bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Verbal Style: Logical and Counterlogical
Authors: Wimsatx W. K.
Published: February 2007

The word verbal as it appears in the title of this essay looks in two directions or has two antitheses. In combination with the word style it designates a level of meaning distinct from the substantial, and especially from the stated part of substantial meaning. At the same time, verbal implies that the level of stylistic meaning is something different from what is expressed by the medium of any other art, and that the discussion will avoid such metaphors as “verbal painting” and “verbal music”—or if it employs them briefly, will do so in full overtness.
Return to Health? “Disease” in Mann's Doctor Faustus
Authors: Rey W. H.
Published: February 2007

The close relationship between the spirit and disease in the work of Thomas Mann is well known. Disease, far from being only a medical phenomenon, appears under certain conditions as a spiritual or, better, spiritualizing force which urges man, and above all the artist of genius, to overcome the limitations of common health and to raise himself to a new level of artistic experience and expression inaccessible to healthy-mediocrity. Mann never ignored the element of danger which is present in this adventurous contact with the ambiguity of life, hidden in disease. Following the romantic tradition, however, he shows such a high esteem for the productive impulse of illness that its perils are overshadowed by the positive value it has in the field of thought and art. In certain cases disease is supposed to serve the development of individual culture and literary genius. It may help to bring about another type of man, as superior to the average as the average man is to the animal, a type who represents a higher embodiment of the humanistic ideal.
Mallarmé's “Ptyx” Sonnet: An Analytical and Critical Study
Authors: Grubbs Henry A.
Published: February 2007

Among the jewel-like enigmas that are Mallarmé‘s sonnets, one that deserves, that even seems to demand, extensive commentary is the one which for convenience I call the “ptyx” sonnet, that little untitled masterpiece whose first verse runs: “Ses purs ongles très haut dédiant leur onyx.” In and of itself this sonnet immediately suggests numerous problems. One's inclination to study it is increased by the fact that more material for study is available here than in the case of most of Mallarmé‘s poems; not only do we have an early version of the sonnet, but also, in the poet's correspondence, there are several at times cryptic references to it. All this calls for commentary.
Hawthorne's Psychology of the Head and Heart
Authors: Ringe Donald A.
Published: February 2007

Critics have advanced various interpretations of Hawthorne's attitude toward the problems of sin and the Fall of Man. Opinions have varied widely, from Randall Stewart's statement that Hawthorne believed in the educative value of sin and in the idea of the Fortunate Fall,1 to Austin Warren's opposite opinion that for Hawthorne sin is “not educative but warping”, that Hawthorne speculates on the problem of the Fall but refuses to believe it fortunate.2 Certainly both men are right in believing that the problems of the Fall and of sin are important concerns to Hawthorne, but it is my belief that Stewart stops short of the central theme in terms of which Hawthorne's works take on added meaning.3 And Warren, in stating, for example, that Hawthorne is speaking for himself in Kenyon and Hilda in The Marble Faun,4 leaves unresolved the conflict between the ways of life of the two couples. In the light of his interpretation, the romance falls apart at the end, the theme which Hawthorne seems to have been developing suddenly denied in the closing passages. It is my contention that these and other difficulties can be obviated if we examine Hawthorne's characters in terms of what F. O. Matthiessen calls the psychology of the head and heart.5
Kaherdin and the Enchanted Pillow: An Episode in the Tristan Legend
Authors: Newstead Helaine
Published: February 2007

The mediæval redactors of the Tristan legend must have been no less puzzled than its modern critics by the inconsistent versions of Kaherdin's humiliating experience as a lover of Isolt's maid. Was her name Brangain or Camille? Did she persist in remaining chaste or did she finally yield to her suitor? What was Isolt's rôle in the affair? And how long did the adventure last? The two sources which preserve this amusing tale for us—Eilhart and Thomas—answer these and other questions in different, even contradictory, ways.
Lytton Strachey's Conception of Biography
Authors: Sanders Charles Richard
Published: February 2007

Human beings are too important to be treated as mere symptoms of the past. They have a value which is independent of any temporal processes—which is eternal, and must be felt for its own sake.“ These two sentences, embedded in the well-known Preface to Eminent Victorians, must always be the starting point and a constant point of reference in any discussion of Strachey's conception of biography. The basis of all good biography must be, he firmly held, the humanistic respect for men—men in their separateness as distinct from lower creatures and in their separateness apart from economical, political, ethical, and religious theories; men in their separateness as distinct from one another, men as individuals, various, living, free. It has been well said that Strachey wrote with ”a glowing conviction that character is the one thing that counts in life“ and with a realization that individual human beings, however simple they may appear, are enigmatical, complex, and compact of contending elements. Each person carries his secret within him, and the biographer is one who has the gift for discerning what it is. Hence individual human beings are not only highly important; they are also highly interesting. The puzzle which the biographer has to solve in dealing with ordinary people is fascinating enough; but when the subject is a great man, the biographer works with his problem in an atmosphere of intense excitement, for about all great men there is something wondrous and incredible.
L'evangéliste D'alphonse Daudet
Authors: Poujol Jacques
Published: February 2007

L'evangéliste d'Alphonse Daudet est à beaucoup d'égards un bien étrange roman. Publié en 1883, au sommet de la carrière du romancier, entre Numa Roumestan et Sapho, il est loin de figurer au même rang que ces chefs-d'œuvre. Pourtant après un succès de scandale, l'Evangéliste n'a jamais cessé d'être lu, réédité et traduit. De plus, la publication du roman a constitué à l'époque un véritable événement littéraire : Parmi les critiques français qui ont publié sur l'Evangéliste des articles dans les quotidiens et les revues, nous relevons les noms d'Edouard Drumont, Paul Bourde, Henri Houssaye, Gustave Geoffroy, Anatole France, Francisque Sarcey, Jules Lemaître et surtout Ferdinand Brunetière. A l'étranger Henry James écrivit après avoir lu l'Evangéliste une étude très perspicace sur l'ensemble de l'œuvre de Daudet. Il ne s'en tint pas là: en 1886, il devait donner sous le titre de The Bostonians un roman qui reproduit la situation, sinon le sujet, de Y Evangêliste.
Swift's Tale of a Tub: An Essay in Problems of Structure
Authors: Elliott Robert C.
Published: February 2007

One comes from a reading of A Tale of a Tub with two dominant impressions: that it is an extraordinarily brilliant work and that it is extraordinarily complex. One recalls Boswell's testimony that Dr. Johnson could hardly believe Swift had written the Tale: “it has so much more thinking, more power, more colour, than any of the works which are indisputably his.” And again: “there is in it such a vigour of mind, such a swarm of thoughts, so much of nature, and art, and life,” as opposed, say, to Gulliver's Travels, where (in one of Johnson's most prejudiced comments), “once you have thought of big men and little men, it is very easy to do all the rest.”
Serialization and Evan Harrington
Authors: Gettmann Royal A.
Published: February 2007

In the following article I shall describe the circumstances in which Meredith wrote Evan Harrington as a serial for Once a Week, and I shall-submit some suggestions about the effect of this mode of publication upon the novel.
Imperfect Consonance and Acoustic Equivalence in Cancionero Verse
Authors: Clarke Dorothy Clotelle
Published: February 2007

Professor Hurley's statement in regard to the use of assonance for consonance in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries holds true for the fifteenth century court lyric verse:1 “There are in the 16th and 17th centuries, if the printed texts are to be believed, innumerable examples of assonance in rime-strophes. Thus CERVANTES, Comedias y Entremeses, ed. Schevill y Bonilla, i, 72; ‘Yo haré con su señoría/que se oponga a tu partita’.”2 The same writer also states that he regards assonance in such cases “as failure to achieve perfect rime.” R. Foulché-Delbosc's Cancionero castellano del siglo XV offers some twelve score examples of assonance used to replace consonance. That the poets were at least sometimes conscious of the imperfection is shown in Gomez Manrrique's statement (ii, 36a): “Del qual vn poco furtado,/avnque no syn grande afan,/a vos, señor de Almaçan,/pregunto, mal consonando…”“”“
The Rôle of the Lion in Chretien de Troyes' Yvain
Authors: Harris Julian
Published: February 2007

Although the lion plays a considerable rôle in Chrétien de Troyes' Chevalier au Lion, his function in the poem has traditionally attracted relatively little attention on the part of Arthurian scholars. Gaston Paris, in one of his notable articles on Chrétien, relegated the story of the noble beast to a footnote in which he said: “cette historiette … ne sert à rien dans le récit où Chrétien a jugé bon de l'insérer.”1Naturally enough, scholars who regard Yvain as a Celtic otherworld tale dressed up in French clothing, finding no close analog to the lion in Celtic lore, have paid little attention to him. And those who have con-cerned themselves with demonstrating that the source of the lion story was Latin or Greek have been interested more in the relation between Yvain's lion and that of Androcles (or some other one) than in his function in the poem. Those who have studied particularly the structure of the poem have attached more importance to the lion,2 but so far as I know no one has pointed out what seems to me to be his symbolic significance. Since Chrétien repeatedly said that he was concerned both with the “matière” and the “sens” of his romances,3 and as he called Yvain the roman du Chevalier au Lion,4 it seems reasonable to examine the poem in some detail and try to see if he attached more significance to the lion than modern scholarship has pointed out.
Contribución a la Cronología de Barroco y Barroquismo en España
Authors: Monguió Luis
Published: February 2007

En un estudio previo sobre la “Fortuna lexicográfica de barroco” hubimos de observar que el Diccionario histórico de la Academia Española, en sus artículos barroco y barroquismo, aducía ejemplos del uso de esas voces en castellano, en la acepción de estilo en las artes, obtenidos en obras publicadas en Madrid en 1899 y en 1921 (1a edition en 1884) para barroco, y en 1909 para barroquismo.
Some Critical Terms of Henry James
Authors: SHORT R. W.
Published: February 2007

A Survey of Western art in relation to its audience would suggest to an empirical æsesthetician that a degree of structural raggedness usually accompanies, if it does not actually constitute, artistic superiority. The trouble comes not, as often presumed, from difficulty in defining form, but from difficulty in experiencing it. Just as one art-lover may have a finer sense of line than another, with perhaps a weaker sense of color, so we may safely conclude from ubiquitous evidence that the perception of artistic form is a similarly variable factor. Disputes continually arise between those who derive a strong aesthetic experience from organic form in art and those who simply do not know what the others are talking about, and mistake genre, or type, or mechanical division for form. Either group may nourish the fallacy that an artist preoccupied with form is indifferent to almost everything else.
Problems of Aesthetic Versus Historical Criticism in La Mort Le Roi Artu
Authors: Adler Alfred
Published: February 2007

The purpose of this paper is to give an example of the manner in which aesthetic criticism may also serve the needs of historical and philological criticism. As an example of procedure, a specific Old French prose romance is to be studied from an aesthetic as well as from an historical point of view. One main question will be raised with regard to each episode of the romance: “What is the purpose of this episode in the context of the narrative?” While the episodes have meaning in themselves, many episodes will acquire additional meaning from their position among the others. Consideration will be given the structure of the romance as a source for the understanding of the entire plot. This method of approach, the derivation of meaning from structure, may be said to follow a principle of aesthetic criticism. If the results obtained by such an approach seem acceptable, the method can be justified on aesthetic grounds. More difficult to settle, however, and the main concern of this inquiry, is the problem of whether or not such a method can lead to the finding of data valuable not only to the aesthetic critic but also to the historian and the philologist.
Joyce's Use of Da Ponte and Mozart's Don Giovanni
Authors: Hall Vernon
Published: February 2007

Joyce was born in a musical city, Dublin. His childhood was filled with music. As a young man he entered a competition in the Irish festival of music, and if he had not refused to sing at sight would probably have won it. Had he done so, his future career would have been more likely that of a concert tenor than a writer. Throughout his life vocal music was his great pleasure and consolation.1 No sensitive reader of Ulysses has failed to appreciate the way Joyce not only uses the sound of words for musical effects, but also employs musical devices in constructing his novel.2 Snatches from songs are woven into the text. Richard M. Kain writes:
On The Dates of Composition of The Morgante of Luigi Pulci
Authors: Wilkins Ernest H.
Published: February 2007

It was at the request of Lucrezia Tornabuoni, wife of Piero de' Medici and mother of Lorenzo, that Pulci undertook the writing of the Morgante, the first of the four great Italian epics. For Cantos i–xxiii he followed closely, in general, the plot of the fourteenth-century cantastorie epic Orlando; but in the portion of the poem beginning with Stanza 112 of Canto xviii and ending with Stanza 155 of Canto xix he introduced a famous episode of his own invention, the episode of the picaresque demi-giant Margutte. Lucrezia died on 25 March, 1482. The poem was first published, before her death, in a form consisting of Cantos i–xxiii only. The editions published after her death have five additional cantos.
La prudencia en la mujer and the Ambient That Brought It Forth
Authors: Kennedy Ruth L.
Published: February 2007

It has long been recognized that La prudencia en la mujer, with its powerful portrait of the Queen, Maria de Molina, represented something of a special effort in Tirso's theatre. Not only is it greatly superior to the dramatist's other plays of similar genre, but it is usually conceded to be “the best historical drama of the Spanish classical theatre.” Some of the critics have been struck by its profoundly serious tone, as compared with that prevailing in other plays of the Mercedarian; others have pointed to the loving care with which Tirso has portrayed his noble protagonist and the powerful contrasts that he has worked out between the Queen and the disloyal vassals who surrounded her. Still others have stressed Tirso's success in recreating the anarchic atmosphere that surrounded her regency.
Milton on Learning and Wisdom
Authors: Samuel Irene
Published: February 2007

The longer I live, the more I am satisfied of two things: first, that the truest lives are those that are cut rose-diamond fashion, with many facets answering to the many-planed aspects to the world about them; secondly, that society is always trying in some way or other to grind us down to a single flat surface. … People who honestly mean to be true really contradict themselves much more rarely than those who try to be “consistent.” But a great many things we say can be made to appear contradictory, simply because they are partial views of a truth, and many often look unlike at first, as a front view of a face and its profile often do.

—Holmes, The Professor at the Breakfast-Table

The rose-diamond cut of Milton's thought often disconcerts his reader, but perhaps nowhere so completely as in his views on learning. After the high enthusiasm for unrestricted inquiry, after all the “intent study” which he took as his own “portion in life”, in Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained, the ripe products of his learning, he gives to Raphael, Michael, and Jesus speeches that seem a wholesale repudiation of studies of all sorts. The three passages are too well known to quote. In the first (P.L., viii, 66–178)1 Raphael disparages Adam's inquiries about astronomy, but answers them, and then comments, “Solicit not thy thoughts with matters hid.” In the second (P.L., XII, 575–587) Michael commends Adam for the inference he has drawn from his preview of universal history (that “to obey is best, / And love with fear the only God”), and admonishes him, “This having learnt, thou hast attain'd the sum / Of wisdom; hope no higher.” In the third (P.R., iv, 286–364) Jesus spurns Satan's offer of Greek learning, with an analysis of the defects of Greek philosophy and literature and a thrust at learning in general: “Many books / Wise men have said are wearisome.”
Robert Greene and John of Bordeaux
Authors: McNeir Waldo F.
Published: February 2007

Practically every play of the period 1587–92 that cannot be definitely credited to somebody else has at one time or another been attributed to Robert Greene.1 The canon of Greene's dramatic work has now been fairly well established, however, by conservative modern critics and it includes only those dramas for which there is reasonably sound evidence, external or internal or both, of his authorship. The attribution of yet another play to the formerly all-too-convenient Greene would not ordinarily arouse interest. But the recovery in recent years of John of Bordeaux, a sequel to his Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay (ca. 1589), the appearance in 1936 of an edition of this sequel in the Malone Society Reprints, and the tentative assignment of it to Greene by two such careful scholars as W. L. Renwick and W. W. Greg, its editors—these are developments which deserve more attention than they have yet received.2 There is no contemporary evidence concerning a second part of Friar Bacon,3 and now that a sequel is known to exist, there is no external evidence as to who wrote it. My purpose here is to analyze John of Bordeaux in relation to Greene and his work. This analysis, it may be said at once, supports at every point the assignment of the play to Greene.
Echtra Cormaic Maic Airt, “The Adventure of Cormac Mac Airt”
Authors: Hull Vernam
Published: February 2007

The Irish tale recounting the fabulous adventures in “The Land of Promise” of King Cormac Mac Airt, who according to the Annals reigned in the third century A.D., survives in several recensions. The first recension forms part of the text called [Seél na Fír Flatha], Echtra Cormaic i Tir Tairngiri, ocus Ceart Claidib Cormaic, “The Tale of the Ordeals, Cormac's Adventure in the Land of Promise, and the Decision as to Cormac's Sword”, which has been published by Whitley Stokes on the basis of the extant copies in two late fourteenth century MSS, The Book of Ballymote and The Yellow Book of Lecan. As these two copies exhibit only minor, insignificant variations in their readings, they would seem to derive from a common exemplar or archetype. The age of this common exemplar or archetype remains, however, a matter for conjecture. The linguistic evidence at least suggests that the text as transmitted antedates the actual compilation of the MSS by some two hundred years, for linguistically it hardly can be much later in date than the version of Acallamh na Senórach, “The Colloquy of the Ancients”, which Whitley Stokes has edited. Now since Acallamh na Senórach was composed about the middle of the twelfth century, the text of the first recension in its present state of transmission probably was written sometime between A.D. 1150–1200, whereas the exemplar or archetype upon which it is based was, of course, made at an earlier period.
Simms and the British Dramatists
Authors: Holman C. Hugh
Published: February 2007

That the works of William Godwin, Sir Walter Scott, and to some degree James Fenimore Cooper contributed significantly to the patterns, structures, and plots of William Gilmore Simms' novels has been generally accepted. It has not been pointed out, however, that one of the shaping influences on his handling of character and situation within the framework these writers contributed was the drama of the English Renaissance and Restoration. Its influence on his diction and on the uninhibited gusto of his writing has been noted,1 and the assumption that his greatest comic character, Porgy, was a direct imitation of Shakespeare's Falstaff has been made frequently.2 However, an examination of Simms' methods of characterization in his seven connected Revolutionary romances3—his most serious and ambitious novelistic project—reveals that the British dramatists were his tutors in more than diction and that Porgy, rather than being an exception to Simms' usual practice in characterization, is actually in keeping with his method and has but superficial similarities to Falstaff.
Flaubert auf Goethes Spuren: In Italien und im Château des Cœurs
Authors: Bonwit Von Marianne
Published: February 2007

Seine Verehrung für Goethe hat Gustave Flaubert oft und gern kundgetan, sei es, daß er Zeitgenossen wie Dumas und Victor Hugo grundsätzlich nach ihrem Verständnis des deutschen Dichters beurteilt, sei es, daß er ganz selbstverständlich Goethe neben Homer, Rabelais und Shakespeare stellt, wenn er seine höchsten Vorbilder nennt.1
Twenty Unpublished Letters of Elizabeth Barrett to Hugh Stuart Boyd
Authors: Weaver Bennett
Published: February 2007

In the Huntington Library of San Marino, California, recent research has come upon twenty unpublished letters of Elizabeth Barrett to Hugh Stuart Boyd. These letters were purchased from Charles Sessler, the Philadelphia bookseller, in August, 1925. They are presented here numbered according to their placement in the Library file (HM 49104929).
The Johnsonian Canon: A Neglected Attribution
Authors: Greene D. J.
Published: February 2007

The standard authorities on the bibliography of Samuel Johnson1 fail to mention one minor but interesting piece of journalism that has been ascribed, with some probability, to Johnson. This is the “Observations” appended to “A Letter from a French Refugee in America to his Friend a Gentleman in England”, in The Literary Magazine, or Universal Review, of June, 1756.
Polygamy in Early Fiction: Henry Neville and Denis Veiras
Authors: Aldridge A. Owen
Published: February 2007

Henry Neville's The Isle of Pines was one of the most popular romances of the seventeenth century. A lusty account of one man's extraordinary generative powers, the work published originally in 1668 went through thirty different issues, including six in English, three in French, one in Italian, four in Dutch, ten in German, and six in Danish.1 Its primary appeal lay probably in its salaciousness, for the tale is short, no longer than a single book of Gulliver's Travels, and its theme is simple. Surprisingly enough, up to the present no critics have perceived this theme, which may be expressed by the Biblical maxim, “In the multitude of people, is the king's honor.” There is no question that population is Neville's theme, but his purpose in treating it is more difficult to decide. Since The Isle of Pines is on the surface merely a display of pornographic primitivism, we cannot know whether it is intended as an allegorical essay on population problems or merely a travesty on contemporary schemes to increase population.
Gaimar's Early “Danish” Kings
Authors: Bell Alexander
Published: February 2007

One of the most obscure and perplexing passages in the Estoire des Engleis is that in which its author, Gaimar, recounts confusedly some exploits of an otherwise unknown “Danish” king in East Anglia, whom he treats as a contemporary of Cynric and Ceawlin, of Wessex. The story, if such it can be called, shares with the Haveloc story, which precedes it, and with two other allusions, which follow it, a common political idea: that the Danes were settled in England, and held sway in that country, before the arrival of the Saxons. The passage also shares with the Haveloc episode in the Estoire the appearance of interpolation, for without it we have a reasonably smooth narrative based on the entries in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles (ASC).
Cappy Ricks and the Monk in the Garden
Authors: Bode Carl
Published: February 2007

In the study of American culture one of the most significant figures to examine may well be the American popular novelist—the writer who appeals to the trade instead of the class market. He is also one of the most neglected. In spite of the approval with which he is read by the public, he is usually either castigated or dismissed by the strictly literary critic. And with justice, from the point of view of belles-lettres. Yet when this novelist has been dead long enough he is apt to emerge even in the learned journals. The scholar of the future may then leaf through an annotated article on “Primitivism in a Forgotten ‘Western’ Writer, Zane Grey” or “Theological Patterns in the Fiction of Lloyd Douglas.” The place of the popular novelist, the people's novelist if you will, in the study of American culture over and above literary history is also apt to become officially more important with the passage of time. The longer such a novelist has been dead, the better it seems is his claim to attention in, for example, courses in American civilization.
Keats and the Struggle-for-Existence Tradition
Authors: Fairchild Hoxie N.
Published: February 2007

The verse-epistle comprising all but a few sentences of the letter which Keats wrote to John Hamilton Reynolds on March 25, 1818, is a mixture of half-morbid jocularity and half-cynical seriousness. In lines 67–85 Keats tries to explain his strange mood by declaring that he feels the obligation to “philosophize” in poetry, does not yet “dare” to do so, fears that he never will be able to do so, and does not really wish to do so because “It spoils the singing of the Nightingale.” This conflict between “sensation” and “thought” is an old story to students of Keats. It has never been sufficiently emphasized, however, that in the concluding verse-paragraph what really “spoils the singing of the Nightingale” turns out to be not moral philosophy, but natural philosophy of so pessimistic a kind that it forbids any hope of harmonizing the sensuous love of beauty with a helpfully benevolistic view of the universe.
Herders Stellung zu Luther
Authors: Bluhm Von Heinz
Published: February 2007

Bernhard Suphan selber hat einmal bemerkt, dass “Herder in Luthers Schriften bewandert war wie wenige” Menschen des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts und dass “keiner von den klassischen Zeitgenossen die Grösse des Reformators in so vollen Tönen und zu alien Zeiten gerühmt hat wie er.” Dies wichtige Gesamturteil, dem auch Rudolf Haym nicht widerspricht, weist auf den beträchtlichen Umfang der herderschen Lutherkenntnisse wie auch auf den hohen Grad seiner Lutheranerken-nung hin, insofern manche andere Deutsche der Herderzeit, vor allem Hamann und Lessing, ebenfalls über ein beachtliches Lutherwissen verfügten und den Reformater gehörig lobten. Ist Klopstocks Lutherinteresse vorwiegend sprachlich-künstlerisch, Goethes und Schillers trotz mancher Feinheit und Prägnanz doch mehr peripherisch als zentral, so ist die Lutherkenntnis Hamanns, Herders und Lessings erheblich umfassender. Bei allem Gemeinsamen nun in dem Lutherbilde der drei Letztgenannten bestehen aber auch zwischen ihnen wesentliche Unterschiede in ihrer Stellung zu Luther, Unterschiede, die sich bis in den Kern ihrer verschiedenen Persönlichkeiten erstrecken. In Herders Verhältnis zu Luther lassen sich im allgemeinen drei Hauptepochen unterscheiden, die Rigaer, die Bückeburger und die Weimarer, von denen die letzte wegen ihrer Länge wie auch wegen ihrer Reichhaltigkeit in zwei Unterteile zerfällt, die Jahrzehnte von 1776 bis 1786 und, nach einem mehr als fünfjährigen Schweigen über Luther, von 1792 bis zu Herders Tod. Innerhalb dieser einzelnen Epochen jedoch wird die Darstellung nicht streng chronologisch verfahren, sondern, ohne Ansprüche auf Vollständigkeit bei der Masse des Materials, nur das Wesentliche mehr systematisch als historisch vorzulegen sich bemühen. Allein Hauptgesichtspunkte und Hauptentwicklungslinien können im Rahmen dieses Aufsatzes berücksichtigt werden.
Rabelais and the Chanson
Authors: Carpenter Nan Cooke
Published: February 2007

French musical art during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries found one of its highest forms of expression in the chanson, in musical settings of poems of a popular nature, much closer to the heart of the people than the complicated and refined poetry of the grands rhétori-queurs. With composers of the Burgundian School—Binchois (d. 1467), Dufay (d. 1474), and other musicians connected with the Burgundian Court—the chanson, usually in one of the formes fixes (rondeau, virelai, ballade), reached a height hardly surpassed since: simple, elegant settings for one or two voices with instrumental accompaniment, in marked on‐trast to the complex and recondite ars nova of the preceding century. Even in their sacred music, composers of the Burgundian School made frequent use of the secular song, building their motets and masses upon popular melodies as cantus firmi (tenor melodies upon which a polyphonic structure was erected). With the rise of the Netherlandish School in the latter half of the fifteenth century and with its trend toward a more vocal style, chiefly under the influence of Ockeghem, Buynois, and Obrecht, polyphonic settings of the chanson became popular. In these, music and poetry alike were characterized by greater flexibility in composition: the formes fixes gradually gave way to free forms, generally light, graceful, and spirited in tone; and the music, although adhering to the imitative style of the motet, achieved a similar lightness and grace through the use of quick rhythmic patterns, short phrases with many repeated sections, and a leaning toward homophonic techniques. Most of the great Flemish composers, headed by Josquin des Prés, included music of this type among their productions; but it is perhaps Clément Janequin who best exemplifies the chanson at its gayest, its lightest, and its most frivolous. The popularity of the chanson is witnessed, further, not only by many chansonniers in MS from the late fifteenth century but also by the publication of nearly 600 chansons during the short space of twenty years (1529-49) by two editors alone—Pierre Attaingnant at Paris and Jacques Moderne at Lyons.
The Milanese Leaves of the Skeireins Under Ultraviolet Radiation
Authors: Bennett William H.
Published: February 2007

Four leaves of the Skeireins (I, II, V, VII) are preserved in the Bibli-oteca Ambrosiana, Milan, under Sig. E 147 parte superiore. VI, which also belongs to this group, has been missing since 1943. In August of that year Milan underwent heavy bombing, in which thirteen halls of the Ambrosiana were wrecked, ten others hit, and some 80,000 volumes reduced to ashes. Though the Gothic palimpsests of the Ambrosian collection were moved to insure their safety, the sixth leaf of the Skeireins disappeared unaccountably, and all attempts to find it have been unavailing.
Death in Theodor Storm's Novellen
Authors: Coenen Frederic E.
Published: February 2007

There are two truths about death: first, it is certain; second, its significance has always been a mystery. Man may think of death in one of two ways. He may consider it the goal of life and dedicate himself to preparation for it; or he may consider it a hostile power that attacks and destroys life. The idea that death is a desirable goal was heightened by many romantics of the early nineteenth century to a fascinated interest in death—a kind of intoxication. For them life existed for the sake of death. But in their philosophy death was merely a phase of “Werden und Vergehen.” They longed for and often sought death because they saw beyond it “absolute life”, life unhampered by the limitations of individual existence. This romantic concept, of course, had nothing in common with the traditional Christian idea of immortality.
Tennyson's Hail, Briton! and Tithon in the Heath Manuscript
Authors: Donahue Mary Joan
Published: February 2007

The two following essays are separate studies joined by a common source. The unpublished Tennyson poems, Hail, Briton! and Tithon, are taken from the Heath MS. at the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge, England.

John Moore Heath was a college friend of Tennyson, a member, like him, of the Cambridge Apostles group. During the years of his closest friendship with Tennyson, 1883–35, Heath was an assistant tutor of Trinity College. The two men met there and corresponded often; at the same time they were both associated with other members of the old Cambridge group. Like most of these literati of the 1830's, Heath kept a Commonplace Book in which he laboriously and faithfully copied out the work of his friends, Arthur Hallam, Richard Trench, William Donne, Frederick, Septimus, Edward, and Alfred Tennyson. The flyleaf of his MS book Heath inscribed with the date September 24, 1832, clearly the } time at which he began to record the poetry. The Tennyson entries, however, he certainly made later, most of them in 1833, probably all within the limit 1835.
Hamlet's “God Kissing Carrion”: A Theory of the Generation of Life
Authors: Hankins John E.
Published: February 2007

In the Quarto and Folio versions of Hamlet, Act ii, Sc. ii, occurs the following bit of byplay during Hamlet's conversation with Polonius:

“For if the sun breed maggots in a dead dog, being a good kissing carrion—Have you a daughter?” “I have, my lord.”

“Let her not walk in the sun. Conception is a blessing, but not as your daughter may conceive.”
Henry James and his Tiger-Cat
Authors: Weber Carl J.
Published: February 2007

In Henry James's story, An International Episode, two English-men visit America. One of the visitors is Lord Lambeth, son of the Duke of Bayswater and brother of the Countess of Pimlico. In New York City and in Newport, the Englishmen are hospitably entertained by Mr. and Mrs. Westgate, not because the Americans are in any way obligated to the visitors but solely because of their open-hearted habits of hospitality and friendliness. After the Englishmen have returned to Great Britain, Mrs. Westgate and a Boston friend, Miss Bessie Alden, go to London; but on their arrival there, they find Lord Lambeth's family very slow in returning the courtesies he had been shown in America. Henry James remarks that “Bessie Alden . . . saw something of . . . English society . . . and . . . especially prized the privilege of meeting certain celebrated . . . authors and artists,”' but of the Duchess of Bayswater and the Countess of Pimlico she and Mrs. Westgate saw very little. At first they saw them not at all. And after the haughty English ladies had at last made a reluctant call on the visitors from America, Mrs. Westgate remarked: “They meant to overawe us. . . . They meant to snub us.” Bessie Alden observed that “their manners were not fine.” And Mrs. Westgate replied: “They were not even good!” Shortly after being snubbed in London, the Americans departed for the continent, leaving the reader with the impression that they were far greater ladies than the titled representatives of British ladyhood who had tried to overawe them in London.
De Quincey on Wordsworth's Theory of Diction
Authors: Jordan John E.
Published: February 2007

Thomas de Quincey is one of the few prose stylists whose work is inevitably tagged with that vague suggestion of mélange des genres, “prose poetry.” Such a label, prompted by the rich “poetic” quality of his diction as well as the beautiful orbicularity of hit rhythmical periods, is enough to encourage the question, “What was the position of such a wielder of words on the controversy of his contemporaries over the language of poetry and the language of prose?” The answer takes on more interest when we recall his close association with the giants of that argument. “Like one of our own Family,” he tramped the dales of Grasmere with Wordsworth, who roundly asserted, “There neither is, nor can be, any essential difference between the language of prose and metrical composition.” He was, however, also a disciple and sacrificial benefactor of Coleridge, who called vital parts of Wordsworth's theory “useless, if not injurious,” and declared that “in every import of the word essential, which would not here involve a mere truism, there may be, is, and ought to be, an essential difference between the language of prose and of metrical composition.” Some of this disagreement may have been more apparent than real, and it is likely that if confusions of meaning had been cleared up, the two poets would have found themselves close together in their basic concept of poetry. Probably by “language” Wordsworth intended only “diction,” whereas Coleridge used the word more in the sense of “style.” Wordsworth's context, however, admits the broader interpretation and Coleridge's includes the narrower, so that on this issue there appears clear-cut disagreement. De Quincey thought that an “unfathomable chasm of chaotic schism opened between them.” Where, then, between these “mighty opposites” did De Quincey himself stand on poetic diction?
The Literary Criticism of John Middleton Murry
Authors: Heath William W.
Published: February 2007

To Remember the literary criticism of John Middleton Murry only as the “Inner Voice” praising the effort to “Muddle Through,” as T. S. Eliot has characterized it, is to ignore the comprehensive, largely concrete system of literary evaluation which preceded the later doctrine of romanticism. Unfortunately for contemporary literary criticism, most critics of Murry have seen fit to concentrate on what Murry wrote after he began to apply an externally-formulated religious or philosophical theory to literature, or have interpreted the early work in the light of that which followed. Too many who have remembered The Mystery of Keats and Heroes of Thought have forgotten the positive virtues of The Problem of Style and Countries of the Mind. And very few remember that Murry, developing an aesthetic theory similar to Eliot's “objective correlative,” used such a concept as the basic assumption in a consistent system of practical literary criticism. By making a more or less arbitrary distinction between the work primarily concerned with literature per se and that which followed, I believe that it is possible to discover many valuable insights and concepts which can have, or have had, validity for literary criticism today.
Goethe and His Russian Translator-Interpreter V. A. Zhukovski (1783–1852)
Authors: von Gronicka André
Published: February 2007

Studies which have been made in the West of this important topic of international literary relations have been either very general or biased or both. It is indicative of the Stand der Forschung that M. Gorlin's sketchy article, “Goethe in Russland,” remains to this day one of the sources most frequently referred to. The most recent contribution to our topic is Mathew Volm's study W. A. Zhukovskii als Übersetzer (Part ii). It is a most detailed evaluation and analysis of Zhukovski's translations of Goethe. Unfortunately, however, Volm has chosen to make of his work a polemic against Gorlin's views; he maintains that Zhukovski not only was equal to his task as a translator of Goethe but in his renderings actually proved himself a greater poet. It cannot be said that this approach resulted in an acceptable contribution to our topic. Moreover, Volm's work, like Gorlin's, is completely lacking in factual, biographical material and argues its thesis in a historical vacuum.
The Economics of Iago and Others
Authors: Heilman Robert B.
Published: February 2007

When Iago addresses to Othello his homily on values—“Good name ... / Is the ... jewel of their souls. / Who steals my purse steals trash” (III.iii.155-157)—he chooses words so compact and memorizable that they have come into a kind of separate fame, and, like any other purple passage, seem a special added attraction, displayed for admiration during a brief pause in the forward movement, But these quotable lines are closely integrated into the drama, for they imply much that has taken place and much of the character of Iago. They are to be read, not as a neat package of proverbial wisdom, but as an index and a recapitulation, which is to say that their dramatic life extends far beyond the scene in which they occur.
Structure, Symbol, and Theme in E. M. Forster's A Passage to India
Authors: Allen Glen O.
Published: February 2007

For the thirty years since its publication, E. M. Forster's A Passage to India has enjoyed the somewhat paradoxical status of being valued without being understood. It is generally recognized as one of the finest literary productions of this century; it is also commonly thought to be one of the most puzzling. No doubt, part of the reason for our difficulty in interpreting it is that the literary problems it raises are continuous with its philosophical problems, or, to put it another way, that the obscurities of the novel duplicate or disappear into the obscurities of life itself. We cannot, of course, expect to explain the latter mystery before attempting to explain the former, nor need it be necessary; yet, if we are to succeed in interpretation, we must guard against that most common critical error of assuming that our own philosophical predilections must apply universally. As Earl R. Wasserman recently observed, “Our failure to grasp as total and integrated experiences such works as … E. M. Forster's A Passage to India results from our not having succeeded as yet in bringing to these works the proper controlling cosmos, for each cosmos is the creation of the author.” Discovering the nature of this “cosmos” and relating it to structure, symbol, and theme of the novel will be the concern of the following pages.
The Jewish Question in Zola's L'argent
Authors: Grant Richard B.
Published: February 2007

Coinciding roughly with the establishment of the Third Republic, there developed in France a wave of anti-Semitism that was to lead ultimately to the Dreyfus affair. Thousands of Jews had moved to Paris, Marseilles, and Lyons after Germany took Alsace and Lorraine, bringing with them competition in finance, as well as a thick accent and coarse manners. It was also at this time (1882) that the great Catholic bank, the Union Générale, failed, ruining thousands of small investors. The action of the government in suddenly arresting for fraud the President and the Director of the firm just as they were attempting to rebuild their bank, and the subsequent accusation by the President, Eugène Bontoux, that the Jews, in league with the “Freemason” government, were responsible for having ruined him because he was a Christian, gave rise to one of the great anti-Semitic myths of the age. It was fully exploited by Edouard Drumont in La France juive (1886), a book that was widely sold and passionately discussed.
Newman and the Oriel Fellowship
Authors: Svaglic Martin J.
Published: February 2007

What has made john henry newman so much more interesting to students of literature than most of his religious contemporaries is the rare blend in him of the artist, the intellectual, and the gentleman with the profoundly religious temper which judges the ultimate value of all activity in its movement towards or away from God. Whether it be called Christian humanism or some other name, it was a difficult balance that he sought to keep; and he has left us in his private papers a frank record of his struggles. The rich integration he eventually did achieve was the great source of his attraction for so different a contemporary in some respects as Matthew Arnold, for example, who ranked Newman with Goethe, Wordsworth, and Sainte-Beuve among the principal influences on his own development. At the outset of his career, however, Newman was being torn and pulled in opposite directions; and it is more than doubtful that he could ever have gained his equilibrium if he had not been elected a Fellow of Oriel College on 12 April 1822: “the turning point of his life,” as he would one day rightly call it, “and of all days most memorable.”
Division of Purpose in George Gissing
Authors: Korg Jacob
Published: February 2007

Most of George Gissing's social novels bear the mark of an allegiance divided between social reform and art. Each begins by addressing itself to some problem of nineteenth-century civilization, such as poverty, Mammonism, socialism, rack-renting, educational reform, or the position of women, depicting evil conditions with powerful social realism. As the novel proceeds, however, social questions are gradually relegated to the background, and the story becomes a steady and, at best, inevitable unfolding of events whose course is determined in the final analysis by the characters of the people involved in it. There may be frequent reversions to “problems” and these may have some effect on the action, but a dénouement that fails to correspond with the social theme, or even contradicts it, makes it apparent that the novel of plot and character has usurped the place of the novel of protest. This inconsistency may well be one of the reasons why such social novels as Workers in the Dawn (1880), The Unclassed (1884), Demos (1886), Thyrza (1887), and The Nether World (1889) failed to win Gissing any but the smallest public, although they were recognized as faithful and moving portrayals of conditions that demanded reform. One reviewer of The Nether World pointed clearly to the ambiguity characteristic of Gissing's work by saying: “It is difficult to discover whether he hoped to add to that sort of fiction which has at times been more successful than Blue-books or societies in calling attention to evils crying for remedy or whether … the author chose his subject in something like an artistic spirit… His work does not show the energy either of an artist or of an enthusiast …”
El Museo Universal (1857-69): Mirror of Transition Years
Authors: Englekirk John E.
Published: February 2007

Students of Spanish literature of the first half of the 19th century still stand indebted to Georges Lc Centil for his partial analysis of and index to thirty-one literary journals published in :Madrid between 1803 and 1849. More recently additional light has been thrown on this period through the publication of complete indices for a number of reviews not covered by Le Gentil as well as for several included in his survey. Thus far, however, there has been no planned approach to duplicate the above efforts for the critical transition years, roughly 1850–70, from the decline of romanticism to the triumph of realism. The CSIC series to clate includes only two reviews that afford but partial coverage for these years: the above-cited Semanario pintoresco espanol (1836-57) and Educación pintoresca (1857-59). The latter, moreover, is of scant literary significance.