bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sketches toward a Political Economy of Drink and Drinking Problems: The Case of 18th and 19th Century
Authors: Park Peter
Published: November 2015

The level of alcohol consumption has important relationships to the prevalence of drinking related problems in an epidemiological sense. And it is in turn influenced to a large extent by material conditions created by social and economic forces. Historically, in England, the surplus grain produced during the transitional period from feudalism to capitalism was converted into distilled spirits and served as a major source of primitive capital accumulation. And commercial brewing was one of the first manufacturing enterprises to organize itself along the capitalist principles of production. These economic processes resulted in abundant supplies of alcohol which were literally forced upon the newly created masses of workers. This is how heavy drinking and drunkenness, which had been more common among the upper class, spread to the working class with the advent of capitalism.
Prohibition, Racism and Class Politics in the Post-Reconstruction South
Authors: Herd Denise A.
Published: November 2015

The virulent racism associated with the southern prohibition movement in the late 19th and early 20th century is practially invisible in literature on the history of alcohol reform movements. This paper explores the rise of racist ideology in the anti-liquor movement and its particular relationship to political factionalism and class conflict in the Post-Reconstruction South. The analysis suggests that the strong role of the anti-liquor movements in campaigns for black disfranchisement and Jim Crow legislation was tied into broader struggles for economic control and political power in an era of socio-economic crisis. In the wake of a prolonged period of radical reform and labor protests, the prohibition movement played an increasingly important role in the political and economic repression of both blacks and lower class whites.
The Committee of Fifty and the Origins of Alcohol Control
Authors: Levine Harry Gene
Published: November 2015

This paper examines the ideas and policy recommendations of an early 20th century, upper-class research organization called the Committee of Fifty. The paper discusses the Committee of Fifty's ideas about Prohibition (which it opposed), about the working class (which it sought to control), about social order (which was its primary concern), and about U.S. alcohol control policy (which it was the first to systematically outline).
The Foreign Politics of Cocaine: Comments on a Plan to Eradicate the Coca Leaf in Peru
Authors: Strug David L.
Published: November 2015

The United States government proposes the eradication of the coca leaf in Peru to combat narcotics trafficking and cocaine use in the U.S. This proposal is discussed not only in terms of its officially stated goals, but also in terms of other factors which motivate its implementation. The proposal is likely to be accepted by Peru despite the fact that it contains a number of political disincentives to the Peruvian government. The proposal, if implemented, is likely to face difficulties, but will silence Congressional criticism that narcotics agencies have been ineffectual in stopping trafficking.
Business as Usual: Heroin Distribution in the United States
Authors: McBride Robert B.
Published: November 2015

This article criticizes the predominant analysis of heroin use as a social aberration and argues instead that the normal structure and functioning of U.S. capitalism generate both the market for the drug and the industry which supplies it. The structure of the distribution industry is much like those for comparable legal goods, but with distinctive features which provide reduced risk for dealers and long term stability for the industry as a whole. The expansionary dynamic of the industry and the key role of syndicates in it are analyzed. The heroin industry is deeply integrated into the economy, and far-reaching social and economic change will be necessary if heroin use is to be significantly reduced.
On the Special Characteristics of Drugs and Drug Markets
Authors: Koskikallio Ilpo
Published: November 2015

The extraordinary character of the drug industry and drug markets arises from the fact that research-intensive exchange-values are combined with exceptional use-values. The special form of circulation of drugs can be viewed as the outcome of this special “value-character.” The roots of the peculiarities of drugs and drug history are in the exceptional use-values of drugs. They are partly explained by the special position which health and illness occupy in the hierarchy of human needs and partly by the logic of developed capitalism which has generated new use-values for the drugs. The purpose of this article is to examine the origin and development of these questions and the implications which these peculiarities have for modern drug policy.
Drifting, Controlling and Overcoming: Opiate Users Who Avoid Becoming Chronically Dependent
Authors: Blackwell Judith Stephenson
Published: November 2015

Despite extensive experience with opiates, not all users become dependent. This study of 51 users (12 females, 39 males) attempts to identify the kinds of controls they employed over their consumption. One third of the sample had been in a state of “drift” and had not found regulation to be necessary. A second group had developed rules to govern their consumption and to prevent loss of control. Just over one-quarter of the sample (14 respondents) had experienced episodes of dependence; the ways by which these episodes were overcome are described. A natural history model of opiate use has been developed from the use patterns and control styles found in the sample.

By accident, I met a college acquaintance, who recommended opium. Opium! dread agent of unimaginable pleasure and pain! I had heard of it as I heard of manna or of ambrosia, but no further. How unmeaning a sound was opium at that time! What solemn chords does it now strike upon my heart! what heart-quaking vibrations of sad and happy remembrances! Reverting for a moment to these, I feel a mystic importance attached to minutest circumstances connected with the place, and the time, and the man (if man it was), that first laid open to me the paradise of opium-eaters. (De Quincey, 1822; 1966:197–198)
The Retirement Phase of Heroin Using Careers
Authors: Jorquez James S.
Published: November 2015

This is a report of a study examining how a sample of 29 former heroin addicts of diverse types and backgrounds terminated their addictions and established abstinences of two years or more. Through the content analyses of life-history interview data, the study found that the crucial turning point in heroin using careers was often associated with a profoundly moving cognitive/emotional existential experience (naked lunch) which invariably occured during crisis episodes of the heroin using career. This experience was often reported by the respondents as having triggered subtle to dramatic behavioral and personality changes which were conducive to terminating the use of heroin. The study also revealed that the process of making and maintaining long-term abstinence can be conceptualized as consisting of two complementary and essentially concurrent social adjustment sub-processes which are termed the extrication and accommodation processes. The data revealed that most of the respondents, early in their efforts to abstain, had to devote considerable but steadily decreasing energies in the social adjustment work of extricating themselves from ties and dependencies in the heroin world. Conversely, it was found that later in the abstention process, the social adjustment work increasingly was devoted to making an accommodation to living among squares. Furthermore, it was found that the quality of lifestyle adopted by respondents was dependent on the degree and stage of development of extrication and accommodation. Interestingly in this context, the study found that the cessation of heroin use did not necessarily imply complete breaks with the heroin world, the cessation of criminality, or the cessation of other forms of drug use.
Social Learning and Teenage Alcohol Use: Interpersonal and Observational Influences within the Sociocultural Environment
Authors: Strickland Donald E. , Pittman David J.
Published: November 2015

In this paper an attempt is made to integrate two frames of reference for the analytic understanding of alcohol use among teenagers: social learning through peer influence and learning through media exposure. Social learning principles as they have been applied to alcohol use among adolescents are reviewed, followed by a review of perspectives on the socialization of adolescents as consumers. It is clear that both sets of factors impinge upon adolescent drinking, and the integration of these two theoretical and research traditions reveals linkages for future research analysis that set the stage for a considerably more comprehensive sociopsychological explanation of adolescent drinking behavior.
Reinforcing Networks: The Medical, Pharmaceutical, Mass Media and Paraphernalia Establishments
Authors: Wolcott Deane L. , Fawzy Fawzy I. , Coombs Robert H.
Published: November 2015

Large scale shifts in psychoactive drug use have occurred in the US in the past several decades. While cigarette use declined briefly in response to the Surgeon General's Report and anti-smoking TV commercials, use of alcoholic beverages per capita has increased in the US in the past fifty years. Over $300 million was spent in 1974 for advertising of alcoholic beverages, although the effect of such advertising on demand for alcohol is unclear. Use of alcohol in T.V. and film production is very frequent, often in a glamorized fashion. The pharmaceutical industry has a large investment in promoting prescribing of psychoactive medications, with 1982 retail sales of $16 billion and advertising and promotion at a cost of $2 billion in 1982. Medical journals are heavily dependent on advertising revenues from the pharmaceutical industry. The drug paraphernalia industry is very large, with estimates of its income being in the multi-million dollar range, but being difficult to detail in exact figures. Overall, the patterns of psychoactive drug use in the US are linked to a complex array of cultural factors, mass media factors, pharmaceutical advertising factors, and physician prescribing behaviors.
Alcohol and Drug Abuse Prevention: Implications for Delinquency Prevention
Authors: Weisheit Ralph A.
Published: November 2015

Despite its intuitive appeal, the primary prevention of delinquency has received scant attention by theoreticians and program developers. Such programs raise ethical questions, are likely to face considerable public resistance, are expensive to develop and implement, and are likely to show measurable impact only after several years. It is suggested that existing drug and alcohol education programs have successfully dealt with many of these problems. Although not specifically aimed at delinquency prevention, the content of contemporary drug and alcohol education programs is relevant to delinquent behavior. By examining the operation of these programs, much can be learned that is directly applicable to the development of programs for the primary prevention of delinquency.
Alcohol Abuse and the Black Community: A Contemporary Analysis
Authors: Harvey William B.
Published: November 2015

Social problems that impact negatively and disproportionately on black Americans include crime, substandard housing, nutrition and medical care. But, as serious and complex as these matters are, alcohol abuse is considered by some researchers to be the number one mental health problem affecting black Americans. From a cultural standpoint, frustration, alcohol availability, and a tolerance toward alcohol consumption contribute to alcohol abuse among blacks. However, racism and the accompanying effects of poverty, ghettoization, unemployment and underemployment must also be recognized as significant contributory factors to alcohol abuse, particularly in black communities located in urban areas. The thrust of current social thought and resultant treatment approaches appears to support the provision of indigenous and culturally sensitive methods as means of combatting the problem.
A Chemistry for World Peace
Authors: McGlothlin William H.
Published: November 2015

This paper presents an argument for research into the means of altering individual attitudes, values, and communication abilities in the direction of increased social empathy, which, in turn, would produce a more favorable environment for resolving differences and facilitate peaceful negotiations between individuals and nations. It is proposed that prior research with the drug, d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), shows sufficient promise in producing relatively long-lasting changes in the above areas to merit further research. Furthermore, the use of LSD has been demonstrated to be quite safe under supervisory conditions, i.e., the guided “trip.” LSD is also nontoxic and non-addictive.

A brief history of psychedelic drugs is provided along with a description of their psychological effects. Some possible modes of action are discussed. LSD and other psychedelics are seen as possible means of tapping mental resources which are not ordinarily available, but which may be of great value to the individual and ultimately to the society.

No attempt is made in this paper to discuss how the use of a drug such as LSD might be implemented in international peace negotiations. It is contended, however, that results of previous experiments demonstrate increased tolerance for opposing viewpoints, increased understanding, and increased social empathy. It would be very important, based on the above findings, to explore the potential psychedelic drugs may have in reducing the threat of nuclear war.
Critical Issues in Family Research in Drug Abuse
Authors: Kaufman Edward
Published: November 2015

Family research in substance abuse has expanded rapidly over the past decade. This research has progressed from subjective to objective studies of families of substance abusers as well as to more quantitative assessments of the efficacy of family therapy. This work is reviewed and suggestions are made for future directions in relevant aspects of the family and substance abuse.
The Use of Volunteer Sponsors in the Rehabilitation of Skid-Row Alcoholics
Authors: Fagan Ronald W.
Published: November 2015

The study analyzes a rehabilitation program for skid-row alcoholics that utilizes lay volunteers as an integral component in the rehabilitation, reentry, process. Primary data were responses to a questionnaire by 15 of the 22 sponsor households (68%). The sponsor groups consist of two to six individuals recruited from local churches. We found that while the sponsors are significant in the recovery process, the middle-class values and life-style of the sponsors sometimes conflicts with the lower-class values of the clients. Sponsors are most effective when their primary role is friendship rather than the major responsibility for the recovery process. Primary motivation and reward for volunteering is helping others, with knowledge about alcoholism a significant factor. Sponsors felt they are significant in their client's recovery; sponsor-client contacts need to be made early in the rehabilitation process and much assistance is needed in the initial stages.
Criminology and Economics of Drug Distribution in Britain: Options for Control
Authors: Dorn Nicholas , South Nigel
Published: November 2015

In this paper focus is upon the criminology and economics of drug control in Britain and criticizes the prevalent and dominating concepts of “supply” and “demand” that underlie current drug control theory and policies.

An alternative perspective is proposed that rests upon appreciation of the importance of the drug distribution system (between supply and demand) as a part of the irregular economy and as the primary motor behind recent expansions in heroin use in Britain. The possibilities are discussed for intervention in the irregular economy, viewed within the context of recent trends in thinking about crime prevention and family responses.
Meta-Analysis of 143 Adolescent Drug Prevention Programs: Quantitative Outcome Results of Program Participants Compared to a Control or Comparison Group
Authors: Tobler Nancy S.
Published: November 2015

Presented is a meta-analysis of the outcome results for 143 adolescent drug prevention programs to identify the most effective program modalities for reducing teenage drug use. Glass' et al. (1981) meta-analysis techniques provided a systematic approach for the accumulation, quantification and integration of the numerous research findings. Five major modalities were identified and their effect sizes computed for five distinctly different outcomes: Knowledge, Attitudes, Use, Skills and Behavior measures. The magnitude of the effect size was found dependent on the outcome measure employed and the rigor of the experimental design. These factors were controlled for through use of a standard regression analysis. Peer Programs were found to show a definite superiority for the magnitude of the effect size obtained on all outcome measures. On the ultimate criteria of drug use, Peer Programs were significantly different than the combined results of all the remaining programs (p < .0005). Peer Programs maintained high effect size for alcohol, soft drugs and hard drugs, as well as for cigarette use. Recommendations are made concerning the effectiveness of the underlying theoretical assumption for the different program modalities. Future programming implications are discussed as Peer Programs were identified as effective for the average school-based adolescent population, but the Alternatives programs were shown to be highly successful for the “at risk” adolescents such as drug abusers, juvenile delinquents or students having school problems.
Methadone Diversion: A New Look
Authors: Spunt Barry , Hunt Dana E. , Lipton Douglas S. , Goldsmith Douglas S.
Published: November 2015

This paper examines the nature and extent of methadone diversion, drawing on interviews and ethnographic data collection with methadone maintenance clients and current narcotics users not in treatment. We explore the social as well as the economic role of diversion in the drug world and find that it is a more complex phenomenon than the simple monetary transaction it is often portrayed to be. Our data indicate that selling or sharing of methadone by methadone clients, though still uncommon, is the primary source of street methadone. We find that removal of take-home dosages from the client population would have deleterious effects on retaining in treatment many otherwise compliant clients and would have minimal effect on diversion. A flexible and differentiated approach might help to reduce diversion while a singular, punitive administrative approach is unlikely to do more than simply contain the situation on the surface and drive it underground.
Assessing the Acceptance of the Disease Concept of Alcoholism among Eap Practitioners
Authors: Bennett Nathan , Kelley Linda S.
Published: November 2015

In the past 20 years special interest groups have increased efforts to de-stigmatize alcoholism through improving the image of the alcoholic and medicalizing alcoholism. Among specific initiatives is the effort to implement work-based employee assistance programs (EAPs) to identify alcoholic employees through job performance decrements and guide them to appropriate treatment resources. In this analysis, two issues are examined. First, we measure the degree to which the disease model of alcoholism is accepted among those working with alcoholics in job-based programs, those variously charged with administering EAPs. Second, we measure attitudes toward the employment of recovering alcoholics in the EAP field. Results indicate that recovery from alcoholism, the role of “co-alcoholic,” and the occupational setting of the EAP administrator each affect the attitudes regarding the disease concept of alcoholism and the appropriateness of recovering alcoholics working in the EAP field.
Alcoholism and Native American Youth: An Overview
Authors: Watts Thomas D. , Lewis Ronald G.
Published: November 2015

This article examines alcohol and native American youth in an historical perspective, and in a present day context. The paper is divided as follows: “Introduction,” “The Period Before 1832,” “Indian Prohibition 1832–1953,” “1953-Present,” and “What Next?” It is a complex problem, involving cultural, environmental, economic, and many other elements all best understood in historical context. A native American “community” is difficult to maintain alongside the “corporatization” of tribes and the infusion of government monies and programs. Dynamic local community involvement is called for here, as well as a “small is beautiful” theme for both economic and social policies pertaining to native Americans. This addresses the problem at the local or community level, encouraging mediating structures for a total effort on local community ground.
Drug Based Religions and Contemporary Drug Taking
Authors: Lyttle Thomas
Published: November 2015

Contemporary drug taking and giving among the general populace are multi-level phenomena involving highly vicarious origins, needs and/or other supporting social, psychological or spiritual functions.

Within this, a specific subgroup has emerged promoting a variety of (drug-based) religions, spiritual doctrines or ethical systems.

Dividing such drug-based organizations into two categories of moral/ethical posture—the situational and the iconic/deterministic—a review of each catechism, ethical base and (when applicable) ritual practice is reviewed and annotated.
A Social History of Drug Use in the Netherlands: Policy Outcomes and Implications
Authors: van de Wijngaart Govert F.
Published: November 2015

The Netherlands, a prosperous country with many ports, is an inviting place for trading and transporting illegal psychotropic substances. Moreover, because of the liberal climate, the country has a long tradition as a place where people like to reside. This article describes developments in the Netherlands with a focus on those issues that can be described as “typically Dutch”: the social welfare and health care systems, the history of drug use, the divergent Opium Act, the provision of methadone, and the governmental policy on aid and prevention. The author concludes that the Dutch have ceased to look for the “one and only” solution, but are learning how to cope with new developments by means of “normalization.”
The Prospects and Limitations of Compulsory Treatment for Drug Addiction
Authors: Platt Jerome J. , Buhringer Gerhard , Kaplan Charles D. , Brown Barry S. , Taube Daniel O.
Published: November 2015

During the 1980s, social scientists and policy makers have been examining the different kinds of pressures that affect the behavior of drug addicts, and have been discussing how these pressures may be better managed to get addicts into treatment, to change their drug-related behaviors during treatment, and to maintain these changes following treatment. This article reviews the pressures inherent in the legal, social, and treatment systems of the United States of America and the Federal Republic of Germany, and discusses the utility of combining elements of the legal and treatment systems. The article presents six propositions summarizing the conclusions reached at a conference regarding the assessment and use of pressures in addiction treatment. The article also presents the final recommendations that were made. It was concluded that the present lack of knowledge about the effectiveness of compulsory treatment raises ethical, as well as practical questions. Although compulsory treatment is a tempting solution to the drug addiction problem, a complete social policy analysis of the use of coercive pressure must be undertaken before acceptance would be appropriate. Compulsory treatment must be judged not in terms of moralistic ideas or political expediency, but in terms of the entire range of treatment policy options.
Some Policy Implications of the New York State Civil Commitment Program
Authors: Winick Charles
Published: November 2015

Some lessons can be learned from an analysis of the experience of New York State's civil commitment program, which was operating from 1966 through 1979, and was the largest and most expensive in the country. Judges need to be carefully selected and trained and assigned to relevant cases: staff must be selected in terms of specific criteria and trained and supervised, clients have to be assigned to particular facilities in accordance with their needs; referral procedures ought to be established in advance of operations; the civil commitment must differ from a court sending someone to a facility; networks with other programs have to be articulated; formal and reliable procedures for absconding clients are necessary; length of stay has to be critically examined; and formal evaluation is a necessity. The New York State program suffered because of problems in all of these areas.
Clinical Experience with Civil Commitment
Authors: Maddux James F.
Published: November 2015

Unstable motivation has represented a major problem in the treatment of opioid dependence. Early followup studies at the two Public Health Service Hospitals found that legally coerced treatment, especially when combined with compulsory posthospital care, led to better outcomes than did voluntary treatment. During the years 1967–1973, over 10,000 patients were admitted to the two hospitals under the NARA for evaluation of their suitability for treatment under civil commitment. Over one-third were found not suitable. Followup studies suggested that the outcomes of committed patients were somewhat better than those of voluntary patients. While civil commitment may bring some opioid users into treatment who would not voluntarily enter, it cannot overcome deficits in services, and it cannot insure that patients will participate in treatment.
Civil Commitment - An International Perspective
Authors: Brown Barry S.
Published: November 2015

A majority of countries surveyed have some provision for the civil commitment of substance abusers. Grounds for commitment were found either in mental health statutes which emphasize risk to self and/or others, or in legislation on drug abuse which emphasize only evidence of use. The civil commitment process, treatment services, and reported effectiveness in containing drug abuse is described for several countries. Conditions viewed as necessary for the initiation of civil commitment and appropriate safeguards for commitment procedures are discussed.
Gender-Related Differences in Psychoactive Drug Use among Older Adults
Authors: Robbins Cynthia , Clayton Richard R.
Published: November 2015

Age, sex and ethnic differences in past year medical and non-medical use of tranquilizers, sedatives, stimulants, and analgesics are explored in the 1982 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA). In general women are more likely to report past year medical use than are men; whites are more likely to report past year medical use than are blacks or Hispanics; and older adults are more likely to report past year medical use than are younger adults. These differences are not large, however, and several notable exceptions occur. Hispanic women are especially likely to report past year use of prescription analgesics. Women age 45 to 64 report greater prescription psychoactive use than do those age 65 or older. In the 65 and older age group, men are more likely than women to report past year medical use of sedatives, tranquilizers, and stimulants.

Additional analyses of non-medical pill use and use of alcohol and illicit drugs suggest that young adult men and women, rather than older women, are most at risk for adverse drug interactions, and young adults in the 1985 NHSDA are far more likely than older adults to report psychosocial problems resulting from alcohol or drug use.
Implementation of a State Police EAP
Authors: Reichman Walter , Beidel Bernard E.
Published: November 2015

The implementation of the employee assistance program in the New Jersey State Police was studied over a three-year period. Quesionnaires were sent to a stratified random sample of sworn members once each year for three years. The questionnaire contained items to measure the degree of diffusion, receptivity, and the use of the program. The initial hypothesis was that the implementation of the program would follow the three-phase process of diffusion receptivity and use. The result of the first survey indicated the program was in the diffusion stage with more than 69% of the troopers having heard of the employee assistance program. Response to the receptivity items revealed there was an awareness and sensitivity to the need for the program and its potential benefits. The results of the second survey showed that the diffusion stage was strengthened with 78% of the response having heard of the program. Receptivity to the program had not increased significantly and use was minimal.

On the basis of these results, recommendations were made to enlarge and enhance certain program elements. The results of the third survey were quite similar to those of the second. The program was largely in the diffusion stage and was little into receptivity and utilization. Innovative procedures were recommended to move the program into an integral part of the Division.
A History of Job-Based Alcoholism Programs: 1955–1972
Authors: Steele Paul D.
Published: November 2015

This article describes changes in the design of job-based alcoholism programs between 1955 and 1972, and discusses the influences of professional organizations, program practitioners, research, and government on programs. A social movement perspective is adopted to analyze general program development. This period is characterized as one of coalescence, reformulation and regularization that was necessary before the explosive growth of programs in the following years could occur.
AIDS Intervention Design for Program Evaluation: The Miami Community Outreach Project
Authors: McCoy H. Virginia , Dodds Sally E. , Nolan Christine
Published: November 2015

An intervention program to prevent HIV infection and AIDS progression among intravenous drug users and sexual partners of intravenous drug users was designed and implemented to address knowledge, attitude and skill development. As precursors to behavior change, these factors were necessary to assure that sexual and drug-using behavior changes were attempted; however, the mechanisms for these changes were largely not reported in the literature. As a result, the program was structured so that an evaluation could determine the effectiveness of the overall program, as well as its various components.
Drinking, Everyday Life Situations and Cultural Norms in Denmark, Finland, and West Germany: An Experiment with Nonactive Role-Playing
Authors: Simpura Jussi , Fahrenkrug Hermann , Hyttinen Marita , Thorsen Thorkil
Published: November 2015

A method called nonactive role-playing, originally developed in social psychology, is applied to illustrate cultural differences with respect to drinking between Denmark, Finland and West Germany. West Germany and Denmark have clearly higher level of alcohol consumption than Finland, whereas Finland has adopted strictest alcohol control policy. In nonactive role-playing the respondents are given a brief written story for which they are asked to produce a written imagined continuation. On the surface, the material of this study seemed to repeat the stereotypical images of hedonistic Danes, heavy-drinking Finns and ritualistic Germans. Deeper, it seemed that drinking has greatest expressive power in Finland where references to drinking are more frequent and they are used effectively as social markers in the process of events described. In Denmark and Germany, drinking is more self-evident and is less remarkably used as a carrier of specific cultural meanings. The findings are of interest in considering the nature of the debate on alcohol-related issues in different cultures.
Separation of Drug Markets and the Normalization of Drug Problems in the Netherlands: An Example for other Nations?
Authors: Van Vliet Henk Jan
Published: November 2015

Since the end of the 1960s, the Dutch have deliberately developed drug policies that both fit their needs and their tradition of solving social problems. This includes the notion that these policies have to be cost-effective. This strategy has almost automatically led to an uneasy relationship not only with the international drug control system and its administrators but also with countries advocating “War on Drugs” type policies. Two basic elements of this policy are presented here. The decriminalization of the use of and the retail trade in cannabis products (marijuana and hashish) aims at keeping experimenting youngsters away from drugs like heroin, cocaine, etc. This “separation of markets” concept, developed in the early 1970s, has proven to be a successful fundament for further steps in policy development. The more recent concept of “normalization of drug problems” (almost diametrically opposed to the U.S. concept of “user accountability”) aims at the integration or encapsulation of drug abusers in society, in order to minimize the harm inflicted by drug abuse on the abuser, his environment and society. This policy element plays a paramount role in AIDS prevention.
Twenty Years on: Two Public Initiatives to Empower Youth
Authors: Low Ken
Published: November 2015

The War on Drugs approach to prevention is hampered by a lack of strategic sense and alternative approaches are needed. To be successful, prevention must be based on a clear understanding of the nature of the problem and the resources available to solve it. Two such strategic initiatives were started in 1970 in the Canadian province of Alberta. Results have been positive, and work continues to develop an informed and constructive approach to preventing the causes of drug dependence in the population by emphasizing human and social development.
Treatment Services for Alcohol and Drug Abuse in Ontario and Quebec: A Comparison of Provincial Surveys
Authors: Rush Brian , Brochu Serge
Published: November 2015

As in most parts of the developed world, Canada has experienced a considerable expansion in specialized services for the treatment of alcohol and drug abuse since the 1960s. This paper contrasts the addiction treatment system within two of Canada's largest provinces — Ontario and Quebec. Within the limitations of descriptive survey data, some of the similarities and differences between these treatment networks during the mid-1980s are discussed. For example, the Quebec system was characterized by more private fee-for-service programs and larger facilities that provided a range of services along the continuum of care. In Ontario, there were more separate programs, but they tended to be smaller and more specialized within the treatment continuum. Quebec had a higher rate of participation in outpatient, day treatment and short-term residential programs.
“Cocaine-Related” Deaths: Media Coverage in the War on Drugs
Authors: Wong Linda S. , Alexander Bruce K.
Published: November 2015

A 1989 newspaper story describing twenty-nine cocaine-related deaths in British Columbia is used to illustrate the lands of unwarranted inferences that are propagated by the news media during the current War on Drugs. The newspaper story conveys the impression that most of the deaths involved well-integrated, moderate drug users, that all twenty-nine deaths were caused by cocaine, and that these deaths provided evidence of an epidemic of dangerous cocaine use sweeping the province. However, the coroner's files on which the story was based, and related research, provide strong evidence that all three frightening inferences are wrong. A more careful analysis of these deaths as a consequence of chronic deterioration in a fringe population can contribute to the development of realistic drug policy.
Social Processes of Initiation into Crack
Authors: Fagan Jeffrey , Chin Ko-Lin
Published: November 2015

The emergence of crack occurred during a period of intensifying social disorganization in urban areas that disrupted the informal controls that taught initiates how to use drugs and what amounts to use to achieve specific effects. Accordingly, differences in initiation into crack and other drugs were expected. Reports from initiates into crack and other drugs showed that the social processes of initiation did not differ. However, crack initiates differed from other initiates in their prior involvement with drug use and drug selling. Although informal controls continue to influence processes of initiation, the changing social ecology of urban areas suggests that these controls will be less influential in maintaining conventions and norms to regulate the use of crack
Constructive Possession of Drugs in Pennsylvania: An Exercise in Legal Fiction or Practical Evidentiary Analysis?
Authors: Nemeth Charles P.
Published: November 2015

The continuing growth of illegal drug use and possession is a growing concern in modem America. For law enforcement agents and the judiciary, control is limited by this growth, as well as statutory and constitutional definitions and restrictions. In this work, the author analyzes the “possessory” definitions commonly employed in controlled substances legislation. While some attention is given to actual possession, the thrust of the article deals with the definition of constructive possession since it is in constructive possession cases that many inferential variables emerge and must be considered by the court when making a ruling. By examining the historical import of these variables at the Pennsylvania appellate level over the past twenty years, a set of guidelines can be established based on these historical decisions to develop a standardization of evidentiary factors which the courts can employ to effect rulings that are precise and insightful.
Illegal Drugs: Past, Present and Possible Futures
Authors: Jacobsen Chanoch , Hanneman Robert A.
Published: November 2015

Following a long period of increase, the number of drug users in the United States has decreased sharply during the last decade. As it is not clear what caused the change, advocates of different policies are likely to claim credit. This study, simulating major segments of the drug system with a computer model of a sociological theory of patterned deviance, shows that the theory fits the case of drug abuse. Applying the theory to the reported trends, it is concluded that enforcement was not the cause of the reversal, education may well have been a facilitating factor, but there must have been some exogenous force, such as the AIDS scare of the early 1980s, to have triggered the abrupt change.
Influencing Public Health Policy through Action-Oriented Research: A Case Study of Lysol Abuse in Alberta
Authors: Vinje Garry , Hewitt David
Published: November 2015

Conventional approaches to health policy research have been criticized for generating findings of limited practical utility. In response to this concern, alternative research approaches have been developed which are more “action-oriented.” Using an action-oriented approach, the problem of Lysol abuse in Alberta was examined. Lysol, a household disinfectant, is consumed by chronic alcoholics for its alcohol content. The results of the study indicated that, because of Lysol's price and availability, several hundred individuals in the inner city of Alberta's capital drink the disinfectant on a regular basis. The release of these findings appear to have influenced a number of subsequent policy developments, including the introduction of new provincial legislation to regulate Lysol sales. These developments have had a positive effect in reducing the magnitude of the Lysol abuse problem. The results of this case study suggest that action-oriented research can be a useful technique.
Nonprescription Drugs and the Regulation of Advertising
Authors: Cope James D.
Published: November 2015

Advertising plays an important and distinct role in self-medication. This article briefly reviews the separate, but complimentary, roles of advertising and labeling of nonprescription medicines and some of advertising's limitations. The article moves on to describe six areas of advertising control — including self-regulatory and governmental components — in the regulation of nonprescription medicine advertising.
The Role of Marketing Research during Drug Development
Authors: Bartone Nicholas
Published: November 2015

The benefits that can be derived from the conduct of marketing research during the drug development process are readily obtainable. During the early stages of drug development, marketing research can provide guidance regarding the identification of promising therapeutic areas, the design of Phase II and III trials, and the decision regarding whether to proceed with development. Marketing research can allow for the creation of a product which meets not only the regulatory requirements of the FDA, but the therapeutic needs of the marketplace.

Later in the development track, marketing research contributes to formation of a product positioning, selection of a trade name, establishment of a pricing strategy and measurement of initial marketplace receptivity to the new product. It is hoped that this article provides a better appreciation of marketing research techniques and encourages their expanded use.
Drug Promotion in Self-Care and Self-Medication
Authors: Sorofman Bernard
Published: November 2015

Bernard Sorofman

Awareness of self-care for health has increased in recent years. Information is obtained through a wide variety of promotional activities about symptoms and treatments to assist in the determination of self-care actions. Sources of lay oriented self-care information include traditional health industry advertising, lay initiated self-care / self-help information, manufacturers' direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription drugs and indirect-to-consumer promotional activities such as “medical breakthrough” news releases. This article covers several forms of medication promotion for self-care and explores the “medicalization” and “pharmaceuticalization” of self-care for health by health professionals.
Future Possibilities in Pharmaceutical Promotion
Authors: Smith Mickey
Published: November 2015

Future possibilities are described in the field of pharmaceutical promotion. They include developments in media used, the targets for promotional messages, the appeals used in promotion, and the regulatory environment in which promotion occurs. A proposal is offered for consideration whereby effectiveness and efficiency in promotion are recognized and perhaps rewarded.
Trends and Influences in the History of Australian Drug Legislation
Authors: Manderson Desmond
Published: November 2015

In this article the author briefly traces some features in the emergence in Australia of legislation controlling “dangerous drugs” such as opium, morphine, cocaine and heroin from 1900 to 1950. It is argued that, in common with other similar countries, the first laws prohibiting the non-medical use of drugs were enacted as a symptom of anti-Chinese racism and not out of any concern for the health of users. It is further argued that later laws, which built upon that precedent, developed not through any independent assessment of the drug problem in Australia but rather in response to pressure from the international community. Australia's unthinking acceptance of the growing U.S.-led international consensus relating to “dangerous drugs” influenced legislation, policy and attitudes to illicit drug use. The structure of drug control which emerged incorporated and promoted the fears, values and solutions of other societies without any assessment of their validity or appropriateness.
Aboriginal Alcohol Use: A Review of Quantitative Studies
Authors: Hunter Ernest
Published: November 2015

In the first of two articles (see Brady in this issue) reviewing the field of Aboriginal alcohol use and misuse, the author describes tenacious stereotypes of Aboriginal drinking, and outlines problems that have until recently prevented the development of quantitative studies. The available research material indicates that while non-drinkers constitute a higher proportion of the surveyed populations, those Aborigines who are drinking are likely to be consuming alcohol at harmful levels. These findings, which are consistent with research on other indigenous groups in the Pacific and North America, are cause for concern, being associated with high levels of morbidity and mortality. The need for more systematic and reliable research, particularly longitudinal studies, is emphasised.
An Intensive Case Management Approach for Paroled IV Drug Users
Authors: Martin Steven S. , Scarpitti Frank R.
Published: November 2015

The need for drug abuse treatment to reduce recidivism in prison systems has led to increasing interest in treatment alternatives for correctional clients. The research on the effectiveness of treatment alternatives, however, has lagged behind the interest in and implementation of new programs. This article reports on early findings from an ongoing longitudinal study of the efficacy of an intensive case management approach, Assertive Community Treatment (ACT), for treating parolees with past drug problems, compared with a group of parolees who were not offered this treatment program. Using follow-up data on 135 subjects interviewed at release from prison and then reinterviewed about six months later, the ACT group and comparison group are examined in terms of recidivism and relapse to drug use. Bivariate analyses suggest little difference between the two groups. Multivariate analyses, however, suggest several important variables that were not manipulated in this “quasi-experiment,” but are predictive of relapse and recidivism. Although the limited sample size available at present precludes any definitive conclusions, discussion focuses on the direction of findings and highlights the necessity for multivariate controls in assessing the effectiveness of any intervention with criminal justice clients.
The Effectiveness of In-Jail Methadone Maintenance
Authors: Magura Stephen , Rosenblum Andrew , Lewis Carla , Joseph Herman
Published: November 2015

Process and outcome evaluation results are reported for a unique in-jail methadone maintenance program in New York City with three thousand admissions annually. The main study examined inmates who were not enrolled in methadone at arrest. Eighty percent were drug injectors (usually both heroin and cocaine) who admitted committing an average of 117 property crimes and nineteen violent crimes in the six months before jail. Methadone program participants' post-release outcomes were compared with outcomes for similar addicts who received seven-day heroin detoxification in jail. Multivariate analyses indicated that program participants were more likely than controls to apply for methadone or other drug abuse treatment after release and to be in treatment at a 6.5-month follow-up. Moreover, being in treatment at follow-up was associated with lower drug use and crime, but rates of retention in community treatment after release were modest. KEEP participants have more chronic and severe social and personal deficits than other addicts applying for treatment. The in-jail program was most effective in maintaining post-release continuity of methadone treatment for inmates already enrolled in methadone at arrest. The process evaluation yielded several recommendations to help overcome client-centered, administrative, and systemic obstacles to improved outcomes for this difficult-to-treat population of criminally-involved addicts.