bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
FROM RETRIBUTION TO “DESERT”The Evolution of Criminal Punishment
Authors: KELLOGG FREDERIC R.
Published: March 2006

Does current disenchantment with rehabilitation and the movement toward determinate sentencing signal a return to “retribution”? To the contrary, a close analysis of the program and philosophy of determinate sentencing reveals a fundamental break with the retributive tradition of punishment according to generic categories of conduct. In an evolutionary development that can be traced through the classical and positivist reform movements. punishment has gradually shifted from a focus upon vengeonce and expiation toward individualized consideration of factors relevant to fairness. The thrust of the new movement toward regularizing the assessment of factors in aggravation or mitigation, with particular emphasis on harm and culpability, must be viewed in an evolutionary perspective.
POLICE DIVERSION An Illusion?
Authors: DUNFORD FRANKLYN W.
Published: March 2006

Diversion is defined on the basis of five restrictions that place important limitations on what should be considered “authentic” diversion. Each of the restrictions is reviewed in light of a number of current diversion programs known to the author. It is concluded that diversion as conceptualized by its proponents is not receiving a fair test and will be rejected on the basis of programs that have been operational zed in ways inconsistent with the original intent of its early advocates.
PEER GROUP SUPPORT FOR POLICE OCCUPATIONAL DEVIANCE
Authors: BARKER THOMAS
Published: March 2006

Although there have been several journalistic and impressionistic accounts of police corrupt behavior, there are few empirical studies of this phenomenon. One of the reasons for this lack of research is the absence of theoretical frames of reference to guide research endeavors. This paper deals with police corruption as but one of many forms of occupational deviance and discusses the manner in which the social conditions existing within the occupational milieu contribute to such corruption. In particular. the paper examines the manner in which the opportunity structure and socialization practices within the occupation combine with peer group support to create a social situation where certain corrupt acts are tolerated and accepted.
AUTO THEFT Offender and Offense Characteristics
Authors: McCAGHY CHARLES H. , GIORDANO PEGGY C. , HENSON TRUDY KNICELY
Published: March 2006

Few empirical studies describe auto thieves. The most influential and frequently cited research is that by Wittenberg and Blusterier who characterize auto theft as a “favored‐group” delinquency. The findings of the present study challenge this conclusion. Although the majority of those arrested for auto theft are white. blacks are disproportionately represented; most thieves come from lower‐class neighborhoods: and the distribution of juvenile thieves by fathers’ occupational status does not appear to differ from that of other delinquents. Five types of out theft are suggested; the offender and offense characteristics are empirically examined.
INTERPREIING OFFICIAL RECORDS AS INDICATORS OF RECIDIVISM IN EVALUATING DELINQUENCY PREVENTION PROGRAMS
Authors: HAWKINS J. DAVID , CASSIDY CHRISTINE H. , LIGHT NANCY B. , MILLER CATHY A.
Published: March 2006

Evaluations of crime reduction and prevention programs often use information from official law enforcement or judicial records as ostensibly “objective” indicators of criminal or delinquent activity. However. we of data from official police and court records in assessing the effectiveness of a delinquency prevention program in King County. Washington, yielded divergent conclusions regarding program “success,” depending upon choices in interpretation of records used and the data presentation format adopted. these choices also determined which socio demographic and service‐related variables appeared to be related to delinquency. The article calls into question the reliability and validity of official record data as indicators of recidivism, calls for rethinking the selection and use of indicators of program effect in evaluation studies, and calls for further research to explore the possible existence of consistent relationships among available delinquency measures.
BROKEN HOMES AND MIDDLE CLASS DELINQUENCY A Reassessment
Authors: HENNESSY MICHAEL , RICHARDS PAMELA J. , BERK RICHARD A.
Published: March 2006

This paper uses data from middle class suburban high school students to examine the relationship between broken homes and self‐reported delinquency. Only small effects of family structure on delinquent acts are discovered. Methodological and theoretical problems which are common to research on broken homes are outlined and the contradictions between our results and those of other researchers are then analyzed from the alternative explanations of specification and spuriousness.
SELF‐CONCEPT, DELINQUENCY, AND POSITIVE PEER CULTURE
Authors: McKINNEY FRED , MILLER DAVID J. , BEER LEO , BOHANNON STEPHZN R.
Published: March 2006

This is an empirical attempt to assess juvenile delinquency and correction. in an institutional setting, in terms of agency and communion (two aspects of self) as defined by Bakan (1966). The Jusness Inventory, a standard inventory for assessing social adaptability and conformity, used with a multi scaled index was employed on juvenile delinquents in a positive peer culture program items of the Jesness Inventory judged to be a genetic and communal are listed.
STRUCTURAL AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF PRlSONlZATlON
Authors: THOMAS CHARLES W. , PETERSEN DAVID M. , ZINGRAFF RHANDA M.
Published: March 2006

This study. based on an analysis of data obtained from a randomly selected sample of 239 inmates of a maximum security federal penetentiary, assesses the explanotory power and relative importance of variables related to prisonization in the previous literature. While support for hypotheses derived from the importation and deprivation models was found, our analysis. consistent with earlier research, reveals that the proportion of variance in prisonization which can be accounted for is not high. Still, our findings underline the necessity of moving toward an integration of existing theories of prisonization rother than attempting to view them as contradictory perspectives.
OFFENDER REACTlON, PROFESSIONAL OPINION, AND SENTENCING
Authors: TRAVER HAROLD
Published: March 2006

The central issue of this study involves determining whether the deviant is merely a passive recipient of a deviant label or if he is able to actively influence the labeling process. It is found that sex offenders who admit at least some involvement in deviant sexual activities stand a greater chance of being recommended for probation than these who deny involvement, but only if the offense does not contain certain features, e.g., force or pregnancy of the victim, which would normally preclude considering probation. The criminal justice system contains within it some means for allowing offenders to negotiate some of the consequences of conviction.
MAINTAINING RESEARCH ACCESS IN POLICE ORGANIZATIONS
Authors: LUNDMAN RICHARD J. , FOX JAMES C.
Published: March 2006

Abstract This paper explores certain of the general problems associated with maintaining research access in police organizations. Among the problems researchers are likely to encounter are difficulties in communicating and winning the acceptance of street‐level patrol officers, problems in developing a mutually acceptable field role, and threats of premature termination. The solutions suggested include specific and repeated efforts to inform patrol‐level officers of the research, emphasis of the occupational features of the traditional participant‐as‐observer role, and making specific plans to deal with attempts at premature termination.
STABLE PREDICTORS OF RECIDIVISM:
Authors: PRITCHARD DAVID A.
Published: March 2006

Seventy‐one studies are reviewed which present data on the relationship between biographical predictors and recidivism in 177 independent samples of offenders. A summary table lists the number of samples in which a particular predictor was found to be related to recidivism and the number of samples in which that predictor was found to be unrelated to recidivisim. Detailed summaries of the relation between “type of instant offense” and recidivism and “age at first arrest” and recidivism are also included.
PREVENTIVE DETENTION
Authors: BARIDON PHILIP , McEWEN THOMAS
Published: March 2006

The authors suggest that the probability of an arrestee engaging in violent crime before trial should be recognized as on independent and legitimate concern of the courts. Some of the major practical and legal considerations in implementing a pretrial detention option are discussed. A model is proposed which would give prosecutors a uniform basis for the decision to request a judicial order to detain pending trial. The model is based upon a modification of the Sellin‐Wolfgang index of seriousness.
FEAR OF CRIME IN RESIDENTIAL COMMUNITIES
Authors: SHOTLAND R. LANCE , HAYWARD SCOTT C. , YOUNG CARLOTTA , SIGNORELLA MARGARET L. , MINDINGALL KENNETH , KENNEDY JOHN K. , ROVINE MICHAEL J. , DANOWITZ ED WARD F.
Published: March 2006

Three variables were hypothesized to cause a fear of crime and a potential change in behavior. These were: (1) crimes against a person rather than crimes against property; (2) a crime committed in an area frequented rather than a crime occurring in an area one never entered; (3) a recurring crime rather than a crime that occurred once. Two different samples of female subjects (n = 249) were approached at their residences and were asked to read one of a number of fictitious crime stories that the news media supposedly had not reported and to complete two scales measuring: (1) an emotional response to crime and (2) a potential behavioral response to crime. The results indicate that a physical assault produces both more fear and more potential behavioral change than a burglary. A crime that occurs eight times causes people to consider taking precautions in comparison to a crime that occurs once. There is some evidence that a crime in an area one frequents causes more fear than a crime occurring in an area one never enters.
DESIGN PROBLEMS IN PUBLIC POLICY DEVELOPMENT
Authors: LEWIS DAN A.
Published: March 2006

This essay explores the issues involved in designing public policies. It suggests that those programs not well designed will generate inappropriate expectations for success. This lack of design sophistication may not lead well‐conceived methods .for achieving stated objectives. Taking the Low Enforcement Assistance Administration's Cornmunit. Anti‐Crime Program as an example, the paper analyzes the implicit sociological theory which guided the development of this new and important program. The essay concludes by highlighting some of the important contributions the Community Anti‐Crime Program can make in the criminal justice policy arena despite its conceptual shortcomings. While design problems may hinder the implementation of programs, they do not necessarily have to cripple them.
LEGAL STIGMA FOR MARIJUANA POSSESSION
Authors: ERICKSON PATRICIA G. , GOODSTADT MICHAEL S.
Published: March 2006

A field experiment demonstrated that (1) the more serious a person's criminal history involving marijuana, the fewer positive responses were received from potential employers and (2) positions requiring bonding received fewer acceptances than those that made no such specification. No interaction between the combined effects of bonding and criminal record occurred. The present and previous studies suggest that legal stigma from a criminal record may affect employment opportunities in a generalizable manner and that even nonjail penalties have negative repercussions for future employment opportunities. This suggests inherent limitations to achieving a significant reduction of the harmful effects of criminalizarion by reducing the severity of penalties: some indirect costs of legal sanction appear to be inevitable.
EQUITY IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE:
Authors: LONGSHORE DOUGLAS
Published: March 2006

This research examines the punishment decisions of 166 respondents, 36 of whom are employed in criminal justice occupations. Comparison of the decisions of criminal justice respondents and non‐criminal justice respondents provides a test of two constructs in equity theory: inequity between offenders and victim and inequity between offender and accomplice. Results strongly, support the first construct and equivocally support the second.
SEX AND DELINQUENCY: A Partial Test of the Masculinity Hypothesis
Authors: CULLEN FRANCIS T. , GOLDEN KATHRYN M. , CULLEN JOHN B.
Published: March 2006

With increasing frequency, commentators assert that attitudes associated with occupying the male status or “masculinity” contribute to criminal/delinquent involvement. Despite the ubiquity with which this “masculinity hypothesis” appears, it has received few empirical assessments, and those that do exist typically are flawed by what amounts to the ecological fallacy. Using individual level data, this research attempted to test the masculinity proposition. In general, our data lent some support to the hypothesis, indicating that independent of gender, having masculine attributes positively affected the commission of different types of delinquent offenses.
RAPE IN STOCKHOLM:
Authors: GEIS GILBERT , GEIS ROBLEY
Published: March 2006

Sweden has a reputation for sexual liberality and sex‐role equality, two items which might be presumed to correlate with a low rate of forcible rape. In truth, however, the rate of rape known to the police in Stockholm is about equivalent to that for comparably sized American jurisdictions. Neither laws nor reporting rates are believed to vary meaningfully between the United States and Sweden. We suggest that the rape in Stockholm may well be a function of a different kind of sexual behavior (though not so different as stereotypes portray), and that more sophisticated studies of rape and other crimes ought to refine sharply the gross measurements now employed to signify criminal activity.
BROKEN HOMES AND MIDDLE‐CLASS DELINQUENCY:
Authors: GRINNELL RICHARD M. , CHAMBERS CHERYL A.
Published: March 2006

This research note presents the results of an empirical study that examines the relationship between broken homes and middle‐class delinquents known to the juvenile justice system and compares the findings with a recent study that focused on the relationship between broken juveniles homes and self‐reported delinquency. A comparison of the two studies reveals that both studies found little or no relationship between broken homes and middle‐class delinquency.
THE CONTEMPORARY CRISES OF MARXIST CRIMINOLOGY
Authors: KLOCKARS CARL B.
Published: March 2006

Marxist theory gains its critical capacity by presenting itself as in the process of being realized through class conflict. By locating its critical and empirical reality in a ideal, unrepressive, unoppressive, relatively crime free future, it renders itself irresponsible for its own history and immune from empirical criticism. In order to sustain this vision in the absence of historical evidence. the chief promoters of a Marxist perspective in American criminology have found it necessary to invent untestable and irrefutable concepts whose principal function is to maintain a suspension of the relationship between history, social reality, and theory. Because such work is more akin to religious phophesy than criminology. it presently appears to be irreconcilable with all heretofore accepted standards of academic scholarship.
THE NEW CRIMINOLOGY IS THE OLD SENTIMENTALITY
Authors: TOBY JACKSON
Published: March 2006

The New Criminology is neither new nor criminology, merely sentimental overidentification with the underdog masquerading as science. This sentimentality appeals to students of crime only because criminology has traditionally been sympathetic to the underdog. The hypotheses of discriminatory law enforcement and of white‐collar immorality reflect such sympathy. The millenarial hopes of the New Criminology are illusory. That justice is imperfect even in relatively decent societies is no excuse for embracing nihilism or for giving up the attempt to maintain social order.
AFTER LABELING AND CONFLICT
Authors: WOLLAN LAURIN A.
Published: March 2006

Criminology will become somewhat more concerned for values in the future hence shifting slightly from the empirical, scientific end of the spectrum toward the normative, philosophical end. This will result from crises in criminal justice. from the “coming crisis in western sociology.” from the effects of “critical criminology” from changes in social science generally. and from broader circumstances of criminology and criminal justice.
RANDOM ASSIGNMENT IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE RESEARCH Some Ethical and Legal Issues
Authors: BAUNACH PHYLLIS JO
Published: March 2006

Randomization techniques entail sound methodological means to assign participants to groups for experimental purposes. However, prior to applying this technique to criminal justice research, several ethical and legal issues must be considered. For example, in a legal context, the objectivity afforded by the randomization process may be interpreted as “arbitrary.” Similarly, depriving control group participants of the presumed benefits of a newly launched program may be regarded as unethical. It may be possible to adapt the randomization procedure to experimental contingencies. However, caution must then be taken in carrying out the adaptation, as the methodological rigor and hence the interpretability of the results may be affected.
ROLE CONFLICT IN CORRECTIONAL INSTITUTIONS
Authors: HEPBURN JOHN R. , ALBONETTI CELESTA
Published: March 2006

The divergent and often incompatible goals of treatment and custody within correctional organizations frequently result in ambiguous role expectations and role conflict among prison personnel. Hypotheses that role conflict is significantly greater among staff in treatment institutions than among staff in custodv institutions. Is significantly greater among treatment staff than among custody staff, and is significantly related to both job satisfaction and punitive attitudes toward inmates are tested with questionnaire data obtained from 336 treatment and custody personnel within 6 adult correctional facilities. Although the bivariate analyses provide support for each of the hypotheses, subsequent analyses indicate that role conflict is more likely to be the product of the organizational goals of the institution than of the treatment or custody staff positions within those institutions. These findings are related to previous analyses of the treatment‐custody dilemma within institutions, and the implications for future research are discussed.
POLICE EMPLOYMENT AND SUBURBAN CRIME
Authors: HUFF C. RONALD , STAHURA JOHN M.
Published: March 2006

Although politicians, police, and others have often advocated the expansion of police employment in the effort to control crime, the empirical relationship between police employment and crime rates has seldom been systematically explored. This study incorporates variables which are causally related both to crime and police employment roles for the 252 northern and northeastern suburbs for which police employment and crime data are available for 1970–1972. Separate analyses of violent and property crime are undertaken, incorporating data on police employment as a causally related variable along with several other determinants of crime identified in earlier studies. The analysis suggests that police employment and crime rates are reciprocally related, and that these relationships offer more support for a “labeling” than a “deterrence” perspective.
IN SEARCH OF A LINKAGE
Authors: GAMBLE DARWIN
Published: March 2006

Previous research has produced conflicting findings concerning the relationship between police evaluation by citizens and unreported crime rate. Data for thirteen large American cities indicate a weak positive relationship between the two variables. Strong negative relationships are evident between unreported crime rate and variables measuring police systems activities and demographic characteristics. Cities with the highest levels of police expenditures and manpower have the lowest levels of unreported crime, as do cities with high percentages of nonwhites and dense populations. Further analysis reveals that controlling for percentage of nonwhites and police manpower severely attenuates the original correlation between unreported crime rate and police evaluation. We conclude that future research should endeavor to explain the linkage between police systems activities and unreported crime.
DOUBLE MARGINALITY OF BLACK POLICEMEN
Authors: CAMPBELL VALENCIA
Published: March 2006

This article explores the extent to which black policemen are victims of “double marginality” (Alex. 1969). From secondary data on 576 black male policemen in a large metropolitan area, it was found that the concept of double marginality has little explanatory power in accounting for variation in either black officers' perception of public involvement in police affairs or black officers' perception of police authority. These findings raise serious questions about the general applicability of the marginality concept in explaining black officer' perceptions today.
DETERMINANTS OF ATTITUDES TOWARD CITY POLICE
Authors: SCAGLION RICHARD , CONDON RICHARD G.
Published: March 2006

This paper reports the results of a survey of attitudes toward police and police service among 273 citizens in 4 neighborhoods in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Extensive socioeconomic and personal history data were collected for all individuals. Results indicate that personal history. particularly respondents’perceptions of the way in which specific officers have related to them personally in previous encounters, is a more significant determinant of general attitudes towards police than were all socioeconomic variables including race and income. Results thus suggest that positive styles of policing will significantly affect police‐community relations, and that police‐community relations programs stressing officer‐citizen interaction in a law enforcement context will have the highest probability of success.
TREATMENT OF DELINQUENT YOUTH:
Authors: ANDERSON ELAINE A. , SPANIER GRAHAM B.
Published: March 2006

This article examines the relative influences of the juvenile probation officer's perceptions of self and work on his or her opinions of delinquency and decisions made about juveniles. Self‐administered questionnaires were completed by 255 juvenile probation officers. Results indicate that the officer who is treatment‐service oriented is less likely to label juvenile acts delinquent than the officer who responds to lawyer role models. Officers who make rehabilitative recommendations are less likely to label acts delinquent than those who do not. The independent variables accounted for a rural of 21.3% of the variance in the dependent variable, the officer's perception of treatment.
WOMEN, RACE, AND CRIME
Authors: YOUNG VERNETTA D.
Published: March 2006

This article examines the interrelationships among women, race, and crime as presented by Adler. The empirical assertions concerning the pattern of crime for black and white males and females are examined using victim survey data. It was concluded that the explanations for racial differences in female crime and delinquency advanced by Adler have little value since the empirical differences they purport to explain are not supported by the data.
A COMPARISON OF DELINQUENCY TRENDS
Authors: MARTIN ROBERT G. , CONGER RAND D.
Published: March 2006

Comparative data are presented assessing trends in the juvenile crime rates for Japan and the United States over the past decade. Both court and arrest records show that the rate of juvenile crime has increased substantially in the United States while remaining essentially stable in Japan. The analyses demonstrate that this conclusion holds even when appropriate controls are introduced for the age groups involved. Suggestions are made for future research that might explain the differences reported for the two nations.
TRENDS IN FEMALE DELINQUENCY
Authors: STEFFENSMEIER DA RRELL J.
Published: March 2006

National arrest statistics combined with juvenile court, self‐report, and field observational data are used to evaluate current conceptions of the changing nature of female delinquency. Adolescent females made arrest gains in the categories of larceny (e.g., shoplifting). liquor law violations (e.g. underage drinking), and runaways. Studies of juvenile gangs show no increase in female violence or gang‐related delinquencies while self‐report data show that, with the exception of marijuana use and drinking, female delinquency has remained generally stable over the past decade. We conclude that patterns of female delinquency, especially as revealed in nonofficial sources of evidence, have changed very little in recent years and that female delinquency continues to reflect traditional sex roles. The evidence suggests that the Women's Movement has had little or no effect on female delinquency. At the end of the report. we suggest alternative views regarding female delinquency and the forces shaping it.
VIOLENCE AND COMMITMENT IN CUSTODIAL SETTINGS
Authors: SHOEMAKER DONALD J. , HILLERY GEORGE A.
Published: March 2006

Questionnaires were distributed to the inmates and staff of four custodial settings: (1) a men's prison; (2)a women's prison; (3) a boarding school for troubled and troublesome juveniles; and (4) a drug rehabilitation halfway house (staff not questioned). The hypothesis of the study was that violence would be inversely related to commitment (defined as involvement with the organization and organizational cohesion). Using attitudinal measures of commitment and a self‐report. Guttman scale of violence, the results of the study indicated the following: (1) violence was significantly inversely related to both organizational involvement and cohesion among some custodial inmates and (2) violence was slightly positively correlated with involvement and cohesion among some custodial staff. The relationship persisted among inmates even with the introduction of age and education as control variables. The use of these controls only slightly modified the relationship among custodial staff:
TOWARD A THEORY OF BAIL RISK
Authors: OZANNE MARQ R. , WILSON ROBERT A. , GEDNEY DEWAINE L
Published: March 2006

Criteria which are commonly employed in the assessment of the bail risk (failure to appear) are examined. based on samples of defendants released in Philadelphia, Delaware. and Delaware County, Pennsylvania. The original release on recognizance criteria offered by the Manhattan Bail Project is contrasted with a factor analytical model of bail risk produced through the present study. Counter to the original construct, community ties are reflected in two separate factors rather than one. Findings suggest a reassessment of the meaning of community ties with respect to bail risk. In contrast to the original interpretation, basedprincipally on length of time in a community and contacts with friends and relatives, successful performance of adult male roles in the community reflected by marriage and its associated responsibilities appears to be more important in assessing bail risk. The community ties factor, however, may be a byproduct of differential local community social structure and process.
PRETRIAL RELEASE AND BAIL DECISIONS
Authors: FRAZIER CHARLES E. , BOCK E. WILBUR , HENRETTA JOHN C.
Published: March 2006

This study examines the relative effects of a number of legal and extralegal factors on (1) the decision to release on recognizance and (2) the decision on amount of money bail. Social science research on these issues has been sparse compared to that on other phases of the criminal justice process. Findings from a regression analysis show that the first step of the bond disposition process, the recognizance decision, is influenced by several factors. The demeanor of defendants in open court is the most important. Net of other influences, good demeanor increases the probability of release on recognizance by 34.8%. In cases where recognizance is denied, only two variables are related significantly to the amount of money bond. Net of other influences, a felony offense (as opposed to a misdemeanor) increases predicted bail by $2300, and poor demeanor increases the predicted bail required by $1600.
THE REGULATION OF INTERACTION BY POLICE
Authors: SYKES RICHARD E. , BRENT EDWARD E.
Published: March 2006

Scholars agree that a preoccupation of police is the maintenance of their authority during encounters with civilians. There is little knowledge of how they seek to do this. Using a subset of process data from a large, quantitative, observational field study of police, the authors analyze it from the perspective of general systems theory. They find that authority is maintained in most cases by much more subtle means than past studies have identified.
ROLE STRESS, CUSTODY ORIENTATION, AND DISCIPLINARY ACTIONS
Authors: POOLE ERIC D. , REGOLI ROBERT M.
Published: March 2006

Shifting correctional philosophies and institutional policies concerning the handling and control of inmates have contributed to experiences of role stress among prison guards. The present study, based on questionnaire responses of 144 prison guards from a maximum security prison, suggests that role stress is resolved by an intensified commitment to the custodial role. A major consequence of this is a higher rate of disciplinary reports filed by the guards. Apparently, an increased custody orientation disposes guards to a pattern of closer surveillance and control of the inmate population. This study concludes with a discussion of the implications of our findings for guardinmate relationships and for the administration of justice in the prison setting.
PRISON GUARDS' ATTITUDES TOWARD COMPONENTS OF THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
Authors: CROUCH BEN M. , ALPERT GEOFFREY P.
Published: March 2006

Only recently has there been very much interest in prison guards, their behavior, or their attitudes. Although prisons and their prisoners have been the subject of many investigations, the keepers have been overlooked. This article reports guards’attitudes toward the criminal justice system and suggests what these attitudes may mean.
SERIOUSNESS OF OFFENSES
Authors: KVÅLSETH TARALD O.
Published: March 2006

This experimental study, which was partly a replication of two previous studies in Canada and the United States, had a group of Norwegian students judge the seriousness of a set of offenses based on the magnitude estimation technique of psychophysics. Although it appeared that a considerable degree of consensus regarding the rank ordering of offense seriousness extended across the social and cultural differences between the three subject populations, some clear differences did emerge. In general, any change in the judgment of offense seriousness by the Norwegian subjects exceeded the corresponding changes perceived by the Canadian and the U.S. subjects.
CONSTRUCTING CROSS‐CULTURAL THEORIES IN CRIMINOLOGY
Authors: BENNETT RICHARD R.
Published: March 2006

Over the past twenty years, researchers have, once again, discovered the benefits of studying a phenomenon cross‐culturally, and a revival of the method is currently underway. However, criminologists currently use the method to determine the scope and generalizability of their theories, which were orginally developed for use in one particular culture. Due to problems in this approach, their activities have been met with varied success. The purpose of this article is to examine the use of the cross‐cultural research method in constructing and testing criminological theories. The article will distinguish between the use of a method to determine a theory's scope and generalizability (Evaluative Approach) and the use of the method to construct explanatory models designed to transcend cultural boundaries (Generative Approach). The article will conclude with a detailed discussion of the latter.
SOCIAL STATUS AND DEVIANCE
Authors: KROHN MARVIN D. , AKERS RONALD L , RADOSEVICH MARCIA J. , LANZA‐KADUCE LONN
Published: March 2006

The relationship between social class and four measures of deviance was examined within the context of schools with predominantly upper‐middleclass. middle‐class, and working‐class populations. The hypothesis that there would be significant inverse relationships between social class and rates of deviant behavior within working‐class but not upper‐middle‐ or middle‐class schools was not supported by our data. There also was no consistent support found for the hypothesis that working‐class schools should have higher rates of deviance. The fact that even when we contextualize the social class/delinquency relationship we fail to find a significant inverse relationship, further confirms the conclusion that social class does not appear to be an important predictor of delinquency.
IMPACT OF A YOUTH SERVICE CENTER
Authors: DENNO DEBORAH J.
Published: March 2006

The influences of a Youth Service Center are assessed in two South Philadelphia police districts and two pairs of selected comparison districts, using Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) and the Youth Center's caseload arrest data. UCR data indicate a slight change in arrest rates within the selected target districts and fluctuating rates within comparison districts. Data for Youth Center Clients show a 26% decrease in arrests during a oneyear period, particularly for white youths. but analysis of other important factors that may have an impact on arrest rates suggests thar it is impossible at this time to demonstrate that the Youth Service Center is significantly decreasing official juvenile delinquency.
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE PREDICTABILITY OF PRISON RELEASE
Authors: GOODSTEIN LYNNE
Published: March 2006

Although the determinate sentence is generally discussed as a unified concept, it appears to be comprised of two independent factors which can be considered separately‐equity in sentencing and predictability of release. This paper features one component of the determinate sentence, predictability of release, in an attempt to demonstrate the advantages of providing inmates with advance information concerning their release dates. Evidence from psychological research on stress and intrinsic motivation is presented to substantiate claims by critics of the indeterminate sentence that it results in heightened inmate‐anxiety and poor program‐performance. Ensuring predictability of release is an important objective which is likely to result in benefits for both inmates and the correctional system as a whole.
EARLY RELEASE COMMITTEE FOR PRISONERS VERSUS COMPUTER
Authors: HASSIN YAEL
Published: March 2006

In this research we compared the results of two decision‐making processes. The first process relates to the Early Release Committee for prisoners, which has a discretionary power to release prisoners who have served twothirds of their sentence. The second process involves the use of the same variables as those which were available to the release committee in the course of its decision‐making process, to obtain a computer decision. It was found that the committee was wrong in 75.4% of its decisions, while the computer was wrong in only 30.3%. Some implications of this are discussed.
THOU SHALT NOT EXECUTE
Authors: EREZ EDNA
Published: March 2006

This article discusses the historical developments in the approach of Hebrew law to capital punishment. It presents the biblical principles and modes of capital punishment, and discusses subsequent reforms and innovations of the Talmudic and post‐ Talmudic scholars. The sanctity and invaluableness of life, so fundamental to Hebrew law, did not allow for the substitution of any other type of punishment for death. Reluctance to impose death penalties was expressed in various procedural and substantive legal requirements for conviction in capital cases, requirements that rendered the imposition of the death penalty virtually impossible. The few exceptions to this practice were noted and the relevance of Hebrew law to secular law in contemporary society is discussed.
A TEST OF THE ORTEGA HYPOTHESIS IN CRIMINOLOGY
Authors: GREEN GARY S.
Published: March 2006

Following J. Cole and S. Cole (1973), we attempt to ascertain whether important scientific work is dependent upon works of lesser quality for fruition. The “Ortega hypothesis” posits such a dependence, and we test this assertion in criminology. Using some 2700 works published in criminology between 1945 and 1972, we demonstrate that less important works (those with few citations) are rarely utilized by much more important papers (those with the highest citation counts). The Ortega hypothesis is refuted, and most criminological literature contributes nothing or little that is useful to the field. This corroborates the conditions found by the Coles to exist in physics after their test of Ortega. The data we use are from Wolfgang et al. (1978).
SOCIAL CHANGE AND THE INTERPRETATION OF RESEARCH
Authors: WADSWORTH M.E.J.
Published: March 2006

This article aims to demonstrate the value of time as a variable in the study of causes of crime, and considers its usefulness in assessing the relative importance of personal attribute and social pressure hypotheses. Historical reviews of changes both in certain aspects of childrearing and in popular views of their likely consequences for the adult life of the child show an association between these changes, and changes in research findings about causes of crime. Findings seem to have reflected contemporary popular views of the importance of childhood experience, and as these changed so too did research findings. Two interpretations are discussed. First, have investigators been so much influenced by contemporary opinions that their work has been biased, either in selection of measures or in interpretation and analysis of findings? Second, perhaps histori‐cal reviews show that society's definition of “criminal,” both in the definition of law‐breaking and in the description of the individual, is rooted in its own contemporary culture. Implications of these two possible interpretations for present criminological research are discussed.
ST. LOUIS POLICE RECRUITS IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Authors: WATTS EUGENE J.
Published: March 2006

Police consultants throughout the twentieth century have advocated improvement in recruitment as a key component of their campaign for police “professionalization.” Not until after World War II, however, did most major urban police forces substantially alter entrance standards. Unfortunately, scholars have not undertaken the research necessary to document the diachronic dimension of police recruitment, particularly in light of these changes in requirements. Quantitative analysis of the social backgrounds of officers in the St. Louis Police Department, which is widely considered to be one of the nation's most professional forces, provides the first accurate answer to the question of who policed the city. This examination reveals marked shifts in the education, ethnic identification (including race), military experience, age, and length of residence of recruits, but that modifications of entrance standards were clearly responsible only for changes regarding the latter two factors. More important is the finding that such developments did not disturb the great continuity in the social background of St. Louis police recruits. Thus officers in 1970, like their predecessors at the turn of the century, were predominantly married men from blue collar backgrounds, with checkered occupational histories and a high proportion of prior unemployment and incidence of previous arrests.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES FOR HISTORICAL ANALYSES
Authors: PISCIOTTA ALEXANDER W.
Published: March 2006

One of the most obvious deficiencies in the literature on the criminal justice system is reflected in the lack of research on the historical development of the police, courts, and corrections. Even more evident is the paucity of research which is theoretically or methodologically grounded. As a result of the failure of historians to specify their a priori assumptions, methodology, and theoretical perspective, it is difficult for consumers of the literature to appreciate how researchers have selectively sampled and interpreted historical events and arrived at their conclusions. This article addresses this problem by adapting and applying to historical research on the juvenile justice system some of the theoretical and methodological insights presented by Thomas S. Kuhn (1962) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions and George Ritzer (1975) Sociology: A Multiple Paradigm Science. The study focuses upon outlining the assumptions and methodology underlying three theoretical perspectives which have been consciously or unconsciously adopted by a majority of historical researchers: the march of progress, social context, and conflict perspectives. After outlining these perspectives, a selective review of the juvenile justice literature is offered in order to demonstrate how these orientations have been applied in interpreting the origin, development, operation, and impact of the juvenile court and juvenile reformatory. Finally, suggestions are offered which provide general guidelines for applying these perspectives to any aspect of the criminal justice system within an historical context.
MALA IN SE
Authors: WOLFE NANCY TRAVIS
Published: March 2006

Although the terms mala in se and mala prohibita appear in legal treatises, in court opinions, and in statutes, their definitions are far from clear. In the following article, the doctrine of mala in se is examined in regard to its historical genesis, the rationales which lie behind it, and its legal utility. Discussion of the concept involves questions about the relationship of the mala in se doctrine to common law, to mens rea, to the idea of sin or moral turpitude, and to statutory law. When viewed from an historical perspective, the distinction between the designations of mala in se and mala prohibita is far from precise; this definitional difficulty may presage gradual disappearance of the classifications from legal literature.
WHORING AROUND: Some Comments on Deviance Research in the Private Sector
Authors: INCIARDI JAMES A. , SIEGAL HARVEY A.
Published: March 2006

The trends are explored through which criminologists and other social scientists are being pushed out of academia and finding their way into the private sector, especially in the area of “deviance research.” In this research area, within the private sector, the work of thecontract researcher is discussed. The relationship between contract researcher and client is compared to that of prostitute and john, one in which many hopes and expectations are created, but where the encounter satisfies neither. The organization of private, contract research is considered and concern for the uses of these studies is raised.
CAST THE FIRST STONE?
Authors: TOCH HANS
Published: March 2006

Notorious scientific scandals leave the impression that a line between ethical and unethical research can be drawn, but routine examples show that an ethical penumbra exists. Breaches of ethics in science rarely surface. Most collegial charges of unethical conduct can be dismissed as being partisan; outsiders’ethical questions are more threatening, because they imply that violations are widespread. Such implications can be neutralized by “self‐regulation.” Unethical behavior must be purposive. Technical violations can be attributed to ignorance. The downplaying of ethics preserves the “community‐of‐scholars” myth; highlighting the ethics issue would destroy this myth.
DETERRENCE WITHOUT PUNISHMENT
Authors: TOBY JACKSON
Published: March 2006

Deterrence is conceivable without formal punishment administered by the state provided that informal social disapproval and self‐condemnation are the predictable consequences of criminal behavior. Unfortunately. such consequences cannot be counted on in modern secular societies, partly because of the social heterogeneity that prevents consensus on what is heinous behavior. This article considers the feasibility of symbolic redefinition of criminal acts so as to make social disapproval and self‐condemnation more probable. The crime of rape is used to illustrate this approach. The issue is: Can collective efforts at symbolic redefinition of crime be mobilized through the political process and thereby prevent some crimes from occurring that otherwise would take place?
EEG AS A PREDICTOR OF ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Authors: MEDNICK SARNOFF A. , VKA JAN VOLA , GABRIELLI, Jr. WILLIAM F. , ITIL TURAN M.
Published: March 2006

Slowing of alpha brain activity has been reported among antisocial individuals. One popular hypothesis to explain this slowing assumes a developmental lag, that is, brain immaturity. Studies to date have not established whether the brain wave activity precedes the development of antisocial behavior. The present longitudinal study attempts to answer this question by looking at EEG brain activity measures taken before the beginning of delinquent activity. Slower alpha patterns proved to be characteristic of later delinquents. The findings, however, do not support the developmental immaturity hypothesis.
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVIANCE AND POLITICAL POLICING
Authors: TURK AUSTIN T.
Published: March 2006

Deviance in the policing of political activities may be either legal or behavioral. Both are generated to satisfy external demands without risking undeniable failure. Tactics of secrecy and scapegoating to avoid the perils of external scrutiny are supplemented by applying the principles of need to know and plausible deniability. The demand for results regardless of methods makes legal deviance inevitable and behavioral deviance very probable. Deviance in political policing is very unlikely to be inhibited significantly by legal reforms or public politics. Organizational changes are more likely to have some impact.
SUBSTANCE ABUSE AND ARRESTS Variations in Pretreatment Arrests of Clients in Drug Treatment Programs
Authors: SINGH B. K. , JOE G. W.
Published: March 2006

This study examines variations in pretreatment arrest patterns of clients admitted to federally funded drug treatment programs. Data from published annual reports of the Client Oriented Data Acquisition Process (CODAP)‐the nationol monitoring system of drug abuse treatment‐are used. Variations based on sex and age are found, but not for race. The type of drug abuse was associated with differential arrest patterns. The results suggested that cocaine and hallucinogen users were more likely to have been arrested of the ten categories of drug users considered
U.S. SOCIAL STRUCTURE, CRIME, AND IMPRISONMENT
Authors: JOUBERT PAUL E. , STEVEN PICOU J. , ALEX McINTOSH W.
Published: March 2006

This research develops a structural model of crime and imprisonment in the United States from data on 49 states which was evaluated through a series of path and regression analyses. The major findings revealed that crime rates were effectively predicted by social structural characteristics, primarily urban population characteristics, and in turn that prison admissions were predicted by crime rates. Prison releases were not as strongly influenced by structural characteristics as crime rates and prison admissions; however, prison admissions were found to significantly affect releases. Variations in social structural determinants of violent and property crimes were also observed. The implication of these results ore discussed and suggestions for future research are presented.