bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
MECHANICAL DAMAGE INDUCED BY CONTROLLED FREEZING IN APPLE AND POTATO
Authors: KHAN ALI A. , VINCENT JULIAN F.V.
Published: February 2007

Freezing was used to induce controlled damage to apple and potato parenchyma. As the tissue freezes ice crystals form extra‐ or intracellularly, pushing the cells apart or rupturing cell walls producing large voids within the tissue. Mechanical tests (wedge penetration, tensile and compression) on specimens frozen to a certain temperature at a controlled rate and thawed show that the changes in the mechanical behaviour of the material are directly related to the degree of cell damage. As the tissue freezes, the fastest rate of tissue damage occurs between ‐3C and ‐10C. In this range there is a marked decrease in stiffness and an increase in the deformation required to cause failure. In apples, slow freezing leads to the intercellular spaces expanding, increasing their aspect ratio and hence, the anisotropy of the tissue. The increasing number of voids increases crack‐stopping and ductility; more energy is dissipated in flow elevating the fracture toughness. Toughness then decreases with further damage. This effect can be mimicked with brittle paper: fracture toughness of tracing paper initially increases with increasing number of holes punched randomly in it.
ROLE OF GRANULE SIZE AND SIZE DISTRIBUTION IN THE VISCOSITY OF COWPEA STARCH DISPERSIONS HEATED IN EXCESS WATER
Authors: OKECHUKWU PAUL E. , RAO M.A.
Published: February 2007

The role of granule size and size distribution, measured by laser diffraction, in affecting the flow behavior and yield stress of cowpea starch dispersions (2.6% w/w) heated for various time intervals at 67, 70, 75 and 80C was studied. Flow data on the dispersions at 20C were fitted to the power law flow equation. The standard deviation of the granules described the transition of flow behavior from shear thickening (dilatant) in the early stages of gelatinization to shear thinning (pseudoplastic) in the latter stages. It was an important variable for also correlating the critical shear rate, λ˙c, for the onset of shear thickening in starch dispersions. The granules swelled to a maximum of about 3.5 X raw starch granule mean diameter and a granule mass fraction of 65%. The consistency index of the dispersions increased with granule mean diameter.
MODELLING THIXOTROPY USING A NOVEL STRUCTURAL KINETICS APPROACH: BASIS AND APPLICATION TO A SOLUTION OF IOTA CARRAGEENAN
Authors: BARAVIAN C. , QUEMADA D. , PARKER A.
Published: February 2007

A new methodology for modelling the thixotropy of inelastic fluids is described and its application demonstrated. In order to validate the model, data from two measurement protocols are compared and shown to give coherent results. The structural kinetics approach uses a reduced structural variable, λ, which has values between zero, when the structure is totally broken down, and one, when the structure is complete. The new approach is applied to the thixotropy of a solution of iota carrageenan, a well known food hydrocolloid. Solutions were sheared before testing in order to eliminate their viscoelasticity. The measurement protocols used were: (1) stress jumps from above and below each shear stress tested, and (2) triangular ramp‐up/ramp down stress profiles, often called hysteresis loops. The first series of measurements was used to determine the equilibrium structure and kinetics of structural build‐up and breakdown at each shear stress. This data completely determines the parameters in the thixotropic model and allows prediction of the samples response to any stress/time profile. Without using any additional parameters, this model was then used to predict the shape of the hysteresis loops in the second series of measurements. The agreement between the predictions and measurements was very good, provided that the experimental data was first corrected for the efects of inertia and the finite gap‐width of the rheometer.
INSTRUMENTAL TEXTURE PROFILE ANALYSIS WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO GELLED SYSTEMS
Authors: PONS M. , FISZMAN S.M.
Published: February 2007

Instrumental Texture Profile Analysis (TPA) was developed about 30 years ago, constituting an interesting way of analyzing a series of textural parameters in only one test. Since then much work has been done and new tools have been developed. This paper focuses on gelled food systems, reviewing and discussing the evolution of the initial terminology, testing conditions and sampling methods. New parameters, experimental and calculation methods, and some newly proposed are also analyzed, updating the instrumental TPA as applied to gelled systems.
THE RHEOLOGICAL BASIS OF DOUGH STICKINESS
Authors: DOBRASZCZYK B.J.
Published: February 2007

Stickiness in wheat flour doughs was studied as a function of rheological and surface properties. Adhesion was measured using a modified peel test at various water additions, peel rates and peel layer thicknesses. Peeling energy gave a strong positive correlation with subjective bakery stickiness ratings. Peeling forces were highly rate dependent and showed transitions from sticky to nonsticky behvaiour with increasing rate of peeling. Dynamic storage modulus showed a negative correlation with stickiness ratings, suggesting stickiness is primarily a rheologically controlled process. Stress relaxation gradients were greater for sticky doughs and were very similar to peeling force vs. rate slopes, again indicating that adhesion is principally a function of the rheological properties of the dough. Surface tension measurements of sticky and nonsticky dough/liquor interfaces showed no significant differences and are typical of protein solutions. Calculated values of the interfacial surface energy between dough and interface were about 100 mJ/m2, typical of secondary bonding interactions such as polar or van der Waals bonding.
UNIAXIAL COMPRESSION OF GELS MADE FROM PROTEIN AND K‐CARRAGEENAN
Authors: IPSEN RICHARD
Published: February 2007

Investigations of gels (18% total solids) made from pea protein isolates (PPI) or soy protein isolate (SPI) with differing amounts of K‐carrageenan added showed that the gel strength increased with the concentration of K‐carrageenan. When the concentration ofK‐carrageenan exceeded 0.4%, gels made with PPI were stronger and more stiff than equivalent gels made with SPI. Addition of K‐carrageenan stabilized gels made with PPI towards variations in brittleness (indicated by strain at fracture) with pH. This was not the case when SPI was used. Preheating (75C, 2 min) suspensions containing protein isolates and K‐carrageenan before gel formation increased the strength and stiffness of the final gels, most pronounced when SPI was used. Addition of NaCl (0.5–2%) reduced strength and stiffness of gels, whereas CaCl2 had no influence on gel properties. Mixtures of PPI and SPI proved to be weaker and more brittle than gels made from only SPI of PPI. Results indicate that using proteins of different origin can cause differences in gel structure.
SMALL AMPLITUDE OSCILLATORY SHEAR STUDIES ON MOZZARELLA CHEESE PART I. REGION OF LINEAR VISCOELASTICITY
Authors: SUBRAMANIAN R. , GUNASEKARAN S.
Published: February 2007

Changes in texture of a low‐moisture, part‐skim and a low‐fat, part‐skim Moz‐zarella cheese during heating were examined by measuring their rheological properties using small amplitude oscillatory shear (SAOS) tests after 1, 4 and 12 weeks of refrigerated storage. In general, the linear viscoelastic range decreases with increasing temperature and age because cheese behaves more like a viscoelastic solid at lower temperature and shorter ripening time. The dynamic rheological properties (η*, G′ and G″) were constant within a range of 0.05% shear strain. The dynamic rheological properties of low‐fat, part‐skim Mozzarella were found to be higher than that of low‐moisture, part‐skim Mozzarella within the linear viscoelastic range.
THIXOTROPY OF ORANGE CONCENTRATE AND QUINCE PUREE
Authors: RAMOS A.M. , IBARZ A.
Published: February 2007

Orange juice with pulp and pectins is thixotropic at soluble solids concentrations of 55 and 60 Brix in the range of temperatures from 0 to 20C and shear rate from 7.2 to 57.6 s−1. Quince purée is thixotropic at soluble solids concentrations of 12.3 to 28 °Brix in the range of temperatures between 0 to 20C and shear rate from 7.2 to 57.6 s−1. The thixotropic behaviour of orange juice and quince purée increases with increasing concentration and decreasing temperature and they can be described by the kinetic model proposed by Figoni and Shoemaker (1983):

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The thixotropic structure of orange juice was destroyed by applying a shear rate of 57.6 s−1 for 5 min, and for quince purée for 10 min. Quince purée shows a greater thixotropic character than orange juice, because it has a higher content of fiber, pulp and pectins and also because it shows a microscopic structure consisting of long particles and heterogeneous fibers.
TENSIPRESSER PRECISION IN MEASURING COOKED RICE ADHESIVENESS
Authors: NAITO SHIGEHIRO , OGAWA TOSHIO
Published: February 2007

Precision in measuring cooked rice adhesiveness was studied using a Tensipresser and the “full cup” method. To determine the optimum adhesiveness parameter, 14 samples each from rice harvests in 1992 and 1993 were used. Out of the 42 parameters derived from a force‐distance curve, the ratio of cumulative adhesiveness to cumulative hardness, was used as the optimum because of its high correlation (r >0.9) with sensory adhesiveness, high precision (mean coefficient of variation (CV) of 14 samples <15% and maximum CV of 14 samples <25 %), and high resolution based on Kruskal‐Wallis test statistic H. For parameter , the maximum CV decreased with the increasing number of bites, and statistic H indicated that increasing the number of bites from 1 to 5 increased resolution, but bites exceeding 5 did not clearly do so.
INSIGHT INTO CONSUMERS’ ASSESSMENTS OF BISCUIT TEXTURE BASED ON MASTICATION ANALYSIS – HARDNESS VERSUS CRUNCHINESS
Authors: BROWN WENDY E. , LANGLEY KEITH R. , BRAXTON DENISE
Published: February 2007

Nineteen ordinary consumers assessed the hardness, crunchiness and crumbliness of a series of biscuits exhibiting texture differences. Chewing patterns were obtained from all of the subjects eating the same samples by simultaneous recording of masticatory muscle activity and jaw movement. There was a strongly significant inverse correlation between hardness and crumbliness and weaker but significant correlations between hardness and crunchiness (positive) and between crunchiness and crumbliness (negative). The hardness/crumbliness dimension was well represented by several instrumental measures of the mechanical properties of the samples and by several descriptors assessed by a trained sensory panel. Crunchiness gave ambiguous relationships with these objective measures. Chewing data indicated an increase in masticatory muscle effort between the first 5 chews and the next 5 chews with a subsequent decline in effort to the end of the chewing sequence. This was associated with a transfer of effort from a principally compressive force during the initial chews, to a mixture of compressive (fracture) force and grinding (shear) force during later chews. Mastication of the harder and crunchier samples required more total chewing effort. Principal component analysis demonstrated a relationship between sensory hardness (and conversely, crumbliness) and the chewing effort during the first 5 chews, and between crunchiness and the chewing effort during the subsequent 5 chews. This study indicates the importance of the temporal changes occurring in the sample during mastication to perception of textural characteristics.
RELATING SENSORY TEXTURAL ATTRIBUTES OF CORN TORTILLAS TO SOME INSTRUMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
Authors: REYES‐VEGA M.L. , PERALTA‐RODRÍGUEZ R.D. , ANZALDÚA‐MORALES A. , FIGUEROA‐CÁRDENAS J.D. , MARTÍNEZ‐BUSTOS F.
Published: February 2007

Texture of corn tortillas from six commercial brands was measured with an Instron Universal Testing Machine by puncture with cylindrical (flat‐end) and spherical punches, tearing (tension), and Texture Profile Analysis (TPA). Peak force read from the curves for puncture and tearing, and TPA parameters (hardness, springiness, cohesiveness and chewiness) were correlated with sensory quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) parameters (hand tearing, hardness, springiness, moisture, grittiness and stickiness). Pearson's (r) and
KAUFFMAN'S ABSTRACT MODEL OF PHASE TRANSITIONS1
Authors: NORMAND MARK D. , PELEG MICHA
Published: February 2007

According to Kauffman's abstract model (1995), a phase transition occurs when free nodes become interconnected through random linking. Despite the randomness of the process, the general patterns that it produces are idiosyncratic and highly predictable, demonstrating the universality of the phase transition phenomenon and its independence of the physical interpretation of the nodes and links. To make it more representative of real materials, the model was modified by introducing rules that restrict the distance between the nodes that are allowed to connect. This produced transition patterns that were very similar to those produced by allowing any pair of nodes to connect, and with a very similar cluster size distribution. The model does not account for all the specific mechanisms of phase transitions that cause the hardening of foods. But it does offer at least a partial explanation as to why certain consistent patterns emerge regardless of a food's variability at the molecular and microstructural levels, and it emphasizes the random character of the interactions between its components.
FLAVEDO AND ALBEDO CHANGES IN ‘EUREKA’ LEMONS CAUSED BY STATIC COMPRESSION AND IMPACT LOADING
Authors: UNDERHILL STEVEN J.R. , MCLAUCHLAN RICHARD L. , DAHLER JANELLE M. , BERTRAM JOHN
Published: February 2007

Mature lemons (Citrus limon (L.) Burm. ‘Eureka') were subjected to increasing compression, impact and static loading, then stored at either 1C, 13C or 20C for 14 or 28 days. Following storage, fruit were assessed for cellular damage associated with the site of loading. Slow compression (1.7cm plunger driven at a loading rate of 200 mm min−1) resulted in cell damage in the mid to lower flavedo tissue. Tissue failure was characterised by cell rupture, with minor cell deformation and compression associated with damage to the oil glands. Impact loading caused relatively little lower flavedo damage, with most of the injury associated with the albedo, the upper flavedo and tissue surrounding the oil glands. Damaged albedo cells formed a distinct zone of ruptured and laterally compressed tissue which increased in area with drop height. Static loading (3.7 kg top weight) resulted in a similar mode of failure to that of impact loading, with extensive cellular damage observed in the lower albedo. Injury was distinct in that cells were not laterally compressed and flavedo damage was far more pronounced. While most of the tissue damage was directly
EVALUATING EXPANDED‐FOOD SENSORY PROPERTIES BY IMAGE ANALYSIS
Authors: GAO X. , TAN J. , SHATADAL P. , HEYMANN H.
Published: February 2007

The objective of this study was to ascertain whether sensory properties of extruded corn puff texture can be predicted by digital image analysis. Gradient image statistics, such as third moment and standard deviation, run‐length statistics, and features computed from fuzzy edge‐detected image were used. Visually‐determined sensory properties included cell density, cell wall thickness, cell size uniformity. Crushing force between molars and biting force between incisors were among the hardness‐related sensory properties. All the sensory properties could be predicted with a coefficient of determination (r2) of 0.89 or higher. In most cases, a polynomial function of an image feature was the best model for predicting sensory scores. Image features derived from the intensity band of a hue, saturation, and intensity color model gave the highest r2 values for predicting visually‐determined sensory properties. For hardness‐related sensory properties, the features derived from saturation band resulted in the best r2 values.
STABILITY OF MODEL ACID MILK BEVERAGE: EFFECT OF PECTIN CONCENTRATION, STORAGE TEMPERATURE AND MILK HEAT TREATMENT
Authors: LUCEY J. A. , TAMEHANA M. , SINGH H. , MUNRO P. A.
Published: February 2007

Acid milk beverages were made by homogenizing and diluting acid milk gels made with glucono‐b‐lactone. A central composite experimental design and response suqace methodology were used. Colloidal stability was assessed by the amount of surface whey produced during storage, the flow behaviour and particle size distribution. Using regression analysis a second order polynomial model satisfactorily predicted the effect of pectin concentration on whey separation (R2= 0.88). Whey separation was significantly decreased by pectin concentration and increased by the quadratic term for pectin concentration (P < 0.001). Neither of the other variables had a significant effect on any of the indices of colloidal stability. The prediction equations for the variables flow behaviour index and particle size distribution had much lower values (I 0.63). It is suggested that pectin prevented the aggregation of casein‐gel fragments; evidence for this was also provided by confocal scanning laser micrographs of beverages made with various concentrations of pectin.
UNIAXIAL COMPRESSION AND STRESS RELAXATION TESTS ON ALGINATE GELS
Authors: MANCINI MARCO , MORESI MAURO , RANCINI ROBERTO
Published: February 2007

The rheological behavior of alginate gels was analyzed using uniaxial compression and stress relaxation tests. The engineering compressive stress (σE)‐deformation (ɛE curves were found to be concave upward and independent of the crosshead speed (Vt for Vt≥ 120 mm/min. By considering all the stress (σE)‐time (t) data for t greater than 10 times the average loading period, the viscoelastic response of these gels was described by means of a 3‐element Maxwell body characterized by a relaxation time of 300 s. Such gels exhibited an apparent linear viscoelastic solid behavior for ɛE≤ 8% and a nonlinear one for larger deformations. However, for ɛE>32% their solid viscoelastic behavior tended to a liquid one. Empirical models allowed the viscoelastic properties, as well permanent deformation, of these gels to be quantitatively described as functions of the deformation applied and/or loading rate.
UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIBILITY OF BLACKGRAM DOUGHS BLENDED WITH CEREAL FLOURS
Authors: BHATTACHARYA SILA , BHATTACHARYA SUVENDU , NARASIMHA H.V.
Published: February 2007

The uniaxial compression characteristics of papad dough (moisture content 62%, dry basis), made from blackgram flour as well as after incorporation of different types of cereal (rice, sorghum and wheat) flours at different levels (20 and 40%), were determined. The stress‐strain data can be interrelated by a power law type equation. The sensory attributes (stickiness, firmness, elasticity and ease of flattening/rolling) were correlated with the energy for compression, deformability modulus and apparent biaxial elongational viscosity. Inelastic doughs resulted from the blackgram dough; doughs with 20% rice or wheat blends were also inelastic but sorghum samples were elastic. The deformability modulus for sorghum doughs were extremely high. The blackgram dough as well as the wheat blended doughs were the easiest doughs to roll/flatten. Blended dough consisting of wheat flour (at 20 and 40% level) or rice flour up to 20% level was suitable for making cereal‐blended papad doughs.
TEXTURAL AND STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN LASAGNA AFTER COOKING
Authors: GONZALEZ J. J. , MCCARTHY K. L. , MCCARTHY M. J.
Published: February 2007

The effects of cooking time (9.5, 11, and 15 min) and holding time of lasagna pasta after cooking (4 min to 185 min) on the textural properties (through mechanical testing) and internal structure (via nuclear magnetic resonance imaging) were studied. The peak force, which characterized firmness, decreased with increasing cooking and holding time. Work was strongly influenced by the value of the peak force and followed a similar trend. Corresponding NMR images revealed changes in proton signal intensity as a function of position. The NMR signal intensity increased at the center with increasing cooking and holding times. This change illustrates that water migration to the sample center was simultaneous with the decrease in the peak force. The initial slope, associated with the structure of the sample surface region, decreased with cooking time and increased with holding time. The NMR signal intensity of the surface region decreased with holding time; water migration from this region during this period was simultaneous with an increase in stiffness. NMR imaging is an effective technique to evaluate internal structural changes of pasta during holding. Furthermore, it supplements information provided by conventional mechanical testing, facilitating the interpretation of texture measurements.
FLOW AND STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCENTRATED MILK
Authors: VÉLEZ‐RUIZ J. F. , BARBOSA‐CÁNOVAS G. V.
Published: February 2007

The flow and structural characteristics of concentrated milk were analyzed between concentrations of 12.5 and 46.7% solids content at room temperature. The rheological behavior of milk concentrates was represented by parameters corresponding to Newtonian, Power Law, or Herschel‐Bulkley equations depending on the solids content level. The resulting flow behavior indices and consistency coefficients were correlated to concentration by a single‐term exponential equation, with only milk concentrates above 40% solids content exhibiting yield stress. Milk concentrates were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), complemented by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and image analysis (IA). Casein micelles appeared as granular particles (0.1–0.3 μm) with a rough surface. Fat globules, noted as small holes in the SEM pictures, appeared to be major spherical components (0.5–10 μm) in the transmission electron microscope images as well as in the image analysis inverted micrographs. Fat globules in the milk concentrates were surrounded by a membrane which was thicker in the concentrated milk than in the fresh milk. TEM images were very helpful in observing the interparticle interactions, as well as the thickness of the fat membranes that corroborated with the SEM observations. The IA pictures allowed the identification and characterization of the fat globule features.
MICROSTRUCTURAL FAILURE MECHANISMS IN COOKED AND AGED CARROTS
Authors: THIEL B. L. , DONALD A. M.
Published: February 2007

In situ mechanical testing of hydrated carrot (Daucus carota) parenchymal tissue was performed in an Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope. Carrots were either aged or cooked for varying amounts of time in order to ascertain how these processes affect the mechanical response of the cellular microstructure to being sliced by a scalpel blade. In fresh tissues when the turgor pressure is high, the cells burst in the expected manner. Boiling the tissue reduced the ability of the cells to retain liquid, effecting a transition from closed‐cell to open‐cell behaviour and the cell walls were torn in tension, behind the blade. Ageing resulted in a drop in the turgor pressure and these materials failed in a manner similar to the fresh, raw tissue except they exhibited a transition in elastic modulus from a pliant to a brittle state when the cells were deformed sufficiently to increase the turgor pressure to the ‘fresh’ value.
A NEW APPROACH TO CORRELATE TEXTURAL AND COOKING PARAMETERS WITH OPERATING CONDITIONS DURING DOUBLE‐SIDED COOKING OF MEAT PATTIES
Authors: ZORRILLA SUSANA E. , ROVEDO CLARA O. , SINGH R. PAUL
Published: February 2007

Cooking and textural parameters during double‐sided cooking of hamburger patties were correlated with volume‐averaged temperature at the end of the cooking process and gap thickness between plates. Frozen patties were cooked in a clamshell grill set at different plate surface temperatures (177C; 191C; 204C; 218C), for different gap thicknesses (9.65 mm; 10.55 mm; 10.55 mm; 11.05 mm) for 120 s. A decrease in the gap thickness and an increase in the plate surface temperature resulted in an increase in the cooking loss values (24–36%) and in a decrease of press juice values (8–25%). The values of peak load (183–215 N), modulus (16–19 N/mm), work needed in shearing (2300–2800 Nmm), hardness (25–32 N), cohesiveness (0.76–0.83), and chewiness (107–152 Nmm) of the patties increased when the gap thickness decreased and the plate surface temperature increased. There was no effect of the variables studied on springiness. The correlation equations involving the operating variables and quality parameters obtained are simple and useful in developing optimal process conditions.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE TEXTURE AND PECTIN CONSTITUENTS OF JAPANESE PEAR
Authors: SIRISOMBOON PANMANAS , TANAKA MUNEHIRO , FUJITA SHUJI , KOJIMA TAKAYUKI
Published: February 2007

The relationship between texture and pectin constituents and some related compounds of the Japanese pear (Pyrus serotina Render var. culta ‘Housui') during fruit enlargement and ripening was studied. The modulus of elasticity, deformation ratio, and relaxation value from the flat plate compression test, and all the properties from the puncture test were affected by the pectin constituents, alcohol insoluble solids, and soluble solids. The hardness and deformation of the fruit obtained from the plate compression test might depend on the combination of the alcohol insoluble solids in fresh weight and weight of the fruit. The oxalate soluble pectin both in alcohol insoluble solids and in fresh weight affected the fruit texture more than the water soluble pectin. The solubitization of nonsoluble pectin to water soluble pectin appeared to influence the textural properties more than that of the nonsoluble pectin to oxalate soluble pectin. The puncture test was superior in analyzing the textural properties of the Japanese pear fruits with regard to changes in the pectin constituents.
STIFFNESS OF COMPRESSION TESTING MACHINES
Authors: ROHM HARALD , NOEL YOLANDE , SCHLEINING GERHARD
Published: February 2007

A ring test with six participating laboratories and rubber stoppers as reference material was performed to monitor the performance of commercial compression testing instruments. Testing conditions were chosen to be in the range of regular compression testing. Small, single screw instruments with a cantilever exhibited a significant deviation in the force/deformation‐response compared with double‐screw instruments with a crosshead. Additional tests made with an external device for displacement recording revealed that these differences have to be attributed to insufficient stiffness and some compliance in the cantilever of the tested single‐screw instruments. Some consequences of the test results for experiments on soft, semi‐soft and rigid food materials are discussed and an equation is developed to correct for the flexing of the cantilever beam in the single screw machine.
SENSORY TEXTURE OF COMMERCIAL BISCUITS AS A FUNCTION OF WATER ACTIVITY
Authors: HOUGH GUILLERMO , BUERA MARÍA DEL PILAR , CHIRIFE JORGE , MORO OSVALDO
Published: February 2007

The variation in sensory texture of four types of commercial biscuits as a function of water activity, using both a trained sensory panel and a consumer panel, was studied. The biscuits were: (a) like toasted bread, aerated and sweet; (b) cracker from whole‐wheat flour; (c) cracker from normal flour; (d) sweet biscuit, vanilla flavored. Texture changes were discriminated better when tested in the mouth than manually. The transition from crisp to noncrisp was gradual and continuous, and could be adequately modeled using Fermi's equation. The sensory perception of crispiness loss depended on how it was measured: for ‘crisp with molars’ the loss occurred at a lower water activity than for ‘noise'. The water activities at which consumers found the crispiness ideal were different for each type of biscuit, showing that the moisture content of a biscuit should be adjusted at particular values for each product to satisfy consumer preferences. The correlation of sensory acceptability versus ‘crispiness with molars’ showed one of the biscuit types to be an outlier, while the rest were well correlated. Differences between biscuits in relation to their textural changes with aw can be explained by differences in their microstructure, degree of starch gelatinization and gluten development.
A REVIEW OF SENSORY AND INSTRUMENTAL METHODS USED TO EVALUATE THE TEXTURE OF FISH MUSCLE
Authors: HYLDIG GRETHE , NIELSEN DURITA
Published: February 2007

The texture of fish muscle is an important quality attribute that depends on several parameters, both intrinsic and extrinsic. Its evaluation by sensory means is the result of a combination of several parameters that cover every impression from when the fish first comes into contact with a surface in the mouth, until it is completely masticated. This makes texture difficult to describe and evaluate. In addition the muscle structure of fish is not homogenous, and this has important implications on texture measurements by instrumental means. Numerous instrumental and sensory methods have been used to evaluate the texture of fish and fish fillets, with varying results and there exists no universal recommended method.
EFFECT OF SOAKING TIME AND TEMPERATURE ON TEXTURAL PROPERTIES OF SOYBEAN
Authors: DESHPANDE S.D. , BAL S.
Published: February 2007

Dry soybean seeds were soaked in water for 15 to 300 min at temperatures of 50C, 60C, 70C, 80C and then compressed 75% two times with an Instron in a texture profile analysis type of test. A multiple regression analysis showed a nonlinear function of time and temperature of hydration for all the three textural parameters and can be used for determining the blanching conditions for obtaining any desirable texture of the product.
STUDY OF THE ANOMALOUS CAPILLARY BAGLEY FACTOR BEHAVIOR OF THREE TYPES OF WHEAT FLOUR DOUGHS AT TWO MOISTURE CONTENTS
Authors: BREUILLET CHRISTOPHE , YILDIZ ERHAN , CUQ BERNARD , KOKINI JOZEF L.
Published: February 2007

The flow properties of wheat flour dough were evaluated using a capillary rheometer as a function of flour type (soft, hard and durum wheat flours) and dough moisture content (43 and 48% wb). The description of experimental flow properties was conducted using the classical Bagley approach and assuming linear relationships between pressure drop and L/D ratio (R2 ranging from 0.795 to 0.993). The entrance pressure drop (Po) increased (from 40 to 1870 kPa) with an increase in shear rate (from 40 to 1333 s−1) and a decrease in dough moisture content. Shear viscosities (7 to 160 Pa.s) and elongational viscosities (41 to 2840 kPa.s) demonstrated shear‐thinning behaviors that were characterized using power law models. Elongational and shear flows were compared by the Trouton ratio. The characterization of the capillary flow behavior for wheat flour dough was then discussed in regard with a possible nonlinear behavior of Bagley plots and related to possible changes in dough structure (i. e. dough hardening, strain hardening and dough deorientation).
FUNCTIONS OF STARCH IN FORMATION OF STARCH/MEAT COMPOSITE DURING HEATING
Authors: LI JENG‐YUNE , YEH AN‐I
Published: February 2007

The functions of three starches (potato, corn, and rice) on the formation of starch and pork ham batter composite during heating were investigated. Thermal properties were measured by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and rheological characteristics were determined by small amplitude oscillatory shearing. DSC thermograms did not show any chemical interactions between starch and meat protein during heating. The dramatic increase in G’ and G” of starch/meat composite appeared to be associated with the gelatinization of starch. The microstructures of pork ham batter, starch, and starch/meat composites were revealed by both scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy.
RHEOLOGY OF YOGURT DURING PIPE FLOW AS CHARACTERIZED BY MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
Authors: YOON WON B. , MCCARTHY KATHRYN L.
Published: February 2007

Flow behavior of yogurt during pipe flow was investigated using a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) viscometer. The technique utilizes a velocity profile and independent pressure drop measurement to evaluate rheological parameters. The yield stress and slip velocity were obtained directly from the MR images; the Herschel‐Bulkley consistency index, K, and the flow behavior index, n, were obtained through curve fitting procedures for product temperatures of 25C and 35C, over a shear rate range of 0.5 ‐ 40 s−1. At 25C, the average value of the yield stress was 14 Pa; the values of K and n were 5.6 Pa sn and 0.36, respectively. As the wall stress increased from 15 to 42 Pa, the slip velocity increased linearly from 13 to 54 mm s−1. At 35C, the average value of the yield stress was 10 Pa; the values of K and n were 1.1 Pa sn and 0.88, respectively. As the wall stress increased from 12 to 31 Pa, the slip velocity increased linearly from 14 to 59 mm s−1. These rheological parameters and slip velocities are relevant to the postfermentation cooling process performed in a continuous heat exchanger.
NATURAL CHEDDAR CHEESE TEXTURE VARIATION AS A RESULT OF MILK SEASONALITY
Authors: HALMOS ANDREW L. , POLLARD ADRIAN , SHERKAT FRANK , SEURET MARCEL G.
Published: February 2007

A set of standard testing conditions using the TA‐XT2 Texture Analyser were established to monitor cheddar cheese texture variation. Cheddar cheese was produced in the standard commercial practice and sampled at monthly intervals throughout the milk production season (August ‐ June), and monitored for textural and compositional changes occurring during ripening. The composition, based on fat and protein levels, of the cheese was relatively constant during the period, which was expected as the commercial process aims for that outcome. A reduction in the force and degree of compression at fracture with time, indicative of a reduction in cheese firmness and an increase in cheese crumbliness, was recorded as the milk production season progressed. The degree of proteolysis and changes in milk fat in late season milk are primarily responsible for the changes recorded in cheese texture. The differences observed between cheeses produced at different times during the season indicate that the current fat and protein standardization employed by cheese‐makers is not adequate to provide cheddar cheese with consistent textural characteristics year round.
EFFECT OF MANGO PULP AND SOYMILK FORTIFICATION ON THE TEXTURE PROFILE OF SET YOGHURT MADE FROM BUFFALO MILK
Authors: KUMAR PRADYUMAN , MISHRA H.N.
Published: February 2007

The effect of the fat content in buffalo milk and proportions of buffalo milk, soymilk and mango pulp on textural characteristics of mango soy fortified yoghurt (MSFY) is reported. The TA‐XT2 Texture Analyzer was used to measure the textural characteristics of MSFY prepared from blends containing varying proportions of buffalo milk (varying fat content), soymilk (8.2% total solids) and mango pulp (18% total solids). Texture profile data were used to develop regression models for dependent variables—hardness (HD), cohesiveness (CO), adhesiveness (AD), springiness (SP) and gumminess (GU), which were used to optimize the blend formula. The optimized values are 2.95% fat content in buffalo milk, 14.7% soymilk and 7.2% mango pulp in the blend for obtaining MSFY having textural characteristics similar to those of yoghurt having 6% fat. The MSFY prepared using optimized blend had HD (108 ‐ 112 g), CO (0.41 ‐ 0.42), AD (‐ 70.3 to ‐ 72.9 g.s), SP (0.93 ‐ 0.96) and GU (45.05 ‐ 46.38 g).
RHEOLOGICAL AND MICROBIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF UHT PROCESSED CHICKPEA LIQUID MEAL MODELS
Authors: KUSNANDAR F. , TUMAALII F. , HOSKEN R.W.
Published: February 2007

The effects of chickpea flour concentration and ultra high temperature (UHT) processing conditions on the rheological properties and microbial lethality of chickpea liquid meals were investigated. The models were made of chickpea flour (4.5–6.7%) and water. The processing steps included precooking at 85C, microfluidization, and UHT processing at 120–140C for 6–60 s. The chickpea liquid meal exhibited a shear‐thinning behavior before and after UHT processing. Both the flow behavior index (n) and consistency coefficient (K) were concentration dependent, but they were not sensitive to the changes of holding temperatures and residence times. The concentration of chickpea flour together with the combinations of holding temperatures and residence times significantly influenced the extent of microbial lethality. The values of consistency coefficient (K) could well predict the holding temperature and residence time combinations that were needed to sterilize different consistencies of liquid meals.
VISCOELASTIC CHARACTERIZATION OF RICE GEL
Authors: JENA RASHMI , BHATTACHARYA SUVENDU
Published: February 2007

Rice flour dispersions with 15–25% solids were subjected to microwave heating for 0–75 s and samples were subjected to oscillatory frequency sweep between 0.01–10 Hz. The initial rapid increase in storage modulus (G1) with frequency decreased to a plateau at higher frequencies. An increase in G1 and complex viscosity (η*) with an increase in the time of treatment or concentration of solid indicate the extent of sol‐gel transformation. The sensory data on hardness, elasticity and stickiness also followed similar trend. Principal component analysis (PCA) of the sensory results indicate that a minimum treatment time of 45 s is needed to achieve a rice gel with acceptable sensory characteristics. The G' values were modeled (0.936 ≤ r ≤ 0.988, P ≤ .01) by the 4‐element spring‐dashpot model.
EFFECT OF METHOCEL AS A WATER BINDER ON THE LINEAR VISCOELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MOZZARELLA CHEESE DURING EARLY STAGES OF MATURATION
Authors: SUBRAMANIAN R. , MUTHUKUMARAPPAN K. , GUNASEKARAN S.
Published: February 2007

Changes in the dynamic and transient rheological character of highmoisture, skim milk (HMSM) Mozzarella cheese due to the addition of 0.2% Methocel (methyl cellulose) as a water binder at room (25C) and refrigeration (7C) temperatures during early stages of maturation (1, 5, 7, and 14 days after manufacture) were investigated. The HMSM Mozzarella with 0.2% Methocel was softer (lower dynamic storage and loss modulus, and higher creep and recovery compliance) compared to HMSM Mozzarella without Methocel, due to improved water holding capacity. The age‐dependent frequency dispersions of dynamic mechanical spectra (storage and loss modulus) were fitted to a power‐law model. A six‐element Voigt‐Kelvin mechanistic model described the age‐dependent retardation spectra (compliances, viscosities, and retardation times) obtained from creep experiments. Strong correlation was obtained between the viscoelastic
ACOUSTIC TESTING OF SNACK FOOD CRISPNESS USING NEURAL NETWORKS
Authors: SRISAWAS WEENA , JINDAL V.K.
Published: February 2007

The crispness of selected snack foods, Pringles potato chips, Paprika extruded snack and Munchy crackers, was evaluated by crushing the snack samples with a pair of pincers, and analyzing the frequency domain spectra of acoustic patterns by the neural networks (NNs). The inputs for training the NNs comprised 102 amplitudes of sound signals in 0–7 kHz frequency range at the intervals of about 69 Hz with moisture content or crispness grades as outputs. Both backpropagation (BPNN) and probabilistic (PNN) models showed good performance in classifying the snack foods into four grades of sensory crispness. The prediction accuracy of PNN models ranged approximately from 96 to 98% and was higher than the accuracy of BPNN models by about 10 to 25%. Results showed that frequency domain spectra of acoustic signals could be successfully analyzed by the NNs for predicting the crispness of snack food products.
RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES, WHEY SEPARATION, AND MICROSTRUCTURE IN SET‐STYLE YOGURT: EFFECTS OF HEATING TEMPERATURE AND INCUBATION TEMPERATURE
Authors: LEE WON‐JAE , LUCEY JOHN A.
Published: February 2007

The effects of heat treatment and incubation temperature on the rheological and microstructural properties of yogurt were studied. A central composite experimental design and response surface methodology were used for data analysis. The rheological properties were determined by dynamic low amplitude oscillation and the amount of spontaneous whey separation was quantified by the volumetric flask test. Confocal scanning laser microscopy was used to examine the gel structure. The storage moduli of yogurts increased with an increase in heating temperature and a decrease in incubation temperature. The maximum loss tangent value during gelation, permeability, and amount of spontaneous whey separation of yogurts increased with a decrease in heating temperature and with an increase in incubation temperature. These parameters indicated an increased possibility for rearrangements, which was confirmed by presence of large pores in the gel network. Second order polynomial models successfully predicted the effects of heating temperature and incubation temperature on the rheological properties, permeability, and whey separation of yogurts. Whey separation was negatively correlated with storage modulus (r= ‐0.66), and was positively correlated with the maximum loss tangent (r= 0.63) and permeability (r= 0.78). This study demonstrates that weak yogurt gels, which have high loss tangent values, favor rearrangements in the network and the resulting network has larger pores (high permeability) and exhibits greater whey separation.
THE KIEFFER DOUGH AND GLUTEN EXTENSIBILITY RIG ‐ AN EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION
Authors: DUNNEWIND B. , SLIWINSKI E.L. , GROLLE K. , VAN VLIET T.
Published: February 2007

Load‐extension tests on flour dough are widely used by plant breeders, millers and bakers. The ‘Kieffer dough and gluten extensibility rig’ is a small‐scale version of the Brabender extensograph, in which test pieces of about 0.4 g are extended. With the Kieffer rig, lower strain rates can be applied than in the Brabender extensograph and the experimental data can be expressed in terms of stress and strain. In this paper the performance of the Kieffer rig is illustrated by measurements on a weak and a strong dough. Formulas are given for the calculation of fundamental rheological parameters from the results of measurements with the Kieffer rig. Sagging and bending of the test pieces before measurements could be started, caused difficulties in the determination of the exact starting point of extension. The deformation was not purely uniaxial extension, because a shear component was also observed. The amount of dough that is extended did not increase throughout the test. This is probably due to the occurrence of a shear component fracture which occurred mainly near the hook. A relatively large variation in stress and strain at fracture was observed. The maximum in stress represents the strain at which the sample fractures macro‐scopically better than the maximum in force. Variation in deformation history and volume of the test pieces have a negative effect on the reproducibility.
INFLUENCE OF FROZEN NOODLE PROCESSING ON COOKED NOODLE TEXTURE 1
Authors: HATCHER D.W.
Published: February 2007

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RELATION BETWEEN TEXTURE AND MASTICATION
Authors: BOURNE MALCOLM
Published: February 2007

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MECHANISMS OF FOOD REDUCTION, TRANSPORT AND DEGLUTITION: HOW THE TEXTURE OF FOOD AFFECTS FEEDING BEHAVIOR
Authors: HIIEMAE KAREN
Published: February 2007

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Cancer of the Colorectum in Maine, 1995‐1998: Determinants of Stage at Diagnosis in a Rural State
Authors: Parsons Margaret A. , Askland Kathleen D.
Published: February 2007

ABSTRACT: 
Context: Despite screening for colorectal cancer, mortality in the United States remains substantial. In northern New England, little is known about predictors of stage at diagnosis, an important determinant of survival and mortality. Purpose: The objective of this study was to identify predictors of late stage at diagnosis for colorectal cancer in a rural state with a predominantly white population and a large Franco‐American minority. Methods: Incident cases from 1995‐1998 were obtained from the Maine Cancer Registry. Individual‐level variables (age, sex, race, French ethnicity by surname, and payer) and contextual/town‐level variables (socioeconomic status, population density, Franco ancestry proportion, distance to health care, and weather) were modeled with multiple logistic regression for late stage. Findings: Increasing distance to primary care provider was associated with late stage for colorectal cancer. Compared to patients aged ,85 years, those aged 65‐84 years were less likely to be diagnosed late, while those aged 35‐49 years were more likely—although not significantly—to have late stage at diagnosis. Associations were not found with socioeconomic variables. Conclusions: The finding regarding distance to primary care may be consistent with studies showing that rurality and distance to care predict reduced utilization of health care services and worse health outcomes. The finding regarding age has implications for the education of younger high‐risk patients and their physicians. The absence of positive findings with regard to socioeconomic variables may stem from the uniquely mixed sociodemographic profiles in rural and urban regions of Maine. Further research should refine these and other contextual measures to elucidate effects on rural health and should further evaluate the utility of assigning French ethnicity by surname in order to identify health disparities.
PAY, CONTROL AND COMMITMENT: LINKING APPRAISAL AND REWARD
Authors: Geary John F.
Published: February 2007

John Geary, who is a Research Fellow in the Industrial Relations Research Unit at the University of Warwick, explores the implementation of appraisal‐linked reward systems in three US electronics plants operating in the Irish Republic. He focuses in particular on how the schemes work in practice and how employees respond to them. He argues that there are often a number of tensions within management's strategy and that the degree to which such reward systems are capable of engendering harmonious relations must be open to some scepticism. Furthermore, he questions the extent to which management's payment policy was successful in avoiding the extremes of individualism and collectivism.
THE POLITICS AND COMPLEXITY OF TRADE UNION RESPONSES TO NEW MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Authors: Lucio Miguel Martinez , Weston Syd
Published: February 2007

Miguel Martinez Lucio and Syd Weston, who are Lecturers in Human Resource Management at the Cardiff Business School, emphasise that, in seeking to understand trade union responses to HRM and new management practices, it is important to take into account their traditions and internal decision‐making processes as well as external influences. They suggest, in particular, that it is possible to identify three main ‘clusters’ of opinion which have emerged in recent years and which go to make up the complex position of the TUC. They go on to argue that, as unions learn more about HRM and new management practices, they will tend to exert a more significant influence on the form and implementation of such initiatives.
Strategic Recruitment and Development of the ‘International Manager’: Some European Considerations
Authors: Scullion Hugh
Published: February 2007

Hugh Scullion is Senior Lecturer and Director of the MA in Human Resource Management at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne. His article presents the findings from a recent study of the management of managers in international firms. Essentially, the article focuses on the problems faced by these firms in the recruitment and staffing of their overseas enterprises.
The European Learning Community: Towards A Political Economy of Management Learning
Authors: Fox Stephen
Published: February 2007

Stephen Fox is a Lecturer and Teaching Director in the Department of Management Learning at the University of Lancaster. He is also the Business Administration subject coordinator for the ERASMUS programme described in the article published here. Writing as an ‘insider’, he uses this particular programme to examine critically the prospects for the emergence of ‘European Management’.