bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Spanish Revolution
Authors: Durgan Andrew
Published: September 2017

The Spanish Revolution marked the end of the revolutionary cycle that had begun in 1917. In many ways the level of popular control, initiative, and social experimentation went further than in Russia 19 years previously. However, the nature of this revolution, whether it was an integral part of or even an obstacle to the military struggle against fascism, deeply divided the Spanish left.
Spartacus, Historical and Modern Era
Authors: Bokina John
Published: September 2017

Spartacus (d. 71
bce
) was a Thracian gladiator who commanded the slave forces in the 73–71
bce
Servile War against Rome and has since been made a symbol for several progressive political movements. After at least nine victories over ever more formidable Roman armies, he was finally defeated by legions under the command of Marcus Licinius Crassus and died on the battlefield. The Servile War was the third and last slave revolt against Rome. Indeed, it was the last major slave revolt until the late eighteenth century, when Toussaint L'Ouverture, the
nouveau
Spartacus, led the successful rebellion that freed the slaves of Saint Domingue (Haiti).
Spooner, Lysander (1808–1887)
Authors: Shantz Jeff
Published: September 2017

Lysander Spooner was an American individualist anarchist, abolitionist, libertarian, and political philosopher. He was born to a successful farm family in Athol, Massachusetts, and became a sharp critic of the US Constitution and contractual notions of government after quitting his career as a lawyer.
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady (1815–1902)
Authors: Block Marcelline
Published: September 2017

Elizabeth Cady Stanton was active in a number of reforms but is best known as one of the organizers of the American women's rights movement. She and Lucretia Coffin Mott coordinated the first women's rights convention in the United States in 1848 at Seneca Falls, New York. She also worked with Susan B. Anthony to found the Woman's State Temperance Society (1852–3) as well as the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) in 1869, serving as president from 1869 to 1890. In 1878 Stanton convinced California Senator Aaron A. Sargent to sponsor an amendment to the Constitution of the United States to grant women suffrage. The amendment was reintroduced in Congress each year until 1919, when Congress approved it and in 1920, 18 years after Stanton's death, it became the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution, granting women the right to vote. Though most famous for the suffrage activity, Stanton also supported numerous causes such as temperance and abolition.
Tambo, Oliver (1917–1993)
Authors: Callinicos Luli
Published: September 2017

Oliver Reginald Kaizana Tambo, political and professional partner of Nelson Mandela, was the leader of the African National Congress (ANC) during its 30–year period in exile, from 1960 to 1990. Tambo became renowned for maintaining the unity of a broad liberation movement, consisting of many tendencies, during a long Cold War period of vicissitudes, changing circumstances, and shifting strategies. He nurtured its far‐flung members and military cadres as the movement steered its way between international diplomacy and armed struggle while also maintaining its mystique inside South Africa. When the ANC was reestablished in South Africa, Tambo delivered an organization “bigger, stronger, intact” – more skilled and sophisticated, acknowledged and acclaimed throughout the world and at home.
Tennis Court Oath, France, 1789
Authors: Johnson Eric F.
Published: September 2017

The Tennis Court Oath was a pledge taken on June 20, 1789 by members of the Third Estate of France, along with several sympathetic members of the clergy and nobility, not to disband until they had produced a constitution for France. It represents an important turning point in the French Revolution when the monarchy effectively lost influence over the direction of events, and when political power came to be perceived as residing in the people and their representatives rather than the king. Louis XVI's hostile response to the oath further weakened the monarchy and alienated him from much of French society.
Third Wave Feminism
Authors: Richards Amy
Published: September 2017

The third wave of feminism emerged in the early 1990s. The term primarily refers to younger women and men in the United States who identify as feminists and see themselves as separate but related to feminists of the radical 1960s and the Cold War era. This evolution of feminism also has global resonance and implications, though it is most prevalent in countries with established women's movements, such as India and Sweden, and in countries that have had recent and rapid political changes, such as Poland and South Africa.
Tianjin Massacre, 1870
Authors: Greene J. Megan
Published: September 2017

In 1870 tensions between Chinese residents of the northeastern port city of Tianjin (Tientsin) and western missionaries came to a head in a spontaneous eruption of anti‐western protest dubbed the Tianjin Massacre. Sixteen French men and women and three Russians, including the consul and ten nuns, were killed in a single day as a crowd of Chinese responded violently to the western presence. The event represented the largest single anti‐western protest in China prior to the Boxer Uprising of 1900, although smaller‐scale anti‐Christian protests were not infrequent.
Tisquesuza (d. 1537)
Authors: Burkert Olga
Published: September 2017

Tisquesuza was the fourth king of the indigenous tribe of the Muisca, the so‐called Zipa of Bucatá. He was killed by the Spaniards while fighting their conquest of the territory of modern‐day Colombia. The Muiscas were part of the linguistic family of the Chibchas and Zipa was their title of nobility given to their rulers in the southern part of their territory, what is today known as the Sabana de Bogotá of Colombia. In the northern region, the so‐called Zaque ruled, and the two kingdoms together were
el reino de los Chibchas
.
Tolpuddle Martyrs, Britain, 1834
Authors: Pickering Paul A.
Published: September 2017

Successive wage reductions in Dorset, England in the early 1830s prompted a small group of agricultural laborers in the village of Tolpuddle to establish a trade union. Known as the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers, the aim and resolution of the members was simple: not to work for less than 10 shillings a week. Although restrictions on “combinations,” the blanket term covering associations of workers, had been eased, trade unions were still regarded with fear and suspicion by the British elite. The Tolpuddle laborers had followed a longstanding ritual and sworn an oath to underscore their determination, leading local landowners to complain until the laborers were arrested for contravening the 1797 Mutiny Act that had made it illegal for individuals to swear oaths of loyalty to each other.
Tompkins Square Park and Lower East Side Protest and Unrest, 1820s–1980s
Authors: Weinberg Bill
Published: September 2017

Tompkins Square Park on New York's Lower East Side has been a key theater and barometer of urban social struggles in the United States since its inception in the antebellum era. Riots and uprisings centered around the park took place in 1857, 1863 (Civil War draft riots), 1874, 1877 (national railroad strike), 1967, and 1988. After each one, city authorities moved to redesign the park as a means of containing popular struggle. Each time, resistance reemerged as new waves of immigrants and cycles of displacement brought new social pressures.
Tory rebellion, Ireland
Authors: Peatling G. K.
Published: September 2017

“Tory rebellion” is most commonly used in Irish history to refer to elite and popular Protestant resistance to concessions to Catholic nationalist interests. “Tory,” however, arose in mid‐seventeenth‐century Ireland as a term applied to outlaws, often assumed to have been dispossessed Catholics, although they may have had little political motivation. Later in the century it was imported into British politics as a term of derision applied to supporters of conservative Anglo‐Catholicism and Jacobitism. Applications of the term shifted as the Jacobite threat receded, and late eighteenth‐century “Tories” resumed a close relationship to the British monarchy and the Protestant establishment.
Trinidad, Parliamentary Crisis
Authors: Toussaint Michael F.
Published: September 2017

Following independence in 1962, Trinidad and Tobago adopted a system of government based on parliamentary democracy according to the Westminster model. Executive power was vested in the prime minister and his Cabinet, which together exercised general direction and control over the governance of the country. A bicameral parliament was charged with the responsibility of making laws for the peace, order, and good governance of the country. It consisted of a lower house of 36 elected members, each representing an electoral district, and a 31–member Senate made of persons appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister and leader of the opposition. In 1976 Trinidad and Tobago enacted a written republican constitution, which remains the supreme law of the land and cannot be amended, abridged, or infringed without the requisite parliamentary majority. The bicameral legislature was retained and the parliament, unless dissolved, was required to sit for five years, after which a general election is held. Since independence, various challenges precipitated by different circumstances have emerged to frustrate the normal operations of the parliament.
Túpac Amaru Rebellion II and the Last Inca Revolt, 1780–1783
Authors: Marsilli María N.
Published: September 2017

The great‐great grandson of Túpac Amaru I, the last Incan leader and a provincial Indian nobleman, José Gabriel Condorcanqui Noguera, alias Túpac Amaru II (1742–81), led the most significant Indian rebellion that took place in the Americas between the Spanish conquest and independence. Aware of the conditions endured by common Indians, in 1780 he organized a revolt that appealed to the Incans' sense of justice and thus attracted large numbers of native fighters. After much effort, the Spaniards suppressed the movement and executed Condorcanqui. They subsequently implemented major changes in their imperial administration of the Peruvian viceroyalty.
Turkish Republic Protests, 1923–1946
Authors: Tür Özlem
Published: September 2017

Once the Turkish state secured power in 1923, Mustafa Kemal and his colleagues designed a reform plan as a “modernization project” to constitute the foundations of the country's future. This modernization project was formed with the goal of developing the Turkish state and “catching up with the developed countries of the West.” The main aim of the new ruling circle of the country was to make Turkey a developed, modern, and respectable nation in the international sphere.
United Englishmen/ United Britons
Authors: Davis Michael T.
Published: September 2017

The United Englishmen was an underground revolutionary society that existed in England between about 1796 and 1802 and which sought to overturn the government by means of a coordinated insurrection in England, Ireland, and Scotland. The foundations for the United Englishmen were laid after attempts to seek political reform through constitutional avenues were unsuccessful in the first half of the 1790s. Following the passage of the repressive Two Acts in 1795, sections of the English democratic movement shifted their tactics to a more physical force approach to promoting reform. In this climate, a reinvigorated United Irish society was able to find willing recruits in England. Political tours by United Irishmen in the winter of 1796–7 helped disseminate the prospect of insurrection and foster an interest in establishing societies modeled on the Irish example. Many English radicals, particularly in the northern manufacturing districts, were lured by the opportunity offered through the United movement and the first cells of the United Englishmen were established in late 1796.
United Scotsmen
Authors: Davis Michael T.
Published: September 2017

The United Scotsmen was an underground revolutionary society that sought radical political reform in Scotland through a campaign of physical force activism and conspiratorial politics in association with the United Englishmen, United Irish, and French. Although the United Scotsmen was not directly descendant from the earlier Glasgow Society of United Scotsmen founded in 1793, it did share in common an emphasis on universal suffrage and parliamentary reform and probably some overlap of membership. However, a more direct influence on the origins and agenda of the United Scotsmen was the reinvigoration of the United Irishmen in 1795. The passing of the repressive Two Acts in that year made a clandestine existence an increasingly important and unavoidable feature of the United Irishmen, and it was United Irish deputies and Irish refugees who exported ideas of revolution to Scotland in the latter part of the 1790s. In July 1796, the first recorded contact between United Irish missionaries and Scottish radicals took place when two delegates from the Belfast United Irishmen were sent to Scotland. Armed with a copy of the constitution of the United Irishmen, the missionaries found the Scottish to be generally enthusiastic about forming a sister organization based on the Irish model.
U
ruguay, Left‐Wing Politics from the Tupamaros to the Frente Amplio
Authors: Zibechi Raul
Published: September 2017

Until the early 1960s the left in Uruguay occupied a marginal position in the political arena and had a significant presence only in the trade union movement. In barely three decades, the left emerged as the hegemonic force in the country, rising to an absolute majority in the 2004 elections. Established in 1971, the Frente Amplio (Broad Front) has demonstrated a remarkable and sustained progression. Previously divided, the left obtained less than 5 percent of the vote until it unified and leaped to 18 percent in the 1971 election, bringing to an end the dominant bipartisanship maintained by the Colorado and National parties. Since 1971, the left vote has never ceased to grow, reaching a record 51 percent in the election that brought Tabare Vazquez to the presidency (2005–10).
Utopian Intentional Communities
Authors: Miller Timothy
Published: September 2017

Intentional communities have dotted the American historical landscape for over three centuries and their presence continues, if not always prominent. They have always embodied a radical critique of prevailing society; their members have consistently had a vision of a better world, and have had the courage to live that vision.
Uzbekistan, National Movement and Protests
Authors: Ness Immanuel
Published: September 2017

Central Asia includes the former socialist republics of the Soviet Union (also known as transitional states), Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The region also encompasses Afghanistan and the Xinjiang province of western China. Prior to 1500, the region was conquered and occupied by Turkic, Persian, and Russian forces. Central Asia's modern history has been dominated by imperial forces countered by fierce resistance from the local nomadic inhabitants, who frequently repelled invasion through their knowledge of the rugged and mountainous terrain.
Vázquez, Genaro (1931–1972)
Authors: Sergi Vittorio
Published: September 2017

Genaro Vázquez Rojas was born in San Luis Acatlán, Guerrero, Mexico on June 10, 1931. He was a teacher, political organizer, and trade unionist belonging to dissident organizations in Guerrero. After intense repression against the popular movement, he went underground and formed an armed guerilla group. He died in a car accident during an undercover operation in Morelia, Michoacán, on February 2, 1972.
Vegetarian Protests and Movements
Authors: Buzby Amy
Published: September 2017

Vegetarianism has a long and varied history as a protest movement. Before the nineteenth century, the avoidance of meat and other animal products was generally justified with moral, religious, and metaphysical arguments: in ancient times writers like Plutarch and Ovid decried the killing of animals for food, while philosophers like Pythagoras and Porphyry argued that the consumption of animal flesh was an act of violence upon the human soul (Whorton: 1994). This early vegetarian thought engendered a holistic view that connected and enmeshed physical and spiritual health and utilized the vegetarian diet as a means of transcending the status quo.
Voline (1882–1945)
Authors: Kocho‐Williams Alastair
Published: September 2017

Vsévolod Mikhailovitch Eichenbaum, better known by the pseudonym “Voline” (derived from the Russian word
vol'nost
, “freedom”), was born in Vorenezh, Russia. The child of doctors, he studied jurisprudence at St. Petersburg University. At the age of 19 he came into contact with revolutionary ideas, and after leaving university in 1904, he joined the Russian Socialist‐Revolutionary Party. Engaged in the labor movement, he met radical priest George Gapon (1870–1906) and took part in the march on the Winter Palace on Bloody Sunday in January 1905. Although his group was turned back before reaching the palace, during the strikes following the massacre he was instrumental in creating the first St. Petersburg Soviet, which, although it ceased to exist in December 1905, was recreated following the February Revolution of 1917. Arrested and sentenced to internal exile in 1907 for his part in the insurrection, Voline fled to France.
Wales, Nationalist Protest, 19th Century
Authors: Crowley Mark J.
Published: September 2017

Popular protest had become a distinctive feature of Welsh politics and society by the nineteenth century. Although trade unionism had not at that time developed substantially, the tradition dates from the eighteenth century, when unions were commonly known as “associations” and were predominantly rural. A rudimentary form of unionism was clearly manifested in the late eighteenth century in a rebellion of Swansea dockyard workers against their tyrannical employers. The unionization of Flintshire coal miners in 1830 placed radicalism solidly on the Welsh agenda, and it would gather strength from that point forward.
Washington, George (1732–1799)
Authors: Tomek Beverly
Published: September 2017

George Washington was more than the first president of the United States, he was the very model delegates at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 had in mind when they agreed to create the executive office. Known for his military achievements and leadership ability, it is his character that captivated his contemporaries and historians alike. The embodiment of the concept of “virtue,” he was the only major leader of the Revolutionary Era to free his slaves.
Wei Jingsheng (b. 1950)
Authors: Greene J. Megan
Published: September 2017

Wei Jingsheng became a symbol of the disaffection of Chinese intellectuals with the communist government following his bold call for democracy in 1979. In 1978, China's premier, Deng Xiaoping, called upon the nation to follow a new path to greatness by implementing the Four Modernizations of industry, agriculture, science and technology, and national defense. At the same time, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) made it clear that it now welcomed intellectual participation in shaping this new path for China's development. In this heady atmosphere of change and considerably increased political openness that followed years of repression of intellectuals in accordance with Mao Zedong's dictum that it was better to be red than expert, many intellectuals began to express their views on politics as well as economic development in an array of new journals and study groups and in other public venues such as Beijing's “democracy wall.” It was in this environment that in 1978, Wei Jingsheng, a 29‐year‐old electrician employed at the Beijing zoo, posted a big character poster on democracy wall that called upon Deng to implement a fifth modernization, democracy.
W
esley,
J
ohn (1703–1791), Methodism, and Social Reform
Authors: Swaminathan Srividhya
Published: September 2017

John Wesley was at the forefront of the religious revival in Britain during the eighteenth century and his influence spanned church and secular interests. He was born into the large family of the rector of Epworth and steeped in religious doctrine at a very young age. After completing his BA at Christ Church, Oxford in 1724, he decided to seek holy orders on the advice of his father. After completing his MA in 1727, he was ordained in the Anglican Church in 1728. Wesley's copious writings document the spiritual journey of a man committed to social change.
Wilberforce, William (1759–1833)
Authors: Swaminathan Srividhya
Published: September 2017

William Wilberforce provided the anti‐slavery movement with a dynamic and charismatic political force that effected change in both houses of parliament. He was born in Hull of a prosperous merchant family but decided early that he did not wish to go into trade. An indifferent student, Wilberforce discovered an interest in politics very early and became a member of parliament for Hull in the House of Commons at the age of 21. Only four years later he was elected as representative for Yorkshire, England's largest county. Even in his early political career he exhibited a zeal for reform, and he learned much about dealing with parliamentary politics. He made important political contacts, including William Pitt the younger, who became prime minister in 1783. Pitt later encouraged Wilberforce to champion the cause of abolishing the slave trade. In 1785, Wilberforce underwent a profound conversion experience and embraced evangelical Christianity. Pitt and evangelical minister John Newton, however, counseled him against giving up his political career for church life, and his religious zeal translated into a strong desire to make a positive contribution to society, which he perceived as sliding toward moral bankruptcy.
Williams, Raymond Henry (1921–1988)
Authors: Hatmaker Amy
Published: September 2017

British critic and scholar Raymond Williams is considered to be the founder of cultural studies. A man who maneuvered between two realms, he revolutionized traditional cultural interpretations.
Winstanley, Gerrard (1609–1676)
Authors: Marik Soma
Published: September 2017

Gerrard Winstanley was born in Wigan, Lancashire to a clothier and became a freeman of the Merchant Tailors' Company. He married Susan King, the daughter of London surgeon William King, in 1639. The Civil War and the disruption of commercial networks between London and Lancashire bankrupted this modest trader around 1643 and exposed him to the horrors, humiliations, and powerlessness of the poor in the face of eviction by landlords or speculative land purchasers. This situation awakened his radical consciousness and led him to adopt communal values.
Women in the Solidarity Movement, Polish Underground
Authors: Penn Shana
Published: September 2017

In communist Poland women made up 50 percent of the labor force and 50 percent of the 10‐million‐strong membership in the Solidarity free trade union movement, but less than 8 percent of Solidarity's decision‐makers. Under‐represented in the trade union's male‐dominated governance and political platform, women expressed their activism through other civic and communal means such as education, grassroots union organizing, parish projects, and most importantly, the opposition press. One group of women in particular played a historic role in building a free press and rescuing the Solidarity movement during the 1980s martial law era.
Women's Movement,
B
ritain
Authors: Kent Susan Kingsley
Published: September 2017

Though the term was not introduced until 1890 or so, the movement that came to be called “feminism” became large and outspoken during the second half of the nineteenth century, arising in response to the exclusion of women from participating in political and public life. Women's exclusion was argued for and justified by references to their sexual differences from men, differences, it was asserted over and over again, that derived from nature. As a consequence, feminists had to answer their opponents in the language used to categorize women as inferior. They had to refuse the ideology of sexual difference that established their inferiority as fact, to transgress the boundaries and practices that normalized “women.” But they had also to focus on women as a collectivity on whose behalf they advocated. Paradoxically, they had both to embrace and refuse their identities as “women.” Feminists cast their arguments in the context of a larger discussion about the value and function of the family and its individual members' roles in industrial capitalist society, reserving their most furious objections for representations that equated the female with the sexual.
Women's Movement,
F
rance
Authors: Block Marcelline
Published: September 2017

One of the prominent legacies of the May 1968 French uprisings is the modern French women's movement. Founded by feminists Antoinette Fouque, Monique Wittig, and Josiane Chanel, the movement was dubbed MLF by the press in reference to the American women's liberation movement, which was at its most visible expression of public activism during the 1960s and 1970s. MLF was mainly used during the initial period of the movement in the early 1970s, after which independent groups were created.
Women's Movement,
J
apan
Authors: Nussel Jill M.
Published: September 2017

To western observers, putting radical and Japanese feminism in the same sentence may seem incongruous. After all, this is a nation where women did not receive the franchise until the postwar constitution of 1947. Women were granted rights to abortion the following year, but did not have legal access to the pill until 1999. Today, women are guaranteed constitutional equality, but it is perfectly acceptable for businesses to deny women promotion on the basis that they
might
someday marry and have children. Japanese women still practice a distinctly gendered style of writing and speech, while household labor is esteemed as virtuous. As recently as February 2008, efforts to reform domestic violence laws faced a backlash from critics claiming the legislation infringed men's rights and promoted the destruction of families by encouraging radical feminism. Perhaps in this context any feminist consciousness would be considered radical, and indeed, the concept needs to be understood within its own framework and not simply accorded western values.
Women's Movement,
U
nited
S
tates, 19th Century
Authors: Adkins Lucille A.
Published: September 2017

What is often termed the First Wave of feminism, involving the conscious struggle for equal rights for women, began in the early nineteenth century. It culminated in a vigorous reaction against the refusal to grant women equal citizenship rights, including the right to vote, in the wake of the Civil War, when the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments (having to do with the expansion of civil rights and voting rights, respectively) were added to the US Constitution. The seeds of this feminist upsurge were sown, however, during the previous two centuries, germinating in the democratic aspirations, struggles, and disappointments associated with the American Revolution.
Woodhull, Victoria (1838–1927)
Authors: Linch Amy
Published: September 2017

Victoria Woodhull was a champion of women's suffrage and workers' rights in the mid‐nineteenth century United States. She thought women's rights could be achieved through nothing less than a full‐scale social revolution that eliminated oppressive marriage laws, legalized prostitution, and uplifted the poor and oppressed women of society. Her newspaper,
Woodhull and Claflin's Weekly
, was a beacon for the incipient labor movement, with reports on workers' strikes and capitalist corruption. Editorials discussed abortion and endorsed health education for women, criticized the Franco‐Prussian War for the suffering it brought upon peasants, and challenged readers to see the injustice in a system that allowed the wealthy to amass ever greater fortunes while sending poor children to jail for stealing bread. Marx and Engels' Communist Manifesto appeared for the first time in the United States in its pages.
World Trade Organization (
WTO
) Protests,
H
ong
K
ong, 2005
Authors: Malig Mary Lou
Published: September 2017

Ever since thousands of protesters successfully blockaded the opening ceremony of the third World Trade Organization (WTO) ministerial in Seattle in 1999, the WTO has been both a point of focus for the movement against neoliberal globalization and an arena of contestation between trade delegates representing countries from the global South and those from the global North. The sixth WTO ministerial, which took place in Hong Kong, China, from December 13 to 18, 2005, was no exception.
Yorkshire Rising, 1820
Authors: Donnelly Fred
Published: September 2017

One of the largest insurrections of the pre‐Chartist era of the Industrial Revolution in England took place in the West Riding of Yorkshire in the first two weeks of April 1820. It constituted outbursts in three towns in that county and was loosely connected to a simultaneous revolt in the west of Scotland around Glasgow. It also coincided with the trials of political radicals arrested at “Peterloo” some months earlier.
Young Communist International
Authors: Lewis Joel A.
Published: September 2017

In November 1919, the Young Communist International (YCI) established itself as the youth coordinating body of the Communist International (Comintern). The YCI was neither a creation of Lenin's Bolshevik Party, nor did it originate in the young Soviet republic. The YCI grew out of the anti‐war struggles of socialist youth in Western Europe, representing itself as the organizational heir of the Socialist Youth International (SYI).
Y
ugoslavia, Anti‐Privatization Struggles
Authors: Grubacic Andrej
Published: September 2017

To understand neoliberalism in Serbia, one has to go back to the time of Slobodan Milosevic. Of central importance to the rule of Milosevic was the direct political supervision of the country's economic elite. In Milosevic's Serbia the primary means of capital accumulation did not take place in the market. To the contrary, the major financial profits to be had were achieved via state intervention – in other words through state monopoly, systematic privileges, monetary speculation and shady financial transactions, generalized larceny and appropriation of property, illegal imports, and backroom deals and bribes. It was a given that, in such a system, the power elite could not only easily convert their own “political capital” into real financial gains, but could also control and influence the flow and direction of the entire economy.
Y
ugoslavia, Marxist Humanism,
Praxis
Group, and Korčula Summer School, 1964–1974
Authors: Kanzleiter Boris
Published: September 2017

The publication of the first issue of the magazine
Praxis
in September 1964 initiated a philosophical and political project searching for “humanist socialism.” The official sponsor of the magazine was the Croatian Philosophical Society. The editorial board was formed by university professors in Zagreb and Belgrade. Prominent leftist intellectuals from all over the world formed an advisory council in 1966. Within a short time the international edition of
Praxis
, published in German, French, and English, became one of the most influential Marxist publications until it was closed down in 1974. In socialist Yugoslavia it was the intellectual center of Marxist trends, openly confronting the regime of the ruling League of Communist of Yugoslavia (LCY).
Zamora, Ezequiel (1817–1860)
Authors: Azzellini Dario
Published: September 2017

Following the declaration of Venezuelan independence and the founding of Gran Colombia in 1819, the expectations of land redistribution to peasants were not realized and large tracts of arable land remained in the control of a small oligarchic aristocracy. Ezequiel Zamora was a fearless military leader of rebel armies that sought land redistribution, fueling peasant uprisings during 1846 and acting as commander in the Federal War from 1859 to 1863. The son of a small landowner, Zamora moved to Caracas as a youth to finish his primary education. Inspired by his brother‐in‐law to study revolutionary movements in Europe and by José Manuel García, a lawyer, he examined principles of equality for transforming Venezuela into a democratic society.
Zanzibar Revolution
Authors: Omobowale Ayokunle Olumuyiwa
Published: September 2017

Zanzibar is an island group (including principally Zanzibar, Pemba, and Tumbatu) in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of Tanganyika (Tanzania). Its coast and ports served as major trade routes among African, Arab, Indian, and European traders in the nineteenth century. Even though Zanzibar was first populated by Africans, Asians came as later migrants and it served as the seat of the sultan of Oman from 1828 when the African elite class and peasants alike were subordinated under its rule.
Zhang Guotao (1897–1979)
Authors: Pantsov Alexander V.
Published: September 2017

Zhang Guotao was an important early leader of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). He was born in Pingxiang County, Jiangxi Province, in 1897. He studied at Beijing University and took part in the May 4th movement in 1919, a sustained anti‐imperialist mass mobilization that aimed at combating Japan's occupation of Chinese territories and the West's collusion with that occupation. It also opposed the reactionary Beijing warlord regime that had failed to resist Japan's encroachments. In 1920 Zhang joined the Beijing communist nucleus. In July‐August 1921 he served as chair of the First Congress of the Chinese Communist Party, and was elected to membership of the CCP Central Bureau in charge of organizational activity.
Z
imbabwe, National Liberation Movement
Authors: Sharlach Lisa B.
Published: September 2017

Zimbabwe, formerly Southern Rhodesia, became independent in 1980 after a decades‐long war of liberation that killed over 30,000 (and possibly twice that figure). Marxist guerilla groups fought against the European settlers of Southern Rhodesia to end white oligarchy and establish multiracial democracy. Tragically, the guerillas also fought against each other, and this bloodshed continued after independence. Instead of embracing democracy, the leaders of ZANU‐PF, victorious in Zimbabwe's first elections, terrorized those supposedly affiliated with the defeated political party, ZAPU. It was largely comprised of the Ndebele ethnic minority, so the partisan conflict had an ethnic dimension. To this day, the ruling party continues to intimidate the opposition to forestall true multiparty democracy in Zimbabwe.
C
ooke,
J
ohn
W
illiam (1919–1968) and Argentine Revolutionary Peronism
Authors: de Laforcade Geoffroy
Published: September 2017

It is fitting that John William Cooke's year of birth, 1919, should coincide in Argentine history with the Semana Trágica, one of the bloodiest crackdowns on organized labor and popular resistance to occur in Buenos Aires between the two wars. As a 20‐year‐old law student in the law faculty of his hometown La Plata, Cooke used the pro‐democratic Radical Civic Union (UCR) platform of the Unión Universitaria Intransigente to launch a passionate and stellar political career at the forefront of the struggle against dictatorship and government corruption. It began with a youthful engagement on the side of the Allies against Argentine neutrality in World War II, and culminated in his participation in a plan for a continental socialist revolution elaborated by Ernesto “Che” Guevara in the late 1960s. For more than two decades Cooke was a prominent leader of the movement founded by Juan Domingo Perón, labor and welfare minister from 1943 to 1945, president from 1946 to 1955, and enduring symbol of Argentine national liberation struggles thereafter.
D'Axa, Zo (1864–1930)
Authors: Bantman Constance
Published: September 2017

Zo d'Axa, whose real name was Alphonse Gallaud, is often regarded as the quintessential individualist anarchist of the “heroic period” of French anarchism – a rebel beyond classification and a restless traveler, who set up two iconic papers. Born into a family of the
haute bourgeoisie
, he was trained at the military École Saint Cyr. He deserted shortly after entering the army, seeking asylum abroad before being allowed back into France. In 1891 he set up
L'En‐dehors
(1891–3), an eclectic publication with a distinct artistic and literary tinge, to which both anarchists and non‐affiliates contributed. The name of the paper – the outsider – epitomizes both the nature of anarchism at the time and the stance of d'Axa himself, a rebel even within the movement.
del Valle, Adrián (1872–1945)
Authors: Shaffer Kirwin R.
Published: September 2017

Adrián del Valle, born in Barcelona, Spain, migrated to Cuba where he emerged as the leading anarchist columnist, playwright, and fiction writer in the country during the first 30 years of its independence. He grew up in the politically charged atmosphere of nineteenth‐century Catalonia, Spain. From an early age he engaged in the growing anarchist movement on the peninsula. He edited a free‐thinking weekly student paper in Barcelona and adopted the pseudonym “Palmiro” when he joined the anarchist daily (and then weekly)
El Productor
.
Especifismo
Authors: Shantz Jeffrey
Published: September 2017

Especifismo is an approach to anarchist organization that developed in the second half of the twentieth century, primarily in South America. An outgrowth of anarchocommunist movements in Spain, especifismo is associated with key tenets of the platformist currents in anarchism, in particular, stressing the importance of building explicitly anarchist organizations founded on a unity of theory and practice as a basis for contributing to broader social struggles. The organization provides a space for developing anarchist theory and strategy.
Individualist Anarchism
Authors: Brown Susan Love
Published: September 2017

Individualist anarchism is a distinctly American form of anarchism rooted in the dissenting tradition of English religious groups who came to the North American colonies in the seventeenth century to escape religious persecution. Some mark the beginning of this trend with the Antinomian movement in Puritan Massachusetts, but individualist anarchism did not achieve an identity as a distinct philosophical and political ideology until the nineteenth century during the Jacksonian era and what is now referred to as the utopian socialist period of intentional community building. From that period emerged Josiah Warren, who is considered the first American anarchist. Flush with the experience of living in Robert Owen's Community of Equality in New Harmony, Indiana, and seeing it fail, Warren identified individual sovereignty as the missing element and the solution to many of the social problems that plagued the relatively new nation that the United States was at that time.
K
obayashi,
T
akiji (1903–1933) and the
J
apanese Proletarian Movement
Authors: Ness Immanuel
Published: September 2017

Takiji Kobayashi is regarded among the leading working‐class novelists in Japan in the years leading up to World War II (Pacific War), and is a prominent figure in what has become known as proletarian literature. As Kobayashi's novels and short stories grew more popular among leftist intellectuals, workers, and peasants in the 1920s, he came under greater surveillance by the Japanese state security apparatus. On February 20, 1933, Kobayashi died after being arrested, beaten, and tortured by Japanese police.
Lane, William (1861–1917)
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

William Lane was a journalist and trade unionist who led protests in Queensland, Australia. He became so disillusioned with the state of Australia that he decided to establish a utopian colony in Paraguay, moving there with nearly 500 Australians in 1893.
Peirats Valls, José (1908–1989)
Authors: Lee Andrew H.
Published: September 2017

A Spanish anarchist known as the Herodotus of the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (National Labor Confederation, CNT), Peirats began working at age 8, primarily as a bricklayer. He joined the CNT in 1922, was one of the founders of the Libertarian Youth, and participated actively in workers'
ateneos
(athenaeums). He tried to remain neutral during internecine conflicts before the civil war, but left the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (Iberian Anarchist Federation, FAI) in opposition to anarcho‐bolshevism, and during the civil war he opposed collaboration of the anarchists with the government. He joined the Republican Army in 1937, and at the end of the war emigrated to South America. Returning to France, Peirats was often harassed by the police, and in 1951 he was beaten severely enough to permanently damage his health. This same year, the first volume of his major work,
La CNT en la revolución española
(
The CNT in the Spanish Revolution
), was published. Peirats later returned to Spain and died in 1989 while swimming in the Mediterranean.
Poch y Gascón, Amparo (1902–1968)
Authors: Lee Andrew H.
Published: September 2017

Amparo Poch y Gascón was a Spanish anarchist doctor, fighter for women's rights, and, in 1936, a co‐founder of the Mujeres Libres organization (the “Free Women”). A brilliant student, she focused her energies in medicine on child care (especially the reduction of infant mortality) and health services for the working class. She was a ceaseless advocate of the equality of the sexes and a tireless campaigner for free love, sexual education, and “conscious motherhood” (birth control), publishing widely on these topics in the anarchist press, including the monograph
La vida sexual de la mujer
(
The Sexual Life of Women
, 1932). At the same time, her feminist vision conceived of women as independent and autonomous beings different from men, emphasizing a foundational and maternal nature.
Urales, Federico (1863/4–1942)
Authors: Lee Andrew H.
Published: September 2017

Juan Montseny Carret, an influential Spanish anarchist married to Soledad Gustavo (a.k.a. Teresa Mañé i Miravet) and father to Federica Montseny, wrote most frequently under the pseudonym of Federico Urales. A barrel‐maker who became the secretary of their national union in 1888, Urales was nevertheless skeptical of class‐based organizations except for the revolutionary possibilities of the general strike. He supported the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (Iberian Anarchist Federation, FAI) as a way to ensure an anarchist outlook in the anarchosyndicalist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (National Labor Confederation, CNT). A committed anti‐clericalist and strong believer in scientific progress, he nonetheless looked more favorably on the peasant commune than on the urban industrial city.
S
in
C
hai‐Ho (1880–1936)
Authors: Oh Jang‐Whan
Published: September 2017

Sin Chai‐Ho, a veteran of the Korean anarchist movement regarded as one of its “fathers,” was a historian as well as a fighter for the independence movement. He participated in the Korean Provisional Government established in Shanghai in 1919, but he insisted on revolutionary rather than moderate methods for achieving independence.
Fitzgerald, Lord Edward (1763–1798)
Authors: Sonnelitter Karen
Published: September 2017

Lord Edward Fitzgerald was born the younger son of James Fitzgerald, Duke of Leinster, and his wife Emily, the daughter of the Duke of Richmond. He arrived in Ireland as an infant and attended school there under the instruction of William Ogilvie. After the death of his father in 1773, Edward's mother took her children and Ogilvie (her lover) to France. Lord Edward began his military career in 1776, transferring regiments several times in his early years. After serving in America, he returned to Ireland and was elected member of parliament for the borough of Athy in Kildare. He aligned himself politically with his cousin, Charles James Fox, and a group of Irish patriots. During the 1780s Fitzgerald traveled a great deal and gradually became more interested in revolutionary politics. His marriage in 1792 to the daughter of French radicals signals to many the cementing of his radicalism. He returned to Ireland in 1793 and became involved in revolutionary circles. In 1796 he traveled to Hamburg with Arthur O'Connor, seeking French assistance for an Irish rebellion. Upon his return, he formally joined the Society for United Irishmen and was the group's most experienced militarist. In 1797, Fitzgerald made the mistake of trusting half‐hearted radical Thomas Reynolds, who betrayed Fitzgerald and the Leinster Directory to the police. Fitzgerald fled and lived in hiding for a time before his dramatic capture in May 1798. Lord Edward was wounded and imprisoned in Newgate Gaol. An attempt was made to rescue him before the outbreak of the rebellion, but it failed. In prison his wounds became infected and he died in his cell on June 4, 1798.
Lacerda de Moura, Maria (1887–1945)
Authors: Freitas da Silva Filipe Gordino
Published: September 2017

Born in Minas Gerais, Brazil, and educated at a Catholic school in Barbacena, Maria Lacerda de Moura grew up in a conservative society shaped by clerical cultural values. There, women possessed few or no social rights, for example, to a free education, and their lives were limited by family and traditional structures. Nonetheless, Lacerda de Moura received her degree at the Escola Normal Municipal de Barbacena and began lecturing on pedagogy, elaborating arguments for the reform of the republican educational system. She proposed a school that would promote citizens’ sense of social responsibility. In this way, she saw fighting illiteracy as a means to bring social justice and modernization to Brazil. This thesis was strongly influenced by the libertarian pedagogy of Francisco Ferrer y Guardia.
Li Shizeng (1881–1973)
Authors: Cairns Daniel
Published: September 2017

Li Shizeng was a Chinese anarchist, educator, and Guomindang (Kuomintang) member. He spent the most notable years of his life publishing anarchist materials in France and initiating the Work‐Study Movement. Born into a wealthy and respected family, he was son to an advisor to the Tongzhi emperor; prestigious careers beckoned. En route to study biology at the Pasteur Institute in Paris in 1902, Li met Wu Zhihui, henceforth his lifelong comrade. In 1906 they founded the first Chinese anarchist organization, the New World Society. Soon afterwards this group began publication of
Xin Shiji
(
New Era
), which ran for three years, an exceptional span for a Chinese periodical of the time. The journal, to which Li contributed his gifts as a writer, translator, and editor, focused on translating anarchist texts and criticizing Manchu rule. This led the editorship to become involved with other anti‐Manchu groups such as the Revolutionary Alliance and Guomindang. Despite other anarchists’ criticism, Li suspended his suspicions of political parties when working with the Guomindang.
M
erison,
J
acob A. (1866–1941)
Authors: Zimmer Kenyon
Published: September 2017

A prolific journalist and translator, Jacob Merison (a.k.a. Jacob Maryson, a.k.a. Y. A. Merison) was a prominent Jewish socialist, anarchist, and proponent of Yiddish culture. Born near Vilna, Lithuania, to a rabbinical family, in 1887 he immigrated to the United States and settled in New York, where he earned a medical degree and joined the Pioneers of Freedom, the first Jewish American anarchist group. Merison is best known for translating the work of writers like Charles Darwin, Karl Marx, Max Stirner, Errico Malatesta, and Peter Kropotkin into Yiddish, as well as the work of other socialists and anarchists.