bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
M
onnet,
J
ean (1888–1979)
Authors: Blair Alasdair
Published: May 2018

Jean Monnet (1888–1979) is regarded as the founding father of the European Union (EU). A technocrat who was never a member of a political party, he played a key role in providing the intellectual stimulus behind European integration after the Second World War. And while he is best remembered for his contribution to creating the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), which was the forerunner of the EU, his interests were varied. He made an important contribution in the world of finance as well as public service and played a key role in influencing US policy towards Europe during and after the Second World War.
Mughal Diplomacy
Authors: Fraser T. G.
Published: May 2018

The Mughal Empire, founded by the Sunni Muslim Chaghtai conqueror Babur, thrived for almost two centuries. Created through military conquest, the empire was held together by a succession of powerful rulers who used the arts of diplomacy to secure the empire's stability. When these skills were neglected, the empire was unable to withstand new challenges.
Nixon,RichardM. (1913–94)
Authors: Kochavi Noam
Published: May 2018

As president of the USA (1969–74), Nixon conducted a dramatic mode of diplomacy quite consequential for the course of world affairs. Displaying, at once, a brilliant mind and a troubled, flawed personality, he left an ambivalent legacy. On the one hand, his bold initiatives facilitated the reintegration of the People's Republic of China into the global community. On the other hand, his schemes intensified bitter divisions at home, and most probably prolonged the Vietnam War.
OguriTadamasa (1827–68)
Authors: Wert Michael
Published: May 2018

Oguri Tadamasa was a samurai who served the last traditional regime in Japan. He worked in various key positions, including diplomatic work, especially with France. He acted as one of the leaders on the first Japanese embassy to the United States (1860). He is known for his reform efforts that attempted to strengthen the shogunate against domestic enemies. After the last shogun resigned, Oguri moved to his fief lands in Gunma Prefecture, only to be arrested and executed by the Meiji emperor's army.
Oil Diplomacy
Authors: McFarland Victor
Published: May 2018

For more than one hundred years, oil has been a uniquely important commodity in world affairs. Petroleum is a vital raw material for modern warfare and economic development, but its uneven distribution around the world means that some nations are oil‐rich and others are oil‐poor. Petroleum is also relatively portable compared to other hydrocarbon energy sources such as coal or natural gas, and a great deal of oil is traded internationally. As a result, petroleum has often been the focus of international diplomacy as nations seek to secure oil supplies through trade, diplomacy, or armed conquest, and to control other nations' access to oil through trade deals and economic sanctions. This entry provides a brief introduction to oil diplomacy, along with a historical overview of oil and international relations since the beginning of the twentieth century.
Ottoman–Persian Treaties
Authors: Aslan Halil Kürşad
Published: May 2018

In the sixteenth century, the Ottoman Empire was one of the most powerful states in the world. Starting from the seventeenth century the empire gradually entered into an age of comprehensive stagnation and decline. From the early 1500s until the mid‐nineteenth century there were many conflicts, wars, and ensuing armistice and/or peace treaties between the Ottoman Empire and the Persians. One of the most important issues was the representation of Muslim populations throughout the world. Sultans of the Ottoman Empire claimed to be the protector of all Muslims in the world (halife‐i ru‐yi Zemin); however, Persian rulers, as the forerunner of the Shiite sect of Islam, did not recognize this authority. In addition to this disagreement on identity and authority, some economic issues, trade embargoes, domination over Eastern Anatolia, the Caucasus, and Mesopotamia were important factors in these conflicts, diplomatic initiatives, and peace treaties.
Paradiplomacy and Protodiplomacy
Authors: Cornago Noe
Published: May 2018

The ability to conduct diplomatic relations is generally considered an exclusive attribute of sovereign states, but the participation of local and regional governments in international relations is becoming increasingly important worldwide. This phenomenon, also known as “paradiplomacy” has important historical antecedents but has acquired in recent decades a new prominence, as a result of the transnationalization of the global economy and the rise of global connectivity. Despite the initial reluctance of central/federal governments to accept this new reality, paradiplomacy is rapidly gaining institutional and legal recognition by states and international organizations in the most diverse geopolitical contexts. Beyond its instrumental value, paradiplomacy is always a form of political agency that facilitates the representation of collective identities at a global scale, expressing generally a will of greater political autonomy and sometimes even the aspiration to create a new independent state. In those cases in which this latter ambition prevails over any other possible political design, “paradiplomacy” mutates in to “protodiplomacy.” But protodiplomacy rarely produces the results expected by its proponents, namely to secure significant international support for a secessionist process, being more frequently conducive to international isolation and ethnopolitical conflict with the consequent economic, social, and political costs.
QuadrupleAlliance (1718–20)
Authors: Schnakenbourg Eric
Published: May 2018

The Quadruple Alliance was signed on August 2, 1718, in London between Great Britain, the emperor Charles VI, and France, and the United Provinces were supposed to join quickly. The founding principle of the alliance was respect for the settlements of the treaties signed in Utrecht in 1713, which were considered by the allies as the basis of a lasting and balanced peace in Europe. But in 1718, Philip V of Spain was eager to reverse some of the terms of the treaties of Utrecht and maintained his claims in Italy. After a short war against Great Britain, France, and the emperor, he was compelled to accept the principles of the Quadruple Alliance. This multilateral alliance had established a system of collective security that allowed Europe to enjoy one of the longest periods of peace in the early modern period.
Roman–SyrianWar (192–188bce)
Authors: Dmitriev Sviatoslav
Published: May 2018

The Roman–Syrian War (192–188BCE) was a military conflict between the Roman Republic and its last major opponent in the eastern Mediterranean, King Antiochus III (the Great) of the Seleucid dynasty. The defeat of Antiochus III not only secured Roman control over Greece and expanded Roman rule to Asia Minor but also laid the foundation of the Roman domination over the entire Mediterranean world.
R
usso‐
B
yzantine Treaty of 944
Authors: Raffensperger Christian A.
Published: May 2018

The Russo‐Byzantine Treaty of 944 is one of the most important documents of the time for understanding both the external relations between Byzantium and Rus', but also their internal political, social, and economic histories. This entry covers the historical background to the treaty, including the previous treaties earlier in the century, as well as the main points of the treaty; highlighting their importance for both Rusian and Byzantine history, as well as situating them in diplomatic history more broadly.
Treaty ofKanagawa (1854)
Authors: Henning Joseph M.
Published: May 2018

The Treaty of Kanagawa of 1854 (also known as the Treaty of Peace and Amity) between the United States and Japan ended the latter's selective isolation, which had stood for more than two centuries. Negotiated by Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry (1794–1858) and representatives of the Tokugawa shogunate, the treaty protected shipwrecked sailors, opened two supply ports, allowed the appointment of US consuls, and established most‐favored‐nation status for the United States in Japan. A product of gunboat diplomacy, it was the first of the unequal treaties that limited Japan's sovereignty in its relations with Western nations.
Treaty ofNerchinsk (1689)
Authors: Burns William E.
Published: May 2018

The Treaty of Nerchinsk was agreed on by the Russian and Qing (Chinese) empires in 1689. It established a frontier between the two empires north of the Amur River, frustrating Russian desire to control the Amur Valley. The treaty also helped open China for the Russian fur trade from Siberia, and committed the two parties to return defectors from the other's territory. This cooperation between the Qing and Russia against the nomadic peoples of Mongolia would facilitate both powers in their conquests in Central Asia. The boundary settlement at Nerchinsk lasted until the mid‐nineteenth century.
Treaty ofUnkiarSkelessi (1833)
Authors: Šedivý Miroslav
Published: May 2018

The defensive Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi was signed by Russia and the Ottoman Empire on July 8, 1833. It consisted of public and secret clauses. In the first part both countries promised mutual assistance in the event of an attack from a third party. In the second, secret, part the Ottoman Empire was relieved of the obligation to offer military aid in such a case, but it was obliged to close the straits, the Bosphorus and Dardanelles, to the navies of any states at war with Russia. Its existence, including the secret parts, soon became known in Europe and immediately provoked strong displeasure in France and Great Britain; these two Great Powers were unhappy about the new defensive alliance that was believed to increase excessively Russia's influence over the Ottoman Empire. The treaty was intended to last for eight years and was not renewed in 1841.
Western Contact Group
Authors: Saunders Chris
Published: May 2018

The Western Contact Group (WCG), consisting of five members of the United Nations Security Council, successfully negotiated a plan to settle the Namibian conflict in 1977 to 1978. Though the plan was accepted by the parties, the conflict continued well after the dissolution of the WCG in 1983. Six years after that the plan worked out by the WGC over a decade earlier was implemented, leading to Namibia's independence in 1990. When most active, the WCG was a unique diplomatic effort, and its relative success led to similar contact groups being formed to try to end conflicts elsewhere.
Wotton,SirHenry (1568–1639)
Authors: Netzloff Mark
Published: May 2018

Sir Henry Wotton (1568–1639), English diplomat and writer, served three terms as England's ambassador to Venice (1604–10, 1616–19, and 1621–23) alongside other extraordinary embassies on the Continent during the reign of James I. His diplomatic career was not an entirely successful one, in part because of the extent to which he attempted to pursue initiatives not entirely in congruence with the directives from his monarch, including an anti‐papal alliance between England and Venice. His literary writings are as significant as his diplomatic career, and his relations with his fellow diplomats and members of his embassy household show the extent to which diplomatic writing was a literary exercise forged through codes of sociability and friendship.
ZhouEnlai (1898–1976)
Authors: Allès Delphine
Published: May 2018

Zhou Enlai was born on March 5, 1898, in Huai'an, Jiangsu province (China). He became actively involved in the Chinese communist movement during his higher education in France and returned to China in 1924 as a senior communist leader. A leading figure of the Chinese Civil War (1927–50), he later escaped the purges of many officials by actively supporting Mao Zedong during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76). Having been the People's Republic of China (PRC)'s first foreign minister (1949–58) and premier (a post he kept until his death on January 8, 1976), Zhou Enlai played a central role in the formulation of the country's foreign policy doctrine (Peaceful Coexistence) and its come‐back to the international scene. He is credited for establishing relationships with interlocutors from both sides of the Iron Curtain and was the architect of the PRC's contemporary diplomatic principles.
B
yrnes,
J
ames
F.
(1882–1972)
Authors: Hopkins Michael F.
Published: May 2018

James F. Byrnes (1882–1972) served in all three branches of the American government and as governor of South Carolina in a career spanning twenty‐five years. Yet his eighteen months as secretary of state were the most memorable of his career. His term was dominated by efforts to adjust from the wartime alliance with Britain and the Soviet Union and achieve a workable postwar settlement. The failure to secure agreement led to the emergence of the Cold War.
Collective Security
Authors: Johnson Edward
Published: May 2018

Collective security is an idea that aggression in the international community can be restrained and contained by the collective action of a number of sovereign states. In acting together, they will be able, it is hoped, to deter aggression from one or a number of states and thus develop a system of security such that other potential aggressors will see that resorting to aggression and violating the peace will be fruitless. Thus security is no longer the concern of individual states but becomes a matter of interest to all states. However, the preconditions of successful collective security have ensured it remains an elusive goal for the international community. The states of the world, particularly from the start of the twentieth century, have too easily disagreed about the nature of the threat to world peace, about the risks they are prepared to take to resist it, and the amount of sacrifice they will endure to overcome it.
J
iang
J
ieshi (
C
hiang
K
ai‐
S
hek) (1887–1975)
Authors: Boyd James
Published: May 2018

Military leader, political figure, and Chinese head of state, Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai‐shek) (1887–1975) unified China in 1928 under the rule of the Guomindang (GMD). As leader of one of the Allied Powers Jiang benefited diplomatically in the war against Japan, gaining China a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council. Post‐1949 and the fall of Mainland China to the communists, Jiang fled to Taiwan, where the GMD continued to rule after his death.
Lausanne Conference (1922–23)
Authors: Menning Ralph
Published: May 2018

The 1923 Treaty of Lausanne superseded the Treaty of Sèvres of August 1920, which had ended World War I between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire. In the Sèvres treaty, the Allies had dealt with the Ottoman government in Constantinople; Lausanne was concluded with the Ankara “Government of the Grand National Assembly” (the precursor of the Turkish Republic). By treating with the Ankara government, the Allies at Lausanne acknowledged the assembly's formal abolition of the Ottoman Empire, announced on November 1, 1922, three weeks before the opening of the conference. Taken together, these two events, the deposition of the Ottoman Sultan and the Treaty of Lausanne, brought to a close the so‐called “Eastern Question,” a term that in the chancelleries of Europe served as shorthand for the dilemmas posed by the 150‐year decline and atrophy of the Ottoman Empire.

The Treaty of Lausanne was unique among the World War I peace treaties for two reasons. First, Lausanne was anen blocreplacement of an earlier treaty, rather than part of a piecemeal revision; second, the Treaty of Lausanne was negotiated, whereas the Treaty of Sèvres, like the other treaties of the Paris peace settlement, had been imposed by the Allies. The Treaty of Lausanne, widely regarded as one of the constituent documents of modern Turkey, is still in force today.
Roberts,Frank (1907–98)
Authors: Colman Jonathan
Published: May 2018

Frank Roberts (1907–98) was an eminent British diplomat who, during a career spanning four decades from 1930, held several key ambassadorships in Europe and was involved in a host of major issues, including planning for the peace during the Second World War, the onset of the Cold War, Anglo‐American relations, and Western European integration. Roberts helped to address issues raised by Britain's transition from an independent global power to one that was a junior partner of the United States and seeking membership of the EEC.
UnitedNations
Authors: Johnson Edward
Published: May 2018

The United Nations was created in 1945 to replace the League of Nations as a universal international organization to manage the postwar world order. Its main aims have been to maintain international peace and security and to improve relations among states based on equal rights and the self‐determination of peoples and to solve problems of an economic, social, humanitarian, or cultural character. However, its role in maintaining international peace and security through the Security Council quickly became a victim of the Cold War, but it was able to develop a range of functions in economic and social matters through the General Assembly which sought to set standards for states and improve relations among them. With the end of the Cold War in 1989 it was hoped that the original goals of the Security Council could be realized but the entrenched national interests of the major powers have proved resistant to demands for reform of the council and the wider organization as well.
Wilson,Harold (1916–95)
Authors: Johnson Edward
Published: May 2018

Harold Wilson (1916–95), as Labour British prime minister from 1964 to 1970 and from 1974 to 1976, had aspirations that Britain could still play a world role in international affairs even after the end of empire. He sought this by means of close relations with the USA, Europe, and the Commonwealth, as well as hoping to set a moral lead through British policy. However, during his first term of office, Britain was dogged by economic weakness and uncertainty which made the operation of a coherent foreign policy difficult to achieve. He had to devalue the Pound Sterling in 1967 and against this background of economic insecurity he withdrew British forces from “east of Suez” after which his claim for Britain as a world power seemed somewhat hollow.
B
laine,
J
ames
G
. (1830–93)
Authors: Weis W. Michael
Published: May 2018

James G. Blaine (1830–93) was perhaps the most controversial and popular politician in the United States during the Gilded Age. Blaine served as Speaker of the House, an influential senator, and captured the Republican nomination for president in 1884, narrowly losing to Grover Cleveland. He was also one of the few notable secretaries of state in the era, serving two terms (1881 and 1889–92). Blaine championed the idea of Pan Americanism, which called for greater cooperation amongst the nations of the Western Hemisphere and the creation of an Inter‐American system. As a statesman, Blaine set the tone and direction of United States relations with Latin America for the next several generations.
Callières,Françoisde(1645–1717)
Authors: Frey Linda S. , Frey Marsha L.
Published: May 2018

François de Callières (1645–1717), who served Louis XIV abroad as a diplomat, was notable not necessarily for his diplomatic prowess but for the manual that he published in his seventies on diplomacy and international negotiations,De la manière de négocier avec les souverainsin 1716, read widely even today. This treatise is a reflection on the basic principles as well as requisites for successful diplomacy. The lively writing style, apt, often humorous and telling examples, clear organization, and brevity of the work account for its popularity. It became a classic because of its insightful treatment of the diplomatic system and its clear discussion of diplomatic techniques and pitfalls. Diplomats could turn to this work for practical advice.
ChanakCrisis (1922)
Authors: Fisher John
Published: May 2018

The Chanak Crisis, which occurred in the autumn of 1922, was a flashpoint in postwar Anglo‐Turkish relations, which threatened the renewal of hostilities between those nations. It illustrated the continuing centrality of the Dardanelles in the minds of statesmen and it was an element in the demise of David Lloyd George's premiership and of his coalition government. It illustrated the limitations of British power, as well as systemic problems in British decision‐making, at the highest levels. Also, angered by a lack of consultation during the crisis, in its aftermath the dominions increasingly evolved foreign policies independently of Great Britain.
Commynes,Philippede(Before 1447–1511)
Authors: Péquignot Stéphane
Published: May 2018

Philippe de Commynes (before 1447–1511) is a key figure in the history of fifteenth‐century Western diplomacy. Successively at the service of the Duke of Burgundy and of three kings of France, he acquired exceptional experience in the field of diplomacy. His methods and skills were striking to contemporaries. Commynes was also the author of the remarkableMemoirs. In this monumental non‐scholarly work, he evokes princes and important personalities, highlights the importance of diplomatic episodes, and presents insightful reflections on diplomacy and its proper use.
Falklands War (1982)
Authors: Ashton Nigel
Published: May 2018

The Falklands War of 1982 resulted from a sovereignty dispute between Britain and Argentina over the Falklands (Malvinas) Islands which dates back to the early nineteenth century. The immediate causes of the April 2, 1982, Argentinian invasion of the islands lay in the domestic difficulties experienced by the military regime in Buenos Aires and in its belief that Britain would not seek to reverse any invasion by force. The British government of prime minister Margaret Thatcher responded by dispatching a naval task force to the South Atlantic, which first recovered the Falklands dependency of South Georgia and then moved on to land forces on the Falklands themselves. By June 14, 1982, the Argentinian forces defending the islands had surrendered. In the aftermath of the conflict Britain refused to discuss the question of sovereignty with Argentina and proceeded to enhance its capabilities to defend the islands.
Guatemalan Intervention (1954)
Authors: Weis W. Michael
Published: May 2018

In June 1954, forces armed and supported by the United States overthrew the democratically elected government of Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán of Guatemala. Although considered a small operation at the time, the coup's importance gradually increased, not only to United States–Guatemalan relations, but also the entire hemisphere. As one of the first and most “successful” CIA operations, it served as a model for destabilizing and overthrowing other regimes. It also initiated a nearly forty‐year period of repression and civil war in Guatemala that killed more than 200,000 people.
H
ull,
C
ordell (1871–1955)
Authors: Carroll Francis M.
Published: May 2018

Cordell Hull (1871–1955) served for 25 years in the US House and Senate before being appointed secretary of state by Franklin D. Roosevelt. Hull was secretary from 1933 to 1944, longer than any other incumbent. His early efforts were directed towards building reciprocal tariff reductions with the expectation of improving international trade and world stability, and he also worked to improve US relations in Latin America through the Good Neighbor Policy. As the international situation deteriorated, Hull attempted to influence Japan to end its expansive war in China, while President Roosevelt focused increasingly on building an alliance with Britain and Russia. During the Second World War, Hull was a driving force in shaping the United Nations Organization. He resigned in 1944 because of ill health and died in 1955.
L
ipsius,
J
ustus (1547–1606)
Authors: Thomson Erik
Published: May 2018

The sixteenth‐century Flemish humanist Justus Lipsius (1547–89) wrote books that helped establish a tone of political thought and style known as “neostoicism” during the late Renaissance. His critical edition of Tacitus helped make debate about that Roman historian's elusive meaning central to discussion of political ethics and reason of state. While he did not carry out an important diplomatic role, his work gave writing about politics a new, laconic style that focused on interest. At the same time, his emphasis on the necessity for order arguably inspired both those who saw a well‐ordered and disciplined state as the foundation of order, and those who saw natural law and justice as the ultimate foundation of international order.
LouisianaPurchase (1803)
Authors: Carroll Francis M.
Published: May 2018

The Louisiana Purchase in 1803 was President Thomas Jefferson's greatest diplomatic triumph, securing control of the Mississippi River, doubling the size of the United States, and steering the nation towards transcontinental expansion in defiance of Spain and Britain. Louisiana had been a colony of France in the Mississippi River Valley, founded in the seventeenth century and ceded to Spain during the Seven Years' War. In 1800 the region was returned to France. This was seen as a threat to the flow of American goods down the Mississippi and through the port of New Orleans. Napoleon's failure to occupy Louisiana in 1802–3, the probability of a return to war in Europe in 1803, and the prospect of a British seizure of the province facilitated its pre‐emptory sale to the United States.
Macmillan,Harold (1894–1986)
Authors: Mangold Peter
Published: May 2018

Harold Macmillan (1894–1986) was a British Conservative politician who served as resident British minister in Algiers in 1943 and foreign secretary in 1955. As Prime Minister from 1957–63, he took an active interest in foreign policy, strengthening the “special relationship” with the US, pursuing an East‐West summit and nuclear test ban agreement, and launching Britain's first and unsuccessful bid to join the EEC.
MantuanSuccessionCrisis (1627–31)
Authors: Osborne Toby
Published: May 2018

The Mantuan Succession Crisis (1627–31) centered on a dispute involving the future of the north Italian duchy of Mantua and the associated marquisate of Monferrat. The dispute was complicated by the differing traditions of inheritance in the territories and the multiple claimants, and furthermore by the fact that the territories were juridically under imperial feudal control. The interventions of France and Spain in support of rival claimants further complicated the situation, and were a milestone on their road to eventual open war in 1635.
NapoleonicWars (1792–1815)
Authors: Heinzen Jasper
Published: May 2018

From 1792 to 1815 raged what is sometimes called the “first total war.” The political turmoil unleashed by the French Revolution soon spilled over into the sphere of international relations, where it ignited hostilities not only in Europe but also other parts of the world. The Napoleonic Wars proper commenced after Napoleon Bonaparte's seizure of power in France (1799) and centered on the establishment of French hegemony in continental Europe. This conflict ended with Napoleon's defeat and the Congress of Vienna.
N
asser,
G
amal
A
bdel (1918–70)
Authors: Lefebvre Jeffrey A.
Published: May 2018

Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–70) rose to international prominence following the July 1952 Free Officers' Revolution that overthrew the Egyptian monarchy. Nasser's challenge to Western imperialism in the Middle East that included acquiring military assistance from the Soviet Union culminated with the 1956 Suez Crisis/War. Although Nasser emerged from this conflict as the “hero” of the Arab world, his growing mass popularity threatened the conservative, pro‐Western Arab monarchies. By fall of 1962 a proxy war between the Nasser‐led progressive Arab camp and the Saudi‐led conservative Arab camp had erupted in North Yemen following a pro‐Nasser military coup that deposed the royalist regime. However, following Egypt's defeat and Israel's occupation of the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip in the June 1967 Arab–Israeli War, Nasser never regained his lost political stature. Nasser died in September 1970 while trying unsuccessfully to negotiate an end to the Jordanian civil war.
NATO
Authors: Folly Martin H.
Published: May 2018

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is an intergovernmental alliance comprising twenty‐eight member‐states. Its founding document is the North Atlantic Treaty, signed on April 4, 1949, in Washington, DC. Created as part of the growing Cold War tensions after the end of World War II, NATO has survived the end of the Cold War, having redefined its role a number of times. Indeed it has been more active and dynamic since 1991, with a more diverse range of missions, than it was during the Cold War which gave it birth. It has expanded significantly since the end of the Cold War, to include many former Warsaw Pact countries as well as territories previously part of the USSR itself.
Pétain,Philippe (1856–1951)
Authors: Mangold Peter
Published: May 2018

Philippe Pétain was a French soldier and hero of the First World War who became head of the government formed on June 18, 1940, which signed the armistice with Germany. Subsequently he assumed the title of chief of state in July, effectively establishing himself as military dictator. Pétain's government was established at Vichy, in the neutral zone allowed to France under the terms of the armistice. Pétain unsuccessfully pursued a policy of collaboration with Germany. After the war he was tried for treason. Although he was sentenced to death, this was subsequently commuted to life imprisonment.
Roman Diplomacy
Authors: Burton Paul J.
Published: May 2018

In the main, Roman diplomacy (509bce–14ce) consisted of establishing treaties of peace (marking the end of wars), of alliance (in peacetime or during wars), and generals' agreements in the field (during wars); sending and receiving embassies (delegations of high‐ranking citizens) to air complaints and congratulations, establish alliances, declare war, investigate matters affecting Roman security interests, settle disputes, and demand satisfaction for (perceived) injuries; and offering and accepting interstate mediations of disputes and wars. Roman diplomatic vocabulary grew out of likely primitive practices overseen by priests, calledfetiales, who oversaw foreign relations between Rome and other Italian states. The practice ofdeditio, the demand for absolute surrender by another state to Rome's complete discretion, probably had its roots in ancient Italian practice as well. In the historical period, Rome's international partnerships consisted of numerous informalamicitiae, “friendships,” and comparatively few formal treaties of alliance. Rome was often a willing broker of interstate mediations, but a less willing participant.
SecondWorldWar
Authors: Folly Martin H.
Published: May 2018

The Second World War began in Asia in July 1937 and in Europe in September 1939. It was a fully global war with the attacks on the USSR and the United States in 1941. It ended in 1945 with the surrenders of Germany and Japan. The diplomacy of the war divides into two periods. The first is 1937–41 and involved relations between those at war and those trying to remain neutral. The second is 1941–45 when the two opposing alliances, the Axis and the United Nations, were fully engaged in war. The main diplomatic events in the first period were the Nazi–Soviet pact (1939), the Tripartite Pact (1940), and the development of relations between Britain and the United States culminating in the Atlantic Charter (1941). The United Nations was formed on January 1, 1942, but the key part was the relationship between the United States, the USSR, and Great Britain. These powers developed cooperation, with tensions over some political and strategic issues. They maintained this through to the end of the war, though after the war these tensions led to the Cold War.
SpanishCivilWar (1936–39)
Authors: Stone Glyn
Published: May 2018

Intended to resolve the polarization of Spanish society by overthrowing the Second Spanish Republic, the military coup of July 17–18, 1936, resulted instead in a bloody civil war lasting almost three years. From the international perspective all of the Great Powers except Japan were involved in one way or another. Nazi Germany, fascist Italy, and the Soviet Union intervened directly; the first two supporting the Nationalists and the last the Spanish Republicans. Ideological and strategic considerations played a prominent part in the case of German and Italian intervention and on the German side economic ones as well. The failure to engage Britain and France directly in the civil war, even to the point of dampening down the revolutionary tendencies of the Spanish Republic, left the Soviets less secure than if Anglo‐French intervention had taken place. The British and French governments chose non‐intervention to avoid the escalation of the war into a Europe‐wide conflict based on ideological divisions, with the latter also fearing the possibility of civil war in France if they intervened; hence their proposal for a non‐intervention agreement. Non‐intervention was also favored by the United States government, despite its sympathies for the Republic, because it too feared an escalation of the conflict and wished to avoid complications in its relations with Latin American states as it sought to challenge the menace of fascism and communism in the Western Hemisphere.
ThirtyYears'War,Diplomacy of
Authors: Osborne Toby
Published: May 2018

The Thirty Years' War is the catch‐all term used to describe the wars that engulfed parts of Europe and beyond between 1618 and 1648. The core of the war was fought over various constitutional and, to a degree, religious, issues in the Holy Roman Empire, though it was arguably not a “German” war alone. It involved a variety of powers from northern Europe to the Mediterranean, and their satellite conflicts also. Nor was this just a military conflict. It was as much a complex, and constant, series of diplomatic maneuvers and negotiations, leading ultimately to the Westphalian Peace of 1648, often (if not entirely correctly) seen as a pivotal settlement in the history of international relations.
Treaty ofAntwerp (1609)
Authors: Osborne Toby
Published: May 2018

The Treaty of Antwerp (1609) was an important milestone in the so‐called Eighty Years' War between the Dutch and Spain (1566–1648), leading ultimately to the Dutch achieving full and recognized sovereign independence. However, the treaty was only of a fixed duration of twelve years, and once it expired in 1621 war resumed; a permanent peace had proved too difficult to achieve against a backdrop of mutual suspicion and intransigence over contentious issues relating to the recognition of Dutch independence, freedom of religion for Catholics in the Netherlands, and whether the Dutch could trade in Spain's spheres of colonial interest. The treaty raised searching questions for both the Spanish and the Dutch.
Treaty of Caltabellotta (1302)
Authors: Péquignot Stéphane
Published: May 2018

Elaborated in 1302 and ratified with adjustments by pope Boniface VIII in 1303, the so‐called Caltabellotta treaty aimed to settle the question of the possession of Sicily, a source of a twenty‐year‐long war between the Angevins and the Aragonese in the western Mediterranean. With the title of “king of Trinacria,” Charles II of Anjou recognized the sovereignty of Frederick of Aragon over the island. After his death, the island would return to the Angevins. This agreement, concluded despite the reluctance of the pope, quickly proved to be devoid of substance. Some of its clauses were not respected, notably by King Frederick, and the war resumed in the early 1310s. Nevertheless, this does not undermine its great importance: it testified to the failure of the papacy to impose theocratic views, marked a notable victory of the Ghibellines and,a posteriori, would become a milestone in the constitution of an Aragonese Sicilian dynasty and the autonomy of the island.
T
reaty of
S
an
S
tefano (1878)
Authors: Fisher John
Published: May 2018

The Treaty of San Stefano was the abortive treaty which ended the Russo‐Turkish War of 1877 and, as such, was a critical milestone in the Eastern Crisis of 1875–78. Russia, as the victor in that conflict, and with its troops on the outskirts of Constantinople (Istanbul), sought to impose the treaty on the Ottoman Empire. Britain, France, and Austria‐Hungary resisted it and Russia was obliged to reduce the scope of its demands. Most notably, the large Bulgaria it had envisaged, with an Aegean coastline – a catspaw for Russia's ambitions in the Balkans – was reduced in size. Russia also conceded some of its strategic gains in Asia. The unraveling of San Stefano was mostly conducted in negotiations prior to the Congress of Berlin.
Treaty ofUtrecht (1713)
Authors: Frey Linda S. , Frey Marsha L.
Published: May 2018

The attitude of a contemporary, who famously wittily remarked that the Treaty of Utrecht was “like the peace of God, beyond human understanding,” is understandable given that the pacification of Utrecht consisted of not one, but twenty‐three treaties signed by the belligerents to end the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–14). The war had broken out over the problematic issue of who would succeed the childless king of Spain, Charles II, who died in 1700. The negotiations that began in January 1712 dragged on for fifteen months. Issues of religion, trade, colonies, and compensation bedeviled the meetings. Although most of the representatives of the belligerent powers signed the treaties in April 1713, the representatives of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI and those of the Holy Roman Empire refused and did not conclude peace until 1714 at Rastatt (March) and Baden (September). After fourteen years and more than 700,000 deaths, the issue was decided: the Spanish Empire was partitioned between the two main claimants, Charles VI, the Austrian Habsburg, and Philip V, the French Bourbon. The British benefited the most, but their allies did not fare as well. Although the war had ended, many issues, such as Gibraltar and the Italian lands, continued to bedevil future relations.
Treaty ofWestphalia/Peace ofMünster (1648)
Authors: Osborne Toby
Published: May 2018

In 1648, three major peace treaties were concluded, the first between Spain and the Dutch Republic (January 30), and then the second and third treaties, agreed later in the year on the same day (October 24), involving the Holy Roman Empire, France, and Sweden. Collectively, the treaties brought to a negotiated settlement the Thirty Years' War that had begun in 1618. Their legacy in the history of international relations has been enormous: the Westphalian Peace of 1648 has come to represent a paradigm shift in the definition of the “state” and of interstate relations. Whether this view is justifiable, though, is a matter of debate.
W
allenberg,
R
aoul (1912–?)
Authors: Jönsson Christer
Published: May 2018

Without any formal diplomatic training, Raoul Wallenberg (1912–?) led a successful rescue effort, saving the lives of tens of thousands of Jews in Nazi‐occupied Hungary in 1944–45. Wallenberg served at the Swedish legation in Budapest, but the rescue program was funded by the US War Refugee Board, and he received his principal instructions from the US State Department. He issued protective passports on a massive scale to Jews in Budapest and established “safe houses” under the protection of the Swedish legation. In January 1945 Wallenberg was arrested and abducted by Soviet military forces liberating Budapest. Subsequent Swedish efforts to obtain Wallenberg's release were hampered by early diplomatic mistakes. The Soviet government later claimed that Wallenberg died in the Lyublanka prison in 1947, but refused to comply with Swedish demands for further documentation about his imprisonment and ultimate fate. Conjectures and theories concerning Wallenberg's disappearance and death continue to flourish.
W
ashington Naval Conference (1921–22)
Authors: Carroll Francis M.
Published: May 2018

The Washington Naval Conference was convened in November 1921 to prevent a naval building race between Great Britain, the United States, and Japan, such as had occurred between Great Britain and Germany before the First World War. Both postwar economic strictures and anti‐war sentiments were driving factors. The results were agreements on the size and proportions of capital ship fleets among the Great Powers. Additional problems were security in the Far East, the integrity of China, and the Open Door trade policy in China. Three multilateral treaties decided these questions; a number of further issues were decided though bilateral agreements.
Koine Eirene
Authors: Dmitriev Sviatoslav
Published: May 2018

Koine eirene, or “common peace,” was a diplomatic principle developed by the ancient Greeks, who established treaties of “common peace” to put a check on each other's political and military ambitions in a situation when no party could lay a legitimate claim to a contested territory. Unilateral declarations of Greek freedom served the same purpose: the power that issued such a declaration used it as a pretext for military interference if the freedom of individual cities or territories was allegedly being violated or threatened.
StatelyQuadrille (1713–41)
Authors: Schumann Matt
Published: May 2018

Reacting to the bloody and expensive War of the Spanish Succession (1702–13), diplomats charged with negotiating the Utrecht Settlement (the various treaties of Utrecht, Rastatt, and Baden in 1713–14) sought to establish principles of international relations that would promote greater peace and stability. Among these, Article II of the Anglo‐Spanish treaty and Article VI of the Anglo‐French treaty featured the notion of a balance of power, intending to oppose any single European state or dynasty seeking hegemony, or “universal monarchy” in the language of the day. In practice, European monarchs continued to try to expand their domains, and asked their diplomats to invoke the new doctrine by claiming that their state held the balance between two or more other, equally ambitious, powers. Large coalitions became a regular feature of European diplomacy, even outside a wartime context, though individual, usually smaller, powers often sought to advance their cause by deserting these alliances or even switching sides. The jockeying of European states to counterbalance one another informed frequent war scares and nerve‐fraying scrambles for allies, yet across what contemporaries understood as the entire system of foreign relations, limited conflict and defensive coalitions remained the rule. That culture ultimately broke in the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–48), as European diplomats ratified Prussia's unprovoked seizure of Austria's province of Silesia, and with it a new, less nuanced form of foreign relations featuring the threat of unilateral aggression. Both contemporaries and later historians applied the name Stately Quadrille to the shifting alignments of c. 1713–41, as European states collectively strove to enforce a balance of power short of full‐scale war.
Kautilya (4th Centurybce)
Authors: Gautam Pradeep Kumar , Rana Kishan S.
Published: May 2018

Kautilya (also known as Chanakya, 4th centurybce) is the author ofArthashastra, a comprehensive treatise on governance that seamlessly offers policy prescriptions and guidelines on domestic and foreign policy. He was the adviser to Changragupta who founded the Maurya dynasty and unified much of India. Kautilya is relevant for the completeness of his quintessential governance advice. He also presented a theory of relations between states, applied to this a set of methods and policy measures, including the management of an intelligence apparatus, and developed a manual of diplomatic practices.Arthashastrawas preserved over the millennia in India's tradition of oral knowledge transmission, and is now receiving new attention from scholars.
Celebrity Diplomacy
Authors: Young Laura D.
Published: May 2018

Diplomacy has changed over time, becoming more porous. This change has made it possible for non‐state actors, like NGOs and ordinary citizens, to increase their involvement in diplomatic relations. Celebrities are increasingly finding themselves among this new group of actors seeking to influence policy. Though celebrities have worked in unofficial capacities and held many roles when it comes to policy advocacy, in 1962 the United Nations inducted its first celebrity into the Goodwill Ambassadors program. This move opened the way for celebrities to participate in diplomacy in an official capacity unlike ever before. The traditional role of celebrities in diplomacy is evolving, however, and celebrities working outside the realm of traditional government roles through NGOs and the use of alternative forms of diplomatic engagement typically linked to their celebrity status continue to grow in influence regarding policy decisions. Though there are many benefits to celebrity diplomacy, their involvement has also been met with some criticism. Despite these critiques, however, celebrity diplomats are becoming a growing fixture in diplomatic relations and will continue to shape international relations and policy decisions.
G‐7/G‐8
Authors: Mourlon‐Druol Emmanuel
Published: May 2018

The G‐7 meeting, started in 1975 in Rambouillet, is a yearly summit gathering the heads of state or government of France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States, enlarged in 1976 to Canada, and in 1998 to Russia (suspended in 2014 following the annexation of Crimea). The G‐7 is a critical part of what is termed “global economic governance.” The G‐7 emerged in reaction to the transformations of the 1970s, and in particular the need to involve heads of state and government in international discussions, and survived until the present day in spite of various criticisms against its role and influence.
Intermittent pair‐housing, pair relationship qualities, and HPA activity in adult female rhesus macaques
Authors: Hannibal Darcy L. , Cassidy Lauren C. , Vandeleest Jessica , Semple Stuart , Barnard Allison , Chun Katie , Winkler Sasha , McCowan Brenda
Published: May 2018

Laboratory rhesus macaques are often housed in pairs and may be temporarily or permanently separated for research, health, or management reasons. While both long‐term social separations and introductions can stimulate a stress response that impacts inflammation and immune function, the effects of short‐term overnight separations and whether qualities of the pair relationship mediate these effects are unknown. In this study, we investigated the effects of overnight separations on the urinary cortisol concentration of 20 differentially paired adult female rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) at the California National Primate Research Center. These females were initially kept in either continuous (no overnight separation) or intermittent (with overnight separation) pair‐housing and then switched to the alternate pair‐housing condition part way through the study. Each study subject was observed for 5 weeks, during which we collected measures of affiliative, aggressive, anxious, abnormal, and activity‐state behaviors in both pair‐housing conditions. Additionally, up to three urine samples were collected from each subject per week and assayed for urinary free cortisol and creatinine. Lastly, the behavioral observer scored each pair on four relationship quality attributes (“Anxious,” “Tense,” “Well‐meshed,” and “Friendly”) using a seven‐point scale. Data were analyzed using a generalized linear model with gamma distribution and an information theoretic approach to determine the best model set. An interaction between the intermittent pairing condition and tense pair adjective rating was in the top three models of the best model set. Dominance and rates of affiliation were also important for explaining urinary cortisol variation. Our results suggest that to prevent significant changes in HPA‐axis activation in rhesus macaque females, which could have unintended effects on research outcomes, pairs with “Tense” relationships and overnight separations preventing tactile contact should be avoided.