bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Acceptance of genetically modified food: comparing consumer perspectives in the United States and South Korea
Authors: Nayga Rodolfo M. , Fisher Mary Gillett , Onyango Benjamin
Published: April 2006

This study examines public perceptions of biotechnology, specifically the consumer approval of genetically modified food products, from plant as well as from animal origin, based on data collected from national surveys conducted in both the United States and South Korea. South Korean consumers reported better understanding of food production, science, and technology relative to U.S. consumers. South Korean consumers also recalled having heard more about genetic modification than did U.S. consumers. Findings also suggest that consumers in the United States and South Korea who possessed an accurate knowledge of the applications and outcomes of genetic modification technology were more likely to approve of its use for the creation of foods than those who had inaccurate or no knowledge of the technology. Results also indicate that consumers who considered labeling of genetically modified foods to be necessary are less likely to approve of the genetic modification of foods than those who did not. Consumers in both countries are less approving of genetic modification of animals than the genetic modification of plants. However, U.S. consumers are more approving of using genetic modification technology to create animal‐derived foods than are South Korean consumers.
Persistence of a plasma melatonin rhythm in constant darkness and its inhibition by constant light in the sleepy lizard, Tiliqua rugosa
Authors: Firth Bruce T. , Belan Ingrid , Kennaway David J.
Published: April 2006

Abstract:  This study determined whether a blood plasma melatonin rhythm persists in constant photothermal environments in the sleepy lizard, Tiliqua rugosa. It builds upon an earlier investigation which provided equivocal results as to whether an in vivo melatonin rhythm persists in constant dark (DD) and light (LL) and temperature in this species. Using more frequent sampling points and new assay techniques, the present study showed that the melatonin rhythm persisted for at least 6 days at temperatures of 25 and 33°C in constant dark (DD). The melatonin rhythm, however, was largely eliminated in constant light (LL) at 33°C, thereby contradicting some previous findings in other species of reptiles where melatonin levels were apparently insensitive to an unexpected pulse of light at night. These results demonstrate that the sleepy lizard has a persistent, possibly circadian rhythm of melatonin in DD and constant temperature, and that the rhythm is inhibited by LL and constant temperature. Therefore, the sleepy lizard pineal gland may be an independent oscillator capable of driving the melatonin rhythm and be a transducer of the seasonally changing external photothermal environment.
Expression of luteinizing hormone/chorionic gonadotropin receptor in the rat pineal gland
Authors: Itoh Masanori T. , Hosaka Takeshi , Takahashi Noriyuki , Ishizuka Bunpei
Published: April 2006

Abstract:  Luteinizing hormone (LH) influences the secretion of melatonin (N‐acetyl‐5‐methoxytryptamine) from the pineal gland. The present study examined the possible presence of LH/chorionic gonadotropin (CG) receptor in the pineal gland of adult female rats. Reverse transcriptase‐polymerase chain reaction analyses demonstrated that LH/CG receptor mRNA is expressed in the pineal gland. Western blotting showed that the pineal gland, like the ovary, contains an 80 kDa receptor protein. Immunohistochemistry revealed that LH/CG receptor, arylalkylamine N‐acetyltransferase (a regulatory enzyme in melatonin biosynthesis) and serotonin (a melatonin precursor) are localized primarily to the same cells of the pineal gland. We further found that the levels of pineal LH/CG receptor protein in normal cycling female rats change significantly during the estrous cycle, being lowest at early metestrus. These results demonstrate that LH/CG receptor is expressed in the pineal gland, primarily in melatonin‐synthesizing cells, namely pinealocytes. Furthermore, it is suggested that LH influences pineal melatonin secretion through binding to this receptor. In addition, LH/CG receptor levels in the pineal gland are regulated during the estrous cycle under normal physiological conditions.
Effects of sedimented helium on the X-ray properties of galaxy clusters
Authors: Ettori S. , Fabian A. C.
Published: April 2006

In this Letter, we consider the role played by the sedimentation of helium nuclei on the emissivity and metallicity distribution of the X-ray emitting plasma in the cores of relaxed galaxy clusters. We model the gas density and temperature profiles of nearby cooling core clusters to estimate the gravitational acceleration acting on the helium, and show that its sedimentation time-scale is too long with respect to the present age of these objects to play a significant role. However, we argue that these time-scales definitely must have been lower in the past to allow the helium to settle in the cluster cooling cores and raise its abundance to values higher than the solar one. A direct consequence of this speculation is that the helium, by increasing the total X-ray emissivity, reduces the measured metal abundance in the inner (r ≲ 20 kpc) cluster regions.
Increased soil nitrogen associated with dinitrogen‐fixing, terricolous lichens of the genus Peltigera in northern Minnesota
Authors: Knowles Rebecca D. , Pastor John , Biesboer David D.
Published: April 2006

Dinitrogen (N2)‐fixing lichens (cyanolichens) have long been recognized as a source of exogenous N in various ecosystems, yet the effects of nitrogen inputs from these lichens have been little studied. Cyanolichens of the genus Peltigera Willd. are often the dominant members of the earth‐dwelling (terricolous) cyanolichen community. They occur in diverse habitats around the globe, but no studies of their influence on soil N have been reported.

We conducted field and laboratory investigations with the primary objective of determining whether soil N availability is increased near healthy thalli of terricolous dinitrogen‐fixing lichens. We measured available soil N in situ with ion‐exchange resin bags, potentially mineralizable N with laboratory incubations, total soil N, and soil temperature. Measurements were taken along transects that extended away from thalli of Peltigera, perpendicular to and parallel to topographic contours. Studies were conducted in ten types of forest across northern Minnesota, including two contrasting sites that represent extremes of habitat for Peltigera.

Soil N availability, potentially mineralizable N, and soil %N increased significantly with proximity to healthy thalli of Peltigera (P‐values<0.05). Moreover, potential N mineralization was highly correlated with soil %N (R2=0.765). Our results suggest a potential zone of influence that extends 1.5 m from thalli of Peltigera. The data indicate that soil temperature is not a primary factor in these associations.
Impaired overload‐induced muscle growth is associated with diminished translational signalling in aged rat fast‐twitch skeletal muscle
Authors: Thomson David M. , Gordon Scott E.
Published: April 2006

Impaired overload‐induced protein synthesis and growth in aged fast‐twitch skeletal muscle may result from diminished responsiveness of signalling intermediates controlling protein translation. Yet, potential age‐related signalling decrements have never been examined in direct parallel with impaired overload‐induced muscle growth in any model. To this end, we used Western blotting to examine the contents and phosphorylation states of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and its downstream translational signalling intermediates, 70 kDa ribosomal protein S6 kinase (S6k), ribosomal protein S6 (rpS6), eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2), and eukaryotic initiation factor 4E‐binding protein 1 (4E‐BP1), in conjunction with impaired growth in 1 week overloaded fast‐twitch plantaris muscles (via unilateral gastrocnemius ablation) of old (O; 30 months) versus young adult (YA; 8 months) male Fischer344 × Brown Norway rats. The significantly (P≤ 0.05) diminished growth (assessed by total muscle protein content) in overloaded O muscles (5.6 ± 1.7 versus 19.3 ± 2.9% in YA) was accompanied by significant impairments in the phosphorylation states of mTOR (Ser2448), S6k (impaired at the mTOR‐specific Thr389 residue but not at Thr421/Ser424), rpS6 (Ser235/236) and 4E‐BP1 (gel shift), as well as deficits in total eEF2 accretion. Moreover, in overloaded muscles across both age groups, phospho‐S6k at Thr389 (but not at Thr421/Ser424), 4E‐BP1 phosphorylation status, and total eEF2 accretion were all positively correlated with percentage muscle hypertrophy, and negatively correlated with the phosphorylation (Thr172) of 5′‐AMP‐activated protein kinase (AMPK; which inhibits translational signalling and protein synthesis in young muscle at rest). As previously published by ourselves, AMPK was hyperphosphorylated in O versus YA muscles used in the current investigation. The present results provide solid evidence that impaired overload‐induced growth in aged fast‐twitch muscle may partly result from multiple‐level decrements in signalling pathway(s) controlling protein translation, and also provide an initial indication that AMPK hyperactivation with age may potentially lie upstream of these decrements.
Corticothalamic 5–9 Hz oscillations are more pro‐epileptogenic than sleep spindles in rats
Authors: Pinault Didier , Slézia Andrea , Acsády László
Published: April 2006

Absence‐related spike‐and‐wave discharges (SWDs) occur in the thalamocortical system during quiet wakefulness or drowsiness. In feline generalized penicillin epilepsy, SWDs develop from sleep spindles. In contrast, in genetic absence epilepsy rats from Strasbourg (GAERS), SWDs develop from wake‐related 5–9 Hz oscillations, which are distinct from spindle oscillations (7–15 Hz). Since these two oscillation types share common frequency bands and may contribute to SWD genesis, it is important to compare their thalamic cellular mechanisms. Under neuroleptic analgesia, in GAERS and control non‐epileptic rats barbiturates abolished both SWDs and 5–9 Hz oscillations but increased the incidence of spindle‐like oscillations. Within the thalamocortical circuit 5–9 Hz oscillations occurred more coherently than spindle‐like oscillations. Intracellular events associated with 5–9 Hz and spindle‐like oscillations were distinctively different in both thalamic relay and reticular neurons. In both cell types, SWDs and 5–9 Hz oscillations emerged from a significantly more depolarized membrane potential than spindle‐like oscillations. In relay neurons, 5–9 Hz oscillations were mainly characterized by a rhythmic depolarization, which occurred during a tonic hyperpolarization and which could trigger an apparent low‐threshold Ca2+ potential, whereas spindle‐like oscillations were characterized by a rhythmic hyperpolarization. In reticular cells, SWDs and 5–9 Hz oscillations occurred during a tonic hyperpolarization, whereas spindle‐like oscillations occurred during a long‐lasting depolarizing envelope. The difference in the intracellular events between 5–9 Hz and spindle‐like oscillations and similarities between 5–9 Hz oscillations and SWDs indicate that in GAERS, 5–9 Hz oscillations are more pro‐epileptogenic than spindle‐like oscillations. In conclusion, the present study strongly supports the hypothesis that SWDs in GAERS are generated by a wake‐related corticothalamic resonance, and not by sleep‐related, hypersynchronous, spindle‐like activity originating in the thalamus.
Toward Excellence in Turbomachinery Computational Fluid Dynamics: A
Hybrid Structured-Unstructured Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes
Solver
Authors: Yang Hong , Nuernberger Dirk , Kersken Hans-Peter
Published: April 2006

A three-dimensional hybrid structured-unstructured Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) solver has been developed to simulate flows in complex turbomachinery geometries. It is built by coupling an existing structured computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solver with a newly developed unstructured-grid module via a conservative hybrid-grid interfacing algorithm, so that it can get benefits from the both structured and unstructured grids. The unstructured-grid module has been developed with consistent numerical algorithms, data structure, user interface and parallelization to those of the structured one. The numerical features of the hybrid RANS solver are its second-order accurate upwind scheme in space, its SGS implicit formulation of time integration, and its accurate modeling of steady/unsteady boundary conditions for multistage turbomachinery flows. The hybrid-grid interfacing algorithm is essentially an extension of the conservative zonal approach that has been previously applied on the mismatched zonal interface of the structured grids, and it is fully conservative and also second-order accurate. Due to the mismatched grids allowed at the block interface, users would have great flexibility to build the hybrid grids even with different structured and unstructured grid generators. The performance of the hybrid RANS solver is assessed with a variety of validation and application examples, through which the hybrid RANS solver has been demonstrated to be able to cope with the flows in complex turbomachinery geometries and to be promising for the future industrial applications.
An Empirical Prediction Method For Secondary Losses In Turbines—Part II: A New Secondary Loss Correlation
Authors: Benner M. W. , Sjolander S. A. , Moustapha S. H.
Published: April 2006

A new empirical prediction method for design and off-design secondary losses in turbines has been developed. The empirical prediction method is based on a new loss breakdown scheme, and as discussed in Part I, the secondary loss definition in this new scheme differs from that in the conventional one. Therefore, a new secondary loss correlation for design and off-design incidence values has been developed. It is based on a database of linear cascade measurements from the present authors’ experiments as well as cases available in the open literature. The new correlation is based on correlating parameters that are similar to those used in existing correlations. This paper also focuses on providing physical insights into the relationship between these parameters and the loss generation mechanisms in the endwall region. To demonstrate the improvements achieved with the new prediction method, the measured cascade data are compared to predictions from the most recent design and off-design secondary loss correlations (Kacker, S. C. and Okapuu, U., 1982, ASME J. Turbomach., 104, pp. 111-119, Moustapha, S. H., Kacker, S. C., and Tremblay, B., 1990, ASME J. Turbomach., 112, pp. 267–276) using the conventional loss breakdown. The Kacker and Okapuu correlation is based on rotating-rig and engine data, and a scaling factor is needed to make their correlation predictions apply to the linear cascade environment. This suggests that there are additional and significant losses in the engine that are not present in the linear cascade environment.
Timing and Climatic Consequences of the Opening of Drake Passage
Authors: Scher Howie D. , Martin Ellen E.
Published: April 2006

Age estimates for the opening of Drake Passage range from 49 to 17 million years ago (Ma), complicating interpretations of the relationship between ocean circulation and global cooling. Secular variations of neodymium isotope ratios at Agulhas Ridge (Southern Ocean, Atlantic sector) suggest an influx of shallow Pacific seawater approximately 41 Ma. The timing of this connection and the subsequent deepening of the passage coincide with increased biological productivity and abrupt climate reversals. Circulation/productivity linkages are proposed as a mechanism for declining atmospheric carbon dioxide. These results also indicate that Drake Passage opened before the Tasmanian Gateway, implying the late Eocene establishment of a complete circum-Antarctic pathway.
Predictability and Preparedness in Influenza Control
Authors: Smith Derek J.
Published: April 2006

The threat of pandemic human influenza looms as we survey the ongoing avian influenza pandemic and wonder if and when it will jump species. What are the risks and how can we plan? The nub of the problem lies in the inherent variability of the virus, which makes prediction difficult. However, it is not impossible; mathematical models can help determine and quantify critical parameters and thresholds in the relationships of those parameters, even if the relationships are nonlinear and obscure to simple reasoning. Mathematical models can derive estimates for the levels of drug stockpiles needed to buy time, how and when to modify vaccines, whom to target with vaccines and drugs, and when to enforce quarantine measures. Regardless, the models used for pandemic planning must be tested, and for this we must continue to gather data, not just for exceptional scenarios but also for seasonal influenza.
Sacral stress fracture: an unusual cause of low back pain in an amateur tennis player
Authors: Silva R T , De Bortoli A , Laurino C F S , Abdalla R J , Cohen M
Published: April 2006

Stress fractures are common in athletes, and their incidence in sport is estimated at 2–4%. A case is reported of a stress fracture of the sacrum in an amateur tennis player. The patient was treated with rest and physiotherapy, focusing on stretching programmes and analgesic treatments, followed by an educational programme of tennis training and muscle strengthening. This appears to be the first report of this pathology in a tennis player.
Increased expression of sFlt-1 in in vivo and in vitro models of human placental hypoxia is mediated by HIF-1
Authors: Nevo Ori , Soleymanlou Nima , Wu Yuan , Xu Jing , Kingdom John , Many Ariel , Zamudio Stacy , Caniggia Isabella
Published: April 2006

Elevated expression of soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 (sFlt-1) in preeclampsia plays a major role in the pathogenesis of this serious disorder of human pregnancy. Although reduced placental oxygenation is thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia, it is unclear how oxygen regulates placental sFlt-1 expression. The aims herein were to investigate sFlt-1 expression in in vivo and in vitro physiological and pathological models of human placental hypoxia and to understand the role of hypoxia inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) in regulating the expression of this molecule. sFlt-1 expression in placental villi was significantly increased under physiological low oxygen conditions in early first-trimester and in high-altitude placentae, as well as in pathological low oxygen conditions, such as preeclampsia. In high-altitude and in preeclamptic tissue, sFlt-1 localized within villi to perivascular regions, the syncytiotrophoblast layer, and syncytial knots. In first-trimester villous explants, low oxygen, but not hypoxia-reoxygenation (HR), increased sFlt-1 expression. Moreover, exposure of villous explants to dimethyloxalyl-glycin, a pharmacological inhibitor of prolyl-hydroxylases, which mimics hypoxia by increasing HIF-1α stability, increased sFlt-1 expression. Conversely, HIF-1α knockdown using antisense oligonucleotides, decreased sFlt-1 expression. In conclusion, placental sFlt-1 expression is increased by both physiologically and pathologically low levels of oxygen. This oxygen-induced effect is mediated via the transcription factor HIF-1. Low oxygen levels, as opposed to intermittent oxygen tension (HR) changes, play an important role in regulating sFlt-1 expression in the developing human placenta and hence may contribute to the development of preeclampsia.
Sox6 cell-autonomously stimulates erythroid cell survival, proliferation, and terminal maturation and is thereby an important enhancer of definitive erythropoiesis during mouse development
Authors: Dumitriu Bogdan , Patrick Michael R. , Petschek Jane P. , Cherukuri Srujana , Klingmuller Ursula , Fox Paul L. , Lefebvre Véronique
Published: April 2006

Erythropoiesis, the essential process of hematopoietic stem cell development into erythrocytes, is controlled by lineage-specific transcription factors that determine cell fate and differentiation and by the hormone erythropoietin that stimulates cell survival and proliferation. Here we identify the Sry-related high-mobility-group (HMG) box transcription factor Sox6 as an important enhancer of definitive erythropoiesis. Sox6 is highly expressed in proerythroblasts and erythroblasts in the fetal liver, neonatal spleen, and bone marrow. Mouse fetuses and pups lacking Sox6 develop erythroid cells slowly and feature misshapen, short-lived erythrocytes. They compensate for anemia by elevating the serum level of erythropoietin and progressively enlarging their erythropoietic tissues. Erythroid-specific inactivation of Sox6 causes the same phenotype, demonstrating cell-autonomous roles for Sox6 in erythroid cells. Sox6 potentiates the ability of erythropoietin signaling to promote proerythroblast survival and has an effect additive to that of erythropoietin in stimulating proerythroblast and erythroblast proliferation. Sox6 also critically facilitates erythroblast and reticulocyte maturation, including hemoglobinization, cell condensation, and enucleation, and ensures erythrocyte cytoskeleton long-term stability. It does not control adult globin and erythrocyte cytoskeleton genes but acts by stabilizing filamentous actin (F-actin) levels. Sox6 thus enhances erythroid cell development at multiple levels and thereby ensures adequate production and quality of red blood cells.
Immunoluminometric Assay for Measurement of the C-Terminal Endothelin-1 Precursor Fragment in Human Plasma
Authors: Papassotiriou Jana , Morgenthaler Nils G , Struck Joachim , Alonso Christine , Bergmann Andreas
Published: April 2006

Background: Endothelin-1 (ET-1), a potent vasoconstrictor, is difficult to measure because of its instability and its binding to receptors and plasma proteins. We report a rapid, robust way to indirectly quantify ET-1 release by measuring the C-terminal ET-1 precursor fragment (CT-proET-1) without an extraction step.

Methods: In plasma samples from healthy individuals, patients with congestive heart failure (CHF), and patients with sepsis, we measured CT-proET-1 with a sandwich immunoluminometric assay that uses 2 polyclonal antibodies to amino acids 168–212 of pre-proET-1. We also correlated CT-proET-1 concentrations with bigET-1 measurements.

Results: The assay yielded results within 3 h and showed linear dilution with an analytical detection limit of 0.4 pmol/L and an interlaboratory CV <10% for values >10 pmol/L. Ex vivo CT-proET-1 was stable (<10% loss of immunoreactivity) in EDTA-, heparin-, and citrate-plasma for at least 4 h at room temperature, 6 h at 4 °C, and in EDTA-plasma for at least 6 months at −20 °C. CT-proET-1 values followed a gaussian distribution in healthy individuals (mean, 44.3 pmol/L; range, 10.5–77.4 pmol/L) without significant differences between males and females. The correlation coefficient for CT-proET-1 vs age was 0.25 (P <0.0001). CT-proET1 was significantly (P <0.0001) increased in patients with CHF (median, 104 pmol/L; range, 50.8–315 pmol/L) and patients with sepsis (median, 189 pmol/L; range, 34.6–855 pmol/L). The correlation between CT-proET-1 and bigET-1 for 43 samples was 0.80 (P <0.0001).

Conclusions: CT-proET-1 measurement is a rapid and easy method for indirectly assessing the release of ET-1 in critically ill patients.
A Prospective, Longitudinal Study of Feeding Skills in a Cohort of Babies with Cleft Conditions
Authors: Reid Julie , Kilpatrick Nicky , Reilly Sheena
Published: April 2006

Objective:

To examine the natural history of feeding skills in babies with clefts and identify risk factors and predictors of poor feeding.

Participants:

Sixty-two babies with clefts were examined at 2 weeks, 3 months, and 14 months of age.

Main Outcome Measures:

Feeding ability, oral motor function, and feeding efficiency were assessed. Univariate analyses were used to determine whether oral motor function and sequelae varied according to feeding ability or cleft condition. Multivariable logistic regressions were used to determine risk factors for poor feeding.

Results:

Poor feeding skills were detected in one third of newborns. The prevalence of poor feeding reduced to 19% at 3 months of age and 15% at 14 months of age. Oral motor dysfunction and sequelae (particularly nasal regurgitation) were more commonly observed in babies with poor feeding skills irrespective of comorbidity. The main risk factor for poor feeding was a diagnosis of syndrome or Pierre Robin sequence (PRS). At 2 weeks of age, babies with syndrome or PRS were 15 times more likely to have poor feeding skills than their nonsyndromic counterparts. When syndrome or PRS was controlled for, babies with cleft palate and cleft lip and palate were equally likely to have poor feeding skills. Parental report of feeding efficiency was predictive of poor feeding in young babies.

Conclusions:

Poor feeding skills are relatively common in newborns with cleft palate and cleft lip and palate. Treatment for feeding problems may be needed beyond the first year of life, especially for babies born with PRS or a syndrome.
The Modality of Moral Communication in the Decameron's First Day, in Contrast to the Mirror of the Exemplum*
Authors: Kircher Timothy
Published: April 2006

The essay analyzes episodes from the first day of story-telling in the Decameron and the contemporary tradition of mendicant exempla comparing their differing means of influencing moral behavior. The Decameron discloses a crisis in the exemplum tradition between conventional sermonizing and a heightened sense of clerical frailty, and responds by showing a new way of narrating moral problems to a sceptical readership. While the exemplum provides a framework for the Decameron narrators, they treat this tradition with irony, emphasizing the contingent, subjective apprehension of moral truth. The various narrative personalities and the subtle associations between narrator and protagonist, protagonist and audience illustrate a mode of communication that recognizes the reader's capacity to listen.
Reinventing Romance, or the Surprising Effects of Sympathy
Authors: Kahn Victoria
Published: April 2006

This study argues that English royalist prose romance of the 1650s should he read as a contribution to seventeenth-century debates about the role of the passions in forging political obligation. Taken together, Percy Herbert'sPrincess Cloria(1653-61), Richard Brathwaite's Panthalia (1659), and William Sales’ unfinishedTheophania(1655), chart a trajectory from a politics of narrow self-interest — which contemporaries identified with Hobbes — to a politics of aesthetic interest. In response to Hobbes’ critique of vainglory, they extend an invitation to imaginative identification. In doing so, they anticipate the eighteenth-century cult of sentimentality and the emerging discipline of aesthetics.
Neutralization of the Panama Canal
Authors: Hains Peter C.
Published: April 2006

The question whether or not the United States Government should construct fortifications commanding the entrances to the Panama Canal is one that must be determined by law or public policy. The law is set forth in the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, and while this does not in terms forbid the construction of fortifications, nevertheless, the principle of neutralization which is established by that treaty imposes on us certain obligations, and if those obligations set a bar to their construction we are morally bound to abstain from constructing them. If the treaty imposes no such obligation, then the question should be determined by policy. Which is the better policy, to construct them or not to construct them?
Notes on Sovereignty in a State
Authors: Lansing Robert
Published: April 2006

In Part First of these notes the nature of sovereignty was discussed and its manifestations in a single state and a federal state considered. It is now proposed to carry the investigation further, and to see the effect of viewing sovereignty from standpoints internal and external to the state. Having completed this examination, the subjects of independence, civil liberty, state liberty, constitutions, and law in their relation to sovereignty will be briefly treated.
Doctor Francis Lieber’s Instructions for
the Government of Armies in the Field
Authors: Davis George B.
Published: April 2006

International law owes much to American
judges and to American jurists. The list of those
who have contributed to its advancement is not
short and includes the names of Marshall, Story
and Field, Kent, Wheaton, with his able
commentators, Dana and Lawrence, Halleck and
Lieber and, among recent writer’s, Taylor, Moore
and Snow. Although his name is not connected with
a general treatise on the subject of public
international law, it may be doubted whether any
of his fellow-workers in that field have rendered
a more important service to humanity and to
international good neighborhood, than has Dr.
Francis Lieber in his memorable “Instructions for
the Government of the Armies of the United States
in the Field.”
Constitutionality of the Proposed International Prize Court--Considered from the Standpoint of the United States
Authors: Raeburn White Thos.
Published: April 2006

The twelfth convention adopted by the Second International Peace Conference at The Hague provides for the establishment of an International Prize Court, to which appeals may be taken from the national prize courts of the various signatory powers, or such of them as shall approve the convention.
Neutralization Versus Imperialism
Authors: Henry Snow Alpheus
Published: April 2006

The article on “Neutralization” in the April number of the American Journal of International Law, written by a prominent member of the New England Anti-Imperialist League, seems to furnish additional evidence of the change of mind which has occurred in recent years among the advocates of the policy of antiimperialism.
The Codification of International Law
Authors: Nys Ernest
Published: April 2006

Law is the whole of the rules which regulate the relations of men. At the commencement of civilization and, even at the present day, primitive peoples and nations not in a complete state of civilization have clothed these rules with supernatural attributes; they have been represented as having been imposed upon mankind by a supernatural power; they have been given the effect of magic formulas, which, it is to be supposed, result in the chastisement and punishment of those who violate their dictates. Following the development of humanity step by step, three separate domains of law have been marked out: private law, or the law of men in the character of individuals; public or political law, or law as applied to men in their capacity as members of the state; and finally, the law of nations or international law, in other words, the law of states.
The History of the Department of State VIII
Authors: Hunt Gaillard
Published: April 2006

Section 2 of the organic act of the Department provided that every bill, order, resolution or vote of both houses of Congress which the President approved, or which he suffered to become effective without his approval, should be sent by the President to the Secretary of State; that every such document returned by him to Congress with his disapproval and then passed by a two-thirds vote should be sent by the Speaker of the House or the President of the Senate, according to which body it had originated in, to the Secretary of State; that he should as soon as possible cause it to be printed in at least three newspapers; should deliver one printed copy to each senator and representative; and should send two printed copies duly authenticated to the governors of all the States. He was to preserve the original laws carefully and cause them to be recorded in books.
The Central American Peace Conference of 1907
Authors: Scott James Brown
Published: April 2006

The Central American Peace Conference which met at Washington on November 14 and adjourned December 20, 1907, in accordance with the protocol between the Eepublica of Costa Eica, Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, signed at Washington, September 17, 1907, is not only in accord with the general tendency of our times toward more helpful relations between neighboring nations, but is a direct outgrowth of a policy which has repeatedly led to similar conferences with a view to promote a better under-standing and a more complete cooperation between the republics of Central America.
Bombardment by Naval Forces
Authors: Scott James Brown
Published: April 2006

Among the six voeux to be found in the final act of the First Hague Peace Conference is the following:

The conference expresses the wish that the proposal to settle the question of the bombardment of ports, towns, and villages by a naval force may be referred to a subsequent conference for consideration.
The Legal Nature of International law
Authors: Willoughby W. W.
Published: April 2006

The recent article by Dr. Scott under this title in the October, 1907, issue of this JOURNAL is a most able presentation of the view that the rules which govern the relations of states to one another are as properly to be termed laws as are the legislative declarations of national law-making bodies.
The Arctic and Antarctic Regions and the Law of Nations
Authors: Balch Thomas Willing
Published: April 2006

The announcement of the discovery of the North Pole raised in several quarters, among others the British and the Canadian Parliaments, the question whether the act of discovery gave to the United States any right of possession over the North Pole.

In searching for the answer to this question, it is necessary to ascertain the rules of the Law of Nations that govern analogous cases.
The Second, Third, and Fourth Vœux of the Conference
Authors: Davis George B.
Published: April 2006

Among the formal utterances which are embodied in the final act of the Second Peace Conference at The Hague three vœux, or expressions of opinion, are commended to the signatory powers. Two of these relate to the commercial and industrial relations between belligerent governments and neutral residents of belligerent or occupied territory; the third has to do with the preparation of a code of laws governing maritime warfare.
The Succession of States
Authors: Hershey Amos S.
Published: April 2006

When one state takes the place of another and undertakes a permanent exercise of its sovereign territorial rights or powers, there is said to be a succession of states. This succession may be called universal in case of total absorption, whether through voluntary agreement, forcible annexation or subjugation, the division of a state into several international persons, or the union of several states into a single international person. Universal succession may also be said to exist where a state is broken up and divided among several previously existing states, as in the case of the division of Poland between Kussia, Prussia, and Austria.
The History of the Department of State: VII
Authors: Hunt Gaillard
Published: April 2006

Having considered in former numbers of this Journal the sometime and occasional duties of the Department, including among them certain contingent duties which it has never been called upon to perform, we may now advance to a consideration of its habitual functions.

The organic act of the Department prescribed that the Secretary of State should keep “ the seal of the United States.” It is the mark of the supreme authority of the United States, and before the government went into operation under the Constitution, was in the custody of the Secretary of Congress, being used to verify all important acts, whether executive or legislative; but the debate on executive departments in the first constitutional congress indicated that Congress did not contemplate keeping the seal any longer, and thought it would necessarily pass to the custody of the Executive. The President did, in fact, take it under his control as soon as he assumed office and before legal provision had been made for it.
The Abolition of Slavery in the Chinese Empire
Authors: Williams E. T.
Published: April 2006

The recent Imperial rescript of the Chinese Government abolishing slavery within the empire is a document of unusual interest,1 and adds one more to the many evidences that have been given lately of great changes going on among this ancient people. The farreaching effects of this reform can hardly be estimated at present, but the proclamation of emancipation which is to be posted far and wide throughout the empire will be a charter of liberty to myriads of the down-trodden and oppressed, and will mark for them the upward turning of the way toward freedom and enlightenment.
The Real Significance of the Declaration of London
Authors: Root Elihu
Published: April 2006

The principal achievement of the Hague Conference of 1907 was the
Convention for an International Prize Court. That convention provided for a
real and permanent court composed of judges who were to be appointed by the
contracting Powers for terms of six years, were required to be “judges of
known proficiency in questions of international maritime law and of the
highest moral reputation,” and were to be paid a stated compensation from a
fund contributed by all the Powers.

Jurisdiction was conferred upon the court to review on appeal all
judgments of national prize courts. By a subsequent agreement, for the
purpose of avoiding difficulties presented by the constitutions of some of
the signatory Powers, an alternative procedure was authorized under which
the new court might pass upon the question involved in the case of prize
de novo, and notwithstanding any judgment of
the national prize court, instead of passing upon it by way of appeal from
that judgment. Article 7 of the convention provides:

If a question of law to be decided is covered by a treaty in
force between the belligerent captor and a Power which is itself or
whose subject or citizen is a party to the proceedings, the court is
governed by the provisions of the said treaty.

In the absence of such provisions the court shall apply the rule
of international law. If no generally recognized rule exists the
court shall give judgment in accordance with the general principles
of justice and equity.
Restrictive Clauses In International Arbitration Treaties
Authors: Wehberg Hans
Published: April 2006

Until the great goal of the peace movement, that is to say, the world peace treaty without reservation of any kind and extending to all nations, shall at some future time have been concluded, two periods in the development of arbitration, each of which is in turn marked by three successive stages of growth, are clearly discernible. The first embraces the development of special treaties; the second that of the world treaty. In point of time, these two periods follow one another; yet the world treaty is ushered in even before the special treaty has reached its highest stage.
The Law of Hostile Military Expeditions as Applied by the United States
Authors: Curtis Roy Emerson
Published: April 2006

By the time of the establishment of the American Government the practice of the nations with regard to their mutual obligations had begun to resolve itself into fairly well-defined principles. Among these was one to the effect that one state must prevent the use of its territory and resources for hostile attacks upon its neighbors with which it is at peace. In the beginning this rule was evolved from the relations of neutrality; for the more pressing needs of the time of war tended to crystallize usage applying to it, while other practice was still incoherent. But obviously the law thus defined was only a phase of the general duty of a state to prevent injurious and offensive acts against friendly countries. The obligation is based upon the complete and exclusive control which the sovereign is presumed to exercise over its subject persons and territory. The authority of the sovereign exists alike in time of war and time of peace; and the requirement of the law extends as well to normal relations as to the exceptional conditions of neutrality.
The Negotiations Between Japan and China in 1915
Authors: North S. N. D.
Published: April 2006

One of the most far reaching events which may be said to have sprung indirectly from the European War, is the readjustment of the relations between Japan and China. The exact nature of this readjustment is but dimly understood in the United States, and its ultimate effects upon which is commonly called the Far Eastern Question, can be but vaguely foreseen at the present time. But the world will not fail to realize that these effects will be momentous. For this reason it is timely to trace the history of the “Japanese demands” upon China, to study the negotiations that followed and their results as embodied in the new treaties between the two Powers.

In attempting an impartial statement regarding this negotiation, it is impossible not to take cognizance of the fact that the demands of Japan for a radical modification of her treaty relations with China, followed within six months after the outbreak of the European War, and at a time when Japan’s ally, Great Britain, was engrossed in that war, and unable to give close attention to Far Eastern matters. Under the terms of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance signed August 12, 1905, as modified July 13, 1911, the two governments are mutually bound to “the preservation of the common interests of all Powers in China by insuring the independence and integrity of the Chinese Empire, and the principle of equal opportunities for the commerce and industry of all nations in China.” To what extent, if at all, that agreement may have to be disregarded in the new treaties, is a question certain to be raised when the European War shall have come to an end.
The Shantung Question
Authors: Elliott Charles Burke
Published: April 2006

In the great Province of Shantung lies the little village of Chefoo, the birthplace of Confucius, to which hundreds of thousands of Chinese make an annual pilgrimage. It is what Mecca is to the Mohammedan, Jerusalem to the Christian. Shantung is the Chinese sacred province, the place to be protected from foreign intrusion.
The Negotiation of External Loans with Foreign Governments
Authors: Hyde Charles Cheney
Published: April 2006

It is of advantage to every state in need of financial aid, as well as to the banks of every country having funds to invest abroad, that external governmental loans be generally regarded attractive.
Conference on the Limitation of Armament
Authors: Hughes Charles E. , Lodge Henry Cabot , Underwood Oscar W. , Root Elihu
Published: April 2006

The undersigned, appointed by the President as Commissioners to represent the Government of the United States at the Conference on Limitation of Armament, have the honor to submit the following report of the Proceedings of the Conference.

On July 8, 1921, by direction of the President, the Department of State addressed an informal inquiry to the group of Powers known as the Principal Allied and Associated Powers—that is, Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan—to ascertain whether it would be agreeable to them to take part in a conference on the subject of limitation of armament, to be held in Washington at a time to be mutually agreed upon. In making this inquiry, it was stated to be manifest that the question of Umitation of armament had a close relation to Pacific and Far Eastern problems, and the President suggested that the Powers especially interested in these problems should undertake in connection with the Conference the consideration of all matters bearing upon their solution with a view to reaching a common understanding with respect to principles and policies in the Far East.
Some Legal Aspects of the Japanese Question
Authors: Buell Raymond Leslie
Published: April 2006

It would be difficult to find a better illustration of the dependence of politics upon law than in America’s Japanese problem. Our attitude toward the Oriental has been crystallized in legislation. And much of the popular prejudice against the Japanese arises out of a conflict of legal principles over which they as individuals have no control. This article does not propose to discuss the policy which should be followed in regard to Japanese immigration or to the treatment of Japanese residents already here. But it merely attempts to set forth the legal aspects of the problem which must be considered before it can really be solved.
The Jones Act and the Denunciation of Treaties
Authors: Reeves Jesse S.
Published: April 2006

Section 34 of the Merchant Marine Act, commonly called the Jones Act, approved by the President, June 5, 1920, is as follows:

In the judgment of Congress, articles or provisions in treaties or conventions to which the United States is a party, which restrict the right of the United States to impose discriminating customs duties on imports entering the United States in foreign vessels and in vessels of the United States, and which also restrict the right of the United States to impose discriminatory tonnage dues on foreign vessels and on vessels of the United States entering the United States should be terminated, and the President is hereby authorized and directed within ninety days after this Act becomes law to give notice to the several governments, respectively, parties to such treaties or conventions, that so much thereof as imposes any such restriction on the United States will terminate on the expiration of such periods as may be required for the giving of such notice by the provisions of such treaties or conventions.
The Destruction of Neutral Property on Enemy Vessels
Authors: Wright Quincy
Published: April 2006

In 1785 Prussia ratified a treaty with the United States providing in its twenty-third article 1 that in case of war between the contracting powers:

All merchant and trading vessels employed in exchanging the products of different places, and thereby rendering the necessaries, conveniences, and comforts of human life more fiasy to be obtained, and more general, shall be allowed to pass free and unmolested; and neither of the contracting Powers shall grant or issue any commission to any private armed vessels, empowering them to take or destroy such trading vessels or interrupt such commerce.
The Relations between the United States and Porto Rico
Authors: Capó-Rodríguez Pedro
Published: April 2006

Dowries v. Bidwell. This is really the most important judgment in all the Insular Cases so far as a determination of the present status of Porto Rico is concerned. It is interesting because in it the now famous doctrine of non-incorporation is developed. It will be well, however, to state at the outset that in this case there was no majority opinion of the court and that the decision was reached merely by the concurrence of a majority of the judges in what is styled in the syllabus of the case as the conclusion and judgment of the court.

In view of the great diversity of opinion evinced by the judges in this case, as will later appear, it was regarded at the time by very able lawyers and commentators of note as a very doubtful precedent which the court might not feel in the future bound to accept as the settled law of the land. So far, however, it has stood the test of time, and although the recent passage of the so-called Jones-Shafroth Act, extending to Porto Ricans a large measure of self-government and the privilege of American citizenship, seemed to reopen the question of the juridical status of Porto Rico and require the rejection or modification of the doctrines laid down or relied upon in this important decision, its conclusions have been affirmed and ratified and are largely accepted at the present time as a correct expression of the national sense. It is at any rate the only authoritative declaration of the present status of Porto Rico so far made by any competent branch of the government. It is therefore important to examine this decision somewhat at length in order to ascertain and determine the present status of the Island and the particular doctrines upon which that status is supposed to be founded.