bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
R
ousseau,
J
ean‐
J
acques (1712–78)
Authors: Anna Gordon Jane
Published: December 2015

Jean‐Jacques Rousseau was the author of the most widely sold novel of his century, several successful operas, pioneering work in autobiographical reflection, and enduring studies in music theory and botany. While responses to his controversial educational and political writings drove him into exile, many revolutionaries sought to institutionalize the latter's paradoxical spirit throughout the tumultuous events that culminated in the founding of the French republic. His challenging diagnoses of the requirements of actual freedom and of the political dangers of many popular tenets of liberal thinking remain the focus of extensive criticism, teaching, debate, and scholarship. Although often caricatured as romanticizing the noble savage, by drawing attention to what was lost in movements toward European modernity Rousseau created important resources for people who sought to challenge colonialism and enslavement. In articulating a
general will
, he offered language for challenging the legitimacy of authorities in the name of genuinely popular sovereignty.
T
homas,
W
illiam
I
saac (1863–1947)
Authors: Egloff Rainer
Published: December 2015

William Isaac Thomas was a pioneer in academic sociology and in interdisciplinary social science. A founder of the Chicago School of Sociology, he ranks among the classics on account of both his empirical work and its conceptual framework. His acclaimed and most influential contributions to the study of ethnic groups and their cultural adaptations paved the way for a social psychology of race relations in the twentieth century.
The Polish Peasant in Europe and America
, a five‐volume study he coauthored with Florian Znaniecki, is considered one of the most important works in prewar social science.
Latinas/os
Authors: Peña Delgado Grace
Published: December 2015

Latinas/os are not a homogenous ethnic group. They practice distinct religions and customs, communicate in several languages, have distinct national origins, and may share national allegiances with a country other than the United States. Latinas/os, broadly conceived, are different from Latin Americans in that they create communities in the United States. Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Cubans, and Salvadorans are major Latina/o subgroups, and there is considerable economic and political diversity among them. There are, for instance, political refugees from Latin American dictatorships, fourth‐generation Mexican American disinherited landowners, non‐Spanish speakers, so‐called illegal aliens, transnational millionaires, and naturalized citizens. Since 1990, ongoing migration from Latin America, particularly unauthorized migration from Mexico and Central America, has continuously redefined the boundaries of Latina/o communities. At certain moments of political urgency, however, a shared sense of collective identity, orlatinidad, unites Latinas/os despite differences in national origins, class status, citizenship, and culture.
Pillarization
Authors: Maussen Marcel
Published: December 2015

Pillarization describes a society as divided into a number of “pillars,” being compartments standing for the networks of organizations belonging to religious and ideological subcultures. Typically the associations cover a broad range of societal domains (education, media, political parties). The Netherlands is considered the purest example of a pillarized society from approximately the 1900s until the late 1960s, when there existed a Catholic, a Reformed a socialist, and a neutral or liberal pillar. This societal configuration functioned politically as a “consociational democracy,” a term coined by the political scientist Arend Lijphart. In order to gain a fair picture of the contemporary relevance of pillarization for Dutch society and politics, one should distinguish between social, institutional, cultural, and discursive legacies and differentiate between the impact of these legacies in specific societal and policy domains.
I
reland
Authors: Howard Kevin
Published: December 2015

Ireland offers a clear example of conflicting ethnic nationalisms being accommodated through compromise and constitutional adaptation. As Ireland approaches the hundredth anniversary of the foundational 1916 Easter Rising, the partition of the island imposed in 1920 appears to be permanent. It shows also the rapidity with which global migration can transform a society's ethnic makeup. Not since the plantations of the seventeenth century has the island's ethnic profile been so radically altered. Thus, in 2014, as a consequence of partition and immigration, a new Ireland is being created—one that will be nothing like that envisaged by the early twentieth‐century proponents of Irish nationalism.
E
gypt
Authors: Rowe Martin
Published: December 2015

Egypt's history of continuous civilization and successive periods of foreign domination has produced a unique national identity. The modern state has used the threat of foreign interference to cultivate a nationalist sentiment that appropriates and transcends Pharaonic, Mediterranean, African, Arab, and Islamic cultural referents. As ethnic minorities emigrated during the twentieth century, religion became a primary marker of social difference. Heightened sensitivity toward religious identity has led to societal polarization, with associated tensions carrying strong religious and political overtones. Within Sunni Islam, differences among a cultural mainstream, the Muslim Brotherhood, and conservative Salafi trends have manifested in political divisions and opposition to the state. Sufi and Shia Muslims, along with Coptic Orthodox Christians and other religious minorities, have struggled with second‐class citizenship, discrimination, and increasing sectarian conflict. Similar grievances have emerged among Bedouin and Nubian groups and refugees from conflicts in Palestine and sub‐Saharan African countries.
Beijing Consensus
Authors: Yao Yang
Published: December 2015

By its initial formulation, the Beijing Consensus emphasizes China's experimental approach to policy reform, its attention to social stability, and its determination to develop asymmetric power on the international stage. But it has been reformulated by some scholars, as well as by the media, as a model representing state capitalism under an authoritarian government. This new formulation does not capture what China has done right since 1978. China's marvelous economic growth has been made possible by market‐oriented reform, in line with the policy recommendations put forward by the original formulation of the Washington Consensus. In addition, the Chinese system has a rich set of democratic elements and is on the way of continuous democratization. A dichotomous approach of authoritarianism against democracy will not help us understand what is truly happening in China.
Polyethnicity
Authors: Yevtukh Volodymyr
Published: December 2015

Polyethnicity is an important aspect of the social development of many states in the contemporary world and is a distinctive marker of their complex ethnic composition. It appears as a result of a combination of the existence of indigenous peoples, immigration, conquest, and postwar land divisions. Migration is the main source of polyethnicity today. Polyethnicity influences the internal development of such countries in two key ways. First, it can produce an enrichment of their social and cultural capital as a result of the economic and ethnocultural activities of ethnic groups within the society and a strengthening of relations between the countries of origin and the countries of residence. Second, it can create dissent and conflict between individuals and groups at a time of worsening economic conditions in the country of residence, or deteriorating relations between the country of residence and the society of origin.
Creoles and Creolization
Authors: Lionnet Françoise
Published: December 2015

The term “Creole” refers to the racialized identities of people in certain parts of the former European colonial empires; to their everyday cultural practices; and to the languages they speak. “Creolization” denotes the experiences of displacement, dispossession, and transcultural mixing whereby identities are altered, new social agents emerge, and different cultural phenomena are forged as people retain aspects of their individual traditions, imitate and resist powerful others, endure, and survive. A productive concept for the investigation of cultural and intellectual formations resulting from mobility, exchange, and uneven global borrowings, creolization can help understand the transformation of practices, ideas, and theories as they travel into new contexts of reception, performance, and implementation.
Antiracism
Authors: Winant Howard
Published: December 2015

As racism changes, antiracism changes as well. What was once a visceral and largely unorganized opposition, something that was experiential, immediate, and largely apolitical, became, over the
longue durée
of modern history, a fundamental dimension of democratic and egalitarian aspirations. For centuries people of color were seen as subhuman, “bare life,” primitive, and uncivilized. This was a projection of the barbarity of their overlords, uniformly of European descent, onto the victims of their rule. But the racially oppressed did not see themselves this way. Developing their resistance—their antiracism—as a practical necessity over centuries, people of color gradually acquired political standing—and some white allies too. Because of the oppositional consciousness that those movements instilled, not only in the minds and hearts of people of color, but also in those of their white allies, antiracism has become a permanent component of the unending quest for democracy and popular sovereignty.
Chain Migration (Network Migration)
Authors: Schrover Marlou
Published: December 2015

Chain migration is a common phenomenon. Chain migration is influenced by policies of the country of origin and settlement (for instance policies regarding the definition of who is “family,” or the policy of setting an income bar). The possibility of helping others migrate and the likelihood of chain migration change over time and differ according to class, gender, marital status, and legal status.
L
iebow,
E
lliot (1925–94)
Authors: Masters Patricia A.
Published: December 2015

Elliot Liebow was a major contributor to racial and ethnic studies, urban sociology, and ethnographic methodology. His influence extended beyond a theoretical understanding of the problems of the disadvantaged, however, for he was a social activist on their behalf and worked in the area of mental health and public policy all his life. This entry focuses on his two major works,
Tally's Corner: A Study of Negro Streetcorner Men
(Liebow 1967) and
Tell Them Who I Am: The Lives of Homeless Women
(Liebow 1993), and their impact on the ways in which sociologists and anthropologists understand the plight of the poor in urban communities.
Xenophobia
Authors: Moosavi Leon
Published: December 2015

Xenophobia is a tendency to distrust, dislike, or be frightened of people who are considered foreign, strange, or different. Etymologically the word stems from the ancient Greek
xenos
(stranger) and
phobos
(fear) and designates “an irrational fear of strangers.” However, this literal understanding is not always expedient because xenophobia could have a rational basis, fear may not always be involved, and the targets may have lived locally for a long time. Xenophobia is an aversion to those whom one considers to belong elsewhere. It is crucial to distinguish it from racism in particular, as the two are often confused. Whereas racism is a negative attitude toward those who have a different physical appearance, xenophobia is a similarly negative attitude toward people considered to come from a different place. Racism and xenophobia often coalesce, being characterized by a loathing of mixture between peoples and cultures that are imagined to be pristine.
Empire
Authors: Cox Lloyd
Published: December 2015

Analyses of empire have proliferated in recent years. This was prompted by the United States' pivot to a more militant and unilateral foreign policy under the presidency of George W. Bush. Questions raised about the nature of contemporary US power have led to a broader reconsideration of empires, new and old. This entry situates such debates within a discussion of the historical development of empires and imperialism, from antiquity to the present. In so doing, it also sketches some of the more important explanations of empire, before concluding with some thoughts about the contending positions in the recent debate over US empire and hegemony.
Muslim Diaspora in the West
Authors: Ghorashi Halleh
Published: December 2015

The members of the Muslim diaspora have become the most visible minority group in most western countries, attracting negative attention. Parallel to this growing animosity, a dominant pattern can be observed among many within the Muslim diaspora of choosing Islam as both a source of inspiration and an exclusive basis of identification. The dominance of Islam in a negative as well as a positive sense in the west reifies otherness and limits the capacity of generations of migrants with Islamic backgrounds to negotiate a variety of identity positions. For a durable alternative to the dominant discourse of othering there is a need for a strategy that unsettles the binary, essentialist foundation of this discourse and enables unorthodox connections beyond cultural and religious difference.
Jews in theUnitedStates
Authors: Kelner Shaul
Published: December 2015

Estimated between 5.4 and 6.7 million people, the Jewish population of the United States is the world's largest outside of Israel. The population has grown and diversified through successive waves of immigration, largely from Europe, but increasingly from the Middle East and Latin America. Jewish Americans have organized themselves to create an extensive network of synagogues, philanthropies, policy organizations, and nonprofit agencies in order to conduct communal affairs. Although American Jews have been categorized variously as a race, an ethnicity, a religion, and a polity, the fact that none of these terms fits precisely highlights the conceptual limitations of these categories.
Uganda
Authors: Makara Sabiti
Published: December 2015

Uganda's political landscape has been tumultuous from the period of colonial rule to the present time. British colonial rulers (1894–1962) promoted “indirect rule” based on ethnic divisions and group antagonism. Though anticolonial struggles rallied the Ugandan population against the colonial masters motivated by nationalistic sentiments, most of the country's postcolonial history has been plagued by incessant conflicts based on ethnicity. This entry contributes to the understanding of ethnicity by examining the daunting historical misfortunes of Uganda.
F
ichte,
J
ohann
G
ottlieb (1762–1814)
Authors: Moore Gregory
Published: December 2015

Johann Gottlieb Fichte was a key figure in the development of German nationalism during the first decades of the nineteenth century. In
Addresses to the German Nation
, a series of public lectures delivered after Napoleon had inflicted a disastrous defeat on Prussia and while much of the German‐speaking lands were under direct or indirect French rule, he sought to define what a nation is, what set the German nation apart from others, and how Germany was to be rescued from its predicament.
Regents of the
U
niversity of
C
alifornia
v
.
B
akke
Authors: Seeger Timothy P.
Published: December 2015

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
(1978) was a landmark affirmative action case in which the
US
Supreme Court affirmed that race may be used as a factor for consideration in public university admissions. However, the court made clear that the Medical School's special admissions program, which reserved sixteen of the one hundred available spots for economically disadvantaged and minority applicants, was unconstitutional. Allan Bakke, a white male, was denied admission to the University of California Medical School. Following his second denial Bakke challenged the constitutionality of the Medical School's special admissions program claiming the program created a racial barrier to enrolment in a publicly funded university. Bakke's claim reached the
US
Supreme Court, which held that the Medical School's special admissions program was illegal under the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the
US
Constitution as the amendment protects all citizens not just minorities.
Prussia
Authors: Suesse Marvin
Published: December 2015

The history of Prussia in the modern era (1701–1947) offers insights into the evolving conceptions of the state, nation, and ethnicity in central Europe. The kingdom first developed as a strong authoritarian state whose conservative elites adhered to non‐national monarchism. Military defeat at the hands of Napoleon then led to increasing appeals to the nation as a mobilizing concept. The ambiguities of that concept and its uncertain relation to notions of popular representation and German nationality dominated debate in subsequent decades. The triumph of an ethnocentric nationalist discourse and the creation of the German empire finally led to the demise of Prussia as a supranational state and to the intensification of ethnic conflict with Jewish and Polish minorities.
Postracialism
Authors: Young Kim Janine
Published: December 2015

There is currently no consensus on the meaning of “postracialism,” a term that entered the mainstream lexicon during the US presidential election in 2008. Based on the varied usages of the term, however, there appear to be three prominent conceptions of postracialism in the United States. The first can be characterized as
descriptive postracialism
, which claims that racial inequality, racism, or both have largely disappeared. The second may be called
normative postracialism
, which aspires toward a society in which race no longer matters. The third and most controversial is
ideological postracialism
, which suggests that race‐conscious policies, such as affirmative action, may now be abandoned. Each of these conceptions has been vigorously debated and revealed to be problematic in various ways. Thus, despite the fact that postracialism lacks a definite meaning, it has had a profound impact on race discourse in the United States.
Multiculturalism in Business
Authors: Yoko Brannen Mary
Published: December 2015

Multiculturalism is a term used both descriptively and prescriptively. It is used descriptively in reference to the cultural diversity of communities with a significant proportion of people with mixed cultural origins. It may describe the demographic makeup of an entire state or that of an organization such as a business, school, city, or neighborhood. Prescriptively, the term relates to principles and policies that value diversity and is inclusive of cultural variation in language, religion, dress, values, and basic assumptions about life. In terms of integration, multiculturalism is contrasted to assimilation and the expectation that immigrant groups should adapt to the cultural norm. Whereas assimilated communities are often described as “melting pots” or “salad bowls,” the term “cultural mosaic” is more apt to be used in reference to multiculturalism. The terms “bicultural” and “multicultural” are regularly used to describe individuals who have been deeply socialized in two or more cultures.
Ogaden
Authors: Jackson Donna R.
Published: December 2015

The Ogaden, a mostly barren desert in southeast Ethiopia, has long been a source of ethnic and nationalist conflict. Although officially within Ethiopia's territorial borders, the region is largely inhabited by ethnic Somalis, who have demanded, and continue to demand, the removal of Ethiopian authority and reunification with Somalia. Frequent border skirmishes have occasionally erupted into war, most notably the Ogaden War of 1977–78, often considered a major factor in the demise of détente between the United States and the Soviet Union.
Slavs
Authors: Dzinfo Danijel
Published: December 2015

The Slavs are a group of modern nations and ethnic groups that speak Slavic languages. Linguistically, Slavic languages are part of a larger Indo‐European group and are divided into West Slavic (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Wendish, and Sorbian), East Slavic (Russian, Belarussian, and Ukrainian) and South Slavic (Croatian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbian, Slovene, Bosnian, and Montenegrin) languages. The term Slavs (Greek:Sklaboi,Sklabinoi,Sklabenoi; Latin:Sclaveni,Sclavi) first appeared in historical sources in the sixth century ceand was applied to barbarian groups raiding Southeastern Europe. In the early Middle Ages various ethnic groups in Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe were called Slavs. Today they inhabit Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Southeastern Europe, North Asia, and Central Asia.
Self‐Determination
Authors: Etzioni Amitai
Published: December 2015

This entry describes the concept of self‐determination as a normative principle of international law. It further notes the original democratizing effects of self‐determination and how they have changed since the end of the imperial period, sometimes to the detriment of the people seeking self‐governance.
D
ollard,
J
ohn (1900–80), Race and Caste Thesis
Authors: Kulkarni Vani S.
Published: December 2015

Among the many prominent studies on race relations in America, John Dollard's work
Caste and Class in a Southern Town
, first published in 1937, continues to be most influential piece of research. John Dollard was an American psychologist and social scientist. He put forth a caste–class thesis that constitutes the psychological and psychoanalytical perspective on how caste and class shaped race relations in the Deep South. In this research Dollard used the caste lens to understand the relationship between whites and Negroes in Southerntown—a fictitious name given to the town in the Deep South that was his research site. Influenced heavily by the work of Llyod Warner, he referred to whites and Negroes in Southerntown as two dominant caste groups.
Politics of Race
Authors: Hayter Julian
Published: December 2015

Race—as a social construction and a lived experience—has profoundly influenced political development. Racial politics refers to the process whereby race binds various political actors together. These actors not only promote racial ideas or objectives to build constituencies and arrange governmental bodies; they design governmental bodies to express racialized interests. Scholars contend that, in the United States, two groups exemplify the process of racial politics: groups committed to social equality and groups that seek to maintain racial hierarchies. The dialectic between these two orders gained substantial momentum after Reconstruction. By the mid‐twentieth century, racial politics had given rise to a revolutionary and permanent shift in American (and global) governing authority, namely the emergence of politicized racial minorities, the ratification of racially egalitarian electoral reforms, and, ultimately, the implementation of majority–minority districts. The fight over political access and political restrictions continues to characterize contemporary racial politics.
Anglo‐Conformity
Authors: Travis Toni‐Michelle C.
Published: December 2015

As waves of immigrants came to the United States, they were confronted by attempts to force them to conform to American values. The two routes to assimilation were Anglo‐conformity and the melting pot. Anglo‐conformity was part of an americanization process whereby immigrants sought to adopt and emulate the values of white Anglo‐Saxon Protestants.
Busing (School Desegregation)
Authors: Gillis Don
Published: December 2015

Busing is the act of transporting children to a school outside their residential area, as a means of achieving racial balance in the school system. It arose out of the civil rights struggle in the 1960s and 1970s in the United States. This entry focuses particularly on the case of Boston, Massachusetts, where court‐ordered measures designed to achieve greater school integration resulted in high levels of community conflict and in numerous techniques employed by white parents to avoid the consequences of the policy. After four decades, American schools remain highly segregated and what little progress was achieved has been reversed by the gradual erosion of the reforms.
Social Constructionist Theories
Authors: Lock Andy
Published: December 2015

Race, ethnicity, and nationalism are not naturally occurring categories but socially constructed meanings that elaborate on traditions of ancestry and descent in line with changing ideologies. Race is the most contentious of these three categories and carefully unpicking the contributions of biology and ideology in its deployment in social life is of crucial importance.
Imperialism
Authors: Manktelow Emily , Veevers David
Published: December 2015

Imperialism refers to the process of acquiring an overseas colonial empire as well as to the state of empire possession—and, more amorphously, to the ability to influence or control the political, economic, or cultural development of a separate geographical entity. It is a word with deep roots in the Roman concept ofimperium, but it is most commonly used to refer to the colonial empire building of European powers from the sixteenth century to the twentieth, as well as to processes of economic and cultural control more broadly. Imperialism is notoriously difficult to define; in consequence, it has often been refined into distinct subcategories, such as formal and informal imperialism, subimperialism, social imperialism, capitalist imperialism, economic imperialism, and cultural imperialism. All imply forms of force, coercion, or influence; but recent definitions circle around the notion of a rule of colonial difference.
Educational and Occupational Attainment
Authors: Harris Richard J. , Firestone Juanita M.
Published: December 2015

Educational and occupational opportunities and outcomes reflect and define stratification systems nationally and globally. Race, ethnicity, and gender are among the most important factors influencing both level and type of attainment, which combine to produce differences in income. Race and ethnic minorities, women, and those from lower income groups are more likely to be undereducated, to have degrees from less prominent institutions, to be employed in lower‐prestige occupations, or to be underemployed in relation to their educational credentials, which contributes to increasing stratification. In less developed countries, minority group status still has the largest impact on educational and occupational attainment. Educational opportunities for minority populations may be the single most important factor behind the social and economic transformations of less developed societies.
Racist Movements
Authors: Blee Kathleen M.
Published: December 2015

Racist movements organize against certain racial, ethnic, national, religious, and social groups, especially Jews, Muslim, immigrants, and people of color. Modern racist movements include White Power skinheads, neo‐Nazis, and Aryan supremacists and separatists. Some of the groups and movements are linked to larger right‐wing political parties, while others are small and politically marginal. Many emerge as the result of competition, real or imagined, among racial and ethnic groups for economic, political, or social power, although racist movements also occur in times of prosperity and during periods in which social and political competition among groups is relatively low.
Ethics, Human Rights, and Human Resource Management
Authors: Köllen Thomas , Müller‐Camen Michael
Published: December 2015

Ethical or morally “good” behavior of organizations toward their employees is generally associated with reaching a certain level of equality. A very basic organizational approach to equality is to confer human rights to all employees in equal measure, irrespective of whether there are working for the organization directly or indirectly. A more advanced approach to equality takes into account that, within organizations, minority employees often face different layers and intensities of racist, nationalist, and ethnicity‐based processes of marginalization and discrimination (among other things). Within the workforces these processes are responsible for the prevalence of persisting inequalities in terms of organizational status, access to resources, and compensation. Thus organizations that want to overcome these inequalities have to apply human resource management initiatives that counteract these processes. This can be done, for example, through appropriate diversity management initiatives that explicitly integrate race, nationality, and ethnicity as key dimensions of an organizations' workforce diversity.
Affirmative Action for Majority Groups in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Huguley James P.
Published: December 2015

In the twentieth century white Americans benefited greatly from large‐scale pro‐white federal provisions in the New Deal's Fair Labor Standards and Social Security Acts, as well as in the Serviceman's Readjustment Act (the “GI Bill”). These policies deliberately excluded most blacks from benefits through two practices: disqualifying the industries where the majority of blacks were employed, and requiring that benefit decisions be made locally, so as to ensure heavily pro‐white resource allocations in the southern states, where 75 percent of blacks lived. As a result of these sweeping affirmative action policies favoring whites, the vast majority of black Americans would end up being left behind during the nation's most important individual wealth‐building developments of the twentieth century. Estimates adjusted for compound interest and inflation suggest that, through labor market discrimination alone, blacks were collectively denied as much as $1.6 trillion in revenue between 1929 and 1969.
Arab Americans
Authors: Hassan Salah D.
Published: December 2015

Arab Americans constitute a small but historically established and growing ethnic community that is racially classified as white by the US Census Bureau but is subject to a remarkably high level of racism in the form of media stereotypes, racial profiling, and hate speech. Contemporary racism against Arabs is linked to both cultural prejudices and the US war on terror, which targets Arabs and Muslims as a threat to national security.
Liberalism
Authors: Kelly Paul
Published: December 2015

This overview of liberalism explains its origins in the natural jurisprudence of John Locke and the historical sociology of Adam Smith. Although both foundational sources have significantly different impacts on the subsequent development of the tradition, they both sustain a primary commitment to methodological and ethical individualism. The remainder of the article explores the way in which different liberals have interpreted the political implications of that individualism. The article ends with an assessment of the most important contemporary liberal philosopher: John Rawls.
Minorities
Authors: Stone John
Published: December 2015

Despite its numerical connotations, the concept of minority in the social sciences has a variety of dimensions. Louis Wirth's classic definition included three elements: size, discrimination, and the awareness of deprivation. Minorities also pose a major problem for democratic societies when it comes to combining majority rule while preserving minority rights. Several attempts have been made to find solutions to these conflicting demands, but in most situations they remain works in progress.
Class, Status, and Party
Authors: Stone John
Published: December 2015

The three dimensions of social stratification—economic, prestige and political power—are part of Max Weber's classic analysis of social stratification that appeared in his seminal work
Economy and Society
, published posthumously in 1922. To some, this appears as an elaboration on Marx's fundamentally economic analysis of society and history, namely one designed to take into account the true complexity of social divisions, which cannot be reduced to a single materialist core. Weber's work—which included an important historical perspective, a fundamental cross‐cultural comparative dimension, and a sophisticated incorporation of the importance of ideas in the determination of human action—is particularly useful in the complex field of race and ethnic relations, racism, and the role of nationalism and has been adopted and adapted by many subsequent scholars.
Intersectionality
Authors: O'connor Sarah
Published: December 2015

Intersectionality is a concept used to challenge treatments of race, gender, sexuality, and class as exclusive categories. Kimberle Williams Crenshaw coined the term in 1989, in an effort to reject single‐axis criticisms of discrimination and reconceptualize marginalization as cross‐cutting and compounded; yet the ideas behind the concept itself have been the focus of black feminist and lesbian advocacy since the liberation movements of the 1960s and 1970s. Intersectionality as an evolving theory, discipline, and practice has led to a more complex and nuanced understanding of the hierarchy of privilege in the United States.
E
ast
A
sia
Authors: Hou Xiaoshuo
Published: December 2015

People do not typically associate China, Japan, and Korea with multiple ethnic or racial identities, as it seems that all three countries have one predominant group and the identity of being “Chinese,” “Japanese,” and “Korean” is so strong that it trumps all differences that may exist among the populations. However, the idea of homogeneity is only a myth; understanding the position of ethnic minorities and the nature of racial discourses in these countries can reveal the composition of nationhood in East Asia. This entry discusses the social construction of race, ethnicity, and nationalism in the three countries through an analysis of racial and ethnic nationalism, war and nationalism, and economic nationalism in East Asia.
Chinese Nationalism
Authors: Fewsmith Joseph
Published: December 2015

Nationalism has been the leitmotif of Chinese politics for over a century, becoming one of the chief organizing principles of political movements and governments. Over time nationalism has fluctuated from a largely elite affair to highly populist movements and has varied in its acceptance or rejection of the outside world. But it has always been double‐edged, a critique of China's relations with the outside world and of the Chinese government's ability to protect the country from external threats or to promote the country's welfare by learning from the outside world.
Science and Race
Authors: Petin Mika'il A.
Published: December 2015

Race continues to be at the center of critical analyses of contemporary industrial societies, whether the emphasis is on the family, education, employment, health, sexual orientation, political participation, or gender identities. Despite the views of scientists, intellectuals, and policymakers that race is a social construction, the idea that the concept of race is rigidly linked to biological determinism and that it is unalterable continues as a belief system among many today. Therefore an unsettled debate continues today about the existence and efficacy of what some view aspostraciality. Ironically, science has played a prominent role in highlighting and justifying the magnitude and persistence of biological determinism, which is a key feature of racist ideologies.
Power Theories of Race Relations
Authors: Stone John
Published: December 2015

Most macro‐theories of race relations include a discussion of the central role of power in determining the formation, perpetuation, and change found in systems of racial stratification. But because the definition of what constitutes power is by no means simple, different perspectives tend to emphasize various aspects of the concept as they try to arrive at more general conclusions to explain the very different patterns that race relations take in a number of historical and comparative settings. This entry looks at the way in which a variety of scholars have incorporated power into their theories of society and asks whether they have extended their perspectives to analyze race, ethnicity, and nationalism.
G
andhi,
M
ohandas
K
aramchand (1869–1948)
Authors: Mukherjee Mithi
Published: December 2015

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, leader of the Indian independence movement against British colonial rule, was given the title “Mahatma” (“Great Soul”) by the Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore for introducing the world to the power of nonviolent political resistance. The Gandhian movement was the first and most important mass movement for freedom in the twentieth century that was based entirely on the discourse and practice of nonviolent resistance. What sets Gandhi apart from the founders of major modern polities and gives his life and thought enduring relevance not only as an Indian but also as a world leader was his single‐minded commitment to nonviolence. His unique form of nonviolent politics, which sought to resist all forms of oppression while at the same time transcending the divisions, conflicts, and violence inherent in a politics of identity based on race, nation, and community, has provided inspiration to many antiauthoritarian movements all over the world.
A
bduh,
M
uhammad (1849–1905)
Authors: Petin Mika'il A.
Published: December 2015

Muhammad Abduh was an Egyptian theologian who helped advance the modernist movement in Islam and nationalist ideas in Egypt during the nineteenth century. He believed Islam to be comparable, if not superior, to other faiths in how it understood and dealt with the idea of progress. The British colonial claim that Islam was too primitive and provincial prompted Abduh—along with his associate, Sayyid Jamaal ad‐Deen al‐Afghani (d. 1897), and the Salafi (
as‐salafiyyah
) movement—to aggressively refute such accusations. Equally, he challenged the opinions of Muslim conservatives, who argued that the faith required dogmatic edicts. Abduh offered a more rational approach, as he sought to modernize both the religion of Islam and Muslim societies. According to him, Islam is the only religion whose dogmas can be proven by logic.
Internal Migration in
C
hina
Authors: Luo Xiaoping
Published: December 2015

“Internal migration” in China mainly refers to the movement of migrant workers with rural
hukou
(household registration) rights from the countryside to the big cities, in search of work. The government has relaxed the restrictions on household registration in order to promote labor mobility, following the policy of reforms and opening up since the late 1970s. Large numbers of rural farmers turned workers have made a major contribution to China's development. Meanwhile, this migration has generated many negative consequences. This entry provides a description of the social facts of rural–urban migration in terms of its size, demographic characteristics, regional and industrial distribution and of the social problems faced by the migrants, including ethnic minority ones, over a period of four decades.
Boas, Franz (1858–1942)
Authors: Trencher Susan R.
Published: December 2015

As the “father of American anthropology,” Franz Boas was, and remains, the single most influential figure in American anthropology. Trained as a scientist, Boas had an interest in human evolution and physical characteristics as well as in human lifeways and cultural institutions. This interest led him to single‐handedly craft American anthropology as a unique “umbrella” discipline under which four large subdisciplines are held as related: archaeology and cultural, linguistic, and physical anthropology. Boas himself made major contributions to each of the four fields.
R
izal,
J
osé (1861–96)
Authors: Farid Alatas Syed
Published: December 2015

José Rizal, Filipino thinker and activist, may be considered the first systematic social thinker in Southeast Asia. While the bulk of his writings were not in the social sciences, it is possible to extract a sociological theory from his works. This would be a theory that explained the nature and conditions of Filipino colonial society, and the requirements for emancipation.
Genocide
Authors: Karstedt Susanne
Published: December 2015

Despite the difficulties in providing a precise definition of genocide, and the even greater problems of trying to anticipate and prevent such mass killings, the subject remains one of the most important issues facing the contemporary world. This entry explores the variety of genocidal acts perpetrated since the start of the twentieth century and the evolving framework of international justice seeking to address these vital issues.
All‐Plastic‐Materials Based Self‐Charging Power System Composed of Triboelectric Nanogenerators and Supercapacitors
Authors: Wang Jie , Wen Zhen , Zi Yunlong , Zhou Pengfei , Lin Jun , Guo Hengyu , Xu Youlong , Wang Zhong Lin
Published: December 2015

Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENG) are a possible power source for wearable electronics, but the conventional electrode materials for TENG are metals such as Cu and Al that are easy to be oxidized or corroded in some harsh environments. In this paper, metal electrode material is replaced by an electrical conducting polymer, polypyrrole (PPy), for the first time. Moreover, by utilizing PPy with micro/nanostructured surface as the triboelectric layer, the charge density generated is significantly improved, more superior to that of TENG with metals as the triboelectric layer. As this polymer‐based TENG is further integrated with PPy‐based supercapacitors, an all‐plastic‐materials based self‐charging power system is built to provide sustainable power with excellent long cycling life. Since the environmental friendly materials are adopted and the facile electrochemical deposition technique is applied, the new self‐charging power system can be a practical and low cost power solution for many applications.
Two‐Photon Pumped CH3NH3PbBr3 Perovskite Microwire Lasers
Authors: Gu Zhiyuan , Wang Kaiyang , Sun Wenzhao , Li Jiankai , Liu Shuai , Song Qinghai , Xiao Shumin
Published: December 2015

Solution‐processed lead halide perovskites have shown good applicability in both solar cells and microlasers. Very recently, the nonlinear properties of perovskites have attracted considerable research attention. Second harmonic generation and two‐photon absorption have been successfully demonstrated. However, perovskite devices based on these nonlinear properties, such as micro‐ and nanolasers have thus far not been fabricated. Here we demonstrate two‐photon pumped microlasers from CH3NH3PbBr3 perovskite microwires. These CH3NH3PbBr3 perovskite microwires are synthesized through a one‐step solution precipitation method and dispersed on a glass substrate. Under optical excitation at 800 nm, two‐photon pumped lasing action with periodic peaks is successfully observed at around 546 nm. The obtained quality (Q) factors of the two‐photon pumped microlasers are around 682, and the corresponding thresholds are about 674 µJ cm‐2. Both the Q factors and thresholds are comparable to conventional whispering‐gallery modes in two‐dimensional polygon microplates. This work is the first demonstration of two‐photon pumped microlasers in CH3NH3PbBr3 perovskite microwires. We believe our finding will significantly expand the application of perovskites in low‐cost nonlinear optical devices, such as optical limiters, optical switches, and biomedical imaging devices.
Regioselective Direct Difunctionalization of Glycals: Convenient Access to 2‐Deoxyglycoconjugates Mediated by Tetra‐n‐butylammonium Iodide/Sodium Periodate
Authors: Kundoor Govindareddy , Rao Dodla Sivanageswara , Kashyap Sudhir
Published: December 2015

A combination of nBu4NI and NaIO4 promoted the intermolecular stereo and regioselective bisfunctionalization of glycals in a metal‐free, one‐pot process. The oxidative iodocaboxylation, iodoamination, and iodoazidation of enol ether moieties by employing carboxylic or aromatic acids, and N‐nucleophiles such as 1‐H‐benzotriazole or NaN3 led to glycosyl carboxylates, glycosyl amines, and glycosyl azides, respectively. The protocol is operationally simple, employs readily available and environmental benign reagents, and was applicable for a diverse range of substrates to obtain stereodivergent glycoconjugates in yields up to 99 % with diastereomeric ratios up to 100 %.
Multicomponent Reactions of Aldo‐X Bifunctional Reagent α‐Oxoketene Dithioacetals and Indoles or Amines: Divergent Synthesis of Dihydrocoumarins, Quinolines, Furans, and Pyrroles
Authors: Liu Changhui , Zhou Li , Jiang Dan , Gu Yanlong
Published: December 2015

Six multicomponent reactions were developed by using aldo‐X reagents and α‐oxoketene dithioacetals with indoles or amines as substrates, which can be used to prepare many heterocycles, such as dihydrocoumarins, quinolines, furans and pyrroles, in a straightforward way. A combination of two bifunctional aldo‐X reagents and α‐oxoketene dithioacetals is the key to make the discovery of these multicomponent reactions possible because these reagents have a minimum of two reactive sites, which enable different substrates to be assembled together in various manners.
The varied path to adulthood: Plasticity in developmental timing in hylobatids
Authors: Burns Belinda L. , Judge Debra S.
Published: December 2015

Maturation includes physical, reproductive, and social aspects that develop asynchronously. Intra‐ and inter‐individual variation in the relative timing of each aspect reflects context‐dependent plasticity. Plasticity in developmental timing may be important for the family‐living small apes (family Hylobatidae), where reproductive opportunities are monopolized by territorial breeding pairs. Data on development in hylobatids are so far limited due to their elusive arboreal niche and long lifespans. Herein, we provide the first quantitative analysis of behavioral development in 14 captive individuals of three species (Hylobates moloch, Nomascus leucogenys, and Symphalangus syndactylus), with some individuals being observed over 8 years. To establish a baseline for behavioral development, we compare the behavior of infants (0–2 years), juveniles (2–4 years), adolescents (4–6 years), and subadults (6–9 years) in their natal groups from data obtained over 250 focal observation hours. We then relate changes in behavior to measures of somatic and physiological development, and to wild populations, to identify the degree of intra‐ and inter‐individual variation in developmental timing. We found greater concordance between behavioral and physiological markers of weaning than between different markers of later development, and the timing of later milestones varied more among individuals. Behavioral estimates from both captive and wild individuals in their natal groups indicate that puberty begins close to age 5, but physiological maturation can occur 0.5–3 years earlier in captive individuals than in wild individuals. Ages at onset of puberty, sexual, and social maturation vary in both captive and wild populations. The available evidence indicates that the social environment during development (e.g., presence of breeding female and appropriate mating partner), as well as nutrition, play a role in the timing of life history transitions in hylobatids. Am. J. Primatol. 78:610–625, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.