bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Public Opinion
Authors: Benstead Lindsay J. , Gengler Justin , Robbins Michael
Published: June 2022

The past twenty years have witnessed an unprecedented expansion in the number and sophistication of scientific opinion surveys in Arab countries. The conventional view of the Middle East as a wasteland for survey research has lost any relation to reality. Instead, the MENA has become one of the most innovative sites for creative research about popular attitudes and beliefs, thanks to pioneering institutes and survey projects. It shows how such work clashes with old assumptions held by scholars unfamiliar with the region, such as those regarding the origins and persistence of public support for democracy, the myriad determinants of voting and electoral behavior, the changing texture of gender norms and women’s rights, and the coherence of youth politics, embodied by the generation that drove the Arab uprisings. It also surveys the rise of experimental approaches as a major methodological advance and discusses the procedural hazards of survey research as a data-collecting technique. Such methodological and ethical considerations will continue to drive forward innovative public opinion research.
The Elements of Earthly Order
Authors: Ali Saleem H.
Published: June 2022

Starting from the periodic table, this chapter lays out how humans have tried to order our understanding of the elements. There are many ways to categorize and label the elements depending on what factors we want to prioritize. The centrality of carbon as the life-giving molecule is considered on the basis of its particular proclivity for constructing large, ordered molecules. This also leads to a unique set of physical properties for some of its forms, such as graphene. Next, the chapter grapples with nuclear order and its importance in providing such high-energy density for human use. However, social order has been reluctant to accept the power of the atom as a source of “green energy”—often nonscientific reasons. Magnetic order in all its various forms is then presented as a way of linking physics to geology and human ability to navigate the planet.
Circularity, Cyclicality, and Sustainability
Authors: Ali Saleem H.
Published: June 2022

Natural systems on Earth operate in cycles as a way of maintaining a steady state of functionality. Modern environmentalism has developed with a desire for human activities to emulate such circularity. Going back to Barry Commoner’s classic work The Closing Circle and his four laws of ecology, this chapter considers the development of the Biosphere concept. The centrality of hydrological order in such life-giving systems is then considered with a history of how water cycles were initially misunderstood and how systems thinking eventually led to more complex integrated work on biogeochemical cycles. Finally, the chapter considers Gaia theory and its critics (including the Medea hypothesis) with an eye toward the heuristic value of fanciful theories. The emerging concepts of planetary boundaries and “donut economics” are discussed as a transition is made to connecting natural systems to social order in the next section of the book.
Evolution as Americanization
Authors: Alschner Wolfgang
Published: June 2022

This chapter provides a narrative of how investment treaties evolved from older incomplete to recent, more complete agreements that draw heavily from North American treaty practice. The evolution of investment agreements was first marked by a decrease in contractual completeness as more comprehensive Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation treaties fell into disuse, and states started signing short bilateral investment treaties instead. Investment treaty design then evolved toward more completeness in three phases of innovation closely linked to changes in North American treaty practice: (1) in 1982, the United States launched its bilateral investment treaty program and incorporated novel obligations and flexibilities, (2) in 1992, NAFTA was concluded, which pioneered most of the content features associated with a new-generation of investment treaties, and (3) in 2004, the United States and Canada incorporated lessons learned from their experience as respondents in investor-state dispute settlement. These North American content features subsequently spread globally leading to an Americanization of investment treaty design. This only began to change in 2015, when states began exploring alternative gap-filling strategies such as greater emphasis on relational contracting (Brazil) and delegation to a standing tribunal rather than ad hoc arbitration (European Union).
Reversing Innovation through MFN
Authors: Alschner Wolfgang
Published: June 2022

This chapter investigates a first mechanism, most-favored-nation treatment (MFN), by which new treaties are read like old ones and innovation is reversed. The chapter starts by showing that MFN has been used to roll back state-driven change in recent awards. It then discusses how a series of early investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS) decisions amplified through academic commentary popularized the notion of MFN as overriding treaty design differences to a point where tribunals accepted the incorporation of more favorable substantive provisions from third treaties via MFN without further analysis. While a growing pool of commentators and tribunals has since sought to correct this practice by rebutting unwarranted presumptions and aligning the operation of MFN in ISDS with other fields of international law, the idea that MFN overrides treaty design differences in significant ways continues to be widely held. The final part of this chapter shows that an expansive view of MFN’s ability to override treaty design differences is mistaken. Even if a generous interpretation of the clause is adopted, the impact of MFN on reversing treaty design innovation is much more modest than what is generally assumed.
Overriding Differences through Custom
Authors: Alschner Wolfgang
Published: June 2022

This chapter discusses customary international law as a second means for rolling back innovation and overriding treaty design differences. The chapter shows that tribunals have systematically confused when states contract on custom and when they go beyond it in more complete international investment agreements. Tribunals have misread efforts to tie investment protection to a customary law baseline as a mandate to increased investment protection based on the theory of a rapidly evolving customary international law. Other tribunals have mistaken general exceptions as codifying custom and decreased the flexibility states enjoy under more complete agreements. As a result, tribunals have overridden treaty design differences and read new treaties like old ones. The remainder of the chapter traces the historical interaction between treaties and custom to better understand when states meant to contract on or go beyond custom. It shows that there is considerable evidence that states crafted their more complete treaties to use custom as a floor for granting flexibilities and a ceiling for providing certain investment protections. The chapter concludes by offering guidance on how tribunals can support state-driven treaty design choices by recognizing when states meant to contract on custom and when not.
Tax-Style Multilateralization
Authors: Alschner Wolfgang
Published: June 2022

This chapter explains how interpretations (Chapter 7) and renegotiations (Chapter 8) can be scaled to update outdated treaties multilaterally by modeling investment treaty reform on the international tax regime. The chapter starts with a brief background on the ongoing multilateral investor-state dispute settlement reforms at UNCITRAL and argues that the UNCITRAL mandate is flexible enough to accommodate tax-style multilateralization. The chapter then dissects the merits of the procedure-before-substance paradigm that dominates the current UNCITRAL agenda and suggests that tax-style multilateralism offers a feasible and pragmatic alternative to tackle substantive and procedural reforms concurrently. The last section sketches out what a tax-style investment law multilateralization covering both substance and procedure could look like. On the one hand, it points to the ambulatory updating of international tax treaties through tax soft law that could inspire similar ongoing and informal interpretive processes in the investment regime. On the other hand, it discusses the Multilateral Instrument, which upgraded thousands of tax treaties in substance and procedure and which could inspire similarly ambitious hard law reforms to modify old investment treaties in light of new ones.
Neither Nepal nor China
Authors: Mulmi Amish Raj
Published: June 2022

This chapter details how Himalayan communities suffered after trans-Himalayan trade ended, by taking the case study of Limi valley in Humla. It explores new opportunities presented by China’s infrastructure development in Tibet, and how Limi locals have capitalized on their ambiguous border sovereignties and Nepal's weak state presence in the Himalaya.
A Fence in the Himalaya
Authors: Mulmi Amish Raj
Published: June 2022

This chapter explains the history of Mustang--which became a center for Tibetan armed resistance in the 1960s--and the escape of the Karmapa via Mustang in 1999, leading China to set up a border fence at 4,600m. It also distinguishes between Kathmandu’s views of the Himalayan periphery as part of its national development narrative and China’s troubles in defining its Himalayan borders in the 1960s.
Chinese Capitalism with Nepali Characteristics
Authors: Mulmi Amish Raj
Published: June 2022

What do Chinese investments in Nepal look like? This chapter analyzes the scale, impact, and effects of Chinese investments--both private and state-led--on the Nepali economy, and profiles Chinese entrepreneurs in the country.
All Roads Lead North
Authors: Mulmi Amish Raj
Published: June 2022

How have Nepali nationals responded to Chinese investment and influence in Nepal? This chapter looks at Nepali entrepreneurs having to compete with Chinese investors; how China has influenced the Nepali tourism industry, and how Nepalis benefit from Chinese consumption practices, as well as from their students studying in China.
Epistemic Contextualism
Authors: Blome-Tillmann Michael
Published: June 2022

Chapter 1 introduces the reader to epistemic contextualism (EC). It carefully formulates and defines the view, discusses examples from the literature that are widely taken to motivate EC, and in doing so outlines the main arguments and evidence in favour of the view. Further sections of this chapter offer an in-depth discussion of the contextualists’ attempted resolution of sceptical puzzles and of the semantic-error theory that contextualists are committed to by defending the mentioned types of resolution. Further parts of the chapter are then devoted to the relation between contextualism and epistemic closure principles, showing how contextualists attempt to solve sceptical puzzles without denying closure, and to an examination of the historical origins and the development of contextualists ideas in the literature.
Versions of Contextualism
Authors: Blome-Tillmann Michael
Published: June 2022

This chapter introduces and discusses different versions of epistemic contextualism (EC)—that is, accounts or analyses of the character of ‘knows p’ that have been defended in the literature. The chapter places its main focus on the most influential accounts in the literature—namely, on David Lewis’s relevant alternatives version of EC, according to which a subject x ‘knows’ a proposition p at a context C just in case x’s evidence eliminates all alternatives to p that are relevant in C. Further views examined are Stewart Cohen’s internalist evidentialism, according to which the degree of justification necessary for the satisfaction of ‘knows p’ varies with the ascriber’s context and Keith DeRose’s contextualized safety account. The final section of this chapter briefly addresses alternative views, such as the idea that the character of ‘knowledge’ cannot be analysed.
Linguistic Objections
Authors: Blome-Tillmann Michael
Published: June 2022

As a primarily linguistic thesis, epistemic contextualism (EC) is subject to objections of a linguistic nature. This chapter is devoted to the most common and serious objections of this type—namely, to objections that question the plausibility of EC as a linguistic thesis rather than as a view in epistemology. Objections discussed include the semantic blindness objection, according to which EC is committed to the implausible claim that competent speakers are blind to the context-sensitivity of ‘knows p’. Further objections are of a broadly syntactic nature and point out that ‘knows p’ has different syntactic features as other context-sensitive expressions—notably gradable adjectives (gradability objection). Finally, the chapter investigates objections based on the observation that ‘knows p’ does not accept overt restrictors and doesn’t allow for the free shifting of epistemic standards mid-sentence. The final section offers a linguistic scorecard comparing ‘knows p’ to other context-sensitive expressions.
Epistemic Impurism
Authors: Blome-Tillmann Michael
Published: June 2022

This chapter is devoted to epistemic impurism (EI)—the view that, roughly, how epistemically strong a belief that p must be in order for it to be knowledge may vary with the subject’s practical circumstances. The chapter first illustrates and defines the view, and then distinguishes between different versions of EI, such as salience impurism, interest-relative impurism, and interest-relative salience impurism. Further issues discussed are the problem of how impurists should model epistemic standards (relevant alternatives, evidentialism, or in terms of expected utility). The remainder of the chapter is then devoted to the motivation of EI by means of the so-called Argument from Cases and the Argument from Principles, and to an investigation of the relationship between EI and epistemic contextualism.
Presuppositional Epistemic Contextualism
Authors: Blome-Tillmann Michael
Published: June 2022

While Chapter 11 argued that ‘knowledge’-attributions are subject to a Presupposition Effect, this chapter aims to account for this effect by means of a contextualist semantics that puts presuppositions front and centre—namely, by what the chapter calls Presuppositional Epistemic Contextualism (PEC). The chapter outlines the transition of an attention-focused Lewisian relevant alternatives account to a presupposition-focused one, and then discusses objections to and advantages of the emerging view. The chapter outlines how PEC can be used to respond to the philosophical objections to epistemic contextualism (EC) outlined in Chapter 5 and highlights the fact that the predicate ‘knows p’ is plausibly an automatic indexical. It is argued that this very feature of the predicate helps explain the idiosyncratic linguistic behaviour of ‘knowledge’-attributions highlighted in Chapter 4. The resulting view is argued to offer a powerful account of the semantics of ‘knowledge’-attributions.
Introduction
Authors: Came Daniel
Published: June 2022

At the core of Nietzsche’s critique of ‘morality’ lies the sweeping diagnostic claim that morality is the primary source of a stance of ‘life-denial’, and hence an obstacle to the very possibility of an affirmative stance towards life. Moral values, Nietzsche insists, are inimical to the affirmation of life, since they typically denigrate certain pervasive and ineliminable features of the world and human existence (suffering, loss, impermanence, the body, instinctual desire, and so on). Other values, allegedly, are life-affirming because they cultivate or augment a life-affirming tendency. Nietzsche’s almost ubiquitous concerns with undermining morality and fostering an affirmative attitude towards life are thus closely intertwined: he denigrates or criticizes morality because it underwrites a condemnation of life, and he seeks to supplant morality with an alternative, life-enhancing ethics of affirmation. This volume brings together a number of new essays to examine these centrally important and overlapping themes in Nietzsche’s philosophical enterprise....
Against Nietzsche’s Theory of Affirmation
Authors: Stern Tom
Published: June 2022

This paper presents affirmation as the central normative category of Nietzsche’s positive ethics. The paper argues in particular for two interpretive claims: first, that from Beyond Good and Evil onwards, we find a new variety of Nietzschean affirmation (‘natural affirmation’), which is crucial to the strategy of his later works; and second, for reasons internal to his own philosophical aims, Nietzsche’s new variety of affirmation is seriously flawed. The author argues for the second claim on the basis that Nietzsche himself requires that affirmation not perform exactly the role he requires that it perform. The author contends that we are thus faced with a major challenge to Nietzsche’s late philosophical project—that (late) Nietzschean affirmation fails by Nietzsche’s own standards.
Life’s Affirmation and Denial
Authors: Kanterian Edward
Published: June 2022

This paper seeks to challenge the interpretive orthodoxy that Nietzsche was unqualifiedly hostile to Christianity. Nietzsche’s opposition to Christianity is well-attested. He described Christianity as ‘the greatest misfortune of mankind.’ It is argued, however, that there are in fact significant similarities between Christian and Nietzschean values. Taking up an argument first present by Georg Simmel in 1907, the author argues that both value systems are to be subsumed under the same categories: the intrinsic value of the individual (man in Nietzsche, soul in Christianity), his struggle for deification, the tension between giving absolute value to the passing moment and being forced to subsume it under a transcendent whole which has a final value. In addition, the author points out several inconsistencies and ambivalences in Nietzsche’s attitude towards Christianity. Finally, he attempts to show that Nietzsche adopted, like Christianity, a life-affirming transcendent value-system, which is visible in his conception of Yes-saying. Thus his vision of a fully affirmative life in fact involves a reiteration of certain central elements of the Christian theological perspective.
The making of the Uralic nation-state languages
Authors: Laakso Johanna
Published: June 2022

Among the Uralic languages, most of which are endangered, under-resourced, used largely in spoken in-group communication, and less well researched, Hungarian, Finnish, and Estonian stand out as well-documented nation-state languages with a strong literary tradition and use in all walks of life, including the domains of education, culture, business, and administration. As the only non-Indo-European state languages in continental Europe, these three languages have gone through similar developments: an ethnolinguistic awakening and consciousness-raising propelled by Romantic Nationalism, and an intensive language planning and modernization process, including the creation of numerous lexical neologisms and the standardization of a phonological or morphophonological orthography. In all these countries, language policies have been characterized by purism and prescriptivism, and all are challenged by globalization and new forms of modern multilingualism.
Lule Saami
Authors: Ylikoski Jussi
Published: June 2022

This is the first English-language description of Lule Saami, an indigenous language spoken in Norway and Sweden. With nearly one thousand speakers, Lule Saami is the second most spoken Saami language. However, outside Saami linguistics it is often overshadowed by its immediate neighbour North Saami, the numerically strongest and best known Saami language that is often used to represent the whole Saami branch. While the general make-up of Lule Saami is in many ways similar to that of North Saami, it also has a number of features shared with other western Saami languages but lacking in North Saami. These features include nominal inflection with as many as eight morphological cases and the negative verb that is inflected in not only number (singular, dual, plural) and person, but also in tense. With its relatively free word order, Lule Saami has an intermediate position between North Saami (SVO) and South Saami (SOV).
Kildin Saami
Authors: Rießler Michael
Published: June 2022

This is the first English-language description of Kildin Saami and the basic features of its phonology, morphology, and syntax. Kildin Saami is a critically endangered indigenous language of the Kola Peninsula in north-west Russia, with only about 100 active speakers. It is characterized by a complex phonology, a remarkably rich inventory of consonant phonemes and a highly fusional inflectional morphology, including the occurrence of several different kinds of non-linear morphological marking. In verb inflection, there is a special form for impersonal passive. The intensive contact with the Russian language has led to Russian influences in essentially all components of Kildin Saami language structure, especially in discourse pragmatics. The chapter includes a glossed text example.
Finnic
Authors: Laakso Johanna
Published: June 2022

This chapter provides an introduction to the Finnic (aka Fennic, Baltic-Finnic) languages, a group of closely related Uralic languages including Finnish and Estonian. The point of departure is their common protolanguage, Proto-Finnic, which can be reconstructed in great detail. After briefly dealing with the chronology, localization, and contacts of Proto-Finnic and its divergence, the chapter describes the main features of Finnic phonology, morphology (case, number, person marking, tense, and mood, non-finite, passive, and reflexive verb forms, negation, word formation), syntax, and lexicon with its important loanword strata. The aim is to provide a basis for the grammatical description of individual Finnic languages, to avoid repeating the all-Finnic features and to save space for the individual language descriptions.
Livonian
Authors: Laakso Johanna
Published: June 2022

Livonian is an acutely endangered Finnic minority language spoken in Latvia. The last traditional Livonian communities on the Courland peninsula were dispersed by World War II and Sovietization. The last generation of traditional speakers is now passing away, while activists are struggling to revitalize the language. In this chapter, the history and development of the Livonian language are briefly presented, while the main focus is on the distinctive features of Livonian in cross-Finnic comparison: the typological changes which were triggered by reductive sound changes and led to a more fusional morphology with complicated quantity and quality alternations in word stems, and the strong influence of the Latvian language. The chapter ends with a glossed text example.
Mordvin (Erzya and Moksha)
Authors: Hamari Arja , Ajanki Rigina
Published: June 2022

Mordvin, a minority language in European Russia, comprises two closely related languages, Erzya and Moksha, differing from each other mainly in phonology and morphology. The Mordvin languages exhibit a high degree of synthesis in nominal and verbal inflection. The ten cases have indefinite and definite forms; the latter are expressed with suffixation of former demonstrative pronouns. Mordvin has only three tenses, but six moods, most of which have merged from the main verb and the verb 'to be'. In the so-called objective or definite conjugation, the personal suffixes express both the person of the subject and that of the object. Mordvin has a rich system of infinitives, participles, and gerunds, functioning also as kernels of clausal constructions. Noun predicates can be conjugated as verbs. Owing to strong Russian influence the basic word order is now SVO. Russian influence can also be seen in the systematic palatalization of consonants before front vowels.
Udmurt
Authors: Edygarova Svetlana
Published: June 2022

Udmurt is a minority language spoken in European Russia in the region between the rivers Kama and Volga. It has an official status in the Udmurt Republic, but especially in the last twenty years, its intergenerational transmission has become clearly endangered. The standard language has a puristic character, whereas spoken Udmurt is characterized by dialectal variation and – since almost all speakers are bilingual in Russian – copious borrowings from Russian, code-switching, and code-mixing. Udmurt shares many features with its closest relative Komi; for instance, it has a similarly rich case system, possession marking, and similar TAM categories. However, Udmurt has specific features that do not exist in the Komi language; some of them due to the influence of Turkic languages. In particular, the second past tense has a morphological negative form that doesn’t exist in Komi. The vocabulary of the modern language contains a great number of loans from Tatar as well.
Ugric
Authors: Skribnik Elena , Laakso Johanna
Published: June 2022

Ugric is an umbrella term for Hungarian and the two Ob-Ugric languages or language groups spoken in West Siberia, namely Khanty (in older literature, also known as “Ostyak”) and Mansi ("Vogul"). Traditionally, they have been considered to form a distinct subtaxon in the Uralic language family. However, although some common Ugric features can be found at all levels of language structure, many scholars now claim that these do not necessarily derive from a common Ugric protolanguage but rather reflect Sprachbund-like contact influences between Proto-Hungarian, Proto-Khanty, and Proto-Mansi. Departing from this prehistoric setting, this chapter presents an overview of the structure of the Ugric languages and the possible Common Ugric features in their phonology, morphology, lexicon and syntax, also briefly describing the language contacts which have contributed to the formation of today’s Hungarian, Khanty and Mansi varieties.
North Khanty
Authors: Sipos Mária
Published: June 2022

This chapter aims to describe the northern dialect of Khanty, which is an example of geographical dialect continuum, i.e. the variants along the Ob River have no definable boundaries between neighbouring variants, but the northernmost and southernmost subdialects differ to a considerable extent. The description focuses basically on the Kazym Khanty variant, which is a dialect of remarkable countenance, and also used in the Khanty-language newspaper, consequently, it has developed relatively advanced literary norms. Although this chapter describes a certain variant from synchronic aspect, compromise must be made on two issues. Firstly, owing to the dialectal situation just described, the description includes some additions concerning the differences in phonological systems, morphophonological rules, case systems, the use of dual in verb conjugations, etc. of further lects, if necessary. Secondly, as present-day Khanty is spoken mostly by bilingual people, numerous phenomena emblematic of contact-induced language change must be mentioned.
Nenets
Authors: Burkova Svetlana
Published: June 2022

The chapter presents an overview of two closely related indigenous languages—Tundra Nenets and Forest Nenets (in older literature often conflated and called "Yurak Samoyed"). It provides sociolinguistic information on these two sister languages, focusing especially on the regional variance in their vitality and endangerment, and also touching upon the debates on their status as two distinct languages. The structure of both Nenets varieties is described, from phonology and morphology to lexicon, syntax, and information structuring, also focusing on the structural differences between Tundra Nenets and Forest Nenets. Special emphasis is put on the phenomena specific to these languages: complex morphophonological processes; the category of evidentiality that displays a rather complicated structure and closely interacts with TAM categories; functional distribution of monofinite and bifinite clause combining, and predominantly verbal means of encoding information structure.
Introduction to Part III
Authors: Bakró-Nagy Marianne , Laakso Johanna , Skribnik Elena
Published: June 2022

This chapter provides an introduction to Part III, explaining the motivation of this collection of typological case studies from issues of phonology to syntax and information structuring. Overviews of this kind are an innovation; they have usually not been included in previous handbooks of Uralic languages. While the comparative-historical approach has always played a central role in Uralic studies, synchronic typological, areal, and contrastive studies with a cross-Uralic scope have begun to appear in the last decades of the twentieth century, together with the rise of linguistic typology and recent developments in the documentation of endangered and minority languages. Typological research in recent decades has discovered or (re)defined features, structures, and categories that exist also in Uralic languages, but were not properly recognized and described; alternatively, they were described in different, often idiosyncratic terms.
Consonant gradation
Authors: Bakró-Nagy Marianne
Published: June 2022

Consonant gradation, or the alternation of certain “strong-grade” consonants or consonant clusters with their “weak-grade” counterparts, is a peculiar morphophonological phenomenon occurring in the north-western (Saami and Finnic) and north-eastern (Nganasan) peripheries of Uralic; whether these two have common roots in Proto-Uralic is still a matter of debate. The Uralic consonant gradation comes in two types. Syllabic or radical gradation affects wordstem-internal consonants and was originally conditioned by the openness or closedness of the following syllable, rhythmic or suffixal gradation affects the consonants at the onset of a suffix and was originally conditioned by the presence or absence of stress on the preceding syllable. These original conditions have in many cases been obscured by sound changes or analogical developments, so that the gradation has been partly or completely morphologized. Its forms vary from language to language according to the quality and quantity of the consonants and consonant clusters.
Word order
Authors: Vilkuna Maria
Published: June 2022

This chapter discusses word order in Uralic languages, with the main focus on sentential constituent order. A brief assessment of the facts is also made regarding recent views on Greenbergian cross-constituent ordering generalizations. While constituent-internal order shows a great deal of uniformity across the family, variation is extensive in sentential constituent order. For example, the assumed original (S)OV order, which can be seen to be the basic order in the north-eastern area of the family, exists as an alternative in all the languages where (S)VO clearly prevails, but its discourse motivation differs across languages and constructions. The chapter draws on the more extensive overview in Vilkuna (1998), updating its results and adding information on languages not included in it, namely Ob-Ugric and most Samoyedic languages.
Introduction to superresolution optical imaging
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

Optical microscopy is a very successful technique to image objects with visible light down to the microscale. The purpose of this chapter is to explore the limits of optical imaging when dealing with small objects. The first goal of this chapter is to summarize the fundamental limits of optical imaging with conventional microscopes and to explain the physical origin of the so-called diffraction limit for resolution. We then introduce the key ideas that can be used to overcome this limit with a special emphasis on nearfield optical microscopy. We also introduce different techniques allowing to produce images with resolution better than the half-wavelength using far-field measurements. We will emphasize that different optical imaging techniques yield different information (e.g. local spectral reflectivities, topography and permittivity map).
Scattering, Green tensor, and local density of electromagnetic states
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

A powerful theoretical tool to compute the electromagnetic field in the near field is the integral formulation of the field equations. A nice feature of this formulation is that it allows gaining some physical insight into the scattering mechanisms. It proves convenient to introduce the tensor describing the electric field radiated by a point-like dipole, known as Green tensor. Then, we apply these concepts to the study of scattering of light by arbitrary systems. This provides a framework to discuss the possibility of performing super-resolution imaging by using far-field data and solving the inverse problem. The second part of this chapter deals with the analysis of the link between the Green tensor and the local density of electromagnetic states. This quantity plays a key role in the study of spontaneous emission in the presence of nanostructures in the weak coupling regime.
Localized surface plasmons
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

Plasmonic-based nanostructures are of considerable interest because of their unique capability of confining light at a deep subwavelength scale, something that cannot be achieved with conventional lenses in 2D and photonic microcavities in 3D which are diffraction-limited. This feature can be used to perform near-field imaging beyond the diffraction limit, to implement nanoscale light sources, enhance the capacity of data storage devices or guide light at nanoscale to name a few examples. The confinement of light comes with another important property: the enhancement of the field. We introduce the main figure of merits of nanoparticle and discuss how they can be designed to control localized electromagnetic resonances at nanoscale.
From nanophotonics to devices
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

The chapter reviews selected key technologies for nanophotonics applications in passive or emitting devices. The chapter introduces the scientific principles and the figures of merit of these devices, in which guides, gratings, plasmonic systems, periodic guides of previous chapters are the ingredients. It details the issue of sensing, a very heuristic topic. It then provides clues for a practical, applications-based approach to the design and operation of integrated photonic circuits and their electro-optic functions. In the area of active devices, it deals with the factors that determine the device efficiency. For edge-emitting lasers, it shows how guide and gratings are assembled in the emblematic DFB laser diodes. Vertical emitting lasers (VCSELs) are also discussed, connecting their structure to fundamentals of light-matter interaction and to periodicity. The important issue of light extraction is eventually revisited across several kinds of devices, LEDs of course, but also other specialized emitting systems.
Fluctuational electrodynamics
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe
Published: June 2022

The purpose of this chapter is to revisit blackbody radiation and show how it can be tailored both in the near and in the far field. We briefly introduce the basic ideas of fluctuational electrodynamics. We then present some unexpected properties of thermal radiation in the near field. Section 2 is devoted to tailoring thermal emission in the far field: it is possible to design incandescent emitters which are directional and/or quasimonochromatic. Section 3 deals with radiative heat transfer at the nanoscale. The complement provides some background on spatial coherence.
The Problem of Labor Management
Authors: Vidal Matt
Published: June 2022

This chapter introduces the book. The core thesis is that a tension between ensuring worker discipline and harnessing worker creativity is one of the central dynamics shaping organizations today. This tension is an expression of a material contradiction inherent to the labor-management relation. As employee involvement has become increasingly important over the last four decades in response to rapid technical change, demands for flexibility, and continuous improvement, this contradiction has been intensifying. The argument is based on a case study of labor management and lean production in American manufacturing. This chapter presents the book’s theoretical framework, which is historical and comparative in nature, and argued to apply to a range of occupations including social services, educational, healthcare occupations, administrative support, and software development. It concludes with an overview of the argument and the individual chapters.
Lean Management and Employee Involvement
Authors: Vidal Matt
Published: June 2022

This chapter examines the evidence and concludes that lean is not inherently a system of work intensification or of worker empowerment, though both are possibilities within lean. It shows that a model of core lean practices from the Toyota Production System had diffused across North America and Western Europe by the end of the 1990s and since has been institutionalized as a dominant logic of labor management in the postfordist era. While hybridization is common, it is either the combination of different human resource management practices with a core package of lean production practices or, more relevant to the argument of this book, a result of satisficing rather than strategic adaptation and innovation. Finally, the chapter presents evidence to support my argument that lean with substantive worker empowerment constitutes global best practice for a range of manufacturing and service contexts.
A Theory of Organizational Political Economy
Authors: Vidal Matt
Published: June 2022

This chapter develops a theory called organizational political economy. It is a form of political economy because it builds on a classical marxist foundation; it is organizational because it incorporates key concepts from organization theory. At the macro level, the chapter fleshes out a marxist stage theory of socioeconomic development using the concepts of institutional logic and organizational field. At the micro level it develops labor process theory using the concepts of institutional logic, individual satisficing, and organizational routine. The first section outlines the theory of organizational political economy. The second section reviews the labor process literature on engagements with institutional theory; the critical distinction between the labor process and the valorization process; managerial agency; worker alienation; and the capitalist production of inefficiency. The third section revisits Marx on management and the dialectic between alienation and socialization. The final section elaborates the theory.
Routine Politics of Production: Quality Not Quantity
Authors: Vidal Matt
Published: June 2022

This chapter presents the voice of every single worker interviewed in a supplier factory: fifty-two workers in total, across twelve companies. The study found only one worker who complained of negative quantitative intensification and thirty-nine workers who did not experience any work intensification. Among the twelve who experienced intensification that they deemed to have improved their work experience, eight mentioned qualitative intensification, two mentioned quantitative, and two mentioned both. To be sure, the interviews reveal all manner of frustrations among the workers, including some who said more intellectually demanding work would create unwanted stress rather than a welcome challenge. And some workers reported complaints by their colleagues about qualitative intensification. But among the qualitative (non-representative) sample of workers interviewed, workers who preferred positions that did not demand abstract cognitive labor were able to work in such contexts.
The Workforce Contradiction
Authors: Vidal Matt
Published: June 2022

This chapter examines the workforce contradiction and offers an explanation for why some workers resist or are reticent toward their own empowerment. On the one hand, workers experience productive socialization via education and skill acquisition, both outside and inside the workplace. On the other hand, workers objectively alienate their labor to capitalist management, which may produce subjective alienation, feelings of powerlessness due to lack of control over one’s labor, and apathy and meaninglessness due to work being directed by another rather than being a self-driven expression of creativity. This leads some workers to be skeptical of management. They have experience with management rejection of their ideas, broken promises, and, in many cases, incompetent or vindictive managers. This contradictory situation produces a contradictory consciousness for workers, making managerial attempts to get knowledge and ideas from workers, or train them in new skills, deeply contested.
The Management Contradiction
Authors: Vidal Matt
Published: June 2022

This chapter illustrates two main processes by which the management contradiction operates to drive deviation from widely agreed best practice. First, the management contradiction is expressed in two competing logics of valorization: substantive empowerment versus traditional taylorism. In a top-down process, some managers continue to be influenced by the fordist-taylorist logic of valorization, thus prioritizing the use of workers for physical labor and failing to engage them in abstract cognitive labor. Second, in a bottom-up process, some managers respond to their local situation by satisficing: settling for good enough performance produced by implementing a package of basic lean practices but failing to devolve responsibility and train workers for engaging in problem solving and decision making.
Capitalist Management and Routine Inefficiency
Authors: Vidal Matt
Published: June 2022

This concluding chapter discusses the five contributions of the book. First, it theorizes labor management within capitalism as inherently contradictory, and operationalizes the concept of contradiction for empirical analysis. Second, it develops a cultural-satisficing model of agency, including a novel operationalization of the concept of satisficing. Third, it introduces the concept of permissive competition. The argument is advanced that there is one best way to organize production, and extensive evidence is marshalled in support of this. Fourth, it introduces the concept of routine politics of production. Many managers in postfordist American manufacturing are more interested in the qualitative improvement of operational routines than with quantitative work intensification. Most workers are interested in making their work meaningful and in helping their organization to be successful, but they often conflict with managers over competing visions of efficiency, the focus of this contestation being workplace routines. Finally, it introduces the concept of routine inefficiency to highlight how organizational inefficiency is routine in two senses: it is based in organizational routines, and it is regular and commonplace.
The Development of International Copyright Relations
Authors: Ricketson Sam , Ginsburg Jane C
Published: June 2022

This chapter traces the development of international copyright relations. Although the legal theories underlying copyright protection differ greatly from country to country, the origins of this form of protection in each are strikingly similar: the grant of exclusive printing rights or privileges which were made to printers and booksellers by national authorities soon after the introduction of printing in Europe in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. The chapter then looks at the Act of Anne in the UK, which granted to authors and their assigns a short period of statutory protection for their books, as well as French copyright law. Despite the broad similarities, great differences still remained between the provisions of the various national copyright laws. The chapter provides a brief comparative survey of these national measures, considering the kinds of works protected, the duration of protection, the rights recognized, the restrictions on the exercise of these rights, and the formalities required for protection. It also addresses the problem of international piracy of foreign works.
The Subsequent Development of the Berne Convention, 1886–1971
Authors: Ricketson Sam , Ginsburg Jane C
Published: June 2022

This chapter examines the changes which have been made to the Berne Convention from its inception in 1886 until the adoption of its last revised text in Paris in 1971. Article 17 of the 1886 Act provided for periodic revisions, and these (apart from the first and last) have occurred at roughly twenty-year intervals during this period: in 1896, 1908, 1928, 1948, 1967, and then, finally, 1971. There was also one minor addition made in 1914, when, at Canada’s request, the UK Government drafted a protocol permitting the government of a Berne Union country to restrict protection in the case of authors from non-Union countries which failed to protect the authors from the Union country ‘in an adequate manner’. Since 1971, developments concerning the Berne Convention have largely happened ‘off stage’, or in different arenas, such as the World Trade Organization (established in 1994). Nonetheless, in this post-1971 period, the Convention has continued to be the centrepiece of the international copyright system and, in many ways, has become even more critical than it was in the pre-1971 period.
Treaty Interpretation and the Concept of Union
Authors: Ricketson Sam , Ginsburg Jane C
Published: June 2022

This chapter reviews the general rules of public international law regarding the interpretation of treaties, and analyses their application to the Berne Convention and related agreements. It begins with a consideration of matters of terminology, and then looks at the overall structure of the Berne Convention. The chapter then examines specific problems of interpretation and the rules of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969 (the VCLT) as applied to the Berne text. It also works through the interplay of the Berne Convention and later texts, specifically the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights 1994 (TRIPs Agreement) and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Copyright Treaty (WCT). Finally, the chapter considers the concept of ‘Union’, which is a continuing Leitmotif throughout the text of the Convention and the meaning of which remains tantalizingly elusive.
Fundamentals of Protection (Articles 3–6 and 18–20)
Authors: Ricketson Sam , Ginsburg Jane C
Published: June 2022

This chapter evaluates articles 3-6 and 18-20 of the Berne Convention. Whereas articles 3-6 concern the ‘front end’ issues of admission to, and the regime of, protection, articles 18-20 address what one might call the ‘back end’ of the Convention: its retroactive application, its effect upon national legislation, and its relation to other agreements, whether existing or future, between member countries. The chapter examines the development and current norms of the Convention regarding admission to protection and the regime of protection under the Berne Convention, before turning to the impact of subsequent agreements involving Union countries, including the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights 1994 (TRIPs Agreement) and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Copyright Treaty (WCT). With regard to admission to protection, it addresses points of attachment and country of origin. Meanwhile, the analysis of the regime of protection focuses on the rule of national treatment, substantive minima of protection, and retroactive application of the Convention in the case of new accessions.