bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Influences on aggregate demand: Government revenues and taxation
Authors: Gillespie Andrew
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers elements of government fiscal policy and their effect on aggregate demand. Fiscal policy refers to decisions made by a government regarding its spending, taxation, and benefits policies. Changes to fiscal policy affect aggregate demand. Government spending covers a wide range of goods and services, including defence, social security benefits, education, and debt repayments. Taxes are charges levied on individuals and organizations in an economy, which in part finances government spending.
Introduction
Authors: Mallin Christine A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on how businesses around the world need to attract funding from investors in order to expand and grow. Before investors decide to invest their funds in a particular business, they want to be sure that the business is financially sound and will continue to be so in the foreseeable future. Investors need to have confidence that the business is being well managed and will continue to be profitable. The chapter explains that, in order to build this assurance, investors look to the published annual report and accounts of the business, and to other information releases that the company might make. The annual report and accounts should represent a true picture of the company’s present position.
Theoretical aspects of corporate governance
Authors: Mallin Christine A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses corporate governance, which is a concept that has only recently come to prominence in the business world. The term, and its everyday usage in the financial press, is a relatively new phenomenon. However, the theories underlying the development of corporate governance, and the areas it encompasses, date from much earlier than the last twenty years and are drawn from a variety of disciplines. The chapter notes that the development of corporate governance is a global occurrence and, as such, is a complex area. The chapter reviews theories that may be more appropriate and relevant to some countries than others. A particular stage of development may refer to the evolution of the economy, corporate structure, or ownership groups, all of which affect how corporate governance will develop and accommodate within its own country setting.
Development of corporate governance codes
Authors: Mallin Christine A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter talks about the introduction, or revision, of a corporate governance code in a number of countries. This encompasses a variety of legal backgrounds; cultural and political contexts; business forms; and share ownership. In each of the countries examined, the introduction of corporate governance codes has generally been motivated by a desire for more transparency and accountability, and a desire to increase investor confidence in the stock market as a whole. The chapter highlights the development of codes. This development has often been driven by a financial scandal, corporate collapse, or similar crisis. The chapter reviews corporate governance codes and guidelines that have been issued by a variety of bodies ranging from committees, stock exchange bodies, various investor representative groups, and professional bodies. As regards compliance with the various codes, compliance is generally on a voluntary disclosure basis, while some codes are on a comply or explain basis.
Corporate Governance
Authors: Tricker Bob
Published: September 2023

Corporate Governance offers a comprehensive overview of the key principles of corporate governance that not only considers the regulations, rules, and voluntary codes, but also emphasizes cultural aspects. It draws a distinction between Western and Eastern perceptions of corporate governance and includes cases from China. Its first part covers the principles of corporate governance and looks at management; theories, philosophies, and concepts of corporate governance; the governance partnership; the regulatory framework; and models of corporate governance. The second part is about policies. It examines the governance of corporate risk, the board and business ethics, the governance of listed companies, the governance of non-listed entities, and corporate governance globally. The last part turns to practices and includes chapters considering board membership, leadership, board activities, board effectiveness, board evaluation, and the future of corporate governance.
Theories, Philosophies, and Concepts of Corporate Governance
Authors: Tricker Bob
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the various theories of corporate governance, including agency theory, transaction cost economics, stewardship theory, and resource dependency theory. It covers managerial and class hegemony, as well as psychological and organizational perspectives. It also discusses stakeholder perspectives, the enlightened shareholder theory, cultural aspects, and the utilization of systems perspectives in the context of corporate governance issues. The chapter cites the concept of the joint-stock, limited-liability company, wherein shareholders trust the directors to be stewards of their funds. It analyses the dominant theories, agency theory and stewardship theory, both of which are properly based on bounded models of reality—agency theory on an economic perspective and stewardship theory on a legal one.
The Governance Partnership: Investors, Companies, and Directors
Authors: Tricker Bob
Published: September 2023

This chapter explains shareholder rights, stewardship, and activism and describes the different types of directors, including their legal duties and rights. It looks at the leadership role of the board chair and draws attention to corporate officers. It also talks about the central concern of corporate governance regarding the relationship between members and the corporate entities of which they are members, such as the relationship between the shareholders and the boards of the companies in which they invest in limited-liability companies. The chapter clarifies that shareholder rights are determined by the company's articles of association and company law, such as the Companies Acts or ordinances. It mentions the UK Financial Reporting Council (FRC), which introduced an institutional investor Stewardship Code.
The Governance of Corporate Risk
Authors: Tricker Bob
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses corporate risk, enterprise risk management, and the board's responsibility for enterprise risk management. It considers risk identification, assessment, evaluation, and control and reviews risk management information systems. It also reviews the corporate risk that involves the gain or loss that might be incurred by an uncertain future event and a statistical concept of the probability of an event occurring and its possible effect. The chapter mentions AON, an international insurance group, which suggested that the global financial crisis had significantly increased board-level awareness of the need to manage and leverage risk. It cites corporate governance codes and stock exchanges' listing rules that require companies to report on their risk management procedures.
Corporate Governance around the World
Authors: Tricker Bob
Published: September 2023

This chapter analyses different approaches to corporate governance in the East, such as in China, Hong Kong SAR, India, Singapore, South Korea, and Japan. It mentions the China Securities Regulatory Commission of the State Council (CSRC), which issues the Corporate Governance Code and other corporate governance regulations and publishes regular reports on corporate governance reform and performance in China. It also describes corporate governance in Hong Kong, which evolved under the influence of British law and corporate regulation, reflecting the British oversight of the territory up to 1997 until Hong Kong became a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China. The chapter then reviews the approaches to corporate governance in the Middle East, North Africa, Brazil, and Russia. It explains that Eastern European transitional economies took a similar approach to China in privatizing their state enterprises and creating companies in which shares were sold to external strategic investors.
Board Leadership: The Reality of the Boardroom
Authors: Tricker Bob
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses how people, power, and politics affect practice, emphasizing that the directors' behaviour is influenced by interpersonal relationships, perceptions of position and prestige, and the processes of power. It recognizes the chair's leadership role, which includes influencing the company's strategic direction, interacting strongly with the chief executive, and providing wide-ranging leadership of the board. It also investigates how governance power is derived, who wields it, and how it is used. The chapter considers the games that directors can play in badly led boards, that is, boards in which personalities and political manoeuvring prevail. It covers board styles, culture, and ethics, and discusses whistle blowing, that is, informing on a person or an organization believed to be acting improperly.
Time Management and Personal Development Planning
Authors: Gallagher Kevin
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at various time management and goal-setting strategies. It considers the need to establish a baseline of levels of ability and knowledge in the areas a student thinks are appropriate. From this baseline exercise, students can set themselves goals that they will monitor over time. The level of difficulty and challenge that students set themselves in these goals is important.
Developing a Critical Approach
Authors: Gallagher Kevin
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses the use of a ‘critical’ approach, which guides business and management students through their research and writing journey. To be ‘critical’ is to adopt a questioning approach; this is ideally suited to the problem-solving inherent in the assignments students will tackle at university—and also to those assignments in their future work situations that need a questioning approach. The chapter begins by looking at what critical thinking entails. It then considers how a student can take an evaluative rather than descriptive approach to assignments. Finally, the chapter includes discussion about how assignments can be improved and advice on interpreting the feedback provided by lecturers.
Proposition and Branding Decisions
Authors: Baines Paul , Whitehouse Sophie , Antonetti Paolo , Rosengren Sara
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on how companies can implement their marketing strategies. The first step is the study of propositions and brands. It examines commercial propositions or offerings, and here the term ‘proposition’ includes the tangible and intangible attributes related not only to physical goods, but also to services, ideas, people, places, experiences, and even a mix of these various elements. Anything that can be offered for use and consumption, in exchange for money or some other form of value, is referred to as a proposition, or offering. In this chapter, the nature of propositions is considered, before issues associated with their innovation and development are explored. The second part of the chapter examines how brands can be developed to help customers to identify specific propositions and appreciate their value. It considers what brands are, how they are developed, and who really creates them.
Services Marketing and Customer Experience Management
Authors: Baines Paul , Whitehouse Sophie , Antonetti Paolo , Rosengren Sara
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on services and how these apply to marketing. Unlike products, services do not have a physical presence and cannot be touched. This is because their distinguishing characteristic is that they are an act or a performance. The chapter thus begins by explaining the nature and characteristics of services. Next, it describes what is meant by the term ‘service encounters’. The principles of relationship marketing and the relationships between trust, commitment, and customer satisfaction are then outlined. To conclude, the chapter defines the term ‘customer experiences’ and explains its dimensions, how it has evolved, and how it might be measured.
Trade unions and worker representation
Authors: Williams Steve
Published: September 2023

This chapter turns to trade unions, which continue to be highly relevant organizations in contemporary employment relations. It provides an introductory case study which demonstrates how workers in the video games industry are looking to unionize in order to protect and advance their interests. Unions have a crucial role to play in ensuring that workers have their interests represented. The chapter demonstrates that declining unionization levels have reduced the extent to which workers enjoy effective representation of their interests. The onus, then, is on how unions have responded to decline, and tried to revitalize themselves, in ways that improve their representational capacities. Four major approaches are assessed in this chapter: ‘servicing unionism’, ‘partnerships’ with employers, ‘organizing unionism’, and ‘community unionism’. However, in order to understand developments in the representation of workers properly, there is also a need to consider non-union systems of employee representation, including an assessment of the implications of EU legislation concerning information and consultation rights for workers.
Conclusion: understanding employment relations
Authors: Williams Steve
Published: September 2023

This concluding chapter provides an overview of the key themes covered by this book and reflects on the prospects for employment relations. It demonstrates just how varied and complex the regulation of work and employment relationships has become. However, it argues that employment relations cannot simply be understood as the study of how work and employment relationships are regulated; studying employment relations must also involve a concern with understanding workers' experiences and how they contest the terms of their employment relationships. Indeed, a central feature of this book concerns the need to recognize the experiences of workers. On a positive note, it appears that workers are better informed about workplace and organizational decisions than in the past. More negatively, however, it seems that genuine employee involvement and participation is rather limited in practice; workers have few opportunities to influence workplace or organizational decision-making.
Strategic Advertising Management
Authors: Percy Larry , Rosenbaum-Elliott Richard
Published: September 2023

Strategic Advertising Management is made up of five parts. The first part acts as an overview of advertising and promotion, and asks what is advertising and promotion? It looks at advertising across cultural borders. The next part is about planning considerations. The third part looks at developing a strategic plan. It talks about selecting the target audience, understanding their decision-making processes, determining the best position, developing a communication strategy, the media strategy, and digital media. Part Four is about how to make the strategy work. It looks at creative tactics and execution. The last part covers integrating advertising and promotion.
Understanding Target Audience Decision-Making
Authors: Percy Larry , Rosenbaum-Elliott Richard
Published: September 2023

This chapter explains the second step of the strategic planning process which is the understanding of target audience decision-making. It discusses developing a model of target audience decision-making by referencing decision stages, low involvement, high involvement, and decision roles. The chapter notes how the decision stage develops and happens. It includes the framework of the Behavioural Sequence Model, which utilizes a grid format which is used to identify the probable stages involved in making a decision. It lists initiator, influencer, decider, purchaser, and user as the potential roles of participants in a decision. Additionally, the chapter then explores how decision-making behaviour falls between the two categories of behavioural processes and cognitive processes.
Sales Promotion and Broader Communication Mix
Authors: Percy Larry , Rosenbaum-Elliott Richard
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores sales promotion and the broader communication mix. It cites how advertising and promotion can be delivered by means beyond traditional mass media. The chapter then looks into sales promotion techniques that provide a stimulus for purchase and an opportunity for communicating the brand’s benefits. It highlights the significance of public relations and sponsorships. Additionally, the chapter explains how personal selling and trade shows offer unique opportunities for interaction with the target audience when delivering a message. It notes the ethical concerns of product placement despite its effectiveness. The chapter then notes other advertising strategies such as content marketing and packaging.
The Strategic Planning Process
Authors: Percy Larry , Rosenbaum-Elliott Richard
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the strategic planning process. It explores the marketing plan and its respective key areas such as product description, market assessment, source of business, competitive evaluation, and marketing objectives. Additionally, the chapter enumerates the steps of the five-step strategic planning process in relation to developing communication strategies such as brand awareness, brand attitude strategy, social marketing communication strategy, and promotion strategy. It also includes the media strategies like direct marketing. The chapter also highlights how strategic planning for marketing communication is vital for effective communication. It notes that the message delivered to the audience should be consistent and based on positioning and brand awareness.
Linear equations
Authors: Renshaw Geoff
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the rules governing the manipulation of equations and their application to a certain type of equation called a linear equation. It introduces the idea of a function, which plays a central role in economic analysis, and shows how to draw the graphs of linear functions. Moreover, this chapter provides an explanation on what is meant by a solution to an equation, and how to solve linear equations and linear simultaneous equations. The last part demonstrates some applications of linear functions and simultaneous equations in economics.
Derivatives and differentiation
Authors: Renshaw Geoff
Published: September 2023

This chapter teaches the necessary theory and technique for measuring the slope of a curve at any point. This technique is called differentiation, differential calculus, or simply calculus. The chapter looks in more depth at the slope of a linear function and explains how the problem of defining the slope of a curve was discovered by Newton and Leibniz in the seventeenth century. This chapter also lists and illustrates the rules for differentiating the different types of function.
The exponential function and logarithms
Authors: Renshaw Geoff
Published: September 2023

This chapter introduces the exponential and logarithmic function. It is important to understand these new functions because they are an essential tool in any economic analysis involving variables that are growing through time. The logarithmic function can be applied to solving compound growth problems in which the unknown is the number of years over which a given amount of growth occurs. The logarithmic function is also used quite widely in economics in other contexts, for example, in a logarithmic specification for the demand function.
Continuous growth and the natural exponential function
Authors: Renshaw Geoff
Published: September 2023

This chapter takes the compound interest or compound growth formula and develops it into a new concept—the natural exponential function. A formula for calculating the present value of a future receipt or payment, when discounting is continuous is also derived in this chapter. It also demonstrates some applications of these two new formulae to economic problems and compare continuous growth and discounting with their discontinuous counterparts from Chapter 10. Finally, the chapter shows by means of an example why time series graphs of economic variables often use a logarithmic scale for the dependent variable.
Constrained maximum and minimum values
Authors: Renshaw Geoff
Published: September 2023

This chapter develops the optimization technique in an important new direction: to cover cases where the independent variables are constrained or restricted in the values they can take on. It also explains the method of Lagrange multipliers, which provides a more powerful but less intuitive method of locating constrained stationary points. The Lagrange method is a powerful tool that can explain how a firm finds the method of production that minimizes the total cost of any given output; second, how a firm achieves maximum profit; and finally, how a consumer with a given budget achieves maximum utility.
Quality of Argument
Authors: IVORY SARAH BIRRELL
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the process of developing arguments, which is one of the key aims of critical thinking. Simple arguments comprise three elements: a claim, at least one premise, and a link between them. The claim is the ‘answer’ to the question, which some call the position, conclusion, or contention. Links can be either claim indicators or premise indicators and are extremely important to understanding the line of reasoning. Meanwhile, premises are reasons to support the claim: they should avoid being categorical, vague, or an appeal to emotion. Counter arguments can strengthen your argument either because you can rebut them, or because they demonstrate that you understand the complexity of a situation. Argument maps are a useful visual tool to approach the development of complex arguments in a structured way. The chapter then outlines the steps in developing an argument.
Segmentation, targeting, and positioning strategies
Authors: West Douglas , Ford John , Ibrahim Essam , Montecchi Matteo
Published: September 2023

This chapter evaluates market segmentation, targeting, and positioning, which are vital for organizational success and are central components of an effective marketing strategy. Market segmentation involves the analysis of markets to identify subgroups of consumers with similar wants and buying requirements. Targeting refers to the actual development of the marketing mix variables to be used to reach the target market consumers. Meanwhile, positioning is the ‘core engine’ of strategy and refers to the ability to influence consumer perception; it is the attempt to place a good or service in a perceptual position within the mind of the consumer. The identification of a segment allows the organization to make a profile of its typical desired customer, which in turn allows the organization to develop a product configuration, pricing scheme, promotional campaign, and distribution coverage plan to best meet the needs of that identified typical consumer.
Relational and sustainability strategies
Authors: West Douglas , Ford John , Ibrahim Essam , Montecchi Matteo
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses relationship marketing and sustainability strategies. Relationship marketing has been conceptualized as a set of marketing strategies and policies designed to ‘establish, maintain, and enhance relationships with customers and other partners, at a profit, so that the objectives of the parties involved are met’. Key customers must be nurtured if they are to remain loyal to the company and continue to buy its products. Relationship building requires the acquisition of relevant customer information, the storage of that information in databases, and the use of that information to adjust company offerings to build ever-stronger and more profitable customer relationships. The chapter then considers the use of customer relationship management and the concepts of loyalty schemes and customer satisfaction.
Service marketing strategies
Authors: West Douglas , Ford John , Ibrahim Essam , Montecchi Matteo
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores service marketing strategies. Services are by nature intangible, heterogeneous, inseparable, and perishable, and these attributes create unique strategic challenges. While an understanding of industry structure can aid the service strategist to streamline service delivery and improve profitability, it is also important for organizations to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage through customer satisfaction and the creation of perceived value. Services cannot be protected in the same way as manufactured goods with property rights such as patents, so they are easily copied. Therefore, it is important for an organization to build a perceptual bond with its customers. The service organization must consistently meet or exceed customer expectations. To achieve this, the firm must continually monitor its target customers' wants and needs and must strategically refine its offerings to enhance customer value. The chapter then looks at the 7Ps of services: product, price, place, promotion, people, process, and physical evidence.
Marketing communications
Authors: West Douglas , Ford John , Ibrahim Essam , Montecchi Matteo
Published: September 2023

This chapter highlights marketing communications (marcoms). Marcoms primarily operate in four areas: advertising, direct marketing, public relations (PR), and sales promotions, which can be used in marketing strategy either singularly or holistically with IMC (integrated marcoms). While marcoms can enable organizations to reduce costs in the medium to long term, their main strategic use is in helping to differentiate and position a product or service in the market. Indeed, marcoms can be defined as a management process where an organization attempts to convey messages that contain meanings related to its strategic objectives with the intent of changing or reinforcing consumer attitudes and ultimately consumer behaviour. The process of undertaking a marcoms strategy involves conducting an audit, developing the central strategy, and then deciding upon the appropriate creative and media choices.
Understanding Strategic Management
Authors: Henry Anthony E.
Published: September 2023

Understanding Strategic Management conveys the realities of strategic management through looking through international and contemporary lenses. Chapters contain examples from popular media to show strategic management issues at work in the headlines we read every day. The text as a whole ties together multiple strategic challenges that affect businesses large and small, public and private. The text is made up of four parts. The first part looks at what strategy is. The second part covers strategic analysis. The third part looks into the formulation of strategy. The final part is about implementation of strategy.
International Strategy
Authors: Henry Anthony E.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses different perspectives on globalization, addressing the question on why many companies are not content to simply compete in their domestic market but instead seek growth opportunities abroad. It explores the extent of organizations that operate across international borders to develop global brands and products for all markets. It also analyses the magnitude of international differences based on customer preferences that the international strategy of organizations must recognize and adapt to. The chapter evaluates the different types of international strategy and assesses the entry mode strategies for entering international markets. It explores Michael Porter's diamond, which gives an explanation for competitive advantage in different countries.
Introduction to International Business
Authors: Buckley Peter J. , Enderwick Peter
Published: September 2023

This chapter contextualizes developments in the international business environment that have facilitated the emergence of the global factory. It analyzes the distinctive nature of the global factory and how it differs from a traditional multinational enterprise (MNE). The chapter also discusses key implications of the growth of global factory systems for international business thinking. The chapter introduces the concept of the global factory and outlines the factors that have facilitated the emergence and growth of global factory systems. It examines the distinctive characteristics of the global factory within the context of a case study of Amazon and its attempts to impose a global factory system within the publishing industry.
Theories of the International Firm
Authors: Buckley Peter J. , Enderwick Peter
Published: September 2023

This chapter gives some theoretical perspectives on the multinational enterprise (MNE) and the global factory and uses the case of Toyota to examine the different perspectives that alternative theories of the MNE suggest. It looks at early theories focused on the competitive advantages of international firms over domestic firms and their internal resources or ownership advantages. It also explores theories based on the internalization of imperfect markets which highlight the efficiency of MNEs, particularly in originating and disseminating knowledge-intensive products. The chapter talks about approaches which analyse global value chains that emphasize the network aspect of international business. It describes the ‘global factory’ as a conceptual approach that emphasizes the strategic choices of the focal or lead firm.
The Political Dimension
Authors: Enderwick Peter
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the political dimensions of international business and the rationales for government political involvement and the varying ideologies that underpin the form, extent, and impact of such involvement. It addresses a wider literature, the varieties of capitalism approach, which provides a broader perspective on forms of political involvement and how these shape business–government relations. It also considers the various levels of political involvement which range from the local level to the global level and the influence of supranational institutions. The chapter describes international business risk that has focused on the country level and global factories that have committed considerable resources to both forecasting and managing political risk. It draws major implications out of the political dimension for the effective management of global factory systems.
Marketing Strategies
Authors: Robson Matthew J. , Horn Sierk
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the role of marketing within the global factory, beginning with what marketing is and the relationship between national and international marketing. It describes the international marketing process and its constituent stages. It also assesses issues concerning the international integration and coordination of the marketing function and the strategic tradeoff between global integration and local responsiveness. The chapter refers to international market research and its purpose, market intelligence, market screening, and market segmentation and considers the kinds of marketing-related decisions that global factory managers need to make as they look to sell into foreign markets. It emphasizes the importance of intercultural competence, which is the knowledge and skills needed to successfully interact with people from other ethnic, religious, cultural, and national groups.
Cross-cultural Management Strategies
Authors: Gajewska-De Mattos Hanna , Outila Virpi , Enderwick Peter
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers the growth of multiculturalism and whether there is any evidence for cultural convergence, which is growing cross-cultural homogeneity, or divergence, which is increasing heterogeneity. It introduces the concept of cultural clusters and explains how these offer a valuable tool for international managers as conflict will increasingly be the result of ethnic and religious divisions. It also builds on the positive perspectives of cultural diversity and examines ways in which cultural differences can be harnessed to create a competitive advantage. The chapter mentions the change in how diversity is perceived, which requires mindsets that are much more global and outward-focused and underpin the successful operation of a global factory system. It assesses the key implications of multiculturalism for the global factory.
The three domains of project organizing
Authors: Winch Graham , Maytorena-Sanchez Eunice , Sergeeva Natalya
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks into the Three Domains Model, a model which addressed a fundamental paradox in project organizing. The paradox revolves around how the vast majority of project managers work for permanent organizations while the focus of attention is on temporary organizations. The three domains of project organizing, owner domain, supplier domain, and delivery domain, must perform their shared and separate roles on the project efficiently and effectively. The chapter explains how the model changes through the project life cycle as a dynamic reduction of uncertainty through time characterized as a learning process. It then elaborates on the key concepts of the SPO Diamond Model and the SPO Life-Cycle Model.
The resource interface
Authors: Winch Graham , Maytorena-Sanchez Eunice , Sergeeva Natalya
Published: September 2023

This chapter cites the importance of the resource interface as the delivery domain needs resources to deliver projects. It highlights humans as the most important resource in projects, citing the issues of mobilizing those resources from the supplier domain onto the project in the delivery domain. Some cities maintain project ecologies in resourcing delivery organizations, which offers flexibility in the supply of competent human resources. The chapter then looks into the process of resourcing internationally before discussing the principles behind technology readiness levels (TRLs). It also acknowledges digital technology as a resource, citing how technologies embody human knowledge and change team dynamics on projects.
Perceptual Processes
Authors: Szmigin Isabelle , Piacentini Maria
Published: September 2023

This chapter defines the perceptual process and discusses its stages detail. This sequence of steps begins with exposure to stimuli: the visual effects, smells, or sounds we hear in marketplace encounters. The chapter goes on to discuss the perceptual process in relation to sight, sound, smell, touch and texture, and taste. It then examines sensory thresholds and the ways to get consumers' attention. The chapter then looks at perceptual mapping, perceived risk, repositioning, and semiotics.
Groups, Social Processes, and Communications
Authors: Szmigin Isabelle , Piacentini Maria
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses groups, social processes, and communications. It begins by defining the reference group concept and describing the types of reference groups and how these influence consumers and their consumption behaviour. The chapter then explains the processes of reference group influence, including the mechanisms of group influence, and how group norms influence conformity. Opinion leaders and expert influentials are then discussed before the chapter considers the importance of social power and social connectedness, and how we communicate within and across groups, both face-to-face and in electronic environments via word of mouth (WOM) and e-word of mouth (eWOM). Finally, the chapter identifies the role of the family in shaping consumption before analysing the nature of social class structures and their impact on consumption behaviour.
Ethics in Business Research
Authors: Bell Emma , Bryman Alan , Harley Bill
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines the importance of ethics in business research. Since ethical issues can arise at any point in the research process, business researchers must be aware and prepared to address the issues to ensure the integrity of their study and the reputation of business research in general. The chapter then identifies the four ethical principles to which researchers are expected to adhere: avoidance of harm, informed consent, protection of privacy through confidentiality, and preventing deception. It also discusses the ethical consideration surrounding visual and online research. Meanwhile, the politicization of research has consequences for how research is done and how the type of knowledge is produced.
Writing Up Business Research
Authors: Bell Emma , Bryman Alan , Harley Bill
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the process of writing up business research. It examines the strategies used in writing up business research by identifying the key features of academic writing. Researchers are encouraged to use inclusive language to avoid discriminating against certain groups of people in an effort to reduce bias in research writing. The chapter then discusses the concept of mixed methods research to provide an overview of writing up quantitative and qualitative research. It considers the concept of reflexivity in research writing, which entails the sensitivity of the researcher's cultural, political, and social context and the researcher's role as part of the construction of knowledge.
Sampling in Qualitative Research
Authors: Bell Emma , Bryman Alan , Harley Bill
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on sampling in qualitative research. Qualitative researchers tend to emphasize the importance of purposive sampling for their work as it places the investigator's research questions at the heart of the sampling considerations. The chapter explains that purposive sampling is the fundamental principle for selecting cases and individuals in qualitative research. It then covers the notion of theoretical sampling relying on statistical criteria as an alternative strategy, and theoretical saturation, which is a useful principle for making decisions about sample size. The chapter also notes that purposive sampling often involves more than one of the approaches, such as general purposive sampling and snowball sampling.
Language in Qualitative Research
Authors: Bell Emma , Bryman Alan , Harley Bill
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at language in qualitative research. Language is central to the structuring of the organization of information, skills, services, and resources. The chapter then introduces discourse analysis, which examines how language is used and its effects on understanding reality, and critical discourse analysis, which emphasises the role of language as a power source related to ideology and socio-cultural change. Meanwhile, narrative analysis and rhetorical analysis focus on the use of specific forms of language to convince or persuade. Conversation analysis, on the other hand, is a fine-grained approach to analysing the details of how language is used in naturally occurring conversations.
Documentary Data
Authors: Bell Emma , Bryman Alan , Harley Bill
Published: September 2023

The chapter introduces four main types of documentary data used in business research: personal documents, public documents, organizational documents, and media outputs. It explains how qualitative business research frequently involves the analysis of a range of written documents, obtained from a variety of different sources, to use for data collection and analysis. Since documents constitute a very heterogeneous set of sources of data, the materials can be the focus of both quantitative and qualitative enquiry. According to John Scott's research in 1990, the criteria for assessing the quality of documents range between authenticity, credibility, representativeness, and meaning. The chapter considers using qualitative content analysis and historical analysis to analyse documents within qualitative research.
Performance management
Authors: Crawley Eileen , Swailes Stephen , Walsh David
Published: September 2023

This chapter introduces the topic of performance management and its purpose and goes on to explain its links to theory. The complex role of the line manager in the appraisal process is then discussed. The chapter explains that performance management is a process of planning, goal setting, and evaluation of individual performance, ideally linked to specific strategic organizational objectives. The chapter suggests that the performance management process should include regular assessment of individual performance based on role specific goals and behaviours. However, goal agreement, measurement criteria, and the effectiveness of the evaluation process make performance management problematic even in the domestic scenario. Furthermore, there are also difficulties of standardization of performance management in different national contexts. Finally, it is argued that more attention should be paid to the needs of host country managers (HCMs), especially those who are managed from a distance.
Training, development, and knowledge management
Authors: Crawley Eileen , Swailes Stephen , Walsh David
Published: September 2023

This chapter begins with a discussion of theory linked to training and development and its wider context and link to strategy. It then gives an example of how human capital theory is applied in a national context. The chapter indicates that culture affects perceptions of appropriate leadership style and outlines the various roles of expatriates and the types of training provided. Learning styles are also briefly discussed, leading to the concept of the learning organization. Next, the chapter provides an introduction to knowledge management and its traditional link to the roles of expatriates as parent country nationals (PCNs) and global managers. It argues that knowledge transfer and knowledge sharing in multinational organizations are complex processes which do not happen automatically. The many factors that prevent knowledge transfer include organization structure, culture, and expatriate willingness.
Diversity management in an international environment
Authors: Crawley Eileen , Swailes Stephen , Walsh David
Published: September 2023

This chapter draws attention to the notion of diversity within a workforce, emphasizing the differences that exist between an organization's employees and suggesting the potential benefits of harnessing such a distinctive combination of qualities. In an organization where such diversity is readily accepted, each individual is respected and their contribution valued. For equality management (EM) and diversity management (DM) schemes to be truly successful, however, they must break the barriers of human prejudice, which are typically unthinking and anchored in cultural traditions. In short, they must modify people's attitudes and behaviour so that unfair treatment is eradicated, diversity is genuinely valued, and inclusion is consistently practised. The chapter thus differentiates between DM and EM and concludes that in order to be effective, DM needs to build on EM. Finally, the chapter highlights the problematic nature of the efforts of multinational enterprises (MNEs) to manage workforce diversity.
Corporate social responsibility and ethics
Authors: Crawley Eileen , Swailes Stephen , Walsh David
Published: September 2023

This chapter provides an overview of the meaning of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and its relationship with the subject of ethics to provide a backdrop for a discussion of dilemmas that multinationals and their expatriates face in managing international business. The chapter begins with an introduction to the meaning of CSR and discusses various aspects of ethics that form the basis for CSR today. It then shows the links between CSR and business ethics. The chapter illustrates the different approaches taken to discern right from wrong and the problems associated with coming to a common understanding of ethical behaviour in different cultures. It also shows the lack of ethical business practices and considers the difference between the concepts of universal ethics and ethical relativism in two separate case studies.
Changes and New Challenges
Authors: Lee Kiefer , Carter Steve
Published: September 2023

This chapter introduces global marketing. It cites the history of global marketing, including the issue of standardization-adaptation. The chapter then differentiates domestic marketing, international marketing, and global marketing. It notes the changes in the global market environment. The chapter highlights Asia as a significant site for the emergence of new economic powers and the global service economy. It discusses the changes in consumer demographics and the nature of competition. The advent of new technologies like the internet and mobile devices opened up business and marketing opportunities and allowed for the development of innovative products, services, and values for consumers. The chapter also includes the growing transparency of corporate practices.
Management of Global Communications
Authors: Lee Kiefer , Carter Steve
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the management of global communications. It notes the changes and issues in marketing communication before looking at the debate on standardization and localization. The chapter explains the drive towards integration. It looks into advertising with reference to the case study of Bertolli spread. This is used as an example for global marketing communications in action. Moreover, the chapter discusses the planning of public relations, direct-response marketing, sponsorship, exhibitions, and trade fairs. It also examines planning and tools for online communications, such as advertising, sales promotion, publicity, and personal selling. Online communication is becoming more popular and can be evidenced by the fact that companies now spend aggressively to achieve an online presence.
Sustainability challenges confronting business
Authors: Blowfield Michael
Published: September 2023

This chapter studies the sustainability challenges affecting business. It begins with the history of how attitudes to the environment have changed over time, and how sustainability management has shifted as a result. It then considers the idea of a resource-constrained economy (RCE) as something unique since the onset of industrialization, and something that has profound implications for economic prosperity and business success. The chapter then looks at what life in a RCE looks like with reference to energy, water, food, and poverty. It concludes by discussing how organization of a RCE could differ in terms of politics, the law, consumer behaviour, and the role of companies.
Leadership entrepreneurship, and change
Authors: Blowfield Michael
Published: September 2023

This chapter considers leadership, cited as the essential ingredient to tackle sustainability effectively. It explores individual leadership, highlighting the levels of leadership, the significance of values, and the role of entrepreneurship. It looks at what actions leaders take, their skills and competencies, and why they make the decisions they do. It explores the idea of collective or communitarian leadership. It also discusses the current state of leadership. It concludes by examining the possibilities and constraints on business as a sustainability leader.
Innovation planning, and design
Authors: Blowfield Michael
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews the different types of innovation that business is making use of to address sustainability challenges. This means more than just technological innovation and includes economic innovations that use market mechanisms to limit carbon emissions and boost investment in clean technology. The chapter covers emissions trading, project financing, and other economic innovations. It then examines the different types of technological innovation, distinguishing between those focused on efficiency, and ones that substitute unsustainable processes with sustainable ones. It looks at the distinction between these and innovations that use technology to enhance the sustainability of products and our living environment. It concludes with a discussion of high impact technologies such as geoengineering that could protect us from changes in ecosystems without requiring major changes in our lifestyles.