bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Remembering Over the Short and Long Term
Authors: Reuter-Lorenz Patricia A. , Iordan Alexandru D.
Published: November 2020

This chapter reviews evidence from behavioural and cognitive neuroscience research that supports a unitary view of memory whereby working memory and long-term memory phenomena arise from representations and processes that are largely shared when remembering over the short or long term. Using ‘false working memories’ as a case study, it highlights several paradoxes that cannot be explained by a multisystem view of memory in which working memory and long-term memory are structurally distinct. Instead, it is posited that behavioural memory effects over the short and long term relating to semantic processing, modality/domain-specificity, dual-task interference, strategic processing, and so on arise from the differences in activational states and availability of different representational features (e.g. sensory/perceptual, associative, action-based) that vary in their time courses and activity, attentional priority, and susceptibility to interference. Cognitive neuroscience evidence primarily from brain imaging methodologies that support this view is reviewed.
Cognitive Neuroscience of Visual Working Memory
Authors: Postle Bradley R.
Published: November 2020

This chapter takes the perspective that ‘working memory’ refers to a class of behaviours that can be accomplished by the coordinated recruitment of sensory-, representational-, action-, and control-related mechanisms and representations. There is no working memory system, per se. This idea is illustrated with findings from cognitive neuroscience, with an emphasis on studies of human working memory with functional magnetic resonance imaging and electroencephalography, and on simulations of human behaviour with recurrent neural network modelling. Understanding principles of attention and oculomotor control are central to understanding the selection of stimulus information and its retention ‘in’ working memory, as well as for the moment-to-moment prioritization of subsets of the contents of working memory. Recent research from a dynamical systems perspective suggests a principled framework for understanding how, and under what circumstances, knowledge from long-term memory is recruited to support working memory performance. An important challenge for contemporary cognitive neuroscience is to develop an accepted procedure for assessing when multiple regions can be shown to represent stimulus-specific information, whether these regions are all supporting the same function, or perhaps different functions that nonetheless all entail the active representation of the same information.
Introduction
Authors: Lebens Samuel
Published: November 2020

After introducing the three principles of Judaism, and the structure of the rest of the book, this chapter addresses a paradox. This book seeks to lay out the fundamental principles of Judaism, and yet (allegedly) Judaism thinks that some of its fundamental principles are unsayable. Can this paradox be escaped? This chapter explores three routes out, and endorses the third.
Ongoing Revelation and the External Problems with the Revelation
Authors: Lebens Samuel
Published: November 2020

This chapter seeks to resolve the riddle of the previous chapter with a theory of progressive or cumulative revelation. This theory of revelation will explain why an Orthodox Jew cannot accept the legal innovations of non-Orthodox Judaisms, nor the messianic claim of Jesus, nor the authority of Mohammed (even though all of them claim some connection to Sinai). This approach also proves surprisingly robust in the face of perceived threats to Orthodox theology arising from contemporary biblical scholarship and secular ethics.
Conclusions
Authors: Lebens Samuel
Published: November 2020

In this chapter, the author seeks to distinguish his own commitments, developed throughout this book, from what he takes to be the minimal possible axiomatization of Orthodox Judaism. The chapter goes on to distinguish between faith and belief, and between three different sorts of religiosity. These distinctions help us to explore the sorts of attitudes that Orthodoxy requires its adherents to have toward its core principles. It also discusses the ways in which faith and belief alike fail to give rise to the highest form of religiosity, which requires, it is argued, imagination. The chapter closes with a discussion of the character traits and values that any attempt to axiomatize Judaism has to respect. The chapter argues that the author’s list of principles meets the constraints imposed by these traits and values.
“New System of the Nature of Substances …”
Authors: Borcherding Julia
Published: November 2020

The 1695 publication of the “New System of the Nature of Substances and their Communication, and of the Union which Exists between the Soul and the Body” in the June 27 and July 4 issues of the Parisian Journal des sçavans marks an important milestone in Leibniz’s philosophical trajectory. It presented the first comprehensive public presentation of his metaphysics as it had matured over the preceding decades, and it would spark many lively exchanges and debates between Leibniz and his philosophical contemporaries in the decades to come. This chapter provides background regarding the text’s genesis and reception, and introduces its main philosophical themes. After highlighting some interpretative challenges raised by both the “New System’s” form and philosophical content, I go on to explore two key elements of the metaphysical picture it advances: Leibniz’s account of individual substances, and his theory of the pre-established harmony between them.
The Correspondence with De Volder
Authors: Whipple John
Published: November 2020

Leibniz’s correspondence with Burcher de Volder contains some of his most important philosophical writings. Taking place between 1698 and 1706, the correspondence engages a range of issues including the nature of substance, causation, space and time, the proper measure of force in physics, and the relation between physics and metaphysics. It is most famous for containing extensive remarks on Leibniz’s theory of monads, though the extent to which he was committed to this theory throughout the correspondence is a matter of great scholarly controversy. I suggest that one of the keys for interpreting this correspondence is to recognize its pedagogical character. Leibniz did not straightforwardly present his metaphysics to De Volder at the beginning of the correspondence; rather, he gradually revealed his views in an effort to rid De Volder of his philosophical prejudices and enable him to recognize the true metaphysical system.
New Essays on Human Understanding
Authors: Bolton Martha Brandt
Published: November 2020

New Essays explicates Leibniz’s doctrines in response to John Locke’s Essay. The Preface anticipates the most important disagreements. The body of the work is a dialogue between an admirer of Locke, who retells the Essay and his friend who is impressed with Leibniz’s system. They compare views under somewhat artificial rules, with the result that many of Locke’s doctrines discredited in favour of Leibniz’s. I argue that these results have modest but legitimate rational ground. New Essays is tailored to readers influenced by Locke, stressing the inseparable connection between sense perception and intellect. It maintains in detail that the nature of substances is best understood by considering them as concrete individuals that are metaphysically complete down to their spatial and temporal relations to everything in the universe. However, New Essays also contains a wealth of philosophical views regarding language, logic, mathematics, physics, morals, persons, society, history, and more.
The Theodicy
Authors: Lodge Paul
Published: November 2020

This chapter provides an overview of one of Leibniz’s longest and most important works, the Theodicy. It is argued that the Theodicy is best understood against a careful reading of the Preface, where Leibniz outlines the primary aim of the book, i.e. to provide the means by which natural theology and Leibniz’s conception of God as a being deserving of love may be maintained in the face of objections that stem from considering the nature of freedom and the so-called “problem of evil”. Due to space constraints, the chapter presents the main issues by focusing mainly on their presentation in Part1 rather than on the way in which Leibniz contrasts his views with those of with Pierre Bayle in Parts 2 and 3. It also includes a detailed discussion of the Preliminary Dissertation on the Conformity of Faith with Reason, in which Leibniz spells out his conception of the relationship between these notions.
Space and nation
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

In Chapter 7, two interpretations of the language / dialect distinction with roots in Greek antiquity take centre stage. Firstly, the chapter outlines how the spatial conception of dialect established itself after 1550. More circumstantial evidence for the spread of this geographical interpretation is also briefly treated. Humanists, moreover, soon recognized the universality of regional variation. Even though the geographical interpretation implied that language covered a larger area than dialect, some scholars believed that good language had its seat only in a state’s capital. Secondly, this chapter surveys the emergence of the idea that dialect was particular to a tribe, implying that language was a kind of ethnically overarching phenomenon. There was, however, an unresolved tension with a competing view, associating language with the nation in the political sense. Although widespread, the spatial and ethnic conceptions of dialect as a variety of a language were never used as diagnostic criteria in language / dialect decisions.
Classes of variation
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Chapter 15 outlines the linguistic respects in which related dialects were believed to vary, in contrast to distinct languages, during the early modern era. Initially, a Byzantine author was the main source of inspiration in describing dialect-level differences, primarily in Greek handbooks. It was only after 1650 that the levels of variation were treated in a more systematic fashion by non-Hellenists, too. The focus of attention was on the ways in which related dialects varied. The differences were, most scholars agreed, superficial, and mainly situated in pronunciation, letters, and the lexicon. There was, however, no linguistic domain in which related dialects were claimed to never demonstrate variation. Overall, the differences required for qualification as distinct languages attracted less attention. Yet many scholars agreed that substantial differences were needed, principally in the roots of words. Sometimes, unusual linguistic criteria were put forward, e.g. by Johann Georg Wachter and Ferdinando Galiani.
Muslims in the Twenty-First Century University
Authors: Scott-Baumann Alison , Guest Mathew , Naguib Shuruq , Cheruvallil-Contractor Sariya , Phoenix Aisha
Published: November 2020

Chapter 1 sets out the ways in which the status and identities of Muslims are caught up in the changing lives of universities. It begins with an account of the segregated seating controversy at University College London in 2013, illustrating how wider issues of power and cultural identity are evoked when the status of Islam within universities becomes the subject of public debate. This picture is developed and contextualized via an extended discussion of the nature of universities, set out as a series of contested histories, each of which privileges particular values and instates specific boundaries of cultural or academic legitimacy. Models considered are the university as public, as neoliberal, as a source of inclusion and exclusion, as postcolonial, and as a site of heightened risk. The chapter’s central aim is to consider how these strands contribute to the heightened ‘othering’ of Islam within ‘Western’ higher education.
Islam and Gender on Campus
Authors: Scott-Baumann Alison , Guest Mathew , Naguib Shuruq , Cheruvallil-Contractor Sariya , Phoenix Aisha
Published: November 2020

Discussions about Islam and gender on campus have generally focused on Muslim women’s dress and status in Islam. However, the processes that make Muslim women’s dress on campus so salient have received little attention. This chapter explores gender and Islam on campus, contextualizing it within the politics of dress, with a particular focus on Muslim women’s negotiations of how to dress. We argue that gendered stereotypes about the headscarf or niqab contribute to the construction of Muslim women as extremists or oppressed. We show that Muslims sometimes faced scrutiny or hostility from students and lecturers who read particular dress choices as symbolic threats. Taking an intersectional perspective, the chapter illuminates how some Muslims modify their dress in different contexts to increase a sense of belonging or reduce stigma. We also explore how some Muslims challenge misconceptions about Islam and gender.
The Human Senses Meet Technology
Authors: Velasco Carlos , Obrist Marianna
Published: November 2020

Do you remember the one time you forgot your smartphone at home, the Internet connection did not work, or your computer just did not turn on? Many of us have experienced those frustrating, almost desperate moments. And yet, we crave for new ways of interacting with and through technology. This chapter illustrates how the senses are increasingly meeting technology and how our experiences are moving from reality, to mixed reality (involving both physical and digital worlds), to full virtuality (digital only). It presents a selection of eight representative examples where technology enables the design of multisensory experiences along the reality–virtuality continuum.
Laws of Multisensory Experiences
Authors: Velasco Carlos , Obrist Marianna
Published: November 2020

What are the implications of designing the multisensory worlds in which we live? This final chapter synthesizes the current state of multisensory experiences and reflects on their implications for individuals and societies, as well as the use of technology to extend or augment our human capabilities. It postulates three laws of multisensory experiences. These laws are based on reflections about what multisensory experiences we design. They attend to specific questions that must be considered for multisensory experiences and encompass the why (the rationale/reason), what (the impression), when (the event), how (the sensory elements), who (the someone), and whom (the receiver).
Postcolonial Proportionality
Authors: Choudhry Sujit
Published: November 2020

In Johar, the Supreme Court unanimously struck down Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC), which criminalized same-sex relations. The idea of transformative constitutionalism figured centrally, as did a piece of the global template of rights-protection—proportionality. In Johar, the Indian Constitution was envisioned as a transformative document, in two senses: anti-colonial and cosmopolitan. It gave birth to a radically new constitutional order that conferred citizenship and political power on the previously disenfranchised living under the yoke of British imperial rule. The Indian Constitution was also a cosmopolitan constitution in its fidelity to the universal principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. These two conceptions of transformative constitutionalism define the scope of admissible reasons for proportionality analysis. Section 377 of the Indian Penal was unconstitutional on the cosmopolitan ground that mere social morality was an insufficient reason to limit the right to engage in harmless, constitutionally protected activity, the basis on which courts around the world have struck down parallel provisions. I argue that Section 377 was also unconstitutional for the anti-colonial reason that it was an element of the Imperial constitutional order in British India in the period after the Indian Mutiny in 1857 of indirect colonial rule.
Cognitive semantics and the semiological function of language
Authors: Duffley Patrick
Published: November 2020

This chapter provides a critical examination of the cognitive approach, which claims to follow a semiological or symbolic principle according to which the fundamental role of language is to allow the symbolization of conceptualizations by means of phonological sequences. It asks whether Cognitive Grammar is faithful to this principle and argues that the cognitive postulate of a continuum between semantics and pragmatics stands in direct contradiction to it. Critical assessments are also offered of Prototype Theory, Conceptual Semantics, Construction Grammar, and Natural Semantic Metalanguage.
Concluding reflections on natural language and embodiment
Authors: Duffley Patrick
Published: November 2020

This chapter highlights a dimension of embodiment that is often overlooked and that concerns the basic design architecture of human language itself: the ineludable fact that the fundamental relation on which language is based is the association between a mind-engendered meaning and a bodily-produced sign. It is argued that this oversight is often due to treating meaning on the level of the sentence or the construction, rather than of the lower-level linguistic items where the linguistic sign is stored in a stable, permanent, and direct relation with its meaning outside of any particular context. Building linguistic analysis up from the ground level provides it with a solid foundation and increases its explanatory power.
Promoting Universal Social Policy in MICs
Authors: Franzoni Juliana Martínez , Sánchez-Ancochea Diego
Published: November 2020

Most middle-income countries have the financial and institutional resources to reduce poverty and inequality and improve social capabilities. But what is the right policy approach to secure these goals? We argue that to be effective and successful, social policies should be universal, providing the whole population with similar, generous transfers and services. To explore how universal policies can be implemented, we distinguish between the desired policy outputs (coverage, generosity, and equity) and the specific ways to secure them. We then introduce the concept of the policy architecture and analyze its influence on long-term trajectories. The chapter considers the impact of different trajectories on universalism in the long run, distinguishing between a bottom-up strategy that starts from the poor or other alternatives that involve the non-poor from the onset. We conclude the chapter with a call for more research on the interactions between policy design and political struggles.
EU–China Cooperation along the New Silk Road
Authors: van der Wende Marijk
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines higher education cooperation between the European Union (EU) and China in terms of its history, rationales, goals, mechanisms, instruments, and effects. It will first position the EU as a major policy actor in research and higher education and present a short history of its relations with China in these fields. It will sketch how this relationship has evolved over time, including the gradual changes to the modus operandi. An assessment will be made of policy effects and impacts, with a view to the search for a more balanced relationship. To what extent are the EU’s and China’s policies driven by common (global) goals? What are the patterns of convergence, divergence, cooperation, and competition? Are flows, partnerships and conditions for cooperation balanced? Challenges and persistent imbalances will be discussed with a view to how the relationship may be shaped in the next phase.
First Effects of the New Silk Road Initiative on Research Collaboration
Authors: Tijssen Robert , Winnink Jos
Published: November 2020

This chapter introduces a large-scale “big data” approach to identify and study possible early effects of the New Silk Road (NSR) initiative on research cooperation patterns between China and other countries. The quantitative data are extracted from publication output in the international research literature, for the years 2010–2018, covered in the Web of Science database. This source contains thousands of research articles co-produced and co-authored by Chinese researchers and their international partners. Following an introductory global overview of collaboration trends, the in-depth part of macro-level analysis relates to research cooperation between China and European countries, where we test six hypotheses about the nature of those collaborative relationships (two of which are confirmed). We observe some minor changes in the smaller countries of Central and Eastern Europe that suggest some emerging NSR effects. However, it is too early to identify structural changes and engage in systematic in-depth assessments of collaborative science.
International University Consortia on the New Silk Road
Authors: Feng Zhuolin , Gao Luyang
Published: November 2020

International collaborations among higher education institutions have existed along the Silk Road for a long time. With the initiative of the Belt and Road, it is believed that cooperation among universities and colleges may be influenced in various respects. In this study, seventeen university consortia that have been formed in the last thirty years along the Silk Road were investigated, including the membership structure, their starting point, goals and developments of these consortia, and the roles of world-class universities. The findings showed: 1) these consortia share the similar goals of multinational collaboration to foster solutions to new global challenges; 2) the thirty-year development of these consortia was divided into three phases, and most of the member universities are from the EU, China, and the US; 3) world-class universities were, are and will be playing the leading roles in these consortia continuously.
Silk Road South
Authors: Welch Anthony , Postiglione Gerard
Published: November 2020

For something like two millennia, the Silk Road has functioned as a conduit, for ideas as well as trade. China’s rise now presents both challenges and opportunities to countries situated on both the maritime and terrestrial Silk Roads, particularly in higher education. Beginning with Europe’s response to China’s renaissance as a major knowledge system, differential responses within Europe are charted, and student and staff flow treated. Some signs of change are evident, from 2018, particularly in relation to sensitive high-tech areas such as those listed in the signature Made in China 2025 policy. But the Silk Road also points South, hence the remainder of the chapter addresses higher education relations between China and ASEAN, and in particular, Malaysia. The Six Pillars framework is used to outline the major elements of China–ASEAN relations, particularly regarding higher education, including the development of the overseas campus of Xiamen University in Malaysia.
A Silk Road for Professional Qualifications?
Authors: van den Brink Ton , de Vries Sybe A.
Published: November 2020

The tension between the public interest to regulate professions, and the economic rationales to open up markets has long since been an issue within the EU. This chapter explores how these competing interests have shaped the EU’s legal frameworks for the recognition of professional qualifications. We will see that a range of regulatory strategies have been applied to design such frameworks. The next element of the analysis is based on the assumption that we may be able to draw lessons from the EU’s internal regulatory strategies to deal with national differences in regulating professions. Thus, the chapter will examine to what extent, and under which circumstances, such regulatory strategies may offer viable perspectives for Sino–EU relations; a crucially important question considering the implications of the New Silk Road for higher education on the trade of goods and services between China and Europe.
Ordo-Liberalism in Comparative and Historical Perspective
Authors: Dyson Kenneth
Published: November 2020

This chapter compares the main strands in twentieth-century liberal thought: laissez-faire/libertarianism; social liberalism; pragmatic liberalism; and conservative liberalism/Ordo-liberalism. English-language accounts of the new liberalism have tended to neglect conservative liberalism/Ordo-liberalism in favour of social liberalism. This book seeks to remedy this neglect. Conservative liberals were as staunch opponents of laissez-faire as the social liberals and even more critical of pragmatic liberalism. They sought to anchor their thought about politics, economics, law, society, and culture around general principles and binding rules. Conservative liberals envisaged a morally disciplined population. For them, rules were enabling as well as constraining: character-building; consistent with intergenerational economic justice; and offering a sustainably prosperous and humane society in which individuals could flourish. Liberalism had to be safeguarded against self-destruction. The chapter examines conservative liberalism and Ordo-liberalism against the historical background of the first two transformational crises of liberalism, the 1770s to 1850s and 1918 to the 1950s, and raises the prospect of a third such crisis early in this new millennium. Conservative liberals were critics of the Enlightenment, without being counter-Enlightenment. They were deeply committed to aesthetic and intellectual values as the basis of human flourishing. The chapter also investigates the historical origins of the term Ordo-liberalism; the role of historical contingency; the significance of the ORDO Yearbook and Freiburg in certifying the ‘mainstream’; the role of German politicians in its memorialization; the role of the ‘strong state’; the misplaced hopes to which it led; and its effects on the reputation of this body of thought. The distinctive features of conservative liberalism are summarized.
Conservative Liberalism and Ordo-Liberalism: From Child to Midwife of Crisis in Capitalism and Democracy
Authors: Dyson Kenneth
Published: November 2020

This chapter reveals the extent of demise of economics with the Third Reich; the experience of academic isolation, harassment, and fear; the private comments of founding Ordo-liberals in this dark period and the literature they read (like Friedrich Schiller); the misjudgements many of them made and their attempts to draw lessons; and the stimulus to retreat into philosophy and history in the search for meaning. They sought an alternative to ‘vulgar’ liberalism, the failures in the market economy, and the deficiencies in democracy. Character, culture, principles, and rules formed the axes of their thought about a rejuvenated liberalism. The chapter locates the founding thinkers in the beleaguered cultivated bourgeois intelligentsia and its sense of a civilizational crisis of modernity that went back into the nineteenth century; in the disorder that was generated by the First World War and its aftermath, notably fears of communism and fascism; in the hyperinflation of 1923; in the Great Depression; and in brutal anti-Semitism. Prominence is given to Walter Eucken’s remarkable public lecture in 1936 on the struggle of science and his public debate in 1937 with a Nazi economist. The chapter examines how founding Ordo-liberals like Walter Eucken and Wilhelm Röpke were viewed by fellow liberals like Friedrich Hayek, notably the emphasis placed on their strength of character and conviction. Finally, the chapter plots both the extraordinary growth of citations of Ordo-liberalism since the 1950s and its correlation with events; the shift towards seeing it as a cause of crises especially after 2009; and Ordo-liberalism in the context of post-1945 structural changes and debates about patriarchy and the role of women.
Patron Saints: (1) The European Tradition of Aristocratic Liberalism
Authors: Dyson Kenneth
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the key authors and texts that provided conservative liberalism and Ordo-liberalism with a distinctive aristocratic character: its paternalism, its scepticism about democracy, its discomfort with the commercial aspects of capitalism, and its belief in a hierarchy of ability. From their interwar origins, conservative liberalism and Ordo-liberalism were about more than the economic order. They were fundamentally about the kind of social and cultural order that was appropriate to a sustainable liberal society and that would stem the crisis of moral and intellectual values. Referencing of canonical texts with which the cultivated bourgeois intelligentsia was familiar had the additional value of endowing conservative liberals and Ordo-liberals with prestige. This chapter examines the most cited authors and texts in this literature: Lord John Acton, Julien Benda, Jacob Burckhardt, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Gustave Le Bon, Frédéric Le Play, José Ortega y Gasset, Bertrand Russell, George Santayana, and Alexis de Tocqueville. It also looks at Friedrich Hayek’s attempt to establish the Acton-Tocqueville Society. These authors embodied a faith in an aristocracy of knowledge, a distrust of plebeian culture, and a belief in the quality of the inner life and in character as the foundation of a liberal society. Aristocratic liberalism rested on two fears: of unbridled democracy and of the despotic state; of anarchy and servitude. The chapter closes with reflections on the changing fortunes of aristocratic liberalism and their implication for conservative liberalism and Ordo-liberalism.
Conservative Liberalism in French and Italian Political Economy
Authors: Dyson Kenneth
Published: November 2020

This chapter seeks to offer a balanced and nuanced view of conservative liberalism in French and Italian political economy by examining its key figures, the context of their work, what they thought and wrote, and how their thinking evolved. It also compares the significance of conservative liberalism in the discourses, policies, and politics of French and Italian political economy. In the case of France, the chapter examines the ideas and roles of Louis Rougier, Jacques Rueff, Maurice Allais, and Raymond Barre. It also discusses the Lippmann Colloquium in 1938; Rueff’s relations with Raymond Poincaré and Charles de Gaulle, especially in the period 1958–61; and the hard franc (franc fort) policy. The key texts of Rougier and Rueff are examined in detail. In the case of Italy, close attention is paid to the ideas and roles of Luigi Einaudi (including his connections to Wilhelm Röpke), Costantino Bresciani-Turroni, Luigi Sturzo, Guido Carli, and Francesco Forte; to the early post-war reconstruction; to Carli’s concept of the good and bad souls of Italy; and to external discipline (vincolo esterno) as a tool of economic policy. The chapter examines the stabilization traditions of France and Italy; the challenge posed by European economic and monetary union; and the deep hostility that emerged towards Ordo-liberalism in the wake of the euro area crisis after 2009.
The Historical Significance and Contemporary Relevance of Conservative Liberalism and Ordo-Liberalism: A Hollow Promise?
Authors: Dyson Kenneth
Published: November 2020

This chapter attempts to assess the significance of conservative liberalism and Ordo-liberalism in the larger context of liberalism by examining five questions. Why have they been marginalized? How have their ideas fared in Germany, the epicentre of Ordo-liberalism? What is the position of conservative liberalism and Ordo-liberalism in the intellectual history of political economy? What are their prospects in a new transformational crisis of liberalism? Are they likely to prove no more than a ghostly shadow in liberal political economy? Or can they act as a source of liberal rejuvenation? Finally, do conservative liberalism and Ordo-liberalism offer no more than a hollow promise of disciplining capitalism and democracy? Do the gaps in their thinking—their focusing illusion—disable them as a source of intellectual insight and as a relevant influence on debate, institutions, and policies? Or do they contribute to the overall strength and resilience of liberalism by complementing the contributions of social liberalism and laissez-faire liberalism? The chapter examines conservative liberalism and Ordo-liberalism using the insights from the Austrian School, the new Chicago School, and libertarian thought; from Karl Polanyi and Michel Foucault; from critics of authoritarian liberalism and of the long shadow of Carl Schmitt; and from writers on the moral economy, including John Rawls and Amartya Sen. It concludes by offering a balanced assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of this liberal tradition and its place in wider liberalism.
Caliphs and Merchants
Authors: Bessard Fanny
Published: November 2020

Caliphs and Merchants: Cities and Economies of Power in the Near East (700–950) offers fresh perspectives on the origins of the economic success of the early Islamic caliphate, identifying a number of previously unnoticed or underplayed yet crucial developments, such as the changing conditions of labour, attitudes towards professional associations, and the interplay between the state, Islamic religious institutions, and the economy. Moving beyond the well-studied transition between the death of Justinian in 565 and the Arab-Muslim conquests in the seventh century, Caliphs and Merchants focuses on the period of assertion of the Islamic world’s identity and authority. While the extraordinary prosperity of Near Eastern cities and economies in 700–950 was not unprecedented when one considers the early imperial Roman world, the aftermath of the Arab-Muslim conquests saw a deep transformation of urban retail and craft, which marked a break from the past. This book explores the mechanisms through which these changes resulted from the increasing involvement of caliphs and their governors in the patronage of urban economies, alongside the empowerment of enriched entrepreneurial tāǧir from the ninth century, as well as how they served the Arab-Muslim elite to secure their power and legitimacy. This book combines a wide corpus of literary sources in Arabic with original physical and epigraphic evidence. The approach is both comparative and global. The Middle East is examined in a Eurasian context, parallels being drawn between the Islamic world and Western Christendom, Byzantium, South East Asia, and China.
The Historical Context
Authors: Bessard Fanny
Published: November 2020

The seventh to the eighth centuries witnessed the initially rapid Arab-Muslim conquests of the Near East and their subsequent slow expansion in North Africa, Spain, and Central Asia, leading to the rise of a unified Islamic caliphate from 661 to the early tenth century. Chapter 1 seeks to define the material and sociopolitical context of the early Islamic history of the Near East, which determined the development of urban economic life between 700 and 950 CE. While differing conditions of conquests in the Near East and Central Asia, respectively peaceful subjugation and brutal expansion, laid the foundation of region-specific economic practices, the assertion of caliphal authority as well as the development of agriculture and trade sowed the seeds of economic growth.
New Perspectives on Urban Economic Planning
Authors: Bessard Fanny
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines how the greater involvement of caliphs and governors in early Islam in the patronage of urban retailing and crafts contributed to a redefinition of the topography of late antique and early medieval settlements from the Near East to Central Asia. The model of clustering productive and trading activities, which can be seen in its infancy in the Roman world in Pompeii, was expanded and became the norm from 700. This model evolved from simple communal working areas integrated in the urban fabric before 750 in the Levant to solely economic rabaḍ relocated outside the city walls in the ninth and tenth centuries in Iraq, Soghdia, and Ferghana. This chapter argues that this clustering of economic activities was favoured by a change in the location of the civic power under the ‘Abbāsids.
Conclusion to Part II
Authors: Bessard Fanny
Published: November 2020

From 700, the early Islamic economy remained strongly aligned with its late antique heritage, which brought a definite rupture between the Near East and Europe. Robin Fleming shows that Britain’s towns fell into total decay after the departure of the Roman legions.1 The prominence of the urban marketplace in the Near East in the early Middle Ages certainly contrasted with Carolingian Europe in that the European systems of exchange mostly took place in the form of weekly rural markets....
Islamifying the Economy
Authors: Bessard Fanny
Published: November 2020

Until the late seventh century, there was a definite continuity in the system of regulation and administration of urban economic life; the monitoring of transactions and the control of prices, weights, and measures being carried out by rabbis and Christian priests. By contrast, from the early eighth and ninth centuries, the evolving status of trade and craft in Near Eastern cities and the conscious Islamification of daily life encouraged changes to the established practices. This chapter discusses the mechanisms by which Islamic religious norms came to govern general economic behaviour. It looks at the increasing influence of Islamic worship, religious institutions, and authority in the regulation and administration of trade, retail, and crafts from 700 to 950, in the context of the Islamification of daily life, and its economic significance.
The Impact of the Court of Justice of the European Union on the Legal System of Ukraine
Authors: Petrov Roman
Published: November 2020

This contribution looks at the application of EU case law by the Ukrainian judiciary in the course of implementation of the EU–Ukraine Association Agreement, which triggered unprecedented political, economic, and legal reforms in Ukraine. Several issues form the focus of consideration in the chapter. The first issue is the evolution of EU–Ukraine relations and reform of the Ukrainian legal system and judiciary in the course of the ‘Europeanization’ of Ukraine since its independence in 1991. The second issue is effective implementation and application of the EU–Ukraine Association Agreement within the Ukrainian legal order and its compatibility with the Ukrainian Constitution. The latest political and legal developments in Ukraine are analysed through the prism of effective implementation of the EU–Ukraine Association Agreement and the rise of pro-European reforms of the Ukrainian judiciary since the ‘Maidan Revolution’/‘Revolution of Dignity’ in 2014. In conclusion, it is argued that the EU–Ukraine Association Agreement enhanced the adaptability of the national constitutional order to the European integration project and reinvigorated judicial activism by Ukrainian judges to refer to the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU).
The Impact of the Court of Justice of the European Union on the Georgian Legal System
Authors: Gabrichidze Gaga
Published: November 2020

This chapter scrutinizes perception of the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) by the Georgian courts and the Georgian Competition Agency. With the conclusion of the Association Agreement between the EU and Georgia in 2014, the Georgian legal system undoubtedly became more closely connected with EU law. Hence, approximation commitments under the Association Agreement made the case law of the CJEU of much more relevance for the Georgian courts and administrative authorities. However, in the wake of intensification of EU–Georgia relations, the impact of CJEU case law can be identified even in the time before conclusion of the Association Agreement. Analysis shows that several factors play a role with regard to the extent and frequency of mentioning CJEU case law in the decisions of the Georgian courts and Competition Agency. Judges refer to case law of the CJEU with the aim of either strengthening their own arguments or using it as a source of interpretation. Taking into consideration the ‘European’ roots of Georgia’s competition policy, the Competition Agency regards the case law of the CJEU as having a very important interpretative value for closing ‘gaps’ in the law.
England's Islands in a Sea of Troubles
Authors: Cressy David
Published: November 2020

This book deals with the peculiarities, privileges, and anomalies of England’s offshore communities, and their relationship to the central state from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries. Drawing on a wide range of manuscripts and printed sources, it shows how the Channel Islands, the Isles of Scilly, the Isle of Wight, the Isle of Man, Anglesey, and lesser island communities maintained distinctive cultural patterns and constitutional legacies, alongside deep involvement in the affairs of the nation. As outliers of English power, the islands were coveted by England’s enemies, yet often neglected by English regimes. They were smugglers’ haunts, pirate havens, and locales of shipwreck, as well as places of religious and political infighting. Differences of language, heritage, distance, and maritime isolation made them difficult to govern. In England’s civil war, they were divided and contested, some serving as refuges for defeated cavaliers, and suffering siege and conquest. Regimes from Charles I to James II used these islands to hold political prisoners, and Charles I himself experienced a year of confinement on the Isle of Wight. Examination of how governments handled difficulties and distractions at the insular margins, and how islanders coped with the centralizing demands of the state, sheds light on the dynamics and application of power across the early modern period. Taking their measure entails an innovative engagement with legal, social, political, constitutional, religious, military, maritime, and economic history.
Lundy
Authors: Cressy David
Published: November 2020

This chapter serves as a micro-history of a little-known island, and as a prologue to the main account. The questions of ownership and jurisdiction, defence and occupation, piracy, dependence, and independence that troubled this small outpost in the Bristol Channel prefigured the problems of the rest of England’s island fringe. Colourful occupiers of Lundy Island included the pirate king Thomas Salkeld, the mining entrepreneur Thomas Bushell, and the puritan politician Lord Saye and Sele. Long held by the Grenville family, Lundy saw a civil war in microcosm in the mid-seventeenth century, as royalist and parliamentary forces vied for control. It then suffered long periods of neglect, interspersed by attempts at pasturage, occasional raids by marauders, and short-lived assertions of sovereignty.
English Islands in the Norman Sea
Authors: Cressy David
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the legal and constitutional idiosyncrasies of the Channel Islands. As remnants of the Duchy of Normandy, Jersey, Guernsey, and their dependencies were outside of English law, and lay beyond the reach of courts and parliaments at Westminster. Yet they were subject to crown-appointed military governors and could be answerable to the monarch’s Great Seal. Royal and papal charters assured their neutrality in times of war. This chapter explores the drama of London’s attempt to impose its will on the islands, and the islanders’ insistence on their customs, privileges, rights, and immunities. It shows how governors and captains of varying competence and rectitude sparred with bailiffs and jurats over authority, appointments, resources, and jurisdiction.
God’s Islands
Authors: Cressy David
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the religious culture and ecclesiastical arrangements of various island communities, showing how devotional activities and godly discipline were affected by politics and custom. The Isle of Wight was part of the Diocese of Winchester, with patterns of conformity and dissent similar to those of the mainland. Lundy was extra-parochial, and forgotten by the bishops of Exeter. The Scillies, too, belonged to the diocese of Exeter, but episcopal influence was almost invisible. The Isle of Man had its own bishop, but godly conformity was rarely attained. Religious radicals reached most islands in the decades of revolution, and lingered or revived in the later seventeenth century. The Channel Islands, as ever, were anomalous, having adopted a Presbyterian discipline under Elizabeth I. Jersey was brought into conformity with England’s prayer book and canons, at least officially, in the reign of James I, but Presbyterianism continued in Guernsey until the Restoration. Each island experienced conflicts in the later seventeenth century over worship, discipline, conformity, and dissent. The disputes of laity and clergy, deans and bailiffs, and governors and the godly formed an offshore drama against the continuing development of the national Church of England.
Island Prisoners of the English Republic
Authors: Cressy David
Published: November 2020

This chapter shows how the victors in the civil wars emulated the royalist regime by isolating enemies in island prisons. Victims of the Commonwealth and Protectorate included cavalier conspirators sent to the Isle of Wight and the Channel Islands, religious radicals held on the Isle of Wight and Scilly, and dissident army officers exiled to Jersey, Guernsey, and the Isle of Man. Revolutionary England supported a chain of offshore prisons, where inmates often likened themselves to the godly prisoners of Scripture. Sufferers included the Leveller John Lilburne, the Fifth Monarchist John Rogers, the Unitarian John Biddle, and the republican Robert Overton. Some construed their prison island as Patmos, and Oliver Cromwell’s England at Babylon.
Analytic Element Method
Authors: Steward David R.
Published: November 2020

The Analytic Element Method provides a foundation to solve boundary value problems commonly encountered in engineering and science. The goals are: to introduce readers to the basic principles of the AEM, to provide a template for those interested in pursuing these methods, and to empower readers to extend the AEM paradigm to an even broader range of problems. A comprehensive paradigm: place an element within its landscape, formulate its interactions with other elements using linear series of influence functions, and then solve for its coefficients to match its boundary and interface conditions with nearly exact precision. Collectively, sets of elements interact to transform their environment, and these synergistic interactions are expanded upon for three common types of problems. The first problem studies a vector field that is directed from high to low values of a function, and applications include: groundwater flow, vadose zone seepage, incompressible fluid flow, thermal conduction and electrostatics. A second type of problem studies the interactions of elements with waves, with applications including water waves and acoustics. A third type of problem studies the interactions of elements with stresses and displacements, with applications in elasticity for structures and geomechanics. The Analytic Element Method paradigm comprehensively employs a background of existing methodology using complex functions, separation of variables and singular integral equations. This text puts forth new methods to solving important problems across engineering and science, and has a tremendous potential to broaden perspective and change the way problems are formulated.
Foundation of the Analytic Element Method
Authors: Steward David R.
Published: November 2020

The Analytic Element Method provides a foundation to solve boundary value problems commonly encountered in engineering and science, where problems are structured around elements to organize mathematical functions and methods. While this text mostly adheres to a ``just in time mathematics'' philosophy, whereby mathematical approaches are introduced when they are first needed, a comprehensive paradigm is presented in Section 2.1 as four steps necessary to achieve solutions. Likewise, Section 2.2 develops general solution methods, and Section 2.3 presents a consistent notation and concise representation to organize analytic elements across the broad range of disciplinary perspectives introduced in Chapter 1.