bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Article 11—Stakeholder Dialogue
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: September 2021

This chapter highlights Article 11 of the European copyright order, Directive 2019/790, concerning stakeholder dialogue. It obliges Member States to consult rightholders, collective management organisations, and cultural heritage institutions in each sector before establishing specific requirements. It also encourages regular dialogue between representative users' and rightholders' organisations, collective management organisations, and any other relevant stakeholder organisations on a sector-specific basis to foster the relevance and usability of licensing mechanisms. The chapter discusses the appropriate safeguards for all rightholders that are introduced by Directive 2019/790 for the use of out-of-commerce works or other subject matter. It also considers the licensing mechanisms established by this Directive in making sure that out-of-commerce works, or other subject matter are relevant and function properly.
Article 12—Collective Licensing with an Extended Effect
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: September 2021

This chapter talks about collective licensing with an extended effect, which is outlined in Article 12 of Directive 2019/790 on copyright in Europe. It cites the task of Member States to ensure that the licensing mechanism is only applied within well-defined areas of use. It considers how authorisations from rightholders can be obtained on an individual basis, which is typically onerous and impractical to a degree that makes the required licensing transaction unlikely. The chapter points out how Article 12 does not affect the application of collective licensing mechanisms with an extended effect in accordance with other provisions of Union law. It looks at the requirement of Member State to inform about the scope of corresponding national provisions on the purposes and types of licences that may be introduced about the contact details of organisations issuing licences.
Article 13—Negotiation Mechanism
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: September 2021

This chapter analyzes Article 13 of Directive 2019/790, the European copyright order in the Digital Single Market, which focuses on negotiation mechanism. It highlights the conclusion of an agreement for the purpose of making available audiovisual works on video-on-demand services for parties facing difficulties related to the licensing of rights. It also considers the impartial body established or designated by a Member State that provides assistance to the parties with their negotiations and help the parties reach agreements. The chapter describes video-on-demand services that have the potential to play a decisive role in the dissemination of audiovisual works across the Union. It looks at agreements on the online exploitation of audiovisual works, which can be difficult to conclude due to issues related to the licensing of rights.
Article 15—Protection of Press Publications Concerning Online Uses
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: September 2021

This chapter explores the protection of press publications concerning online uses, which is outlines in Article 15 of Directive 2019/790, the European copyright directive in the Digital Single Market. It talks about publishers of press publications established in a Member State with that have the rights for the online use of their press publications by information society service providers. It also clarifies that authors of works incorporated in a press publication may receive an appropriate share of the revenues that press publishers receive for the use of their press publications by information society service providers. The chapter describes a free and pluralist press that is essential to ensure quality journalism and citizens' access to information. It examines the wide availability of press publications online that has given rise to the emergence of new online services, such as news aggregators or media monitoring services.
Article 16—Claims to Fair Compensation
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: September 2021

This chapter talks about claims to fair compensation covered in Article 16 of the European copyright directive, Directive 2019/790. It explains the transfer of a licensed right from a publisher, which constitutes a sufficient legal basis for the publisher to be entitled to a share of the compensation for the use of the work. It also describes publishers, including those of press publications, books or scientific publications and music publications, that operate on the basis of the transfer of authors' rights by means of contractual agreements or statutory provisions. The chapter highlights how publishers make an investment with a view to the exploitation of the works contained in their publications and be deprived of revenues where works are used under exceptions or limitations, such as those for private copying and reprography. It cites several Member States wherein the compensation for uses under exceptions or limitations is shared between authors and publishers.
Article 26—Application in Time
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: September 2021

This chapter highlights the time of application of Directive 2019/790, a copyright directive in the Digital Single Market in Europe, which is included in Chapter 26. It emphasizes that Directive 2019/790 will apply in respect of all works and other subject matter that are protected by national law in the field of copyright. The directive will be implemented on or after 7 June 2021. The chapter points out that Directive 2019/790 will apply without prejudice to any acts concluded and rights acquired before 7 June 2021. It also cites the legislation on the negotiation mechanism, works of visual art in the public domain, and information about collective licensing with an extended effect.
Article 28—Protection of Personal Data
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: September 2021

This chapter looks at the provisions of Article 28 of Directive 2019/790, the European copyright directive in the Digital Single Market. It outlines the processing of personal data that is carried out within the framework of Directive 2019/790 and in compliance with Directive 2002/58/EC and Regulation (EU) 2016/679. It also demonstrates the processing of personal data that should respect fundamental rights, including the right to the protection of personal data. The chapter clarifies that the processing of personal data must be done in respect of the fundamental rights to private and family life and protection of personal data set out in Articles 7 and 8 of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights. It discusses the protection of personal data pursuant to ePrivacy Directive 2002/58 and General Data Protection Regulation 2016/679.
Article 29—Transposition
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: September 2021

This chapter focuses on the legislation relating to transposition, which is stipulated in Article 29 of Directive 2019/790, the directive on copyright in Europe. It emphasizes that Member States must enforce the laws, regulations, and administrative provisions necessary to comply with this Directive by 7 June 2021. It also clarifies that Member States must immediately inform the Commission of the enforcement of provisions. The chapter instructs Member States that will adopt the provisions of Directive 2019/790 to provide a reference to this Directive or be accompanied by a reference on the occasion of an official publication. It looks at the obligation of Member States to communicate to the Commission the text of the main provisions of the national law they will adopt in the field.
Article 30—Review
Authors: Rosati Eleonora
Published: September 2021

This chapter talks about Chapter 30 of Directive 2019/790, a copyright directive of the Digital Single Market in Europe. It mentions the plan of the Commission to carry out a review of this Directive and present a report on the main findings to the European Parliament, the Council, and the European Economic and Social Committee on 7 June 2026. It also mentions the assessment of Commission on 7 June 2024 of the impact of the specific liability regime set out in Article 17 of Directive 2019/790 regarding online content-sharing service providers that have an annual turnover of less than EUR 10 million. The chapter cites services that have been available to the public in the Union for less than three years under Paragraph 6 of Article 17. It reminds Member States to provide the Commission with the necessary information for the preparation of the report that will be presented on 7 June 2026.
Eternity in a Global Context
Authors: Suteu Silvia
Published: September 2021

This chapter analyses eternity clauses in a transnational context, as part of the story of the internationalized nature of constitution-making processes and the growing diffusion of global values in democratic constitutionalism. It explains this diffusion along two axes: the internationalization of constitutional authorship and the rise of international and regional organizations as constitutional norm entrepreneurs. The chapter also describes the adjudication of unamendability as transnationally embedded, which takes the form of national courts that rely on international law or a transnational referent when developing unconstitutional constitutional amendment doctrines. It also explores the possibility of international courts developing supranational forms of unconstitutional constitutional amendment doctrines. This chapter raises awareness about the impact of the transnational on the content and authorship of eternity clauses, but also cautions against assuming positive transnational engagement in the adjudication of unamendability. The chapter highlights the mounting backlash against universalistic values and international law as anchors to ground and orient unconstitutional constitutional amendment doctrines.
The Genesis of the Local Alphabets of Archaic Greece
Authors: Wachter Rudolf
Published: September 2021

This chapter stresses the importance of the series of letters people actually learnt and taught in the different 'local scripts', together with the series of letter names they learnt by heart. The physical manifestation of this tradition is in abecedaria. The differences between these local alphabets can be explained by three types of reform that took place while the alphabet spread, viz. the adding, reinterpreting, or abolishing of letters. Attention to chronology allows quite precise 'predictions' about the otherwise hidden first years of the alphabet in Greece. Some common views will therefore have to be given up, for instance that the three islands, Thera, Melos, and Crete, which use a particularly archaic type of alphabet, are therefore plausible candidates for particularly early writing. The takeover of the alphabet was a single event, but we will very likely never be able to specify either where or when precisely it took place.
The Pronunciation of Upsilon and Related Matters
Authors: Dosuna Julián Méndez
Published: September 2021

It is universally assumed that the fronting of inherited /u(ː)/ to /y(ː)/ was a relatively late development restricted to Attic-Ionic (to the significant exclusion of Euboean) and possibly to other dialects as well. This paper presents a re-assessment of the evidence available and challenges the general assumption that *u and *ū retained their inherited phonetic value /u(ː)/ in Proto-Greek. The alternative hypothesis is explored that the fronting of /u(ː)/ to /y(ː)/ dates back to Proto-Greek. The presence of /u(ː)/ in the ancient dialects can be accounted for through a secondary backing /y(ː)/ > /u(ː)/ like in the modern dialects.
Digital Bandpass Modulation Methods
Authors: Berber Stevan
Published: September 2021

This chapter presents mathematical models of baseband and bandpass digital communication systems based on binary and quaternary phase-shift keying, frequency-shift keying, and quadrature amplitude modulation. The systems are deduced as special cases from the general generic system structure and the related theory of orthonormal basis functions. The systems are uniquely presented using mathematical operators and detailed derivatives for signals in time and frequency domains at the system’s vital points, that is, the transmitter, the receiver, and the noise generator, using the concepts of both stochastic (continuous and discrete) and deterministic (continuous and discrete) signal processing. The vital characteristics of the system and its blocks are expressed in terms of amplitude spectral density, autocorrelation functions, power and energy spectral densities, and bit error probability.
Sampling and Reconstruction of Continuous-Time Signals
Authors: Berber Stevan
Published: September 2021

This chapter presents the theory for transferring a continuous-time signal into its discrete-time form by sampling, and then converting the obtained samples to a digital signal suitable for processing in a processing machine, using the procedure of sample quantizing and coding. Then, the procedure of converting a digitally processed signal into discrete signal samples and the reconstruction of the initial continuous-time signal via a lowpass reconstruction filter is presented. The theory provides the mathematical base for both analogue-to-digital and digital-to-analogue conversions, which are extensively used for processing signals in discrete communication systems. The chapter goes on to show that the Nyquist criterion must be fulfilled to eliminate signal aliasing in the frequency domain. Finally, the mathematical model for transferring a continuous-time signal into its discrete-time form, and vice versa, is presented and demonstrated for a sinusoidal signal.
Mapping meaning to argument structure
Authors: Collins James N.
Published: September 2021

This chapter investigates the phenomenon of morphological case in so-called ‘ergative-absolutive aligned’ languages, with a detailed case study of the Polynesian language Samoan. The focus is on the interaction of morphological case marking and the lexical semantics of verbs, proposing that the case marking pattern on a verb’s arguments are closely linked to the verb’s entailments, especially those relating to how the participants denoted by the verb’s nominal arguments participate in the event being described. Through empirical investigation of novel Samoan data, the chapter argues that ergative morphological case marking is linked to the agent argument’s status as a ‘self directed initiator’ of the event. In providing an analysis of this phenomenon, this chapter proposes a formal model of how a verb’s lexical semantics interacts with the morphological case component of grammar, employing insights from Optimality Theory.
Reaffirming Māori negatives as verbs
Authors: Chung Sandra
Published: September 2021

Generative syntacticians often assume that sentential negatives in all languages are the content of a functional head Neg. Although negatives in many languages are amenable to such an analysis, negatives in certain Polynesian languages are not. This chapter first reviews the evidence presented by Hohepa (1969) and others that sentential negatives in Māori are lexical heads, either intransitive verbs or adjectives, which are the main predicate of a clause that excludes the negated clause. It then explores the question of why Māori negatives should differ from the crosslinguistic norm. The answer that is proposed appeals to syntactic-semantic typology and Māori prosody, and engages with the larger issue of how lexical and functional heads are realized in Polynesian languages.
Perceptual Expertise and Perceptual Modularity
Authors: Chudnoff Elijah
Published: September 2021

According to the Experience Thesis, perceptual expertise is a capacity that manifests itself in perceptual experiences with expertise-specific representational contents. The first part of the chapter locates the Experience Thesis with respect to current debates about the admissible contents of perceptual experience and gives various reasons for believing that it is true. The balance of the chapter explores its compatibility with two other theses about perception and perceptual expertise. One is the Cognition Thesis that perceptual expertise is a capacity that draws on cognition. The other is the Modularity Thesis that perceptual experiences wholly result from modular processing of sensory input.
The Accessibility of Expert Intuition
Authors: Chudnoff Elijah
Published: September 2021

We talk each other into having intuitions in a way that we do not talk each other into having perceptual experiences. The Accessibility Thesis marks one key manifestation of this phenomenon. It states that novices can have intuitions that have the same representational contents as intuitions that are the result of expert intuition. This chapter develops a setting for thinking about expert intuition that explains the Accessibility Thesis. The setting promises to illuminate a wider range of phenomena such as general improvements in intuition and episodes of talking each other into intuitions in which no one is assumed to be expert.
The Standard Picture
Authors: Chudnoff Elijah
Published: September 2021

The Standard Picture of philosophical methodology includes the following claims: (A) Intuitive judgments form an epistemically distinctive kind; (B) Intuitive judgments play an epistemically privileged role in philosophical methodology; (C) If intuitive judgments play an epistemically privileged role in philosophical methodology, then their role is to be taken as given inputs into generally accepted forms of reasoning; (D) Philosophical methodology is reasonable. Work in negative experimental philosophy has motivated some to question the descriptive accuracy of the Standard Picture. Some philosophers such as Timothy Williamson challenge (A) on the grounds that philosophy cannot be distinguished by its reliance on a distinctive epistemic source. Other philosophers such as Herman Cappelen and Max Deutsch challenge (B) on the grounds that philosophers do not treat intuitions as evidence. This chapter defends (A) and (B) in the Standard Picture against these challenges.
Humanization of the Law Applicable to Fresh Water
Authors: Boisson de Chazournes Laurence
Published: September 2021

Human needs have permeated the law applicable to fresh water through a variety of avenues. This development has added new contours to existing rules and principles. It has also led to the emergence of new rules and principles that concern individuals and non-state actors in the protection and management of fresh water. Over and above a mere cognizance of human needs, there has in recent years been a recognition of a human right to water and sanitation. Moreover, public participation and access to remedies have become particularly important in light of increasing economic activity that may affect, for example, access to clean water. Further still, the regulation of fresh water and protection of water-related infrastructure in armed conflict has broadened and deepened in recent years.
Industry or Instrument?
Authors: Garcia Calvo Angela
Published: September 2021

The chapter analyzes Spain’s and Korea’s upgrading strategies from the perspective of large banks. The chapter shows that Spain’s and Korea’s approaches were based on two different interpretations of the banking sector. One considered banking as an industry in its own right with high potential for upgrading. The other saw banking as an input for manufacturing. The chapter shows that these two views led to the emergence of a globally competitive banking sector in Spain, but prevented a similar outcome in Korea. The chapter comprises five sections. After the introduction, section 3.2 characterizes the structure of the banking sectorin late industrializing economies and the changes in global banking since the 1980s. Sections 3.3 and 3.4 analyze the role of banking in Spain’s and Korea’s models and how these roles affected the trajectory of Spanish and Korean banks. Section 3.5 takes stock, concludes, and sets the stage for the next chapter.
Contributions to the Study of Late Development and Industrial Transformation
Authors: Garcia Calvo Angela
Published: September 2021

This study explores how Spain and Korea have transformed themselves from middle- to high-income economies. This transformation deserves analytical attention for three reasons. Only a few countries have reached advanced country status in the last four decades and Spain and Korea have been particularly successful. The two countries’ different patterns of upgrading go against conventional accounts that upgrading need necessarily take place through manufacturing sectors, with services playing a secondary role. Finally, the focus on two countries that have transitioned from late industrializing economies to advanced countries challenges views of the world as divided between advanced and developing economies. This chapter brings the book to a close by articulating the broader implications of the study. The chapter first discusses a series of inferences derived from the book’s characterization of upgrading as a coordination problem and the focus on state–firm interdependencies. It then examines the broader implications of the analysis for research on late development and economic transformation more generally. The final section of the chapter launches into a brief discussion about Spain’s and Korea’s post-upgrading challenges.
Language Change, Variation, and Universals
Authors: Culicover Peter W.
Published: September 2021

This volume is about how human languages get to be the way they are, why they are different from one another in some ways and not others, and why they change in the ways that they do. Given that language is a universal creation of the human mind, the puzzle is why there are different languages at all, why we don’t all speak the same language. And while there is considerable variation, there are ways in which grammars show consistent patterns. The solution to these puzzles, the author proposes, is a constructional one. Grammars consist of constructions that carry out the function of expressing universal conceptual structure. While there are in principle many different ways of accomplishing this task, the constructions that languages actually use are under pressure to reduce complexity. The result is that there is constructional change in the direction of less complexity, and grammatical patterns emerge that reflect conceptual universals. The volume consists of three parts. Part I establishes the theoretical foundations: situating universals in conceptual structure, formally defining constructions, and characterizing constructional complexity. Part II explores variation in argument structure, grammatical functions, and A′ constructions, drawing on data from a variety of languages, including English and Plains Cree. Part III looks at constructional change, focusing primarily on English and German. The study ends with some observations and speculations on parameter theory, analogy, the origins of typological patterns, and Greenbergian ‘universals’.
Overview
Authors: Culicover Peter W.
Published: September 2021

This chapter lays out the general problem of explaining the form of grammars, and relates this problem to that of characterizing grammatical complexity. Following much recent work, it takes the view that reduction of complexity is a driving explanatory force whose effects can be seen in change and in variation. The chapter sketches out the general perspective taken in the book on universals, conceptual structure, constructions, complexity and change and variation, and how they are related.
Tracing the Relationships between Assets and Well-Being in Complex Social Environments
Authors: Mulder Monique Borgerhoff
Published: September 2021

This chapter reports on a fifteen-year study of Mirumba village in Katavi Region in which the author conducted seven full census surveys. On the basis of intricate and detailed data it looks for changes in the wealth distribution of the village and find less extreme poverty. Furthermore, and somewhat surprisingly, this improvement in wealth, as denoted by assets, also correlates with improvement in other measures of well-being and prosperity such as stress, education, and health. These changes are likely driven by greater agricultural activity. It is important to emphasize however that it is difficult to extrapolate from this study to other villages in Tanzania.
Prosperity, Equality, and Power
Authors: Loiske Vesa-Matti , Brockington Dan
Published: September 2021

We present data based on recent re-surveys of Tanzanian households first visited in the early 1990s in Manyara Region. These demonstrate a marked increase in prosperity from high levels of poverty, using locally determined measures of wealth. It does not, however, follow that these improvements derive from GDP growth. We consider the implications of this research for further explorations of the relationship between economic growth and agricultural policy in rural areas. Finally we present local interpretations of the reasons for this change which focus on endogenous characteristics like mind-sets and attitudes which are fundamental for responding to exogenous change.
Learning How Not to Train the Community Out of the Community Health Workers
Authors: Palazuelos Daniel , Gadi Sanjay
Published: September 2021

Community health workers (CHW) are often trained through a series of initial classes followed by continuing education opportunities. While this classic structure is invaluable for ensuring that the CHW has access to the right knowledge so that they can develop the right skills and attitudes to do their job, this chapter argues that this is insufficient. An equally as important and influential determinant of how the CHW will work will be the quality of the job and the quality of the health system to which they contribute. This is part of the ‘hidden curriculum’, and it is too often underappreciated when planning to train CHWs. CHWs are often seen as a cheaper solution to help meet the human resources for health crisis, but this chapter argues that if they are only given medical tasks, and if their role is medicalized to the point of removing them from how their communities function, then health systems will lose access to important opportunities to improve quality and healthcare outcomes.
Approaches to Community Health Worker Training and Supervision
Authors: O’Donovan James
Published: September 2021

Training and supervision are core to the development of an effective CHW programme and have been recognized as so for many years. Their development and framing are important to understand from a historical perspective as this has ultimately helped to shape current approaches in the field. However, current CHWs face many related challenges, including determining their key benefits, whom they serve, and the mechanisms by which these benefits occur. This chapter directly addresses these issues by highlighting some of the key opportunities that could play a role in helping overcome some of these challenges, such as the role of mobile technologies. It is a starting point for developing the foundations for beginning to understand the complexities of this fragmented, contested, and important field of study and practice.
Using Participatory Approaches for Community Health Worker Training
Authors: Musoke David
Published: September 2021

Community health workers (CHWs) are a key human resource for health, particularly in low and middle-income countries. Participatory training approaches for CHWs are increasingly important as they actively engage participants, facilitate shared learning, and are more responsive to the needs of the learners. In addition, participatory training methods build teamwork and confidence, enhance critical thinking, and are interesting to learners. This chapter presents different participatory training methods for CHWs, including role-plays, demonstrations, songs, small and large group discussions, brainstorming, debates, simulations, exercises, field trips, gallery walks, class presentations, practicals, case studies, and interactive exercises. The relative advantages and disadvantages of each method are also presented. Despite the strengths and weaknesses of each of the methods, it is important that the local context is always considered while selecting which ones to be used in a CHW training programme.
Methods of Evaluation of Community Health Worker Training
Authors: Brown Celia
Published: September 2021

This chapter considers the theory and practice of the evaluation of CHW training. It aims to provide guidance on how to conduct evaluations, focusing on evaluations seeking a quantitative measure of effectiveness. The authors highlight the usefulness of ‘thinking through’ how the training is expected to work by developing a logic model. They then show how the model can be used to help design an appropriate evaluation. In addition, potential study designs and ‘end points’ or outcomes to be measured are discussed. However, the authors emphasize, that these elements need to be considered concurrently, because the appropriateness of the study design depends, in part, on the primary outcome measure for the evaluation. The chapter concludes by describing the benefits of mixed methods research and a number of other considerations when designing, implementing, and writing up the important task of evaluating CHW training.
What is ADHD?
Authors: Selikowitz Mark
Published: September 2021

This chapter discusses what ADHD is, including an overview of the features of ADHD, features of the inattentive type of ADHD (poor concentration, task impersistence, disorganization, forgetfulness), features of the combined type of ADHD (impulsivity, overactivity, noisiness), and features that may be present in either type of ADHD (performance inconsistency, low self-esteem, poor working memory, poor incentival motivation, social clumsiness, learning difficulties, inflexibility, insatiability, defiant behaviour, sleep problems), as well as associated conditions, prevalence, and a historical background.
Poor concentration
Authors: Selikowitz Mark
Published: September 2021

Children with ADHD often have difficulty giving close attention to details. However, it is wrong to believe that children with ADHD cannot concentrate at all. Their mechanisms for concentrating are inefficient and unreliable, not absent. Difficulties with concentration result in children with ADHD often being confused and unable to understand instructions, and attentional difficulties may give children with ADHD an unfocused appearance. Often, children with ADHD have difficulty in adjusting their level of attention to suit the situation. This chapter discusses poor concentration in children with ADHD. It includes the attentional processes (internal and external) in the brain, and difficult tasks for attentional mechanisms.
ADHD in adulthood
Authors: Selikowitz Mark
Published: September 2021

In a sizeable proportion of children with ADHD, their difficulties persist into adulthood. When the symptoms of ADHD, such as poor attention span and impulsivity, persist into adult life, this is known as residual ADHD. When an adult has problems that arose as a result of his having had childhood ADHD, such as poor academic skills and low self-esteem, these are known as secondary problems. This chapter discusses ADHD in adulthood, including residual ADHD, secondary problems, characteristics of residual ADHD, and diagnosis and treatment of residual ADHD and secondary problems. It also covers transition from childhood services to adulthood services, including the barriers to transition and strategies to overcome them.
The Acts of the Early Church Councils
Authors: Graumann Thomas
Published: September 2021

The present study examines the acts of ancient church councils as the objects of textual practices, in their editorial shaping and in their material conditions. The book analyses the purposes and expectations governing and inscribed into the use and creation of these acts. It traces the processes of their production, starting from the recording of spoken interventions during a meeting, to the preparation of minutes of individual sessions, to their collection into larger units, their storage, and the earliest attempts at their dissemination. It contends that the preparation of ‘paperwork’ is central to the work of a council, and much of its effectiveness resides in the relevant textual and bureaucratic processes. As council leaders and administrators paid careful attention to the creation of a ‘proper’ record suited to their requirements, they also scrutinized documents and records of previous occasions with equal attention and inspected document features meant to assure and project validity and authority. From the evidence of such examinations the study further reconstructs the textual and physical characteristics of ancient conciliar documents and the criteria of their assessment. Papyrological evidence and contemporary legal regulations are used to contextualize these efforts. The book seeks to demonstrate that scholarly attention to the production processes, character, and material conditions of council acts is essential to their understanding, and to any historical and theological research into the councils of the ancient church.
Introduction
Authors: Graumann Thomas
Published: September 2021

The Introduction outlines the key aims of the study, discusses relevant scholarship, and develops the methodology to be employed. In scholarship, council acts have often been used simply as source material for thematic studies, or their examination has been determined principally by editorial concerns. By contrast, the present study analyses the importance of council records as fundamental expression of the councils’ purposes and claims to legitimacy. It brings into scholarly focus the regularly neglected work of administrators and textual practitioners in ancient church councils responsible for the creation of such records, and relates their efforts to practices and concerns in the sphere of civil and legal administration. Council acts need to be understood as the products of distinct practices, in view of their underlying intentions and objectives, and with respect to the material reality of the documents created and handled. Discussions and examinations of conciliar documents, and instructions for their making in the councils themselves, provide the starting points for this investigation.
The Earliest Church Councils
Authors: Graumann Thomas
Published: September 2021

This chapter offers a historical survey of conciliar documentation in its varied forms, starting from the earliest gatherings in councils or synods in the second century, and leading up to the sixth century; some particularly illuminating later examples are also included. After a discussion of the mostly indirect and piecemeal transmission of relevant documents from the earlier centuries, the examination identifies the key sources for the present study: the sets of acts containing records that present the interactions of participants during the sessions in purported direct speech. Such records survive mainly from a period beginning in the early fifth century.
The Conference of Carthage (AD 411)
Authors: Graumann Thomas
Published: September 2021

The so-called Conference of Carthage in 411 AD, a religious trial overseen by imperial authorities, about the standing of the Donatist and Catholic churches in North Africa provides a model case for the examination of textual practices and bureaucratic conventions obtaining in such meetings. They constitute a point of reference for the subsequent discussion of such practices more specifically at the councils of the following decades. The scrupulous attention paid by the imperial authorities as well as by the conflicting parties to the propriety of recording practices reveals the technical measures and steps undertaken in the production of a record unusually clearly; at the same time, the frequent challenges highlight the areas of contention and the competing purposes of participants that inform the making and eventual shape of the resultant protocols.
All the President’s Men
Authors: Graumann Thomas
Published: September 2021

This chapter identifies the administrative personnel responsible for the creation of a council record and their relationship to the bishops and officials in charge. It advocates the key distinction of an official secretariat tasked with the production of the ‘official’ record from other clergymen present and also skilled in the techniques of stenographic recording. It disproves the notion of alternative records created by such men and demonstrates the reliance instead on ‘memory’ by those challenging the official records. The examination further refutes hypotheses of part-records made for individual participants and only subsequently accumulated. The official secretariat instead creates a single official record in close collaboration with, and on the direct instructions of the council’s leadership.
The Hypomnēmata
Authors: Graumann Thomas
Published: September 2021

Council leaders and administrative staff are shown to employ technical terminology for the council records they use and produce. Of special interest are a number of expressions and phrases that reveal these men’s expectations and aspirations for the qualities defining these records. The linguistic habits have their closest equivalents in legal texts and can be documented in particular in the constitutions issued by the emperor Justinian. The use of these terms in the earlier acts of the councils of the fifth century already is noteworthy. The terminology emphasizes the making of proper paperwork as a task fundamental to the work and ‘success’ of councils, and present on the minds of their leaders and administrators throughout. It shows, furthermore, that council acts are expected, and desired, especially to command trust with envisaged future users and claim validity equivalent to official public records.
The Preparation of ‘Editions’ and the Dissemination of Documentation
Authors: Graumann Thomas
Published: September 2021

On the way to the subsequent manuscript tradition of conciliar acts, the early dissemination of these texts marks the first step. The making of official, centrally sponsored, and arranged ‘editions’ is not the norm; it can be identified in the cases of the council of Chalcedon and in subsequent imperial councils. The acts of many other occasions, by contrast, frequently remained archival and owed their selective distribution to private initiatives. The archival deposition of the documents allowed access in principle for those desiring to acquaint themselves with them and to equip themselves with copies. The chapter assesses evidence for the dissemination of council documents and its mechanisms in this horizon.
Austria: Phasing-Out Grand Coalition Government
Authors: Müller Wolfgang C.
Published: September 2021

Grand coalition government of the Austrian People’s Party (ÖVP and the Social Democratic Party (SPÖ) had been the hallmark of post-war Austria but the historic ‘grand coalition’ formula seems exhausted. The rationale for maintaining this cooperation vanished, electoral changes undermined the former duopoly of these parties, and party system changes brought new players into the game. Yet at the government level alternatives involving the Freedom Party (FPÖ) have proved unstable as in each case an FPÖ event brought down the government or prevented its renewal. The chapter shows how routine formateur-led processes of coalition formation resulting in anticipated outcomes contrast with a few instances which significantly deviate. Coalition governance is characterized by the use of an elaborated set of rules and instruments and great continuity over time and different types of coalition. Accordingly, the underlying principle of coalition politics has been the ‘coalition compromise’ model, with government policies to be largely agreed between the coalition partners. In practice, ministerial discretion tends to shift government policy output towards the model of ‘constrained ministerial government’. Most coalitions terminated early because of inter-party conflict.
Italy: Continuous Change and Continuity in Change
Authors: Zucchini Francesco , Pedrazzani Andrea
Published: September 2021

Few democracies in the world have experienced so many transformations in the electoral and party systems as has Italy since the early 1990s. Therefore the study of the Italian case is an excellent opportunity to investigate if and how these changes impact on the government’s role in the decision-making process, on government formation and termination, and on the governance stage. Although the formal rules concerning executive–legislative relations have remained almost unaltered, since the 1990s Italian governments have increased de facto their agenda-setting power. Since 1994, the party competition dynamics and the electoral rules induced the political parties to build electoral alliances and pre-electoral coalitions. However, the persisting high level of internal fragmentation made Italian governments also very unstable compared to the governments in many other European democracies. The instruments of intra-coalitional conflict resolution used in Italy have been for long time quite informal and mostly based upon decision-making bodies partially external to the executive. The above cited changes at the beginning of the 1990s, by increasing the overlapping between government leadership and party leadership, made these mechanisms more internal to the government arena. Recent political and institutional developments—especially after the 2013 and 2018 general elections and the new electoral rules—leave very open and uncertain the prospects of consolidation of all these changes.
Portugal: Left-Wing Single-Party Governments and Right-Wing Coalitions
Authors: Calca Patrícia
Published: September 2021

How have Portuguese political parties, especially the ones in coalition governments, operated? The main focus of this chapter is the study of coalition governments in Portugal since the 2000s. This chapter shows how the country’s governments have shifted back and forth from left-wing single-party governments to right-wing coalition governments during this period. It aims to improve the understanding of Portuguese governments by shedding light on their specificities and dynamics. It is thus useful as a standalone chapter or as a source for multi-country comparisons. The chapter is initiated with a brief description of Portugal’s institutional setting. It is developed further by delving into the country’s party system followed by a discussion of government-formation issues. In conclusion, the chapter considers all the previous information going deeper into coalition governance mechanisms.
Spain: Single-Party Majority and Minority Governments
Authors: Field Bonnie N.
Published: September 2021

This chapter examines governments in Spain, which stands out in comparative European perspective. Between its transition to democracy in the 1970s and 2019, it did not have a coalition government. Instead, governments were either single-party minority or majority ones. It was not until 2020 that Spain had its first coalition government—a minority one. This chapter reviews the institutions relevant to the life cycle of governments, the parliamentary party system and changes therein, and the record of government formation, governability, and government termination until 2018. In comparative perspective, Spain’s governments before 2015 generally formed rather easily, governed without great difficulty, and were quite stable. In contrast, the party system change in 2015 led to severe difficulties of government formation and governability.
The United Kingdom: When a Coalition Meets the Westminster Model, Who Wins?
Authors: Barlow Nick , Bale Tim
Published: September 2021

This chapter examines the United Kingdom’s sole post-war coalition government and how it interacted with the Westminster Model’s assumption of single-party government. It looks at the issue from two perspectives: firstly, how much the usual processes of single-party government changed to accommodate two parties in government, and secondly, how David Cameron’s Conservatives and Nick Clegg’s Liberal Democrats worked together as parties in government in ways that fitted with the expectations of the Westminster Model. It examines this single example of coalition government in its political and historical contexts, exploring why a coalition occurred in 2010 and how it managed to continue in office for a full parliamentary term. The chapter begins with the comparatively swift process of negotiation through which the coalition was formed, then proceeds to look at how the expectations of that negotiation survived contact with the actual processes of government. It concludes by examining what the procedural and political impacts of the coalition on the UK have been, including the role of the coalition’s Fixed-Term Parliament Act on the stability of it and future governments.
Coalition Governance Patterns across Western Europe
Authors: Bergman Torbjörn , Hanna Bäck , Johan Hellström
Published: September 2021

We here summarize and compare the empirical results found by our country authors, focusing on the coalition life cycle in seventeen countries. The chapter starts with a description of the changes that have occurred during the past decades in the party systems of Western Europe, and some institutional rules surrounding government formation and duration. We then turn to the comparing patterns of government formation across countries, showing that coalitions constitute almost 70 per cent of the cabinets in Western Europe, and that the Scandinavian countries have been dominated by minority cabinets. Focusing on the coalition governance stage, we analyse the variation in the use of different control mechanisms across countries, for example showing that many coalition governments draft extensive contracts to control their partners in cabinet. The comparative data we present also shows that such agreements have become longer over time. Focusing on the last stage of the life cycle, we show that in a majority of countries, it is more common that a cabinet terminates early than serves the full term. There has also been a clear trend towards more government instability, even though the variation in cabinet duration across countries is large. We conclude this chapter by returning to the three coalition governance models described earlier in this volume, classifying the countries as being closer to one of the three models, based on a number of indicators and the information provided by our country experts.
Reckoning the Chances
Authors: Elliott Andrew C. A.
Published: September 2021

A brief introduction to the history of systematic thinking about chance. There is evidence of gambling from prehistoric times. Some implicit quantification of risk is shown by the ‘insurance’ of marine cargos in historic times. The development of the modern theory of probability was due to the work of prominent individuals, among them Pascal, Fermat, Huygens, Bernoulli. There is consideration of why the theory of probability arrived so late, and why it originated from questions arising from gambling.
Danger of Death
Authors: Elliott Andrew C. A.
Published: September 2021

Death may be a certainty, but how and when we die are not. This chapter takes as its starting point the work of John Graunt, who analysed the causes of death in seventeenth-century London. The work he did marks him out as a pioneer not only in demographics and epidemiology, but also in data analysis. In modern times, deaths due to infections (even accounting for pandemics) are steadily reducing to the point where the great majority of deaths are from causes associated with old age. Increasingly, we die at older and older ages. One of the great triumphs of modern medicine is the reduction in childhood diseases, and the dramatic decline in childhood mortality.
Random Technology
Authors: Elliott Andrew C. A.
Published: September 2021

Modern technology increasingly uses randomness to avoid lockstep behaviour and the suppression of unwanted regularity. The nature of noise is explored, and in particular the use of noise to obscure unwanted signals, either explicitly, using techniques like jitter or dither, or in the abstract. Machine-learning techniques rely on randomness to explore the solution space of a problem. Simulated evolution can be an effective way to tackle design problems, and relies on randomness.