bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The biology of Microctonus caudatus (Thomson), a braconid parasite of the ground beetle Harpalus rufipes (Degeer)
Authors: LUFF M. L.
Published: March 2008

Microctonus caudatus parasitizes the adults of Harpalus rufipes. It is bivoltine, and its summer generation occurred in up to 27% of the study population of H.rufipes. The mean level of parasitism throughout both 1973 and 1974 was 8.4%.

Many larvae of M.caudatus are found in one host; the maximum number was 92, mean 20.8. There was indirect evidence of competition between larvae within the host, so that about sixty larvae, at most, were able to develop fully.

Larvae of the summer generation of M.caudatus emerged from host beetles between the end of July and mid September, invariably killing their host. The larvae pupated in the soil and adult parasites emerged from the pupal cocoons about 14 days later.

M.caudatus is parthenogenetic, and individuals oviposited readily in adult beetles in the laboratory. A culture of the parasite was maintained for almost a year at 15°C under artificial light of natural outdoor daylength, when four generations developed in the year. Time taken for development within the host was longest under short day conditions.
Aspects of the biology of Staphylinus olens (Müller), Britain's largest Staphylinid beetle
Authors: NIELD C. E.
Published: March 2008

Methods for rearing Staphylinus olens (Müller) (Col., Staphylinidae) are described, and development compared with other species of Coleoptera.

The distribution of S.olens over an area of Manchester is noted, and biological comparisons made with a laboratory population from South Wales. In the area sampled, most individuals live on well‐drained soils, possibly because successful pupation occurs under dry conditions.

‘Courtship’ and mating are described.

Egg‐laying, the egg, and its hatching are described, and compared with other coleopteran eggs.

Headwidths of laboratory larvae were recorded, and are compared with those of other beetle larvae.

Instars I and II lasted 44–45 days, although first instar larvae which eventually pupated had a mean duration of 33.5 days. Instar III averaged 102 days, but this time became shorter with later hatching, roughly synchronizing adult emergence.

Pupation and the obtect pupa are described. Pupal development took 32–37 days, after a 10–14 day prepupation period.

Newly emerged adults may construct winter burrows after autumn breeding. Second season adults may not hibernate, and often fail to survive another winter.

Food is manipulated by mandibles and legs, but no solids are consumed. Adults and larvae will eat many foodstuffs.
The nature of the mimetic patterns of the brassolid genera, Caligo and Eryphanis
Authors: STRADLING D. J.
Published: March 2008

The combination of cryptic and pseudaposematic patterns on the underside of the wings of the genera Caligo and Eryphanis is discussed.

It is suggested that in nature the false warning patterns resemble the profiles of amphibian and reptilian heads.

The possible protective value of these devices is discussed.
Searching by Adalia bipunctata (L.) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and escape behaviour of its aphid and cicadellid prey on lime (Tilia×vulgaris Hayne)
Authors: WRATTEN S. D.
Published: March 2008

The paper describes the behavioural interactions between searching larvae of Adalia bipunctata and its aphid and cicadellid prey on lime (Tilia×vulgaris Hayne).

The frequency with which the predator achieves contact with cicadellid nymphs of differing ages is related to direction of predator approach and predator perception by the cicadellid.

The success of a coccinellid in contacting and capturing its aphid prey is related to the predator's size and direction of approach, the perception of the predator by an aphid and the latter's ability to escape, the effectiveness of which is discussed.
Sperm (ejaculate) competition in Drosophila melanogaster, and the reproductive value of females to males in relation to female age and mating status
Authors: BOORMAN E. , PARKER G. A.
Published: March 2008

In double mating experiments with Drosophila melanogaster in which one male had been irradiated, it was confirmed that sperm displacement is extensive, i.e. the second male to mate displaces most of the previously‐stored sperm.

The predominance of the second ejaculate over the first increases with the interval between the two matings, from about P2= 0.83 (second mating on the first day after the first mating) to about P2= 0.99 (interval between mating = 14 days) where P2 is the proportion of offspring fathered by the second male.

A more accurate method for calculating P2 values is developed for experiments in which sperm are ‘labelled’ by irradiation treatment (equation 1).

Observations of the reducing egg production of the female throughout life were also obtained. A model is examined which incorporates both the sperm competition and egg production data to predict the reproductive value to a male of a mating with a given type of female, varying in age and mating status. The relative value (in terms of probable numbers of progeny gained) of a mating with a virgin or 4 day post‐mating female is about twice that of a 14 day post‐mating female, mainly because of the fecundity difference.

Some evolutionary aspects of sperm competition and multiple mating in insects are reviewed and discussed.
The effect of prey density and host plant characteristics on oviposition and fertility in Anthocoris confusus (Reuter)
Authors: EVANS H. F.
Published: March 2008

Anthocoris confusus females show the greatest egg production when fed on eight adult Aulacorthum circumflexus per day. Prey densities below six result in a marked fall off in egg production.

Low prey densities result in reduced egg fertility and a decrease in oviposition period.

A.confusus females oviposit on those parts of a broad bean plant which support the highest aphid densities. This increases the probability of survival of the emerging nymphs.

Females are also able to distinguish between young, fully turgid, plants and older, more flaccid, plants and oviposit preferentially in the younger ones. Thus the eggs develop before the plant dies.
Design and elevation of sex‐attractant traps for pea moth, Cydia nigricana (Steph.) and the effect of plume shape on catches
Authors: LEWIS T. , MACAULAY E. D. M.
Published: March 2008

Catches of male pea moths in six designs of trap, each containing (E,E)‐8,10‐dodecadienyl acetate as an attractant, were compared; triangular‐shaped traps caught most moths.

The vertical distribution of moths within a pea crop and the size of catches at different levels varied in different wind speeds. Three‐quarter crop height is probably the optimum height for monitoring.

Five trap designs (including the triangular type) captured only 20–30% of individuals landing on them; water traps were slightly more efficient.

There was an eight‐fold range in the number of moths caught depending on the sticky material used. ‘Bird‐Tanglefoot’ was most effective.

Smoke plumes, emitted from different trap designs in the field to simulate plumes of attractant, were photographed and measured. The effect of trap design on plume shape was confirmed in wind tunnel tests.

Field tests showed that the more elongated the mean plume emitted from a trap the greater the catch.

The tracks of individual moths flying to traps are discussed in relation to current views on orientation to odour sources.
Observations on the biology of Subcoccinella vigintiquattuor‐punctata (L.) in southern England
Authors: RICHARDS AOLA M. , POPE R. D. , EASTOP V. F.
Published: March 2008

Subcoccinella 24‐punctata (L.) is exclusively phytophagous, and is widely distributed throughout Britain.

Under laboratory conditions the duration of pre‐adult instars is about 6 weeks. Adults appear from the end of June onwards. Many enter reproductive diapause at the end of July, but remain active till the end of October.

Reproductive diapause is determined by the interaction of photoperiod and temperature.

Hibernation is unstable, and there may be high mortality in overwintering adults. These finally die during May and June.

The cool temperate climate limits the population size, preventing it from reaching pest proportions.
Biology of the Collembola Xenylla grisea Axelson and Lepidocyrtus cyaneus f. cinereus Folsom
Authors: SHARMA G. D. , METZ L. J.
Published: March 2008

Xenylla grisea Axelson and Lepidocyrtus cyaneus f. cinereus Folsom were reared on brown whole wheat flour in culture jars containing a base of plaster of paris and charcoal.

Sexes in X.grisea may be differentiated by the combination of three characters: length, colour and body shape. No parthenogenesis was observed in either species.

At room temperature (25–27°C), females of X.grisea began laying eggs after the fourth moult and required 10–15 days (mean of 12.6) to reach sexual maturity from the day of hatching. With L.cyaneus f. cinereus, average periods from hatching to maturity were 16.8, 27.4 and 43.2 days at temperatures of 26.5, 22 and 15°C, respectively.
The degree of oligophagy in Locusta migratoria (L.)
Authors: BERNAYS E. A. , CHAPMAN R. F. , MACDONALD J. , SALTER J. E. R.
Published: March 2008

Locusta migratoria in the field feeds mainly on grasses, including cultivated species, but there are numerous reports of feeding on other monocotyledons. Feeding on dicotyledons is reported, but in many cases non‐grasses are only accepted in the absence of grasses. Previous laboratory work also indicates that grasses comprise the main food, though other plants are eaten.

Field observations on nymphal bands in Australia show that the insects select grasses within the habitat; dicotyledons are generally rejected.

The feeding response to 209 species of plants from fifty‐six families was tested. The grasses and some Cyperaceae and Juncaceae were generally fully eaten. Some other monocotyledons, such as palms, were also accepted though only small amounts were eaten; orchids and lilies were rejected. Very few dicotyledons were eaten. The dicotyledons which were eaten after 5h without food were rejected after only 1 h; the grasses were readily accepted after the shorter interval

The degree of oligophagy depends on the choice of food available and the time for which the insect has been deprived of food and water. Grass is normally eaten if available; in its absence, insects which have been without food for some hours will feed on a wide range of plants, but the amounts eaten are usually small.
Absolute estimates of larval populations of culicid mosquitoes: comparison of ‘capture‐recapture’, ‘removal’ and ‘dipping’ methods
Authors: CROSET H. , PAPIEROK B. , RIOUX J. A. , GABINAUD A. , COUSSERANS J. , ARNAUD D.
Published: March 2008

Four sets of experiments were devised to evaluate the absolute size of aedine larval populations. Three methods were used and compared: ‘capture‐recapture’, ‘removal’ and ‘dipping’ methods.

The results show that ‘dipping’ gives estimates of population size similar to those obtained with the two other methods, providing that a strict procedure is followed.

Since the ‘dipping’ technique is particularly easy, the results offer new possibilities for the study of population dynamics in Culicidae.
Ecological significance of wing polymorphism in Fulgoroidea which inhabit tidal salt marshes
Authors: DENNO R. F.
Published: March 2008

The vegetation of New Jersey tidal salt marshes is composed primarily of two grasses, Spartina patens, which occupies a narrow elevational zone of high marsh and varies little in structure from site to site, and Spartina alterniflora, an intertidal species which occurs as two spacially separated growth forms (tall and short). Fulgoroids, polymorphic for wing length, inhabit these grasses.

Populations of the common fulgoroid inhabiting short form S.alterniflora were composed of equal numbers of macropters and brachypters. Mesothoracic wings of brachypters were subequal in length to the abdomen allowing for short but inefficient flights compared to macropters.

Fulgoroids residing in S.patens produced mostly brachypters having small meso‐and vestigial metathoracic wings and were incapable of flight.

Brachypter density of all fulgoroids was correlated with the seasonal increase in biomass of the host grass, while macropter density was not.

Peak macropter density occurred shortly before maximum biomass of the host grass was attained.

The production of macropterous forms was correlated with high levels of crowding incurred during nymphal stages.

Spatial and temporal variation in the structure of the host grasses and habitat reliability are suggested as important factors dictating the wing‐polymorphism strategies of fulgoroids.
Species of Culicoides breeding on rocks and riverbanks in Nigeria
Authors: DIPEOLU O. O. , OGUNRINADE A. F.
Published: March 2008

Catches of Culicoides made on a rocky hill and river bank in south‐western Nigeria showed Culicoides grahami and C.distinctipennis to be dominant. The former was most active at dusk and the latter at dawn.

The number of matured eggs in the gravid female Culicoides caught on the hill and riverbank was low compared with those in gravid females of the same species caught around livestock.

The fat bodies of all the dissected nulliparous and newly emerged Culicoides were full and large; those of the parous ones were depleted and inconspicuous except in individuals caught between June and July. The crop of most of the adult Culicoides contained colourless to dark yellowish fluid.

C.grahami was the most numerous of the newly‐emerged species followed by C.distinctipennis.

On the rocky hill, Culicoides bred in rotholes and boggy ground in between the rocks; at the river bank, breeding sites were underneath partially waterlogged canoes, in crabholes and other crevices, and underneath rotten vegetation.

The influence of rainfall on the Culicoides population is discussed. Most of the species had adapted themselves to nectar feeding and autogeny was common. Perhaps some species aestivate during the hot dry season.
Diel periodicity in the adult eclosion of the blackfly, Simulium damnosum Theobald, in the Ivory Coast
Authors: EDWARDS A. J. , TRENHOLME A. A. G.
Published: March 2008

The timing of adult eclosion in forest zone blackflies of the Bandama cytotype of the Simulium damnosum complex in the Ivory Coast was investigated both in the field and laboratory.

An eclosion trap and a simple technique for keeping black‐fly pupae in the laboratory are described.

Hourly collections of newly emerged S.damnosum adults showed that there was an eclosion peak at 05.30–06.30 hours in the field and at 07.00–08.00 hours in the laboratory. Approximately 30% of the blackflies in the field emerged at 06.00–06.30 hours.

S.damnosum kept under natural light‐dark conditions in the laboratory did not show any delay in the timing of the eclosion peak, relative to that of the first day in the laboratory, until the third day of the experiment.
The area of discovery and searching strategy of a primary parasite and two hyperparasites
Authors: KFIR RAMI , PODOLER HAGGAI , ROSEN DAVID
Published: March 2008

Two hyperparasites, Cheiloneurus paralia (Walker) and Marietta exitiosa Compere, of Microterys flavus (Howard), a primary parasite of the brown soft scale Coccus hesperidum L. have been studied.

The area of discovery of the hyperparasites for secondary hosts (scale insects) is greater than that of the primary parasite, indicating higher searching efficiency of the secondary parasites.

Cheiloneurus has a higher searching efficiency measured as its area of discovery for discovering both the secondary (scale insect) and the primary (Microterys) hosts, as compared with Marietta.

The searching efficiency of Cheiloneurus increased in the presence of its own males.

In each species there is a non‐linear relationship between the searching efficiency and female density.

Cheiloneurus and Marietta present two differing searching strategies. Cheiloneurus tends to exploit as many primary hosts as possible in each secondary host encountered, whereas Marietta, tends to disperse its progeny more regularly by avoiding, to a certain extent, the exploitation of more than one host in each scale insect encountered.
Oviposition behaviour and food plant discrimination in leafhoppers of the genus Oncopsis
Authors: CLARIDGE M. F. , REYNOLDS W. J. , WILSON M. R.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. Field host plants of the six British species of Oncopsis are described. O. avellanae is unusual in being associated with both Corylus and Alnus.

2. Laboratory experiments on nymphal feeding preferences, nymphal and adult survival, and adult oviposition preferences are described for all species, using Carpinus, Corylus, Alnus and Betula species as test plants.

3. All experiments demonstrated considerable specificity in feeding, and especially oviposition.

4. It is suggested that discriminative oviposition behaviour is the major determinant of observed field distribution patterns.
An analysis of the chalcidoid (Hymenoptera) fauna of a sand‐dune system
Authors: COPLAND M. J. W. , ASKEW R. R.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. (1) 6449 chalcids representing 212 species, ninety‐six genera and eleven families were collected. The frequency of species and individuals did not fit a logarithmic series and Yule's index was chosen as a suitable index of diversity.

(2) Species diversity of the total chalcid fauna in a zone was directly related to the number of flowering plants in the zone. However, Jaccard's coefficient of similarity between pairs of zones showed that there was little correlation between the similarity of zones based on the occurrence of plants and the presence of chalcids.

(3) The Eulophidae and Pteromalidae showed two peaks of occurrence, the other families had only one. The times of peak occurrence varied on different zones and presumably reflected the main flowering period or some other seasonal aggregating factor.

(4) Overall there was a higher female to male ratio. In a majority of the more common species the males were more aggregated than the females.

(5) The overall sex ratio varied throughout the year, with a high female ratio at the beginning and end of the season. The Pteromalidae showed a greater fluctuation through the season and over the zones than the other families.

(6) Several species were collected on the sand‐dunes although their known hosts were absent.

(7) Thirteen rare species were captured.
Ecology of the parasites of a predatory bug, Blepharidopterus angulatus (Fall.)
Authors: GLEN D. M.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. On lime, Blepharidopterus angulatus is parasitized by a braconid, Peristenus sp., which is attacked by an ichneumonid hyperparasite, Mesochorus sp. The emergence and oviposition behaviour of the adult parasites and the growth of the larvae are described.

2. Parasitized B. angulatus are considerably heavier at maturity than normal, and nymphs parasitized by Peristenus consume, during their fifth instar, 2.1 times more in dry weight of prey (lime aphids). The growth efficiency of Peristenus is 30–37%.

3. An inverse relationship between percentage parasitism and host density on different trees may have been due to differences in synchronization.
Subsocial behaviour and biology of some Mexican membracid bugs
Authors: HINTON H. E.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. Observations were made in Mexico on the subsocial behaviour and biology of some membracids. An attempt was made to quantify the amount of violence to which the female of Bilimekia broomfieldi could be subjected without causing it to abandon its eggs or larvae.

2. The brooding behaviour of females of different species can be very dissimilar, even within the same genus, e.g. Polyglypta.

3. The females of many species exhibit a striking reversal of behaviour when they begin to tend eggs. When not tending eggs or larvae they take evasive action, often flying away, when a large predator approaches closely. However, once they are brooding the female stays with the eggs when a large predator approaches and may behave in a manner that in a higher animal might be described as a purposeful counter‐attack.

4. Brooding females of Bilimekia broomfieldi were killed and other brooding females were used as surrogate mothers for the orphaned eggs and larvae. The surrogate mothers appeared to behave towards the strange eggs and larvae as if they had been their own.

5. Observations were made on the way in which some membracids defend themselves against attacks by ants.

6. During development, membracids of most species undergo morphological colour changes. The significance of the change from black aposematic in first instar larvae to bright yellow and black aposematic in later instars, a change which appears not to be reversed in any species, is discussed.

7. The aposematic pattern of the larvae of some species of both Membracis and Acanophora partly consists of a white encrustation secreted in patches or stripes over the epicuticle. The encrustation reflects ultraviolet light, so perhaps the aposematic pattern confers some protection against other insects as well as vertebrates.

8. A new species of membracid, Bilimeki broomfieldi, is described.
The immigration of spiders (Araneida) into a new polder
Authors: MEIJER JAN
Published: March 2008

Abstract. (1) The immigration of spiders into the Lauwerszeepolder (constructed in 1969) was studied during four years in four areas. The spider fauna was sampled weekly and 65 000 specimens of eighty‐four species were caught using strip traps, window traps, simple pitfall traps and fences.

(2) About sixty species from all kinds of habitats were caught rarely; nineteen species were caught in numbers that suggest that they had established populations in the study areas.

(3) The four successful pioneer species, plus two marsh‐dwelling species, were most abundant during 1969 and 1970. The 1971 catch was dominated by species from saline habitats; they became less abundant in 1972 when species from non‐saline habitats increased. Only halotolerant species established populations.

(4) No evidence was found that dispersing spiders select certain areas. The differences between the spider fauna of the differennt study areas arise from degrees of success in colonization by immigrants. Pioneer species are least influenced by the abiotic environment.

(5) A greater aeronautic dispersal power is found in species inhabiting unstable habitats than in species from stable habitats.

(6) Aeronautic activity in adult linyphiids (s.l.) is not restricted to a special season, but is related to definite phases of the phenology.

(7) Male and female erigonids are equally active in aeronautic behaviour. In erigonids and linyphiids intense aeronautic activity coincides with great ground activity; on the ground males are more active than females.
Response of both sexes of Trichoplusia ni (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) to virgin females and to synthetic pheromone
Authors: BIRCH M. C.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. Male and female Trichoplusia ni were caught at three locations in California in 1974 and 1975, in traps baited with virgin female T. ni or with synthetic female pheromone.

2. 71% of the females were captured between 20.00 and 21.00 hours; only 22% of the males.

3. Both mated and unmated females were trapped.

4. Comparisons of live trap vs. dead trap catches suggest that females are responding to the virgin females (or synthetic pheromone) and not to a combination of stimuli from the first trapped males plus female pheromone.
Effects of chronic gamma radiation on populations of Ips (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) in trap logs
Authors: BROWER JOHN H.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. Population dynamics of Ips calligraphus and I. grandicollis (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) were studied in a forest exposed to high doses of gamma radiation.

2. Populations were replicated at eleven dose rates by using ‘trap logs’.

3. Adult beetles did not avoid high radiation intensities and attacked all sites equally.

4. Utilization of the cambium‐inner bark area varied from c. 2% at a dose rate of 2520 R/20 h day to 90% at dose rates of 63 and 105 R/20 h day.

5. Developmental success of the new brood was directly dependent on the dose rate, and developing progeny were often killed by accumulated exposure.

6. Larger, slower developing species of subcortical beetles were eliminated at dose levels that allowed successful development of the two species of Ips bark beetles.
Some advances in the trapping of tsetse (Glossina spp.) and other flies
Authors: HARGROVE J. W.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. Shortcomings in the methodology of testing mechanical traps for tsetse and other flies have been partically overcome by relating all trap efficiencies to that of electric trapping devices which have been shown, independently, to capture over 95% of tsetse colliding with them.

2. In Rhodesia the classical ‘animal’ type traps only caught a small percentage of tsetse which approached them. The addition of ox odour increased the number of tsetse visiting the trap but did not affect trap efficiency.

3. Changes in trap design have resulted in increases in trapping efficiency of up to 4–5‐fold over classical designs.

4. The addition of large quantities of ox odour increased the efficiency of the most successful trap described here, as well as the absolute number of flies taken. When the odour of livestock of total mass 11.5 tonnes was used, over 2000 tsetse could be trapped in a 3 h period.

5. None of the traps described here was particularly suitable for tabanids but some were used to trap large numbers of biting muscids.

6. The implications for new methods of tsetse control are discussed.
Encapsulation of parasitoid eggs in soft scales (Homoptera: Coccidae)*
Authors: BLUMBERG DANIEL
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. The Mediterranean black scale Saissetia oleae (Olivier) was the most suitable host for the imported Metaphycus aff. stanleyi Compere and Metaphycus helvolus (Compere) and for the local Metaphycus flavus (Howard).

2. Difficulties were encountered in the mass rearing of the introduced parasitoids, particularly M. aff. stanleyi, on the hemispherical scale Saissetia coffeae (Walker) and on the brown soft scale Coccus hesperidum L., because many of the eggs were encapsulated.

3. Although all the eggs of M.aff.stanleyi were encapsulated shortly after being deposited in S.coffeae, some larvae developed, broke out of the capsule and developed normally.

4. The incidence of parasitized scales containing only encapsulated eggs of any of the three Metaphycus species, increased with the stage of the host.
Observations on the ecology of Simuliidae from the River Frome, Dorset
Authors: LADLE M. , BASS J. A. B. , PHILPOTT F. R. , JEFFERY A.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. The species of Simulium present at twenty‐seven stations in the River Frome and some of its tributaries are recorded.

2. In the lower reaches of the river Simulium omatum and Simulium lineatum have basic life histories comprising four generations of larvae annually.

3. At other stations the annual pattern is modified by weed cutting and flow regulations and by position in the river system.

4. In winter generations the larvae and pupae are larger than at other times of the year. A survey of the size of pupae at ten stations in October 1973 indicated that temperature could account for variations in size.
Phenotypic induction in Pieris napi L.: role of temperature and photoperiod in a coastal California population
Authors: SHAPIRO ARTHUR M.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. Californian Pieris napi have previously been reported as producing dark‐veined and light‐veined adults from diapausing and. non‐diapausing pupae respectively; the converse has not been reported.

2. A population of the coastal subspecies venosa from Monterey County was examined to determine whether pupal temperature exposure was involved in proximate control of seasonal phenotypes.

3. When reared under continuous light at 25°C this stock produced seventeen diapause pupae, thirteen of which have eclosed yielding typical dark‐veined adults, and thirty‐eight non‐diapause pupae.

4. Of fifteen non‐diapause pupae held in a dark box at 25°C, fourteen produced typical light‐veined adults and one produced a dark‐veined individual of intermediate phenotype.

5. Of twenty‐three non‐diapause pupae held in a dark box at 10°C for 24 days, twenty‐two produced dark‐veined butterflies of intermediate phenotype and one produced a light‐veined adult.

6. When the experiment was repeated with an inland, population of subspecies microstriata, which is normally univoltine and monophenic, the temperature effect on phenotype was still present but less pronounced.

7. The nature of phenotypic determination is reviewed with particular regard for the developmental environment of butterflies from diapaused pupae. The thermal environment of reactivating diapausers, rather than the diapause state itself, may determine adult phenotype.
Industrial and non‐industrial melanism in the peppered moth, Bistort betularia (L.)
Authors: STEWARD R. C.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. Estimates of the relative crypsis of the melanic and typical morphs of B.betularia have been made at fifty‐two sites in southern England and south Wales and these estimates were compared with melanic frequencies in samples from these sites.

2. The decrease from east to west in the frequency of the melanic form, carbonaria, and increase in the frequency of a second melanic form, insularia, across the southern part of England and Wales is largely independent of changes in smoke concentration, sulphur dioxide concentration or relative crypsis.

3. When all the available information on the distribution of the melanics of B.betularia is considered, sulphur dioxide concentration is correlated with the geographic variation in carbonaria frequency. This, together with evidence of the close relationship between carbonaria crypsis and sulphur dioxide levels, indicates that outside southern England and south Wales, either selective predation, or some direct selective effect of pollutants, is of major importance in determining the variation in carbonaria frequency.

4. Some features of the pattern of the spread of carbonaria in England and Wales during the last century give reasons for expecting non‐industrial selective factors to be of greater importance in determining the distribution of melanics of B.betularia in southern England and south Wales than in the rest of Britain.
The ant mosaic on cocoa and other tree crops in Western Nigeria
Authors: TAYLOR BRIAN
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. Data on ant distribution on the various blocks of cocoa studied at Gambari Experimental Station shows a clear mosaic of ant colonies. Distribution maps and analyses of associations between common species are given.

2. Surveys of ant populations on kola, cashew, coffee, oil palm, plantain and indigenous forest trees revealed dominance by the same ant species as occur on cocoa.

3. The adundance of any particular dominant ant species is shown to be related mainly to the habitat provided by a specific tree crop.

4. The potential utilization of ants as biological control agents is discussed.
Factors influencing aggregation between nymphs of the lime aphid, Eucallipterus tiliae (L.)
Authors: KIDD N. A. C.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. Aggregation in the lime aphid is influenced by the newly‐born nymphs staying close to their mother.

2. The aggregations are brought about by gregariousness between the first instar nymphs and their reluctance to move far from their birthplace.

3. As the nymphs mature they become more wide‐ranging and leave the aggregation. Dispersal is also promoted by a lack of gregariousness between different instars.

4. Such aggregations remain intact only as long as the adult continues to reproduce the relatively sedentary first instars.

5. The significance of this behaviour in the spacing of the lime aphid is discussed.
Attractant traps for monitoring pea moth, Cydia nigricana (Fabr.)
Authors: MACAULAY E. D. M. , LEWIS T.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. Several slightly different models of traps of triangular cross‐section, each containing (E)‐10‐dodecenyl acetate as a lure, were compared for effectiveness for trapping male pea moths.

2. Catches did not increase when the sticky surface was greater than 180 cm2.

3. Sticky surfaces placed in a basal position were the most effective.

4. Traps that were self‐aligning in the wind were no more effective than static traps.

5. Dispensers of different sizes but containing the same amount of attractant had no effect on the numbers caught. The patterns of smoke plumes dispensed from the traps suggested an explanation for this.
Interrelationships between Arixenia emu (Dermaptera) and molossid bats and their ectoparasites in Malaysia
Authors: MARSHALL ADRIAN G.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. Four species of Molossidae occur in Malaysia (Cheiromeles torquatus and three Tadarida species) and from these, six species of potentially ectoparasitic insect have been recorded (two Etermaptera: Arixeniina; two Hemiptera: Cimicidae; two Siphonaptera: Ischnopsyllidae).

2. The two Arixeniina, Arixenia esau and Xeniaria jacobsoni are obligatorily associated with C. torquatus and only accidentally with Tadarida species with which C. torquatus often roosts. The nature of this association is presumed to be mutualistic and its origins are discussed.

3. A.esau can occur in great numbers in association with C.torquatus. It is primarily a roost dweller and is seldom found upon flying bats, although it is in this way that transference to new roosts must occur. It feeds mainly upon body exudates and skin debris from its hairless host. Aspects of its biology are discussed.

4. Arixenia species are usually found together with Xeniaria species but always greatly outnumber them. Differences between A.esau and X.jacobsoni are discussed.

5. The remaining four species of insect all feed upon blood and are truly parasitic, both species of bedbug and one flea being associated with C. torquatus and the other flea with Tadarida species. A.esau acts as a phoretic host for the flea host‐specific to C. torquatus. Lagaropsylla turba. Otherwise no interactions were noted amongst the six insects.
The distribution of wood‐ants (Formica lugubris Zetterstedt) in a northern English forest
Authors: SUDD J. H. , DOUGLAS J. M. , GAYNARD T. , MURRAY D. M. , STOCKDALE J. M.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. A survey of 202 ha of planted forest in Langdale Forest, North Yorkshire, in 1972 discovered 326 occupied and thirty‐eight deserted nests of Formica lugubris Zetterstedt. The average density of occupied nests was therefore 1.61 ha‐1.

2. Nests were associated with most crop trees and wild trees present, but were most abundant near to plantation margins and regenerating natural scrub.

3. In planted areas 76% of nests were found 5 m or less from the plantation boundary. More nests were found on the south and west border of plantations than on the north and east respectively, and most nests were not shaded from the south or southeast.

4. An analysis of nearest neighbour measurements showed that the dispersion of nests was not random but contagious (clumped). Nest mounds were higher in shaded situations than in unshaded.

5. The diameter of nest mounds was greater in areas planted with trees before 1945 than in areas planted since 1945.

6. The present population of F.lugubris appears to have spread into planted areas from nests present in marginal natural woodland which escaped the disturbance of the area at the time of planting.
Bee visits and the nectar of Echium vulgare L. and Sinapis alba L.
Authors: CORBET SARAH A.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. The time‐course of anthesis of Echium vulgare is described.

2. Diel changes in the sugar concentration of the nectar, the quantity of nectar and the quantity of sugar per flower are illustrated for E.vulgare and for Sinapis alba.

3. These changes are interpreted in terms of (a) the periodicity of secretion and (b) the influence of microclimate and insect visits on post‐secretory changes in the composition and volume of nectar.

4. There was hour‐to‐hour and day‐to‐day variation in the species composition and the proportion of workers taking nectar rather than nectar plus pollen among the social bees visiting E.vulgare.

5. Honeybee visits to E.vulgare were more numerous in humid weather, when there was enough nectar per flower for their relatively short tongues to reach, and in an area where the corollas grew shorter than they did elsewhere.

6. The significance of changes in the caloric content, volume, concentration, viscosity and sugar composition is discussed from the points of view of insects and ecologists.
How to analyse host discrimination
Authors: LENTEREN J. C. van , BAKKER K. , ALPHEN J. J. M. van
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. Two usual definitions of host discrimination are presented. The first is ‘the ability of a parasite to distinguish unparasitized from parasitized hosts and to lay eggs in the former’. This definition is not useful and even confusing since it does not include the ability of a parasite to distinguish hosts containing different numbers of parasite eggs and to lay preferably only in those with the lowest numbers.

2. The second definition is ‘the ability of a parasite to distribute its eggs in a non‐random, regular way among its hosts’. It is argued that most field data are insufficient to permit any conclusions about host discriminative ability on the basis of this definition. An example is given of an apparent random distribution by parasites that are perfectly able to discriminate.

3. Arguments are given for studying the behaviour of the parasite in order to answer the question of host discrimination. Five examples of parasites are presented that would erroneously have been classified as non‐discriminators on the basis of the first definition, since they all superparasitize.

4. It is suggested that the meaning of the term ‘host discrimination’ be extended to include the ability of a parasite to distinguish hosts with different numbers of eggs.
Beetles, parasitoids and tropical morning glories: a study in host discrimination
Authors: CARROLL C. RONALD
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. The common cassidid beetle, Stolas sp., feeds as both larva and adult on the leaves of the vine, Ipomoea asarifolia, a wild relative of the sweet potato.

2. In the region around Manaus (Amazonas State, Brazil) an average of 86% of the egg clutches were completely parasitized by the eulophid, Emersonella niveipes.

3. The wasp is phoretic on female beetles. In comparison with field beetles that lacked phoretic wasps, beetles associated with wasps produced eggs sooner, laid more egg clutches, and had a shorter laboratory life expectancy.

4. Host discrimination by the wasp is probably an active process rather than a passive association with randomly encountered beetles.

5. Emersonella niveipes also attacks Chelymorpha cassidea, a pest of sweet potato. Adults of Stolas sp. do not feed on sweet potato foliage nor occur in sweet potato fields, so they could provide a useful innocuous alternate host for Emersonella niveipes.

6. As some species in the Convovulaceae are important weeds in field crops, foliage‐feeding cassidid beetles may play a useful role in weed suppression. Any biological control programme for the suppression of sweet potato pests may favour the spread of those noxious weeds that share the herbivore fauna of sweet potatoes.
Colony structure, seasonality and food requirements of the crazy ant, Anoplolepis longipes (Jerd.), in the Seychelles
Authors: HAINES I. H. , HAINES J. B.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. In Seychelles, A. longipes nests on the ground and in trees, underground nests do not occur, possibly because soils are too hard or unstable.

2. Nest density approached 700 ha‐1 in some areas and nests contained, on average, about 4000 ants. The total population (including foragers) in heavily infested areas may exceed 10 millions ha‐1.

3. On average, each nest contained about forty queens and fifty males, although only 50% of nests contained males. A few nests contained up to 300 queens, 1000 males, 36 000 workers and 23 000 brood.

4. Production of sexual adults and brood was related to the wet season, most being produced shortly before or after the heavy rains from November to March.

5. Natural spread is probably by budding of colonies which, during an expansive period, may advance 1 m day‐1.

6. Food collected by the colony included sugary substances from fruits, honey‐dew‐producing insects and plant exudates, and proteinaceous material, mainly in the form of insect prey and carcases. A forager collected, on average, 1.2 mg of liquid or 2.8 mg of solid material on each foraging trip.

7. Foraging occurred at fluctuating intensities throughout the day and night, but was limited by heavy rain, strong winds and substrate temperatures above 30°C. Maximum activity occurred at ground temperatures of 25–30°C and ceased about 44°C.

8. Availability of food and nest sites proably have the greatest influence on population size.
The repair of larval cells and other larval activities inGeotrupes spinigerMarsham and other species (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae)
Authors: KLEMPERER H. G.
Published: March 2008

Abstract.1.G. spinigerlarvae repaired openings in their cells by excavating dung from the brood‐mass and placing it in the edge of the hole. Thrusting with the head sealed small holes but pushed dung away from larger defects. Sliding and somersaulting movements allowed repair of different parts of a defect. Repair was provoked by contact with the defect, not by changes in humidity.

2. Dung excavated at the anterior end of the cell was transferred by somersaulting, and thrust into the posterior end to seal off foreign bodies. Burrowing by the larvae depended on similar behaviour which moved the whole cell within the brood‐mass.

3. Larvae were sensitive to surface contact, making a coordinated attack on a source of stimulation. They also moved towards dung and wet soil.

4. Fluid regurgitated by disturbed larvae killed blowfly larvae when injected, and repelled earthworms.

5. To construct a pupal cell, excavated material was transferred by somersaulting and used to build a transverse partition without the usual vigorous thrusting movements. The ability to re‐initiate pupal cell formation was retained for about 4 days.

6. Larvae enclosed in artificial brood‐balls enlarged defects while attempting to repair them, but larvae just prior to pupation taken from recently made pupal cells could repair such defects.

7.Aphodius fossorlarvae rarely attempted to repair openings in their cells and usually escaped by burrowing (as above), but opening a recent pupal cell always provoked repair.

8. Repair byG. spinigerlarvae is closely related to other larval activities but lacks several features that are important for repair by species developing in freestanding brood‐balls.
The role of carrion‐frequenting arthropods in the decay process
Authors: PUTMAN R. J.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. The various groups of arthropods associated with rodent carrion during decay in temperate woodland and grassland habitats are described in each of four seasons.

2. A distinction is drawn between those occurring by chance and those positively associated with the carrion.

3. The role of these last in actually assisting the decay of the carcasses with which they are found is discussed. Despite the abundance and diversity of carrion‐frequenting species, few are involved to any significant extent in the release of carrion materials during decomposition.
The relationship of body size to breadth of diet in some Lepidoptera
Authors: WASSERMAN STEVEN S. , MITTER CHARLES
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. We have explored the question of whether breadth of diet in moths is associated with adaptations other than host selection behaviour, with particular reference to body size.

2. Generalist species in Britain and New York are larger than specialist species.

3. This relationship is probably not due to latitudinal clines, nor to higher fecundity in generalist species.

4. We suggest that the large bodies of generalists buffer them against environmentally‐induced physiological stress.
Characteristics of Culicoides (Diptera, Ceratopogonidae) breeding places near Salisbury, Rhodesia
Authors: BRAVERMAN Y.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. A survey of Culicoides breeding places was made around Salisbury. Out of forty species caught in light traps, only nineteen were reared from breeding places.

2. The seven most abundant species with their characteristic sites were C.pycnostictw in mud around water bodies, especially dams; C.nivosus very prevalent around puddles rich in organic matter:C. distinctipennis along drainage canals intermediate in organic matter; C.gulbenkiani in cow dung especially on damp soil; Caccraensis gp. only in rot holes and tree forks; Cschultzei gp. along streams and drainage canals in mud rather poor in organic matter; C.tropi‐calis in drainage canals very low in organic matter; C.imicola possibly breeds widely dispersed mainly in a rich mixture of organic matter and damp soil, with cow pats and edges of water bodies being marginal.

3. The prevalent species are believed to breed all year round. Preponderance of females in the breeding places was found in C.pycnostictus, C.nivosus and C.accraensis gp. while the reverse was true in C.distinctipennis and C.gulbenkiani. The preponderance of males as indication of proximity to breeding sites is thus probably questionable.
Heterogeneity of resource utilization in a population of the Australian reptile tick, Aponomma hydrosauri (Denny)
Authors: BULL C. MICHAEL
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. The distribution of adult males, nymphs and larvae of the reptile tick Aponoma hydrosauri on their host, Trachydosaurus rugosus, in a study area near Tickera, South Australia, did not follow the Poisson distribution predicted if hosts were infested at random.

2. The non‐random distribution of males can be accounted for by geographical heterogeneity in distribution. Adult females also showed geographical heterogeneity in their distribution pattern, but infested their hosts at random over all.

3. Larvae and nymphs show distribution patterns which change both with the time and the locality. However, when these biases are removed the distribution of larvae and nymphs on their hosts is still non‐random.

4. Larger lizards tend to have larger numbers of ticks, but this cannot alone account for the clumped distribution.

5. A model is proposed relating the tick distribution pattern to the particular problems of a resource which is hard to find, but plentiful once found.
Size‐related foraging differences of bumble bee workers
Authors: MORSE DOUGLASS H.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. Large Bombus vagans workers concentrated their foraging upon deeper florets of cow vetch (Vicia cracca) more than did smaller workers. Large and small workers did not differ significantly in their foraging rates, which were measured in several ways.

2. The average depth of vetch florets varied between sites on the study area, but significant differences did not occur on a single inflorescence. The foraging differences of large and small bees probably result from a fine partitioning of the microhabitat.

3. When the nectar‐robbing B.terricola was present, many B.vagans workers became secondary robbers at holes made in vetch corollas. Small B.vagans workers robbed significantly more frequently than did large workers.
Industrial melanism in Mesopsocus unipunctatus (Müll.) (Psocoptera) in northern England
Authors: POPESCU C. , BROADHEAD E. , SHORROCKS B.
Published: March 2008

Abstract. 1. The light and melanic morphs of M.unipunctatus are described, their genetic inheritance considered, and their geographic distribution over a pollution gradient in Yorkshire is examined.

2. There is an obvious colour dimorphism. The light forms are disruptively patterned while the melanic forms are uniformly dark.

3. Genetic crosses indicate that the melanic character is inherited as a Mendelian dominant and that separate alleles, linked on the same chromosome, control the respective melanisms of the head‐thorax and of the abdomen.

4. In Yorkshire, there is a decrease in the frequency of melanics from the industrial south to the rural north.