bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Post-Infection Syndrome
Authors: Thomas Sherine
Published: November 2020

Post-infection syndrome (PIS) or chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is a complex debilitating disorder. It is usually characterized by fatigue that is worsened by physical activity or mental exertion, and is experienced in the aftermath, or with ongoing concurrent infections. Other symptoms may also be present including myalgia, impaired concentration, impaired memory, insomnia, and post-exertion malaise that can last for more than twenty-four hours after exertion. PIS/ CFS is a complex disorder with symptoms related to cognitive, autonomous, and immune dysfunction. No single causal factor has been identified, but there is some evidence that indicates that immunological dysfunction and infections interacting with genetic and psychosocial factors probably contribute to the development of PIS/ CFS. There are no tests to diagnose PIS/ CFS. There are many conditions where the symptoms of PIS/ CFS can appear, and therefore diagnosing PIS/ CFS may rely on ruling out other conditions. There are published guidelines that are available in order to help with diagnosing these conditions. The most frequently used ones are from the CDC (the 1994 Fukuda criteria) and the 1991 Oxford criteria. The CDC case definition for CFS requires individuals to meet three criteria before receiving this diagnosis. These are: 1. Severe chronic fatigue which must have been present for six or more consecutive months, and not as a result of other medical conditions associated with fatigue. 2. Fatigue that interferes significantly with activities of daily life. 3. Four or more of the following symptoms are present: a. Post-exertion malaise that lasts for longer than twenty-four hours. b. Impairment of short-term memory. c. Myalgia. d. Unrefreshed sleep. e. Headache (of new type or severity). f. Arthralgia (without swelling or erythema around the joints). g. A frequent or recurring sore throat. h. Tender lymphadenopathy. However, the Oxford criteria differentiates CFS of unknown aetiology and CFS related to PIS, which is CFS that either follows an infection or is associated with an ongoing current infection. These guidelines suggest that in order to diagnose CFS, individuals must meet the following criteria: 1. The principle symptom experienced by patients should be fatigue that affects physical and mental functioning, and should have been present for at least six months.
Malaria
Authors: Jayakumar Angelina , Eltahir Babiker Zahir Osman
Published: November 2020

Malaria is a tropical parasitic infection of the red blood cells caused by the protozoal species Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi. It is transmitted through the bite of the female Anopheles mosquito. The average incubation period is twelve to fourteen days. Congenital and blood-borne transmissions can also occur. P. falciparum and P. vivax account for most human infections but almost all deaths are caused by P. falciparum, with children under five years of age bearing the brunt of morbidity and mortality in endemic countries. P. falciparum is dominant in sub-Saharan Africa whereas P. vivax predominates in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific. P. ovalae and P. malaria are less common and are mainly found in sub-Saharan Africa. P. knowlesi primarily causes malaria in macaques and is geographically restricted to southeast Asia. While taking a blood meal, the female anopheline mosquito injects motile sporozoites into the bloodstream. Within half an hour, the sporozoites invade the hepatocytes and start dividing to form tissue schizonts. In P. vivax and P. ovale, some of the sporozoites that reach the liver develop into hypnozoites and stay dormant within the hepatocytes for months to years after the original infection. The schizonts eventually rupture releasing daughter merozoites into the bloodstream. The merozoites develop within the red blood cells into ring forms, trophozoites, and eventually mature schizont. This part of the life cycle takes twenty-four hours for P. knowlesi; forty-eight hours for P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale; and seventy-two hours for P. malariae. In P. vivax and P. ovale, some of the sporozoites that reach the liver develop into hypnozoites and stay dormant within the hepatocytes for months to years after the original infection. The hallmark of malaria pathogenesis is parasite sequestration in major organs leading to cytoadherence, endothelial injury, coagulopathy, vascular leakage, pro-inflammatory cytokine production, and tissue inflammation. Malaria is the most frequently imported tropical disease in the UK with an annual case load of around 2000. P. falciparum is the predominant imported species, and failure to take chemoprophylaxis is the commonest risk factor.
Artist Spaces in Berlin: Defining and Redefining a City through Contemporary Archaeology
Authors: White Carolyn L. , Steven Steven
Published: November 2020

The contemporary city of Berlin is known for its art and for its community of practising artists, along with its ‘weirdness, perpetual incompleteness, and outlandishness . . . and the liveliness inherent in these qualities’ (Schneider 2014: 7). One of Berlin’s primary energy currents comes from the role of artists and the creative verve that abounds in the city. Artists use and reuse the physical environment of the post-Berlin Wall city and the surrounding environs (the Wall was officially taken down in 1989, although parts of it still remain) in temporary and permanent project spaces. The buildings and project spaces artists occupy are entwined with the history of the city— a history manifest in the city’s form, aesthetics, and economics. A similar dialectic exists inside artist spaces; artists actively define and redefine studio spaces through their practices as their manners and methods are simultaneously defined, confined, and reflective of the restrictions and allowances that interiors provide. This chapter is a contemporary archaeological analysis of the physical elements of four artists’ studios and buildings, the placement of artist communities within the city, and an exploration of the meanings of space and community in broader context. We highlight the reuse of historically significant buildings and the materiality and physicality of artists’ spaces within a broader context of the political economy of creativity. The use of Berlin for creative practice reflects many of the problems associated with the ‘Creative City’ and so-called creative economy. The art practices inside studios are reflective of the political economy of the world of art. The placement, availability, and tenuousness of the buildings themselves attest to problems associated with the adoption of creative capital by neoliberal capitalist agendas. The archaeological project can be used to document the micro and the macro—the interior and the exterior—of the economically circumscribed worlds of the artist, documenting an important moment in the development of a global cultural hotspot. The chapter considers project spaces as both physical places and conceptual spaces among Berlin artists focusing on the geographic, ephemeral, and enduring spaces of artist studios. What do project spaces in Berlin look like? How do individual artists create their spaces? How does the physical space reflect artistic practices?
Cultural Heritage and Political Ecology: A Modest Proposal from Istanbul via Detroit
Authors: Russell Ian Alden
Published: November 2020

I am a white, middle-class, man born in Richmond, Virginia, educated in Dublin, Ireland, and who has worked in Istanbul. In Turkey, I was a yabancı—a foreigner. It was with an outsider’s perspective that I worked to develop the curatorial sensibilities and sensitivities around the project presented here. I do not speak for those in Turkey, nor do I speak for those living in Detroit. I only hoped to speak with those in Turkey and offer an honest reflection on my experiences in Detroit. In as far as I am able, I hope to lend my voice and my care to sharing experiences and issues which I can only make limited claims to understand but which I feel are profoundly urgent. A ritual that happens every day at countless café tables throughout Istanbul. This is the moment of anticipation—the moment before the amateur tasseographer turns over the cup and reads your fortune in the coffee grounds. In my walks around the streets of Istanbul, I’ve paused to witness friends peer into each other’s futures, and I’ve wondered if one question many are asking is: ‘İstanbul’un kısmetinde ne var? What’s in Istanbul’s fortune?’ There is a vital connection (and tension) between the past and the future. They are both entangled in our encounters with material things. What is this thing’s story, how did it get here, and what should we do with it? How do we negotiate these tensions—to save or discard, to record or omit, or simply to consume? More broadly, how do we establish consensus on how we should handle, order, and pass on our material world? These are moral and political questions. They are questions about heritage and inheritance. What do we determine to be heritage, who are determined to be the stewards, and who are the inheritors? During the summer of 2013, different visions for the futures of Istanbul came into conflict. The events that began on 28 May 2013 in Gezi Park started with the defence of trees that were being removed in a planned demolition of the park for the development of a pseudo-historical Ottoman-era barracks and a shopping centre.
Creative Destruction and Neoliberal Landscapes: Post-industrial Archaeologies Beyond Ruins
Authors: Sefryn Penrose
Published: November 2020

‘[T]he problem that is usually being visualized is how capitalism administers existing structures, whereas the relevant problem is how it creates and destroys them’, wrote the Austrian economist, Josef Schumpeter in Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, in 1942 (84). He was describing his discipline’s response to creative destruction; the process of continuous reinvention within capitalist markets. Like Schumpeter’s visualizing economists, are archaeologists in danger of bolstering a static view? Of pushing a preservation-of-decay agenda, appealing to a mass diagnosis of the rot of modernity? Ruin studies within contemporary and historical archaeology frequently present an overtly anti-capitalist critique, within an aesthetic conception of things and place, sometimes accompanied by an anti-heritage stance (cf. González-Ruibal, Chapter 7). In recent years archaeologists have recognized and at times moved away from, the problem of aestheticization, but continue to parade an underdog status for the stationary object that reverts to an uneasy stasis—an object from the ground—without an acknowledgement of the movement and change that both contemporary and historical archaeology have worked so hard to develop (e.g. Aldred 2014; Beaudry and Parno 2013; Holtorf and Piccini 2009). This can lead to a tendency to critique without fully situating ruin—site, place—in process, despite benchmark studies (e.g. Gosden 2004). Pictures capture a moment. A ruin illustrates an end. Memory mourns the past. What remains, decays. In this chapter I address some of the landscapes considered epitomic of neoliberalism: the ‘winners’ in the landscape of capitalism, and consider whether current archaeological approaches to the contemporary have inadvertently, or indeed overtly, disqualified them from analysis. I present case studies that illustrate the ‘creative’ side of ‘creative destruction’—the larges-cale landscape transformation of deindustrialized areas. These sites were transformed through governmental interventions in policy—privatization, public–private investment frameworks, changes to the planning system— with the intention of transforming declined industrial areas into economic success stories in line with the push towards a service economy, away from industry. There is of course another side to this story: as Arthur Marwick observed the reinvigoration of declined industrial areas is often characterized by ‘a growing mismatch between the characteristics of those seeking work and the kind of jobs which [a]re available’ (Marwick 2003: 153).
How Can You Prepare?
Authors: Metcalfe David , Dev Harveer
Published: November 2020

The Improving Selection to the Foundation Programme (ISFP) project does not believe that it is possible to be ‘coached’ through the SJT. This is generally true. Knowing the ‘right thing to do’ in any given situation is a matter of internalized values and intuition. However, no one seriously accepts that candidates are born with a fixed level of situational judgement. This is clearly something that develops over time and therefore can change. In addition, the SJT does not set out to test your values but whether you understand the values and attitudes expected of an FY1 doctor. This is why you are instructed to answer questions as you ‘should’, not as you ‘would’. The principles on which foundation doctors should base their behaviour are learnt and internalized throughout medical school. However, knowledge of these principles can clearly be learnt in the same way as any other part of the medical school curriculum. Most final- year medical students are satisfied with the FY1 posts to which they are allocated. For 2017 entry, 74% were appointed to their firstchoice foundation school, and 94% to one of their top five preferences. Those who were not initially pleased often look back in retrospect and are satisfied with their allocations. Your score on the SJT is unlikely to make or break your career. However, the same can be said of medical school finals. You will almost certainly pass finals— upwards of 95% of final- year students do so— and your ultimate career destination is unlikely to hinge on your cumulative examination score. But this is not a reason to go into finals unprepared. The truth is that every point on the SJT, as in finals, could mean the difference between your chosen outcome and something different. A point lost on the SJT could result in your leaving your first- choice foundation school and moving across the country for work, or not having a high enough score to capture your chosen specialty as a Foundation Programme rotation. Increasing competition for FY1 posts means that not everyone can be appointed.
Gastroenterology
Authors: Sinharay Ricky
Published: November 2020

Gastroenterology and hepatology encompass a vast array of organs that have diverse structure and function and are affected by a multitude of disease processes. Diseases of the digestive tract are a major cause of morbidity and mortality in the United Kingdom (UK) and worldwide. There have been great advances in our understanding, diagnosis, and management of gastrointestinal (GI) disease, and knowledge continues to develop at a great pace. Understanding the physiology and cellular and molecular events that drive pathological processes, as well as the devel­opment of sophisticated endoscopic and radiological tests, have trans­formed diagnostic capability. Therapeutic endoscopy has progressed to replace surgical management of common GI emergencies such as upper GI tract bleeding and decompressing biliary tract obstruction. However, as ever, there is still much work to be done. For example, the advances in biologic immunotherapy in inflammatory bowel disease has greatly im­proved patients’ quality of life and a reduction in the need for surgery, though the overall impact of these medications on the natural history of the disease is debatable at present. Hepatology is a greatly misunderstood specialty. The physiological changes that occur as cirrhosis and portal hypertension develop are the key to understanding all manifestations of a decompensating liver. Recently, there has been a significant increase in the prevalence of chronic liver disease in the UK, and as a result, hospital admissions have increased. Liver disease is the only major cause of death still increasing year on year, and twice as many people now die from liver disease than in 1991. The 2013 National Confidential Enquiry into Patient Outcome and Death (NCEPOD) of patients with alcohol- related liver disease (ARLD) found that less than half the number of patients who died from ARLD received ‘good care’, and avoidable deaths were identified. Allied to this, the enquiry shed light on a cultural pessimism regarding outcomes and prognosis of chronic liver disease and, in particular, ARLD from both the public and the medical profession as a whole. There is now a concerted drive towards improving awareness of chronic liver disease, and initial simple supportive treatments can greatly improve sur­vival, more so than previously thought.
The Kitchen Sink
Authors: Smith Gary
Published: November 2020

Back in the 1980s, I talked to an economics professor who made forecasts for a large bank based on simple correlations like the one in Figure 1. If he wanted to forecast consumer spending, he made a scatter plot of income and spending and used a transparent ruler to draw a line that seemed to fit the data. If the scatter looked like Figure 1, then when income went up, he predicted that spending would go up. The problem with his simple scatter plots is that the world is not simple. Income affects spending, but so does wealth. What if this professor happened to draw his scatter plot using data from a historical period in which income rose (increasing spending) but the stock market crashed (reducing spending) and the wealth effect was more powerful than the income effect, so that spending declined, as in Figure 2? The professor’s scatter plot of spending and income will indicate that an increase in income reduces spending. Then, when he tries to forecast spending for a period when income and wealth both increase, his prediction of a decline in spending will be disastrously wrong. Multiple regression to the rescue. Multiple regression models have multiple explanatory variables. For example, a model of consumer spending might be: C = a + bY + cW where C is consumer spending, Y is household income, and W is wealth. The order in which the explanatory variables are listed does not matter. What does matter is which variables are included in the model and which are left out. A large part of the art of regression analysis is choosing explanatory variables that are important and ignoring those that are unimportant. The coefficient b measures the effect on spending of an increase in income, holding wealth constant, and c measures the effect on spending of an increase in wealth, holding income constant. The math for estimating these coefficients is complicated but the principle is simple: choose the estimates that give the best predictions of consumer spending for the data used to estimate the model. In Chapter 4, we saw that spurious correlations can appear when we compare variables like spending, income, and wealth that all tend to increase over time.
Oxford Assess and Progress: Clinical Dentistry
Authors: Longridge Nicholas , Clarke Pete , Aftab Raheel , Ali Tariq
Published: November 2020

Oxford Assess and Progress: Clinical Dentistry features over 270 Single Best Answer questions. Written and peer-reviewed by clinicians working within each specialty and mapped to dental school curricula, this is an authoritative guide for dental students providing a wealth of revision. Organised by specialties, chapter introductions unlock difficult subjects with hints and tips. Each question is accompanied by detailed answers explaining the rationale behind right and wrong answers. Cross-references to the Oxford Handbook of Clinical Dentistry and further reading resources, expand your revision further. A four star rating system indicating question difficulty to monitor your progress as you learn. Key words also help highlight specific clues or words that can assist with recall. Oxford Assess and Progress: Clinical Dentistry is your prescription for exam succcess.
A Roman Vessel for Cosmetics: Form, Decoration, and Subjectivity in the Muse Casket
Authors: Elsner Jaś
Published: November 2020

In 1793, laborers digging a well at the foot of the Esquiline hill in Rome came upon the ruins of an ancient house and buried therein what proved to be the largest and most spectacular silver treasure from antiquity discovered up to that time. The known surviving items of the so-called Esquiline Treasure—probably made in the second half of the fourth century CE and concealed by its last owners sometime in late antiquity to protect it from marauders or invading barbarians, but surely intended to have been recovered and reused by them—include some very famous pieces: the Projecta Casket, the Tyche statuettes of Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, a number of dishes, spoons, and ewers (Figure 2.1). Among these is the Muse Casket, a circular vessel, just under 33 cm in diameter and a little less than 27 cm high when covered with its lid. It is made of sheet silver, shaped and decorated with repoussé and engraving. Its lid is a silver dome recessed from the edge of a flat rim and attached to the base by a soldered hinge, with a narrow tab opposite the hinge for raising and lowering the cover (Figure 2.2). Inside it has five smaller vessels for toiletries and cosmetics, so that the casket as a whole was made to be used as a container for unguents. The art of the toiletry box—as a vessel that contains other vessels—casts light onto a problem that is faced across cultures, namely, improving or elevating a person’s physical or spiritual state by operating a complex device—a container of containers—and using the contents stored therein. Different cultures may seek different symbolisms to structure the generation of meaning, based on their own specific traditions and ideologies. In the case of the Muse Casket, the artifactual logic—structured through the material invitation to open, close, and use a box, and to open, close, and use the containers within it—operates alongside an iconographic rhetoric of surface decoration that alludes to the divine, that is in this case, to the Muses and the Dionysiac sphere.
Morphometric variation between populations of recent wild boar in Israel
Authors: Davidowitz Goggy , Horwitz Kolska Liora
Published: November 2020

Today the wild boar (subspecies Sub scrofa lybica Gray, 1868) is the largest wild mammal found in Israel (Mendelssohn & Yom Tov 1999a). Sus scrofa has formed an integral part of the fauna of Israel since c.0.78 Mya, with the earliest skeletal remains derived from the Lower Palaeolithic site of Gesher Benot Ya’akov, Israel (Hooijer 1959; Geraads & Tchernov 1983). Remains of wild boar are commonly found in archaeological assemblages in this region (e.g. Davis 1982; Tchernov 1988), and according to 19th-century travellers, wild boar were abundant throughout Palestine, including the thickets of the Jordan river and the Dead Sea, and even extended into the arid regions of the northern Negev and Judean desert (Tristram 1866; Hart 1891; Bodenheimer 1958; Qumsiyeh 1996). However, during the period of the Mandate of Palestine (1923–48) the population size of wild boar was severely reduced by hunting, and as a consequence, their distribution was reduced to the Jordan valley, from the Hula Lake in the north to Sdom at the southern tip of the Dead Sea (Bodenheimer 1958; Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov 1999 a, 1999b). Since the creation of the State of Israel in 1948 they have been protected by legislation, which, coupled with the reduced numbers of predators, has resulted in a marked increase in their numbers. Nowadays, wild boar occupy most of their former habitats including the coastal region. The species has also been observed as far south as Nahal Besor in the northern Negev, but it has been proposed that these animals may represent hybrids of domestic pigs and wild boar (Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov 1999b). Four main concentrations of wild boar can be identified in Israel today: the Upper Galilee (especially in the national park of Mount Meiron), the Hula Nature Reserve, the Golan Heights, and Sdom. As shown in Table 12.1, these areas differ markedly in vegetation, altitude, and climate. A study of dental pathology in skeletal collections derived from these groups showed significant differences between the four areas (Horwitz & Davidowitz 1992). Specifically, the Sdom group was characterized by an unusually high frequency of hypodontia of the lower third incisor, indicative of inbreeding.
Economic and ecological reconstruction at the Classical site of Sagalassos, Turkey, using pig teeth
Authors: Vanpoucke Sofie , Cupere Bea De
Published: November 2020

Teeth are without doubt some of the most useful structures for zoological and archaeozoological research. Their complex crown morphology renders them extremely important in taxonomic determination, since subtle differences in shape and form can exist to species level. Of the various calcified tissues present in the mammalian body, tooth enamel is also the hardest and most stable. This is extremely important for the study of fossil remains, since teeth are very resilient to many taphonomic variables. Teeth can provide many clues about an animal’s past life. They are extremely conservative in their development and growth, which progresses in a relatively well-understood chronological sequence. As a result, crown development, and tooth eruption can provide some of the most useful archaeozoological evidence for the age at death of an individual. The mouth is also the place where the initial physical and chemical breakdown of food occurs; the teeth are the means of shearing, chopping, and mastication, and as such will be affected to varying degrees by any major changes in the physical and chemical make up of ingested food. Thus, normal progressive wear on the teeth at a macroscopic level also provides a useful and widely used methodology with which to estimate the relative age at death. Tooth development is also adversely affected by a wide range of physiological factors, which can leave a number of tell-tale ‘footprints’ in the dental tissues themselves. As a result, a permanent (and chronological) record of physiological stress can be routinely reconstructed from the study of ancient teeth. All of these approaches can be used to shed further light on aspects of animal husbandry regimes in the past. This chapter deals with the pig remains excavated at Sagalassos, a Roman to Early Byzantine town in south-western Turkey. The ruins can be found approximately 7 km north of the village of Ağlasun in the province of Burdur, and 110 km to the north of Antalya. The site lies on the southern slope of the western Taurus at an altitude of between 1450 and 1600 m a.s.l., and extends over 4km2 (Waelkens 1993).
Ancient Dwellers of the Thames Valley
Authors: O'Connor Anne
Published: November 2020

Stone-Age classifications of the nineteenth century are usually dismissed in a few sentences that refer briefly to Lubbock’s ‘Palaeolithic’ and ‘Neolithic’ divisions; the faunal chronology developed by the French palaeontologist, Édouard Lartet (1801–1871); and the famous industrial classification promoted by the French prehistorian, Gabriel de Mortillet. The reactions of other researchers to the stone tools of the British river drifts have been hidden under their shadow. But if the varied and detailed patterns that these researchers saw in the river-drift tools are painted back into the historical picture, a clearer perspective is gained of their response to Continental research and the reasoning behind more comprehensive classifications of the British Palaeolithic. Some of those who worked on the stone tools of Britain have already been introduced: Lubbock, Dawkins, Lyell, and James Geikie played geological roles in Chapter 2; Evans defended human antiquity in Chapter 1. All five published synthetic works on the British Palaeolithic. Lyell was one of the first to draw the new mass of information together in his book on the Antiquity of Man (1863), which sold well but did not impress all his peers. Lyell received several charges of plagiarism and Greenwell, the Durham archaeologist, confided to his friend: ‘We want Master Evans, a good book on the Antiquity of Man, there is quite sufficient matter now accumulated to admit of one. Lyell’s book is not satisfactory, there is too much of dubious evidence bought in, & with all humility I say, he is not master of the subject’. Other authors followed close on Lyell’s tail. In 1865, the first edition of Lubbock’s Pre-Historic Times, an account of past and present savages, could be purchased for fifteen shillings. Evans produced Ancient Stone Implements in 1872, a cautious, catalogue-like description of stone tools, full of careful engravings and priced at twenty-eight shillings. Dawkins presented his ideas about the Stone Age alongside now-familiar palaeontological arguments in Cave Hunting (1874) and Early Man in Britain (1880). Geikie’s glacial chronology had a central place in Prehistoric Europe (1881), the book that widened his rift with Dawkins.
The Archaeology of the French Revolution
Authors: Diaz-Andreu Margarita
Published: November 2020

The nineteenth century saw the emergence of both nationalism and archaeology as a professional discipline. The aim of this chapter is to show how this apparent coincidence was not accidental. This discussion will take us into uncharted territory. Despite the growing literature on archaeology and nationalism (Atkinson et al. 1996; Díaz-Andreu & Champion 1996a; Kohl & Fawcett 1995; Meskell 1998), the relationship between the two during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries has yet to be explored. The analysis of how the past was appropriated during this era of the revolutions, which marked the dawn of nationalism, is not helped by the specialized literature available on nationalism, as little attention has been paid to these early years. Most authors dealing with nationalism focus their research on the mid to late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, when the ideas that emerged during the era of the revolutions bore fruit and the balance between civic and ethnic nationalism (i.e. between a nationalism based on individual rights and the sovereignty of the people within the nation and another built on the common history and culture of the members of the nation) definitively shifted towards the latter. The reluctance to scrutinize the first years of nationalism by experts in the field may be a result of unease in dealing with a phenomenon which some simply label as patriotism. The term nationalism was not often used at the time. The political scientist Tom Nairn (1975: 6) traced it back to the late 1790s in France (it was employed by Abbé Baruel in 1798). However, its use seems to have been far from common, to the extent that other scholars believed it appeared in 1812. In other European countries, such as England, ‘nationalism’ was first employed in 1836 (Huizinga 1972: 14). Despite this disregard for the term itself until several decades later, specialists in the Weld of nationalism consider the most common date of origin as the end of the eighteenth century with the French Revolution as the key event in its definition.
The Disinterested Gentlemen: England to 1860
Authors: Rowley-Conwy Peter
Published: November 2020

In 1852 Thomas Wright reviewed Europe’s ancient past of Europe in his book The Celt, the Roman, and the Saxon (Wright 1852). Wright was an archaeologist who worked in a variety of Welds. During his active life he did a great deal of work on medieval manuscripts, history, antiquities, folklore, arts, and sciences; he wrote full-length histories of Scotland, Ireland, and France; he excavated at the Roman town of Viriconium; and finally, he took an interest in the pre- Roman past. Wright typified a generation of mid-nineteenth century archaeological scholars whose interest in pre-Roman matters amounted to no more than a minor sideline. There were arguably two main reasons why most of the London archaeologists paid little or no attention to the pre-Roman past. The first was that, as Englishmen themselves, they had no nationalist axe to grind by stressing the earliest archaeology of England. The ancient Celtic past had been firmly claimed by the Welsh, the Irish, and the Scots ever since the ‘Celtic Revival’ of the mid eighteenth century (Morse 2005: 41–7), while the English were post-Roman immigrants. The pre-Roman or Celtic past was therefore the past of other people—the ancestors of the Welsh or Irish, nationalities not generally held in high esteem by anyone but themselves. To emphasize the Celtic past was thus to exalt the inferior—and perhaps also, by emphasizing the relatively recent arrival of the English, to play into the hands of the nascent Celtic nationalisms. Such views were by no means articulated in the publications of Wright and his generation, and we can at this remove only guess how consciously motivating such concerns really were; but it remains true that the pre-Roman past got little attention. In Wright’s The Celt, the Roman, and the Saxon, the pre-Roman Celts were dealt with in just forty-four pages, or 9 per cent of the total book, the post-Roman Celts in a mere five pages, or 1 per cent. The second reason for the Londoners’ lack of concern with the pre-Roman past emerges from the very first sentences in Wright’s book: According to the system now generally adopted by ethnologists, Europe was peopled by several successive migrations . . . , all flowing from one point in the east.
A New Gallo-Belgic B Coin Die from Hampshire
Authors: Williams Jonathan , Burnett Andrew
Published: November 2020

The die is 18mm in diameter at the business end, and 23mm in length (figure 19.1). It weighs 46.80 grams. On the die-face there is an incuse design of a stylized horse and rider familiar from the coins of the type known as Gallo-Belgic B (figure 19.2). About halfway down the side, it begins to taper towards the other end which is roughly oval in shape, with a longer diameter of 15mm and a shorter one of 13mm. At the base there is a vestigial spike which projects out slightly (figure 19.3). It looks as if it should be an obverse die which would have been set into an anvil or another kind of metal case for striking. However, such evidence as exists for Iron Age dies from northern Europe suggests that, as indeed was the case in the Greek and Roman worlds, reverse dies could either be in the form of a tapered barrel-shaped object set into a metal casing probably made of iron, or in the form of a long metal shaft with the design carved onto the end. The probability, however, is that this example is in fact an obverse die, for reasons outlined below. The die was analysed by Michael Cowell using non-destructive x-ray fluorescence (XRF) on areas where the immediate surface seems to have been removed, and the bulk material exposed. The results should be regarded as semi-quantitative or approximate, as the technique provides only a surface analysis. The following average results were obtained: The die is thus made of a high-tin bronze with small quantities of other metals. Such alloys are extremely hard and difficult to work, for instance by punching or engraving. The die was examined using optical and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Most of the surface has a dark grey or black-coloured patina, except in a few places around the edge of the die-face and along the side where the surface has been chipped or broken to reveal a light grey crystalline material beneath. The section of the surface patina is exposed here and can be seen to be more than superficial. There are no indications of copper corrosion products (i.e. red cuprite or green malachite).
Anatomy for Dental Students
Authors: Atkinson Martin E.
Published: November 2020

Anatomy for Dental Students, Fourth Edition, demonstrates and explains all the anatomy needed for a modern dentistry undergraduate course. This text covers developmental anatomy, the thorax, the central nervous system, and the head and neck with an emphasis on the practical application of anatomical knowledge. This new edition has been extensively revised and updated in line with contemporary teaching and dental practice. Over 300 new full color diagrams map all the anatomical regions that dental students need to know, while the lively and accesible text guides the reader's learning. Throughout Clinical Application Boxes demonstrate how the form and function of anatomy have consequences for clinical practice. Sidelines boxes contain additional descriptions for key anatomical structures. This text is supported by an Online Resource Centre with multiple choice questions, drag and drop figure exercises, and links to key resources to help readers to consolidate and extend their knowledge of anatomy. Anatomy for Dental Students brings together anatomical structure, function, and their relationship to clinical practice, making it ideal for dental students.
The study of anatomy
Authors: Atkinson Martin E.
Published: November 2020

Human anatomy concerns the structure of the human body. Anatomy is often interpreted as the study of only those structures that can be seen with the naked eye (gross anatomy). Anatomy also covers the study of structure at the cellular (histology) and subcellular level (ultrastructure). The formation (embryology) and growth of anatomical structures (developmental anatomy) influence their organization, appearance, and their relationship to other structures and often explain gross anatomical arrangement. Historically, physiology (the study of the function of the body) was regarded as a separate subject from anatomy but the relationships between structure and function (functional anatomy) is critical to understanding how the body works at all levels. Most modern dental curricula now have some degree of integration between anatomy and physiology to emphasize their interrelationship in the study of the human body. It is impossible to recognize changes in structure brought about by disease and their clinical manifestations and effects on function without an understanding of healthy structure and function. It is impossible to use any surgical procedures effectively and safely without a good working knowledge of the anatomy of the relevant part of the body. In clinical work, internal structures often need to be located accurately even when they cannot be visualized directly. A good example of this is the need to be able to locate the nerves supplying the teeth in order to deliver local anaesthetic accurately prior to carrying out a restoration or extraction. Fortunately, most structures have a fairly constant relationship to surface features (surface anatomy) to allow their position to be determined with considerable accuracy. Information about deep structures can also be obtained by the use of imaging techniques such as X-rays or scanning technology. Interpretation of radiographs and scans requires knowledge of the radiographic appearance of normal body structures (radiological anatomy). Surface and radiological anatomy are obviously of great practical importance and are covered in the relevant sections of the book. The principal aim of this book is to provide you with sufficient practical information about the anatomy of the human body to form a basis on which to build your clinical skills and practice.
The central nervous system
Authors: Atkinson Martin E.
Published: November 2020

The nervous system is an integrating system which acts rapidly by transmitting signals as electrical impulses over often considerable distances to coordinate bodily activities. The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system (CNS); incoming information travels in ascending (sensory) tracts that link the spinal cord to the brain and outgoing information passes down descending (motor) tracts linking the brain to the spinal cord. The CNS integrates responses to incoming information and sends the information to effector tissues (usually striated or smooth muscles or glands). Incoming and outgoing information is carried to and from the periphery to the CNS via 12 pairs of cranial nerves connected to the brain and 31 pairs of spinal nerves connected to the spinal cord; they constitute the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Sensory (afferent) information from the external environment is obtained through the organs of special sense in the eyes, ears, nose and tongue, and skin and mucosa lining bodily cavities: we are aware of these stimuli. Information from internal sources is equally important and vital for maintaining homeostasis, but we are usually Neurons are the basic cellular units of the nervous system. As the principal function of the nervous system is conduction of electrical signals over considerable distances, neurons are highly specialized for this f unction. Neurons have: • A specific shape with long cellular extensions; • Highly specialized membranes to control ionic movements to allow electrical activity to spread along the cellular extensions; • A very specialized internal transport system to distribute cellular metabolites along the processes. The general shape of neurons is shown in Figure 3.1. Note first of all, the relatively large cell body near the top of the picture; this contains the nucleus and the intracellular organelles necessary for synthetic functions so is similar to any other cell. What make neurons special are the long processes that emanate from the cell body. Dendrites are short multiple processes that branch extensively from and transmit impulses towards the cell body. Compare the dendrites in Figure 3.1 with the other process, the axon, which transmits impulses away from the cell body.
The lower respiratory tract and its role in ventilation
Authors: Atkinson Martin E.
Published: November 2020

The two lungs occupy the right and left pleural cavities in the thoracic cavity. They are separated by the central mediastinum containing the heart and the great vessels, the trachea, and other structures passing through the thorax to the abdomen. The left and right pleural cavities are entirely separate from each other. Figure 11.1 shows how they are formed as the developing lung buds invade part of the coelomic cavity by pushing a layer of the wall before it. This is analogous to pushing your finger into a partially inflated balloon. Your finger is the equivalent of the lung bud, the wall of the balloon it is pushing into is the inner layer of pleura, and the far wall of balloon is the outer layer of pleura. The pleura are thus divided into outer and inner layers. As outlined in Figure 11.1D, the outer parietal layer lines the inner surface of the thoracic wall, the thoracic surface of the diaphragm, and the medial wall of the mediastinum. The inner visceral layer closely covers all surfaces of the lungs. The pleural cuff is formed where the two layers become continuous at the junctional region, surrounding the root (hilus) of the lung. A fold in the pleural cuff called the pulmonary ligament allows some space for movement of the lungs relative to the mediastinum during ventilation. The pleural cavity separates the two layers of pleura, but is normally a potential space over most of the lung surface. The visceral and parietal pleurae are in virtual contact, separated by only a thin layer of pleural fluid. Pleural fluid has two important functions. • It lubricates movement of the lungs and their attached visceral pleurae against the parietal pleurae. • It also adheres the two pleural layers to each other, thus maintaining the inflation of the lungs. The parietal pleura is often described as having costal, diaphragmatic, and mediastinal surfaces; this is useful when considering their nerve supply. The costal pleura is supplied segmentally by intercostal nerves, the mediastinal pleura by the phrenic nerves, and the diaphragmatic pleura centrally by the phrenic and peripherally by the lower five intercostal nerves.
The nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses
Authors: Atkinson Martin E.
Published: November 2020

The nasal cavity is the entrance to the respiratory tract. Its functions are to clean, warm, and humidify air as it is inhaled. Respiratory mucosa covered by pseudostratified ciliated epithelium and goblet cells, as described in Chapter 5 and illustrated in Figure 5.2B, lines the majority of the nasal cavity. The cilia and mucus trap particles, thus cleaning the air; the mucus also humidifies the air and warming is achieved through heat exchange from blood in the very vascular mucosa. The efficiency of all these processes is increased by expanding the surface of the nasal cavity by folds of bone. The nasal cavity also houses the olfactory mucosa for the special sense of olfaction although the olfactory mucosa occupies a very small proportion of the surface of the nasal cavity. The nasal cavity extends from the nostrils on the lower aspect of the external nose to the two posterior nasal apertures between the medial pterygoid plates where it is in continuation with the nasopharynx. Bear in mind that in dried or model skulls, the nasal cavity is smaller from front to back and the anterior nasal apertures seem extremely large because the cartilaginous skeleton of the external nose is lost during preparation of dried skulls. As you can see in Figure 27.1 , the nasal cavity extends vertically from the cribriform plate of the ethmoid at about the level of the orbital roof above to the palate, separating it from the oral cavity below. Figure 27.1 also shows that the nasal cavity is relatively narrow from side to side, especially in its upper part between the two orbits and widens where it sits between the right and left sides of the upper jaw below the orbits. The nasal cavity is completely divided into right and left compartments by the nasal septum . From the anterior view seen in Figure 27.1 , you can see that the surface area of lateral walls of the nasal cavity are extended by the three folds of bone, the nasal conchae. The skeleton of the external nose shown in Figure 27.2 comprises the nasal bones, the upper and lower nasal cartilages, the septal cartilage, and the cartilaginous part of the nasal septum.
Development and growth of the skull and age changes
Authors: Atkinson Martin E.
Published: November 2020

The development of the facial bones is particularly important in the fields of paediatric dentistry and orthodontics. Dental students and dental practitioners who do not specialize in those subjects should have an appreciation of the subject to be aware of the changes to the face and jaws they are seeing in patients under continuous care as they grow, mature, and age. Human beings increase in both size and complexity during the growth period which lasts from conception until maturity at about 16 to 18 years of age. As we have seen in Chapters 8, 1, 19, 21, and 32, most of the increase in complexity occurs during the pre-embryonic and embryonic phases of prenatal development although changes still occur in many organs and tissues well into post-natal life. Size increase is also rapid prenatally and continues throughout the remainder of the growth period although the growth rate changes. Changes in overall size may occur in mature individuals due to obesity or other pathological conditions but this is not growth. Growth in overall size can be studied by examining the changes with age in easily measured parameters such as height and weight. There are two ways in which such data can be presented as shown in Figure 33.1. A distance curve is the simplest method illustrated in Figure 33.1A by plotting height against age on a graph. Changes in the rate of growth are demonstrated more clearly by plotting the increment in the measurement per unit of time such as the increase in height per year against age; this is a velocity curve shown in Figure 33.1B. You can see in Figure 33.1A that height increases more rapidly around the age of 14; the velocity curve in Figure 33.1B makes the rapid growth at this age much clearer. If distance curves are plotted for different body components, the curves show specific characteristics. The overall growth of the body is accurately indicated by measures of height and weight; these measurements plotted against age produce the somatic growth curve shown in Figure 33.2. Growth is rapid in the prenatal and early post-natal period then begins to slow down after about 4 years of age.