bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Modelamiento y proyección de la demanda de turismo internacional en Puno-Perú
Authors: Laurente Blanco Luis Francisco , Machaca Hancco Ronald Wilson
Published: January 2020

A indústria do turismo no Peru gera aproximadamente 1.1 milhão de empregos e contribui com 3.3% do PIB, o que a torna uma de suas principais atividades econômicas, portanto o turismo não é mais apenas uma atividade comercial mas é uma ferramenta para o desenvolvimento da população peruana, especialmente nas regiões com alto índice de pobreza e muitas atrações turísticas como é o caso da região de Puno com uma taxa de pobreza de 24.2% localizada no sul do país e com muitas atrações históricas, naturais, cultural e gastronômico. O objetivo desta pesquisa é modelar a procura de turistas internacionais que visitam Puno utilizando a metodologia ARIMA de Box-Jenkins, para este estudo considera informações mensais de chegadas de turistas internacionais entre os anos 2003 e 2017. Finalmente, usando estatísticas MAPE, Z, R, Critério de Informação de Akaike (AIC) e Critério de Schwarz (SC) se encontrou ao modelo SARIMA (6, 1, 24)(1, 0, 1)12 como o mais eficiente para a modelação e previsão da procura do Turismo Internacional na região de Puno.
O Sistema Regional de Inovações do Trio Elétrico e o fomento ao turismo em Salvador-BA: da Fubica ao imaginário da cibercultura
Authors: Costa Moabe Breno Ferreira , Mazaro Rosana , Alves Maria Lúcia Bastos
Published: January 2020

Os processos de criação e ressignificações do trio elétrico e a produção musical de Salvador, capital da Bahia, convidam a refletir sobre o Sistema Regional de Inovação e sua relação com a competitividade turística do destino, considerando desenvolvimento econômico, tecnológico, comportamento social e memórias coletivas. Por essa problematização, objetivam-se identificar especificidades do Sistema Regional de Inovações em torno do trio elétrico; estabelecer sua relação com a competitividade turística de Salvador; e discutir sobre aspectos que influenciam nos processos de inovação. Trata-se de pesquisa qualitativa, orientada pelo método crítico-dialético, enfatizando o materialismo histórico por meio de fontes bibliográfica e documental, além da observação participativa. Os atributos da abordagem do SRI, definido por Hall e Williams (2008), são utilizados como referência estruturante da abordagem. Constata-se que o SRI do Trio Elétrico representa um fenômeno exitoso definido por uma linha evolutiva de inovações formada pela conjunção entre criatividade dos atores sociais, memória coletiva, desenvolvimento tecnológico, cultura local e políticas públicas. Esses fatores definem uma identidade territorial genuína difícil de ser reproduzida em outras localidades. Além disso, promovem atividades preponderantes para a competitividade turística e desenvolvimento local como geração de negócios, produção de conhecimentos específicos e articulação entre instituições e atores sociais.
The Smartphone as a Pedagogic Tool. Student Profiles as related to its Use and Knowledge
Authors: Salcines-Talledo Irina , González-Fernández Natalia , Briones Elena
Published: January 2020

The Smartphone has become the device that offers the greatest number of possibilities to Mobile Learning dynamics, and university students are increasingly optimizing its potential. This research offers a classification of student profiles according to their knowledge and use of Smartphones, and analyzes their relationship between their interest towards training, the perceived academic benefits and the time spent using the device as a pedagogic resource. For this, through a quantitative methodology, a cluster analysis was conducted, which allowed for the defining of student profiles, and through non-parametric tests, the significance was analyzed with respect to their interest in training, the academic benefits perceived, and the time spent using the Smartphone. The results showed the existence of three profiles, namely: High degree of knowledge and academic use of the Smartphone; Average degree of knowledge and use of the Smartphone; and Low degree of knowledge and use of the Smartphone. Also, differences between the profiles were found in the time spent using it, the benefits perceived and the interest for being trained on the academic use of the Smartphone. The students with the Low profile were the ones that detected the least number of positive aspects and had the least interest in training towards this aim.
Measuring Intercultural Learning through CLIL
Authors: Gómez-Parra M. Elena
Published: January 2020

CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) —endorsed by the European Commission since 1996— constitutes the official approach to bilingual education in Spain. Intercultural learning (IL) is one of the four defining Cs in CLIL, though the literature has consistently described it as the weakest implementation area. This paper analyses the opinions of 76 Spanish secondary education students about IL through their bilingual curriculum. Their viewpoints clearly suggest that IL comes from two main sources: native assistants; and exchange programmes. These data were contrasted with the views of school principals and bilingual coordinators, who declared that both of these valuable ‘resources for IL are scarce due to administrative difficulties and lack of budget. Our conclusions reveal how improving these areas can lead not only to improved scores but also to a better implementation of the intercultural axis in CLIL, if the goal consists in educating 21
st
century citizens.
Designing Pedagogical Practices for Teaching in Educational Spaces Culturally and Linguistically Diverse
Authors: Eliyahu-Levi Dolly , Ganz-Meishar Michal
Published: January 2020

Israel is a multi-cultural migration country and its education system face the challenges of equality and inclusion. This is comparative qualitative research based on a model that evaluates the development of intercultural competence. The purpose of the study is to examine the perceptions and attitudes of inter-cultural competence development in two groups of students, in which only one of them was involved in extra-curricular learning. The findings show differences between the two groups. Group A, had gained new knowledge in broader cultural contexts and had a deeper insight on creating a pluralistic professional identity, cultural-emotional commitment and strengthens the relationship between teaching and culture than the Group B. Moreover, the students in group A were more practical and dynamic and created a link between the content of the lesson and the children’s origin culture. They allow discussion of controversial issues and encourage the children to share personal stories.
Use of Photo-elicitation to evoke and solve Dilemmas that prompt changes Primary School Teachers’ visions
Authors: Bautista García-Vera Antonio , Rayón Rumayor Laura , de la Heras Cuenca Ana María
Published: January 2020

The present article investigates the potentialities of photo-elicitation as a technique in teacher professional development. This study analyses the process of eliciting dilemmas in four primary teachers, whose solution has proved to contribute to the teachers’ education. To this end, the effect of different types of external observers’ intervention in dilemma generation, participating in sessions developed with a specific photo-elicitation procedure, is explored. The knowledge pursued in order to meet the study objectives concerned inconsistencies between goals and practices and teachers’ dilemmas. These inconsistencies and dilemmas are tacit and with multiple possible interpretations, and are therefore not measurable. They consequently require an interpretative research approach using a qualitative method of inquiry based on collective case studies. The results show that the inconsistencies introduced to the teachers, by questioning their teaching practice, are enough but not necessary to pose professional dilemmas. Solving these dilemmas led the teachers to change their conceptual and processual beliefs, as well as their teaching activities.
Issues and Trends in the Application of E-learning Technologies in Teaching Business Education in Universities in Niger Delta
Authors: Okiridu O. S. F. , Ogwunte P. C.
Published: January 2020

The purpose of this study was to examine the issues and trends in the application of e-learning technologies in teaching Business Education in universities in Niger Delta Region. Two research questions and two null hypotheses guided the study. The entire population of 135 Lecturers was studied, and a census sampling technique was adopted. Data for the study were collected by means of questionnaire titled “Issues and trends in the application of e-learning technologies in teaching Business Education in universities (ITAETTBEU)”. The questionnaire was validated by three experts. The questionnaire adopted a 4 point rating scale. Test-retest method was used for the reliability test, which yielded co-efficient index of 0.79. Mean rating and standard deviation were used to analysed the research questions, while z-test inferential statistics was used to test the null hypotheses. Findings revealed that e-learning technologies are accepted to a high extent in universities in Niger Delta, and that Business Education Lecturers utilize e-learning technologies to a moderate extent, for educational instruction. Based on the findings, discussion were made and conclusions drawn. Recommendations made amongst others were that managements of universities in Niger Delta region of Nigeria should provide electronic learning facilities such as computer studio with high speed internet access facilities to enable Business Education Lecturers and Students have adequate access to the web.
Transverse Motions of Bernoulli-euler Beam Resting on Elastic Foundation and under Two Concentrated Moving Loads
Authors: Adedowole A.
Published: January 2020

Aims/Objectives: The aim is to obtain a closed form solutions of single-dimensional structural element of continuously supported by an elastic foundation. Thereafter, we classify the effects of the space d connecting the loads on the relevant partial differential equations governing the motion of the structural members. The study also analysis circumstances under which resonance occur in the dynamical systems involving structural members.

Study Design: The single-dimensional structural element is a partial differential equation of order fourth order place on elastic Winkler foundation. The Bernoulli-Euler beam traversed by two moving loads.

Place and Duration of Study: Department of Mathematical Sciences, Adekunle Ajasin University P.M.B. 01, Akungba-Akoko, Nigeria, between May 2019 and September 2019.

Methodology: The principal equation of the single -dimensional beam model is governing by partial differential equation of the order four. For the single -dimensional beam problem, the solution techniques are based on the Fourier sine transformation. The governing partial differential equation of the order four was reduced to sequence of second order ordinary differential equations.
Valorization of Agro-industrial Bio-waste from Seed Cotton in the Restoration of Degraded Soils in the District of Korhogo in Northern Côte d'Ivoire
Authors: Alphonse Alui Konan , Didier Martial Yao Saraka , Franck Oro Zokou , Albert Yao-Kouamé
Published: January 2020

The objective of this study was to restore degraded soils with organic manure from agro-industrial bio-waste (seed cotton) in the Department of Korhogo in Northern Côte d'Ivoire.

The research plots were set up in a Fisher block experimental design with four treatments, namely T0 (control soil), T1 (bio-waste at 1 month of biodegradation), T2 (bio-waste at 3 months of degradation) and T3 (bio-waste at 6 months of degradation).

On each of the treatments, bio-waste was applied using spreading technique and the variety F8128 of corn was sown to evaluate the agronomic performance of bio-waste. Four agronomic parameters were measured: Plant height, collar diameter, ear weight and grain yield. Likewise, the physical, physico-chemical and chemical analyses of the soil were performed before sowing and after corn harvesting.

The work was carried out from 2018 to 2019 in the district of Korhogo in Northern Côte d'Ivoire.

Our study shows significant increase in corn grain yield in each of the treatments (T1 = 2.26 T/ha; T2 = 1.98 T/ha and T3 = 1.48 T/ha) compared to the control (T0 = 1 T/ha). Laboratory analyses of the soil and bio-waste indicate a very low level of organic matter (MO varies from 0.55 to 0.77 g.kg-1) in the soil of the experimental plot and good mineralization of the organic matter in the bio-waste regardless of the decomposition time (C/N varies from 12 to 13). After application of the bio-waste, the organic matter content (T3 = 10.28 g.kg-1; T1 = 23.61 g.kg-1 and T2 = 23.63 g.kg-1) and nitrogen content (T3 = 0.69 g.kg-1; T1 = 1.16 g.kg-1 and T2 = 1.21 g.kg-1) of the various treatments significantly increased compared to the control soil (MO = 0.66 g.kg-1 and N = 0.013 g.kg-1). The pH level increased where the organic manure was applied becoming slightly acidic (5.7 to 6.4) compared to the control that had strong acidic reaction (4.8 to 5.1). 

Based on our study, it is evident that organic fertilizer has positive effect on corn yield. The seed cotton bio-waste has had an improving effect on the degraded soil of in Northern Côte d’Ivoire.
Exosome‐transmitted circ_MMP2 promotes hepatocellular carcinoma metastasis by upregulating MMP2
Authors: Liu Dengrui , Kang Hongxia , Gao Mingtai , Jin Li , Zhang Fang , Chen Dongqin , Li Mianli , Xiao Linghui
Published: January 2020

Exosomes released by tumor cells have been recently identified as important determinants of tumor progression. They often carry circular RNAs that are differentially expressed in tumors and may regulate tumorigenesis and metastasis. Here, we showed that supernatant of 97H hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell line could promote metastasis in L02 human liver cells and HCC cell lines. Moreover, we determined that circ_MMP2 (has_circ_0039411) could be delivered by 97H‐ or LM3 cell‐derived exosomes to L02 and HepG2 cell cultures. High expression of circ_MMP2 led to the upregulation of its host gene matrix metallopeptidase 2 (MMP2) via the sponging of miR‐136‐5p. Rescue assays demonstrated that miR‐136‐5p and MMP2 were two essential participants in HCC metastasis. Finally, high level of circ_MMP2 or MMP2, as well as low level of miR‐136‐5p, was correlated with low overall survival of HCC patients. Our study highlights a novel molecular pathway in HCC cell‐derived exosomes.
Synthesis and Reactivity of 1,1‐ and 1,2‐Bisboronate Species
Authors: Nallagonda Rajender , Kumar Nivesh , Reddy Reddy Rajasekhar , Shioukhi Israa , Sagi Hila , Masarwa Ahmad
Published: January 2020

In the past four decades, the chemistry of 1,1‐ and 1,2‐bisboronate compounds has been extensively explored. Many interesting structural features and reaction patterns have emerged, and more importantly, these compounds now feature prominently in both metal‐catalyzed and metal‐free transformations for the formation of CC bonds and C–heteroatom and other processes. This chapter aims to highlight the recent development in this rising research field, focusing on the synthesis of 1,1‐ and 1,2‐bisboronate compounds and their reactivity and selectivity that originate from the use of these bisboronates.
Prematurity and Birth Weight
Authors: Steward Deborah
Published: January 2020

Premature births occur at a time when accelerated fetal growth is normally occurring and results in supporting this important period of growth while in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Every effort is made to ensure that the continued growth of premature infants is healthy. The characteristics of this growth lay the foundation for long‐term health outcomes. However, there is a lack of consensus as to how this growth should look while in the NICU. Growth charts provide the best mechanism to assess the growth of premature infants and provide some estimation of expected or desired growth. The available intrauterine and postnatal growth charts have advantages and disadvantages. Clinicians have to select the growth chart that they envision will provide them with the necessary clinically relevant information to employ strategies that will maximize the healthy growth of premature infants. This entry provides an overview of the available growth charts specifically designed for monitoring and interpreting the growth and nutritional intake of premature infants.
Assessment at Birth
Authors: Bagwell Gail A. , McClead Richard E.
Published: January 2020

The initial assessment of the newborn includes not only a physical examination of the infant but also a thorough review of the maternal and neonatal history. A complete assessment will alert the practitioner to any potential neonatal problems. By recognizing potential problems early, the neonatal practitioner will help the newborn infant to achieve homeostasis quicker and complete the transition to extrauterine life. This entry gives a review of the components of a newborn assessment after birth, including perinatal record review, physical examination, and potential neonatal complications.
Primitive Reflexes
Authors: Vargiami Euthymia , Zafeiriou Dimitrios I.
Published: January 2020

The primitive reflexes and the postural reactions constitute one of the earliest available, simplest, and most frequently used tools among child neurologists, as well as developmental and general pediatricians all over the world, in order to assess the central nervous system integrity of infants and young children. They are quick and easy to perform, both in nonhospital environments and in developing countries, where time and specific resources are limited. Their combined examination should be considered as a simple but predictive screening test for the early identification of infants at risk for complex neurological sequelae. Some authors make no distinction between primitive reflexes and postural reactions; there is an ongoing controversy concerning the ones that, alone or in combination, have the greatest predictive clinical significance. Their combined examination is also useful in developing countries, since many developmental disorders such as cerebral palsy appear in low or nonrisk groups, whereas others are not detected by metabolic screening programs. This entry critically discusses the major primitive reflexes and postural reactions as an integral part of the neurological examination of the infant and summarizes their diagnostic relevance, alone or in combination, regarding an early diagnosis of cerebral palsy or developmental retardation.
Growth and Change in Infancy
Authors: Hickey Anna M.
Published: January 2020

Infancy is a time of rapid growth and change, driven by an interactive combination of biological processes and psychosocial/environmental factors. This entry highlights important aspects of infant growth and change within a transactional framework for understanding development, focusing on both biological and psychosocial influences. It provides an overview of biologically driven changes (e.g., neurological maturation, physical growth, developmental milestones), as well as a discussion of how environmental and psychosocial factors may influence development in the first 2 years of life.
Brain Development During Early Childhood
Authors: Kolb Bryan
Published: January 2020

Brain development begins early in gestation and is prolonged, continuing until well into the third decade of human life. Development begins early in utero, and by 7 weeks the human nervous system has begun to resemble what it will eventually look like. Most neurons are born before birth but connections continue to form at a rapid rate for several years before an extensive period of neuronal and synaptic pruning begins. The developing brain is highly responsive to many experiential factors, beginning with preconception experiences of the parents, gestational experiences, and postnatal experiences, especially during early childhood and adolescence.
Height and Weight
Authors: Zemel Babette S.
Published: January 2020

Height and weight are the principal characteristics representing physical growth and development. Humans have a unique pattern of growth in height and weight, characterized by very rapid growth in infancy, a period of slow growth during midchildhood, followed by a pubertal growth spurt prior to attaining adult size. Both height and weight have a strong hereditary component but are susceptible to influences from the social and physical environment, the nutritional milieu, and overall health. Height and weight are used in clinical assessment to assess the overall well‐being of the child and to screen for undernutrition, overnutrition, and other causes of growth faltering.
Kinesthetic Development
Authors: Haywood Kathleen M.
Published: January 2020

Kinesthesis is one's body sense that is derived from multiple receptors throughout the body. Infantile reflexes elicited prenatally indicate that at least some kinesthetic receptors are functional before birth. The muscle spindle receptors that play the major role in position and movement sense are mature by 3 years of age. Kinesthetic perception is also functional at birth, yet proprioceptive sensitivity and precision, tactile localization, and various aspects of body awareness develop in childhood, with large improvement by about 8 years and smaller refinements extending into adolescence. Perceptual intermodal integration (sensory integration) is also functional at birth. Amodal attributes of objects and events can be transferred between vision and kinesthesis during the first year of life. As with aspects of kinesthetic development, large improvements in integration are seen during childhood, with smaller refinements into adolescence.
Nutrition and Malnutrition
Authors: Elizabeth K. E.
Published: January 2020

The triple burden of malnutrition is composed of undernutrition/underweight, overweight/obesity, and micronutrient malnutrition. Tackling this triple burden requires a multipronged approach. Nutrition during the first 1,000 days of life from conception to 2 years of age has a crucial determining effect on future health and disease. In the life‐cycle approach, concentrating on the female child and prospective mother seems most appropriate. The holistic approach of the ABCDEFG assessment of nutritional status addresses the multifactorial occurrence of malnutrition. Anticipatory nutrition guidance regarding healthy eating at all ages can pave the way to better health at present and in the future. This approach can reduce both morbidity and mortality.
Metabolism
Authors: Gahagan Sheila , Wang Helen Chiehyu , Ma Lawrence
Published: January 2020

Metabolism involves chemical processes in living organisms that generate energy and building blocks that support life. Amino acids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids act as building blocks within cells, contributing to energy metabolism, growth, and other cellular functions. Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids from food provide primary sources of energy. Regulation of energy production and energy expenditure is controlled by hormones. In times of severe energy deficits, the metabolic rate decreases and hunger increases. However, in the face of energy surplus, the body's ability to increase the metabolic rate and to suppress hunger is limited. Thus, the body's regulatory process makes it easier to gain weight and harder to lose weight. The regulation of energy production and expenditure is under the control of hormones. Eating and sleeping patterns influence metabolism through hormones and intricate neural mechanisms. Childhood growth is an important process influenced by metabolism. Metabolism also includes the elimination of toxic molecules and waste products. Disorders of metabolism can also occur. Such inborn errors of metabolism are targeted for early diagnosis and treatment through high‐risk newborn screening programs in the United States, and in many other countries.
Typical Sleep Development
Authors: Jenni Oskar G.
Published: January 2020

Sleep shifts gradually from a polyphasic pattern at birth toward the night and eventually consolidates into one long nocturnal sleep period by 6–9 months of age. Substantial changes in sleep patterns, sleep duration, sleep depth, and sleep phase preference occur throughout childhood and are governed by the maturation of circadian regulation and sleep homeostasis. These regulatory processes develop according to the child's biological traits and tend to be stable over time intraindividually, while the differences between children of the same age are very large. This largely biologically driven individual variation in children's sleep behavior means that no general recommendations should be given for such practices as optimal sleep duration and bedtime for children. Instead, a goodness‐of‐fit approach should be encouraged to achieve a balance between the needs of the child, the family, and society.
Toileting
Authors: Warzak William J. , Kennedy Abigail E.
Published: January 2020

Most typically developing children will be successfully toilet trained regardless of method. Nevertheless, the time and effort associated with toileting training are substantial and child resistance can be daunting enough for some caregivers to seek professional assistance. This entry provides a common groundwork of toilet‐training procedures and offers evidence‐based suggestions for children who are refractory to common toilet‐training methods. It recommends fluid loading to promote practice trials and positive reinforcement for sitting and voiding in the toilet. Differential consequences for identifying being dry versus being wet during pant checks are equally helpful. In addition, this entry suggests addressing child compliance issues prior to toilet training. Finally, it describes stimulus control as a significant factor in toilet training. Stimulus control and reinforcement history allocate toileting obstacles to external environmental factors rather than to factors within the child.
Disorders of Growth
Authors: Grissom Maureen , Ungar Andrew , Iroku‐Malize Tochi
Published: January 2020

Children who are significantly (two or more standard deviations) below or above average height can be considered to be of short or tall stature, although it is more common for children and their parents to be concerned about short stature. Evaluation for a suspected growth disorder should involve standardized assessment to identify both normal (e.g., familial short or tall stature) and abnormal variants (e.g., a genetic disorder) of growth in order to determine etiology and guide intervention, including the decision not to intervene medically. Treatment should be based on the determined etiology of the tall or short stature and, for many children, medical treatment may not be necessary. Providing information to patients and their parents regarding the potential risks and benefits of treatment is essential in order to provide the best care, to reassure parents and families, and to manage expectations appropriately.
Disorders of Sex Development
Authors: Tishelman Amy C. , Hansen‐Moore Jennifer , Crerand Canice E.
Published: January 2020

Disorders of sex development are a set of heterogeneous congenital conditions associated with chromosomal, hormonal, and/or anatomical differences. These conditions vary with regard to etiology, treatment, anticipated comorbidities, and impacts on visible anatomical differences; fertility, endocrinology, and urological surgical treatment options; anticipated urological and sexual function impacts; and gender identity concerns. Controversies exist in several areas, including terminology, gender assignment, and clinical best practices. Treatments at every step need to be individualized, and current care standards suggest that an interdisciplinary team approach is optimal. Although teams are constructed in varying ways, they can integrate some or all of the following specialists: urologists, endocrinologists, nurses, psychologists, social workers, geneticists, gynecologists, and bioethicists. Clinical management needs and potential psychosocial challenges can vary across the developmental spectrum. More research is needed to provide empirically guided optimal care approaches.
Conceptual Foundations of the Behavior Analysis of Child Development
Authors: Morris Edward K.
Published: January 2020

The conceptual foundations of the behavior analysis of child development are consistent with the worldview of contextualism, especially with functional contextualism. This contrasts with the received view in developmental psychology, which casts behavior analysis as mechanistic, in particular as discrete mechanism. This entry compares and contrasts the contextualism of the behavior analysis of child development with mechanism and organicism on five core developmental issues: (1) elementarism versus holism, (2) development as response‐based change versus structural change, (3) causal versus functional analysis, (4) continuity versus discontinuity, and (5) the passive versus active nature of development and related issues in agent–action locutions and the trait–situationism controversy. Next, the roles of context in the worldviews—one defining of contextualism, others not—are addressed. In conclusion, contextualism is situated among complementary perspectives in the behavioral, psychological, and social sciences—some old, some new—that distinguish them as a converging trend in developmental psychology.
Applied Research
Authors: Jessel Joshua
Published: January 2020

Applied research is an extension of basic behavioral principles and methodology to behaviors of social significance. Applied researchers arrange environmental variables to reduce behaviors in excess or to increase deficits, and evaluate the outcomes using a combination of single‐subject experimental designs and social validation tools. As a child ages, they are exposed to an ever more complex environment that shapes their behavioral repertoires. However, along the way the child may experience barriers to their developmental readiness, and this may require behavioral treatment. This entry discusses the guiding principles of behavioral research; the restrictions of applied research; the barriers to developmental readiness; and the common treatment applications during child development.
Stimulus Control (Conditional Stimulus Control)
Authors: Ingvarsson Einar T. , Petursdottir Anna Ingeborg
Published: January 2020

Stimulus control occurs when the probability of behavior is greater under certain environmental conditions than others. It is a basic behavioral process and has relevance for all areas of human behavior and development, including social interaction, language, concept formation, theory of mind, and education. This entry provides an overview of stimulus control and reviews discrimination training procedures to establish control by stimuli (e.g., prompting and fading) as well as the spread of stimulus control to new stimuli or stimulus combinations (generalization). Particular emphasis is placed on
conditional stimulus control
, a term used to describe situations in which the presence and absence of one stimulus modifies the effects of another stimulus. Conditional discrimination forms the basis for understanding many complex behavioral phenomena.
Relational Framing
Authors: Rehfeldt Ruth Anne , Ming Siri , Belisle Jordan
Published: January 2020

Much support exists for relational frame theory as a behavior‐analytic conceptualization for complex language and cognition. The purpose of this entry is to survey research on relational frame theory as it pertains to the development of flexible, bidirectional repertoires in children and adolescents. The entry focuses on basic simple framing repertoires involved in early language acquisition as well as more sophisticated repertoires involved in complex cognitive abilities such as hierarchical responding and perspective taking. Suggestions for future research are provided.
Early Child Learning of Social and Cognitive Skills
Authors: Pelaez Martha , Monlux Katerina
Published: January 2020

This entry stresses the importance of the learning of early communication skills such as joint attention, social referencing, and vocalizations and provides some language and skill‐teaching techniques. From a behavior‐analytic approach, this entry also highlights the learning of social skills (such as infant imitation), play, advanced language skills (such as echoics, manding, tacting, interverbals, autoclitics, and naming), autonomy, self‐regulation, and rule‐governed behavior. Studies on the learning of infant attachment, fear, empathy, and perspective taking are outlined. The last section discusses some of the typical child behavioral disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder, attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and oppositional defiant disorder, and identifies behavior‐analytic interventions. The behavior‐analytic framework of this entry contrasts with the popular stage theories in mainstream development and provides clinicians, psychologists, and behavioral practitioners with strategies they can use to minimize potential pivotal skill deficits in children.
Applied Behavior Analysis
Authors: Vollmer Timothy R. , Peters Kerri P. , Kronfli Faris R. , Grauerholz‐Fisher Emma
Published: January 2020

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is an extension of the Skinnerian tradition of operant psychology. The focus is on the seven dimensions outlined more than 50 years ago by Baer and colleagues, but the field and the applications have not been static during those 50 years. The social relevance of behavior addressed by ABA ranges from that affecting individuals with severe intellectual disabilities to typically developing children to high‐functioning adults in vastly complex personal and professional environments. Many facets of ABA are considered standards of best practice and have been written directly into federal recommendation or even legislation in the United States. The efficacy and importance of ABA on a cultural level are seen in the growth of the certification process, the development of licensure, and the growth of its parent organization.
Functional Behavior Assessment in Context
Authors: Fahmie Tara Ann , Luczynski Kevin C.
Published: January 2020

Functional behavior assessment is a problem‐solving process that identifies the proximal causes of behavior and acts as a gateway to effective intervention. This entry delineates the unique contributions of a behavior‐analytic approach to the assessment of problem behavior, identifies core features of the functional assessment process, and summarizes long‐standing as well as emerging areas of application.
Consequent Interventions
Authors: Kodak Tiffany , Halbur Mary E.
Published: January 2020

The primary focus of study in the field of applied behavior analysis is the behavior of organisms, and the events surrounding behavior. The primary unit of analysis within this field is the three‐term contingency. This contingency consists of an antecedent, a behavior, and a consequence. A consequence is a stimulus or event that immediately follows a behavior. This entry provides information on the element consequence of the contingency.
Antecedent Interventions
Authors: Bruzek Jennifer L. , Bayles Makenzie
Published: January 2020

Applied behavior analysis focuses exclusively on the interaction between the behavior of organisms and environmental events. Behavior is the primary subject matter, and all causes of behavior are attributed to the environment. The basic unit of analysis is the three‐term contingency which includes an antecedent (A), a behavior (B), and a consequence (C). Antecedents are events or conditions that occur prior to the behavior, including biological and experiential influences, and that play a critical role in behavioral processes. Thus, antecedent interventions, the primary focus of this entry, are valuable and sometimes preferable to consequent interventions.
Family‐Based Interventions
Authors: Charlop Marjorie H. , Thomas Benjamin R. , Gumaer Caitlyn B.
Published: January 2020

This entry reviews the impact of behavioral parent training on families of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). First, parent involvement in behavioral treatment is reviewed in relation to positive outcomes for children with ASD. Decades of research have shown that behavioral parent training can teach parents how to improve their children's skills and to reduce their problem behavior. Next, family systems and contextual fit of interventions are discussed. Notably, parenting a child with ASD is associated with many difficulties. When trained, some parents report reduced stress with their improved competencies. Other parents suggest that there are challenges to incorporating intervention into their family dynamics, and that the needs of the family as a whole are not taken into account. Finally, the burgeoning literature on parent‐focused interventions for reducing stress is discussed, including acceptance and commitment therapy and mindfulness.
Autism: History and Diagnosis
Authors: Weiss Mary Jane , Volpe Samantha , Cihon Joe
Published: January 2020

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been described in the clinical and research literature for decades and presents many clinical challenges. ASD has been poorly understood, and many misconceptions exist about its nature and etiology and about the components of effective treatment. ASD is characterized by deficits in social and communication skills and by repetitive behaviors. The variability within ASD is significant, but these characteristics are universally present. Effective treatments for the defining features of ASD exist and lead to socially significant changes in the lives of individuals with ASD. Social and communication interventions include the use of discrete trial instruction, incidental teaching and other naturalistic procedures, and video modeling. Functional communication training has led to major behavioral and communicative improvements as well. Challenging behaviors, including self‐injury and aggression, have been successfully treated with a variety of behavior‐analytic interventions. Effective intervention requires an understanding of the function of the challenging behavior, and function‐based treatment is essential. Behavior analysis provides the most effective means of conceptualizing and treating ASD, both in terms of addressing social and communicative skill deficits and in terms of reducing the interference posed by challenging behaviors.
Impulsivity and Self‐Control
Authors: Reed Derek D. , Naudé Gideon P.
Published: January 2020

Impulsivity is associated with a host of short‐ and long‐term setbacks in the developmental trajectory. Individuals exhibiting impulsivity—the relative preference for smaller sooner reinforcers over larger delayed reinforcers—are more likely to be less educated, to be prone to addiction and other risky health decisions, and to exhibit higher body mass index values, and are more at risk of premature death (accidental, by suicide, or as a result of chronic health issues). Individuals exhibiting self‐control—the inverse of impulsivity—are more likely to succeed in life, resulting in the inverse of the negative outcomes associated with impulsivity. Given the significant role of self‐control in successful development across the lifespan, behavioral scientists have devoted much attention to these concepts, having proposed numerous conceptualizations of impulsivity and self‐control as well as numerous interventions to weaken impulsivity and strengthen self‐control. Despite decades of work in these areas, many empirical questions remain regarding the conceptualization and treatment of impulsivity and self‐control.
Intellectual Disability in Childhood
Authors: Kryszak Elizabeth M. , Mulick James A.
Published: January 2020

Intellectual disability
(ID) refers to pervasive learning failure that affects an individual's ability to meet basic age‐appropriate expectations of the society within which the individual functions. The concept of ID, like any disability definition, is a social construct designed to classify need for particular services and supports. As such, it has evolved over time with increasing understanding of ID including its causes and successful interventions. This entry seeks to summarize this evolutionary process and how it shaped the modern understanding of the concept of ID. It then discusses the current definition of ID and its varying levels, along with current prevalence estimates. It also reviews the understanding of various etiologies including genetic, metabolic, medical, and environmental. A summary of current assessment practices used to obtain cognitive and adaptive functioning estimates, along with medical assessment of various etiologies, is given. Finally, current best practice interventions are reviewed.
Teaching Safety Skills to Children
Authors: Miltenberger Raymond G. , Novotny Marissa A. , Valbuena Diego A. , Sanchez Sindy
Published: January 2020

This entry discusses research on teaching safety skills to children. After defining safety skills, the entry discusses assessment of safety skills and concludes that in situ assessment is the most valid approach. Next, the entry discusses training approaches and concludes that behavioral skills training and in situ training are the most effective approaches. The entry ends with a discussion of accessibility and guidelines for intervention.
Self‐Injurious Behavior
Authors: Tiger Jeffrey H. , Caldwell R. Kyle , Gifford Margaret R.
Published: January 2020

Self‐injurious behavior (SIB) exhibited by individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities is frequently a chronic and debilitating behavior disorder that greatly limits these individuals' quality of life. The preponderance of evidence suggests that although certain medical and developmental disorders serve as risk factors, the development of this severe behavior disorder results from the normal environmental learning process of operant reinforcement. Identifying sources of operant reinforcement via a functional analysis can therefore lead to effective intervention by disrupting the operant contingencies that support SIB and arranging new contingencies to support desirable behavior.
Verbal Behavior
Authors: Lechago Sarah A.
Published: January 2020

Verbal behavior, commonly referred to as
language
or
linguistics
, is central to the human experience. The acquisition of verbal behavior can be rapid and often seems to occur without much direct instruction. Because of its importance and ubiquity across cultures, verbal behavior as a topic of scholarly investigation has generated much interest across many fields of study. This entry offers a primer on verbal behavior from the behavior‐analytic perspective.
Embedded Teaching
Authors: Hirst Erica S. Jowett , Boydston Paige S.
Published: January 2020

Embedded teaching involves the presentation of learning opportunities in the context of naturally occurring activities such as free play, transitions, and meal preparation. Embedded teaching poses many benefits including utility and variety of skills taught, use of naturally occurring instructional materials and rewards, cost efficiency, and flexibility of adaptation to a variety of locations. Although embedded teaching may be implemented in a variety of settings, the procedures are most often used in classroom settings. Overall, embedded teaching is an effective tool for a variety of individuals both with and without developmental disabilities.
Neuroconstructivism
Authors: Broadbent Hannah , Mareschal Denis
Published: January 2020

Neuroconstructivism is a framework that unifies knowledge from cognitive neuroscience, computational modeling, Piagetian constructivism, and epigenetics to describe how the brain becomes progressively more specialized over developmental time. The emergence of increasingly more complex mental representations is understood to occur via experience‐dependent processes and within the context of multiple bidirectional interactions across all levels of description—from the genome, to neural networks, to the organism's social and physical environment. The theoretical framework puts forward a number of foundational principles that describe these contextual effects at the level of engenement, encellment, embrainment, embodiment, and ensocialment. In bringing these aspects together, neuroconstructivist theory provides an alternative to traditional nativist and empiricist viewpoints of cognitive development. Instead, neuroconstructivism maintains that human cognition is not a state defined by innately specified independent modules, but a process toward domain specificity that emerges over developmental time, within a dynamic system and environment. This framework consequently has significant implications for the study of developmental disorders, as well as typical development, by emphasizing the importance of how basic‐level deficits can have subtle cascading effects across highly interconnected brain regions through ontogeny, and which yield variable developmental outcomes.
Taste, Smell, and Touch
Authors: Coulthard Helen
Published: January 2020

Perceiving and responding to the sensory world is a crucial part of development. Sensory perception of taste, smell, and touch starts in utero, and these senses are a gateway through which infants learn about the flavor of food. Traditionally, theories about sensory development focused upon the dichotomy of whether preferences were innate or learned; however, recent researchers have adopted process‐oriented models. In early infancy there is a preference for the familiar, and infants quickly learn to like familiar sensations. However infants who are exposed to a varied world of tastes, smells, and tactile sensations tend to respond more favorably to new stimuli. Research into sensory development is constrained by both the challenges of working with infants and the complex and varied sensory world that each individual child experiences. It is increasingly recognized that sensory processing is an important, but overlooked, factor in the acceptance and rejection of foods throughout the lifespan.
Attention in Infancy and Childhood: A Focus on Developmental Dynamics
Authors: Scerif Gaia
Published: January 2020

A fundamental question in developmental and cognitive psychology is how attentive observers select stimuli for further processing. How observers attend gates what they encode into memory, and this in turn provides the mental workspace to attend most efficiently. This entry focuses on three key issues in attention development. First, the entry presents the literature on how attentional skills develop from infancy into childhood. Second, the entry provides a discussion of themes emerging from how early atypical attention relates to atypical outcomes in young children at high risk for attention difficulties, highlighting the interplay between attention and other domains of cognition and well‐being. Third, the entry describes growing evidence on dynamic interactions between attention, memory, and learning over neurotypical development. As a whole, this body of work suggests that, increasingly, developmental psychologists investigating attention in infancy and childhood complement descriptive trajectories with studies of how attention influences and is influenced by the prior history of developing observers.