bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Impact of the Real Living Wage
Authors: Heery Edmund , Hann Deborah , Nash David
Published: August 2023

This chapter presents evidence of the effects of the Living Wage campaign. First, it examines the redistributive effect of the campaign, presenting evidence on the number and characteristics of workers that have gained from the Living Wage. Second, it looks at the impact of the campaign on employers and presents evidence showing a widespread but modest positive business effect. The chapter concludes by looking at some of the wider effects of the campaign. One element looks at the impact on individuals and shows that the Living Wage has often served to enhance the ‘capability’ of those on low incomes, allowing them to lead less constrained lives. Another element looks at institutional effects and it is shown that the spread of the Living Wage has neither eroded nor reduced the need for other forms of regulation through collective bargaining and employment law. Civil regulation, it is argued, can coexist with and reinforce these other methods.
The Significance of the Real Living Wage
Authors: Heery Edmund , Hann Deborah , Nash David
Published: August 2023

The final chapter opens with another vignette, the announcement of new Living Wage rates by Mark Drakeford, First Minister of Wales, at a virtual event in November 2021. This event is used to highlight themes that have emerged over the course of the study. Following the vignette, the chapter presents a summary of key findings, which are related back to the literature on civil regulation introduced in Chapter 1. The chapter then draws core conclusions about the significance of the study for the field of employment relations. It is stated that the case illustrates: (1) the increasing role of new civil society actors in shaping the world of work; (2) the emergence of a ‘neo-paternalism’ in employer strategy; (3) the continued resilience of trade unions; and (4) a shift towards a more active pattern of state intervention in the employment relationship, which breaks with neo-liberal orthodoxy and flows from a broader attempt to promote ‘inclusive growth’.
Can the Constitution of a Fruit Fly Be Written?
Authors: Webber Grégoire
Published: August 2023

This chapter is in conversation with John Gardner’s essay ‘Can There Be a Written Constitution?’ It explores Gardner’s strategy of answering his title question by reference to HLA Hart’s secondary rules and suggests that, by doing so, his title question may best be reformulated as ‘Can the constitution of a legal system be written?’. If one instead seeks to inquire into the constitution of a state or government, Hart’s secondary rules may supply only a part of one’s materials for study. The chapter aims to highlight how Gardner makes an all-important contribution to the debate whether there is a case for the UK to move towards a written constitution. He helps us see how that very idea presupposes that there is something that can be written. To assume that everything about the UK constitution can be written is akin to thinking that the constitution of a fruit fly can be written simply because it is a constitution.
Hume’s Law (in Gardner and Otherwise)
Authors: Duarte d’Almeida Luís
Published: August 2023

This chapter focuses on Hume’s Law, and on John Gardner’s views about it. It begins by reconstructing and criticizing Gardner’s understanding of Hume’s Law (as presented in one of his last published essays). Gardner takes a formal approach to the distinction between ‘is’ and ‘ought’ sentences; this approach, the chapter argues, fails. The chapter then considers a different approach, and shows that Gardner’s reasons for resisting it are unpersuasive. Moving away from Gardner’s views, the chapter suggests that under the common ‘Hume’s Law’ banner we can identify two different, independent theses rather than just one: an ‘implication’ thesis and a ‘relevance’ thesis. The chapter concludes by looking briefly at some issues raised by legal statements in connection with such theses.
Looming perception: Seeing in a dynamic world
Authors: Vignemont Frédérique de
Published: August 2023

Typically, just a few seconds before being hit, one experiences a relatively primitive sense of impending collision, something like ‘This is going to crash into me!’. This chapter proposes to explain the sense of impending collision in terms of amodal completion. Thanks to it, one can be visually aware of more than what one can actually see and this can be true not only for objects, but also for dynamic events. But what mechanisms are involved in amodal completion? Do they qualify as perceptual or should they rather be conceived as being imaginative? This chapter argues that there is a sense in which one can be said to have a perceptual sense of the future.
Mechanisms underlying auditory-object perception
Authors: DiTullio Ronald W. , Cohen Yale E.
Published: August 2023

A fundamental goal of sensory neuroscience is identifying the mechanisms that support perception. In auditory neuroscience, a central challenge is understanding how the brain transforms an incoming mixture of auditory stimuli into distinct perceptual representations, i.e., ‘auditory objects’. Significant effort has been devoted to understanding the mechanisms and computations underlying auditory objects, but we still do not understand: (1) how exactly auditory objects are encoded in the neural activity of the auditory system; or (2) the causal link between neural activity and auditory perception. This chapter reviews studies of human and non-human primates that suggest mechanisms underlying the formation and generation of auditory objects, and emphasize the contributions of the ventral auditory pathway. Due to its broad usage as an experimental lever to study the generation of auditory objects, the chapter also discusses auditory perceptual decision-making. Finally, the chapter puts forth challenges to further our understanding of the relationship between neural activity and perception.
A world of odours
Authors: Batty Clare , Smith Barry C.
Published: August 2023

Contemporary philosophical discussions of olfaction are dominated by two issues: (1) whether olfactory experience is spatial; and (2) whether it represents objects. Although it might seem that these two questions are related, discussion has centred on whether the representation of space is necessary for object representation in olfaction. This chapter introduces an olfactory analogue of P. F. Strawson’s discussion of a world consisting entirely of sounds. It draws on the analogue of Strawson’s discussion and the results of recent olfactory experiments to consider the role that olfactory experience could play in supporting a conception of an objective world consisting entirely of odours. The chapter concludes that, in order to form a conception of persisting, reidentifiable odours, we would need, as Strawson concludes, to draw on the ways other senses relate us to a three-dimensional space in which material objects (i.e., odour sources) are basic.
Crossmodal identification
Authors: O’Callaghan Casey
Published: August 2023

In crossmodal identification, a subject token identifies an item perceived in one sensory modality with an item perceived in another sensory modality. Does crossmodal identification always occur in cognition, or does crossmodal identification sometimes take place in perception? This paper argues that crossmodal identification occurs in cognition, and not in perception. Nevertheless, multisensory perception is not unalive to crossmodal identity. Experimental evidence demonstrates that perception is differentially sensitive to the identity of individuals presented to distinct senses. Such sensitivity enhances recognition and improves action. This approach relies on distinguishing crossmodal identification from perceiving crossmodal identity. Perception registers crossmodal identity, but crossmodal identification as such belongs to thought.
Introduction and Book Summary
Authors: Pinillos N. Ángel
Published: August 2023

This chapter summarizes the book and introduce its main themes. It begins by discussing the notion of philosophical skeptical doubt and shows how it is in rational tension with many of our ordinary commitments. This tension, the chapter argues, needs to be resolved. The resolution will require giving a cognitive explanation of the phenomenon. Following David Marr, this approach will require discovering the hidden mental rule which is behind our skeptical inclinations. This rule will be a type of sensitivity principle understood as a cognitive heuristic. We will then go further and seek to find the reason why we adhere to that skeptical rule in the first place—we need to find its function or purpose. The introduction ends with a chapter-by-chapter description of the book.
The Need for an Explanation
Authors: Pinillos N. Ángel
Published: August 2023

This chapter makes explicit the skeptical phenomenon to be explained, why it needs to be explained, and how it should be explained. With respect to the first question, it argues that we need an explanation of skeptical doubts, inclinations of the form “I don’t know p” where these inclinations are responses to certain error possibilities as discussed in the philosophical literature. The chapter argues that these inclinations are widespread typical human responses as opposed to philosophical concoctions. With respect to the second question, it is argued that there’s a need to explain these doubts because they are in rational tension with many of our other commitments. They are of great practical importance. Finally, the chapter proposes that we should account for skeptical doubt by deploying the standard three-pronged model from the cognitive sciences.
Solving the Skeptical Paradox
Authors: Pinillos N. Ángel
Published: August 2023

This chapter argues that once we see the mechanics of how many global skeptical beliefs are formed, these beliefs lose any doxastic justification they might have enjoyed. Ultimately, this means that the skeptic’s argument loses its force and we are left with no good reason to accept its conclusion. In particular, we are no longer justified in thinking we don’t know we are not BIVs. Thus, we can leverage our cognitive explanation of our skeptical leanings into a full-blown epistemic claim about the justificatory status of skeptical premises. The argument presented is delicate. The basic idea is that since (i) application of Principal Base Sensitivity is what causes our global skeptical inclinations, (ii) Principal Base Sensitivity is supposed to approximate Norm, but (iii) Norm does not predict skeptical judgments, then belief in (i–iii) defeats doxastic justification for our skeptical beliefs (if they are produced in the way I have indicated).
Mind the assumptions
Authors: Borgonovo Emanuele
Published: August 2023

This chapter considers how to treat spoken and unspoken assumptions and how to use uncertainty quantification and global sensitivity analysis to make them transparent. As part of this, the broad role of assumptions (or hypotheses) in scientific modelling are analysed, and investigations are made into how they affect alternative elements of a model. We address models of data (machine learning) and models of phenomena (simulators). We then discuss the impact of varying assumptions on the output of a mathematical model, highlighting the role of uncertainty quantification and sensitivity analysis. We single out four main sensitivity analysis goals emerging from the literature.
Mind the unknowns
Authors: Stirling Andy
Published: August 2023

This chapter surveys many ways in which routine practice of policy modelling is pressured—and often aims—to hide its unavoidably political dimensions. This can have a seriously regressive effect on encompassing politics, reinforcing powerful incumbents and further marginalizing less privileged interests and their favoured policy alternatives. Driven by routinely obscured forces of political justification, much modelling conceals many forms of inconvenient uncertainty, ambiguity, and ignorance. Albeit often inadvertently, this globalizing trend towards technocratic authoritarianism erodes space for reasoned deliberation by dogmatically invoking science—provoking a ‘post-truth’ backlash that further undermines democracy. By instead opening up more plural and conditional practices, policy modelling can help defuse these regressive dynamics. A wide range of methods are identified, to help prefigure, catalyse, and enact greater humility, transparency, and reflexivity about unavoidable politics and irreducible incertitudes—thus enabling policy-making to become both more scientifically rigorous and more democratically legitimate.
Models as metaphors
Authors: Ravetz Jerry R.
Published: August 2023

This chapter discusses the problematic character of Integrated Assessment (IA) computer models of global change. Reflecting on ‘models as metaphors’, the chapter applies the concept of extended peer community, originating from the school of post-normal science, to a process of model-based deliberation. In this process, the environmental models can be seen as the carriers of metaphors of how nature and its afflictions are being framed and understood, and can thus illuminate the different purposes and worldviews of the involved stakeholders. This process brings to the surface dimensions of uncertainty and ignorance. Here, instead of a constraint on the analysis, uncertainty provides the space for negotiation to take place.
Introduction
Authors: Zimmermann Lisbeth , Deitelhoff Nicole , Lesch Max , Arcudi Antonio , Peez Anton
Published: August 2023

How does contestation affect the robustness of international norms? When and why are they weakened? We begin by illustrating the relevance of these questions to the much-heralded “crisis” of the liberal international order. Existing scholarship on international norms in international relations does not satisfactorily explain the link between contestation and norm robustness. We present a typology, differentiate validity from applicatory contestation, and explain how the two relate to norm robustness. We also show that the legal character and the power of norm challengers are less significant than assumed. The contestation trends observed in contemporary cases—the torture prohibition, the responsibility to protect, the commercial whaling moratorium, and the duty to prosecute—are explained by the embeddedness of norms in norm clusters and by perceptions of the procedural fairness of international institutions. In contrast, in the historical case studies on privateering and the transatlantic slave trade, direct power was also decisive.
Bad pirates, good privateers?
Authors: Zimmermann Lisbeth , Deitelhoff Nicole , Lesch Max , Arcudi Antonio , Peez Anton
Published: August 2023

Today, privateering—the practice of states commissioning private ships to seize foreign vessels—is often equated with piracy. But from the Middle Ages until the nineteenth century, under different names and with different objectives, privateering was seen as legitimate and was widely practiced. Rules for privateering, as well as the line between it and piracy, were highly contested. But the practice itself was barely questioned. Only in the first half of the nineteenth century was the validity of privateering seriously contested—and in 1856, it was replaced by a formal ban. This chapter explores why the permissive norm of privateering long remained robust and then eroded completely in the nineteenth century. We show that European states’ shift to more validity contestation was brought about by more general normative shifts: from mercantilism to capitalism and liberalism. The United Kingdom, the main country that challenged the norm, ensured its replacement internationally.
Florence and the Florentine Countryside
Authors: Tabarrini Lorenzo
Published: August 2023

Chapter 2 explores the changeover in the forms of land management that took place in the Florentine countryside between the eleventh and the thirteenth centuries. It starts off by describing the geography and the historical ecology of the Fiorentino; subsequently, it provides an overview of the economic transformations that occurred between the twelfth and the thirteenth centuries, by focusing in particular on the surge of land prices from c. 1180 on. It then presents the case studies on which the analysis of estate management is based: namely, the Badia a Settimo, the monastery of S. Michele di Passignano, the other abbeys of the Chianti region and the few notarial deeds by Palmerio da Uglione. The chapter argues that in the final decades of the twelfth century labour-services started to be abolished, and that sharecropping contracts including some of the features of later mezzadria agreements began to appear.
English Renaissance Manuscript Culture
Authors: May Steven W.
Published: August 2023

English Renaissance Manuscript Culture reveals how paper transformed the production and circulation of documents in England beginning in the fourteenth century. Medieval writing was restricted by the lack of any extensive writing surface other than parchment. Manuscript production was thus an expensive process carried out by professional scribes. Paper spawned an amateur scribal tradition that evolved in tandem with the ongoing professional medieval tradition. Paper allowed increasingly ordinary people to compose, copy, and collect texts of all kinds. Amateur scribes developed scribal communities that transmitted texts from hand to hand. Over time, these communities coalesced into an informal national network that circulated manuscript works quickly and efficiently throughout the kingdom. Our understanding of the resultant scribal culture has been somewhat obscured, however, by a belief that most of these works, especially creative writing, were circulated in exclusive coteries. A further consideration of document loss rates also brings into focus the actual nature of what has survived while allowing us to more accurately assess what we have lost. The hybrid scribal culture of the English Renaissance, composed of both professional and amateur practitioners, is in itself a cultural phenomenon about which there is much more to learn.
The Network in Action
Authors: May Steven W.
Published: August 2023

Chapter 6 summarizes the pervasive role of poetry (that is, anything that rhymed) in Renaissance society. Poetry so defined showed up in contexts where it is seldom if ever found today, including on the walls of private homes, on tableware and utensils, on the borders of paintings (including personal portraits), and embedded in legal, scientific, theological, and diverse other practical printed books. Lyric verse in particular was recited and sung in public and passed readily from hand to hand in manuscript. Case studies of textual transmission show how the network operated but also how difficult it is to establish a detailed understanding of how related texts found their way into different manuscript collections. Textual criticism, biographical research, handwriting analysis, and bibliographic analysis all come into play in our efforts to determine how texts were disseminated, where, when, and by whom.
Conclusion
Authors: May Steven W.
Published: August 2023

The Conclusion stresses how the introduction of paper in England beginning in the fourteenth century opened up literacy to the middle and lower classes previously excluded from it by their lack of access to an affordable writing surface. Relatively cheap, plentiful paper thereby unleased a heretofore stifled intellectual potential now that complex ideas and understanding could be developed in writing, then passed along to others and preserved for the future. Paper also nurtured a free and open circulation network that disseminated texts of all kinds rapidly to every part of the kingdom. The remains of this culture, however, are for the most part documents generated and preserved by the upper classes. It includes formal records of the ongoing professional scribal tradition, the only permanent one during the “age of parchment,” and upper-class writing from the paper-based amateur tradition that began in the fourteenth century. Nearly everything written by middle- and lower-class authors has vanished. This is the culture we must reconstruct in order to understand Renaissance scribal culture in its totality.
BOOM Live
Authors: Dahiya Surbhi
Published: August 2023

BOOM Live or BOOM is an independent digital media platform with an initiative of providing authentic facts instead of opinions. The author takes the readers through the journey of a unique enterprise where the aim of the organization is not to build content but providing facts and hence promoting data journalism. They have a team of skilled data analysts and their accreditation from International Fact-Checking Network have helped them in securing business ties with Facebook and Google. The first sub-section on their website is ‘Fake news’, which proves their emphasis on debunking fake news. FactChecker.in and Boomlive.in together debunk two to three fake stories in a day. The author also explores various aspects of the organization which suggests that it will grow in the coming future due to the vulnerability of people to fake news.
People’s Archives of Rural India (PARI)
Authors: Dahiya Surbhi
Published: August 2023

The author takes the reader through the journey of People’s Archives of Rural India, which at its heart is the most unique and ambitious movement to tell the stories of everyday lives of everyday people of India and record and catalogue the occupational, linguistic, and cultural diversity of rural India. The project was launched by distinguished veteran journalist, Palagummi Sainath, former rural affairs editor of The Hindu, in an endeavour to document labour, livelihood, arts, crafts, traditions, challenges, and many other aspects of rural India. The organization’s genesis lies in the notion of keeping the Indianness alive in the people who are inclined towards the West, forgetting about the roots of their culture. The chapter enlightens the readers about the great initiative by P. Sainath who wants to keep up the dynamics of the diversity of India. The chapter also outlines the growth of the organization, its unique content and the quality of its products, and its revenue and funding model.
Exchange4media
Authors: Dahiya Surbhi
Published: August 2023

The chapter focuses on the exchange4media’s performance in the digital space for the long period of two decades. In the last 21 years, exchange4media.com has grown exponentially to become one of the most credible and the largest sources of media, advertising, and marketing information in the country. It reaches out to more than 60,000 professionals within the industry every day through information newsletters. The author takes the readers through the journey of Dr Annurag Batra’s business strategy and the growth and development of the company. The chapter focuses on the genesis, growth, and development of the organization, organizational structure, editorial policies, target audience, business model, and the overall working of the platform. The author also unveils the strategic intent of the group to engage a vast readership and how their content is different from other media platforms. It is a predecessor of ADSERT but works as an independent organization stating factual information about the media industry.
Erotics
Authors: Waters Rob
Published: August 2023

Champions of London’s multiculture pointed often to what they saw as the rejuvenating force of New Commonwealth migration. This was an articulation of black vitality that was always in excess of the more formalized, institutionalized modes of integration that other chapters in this book have explored—integrations which worked by various forms of conscription into the institutions of civil society and the state. Even as integrationists often sought to reform black Londoners, they simultaneously cast them as objects of desire; the racialized excess that was to be reformed away also, paradoxically, stood for exactly the vitality and promise that these Londoners offered for the making of a revivified city. ‘Erotics’ addresses these themes through an exploration of the phenomenon of the post-war explosion of London’s multicultural markets, a reading of the work of the writer Colin MacInnes, and an exploration of mixed-race relationships.
The recovery of a Thomist tradition
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: August 2023

After a brief survey of some relevant texts from Aquinas, this chapter shows how John Capreolus set about attempting to recover a genuinely Thomist Christology. It considers too his treatments of the views of Peter Auriol and John of Ripa. From Auriol, Capreolus learned the notion of hypostatic termination, and uses it to give an account of subsistence, albeit not of the hypostatic union itself. Through Capreolus, Auriol’s position became normative for the later Thomist tradition. Denys the Carthusian adopts Aquinas’s view, admittedly with some reservations. Capreolus’s text was variously copied or abbreviated by other late fifteenth-century Dominicans. The chapter also examines an instance of a Thomist Christology from mid-fifteenth-century Cologne, and ends with a treatment of the Christology of Marsilio Ficino, which follows a loosely Thomist structure.
Life-Writing
Authors: Wilson Ross
Published: August 2023

This chapter examines the contested status of life-writing and biography. It seeks to clear a middle path between different positions on life-writing’s claim to be literary criticism by resisting mere dismissals of it, on the one hand, and noticing that biography’s explanatory power is limited, on the other. The place of biography in William Empson’s criticism is taken to offer one way of characterizing this interpretation of literary-critical life-writing. The chapter then considers the canonical example of Samuel Johnson’s critical biographies, focusing especially on their changing presentation as they went through different editions, before concluding with an extended discussion of Elizabeth Gaskell’s negotiation of Charlotte Brontë as woman and as author.
Introduction
Authors: Davies Jonathan
Published: August 2023

This chapter introduces the work by briefly surveying existing scholarship on the question of Josephus’ political engagements in the Jewish War. It describes the growth of the classic conception of Josephus, as a traitor and a Roman/Flavian propagandist, in nineteenth- and twentieth-century scholarship, describing how changes in approach to the material over the course of the twentieth century rendered that classic conception no longer tenable. It identifies how both the emergence of postcolonial theory and developments in the way that classicists conceptualize the relationship between emperors and literature have led to fertile new approaches which, in some cases, reconceptualize Josephus as something like a dissident. However, such conclusions are at risk of becoming as reductive as the ‘propagandist’ model which they aim to replace. The goal of the present work is a more nuanced understanding of the relationship between Josephus’ text and Flavian imperial power.
Political Expression in Flavian Rome
Authors: Davies Jonathan
Published: August 2023

This chapter establishes the background against which Josephus was writing and attempts to delineate the possibilities of political expression in that context. It examines practices which could be seen as analogous to censorship and the control of literature under early Roman emperors, examines powerful ideologies of literary veridiction as well as strategies for expressing awkward truths in the imperial period, considers how emperors could communicate preferred readings of their own characters and virtues, and questions the unique political difficulties of the field in which Josephus was working, contemporary historiography. The chapter concludes that historical authors under the early emperors, while predominantly responsible for their own content and not acting as “propagandists”, nonetheless were working within constraints when it came to depicting the imperial family. Although rhetorical strategies which facilitated the expression of “awkward” truths did exist, identifying such strategies in ancient literature is virtually impossibole, and a better approach to political expression under the emperors is to focus on potential ambivalence and reader response.
Future
Authors: Floridi Luciano
Published: August 2023

Previously, in Chapter 2, I argued that AI should be interpreted not as a marriage between some biological-like intelligence and engineered artefacts, but as a divorce between agency and intelligence—that is, a decoupling between the ability to deal with problems and tasks successfully in view of a goal, and the need to be intelligent to do so. This chapter uses the above interpretation of AI as a new form of successful non-intelligent agency to look at its future. After a short introduction in Section 3.1 about the difficulties facing any exercise in prediction, Sections 3.2 and 3.4 argue that the likely developments and possible challenges of AI will depend on the push for synthetic data, the tension between constraining and constitutive rules underpinning areas of AI application, leading to the progressive adaptation of the environment to AI rather than of AI to the environment (what I defined in the previous chapter as enveloping), and the increasing translation of difficult problems into complex problems. Section 3.5 is dedicated to Generative Models the debate about ChatGPT, and why chatbots should be seen as one more implementation of agency without intelligence. Section 3.6 returns to the importance of design and the responsibility to produce the right sort of AI to take advantage of the developments mentioned above. The conclusion in Section 3.7 discusses the seasons of AI, especially its winters, to highlight the lessons we should have learnt and those we can still learn—and hence apply—to make the most of this unique technology. This chapter concludes Part One of the book, which provides a brief philosophical introduction to AI’s past, present, and future.
Good Practices
Authors: Floridi Luciano
Published: August 2023

Chapter 8 reviewed the main issues concerning the illegal use of AI or what may be called AI for social evil. This chapter focuses on AI for social good (AI4SG). AI4SG is gaining traction within information societies in general and the AI community in particular. It has the potential to tackle social problems through the development of AI-based solutions. Yet to date, there is only limited understanding of what makes AI socially good in theory, what counts as AI4SG in practice, and how to reproduce its initial successes in terms of policies. This chapter addresses the gap in understanding by first offering a definition of AI4SG, then identifying seven ethical factors that are essential for future AI4SG initiatives. The analysis is supported by some case examples of AI4SG projects. Some of the factors discussed in this chapter are almost entirely novel to AI, while the significance of other factors is heightened by the use of AI. Finally, the chapter formulates corresponding best practices from each of these factors. Subject to context and balance, these practices may serve as preliminary guidelines to ensure that well-designed AI is more likely to serve the social good. The chapter does not offer specific recommendations, which are left to Chapter 10.
How to Deliver a Good AI Society
Authors: Floridi Luciano
Published: August 2023

Chapters 4–6 analysed the foundational concepts that can ground a future ‘Good AI Society’. Chapters 7–9 discussed the challenges, the bad, and the good practices characterizing the use of AI systems. This chapter, along with the next, turns to some constructive and concrete recommendations about how to assess, develop, incentivize, and support good AI. In some cases, these recommendations may be undertaken directly by national or supranational policymakers. In others, changes may be led by other stakeholders ranging from civil society to private actors and sectoral organizations. The hope is that, if adopted, these recommendations may support a firm foundation for the establishment of a Good AI Society.
The Gambit
Authors: Floridi Luciano
Published: August 2023

Chapter 4 presented the ethical principles that provide a framework for AI. One of these principles, beneficence, includes sustaining the planet. This and the following chapter further explore that requirement by analysing the positive and negative environmental impacts of AI. The goal is to provide policy recommendations for a path towards a greener and more climate-friendly development of AI—development especially in line with EU values and legislation. The timing is critical because AI is already used today to model events related to climate change and contribute to efforts in combating global warming. It can thus be a great positive force for a fair and sustainable society.
Introduction
Authors: Miller Kassandra J.
Published: August 2023

Within contemporary biomedicine, there is growing interest in the roles that timing and clocks (especially molecular clocks) can play in determining the efficacy of medical interventions. This interest—which can seem very modern, even futuristic—actually has deep roots within ancient Mediterranean medicine. This chapter introduces readers to some of the present book’s central questions, which have provoked healers both ancient and modern: in what contexts should medicalized time be expressed quantitatively rather than qualitatively? To what extent must it be standardized? And what degrees of precision and accuracy are medically useful or justified? This chapter proceeds to outline the stakes, scope, and key themes of the book and to challenge the traditional assumption that the social history of hourly timekeeping only begins with the advent of mechanical clocks in the Medieval period.
Clocks as Symbols 1
Authors: Miller Kassandra J.
Published: August 2023

Chapter 3 focuses on the roles of sundials and water clocks within a single Galenic text, On the Affections and Errors of the Human Soul. Surprisingly, this treatise on ethical psychology features an extended discussion of sundial and water clock construction which highlights the differences between Galen’s method of scientific inquiry and the methods used by members of contemporary philosophical schools. The chapter demonstrates that Galen associated clock-design with the positive concepts of verifiability, clarity, concord, utility, and long-term scientific progress, while associating sectarian philosophies with the opposite. It suggests that Galen chose to use clock-construction as his central example because of a series of personal ideological commitments, including his belief in long-term scientific progress, his dream of achieving clear communication among scientists, and his insistence that proper scientific method involves a balance between logic and empiricism.
Introduction: Revisiting EU Law on the Free Movement of Persons
Authors: Nic Shuibhne Niamh
Published: August 2023

How ‘free’ is the free movement of persons? And why should the EU legal framework that underpins it be ‘revisited’? To introduce how the book addresses these questions, this chapter provides a brief description of each contribution, and discusses two common themes that emerge across the book as a whole. First, the chapters in the book highlight, in different ways, the creation and evolution of categories that continue to matter in EU law on the free movement of persons. Second, the contributors engage with the vulnerability of the free movement of persons as a fundamental, and sustainable, objective of the European Union.
The Concept of Democracy
Authors: Cappelen Herman
Published: August 2023

If we don’t know what the words “democracy” and “democratic” mean, then we don’t know what democracy is. This book defends a radical view: these words mean nothing and should be abandoned. The argument for abolitionism is simple: those terms are defective and we can easily do better, so let’s get rid of them. According to the abolitionist, the switch to alternative devices would be a significant communicative, cognitive, and political advance. The first part of the book presents a general theory of abandonment: the conditions under which language should be abandoned. The rest of the book applies this general theory to the case of “democracy” and “democratic”. The book shows that “democracy” and “democratic” are semantically, pragmatically, and communicatively defective. Abolitionism is not all gloom and doom. It also contains a message of good cheer: we have easy access to conceptual devices that are more effective than “democracy”. We can do better. These alternative linguistic devices will enable us to ask better questions, provide genuinely fruitful answers, and have more rational discussions. Moreover, those questions and answers better articulate the communicative and cognitive aims of those who use empty terms such as “democracy” and “democratic”.
Some Data about “Democracy” and “Democratic”
Authors: Cappelen Herman
Published: August 2023

This chapter introduces some data about the ordinary notions of “democracy” and “democratic,” with the adjective being used to modify many different kinds of objects and phenomena, such as decisions, laws, institutions, corporations, cultures, countries, clubs, and even families. The chapter goes on to introduce topics that will be central to the rest of the book: paradigms, the connection between the noun and the adjective, KQIE structures, expressive dimensions, genealogy, and lack of convergence among experts, all of which play a role later in the book. It includes a brief history of “democracy,” beginning in Athens 2,000 years ago, when 80–90 percent of the population were ruled by a small minority of property-owning men.
Problems with “Democracy”
Authors: Cappelen Herman
Published: August 2023

This chapter outlines various semantic, pragmatic, and communicative defects of “democracy” and “democratic” (the “D-words”). This is the central negative chapter in the book: it presents the core argument for thinking that the D-words are defective, both semantically and communicatively. And it argues that, if the D-words are deeply defective, then we should abandon them; if we can do better using other terminology, then we should. It also presents both a “No-Meaning Hypothesis,” and a hypothesis that the D-words are meaningful but pick out something that’s radically different from what ordinary speakers want to talk about. None of the arguments is conclusively in favor of abandonment, but they provide some push in that direction.
Consequences of Abandoning “Democracy”
Authors: Cappelen Herman
Published: August 2023

This chapter illustrates various consequences of the abandonment of the D-words and how it’s possible to take familiar D-focused debates and improve them by using D-purged terminology. It uses discussions of Donald Trump and Joe Biden in the United States, Viktor Orbán in Hungary, restrictions on voting, and gerrymandering to show that we can do better if we abandon the D-words. The chapter includes a debate over epistocracy (rule by citizens with political knowledge) and the roles of knowledge and understanding in collective decision-making. It shows that the D-words are superfluous; if political questions and answers are purged of the D-words, we might become a bit less dogmatic.
The dorsal visual system
Authors: Rolls Edmund T.
Published: August 2023

The dorsal visual system computes information about where objects are in space, and their motion, and this is used for actions performed in space. The connectivity is described of the human dorsal visual cortical stream for visual motion leading to intraparietal visual regions and then to parietal area 7 regions for actions in space. These computations require coordinate transforms from retinal coordinates to head based coordinates, and then in parietal cortex regions to coordinates for reaching into space, and for allocentric, world-based, spatial coordinates. Recent approaches to how these transforms are performed, with analogies to transform invariance learning in the ventral visual system, are described.
The taste and flavor system
Authors: Rolls Edmund T.
Published: August 2023

Information is represented in taste regions up to and including the insular primary taste system of what the taste is independent of its reward value and pleasantness with a sparse distributed representation of sweet, salt, bitter, sour and umami inputs. The texture of food in the mouth, including fat texture, is also represented in these areas. The insular taste cortex then projects to the orbitofrontal cortex, in which the reward value and pleasantness of the taste and flavour are represented, with olfactory components incorporated by associative learning.
The olfactory system
Authors: Rolls Edmund T.
Published: August 2023

There are 1000 gene-specified olfactory receptor types projecting to the olfactory bulb and then to the olfactory (pyriform) cortex. This processing enables what the odor is to be represented. The olfactory (pyriform) cortex then projects to the orbitofrontal cortex, where the representation is mapped away from a gene-specified space into an odor reward value space, with the orbitofrontal cortex responding for example to the pleasantness of odors including the smell and flavor of food. The mechanism of the transform includes pattern association with stimuli in other modalities, such as the taste and texture of food.
The somatosensory system
Authors: Rolls Edmund T.
Published: August 2023

A ventral somatosensory hierarchical stream is described for humans that connects from the somatosensory cortex to the opercular and frontal opercular regions, and thereby to the insula, and then to inferior parietal largely somatosensory region PFop and then PF which has visual inputs. This stream builds representations of touched stimuli and objects and of the positions of the limbs in space. A dorsal somatosensory stream in humans connects from primary somatosensory cortical regions up through superior parietal cortex areas 5 and 7, where the system is interfaced to the visual system for the computations involved in reaching into space and grasping objects. Attractor network mechanisms for decision-making between somatosensory stimuli are described. In the orbitofrontal cortex, the affective value of pleasant touch and of pain is represented.
The auditory system
Authors: Rolls Edmund T.
Published: August 2023

Mechanisms for left-right auditory localization involving time differences for low frequencies, and intensity differences for high frequencies, performed in the brainstem are described. Auditory localization in 3D space using the pinna as an asymmetrical antenna is described. In humans a ventral auditory pathway has connectivity from S1 to medial and lateral belt to parabelt auditory cortex, then A4 and A5, and then to regions in the dorsal bank of the superior temporal sulus involved in semantic representations. These regions have connectivity with the orbitofrontal cortex, where neurons are found that respond for example to the emotional expression in a voice. A dorsal auditory pathway has connectivity to the intraparietal and parietal 7 regions, and is implicated in sound localization and in actions to sounds in space.
The orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala, reward value, emotion, and decision-making
Authors: Rolls Edmund T.
Published: August 2023

The orbitofrontal cortex receives from the ends of all sensory processing systems, and converts these representations of what the stimulus is into representations of their reward value. The orbitofrontal cortex is therefore a key brain region in emotions, which can be defined as states elicited by rewards and punishers. Indeed, orbitofrontal cortex activations are linearly related to the subjectively reported pleasantness of stimuli. The orbitofrontal cortex then projects this reward value information to other structures, which implement behavioural output, such as the anterior cingulate cortex, and the basal ganglia. A key computational capacity of the orbitofrontal cortex is one-trial object-reward associations, which are rule-based, and enable primates including humans to change their rewarded behaviour very rapidly. Decision-making using attractor neural networks is described. Reward signals from the orbitofrontal cortex have connectivity with cholinergic neurons and may thereby influence hippocampal episodic memory and memory consolidation.
Cerebellar cortex
Authors: Rolls Edmund T.
Published: August 2023

The cerebellar cortex appears to be involved in predictive feedforward control to generate smooth movements. There is a beautiful network architecture which suggests that the granule cells perform expansion recoding of the inputs; that these connect to the Purkinje cells via an architecture that ensures regular sampling; and that each Purkinje cell has a single teacher, the climbing fibre, which produces associative long-term synaptic depression as part of perceptron-like learning. The human cerebellum is also involved in cognitive, emotional, and social functions. Different neocortical regions have connectivity with different parts of the cerebellum, and the different parts of the human cerebellum are activated during the performance of different tasks. Moreover, damage to some parts of the human cerebellum can produce clinically relevant cognitive, emotional, or social problems. Cerebellar circuits may build internal models of complex behaviors that facilitate predictions, allowing for automatic information processing and appropriate behaviors in a range of processes ranging from perception of biological motion to understanding the mental states of others.
Cortical attractor dynamics and connectivity, stochasticity, psychiatric disorders, and aging
Authors: Rolls Edmund T.
Published: August 2023

In this chapter we consider how the operation of attractor networks in the brain is influenced by noise in the brain produced by the random firing times of neurons for a given mean firing rate; how this can in fact be beneficial to the operation of the brain; and how the stability of these systems and how they are influenced by noise in the brain is relevant to understanding a number of mental disorders. The concept of noise in attractor networks is important to understanding decision-making, short-term memory, and depression and schizophrenia, and this is described in this Chapter. It is a key aim of this book to increase understanding of the brain that is relevant not only to its operation in health, but also in disease, and how it may be possible to ameliorate some of the effects found in these mental and other disorders.
Unfinished People
Authors: Blower Brooke L.
Published: August 2023

A last-minute loophole in the Emergency Immigration Act of 1921 allows Tamara, her mother, and her brother to travel from Poland to New York and reunite with Boris Drasin, who has been living in the Bronx and immersing himself in the city’s heady socialist politics. While Tamara finds her bearings in a strange new world, Boris dedicates himself to labor organizing for the International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union. But as the ILGWU’s fortunes fade in the 1920s, pressure falls on Tamara to support her family. She hopes to become an actress and a singer. The era’s show business industry, hawking promises of more and better, stands out as one of capitalism’s greatest triumphs. And vaudeville, where Tamara finally scores a role, is the belly of the beast.
Woman and Bird
Authors: Blower Brooke L.
Published: August 2023

As Tamara navigates the wreckage of the Great Depression, she chases three largely incompatible goals: economic survival, respect and independence on feminist grounds, and participation in the social democratic politics of the left—a near given in her Jewish immigrant community. Puzzling over who she would be—on stage and off—she engages in a series of flirtations, both personal and political, which take her from the socialism of her father’s garment worker union organizing to the gangster capitalism of New York’s nightlife, to the Popular Front movement of a newfound lover, the playwright Clifford Odets. When none give her all that she wants, she refashions herself into a new persona that nags at her conscience but catapults her into stardom.