bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
UNITED STATES V. BOOKER AS A NATURAL EXPERIMENT: USING EMPIRICAL RESEARCH TO INFORM THE FEDERAL SENTENCING POLICY DEBATE*
Authors: HOFER PAUL J.
Published: September 2007

Research Summary:

In United States v. Booker, the U.S. Supreme Court held that the federal sentencing guidelines must be considered advisory, rather than mandatory, if they are to remain constitutional under the Sixth Amendment. Since the decision, the U.S. Sentencing Commission has provided policy makers with accurate and current data on changes and continuity in federal sentencing practices. Unlike previous changes in legal doctrine, Booker immediately increased the rates of upward and downward departures from the guideline range. Government‐sponsored downward departures remain the leading category of outside–the‐range sentences. The rate of within‐range sentences, although lower than in the period immediately preceding Booker, remains near rates observed earlier in the guidelines era. Despite the increase in departures, average sentence lengths for the overall caseload remain stable, because of offsetting increases in the seriousness of the crimes being sentenced and in the severity of penalties for those crimes. Analyses of the reasons that judges reported for downward departures suggest that treatment of criminal history and offender characteristics are the two leading areas of dissatisfaction with the guidelines.

Policy Implications:

Assessment of changes in sentencing practices following Booker by different observers depends partly on competing institutional perspectives and on different degrees of trust in the judgment of judges, prosecutors, the Sentencing Commission, and Congress. No agreement on whether Booker has bettered or worsened the system can be achieved until agreement exists on priorities among the purposes of sentencing and the goals of sentencing reform. Both this lack of agreement and an absence of needed data make consensus on Booker's effects on important sentencing goals, such as reduction of unwarranted disparity, unlikely in the near future. Similarly, lack of baseline data before Booker on the effectiveness of federal sentencing at crime control makes before‐after comparisons impossible. Despite these limitations, research provides a sounder framework for policy making than do anecdotes or speculation and sets valuable empirical parameters for the federal sentencing policy debate.
UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL VICTIMIZATION INSIDE PRISONS: FACTORS THAT PREDICT RISK*
Authors: WOLFF NANCY , SHI JING , BLITZ CYNTHIA L. , SIEGEL JANE
Published: September 2007

Research Summary:

Broad consensus exists across the country and political spectrum that sexual victimization occurs inside prisons and that it should be prevented in accordance with basic human rights, especially inside institutions that are funded and operated by government. The challenging task is to confirm the speculation by measuring reliably the extent to which sexual victimization occurs inside prison and then to understand its causal structure in an effort to prevent it. This article addresses this challenge first by summarizing what is known about the prevalence of sexual victimization in the prisons of America and then by exploring attributes of the inmate or facility that elevate the likelihood of being sexually victimized while inside prison. This descriptive evidence provides the roadmap for more contextual research that is needed to explore the causal mechanism underlying sexual victimization. The predictive part of this article uses a data set on the self‐reported victimization experiences of approximately 8,000 inmates residing in twelve male adult prisons, one sex offender treatment prison for males, and one female adult prison, all located in a single state.

Policy Implications:

If the goal is to reduce sexual victimization inside prisons (as suggested by the Prison Rape Elimination Act), action is required by prison officials and researchers to identify those at elevated risk, to develop effective placement strategies that minimize the proximity of inmates who have predatory tendencies to those at risk of victimization, to accurately and reliably measure the prevalence of sexual victimization, and to train officers and inmates on the meaning and practice of “zero tolerance.” Custodial power should be targeted to ensure zero tolerance because sexual victimization inside prison is not just a crime, but it is also a crime that takes place in a facility that is created, funded, and operated by the state and where the state bears the full responsibility for keeping the people under its aegis from harm that is predictable and preventable.
Pharmacokinetics-Pharmacodynamics of Gatifloxacin in a Lethal Murine
Bacillus anthracis
Inhalation Infection Model
Authors: Ambrose Paul G. , Forrest Alan , Craig William A. , Rubino Chistopher M. , Bhavnani Sujata M. , Drusano George L. , Heine Henry S.
Published: September 2007

We determined the pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) measure most predictive of gatifloxacin efficacy and the magnitude of this measure necessary for survival in a murine
Bacillus anthracis
inhalation infection model. We then used population pharmacokinetic models for gatifloxacin and simulation to identify dosing regimens with high probabilities of attaining exposures likely to be efficacious in adults and children. In this work, 6- to 8-week-old nonneutropenic female BALB/c mice received aerosol challenges of 50 to 75 50% lethal doses of
B. anthracis
(Ames strain, for which the gatifloxacin MIC is 0.125 mg/liter). Gatifloxacin was administered at 6- or 8-h intervals beginning 24 h postchallenge for 21 days, and dosing was designed to produce profiles mimicking fractionated concentration-time profiles for humans. Mice were evaluated daily for survival. Hill-type models were fitted to survival data. To identify potentially effective dosing regimens, adult and pediatric population pharmacokinetic models for gatifloxacin and Monte Carlo simulation were used to generate 5,000 individual patient exposure estimates. The ratio of the area under the concentration-time curve from 0 to 24 h (AUC
0-24
) to the MIC of the drug for the organism (AUC
0-24
/MIC ratio) was the PK-PD measure most predictive of survival (
R
2
= 0.96). The 50% effective dose (ED
50
) and the ED
90
and ED
99
corresponded to AUC
0-24
/MIC ratios of 11.5, 15.8, and 30, respectively, where the maximum effect was 97% survival. Simulation results indicate that a daily gatifloxacin dose of 400 mg for adults and 10 mg/kg of body weight for children gives a 100% probability of attaining the PK-PD target (ED
99
). Sensitivity analyses suggest that the probability of PK-PD target attainment in adults and children is not affected by increases in MICs for strains of
B. anthracis
to levels as high as 0.5 mg/liter.
Biochemical Characterization of SFC-1, a Class A Carbapenem-Hydrolyzing β-Lactamase
Authors: Fonseca Fátima , Sarmento Ana Cristina , Henriques Isabel , Samyn Bart , van Beeumen Jozef , Domingues Pedro , Domingues Maria Rosário , Saavedra Maria José , Correia António
Published: September 2007

The carbapenem-hydrolyzing β-lactamase SFC-1 from
Serratia fonticola
UTAD54 was overexpressed in
Escherichia coli
, purified, and characterized. The enzyme exhibited an apparent molecular mass of 30.5 kDa, determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. SFC-1 hydrolyzes penicillins, cephalosporins, aztreonam, and carbapenems and is inhibited by clavulanic acid, sulbactam, and tazobactam.
Pharmacodynamics of Doxycycline in a Murine Malaria Model
Authors: Batty Kevin T. , Law Angela S. F. , Stirling Verity , Moore Brioni R.
Published: September 2007

Doxycycline is reported to impair second-generation parasite schizogony. The effects of doxycycline alone and combined with dihydroartemisinin were investigated in a murine malaria model. Doxycycline lowered the rate of parasite growth within 2 days, with maximum effect in 6 days. Addition of dihydroartemisinin led to an additive antimalarial effect.
Antistaphylococcal Activity of CG400549, a New Experimental FabI Inhibitor, Compared with That of Other Agents
Authors: Bogdanovich Tatiana , Clark Catherine , Kosowska-Shick Klaudia , Dewasse Bonifacio , McGhee Pamela , Appelbaum Peter C.
Published: September 2007

Among 203 strains of
Staphylococcus aureus
, the MICs of CG400549 were 0.06 to 1.0 μg/ml, with MIC
50
and MIC
90
values of 0.25 μg/ml each. All strains were susceptible to linezolid and quinupristin-dalfopristin (MICs, 0.25 to 2.0 μg/ml). The daptomycin MICs were 0.25 to 2.0 μg/ml for methicillin-susceptible and 0.25 to 4.0 μg/ml against methicillin-resistant strains (including vancomycin-intermediate strains). Single-passage selection testing showed low resistance frequencies with CG400549, but multistep analysis showed that CG400549 yielded resistant mutants after 14 to 17 days in all strains tested.
Pharmacokinetics of Telbivudine in Subjects with Various Degrees of Renal Impairment
Authors: Zhou Xiao-Jian , Swan Suzanne , Smith William B. , Marbury Thomas C. , Dubuc-Patrick Gloria , Chao George C. , Brown Nathaniel A.
Published: September 2007

This study evaluates the effect of renal impairment on the pharmacokinetics of telbivudine. Thirty-six subjects were assigned, on the basis of creatinine clearance (CL
CR
), to 1 of 5 renal function groups with 6 to 8 subjects per group: normal renal function; mild, moderate, or severe renal impairment; or end-stage renal disease [ESRD] requiring hemodialysis. Subjects received a single oral dose of telbivudine at 600 mg (normal function and mild impairment), 400 mg (moderate impairment), or 200 mg (severe impairment and ESRD); plasma and/or urine samples were collected over a 48-h period for pharmacokinetic analyses. Telbivudine was well tolerated by all subjects. The pharmacokinetics of 600 mg of telbivudine were comparable for subjects with mild renal impairment and normal renal function. Likewise, for subjects with moderate to severe impairment, including ESRD, reduced doses from 200 to 400 mg produced plasma exposure similar to that for subjects with normal renal function. These results indicate that the pharmacokinetics of telbivudine were dependent on renal function, especially for subjects with moderate to severe renal impairment or ESRD. Apparent total plasma clearance, renal clearance (CL
R
), and urinary excretion of telbivudine decreased as renal function deteriorated. A linear relationship was established between CL
R
and CL
CR
. In ESRD subjects, a routine 3.5- to 4-h hemodialysis session removed telbivudine from plasma at an extraction ratio of ∼45%, representing a ∼23% reduction in total exposure. These results suggest that while no adjustment of the telbivudine dose appears necessary for subjects with mild renal impairment, dose adjustment is warranted for those with moderate to severe renal impairment or ESRD in order to achieve optimal plasma exposure.
In Vitro Efficacy of New Antifolates against Trimethoprim-Resistant
Bacillus anthracis
Authors: Barrow Esther W. , Dreier Jürg , Reinelt Stefan , Bourne Philip C. , Barrow William W.
Published: September 2007

Bacillus anthracis
is innately resistant to trimethoprim (TMP), a synthetic antifolate that selectively inhibits several bacterial dihydrofolate reductases (DHFRs) but not human DHFR. Previously, we were able to confirm that TMP resistance in
B. anthracis
(MIC > 2,048 μg/ml) is due to the lack of selectivity of TMP for the
B. anthracis
DHFR (E. W. Barrow, P. C. Bourne, and W. W. Barrow, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48:4643-4649, 2004). In this investigation, 24 2,4-diaminopyrimidine derivatives, representing a class of compounds with dihydrophthalazine side chains, were screened for their in vitro effects on
B. anthracis
Sterne and their selectivities for the
B. anthracis
DHFR. MICs were obtained by a colorimetric (Alamar blue) broth microdilution assay. Purified human recombinant DHFR (rDHFR) and
B. anthracis
rDHFR were used in a validated enzyme assay to determine the 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC
50
s) and the selectivity ratios of the derivatives. The MICs ranged from 12.8 to 128 μg/ml for all but nine compounds, for which the MICs were ≥128 μg/ml. The IC
50
values for
B. anthracis
rDHFR ranged from 46 to 600 nM, whereas the IC
50
values for human rDHFR were >16,000 nM. This is the first report on the in vitro inhibitory actions of this class of antifolates against TMP-resistant
B. anthracis
isolates. The selective inhibition of
B. anthracis
rDHFR and the in vitro activity against
B. anthracis
demonstrate that members of this class of compounds have the potential to be developed into clinically important therapeutic choices for the treatment of infections caused by TMP-resistant bacteria, such as
B. anthracis
.
Specific Intracellular Adhesion Molecule-Grabbing Nonintegrin R1 Is Not Involved in the Murine Antibody Response to Pneumococcal Polysaccharides
Authors: Moens Leen , Jeurissen Axel , Wuyts Greet , Fallon Padraic G. , Louis Boon , Ceuppens Jan L. , Bossuyt Xavier
Published: September 2007

Streptococcus pneumoniaeis a microorganism that frequently causes serious infections in children, the elderly, and immunocompromised patients. We studied whether the specific intracellular adhesion molecule-grabbing nonintegrin R1 (Sign-R1) receptor, involved in the uptake of capsular polysaccharides (caps-PS) by antigen-presenting cells, is necessary for the antibody response to pneumococcal caps-PS and phosphorylcholine (PC). The antibody response to caps-PS and PC was evaluated after vaccination with soluble caps-PS (Pneumovax) and after vaccination with heat-killedS. pneumoniae. The role of Sign-R1 was investigated by using Sign-R1 knockout mice and anti-Sign-R1 monoclonal antibodies. The immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgG antibody response to PC and caps-PS (serotypes 3 and 14) was not affected by anti-Sign-R1 monoclonal antibodies. The IgM antibody response in Sign-R1 knockout mice was comparable to the antibody response in wild-type mice. The IgG antibody response to serotype 3, but not to serotype 14, tended to be lower in Sign-R1 knockout mice compared to wild-type mice. In conclusion, we found that Sign-R1 is not involved in the IgM antibody production to PC and caps-PS serotype 3 or 14 and the IgG immune response to PC and caps-PS serotype 14. There is no direct relation between capture and uptake of caps-PS serotype 14 by Sign-R1 and the initiation of the anti-caps-PS antibody production in mice.
Evaluation of Two Homologous Proline-Rich Proteins of
Coccidioides posadasii
as Candidate Vaccines against Coccidioidomycosis
Authors: Herr Roger A. , Hung Chiung-Yu , Cole Garry T.
Published: September 2007

Evaluation of the protective efficacy of recombinant T-cell-reactive proteins of
Coccidioides posadasii
in a murine model of coccidioidomycosis has led to the discovery of potential vaccines against this respiratory disease. A recombinant proline-rich antigen (rAg2/Pra) has been reported to be a leading vaccine candidate. However, contradictory results exist on the protection afforded by this antigen. Subcutaneous vaccination of either C57BL/6 or BALB/c mice with rAg2/Pra plus adjuvant followed by intraperitoneal challenge with
C. posadasii
resulted in a significant reduction of the fungal burden at 12 to 14 days postchallenge compared to that in nonvaccinated animals. Use of the same vaccination protocol followed by intranasal (i.n.) challenge of C57BL/6 mice with an equal number of organisms culminated in chronic pulmonary infection or death over a 90-day period. Early studies of Ag2/Pra suggested that it is a component of an immunogenic complex. We reveal in this study that
C. posadasii
produces a homolog of the reported proline-rich antigen, designated Prp2, which shows 69% protein sequence identity and 86% similarity to Ag2/Pra. Protection against i.n. challenge of C57BL/6 mice was evaluated by vaccination with the single bacterially expressed homolog, rAg2/Pra, or rPrp2 in combination with rAg2/Pra, each in the presence of the same adjuvant. The combined vaccine provided significantly better protection than either of the single recombinant protein vaccines. Results of enzyme-linked immunospot assays of the immunized mice revealed that the two proline-rich homologs contain unique T-cell epitopes. In combination, the recombinant proteins stimulate a more heterogeneous and protective T-cell repertoire than the monovalent vaccines.
Plant-Mediated Interactions Between Whiteflies, Herbivores, and Natural Enemies
Authors: Inbar Moshe , Gerling Dan
Published: September 2007

Whiteflies (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) comprise tiny phloem-sucking insects. The sessile development of their immatures and their phloem-feeding habits (with minimal physical plant damage) often lead to plant-mediated interactions with other organisms. The main data come from the polyphagous pest species Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) and Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood), which are intricately associated with their host plants. Although these associations might not represent aleyrodids in general, we rely on them to highlight the fundamental role of host plants in numerous ecological interactions between whiteflies, other herbivores, and their natural enemies. Plant traits often affect the activity, preference, and performance of the whiteflies, as well as their entomopathogens, predators, and parasitoids. Leaf structure (primarily pubescence) and constitutive and induced chemical profiles (defensive and nutritional elements) are critically important determinants of whitefly fitness. Pest management--related and evolutionary biology studies could benefit from future research that will consider whiteflies in a multitrophic-level framework.
Fruit Fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) Host Status Determination: Critical Conceptual, Methodological, and Regulatory Considerations
Authors: Aluja Martín , Mangan Robert L.
Published: September 2007

Although fruit fly host status determination/designation lies at the heart of strategic decisions on national and international trade of fruit and vegetables, all attempts thus far to define host plant status have been contentious and as a result long-standing disputes between commercial partners throughout the world have lingered over decades. Part of the problem is that too little effort has been devoted to understanding the underlying mechanisms involved in host plant use by fruit flies and that instead economic and political interests usually prevail. Here we review the most important evolutionary, biological, ecological, physiological, and behavioral aspects that drive host use by fruit flies, and then construct a flow diagram rooted in these fundamentals that outlines a series of steps and definitions to determine if a particular fruit or vegetable (and cultivars thereof) is a natural host, or a conditional (potential, artificial) host, or a nonhost. Along the way, we incorporate risk analysis considerations and propose that the underlying complexity determining host plant utilization by fruit flies requires a flexible systems approach capable of realistically dealing with fly/host/environment/geographic variability on a case-by-case basis.
Prevention of Tick-Borne Diseases
Authors: Piesman Joseph , Eisen Lars
Published: September 2007

Tick-borne diseases are on the rise. Lyme borreliosis is prevalent throughout the Northern Hemisphere, and the same Ixodes tick species transmitting the etiologic agents of this disease also serve as vectors of pathogens causing human babesiosis, human granulocytic anaplasmosis, and tick-borne encephalitis. Recently, several novel agents of rickettsial diseases have been described. Despite an explosion of knowledge in the fields of tick biology, genetics, molecular biology, and immunology, transitional research leading to widely applied public health measures to combat tick-borne diseases has not been successful. Except for the vaccine against tick-borne encephalitis virus, and a brief campaign to reduce this disease in the former Soviet Union through widespread application of DDT, success stories in the fight against tick-borne diseases are lacking. Both new approaches to tick and pathogen control and novel ways of translating research findings into practical control measures are needed to prevent tick-borne diseases in the twenty-first century.
Integration of expression profiles and genetic mapping data to identify candidate genes in intracranial aneurysm
Authors: Weinsheimer Shantel , Lenk Guy M. , van der Voet Monique , Land Susan , Ronkainen Antti , Alafuzoff Irina , Kuivaniemi Helena , Tromp Gerard
Published: September 2007

Intracranial aneurysm (IA) is a complex genetic disease for which, to date, 10 loci have been identified by linkage. Identification of the risk-conferring genes in the loci has proven difficult, since the regions often contain several hundreds of genes. An approach to prioritize positional candidate genes for further studies is to use gene expression data from diseased and nondiseased tissue. Genes that are not expressed, either in diseased or nondiseased tissue, are ranked as unlikely to contribute to the disease. We demonstrate an approach for integrating expression and genetic mapping data to identify likely pathways involved in the pathogenesis of a disease. We used expression profiles for IAs and nonaneurysmal intracranial arteries (IVs) together with the 10 reported linkage intervals for IA. Expressed genes were analyzed for membership in Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) biological pathways. The 10 IA loci harbor 1,858 candidate genes, of which 1,561 (84%) were represented on the microarrays. We identified 810 positional candidate genes for IA that were expressed in IVs or IAs. Pathway information was available for 294 of these genes and involved 32 KEGG biological function pathways represented on at least 2 loci. A likelihood-based score was calculated to rank pathways for involvement in the pathogenesis of IA. Adherens junction, MAPK, and Notch signaling pathways ranked high. Integration of gene expression profiles with genetic mapping data for IA provides an approach to identify candidate genes that are more likely to function in the pathology of IA.
Distributed and Parallel Demand Driven LogicSimulation Algorithms
Authors: Subramanian K. , Zargham M.
Published: September 2007

Based on the demand‐driven approach, distributed and parallel simulation algorithms are proposed. Demand‐driven
simulation ties to minimize the number of component evaluations by restricting to only those component
computations required for the watched output requests. For a specific output value request, the input line values
that are required are requested to the respective component. The process continues until known signal values
are needed (system input signal values). We present a distributed demand‐driven algorithm with infinite memory
requirement (but still the memory required at each process is no greater than the sequential demand‐driven
simulation), and a parallel demand‐driven simulation with finite memory requirement. In our algorithms, each
component is assigned a logical process.The algorithms have been implemented on the Sequent Balance 8000 Multi‐processor machine. Several sample
circuits were simulated. The algorithms were compared with the distributed discrete‐event simulation. Our distributed
algorithm performed many times faster than the discrete‐event simulation for cases when few results
were needed. Parallel algorithm performed 2 to 4 times faster than the distributed discrete‐event simulation.
Pioneer: A New Tool for Coding of Multi‐Level FiniteState Machines Based on Evolution Programming
Authors: Muddappa S. , Makki R. Z. , Michalewicz Z. , Isukapalli S.
Published: September 2007

In this paper we present a new tool for the encoding of multi‐level finite state machines based on the concept of
evolution programming. Evolution programs are stochastic adaptive algorithms, based on the paradigm of genetic
algorithms whose search methods model some natural phenomenon: genetic inheritance and Darwinian strife for
survival. Crossover and mutation rates were tailored to the state assignment problem experimentally. We present
results over a wide range of MCNC benchmarks which demonstrate the effectiveness of the new tool. The results
show that evolution programs can be effectively applied to state assignment.
Fast Algorithms to Partition Simple RectilinearPolygons
Authors: Wu San-Yuan , Sahni Sartaj
Published: September 2007

Two algorithms to partition hole‐free rectilinear polygons are developed. One has complexity ∼ O(kn) and the
other O(n log k) where n is the number of vertices in the polygon and k is the smaller of the number of vertical
and horizontal inversions of the polygon, k is a measure of the simplicity of a polygon. Since k is small for most
practical polygons, our algorithms are fast in practice. Experimental results comparing our algorithms with that
of Imai and Asano [1] are also presented.
Partitioning Techniques for Built‐In Self‐Test Design
Authors: Chen Chien-In Henry
Published: September 2007

An efficient, unified algorithm, Advanced Two-Phase Cluster Partitioning, is proposed for automated synthesis
of pseudo‐exhaustive test generator for Built‐In Self‐Test (BIST) design. A prototype of the algorithm, Two-Phase Cluster Partitioning, has been proposed and the hierarchical design procedure is computationally efficient
and produces test generation circuitry with low hardware overhead. However, in certain worst case, the algorithm
may generate a sub‐optimal design which requires more test patterns and/or hardware overhead. In order to
generate a globally optimal design, further improvement of two‐phase algorithm can be achieved by expanding
the design space for the formation of linear sum so that the number of test signals required for pseudo‐exhaustive
testing can be reduced. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach by presenting detailed comparisons of
our results against those that would be obtained by existing techniques.
STD Architecture: A Practical Approach to TestM‐Bits Random Access Memories
Authors: Rajsuman Rochit , Rajkanan Kamal
Published: September 2007

We present a design method (called STD architecture) to design large memories so that the test time does not
increase with the increasing size of memory. Large memories can be constructed by using several small blocks
of memory. The memory address decoder is divided into two or more levels and designed such that during the
test mode all small memory blocks are accessed together. With the help of modified decoder, all small memory
blocks are tested in parallel using any standard test algorithm. In this design, time to test the whole memory is
equal to the time required to test one small block. The proposed design is highly structured and hardware overhead
is negligible. The basic idea is to exploit internal hardware for testing purpose. With the proposed method a
constant test time can be achieved irrespective of the memory size. STD architecture is applicable to memory
chips as well as memory boards, and the design is suitable for fault detection as well as for fault diagnosis.
An Improved Data Flow Architecture for LogicSimulation Acceleration
Authors: Mahmood A. , Herath J. , Jayasumana J.
Published: September 2007

The high degree of parallelism in the simulation of digital VLSI systems can be utilized by a data flow architecture
to reduce the enormous simulation times. The existing logic simulation accelerators based on the data flow principle
use a static data flow architecture along with a timing wheel mechanism to implement the event driven simulation
algorithm. The drawback in this approach is that the timing wheel becomes a bottleneck to high simulation
throughput. Other shortcomings of the existing architecture are the high communication overhead in the arbitration
and distribution networks, and reduced pipelining due to a static data flow architecture. To overcome these, three
major improvements are made to the design of a classical data flow based logic simulation accelerator. These
include:

1) A novel and efficient technique for implementing a pseudo‐dynamic data flow architecture to increase
pipelining.

2) Implementation of a modified distributed event driven simulation algorithm.

3) Localized processors for fast evaluation of small primitives.
On Channel Routing Problems WithInterchangeable Terminals
Authors: Tragoudas Spyros
Published: September 2007

The use of programmable logic cells in VLSI design allows the terminals on these cells to be interchanged since
their geometrics are programmable. Recently, many exact algorithms and heuristics have been proposed for
channel routing with interchangeable terminals [18, 25, 4, 11, 12, 20, 17, 3]. Various optimization problems have
also been shown to be NP—hard [25, 23]. In this paper, we consider channels with exits. Let m, D be the number
of terminals in the channel and the maximum number of terminals on a net, respectively. We present an O(m)
algorithm that obtains optimal density for channels with exits that have one cell on each side. The existing
algorithm for this problem [5] guarantees only an approximate density. Moreover, if one of the two cells has
fixed terminals, we show that the density minimization problem is NP‐hard. The latter problem was introduced
in [5]. For instances with any number of cells we present an O(m) time algorithm for the via minimization problem,
an O(m2 · D) algorithm for the problem of finding a maximum planar subset of nets in a channel, and an O(m)
algorithm to determine whether the channel adopts external‐internal layout. Also for the special case where there
exists one cell per side, we present an alternative algorithm that finds a maximum planar set of nets in O(m)
time.
Technology Mapping for FPGA Using GeneralizedFunctional Decomposition
Authors: Wang Kuo-Hua , Chen Cheng , Hwang Ting Ting
Published: September 2007

In this paper, we address the technology mapping for RAM‐based FPGA. Functional decomposition is applied
to decompose a large function into a set of smaller subfunctions such that each subfunction can be implemented
using a single logic cell. Our system is mainly divided into two parts. The first part is designed specifically for
totally symmetric functions. A Fast-Decompose algorithm based on weight dependency is proposed. The second
part deals with general functions. We consider some techniques such as output partition, variable partition, don′t
care assignment and encoding to minimize the number of subfunctions derived. Using these techniques together,
our tool, Fun-Map, improves the mapping results compared with other tools in terms of area and delay.
An Effective Solution to the LinearPlacement Problem
Authors: Saab Youssef , Chen Cheng-Hua
Published: September 2007

We present an effective solution to the linear placement problem, which has several applications in the physical
design of integrated circuits. Our approach belongs to the class of iterative improvement heuristics. The important
difference of this new technique from the previous ones is in its moves, and in the order of application of these
moves. A phase of the algorithm begins with simple moves and gradually shifts towards more complex moves.
Phases are repeated as long as further improvement is possible. Our experimental results show that nearly optimal
solutions can be achieved. For a number of examples collected from the literature, our algorithm generated
optimal solutions.
Area Optimization of Slicing Floorplans in Parallel
Authors: Chen Cheng-Hsi , Tollis Ioannis G.
Published: September 2007

We first present a parallel algorithm for finding the optimal implementations for the modules of a slicing floorplan
that respects a given slicing tree. The algorithm runs in O(n) time and requires O(n) processors, where n is the
number of modules. It is based on a new O(n2) sequential algorithm for solving the above problem. We then
present a parallel algorithm for finding a set of optimal implementations for a slicing floorplan whose corresponding
slicing tree has height O(logn). This algorithm runs in O(n) time using O(logn) processors. Our parallel algorithms
do not need shared memory and can be implemented in a distributed system.
Temporal Logic Based Hierarchical Test Generationfor Sequential VLSI Circuits
Authors: Hudli Anand V. , Hudli Raghu V.
Published: September 2007

Test generation for sequential VLSI circuits has remained a difficult problem to solve. The difficulty arises because
of reasoning about temporal behavior of sequential circuits. We use temporal logic to model digital circuits.
Temporal Logic can model circuits hierarchically. A set of heuristics is given to aid during test generation. A
hierarchical test generation algorithm is proposed.
Division‐Based Versus General Decomposition‐Based Multiple‐Level Logic Synthesis
Authors: Volf Frank , Jóźwiak Lech , Stevens Mario
Published: September 2007

During the last decade, many different approaches have been proposed to solve the multiple‐level synthesis problem with
different minimum functionally complete systems of primitive logic blocks. The most popular of them is the division‐based
approach. However, modem microelectronic technology provides a large variety of building blocks which considerably
differ from those typically considered. The traditional methods are therefore not suitable for synthesis with many modem
building blocks. Furthermore, they often fail to find global optima for complex designs and leave unconsidered some
important design aspects. Some of their weaknesses can be eliminated without leaving the paradigm they are based on, other
ones are more fundamental. A paradigm which enables efficient exploitation of the opportunities created by the
microelectronic technology is the general decomposition paradigm. The aim of this paper is to analyze and compare the
general decomposition approach and the division‐based approach. The most important advantages of the general
decomposition approach are its generality (any network of any building blocks can be considered) and totality (all important
design aspects can be considered) as well as handling the incompletely specified functions in a natural way. In many cases,
the general decomposition approach gives much better results than the traditional approaches.
PARTIF: Interactive System‐level Partitioning
Authors: Ismail Tarek Ben , O′Brien Kevin , Jerraya Ahmed
Published: September 2007

This paper presents a methodology and a tool box for system‐level partitioning in the behavioral domain. The methodology
is based on an extended finite state machine model. Partitioning is achieved interactively through the application of five
system‐level transformation primitives: MOVE, MERGE, SPLIT, CUT and MAP. This scheme allows an interactive
exploration of the solution space. The result of the partitioning is a set of interconnected and heterogeneous sub‐systems.
The partitioning tool box which has been developed is named PARTIE PARTIF includes an evaluation feedback loop that
helps the designer estimate the quality of the design.
Resonant Tunneling in the QuantumHydrodynamic Model
Authors: Gardner Carl L.
Published: September 2007

The phenomenon of resonant tunneling is simulated and analyzed in the quantum hydrodynamic (QHD) model
for semiconductor devices. Simulations of a parabolic well resonant tunneling diode at 77 K are presented which
show multiple regions of negative differential resistance (NDR) in the current‐voltage curve. These are the first
simulations of the QHD equations to show multiple regions of NDR.

Resonant tunneling (and NDR) depend on the quantum interference of electron wavefunctions and therefore
on the phases of the wavefunctions. An analysis of the QHD equations using a moment expansion of the
Wigner‐Boltzmann equation indicates how phase information is retained in the hydrodynamic equations.
Designing Interconnection Networks forMulti‐level Packaging
Authors: Raghunath M. T. , Ranade Abhiram
Published: September 2007

A central problem in building large scale parallel machines is the design of the interconnection network. Interconnection
network design is largely constrained by packaging technology. We start with a generic set of packaging
restrictions and evaluate different network organizations under a random traffic model. Our results indicate that
customizing the network topology to the packaging constraints is useful. Some of the general principles that arise
out of this study are: 1) Making the networks denser at the lower levels of the packaging hierarchy has a significant
positive impact on global communication performance, 2) It is better to organize a fixed amount of communication
bandwidth as a smaller number of high bandwidth channels, 3) Providing the processors with the ability to tolerate
latencies (by using multithreading) is very useful in improving performance.
On Some Properties of the Star Graph
Authors: Qiu Ke , Akl Selim G.
Published: September 2007

We derive some properties of the star graph in this paper. In particular, we compute the number of nodes at distance i
from a fixed node e in a star graph. To this end, a recursive formula is first obtained. This recursive formula is,
in general, hard to solve for a closed form solution. We then study the relations among the number of nodes at
distance i to node e in star graphs of different dimensions. This study reveals a very interesting relation among
these numbers, which leads to a simple homogeneous linear recursive formula whose characteristic equation is
easy to solve. Thus, we get a systematic way to obtain a closed form solution with given initial conditions for any
fixed i.
FSM Decomposition and Functional Verification ofFSM Networks
Authors: Hasan Zafar , Ciesielski Maciej J.
Published: September 2007

Here we present a new method for the decomposition of a Finite State Machine (FSM) into a network of interacting FSMs
and a framework for the functional verification of the FSM network at different levels of abstraction. The problem of
decomposition is solved by output partitioning and state space decomposition using a multiway graph partitioning
technique. The number of submachines is determined dynamically during the partitioning process. The verification
algorithm can be used to verify (a) the result of FSM decomposition on a behavioral level, (b) the encoded FSM network,
and (c) the FSM network after logic optimization. Our verification technique is based on an efficient enumeration‐simulation
method which involves traversal of the state transition graph of the prototype machine and simulation of the decomposed
machine network. Both the decomposition and verification/simulation algorithms have been implemented as part of an
interactive FSM synthesis system and tested on a set of benchmark examples.
Input/Output Pad Placement Problem
Authors: Al-Zamel Khaled , Krishnamoorthy Mukkai S.
Published: September 2007

We propose efficient heuristics for placing input/output (I/O) pads around the VLSI chip boundary. The
heuristics are based on the circuit connectivity and do not require the placement of cells. This is useful for cell
placement methods that require the knowledge of I/O pad placement. Using these heuristics, several pad
placement candidates can be generated as input to cell placement algorithms.
Embeddings into Hyper Petersen Networks: YetAnother Hypercube‐Like Interconnection Topology
Authors: Das Sajal K. , Öhring Sabine , Banerjee Amit K.
Published: September 2007

A new hypercube‐like topology, called the hyper Petersen (HP) network, is proposed and analyzed, which is
constructed from the well‐known cartesian product of the binary hypercube and the Petersen graph of ten nodes.

This topology is an attractive candidate for multiprocessor interconnection having such desirable properties as
regularity, high symmetry and connectivity, and logarithmic diameter. For example, an n‐dimensional hyper Petersen
network, HPn, with N=1.25 * 2n nodes is a regular graph of degree and node‐connectivity n and diameter n–1
, whereas an (n–1)‐dimensional binary hypercube, Qn−1
, with the same diameter covers only 2n−1
nodes, each
of degree (n–1). Thus the HP topology accommodates 2.5 times extra nodes than Qn−1 at the cost of increasing
the node‐degree by one. With the same degree and connectivity of n, the diameter of the HPn network is one less
than that of Qn, yet having 1.25 times larger number of nodes.

Efficient routing and broadcasting schemes are presented, and node‐disjoint paths in HPn, are computed even
under faulty conditions. The versatility of the hyper Petersen networks is emphasized by embedding rings, meshes,
hypercubes and several tree‐related topologies into it. Contrary to the hypercubes, rings of odd lengths, and a
complete binary tree of height n–1 permit subgraph embeddings in HPn.
Design of an ASIC Chip for Skeletonization of Graylevel Digital Images
Authors: Majumdar B. , Ramakrishna V. V. , Dey P. S. , Majumdar A. K.
Published: September 2007

This paper describes the design of an ASIC chip for thinning of graylevel images. The chip implements a Min‐Max skeletonization algorithm and is based on a pipeline architecture where each stage of the pipeline performs masking operations on the graylevel images. The chip operates in real time at a frequency of 8 MHz and utilizes about 321 mils × 410 mils of silicon area.
Timing‐Constrained FPGA Placement: A Force‐Directed Formulation and Its Performance Evaluation
Authors: Raman Srilata , Liu C. L. , Jones Larry G.
Published: September 2007

In this paper we present a simple but efficient timing‐driven placement algorithm for FPGAs. The algorithm computes forces acting on a logic block in the FPGA to determine its relative location with respect to other blocks. The forces depend on the criticality of nets shared between the two blocks. Unlike other net‐based approaches, timing constraints are incorporated directly into the force equations to guide the placement. Slot assignment is then used to move the blocks into valid slot locations on the FPGA chip. The assignment algorithm also makes use of the delay information of nets so that the final placement is able to meet the timing criteria specified for the circuit. The novelty of the approach lies in the formulation of the force equations and the manner in which weights of the nets are dynamically altered to influence the placement. Experiments conducted on industrial test circuits and MCNC circuits give very promising results and indicate that the algorithm succeeds in significantly reducing the maximum delay in the circuit. In addition, routability is not adversely affected and running time is low.
An Evaluation of Parallel Synchronous and Conservative Asynchronous Logic‐Level Simulations
Authors: Mahmood Ausif , Baker William I.
Published: September 2007

A recent paper by Bailey [1] contains a theorem stating that the idealized execution times of unit‐delay, synchronous and conservative asynchronous simulations are equal under the conditions that unlimited number of processors are available and the evaluation time of each logic element is equal. Further it is shown that the above conditions result in a lower bound on the execution times of both synchronous and conservative asynchronous simulations. Bailey′s above important conclusions are derived under a strict assumption that the inputs to
a circuit remain fixed during the entire simulation. We remove this limitation and, by extending the analyses to multi‐input, multi‐output circuits with an arbitrary number of input events, show that the conservative asynchronous simulation extracts more parallelism and executes faster than synchronous simulation in general. Our conclusions are supported by a comparison of the idealized execution times of synchronous and conservative asynchronous algorithms on ISCAS combinational and sequential benchmark circuits.
Improving Path Sensitizability ofCombinational Circuits
Authors: Kapoor Bhanu , Nair V. S. S.
Published: September 2007

The problem of modifying a synthesized circuit to improve its path sensitizability has been
investigated. It is shown that a large number of paths, that cannot be sensitized using single‐transition
tests, are redundant paths and they can be removed by appropriate modification of
the circuit. The effect of these modifications on area and performance of the circuit has been
analyzed. For the paths which are neither redundant nor sensitizable using single‐transition
tests, it is shown that they can be sensitized using multiple‐transition tests. Results obtained
on some common benchmark examples suggest the validity and viability of this approach.
TOGAPS: A Testability Oriented Genetic Algorithm For Pipeline Synthesis
Authors: Ravikumar C. P. , Saxena V.
Published: September 2007

In this paper, we describe TOGAPS, a Testability‐Oriented Genetic Algorithm for Pipeline
Synthesis. The input to TOGAPS is an unscheduled data flow graph along with a specification
of the desired pipeline latency. TOGAPS generates a register‐level description of a
datapath which is near‐optimal in terms of area, meets the latency requirement, and is highly
testable. Genetic search is employed to explore a 3‐D search space, the three dimensions
being the chip area, average latency, and the testability of the datapath. Testability of a
design is evaluated by counting the number of self‐loops in the structure graph of the data
path. Each design is characterized by a four‐tuple consisting of (i) the latency and schedule
information, (ii) the module allocation, (iii) operation‐to‐module binding, and (iv) value‐to‐register
binding. Accordingly, we maintain the population of designs in a hierarchical manner.
The topmost level of this hierarchy consists of the latency and schedule information,
which together characterize the timing performance of the design. The middle level of the
hierarchy consists of a number of allocations for a given latency/schedule duplet. The lowest
level of the hierarchy consists of a number of bindings for a specific latency/schedule/
allocation. An initial population of designs is constructed from the given data flow graph
using different latency cycles whose average latency is in the specified range. Multiple
scheduling heuristics are used to generate schedules for the DFG. For each of the resulting
scheduled data flow graphs, we decide on an allocation of modules and registers based on a
lower bound estimated using the schedule and latency information. The operation‐to‐module
binding and the value‐to‐register binding are then carried out. A fitness measure is evaluated
for each of the resulting data paths; this fitness measure includes one component for each of
the three search dimensions. Crossover and mutation operators are used to generate new
designs from the current set of parent designs. The crossover operator attempts to combine
the properties of two designs. The mutation operators include addition and deletion of pure
delays before scheduling, as well as changes in the register and module allocation prior to
binding. The genetic algorithm applies the rule of the survival of the fittest to obtain nearoptimal
solution to the otherwise intractable problem of data path synthesis. We have implemented
TOGAPS on a Sun/SPARC 10 and studied its performance on a number of
benchmark examples. Results indicate that TOGAPS finds area‐optimal datapaths for the
specified latency cycle, while reducing the number of self‐loops in the data path.
High‐Level Graphical Abstraction in Digital Design
Authors: Pearson Murray W. , Lyons Paul J. , Apperley Mark D.
Published: September 2007

We base our approach to the design of complex logic ICs on four premises:

Design of a chip′s abstract architecture—its major components, their tasks, and their
intercommunication—should precede definition of its functionality.

Graphics is ideal for representing abstract architectures; text is better for functionality.

The designer should not have to translate graphical information into text.

Graphical and textual design capture can be integrated with synthesis.