bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Peggy Guggenheim’s and Bryher’s Investment
Authors: Vandivere Julie
Published: September 2020

“Peggy Guggenheim’s and Bryher’s Investment: How Financial Speculation Created a Female Modernist Tradition” focuses on the patronage of two wealthy women, Peggy Guggenheim and Bryher, in order to examine how these patrons shaped modernism produced by women. The chapter also considers other female modernists such as H.D. and Mina Loy. I examine how modernist patronage required both a living subsidy and a willingness to provide pipelines to publication. Further, I argue that in these two cases, the source of the money helps predict the mode of patronage and ultimately the canon; the patron’s literary and artistic investment replicates the financial investments from which they derive their fortunes and predicts their willingness to underwrite experimental projects.
Iconic Shade … and Other Professional Hazards of Woolf Scholarship
Authors: Detloff Madelyn
Published: September 2020

“Iconic Shade” addresses in a humorous way some of the ironies associated with writing and teaching about a literary “icon” such as Virginia Woolf in a volume dedicated to expanding our conception of literary modernism to include women writers beyond the “big three” (H.D., Gertrude Stein, and Virginia Woolf). What happens when a previously marginalized writer becomes institutionalized in the canon? Or when previously marginalized scholars become absorbed and transformed by institutional structures that previously excluded them? Woolf herself wrote perceptively about the ambivalence of being situated both inside and outside of dominant culture. Her insights (communicated in her critical chapters) might be helpful to those of us who straddle the line between belonging and marginalization in dominant culture, and who are often tasked with what Sara Ahmed has called “diversity work” within academe. While diversity work is often painful and thankless, the public university is nevertheless still an important site to protect from neoliberal instrumentalization, as it is one of the few places where the democratizing hope of liberal education is still (if in some cases barely) alive.
Movement and the Nipmuc Landscape
Authors: Pezzarossi Heather Law
Published: September 2020

This chapter combines an archaeological perspective with a broader consideration of Nipmuc residence to explore the cultural landscapes of a Nipmuc family in the Blackstone River Valley through the last decades of the colonial period and into the nineteenth century. It traces the lineage and movements of Sarah Robins and her descendants, also named Sarah, who maintained a connection to the Robin’s parcel (at the present-day Hassanamesit Woods trust property) until its sale in 1854. Time and movement are explored in this chapter through travels across Nipmuc homelands and across the centuries, as the author shares her explorations of the landscape through working on the site and regular travel between Providence, R.I. and Grafton, Mass. This is the same route several generations of Nipmuc people travelled through this valley because of their connections to these two places.
How the Maya Shaped Their World
Authors: Canuto Marcello A. , Houk Brett A. , Powis Terry G. , Arroyo Barbara
Published: September 2020

“How the Maya Shaped Their World” provides context for the volume and describes its origins in the 14th Annual Tulane Maya Symposium, which took place in 2017 and was organized around the theme “Monumental Landscapes: How the Maya Shaped their World.” Rather than compelling authors to adhere to a single definition of monumental and a traditional concept of landscape, the editors asked the authors to creatively answer the question, “What does monumental landscape mean to you in the context of your research into the ancient Maya?” The chapter introduces the three sections of the volume—natural and built landscapes, political and economic landscapes, and ritual and sacred landscapes—and summarizes each chapter.
The Monumental Aquascape of Kaminaljuyu
Authors: Arroyo Barbara , Henderson Lucia
Published: September 2020

In Chapter 7, Arroyo and Henderson introduce the monumental aquascape of Kaminaljuyu, a site located in the Valley of Guatemala, occupying a strategic position that connected several important cultural regions, including the Pacific Coast, the northern highlands, and the Maya lowlands. In this chapter, the authors outline a new understanding of the complex, multifaceted, and monumental hydraulic landscape of Kaminaljuyu. They argue that previous assumptions related to the footprint and timeline of Lake Miraflores, the body of water around which the site’s first occupants originally settled, need to be reassessed. They also expand the site’s monumental hydraulic landscape to consider the massive, snaking “Montículo de la Culebra” aqueduct, which served to fill Lake Miraflores with water from the nearby Río Pinula. Lastly, in addition to the system of agricultural canals that brought lake water to the site’s southern sector, they describe a recently discovered system of ritualized waterways that channeled water through the site’s civic center, transforming the civic landscape into a complex network of artificial rivers, ponds, and lagoons.
Ancient Maya Queenship
Authors: Navarro-Farr Olivia C. , Eppich Keith , Freidel David A. , Robles Griselda Pérez
Published: September 2020

Olivia Navarro-Farr and colleagues explore another example of how the Snake Kings manipulated the political landscape of the Classic period with a fascinating case study in ancient Maya queenship at Waka’ in Chapter 10. Waka’ was first embroiled by the geopolitics of the lowlands during the Teotihuacan entrada of AD 378, after which the kingdom was apparently incorporated into the New Order’s political network based at Tikal. Kaanul subsequently brought Waka’ into its hegemony near the end of the Early Classic period with the marriage of the first of at least three royal Kaanul women to kings of Waka’. Beyond simply telling this story, Chapter 10 explores monumentality in two ways. First, Waka’ is presented as a contested node on the vast political and economic network of the Classic period, its importance evident in its role in the entrada, the deliberate and long-term strategy to integrate it into the Kaanul hegemony through royal marriage, and Tikal’s Late Classic star war conquest of Waka’ in AD 743. Second, Navarro-Farr and colleagues examine how, through reverential manipulation of monumental sculpture and architecture, the occupants of Waka’ continued to honor the great Kaanul queens for over a century following the failure of institutional kingship at the city.
Monumental Landscapes, Changing Ideologies, and Political Histories in the Mopan Valley
Authors: Brown M. Kathryn , Yaeger Jason
Published: September 2020

In Chapter 14, Brown and Yaeger discuss the sociopolitical organization of several key sites in the Mopan Valley from the early Middle Preclassic through the end of the Late Classic period. Through an examination of monumental architecture, public art, and ritual practices, the authors describe the political development over this 1,600-year period beginning with Early Xunantunich, the first major political center beginning in the early Middle Preclassic, to the latest, Classic Xunantunich, which was abandoned in the 9th century. The centers of Actuncan and Buenavista del Cayo filled a vacuum in the valley in the intervening centuries, playing major roles on the political landscape during the Late Preclassic and Early Classic periods, respectively. The authors trace how political authority and ideology became more centralized and the institutions of divine kingship developed as each center succeeded one another. It is clear from the data presented in this chapter that monumental constructions are at the forefront of our understanding of the development of the political landscape in the Mopan Valley, a landscape where ritual and religion played key roles in the rise of complexity.
Capturing the Forest
Authors: Moyes Holley
Published: September 2020

In chapter 15, Holley Moyes interprets ancient Maya cave sites as ritual venues that instantiated Maya cosmology, providing archaeologists with an unambiguous context for understanding the ritual life of ancient Maya people. Cave archaeologists strive to understand how and when these sites were used, who used them, and how. As sacred spaces, caves could be manipulated in political contests for the acquisition and maintenance of power. Space is a consideration in cave studies, but there has been little discussion of caves as built environments. In this chapter, Moyes discusses the structure of caves in Belize and outlines an analytical approach for relating structure to social process. Providing a case study from the cave at Las Cuevas, she argues that architectural elements evidence large-scale collective action during the tumultuous Late Classic period.
Humans Encounter Galápagos
Authors: Stahl Peter W. , Astudillo Fernando J. , Jamieson Ross W. , Quiroga Diego , Delgado Florencio
Published: September 2020

This chapter summarizes major events that occurred throughout an almost 500-year relationship between humans and Galápagos. Specific attention focuses on how the changing interests of humans in the islands contributed to ecosystemic landscape transformation up to the end of the Second World War. The chapter historically contextualizes the nature of the changes that transpired through direct human interaction with relatively recently encountered island ecosystems, and how this interconnected relationship shifted through time within the context of changing political and economic circumstances. It sequentially details alleged pre-Columbian visitation, early and later colonial human encounters, Republican-period colonization, and early twentieth century activities in the archipelago. The current human geography in Galápagos is briefly described, followed by a discussion of landscape transformation and invasive exotic organisms throughout the archipelago.
Time and the Trauma of Witnessing
Authors: Dawson Melanie V.
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores ocular assessments of aging within defined communities, one in rural Florida and one in modern Manhattan, by Wharton and Rawlings. The witnessing of age, in such contexts, creates unexpected trauma, so destabilizing are the effects of changing bodies, especially as witnessed by individuals who find their own aging implicated by comparison. The narratives that stress traumatic witnessing are also those that depict not only rapidly changing youth, but also the simultaneous aging of older individuals, who find their own changing lives difficult to confront. Theirs are also the changes that are less spectacular, but more consequential, given the way they disqualify the aging from active and romantic experiences. Witnessing aging, thus becomes a challenging enterprise, and one that depends upon doubled bodies, or forms that age in tandem with one another; aging thus engenders acts of translation, so challenging is its apprehension.
Watching the Flame of Youth
Authors: Dawson Melanie V.
Published: September 2020

Focusing on the “flaming youth” figure of the 1920s, this chapter explores the prevalence of discussions about child marriage in works by Wharton and Fabian, exploring forms of generation-specific authority and the peculiar age-specific qualities of the “child-woman” at the center of these plots. Scenes of youthful teen girls’ slumber, which frequently overlap with middle-aged men’s sexual interests, predict many of the aspects of these relationships that interest Wharton, whose fictions imagine child marriage, then increasingly problematize the age-asymmetrical relationships involved in such unions.
The Patriarchal Family Neurotic
Authors: Dawson Melanie V.
Published: September 2020

Focusing on the continuance of the patriarchal family in modern narratives, this chapter explores Dell’s idea of a condition called “patriarchal family neurosis,” in which modern ideologies of family life are continually forestalled by patriarchal habits. Tracing contests over bodily forms and property, Wharton’s work repeatedly turns to the touchstone of Beatrice Ceni’s tragedy, while O’Neill invokes Greek myths to depict the patriarchalism infusing American culture and the infantilization of young adults.
Conclusion
Authors: Calvo Christopher W.
Published: September 2020

Summarizing the developments in nineteenth-century academic economics, this chapter draws comparisons and discovers new connections between America’s first full century of economists. German historical economics is discussed in the context of nineteenth-century protectionism and industrial capitalism of the Gilded Age. Parallels are found between antebellum and post–Civil War expressions of opposition toward finance. And special attention is paid to the evolution of conservative economics during the middle decades of the nineteenth century, and ultimately the ascendancy of laissez-faire capitalism in the conservative economic mind.
Introduction
Authors: Bethke Brandi , Burtt Amanda
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter situates the succeeding chapters in the current study of human-canine relationships. The authors discuss the fundamental ideas about relationships between humans and dogs through an archaeological lens. The volume editors recognize that assessing the physical ways humans have altered domestic dogs may be straightforward, but it takes several theoretical and methodological avenues to understand the connection between the ever-present dog and human communities’ needs, belief systems, and environments. This chapter overviews an extensive exploration into the way these discussions add to our understanding of how the human-canine bond shaped and was shaped by the practical and ontological realities of human caregivers.
Book I
Authors: Jaurretche Colleen
Published: September 2020

Focusing on how we perceive images and their relationship to cognition, perception, and representation, this chapter examines the relationship of Joyce’s long fascination with the history of inscription and alphabet, letters and sigla, primitive art, Giordano Bruno, The Book of Kells, and the image-making powers of the mind.
The Implications of the Religious Foundations at Cahokia
Authors: Alt Susan M.
Published: September 2020

In this chapter I suggest reasons why nonlocal people may have come to Cahokia on pilgrimage and why some Cahokians may have sought contact with distant peoples. My arguments are based on evidence from excavations in the greater Cahokia region, especially those at the Emerald shrine center east of Cahokia (Alt and Pauketat 2016; Pauketat and Alt 2016). As I will describe, new evidence from the Emerald shrine center leads me to suggest that religion was fundamental, if not causal, for Cahokia’s urbanism, as well as its rise as North America’s only Pre-Columbian city.
Tracking Cahokians through Material Culture
Authors: Boles Steven L.
Published: September 2020

Discussions on the rise and fall of great cities or nations typically entails a list of contributing factors leading to and from florescence. What is often lacking in broad discussions is the tracking of people to and from such cultural centers. In this article, I focus on Cahokia, the largest prehistoric city north of Mexico, and explore the various types of recognizable Cahokia artifacts found scattered in all directions from the site. While I weigh the pros and cons of using these items, I argue that flint clay figurines and pipes were likely associated with the migration of Cahokian religious leaders. This notion counters the oft-cited trade network or exchange of elite goods theories assumed to account for the disbursal of such items outside greater Cahokia.
Kincaid Mounds and the Cahokian Decline
Authors: Brennan Tamira K. , Pursell Corin C. O.
Published: September 2020

This chapter considers whether the influence of Cahokian hegemony is present at sites largely autonomous of Greater Cahokia and how that might be recognized, from the perspective of Kincaid Mounds. Kincaid was a contemporary of Cahokia and one of the nearest major centers outside of it. Despite the fact that little direct evidence of Cahokian influence has been documented there, the effects of the rise and fall of Cahokian hegemony may be apparent in its social history.
Aztalan and the Northern Tier of a Cahokia Hinterland
Authors: Richards John D.
Published: September 2020

Cahokia’s northern hinterland can be conceptualized as extending north from the central Illinois River valley into the western and upper Great Lakes region. The northern tier of this hinterland can be thought of as a region north of the Apple River area of northwest Illinois and south of a line extending east from the mouth of the St. Croix River to the western shore of Lake Michigan. This area includes a wide range of landscapes, biotas, and cultures and this diversity is mirrored in the Cahokia-related manifestations found throughout the region. This chapter provides a brief comparison of three northern tier sites/complexes including Trempealeau, Fred Edwards, and Aztalan in order to highlight the diversity of Mississippian-related occupations in the area.
Cahokia Connections in Northeastern Arkansas
Authors: Andrew Buchner C. , Albertson Eric S.
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the distribution and context of Cahokian and Spiroan related artifact finds from northeast Arkansas and adjacent regions. Arguably, the best evidence for Cahokia influence in northeastern Arkansas is the presence of shell items at four sites: two Eddyville-style gorgets from the McDuffee site; the birdman gorget from Old Town Ridge, the Greenbrier gorget and the Akron Cup. Modern dated contexts include a Cahokia Notched point find at the Kochtitzky Ditch site (ca. a.d. 1150 to 1400), and a Ramey Incised vessel with forked-eye motif from the Perry Dixon Site (a.d. 1041 to 1162). In general, the archaeological evidence for Cahokia influence or trade at its climax within northeastern Arkansas is present, but limited.
Interactions between the Caddo and Cahokia Regions
Authors: Girard Jeffrey S.
Published: September 2020

Direct material evidence of contact between the southern Caddo area and Cahokia is sparse but of considerable interest because establishment of connections between the regions appears to have had profound implications for the subsequent history of the Caddo Area. Flint clay figures and a broad range of copper items including cut sheet copper hand symbols and long-nose god maskettes likely were brought to the Caddo area following visitations or pilgrimages to Cahokia during the 11th century. Movement of ritual items from Cahokia may have been accompanied by the transfer of ideas that modified Caddo religious practices, legitimized social divisions, and institutionalized positions of authority. The passage of people, information, and goods facilitated the establishment of new cultural traditions at local levels, and connected people in the Caddo area to the increasingly integrated “Mississippian” world in eastern North America.
Carson and Cahokia
Authors: Johnson Jay K. , Connaway John M.
Published: September 2020

The Carson Mounds Group, a large mound center located near the Mississippi River in northwestern Mississippi, has produced a complex suite of traits which suggest direct Cahokia contact. These traits include raw material, lithic technology, projectile point styles, ceramics, and architecture. This chapter describes these artifacts and their place within the Carson sequence.
Mississippian Origins as Viewed from the Shiloh Indian Mound Group, Western Tennessee
Authors: Anderson David G. , Bissett Thaddeus G. , Cornelison John E.
Published: September 2020

The Shiloh Indian Mound Group has produced a number of artifacts that appear to derive from the American Bottom area. Radiocarbon and TL dating indicates the site was occupied from the late tenth through early 14th centuries AD, with construction activity at Mound A occurring between approximately AD 1100 and 1340, with major stages erected during the early and mid-13th century. The Shiloh center was thus emerging during Cahokia’s Stirling phase, from ca. AD 1100–1200, and reached its peak during the subsequent Morehead Phase, from AD 1200–1300. Shiloh, like Cahokia itself, was abandoned sometime around AD 1300. Shiloh’s Mississippian center apparently emerged amid local Late Woodland peoples who apparently made little prior use of the location, suggesting an amalgamation of differing populations or social groups, much as Cahokia itself was likely formed.
The Cahokian Diaspora, Etowah, and South Appalachian Mississippian
Authors: King Adam
Published: September 2020

Etowah’s ascent to regional prominence in the 14th century was accompanied by marked changes in the site and its material culture. One of those changes was the creation of an elite mortuary mound and the placement of people with foreign and finely-crafted objects in it. Many of those objects were made in the Central Mississippi Valley and some came from the Cahokian sphere. The nature and distribution of those objects leads me to infer that they came with people rather than through exchange. The people were prominent families who left Cahokia in search of new places to be important. The objects were their ritual regalia and paraphernalia. Within a generation of their arrival, both played an integral role in the creation of a new world order at Etowah.
Vestiges of the Braden Corridor
Authors: Stauffer J. Grant
Published: September 2020

The widespread exchange of masterful artworks in the Mississippian period has long been a topic of interest among North American archaeologists. The Braden Style, an artistic tradition whose origin has been placed at Cahokia, is recognizable on objects unearthed from locales that are remarkably distant from the American Bottom. In the Tallahassee Red Hills of Florida, the Lake Jackson site hosted burials in Mound 3 that contained a variety of these examples. While the contents of Mound 3’s burials have been investigated to explore ties to other major ceremonial centers in the Greater Southeast, the nature of those ties and their timing have not been fully investigated, especially in consideration of Cahokia. This chapter offers an assemblage based exploration of exchange between these two different and distant sites.
Conclusion
Authors: McNutt Charles H.
Published: September 2020

There are many types of “diasporas,” and there is much discussion of the term in the literature. But the Cahokia diaspora per se deserves its own detailed examination. It does not do to say simply that Cahokia reached its peak during the Stirling phase and was virtually abandoned in the Moorehead phase. While this statement may be essentially true, it is also probably true (and more accurate) to say that Cahokia’s abandonment began during the late Stirling phase and was completed by the early Moorehead phase. It is here suggested that this “late Stirling–early Moorehead” interval requires greater attention, particularly as it relates to the impacts of the “Cahokia diaspora.”
Deconstructing “Deviant”
Authors: Scott Amy B. , Betsinger Tracy K. , Tsaliki Anastasia
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the historical, cultural, and contextual framework of this volume. Taking a critical view of how we define “non-normative” and “atypical” burials in archaeological research, this chapter highlights the long history and new approaches to burial practices that vary across distinct temporal and geographic landscapes. Championing a holistic approach beyond binary classifications, we argue there is an increasing need to avoid the use of limiting definitions and to recognize the continuum of variation that exists within these burial contexts. By focusing on the context of each burial and following an integrated biocultural approach, we are positioned to better interpret and understand their meaning(s). This chapter also introduces each study in the volume highlighting the significance of this collection through an array of comprehensive and critical analyses.
Bodies among Fragments
Authors: Cerezo-Román Jessica I.
Published: September 2020

Inhumation and cremation usually are studied in isolation regardless of the fact that they may be practiced in the same culture and time period. Among the Tucson Basin Hohokam in the Prehispanic American Southwest cremation was the main funeral custom and inhumation was practiced at a very low frequency throughout the Preclassic (AD 700–1150) and Classic (AD 1150–1450/1500) periods. This chapter explores changes through time in non-normative burial customs of inhumation from ten Tucson Basin (Arizona) Hohokam archaeological sites by exploring both biological reconstruction of bodies and posthumous treatments within and between sites. Inhumations are contrasted with cremations to explore how they are related but distinct practices of remembrance, and it is argued that critical and contextualized approaches to the study of non-normative burials are necessary in order to reconstruct the complexity of funeral customs and their associated cultural significance through time. The results provide a glimpse of social variation and multiple social groups within the Tucson Basin Hohokam sites.
What Is the Norm?
Authors: Müller-Scheessel Nils , Berszin Carola , Grupe Gisela , Schwentke Annette , Staskiewicz Anja , Tütken Thomas , Wahl Joachim
Published: September 2020

Despite great variability, most burials of the Early Iron Age in Central Europe exhibit a high degree of standardization. Richly furnished graves consist of wooden chambers furnished with grave goods like chariots, vessels, and other objects, while less “rich” burials—clustered in “regular” cemeteries—show the same orientation to the south as well as regularly reappearing objects like weapons or ornaments. Because of these strict rules, scholars have accepted such burials as “the norm,” and any other form of deposition of the dead as “abnormal,” hinting at macabre customs like cannibalism or sacrifice. This chapter analyzes one kind of Iron Age deviant burial, those in settlement pits, discussing bioarchaeological and isotopic analyses, a reassessment of archaeological evidence, and a comparison with normative burial practices. The dead in settlements belonged to at least three social categories, each probably considered incomplete in some way and unfit to be buried in regular cemeteries: very small children, adolescents, and other individuals that had suffered an untimely or “bad” death, and individuals of low social standing.
Atypical Burials in Early Medieval Poland
Authors: Gardeła Leszek
Published: September 2020

Excavations at early medieval cemeteries in Poland often reveal traces of mortuary behavior which deviate considerably from the normative treatment of the dead. Most of these atypical practices involved interring the corpses in prone position, laying or throwing stones on them, or cutting their heads off, but other variants have also been recorded, e.g., covering the bodies with clay or piercing them with stakes and other sharp objects. Graves of this kind have always been difficult to interpret. In the early twentieth century, Polish scholars only mentioned them briefly in their publications, without offering any detailed commentary about their possible meanings, while in the 1970s, the problematic term “anti-vampire burials” was coined, implying that these were burials of vampires. This article provides a critical overview of past and present studies on atypical burials in Poland by drawing on the results of a research project entitled Bad Death in the Early Middle Ages: Atypical Burials from Poland in a Comparative Perspective. The discussion incorporates new and previously unpublished evidence and a reassessment of archival documentation kept in a range of Polish museums and scientific institutions, which challenges the previously accepted “vampire” interpretation and sophisticates our understanding of unusual funerary phenomena.
Does Health Define Deviancy?
Authors: Betsinger Tracy K. , Scott Amy B.
Published: September 2020

The post-medieval cemetery site Drawsko 1 located in western Poland has yielded several unusual burials with anti-vampire mortuary treatments. There are many possible reasons why these individuals received atypical mortuary treatment, including health problems such as birth defects, disease, and violent injuries. A sample of approximately 300 adult individuals (>18 years) from Drawsko 1, including five “vampire” burials, was analyzed for the presence of various health-related conditions, such as traumatic injuries, infectious disease, stress markers, and dietary deficiency. The deviant and normative burials were compared for the prevalence of each specific condition. Results (Fisher’s exact, p<0.05) suggest that based on these indicators, health-related conditions do not account for the atypical treatment of the “vampire” burials. Instead, deviancy was likely culturally defined and mediated rather than biologically determined.
The “Vampires” of Lesbos
Authors: Garvie-Lok Sandra , Tsaliki Anastasia
Published: September 2020

Greece has a long tradition of vampire beliefs that often involved treating corpses or graves to dispel vampires, practices that should be archaeologically visible and fairly common. However, proposed archaeological cases are surprisingly few. Here we review normative burial traditions in early modern Greece, as well as documentary and ethnographic evidence for vampire-related mortuary ritual. This clarifies the archaeological signs these rituals should leave behind and their deeper significance as attempts to restore the smooth course of a disrupted death journey. Two Ottoman-era burials recovered on the island of Lesbos are discussed as likely instances of vampire ritual, and we consider why vampire burials might be underreported archaeologically and offer some suggestions for their improved detection and study in the future.
Deviant Treatment of the Body as a Mortuary Ritual
Authors: Ishikawa Takeshi
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the social meaning of deviant mortuary practices from an osteoarchaeological perspective using skeletal remains from the Middle Jomon Period (ca. 3500–2500 cal BC) found at the Kusakari shell mound. The analyses focus on attributes associated with mortuary body treatments: 1) arrangements of remains, 2) body posture and direction, and 3) the location of burials within the cemetery. Although the usual body postures were dorsal during the period, one individual was laid in a prone position with an unusual body direction compared with other burials. The skeletal arrangement also revealed that the individual had been disarticulated early in the postmortem decay process; however, the remains were located within the usual cemetery area. Based on these results and the extraordinary amount of varied faunal remains in the vicinity, the deviant mortuary treatments appeared to arise from a specific social persona rather than an unusual context of death, such as drowning, suicide, warfare, or other cause.
Afterword
Authors: Reynolds Andrew
Published: September 2020

It is both a pleasure and a privilege to be asked to write an afterword to a collection of essays concerning a topic that for many years has lain at the core of my interests in the behavior of past societies. When, in the early 1990s, I first embarked on the study of deviant burials—and more on that particular turn of phrase in a moment—mortuary archaeology writ large had shifted in its emphasis from the descriptive and typological approaches that had typified its early development, through concerns about hierarchy and ranking, and had turned increasingly to nuanced social considerations. Life cycle and gender, illness and care, among other topics, steadily grew in importance as worthy of study. Twenty-five or so years ago, however, descriptions of people at the fringes of their respective societies were hard to find in the archaeological literature: “otherness” as a concept materialized in the burial record was largely unexplored beyond a few graphically spectacular and deeply intriguing finds, such as the northern European bog-bodies or the Andean mummified children....
The Mississippian Community at Parchman Place
Authors: Nelson Erin S.
Published: September 2020

The final chapter offers a reconstruction of the occupational history of Parchman Place through the founding of the community in the early 14th century and continuing through its abandonment in the late 15th or early 16th century. Following this reconstruction, the chapter ties together themes considered throughout the book. Organized by scale, this tying-together begins with a look at Mississippian neighborhoods and moves through increasingly broader scales, ending with a consideration of how Mississippian people used placemaking to locate themselves and their community within the greater Mississippian cosmos. Throughout, the emphasis is on particular instances of placemaking, including the intentional deposition or emplacement of culturally meaningful substances in mound and neighborhood contexts. These practices illustrate the continued negotiations between authority and autonomy that Mississippian people navigated as they created and re-created their communities in the image of a whole and balanced world.
Culture, Identity, and Policy
Authors: Barreto Amílcar Antonio
Published: September 2020

More than means of communication, languages are integral parts of our cultural identities and feature frequently in intercultural conflict. Language policy has been a thorny issue in federal-territorial relations since the early twentieth century. There is a hallowed place for the Spanish language in Puerto Rican identity. At the same time, Puerto Ricans view English as a critical tool for upward mobility. The tug-of-war between the heart and wallet meant that most Puerto Ricans accepted official bilingualism. Then suddenly, in 1991, the island’s government declared Spanish its only official language. Political expediency was not the point. After all, it was not a popular move. Rather, the political operatives pushing this shift in language policy were involved in a complex game bypassing votes for a much larger political prize.
Spanish and Puertorriqueñidad
Authors: Barreto Amílcar Antonio
Published: September 2020

In the aftermath of the 1898 Spanish-American War, federal policymakers sought to transform Puerto Ricans from loyal Spaniards to trustworthy Americans. Public schools employing English as the language of instruction were the primary vehicles implementing this change. Behind this policy were deeply ingrained attitudes that took for granted the superiority of Anglo Saxons and, by extension, their English vernacular. Contrary to expectations, the Americanization effort backfired and even fueled Puerto Rican nationalism. The island’s intelligentsia took up the banner of preserving Puerto Rican identity (Puerto Ricanness) and canonized the Spanish language as a core feature of puertorriqueñidad. In tandem with a change in education policy was the adoption of a new language law—one that declared Spanish and English co-official languages of the Puerto Rican government. Repealing that law became a holy grail for the island’s nationalists.
The Politics of Status
Authors: Barreto Amílcar Antonio
Published: September 2020

Puerto Ricans, US subjects since 1898, were naturalized en masse in 1917. Congress did so to eliminate the possibility of independence from the US. That citizenship is the cornerstone of island-mainland relations for those advocating a continued relationship with the United States—either in the form of the 1952 Commonwealth constitution or statehood. The epicenter of Puerto Rican partisan life remains the status question. This remarkably stable political party system featured two strong parties of near-equal strength—the pro-Commonwealth PPD and its statehood challenger, the PNP— and a small independence party, the PIP. A core feature of the PNP’s platform has been estadidad jíbara—"creole statehood.” In theory, a future State of Puerto Rico would be allowed to retain its cultural and linguistic autonomy while attaining full membership as the 51st state of the Union.
Reviving the Language Debate
Authors: Barreto Amílcar Antonio
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines early attempts to overturn the 1902 official bilingual law. The PIP passionately favored such a move, but with few legislative seats any change in language policy would be up to the two larger parties. Concerned that Congress might disapprove of a statehood applicant jettisoning English as an official language, the pro-statehood PNP had no interest in changing this law. That left the matter completely up to the PPD. During the 1970s and 1980s a few PPD lawmakers proposed bills, but in keeping with a classic Downsian vote-maximizing strategy the party’s leadership consistently rejected the idea. With an eye on the next election, the PPD’s behavior was consistent with standard models of rational political behavior.
Looking Forward
Authors: Barreto Amílcar Antonio
Published: September 2020

Congress responded to news of Puerto Rico’s fiscal crisis by stripping the Commonwealth of its fiscal autonomy in 2017. Its lackluster response to Hurricane Maria the following year is yet another sign that Puerto Rico’s golden era has passed. That belle epoque—World War II through the Cold War— marks the half-century period when Washington cared about Puerto Rico, though only to display it as its showcase for democracy. Its current apathy is indicative of a federal government that continues to racialize islanders and non-white citizens as second-class in violation of the classic Civic Creed. While the statehood movement counted on the creed’s sincerity, its status rivals knew or suspected it was a thin veneer. In many respects, the fight over official languages in Puerto Rico has as much to say about American identity as it does Puerto Rican identity.
Forging a Healthy and Beautiful Body
Authors: Tossounian Cecilia
Published: September 2020

Chapter 4 examines the popular media’s campaign to promote female physical culture in order to show how notions of health and beauty were used to promote and justify women’s exercise and how these conceptions redefined traditional ideas of femininity. Physical culture’s appeal was based on its combination of a modern agenda, which focused on the social rewards of individual physical fitness and beauty, and nationalist and eugenic concerns. A well-built, healthy, beautiful female body went hand in hand with a vigorous nation.
Barbuda and the Provisioning of the Codrington Estates on Antigua
Authors: Anderson Jennifer L.
Published: September 2020

For most of the colonial period, the Codrington family had exclusive control over the island of Barbuda. Deploying the labor of enslaved African workers, they developed the island into an important source of food and other supplies to provision their sugar plantations on nearby Antigua. This chapter examines how Barbuda’s natural resources, built landscape, and labor system were all directed toward that purpose. In particular, it compares the Codringtons’ management strategies with those of Samuel Martin and William Byam, who sub-leased the island from 1746 to 1761. In addition, Anderson argues that enslaved people on Barbuda experienced a unique form of bondage geared toward herding and cultivation of food crops rather than sugar production. It also examines how the particular environmental conditions on Barbuda both offered opportunities and presented challenges for the people lived and worked there.
“Choicest of the Cargoe”
Authors: Dator James F.
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the African slave trade to Antigua, one of the Leeward Islands in the Eastern Caribbean. It examines the large-scale contours of the trade to Antigua over time. It also pays particular attention to the role of the Codrington family in the sale and distribution of enslaved Africans to Antigua and other parts of the Atlantic world. As this chapter illustrates, enslaved persons brought to the Leeward Islands by the Codringtons were enmeshed in a larger, interisland trade that linked Antigua to other plantation colonies in the region. Moreover, the Atlantic slave trade to Antigua was much larger than previously thought.
Beyond the Plantation
Authors: Waters Christopher K.
Published: September 2020

Betty’s Hope functioned as a civic and military space as much as an economic space in the early Codrington years. As governors, Christopher Codrington II and Christopher Codrington III doubled as war leaders, employing their prior service and experience and funneling it into military construction. This chapter examines the role that the Codringtons played in fortifying Antigua in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. The intersection of civic, military, and economic leadership expected of the Codringtons, are foregrounded by how local politics dominated the placement and funding of Antigua’s fortifications rather than as part of an imperializing project directed from Britain. Using the lens of locality, Waters shows how fortification of Antigua demonstrates how early planation society formed, as well as reinforcing the autonomy of the Antiguan government within the colonial system.
Introduction
Authors: Lapham Heather A.
Published: September 2020

This chapter introduces the volume topic, bears and bear-human relationships in Native Eastern North America, and provides brief summaries of each chapter. It explains how ethnohistory, zooarchaeology, and ethnography are used to more fully understand and explore bear ceremonialism, human-animal relationships, indigenous worldviews, and Native American beliefs.
Ethnohistorical and Ethnographic Sources on Bear-Human Relationships in Native Eastern North America
Authors: Waselkov Gregory A.
Published: September 2020

This chapter compiles outsiders’ reactions to relationships observed between Native Americans and black bears (Ursus americanus) in the eastern half of the continent, with emphasis on the Southeast, during the sixteenth to early twentieth centuries. Written accounts provide a sense of the diverse patterns of bear-human relationships expressed by Native Americans that are potentially revealed by zooarchaeology. These accounts focus on economic transactions and food acquisition, preparation, and consumption. References cover bear hunting methods, bear meat consumption, the many uses of bear hides and bear oil, and some notes on bear cubs kept as pets. This systematic overview of ethnohistorical accounts and ethnographic sources on bear-human relationships in Native Eastern North America can inform interpretations of bear remains by zooarchaeologists who are studying Indigenous lifeways in contexts of hunting intensification, commodification of forest products, encroachment by intrusive settlers, missionizing, and cooption of Native American political elites.
“Dear, Honored Guest”
Authors: Mather David
Published: September 2020

Bears are represented in Minnesota’s archaeological record through rock art, effigy earthworks, and portable art, but most frequently through zooarchaeology. Most identified bone fragments are American black bears (Ursus americanus), with rare identifications of grizzly bears (U. arctos). These finds are found throughout the state, but are most frequent in the forested biomes of the Laurentian Mixed Forest and Eastern Broadleaf Forest. The sites are archaeological expressions of bear ceremonialism, culturally connected to the Dakota, Ojibwe, or related American Indian nations, and descriptions by native elders and cultural anthropologists Irving Hallowell and Ruth Landes. Analyses of body part representation and taphonomy (such as burned or calcined bone) allows interpretation of sites representing feasts or bear graves where the remains were respectfully placed. Traditions of bear ceremonialism in Minnesota also include cultural manifestations of bear power, such as by healers, warriors, spiritual societies, or clans.
The Great White Bear in Cosmology, Myth, Imagery, and Ritual
Authors: Berres Thomas E.
Published: September 2020

The Great White Bear in the Central Algonquian philosophical religious belief system possessed the power to maintain or end life. In the Menominee Nation worldview, the Great White Bear with its long, burnished copper tail was the most powerful Lower World mythical being in the cosmos that needed appeasement through strict ritual action and close communication. The religious role of this being is articulated within the cross-cultural prominence of bear clans and their obligatory leadership roles among Central Algonquian and Chiwere-Siouan speaking nations. Traditional sacred narratives and artistic expressions, like in pictography and a Hopewell effigy pipe found in mortuary ritual contexts, show that this other-than-human person was intimately connected with religious beliefs, ritual, culture history, and knowledge transmitted through generations—connections essential for unity and harmony within the universe.
The Multifaceted Bear
Authors: Koziarski Ralph
Published: September 2020

Archaeological excavations at the Bell Site, in eastern-central Wisconsin, have provided extensive insights into the culture of the Meskwaki Indians, whose principal village was located at the site circa 1680–1730. Among the many discoveries were several ritually buried bear skulls. This chapter uses ethnographic and ethnohistoric data to demonstrate the spiritual and nutritional importance of bears to the historic Meskwaki, and links the ritually buried skulls with food remains consumed during feasts. The feasts likely served an important role in the politics and economics of Meskwaki society at the time, and the central role played by bears at the feasts further underscores the importance they would have had to the Meskwaki.
Use of Black Bears in the Western Great Lakes Region and the Riddle of the Perforated Bear Mandibles
Authors: Martin Terrance J.
Published: September 2020

Zooarchaeological studies in the western Great Lakes region have noted increases in black bear (Ursus americanus) remains at Native sites after European contact. Researchers have attributed this to a loss of reverence for bears by Native hunters after the establishment of the European fur trade when bears were procured by Natives and Europeans for their hides, fat, and oil. A review of bear remains from more than thirty Precontact and Colonial period sites focuses on how the species was used over time by considering bear-to-cervid ratios, composition of bear skeletal portions, and presence of crania. A unique phenomenon is the discovery at several early Colonial period Native sites of more than 40 bear mandibles that were modified to function as stropping tools.
In and Out of Digital Humanities
Authors: L’Hoeste Héctor Fernández , Rodríguez Juan Carlos
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter provides a general context for this collection, starting with the anecdotal inception of the project. It provides a list of some of the important titles in the field of digital humanities that figure prominently as academic predecessors and ponders on the consequences and implications of the digital turn in the humanities for the study of Latinx and Latin American culture. In response to the cultural hegemony of Anglocentric circles in the digital humanities, it provides ample evidence of the development and existence of the field in Latin America. Finally, it provides a brief overview of the four sections into which the book is divided: digital nations, transnational networks, digital aesthetics and practices, and interviews with Latin American DH scholars.