bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Transforming Administration to Support Science in the Schoolhouse for Students with Disabilities
Authors: Boscardin Mary Lynn
Published: December 2007

I examine the role that administrators play in facilitating the development, adoption, use, and evaluation of scientifically based interventions within the school culture to support the educational outcomes of students with learning disabilities (LD). Two ways of transforming the administrative role to support science in the schoolhouse are presented; one considers the importance of including language in future legislation that acknowledges the role of administrators in school reform, and the other focuses on establishing a national research agenda addressing issues of leadership and special education. I argue that these 2 venues should serve to identify and to stimulate the use of evidence-based administrative practices that ultimately increase educational outcomes for students with LD, improve teacher instruction, and transform the leadership mission.
Science and Schooling for Students with LD
Authors: Scruggs Thomas E. , Mastropieri Margo A.
Published: December 2007

In this summative discussion, we respond to Crockett's proposals about supporting science in the schoolhouse, and we summarize and reflect on the perspectives of the commentators. Overall, they identify discussion points in issues of science in schooling, implementation of scientific practices, teacher training and professional development, and issues in educational administration and leadership. We agree with Crockett and the commentators that intensive efforts in all these areas must be made to strengthen the role of science in the schoolhouse.
Decision Making in Determining Eligibility of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners
Authors: Overton Terry , Fielding Cheryl , Simonsson Marie
Published: December 2007

Assessment personnel from the southern borderlands area of Texas participated in analyzing one of four different hypothetical cases. Respondents were expected to defer making eligibility decisions due to language proficiency, environment, culture, or lack of data. When data were lacking, the investigators proposed that respondents would recognize the need for additional information and defer making a decision. Differences in eligibility decisions were found when the respondents analyzed cases in which a significant discrepancy existed and in cases in which language proficiency information was provided. Experience in assessment was significant in the determination that additional information was needed to reach a decision, F(2, 87) = 3.99, p < .05. A majority of the respondents (83%) made an eligibility decision using insufficient data.
Specific Impairment in Developmental Reading Disabilities
Authors: Kibby Michelle Y. , Marks William , Morgan Sam , Long Charles J.
Published: December 2007

Children with developmental reading disabilities (RD) frequently display impaired working memory functioning. However, research has been divergent regarding the characteristics of the deficit. Our investigation addressed this controversy by assessing Baddeley's working memory model as a whole rather than focusing on particular aspects of it, as has been done by much of the research to date. Participants included 20 children with RD and 20 typical readers between the ages of 9 and 13. The phonological loop, visual—spatial sketchpad, and central executive were assessed according to Baddeley's model. The results demonstrated that children with RD have an impaired phonological loop but intact visual—spatial sketchpad and central executive functioning as compared to controls. In terms of the phonological loop, the deficit appears to be specific to the phonological store. Furthermore, our research supports a relationship between phonological processing and phonological loop functioning.
Promoting Teacher Quality and Retention in Special Education
Authors: Billingsley Bonnie S.
Published: December 2007

Qualified special educators are needed to carry out research-based practices in schools. The shortage of special educators, the high numbers of uncertified teachers, and high attrition rates threaten the practice of science in the schoolhouse and, consequently, the education that students with disabilities receive. If teachers are to use research-based practices to benefit students with disabilities, care must be directed toward teachers, what they do, and the complex conditions in which their practice occurs. In this discussion, I focus on four factors that are important to special education teacher retention—responsive induction programs, deliberate role design, positive work conditions and supports, and professional development. These retention-enhancing factors also serve to cultivate qualified special educators by providing the conditions in which they can thrive and grow professionally.
Emotional Adjustment and School Functioning of Young Adolescents with Multiple Versus Single Learning Disabilities
Authors: Martínez Rebecca S. , Semrud-Clikeman Margaret
Published: December 2007

Early adolescents (Grades 6—8) with multiple learning disabilities (LD; reading and math) in inclusive settings were compared to adolescents with single LD (reading or math) and typically achieving (TA) peers regarding their psychosocial functioning in two areas of adolescent well-being: emotional adjustment and school functioning. The Behavior Assessment System for Children (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1998) Self-Report of Personality for adolescents was used to determine well-being. One hundred twenty middle school students—15 boys and 15 girls in each group—were included in the current study. The results confirmed that adolescents with multiple LD (reading and math) reported poorer functioning (i.e., higher T scores) on school maladjustment, clinical maladjustment, emotional symptoms index, attitude to school, atypicality, and depression when compared to TA peers but not when compared to peers with a single LD (reading or math). All three groups differed from the TA group (but not from each other) on sense of inadequacy, with the multiple LD group reporting the highest T scores. Additional analyses indicated significant differences between girls and boys, regardless of disability status. Girls reported higher T scores on the emotional symptoms index, social stress, and depression, but boys reported greater school maladjustment and sensation seeking. Implications for practice and recommendations for future research are discussed.
Naming Speed Deficits in Adults with Reading Disabilities
Authors: Vukovic Rose K. , Wilson Alexander M. , Nash Kevin K.
Published: December 2007

The present study investigated the persistent nature of naming speed deficits within the context of the double-deficit hypothesis in a university sample of adults with reading disabilities (RD). Twenty-five university students with RD were compared to 28 typically achieving readers on measures of reading skill, phonological processing, and naming speed. The results indicated that both naming speed and phonological processing deficits characterized the RD group. In a regression analysis, neither naming speed nor phonological processing were important variables in explaining comprehension when reading rate was in the model. The results of the present study are mixed at best and are consistent with earlier conclusions that support for the double-deficit hypothesis of dyslexia remains limited.
The Social Construction of Learning Disabilities
Authors: Dudley-Marling Curt
Published: December 2007

Underpinning the technical gaze that dominates learning disabilities theory and practice is the assumption that learning disabilities are a pathology that resides in the heads of individual students, with the corollary that remedial efforts also focus on what goes on in the heads of students classified as learning disabled. This article begins with a critique of the ideology of individualism that situates individual success and failure in the heads of individuals as a means of introducing an alternative perspective—social constructivism—that locates learning and learning problems in the context of human relations and activity. Extended examples are used to illustrate how the performative aspects of learning disabilities emerge in the context of human relationships. The primary argument developed here is that one cannot be learning disabled on one's own. It takes a complex system of interactions performed in just the right way, at the right time, on the stage we call school to make a learning disability. The article concludes with a brief consideration of the instructional implications of a social constructivist stance.
Confounding the Needs and Confronting the Norms
Authors: Brantlinger Ellen
Published: December 2007

This article expands the ideas presented in Reid and Valle's essay by further exploring the construct of normality and its implications for children in schools. It examines the reasons for the nature of current school policy and practice by explicating who benefits and who loses from typical school structures and recent national legislation. Finally, it advocates for a transformation of thinking about the purpose of schools and suggests a radical restructuring that would support social reciprocity and community.
School Evolution
Authors: Berninger Virginia W. , Dunn Alnita , Lin Shin-Ju Cindy , Shimada Shirley
Published: December 2007

Similarities and differences between discursive practitioners and scientist—practitioners are discussed in reference to a variety of issues. The scientist—practitioner's approach to generating and evaluating new knowledge is illustrated with two partnerships: (a) between the University of Washington Multidisciplinary Learning Disability Center and a school district (at-risk first graders in the Los Angeles Unified School District) and (b) between the University of Washington Literacy Trek Project and a local school (at-risk second graders in Seattle public schools). Both partnerships involved mostly children who were English language learners. These partnerships also illustrated how Vygotsky's approach to fostering cognitive development through social interaction can be integrated with that of his pupil Luria, who assessed the neuropsychological processes of the individual mind/brain. The most effective instruction for school-age children, who exhibit biological and cultural diversity, takes into account individual and social—cultural variables.
Normalizing Difference in Inclusive Teaching
Authors: Baglieri Susan , Knopf Janice H.
Published: December 2007

Inclusion practices and special education can be transformed by using a disability studies perspective, which constructs differences as natural, acceptable, and ordinary. Although inclusion is a moral imperative in promoting social justice, some inclusive practices continue to marginalize students with disabilities. A truly inclusive school reflects a democratic philosophy whereby all students are valued, educators normalize difference through differentiated instruction, and the school culture reflects an ethic of caring and community.
Impact of the Social Construction of LD on Culturally Diverse Families
Authors: Kalyanpur Maya , Harry Beth
Published: December 2007

This response focuses on the effects of the current construction of learning disabilities (LD) on families of children from devalued racial/ethnic groups. Agreeing with the arguments of Reid and Valle, we add that parents from such groups are further disenfranchised because they are not participants in the critical discourse surrounding LD and because of the persistent belief that their parenting skills are deficient. We also suggest that the expectation of parental advocacy may be alien to parents whose cultures do not embrace an individualist perspective. Professionals can improve their responses to such parents by an understanding of the principle of cultural reciprocity.
Relationship Between Home Literacy Environment and Reading Achievement in Children with Reading Disabilities
Authors: Rashid Fontina L. , Morris Robin D. , Sevcik Rose A.
Published: December 2007

Past research has indicated that a significant relationship exists between young children's early home literacy environment and their reading-related skills. However, this relationship has rarely been investigated among older children with reading disabilities (RD). In the present study, the relationship between parent and child home literacy activities and children's academic functioning was investigated with a sample of 65 elementary-age children with RD. The results indicated that children's home literacy activities were not significantly related to any of their academic abilities, whereas parents' home literacy activities were significantly related to children's passage comprehension and spelling scores. However, relationships between home literacy environment and reading may be different for children with and without RD.
Evaluation of the Double-Deficit Hypothesis in College Students Referred for Learning Difficulties
Authors: Cirino Paul T. , Israelian Marlyne K. , Morris Mary K. , Morris Robin D.
Published: December 2007

The present study explored the double-deficit hypothesis (DDH) in a sample of 146 college students with and without reading disabilities (RD). The results indicated that although both phonological awareness (PA) and visual naming speed (VNS) contributed to performance on measures of decoding and comprehension, their relative contribution was influenced both by the nature of the stimulus (word vs. nonword vs. text) and by the conditions of the task (timed vs. untimed). Similar results were obtained using an individual differences approach, or when between-group comparisons were made of individuals with deficits in PA or VNS. The relative representation of DDH subgroups in groups of adults with RD varied based on the classification criteria used to define RD. These results support the DDH, extend its applicability to adults, and have implications for diagnostic decision making.
Teachers with LD
Authors: Ferri Beth A. , Connor David J. , Solis Santiago , Valle Jan , Volpitta Donna
Published: December 2007

The purpose of this study is to examine how 4 teachers with learning disabilities (LD) negotiate multiple, complex, and sometimes contradictory discourses of disabilities in constructing their own understandings of LD. We chose to study teachers with LD because of their unique access to at least 3 different sources of knowledge about LD: (a) professional discourses on disability, (b) mainstream cultural messages about LD, and (c) insights gained from their own life experience. We drew on aspects of critical discourse analysis and narrative inquiry for this investigation. Our findings indicate that participants draw on these discourses and on their teaching experience in various and complex ways to construct meaning about LD. In some instances, participants use the dominant discourses; at other times, they work to subvert these meanings. Yet, paradoxically, whether speaking with or against these meanings, their voices are inescapably engaging with authoritative discourses and cultural scripts surrounding disability.
ADHD and Dyscalculia
Authors: Monuteaux Michael C. , Faraone Stephen V. , Herzig Kathleen , Navsaria Neha , Biederman Joseph
Published: December 2007

The familial relationship between dyscalculia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was assessed. We conducted a familial risk analysis using probands with and without ADHD of both genders and their first-degree relatives. Participants were assessed with structured diagnostic interviews and a cognitive test battery. We found elevated rates of ADHD in relatives of both ADHD proband groups, regardless of dyscalculia status, and elevated rates of dyscalculia in relatives of probands with dyscalculia, irrespective of ADHD status. There was no evidence for cosegregation or assortative mating. Our findings support the hypothesis that ADHD and dyscalculia are independently transmitted in families and are etiologically distinct. These results reinforce the current nosological approach to these disorders and underscore the need for separate identification and treatment strategies for children with both conditions.
Psychometric Approaches to the Identification of LD
Authors: Francis David J. , Fletcher Jack M. , Stuebing Karla K. , Lyon G. Reid , Shaywitz Bennett A. , Shaywitz Sally E.
Published: December 2007

Simulated data were used to demonstrate that groups formed by imposing cut-points based on either discrepancy or low-achievement definitions of learning disabilities (LD) are unstable over time. Similar problems were demonstrated in longitudinal data from the Connecticut Longitudinal Study, where 39% of the children designated as having LD in Grade 3 changed group placement with repeated testing in Grade 5. These results show that the practice of subdividing a normal distribution with arbitrary cut-points leads to instability in group membership. Approaches to the identification of children as having LD based solely on individual test scores not linked to specific behavioral criteria lead to invalid decisions about individual children. Low-achievement definitions are not a viable alternative to IQ-discrepancy definitions in the absence of other criteria, such as the traditional exclusions and response to quality intervention. If we accept the premise of multiple classes of low achievers, then we must develop identification systems that are valid and abandon systems whose only merits are their historical precedence and convenience.
Learning Disabilities in Children with Very Low Birthweight
Authors: Litt Jonathan , Taylor H. Gerry , Klein Nancy , Hack Maureen
Published: December 2007

This study examined achievement, neuropsychological, and intervention outcomes at a mean age of 11 years in children with very low birthweight (VLBW, < 1,500 g) compared with a term-born control group. To assess the prevalence and correlates of specific learning disabilities (LD), the sample was limited to children without neurosensory disorders who had at least low average IQ. Participants included 31 children with < 750 g birthweight, 41 with 750—1,499 g birthweight, and 52 controls. The < 750 g group obtained lower scores in math, IQ, and perceptual—organizational skills than the term-born group. The < 750 g group also had higher rates of past and present LD than the controls. Despite these differences, the groups did not differ significantly in rates of special education or tutorial/remedial assistance. These findings suggest that children with extremely low birthweight without gross physical or intellectual impairments are at higher risk for LD and cognitive deficiencies than their term-born peers and that further efforts are needed to improve identification and treatment of these learning problems.
Studying Disability and Disability Studies
Authors: Connor David J.
Published: December 2007

In this article, I discuss the 11 diverse responses to Reid and Valle's work on the discursive practice of learning disabilities (LD), implications for instruction, and parent—school relations. I highlight key ideas from each article and then focus on three common areas of interest shared by most respondents: the unacceptable status quo of schooling practices; desired changes in schooling practices; and knowledge production in the field of special education and its relation to schooling practices. In light of the many issues raised, I urge the need for a reflective turn in the field of LD and for openness toward diversification of thought.
Discourses on Bad Children and Bad Schools
Authors: Thomas Gary , Loxley Andrew
Published: December 2007

First, discourse is discussed as concerning the subtler lineaments of knowledge production in notions about difference and difficulty. The unhelpful influences that these notions have had on the development of special education research and practice are discussed. The importance of the scholar—practitioner in undoing some of these understandings is further developed. Second, the point is stressed that politics and political questions are intertwined with empirical questions and that a discourse of objectivity propagates and fosters a belief that the supposed paraphernalia of science (measurement, experiment, prediction) can be employed without cost. Third, the point is made that the individual discourse is rooted in the theoretical context of special education—with unhelpful consequences for the way that difficulty continues to be construed as rooted in individuals, whether those individuals be children or schools.
Learning Disabilities and the New Reductionism
Authors: Neufeld Paul , Hoskyn Maureen
Published: December 2007

The purpose of this article is to respond to Reid and Valle's article “The Discursive Practice of LD: Implications for Instruction and Parent—School Relations” in this issue. Our response to the discursive analysis is organized around two major themes: (a) the issue of balance in the scholarship on learning disabilities (LD) and (b) the centrality of the discourse of general education to the discourse of LD. Following our response to the discursive analysis, we comment on the implications for instruction and parent—school relations drawn by Reid and Valle. Highlighted in this section is the disconnect between the macro-level findings from the discursive analysis and the micro-level orientation of their “sociopolitical vision” for instruction and parent—school relations.
Motor Correlates of ADHD
Authors: Kooistra Libbe , Crawford Susan , Dewey Deborah , Cantell Marja , Kaplan Bonnie J.
Published: December 2007

This study investigated whether the likelihood of motor impairment in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) increases with the presence of other disorders, and whether the co-occurring diagnoses of reading disability (RD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) account for the motor deficits seen in ADHD. A total of 291 children (218 boys, 73 girls) participated. Six groups of children were compared: ADHD only ( n = 29); RD only ( n = 63); ADHD and RD ( n = 47); ADHD and ODD ( n = 19); ADHD, RD, and ODD ( n = 21); and typically developing control children ( n = 112). Motor skills were assessed with the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency and the Beery Test of Visual—Motor Integration. We found that the motor skills of the ADHD-only group did not differ from the typical control group. Furthermore, motor impairment in ADHD increased as a function of co-occurring disorders, and the presence of RD rather than ADHD predicted motor impairment.
Genetic Influences on Specific Versus Nonspecific Language Impairment in 4-Year-Old Twins
Authors: Hayiou-Thomas Marianna E. , Oliver Bonamy , Plomin Robert
Published: December 2007

The present study addresses the distinction between specific (SLI) and nonspecific (NLI) language impairment at an etiological level by estimating the relative genetic and environmental contributions to language impairment in children with SLI and NLI. Drawing on a large longitudinal twin study, we tested a sample of 356 four-and-a-half-year-old children with low language ability and their twin partners at home on a range of language and nonverbal measures. For children whose language and nonverbal abilities were both low (NLI), genetic influence on language impairment was moderate and shared environmental influence was substantial. A similar pattern emerged for children whose language difficulties occurred in apparent isolation (SLI), although there was a trend for the genetic effects to be smaller for SLI than for NLI: Group heritability was .18 for SLI and .52 for NLI. Probandwise cross-concordances were suggestive of some genetic overlap between these two groups, but not with a subgroup of children with more severe cognitive delay.
Self-Determination Perceptions and Behaviors of Diverse Students with LD During the Transition Planning Process
Authors: Trainor Audrey A.
Published: December 2007

Transition models include components of student self-determination during transition planning meetings. Researchers acknowledge that cultural identity may influence both transition decisions and self-determination strategies. Yet the appropriateness of these approaches for culturally and linguistically diverse students with learning disabilities (LD) remains unknown. This study examined self-determination perceptions and behaviors of European American, African American, and Hispanic American male adolescents with LD. Data were collected during focus group and individual interviews, observations, and document reviews. Qualitative data analysis provided information about students' behaviors and perceptions during postsecondary transition planning. The findings indicated that differences within this group of diverse participants were subtle. Students identified themselves and family members—rather than teachers—as key players in transition planning. Students perceived that self-determination efforts were thwarted in school contexts, whereas self-determination opportunities in home contexts were more accessible and productive.
Sources of Error in Constructing and Interpreting Graphs
Authors: Parmar Rene S. , Signer Barbara R.
Published: December 2007

The purpose of this study was to examine students' understanding of and ability to interpret line graphs, using four tasks: two where students constructed a graph and two where students interpreted a given graph. The tasks were unique in that they did not simply involve the explanation of given data but included a language component that looked at students' cognitive processes and understanding while they were engaged in the tasks. The study is important because students are often able to define and even draw graphs yet perform poorly on graph interpretation items presented in high-stakes examinations. The sample for the study consisted of 91 fourth and fifth graders with and without learning disabilities (LD) from six schools in a major metropolitan area. Scoring rubrics were designed for each item. An analysis of variance by grade and group indicated no significant differences between fourth and fifth graders overall but revealed that typically achieving students performed at significantly higher levels than students with LD at both grade levels. Additional descriptive analyses looked at the patterns of errors evidenced and the nature of the students' constructions. These are discussed, and instructional implications are derived.
Role of Cognitive Theory in the Study of Learning Disability in Mathematics
Authors: Geary David C.
Published: December 2007

Gersten, Jordan, and Flojo (in this issue) provide the beginnings of an essential bridge between basic research on mathematical disabilities (MD) in young children and the application of this research for the early identification and remediation of these forms of learning disability. As they acknowledge, the field of MD is in the early stages of development, and thus recommendations regarding identification measures and remedial techniques must be considered preliminary. I discuss the importance of maintaining a tight link between theoretical and empirical research on children's developing numerical, arithmetical, and mathematical competencies and future research on learning disabilities in mathematics. This link will provide the foundation for transforming experimental procedures into assessment measures, understanding the cognitive strengths and weaknesses of children with these forms of learning disability, and developing remedial approaches based on the pattern of cognitive strengths and weaknesses for individual children.
Commentary on Early Identification and Interventions for Students With Mathematical Difficulties
Authors: Hanley Tom V.
Published: December 2007

Gersten, Jordan, and Flojo (in this issue) have written an elegant summary of the research on early identification and interventions for students with mathematical difficulties. The general constructs of arithmetic combinations, counting strategies, and number sense encapsulate elemental components of early math learning and suggest approaches to remediation. Recent changes in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act may enhance opportunities for researchers, practitioners, and young learners to benefit from this knowledge.
Curriculum-Based Measurement in the Content Areas
Authors: Espin Christine A. , Shin Jongho , Busch Todd W.
Published: December 2007

The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability and validity of curriculum-based measures as indicator of growth in content-area learning. Participants were 58 students in 2 seventh-grade social studies classes. CBM measures were student- and administrator-read vocabulary-matching probes. Criterion measures were performance on a knowledge test, the social studies subtest of the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS), and student grades. Both the student- and examiner-read measures reflected change in performance; however, only the student-read measure resulted in interindividual differences in growth rates. Significant relations were found between the growth rates generated by the student-read vocabulary measure and student course grades, ITBS scores, and growth on the knowledge test. These results support the validity of a vocabulary-matching measure as an indicator of student learning in the content areas. The results are discussed in terms of the use of CBM as a system for monitoring performance and evaluating interventions for students with learning disabilities in content-area classrooms.
Relative Effectiveness of Reading Practice or Word-Level Instruction in Supplemental Tutoring
Authors: Vadasy Patricia F. , Sanders Elizabeth A. , Peyton Julia A.
Published: December 2007

In this quasi-experimental study, which is part of a series of investigations on supplemental reading tutoring variations, the relative effectiveness of more intense decoding instruction or text reading practice was examined. Fifty-seven first-grade students scoring in the lowest quartile for reading skills received either classroom reading instruction or one of two treatments: tutoring in word study with text reading practice, or word study tutoring alone. Individual instruction was provided by trained paraprofessional tutors. At the end of first grade, treatment students significantly outperformed their nontutored peers on measures of reading accuracy, reading comprehension, reading efficiency, passage reading fluency, and spelling. Differential treatment effects on passage reading fluency are examined, taking into consideration pretest skill levels and text reading practice characteristics.
A Longitudinal Study of the Development of Oral Reading Fluency in Young Children At Risk for Reading Failure
Authors: Speece Deborah L. , Ritchey Kristen D.
Published: December 2007

The purpose of this study was to examine the development of oral reading fluency in a sample of first-grade children. Using growth curve analysis, models of growth were identified for a combined sample of at-risk (AR) and not-at-risk (NAR) children, and predictors of growth were identified for the longitudinal AR sample in first and second grade. Large and serious differences in reading fluency growth between the AR and NAR samples were apparent early, replicating other reports. Theories of sight-word learning and reading fluency were supported, in that letter-sound fluency was a uniquely significant predictor of first-grade reading fluency. The effects of phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming were mediated by the other variables in the model. Growth in first-grade oral reading fluency accounted for the most unique variance in second-grade growth and end-of-year performance. The results suggest that word reading fluency should be regarded as developing concomitantly with early word recognition rather than as a later-developing skill.
The Inhibition of Exogenous Distracting Information in Children with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Censabella Sandrine , Noël Marie-Pascale
Published: December 2007

Several studies have shown that children with learning disabilities (LD) have difficulty in inhibiting irrelevant information, which generates endogenous interference from working memory. Other inhibition capacities have not yet been investigated, however. This article reports on an experiment examining the capacities of children with LD to inhibit exogenous interference, such as automatic, prepotent responses and distractor interference. Fifteen 11-year-old children with LD and 15 matched controls completed four tasks of inhibition, using the Stroop and Eriksen's flanker paradigms. To test the hypothesis that inhibition can be differentiated in terms of the type of material it acts on, each paradigm was used with numerical and nonnumerical stimuli. Our results showed that children with LD did not exhibit significantly larger interference effects than controls. Moreover, the pattern of results did not differ according to the type of material used. These findings indicate that children with LD do not show impairment in the inhibition of exogenous information—a finding that contradicts the material-specific inhibition hypothesis.
The Strategies Adopted by Dutch Children with Dyslexia to Maintain Their Self-Esteem When Teased at School
Authors: Singer Elly
Published: December 2007

This article reports on a study of children's narratives about the relationships between dyslexia and being teased at school and explores the dynamics between dyslexia, being bullied, self-esteem, and psychosocial problems. We reconstructed four profiles of inner logic in the children's reactions to being teased or humiliated as a consequence of their dyslexia. Most children with dyslexia protect themselves against teasing and feeling worthless by concealing both their emotions and their academic failures. Others, however, concentrate on their academic progress, and their self-esteem seems to be strengthened by fighting against dyslexia.
Effects of a Peer-Mediated Phonological Skill and Reading Comprehension Program on Reading Skill Acquisition for Middle School Students with Reading Disabilities
Authors: Calhoon Mary Beth
Published: December 2007

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a peer-mediated instructional approach on the teaching of phonological skills and reading comprehension for middle school (sixth- to eighth-grade) students with reading disabilities. All students ( n = 38) were identified as having learning disabilities and reading at the third-grade level or below. One group was taught using a peer-mediated phonological skill program, Linguistics Skills Training (LST), and a peer-mediated reading comprehension program, Peer Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS). The contrast group was taught in the more traditional whole-class format using a widely implemented remedial reading program. The results showed significant differences between conditions, with students receiving the LST/PALS instruction outperforming the contrast group on Letter—Word Identification, Word Attack, and Passage Comprehension using the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Achievement—III. Furthermore, large effect sizes for growth were found on Letter—Word Identification, Word Attack, and Passage Comprehension for the LST/PALS treatment group. No differences were found between conditions for reading fluency. Findings are discussed in regard to instruction delivery format (peer tutoring vs. whole class) with respect to best practices for middle school students with reading disabilities.
The Effects of Varying Group Size on the Reading Recovery Approach to Preventive Early Intervention
Authors: Iversen Sandra , Tunmer William E. , Chapman James W.
Published: December 2007

The purpose of this study was to determine whether an early intervention program based on the Reading Recovery (RR) format could be developed for pairs of struggling readers that would allow them to make accelerated progress similar to that experienced in the 1-to-1 RR tutorial. A preliminary pilot study showed that the RR lesson format could be adapted for teaching pairs of struggling readers without compromising the integrity of the lesson content, provided that the average length of the lesson was increased to 41 min. An experimental study comparing the effectiveness of 1-to-1 RR instruction with RR instruction in pairs showed that although RR instruction in pairs required somewhat longer lessons (42 min vs. 33 min), there were no major differences between the two groups on any measures at discontinuation and at the end of the year, nor was there a significant difference between the groups in mean number of lessons to discontinuation. The results further indicated that by discontinuation, the children in the treatment groups were performing within the average range on all measures, and that these positive effects were maintained on end-of-year measures. Thus, by increasing instructional time by about a quarter, RR teachers can double the number of students served without making any sacrifices in outcomes.
Reflections on Research on Reading Disability with Special Attention to Gender Issues
Authors: Siegel Linda S. , Smythe Ian S.
Published: December 2007

This commentary reviews some of the issues involved in the definition of reading disability and demonstrates how definitions can influence the conclusions reached by a review. In particular, the discrepancy definition of reading disability is shown to be logically flawed. Data from a large unbiased sample show that there are no significant differences between boys and girls in the incidence of reading difficulties.
Research Topics in Responsiveness to Intervention
Authors: Deshler Donald D. , Mellard Daryl F. , Tollefson Julie M. , Byrd Sara E.
Published: December 2007

This introduction to the special series provides an overview of the December 2003 Responsiveness-to-Intervention (RTI) Symposium, hosted by the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities (NRCLD). RTI refers to individual, comprehensive student-centered assessment models that apply a problem-solving framework to identify and address a student's learning difficulties. This introduction presents the rationale for the symposium, participant selection, and key questions that provided the underlying framework. Further, we introduce the 14 symposium papers featured in this special issue. The papers represent the high-quality, thought-provoking presentations and subsequent discussions held during the RTI Symposium. Finally, in light of anticipated changes in specific learning disabilities (SLD) determination as indicated by the recent reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; P.L. 108-446), we briefly describe the NRCLD's research, dissemination, and technical assistance efforts related to the assessment and identification of students with learning disabilities.
Hitting the Moving Target Known as Reading Development
Authors: Speece Deborah L.
Published: December 2007

Attention to growth may net more accurate screening results than have been apparent in the long history of early identification research. Instead of relying solely on measures administered at one time point, including a measure of children's growth or responsiveness may add an important dimension to the screening equation and provide a clearer view of who may require secondary intervention. Several possibilities were examined that led to suggestions for further research. It was recommended that screening for secondary interventions be viewed as a three-legged stool that incorporates not only individual differences at the screen and outcome but also development conceptualized as rate of learning.
Screening for Secondary Intervention
Authors: Foorman Barbara R. , Ciancio Dennis J.
Published: December 2007

The article by Speece (in this issue) underscores the disappointing accuracy results of early screening for reading difficulties and argues that development conceptualized as rate of learning matters. We respond by emphasizing three points. First, the purpose of early screening could be identifying students not at risk so that instructional objectives can be established for students potentially at risk. Second, monitoring progress in mastering the alphabetic principle is reflected in item-based learning. Third, response to instruction is multilevel and contextualized. These points are illustrated with data from an early reading assessment used widely in Texas and from highperforming/high-poverty schools in Texas that serve as models of multitiered instruction.
Teachers Are Still the Test
Authors: Gerber Michael M.
Published: December 2007

In this paper I comment on recent recommendations that students' responsiveness to instruction (RTI) provides a basis for identification of students as learning disabled. I repeat an earlier argument (Gerber & Semmel, 1985) that teachers embedded in schools are naturally variable in their capacity to respond to differences in students' response to instruction. This fact continues to be the only logical empirical foundation for the construct of learning disability. I describe a theoretical model of instructional tolerance that indicates why standardized protocol RTI strategies, specifically, cannot be achieved at desirable scale without incurring enormous costs.
Feasibility and Consequences of Response to Intervention
Authors: Mastropieri Margo A. , Scruggs Thomas E.
Published: December 2007

This paper provides a response to the thoughtful paper presented by Gerber in this issue and at the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities Responsiveness-to-Intervention Symposium in Kansas City with guidance from five major questions posed by the organizers of the symposium. Gerber's paper provides interesting perspectives regarding the alternative approach to identification of learning disabilities (LD) or the “response to intervention” (RTI). Gerber raises questions and concerns about the theoretical and practical aspects of a response-to-intervention model on either a small- or large-scale basis. Guiding questions for this response include an examination of (a) changing roles of teachers and diagnosticians; (b) responsibility for fidelity of treatment implementation; (c) applications in secondary settings; (d) consistency of implementation from local to state to national levels; and (e) differentiation of LD from other disabilities. An alternative to both RTI and present procedures is proposed. Conclusions are discussed with respect to existing researchbased evidence.
Tiers of Intervention in Kindergarten Through Third Grade
Authors: O'Connor Rollanda E. , Harty Kristin R. , Fulmer Deborah
Published: December 2007

This study measured the effects of increasing levels of intervention in reading for a cohort of children in Grades K through 3 to determine whether the severity of reading disability (RD) could be significantly reduced in the catchment schools. Tier 1 consisted of professional development for teachers of reading. The focus of this study is on additional instruction that was provided as early as kindergarten for children whose achievement fell below average. Tier 2 intervention consisted of small-group reading instruction 3 times per week, and Tier 3 of daily instruction delivered individually or in groups of two. A comparison of the reading achievement of third-grade children who were at risk in kindergarten showed moderate to large differences favoring children in the tiered interventions in decoding, word identification, fluency, and reading comprehension.
Identifying Specific Learning Disability
Authors: Kavale Kenneth A.
Published: December 2007

Responsiveness to intervention (RTI) is being proposed as an alternative model for making decisions about the presence or absence of specific learning disability. I argue that there are many questions about RTI that remain unanswered, and radical changes in proposed regulations are not warranted at this time. Many fundamental issues related to RTI are unresolved, and a better strategy may be to more rigorously implement existing identification criteria (e.g., discrepancy and psychological processing deficits) in a structured psychometric framework. Suggestions on how to modify present procedures are provided.
Neuropsychological Aspects for Evaluating Learning Disabilities
Authors: Semrud-Clikeman Margaret
Published: December 2007

This review surveys the empirical literature for assessments of learning problems in children from a neuropsychological perspective. An evaluation of children with learning problems must consider measures of working memory, attention, executive function, and comprehension (listening and written), particularly for children who do not respond to intervention. These constructs must be tied to intervention techniques, and their connections must be empirically verified. The response-to-intervention (RTI) perspective provides excellent support for the process in young children but is still developing the process for students above the second grade. This review provides information about the existing research on neurobiological correlates of learning disabilities, possible areas for further evaluation, and the link to the RTI movement.
Alternative Models of Learning Disabilities Identification
Authors: Johnson Evelyn , Mellard Daryl F. , Byrd Sara E.
Published: December 2007

The final session of the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities (NRCLD) Responsiveness-to-Intervention (RTI) Symposium, “What are alternative models to LD identification other than RTI?” included four papers that discussed concerns over the exclusive reliance on an RTI approach to learning disability identification, considerations for analyzing proposed LD identification models, and various alternatives to LD identification. The work of the participating panelists is summarized in this discussant paper, and next steps for the NRCLD in light of these presentations are suggested.
Beyond Strategies
Authors: Wiebe Berry Ruth A.
Published: December 2007

Links between teachers' pedagogical beliefs and teaching practices were investigated with respect to process writing instruction. Participants included 5 teachers, 44 general education students, and 23 special education students in 2 elementary multi-age inclusion classrooms. Findings suggested that, although the teachers shared similar views on inclusion and were convinced of the uniqueness of their respective instructional approaches, they nuanced their writing instruction to conform to their implicit theories about teaching, learning, and disability. One set of teachers believed that the writing “breakdowns” of students with disabilities required a structural approach— sequenced, individualized, phonics-based instruction targeting individual performance levels. Another set of teachers advocated a relational approach, wherein students with disabilities are “protected” and “empowered” in learning communities characterized by shared activities, student choice, and interpersonal communication.
The Double-Deficit Hypothesis
Authors: Vukovic Rose K. , Siegel Linda S.
Published: December 2007

The double-deficit hypothesis of developmental dyslexia proposes that deficits in phonological processing and naming speed represent independent sources of dysfunction in dyslexia. The present article is a review of the evidence for the double-deficit hypothesis, including a discussion of recent findings related to the hypothesis. Studies in this area have been characterized by variability in methodology— how dyslexia is defined and identified, and how dyslexia subtypes are classified. Such variability sets limitations on the extent to which conclusions may be drawn with respect to the double-deficit hypothesis. Furthermore, the literature is complicated by the persistent finding that measures of phonological processing and naming speed are significantly correlated, resulting in a statistical artifact that makes it difficult to disentangle the influence of naming speed from that of phonological processing. Longitudinal and intervention studies of the double-deficit hypothesis are needed to accumulate evidence that investigates a naming speed deficit that is independent of a phonological deficit for readers with dyslexia. The existing evidence does not support a persistent core deficit in naming speed for readers with dyslexia.