bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Factors in Women’s Maintenance of Vigorous or Moderate Physical Activity
Authors: Dacey Marie , Baltzell Amy , Zaichkowsky Len
Published: August 2016

Strategies for exercise maintenance of vigorous (n=54) and moderate (n=38) regular women exercisers were compared using the Processes of Change (Marcus, Rossi et al., 1992) and Self-Efficacy scales (Marcus, Selby et al., 1992). Both groups reported highest utilization of Counterconditioning, Self-liberation, Self-reevaluation, and Reinforcement Management, as well as a high degree of exercise self-efficacy. Vigorous exercisers indicated greater utilization of Counterconditioning (p=.004) and a higher degree of self-efficacy (p=.009), whereas moderate exercisers reported higher utilization of Environmental Reevaluation (p=.028). In follow-up interviews with vigorous exercisers (n=4) and moderate exercisers (n=4), all participants reported psychological benefits of physical activity, high exercise self-efficacy, and exercising to meet personal needs. Reported differences between the two groups include physical experiences while exercising, the development of exercise behavior patterns, and social influences. Based upon this study we suggest that similarities outweigh differences in the maintenance of vigorous and moderate exercise, but certain mode-specific interventions may be warranted to enhance adherence.
An Examination of the 10,000-Step Goal in Sedentary Women with Different Baseline Step Counts
Authors: Sidman Cara L. , Corbin Charles B. , Rhea Matthew
Published: August 2016

National guidelines have emphasized the benefits of moderate physical activity for promoting health and reducing sedentary behavior, a lifestyle particularly common in women (USDHHS, 2000). This has led to the marketing and promotion of 10,000 steps per day using a pedometer, even though empirical evidence to support this step goal is lacking. The purposes of this study were to determine if this prescribed daily step goal was attainable for sedentary women and to determine the effect of this goal on step counts. Forty-five sedentary women, who were divided into three groups based on mean baseline step counts (very low activity, VLA; low activity, LA; more active, MA) were asked to attain 10,000 steps per day for four weeks. Based upon our analyses, the VLA and LA groups attained the 10,000-step goal a significantly lower mean number of days per week than the MA group. Although the VLA group was not able to attain 10,000 steps per day over the short term, they did increase their step counts in response to a 10,000-step daily goal. In fact, the weekly mean step counts for all three groups improved from baseline as the study progressed. There was, however, a significant decline in step counts from step goal week 3 to week 4 in the MA group, whereas the step counts remained significantly higher than baseline for all four weeks in the VLA and LA groups. As hypothesized, sedentary women with low baseline step counts were low in goal attainment. Counter to hypothesized, motivated sedentary women responded to the 10,000-step goal over the short-term with increased step counts, even when goal attainment was low. Additional research is necessary to test the long-term adherence to the 10,000-step goal among sedentary women. In addition more comprehensive study of step counting as a motivator of activity is necessary including comparison of the 10,000-step goal standard to individualized goals based on baseline step counts.
Teaching for Gender Equity in Physical Education: A Review of the Literature
Authors: Davis Kathryn L.
Published: August 2016

This review is an examination of selected literature from the past thirty years on gender equity in physical education. It is organized in terms of (1) defining the theoretical framework of gender equity, (2) the origins of gender equity in physical education from Title IX legislation, (3) the influence of teacher behavior and the curriculum in providing an equitable class environment, and (4) the applications and implications of gender equity for the physical education practitioner. Despite the well-developed research in the field of physical education about the prevalence of gender inequities exhibited by teachers, there are a few recent research studies in which the authors have failed to show this inequitable treatment. As research has progressed in this area, it is important to note that teachers may be improving in the area of equitable interactions with students of different genders. This review concludes with some suggestions for further research in the area of teaching for gender equity in physical education.
The Female Physique: Motives Guiding Self-Evaluation
Authors: Strache Carolyn Vos , Strong Alana , Peterson Cheree
Published: August 2016

The omnipresent physical self remains for young adult females a significant measure of self-worth. Therefore, it comes as no surprise that coping strategies are as complex as they are pervasive as young women strive to maintain positive psychological outlooks despite negatively-perceived physical attributes. Self-presentational concerns may affect one’s activity choice.

This study expands on the work of Taylor, Neter, and Wayment (1995) to determine which motives guide the self-evaluation processes of the physical self. An examination of structured interviews identifies which motives direct women in the self-evaluation of their bodies, and concurrently examines whether different motives determine individual response when appraising a “good” versus “not good” physical aspect. Motives, as defined by Taylor et al. (1995), were self-enhancement, self-verification, self-improvement and self-assessment. Interviews were conducted with 30 female, Southern California, undergraduate college students from Southern California, ranging in age from 19-22.

A chi-square analysis revealed that women employed different motives in “good” versus “not good” body aspect comparisons (Enhancement: X2 = 21.78 p< .01; Verification: X2 = 10.05 p< .01; Improvement: X2 = 5.15 p< .05). When describing a “good” aspect, women employed the enhancement motive 92 percent of the time, verification 80 percent of the time, and improvement 15 percent of the time. For “not good” aspects, women used enhancement motive 53 percent of the time, verification 98 percent of the time, and improvement 33 percent of the time. Women used more than one motive 74 percent of the time and single motives only 26 percent of the time in the evaluation process. Direct quotes reveal that almost all the women sought out information about themselves when they thought it would reflect favorably. However, when they reported on a “not good” aspect, coping mechanisms included redirecting their attention to more positive characteristics or mentally cordoning off an area of weakness to prevent that attribute from permeating all aspects of their identity. Understanding how we think in the self-evaluation process may offer an explanation why some people are motivated to exercise and why others are not.
Who’s on First and What’s on Second?: Assessing Interest Group Strategies on Title IX
Authors: Rosenthal Cindy Simon , Morris Lynsey , Martinez Jamie
Published: August 2016

The 30th anniversary of the landmark legislation known as Title IX witnessed a year-long public policy drama over whether the law should be amended in some fashion. The saga reveals much about the political strategies of interest groups engaged in gender policymaking in the 21st century and tests conventional wisdom about policy windows (Kingdon, 1994) and agenda access (Cobb and Ross, 1997). In June 2002, U.S. Secretary of Education Rod Paige appointed a blue ribbon commission to examine ways of strengthening enforcement and expanding opportunities for all college athletes under Title IX. Over the next 12 months, the commission held public hearings and forwarded numerous recommendations for change to the Secretary, but subsequently the Department of Education elected to take no action.

As David Rochefort and Roger Cobb point out, “If policymaking is a struggle over alternative realities, then language is the medium that reflects, advances, and interprets these alternatives” (1994, p. 9). This case explores the overarching strategic goals, membership mobilization efforts, and media strategies of “initiators” and “opponents” (Cobb & Ross, 1994). We juxtapose these strategies against the unfolding media coverage (an analysis of 297 major newspaper stories in 13 major print outlets) and testimony by 225 individuals before the commission.

While revealing the dynamics of problem, policy and political streams (Kingdon, 1994) and strategies of agenda denial (Cobb & Ross, 1994), the case also exposes important paradoxes that may be explained by gender.
A Qualitative Examination of Weight Concerns, Eating and Exercise Behaviors in Recreational Exercisers
Authors: Berman Erica , De Souza Mary Jane , Kerr Gretchen
Published: August 2016

This study employed the method of qualitative exploration to examine the relationships between body image, exercise and eating behaviors. It also addressed a controversial question in the literature: Do weight and appearance concerns motivate physical activity participation or does participation in physical activity exacerbate weight and appearance concerns? Seven female recreational exercisers (ages 23 to 35) were interviewed about weight and appearance concerns, eating and exercise behaviors. All but one reported past or present disordered eating behaviors. While all of the women cited numerous physical and psychological benefits from physical activity, weight and appearance concerns were important motivators to exercise. For all participants, weight and appearance concerns as well as disordered eating problems led to the adoption of recreational fitness activities and not the reverse.
Gender Role Orientation in Turkish Female Athletes and Non-Athletes
Authors: Koca Canan , Asci F. Hulya
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to compare gender role orientation and classification of elite female athletes aged between 18 to 30 years with age-matched female non-athletes in Turkey. Additionally, gender role differences with regard to types of sport in elite female athletes were examined. In this study 306 elite female athletes (Mage = 22.17 ± 2.51) and 264 female non-athletes (Mage = 21.34 ± 3.14) were participants of this study. Female athletes were selected from feminine sports; ballet dancing, aerobic dance, swimming, ice skating, tennis, volleyball (n = 70), from masculine sports; basketball, handball, soccer, wrestling, weight lifting, taekwando, karate, judo (n = 127), and from gender-neutral sports; track and field, shot putting and javelin throwing (n = 109). The Bern Sex Role Inventory was administered to assess the gender role orientations of participants. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) showed that there were significant differences in gender role orientation between elite female athletes from different types of sport and female non-athletes (Hotelling’s T2 = 0.145; F(6,112) = 13.63; p<.01). In a follow-up univariate analysis, a significant difference in masculinity (F(3,569) = 26.07; p<.01) scores between female athletes from different types of sport and female non-athletes were observed. In addition, a chi square analysis showed a significant difference in gender role classifications between elite female athletes from different types of sport and female non-athletes (X2 = 68.22; p<. 01). Based on these findings it was concluded that there were significant differences in gender role orientations between Turkish elite female athletes and nonathletes.
Performance, Discovery, and Relational Narratives among Women Professional Tournament Golfers
Authors: Douglas Kitrina , Carless David
Published: August 2016

The dominant narrative within the literature on elite sport is characterised by a total focus on performance. Scholars in other areas have noted how although alternatives to the dominant narrative exist they are often silenced and fail to reach the public domain. Drawing on interviews with seven women professional tournament golfers, we explored the narratives women use to make sense of their experiences in elite sport. We present three narratives which illustrate the existence of alternatives to the dominant performance narrative among Europe’s most outstanding women golfers. Two alternatives are identified: a discovery narrative and a relational narrative. These findings suggest that diverse routes to success are possible in women’s professional sport. We discuss the educational and social implications of the alternative narratives in an effort to encourage discussion and debate among athletes, administrators, coaches, sports psychologists, and educators.
“FTM Means Female to Me”: Transgender Athletes Performing Gender
Authors: Semerjian Tamar Z. , Cohen Jodi H.
Published: August 2016

Viviane K. Namaste (2000) argues that trans-individuals have been culturally erased and rendered invisible. She contends that academics should begin to explore the realities of transgender individuals’ lives. Transgender identified athletes have begun to garner more media attention in recent years, particularly with the 2004 International Olympic Committee’s ruling allowing transgender athletes to participate in the Olympics. Despite this increasing media attention, there is a considerable lack of academic work focusing on the experiences of transgender athletes, as well as a paucity of any serious theoretical consideration of these experiences. The purpose of this paper is to present trans athletes’ narratives of their sport participation, with attention to how gender identity and performance was or was not a part of this participation. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with four trans identified athletes. The narratives of these athletes portray a way of thinking about gender as a category that is transmutable, unstable, and constantly written and rewritten through embodied performances. Queer theory will serve as the theoretical perspective used to analyze these narratives.
Perspectives of Leadership Behavior in Women’s Collegiate Tennis from Leaders and Followers: A Test of Social Role Theory
Authors: Andrew Damon , Hums Mary
Published: August 2016

Several studies in business and sport have noted systematic differences in leadership behavior between men and women. Many of these studies only examined leadership behavior from the perspective of the leader or the follower. This study’s purpose was to examine the impact that a coach’s gender may have on leadership behavior indicators as reported by leaders and followers. Collegiate women’s tennis coaches (M = 40; F = 71) and female collegiate tennis players (n = 167) participated in separate studies and completed the Revised Leadership Scale for Sports (Zhang, Jensen, & Mann, 1997), which assesses the following six leadership behaviors: training and instruction, democratic behavior, autocratic behavior, social support, positive feedback, and situation consideration. Study one examined self-reported leadership differences on the basis of sex from the leader’s perspective and found female coaches reported significantly less (p = .048) autocratic behavior than male coaches. Study two examined leadership differences from the female athletes’ perspective and found no significant differences in perceived leadership behavior based on the coach’s sex. These findings are subsequently discussed within the context of social role theory. The results of this study support the notion that perceived gender role orientations become linked to the social roles occupied rather than the leader’s gender.
Increasing the Number of Women Administrators in Kinesiology and Beyond: A Proposed Application of the Transformational Leadership Model
Authors: Ransdell Lynda B. , Toevs Sarah , White Jennifer , Lucas Shelley , Perry Jean L. , Grosshans Onie , Boothe Diane , Andrews Sona
Published: August 2016

In higher education in the United States, women are often underrepresented in leadership positions. When women try administration, they face a higher rate of attrition than their male counterparts. Given the lack of women in leadership positions and the failure of the academy to retain women administrators, a group of women administrators and faculty with many collective years of experience in higher education assembled to write this paper. Our writing group consisted of 2 Chairs, 2 Deans, 1 Associate Dean, 2 pre-tenure faculty members, and a Provost, representing four different institutions. The authors of this paper suggest that applying the proposed model of transformational leadership within the field of Kinesiology may have a two-fold benefit. It may increase the number of women in administrative positions and it may extend how long women choose to serve in an administrative capacity. Components of the model include developing personal and professional characteristics that motivate faculty to perform beyond expectations, and understanding gender-related and kinesiology-specific challenges of administration. In addition, recommendations are made for pursuing careers in administration, and for pursuing future research projects. We hope that through this paper, we have started an important and open discussion about women in leadership roles, and ultimately, encouraged some prospective leaders to consider a career in higher education administration.
The Socioeconomic Profile of the Greek Women’s National Volleyball Team
Authors: Papadopoulou S. D. , Papadopoulou S. K. , Lailoglou A. , Fachantidou A.
Published: August 2016

Top performance in volleyball comes as a result of specific physiological, kinesiological, psychological, and environmental influences of both natural and social surroundings. The purpose of this study was to examine the social and economic features of the Greek women’s national volleyball team, in order to identify which of the above factors distinguish and promote top female athletes.

The study sample involved 18 female volleyball athletes, who were active members of the national team for on average 4.7±2.6 years. The athletes’ mean age was 23.4±3.1 years, athletic age 10.6±3.2 years, and training age 11.4±2.4 years. The study was conducted by using a special questionnaire about the athletes’ socio-economic features. Specifically, the athletes’ family and social environment, the impact of their family and social environment, and their profession and financial staus were recorded and assessed. The frequency analysis showed that in the female athletes’ families, boys never outnumbered girls and they were mainly second-born children. Their family environment loved or had a special connection with sports and showed total support towards their involvement in sports. Also, they were salaried and basically dealt with sports as their sole occupation. In conclusion, the sociological approach of the top Greek women volleyball athletes forms an original sociolcultural database, which could provide useful information concerning the specific population groups that might bring forward female athletes with high potential.
Wrestling with Identity: An Exploration of Female Wreslers’ Perceptions
Authors: Macro Ellen , Viveiros Jennifer , Cipriano Nick
Published: August 2016

This study explores female freestyle wrestlers’ experiences related to identity, body consciousness, (hetero)sexuality, and (conventional) femininity, and also the perceptions of females participating in a traditionally male-dominated sport. Data was collected from questionnaires distributed to 47 high school, university, and club female wrestlers and from in-depth interviews with eight university wrestlers. Based on the findings, the researchers suggest that female wrestlers are comfortable with their body; that public perception concerning their sexuality and femininity is not an issue of concern for them; and that they do not experience gender-role conflict nor engage in the female apologetic. The results are of particular interest because they differ from what other studies have concluded regarding the experiences of women in(traditionally male-dominated sports.
Gender Differences in Physical Activity
Authors: Ainsworth Barbara E. , Richardson Mark , Jacobs David R. , Leon Arthur S.
Published: August 2016

We examined gender differences in leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) in 50 women and 28 men using questionnaire data and identified how LTPA status may be misclassified based on physical activity questionnaire content. LTPA was determined using the Four Week Physical Activity History modification of the Minnesota LTPA questionnaire. LTPA was classified as total, light- (≤ 4.0 METS), moderate- (4.5-5.5 METS), and heavy-intensity (≥ 6.0 METs), and household LTPA. The questionnaire was administered 14 times (every 26 days). Scores were computed as kcal·day−1 and min·day−1 with the 14 visits averaged to yield one year LTPA scores. Skewed data were log-transformed and are presented as the geometric mean. There were no gender differences in kcal·day−1 for total- (385 vs 421), moderate- (28.2 vs 23.3), and light-intensity LTPA (72.2 vs 52.6, p > .05). Heavy-intensity LTPA was greater in men than in women (98.1 vs 50.5, p = 0.01), while household LTPA was greater in women than in men (238.2 vs 134.7, p < .0001). Omission of heavy-intensity LTPA from the questionnaire reduced total LTI’A by 25% in men and 12% in women. In contrast, omission of household LTPA reduced total LTPA by 35% in men and 57% in women. Thus LTPA may be underestimated and activity status misclassified if questionnaires fail to include activities with high gender-specific participation rates.
Magnitude and Duration of Postexercise Energy Expenditure in Women and Men
Authors: Sedlock Darlene A.
Published: August 2016

This study is a comparison of both the magnitude and duration of excess postexercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) between women and men. Eighteen (9 women, 9 men) physically active, young adult volunteers performed a moderate exercise in the early morning after having refrained from any strenuous activity for the previous 36-48 hr. Baseline oxygen uptake (VO2) and heart rate (HR) were measured for the last 15 min of a 45 min seated rest. The 30 min cycle ergometer exercise was performed at 60% of each subject’s previously determined peak VO2. Subjects sat quietly in a chair during recovery until VO2 returned to baseline. The women had a significantly lower (t=4.22, p<0.01) resting VO2(0.22±0.03 L min−1) than the men (0.31±0.06 L min−1), however no significant difference was observed when resting VO2 was expressed relative to body weight. VO2 values during exercise were also significantly lower in the women compared to the men (t=4.85, p<0.01). Duration of EPOC was similar between the two groups (women=27.6±15.6, men=28.2±15.9 min). The 38% difference in magnitude of EPOC between the women (9.4±4.7 kcal) and men (13.0±4.6 kcal) was not statistically significant and approximated 5% of the exercise energy expenditure in each group. It was concluded that there was no sex difference in EPOC duration following moderate exercise conditions. Magnitude of EPOC was small for both groups, with women having a slightly lower value.
Socially Constructed Body Image of Female Adolescent Cheerleaders
Authors: SooHoo Sony , Reel Justine J. , Pearce Patricia F.
Published: August 2016

Adolescent cheerleaders are seen as American icons, but psychosocial factors can predispose them to body image disturbances and disordered eating. Understanding body image development is critical to promoting healthy body image, as well as preventing disordered eating and its related health risks. The purpose of this study was to explore the development of body image among adolescent female cheerleaders. A grounded theory approach was used to conduct 26 interviews with 14 adolescent female cheerleaders (M = 14.07, SD = 2.40) who cheered at All-star gyms, junior high, or high schools to explore their body image experiences. The categories included body awareness (i.e., physical changes, body comparison), cheerleading environment (i.e., cheerleading image, position body type, uniform), and social factors (i.e., parental influences, comments from others). These categories influenced body image through the central category, developing attitude, demonstrating the complexity of body image construction among adolescent females.
Observation of Step-Count Patterns of Women Participating in a Healthy Lifestyle Book Club Intervention
Authors: Sidman Cara L. , Huberty Jennifer L. , Gao Yong
Published: August 2016

This study has two purposes: (1) to observe the step-count patterns of adult women who participated in an eight-month healthy lifestyle-based book club intervention and (2) to describe step-count patterns across seasons and body mass index (BMI) categories. Sixty-two participants (mean age ± SD = 53 ± 9, 92% Caucasians) had complete pedometer data, which was used for data analysis. After weekly, hour-long, discussion-based meetings during months one through four, and bi-monthly meetings during months five through eight, women increased their step counts by 26%. Significant step-count differences were observed among seasons (p < .05), and from pre- to post-intervention (p < .05), with the lowest steps being reported in the fall and the highest in the spring. Women in the obese category continued to increase steps during the winter, while the healthy-weight group decreased steps. There was a significant correlation between the average steps taken during the intervention and changes in BMI from pre- to post-intervention (r = −.26, p < .05). Overall, positive step-count pattern observations were found among adult women participating in a healthy lifestyle-based intervention.
Women’s and Girls’ Sports in Turkey
Authors: INAL H. Serap
Published: August 2016

In Turkey, as a secular Muslim country, women have a modern, contemporary lifestyle but are also attached to their traditions and customs. Although sport in Turkey is being encouraged and supported by the state through The Directorate General of Youth and Sports (DGYS), the Turkish Football Federation, and sports clubs, the gap between the facilities and number of sports provided for male and female athletes can easily be seen. Women and girls are not receiving the same opportunities as men, which differ by region and according to the socioeconomic status and education level of the people. The families’ view of sports is also an important factor affecting girls’ sports. In the past two decades there has been an increase in participation among women and girls in elite and recreational sports, however this is not satisfactory.
Managerial Stress and Job Satisfaction in the Sport and Recreation Industry in Hong Kong
Authors: Du Mei , Leung Mee-Lee , Fu Frank H. , Ransdell Lynda
Published: August 2016

While job stress in various occupations has gained the attention of experts in both academic research and occupational health care, there is a dearth of information about stress levels among managers in the sport and recreation industry, especially in women and in the Asian culture. Because managers are an important force in delivering sport and recreation services to citizens, the purposes of this study were to examine the job stress and job satisfaction of sport and recreation managers in Hong Kong, and to discern the relationship between stress and job satisfaction. Sport and recreation managers experienced moderate stress (M = 3.63, SD = 0.67) and were satisfied with their jobs (M = 3.79, SD = 0.64). Work relationships (Beta = −.44, p <.001), organizational climate (Beta = −.36, p <.001), home/work balance (Beta = .26, p <.01), and personal responsibility (Beta = .23, p <.01) were important determinants of their job satisfaction. A comprehensive understanding of job stress and job satisfaction is important for minimizing the impact of potential stressors on today’s workforce.
Curb Your Enthusiasm: A Case of Young Malaysian Women’s Emotional Embodiment
Authors: Roy Anaurene , Ryba Tatiana V.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this research was to explore, from a cultural psychological perspective, how young Islamic women experience themselves being physically active in the Islamic State of Malaysia. Open-ended, in-depth interviews were conducted with five Muslim women (aged 20-21) who actively participate in sports and physical activities of their choice. Drawing on a feminist poststructuralist perspective, young women’s narratives were examined as cultural manifestations of gender control in the context of sport and exercise through discourse analysis. One narrative explicitly revealed the workings of power in emotion regulation and restriction while other narratives highlighted power mechanisms operating through other forms of emotional constitution of the young female body. This paper is an attempt to (re)construct the compelling case of a culturally constituted expression of joy and enjoyment in the exercise setting. The key findings are discussed in relation to panoptical power exercised through the socio-cultural medium of the Islamic state.
Influence of Gender of Coach on Perceptions of Basketball and Coaching Self-Efficacy and Aspirations of High School Female Basketball Players
Authors: Lirgg Cathy D. , Dibrezzo Ro , Smith Angie N.
Published: August 2016

The decline in number of female coaches has been a serious concern of women in sport. This study investigated whether gender of coach would influence high school female basketball players specifically in relation to their future coaching self-efficacy, the level of competition at which they might choose to coach, and their ideas about the purposes of basketball. Results revealed that gender of coach did not influence self-efficacy for coaching but did influence level of competition. Perceived playing ability was found to be the strongest predictor of future coaching self-efficacy. In addition, some differences were found between male- and female-coached athletes and between male and female coaches concerning perceived purposes of basketball.
Running Economy Following an Intense Cycling Bout in Female Duathletes and Triathletes
Authors: Danner Tracy , Plowman Sharon Ann
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of a preceding intense cycling bout on subsequent running economy in female duathletes and triathletes. Thirteen female duathletes and triathletes (age = 27.5 ± 3.36 yrs.) took part in three testing sessions: (a) measurement of running economy at 169, 177, 196, and 215 m·min−1 and running VO2 max; (b) remeasurement of running economy and measurement of cycling VO2 max; and (c) a 45 minute cycling bout at 70% of cycling VO2 max, immediately followed by measurement of running economy. Intraclass correlation coefficients between Day 1 and Day 2 running economy values ranged from 0.31 to 0.78. A systematic difference occurred at 169 m·min−1 only, with mean VO2 being higher on Day 1 than Day 2 (p<0.02). Based upon dependent t-tests, significantly higher running economy values (p<0.02) but not blood lactate concentrations (p>0.02) following the submaximal cycling bout compared to the control condition (mean of Day 1 and Day 2), at each of the four test velocities were found. Therefore we conclude that running economy was significantly impaired following a 45 minute intense cycling bout in female duathletes and triathletes, but lactate values remained constant.
A Comparison of Fat Utilization during Exercise: Walking and Swimming
Authors: Grubbs Lauree M.
Published: August 2016

Women, considering swimming as a form of exercise to lose weight, have been discouraged from doing so, since researchers suggest that swimming does not burn fat as efficiently as land exercise. The purpose of this study was to compare carbohydrate and fat utilization by women engaging in two different forms of exercise, walking and swimming, at the same intensity and duration. Subjects were 20 moderately trained female subjects, walkers (W) = 10 and swimmers (S) = 10; ages 18-40 years. Measurements of blood free fatty acids (FFA), glycerol, lactate, glucose, free fatty acid turnover (FFAT), respiratory quotient (RQ), and fat oxidation were made during 60 minutes of walking or swimming at the same exercise intensity. Multivariate analysis of variance determined no significant differences between groups in net energy expenditure (NEE), RQ, fat oxidation, blood FFA, glycerol, glucose, and FFAT(p > .05). There was a significant difference between groups in blood lactic acid levels (p < .01). Since it was found that swimming and walking at the same duration and intensity bum similar amounts of fat and carbohydrate as energy sources during exercise, women may find swimming to be a viable form of exercise for weight control.
Developing Women as Financial Donors and Philanthropists: A Way to Enhance Intercollegiate Athletics Opportunities
Authors: Vemer M. Elizabeth
Published: August 2016

This article is a review of literature pertaining to women’s philanthropy. The purpose is to provide a basis for research related to reasons women donate to athletics and sports. An analysis of women donors as portrayed in the non-profit and political sector philanthropic literature is provided. Inferences for sport fundraising are explored in terms of private donor giving to intercollegiate athletics, especially that which may enhance women’s sporting opportunities. Emphasis is placed on the role of women as financial donors and philanthropists during the 1990s. Projections are made relative to the potential for and nature of female philanthropy in the future.
Effects of Aerobic Exercise on the Social Physique Anxiety and Body Esteem of Female College Students
Authors: Bartlewski Peter P.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this research was to explore the effectiveness of exercise in reducing body image concerns of female college students. Women enrolled in an aerobic exercise course or in a social psychology course at a medium sized university reported their social physique anxiety and body esteem at the beginning and end of the semester. For women in the aerobic exercise classes, social physique anxiety decreased and body esteem increased over the course of the semester. Social physique anxiety and body esteem did not change significantly for those in the (nonexercising) social psychology classes. The researchers concluded that participation in aerobic exercise programs may help to improve the body image of female college students. Based upon these results further investigation of the mechanisms by which exercise influences body image is warranted.
Newspaper Representation of Women Athletes in 1984 and 1994
Authors: Mathesen Hilary , Flatten Kay
Published: August 2016

This research was to assess changes in Great Britain (GB) in the percent coverage of women’s sports in six national and Sunday newspapers (Telegraph, Guardian, Independent, Express, Mail and Mirror) between 1984 and 1994. Measurements were taken of all sports articles on the front pages, editorial pages and sports pages for the period 1st-14th July in both years. Data were categorized into male only, female only and mixed articles per day, square centimetres per day and photos per day. There was a decrease in percentage coverage of women’s sport coverage (articles per day down 5.2%; cm2 per day down 5.2%; photos per day down 7.1%) while the overall coverage of sport increased. During the time period the portion of GB Olympians who were women increased by 7% and there was a 3% increase in proportion of sports participants in the general population who were women. An adjustment index is presented which uses population figures and sport participation figures to calculate the proportion of sport participants who are female. This index was used to assess fairness in reporting sport.
Cross-National Research on Women and Sport: Some Theoretical, Methodological and Practical Challenges
Authors: Fasting Kari , Pfister Gertrud , Scranton Sheila , Bunuel Ana
Published: August 2016

This paper is a description of the theoretical, methodological and practical challenges that have been encountered during the process of researching the experiences and meanings of sport in the lives of women in England, Germany, Norway and Spain. Based upon a review of previous literature and research on women and sport we found that there was little research in which the researchers took a qualitative approach focusing on both intrinsic factors (selfconcept, body awareness and the culture of the body) and extrinsic factors (relationship to lifestyle and life chances, social networks and future life plans). Cross-nationally, women’s experiences of sport and the meanings that they attach to their sporting participation, became therefore the centre for this project.
Women’s Sport and Feminist Praxis: Bridging the Theory/Practice Gap
Authors: Hall M. Ann
Published: August 2016

Using my own experience in sport, I explore two themes in this paper. One is that sport and feminism are often seen as incompatible. This means that sport is often overlooked, or at best underestimated, as a site of cultural struggle where gender relations are reproduced and sometimes resisted. The second is that there is a seemingly impervious border within sport feminism between academics and activists, between theory and practice, between the academy and the community, between researchers and the researched. The “Beckwith Belles” are women’s lived experience in sport and the context in which I examine the implication of these two themes.
Sport Provision for Women of Minority Cultures in Australia: Whose Responsibility?
Authors: Toohey Kristine , Taylor Tracy
Published: August 2016

This paper is a summary of a research project to investigate the relationships between women from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds and sport. A conflict between sport providers’ perceptions of the needs of women from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds and the views of the women themselves was found. Providers generally perceived the problem of low participation in sport as relating to the women’s culture (a cultural deficit explanation); whereas, the women interviewed mainly associated their low participation rates with non-inclusionary practices engaged in by providers.
Holistic Approaches to the Place of Sport in Women’s Lives
Authors: Talbot Margaret
Published: August 2016

With this paper, I explore the need to study people who take part in sports holistically and inclusively. A critique of uncritical “scientism” is developed, illustrated by examples of distorted use of sports science and abusive sporting practice, especially as they relate to women and girls. The need to balance performance discourse with ideologies of sport as a liberatory and humane activity is argued. Holistic approaches to establishing a common scientific pedagogy for women working in physical education and sports science are recommended.
Title IX Gender Equity, Backlash and Ideology
Authors: Greendorfer Susan L.
Published: August 2016

This paper analyzes the ideological discourse that socializes us into ways of thinking about gender equity and Title IX. My contention is that the ideological principle of equity which underlies Title IX is on a collision course with cultural beliefs that contribute to a patriarchal gender ideology. Socially constructed meanings and beliefs that interpret gender difference as gender hierarchy not only contribute to dominant gender ideology but are also a critical ingredient of the process of socialization. As a cultural process influenced by hegemonic beliefs about gender, we are socialized into values and beliefs anchored in patriarchy that hegemonically construct sport as masculine. Ideologically, Title IX, which is based on feminist notions of equality, challenges these cultural constructions because it allows for alternative readings of sport, masculine bodies, feminine bodies, and the gendered nature of physicality. The discourse of backlash, a component of hegemonic socialization steeped in gender hierarchy, offers resistance to notions of equality (Title IX), which can be viewed as counterhegemonic. In opposition to the symbolic as well as legal challenge of Title IX, which problematizes the organizational culture of sport, the discourse of backlash offers one way of preserving hegemonic gender ideology.
Sport in Developing Countries-Opportunities for Girls and Women
Authors: Chappell R.
Published: August 2016

Although there have been some scholarly investigations of sport in developing countries there has been very little research conducted on the problems of sports’ participation for girls and women. This paper consists of: 1) previous literature concerning the problems associated with defining and categorizing developing countries, and with the analyses of sports participation for girls and women. 2) a discussion of the problems encountered by women when attempting to participate in sport. 3) this section consists of a discussion of the information concerning assistance that is being given to developing countries in the field of sport, sports science and physical education. It is suggested that if advances are to be made in relation to womenís participation in sport, especially at international level, a major organization such as the International Olympic Committee needs to coordinate the efforts. It is additionally suggested that within each country there is a need for a specific organization whose task it would be to act as a voice to promote sport for girls and women.
A Quest for a Market: A Profile of the Consumers of a Professional Women’s Basketball Team and the Marketing Implications
Authors: Armstrong Ketra L.
Published: August 2016

Women’s sports is at an all-time high, as evidenced by the emergence of a number of professional women’s sport leagues (such as basketball, baseball, and fast-pitch softball). Notwithstanding the growth and popularity of women’s sports, these leagues will have to compete with other forms of leisure for consumers’ discretionary time and resources. Since financial stability is vital to the longevity of the developing women’s leagues, the competition for consumers will require a greater need for the marketers of women’s professional sport organizations to understand the variety of factors that influence sport consumers’ behavior and shape the composition of their respective markets. Presented in this article are the results of a study in which the consumers of one of the professional women’s basketball teams that competed in the American Basketball League (ABL)were investigated. The teams’ spectators are profiled as sport consumers, factors that influenced their attendance, are identified and implications for effective marketing strategies are noted.
Gender Portrayals in Sports-Product Point-Of-Purchase Advertising
Authors: Cuneen Jacquelyn , Claussen Cathryn L.
Published: August 2016

Research addressing women’s portrayals in sport-products advertising has focused on typical mass media, largely ignoring point-of-purchase advertising. Yet, point-of-purchase ads have the potential to be more powerfully reinforced which adds urgency to the need to examine such messages. The purpose of this study was to describe gender characteristics in, and consumers’ reactions to, sports product point-of-purchase ads (f=161) at 24 stores in nine geographic regions and to assess consumers’ (N=351) feelings of involvement in the ads. Based upon the results both female and male consumers perceived the ads with various levels of relevance and meaning and each gender preferred ads that related directly to themselves and their needs. Such results have direct implications for manufacturers/marketers of sports-related products because (a) women shopped for, and purchased, sports-related products more frequently than men, and (b) consumers noticed and were able to identify/recall activities featured in sports-related advertising. Therefore, manufacturers’ wishing to amass and maintain the women’s market need to target women directly and feature women performing meaningful activities in their advertising.
Chinese Women and Sport Success, Sexuality, Suspicion
Authors: Riordan James
Published: August 2016

Never have women athletes made such rapid progress in a wide range of events in such a short time — some two or three years — or improved world records by such remarkable margins. The reasons for the progress of Chinese women athletes are examined in this article. One of the reasons is an absence in China of a number of deep-seated prejudices in regard to sexuality that have been common in western historical develoment — prejudices centred on the notion that sport was a ‘male preserve’.

The major factors that have facilitated Chinese women’s progress in sport have to be sought in various elements intrinsic to Chinese society and shaped by historically-conditioned attitudes to sport and women that differ markedly from those that have formed the dominant values of sport in western society, at least since the time of Ancient Greece.

Insosfar as world-wide women’s sporting attainments are reflecting, reinforcing and sometimes even precipitating processes of social change in the role and status of women, the Chinese women’s example offers exciting prospects for the future of women in all societies, particularly the modernising communities of Asia and Africa.
Related Authorship Trends in Movement Science Journals (1991-1996)
Authors: Ransdell Lynda B. , Beske Stacy , Cooke Coleen , Dinger Mary
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this paper is to answer three questions related to authorship trends in movement science journals: 1) Do movement science journals publish significant numbers of articles by women?, 2) How does the rate of publication by women in movement science journals compare to that in other fields?, and 3) Has the number of journal articles published by women in the movement sciences changed throughout 1990’s (1991-1996)? Six movement science journals were selected for inclusion in this study. Two trained investigators conducted hand searches of journals and frequency counts were performed for the total number of authors and articles, and the gender of the first through fourth authors. Percentage of women authors was ascertained using the following formula: [total number of women authors / total number of authors] × 100. Percentage of articles in which a woman made a contribution was calculated as follows: [number of articles with at least I woman author / total number of articles] × 100. Number of articles with a woman as first, second, third, or fourth author was calculated by counting individual authors and their order of authorship. The journal that published the highest percentage of women authors or articles with women contributors was the Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, followed by Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport and Quest. The journals that published the largest number of articles by women were Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise and The Physician and Sportsmedicine. Trends in publication by gender have not changed considerably between 1991-1996. In comparison to journals in other scientific disciplines, exercise science journals publish a comparable proportion of articles by women.