bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialisation: The Mexican Economy, 1830–1940
Authors: Haber Stephen H.
Published: February 2009

After England began what came to be known as the First Industrial Revolution at the end of the eighteenth century, industrial technology quickly diffused throughout the nations of the North Atlantic. Within fifty years of the first rumblings of British industrialisation, the factory system had spread to Western Europe and the United States. Latin America, however, lagged behind. It was not until the twentieth century that manufacturing came to lead the economies of Latin America and that agrarian societies were transformed into industrial societies.

This article seeks to understand this long lag in Latin American industrialisation through an analysis of the experience of Mexico during the period 1830–1940. The purpose of the paper is to look at the obstacles that prevented self-sustaining industrialisation from taking place in Mexico, as well as to assess the results of the industrialisation that did occur.

The basic argument advanced is that two different types of constraints prevailed during different periods of Mexico's industrialisation. During the period from 1830 to 1880 the obstacles to industrialisation were largely external to firms: insecure property rights, low per capita income growth resulting from pre-capitalist agricultural organisation, and the lack of a national market (caused by inefficient transport, banditry and internal tariffs) all served as a brake on Mexico's industrial development. During the period 1880–1910 the obstacles to industrialisation were largely internal to firms. These factors included the inability to realise scale economies, high fixed capital costs and low labour productivity. During the period from 1910 to 1930 these internal constraints combined with new external constraints – including the Revolution of 1910–17, the political uncertainty of the post-revolutionary period and the onset of the Great Depression – which further slowed the rate of industrial growth.
Peasants and Petty Capitalists in Southern Oaxacan Sugar Cane Production and Processing, 1930–1980
Authors: Binford Leigh
Published: February 2009

The documented history of Mexican sugar in the twentieth century begins with the introduction of vacuum-pan technology between 1880 and 1910, subsequently chronicling the progressive expansion and concentration of the industry, and the creeping State intervention which eventually resulted in the nationalisation of most private sugar mills during the 1960s and 1970s.1Small-scale, labour-intensive ruraltrapichesproducingpanela(an unrefined form of semi-crystalline sugar) have largely been left out of this history, despite the fact thattrapicheswere often predecessors to modern sugar mills and in many areas survived displacement by them. Surveying Oaxaca's Isthmus of Tehuantepec region in 1940, for example, Ybarra recorded three industrialised mills and 37 small, motorised,panela-producingtrapiches.2In 1947, according to Aragón Calvo and Vargas Comargo,panelaaccounted for an estimated 25% of Mexican sugar production overall, and consumption ofpanelaexceeded that of refined sugar in the states of Veracruz and Guerrero.3Panelacontinues to be produced and consumed in Mexico today — albeit in reduced quantities. In Panama, Colombia, India and other nations,panela(or the local equivalent) is an even more important sugar source than in Mexico.4

Nationally the labour-intensivepanelaindustry pales into insignificance next to the modern sugar sector. However, in particular regions and communities, as I shall attempt to demonstrate, it has been an important source of employment and capital, providing rural dwellers with their first experience of disciplined factory work and numerous small entrepreneurs with profits that were invested back into the communities to expand control over local land and businesses.
The Marriage of Finance and Order: Changes in the Mexican Political Elite
Authors: Centeno Miguel Angel , Maxfield Sylvia
Published: February 2009

Recent literature on Latin American political economy appears to echo work of the 1960s and 1970s emphasising technical expertise in government. Sikkink and Geddes, for example, suggest that the role of technical experts and professionalisation of the bureaucracy explain Brazil's relative economic successes in the 1960s.1Conaghan, Malloy and Abugattas focus on the role of technocrats in economic policy—making in the Central Andes.2Following seminal work by Camp and Smith, Hernández Rodríguez presents the latest data on the role of technocrats in the Mexican political elite.3To a large extent, this recent literature on technocrats in Latin America fails to address one of the main issues debated in the earlier literature: the political consequences of increasingly technocratic government. A second problem with recent work is that, when it does address causal issues, it tends to follow the functionalist logic of earlier literature. Using data on Mexican political elites, this article develops a new typology which carefully differentiates the new technobureaucratic elite from other elite groups. The aim is to shed new light on the debate over the implications of increasing technocratisation. Secondly, this study of the rise of a new elite emphasises the role of institutional changes within the government bureaucracy in addition to the state's functional response to changes in its politico—economic environment. This article begins with a brief discussion of earlier general — and Mexico—specific — literature on technocrats.

Some analysts of technocracy in the 1960s and 1970s saw technocrats as apolitical specialists whose growing role in society heralded ‘an end to ideology’ and increased efficiency in government.4
Party Elites and Leadership in Colombia and Venezuela
Authors: Martz John D.
Published: February 2009

‘By studying political parties we imply that the party is a meaningful unit of analysis. Yet we go above the party as a unit, for we also study the party system.By the same token we can go below the party as a unit and study, thereby, the party subunits.’1This statement by Giovanni Sartori, while published in 1976, might well have been a beacon for budding stasiologists of the early 1960s — certainly for those with a particular interest in Latin America. Following upon such Western European—orientated classics as the works of Maurice Duverger, Sigmund Neumann and Alfred Diamant,2there seemed genuine intellectual impetus to produce significant scholarship on the parties of what were then customarily termed either the developing or the ‘non—western’ polities. For Latin America, the time appeared ripe for conceptual progress. To be sure, there was justification in remarking that the study of parties in the region was relatively new, while ‘methodo—logical accomplishments have been primitive’.3Yet this condition was presumably transitory.

In the years to follow there were more serious exploratory efforts, and in time a modest number of case—studies began appearing.4When the cyclical alternation of democratic and dictatorial regimes began to swing toward the latter by the early 1970s, however, scholarly interest dropped off. More generally, stasiological research went into decline.5For students of Latin America, only the recent trend toward democratisation has stimulated a revival of interest in parties, campaigns and elections.6Thus Lorenzo Meyer, for instance, described parties as institutions necessary ‘to channel the energies of social movements, labour unions, and other antiauthoritarian forces present at the beginning of the re—emergence of civil society’.7
Teetering on the Brink: Cuba's Current Economic and Political Crisis
Authors: Zimbalist Andrew
Published: February 2009

Cuban scholars are not noted for fashioning consensus, much less unanimity. Yet it is unlikely that a Cubanist could be found who would not agree with the proposition that Cuba in 1992 is in the worst crisis of the revolution. It is perhaps arguable that the material situation on the island in 1969 was as difficult as it is today, but back in 1969 the revolution was young and the Cuban people for the most part were energetic and hopeful. Cuba was then an increasingly accepted and economically integrated member of the large world socialist community.

The proximate cause of Cuba's present predicament is not hard to identify. Cuba has a small and heavily trade-dependent economy. In the presence of the US embargo, Cuba came to depend on the former Soviet trade bloc (CMEA) for over four-fifths of its imports. Without access to the US market, with access to other markets restricted and with imports from the former CMEA countries reduced by roughly two-thirds, Cuba's economy and its people are struggling to survive.

The government's response to the crisis has been deliberate but inadequate. A number of reforms initiated prior to 1989 are being continued,1 others are being accelerated and some new programmes are being put in place. The new emphasis on foreign investment and tourism, structural reforms in the operation of foreign trade, and the impossibility of central planning in the presence of ubiquitous supply uncertainties have combined to transform the nature of Cuba's economic mechanism. Despite the promise of some extension of private enterprise and the market in the service sector, however, the needed and more concerted introduction of a broader market mechanism has not been forthcoming.
Informal Empire? An Exploration in the History of Anglo-Argentine Relations, 1810–1914
Authors: Thompson Andrew
Published: February 2009

Introduction: the genesis of ‘informal empire’

In 1953 John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson published an article entitled ‘The Imperialism of Free Trade’, which has since become a landmark in the study of nineteenth-century British imperialism. Seeking to overturn long-cherished notions of a mid-Victorian ‘indifference’ and a late-Victorian ‘enthusiasm’ for empire, it proposed a basic continuity of policy whereby British industrialisation caused an ever-extending and intensifying development of overseas regions for both strategic and economic purposes. Hence the suggestion of a working definition of imperialism as ‘the sufficient political function of this process of integrating new regions into the expanding economy’. In switching the focus of a definition of imperialism from the way in which Britain was able to assert her superiority over weaker, subordinate nations to the impetus and motivation behind such expansion, traditional conceptions of empire were suddenly shattered. Indeed, as Robinson and Gallagher maintained, ‘The conventional interpretation of the nineteenth century empire continues to rest on the study of formal empire alone, which is rather like judging the size and character of icebergs solely from the parts above the water-line’.2

The whole framework of reference for a study of British imperialism was being recast, the revised assumption being that the empire of formal dominion, which can loosely be defined as control through annexation and constitutional subordination, is not comprehensible in isolation. Rather, the assertion of British paramountcy, which for Robinson and Gallagher lies close to the very heart of imperialism, was achieved by informal means if possible, or by formal annexation when this was deemed necessary.
The Problem of Political Order in Early Republican Spanish America
Authors: Safford Frank
Published: February 2009

The persistent instability and disorder of Spanish American polities in the post-Independence period was undoubtedly one of the most perplexing concerns of Spanish American elites in the nineteenth century. It has remained a subject of interpretive debate by twentieth-century students of the area. The following article sketches several general approaches to the problem among twentieth-century interpreters, compares contemporary nineteenth-century analyses with the salient twentieth-century interpretations, and offers a critical commentary on the various sorts of twentieth-century analytical frameworks.

The three salient twentieth-century interpretations of political disorder in the nineteenth century are: (1) those that emphasise deeply embedded characteristics of Spanish American culture as underlying causes of political instability; (2) those that attribute political disorder to structural problems, particularly to weaknesses in the economic structure or shifts in the social structure; (3) those that see political instability as a reflection of conflicting ideologies, economic interests, and/or the aspirations or fears of identifiable social groups.

The distinctive feature of cultural interpretations of Latin American politics is their common belief that cultural characteristics are indelible and more-or-less unchangeable. And, since such cultural interpretations emphasise what might be considered ‘negative’ aspects of Spanish or Spanish American culture in order to explain defects in Spanish American politics, their assumption that cultures do not change over time tends to imbue such interpretations with a certain pessimism about the future of Spanish American politics.

An early twentieth-century exponent of cultural approaches to understanding Spanish-American political disorder was Francisco García Calderón, who, thinking particularly of the phenomenon of caudillismo, emphasised Spanish authoritarian individualism.
TheQuilomboof Palmares: A New Overview of a Maroon State in Seventeenth-Century Brazil
Authors: Anderson Robert Nelson
Published: February 2009

This article offers a new perspective on the history of the maroon state of Palmares in Northeastern Brazil. It adds information and interpretation to R. K. Kent's ground-breaking article ‘Palmares: An African State in Brazil’ published in 1965. The present essay gives an historical narrative summary with commentary on the historiography, describing Afro—razilian aspects of the history of Palmares. The purpose is to review and expand upon the historical, linguistic, and cultural context of Palmares and on the sources for the emerging epic material of Zumbi of Palmares.
Brazilian Inflation from 1980 to 1993: Causes, Consequences and Dynamics
Authors: Tullio G. , Ronci M.
Published: February 2009

This article focuses on Brazilian inflation: its causes, consequences and dynamics from 1980 to 1993. We argue that the main economic cause of the Brazilian inflation was the excessive growth of money, in turn caused by too high budget deficits. Oil and exchange rate shocks also played a role, together with the greater dependence of the Central Bank of Brazil on the government. We measure the degree of Central Bank independence by the variable ‘turnover’ of Central Bank governors defined as the number of months in office. The effect of this variable on inflation is found to be highly significant and positive.
Autos over Rails: How US Business Supplanted the British in Brazil, 1910–28
Authors: Downes Richard
Published: February 2009

The dynamics of Brazil's transportation sector early in this century reveal much about how and why US industries conquered the Brazilian market and established a sound basis for investment. Especially during the 1920s, US companies responded to the transportation needs of Brazil's rapidly growing economy and won the major share of its automobile and truck markets. This was crucial because of the automobile's central role as a leading sector of the world's economy during this period. Sales and then direct investment by US firms in automobile assembly plants placed US business on a more secure foundation than British investment, prominent in a sector losing the vitality exhibited in the nineteenth century: railroads. Rail systems slowed their extension into the immense Brazilian interior while the automobile flourished, promoted by a powerful Brazilian lobby forautomobilismoreinforced by efforts of US business and government. This process illustrates how the Brazilians' interpretation of their economic needs coincided with pressures exerted by US industry to create a permanent US presence within Brazil's economy. How Henry Ford replaced Herbert Spencer as the foremost symbol of industrialism in early twentieth century Brazil sheds light on the personal and political dynamics of international business competition.1

Rapid economic growth in the early twentieth century thrust a host of new local and regional demands upon Brazil's woefully inadequate transportation sector. Capital formation rose without interruption from 1901 onwards and reached very high levels immediately prior to World War I; more than 11,000 industrial firms producing over 67% of the economy's 1920 industrial output came into being between 1900 and 1920.
The Evolution of Agricultural Interest Groups in Argentina
Authors: Manzetti Luigi
Published: February 2009

Argentina's history has been profoundly influenced by the development of its agriculture. It was through the exportation of beef and grain that the country experienced spectacular economic growth between 1880 and 1930. Historically, agricultural and agro-industrial production have made up between 70 and 80% of export earnings.1As a consequence, the sector's dominant interest group during that period, the Argentine Rural Society (Sociedad Rural Argentina– SRA) acquired enormous economic power, which led to political clout as many of its members went on to become presidents of the republic and to staff the most important ministries. Because of the political influence so attained the SRA was soon referred to as one of the keyfactores de poder, or power holders, along with the military, the Church and, later on, labour. This hegemony came to an end in the mid-1940s when industrialisation replaced agriculture as the main contributor to the nation's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and when Peronism removed the landowning elite from control of the levers of power. The agricultural sector continued to take a backseat among the priorities of most of the administrations following Perón's downfall in 1955, because the future of Argentina was perceived to rest upon the promotion of import substitution industrialisation. Agricultural interest groups were never again able to gain the same kind of access to economic policy-making as they had once enjoyed. To make matters worse, the whole rural sector was forced to finance the state-led industrialisation process through a variety of direct and indirect government taxes.
High Inflation and Bolivian Agriculture
Authors: Godoy Ricardo , De Franco Mario
Published: February 2009

A nation that demands from its government nothing but the maintenance of order is already a slave in the bottom of its heart; it is the slave of its wellbeing, and the man who is to chain it can arrive on the scene.
Future Phoneticians
Authors: Fry D. B.
Published: February 2009

The appearance of theJournal of the International Phonetic Associationoffers a natural opportunity for taking both a look backward and a look forward in the field of phonetics. Ever since the publication ofThe Phonetic Teacherin 1886 and through the long period ofLe Maître Phonétique, the organ of the Association has continued to appear, even if during war years the interval between successive numbers may sometimes have been long. It now comes in a new guise, the major change being the setting of the body of the journal in orthography instead of in phonetic transcription, and this is a suitable moment at which to ask what this change, a far from superficial one, betokens: what kind of scholars were the men who formed the Association and guided its early years, was their work of lasting value, what fresh light has been shed on the field in the intervening period, where do we stand now and what guesses can we make about the sort of work our successors will be doing?
Notes on a Westmeath dialect
Authors: Nally E. V.
Published: February 2009

1. What follows is a sketch of the phonology of the English spoken in Emper, Co. Westmeath. Emper is a pocket of fertile country partly enclosed in a loop of the River Inny and situate some eleven or twelve miles to the north-west of Mullingar. The population, fluctuating about two hundred souls, is composed mostly of farmers and farm labourers. They are engaged in mixed farming, that is tillage, stock-raising, and dairying; and are a settled community in that the farms in most cases have been occupied by the same families for generations. It is difficult to say at what date exactly the people of Emper ceased to speak Irish and became English speakers. The evidence is scanty and entirely oral, yet sufficient to warrant the conclusion that at some time after the middle of the eighteenth century, and certainly before 1800, Emper had become English speaking. The findings and conclusions below are based on my own (dialect) pronunciation and my memory of auditory observation of the speech of the older stratum of the inhabitants, and especially of those born before 1900. This is my vernacular speech and I have never lost touch with it.
Syllables and word-stress in Hindi
Authors: Jones W. E.
Published: February 2009

Although Hindi is a major world-language, with well over a hundred million speakers, the description of its prosodic features has been neglected. Like most other present-day Indo-European languages, it is a non-tone language, with sentence intonation and a stress accent. Stress occurs on syllables within words (word-stress) and on words within sentences (sentence-stress). By confining ourselves in the first instance to single-word utterances we may formulate some rules for word-stress, as a preliminary to a discussion of sentence-stress and intonation.
Revision of cardinal vowels, and some other problems
Authors: Hammarström Göran
Published: February 2009

In a recent paper J. D. McClure (1972) objects to some basic principles of the IPA vowel system. According to him neither the division of the cardinal vowels into ‘primaries’ and ‘secondaries’, nor the mixing of rounded and unrounded in each of these two sets of vowels can be justified. It is obvious that McClure is perfectly right although he argues perhaps slightly more vigorously than needed. As a matter of fact, one wonders if anybody would wish to object to the points he is making.
A Revised Phonetic Alphabet proposed by the Maritimes Dialect Survey
Authors: Wilson H. Rex , Wanamaker M. G. , Kinloch A. M.
Published: February 2009

The origins of this Revised Phonetic Alphabet lie in the attempts of the Maritimes Dialect Survey to find an alphabet which would allow a computor to handle phonetic data readily and conveniently. This necessitated planning an alphabet which could be adapted to an 88-place ‘golf ball’ which could then be used with, for example, an IBM Selectric typewriter; that is to say, the proposed alphabet had to consist of not more than 88 ‘elements’. In fact, the Revised Phonetic Alphabet described herein consists of 85.
Phoneme and supralect
Authors: Perry J. A.
Published: February 2009

Ever since the appearance of the monographOn Defining the Phoneme(Twaddell, 1935), it has become customary to classify the views of the phoneme into the four categories: mentalistic, physical, functional, and abstract. The reader is also referred to Jones (1957, and 1967: 212 ff.) and Fudge (1970) for discussions on that basis. However, we can achieve additional insight into the problem of defining the phoneme if we classify the views of the phoneme, this time, on a populational basis. By this, we mean whether the phoneme is defined as a unit of (1) an idiolect, (2) a dialect, (3) a multidialect, or (4) a supralect.
Another note on RP notation
Authors: Walsh Gordon
Published: February 2009

Windsor Lewis's recent article (1972b) admirably summarizes the case for a Gimson-type transcription as a reference tool for EFL students. As he states, his own ‘CPD’ (Windsor Lewis, 1972a) transcription clearly—and sensibly—derives from the system established by Gimson (1962, 1970) in ‘the standard up-to-date description of Received Pronunciation’. On general principles, there is little that could usefully be added to Windsor Lewis's (1972b) comments on three other transcription types that are increasingly coming to be regarded as inappropriate for EFL purposes:

(i) that used by Abercrombie (1964), which, as Windsor Lewis (1972b: 60–63) shows, has disadvantages in its choice of detail symbols (though in underlying philosophy this system is perhaps closer to ‘CPD’ than is the latter's acknowledged parent);

(ii) the long-established ‘EPD’ (Jones, 1917) system, with its inconsistent treatment of the monophthong phonemes;

(iii) the ‘simplified’ (Jones, 1956: 346 ff.) types of transcription first used in books by Scott (1942) and MacCarthy (1944, 1945) and taken up by Kingdon (West, 1965) and others, which although useful for the Ll speaker are grossly misleading for the EFL student in implying a solely quantitative distinction between such pairs as the vowels of seat and sit.

This article will largely take for granted Windsor Lewis's comments on those types, and will concentrate on some aspects of the system discussed by Windsor Lewis (1972b) and applied in his CPD and the new third edition (1974) of the Advanced Learner's Dictionary.
The IPA alphabet: remarks on some proposals for reform
Authors: Fox Anthony
Published: February 2009

In this journal a number of suggestions have recently been made as to possible improvements to the Association's alphabet. Some of these proposals are relatively minor, involving only the addition of symbols or diacritics; the acceptance of these would have little or no effect on the basic character of the alphabet. But others, specifically those relating to the re-organization of the Cardinal Vowels and the consonant chart, are more thorough-going. Here, important principles are involved which would seem to demand more discussion. The following remarks are intended as a contribution to this discussion rather than as an evaluation of specific proposals.
Naming a phonological process
Authors: Bhat D. N. S.
Published: February 2009

In response to the editorial note published recently in JIPA (Wells 1974), we wish to indicate one of the several problems involved in establishing the terminology of diachronic (and morphophonemic) processes. There are evidently three different variables that could be used for classifying (and hence naming) the conditioned sound changes: (1) the environment that induces the change, (2) the sound that undergoes the change, and (3) the sound that results from the change.
Grave vs. agudo in two dialects of Spanish: a study in voice register and intonation
Authors: Olsen Carroll L.
Published: February 2009

Spanish intonation has been described by several authors and linguists with a variety of subjective terms. Those adjectives which recur most frequently are GRAVE and AGUDO. Grave, which seems to mean ‘low pitch’, is assigned mainly to the dialects of northern Spain and especially to Castilian; agudo, on the other hand, seems to mean ‘high pitch’ and is frequently used to describe the dialects of Spanish America. In this article some objective data will be presented on voice register and intonation in two dialects of Spanish, those of Madrid and Mexico City, as a first step in clarifying the use of these two subjective terms. The results of research presented here are based on tape-recorded interviews with native Spanish speakers and an electronic analysis of those recordings by the Léon-Martin pitch extractor at the University of Toronto.
Tonal rules for English loan words in Cantonese
Authors: Kiu K. L.
Published: February 2009

It is common knowledge that when one language borrows from another, the borrower often would incorporate the loan words into its phonological system by substituting ‘alien’ sounds by those from its own stock, breaking up consonant clusters to conform to its syllable structure and so on. In general it is not impossible to predict fairly accurately what a loan word would sound like in a language if one is familiar with the phonological systems of the lender and borrower. However, syllable structure and segments are just part of the picture. Other considerations like stress and tone would also be important if one is dealing with a stress language or a tone lauguage. The aim of this paper is to examine English loan forms in Cantonese in order to discover what happens when words from a stress language like English are borrowed into a tone language like Cantonese.
The r-link business—a reply
Authors: Lewis J. Windsor
Published: February 2009

I have to confess to being to a degree pained at having it seems touched a nerve of my good friend Julian Pring's in my comments on linking /r/. He suggests that my article on the subject in its zeal to counter long-current false notions of the facts of usage has not escaped some degree of tendentiousness. I should be less than candid if I failed to grant that he has something of a point to make but equally if I let my high regard for him make me withhold the counter-comment that his criticisms strike me as by no means more successful than I was in avoiding tendentiousness in that article. I am at least glad to see that it is only on the sociological status of the so-called ‘intrusive’ /r/ that we are in disagreement.
On introducing parametric phonetics
Authors: Tench Paul
Published: February 2009

The term parametric is a convenient term to use to refer to a view of the study of speech sounds in which the continuous activity of the organs of speech in the production of a stretch of speech is highlighted. Parametric phonetics offers an alternative view to the more familiar segmental or postural view, in which the state of the organs of speech for a particular single segment at a particular instance is investigated. The difference between the two approaches may also be referred to as dynamic and static, respectively; the dynamic parametric view draws attention to the movement of the organs of speech, whereas the static segmental or postural view draws attention to the position or posture of the organs of speech at a given moment. In my view, the two approaches do not contradict each other; they complement each other, both being theoretically acceptable. In this paper I am concerned with introducing the parametric approach into conventional phonetics courses at first degree and postgraduate level.
A note on the devoicing of nasals
Authors: Barry W. J. , Künzel H. J.
Published: February 2009

The susceptibility of nasals to devoicing in certain contexts did not escape the notice of the auditorally oriented early phoneticians and is included in many of the rigorous descriptions in the classic phonetics handbooks:

Sievers (1901: 169) remarks generally of sonorants: ‘Ist der Sonorlaut aber unsilbisch, so wird er durch den stimmlosen Nachbarlaut häufig ebenfalls stimmlos gemacht, wenigstens setzt bei Verbindungen wie sla, sna die Stimme oft erst nach der Einstellung des Mundes für l, n etc. ein, so daß der Eingang des l, n noch stimmlos gebildet wird’.
Basque (Western Low Navarrese dialect)
Authors: Trask R. L.
Published: February 2009

The informant, Mr. Labeguerie, aged 25 in 1978, is a native of the village of Milafranga (French: Villefranque), near Bayonne, in the Basque province of Lapurdi (Fr.: Labourd), in what is now the French department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques. He is a native speaker of both Basque and French. At the time of the recording here transcribed, he had lived for several years in London, where he regularly spoke Basque with speakers from the southern Basque provinces; this had some effect on his speech, notably the tendency to replace his native voiced uvular approximant with a voiced alveolar trill.
‘The second Great Vowel Shift?’ ?
Authors: Matthews Richard
Published: February 2009

Laurie Bauer seems to have let his imagination run away with him (Bauer, 1979). On the one hand, he has been misled by the similarity of phenomena in a number of accents of English into thinking that there is a common vowel shift in progress. On the other hand, he has been too selective and somewhat undiscriminating in his choice of corroborating evidence.
A phonetic description of the consonant system of Standard Dutch (ABN)
Authors: Mees Inger , Collins Beverley
Published: February 2009

Algemeen Beschaafd Nederlands (henceforth ABN) is a term used generally in the Netherlands by linguists and laymen alike to refer to the country's prestige dialect; a literal translation would be ‘General Refined Dutch’. Though ABN is a dialect rather than an accent (Wells, 1970:231), its status is comparable to that of the RP accent of English since it is essentially a social variety only loosely associated with a particular geographical area. ABN speakers are to be found in greatest numbers throughout the Western provinces (i.e. Noord-Holland, Zuid-Holland and Utrecht) and particularly in the annular Randstad conurbation linking the towns of Rotterdam, The Hague, Amsterdam and Utrecht; but ABN is to be heard from the upper socio-economic classes all over the Netherlands, and is also looked to as a standard in the Dutch-speaking regions of Belgium.
A note on Hull intonation
Authors: Bilton Linda
Published: February 2009

The following account of Hull intonation uses the terminology of O'Connor and Arnold (1961 and 1973) in its formal description of intonation patterns and Halliday's (1967) theoretical framework in its discussion of the usage of such patterns. The analysis is based on recordings of the speech of a working-class native of Hull and the main findings have been checked by reference to a second speaker of the same dialect.
That vowel shift again
Authors: Bauer Laurie
Published: February 2009

Matthews (1981) offers several criticisms of an earlier article of mine, ‘The second Great Vowel Shift?’ (Bauer, 1979). Some of these criticisms appear to arise from a misunderstanding of my original article that is entirely due to my own imprecise formulations. I should therefore like to set the record straight, and also to raise a methodological problem implicit in Matthews's criticisms.
A phonetic description of the vowel system of Standard Dutch (ABN)
Authors: Mees Inger , Collins Beverley
Published: February 2009

This description of the vowel system of Standard Dutch (ABN)—based on recordings of a sample of ten ABN speakers—is complementary to our survey of the consonant system (Mees and Collins, 1982) and has similarly developed out of work undertaken for the authors' contrastive study of Dutch and English (Collins and Mees, 1981). The term ABN (Algemeen Beschaafd Nederlands) is explained in Mees and Collins (1982: 2).
The Sociophonetics of /l/ in the Greek of Sphakiá
Authors: Trudgill Peter
Published: February 2009

In most varieties of modern Greek, the consonant /l/ is typically a “clear” [l] in most environments, as in /ala/ [ala] αλλ⋯ ‘but’; but with positional variation involving also palatalised and/or palatal variants, as in /skili/ [skiļi] σχυλ⋯ ‘dog’. In a number of areas of northern Greece, velarised [⃒]-type pronunciations may also be found, as they may also be in those areas of Attica and Biotia where Albanian/Greek bilingualism is or has been common (see Trudgill & Tzavaras 1975 – most varieties of Albanian have a phonemic contrast between /l/ and /l/). In his book The Generative Interpretation of Dialect (1972), however, Brian Newton also points out that ‘in the Sphakiá area of Crete /l/ has a retroflex pronunciation before back vowels’. This feature is also cited by Kondosopoulos (1959, 1969, 1974) and Pangalos (1955), who also mention some other areas of Crete where a similar phenomenon occurs. (Following Kondosopoulos and Pangalos, Newton also indicates that /l/ → Ø or /l/ → /w/ in certain Cretan villages.)
L'enseignement de la prononciation: L'un des buts de l'Association Phonétique International
Authors: Vinay Jean-Paul
Published: February 2009

The following text was read at the VIIIth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, held at the University of Leeds in August 1972. Its contents gave rise to quite a lively discussion, but it was never published. I think the problem still calls for a close scrutiny, particularly at a time when the Association is reconsidering its aims and procedures. Speaking from my experience, I based my argument on the problems of teaching pronunciation of second languages between the two World Wars. This was one of the more important tasks of phoneticians, especially in the UK and, to a lesser extent, in the USA; the results were excellent, often outstanding. Under the leadership of Daniel Jones, graduates from UCL acquired a thorough knowledge of spoken French, achieving a near perfection in articulation and intonation. Now, this was the avowed aim of the Department of Phonetics at UCL and other universities, which reflected on the curriculum and teaching procedures of grammar schools and high schools. An important dose of phonetic and phonemic theory was included in the course, to supply a basis for memorizing morphophonemic rules and the interface between sounds and spelling; some contrastive work was also included, contrasting English and French phonetic structures. It seems to me that this approach has now lost some of its appeal, and although phonemic transcription has gained a wider recognition since 1925, the overall aim of teachers is an acceptable approximation rather than a strict imitation. I submit this text therefore in the hope that it will be examined by the Council and the membership, to see whether it still has merit, and if so, to examine what the modern science of applied linguistics can do about it. It will be obvious to all that such teaching is closely associated with problems of transcription involving the choice and use of IPA symbols very much in the way envisaged by Peter Ladefoged in his recent circular letter.
Editor's introduction
Authors: Bladon Anthony
Published: February 2009

Revising the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a pressing task which should find its natural forum for debate in this Journal, above all others. Elsewhere (Ladefoged (1987); and in our own pages, Ladefoged and Roach (1987)) the President and Secretary of the International Phonetic Association issue a call to arms for this task, drawing attention to some preliminary questions on which the Association needs to have a clear view. One question is that of the IPA's constituency: who are the users of the IPA, and what are their different needs for a phonetic alphabet? To help find out, the Association hopes to canvas as wide a population of IPA users as possible, drawing from non-members as well as members.
The IPA consonant chart: Mugwumps, holes and therapeutic suggestions
Authors: Henton Caroline G.
Published: February 2009

For some time now it has been clear that the International Phonetic Alphabet consonant chart needs to be carefully re-examined, with a view to its intended provision and possible revision. This article appears as part of the current drive (see also Ladefoged (1987a)) to solicit suggestions for the improvement or revision of the chart, from all the manifold users of the IPA alphabet. The focus here is on the consonant chart, for while the representation of vowels has always been more problematic, the theoretical issues are of a different order and should be discussed separately.
Developing computerized transcription exercises for American English
Authors: Henton Caroline , Bladon Anthony
Published: February 2009

Acquiring the skill of phonetic transcription from orthographic text is a widespread technique included in all undergraduate curricula for phonetics, linguistics and speech science. It is an ability which is also frequently expected in students of modern languages and English. Any instructor who has been faced with a pile of thirty and more transcriptions to mark knows what a laborious task this is, requiring a lot of close examination of fine detail. To be able to lighten the load by computerizing some of the detail of error-correcting is therefore seen as desirable from several points of view.
Linguo-labials revisited: The PRDS solution
Authors: Ball Martin J.
Published: February 2009

Both Maddieson (1987) and Kelly (1987) discuss the problem of symbolising linguo-labials in Austronesian languages of Vanuatu, and highlight the alternative solutions to the problem of symbolising rare speech sounds. Maddieson outlines five possible answers: firstly no official IPA symbolisation be provided, allowing transcribers to utilise ad hoc personal transcriptions. Secondly, existing symbols could be modified by existing diacritics, though interpreted in a new way. An alternative to this would be to invent a new diacritic specifically to denote linguo-labial articulation and to attach it to an existing symbol. The final two strategies involve the invention of brand new unit symbols for the sounds, or the use of digraphs. Maddieson argues convincingly against the use of digraphs, but otherwise leaves the debate open for other contributors. Both Kelly (1987) and Bladon (1987) are also to some extent non-committal on the problem, but seem to favour the use of an existing or a new diacritic attached to standard labial/alveolar symbols.
Revision of the IPA: Do you know the onion chart?
Authors: Baurley George L.
Published: February 2009

Quite rightly, the question is being posed: For whom is the IPA chart to be of service, (a) chiefly, (b) at all? Yet regardless of who the main beneficiaries may be, an issue on which I intend to imitate the (in)action of the mugwumps, I suggest that pedagogic principles are of the greatest importance in the creation of a chart to replace the existing amalgam. That is to say, a future chart must be so designed as to be not merely a statement of the situation but also a ‘guide, philosopher and friend’ for the user, from whatever walk of life. Users may be taking their first steps in acquiring proficiency in the use of a tool that has to be at the service of an increasingly varied range of people. Viewed thus, the chart must not be a simple systematised aggregation of facts, but also a methodical presentation of the same.
The teaching of English pronunciation: The model accents
Authors: Lewis J. Windsor
Published: February 2009

The massive growth of English as an international language has meant that many among the very considerable number of those who are engaged in teaching it have been eager to possess a full description of the features of the spoken variety they employ. The first really full account of a suitable British model pronunciation is found in Daniel Jones's Outline of English Phonetics, notably as it appeared in 1932. For thirty years this was unrivalled. Despite numerous features which have become outdated and others that were never entirely suitable treatments of their subject matter, this book has still not been completely superseded and fortunately still remains in print. In 1962, A. C. Gimson's Introduction to the Pronunciation of English immediately showed itself to be a better organised and more up-to-date account but markedly less oriented to the needs of the EFL teacher and learner. Less than 5% of its content consisted of specific advice for this audience. Its second revision in 1980 more than doubled its EFL coverage by the addition of a very valuable appendix on ‘Teaching the Pronunciation of English’.
The PHONASCII system
Authors: Allen George D.
Published: February 2009

The Journal has received this newsletter which describes a well-developed system for the computer coding of phonetic symbols. Although the account shows a bias towards the transcription of English, the system does provide for an unusually wide range of prosodic codes and of diacritic symbols, including some for which the current International Phonetic Alphabet makes no provision. Given the Journal's active interest in the subject of computer coding of phonetic symbols, and the wish to encourage further debate and comment in our pages, we are publishing this particular newsletter in its entirety. In the discussion of the symbols, it is necessary to be able to distinguish ‘l’ (lower case ‘l’) from ‘i’ (upper case ‘i’). We have therefore used the serifed typeface of the original for the citation of the symbol forms (—Ed.).
4. The form of presentation of the International Phonetic Alphabet
Authors: Pullum Geoffrey K.
Published: February 2009

The International Phonetic alphabet (IPA) has been standardized and published in two main forms: the one in The Principles of the International Phonetic Association (1949) and the one in the revised chart issued in 1979. A further revision, perhaps quite radical, may be expected at some point after the 1989 Convention in Kiel. I am concerned here with general questions about the way the IPA as it presently exists should be presented to consumers.
Educational phonetics
Authors: Jenner Bryan
Published: February 2009

The widely different topics covered by the two contributions to this second Educational Phonetics section reflect well the intended scope of this section of the Journal. Brown's paper addresses an issue of recurring interest to teachers of English, namely the status of post-vocalic /r/ in different varieties of English and the acceptability, or otherwise, of intrusive or linking /r/. Duckworth and Ball look at the usefulness of the IPA in its present version for the representation of dysfluent speech, and suggest alternatives which the Association might wish to evaluate as part of its current revision of the symbols for transcription.
Articulatory possibilities for implosives
Authors: Ashby Michael G.
Published: February 2009

From relevant surveys (Greenberg 1970, Maddieson 1984: 98–122) it appears that the only sound-types with glottalic suction initiation which are reliably attested in the sound systems of languages are oral-plus-velic stops with plain release, whether these be the common voiced types, or the rare voiceless types (see e.g. Pinkerton 1986) which received official recognition and symbols only at the 1989 IPA convention. Real-language members of the class ‘implosive’ thus share articulatory as well as initiatory properties, making the ‘-plosive’ part of the term particularly apt.
Some proposals concerning glottal consonants
Authors: Ladefoged Peter
Published: February 2009

A topic that was not discussed at the 1989 Kiel convention was the phonetic specification of [h]. Judging by its current place on the chart it appears to be a voiceless glottal fricative. But this is a misnomer, in that most forms of [h] have very little friction at the glottis. The vocal cords are apart and any turbulent airflow that there might be is due to what Pike (1943) calls “cavity friction” rather than local friction at a particular point, [h] has no more friction at the glottis than [f] or any other voiceless sound with a comparable airflow.
Two types of voiceless nasals
Authors: Bhaskararao P. , Ladefoged Peter
Published: February 2009

Many languages in South East Asia have voiceless nasal consonants that contrast with their voiced counterparts. What has not been reported previously is that there are two distinct types of voiceless nasals. We will begin by considering the more well-known type, found in languages such as Burmese. These voiceless nasals are usually said to have an open glottis for most of the articulation, but some voicing for the period just before the stricture is broken (Ladefoged 1971: 11). In this view they have two parts. The first is necessary to distinguish them from their voiced counterparts. The second distinguishes one voiceless nasal from another, by making the place of articulation more apparent; the voiced offglide from the nasal into the vowel has formant transitions that are characteristic of each place of articulation. Dantsuji has shown that, in addition, the voiced portion of the voiceless nasals in Burmese “includes significant cues which can distinguish points of articulation” (Dantsuji 1986: 10). Despite the small voiced portion, in most phonological treatments of these sounds, a voiceless nasal consonant is considered not as a sequence of two items, a voiceless segment followed by a voiced segment, but as a single voiceless unit with a low level phonetic rule inserting the voicing towards the end. Burmese is a textbook example, with forms as shown in Table 1 (from Maddieson 1984; also in Ladefoged 1993: 282).