bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Age, Expertise, Structural Similarity, and Time-Sharing Efficiency
Authors: Tsang Pamela S. , Shaner Tonya L.
Published: January 2012

Interactive effects of age, expertise, and structural similarity on time-sharing efficiency were examined. Half of 90 subjects who ranged from age 20 to 80 years were nonpilots. The other half were pilots who were considered to have expertise in time-sharing. Five dual tasks were selected to represent various cognitive aspects of flight performance and to represent various degrees of structural similarity defined by Wickens' multiple resource model. Several main findings were of note. One, time-sharing efficiency increased as structural similarity decreased. Two, time-sharing efficiency decreased with increased age. Three, pilots had higher level of time-sharing efficiency than nonpilots. Four, expertise in time-sharing appeared to be able to moderate some of the deleterious age effects. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings were considered.
Accessible Remote Controls for Older Adults with Mildly Impaired Vision
Authors: Lin Juli J. , Williges Robert C. , Beaudet Douglas B.
Published: January 2012

A three-phase methodology was used to design an accessible photo CD player for older adults with mildly impaired vision. During Phase I of the study, critical barriers to a photo CD player were identified that prevent older users with presbyopia from operating this product. These barriers included small Remote Control Unit (RCU) labeling, low label-background contrast, and inadequate feedback from the player system. During Phase II, cost-effective solutions were identified through research into existing literature and available technologies. Phase III evaluated the efficacy of these design modifications on both the accessibility and usability of the photo CD player. The results of the Phase III empirical study indicated that enlarging a RCU and using high contrast labeling significantly improved accessibility. Overall, these results support the use of such a three-phase methodology to design accessible consumer products for users with special needs.
The Relationship of Age and Cognitive Characteristics of Drivers to Performance of Driving Tasks on an Interactive Driving Simulator
Authors: Guerrier José H. , Manivannan P. , Pacheco Anna , Wilkie Frances L.
Published: January 2012

Older adults depend highly on the automobile to satisfy their mobility needs. They use the private car for the majority of their trips. However, driving is not without risks for older drivers and those who share the road with them. Drivers 65 and older contribute to more accidents per mile driven than younger drivers except those 18-24 years old. Furthermore, they are more likely to be injured or die as a result of such accidents than their younger counterparts. Current thinking suggests that the cognitive abilities of older drivers may be the best explanation for these accidents. This study investigated the contribution of age and specific cognitive, psychomotor, and perceptual dimensions upon the performance of driving tasks on an interactive simulator. The results suggest that age as such does not explain performance of driving tasks. Rather, age-sensitive cognitive characteristics of drivers provide a better understanding of performance of specific driving tasks.
Cost-Justifying Usability Engineering: A Real World Example
Authors: Cope Michael E. , Uliano Kevin C.
Published: January 2012

Human factors practitioners involved in designing graphical user interfaces (GUI) are constantly challenged with design compromises. These include the need to create an interface that contains maximum functionality and power, while striving to maintain sound human-computer interaction design principles. In a large client-server environment, subtle GUI changes to increase usability can have a significant impact on the bottom line. This paper describes a cost-benefit study comparing performance of two groups of test participants from a large wireless communication carrier. Each group performed test scenarios which isolated the effects of a single window both before and after it was redesigned. Results indicated that a single redesigned window will save an estimated $20,000 during the first year. These benefits were derived from estimating changes in end user productivity, errors, training time, and from savings obtained through decreased late design changes.
Measurement and Analysis of Pressure Distribution on the Bed
Authors: Park Se Jin , Whang Min Cheol , Kim Chang Bum
Published: January 2012

A new measurement system for body pressure on a bed was developed in this study. The thin film pressure sensor (PSR: Force Sensing Resistor) of an elastomer-type was used to prevent the distortion of contact pressure. The pressure distribution was measured by FSR and displayed on the monitor by color-coded contour patterns. The body pressure distribution and the objective data for four beds with different firmness were observed for possible correlation with the subjective evaluation. Ninety-eight occupants subjectively evaluated five beds for a short-term lying session about 1 hour. The pattern of the pressure distribution was analyzed to correlate approximately with the difference between comfortable and uncomfortable bed. The verification test on the recommended bed was performed by other twenty subjects through one week.
Introducing Human-Centered Design Early in the Engineering Curriculum
Authors: Greenstein Joel S.
Published: January 2012

This paper focuses on the development and implementation of a cross-disciplinary, project-driven course on human-centered design. The sophomore-level course is required of all students in the industrial engineering major. The course prerequisites are a part of the college-wide freshman engineering curriculum, enabling students in other engineering majors to take the course as well. The primary objective of this course is to introduce the product development process and human-centered methodologies for designing engineering systems into the engineering curriculum. Additional objectives are to:

• Let the students experience the product development process through a semester-long, real-world design project. • Prepare students to work with other specialists in the kind of cross-functional design teams employed in engineering practice. • Educate students to focus early and continually on the customers and users of their products. • Use a variety of writing and speaking activities to achieve active participation in the educational process, team building, and a class environment dedicated to professional success. • Enhance retention of engineering students by emphasizing collaborative learning and the product development process early in the curriculum.
Performing the System Design Process: An Intelligent Way to Learn
Authors: Sojourner Russell J. , Olson1 Wesley A. , Serfoss Gary L.
Published: January 2012

Structuring the ideal human factors curriculum has received considerable interest in recent years. A common theme stresses the need for hands-on learning. The United States Air Force Academy recently developed a human factors design course that emphasized critical thinking skills through interactive, collaborative techniques. Steps critical to the system design process were taught to the students and were subsequently performed by student design teams. The teams then submitted competitive proposals for a workstation being built as part of an actual dormitory renovation project. A “winning” design was selected at the culmination of the course, and was later implemented by construction contractors. The design effort received universal praise by Academy management, architects, and civil engineering personnel. Educational success was measured by standardized student critique data which rated the course significantly higher than composite scores from all Academy offerings. Collaborative hands-on design appears to have been a successful method of teaching critical human factors principles.
Future Directions in Cognitive Engineering and Naturalistic Decision Making
Authors: Endsley Mica R. , Klein Gary , Woods David D. , Smith Philip J. , Selcon Stephen J.
Published: January 2012

Cognitive Engineering and Naturalistic Decision Making are presented as two related fields of endeavor that seek to understand how people process information and perform within complex systems and to develop ways of applying this knowledge within the design and training process This panel presents an overview of the current state of the art in this research domain and charts paths for needed developments in the field in the near future.
Usability and Learning in Educational Virtual Realities
Authors: Salzman Marilyn C. , Dede Chris , Loftin R. Bowen
Published: January 2012

Designing ScienceSpace, a series of virtual realities for teaching difficult science concepts and skills, has implications for designing sensorily immersive educational virtual realities. Through the design and evaluation of the worlds in ScienceSpace we are gaining insights into the general utility of sensorial immersion, as well as virtual reality's potential and limitations for enhancing learning. This paper focuses on the learner-centered design and evaluation of NewtonWorld, one of the virtual worlds in ScienceSpace. NewtonWorld is a sensorily immersive virtual learning environment in which students can challenge their intuitions about Newton's laws and the conservation of energy and momentum through game-like inquiry activities. We discuss how usability and learning issues have shaped the design and refinement of NewtonWorld. Additionally, we discuss implications of our work for designing sensorily immersive virtual reality interfaces that are usable and facilitate learning.
Emergency (911) Dispatcher Decision Making: Ecological Display Development
Authors: Shively R. Jay
Published: January 2012

Emergency dispatchers must make complex life or death decisions under extreme time pressure. Using Ecological Task Analysis (ETA), a technique normally applied to aerospace human factors problems, a new display was designed that would better assist their decision making task. The major design constraints were identified to be the beat number and priority of incidents, available units, and the spatial relationship of the those units to the incident. Using these and other less formal factors, a GUI interface was designed and an evaluation was conducted at the Richmond, CA police dispatch center. The results suggest that the GUI display may reduce training times and increase situational awareness.
Cognitive Task Analysis: What is it? Why Do It?
Authors: Vicente Kim J.
Published: January 2012

Cognitive task analysis (CTA) is increasingly being used to effectively address a wide variety of human factors problems. However, different researchers are using significantly different methods. In many cases, a particular method is used solely by its originators. Therefore, there are significant issues that must be worked through before CTA becomes a widely accepted and easily transferable human factors tool. The objectives of this symposium are to: bring CTA to the attention of a wider audience; develop a better understanding of the differences and similarities between different CTA methods; and demonstrate the practical advantages of CTA.
Using Cognitive Task Analysis to Define Human Interface Requirements for First-of-A-Kind Systems
Authors: Roth Emilie M. , Mumaw Randall J.
Published: January 2012

Cognitive task analysis (CTA) methods have grown out of the need to explicitly consider cognitive processing requirements of complex tasks. A number of approaches to CTA have been developed that vary in goals, the tools they bring to bear, and their data requirements. We present a particular CTA technique that we are utilizing in the design of new person-machine interfaces for first-of-a-kind advanced process control plants. The methodology has its roots in the formal analytic goal-means decomposition method pioneered by Rasmussen (1986). It contrasts with other approaches in that it is intended: (1) for design of first-of-a-kind systems for which there are no close existing analogues, precluding the use of CTA techniques that rely on empirical analysis of expert performance; (2) to define person-machine interface requirements to support operator problem-solving and decision-making in unanticipated situations; and (3) to be a pragmatic, codified, tool that can be used reliably by person-machine interface designers.
A Biomechanical Assessment of Axial Twisting Exertions
Authors: Granata Kevin P. , Marras William S.
Published: January 2012

Axial twisting of the torso has been identified as a significant risk factor for occupationally related low-back disorders. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the influence of dynamic twisting parameters upon spinal load. Measured trunk moments and muscle activities were employed in a biomechanical model to determine loads on the lumbar spine. Spinal loads were examined as a function of dynamic torsional exertions under various conditions of force, velocity, position, and direction. Results demonstrate significant flexion-extension and lateral moments were generated during the twisting exertions. Muscle coactivity was significantly greater than equivalent levels measured during sagittal lifting exertions. Relative spinal compression during dynamic twisting exertions was twice that of static exertions. Spine loading also varied as a function of whether the trunk was twisted to the left or right, and the direction of applied torsion, i.e. clockwise versus counter-clockwise. The results may help explain, biomechanically, why epidemiological findings have repeatedly identified twisting as a risk factor for low-back disorder
Healthy Keyboarding: Effects of Wrist Rests, Keyboard Trays, and a Preset Tiltdown System on Wrist Posture, Seated Posture, and Musculoskeletal Discomfort
Authors: Hedge Alan , McCrobie Daniel , Land Bruce , Morimoto Singe , Rodriguez Simonetta
Published: January 2012

A field experiment is described in which wrist posture, seated posture measured using the RULA method, and musculoskeletal discomfort, recorded by self-report questionnaires, was assessed for 38 office workers while they typed the same text. A pretest survey was conducted to assess the effects of typing with a conventional keyboard on a desk or on an articulating keyboard tray, and with or without wrist rests. Following this, workers were randomly allocated to either a control group (n=15), for whom nothing changed, or a test group (n=23) that used their existing keyboard in a preset tiltdown (PT) system. After some 3 weeks of using the PT system a posttest survey was conducted for both groups. Results showed no significant changes in wrist posture, seated posture, or reports of musculoskeletal discomfort for the control group. Significant improvements in wrist posture, seated posture, and upper body musculoskeletal discomfort were found for workers using the PT system. Workers expressed a strong preference for using a keyboard with the PT system.
The Design and Installation of An Ergonomic Workstation for A Packing Operation: A Case Study
Authors: McVey Kelly Eckbreth
Published: January 2012

A team of engineers, shop employees, and the plant Ergonomist at a major telecommunications manufacturing plant set-out to design a new workstation dedicated to end-of-line packaging of finished work. The strengths and weaknesses of existing workbenches on the manufacturing floor were examined and the needs of their particular process listed. Based on this examination, alternative bench designs were studied and a final prototype specified. Modular, flexible, and adjustable worksurfaces and components, as well as process changes, were incorporated to optimize the packing operation. The bench purchased and installed for this operation has been well received by the operators and has allowed them to work comfortably with telling productivity.
Organizational Structure, Communication and Professional Relationships: Development and validation of measurement methods
Authors: Järvenpää Eila , Nousiainen Markku
Published: January 2012

In developing organizations and in management of change we need to understand how organizations really work. Important issues include organizational structure, communication, contacts, and professional relationships. Methods developed in one working culture may not be directly applied in another one. Moreover, for repeated evaluations of change and for diagnosing purposes the reliability and validity of the measures are of great importance.

This study deals with the development and validation of two measurement methods: the OSA (Organizational Structure Analysis) and the PRI (Professional Relationship Index) that originate from the UK and are being validated for the Finnish working culture. This paper considers mainly the validation of the PRI method. For the OSA, only preliminary results are described.

The PRI was found in general a valid tool for analyzing professional interactions in work settings. Cross-cultural aspects were not influential in using the PRI. On the contrary, cultural differences in working life are an important issue for the OSA, especially when analyzing non-hierarchical organizational structures.
Vision Theory: Spatial and Temporal Factors
Authors: Ritter Alysia D. , Royalty Joel , Kennedy Robert S.
Published: January 2012

The psychometric properties of seven temporal factors (TFT) and five spatial factors (SFT) tests were assessed in a sample of 20 undergraduates. Subjects completed six repeated measures sessions of the TFTs and four trials of SFTs. All tests except Neisser's letter search produced stable measures. Reliabilities ranged from .81 to .98 for Simultaneity, Flicker, Search, and Bistable Stroboscopic Motion and from .59 to .71 for Masking, Phi, and Dynamic Visual Acuity. Of the 70 possible correlations between spatial and temporal batteries (7 TFTs X 5 SFTs X 2 distances), only four were significant. The moderate to high retest reliabilities, combined with the negligible correlations between spatial and temporal tests suggest that the two processes are largely independent.
Interaction of Warning Label Features: Determining the Contributions of Three Warning Characteristics
Authors: Braun Curt C. , Silver N. Clayton
Published: January 2012

Warning label features such as signal words, typefaces, and color, have largely been evaluated independently of one another. Despite the statistically significant findings resulting from virtually every experiment involving these warning features, the literature has yet to address the larger issue of how these features interact when all three are present. The present effort evaluated the interaction of three different warning features to identify the extent to which each feature contributes to the perception of product hazard. These features included: signal word, legibility, and color. A sample of 34 participants rated the level of perceived hazard associated with labels that depicted the factorial combinations of two products, three signal words (DANGER, CAUTION, NOTICE), two levels of legibility (Helvetica and Arabia), and four colors (red, orange, green, and black). The data revealed significant main effects for each factor and a significant three-way interaction. The interaction indicated that in conditions of reduced legibility, color may be the only source of hazard information. Consumer product warning design implications are discussed.
Legislating Choking Hazard Labels for Toys — The Human Factors Perspective
Authors: Deppa Shelley Waters
Published: January 2012

The Federal Small Parts regulation banned toys with small parts intended for children less than three years old because of the hazard of choking. However, choking incidents continued to occur because children had access to older children's toys. To address this problem, Congress recently passed an Act requiring choking hazard labels for balloons, small balls, marbles, and toys containing small parts intended for children between three and six years old. This paper discusses the analysis of choking incidents, the development of labels, the events leading to passage of the Act requiring labels for toys, and a critique of the final labels. Balloons and toys most likely to be given to children less than three will now be labeled with an explicit warning about choking. However, these labels would have been more effective had they followed standardized labeling format. This deficiency has negative implications for other labels.
Comprehensive Guidance for the Evaluation of Human-Systems Interfaces in Complex Systems
Authors: O'Hara John , Stubler William , Brown William , Wachtel Jerry , Persensky J.
Published: January 2012

Advanced human-system interface (HSI) technologies are being developed in the commercial nuclear power industry. These HSIs may have significant implications for plant safety in that they will affect the ways in which the operator interacts with and supervises an increasingly complex system. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) reviews the HSI aspects of nuclear plants to ensure that operator performance and reliability are supported. The NRC is developing guidance to support its review of these advanced designs. The guidance consists of an evaluation methodology and an extensive set of human factors guidelines which are used in one aspect of the evaluation. The paper describes the guidance development of the evaluation methodology and the guidelines. While originally developed for nuclear plant evaluation, the methodology is applicable to other types of complex human-machine systems as well.
AC-130U Gunship AFT-Scanner Ergonomic Review: Design Solutions for Program Office
Authors: Wourms David F. , Gentner Frank C. , Farrell Jennifer L.
Published: January 2012

Concerned about neck/back pain and diminished alertness attributed to awkwardness of AC-130U Spectre Gunship aft-scanner workstations, the Special Operations Forces Development System Office (SOF DSO) requested that the Crew System Ergonomics Information Analysis Center (CSERIAC) review the literature for design solutions.

Aft-scanners recline face-down toward the aircraft's tail while leaning downward into a bubble window to detect launches of Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAMs). To scan territory below and to the sides of the Gunship, numerous head/neck movements are required. No neck/head rests exist to support the scanner during long missions over hostile territory. Diminished visual alertness can result from fatigue of maintaining the “unnatural” prone position. Long-term back and neck discomfort may follow.

The comprehensive CSERIAC literature review verified adverse physiological effects and identified specific design solutions, including ones used during World War II flight tests. The DSO has already implemented several of these solutions and may implement additional solutions to increase mission effectiveness.
Verification, Validation, and Accreditation of a Soldier-System Modeling Tool
Authors: Allender Laurel , Kelley Troy D. , Salvi Lucia , Lockett John , Headley Donald B. , Promisel David , Mitchell Diane , Richer Celine , Feng Theo
Published: January 2012

Increasingly, system developers are relying on modeling and simulation to support early design decisions. In turn, to support effective, timely use of models and simulations, verification, validation, and, in some cases, accreditation (VV&A) are required. The soldier-system analysis tools collectively known as Hardware vs. Manpower (HARDMAN) III underwent a formal VV&A process, the first of its type in the Army. The first phase comprised the core task network modeling capability and the effects implemented as additions to or modifications of the task data–mental workload estimation and environmental degradation, personnel characteristics, and training. A review board of representative users, policy-makers, technical experts, and soldier proponents evaluated the findings against eight criteria–configuration management, software verification, documentation, data input requirements, model granularity, validity of modeling techniques and embedded algorithms, output, and analysis timelines. All criteria were satisfied and formal accreditation was granted with only limited caveats.
Training Complex Tasks in a Functional Context
Authors: Mumaw Randall J. , Roth Emilie M.
Published: January 2012

We have reviewed training programs for complex skills that have strong decision-making components, such as nuclear power plant operations and air traffic control. In each case, we found that an ISD approach is routinely applied to training-program design. The ISD framework can aid training designers in designing individual modules of instruction but seems to provide insufficient guidance on designing the larger training-program structure. We found two types of problems. First, because a good understanding of skill acquisition is not used to drive training-program design, training activities can be ineffective or inefficient. Second, because it is difficult to get insights on cognitive skills with traditional task analysis, the core decision-making task is not trained explicitly. Trainees are typically on their own to discover decision-making skills. We developed an alternative framework for training-program design called the Functional Context Approach. This approach attempts to restore efficiency to skill acquisition and improve training of critical decision-making skills.
Distance Estimation in Virtual Environments
Authors: Lampton Donald R. , McDonald Daniel P. , Singer Michael , Bliss James P.
Published: January 2012

This paper describes an experiment to evaluate a procedure for measuring distance perception in immersive VEs. Forty-eight subjects viewed a VE with a Head Mounted Display (HMD), a Binocular Omni-Oriented Monitor (BOOM), or a computer monitor. Subjects estimated the distance to a figure of known height that was initially 40 ft away. As the figure moved forward, subjects indicated when the figure was perceived to be 30, 20, 10, 5, and 2.5 ft away. A separate group of 36 subjects performed the task in a real-world setting roughly comparable to the VE. VE distance estimation was highly variable across subjects. For distance perception involving a moving figure, in the VE conditions most subjects called out before the figure had closed to the specified distances. Distance estimation was least accurate with the monitor. In the real world, most subjects called out after the figure had closed to or passed the specified distances. Ways to improve the procedure are discussed.
Differential Effects of Feedback as a Function of Task Distribution in Teams
Authors: Jentsch Florian G. , Tait Tamara , Navarro Guillermo , Bowers Clint
Published: January 2012

Variables affecting the outcome of cooperative team efforts have garnered increased research attention in recent years. Of these variables, feedback may have one of the greatest effects. Questions, however, remain about what kind of feedback to give and to whom. Previous research has indicated that team members maximize those tasks for which they are given feedback. These gains appear to occur at the expense of other tasks for which no feedback is provided and sometimes result in reduced overall team performance. The current experiment investigated the differential effects of feedback in triads with different task distributions. The results of the study indicated that feedback given to team members who had to complete two tasks simultaneously resulted in tradeoffs: Team members optimized that task for which they received feedback, sometimes at the expense of the competing task. When the team members receiving feedback had no competing tasks, these tradeoffs did not occur. In contrast, feedback in this setup appeared to potentially improve performance not only on the task for which feedback was given, but on the competing task as well. A possible explanation is that in these cases, feedback reduced the communication and coordination demands and freed team resources that could be used to improve other tasks.
Application of Advanced Technology to Training for Visual Inspection
Authors: Gramopadhye Anand , Kimbler Delbert , Kimbler Elisabeth , Bhagwat Sameer , Rao Pradeep
Published: January 2012

Automation in the manufacturing industry has changed the nature of tasks from ones having large motor components to ones that have significant cognitive components. For example, several complex inspection tasks which exist in modern industry involve significant cognitive, decision making and recognition skills. Often workers are not adequately equipped to perform these tasks imposed by the new manufacturing environment. Thus, while the demands of modern manufacturing may be increasing, workers’ skills on the shop floor may in fact be diminishing. Training is the natural response to close this gap between task demands and worker skills. This paper reviews the principles of training and deduces their relevance to training for visual inspection. An example of use of these principles in developing a computer-based training program for visual inspection is given. Finally, the paper reports a study to support the application of advanced technology to visual inspection training for contact lens inspection.
Symposium on Distributed Simulation for Military Training of Teams/Groups
Authors: Moses Franklin L. , Salas Eduardo
Published: January 2012

This Symposium consists of four interrelated presentations and a video about using simulation and simulators to train teams/groups that are geographically disbursed. The presentations are part of the Multi-Service Distributed training Testbed (MDT2) project. The purpose of the project is to develop and test the utility of training using wide area communication networks to link simulators for military use. It brings together training, human factors, and engineering communities across the Services in pointing-the-way to effective use of emerging technology to train. Although the focus is on military applications, the principles of training have broad implications for non-Defense use – fire fighting and emergency management among others.
A Bio-Cybernetic System for Adaptive Automation
Authors: Prinzel Lawrence J. , Scerbo Mark W. , Freeman Frederick G. , Mikulka Peter J.
Published: January 2012

A bio-cybernetic, closed-loop system was validated for use in an adaptive automation environment. Subjects were asked to perform either a single task or multiple tasks from the Multi-Attribute Task Battery. EEG was continuously sampled while they performed the task(s) and an EEG index was derived (20 Beta/Alpha + Theta). The system switched between manual and automatic modes according to the level of operator engagement based upon the EEG index. The NASA-TLX was administered after each trial. The results of the study demonstrated that it was possible to moderate an operator's level of engagement through a closed-loop system driven by the operator's EEG. In addition, the system was sensitive to increases in task load. These findings show promise for designing adaptive automation technology around psychophysiological input.
The Effects of Response Alternatives on Keeping Track Performance
Authors: Hess Stephen M. , Detweiler Mark C.
Published: January 2012

A keeping-track task was used to explore the role of interference in dynamically updating memory. Subjects performed a keeping-track task in which all monitored attributes either shared four response alternatives, or were distributed such that each monitored attribute had its own unique set of four states. The response alternatives were distributed differently on the computer keyboard in these two conditions. Results suggest that the mapping effect seen in Yntema and Meuser's (1960) original experiments is best explained by interference: Accuracy was lowest when all attributes shared the same four states. Spatially distributing the response alternatives benefited accuracy when subjects kept track of multiple attributes with unique response sets, but having to choose from many response keys led to increased response times. These data suggest that keeping-track performance is sensitive to interference from shared attribute sets and to how the response environment is designed.
Alarm Responses in a Dual-Task Paradigm as a Function of Primary Task Criticality
Authors: Bliss James P. , McAbee Patrick E.
Published: January 2012

Technological advances in visual and auditory alarm systems have enabled these systems to be easily implemented. Frequently, the resulting increase in alarm sensitivity is accompanied by an increase in false alarms, which may have potentially disastrous implications for complex task performance. Previous research has examined the nature of the cry-wolf effect in a dual-task paradigm and noted the influence of alarm criticality on alarm response performance. The goals of this research were to supplement that effort by examining the effect of primary task criticality on alarm responses. Seventy-eight undergraduate students performed the Manikin test from the DELTA battery while being presented alarms, 75% of which were true. A series of oneway ANOVAs assessed the effects of increasing primary task criticality on alarm responses. The results supported our hypotheses, indicating that as primary task criticality increased, participants’ responses to alarms were degraded. The results are discussed with regard to human performance theories.
The Ergonomics of Economics is the Economics of Ergonomics
Authors: Hendrick Hal W.
Published: January 2012

Several reasons for the failure of business and government decison-makers to more adequately recognize the benefits of human factors/ergonomics and strongly support and endorse its application are reviewed. In particular, the failure of members of our profession to more consisistently and adequately document and publicize the cost-benefits of their ernonomic applications is noted. To support the notion that good ergonomics is good economics, a variety of actual ergonomic applications, and the documented cost-benefits of each, are described.
Navigational Checking: Implications for Electronic Map Design
Authors: Schreiber Brian , Wickens Christopher D. , Renner Goetz , Alton Jeff
Published: January 2012

In three experiments, subjects performed a navigational checking task in which the view presented on an electronic map was compared with the view of a simulated world to determine the congruence. Map viewpoints were varied in elevation and azimuth angle disparity relative to the world view to simulate the effects of map rotation and 3D map angle on navigational checking. On most trials the area depicted was the same, whereas on a small percentage, features of the map were altered, requiring the subject to judge “mismatch”. In Experiment 1, using simple images, response time increased non-linearly with elevation angle distortion. In Experiment 3, using more complex images, similar effects were found and were augmented by effects of azimuth angle distortion. In Experiment 3, using dynamic realistic real world scenes, elevation angle and map scale effects were examined and revealed a complex pattern. The results are interpreted in terms of guidelines for 3D electronic map construction.
Effects of Virtually-Augmented Fighter Cockpit Displays on Pilot Performance, Workload, and Situation Awareness
Authors: Hettinger Lawrence J. , Brickman Bart J. , Roe Merry M. , Nelson W. Todd , Haas Michael W.
Published: January 2012

Virtually-augmented display concepts are being developed at the US Air Force Armstrong Laboratory's Synthesized Immersion Research Environment (SIRE) Facility at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, for use in future USAF crew stations. These displays incorporate aspects of virtual environment technology to provide users with intuitive, multisensory representations of operationally relevant information. This paper describes an evaluation that was recently conducted to contrast the effects of conventional, F-15 types of cockpit displays and virtually-augmented, multisensory cockpit displays on pilot-aircraft system performance, workload, and situation awareness in a simulated air combat task. Eighteen military pilots from the United States, France, and Great Britain served as test pilots. The results indicate a statistically significant advantage for the virtually-augmented cockpit configuration across all three classes of measures investigated. The results are discussed in terms of their relevance for the continuing evolution of advanced crew station design.
The Effect of Clutter and Lowlighting Symbology on Pilot Performance with Head-Up Displays
Authors: Ververs Patricia May , Wickens Christopher D.
Published: January 2012

The problems of focusing attention while using head-up displays has been noted in the literature. To examine the issue, twenty-four instrument-rated pilots from the University of Illinois flew a high-fidelity simulator during cruise flight using head-up and head-down displays. The pilots were presented with either a symbology set with the bare essentials to fly the simulation or an enhanced set of information. The intensity of the display symbology was manipulated, including a condition lowlighting non-essential flight task information. Flying with a HUD in good weather conditions provided a clear advantage to tracking performance and event detection over the head-down conditions. This result was found presumably through the extraction of attitude information from the two domains, the near symbology and the far horizon. Clutter was found to slow the detection of changes on the symbology and detection of targets in the environment. However, lowlighting the non-essential information begins to ameliorate this problem. The appropriate combination of location, intensity, and contrast modulated visual attention between the symbology and the environment and produced a win-win situation for HUDs.
An Empirical Validation of Subjective Workload Ratings
Authors: Aretz Anthony J. , Johannsen Chris , Ober Keith
Published: January 2012

A correlational design was used to regress NASA TLX subjective workload ratings onto several potential independent variables (i.e., the number of concurrent tasks, task combination, task resource demands, and flight experience) to determine task characteristics that influence pilot subjective workload ratings. A part task simulator was used to present up to six concurrent tasks, in different combinations, to 27 cadets at the USAF Academy. The results indicated the number of concurrent tasks had the largest impact on subjective workload ratings. In terms of multiple resource theory, spatial, verbal, and visual demands (in that order) contributed the most variance. The implication for theoreticians and designers is that the number of concurrent tasks, mental resource demands, and time constraints seem to be key contributors to subjective workload ratings.
Expertise and Age Effects on Pilot Mental Workload in a Simulated Aviation Task
Authors: Lassiter Donald L. , Morrow Daniel G. , Hinson Gary E. , Miller Michael , Hambrick David Z.
Published: January 2012

This study investigated the effects of expertise and age on cognitive resources relevant to mental workload of pilots engaged in simulated aviation tasks. A secondary task workload assessment methodology was used, with a PC-based flying task as the primary task, and a Sternberg choice reaction time task as the secondary task. A mixed design using repeated measures was employed, with age and expertise as between-subjects factors and workload as the within-subjects factor. Pilots ranging in age from 21 to 79 years and 28 to 11,817 hours of flight time served as subjects. Of interest was whether expertise would mitigate the adverse effect of aging on pilots' mental workload handling ability as defined by two measures of secondary task performance: choice reaction time and accuracy. Results indicated that expertise did mitigate the effects of age regarding secondary task accuracy. Implications of results are discussed, and directions for future research are presented.
A Taxonomy and Theory of Mental Models
Authors: Moray Neville
Published: January 2012

The work of systems researchers such as Conant and Ashby (1970) and Wonham (1976) has shown that good controllers of dynamic systems logically require internal models of the processes controlled. Since human operators are good controllers it follows that they must use mental models and hence the remaining problem is to elucidate their nature, but the literature on mental models is confused because mental models are used in situations other than manual control. A taxonomy is developed to describe the relation between different types of mental models, from those proposed by Johnson-Laird (1983) for logical problems to those proposed by Bainbridge (1991) and others for complex industrial processes. Such a taxonomy provides a coherent description of mental models which can clear up the conceptual difficulties noted by Wilson and Rutherford (1989). A brief outline is given of the application of Mapping Theory and Lattice Theory as formalisms for mental models, especially in relation to the use of Conant's Method to identify systems and models (Conant, 1976).
Using the Conant Method to Discover and Model Human-Machine Structures
Authors: Jamieson Greg A.
Published: January 2012

The term Mental Model has been used to account for human performance in a variety of domains. Cross disciplinary interpretations of the term have appeared incompatible with each other, threatening to render it vacuous. Moray (1988, 1990, 1991, in press) proposes lattice theory as a comprehensive formalism of the structure of Mental Models, assimilating the apparently disparate interpretations. To date, there has been little objective, quantitative support for mental models of complex human-machine systems. The Conant (1972, 1976, 1988) Method of Extended Dependency Analysis (EDA) suggests a viable quantitative means of discovering human-machine structures, a crucial step toward an empirical validation of the Mental Models concept. Results of a process control experiment suggest that a complex system can be reduced to a manageable number of key variables. Further, successful operators identify these variables and demonstrate patterns of information flow which exploit crucial system relationships.
Fixit: An Architecture to Support Recognition-Primed Decision Making in Complex System Fault Management Activities
Authors: Weiner Andrew J. , Thurman David A. , Mitchell Christine M.
Published: January 2012

This research explores the use of the theory of recognition primed decision making and the technology of case-based reasoning to store fault management experience and make it available to operators confronting similar anomalous situations. Specifically, this project uses case-based reasoning technology to construct a knowledge base of actual fault management experience. This knowledge base is organized so as to enable operators to rapidly recognize a fault and retrieve information about previous or similar fault occurrences. The Fault Information Extraction and Investigation Tool (FIXIT), a case-based architecture for computationally encoding fault management experience, is described. FIXIT was implemented in proof-of-concept form for satellite ground controllers. An empirical study with NASA controllers showed that fault management using FIXIT was consistently superior to fault detection and response using existing fault management resources of NASA satellite ground control centers.
Remote Diagnosis in Dynamic Task Environments
Authors: Xiao Y. , Mackenzie C. F.
Published: January 2012

Increasingly telecommunication systems have become an integral part of many professions. However, little empirical data and guidelines exist for designing telecommunication systems to facilitate decision makers in cooperative efforts in dynamic task environments. A preliminary experiment was conducted in which the subjects (all experienced in the domain concerned) were presented with video-tapes of previously recorded real-life trauma patient resuscitation. The experiment examined the subjects' ability to understand the status of the patient and resuscitation efforts shown in the video. The experiment was to simulate remote diagnosis tasks in which experts provide consultation through video linkage. The subjects were found to have a number of difficulties in achieving a full understanding. Hypotheses about the reasons that could explain these difficulties are proposed and they include (1) background noise, viewing range restriction, and insecure viewing access to remote sites (2) visual information overload due to the multiple action threads at remote sites (3) lack of adequate dynamic mental models of remote events and activities (4) lack of context information.
Assessing a Perceptual Model of Risky Real-Time Decision Making
Authors: Hurwitz Joshua B.
Published: January 2012

A new model of real-time risky decision making is introduced that predicts tradeoffs between processing and risk taking during driving. This model, called Decision-Making under Risk in a Vehicle, or DRIVE, was fitted to data from a task in which subjects decided when to cross an intersection as a car approached from the cross street. Results showed that subjects attempted to cross less often before the oncoming car when it started closer to the intersection, even though objective risk was the same regardless of starting distance. Also, when the car started closer, subjects who reported having more real-life automobile accidents were less likely to take advantage of a longer opportunity to cross first. These results, along with results from fitting DRIVE to the data, suggest that risk-taking effects can be accounted for by a model of risk perception, and not by a model of risk acceptance.
Investigating Interruptions: An Example from the Flightdeck
Authors: Latorella K. A.
Published: January 2012

This study investigates an aspect of multiple-task management, interruption management, in an operational context. Fourteen commercial airline pilots each performed 16 approaches in a simulated commercial flightdeck. Air traffic control (ATC) clearances interrupted subjects as they performed three procedures during these approaches. Common ATC interruptions were found to be significantly disruptive to ongoing procedure performance on the flightdeck by producing significantly more procedure performance errors and increased flightpath management activity. These results corroborate, for the flightdeck, that which is true in laboratory experiments, and which is evidenced in aviation accident/incident reports.
User-Initiated Notification: A Concept for Aiding the Monitoring Activities of Process Control Operators
Authors: Guerlain Stephanie , Bullemer Peter
Published: January 2012

Monitoring activities in a process control environment are quite unique depending on the current situation and the operator's current understanding of that situation. Furthermore, the operator may be required to monitor multiple simultaneous events over potentially long periods of time. Currently, operators must periodically scan displays to gather such information, or manipulate the alarm or control system in ways not originally intended in order to gather that information as appropriate. Furthermore, if the monitoring activities span multiple operating shifts, then there is the potential for operators to forget to communicate these requirements at shift change. Despite the uniqueness of the situations that will require process events to be monitored, it is hypothesized that there is a limited set of conditions that can be pre-defined in a tool that will allow operators to set up their own monitoring “agents” according to their current diagnostic needs. Such a tool is predicted to decrease the working memory load of operators, and reduce the time it takes them to detect important process changes (or lack of them). Furthermore, it is proposed that this concept is extensible to other plant personnel and to other domains that have similar monitoring requirements. Although some potential pitfalls can be predicted with the introduction of this tool, the number of predicted benefits warrant the further exploration of this concept. This will be the next step in our design process.