bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Prostaglandin F2αUpregulates Uterine Immune Defenses in the Presence of the Immunosuppressive Steroid Progesterone
Authors: Lewis Gregory S. , Wulster‐Radcliffe Meghan C.
Published: July 2006

Problem

Uterine infections often develop in some livestock species during the first luteal phase postpartum. Exogenous prostaglandin F2α(PGF2α) induces luteolysis, reduces progesterone, and enables the uterus to resolve infections. However, the effects of PGF2αon luteal function and on immune functions are confounded. These effects must be disentangled to determine whether alternatives to antibiotic treatments can be successfully developed.

Method of study

Treatments were in a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial arrangement. Main effects were ovariectomy or sham on day 0 (i.e. estrus), exogenous progesterone or sesame oil from day 0 to 11, and exogenous PGF2αor saline on day 9. Intrauterine inoculations withArcanobacterium pyogenesandEscherichia coliwere administered on day 6.

Results

Ewes treated with exogenous PGF2αeither did not have uterine infections, infections were less severe, or infections were resolving when uteri were examined on day 12, despite increased progesterone.

Conclusions

Exogenous PGF2αhas effects on the resolution of uterine infections that are independent of its effects on luteal progesterone production.
Consanguinity in Primary Immunodeficiency Disorders; the Report from Iranian Primary Immunodeficiency Registry
Authors: Rezaei Nima , Pourpak Zahra , Aghamohammadi Asghar , Farhoudi Abolhassan , Movahedi Masoud , Gharagozlou Mohammad , MirSaeid Ghazi Bahram , Atarod Lida , Abolmaali Kamran , Mahmoudi Maryam , Mansouri Davoud , Arshi Saba , Tarash Naser Javaher , Sherkat Roya , Amin Reza , Kashef Sara , Hosseini Reza Farid , Mohammadzadeh Iraj , Shabestari Mehrnaz Sadeghi , Nabavi Mohammad , Moin Mostafa
Published: July 2006

Problem

Primary Immunodeficiency Disorders (PiD) are a heterogeneous group of genetic disorders, with different modes of inheritance. This study was accomplished in order to determine the frequency of consanguineous marriages in the families of patients with PiD.

Method

In this study, the records 515 Iranian PiD patients were reviewed during a 25‐year period.

Results

The mean proportion of consanguineous marriages was 65.6% among PiD patients, while the overall rate was 38.6% in the country. The rate of consanguinity was 77.8% in cellular immunodeficiencies, 75.8% in combined immunodeficiencies, 72.5% in defects of phagocytic function, 58.6% in other immunodefiiencies, 54.1% in predominantly antibody deficiencies, and 50% in complement deficiencies. Moreover all patients with immunodeficiency associated with other diseases had consanguineous parents. Such marriages were most common in the parents of patients with Chediak‐Higashi syndrome, severe combined immunodeficiencies, primary CD4 deficiency, ataxia‐telangiectasia, seletive IgG class deficiencies, chronic granulomatous disease, and Schwachman syndrome.

Conclusions

It is important to inform the general population about the dangers of consanguinity, which is very common in some areas such as Iran. Premarital examination to avoid genetic diseases could be suggested, especially in a community where the rate of consanguineous marriage is high.
Oral malodour and its association with age and sex in a general population in Brazil*
Authors: Nadanovsky P , Carvalho LBM , Ponce de Leon A
Published: July 2006

Aim:  To assess the prevalence of persistent oral malodour in a general population in Rio de Janeiro and to find out whether sex and age are risk factors for this condition.

Methods:  This was a cross‐sectional survey in which university students (informants) were interviewed regarding the prevalence of persistent oral malodour in their households. To estimate the effects of sex and age logistic regression models with and without random effects for the informant were applied.

Results:  The prevalence of persistent oral malodour was 15% (95% confidence interval: 11–19). The risk of persistent malodour was nearly three times higher in men than in women, regardless of age. The risk was slightly more than three times higher in people over 20 years of age compared with those aged 20 years or under, controlling for sex.

Conclusions:  Oral malodour is common in Rio de Janeiro, more prevalent in men and in those over 20 years of age, in both sexes.

Clinical relevance of the findings:  Freedom from disabling oral malodour is an outcome indicator of social well‐being. Health professionals in general, and dentists in particular, should be trained to appropriately manage and treat people who suffer from persistent oral malodour.
Oral complication risks after invasive and non‐invasive dental procedures in HIV‐positive patients
Authors: Campo J , Cano J , Del Romero J , Hernando V , Rodríguez C , Bascones A
Published: July 2006

Background:  Limited published scientific evidence is available to provide guidance to clinicians on possible increased risks of invasive oral procedures associated with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) status of the patient. The aim of this study was to assess post‐procedural complications in patients infected with HIV.

Material and methods:  This was a retrospective cross‐sectional study of the records of 101 consecutive HIV patients treated at the School of Dentistry of Madrid Complutense University and Sandoval STD Clinic in Madrid between January 2003 and February 2005. Data were gathered by an experienced dental practitioner using a structured epidemiological questionnaire for information on gender, age, HIV transmission category, medical history, hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV) coinfection and other diseases, TCD4+ and TCD8+ count, HIV viral load (VL), platelet count, neutrophil count, international normalized ratio and haemoglobin level; tobacco and alcohol intake, highly active antiretroviral treatment and presence of oral lesions. Information was also collected on complications related to dental treatment (invasive or non‐invasive) during the previous 6 months. Chi‐squared test and Fisher's exact test were used to establish statistical significance.

Results:  Data were gathered on 314 dental procedures in 101 patients. The overall complication rate was 2.2% (7/314); in 147 invasive procedures, seven complications (4.8%) were documented (one persistent pain, two prolonged bleeding, three infections, one bone sequestrum) including extractions, periodontal scaling, endodontic treatment and biopsy. No differences were found in TCD4+, TCD8+, platelet count, HBV or HCV co‐infections or HIV VL between patients with and/or without complications. Patients with complications were mainly in B stage of HIV disease (P = 0.020). Oral lesions and smoking habit >20 cig day−1 were documented in 83.3% (P = 0.086) and 50% (P = 0.060), respectively, of patients with complications.

Conclusions:  The complication rate was 2.2% overall and 4.8% after invasive dental procedures. Presence of oral lesions, smoking habit or HIV clinical stage B may be predictive factors for oral complications in HIV patients. No relationship was found between complications and virological, immunological or other laboratory values. Studies with wider samples and negative control group are warranted to confirm the absence of an association between HIV positivity and higher risk of oral complications.
Nerve growth factor concentration in human saliva
Authors: Nam J‐W , Chung J‐W , Kho H‐S , Chung S‐C , Kim Y‐K
Published: July 2006

Objective:  The aims of this study were to measure the normal concentration of nerve growth factor (NGF) in healthy human saliva and to investigate the effects of age and gender differences on saliva NGF level.

Materials and methods:  Resting whole, stimulated parotid, and stimulated submandibular/sublingual saliva were collected from 127 healthy volunteers with ages ranging from 20 to 81 years. The saliva NGF concentration was measured by enzyme immunoassay.

Results and conclusions:  The mean concentrations of NGF were 901.4 ± 75.6 pg ml−1 in resting whole saliva, 885.9 ± 79.9 pg ml−1 in stimulated parotid saliva, and 1066.1 ± 88.1 pg ml−1 in stimulated submandibular/sublingual saliva. The stimulated submandibular saliva showed lower NGF concentrations with increasing age (ρ = −0.296, P = 0.001). The NGF concentrations of resting whole saliva (P = 0.025) and stimulated parotid saliva (P = 0.005) were significantly higher in women than men. The NGF concentration of stimulated submandibular saliva was significantly higher than stimulated parotid saliva (P = 0.005) and significantly correlated with stimulated parotid saliva NGF level (ρ = −0.244, P = 0.008). We found measurable concentrations of NGF in all three sources of saliva; the concentration was affected by the source for the stimulated parotid and submandibular saliva, age for stimulated submandibular saliva, and gender difference for resting whole saliva and stimulated parotid saliva.
Increased plasminogen activator inhibitor‐1/tissue type plasminogen activator ratio in oral submucous fibrosis
Authors: Yang S‐F , Hsieh Y‐S , Tsai C‐H , Chen Y‐J , Chang Y‐C
Published: July 2006

Objective:  Plasminogen activators and their inhibitors are thought to be key participants in the balance of proteolytic and antiproteolytic activities that regulate extracellular matrix (ECM) turnover. However, little is known about the expression of plasminogen/plasmin system at the site of oral submucous fibrosis (OSF).

Methods:  We compared the activities of tissue type plasminogen activator (t‐PA) and plasminogen activator inhibitor‐1 (PAI‐1) between fibroblasts derived from normal buccal mucosa and OSF by using an enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay. Furthermore, arecoline, a major areca nut alkaloid, was challenged with normal buccal mucosal fibroblasts (BMFs) to elucidate whether the activities of t‐PA and PAI‐1 could be affected by arecoline.

Results:  Both t‐PA and PAI‐1 were found to be increased in OSF than in BMFs (P < 0.01). In addition, there was a statistically significant difference in PAI‐1/t‐PA ratio between OSF and BMF (P < 0.01). The addition of arecoline upregulated not only PAI‐1, but also t‐PA in BMFs (P < 0.05). In addition, the ratio between PAI‐1 and t‐PA was found to be significantly increased by a linear regression assay (P < 0.01).

Conclusion:  These results suggest that OSF caused by areca quid chewing may be the result of an imbalance in the plasminogen/plasmin system, the net result of which is increased deposition of ECM.
Non‐smoking and non‐drinking patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: a distinct population
Authors: Farshadpour F , Hordijk GJ , Koole R , Slootweg PJ
Published: July 2006

Objective:  To recognize specific clinicopathological characteristics of non‐smoking and non‐drinking (NSND) head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) patients. This can increase our knowledge regarding a potentially different carcinogenesis in these patients.

Study design/methods:  Retrospective analysis of data for 195 NSND patients with HNSCC and comparison with data for patients with HNSCC obtained from the Netherlands Cancer Registry.

Results:  Compared with all HNSCC patients in the Netherlands, our NSND patients with HNSCC were typically female (n = 142; 73%vs 26%), old at disease presentation (mean 73 years vs 64 years), and had tumors mainly of the oral cavity (n = 130; 66%vs 25%). Most tumors were stage I (n = 67; 34%) and stage IVA (n = 59; 30%). The incidence of second primary tumors (SPTs) was high (n = 32; 16%), mainly occurring in the oral cavity (n = 26; 13%).

Discussion/conclusion:  Our study confirms that NSND HNSCC patients have different clinicopathological characteristics from those of the overall HNSCC population; however, the frequency of SPTs is as high in NSND patients as in patients who smoke and drink alcohol. More research, and particularly molecular data are needed to obtain a better understanding of head and neck cancer in NSND patients.
The Visibility of Feminist Thought in Family Studies
Authors: Wills Jeremiah B. , Risman Barbara J.
Published: July 2006

We assessed feminist visibility in family journals by tallying the feminist content of articles in Journal of Marriage and Family, Journal of Family Issues, and Family Relations. There was an increase in feminist visibility from 1972 to 1992, at which point the growth of visibility stalled. From 1992 to 2002, almost 1 out of 4 articles appeared to be influenced, at least minimally, by feminist scholarship when including in our tally a measure of articles' mentioning of gender in its abstract or title without a detectable feminist perspective in the article. Only about 6% of articles, however, involved an explicit feminist analysis. We offer explanations for this apparent glass ceiling for feminist visibility and make suggestions for future research.
Who Gets What From Government? Distributional Consequences of Child‐Care Assistance Policies
Authors: Durfee Alesha , Meyers Marcia K.
Published: July 2006

Given the fragmented structure of child‐care assistance in the United States, it has been difficult to obtain accurate estimates of which families are assisted, through which mechanisms, and at what level. Making use of survey data from New York City, we analyze the distribution of several forms of public child‐care assistance. Results suggest that about 40% of all families with young children receive some form of child‐care assistance. Considering all forms of assistance, the distribution of child‐care help is targeted in both expected and some unexpected ways. Implications of these results are discussed in the context of U.S. child‐care policies governing access and benefit levels.
Timing Effects on Divorce: 20th Century Experience in the United States
Authors: Schoen Robert , Canudas‐Romo Vladimir
Published: July 2006

Period divorce measures can misrepresent the underlying behavior of birth cohorts as changes in cohort timing produce changes in period probabilities of divorce. Building on methods used to adjust period fertility and marriage measures, we adjust U.S. period divorce rates for timing effects, calculating a timing index for every year between 1910 and 2000. The adjusted probability of divorce, PMED*, increases nearly linearly from 1910 through 1990, remaining at about that level through 2000. Period measures greatly exaggerate divorce risks from the early 1970s to the mid‐1980s, but understate them at other times. Adjusted values for recent years do not suggest a decline in the likelihood of divorce, with year 2000 values indicating a divorce probability of 0.43 – 0.46.
Sustained Citalopram Treatment in Experimental Hepatic Encephalopathy: Effects on Entrainment to the Light‐Dark Cycle and Melatonin
Authors: Kugelberg Fredrik C. , Apelqvist Gustav , Carlsson Björn , Ahlner Johan , Bengtsson Finn
Published: July 2006

Abstract: Patients with chronic hepatic encephalopathy often display altered diurnal rhythm as well as other affective disturbances which motivate treatment with antidepressants. We investigated the effects of sustained treatment with citalopram (10 mg/kg daily, 10 days) on 24‐hr behavioural open‐field activities in portacaval‐shunted (PCS) rats and sham‐operated control rats. In addition, the daytime and nighttime serum melatonin levels, as well as the serum concentrations of the enantiomers of citalopram and its metabolites, were analyzed. Untreated PCS rats showed reduced locomotor and rearing activities during nighttime. Citalopram treatment resulted in elevated behavioural activity in the PCS rats during night, indicative of an improved entrainment to the light‐dark cycle, whereas no behavioural effect could be observed in sham rats. Higher melatonin levels in both PCS and sham rats were observed during nighttime compared with daytime, but the untreated PCS rats also showed higher daytime melatonin level than the corresponding sham group. Citalopram treatment seemed not to have any major effect on the melatonin levels. Higher serum levels of both citalopram and metabolites were observed in PCS rats as compared to sham rats. An altered ratio between the S‐ and R‐enantiomers could also be observed in the PCS rats. In conclusion, the present data support the contention of a disturbed diurnal rhythm, and that the melatonin activity may be altered, in chronic hepatic encephalopathy. The citalopram treatment resulted in similar behavioural performances and daytime serum melatonin levels in PCS rats and controls, although pharmacokinetic differences were present between the groups.
The effect of nitrogen status on the regulation of plant‐mediated proteolysis in ingested forage; an assessment using non‐nodulating white clover
Authors: Kingston‐Smith A.H. , Bollard A.L. , Minchin F.R.
Published: July 2006

Production of nitrogenous waste by livestock agriculture is a significant environmental concern in terms of pollution of land and water. In the rumens of cattle and sheep, the excessive proteolysis which contributes to inefficiency of nutrient use involves both the rumen microbial population and the intrinsic plant proteases that can mediate protein degradation in ingested fresh forage on exposure to the environmental stresses of the rumen. Here, white clover (Trifolium repens) plants that do not form root nodules, and so are dependent on nitrate supplied to the roots, have been used to determine how nitrogen status of the plant affects the rate of plant‐mediated proteolysis in forage under conditions that simulate ingestion by grazing ruminants. Plants were grown from seed and supplied with nutrient solution containing 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 or 10 mM nitrate. Protein, free amino acid and protease activity were determined in leaves which had been placed in an in vitro system designed to simulate conditions experienced in the rumen (anaerobic phosphate buffer maintained at 39°C in the dark). Foliar protein content increased with increasing nitrate supply, while in vitro incubation of leaves resulted in time‐dependent decreases in protein concentration and increases in amino acid concentration. Regardless of nitrate supply, 50% of the protein was degraded in 6 h and 80% after 24 h. As the extent of protein decrease was determined by initial protein content, more protein degradation occurred in those plants grown with the highest nitrate supply: after 6 h, 130.7 mg g−1 dry matter (DM) was degraded in leaves grown at 10 mM nitrate but only 52.3 mg g−1 DM in leaves grown at 2.5 mM nitrate. Hence, although the percentage of proteolysis is independent of foliar protein concentration, the latter is critical to the quantity of protein degraded. Heat‐stable serine and cysteine proteases were active throughout the term of the in vitro incubation. Although proteolysis in ingested forage can continue for many hours, mediated by heat‐stable proteases, maximum amino acid accumulation accounted for less than 40% of initial protein. Therefore, it is proposed that continued and extensive proteolysis occurs following leaf excision and exposure to rumen conditions because amino acid accumulation is insufficient to initiate those feedback systems which sense cytoplasmic amino acid concentration and prevent excessive proteolysis during normal source–sink relations.
The relation between glucovanillin, β‐d‐glucosidase activity and cellular compartmentation during the senescence, freezing and traditional curing of vanilla beans
Authors: Odoux E. , Escoute J. , Verdeil J.‐L.
Published: July 2006

The aim of this research was to improve our understanding of the mechanism of glucovanillin hydrolysis by β‐d‐glucosidase activity in vanilla beans by studying their senescence, freezing and traditional curing. A batch of green pods from Madagascar was ripened at 30°C until fruits turned black; another batch was frozen for few days at −18°C and defrosted at 35°C for 24 h and a third batch was cured using traditional methods. During treatments, samples were analysed for the yield of glucovanillin hydrolysis, and β‐glucosidase activity was measured. Cellular structures were also examined by light and transmission electron microscopy. Green fruits had a low yield of glucovanillin hydrolysis (<5%), a high level of β‐glucosidase activity (∼1000 nkatal g−1fresh weight) and a perfect cellular integrity. Senescent fruits had a high yield of glucovanillin hydrolysis (>95%), no measurable β‐glucosidase activity and complete cellular degradation. Similar results were observed in beans after defrosting. During curing, beans had a medium yield of glucovanillin hydrolysis (<50%), no measurable β‐glucosidase activity and partial cellular degradation compared with senescent or defrosted beans. Results show that the mechanism of glucovanillin hydrolysis in vanilla beans is regulated by cellular compartmentation and that the β‐glucosidase activity level is not the limiting factor for complete hydrolysis. If total decompartmentation is obtained, then complete glucovanillin hydrolysis is observed even if most of the β‐glucosidase activity is lost. The β‐glucosidase activity level only has an effect on glucovanillin hydrolysis kinetics.
Censusing and Measuring Lianas: A Quantitative Comparison of the Common Methods1
Authors: Schnitzer Stefan A. , DeWalt Saara J. , Chave Jérôme
Published: July 2006

Lianas contribute to many aspects of tropical forest diversity and dynamics, and interest in liana ecology has grown substantially in recent years. Methods to census lianas and estimate biomass, however, differ among studies, possibly hindering attempts to compare liana communities. At Nouragues Research Station (French Guiana), we tested the extent to which liana abundance, basal area, and estimated biomass differed depending on stem diameter measurement location, inclusion of ramets, inclusion of lianas rooted within versus passing through the plot, and plot shape. We found that the mean per plot abundance and basal area of lianas were significantly greater when lianas were measured low on the stem, when ramets were included, and when lianas were sampled in transects (2 × 50 m) than in square plots (10 × 10 m). Mean per plot liana abundance and basal area were 21 percent and 58 percent greater, when stems were measured at the largest spot on the stem compared to 130 cm from the ground, respectively. Including liana ramets increased average per plot liana abundance, basal area, and estimated biomass by 19, 17, and 16 percent, respectively. To facilitate cross‐study comparisons, we developed conversion equations that equate liana abundance, diameter, and basal area based on the measurements taken at four different stem locations. We tested these equations at Lambir Hills National Park, Malaysia and found that they did not differ significantly between the two sites, suggesting that the equations may be broadly applicable. Finally, we present a new allometric equation relating diameter and biomass developed from 424 lianas from five independent data sets collected in four countries.
A theoretical treatment of the absorption spectra of all-benzenoid hydrocarbons
Authors: Troy T. P. , Schmidt T. W.
Published: July 2006

The class of compounds known as the all-benzenoid polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (ABPAHs) are treated with time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) and a modified Hückel theory to determine how large an ABPAH must be before it is found to absorb strongly in the visible region that corresponds to the bluest of the diffuse interstellar bands (DIBs). The first six ABPAHs are treated with TDDFT using the B3LYP functional to determine their excitation energies. A two-parameter Hückel theory is adopted to deal with those systems too large to be addressed with TDDFT. The transitions are calculated and fitted to experimental data. An ABPAH system with 84 carbons and 14 all-benzenoid rings is found to be the first carrier to absorb strongly in the region where DIBs are observed.
The Contributions of C. E. Jacob to Scientific Hydrology and Engineering Worksa
Authors: Spiegel Zane
Published: July 2006

C. E. Jacob was the first of a small group of hydrologists who followed C. V. Theis’ lead in application of the theory of nonsteady boundary value problems to both well hydraulics and regional ground‐water movement. Some of his scientific contributions were the explanation of the storage and elastic properties of artesian aquifers, the semi‐log method of aquifer test analysis, methods of analysis of tests on unconfined leaky aquifers, application of doublet theory to paired polarized heat‐pump wells, the theory of step and constant‐head aquifer tests by wells, salt‐water encroachment, the tutelage of hydrology students at several universities, solutions to hundreds of field problems encountered in his extensive consulting activities in many parts of the world, and his method of determining aquifer recharge and transmissivity from the response of water levels in wells to varying natural recharge. One of his last works was a study of the natural recharge to Southampton on Long Island, which showed that the recharge was much less than the 21 inches per year assumed previously.
Effect of Early Day Mining Operations on Present Day Water Qualitya
Authors: Mink Leland L. , Williams Roy E. , Wallace Alfred T.
Published: July 2006

Mining operations within the Coeur d'Alene District of northern Idaho have been continuous for over 85 years. Data presented herein demonstrate that early day mining and milling wastes are now affecting the ground‐water quality in several locations. One of the affected areas is the lower Canyon Creek Basin located in the Coeur d'Alene District near Wallace, Idaho.

Ground‐water pollution of the Canyon Creek Basin results from leaching of old mine tailings that are intermixed with the upper part of the sand and gravel aquifer. High zinc, lead and cadmium concentrations occur in ground water and soil samples taken from the portion of the sand and gravel aquifer containing old mine tailings.

Analysis of water samples from a settling pond located in the upper portion of the study area indicates that the pond water is not the source of the heavy metal concentrations found in the ground water. However, the water from the pond's decanting system provides recharge to ground water and compounds the problem.
Probable Impact of NTA on Ground Watera
Authors: Dunlap William J. , Cosby Roger L. , McNabb James F. , Bledsoe Bert E. , Scalf Marion R.
Published: July 2006

Laboratory studies were employed to investigate the fate and effect of NTA both in ground waters and in soil profiles overlying ground waters.

Studies of the sorption of NTA by sand, loam, and clay‐loam soils indicated that sorption of NTA on soils could slow its movement into and through ground waters. Sorption will probably not be sufficient to prevent or greatly reduce potential pollution of ground water by NTA used as a detergent builder.

Soil column studies were employed to investigate the degradation and effect on metals of NTA infiltrating through soils. These studies indicated: NTA infiltrating through most unsaturated soils likely would undergo rapid and complete degradation and contribute only inorganic nitrogen compounds and carbonate to ground waters; NTA infiltrating through saturated soils would probably experience only very limited degradation, with a major portion entering ground water intact; any NTA which escaped degradation during infiltration through soils could transport such metals as iron, zinc, chromium, lead, cadmium, and mercury from soils into ground waters.

Studies with model aquifers constructed from natural aquifer sand indicated that NTA would likely undergo slow degradation in essentially anaerobic ground‐water environments, with production of CO2, CH4, and possibly other organic compounds.
GROUND‐WATER POLLUTION – FROM THE WASTE DISCHARGER'S VIEWPOINTa
Authors: Gilbert Jerome B.
Published: July 2006

The first three field reports were presented as part of a panel discussion entitled “Impact of Pollution Control Legislation on Ground‐Water Management,” at the Ninth Biennial Conference on Ground Water, Francisco Torres Conference Center, Goleta, California, September 13‐14, 1973.
Effluent for Irrigation — A Need for Caution?a
Authors: Walker William H.
Published: July 2006

Most municipal waste treatment systems receive, treat, and eventually discard to some segment of the environment storm runoff and liquid wastes from all industrial, commercial, and domestic areas and establishments in the community. At any given time these wastes may contain viruses, antibiotics, hormones, nutrients, weedkillers, fungicides, pesticides, trace metals, and an almost countless number of toxic chemical compounds. Present treatment by the old, ineffectual sewage treatment methods and facilities still employed generally does not remove nor reduce to a harmless state all of the hazardous materials contained in the waste streams entering the plant. Some are more concentrated when they leave the plant in effluent and sludge than they were upon entry.

Existing pollution protection laws prohibit surface‐water dilution of these effluents and sludges. Drying, burning, or distilling them is very costly, causes air pollution, and produces potentially hazardous chemical residues which still must be disposed of in some nonpolluting fashion. There are no “technologically feasible, economically reasonable” alternative methods of effectively treating these wastes to an acceptable quality level for discharge to streams. For these reasons, land disposal of sewage effluent and sludges now is being widely promoted and employed as the best available method of treatment.

It is estimated that as many as 300 municipalities have gone to the land to solve their sewage plant waste problems in recent months. Many of these have been at least partially funded with State and Federal grants. If similar permits and financial assistance continue to be granted in the future, it is anticipated that several thousand municipalities will follow suit within the next few years.
Development of Fresh Ground Water Near Salt Water in West Virginiaa
Authors: Wilmoth Benton M.
Published: July 2006

Salt‐water migration into relatively shallow rocks in the western half of West Virginia is already rather far advanced. Because of the wide distribution of salty ground water and connate brine at various depths, it is difficult to determine how much of the contamination is natural and how much is the result of subsurface industrial activities. Although some local salt‐water problems are the result of oil and gas operations, much of the regional near‐surface salt water is a natural condition unrelated to deep drilling or other industrial activities.

Ground water is usually more abundant from consolidated aquifers beneath the valleys than from beneath the ridges. However, the presence of shallow salt water beneath the valleys imposes limitations on the availability of fresh water from a single well. Because most well fields must be located along the populated valleys, the problem of interception of salt water is the most important factor limiting development of consolidated bedrock aquifers. By utilizing the history of development and operation of well fields, an estimate of the availability of fresh water can be made, and test drilling and new well field construction guided accordingly.

During 1971 to 1974, more than a dozen small communities in Logan and Boone Counties started development of public‐water supplies from wells. Existing water‐supply problems in these areas are being solved by using the cumulative experience of other communities in the area. Ground water is currently being developed in valley areas of Logan County such as Man to Lorado, Essie to Big Creek, and Huff Creek to Mallory. Adequate well fields have recently been successfully constructed just above shallow salt water in bedrock aquifers at Hattie in Calhoun County, near Madison in Boone County, near Southside in Mason County, and at Prichard in Wayne County. In all of these areas of successful construction, the essential information for initial test drilling was obtained by detailed hydrogeologic work at the prospective sites. Most important was the determination of the maximum depth of fresh water, well spacing and pumping rates.
Subsurface Biological Activity in Relation to Ground‐Water Pollutiona
Authors: McNabb James F. , Dunlap William J.
Published: July 2006

Biological activity occurring in subsurface regions below the soil zone may be of considerable importance in determining the fate and effect of pollutants in ground water, but this possibility has received little previous attention. This paper comprises a discussion of subsurface biological activity in regard to ground‐water pollution as reflected by available literature references. The subsurface environment is discussed in terms of factors likely to be of greatest significance in regard to the development of biological systems, and previous investigations of subsurface microbial activity are reviewed. Available information indicates the presence in the upper continental crust of the earth of numerous regions, particularly those of sedimentary origin, which are probably suitable habitats for many microbial species. Previous investigations of subsurface microbial activity clearly show the presence of diverse microbial populations in many subsurface regions below the soil zone. Hence, microbial activity appears both possible and probable in most subsurface regions of importance in regard to ground water. Further elucidation of the extent and nature of microbial activity in subsurface regions is needed in developing methods for predicting the impact on ground‐water quality of pollutants released into the earth's crust.
Natural Soil Nitrate: The Cause of the Nitrate Contamination of Ground Water in Runnels County, Texasa
Authors: Kreitler Charles W. , Jones David C.
Published: July 2006

The ground waters of Runnels County, Texas, are highly contaminated with nitrate. The average nitrate concentration of 230 water samples was 250 mg/I NO3.

The natural variations of the stable nitrogen isotopes N14 and N15 identified natural soil nitrate as the predominant source. Nitrate from animal wastes was of minor importance. The δN15 range of natural soil nitrate was +2 to +8% whereas the δN15 range of animal waste nitrate was +10 to +20%‐ (Atmospheric nitrogen was used as a standard for mass spectrometric analysis. Experimental error for sample preparation and isotopic analysis was ±1 %.) More than 66 percent of the ground‐water nitrates analyzed were in the δN15 range of natural soil nitrates.

Dryland farming since 1900 has caused the oxidation of the organic nitrogen in the soil to nitrate. Minimal fertilizer has been used because of the lack of suitable water for irrigation. During the period 1900‐1950, nitrate was leached below the root zone but not to the water table. Extensive terracing after the drought in the early 1950's has raised the water table approximately 6 meters and has leached the nitrate into the ground water. Tritium dates indicate that the ground water is less than 20 years old.
Earth Resistivity Surveys — A Method for Defining Ground‐Water Contaminationa
Authors: Stollar Robert L. , Roux Paul
Published: July 2006

An important part of every investigation of ground‐water pollution is to locate and define the extent of the contaminated body of ground water. The usual method for accomplishing this is to install and sample numerous test wells, a costly and time‐consuming procedure. A much faster and less costly method, which has proven to give accurate results, is the earth resistivity survey. Because earth resistivity is inversely proportional to ground‐water conductivity, the location of ground water that has been contaminated by a relatively high concentration of conductive industrial wastes, for example, may be quickly and accurately traced.

In order for the resistivity method to give useful results, resistivity contrasts must exist in the subsurface. For example, if the contaminant does not have a significantly greater conductivity than the natural ground water, or if the ground water is naturally highly conductive itself, a large enough resistivity contrast may not exist, and the method may not work. In addition, if depth to water is too great, the thickness of the unsaturated sediments can mask any contrasts between contaminated and natural ground water. The geologic environment must be relatively uniform so that the resistivity values and profiles can be compared with one another. At most industrial plant sites and landfills, these conditions are met. That is, the area of investigation is usually limited to a few hundred acres, where the geology and depth to water tend to be uniform.

Four case histories of industrial and landfill sites are discussed in this paper. The areas underlain by the contaminated ground‐water bodies ranged from 25 to 100 acres. The depths to the contaminated water were relatively shallow, ranging from 5 to about 60 feet below land surface. In three of the cases, the results of the earth resistivity studies, which were verified by installing test wells in and around the area being investigated, proved to be remarkably accurate. In the fourth study, the conditions mentioned were not met, and the survey was unsuccessful.
Thirty‐Five Years of Continuous Discharge of Secondary Treated Effluent onto Sand Bedsa
Authors: Aulenbach Donald B. , Tofflemire T. James
Published: July 2006

The Lake George Village sewage treatment plant has been discharging trickling filter effluent onto natural delta sand beds for a period of 35 years. The applied sewage apparently appears near the banks of West Brook approximately 600 m (2000 ft) from the lower sand beds. Wells have been placed between the recharge beds and the appearance of the seepage at West Brook. The quality of the water in the wells has been evaluated over the period of slightly over one year.

The ground water appears to be aerobic at all times indicating that the oxygen demand of the applied effluent has been adequately reduced before it reaches the ground water. This should afford adequate and proper tertiary treatment for the applied effluent.

The phosphorus concentration was significantly reduced at the first well downstream (ground water) approximately 150 m (500 ft) from the sand beds. The phosphorus in well 2 approximately 600 m (2000 ft) from the lower sand beds reached a high value of 150 μg/l during the late fall but was less than 100 μg/l during the rest of the year.

Some of the nitrogen in the applied effluent was apparently oxidized to nitrate which was very little removed by the sand system. The highest nitrate concentration found was 14 mg N/l in well 3C during the Spring, whereas well 3A had almost consistently the lowest concentration of nitrate.
Ground‐Water Contamination in the Silurian Dolomite of Door County, Wisconsina
Authors: Sherrill M. G.
Published: July 2006

Door County, a recreational and fruit‐growing area bordering Lake Michigan in northeastern Wisconsin, has had a long history of ground‐water contamination from surface and near‐surface sources. Contamination is most severe in late summer when the influx of tourists and fruit‐canning operations create additional wastes.

Thin soil cover and well‐fractured dolomitic bedrock give easy entry to ground‐water contaminants throughout large parts of Door County. Many contaminants enter the dolomite by surface or near‐surface seepage. There is little attenuation of contamination concentrations in the well‐jointed dolomite, and contaminants may travel long distances underground in a relatively short time. The major source of ground‐water contamination is bacterial, from individual waste‐disposal systems, agricultural, industrial, and municipal sources. Contamination is in zones that originate from point sources and move in the direction of ground‐water flow, either naturally or as induced by pumping wells. The contaminated areas include only a small percentage of the total ground‐water system and are separated by large areas of ground water free of contamination. Tests based on indicator bacteria suggest that the periods of highest contamination potential occur during or immediately following rapid ground‐water recharge periods. Increasing the depth of casing and pressure grouting the casing into firm bedrock are two well‐construction procedures that reduce the contamination potential in wells.
Ground‐Water Recharge Rates from Thermometrya
Authors: Nightingale Harry I.
Published: July 2006

Basin artificial ground‐water recharge rate at the Leaky Acres Recharge Project in Fresno, California was evaluated by Fourier analysis of temperature variations of air, basin water and ground water. The weekly mean basin‐water temperature correlated well (r = 0.982) with weekly mean air temperature. Weekly mean temperature data of the air, basin water, and recharged ground water showed that the first harmonic curve was satisfactory for determining the times of minimum and maximum temperature when convective transfer of heat was considered.

The lag time between maximum basin‐water temperature and maximum ground‐water temperature at a 16 m depth (52.5 ft), showed water moved at a thermal tracer velocity of 20.8 cm/day (0.68 ft/day). The corresponding infiltration rate measured by the falling‐head method in study area basins was 18.5 cm/day (0.61 ft/day). This and other reported studies indicate that under suitable conditions with simple field instrumentation ground‐water thermometry can be used to estimate the rate and direction of recharged water movement.
Upconing of the Salt‐Water–Fresh‐Water Interface Beneath a Pumping Well
Authors: Chandler R. L. , McWhorter D. B.
Published: July 2006

The upconing of saline water in response to pumping from an overlying layer of fresh water is investigated by numerical integration of the governing differential equation. The transition zone between the fresh and saline water is idealized as an abrupt interface. Full consideration of the nonlinear boundary conditions on the water table and interface surfaces is included for steady flow toward partially penetrating pumping wells in both isotropic and anisotropic aquifers. There exists an optimum well penetration into the fresh‐water layer which permits maximum discharge without salt‐water entrainment. The optimum penetration increases as the vertical permeability is reduced relative to the horizontal permeability. The maximum well discharge obtainable without salt‐water entrainment is greater for aquifers with a reduced vertical permeability than for isotropic aquifers, a result that contrasts with previously published conclusions. Previous analyses which linearize the boundary condition on the interface overestimate the critical discharge.
Zoning Aquifers for Tertiary Treatment of Wastewatera
Authors: Bouwer Herman
Published: July 2006

Soils and aquifers can function as effective and economical filter systems for advanced treatment of conventionally treated sewage and other wastewater. The wastewater is applied to the land with low‐rate or high‐rate infiltration systems. Physical, chemical, and biological processes in the soil improve the quality of the wastewater as it percolates through the vadose zone and into the aquifer to become renovated water. The quality of the renovated water, however, often is not as good as that of the native ground water. To utilize the land for treatment of wastewater, without trading a problem of surface‐water pollution for one of ground‐water contamination, the spread of renovated water in the aquifer must be restricted. This can be accomplished by locating the system so that the renovated water drains naturally into a stream or other surface water, or by artificially removing renovated water from the aquifer with wells or drains at some distance from the application area. Examples are given of various systems that utilize these principles, and general design criteria are presented. Proper design involves analysis of underground‐flow systems for various system geometries. Methods for measuring hydraulic conductivity, particularly in the vadose zone, are briefly reviewed.
Tracing Sewage Effluent Recharge Tucson, Arizonaa
Authors: Schultz Thomas R. , Randall Jeffery H. , Wilson L. G. , Davis Stanley N.
Published: July 2006

Dry washes or river beds are often used by southwestern communities to dispose of treated sewage effluent. Because many of these communities rely on ground water as a water supply, there is concern that this disposal practice may contaminate local aquifers. This has led to implementation of monitoring and tracing programs to quantify effluent and ground‐water interactions and to development of efficient, easily used predictive models.

The treated sewage effluent from the City of Tucson treatment plant has historically been used for irrigation and/or discharged to the normally dry Santa Cruz River. Numerous sampling programs have been undertaken to quantify the chemical quality, temperature, and microbiological activity of the ground water in the area near the Santa Cruz. Ground‐water regions with high chloride and nitrate concentrations tend to be associated with areas irrigated with sewage effluent. Quality degradation due to channel recharge is not as evident because the effluent recharge is restricted by fine materials plugging the channel deposits. Recharging water tends to mound near the contact between the Recent and Fort Lowell formations spreading laterally more rapidly than downward.

A new tracer, trichlorofluoromethane (trade name Freon 11, C13CF) with applications similar to environmental tritium is being evaluated. C13CF enters the hydro‐logic cycle when it is partitioned between the gas and liquid phases during raindrop formation. C13CF in water samples is separated and quantitatively measured by a gas chromatograph with pulsed electron‐capture detector.

Preliminary Cl3CF analyses of ground water along the Santa Cruz do not correlate with nitrate values because mixing and increasing atmospheric Cl3CF concentrations were not accounted for. However, the presence of CI3CF in the ground water indicates recent recharge. Predictive modeling will be implemented using CI3CF and a finite‐state mixing model.
Review of C. E. Jacob's Doublet Well
Authors: Wickersham Ginia
Published: July 2006

C. E. Jacob, noted hydrologist, received patents on his doublet well invention in 1965. Due to his death soon thereafter, no paper was written or published describing his invention. The purpose of this paper is to stir interest in his original doublet theory and make known a technique that can be useful to hydrologists.

Jacob's patents are for a single location doublet well that produces fresh water or petroleum from underground reservoir formations without contamination by underlying heavier liquid. By use of packers, water is pumped from one horizon and discharged into a different horizon. A closed cell is created whereby the heavier liquid is recirculated below the streamline boundary, while lighter fluid passes into the well and is raised to the surface.

The doublet well as proposed by Jacob has the potential to increase the usefulness of ground water. It permits a greater rate of production of the lighter liquid than previously possible. It is applicable to saline intrusion and oil vs. brine situations. The single doublet is also a possible mechanism for the ground‐water heat pump.
Cleat Orientation and Areal Hydraulic Anisotropy of a Wyoming Coal Aquifer
Authors: Stone Randolph , Snoeberger David F.
Published: July 2006

The anisotropic, areal hydraulic conductivity of the Felix No. 2 coal (Eocene, Wasatch Formation) has been defined in a four‐well pump test at a site in the Powder River Basin of northeastern Wyoming. The direction of maximum hydraulic conductivity of the subbituminous coal bed bears N59°E and is associated with a horizontal hydraulic conductivity of 0.27 m/day. The direction of minimum hydraulic conductivity bears N31°W and is associated with a horizontal hydraulic conductivity of 0.15 m/day. The direction of maximum hydraulic conductivity approximately corresponds to the trend of the prominent face cleat in the coal, while the direction of minimum hydraulic conductivity corresponds to the trend of the butt cleat. The cleat orientation appears related to the alignment of major structural features of the region. Prediction of the direction of both maximum and minimum horizontal hydraulic conductivity in near‐horizontal coal beds appears possible. However, either the cleat orientation of the bed or the alignment of the controlling fold structure must be known or obtainable.