bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Who Decides? The Ironies of Professional Power
Authors: Pernick Martin S
Published: November 2023

Eliminating the unfit required that someone have the power to make life-and-death decisions. Who could be entrusted with such authority? Supporters of withholding treatment suggested several possible decision makers, such as individual doctors, committees of experts, individual parents, or the state, but the vast majority of them urged giving this power to the medical profession.

Haiselden’s crusade coincided with a dramatic expansion of medical authority over many aspects of American cultural life, including such previously private domains as reproduction and the family. In the early decades of this century, obstetricians supplanted midwives, pediatricians professionalized childrearing, and allied professions from psychology to home economics “medicalized” the home from the kitchen to the toilet and the bedroom.’

In 1915 child care was largely a female responsibility, whereas the medical profession was overwhelmingly male. Thus any growth of medical power over reproduction and childrearing meant an increase in men’s authority over what had been women’s work.
Mass-Media Medicine and Aesthetic Censorship
Authors: Pernick Martin S
Published: November 2023

While his refusal to treat deformed babies won a surprising degree of support, Haiselden’s decision to take his cause to the mass media aroused far more opposition than his position on euthanasia did. Repeated official investigations upheld his right not to treat such infants. But on March 14, 1916, the Chicago Medical Society voted to expel him, according to the New York Times, based “not on the fact that the physician did not operate on the baby, but because he permitted [the case] to be published in a daily newspaper [and to be] exploited in moving picture shows.”

Of course, opposition to Haiselden’s propaganda campaign cannot be fully separated from opposition to his not treating impaired babies. The expulsion was almost certainly motivated by more than just the publicity. Haiselden himself charged that hostility to his nontreatment decisions lay behind the Medical Society’s action. Regrettably, the precise mix of motives cannot be determined, because the minutes of the Medical Society’s lengthy disciplinary proceedings are no longer available.
Desert Life
Authors: Ehrenfeld David
Published: November 2023

Occasionally, for the best and worst of motives, we feel compelled to leave home. When we do, we generally find that however difficult it is to get along with our own familiar if misunderstood environment, it is far harder to exist comfortably and unobtrusively in somebody else’s. The arrival of American troops in the Middle East in the summer of 1990 set loose a sandstorm of media stories about the intolerably harsh conditions in the Arabian Desert. From the wastes of An Nafiid and Ad Dibdibdah in the north near Iraq to the vast Ar Rab’ al Khali, or Empty Quarter, in the south next to Yemen and Oman, we saw the sand and stones stretching on endlessly from horizon to horizon in a lifeless, waterless panorama. Soldiers had to drink several gallons a day to prevent dehydration-what an impossible environment for living creatures! These media stories brought to mind the fable of the town mouse and the country mouse. You probably remember it: the town mouse, visiting his country cousin, is appalled at the rustic conditions and simple fare, so he invites his cousin to see how sweet life can be in the urban fast lane. While they are dining off sumptuous leftovers in a regal dining room, a ferocious watchdog appears (maybe a cat in your version) and the two mice have to run for their lives.
A Turtle Named Mack
Authors: Ehrenfeld David
Published: November 2023

Early October of ‘91 was warm and frost-free in central New Jersey, just right for a family weekend walk along the towpath of the Delaware-Raritan Canal. Kate, the oldest child, was away at college, but everyone else was there. The three Js, Jane, age fifteen, Jon, who is nine, and my wife, Joan, went on ahead. Sam and I hung back. Sam, six years old and youngest, was digging a pit trap for beetles in the middle of the narrow towpath, while I was cautiously investigating the water at the edge of the canal. I was the only one with a secret agenda.
The Lesson of the Tower
Authors: Ehrenfeld David
Published: November 2023

The farthest north of the state-of-the-art mentality is the drive for the “conquest” of space. Our exploration of space has been accompanied by all the familiar signs of state-of-the-art technology: it is fantastically expensive, much of it is incomprehensible except to experts, it requires a massive amount of organization and management, its true agenda is often hidden, and it cannot be controlled, or even significantly influenced, by the ordinary people who pay for it and must live with its consequences. Space, a totally user-unfriendly environment, is indeed the appropriate subject for a technology that has elevated user-unfriendliness almost to an art form.
Rights
Authors: Ehrenfeld David
Published: November 2023

As the last decade of our century and millennium rolls on, I find myself describing the 1900s in terms of book titles. The Age of Mega-War. The Century of Technology. The Era of Environmental Destruction. The Epoch of Information. The Period of Centralized Bureaucracy. If there are still universities a hundred years from now, and if they still have graduate students in history, then here are five good, late twenty-first century dissertations in the making-unless somebody grabs them first. I bequeath them freely and without obligation. Lest that be considered a cheap gift of shopworn and stale ideas, I will, sixth and lastly, throw in one that is slightly less obvious: the twentieth century will be known as the Age of the Discovery of Rights. But The Age of Rights makes a snappier title. There is no way to say exactly when the Age of Rights began.
Loyalty
Authors: Ehrenfeld David
Published: November 2023

A corporation is an artificial being, invisible, intangible, and existing only in contemplation of law. Being the mere creature of law, it possesses only those properties which the charter of its creation confers upon it, either expressly or incidental to its very existence Among the most important are immortality, and, if the expression may be allowed, individuality; properties, by which a perpetual succession of many persons are considered as the same, and may act as a single individual. It is chiefly for the purpose of clothing bodies of men in succession with these qualities and capacities that corporations were invented and are in use. By these means, a perpetual succession of individuals are capable of acting for the promotion of the particular object, like one immortal being....
Down from the Pedestal A New Role for Experts
Authors: Ehrenfeld David
Published: November 2023

We live in a society that worships expert knowledge, and some times worships the experts themselves. This can be very pleasant if you’re an expert, but has several curious and important drawbacks for the rest of us. The first and maybe the most important drawback is that expert knowledge is rarely sufficient for analysis, prediction, and management of a given situation, with the exception of basic repair operations. This is because in order to limit the number of variables they have to contend with, experts make the assumption that the systems they are working with are self-contained, defined, closed. Real-life systems are hardly ever closed.
Jelly Roll Morton Three-Minute Form
Authors: Williams Martin
Published: November 2023

One thing that leads us to believe that we should call jazz an art, and not just acknowledge it as a remarkable expressive musical culture, is that its best works survive the moment. In doing that they defy all, for not only are they intended for the moment (as is much of our culture), they are often improvised on the spur of the moment.
Sidney Bechet First and Last
Authors: Williams Martin
Published: November 2023

Sidney Bechet ‘s earliest recordings come from mid-1923, and they offer a fully developed musician. Fully developed not only because he played with power and authority, but also because we know from his biography that by then he had been a star soloist for some years, and because the elements and resources of his style can be heard on those records, elements that changed very little over the years. Yet Bechet did some of his most challenging recording work in 1957, the year before his death, collaborating with French pianist Martial Sola!, effectively interpreting, ornamenting, and improvising on a repertory of standard songs which few of his New Orleans contemporaries would have undertaken in the first place, and which none of them, not even.Jimmy Noone, could have handled so confidently.
Louis Armstrong Style Beyond Style
Authors: Williams Martin
Published: November 2023

The history of jazz conventionally begins with music from the western Congo and evolves as a style in New Orleans around the turn of the twentieth century. The contrast between the percussive music of Africa and New Orleans jazz is startling, not so much in that these musics seem similar as that, in some very basic ways, they do not seem similar. To be sure, jazz is played on European melody instruments and has borrowed from European melody and harmony. But the gross dis similarity is in rhythm. Congolese music is so sure and so complex rhythmically as to make early jazz seem child ‘s play, and for some of the players, rather awkward child ‘s play.
Bix Beiderbecke The White Man ‘s Burden
Authors: Williams Martin
Published: November 2023

One commentator has called cornetist Bix Beiderbecke the baby-faced darling of the 1920s. If he was that, it was only in retrospect, and the Shelleyan, Keatsian, Billy-the-Kid-like jazz myth about him is decidedly a product of the ‘thirties. Notes to a reissue LP reveal that he was mentioned in the public prints only twice during his life (there were no jazz journalists then) but he was a kind of demigod to musicians. Louis Arm strong has even said that he and Bix were working on the same thing, presumably on making jazz improvising primarily a soloist art.
Ambulatory and Primary Health Care
Authors: Roemer Milton I
Published: November 2023

From the perspective of the individual, health services include three major types of intervention: ( l) service to the ambulatory person, (2) modification of the environment, and (3) care in a special facility. Environmental protection and eventually broader public health programs demanded social action. Hospital facilities required organization to accumulate funds for construction, to mobilize personnel, to render care, and so on.
Health Programs for Certain Populations
Authors: Roemer Milton I
Published: November 2023

In all countries there are special-purpose health programs that may be classified into three types: those serving certain types of person, those focused on certain types of disease or disorder, and those providing certain types of health service. In this chapter we examine health programs for certain types of population groups. In Chapters 15 and 16 we consider special programs for certain types of disorder and programs providing certain types of health service.
The Design and Analysis of Parallel Algorithms
Authors: Smith Justin R
Published: November 2023

Parallel algorithms, i.e. computer operations designed to be performed independently, have recently increased in importance. Because today ‘s computer applications require more power than can physically be provided by current machines, computing power can only be increased by having multiple processors work on different parts of a problem independently and simultaneously. Parallel algorithms are the operations that make parallel processing possible. This book provide an overview of the current knowledge of parallel algorithms for both students and professionals.
Motivations for Deflationism
Authors: David Marian
Published: November 2023

What on the part of true sentences is meant to correspond to what on the part of reality? If we seek a correspondence word by word, we find ourselves eking reality out with a complement of abstract objects fabricated for the sake of the correspondence. Or perhaps we settle for a correspondence of whole sentences with facts: a sentence is true if it reports a fact. But here again we have fabricated substance for an empty doctrine. The world is full of things, variously related, but what, in addition to all that, are facts? They are projected from true sentences for the sake of correspondence.
Embrace Disquotationalism?
Authors: David Marian
Published: November 2023

Disquotationalism begins with a simple idea—“’s now is white ‘ is true just in case snow is white”—and it wants to advance the view that (almost) all there is to understand about truth is already contained in this idea. But it is somewhat difficult to turn this simple idea into a general account of truth for sentences. It takes some work to find a generalization that is both intelligible and faithful to the minimalist spirit of the starting point. And when the generalization is finally found, when an intelligible disquotation definition of sentence-truth is formulated, it turns out that the apparently simple idea faces a number of problems and many of them are quite serious.
Introduction
Authors: Blackburn Simon
Published: November 2023

In many of these essays the main protagonist is a figure I christened the ‘quasirealist’. Two routes led to this persona. One is familiar to every student of moral philosophy. There everyone learns of philosophers who take a ‘nondescriptive’ or non-representational view of our commitments, seeing them instead as serving some other function, such as expressing attitude, endorsing prescriptions, or, in general, putting pressure on choice and action. Such a view is thought of as ‘anti-realist’, and is easily contrasted with a realist, or descriptive or representational, story that says that such commitments do what they seem to do: describe what we take to be the ethical facts. But while everybody learns of this contrast, nobody, it seemed to me, really knew how to conduct the debate about such ideas (or about the inevitable second-order question: whether the alleged point of contrast is really well drawn this way, or is even intelligible). The images behind the opposing sides are powerful enough, and find cavalier expression in thoughts like this: the realist thinks there is truth and knowledge to be had, that ethical properties exist, that they explain things, that they are independent of us, that they are objective. The anti-realist, or here the expressivist, is presumed to deny these doctrines. This is why such a view seemed to many philosophers to imply an ‘error theory’ of everyday ethical thought, claiming that a substantial component of that thought is indefensible. The reasoning is that everyday ethical thought embodies a claim to truth, or to knowledge or objectivity, or to something which ‘lies beyond’ the opinions and sentiments that we endorse, and which those opinions might distort or represent badly. However, if this claim to objectivity is quite spurious, as it seems to be on the non-descriptive theory, then everyday ethical thought involves a kind of self-deception or fraud. But is the claim indeed spurious, on the non-descriptive story? Does the anti-realist indeed have to accept the baggage forced upon him when the debate is conducted this way?
Hume and Thick Connexions
Authors: Blackburn Simon
Published: November 2023

Recently there has been a pronounced shift in the interpretation of Hume on causation. The previous weight of opinion took him to be a positivist, but the new view is that he is a sceptical realist. I hold no brief for the positivist view, but I believe it needs replacing by something slightly different, and that at best it shows an error of taste to make sceptical realism a fundamental factor in the interpretation of Hume.
Tubes
Authors: Morowitz Harold J
Published: November 2023

While Digging Out a few references at the Yale History of Medicine Library, I chanced upon the name Gabriele Fallopio. Either the poetry of his eight-syllable designation or its association with anatomy was sufficiently intriguing that I jotted down on my pad “Check out Fallopio.” A few weeks passed, and in reviewing the notes I came across the reference to the eminent Italian physician and pursued that information further. Fallopio was born in Modena in 1523 and died in Padua in 1562. During his short life, he made numerous contributions to our knowledge of human anatomy.
Roots Of An American Trial
Authors: Morowitz Harold J
Published: November 2023

Being A Science Writer, I don’t ordinarily comment about movies; in fact, I can’t recall ever having done so. However, An American Tail comes very close to my “roots,” and since some of the facts in the movie version don’t agree with a brief oral history I have collected, it is hard for me to let the event pass without setting the record straight. First, the chief character should have been Fievel Morowitz, not Fievel Mousekewitz. He came from Kapulya, not Shostka, and he emigrated to America in 1910, not in 1885. But, hke the movie’s hero, he did greet the Statue of Liberty with wide-eyed enthusiasm. You may ask, how do I know so much more about this man than the renowned Steven Spielberg? That’s easy. Fievel Morowitz was my father.
Daibutsu And Descartes
Authors: Morowitz Harold J
Published: November 2023

It Is Four O’Clock in the morning, and I am lying in bed in the Hotel Continental in Yokohama. A number of thoughts are unfolding, doubtless related to jet lag, surviving the feared puffer fish at a delicious dinner last night, and visiting Daibutsu, a very large Buddha statue, at Kamakura.
The Sociology Of Palo Alto Coffee Shops
Authors: Morowitz Harold J
Published: November 2023

MY PARTICIPATION IN A PROJECT at the NASA Ames Research Center has resulted in a few weeks’ sojourn in Palo Alto, California. Like a proper Bay Area resident, I am out jogging and walking early each morning, and I finish my constitutional with coffee and a pastry or roll. The “track” is on University and Hamilton Avenues, a route that offers me a bewildering variety of coffee shops, bakeries, and restaurants. I have sampled this large selection and find, as no great surprise, that no experience in life is without deeper meaning; the coffee shops have much to tell us about class and caste in this affluent university community. This introductory study deals with only six of the caffeine vendors whose establishments dot the map of downtown Palo Alto.

Join me, then, for an early morning stroll east from Emerson Street on University Avenue. The first establishment we stop at is Burger King. The coffee is 50 cents and is served by giving the customer a paper cup and pointing to the dispensing machines: regular and decaf. The customers’ dress code varies from informal to thrift shop. There are fathers with children, mothers with children, and a higher fraction of blacks and Chicanos than in any of the other bistros we shall visit. There is also the highest percentage of smokers; some of the other institutions do not permit smoking. A few college students are in evidence, and street people tend to dine here when they have raised enough money. Occasionally, someone in jacket and tie comes in, but this attire is clearly noticeable by its difference. Danish pastry, bagels, and croissants are available with the coffee. The food is good value without elegance.
The Afternoon Session
Authors: Morowitz Harold J
Published: November 2023

LUNCH Is OVER. We find our way back to the lecture hall and, in a certain disorder, wend our way back to our seats. Left over from the morning are the notes, the material on the blackboard, the slides in the projector, and the stale air. It must be difficult to build a large room with no aerodynamic mobility so that all exchange is by diffusion only. However, the architect of this hall has succeeded remarkably well in designing a convection-free, crosscurrent-free structure that maintains a continuous thermal inversion. In constant collision with the ceiling and walls are all the molecules of carbon dioxide that have ever been exhaled in this room. I estimate that the oxygen concentration is roughly equivalent to that of Kathmandu.

As the last stragglers wander in, the chairman announces the first speaker. He is 6 feet 4 inches tall, and the microphone has last been set for someone who is 4 feet 6 inches. But the fact that we cannot hear the leadoff speaker is about to be obscured by the fact that we cannot understand him, except for the initial phrase he utters: “First slide, please.” The lights are dimmed, and the shadow show begins. The slides have been carefully crafted of gray on gray, so that the eye is never offended by blacks or whites. Any conflicting values in the presented information are thus muted. In the eerie half-light cast by the projector through its gray filters, the long speaker and short microphone stand looking like an apparition from a story by Edgar Allan Poe. The slides change with great regularity, and my mind drifts.
Brekekekex Ko-ax, Ko-ax!
Authors: Morowitz Harold J
Published: November 2023

WHERE HAVE ALL THE FROGS GONE? That question introduces matters that are urgent, whimsical, and sad-and, as we shall see, that also have relevance to the interrelatedness of all things. My first contact with this query came in September 1989. I was attending a meeting of the Board of Biology of the National Research Council. During predinner socializing, Professor David Wake of the University of California, Berkeley, was telling us about the summer meeting of the International Herpetological Society in England. In the informal parts of that meeting, a number of investigators from around the world had made mention of declining frog populations in many locales. Wake was deeply concerned about the potential magnitude and significance of a loss that seemed to be affecting a large number of genera and species.

As the discussion unfolded, the possibility emerged that a significant ecological early-warning signal was being sounded. We became convinced that the anecdotal information needed to be strengthened, and the extent and nature of the problem evaluated. A prompt international meeting of experts on amphibians seemed to be the path of choice. By the time the dinner was over, such a meeting was planned, with Wake in charge of recruiting the experts and yours truly in charge of recruiting the funding.
A Rose By Any Other Name
Authors: Morowitz Harold J
Published: November 2023

IT IS NOT COMPLETELY TRANSPARENT what Gertrude Stein had in mind when, in the puzzling piece “Sacred Emily,” she wrote: “Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose.” She repeated the thought in Lectures in America, where she noted: “A rose is a rose is a rose.” We might naively assume that Stein was lumping all roses in an act of taxonomic know-nothingness. More likely she was restating in her own syntax Ralph Waldo Emerson’s thought:

Man is timid and apologetic; he is no longer upright; he dares not say “I think,” or “I am,” but quotes some saint or sage. He is ashamed before the blade of grass or the blowing rose. These roses under my window make no reference to former roses or to better ones; they are for what they are; they exist for God today. There is no time to them. There is simply the rose; it is perfect in every moment of its existence.

I would not have pursued these flowery thoughts had I not heard Stanwyn Shetler of the Smithsonian Institution speak about the great difficulties of classifying roses, which became a matter of public note in the discussion of choosing the rose as the national flower of the United States. Through the kindness of Dr. Shetler, I obtained a transcript of the “House of Representatives Hearing on Designation of a National Floral Emblem.” This matter of civic botany came under the purview of the Subcommittee on Census of Population of the Committee on Post Office and Civil Service. Congressman Robert Garcia of New York chaired the subcommittee.
Medicine as a Moral Community
Authors: Pellegrino Edmund D , Thomasma David C
Published: November 2023

Alasdair MacIntyre has stressed repeatedly that the interrelationship of ethical virtues and principles relies upon the grounding of both in the community and its values. As he says of the community and moral rules: It is therefore important in our line of argument to consider the ways in which medicine itself functions as the moral community that both shapes the ends of the moral life of those who practice health care healing and the means by which these ends emerge in their virtuous actions.
Dream Of A Red Factory
Authors: Kaple Deborah A
Published: November 2023

Drawing on previously unknown primary sources in both Chinese and Russian, Deborah A. Kaple has written a powerful and absorbing account of the model of factory management and organization that the Chinese communists formulated in the 1949-1953 period. She reveals that their “new” management techniques were adapted from Soviet propaganda during the harsh period of Stalin’s post-war reconstruction. The idealized Stalinist management system consisted mainly of strict Communist Party control of all aspects of workers’ lives, which is the root of such strong Party control over Chinese society today. Dream of a Red Factory is a rare and revealing look at the consolidation rule in China; told through the prism of the development of new “socialist” factories and enterprises. Kaple completely counters the old myth of the “Soviet monolith” in China, and carefully reconstructs how the Chinese communists came to rely on an idealized, propagandistic version of the Soviet model instead.
Therapeutic Ways with Words
Authors: Ferrara Kathleen Warden
Published: November 2023

Most people know that therapists listen to people discuss their problems, and that they are paid for their services. Yet few people who have not undergone therapy know what actually goes on in these sessions, or have any idea about how talking to a stranger can be beneficial to one's mental health. What is therapeutic about therapeutic discourse? Why is the therapy hour such a powerful influence in peoples' lives if all they do is talk? Who talks, and what about? To answer some of these questions from a linguistic stand-point, Kathleen Ferrara analyses samples of psychotherapeutic discourse between several therapists and their clients. She focuses on cohesion and the joint construction of digalogue to get at her main concern of just how talk can be therapeutic, and at the same time addresses recent concerns in the study of conversation. Her thesis is that repetition and continuity are resources of language which speakers can recombine in various ways to create meaning within a given social context, and she looks at the many ways these cohesive devices are used in therapy speech. Therapeutic Ways with Words should appeal not only to linguists and people concerned with language in the professions, but to the large audience connected to psychotherapy. 'The scholarship reflected in the manuscript is not just sound, but creative; not just up-to-date, but up to the minute. Ferrara offers insightful treatments of data just begging for attention in light of recent developments in discourse analysis, and thus contributes cutting-edge results ... It represents the kind of research we need much more of in linguistics today." Neal Norrick, Professor of English-Linguistics, Northern Illinois University
Tragedy’s End
Authors: Dunn Francis M
Published: November 2023

Francis Dunn explores the novel gestures that close the dramas of Euripides, showing how these deny access to an authoritative reading of the plays, reinforce innovations in plot and structure, and open up tragedy to comic, parodic, and narrative impulses. The author provides the first large-scale study of closure in classical literature, and includes readings of plot, ending, and generic innovation in Hyppolytus, Trojan women, Hercules, and the late plays Helen, Orestes, and Phoenician Women.
Cross-Sectional and Other Types of Studies
Authors: Kelsey Jennifer L , Whittemore Alice S , Evans Alfred S , Thompson W Douglas
Published: November 2023

In a cross-sectional, or prevalence, study, exposure status and disease status are 1I1easured at one time or over a short period of time in the participants. Prevalence rates among those with and without the exposure or at varying levels of exposure are then determined and compared. Prevalence studies are often employed for public health planning, but it is their use in studies of etiology that will be considered here.
Methods of Sampling and Estimation of Sample Size
Authors: Kelsey Jennifer L , Whittemore Alice S , Evans Alfred S , Thompson W Douglas
Published: November 2023

The preceding chapters have described study designs and methods of statistical analysis commonly used in epidemiology. The remaining chapters cover certain other methodologic issues that need to be considered when planning epidemiologic studies. Specifically, Chapter 12 first discusses common methods of sampling used by epidemiologists and then methods of estimating sample size. Chapters 12 through 15 are concerned with issues related to measurement in epidemiologic studies.
Measurement Error
Authors: Kelsey Jennifer L , Whittemore Alice S , Evans Alfred S , Thompson W Douglas
Published: November 2023

A certain amount of error is intrinsic to any measurement process. In the conduct of epidemiologic research, measurement error is potentially a major problem that may invalidate the results of otherwise well-designed studies. For instance, if a case-control study is undertaken to address the issue of whether past dietary fat consumption affects the risk of breast cancer, assessment of food items consumed many years ago may be so inaccurate that it is not worth undertaking the study. Although measurement error can seldom if ever be eliminated, an appreciation of the sources of measurement error, of the nature of its impact on study results, and of methods for minimizing that impact can contribute greatly to the quality of epidemiologic studies and to the appropriateness of the conclusions drawn from them.
Impossible Sites
Authors: Dougherty Carol
Published: November 2023

The potential colonist, forced to leave home, consults Delphic Apollo to learn which foreign lands he should settle. Thus, the Delphic consultation, located midway between the mother city and the new world, occupies the transitional point in the colonization narrative-the pivot from civic crisis to civic foundation-and the oracles themselves play an important role in colonial discourse. In the previous chapter, we saw how crisis as the first stage of the colonial narrative both shapes and is shaped by a cultural metaphor that describes overseas settlement as a kind of civic purification. Now, as the narrative moves toward Delphi, the oracles that form part of colonial discourse themselves influence Greek memories of archaic colonization, and the act of solving a riddle functions as another metaphor for representing the colonial experience. Once we consider these foundation oracles not as simple mirrors of historical reality but as representatives of a coherent system of cultural meaning, we will see that the ambiguous and enigmatic language typically associated with the Delphic oracle describes the act of foundation as a process of interpretation. Oracles within colonization tales exploit the ambiguity of puns to create a new vision of reality, one that translates local phenomena into the Greek language just as colonization itself transforms foreign soil into a Greek city. In addition, colonial oracles often adopt the bipartite structure of riddles to represent the process of founding a colony overseas in terms of solving a puzzle; the solution, or colony, reorders an unfamiliar and confused landscape.
The Lay of the Land
Authors: Dougherty Carol
Published: November 2023

In this passage from the Laws, Plato evokes the image of a colonial expedition to describe the changes in familial relationships that necessarily evolve as a result of marriage. The married couple, like colonists, must leave home. In spite of the physical separation, however, religious and cultural bonds remain that link the new couple with their family just as shared customs and practices keep the cultural ties strong between a new colony and its mother city-in both cases, the common bonds of custom and culture will continue to bridge the sea of differences that married couples and colonists will inevitably confront. The torch, evocative of both household and civic hearth, plays an important role in the rituals of marriage and colonization. It provides a sense of continuity that extends across time and place, and Plato highlights the torch as a symbol of cultural identity passed down from one generation to the next. The similarities between marriage and colonization, however, transcend the issues of separation and continuity raised by Plato. Both are institutions of integration and acculturation, concerned with uniting opposites and transforming that which is wild and foreign into a fruitful and productive experience. And like all instruments of civilization, colonization and marriage also embed within their ideology the element of violence. Precisely because of this striking overlap between colonization and marriage, not only does colonization serve as a metaphor for conceptualizing marriage, as Plato suggests, but the rituals and rhetoric of the Greek marriage ceremony (including rape) shape colonial representation as well.1
Effects Of Agricultural Practices And Farmland Structures
Authors: Rodenhouse Nicholas L , Best Louis B , O’Connor Raymond J , Bollinger Eric K
Published: November 2023

Agriculture probably has had greater impact on populations of Neotropical migratory birds than any other human activity. Al though crop types differ greatly among regions, most counties in the United States include agricultural land (Sommer and Hines 1991), about 52% of the land area of the contiguous 48 states (USDA 1992) and 11% of Canada (Statistics Canada 1986) is in farms. Conversion of native habitats to agricultural land has resulted in local extirpation of migratory bird species (e.g., Owens and Myres 1973, Bowles et al. 1980, Blanke spoor and Krause 1982), shifts in species composition and relative abundances (e.g., Graber and Graber 1963, 1983, Dinsmore 1981, Herkert 1991), and alteration of geo graphic ranges (e.g., Hurley and Franks 1976, Brittingham and Temple 1983, Dolbeer 1990). However, agriculture has also created habitat features used by Neotropical migra tory birds (Freemark et al. 1991).Field and edge areas created by agriculture are used by Neotropical migratory birds when breeding or migrating. Fields are the areas worked for crop production (including forage crops that may be grazed), and birds found in these fields often were formerly grassland species. Edges include field borders (e.g., fencerows, roadsides) but also uncultivated areas within fields, such as grassed waterways or terrace berms.
Single-Species Versus Multiple-Species Approaches For Management
Authors: Block William M , Finch Deborah M , Brennan Leonard A
Published: November 2023

Neotropical migratory birds are major components of the avifauna in most North American terrestrial ecosystems. Over 150 species of Neotropical migratory birds are known to breed in North America (Finch 1991a). Given the large number of species, developing effective management strategies for Neotropical migratory birds is a monumental task because each species exploits a unique niche, and thus requires different considerations for the management of its habitats and populations. Management is complicated further by temporal and spatial variations in resource-use patterns by many species. Thus, detailed knowledge of a species’ habitat and population ecology from one place and time might have little relevance to other locations or periods. Managers have a continuum of options for managing wildlife resources. This continuum ranges from management for one or a few featured species to the management of entire communities, landscapes, ecosystems, or regions. Each approach has advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of one approach over another represents a series of tradeoffs. Resource managers must decide which approach meets their objectives and the level of risk that is acceptable.
Introduction
Authors: Amick III Benjamin C , Levine Sol , Tarlov Alvin R , Walsh Diana Chapman
Published: November 2023

Although many people throughout history have believed that social conditions affect health, it was not until the twentieth century that researchers established a body of knowledge concerning the social determinants of health and their pathways. In the United States, especially after World War II, the federal government and private foundations launched major training programs and research projects in the health and social sciences (Freeman and Levine, 1989a). Medical sociology, health psychology, and health economics achieved specialties within their larger respective disciplines. And within epidemiology and other public health disciplines investigators incorporated social variables in designing their studies. Generations of research have now documented the impact on health of social factors like class, race, education, sex, marital status, employment, and the quality of jobs (cf Ostfeld and Eaker, 1985; Susser et al., 1985; Freeman and Levine, 1989b).
The Role of Medical Care in Determining Health: Creating an Inventory of Benefits
Authors: Bunker John P , Frazier Howards , Mosteller Frederick
Published: November 2023

Average life expectancy for citizens of industrial countries has increased from approximately 45 to 75 years during this century, a gain assumed by many to be largely the result of advances in medical care. This assumption has been called into question by a number of observers (Carlson, 1975; Illich, 1976; McKinlay and McKinlay, 1977; McKeown, 1979). Others have argued for the good that medicine does (McDermott, 1978; Beeson, 1980; Levine et al., 1983; Anderson and Morrison, 1989); in most instances these views are unsupported by measurements of benefits, although in one study lower regional death rates were found to be associated with higher Medicare expenditures (Hadley, 1982). Today most observers agree that the causes of increased longevity include, in addition to medical care, improvements in nutrition, housing, sanitation, occupational safety, and lifestyle. If we wish to allocate effort and material resources to achieving further increases in life expectancy, we need to distinguish among these determinants and to estimate the magnitude of their separate effects.
The Parental Analogy
Authors: Kultgen John
Published: November 2023

The concepts of paternalism and parentalism are based on analogies between paternal or parental and other forms of care. The analogies are relational: they point out similarities between the relation of parent to child and other common human relationships. These similarities, and differences which reflection brings to light, help us sort out our intuitions about the desirability of some forms of parentalistic care and the repugnancy of others. In each case it is necessary to ask whether the relation between parentalist and beneficiary is sufficiently like that of parent to child to justify the treatment of the beneficiary like a child.
VanDeVeer’s Consent-Based Antiparentalism
Authors: Kultgen John
Published: November 2023

VanDeVeer’s theory is a version of justification by consent. He declares that the moralist must choose between principles that refer to the subject’s consent and his welfare in evaluating parentalism, and he opts for consent in the name of respect for persons. This leads him to deny that abridgments of a person’s autonomy without some form of consent are ever justified. To accommodate intuitively justified cases of parentalism when the need to help someone without his actual consent is urgent, he is forced to appeal implausibly to a form of hypothetical consent.
Between Universalism and Skepticism
Authors: Philips Michael
Published: November 2023

Philips defends a middle ground between the view that there is a set of standards binding on rational beings as such (Universalism) and the view that differences in morals reduce ultimately to matters of taste (Skepticism). He begins with a sustained critique of universalist moral theories and some familiar approaches to concrete moral questions that presuppose them (most appeals to intuitions, respect for person’s moralities, and versions of contractarianism and wide reflective equilibrium). He goes on to criticize major recent attempts to develop non-universalist alternatives to skepticism, arguing that they rely on excessively abstract and philosophically indefensible preference satisfaction theories of the good. According to Philips’s positive alternative, moral standards are justified to the extent that they support reasonably valued ways of life. He devotes considerable attention to clarifying this idea and draws conclusions from it about the role and limits of reason in ethics. Philips’s theory provides us with a theoretical basis for dealing with actual moral controversies and for approaching questions of applied and professional ethics in a systematic way.
Engendering Genesis Stories
Authors: Sapp Jan
Published: November 2023

When the Great War began, there were attempts to explain away the atrocities in terms of “the struggle for existence.” A protest against such an “abuse” of Darwin’s terminology appeared in a letter published in the London Times. It was said that such an explanation was “little more than an application to philosophy and politics of ideas taken from crude popular misconceptions of the Darwinian theory (of ‘struggle for existence’, and ‘will to power’, ‘survival of the fittest’ and ‘superman,’ etc.)”; and that there was, however, a work in English “which interprets biological and social progress not in terms of overbearing brute force and cunning, but in terms of mutual cooperation.” A reprint of Kropotkin’s Mutual Aid was quickly published to emphasize that the war was not the result of an inherent aggression among the masses. It was their rulers who prepared the war, and their intellectual leaders who worked out its barbarous methods.
Les Symbiotes and Germ Theory
Authors: Sapp Jan
Published: November 2023

Pasteur effectively quieted all proponents of spontaneous generation. Microorganisms in the tissue of animals were not the consequence, but rather the cause of disease. This work led to the isolation and systematic study of germs, to vaccination, and to the preparation of preventive and curative serums. The germ theory of disease transformed medicine and part of biology. At the same time, however, it led to the dogma of asepsis of normal healthy animal tissue. Organic liquids such as blood, urine, and lymph collected with necessary precautions against introducing extraneous microorganisms do not give rise to germs. Therefore, the tissues of healthy animals were deprived of germs. If microorganisms appeared, it was due to a technical fault: perhaps the operating instruments, the flask in which they had been deposited, or the air which penetrated into the flask had carried these germs. Otherwise, it was because the animal was stricken by a parasitic infection.
The Dull Edge of Ockham’s Razor
Authors: Sapp Jan
Published: November 2023

During the 1970s and 1980s the symbiotic theory for the origin of cell organelles, once so out of harmony with accepted theory and “too fantastic to mention in polite biological society,” emerged not only as a respectable subject of scientific discourse, but as a thriving research program. This is not to suggest that all biologists readily accepted it. On the contrary, the symbiotic theory was evaluated from various perspectives and received with various degrees of agreement and skepticism. Many welcomed the argument for mitochondria and chloroplasts but rejected it for the organelles concerned with mitosis and motility. Still others were reluctant to accept the claim that chloroplasts and mitochondria evolved as symbionts. During the late 1960s and 1970s the serial endosymbiosis theory continued to be developed in direct conflict with autogenous theories labeled “direct filiation,” which held that organelles evolved by compartmentalization inside cells. The nature of the debates which ensued highlight the difficulties of establishing the validity of any evolutionary account.
Infectious Morbidity
Authors: Sommer Alfred , West Keith P
Published: November 2023

The strong impact of vitamin A status on mortality (Chapter 2) must be mediated, in large part, by its effect on the incidence and/or severity of life-threatening infections. Vitamin A prophylaxis and treatment have their clearest efficacy in reducing mortality associated with diarrhea and measles. An understanding of the relationship(s) between vitamin A status and infection is important in identifying the mechanisms that account for altered mortality and in quantifying the burden of infectious morbidity associated with vitamin A deficiency. These relationships are being examined with growing interest.

As already noted, animals develop infections relatively early in the course of vitamin A deficiency, often dying of overwhelming sepsis before developing xerophthalmia. In 1924, Webster reported that mice raised on “McCollum’s complete diet” were much more resistant to the lethal consequences of an oral challenge with mouse typhoid bacillus than were apparently equally healthy mice raised on the standard Rockefeller Institute diet.
Fortification of Dietary Items with Vitamin A
Authors: Sommer Alfred , West Keith P
Published: November 2023

There are two kinds of developing countries: those that have begun to fortify and those that have not yet begun to fortify their food supply.

Food fortification involves adding nutrients to foods in order to maintain or improve the quality of the diet of a targeted group or population. Fortification has long been an accepted strategy for improving vitamin A nutriture in industrialized countries. The epidemic of xerophthalmia in Denmark during World War I that paralleled the substitution of margarine (lacking “fat-soluble A”) for butter in the Danish food supply foretold the clear need to fortify such products. Margarine is now among those food items most frequently fortified with vitamin A in the world. Universal iodization of salt to prevent iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) is a rapidly approaching achievement. Today, the motivation to fortify foods or condiments with vitamin A in developing countries continues to be the prevention of vitamin A deficiency and its health consequences (xerophthalmia, other morbidity, mortality). Although “targeting high-risk groups” is a guiding principle, broader segments of a population (not always specifically targeted) may gain nutritional and health benefits through fortification as well.
Lexicon as a Key to Ethno-Sociology and Cultural Psychology: Patterns of “Friendship" Across Cultures
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna
Published: November 2023

There is a widespread assumption that friendship is a universal human need and that the concept of ‘friend’ is a human universal. For example, Davis and Todd (1985) ask, “Why do friendships have the importance that they do?” and they comment: “The general answer provided in many theories is that not to have friends is to miss something vital for full-fledged human development. The personal relationship of friendship is thus seen as providing the context within which a number of basic human needs can be met” (21). Having characterized what they call “a paradigm case of friendship” in terms of nine basic characteristics (such as equality, enjoyment of each other’s company, mutual assistance, mutual respect, and intimacy), they affirm that these characteristics jointly “characterize a relationship taken to be central in normal personal development, and thus a relationship prototypical of people’s capacity to enjoy a meaningful life” (p.22).