bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Asymmetry, Developmental Stability, and Evolution
Authors: Møller Anders Pape , Swaddle John P
Published: November 2023

Why does nature love symmetry? In this up-to-date review of symmetry and its evolutionary implications, Anders M/oller and John Swaddle argue that symmetry is related to genetic stability and fitness and that symmetric individuals appear to have quantifiable and significant advantages over their asymmetric counterparts. In contrast, asymmetry, a common measure of developmental instability, is the result of environmental or genetic disruptions of developmental processes, such as pollutants, competition, parasitism, inbreeding, genetic mutation, and hybridization. M/oller and Swaddle maintain that deviations from morphological symmetry are important factors in social or sexual situations: animals may be able to use symmetry as an honest indication of quality when assessing potential mates or competitors. This comprehensive review of the literature on developmental stability will be important reading for students and researchers in the fields of ecology, evolutionary biology, genetics, and animal behavior.
Developmental instability and performance
Authors: Møller Anders Pape , Swaddle John P
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we review the evidence that links asymmetry with decreased performance, particularly in relation to locomotion. In other words, we investigate the functional costs of asymmetry. We start by explaining why symmetry is the ideal phenotypic expression in many cases of performance (section 7.2). This is because symmetry keeps a body in a state of stable equilibrium, whereas asymmetry disrupts this state and so requires energy to maintain the status quo. This expense of energy may reduce overall performance and hence decrease efficiency; the reduction in performance does not just relate to locomotor performance but also any other costly activity which will be in a trade-off for energetic resources (e.g. growth, reproduction, immune defence).
Inclusive fitness and sex allocation
Authors: Crozier Ross H , Pamilo Pekka
Published: November 2023

An important point in understanding the function and evolution of social insects lies in understanding how the workers can increase their own fitness.. In the first chapter we already learnt that workers can play an active role in the evolution of social life, and when doing this they can run into conflicts with the queens, at least in the eusocial Hymenoptera. In order to study the role played by different parties in the conflicts, we have to quantify their evolutionary successes and this is done using the inclusive fitness. An individual can increase its inclusive fitness either directly by producing its own offspring or indirectly by helping a relative to reproduce. The inclusive fitness of an individual depends on the number of offspring raised, on the genetic relatednesses and the reproductive values of the offspring produced, and on the mating successes of females and males in the population.
Bat relationships and the origin of flight
Authors: Simmons Nancy B
Published: November 2023

Interpretation of evolution of any functional system requires a phylogenetic con text. In the case of chiropteran flight, two competing hypotheses must be con sidered: either bats are monophyletic and powered flight evolved only once in mammals, or bats are diphyletic and flight evolved twice.
Feeding ecology of Philippine fruit bats: patterns of resource use and seed dispersal
Authors: Utzurrum Ruth C B
Published: November 2023

Information on diet compos1t10n of, feeding patterns in, and seed dispersal by pteropodids was gathered in a primary tropical rain forest area in southern Negros Island, Philippines. Seeds and marked remains of food plants were collected: (1) in 1 m x 1 m seed traps laid out at 3-m intervals along four orthogonal transects around selected fruiting figs, and (2) randomly from the forest floor within a 100 m x 100 m area surrounding these trees.
Echolocation signal design, foraging habitats and guild structure in six Neotropical sheath-tailed bats (Emballonuridae)
Authors: Kalko Elisabeth K V
Published: November 2023

The three major families of aerial insectivorous bats that occur in both Old and New World tropics (Emballonuridae, Molossidae, Vespertilionidae) show great variety in echolocation signal design. To understand better the function of this variation, I used an ultrasound detector and night-vision goggles to study echolocation and foraging behaviour of six species of emballonurids that occur sympatrically at each of five field sites spanning Costa Rica, Panama and Venezuela. At all five localities I found a consistent association of specific signal types with three distinct habitat types in which these species foraged, suggesting that the guild of insectivorous bats is highly structured. First, the ghost bat (Diclidurus a/bus) and a bat tentatively identified as Peropteryx sp. both hunted in open, uncluttered space and emitted low-frequency, shallow-modulated echolocation signals. Second, two white-lined bats (Saccopteryx bilineata, S. leptura) and Wagner’s sac-winged bat (Cormura brevirostris) foraged in cluttered habitats close to vegetation and used medium-frequency echolocation signals with a shallow-modulated middle part starting and ending with a steep frequency-modulated component. Third, the proboscis bat (Rhynchonycteris naso) restricted its foraging to within a metre or two of the surface of small streams. Its high-frequency echolocation signals were similar in structure to those of noctilionid bats, which use similar habitats.
Street lamps and the feeding ecology of insectivorous bats
Authors: Rydell J , Racey P A
Published: November 2023

In southern Sweden, densities of northern bats Eptesicus nilssonii (Keyserling & Blasius) flying along artificially lit roads in built-up areas (villages) were assessed, by using an ultrasound detector, at 2-5 bats per kilometre. In comparison, there were 0.1-0.4 bats per kilometre of unlit road. Means of 3.2 and 3.l common pipistrelle bats Pipistrellus pipistrellus (Schreber) were recorded per kilometre of lit road in England and Scotland respectively.
Matrix-assisted laser desorption and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry in protein studies: competitive or complementary?
Authors: Roepstorff* Peter , Jaquinod* Michel , Neilsent K laus , Anderson* Jens S
Published: November 2023

A major breakthrough in the potential for applying mass spectrometry (MS) in protein studies was achieved in the early 1980s by demonstration of the possibility of recording mass spectra of small proteins, e.g. insulin, independently by two different mass spectrometric ionization techniques, i.e. plasma desorption (PD) and fast atom bombardment (FAB) by Hakansson et al. 1982 and Dell and Morris 1982, respectively. These methods were quickly applied to numerous protein studies. In spite of their demonstrated capabilities, the techniques did not gain the expected rapid acceptance in protein research laboratories. Too low sensitivity, limited mass range, limited mass accuracy, difficulties in sample handling, and instrumental complexity were claimed to be the major reasons. Most of these impediments were overcome by the introduction of two new ionization methods in the late 1980s. As described below the combined use of electrospray ionization (ESI) (Fenn et al. 1989) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) (Karas and Hillenkamp 1988) now gives a nearly indefinite mass range, femtomole sensitivity, high tolerance towards salts and additives, and a mass accuracy of 0.01% or better. In addition, the instrument manufacturers have realized that simpler user friendly instrumentation is needed, and the time-of-flight mass spectrometers especially have reached a state where the practical operation of the instrument does not require any expertise. A number of additional features further render these two ionization techniques attractive for protein chemistry and biochemistry; these include for ESI: easy on-line coupling with HPLC and CZE, good perspectives for quantitation and the opportunity to obtain information about higher order protein structures and non-covalent interactions; and for MALDI: excellent mixture handling capabilities, still higher sensitivity, and compatibility with protein separation by PAGE. The principles and features of all four techniques have recently been reviewed (Roepstorff and Richter 1992).
Mass spectrometry of natural and synthetic lignin polymers: on the detection of coumaryl units by in-source pyrolysis mass spectrometry
Authors: Van Der Hage Erik R E , Weeding Tina L , Boon Jaap J
Published: November 2023

Lignin constitutes approximately 25–35% of the dry weight of wood and provides wood with its unique elastic and structural properties. In contrast to cellulose, which is formed by all plants, the formation of lignified cell walls is unique to vascular plants adapted to life on land, and enables the development of large upright forms and conduction systems for aqueous solutions. The current status of plant lignification in terms of its biological and biochemical aspects has been reviewed by Freudenberg and Neish (1968), Wardrop (1971), Gross (1985), Higuchi (1985), and Lewis and Yamamoto (1990).
In vitro differentiation of mouse ES cells into muscle cells
Authors: Tarasova Yelena S , Riordon Daniel R , Tarasov Kirill V , Boheler Kenneth R
Published: November 2023

Following the derivation of ES cell lines from mouse embryos (1, 2), Wobus et al. 1 and Doetschman et al. (4) observed that mouse ES (mES) cells when grown in suspension culture spontaneously form three-dimensional cell aggregates, termed embryoid bodies (EBs), which generate multiple differentiated cell types. These aggregates were later shown to give rise to, in vitro, cell lineages including those typical of striated and non-striated muscle. This chapter provides current techniques for the production of muscle derivatives from mES cells via EBs, and for their functional analysis.

In vertebrates, striated cardiac and skeletal muscle cells are derived from mesoderm. Commitment of mesodermal cells to the cardiogenic lineage is established during and shortly after gastrulation, at which time cardiogenic cells are organized in bilateral epithelial sheets that are part of the visceral mesoderm lining the developing coelomic cavity (5). Skeletal muscle forms in the vertebrate limb from progenitor cells that originate in somites; these cells delaminate from dermomyotome, and migrate into the limb bud where they proliferate, express myogenic determination factors, and differentiate into skeletal muscle (6). Non-striated smooth-muscle cells (SMC) originate both from neuroectoderm (neural crest), which contains cells committed to the SMC lineage, and from mesodermal sources (endothelium, epicardium) that have undergone limited differentiation (7).
In vitro differentiation of mouse ES cells into haematopoietic cells
Authors: Ohneda Osamu , Yamamoto Masayuki
Published: November 2023

In mammals, the haematopoietic system originates from the mesodermal layer in the developing embryo, and is established by a complex hierarchy of cell differentiation pathways associated with so-called ‘primitive’ and ‘definitive’ haematopoiesis (1). Primitive haematopoiesis occurs in the yolk sac (YS) and gives rise to one main cell lineage, the primitive erythrocytes (eryP); and definitive erythropoiesis takes place in the YS and diverse sites in the embryo proper, giving rise to multiple lineages constituting all haematopoietic cell types, apart from eryP (1).
Differentiation of human ES cells
Authors: Gerecht-Nir Sharon , Itskovitz-Eldor Joseph
Published: November 2023

Although the establishment of ES cell lines from human embryos was first accomplished relatively recently (1; and see Chapter 10), procedures already elaborated for the in vitro differentiation of human ES (hES) cells confirm the pluripotency of this cell type, and the power of the ES cell-based methodology: hES cells hold great promise for the study of human embryonic development, and for transplantation therapies.
Rietveld analysis programs RIETAN and PREMOS and special applications
Authors: Izumi F
Published: November 2023

A FORTRAN program named RIETAN (RIETveld ANalysis) was independently developed in Japan for Rietveld analysis of angle-dispersive X-ray and neutron powder data (Izumi 1985; Izumi 1989). It has since become the heart of a suite of related programs called FAT-RIETAN (Section 13.2). RIETAN was later modified to work with TOF neutron powder data (Izumi et al.1987) measured on the high-resolution powder diffractometer, HRP (Watanabe et al.1987), installed at the KENS pulsed neutron source at the National Laboratory for High Energy Physics (KEK). Since 1983, structures of many metals and inorganic compounds, most of which are superconducting copper oxides and related compounds, have been refined routinely with this program. As well as having many of the ‘usual’ features of other good programs, such as GSAS and DBWS-9006 described in Chapter 1, RIETAN has some special features of interest. Chief among them are (i) a choice of three different least-squares algorithms (Section 13.1.6), (ii) the possibility to change from one algorithm to another under programmatic control to confirm the convergence to a global minimum (Section 13.1.7), and (iii) incremental refinement in which variable parameters in each cycle are changed appropriately during the course of a refinement series (Section 13.1.7). Databases storing crystallographic information and physical quantities of elements are attached to RIET AN (Section 13.1.2). Both linear and non-linear constraints can be accommodated, the latter along with an exterior penalty function method (Section 13.1.5).
Position-constrained and unconstrained powder-pattern-decomposition methods
Authors: Hideo Toraya
Published: November 2023

The individual profile fitting, the Pawley, and the Rietveld methods are compared in Table 14.1. The first two methods, described in this chapter, are classified as pattern decomposition methods. With them, one executes the decomposition of the powder pattern into individual Bragg components without reference to a structural model (Young et al. 1982). The difference between these two models is that the peak positions are unconstrained, varied independently as adjustable parameters in the least-squares in the individual profile fitting method while they are constrained by adjustable unit-cell parameters in the Pawley method. Furthermore, in individual profile fittings, pattern decomposition is carried out in a small 20-range, changing the range of analysis successively, whereas the whole powder pattern is decomposed in one step by the Pawley method. These two methods do not require crystal structural data (atom site occupancy, positional, and thermal parameters) to start the least-squares fitting.
Diffraction Contrast and High Resolution Electron Microscopy of Structures and Structural Defects
Authors: Amelinckx S , Dyck D Van
Published: November 2023

In volume I of this treatise the kinematical and dynamical theories of electron diffraction by perfect crystals were discussed [1]. In the present chapter we will discuss the application of these theories to the imaging of defects in crystals. We shall first recall the basic equations of both theories and in some cases provide an alternative derivation of these equations, which might shed some additional light on their physical contents. We shall formulate them furthermore in a form which is well adapted to the study of defects.

Although the kinematical theory is in itself not sufficient as a basis for the realistic computation of images, it is nevertheless of some importance in providing insight and making possible analytical treatments which lead to informative, albeit qualitative conclusions.
lndentification of Unknowns
Authors: Lyman C E , Carr M J
Published: November 2023

Electron diffraction is most often employed to determine or set the orientation of a particular single crystal of a known phase and to confirm the identity of that phase. An equally important application of electron diffraction is the identification of an ‘unknown’ phase. An unknown phase in this sense falls into one of two broad classes: it is either a phase that is new-to-science or a phase that has been described previously but was not known to be in the specimen under consideration. If the unknown is truly new-to-science, then its proper identification will require quantitative information about its composition and a determination of its space group, unit cell dimensions, and atom positions within the unit cell. Methods for obtaining such information are covered in Volume 1, Chapters 6 and 7, of this book. However, if the interplanar spacings and angles of the unknown can be matched to those of a previously documented phase by a search through a database of reference compounds, the unknown may be efficiently identified without a detailed structure analysis.
Introductory Material
Authors: Shmueli Uri , Weiss George H
Published: November 2023

The determination of crystal and molecular structures achieved its present respectable status thanks to advances in techniques of data collection, the widespread availability of computing power and the development of methods for the interpretation of experimental data in terms of crystal symmetry and atomic and molecular models. Some of the most successful of these rely heavily on statistical methodology. Structure-factor statistics play an important role among these methods and many investigations of this subject can be found in the crystallographic literature, since its introduction by Wilson (1949). Early work on statistical properties of a single structure factor (or normalized intensity), as applied to intensity statistics, is summarized in the book of Srinivasan and Parthasarathy (1976). This work is mainly based on central limit theorem methods. A detailed treatment of approximate joint probability density functions (hereafter: pdfs) of several structure factors, relevant to the implementation of direct methods of phase determination, is given in a book by Giacovazzo (1980), which is also a good source of references to earlier work on the subject. There is no book or monograph which develops or summarizes exact expressions for the pdfs required to implement structure-factor statistics, and certainly none that addresses numerical problems in evaluating such expressions. Our main purpose is to develop pdfs of the magnitude of the structure factor. In addition, we discuss some of the approximations that result in less accurate but more conveniently computable expressions for these densities. In many instances we recall the mathematical tools that may be required by the reader for following details of the derivations. The quantities to be discussed in this monograph are of importance to the theories and practice of intensity statistics and direct methods.
Fourier Representations of Pdfs
Authors: Shmueli Uri , Weiss George H
Published: November 2023

One can always express the pdf of a sum of random variables in terms of a Fourier integral containing the characteristic function as part of the integrand [as in eqn(2.1.11)]. However, an accurate numerical evaluation of such integrals can pose difficulties due to the oscillatory integrand. Consequently this approach has not been exploited in crystallographic applications. Nevertheless, a slight modification does lead to representations which are found, in practice, to produce accurate results with a reasonable amount of numerical effort.
Waves in a Cold Plasma
Authors: Brambilla Marco
Published: November 2023

The dielectric tensor of a cold plasma is easily obtained from eqn (14.13) by putting the temperature Tαof all species equal to zero.
Renormalized Perturbation Theory And The Turbulence Closure Problem
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

The application of renormalization methods to the problem of closing the turbulent moment hierarchy was begun by Krishnan (1959). He was soon followed by other pioneers (Wyld 1961; Edwards 1964; Herring 1965), and since then there have been many similar approaches. It is this body of work which forms the principal topic of the present book, and we shall refer to any theoretical approach of this general type as a ‘renormalized perturbation theory’ (RPT). This gives us a convenient generic term and, at the same time, allows us to distinguish between the subject of the next few chapters and the renormalization group (RG), which will be discussed later in Chapter 9. Introductory discussions of these topics can be found in Section 3.5. In Chapters 6 and 7, we shall divide the various RPTs into two classes, which are (respectively) those which do not yield the Kolmogorov spectrum as a solution, and those which do, and discuss particular theories in some detail. In this chapter our aim is to expose the basic ideas behind RPTs in general. We shall try to achieve this by introducing RPT in other many-body problems (particularly in certain situations where we can be confident about the soundness of this method), and then by considering its application to turbulence through the Wyld (1961) formulation.
Renormalized Perturbation Theories of the First Kind
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

In discussing renormalized perturbation theories (RPTs), we shall divide them into two categories. We shall then devote a separate chapter to each of these categories. Firstly, in this chapter we will concentrate on those theories which are not compatible with the Kolmogorov inertial-range spectrum. These can be thought of as the older theories although, in point of strict chronological order, this is not true of every case. Secondly, in Chapter 7, after first turning our attention to the problems involved in finding an analytical theory which does have the Kolmogorov spectrum as its solution, we then consider those theories which can claim to have achieved that result. Questions concerning the significance of one or other category will be deferred until Chapter 8, where we shall attempt to make an overall assessment of the various theories. The theories which we are just about to discuss in the present chapter can again be subdivided, but this time on the basis of the general approach to the problem. That is, there are those theories which are based on a direct manipula-tion of the equations of motion and there are those which work with the probability distribution of the fluctuating velocities. Loosely speaking, we could refer to the first as a ‘Chapter 5’ type of theory, and the second as a ‘Chapter 4’ type of theory. We shall discuss the work of Krishnan (1959), as representing the first type, and the work of Edwards (1964), as representing the second.
The Molecular Model
Authors: Bird G A
Published: November 2023

A gas flow may be modelled at either the macroscopic or the microscopic level. The macroscopic model regards the gas as a continuous medium and the description is in terms of the spatial and temporal variations of the familiar flow properties such as the velocity, density, pressure, and temperature. The Navier-Stokes equations provide the conventional mathematical model of a gas as a continuum. The macroscopic properties are the dependant variables in these equations, while the independent variables are the spatial coordinates and time.
Binary Elastic Collisions
Authors: Bird G A
Published: November 2023

We have seen that intermolecular collisions in dilute gases are overwhelmingly likely to be binary collisions involving just two molecules. An elastic collision is defined as one in which there is no interchange of translational and internal energy. The pre-collision velocities of the two collision partners in a typical binary collision may be denoted by c1 and c2• Given the physical properties of the molecules and the orientation of the trajectories, our task is to determine the post-collision velocities and Linear momentum and energy must be conserved in the collision.
Analytical Methods For Transition Regime Flows
Authors: Bird G A
Published: November 2023

A transition regime flow† is defined here as one in which the mean free path is neither very small nor very large in comparison with a typical linear dimension of the flow. The mathematical difficulties associated with the full Boltzmann equation generally preclude direct approaches that would lead to exact closed-form solutions. Moreover, for flows that involve chemical reactions and thermal radiation, there is difficulty even in the formulation of a Boltzmann equation that includes these effects. This has meant that a large number of indirect approaches have been investigated, and many of the resulting methods involve a degree of approximation that would not be accepted for less difficult equations. It is therefore necessary to distinguish between and to assess the results from a wide variety of competing methods. The answers to the following questions assist with the evaluation process.
General Issues Related To Direct Simulations
Authors: Bird G A
Published: November 2023

The remaining chapters of this book are concerned with the detailed procedures of the DSMC method, the implementation of these procedures through demonstration programs, and the verification and illustration of the method through the results from these programs. The recommended DSMC procedures have evolved over a considerable period of time and this developmental process will continue. Alternative procedures are available for most aspects of the simulation, and there may be some argument over the best choice for particular applications. The issues that relate directly to the procedures will be dealt with as they arise in the chapters that follow. However, there are a number of general issues that are relevant to all direct simulation methods, and these are best discussed prior to the presentation and implementation of the DSMC algorithms.
One-Dimensional Unsteady Flows
Authors: Bird G A
Published: November 2023

Program DSMC1U. FOR is a version of DSMC1 that has been adapted to make ensemble averages of repeated runs of an unsteady flow, rather than a time average of a steady flow that is established as the large-time state of a single run of an unsteady flow. As in the preceding programs, the flow is sampled each NIS time steps, but a separate sampling record must be made for each of these sampling events. Excessive memory would be required if the sampling arrays were simply given an extra dimension equal to the total number of sampling events MNOI in each run. The answer is to establish the direct access file DSMClU.DAT with MNOI records. Note that MNOI is set in the PARAMETER statement and, together with NIS, it controls the length of each run. No more than one record of this file is in memory at any time and, on some occasions that a record of this file is read, most of the variables must be read into dummy arrays so that they do not overwrite the current values of these variables that already exist.
Axially Symmetric Flows
Authors: Bird G A
Published: November 2023

An axially symmetric flow is similar to the two-dimensional flow in that it has two independent spatial variables and the discussion of grids in §14.1 applies also to these flows. Program DSMC2A is a version of DSMC2 for application to axially symmetric flows. Instead of modelling unit width of the two-dimensional flow, it models the full azimuth of 21t about the axis which is chosen to lie along the x-axis. The y-coordinate becomes the radius and there are obvious consequences with regard to the cell volumes and surface areas. However, it is no longer sufficient to simply ignore the motion in the z-direction and the three-dimensional character of the molecular trajectories must be taken into account.
Resistance of Sand to Cyclic Loading
Authors: Ishihara Kenji
Published: November 2023

Prior to shaking by an earthquake, an element of saturated soil under level ground has undergone a long-term consolidation process under K  o conditions. This soil element is subjected undrained to a sequence of shear stress cycles during an earthquake as illustrated in Fig. 10.l(a). Note that the cyclic shear stress application is executed in such a way that lateral deformation is prohibited because the flat ground surface is assumed to extend infinitely in the horizontal direction. In the case of sloping ground, a soil element is considered to have been anisotropically consolidated approximately under K  o conditions with an additional shear stress acting on the horizontal plane. During an earthquake, a sequence of shear stress cycles is applied to the soil element in undrained conditions as illustrated in Fig. 10.l(b). It is noteworthy, however, that the soil element is allowed to deform freely in the horizontal direction during the application of cyclic shear stress, because lateral movement of the ground is allowed to take place as a whole. When attempting to investigate behaviour of soils in the laboratory test, in situ stress conditions can be most fittingly reproduced in the sample tested in a torsional apparatus. In what follows, the principle and procedures for laboratory testing will be illustrated by referring to the stress conditions that can be produced in the torsional apparatus. In a typical test scheme, samples of saturated sand are consolidated first under K  o conditions and then subjected to a sequence of torsional stress cycles under undrained conditions.
Marangoni Phenomena
Authors: Ortiz E S Perez De
Published: November 2023

The term Marangoni phenomena is given to spontaneous interfacial flows driven by interfacial tension gradients. In solvent extraction, these gradients may be originated by local changes of those variables that affect the value of the interfacial tension such as solute concentration, temperature and interfacial electrical potential. Irrespective of their cause the interfacial convection generated by these movements provides an additional component to the interfacial flux that is not included in the general theories of mass transfer. Experimental evidence of increases in interfacial fluxes of up to one order of magnitude over predicted values indicates the importance of the Marangoni phenomena contribution to the rate of solute transfer. In addition, these interfacial movements modify the hydrodynamics of the fluid layers adjacent to the interface with consequent effects on drop coalescence, jet break-up and drop drag coefficients, so that the performance of contacting equipment is not only affected through the interfacial flux but also by changes in hydrodynamic behaviour.
Plug Flow Analysis
Authors: Stevens G W , Pratt H R C
Published: November 2023

The number of stages, or height of column required for a given separation, is obtained from a combination of the equilibrium relationship, material balance, and mass transfer rates. Contactor performance is normally expressed either in terms of the number of ideal (i.e. theoretical) stages required together with the stage efficiency, or as the number of transfer units. The theoretical stage approach is strictly applicable only to staged contactors such as mixer-settlers, and the transfer unit approach to differential contactors such as packed columns; however, many contactor types used in practice are of an intermediate class and can be treated by either approach. Both the theoretical stage and the transfer unit methods will be described in this chapter. However, as the former cannot be realized in practice, an alternative approach based on non-ideal stages will also be described.
Selection, Design, Pilot-Testing, And Scale-Up Of Extraction Equipment
Authors: Pratt H R C , Stevens G W
Published: November 2023

The range of extractor types available for consideration for a given duty is considerable, as is the range of design variables involved. The selection of a suitable extractor therefore involves complex decisions which, in the absence of prior experience with the same system on at least pilot scale, must at best be subjective.
Science and Practice of Liquid-Liquid Extraction
Authors: Thornton John D
Published: November 2023

This two volume work is intended for engineers and scientists concerned with the underlying principles of extraction processes as well as those engaged in research in the field. The work discusses the relevant physics and chemistry of the extraction operations as well as the engineering design and control of extraction equipment. The technique is widely used in a variety of industrial processes from the oil industry to food preparation.
Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing Using Solvent Extraction
Authors: Batey W
Published: November 2023

The traditional sources of energy used in the production of electricity, coal and oil have a finite availability. Consequently, research and development into alternative forms of energy will be needed if the present high living standards in the developed countries are to be maintained in the future and also to raise the living standards in the developing countries.
Liquid-Liquid Extraction in Food Processing
Authors: Hamm W
Published: November 2023

The food industry is as much of a process industry as the mainstream chemical industry, using many of the unit operations exploited by the chemical engineer in that industry, but differing from it in a number of important respects. The raw materials handled by the food industry are highly complex and their components are seldom simple molecular species that can be conventionally processed. The complexity of the substrate usually makes separations, including liquid-liquid extraction, difficult, * particularly where the structure of the raw material or other valuable attributes require conservation. This complexity affects separations technology on at least two levels-in the first instance it may be necessary to effect a liquid solid separation in order to produce a relative crude fraction that can be subjected to a more targeted liquid-liquid extraction; and in this subsequent liquid-liquid extraction the separation is more likely to be between classes of compounds rather than individual components. Thus, in a typical case, the first stage may comprise the separation of lipids from carbohydrates and proteins, to be followed by the application of liquid-liquid extraction in order to recover specific types of lipids. The sensitivity of most raw materials of biological origin to high temperatures as well as to strong acid or alkaline conditions constitutes a further constraint on the applicability of conventional processing conditions. Liquid-liquid extraction is used in the food processing industry to concentrate valuable components of a natural raw material as well as to remove undesirable or potentially harmful components.
Transient Temperature in Engineering and Science
Authors: Lawton B , Klingenberg G
Published: November 2023

This book gives a comprehensive account of the principles and practical methods applicable to transient temperature measurements in engineering and science. Transient temperatures are taken to be in the range from about 200K to 6000K and with timescales from tenths of nanoseconds to tens of seconds. Within these limits is a very large field of combustion and gas dynamics and these are the principle areas which are addressed. Several new experimental and theoretical techniques are introduced and various modes of thermal failure are described. The chapters move from undergraduate material to the latest methods and are designed to be of use to the widest possible range of engineers, scientists, and students working in universities or in chemical or mechanical engineering. Many applications are described.
Electrical Methods Of Temperature Measurement
Authors: Lawton B , Klingenberg G
Published: November 2023

By electrical methods of temperature measurement we mean thermocouples, thermistors, hot-wire anemometry, and other electrical resistance gauges. Optical methods of temperature measurement are described in Chapter 5. Essentially, this chapter describes thermocouples and resistance thermometers that are suitable for measuring transient temperatures. Typically, such devices may be constructed in the form of a wire, for insertion into fluids and solids, or of a thin film for attachment to surfaces; but other arrangements are possible.
Optical Methods Of Temperature Measurement
Authors: Lawton B , Klingenberg G
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 3 we introduced the fundamental definitions and laws of thermal radiation which are needed to understand spectroscopic temperature measurement. In Chapter 4 electrical methods for measuring transient temperature were described. In this chapter, optical methods and associated diagnostic techniques potentially suitable for temperature measurements will be surveyed. The fundamentals of such measurement methods are discussed introducing the basic equations and providing some useful background perspective needed to carry out the measurements. First the Active temperatures are introduced followed by the description of radiometry. Then we consider optical techniques appropriate to precise measurements of transient temperature (and species concentration) in combustion gases. We will outline not only the background physics of radiometric methods but also review the basis of F
Abel Inversion And Computer Tomography
Authors: Lawton B , Klingenberg G
Published: November 2023

The reversal method is often used for measuring gas-phase temperature and has been very well known and well established since Kurlbaum first described ii in 1902. For transient measurement the method has been modified by the insertion of a mechanical or electronic chopper between the back light and the hot flame as described in Chapter 5. This chopper switches the hack light on and off al high frequency and allows a detector to measure, alternately, the gas emission or the gas emission plus the transmitted portion of the hack light.
Application To Very High Pressure Environments
Authors: Lawton B , Klingenberg G
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with the application of intrusive and non-intrusive gas and wall temperature measurement methods in high-pressure, high-temperature environments such as occur in combustion chambers subjected to pressures up to 1000 MPa, in shock-tubes, and in the hostile conditions encountered in various ballistic applications, including combustion and flow processes in the gun chamber and tube, muzzle flow and flash events, and heating effects produced during projectile flight and impact. Novel electro thermal-chemical hybrid propulsion systems combining arc discharge with chemically released propulsion energy, ram accelerators making use of hypervelocity combustion, and pure electrical projectile acceleration techniques increase the difficulty of measuring transient temperatures during the firing. Similar problems arise in other applications; for example, in shaped-charge technology and in detonation physics.
High Pressure Experimental Methods
Authors: Eremets M I
Published: November 2023

The properties of materials are altered, sometimes radically, when very high pressures are applied. This book surveys the apparatus available for high pressure studies with a particular emphasis on diamond anvil cells and related equipment. It also examines pressure measurement techniques at extreme values. A large part of the book considers the experimental needs and arrangement for studies involving the interaction of high pressures with high and low temperatures, magnetic fields, and shock waves. Optical properties, Brillouin and Raman scattering, infrared spectroscopy, eletron spin and nuclear magnetic resonance at high pressures are also covered.
Shock Waves
Authors: Eremets M I
Published: November 2023

There is an extensive special literature on shock wave physics and techniques. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce this field from the point of view of the reader who deals with static pressures and is usually very generally acquainted with this subject. First we briefly present the main ideas of the shock wave technique, then elucidate the manner in which pressure is determined from the experiment and used for calibration of static pressures, and finally present general methods of physical measurements under shock compression.
Electron And Nuclear Resonances. Esr And Nmr Spectroscopy
Authors: Eremets M I
Published: November 2023

EPR spectroscopy is very powerful method which gives information about interaction of paramagnetic ions with a crystalline field, and about mechanisms of exchange between spin and lattice systems.Very schematically, EPR means Zeeman splitting of the electron spin system, and resonance absorption of radiation between the levels:
Thermodynamics
Authors: LOCK G S H
Published: November 2023

Latent heat transfer is rooted in thermodynamics, and is therefore better understood in terms of thermodynamic concepts and principles applied specifically to phase change processes. This chapter provides a brief review and summary of those particular thermodynamic ideas and results which are prerequisites for the full discussion of latent heat transfer: surface energy, interface dynamics, stability, nucleation, etc. Much of this fundamental information assumes that individual phases may be treated as continua; the associated macroscopic analysis is widely applicable and very powerful. On occasion, insights are also provided through microscopic analysis. This is especially valuable during the discussion of interfacial phenomena and nucleation.
Hot-Wire Anemometry
Authors: Bruun H H
Published: November 2023

This book is a comprehensive, easy-to-access reference book for students, engineers and researchers engaged in the practical use of any aspect of 'hot wire' anemometry (HWA). The book introduces the logical framework for a computer based HWA system and identifies the individual steps in the complete experimental procedure ranging from probe selection through to presentation of analysed data. HWA is based on convective heat transfer from a heated wire or film element placed in a fluid flow. Any changes in the fluid flow conditions which affect the heat transfer from the heated element can be studied with HWA. This book explains the concepts and related practical implementations of all major HWA applications, and has been structured in such a way that it is of direct value to both people with little practical knowledge of HWA as well as to researchers with considerable experience in the field.
HWA Techniques for Reversing Flows and for The Near-Wall Region
Authors: Bruun H H
Published: November 2023

Reversing flows occur in many practical engineering applications; they can be caused by, for example, flow over obstacles, sudden expansions in ducts and pipes, flow separation on strongly curved surfaces, and swirling flows (combustion chamber, etc.). These flows cannot be studied with standard HWA probes, since a single cylindrical hot-wire probe cannot detect a reversal of the flow direction, due to the rotational symmetry of the sensing element. The related signal ambiguity for a single normal (SN) hot-wire probe placed in a one-dimensional flow with periodic flow reversal (nega tive values of U) is illustrated in Fig. 8.1. The (linearized) HWA output voltage, E in Fig. 8.l(b) displays the typical folding or rectification of the anemometer signal (shaded areas), when flow reversal occurs. Due to this rectification, the measured mean value, Um, will be too high and u will be too low. Signal ambiguity will also occur for X- and triple-wire (3 W) probes when the vector falls outside the approach-acceptance angle for the wire array. The following sections describe various sensor/instrumentation solutions to the rectification problems.
Non-Linear Pulses in Integrated and Waveguide Optics
Authors: Shvartsburg A B
Published: November 2023

This is a self-contained introduction to a new field of applied physics on the frontier between integrated optics and non-linear wave dynamics. It is intended to help make use of the novel phenomena of non-linear optics in the design of new all-optial circuits. The book mainly deals with third-order non-linear optical phenomena in layered structures, guiding interfaces, and channel waveguides. In particular attention is drawn to the concepts of energy dependent periodicity, gyrotropy, reflection, mode conversion, and non-reciprocity. An indespensable text for those requiring a structured explanation of the phenomena as well as information about the latest advances in a new generation of devices.
Engineering in Process Metallurgy
Authors: Guthrie R I L
Published: November 2023

A rich variety of phenomena governs the behaviour and kinetics of metallurgical processing operations. Unusually high operating temperatures, intense radiation, viscous slags, dense metals, etc., make the design and operation of metallurgical processes unique. This book introduces the basic mechanisms of heat, mass, and fluid flow, and then follows a series of metallurgical examples and exercises. Empirical techniques for modelling and for process design are presented along with numerical techniques and computer programs. This new paperback edition has been updated, with a new section on numerical simulation of fluid flow processes added, to reflect the important contribution of computer simulation to the subject.
Fluid Statics And Fluid Dynamics
Authors: Guthrie R I L
Published: November 2023

As noted in Chapter 1, many metallurgical operations require fluid to be transferred from one location to another. Often the simultaneous transport of heat or mass as a result of such fluid convection processes can be of prime significance. The main purpose of this chapter is to describe basic concepts andequations governing the science of hydrostatics and hydrodynamics. The subject is presented from both the microscopic and the macroscopic viewpoints. However, since the latter approach is generally more valuable for general process engineering problems, and is certainly more amenable to treatment, its use will be emphasized through the presentation of a wide variety of metallurgical examples.
Heat And Mass Transfer Through Motionless Media
Authors: Guthrie R I L
Published: November 2023

A wide range of heat and mass transfer phenomena in metallurgical operations relate to transfer within solids or equivalent stationary media. For instance, while the steel bar being carburized, considered in section 1.4, was stationary, a movement of interstitial carbon atoms took place by diffusion mechanisms. Other movements at the atomic level manifest themselves through a broad range of metallurgical events (e.g., crystallization, recrystallization, grain orientation, precipitation of new phases, phase and crystalline reconstitution and dislocation movements). Although these atomic-level movements lead to drastic changes in the physical properties of a metal or alloy, they lie beyond the subject matter of this book, except in a macroscopic phenomenological sense.
Analysis of Conics
Authors: Kanatani Kenichi
Published: November 2023

This chapter studies various aspects of computations concerning conics. We first describe the representation of conics in terms of N-vectors and discuss fundamental properties of projective geometry such as poles, polars, and conjugate pairs in terms of conics. It is shown that the 3-D geometry of three orthogonal space Jines can be computed by operations involving conics. The procedure for fitting a conic to image points by least squares is also discussed. Then, we describe analytical procedures for interpreting the 3-D geometry of conics in the scene from their projections. Finally, we study how much information is available if a motion of a single conic is observed on the image plane. It is shown that an image motion of a conic is a composition of a motion that maps one conic to the other (a particular motion) and a motion that does not cause a visible change of the conic (an invisible motion). We discuss the isomorphism between groups of invisible motions and a special conic called the standard circle, for which the group of invisible motions is the (three-dimensional) Lorentz group. Similar results are obtained for invisible optical flows, and we discuss the adjoint transformation of optical flows and the quotient space of the linear space of optical flows modulo the linear space of invisible flows. Their 3-D interpretation is also discussed.