bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Support for Research in Social Psychology at the National Science Foundation
Authors: Intermaggio Jean B. , Ing Christine
Published: March 2007

Data from the Social and Developmental Psychology Program at the National Science Foundation (NSF) were analyzed for general trends in funding from 1956 through 1987. All 628 new grant proposals for fiscal years 1982 through 1987 were analyzed in detail. Success rates, proportion of total proposals submitted, and proportion of awards are presented by seniority, sex, status of PhD-granting department, status of submitting department, resubmissions, and subject area. There was no discernible pattern for seniority or sex. Researchers trained in Distinguished or Strong departments had higher success rates than those from Adequate or Good departments. However, status of submitting institution may be more important in the success rate than where the PhD was earned. Only status of submitting department was significantly related to success rate over the six years examined. Overall results show that a variety of investigators, institutions, and subject areas are represented among awards made since 1981.
Drawing Moral Inferences from Descriptive Science
Authors: Friedrich James , Kierniesky Nicholas , Cardon Lon
Published: March 2007

This study examined people's tendency to draw prescriptive, moral inferences from the results of empirical research -an inferential error referred to as the "naturalistic fallacy. " Students read descriptive summaries of social science research articles and were tested for comprehension, attitudes on the issues addressed in the research, and endorsement of statements containing naturalistic fallacy errors. Students were retested 7 weeks after their initial reading of the research. Cross-lagged regression and analysis-of-variance results indicated that the fallacious inference statements were frequently judged as true, that holding attitudes consistent with the direction of the studies' findings increased the likelihood of committing the fallacy, and that the impact of attitudes on commission of these errors increased as the time between reading the research and drawing the inferences increased.
On the Value of Basic Research
Authors: Fazio Russell H.
Published: March 2007

Basic theory and research in personality and social psychology has provided an essential foundation of knowledge that has furthered progress concerning a number of important societal issues. The specific illustrations that form the contents of this special issue and support this assertion regarding the value of basic research are reviewed.
Status, Expectations, and Behavior
Authors: Driskell James E. , Mullen Brian
Published: March 2007

Status characteristics and expectation states theory is concerned with the processes whereby status differentials activate performance expectations and with the effect of these expectations on behavior. The relative contributions of status and expectations to behavior have not been clearly established in previous primary-level studies. Moreover, researchers working within alternative perspectives on interaction inequality have argued that expectations are a superfluous epiphenomenon of behavior. A meta-analytic integration was therefore conducted on previous research that has examined the status expectations - behavior pattern of effects. Consistent with the formulations of the theory, the results indicate that status exerts its effects on behavior indirectly, through the effects of status on expectations and the effect of expectations on behavior.
Using Meta-Analysis to Test Theoretical Hypotheses in Social Psychology
Authors: Mullen Brian , Salas Eduardo , Miner Norman
Published: March 2007

This article discusses the use of meta-analysis to test theoretical propositions in social psychology. Strategies for identifying theoretically meaningful predictors are considered. Specific techniques for translating hypothesized moderators into operations are then presented. Finally, issues regarding the definition of independent and dependent variables are discussed. Taken together, these strategies and techniques provide a set of tools that enable researchers to take advantage of variability among the results of previous individual studies to develop or test aspects of social psychological theory.
Public Self-Consciousness and Physique Stereotyping
Authors: Ryckman Richard M. , Robbins Michael A. , Thornton Bill , Kaczor Linda M. , Gayton Susan L. , Anderson Charles V.
Published: March 2007

Previous research in the body stereotyping literature employing personality trait ratings of endomorphs, mesomorphs, and ectomorphs had failed to find evidence of an interaction between rater personality and physique stereotyping. Using an individual difference construct that has direct relevance for the norms involved in body stereotyping, the present study found support for the role played by public self-consciousness in mediating college students' attributions of a variety of personality traits to endomorphs and mesomorphs. Consistent with predictions, subjects high in public self-consciousness attributed more favorable traits to mesomorphs and more unfavorable traits to endomorphs than subjects low in public self-consciousness. Differential personality evaluations of ectomorphs by subjects who varied in public self-consciousness were not found, possibly because the stereotype of ectomorphs is currently in transition.
Incentive Strength, Need State, Instrumental Task Difficulty, and the Magnitude of Goal Valence
Authors: Biner Paul M. , Hua David M. , Kidd Heath J. , Spencer Patrick M.
Published: March 2007

Two experiments were performed to assess the effects of incentive strength, need state, and instrumental task difficulty on goal valence. In Experiment 1, subjects faced either an easy or a difficult task in order to avoid having to listen to aversive radio static. For some the radio static was to be loud, and for others it was to be soft. Anticipatory ratings of noise unpleasantness were as theoretically predicted, increasing as a direct function of task difficulty, but only when the stronger incentive (i.e., loud noise) was expected. In the second experiment, again subjects faced either an easy or a difficult instrumental task, but this time in an effort to win a McDonald's Big Mac™. For several hours before the experimental session, some of the subjects did not eat and the others did. In line with expectations, ratings of the attractiveness of the hamburger increased with instrumental task difficulty for subjects who had not eaten and were low and relatively uniform for those who had eaten. Results of the two experiments are discussed in terms of Brehm's energization theory of motivation.
Sex Role Orientation, Self-Esteem, and Depression: A Latent Variables Analysis
Authors: Whitley Bernard E. , Gridley Betty E.
Published: March 2007

Latent variables analysis was used to investigate the relationships among sex role orientation, self-esteem, and depression. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicated that masculinity, self-esteem, and depression were separate, but highly correlated, constructs and that femininity was independent of the other three constructs. A hierarchical CFA indicated that masculinity, self-esteem, and depression were components of a higher-order construct, identified as Factor IV (Negative Affectivity) of the 'Big Five"personality taxonomy. The results of a covariance structure analysis were consistent with two models of the role of self-esteem in the masculinity-depression relationship: self-esteem and masculinity as correlated predictors of depression and self-esteem as a mediator of the masculinity-depression relationship. Implications of these results for theory and research are discussed.
Majority and Minority Perceptions of Consensus and Recommendations for Resolving Conflicts about Land Use Regulation
Authors: Miller Carol T.
Published: March 2007

Residents of a small rural community were surveyed to examine the relationship between the false consensus bias and recommendations for resolving conflicts about two locally relevant environmental issues concerning regulation of land use in the community. Both the level of consensus that respondents perceived for their views and the extent to which they overestimated consensus were correlated with their recommendations for resolving conflicts about the issues. Respondents who overestimated consensus and/or who perceived higher levels of consensus for their views were more likely to endorse majority rule to resolve conflicts, were less likely to endorse compromise, and were more likely to say their own views should prevail. These findings suggest that false consensus bias could affect the determination and effectiveness with which majorities and minorities press their points in public discussion of local issues.
Self-Efficacy, Valence of Self-Evaluation, and Performance
Authors: Sanna Lawrence J. , Pusecker Paul A.
Published: March 2007

In two experiments, self efficacy theory was used to conceptualize the effect of efficacy expectancies and valence of self-evaluation on performance. In Experiment 1, efficacy expectancies were manipulated by practice item difficulty and feedback, and self-evaluation was manipulated by providing a standard of comparison. In Experiment 2, efficacy expectancies developed spontaneously while participants performed easy or difficult tasks, and the potential for self-evaluation was crossed with the potential for experimenter evaluation. In both experiments, as predicted, in the high-efficacy condition, self-evaluation participants performed better than no-self-evaluation participants, whereas in the low-efficacy condition, self-evaluation participants performed worse than no-self-evaluation participants. In addition, in Experiment 2, the equivalence of self-evaluation and experimenter evaluation was demonstrated. Implications for self-effcacy and self evaluation processes are discussed.
Hearts and Minds: The Priority of Affective Versus Cognitive Factors in Person Perception
Authors: Edwards Kari , von Hippel William
Published: March 2007

In two experiments, affect-based and cognition-based attitudes towardaperson wereinduced by varyingthesequenceofaffective and cognitive information presented to subjects while holding the content of these communications constant. In Experiment 1, affective and cognitive persuasive appeals were created by means of a similar order manipulation, whereas in Experiment 2, affective and cognitive persuasive appeals were induced through a focus manipulation. Results indicated that affect-based attitudes were most effectively changed by affective persuasive appeals, whether these appeals were produced by an order manipulation or a focus manipulation. Affect-based attitudes also tended to be expressed with greater confidence than cognition-based attitudes.
When Counselors Confirm: A Functional Analysis
Authors: Copeland John , Snyder Mark
Published: March 2007

To investigate the motivational moderators of behavioral confirmation in a psychotherapeutic environment, the authors performed a functional analysis on counselors' behavior. Counselors' concerns with diagnosis and rapport-building were identified as possible functions that might lead to expectation-confirming client behavior. Students randomly assigned to the role of either counselor or client engaged in a face-to-face, videotaped discussion. Prior to the discussion, counselors received an expectation suggesting that the client was either characteristically extroverted or introverted. Orthogonal to the expectation, counselors received either no specific discussion instructions, instructions to form a diagnosis, or instructions to establish rapport. Results indicated that only counselors motivated by diagnostic concerns elicited behavioral confirmation. Implications of therapeutic motivations are discussed, as is the usefulness of a functional approach to social psychological phenomena.
Mood-Congruent Judgment Over Time
Authors: Mayer John D. , Hanson Ellen
Published: March 2007

The mood-congruent judgment effect refers to the fact that when a mood and an idea are similar in pleasantness, the idea will generally seem better in some way. For example, when people are happy, they will judge pleasant concepts as richer in their associations, pleasant attributes as more applicable, and pleasant examples of categories as more typical. This mood-related component of cognition is viewed longitudinally among normal students for the first time here. The authors demonstrate that over time, changes in mood covary with changes in judgment in normal individuals.
Survey of Doctoral Programs in Personality and Social Psychology, 1992
Authors: Uleman James S. , Weary Gifford
Published: March 2007

The size, admissions, support for students, requirements, curriculum content, completion rates, and student placements of 57 doctoral programs in personality and social psychology were surveyed in 1992. Programs offering more financial support were more selective in admissions and had higher completion rates. Larger programs attracted students with higher Graduate Record Examination (GRE) scores but placed a smaller proportion of graduates into psychology departments. Programs with higher GRE scores and more placement success had a higher proportion of minority students. Comparisons with a similar survey conducted 6 years earlier showed that there were fewer programs in 1992 but that they offered their students more financial support and placed a higher proportion of graduates in academic or postdoctoral jobs. Programs in 1992 had more requirements but less curricular coverage of the content surveyed. Possible reasons for these changes, how to measure program quality, program types, and directions for future research are discussed.
Time Frames for Mood: Relations between Momentary and Generalized Ratings of Affect
Authors: Parkinson Brian , Briner Rob B. , Reynolds Shirley , Totterdell Peter
Published: March 2007

A computerized diary method was used to investigate relations between momentary and generalized affect reports. Thirty participants rated current mood at 2-hourly intervals and gave retrospective reports of daily and weekly mood for a 2-week period. Average momentary ratings provided a closer estimate of daily mood than either peak or most recent momentary ratings. Similarly, average daily mood indexes tended to give the best estimates of weekly mood. However, for positive (but not negative) mood, daily reports were consistently higher than average momentary ratings, and weekly reports were consistently higher than average daily ratings. Regression analyses suggested that daily ratings were influenced mainly by average momentary mood but that independent effects of peak and most recent momentary mood were detectable too. Retrospective reports of daily mood were also influenced by current mood. In general, however, memory for affect was rather better than previous research has implied.
Elaborating Procedural Fairness: Justice Becomes Both Simpler and more Complex
Authors: Folger Robert , Cropanzano Russell , Timmerman Thomas A. , Howes John C. , Mitchell David
Published: March 2007

Past research has indicated the importance of disputant voice in determining the fairness of conflict resolution procedures, but some conflicting data have called the role of voice into question. The authors review the role of voice in procedural fairness and conclude that some of those negative results were due to a confounded research design. In three studies, this problem was corrected, and additional data were collected. Contrary to the earlier findings, results show that when other factors are equated, participants prefer the conflict resolution procedures that offer the most voice. The authors further note, however, that factors such as the role of the decision maker are also important in determining fairness.
Explaining Real-Life Events: How Culture and Domain Shape Attributions
Authors: Lee Fiona , Hallahan Mark , Herzog Thaddeus
Published: March 2007

Several lines of experimental research have shown that attributional styles are affected by the attributor's culture, inferential goals, and level of cognitive processing. Can these findings be replicated in natural settings? This study compared the attributions made in two domains (sports articles and editorials) of newspapers published in two culturally distinct countries (Hong Kong and the United States). Consistent with the cross-cultural research, attributions were less dispositional in the East than in the West. This cultural difference was weaker in editorials than in sports articles. The authors argue that the higher level of complexity, accountability, and uncertainty in editorials increased the cognitive effort expended to make attributions, which, in turn, attenuated their extremity. Implications for the mixed model of social inference are discussed.
Field Experiments Examining the Culture of Honor: The Role of Institutions in Perpetuating Norms about Violence
Authors: Cohen Dov , Nisbett Richard E.
Published: March 2007

Two field experiments illustrate how institutions of the U.S. South and West can help perpetuate violence related to a culture of honor. In Study 1, employers across the United States were sent letters from job applicants who had allegedly killed someone in an honor-related conflict. Southern and western companies were more likely than their northern counterparts to respond in an understanding and cooperative way. In Study 2, newspapers were sent facts for a story concerning a stabbing in response to a family insult. Southern and western papers created stories that were more sympathetic toward the perpetrator and presented his actions as more justified than northern papers did. Control conditions in both studies showed that the greater sympathy of southern and western institutions involves honor-related violence, not all violence or crime in general. Findings highlight the importance of examining the role of institutional behavior in perpetuating culture.
An Item Response Theory Analysis of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
Authors: Gray-Little Bernadette , Williams Valerie S. L. , Hancock Timothy D.
Published: March 2007

The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, a widely used self-report instrument for evaluating individual self-esteem, was investigated using item response theory. Factor analysis identified a single common factor, contrary to some previous studies that extracted separate Self-Confidence and Self-Depreciation factors. A unidimensional model for graded item responses was fit to the data. A model that constrained the 10 items to equal discrimination was contrasted with a model allowing the discriminations to be estimated freely. The test of significance indicated that the unconstrained model better fit the data-that is, the 10 items of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale are not equally discriminating and are differentially related to self-esteem. The pattern of functioning of the items was examined with respect to their content, and observations are offered with implications for validating and developing future personality instruments.
Dispositional Attributions Require the Joint Application of the Methods of Difference and Agreement
Authors: van Overwalle Frank
Published: March 2007

Denis J. Hilton, Richard H. Smith, and Sung Hee Kim proposed in 1995 that making dispositional inferences requires the use of John Stuart Mill's method of agreement. However, their data were based on "incomplete"information that may have obscured the use of Mill's method of difference. Consistent with this suspicion, a study with "complete" information revealed the joint operation of both Mill's methods. Dispositions to the actor required not only low distinctiveness but also low consensus, whereas dispositions to the stimulus required not only high consensus but also high distinctiveness. In contrast, causal explanations to the person, stimulus, or occasion were determined by the method of difference only.
Adaptive Changes in the Self-Concept During a Life Transition
Authors: Kling Kristen C. , Ryff Carol D. , Essex Marilyn J.
Published: March 2007

Theories about the self-concept suggest that different aspects of the self are organized according to importance, or psychological centrality. The ways in which psychological centrality can change and how these changes are associated with psychological well-being were investigated in a sample of aging women who had experienced community relocation. The self-concept was measured before and after the move, with regard to five life domains (health, family, friends, economics, and daily activities). It was hypothesized that well-being is maximized by increasing the psychological centrality of life domains in which one is doing well and by lowering the psychological centrality of life domains in which one is doing poorly. The hypothesized, adaptive psychological centrality shifts emerged in the health and friends domains for select outcome measures. Centrality shifts with different patterns of directionality were observed for the other three domains and are interpreted as reflecting problem-focused coping.
When Motivated Thought Leads to Heightened Bias: High Need for Cognition Can Enhance the Impact of Stereotypes on Memory
Authors: Crawford Matthew T. , Skowronski John J.
Published: March 2007

Four studies explored the relationship between need for cognition (the tendency to engage in and enjoy thinking) and memory for stereotype-consistent and stereotype-neutral information. The data from all four studies showed that participants who were high in need for cognition remembered more stereotype-consistent information than participants who were low in need for cognition. Judgment data collected in Experiment 4 indicated that despite this memory difference, the judgments of those low in need for cognition were more influenced by stereotypes than the judgments of those who were high in need for cognition. These results suggest that stereotypes affect the cognitive processes of both those who are cognitively lazy and those who are cognitively active, but these stereotypes manifest themselves in different ways for individuals who differ in their level of need for cognition.
Jealousy as a Function of Rival Characteristics: An Evolutionary Perspective
Authors: Dijkstra Pieternel , Buunk Bram P.
Published: March 2007

Following from evolutionary psychology, men and women differ in the characteristics they value in a partner. Men value physical attractiveness in women because a woman's physical attractiveness is related to her fertility, whereas women value dominance in men since dominance is related to a man's ability to provide resources. As jealousy is evoked by characteristics of the rival that are believed to be important to the other sex, it was predicted that jealousy in males would be influenced by the rival's dominance, whereas jealousy in females would be influenced by the rival's physical attractiveness. In an experiment, participants were presented with a scenario in which the participants' partners were flirting with an individual of the opposite sex. Each participant then received one of four profiles of rivals for the partner's attentions consisting of a photograph (low or high in attractiveness) and a personality description (low or high in dominance). Results showed that the hypotheses were supported. In addition, the rival's dominance had a greater impact on males' jealousy if males were exposed to a physically unattractive rival compared with a physically attractive rival.
Cooperative Interaction and Intergroup Bias: Effects of Numerical Representation and Cross-Cut Role Assignment
Authors: Bettencourt B. Ann , Dorr Nancy
Published: March 2007

This study investigates whether the greater in-group favoritism typically expressed by numerical minorities could be minimized by cross-cutting role assignment to the tasks in a cooperative setting. Study 1 manipulated the numerical representation of two groups and role assignment to a team task. The results showed that cross-cut role assignment decreased the in-group bias of both minority and majority groups, compared to convergent role assignment. Study 2 further examined the benefits of cross-cut assignment while controlling interaction among in-group and out-group members. The outcomes of Study 2 replicated those of Study 1 and showed that even without prior interaction during the cross-cut task, both minorities and majorities were less biased when role assignments cross-cut category membership. Moreover, the results showed that whereas both social category salience and identification were affected by role assignment, only identification mediated the effect of role assignment on in-group bias.
The Impact of Attitude Accessibility on Elaboration of Persuasive Messages
Authors: Fabrigar Leandre R. , Priester Joseph R. , Petty Richard E. , Wegener Duane T.
Published: March 2007

Two experiments were conducted to examine the impact of attitude accessibility on elaboration of persuasive appeals. In Experiment 1, the accessibility of attitudes toward nuclear power was measured using response latencies. Participants were then presented with a persuasive message that contained either strong or weak arguments against the use of nuclear power. Argument quality had a greater impact on persuasion when attitudes were high in accessibility than when they were low in accessibility. In Experiment 2, the accessibility of attitudes toward vegetarianism was experimentally manipulated by varying the number of times participants expressed their attitudes toward vegetarianism. Participants then read a pro-vegetarianism persuasive message that contained either strong or weak arguments. Again, argument quality had a greater impact on persuasion when accessibility was high than when it was low. Taken together, both experiments suggest that increased message topic attitude accessibility leads to enhanced elaboration of persuasive messages on those topics.
Priming Effects of Media Violence on the Accessibility of Aggressive Constructs in Memory
Authors: Bushman Brad J.
Published: March 2007

Two experiments tested the hypothesis that violent media make aggressive constructs more accessible to viewers. In Experiment 1, participants made free associations to homonyms, with one meaning more aggressive than the other; and to nonaggressive words after viewing a violent or nonviolent video. Participants who saw the violent video listed more aggressive associations to both types of words. In Experiment 2, participants completed a lexical-decision task after viewing a violent or nonviolent video. Participants pressed one key if a string of letters was an English word, or another key if it was a nonword. Half of the words were aggressive and half were nonaggressive. Participants who saw the violent video had faster reaction times to aggressive words. Videotape content did not influence reaction times to nonaggressive words. These results suggest that violent media prime cognitive-associative networks related to aggression.
The Use of Abstract Trait Knowledge and Behavioral Exemplars in Causal Explanations of Behavior
Authors: Budesheim Thomas Lee , Bonnelle Kathleen
Published: March 2007

Both classic and contemporary models of causal reasoning suggest that we retrieve examples of an actor's past behavior from memory when explaining his or her current behavior. A variety of other research suggests that we rely on abstract trait knowledge rather than on behavioral exemplars when making such judgments. The authors conducted three experiments that examined which type of information (abstract trait knowledge or behavioral exemplars) was spontaneously used during causal reasoning when both types of information were available. Results indicated that although abstract trait knowledge generally served as the basis for causal judgments, behavioral exemplars were used if they were easily accessible and participants were motivated to engage in effortful processing. The authors discuss how the use of abstract traits versus behavioral exemplars may serve to maintain or alter existing person impressions.
The Relationship between Children's Reported Exposure to Interparental Conflict and Memory Biases in the Recogniton of Aggressive and Constructive Conflict Words
Authors: O'Brien Mary , Chin Calvin
Published: March 2007

A total of 70 Latino children between the ages of 7 and 12 years completed measures of exposure to interparental conflict and listened to audio taped simulations of interparental conflict. Children's memory for aggressive and constructive conflict words used during the session was then assessed with a word recognition task. Results indicate that older children who report witnessing high levels of marital conflict made significantly more false positive and fewer false negative memory errors for aggressive words than did all other children. This study provides preliminary support for the theory that children develop marital conflict representations that reflect their socialization experiences with interparental conflict and that guide information processing in the context of novel marital conflict.
The Smell of Bias: What Instigates Correction Processes in Social Judgments?
Authors: Stapel Diederik A. , Martin Leonard L. , Schwarz Norbert
Published: March 2007

Participants were either informed that contextual influences bias their judgment and asked to correct for the unspecified influence (blatant warning) or they were instructed that they should correct for the unspecified influence if they felt that there may be biasing influences (conditional warning). Whereas blatantly warned participants corrected under all conditions (Study 2), conditionally warned participants corrected their judgments when the source of bias was salient but not when the source was subtle (Studies 1 to 3). Implications for models of theory-driven correction are discussed.
An Item Response Theory Analysis of Response Stability in Personality Measurement
Authors: Ferrando Pere J. , Lorenzo Urbano , Molina Gabriel
Published: March 2007

An item response theory model of response stability is developed, based on the local independence principle. The model predicts response changes under repeated administrations of the same instrument using item and examinee parameter estimates as predictors. Real data were used to assess how the model functioned. Results indicated that the model predictions were approximately fulfilled. Limitations of the model and the empirical study are discussed.
Search for a Common Factor Model to Describe a Cross-Lagged Correlation Difference
Authors: Humphreys Lloyd G. , Parsons Charles K.
Published: March 2007

This study describes the development of a com mon factor model for a cross-lagged difference in volving a measure of aural comprehension and an intellectual composite. The direction of the dif ference was that the Listening Test predicted the composite more accurately than the composite pre dicted the Listening Test. A complex model which allowed seemingly identical common factors ap pearing at different ages to be highly, but imper fectly, correlated fit the 32 x 32 table of intercorre lations of 16 variables measured at each of two time periods. The model also described quite accurately the multiple correlations on which the cross-lagged difference was based. Aural compre hension at grade 5 was equidistant from the vectors of the two general factors at grades 5 and 11; but aural comprehension at grade 11, while close to the general factor at grade 11, was outside the space created by the two general factor vectors. Individual differences in aural comprehension anticipated by several years changes in rank on the general factor as defined by standard tests.
Variations on a Theme by Thurstone
Authors: Lumsden James
Published: March 2007

A test model based on the Thurstone judgmental model is described. By restricting various param eters of the model, 3 Rasch models, 2 pseudo- Rasch models, 3 two-parameter ICC models, and a Weber's Law model are derived.
Implied Orders Tailored Testing: Simulation with the Stanford-Binet
Authors: Cudeck Robert , McCormick Douglas J. , Cliff Norman
Published: March 2007

Tailored testing by Cliff's (1975) method of im plied orders was simulated through the use of re sponses gathered during conventional administra tion of the Stanford-Binet intelligence test. Tail oring eliminated approximately half the responses with only modest decreases in score reliability. Re sponses in tailored tests were shown by the Spear man-Brown prophecy formula to be equivalent to from 1.09 to 1.48 conventional items. Ninety-five percent of all responses implied by the tailoring procedures were identical to responses actually ob tained during live testing.
The Remote Associates Test as a Predictor of Productivity in Brainstorming Groups
Authors: Forbach Gary B. , Evans Ronald G.
Published: March 2007

Two studies investigated the validity of the Re mote Associates Test (RAT) in predicting produc tivity in brainstorming groups. In Study 1 groups of high and low RAT scorers discussed two problems relevant to social concerns (energy conservation, rape prevention). In Study 2 Alternate Uses and Consequences problems were discussed by groups composed of heterogeneous RAT scorers. In each study the RAT was significantly related to fluency, flexibility, and originality of ideas generated by group members, with these effects appearing con sistently across problems. In addition, Study 2 indi cated that the RAT relationships to creativity in dices were independent of verbal intelligence. Pre liminary data were also gathered regarding RAT re lationships to idea generation while working indi vidually and to the potential value of the Marlowe- Crowne Scale as a predictor of brainstorming pro ductivity.
Nonmetric Interactive Multidimensional Scaling with Multiple Subjects
Authors: Hamer Robert M.
Published: March 2007

A method for nonmetric interactive multidimen sional scaling (MDS) of similarity judgments is de scribed which is also capable of using responses from previous judges to supplement the judgments of a current subject. The method combines recent advances in interactive MDS with recent advances in numerical methods in MDS to produce a pro gram capable (1) of performing nonmetric interac tive MDS and (2) of fitting a wide variety of models, such as the individual differences model. The empirical investigation compared three versions of the system: (1) a metric simple Euclidean model- fitting version (similar to previous interactive scal ing programs); (2) a metric individual differences version; and (3) a nonmetric individual differences version. There were no statistically significant dif ferences among the three versions.
Evaluating Goodness of Fit in Nonmetric Multidimensional Scaling by ALSCAL
Authors: MacCallum Robert
Published: March 2007

Two types of information are provided to aid users of ALSCAL in evaluating goodness of fit in nonmetric two-way and three-way multidimensional scaling analyses. First, equations are developed for estimating the expected values of SSTRESS and STRESS for random data. Second, a table is pro vided giving mean values of SSTRESS and STRESS for structured artificial data. This information pro vides the empirical investigator with a second com parative basis for evaluating values of these indices.
The Use of Generalizability Theory for Assessing Relations among Items within Domains in Diagnostic Testing
Authors: Macready George B.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study was to describe a proce dure based on generalizability theory for assessing the adequacy of item groupings generated by means of a domain-referenced testing system. The procedure is based on an exploration of the extent to which items are grouped into homogeneous sets with similar levels of difficulty, when the sets are defined on the basis of a logical analysis of the perceived skills underlying the items. In addition, an example of the use of the devel oped analytic procedure is presented.
A Comparison of Two Observed-Score Equating Methods That Assume Equally Reliable, Congeneric Tests
Authors: MacCann Robert G.
Published: March 2007

For the external-anchor test equating model, two observed-score methods are derived using the slope and intercept assumptions of univariate selection the ory and the assumptions that the tests to be equated are congeneric and equally reliable. The first deriva tion, Method 1, is then shown to give the same set of equations as Levine's equations for random groups and unequally reliable tests and the " Z predicting X and Y" method. The second derivation, Method 2, is shown to give the same equations as Potthoff's (1966) Method B and the " X and Y predicting Z" method. Methods 1 and 2 are compared empirically with Tuck er's and Levine's equations for equally reliable tests; the conditions for which they may be appropriately applied are discussed.
Improving IRT Item Bias Detection With Iterative Linking and Ability Scale Purification
Authors: Park Dong-Gun , Lautenschlager Gary J.
Published: March 2007

The effectiveness of several iterative methods of item response theory (IRT) item bias detection was examined in a simulation study. The situations em ployed were based on biased items created using a two-dimensional IRT model. Previous research demonstrated that the non-iterative application of some IRT parameter linking procedures produced unsatisfactory results in a simulation study involv ing unidirectional item bias. A modified form of Drasgow's iterative item parameter linking method and an adaptation of Lord's test purification procedure were examined in conditions that simu lated unidirectional and mixed-directional forms of item bias. The results illustrate that iterative link ing holds promise for differentiating biased from unbiased items under several item bias conditions. In addition, a combination of methods, involving cycles of iterative linking followed by ability scale purification, was found to be even more effective than iterative linking alone. This combination of procedures totally eliminated false positive misiden tifications for the most pervasive item bias condi tion, and false negative misidentifications were also reduced. Combining iterative linking with ability scale purification appears to be a viable method for analyzing multidimensional IRT data with unidimensional IRT item-bias methods.
Sensitivity of Marginal Maximum Likelihood Estimation of Item and Ability Parameters to the Characteristics of the Prior Ability Distributions
Authors: Seong Tae-Je
Published: March 2007

The sensitivity of marginal maximum likelihood es timation of item and ability (θ) parameters was ex amined when the prior θ distributions are not matched to the underlying θ distributions. Thirty sets of 45-item test data were generated by specifi cation of three types of underlying θ distributions. They were then analyzed with PC-BILOG. Appropri ate specification of the prior θ distribution increased the accuracy of estimation for item and θ param eters when the sample size was large. With a small dataset, the appropriate specification of the prior increased the accuracy of θ parameter estimation, but it did not have that effect on item parameter esti mation. Only with a large dataset and matched under lying and prior θ distributions did increasing the number of quadrature points improve the accuracy of estimation of the item parameters. However, the ac curacy of θ estimation was increased by increasing the number of quadrature points, regardless of sample size and appropriateness of the prior θ distribution. The number of examinees had an im portant effect on the accuracy of item parameter estimation.
Further Comments on Reliability and Power of Significance Tests
Authors: Humphreys Lloyd G.
Published: March 2007

The controversy about the relationship between reliability and the power of significance tests exists because statisticians obtain numerical solutions by varying independently the parameters of the power of statistical tests. In contrast, researchers have empirical limitations placed on them in varying the same parameters. Reliability and power can legiti mately be decoupled by selection of the population from which to sample (Zimmerman & Williams, 1986), but this is an undependable way to increase power (Humphreys, 1991). Reducing population var iance by selection of the sample can be considered a special case of (and a crude approximation to) the analysis of covariance, which is also a more effective way of controlling individual differences in true scores than the use of difference scores. Both the regressed differences and the raw differences are less reliable within treatments than their components, but can have more power in statistical tests. As the reliability of derived scores increases, however, power increases.
A Comparison of Lord's χ2 and Raju's Area Measures In Detection of DIF
Authors: Cohen Allan S. , Kim Seock-Ho
Published: March 2007

The area between item response functions esti mated in different samples is often used as a measure of differential item functioning (DIF). Under item response theory, this area should be 0, except for errors of measurement. This study examined the effectiveness of two statistical tests of this area—a Z test for exact signed area and a Z test for exact unsigned area—for different test length, sample size, proportion of DIF items on the test, and item parameter estimation conditions using the two- parameter model. Errors in detection made using these two statistics were compared with errors made using Lord's χ2. Differences between all three statistics were relatively small; however, the χ2 statistic was more effective than either of the two Z tests at detecting simulated DIF. The Z test for the exact signed area was the least effective and was the most likely to result in false negative errors.
Software Review : Seven Confirmatory Factor Analysis Programs: EQS, EzPATH, LINCS, LISCOMP, LISREL 7, SI MPLIS, and CALIS
Authors: Waller Niels G.
Published: March 2007

Seven confirmatory factor analysis programs that run on a personal computer—EQs, EzPATH, LINCS, LISCOMP, LISREL 7, SIMPLIS, and CALIS—are reviewed along five dimensions: (1) clarity of documentation, (2) ease of use, (3) computational accuracy and estimator options, (4) error diagnos tics and the assessment of model fit, and (5) model flexibility.
Effect of Simultaneous Violations of Essential /g=t/-Equivalence and Uncorrelated Error on Coefficient /g=a/
Authors: Komaroff Eugene
Published: March 2007

Coefficient a, an estimate of the classical reliability coefficient, was evaluated under violations of two classical test theory assumptions: essential r-equivalence and uncorrelated errors. The interactive effects of both violations were explored using computer simulated true and error scores with known properties. As correlations among true scores decreased from 1, or essential -r-equivalence was systematically violated, a progressively underestimated the classical reliability coefficient. Simultaneously, as error score correlations increased from 0, the underestimation was attenuated and a became an inflated overestimate of the classical reliability coefficient. Although it is generally accepted that true score assumptions can be tested using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), the research literature indicates that it is impossible, or at least extremely difficult, to empirically assess uncorrelated error with cross-sectional (as compared to longitudinal) data. Nevertheless, it is shown here that CFA error covariance estimates can be subtracted from a to substantially reduce, if not completely eliminate, the inflation bias that results from positive correlated error.
The Effects of Computer Administration on Scores and Item Parameter Estimates of an IRT-Based Licensure Examination
Authors: Sykes Robert C. , Ito Kyoko
Published: March 2007

The equivalence of scores and one-parameter logistic model item difficulty estimates (bs) obtained from computer-based and paper-and-pencil (PP) forms of a licensure examination was evaluated across testing modes. Item response theory was used to construct forms that were similar to the operational PP and computer-based examinations (however, fewer items were used). Forms were administered in both testing modes to examinees during a single testing session. A repeated measures experimental design permitted statistically powerful tests of several factors that have been documented to affect scores and bs. There was no effect of either order or mode of administration on bs. An order x mode-of-administration effect resulted in a significant difference in PP versus computer-based ability estimates when a PP form was administered prior to, but not after, a computer-based form. Ability estimates were equivalent for those examinees administered a computer-based form initially. The presence of an order x mode interaction demonstrates the importance of controlling for the order of administration when evaluating the equivalence of scores across modes.
Detection of Differential Item Functioning Under the Graded Response Model With the Likelihood Ratio Test
Authors: Kim Seock-Ho , Cohen Allan S.
Published: March 2007

Type I error rates of the likelihood ratio test for the detection of differential item functioning (DIF) were investigated using monte carlo simulations. The graded response model with five ordered categories was used to generate datasets of a 30-item test for samples of 300 and 1,000 simulated examinees. All DIF comparisons were simulated by randomly pairing two groups of examinees. Three different sample size combinations of reference and focal groups were simulated under two ability matching conditions. For each of the six combinations of sample sizes by ability matching conditions, 100 replications of DIF detection comparisons were simulated. Item parameter estimates and likelihood values were obtained by marginal maximum likelihood estimation using the computer program MULTILOG. Irpe I eryor rates of the likelihood ratio test statistics for all six combinations of sample sizes and ability matching conditions were within theoretically expected values at each of the nominal alpha levels considered.
A Model for Optimal Constrained Adaptive Testing
Authors: van der Linden Wim J. , Reese Lynda M.
Published: March 2007

A model for constrained computerized adaptive testing is proposed in which the information in the test at the trait level (0) estimate is maximized subject to a number of possible constraints on the content of the test. At each item-selection step, a full test is assembled to have maximum information at the current 0 estimate, fixing the items already administered. Then the item with maximum in-formation is selected. All test assembly is optimal because a linear programming (LP) model is used that automatically updates to allow for the attributes of the items already administered and the new value of the 0 estimator. The LP model also guarantees that each adaptive test always meets the entire set of constraints. A simulation study using a bank of 753 items from the Law School Admission Test showed that the 0 estimator for adaptive tests of realistic lengths did not suffer any loss of efficiency from the presence of 433 constraints on the item selection process.
Rater Involvement as a Moderator of Performance Cues and Leader Behavior Descriptions
Authors: McElroy James C. , Downey H. Kirk
Published: March 2007

A laboratory experiment involving 144 student subjects was con ducted to examine the effects of performance cues on descriptions of leader behavior. The concept of involvement, operationalized in a two-dimensional manner, was invoked in order to create varying vantage points (observation versus participation)from which subjects would view leader behavior. Split-plot analysis of variance demon strated an attribution effect in that the presence of performance cues directly affected subject descriptions of leader initiating structure and consideration. Subject involvement directly affected only subject ratings of consideration. Analysis of interaction effects showed per formance data to be a more salient cue for uninvolved observers than for involved participants.