bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Pressure-induced profile change of energy-dispersive diffraction using synchrotron radiation
Authors: Yamanaka Takamitsu
Published: November 2023

In the last decade X-ray diffraction study under high pressure has been given a large amount of attention in the fields of solid state physics and geoscience. High pressure research by powder diffraction has developed enormously with the use of synchrotron radiation (SR). SR sources having the nature of polychromatic waves and large photon intensity are a great advantage for high pressure diffraction studies. Pressure-induced structure transition and phase stability have been intensively investigated under compression by in situenergy-dispersive diffraction (ED) studies using a diamond anvil cell or multi-anvil apparatus. The ED method is an efficient diffractometry for high pressure diffraction studies because X-ray optical conditions are capable of being fixed without changing the position of the sample and the detector. Various difficulties encountered in the procedure of profile fitting of the ED spectra have been overcome by empirical corrections with respect to diffraction intensities.
Computations of Flow over Model Hill Forms using Advanced Second-Moment Closure Turbulence Models
Authors: Craft T J
Published: November 2023

The paper describes the application of a low-Reynolds-number Reynolds stress closure to the flow over a hill form. The model is based on that pro posed by Craft and Launder [1], which is designed to be applicable to arbitrary geometry shapes, and does not require the prescription of wall normal vectors and distances. Results are reported for some simpler flows as well as the hill case, which is designed to test the model’s ability to handle a typical geometry found in environmental flow applications. The model produces results in general agreement with experimental data, al though there are discrepancies in the recirculation zone, pointing to a need for further model refinement.
Coupling of Waves with the Atmosphere
Authors: Makin V K
Published: November 2023

Momentum flux above sea depends in general both on the wind speed and the sea state. Dynamical coupling of waves with the atmosphere allows to relate the sea drag to the properties of the momentum exchange at the sea surface. The approach is based on the conservation of momentum in the marine surface boundary layer, which implies that the total stress is independent of height, so that the momentum flux at a given height is equal to the momentum flux at the sea surface.
Wind Generated Waves on Fabric Structures
Authors: Mabon L , Williams C J .K
Published: November 2023

A fabric acts as a vortex sheet due to the discontinuity in the tangential components of fluid velocity on either side. As such it is basically unstable and a certain tension is required to stop it “flapping” even in a steady wind. This, together with the necessity of resisting wind pressure and snow load, are the controlling factors in design. This paper discusses the problem using classical potential flow to predict the speed of waves travelling across the fabric. At low wind speeds waves can travel up-wind or down-wind, but at a critical wind speed the up-wind wave becomes stationary and there is a loss of static stiffness. In certain structures such as sails, the tension in the fabric may increase sufficiently with wind speed for there to be no critical wind speed.
Solitary Waves on Deep Water
Authors: Longuet-Higgins Michael S
Published: November 2023

Capillary-gravity waves of solitary type on deep water were discovered theoretically, and have since been found to be common on wind-ruffied surfaces. Experiments to generate them in the laboratory and to measure their properties are described. A calculation of the rate of damping of nonlinear capillary-gravity waves, including solitons, are presented and compared with experiment. This shows that in very steep capillary-gravity waves the dissipation may increase by two orders of magnitude, owing to the sharp curvature and increased velocity gradients in the wave troughs. At low wave steepnesses a deep-water soliton resembles a wave packet, whose carrier wavelength is about 1.73 cm. The wave envelope extends horizontally in inverse proportion to the maximum wave amplitude. Hence the maximum steepness decays at twice the rate corresponding to an infinite

wave train.
The Surface Modulation of Internal Waves and their Properties in Response to the Wind Field at the Shelf Break
Authors: Oikonomou Emmanouil K , Robinson Ian S
Published: November 2023

Multiple SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) images from ERS-1 and ERS-2 satellites revealed the signature of internal wave (IW) surface mod ulation around the Malin/Hebrides shelf break. The satellite data covered mainly summer and early autumn months when IWs are known to exist in the area from in situ measurements.
Effect of Particle Inertia on the Diffusion of Small Particles in Turbulent Wall Boundary Layers
Authors: Aldridge J N
Published: November 2023

The effect of particle inertia on small particles diffusing in a turbulent wall bounded flow is calculated. The equation for a single particle is simplified assuming the particle response time is small compared to the time scale associated with turbulent fluctuations. Continuum equations are obtained from the single particle equation by consideration of mass and momentum conservation in a control volume by the use of volume averaging. Turbulent averaging is then carried out and the resulting correlations are modelled using results borrowed from second moment turbulence clo sure theory. Simplified forms are obtained for the constant stress region in a wall boundary layer, where the effect of inertia is found to enhance the particle flux. Finally, a numerical calculation of flow structure and the suspended sediment concentration over rippled bed under surface wave motion, using second moment turbulence closure model, is performed in order to simulate the characteristic phenomenon such as the vortex for mation and vortex lift-off over a sand rippled bed. A good agreement is obtained between the calculated values and experimental data.
A Simplified Model for Spatio-Temporal Distributions of Ocean Spray Droplets
Authors: Lighthill Sir James
Published: November 2023

Between ocean and atmosphere, there exists at extreme wind speeds a thick layer of “a third fluid”: ocean spray, consisting of a relatively tall cloud of droplets. Many of the smaller ones (with radii not more than about 20µm) appear when bubbles burst at the sea surface, although [I] a greater mass of droplets is gen erated by ejection of “spume” at whitecaps (in the form of droplets with radii ranging from 20µm to much larger values). A recent survey [2] estimated that, at a wind speed of 40m/s (the speed at which the fraction of ocean surface covered by whitecaps is expected to reach unity),
Dimerization partners
Authors: Littlewood Trevor D , Evan Gerard I
Published: November 2023

Dimerization is a prerequisite for sequence– specific DNA binding by several classes of transcription factors. Examples of both homo- and heterodimerization occur - with precise dimerization specificity dependent upon the protein in question. Whereas some bHLH and bHLHZ proteins can form both homodimers and heterodimers ( e.g. MyoD and Max), others appear exclusively as homodimers (e.g. USF) or heterodimers (e.g. Myc and Mad). The dimerization specificities of various bHLH and bHLHZ proteins are summarized in Table 6, and some are discussed in detail below.
Physiological functions and role in diseases
Authors: Kirschke Heidrun , Barrett Alan J , Rawlings Neil D
Published: November 2023

The locations of the cysteine proteinases described here are the lysosomes. At the acidic pH values in lysosomes these enzymes degrade proteins that have been taken up by the cells or that originate from the same cell, e.g. from cytosol. No disease is known yet that can be attributed to deficiency or inactivity of one of the lysosomal cysteine proteinases. A protein storage disease such as Batten's disease has been shown not to be caused by the failure of lysosomal proteinases but possibly by the abnormal post-translational modification of the stored proteolipid subunit c of the mitochondrial ATP synthase complex [841,985).
Planetary motion
Authors: Acheson David
Published: November 2023

The planets move, very nearly, according to three simple rules:
Waves and diffusion
Authors: Acheson David
Published: November 2023

The aim of this chapter is to introduce some examples of partial differential equations, for these provide the key to some of the deepest phenomena in Nature.
Nonlinear oscillations and chaos
Authors: Acheson David
Published: November 2023

One of the ‘simplest’ dynamical systems exhibiting chaos is the equation This is just a nonlinear counterpart to the classical forced oscillator of Section 5.2, with the restoring force due to the ‘spring’ being proportional to x rather than to x itself. A typical numerical solution is shown in Fig. 11.1, with a fairly large forcing amplitude, A = 7.5.
A Priori
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Prior to the eighteenth century, the pair of terms ‘a priori’/’a posteriori’ (Latin for ‘from what is earlier’/’for what comes after’) was used to distinguish between modes of reasoning: ‘The mind can discover and understand the truth … by demonstration. When the mind reasons from causes to effects, the demonstration is called a priori; when from effects to causes, the demonstration is called a posteriori’ (Arnauld 1662). Only later were these non identical terminological-twins used to refer to types of knowledge: knowledge independent of experience is ‘a priori’, that which is grounded in experience is ‘a posteriori’ (Kant 1781).
Aplysia
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Aplysia, a hind-gilled (opistobranch) marine snail (Kandel 1979), is one of the heroes of the cellular revolution in the neurosciences. Its external resemblance to the rabbit earned it the name sea-hare. Yet it is the insides of Aplysia that has turned it into such a highly successful *system in the cellular analysis of simple memory. Quinn (pers. comm.) had defined an ideal *subject for the neurobiological analysis of learning as a creature with 10 large neurons, 10 genes, a generation time of 1 week, and the ability to play the cello and recite Shakespeare. Indeed this is not a faithful description of Aplysia, but in the real world, the sea-hare became a useful compromise.
Associative learning
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

The notion of ‘association’ is central to both the philosophical and the experimental study of the mind. In philosophy it can be traced back to Aristotle, who proposed that similarity, contrast, and contiguity of images sub serve recollection (On memory; Sorabji 1972). ‘Associationism’, the philosophical doctrine that the mind learns and construes the world bottom-up by associating elementary events, has emerged with British empiricism in the seventeenth century (Warren 1921).
Attention
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

So prominent is the position of attention in the scientific discourse on behaviour, that Titchner (1908) regarded it as ‘the nerve of the whole psychological system’, and added that ‘as men judge of it, so shall they be judged before the general tribunal of psychology’. James (1890) was convinced that ‘everybody knows what attention is’ and described it as ‘… the taking possession by the mind in clear and vivid form of one of what seem several simultaneous objects or trains of thought’. James was right in stating that intuitively we know what attention is, but, probably because the concept is so inclusive, a consensus on its definition is not easy to attain.
Behaviourism
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behaviour. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute.
Binding
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

There are several facets of ‘binding’ (definition 1) that excite philosophers. A classical aspect has to do with the persistence of the identity of things whose constituents turn-over with time, such as the self (see the ‘Ship of Theseus’ problem in *persistence). Neuroscience and the philosophy of mind presently focus on a distinct type of the ‘binding problem’, which refers to the ability of the brain to bind, within a fraction of a second, the features of a complex *stimulus into a coherent, meaningful percept (definition 2). Interest in this type of problem has a long history (e.g. Hume 1739).
Birdsong
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Male birds sing to selected audiences. The male is a landlord and potential warrior, notifying other males that it is ready to defend its territory. It is also a charming troubadour attempting to convince females that it is the best in town. The song occupies such a cardinal role in the male’s life that it may even dream about it (Dave and Margoliash 2000). Whereas we humans could enjoy the song repertoire regardless of gender, the male and the female of songbirds are probably each tuned to understand only that part of the song that speaks to their heart (Williams and Nottebohm 1985). The *plasticity of birdsong has been well known to bird fanciers in the Orient since ancient times, and expert manipulations of song were exploited for aesthetic and commercial purposes (Konishi 1985).
Cerebellum
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

The conspicuous location and distinct shape of the cerebellum (Latin for little brain) had attracted the attention of neuroanatomists long ago; at the time it was even considered as the seat of the soul, although this was soon rejected: ‘… this marvelous instinct, which is developed by education into mind, and which always has its seat in the brain … and never in the cerebellum; for I have often seen the cerebellum injured … when the soul has not ceased to fulfill its functions’ (La Mettrie 1748). Others thought that the spirits which put the body in motion flow from the cerebrum for voluntary movements, but from the cerebellum for unconscious movements (Hoffman 1695, cited in Brazier 1984). This latter proposal (spirits excluded) was not too far from certain more recent notions of cerebellar function. But the picture is changing. And so is the view of the role of the cerebellum in learning.
Cerebral cortex
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

The cerebral cortex (Latin for bark, rind, shell) is a multi-layered, convoluted sheet of tissue overlaying the cerebral hemispheres. In humans it is 3–4 mm thick, covering cm2. It contains at least 1010 neurons and about the same number of glia cells. From a phylogenetic perspective, three types of cortices are about 100 years ago. The cytoarchitecture of the cortex is usually described in term of laminar and columnar organization. A six-layer classification, I–VI, first introduced by Brodmann, is conventionally used to describe the laminar structure of the neocortical sheet (Figure 10b).
Classic
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

‘Classic’ in its classical sense is borrowed from the Romans. ‘Classici’ were citizens who possessed a substantial income. The word was used also to refer to the armed forces, and ‘classicum’ was the trumpet call signalling the battle. The Latin author Aulus Gellius (second century AD) was probably the first to refer to writers of worth and distinction as classic writers (Saint-Beuve 1850). The French philologist Littre later adapted the term to refer to literary works ‘used in the classes of colleges and schools’ (Harvey 1937).
Classical conditioning
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Pavlov and his dogs are probably the first association that comes to mind in most people when prompted to contemplate experiments on animal learning. Indeed, a century after its formalization (Pavlov 1906), the *paradigm of classical conditioning1 (alias Pavlovian conditioning, conditioned reflex type I, respondent conditioning, type S(timulus) conditioning) is still a cornerstone of learning research. Following the pioneering work of Sechenov (1862), the father figure of Russian physiology, Pavlov (Figure 13) led a systematic attempt to *reduce the study of higher brain function to that of quantifiable atoms of reflexive behaviour.
Coincidence detector
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Many brain faculties depend on the ability to detect and encode associations and correlations among events. Coincidence detectors are essential for this ability. The most straightforward type of coincidence detector senses the occurrence of two events at the same time (definition 1). However, what is meant by ‘at the same time’ depends on the scientific discipline and on the *level of analysis.
Conditioned taste aversion
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Farmers know, probably from the dawn of farming, that animals tend to avoid poisonous bait if they survive their first encounter with it. The farmers themselves may have probably noticed that foodstuff comes to evoke disgust if consuming it results in nausea and intestinal distress. However, common knowledge does not always penetrate academic barriers: it has taken John Garcia and his colleagues several distressful years to convince the referees of respectable scientific journals that conditioned taste aversion (CTA) does occur (Garcia 1981). This almost became a case of CSA (conditioned submission aversion).
Drosophila melanogaster
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

There are over 3000 different species of Drosophilidae (Greek for ‘dew lovers’), but none is as popular as Drosophila melanogaster, which became the pet organism of geneticists already a century ago (melanogaster is ‘black belly’ in Greek, referring to the colour of the male’s bottom).
Episodic memory
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Episodic recollection is conscious time travel into the subjective past1. This is considered by many as the most sophisticated faculty of memory, and the one most characteristic of humans. Further, a minority of authors even use the term ‘memory’ and ‘episodic memory’ as synonyms. These authors would usually concede that the *declarative memory of impersonal facts is also ‘memory’, but refuse to consider many other types of use-dependent change in behaviour, such as *classical conditioning, *habit and *skill, as bona fide memory. This is evidently not the stand taken in this book (*memory).
Experimental extinction
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Pavlov noted that once one of his famous dogs (and there were many) had been conditioned to salivate to the sound of a metronome by associating the sound with food, the sound alone came to elicit salivation, as expected (*classical conditioning). However, when the metronome continued to be played without subsequent reward, with time salivation diminished. Pavlov termed this phenomenon ‘experimental extinction’ (Pavlov 1927). Ever since, experimental extinction (which can easily be demonstrated in *instrumental conditioning as well) became one of the most fundamental problems in learning theory.
False memory
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

memory item is retrieved in a new context, ‘implicit’ could particularly provide an opportunity for new information to modify the initial trace (Nader et al. 2000; Sara 2000; Berman and Dudai 2001). The cues available in retrieval could also cause subjects to select, rearrange and distort the retrieved information (Tulving 1983; Loftus 1996). The introduction of improved neuropsychological assays of false memory, especially (*a priori) and endogenously generated representations. In addition, the static ‘storehouse’ *metaphors are passé; many biological memories are *biased, dynamic reconstructions of past occurrences.4 What comes out of the ‘storehouse’ is not what was deposited there.
Forgetting
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Herman Ebbinghaus, the progenitor of quantitative experimental psychology (Gorfein and Hoffman 1987), remarked that ‘all sorts of ideas, if left to themselves, are gradually forgotten’ (Ebbinghaus 1885). Whether this statement is acceptable by laypersons and scientists alike, depends on what is meant by ‘forgotten’. If ‘forgotten’ means ‘erased from memory’, then many, including professional psychologists, tend to believe that everything we learn is never erased (Loftus and Loftus 1980). In contrast, others, starting with Plato (Theaetetus 191), trust that memory traces can indeed be obliterated (‘drowned in the waters of Lethe’, Galton 1879).1 As it is much more difficult, and frequently impossible, to distinguish an obliterated memory from a non retrievable one, the use of ‘retrieval’ in the definition of ‘forgetting’ (definition 2 above) is therefore a safer bet.
Homunculus
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Homunculi (Latin, diminutive of *homo, man) have a rich history in science and philosophy, but not all homunculi were created equal. As a term in biology, ‘homunculus’ is a close relative of ‘animalculus’ (‘little animal’). The latter was a generic term used by the early microscopists of the seventeenth century to refer to the microorganisms discovered under the magnifying lens (Wilson 1995). Guided by a combination of naive observations and wishful thinking, animalcule were occasionally depicted as miniature editions of full-sized animals. Probably the most famous one was invented by the Dutch microscopist Nicolaas Hartsoeker.
Intracellular signal transduction cascade
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Intracellular signal transduction cascades (Tra-nsdu-cere, Latin for ‘to transfer’), also termed ‘signalling pathways’, are intracellular molecular pathways that decode and distribute within the cell specific information conveyed by distinct extracellular *stimuli, such as hormones, growth factors, and *neurotransmitters. (Special types of signal transduction cascades are activated by sensory stimuli in specialized sensory receptor cells, but they will not be further discussed here.) Intracellular signal transduction cascades span multiple cellular compartments, from the cell membrane via the cytoplasm to the nucleus. They are ubiquitous in all species and tissues, and involved in all aspects of cellular life, from differentiation and proliferation, via *homeostasis and *plasticity, to death.
Level
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

‘Level’ originated in lı-bella, diminutive of ‘balance’ in Latin. It was adapted to denote gadgets used to establish flat surfaces. That led to the use of ‘level’ to denote a stratum in a hierarchy, because components at the same level are considered, mostly *metaphorically, to be at the same height or rank. The question whether the *taxonomy of levels in a *system follows natural divisions or is merely a convenient *artefact of human cognition, is an issue that needs to be addressed separately in each case. Whatever the particular answer is, in real-life levels in any system are dependent on each other.
Maze
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Mazes (amasian, ‘to confound’ in old English) are for some current students of learning what the pen is for a literary critic: indispensable but occasionally abused. Although employed mainly to probe the memory of rodents (Olton 1979), over the years, mazes have been applied to the analysis of other species as well, ranging from flies (Dudai 1988) to monkeys (Murray et al. 1988) and humans (Woodworth and Schlosberg 1954). The systematic use of mazes in the psychological laboratory was initiated by Kline in Clark University in 1898.
Metaphor
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Metaphora is ‘a transfer’ in Greek, the transference consisting ‘in giving the thing a name that belongs to something else’ (Aristotle, Poetics 1457b7–8). In a more formal notation, metaphors can be described as statements in figurative language, composed of two juxtaposed elements, the ‘tenor’ and the ‘vehicle’, which are presented as sharing common attributes or ‘ground’ (Richards 1936). The tenor is the subject of the metaphor, while the vehicle is the means by which the subject is referred to.
Monkey
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

‘This is what I see in my dreams about final exams: /Two monkeys, chained to the floor, sit on the windowsill/ The sky behind them flutters,/The sea is taking its bath./The exam is History of Mankind./I stammer and hedge./One monkey stares and listens with mocking disdain,/the other seems to be dreaming away—/But when it’s clear I don’t know what to say/He prompts me with a gentle/Clinking of his chain’ (Szymborska 1995). It is the appreciation that monkeys are our closest phylogenetic relatives and share some of our intimate biological secrets, that fuels Szymborska’s irony.
Noradrenaline
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

The noradrenergic innervation in the brain is diffused and reaches a large variety of targets. The majority of the noradrenergic innervation originates in the locus ceruleus, in the pontine central grey (Figure 50). This cluster contains about 3000 neurons in the rat and 25,000 in human. Several major noradrenergic tracts travel from the locus ceruleus and innervate targets in most of the brain. Noradrenergic neurons also reside outside the locus ceruleus, in the lateroventral tegmentum. Much of their output inter-mingles with that of the locus ceruleus but the targets are not identical.
Recognition
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Similarly to *recall, recognition (re-cognoscere, Latin for to get to know again) refers to a type of memory (definition 1, Mandler 1980), a brain process (definition 2), and a memory test (definition 3). To judge that something has occurred previously may mean different things, ranging from the detection of familiarity or recency to the identification of the specific attributes of the target in its proper *context. Imagine entering a classroom and detecting a new student in the front row. Her face looks familiar, but you have no idea who she is.
Red herring
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

A bundle of smelly smoked (red) herrings drawn across a fox’s trail confuses the hounds (Cowie et al. 1985). Discovering that a *metaphorical red herring had been hiding in one’s path is a scientist’s nightmare, although not discovering it if it is there is even worse. It possibly tends to materialize more frequently on the fringe of hectic, fast-advancing disciplines that attract risk-takers (*scoopophobia). The diversionary data or concepts could pose a real treat to academic careers. Indeed one may toy with the arithmetic of the red herring phenomenon: the magnitude of damage is likely to be proportional to the significance of the research topic, the time elapsed since the diversion, the ego-driven stubbornness of the investigator, and the number of scientists that managed to become enticed by the misleading clue. Red herrings come in multiple sizes.
Reinforcer
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

‘Reinforcer’ (fortis,’strong’ in Latin), which is an agent or event, and ‘reinforcement’, which is the process that this agent is assumed to trigger and sustain, are among the most loaded terms in the behavioural literature. This is not because the concepts involved are necessarily more complex than certain other behavioural concepts, but because frequently their discussion connotes particular theoretical constructs, some of which have gravitated toward the status of a religious sect with all the convictions and emotions involved (*paradigm, *zeitgeist).
Scoopophobia
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Scoopophobia (sometimes manifested as prioritymania) is a common occupational hazard in contemporary science. The term stems from ‘scoop’, which literally means to gather or collect swiftly, and *metaphorically, to top or outmanoeuvre a competitor in acquiring and publishing an important news story (it all originated in schope, Old Dutch for ‘bucket’). Scoopophobia is a very focused phobia: the victim does not fear scoops in general, only those of the competitors. The first signs could become apparent already in Graduate School (‘early onset’), but more commonly in postdoctoral training or immediately afterwards (‘late onset’, but not senile).
Simple system
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Interest in the intelligence of simple organisms, and their use to investigate problems of learning and memory, draws mainly from two conceptual frameworks: Darwinism (Boakes 1984), and *reductionism. The simple systems may come to include also bionic hybrids of neural tissue and printed circuits (Kuwana et al. 1995; Maher et al. 1999).
Spaced training
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

In many situations, multiple training sessions with intercalated rest intervals (also termed ‘distributed training’) result in a more robust and long-lasting memory than the same amount of training with no rest intervals (‘massed training’). This phenomenon was noted already in the early days of experimental psychology (Jost 1897). It has been observed in species far apart on the phylogenetic scale, from the most primitive to the most advanced (Melton 1970; Carew et al. 1972; Cornell 1980; Perruchet 1989; Payne and Wenger 1992; Yin et al. 1995; Kogan et al.
Transfer
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

Teachers have appreciated transfer much before neurobiologists did. The teachings of the *classics, when practised, were not necessarily for school children to become experts in Homer or Virgil. The idea was that such studies have a general disciplinary value that will be transferred to the intellect at large. This is why educational psychologists were driven to investigate transfer. They had to prove that some educational *methods do have merit. In doing so they have also developed basic research methodologies of tremendous value. Consider, for example, the use of *control groups: it was introduced in research on transfer in schooling (Thorndike and Woodworth 1901a,b; Coover and Angell 1907).
Working memory
Authors: Dudai Yadin
Published: November 2023

‘Working memory’ is one of the most important and exciting concepts in modern neuroscience, and rightly so. It refers to a cognitive faculty that is essential for mentation and complex behaviour. This faculty subserves much of our ability to interact with the world in a flexible and intelligent manner, and is essential for thought, planning, and language. For example, reading these lines and combining them into a meaningful message, requires working memory. It is doubtful whether without working memory there would have been a Homer, a Shakespeare, a Mozart, or a Newton, and an audience to appreciate them. A mind without working memory is thus expected to be a rather dull place.
Local Behavior in the Finite Element Method
Authors: Babuška Ivo , Strouboulis Theofanis
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 3 we derived a-priori estimates for the global energy norm of the error. In this chapter, we will further analyze the properties of the error. In Section 4.1, we construct estimates for the nodal errors of the finite element solution, which prove that, for sufficiently smooth input data and elements of quadratic degree or higher (p ≥ 2), the nodal values of the finite element solution are superconvergent, namely, we have This means that, as the mesh size h tends to zero, the nodal errors converge to zero with a rate higher than the rate of convergence of the maximum error.
Bounds on global solutions
Authors: Cazenave Thierry , Haraux Alain , Martel Yvan
Published: November 2023

The study of the behaviour at infinity of global solutions is one of the most important problems in the study of non-linear evolution equations. The problem can be formulated as follows. If u(t), 0 t < oo is a solution of an equation of the form In the following subsection, we gather some preliminary results that will be useful in establishing the main result.
The invariance principle and some applications
Authors: Cazenave Thierry , Haraux Alain , Martel Yvan
Published: November 2023

Notes. See Ball [3], Dafermos [1-3], Dafermos and Slemrod [1], Hale [1], Haraux [1, 2], Henry [1], LaSalle [1], and Sell [l]. Thew-limit sets also appear in the theory of maximal attractors. Consult Babin and Vishik [1-3], Ghidaglia and Temam [1, 2], Hale [2], Haraux [2], and Ladyzhenskaya [2]. The invariance principle is also very useful in the study of the behaviour at infinity of positive solutions of reaction-diffusion systems.
Some basic concepts
Authors: Evans Michael , Swartz Tim
Published: November 2023

Before we start on a discussion of the various integration techniques there are some topics of a fairly general nature that should be considered. For example, simple exact expressions can sometimes be obtained for integrals that eliminate the need for more elaborate approximation techniques. While this situation is relatively rare, one should always be aware of the possibility.
Asymptotic approximations
Authors: Evans Michael , Swartz Tim
Published: November 2023

Asymptotic methods for integrals have long been used to approximate the special functions of mathematical physics that have integral representations. Two of the most common techniques are the Laplace method and the method of steepest descent or saddle-point method. In this chapter we will describe the essence of these methods so that they can be used in applications. For a more complete treatment, see for example, de Bruijn (1981), Murray (1984), Bleistein and Handelsman (1986) and Wong (1989).
Some topics incommutative algebra
Authors: Liu Qing , Erné Reinie
Published: November 2023

Unless otherwise specified, all rings in this book ,.will be supposed commutative and with unit. In this chapter, we introduce some indispensable basic notions of commutative algebra such as the tensor product, localization, and flatness. Other, more elaborate notions will be dealt with later, as they are needed. We assume that the reader is familiar with linear algebra over a commutative ring, and with Noetherian rings and modules.
General properties of schemes
Authors: Liu Qing , Erné Reinie
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we introduce the notion of schemes. The first three sections are devoted to the definitions of schemes and morphisms of schemes, as well as to examples. After that, in Sections 2.4 and 2.5, we consider some elementary properties, more particularly topological properties (irreducible components, dimension), of schemes.
Overview
Authors: Rott Hans
Published: November 2023

General theories of belief change—or, more aptly, of opinion change—and of non-monotonic reasoning-or, more positively, of defeasible reasoning—have been flourishing for 20 years now. Today they are actively studied by researchers in philosophy, logic and artificial intelligence. Though not devoid of toilsome logical details, the present book is primarily meant to be a philosophical contribution to the field. Being a philosopher means offering new perspectives. I accordingly attempt to open up two new perspectives on the formation and transformation of belief. The first view focuses on the problem of how to generate, with the help of sophisticated inference operations, coherent belief systems from information bases which may be both incomplete and inconsistent. This aspect is static in so far as no pieces of information are added to, or retracted from, the current stock of beliefs in response to some ‘perturbation’ from an external source. The sophisticated statics makes it possible to capture dynamic processes by very simple means. The alternative, second view is based on simple, essentially classical inference operations and lays the emphasis on the dynamic side, on non-trivial coherence requirements for the choices which are necessary to resolve incompatibilities between old and new information. From both perspectives close connections may be exhibited with the area of nonmonotonic reasoning in the abstract style of D. Gabbay (1985), D. Makinson (1989) and S. Kraus/ D. Lehmann/M. Magidor (1990). The drawing of inferences represents the static aspect; learning something or calling something into question ( accepting or rejecting something) represents the dynamic aspect of the topics covered in this book. Due to the choice-theoretic perspective taken in major parts the book, one might say that it is about the making up and the changing of one’s mind, where these idiomatic phrases are being ( re-)interpreted here as respectively referring to the static and the dynamic aspects of the change of doxastic states.
Epistemology and Belief Change
Authors: Rott Hans
Published: November 2023

From a philosophical point of view. AI and computer science are rather sloppy when speaking of knowledge. What they mean by ‘knowledge base’, ‘knowledge system’, and ‘knowledge representation’ does not refer to what is commonly meant by ‘knowledge’. It is widely agreed that if we know rather than just believe that ϕ, then ϕ must be true and our belief that ϕ is true must have some sort of justification. Neither truth nor justification is presupposed or guaranteed when computer scientists use the above-mentioned terms. I do not mean to suggest that this mistake has serious consequences in practice. For the purposes of the information sciences, it seems perfectly harmless to commit this kind of inaccuracy. But philosophers, and in particular epistemologists, must not be allowed to confuse epistemic and doxastic concepts. It is rather their duty to clarify the subtle interconnections between knowledge and belief. Evidently, this is a formidable task and cannot be achieved in the present book; I shall not develop an epistemological theory of my own. I take as given a particular theory of knowledge that has gained much respect recently, namely the one of Keith Lehrer as elaborated in his 1990 book Theory of Know/edge. Based mainly on Lehrer’s work, the purpose of the present chapter is to show that a proper understanding of knowledge does not only require an understanding of belief simpliciter, but in addition a thorough understanding of the dynamics of belief.
Foundational Belief Change Using Nonmonotonic Inference
Authors: Rott Hans
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we study ways of making the direct mode of belief revision (Section 3.4.1) more concrete. We start with two quite straightforward ideas. One may either treat the items of an information base as infallible, come what may, or one may see to it that the information base is always cleared of contradictions. Assume that the theory K has been generated from a (flat, unprioritized) belief base H with the help of an inference relation Inf. Then the first method puts K * ϕ to be Inf(H ⋃ {ϕ}), while the second method puts it to be Inf(H *o ϕ ) where *o signifies full meet base revision (a method of consistently ‘adding’ϕ to H that will be explained in due course). While logically well-behaved, the first idea fails with the crucial condition of Consistency Preservation. The second idea turns out to be logically rather ill-behaved. A more decisive objection against using it, however, will be found in the fact that this method allows defaults to override explicit beliefs.
A General Concept of Practical Rationality: Constraints for Coherent Choice
Authors: Rott Hans
Published: November 2023

This remainder of this book consists of a single extended argument. It is an argument concerning the unity of theoretical and practical reason. I am going to argue that practical reason is the more comprehensive concept. I am not contending that practical reason dominates or even enslaves theoretical reason. There will be no conflict or rivalry between the two in what follows.
Ghosts of the Museum
Authors: Hamilton W D
Published: November 2023

Sex is an intellectual problem for some of us but a personal one for us all The intellectual problem has affected me much only since, in the mid-I 960s, I first understood kin selection and sex ratio, but from then on it became my main scientific preoccupation, as will be seen in this volume. The personal one, of course, had been with me for very much longer, since puberty or perhaps ever since there arose those early Oedipal feelings about my parents-sexual love for my mother, jealousy and resentment against my father.
Messing the Plotter
Authors: Hamilton W D
Published: November 2023

Long before I had finished my share of the writing of the paper of the last chapter I was already working on other models. Many were tried before I came to those selected for the publication of the chapter. I mathemarized them as far as I could and then used simulation on the Michigan main computer, accessing it either from a huge cave, like room called NUBS in the basement of the herbarium (our nearest-neighbour building) or, h1ter, from a smc1llcr terminal room in my own floor of the Museum of Zoology. NUBS had firebrats plus a spectrum of dazed, earnest, and sometimes frighteningly expert freshmen.
Unequal Cousins
Authors: Hamilton W D
Published: November 2023

In my first years at Ann Arbor I was invited to many campuses and more occasionally was invited abroad. Almost always I wanted to accept bur nor for the honour or the discussion of ideas, instead more for the prospect of seeing new landscapes and new natural history. It was also interesting, I admit, even within America, to see new local ways and new styles of people but these differences did not seem to me great. l noticed them but they were far less exciting for me than the differences in natural history. As for the towns I wasn’t thrilled by those either; species of shade trees in the streets were usually the best novelries from my point of view. Otherwise it was mostly the same high blocb, the and intersecting planes, and the same high human pretensions. Steel, concrete, polished granite, aluminium, glass: then the same statues tempting you nor even to read the name.
‘Sex itself’
Authors: Hamilton W D
Published: November 2023

The scientific Dahlem Workshop. are a series with a long post World War ll tradition in West Berlin. They exist upon generous German funding via donors, foundations, and the Berlin City Senate. Conferees see them as a chance to spend a week with people they know, or know of, in distant places, to share ideas, hear the latest jokes and gossip, and to hive a hardworking yet costless parry. It was one of the meetings in 1982 that gave me my first visit to Berlin and it was to this conference I provided the paper of this chapter. It had as its subject ‘The Population Biology of Infectious.
Man of the Sand-dune Tel
Authors: Hamilton W D
Published: November 2023

The papers of this chapter and the next relate to Israel. The young and ancient nation has been as important a contributor to modern evolutionary theory as it has to modern fanaticism, with the two (plus many other scientific achievements) making a curious mix in the present-day country, like milk with creosote. The evolutionary side, which I regard as the milk element because more useful to most people and allergenic only for a few, makes it unsurprising that an important evolutionary symposium was held in Israel in 1986. The paper of Chapter 8 was my contribution to the symposium. That chapter will come back to the creosote streak as a tangential issue of my experience there (fanaticism, of course, had no part in the symposium itself).
Bishop Wykeham on Evolution
Authors: Hamilton W D
Published: November 2023

The trip to Israel of the last chapter was made while I was still living in the USA, About this time Sir Richard Southwood alerted me to a vacancy for a Royal Society Research Professor in Britain. I applied, was offered the post, and shortly I moved with my family to Oxford. There had been a similar chance to return to Britain a few years previously but, although I went so far as to visit England to discuss the idea, I did not pursue it. Too many of my family were in phases of schooling that made the change inadvisable and perhaps also I was too contented in my work in Ann Arbor.
The Three Queens
Authors: Hamilton W D
Published: November 2023

The protracted states of submission and revision undergone by the paper of this chapter have been mentioned several times already, I told how the paper eventually was accepted and that, in spite of what seemed the contrary opinions of so many, I rank it as the most important of my papers in this volume. After this, what remains? Still a lot. More needs to be said of the crucial roles of my coauthors and more also of the mistier roles of the various unknown opponents; then there is the load that slowly piled on my mind about why parasite coevolution in general should be so underestimated and the sex idea based on them so resisted; also how I think the notions of this paper and the opposition they generated have all fared since it was published. Lastly I would like to explain, though most of this will come in the next chapter, how the biological fuss about sex has affected me—the way the light shed by my solution has changed my view of life and of our human future.
Uccello/Othello
Authors: Hamilton W D
Published: November 2023

It was not long after Marlene Zuk and I published our paper in Science about parasites and sexual selection (Chapter 6) that my idea about the cardinal in the snowy Nichols Arboretum began to change. Originally I thought of any male cardinal’s song in the way, I suppose, everyone else did—or at least I thought the way other biologists did, Non-biologists usually think that birds sing simply for joy.
Projective Geometry of Two Dimensions
Authors: Semple J G , Kneebone G T
Published: November 2023

We shall continue to omit explicit reference to the ground field K whenever, as is usually the case, we wish to take the complex field as ground field. We shall also fix our attention from now on upon one particular 82, supposed fixed once and for all, which we call the projective plane; and the elements of this system will be called the points of the plane. Our task is to study the projective properties of this projective plane 82, and to introduce formal equivalents of the familiar notions that find a place in elementary projective geometry. Much of the theory can be derived from the single notion of linear dependence of points, which we now define.
Linear Systems of Quadrics
Authors: Semple J G , Kneebone G T
Published: November 2023

THE theory of linear systems of quadrics, as we might expect, is very similar to the corresponding theory for conics but more complicated. In this chapter we shall present the theory in outline only, introducing the main ideas but not going into detailed discussion of all possible special cases. We deal first with the two ℛ systems, the pencil of loci and the range of envelopes, and then we say something about the ℛ linear system, or net, of quadric loci.
Linear Transformations of Space
Authors: Semple J G , Kneebone G T
Published: November 2023

As in the case of plane collineations, we can show that a given collineation transforms any range of points or pencil of planes into a homographically related range or pencil, and that it transforms any projectively generated manifold-for example a quadric or a twisted cubic-into another manifold of the same kind.