparation, all of which increase money for low-income families. Finding such clever, convenient ways to make better use of federal policies to reduce poverty one family at a time creates a novel community resource.
Making Strides toward Zero
Authors: Stein Michael D. , Galea Sandro
Published: April 2020

This chapter highlights how San Francisco has made steady progress toward fulfilling its goals of achieving zero HIV deaths, zero new infections, and zero HIV stigma by 2020. These goals are aligned with the UNAIDS Fast-Track strategy for reaching the three zeros globally. Getting to Zero SF specifically aims to reduce HIV infections and deaths in San Francisco by 90%. The campaign’s strategy includes improving access to PrEP (pre-exposure prophylaxis), expanding the city’s hubs for RAPID (Rapid Antiretroviral Therapy Program for HIV Diagnoses) participation, and encouraging action to keep patients in care and improve their treatment adherence. Despite the city’s progress, vulnerable groups in San Francisco continue to be heavily affected by HIV. For example, only 31% of the homeless population reached undetectable blood levels of HIV in 2016. In order to reach zero, agencies in San Francisco will have to tackle its housing crisis as a part of its HIV strategy.
Introduction
Authors: Lim Timothy H.
Published: April 2020

This chapter introduces the reader to a close study of the Habakkuk Pesher, its historical allusions, and relevance for the origins of the sectarian communities reflected in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Beginning with the scroll itself (1QpHab), its physical dimensions, and scribal practices, this chapter provides the latest discussion of palaeography, source and comparative criticism. A distinct feature is the focus on the biblical text of the prophecy of Habakkuk as the primary source of the pesherist’s comments. It is argued that the pesherist imitates the biblical style. This chapter also discusses the historical references embedded in the scroll, notably concerning the Kittim, the wicked and the righteous.
Translation and Commentary
Authors: Lim Timothy H.
Published: April 2020

This chapter is a commentary on an ancient commentary. It provides a new edition of the Hebrew text and an accompanying English translation. It sequentially follows the pesherist in his reading of the prophecy of Habakkuk, and divides the scroll according to its sense-units. Each section is further subdivided into two sections of ‘Notes’ and ‘Comments’. The former establishes the text, its readings, grammatical forms, and syntax. The latter comments on the broad themes, motifs, and historical references. This chapter forms the close study of the Habakkuk Pesher that underpins and substantiates the synthesis of the introductory chapter.
Introduction
Authors: Alshanetsky Eli
Published: April 2020

In articulating our thoughts, our attention rarely goes to the formulation itself. What we evaluate are not sounds or inscriptions but ways in which other competent users of our language would interpret them. But how do we arrive at words that would elicit precisely the needed interpretation? And why does the other person enter into the picture at all? Why do we need to know what some other person would think we think, and realize that that is, in fact, what we think, to know what we ourselves think? Why do we take the other person’s response into account in trying to come to know our private thoughts? Although these questions span several different areas of philosophy, their most natural home is the subject of self-knowledge. This chapter sketches the territory of the subject from a distinctive perspective and indicates the place of the book’s project in it.
A Puzzle
Authors: Alshanetsky Eli
Published: April 2020

The chapter introduces a new puzzle—albeit one that is reminiscent of Meno’s famous puzzle about investigation. The puzzle that Plato formulates challenges the possibility of inquiry in general, whereas this puzzle concerns the special case of inquiry into our thoughts. Our puzzle is that, in the difficult cases of articulation, coming to know what we are thinking seems to require knowing the words that capture our thoughts; yet, at the same time, having the latter knowledge itself seems to require already knowing what we are thinking. After characterizing the cases that give rise to the puzzle and honing its presentation, the chapter addresses several lines of response to it, including the worry that the puzzle simply reduces to Meno’s original paradox and the worry that it does not constitute a genuine philosophical paradox at all.
Deflationism
Authors: Alshanetsky Eli
Published: April 2020

Deflationists seek to reinterpret the puzzle cases so that the puzzle never arises. On this type of view, what we do in the difficult cases of articulation does not consist in articulating thoughts already in place, but rather in using language to form new thoughts. A moderate deflationist draws an analogy between what we do in these cases and the elaboration of a plan, whose detailed implementation we work out later, as we go. A radical deflationist denies that we search for any fixed type of formulation at all, arguing that our acceptance of a formulation is either a free choice or a consequence of reaching a natural stopping point in our thinking. Examining a wide range of deflationary views helps bring out many of the key features of the puzzle cases and map out the variety of ways in which we can think in words.
The Implicit/Explicit Strategy
Authors: Alshanetsky Eli
Published: April 2020

On the proposed solution to the puzzle, we recognize the correct formulations of our thoughts by relying on our implicit knowledge of what we are thinking. After discussing an analogous puzzle in the case of basic perceptual classification and constructing a model of implicit knowledge for the simpler case of color recognition, the chapter extends the model to the trickier case of thought. On this model, our implicit knowledge of an item consists in its stored signature—the invariant aspect of experience that its instances share. On the proposed solution, the process that mediates between implicit and explicit knowledge is not itself wholly sub-personal. Instead, it is best understood as straddling the personal/sub-personal divide. A deeper source of the puzzle that emerges from this chapter’s discussion of our involvement in articulation lies in the conflation between two types of freedom (or control) that we may have over a response.
Conclusion
Authors: Alshanetsky Eli
Published: April 2020

Once we are done articulating the thought, we can easily articulate it again, using different words with the same meaning. But the thought may become difficult to articulate again, with time. In many such cases (for example, during teaching, job interviews, and exams), our knowledge of the thought does not dissipate altogether, but switches back to an implicit format. We can regain our explicit knowledge by engaging in an effortful process of recollection. The memory process shares the key features of the process of articulation and lends itself to a variant of the initial puzzle. Placing the memory puzzle alongside analogous puzzles in the case of thought and perception brings out the general form of the puzzle that pertains to our knowledge of all foundational facts. Our knowledge of such facts, in all these cases, could be underwritten by our possession of certain bits of implicit knowledge.
Self-Knowledge and Self-Control in Plato’s Charmides
Authors: Kosman Aryeh
Published: April 2020

This chapter examines the treatment of self-knowledge in Plato’s Charmides. The chapter argues that Critias’ proposal that temperance is self-knowledge, and its subsequent examination by Socrates, initially offers the reader a picture of self-knowledge as a reflexive self-awareness of the content of mental states. However, the initial discussion between Socrates and Critias presents the reader with a tension between the dual demands placed on self-knowledge in that dialogue. On the one hand, since self-knowledge is directed inward, towards one’s conscious states in acting temperately, it appears to be presented as reflexive. On the other, since, as a kind of knowledge, self-knowledge must be about something, and so dependent on the object it is directed towards, it is presented as exhibiting the characteristic of ‘objective intentionality’. A clue to the tension’s resolution, it is argued, can be found by considering the more standard understanding of temperance as self-control, and in Charmides’ characterization of temperance as a kind of ‘quietude’.
Speech Timing
Authors: Turk Alice , Shattuck-Hufnagel Stefanie
Published: April 2020

This is a book about the architecture of the speech-production planning process and speech motor control. It is written in reaction to a debate in the literature about the nature of phonological representations, which are proposed to be spatiotemporal by some, and symbolic (atemporal) by others. Making this choice about the nature of phonological representation has several fundamental implications for the architecture of the speech-production planning system, notably with regard to the number of planning components and the type of timing mechanisms. In systems with symbolic phonological representations, a separate phonetic planning component is required for speakers to plan the details of surface timing and spatial characteristics for each context. In contrast, the Articulatory Phonology system, which proposes spatiotemporal phonological representations, has a very different architecture, with fewer components. These contrasting assumptions about the spatiotemporal vs. symbolic nature of phonological representations have important consequences for how these two approaches deal with timing issues. This is because time is intrinsic to phonological representations in Articulatory Phonology, but is not part of symbolic phonology. These two proposals are evaluated in light of existing literature on speech and non-speech timing behavior. Evidence that challenges the Articulatory Phonology model inspired a sketch of a new model of the production process, based on symbolic phonological representations and a separate phonetic planning component to specify surface-timing details. This approach provides an appropriate account of what is known about motor timing in general and speech timing in particular. Keywords
Evidence motivating consideration of an alternative approach
Authors: Turk Alice , Shattuck-Hufnagel Stefanie
Published: April 2020

This chapter begins to motivate the development of an alternative approach to speech production by pointing out three potential difficulties with the highly-successful Articulatory Phonology/Task Dynamics approach. First, it discusses the extensive nature of modifications to AP/TD default specifications required to account for the wide variety of surface phonetic forms. The need for a large number of adjustments in AP/TD raises questions about the appropriateness of the AP/TD default-adjustment approach, which would have been more appropriate if the default, non-prominent, phrase-medial, normal-speech-rate specifications could be used most of the time. Second, it discusses the lack of a principled explanation for behaviors described by Fitts’ law. While the theory can accommodate some aspects of Fitts’ law, others are not explained or accommodated. Finally, it suggests that AP/TD’s gestural score architecture raises the risk of spatial interference among overlapping, independent gestures. These three challenges taken together set the stage for the discussion of additional challenges in Chapter 4, which further motivate consideration of phonology-extrinsic-timing-based approaches to speech motor control.
Coordination: Support for an alternative approach II
Authors: Turk Alice , Shattuck-Hufnagel Stefanie
Published: April 2020

Two key features of the current AP/TD coupled-oscillator approach to movement coordination are that 1) coordination among gestures is treated as relative timing control, accomplished via planning-oscillator phase relationships, rather than coordination based on spatial information or absolute timing, and 2) coordination is based on the (relative) timing of movement onsets, rather than the timing of target achievement. Evidence bearing on both of these issues suggests that 1) patterns of relative timing do not necessarily require implementation via oscillator phase relationships, and 2) coordination is often based on the part of movement most closely related to the goal (often the endpoint), rather than on movement onsets (as proposed in recent versions of AP/TD). This chapter includes a discussion of alternative, i.e. non-oscillator-based, mechanisms that can model both the coordination of movements for synchronous target achievement, and the planning of movement timing when targets are sequential.
The prosodic governance of surface phonetic variation: Support for an alternative approach III
Authors: Turk Alice , Shattuck-Hufnagel Stefanie
Published: April 2020

Effects of prosodic structure on surface phonetics are modeled in AP/TD in two ways: 1) via a set of PI and MuT adjustment mechanisms used to model lengthening effects at boundaries and on prominent syllables, and 2) via a hierarchy of coupled syllable, cross-word foot, and phrase oscillators, used to model poly-subconstituent shortening effects, and to control overall speech rate. These mechanisms are challenged by 1) findings presented in previous chapters that suggest that longer durations associated with boundaries and prominences are due to longer surface duration specifications, 2) findings presented here that show that polysyllabic shortening does not affect all words in an utterance, inconsistent with an oscillator-based mechanism that controls all aspects of any produced utterance, and 3) findings relating to speech rate presented in previous chapters which suggest that speech rate specifications relate to surface durations, rather than to planning oscillator frequencies. Patterns of speech timing presented in this chapter thus suggest that there are reasons to be uncertain whether periodicity is a major factor in speech motor control in typical speaking circumstances, and therefore call into question the use of suprasegmental oscillators.
Introduction
Authors: Leipold Bruno , Nabulsi Karma , White Stuart
Published: April 2020

In the Introduction of this book we begin by providing a conceptual and historical overview of radical republicanism, with a particular emphasis on the key role that popular sovereignty plays in the radical tradition, exploring how it relates to three central issues of concern to republicans. These issues are (1) how the ideals of the tradition can be realized in political and social movements; (2) what republican political institutions should look like; and (3) how its economy should be structured. Finally, we finish the Introduction by providing an overview of the volume’s contents, and highlight the aspects of each chapter.
From Neo-Republicanism to Critical Republicanism
Authors: Gädeke Dorothea
Published: April 2020

The aim of this chapter is to show how what I call critical republicanism can be developed by rethinking the neo-republican theory of domination on the basis of a more continental line of republicanism. On the one hand, I argue that with regard to all three of the most important elements of a theory of non-domination, its normative core, the conception of domination, and its institutional implications, Pettit’s neo-republicanism does contain a powerful critical potential, too easily dismissed by some of his critics. On the other hand, I show how this critical potential can be strengthened by reconceptualizing each of the elements of his theory of domination from a perspective inspired by the Kantian line of republican thought and contemporary critical theory.
Marx’s Social Republic
Authors: Leipold Bruno
Published: April 2020

This chapter explores how Marx’s conception of the political institutions of socialism (the social republic) was inherited from the radical elements of the republican tradition. I explore three dimensions of this inheritance. First, I discuss his support for replacing the institutions of representative government with a form of popular delegacy, where representatives are constrained by imperative mandates, the right to recall, and short terms of office. Second, I explain why Marx criticized the separation of powers and preferred legislative supremacy over the executive. Third, I discuss Marx’s belief in the necessity of placing the state’s administrative and repressive functions under popular control, by transforming the standing army into a civic militia and making the bureaucracy elected, accountable, and deprofessionalized.
Reinvigorating Human Rights for the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Hannum Hurst
Published: April 2020

The development of international human rights law ranks among the most significant accomplishments in international relations since 1945. However, the continuing success of human rights is not inevitable, and increasingly expansive calls for new rights or attempts to address all social problems from a human rights perspective may, ironically, undermine their legitimacy. This tendency is evidenced by the conflation of human rights with individual criminal responsibility; justification of the use of force based on appeals to protect human rights and promote democracy; marginalization of the role of government; the proliferation of new rights; and failure to appreciate the inherent flexibility of human rights norms. This chapter calls for returning to the notion of ‘human rights’ as international human rights law and maintaining the distinction between law and morality or law and politics. Recognizing that these concepts are created and enforced differently does not diminish any of them; rather, it reinforces the fact that social progress can only be achieved by appealing to law, politics, and morality, not by promoting human rights as a panacea that can remedy all wrongs.
Global Consequentialism and the Morality and Laws of War
Authors: Greaves Hilary
Published: April 2020

Rights-based and consequentialist approaches to ethics are often seen as being diametrically opposed to one another. This is entirely understandable, since to say that X has a (moral) right to Y is in part to assert that there are (moral) reasons to provide X with Y even if doing so foreseeably will not lead to better consequences. However, a ‘global’ form of consequentialism raises the possibility of some sort of reconciliation: it could be that the best framework for the regulation of international affairs (say) is one that employs a notion of rights, but if so, that (according to global consequentialism) is the case because regulating international affairs in that manner tends, as a matter of empirical fact, to lead to better consequences. By way of case study, this chapter applies these ideas to a recent dispute about the morality and laws of war, between Jeff McMahan and Henry Shue.
Insecurity and Human Rights
Authors: Lazarus Liora
Published: April 2020

The twenty-first-century challenge that the chapter faces is how to ensure that positive rights to state protection are properly balanced against duties of state restraint in a climate of insecurity. It argues that, contrary to conservative caricatures, human rights are not only liberal ‘politically correct’ mechanisms of state restraint. Rather they have become increasingly associated with the extension of state coercion, a process which risks securitizing human rights. While courts have had to balance carefully between these imperatives, politicians and philosophers are less keenly aware of the danger that human rights will be instrumentalized to legitimize overblown claims to state coercive protection. The chapter concludes by arguing that we can follow the lead of courts, who have had to confront the nuanced balance between duties of protection and restraint, and start to embrace a concept of ‘tolerable insecurity’. Only by embracing the risks that come with freedom can we have a productive debate about the relationship between insecurity and human rights.
State of Play and the Road Ahead
Authors: Salomon Margot E
Published: April 2020

This introductory chapter draws from, and builds on, the three chapters on human rights and poverty in this edited volume. It explores those contributions with an eye to what they advocate and as a basis for exposing obstacles to bringing human rights to bear on poverty and material inequality. Three key features that characterize the world today are addressed: a multilevel democratic deficit, a harmful commitment to growth, and a categorical absence of accountability for the state of poverty and inequality. This chapter reflects on the state of play and the road ahead and concludes by, querying whether international law in fact values people living in poverty and the limits of the human rights project in seeking to ensure that that it does.
The State of Play and the Road Ahead
Authors: Woods Kerri
Published: April 2020

Human rights are a key element of the post-Second World War international order. They function as both an institutional framework and as a powerful idea, and have been adopted and adapted by those seeking to address the most pressing problems of their age. The framers of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) never dreamed of including environmental rights in the list of rights that are fundamental to a decent human life. By the first decades of the twenty-first century, however, it has become clear that environmental problems like climate change generate profound human rights impacts. A sustainable environment is essential to the enjoyment of all human rights, now and henceforth, but extending rights into the future raises many complex questions about the relationship between rights and risk, the right to procreate, and whether and how future people can have human rights.
Imperial Power
Authors: Fiore Alessio
Published: April 2020

Chapter 2 looks at imperial policies in Italy of Henry III, Henry IV, and Henry V, discussing especially their impact on the political make-up of the countryside. The focus is on how emperors attempted to keep control of their Italian resources and infrastructures (palaces and fiscal patrimony) as opposed to the vicissitudes of the ideological and propaganda struggle with the pope which has received more attention in historiography. Henry IV, in particular, adopted an aggressive policy towards his Italian opponents such as Adelaide of Torino and Matilda of Canossa, refusing to recognize the heirs of the former and deposing the latter. The result in both cases was the destruction of the coherence of two vast regional principalities. The author makes the important point that at first the emperors were not hostile to new emerging city communes and granted them rights in return for support and assistance (though later emperors, most notably Frederick I, would have a total change of mind in this regard). The author sees the moment in which cities began to take full control of the affairs seeing it as occurring during the reign of Henry V (1111–25) rather than in 1140–50, as usually believed.
Territorial Lordship
Authors: Fiore Alessio
Published: April 2020

It traces the emergence and development of the dominates loci as the most important form of organization of space, resources, and people in the countryside at the end of the eleventh century, signalled by the imposition of a whole new range of obligations and claims on these by individuals acting in their own right and no longer as representatives of royal authority. Three case studies are examined to illustrate the changes—Calusco in Lombardy, Casciavola in Tuscany, and Cliviano in Lazio. The new territorial and jurisdictional powers wielded by local territorial lords were invariably more oppressive than those to which the inhabitants of countryside had been subject previously and their imposition is characterized by frequent recourse to violence and extortion. These are referred to in contemporary sources as malus usus or malae consuetudines. These changes were accompanied by construction of larger and more fortified castles in which towers functioned as status symbols. The role of castles and settlements is discussed with the help of archaeological as well as documentary evidence. Fortifications were dense in countryside but absent in immediate vicinity of the cities. Signori also constructed rural borghi such as Biandrate, Tusculum, and Poggibonsi, which were true ‘central places’ for seigneurial power.
Fidelity
Authors: Fiore Alessio
Published: April 2020

It explores changing notions of the concept of fidelity (fidelitas) in the wake of the collapse of central power in Italy at the end of the eleventh century. The author notes that fealty was by no means an inseparable part of the concession of benefices as is shown by the widespread documentation of feudum sine fidelitate in Lombardy. Fidelity appears in other contexts too, for example to give legitimacy to contracts of sale and rent; it is also used when investing individuals in office or authority and presenting them with a standard (vexillum). Oaths of fealty also feature in alliances and pacts. Orality and gesture play an important part in rituals of fidelity. Bonds of fidelity could exist between social equals and did not necessarily imply a relationship of superiority and subordination, but the most common interlocutors are the upper and lower ranks of the aristocracy. Ecclesiastical institutions and proto-communes also made use of fealty to bind individuals to them. The language of fidelity also spreads to the church in formalizing relations of a purely internal and ecclesiastical character, a development that the author ascribes to pope Gregory VII, even if not many examples survive before 1100. Finally it discusses the origins of the oath of fidelity, suggesting that it may go back to Charlemagne’s order that all his subjects should swear loyalty to the emperor.
Conclusions
Authors: Fiore Alessio
Published: April 2020

The period 1080–1130 sees the imposition of the signoria as the dominant system of power and control in the countryside of north-central Italy. This process was accompanied by a profound militarization of society evident in the building of castles, the rise of the class of milites, the increasing importance of military service in pacts and contracts, the upsurge in violence. The notion of fidelitas, once the prerogative of the sovereign, came to be used at a local level to underpin relationships between lords and their subject, often sealed by pacts. Whilst this gave an appearance of consent, at the other end of the spectrum lay violence and coercion which were inherent in the system. The imposition of dominatus loci did not inhibit and may actually have stimulated economic growth by extracting agricultural surplus and increasing elite demand for goods and raw materials. It also had demographic effects in that the rural population tended to become more concentrated in nuclear defended settlements and/or displaced to the cities. Finally, the Italian experience of the creation of the territorial lordship is discussed in the framework of trends across western Europe, concluding that Italy is more similar to Catalonia than northern France. Italy’s ‘exceptionality’ is most clearly evidenced in the rise of urban (but also rural) collectivities and the capacity of these to exercise a measure of political control over the surrounding countryside. The author insists on the role of rural collectivities which offered a concrete alternative outcome to the ‘segneurialization’ of power.
Early History and Fundamentals of Optomechanics
Authors: Heidmann Antoine , Cohadon Pierre-Francois
Published: April 2020

In its simplest form, optomechanics amounts to two complementary coupling effects: mechanical motion changes the path followed by light, but light (through radiation pressure) can drive the mechanical resonator into motion as well. Optomechanics allows one to control resonator motion by laser cooling down to the quantum ground state, or to control light by using back-action in optical measurements and in quantum optics. Its main applications are optomechanical sensors to detect tiny mechanical motions and weak forces, cold damping and laser cooling, and quantum optics. The objectives of this chapter are to provide a brief account of the history of the field, together with its fundamentals. We will in particular review both classical and quantum aspects of optomechanics, together with its applications to high-sensitivity measurements and to control or cool mechanical resonators down to their ground state, with possible applications for tests of quantum theory or for quantum information.
Optomechanics and Quantum Measurement
Authors: Clerk Aashish A.
Published: April 2020

After a quick review of the basic theory of quantum optomechanical systems, based largely on linearized Heisenberg–Langevin equations, this chapter focuses on selected topics related to quantum measurement and quantum optomechanics. Included are: a comprehensive discussion of the quantum limit on the added noise of a continuous position detector, following the quantum linear response approach; a detailed discussion of the role of noise correlations, and how these can be achieved in an optomechanical cavity (by using squeezed input light, or by modifying the choice of measured output quadrature); and a discussion of back-action evading measurements of a mechanical quadrature, discussing how this can be achieved in a two-tone driven cavity system. The chapter ends with a quick introduction to the theory of conditional continuous quantum measurement, and a discussion on how a back-action evading measurement can be used to produce conditional mechanical squeezed states.
Coupling Superconducting Qubits to Electromagnetic and Piezomechanical Resonators
Authors: Cleland Andrew N.
Published: April 2020

Quantum bits have been under intense development since the late 1990s, due to the discovery of a number of potential applications for engineered quantum systems to problems in computation or communication. As superconducting circuits provide a straightforward path to scaling up to large numbers of qubits and are exible in terms of their application to a range of different problems, This chapter focuses on the problem of coupling superconducting qubits to other systems, in particular to microwave frequency electromagnetic resonators as well as mechanical resonators. It begins by introducing the topics of piezoelectricity and its role in solid mechanics, then turns to a description of one flavour of superconducting qubit, the phase qubit. It then describes how the phase qubit can be used to control and measure a superconducting electromagnetic resonator, and concludes by describing how a phase qubit can also be used to control and measure a piezomechanical resonator.
Optically Levitated Nanospheres for Cavity Quantum Optomechanics
Authors: Romero-Isart Oriol
Published: April 2020

This chapter introduces cavity quantum optomechanics with levitated nanospheres with some emphasis on preparing mesoscopic quantum superpositions and testing collapse models. It is divided into three parts: levitated quantum optomechanics: atoms vs. sphere; decoherence in levitated nanospheres; and wave-packet dynamics: coherence vs. decoherence. It is first shown how the master equation describing the dynamics of a polarizable object in a cavity along the cavity axis and that of the cavity mode is derived. Optical levitation is also discussed. It is then shown how most of the decoherence sources in levitated nanospheres can be cast into a relatively simple master equation describing position localization type of decoherence. Such decoherence tends to suppress the centre-of-mass position coherences. Finally, a discussion of wave-packet dynamics is given, with the motivation of using levitated nanospheres for matter-wave interferometry, that is, to create macroscopic quantum superpositions for testing quantum mechanics in unprecedented parameter regimes.
Quantum Optomechanics Thermodynamics and Heat Engines
Authors: Meystre Pierre
Published: April 2020

This chapter addresses topics in quantum thermodynamics, where optomechanics may contribute attractive experimental tests and additional understanding. Quantum thermodynamics can be defined as the study of thermodynamics when quantum mechanical noise coexists with thermal noise and has a significant impact on the dynamics. This chapter focuses on the example of an optomechanical quantum heat engine (QHE). Section 11.2 reviews some questions about quantum work. Section 11.3 then outlines the steps leading to the formulation of continuous measurements in terms of stochastic Schrödinger equations. Section 11.4 reviews the main characteristics of QHE, comparing thermodynamic processes and engine cycles in the classical and quantum regimes. The opportunities offered by quasiparticles in the operation of QHE justify reviewing their properties in some detail (section 11.5), before introducing the optomechanical QHE system (section 11.6). Section 11.7 discusses the properties of the engine, and section 11.8 expands the discussion to polariton based quantum heat pumps.
Jazzbandism
Authors: Rasula Jed
Published: April 2020

A paramount example of “making it new” in the early twentieth century was the unprecedented global phenomenon of jazz. This chapter chronicles the impact of jazz, understood not strictly as music but as agent of American modernity as the implacable engine of the new. During the Twenties a reciprocity between modernism and jazz was taken for granted; jazz was lifestyle modernism. In Europe jazz was welcomed as a vehicle of postwar revitalization. In America it was denounced as a fad or craze, albeit defended by some as a new artform, along with film, comics, vaudeville, and other popular entertainments. Debates about folk authenticity versus commercial exploitation, primitivism versus the ultra-modern, as well as racial and cultural purity swarmed around jazz for more than a decade. It also became a surrogate subject for modernism in music, with Stravinsky held up as avatar of all things progressive and/or regressive—and, it was assumed, a spawn of jazz.
Exploitation at Work
Authors: Collins Jennifer
Published: April 2020

The theme of exploitation in work relations has produced an increasingly polarized set of positions ‘for’ or ‘against’ criminalization. For example, it has been argued that the effects of criminalization, deployed in a political environment that welcomes a ‘law and order’ policy agenda, over-bear other areas of law (such as labour law) which are worker-protective in ameliorating labour exploitation. In this chapter I argue that a rigid position ‘for’ or ‘against’ criminalizing exploitation ought to be resisted in favour of a more nuanced regulatory mix. There ought to be a greater focus on the ways in which decisions between regulatory channels are made once an in-principle case for criminalization has been established. This includes appraising criminalization in its wider regulatory context, as well as more nuanced arguments about the appropriateness of criminal law interventions which include ‘regulation plus crime’ measures.
The Duty of Loyalty and the Scope of the Law of Fraud
Authors: Collins Hugh
Published: April 2020

This chapter explores the role of criminal law as an additional sanction against the breach of existing civil obligations in the contract. In the modern context, this chapter examines the ways in which property offences in criminal law might be used to deter contractual breaches. It focuses on the offence of fraud in the Fraud Act 2006, and in particular the role of criminalization where there has been a failure to disclose information. To this end, the chapter examines the current scope of disclosure obligations under the employment contract, focusing on the implied duties of trust and confidence and loyalty. There is considerable uncertainty about the scope and content of disclosure obligations, which raises serious rule of law concerns where these contractual obligations are, in effect, criminalized as instances of fraud. There is also a more general reluctance in English criminal law to criminalize omissions rather than positive acts, and a failure to disclose is an omission.
Sex, Work, and Criminalization
Authors: Dempsey Michelle Madden
Published: April 2020

This chapter provides a philosophical examination of the various dimensions of commercial sex as a form of work. It then offers perspectives on the legitimate role of the criminal law in regulating commercial sex, based upon three limiting principles. The first is a principle of ‘minimalism’ such that the criminal law should only be used as a last resort. The second is a principle of ‘modest legal moralism’ such that the criminal law should be reserved as a legal response to public wrongs. Finally, the third principle is a ‘presumption of non-interference’ based in the liberal harm principle, so that state coercion is limited to situations of direct or indirect harm. Given these three limiting principles, the chapter asks if the criminal law has a legitimate role in regulating, restricting, or prohibiting sex work.
The Work of Sex Work
Authors: Cruz Katie
Published: April 2020

This chapter analyses the legal treatment of sex work, and specifically prostitution, from the perspective of Marxist feminism. Here, the work of sex work must be understood in its wider structural context of gendered and racialized capitalism. The chapter argues that sex work should be understood as work. Furthermore, the features of ‘unfreedom’ associated with sex work do not vitiate its identity as a form of work, and therefore as an activity that warrants the application of protective norms of labour law. This marks an important distinction from the previous chapter’s taxonomy of commercial sex work. In fact, this chapter argues that all work under capitalism is structurally coupled with exploitation and alienation (unfreedom) that ebbs and flows according to the balance of class forces. Given this structural coupling, it is problematic to use the exploitation and alienation in sex work as a basis for excluding it from the domain of personal work relations and for barring sex workers from worker protective laws.
Criminalizing Care Workers
Authors: Hayes LJB
Published: April 2020

This chapter offers a critique of the ‘care worker offence’ in section 20 of the Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015, which criminalizes ill-treatment or wilful neglect in circumstances of ‘paid work’ by care workers. It argues that this new offence has obscured the political and managerial choices that render care work badly paid and precarious. Judicial narratives are all too often framed around thick moralized judgements of vice and bad character, marginalizing alternative narratives that identify the terrible pressures that precarious workers experience in their working lives. These pressures are being generated by poor management, underinvestment in training, high staff turnover and high rates of sickness absence, and chronic starvation of public resources for social care. In this way, this chapter suggests that we might even regard the section 20 offence as a contemporary variant of 19th-century master and servant laws, using criminal laws to enforce labour discipline and to police the precarious.
The Do Not Track Standard
Authors: Harcourt Alison , Christou George , Simpson Seamus
Published: April 2020

The proliferation and persistence of online tracking of consumer behaviour through different technologies for the purpose of collecting information and constructing targeted advertisements based on the profiling of the interests and preferences of users, at surface level, seems relatively harmless. From a marketing perspective, such activity is crucial for both profit and online content. However, the broader impact and implications of such activity is much more wide-ranging, in particular given that much of it lacks transparency and can result in the violation of a plethora of individual rights. This chapter assesses development of the Do Not Track standard (DNT) in the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) as a response to tracking behaviour that has sought to ensure that users have a choice on whether or not they are tracked online. It explains how different interests and stakeholders converged on its conception and diverged in its development with focus on the role of privacy advocates.
How to Free Your Inner Mathematician
Authors: D'Agostino Susan
Published: April 2020

How to Free Your Inner Mathematician: Notes on Mathematics and Life offers readers guidance in managing the fear, freedom, frustration, and joy that often accompany calls to think mathematically. With practical insight and years of award-winning mathematics teaching experience, DAgostino offers more than 300 hand-drawn sketches alongside accessible descriptions of fractals, symmetry, fuzzy logic, knot theory, Penrose patterns, infinity, the Twin Prime Conjecture, Arrows Impossibility Theorem, Fermats Last Theorem, and other intriguing mathematical topics. Readers are encouraged to embrace change, proceed at their own pace, mix up their routines, resist comparison, have faith, fail more often, look for beauty, exercise their imaginations, and define success for themselves. Mathematics students and enthusiasts will learn advice for fostering courage on their journey regardless of age or mathematical background. How to Free Your Inner Mathematician delivers not only engaging mathematical content but provides reassurance that mathematical success has more to do with curiosity and drive than innate aptitude.