bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Tobacco Leaf Protein: I. An Evaluation of the Use of Putative Chemical Growth Enhancers for Tobacco Leaf Protein Production
Authors: De Jong DW
Published: July 2016

Effects of foliar applications of long-chain fatty compounds on production of leaf protein from tobacco genotypes were evaluated. Triacontanol, purported to be a growth stimulant, had minimal effects on most experimental parameters. A propriety product, AgroLizer™, appeared to exert greater influence but results were inconclusive. Chemical treatments interacted with environmental conditions and tobacco genotype. Acid precipitation of the green fraction resulted in a pellet that could be easily removed by low speed centrifugation but produced a white fraction with lower protein percentage than heat precipitation of the green fraction. Triacontanol delayed flowering and extended vegetative growth in some genotypes. Increased cured leaf yields of flue-cured and Maryland type tobaccos were consistent but not statistically significant. An important finding was discovery of a genotype, T.I. 401, that produced high amounts of extractable leaf protein regardless of growth stage. This variety became the object of a follow-up investigation.
Time Resolved Emission of Sidestream Smoke Particles
Authors: Dittmann R , Feld HJ , Müller BH , Schneider W
Published: July 2016

By means of the dispersion quotient method, the aerosol properties of freshly produced sidestream smoke were measured during the puff and subsequent interpuff period. These measurements were made on short time scales and at high aerosol concentrations. Examples are presented, which show the influence of different combustion conditions during the puff (resulting from different degrees of ventilation and different types of tobacco) on the emission of sidestream particles during the interpuff period. The ratio of the volume concentrations of the particles before and during a puff is reduced by ventilation and is nearly unchanged by the variation of the tobacco type.
An Application of Fourier Transform Infra-red (FT-IR) Microspectroscopy to the Study of Cigarette Manufacturing Defects
Authors: Thompson MM , Ireland MS
Published: July 2016

FT-IR microspectroscopy was used to investigate a common type of cigarette defect in which the filter separates from the tobacco rod. Infra-red imagings of the adhesive located at this junction on the tipping papers from both defective and acceptable cigarettes were obtained. A comparison of these data revealed that although adhesive was present in the seam area of the defective cigarettes, the amount of adhesive was significantly less and its distribution was not uniform.
The Measurement of Intrapuff Nicotine Yield
Authors: Crooks EL , Lynm D
Published: July 2016

Time-resolved measurements of intrapuff nicotine yield in mainstream smoke have been performed with a specially designed intrapuff smoking apparatus (IPSA). The IPSA-filter traversing mechanism collects mainstream particles on a rectangular filter pad which moves at a constant velocity perpendicular to the direction of smoke flow at the mouthend of the cigarette. Filter pads were assayed by two analytical techniques. Standard gas chromatographic (GC) methodology was used to quantify nicotine mass in five equal time segments per puff. A second method, using a Berthold TLC-Linear Analyser, measured total radioactivity across the pad for samples from [2'-14C]-nicotine labelled cigarettes. Intrapuff nicotine concentrations were determined from measured puff flow-rate profiles and the collected masses of nicotine on the filters. GC nicotine concentration measurements correlated well with total activity from the scanner measurements. Studies carried out with filtered full-flavour cigarettes revealed that nicotine concentrations in the smoke vary significantly during a puff. This work provides a new technique for studying time-resolved yields of mainstream smoke components. It may potentially be used to elucidate mechanisms controlling the yield of nicotine and other mainstream smoke components.
Pattern-Arrangements of Tobacco Shreds in the Internal Structure of Cigarettes
Authors: Nestorov A , Vuthy C
Published: July 2016

Analyses of indices observed in macro-photographs of a variety of cigarette cross-sections have shown that tobacco shreds forming the internal structure of cigarettes are highly arranged in a defined pattern in which their lenghts are predominantly oriented along the cigarette lenghts and their widths - parallel to the cigarette seams. These pattern-arrangements of tobacco shreds have an effect upon the dielectric properties and deformation of cigarettes. The deformation has been found to be bigger when measured perpendicular to seams.
Tobacco and the Environment: The Continuous Reduction of Worldwide Energy Source Use for Green Leaf Curing
Authors: Campbell JS
Published: July 2016

Air-, flue-, fire-, and sun-cured, tobacco types require post-harvest curing of green leaves to produce optimum subjective and objective qualities for storage and subsequent processing and manufacture. Materials for construction of curing barns vary widely between countries. The major use of heating fuels within such structures is for flue-cured tobacco. Choice of energy sources, coal, wood, oil or gas depends on local availability, cost, and relative efficiencies. The vital importance of reducing such materials to a minimum has been recognised for many years by research into improving barn and furnace design and construction. Consumption of wood for curing has been shown to represent a minute proportion of total world wide consumer use. To ensure local availability, the growing of trees by flue cured farmers on a personal, self-sufficient, sustainable basis is well underway in parts of Africa, Asia, and South and Central America. Tobacco production, within an environmental farming system, on an economic basis, is discussed and strongly stressed.
The Biological Degradation of Nicotine by Nicotinophilic Microorganisms
Authors: Eberhardt HJ
Published: July 2016

Various microorganisms are capable of breaking down tobacco alkaloids by different biochemical processes and possess characteristic enzymatic systems for the catabolism of nicotine. Bacteria of the genus Pseudomonas and the fungus Cunninghamellaechinulata degrade nicotine via N-methylmyosmine and pseudooxynicotine which is linked to the opening of the pyrrolidine ring (pyrrolidine pathway), whereas Arthrobacteroxidanshydroxylates the pyridine ring in the 6-position. 6-hydroxynicotine is produced as a primary product (pyridine pathway). Tobacco plants, and some fungi (e.g. Pelliculariafilamentosa) degrade nicotine via demethylation to nornicotine (methyl pathway). As a result of the microbial degradation of nicotine and other tobacco alkaloids, carbon and nitrogen are made bioavailable. Following metabolic conversion to carboxylic acids, the reaction products are used by unicellular organisms as primary nutrients and a source of energy for the synthesis of new cell compounds.
Measurement of Dynamic Mass Changes in Burning Cigarettes by Neutron Radioscopy
Authors: Brenizer JS , Jenkins RW , Lanzillotti HV , McRae DD , Mora CA
Published: July 2016

Neutron radioscopic images of burning cigarettes under both static and dynamic smoking conditions were analysed with a video image processor to measure the changes occurring in the images. These changes were related to the actual mass changes occurring in the cigarette rod during the burning process. The neutron images were used to determine the deposition, movement and evaporation of pyrolysis products in the cigarette rod. In addition, the experimental data were used to calculate the mass burn rates of cigarettes. While the instantaneous mass burn rate of a smouldering cigarette can be measured with a balance, neutron radioscopy can be used to determine it under both static and dynamic smoking conditions. The results of this study, along with background information on neutron radioscopy, calibration methods and the image processing procedures, are presented.
Tobacco Production in Switzerland
Authors: Alber G
Published: July 2016

In Switzerland approximately 730 ha of tobacco are grown, mainly on small family farms. The main growing area is located in the French speaking part of the country, on altitudes ranging from 400 to 800 m above sea level. Approximately 93 % of the surface is planted with Burley and 7 % with Virginia. The cigarette manufacturers have to buy the whole crop of acceptable quality by law proportionally to their market share in Switzerland, in total approximately 1300-1500 tons per year. The buying organization, named SOTA (Societe cooperative pour l'achat du tabac indigene) has been created by the industry in 1930. It is responsible to buy and distribute the whole crop and finances a small research center with the aim to improve the quality. There is an agreement between the SOTA and the grower's organization FAPTA (Federation suisse des associations de planteurs de tabac) that limits the maximum surface to 730 ha. The price paid to the farmer is fixed by the government and is significantly higher than the world market price. The difference between the price paid to the farmer and the one paid by the industry is compensated by a specific fund which is under supervision of the custom and excise department. Because of several good crops, this system of subsidy became problematic. Therefore a new system of quota has been introduced for the 1997/1998 crop which limits the quantity of tobacco which can be delivered by each farmer.
Conference Report - Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR): A Meeting Organized by the Pesticide Group of the Society of the Chemical Industry, March 10, 1998, London, UK
Authors: Eberhardt HJ
Published: July 2016

Conference Report Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR): a meeting organized by the pesticide group of the society of the chemical industry, march 10, 1998, London, UK
Induction of Pathogenesis-Related Proteins of Group 1 by Systemic Virus Infections of Nicotiana tabacum L.
Authors: Röhring C
Published: July 2016

The induction of acid pathogenesis-related proteins (PR-proteins) of group 1 (PR-1) by systemic virus infections of tobacco plants was investigated during a time period between 3 and 19 days after inoculation. Each leaf position was investigated separately. The PR proteins were detected electrophoretically and, in addition, virus protein was detected by Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). Potato virus X (PVX) and potato virus Y (PVY) were found to highly induce PR proteins in N. tabacum L. “Samsun NN”. The same results were obtained when PVX was investigated in N. tabacum L. “Samsun”. The accumulation started later and took place more slowly than during hypersensitive host reaction (HR) of “Samsun NN” to tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). A correlation was found between the accumulation of PR proteins and the accumulation of the virus in the same leaf. Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) was less effective in PR protein induction than PVX and PVY. Consequently it could be demonstrated that PR proteins do not only appear due to hypersensitive host reactions but also during systemic virus infections.
Determination of Mainstream and Sidestream Cigarette Smoke Components for Cigarettes of Different Tobacco Types and a Set of Reference Cigarettes
Authors: Perfetti TA , Coleman WM , Smith WS
Published: July 2016

The yield of selected components in the mainstream and sidestream smoke for cigarettes of different tobacco types and a set of Kentucky Reference cigarettes have been measured. The BAT ‘fishtail’ chimney apparatus was used in conjunction with standard FTC Cambridge pad collection apparatus for the simultaneous collection of both sidestream (SS) and mainstream (MS) cigarette smoke, respectively. Comparison of MS FTC yields and MS yields from the BAT MS/SS smoke collection device showed that the smoke yields for the products of this study were similar for the two methods. Sidestream to mainstream smoke ratios (SS/MS) for TPM, nicotine, HO, ‘tar’, CO and COwere similar to those reported in the literature, despite the variety of collection devices employed in literature reports. The total nicotine accountabilities for the single tobacco cigarettes and the set of Reference cigarettes of this study were relatively constant (~53 %). Enantiomeric separation of the alkaloids in the different smoke streams was accomplished by chiral gas chromatography-mass selective detection. The levels and the enantiomeric ratios of nicotine and nornicotine varied in the smoke streams of the different cigarettes. The level and enantiomeric ratios of anaba-sine and anatabine in sidestream smoke were below detection limits of the method employed. The enantio-meric ratios of these secondary alkaloids could not be calculated. The fraction ofd -nicotine transferred to side-stream smoke did not change significantly when compared to that yielded in mainstream smoke even though the temperatures experienced during the side-stream smoke formation process are quite different (lower) from those occurring in the mainstream smoke formation process. Relatively low concentrations of the secondary alkaloids provided only a preliminary evaluation of their enantiomeric distribution in cigarette smoke.
Conference Report: 52nd Tobacco Science Research Conference (TSRC), September 13-16, 1998, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
Authors: Eberhardt HJ , Scherer G
Published: July 2016

The 52nd Tobacco Science Research Conference (TSRC) was held from 13th to 16th September 1998 in Atlanta, U.S.A., at the invitation of the University of Georgia, Atlanta. Two parallel sessions were held during which 64 papers were presented dealing with the results of recent biotechnological research with respect to the tobacco plant, as well as research into the manufacture and analysis of tobacco products, human smoking behaviour and the effects of pyrolytic products on the environment and the organism.
Conference Report: 51st German Plant Protection Conference, October 5-8, 1998, in Halle/Saale, Germany
Authors: Eberhardt HJ
Published: July 2016

The 51st German Plant Protection Conference was held by the Federal Biological Institute of Agriculture and Forestry [BiologischeBundesanstaltfür Land- und Forstwirtschaft] in Halle/Saale from 5th to 8th October 1998. The attendance of over 1,000 registered participants reflected the continued lively interest shown in the conference. Some 330 oral contributions, assigned to the various sections, were presented in five parallel sessions.
The Pyrolysis of Tobacco Additives As A Means of Predicting Their Behaviour in A Burning Cigarette
Authors: Stotesbury S , Digard H , Willoughby L , Couch A
Published: July 2016

In order to understand the behaviour of tobacco additives in the burning cigarette it is important to know whether they transfer intact to the smoke or whether there is any decomposition during smoking. There are practical problems in comparing the chemical analysis of whole smoke from cigarettes with and without additives. Changes to the smoke chemistry may be insignificant in analytical terms and therefore missed from a general scan. Targeted analysis of key components potentially overcomes this concern, but has the drawback of being expensive in terms of time and analytical resources. Pyrolysis-GC-MS is an attractive solution in that it potentially enables the effects of combustion of a single material to be studied in isolation. However, it is not entirely valid to base an assessment of a material on a pyrolysis experiment alone unless the results can be demonstrably related to the cigarette smoke chemistry. The variables that affect the outcome of combustion are temperature, rate of change of temperature, oxygen concentration and chemical environment (matrix and gas phase). The key to this work has been in performing pyrolysis experiments under a range of different conditions and relating the experimental conditions to those within the burning zone of the cigarette to give a prediction of smoke chemistry. To test the theory in practise, the transfer and the extent of degradation of anisole, p-anisaldehyde, benzaldehyde, isoamylisovalerate, methyl trans-cinnamate and vanillin within a burning cigarette were investigated using this pyrolysis method. Pyrolyses were undertaken on each additive at 14 sets of pyrolysis conditions: temperatures between 200°C and 700°C in 2 % and 10 % oxygen, and at 800°C and 900°C in 2 % oxygen. By monitoring the presence of the intact additive in the volatile components from the pyrolysis, the temperature at which the additive is likely to transfer to the smoke was determined. By monitoring the decomposition products at temperatures up to this transfer temperature, the extent and products of decomposition likely from the additive were estimated. The pyrolysis predictions were compared with results from a previous study involving adding 14C-analogues of the materials to cigarettes and measuring the resultant radioactive species in the smoke. The results from the pyrolysis experiments lead us to make the following predictions: Anisole, isoamylisovalerate and vanillin will transfer intact to the smoke at 200°C. p-Anisaldehyde and methyl trans-cinnamate are likely to transfer to the smoke at a higher temperature of around 400°C leading to some decomposition/oxidation (3 % and 1 %, respectively). Benzaldehyde is likely to transfer to the smoke at 200°C, but at this temperature a significant amount (~26 %) oxidises to benzoic acid. Both compounds appear resilient to further degradation at higher temperatures. These levels of transfer were found to be consistent with smoke chemistry data.
Physical Dimensions and Tar and Nicotine Yields of Fine-cut Smoking Articles Rolled by German Consumers
Authors: Dymond HF
Published: July 2016

In 1994, the European Smoking Tobacco Association (ESTA) commissioned and reported a study undertaken in the Netherlands to determine the making habits of roll-your-own smokers. The study included laboratory smoking of the collected smoking articles for the determination of tar and nicotine. In 1997, ESTA commissioned a similar study for Germany involving German fine-cut smokers. This paper reviews the data produced from the German study and compares the data with that produced in the Netherlands. An independent market research agency recruited known smokers of fine-cut tobacco. They were given the most popular brand of tobacco and the most popular brand of booklet paper. The consumers were instructed to make a fine-cut smoking article for testing each time they wanted to smoke. These smoking articles were placed in protective tins and collected by the research agency for analysis. An independent laboratory in Germany undertook the smoking and analysis. This study shows that a German roll-your-own smoker uses an average of 830 mg tobacco and makes a product that is 7.6 mm in diameter. German booklet paper is slightly shorter than Dutch paper. German products are more cylindrical than Dutch products and this probably accounts for the much reduced variability of German products compared with Dutch products. The mean tar yield of these articles was 12 mg and the mean nicotine yield was 0.9 mg.
Specific and Non-specific Markers of Stress in Tobacco
Authors: Edreva A , Georgieva ID , Gesehva E , Delon R
Published: July 2016

Factors of stress induce important alterations in gene expression of plants. In tobacco, new molecular species (absent in healthy plants) appear in stress conditions; they may result from both gene derepression and posttran-scriptional events. These molecules can be regarded as markers of stress. Two groups of markers are observed: non-specific, which are induced by various stresses of different origin (pathogens or abiotic factors), and specific, appearing as a response to a definite stress. We established that non-specific markers in tobacco leaves are lipid peroxides, pathogenesis-related (PR)-proteins, one acidic peroxidase isoenzyme (relative electrophoretic mobility (REM) 0.34), phenylamides, and chlorogenoquinones. In tobacco seedlings non-specific stress markers are three acidic peroxidase isoenzymes (REM 0.51, 0.60, 0.72), as well as PR-proteins. Peroxidase activity is also increased as a response to all stress factors studied in both tobacco leaves and seedlings. A specific marker of endoparasitic fungal pathogenesis (ex: P. tabacina) in tobacco leaves and seedlings is the dramatic increase of ss-glucosidase activity. This response was not induced by other pathogens (bacteria, viruses) and abiotic factors. Hence, the non-specific markers are informative for stress situation independently of the nature of stress factors, and can be suggested as components of a general defence system in tobacco. Specific markers may be used for diagnostic purposes, and as a basis for engineering of stress resistant genotypes.
Effect of Nitrogen Fertilization on the Photosynthetic Activity, Growth and Yield of Virginia Tobacco (Nicotianatabacum L.)
Authors: Covarelli L
Published: July 2016

A field experiment was carried out in 1996 in Central Italy in order to evaluate the effects of nitrogen fertilization (0, 60, 120 kg h-1 N) of Virginia tobacco (cv. K394) in terms of net assimilation, growth and yield. Measurements of net leaf assimilation of CO2 were taken at midday under conditions of strong sunlight (Anhigh
) using a portable infra-red gas analyzer and at decreasing photosynthetic photon flux density by shading the leaves with filters (An vs PPFD). For An vs PPFD measurements the Anmax
value was calculated as the asymptote of the function proposed by CONNOR et al. (1). Growth was analysed by taking weekly samples to determine the fresh and dry weight and LAI (Leaf Area Index).

Before topping, Anhigh
(average assimilation found in lower, middle and upper leaves) rose in proportion to increased levels of N (14.7, 17.2, 20.2 μmolm-2 s-1, for 0, 60 and 120 kg ha-1 N respectively). After topping, Anhigh
also grew with increased levels of N, but at a lower rate (6.8, 7.2 and 8.2μmol m-2 s-1, respectively).

Similarly, for each of the three fertilization methods (N0, N60 and N120) the increase in Anmax
in relation to N levels was greater before topping than afterwards (i.e. 18.7, 23.3, 26.3 μmolm-2 s-1 before topping compared to 7.5, 14.0 and 17.8 μmol m-2 s-1 after topping for each treatment respectively). The decrease of CO2 assimilation after topping was probably caused by the accumulation of soluble photo assimilates in the leaf which could have led to a feed-back control on leaf photosynthesis. In N60 and N120 treatments, which had the same leaf expansion rate of 0.14 m2 m-2 d-1 (m2 of leaf on m2 of soil per day), the rapid leaf expansion phase started about 40 days after transplanting, while it started some days later in N0 (rate of 0.11 m2 m-2 d-1). That phase ended at topping in N60 and N120, while in N0 it ended some days before topping. Biomass accumulation followed the same pattern of LAI. The rapid biomass accumulation phase was characterised by growth rates of 9, 16 and 19 g d.m. m-2 d-1, respectively for the N0, N60 and N120 treatments but did not end at topping. This confirms that assimilate accumulation occurred after topping but was not accompanied by leaf expansion. At fertilization rates of 0, 60 and 120 kg N ha-1 the yields of cured leaf tobacco were 3226, 4202 and 4839 kg ha-1 respectively.
Determination of Dibenzacridines in the Particulate Phase of Cigarette Smoke
Authors: Sasaki TA , Moldoveanc SC
Published: July 2016

This study attempted to resolve a controversy related to the presence of dibenz[a,j]acridine and dibenz[a,h]acridine in the particulate phase of cigarette smoke. Smoking was performed using FTC conditions (35 mL puff volume, 2 sec. puff, 1 min. interval) on a Borgwaldt RM 20/CS smoking machine. The particulate phase of forty cigarettes was collected on 92 mm Cambridge filter pads. Pads were combined to analyze the particulate phase of the mainstream smoke from between 120 and 320 cigarettes. In an initial scheme of analysis, the pads were extracted with an acidic aqueous solution. This aqueous solution was then washed with CH2Cl2 and the organic phase discarded. The aqueous solution was then changed to basic and extracted with CH2Cl2, which was concentrated and analyzed via GC/MS. The dibenzacridine could not be detected utilizing this scheme, even when the pads had been spiked with a few thousand nanograms of dibenzacridine. After using several other organic solvents (cyclohexane, CHCl3, and benzene) to eliminate the possibility that the extraction efficiency of CH2Cl2 was poor, it was determined that dibenzacridine was being discarded with the first CH2Cl2 wash. A successful separation scheme was developed by extracting the smoked pad with an aqueous acidic solution, followed by extraction of the aqueous phase with CH2Cl2without pH change. The CH2Cl2 extract was concentrated under nitrogen and 1 µL injected for GC/MS analysis. Quantification was achieved by spiking the pads with dibenz[a,j]acridine-d13
as an internal standard at a level equal to 1.7-2.5 ng/cig. The limit of detection for this technique was approximately 0.5 ng/cig. The chromatographic separation was performed with a 30 m BPX-5 column (0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 µm film thickness). Mass spectral data were acquired in selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode with m/z = 279 for the two dibenzacridine isomers and m/z = 292 for the deuterated internal standard. Three commercial cigarettes were analyzed: two commercial Full Flavor cigarettes, one commercial Light cigarette, and a 1R4F reference cigarette. Neither dibenzacridine isomer was detected in any of the samples analyzed.
Commentary: It Ain't Necessarily So
Authors: Müller L , Röper W
Published: July 2016

The following is a line-up of the allegations made by C. BATES, M. JARVIS and G. CONNOLLY in “Tobacco Additives - Cigarette Engineering and Nicotine Addiction” (1). These allegations are not in agreement with the facts reported in the scientific literature (2-18).
Current PCR Methods for the Detection, Identification and Quantification of Genetically Modified Organisms(GMOs): a Brief Review
Authors: Gadani F , Bindler G , Pijenburg H , Rossi L , Zuber J
Published: July 2016

Analytical methods based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology are increasingly used for the detection of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequences associated with genetically modified organisms (GMOs). In the European Union and Switzerland, mandatory labeling of novel foods and food ingredients consisting of, or containing GMOs is required according to food regulations and is triggered by the presence of newly introduced foreign DNA sequences, or newly expressed proteins. In order to meet regulatory and consumer demand, numerous PCR-based methods have been developed which can detect, identify and quantify GMOs in agricultural crops, food and feed. Moreover, the determination of genetic identity allows for segregation and traceability (identity preservation) throughout the supply chain of GM crops that have been enhanced with value-added quality traits. Prerequisites for GMO detection include a minimum amount of the target gene and prior knowledge of the type of genetic modification, such as virus or insect resistance traits, including controlling elements (promoters and terminators). Moreover, DNA extraction and purification is a critical step for the preparation of PCR-quality samples, particularly for processed agricultural crops such as tobacco. This paper reviews the state-of-the-art of PCR-based method development for the qualitative and quantitative determination and identification of GMOs, and includes a short summary of official and validated GMO detection methods.
Metrology at Philip Morris Europe
Authors: Gualandris R , Buclin H , Rotach M , Kaelin E , Jeanneret-Gris JM , Parthenopoulos D
Published: July 2016

The importance of the metrology function at Philip Morris Europe (PME), a multinational organisation producing at over 40 sites in the European, Middle Eastern and African Regions is presented. Standardisation of test methods and equipment as well as the traceability of calibration gauges to the same reference gauge are essential in order to obtain comparable results among the various production centers. The metrology function as well as the qualification of instruments and the drafting of test and calibration operating procedures for this region are conducted or co-ordinated by the Research and Development Department in Neuchatel, Switzerland. In this paper the metrology function within PME is presented based on the measurement of the resistance to draw for which the PME R&D laboratory is accredited (ISO/CEI 17025), as both a calibration and a testing laboratory. The following topics are addressed in this paper: traceability of calibration standards to national standards; comparison of results among manufacturing centres; the choice, the budget as well as the computation of uncertainties. Furthermore, some practical aspects related to the calibration and use of the glass multicapillary gauges are discussed.
Oxygen Diffusion through Cigarette Paper
Authors: Miura K
Published: July 2016

Oxygen diffusion coefficients in normal and decomposed cigarette papers were measured, and oxygen transfer through the cigarette papers was estimated. The oxygen diffusion coefficient varied with the properties of the cigarette papers, however, the differences in the oxygen transfer coefficient were not very large. The oxygen diffusivity of the cigarette papers did not increase after thermal decomposition. No correlation was found between the oxygen transfer coefficient of the normal paper and the decomposed paper.
A Review of the Incidence and Consequences of Cigarette Filter Vent Blocking Among Smokers
Authors: Baker RR , Lewis LS
Published: July 2016

Vent blocking, the covering of the filter ventilation zone on a cigarette during smoking, is a potentially important aspect of smoking behavior. Various techniques have been used to assess the incidence of vent blocking, and widely different views have been expressed on its importance. Studies relevant to filter vent blocking have been reviewed with two overall objectives: to examine critically the evidence on the occurrence of vent blocking and to assess the effects of vent blocking on the smoke yield to the smoker. The reviewed studies fall into four main categories: (1) measurements of the incidence of filter vent blocking among smokers; (2) the observed effects of vent blocking on cigarette ventilation and machine smoke yields; (3) the effect of experimentally blocking vents on human smoke yields; and (4) simultaneous determination of vent blocking and smoke yield under human smoking conditions. Direct observation indicates that only 4% of smokers have their fingers in direct contact with the cigarette during puffing. Estimates of vent blocking incidence by lips during smoking range from 15-24% (saliva-staining technique) to up to 50% ('tar’ staining pattern technique) of smokers. For those smokers who do block the ventilation zone, a mean of 27% of the vents are blocked, and a maximum of about 50%. When the cigarettes are machine-smoked, the smoke yield increases in a highly non-linear manner as the blocked portion of the filter ventilation zone increases. This effect is also more pronounced at higher original filter ventilation levels. In contrast, smoking behavior monitoring techniques have shown that when the experimenter deliberately blocks the vent zone, the human smoker adjusts by taking smaller and fewer puffs. The blocked filter affects the yields of smoke components to the smoker less than it does smoking-machine measured yields. It is concluded that the incidence of vent zone blocking by fingers is quite low and relatively insignificant. The most reliable estimate for lip blocking is that up to 25% of smokers may cover the vent zone during at least one puff and for most smokers the coverage is partial. Ventilation zone blocking as it occurs in practice has only a relatively minor effect on human smoke yields compared to other smoker behavior factors. When a human smoker inadvertently partially or completely blocks the filter ventilation zone during smoking, he/she adjusts by taking smaller and fewer puffs. Because of these changes in puffing behavior during human smoking, predictions of the effects of filter vent blocking on smoke yields based solely on smoking machine yields are deceptive.
Heat Emission from a Burning Cigarette
Authors: Miura K , Nagao A , Ueyama K
Published: July 2016

We investigated the relationship between the smoldering burn rate and the heat transfer from a burning cigarette by measuring the heat emitted by radiation and convection, separately. The net heat generated and the net heat emitted by a burning cigarette did not vary with a change of the cigarette smoldering burn rate. The total heat emitted from a statically burning cigarette was about 50% of the total combustion heat. About 50% of the heat emitted was released as radiation heat. The smoldering burn rate did not affect the total amount of heat emitted nor the ratio of radiated heat to convected heat.
Thermochemical Properties of Nicotine Salts
Authors: Riggs DM , Perfetti TA
Published: July 2016

The thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results presented in this report clearly show that the thermal stability and the endothermic peak nicotine release temperatures are different for different nicotine salts and these temperatures appear to be linked to the general microstructural details of the salt itself. In addition, the peak nicotine release temperatures are highly dependent upon the sample size used. The heat of vaporization for neat (non-protonated) nicotine is also sample-size dependent. The TGA data showed that the least stable of the salts tested at elevated temperatures was the liquid salt nicotine triacetate followed by the crystalline materials (e.g., nicotine gallate) and finally, the amorphous salts (e.g., nicotine alginate). The DSC results revealed that the liquid and crystalline salts exhibit nicotine release endotherms that are strongly related to the sample weight being tested. The amorphous salts show nicotine endotherm peak temperatures that are nearly independent of the sample weight. The range of peak nicotine release temperatures varied depending upon the specific salts and the sample size from 83 oC to well over 200 oC. Based on these results, the evolution of nicotine from the nicotine salt should be expected to vary based on the composition of the salt, the details of its microstructure, and the amount of nicotine salt tested.
Changes in Higher Fatty Acids and Related Biochemical Characteristics of Flue-cured Tobacco during Aging
Authors: Daheng Z , Jinfeng H , Chunyun G , Rui C
Published: July 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate the changes in higher fatty acids and related biochemical characteristics of flue-cured tobacco during the process of aging. The concentration of total lipids in flue-cured tobacco decreased gradually during natural aging, but the concentration of individual principal higher fatty acids in flue-cured tobacco changed much differently during aging. Myristic acid (C14:0) increased constantly during the whole aging process. Stearic acid (C18:0) and oleic acid (C18:1) increased at the initial stages of aging and reached maximum contents after one year of aging, but decreased thereafter. Palmitic acid (C16:0), linoleic acid (C18:2), and linolenic acid (C18:3) decreased constantly throughout aging, especially the linolenic acid content which decreased drastically. Furthermore, the ratio of unsaturated fatty acids (C18:1; C18:2; C18:3) and saturated fatty acids (C14:0; C16:0; C18:0) decreased continuously during aging, from 1.00 at the initial stage to 0.43 at the end of aging, when it seemed to be stabilized. The maximum rate of decrease of the ratio was between 12 to 18 mo during aging. The activity of lipoxygenase (LOX) and peroxidation value (POV) initially increased and reached their highest levels after 6 mo of aging, but steadily decreased thereafter. The acid value (AV) and malondialdehyde (MDA) content increased during the first 12 mo of aging, then decreased rapidly after 12 and 18 mo, respectively.
Catalytic Reduction of NO and NOx Content in Tobacco Smoke
Authors: Cvetkovic N , Adnadjevic B , Nikolic M
Published: July 2016

In order to reduce the nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen oxides (NO) content in mainstream tobacco smoke, a new class of catalyst based on Cu-ZSM-5 zeolite has been synthesized. The effectiveness of the new catalyst (degree of reduction and specific catalytic ability) was tested both by adding Cu-ZSM-5 zeolite directly to the tobacco blend and by addition to the filter. We have determined that adding the catalyst to the tobacco blend does not cause any changes in the physical, chemical or organoleptic properties of the cigarette blend. But, the addition reduces the yield of nitrogen oxides while having no influence on nicotine and “tar” content in the tobacco smoke of the modified blend. The catalyst addition increases the static burning rate (SBR). The changes in the quantity of NO and NOmay be explained by changes in burning conditions due to the increase of Oobtained from catalytic degradation of NO and NO, and adsorptive and diffusive properties of the catalyst. The changes in mainstream smoke analytes are also given on a puff-by-puff basis.
Sidestream Smoke Collection Using a Harmonised Linear Smoking Machine
Authors: Thomas F , Darrall KG
Published: July 2016

The collection of sidestream smoke (SSS) using the “BAT fishtail chimney” method became the accepted standard, but following the harmonisation of linear and rotary smoking machines it is no longer possible to observe all parameters of the method as published. A prerequisite of any SSS collection method is that mainstream smoke (MSS) yields should not be affected. Additionally all the standard features and parameters of normal MSS collection should as far as possible remain unchanged. The previously published method and current harmonised MSS collection are not compatible mainly due to the significant increase in air-flow rate over the cigarettes that is now necessary. This study describes the use of a modified chimney that incorporates an airtight insert causing a reduction in aperture size leading to a local increase in airflow over the cigarette. The method optimises SSS collection whilst maintaining full compliance with the current International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) Standards for MSS collection.
Guest Editorial
Authors: Klus H
Published: July 2016

In June 2001, the European Commission passed a new Directive for tobacco products, which, in addition to other regulations, obliges the manufacturers and importers of tobacco products in the EU to disclose the ingredients used in their products and also to submit data on the toxicological properties of these ingredients in burnt and unburnt form. The idea of monitoring and regulating additives used for tobacco products is rather old. Almost 200 years ago, C.F. Hareless in Nuremberg [cited in P.J. Schneider: Über die Gifte; Tübingen, 1821] established 12 rules for the correct use of ingredients in manufacturing tobacco products and vinegar. These rules cover almost all aspects for a consumer-friendly, responsible and safe use of additives for tobacco products and could, therefore, have served as an example for the present EU Tobacco Directive. For instance, Hareless states in Rule 4 that the manufacturer submits to the health department the prescriptions of all added ingredients in snuff and smoking tobacco. It was also planned that the responsible authority can perform unannounced “empirical” and “chemical” tests of the finished products (Rules 7 and 8). Although these rules call for strong regulation of ingredients, they do not challenge the use of additives in snuff and smoking tobacco because ingredients may contribute to the quality, acceptability and also the safety of the product. The Directive rightly asks for toxicological data of ingredients in burnt form, in order to be sure that the use of additives does not increase the biological effects of tobacco products. The review of Paschke, Scherer and Heller in this issue of BeiträgezurTabakforschung International/Contributions to Tobacco Research has compiled data from published papers on the toxicological effects of ingredients in burnt form. The authors did not intend to evaluate the presented methods and data, therefore, this review is more a reference work rather than a scientific article. It is obvious from the material presented that there is a lack of Standard Methods for testing the toxicological properties of tobacco ingredients in burnt form. The huge number of different approaches presented in this review points to the difficulties in defining suitable methods for this purpose. Despite these limitations, it is justified to state that the data so far available give no evidence that ingredients in use today increase the toxicity of tobacco smoke.
Mainstream Smoke Gas Phase Filtration Performance of Adsorption Materials Evaluated With A Puff-by-Puff Multiplex GC-MS Method
Authors: Xue L , Thomas CE , Koller KB
Published: July 2016

The mainstream smoke filtration performance of activated carbon, silica gel and polymeric aromatic resins for gas-phase components was evaluated using a puff-by-puff multiplex gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis method (1). The sample 1R4F Kentucky reference cigarettes were modified by placing the adsorbents in a plug/space/plug filter configuration. Due to differences in surface area and structural characteristics, the adsorbent materials studied showed different levels of filtration activities for the twenty-six constituents monitored. Activated carbon had significant adsorption activity for all the gas-phase smoke constituents observed except ethane and carbon dioxide, while silica gel had significant activities for polar components such as aldehydes, acrolein, ketones, and diacetyl. XAD-16 polyaromatic resins showed varied levels of activity for aromatic compounds, cyclic dienes and ketones.
A Puff-by-Puff Delivery Model for Cigarettes
Authors: Chen P , Dwyer RW
Published: July 2016

Materials generated by combustion and pyrolysis in a lit cigarette move through the tobacco rod and filter sections in two phases, the particulate phase and the gas phase. Some particles are removed while moving through the rod and filter sections. The gas-phase materials include the vapor of many volatile compounds. While moving through the rod and filter sections, part of the vapor are removed by adsorption and condensation.

In this study, a puff-by-puff delivery model for cigarettes is developed to calculate “tar”, water, and nicotine in smoke on a puff-by-puff basis. A number of parameters can be obtained by the best fit to the experimental results of some cigarettes with different filter lengths. The parameters include the materials generated at the coal for each puff, the particle and vapor removal constants for tobacco rods and filters. The parameters may be useful in understanding some characteristics of cigarette smoke.
Transfer of Maleic Hydrazide into Mainstream Cigarette Smoke
Authors: Wood W , Dooly GL , Moldoveanu SC
Published: July 2016

This report presents the results of a study regarding the transfer of maleic hydrazide (MH) into mainstream cigarette smoke. Cigarettes with different levels of MH were used in this study. This included cigarettes with MH preexistent in the tobacco due to the agronomical practice, and with spiked MH. Because the MH can be present in tobacco as bound and free forms, both levels of MH were measured in the tobacco section. The cigarette designs covered a range of possibilities, including Plain, Filter King Size (KS), Lights 100’s, Ultra Lights, etc. The results showed that the amount of MH in smoke, on the one hand, is a function of the total particulate matter (TPM) of the cigarette, and higher TPM levels lead to more MH in smoke. On the other hand, the transferred level of MH depends on the total amount of MH (both bound and free) in the tobacco. The relative % transfer is higher for lower MH levels than for higher MH levels in tobacco. When normalized by TPM, the transfer as an average is about 0.24% per mg of TPM from the amount of MH in 1 g of tobacco, and as high as 0.46% per mg of TPM from the amount of MH in 1 g tobacco for a nonfilter low MH level cigarette. The resulting MH transfer for a nonfilter cigarette with low tobacco MH is therefore about 8.3% from the total MH in the cigarette. For filter full flavor (FF) cigarettes with high tobacco levels of MH, the transfer is about 5.8%. This relative transfer rate appears to be lower from higher MH levels in tobacco.
Thermal Emissivity and Cigarette Coal Temperature During Smolder
Authors: Lyman CS , Perfetti TA , Riggs DM , Morgan WT
Published: July 2016

Coal temperatures affect the burn properties of cigarettes. Thermal imaging was used to determine the average maximum surface coal temperatures during smolder of cigarettes of different tobacco types. The thermal imaging camera was calibrated against a reference blackbody. An emissivity correction was necessary since the set point temperatures of the reference blackbody did not correspond to the measured temperatures of the reference blackbody. A 0.87 camera emissivity was applied to provide accurate coal temperatures at a corrected emissivity of approximately 1. The average maximum surface coal temperatures during smolder of unfiltered single-tobacco-type cigarettes and a commercial blend cigarette were determined (with the camera lens focused parallel to the cigarette), and no discernible differences among them were found. The calculated average maximum surface coal temperature during smolder for all cigarettes was 584 AA± 15 °C. During smolder, thermocouples were used to measure the temperature of the gas phase (along the central axis of coal), and the thermal imaging camera was used to measure the temperature of the solid phase of the coal's surface. Using thermocouples, the peak coal temperatures in the center of the coal during smolder for three filtered single-tobacco-type cigarettes were 736-744 °C. Peak coal temperatures, measured by thermal imaging, on the surface of the coal (with the camera lens focused coaxially with the coal and the ash removed) for the same three single-tobacco-type cigarettes had a range of 721-748 °C. There was good correspondence between the two techniques. These results confirm that during smolder the gas-phase temperature inside the coal (as measured with the thermocouple) and the solid-phase temperatures beneath the ash (as measured with the camera) are in near thermal equilibrium. With proper calibration, a thermal imaging system is a good alternative to thermocouples for measuring cigarette coal temperatures.
Evolution of Tobacco-Specific Nitrosamines and Microbial Populations During Flue-Curing of Tobacco Under Direct and Indirect Heating
Authors: Morin A , Porter A , Joly J , Ratavicius A
Published: July 2016

Canadian tobacco was flue-cured using two different heating systems: direct-fired in which the exhaust gases were in contact with the tobacco and indirect in which only hot air, via a heat exchanger, contacted the tobacco. The concentrations of tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNAs) in tobacco cured by indirect heating did not increase during curing and were in the range 0.25-0.35 ppm. There were no changes in TSNA concentrations (range 0.13-0.3 ppm) in tobacco cured by direct firing during the first six days (0-144 h) of curing. However between 168 and 264 h, significant increases in TSNAs occurred (up to 1.91 ppm). TSNA concentrations in leaves at the bottom of the plant were significantly higher than in those found at higher plant position. There were no significant differences in TSNA concentrations in tobacco cured on different farms. The TSNA concentrations in tobacco cured by indirect heat were 87% ± 5% lower than in tobacco cured by direct heat. Subsequent processing of tobacco did not change the relative concentrations of TSNAs.