bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Animal Iconography
Authors: Gannon Anna
Published: November 2020

Pagan Germanic art had favoured the representation of animals and invested it with apotropaic qualities. The new Christian animal iconography (Evangelists’ symbols, doves, peacock, the fauna in the vine-scrolls, etc.) was accepted and integrated into a tradition which saw it not as purely decorative, but as a potent symbolic image. It is not surprising that, just as in contemporary sculpture, manuscripts, metalwork, and embroidery, many of the reverses of the Secondary series show animals, real or fantastic. These representations must be analysed in the context of the culture of the time, and therefore as potential for metaphors. Whilst the gold coinage, following Merovingian numismatic prototypes, had crosses as reverses, the Primary coins of Series B introduced birds to this iconography. Birds will indeed dominate amongst the reverses of the whole of the early Anglo-Saxon coinage, and their importance can be understood in a Christian context. Several groups of coins sharing the iconography of a bust or head with diadem and spiky hair on the obverse, and of a bird surmounting a cross on the reverse, are gathered under the classification of Series B. Some issues have unintelligible legends on both sides, cordoned by a torque of pellets, sometimes snake-headed, and though they differ in details, their iconography is consistent (Fig. 4.1). Rigold regarded the coin iconography of the bird on a cross as original Anglo-Saxon, rejecting any Merovingian numismatic precedent. Conceptually close models may have developed in imitation of Roman and Christian standards or sceptres. Coptic bronze lamps present us with several examples where the reflector above the handle is in the shape of a cross topped with a bird (Fig. 4.1c), and there is also an interesting bronze lamp in the shape of a ram with a cross and bird on its head. Following Early Christian precedents, the bird on the coins can be identified as a dove, in a Christian context a symbol of the Holy Spirit, appropriately set on a cross. In Insular metalwork there are two three-dimensional dove-shaped mounts that may perhaps have similarly topped crosses.
House I 10,1
Authors: Allison Penelope M.
Published: November 2020

Giornali degli Scavi: A,VI,6 (May 1912–Mar. 1929): 452 (29 Nov. 1926); 458 (3 Dec. 1926). A, VI,7 (Apr. 1929–Dec 1935): 209 (28–29 July 1932); 210 (29, 31 July 1932); 215 (2–3 Aug. 1932); 216 (3 Aug. 1932); 218 (10 Aug. 1932); 218–19 (13 Aug. 1932). Elia 1934: 265–70. The façade of this house was excavated in November 1926, the entrance on 29 November (GdSc A,VI,6: 451–3). The house was completely excavated between 28 July and 13 August 1932 (GdSc A,VI,7: 209–18). Present location: unknown, not inventoried at time of excavation. Description: presumably cylindrical pivot lining to line the base of the wooden pivot pole of the main entrance door. See cat. no. 285. Present location: unknown, not inventoried at time of excavation. Discussion: possibly door handle for the main entrance. Present location: unknown, not inventoried at time of excavation. Discussion: probably from main entrance door and frame. Dimensions: l.: 45 mm. Description: small bronze slide key with a large suspension ring (diam.: c.20 mm) and L-shaped bit. Three remaining teeth. Present location: Pompeii Collection, CB (inv. no. 5093). Discussion: This probably originally had five teeth (see Stead 1986: 137 fig. 59, nos. 371–2), similar to Manning type 2 (1985: 93, fig. 25.7), and was used in a tumbler lock. Its small size suggests that it was from storage furniture. See discussion on locks and keys. Dimensions of case: 85 mm × 85 mm × 30 mm. Description: Fragmentary iron lock consisting of a lock case and the remains of iron fastening bars (max. preserved l. of fragment: 120 mm), iron key and bronze bolt. Lock case with iron attachment nails in the corners and in the middle of each side. Iron key (l.: 70 mm), with suspension ring (diam. c.23 mm) and L-shaped bit, preserved in the lock. Bronze bolt made from a solid strip of bronze (dimensions: 70 mm × 15 mm × 6 mm) with a key pattern of five triangular holes arranged in two rows. Small cylindrical bronze rod (l.: 16 mm), probably part of a tumbler, inserted into one of the triangular holes.
Casa degli Amanti Supplement
Authors: Allison Penelope M.
Published: November 2020

The following artefacts have been mounted for display on a board which in 2001 was hanging on the south wall of the peristyle garden of this house (Plate 125.1) i. Dimensions: 75 mm × 80 mm × 30 mm. Description: Iron lock case. In each corner is an iron attachment nail with sub-hemispherical head (diam.: c.13 mm). Traces of a keyhole. Present location: Casa degli Amanti, wooden board (middle row, right). ii. Dimensions: 85 mm × 77 mm × 25 mm. Description: Iron lock case with a flat-head, iron attachment nail (diam.: c.20 mm) in each corner. L-shaped keyhole (max. l.: 23 mm). Rectangular slit (c.3 mm × 25 mm) near one edge. Present location: Casa degli Amanti, wooden board (middle row, second right). Discussion: Both similar to cat. no. 1935. Possibly cat. nos. 1826 and 1859. See discussion on locks and keys. i. Dimensions: preserved l. of blade: c.170 mm; max. w.: c.75 mm; max. thickness: c.15 mm. Description: Curved axe blade with one side convex and the other concave. Poll badly corroded. Present location: Casa degli Amanti, wooden board (top row, left). ii. Dimensions: preserved l. of blade: c.190 mm; max. w.: c.75 mm; dimensions of poll: 55 mm × 40 mm. Description: Curved axe blade with one side convex and the other concave. Circular eye (diam.: c.30 mm) with the remains of a wooden handle. Present location: Casa degli Amanti, wooden board (top row, second from left). iii. Dimensions: preserved l. of blade: c.175 mm; max. w.: c.50 mm; poll: 55 mm × 40 mm. Description: Curved axe blade with one side convex and the other concave. Circular eye (diam.: c.30 mm). Poll badly damaged. Present location: Casa degli Amanti, wooden board (top row, third from left). Discussion: These axes are Manning type 4 (1985: 16). Possibly cat. nos. 1780 and 1781. See discussion on axes. i. Dimensions: total l.: c.210 mm; max. w. of blade: c.55 mm; max. thickness: 15 mm. Description: approximately right-angled blade. Present location: Casa degli Amanti, wooden board (second row, left). ii. Dimensions: total l.: c.215 mm; max. w. of blade: c.60 mm; max. thickness: 10 mm.
House I 10,2–3
Authors: Allison Penelope M.
Published: November 2020

According to Elia, this area had been a ‘cubiculum’, that was later adapted as a ‘bottega’ or ‘taberna’ and decorated in the Fourth Style. Remains of painted plaster on the walls suggest that the decoration had been cursory. An L-shaped masonry counter ran west from the east door jamb of the entrance, and then south. It was plastered and painted red, decorated with plants, and had two dolia inset into the centre of the southern branch. At the southern end of this bench was a masonry fornello, of which only the base and east wall was extant at the time of excavation. Disturbed volcanic deposit was encountered 2.5 m above the pavement. The only loose finds were made on the counter. They consisted of three bronze coins, one Republican and one dating to ad 37–8. The fixtures in this area, and the graffiti at the entrance to the house, have been used as evidence that this was a shop for the heating and dispensing of food. The apparent state of the fornello suggests that it was not in use at the time of the eruption. Loose finds may have been removed after the eruption, as suggested by the breaches in the walls, or possibly during clearing of the façade. However, the complete lack of recorded finds supports an inference that it was not operating as a going concern prior to the eruption. Similar conditions were observed by Berry for the so-called ‘caupona’ in House I 9,11, from which she concluded that it was not functioning in ad 79. This entranceway led to hall 4, off which most of the rooms in this house opened. Ling notes evidence of wall plaster but no decoration was recorded by Elia. In the east wall, 1.15 m above the floor and 0.82 m from the south end, was a semi-circular lararium niche with traces of a protecting door and an associated inscription: ‘Lares Augusti’. Disturbed volcanic deposit was encountered 2.5 m above the pavement of this entranceway. The finds from the actual entrance consisted of iron fragments, which would have been part of the closing system for the street door, and a marble base.
Casa del Menandro (I 10,4)
Authors: Allison Penelope M.
Published: November 2020

To either side of this main entranceway, on the street front, are fixed masonry seats. Such seats have been assumed to have been for waiting clients. However, in Pompeii these seats are not always in front of the largest and most elaborate houses, that is those whose occupants were likely to have had clients. They were therefore likely to have served as a public facility available to anyone, including the house occupants. No loose finds were reported from this entranceway. The only visible sign of possible post-eruption disturbance to the volcanic deposit is a small hole towards the south end of the east wall of this ‘atrium’. However, the hole seems too small to have been the breach made by a post-eruption intruder. Maiuri noted, that the wall decoration of this ‘atrium’ was of a fresh and well-preserved Fourth Style executed after the last transformation of the house. The pavement was in lavapesta. Fixtures here included a central catchment pool (impluvium), revetted in white marble that was damaged either before or during the eruption, and a lararium aedicula in the north-west corner. According to Maiuri, the aedicula was constructed after the last well-preserved wall decoration, but Ling believes they are contemporary. At least forty-five small bronze studs were found in the north-west corner of this area. These had decorated the wooden lattice of the aedicula, now reconstructed in plaster. All the other recorded moveable finds were from the south side of this space. These included: a household storage jar; two clay lamps; bronze and iron fittings, possibly from the closing system for room 8, the so-called ‘tablinum’; and bone fragments probably from a piece of furniture. In the south-west corner were found a large bronze basin and a bronze patera, both of which were conceivably associated with bathing. Contrary to what might be expected, no statuettes of Lares or other representations were found in the lararium aedicula. Maiuri therefore concluded that these must have been made of wood. If this were so, then the excavators, who were able to make a cast of the wooden latticing, would surely also have observed any statuettes inside the aedicula, objects which would seem to have been more important than the latticing.
Casa del Fabbro (I 10,7)
Authors: Allison Penelope M.
Published: November 2020

The doorposts and the walls of the entranceway to this house were coarsely plastered and the pavement was of lavapesta. The walls have been much restored since excavation, prohibiting the identification of any breaches that might provide evidence for disturbance. Outside the entrance, on the west side, is a low, plastered, masonry bench (1.57 m × 0.38 m × 0.42 m), which Elia identified as a seat for waiting clients. Within the entranceway, a few centimetres above the pavement, a number of finds were made. These were all of iron—a large lock, two hooks, a handle, two keys, at least one door latch and numerous studs and nails—and no doubt mainly the fittings for the house door. One of the keys was large and probably a door key. Its discovery here suggests that the occupants were still in residence, or at least had not had the time or inclination to lock up their house, before fleeing from the eruption. A small ring was also found in this entranceway, and was probably a lost finger-ring. This room is closed to the street but almost completely open along its east side onto the entranceway. The walls had a high, pink-plastered socle, to 1.6 m above the pavement, with white plaster above, and the pavement was of tiles and mortar. There are breaches in the west and south walls, possibly the result of post-eruption disturbance. A stairway ran along the north wall, rising from east to west. Underneath was a low partition wall jutting out at right angles from the west wall, to partition off a latrine in the north-west corner. This partition wall post-dates the plaster on the west wall. A line of roof tiles, set into the floor and running from this partition wall to the south jamb on the east wall, is assumed to have been for flushing the latrine. A truncated amphora, with visible organic contents, was set into the pavement in the south-east corner. Other finds from this room, but with no precise provenances, include: two relatively small bronze strap hinges, possibly from furniture; a bronze casseruola; two ceramic jugs; a hoe, probably for gardening; an axehead, probably a woodman’s; and a bronze brooch.
Global Sustainable Development
Authors: Strong Maurice
Published: November 2020

To environmentalists the concept of globalism is not new. Indeed the environmental movement is based on the realization that the environment and natural resources of the earth, which nourish and sustain life on our planet, are systemic in nature and intrinsically global in scale. Thus environmentalists tend to perceive even the most local of conditions as being linked to the complex system of cause and effect relationships on which the health of the environment of our planet as a whole depends. The processes through which human activity impacts on, and interacts with, this global system have accelerated to an unprecedented degree during the past century through the phenomenon we now call globalization. This can be seen by environmentalists as a mixed blessing. On one hand, it has vastly increased public awareness of the global nature of environmental issues and provided the impetus for international actions to deal with them. On the other hand, globalization has been driven largely by economic motivations which have served to accelerate the environmental deterioration that we have witnessed during this last century, particularly the latter part of it, and which continue to undermine the earth’s natural capital. Knowledge is clearly the principal resource on which the future growth, development and governance of our civilization will be based. Technology manifested in a galaxy of new products and services, design, management and information systems is the primary source of added value and comparative advantage in the global economy (Castells, this volume). It also offers the main ingredient for the transition to sustainability through patterns of production and consumption that are less physical in nature, and less materials- and energy-intensive. The value of a compact disk or a computer chip is primarily attributable to the functions and characteristics with which human intelligence and technology have endowed it, rather than to its material content. This dematerialization of economic growth is already evident in the fact that the biggest single export of the United States today, amounting to some $30 billion per year, is entertainment.
Coinage and Identity in the Roman Provinces: Spain
Authors: Ripollès Pere P
Published: November 2020

The Ethnic and Cultural Composition of Iberia was not uniform before the Romans arrived; literary sources and archaeological research provide evidence of different influences over several Late Bronze Age strata. An account of the groups there previously is an essential first step before assessing the impact of Roman intervention, so that we can determine the extent to which the arrival and dominion of the Romans modified existing traditions. Before the coming of the Romans, the foreign peoples who principally influenced native Iberians were Phoenicians and Greeks (Map 6.1). The Greek colonies at Emporion and Rhode in north-east Iberia played an important role in the trade of commodities and the spread of ideas along the Mediterranean coast. In the south, the Phoenicians had settled early on, and created the great centralized settlements in this area, which includes part of what is now Portugal, and several villages commercially attached to the coast. The south and Mediterranean coast included the most Hellenized native towns, villages, and peoples; the Late Bronze Age populations evolved towards a culture that is generally speaking labelled as Iberian, and owed many features to their contacts with Greeks and Phoenicians. However, important variations in settlement patterns, religion, artistic traditions, and social organization can be recognized. Some of the most important settlements developed urban models. The inhabitants spoke a pre-Indo-European language and had their own writing. The eastern part of the inner Iberian Peninsula was inhabited by Celtiberians, throughout a wide territory that extended over the lands located south of the river Ebro and on the eastern part of both Mesetas. They had been developing a form of urban organization since the fourth century bc, and their material culture shows some indirect Greek influences from contacts with coastal Iberians. Their language belongs to the Indo-European family. The central and western parts of Iberia were inhabited by peoples with few Mediterranean influences, and with a strong presence of their own Late Bronze Age traditions. There are no signs of urban development, as seen in the Greek, and later Roman, worlds, until the Late Republican period.
Lakes, Wetlands, and Holocene Environmental Change
Authors: Roberts Neil , Reed Jane
Published: November 2020

The Mediterranean regions of the world are defined on the basis of their climate, with a distinct hot, dry summer season and a warm, wet winter (Grove and Rackham 2001; Chapter 3). Spring and autumn seasons are less well defined but often contribute significantly to annual precipitation. Strictly defined in this way, the Mediterranean region is confined to parts of Italy, Greece, southern France, the south and east of Spain (non-Atlantic climate), the Maghreb and Cyrenaica in North Africa, and narrow coastal strips running through the Balkans, southern and western Turkey, and the Levant (Syria, Lebanon, and Israel-Palestine). Outside these areas, climate becomes humid temperate (western Europe, Black Sea), arid (Sahara, northern Arabia), or continental (interior areas of the Balkans, Turkey and Iberia, the Zagros mountains of Iran/Iraq). Even within the strict definition are found subalpine mountain zones, so it is a difficult study region to demarcate absolutely. In a similar vein to the volume by Zolitschka et al. (2000), this chapter extends the scope to important wetlands in some neighbouring regions, and deals effectively with the circum-Mediterranean. Thus, we include lakes Ohrid and Dojran in the Balkans, wetlands of the continental interior of Turkey, north-western Iran and the Caucasus (e.g. Lakes Van, Urmia, and Sevan), the climatically dry Jordan rift valley which includes the Dead Sea, and the subalpine northern Italian lakes such as Como and Maggiore. The Mediterranean basin is geologically complex and has its origin in the progressive closure of the Sea of Tethys during the Tertiary (Laubscher and Bernoulli 1977). Plate convergence between Africa and Eurasia led to a major phase of orogenesis and the creation of fold mountains including the Atlas, Sierra Nevada, Alps, Apennines, and Taurus, and to plateau uplift in Iberia and Anatolia (Chapter 1). These mountain ranges are commonly dominated by massively deformed Mesozoic limestones that now form karst landscapes (e.g. Dinaric Alps; Ager 1980; Chapter 10). Tectonic movement also led to extensive late Cenozoic volcanism, notably in southern and central Italy, the Hellenic arc, Anatolia, and around the Jordan rift (Chapter 15).
Politics, Violence, and Drugs
Authors: Clarke Colin
Published: November 2020

A survey of the frequency and seriousness of violence in Jamaica, focusing on the urban areas, has recently been carried out by Moser and Holland (1997). ‘While signiWcant distinctions occurred between communities, as well as between diVerent focus groups within communities, overall the groups ranked gang and gun violence as the most serious forms of violence, followed by rape and drug violence. Other interpersonal violence was the least serious, although it was the most prevalent type of violence in the communities (Moser and Holland 1997: 22). These conclusions, according to which people rank infrequent outbreaks of gun, gang, rape, and drug violence ahead of all other more common forms of urban violence in terms of their signiWcance is explained by the murder data. Between 1999 and 2001, there were more than 2,760 murders in Jamaica, and homicide rates in the vicinity of 40 murders per 100,000 inhabitants have placed Jamaica near the top of the list of countries with the highest incidence in the world. Yet in recent years the police have attributed only just over 10 per cent of murders to drug and gangland-related activity, the most prevalent categories of murder being related to robbery (25 per cent), domestic violence (32 per cent), and reprisal killings (33 per cent) (Headley 2002). Why has violence associated with guns, gangs, and drugs become so feared? Why has Jamaican politics, often held up as a shining example of post-colonial two-party democracy, been implicated in the development of gangs and guns? How did drugs enter the urban scene in Kingston, and how did Kingston, a Caribbean backwater in terms of global capitalism, become the nexus for international drug cartels? This chapter examines the link between post-colonial political patronage and violence in the context of the Kingston ghetto, home to the city’s most marginal population. It traces the development of key ghetto constituencies into garrison communities in the 1960s and 1970s; and explores the link between politics, gangs, and the development of the trade in ganja (marijuana).
Policy Integration: From Technology Upgrading to Industrial Environmental Improvement
Authors: Rock Michael T. , Angel David P.
Published: November 2020

How might governments in East Asia take advantage of their technological capabilities building policies to lower the environmental burden of high speed industrial growth within the region? Our answer to this question draws heavily on the increasing dissatisfaction within the OECD economies in the traditional way, through command and control environmental regulatory agencies, in which governments in the OECD have pursued improvements in the environmental performance of industry (Davies and Mazurek 1998; NAPA 1995). As some (Hausker 1999) have argued, command and control regulatory approaches fail to capitalize fully on the innovative capabilities of Wrms and industries and as a result generate costs of abatement that are unnecessarily high. Because of this, others (Chertow and Esty 1997; Gunningham and Grabowsky 1998) have urged greater flexibility and innovation in how environmental goals are met. Various alternatives have been proposed, including greater use of information-based policy tools, devolution of policy implementation to regions and localities, and increased cooperation between government and industry in seeking cost-effective solutions to environmental concerns. Critics of these proposed reforms suggest that ceding discretionary decision-making authority to firms and industries amounts to a weakening of regulatory enforcement that will undermine future gains in environmental performance. Our purpose in this chapter is to build on the calls for environmental regulatory reform by demonstrating that there are approaches to improving the environmental performance of industry that are emerging in East Asia that take greater advantage of the capabilities building activities of firms in developing economies without sacrificing the ability of regulators to hold these firms to tough performance standards. We do so by examining the contribution of a broad array of government institutions in such reform initiatives in the rapidly industrializing economies of East Asia. Within the United States, environmental regulatory reform initiatives are focused primarily upon the environmental regulatory agency, the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Various European countries have explored different approaches to environmental protection, such as the creation of ‘environmental covenants’ between government and industry in the Netherlands.
Globalization, Openness to Trade and Investment, Technology Transfer, and the Environment: The Cement Industry in East Asia
Authors: Rock Michael T. , Angel David P.
Published: November 2020

Neo-liberal orthodoxy asserts the positive benefits of open trade and investment regimes and of the efficacy of market processes in shaping development outcomes. Among the benefits claimed for openness are access to capital and access to leading-edge technologies. Through trade and foreign direct investment, it is asserted, firms gain access to the best-available technology and production know-how that results in improved economic and environmental performance. To the extent that the leading-edge technologies are also less energy, materials, and pollution intensive, new investment under conditions of open trade and investment regimes can also lead to improved environmental performance (Low 1992). By this account, pollution-intensive and energy-intensive production processes are replaced by more energy and materials-efficient production, based on technologies sourced on a global basis. Over time, the increasing integration of industrializing economies into the global economy results in improved aggregate economic and environmental performance of industry. These claims as to the benefits of openness are disputed, however, by other researchers who suggest that the impact of openness on the environmental performance of industry is largely contingent upon the incentives that exist for adopting technologies that are less polluting and less energy and materials intensive, and more generally, upon effective governance structures at the national and local scale (Chapters 2 and 3; Brandon and Ramankutty 1993; Rock 2002a). Under conditions of openness firms have a range of technology choices and may well choose technologies that are below international standards of environmental performance, particularly when technologies that achieve higher environmental performance are more costly or more capital intensive than older, more pollution-intensive technologies. In addition, countries with weak environmental regulations may emerge as ‘pollution havens’ for pollution-intensive industries (Baumol and Oates 1988; Neumayer 2000), particularly when new foreign investment actually involves older ‘dirty’ technologies, as appears to have happened in some parts of the textiles and electro-plating industries (Rock 2002a). In this view, improved environmental performance within particular industries depends inter alia upon the coexistence of two conditions: access to technologies that are less energy, materials, and pollution intensive, and incentives to select these technologies (whether in the form of environmental regulation, resource pricing, or other tools of environmental policy, such as policy integration) and to adapt them to local conditions.
Global Standards and the Environmental Performance of Industry
Authors: Rock Michael T. , Angel David P.
Published: November 2020

This chapter draws together the evidence of the last three chapters to consider the emergence of global standards as a driver of improvements in the environmental performance of industry. Our particular focus is the growing importance of firm-based global environmental standards as an alternative to the more widely recognized state-centered approaches to setting and implementing environmental standards. Increasing numbers of multinational firms (MNCs) are adopting uniform approaches to environmental management across all of their facilities worldwide, including in some cases process and performance-based environmental standards. Such intra-firm standards have even broader reach when they are also applied to the suppliers of the MNCs as part of standardized supply chain management. In this chapter we examine the rationale behind the adoption of firm-based approaches to global environmental standards, and whether such firm-based approaches add value to traditional state-centered environmental regulation and governance. Why are firm-based global standards being adopted by MNCs, and do these standards constitute a novel and effective approach to improving the environmental performance of industry? The chapter addresses the issue of global standards and the environment from the perspective of recent research within economic geography on issues of economic globalization. We take this starting point precisely because much of the recent interest in global environmental standards among politicians and policy makers is a reaction to economic globalization and to the likely environmental and social consequences of intensified flows of capital, technology, and information on a global scale. The growing force of neoliberal trade and investment regimes, and the rapid growth in foreign direct investment and international trade within the world economy, has led many to call for a new global governance of economic processes that will ensure more positive development outcomes (Rodrik et al. 2002; UNDP 2003). What Rodrik and others have in mind in this regard is some combination of supra-national institutional capability and strengthened state-based regulation to match the growing global reach of MNCs.
The Moments of Nature–State Relations
Authors: Whitehead Mark , Jones Rhys , Jones Martin
Published: November 2020

A key consideration when explicating the character of nature–state relations is their historical geographies, or what we may term their key ‘moments of mutual association’. But despite the obvious importance of nature and the environment for shaping the character of the state and the equally crucial role played by physical and environmental processes in reproducing political forms, it seems clear to us that the majority of work in history and historical geography has tended to separate the two themes from one another: at one extreme lie studies of the changing political form of the state; at the other, an environmental history that is usually concerned with the history of the environment for its own sake. The not immodest aim of this chapter is to forge a more productive link between these two academic traditions. We attempt to do this through illustrating the key moments that have helped to structure nature–state relations. In talking about moments, we do not refer simply to particular times or periods that have been crucial for the forging of nature–state relations. Our emphasis on the notion of moments does not seek to give primacy to temporal issues as such. Rather, in referring to nature–state moments, we emphasize the characteristic or indicative associations that have existed between states and natures. We seek to stress, therefore, a range of different types of association that have been important in structuring nature–state relations. Obviously, the issue of time is important since the character of nature–state relations would have been extremely different in the Greek polis when compared with the state of high modernity. The degree to which nature could be modified obviously varied between the two time periods, as did its potential impact on political processes. Even within the modern period, the character of nature–state relations has varied considerably. Changing technologies and political and ecological ideologies have ensured a different repertoire of associations between states and natures throughout the whole of the modern period. But it is not the issue of time per se that explains these different associations; rather, it is the differing ideological, technological, and material relations that exist between specific states and natures at particular points in time.
Weed, Tuber, and Maize Farming in the Americas
Authors: Barker Graeme
Published: November 2020

The American continent extends over 12,000 kilometres from Alaska to Cape Horn, and encompasses an enormous variety of environments from arctic to tropical. For the purposes of this discussion, such a huge variety has to be simplified into a few major geographical units within the three regions of North, Central, and South America (Fig. 7.1). Large tracts of Alaska and modern Canada north of the 58th parallel consist of tundra, which extends further south down the eastern coast of Labrador. To the south, boreal coniferous forests stretch eastwards from Lake Winnipeg and the Red River past the Great Lakes to the Atlantic, and westwards from the slopes of the Rockies to the Pacific. The vast prairies in between extend southwards through the central United States between the Mississippi valley and the Rockies, becoming less forested and more open as aridity increases further south. South of the Great Lakes the Appalachian mountains dominate the eastern United States, making a temperate landscape of parallel ranges and fertile valleys, with sub-tropical environments developing in the south-east. The two together are commonly referred to as the ‘eastern Woodlands’ in the archaeological literature. On the Pacific side are more mountain ranges such as the Sierra Nevada, separated from the Rockies by arid basins including the infamous Death Valley. These drylands extend southwards into the northern part of Central America, to what is now northern Mexico, a region of pronounced winter and summer seasonality in temperature, with dryland geology and geomorphology and xerophytic vegetation. The highlands of Central America, from Mexico to Nicaragua, are cool tropical environments with mixed deciduous and coniferous forests. The latter develop into oak-laurel-myrtle rainforest further south in Costa Rica and Panama. The lowlands on either side sustain a variety of tropical vegetation adapted to high temperatures and frost-free climates, including rainforest, deciduous woodland, savannah, and scrub. South America can be divided into a number of major environmental zones (Pearsall, 1992). The first is the Pacific littoral, which changes dramatically from tropical forest in Colombia and Ecuador to desert from northern Peru to central Chile. This coastal plain is transected by rivers flowing from the Andes, and in places patches of seasonal vegetation (lomas) are able to survive in rainless desert sustained by sea fog.
Geography and Economy
Authors: Scott Allen J.
Published: November 2020

Focusing on the theme of the mutually constitutive relations between geographic space and the economic order, Allen J. Scott discusses the problems of the location of economic activities, learning and innovation in industrial systems, and economic development. These problems are dealt with in both theoretical and empirical terms.
The Palaeolithic Rock Art of Creswell Crags: Prelude to a Systematic Study
Authors: Ripoll Sergio , Muñoz Francisco J.
Published: November 2020

On 14 April 2003 the sensational discovery of a series of undoubtedly Palaeolithic figures in Church Hole Cave, Creswell Crags, certainly constituted a milestone in prehistoric investigations in the United Kingdom. For various reasons, the discovery team, comprising Sergio Ripoll, Paul G. Bahn, and Paul B. Pettitt was not able to reconvene to continue the work until the end of June. At that time we incorporated Francisco J.Muñoz into the team to help us in the work of documentation and prospection. At the time of writing, we have carried out two systematic campaigns of documentation, the first in June/July 2003, and the second in March 2004. With the financial support of English Heritage, and the technical support of the Creswell Crags Interpretation Centre, we undertook the detailed examination of all the wall surfaces of the various caves in the complex of the River Meadow where it passes through Creswell Crags (Fig. 2.1; Pl. 10). In some of them, arrangements had been made for scaffolding to be installed to provide access to the highest parts of the caves, given the lowering of their floor levels over more than a century, either through more or less systematic excavations or to facilitate visits by tourists in the Victorian period. Since the most spectacular figure, discovered at the start, was in Church Hole (Pl. 11), we decided to begin our systematic prospecting in that cave—from its mouth, along the left wall to the interior, as far as the far end over 75 metres depth, and then back again towards the exterior along the right wall. During the systematic campaign of documentation of spring 2004 we discovered new figures which have potentially increased, in our opinion, the iconographic corpus of British Palaeolithic rock art to fifty-six figures in Church Hole, one in Robin Hood Cave, and one in Mother Grundy’s Parlour. Our work centred on Church Hole Cave, making the most of the scaffolding installed for that purpose. The methodology of the study was that which we routinely employ in various caves; as mentioned above, taking a detailed look from the entrance to the back along the left wall, and then returning to the exterior along the right wall.
A Topographical Approach to Parietal Figures: The Monumental Sculptures of the Roc-aux-Sorciers (Vienne, France) Produced in Daylight at the Back of a Rockshelter and on its Ceiling
Authors: Pinçon Geneviéve
Published: November 2020

The wonderful discovery of parietal figures in the entrance chamber of Church Hole by P. Bahn, P. Pettitt and S. Ripoll in 2003 invites us to study the elements that are linked to the topography of parietal figures made on ceilings in daylight. At Creswell, early excavations had revealed Magdalenian occupations. This association between habitation and parietal figures recalls other contexts, such as for example that of the Roc-aux-Sorciers at Angles-sur-l’Anglin (Vienne, France). This Magdalenian site contains a sculpted, engraved, and painted parietal assemblage which extends for more than 50 m at the foot of the cliff along the Anglin River. The upstream part of the site, called the Taillebourg cave, and which corresponds to a typical vestibule, yielded numerous decorated blocks that came from a major collapse of the cave’s ceiling; their refitting is currently under way. The downstream part, known as the abri Bourdois, which is a shallow overhang, at present contains a sculpted, engraved, and painted frieze, almost 20 m long, located on the vertical wall at the back of the rockshelter. Today the shelter’s ceiling has no traces of sculpture or engraving, but nothing confirms or rules out the presence of parietal figures here in the Magdalenian. After an analysis of the spatial organization of the figures in the abri Bourdois, we shall look at the elements at our disposal for understanding the figures on the ceiling of the Taillebourg cave in order to grasp whether the difference in location and the morphology of the supports had any impact on the spatial organization of the figures in the site as a whole. The site of the Roc-aux-Sorciers is located in Poitou-Charentes, in central-west France, in the commune of Angles-sur-l’Anglin. It was oficially classed as a historical monument on 18 January 1955. Facing directly south, it extends for about 50 m, at the foot of cliffs, near the present-day village, on the right bank of the Anglin (Fig. 12.1).
Going Heuristic
Authors: Dasgupta Subrata
Published: November 2020

Let us rewind the historical tape to 1945, the year in which John von Neumann wrote his celebrated report on the EDVAC (see Chapter 9 ). That same year, George Polya (1887–1985), a professor of mathematics at Stanford University and, like von Neumann, a Hungarian-American, published a slender book bearing the title How to Solve It. Polya’s aim in writing this book was to demonstrate how mathematical problems are really solved. The book focused on the kinds of reasoning that go into making discoveries in mathematics—not just “great” discoveries by “great” mathematicians, but the kind a high school mathematics student might make in solving back-of-the-chapter problems. Polya pointed out that, although a mathematical subject such as Euclidean geometry might seem a rigorous, systematic, deductive science, it is also experimental or inductive. By this he meant that solving mathematical problems involves the same kinds of mental strategies—trial and error, informed guesswork, analogizing, divide and conquer— that attend the empirical or “inductive” sciences. Mathematical problem solving, Polya insisted, involves the use of heuristics—an Anglicization of the Greek heurisko —meaning, to find. Heuristics, as an adjective, means “serving to discover.” We are oft en forced to deploy heuristic reasoning when we have no other options. Heuristic reasoning would not be necessary if we have algorithms to solve our problems; heuristics are summoned in the absence of algorithms. And so we seek analogies between the problem at hand and other, more familiar, situations and use the analogy as a guide to solve our problem, or we split a problem into simpler subproblems in the hope this makes the overall task easier, or we summon experience to bear on the problem and apply actions we had taken before with the reasonable expectation that it may help solve the problem, or we apply rules of thumb that have worked before. The point of heuristics, however, is that they offer promises of solution to certain kinds of problems but there are no guarantees of success. As Polya said, heuristic thinking is never considered as final, but rather is provisional or plausible.
Hallelujah Moments
Authors: Cordes Eugene H.
Published: November 2020

Drug discovery in the pharmaceutical industry has important consequences for the health and wellbeing of people everywhere. However, the general public knows little about the paths through which basic research findings are translated into products that protect or restore human health: the route from the laboratory bench to the bedside. In Hallelujah Moments, Eugene Cordes reveals how some of the most important and influential drugs have been brought into the practice of clinical medicine through the wit and determination of scientists in academia and industry. He shares his firsthand knowledge of the drug-discovery world, having spent a long and distinguished career in both the academic and industrial settings. These tales are "adventure stories," and they trace the route of important drugs like Januvia, Primaxin, Capoten, and Zocor from concept to the clinic. Cordes shows us the dynamic and critical thinking needed to create a drug that meets important health needs. These are human stories of imagination, risk-taking, problem-solving, and perseverance. Written accessibly for a non-scientist audience, Hallelujah Moments provides insights into the fascinating world of drug discovery like never before.
Drug Discovery and Development: The Road from an Idea to Promoting Human Health
Authors: Cordes Eugene H.
Published: November 2020

We are almost where we need to be to grasp the tales of drug discovery that make up the final seven chapters of this book. The three previous chapters have laid the necessary scientific foundation. Here is my take on what you still need to know to understand drug discovery and development: the process of getting from an idea to a product that meets a medical need—from the laboratory to the bedside. We begin with a look at the process from 35,000 feet. Realize one thing at the outset: there is more than one way of getting from an idea to approval of a new drug for use in human medicine. The process described in this chapter captures the essential features of getting this done. However, each drug discovery effort poses specific problems, and getting around them may have an effect on the actual process followed. Nonetheless, what is described here is well worth understanding. Imagine running a maze that may have more than two dimensions, a huge number of entry points, and a very small number of exits or perhaps no exit at all, depending on your entry point. Have a look at Figure 5.1 to get the idea. You can see the external features but have no clue what awaits you inside. You can wander in this maze for a long time without getting very far. This pretty well symbolizes what happens during a lot of drug discovery projects. In target-based drug discovery, described in the next section, each entry point in the maze corresponds to a molecule chosen as a starting place to begin work. Most of these entry points are dead ends. No matter what you do or how hard you try, the only exit from the maze is the place you entered—nothing gained. The journey may be long, there may be encouraging signs along the way, but at the end of the day, you are back where you started.
Where the Vine Roots Live
Authors: White Robert E.
Published: November 2020

Chapter 3 gives examples of how grapevines, being woody perennials, have the potential to develop extensive, deep root systems when soil conditions are favorable. One of the most important factors governing root growth is a soil’s structure, the essential attributes of which are • Spaces (collectively called the pore space or porosity) through which roots grow, gases diffuse, and water flows • Storage of water and natural drainage following rain or irrigation • Stable aggregation • Strength that not only enables moist soil to bear the weight of machinery and resist compaction but also influences the ease with which roots can push through the soil The key attributes of porosity, aeration and drainage, water storage, aggregation, and soil strength are discussed in turn. Various forces exerted by growing roots, burrowing animals and insects, the movement of water and its change of state (e.g., from liquid to ice) together organize the primary soil particles—clay, silt, and sand—into larger units called aggregates. Between and within these aggregates exists a network of spaces called pores. Total soil porosity is defined by the ratio . . . Porosity = Volume of pores/Volume of soil . . . A soil’s A horizon, containing organic matter, typically has a porosity between 0.5 and 0.6 cubic meter per cubic meter (m3/m3)—also expressed as 50% to 60%. In subsoils, where there is little organic matter and usually more clay, the porosity is typically 40% to 50%. Box 4.1 describes a simple way of estimating a soil’s porosity. Total porosity is important because it determines how much of the soil volume water, air, and roots can occupy. Equally important are the shape and size of the pores. The pores created by burrowing earthworms, plant roots, and fungal hyphae are roughly cylindrical, whereas those created by alternate wetting and drying appear as cracks. Overall, however, we express pore size in terms of diameter (equivalent to a width for cracks). Table 4.1 gives a classification of pore size based on pore function.