bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Modeling the Variability in Longitudinal Patterns of Aging
Authors: Brant Larry J , Pearson Jay D
Published: November 2023

Human population biologists and biological anthropologists have often been concerned with establishing developmental norms, describing the range of normal and pathological variation from those norms, identifying the sources of the variability, and studying adaptive responses to change (Little and Haas, 1989). These are also topics of great interest to gerontologists because of the ongoing debate concerning “normal” aging versus disease (Rowe and Kahn, 1987; Fozard et al,. 1990) and the desire for effective interventions to slow or arrest age-related disease processes. Human biologists’ interests in variability and adaptation are also linked to gerontology by the observations that aging is characterized by increased phenotypic variability (Bourliere, 1970) and reduced adaptive capacity (Shock et al,. 1984). In essence, all of these research questions hinge on the effective study of individual differences in patterns of change over time.
Incorruptible Milk: Breast-feeding and the French Revolution
Authors: Jacobus Mary
Published: November 2023

In 1791, the women citizens of Clermont-Ferrand wrote to the French National Assembly: “Nous faisons sucer à nos enfants un lait incorruptible et que nous clarifions à cet effet avec l’esprit naturel et agréable de la liberté (Applau dissements).” From the vantage point of the bicentennial of the French Revolution, we might ponder the politicization of what has come to seem so private a matter. But to place maternal nurture—that is, breast-feeding—unequivocally in the personal domain is to forget that, for the eighteenth century at least, wet-nursing was both a social institution and a state-regulated industry.
“A Woman Who Has Only Paradoxes to Offer”: Olympe de Gouges Claims Rights for Women
Authors: Scott Joan Wallach
Published: November 2023

For women, the legacy of the French Revolution was contradictory. On the one hand, the unit of national sovereignty was declared to be a universal, abstract, rights-bearing individual; on the other hand, this human subject was almost immediately given particularized embodiment as a man. The abstraction of a genderless individual endowed with natural rights made it possible for women to claim the political rights of active citizens and, when denied them in practice, to protest against exclusion as unjust, a violation of the founding principles of the republic. There is no question, from this perspective, of the powerful impetus such universal theory gave (and continues to give) to democratic movements.
Exotic Femininity and the Rights of Man: Paul et Virginie and Atala, or the Revolution in Stasis
Authors: Vallois Marie-Claire
Published: November 2023

On the fifth of October, two months after the public recognition of every man’s equality in the eyes of the law by The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the people of Paris marched on Versailles to fetch the king and to bring him back to Paris. It is at this time that, according to most historical accounts but especially Michelet’s History of the Revolution, women’s participation in the events of the revolution became evident.
Memory Observed by Introspection
Authors: Ross Bruce M
Published: November 2023

All in all, the dominant trend of the twentieth century has been to emphasize the necessary limitations of personal knowledge and retention. The tradition from Plato and Augustine to Bacon and Hobbes of marveling at the “power of memory” has long been in abatement, perhaps only recently reviving with a renewed sense of wonder fueled by the inadequacies of recent attempts at memory simulation. The goal of this chapter is to survey a variety of topics, primarily from a subjective perspective, that bear on autobiographical memory. Results and problems pertaining to memory are excerpted from the older introspective psychology and from selected philosophies of memory. The findings of the introspective psychologists were often obtained in laboratory situations where perceptual memories of limited durations were studied. Nevertheless, some of those results can be applied to autobiographical memories.
Psychoanalytic Continuations
Authors: Ross Bruce M
Published: November 2023

The Freudian tradition has continued in two ways, first through several more or less orthodox successor lines and, more diffusely, as an influence on diverse nonpsychoanalytic groups, including anti-Freudians. A third position is that we live in a post-Freudian age. The meaning of this frequent assertion is debatable, but it is usually taken to indicate that the major Freudian insights have been so thoroughly digested and so general that we must look elsewhere for individualizing causal explanations. Except for an overly simplified concept of repression, however it can be safely concluded that the general public has remained largely unaware of most of Freud’s range of ideas about memory functioning, and this is to a considerable extent true of most of academic psychology as well.
Acoustic Systems In Biology
Authors: Fletcher Neville H
Published: November 2023

This book is a practical guide for researchers and advanced graduate students in biology and biophysics who need a quantitative understanding of acoustical systems such as hearing, sound production, and vibration detection in animals at the physiological level. It begins with an introduction to physical acoustics directed explicitly at their needs, covering the fundamental concepts and showing how they can be applied quantitatively to understand animals’ auditory and sound-producing systems. Only after the relatively simple mechanical part of the system is explained does the author focus his attention on the underlying physiological processes.
Secession Avoided: The Upcountry during the First Secession Crisis
Authors: Ford Lacy K
Published: November 2023

By the late 1840s, the Jacksonian two-party system, which had brought stability and definition to national politics for at least a decade, strained to contain or ameliorate increasingly explosive sectional antagonisms. South Carolina, though loosely aligned with the Democratic party, remained largely outside the national party system. And John C. Calhoun harbored visions of a new Southern party, which would unite Democrats and Whigs in the region and also would be strong enough to protect the slaveholding interests within the Union. Calhoun maintained conditional ties to the Democrats as a strategy of survival, but he also cultivated Southern unity. After Calhoun crushed the incipient Whig revolt in the early 1840s, no concerted effort was mounted to establish a viable two-party system within South Carolina. Opposition to the dominant Calhoun-Democrats, who generally controlled the state legislature, emerged on an ad hoc basis from a variety of quarters, but never coalesced into anything resembling an organized opposition party.
The Nuremberg Code
Authors: Annas George J , Grodin Michael A
Published: November 2023

This means that the person involved should have legal capacity to give consent; should be so situated as to be able to exercise free power of choice, without the intervention of any element of force, fraud, deceit, duress, over-reaching, or other ulterior form of constraint or coercion; and should have sufficient knowledge and comprehension of the elements of the subject matter involved as to enable him to make an understanding and enlightened decision. This latter element requires that before the acceptance of an affirmative decision by the experimental subject there should be made known to him the nature, duration, and purpose of the experiment; the method and means by which it is to be conducted; all inconveniences and hazards reasonably to be expected; and the effects upon his health or person which may possibly come from his participation in the experiment.
Introduction
Authors: Annas George J , Grodin Michael A
Published: November 2023

This book grew out of our continuing work on the ethics and law of human experimentation. The themes of patients’ rights and the protection of human subjects of research have led us to broader public policy considerations. Since all contemporary debate on human experimentation is grounded in Nuremberg, it is the goal of this project to explore the history, context, and implications of the Doctors’ Trial at Nuremberg and the impact of the Nuremberg Code on subsequent codes of research ethics and international human rights. The Nuremberg Code was an attempt to formulate a universal natural law standard for human experimentation. This book explores the origin and influence of the code for human rights in the United States and throughout the world.
The Influence of the Nuremberg Code on U.S. Statutes and Regulations
Authors: Glantz Leonard H
Published: November 2023

This chapter discusses whether the principles of the Nuremberg Code have been adopted by the regulatory and legislative bodies in the United States. I am not so much interested in if or how the words of the Code have been adopted, but rather whether or not its principles have been transformed into statutory or regulatory requirements in the United States by our usual policymaking bodies. By conducting this type of analysis, one can hope to learn various lessons. First, were the principles enunciated in the Code enduring ethical statements, or were they narrowly focused on assessing the activities of specific defendants? Second, have the Code’s principles had an impact on contemporary research methods and on the regulation of research? Finally, by looking at written codes, laws, or regulations, one can hope to discover how the formal expression of societal opinions views a certain activity: Is it something we wish to encourage, something we will tolerate, or something viewed with deep distrust? An examination of the evolution of research codes provides us with a view of how research has come to be regarded in an evolving cultural context.
The Nuremberg Code in U.S. Courts: Ethics versus Expediency
Authors: Annas George J
Published: November 2023

“The most complete and authoritative statement of the law of informed consent to human experimentation is the Nuremberg Code.”1 That was the conclusion Leonard Glantz, Barbara Katz, and I reached 15 years ago in our study of informed consent to human experimentation for the National Commission for the Protection of Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. We went on to say, “This Code is part of international common law and may be applied in both civil and criminal cases, by state, federal and municipal courts in the United States.”2 I still believe these two statements are true, but viewing the Nuremberg Code from an early 1990s’ perspective leads to the conclusion that these observations are less meaningful than might be supposed. Although courts in the United States may use the Nuremberg Code to set criminal and civil standards of conduct, none have used it in a criminal case and only a handful have even cited it in the civil context. Even where the Nuremberg Code has been cited as authoritative, it has usually been in dissent, and no U.S. court has ever awarded damages to an injured experimental subject, or punished an experimenter, on the basis of a violation of the Code.
Cairo:Eunuchs and Sacred Boundaries Eunuchs and the Vestibule: A Poet’s Model
Authors: Marmon Shaun
Published: November 2023

When the young Turkish freedman ‘Alā’ al-Dīo al-Ghuzūlī, aspiring poet and frequenter of the literary circles of fourteenth-century Cairo and Damascus, composed his sole contribution to the field of medieval Arabic belles lettres, the Kitab mafāli’ al-budūr fī manāzil al-surūr, or Book of the Risings of the Full Moons on the Dwellings of Joy, he chose an unusual structure in which to display his mastery of the genre: he built a house.1 The resulting work, as its florid title vaguely suggests, is an anthology of verses, anecdotes, and proverbs on the subject of the ideal home, arranged by chapters (abwāb, or “doors”) that correspond, more or less, to the physical layout of an affluent household.2 This self-conscious combining of a literary plan with an architectural one makes al-Ghuzūl’s book much more than the usual showpiece of what had become, for medieval Arabic authors, a highly mannered and formulaic genre. Al-Ghuzūlī’s text is a poetic map of domestic space.
Codon Usage
Authors: Sharp Paul M , Lloyd Andrew T
Published: November 2023

In most genes in most species, alternative synonymous codons are not used in equal frequencies (Aota et al. 1988)—Drosophila is no exception (Ashburner et al. 1984; O’Connell and Rosbash 1984; Shields et al. 1988). In Table 37.1 we present the total codon usage for 438 D. melanogaster genes. This dataset was extracted from the GenBank/EMBL/DDBJ DNA sequence data library (GenBank release 71) using the ACNUC sequence retrieval software (Gouy et al. 1985), and screened to remove duplicates and/or multiple alleles (making particular use of FlyBase; Ashburner 1992); the genes are listed in Appendix A.
Plumbing Ourselves
Authors: Vogel Steven
Published: November 2023

Some things are meant to be unobtrusive. We judge our electrical out lets, water heaters., and garbage collections satisfactory when they demand neither attention nor action. And so it is with our inner machinery in general, our circulatory systems in particular. What could be more distracting than worrying, moment to moment, about the proper beating of our hearts and the routing of our blood? Fortunately we can quite reasonably ignore such matters and not risk accusation of insufficient moral fervor by people with a more righteous level of concern we’re not talking about pollution or child abuse. There’s no doubt that the proper functioning of our pipes and pumps does have an immediate urgency well beyond that of almost any of our other bits and pieces. Nonetheless in the well-regulated body such matters look after them selves without fuss and bother.
Pumps and Pipes
Authors: Vogel Steven
Published: November 2023

In our unguarded moments, we biologists may admit a certain ambivalence about structure. On one hand it is the classical guts of our subject. At some level we carry the conviction that the fantastic structural complexity of cells, of organs, and of organisms wouldn’t have evolved without some functional concomitants driving the process. After all, making some functionless structure is not going to improve a creature’s procreative potential, and the latter is the very crux of natural selection and evolutionary change. On the other hand, that same. complexity of living structure proves in practice to be a great curse for those of us trying to see common. functional features amid the wild diversity of living systems.
Pressure
Authors: Vogel Steven
Published: November 2023

At regular intervals I am subjected to that ritual taking of the pressure of my blood without which no medical examination can claim respect ability. The result, these days, is usually a pair of numbers, approxi mately 110 and 70, and some mild murmur of approval by the exam iner. Someone is apparently convinced that. pressure is a significant variable in cardiovascular operation, or at least that an abnormal pres sure signals something pathological. (Abnormal and pathological, we and our physicians must remember, are not exactly synonymous.) I’ve no disagreement-indeed, we can’t talk much more about circulation without getting a little more explicit about pressure. It’s handiest, though, to approach pressure from afar rather than going directly into any for mal definition.
Moving Heat
Authors: Vogel Steven
Published: November 2023

Here’s a problem. Imagine a solid body of which each little bit pro duces heat, with the heat produced at the same rate wherever the bit happens to be located. Heat production is uniform throughout the body will its temperature likewise be uniform? As it turns out, under most circumstances the temperature will be far from uniform. The inside will be hotter and the surface will be cooler than the average temperature of the body. That the body produces the heat makes the problem only slightly less ordinary than what happens when you take some long cooked casserole out of the oven to cool. It may be at a uniform temperature when it’s taken out, but it soon gets cooler around its outside than at the core. If the soup is too hot, you sip first from the edge.
Immigration, Nativism, and Party Crisis
Authors: Anbinder Tyler
Published: November 2023

In 1854 the Know Nothing party burst upon the political scene with a swiftness unprecedented in American history. Yet the conditions that stimulated its growth had been developing for nearly half a century. European emigration to the United States increased dramatically after the War of 1812 and continued to grow in the decades that followed. In response to changes this influx of immigrants brought to American life, nativist political and fraternal organizations appeared in many major cities. However, even though these groups initially gained many adherents, they quickly declined in popularity, even while immigration continued to increase. Only when crises rocked the major political parties in the early 1850s did an overtly nativist political organization, the Know Nothing party, gain a national following.
Mobilizing the Invisible Army
Authors: Maclean Nancy
Published: November 2023

If there were such a thing as a typical Klan meeting, the klonklave held by the Athens Klan on the night of September 15, 1925, would qualify. Exalted Cyclops f.P. Mangum,* a fifty-two-year-old policeman, called the meeting to order at 8:30 in the Klan’s klavem (meeting hall). Presiding over the evening’s events with Mangum was a full complement of twelve “terrors” (officers). In many regards, the meeting resembled one any other organization might hold: minutes read and approved, new members voted in, dues collected, plans laid for a recruitment campaign, an educational discussion, and even niceties: members received thanks from Mangum for having visited him when he was sick and from the board of stewards of a local church for having attended its recent revival meeting with a contribution.
Producing Independence
Authors: Mccurry Stephanie
Published: November 2023

Historians never find it easy to cross the threshold of the household and look inside. For the most part, they have stayed outside, witnessing the struggle for independence by yeoman heads of household from the vantage point of the federal census taker or local merchant. Yet that independence, and its attendant public meanings, was produced, quite literally, out of the relations of power and dependency that prevailed within the household’s boundaries. To write this history of the household one must follow the master home.
Applying the Argument to Specific Nonabortion Cases
Authors: Kamm F M
Published: November 2023

Having constructed the general framework of the argument, we will now examine in more detail how its steps apply to three different situations. In general, the different ways in which attachment occurs may be thought to affect whether there is a special obligation to aid, and what the appropriate baseline is with which to compare the fate of the person killed. We shall also discuss which efforts may permissibly be avoided by killing. In addition, in each case we shall consider an alternative to the output cut off argument, namely self-and-assisted defense.
Informed Consent, Responsibilities in Pregnancy, and External Means of Gestation
Authors: Kamm F M
Published: November 2023

I have been considering arguments for the permissibility of abortion even if the fetus is a person. Now, I wish to explore the implications of the benefit-burden approach for a number of abortion-related topics: the requirement that women seeking abortions be fully informed of the fetus’s status, responsibilities in pregnancy of those who do not abort, and the use of external gestation devices. For purposes of these discussions, let us put to one side the difference that numbers of abortions might make.
Changing Ecology of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
Authors: Schriefer Martin E , Azad Abdu F
Published: November 2023

Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) is caused by Rickettsia rickettsii, a prototype species of the spotted fever group (SFG) rickettsiae. The disease was not recognized as a clinical entity until 1899 when pioneers began clearing the Bitterroot Valley of northwestern Montana for farms and settlements (Burgdorfer, 1975). Between 1873 and 1910 there were 295 cases of RMSF in Bitterroot Valley of western Montana, 190 of these were fatal (Burgdorfer, 1989). Most RMSF cases occurred in males, as they ventured into the field to hunt, fish, and trap. The development of this RMSF focus and the circumstances surrounding it, i.e., rickettsiae, harbored by ticks, being actively passed to humans establishing their residences in the previously uninhabited lands, have since been repeated in numerous areas. The discovery of the etiologic agent, the tick vector (Dermacentor andersoni), and vertebrate reservoirs (rodents) of RMSF in the northwestern Rocky Mountains was a significant scientific achievement in the area of disease ecology.
The Structure of Labor Organizations
Authors: Barling Julian , Fullagar Clive , Kelloway E Kevin
Published: November 2023

As noted in the previous chapter, this book is about the process of attachment between individuals and labor organizations, and the contribution organizational psychology can make to an understanding of this process. If the purpose of organizational psychology is to understand individual behavior in organizational settings, then its focus must include both the individual and the organization as well as their interaction. Such interactive models consider the attitudes and behaviors of the individual to be determined by an interaction between individual and organizational characteristics. Examples of such integrating models include Katz and Kahn’s (1978) open-systems approach and Bennis’ (1969) organic-adaptive model for organizational functioning.
Breakdowns in the Unionization Process
Authors: Barling Julian , Fullagar Clive , Kelloway E Kevin
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapters, we considered the initial phases of the unionization process. We first discussed the factors that predict how individuals will vote to certify or join a union (see Chapter 3). Then we examined individuals’ commitment to (see Chapter 4) and participation in (see Chapter 5) union activity. We presented next the leadership role of shop stewards in facilitating the unionization process (see Chapter 6). As argued before, any consideration of the unionization process would be incomplete without also considering why union members choose to decertify an existing bargaining unit. Decertification represents the collective decision to get rid of the existing bargaining unit. In some jurisdictions, union members can also exercise an individual right to leave the union. We now turn our attention to a consideration of these collective and individual rights, both of which constitute a final phase in the unionization process.
Decline and Persistence of Infectious Diseases
Authors: Young T Kue
Published: November 2023

Infectious diseases have played a major role in the epidemiologic history of Native Americans, as the previous chapter has shown. While pre-contact Native Americans were not free from infections, those infections that were present were likely persistent zoonotic parasitic diseases associated with low virulence (Black, 1975). With the arrival of Europeans, Native Americans underwent a transition from “small band” epidemiology to “large herd” epidemiology, often with devastating results (Neel, 1968).
New Markets, Lost Opportunities Singlewomen and Widows as Harbingers of Change
Authors: Bennett Judith M
Published: November 2023

In the market town of Howden in 1379, 9 not-married women-single-women, widows, and perhaps even some wives who, for whatever reasons, lived apart from their husbands-supported themselves in commercial brewing. One bachelor brewed for profit, and 11 married women also worked in the trade, but not-married brewsters accounted for nearly half of the commercial brewers in the town.1 If you had wanted to buy ale in late fourteenth-century Howden, you might have purchased it from a married brewster or her husband, but you were just as likely to have bought ale from a singlewoman or widow who managed her own business.
Working Together Wives and Husbands in the Brewers’ Gild of London
Authors: Bennett Judith M
Published: November 2023

In the history of brewing, an understanding of the work undertaken by wives and husbands is critical but elusive. Living in a society where work was structured more around households than individuals, many wives and husbands shared the tasks of brewing for profit. They worked together-sometimes with the assistance of servants and children-to collect supplies and materials, to brew up the ale or beer, and then to market it either retail or wholesale. Some wives and husbands might not have shared this labor at all, but many others certainly did. For them, brewing was a family affair, not an individual pursuit. Yet the structure and significance of this family affair shifted in most towns, and many villages as well, between 1300 and 1600. In 1300, it was most common to buy ale from married brewsters who supervised their families’ work in the trade, work that was (more often than not) a by-industry that supplemented other household employments. By 1600, it had become more common to buy ale or beer from married male brewers who supervised work that constituted the primary occupation of their households and that sometimes employed more hired than familial labor.
“I’s a Man Now”: Gender and African American Men
Authors: Cullen Jim
Published: November 2023

At one point in the 1989 film Glory, a former slave named Rawlins who has enlisted in the Union army gets angry at a fellow soldier. A runaway South Carolinian private named Trip has just insulted Searles, an educated Bostonian, by telling him he acts like “the white man’s dog.” Offended by this remark, Rawlins gives Trip a piece of his mind, criticizing him for his insolent attitude toward whites, his fellow soldiers, and the war effort in general. “The time’s comin’ when we’regoin’ to have to ante up and kick in like men,” Rawlins tells Trip. “Like men!,.” Trip is not instantly transformed by these remarks, and he will take some of his rebellious skepticism to a sandy grave off the coast of Charleston.
“Missing in Action”: Women of the Confederacy
Authors: Rable George
Published: November 2023

It was bound to happen. Social historians are rapidly discovering the boundless riches of the American Civil War. What J. H. Hexter three decades ago termed “tunnel history” has become the dominant mode of historical discourse, but since Hexter coined the phrase, the tunnels have become much narrower and more numerous. The forces of professionalization and specialization have isolated historians from each other as well as from the larger society.
The Children of Jubilee: African American Childhood in Wartime
Authors: Bardaglio Peter
Published: November 2023

Private Spotswood Rice, hospitalized in. St. Louis for chronic rheumatism, took his pen in hand on September 3, 1864, to write to his enslaved children. A Missouri ex-slave who enlisted in the Union army in February, Rice had learned that the woman who owned his daughter Mary prohibited her from visiting him and, even more insulting, Mary’s mistress accused the father of trying to “steal” the child. Rice’s fury pulsated throughout the letter to his offspring as he sought to assure them that he intended to gain possession of “his own flesh and blood.” He informed the girls that he would take part in a Union military operation moving through the area later in the month, and that if the mistress didn’t “give you up this Government will and I feel confident that I will get you.” “You tell her from me,” Rice directed his daughters, “that She is the frist Christian that I ever hard say that aman could Steal his own child especially out of human bondage.”
Warwork and the Crisis of Domesticity in the North
Authors: Attie Jeanie
Published: November 2023

Wars appear naturally gendered. Nationalist discourse invariably extolls masculine attributes of aggressiveness, courage, and strength while it lauds female qualities of forbearance, generosity, and sacrifice. Feuding nations frequently draw on ideal categories of masculinity and femininity to bolster their own selfimage and denigrate their opponents; gender imagery provides a means for emphasizing dominant and subordinate positions. Gendered military discourse also permeates relations within· a nation, demarcating warfronts as masculine and homefronts as feminine. Patriotic propaganda sanctions existing patterns of gender relations, calling on men and women to assume genderappropriate roles to further nationalist objectives.
Writing Out the War: Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Averted Gaze
Authors: Hill Patricia R
Published: November 2023

Harriet Beecher Stowe confided, in a letter to her family, that a stiff dose of brandy taken to quell a raging toothache caused her to sleep through the cannonade and bell ringing with which Boston greeted the end of slavery. “Strange,” she commented, “that when the consummation of my life’s desires was announced I should be lying vanquished by toothache.” Strange perhaps, but strangely consistent with her deliberate attempts to distract herself and her audience from the horrors of civil warfare by writing romantic fictions and by focusing upon the details of domesticity.
Reshaping the Bonds of Womanhood: Divorce in Reconstruction North Carolina
Authors: Bynum Victoria
Published: November 2023

In recent years, scholars have increasingly studied the private world of the family to enhance our understanding of the contours of public institutions of power. By shifting the inquiry away from public institutions toward personal household relations, we have developed a more comprehensive view of the ways in which household and kin relationships underwrite the transmission of culture and wealth from one generation to the next. Analyses of gender roles, the way in which societies mediate women’s and men’s sexual and reproductive behavior within and outside the family structure, have proved especially illuminating with regard to how the private and public worlds intersect. Subjecting the private family to public scrutiny can reveal the true status of women and the dynamics of their daily lives. Divorce patterns may also reflect the social effects of political arrangements of race and class, or of upheavals like war and depression, on “ordinary” people.
Avicenna On Emanation, The Active Intellect, And Human Intellect
Authors: Davidson \Herbert A
Published: November 2023

In the present chapter I assume that Avicenna’s genuine works all reflect a single consistent outlook concerning the issues discussed, although Avicenna sometimes does slip into inconsistency in details. Like Alfarabi, Avicenna envisions a translunar region comprising nine primary spheres: an outermost, diurnal sphere, the sphere of the fixed stars, and the seven spheres that contain the planets, the sun, and the moon. Each sphere is again accompanied by an incorporeal intelligence, which is its mover, and Avicenna again knits intelligences and spheres together through a series of emanations.
Patterns of Disease Emergence History
Authors: Mcneill William H
Published: November 2023

The sudden appearance of new infections, or at least of locally new infections, previously unrecognized, has been very frequent in human history and sometimes of very great importance in affecting the course of public affairs-that which we commonly think of as history. Among instances that can be reconstructed with a certain degree of confidence, the really striking examples all come from some new pattern of human movement, initiating new contacts across what had previously been disease boundaries. This meant that infections new to one partner in the encounter moved into what the epidemiologists call a virgin population, sometimes with very dramatic consequences indeed.
Influenza
Authors: Webster Robert G
Published: November 2023

Influenza is probably one of the oldest emerging viruses. It is still emerging. Still the sixth most important cause of death in the United States, it goes far back into ancient Greece and Rome, although the ancient descriptions of influenza were so imprecise that we cannot be sure that they were specifically influenza rather than some other respiratory infection. However, we have reasonably clear records beginning from the middle ages. Hirsch, in the last century, identified and tabulated reports of influenza outbreaks from the fifteenth century onward, using as his criteria a respiratory infection with sudden onset in the context of an epidemic lasting 2 to 3 weeks and then disappearing, exactly like the pattern of modern influenza epidemics (Hirsch, 1883).
Assessing Geographic and Transport Factors, and Recognition of New Viruses
Authors: Shope Robert E , Evans Alfred S
Published: November 2023

Twenty-three years ago one of us wrote a paper called “ The instant distant infections” (Evans, 1966). It was concerned with many of the same issues we are considering here-namely the geographic emergence of new or unusual organisms, usually in some distant area, and new instant transport, often via modern jets, to susceptible persons in our country. We shall discuss the assessment of geographic and transport factors at five levels involved in the emergence of viruses and subsequent host-virus interactions. These are shown in Table 11.1. The first level is the evolution of the virus in nature. In the second level, the agent has evolved, but effective human contact has not yet occurred. Usually we do not know about the agent at this point, with some exceptions. The third level is the effective exposure, leading to human infection and resulting in a new disease. This is termed “ new disease; new agent.” A fourth level, which we are not sure exactly fits in this sequence, involves viruses that are previously latent, or nonpathogenic agents that produce disease in compromised hosts. This has been termed “ old agent” disease. Finally, we shall discuss more extensively the known viruses in search of diseases or known diseases in search of viruses, or the “ accidental tourist,” that is, unknown viruses in search of unknown diseases.
Phylogenetic Moments in the AIDS Epidemic
Authors: Myers Gerald , Maclnnes, Kersti , Myers Lynda
Published: November 2023

By 1983, several laboratories had identified and isolated the etiologic agent of AIDS, the retrovirus now denoted HIV, and by 1985 nucleotide sequences derived from those early isolates were reported. This molecular information was available in time to address a flurry of speculations and allegations concerning the sudden emergence of the AIDS virus. In 1986, two avirulent strains of herpes simplex virus were discovered to have generated a lethal recombinant in vitro (Javier et al., 1986), and this quickly touched off speculation that the AIDS virus may have been similarly generated in nature or in a testtube. Such speculations contributed to a world wide climate of anxiety and created a potential for dissemination of false and misleading information. In light of this, we at the HIV Sequence Database and Analysis Project (an NIH-funded project at the Los Alamos National Laboratory), recognized the immediate need for an investigation of the molecular facts pertinent to the origin of AIDS.
Human Monkeypox, A Newly Discovered Human Virus Disease
Authors: Fenner Frank
Published: November 2023

In 1958, Dr. P. von Magnus and his colleagues at the State Serum Institute in Copenhagen recovered an orthopoxviru:s from the skin lesions of a cynomolgus monkey during an outbreak of a pox disease in their laboratory monkeys. They noted that the pocks it produced on the chorioallantoic membrane were very similar to those produced by variola virus (although subs,equently differences were found), but unlike variola virus, the new virus produced large lesions in rabbit skin. It was a new orthopoxvirus, which they called “ monkeypox virus” . Over the next 10 years nine more outbreaks were recognized in captive primates in North America and Europe, all in monkeys shipped from Asia, except for a case in a chimpanzee very recently imported from Sierra Leone and a large outbreak in the Rotterdam Zoo in1964-1965 which was introduced by two South American anteaters. No cases occurred in animal handlers, and no cases were reported in captive monkeys after 1968.
Replication Error, Quasispecies Populations, and Extreme Evolution Rates of RNA Viruses
Authors: Holland John
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce non-specialists to recent insights into the extreme genetic variability and great adaptability of RNA viruses (those which have RNA genomes, or which utilize RNA as an intermediate template to replicate their DNA genomes). This topic has been reviewed in considerable detail recently, so this chapter will present a summary and overview without excessive elaboration or references. Readers are referred to the many reviews in Domingo et al. (1988) and Holland (1992) for detailed references.
Epistemological Debates, Feminist Voices
Authors: Riger Stephanie
Published: November 2023

Modern Scientific Methods, invented in the sixteenth century, represented not only a stunning technical innovation, but a moral and political one as well, replacing the sacred authority of the Church with science as the ultimate arbiter of truth. Unlike medieval inquiry, modern science conceives itself as a search for knowledge that is free of moral, political, and social values. The application of scientific methods to the study of human behavior distinguished American psychology from philosophy, and enabled it to pursue the respect accorded the natural sciences.
Women in Management
Authors: Riger Stephanie
Published: November 2023

In Recent Years, women seem to have moved successfully into the top levels of organizational management. Newspapers and magazines are filled with stories about successful women’s careers, a multitude of books give advice to female managers on everything from dress to conduct in the boardroom, and companies proudly display the names of women on their boards of directors. However, statistics on women in the labor force present a stark contrast to this glowing picture. Although women make up 43 percent of the executive, administrative, and managerial occupations, they hold fewer than 3 to 5 percent of top executive positions—vice presidents and above—in Fortune 500 companies. The number of female heads of Fortune 500 companies doubled by the year 2000 from a previous high of 2 to a grand total of 4. The Glass Ceiling Commission, established to assess the barriers that prevent women and minorities from rising to the top levels of management, concluded that white men still fill most top managerial and executive positions.
Nur Jahan
Authors: Findly Ellison Banks
Published: November 2023

Nur Jahan was one of the most powerful and influential women in Indian history. Born on a caravan traveling from Teheran to India, she became the last (eighteenth) wife of the Mughal emperor Jahangir and effectively took control of the government as he bowed to the effects of alcohol and opium. Her reign (1611-1627) marked the highpoint of the Mughal empire, in the course of which she made great contributions to the arts, religion, and the nascent trade with Europe. An intriguing, elegantly written account of Nur Jahan's life and times, this book not only revises the legends that portray her as a power-hungry and malicious woman, but also investigates the paths to power available to women in Islam and Hinduism providing a fascinating picture of life inside the mahal (harem).
Mental And Mental Retardation
Authors: Richardson Stephen A , Koller Helene
Published: November 2023

The term “mental retardation” (MR) covers the range of severity of intellectual impairment, from mild to profound. The criteria for the diagnosis have traditionally been based primarily on tests of intelligence, and this continues despite frequent challenges to the underlying assumptions. MR and corresponding termsmental sub normality and mental deficiency-refer to a heterogeneous group of conditions, most of which are genetic or chromosomal or reflect the consequences of intrauterine infection or iso immunization. Other biologic causes include anoxia at birth, other obstetric difficulties, as well as a relatively few postnatal events, such as sequelae of central nervous system infection or injury, anoxia from repeated or prolonged convulsions, and a variety of other causes including degenerative diseases (such as Tay-Sachs) and toxic encephalopathies (such as lead poisoning). A large proportion of cases of MR have, however, no known origin.
Unintentional Injuries
Authors: Rivara Fred P
Published: November 2023

The problem of injuries to children is not a new one. In recent years, however, interest in trauma has dramatically increased for a number of reasons. Advances in medical care and public health have had a major impact on the mortality and morbidity from a wide variety of infectious and other acute diseases. Similar changes have not occurred in trauma, and consequently its relative importance has increased. An increasingly scientific approach to injury causation has led to progressively more effective prevention programs in specific areas. Finally, the interest of governmental agencies at the national and local level has been ac companied by an infusion of money for both research and prevention. As a result, the scientific and academic community has taken a greater interest in this problem, and in the last decade, a large number of important contributions have appeared (Baker et al., 1992; Robertson, 1992). Injuries, including intentional injuries, such as homicide, have come to be viewed as public health problems, rather than as problems of the motor vehicle industry, police, or criminologists (National Committee for Injury Prevention and Control, 1989). The application of the standard techniques of public health to the study of injury has been fruitful and is beginning to yield impressive results.
The Psychosocial and Behavioral Impact of Health Risk Appraisals
Authors: Kreuter Victor j. Strecher Matthew W
Published: November 2023

Health Risk Appraisal (HRA) has been defined as “a procedure for using epidemiological and vital statistics data to provide individuals with projections of their personalized mortality risk and with recommendations for reducing that risk, for the purpose of promoting desirable changes in health behavior” (Schoenbach, Wagner, & Beery, 1987). This definition captures the three essential elements of HRA: assessment, estimation, and education (DeFriese & Fielding, 1990). HRA assesses individuals’ health status and practices, usually by way of self-administered questionnaires and in some cases biomedical measures. From this information, HRA estimates their risk of death or disease from each of several causes and provides personalized educational messages that indicate ways they can reduce their risk by changing specific behaviors.
Chamaecyparis Thyoides (Atlantic White Cedar) in the United States Extent and Characterization Using Broad-Scale Inventory Data
Authors: Sheffield Raymond M , Birch Thomas W , Mcwilliams William H , Tansey John B
Published: November 2023

In the United States, Chamaecyparis thyoides (L.) BSP. (Atlantic white cedar) occurs within 250 km of the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico (see Figs. 8.1, 8.2, and 8.3). It is found from southeastern Maine southward along the coastline to northeastern Florida and along the Gulf coast from the panhandle of Florida westward to Mississippi (Little 1971). Although the species has been studied extensively, the total area occupied and total inventory volume have not been established. Numerous local studies have attempted to quantify the extent, utilization, and recent trends for this species, but no composite picture for the entire range has emerged. This chapter utilizes broad-scale forest inventory data collected by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service to establish baseline totals for the entire Atlantic white cedar resource.
New Hampshire and Maine, USA
Authors: Eckert Robert T
Published: November 2023

Chamaecyparis thyoides (Atlantic white cedar) is a widespread but relatively uncommon eastern United States tree species, generally occurring in disjunct palustrine forested wetlands within 200 kilometers (km) of the coast. It ranges from Mississippi to its northernmost limit in Maine and New Hampshire (Baldwin 1963, Laderman et al. 1987). In New England, its occurrence is generally limited to glacial features such as moraine hollows, kettleholes, and old lake beds. New Hampshire has 30 swamp systems containing C. thyoides, 15 of which average 0.7 hectares (ha) in extent and 15 average 12 ha (Sperduto and Ritter 1994). Maine has 11 recorded stands (Laderman et al. 1987). In Maine and New Hampshire, the species exists in complex wetlands with areas of almost pure cedar, often containing hundreds of stems, separated by more sparsely distributed cedars interspersed with other tree species. Commonly associated tree species at the northern reach of its range are Acer rubrum (red maple), Betula papyrifera and B. alleghaniensis (paper and yellow birch, respectively), Picea rubens and P. mariana (red and black spruce, respectively), Larix laricina (tamarack), Tsuga canadensis (eastern hemlock), Pinus strobus (eastern white pine), and P. rigida (pitch pine). A recent New Hampshire inventory found 190 vascular plant species associated with C. thyoides (Sperduto and Ritter 1994). Chamaecyparis thyoides is known to grow very slowly, with eight-inch (20 cm) diameter trees over 200 years old reported by Baldwin (1963). Rate of reproduction and relative reproductive success have been studied only in New Jersey populations (Little 1950), but are described in some detail.
Pinus Pumila (Siberian Dwarf Pine) on the Kamchatka Peninsula, Northeast Asia Ecology of Seed Production
Authors: Khomentovsky Peter A
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes some of the ecological features and reproductive characteristics of Pinus pumila (Pall.) Regel (Siberian dwarf pine) in typical habitats in one of its easternmost locations, the Kamchatka Peninsula.
Defiance
Authors: Tec Nechama
Published: November 2023

Fighting in the dense forests of eastern Poland and Belorussia, Jewish partisans represented a heroic form of resistance in the midst of the Holocaust. Refusing to submit to the Nazi terror, one such group - the Bielski Partisans - became the largest armed rescue operation of Jews by Jews in the Second World War. In Defiance, Nechama Tec, herself a Holocaust survivor, offers a riveting history of this remarkable group and its struggle to survive - and even to create a miniature forest village - in the midst of adversity. Detailing the life of peasant-turned-partisan Tuvia Bielski, their independent and charismatic leader, this unique account shows how the quest for self-preservation was transformed into an amazing story of compassion, altruism, and rescue.
Rescue or Resistance
Authors: Tec Nechama
Published: November 2023

Tuvia was not interested in military glory. To live, to keep his people alive, to bring more Jews into the otriad, these were his goals. He would avoid talking to the non-Jewish partisans about his main preoccupation: the saving of lives. To them he presented himself as a guerilla fighter and continually repeated that he had come to the forest to wage war against the enemies of the Soviet Union, the Germans. And when Panchenko suggested that they cooperate in anti-Nazi moves he readily agreed.