bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Money, the meaning of money, management, spirituality, and religion
Authors: Tang Thomas Li‐Ping
Published: May 2010

This article briefly summarizes selected theory and research related to money and the meaning of money. Research shows that money is considered as a tool and as a drug. People are subject to all kinds of temptation in the environment that trigger them to act ethically or unethically.
Thinking about money enhances one’s feeling of “self‐sufficiency,” but reduces one’s willingness to help others. The mere presence of abundant money incites the feeling of “envy” toward wealthy others that provokes unethical behavior. Having control
over money and spending money on others promote happiness. High love‐of‐money individuals have low pay satisfaction, low quality of life, low ethical intentions, and low intention to help others and become Good Samaritans. Since money is the direct opposite of spirituality
and one cannot serve both God and money, spirituality and religion help people live fulfilling, meaningful, and purposeful lives. There is hope that our understanding of spirituality and religion through the lens of money may help researchers and practitioners move to further research and
improved practice.
Clasp-mediated microtubule bundling regulates persistent motility and contact repulsion in Drosophila macrophages in vivo
Authors: Stramer Brian , Moreira Severina , Millard Tom , Evans Iwan , Huang Chieh-Yin , Sabet Ola , Milner Martin , Dunn Graham , Martin Paul , Wood Will
Published: May 2010

Drosophila melanogaster macrophages are highly migratory cells that lend themselves beautifully to high resolution in vivo imaging experiments. By expressing fluorescent probes to reveal actin and microtubules, we can observe the dynamic interplay of these two cytoskeletal networks as macrophages migrate and interact with one another within a living organism. We show that before an episode of persistent motility, whether responding to developmental guidance or wound cues, macrophages assemble a polarized array of microtubules that bundle into a compass-like arm that appears to anticipate the direction of migration. Whenever cells collide with one another, their microtubule arms transiently align just before cell–cell repulsion, and we show that forcing depolymerization of microtubules by expression of Spastin leads to their defective polarity and failure to contact inhibit from one another. The same is true in orbit/clasp mutants, indicating a pivotal role for this microtubule-binding protein in the assembly and/or functioning of the microtubule arm during polarized migration and contact repulsion.
Actin in dendritic spines: connecting dynamics to function
Authors: Hotulainen Pirta , Hoogenraad Casper C.
Published: May 2010

Dendritic spines are small actin-rich protrusions from neuronal dendrites that form the postsynaptic part of most excitatory synapses and are major sites of information processing and storage in the brain. Changes in the shape and size of dendritic spines are correlated with the strength of excitatory synaptic connections and heavily depend on remodeling of its underlying actin cytoskeleton. Emerging evidence suggests that most signaling pathways linking synaptic activity to spine morphology influence local actin dynamics. Therefore, specific mechanisms of actin regulation are integral to the formation, maturation, and plasticity of dendritic spines and to learning and memory.
The route of priming influences the ability of respiratory virus–specific memory CD8+ T cells to be activated by residual antigen
Authors: Takamura Shiki , Roberts Alan D. , Jelley-Gibbs Dawn M. , Wittmer Susan T. , Kohlmeier Jacob E. , Woodland David L.
Published: May 2010

After respiratory virus infections, memory CD8+ T cells are maintained in the lung airways by a process of continual recruitment. Previous studies have suggested that this process is controlled, at least in the initial weeks after virus clearance, by residual antigen in the lung-draining mediastinal lymph nodes (MLNs). We used mouse models of influenza and parainfluenza virus infection to show that intranasally (i.n.) primed memory CD8+ T cells possess a unique ability to be reactivated by residual antigen in the MLN compared with intraperitoneally (i.p.) primed CD8+ T cells, resulting in the preferential recruitment of i.n.-primed memory CD8+ T cells to the lung airways. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the inability of i.p.-primed memory CD8+ T cells to access residual antigen can be corrected by a subsequent i.n. virus infection. Thus, two independent factors, initial CD8+ T cell priming in the MLN and prolonged presentation of residual antigen in the MLN, are required to maintain large numbers of antigen-specific memory CD8+ T cells in the lung airways.
Peptide-MHC heterodimers show that thymic positive selection requires a more restricted set of self-peptides than negative selection
Authors: Juang Jeremy , Ebert Peter J.R. , Feng Dan , Garcia K. Christopher , Krogsgaard Michelle , Davis Mark M.
Published: May 2010

T cell selection and maturation in the thymus depends on the interactions between T cell receptors (TCRs) and different self-peptide–major histocompatibility complex (pMHC) molecules. We show that the affinity of the OT-I TCR for its endogenous positively selecting ligands, Catnb-H-2Kb and Cappa1-H-2Kb, is significantly lower than for previously reported positively selecting altered peptide ligands. To understand how these extremely weak endogenous ligands produce signals in maturing thymocytes, we generated soluble monomeric and dimeric peptide–H-2Kb ligands. Soluble monomeric ovalbumin (OVA)-Kb molecules elicited no detectable signaling in OT-I thymocytes, whereas heterodimers of OVA-Kb paired with positively selecting or nonselecting endogenous peptides, but not an engineered null peptide, induced deletion. In contrast, dimer-induced positive selection was much more sensitive to the identity of the partner peptide. Catnb-Kb–Catnb-Kb homodimers, but not heterodimers of Catnb-Kb paired with a nonselecting peptide-Kb, induced positive selection, even though both ligands bind the OT-I TCR with detectable affinity. Thus, both positive and negative selection can be driven by dimeric but not monomeric ligands. In addition, positive selection has much more stringent requirements for the partner self-pMHC.
Introduction
Authors: Valente Thomas W.
Published: May 2010

This chapter introduces the basic network concepts and then outlines some of the major research fronts and principles under study in the network analysis field. Major research advances include the small world phenomenon, scale-free networks, influence versus selection, diffusion of innovations and behavior change, determining efficient network forms, agent based modeling and simulation, and algorithm development. Although the research topics are diverse and have been applied to a diverse set of phenomenon, they have all been fundamentally interested in connectedness and how the set of social relations can be studied. These various research topics shed some light on how these diverse areas of investigation have implications for studying human behavior, how people gain access to resources and jobs; and how social networks influence individual and system behavior.
History
Authors: Valente Thomas W.
Published: May 2010

Chapter two provides a brief introduction to the history of social network analysis research and notes that network research development was delayed in part by an over-emphasis on inferential statistics within the social science community. The chapter then reviews how major behavioral science theories have used social network concepts. The chapter closes with a brief literature review section on the public health and medical applications of network analysis. Studies of HIV/STD, substance use, family planning and contraceptive use, social support, and inter-organizational relations have all figured prominently in the past few decades.
Methods
Authors: Valente Thomas W.
Published: May 2010

This chapter provided an introduction to social network data collection and management methods. The chapter covers five types of network data collection techniques, survey, egocentric, sequenced, census, and two-mode, indicating their uses and advantages and disadvantages. The chapter introduced the idea that network data provide measures at both the individual and network level. Individual measures indicate a person's position in the network relative to others in the network. Individual measures also indicate network effects in terms of the properties of others a person is connected to, for example, whether his/her friends are smokers. Network level measures describe overall properties of the network such as its density or centralization. The network paradigm is thus made up of these four components: (1) network data collection and management, (2) network data characteristics, (3) the distinct levels of analysis, and (4) network variables derived from the data
Diffusion of Innovations
Authors: Valente Thomas W.
Published: May 2010

This chapter reviews diffusion of innovations theory which has been the theory that has used network principles and perspectives most extensively. An introduction to the theory and a review of its principles is provided. The chapter then reviewed the 4 major classes of diffusion models (1) integration/opinion leadership, (2) structural models, (3) critical levels, and (4) dynamic models. All four models explicitly account for network diffusion dynamics, but vary in their mathematical rigor and complexity. The chapter also introduced the calculation of infectiousness and susceptibility which dynamically account for adoption behavior and in-degree and out-degree, respectively. Empirical data illustrating network exposure effects are presented as well as the calculation and interpretation of network thresholds. The chapter closes with a brief critique of the theory.
1 What Should We Do about Torture?
Authors: Griffin James
Published: May 2010

This chapter attempts to clarify the claim that there should be an absolute prohibition against torture. To clarify the claim, it is important to have a clear understanding of what we mean by torture. Treatment that destroys rational agency, and thereby undermines human dignity, defines the heart of human torture. George W. Bush's administration, in defining torture as prolonged physical or mental damage, offered a misleading and dangerous definition of torture. Given our acceptance of killing in self‐defense and of so‐called ticking‐bomb scenarios, we cannot in theory accept an absolute prohibition of torture. However, we still might believe it right to ban torture in practice. The limits of our motivation and of our understanding — our near‐invincible ignorance — might lead us to think it best to block, if we could, any policy that would allow torture. In this regard, it is important to see the weaknesses of Alan Dershowitz's and of Richard Posner's proposals for allowing a limited use of torture. Still, we cannot rule out that there could be exceptions that would allow for torture. But to act on these exceptions, we would need to know how to weigh the considerations for and against torture in particular exceptional situations. It is far from clear, however, that we know how to weigh the relevant considerations or even how to identify the exceptional situations. Given these limitations, it is perhaps best to enforce an absolute prohibition against torture, while hoping that anyone who, contrary to the ban, resorts to torture has correctly identified an exception. Much of moral importance is at stake; but we find ourselves in murky waters.
2 The Consequences of War
Authors: Hurka Thomas
Published: May 2010

Several conditions in the traditional theory of the just war — the just cause, hope of success, last resort, and proportionality conditions — assess war morally in light of its consequences, but do so differently than the consequentialist view Jonathan Glover has shown sympathy for. Unlike consequentialism, just war theory does not count all a war's good effects as morally relevant, sometimes discounts good or bad effects because of how they came about, and instead of weighing good and bad effects equally against each other sometimes gives more weight to the one and sometimes more to the other. This chapter examines these complexities in the just war assessment of consequences and shows how the resulting theory is sometimes more permissive about the resort to war than consequentialism and sometimes less permissive.
8 Transhumanity: A Moral Vision of the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Harris John
Published: May 2010

This chapter takes seriously the idea that in the future there will be no more human beings but that this is not one of the things that should concern us unless the creatures that replace us are worse than humans. I emphasize the continuity in evolution which shows us that not only are present‐day humans interspecies creatures, but also that objections to human–animal combinations, “humanimals” as I call them, are misconceived on any grounds other than those of safety. If the creatures that replace us are no longer human, then so long as they are better the loss of humanity will be well worth paying. One consequence will be that we should take the “human” out of human rights and possibly also the “dignity” out of human dignity. If we do this we will be true to Jonathan Glover's insight that what matters is that in the future there will be people and not at all what sort of people they will be so long as they are an improvement on what has gone before.
10 Bystanders to Poverty
Authors: Singer Peter
Published: May 2010

In Causing Death and Saving Lives, Jonathan Glover denies the importance of the moral distinction between acts and omissions. Yet in Humanity: A Moral History of the Twentieth Century, he overlooks the enormous loss of life caused by the failure of the affluent to give sufficient aid to prevent millions of poverty‐related deaths each year. Glover does condemn those who did nothing to prevent genocide or come to the aid of its victims, when they could have done so at no risk to themselves. Could it be that stopping genocide is a higher moral priority than stopping poverty‐related deaths? I argue that we should not accept this view and conclude that Glover's own work offers good reasons for taking very seriously our failure to reduce poverty‐related deaths.
The Development of Self-Regulation: A Neuropsychological Perspective
Authors: Hrabok Marianne , Kerns Kimberly A.
Published: May 2010

This chapter begins with discussion of some of the definitional and conceptual issues relevant to executive function (EF) from a neuropsychological perspective. This is followed by a discussion of functions of regions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) believed to be important for self-regulation, based primarily on lesion studies in adults. Following this, a model of self-regulation as it relates to attentional networks in the brain developed by Posner and his colleagues (e.g., Posner and Rothbart, 1996, 2007) is described. EF as it relates to self-regulation, the development of self-regulation, neuroplasticity, and the role of learning is also discussed. The chapter concludes with a discussion of limitations of neuropsychological research regarding self-regulation, discussion of potential enhancement of self-regulation in children, and areas important for future research.
Working Memory in Infancy and Early Childhood: What Develops?
Authors: Hoskyn Maureen
Published: May 2010

The influence of social communicative activities on the emergence of working memory capacity in infants and young children is not well understood. On one hand, working memory capacity is thought to be an attentional executive resource that resides within the psychology of the individual. However, the complexity of children's social worlds sets the attentional demands that, in turn, require children to draw on working memory resources. Therefore, the issue is not whether working memory develops, but how does it develop and what are the influences that mediate the course of this development? The chapter begins with a discussion of constructivist theories and information processing models of an executive working memory system. Findings from studies of brain activity in infants are then presented to affirm that working memory is available to children early in the lifespan. The remaining discussion describes how social communication potentially influences the course of working memory development.
Object-Based Set-Shifting in Preschoolers: Relations to Theory of Mind
Authors: Kloo Daniela , Perner Josef , Giritzer Thomas
Published: May 2010

This chapter focuses on children's ability to shift between different ways of thinking about an object, which is termed object-based set-shifting. First, we outline crucial developments in social cognition (theory of mind) and executive functions in the preschool years. At around age 4, children master the false belief task and the Dimensional Change Card Sorting (DCCS) task; the latter being a measure of object-based set-shifting. We describe studies showing that these developmental advances are related. And we present evidence suggesting that both executive abilities (inhibitory control) and conceptual abilities (re-description understanding) play a role in the development of object-based set-shifting. Finally, we discuss various theories aiming to explain the general developmental link between theory of mind and executive functions.
Clarifying the Relation between Executive Function and Children's Theories of Mind
Authors: Moses Louis J. , Tahiroglu Deniz
Published: May 2010

In this chapter, we explore the relation between executive functioning (EF) and theory of mind (ToM), examining (a) what aspects of EF and what aspects of ToM are implicated, (b) whether the relation is merely a product of task-specific performance factors or whether it reflects more fundamental processes in conceptual development, and (c) whether the causal relation runs from EF to ToM or vice versa. We review data from experimental, training, correlational, and cross-cultural studies to clarify these issues. We conclude that the evidence best supports the view that EF is causally implicated in ToM development and that advances in EF are necessary (but not sufficient) for the emergence, as opposed to their expression, of ToM concepts.
The Developmental Relations between Perspective Taking and Prosocial Behaviors: A Meta-Analytic Examination of the Task-Specificity Hypothesis
Authors: Carlo Gustavo , Knight George P. , McGinley Meredith , Goodvin Rebecca , Roesch Scott C.
Published: May 2010

Given the multidimensional nature of both perspective taking and prosocial behaviors, the authors advance an information processing position that attending to characteristics of tasks used to assess these constructs will clarify the nature of their associations. A meta-analysis is presented to address the task specificity hypothesis such that perspective taking and prosocial behavior are more strongly related with greater similarity in the task dimensions of emotionality, target protagonist, and context specificity. Results support this hypothesis; the magnitude of relations between perspective taking and prosocial behavior was independently predicted by each dimension, and higher task similarity on two dimensions substantially increased explained variance. Age differences in links between perspective taking and prosocial behavior were also found suggesting that effects are strongest in middle-childhood and adolescence. Implications are discussed for the study of social cognitions and moral behaviors.
A Bidirectional View of Executive Function and Social Interaction
Authors: Hala Suzanne , Pexman Penny , Climie Emma , Rostad Kristin , Glenwright Melanie
Published: May 2010

In this chapter, we explore the idea that the relation between social interaction and executive functions might be best characterized as bi-directionaldirectional. That is, that while developing executive function abilities almost definitely have considerable impact on emerging social understanding in young children, social interactions may also provide significant impetus for executive development. Working from a broadly Piagetian framework we include two avenues of exploration to illustrate. The first is that social collaboration on a problem might facilitate executive processes. Here we use the example of a collaboration on a strategic deception task. The second is that exposure to the ambiguous nature of social interactions may force the child to exercise more executive control, resulting in advances in various aspects of executive function. For examples, we draw from two research literatures—children's understanding of sarcasm and children's ability to grapple with acquiring more than one language.
Chapter 1 Power Motivation
Authors: Fodor Eugene M.
Published: May 2010

This chapter traces research on the power motive from its early beginnings through the many avenues of inquiry that the concept has spawned. Topics include an explanation of the Picture Story Exercise (PSE) by which researchers measure the power motive, the motive’s connection to alcoholism, how the motive makes people responsive to ingratiation, David McClelland’s concept of power stress, how the motive relates to creativity, the distinction between implicit and explicit motivation, and issues concerning the reliability and validity of the PSE measure. There is an attempt to show how the concept knits together seemingly diverse domains of human behavior that otherwise elude easy explanation. The chapter ends with a glimpse into what the future may portend for research on the power motive.
Chapter 2 The Achievement Motive: A Review of Theory and Assessment ofnAchievement, Hope of Success, and Fear of Failure
Authors: Pang Joyce S.
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses major theoretical and methodological landmarks concerning n Achievement, such as behavioral and psychological characteristics of achievement-motivated individuals, developmental considerations, motivational incentives, and assessment paradigms. The chapter also discusses the development of a content-coding measure of hope of success and fear of failure, as well as behavioral differences between these approaches and avoidant achievement orientations. The chapter concludes with some recommendations for further research that is needed in order to better understand hope of success, fear of failure, and n Achievement.
Chapter 7 Computer-Based Modeling, Assessment, and Coding of Implicit Motives
Authors: Blankenship Virginia
Published: May 2010

This chapter presents an overview of the Atkinson and Birch (1970) dynamics of action theory and summarizes research based on computer simulations of achievement situations. Task-based measures, including latency to an achievement task and percentage time spent at achievement tasks, are coordinated to dynamic concepts such as instigating and inhibitory forces. The Picture Story Exercise (PSE) as the measure of implicit motives can be administered on the Internet using survey programs that collect narratives. To facilitate research, thematic content of narratives can be analyzed using word-counting programs either as a replacement for or in conjunction with human coding of implicit motives. The reliability of the PSE is also discussed and research using the Rasch model to calculate reliability statistics is reviewed.
Chapter 8 Learning and Memory Correlates of Implicit Motives
Authors: Bender Michael , Woike Barbara A.
Published: May 2010

This chapter provides an overview of recent findings on the importance of implicit motives for cognition and memory. Empirical evidence is described for each stage of information processing, from attention, encoding, and rehearsal to retrieval. We find that people automatically attend to and process stimuli in the social environment that carry incentives linked to their implicit motives, especially when these are rich in motive-related affect. Through rehearsal and retrieval of such stimuli, the person can re-experience the pleasure associated with the implicit motive. In particular, the chapter focuses on the role of situational context factors that interact with motivational states to predict motive-related behavior in a person × situation framework. As an extension of the findings on this interaction, the importance of a personological perspective on cultural differences in cognition is highlighted.
Chapter 9 Properties of Motive-Specific Incentives
Authors: Stanton Steven J. , Hall Julie L. , Schultheiss Oliver C.
Published: May 2010

Implicit motives orient one’s attention toward motivational incentives and energize and select behaviors that facilitate incentive attainment. Yet, the exact qualities of these incentives were not rigorously explored until recently, and early research reports hindered the field by only offering vague references to what motivational incentives were. This chapter discusses and critiques major models of motive-specific incentives by McClelland and colleagues from the 1950s and 1980s as well as those by Schultheiss in the 2000s. Lastly, this chapter argues that nonverbal signals are the core implicit motivational incentives and presents a motivational field theory of motivational incentives proposing that facial expressions of emotion function as motive-specific incentives.
Chapter 11 Factors That Influence the Relation Between Implicit and Explicit Motives: A General Implicit–Explicit Congruence Framework
Authors: Thrash Todd M. , Cassidy Scott E. , Maruskin Laura A. , Elliot Andrew J.
Published: May 2010

This chapter addresses the relation between implicit and explicit motives and focuses on factors that influence the degree to which an individual exhibits motive congruence (i.e., consistency between corresponding implicit and explicit motives). The chapter begins with a review of the extant empirical literature on motive congruence. A general conceptual framework based on the principles of structural equation modeling is proposed. Various theoretical perspectives on the processes through which congruence may be achieved are organized in terms of the general framework, and important methodological issues that have been overlooked in past research are identified. Finally, the chapter integrates the motive congruence literature with related literatures within psychology and identifies directions for future research.
Chapter 13 Implicit Motives: A Look from Personality Systems Interaction Theory
Authors: Baumann Nicola , Kaz Miguel , Kuhl Julius
Published: May 2010

This chapter provides an outline of Personality Systems Interaction (PSI) theory and its contribution to an understanding of implicit motives. It will be argued that the concept of motive can be applied across preconceptual, conceptual, and self-regulatory levels of analysis, which are related to three different motive measures (i.e., TAT/PSE, grid technique, and OMT, respectively). The Operant Motive Test (OMT) by Kuhl and Scheffer (1999) will be described in more detail. Recent results on the interaction between motives and cognitive mechanisms will be functionally analyzed: (a) Congruence between explicit and implicit motives, (b) self-determined versus incentive-focused levels of motive enactment, and (c) the role of need content in the modulation of cognitive behavioral systems.
Chapter 14 Political and Historical Consequences of Implicit Motives
Authors: Winter David G.
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses research on the economic, political, and historical aspects of implicit motives. The integrated running manual for scoring implicit motives is cited as a methodological tool in such studies. Implicit motives affect how people construe their social roles, as well as the satisfactions and vulnerabilities they derive from these roles. Implicit achievement motivation predicts improved entrepreneurial performance among individuals and for firms; however, it is often associated with frustration and failure in politics. The implicit power motive predicts successful political leadership, but is also associated with aggression and the escalation of crises to war. The chapter discusses the problem of taming power motivation and motivational aspects of globalization and climate change.
Photoperiodic Flowering in the Long-Day Plant Arabidopsis thaliana
Authors: Putterill Joanna , Stockum Christine , Warman Guy
Published: May 2010

This chapter provides an overview of the theoretical models proposed to explain the mechanisms by which photoperiodic time measurement is achieved and our current understanding of the molecular basis of photoperiodic flowering in Arabidopsis. It also highlights some of the recent discoveries about the biochemical activities and function of the genes, including the exciting recent identification of FT protein as a florigen.
The Photoperiodic Flowering Response in Pharbitis nil
Authors: Hayama Ryosuke
Published: May 2010

This chapter introduces a mechanism of photoperiodic flowering response in Pharbitis, drawing on the physiological and molecular genetic studies carried out to date. In Pharbitis, a circadian system whose phase is set by lights off through the action of red, far-red, and/or blue light during the light period, controls the photoperiodic flowering response. This circadian system may be distinct from that which controls other circadian rhythms, such as CAB gene expression. This circadian clock determines the phase of one or more clock-controlled genes, which generate a dusk-set activity rhythm in the dark and induce PnFT expression if the dark period is sufficiently long. In this model, one or more clock-controlled genes may be activated specifically in the dark, while red light may directly inhibit such activity during the light period. This mechanism is in contrast to that proposed for Arabidopsis and rice, both of which possess a mechanism for measuring the length of the day in which a clock-controlled gene, whose phase is mainly set by lights on at dawn, is directly activated by light posttranscriptionally.
Photoperiodism in Insects: Migration and Diapause Responses
Authors: Saunders David S.
Published: May 2010

Higher latitudes are characterized by marked seasonal changes in climate, with winters becoming colder and longer to the north. Being “cold-blooded” animals, most insects find it difficult to cope with periods of cold and have evolved a number of strategies to avoid this form of stress. Broadly speaking, insects at higher latitudes may circumvent the adverse effects of winter by using two different strategies: they may move (migrate) to a more amenable climate or microclimate, or they may pass the winter in a state of dormancy (diapause). These two strategies have been regarded as alternatives. However, in reality, there are numerous and diverse migration and diapause phenomena, and they are not always mutually exclusive. Many long-distance travelers migrate in a state of diapause, and many insects that enter diapause may do so after shorter distance movements to specific overwintering sites. Moreover, the onset of migration and the induction of diapauses may be induced by the same environmental factors, most commonly day length or photoperiod. This chapter reviews these strategies, together with their physiological and behavioral characteristics, and the environmental factors that induce or initiate them. It places particular emphasis on the relationship between photoperiodic time measurement and the circadian, or other “circa”, systems.
Photoperiodism in Insects: Perception of Light and the Role of Clock Genes
Authors: Goto Shin G. , Shiga Sakiko , Numata Hideharu
Published: May 2010

This chapter proposes that some circadian clock genes may be responsible for photoperiodism. Many studies have shown the importance of the brain for photoperiodism, and thus these genes must be expressed in brain neurons. In D. melanogaster, different types of cells have been revealed to express circadian clock genes in the brain. Among them, ventral lateral neurons are thought to be one of the most important clock neurons that govern adult locomotor rhythms, but there are also many other PERIOD-expressing neurons in the brain. It is probable that in insects the cells responsible for photoperiodic time measurement are located at different sites from neurons responsible for the circadian clock in the brain.
Photoperiodism in Insects: Molecular Basis and Consequences of Diapause
Authors: Williams Karen D. , Schmidt Paul S. , Sokolowski Marla B.
Published: May 2010

Diapause is a state of dormancy that allows an insect to escape in time. In diapause, the insect postpones development or reproduction in response to specific cues that anticipate the onset of hazardous conditions. For example, changes in day length are often used as cues to anticipate the onset of winter conditions. A glimpse of the molecular mechanisms underlying diapause has begun to emerge in a number of insect species, providing us with tantalizing directions for future research. From a genetic perspective, it appears that genes involved in clock function, insulin signaling, stress resistance, and development have been co-opted into insect diapause pathways. Diapause has consequences for growth, reproduction, survival, and longevity; this, too, provides exciting avenues for future research. Finally, there are similarities between insect diapauses and other dormancies such as dauer formation in nematodes, hibernation in mammals, and mammalian embryonic diapause. This chapter reviews the molecular events dictating the expression of diapause, as well as the events underpinning diapause maintenance.
Photoperiodism in Insects: Effects on Morphology
Authors: Nijhout H. Frederik
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses the role of photoperiodism on phenotype expression in insects. Topics covered include general patterns of expression of seasonal morphs in insects, the interaction of photoperiod and temperature, how photoperiod affects development and morphology, developmental hormones in photoperiodic responses, and the evolution of seasonally plastic traits.
Genetic and Molecular Mechanisms of Avian Photoperiodism
Authors: Yoshimura Takashi , Sharp Peter J.
Published: May 2010

Many birds have highly sophisticated photoperiodic mechanisms and show robust responses to changing photoperiod. William Rowan is generally credited with the first demonstration of the avian photoperiodic response when he photostimulated dark eyed juncos (Junco hyemalis) during the Canadian winter and observed stimulation of testicular growth. The application of molecular biological techniques to understanding the mechanisms controlling the avian photoperiodic response continue Rowan's pioneering tradition of using birds to study vertebrate photoperiodism. This chapter focuses on current understanding of genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying the avian photoperiodic response.
Historical Prelude
Authors: Roger Roger D. , Whittington Miles A.
Published: May 2010

One of the pioneers in the mathematical and conceptual study of oscillations was Norbert Wiener, whose book Cybernetics first appeared in 1948. The authors review the type of data, experimental techniques, and computing tools available to Wiener for the study of brain oscillations, and describes some of the vast expansions in data base, techniques, and ideas about function that have occurred since Wiener's time.
Epilepsy
Authors: Roger Roger D. , Whittington Miles A.
Published: May 2010

Epilepsy can be viewed from inter-related clinical and electrical/cellular points of view. Before and during a so-called electrographic seizure, neuronal events become both highly correlated (synchronized) and also organized in time. The latter organization occurs over a wide range of frequencies. Prior to seizures, very fast oscillations (VFO, >70-80 Hz) occur, that are dependent on gap junctions. Understanding how VFO is generated may provide a therapeutic target.
Parkinson’s Disease
Authors: Roger Roger D. , Whittington Miles A.
Published: May 2010

Parkinson's Disease is associated with loss of brainstem dopaminergic neurons, and loss of dopaminergic innervation of basal ganglia and cortex. The most disabling clinical symptoms are slowness of movement and postural instability. Both in the clinical disorder, and in experimental models, dopaminergic deprivation leads to enhanced beta oscillations (~20 – 30 Hz) in motor and motor-related regions. Interestingly, beta oscillations occuring during cognitive tasks are associated with immobility. Beta oscillations can also be induced in vitro (Chapter 11).
Cerebellar Ataxia
Authors: Roger Roger D. , Whittington Miles A.
Published: May 2010

Disease processes affecting the cerebellum and its connections, such as can occur in multiple sclerosis, often lead to lack of motor coordination, postural tremor, and tremor on directed movement; these symptoms can be difficult to treat. The cerebellum generates oscillations over a range of frequencies (beta, gamma, very fast) and some of these are coherent with oscillations in thalamus and in muscle. Genetically modified ataxic mice can exhibit short runs of very fast oscillations that are gap junction dependent. Oscillations can also be induced in cerebellar cortex slices: gamma and very fast oscillations both require gap junctions, and gamma also depends on synaptic inhibition.
4 Persuasion in the Decision Making of U.S. Supreme Court Justices
Authors: Wrightsman Lawrence S.
Published: May 2010

This chapter proposes that persuasion is more effective in influencing votes in certain types of cases than others. A distinction is made between ideological (i.e., hot-button issue) cases and non-ideological cases. Using data from several recent Supreme Court terms, the chapter shows that latency of the decision, frequency of unanimous votes, and behavior in oral arguments are affected by type of case. In oral arguments, justices' eventual votes can be predicted from the nature and frequency of their questions, to a greater degree in ideological cases than in non-ideological cases. Thus it is concluded that both the legal model and the attitudinal model of judicial decision making are applicable, depending on the type of case.
9 In Praise of Pedantic Eclecticism: Pitfalls and Opportunities in the Psychology of Judging
Authors: Simon Dan
Published: May 2010

The Chapter deals with methodological constraints and possibilities in employing experimental psychology towards an understanding of judging. While acknowledging the concern with the external-validity of the research, the Chapter cautions against adopting measures that would compromise its construct-validity and thus muddy up the conclusions to be drawn from the findings. At the same time, scholars of judging ought to cast a wide net to employ whichever valid research that speaks to the diverse set of mental operations involved in judging. The field should not shy away from utilizing germane basic-psychological findings, as long as they withstand the rigorous demands of external-validity. It is proposed that the body of research on coherence based reasoning is one such example. In sum, the Chapter advocates a pedantic attention to the experimental design of the research coupled with open-mindedness to the range of useful and valid methodologies.
13 Searching for Constraint in Legal Decision Making
Authors: Braman Eileen
Published: May 2010

This essay is about constraint in legal decision making: how we should conceptualize it, how we should study it, and why psychological theory and methods provide such a promising avenue for doing so. I treat constraint as a “democratic good,” necessary to justify the distributional decisions of unelected judges and as an empirical question: Does meaningful constraint exist? If so, where are we likely to find it? What are the potential sources of constraint in legal decision making? Asking these questions should lead to what I hope will be the next generation of empirical research on legal reasoning involving a wealth of theoretically based questions of interest to scholars in numerous disciplines.
17 Cognitive Style and Judging
Authors: Mitchell Gregory , Tetlock Philip E.
Published: May 2010

An important dimension of judicial decisions little studied by social scientists is the scope of a court's opinion. Traditional political science studies of judging emphasize the political valence of judicial opinions but do not address the scope with which commands or proclamations are issued. The valence of an opinion is, however, theoretically orthogonal to the scope of an opinion. Differences in the manner in which opinions are written may reflect deep differences in the ways that individual judges understand the causes of human behavior and their own ability to predict behavior and influence it through court action. These deep differences involve what psychologists broadly refer to as variations in “cognitive style,” a psychological construct that has been operationalized in a variety of ways to refer to individuals’ consistent ways of perceiving stimuli, processing information, and thinking about problems. We discuss the importance of cognitive style for understanding judicial behavior.
18 Building a Better Judiciary
Authors: Farber Daniel A. , Sherry Suzanna
Published: May 2010

We have spent much of our academic careers arguing that judicial decision-making – even in constitutional cases – is a specialized craft, not merely an exercise in politics. We have suggested that good judging requires both expertise and a certain set of dispositional traits, and that it can be enhanced or hindered by both personal traits and situational characteristics. This essay is part of that continuing project. In Part One, we describe what judges do when they decide constitutional questions, concluding that they are primarily exercising the same legal expertise that judges and lawyers utilize in all of their professional decisions. Part Two focuses briefly on the personal and contextual characteristics that have been shown to produce or interfere with expert decision-making in general. Finally, in Part Three we turn to our main focus: the legal structures that might enhance the positive characteristics and minimize the negative ones.
The Moral Justification for Journalism
Authors: Borden Sandra L.
Published: May 2010

The chapter proceeds in four parts. The first section addresses the liberal assumptions of the First Amendment and how these contribute to moral minimalism in journalism. The second section discusses various conceptions of citizenship and relates these to a communitarian framework for understanding civic participation. The third section explains how journalism can contribute to the common good by exercising and promoting epistemic responsibility. The fourth section discusses the implications of this argument for what counts as excellent news, which journalists are responsible for offering to citizens to aid their flourishing.
Why Journalism Is a Profession
Authors: Davis Michael
Published: May 2010

This chapter argues that journalism is a profession, that our doubts about its status as a profession tell us more about a mistake we make when defining the concept of profession than about journalism itself, and that a good definition of profession can give us some reason to hope that journalism will remain a profession even if the world changes in most of the ways we now fear it will. Journalists are something more than mere news reporters, editors, media employees, or the like; and that is why they have a future even if mere reporters, editors, writers and the like do not.
Inventing Objectivity: New Philosophical Foundations
Authors: Ward Stephen J. A.
Published: May 2010

Today, journalists face the prospect of another ethical invention. They need a new model that responds to a revolution in media communication of global proportions. The rise of an interactive online journalism that emphasizes immediacy, interpretation, and transparency challenges an older professional model of journalism that stresses careful editorial controls and verification. This chapter studies the invention of news objectivity, philosophically and historically. After distinguishing three senses of objectivity, it outlines how news objectivity was the result of a four-hundred-year-old interaction between the shifting nature of journalism and the shifting notions of objective knowledge and practice. The chapter then explains the doctrine of news objectivity and notes its decline, then concludes with its own attempt at ethical invention. It outlines an alternate understanding of objectivity, called “pragmatic objectivity,” to replace the traditional notion of news objectivity.
The Ethics of Privacy
Authors: Christians Clifford G.
Published: May 2010

This chapter argues that the sophisticated ethics of privacy is a sine qua non for news media, with the common good being the primary principle. For communications, the best definition of privacy is the protection of one's innermost self by determining who or what enters our personal life space. In the digital era of networking and cyberspace, establishing an ethics of privacy is especially urgent. Because intrusion is a wide-ranging public issue using digital technology, the ethical framework ought to be commensurate in scope. A liberal ethics of human dignity for print or broadcast media, even one that appears able to stand on its own, needs to be expanded into an ethics of the common good. Thus, privacy must be understood primarily in terms of the general morality, not in terms of professional standards. The ethics of privacy is not focused on decisions that journalists make but is centered on the victims' need to control information about themselves. A reasonable public determines whether, when, and how information about them is communicated to others. From the common-good perspective, important social concerns regarding privacy are made transparent and inescapable.
Conflicting Loyalties and Personal Choices
Authors: Banaszynski Jacqui
Published: May 2010

This chapter focuses on the tension between journalists' ethos-driven adherence to personal detachment from story sources and “personal values and instincts.” The goal is to break down this perceived dichotomy: “Walking onto the job doesn't mean walking away from ourselves. Presuming to do so is, at best, dishonest. At worst, dangerous.” Rather, a journalist's humanity is what allows her to get closer to the truth of a situation, thereby serving journalism's highest purpose. The chapter reinforces the book's “this is hard stuff” mantra; ethical journalists cannot just engage in knee-jerk adherence to standard principles, such as detachment, but must carefully think through the values underlying those principles and determine whether they should be followed in specific cases.
Mitigation Watchdogs: The Ethical Foundation for a Journalist’s Role
Authors: Wilkins Lee
Published: May 2010

Katrina was what practiced journalists might call a systems story with a human face. First, Katrina was about the systems put in place to deal with disasters and hazards. The political systems Katrina engaged had their roots in local, state, and national government. But there were culture, economics and science as well, each having an impact on how the story was portrayed and understood. There were journalistic systems too, including definitions of news and understandings of role, mechanisms of news delivery, and craft demands to humanize the event. Ethical decisions played a part in all of it, from the individual words and images journalists selected, to what stories were covered and what staff was assigned. The thesis of this chapter is that the ethical principles that best fund such coverage can be subsumed under the notion of harm prevention, in part by being a “mitigation watchdog.” Ethically informed news coverage can both report on immediate events and work to prevent harm in ways that allow citizens of a democracy to hold themselves and their social and governmental institutions to account.