bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
8 The 19‐Year Cycle of Anatolius
Authors: Mosshammer Alden A.
Published: January 2009

Anatolius, an Alexandrian scholar who became bishop of Syrian Laodicea, was the first to use the 19‐year cycle for Easter calculations. The cycle is not extant, but Eusebius quotes a substantial portion of the preface. A longer, Latin text claiming to be the preface of Anatolius may contain genuine material, but cannot be authentic in its present form. From the quotation by Eusebius and other evidence, we can conclude that the cycle of Anatolius began with epact I on 22 March. Scholars have reconstructed the cycle of Anatolius on the assumptions that he recognized 22 March as the date of the equinox and that he placed the extra day of the saltus at the end of the cycle. A reconstruction that better fits the later history of the cycle assumes 21 March as the date of the equinox and a saltus in the 12th year.
9 Athanasius and the Council of Sardica
Authors: Mosshammer Alden A.
Published: January 2009

A collection of the Paschal letters of Athanasius in a Syriac translation provides important evidence for the form of the Alexandrian 19‐year cycle in the time of Athanasius. Not all of the letters have survived, but the Syriac manuscripts do preserve a summary of the chronological data for the entire collection. The data in this “Festal Index” are such as one would find in an Easter table, and they sometimes include years numbered from Diocletian. The era of Diocletian arose in response to the administrative reforms of that emperor Its use in an Easter table does not imply a reform of the Alexandrian cycle during the reign of Diocletian. The sequence of epacts in the Index agrees neither with the cycle of Anatolius nor with the classical cycle. That sequence suggests that Athanasius modified the cycle of Anatolius in connection with the Council of Sardica in 343.
11 Paschal Calculations at Rome
Authors: Mosshammer Alden A.
Published: January 2009

In the early fourth century, the Roman church adopted an 84‐year Paschal cycle that began with the 14th day of the moon on 13 April in AD 298. An 84‐year cycle is based on the 28‐year period after which weekdays repeat in the Julian calendar and on a combination of four 19‐year and one eight‐year lunar cycle. Several versions of this 84‐year cycle with its saltus at the end of every twelfth year have survived. An 84‐year cycle with its saltus at the end of every fourteenth year was in use in Britain and Ireland. Some scholars have thought this was the original form of the cycle as devised by one Augustalis in the third century. That theory rests on a fragile foundation. It is more likely that the British form of the cycle was a secondary adaptation.
14 Evidence for the Chronology of Jesus
Authors: Mosshammer Alden A.
Published: January 2009

According to Luke, Jesus was about 30 years old at the time of his baptism in the 15th year of the emperor Tiberius, AD 29. Most ancient writers therefore dated the Nativity to the 41st or 42nd year of Augustus, 2 or 3 BC Yet both Matthew and Luke say that Jesus was born during the reign of Herod, who died in 4 BC. Luke also says that Jesus was born at the time of a census, when Quirinius was governor of Syria. Judaea was organized as a province and the first census taken in AD 6. Scholars have sought to harmonize the data by arguing that the 15th year of Tiberius was earlier than AD 29 and that there was an earlier census. The seventeenth‐century astronomer Kepler dated the Nativity to 6 BC on the basis of celestial phenomena that he thought accounted for Matthew's story of the Star of Bethlehem
15 The Christian Era of Dionysius Exiguus
Authors: Mosshammer Alden A.
Published: January 2009

The date of Dionysius Exiguus for the first year of Christ in AD 1 disagrees with almost all other ancient authorities. Many scholars state that Dionysius synchronized his year 1 with the year 754 from the foundation of Rome. That synchronism is a modem inference that nowhere appears in the writings of Dionysius. Some have argued that Dionysius incorrectly dated the years of Augustus. Another hypothesis holds that Dionysius generated his date by adding the 532‐year Paschal period to the presumed age of Jesus at his death of 3l years, then designating as 563 the year in the tables that produced a date for Easter on 25, March. Several scholars have claimed that Dionysius derived his date from Eusebius of Caesarea. One has argued that Dionysius designated as 2000 the year in which he thought the present age would come to and end. None of these hypotheses is persuasive.
16 The Christian Era of Panodorus
Authors: Mosshammer Alden A.
Published: January 2009

Panodorus of Alexandria dated the birth of Christ to the cosmic year 5493. In his chronological system that year corresponded to 1 BC/AD 1. Some early modem scholars suggested that Dionysius Exiguus had his date from Panodorus. Recent scholarship has denied any connection. The cosmic era corresponding to 5493/2 BC is known as “the Alexandrian era”. Annianus invented the Alexandria era, with an epoch of 25 March 5492 BC and a date for the Nativity on 25 December of the year 5501, AD 9 His colleague Panodorus adjusted the era to correspond to the Alexandrian civil year, beginning I Thoth = 29 August, 5493 BC. The date of Panodorus for the birth of Christ in the year 5493 therefore corresponded to 25 December of 1 BC—the same date implicit in the Christian era of Dionysius Exiguus. In asserting that date against Annianus, Panodorus perhaps reaffirmed the traditional date of Julius Africanus.
One Political Economy, One Competitive Strategy?
Authors: Herrmann Andrea M.
Published: January 2009

This book examines how firms adapt to the pressures of increasing international competition by testing both the arguments on ‘strategy specialization’ proposed in the competitiveness literature in general, and those offered by contributors to the ‘varieties of capitalism’ debate in particular. If different economies are characterized by distinct institutional arrangements — successful firms would be the ones that exploit their comparative advantages and specialize in the competitive strategies facilitated by national institutions. The book begins with an assessment of how many pharmaceutical firms in Germany, Italy, and the UK pursue strategies facilitated by national institutions governing financial markets, antitrust activities, and the labour market. Quantitative analyses reveal that deviant firms, competing through institutionally unsupported strategies, outnumber conforming firms by far. Not only does this finding run counter to the expectations of the competitiveness literature, it brings up a whole new line of inquiry. How can firms compete through strategies that are not supported by national institutions? To address this question, the book combines quantitative analyses with qualitative insights, showing that firms do not necessarily exploit comparative institutional advantages, but that they can successfully circumvent institutional constraints. International markets and individual collaboration on a contractual basis allow firms to compete despite comparative institutional disadvantages. These findings suggest that trade liberalization tends to foster strategy diversification rather than strategy specialization, depending on the inventiveness of entrepreneurs in developing individual approaches toward competing.
3 Linking Financial Market Institutions, Corporate Finance, and Competitive Strategies
Authors: Herrmann Andrea M.
Published: January 2009

This chapter analyses how firms can compete despite comparative disadvantages of national financial-market institutions. It first studies whether pharmaceutical firms in Germany, Italy, and the UK require different types of financing to pursue strategies of radical product innovation, incremental product innovation, and product imitation, respectively. Since quantitative analyses of corporate balance sheets show this to be the case, the chapter goes on to ask how firms can acquire the necessary financial means if their provision is limited by unfavourable national institutions. Illustrating how firms collaborate with foreign investors, it identifies international financial markets as a functional equivalent to national institutions promoting the availability of institutional (venture) capital. It concludes with reflections on how these findings contribute to the resource-based view and the competitiveness literature, and illustrates how a Schumpeterian perception of firms as creative entrepreneurs helps to explain how they compete despite comparative institutional disadvantages.
Community and Economics1
Authors: Storper Michael
Published: January 2009

Community has a problematic relationship to economics. In general, contemporary political economics holds that groups have strongly negative effects on economic efficiency and growth, because groups bind individuals into situations where they can no longer realize their preferences, exit freely, and find effective representation for their interests. Communities are, at best, necessary evils when there are egregious market failures. There are other strands of economic research, however, that can be drawn on to provide micro-foundations for the welfare-enhancing properties of communities. With these in hand, we can draw a more complete picture of the potential welfare effects of communities, revealing how geographical processes — increasing factor mobility and global market integration — strongly affect the shape and functioning of communities and hence alter the balance of their positive and negative economic welfare effects.
4 Re‐animating the Place of Thought: Transformations of Spatial and Temporal Description in the Twenty‐First Century
Authors: Thrift Nigel
Published: January 2009

This chapter documents the hard work put in by business to the task of ‘explicitation’ through concept-practices like ‘community of practice’ and the dividends that it has paid in terms of constructing a series of realities — new kinds of inhabitation — in which business forms a foregrounded background. In particular, it outlines how a new kind of spatial ‘atmosphere’ is being created which allows different kinds of subjects, objects and worlds to be thrown together through the construction of what might be called the ‘inhabitable map’.
6 Project Work as a Locus of Learning: The Journey Through Practice
Authors: Scarbrough Harry , Swan Jacky
Published: January 2009

Many organizations ‘re-invent the wheel’ by failing to capture and spread what has been learned from particular projects. This inability to exploit the learning from projects has worrying implications for the growing popularity of the project form as a way of organizing work. This chapter identifies the role which project work plays as a source of learning which emerges alongside, within, and sometimes against, communities of practice. The theoretical framework produced by this analysis is explored through brief case-study descriptions of three projects which produced very different outcomes in terms of the generation, capture and spread of learning. This allows us to derive some conclusions as to the factors influencing the role of projects as a source of learning within organizations, and the implications for attempts to exploit such learning as an organizational resource.
7 Breakthrough Innovation and the Shaping of New Markets: The Role of Communities of Practice1
Authors: Delemarle Aurélie , Larédo Philippe
Published: January 2009

This chapter analyses how the creation of a new inter-organizational communities of practice can help the ‘break out’ of dominant technological paradigms. It focuses on the crystallization role that communities of practice can play and on how they can provide a space in which new technological options can gain credibility. It draws on in-depth analysis of one case study — the emergence of asynchronous logic — an alternative architecture to the prevalent clock-based logic. It shows that although the communities of practice studied recognized the value of asynchronous logic, it was unable to change the wider institutional environment, linked in this case with the establishment of one standard which would enable the microelectronics industry to adopt this technology. In light of this, the chapter concludes that inter-organizational expert communities of practice should be seen as enablers of multiple explorations in the life cycle of breakthrough innovations rather than as facilitators of exploitation.
10 Open, But How Much? Growth,Conflict, and Institutional Evolution in Open‐Source Communities1
Authors: Mateos-Garcia Juan , Steinmueller W. Edward
Published: January 2009

If ‘open source’ is taken as a practice employed in organizing human knowledge-related activities, it may be applied more broadly than just with software. Wherever it is used this chapter contends that processes of negotiation and governance will emerge as means to deal with conflicting interests and visions of community purpose (or epistemic identity). A variety of possible institutional designs for these negotiation and governance processes are possible and each will be tested by the problems of sustaining participation, the growth of the community to include more diverse participants and contests over the paths of development of collective effort. These designs and their subsequent tests are examined empirically for the Debian open source software distribution and Wikipedia open source encyclopaedia creation communities. Conclusions regarding the significance of the initial choice of rules, the processes available to alter these rules, and the potential for dissipation or disruption of efforts are reached, and a proposal to conceive of open source activities as having important parallels to the management of museums rather than bazaars is advanced.
Where Law and Morality Meet
Authors: Kramer Matthew H.
Published: January 2009

This book explores some of the chief ways in which law and morality are connected, and some of the many respects in which they remain distinct. The book's eight chapters are grouped into three parts. In the first part, Kramer argues that moral principles can enter into the law of any particular jurisdiction. Legal officials can invoke those principles as laws for resolving disputes, and can likewise invoke them as threshold tests which ordinary laws must satisfy. In opposition to numerous other theorists, Kramer contends that these functions of moral principles within the law are consistent with all the essential characteristics of any legal system. In the second part of the book, Kramer reaffirms legal positivism's insistence on the separability of law and morality. Despite the important links between those two domains, Kramer resists the efforts of natural-law theorists to portray legal requirements as a species of moral requirements. Law is not inherently moral either in its effects or in its motivational underpinnings — even though the existence of a legal system in any sizeable society is indispensable for the realization of fundamental moral values. In the final part, Kramer contests the widespread view that people whose conduct is meticulously careful are never morally responsible for harmful effects of that conduct. In so arguing, he reveals that fault-independent liability is even more common in morality than in law. Through a variety of arguments, then, Where Law and Morality Meet highlights some surprising affinities and some striking divergences between morality and law.
Introduction
Authors: Kramer Matthew H.
Published: January 2009

This introductory chapter distinguishes three varieties of legal positivism. Inclusive Legal Positivism maintains that a norm's consistency with some or all of the correct principles of morality can be (though need not be) a necessary condition for the norm's status as a law in any particular jurisdiction. Incorporationism maintains that a norm's correctness as a moral principle can be (though need not be) a sufficient condition for the norm's status as a law in hard cases in any particular jurisdiction. Exclusive Legal Positivism maintains that moral principles cannot enter into the law at all, either as laws or as law-ascertaining criteria.
Legal Positivism Defended
Authors: Kramer Matthew H.
Published: January 2009

This chapter responds to David Dyzenhaus's critique of legal positivism. Dyzenhaus fails to attend to a number of important distinctions among different varieties of legal positivism, and he ascribes to legal positivists various objectives which no legal positivist in fact pursues.
On the Separability of Law and Morality
Authors: Kramer Matthew H.
Published: January 2009

Whereas some legal positivists in recent years have queried the separability of law and morality, this chapter strongly reaffirms that separability. It emphasizes that the positivist insistence on the separability of law and morality is not a single thesis but instead an array of theses focused on different aspects of morality.
Customary Law and Inherent Rules
Authors: Orakhelashvili Alexander
Published: January 2009

Having identified consensual positivism as the basis of international legal reasoning, this chapter examines the consensual basis of customary rules. After identifying opinio juris as an expression of consent, it proceeds to examine theories that come up with explaining customary law other than on the basis of consent, and also focuses on side aspects of custom-generations, such as the issues of persistent objection, new States and regional customary law. The problem of inherent rules is addressed which combines positivist and extra-positivist reasoning, ultimately to back up the effectiveness of existing legal regulation.
Values as Non-Law
Authors: Orakhelashvili Alexander
Published: January 2009

This chapter covers the interaction of values in construing international legal regulation. The pertinent values are peace and security, sustainable development, democracy, humanitarian considerations, and security and survival of States.
Interpretation of Unilateral Acts and Statements
Authors: Orakhelashvili Alexander
Published: January 2009

This chapter demonstrates that unilateral acts and statements of States have to be interpreted according to their plain and ordinary meaning, just like treaties. It focuses on unilateral acts in general, on WTO Schedules of Commitment, interpretative declarations, waivers, and submissions of States to international tribunals.
Interpretation of Institutional Decisions
Authors: Orakhelashvili Alexander
Published: January 2009

This chapter examines the interpretation of UN Security Council resolutions, as well as interpretation of institutional decisions in the WTO law. The general similarity with the interpretation of treaties and the relevance of effective interpretation is emphasised. As a follow-up on this chapter, this author's case review in AJIL (2008) should be consulted.
Equity and Equitable Considerations in Treaties
Authors: Orakhelashvili Alexander
Published: January 2009

This chapter examines how equitable notions included in treaties should be construed. While in the law of the sea treaties equity is understood as reflecting general international law, the ‘fair and equitable’ treatment of foreign investors under international investment treaties is frequently denoted as autonomous treaty-based standard giving rise to new customary law on investment. The chapter examines the application of treaty interpretation methods to ‘fair and equitable treatment’ and establishes that so-called ‘autonomous’ construction cannot be sustained under the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. Instead, ‘fair and equitable treatment’ reflects the general international law standard on the treatment of foreign investors. This chapter also concentrates on the construction of ‘fair and equitable treatment’ in the 2001 opinion of the NAFTA Free Trade Commission, and subsequent reaction by NAFTA Tribunals, as an issue of the agency of interpretation (above Chapter 16).
2 The New Testament
Authors: Cooper Adam G.
Published: January 2009

In the Christian New Testament, flesh becomes a metaphor for the sinful force operative within the fallen human constitution. Yet, along with soul and spirit, it also remains a positive anthropological category, indicative of that physical, external and personal aspect of human nature created by God, assumed by Christ in the incarnation, and glorified in his resurrection. In their eucharistic and ecclesial theology, the New Testament writers privilege flesh and body as spiritually pregnant symbols over against the anti-material doctrines of early gnostic and docetic communities.
4 Thomas Aquinas
Authors: Cooper Adam G.
Published: January 2009

In Aquinas's hylomorphic theory of the universe, the patristic theology of the body is strengthened and enriched with deeper philosophical underpinnings. Always sensitive to the spiritualizing tendencies in the Platonic philosophical framework, Aquinas perfects a metaphysical synthesis in which matter, existentially bound to form, is granted definite ontological stability and permanence. Aquinas's metaphysics of the flesh represents an integral development in the history of anthropology and opens the way for a moral theory that does full justice to the human body and affectivity.
6 Metaphysics and Morality
Authors: Cooper Adam G.
Published: January 2009

Every moral system, even those that reject the notion of morality, has its metaphysical assumptions. Clandestine moral codes lie beneath the most avante garde philosophies. What we should do with and as our bodies depends on what we make of our bodies, what we understand them to be in relation to the total human project. What is good for the flesh depends on what is true of the flesh, a matter enlightened by intelligent thought, human experience, and, above all, the truth of God made flesh.
8 Sex and Gender
Authors: Cooper Adam G.
Published: January 2009

From de Beauvoir to Wittig, Friedan and Millett to Butler, radical feminist theory has for many years ironically manifested a somatophobic strain. The separation of gender from sex has resulted in an anthropological rupture in which the flesh is either marginalized or politicized — in either case, divested of its personalistic and semitive status. By contrast, the personalist philosophy of Lublin Thomism brings together realist metaphysics, biblical nuptuality, and gender complementarity in a perspective that affirms the full creative potential, and revelatory trajectory, of both and each of the sexes.
9 Pornography and Violence
Authors: Cooper Adam G.
Published: January 2009

Pornography cultivates a cult of the flesh in which sex and the flesh are abstracted, etherealized, and finally destroyed. De Sade's vision of unlimited lust gives way to a pornocracy in which violence against the flesh is normalized, since pornography directly impacts the perception of the body, persons, and their sexual value, objectifying them as items for manipulation and consumption. A redemptive moral pedagogy will be sensitive to the proclivity of the sexual affections for disorder, yet unstintingly cultivate chastity as the healing force for shame and shamelessness.
The CFSP in Contrast with EC External Relations
Authors: De Baere Geert
Published: January 2009

This chapter focuses on the application to the common foreign and security policy (CFSP) of the constitutional concepts, principles, and techniques that were examined in Part I in relation to EC external relations. The principle of conferral, the concepts of primacy and exclusivity, and the contrast between decision-making under Title V EU Treaty and the Community method are dealt with in successive sections.
Democracy and the Rule of Law in EU Foreign Policy
Authors: De Baere Geert
Published: January 2009

This chapter analyses the role of democratic accountability in the Union's foreign policy, focusing on democratic accountability within the CFSP. It should, however, be pointed out that the involvement of the European Parliament in Community decision-making is most far-reaching in the legislative sphere. The European Parliament is not much involved in the executive aspects of Community policies, and its exclusion from the executive aspects of the CFSP, therefore, does not represent as stark a contrast as it might appear. The possibilities for judicial control by the Court of Justice within the sphere of the CFSP are also considered.
The Dichotomy between EC External Relations and the CFSP
Authors: De Baere Geert
Published: January 2009

This chapter first addresses the question how far it can be said that the second pillar already forms part of the ‘new legal order’ established by the EC Treaty. It then considers whether the Constitution contained and the Treaty of Lisbon contains proposals that would helpfully move the CFSP in the direction of communitarization, by examining the potential applicability of primacy and direct effect in the second pillar and analysing the role that is proposed for the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (HRUFASP). Finally, the origins of the dichotomy between EC external relations and the CFSP are traced, and it considers whether this dichotomy accurately reflects the current legal and political situation of EU foreign policy.
Managing the Horizontal Axis
Authors: De Baere Geert
Published: January 2009

The problem of horizontal consistency arises because of ‘the original sin of overall EU external action’: the separation of ‘high politics’ from the other aspects of foreign policy, most notably the entire area of external economic policy. This chapter examines how the separation between the different aspects of foreign policy works legally, and whether it is tenable from a constitutional perspective. After a general examination of the horizontal aspect of the principle of consistency, the shifting border between Community external relations and the CFSP is illustrated by the analysis of two case-studies, followed by a short section on the possibility of cross-pillar mixity.
2 Globalization: New Constraints on Policymaking
Authors: Taylor‐Gooby Peter
Published: January 2009

This chapter argues that responses to the pressures on welfare are shaped by the context of globalization and fiercer international competition. This inclines governments to develop policies that stress the responsibility and motivation of individual citizens or use targets and competition to make services more responsive and cost-efficient rather than increasing spending on provision along existing lines. It introduces the principal argument of the book: that the thorough-going reform programmes underway in many countries are, by and large, successful in meeting goals of greater cost-efficiency and responsiveness. However they do so at the cost of damaging the values that underpin social citizenship, in particular citizen trust in public services.
Personal Evaluation
Authors: Kekes John
Published: January 2009

Personal evaluation leads to actions. Rawls' approach to personal evaluation is flawed. Internal and external evaluations are examined. Dominant activities are one's projects in life. The projects of Johnson's Swift and Gissing's Ryecroft are discussed. Projects can lead to good lives even if they do not succeed, because engagement in what one cares about is what matters.
The Importance of Manner
Authors: Kekes John
Published: January 2009

Manner is important to good lives when it reflects one's individuality. Carlo Levi's manner did that, because his attitude to what he most deeply cared about was coherent, and he lived an enjoyable life under difficult circumstances. Swift's manner did not, because his attitude was incoherent, and he lived miserably under favorable circumstances. The adequacy of attitudes depends on their coherence, realism, and endurance.
The Uses of Reason in Morality
Authors: Kekes John
Published: January 2009

This chapter considers the distinctions between the practical and theoretical, particular and general, and permitting and requiring uses of reason. Moral reasons are shown to be typically practical, particular, and permitting, and the right approach to conflict-resolution is shown to depend on these uses. The pluralist and particularist approaches to morality follow from this view of reason.
A Morbid Romantic
Authors: Kekes John
Published: January 2009

This chapter reflects on the significance of the life and horrible death of Mishima, the Japanese novelist. His life and death exemplify the miserable, conflicted style of life that results from a romantic obsession with death. His attitude is morbid, his manner excessive, and his project is to aestheticize death. It is a vivid example of the consequences of setting oneself to live and act contrary to practical reason.
The Rightful Enjoyment of our Being
Authors: Kekes John
Published: January 2009

Montaigne's life was as admirable as Hume's. Its style was self-directedness, its attitude inwardness, its manner independence, and its project the Essays that recorded, formed, and reflected the way Montaigne thought and lived. He lived in difficult times and he left a lasting memorial of how to combine public and private life, set one's limits in a corrupt society, and deliberately control how one lives in the face of contingency and adversity.
Religious Transformation in South Asia
Authors: Harding Christopher
Published: January 2009

This book investigates mass conversion movements towards Christianity in late colonial India, examining the internal dynamics of conversion and Christian community-building in the region of Punjab. It follows the tempestuous local relationships which lay at the heart of religious transformation, from tensions both within and between the missions of the (Catholic) Belgian Capuchins and (British Evangelical) Church Missionary Society to the incompatibilities of aspiration where oppressed rural low-caste — so-called ‘Chuhra’ — converts, as well as mission personnel and institutions, were concerned. The book explores the role of social class, theological training, culture, motivation, and personality in producing a wide range of presentations of ‘Christianity’ in Punjab. For European missionary personnel the meaning of conversion quickly took on a heavy social dimension, thanks to connections made in missionary minds between Punjabi converts and the rural and urban poor of Belgium and Britain. As a result, European ‘uplift’ campaigns which sought to clean up and manage closely the lives of the poor — insulating them from hostile political and alternative religious influences — fed into attempts in Punjab to build new Christian communities and to socialize the next generation. Nowhere was this more obvious than in the brand new ‘Christian villages’ established by the Capuchins and the CMS. Punjabi perspectives explored and discussed range from the thankless, but potentially pivotal work of catechists and other agents of the mission, to the social networks and aspects of everyday life through which low-caste Punjabis communicated and sought to live by their understanding of conversion. The socio-political dimension here was clear, amounting to a brand of subaltern consciousness rarely considered by mainstream South Asian historiography.
Living in New Traditions
Authors: Harding Christopher
Published: January 2009

This chapter looks at missionary and convert attempts to construct a Christian community life in the wake of the mass movements, including attempted socialization through education, ceremony, and general welfare. Frustrations on all sides are highly revealing of the expectations with which mission personnel and converts entered uncertain associations with one another. Contests over the question of ‘what does it mean to be a Christian?’ and attempts by the CMS and the Capuchins to win influence in scattered convert communities are the principal focus, setting the tone as they did for future generations of Punjabi Christians.
10 Estimating the Balance Sheet of the Personal Sector in an Emerging Market Country: South Africa, 1975–2005
Authors: Aron Janine , Muellbauer John , Prinsloo Johan
Published: January 2009

Official balance‐sheet estimates for the household sector are not currently available in South Africa, yet, with the country's well‐developed financial sector and deep capital markets, asset market channels are likely to be important determinants of aggregate consumer spending and saving, consumer demand for credit, and their broad money holdings. This study produces estimates of household balance sheets for South Africa. The study draws, where feasible, on best practice from the Office of National Statistics of the UK and assesses the quality of the data sources and suggests areas where additional surveys or improvements in data‐collection procedures would be helpful further to improve the quality of the balance‐sheet estimates. Furthermore, quarterly balance‐sheet measures to 2005 are provided, and linked to quarterly measures. The main balance‐sheet categories are liquid assets, household debt, and various categories of illiquid financial and tangible assets, including pension wealth, directly held shares and bonds, and housing. Revised debt estimates and new estimates of tangible assets for households and unincorporated businesses are provided. The study describes the trends of the estimates of the household sector's balance sheets and of total net wealth. The paucity of data for developing and emerging market countries is illustrated by means of a survey, and lessons are drawn from the South African research for the compilation of household‐sector balance sheets.
17 Gender and the Distribution of Wealth in Developing Countries
Authors: Diana Deere Carmen , Doss Cheryl R.
Published: January 2009

Only recently has it been recognized that women may not share in the wealth of men, even within the same household or family. Moreover, there is growing evidence that the gender distribution of wealth matters. This study first reviews the available evidence for developing countries on the gender‐asset gap and finds that it is significant. It then considers the constraints on women's asset ownership with particular attention to the role of legal marital and inheritance regimes. The study then turns to a more detailed examination of women's land ownership in Latin America and Africa. The final section considers the impact of women's land ownership on household income and welfare.
Decentralization: Fueling the Fire or Dampening the Flames of Intrastate Conflict?
Authors: Brancati Dawn
Published: January 2009

This chapter elaborates on the argument regarding how the effect of decentralization on intrastate conflict hinges on regional parties. Brancati argues that the negative effects typically associated with decentralization are not an effect of decentralization directly, but that of regional parties. Specifically, it argues that regional parties create regional identities, advocate legislation that is harmful to other regions and regional minorities, and also mobilize groups to engage in ethnic conflict and secessionism and support extremist organizations that engage in these activities. The chapter also establishes in this chapter a number of conditions under which regional parties are likely to stimulate conflict and secessionism, and statewide parties are likely to reduce it. The chapter further argues that decentralization, in turn, increases the strength of regional parties depending on particular features of decentralization (i.e. the proportion of legislative seats a region possesses, the number of regional legislatures in a country, the upper house election procedures, the sequencing of national and regional elections). The chapter also offers a theoretical discussion in this chapter of the origins of decentralization and regional parties, arguing that neither is simply a product of the underlying ethnolinguistic, religious, and territorial differences in a country, but have an independent effect on these differences, and on conflict and secessionism.
Czechoslovakia
Authors: Brancati Dawn
Published: January 2009

This chapter presents the case study of Czechoslovakia (1989–1993). Czechoslovakia's dissolution in 1993 was remarkable because only a few Czechs and Slovaks, and none of the country's major political parties, supported dissolution. The chapter attributes the failure to agree on a new constitution, which led to the country's breakup, to regional parties whose positions on the constitution were seen as unreasonable by parties in the opposing region. The chapter further argues that the dissolution and the strength of regional parties in the country at the time was not a result of the underlying social differences in the country, but the way in which decentralization was structured. In demonstrating the argument, the chapter shows that although differences between Czechs and Slovaks were greater in the interwar period than in the postcommunist period, regional parties had a weaker presence under a centralized system of government. The chapter strengthens the case by showing that although in the postcommunist period differences between the two Czech Lands of Bohemia and Moravia were as great as those between Czechs and Slovaks, parties competed in both Czech Lands and incorporated Moravian interests for autonomy into their agendas, thereby, averting the same result as in Slovakia.
Conclusion
Authors: Brancati Dawn
Published: January 2009

This chapter brings together the findings of the three case studies and the statistical analysis, and offers a forward‐looking discussion of how to design political institutions in order to effectively manage intrastate conflict. It also discusses the political and logistical issues involved in implementing such a system, and discusses avenues for future research.
Chapter 2 Is Retirement Being Remade? Developments in Labor Market Patterns at Older Ages
Authors: Chan Sewin , Stevens Ann Huff
Published: January 2009

This chapter investigates non-traditional work and retirement patterns among older individuals in the Health and Retirement Study. It first reviews the evidence on retirements that initially involve bridge jobs or some form of partial retirement. It then looks at analysis on retirement reversals in which individuals resume or increase work activity following a period of retirement. Almost one third of the individuals in the sample who are ever partially or fully retired make at least one transition from more to less retired during the period of observation. The chapter also explores the characteristics of individuals making such transitions.
Chapter 9 Efficient Retirement Financial Strategies
Authors: Sharpe William F. , Scott Jason S. , Watson John G.
Published: January 2009

Today's retirees face the daunting task of determining appropriate investment and spending strategies for their accumulated savings. Financial economists have addressed their problem using an expected utility framework. In contrast, many financial advisors rely instead on rules of thumb. This chapter shows that some of the popular rules are inconsistent with expected utility maximization, since they subject retirees to avoidable, non-market risk. It also highlights the importance of earmarking ‘the existence of a one-to-one correspondence between investments and future spending’ and shows that a natural way to implement earmarking is to create a lockbox strategy.
2 Photinus of Sirmium and the Western Synods of Arles (353), Milan (355), and Béziers (356)
Authors: Beckwith Carl L.
Published: January 2009

This chapter discusses the place of Photinus of Sirmium in the fourth-century Trinitarian debates and examines the historical and theological situation in the West at the synods of Arles (353), Milan (355), and Béziers (356).
4 The Structure and Chronology of De Trinitate
Authors: Beckwith Carl L.
Published: January 2009

This chapter addresses the structure and chronology of Hilary's De Trinitate. It is argued that Hilary decided to compose De Trinitate before he started to write Book Seven. Toward that end, he revised his earlier treatises, De Fide (books two and three) and Adversus Arianos (books four to six), by writing new prefaces for them and adding new exegetical and theological arguments to reflect his mature understanding of the Trinity. Moreover, Hilary chose to write at this time Book One and affix it to the beginning of De Trinitate. In addition to determining when Hilary made his revisions, this chapter addresses the reasons, as revealed in his text, that led Hilary to make these changes.
6 Book Three of De Trinitate
Authors: Beckwith Carl L.
Published: January 2009

This chapter offers a close reading of Book Three of De Trinitate. In 358, Hilary drastically altered the presentation of the original contents of Book Three by attaching a new preface that re-contextualized the book's argument and addressed two concerns that seem to have been raised against the original presentation of his faith in De Fide (III.1-4). Following the preface, Hilary inserted an extended exegetical discussion of Jesus' high priestly prayer in John 17 (III.8-17) and added a brief summary of his mature position that aggressively denounced the Homoian position (III.22-23).
Conclusion
Authors: Zucca Lorenzo
Published: January 2009

Genuine conflicts of fundamental rights are unavoidable because of the very texture of our liberty. We are constantly struggling for its expansion, and yet that very expansion may lead to the contraction of someone else's liberty. In an ideal situation, we could perhaps all agree on what we take to be a harmonious society. However, in a liberal, pluralistic society the challenge of any given conception of harmony is regarded as a necessary feature of any evolving community — and that is probably the very core of liberty, and its paradox.
Constituent Power and Reflexive Identity: Towards an Ontology of Collective Selfhood
Authors: Lindahl Hans
Published: January 2009

This chapter analyses the nature of collective identity implicit in the notion of a political community. Taking the debate between Hans Kelsen and Carl Schmitt on the competing claims to priority of the legal-normative and the political as exemplary of influential and opposing positions in constitutional theory, it argues (against both) that collective identity is reflexive identity, that self-constitution is constitution both by (political) and of (legal-normative) a collective self, and that the paradoxical relation of constituent power and constitutional form — of democracy and legality — is in a certain sense specious. The chapter sets a frame for addressing the arguments of the papers that follow.
People and Elites in Republican Constitutions, Traditional and Modern
Authors: McCormick John P.
Published: January 2009

Utilising the works of the early 16th century Florentine republicans, Guicciardini and Machiavelli, this chapter focuses on a critical distinction between traditional and modern constitutions. In traditional constitutions ‘the people’ signifies not only the body politic but also the common people with a distinctive interest in ensuring their freedom from oppression by the patrician class who invariably exerted a disproportionate influence in government. In modern constitutions, by contrast, ‘the people’ is invariably treated as a unitary entity of formally equal citizens, with class-blind representative forms that tend to shield from view the reality of elective oligarchy. The chapter acknowledges the necessity of maintaining within contemporary constitutional arrangements the tension between the instituted power of elected (patrician) rulers and the powers of the common people to check their more reckless or restrictive projects.
Constitutionalism's Post-Modern Opening
Authors: Carrozza Paolo
Published: January 2009

This chapter focuses on the radical potential of contemporary constitutionalism, whereby constituent power is neither colonized by nor in symbiosis with the legal. This potential is illustrated in the work of Negri, in which it remains a latent revolutionary possibility which lies behind the legally constituted authority of the polity. It is argued that this radical potential need no longer be seen in terms of a revolutionary paradigm. Rather, under conditions of fragmented or multi-level authority in which the state is no longer the dominant level, constitutional form continues to structure but no longer determines political possibilities nor entirely controls the ways in which political movements approach and utilize legally constituted authority.
‘We the Peoples’: Constituent Power and Constitutionalism in Plurinational States
Authors: Tierney Stephen
Published: January 2009

This chapter addresses the challenge to state authority from the perspective of sub-state nationalism. It develops the argument in relation to such ‘plurinational’ states as Belgium, Canada, Spain, and the United Kingdom, and asks how sub-national movements might find constitutional voice, whether such voice is likely to affirm or compromise their ‘constituent’ autonomy, and, more generally, whether and in what circumstances the relationship between the constituent potential of sub-state and state demoi might be conceived in either zero-sum or positive-sum terms.
The Normativity of Instrumental Reason
Authors: Korsgaard Christine M.
Published: January 2009

Most philosophers think it uncontroversial that practical reason requires us to take the means to our ends, but have been silent about the normative foundation of this requirement. The interesting question, almost everyone agrees, is whether practical reason requires anything more, such as a principle of morality or prudence. This chapter examines the question what makes instrumental reason normative. It articulates the answers implicit in the rationalist and empiricist traditions, criticizing the former for its inability to explain how we can be motivated by the instrumental principle, and the latter for its inability to explain how we can be guided by it. It argues that the normativity of instrumental reason, like that of moral reason, must be grounded in the agent's autonomy, and also that there can be no requirement to take the means to our ends unless there are also required ends.
Self‐Constitution in the Ethics of Plato and Kant
Authors: Korsgaard Christine M.
Published: January 2009

Plato and Kant advance a “Constitutional Model” of the soul, in which reason and passion have different functional roles in the generation of motivation, as opposed to Hume's “Combat Model” in which they are portrayed as independent sources of motivation struggling for control. The Constitutional Model makes it possible to explain what makes an action different from an event. What makes an action attributable to a person and therefore what makes it an action, is that it issues from the person's constitution and therefore from the person as a whole, rather than from some force working on or in the person. This implies an account of what makes an action good: it is chosen in a way that unifies the person into a constitutional system. Platonic justice and Kant's categorical imperative are shown to be normative standards for action because they are internal standards of action.
From Duty and for the Sake of the Noble: Kant and Aristotle on Morally Good Action
Authors: Korsgaard Christine M.
Published: January 2009

Aristotle believes that an agent lacks virtue unless she enjoys the performance of virtuous actions, while Kant claims that the person who does her duty despite contrary inclinations exhibits a moral worth that the person who acts from inclination lacks. Despite these differences, this chapter argues that Aristotle and Kant share a distinctive view of the object of human choice and locus of moral value: that what we choose, and what has moral value, are not mere acts, but actions: acts done for the sake of ends. Morally good actions embody a kind of intrinsic value that inspires us to do them from duty (in Kant) or for the sake of the noble (in Aristotle). The chapter traces the difference in their attitudes about doing one's duty with pleasure to a difference in their attitudes towards pleasure itself: Aristotle sees it as a perception of the good, while Kant thinks of it as mere feeling.