bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The City’s End Past and Present Narratives of New York’s Destruction
Authors: Page Max
Published: November 2020

There were two phrases spoken over and over again on September 11, 2001, and in the weeks and months following: “It was unimaginable” and, in an apparent contradiction, “It was just like a movie.” The sight of the twin towers falling was, in fact, both: utterly incomprehensible for New Yorkers and Americans of today and, at the same time, wholly recognizable to our well-trained popular-culture imaginations. If the first phrase was an accurate accounting of our daily experience, the second was an accurate statement of what we see when we turn on the television or go to a movie. Americans have been imagining New York’s destruction for two centuries. America’s writers and image makers have visualized New York’s annihilation in a stunning range of ways. Imagining New York’s destruction has not been the purview only of artists and novelists, but also a common narrative, inscribed in the daily world of newspapers and television shows, computer programs, and music albums. The images are pervasive and disturbing, but largely unstudied. Looking back, into New York’s history, we need to understand how and why American culture has so readily and so creatively narrated the city’s end, before 9/11 and after. Cultural forms express and reproduce social experience. It might not be surprising, then, that a leitmotif of American popular culture of the last 200 years has been the imagining of New York’s destruction. The United States is a deeply religious nation; students of American history need constantly to be reminded that the United States remains the most religious of Western industrialized nations. The country has exhibited a strong apocalyptic strain that has not been hard to translate into popular culture. But these visions of the city’s destruction stem in part from the real, lived experience of New Yorkers—their lives and the life of the city have been powerfully and permanently shaped by very real destruction and rebuilding. The specific fantasies and premonitions of New York’s destruction have followed the fears of the city’s people. Some of those fears were built on real experiences—a series of natural disasters, as well as what I have called the city’s relentless creative destruction—that have led New Yorkers to believe that, despite the dominance of their city in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the mighty city is fragile.
Warsaw: Reconstruction as Propaganda
Authors: Goldman Jasper
Published: November 2020

By any standards, the resilience displayed byWarsaw duringWorld War II and its aftermath was awesome. The city endured three waves of destruction: during the German invasion of 1939, the Jewish ghetto uprising of 1943, and theWarsaw uprising of 1944 and their aftermaths. After the last had been put down, Adolf Hitler ordered the city to be destroyed entirely, and particular care was taken by the Nazis to individually target monuments and buildings of any historic, cultural, or aesthetic significance. This was done with grim efficiency, and by the time the Soviet army occupied the city in January 1945, over 80 percent of the buildings in the city lay in ruins. Of the 780 buildings on the historic register, only 35 survived intact. One of those buildings that survived—the Lazienski Palace—still had bore holes ready for dynamite which German sappers had not had time to insert when the city was captured. On visiting Warsaw in 1945, General Dwight Eisenhower commented that he had never before witnessed destruction executed with such bestiality. There had been no military justification for the devastation. Yet almost from the moment the city was liberated, it began to recover. In the first two months after liberation, sappers and workers were able to remove 100,000 mines and unexploded shells from the ruins, and 1 million cubic meters of rubble were removed by the end of 1947. Despite a lack of electricity, water, transportation, and other basic infrastructure, the population doubled to 366,000 within four months. Reconstruction of key streets and repairable buildings began immediately, and new residential areas were planned and later constructed. Within just eleven years, the city would recover its prewar population and could be said to be a fully functional capital. But the jewel in the crown of the reconstruction was undoubtedly the rebuilding of the Old Town, the historic core of the city that symbolized 700 years of Warsaw’s history. Its completion—in 1961—above all suggested a rebirth of Poland’s cultural and historical identity. There has been a spectrum of resilience displayed by the city’s inhabitants.
Experimental Test and Applications of Correlation Metric Construction
Authors: Ross John , Schreiber Igor , Vlad Marcel O.
Published: November 2020

In this chapter we present an experimental test case of the deduction of a reaction pathway and mechanism by means of correlation metric construction from time-series measurements of the concentrations of chemical species. We choose as the system an enzymatic reaction network, the initial steps of glycolysis. Glycolysis is central in intermediary metabolism and has a high degree of regulation. The reaction pathway has been well studied and thus it is a good test for the theory. Further, the reaction mechanism of this part of glycolysis has been modeled extensively. The quantity and precision of the measurements reported here are sufficient to determine the matrix of correlation functions and, from this, a reaction pathway that is qualitatively consistent with the reaction mechanism established previously. The existence of unmeasured species did not compromise the analysis. The quantity and precision of the data were not excessive, and thus we expect the method to be generally applicable. This CMC experiment was carried out in a continuous-flow stirred-tank reactor (CSTR). The reaction network considered consists of eight enzymes, which catalyze the conversion of glucose into dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde phosphate. The enzymes were confined to the reactor by an ultrafiltration membrane at the top of the reactor. The membrane was permeable to all low molecular weight species. The inputs are (1) a reaction buffer, which provides starting material for the reaction network to process, maintains pH and pMg, and contains any other species that act as constant constraints on the system dynamics, and (2) a set of “control species” (at least one), whose input concentrations are changed randomly every sampling period over the course of the experiment. The sampling period is chosen such that the system almost, but not quite, relaxes to a chosen nonequilibrium steady state. The system is kept near enough to its steady state to minimize trending (caused by the relaxation) in the time series, but far enough from the steady state that the time-lagged autocorrelation functions for each species decay to zero over three to five sampling periods. This long decay is necessary if temporal ordering in the network is to be analyzed.
Density Estimation
Authors: Ross John , Schreiber Igor , Vlad Marcel O.
Published: November 2020

In this chapter we develop further the theory of the correlation method introduced in chapter 7. Consider the expression of the pair correlation function where an ensemble average replaces the average over a time series of experiments on a single system. The pair correlation function defined in eq. (7.1) is the second moment of the pair distribution function and is obtained by integration. We choose a new measure of the correlation distance, one based on an information theoretical formulation. A natural measure of the correlation distance between two variables is the number of states jointly available to them (the size of the support set) compared to the number of states available to them individually. We therefore require that the measure of the statistical closeness between variables X and Y be the fraction of the number of states jointly available to them versus the total possible number of states available to X and Y individually. Further, we demand that the measure of the support sets weighs the states according to their probabilities. Thus, two variables are close and the support set is small if the knowledge of one predicts the most likely state of the other, even if there exists simultaneously a substantial number of other states. The information entropy gives the distance we demand in these requirements. The effective size of the support set of a continuous variable is . . . S(X) = eh(X) (9.2) . . . in which the entropy h(X) is defined by where S(X) is the support set of X and p(x) is the probability density of X. Similarly, we denote the entropy of a pair of continuous variables X,Y, as h(X,Y), which is related to the pair distribution function p(x,y) by an equation analogous to.
Oscillatory Reactions
Authors: Ross John , Schreiber Igor , Vlad Marcel O.
Published: November 2020

Oscillating chemical reactions have the distinct property of a periodic or aperiodic oscillatory course of concentrations of reacting chemical species as well as temperature. This behavior is due to an interplay of positive and negative feedback with alternating dominance of these two dynamic effects. For example, an exothermic reaction produces heat that increases temperature, which in turn increases reaction rate and thus produces more heat. Such a thermokinetic effect is thus autocatalytic and represents a positive feedback. When run in a flow-through reactor with a cooling jacket, the autocatalysis is eventually suppressed if the reactant is consumed faster than it is supplied. At the same time, the excess heat is being removed via the jacket, which tends to quench the system. The latter two processes are inhibitory and represent a negative feedback. If the heat removal is slow enough so as not to suppress entirely the autocatalysis, but fast enough for temperature to drop before there is enough reactant available via the feed to restore autocatalysis, then there are oscillations in both temperature and concentration of the reactant. Examples of these thermokinetic oscillations are combustion reactions, which typically take place either in homogeneous gaseous or liquid phase or in the presence of a solid catalyst, thus representing a heterogeneous reaction system. Of more interest in the present context are reactions where thermal effects are often negligible, or the system is maintained at constant temperature, as is the case with homogeneous chemical reactions taking place in a thermostated flow-through reactor, as well as biochemical reactions in living cells and organisms. Autocatalysis can easily be realized in isothermal systems, where instead of a heat-producing reaction there will typically be a closed reaction pathway, such that species involved are produced faster by reactions along the pathway than they are consumed by removal reactions. As an example, let us examine the well-known Belousov–Zhabotinsky (BZ) reaction of bromate with malonic acid catalyzed by cerium ions in acidic solution.
The 1923 Kanto Earthquake: Surviving Doomsday
Authors: Hough Susan Elizabeth , Bilham Roger G.
Published: November 2020

Citizens of Yokohama and Tokyo were just sitting down to their Saturday noonday meal on the morning of September 1, 1923, when the great Kanto earthquake struck. The time, 11:58:44, was precisely documented by seismometers, which were by this time commonplace. In 1923, Tokyo was already a bustling urban center and port city, home to over 2 million people. Yokohama was an important port and industrial center as well, with a population of more than 400,000. As had been the case in Charleston, observers gave differing descriptions of the initial shaking; some witnesses described the same gradual onset that residents of Somerville, South Carolina, had experienced. In Yokohama, however, Otis Manchester Poole wrote that, in contrast to other temblors that allowed time for contemplative speculation (“How bad is this one going to be?”), . . . This time . . . there was never more than a few moment’s doubt; after the first seven seconds of subterranean thunder and creaking spasms, we shot right over the border line. The ground could scarcely be said to shake; it heaved, tossed and leapt under one. The walls bulged as if made of cardboard and the din became awful. . . . For perhaps half a minute the fabric of our surroundings held; then came disintegration. Slabs of plaster left the ceilings and fell about our ears, filling the air with a blinding, smothering fog of dust. Walls bulged, spread and sagged, pictures danced on their wires, flew out and crashed to splinters. Desks slid about, cabinets, safes and furniture toppled, spun a moment and fell on their sides. It felt as if the floor were rising and falling beneath one’s feet in billows knee high. . . . Poole could not gauge how much time elapsed during the tumult but cited an official record of four minutes. Although the earthquake damaged all of the seismographs operated by the seismological station at Tokyo University, Professor Akitsune Imamura and his staff were at work within minutes of the earthquake, analyzing the seismograms.
Tsunami!
Authors: Hough Susan Elizabeth , Bilham Roger G.
Published: November 2020

The 1867 tsunami described in the previous chapter was, as the world has recently witnessed, scarcely an unusual event. Nor was the scene of destruction that followed. Elsewhere in this book we emphasize how the world’s rush, since the 1950s, to expand the size of cities has been driven by an increase in global population. Like a box with flexible sides, the city expands to embrace all those who favor the convenience, bustle, and economic opportunities of urban life. When lateral expansion is no longer feasible, as in the walled holy city of Bhaktipur in Nepal, or the confined economic and cultural island powerhouse of Manhattan, the city expands upward. When both lateral and upward expansion are confined, the size of dwelling units inevitably contracts. Few citizens leave these urban black holes, and when they do, they invariably choose to swell the ranks of another city. Yet one other type of place on our planet has beckoned since ancient times—coastlines of continents, especially the earth’s temperate and tropical shores. It has been estimated that 400 million people live within 20 meters of sea level and within 20 kilometers of a coast, many of them within a few kilometers of the beach. Precise numbers are difficult to pin down because census compilations rarely list a household’s height above sea level or its distance from the sea. Some idea of mankind’s curious predilection to gravitate shoreward can be obtained by viewing the earth from space on a moonless night. Seen from above, the coastlines of continents and islands are illuminated festively by electric light bulbs. The attraction here is not so much the views nor even the fish: coastlines are trade routes and, being the termini for the world’s rivers, streams, and subsurface aquifers, are nearly always endowed with a bountiful supply of freshwater for agriculture, as well as for thirsty populations and industries. This, of course, is why many of the world’s largest cities are seaports: London, New York, Karachi, Calcutta, Hong Kong.
Farmfare
Authors: Bauder Harald
Published: November 2020

In the summer of 1999, the provincial government of Ontario proposed to make Canadian welfare recipients work as seasonal labor in the horticulture sector. This idea came to be known as farmfare. Farmfare was not an entirely new idea. In 1971, Canada’s Parliament debated this topic under the rubric “Manpower: Use of Unemployed and Students Instead of West Indians to Pick Fruit.” Pierre Elliot Trudeau, then prime minister of Canada, defended the offshore program as necessary to fill jobs “which the unemployed and the students refuse to do” (quoted in Sharma 2001: 432). In August 1999, with neoliberalism at the top of the provincial policy agendas, the idea was floated again by a conservative member of the provincial parliament, Toni Skarica. This time, farmfare was not presented as an employment opportunity for desperate workers but as a disincentive to sign up for welfare. Ontario premier Mike Harris added momentum to the debate by raising the issue to reporters. Harris suggested that manual labor on Ontario’s farms could change the supposedly negative attitudes toward work among welfare recipients: “Getting up in the morning, getting regular, managing your time, getting out and doing things, feeling good about producing something, doing some work, they are all important . . . to help break that cycle of dependency” (quoted in Ibbitson 1999: A12). He also suggested that farmfare could help Ontario’s agricultural industries to deal with seasonal labor shortages (Gray 1999). In September 1999, Ontario’s Social Service Department confirmed that farmfare could be justified under Ontario’s workfare requirement that “able-bodied” welfare recipients should either train or work or lose their benefits. These were harsh words and tough measures proposed by the provincial government. Little wonder that farmfare generated fierce debate over the merits and potential consequences of such a program. Social advocacy groups, such as the Ontario Coalition Against Poverty, labor unions, and churches, including the United Church of Canada, mobilized opposition against farmfare. The United Farm Workers initiated a petition against the implementation of farmfare, which opposition politicians presented on several occasions to the Legislative Assembly of Ontario.
Conclusion: Labor, Migration, and Action
Authors: Bauder Harald
Published: November 2020

Social, cultural, and legal practices associated with international migration are integral elements of a wider neoliberal regime of accumulation. Neoliberalism, however, is not a monolithic configuration. It evolved through a history and geography of experimentation (Peck 2004) and exists in a variety of forms. Likewise, the manner in which international migration regulates labor markets does not follow a prewritten, universal script but evolves in a place- and contextspecific manner. Formal citizenship, for example, is a powerful category to control migrant labor in many countries. In Canada, however, foreign immigrants and citizens have similar labor market rights, and in Germany long-term foreign residents acquire postnational rights, which put newcomers on more or less equal legal footing with nonmigrants. When citizenship fails to distinguish between migrant and nonmigrant workers, then other mechanisms of distinction, including various forms of cultural and social capital, assume more prominent roles. The case studies presented in this book show how these legal, social, and cultural processes of distinguishing and controlling international migrants regulate labor markets. Cultural representation is a critical process in maintaining, enforcing, and advancing this aspect of the neoliberal project. A particularly powerful discursive strategy is the representation of migrant labor as essential for production and economic well-being and, at the same time, the vilification of migrant workers as outsiders, parasites, and threats to local and national communities. Although I limited my empirical investigation to a few case studies, similar representations of migrant workers likely exist in Australia, throughout Europe, in the United States, and in other migrant-receiving industrialized countries. In recent years, cultural representations of migrants have been tied to the so-called war on terrorism, which constructs international migrants as a particularly deadly population. Exploiting the fears of terror, restrictive and oppressive policies and practices toward international migrants have gone far beyond genuine efforts to filter out traveling suicide assassins (Wright 2003). The strategic incorporation of new narratives into discourses of migration and the appropriation of relatively unrelated but highly visible events such as the destruction of the World Trade Center in New York illustrate the systematic, if not deliberate, nature of representation.
Preparation, Analysis, and Degradation
Authors: Mark James E. , Schaefer Dale W. , Lin Gui
Published: November 2020

Elemental silicon on which the entire technology is based is typically obtained by reduction of the mineral silica with carbon at high temperatures: . . . SiO2 + 2C → Si 2CO (2.1) . . . The silicon is then converted directly to tetrachlorosilane by the reaction . . . Si + 2Cl2 → SiCl4 (2.2) . . Tetrachlorosilane can be used to form an organosilane by the Grignard Reaction . . . SiCl4 + 2 RMgX → R2SiCl2 + 2 MgClX (2.3). . . This relatively complicatreaction has been replaced by the so-called Direct Process or Rochow Process, which starts from elemental silicon as is illustrated by the reaction . . . Si + 2 RCl → R2SiCl2 (2.4) . . . This process also yields RSiCl3 and R3SiCl, which­­ can be removed by distillation. Compounds of formula R2SiCl2 are extremely important as intermediates to a variety of substances having both organic and inorganic character. Hydrolysis gives dihydroxy structures, which can condense to give the basic [–SiR2O–] repeat unit. The nature of the product obtained depends greatly on the reaction conditions. Basic catalysts and higher temperatures favor higher molecular weight linear polymers. Acidic catalysts tend to produce cyclic small molecules or low molecular weight polymers. The hydrolysis approach to polysiloxane synthesis has been largely replaced by ring-opening polymerization of organosilicon cyclic trimers and tetramers, with ionic initiation. These cyclic monomers are produced by the hydrolysis of dimethyldichlorosilane. Under the right conditions, at least 50 wt % of the products are cyclic oligomers. The desired cyclic species are separated from the mixture for use in ring-opening polymerizations such as those described in the following section. In addition, “click” chemistry has been developed for new synthesis techniques in general, and polymerizations in particular. These approaches have been used to prepare polysiloxane elastomers and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) copolymers that can function as thermoplastic elastomers. New synthetic strategies for structured silicones, based on B(C6F5)3 have also been developed. Another new approach involves enzymes, such as the lipase enzymatically catalyzed synthesis of silicone aromatic polyesters and silicone aromatic polyamides.
Flow Cytometry, Beads, and Microchannels
Authors: Buranda Tione , Sklar Larry A.
Published: November 2020

Microfluidic devices generally consume microliter to submicroliter volumes of sample and are thus well suited for use when the required reagents are scarce or expensive. Because microfluidic devices operate in a regime in which small Reynolds numbers govern the delivery of fluid samples, reagent mixing and subsequent reactivity has been a severe limiting factor in their applicability. The inclusion of packed beads in the microfluidic device repertoire has several advantages: molecular assemblies for the assay are created outside the channel on beads and characterized with flow cytometry, uniform populations of beads may be assured through rapid cytometric sorting, beads present a larger surface area for the display of receptors than flat surfaces, rapid mixing in the microcolumn is achieved because the distance that must be covered by diffusion is limited to the (≤1-μm) interstitial space between the closely packed receptorbearing beads, and analytes are captured in a flow-through format and, as such, each bead can act as a local concentrator of analytes. Progress in the combined use of beads and microfluidic devices has been limited by the ability to pack beads at specific sections of microfluidic devices. A subsequent challenge associated with the packed microcolumns of beads is the substantial pressure drop that affects the fluid flow velocity. However, some of these challenges have been overcome in the design of simple model systems that have potential applications in DNA analysis, chromatography, and immunoassays. It is the intent of this chapter to examine the recent emergence of small-volume heterogeneous immunoassays, using beads trapped in microchannels, while excluding other closely related applications such as capillary electrophoresis and flow injection–based approaches. Of necessity, the authors’ interests and availability of information pertinent to the specific discussions presented below impose additional restrictions. To date, there are only a handful of applications that combine packed beads and microfluidic devices, and even fewer that make the overt connection between flow cytometry–based assays and beads. Harrison and coworkers have provided one of the earliest conceptual demonstrations of the capability to incorporate packed beads in microfluidic devices for analytical purposes.
Multiparameter Analysis: Application to Vaccine Analysis
Authors: Roederer Mario , De Rosa Stephen C.
Published: November 2020

Fluorescence-based flow cytometry was introduced in the late 1960s and is now used extensively both in basic research and in the clinic. Flow cytometry allows not only for the rapid multiparametric analysis of cells on a cell-by-cell basis but also for the viable separation, or sorting, of highly purified populations of cells. In this chapter, we will discuss only the analysis aspects. The earliest flow cytometry experiments had three parameters: one fluorescence measurement and two scattered light signals. An early “one-color” experiment successfully separated antibody-secreting B cells from mouse splenocytes. This and other early studies quickly demonstrated the usefulness of this technology in immunological studies. However, measurement of only one fluorescence was a limitation. By adding detectors collecting light in specified wavelength ranges, multiple fluorescence measurements could be made simultaneously. By 1984, four-color fluorescence experiments could be routinely performed, at least in the most sophisticated flow cytometry laboratories, but it took another 10 years before most laboratories could perform routine three-color experiments. One reason for this delay is that it took some time to recognize the need for measuring multiple parameters in addressing questions that explored the complexity of the immune system. Another reason was that it was not until the late 1980s that fourcolor benchtop instrumentation became available. The AIDS epidemic also had a major effect on the expansion of flow cytometry into the research community, as early in the epidemic, the enumeration of CD4 was found to serve as a surrogate marker for disease progression. During this period, we were examining a number of functionally-important T cell subsets in HIV-infected adults and children, including naïve and memory, using three-color flow cytometry. These studies demonstrated clearly for the first time the loss of both CD4 and CD8 naïve T cells during HIV disease progression. This loss had not been previously recognized either because appropriate combinations of reagents were not used or because the studies were limited to two colors. Having demonstrated that multiple markers used in combination could lead to clinically relevant findings that were previously missed, we wondered how many other important subsets could be detected by measuring additional parameters.
Rheology of Miscible Polymer Blends
Authors: Han Chang Dae
Published: November 2020

Broadly classified, there are three types of polymer blends, namely, (1) miscible polymer blends, (2) immiscible polymer blends, and (3) partially miscible polymer blends. There are many different experimental methods that can be used to investigate the miscibility of polymer blends, such as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), dielectric measurement, cloud point measurement, microscopy, light scattering, small-angle X-ray scattering, small-angle neutron scattering, fluorescence technique, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Each of these experimental methods can only probe the homogeneity (or heterogeneity) in a polymer blend at a certain scale range. Thus, the determination of the miscibility in polymer blends depends on the resolution limit of the experimental method(s) employed. For instance, DSC and DMTA have frequently been used to determine the miscibility in polymer blends by determining glass transition temperature Tg. When a single Tg value is observed in a polymer blend, the blend can be considered miscible. However, there is a general consensus among researchers that such an experimental criterion, while very useful, cannot guarantee that a polymer blend is miscible on a segmental level. Therefore, a serious question may be raised as to whether a polymer pair can be regarded as being miscible on the segmental level (say, less than approximately 5 nm). It has been reported that DMTA can resolve the size of domains (or separated phases) on the order of 5–10 nm (Molnar and Eisenberg 1992) and DSC is not as sensitive as DMTA for determining the Tg of a polymer blend (Stoelting et al. 1970). In the use of DSC to investigate the miscibility of polymer blends, one often encounters the situation where a very broad (say, 40–60 ◦C) single glass transition appears for certain blend compositions, such as polystyrene/poly(α-methyl styrene) (PS/PαMS) blends (Kim et al. 1998; Lin and Roe 1988; Saeki 1983) and polystyrene/poly(vinyl methyl ether) (PS/PVME) blends (Kim et al. 1998; Schneider and Wirbser 1990; Schneider et al. 1990). Under such circumstances, it is not clear how an unambiguous, single value of Tg can be read off from a DSC thermogram.
Coextrusion
Authors: Han Chang Dae
Published: November 2020

Coextruded products were first commercialized in the 1950s by the fiber industry, which produced conjugate fibers (Sisson and Morhead 1953; Hicks et al. 1960, 1967). Subsequently, in the 1960s and 1970s, the plastics industry developed coextrusion processes to produce multilayer films and sheets by extruding two or more polymers. Schrenk and coworkers (Schrenk 1974; Schrenk and Alfrey 1973; Schrenk et al. 1963) pioneered the concept of a coextrusion die system. However, there are a number of technological problems that must be understood in order to achieve successful coextrusion operations. In the 1970s, a number of research groups devoted their efforts to a better understanding of the fundamental problems associated with the coextrusion processes; namely, (1) interface deformation (i.e., encapsulation of one component by another component) during coextrusion (Everage 1975; Han 1973, 1975; Khan and Han 1976; Lee and White 1974; MacLean 1973; Southern and Ballman 1973, 1975; White and Lee 1975) and (2) interfacial instability during coextrusion (Han and Shetty 1978a; Khan and Han 1977; Schrenk et al. 1978). Those efforts are summarized in two monographs by Han (1976, 1981). Since then, further efforts have been made to investigate interface deformation during coextrusion via finite element analysis (Karagiannis et al. 1990; Matsunaga et al. 1998; Mavridis et al. 1987; Mitsoulis 1988; Mitsoulis and Heng 1987; Puissant et al. 1994) and to investigate interfacial instability, both experimentally (Han et al. 1984; Wilson and Khomami 1992, 1993) and theoretically (Anturkar et al. 1990; Khomami 1990; Su and Khomami 1992). Coextruded sheet for thermoformed high-barrier containers has become an important business sector for food and beverage packages for meats, baby food, beer, carbonated soft drinks, etc. Such packaging requires improved barrier protection to extend the shelf life of such products in thermoformed barrier containers. It should be mentioned that the coextruded sheets or films are of little commercial value unless the component polymers adhere together. This means that the component polymers must be compatible,1 at temperatures ranging from service temperature to the melt processing temperature in order to have good adhesion between the layers in the coextruded films or sheets.
Protecting Groups
Authors: Li Jie Jack , Limberakis Chris , Pflum Derek A.
Published: November 2020

In his book, Protecting Groups, Philip J. Kocieński stated that there are three things that cannot be avoided: death, taxes, and protecting groups. Indeed, protecting groups mask functionality that would otherwise be compromised or interfere with a given reaction, making them a necessity in organic synthesis. In this chapter, for each protecting group showcased, only the most widely used methods for protection and cleavage are shown. Also, this section is not comprehensive and only addresses some of the most common blocking groups in organic synthesis. For a thorough review of protecting groups, the reader should consult the following references: (a) Wuts, P. G. M.; Greene, T. W.; Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis, 4th ed.; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, 2007; (b) Kocienski, P. J. Protecting Groups, 3rd edition.; Thieme: Stuggart, 2004. In this section, the formation and cleavage of eight protecting groups for alcohols and phenols are presented: acetate; acetonides for diols; benzyl ether; para-methoxybenzyl (PMB) ether; methyl ether; methoxymethylene (MOM) ether; tert-butyldiphenylsilyl (TBDPS) silyl ether; and tetrahydropyran (THP). Acetate is a convenient protecting group for alcohols—easy on and easy off. Selective protection of a primary alcohol in the presence of a secondary alcohol can be achieved at low temperature. The drawback of this protecting group is its incompatibility with hydrolysis and reductive conditions.
Stalking: Introduction, Definition, and Epidemiology
Authors: Giorgi-Guarnieri Debbie , Norko Michael A.
Published: November 2020

The 1990s witnessed the emergence of stalking as a new social construct that was recognized through the development of antistalking statutes. Simultaneously, stalking received widespread attention in the popular news media and in scholarly works by mental health professionals. Considerable variation exists among the legal, clinical, and research definitions of stalking. Large-scale epidemiological studies, conducted in Australia, Great Britain, and the United States, suggest that stalking is a relatively common behavior. Women have an 8–33% lifetime risk of being the victim of stalking, depending on the definition. For men, the lifetime risk is 2–7%. Studies on the epidemiology of stalking violence give a wide range of results: 3–46% of stalkers progress to violence. Higher rates of stalking have been reported among some populations, including college students, mental health clinicians, and celebrities. Female stalkers differ from male stalkers in their motivations and target populations. Finally, children and adolescents also exhibit stalking behaviors outside of normal developmental behaviors. Behavior patterns that we now call “stalking” have been described for thousands of years. Hippocrates, Galen, Plutarch, and various physicians of the Middle Ages described these behaviors (Lloyd-Goldstein, 1998). In 1837, Esquirol differentiated erotomania and nymphomania (Esquirol, 1838/1965). Both Kraepelin (1921/1976) and de Clérambault (1921) described erotomania in the 1920s. Classic literature provides several historical instances of what appears to be stalking. It has been argued that Shakespeare’s last 25 sonnets reflect his obsessional attachment and spurned pursuit of the “dark lady,” with evidence of obscenities, threats, paranoia, and irrationality (Skoler, 1998). Mullen, Pathé, and Purcell (2000) describe evidence of behaviors typical of stalkers in the lives and written works of Italian poets Danté Alighieri (1265–1321) and Petrarch (1304–1374), and the philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855). Louisa May Alcott’s first novel, A Long Fatal Love Chase, written in 1866 but discovered and published in 1993, tells the story of a young woman pursued with increasing anger, resentment, and ultimately violence by the husband she left (Mullen et al., 2000). Two of the late twentieth century’s most notorious forensic psychiatric cases arose from the mental problems and violent behavior of stalkers.
Reflections
Authors: Li Jie Jack
Published: November 2020

In this book, I have chronicled eight categories of medicines. As a testament to the changing times, the old European master-apprentice relationship between drug discoverers is a thing of the past. This truth is exemplified by the feud between Selman Waksman and Albert Schatz (see chapter 2). I have no doubt that Waksman sincerely believed that he was the one responsible for the discovery of streptomycin. After all, streptomycin was the fruit of decades of his endeavor with soil microbiology in general and actinomycetes in particular. Schatz happened to be at the right place at the right time. Waksman’s conviction would have been completely acceptable if it had taken place just a century ago. Since the new millennium, vilifying the pharmaceutical industry has become fashionable. One of the crimes that the pharmaceutical industry is accused of committing involves the so-called me-too drugs. Even Merck’s former head of research Ed Scolnick once declared: “We at Merck do not do me-toos, if it is not innovative, we are not interested.” But history is replete with examples in which incremental improvements of a prototype yielded much better drugs. The first ACE inhibitor was teprotide, a peptide with nine amino acids, inspired by a Brazilian snake venom extract. Peptides did not survive in the stomach juice, which broke them down into amino acids. Therefore, the prototype teprotide could be used only by IV injection. With brilliant insight, David Cushman and Miguel Ondetti at Squibb Pharmaceuticals designed and synthesized captopril. Captopril was the first oral ACE inhibitor, which contributed tremendously to the management of hypertension. In theory, captopril is indeed a “me-too” drug to teprotide, but most patients would certainly prefer to take an oral drug than to have injections for the same purpose. Because captopril has a short duration of action, it has to be taken more than once a day. It possessed a trio of shortcomings: bone marrow suppression (due to a decrease in circulating white blood cells), skin rash, and a loss of taste.
Multiple Sclerosis
Authors: Kaplin Adam I. , Carroll Katherine A.L.
Published: November 2020

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is characterized by demyelination, axonal injury, inflammation, and gliosis (scarring) and can involve the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves. The course of MS is characterized either by episodes of exacerbation separated by periods of relative quiescence (relapsing-remitting) or by relentless progression, but it typically involves insults that are multiphasic and multifocal (ie, disseminated in time and location throughout the neuraxis). By conservative estimates, at least 350,000 individuals in the United States have MS (Anderson et al., 1992). MS is usually diagnosed between the ages of 20 and 40 years and is twice as common in women as men. In Western societies, MS is second in frequency only to trauma as a cause of neurologic disability in early to middle adulthood. MS can vary from a benign illness with minimal impairment to a rapidly evolving and incapacitating disease requiring profound lifestyle adjustments. The disability is manifest both as physical=sensory impairments and as neuropsychiatric disorders. Although the functional impairment and disability that can occur in MS is a source of distress as it would be in any physically impairing illness, the unpredictable course makes it particularly difficult for many patients to cope. It is more difficult to adapt to acute rather than gradual changes, and MS exacerbations usually start without warning and evolve over days to weeks. Moreover, its unpredictable and variable course can make MS a challenging illness to diagnose, so patients often undergo a frustrating course of multiple evaluations before finally receiving the correct diagnosis. Sometimes an individual’s capacity to adapt is overwhelmed by the stresses with which he is confronted, and he becomes discouraged, bewildered, and overwhelmed. This is a state called demoralization. Demoralization has been defined (Frank and Frank, 1991) as a state of helplessness, hopelessness, confusion, subjective incompetence, isolation, and diminished self-esteem. The subjective experience of demoralization involves feeling incapable of meeting both internal and external expectations, feelings of being trapped and powerless to change or escape, and feelings of being unique and therefore not understood. The combined effect usually leads to frustration, bewilderment, and isolation.
Anxiolytics
Authors: Johnston Deirdre
Published: November 2020

Anxiety disorders may occur as primary conditions (generalized anxiety, panic disorder); or may be associated with other psychiatric syndromes such as major depression or dementia. Benzodiazepines are the most widely prescribed anxiolytics. However, antidepressants such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) also have potent anxiolytic properties; these agents are often safer and more effective in the long-termtreatment of generalized anxiety and panic attacks. Buspirone is occasionally effective for relatively milder forms of generalized anxiety. Neurologists evaluating anxious patients should have a high suspicion for the diagnosis of depression, because major depression can present with predominant anxiety symptoms, particularly in the elderly in whom agitation associated with depression may mimic severe anxiety (Schoevers et al., 2003). The neurologist may also encounter anxiety symptoms in patients with Alzheimer’s disease, vascular dementia, or following stroke. General medical causes of anxiety symptoms should be included in the differential diagnosis before anxiolytic treatment is begun. Such medical etiologies include hyperthyroidism, respiratory distress, cardiac arrhythmias, hypoglycemia, and pheochromocytoma. Moreover, physical discomfort may provoke anxiety symptoms in cognitively impaired patients who cannot express their physical symptoms to caregivers. Generalized anxiety, especially if accompanied by depression, is best treated with antidepressant agents. Benzodiazepines may produce benefits in the short term, if distress is great, but the long-term use risks the induction of physiologic dependence. The SSRIs sertraline and paroxetine, as well as the SNRI venlafaxine, are effective for generalized anxiety. Each drug should be started at low doses (sertraline 25mg daily, paroxetine 10mg QHS, extended-release venlafaxine 37.5mg daily) and slowly increased as tolerated. Final doses are similar to those required for the treatment of major depression, and slow dose escalation minimizes early exacerbation of anxiety symptoms. See Chapter 15 for further description of these agents, including side effects. TCAs are second-line agents for the treatment of generalized anxiety. Nortriptyline is the best tolerated TCA. It should be started at low doses (10mg QHS) and slowly increased as tolerated. Final doses generally need to achieve serum levels similar to those required for the treatment of major depression. Details of nortriptyline use can be found in Chapter 15.
Tropical and Subtropical Landscapes of the Andes
Authors: Young Kenneth R. , León Blanca
Published: November 2020

The Andes represent Earth’s longest mountain system and include some of the world’s highest peaks. The rugged relief found above 1,000 m elevation produces strong environmental gradients tied to dramatic changes in temperature, moisture, and atmospheric pressure. These physical factors provide the background to understanding Andean landforms and land cover. In this chapter, we review these factors and patterns, and the complicating influences of geology and human land use, for the tropical and subtropical portions of the Andes, above 1,000 m and from 11°N to 24°S, in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, Bolivia, and northernmost Argentina and Chile. The tropical Andes are recognized as one of the most important regions in the world from the viewpoint of biodiversity conservation (Myers et al., 2000; Brooks et al., 2002). They are home to ancient human settlements and early civilizations (Burger, 1992; Bruhns, 1994; Dillehay, 1999), and large indigenous populations (Maybury-Lewis, 2002) living in some of the highest permanent settlements in the world. As a result, a better understanding of the physical geography of this complex region is important for sustainable development initiatives and other global environmental concerns. Historically important overviews have been written for this region by von Humboldt (1807), Troll (1931), and Ellenberg (1958). Country-level studies include those for Venezuela (Monasterio, 1980), Colombia (Cuatrecasas, 1958; Rangel, 2000), Ecuador (Whymper, 1896; Acosta Solís, 1968; Jørgensen and León-Yánez, 1999), Perú (Weberbauer, 1945; Young and León, 2001), and Bolivia (Navarro and Maldonado, 2002). Luteyn (1999) has assembled information on the plants of the high elevations of the northern Andes, Luteyn and Churchill (2000) have examined the plant communities of the tropical Andes, and Kappelle and Brown (2001) have provided descriptive accounts of the montane forests. Inspiring chronicles can be found in Steele (1964) and Botting (1973). In this chapter, we first describe the relationships among the physical environments and natural landscapes of the tropical and subtropical Andes. We then discuss the natural vegetation types to be found, as typified by the forests, shrublands, grasslands, high Andean types, and wetlands. Finally, we summarize key aspects of the role of historical biogeography and human influences on and within those landscapes.
Ocean Coasts and Continental Shelves
Authors: Araya-Vergara José
Published: November 2020

Suess (1900) provided the first scientific treatment of the South American coast from a tectonic perspective when he distinguished between the Atlantic and Pacific structural styles on opposite sides of the continent. Inman and Nordstrom (1971) later complemented this approach by relating these styles to the concepts of plate tectonics that had emerged during the 1960s. Useful keys to understanding South American coastal processes and sediment supplies were then offered by Davies (1977) and Potter (1994), respectively, while regional accounts of South American coastal landforms were made by specialists in books edited by Bird and Schwartz (1985) and Schwartz (2005). Clapperton (1993) reviewed Quaternary coastal morphogenesis. Coastal sites of scientific importance and historical coastline changes were discussed by Bird and Koike (1981) and Bird (1985). This chapter focuses on the principal factors involved in coastal evolution and morphogenesis, describes key regional landforms, and proposes a new analytical perspective for South America’s coasts by introducing a hierarchical system within coastal groups. The main coastline of South America is approximately 31,100 km long, of which 10,400 km face the Pacific Ocean, 16,700 the open Atlantic Ocean, and the remaining 4,000 km the more sheltered Caribbean Sea. Of the total length, approximately two-thirds lie within the tropics, ensuring that physical and ecological responses to ocean-atmosphere circulation systems involving the Intertropical Convergence Zone dominate these coasts. The remaining one third of the coast beyond the tropics is dominated during part or all of the year by temperate westerly conditions, which become increasingly cool and stormy toward the continent’s southern tip. The origins of the present coast reflect the tectonic forces that have affected the South American plate over the past 200 million years, augmented by relative sea-level changes associated with changing global (eustatic) ocean volume and regional (isostatic) crustal adjustments. The Atlantic coast of South America owes its broad outline to the separation of the continent from neighboring parts of Gondwana that began more than 200 Ma (million years ago). The Pacific and Caribbean coasts have a more complex history, related to the progressive interaction of the westwardmoving South American plate with four oceanic plates with which it has come into contact).