bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Crisis Intervention After the Death of a Loved One
Authors: Roberts Albert R , Yeager Kenneth R
Published: November 2023

Bereavement is the term associated with cognitive, emotional, and behavioral reactions to the death of a loved one, such as a parent, spouse, child, or close friend. Bereavement is a common occurrence for the general population and a frequent occurrence for the elderly. It is common for those older than 80 years of age to have experienced the loss of a loved spouse. Spousal death following decades of marriage is an extremely challenging and difficult life experience. Many seniors experience additional bereavement experiences related to the loss of siblings and friends closely related in time.
Communication of Scientific Information: Writing
Authors: Valiela Ivan
Published: November 2023

Suppose we have defined and tested a scientific question. The work might be the best science in the world, but it is of little consequence unless we complete the second half of doing science: telling somebody else what we found, in clear and convincing fashion.

The topics discussed so far have held the attention of prominent academic thinkers, and the large, abstract concepts easily fall under the purview of scientific curricula. The matters that follow here are far more detailed and practical and could be labeled as, at best trivial and, at worst, pedestrian. I would like to argue, however, that unless we tell others effectively about our results, even the greatest science results are to little avail. Moreover, I am convinced that making efforts to achieve clarity of expression in text and data presentation improve the authors’ own understanding of the science they do. Conveying complex results of science to an audience requires attention to the core meaning of our data, as well as to details of word choice, to organization of sentences, paragraphs, and text, and to the minutiae of table and figure design.
Presenting Data in Figures
Authors: Valiela Ivan
Published: November 2023

There can be little doubt that the hallmark of scientific reports is the graphical depiction of results. Graphs show relationships underlying observations in a way no other device can provide. Moreover, figures supply the actual data, so the skeptical reader can see what in fact the writer used as the evidence for assertions. We will spend considerable effort discussing graphics, for a fundamental reason: the way in which we present the data determines what can be seen in the data. Effective communication of scientific data depends on clearly thought-out means of portraying data.
Introduction
Authors: Phillips Carl , Clay Diskin
Published: November 2023

The wrath of Achilles, directed first at Agamemnon and then at the Trojan who killed his friend Patroklos in battle, begins with the first line of the Iliad and ends with the last. In its stark simplicity, this wrath is the story of the Iliad, which opens with Homer’s appeal to the Muse, ‘‘Sing goddess, of the wrath of Achilles, the son of Peleus’’ and ends with these words: ‘‘And so they carried out the burial of Hektor, breaker of horses.’’ The legend of the archer from Malis who will arrive at Troy only after the deaths of Hektor and Achilles lies on the penumbra of the Iliad. Philoctetes’ fate in the epic of Ilion is perfectly matched by his ten-year isolation on the island of Lemnos, where he was abandoned as the Achaians crossed the northern Aegean to make their assault on Troy. This legend, which is located at both edges of the Iliad, is the subject of Sophocles’ Philoctetes.
Introduction Balkanism and Orientalism: Are They Different Categories?
Authors: Todorova Maria
Published: November 2023

Aspecter is haunting Western culture—the specter of the Balkans. All the powers have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this specter: politicians and journalists, conservative academics and radical intellectuals, moralists of all kind, gender, and fashion. Where is the adversarial group that has not been decried as “Balkan” and “balkanizing” by its opponents? Where the accused have not hurled back the branding reproach of “balkanism”? By the beginning of the twentieth century, Europe had added to its repertoire of Schimpfwörter, or disparagements, a new one that, although recently coined, turned out to be more persistent over time than others with centuries-old tradition.
The Historical Background
Authors: Herrman Judson
Published: November 2023

Hyperides (born in 390/389) delivered the Funeral Oration in Athens in early 322. For more than twenty years he had been one of the leading opponents of Macedonian involvement in Greek affairs, and the Funeral Oration marks the pinnacle of the Athenian policy of resistance to Macedon. Philip defeated the Greek allies at Chaeronea in August 338 and afterward instituted a league of Greek states under Macedonian control. Fifteen years later, after the death of Philip’s son Alexander in 323, the Greeks revolted. The rebellion was initially successful, and the Funeral Oration evinces the optimistic mood of Hyperides and other Athenians at the time. We will now contextualize that optimism, first by examining Hyperides’ role in the decades-long Athenian debate over relations with Macedon, and then by considering the events that led to the Lamian War in 323 at Crannon. Athens was forced to submit to the Macedonian terms, which included a garrison in the Piraeus. Demosthenes and Hyperides were condemned to death by the Assembly, under the leadership of Demades, and subsequently arrested and killed by agents of Antipater, who cut out Hyperides’ tongue.
Comparisons across societies, cultures, and developmental stages
Authors: Ceci Stephen J , Williams Wendy M
Published: November 2023

As noted in Chapters 2 and 3, some researchers have offered arguments regarding evolutionary pressures that might have caused superior spatial ability in males. One example is work by David Geary, a well-respected evolutionary psychologist who specializes in mathematical achievement. In two comprehensive reviews of a large animal literature, Geary suggests that evolutionarily important behaviors such as male–male competition involve greater reliance on the ability to geometrically represent three-dimensional space. Geary sees the modern legacy of this history of evolutionary selection as consisting of sex differences in spatial cognition. Similarly, others have argued that human sex differences are part of the pattern observed across the animal kingdom:
Conclusions and synthesis
Authors: Ceci Stephen J , Williams Wendy M
Published: November 2023

In attempting to answer the question, “Why are there so few women in mathematically intensive STEM fields?” we have waded through an unwieldy literature on sex differences that is filled with contradictions. We have analyzed evidence across many domains: the cognitive psychology of mental rotation, the social psychology of stereotypes, personal preferences, discrimination, hormonal bases of behavior, econometrics of hiring and promotion, and cultural comparisons of mathematics achievement. Readers may now ask whether a “bottom line” can be presented that does justice to the substantial and often inconsistent literature bearing on this question.
Means of Expression in Animals
Authors: Darwin Charles
Published: November 2023

In this and the following chapter I will describe, but only in sufficient detail to illustrate my subject, the expressive movements, under different states of the mind, of some few well known animals. But before considering them in due succession, it will save much useless repetition to discuss certain means of expression common to most of them.

The emission of sounds. With many kinds of animals, man included, the vocal organs are efficient in the highest degree as a means of expression. We have seen, in the last chapter, that when the sensorium is strongly excited, the muscles of the body are generally thrown into violent action; and as a consequence, loud sounds are uttered, however silent the animal may generally be, and although the sounds may be of no use. Hares* and rabbits, for instance, never, I believe, use their vocal organs except in the extremity of suffering; as, when a wounded hare is killed by the sportsman, or when a young rabbit is caught by a stoat. Cattle and horses suffer great pain in silence; but when this is excessive,
Selfattention Shame Shyness Modesty: Blushing
Authors: Darwin Charles
Published: November 2023

Blushing is the most peculiar and the most human of all expressions. Monkeys redden from passion, but it would require an overweening amount of evidence to make us believe that any animal could blush. The reddening of the face from a blush is due to the relaxation of the muscular coats of the small arteries, by which the capillaries become filled with blood; and this depends on the proper vasomotor center being affected. No doubt if there be at the same time much mental agitation, the general circulation will be affected; but it is not due to the action of the heart that the network of minute vessels covering the face becomes under a sense of shame gorged with blood. We can cause laughing by tickling the skin, weeping or frowning by a blow, trembling from the fear of pain, and so forth; but we cannot cause a blush, as Dr Burgess remarks, by any physical means that is by any action on the body. It is the mind which must be affected. Blushing is not only involuntary; but the wish to restrain it, by leading to self attention, actually increases the tendency.

The young blush much more freely than the old, but not during infancy,* which is remarkable, as we know that infants at a very
Sophocles and Time
Authors: Hutchinson G O
Published: November 2023

This paper is not directly concerned with Sophocles’ views on time. It is interested rather in considering how structures of time are used in the plays to shape the experiences they depict and provide. In a literary work time is, among other things, a way of organizing material, articulating its meaning, intensifying its force. The sequence of past, present, and future is a framework fundamental to most criticism of drama; but the area of time that will primarily concern us here is the opposition, little explored for drama, between imperfective and perfective. This may sound like an eccentric move from a grammar of drama to a drama of grammar; but what is envisaged is not principally a matter of the forms of verbs, and not at all a matter of linking the grammar of a language to the frame of mind in its users. The grammatical structure of Greek, or Russian, offers essentially only a metaphor for the kind of thing that interests us; and it is not an authority but a stimulus.
Comic Patterns in Sophocles’ Ichneutae
Authors: Zagagi Netta
Published: November 2023

Sophocles’ Ichneutae is one of a group of satyr-plays which are only loosely connected with tragedy in their themes and in their poetic atmosphere. One can safely assume that it does not constitute a direct parody of any individual tragedy —but that, after all, is one of the salient characteristics of the satyric genre. Moreover, the theme of this play itself, albeit mythological, is in its very nature and essence non-tragic. Its plot consists mainly of the story of the search for Apollo’s lost cattle, ending successfully with the exposure of the thief, the baby Hermes; but at the same time we also have the discovery of Hermes’ wonderful invention, the lyre, which is to become the main musical instrument used by Apollo himself. The fragmentary nature of our evidence makes it difficult to guess to what extent, if at all, this pretty but rather marginal myth, a brief episode in the biography of the two Olympian brothers, had ever attracted the attention of the major tragedians; but it is clear that, as far as its subject-matter goes, it has nothing to offer which would be even faintly reminiscent of the intensity of the tragic genre.
Relief Sculpture of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
Authors: Cook B F
Published: November 2023

The site of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, was rediscovered and partially excavated by C. T. Newton's expedition in 1865-6, and has been cleared completely by the Danish Archaeological Expedition to Bodrum (1966-76). Most of the fragments of relief sculpture have not been published before. The larger pieces, including slabs formerly incorporated in the Castle at Bodrum, are well known, but new, detailed photographs are published here for the first time. The Introduction includes a history of the site and the reliefs, with a new hypothesis on their location in the castle, a critique of Newton's accounts of his excavation, and a definitive rebuttal of many attempts made over the past century to attribute the reliefs to the sculptors named by Pliny and Vitruvius as responsible for decorating the four sides of the building, attempts now seen to be mistaken in method and misleading in results.
The Late Archaic Period, 500–480 BC
Authors: Immerwahr Henry R
Published: November 2023

There is no real break between the writing styles of the late sixth and early fifth centuries. The lettering of the Pioneers is directly continued in the early works of such painters as Onesimos (who continues the style of Euphronios), the Kleophrades Painter (who continues that of Euthymides), the Berlin Painter, and Douris. But gradually changes begin to appear which result in a more orderly, not to say more academic, style of writing. These changes bear fruit in the second quarter of the century, when the official stone script acquires a definite character of its own. The graffito inscriptions on ostraca eventually become more regular, and the vase-inscriptions show the influence of stoichedon script and (to a lesser extent) of manuscript writing.
Troy from the Inside
Authors: Taplin Oliver
Published: November 2023

So then, rank after rank, the Danaan battalions moved in ceaseless advance to war. Each of the leaders gave commands to his men: and the rest of the army moved in silence, and you would not think that so many men with voices in their chests were marching behind them, as they went silently, in fear of their commanders: and round each of them as they marched was the gleam of the beaten armour they wore. But the Trojans, like ewes standing innumerable in a rich man’s farmyard, ready to give their white milk, and bleating incessantly as they hear their lambs’ voices-so hubbub rose from the Trojans throughout the breadth of the army: since there was no common speech or single language shared by all, but a mixture of tongues, and men called from many different lands.
Olympian Athanatology
Authors: Taplin Oliver
Published: November 2023

Zeus the cloud-gatherer answered her: ’My dear wife, you are always suspecting, and no action of mine can escape you. But even so there is nothing you can do, except to put yourself yet further from my heart̶and that will be the worse for you. If the matter is as you say, then that must be how I wish it. No, sit still and be quiet, and do as I tell you, or all the gods in Olympos will be no help to you, when I come close and lay my invincible hands on you.
Special Languages
Authors: Dover Kenneth
Published: November 2023

The earliest explicit contrast between poetic and prosaic language is made (about 365) by lsocrates (ix. 9 f.). The lexemes, he says, which poets are able to use are not only áτ τ∈τγμ ναga those prescribed (sc. by general usage) but also those which are ‘alien’, Kaiv&. ‘novel’ or ‘coined’, and µ,Eracpopa{ ‘metaphors’. Writers of λ ó γol(cf. p. 185), on the other hand, have no such freedom, but are confined to T á π <0λiτ κ á τ ν ó νoμ á των‘citizens’ words’’ i.e. ‘words in circulation among ordinary people’. A somewhat more detailed and systematic analysis’ is to be found in Arist.
The Critics: Beginnings, and a Synthesis
Authors: Feeney D C
Published: November 2023

The aim of the first chapter is to give a picture of the intellectual environment inhabited by the epic poets of the classical tradition, and their readers, as they confronted the problems of the gods in epic. The task is rendered difficult by the obvious fact that this was no homogeneous environment, but a contested and evolving one, of extreme complexity, itself always being transformed by the contribution of each successive poet. It is, further, practically impossible to establish any very firm boundaries around the environment we arc trying to recover, so pervasive was the presence of the epic gods in antiquity. We cannot here, for example, treat the subject of how dramatic poets responded to the gods of epic, although the responses of the dramatic poets will feature incident ally throughout the book. The problem of the gods m epic is large enough as it is without involving yet another distinctive set of problems; the argument of this first chapter will, I trust, establish the justification for taking one literary mode at a time. It will be necessary to be selective to the point of curtness, yet even a selective introductory chapter, by charting the mam critical responses to the gods of Homer, and by setting out the cardinal ancient attitudes towards fiction, will lay enough of a foundation to help the subsequent readings of the post-Homeric epics.
Vergil’s Aeneid
Authors: Feeney D C
Published: November 2023

I sing of arms and a man, who first from the shores of Troy, an exile by fate came to Italy, tu Lavinium; and he was much buffetted both on land and sea by the violence of the gods above, because of the unforgetful anger of savage Juno; he suffered moch in war as well, until he could found his city and bear his gods into Latium: from this origin come the Latin race, the Alban fathers, and the walls of high Rome. Muse, recount to me the reasons why, tell me what offence to her divinity it was, or what pain the queen of the gods had suffered, which made her force a man famous for his piety to go through such a cycle of disasters, to undergo so many ordeals. Do minds of the heavenly ones have such vast anger? (Aen. 1. 1-11)
The Second Sophistic: Some Problems of Perspective
Authors: Anderson Graham
Published: November 2023

‘Antonine Literature’ is easily defined by the chronological limits of a dynasty; but it is also tempting to characterize the Antonine period as the climax of ‘The Second Sophistic’. No one is likely to disagree, but it is not quite so clear with what we are actually agreeing. Again, when we are singling out figures in the cultural history of the Roman Empire it comes to us fairly easily to say that Plutarch, for example, or Galen, or even Tertullian ‘flourished during the period of the Second Sophistic’ or some such formula. The expression has an air of precision about it: we are all expected to know what we mean, and assume a similar knowledge in others. But we ought to be asking ‘What Second Sophistic?’ or ‘Second Sophistic what?’ In trying to work towards an answer, I have set out to avoid any spurious neatness or over-definition: the result has been a series of only partially satisfactory projections, no one of which can easily be made to include or exclude everything that we might wish. But if nothing else, I hope that in questioning the term we can stop and ask ourselves how wide or narrow our use of it is intended to be. Only after we have some notion of what it is, or might claim to be, can we perhaps begin to ask what contact with it can imply.
Plato’s Phaedrus in Second-Century Greek Literature
Authors: Trapp M B
Published: November 2023

Few works were more firmly entrenched in the ‘cultural syllabus’ of Hellenic paideia by the second century AD than Plato’s Phaedrus. Its rich range of subject-matter-love, the soul, beauty, human destiny, the cosmos, rhetoric, dialectic, teaching, and writing-combined with its literary and stylistic brilliance made it an object of intense and sustained interest to rhetors and philosophers alike, the best single justification for regarding its author as, in Cicero’s words, ‘non intellegendi solum sed etiam dicendi gravissimus auctor et magister’. It must have been hard for the pepaideumenos to emerge from his education, whether rhetorical, philosophical, or both, without having been invited to study and admire this dialogue, and without having come to regard it as a proper model for imitation in his own literary products. My main aim in what follows is to illustrate the consequences of this state of affairs in surviving second-century Greek literature-to show just how and where in the work of the period the Phaedrus’ potential as an object of classicizing mimesis was in fact realized.
Psyche and her Mysterious Husband
Authors: Kenney E J
Published: November 2023

John J. Winkler has argued that the title conventionally given to Apuleius, Metamorphoses, 4. 28-6. 24 ‘is fundamentally abu sive to the narrative technique of the tale’, which is (in part at all events) a detective story in which the identity of Psyche’s husband is not revealed explicitly until she takes the lamp to him. It is true that a reader skilled in deciphering literary riddles and conversant with Apuleius’ poetic models ought to have little difficulty in putting a name to the cruel, wild, winged being described by the oracle, before whom Jove, the gods, and the Underworld itself all quail (4. 33. 1-2). Never theless, as Winkler notes, ‘Even the reader who comes to the tale knowing [or, it may be added, speedily foresees] the out come must bracket that knowledge as he watches characters who do not know the outcome grapple with the problem’-the situation, one may note in passing, in which Menander’s audiences were placed. However, even the fully switched-on reader that I believe we are entitled to postulate for this rich and sophisticated novel has to grapple with the problem of Cupid’s identity in a sense not acknowledged by Winkler. For there is not one Cupid in Apuleius’ story, but two.
Constructing Character in Greek Tragedy
Authors: Easterling P E
Published: November 2023

Critics of ancient drama are still keenly engaged in a long running debate about character, despite a readiness on everyone’s part nowadays to acknowledge significant differences between play-worlds and ordinary social reality. No one any longer asks the equivalent, in relation to Greek tragedy, of the question ‘How many children had Lady Macbeth?’, naÏ vely supposing that the stage figures can be studied as if they were beings with a continuing off-stage existence. And most critics are much more willing to recognize that the old certainties about character and personality can no longer be taken for granted. But there is still plenty of room for disagreement, and in this chapter I try to suggest why this should be so, without pretending to wish away, let alone resolve, the difficulties that arise.
Towards a Chronology of Plutarch’s Works
Authors: Jones C P
Published: November 2023

The belief is widespread that the majority of Plutarch’s works was written after the death of Domitian in 96, when the author was a comparatively old man. So far, however, the foundations for this belief have not been firmly laid. The latest study of Plutarchian chronology, that of Ziegler, omits much, and new evidence is constantly accruing. The following study is an attempt to make use of all the material now available that bears on the dating of Plutarch’s works. It cannot be definitive: there may be omissions, certain problems (such as that of Plutarch’s marriage and the number of his children) appear insoluble, and new data, particularly new inscriptions, that affect the question are sure to turn up. The study has five parts. In Part I the dating of two of the moralia is discussed separately, since the argument is complex and has not been advanced before. In Part II I have considered Plutarch’s relations with Hadrian and the date of his death. Part I II comprises a discussion of the chronology and the methods of publication of the Parallel Lives. This is a question at once insoluble in its entirety and yet indispensable for the present study. In Part IV I have reviewed the chronology of that fraction of Plutarch’s works that can be dated securely (stylistic evidence has not been admitted). Finally in Part V some conclusions are drawn about the significance of these dates for Plutarch’s career and development.
Plutarch’s Comparison of Pericles and Fabius Maximus
Authors: Stadter Philip A
Published: November 2023

The purpose of Plutarch’s Parallel Lives was to make clear the moral qualities of the heroes who are being described. Two fundamental practices distinguish Plutarch’s method: he used the heroes’ deeds and words as evidence for their moral qualities or virtues, and he compared two people with the same or similar qualities to determine the exact nature of those qualities in the individual. The comparative method is essential to Plutarch’s technique. Plutarch’s parallel lives are indeed parallel.
Plutarch’s Parallel Lives: The Choice of Heroes
Authors: Geiger Joseph
Published: November 2023

Wenn es uns scheinen will, als wären doch die grÖßten Männer von Hellas und Rom so ziemlich alle in Plutarchs Heldenschau vertreten, so ist das vielmehr gerade die Wirkung seiner schriftstellerischen Leistung: die von ihm behandelten Männer sind eben durch ihn in den Vordergrund des Interesses der Nachwelt gerückt, viele, die es nicht minder verdient hätten, im Dunkeln geblieben; es wäre nicht schwer, eine Liste von Männern aufzustellen, die mindere Popularität genießen und von deren PersÖnlichkeit wir weniger wissen, weil Plutarch an ihnen vorübergegangen ist-carent quia vate sacro.
Plutarch’s Method of Work in the Roman
Authors: PELLING C B R
Published: November 2023

This paper is concerned with the eight Lives in which Plutarch describes the final years of the Roman Republic: Lucullus, Pompey, Crassus, Cicero, Caesar, Cato, Brutus, and Antony.1 It is not my main concern to identify particular sources, though some problems of provenance will inevitably arise; it is rather to investigate the methods which Plutarch adopted in gathering his information, whatever his sources may have been.
Patterns and Verse-Making Technique
Authors: Kahane Ahuvia
Published: November 2023

From the early 1960s there has been a steady stream of modifications, revisions, and surveys of the oral-formulaic theory.’ The object of this chapter is to present neither a revision nor another survey of the literature, but instead to discuss our claim that certain formal repetitions, whatever their precise definition, fall outside the boundaries of what is currently, and by a broad consensus, defined as a formula. The phenomena investigated in this book can, I suggest, be the product of an oral/traditional composition, but their existence does not preclude the possibility of literate composition. It is unlikely that they can be used as an argument either for or against orality and/or traditionality, except when making the very broadest points, and they neither contradict nor require us to modify our notions of Homeric formula or formulaic technique.
Patterns of the Proper-Name Nominative
Authors: Kahane Ahuvia
Published: November 2023

As we have seen in our discussion of proper-name vocatives, even a cautious widening of scope produced a maze of contexts, which sometimes affected the structure of the verse and the positioning of the pattern element. If we look at other, more common elements of the sentence we encounter even greater complexities. Grammatical cases like the nominative or the accusative are often obligatory components of their syntactic contexts (contrasting with the vocative, which is optional), and they interact with these contexts in varied and complicated ways; verbs are even more closely connected to other parts of the sentence. Furthermore, the elements discussed hitherto are relatively infrequent, compared with e.g. verbs, nominatives, and accusatives, which appear in virtually every verse in Homer.
Conclusion
Authors: Kahane Ahuvia
Published: November 2023

The idea that metre and positioning are semantically significant elements of Homeric hexameter poetry should not really surprise us. We know, for example, that various proper names in Homer are lexically meaningful, and at least in some cases they have been invented or selected according to the needs of the text.1 There is no a priori reason why similar attention to meaning should not extend to metrical shape and to general usage. It is certainly not a new idea to suggest that ’the bard regards his poetic phrase as indistinguishable from poetic substance’,2 or that ’metre is diachronically generated by formula, rather than vice versa’.
City Foundations and Urban Growth
Authors: Mitchell Stephen
Published: November 2023

When were there ever so many cities both inland and on the coast, or when have they ever been so beautifully equipped with everything? Did ever a man who lived then travel across country as we do, counting the cities by days, and sometimes riding on the same day through two or even three cities, as if he was passing through one only? ... Now all the Greek cities rise up under your leadership, and the monuments which are dedicated in them and all their embellishments and comforts redound to your honour like beautiful suburbs. The coasts and interior have been filled with cities, some newly founded, others increased under and by you.
The Imperial Cult
Authors: Mitchell Stephen
Published: November 2023

Only three Roman cities in central Anatolia outside the province of Asia have yet been excavated on a substantial scale: Ancyra, Pessinus, and Pisidian Antioch. In each case the central feature of these excavations has been a temple dedicated to the imperial cult, built in the time of Augustus or Tiberius. Emperor worship was from the first an institution of great importance to the provincial communities, and one that had, quite literally, a central role to play in the development of the new cities.1The diffusion of the cult of Augustus and of other members of his family in Asia Minor and throughout the Greek East from the beginning of the principate was rapid, indeed almost instantaneous. In 29 BC Octavian gave authority to the inhabitants of Asia and Bithynia to set up sanctuaries in their leading cities, Ephesus and Nicaea, dedicated to the cult of Roma and his deified father Julius Caesar, where resident Roman citizens could worship.
Rural Anatolia
Authors: Mitchell Stephen
Published: November 2023

Behind this confident claim it is not difficult to detect a lurking fear of the countryside and its hazards. When Aristides later delivered a speech at the dedication of the imperial temple at Cyzicus, there is similar apprehension in the paragraph which extolled the richness and variety of the city’s territory: The land is extensive and all extremely productive, so that you might judge it to be a continent from its size. There are many types of countryside, largely distinct from one another but all tending to the best. Mountains here are even less forbidding than plains beside other cities, and the plains themselves are sufficient not merely for a city but for nations. There are rivers, lakes, marshes and woodlands-the good cheer, one might say, of the gods.
Tax, Grain, and the Economy
Authors: Mitchell Stephen
Published: November 2023

The appearance of Anatolia changed fundamentally between the second century BC and the second century AD. Cities took the place of fortified refuges; settled village populations superseded transhumant groups; cereal agriculture spread to areas previously devoted to pasture and stock-raising, and thus supported a growing population. Roman rule brought a network of all-weather roads, which transformed overland communications; permanent garrisons guarded the eastern frontier, and Roman soldiers became a common sight on the roads and in the small towns. Although the small number of Roman officials and administrators made only a slight impact on the majority of the population, Roman power was acknowledged everywhere, on coins bearing the emperors’ portraits, on building inscriptions which carried their names, by imperial statues in public places, and by sanctuaries of the imperial cult which existed in every city and in important rural centres.
Public Religion in Roman Carthage
Authors: Rives J B
Published: November 2023

When Phoenician traders began to arrive on the coast of North Africa, they found the area already inhabited by a people whom we may call Libyans, whose language and culture survived into the Roman period. The Phoenicians themselves, one of the great commercial peoples of the ancient world, were at this time developing regular trade routes to the western Mediterranean.
Formal Features in Latin Allusion
Authors: Wills Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

There is a shape of speech possible in which there is a marked figure and order not in the sounds but in the grammar and this might be shifted to other words with a change of specific meaning but keeping some general agreement, as of noun over against noun, verb against verb, assertion against assertions, etc... Hebrew poetry is said to be of this nature. This is figure of grammar instead of figure of spoken sound, which in the narrower sense is verse.
Expanded Gemination (Nouns)
Authors: Wills Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

Expanded gemination1 has the same redundant quality as simple gemination-the repeated element can be omitted without any syntactic loss. But typically expansion comes after the sentence is syntactically complete, whereas simple gemination usually emphasizes an element in mid-sentence. The most noted, that is to say both the most mannered and the most studied, figure of Latin repetition is epanalepsis, a type of expanded gemination with restricted line-position. Epanalepsis has come to be the term for repetition of a word from a marked position in a line (at the beginning, at the end, or after the bucolic diaeresis) to a position at or near the beginning of the next.2 This positional definition is completely unrelated to the syntactic definition of expansion, which is relevant for either poetry or prose, but in many cases (such as Eel. 6.20-I superuenit Aegle, I Aegle Naiadum pulcherrima) both categories of nomenclature apply. These passages, doubly marked by syntax and line position, are the topic of this chapter.
Noun Polyptoton
Authors: Wills Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

Continuity of source and result are easily expressed with polyptoton (e.g. Pl. Poen. 360 bene promittis multa ex multis). For transfers, cf. Cic. Fam. 7.5.3 ‘de manu’ ut aiunt, ‘in manum’, Livy 9.41.18 armati milites ex acie in aciem transferri, 30.10.5 malis antennisque de naue in nauem traiectis, and Pliny, Nat. 2.101 sedem ex sede mutantes. For renewal: Varro, LL 9.28 non ex aquilis aquilae atque ex turdis qui procreantur turdi ... ?, Cic. Fat. 27 causa causam serens, Sall. Hist. 1.77.7 tumultum ex tumultu, bellum ex bello serunt, 4.69.20; Livy 2.18.10 bella ex bellis sererent, 2uo-4, 31.6-4. Cf. also Sen. Dial. 1.5.7 causa pendet ex causa and Cic. Fin. 3.15 nee tamen exprimi uerbum e uerbo necesse erit (cf. ‘word by word’).
Adjective, Derivative, and Pronoun Polyptoton
Authors: Wills Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

The repetition of an adjective to modify different nouns in the same clause is infrequent in most Latin poets and prose authors, in contrast to widespread exploitation in Greek poetry. Combinations of alius or omnes had general appeal and adjectival polyptoton flourished in the works of Lucretius and Ovid (albeit for differing reasons), but otherwise Latin dactylic verse provides fewer than fifty examples.
Verb Polyptoton
Authors: Wills Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

VERBS can be joined in polyptoton with cognate objects (e.g. facinus facere), subjects (e.g. uictor uincitur), adverbs (e.g. auent auide) or even other verbs (e.g. negat negare). The first two are the most common and receive the principal share of the treatment here. Although the name figura etymologica has been used of numerous types of repetition, it particularly adheres to the combination of a verb and an abstract noun from the same stem, e.g. facinus facere, uitam uiuere, or pugnam pugnare.
Co-ordinated Polyptoton
Authors: Wills Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

Co-Ordinated polyptoton is a type of polyptoton where a word is repeated with something associated; ‘A and the B of A’ or ‘A and B joining to A’. Co-ordination joins two elements which are of equal rank. Polyptoton, however, requires two repetends of dissimilar syntax, so co-ordinated polyptoton inevitably involves some kind of subordination (even if only through genitival or adjectival relationships). Accordingly, this chapter is organized by subordinating categories, with pronominal pairs segregated at the end.
Noun-Shifts
Authors: Wills Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

The repetition of nominal forms with morphological modification is common as a device for narrative and argumentative continuity.1 But juxtaposition and short units can make this sort of repetition striking, despite its frequency, for example: And there is evidence that such syntax could be the basis of imitation, and thus qualify for our definition of a figure: This chapter, however, considers only two rather pointed types of noun modification (case interchange and gender combinations) with a third section on multiple modifications of nouns (especially triplets).
Verb-Shifts
Authors: Wills Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

THE repetition of a verb with some form of morphological modification is so frequent as to be unremarkable. Accordingly, this chapter is restricted to coordinated combinations (usually pairs) which involve shifts in person, number, voice, tense, and mood respectively. Subordinated clauses allow shifts in person more frequently, but without a sense of figural tradition, as in, Ov. Am. 2.19.47-8 nisi tu seruare puellam / incipis, incipiet desinere esse mea, 3.2.59 quod dea promisit, promittas ipsa rogamus, Rem. 525 nam quoniam uariant animi, uariabimus artes, Met. 15.500-4 me Pasiphaeia . . . // quod uoluit, uoluisse . . . // damnauit, Juv. 7.10-11 et uendas potius commissa quod audio uendit / stantibus.
Roman Children’s Sarcophagi
Authors: Huskinson Janet
Published: November 2023

This book is the first major study of the themes which were used in the decoration of sarcophagi made for children in Rome and Ostia from the late first to early fourth century AD. It provides a selective catalogue of examples of each type, followed by discussion of how these fit into the general pattern. This allows certain themes to be identified which are virtually exclusive to childre's sarcophagi. The second part of the book discusses the choice of subjects and how these reflect the standing of children in Roman society: to what extent, for instance, was childhood shown as a differentiated stage of life, or was it dominated by aspirations of the adult world? How is the death of a child treated in art? There are separate sections on the role of workshops and customers in the development of child-specific imagery, and on material from the early Christian era, providing some interesting differences resulting from differing attitudes towards children and beliefs about life and death.
Mythological Subjects (excluding Dionysiac)
Authors: Huskinson Janet
Published: November 2023

Mythological subjects are the most numerous on sarcophagi, but a few myths predominate over the rest, and at certain times some enjoy a particular popularity (as discussed by KS 89 and 603 f.). Child sarcophagi differ from this general picture only in that the surviving examples (to judge from the material published inASR III and XII. vi) seem to be proportionately fewer in relation to the overall total. But this is difficult to assess precisely since the usual problem of identifying child sarcophagi becomes particularly acute with subjects like these where compositions offer little that may be construed as adaptation for children beyond the occasional portrait head; often the only criterion is the shaky one of size.
The Muses
Authors: Huskinson Janet
Published: November 2023

Muses are depicted on sarcophagi (of all sizes) either as the whole group of nine, which forms the main subject of the composition, or in a smaller number as accessories to some other scene. There are also single scenes in which individual Muses are shown in human company, often with philosopher-like figures. Although these are sometimes discussed separately (cf. Marrou 1937: nos. 93 ff.; Fittschen 1972: 487 f., and KS 203) it seemed most useful to include them here, along with the relevant Christian material.
Cupids
Authors: Huskinson Janet
Published: November 2023

‘CUPID’ sarcophagi seem overwhelming in their sheer variety and number. AsASR V. ii.(Erotensarkophage) is yet to appear the major studies remain those of Stuveras (1969) who looks at cupids in all branches of art, and Matz (1958a) and Turcan 1966a, whose interests begin with cupids which appear on Dionysiac sarcophagi. In addition, there are surveys of the material in KS 206 ff. and inLIMC III. i. 952 ff. It is clear from these that children’s sarcophagi show most of the usual cupid scenes, as well as others which arc apparently exclusive to them. But it is important to start by clarifying what is meant here by ‘cupid sarcophagi’, since cupids involve several problems of identity. In the first place there are distinctions to be made between single and multiple figures, and between mythological and generic. The single figure may represent the god Cupid, although it is hard to tell this out of a mythological context (as on 1.46 or 6.18). Examples where he appears with Psyche on children’s sarcophagi are discussed separately in Section 7. Multiple cupids appear in mythological scenes, usually to facilitate some romantic encounter (as with Endymion on 2.6;LIMC III. i. ro42 f.), but are more frequently shown in generic activities.
Decorative Schemes and Subjects
Authors: Huskinson Janet
Published: November 2023

The sarcophagi discussed in this section are decorated with schemes in which figured elements play an integral but subordinate role.

Altogether they are extremely numerous, with those decorated with chpei or strigillated designs forming the largest groups. These were particularly popular in the later third and early fourth centuries and are good illustrations of the tendency— visible in most type—for compositions to become formulaic after an initial period of experimentation. Many of the figures which they include also become stereotypes, ‘mixed and matched’ within the different overall schemes.
Craftsmen and Customers
Authors: Huskinson Janet
Published: November 2023

In considering the images used on child sarcophagi the workshop is an obvious place to start: here customers’ demands met with the craftsmen’s supply. However little is known about their actual interaction, one can imagine what might have been at stake for each party: range of choice, the use of popular compositions and the devising of new ones, the qualities of the particular marble, and how to maximize customer appeal must have been questions of regular concern. In fact at the end of the day, issues like these may have been as influential as ideology in the creation of images on Roman sarcophagi; and this is even more likely for the decoration of children’s sarcophagi which required the workshop to be particularly responsive to a special need. Yet they rarely seem to get the attention which they deserve (possibly because they raise so many unanswered questions). To redress the balance this section has been placed at the start of my discussion. The first part of it looks at factors to do with design and production, the second considers evidence about the social status of people who bought or used these sarcophagi, and the last part looks at some cases where the sarcophagi can be considered in the context of their original setting.
Cupids
Authors: Huskinson Janet
Published: November 2023

As ‘eternal children’ cupids seem obvious subjects for these sarcophagi and, as Sections I and 6 showed, they appear in a great variety of roles. The problem in discussing them is how to convey the richness of their imagery without being too analytical.
Introduction
Authors: Dodds E R
Published: November 2023

He who presents the world with an elaborate edition of a book dating from the last age of Graeco-Roman decadence labours prima facie under the suspicion of contributing to that most extensive of all sciences, the Wissenschaft des Nichlwissenswerthen. My justification lies partly in the historical significance of Proclus as one of the chief links between ancient and medieval thought; partly in the unique position of the Elements of Theology as the one genuinely systematic exposition of Neoplatonic metaphysic which has come down to us.
Commentary
Authors: Dodds E R
Published: November 2023

The order of exposition of the Elements of Theology is an order of progression from the simpler to the more complex. Proclus begins, therefore, with the bare opposition of the One and the Many as elements in the world of experience, an opposition which had been fundamental in Greek philosophy for about 1,000 years. In the in Farm. (696. 32 ff.) he distinguishes four possible solutions of this problem: the άβχή or underlying determinant of the universe may be (a) pure plurality, (b) explicit plurality having an implicit unity, (c) explicit unity having an implicit plurality, (d) pure unity.
An Inventory Of Archaic And Classical Poleis
Authors: Hansen Mogens Herman , Nielsen Thomas Heine
Published: November 2023

This is the first ever documented study of the 1,035 identifiable Greek city states (poleis) of the Archaic and Classical periods (c.650-325 BC). Previous studies of the Greek polis have focused on Athens and Sparta, and the result has been a view of Greek society dominated by Sophokles’, Plato’s, and Demosthenes’ view of what the polis was. This study includes descriptions of Athens and Sparta, but its main purpose is to explore the history and organization of the thousand other city states. The main part of the book is a regionally organized inventory of all identifiable poleis covering the Greek world from Spain to the Caucasus and from the Crimea to Libya. This inventory is the work of 47 specialists, and is divided into 46 chapters, each covering a region. Each chapter contains an account of the region, a list of second-order settlements, and an alphabetically ordered description of the poleis. This description covers such topics as polis status, territory, settlement pattern, urban centre, city walls and monumental architecture, population, military strength, constitution, alliance membership, colonization, coinage, and Panhellenic victors. The first part of the book is a description of the method and principles applied in the construction of the inventory and an analysis of some of the results to be obtained by a comparative study of the 1,035 poleis included in it. The ancient Greek concept of polis is distinguished from the modern term `city state’, which historians use to cover many other historic civilizations, from ancient Sumeria to the West African cultures absorbed by the nineteenth-century colonializing powers. The focus of this project is what the Greeks themselves considered a polis to be.
Civic Subdivisions
Authors: Hansen Mogens Herman , Nielsen Thomas Heine
Published: November 2023

“Civic subdivisions” is a modern term which in this context denotes the subdivisions of a polis or, rather, of its citizenry. They were civic in the sense that membership was open to citizens and only citizens. Foreigners and slaves were excluded, and women too: the civic subdivisions testify to the Archaic and Classical polis as an association of the adult male citizen population. They were subdivisions in the sense that, at any level, every citizen belonged to one and only one of these units.
Phokis
Authors: Oulhen Jacques
Published: November 2023

Involvement in the Persian War is the first securely dated attestation of the Phokians in Greek history (Hdt. 7.203.1). There can be no doubt that the Phokian koinon (IG ix.1 101 (C3l)) antedated the Persian War, but neither Phokian participation in the Delphic Amphiktyony nor the war between Phokis and Thessalia can be securely dated (Larsen (1968) 43–44; Giovannini (1971) 50–51; Sanchez (2001) 37–44; Ellinger (1993) 17–22).