bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Lutosławski, Witold (1913–1994)
Authors: Reyland Nicholas
Published: September 2018

The music and life of Polish composer Witold Lutosławski (1913–1994) pivoted around key events in his country’s tumultuous twentieth-century history. The so-called cultural ‘thaw’ at the end of Stalinism in the mid 1950s permitted Poland’s composers to begin experiments in a range of modernist styles. Lutosławski forged a unique voice by exploring tensions between the classicist sensibility underpinning his neoclassical pre-thaw compositions (a style that had brought him into a position of preeminence in Poland) and more radical, avant-garde alternatives. So while he created individualistic and, often, beautiful solutions to post-tonal compositional problems of pitch organization, rhythm, texture, orchestration and long-range musical structuring, his greater contribution was marshaling his technique to compose powerfully affecting musical narratives responding, albeit obliquely, to the events and cultural atmospheres of his life and times. In major works including his Trois poems d’Henri Michaux, String Quartet, Livre pour orchestre, Cello Concerto, Mi-parti, Piano Concerto, Chain 2 and Symphony No. 4 – compositions that brought him international recognition as one of the mid-to-late twentieth century’s finest composers – Lutosławski created (to speak drily) modernist musical narratives exploring the problems of plot and representation in an innovative language, or (to speak more evocatively) structures of feeling and form that transcend the mundane specificity of programme music to offer visceral, spellbinding and moving testimony on the late-modern human experience, and from a distinctive Polish perspective.
Nobre, Marlos (1939–)
Authors: Araújo Ilka Vasconcelos
Published: September 2018

Marlos Nobre is a Brazilian composer, pianist, and conductor. His music presents a unique characteristic that combines Brazilian features with advanced compositional techniques. His pluralistic musical view went through several phases, from tonal to modal, polytonal, atonal, serial, and aleatoric until he defined his own style, which became a combination of everything he had learned and filtered.
Martin, John (1893–1985)
Authors: Conner Lynne
Published: September 2018

One of the first full-time newspaper dance reviewers in the United States, John Martin wrote for The New York Times from 1927 to 1962 and was often referred to as the dean of American dance critics during his 35-year tenure. Martin used his bully pulpit at the Times to launch a discourse within the dance community surrounding the aesthetics of modernism in dance as well as to educate and rally a new audience. In the process he helped to establish dance reviewing as a specialized field of arts reporting and commentary and not just a subgenre of music criticism, as it had been treated before 1927. A vocal defender of the legitimacy of an American modern dance as defined by New York-based practitioners such as Martha Graham and Doris Humphrey, Martin was among the first theorists of it, outlining a poetics of its form and function while introducing a new vocabulary. His prolific output includes thousands of essays and reviews for the Times and other periodicals, seven books, and a series of highly influential lectures given at the New School for Social Research, Bennington School of the Dance, and in the latter part of his career at the University of California-Los Angeles.
Martinez, Juan (1901–1971)
Authors: Forster Alejandra Celedon
Published: September 2018

Juan Martinez Gutierrez arrived to Chile with his family from Spain in 1909. He studied Architecture (1918) at the University of Chile, and trained in parallel in the Faculty of Arts. His professional life was always tied to this institution, first as Professor, then as Director of the School, and eventually as Dean of the Faculty of Architecture. There, he ran and participated in two reforms to the teaching of the discipline, in 1933 and 1946 respectively. In a three-year visit to Europe (1928–31) he absorbed the work of renowned architects of the time, such as van der Rohe, Behrens, Le Corbusier and Gropius, which influenced his own architectural production and, by means of it, the Chilean architectural scene.

The core of his design work developed between the thirties and the fifties, consisting in a large number of public buildings, which stand for the construction of the identity of the emergent modern republic. Many of his buildings are related to education and culture, especially by way of liberal institutions such as the University of Chile. Although slightly neoclassical in appearance, his architecture represents a transition between traditional values and the embracement of modern ones: the blunt aesthetic in the use of concrete, the functional values and the image of monumentality has proved to be enduring.
Carrillo (Trujillo), Julián (1875--1965)
Authors: Madrid Alejandro L.
Published: September 2018

Julián Carrillo is recognized as one of the first microtonal composers in the Western art music tradition. His experiments with microtones (intervals smaller than the half tone), which he called Sonido 13 (The Thirteenth Sound), were an attempt to expand the melodic possibilities of the Western art music tradition’s language; the first work to crystalize these ideas was Predulio a Colón (1925). He composed music in quarter-, eighth-, and sixteenth-tones and built special instruments that could play these intervals. He also patented a series of pianos that could play third-, quarter-, fifth-, sixth-, seventh-, eight-, ninth-, tenth- eleventh-, twelfth-, thirteenth-, fourteenth-, fifteenth-, and sixteenth-tones. He developed a numerical system of music notation in order to deal with the increasing number of pitches in the scales generated by these subdivisions of the half tone. Carrillo also contemplated the possibilities that the systematic serialization of these new scales might have on theorizing rhythm.
Cassavetes, John (1929--1989)
Authors: Akser Murat
Published: September 2018

John Nicholas Cassavetes (1929--1989) was born to Greek parents in New York. He originally trained in the theater. His acting in commercial Hollywood films such as The Dirty Dozen (1967) and Rosemary’s Baby (1968), for which he received an Academy Award nomination, gave him some mainstream popularity and the means to finance his own independent projects. These were characterized by a realistic, pseudo-documentary style, loose storylines centered on quirky characters, and a strong reliance on actors’ performances. He is considered one of the pioneers of American independent cinema.
Chukovsky, Kornei Ivanovich (ЧУКОВСКИЙ, КОРНЕЙ ИВАНОВИЧ) (1882–1969)
Authors: Baer Brian James
Published: September 2018

Born Nikolai Vasil’evich Korneichukov, Chukovsky was a renowned writer, critic, and translator. He was born in St. Petersburg but moved to Odessa at the age of three. Chukovsky established a reputation as a journalist, literary critic, and translator prior to the Bolshevik Revolution, publishing essays in leading journals and founding his own satirical journal Signal (1905–1906). He experienced periodic persecution by the government both before and after the Revolution. Extremely prolific with wide-ranging literary tastes, Chukovsky published several collections of critical essays on the leading writers of the Silver Age. He studied the work of Anton Chekhov and Nikolai Nekrasov throughout his life. In 1962 he received the State Lenin Prize for The Mastery of Nekrasov [Masterstvo Nekrasova] (1953). Chukovsky served as the London correspondent for the Odessa Times (1903–1904) and later translated the works of Walt Whitman and Oscar Wilde, among many other English and American writers. In 1918 he was named head of the English section of World Literature Publishers, where he formulated general guidelines for literary translators, later published as The Art of Translation [Iskusstvo perevoda] (1936), and then as A High Art [Vyssokoe Iskusstvo] (1941). He became a popular writer of children’s literature, authoring a number of now-classic works, as well as writing a book on children’s speech and another on the Russian language. Chukovsky was awarded an honorary degree by Oxford University in 1962.
Communism, Socialism, Marxism, Bolshevism
Authors: Perlea Georgiana
Published: September 2018

Communism is first and foremost the reality of long-dismantled or nearly defunct regimes in China, the (former) Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, Cuba and North Korea: all notionally egalitarian societies. In the first half of the twentieth century, communist parties established dictatorial regimes that enforced, in the name of socialist goals, the ostensible equality but de facto impoverishment of whole societies over decades of political rule to the sole benefit of party elites.
Cornford, F. M. (1874–1943)
Authors: McArthur Rachel
Published: September 2018

Francis Macdonald Cornford was a British classical scholar associated with the Cambridge Ritualists group. Drawing on James George Frazer’s (1854–1941) The Golden Bough (1890–1915), the ritualists examined ancient Greek literature and culture to reconstruct its origins in ritual.
West, Nathanael (1903–1940)
Authors: Meehan Adam
Published: September 2018

Nathanael West was an author and screenwriter whose work spanned the decade of the 1930s. He was born Nathan Weinstein on 17 October 1903 in New York City; his decision to change his name at the age of twenty-two reflects a life-long ambivalence toward his Jewish ancestry. He is best known as a novelist whose work teems with characters suffering from psychological traumas stemming from the bleak atmosphere of Depression-era America. He died tragically and in relative obscurity with his wife Eileen in an automobile accident outside of El Centro, California in 1940.

Miss Lonelyhearts (1933), his second novel, is widely considered his best work. Unlike his first novel, The Dream Life of Balso Snell (1931) — which was influenced by French surrealism and was highly experimental in style — Miss Lonelyhearts is rooted in the everyday challenges of the Great Depression. The title character, whose actual name is never given, works as an advice columnist for a newspaper in New York City. Although he and others see the job as trivial, the desperate letters from readers begin to take a heavy emotional toll, leading him on an ill-fated search for meaning. Although the book’s plot is tragic, it also features elements of black comedy, a pervasive element of West’s work.
James, William (1842–1910)
Authors: Stanley Kate
Published: September 2018

William James was an American psychologist and philosopher who worked across those fields to investigate the nature of consciousness, experience and free will. A founding figure in the study of modern psychology in the United States, James went on to establish what he described as ‘the method’ of Pragmatism and the philosophical orientation that he called ‘radical Empiricism’. Born in New York, James was the son of Henry James Sr., a Swedenborgian theologian, the godson of Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), and the brother of novelist Henry James (1843–1916). James’s writings and lectures on psychology, religion, metaphysics, epistemology and education influenced a range of intellectuals and artists, including Bertrand Russell (1872–1970), W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963), Gertrude Stein (1874–1946), Wallace Stevens (1879–1955), Robert Frost (1874–1963), Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951), Hilary Putnam (1926–2016) and Richard Rorty (1931–2007).
Nihilism
Authors: La Shot Derek
Published: September 2018

Most broadly, Nihilism is the rejection of meaningful moral or religious values. Nihilism is often associated with moral Relativism, extreme Skepticism, and Pessimism. First used by the novelist Ivan Turgenev (1818–1883) in Fathers and Sons (1862) to describe the view of his iconoclastic hero, Bazarov, the term commonly suggests, especially within later Existentialism, that existence is without objective meaning or value. Values are ‘devalued’ due to their lack of objective standing.
Occultism, Spiritualism and Hermeticism
Authors: Seagrave Jennifer Large
Published: September 2018

Sometimes called ‘hidden knowledge’, Occultism refers to beliefs and practices concerning the intersection of the material and spiritual worlds, purportedly representing the most ancient religious knowledge, but mainly originating in Hellenistic and medieval times. The term carries with it nefarious overtones, often indicating evil works associated with black magic, though this veil obscures the ancient arts of spiritual understanding, manipulation and evolution contained in the Western esoteric tradition. Many modernist artists devoted serious study to occult mysteries, which led Leon Surette to theorize that the interest of William Butler Yeats (1865–1939), Ezra Pound (1885–1972) and T. S. Eliot (1888–1965) in Occultism underlies the aesthetics of literary Modernism.
Renan, Ernest (1823–1892)
Authors: Sanzo Joseph Emmanuel
Published: September 2018

Joseph Ernest Renan was a French rationalist philosopher, orientalist, and historian of religion. He was a professor of Semitics at the Collège de France. Renan is best known for his influential Vie de Jésus (1863), a biography of Jesus written in the tradition of David Strauß’s (1808–1874) Das Leben Jesu (1835–1836). Against his Roman Catholic upbringing, Renan disputed the compatibility of history and theology, questioned the divine inspiration of the Bible, precluded the possibility of miracles, and rejected Jesus’s divinity (and Jewishness). Although Vie de Jésus was immediately criticized for its many unsupported claims and Renan was, as a result, subsequently suspended temporarily from his post at the Collège, the book’s popularity made its publication a watershed in French intellectual history.
Rivers, W. H. R. (1864–1922)
Authors: Hemmings Robert
Published: September 2018

A pre-eminent British neurologist, psychologist, ethnologist and anthropologist, William Halse Rivers Rivers worked as a psychiatrist in British military hospitals, most famously Craiglockhart War Hospital in Edinburgh where he adapted Freudian methods to treat World War I officers suffering from traumatic war neuroses. Rivers advocated ‘autognosis’, a method of acquiring self-knowledge by accounting for conscious and unconscious motivations and the environmental conditions that have shaped one’s state of mind, and ‘re-education’, a process by which patients learn to utilize in a pragmatic way their newly acquired self-knowledge (‘Psycho-therapeutics’ 440).
Russian Revolution (1917)
Authors: Elliott Emily
Published: September 2018

The Russian Revolution occurred in two stages toward the close of World War I. It led to the overthrow of the Romanov dynasty and the establishment of the world’s first communist regime. Although the Revolution in 1917 was the first to overthrow the Romanovs, imperial Russia had a long history of rebellions against the autocratic rule of the tsars. During the seventeenth century, Ivan Bolotnikov (1565–1608) and Stenka Razin (1630–1671) led two separate peasant rebellions nearly fifty years apart. In the following century, Kondraty Bulavin (1660–1708) and Yemelyan Pugachev (1742–1775) led uprisings of their own. In the nineteenth century, Russia faced the Decembrist Revolt in 1825 following the death of Alexander I. In 1863, parts of Poland and Lithuania rebelled to gain more cultural freedom.

The reign of Nicholas II (1894–1917) worsened the relationship between the tsar and the Russian public. On the day of his coronation, a mass was held at Khodynka Field near Moscow. When some attendees heard that not everyone would receive the promised free food and drink, they trampled others, leaving an estimated thirteen hundred dead and thirteen hundred injured. Nicholas and Alexandra still held their celebration banquet, however, and this earned him the sobriquet ‘Bloody Nicholas’.
Symonds, John Addington (1840–1893)
Authors: Craig A. Layne
Published: September 2018

John Addington Symonds was an English historian, biographer and poet best known for his writings on sexuality. Though Symonds’s father was a well-known physician and author, Symonds did not distinguish himself academically early on. However, he met with success as a poet and a scholar while at Oxford. Though he had relationships with men as a student, he married Janet Catherine North (1837–1913) in 1864; the couple had four children.
Woodcock, George (1912–1995)
Authors: Spencer Jasmine
Published: September 2018

George Woodcock was a British-Canadian poet, political activist, biographer, travel writer, novelist, dramatist, translator, and literary critic. He was born in Winnipeg, but spent his childhood and early adulthood in England. Returning to Canada in 1949, he moved ‘back to the land’ on Vancouver Island and then to the city of Vancouver, where he lived until his death in 1995. Woodcock’s poetics and politics were informed by pacifism and anarchism. William Morris, Thomas Hardy, George Orwell, Roy Fuller, Julian Symons, Gabriel Dumont, the Dalai Lama, and Simon Gunanoot, a Gitksan rancher, contributed to Woodcock’s world view. Woodcock taught at the University of British Columbia for over two decades and was the first editor of the journal Canadian Literature (1959–present), editing it from 1959 to 1977.
Tönnies, Ferdinand (1855–1936)
Authors: Paravantes A.J.
Published: September 2018

Ferdinand Tönnies was central to the professionalization of European sociology, co-founding the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie (German Society for Sociology) in 1909 along with Max Weber (1864–1920) and Georg Simmel (1858–1918) (Adair-Toteff 2005). He was born in 1855 in rural Schleswig (present-day Germany) to a family of Lutheran pastors and cattle breeders; he died in urban Kiel, Germany, in 1936. He is best known for proposing that Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft form a constitutive binary of modernity (Tönnies 1957).
Treaty of Versailles
Authors: Ferreboeuf Rebecca
Published: September 2018

The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties signed on June 28, 1919, in the Palace of Versailles, by Germany and the Allied Powers at the end of World War I. It was signed exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1863–1914), which was the event that had triggered the war. The signing of the treaty followed six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference, which had opened on January 18, 1919. It also led to the creation of two major international organizations: the League of Nations (1919–1946) and the International Labour Organization (ILO).
Weimar Republic
Authors: Peterson Paul Silas
Published: September 2018

The Weimar Republic (1918/1919–1933) is a term used to describe the German Reich (Deutsches Reich) after the end of World War I and after the dissolution of the German monarchy up to 1933 with the establishment of Nazi Germany. It refers first to the new federal state, constitutional government and parliamentary democracy that initially convened in Weimar. The term also refers to a cultural period of German history associated with the Golden Twenties, Expressionism and the rise of mass culture. It can be divided into three periods: 1919–1923, the founding of the Republic and internal struggle; 1924–1929, the phase of relative stability; and 1930–1933, the phase of economic and political crisis.
Wilson, Edmund (1895–1972)
Authors: Copeland David
Published: September 2018

American literary critic, editor, playwright, novelist and journalist Edmund Wilson’s key critical texts trace the development of twentieth-century Anglo-American writing. Wilson’s Axel’s Castle: A Study in the Imaginative Literature of 1870–1930 (1931), through which a ‘generation discovered modern literature’ (Dabney 158), was the culmination of his first and most influential period as an arbiter of cultural taste. Charting its authors’ absorption of symbolist technique, particularly their privileging of image and the formal properties of music, and its consequent impact on readership, Wilson found aesthetic unity in writing which eschewed the narrative connectives that readers of prose and poetry had come to expect.
Young Turk Revolution
Authors: Abi Ceren
Published: September 2018

The Young Turk Revolution refers to the events that occurred in 1908 under the initiative of the Committee of Union and Progress (İttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti) (CUP) and that were carried out in Macedonia by young Ottoman army officers, who restored the constitution shelved in 1878 by the sultan Abdülhamit II. (There remains some disagreement about describing these events as a ‘revolution’). The uprising led to elections and a reconvening of the parliament, which the Committee hoped would enable the survival of the Ottoman Empire against rival imperial powers (Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia). The CUP, a secret society that later became a political organization, did not overthrow the sultan at first, preferring to rule behind the scenes. The uprising can be considered a continuation of the constitutionalist movements of the nineteenth century, but it also heralded changes to sociopolitical life, such as the rise of a new élite, the increasing involvement of the army in government, and the emergence of party politics. The revolution was enthusiastically received for a time, and a vibrant sociopolitical life emerged with the dismantling of many of Abdülhamit’s authoritarian policies.
Camargo, Iberê (1914–1994)
Authors: Westphalen Von Hartenthal Mariana
Published: September 2018

One of the most prominent 20th-century Brazilian artists, Iberê Camargo remains virtually unknown outside of his country. A painter, printmaker, and draughtsman who created over 7,000 pieces or art across more than five decades, Camargo never subscribed to the geometric abstraction adopted by more well-known post-war Brazilian artists. He insisted that his works were figurative, even though some of his pieces push the limits between abstraction and figuration and call into question the simplistic definitions of these categories. Camargo asserted his independence as an artist by declining to acknowledge any influences. Early in his career, he created landscape paintings and engravings, but in the mid-1950s health problems forced him to stay indoors, and he directed his attention toward objects he could manipulate in the studio. He developed his series, Carretéis (Spools), for over 20 years. Camargo deconstructs the simple shapes of the objects he uses the series, or uses them as an organizing structure for the surface of his paintings and prints. In the series Ciclistas (Cyclists), which he began in the 1980s, expressive brushstrokes delineate figures floating on dark-colored backgrounds, thick with impasto. In the series Idiotas (Idiots), disfigured women haunt obscure spaces, and appear as if waiting for a person who will never come.
Yellow Book, The
Authors: Smith Georgia Clarkson
Published: September 2018

The Yellow Book was a London-based literary quarterly, published from 1894 to 1897 by Elkin Matthews and John Lane, which served to promote the work of Bodley Head authors, artists, and publications. The periodical was edited by American Henry Harland and sub-edited by New Woman authors Ella D’Arcy and Ethel Colburn Mayne. Aubrey Beardsley served as art director until he was fired in April 1895 in the wake of public controversy regarding his friendship with Oscar Wilde. Although Lane took over the artistic editorial duties with assistance from Patten Wilson at the time of Beardsley’s departure, the periodical maintained its Beardslian aesthetic — most notable in its provocative yellow-and-black covers — throughout its run. John Lane served as sole publisher after Matthews’ departure in September 1894. The Yellow Book is central to the study of fin-de-siècle literary and visual culture as well as to scholarship on gender and sexuality, Aestheticism, Decadence, and the New Woman.
Cassab, Judy (1920–2015)
Authors: Philp Angela
Published: September 2018

Judy Cassab was a celebrated portrait and landscape painter, as well as a printmaker. Painting in her own distinctive expressionist style, her work employed both figurative and abstract elements. Known for her capacity to catch effective likenesses of her sitters, she prefered to dig deeper into character and focus on the psychology of her subject. Once claiming she wanted to bring the portrait "back into the twentieth century," she worked intuitively, doing very limited sketches before beginning a painting. After making what she called "shorthand notes" she then focused on the color of the painting, what she refered to as the "inner colour" of the sitter, so they might be a "blue" person or a "yellow" person. Rather than starting with a white canvas she used this "inner" color as the base and then the portrait itself and other colors were built up over the top, with the base color setting the unifying rhythm. This way she ensured there was no radical schism between the background or the clothes and the face itself. This technique is evident in her Portrait of Margo Lewers from 1967, in which the overall color unifies the composition.
D Group
Authors: Smith Sarah–Neel
Published: September 2018

The D Group was a loose association of painters and sculptors who exhibited regularly together between 1933 and 1947. The group took its name from the fourth letter of the Latin alphabet because its founding members – Nurullah Berk (1906–1982), Abidin Dino (1913–1993), Zeki Faik Izer (1905–1988), Zühtü Muridoğlu (1906–1992), Elif Naci (1898–1987), and Cemal Tollu (1899–1968) – identified as the fourth generation of modern Turkish artists since the late 19th century, following the Ottoman Painters’ Society (Osmanlı Ressamlar Cemiyeti), the Fine Arts Federation (Güzel Sanatlar Birliği), and the Federation of Independent Painters and Sculptors (Mustakil Ressamlar ve Heykeltraşlar Birliği).
Entartete Kunst
Authors: Hamlin Amy Kelly
Published: September 2018

Entartete Kunst (Degenerate Art) is a term that was used by Nazi authorities to identify, censure, and confiscate art they considered inconsistent with their ideology. It was the cornerstone of an ambitious propaganda campaign that culminated in the exhibition Entartete Kunst, which took place in Munich in 1937. The majority of this so-called degenerate art was Avant-Garde in both form and subject. Abstract Art by German artists, including Max Beckmann, Max Eernst, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Paul Klee, and Franz Marc, was particularly vulnerable to Nazi attack; non-German artists such as Vasily Kandinsky and Piet Mondrian were also singled out. As a polarizing concept, Entartete Kunst stems from an essentially anti-modernist, xenophobic and anti-Semitic position. It was designed to legitimize the art of the Third Reich, which was rooted in traditional art forms and characterized by an idealized naturalism that promoted heroic virtues and racial purity.
Depero, Fortunato (1892–1960)
Authors: Mittal Kashish
Published: September 2018

Fortunato Depero was an artist, illustrator, and stage designer who played a central role in developing the art of modern typography. Affiliated with the Italian futurist movement, he was motivated by deep frustration with artistic traditions. He was perhaps the most persistent artist of futurism, with his work embodying many of the movement’s primary inclinations throughout his career. In typography, futurism broke the conventions of the printed page by using asymmetrical layouts, multiple colors and new typefaces. Depero pushed futurism beyond avant-garde circles and into the commercial sphere by applying typographic dynamism to advertising. His typographic expression was represented conceptually in his book Depero Futurista (1927), in advertising by his covers for Vogue magazine (1929–1930), and by an iconic poster entitled Subway (1929).
Dongyanghwa
Authors: Seung-ik Kim
Published: September 2018

Dongyanghwa (東洋畵, Jap. toyoei), or "Oriental painting", are brush paintings made with ink or color on either paper or silk. In the Joseon Dynasty, such paintings were associated with calligraphy and classified under the term "seohwa" (calligraphy and painting).
Cunard, Nancy (1896–1965)
Authors: Downum Denell
Published: September 2018

A poet, journalist, publisher, radical intellectual, and political activist, Nancy Cunard operated at or near the centre of multiple modernist discourses. Her early poetry, especially the long poem Parallax, was deeply engaged with experimental forms and themes characteristic of high modernism. In 1928, she became a noteworthy figure in the small press movement, establishing the Hours Press and publishing work by avant-garde and modernist writers including Samuel Beckett, Laura Riding, and Ezra Pound. Cunard conceived the Negro anthology in 1930, eventually closing her press to focus on compiling this monumental exploration of transnational black culture. Published in 1934, the oversized volume included key figures of the Harlem Renaissance among its 150 contributors, but it proved controversial and sold poorly. As war threatened Europe, Cunard joined the anti-Fascist struggle, exposing atrocities as a reporter during the Spanish Civil War, publishing a political pamphlet called Authors Take Sides on the Spanish War, and working during World War II as a translator and publisher for the French Resistance.
École Supérieure des Beaux-Arts de l’Indochine
Authors: André-Pallois Nadine
Published: September 2018

The École supérieure des Beaux-Arts de l’Indochine in Hanoi was opened in 1924 by the French government with the aim of training artists and teachers of drawing. The introduction of modern painting in Vietnam took place in a colonial context. The curriculum was supposed to combine Western art with Far-Eastern traditions, with the teaching modelled on that of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Topics taught there included: life drawing, linear perspective, open-air painting, and oil painting, all of which were new for Vietnamese students and completely different from their own tradition. The school also taught Far Eastern art history and techniques, such as silk painting and lacquer painting. Those Vietnamese painters who chose oil painting accepted a completely new medium.
Games, Abram (1914–1996)
Authors: Mittal Kashish
Published: September 2018

Abram Games belonged to the golden age of British graphic design and as a freelance commercial artist he produced posters for clients including Shell, London Transport, BEA, Guinness, the Royal Shakespeare Company, London Zoo, the Metropolitan Police, The Times, and The Financial Times. His career spanned six decades and saw commercial art develop into the discipline of graphic design. His career is a collection of work done by a man of tireless invention and is a major contribution to British modernism. The force of his design came partly from the Bauhaus with its geometric directness, but Games also learned from a completely different strand of modern art, surrealism, when he fused different objects. Games secured his reputation through a series of stunning wartime propaganda posters for the War Office, of which, Join the ATS (1941) and Your Talk May Kill Your Comrades (1942) are the most famous.
Kokoschka, Oskar (1886–1980)
Authors: Grimm Dagmar
Published: September 2018

The Austrian painter, graphic artist, writer, and playwright Oskar Kokoschka received distinction as a protégé while still studying at the Viennese School of Applied Arts. He worked for the Wiener Werkstätten (Vienna Workshops) on a freelance basis, creating decorative objects in the Jugendstil for the Cabaret Fledermaus in Vienna, which subsequently also staged his plays, "Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen" ("Murder, Hope of Women") and "Sphinx und Strohmann," ("Sphinx and Strawman"), both written before the age of 25.
Marc, Franz (1880–1916)
Authors: Grimm Dagmar
Published: September 2018

Franz Marc was born in Munich, Germany in 1880 and died in the battle of Verdun in 1916, one of many of the Great War’s tragic losses. Formerly a student of theology and philosophy, Marc studied at the Art Academy in Munich and first exhibited there at the Galerie Brakl in February 1910. As a proponent of the new direction in art, he emphasized its spiritual essence as opposed to the materialism inherent in the work of the past. He was interested in aesthetic theory: to deconstruct and find a parallel way to that of science to arrive at what lies concealed under the cover of outward appearance.
New Zealand Modernism
Authors: Sword Helen
Published: September 2018

The moniker "New Zealand Modernism" is most frequently used today to describe art and architecture produced in New Zealand from the 1930s through the 1960s and beyond: for example, the paintings of Colin McCahon, Rita Angus, Gordon Walters, and Frances Hodgkins and the architecture of Ernst Plischke, Bill Toomath, Miles Warren, Maurice Mahoney, Humphrey Hall, and the Group architects. In literary studies, by contrast, the only New Zealand authors consistently labelled "modernists" are those who left home to anchor themselves in intellectual currents abroad: Katherine Mansfield, who wrote most of her New Zealand-themed stories from self-imposed exile in England and France; Lola Ridge, who represented herself in later life as an Australian-American poet despite, having spent 23 formative years in New Zealand; Robin Hyde, whose longing to see a wider world took her to war-torn China in the late 1930s. Yet, New Zealand literature from the 1920s onward was deeply influenced by Anglo-European modernism, often in ways that belie its seemingly provincial character and realist bias.
Pritchard, John Craven (Jack) (1899–1992)
Authors: Johnson Michael
Published: September 2018

Jack Pritchard was a British furniture manufacturer and design patron who co-founded the Isokon design company in 1931. Under his leadership, Isokon developed mass-produced, standardized housing and furniture based on the principles of European modernism. Among the most important early advocates of modernism in Britain, Pritchard encouraged the use of materials such as concrete, steel and plywood as the basis of modern design. As a patron, he built Lawn Road Flats in Hampstead, the first example of modernist mass-housing in Britain, and commissioned leading European designers to produce furniture for Isokon.
Sabri, Atta (1912–1988)
Authors: Floyd Tiffany Renee
Published: September 2018

Born in Kirkuk, Iraq, Atta Sabri was among the pioneer generation of Iraqi modern artists with careers peaking in the mid-20th century. He was an active exhibitor and participant in several burgeoning art groups. After being educated and employed as a teacher in Baghdad, Sabri joined many of his peers in studying art abroad, first in Rome at the Accademia di Belle Arti and then, after World War II, in London at Goldsmith College and the Slade School. During the years of the war, Sabri held a job at the Department of Antiquities in Baghdad. After completing his studies, the artists again took up teaching this time at the Baghdadi Institute of Fine Art. Over the course of his career, Sabri became a founding member of the Society of the Friends of Art and a member of the Society of Iraqi Plastic Arts. His exhibition record includes the seminal Industrial and Agricultural Fair in 1931 and the 1950 First Iraqi Art Show in London. Sabri also exhibited extensively at the National Museum of Modern Art in Baghdad and in 1979 the museum held a retrospective of the artist’s oeuvre.
Said, Mahmoud (1897–1964)
Authors: Seggerman Alex
Published: September 2018

Said’s vibrant canvases portray nude Egyptian women, stylized Lebanese landscapes, and glamorous Alexandrian aristocrats. Born in 1897 in Alexandria to a prominent, landowning family, his father, Mohammed Said Pasha, served as prime minister in the 1910s. The family’s luxurious villa in the Gianaclis neighborhood today houses the Mahmoud Said Museum. Said first trained with a local Italian artist, Amelia Casonato da Forno, before graduating from the Cairo School of Law in 1918 and studying art at the private Académie Julian in Paris in 1920. Said worked as a lawyer at the Tribunaux Mixtes (Mixed Courts), a vanguard institution of international law for Alexandria’s cosmopolitan community. Said painted on weekends in a simplified, almost decorative style with rich colors. He depicted Alexandrian elites in luxurious clothing with refined gestures, but also painted sensuous nudes on bed sheets or in front of invented Egyptian landscapes. These nudes portray darker skinned women who resemble the fellaha (peasant) symbol ubiquitous in contemporary Egyptian visual culture, clashing with his upper class depictions. The Egyptian Surrealist group adopted Said as an honorary member and included his work their exhibits in the late 1930s. After ending his legal career in 1949, Said served on organizing committees for museums and exhibitions, including the Biennale de la Mediterranée. Said embodied a cosmopolitan spirit and eschewed the more overt nationalist imagery of his Cairene peers.
Ṣalat al-Fann al-Ḥadith al-Ālamı (Art Moderne International) (established Damascus, Syria, 1960)
Authors: Lenssen Anneka
Published: September 2018

Ṣalat al-Fann al-Ḥadīth al-ﬁĀlamı (Gallery of International Modern Art, or Art Moderne International (AMI)) was the first private art gallery in Syria. Launched by brothers Muhammad and Mahmoud Daadoush in Damascus in October 1960, the gallery served as a social hub for artistic and intellectual activity and a promotional office for Syria’s modern artists. It was centrally located in Yusuf al-Azmeh Square and provided a range of artistic services: biweekly exhibitions, literary evenings, and publicity stunts such as a talent search for an artist’s "muse," as well as work in the applied fields of décor, advertising, and printing.
Schwitters, Kurt (1887–1948)
Authors: Gaggi Silvio
Published: September 2018

Kurt Schwitters is most commonly associated with Dada, but his relationship to that movement’s aesthetic, political, and philosophical rebellion was ambivalent. Although he was friends with the Berlin Dadaists and participated in shows with them, he never formally became a member of their group. Schwitters was also involved with the Expressionist gallery and magazine, Der Sturm, and Dada purists disdained Expressionism, with its focus on the personal rather than the political, the dominant concern of other German Dadaists such as George Gros and Richard Huelsenbeck. The formalist aspect of much of Schwitters’s work also separated his work from Dada "anti-art."

Nevertheless, Schwitters is generally regarded as the greatest collage artist of the 20th century. He named his particular style of collage, which often incorporated three dimensional as well as two-dimensional elements, Merz. Merz became a tag prefix for all his works, which included poetry, music, and architecture, as well as visual art.

After Schwitters’s art was included in the Nazi’s Degenerate Art exhibition, he escaped, first to Norway and then to England, where he continued to be artistically active until his death in 1948. Schwitters’s Merz aesthetics has been a major influence on avant-garde art throughout the 20th and early 21st centuries.
Zamyatin, Evgeny
Authors: Stauffer Rachel
Published: September 2018

Evgeny Zamyatin is a Russian author most famous for his dystopian novel We [My], which is said to have influenced George Orwell’s 1984. Criminalized in the pre-Revolutionary period by the tsarist regime for his revolutionary tendencies, and denounced post-Revolution as a traitor to the ideals of Russian Communism, Zamyatin was highly influential as an author, journal editor, leader of literary organizations, and as an instructor and researcher in naval engineering. In 1931, with Stalin’s permission, Zamyatin moved to France, where he died of a heart attack in 1937. His contributions to Russian and Soviet literature were newly acknowledged in the 1980s when his reputation as a traitor was renounced.

Evgeny Zamyatin was born in the Russian countryside to a middle-class family and attended St Petersburg Polytechnic Institute as a student of naval engineering. Travel for this work, combined with the revolutionary climate of St Petersburg, significantly influenced Zamyatin’s writing. Frequent participation in St Petersburg’s revolutionary activity leading to the 1905 revolution resulted in Zamyatin’s arrest and exile, which also served as themes in his literary works. Although, officially, Zamyatin had been expelled from St Petersburg, he remained there as a resident from 1906 until 1911 teaching in the naval engineering programme of St Petersburg Polytechnic Institute.
Selim, Jewad (1921–1961)
Authors: Shabout Nada
Published: September 2018

Born in Ankara, Turkey, Jewad Selim descended from an Iraqi family of artists. His father is Hajj Mohammad Selim, his sister Naziha Selim and brothers Suad and Nazar Selim, each an accomplished artist in their own right. One of the most prominent and influential figures in the formation of the Iraqi Modern art movement, Selim was awarded a government scholarship to study sculpture in Paris (1938–1939), in Rome (1939–1940), and in London at the Slade School of Art (1946–1949). In Baghdad, he was a founding member of the first art society in Iraq, the Society of the Friends of Art in 1941, a founding member of the Institute of Fine Arts in 1949, the Baghdad Group of Modern Art in 1951, and the Society of Iraqi Plastic Artists in 1956. He worked at the Baghdad Museum of Antiquities, where he spent several years restoring Sumerian and Assyrian reliefs. His most mature paintings date from the 1950s, after which he concentrated solely on sculpture. He headed the Department of Sculpture at the Institute of Fine Arts until his death. His style inspired the imagination of virtually an entire generation of younger artists and his influence is still evident today. Selim’s work evokes a shared humanity and defines a sense of historical identity and national character, which inspired many Iraqi artists to emulate his artistic methods.
Seven and Five Society
Authors: Fowler Alan
Published: September 2018

The painter Ivon Hitchens (1893–1979) led the founding of the Seven & Five Society in London in 1919, primarily as an exhibiting society for its original membership of seven painters and five sculptors. By 1926 the membership grew to 20 and by the time of the last of its 14 exhibitions in 1935, 87 artists had taken part in its shows. In its early years the Society eschewed the promotion of any particular approach to art and was open to artists of all styles. In 1924, however, Hitchens invited Ben Nicholson to join and under Nicholson’s later chairmanship the character of the Society changed. After a period in which a modern but varied approach to representational art was encouraged, Nicholson won a vote which restricted exhibition entries to non-figurative abstract works. The result was the break-up of the Society, though not before its final exhibition which included abstract works by Nicholson, Barbara Hepworth, Henry Moore, and John Piper; this was the first all-abstract exhibition ever to be held in London.
Society of Independent Painters and Sculptors
Authors: Shaw Wendy
Published: September 2018

Coming together for the first time with an exhibition in 1928 at the new Ankara Ethnographic Museum and establishing their name in 1929, the Society of Independent Painters and Sculptors was the first long-standing organization of artists working in the Republic of Turkey. Although their name, based on the French La Societe des Artistes Independents, indicated an oppositional stance to the dominant "academic" mode of painting in Turkey characterized in the work of the 1914 generation, the group advocated no unified political or aesthetic stance. Founding members included Refik Fazıl (Epikman; 1902–1974), Cevat Hamit (Dereli; 1900–1989), Şeref Kamil (Akdik; 1899–1972), Mahmud Celalledin (Cuda; 1904–1987), Nurullah Cemal (Berk; 1906–1982), Ali Avni (Çelebi; 1904–1993), Ahmet Zeki (Kocamemi; 1900–1959), Muhittin Sebati (1901–1932), the sculptor Ratip Aşir (Acudoğlu) and the decorator Fahrettin (Arkunlar). Hale Asaf (1905–1938) was the only female participant. The group had four exhibitions before disbanding in 1932. Between 1936 and 1942, its members also organized exhibits around the country in conjunction with the Homeland Tours program. In 1942, members of the group established the Society of Turkish Painters and Sculptors, and in 1950, the Painter’s Union. Like the Independents, the objective of these groups was mutual aid.
Soedarsono, Srihadi (1931–)
Authors: Clark Christine
Published: September 2018

Srihadi Soedarsono is a celebrated painter and prominent figure in the development of Indonesian art, well known for his series of dancing girls and themed meditations on the Borobudur and seascapes. Born 1931 in Solo (Surakarta), into a family of batik makers, traditional Javanese culture was important to Srihadi and from an early age has remained a central influence in his art practice. In the 1940s he participated in the struggle for Indonesian independence and was an active member of Seniman Indonesia Muda (SIM – Young Indonesian artists), receiving at this time art instruction from local artists, most notably S. Soedjojono and Affandi. After graduating from the Bandung Institute of Technology in 1959, Srihadi obtained a Master’s degree at Ohio University in 1962 where he was influenced by Abstract Expressionist and action paintings. In the 1970s his work addressed socio-political themes before returning to earlier figurative and representative investigations. Srihadi is acclaimed for paintings that explore the ‘cosmic horizon’, rendered using minimal brushstrokes and pure color and concerned with finding natural balance and the primacy of line. Remaining an active lecturer at Indonesian institutions throughout his long career, Srihadi has been the recipient of numerous prestigious national and international awards and honors with his work presented in many significant exhibitions.
Turki, Zoubeïr (1924–2009)
Authors: Gerschultz Jessica
Published: September 2018

Zoubeïr Turki was a Tunisian artist and illustrator. He studied at the Zaituna Mosque-University and received his artistic training at the École des Beaux-Arts in Tunis and in Stockholm, where he resided from 1952 until 1959. Upon returning to Tunisia he exhibited with the École de Tunis, an elite group of artists tasked to formulate a national artistic modernism. Turki’s drawings and paintings centered on stylized portrayals of quotidian life and historical and popular figures. He was on the editorial board of Faïza, the journal founded by Safia Farhat, and illustrated this and other periodicals, literary works, and advertisements. Along with Farhat and Abdelaziz Gorgi, Turki designed murals and sculptures for state-owned offices due to the 1 percent law, which allotted one percent of a civic building’s budget to its decoration with modern artwork. The largest of these murals, executed in 1962, is in the Radiodiffusion Tunisienne in Tunis and depicts a performance of maluf music. From the 1970s Turki was an official cultural advisor. He founded the Union Nationale des Arts Plastiques de Tunisie in 1975 and joined the National Assembly in 1979. His collection of 28 drawings, Tunis naguère et aujourd’hui (1961), was republished in 2005.