bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Kabalega (Kabarega) of Bunyoro (ca. 1853–1923)
Authors: Reid Richard
Published: November 2011

Kabalega, ruler of the kingdom of Bunyoro between 1870 and 1898, was one of the major figures in late nineteenth‐century eastern Africa, noted for both his remarkable military reforms and the prolonged resistance he offered to the British during their conquest of Uganda. His father was Kamurasi, ruler from 1852 to 1869, whose death sparked a succession struggle; Kabalega, whose support was drawn mostly from the army and the peasantry, was pitched against his elder brother Kabigumire, who was the candidate favored by the traditional nobility. Kabalega emerged victorious from the civil war in 1870, and two key themes would consequently dominate his reign, namely his reliance on military force to engender change in Bunyoro, and his attempt to restrict the power of the kingdom's great chiefly families. Kabalega inherited a kingdom in decline: he sought to reverse this process both militarily and politically, and also by taking advantage of the burgeoning commerce in slaves and ivory.
King, Admiral Ernest J. (1878–1956)
Authors: Bradford James C.
Published: November 2011

As both Commander in Chief, US Fleet (CominCh) and Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), Admiral King was the senior US naval commander and the chief US naval strategist during World War II. Prior to American entry into the war, King, as commander of the US Atlantic Fleet, directed American anti‐submarine operations against Nazi Germany, a role he continued to fill as commander of the US Tenth Fleet, a purely operational headquarters established on May 20, 1943.
King William's War (1688–1699)
Authors: Pulsipher Jenny Hale
Published: November 2011

King William's War is the American name for the transatlantic conflict known in Europe as the War of the League of Augsburg or Nine Years' War (1689–1697). King William's War actually began a year earlier than the European war, as a struggle between Native Americans and English settlers in northern New England, and was then absorbed into the larger hostilities. Thus, it became the first in a string of American wars that would draw Indians into international contests as allies of European powers.
League of Augsburg, War of the (1688–1697)
Authors: McLAY K. A. J.
Published: November 2011

It is surely appropriate for a conflict which was simultaneously provincial and global in its origin and scope that the War of the League of Augsburg is variously called the War of the Grand Alliance, the Palatinate extend French control throughout the duke's lands in the duchy of Savoy, a point underlined by the capture of Susa in early November.
Lei Feng (1940–1962)
Authors: Bjorge Gary J.
Published: November 2011

Lei Feng was an ordinary soldier in the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) whose life embodied significant developments within both the Chinese military and the wider Chinese society during the early 1960s.
Lepanto, Battle of (1571)
Authors: Morillo Stephen
Published: November 2011

The Battle of Lepanto, which took place on October 7, 1571 between the naval forces of the Holy League, an alliance of Habsburg Spain, Venice, the papacy, and other allies on one side, and the navy of the Ottoman Empire on the other, was the last great naval battle between oared warships in the Mediterranean.
Lettow‐Vorbeck, General Paul‐Emil von (1870–1964)
Authors: Moyd Michelle R.
Published: November 2011

General Paul‐Emil von Lettow‐Vorbeck commanded the German colonial army, or Schutztruppe, during World War I in East Africa. Military historians have credited him with leading a brilliant unconventional campaign against numerically stronger, better‐supplied Allied forces drawn from across the British Empire, Belgian Congo (Democratic Republic of Congo), Portuguese East Africa (Mozambique), and South Africa. Adoring crowds in Berlin celebrated his return to Germany in March 1919. To them, he represented true German military heroism during a time of generalized humiliation and defeat. He has remained fascinating to military historians and many others interested in his East African experiences. Recent research on his life and his role in the East African campaign, however, has pointed up the devastating toll his ruthless campaign took on East Africa and its peoples. His earlier military assignments in German colonial expeditionary forces that fought in China and southwest Africa (present‐day Namibia) directly contributed to his ability to assume command of the German East African Schutztruppe in 1914, and also shaped his tactics and strategy during the war. Military historians have often celebrated his accomplishments and leadership skills during the East Africa campaign, but his role in violent anticommunist and putschist politics in postwar Weimar Germany complicates his image as a German military hero.
Lloyd George, David (1st Earl Lloyd George) (1863–1945)
Authors: Woodward David R.
Published: November 2011

British prime minister from 1916 to 1922, Lloyd George has been compared favorably to Winston Churchill as a war leader. Both men played decisive roles when victory over Germany was very much in doubt.
Logistics
Authors: Kane Thomas M.
Published: November 2011

The term military logistics refers to all the activities involved in moving, equipping, and sustaining armed forces. All military operations require some form of material support, and all problems of military theory and practice have a logistical dimension. Thus, strategic thinker Antoine Jomini defined logistics as “nothing more nor less than the science of applying all possible military knowledge” (Jomini 1868: 253). Since military knowledge that cannot be applied is useless, it is easy to see why so many of the most successful commanders in history have viewed logistics as supremely important.
Ludendorff, General Erich (1865–1937)
Authors: Woodward David R.
Published: November 2011

As first quarter‐master general of the German army, Ludendorff dominated military affairs during the second half of World War I. In his memoirs he misleadingly characterized his relationship with Field Marshal von Hindenburg as one of “the most perfect harmony,” but he resented the acclaim given his superior, believing with much justification that most of the credit belonged to him. He, however, was not prepared to accept responsibility when things went disastrously wrong during Germany's failed bid to win a victor's peace in 1918. Instead, he blamed the army's defeat on the collapse of the home front and popularized the myth that the soldiers had been “stabbed in the back” by Jews and socialists.
Machiavelli, Niccolò (1469–1527)
Authors: Gallaher John G.
Published: November 2011

Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was born on May 3, 1769 in the city of Florence, Italy. He received a good education in the classics, mathematics, and languages (Italian and Latin) and in 1498 was given the middle level position of second chancellor (secretary) in the city government. For the next 14 years, besides his duties as secretary, he was frequently sent on diplomatic missions to cities in Italy, France, and Germany. When his supporters fell from power is 1512, Machiavelli was relieved of his position and retired to his modest estate outside of Florence. He spent his unemployed years writing. Although he is best known for his political and military writing (
The Prince
and
The Art of War
), he was also known in his day for his plays and poetry.
Mao Zedong (Mao Tse‐tung) (1893–1976)
Authors: Waldron Arthur
Published: November 2011

Mao Zedong was arguably the most influential Chinese politician of the twentieth century, widely admired at home and abroad as a great revolutionary, and the inspiration of a wave of “Maoist” insurgencies, such as that of the Naxalites in India. He won power as supreme leader of the Chinese Communist Party in 1935 and held it until his death. After a protracted struggle with the man he saw as his arch‐rival, Chiang Kai‐shek (Jiang Jieshi) (1887–1975), Mao also attained power over all the lands of the former Qing Empire (1644–1911) save Mongolia and Taiwan. Although promising a liberal electoral regime of “New Democracy,” Mao in fact ruled the newly proclaimed People's Republic of China as a dictator, albeit one who sought revolutionary transformation. His was the decisive voice in China's decision to enter the Korean War (1949–1953); his forces humiliated India in a border conflict in 1962, while during the Vietnam War (1959–1975) he provided matériel and personnel to the North Vietnamese. As tension rose with the Soviet Union (1969) he joined talks with the United States (starting in 1971) that culminated with diplomatic relations (1979).
Maori Wars (1845–1872)
Authors: Shapiro Stephen
Published: November 2011

Also known as the New Zealand Wars or the Land Wars, the Maori Wars were a series of conflicts between the British settlers of New Zealand and various Maori opponents. The wars were concentrated on New Zealand's northern island and fell into three phases: the Northern War of 1845–1846, the 1860s wars against the Maori King movement and its allies, and those against Maori prophetic leaders from 1864 until 1872. The first of these phases took place near the island's northern tip, in the Bay of Islands; the second along the western coast in Waikato and to its south in Taranaki; and the third throughout the island.
Marshall, General George C. (1880–1959)
Authors: Wells Anne Sharp
Published: November 2011

George Catlett Marshall, a professional army officer, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953 for his role in the reconstruction of western Europe after World War II. As US army chief of staff throughout that conflict, he had overseen the transformation of a small peacetime army to a force of eight million deployed around the world, while he shaped and executed Allied strategy as an influential member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) and the Anglo‐American Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCS). When Marshall stepped down after the war's end in 1945, the retirement he had planned was delayed by a series of complex assignments from President Harry S. Truman, who first dispatched him to mediate between Mao Zedong (Mao Tse‐tung) and Chiang Kai‐shek (Jiang Jieshi) in the Chinese Civil War (1945–1947), and then appointed him secretary of state (1947–1949), head of the American Red Cross (1949–1950), and secretary of defense (1950–1951).
Mau Mau Emergency (1952–1960)
Authors: Stapleton Timothy J.
Published: November 2011

During the 1930s and 1940s, white settlers in the central highlands of British colonial Kenya expelled most of the indigenous Kikuyu from their land. The Kikuyu became squatters working for low pay on white owned commercial farms, lived in small, infertile, and overcrowded reserves, or moved to growing slums in Nairobi. A small number of Kikuyu gained land for farming and cultivated ties with the colonial administration. Protest began in the early 1940s with a series of labor strikes, livestock maiming, and burning of farm buildings and crops. By the late 1940s loyalty and unity among rebels was enforced by secret oath ceremonies. Led by Jomo Kenyatta, the moderate Kenya African Union (KAU) failed to win any political reforms from the colonial regime in the early 1950s. Violence escalated in late 1952 with attacks on Kikuyu loyalists and the killing of a Kikuyu chief. Soon after arriving in Kenya the new governor, Sir Evelyn Baring, declared a State of Emergency on October 20, 1952. Beginning on the same day, colonial security forces launched Operation Jock Scott in which a hundred African political leaders, including Kenyatta, and eight thousand others were arrested to remove the leadership of what was now called Mau Mau. In reality, African political leaders had little to do with this grassroots rebellion by mostly illiterate people. Violence against Europeans and loyalist Kikuyu increased with the first killing of settlers in January 1953. Calling themselves the Land and Freedom Army, insurgents organized a “passive wing” of non‐combatants who supplied food, sanctuary, and information to the “active wing,” which amounted to around twelve thousand at the beginning of the conflict. In late March 1953 the insurgents launched their two largest attacks; 80 rebels raided a police station at Naivasha killing two policemen and another group massacred 84 African civilians at Lari. The Land and Freedom Army had few firearms, fought mostly with spears and machetes, and its leaders lacked military experience.
Mexican War of Independence (1810–1821)
Authors: Archer Christon I.
Published: November 2011

The French invasion and occupation of metropolitan Spain (1808–1814) produced repercussions in New Spain (Mexico) that led to the overthrow of Viceroy José de Iturrigaray on September 16, 1808, and to plots and conspiracies that further destabilized the country. The old divisions between the haughty European‐born Spaniards (calledgachupines) and the much larger population of Mexican‐borncriollos(whites born in Mexico) became more contentious. Racially mixed sectors of mestizos, mulattoes, and othercastas(castes) and the Indigenous peoples hoped to improve their status. With King Fernando VII a prisoner of Napoleon in France, in 1810 the Supreme Council of the Regency, Spain's interim government, recognized the existence of a growing state of crisis in New Spain. After much discussion and debate, the Supreme Council ordered General Francisco Xavier de Venegas who had just arrived at Cartagena to serve as viceroy of New Granada (Colombia and Venezuela) instead to reembark immediately for Veracruz to serve as viceroy of New Spain. He arrived in Mexico City on September 13, 1810, just three days before Father Miguel Hidalgo, curate of the small town of Dolores near the city of Guanajuato, proclaimed the Grito de Dolores that began the Mexican War of Independence. During the first out break of violence, the insurgents massacred some Spaniards and joined Hidalgo on a march toward Mexico City. With some exceptions, the creole officers (mostly whites) and the racially mixed militiamen (creoles, mestizos, and mulattoes) of the provincial army of New Spain overcame their initial shock and largely maintained their loyalty to the existing government. One‐sided royalist army victories in the early battles of Monte de las Cruces, Aculco, Guanajuato, and Puente de Calderón underscored the superiority of good weaponry, military training, and disciplined fire power to overcome the poorly armed and inexperienced insurgent fighters.
Militia
Authors: Stentiford Barry M.
Published: November 2011

Militia consists of the collective manpower of a society with an obligation and ability to perform temporary military service. Until the modern era, few societies developed a militia system because the existence of militia inferred that commoners were participants in society rather than simply subjects of the government, and made government dependent on the loyalty and goodwill of the masses. Egypt during the Old Kingdom (2650–2150
BCE
) and Middle Kingdom (2130–1640
BCE
), Greece in the later Lyric Age (800–500
BCE
) and Classical Age (500–338
BCE
), and the Roman Republic until the Second Punic War (509–218
BCE
) depended largely on militia systems, although all eventually abandoned the institution as those societies expanded and grew more complex. Most societies have instead depended on longterm professional soldiers for maintaining internal order and fighting wars.
Mines (land and sea)
Authors: Estes Kenneth W.
Published: November 2011

Explosive devices and their placement on land and in the sea to destroy or disable persons, vehicles, ships, and other equipment, date from the mid‐nineteenth century. Apart from inflicting such damage, the emplacement of an array of mines, called a minefield, plays a tactical role in battle by denying an enemy use or access to a particular area, thus restricting the actions or routes that the enemy can use. Mine warfare thus describes the tactics, techniques, and procedures for using one's own mines and clearing enemy minefields as a component of military operations.
Mongol invasions of Russia
Authors: Lind John
Published: November 2011

Ever since the Scandinavians known as Rus' among Finnic, Baltic, and Slavic peoples in eastern Europe established themselves along the river system between the Baltic and Black Seas in the ninth century and subsequently created the Rus' polity, they had formed numerous links to nomadic peoples in the steppe region like the Pechenegs and Cumans (or Polovtsy), who traditionally crossed this river system south of Kiev. Therefore, they became familiar with and—to a certain extent—adopted their form of steppe warfare, which was dominated by swift‐moving mounted archers. Nevertheless, the first encounter with the Mongols or Tatars, as they are invariably called in Russian sources, came as a shock both to them and their neighbors on the steppe, and, as it turned out throughout the Mongol onslaught, it proved as difficult for the Russians as for the Mongols' other opponents to match the invaders, who thanks to strict chains of command and good communications were able to move their forces around quickly and surprise their enemies.
Muhammad Ali (Kavalah Mehmet Ali Pasa) (ca. 1769–1849)
Authors: Simpson George L.
Published: November 2011

Muhammad Ali (Kavalah Mehmet Ali Pasa) rose from humble origins to become the ruler of Egypt and to create a powerful state that twice defeated the Ottoman Empire in war before the European powers forced his submission. Although he was Albanian and never spoke Arabic, historians sometimes refer to him as the founder of modern Egypt. As a young man he found his fortune in the military after Sultan Mahmud II decided to expel the French from Egypt. Napoléon Bonaparte had captured the Ottoman province in 1798, and Muhammad Ali joined a combined AngloOttoman force that defeated Egypt's invaders.
Njinga Mbande, Queen of Ndongo and Matamba (ca. 1583–1663)
Authors: Stapleton Timothy J.
Published: November 2011

Late sixteenth‐ and seventeenth‐century Angola was a place of increasing warfare, slave trading, and proliferation of firearms. Njinga Mbande was the eldest daughter of King Mbande of Ndongo, a state organized by Mbundu people, who resisted Portuguese invasion in the last part of the 1500s. Based at their slaving port of Luanda on the coast, the Portuguese had invaded Ndongo in 1575 to gain greater control over the interior, though into the 1580s they were halted by tropical disease and African resistance. At the time her brother came to power in 1617, Ndongo was defeated by a Portuguese army employing Imbangala mercenaries. Taking an active role in the slave trade, a number of Imbangala raiding groups incorporated captive young men into their ranks and were greatly feared because of their physical agility in combat and reputation for ritual cannibalism and child‐killing. After a failed Portuguese campaign in 1622, Njinga was sent to Luanda to negotiate a settlement between Ndongo and Portugal. At this meeting Njinga famously refused to squat on the floor and instead sat on the back of a kneeling servant to be at eye level and hence on equal terms with the Portuguese governor, Joao Correira de Sousa, who had a chair. In order to solidify the peace treaty, she accepted Christianity and was baptized Ana de Sousa.
Nomadic warfare
Authors: May Timothy
Published: November 2011

From approximately 500BCEto 1500CE, pastoral nomads from the Eurasian steppes were perhaps the most dreaded warriors in the world. Consisting primarily of lightly armored horse archers, the nomads swooped down on villages and towns only to retreat with their plunder before a pursuit could be mounted. Against sedentary infantry armies, they avoided engaging with dense formations but showered them with arrows from a distance. Against heavy cavalry, the lightly armored archers shot at them and retreated before knights, cataphracts, or other heavy cavalry could engage them. These retreats often lured their opponents into ambushes, or simply left the heavy cavalry in broken formations and on exhausted horses, thus leaving them vulnerable to counterattacks. Not until the advent of easily mobile artillery were the nomads bested on a routine basis. Even then, it was not until 1757 that fears of nomads fully subsided from the minds of sedentary powers.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
Authors: Hallams Ellen
Published: November 2011

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military alliance, with its political headquarters in Brussels, Belgium, and its military headquarters, the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE), in Mons, Belgium. It is headed by a Secretary General, who is appointed by the member states. The Secretary General chairs NATO's principal decision‐making body, the North Atlantic Council (NAC), which consists of permanent representatives of each member state and meets once every week. It provides a political forum for member states to discuss security matters and also provides guidance to NATO's military authorities. The Military Committee (MC) is the principal military body in the alliance, providing military advice to the NAC and NATO's two military commands, Allied Command Operations (ACO) and Allied Command Transformation (ACT). ACO is located at SHAPE and is responsible for all of NATO's operations. It is commanded by the Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) and has two standing joint force commands, based in Brunssum, the Netherlands, and Naples, Italy, capable of deploying a land‐based Combined Joint Task Force (CJTF). It also has a standing joint force headquarters in Lisbon, Portugal, that can deploy a sea‐based CJTF. ACT is based in Norfolk, Virginia, and is responsible for the transformation of NATO's structures forces, capabilities, and doctrine. It is commanded by the Supreme Allied Commander Transformation (SACT) and is the only permanent NATO headquarters outside of Europe and the only NATO command located in North America.
Nuclear weapons
Authors: Munton Don
Published: November 2011

Weapons are the physical means with which humankind engages in collective violence, and thus have an intrinsic and intricate relationship with warfare. Weaponry has determined the nature of wars as well as their outcomes. Machine guns facilitated the sorry process of European colonization, but also turned World War I into a stalemate and the European countryside into killing fields. Tanks, aircraft, carriers, and submarines made most battles of World War II ones of mobility and maneuver, and greatly increased casualties.
Ottoman military organization (up to 1800)
Authors: áGoston GáBor
Published: November 2011

The Ottoman Turks, who emerged in western Asia Minor in the late thirteenth century, built one of the longest‐lived empires in history, a multi‐ethnic state that influenced the lives of millions in Europe and Asia for six centuries until the empire's demise in World War I. In addition to its pragmatic policies and flexible governance, the Ottoman military played a crucial role in the expansion of Ottoman realms. The Ottomans were among the first to create a standing military force, the Janissary corps, which was established as early as the late fourteenth century. Until the late seventeenth century, the army and logistical system proved superior to those of their European and Asian rivals. However, economic and social upheavals in the empire in the seventeenth century, together with the growing military threat of the Ottomans' foes, Austria and especially Russia from the mid‐eighteenth century onward, resulted in major changes in the Ottoman military forces and their financing.
Ottoman military organization (1800–1918)
Authors: Yildiz GüLtekin
Published: November 2011

The long nineteenth century was an age of reorganization for the Ottoman military. Many European and American observers at the time glorified this process as a reform that signified the “westernization” of the military. This attitude was reproduced in the twentieth century by scholars of Middle Eastern and Ottoman history in the context of “modernization.” In a rather Orientalist approach, they constructed a linear, progressive story about the so called modernization of Turkey, which seemed designed to justify the emergence of a secularist and westernist regime in postOttoman Turkey founded and monitored by praetorian generals. According to this version, lateOttoman history from the middle of the eighteenth century to the first quarter of the twentieth had represented a confrontation between the so‐called reformist/progressive statesmen in favor of westernization and their conservative/traditionalist opponents. It was argued that as a consequence of successive defeats against non‐Muslim/European forces the “progressive party” in the Ottoman bureaucracy had finally discovered Europe and came to believe that the state could be saved only if the Ottoman military was reorganized in the fashion of its non‐Muslim adversaries.
Patton, General George
S
. (1885–1945)
Authors: Wells Anne Sharp
Published: November 2011

George Smith Patton was one of the most colorful and well‐known US Army generals in World War II. A cavalryman throughout most of his career and an early advocate of tanks, Patton valued speed and mobility in his forces. The Germans respected his reputation as a fierce combat leader so highly that the Allies used him to mislead Germany about the Normandy invasion in 1944. Patton headed a task force in the first Anglo‐American ground offensive against the European Axis in North Africa (November 1942), rejuvenated a corps in Tunisia (March–April 1943), commanded an army in Sicily (1943), and led an army across northwestern Europe (1944–1945). Flamboyant and impulsive, he nearly derailed his own career several times.
Peace and Truce of God
Authors: Jones Robert
Published: November 2011

The Peace and Truce of God are terms used to describe a range of measures developed by church authorities in France between the tenth and thirteenth centuries, the aim of which was to protect the church and the defenseless (or
inermes
), and limit feud and private war. The movements directly involved the church in the conduct of war and were influential in the development of concepts of chivalric behavior and the laws governing war in western Europe.
Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE)
Authors: Hyland John
Published: November 2011

The Peloponnesian War was the longest and most destructive conflict in classical Greek history, involving most major cities of the Greek Mediterranean and drawing in neighbors such as Achaemenid Persia. The principal combatants were Athens and Sparta, each at the head of a network of allies. Athens' alliance, often referred to as the Athenian Empire due to its autocratic leadership and extraction of compulsory tribute from members, included most of the Aegean islands and the Greek cities along the coasts of Asia Minor. The Spartan alliance, sometimes known by the modern term the Peloponnesian League, was a looser association between cities of the southern Greek landmass known as the Peloponnese, subject to Spartan political influence, and more distant and autonomous allies such as Thebes in central Greece and Syracuse in Sicily. Thucydides, an Athenian general banished for military failure, wrote the definitive history of the war, which unfortunately ends in an incomplete state while reporting the events of 411. A younger Athenian contemporary, Xenophon, completed the history of the war in his Hellenika. Historians consider the war's most important result the end of Athens' “Golden Age” and the downfall of its efforts at imperial dominance of the Greek world, but it did not transfer long‐term hegemony to the Spartan victors, instead ushering in a period of continued political competition and anarchy in the fourth centuryBCE.
Perry, Commodore Oliver Hazard (1785–1819)
Authors: McLAY K. A. J.
Published: November 2011

Oliver Hazard Perry was born into a naval family on August 23, 1785 at South Kingston, Rhode Island. His father was Captain Christopher Perry, a militiaman and latterly a privateer during the American War of Independence (1775–1783), who, in 1799, was appointed captain and commander of the USS General Greene, a vessel which he had helped build and in which he served until retirement in 1801. Following a childhood education at Newport, it was perhaps unsurprising therefore that Oliver Perry would, like his four brothers, seek service in the United States navy and, although cut tragically short by an early death at the age of 34, his career in many ways set a benchmark for resoluteness and resourcefulness among the officer corps of the young US navy.
Pershing, General John J. (1860–1948)
Authors: Woodward David R.
Published: November 2011

John J. Pershing commanded the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) in World War I. He had the distinction of being the only World War I commander in chief to retain his command for the duration of his country's participation in the war. He was the first born of Elizabeth Thompson and John Fletcher Pershing (the great‐grandson of an Alsatian named Frederick Pfoershing who had immigrated to the United States in 1749 as an indentured servant). Born in Laclede, Missouri, on January 13, 1860, he attended West Point (1882–1886). Having earlier taught at a country school, he was older and more mature than most of his fellow cadets. Although not an outstanding student he was chosen president of his class for his leadership qualities. A decorated soldier, his experiences included active service against the Apaches and Sioux in the desert southwest, fighting at San Juan Hill in the Spanish–American War, and a tour of duty in the Philippines against the rebellious Moros. He also taught as an assistant instructor in tactics at West Point, where some cadets considered him a martinet and gave him the nickname “Black Jack,” a derogatory reference to his having once commanded African‐American troopers on the frontier. Prior to America's entry into the war, he led the Punitive Expedition, the US Army's last cavalry campaign, into northern Mexico in an unsuccessful attempt to capture the Mexican leader Francisco (Pancho) Villa.
Pétain, Marshal Philippe (1856–1951)
Authors: Gallaher John G.
Published: November 2011

Henri Philippe Pétain was born on April 24, 1856 at Cauchy‐à‐la‐Tour in the department of Pas‐de‐Calais. His parents were of peasant stock of moderate means and tied to the land. Through family connections he attended first the Catholic College of SaintBertin in Saint‐Omer, then the College of Albert‐le‐Grand in Arcueil, and finally the prestigious military academy of Saint‐Cyr. Emerging as a second lieutenant in 1878, he began life as a soldier. Promotions were slow in the peace‐time army, but he rose to be a colonel by the beginning of World War I. His pre‐war years were uneventful and without particular distinction. He was preparing to retire with the rank of colonel when World War I changed everything, leading to the rank of general, the title of marshal of France, and eventually to the political head of the country.
Philippi, Battle of (42 BCE)
Authors: Dart Christopher J.
Published: November 2011

Two battles were fought in October of 42
BCE
between the armies of the triumvirs Octavian and Antony and those of the conspirators Brutus and Cassius near the city of Philippi in eastern Macedonia. The two most detailed ancient accounts of these battles and associated military actions are provided by the histories of Appian and Cassius Dio. Despite Octavian's nominal presence at Philippi it is clear that Antony was the general who was principally responsible for the defeat of Caesar's murderers.
Pisan, Christinede(1363–ca. 1434)
Authors: Icholson Helen J.N
Published: November 2011

Born in Venice in 1363, Christine de Pisan (or de Pizan) became the first known professional woman writer in Europe. Although she drew on classical writings about warfare, she also consulted contemporary military leaders for their advice, and her work reflects contemporary practice at a period when gunpowder artillery was growing in importance.
Punitive Expeditions
Authors: Pizzo David
Published: November 2011

“Punitive expedition” refers to a military operation undertaken to “punish” an enemy, usually for some sort of perceived insult to the honor or reputation of an imperial power. The term was used generally in connection with territories that were already colonies or would soon become colonies. The practice itself is quite old, as there are numerous instances of punitive expeditions launched by the Assyrians, the Roman Empire, and the Mongols. The Romans waged frequent punitive expeditions in response to perceived attacks on or threats to their power. Julius Caesar launched several punitive expeditions during his time in Gaul, one against the Armorica and the Veneti in 56
BCE
, one against the Suebi in 55
BCE
, and one across the English Channel in 55
BCE
. Many of the operations that followed the First Jewish War (66–73
CE
) could also be considered punitive expeditions. An example from the history of Mongol expansion would be their assault on the sultanate of Kwarizm in central Asia in 1219. In that case, a Mongol caravan which had successfully negotiated a treaty with the sultan was attacked on its way back to Mongolia by the local governor. Jack Weatherford quotes a Persian observer, Juvaini, in stating that the attack not only wiped out a Mongol caravan, but it “laid waste a whole world” (2004: 106). Genghis Khan's response was the complete conquest of Kwarizm and the utter annihilation of its forces.
Red Cross
Authors: Bugnion François
Published: November 2011

The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, the largest humanitarian network in the world, has been providing assistance to victims of armed conflicts and of natural or technological disasters for 140 years.
Reparations
Authors: Neff Stephen C.
Published: November 2011

In international law, the term reparation refers to the duty of a wrongdoer to repair any damage that occurred as a result of that wrongdoing. This is a duty that arises automatically, by operation of law, without need for a judgment by a court or arbitral panel. This general duty of reparation requires, first and foremost, restitution, meaning the restoration of the situation that existed prior to the violation of law. If restitution is not possible (e.g., if the violation of law resulted in the deaths of persons), then the duty of reparation consists of an obligation to pay money damages as compensation. If this is not appropriate (e.g., if no material injury occurred), then reparation can take the form of satisfaction, such as a formal apology, perhaps accompanied by a commitment to refrain from future violations. This general duty of reparation is regarded as compensatory in character, and not as punitive.
Rhys ap Gruffudd (1132–1197)
Authors: Richard Marsden Gideon Brough
Published: November 2011

Rhys ap Gruffudd, also known as the Lord Rhys, was a Welsh king and warrior of exceptional abilities. During his reign (1155–1197) he reversed decades of Norman dominance and restored the kingdom of Deheubarth to native rule. This feat was unrivaled in northwestern Europe and made him the most powerful man in Wales. Although also remembered as a patron of culture and a shrewd diplomat, his career was primarily that of a successful soldier.
Richard I, King (of England) (1157–1199)
Authors: Hosler John D.
Published: November 2011

Richard I “the Lionheart” (Coeur de Lion) was a renowned warrior king of England whose legacy has endured over the centuries since his ten‐year reign. The second Angevin king of England, successor to Henry II and predecessor of King John, Richard spent less than two years of his reign in the Isles, distinguishing himself instead in a series of campaigns on the Continent and the eastern Mediterranean. Generous and merciful but proud and wrathful: such characteristics place Richard firmly in the tradition of his powerful and militaristic family.
R
oosevelt,
F
ranklin D. (1882–1945)
Authors: Wells Anne Sharp
Published: November 2011

Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the longestserving president of the United States, was inaugurated in March 1933 and died in office in April 1945. He devoted the first half of his presidency to domestic reforms intended to end the Great Depression and alleviate the suffering it had caused. By 1939 foreign events consumed his attention, as he led the United States from isolationism to full involvement in a global war. At the time of his death, the Allied coalition he had championed was positioned to win that war and create the post‐war organization he had envisioned to settle disputes between nations peacefully. A master politician and a skilled communicator, Roosevelt generated controversy and debate in both peace and war.
Russo‐Polish War (1919–1920)
Authors: Stone David R.
Published: November 2011

The Russo‐Polish War was unleashed by the end of World War I for control of the east European borderlands between Polish and Soviet territory. The war grew out of the collapse of the three empires of eastern Europe at the end of World War I: Russia in 1917, then Germany and Austria–Hungary in 1918. The resulting power vacuum created an opportunity for smaller nations of eastern Europe to create independent states. The new Polish republic emerged from territories and populations previously part of all three empires, with an army cobbled together from multiple sources, including Polish formations of the now‐defunct empires, under the leadership of former socialist, now Polish nationalist, Józef Klemens Písudski (1867–1935). In Russia, the Bolshevik Party under Lenin seized power in late 1917 and then fought a civil war to establish its own authority over what had been the Russian Empire.
Santa Anna, Antonio López de (1794–1876)
Authors: Santoni Pedro
Published: November 2011

Born to a relatively prosperous creole family in Jalapa, Veracruz, Antonio López de Santa Anna became one of early republican Mexico's preeminent figures. While many still regard him as a power‐hungry, opportunistic, and corrupt politician who was responsible for most troubles that befell the nation, recent research asserts that his selfassumed role as an arbitrator who stood above partisan interests, wholly devoted to the national welfare, partly explains his authority and appeal. Santa Anna also held center stage in the civil wars and foreign conflicts that ravaged Mexico at this time. He proved to be both a brave and charismatic commander capable of raising an army from scratch, as well as a chieftain whose battlefield blunders illustrated his limitations as a practitioner of the art of war.
Selim II (1524–1574)
Authors: Baumgartner Frederic J.
Published: November 2011

Eleventh sultan of the Ottomans. Born on May 28, 1524, he was the son of Suleiman I (“the Magnificent”) (r. 1520–1566) and Hürrem Sultan, popularly known as Roxelana. She was a Ukrainian who had been enslaved and wound up in Suleiman's harem. She soon became his favorite and was freed in order to become his legal wife. Roxelana convinced Suleiman that Mustafa, a son from his first legal wife, was plotting to seize the throne, and he ordered Mustafa strangled in 1552. Selim and his brother Bayezid now competed for the right of succession, which he won by defeating Bayezid in the Battle of Konya in 1559, Selim's only command in battle. When Suleiman died while campaigning in Hungary in September 1566, Selim took power unopposed. He had little interest in directing the government and kept Suleiman's officials, including the grand vizier, Mehemed Pasha Sokullu. He also kept on Mimar Sinan, his father's chief architect, whom he commissioned to build the Selimiye Mosque in Edime, Turkey, one of the greatest achievements of Islamic architecture.
Solferino, Battle of (1859)
Authors: Bugnion FrancçOis
Published: November 2011

The Battle of Solferino (June 24, 1859) was the decisive event in Italy's struggle for independence and unification. It also led to the creation of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent movement and was the origin of modern international humanitarian law.
Soviet war in Afghanistan (1979–1992)
Authors: Kalinovsky Artemy
Published: November 2011

The Soviet–Afghan war was one of the bloodiest episodes of the Cold War. In 1979, fearing that the radical Marxist regime of Hafizullah Amin would destabilize the country to the point where it might prove tempting for the United States to infiltrate, Soviet troops entered the country to install a more moderate leader, Babrak Karmal, and to support the Afghan military in its fight against a growing insurgency. The result was a ten‐year war that cost the lives of over 14,000 Soviet soldiers and anywhere between 800,000 and 1.2 million Afghans, a refugee crisis, enormous economic damage, and the long‐term political instability of Afghanistan itself.
Spanish Armada (1588)
Authors: Tenace Edward
Published: November 2011

The decision of Philip II to send the Spanish Armada had been long in coming. For decades England and Spain had engaged in hostile actions against each other. Religious differences fostered a climate of hostility and paranoia about the other. Philip II, who was once king‐consort of England, saw himself as the protector of English Catholics, and had long sought the restoration of Catholicism on the island. Many of Queen Elizabeth's advisors were imbued with the notion of a Catholic “world conspiracy” led by none other than Philip himself. However, religious differences were not strong enough to erode the traditional policy of amity and cooperation between the two kingdoms. By the 1580s, however, growing English attacks on the high seas and Spanish outposts in the New World could no longer be ignored, leading the Spanish monarch to retaliate with embargoes and impressments of English shipping and sailors. These measures, coupled with the growing English interference in the Netherlands, helped to magnify long‐standing religious tensions, especially after Queen Elizabeth signed the Treaty of Nonsuch with the Dutch rebels. By this England pledged to provide over six thousand troops and to pay a quarter of the costs of the war against Spain. In return, the Dutch relinquished the ports of Flushing, Brill, and Ostend as sureties for the repayment of the queen's expenses. Yet it was the attacks of Francis Drake on Vigo and Bayona in October 1585 that finally pushed Philip II to retaliate. He came to the realization that the only way to defend his global empire was to attack the problem at its source. By early 1586 planning for an invasion of England had begun.
Stalin, Joseph (1878–1953)
Authors: Kangas Roger
Published: November 2011

A central figure in the history of the Soviet Union, Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili—known better as Joseph Stalin—was integral to that country's military history and the overall development of the Red Army. Such influences were both positive and negative, for many of his actions adversely affected the fighting capabilities and preparedness of the Soviet forces. Yet, at the same time, his obsession with certain technologies ensured that the Soviet Union became a nuclear power by the time of his death in 1953.
State of war
Authors: Neff Stephen C.
Published: November 2011

In its most succinct form, a state of war may be defined as a situation in which it is lawful for two states to employ armed force against one another. As a result, such acts as the launching of armed attacks, the taking of prisoners, and the occupation of territory become lawful acts, which they would not be in time of peace. Central to the concept of a state of war is that the contending parties have equal and reciprocal rights to engage in these actions.
Stern Gang (Lohamei Herut Yisrael, LEHI)
Authors: Green Dominic
Published: November 2011

Formed in 1940 after splitting from the Irgun Zevai Leumi, the Lohamei Herut Yisrael (LEHI; Israel Freedom Fighters) was a right‐wing Zionist paramilitary organization active in British‐controlled Palestine between 1940 and 1948. Known pejoratively to the British as the “Stern Gang,” it was often called the “Stern Group,” after its founder, Polish‐born Avraham “Yair” Stern (1907–1942).
Stuart, Charles Edward (“Bonnie Prince Charlie”) (1720–1788)
Authors: Marsden Richard
Published: November 2011

Charles Edward Stuart, also known as “Bonnie Prince Charlie” and “the Young Pretender,” was the grandson of James II, who had been deposed in the “Glorious Revolution” of 1688. Through the 1740s and 1750s, Charles was the focal point of Jacobite attempts to return the Stuart dynasty to the British throne. It was in this capacity that he led a daring insurrection that took him from Scotland into northern England in 1745–1746 before it was finally defeated.
Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864)
Authors: Reist Katherine
Published: November 2011

The Taiping Rebellion began in the Canton delta region of China and spread from there through sixteen (of eighteen) provinces. Problems leading to the rebellion involved demographic and economic pressures, including a rapid and dramatic growth in population, with neither the opening of new land for agriculture nor the industrialization of the economy relieving pressure on the land. In addition high rates of unemployment, the pressures of tenant farming, and the prevalence of banditry increased social and economic tensions. The effects of the First Opium War increased the socioeconomic dislocation as much of the western trade moved to the newly opened ports.
Timur (“the Lame”) (1336–1405)
Authors: May Timothy
Published: November 2011

Timur, often referred to as Tamerlane, attempted to resurrect the Mongol Empire in the late fourteenth century. His career is remarkable in that he almost accomplished this, since he conquered an empire stretching from the Syr Darya to the Mediterranean while defeating the major powers of his day: the Mamluks, Ottomans, the Sultanate of Delhi, and the Golden Horde. Most impressively, he achieved this despite an arrow wound early in his career that made him lame on the right side of his body, thus earning him the sobriquet from his detractors Timur‐i Leng (Timur the Lame or Tamerlane as it evolved in the English language).
Tirpitz, Admiral Alfred von (1849–1930)
Authors: Seligmann Matthew S.
Published: November 2011

Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz was a distinguished German naval officer. His early career was as a torpedo specialist, in which capacity he served in both the torpedo research establishment and the torpedo boat service. This was followed by the command of several major warships, after which he was appointed to a succession of ever more important executive positions. He was progressively Chief of Staff of the Baltic Naval Station, Chief of Staff of the High Command, Commander of the East Asian Cruiser Squadron, and ultimately secretary of state at the Imperial Naval Office. He held this post for nearly 19 years, during which time he presided over a massive expansion of the German fleet. For this reason, Tirpitz has frequently been hailed as “the architect” of the German High Seas Fleet, even of modern German naval power. It is often the case that such eulogistic epithets prove upon closer inspection to be gross hyperboles, if not actually distortions. However, in Tirpitz's case such designations are entirely justified, although one might add the important rider that, as well as being the creator of the modern German navy, Tirpitz was also the man who did most to ensure its ultimate failure when the test of war came in 1914.
Total war
Authors: David Silbey
Published: November 2011

In total war, combatants mobilize the entirety of their society's resources in order to wage the conflict. Civilians, as part of that effort, are considered legitimate targets. The war finishes with unconditional surrender and the utter capitulation of one side. So is total war usually defined. This definition contrasts with the idea of limited war, in which the war‐fighting abilities of the combatants are constrained by external, usually non‐military, factors.