bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A New Approach
Authors: Tammemagi Hans
Published: November 2020

We need waste disposal methods that allow the human race to live on this planet in harmony with nature, preserving our resources and habitat and leaving a legacy for our children and grandchildren that does not deprive them of opportunities. These changes will not come easily; they will require resolve and foresight. Just as a mathematician develops the proof to a mathematical theorem, we must start from a basic axiom, and step by step, following a logical progression, we must build a practical framework for waste management. We started this task in chapter 2, where we derived three general principles from the axiom of sustainable development. Can we apply these general principles to develop practical guidelines—first, to overcome the shortcomings of existing landfills, and second, to find other, innovative disposal methods that will conform with sustainable development? Let us look at each of the three principles in turn. Human health and the environment must be protected, both now and in the future. This principle is fundamental and places important constraints on the siting and design of disposal facilities, and also on the form of the waste. In particular, the final four words, “and in the future,” are very important. This principle can be satisfied in two ways: by reducing the toxicity of the wastes so they pose minimal risk, or by containing wastes so that they cannot escape and cause harm. In some cases, the latter method includes controlled leakage at a rate that the environment can assimilate without long-term degradation. Wastes must be managed so that no burden is placed on future generations and they are not deprived of the opportunities we have had. In other words, our grandchildren should not have to spend their valuable resources to solve our waste problems, nor should they be denied resources because our generation has depleted them. Neither should their health and environment be placed at risk because of our actions. The main impacts of landfills on future generations are the requirement to provide ongoing guardianship and maintenance; the loss of valuable land; and impairment of groundwater, surface water, and the atmosphere.
Talent as Creativity
Authors: Haroutounian Joanne
Published: November 2020

It was a few minutes past four on a Thursday, and I knew Andrew had arrived for a piano lesson. He bounded down the stairs, arrived at the piano bench with a thud, propped his dog-eared manuscript book on the piano, and looked at me with his determined “let’s get started” smile—a delightfully talented young man of 15 about to share his latest composition with a welcome audience of one. He asked, “Do you know the speech from Julius Caesar, ‘It must be by his death?’” I was unfamiliar with this bit of Shakespeare. He then dramatically went through the well-memorized speech, turning a bit red in the face as he shared this unfamiliar type of performance with his piano teacher. He motioned to his scribbled score, hands on the keyboard. “And this is also the speech.” He then began his composition, peppering the performance with “this is fate” or “B-flat is death” to explain his motivic creative connections. The piece ended with a low B-flat repeatedly resonating as it died away (smorzando). The musical creative process involves realizing sounds internally and communicating them to others in a unique way. Andrew discovered a personal way to interpret and communicate Shakespeare through the language of music. When we think of creative music-makers, we immediately envision the inspired composer, scrawling creative ideas on paper. We also recognize the jazz musician who jams through the night, improvising at will. On a simpler plane, the young child in musical play is spontaneously creating through sound. These are the generative music-makers, creating music from scratch. In the preceding chapter, we examined the creative-interpretive process of a musician who performs music from a written score. This deliberate decision-making process requires constant internal perceptive/cognitive manipulations (metaperception) to discover how to express a personal emotion through sound. The resulting creative interpretation communicates sounds that describe the expressive intent of the musician. The performer is the creative interpreter of music. If we expand our perspective further, the person who listens perceptively and can communicate the idea of these sounds through words also shows musically creative talent.
The Flame: Teenage Years
Authors: Haroutounian Joanne
Published: November 2020

Close to a dozen years have gone by and we find ourselves seated on folding chairs enjoying the final recital of a private studio of talented piano students. Each year there are a few new eager faces as the younger students deftly work through pieces that seem very complex for such little fingers to play so quickly. We notice the students who have been seasoned through training, now in those tenuous intermediate years. Their intense desire for precision shows maturing musical ideas, but often arrives at awkward adolescence when being on stage has an added gravity of meaning. We search for the advanced teenagers—those students we have seen truly blossom through the long process of talent development. Numbers have dwindled in this studio. One has decided to move out of state and is now studying at a conservatory. Another has decided to concentrate efforts on the oboe, begun in elementary school band, with time restraints easing piano lessons out of her schedule. Academic and parental pressures have caused last year’s shining star, a junior seeking an Ivy League college education, to quit as well. There remains one teenager who ends the program with a flourish, receiving many hugs from young admirers and awards galore following the program. This is our tiny, eager student from the front steps. A senior, having completed a full twelve years of instruction with many competitions and solo recitals under his belt, he bids farewell to this comfortable, nurturing studio. He enters college as a math major. Many private teachers, parents, and music students may recognize this scene as a very realistic portrayal of possibilities in musical talent development. The first years of training are “romance,” with parents aglow when hearing their talented youngster perform with such confidence and flair. The middle years consist of flux and flow, a phase when students search for the “whys” and “hows” beneath the notes that were so easily played in prior years. Musical training now presents persistent challenges. Late-starters may speed into these years with determination. Others may begin a second instrument or composition classes to broaden musical experiences.
Spatial Thinking and Visualization: Teaching the Essential Principles of Perspective Drawing
Authors: Rockman Deborah A.
Published: November 2020

Perspective drawing is a system for creating a two-dimensional illusion of a three-dimensional subject or three-dimensional space. Information, whether observed (empirically based) or imagined (theoretically based), is translated into a language or system that allows three-dimensional forms and space to be illusionistically represented on a two-dimensional surface. Although Brunelleschi is credited with the discovery or creation of perspective theory during the Renaissance in Italy, it is Albrecht Dürer, a German artist, who is best known for his exploration of perspective theory in his prints and drawings. Perspective theory is often separated into two parts: TECHNICAL OR MECHANICAL PERSPECTIVE,which is based on systems and geometry and is the primary focus of this chapter; and FREEHAND PERSPECTIVE, which is based on perception and observation of forms in space and is a more intuitive exploration of perspective theory. Freehand perspective relies to a significant degree on the process of sighting to judge the rate of convergence, depth, angle, etc. Technical or mechanical perspective utilizes drafting tools such as T-squares, compasses, and triangles, while freehand perspective generally explores perspective principles without the use of technical tools. While it is useful to study perspective in its most precise form with the aid of drafting tools and a simple straight-edge, it is also useful to explore these same principles in a purely freehand fashion, which allows for a more relaxed application of perspective principles. In studying perspective, it also becomes important to make a distinction between linear perspective and atmospheric perspective. LINEAR PERSPECTIVE addresses how the shapes, edges, and sizes of objects change in appearance when seen from different positions relative to the observer—off to one side, directly in front, close or far away, above or below, or any number of infinite variations. ATMOSPHERIC PERSPECTIVE describes other characteristics seen in objects that are some distance from the observer. A veil of atmospheric haze affects and decreases clarity, contrast, detail, and color. Atmospheric perspective, which is not mathematically or geometrically based, is a powerful complement to linear perspective, and when used together the illusion of three-dimensionality and space can be powerful.
Life Cycles
Authors: Pechenik Jan A.
Published: November 2020

I have a Hardin cartoon on my office door. It shows a series of animals thinking about the meaning of life. In sequence, we see a lobe-finned fish, a salamander, a lizard, and a monkey, all thinking, “Eat, survive, reproduce; eat, survive, reproduce.” Then comes man: “What's it all about?” he wonders. Organisms live to reproduce. The ultimate selective pressure on any organism is to survive long enough and well enough to pass genetic material to a next generation that will also be successful in reproducing. In this sense, then, every morphological, physiological, biochemical, or behavioral adaptation contributes to reproductive success, making the field of life cycle evolution a very broad one indeed. Key components include mode of sexuality, age and size at first reproduction (Roff, this volume), number of reproductive episodes in a lifetime, offspring size (Messina and Fox, this volume), fecundity, the extent to which parents protect their offspring and how that protection is achieved, source of nutrition during development, survival to maturity, the consequences of shifts in any of these components, and the underlying mechanisms responsible for such shifts. Many of these issues are dealt with in other chapters. Here I focus exclusively on animals, and on a particularly widespread sort of life cycle that includes at least two ecologically distinct free-living stages. Such “complex life cycles” (Istock 1967) are especially common among amphibians and fishes (Hall and Wake 1999), and within most invertebrate groups, including insects (Gilbert and Frieden 1981), crustaceans, bivalves, gastropods, polychaete worms, echinoderms, bryozoans, and corals and other cnidarians (Thorson 1950). In such life cycles, the juvenile or adult stage is reached by metamorphosing from a preceding, free-living larval stage. In many species, metamorphosis involves a veritable revolution in morphology, ecology, behavior, and physiology, sometimes taking place in as little as a few minutes or a few hours. In addition to the issues already mentioned, key components of such complex life cycles include the timing of metamorphosis (i.e., when it occurs), the size at which larvae metamorphose, and the consequences of metamorphosing at particular times or at particular sizes. The potential advantages of including larval stages in the life history have been much discussed.
Pesticide Resistance
Authors: McKenzie John A.
Published: November 2020

Biological control, sterile insect release, autocidal control and genetically modified crops have made, and will continue to make, important contributions to specific programs of integrated pest management. However, at least into the immediate future, the effective management of agricultural ecosystems will depend on the judicious use of chemical pesticides to control fungal pathogens, weeds, nematodes, or arthropods that damage crops or livestock and lead to lower productivity. Similar conclusions can be drawn with respect to the control of insect pests that play key roles as vectors in the transmission of diseases that have devastating impact on the health of humans and animals, particularly in the developing countries of Africa and Asia. If pesticides are used inappropriately, their effectiveness can be short-lived, and the residues of the chemicals can be harmful to the environment. Typically, resistance to the pesticide develops, often resulting in increased chemical usage at higher concentrations. This, in turn, produces higher levels of pesticide residues in the environment, with greater deleterious effect on nontargeted species through direct, unintentional exposure or through the incorporation of chemical residues into food chains. Unfortunately, this outcome has not been uncommon. The list of pests and the chemicals to which they have developed resistance is depressingly impressive (Georghiou 1986; Bergelson and Purrington 1996; Denholm et al. 1999). The development of resistance causes significant problems. The phenomenon does, however, provide a rare opportunity: the chance to study natural selection where fundamental research on ecology, genetics, molecular, and developmental biology and physiology can be integrated. An understanding of the microevolutionary processes that lead to the development of resistance enables the derivation of better strategies of pesticide usage that minimize the evolution of resistance to future pesticides. The task of measuring selection in natural populations is not, however, trivial (Fairbairn and Reeve, this volume). In essence, to demonstrate unambiguously that selection is occurring we must: …1. Identify the selective agent(s). 2. Mechanistically associate the action of the selective agent on the phenotype(s) with the product(s) of the genotype(s). 3. Gain predictable results after using our knowledge of the mechanism to manipulate experimental populations….
Anti-Chaos, Common Property, and the Emergence of Cooperation
Authors: Stephen Lansing J.
Published: November 2020

Complex adaptive systems, as conceived by John Holland, are groups of agents engaged in a process of coadaptation, in which adaptive moves by individuals have consequences for the group. Holland and others have shown that under certain circumstances simple models of this process show surprising abilities to self-organize (Holland 1993; Kauffman 1993). Complex adaptive systems have interesting mathematical properties, and the process of "anti-chaos"-—the spontaneous crystallization of ordered patterns in initially disordered networks— has become a new area of interdisciplinary research. But the question of whether these models can illuminate real world processes is still largely open. Not long ago John Maynard Smith described the study of complex adaptive systems as "fact-free science" (1995). This chapter has two purposes. First, in response to Maynard Smith, I will show how the concept of ecological feedback in complex adaptive systems provides a simple and powerful explanation for the structure and persistence of cooperative networks among Balinese rice farmers. Second, I will generalize this explanation to shed light on the emergence of cooperation in a class of social systems where interactions with the natural world create both rewards and punishments. But before turning to these examples, in line with the purposes of this volume I will comment on the ideas and assumptions that underlie the use of models in this analysis. "Society is a human product. Society is an objective reality. Man [sic] is a social product." With this epigram Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann neatly encapsulated a fundamental problem in social theory (1967:61). In American anthropology today this paradox is often posed as a conflict between "structure" and "agency," where the former refers to ideational, economic, institutional, or psychological systems that are represented as generating social reality; and the latter to the ability of individual social actors to modify their own social worlds. The same paradox recurs in classical social theory, such as Jürgen Habermas' insistence on the need to somehow reconcile actor-focused and system-level social theories (Habermas 1985, 1987).
Fractal House of Pharaoh: Ancient Egypt as a Complex Adaptive System, a Trial Formulation
Authors: Lehner Mark
Published: November 2020

In addition to understanding small-scale societies in their own right "from a complex systems perspective" (Boekhorst and Hemelrijk this volume), workshop participants expressed a goal of using insights about the dynamics of small-scale societies to better understand the "evolution of state-like structures" (Small this volume), or "the 'emergence' trajectories by which a smallscale society, in its environment, may move autonomously from relatively simple (distributed, no ranking or centralized decision making) to complex (ranking/hierarchy, with centralized decision making and a degree of specialization)" (Doran this volume). Small-scale societies are seen as "preceding conditions" to the development of "rank vs. egalitarian ideologies" (Wright this volume) such as are found in archaic states. Ancient Egypt is a salient example of such an archaic state. In the comparative study of civilizations, ancient Egypt has stood out as the quintessence of a centralized nation-state ruling a large territory. Egyptologists often operate through a vision of ancient Egyptian society, whether explicit or assumed, as highly absolutist. Pharaoh's control of society is complete, effected through an invasive and pervasive centralized bureaucracy. Anthropologists, taking their cue from Egyptologists, see Egypt as one of the earliest examples of a unified nation-state, with a redistributive economy centrally administered over the entirety of the Egyptian Nile Valley. I offer a prospectus for approaching Egyptian civilization as a complex adaptive system (CAS) based on loose analogies with concepts of emergent order and self-organization. This a narrative exploration of ways that ancient Egyptian society may be amenable to the kind of agent-based modeling applied to small-scale societies. Although I recognize that in discussions of "complexity theory" there is nothing close to unanimity or an agreed paradigm (Wilson 1998), some of the more general concepts may at least offer insightful new ways to view social complexity in Egypt. My prospectus is a workin- progress. My sources for complex systems studies are "the literature of metaphor (e.g., Cowan et al. 1994), and the popularizations of metaphysics"; that is to say, what follows is most certainly in Morowitz's (1998) category of meta-metaphor (and I will try to refrain from "word magic").
Postbellum America
Authors: Meyer William B.
Published: November 2020

One of the earliest historians of the Civil War saw it as a fundamental clash between the peoples of different latitudes. Climate had made the antebellum North and South distinct societies and natural enemies, John W. Draper argued, the one democratic and individualist, the other aristocratic and oligarchical. If such were the case, the future of the reunited states was hardly a bright one. But Draper saw no natural barriers to national unity that wise policy could not surmount. The restlessness and transience of American life that many deplored instead merited, in his view, every assistance possible. In particular, he wrote, Americans needed to be encouraged to move as freely across climatic zones as they already did within them. The tendency of North and South to congeal into hostile types of civilization could be frustrated, but only by an incessant mingling of people. Sectional discord was inevitable only if the natural law that "emigrants move on parallels of latitude" were left free to take its course. These patterns of emigration were left free, for the most part, but without the renewed strife that Draper feared. After the war as before it, few settlers relocating to new homes moved far to the north or south of their points of origin. As late as 1895, Henry Gannett, chief geographer to the U.S. Census, could still describe internal migration as "mainly conducted westward along parallels of latitude." More often as time went on, it was supposed that race and not merely habit underlay the pattern, that climatic preferences were innate, different stocks of people staying in the latitudes of their forbears by the compulsion of biology. Thus, it was supposed, Anglo-Saxons preferred cooler lands than Americans of Mediterranean ancestry, while those of African descent preferred warmer climates than either. Over time, though, latitude loosened its grip and exceptions to the rule multiplied. As the share of the population in farming declined, so did the strongest reason for migrants to stay within familiar climates. Even by the time Gannett wrote, the tendency that he described, though still apparent, was weaker than it had been at mid-century. It weakened because a preference for familiar climates was not a fixed human trait but one shaped by experience and wants, and capable of changing as these variables changed.
Modernizing America
Authors: Meyer William B.
Published: November 2020

As late as 1911, a leading American geographer could confidently assert that blacks in the United States would always live chiefly in "the warm, moist air of the Gulf and South Atlantic states," "where they find the heat and moisture in which they thrive"; nature decreed that few would ever settle and fewer survive in the North because they could not withstand the cold. Events, though, were contradicting this blend of racial and climatic determinism. Black migration from the South to the colder states was already substantial. It intensified dramatically during World War I. A boom in labor demand in industry, along with a near-cessation of the immigration from Europe that had once filled it, drew black and white southerners alike in unheard-of numbers to the manufacturing cities of the North. The black exodus to Kansas in 1879 and 1880 had briefly looked as if it would become just such a mass interregional movement of population. But the pioneer Exodusters had suffered from the drastic change in climate, most of all because it affected their livelihoods in farming. Their skills, which lay in cotton growing, were useless in Kansas, and their experience did little to encourage others to follow. The great northward migration of the early twentieth century was a migration not to new farmlands but to the cities for factory and service employment. The difference in climate between southern origin and northern destination did not matter much to it. White southern farmers, fearing the loss of cheap labor, warned departing blacks that they would find the winters of the North too bitter to endure. The new exodus proceeded all the same, and it discredited in the process the long-held idea that either race or habit always imposed a latitudinal pattern on human movement. The change in climate from South to North did mean discomfort or worse for many who undertook it. They suffered especially from the unaccustomed cold that few could afford stoves and fuel to ward off—though they had suffered too from inadequate shelter and clothing in the southern winter.
Atmospheric Structure and the Earth's Boundary Layer
Authors: Whiteman C. David
Published: November 2020

The earth's atmosphere is divided into four layers: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere (figure 4.1). These layers are defined by alternating decreases and increases in air temperature with height. The boundaries between the layers are called the tropopause, stratopause, and mesopause. The troposphere, the lowest layer of the atmosphere, supports life on the planet and is the layer in which “weather” occurs. It extends about 7 mi (11 km) above sea level and is characterized by a mean temperature decrease with height (—ΔT/ Δz) of about 3.5°F per 1000 ft, or 6.5°C per km. This decrease explains the lower temperatures encountered at higher elevations in the mountains. Although the mean temperature decreases with height in the troposphere, the atmospheric structure, particularly at the base of the troposphere, varies significantly over time as the earth warms during the day and cools at night, as the seasons change, and as weather systems move through the atmosphere. The vertical structure of the atmosphere is characterized by an exponential decrease in air density and pressure with height. Air density is the mass per unit volume of the atmosphere as expressed, for example, in kilograms per cubic meter or pounds per cubic foot. Air pressure is the force exerted on a unit area by the weight of the air molecules above the measurement point as expressed, for example, in millibars or pounds per square inch. Air pressure at any given level is thus a measurement of the weight of a column of air above that level. Although there is no "edge" to the earth's atmosphere, approximately 99.9% of the air molecules (and therefore the weight of the atmosphere) are found below 31 mi (50 km). Temperature, density, and pressure are interrelated, so that a change in one will result in changes in the other two. The mathematical description of this relationship is called the gas law (appendix A). The gas law allows any one of these variables to be calculated if values for the other two variables are known.
Clouds and Fogs
Authors: Whiteman C. David
Published: November 2020

Clouds are visual indicators of physical processes taking place in the atmosphere. They provide information about winds, stability, moisture content, and traveling weather systems that can be used in short-term (several hour) and long-term (24-36-hour) weather forecasts and in field assessments of weather conditions. Most clouds form when moist air is lifted and cooled. Lifting occurs when air rises over low pressure areas, is carried up inclined frontal surfaces, is carried upward by convective currents that originate at the heated ground, or flows over mountains. Clouds are classified according to their appearance (table 7.1) and the approximate altitude of their bases (table 7.2) following a simple scheme that was developed in 1803 by an English druggist, Luke Howard. This scheme can be expanded to describe certain clouds more precisely (World Meteorological Organization, 1987). The cloud types listed in table 7.1 are pictured in figure 7.1. The two basic cloud classifications are stratiform and cumuliform. Stratiform clouds form horizontal layers, with the horizontal dimension much greater than the vertical dimension. Cumuliform clouds, on the other hand, have roughly equal horizontal and vertical dimensions, giving them the appearance of a cotton ball. Stratiform clouds are given the stem name stratus, and cumuliform clouds are given the stem name cumulus.Stratiform and cumuliform clouds are assigned to one of three height classifications: high, middle, or low. High clouds are composed of ice crystals rather than water droplets and are named using the prefix cirro- (cirrocumulus or cirrostratus). Clouds at midlevels, which may be composed of either water or ice particles, are given the prefix alto- (altocumulus or altostratus). Low clouds are given no prefix (stratus or cumulus). When a stratus deck is composed of an array of individual cumulus elements or lumps, the term stratocumulus is used. Cirrus are stringy or fibrous high clouds that are neither stratiform nor cumuliform. Towering cumulus extend through low and middle levels of the atmosphere. A thunderstorm cloud, called a cumulonimbus. extends through low, middle, and high levels of the atmosphere and is accompanied by lightning and showery precipitation. Clouds that bring widespread, light precipitation but not lightning, thunder, or hail are called nimbostratus.
Thermochemistry and Molecular Energetics
Authors: Martinho Simões José A. , da Piedade Manuel Minas
Published: November 2020

Thermochemistry has been defined in one of the most popular physical chemistry textbooks as “the study of the heat produced or required by chemical reactions”. The use of heat, instead of the more general word energy, immediately suggests a close association between thermochemistry and calorimetry—the oldest experimental technique for investigating the thermodynamics of chemical reactions. This view is, in fact, shared by many of our students and some of their teachers, together with the belief that thermochemistry, founded in the eighteenth century by Black, Lavoisier, and Laplace, has seen few major developments since the days of Berthelot and Thomsen, over 100 years ago. The notion that calorimetric studies are almost the sole source of thermochemical information prevails beyond the classroom. Also, the idea of thermochemistry as a science of the past is even conveyed by distinguished scientists and lecturers. Figure 1.1, taken from a delightful account by Herschbach, depicts thermochemistry as a mountain that was necessary to climb to conquer the structure and dynamics summits and reach the ultimate goal—the understanding of chemical synthesis. The picture is enlightening, but the timeline suggests that the climax of the thermochemical era dates back to the early decades of the last century, coinciding with the publication of Lewis and Randall’s Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances. However, the golden years of calorimetry started in the 1930s, thanks to the work on organic compounds and key molecules, such as water and carbon dioxide, by Rossini and his colleagues at the National Bureau of Standards, and continued in the 1960s and 1970s. Thermochemical studies of organometallic compounds were pioneered by Skinner and his coworkers at Manchester University. Figure 1.1 can also be regarded from a different perspective, which is more correct and probably in keeping with Herschbach’s thoughts: Thermochemistry is not only the first mountain to climb but also the solid ground from which the remaining heights can be reached. The heaven, or the perfect understanding of chemical synthesis, rests on a detailed knowledge of thermochemistry, structure, dynamics, and their relationships.
The Thermodynamic Background
Authors: Martinho Simões José A. , da Piedade Manuel Minas
Published: November 2020

The three laws of thermodynamics provide the theoretical basis required to master nearly all the concepts that are relevant in discussions of molecular energetics. We shall not dwell on those laws, because they are mandatory in any general physical chemistry course, but we will ponder some of their outcomes. It is also necessary to agree on basic matters, such as units, nomenclature, standard states, thermochemical consistency, uncertainties, and the definition of the most common thermochemical quantities. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommends the use of the International System of Units (SI) in all scientific and technical publications. Appendix A list the names and symbols adopted for the seven SI base units, together with several SI derived units, which have special names and are relevant in molecular energetics. Among the base units, the kelvin (symbol K) and the mole (mol), representing thermodynamic temperature and amount of substance, respectively, are of particular importance. Derived units include the SI unit of energy, the joule (J), and the SI unit of pressure, the pascal (Pa). It is generally acknowledged that the International System has brought order out of the previous multisystem chaos. The IUPAC recommendations regarding units will therefore be followed in the present book. In some countries, like the United States, units like the calorie, the torr, and the atmosphere, for example, are still common, but they have gradually been replaced by their SI equivalents. However, non-SI units, such as the electronvolt (eV) and the hartree (Eh) are more convenient to use in many cases. These units, particularly the eV, are prevalent in a large number of recent publications on molecular energetics. A list of some non-SI units, together with their SI values, and a table containing the “best” values of some fundamental physical constants are given in appendix A. The names and symbols of physical chemical quantities have also been recommended by the IUPAC. It would be tedious to list even a minor fraction of the suggestions on symbols, subscripts, and superscripts, in italic, Roman, or Greek fonts. But these matters have importance, and a few common symbols will be described here.
Gas-Phase Ion Energetics
Authors: Martinho Simões José A. , da Piedade Manuel Minas
Published: November 2020

The experimental methods designed to investigate the energetics of gas-phase ions have been another important source of thermochemical data, particularly throughout the past two or three decades. In this chapter, we discuss the main quantities that are measured experimentally and lead to reaction enthalpy values. The adiabatic ionization energy of any molecule AB (mono-, di-, or polyatomic), represented by Ei (AB), is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the isolated molecule at 0 K: AB(g) → AB+(g) + e−(g) (4.1) The proviso T = 0 signifies that AB is in its electronic, vibrational, and rotational ground states and has no translational energy. The word isolated indicates the perfect gas model. The “minimum energy” condition ensures that AB+ is also in its electronic, vibrational, and rotational ground states and the translational energies of AB+ and e− are both zero; it also indicates that the products in reaction 4.1 do not interact, that is, they also conform with the perfect gas model.
Combustion Calorimetry
Authors: Martinho Simões José A. , da Piedade Manuel Minas
Published: November 2020

Calorimetric studies of combustion reactions in oxygen and fluorine atmospheres have been a major source of enthalpy of formation data, particularly for organic and inorganic compounds. As referred to in the previous chapter, in bomb combustion calorimetry the reaction proceeds inside a pressure vessel—the bomb—at constant volume, and in this case the derived quantity is ΔcUo. In flame calorimetry the reaction occurs in a combustion chamber, which is in communication with the atmosphere, and the measurements lead to ΔcHo. The methods of combustion calorimetry will be described in the following paragraphs. “Conventional” combustion calorimeters operate on a “macro” scale, that is, they require samples of 0.5–1.0 g per experiment. Unfortunately, many interesting compounds are available only in much smaller amounts. In the case of oxygen combustion calorimetry, however, several combustion microcaloriemeters that only demand 2–50 mg samples have been developed in recent years. The achievements and trends in this area through 1999 have been reviewed, and interested readers are directed to these publications. Since then, a few new apparatus have been reported. Nevertheless, it should be pointed out that the general principles and techniques used to study compounds at the micro scale are not greatly different from those used in macro combustion calorimetry. Static-bomb combustion calorimetry is particularly suited to obtaining enthalpies of combustion and formation of solid and liquid compounds containing only the elements C, H, O, and N. The origins of the method can be traced back to the work of Berthelot in the late nineteenth century. Most static-bomb calorimeters used are of the isoperibol type, such as the one in figure 7.1. Here, the bomb A is a pressure vessel of ∽300 cm3 internal volume. Combustion bombs are usually made of stainless steel and frequently have an internal platinum lining to prevent corrosion. In a typical high-precision experiment, the platinum ignition wire B connects the two electrodes C, which are affixed to the bomb head. A cotton thread fuse D (other materials such as polyethene are also used), of known energy of combustion, is weighed to a precision of±10−5−10−6 g and tied to the platinum wire.
Heat Flow Calorimetry
Authors: Martinho Simões José A. , da Piedade Manuel Minas
Published: November 2020

Heat flow calorimeters, also known as “heat flux,” “heat conduction,” or “heat leakage” calorimeters, are instruments where the heat output or input associated with a given phenomenon is transferred between a reaction vessel and a heat sink. This heat transfer can be monitored with high thermal conductivity thermopiles containing large numbers of identical thermocouple junctions regularly arranged around the reaction vessel (the cell) and connecting its outside wall to the heat sink (the thermostat). The determination of the heat flow relies on the so-called Seebeck effect. An electric potential, known as thermoelectric force and represented by E, is observed when two wires of different metals are joined at both ends and these junctions are subjected to different temperatures, T1 and T2. Several thermocouples can be associated, forming a thermopile. For small temperature differences, the thermoelectric force generated by the thermopile is proportional to T1 − T2 and to the number of thermocouples of the pile (n): E = nε ′ (T1 − T2) (9.1) where ε′ is the thermoelectric power of a single thermocouple (ε′ = dE/dT).
Kinetics in Solution
Authors: Martinho Simões José A. , da Piedade Manuel Minas
Published: November 2020

The main equations used to extract thermochemical data from rate constants of reactions in solution were presented in section 3.2. Here, we illustrate the application of those equations with several examples quoted from the literature. First, however, recall that the rate constant for any elementary reaction in solution, defined in terms of concentrations, is related to the activation parameters through equations 15.1 or 15.2. Equation 15.1 yields the enthalpy and the entropy of activation respectively from the slope and the intercept of a ln(k/T) versus 1/T plot (an Eyring plot). Equation 15.2 leads to the Arrhenius activation energy and the frequency factor, respectively, from the slope and the intercept of a ln k versus 1/T plot (an Arrhenius plot). All the parameters refer to the mean temperature of the plot, and Δ‡Ho is related to Ea by equation 15.3. Finally, recall that if the activation parameters are available for the forward (subscript 1) and the reverse (subscript −1) reaction, the enthalpy of this reaction is calculated by equation 15.4. In the preceding chapter on equilibrium in solution, it was pointed out that any analytical method suitable for determining equilibrium compositions of a reaction mixture at several temperatures can be used to obtain the enthalpy and entropy of that reaction. A similar statement can be made here: Any analytical method suitable for monitoring concentration changes with time at several temperatures can be used to derive the activation parameters of a reaction. Therefore, the analytical techniques used in equilibrium experiments are also applied in nonequilibrium (kinetics) studies. However, in this case, the choice of the analytical method will have an additional and important restriction, for it must consider the reaction rate. An instrumental technique suitable for determining the concentration of a given species under equilibrium conditions may be inappropriate for determining a fast concentration change of the same species.
Electrochemical Measurements
Authors: Martinho Simões José A. , da Piedade Manuel Minas
Published: November 2020

Electrochemical measurements have been playing an increasingly important role in the thermodynamic study of reactions in solution, not only because they provide data that are difficult (or even impossible) to obtain by other methods but also because these data can often be compared with the values determined for the analogous gas-phase reactions, thus yielding information on solvation energetics. Figure 16.1 was adapted from a scheme proposed by Griller et al. It summarizes the thermochemical information on the R–X bond that can be probed by electrochemical methods. The vertical arrows represent homolytic cleavages, and the horizontal arrows depict reduction or oxidation potentials. The authors have appropriately called the scheme in figure 16.1 a “mnemonic,” rather than a “thermochemical cycle,” because not all arrow combinations define thermochemical cycles. This can be made more clear by inspecting figure 16.2, where true thermochemical cycles are defined. For example, the enthalpy of reaction 7 is not the sum of the enthalpies of reactions 1 and 4 (as might be suggested by figure 16.1) but their sum minus the enthalpy of reaction 12. In fact, true thermochemical cycles in figure 16.1 can only be defined by considering parallelograms confined either to the upper or the lower part of the mnemonic. For instance, the enthalpy of reaction 7 is given by the enthalpy of reaction 4 plus the enthalpy of reaction 9 minus the enthalpy of reaction 3, but it is not equal to the enthalpy of reaction 6 minus the enthalpy of reaction 11 plus the enthalpy of reaction 10. Also, the enthalpy of reaction 1 (the homolytic dissociation of the R–X bond in the neutral molecule RX) can be given by the sum of the enthalpies or reaction 5 and 11 minus the enthalpy of reaction 3 or, for example, by the sum of the enthalpies of reactions 7 and 12 minus the enthalpy of reaction 4. The attractive feature of the mnemonic in figure 16.1 (or the thermochemical cycles in figure 16.2) is that it depicts the seven possible R–X cleavage reactions of RX, RX−, and RX+, as well as their relationships.
The Mammals
Authors: Lawlor Timothy E. , Hajher David J.
Published: November 2020

In The Log of the Sea of Cortez, that memorable treatise of science, adventure, and philosophy, John Steinbeck (1951) made bare mention of mammals. Of course, the main purpose of that effort was to chronicle a trip to the Gulf of California to collect invertebrates in the company of Steinbeck’s friend and scientist, Ed Ricketts. The party visited four islands—Tiburón, Coronados, San José, and Espíritu Santo. At anchor off Isla Tiburόn, Steinbeck reported a swarm of bats that approached their boat. One bat was collected but, to the best of our knowledge, it was never identified or preserved. Aside from some descriptions of taxa (e.g., Butt 1932), relatively little was known at the time about mammals from islands in the Sea of Cortés. There is now a reasonably rich history of systematic and biogeographic studies of mammals in and adjacent to the Sea of Cortés (for general reviews, see Orr 1960; Huey 1964; Lawlor 1983; and Hafner and Riddle 1997). Here we summarize much of that information and explore biogeographic patterns that emerge from it, add important recent records of bats, and evaluate new evidence about the origins of insular faunas and the ecological processes and human impacts that affect colonization and persistence of mammals on gulf islands. The terrestrial mammalian fauna of islands in the Sea of Cortés (including islands off the Pacific coast of Baja California) comprises 45 species, of which 18 currently are recognized as endemics (but see below), representing 5 orders, 9 families, and 14 genera (app. 12.1). Collectively they share relationships with mainland representatives on both sides of the gulf and are divisible into 28 clades of species or species groups (app. 12.2). Rodents are disproportionately represented, constituting a total of 35 species and 76 of 97 total insular occurrences, and they are the only nonvolant mammals to become established on distant oceanic islands. In addition, except for the few species of lagomorphs, which occur only on landbridge islands, a greater proportion of mainland species of rodents occurs on islands than is the case for other groups of mammals.
Cultural Dispersal of Plants and Reptiles
Authors: Nabhan Gary P.
Published: November 2020

The equilibrium theory of island biogeography (MacArthur and Wilson 1967) gives little attention to the human forces that have contributed to shape the biota of archipelagos. Most of the studies that have been done to test the theory, however, concentrated mostly on natural forces and less on the ancient influences of sea-faring cultures on island biodiversity. Although many biologists have followed MacArthur and Wilson’s lead by charting the natural processes shaping the island biogeography of the midriff islands in the Sea of Cortés (Soulé and Sloan 1966; Case and Cody 1983), the cultural dispersal of native plants and animals across the gulf has hardly been taken into account in these pattern analyses of the region’s biota. Nevertheless, new opportunities have emerged. Analyses made possible by novel genetic tools can now be combined with recent revelations of oral history from Seri Indian seafarers who have frequented the midriff islands and who know of their ancestors’ activities on the islands. Archaeologists have found indigenous remains on San Esteban, Ángel de la Guarda, San Lorenzo Norte and Sur, and Tiburón, with dateable occupation sequences on San Esteban for a minimum of 350 years (Bowen 2000). We can now begin to reconcile data from cultural geography, genetics, and biogeography to track cultural dispersal with new precision. A cohesive but curious story has begun to emerge from this unlikely partnership of genetic analyses performed in laboratories and oral history documentation in the field: historic seafarers of this arid region have carried with them flora and fauna that became established on islands other than those accessible by natural routes of dispersal (Grismer 1994; Petren and Case 1996, 1997; Nabhan in press). This should come as no surprise to scientists who read beyond their own area of interest: similar cultural dispersal dynamics have been documented in Polynesia and Melanesia (McKeown 1978; Fisher 1997; Austin 1999) and in Central America and the Caribbean (Bennett 1992; Case 1996). Factoring indigenous cultural dispersal into island biogeography has led to very different views of biotic origins and migrations than those offered by a purely biological perspective.
The Geological Evolution of Lake Basins
Authors: Cohen Andrew S.
Published: November 2020

Two things are required in order for a lake to exist on the earth’s surface: a topographically closed hole in the ground and water. The subject of how topographical depressions form on the earth’s continental crust has frequently been cast as one of lake origins, emphasizing the hole’s initial formation. However, it is important to realize that the hole itself has a history, which is partly independent of the lake that fills it, and that this history interacts with that of the water body. This chapter will emphasize this dynamic interplay that occurs throughout a lake’s history between a lake and its underlying substrate. In this sense, lake basin evolution is a more useful concept than the more static one of lake origin. The basin evolution process is manifest in everything from the three-dimensional geometry of the lake deposits that underlie the lake, to the rates of sediment accumulation, and the probable history and life span of the lake. Furthermore, different types of lakes are better or worse suited to answer specific paleolimnological questions. Some evolutionary mechanisms predispose lakes to persist for millions of years. Records in these lakes are ideally suited to answer questions that require long temporal records. Other questions require high-resolution records of short duration, which may be better represented in lakes formed by different mechanisms. And still other mechanisms result in the formation of numerous lakes with similar characteristics within a region, ideally suited for comparative studies. Understanding lake basin evolution is therefore an essential element in the design of a paleolimnological study, because the quality of paleolimnological records is directly linked to the mechanisms of basin evolution. The formation of lakes has intrigued earth scientists for more than 100 years (W.M. Davis, 1882, 1887; Penck, 1882, 1894; Russell, 1895; Supan, 1896). Hutchinson (1957) elaborated on these earlier works, recognizing 11 major categories of lake origins and 76 subcategories. Numerous advances in understanding basin evolution have been made since Hutchinson’s work, especially from improved radiometric dating techniques, seismic stratigraphy, and lake drilling over the past 50 years.