bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Social Exclusion
Authors: Silver Hilary
Published: December 2015

Social exclusion is a multidimensional, relational process of denying opportunities for social participation, severing social bonds, and impairing social solidarity. Exclusion may be based upon racial, ethnic, linguistic, caste, religious, and other cultural identities as well as upon age, gender, sexuality, disability, poverty, unemployment, socioeconomic conditions, and place of residence dimensions that tend to overlap, intersect, and accumulate over time. Social exclusion has interrelated negative consequences for both the excluded individuals and society as a whole. As a social relationship, exclusion may be deliberate or institutional, face to face or impersonal. Regardless, it involuntarily restricts one's fulfillment of normatively prescribed social roles. Social inclusion does not necessarily remedy social exclusion. Both terms are used in sociological and policy discourse.
Subculture
Authors: Lieske Joel A.
Published: December 2015

This entry on subculture discusses the origins and evolution of eleven distinctive regional subcultures that define the American cultural landscape. It links them to the original settler and immigrant waves that have come to the United States and then discusses how they define state cultures and influence the performance of state and local government. A cultural mapping of the regional subcultures is also provided.
Diversity, Tasks, and Structure in Teams
Authors: Horwitz Sujin K.
Published: December 2015

Diversity in teams reflects a variety of demographic, cultural, experiential, and personal differences that individual members possess, which in turn influences team processes and outcomes. Additionally, the effects of team diversity on teamwork are largely contingent upon various factors, both internal and external to teams. Of the myriad of factors potentially affecting the efficacy of team diversity in teamwork, two types of task structure—task complexity and task interdependence—are discussed in this entry, as they have been found to significantly moderate the relationship between team diversity and team performance.
Latinoization of theUnitedStates
Authors: Mendoza Louis
Published: December 2015

Latinoization refers to the growing influence of Latinos on the culture, society, and demography of the United States. While this process has been particularly intense since the passage of the 1965 Hart–Cellar Immigration Reform Bill, to understand the pervasive impact of Latinos on the United States, one must account for the presence of people of Spanish and Latin American descent prior to the establishment of the United States. The ongoing process of cultural and social change in the contiguous United States is a consequence of forced incorporation via colonial conquest, or voluntary or involuntary immigration as a result of unstable economic and political conditions. Latinos are projected to comprise 30 percent of the nation's population by 2050. Until recently, the geographic dispersal of Latinos in the United States could be understood via traditional settlement patterns, but the fastest growth of Latinos has taken place in “new destinations” in the South and Midwest.
Race Relations Cycle
Authors: Ballis Lal Barbara
Published: December 2015

The
race relations cycle
, devised by the American sociologist Robert E. Park (1864–1944), is a model of social change that was intended to shed light upon the consequences of the arrival of European immigrants to the United States and of the movement of African American migrants from the rural South to cities in the North during the first part of the twentieth century. The model suggested that integration is the outcome of
relationships between groups
, and in particular of their
subjective attitudes
toward each other after their initial contact, in the spheres of politics, social structure, and culture. Assimilation is the final phase of the race relations cycle.
Estonia,Latvia, andLithuania
Authors: Agarin Timofey
Published: December 2015

Ethnic diversity has a long history in Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, yet the states are entrusted to protect the interests of ethnic core nations rather than those of all residents. The official narrative of statehood in the Baltic states emphasizes the principle of state continuity from pre‐Soviet republics to the present. In so doing, it entrenches inequality between the titular ethnic communities and small groups of “historical minorities” and those who settled in the country in the second half of the twentieth century, the “Russian‐speaking minorities.” In Lithuania tensions focus on the visibility of the Polish‐speaking community. Tensions and distrust between Baltic titular groups and Russian as well as Polish speakers require greater cooperation among ethnic communities and recognition of minority groups' links to their kin states. The lack of progress on accommodation and protection of the rights of nontitular communities should cause concern among NATO and EU countries.
Riots, Race
Authors: Myers Daniel J.
Published: December 2015

Riots, and especially the subset of race‐related riots, are defined in this entry using the standards of violence and size typically employed by scholars of collective political behavior. In addition, the entry explores empirical research on who participates in riots, the role of economic conditions in producing rioting, and how authorities and social control agents can both suppress and inflame violent collective behavior. Finally, the entry explores the role of mass media, particularly how it transmits rioting from one location to another through social diffusion processes, and the effectiveness of rioting in producing the social change presumed to be desired by many, but not all, of those who participate in rioting.
Organizational Performance and Diversity
Authors: Fritzsche Barbara A. , Dhanani Lindsay
Published: December 2015

The past few decades in the United States have seen monumental social reforms and demographic shifts that have led to an increasingly diverse workforce. Organizations have since invested substantial amounts of money and resources into diversity efforts in the hopes of using diversity to increase organizational performance. Despite theoretical arguments that diversity increases performance, research results have not always been favorable. However, there are steps that organizations can take in order to enhance the benefits of having a diverse workforce.
SokaGakkai andKomeito
Authors: Nakano Tsuyoshi
Published: December 2015

Among the many features in the rapid development of new religions in Japan after World War II, a remarkable one is that, from an early stage, those religions have had a strong concern with politics, and they have acquired and exercised a significant influence on the political scene. Soka Gakkai, which established a political party called Komeito, is a representative religious body in this scene. This politically active religion is based on the Mahayana Buddhist tradition in Japan. By tracing its historical and sociological development and the evolution of an originally Buddhist idea to a political one, this entry presents a new model of relations between immanent religion and politics, and also discusses the difficulties religious bodies experience in participating in contemporary politics.
F
ilipino
A
mericans
Authors: Suarez Theresa
Published: December 2015

The colonial context of race, ethnicity, and nationalism forms the background for an examination of the ongoing relationship between US imperialism and Filipino Americans from the turn of the twentieth century through the early decades of the twenty‐first century. This entry examines the changing impact of the end of colonial rule, the links with the struggles of other American minorities, and the actions taken by Filipino Americans to secure a place in contemporary US society.
Zaire (TheCongo)
Authors: Hoffmann Kasper
Published: December 2015

Ethnicity and nationalism are formative social and political identities in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The colonial state solidified hitherto ambiguous boundaries between social and political identities by deploying firm ethnic categories to classify the native peoples and by confining them in ethnic territories. Although unitary nationalism emerged at the end of colonization, intra‐ and interethnic competition has dominated politics in the postcolonial era. The single‐party state of Mobutu tried to monopolize the use of ethnicity in the public realm, but its lack of legitimacy paved the way for the proliferation of ethnic competition across the country. The Congolese Wars have entrenched ethnic identities in the country.
Confucianism
Authors: Feng Ren
Published: December 2015

Confucianism is the school of thought established by Confucius and his disciples in the Period of Spring and Autumn in ancient China. It has been developed over the subsequent thousands of years and has formed a long and complicated tradition in both intellectual and practical senses. Confucianism represented a culture‐oriented integrating mechanism in forming a civilized and political community, within which ethnic elements were tolerated, restrained, and transformed toward a civilized identity. Modern Chinese have made use of Confucianism to develop an appropriate form of nationalism for the establishment of the nation‐state. Confucianism furthermore provides a broader and higher vision of
tianxia
(

) order to overcome the shortcomings of modern nationalism.
Assimilation, Segmented
Authors: Eve Michael
Published: December 2015

Since the 1990s, the theory of segmented assimilation has had enormous influence on theorizing about the children of immigrants and the way they become incorporated into a society of immigration. It rejects the idea that assimilation is a straight line and that becoming more similar to natives (e.g., “more American”) is necessarily the way to social mobility, arguing that it can also have negative effects. This entry describes the theory and the criticisms of it, and summarizes some of the empirical evidence for and against it. Whatever future research shows about the educational and occupational results of descendants of migrants, and risks that a new stratum of poor will be created, the idea of segmented assimilation has transformed the way scholars view the complexities of the incorporation of immigrants and their descendants in the local social hierarchy, raising new problems.
Underclass
Authors: Oxoby Robert
Published: December 2015

We present an overview of the research on the underclass, starting with the work of Auletta and Wilson. We also discuss the more recent developments in research on this social group, with particular emphasis on how inequality affects the size and social role of this group in broader society. We also present some of the policy prescriptions that have emerged from research delineating the underclass as a distinct social class.
Generational Changes in the Workplace and Organizational Performance
Authors: Cabelly Alan
Published: December 2015

Generations are identified in two ways. Birth date of a generation establishes how that generation grew up in ways different than other generations. Four generations exist in today's workplace: GI Joe/GI Jane (also referred to as the Silent Generation, born prior to 1946), Baby Boomers (those born between 1946 and 1964), Generation X (Gen X: those born between 1960 and 1980), and Millennials (also referred to as Generation Y or Gen Y: those born between 1980 and 2004). This methodology identifies the fact that there are significant differences, say, between Baby Boomers and Millennials.
Digital Divide, Racial and Ethnic Inequality In The
Authors: Abreu Randy
Published: December 2015

Currently in the United States low‐income groups and people of color are falling behind regarding access to, and adoption of, various information and communication technologies. This situation is known as “the digital divide.” As our contemporary society increasingly develops new technologies, from smartphones to smart watches, those who adopt them find themselves in a far better position when applying to colleges and universities for scholarships and employment, when contacting families and friends, or when trying to secure access to doctors—whereas those on the other side of the digital divide, that is, those with less access, face the reality of falling even deeper into technological as well as economic inequality. This is why low‐income and rural Americans, who comprise a large portion of the people of color in the United States, make up the majority of persons on the wrong, and negative, side of the digital divide.
Rustbelt and Race
Authors: Patterson Kelly L.
Published: December 2015

“Rustbelt” is a term used to describe the Great Lakes and northeastern regions of the United States that were devastated in the 1970s by the decline in manufacturing. Thus, the term has come to signify the physical, economic, and social degeneration of the once thriving industrial region. Presently, many rustbelt cities are characterized by large abandoned factories, loss of population, high poverty rates, dwindling tax bases, inferior schools and other public services, and hypersegregation.
Ethnic Allocation of Rewards in Organizations
Authors: Wilson George
Published: December 2015

Organizations are proximate and powerful determinants of rewards by ethnicity: they constitute inequality regimes composed of status‐based interactions that combine with culture and normative practices that structure rewards (e.g., hiring and firing, promotion, wages) by ethnicity. This entry provides—based on research findings—an overview of key organizational sources that explain the allocation of rewards in the workplace by ethnicity.
Brown v. Board of Education
Authors: Bills David B.
Published: December 2015

The 1954 Supreme CourtBrown v. Board of Educationdecision is one of the most significant events in American history. The ruling struck down the principle of “separate but equal,” established in the 1896Plessy v. Fergusondecision. In doing so,Brownestablished the terrain on which the next sixty years of school desegregation and eventually resegregation would take place.
Ghana
Authors: Talton Benjamin
Published: December 2015

This entry describes the nature of ethnicity and nationalism in Ghana from the colonial period to the present.
Immigrant Smuggling
Authors: Vogt Wendy A.
Published: December 2015

Immigrant smuggling involves the unauthorized movement of people between and across international borders, in exchange for financial or material benefit. It is a complex and profitable global industry that cannot be separated from larger political and social processes in the origin, receiving, and transit states. The immigrant smuggling industry becomes stronger as states increase border security and enforcement.
Tibet
Authors: Henrion‐Dourcy Isabelle
Published: December 2015

Nationalism is expressed differently by Tibetans in exile and by Tibetans within Tibet. Tibetans in South Asia and the west, supported by western sympathizers, engage in a form of diaspora nationalism epitomized by the Dalai Lama and the Free Tibet movement, which consists of a web of loosely connected organizations undertaking street and online activism globally. They directly confront the Chinese government on questions of historical legitimacy, cultural and religious restrictions, and human rights. Tibetans in Tibet, on the other hand, engage in ethnic and cultural nationalism, mostly in the form of passive resistance to the Chinese state's rhetoric and policies and through the assertion of ethnic and cultural identity in everyday life choices. There are also local and uncoordinated eruptions of public dissent, such as the widespread protests on the eve of the Beijing Olympics and, more recently, self‐immolations. Religion is strongly politicized, as is faith in the Dalai Lama.
Caribbean
Authors: Tsuji Teruyuki
Published: December 2015

Under European colonial domination in the Caribbean, plantation‐based exploitation caused the mass migration of agricultural laborers from diverse parts of the world. This led to a mélange of races and cultures and a social stratification system that closely correlated racial and ethnic identities with socioeconomic status. These characteristics of the colonial social structure and their postcolonial repercussions have constantly challenged the political and intellectual elites to address the issues of state formation and nation building. The Caribbean has been, and is likely to remain, a strategic field for inquiry into nationalism in racially and ethnically diverse societies. This is because of its pioneering and continued experiences in transnational migration and the subsequent interracial and intercultural communications, conflicts, and connections.
Global Innovation
Authors: West Jonathan
Published: December 2015

Over the past three decades, questions related to how, when, where, and why innovation occurs in capitalist economies and how policy can improve innovation performance have moved to the forefront of economic research. While much remains to be confirmed in this research stream, a single finding has emerged clearly: effective government policy is a vital underpinning for superior innovation performance, and government plays an irreplaceable role in promoting (or retarding) innovation. Innovation cannot be simply “left to markets,” for two main reasons. First, effective innovation requires the creation and maintenance of complex knowledge bases and infrastructures that cannot be provided by firms acting alone. Second, innovation is characterized by investment commitments under conditions of elevated risk and uncertainty; therefore incentive structures and risk management processes are necessary; and, in turn, these are critically shaped by public policy.
Microfinance
Authors: Jain Sanjay , Wagenaar Kim
Published: December 2015

The term “microfinance” refers to the provision of financial services, most commonly small loans, to people who have traditionally been underserved by conventional banks, usually because they are too poor or are otherwise commercially unviable. While the most common products are small loans, some microfinance institutions also provide savings services and, more recently, micro‐insurance. When referring to the provision of small loans only, the term “microcredit” is often used.
Lebanon
Authors: Zahar Marie‐Joëlle
Published: December 2015

While all Lebanese hail from a common descent, contending visions of Lebanon have resulted in communally based “ethnic divisions” that contribute to the country's political instability and to recurring civil wars. Because the Palestinian question deepened the fault lines between Lebanon's Christian and Muslim communities, the treatment of Palestinian refugees remains Lebanon's longest‐standing and unresolved ethnic issue. Tensions surrounding the influx of Syrian refugees since Syria descended into civil war in 2011 threaten to intensify new fault lines between Sunni and Shia Muslims in Lebanon.
Veil
Authors: Dennis Rutledge M. , Dennis Kimya N.
Published: December 2015

The concept of “the veil” has been used as a metaphor by many fiction and nonfiction writers to represent and describe individual and societal actions, values, and activities. More specifically, the term has been used to describe the covers, barriers, and shields limiting—and in some cases oppressing—the ability to see the individual self, or the society, in a clearer and more objective manner. From this perspective, the veil has been used to describe how social reality can be narrowed, skewed, and distorted. W. E. B. Du Bois was the first scholar to use the metaphor of the veil, as he had used other metaphors such as double consciousness, the color line, and masking, to describe the oppressive race and class inequities suffered by racial and ethnic groups in the United States and abroad.
Epidemiology
Authors: Sung Hung‐En , Ramdath Cassandra
Published: December 2015

Epidemiology is the study of the distribution of disease as well as of its determinants and consequences for human populations. It uses empirical methods and conceptual models to answer questions of how much disease there is, what specific factors put individuals at risk, and how severe the outcomes are in patient populations, in order to inform public health policymaking. The measurement of disease occurrence begins with the estimation of incidence and prevalence, which is often followed by attempts to unravel risk factors and causal mechanisms of disease. Disparities in health and health care across racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic backgrounds in the United States and other countries are well documented. Unfortunately, the lack of specific data undermines reliable baseline and trend analyses of health, health‐care access, cost, and quality by group characteristics. Computational epidemiology is the latest development and promises better explanation, prediction, and control of disease outbreaks.
M
osley,
O
swald (1896–1980)
Authors: Dorril Stephen
Published: December 2015

Sir Oswald Mosley was one of the most controversial British politicians of the twentieth century. He was elected twice as a Member of Parliament (1918–24 and 1929–31) and was appointed chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. The only significant figure in interwar British fascism, he founded the New Party in 1931 and, in 1932, the British Union of Fascists, which was associated with antisemitism and violence. He was interned by the British government during World War II and in the postwar period created the Union Movement. He died on December 3, 1980.
Social Networks and Organizational Performance
Authors: Dowejko Marta K. , Au Kevin
Published: December 2015

The relationship between social networks and organizational performance has been extensively discussed in the sociology, economics, and business literature since the early 1990s. The main tenets of social network theory rest on the assumption that social networks perform an important role in procuring various assets, both tangible and intangible, to organizations and are helpful in leveraging the productivity of a firm's existing resource base. Social ties have been shown to play an important role in influencing organizational actions, outcomes, and performance. The underlying logic can be applied to various aspects of economic action and at different levels of analysis. In consequence, there are many theoretical, definitional, and directional interpretations of the relationship between social networks and organizational performance, and this leads to a wide variety in findings as to the nature and the strength of the association.
Class and Race
Authors: Kyriakides Christopher
Published: December 2015

This entry discusses a political and theoretical conceptualization derived from twentieth‐century Marxist and black radical responses to the complicity of labor movement in the tenets and legacies of the European and North American trade in African slave labor, imperialism, and nineteenth‐century scientific racism. Black radicals have attempted to retain a transformative critique of capitalism while questioning the “white left” centering of an industrial proletarian class. While radical critique differs significantly from stratification approaches that emphasize the interplay between race relations and class inequalities, both are influenced by the conceptualization of race as a status category. Radical critique and stratification theory inform contemporary identity politics, where the concept of intersectionality assumes a central role over any one category of oppression. Class–race duality is deemphasized in favor of a critical approach to multidimensional oppressions indicative of a hierarchical culture of “white” wealth, power, and privilege.
Masking (Wearing the Mask)
Authors: Dennis Rutledge M. , Dennis Kimya N.
Published: December 2015

Masking as concealment, disguise, and role‐playing is deeply embedded in human history. In the modern era, the idea of masking, with these associations, is central to discussions of social inequity and dynamics of power maldistribution. This entry approaches the masking process as Janus‐headed and dialectical—since masking was adopted by both dominant and nondominant individuals and groups—and as situational. Masking entails the assumption of a “real self” putting on the mask in order to act a role, be a “pretended self.” The way this discordance between the real and the pretended played out historically in the United States, largely through power relations between blacks and whites, drew the attention of many young late nineteenth‐ and early twentieth‐century scholars. Their probing critiques of the masking process included issues related to dichotomous polarities such as subjective–objective, private–public, true–false—in addition to the real and the pretended.
Diversity and Organizational Change/Performance
Authors: Ferdman Bernardo M.
Published: December 2015

Diversity in organizations matters both symbolically and substantively. How organizations address and manage diversity has implications for various organizational processes, including organizational change and performance, and for their ability to address the challenges of diversity and to take advantage of its potential benefits. Inclusion is a primary approach used to maximize the benefits of diversity.
Ethnic Groups
Authors: Stone John , Piya Bhumika
Published: December 2015

Ethnic groups are among the most fundamental units in most societies. Unlike kinship groups that are based on common biological ancestry, ethnicity is the result of a belief in common origins that may have little or no genetic reality. Nevertheless, members of ethnic groups often share a sense of common historical origins, a common culture and often the same religion and language. When ethnic groups desire to establish autonomous political control over the regions in which they are settled or establish a unique political state, then they become nations and ethnicity is converted into nationalism.
American Exceptionalism
Authors: Stone John
Published: December 2015

The concept of “American exceptionalism,” introduced into the social science tradition by Alexis de Tocqueville and subsequently explored by many scholars, from Louis Hartz to Seymour Martin Lipset, argues that the unique circumstances and history of the United States separates it in certain crucial respects from other, particularly European, societies. This entry examines the proposition that American attitudes and policies towards immigration, race relations, and nationalism are in fact quite different from parallel developments in the European Union, or whether Europe is more atypical when it comes to these central challenges facing contemporary society. The general utility of applying the concept of “exceptionalism” to any society is then discussed.
Affirmative Action, Race, and Ethnic Quotas
Authors: Stone John
Published: December 2015

The concept of affirmative action is often associated with the changing strategies adopted in the United States after the passage of the 1964 and 1965 landmark civil rights legislation, when it became clear that simply making discrimination illegal would not significantly alter patterns of systemic racial inequality. Policies designed to rectify entrenched group inequalities date back at least to the end of the nineteenth century, when preference policies and quotas were introduced by the British colonial administration in India to address the massive caste inequalities in employment and education. Such measures have provoked significant opposition and strong defenses everywhere they were introduced: opponents claimed that they were a form of “reverse racism” no longer necessary; supporters, that they were justified in the name of both reparations for past racial injustices and the need to “level the playing field,” without which an individual, colour‐blind competition would do nothing but perpetuate past inequality.
Slavery
Authors: Nankoe Hakiem , Ramlal‐Nankoe Margo
Published: December 2015

Slavery is historically one of the most oppressive relationships, and is widely considered the ultimate form of human deprivation. Although not a universal phenomenon, it was frequently a feature of large empires and civilizations. Modern slavery was most pronounced among Western European empires, which transplanted the institution largely in the Americas. Hence modern slavery was not an adaptation of any existing institution in France, England, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands. Nor was slavery a part of the structure of native life in the Caribbean. Thus it can be seen that the system was integral to the “organized crime” and alleged “legitimate violence” of the great Atlantic powers. When slavery was first introduced in the Americas by Spain, “Indian slavery” was highly contested by the Dominican Las Casas. Western slave trade would reach its pinnacle through competition, among the European empires and nations, for control of sub‐Saharan Africans.
WASP
s
Authors: Zhang Mobei
Published: December 2015

The acronym WASP—“white Anglo‐Saxon Protestant”—denotes the upper class or elite group with disproportionately affluent economic and political advantages in American society. From the American Revolution to the 1930s, the WASPs, especially those with a clear ideology of close, upper‐class ties, dominated America in all social aspects, in major areas like politics, economy, and culture. Nearly all immigrants before the 1950s were assimilated under an Anglo‐conformity model. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, however, Progressive WASPs supported greater meritocracy and a more diverse establishment, and gradually took the lead in promoting change. Thus the WASP establishment has experienced a retreat, as more non‐WASPs, especially Catholics and Jews, entered the elite group. Despite the decline, Protestant dominance, perpetuated in American institutions, still remains. This explains the disproportionate amount of power of WASP cultural elites in relation to their size in the total population.
Triple Melting Pot
Authors: Freeman Erin
Published: December 2015

The triple melting pot is a metaphor that describes a pattern of assimilation in which various nationality groups merge through intermarriage, but with a strong tendency to do so within the three major religious groupings: Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish. The concept was first developed by sociologist Ruby Jo Reeves Kennedy in a study of intermarriage trends in New Haven, Connecticut from 1870 to 1940, in which she found that intermarriage between various European nationalities increased over time but tended to occur within the three major religious groups. The concept was developed into a broader sociological theory by Will Herberg in 1955, in a book entitled
Protestant, Catholic, Jew: An Essay in American Religious Sociology
. He argued that, as immigrants assimilated into American culture, religious boundaries would replace ethnic boundaries as the main point of differentiation among people of European descent in the United States.
R
obeson,
P
aul
L
eroy (1898–1976)
Authors: Dennis Rutledge M. , Dennis Kimya N.
Published: December 2015

Paul Robeson was a “Renaissance man” whose excellence was displayed in the academy, in sports, in the theater, in films, and in the arena of international social and human rights. In each of these endeavors he sought to excel as an individual and to make this into a model of excellence for black people, in the United States and abroad. Understanding this two‐pronged objective permits a review of race, power, and domination as central ideas undergirding the social, political, and cultural roles that Robeson played in the United States and abroad from the 1920s through the 1960s as he addressed social and human rights violations of African people, especially in the United States and in Africa.
W
eber,
M
ax (1864–1920) and Group Monopolization
Authors: Stone John
Published: December 2015

Weber's influential analysis of the similarities between economic and social processes provides some important insight into the field of race, ethnicity, and nationalism. A focus on group closure and boundary maintenance can be found in the writings of a range of subsequent sociologists and social anthropologists seeking to understand the implications of group solidarity and how it varies in a range of different historical and social circumstances.
Veblen,Thorstein (1857–1929)
Authors: Stone John
Published: December 2015

The Norwegian American economist and sociologist Thorstein Veblen is most widely remembered for his sarcastic analysis of consumption patterns during the era of the robber barons, in the first two decades of the twentieth century. Apart fromThe Theory of the Leisure Class(1899), Veblen's evolutionary sociology includes a number of valuable insights into such topics as marginality and comparative economic nationalism that have remained significant until the present day.
Learning Organizations and Diversity Management
Authors: Rizova Polly S.
Published: December 2015

The matter of diversity in organizations and its management is of interest to social scientists, policymakers, and managers alike. Its importance has increased in the context of the current transformation of organizational forms from the “old” type of Weberian bureaucracy to a “new” kind of learning organization, arguably better suited to learning, experimentation, and innovation. This is the case even more in the context of globalization, where organizations—truly transnational in form and operation—create salient issues for managers as to how to respond to what some have dubbed the “hypermobility” of production, human capital, and labor. Under these conditions, managers face employees who pursue “boundaryless” careers, organizations that encounter diversity at all levels and forms, and multinationals with a larger than ever proportion of their workforce made up of expatriate employees.
Cultural Relativism
Authors: Trencher Susan R.
Published: December 2015

In the decade 2000–10 there are two broad understandings of cultural relativism: modern and postmodern. In modern cultural relativism, cultural beliefs and behaviors are to be examined in relation to their culture. Since the mid‐twentieth century, in line with shifts toward literary and postmodern epistemology and method, cultural relativism more often than not refers to the view that cultural beliefs and behaviors are most appropriately seen as relative to each other.
E
llison,
R
alph (1914–94)
Authors: Dennis Kimya N. , Dennis Rutledge M.
Published: December 2015

Ralph Ellison was one of the most gifted novelists, essayists, and cultural critics of the twentieth century. His major contributions included the critique of the role of black folklore and literature in black life, the uses of black cultural expressions such as jazz, the blues, and the spirituals in shaping American aesthetics, and his analysis of the intricate, complex, and conflictive relations between the black subculture and the larger white society.
Pakistan
Authors: Saeed Sadia
Published: December 2015

Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, came into existence on August 14, 1947, when British colonial rule in India ended. Pakistan's founding was preceded by a Muslim nationalist movement spearheaded by the All‐India Muslim League under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. It was premised on the “two‐nation theory.” This ideology holds that Muslims and Hindus of the Indian subcontinent constitute two separate nations and a newly carved state of Pakistan ought to serve as a separate “homeland” for Muslims. However, there was no consensus then on how the idea of a territorially based Muslim nation‐state should translate into state formation. Consequently, struggles over a corresponding Muslim religious identity have been a continuous feature of politics in Pakistan. Religious minorities, particularly the controversial Ahmadiyya community, have emerged as a key site upon and through which Pakistan's religious identity has been contested, negotiated, and implemented through state laws and policies.
M
alta
Authors: Inguanez Joe
Published: December 2015

Malta is a small island‐state with a history that stretches back over thousands of years. It has been subject to a succession of waves of migration and conquest from a variety of foreign powers, which reflects its position in the Mediterranean between Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. After gaining independence from Britain in 1964 it subsequently joined the European Union forty years later, on May 1, 2004. In recent years, Malta has been a destination in the flow of economic migrants who are seeking work in Europe and for political refugees fleeing from the conflicts in the Middle East and North Africa. It has also been a major site for tourism.
Adaptive Silicon Oxycarbide Coatings With Controlled Hydrophilic or Hydrophobic Properties
Authors: Reznik Boris , Denev Jordan , Bockhorn Henning
Published: December 2015

The study presents a method for producing of adaptive silicon oxycarbide (Si–O–C) coatings from pyrolyzed polymethylsilsesquioxane as well as a dedicated technique for molecular design of the polymer precursor. The coating texture is spontaneously formed as a result of crack propagation during shrinkage of the solidified polymer. The coatings contain periodic grooves and in situ formed scrolled filaments. The synthesized coatings undergo a transition between hydrophobic and hydrophilic states. The scrolled fibers exhibit thermal adaptive behavior. The coatings are obtained on different substrates from the polymer precursor fractions exhibiting different molecular weights.
Triphenylamino α‐Cyanovinyl‐ and Cyanoaryl‐Based Fluorophores: Solvatochromism, Aggregation‐Induced Emission and Electrochemical Properties
Authors: Balasaravanan Rajendiran , Sadhasivam Velu , Sivaraman Gandhi , Siva Ayyanar
Published: December 2015

A series of linear, V‐shaped and branched triphenylamine/tris(biphenyl)amine‐based derivatives with electron‐withdrawing cyanovinyl‐ and phenyl‐substituted conjugated branches containing either electron‐donating OMe or electron‐withdrawing CN end groups have been synthesized. UV/vis absorption and fluorescence emission data illustrates that introduction of the electron‐donor/acceptor groups induces intramolecular charge transfer that leads to a shift of the absorption onset toward longer wavelengths. Addition of large amounts of water to solutions of triphenylamine derivative caused their emission to reach maximal intensity—these molecules all undergo aggregation‐induced emission; this was confirmed by aggregation studies. All the compounds in this study present a reversible first oxidation process, the potential of which increases with the number of electron‐withdrawing groups in the molecules, as was confirmed by cyclic voltammetry. Furthermore, the influence of solvent polarity on the photophysical properties was investigated. All the triphenylamine derivatives exhibit intensive intramolecular charge‐transfer interactions, giving rise to a substantial extension of their absorption spectral response, which might be potentially used in efficient organic solar cells.
Translating chimpanzee personality to humans: Investigating the transportability of chimpanzee‐derived personality scales to humans
Authors: Latzman Robert D. , Sauvigné Katheryn C. , Hopkins William D.
Published: December 2015

There is a growing interest in the study of personality in chimpanzees with repeated findings of a similar structure of personality in apes to that found in humans. To date, however, the direct translational value of instruments used to assess chimpanzee personality to humans has yet to be explicitly tested. As such, in the current study we sought to determine the transportability of factor analytically‐derived chimpanzee personality scales to humans in a large human sample (N = 301). Human informants reporting on target individuals they knew well completed chimpanzee‐derived and human‐derived measures of personality from the two most widely studied models of human personality: Big Five and Big Three. The correspondence between informant‐reported chimpanzee‐ and human‐derived personality scales was then investigated. Results indicated high convergence for corresponding scales across most chimpanzee‐ and human‐derived personality scales. Findings from the current study provide evidence that chimpanzee‐derived scales translate well to humans and operate quite similarly to the established human‐derived personality scales in a human sample. This evidence of transportability lends support to the translational nature of chimpanzee personality research suggesting clear relevance of this growing literature to humans. Am. J. Primatol. 78:601–609, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
The effects of plant nutritional chemistry on food selection of Mexican black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra): The role of lipids
Authors: Righini Nicoletta , Garber Paul A. , Rothman Jessica M.
Published: December 2015

Understanding the nutritional basis of food selection is fundamental to evaluate dietary patterns and foraging strategies in primates. This research describes the phytochemical composition of the foods consumed by two groups of Mexican black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) during a 15‐month field study, and examines how plant nutritional chemistry affected food choice. Based on indices of selectivity that reflected seasonal changes in the amount of different phenophases of the most consumed plant species and their availability in the environment, we found that, in general, howlers did not preferentially select food items based on their concentrations of protein, sugar, energy, or their protein‐to‐fiber ratio. During only one season of the year, the nortes (October–January), there was evidence for selectivity. During this period, selectivity indices correlated positively with the lipid content of foods ingested. However, a strategy of selecting fruits high in lipids (21–41% dry matter) coincided with the consumption of a leaf‐based diet (based on estimates of the dry weight of food ingested), suggesting that during this season howlers interchanged lipids with sugars to obtain energy and possibly to balance the higher protein intake obtained by the increased leaf consumption. Overall, these data did not support the prediction that food choice in this howler population was strongly correlated with particular nutrients, and suggest that balancing a suite of nutrients by consuming plants that vary widely in their composition may be an important strategy for howler monkeys. Am. J. Primatol. 79:e22524, 2017. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
The effect of tunable modification parameters on the structure and properties of polypropylene with cyclotrimerization surface of isocyanates
Authors: Sun Menghan , Zhang Xianming , Chen Wenxing , Feng Lianfang
Published: December 2015

The cyclotrimerization of methylene diphenyl 4,4‐diisocyanate (MDI) and 3‐isopropenyl‐α,α′‐dimethylbenzene isocyanate (TMI) was applied on the bead/membrane surfaces of a polypropylene (PP)‐bearing isocyanate group to synthesize a protective networked polymer. Chemical structures of these molecules were characterized through attenuated total reflectance–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Results showed that the absorption peak of isocyanate group at 2255 cm−1 became negligible after the reaction was completed. The absorption peaks of the isocyanurate groups appeared simultaneously at 1600 cm−1 and at 1510–1560 cm−1; this result indicated that the grafted isocyanates were almost consumed, thereby forming isocyanurates. Energy X‐ray dispersive spectroscopy revealed that oxygen content increased; indeed, isocyanurate was formed on the PP surface. Pure PP beads, PP‐g‐TMI, and cyclotrimerization products were also subjected to thermal property tests to investigate their corresponding thermal stabilities. Cyclotrimerization could result in the increase in PP‐grafted decomposition temperature, even slightly higher than pure PP. Rheological behavior in oscillatory flow was also evaluated; the storage modulus, loss modulus, and complex viscosity of cyclotrimerization products were higher than those of the PP‐grafted membranes. Surface morphology was further observed through field‐emission scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. The cyclotrimerization products contained blocks and exhibited a rough surface. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016, 133, 43327.
The microbiome and childhood diseases: Focus on brain‐gut axis
Authors: O’ Mahony Siobhain M. , Stilling Roman M. , Dinan Timothy G. , Cryan John F.
Published: December 2015

Many childhood diseases such as autism spectrum disorders, allergic disease, and obesity are on the increase. Although environmental factors are thought to play a role in this increase. The mechanisms at play are unclear but increasing evidence points to an interaction with the gastrointestinal microbiota as being potentially important. Recently this community of bacteria and perturbation of its colonization in early life has been linked to a number of diseases. Many factors are capable of influencing this colonization and ultimately leading to an altered gut microbiota which is known to affect key systems within the body. The impact of the microbial composition of our gastrointestinal tract on systems outside the gut is also becoming apparent. Here we highlight the factors that are capable of impacting on microbiota colonization in early‐life and the developing systems that are affected and finally how this may be involved in the manifestation of childhood diseases. Birth Defects Research (Part C) 105:296–313, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
A simple and rapid ultra‐high‐performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method to determine plasma biotin in hemodialysis patients
Authors: Yagi Shigeaki , Nishizawa Manabu , Ando Itiro , Oguma Shiro , Sato Emiko , Imai Yutaka , Fujiwara Masako
Published: December 2015

A simple, rapid, and selective method for determination of plasma biotin was developed using ultra‐high‐performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC–MS/MS). After single‐step protein precipitation with methanol, biotin and stable isotope‐labeled biotin as an internal standard (IS) were chromatographed on a pentafluorophenyl stationary‐phase column (2.1 × 100 mm, 2.7 μm) under isocratic conditions using 10 mm ammonium formate–acetonitrile (93:7, v/v) at a flow rate of 0.6 mL/min. The total chromatographic runtime was 5 min for each injection. Detection was performed in a positive electrospray ionization mode by monitoring selected ion transitions at m/z 245.1/227.0 and 249.1/231.0 for biotin and the IS, respectively. The calibration curve was linear in the range of 0.05–2 ng/mL using 300 μL of plasma. The intra‐ and inter‐day precisions were all <7.1%. The accuracy varied from −0.7 to 8.2%. The developed UHPLC–MS/MS method was successfully applied to determine plasma biotin concentrations in hemodialysis patients. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.