bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Capitalism, Class, and Crime in America
Authors: Gordon David M.
Published: March 2007

Conventional public analyses of crime, both conservative and liberal, begin with the assumption that crimes are committed by irrational individuals who constitute a threat to a rational social order. Sharing that initial assumption, conservatives and liberals diverge in their policy approaches to deterring criminality. Some recent orthodox economic analyses of crime, having begun to re lax the assumption, view crime as a process of rational choice by criminals; they offer the possibility of "optimal" crime preven tion policies through the application of conventional economic models.
Cost/Benefit Analysis
Authors: Tropman John E. , Gohlke Karl H.
Published: March 2007

The techniques of cost/benefit analysis are presented in a general way in order to encourage decision-makers in the crim inal justice system to adopt a style of thought that will assist them in formulating decisional alternatives. Discussion of the promises and pitfalls of the technique addresses the question of whether the "benefits" of cost/benefit analysis are sufficient to outweigh the "costs" in its adoption. The authors contend that the technique can be quite useful to executives in their quest to manage their organizations toward the achievement of organizational goals because the technique will enable them to identify new programs worthy of experimentation, will encour age the development of an accurate information system, will en hance their ability to base programatic decisions on community and social indicatcrs, and will better equip them in their rela tionships with legislators, funding bodies, and interest groups.
"No Questions Asked"
Authors: Chappell Duncan , Walsh Marilyn
Published: March 2007

Though the criminal receiver and his crime stand out as sorely neglected by sociologists, psychologists, and criminologists, the burgeoning rate of property theft with its need for the ready market of the receiver makes it clear that the fence has not shrunk before the social scientist's neglect. If anything, it would seem that he has flourished in the dim periphery which the thief's spot light has afforded him.
Victimization in Old Age
Authors: Gubrium Jaber F.
Published: March 2007

According to popular belief, aged persons as a group are greater victims of crime than those in any other age group, but available data from a variety of surveys show that the aged, in fact, are among the least victimized. Statistics on factors making for dif ferential victimization among elderly persons are described. Special attention is given to the possible impact of housing "protectiveness" and age-concentration on victimization, concern about crime, and fear. Three hypotheses on the relationship of these factors are discussed.
The Clinical Resources Center
Authors: Brodsky Stanley L. , Pacht Asher R.
Published: March 2007

Most correctional mental health services suffer from diffi culties in recruiting and maintaining well-qualified staff members and from producing much nonfunctional work. The use of a Clinical Resources Center (CRC), in which staff and functions are directed toward specific performance objectives, is suggested as an alternative organization of services. The CRC would offer (1) screening, targeted to actual transfer and organizational de cisions and conducted at the lowest staff level necessary; (2) in tensive individual evaluations for early identification and agency program planning; (3) direct treatment services; (4) field and consultation services throughout the system and within the in stitution, including management and training functions; and (5) program development, personnel development and training, and research. By concentrating substantial numbers of behavioral professionals in one location, the CRC mobilizes their skills toward meeting specific departmental objectives. It is designed to serve as both a test laboratory for program ideas and a means of extending mental health resources and skills through a cor rectional system.
A Sociological View of Narcotics Addiction
Authors: Raymond Frank B.
Published: March 2007

Narcotics addiction has been viewed and dealt with in the United States as a legal rather than a medical problem. The consequences of this approach have been the enactment of laws and the use of "treatment" procedures which, instead of curbing the rate of ad diction, have increased it. An adequate theoretical explanation of the etiology of narcotics addiction and the exacerbation of this problem in the United States must include consideration of socio- cultural and psychological or potential motivational factors associ ated with the taking of narcotic drugs.
How Well Are Criminal Injury Compensation Programs Performing?
Authors: Brooks James
Published: March 2007

The first decade of experience with criminal injury compensa tion programs has been an exciting period of evolution and inno vation. Nearly thirty jurisdictions have adopted such programs. This article analyzes those program features thought to provide the best clues to performance and adequacy and emphasizes the opera tional practices of those jurisdictions that have had substantial ex perience with these programs. Program performance appears, for the most part, to be realizing general objectives.
Racial Discrimination in Urban Police Departments
Authors: Rafky David M.
Published: March 2007

The highly emotional issue of racial discrimination in hiring by law enforcement agencies is examined. Circumstances that make this topic both salient and problematic are discussed, and a conceptual model is presented which outlines barriers to the em ployment of blacks in predominantly white police departments. Barriers are classified according to purpose (whether intentional or unintentional) and location (within the individual police officer, the law enforcement organization, or other social institution). The literature concerning all these obstacles is reviewed and data are presented which bear on one phase of this model—namely, barriers that are unintentional and departmental. The principal finding is that white officers, irrespective of racial beliefs, are un willing to relinquish certain role behaviors to black officers.
Subsidizing the Released Inmate
Authors: Colter Norman C.
Published: March 2007

There is a definite need for financial assistance to inmates dur ing the initial months after release from prison. This type of pro gram can have a greater impact on reducing the rate of recidivism than current rehabilitative practices popular in today's institu tions. It will not be a greater burden on taxpayers; rather, in the long run, this type of assistance will cost less than the expense of maintaining incarceration.
Ethics of Research Involving Human Subjects in Criminal Justice
Authors: Bloomberg Seth Allan , Wilkins Leslie T.
Published: March 2007

Research in criminal justice involving human subjects has increased greatly in the past decade, yet we have no code of ethics to guide such research. This paper argues that the primary purpose of a code should be protection of these research subjects, who are especially susceptible to mistreatment because of their prisoner status.
Order and Disruption in a Desegregated High School
Authors: Noblit George W. , Collins Thomas W.
Published: March 2007

It has been assumed that schools play a dramatic role in creating school crime. This paper, by using ethnographic data, demonstrates the interrelationships among administrative styles, deterrence, commitment, and dis ruption. It appears that legitimacy of rules even within a school's bureaucracy needs to be developed through negotiating order with students.
What Is the Purpose of Probation and Why Do We Revoke It?
Authors: Clarke Stevens H.
Published: March 2007

Preoccupation with due process has tended to obscure the substantive issues of probation administration. Courts give little attention to purposes of probation, impose numerous unnecessary and vague conditions, and tend to use probation solely as a token punishment. Consequently, the probation officer is compelled to decide which conditions to emphasize, with the result that administrative convenience has too much influence on supervision and the decision to seek revocation proceedings. In particular, using probation as a token punishment may lead to unjust revocation and imprisonment for noncriminal probation violations of an offender whom the court originally found no retributive need to imprison. In plea bar gaining and sentencing, prosecutors, defense attorneys, and judges should concentrate on setting specific goals of probation in individual cases and articulating the conditions necessary to achieve these goals. This can be assisted by presentence reports that are more focused on specific probation goals and involve more participation by the probation officer—preferably at the plea bargaining stage. Restraint is an important goal of probation; it can be better realized by (1) setting specific, enforceable probation con ditions to limit the probationer's opportunity for further crime and to make his activity more visible, and (2) revoking probation only if the probationer cannot abide by reasonable restraints. When a rehabilitative program is a condition of probation and the probationer fails to partici pate in or respond to it, probation should not be revoked unless the court in its original judgment found the supervision and service provided by the program a necessary substitute for the complete restraint of imprison ment. While restitution to the victim is a valid goal of probation, it can be better attained if carefully adjusted to the probationer's ability to pay before the probation judgment is imposed. When a probationer commits a new crime while on probation, the best response is to concentrate on sentencing him for the new crime, taking his probationary status into consideration along with other relevant factors, rather than to revoke pro bation and imprison him for his earlier offense.
Can We Cope with Alternatives?
Authors: Heijder Alfred
Published: March 2007

Proposals for alternatives to prison seldom confront many of the prob lems that the introduction of alternatives in the criminal justice system entails. This is why such proposals more often than not appear to the practitioner to have a utopian tinge. A major reform, which meets all rea sonable requirements of a liberal system of criminal justice, would be to shorten all prison sentences considerably. The usefulness of this alter native deserves careful consideration.
Crime Policy in Denmark
Authors: Brydensholt H.H.
Published: March 2007

Fluctuations in Denmark's crime rates over the past two decades cor respond with major social changes—the rapid spread of industrialization in the late 1950s, the rise in drug use among youths in the 1960s, the increased unemployment in the 1970s. Despite the rapid increase in crimi nal activity in the 1960s, the prison population remained stable until early in the present decade. Since 1973, changes in Danish penal laws—the adoption of fixed sentences, the "depenalization" of minor property crimes, the merging of probation and prison administration under a single system—have successfully stemmed the increasing flow of offenders into the prisons. Further efforts at decreasing the number of prison inmates through criminal justice policy change are being considered. However, it is clear that reducing crime itself is an objective that is contingent on more far-reaching social reform.
Marxism and Criminal Justice Policy
Authors: Reiman Jeffrey H. , Headlee Sue
Published: March 2007

Conventional analysis takes changes in criminal justice policy to be a response to shifts in the public's mood or to new developments in knowledge. Marxism views such policy changes as reflecting the shifting needs of the capitalist system of production. In this essay, we shall try to show how the so-called justice model in correction, the rejection of the goal of rehabilitating offenders, and the resurgence of the death penalty are characteristic responses of capitalist states to economic crisis. To do this we shall discuss how Marxism functions as a social theory, present a Marxian analysis of the current economic crisis, and then show how current developments in criminal justice policy can be understood as a response to this economic crisis .
Serious Crime, News Coverage, and Ideology
Authors: Humphries Drew
Published: March 2007

This exploratory study of the coverage of serious crime by the New York Post is based on routine crime stories (n = 126) taken from newspapers published in 1951 and 1968. There was an increase in stories about lethal violence. In both years reporters frequently described offenders in terms of age, gender, racial membership, and employment status, and used these descriptions to situate individuals within the social world. Often, the mode of explanation used implied that male youths, nonwhites, and under- or unemployed persons were members of illegitimate social categories. These descriptions, however, included no information that would place violence and serious offenders in the structural or historical context of the postwar period. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of these findings for an understanding of the ideological con tent of crime news.
Crime and the Use of Prisons in the United States: A Time Series Analysis
Authors: Bowker Lee H.
Published: March 2007

A recent article by David Biles reported a positive relationship between crime and imprisonment, using cross-sectional data from the United States, Australia, and Canada. This article extends his analysis, using two sets of time series data on crime and imprisonment rates for the United States as a whole. The unlagged correlations between the crime and imprisonment rates for 1941-57 and 1958-78 are not statistically signifi cant, but one of six lagged correlations from 1958-78 is significant, as are four of six from 1941-57. The inconsistency in correlation provides little guidance for the development of correctional policy. Considering these findings, William Nagel's support for a moratorium on prison construction takes on the color of a reasonable, and perhaps even conservative, reading of available policy and management data rather than a radical proposition for change.
Between Recommendations and Orders: The Limbo Status of Juvenile Court Referees
Authors: Rubin H. Ted
Published: March 2007

Juvenile court reliance on referee hearing officers is another practice that requires revision to comport with the juvenile justice legalization trend. The use of referees is widespread, but not universal. Where used, referees may hear an overwhelming percentage of the juvenile court workload. Referee status and, in turn, juvenile court status suffer from statutory curbs on the authority of this official. Parties dis satisfied with referee advisory decisions may request a new hearing before the juvenile court judge; with exceptions, referee authority is limited to entering findings and recommendations which require confirmation by a judge to become a final order. Recent appellate court decisions threaten these procedures. Double jeopardy problems ac company the state's appeal of a referee's dismissal of charges brought against a youth; due process constraints suggest that a defendant is entitled to a final decision by the official who has heard the testimony in the first place. Analysis indicates that, despite cost savings and certain efficiencies resulting from the transfer of case hearing responsibilities from a judge to a referee, a variety of machinations and defi ciencies attend this practice. Referee use is seen as causing an inappropriate aggrandizement of the power of the juvenile court judge. Abolition of the referee position is recommended as the cleanest way out of the present charades and dilemmas.
A Comparative Analysis of Organizational Structure and Inmate Subcultures in Institutions for Juvenile Offenders
Authors: Feld Barry C.
Published: March 2007

This study provides a partial test of the importation and deprivation models of prisonization by examining inmate subcultures in ten different cottage units in four institutions for juvenile offenders. A typology of juvenile institutions based on both the correctional goals pursued and the methods of intervention and social control distinguishes four different treatment models used in institutions for juveniles. Matching and controlling for the effects of differences in inmates' background characteristics within and between settings, the study describes the relationships between the formal organizational structure and respective inmate culture. The study demonstrates a clear and consistent rela tionship between the formal and informal organizations: The more custodial and punitive settings had inmate cultures that were more violent, more hostile, and more oppositional than those in the treatment-oriented settings. The crucial organizational differences were in the extent to which staff members contained and controlled subterranean inmate violence by encouraging the communication of information about the activities within the inmate sub culture.
Our Black Prisons
Authors: Christianson Scott
Published: March 2007

Americans have long taken it for granted that blacks and other minorities are highly overrepresented in prisons. However, the actual extent of that overrepresentation, the reasons for it, and its social, political, economic, and legal implications have remained neglected. A recent study reveals a nationwide pattern of vastly disproportionate incarceration rates for blacks and whites, and comparison with earlier surveys indicates that the problem has grown worse, not better, as greater attention purportedly has been paid to affirmative action. There is an urgent and long overdue need for social scientists, lawyers, criminal justice officials, and concerned citizens to join in confronting these issues. Notwithstanding some fundamental differences between imprisonment and capital punishment, many of the constitutional issues that have been raised for the death penalty can and should be applied to the more pervasive problem of invidious racial discrimination in the imprisonment of black males.
Observations on Police Deadly Force
Authors: Fyfe James J.
Published: March 2007

Until recently, there existed little empirical research into use of deadly force by American police. Over the past several years, however, considerable study of police deadly force and police shooting has occurred. Questions raised by the body of literature involve the reasonableness of the common-law rule that police may shoot any fleeing felony suspect, and the effects of that rule upon police law enforcement operations and community relations. Other questions involve the degree to which police agencies may be guilty of covering up neg ligent or criminal behavior by officers involved in shootings. This paper examines the evidence on these questions, and offers recommendations for police administrative action to minimize both actual and perceived excesses in the use of police deadly force.
The Crime Displacement Hypothesis: an Empirical Examination
Authors: Gabor Thomas
Published: March 2007

It has been suggested that crime prevention programs comprising deterrence and/or target-hardening components are futile, since they fail to deal with primary criminogenic factors. According to this position, efforts to suppress criminality will result in compensating behavior on the part of those committed to criminal life styles. Crime displacement, this adjustment to circumvent preventive measures, can occur along three fundamental dimensions—the spatial, temporal, or qualitative. Irrespective of which mode of adaptation is adopted in a given situation, displacement ideally manifests itself in the stabilization of crime rates. The displacement hypothesis was subjected in this study to empirical analysis through the evaluation of a residential burglary prevention program that involved the marking of household proper ty. Three forms of displacement were examined: the possibility of a shift in criminal activity from the homes of program participants to those of nonparticipants, a shift in crime from residences to businesses, and the theft of unmarked rather than marked merchandise. Statistically significant indicators are found for the first form of displacement only; however, for the latter two types of displacement, changes in the patterns of burglary did occur in the direction consis tent with the hypothesis.
Can the Massachusetts Juvenile System Survive the Eighties?
Authors: Calhoun John A. , Wayne Susan
Published: March 2007

The authors, a former Commissioner and a former Deputy Commis sioner of the Massachusetts Department of Youth Services, offer the thesis that the serious offender represents the ultimate test in any ju venile correctional system. They portray how the Massachusetts community-based correctional system has, in its first decade, met that test, and indicate what further work must be done to ensure that the system will survive the challenge of the conservative eighties. The article traces the development of juvenile correction in Massachusetts from the establishment of the first juvenile correctional institution in 1847 through the 1970s, a period marked by the rapid deinstitu tionalization of juvenile offenders and construction of the community-based system, including the subsystem of secure care for serious juvenile offenders.
The Relevance of the Identification Problem to Statistical Research on Capital Punishment
Authors: Yunker James A.
Published: March 2007

The great majority of the many recent multiple regression studies of homicide rate determination fail to find executions to have a statistically significant negative effect on homicides. A notable excep tion is the work of Isaac Ehrlich. This literature was recently reviewed in this journal by Richard McGahey. McGahey's review included a nontechnical description of the multiple regression method, but only very sketchy treatment of its potential problems. This paper supple ments McGahey's article by reviewing the several potential problems that often invalidate statistical tests of social theories. Particular em phasis is put on the identification problem, or the difficulty in disen tangling one particular relationship from a system of interacting social relationships sufficiently to allow valid estimation by statistical meth ods such as multiple regression. It is shown that there may be very serious identification problems in the estimation of the relationship between executions and homicides, and that serious questions may be raised regarding the validity of any particular estimation of this rela tionship. In light of these problems, the investigator cannot judge a given hypothesis solely on the grounds of indications from a given statistical test. Rather, the inherent plausibility of the hypothesis itself must be taken into account. The paper concludes with a brief argu ment that the hypotheses relied upon by the defenders of capital pun ishment possess greater inherent plausibility than those relied upon by its opponents.
On The Need for Broader Insight
Authors: Livingston Gary
Published: March 2007

In 1981, a call for papers was sent to eighty correctional facilities in the United States, ranging from maximum security prisons for men to institutions for women to juvenile reformatories. To explain the rationale behind our invitation to prisoner-writers, perhaps the most eloquent account of the potential usefulness to criminal justice of prisoners' writings was offered by Gary Livingston, who has spoken from the view of the outcast. The publication of these papers represents a statement against repression as the means to social justice. Equally, it is an acknowledgment of how formidable is the matter of reform. Extending Livingston's term violence to unjust acts both large and small, we suggest that these voices offer promise of a better under standing of how we may achieve in fact the ideals of a just society. —Ed.
Crime in the School and in the Community: Offenders, Victims, and Fearful Youths
Authors: McDermott Joan
Published: March 2007

This paper examines research on crime, fear of crime, and victimization in the schools and elsewhere in the community. The evidence challenges two assumptions which have served to guide much of the research and intervention in the area of crime and fear of crime in schools. The first is that offenders, victims, and fearful youths in schools can be viewed, for analytic or intervention purposes, as three separate and distinct groups. The second assumption is that crime and fear of crime in schools are somehow separate from or different than crime and fear of crime in the community. After examining evidence which challenges these assumptions, some implications for research and prevention are suggested.
The Chicago Area Project Revisited*
Authors: Schlossman Steven , Sedlak Michael
Published: March 2007

This article selectively examines a legendary experiment in community-based delinquency prevention during the 1930s and 1940s, the Chicago Area Project (CAP). The CAP embodied the first systematic challenge by sociologists to the dominance of psychology and psychiatry in public and private programs for the prevention and treatment of juvenile delinquency in the early 20th century. While scholars generally recognize the CAP as a pioneer effort in delinquency prevention, we know remarkably little about its operational schema and day-to-day activities in individual Chicago communities. Prior studies have examined the CAP primarily as an episode in the history of changing ideas about crime causation, and as an important skirmish in ongoing ideological battles between sociologists and psycholoists on the proper focus of correctional treatment. By contrast, this article provides the first systematic, empirical study of the CAP in action in its early years.
Selective Incapacitation: Sentencing According to Risk
Authors: Blackmore John , Welsh Jane
Published: March 2007

In October 1982, the Rand Corporation published Selective Incapacitation, a sentencing proposal based on seven years of research by a team of Rand researchers under the direction of Peter Greenwood. In his report, Greenwood claims to have developed a classification scheme that would enable criminal Justice practitioners to determine which offenders should receive long, "incapacitating" prison sentences and which can be sentenced to alternative programs or safely released to the community. If implemented in its purest form, he says, selective incapacitation could result both in a net reduction of crime in the community and in the number of offenders who would need to be incarcerated. Since the release of the Rand report, most criminologists agree that Greenwood's findings are incomplete, methodologically flawed, and do not justify his policy proposal. Some have also raised moral and legal objections to it. In this article we outline the history, criticism and impact of selective incapacitation. We find that there are no clear and forceful answers to the dilemmas posed by the Greenwood saga. However, the,pressure on the research community to come up with quick and easy answers to complex social problems, we suggest, is less than subtle, particularly when money, reputation and the ability to do research hang in the balance.
Commutation of Prison Sentences: Practice, Promise, and Limitation
Authors: Martin Susan E.
Published: March 2007

Executive clemency procedures offer an ancient but still modern mechanism for righting injustice and coping with problems arising when the judicial system fails to adjust to social needs. As the indeterminate sentence gives way to determinate sanctions and prison crowding grows acute, clemency, particularly in the form of commutation of sentences of prisoners, offers one means of adaptation to correctional population pressures. This article examines the legal and administrative structures, policies, and actual uses of sentence commutation in the United States. A survey of state commutation practices finds that there is wide variation in structure and policy among the states, that in general commutation is granted quite sparingly, that in response to sentencing changes states have both increased and decreased its use, and that political and practical considerations limit the use of commutation as a prison populaton safety valve.
Non-Verbal Behavior of Administrators
Authors: Lipham James M. , Francke Donald C.
Published: March 2007

In most studies of administration investigators have not tried to observe and characterize non-verbal, on-the-job behavior. The following article reports the findings of two pilot studies focusing upon such behavior in very different settings. While admitting the limitations of their own efforts, the authors strongly urge continued attention to the conceptual and methodological problems in assessing the non-verbal behavior of administrators. Mr. Lipham is the chairman of the Department of Ed ucational Administration at the University of Wisconsin. Mr. Francke is Assistant Superintendent, Community High School District 218 in Blue Island, Illinois.
The Development of an Indirect Self-Destructive Behaviour Scale for Use With Chronically Ill Medical Patients
Authors: Nelson Franklyn L. , Farberow Norman L.
Published: March 2007

The development and content of a scale to measure indirect self-destructive behaviour (ISDB) among chronically ill medical patients is described. Findings for a sample of predominantly elderly, male, chronically ill patients indicate a generally high incidence of ISDB over a seven-day period of continuous observation. Most frequently observed were behaviours involving noncompliance with the treatment programme, and conflicts with the medical staff. Based upon an analysis of nine classes of behaviour included in the ISDB Scale, three groups of patients emerged with distinct patterns of indirect self-destructive activity: two consisting largely of noncompliant acting-out behaviours, and one involving more direct forms of self-injury.
Advances in Urethane Rigid Foam Processes and Applications
Authors: Buist J.M.
Published: March 2007

The use of rigid urethane foams for insula tion of domestic and commercial refrigerators is described. Various techniques of filling, production lines, layout of equipment are discussed. The merits of the two main types of isocyanate (MDI or TDI) are displayed. Progress in the use of sandwich panels is re viewed. The ICI one-shot rigid foam MDI system, a positive injection process with a high-output foam dispensing unit and multi- daylight presses, is now well established. A newer technique utilizes a specially designed ICI machine for continuous lamination. The new process utilizes facing materials applic abe to continuous sheet feeding. Rigid mate rials can be used as the lower facing and semi-rigid materials may be used as either the top or the lower facing.
Marketing Aspects of Foamed Plastics in Asia with Particular Reference to Urethane Foam
Authors: Kawai Kenro
Published: March 2007

Japan is the only Asiatic country today with a significant cellular plastics industry. Rubber foam production began there in 1950, followed during the 1950's by polystyrene, urethane, cellular vinyl, phenolic and urea foams. Flexible urethane and rigid polysty rene foams now dominate the market.

Rubber foam is being replaced in bedding and cushioning by flexible urethane foam whereas rigid urethane foam is currently un successful due to high costs, difficult process ing and inflammability.

Rigid polystyrene foam is used as insula tion, molded packaging and containers. Food packaging and laminating utilized polystyrene film.

Cellular vinyl foam has no successful mar ket at present; foamed phenolics, brittle and expensive, have only selective uses and urea foam, limited by poor dimensional stability and mechanical strength, is restricted to sound-absorbing use.
Relationship of Chemical Structure and Properties of Rigid Urethane Foams
Authors: Frisch Kurt C.
Published: March 2007

The relationships of chemical structure and properties of rigid urethane foams have been discussed. General effects of chemical groups in urethane polymers have been related to physical properties. The specific effects of the various foam components such as variations of isocyanates, polyols, blowing agents, cata lysts, surfactants and the effect of isocyanate to hydroxyl ratio on rigid foam properties have been described. A number of ap proaches in imparting flame resistance to rigid urethane foams and some correlations between chemical structure and the flame re sistance of these foams have been presented.
Models and Muddles: An Ecological Examination of High School Crime Rates
Authors: Gottfredson Gary D.
Published: March 2007

Recently, human ecological research has made increasing use of causal modeling in the attempt to understand aggregate-level social processes. This approach has great appeal because it helps make hypotheses explicit, provides a convenient way of structuring the application of statistical controls, allows the representation of complexity in the relations among variables, and, if strong assumptions are plausible, makes possible weak probes of causal hypotheses using only correlational evidence. The present report critically ex amines the usefulness of the path analytic approach in human ecology by exploring the rate of high school crimes reported to the police and providing some tests of the plausibility of the assumptions underlying the research strategy. It is concluded that, in this and similar studies, confidence in the interpretation of results is difficult to achieve. Alternative approaches may be more fruitful and merit the attention of research policy makers.
Developing a Writing Assessment THEME of Candidates for Admission to Teacher Education Charles R. Duke
Authors: Duke Charles R.
Published: March 2007

Research shows that many students entering teacher education programs are deficient in writing skills. Research like wise suggests that to obtain a complete ly accurate picture of an applicant's skills, the assessment process needs to include both an objective test and a writ ing sample. In this article, the author focuses on how to develop, administer, and score a writing sample. He also pro vides guidelines for the training of read ers who will be making holistic writing sample assessments.
State-Mandated Performance THEME Evaluation of Beginning Teachers: Implications for Teacher Educators Roberta M. Woolever
Authors: Woolever Roberta M.
Published: March 2007

Generalizing from efforts in a number of states to mandate teacher excellence, Woolever creates a scenario describing what could happen as part of the efforts to "assure" quality teachers. Based on the scenario, three fundamental prob lems confronting teacher preparation program planners are outlined: (a) Can the elements of quality teaching be iden tified and reliably measured? (b) Can teacher educators minimize the hazards of a narrow definition of quality teach ing? and (c) Can the results of reflective inquiry and experimentation be incor porated into an assessment of student teaching? The author suggests some tentative answers and proposes possible preventative courses of action.
Early Field Experiences: POTPOURRI Recurring Dilemmas Jane H. Applegate
Authors: Applegate Jane H.
Published: March 2007

This article reviews dilemmas faced by teacher educators in the conduct of early field experiences. Three types of dilem mas are identified by Applegate: pro grammatic, institutional and personal. Critical questions are identified related to each type of dilemma.
Employment and Real Wages in the Inter-War Period
Authors: Dimsdale N.H.
Published: March 2007

There was a wide measure of agreement that unemployment in Britain during the 1920s was aggravated by lack of international competitiveness. This was the basic issue underlying the debate over the return to the gold standard. The experience of the restored gold standard did much to confirm the arguments of those like Keynes who had claimed that sterling was overvalued at $4.86. This view of the problems of adjustment to an overvalued exchange rate has been endorsed by both Johnson (1975) and Friedman and Schwartz (1963). A major element in competitiveness was the level of real wages. Britain's difficulties in the inter-war period were made more acute by the increase in the cost of labour between 1913 and 1924. This reflected the sharp rise in wages in the First World War and the post-war boom of 1919-20, which was only partly corrected in the recession of 1921-2. The reduction in working hours in 1919, when normal weekly hours were reduced from 53 hours to 47, also raised the cost of employing labour. As a result hourly real wages in 1924 were 28 per cent higher than in 1913 and real wages measured in terms of own product were increased by 20 per cent, while output per head had risen by only 5 per cent over the same period. The increased cost of employing labour was particularly noted and emphasised by Clay (1929).
Analysing Economic Behaviour 1975-85 with a Model Incorporating Consistent Expectations
Authors: Hall S.G.
Published: March 2007

In November 1985 the National Institute introduced a new version of its quarterly forecasting model which included a large number (approximately 45) of explicit expectations terms. The model was solved on the basis of model consistent expectations.
The World Economy
Authors: Barrell Ray , Pain Nigel , Morgan Julian
Published: March 2007

Indications from the first half of the year suggested that the present cyclical expansion was starting to slow in much of the OECD. The pace of activity moderated particularly sharply in North America. Canadian GDP fell slightly in the second quarter of the year and inventory levels rose considerably. Trade growth was also lower than expected, although this partially reflected the regional impact of recent developments in Mexico. Within Europe, GDP growth slowed in the UK, France and Italy, although growth proved unexpectedly robust in a number of the smaller economies, particularly Ireland, Sweden and Finland. Output also continued to grow sharply in Australia and South East Asia.
Using the Simulation Data Language (Sdl™)
Authors: Standridge Charles R.
Published: March 2007

Database management systems provide simulation analysts with a powerful tool for organizing, manag ing, analyzing, and reporting input data, outputs, and data gathered from the actual system. The Simulation Data Language (SDL) provides these capabilities in a form suited specifically to simu lation. SDL offers an organization for model out puts and other data, commands for managing data from models, and capabilities for analyzing and reporting model outputs and other data independently of the running of models. This paper describes how to use database capabilities in simulation studies, shows how data is organized in SDL, and discusses SDL commands.
Parameter Identification Using Quasi-Linearization
Authors: Galligani Ilio
Published: March 2007

Identification problems are fundamental to science, engineering, and medicine. In such problems the characteristics of a system must be determined from observations. For example, in managing water re sources, we must determine the transmissivity of an aquifer from measurements of the underground water level at a number of wells.

In this paper we describe the quasi-linearization method for solving the identification problem associated with a set of parabolic differential equa tions. For problems in two spatial dimensions, we discuss the computational aspects of the method, pay ing special attention to the case in which the para bolic equations have widely varying coefficients (i.e., they exhibit numerical dispersion). We apply this method to the problem of identifying transmis sivity for an underground water reservoir. This parameter identification problem is improperly posed. Finally, we present the results of numerical experi ments performed on some test problems.
A generalized simulator for computer networks
Authors: Chlamtac Imrich , Franta William R.
Published: March 2007

A generalized network simulator has been constructed to help investigate the performance of computer networks at a variety of levels. The simulator accounts for user-host, host-node (a node is a communications interface unit), and node-node interactions. The program is highly modular so that the user can change one level without affecting the others; this structure allows for innovation and efficient experimentation.

Model validation has been a major consideration in the develop ment of the simulator. We have employed a formal procedure to validate models at the input-output level by comparing them to simple lumped models for a given experimental frame.

The simulator can handle a variety of network structures and protocols. A particular network is described in terms of a schedul ing function, a grouping function, and a distance control matrix. Several network topologies and protocols have been simulated successfully.

One problem with the modular approach is that it may lead to inefficient programs. Our simulator, for example, had to perform many scans of its events list because of the existence of numerous simultaneous events. We removed this inefficiency by introduc ing a new event scheduling routine based on a secondary key. The secondary key assigns priorities to simultaneous events.
Hardware-in-the-loop simulation for an active missile
Authors: Sisle Mitchell E. , McCarthy Edward D.
Published: March 2007

A hardware-in-the-loop simulation has been developed to eval uate the performance of active missiles from prelaunch to inter cept. The facility is used for system integration, design verifica tion, preflight and postflight analysis, and demonstrations of systems performance.

A CDC Cyber 175 general-purpose computer interfaced with an Applied Dynamics International AD-10 multiprocessor solves the six-degree-of freedom simulation in real time. The simulation includes the target model, the missile model, and relative motion. The Cyber 175 also drives the model of the RF environment through a Hewlett Packard 1000 computer.

The model of the RF environment provides the necessary phase and amplitude control to reproduce a 10-point glint model. The facility also can receive an active transmission and can supply four independent returns separated in range, angle, and velocity. The simulation has not yet undergone a formal validation program, but the facility results have been compared to an all- mathematical simulation of an active missile. Initial comparisons with flight results support the credibility of the facility.
Real-time microcomputer simulation for Space Shuttle/ Centaur avionics
Authors: Szatkowski G.P. , Nelander H.C.
Published: March 2007

The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has contracted with General Dynamics to design, de velop, and integrate into the Space Shuttle an advanced Cen taur liquid-fuel booster. This booster will be launched during orbit from the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle Orbiter. Its first flights will carry the Galileo and International Solar Polar inter planetary spacecraft in 1986. Fault-tolerant airborne and ground-support equipment are being developed for the booster. Simulators will be used to test these new control systems.

Each simulator uses a Z80-based microcomputer to emulate part of the system behavior, providing analog and digital feed back to the launch control computers. The simulators will provide real-time verification of the system's closed-loop control.
Improved file handling for discrete-event models with event cancellation
Authors: Blackstone John H. , Hogg Gary L.
Published: March 2007

Discrete-event models written in general-purpose simulation languages often run slowly because of the ways in which these languages file and search for events. For example, files may regularly be searched starting from the wrong end, newly created events may be assumed to occur later than events already filed, next events for particular entities may not be directly accessible, and events that must be cancelled may re quire extensive searches. Improved filing procedures include automatic selection of backward or forward searching, main tenance of a matrix of next events for particular entities, and saving of events in a FIFO file until their occurrence times near. In the case of a GASP IV model of electrical power generating systems, improving file handling reduced its run time by an order of magnitude. This model involves frequent creation and cancellation of events as units are turned on and off. Furthermore, the operator must select the particular units to be started or removed from operation on the basis of cost and other factors.
A multiple-aircraft radar simulation
Authors: Harrison James M.
Published: March 2007

A new off-line simulator generates data for designing and testing air traffic control (A TC) systems. A 32-bit Perkin-Elmer 3220 simulates flight paths and computes the times at which radars detect aircraft. Written in FORTRAN 7, this system can handle 350 aircraft in scenarios using 15 radars and lasting up to 10 hours. Three-dimensional equations of motion calculate aircraft positions as functions of time during loops, turns, and speed changes. The time of radar detection is computed by numerically solving a transcendental equation. The simulated returns are sorted by time, formatted, and written to disc storage. When they are needed by an A TC system under test, a driver routine sends them to the tracking and display sections based on their time tags. Thus, an off-line simulator can pro duce data that a real-time A TC system cannot distinguish from those provided by real radars and aircraft.
Real-time simulation using multiple microcomputers
Authors: Pimentel Juan R.
Published: March 2007

Several microcomputers can cooperate to achieve real-time simulation at low cost. Constructing such multiple computer systems requires consideration of task allocation, decomposi tion schemes, and interprocessor communications. An exam ple system consisting of five 8-bit microprocessors uses direct interprocessor communication and shared memory. The sys tem was used to simulate a spark-ignited, internal combustion engine in real time. The simulator provides manifold pressure, net torque, and engine speed in response to throttle angle, air- fuel ratio, exhaust gas recirculation, spark advance, and load torque. Simulation results showed good agreement with actual engine performance.
Computing the input to a linear model
Authors: Bajd Tadej
Published: March 2007

Sometimes analysts must work backward from a known output to determine the input to a linear model. This is often true in analyzing physiological and mechanical systems. One way to calculate the input is by solving the Volterra integral equation. This approach is both accurate and stable since it is based on numerical integration rather than on numerical differentiation.
Simulation model simplification techniques
Authors: Innis George , Rexstad Eric
Published: March 2007

Fifteen distinct simplification procedures for simulation models are presented with citations to their application. A guide to the application of those techniques indicates the order in which they are to be used in a given simplification exercise. Familiarity with these techniques can help practitioners produce simpler models during the initial construction effort.
Simulation of a small surface coal operator
Authors: Kinek Patrick A. , Jambekar Anil B.
Published: March 2007

A simulation model has been constructed as a framework to study the consequences of government regulations, and the de lays inherent in these regulations, on the functional areas of small surface coal operators. This paper specifically looks at the ef fect of the Surface Mining and Reclamation Act promulgated by Congress in 1977. The act has altered basic operating deci sions of coal operators in land management. Some of the critical changes the regulations have brought about are lengthy and costly permit preparation procedures, lengthy local and state review of permits and lands, increased bond fees, and costly reclamation requirements. The proposed model is useful as a quick turn-around policy analysis tool.