bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Special Relationships and Special Reasons
Authors: Keller Simon
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the concept of partiality. Partiality means giving special treatment to those with whom we share certain relationships. You treat a person differently if she is your friend or a member of your family. You may also treat a person differently if she is your colleague, your neighbor, your employee, or your compatriot. You may also favor your own country over other countries, your own team over other teams, or your alma mater over other schools. The chapter considers the norms of partiality and reasons of partiality, difference between reasons and motives, and the puzzle of partiality. It draws distinctions between three views of partiality: the projects view, relationships view, and individuals view. The remainder of the chapter says some more to clear the ground for an investigation into the prospects of the three views.
My Projects
Authors: Keller Simon
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the projects view about reasons of partiality. When you have reason to give special treatment to a person with whom you share a special relationship, the ground of your reason could be in you, or in the relationship, or in the other person. The projects view says that it is in you. To see why we have reason to treat some people differently from others, says the projects view, we need to look more closely at ourselves. The projects view further says that we have special reasons within special relationships because we have ground projects into which certain special relationships are incorporated.
World History and the Evolving International Judiciary
Authors: Alter Karen J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter addresses the question of why states become increasingly willing to submit to international judicial oversight, highlighting how legal practice has changed and how international law has increasingly become embedded into domestic law and institutions. Although the same fundamental motive drives delegation to courts across time, key historical events have been needed to increase bottom-up demands and make governments and legislatures open to accepting greater international judicial oversight. At the end of World War II, governments were able to reject proposals for compulsory international judicial oversight of their behavior. Changes in legal practice in the United States and Europe during and after the Cold War meant that foreign legal and quasi-legal bodies increasingly adjudicated allegations of economic and human rights violations abroad.
The Demise of Chronology
Authors: Buchwald Jed Z. , Feingold Mordechai
Published: November 2017

This chapter continues the discussion of critique’s of Isaac Newton’s The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms. Among these was by Arthur Bedford, whose main objection to Newton’s work, even more than its violation of the scriptural account of the peopling of the earth, was Newton’s pinpointing the beginnings of Greek idolatry in King David’s time, with Ceres allegedly the first to be worshipped as a deity. In so doing, Bedford charged, Newton ignored the extensive evidence furnished by Scripture regarding the pervasiveness of idolatry ever since Nimrod’s day. Here Bedford resorted to distortion, for Newton explicitly stated that “Idolatry began in Chaldaea and Egypt, and spread thence into Phoenicia and the neighboring countries, long before it came into Europe.” Unfazed, Bedford enumerated at great length the rise and progress of idolatry according to Scripture, before damning Newton who, “without the least Shadow of Proof, contradicts all at once, and brings both the Scripture History and Chronology into the outmost Confusion.”
Evidence and History
Authors: Buchwald Jed Z. , Feingold Mordechai
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes how the interest generated by Isaac Newton’s astronomical chronology extended well into the nineteenth century. Newton’s purpose in bringing calculation to bear on history was meant to ground it upon a more secure foundation. Moreover, for a time the Chronology mattered a great deal. A modern reader may find the text disagreeable and unworthy of serious attention. To Enlightenment readers, however, the very dryness of Newton’s book and its matter-of-fact format of presentation only heightened its revolutionary content. Versed in the sources upon which Newton drew, they recognized his inventiveness and ability effectively to handle the relevant literature. As Augustus De Morgan—an appreciative critic of Newton—put it in 1846: “his ideas on chronology, founded on the assumption of an accuracy in the older Greek astronomers which nobody now allows them, are rejected and obsolete. But the work does honor to his ingenuity and his scholarship, showing him to be not meanly versed in ancient learning.”
Does Unequal Political Voice Matter?
Authors: Schlozman Kay Lehman , Verba Sidney , Brady Henry E.
Published: November 2017

This chapter investigates three conditions under which inequalities of political voice would not make a difference. That is, the chapter asks if political voice, even though not universal, were representative; if public officials were not responsive to what they hear through the medium of citizen participation; or if they made special efforts to learn about and respond to the preferences and needs of the politically inactive, inequality of political voice would not pose a challenge to democratic governance. In fact, the chapter reveals that none of these three conditions is met. Although surveys show that voters and nonvoters do not differ substantially in their policy views as measured by responses to questions on surveys, forms of political participation other than voting and some politically relevant characteristics are both considered, this chapter finds that political voice is unrepresentative in important ways.
Unequal at the Starting Line: The Intergenerational Persistence of Political Inequality
Authors: Schlozman Kay Lehman , Verba Sidney , Brady Henry E.
Published: November 2017

This chapter takes into account information about parents' education and political involvement and about the home political environment, which adds another dimension to the persistence of inequalities of political voice. These processes, in short, work across generations. Those who had well-educated parents are, for two reasons, more likely to be politically active as adults. For one thing, they are more likely to have grown up in politically stimulating homes with parents who were politically active and an environment of frequent political discussion. More important but less often noticed, because educational attainment is likely to be handed on across generations, those whose parents were well educated are more likely to become well educated themselves, with consequences for the acquisition of many other factors that encourage political participation.
Political Voice through Organized Interest Activity
Authors: Schlozman Kay Lehman , Verba Sidney , Brady Henry E.
Published: November 2017

This chapter maps the terrain of political activity by organizations using systematic empirical data to reveal something about the political voice emerging from organized involvement in various domains of national politics. For various domains of organizational activity, the chapter characterizes categories of organizations with respect to the likelihood that organizations are active and, if active, how much they do. In the process this chapter clarifies the strategic considerations and resource constraints that shape the involvement of different kinds of organizations in different arenas. Here, it becomes apparent that the policy makers in different institutional settings hear quite different mixes of messages.
The Alterity of Tradition
Authors: Vidas Moulie
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the famous opening sugya of tractate Bava Qamma to show how the Babylonian Talmud's creators could use an ambitious literary design to highlight the gap between their own words and an Amoraic tradition. This sugya has been used before as an example of the strategies the Talmud's creators employed seamlessly to incorporate tradition to the literary and logical structures they constructed. This chapter suggests the opposite, arguing that the sugya is designed to emphasize the distance between the approach expressed by the stam (the creators‘ anonymous layer) and the approach expressed by the Amoraic dictum that it cites. Far from “hiding” themselves behind tradition or voicing their agenda through it, the authors of the stam become a presence in their own creation.
Democratizing Japan and Germany
Authors: Smith Tony
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the American democratization policy for postwar Japan and Germany as part of its liberal democratic internationalism. World War II stands as one of the great watersheds in history; it not only marked the defeat of fascism as a viable form of political organization, but also opened the possibility of promoting democracy in Germany and Japan. Thus, it created the conditions for a liberal world order that could contain and ultimately eclipse communism's pretension to world revolution. The chapter considers American efforts to liberalize Germany and Japan after World War II by analyzing the fate of what the American Army referred to as the four D's for Germany: demilitarization, democratization, decartelization, and denazification or deprogramming. It also discusses the extent to which the eventual democratization of Germany and Japan ultimately helped create a more powerful liberal world order.
Kennedy ’s Alliance for Progress, 1961–1965
Authors: Smith Tony
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines John F. Kennedy's efforts to foster democracy and social justice in Latin America during the period 1961–1965 through an initiative known as the Alliance for Progress. The Alliance for Progress was vital to American national security interest in Latin America: it was formed to democratize authoritarian regimes and address the challenge of communism in the region. The chapter first provides a background on the Alliance for Progress, with emphasis on its linkage of socioeconomic to political reform, before discussing the Kennedy administration's justification for the program insofar as effecting fundamental change in Latin America was concerned. It also considers the reasons why the Alliance for Progress's proclaimed goal of promoting democracy in Latin America did not come to fruition, including Washington's failure to support land reform. The United States' experiences with Chile and the Dominican Republic illustrate the failure of the Alliance for Progress.
After the Cold War: Wilsonianism Resurgent?
Authors: Smith Tony
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the United States's Wilsonianism in the post-Cold War era, first under George H. W. Bush and then under Bill Clinton. It considers how Bush, who became president as the Soviet Union was disintegrating and its leaders were looking for a new framework of understanding with the West, used Wilsonianism to address the question of establishing a world order favorable to American national security. It also discusses various Bush initiatives that were designed to establish a new world order after the cold war, Clinton's selective approach to liberal democratic internationalism, the effects of liberal economic practices on American national security, and the link between nationalism and liberal democracy. Finally, it assesses some of the challenges involved in the United States' efforts to bring about stable constitutional governance in many parts of the world.
Guns for Cotton
Authors: Ferris Jesse
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines Egypt's growing dependence on the Soviet Union as a result of the war in Yemen. It explores the tensions that developed between the two countries after Khrushchev's ouster as the Soviet government began to exploit Egypt's difficulties in order to obtain basing rights that would even the playing field against the US Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean. The uneasy dependency on Moscow, in conjunction with the rupture in relations with Washington, shattered the edifice of Egyptian neutrality, which stood at the foundation of Nasser's international clout in the 1950s, and set the stage for the crisis that produced the Six-Day War.
The Twilight of Egyptian Power
Authors: Ferris Jesse
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter talks about how Nasser's greatest failing may well have been his failure to open up space for political participation. It was not just a question of creating a popular base for his rule (as Nasser repeatedly sought to do, from the Liberation Rally to the Arab Socialist Union), but of enabling genuinely participatory politics that would ensure the future of the regime and guide Egypt forward once the great leader left the stage. If Nasser survived Egypt's humiliating defeat in 1967, there is little reason to doubt he would have survived the inauguration of a phase of moderation following the perceived triumph of 1956. The pursuit of such an inward-focused policy would have meant that the legitimacy of the regime came to rest on domestic performance, not foreign pyrotechnics.
The Bowery and Its Bars
Authors: Ocejo Richard E.
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides a brief social history of the Bowery as told through the transformation of its bars and nightlife. It first examines how bars and nightlife corresponded to and helped along the Bowery's eventual gentrification before discussing how new bars and contemporary nightlife development have shaped community life in downtown neighborhood bars. A vignette of the people at Milano's Bar, a bar that has evolved alongside the changes occurring in the Bowery and the nightlife scene, is presented. Through an analysis of its multiple generations of customers, its bartenders, and its owners, the chapter reveals the tensions that have arisen from the bar's own transformation as a refuge for the homeless to a public gathering place for residents to a “dive bar” for young visitors. The reactions of the people at Milano's to these changes illustrate how urban forces have shaped a fundamental aspect of life for people in these downtown neighborhoods, namely, community socializing.
Regulating Nightlife Scenes
Authors: Ocejo Richard E.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the issues that arise for policing nightlife scenes. It begins with an episode from one of the special meetings that the police occasionally hold at the precinct for bar owners, at which owners receive tips from officers on how to reduce quality-of-life complaints from residents and prevent crime in their bars. To enhance the quality of life in downtown neighborhoods and provide a sense of safety on streets, leaders of postindustrial cities have enacted policing strategies that target “broken windows,” or signs of public disorder. This meeting and other initiatives signify the New York Police Department's effort to curb quality-of-life complaints (e.g., noise, litter, and damage from revelers) as well as crimes inside and outside bars by making specific owners responsible for the structural conditions of dense nightlife scenes and targeting those who are “bad” and irresponsible.
Upscaling New York
Authors: Ocejo Richard E.
Published: November 2017

This book has examined how bars and nightlife scenes structure and influence life in downtown neighborhoods that have become, through advanced gentrification, upscale destinations for consumers and residents and prime locations for investment in high-end real estate and business. The proliferation of bars and growth of nightlife scenes underscore the importance of nostalgia for people in today's postindustrial city of constant, rapid destruction and ever-changing fashions. With upscaling comes conflict as well as ephemerality, as anchors of stability lose their strength to ground people amid their turbulent surroundings. Longtime residents of New York City use a nostalgia narrative of a dark period in their neighborhood's past to fuel their continuous protest despite the process's inexorable march towards an upscale status.
Magic
Authors: Prendergast Christopher
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the idea of literature as magic-making by focusing on Marcel Proust's use of the term “magic,” along with its cognates “enchantment” and “charm.” Proustian magic comes in all shapes and sizes, but the preferred locales for conjuring the enchanted realm are dark or semidark, the domain of nightworld and shadowland. There are many such locales in the À la recherche du temps perdu, but the alchemist's place of darkness and silence par excellence is the “restful obscurity” of the bedroom, the world of sleep and dream, especially the liminal or threshold states of falling asleep and waking up, the midzone of the waking dream. The chapter also considers the ideological tenor of Proust's aesthetic, especially the posited relation in Le Temps retrouvé between art, truth, and epiphany.
Éblouissement
Authors: Prendergast Christopher
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines éblouissement in Marcel Proust's Venice in À la recherche du temps perdu. It suggests that Proust's sensibility and imagination were “religious” insofar as they were animated by the wish to intuit from a “feeling.” From the perspective of more rigorously conceived religious belief and doctrine, however, the chapter argues that such wish was pure folly, in many ways the blind alley of a writer for whom religious faith was not a plausible option, but who was also indifferent to what had come to replace religion—the secular narratives of “progress” underpinning the enlightenment project of “modernity.” That Proust suspected it was folly is clear from his indictment of John Ruskin with the charge of idolatry.
What’s in a Comma?
Authors: Prendergast Christopher
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines a question, the most important of the skeptic's questions, not only in but for Marcel Proust's À la recherche du temps perdu: is poetic seeing also true seeing, and how can it be if poetic seeing is the seeing of a mirage? It analyzes Proust's use of comma in the sentence “those infrequent moments when we perceive nature as it is, poetically, were what Elstir's work was made of.” It also considers Proust's identification of Elstir's way of seeing as based on an “optical illusion” or a “mirage” and looks at signs of a mercurial and probing intelligence that are to be found almost everywhere at work in the Recherche. Finally, the chapter describes the sparring contest of intellect and impression that it argues runs deeper into a question of “truth.”
Bodies and Ghosts
Authors: Prendergast Christopher
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines Marcel Proust's views on the subject of the body and the prevalence of metaphorical ghosts in À la recherche du temps perdu. It suggests that the Proustian body may turn out to be something of a dead end, at least relative to Proust's restlessly curious interest in the vicissitudes of mental life. It emphasizes a primary opposition in the Recherche—between the body desired (the imago-body) and the body revealed (frail, infirm, wasted, grotesque)—and argues that the opposition is banal, a variation on Proust's way with the theme of vanitas vanitatum. Viewed in a larger historical perspective, Proust on bodies and ghosts involves his complex relation to an ideal of “embodiment” inherited from nineteenth-century aesthetics.
Analogy, Metaphor, and Pattern
Authors: Swedberg Richard
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how to use analogies, work with metaphors, and recognize and read patterns. Using analogies and metaphors as well as pattern recognition represent three ways of thinking that differ from the classical way of reasoning. One of their strengths is precisely that they are able to proceed in ways that formal logic cannot. Another is that they are helpful in coming up with new approaches to things. They are also especially helpful when used in combination with patient and methodical reasoning. Analogies, metaphors, and pattern recognition have all been used in a wide array of disciplines, from archaeology and biology to economics and law. This means that there exists plenty of experience to draw on for the theorizer.
Coming Up with an Explanation
Authors: Swedberg Richard
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores various ways of coming up with an explanation. These include Charles S. Peirce's notion of abduction, or his theory of how to come up with an explanation from the practical perspective of the scientist. Another is colligation, a term coined by William Whewell which means linking facts together in a new way when one makes a discovery. In Peirce's work, one can also find the term retroduction, a word which reminds that to explain a phenomenon means to look at what comes before the phenomenon. Hypothesis is another term that Peirce used in this context. It emphasizes that an abduction is just a suggestion for an explanation, and that the explanation has to be tested against facts before it can acquire scientific value. Finally, guessing indicates that the scientist does not know how to proceed when he or she is looking for an explanation, but must somehow do so anyway.
Keynes on Knowledge, Expectations, and Rationality
Authors: Dow Sheila
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines John Maynard Keynes' views on knowledge, expectations, and rationality. It focuses not only on Keynes' ideas on expectation formation but also on the degree of confidence attached to those expectations (i.e., uncertainty) and what this means for macroeconomic theory. After providing a synthetic account of Keynes' ideas on knowledge and expectations, along with his understanding of the source of uncertainty, the chapter considers his emphasis on the role of conventional judgment, and of conventions more generally, as well as the implications of these ideas for how we may understand and use the concept of rationality in a Keynesian framework, alongside considerations of logic and consistency. Keynes' concern with the interplay between individuality and sociality sheds some light on Keynes in relation to the formulation of microfoundations. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the implications of Keynes' ideas on knowledge, expectations, and rationality for economic methodology.
Heterogeneous Gain Learning and Long Swings in Asset Prices
Authors: LeBaron Blake
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on heterogeneous gain learning and long swings in asset prices. Many asset prices deviate from their fundamental values, yielding potential long-run predictability. Asset price swings can be both short or long in duration, and their time series shows few regular patterns when one analyzes their long-range behavior. This chapter considers an underparameterized learning model with heterogeneous gain parameters and traders using differing perspectives on history. It first provides an overview of the basic model and some benchmark simulation runs before discussing the output of the model compared to actual financial time series. It then describes a range of internal mechanisms of the agents and forecasts in use and how wealth moves across them over time. It shows that learning algorithms appear to be behaving in a predictable fashion, and that interesting dynamics come from how agent wealth selects rules over time. The chapter concludes by addressing some questions for researchers working on learning in financial markets.
Opening Models of Asset Prices and Risk to Nonroutine Change
Authors: Frydman Roman , Goldberg Michael D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers an alternative approach to economic analysis, Imperfect Knowledge Economics (IKE), and introduces a model of asset prices and risk that has explicit mathematical microfoundations and yet remains open to nonroutine change. The IKE model consists of representations of individuals' preferences, forecasting behavior, constraints, and decision rules in terms of a set of causal (often called “informational”) variables, which portray the influence of economic policy, institutions, and other features of the social context. It also entails an aggregation rule and processes for the informational variables. The chapter examines irregular swings in asset prices and their relationship to financial risk. It also presents an IKE account of asset price swings before concluding with an analysis of contingent predictions of long swings and their compatibility with rationality.
Animal Spirits, Persistent Unemployment, and the Belief Function
Authors: Farmer Roger E. A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the persistence of unemployment by drawing from John Maynard Keynes' two central ideas. The first idea is that any unemployment rate can persist as an equilibrium. The second is that the unemployment rate that prevails is determined by animal spirits. The chapter introduces a three-equation monetary model termed “Farmer monetary model,” which replaces the New Keynesian Phillips curve with a belief function that describes how agents form expectations of future nominal income. The chapter builds and estimates the Farmer monetary model using U.S. data for the period from the first quarter of 1952 to the fourth quarter of 2007. It compares the Farmer monetary model to a New Keynesian model by computing the posterior odds ratio. It shows that the posterior odds favor the Farmer monetary model and concludes by discussing the implications of this finding for fiscal and monetary policy.
Principled Policymaking in an Uncertain World
Authors: Woodford Michael
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the reasons for the focus on the analysis of monetary policy rules rather than on decisions about individual policy actions, as well as the extent to which such a focus continues to be appropriate in the light of subsequent events—changes in central banks' approach to monetary policy in the decades since the publication of the Phelps microfoundations volume, along with the reconsideration of macroeconomic theory and policy that is necessary in the wake of the global financial crisis. The chapter first explains why recognition of the importance of expectations led to an emphasis on policy rules in the theoretical literature before discussing possible types of policy commitments in the case of monetary policy. It then analyzes the theory of monetary policy after the global financial crisis and reframes the debate over policy rules versus discretionary policy by proposing an approach it calls “principled policymaking.”
From College and Universitas to University
Authors: Beckwith Christopher I.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the evolution of the college and universitas to university. The madrasa, the medieval Islamic college, appeared in Central Asia at least two centuries before the first college founded in Western Europe. The madrasa is an Islamicized form of the earlier Central Asian Buddhist college, the vihāra. The earliest three “universities”—the universitas guilds of Bologna, Paris, and Oxford—appear at approximately the same time in history, the late twelfth or early thirteenth century. The term “university” replaced studium generale by the end of the Middle Ages, marking the merger of the universitas, the studium generale, and the college into the early modern college-university. The chapter shows that the subsequently founded universities of Europe mostly followed the early Parisian model at first, with a universitas guild of masters plus a number of colleges.
Making Human Rights a Reality
Authors: Hafner-Burton Emilie M.
Published: November 2017

In the last six decades, one of the most striking developments in international law is the emergence of a massive body of legal norms and procedures aimed at protecting human rights. In many countries, though, there is little relationship between international law and the actual protection of human rights on the ground. This book takes a fresh look at why it's been so hard for international law to have much impact in parts of the world where human rights are most at risk. The book argues that more progress is possible if human rights promoters work strategically with the group of states that have dedicated resources to human rights protection. These human rights “stewards” can focus their resources on places where the tangible benefits to human rights are greatest. Success will require setting priorities as well as engaging local stakeholders such as nongovernmental organizations and national human rights institutions. To date, promoters of international human rights law have relied too heavily on setting universal goals and procedures and not enough on assessing what actually works and setting priorities. This book illustrates how, with a different strategy, human rights stewards can make international law more effective and also safeguard human rights for more of the world population.
The International Human Rights Legal System
Authors: Hafner-Burton Emilie M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides an overview of the most important nuts and bolts of the international human rights legal system, which generally resides within the structures of the United Nations. It first considers the most prominent international agreements that comprise the International Bill of Human Rights and their two treaty oversight bodies, the Human Rights Committee and the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. It then examines other human rights laws and treaties, along with the functions of the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights and the Human Rights Council. It also looks at universal criminal law and tribunals, regional human rights laws and institutions, and the human rights legal systems in Europe, the Americas, Africa, the Islamic world and Asia. The chapter concludes by explaining why the international law on human rights has been so popular and how the international human rights legal system works.
Nongovernmental Organizations
Authors: Hafner-Burton Emilie M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how engagement with nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)—such as local chapters of multinational human rights organizations and especially homegrown NGOs—can lead to localization. It first explains how localization through NGOs actually leads to legitimacy and the congruence of local with international policies around human rights. It then considers what NGOs actually do and put their operations into perspective and highlights some of the troubles that arise when NGOs play these roles. It also argues why there is value to legitimizing the use of state power (and thus advocacy) in a local context and evaluates practical strategies that foreign stewards can adopt to localize how they wield their power for human rights. The chapter argues that NGOs can directly assist in implementing foreign-backed punishments, rewards, and other forms of diplomacy for human rights promotion, while improving the possibility that those policies resonate with local issues, customs, and practices.
National Human Rights Institutions
Authors: Hafner-Burton Emilie M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores how engagement with national human rights institutions (NHRIs) can lead to localization. It first describes the different types of NHRIs, including ombudsmen and human rights commissions, and puts them into perspective. It then considers how NHRIs could actually help localize foreign stewardship for human rights promotion and highlights some of the challenges they present, along with some strategies for navigating those difficulties. It also examines how NHRIs and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) interact, paying attention to the benefits of cooperation and the problems that arise from an adversarial and even competitive relationship. Compared to NGOs, NHRIs are particularly intriguing because they have formal roles in national governance processes, and thus might be particularly effective conduits between international pressures and national policy and behavior.
The concept of state
Authors: Diekmann Odo , Heesterbeek Hans , Britton Tom
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the case of individuals who differ from each other with respect to traits that are relevant for the transmission of an infectious agent. How do we describe the spread of the agent? How do we quantify the infectivity? What happens in the initial phase? Can we characterize the final size? Examples of the “traits” we have in mind are age, sex, sexual activity level, sexual disposition, and spatial position. So a trait may be static or dynamic, it may be discrete or continuous. Traits are considered as i-states, where “i” means “individual” and where “state” signifies that the current value together with the environmental input in the intervening period completely determines future behavior. The heterogeneity of individuals is classified in terms of a component, h-state, of their i-state, while the other component, d-state, summarizes all relevant information about output of infectious material.
Macroparasites
Authors: Diekmann Odo , Heesterbeek Hans , Britton Tom
Published: November 2017

Chapter 6 showed that the defining mathematical distinction between microparasites and macroparasites is that for macroparasites, as a rule, reinfection through the environment is essential to get an increase in individual infectious load and consequent infectious output. This chapter gives a brief introduction to the consequences that this distinction has for formulating epidemic models for macroparasites. For the largest part, it concentrates on the definition and calculation of R₀. Typically, macroparasites are multicellular organisms (e.g., helminths and other worm-like parasites) where definite stages in a life cycle can be distinguished. Several of these stages live outside living hosts. The chapter will focus on two stages—adults living within a host, and larvae (hatched from eggs produced by the adults and shed by the hosts) living in the environment of the host—since many features can already be illustrated in this minimal setting. Larvae are then infective to hosts and uptake can be by, for example, ingestion or skin penetration.
A brief guide to computer intensive statistics
Authors: Diekmann Odo , Heesterbeek Hans , Britton Tom
Published: November 2017

Chapters 5, 13 and 14 presented methods for making inference about infectious diseases from available data. This is of course one of the main motivations for modeling: learning about important features, such as R₀, the initial growth rate, potential outbreak sizes and what effect different control measures might have in the context of specific infections. The models considered in these chapters have all been simple enough to obtain more or less explicit estimates of just a few relevant parameters. In more complicated and parameter-rich models, and/or when analyzing large data sets, it is usually impossible to estimate key model parameters explicitly. In such situations there are (at least) two ways to proceed. One uses Bayesian statistical inference by means of Markov chain Monte Carlo methods (MCMC), and the other uses large scale simulations along with numerical optimization to fit parameters to data. This chapter mainly describes Bayesian inference using MCMC and only briefly some large simulation methods.
The Emerging Voices of Women in the Revival of Confucianism
Authors: Sun Anna
Published: November 2017

This chapter studies the role of women in the current revival of Confucianism, from their participation in intellectual debates regarding Confucianism, to their promotion of Confucian thoughts in popular culture, to their participation in ancestral worship rituals. The revival of Confucianism in Mainland China takes many forms, from a revival of Confucian education, such as after-school classes focusing on the teaching of the Confucian canon, to the intensification of scholarship on Confucian thought in academia. There is also the state's effort to promote Confucianism as the dominant Chinese cultural ideology. This myriad development is not surprising, for it corresponds to the many aspects of Confucianism as historical, political, institutional, cultural, educational, philosophical, and religious systems of ideas and practices.
Epistemic Failures of Deliberation
Authors: Landemore Hélène
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers several objections—some empirical, some theoretical—to the claim that deliberation has positive epistemic properties. It uses a theory recently developed in evolutionary psychology—the argumentative theory of reasoning—to refute at a theoretical level two classical objections to deliberation. The first objection is that, far from leading to any individual or collective epistemic improvements, deliberation with others does not do much to change minds. The other objection is the so-called law of group polarization according to which deliberating groups of like-minded people will systematically polarize. The chapter argues that where the normal conditions of reasoning are satisfied, dialogical deliberation of the kind favored by most deliberative democrats is likely to have the predicted transformative epistemic properties.
Public Capital, Growth and Welfare
Authors: Agénor Pierre-Richard
Published: November 2017

In the past three decades, developing countries have made significant economic and social progress, from improved infant mortality rates to higher life expectancy. Yet, 1.3 billion people continue to live in extreme poverty in the developing world, leading policymakers to place a renewed emphasis on policies that could promote economic efficiency and the productivity of the poor. How should these policies be sequenced and implemented to spur growth? Would a large, front-loaded increase in public infrastructure investment yield the desired growth-promoting effect? Taking a rigorous look at this kind of investment and its outcomes, this book explores the different channels through which public capital in infrastructure may affect growth and human welfare, and develops a series of formal models for understanding how these channels operate. Bringing together a vast amount of research in one unifying framework, the book finds that in considering investment in infrastructure, a variety of externalities need to be factored into analytical models and introduced in policy debates. Lack of access to infrastructure not only constrains the expansion of markets and private investment, it may also hinder the achievement of health and education targets. Ease of access, conversely, promotes innovation and empowers women by allowing them to reallocate their time to productive uses. Laying a solid foundation of economic facts and ideas, the book provides a comprehensive look at the critical role of public capital in development.
Introduction and Overview
Authors: Agénor Pierre-Richard
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter begins with a brief discussion of the persistence of poverty and lack of progress in human development today. The situation has led policymakers to put renewed emphasis on policies aimed at promoting economic efficiency and improving the productivity of the poor, generating income-earning capabilities and creating opportunities for using them productively, through education and health, increasing opportunities to invest in small- and medium-sized enterprises, and improving housing and basic infrastructure services. The chapter then sets out the book's purpose: to provide a systematic overview of the recent evidence on the different channels through which infrastructure may affect growth; to take a resolutely analytical approach by developing an integrated series of formal models for understanding how these channels operate; and to draw policy implications with respect to formulating growth and human development strategies. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.
Research Perspectives
Authors: Agénor Pierre-Richard
Published: November 2017

The previous chapters documented and formally analyzed a variety of channels, both old and new, through which public capital may affect growth. Various extensions, mostly technical in nature, were outlined at the end of some chapters. This chapter sets out a broader research agenda on the links among public capital, growth, and human welfare. It considers the following areas: heterogeneous infrastructure assets, the political economy of government spending allocation, excludable public goods, interactions between government debt and public capital accumulation in the presence of fiscal rules, spatial and regional dimensions of public capital, infrastructure and trade, public–private partnerships, the impact of public capital on income distribution, negative externalities associated with public capital, and empirical tests of the impact of public capital on growth.
The Empire Trap
Authors: Maurer Noel
Published: November 2017

Throughout the twentieth century, the U.S. government willingly deployed power, hard and soft, to protect American investments all around the globe. Why did the United States get into the business of defending its citizens' property rights abroad? This book looks at how modern U.S. involvement in the empire business began, how American foreign policy became increasingly tied to the sway of private financial interests, and how postwar administrations finally extricated the United States from economic interventionism, even though the government had the will and power to continue. The book examines the ways that American investors initially influenced their government to intercede to protect investments in locations such as Central America and the Caribbean. Costs were small—at least at the outset—but with each incremental step, American policy became increasingly entangled with the goals of those they were backing, making disengagement more difficult. The book discusses how, all the way through the 1970s, the United States not only failed to resist pressure to defend American investments, but also remained unsuccessful at altering internal institutions of other countries in order to make property rights secure in the absence of active American involvement. Foreign nations expropriated American investments, but in almost every case the U.S. government's employment of economic sanctions or covert action obtained market value or more in compensation—despite the growing strategic risks. The advent of institutions focusing on international arbitration finally gave the executive branch a credible political excuse not to act. The book cautions that these institutions are now under strain and that a collapse might open the empire trap once more.
The Empire Trap in the Twenty-first Century
Authors: Maurer Noel
Published: November 2017

This chapter reviews the patterns of U.S. government intervention on behalf of its citizens' overseas property rights over the course of the twentieth century. The point of departure was the following paradox: although U.S. governments throughout the century categorically rejected interventionism designed to favor or protect Americans, time and again they found themselves compelled to interfere in the affairs of foreign nations on behalf of private American interests. The mechanism of the empire trap explains U.S. administrations' apparent inability to avoid overseas entanglements, even when presidential preferences and the national interest pointed toward nonintervention. The political clout of private interests meant that the domestic political costs of refusing to intervene were often far higher and more immediate than the costs of intervening.
Trace of the Generating Series
Authors: Yuan Xinyi , Zhang Shou-Wu , Zhang Wei
Published: November 2017

This chapter proves the theorem that asserts the modularity of the generating series and the theorem dealing with abelian varieties parametrized by Shimura curves. Before presenting the proofs, the chapter considers the new space of Schwartz functions and constructs theta series and Eisenstein series from such functions. It proceeds by discussing discrete series at infinite places, modularity of the generating series, degree of the generating series, and the trace identity. It also presents the pull-back formula for the compact and non-compact cases. In particular, it describes CM cycles on the Shimura curve, pull-back as cycles, degree of the pull-back, and some coset identities.
Border Thinking and the Colonial Difference
Authors: Mignolo Walter D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores theoretical responses to and departures from the modern world system. The first part looks into Anibal Quijano's concept of “coloniality of power” and Enrique Dussel's “transmodernity” as responses to global designs from colonial histories and legacies in Latin America. The second part is devoted to Abdelkhebir Khatibi's “double critique” and “une pensée autre” (an other thinking) as a response from colonial histories and legacies in Maghreb. The chapter also studies Edouard Glissant's notion of “Créolization,” proposed to account for the colonial experience of the Caribbean in the horizon of modernity and as a new epistemological principle. These perspectives, from Spanish America, Maghreb, and the Caribbean, contribute today to rethinking, critically, the limits of the modern world system—the need to conceive it as a modern/colonial world system and to tell stories not only from inside the “modern” world but from its borders.
A Genetic Theory of Homology
Authors: Wagner Günter P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a genetic theory of homology that addresses the most challenging problem when attempting to explain character identity; namely, unquestionable homologies (that is, character identities across species) are often associated with extensive variations in the developmental pathways and mechanisms that produce these characters. To resolve this problem, the chapter reviews some of the relevant facts from developmental genetics and then proposes a model that explains these patterns and serves as a guide for further research into the developmental evolution of morphological characters. It shows that the function of homeotic genes offers insights into what might be the developmental genetic basis of character identity. It argues that the distinction between character identity and character states is reflected in the genetic architecture of development in which character identity has a different genetic substrate than character states. This approach leads to the concept of character identity networks.
Lessons and Challenges
Authors: Wagner Günter P.
Published: November 2017

This book has argued for the reality of a class of biological entities that have a hard time finding their place in a theory of evolution based on genetics and population biology. These entities, or developmental types, include cell types, homologs, and body plans. The book has also provided examples that already have empirical data to see whether such ideas are contradicted by known facts about certain well-studied organ systems, like limbs, skin appendages, and flowers. This concluding chapter summarizes the book's central claims about homology, characters and character identity, and cooperativity in gene regulatory networks. It also discusses some of the lessons derived from reviewing the literature on these paradigms of devo-evo research as well as the challenges inherent in this perspective of developmental evolution.
Introduction
Authors: Audi Robert
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter discusses how perception figures in giving moral knowledge and how moral perception is connected with intuition and emotion. It challenges stereotypes regarding both intuition and emotion, especially the view that they are either outside the rational order or tainted by irrationality. In doing this, the chapter criticizes one or another form of intellectualism—that is, the tendency to treat perception, cognition (especially belief formation), and rationality itself as dependent on intellectual operations such as inference, reasoning processes, and analysis. The chapter aims to realize two goals: to lay out major elements of a moral philosophy that reflects a well-developed epistemology, and to make epistemological points that emerge best in exploring the possibility of moral knowledge.