bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Nation and History
Authors: Watterson William C.
Published: February 2013

This article provides a discussion on the emergence of the English pastoral elegy. It reviews the importance of the socio-economic circumstances that inform the pastoral elegy. Renaissance pastoral derived from Theocritus the two principal strands of pastoral elegy: the first ‘Idyll’ mourns the death of Daphnis and the eleventh ‘Idyll’ expresses the cyclops' pathetic unrequited love for Gallatea. In Jacobean pastoral elegy, the two strands often coincide, and the love depicted and/or mourned could be either heterosexual or homosexual in orientation. Although the word ‘elegy’ occurs only twice in Shakespeare's plays, in both instances referring to poems about unrequited love, Shakespeare's vision of English history was able to encompass his own variation on pastoral elegy. The characterization of Shakespeare's conflation of pastoral elegy is finally addressed.
In the Tense of Decadence
Authors: Sherry Vincent
Published: February 2013

This article reviews modernism in the terms of its anxieties about decline in general. Modernism lies through its own engagement with the culture of decadence of the 1890s. Concentrating primarily on Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot, the article states that modernist poetry was haunted by its precarious time in history, its fragmented sense of a grasp after the new even as the present is swiftly fading from the poets' conceptual grasp. Eliot's investment in the idea of empire shows most of its imaginative value and literary interest in the poetic uses. The presentiment draws upon the major resources of decadence to turn the loss Eliot has felt into an elegy for British civilisation. If Pound holds the war to account for his generation's outliving the appeal of the Nineties myth, it is also because, in that ordeal, he and they have lived it out.
Fresh Woods
Authors: Costello Bonnie
Published: February 2013

This article presents observations about elegy and ecology in twentieth-century poetry and remarks upon the endurance of both pastoral and elegy. It also shows that modern poetry has not given up ‘the pastoral contextualization of death’, but the pastoral is now also the very subject of mourning. Modern modifications to pastoral elegy are most evident in the lack of closure and consolation in the work of mourning, reflecting modern poetry's more general preference for exposure over resolution of problems. The examples of Elizabeth Bishop and Harpers Ferry can suffice to demonstrate the remarkable resilience of the pastoral elegy in modern poetry, and the rich ways in which it has been revised and updated for the modern imagination. The ecoelegy has provided a new turn in what poet Susan Howe has termed the ‘Elegiac Western Imagination’. Elegy is the record of a cycle broken, then repaired at some other level of renewal.
‘That the People might Live’
Authors: Krupat Arnold
Published: February 2013

This article presents a discussion on American Indian elegy. It specifically deals with Gerald Vizenor's theorization of what is called ‘continuance and survivance — this latter term a compound of the notion of survival through resistance’. Native American writers regularly express a deep sense of loss in their work. Native narratives of continuance and survivance construct the past and the future very differently from Euramerican narratives of progress and dominance. The wide range of American Indian writing in the elegiac mode from the nineteenth century up to the present and the genre of Indian autobiography are described. Furthermore, several prose texts by Vizenor are addressed. Writing in the elegiac mode may be found in the work of many contemporary Native American poets.
‘Anguish no Cessation Knows’
Authors: Mellor Anne K.
Published: February 2013

This article addresses the female-authored elegy. By far the greatest number of elegies penned by women between 1660 and 1834 confront the loss of a dearly beloved family member or friend. Additionally, it describes Mary Chudleigh's three elegies at length because they provide a brilliant representation of the emotional continuum upon which other female elegists map the work of grieving. At the end of the eighteenth century, the female-authored elegy underwent a significant literary development. In the hands of its most skilled practitioners — Charlotte Smith, Helen Maria Williams, Mary Robinson, Letitia Landon, and Felicia Hemans — the poetic elegy became an exploration. The female-authored elegies functioned on occasion as a vehicle of culturally repressed sexual desire. Many of them are more specific in their political critique, taking the occasion to support particular parties, policies or public figures.
Between Men
Authors: Goldberg Jonathan
Published: February 2013

This article investigates the homosexual elegy in the Renaissance. It is primarily concerned with Sir Thomas Wyatt and Earl of Surrey, Spenser, and Mary Sidney. The homoerotics of Thomas Carew's elegy for Dr. John Donne represents one possible way in which literary history and the restitution of loss that is the work of mourning gets figured in the poems. For a contrasting instance, the article turns to Ben Jonson's ‘To the Memory of My Beloved, the Author Mr William Shakespeare: And What he Hath Left Us’. Daniel Juan Gil reminds the consideration that Surrey's poetic stance is a consequential one, not simply to be equated with modernity and with heterosexuality. Furthermore, the understanding on Astrophel's place in the poem and its relationship to heteroerotic representations is provided. It then describes John Milton's Lycidas and the ‘Epitaphium Damonis’, arguably the most significant examples of elegy produced in the early modern period.
Museum Elegies
Authors: Gidal Eric
Published: February 2013

This article discusses elegy in terms of museum culture. Elegy and the elegiac may provide critical purchase upon both the cultural disruptions and political reconfigurations embodied in the museums of the modern era and the increasingly diversifying and recuperative practices of conservation and display at work in the twenty-first century. The association of the elegiac to the museum poetics is reviewed. It is possible to conceive the programmatic rituals performed within the walls of the art museum as fundamentally elegiac. It is recognized that the museum is not as a domain for disinterested aesthetic reflection, objective ethnography, or triumphal history, but as a site of ethical contest among competing memories and identities and, through that contest, a place for cultural regeneration.
The War Memorial as Elegy
Authors: Savage Kirk
Published: February 2013

This article looks at war monuments, which respond to an increasing scholarly interest in the physical artifacts of memorialization. It argues that the apparent homologies of monument and elegy, anti-monument and anti-elegy, turn out to be misleading. The monument Read envisaged as disillusionment, despair, and destruction gave way to a monument of recuperation. Monumental modernism diverged from the literary modernism Ramazani has so beautifully charted. The age-old types of war memorial were spectacular forms designed to assert the moral and physical triumph of the ruler and the state. The passage through the monument is itself a meaningful process, an elegiac journey, culminating in a ritual climax at the centre. It is true that Lin's memorial does not offer the explicit reassurance of everlasting life that Thiepval incorporates into its Great War Stone. The psychological closure apparently offered by the contemporary war memorial is never really complete.
Grieving Images
Authors: Helsinger Elizabeth
Published: February 2013

This article investigates the visual elegy on the nineteenth-century painting. It also addresses several kinds of art — primarily paintings — that provide alternatives to memorial and grave arts: pictorial equivalents to the complex reflections of poetic elegies. It concentrates on the elegiac pastoral pictures of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; romantic ruin-painting; some disturbing variations of the Victorian scene of domestic mourning; and twentieth-century images that combine grief with anger relating to the mass brutalities of war or holocaust, mourning too the inadequacies of traditional elegy faced with these forms of modern death. Scenes of domestic death and mourning, particularly those of children, were a staple of Victorian popular fiction and poetry and the prints and paintings that illustrated it. The immediacy of painting is a resource that can make silent images sharpen attention to the most subtle as to the most extreme forms of feeling.
On Photographic Elegy
Authors: Ellenbogen Josh
Published: February 2013

This article addresses elegy in photography. André Bazin notes that, in photography, ‘for the first time an image of the world is formed automatically, without the creative intervention of man’ and that ‘all the arts are based on the presence of man, only photography derives an advantage from his absence’. Jahan Ramazani's treatment of elegy in modern poetry is rightly seen as the most important that recent scholarship has produced. Lady Elizabeth Eastlake concerns the artistic status of photography. Alexander Gardner takes advantage of recent technical developments in the medium to produce an image of extraordinary detail. Oliver Wendell Holmes turns to the photograph not of an object in motion, but of a still object, a photograph of the home he grew up in as a child. Dr Leonore Sweet is one individual particularly active in spirit photography.
Literature and the Cultural Elites
Authors: Hanna Ralph
Published: February 2013

This article examines the cultural elites in medieval literature in England. There are two broad categories of cultural elites during this period. The most obvious cultural elite could be described rather broadly as clerical and this group is comprised of persons given professionally to some form of religious life. A second site of elite literacy might be described as magnatial culture, which encompasses the broad and variegated group that governed medieval England. It also describes the private book collectors and medieval book users.
A York Primer and its Alphabet
Authors: McDonald Nicola
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on the primer or the Book of Hours, the most popular reading material for women in England during the medieval period. The primer was at once a first book of prayer and the layperson's primary devotional manual. An abbreviated form of the divine office designed specifically for lay use, the primer emerged in the mid-thirteenth century as a costly aide to the devotions of the elite. It contained the basic prayers that all children were supposed to learn written in easy-to-read letters and often accompanied by an alphabet, as well as a full programme of daily devotions, organized around the hours of the Virgin. The earliest surviving English book of hours, the de Brailes Hours.
Performing Communities
Authors: McGavin John J.
Published: February 2013

This article examines civic religious drama in medieval England. Medieval spectators saw the civic religious drama as emerging from, or alluding to, a broad matrix of generically related forms of play and public ceremony which they could experience on other occasions, such as royal entries, heraldic announcements, and religious ritual including the Mass. This article describes the 2008 Passion Play in Winchester and suggests that this performance was a clear continuation of medieval practice.
The Yorkshire Partisans and the Literature of Popular Discontent
Authors: Prescott Andrew
Published: February 2013

This article examines the literature of popular discontent in medieval England. Among the most evocative and intriguing of the surviving texts connected with the life of everyday people of the Middle Ages are the various Middle English poems and verses commenting on contemporary events, scattered through a variety of manuscript collections, administrative records, and other texts. Example of these poetry can be found in the The Yorkshire Partisans section of the book Historical Poems of the XIVth and XVth Centuries published in 1959 by the American-based scholar and critic Rossell Hope Robbins. This article discusses Robbins' analysis of the literary qualities of historical poems.
The Gothic Turn and Twelfth‐Century English Chronicles
Authors: Bredehoft Thomas A.
Published: February 2013

This article examines gothic literature writing in England during the twelfth century. It discusses the gothicism of the chronicle form and gothic reproduction of the history of Britain. It suggests that an understanding of gothic concerns allows us to see more clearly the divergent trajectories of historical writing by authors such as William of Malmesbury and John of Worcester on the one hand, and works like Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia and Layamon's Brut on the other hand.
Anti‐Social Reform
Authors: Kelly Stephen
Published: February 2013

This article examines writing about rebellion and anti-social reform in medieval England. It discusses examples where carnivalesque inversion of social hierarchy reveals political dissatisfaction on the part of the rebels and suggests that what is constructed as definitively anti-social action on the part of the rebels should be seen as reformism rooted in a plebeian culture which monastic historiography sought to erase. It argues that if the quest for a rebel voice has often been undertaken at the expense of rebel textualities, then it can be concluded that the excavation of rebel ideology must begin by recognizing the desire for reform across all levels and institutions of fourteenth-century English society.
Secular Medieval Drama
Authors: Dutton Elisabeth
Published: February 2013

This article examines the nature of secular medieval drama in England. It explains that the medieval Mystery Cycles, with their vibrant presentation of scriptural narrative, dominate discussion of medieval drama. The presentation of ecclesiastical power in the cycles is strategically anachronistic and aligned with the oppressive power of biblical tyrants such as Herod. This article also comments on Henry Medwall's Fulgens and Lucres.
Complex Identities
Authors: Lavezzo Kathy
Published: February 2013

This article examines the complexities of medieval identity formation by surveying the depiction of Jews and Saracens in English texts produced throughout the medieval period from the time of Bede to the second half of the fifteenth century. It shows that there are many ways to approach productively the question of identity and medieval literature, and it is futile to posit any claims about a primary other during the period and suggests that the relationships between the selves and others imagined by medieval texts are far too multiple, fraught, and unstable. It explains how indispensable constructions of others are to notions of selfhood in the medieval West.
Regions and Communities
Authors: Fulton Helen
Published: February 2013

This article examines writings about regions and communities in England during the medieval period. It suggests that though a growing sense of nationalism relating to England can undoubtedly be traced from at least the thirteenth century, it is just as true that a sense of regionalism in England, Wales, and Scotland remained a powerful source of political and cultural identity throughout the Middle Ages and well into the period of the nation-state in Europe. It explains that while region defines a geographical area, community refers to a sense of common social and cultural identity which resists the territorialism of either nation or region.
‘Britain’
Authors: Bernau Anke
Published: February 2013

This article examines writings about originary myths and the stories of the people in England during the medieval period. It explains that these myths and stories they proclaimed a people's glorious ancestry and they provided a means of understanding or creating a paradigm for communal and national self-understanding and cohesion. Stories of beginnings also allowed writers and audiences to conceptualize and imagine Britishness in multiple ways, for multiple purposes.
Monsters and the Exotic in Medieval England
Authors: Mittman Asa Simon , Kim Susan M.
Published: February 2013

This article discusses some of the textual sources relied upon by medieval English authors and artists in writing about monsters and the exotic. It suggests that the literature of the monstrous and exotic developed because foundational cultures of medieval England relied on such figures; because the conditions of literacy made such figures intensely relevant and because political and social conditions of the period warranted the representation both of a hybrid body of the state and of an externalized embodiment of what that state excluded. It argues that medieval depictions of monstrous creatures explored not only the ways in which these creatures were not men, but also the ways in which the strangeness of the monstrous was inextricably part of the English, the Christian, the human experience.
When did ‘the Medieval’ End?
Authors: Walker Greg
Published: February 2013

This article examines the end of the medieval period and offers retrospection of the English Middle Ages. It argues that if we are looking for a single date on which it might be said that the Middle Ages were brought to an end, then 1547 has probably a stronger claim to that distinction than any other single year in the long sixteenth century. It explains that it was during this year that a spiritual dispensation that had underwritten social and cultural life in England for generations was officially erased from the nation's cultural memory, and beliefs that had been central to official and popular culture for centuries were declared definitively to be false.
Multilateral Investment Rules Revisited
Authors: Amarasinha Stefan D. , Kokott Juliane
Published: February 2013

This chapter addresses the question of whether it is possible to retain a multifaceted and multi-layered system of bilateral and regional agreements, which leads to what some have termed a ‘spaghetti-bowl’ of legal instruments, or whether it is necessary to reform that system by way of multilateral disciplines on foreign investment. Section 1 sets the scene by examining the current international regulation of foreign investment and discussing previous attempts in the WTO and under the auspices of the OECD to negotiate multilateral rules. Section 2 identifies the main lessons to be learned from deliberations of the WTO Working Group on Trade and Investment, when it was tasked with considering which issues should be included in any possible WTO-based initiative on foreign investment rules. Section 3 discusses and offers recommendations for possible future multilateral investment rules which would encompass not merely rights of investors and obligations on the part of host countries, but rather a more comprehensive ‘compact’ comprising pre- and post-establishment aspects of investment, as well as a number of supporting elements regarding the environment, good governance, labour standards and human rights, and the overall conduct of foreign investors. Section 4 offers suggestions for substantive elements and aspects of dispute settlement in addition to the Model International Investment Agreement for Sustainable Development (IIASD Agreement) draft. Finally, Section 5 suggests and concludes that given the existing regulation of foreign investment, future multilateral investment rules would not altogether replace existing investment regulation, but would rather clarify it in some areas and add value in others, including through substantive provisions relating to environmental and labour standards.
Interactions Between Investment and Non-investment Obligations
Authors: Hirsch Moshe
Published: February 2013

This chapter addresses questions relating to the impact of non-investment international obligations in the sphere of international investment law. Topics discussed include principles of public and international law, international investment jurisprudence, and emerging principles in international investment law.
Standards of Treatment
Authors: Grierson-Weiler Todd J. , Laird Ian A.
Published: February 2013

This chapter argues that as a matter of doctrine, it is becoming increasingly difficult to discern any difference between the ways in which non-discrimination and minimum standard provisions are actually being interpreted and applied. It cites the emergence of a so-called single standard of regulatory treatment, based upon the legitimate expectation of investors to enjoy access to rights of transparency, due process, and non-discrimination in a host country or in a free trade area, as the case may be. Comparative and absolute standards, treaty standards versus customary international law standards, minimum standard of treatment and the principle of good faith, and national treatment and MFN treatment are discussed.
Coverage of Taxation Under Modern Investment Treaties
Authors: Wälde Thomas W. , Kolo Abba
Published: February 2013

This chapter provides an overview of the regulation of taxation in modern investment treaties and the underlying policies and tensions reflected in the variations of treaty regulation of tax disputes. Section 1 sets the scene for the discussion, placing tax-related investment disputes in the political and economic context. It argues that under the current regulatory state, in which the function of the state has retreated from that of controlling the ‘commanding heights’ of the economy to regulation, the tendency for the state to use tax instruments to ‘squeeze’ foreign investors or for protectionist purposes is very attractive. Section 2 provides an overview of the history of taxation. Section 3 discusses the general scope of coverage of tax under investment treaties, examining how tax is defined in some of the treaties and the shortcomings of those definitions, the type of taxes covered under the treaties and the underlying issues and tensions surrounding such coverage. Section 4 discusses the applicability of core substantive investment protection provisions to tax and the underlying issues and tensions surrounding them. Section 5 examines the treaty formulations on expropriatory taxation and transparency and the policy reasons for the new trend in those areas. Section 6 goes on to consider arbitral jurisprudence on expropriatory taxation. Section 7 discusses joint tax consultation as a means of limiting expropriatory tax measures. Finally, Section 8 deals with taxation and transparency.
Most-Favoured-Nation Treatment
Authors: Acconci Pia
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines how the most-favoured-nation treatment standard has come to be regularly included in international instruments and treaties concerning foreign investment. After outlining the special features of this standard in international investment law, it considers the relevant cases that have dealt with claims for applying such a standard differently from what many states and scholars were expecting. The chapter then evaluates whether or not this case-law is actually altering the present international scenario for foreign investment, as one could think in light of the debate which arose from the ICSID Awards in the Maffezini and other subsequent cases.
Corruption
Authors: Raeschke-Kessler Hilmar , Gottwald Dorothee
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the legal effects of corruption on international investment contracts. It proposes solutions for contracts and dispute resolution and aims at a balance between anti-corruption values and the economic rationality of contracts, in particular the mutual responsibilities of the parties and the specifics of complex long-term projects. The introduction to the chapter gives an overview of the definitions of key terms, the legal scope of the chapter, and the legal instruments regulating corruption in foreign investment. Section 2 provides some general characteristics of corruption cases and some systematic remarks on the types of problems and cases. Problems related to the main contract, which is the contractual relationship between the investor and the host state or other investors, are examined. Problems of dispute settlement relating to the main contract are then considered. The chapter then deals with problems of agency agreements, which are contracts between investors and intermediaries, mostly consultancy firms, and the dispute settlement problems related to these agency agreements.
Jurisdiction and Admissibility
Authors: Williams David A. R.
Published: February 2013

This chapter begins with an overview of the jurisdictional requirements of the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). It then discusses ICSID and subject-matter jurisdiction, ICSID and personal jurisdiction, jurisdictional requirements under ICSID's Additional Facility, jurisdictional requirements under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Energy Charter Treaty (ECT); jurisdictional requirements under the UNCITRAL Rules, the ICC and LCIA Rules; denial of benefits clauses, and the concept of admissibility.
Sociology and Genocide
Authors: Shaw Martin
Published: February 2013

This article describes genocide as a crime of social classification, in which power-holders target particular populations for social and often physical destruction. Genocide can be described as a peculiarly sociological crime, in which the activity of social classification is perverted by pseudoscience. This articles argues argued that sociology can make central contributions to genocide studies. As a generalizing, concept-forming discipline it can help clarify the still-contested meaning of genocide and clarify some of its theoretical difficulties. Through historical-sociological work it can contribute to the comparative study of genocides. So far its contributions have been modest, but some important work has begun to overcome the sharply critical judgements of the discipline made by Zygmunt Bauman and others two decades ago.
Political Science and Genocide
Authors: Straus Scott
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the relationship between political science and genocide, focusing on three major themes. First, it discusses the evolution of genocide studies within the discipline and expands on this. Second, it identifies seminal contributions that have emerged from some four decades of political science studies of genocide: a methodological emphasis on the comparative method, including both quantitative and qualitative studies; a move to broaden the concept of genocide using related but different terms; a theoretical emphasis on regime type; a theoretical emphasis on political leaders' decision-making calculus — more specifically, political scientists have been in the forefront of developing rationalist explanations of genocide; and a theoretical emphasis on the connections between warfare and genocide. Third, it presents some general critiques of political science approaches and suggests avenues for future research in the discipline.
Early Medieval Europe
Authors: Fraser James E.
Published: February 2013

This article examines the concept of genocide in early Medieval Europe, looking at Britain and Ireland. Scholars have good reason to baulk at the application of a term like genocide, with all its twentieth-century moral and legal baggage, to early medieval episodes of violence, depopulation, and displacement which would otherwise seem to meet the criteria for genocide enumerated in the UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide Preamble ‘that at all periods of history, genocide has inflicted great losses on humanity’. This article suggests that Britain and Ireland are not excluded from such an assertion in that period. The evidence shows that concepts of ethnic obliteration, and what constituted it, were variable, depending upon class and social standing, and extended well beyond the comparatively narrow confines of actual physical slaughter.
Central and Late Medieval Europe
Authors: Scales Len
Published: February 2013

This article examines genocide in the Central and late Medieval Europe. The existence of peoples in Europe in the central and later Middle Ages reflected the facts of power: for contemporaries, ethnic communities were axiomatically political ones. Where the interactions of different peoples were most intensive, stress-laden, and ideologically and politically charged, acts of ethnic destruction were anticipated, and in some quarters sought most keenly. Outright ethnic destruction was most likely to occur where political subjugation was reinforced by fundamental religious difference. Pagans, Muslims, and Jews, but also, in an age of sharpened conceptions of religious orthodoxy, adherents of false forms of Christianity, were singled out for extreme solutions. For the rest, the history of this long period is partly one of how, through more intensive and precisely defined interactions, different imagined ethnic groups evolved forms of coexistence and mutual accommodation.
Colonial Latin America
Authors: Robins Nicholas A.
Published: February 2013

This article explores the genocides of conquest and colonization in Latin America, highlighting the shortcomings of conventional definitions of genocide. According to some interpretations of the 1948 UN Convention on genocide, it is possible to have a ‘genocide’ free of death. Actions causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group are legally considered genocide, yet can be interpreted as not necessarily involving mass killing even when the object is the destruction of a group. Likewise, although in a broader intellectual context, deliberate cultural destruction, or ethnocide, and the deliberate elimination of languages, or linguicide, are also often considered genocide. On the other hand, the unintended extinction or near extinction of a people from disease, a literal genocide and what could also be termed ‘collateral genocide’, is not considered genocide according to the UN Convention.
Genocide and Mass Violence in the ‘Heart of Darkness’
Authors: Schaller Dominik J.
Published: February 2013

This article discusses genocide and mass violence in Africa during the colonial period. While European colonial rule lasted only several decades, it had a profound impact on Africa. The history of European colonialism in Africa is of unprecedented socio-economic, political, and cultural change, mass violence, and exploitation. Until recently, the historiography of colonialism and genocide has portrayed the Africans as passive and apathetic victims of European power and violence. But Africa did not degenerate into a graveyard because of the Europeans' attempt to transform the continent and its inhabitants according to their ideas. European colonialism did not succeed in completely destroying African cultures and identities. Africans always found ways to preserve their cultures and to reconstitute their social organizations, however totalitarian and coercive the colonizers' policies and fantasies about absolute power were confirmed.
Punishment as Prevention?
Authors: Bloxham Donald , Pendas Devin O.
Published: February 2013

This article is divided into three roughly chronological sections, each dealing with an important stage in the chequered history of the legalist paradigm. Despite the real innovations of the nineteenth century, people take the Nuremberg trials as starting point because the legal developments of the immediate post-war period served as the crucible for most subsequent developments in international legalism. Criminal trials are intended to punish crime. Such punishment has classically been justified in one of three ways, as retribution, as a means for preventing the perpetrator from committing similar crimes again in future, and as a way of deterring other potential offenders from engaging in similar crimes themselves. In addition, trials for genocide and crimes against humanity have often been justified as forms of political and moral pedagogy. In the end, though, none of these justifications make much sense when applied to genocide.
From Past to Future
Authors: Levene Mark
Published: February 2013

This article presents two scenarios that might have a huge influence for the prospects of genocide in the future: the carrying capacity of the planet and global warming. The key point about the pursuit of this theme is that the disruptive potential of climate change, whether writ small in terms of the single state, or writ large in terms of the international system, is entirely exponential. It also hints the necessity for a paradigmatic shift in the relationship not only to each other but to the precious planet if people are to avoid not simply genocide but omnicide. For those who would seek to avoid genocide in the twenty-first century, the task cannot somehow be reduced to Lemkin's law. The phenomenon cannot be contained within this box: it is too fundamental a by-product of a more general dysfunction, not to say, even as it transmutes into persistent post-genocide.
Theories of World History since the Enlightenment
Authors: Bentley Michael
Published: February 2013

Theorizing about world history often remains under the blanket of a seemingly empirical narrative and that the investigation of it implies the scanning of hundreds of such narratives. It follows that its story cannot be told in a short introduction to the subject as a continuous chronology. In order to illuminate at least some of its more important twists, this article presents a series of snapshots aimed at clarifying the half-dozen major moods and turns that have played an important part in transforming a subject which the eighteenth century invented into one that it would no longer recognize. The typology's various segments should be seen as progressive through time but overlapping in time rather than successive stages of an evolution. The discussion considers universal history, the Weltgeschichte, modernism, postmodernism, and postcolonialism.
Geographies
Authors: Lewis Martin W.
Published: February 2013

This article describes the link between history and various geographies. History and geography were once commonly regarded as sibling disciplines. Despite their long-recognized affinity, history and geography increasingly parted ways as academic professionalization and specialization strengthened during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Historians grew skeptical of the hard linkages that geographers of the time posited between historical development and the natural landscape. They also increasingly focused on national history, regarding the territories of nation-states as holistic totalities requiring little geographical attention. Geographers, for their part, disengaged from historical concerns as they turned increasingly to theory and method. In the latter decades of the twentieth century, the two disciplines began to shown some signs of reconvergence. Most geographers now recognize the need for historical contextualization, just as many historians have rediscovered the importance of spatial relations while discovering the utility of geographical methods.
Globalizations
Authors: Osterhammel Jürgen
Published: February 2013

The revival of world history towards the end of the twentieth century was intimately connected with the rise of a new master concept in the social sciences: globalization. Historians and social scientists responded to the same generational experience that the interconnectedness of social life on the planet had arrived at a new level of intensity. The conclusions drawn from this insight in the various academic disciplines diverged considerably. The early theorists of globalization in sociology, political science, and economics disdained a historical perspective. The new concept seemed ideally suited to grasp the characteristic features of contemporary society. It helped to pinpoint the very essence of present-day modernity. Globalization opened up a way towards the social science mainstream, provided elements of a fresh terminology to a field that had suffered for a long time from an excess of descriptive simplicity.
Religions and World History
Authors: Benite Zvi Ben-Dor
Published: February 2013

This article examines the link between religions and world history. Samuel Purchas's initial approach to world history was simply ‘observing’ all the world's religions. The project grew to encompass much more, but the idea of ‘pilgrimage’ remained prominent. Religions are often presented as a universal human experience, yet there is in fact no universal definition of religion. In some cultures a religion is more a system of faith or of thought or philosophy. The discussion argues that without the concept of religion, world history is impossible. One of the most enduring outcomes of encounters or clashes between polities, civilizations, and cultures, is religion. as long as human encounters continue, new religions will keep emerging, and old religions will keep changing. The discussion closes by describing the holy site of Mt Moriah, or the Temple Mount, in Jerusalem.
Advanced Agriculture
Authors: Pomeranz Kenneth
Published: February 2013

‘Advanced’ agriculture must be advanced relative to something and by some criteria. There is no consensus on what those criteria are, though certainly high yields per acre, and perhaps per labor hour, would be likely choices. Meanwhile, attempts to change or remove supposedly ‘backward’ farmers have recurred over the last few centuries, sometimes causing catastrophes. This article distinguishes between ‘advanced organic agriculture’ which was commercialized, often specialized, intensive in its use of labor and/or capital, and relatively high-yielding per acre but was not a big user of machinery or products of modern chemical industries and ‘energy-intensive agriculture’ which appeared in a few places in the 1800s, but reached most of the world only after 1945.
Trade across Eurasia to about 1750
Authors: Tracy James D.
Published: February 2013

This article discusses trade across Europe and Asia up to 1750. It describes merchants, towns, and mercantile strategy in ca. 3500–143 bce; trade under the aegis of empire, ca. 560 bce–600 ce; China, Islam, and the Mongols in 589–1500; and Europe in the East, ca. 1100–1750. In Asia Minor, distribution clusters near the source-points, then fall off in proportion to distance. What is clear is that the habit of exchange extends far back into the human past. This article's discussion deals with long-distance traffic in luxury goods, and only for Eurasia and parts of Africa. While evidence of ancient trade is not lacking elsewhere, it is only for Eurasia that one can track the local connections that would eventually be knitted into a global framework. From about 3500 bce, commercial institutions slowly radiated outwards from southern Mesopotamia.
The Middle East in World History
Authors: Voll John Obert
Published: February 2013

This article describes the role of the Middle East in world history. The Middle East is both a strategic concept and a geo-cultural region. As a concept and a specific label of identification, it is a product of analysts writing about twentieth-century world affairs. However, as a region, its peoples and cultures are associated with the history of humanity from ancient times. This regional name itself shapes a way of understanding the history of the broad region of Southwestern Asia and Northern Africa. Both of the terms in the name — ‘Middle’ and ‘East’ — identify the region in relationship to other world regions and reflect the importance of the region's involvement in broader global historical processes. Along with examining the history of the region, the discussion also notes how the concepts of the historical units involved in that history have changed in the presentations of the history of the Middle East.
The Americas, 1450–2000
Authors: Davies, II Edward J.
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the history of the Americas from 1450 to 2000. It describes the Americas before European contact; disease and death brought by the European arrival in 1492 due to new bacteria and viruses they carried; conquest, colonization, and settlement by the Europeans; the building of transatlantic economies; revolutions in the Americas from 1760 to 1830; revolutions and new republics that were formed; the rise of industrial economies in the Americas; migration and labor demands; the Great Depression and World War II; the global cold war from 1941 to 2000teh global economy; and globalization in the late twentieth century.
Cosmopolitanism and the German Enlightenment
Authors: Fillafer Franz Leander , Osterhammel Jürgen
Published: February 2013

The European Enlightenment has long been regarded as a host of disembodied, self-perpetuating ideas typically emanating from France and inspiring apprentices at the various European peripheries. This article focuses on the idea of cosmopolitanism in the context of the German Enlightenment. There clearly was a set of overarching purposes of emancipation and improvement, but elaborating and pursuing ‘the Enlightenment’ also involved a ‘sense of place’. The Enlightenment maintained that human reason was able to understand nature unaided by divine revelation, but attuned to its truths; many Enlighteners agreed that God, like Newton's divine clockmaker, had created the universe, but thereafter intervened no more. John Locke's critique of primordialism challenged the existence of innate ideas and original sin. This article moves on to explain notions of religion, empire, and commerce, as well as the laws of nation. Transitions in the German society in the nineteenth century and after that are explained in details in this article.
German Literature and Thought From 1810 to 1890
Authors: Robertson Ritchie
Published: February 2013

The present article discusses German literature and thought during the nineteenth century. Approaching nineteenth-century German culture, one needs to free oneself from several misconceptions that have proved surprisingly durable. One is that Germans were devoted to cloudy, theoretical idealism that stayed remote from concrete reality. It is commonly asserted that German authors favored the Novelle, rather than the novel; that they practiced a special literary mode called ‘poetic realism’; and that in contrast to the realism of Balzac or Dickens, German novelists specialized in an unworldly, introverted form of fiction, focusing on the inner development of the hero, which was termed the Bildungsroman. Two well-known episodes can serve as emblems of this commitment. One concerns Hegel (1770–1831) whereas the second emblem of German engagement with reality is the programmatic statement by Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886). An in-depth analysis of the influence of realism on German literature completes the discussion.
On the Move: Mobility, Migration, and Nation, 1880–1948
Authors: Conrad Sebastian , Ther Philipp
Published: February 2013

This article charts the trajectories of this cross-border mobility, both inward and outward-bound, keeping three general issues in mind. After the late nineteenth century, Germany was on the move. Population growth, the increasing pull of the cities, and economic opportunities in the industrial centers all contributed to a flight of people from rural areas. These massive and frequently overlapping forms of mobility demonstrate the degree to which German history was embedded in transnational processes. Migration was one of the forms through which large segments of the population experienced global entanglement first hand. Mobility connected different levels of experience and tied the local and regional to the national and the global. Secondly, migration was framed in the logic of economic order and labor markets. Mobility operated in a contested field in which the dynamics of cross-border movement constantly undermined, and at the same time dialectically reinforced, senses of nationality. This article concludes with a note on mass migration during and after the Second World War.
Religion and the Search For Meaning, 1945–1990
Authors: Ziemann Benjamin
Published: February 2013

This article encapsulates some of the problems that rampaged Germany apart from politics. The ongoing relevance of religion in the search for meaning in postwar Germany, amidst growing discontent with the churches as organized bodies and their professional representatives; the ways in which their lack of resistance against the anti-Jewish policies of the Nazi regime haunted the Christian churches after 1945. Amidst the rubble of the society of the immediate postwar period, bishops, priests, and theologians of both Christian churches agreed that a rebuilding of the moral and political order could only succeed through a reaffirmation of Christian values. Rebuilding the moral compass and the international authority of the Germans would, hence, require a rechristianization of society. Statistics showing that people rejoined the churches in droves seemed to support these claims for a rechristianization of German society. This article analyses the culmination of religions within the German society post Second World War.
Annus Mirabilis: 1989 and German Unification
Authors: Patton David F.
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on the wonder years enjoyed by Germany in 1989 that followed the great German unification. In 1989–1990, the two Germanies underwent a series of remarkable changes that would signal the end of the postwar division of Europe. East Germans peacefully toppled the hard-line Socialist Unity Party that had ruled with an iron fist for forty years. This article traces the revolutions that raged East Germany and its effects on the other part of the country. East Germany witnessed mass exodus resulting in labor shortages and other such problems. As East Germans fled in the summer of 1989, pro-democracy activists formed civic groups calling for reform. This article also explains the involvement of the two states in bringing down the iron curtain and unifying Germany. This article also explains the form of chancellor democracy, new economy that came to dominate the new found Germany.
The Preacher and Patristics
Authors: Ettenhuber Katrin
Published: February 2013

This article considers the different versions of the patristic debate between 1517 and 1720. It focuses on the century between John Jewel's Challenge sermon that occurred in 1559, and the Restoration of the monarchy. It chronologically reviews several important and controversial debates from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and emphasises their primary doctrinal flashpoints using a patrological perspective. The article also considers the Fathers as a field of discourse.
Sermons into Print
Authors: Rigney James
Published: February 2013

This article tries to locate the sermon within the interplay of the production and consumption of printed books during the seventeenth century. The article outlines the progress of sermons into print, and examines the transformation of these printed volumes into products. It also follows the progress of these products not only into the hands of the ‘godly reader’, but also into the hands of the disputatious and debatable reader.
The Sermon in Early Modern Wales: Context and Content
Authors: Roberts Stephen K.
Published: February 2013

This article examines the context and content of the sermon in early modern Wales. It begins with a discussion of Reformation preaching in Wales from 1530 to 1640. It then turns to the apogee of Welsh preaching. The article concludes by discussing the situation of Wales preaching from 1660 to 1720.
Official Tudor Homilies
Authors: Null Ashley
Published: February 2013

This article discusses official homilies during the Tudor dynasty. It first describes the direct state use of the pulpit, and pinpoints the origin of the homilies. It studies the Edwardian homilies, the Elizabethan homilies, the structure of the homilies, and the contribution of Thomas Cranmer. The article also looks at the greatest tribute to the effectiveness of Cranmer's Book of Homilies, namely Reginald Pole's opinion in the Legatine Synod.