bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Iron and Steel Industry in Colonial and Imperial Brazil
Authors: Rogers Edward J.
Published: July 2006

It is a well known fact that Brazil today is the greatest producer of iron and steel in all of Latin America. It is less well known that this industry is one of the oldest in the nation. Any effort to trace the development of this iron-working industry from its earliest sources should take into consideration the contributions of the Jesuits. As early as 1554, Father José Anchieta informed his Jesuit superiors and the king of Portugal of the existence of iron ore deposits in the interior of the captaincy of São Vicente (later São Paulo). Even more important in this respect was a forge established by the Jesuit Mateus Nogueira which in 1556 was instrumental in the manufacture of fishhooks, knives, wedges, shovels and other such implements used in the support of his community. These are claimed to be the first implements made from iron in Brazil.
The Contribution of the Religion of the Colonial Period to the Ideals and Life of the United States
Authors: Latourette Kenneth Scott
Published: July 2006

The Great Seal of the United States, designed in the early days of the Republic, has on it symbolism whose significance is often overlooked. On one side is an eagle which grasps with one talon a branch and with the other a sheaf of arrows. Above its head are “E Pluribus Unum” and thirteen stars for the original states bound together in one nation. The other side has on it an unfinished pyramid. The foundation bears the number MDCCLXXVI. Above the pyramid is the eye of God flanked by the words “Annuit Coeptis,” namely, “He smiles on the undertakings.” Underneath is the phrase “Novus Ordo Seculorum,” meaning “New Order of the Ages.” Here succinctly is the vision which inspired the founding fathers of the new nation. The thirteen colonies had become one, prepared to face together the exigencies of the future, whether for preservation in self-defense or for cooperation in the arts of peace. Here was an attempt at building something novel in the history of mankind—a new and ordered structure. That structure, as yet incomplete, was based upon the Declaration of Independence, with its best-remembered phrases: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness—that to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.” Here is “the American dream.” As “four score and seven years” later Abraham Lincoln even more briefly described it, the new nation was “conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal” and its success or failure was a test whether “government of the people, by the people, for the people” could “long endure.” To that dream faith in God, in His creative activity, and in His sovereignty was basic.
Some International Aspects of the Activity of the Jesuits in the New World
Authors: Miguel Batllori S. J.
Published: July 2006

IBELIEVE that only because of this international aspect, which above all showed itself prominent in the activity of the Jesuits in America during the seventeenth century, can we be speaking in a special way of the Jesuits at this international meeting, which corresponds to the Pan American tone of the chapter written by Doctor Zavala.

This “internationality” of the Company of Jesus was not something exclusive to the Jesuits in America. It came from the very times of Saint Ignatius (1556), when not only in the European colleges but also in the missions of the Orient and of Brazil—the only ones founded before 1556—Jesuits of different nationalities were always living together.

An Order so essentially international of necessity had to have a greater unity of hierarchy and of thought to give it coherence and efficacy.
Comparison of Evangelization in Portuguese and Spanish America
Authors: Ricard Robert
Published: July 2006

The author of these lines wishes, first of all, to ask your permission to study the theme presented in this program a trifle more extensively. That is to say, I will not limit myself in a spirit, perhaps, that is too narrow, to study only the evangelization of Brazil and Spanish America, but I will take a wider perspective of ecclesiastical or ecclesial matters, since the missions, as the great Belgian teacher Pierre Charles, S. J. taught me, do not represent anything more than the normal and natural growth of the Church. My comparison therefore will refer to the history of the Church in both dominions. However, I must amplify the theme in another way.
Some Reflections Upon the Chapter on Religion in the Coordination of the Colonial Period by Dr. S. Zavala
Authors: Bishko C. J.
Published: July 2006

Since the aim here is not to bestow upon Dr. Zavala the praise due him for his customary stimulating analyses and insights, these remarks will be confined to listing succintly and without elaboration certain respects in which, in the writer’s opinion, the chapter on religion might be enriched or strengthened.

First, by way of general considerations, might be noted the extreme unbalance given the chapter by the loosely organized and often repetitious introductory section, with its 23 out of 52 pages for the chapter as a/whole. This is followed by a mere five pages on the Spanish church as against eight for the Portuguese and some ten for the British colonial churches. Perhaps more space for the Spanish section might be secured by omission of the several attempts to portray what happened to religious America after Independence; as belonging to the post-colonial period, this material seems irrelevant to the purpose in hand.
Some Ideological Aspects of the Conquest of the Philippines
Authors: Phelan John Leddy
Published: July 2006

THE Spanish overseas empire was not won in a fit of absent-mindedness nor was it developed in a mood of salutary neglect. It was won with a conscience as well as with a sword.

Some disagreement has recently been expressed as to whether the ideas of Francisco de Vitoria,primaprofessor of theology at the University of Salamanca at the time of his death in 1546, exercised any appreciable influence on the actual development of events and ideas in the New World. One thing is beyond contention. Vitoria’s thought had a decisive impact on the Philippines. The ideological controversy precipitated by the conquest of the archipelago often assumed the character of a creative commentary on the lectures of that great Dominican theologian.
Gabino Gainza and Central America’s Independence from Spain
Authors: Kenyon Gordon
Published: July 2006

CENTRAL America owes its independence from Spain to a curiously inter-connected chain of events and people. The Captaincy-General of Guatemala, as it was known in the beginning of the nineteenth century, effected its transition from a colonial to a free status with a minimum of bloodshed. Also, its freedom was gained with atleast a semblance of legality rather than by a resort to violence. The key link in the chain of events and people that led to this outcome was a relatively unknown and discredited (in the eyes of Spanish official-dom) veteran officer of the Spanish Army named Gabino Gainza. By his attitude in a time of emergency, Gainza prevented violent measures from being taken to insure independence, and at the same time prevented similar measures from being taken that might have kept Central America loyal to Spain. Gainza is not an heroic figure, but Central America owes him a lasting debt of gratitude for not having tried to be one.
Religious Aspects of Symbolic Acts of Sovereignty
Authors: Servin Manuel
Published: July 2006

MOST colonial territories were claimed or acquired by the symbolical ritual of taking possession. Nevertheless, this ritual ceremony is a subject that has been largely neglected in the historical literature of our nation. Few people, aside from historians, realize or know what an act of possession or sovereignty is. Even among these, there are those who simply overlook or ignore the historical importance and significance of the ceremony by which explorers and colonizers laid claim to territory in the New World. Yet there were extremely few boundary disputes and even colonial wars which did not retrace their antecedents to the performance of an act of sovereignty by some explorer of the rival colonial powers of Spain, England, and France.
The Influence of Benjamin Franklin in the River Plate Area Before 1810
Authors: Furlong Guillermo
Published: July 2006

During the course of the eighteenth century two savants of Anglo-Saxon parentage reached something close to renown in the River Plate area, which then comprised what is actually Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, and Uruguay. These men were Isaac Newton and Benjamin Franklin.

The British mathematician and philosopher was held in high esteem between the years 1730 and 1780. His popularity was due, in part at least, to the Jesuit professor of mathematics in Córdoba, who had formerly been Newton’s favorite student: the physician Thomas Falkner.
Forced Labor in Colonial Peru
Authors: Wiedner Donald L.
Published: July 2006

The well organized Inca nation of Peru yielded to the Spanish quest for precious metals and mission fields. The new Indian subjects, having developed stable economic and political nationhood before the conquest, were accustomed to work and amenable to organization. Out of this substance, a colonial state could be moulded to make a substantial contribution to the Spanish purposes.

Spaniards readily rationalized that precious metals were material rewards for the missions' spiritual ambitions; conquest itself had precedents both among the Romans and the Incas, but Spain's Christianity gave her even greater justification.
The Departure of Spanish Catholicism from Florida, 1763–1765
Authors: Gold Robert L.
Published: July 2006

The Seven Years’ war brought an end to almost 200 years of Spanish residence in Florida. Following the 1763 Treaty of Paris which settled the long and costly conflict between Great Britain and the Bourbon Family Compact (France and Spain), all Spanish possessions in North America east and southeast of the Mississippi River, were ceded to His Britannic Majesty, George III of England. Because Havana, Cuba, had capitulated to a British invasion in the summer of 1762, Marqués de Grimaldi, the Spanish plenipotentiary at Paris, reluctantly relinquished Florida to England in order to recover the Caribbean Island for His Catholic Majesty, Charles III. The treaty of Paris thus reduced Spain’s territorial holdings in the Americas. However, since the Spaniards were determined to leave to the British Crown an empty and unpopulated colony, all the population and portable possessions of Spanish Florida were transported to other areas of the Hispanic Indies.
The Expulsion Of Archbishop Ramón Casaus Y Torres From Central America
Authors: Bumgartner Louis E.
Published: July 2006

Archbishop Ramón Casaus y Torres arrived in the Captaincy General of Guatemala in July, 1811. At this time events in Spain blanketed with confusion the lines of authority to the colonies. And in the colonies factions had begun to form, favoring local control until the return of Ferdinand VII. In Mexico fear of just such a faction impelled influential Peninsulars and creoles to depose Viceroy Iturrigaray, providing precedent for Miguel Hidalgo’s Grito de Dolores. As bishop of Oaxaca, Casaus y Torres witnessed these events; and as a fiercely loyal Peninsular, he issued a scathing denunciation of Hidalgo. Casaus thus had taken his position before he came to Guatemala. Shortly after he arrived in the capital, uprisings occurred in San Salvador, León, Granada, and Guatemala City. Predictably, Casaus y Torres supported the action of Captain General José de Bustamante.
Bourbon Palliatives and the Central American Mining Industry, 1765–1800
Authors: Floyd Troy S.
Published: July 2006

It has become a well-established fact that agricultural and mineral production underwent marked increase during the eighteenth century in Latin America. An expanding European market, regular and abundant maritime transportation, the lowering of taxes, the reduction of prices of crown monopolies, and the granting of government loans to industry were all factors which, in varying degree, stimulated increased production. Less well known, however, is the fact that in some areas production failed to rise above an unimpressive level despite these favorable conditions and official encouragement. The Central American mining industry, for example, experienced no noticeable change in productivity during the last half of the eighteenth century, although trade increased in volume, stimulative legislation was implemented, and penetrating suggestions—reflecting rays of the Enlightenment— were offered by miners and government officials.
The Architecture of Spanish St. Augustine
Authors: Arnade Charles W.
Published: July 2006

Although Florida was in the hands of the Spaniards for over three centuries there are hardly any remains of Spanish buildings. Original Spanish architecture has vanished from Florida; a basic link to Florida's fascinating history has been destroyed. Florida was in the hands of the Spanish from its discovery in 1513 until 1763, when Spain gave the province to England at the end of the Seven Years' War, known in America as the French and Indian War. Spain regained Florida in 1783 at the time of the Treaty of Paris which terminated the American War of Independence. The period from 1783 to 1821 is called in Florida history the second Spanish period and gave way to the American territorial period when Florida became part of the American union. The second Spanish period is quite distinct from the first Spanish period of Florida history (1513-1763). While the first period represents true Spanish Florida, the second era is more of an afterthought. Many foreigners, mostly English and United States citizens, were residing in Florida. It hardly can be called a Spanish Florida per se. Architectural remains from this pseudo-Spanish period are extremely scarce. The best preserved piece is the Catholic cathedral at St. Augustine, parts of which date back to the second Spanish period. But this church fares poorly if put next to the magnificent old cathedrals in Spanish America.
Francisco Millán Before the Mexican Inquisition: 1538-1539
Authors: Greenleaf Richard E.
Published: July 2006

Within the last decades considerable material has been written about Jews before the Mexican Inquisition. All of the studies mention in passing the most famous trial of a Jew before the Inquisition of Bishop Juan de Zumárraga (1536-1543), but no scholar has published a detailed analysis of this proceso of Francisco Millán. The paleography of the document is difficult and the pagination runs to some one hundred folios; however, it is worth the effort to examine this trial in order to obtain a vivid first-hand picture of Mexican Judaism of the 1530’s. The format of this analysis and commentary will follow the organization of the original trial record.
Yankee Sperm Whalers in Brazilian Waters, and the Decline of the Portuguese Whale Fishery (1773-1801)
Authors: Alden Dauril
Published: July 2006

On April 28, 1774, the Boston News-Letter published at the bottom of its first page the following “extract” of a letter it had recently received from Fayal, the Azores:

By a Vessel that arrived here last Month from Rio de Janeiro in the Brazils, we have accounts of a small Whaling Brig belonging to some Part of North-America, putting in there for Refreshments, but that Part of the crew were prevailed on either by fair or foul Means to enter on board a Portuguese Scow, to go on a Cruise of three Months a Whaling…. That the Brig still remained there in October last, with only the Captain and three People on board…. That the Portuguese provided themselves with Harpoons and other Necessaries, agreeable to the English Model, and were gone in Search of Spermaceti Whales, a Trade they have hitherto been entirely ignorant of, and are very desirous of acquiring some Knowledge in. All the oil they used to make in the Brazils was from the Bone Whales, and those they caught in such Abundance in open boats along the Shore that they migh[t] undersell any other Europeans if they were expert in their Business, but they never venture out of Sight of Shore.
The Missionary Activities of Fray Antonio Margil de Jesús in Texas, 1716–1722
Authors: Donahue William H.
Published: July 2006

Fray Antonio Margil was not the leader of the first group of missionaries to enter Texas. The entrada of which he was a member did not occur until 1716. However, previous to this, there had been only one serious attempt at permanent occupation of Texas by missionaries. This had occurred in 1690. The Spanish claim to Texas antedates this attempt at occupation by almost a hundred and fifty years. In order to present the work of Fray Antonio Margil with’ greater clarity, it will be well to show its exact position in the history of the territory by summarizing here the history of the occupation of Texas previous to the work of Fray Antonio.
The Captain's Widow: Maria Graham and the Independence of South America
Authors: Marchant Anyda
Published: July 2006

On April 28, 1822, His Britannic Majesty's ship Doris, outward bound from Portsmouth, by way of Rio de Janeiro, entered the bay of Valparaíso in Chile with her flag halfmast. Aboard was the body of her captain, Thomas Graham, who had died as the vessel rounded Cape Horn. His widow Maria, looking out at the town that Sunday night, wrote in her journal:

Many days have passed, and I have been unable and unwilling to resume my journal. To-day, the newness of the place, and all the other circumstances of our arrival, have drawn my thoughts to take some interest in the things around me. I can conceive nothing more glorious than the sight of the Andes this morning, on approaching the land at daybreak; starting, as it were, from the ocean itself, their summits of eternal snow shone in all the majesty of light long before the lower earth was illuminated, when suddenly the sun appeared from behind them and they were lost; and we sailed on for hours before we descried the land.
Account of a South American Journey, 1898
Authors: Dahl Victor C.
Published: July 2006

An adventuresome human experience unfolds in telling the life story of Granville Stuart, a genuine pioneer of the American West and United States minister to Uruguay and Paraguay from 1894 to 1898. Three years after his birth in Virginia in 1834, Stuart's parents moved to Iowa where he grew up in a frontier community. His father went to California in the first year of the Gold Rush, returned to Iowa in 1851 and the next spring the senior Stuart and two of his sons, Granville and James, crossed the continent to the Pacific gold fields where they mined with indifferent luck until 1857 when Stuart's sons decided to return to Iowa. The “ Mormon War ” diverted then? progress across the Great Basin, causing them to detour north into Southeastern Montana where they mined for a while and became part of that wave of settlers that pushed back the frontier in the Rocky Mountains. Stuart's first wife, an Indian woman he had married in 1862, died in 1887, leaving him with several grown children. Three years later he married Mrs. Allis Brown Fairfield, a Montana school teacher, nearly thirty years his junior, and who, like himself, had been born in Virginia and reared in Iowa. Miss Brown's parents had moved to Montana in 1879 after she had attended Sioux City (Iowa) public schools; she later studied at Vassar College and Northern Indiana Normal School, and before her marriage to Granville Stuart she taught in several one-room rural Montana schools.
Argentine Neutrality, September, 1939–June, 1940 A Re-Examination
Authors: Hilton Stanley E.
Published: July 2006

Argentina’s foreign policy during World War II is often believed to have been one of indifferent, or even pro-Axis, neutrality from the very onset of hostilities in Europe. Passions aroused by the Axis leanings of the government leaders during most of the period of American belligerency have tended to obscure the fact that the attitude of the Argentine government during the period preceding the fall of France was unquestionably favorable to the Allies. Previous writers have neglected this period, and have tended to skip directly from the Panama Conference in September, 1939, to the capitulation of France, following which Argentina adopted a policy of strict neutrality, and thus have given the erroneous impression that Argentina’s position on hemispheric neutrality was the same throughout the war.
The Trial of Francisco de Miranda
Authors: Moreau John
Published: July 2006

In May 12, 1793, a tall handsome Spanish American strode quickly and confidently into the old Paris Parlement chamber, escorted by an usher, and followed by most eyes in the buzzing room. As he approached his place his eyes very likely met those of Danton, seated in the courtroom, for Danton, the real head of the Committee of Public Safety, was present and, although unable at the time for political reasons to show public sympathy for the Spanish American, was his friend.
Daniel Florence O’Leary, Soldier, Diplomat, and Historian
Authors: McNerney Robert F.
Published: July 2006

A Young Irishman from Cork was among those who answered a call sent out by Luis López Méndez, Venezuela’s agent in London, for foreign volunteers to join the patriot forces in their efforts to win independence from Spain. Though such enlistments were expressly forbidden by the British government, it would seem that little effort was made to stop them, for we know that several thousand Englishmen and Irishmen volunteered for service over a period of a few years. So it was that on December 3, 1817, Daniel Florence O’Leary left Portsmouth on board the corvette Prince, bound for the New World. What was it that led O’Leary to leave family and home at the rather tender age of seventeen?
Was it the desire for adventure and excitement in an unknown land where a war was being waged or was it because the economic crisis in the British Isles after the Napoleonic wars gave an enterprising young man little hope of forging a successful career for himself? It is difficult to assess his motives at that time, but there seems to be no doubt that he felt strongly attracted by this struggle for freedom going on across the seas, all the more so because he came from a land where the Act of Union decreed by the British government in 1800 had ended the limited autonomy granted the people two decades earlier and had re-established many of the intolerable restrictions previously in force. It seems very likely, too, that the young adventurer had been influenced in his decision by the great champion of Irish rights, Daniel O'Connell, a family friend, who followed with keen interest the struggle for freedom and became a fervent admirer of Bolivar, even to the point of offering the latter the services of his son.
America and the Challenge of the Times
Authors: Lima Alceu Amoroso
Published: July 2006

This is not the first time we meet; neither is it the first opportunity I have had of coming to this Academy and to such a pleasant ambiente. I find it very welcoming because it is at the same time American and Franciscan, two things which, at first, may seem to contradict each other. When talking of Franciscanism we immediately think, of course, of the simple life, the contact with nature. We think of Italy, with its fields and cities, its mountains where the Lord appeared, covered with wings, to strike the Seraphic Father with the wounds which made possible humanity’s redemption—Italy, with its crystalline rivers which, together with the winds in the oak trees, are the only orchestra that accompanies the silence of the hermitages.
Fray Pedro De Aguado, the Forgotten Chronicler of Colombia and Venezuela
Authors: Fals-Borda Orlando
Published: July 2006

The story of fray pedro de aguado, O.F.M., and his work is not a happy one. He was a humble friar who had spent the best years of his life in the New Kingdom of Granada preaching to the Indians. He had also taken the pains of gathering material for the writing of a history of the area with which he was acquainted. Back in Spain in 1576 as a representative of his province, Aguado completed the writing, went through the endless protocols, submitted his work for the examination of cosmographers, and secured due licenses to print—only to see his books fail to appear for one reason or another. And as years went by and publication was not forthcoming, Fray Pedro, who apparently had given up hope, died in an unknown place at an unknown date. Spanish bibliographers thereafter were meticulous enough to include his name in their lists of authors. Aguado was even copied by other historians who were lucky or curious enough to look for and find the manuscripts. But apart from these bibliographers and historians, mice and moths became the ones to profit most from the perusal of the accounts that the friar had so carefully compiled.
The Inquisition in Eighteenth-Century Mexico
Authors: Tambs Lewis A.
Published: July 2006

A distinguished British historian, commenting on the trial and execution of “ Edmund Arrowsmith, a Papist burned by pious Englishmen at Lancaster in 1628,” claims that “ clearly … there is no rational comparison between a victim of the bloody Spanish Tribunal and one who suffered at the hands of cool headed English justice.” Considering that Magistrate Henry Yelverton judged Arrowsmith guilty of high treason for being a priest, refused to allow the accused to testify in his own defense, and then gleefully witnessed the execution, it is possible that “ cool headed English justice ” might not compare so favorably with the proceedings of the Inquisition. This is particularly true when the Inquisition in eighteenth-century New Spain is studied, for although the Holy Office was then in decline and under the control of regalist prelates, its operations exhibited marked deliberation in the pursuit of justice as defined by the courts of that period.
Ecclesiastical Reform of Nunneries in New Spain in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Lavrin Asunción
Published: July 2006

During the second half of the seventeenth century and the early years of the eighteenth century relaxation of the morals of religious orders, especially the masculine ones, and of the priesthood was notable in Spain and her American dominions. That this situation also existed in New Spain was reported in detail by several contemporary Viceroys in theInstruccionesto their successors. This relaxation also extended to feminine orders, though in their case it did not lead to a similar moral looseness, but to a lack of proper observance of their Rules and Constitutions. Among the main charges against nunneries were: the possession of large numbers of servants; the constant demands made upon the families of nuns for money to be spent on the needs of convents; quarrels, both among members of communities and with their Superiors, leading to appeals to civil authorities and frequent contacts with the outer world, which deteriorated the spiritual character of these institutions.
Slavery in Brazil as Described by Americans, 1822–1888
Authors: Cardozo Manoel
Published: July 2006

By the end of the nineteenth century the American public, if it had cared to enlarge upon its knowledge of the Empire of Brazil, could easily have done so without even the necessity of learning a foreign language. From 1822 to 1888, beginning with the independence of Brazil from Portugal and ending with the abolition of slavery— a period corresponding almost exactly with the life span of the Brazilian Empire—about twenty books on Brazil were published by Americans. These were obviously not the only books on the subject in the English language because Britishers wrote about Brazil too (indeed they wrote more about it than we did) and these books on Brazil were also available on this side of the Atlantic. The combined output of the two nations was, therefore, considerable, and the curiosity of the Anglo-Saxon mind which it for the most part reflected presented Brazil to the American reader under a great variety of aspects. There were the solid three volumes on the colonial period of Brazilian history by Robert Southey, the poet laureate of England who was much better as a historian, and the two-volume sequel by John Armitage, who was neither a historian nor a poet but a lover of liberty.
Gabriela Mistral's Poema de Chile
Authors: Bates Margaret
Published: July 2006

The distinguished Chilean poet, Gabriela Mistral, winner of the Nobel Prize for literature in 1945, died in Hempstead, Long Island, on January 10, 1957, of cancer. In the numerous articles that appeared in newspapers and magazines after her death the factual mistakes about her life and writings were endless. Although her critics have not been careful to separate myths from facts, most of these errors can be corrected by referring to books or articles about her—but not the mistakes about her as yet unpublished Poema de Chile. For this reason I have assembled these notes about the Poema de Chile taken from conversations with Gabriela during the last four years of her life which she spent for the most part working on the Poema and on her Lagar poems. Part of the Lagar poems she published in 1954. The rest of her Lagar poems will be published posthumously by her literary heir, Doris Dana. These will probably appear before the unfinished Poema de Chile because of the difficulties inherent in the preparation of the Poema for publication.
Memorial of Fray Juan de Silva to Pope Urban VIII.
Authors: Kelly Celsus
Published: July 2006

Madrid, 20 September 1623.

Requesting that the natives of the AustralLands be given into the care of the Franciscanfriars, who would undertake their conquestby spiritual and peaceful means.

Most Holy Father

Friar Juan de Silva, preacher of the Seraphic Order of our Father St. Francis (and confessor of the Royal Palace of His Majesty), of the Province of Castile, prostrate at the feet of your Holiness says that, with zeal for the honor of God, Our Lord, and for the propagation of the Holy Gospel, and at the express command of his Majesty Philip II (who is in heaven), he went to the Realms of the Indies.
Periodicals for Women in Mexico During the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Herrick Jane
Published: July 2006

Colonial Spanish America would have found the idea of publishing a periodical directed toward a feminine audience alien. Yet the colonial period was not long over when such periodicals began to appear in Mexico. Typical of those published in the period 1841–1855 were El Semanario de las señoritas mejicanas (3 vols.; México, 1841–1842) and La Semana de las señoritas mejicanas (5 vols.; México, 1851–1852). They have been examined in detail to determine what appeal the fledglings tried to make to Mexican society. El Album mexicano (2 vols.; México, 1849), La Camelia (México, 1853), El Album de las señoritas potosinas (San Luis Potosí, 1865) and, as examples of a later type, El Album de la mujer (Mexico, 1883–1890) and El Correo de las señoras (México, 1883–1893) have been used to supplement the information. While none of them achieved the success of Godey’s Lady’s Book which by 1860 claimed a circulation of 150,000, they did show that in the nineteenth century some publishers in Mexico were concerned with woman’s edification, education, and entertainment through reading.
The War With the United States and the Crisis in Mexican Thought
Authors: Hale Charles A.
Published: July 2006

After a border skirmish at the Rio Grande on April 25, 1846, A Mexico and the United States were at war, and within a few months Zachary Taylor’s troops had overrun the north, reaching Monterrey and Saltillo. At the same time an expedition under Winfield Scott landed at Vera Cruz and pushed inward along the ancient road of conquest, reaching the gates of Mexico City by August, 1847. Mexican resistance was heroic and determined in spots, but disorganization and poor leadership played havoc with any attempt at national defense. The capital fell and was occupied by the invaders, the Mexican government fled to Querétaro, and an ignominious peace treaty was negotiated and accepted by the helpless Mexicans, though not without serious opposition from the radical (puro) element which favored a last-ditch resistance. With the rapid subjection of the country and the loss of more than half its territory, the once proud and optimistic nation of Iturbide was left stunned; and it turned to bitter reflection upon its paralyzed condition and its flagrant display of weakness when faced by a small and not too efficient force of invaders.

The very independence of Mexico was now threatened. Such an easy victory by a powerful neighbor would mean that Mexico might at any time be absorbed by the United States, especially when there was a movement for that purpose already afoot north of the Rio Grande. The easy optimism of the early days of the republic had now vanished. The shock of military disaster, after the dismal decade of mediocrity and humdrum military revolutions, accentuated a crisis in Mexican thought. Both liberals and conservatives now saw the necessity of imposing radical changes upon the course of independent Mexico. Since the overthrow of the radical Gómez Farias government in 1834, the country had been allowed to drift, and when the Americans invaded, its vigor appeared to be gone. In spite of the presence of a sizable moderate party, the factions became sharply differentiated as they had never been before in the history of the republic, except perhaps for the year 1832. Liberals and conservatives appealed to their traditional programs for solutions to Mexico’s crisis of 1847, and the seeds were sown for a great conflict.
Sixteenth-Century Reading in the Indies
Authors: Revello José Torre
Published: July 2006

Among the many books destined for children, the one preferred in America during the colonial period was the Fables attributed to the Phrygian slave, Aesop. Translated into Spanish, it was found in the hands of travelers and colonists throughout the Spanish empire. The simplicity of the tales and the morals which they point out made them the delight not only of children but also of adults, who explained the precepts with purposeful wit.

Aesop was one of the authors most read in the New World, according to what we can deduce by consulting the numerous lists of books which were sent to various parts of the American continent. His fables were also circulated in Latin and Greek, surely for pedagogical purposes. In Spain there was no lack of poets who devoted part of their work to fables, such as the Archpriest of Hita with his Enxiemplos, up to the culmination in the eighteenth century with Félix María Samaniego and Tomás de Iriarte, whose works it is logical to suppose were brought to the New World with many others of various kinds. By that time the shores of America were being swept by other ideas, distinct from those of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, which brought unrest to the minds of the people, ideas foreign to the calm and well-being of the two previous centuries.
The Spanish Arbitration of the Ecuador-Peru Dispute
Authors: Zook David H.
Published: July 2006

Although a border question had existed between Ecuador and Peru since independence, it was not until 1887 that they made serious efforts to resolve their mutual frontiers. The formative first phase of the dispute extended from the creation of Ecuador in 1830; the second began August 1, 1887, with the Bonifaz-Espinosa agreement and concluded in 1910 with the total collapse of the settlement procedures therein pacted. The intervening twenty-three years saw the development of arguments destined to be used to some extent even down to the present, witnessed the futile attempt of the mother country to arbitrate, and brought the major American powers into the matter for the first time.
The New York-To-Cuba Axis of Father Varela
Authors: McCadden Joseph J.
Published: July 2006

Cuba experienced during the early 19th century an intellectual explosion whose impact has reverberated into the 20th century. It was sparked by a shabby, ascetic little priest with luminous eyes and an eloquent smile, who, while laboring for 25 years as a missionary in New York, kept the lines of contact open with his forward-looking followers. He believed in dignity, social justice, and freedom, under God and His Church, for every people, and he did not consider these obtainable for Cuba under Spanish rule. A Cuban scholar in our times has designated him, “Forger of the Conscience of Cuba.”
The Hispanist in the American Historical Association
Authors: Lanning John Tate
Published: July 2006

The following address was presented at the luncheon meeting of the Conference on Latin American History of the American Historical Association in Philadelphia on December 29, 1963.

Before you bombard with the china and charge with the cutlery, know that I have taken counsel with my peers. My topic I put to them with a plea that they give me a judgment of my theme, or some notion of the tack I should take. “Singularly barren, your theme,” came the first response. Said the next: “You ask for a tack; I suggest a sledge hammer.” Awesome, though, was this: “If you say what ought to be said, you will be crucified; and if you don’t, can you be pleased with that?” “If you can do it undetected, slide off the subject,” advised a wily one. Another, though he discounted them, had heard rumbles, womblings I take to spring from the viscera, not the head. The secretaries of our academy assure me, however, that these infirmities, already affecting the skin, often break out in a rash upon their records.
The Art of the Possible: Luis Muñoz Rivera and the Puerto Rican Jones Bill
Authors: Gatell Frank Otto
Published: July 2006

The admission of Alaska and Hawaii into the Union as states has once again raised the question of Puerto Rico's constitutional status. Many islanders see the present commonwealth, very nearly the personal creation of Governor Luis Muñoz Marín, as a way station on the road to full membership in the American federal system. Independence sentiment, barring economic catastrophe, seems safely relegated to the realm of polemical fantasy. Thus the island's only tangible constitutional problem is its relation to the United States: should it be associated with, or an integral part of the mainland. No event in Puerto Rican history has been more important in shaping the course of the island's development than the grant of collective United States citizenship in the Jones Act of 1917. And no Puerto Rican politician of the era was more influential than Luis Muñoz Rivera, who embodied the dominant Unionista party in the same way that his son embodies the now dominant Popular party. Muñoz Rivera's role in the politics of the Jones Bill affords a revealing view of the difficulties of working within the framework of colonialism, and of being forced to reconcile aspirations with political realities.
Salazar's Report to the Third Mexican Council
Authors: Burrus Ernest J.
Published: July 2006

On February 1, 1584, Pedro Moya de Contreras, archbishop of Mexico City, dispatched the official summons to the bishops of his ecclesiastical province to attend the Third Mexican Council set for the ninth of December of that same year. At the request of the bishop of the distant diocese of Guatemala, Fray Fernando Gómez de Córdoba, of the Order of St. Jerome, the opening date was postponed to January 20, 1585.

One of the Archbishop's letters of convocation was addressed to the first bishop of the Philippines, Fray Domingo de Salazar, Dominican. From Salazar's reply we know that the Archbishop did not insist on his personal attendance nor did he even suggest that he send a delegate. The purpose of the letter was to inform Salazar of the convocation of the Council and invite him to send a written report on conditions of the Church in the Islands, and propose such problems as he thought the assembled bishop should discuss and strive to solve.
Spanish Immigration to the United States
Authors: Gomez R. A.
Published: July 2006

In our preoccupation with the Spaniards of earlier centuries and their subsequent impact on the history of the United States, we have tended to overlook the Spanish immigrants of modern decades. The presence of large numbers of Spanish family names in the United States, particularly in New York City and in western states, has obscured the fact that very few Spaniards have come to the United States directly from Spain. It is the purpose of this paper to investigate the data on modern movements of Spaniards to the Americas in general, with special emphasis on the United States, and to consider the pattern of Spanish settlement in the United States that resulted from these movements.
The Chronicles of the Early Seventeenth Century: How They Were Written
Authors: Ramos Demetrio
Published: July 2006

During the first half of the sixteenth century, the chroniclers of the Indies, those true chroniclers who were contemporaries of the conquest, wrote from personal acquaintance with the events which they were relating, as direct or indirect witnesses, relying upon their own experiences or upon the stories and versions of the other participants with whom they lived or whom their informers knew. But during the period which extends from the later years of the sixteenth century into the first decades of the seventeenth, those whom we would call the later chroniclers found themselves separated from the happenings which they were relating. For this reason they had to make use of different means. Further, this obliged them to depend on what their colleagues produced. They made use equally of the unpublished manuscripts of earlier historians as well as of works which were appearing at that time, either to follow them or to contradict them. From this arose the polemic atmosphere in which they had to work.
A Working Bibliography for the Study of Brazilian History
Authors: Burns E. Bradford
Published: July 2006

Bibliographies for the study of Brazilian history are either too brief, such as those in the appendices of general textbooks, or too long, such as theManual Bibliográfico de Estudos Brasileiros. The present one aims to strike a happy medium and, by doing so, to provide a practical guide for the increasing number of students and of the general public in the United States who have an interest in learning more about the Brazilian past.

The selection of books for this bibliography has not been entirely arbitrary. Because it is intended primarily for North Americans, I chose liberally of the material available in English. Conversely, I was more exclusive in selecting works in other languages. Of the voluminous literature available in Portuguese, I sought to point out only the outstanding works—whether for quality of style, depth of research, originality, or at times, because they were the only examples of their kind in neglected aspects of Brazilian history. A few books of exceptional merit or interest in French and Spanish also were added. Doubtless I have included here some works which others may consider unworthy, to the exclusion of some they may consider indispensable. Still, I believe this bibliography will fulfill its primary purpose of indicating the basic material available to the student of Brazilian history.
The Historian and the Indian: Racial Bias in American History
Authors: Forbes Jack D.
Published: July 2006

The student of history who is concerned with the historical past of the American Indian and who is also a reader of general American historical works is faced with a provocative problem which apparently does not seriously bother other members of the historical profession. That is, he is aware of the question of defining what is meant by the concepts of “United States history “and “American history.” Most historically minded people would solve the problem very simply: American history is the story of America’s past (meaning by “American “the United States of America only) or, Unįted States history is the story of the development of the United States as a nation and as a region.
Don Miguel Cabrera de Nevares: A Spanish Revolutionist in America
Authors: de Onís José
Published: July 2006

There are epochs in the history of a literature which do not produce masterpieces but which contribute, nevertheless, to the history of that culture by providing new concepts and values which, in the long run, may become the germ of literary works of a broader and more universal nature. These are generally epochs of transition, lacking repose and stability, and which usually precede others more fortunate in the literary harvest. In Spain one of these periods is from 1809–1823, a turbulent, revolutionary epoch, of conspirators, pamphleteers, and philosophers, of the Cádiz Constitution of 1812, and in large measure precursor of the generation of ‘98 and its great literary flowering.
The Service of William A. Harris at Buenos Aires 1846–1851
Authors: Dusenberry William
Published: July 2006

William A. Harris ably served the United States as chargé d'affaires at Buenos Aires from June, 1846, until October, 1851, during one of the most critical periods in Argentine history. When he went to his post of duty, Argentina was suffering both from external and internal strife. France and England had intervened in affairs in the Río de la Plata, and had blockaded the coast. Relations between Argentina and two of her neighbors, Paraguay and Brazil, were strained. The government of Buenos Aires was fomenting civil war in Uruguay. There was mounting tension between Buenos Aires and the back country provinces. Public discontent prevailed within Buenos Aires Province. Foreign nationals residing there became increasingly apprehensive about the future of their business enterprises. The heavy hand of the violent caudillo, Juan Manuel de Rosas, Governor of Buenos Aires Province, was felt throughout the entire area of the Río de la Plata. His position was so strong that in most respects he controlled affairs of the whole Argentine Confederation, comprising fourteen provinces.
The Municipality and the System of Checks and Balances in Spanish American Colonial Administration
Authors: Pike Fredrick B.
Published: July 2006

Perhaps the most characteristic feature of the colonial policy devised by the Hapsburgs to govern Spanish holdings in America was the system of intervention, checks, balances, and overlapping authority. Many modern students express impatient disapproval of this system, assuming that it resulted in governmental inefficiency if not complete stagnation. By applying a different set of criteria, however, and one which was certainly more in the minds of those who fashioned the Spanish colonial structure, intervention, checks and balances may be judged a brilliantly conceived means of maintaining under colonial status a vast overseas empire. Considered in these terms, it is the opinion of the writer that nowhere was the success of this system more evident than on the level of local administration in the “ Indies,” where it served to prevent the rise of an unchecked spirit of local autonomy while tending to preserve sentiments of loyalty to the crown.
An English Library at Trinidad, 1633
Authors: Adams Eleanor B.
Published: July 2006

The island of Trinidad was discovered by Columbus on the third voyage in 1498. One of the largest and most fertile of the West Indian islands, for many years it remained on the fringe of European activity in the Caribbean area and on the coasts of Venezuela and Guiana. A Spanish settlement was founded there in 1532, but apparently it disintegrated within a short time. Toward the end of the sixteenth century Berrio and Raleigh fought for possession of the island, but chiefly as a convenient base for their rival search for El Dorado, or Manoa, the Golden Man and the mythical city of gold. Throughout the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries explorers, corsairs, and contraband traders, Spanish, French, English, and Dutch, passed near its shores, and many of them may well have paused there to refresh themselves and to make necessary repairs to their vessels. But the records are scanty and we know little of such events or of the settlements that existed from time to time.