bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Latitudinal trends in wood anatomy within species and genera: case study in Cornus s.l. (Cornaceae)
Authors: Noshiro Shuichi , Baas Pieter
Published: April 2006

Latitudinal trends in wood anatomical characters in three Asiatic species of Cornus sensu lato (s.l.) were studied and compared with those for the whole genus based on an extensive sampling covering the specific distribution ranges and the generic data from a previous study. We studied 124 specimens of C. controversa growing between 31.5° and 45.3° N, 54 of C. kousa between 24.4° and 40.5° N, and 64 of C. macrophylla between 27.8° and 41.0° N. Characters studied were vessel element length, fiber length, vessel frequency, tangential vessel diameter, and vessel grouping index. At the species level no latitudinal trends were detected throughout the distribution ranges of the species. Neither tree size, altitude, nor climatic factors had a significant correlation with wood anatomical characters. In contrast, at the genus level, latitudinal trends were significant not just for the whole genus, but for both New and Old World species groups. At the genus level, latitude and three climatic factors all had a significant correlation with wood anatomical characters, but correlation coefficients with latitude were markedly high. The difference in latitudinal trends between the genus and species levels may be due to the radiation of Cornus along paleoclimatic gradients in the early Tertiary.
Pollination of Picea orientalis (Pinaceae): saccus morphology governs pollen buoyancy
Authors: Runions C. John , Rensing Kim H. , Takaso Tokushiro , Owens John N.
Published: April 2006

Sacci of conifer pollen do not function primarily to increase the efficiency of wind pollination as is widely thought. Rather, they are bladders and cause pollen to float upwards in a liquid drop into the ovules. This observation is seemingly unsupported in the case of oriental spruce (Picea orientalis (L.) Link), which has saccate pollen. Ovulate cones are pendant at the time of pollination, which requires that pollen sink into the ovules. Pollen of oriental spruce floats at first but within 1–2 min sinks into the ovule. As sinking does not occur in saccate pollen of other Pinaceae, a variety of techniques was used to determine anatomical differences leading to this uncharacteristic tendency. Light, scanning electron, and confocal microscopy of the pollen surface yielded no significant appearing difference between pollen of oriental spruce and white spruce. However, transmission electron microscopy of freeze‐fixed/freeze‐substituted hydrated pollen revealed that the ektexine of oriental spruce pollen sacci is porous compared to that of white spruce. Confocal microscopy allowed examination of pollen hydration dynamics. Water enters pollen at the distal pole between sacci, and resulting rapid expansion of the tube cell forces air out of the saccate space. White spruce pollen remains buoyant because of enclosed air pockets in the saccus ektexine. Evolutionary change in pollen wall anatomy with resultant loss of saccus function is correlated with a change in ovulate strobilus orientation at pollination in oriental spruce. A suite of characters interact in the conifer pollination mechanism, and concerted change in these characters may lead to speciation.
Population differences in self‐fertility in the “self‐incompatible” milkweed Asclepias exaltata (Asclepiadaceae)
Authors: Lipow Sara R , Broyles Steven B , Wyatt Robert
Published: April 2006

Individual plants of Asclepias exaltata (Asclepiadaceae) typically express an unusual self‐incompatibility system under single‐gene control. Hand‐pollinations performed in six natural populations detected occasional self‐fertile plants. The frequency of self‐fertile individuals ranged from 0 to 34.0% and differed significantly among populations. Self‐fertility appears to be under genetic control, as the ability of most plants (80.0 %) to set fruit following self‐pollinations was identical under natural and greenhouse conditions. Seed‐ and fruit‐set, however, were significantly lower from self‐ vs. cross‐pollinations. Allozyme analysis of the population with the highest frequency of self‐fertility revealed that adult plants were not significantly inbred. Finally, fruit‐set following within‐population cross‐pollinations did not differ from that following wide, between‐population cross‐pollinations.
Pollination ecology of Agave macroacantha (Agavaceae) in a Mexican tropical desert. I. Floral biology and pollination mechanisms
Authors: Arizaga Santiago , Ezcurra Exequiel , Peters Edward , de Arellano Fernando Ramírez , Vega Ernesto
Published: April 2006

In a study of sexual reproduction in long‐lived semelparous plants, we observed Agave macroacantha in the tropical desert of Tehuacán‐Cuicatlán, Mexico, describing duration of flowering, flower phenology, and nectar production patterns. We also performed two manipulative experiments evaluating (a) the seed production efficiency of different crossing systems (selfing, cross‐pollination, apomixis, and control), and (b) the effect of different pollinators (diurnal exposure to pollinators, nocturnal exposure, exclusion, and control) on the seeds produced. Flowering occurred from early May to late July and had a mean duration of 29 days in the individual rosettes. The flowers were protandrous; anthesis occurred in the afternoon of the third day after floral opening, and the pistils matured in the afternoon of the fifth day. The stigmas remained receptive from dusk to the following morning. Pollination was mostly allogamous. Nectar was produced principally during the night, from the first stages of floral aperture until the stigmas wilted and flowering ceased. The flowers were visited during the day by hymenoptera, butterflies, and hummingbirds and during the night by bats and moths. Only the nocturnal visitors, however, were successful pollinators. Agave macroacantha is extremely dependent on nocturnal pollinators for its reproductive success.
Accommodating Individual Criminal Responsibility and National Reconciliation: The UN Truth Commission for East Timor
Authors: Stahn Carsten
Published: April 2006

The population of East Timor has been subjected to severe human rights violations, in both the near and the more distant past.1 Indonesia invaded the former Portuguese colony and non-self-governing territory under Chapter XI of the United Nations Charter on December 7,1975, after a period of civil turmoil and political instability marked by parallel claims to independence and calls for integration into Indonesia.2 The Indonesian invasion brought with it massive violations of human rights and the laws of war.3 Military clashes between the independence movement FRETILIN (Frente Revolucionaria do Timor Leste Independente) and Indonesia continued on a large scale until 1979, though rebellion against Indonesian rule generally persisted for the whole period of Indonesian occupation. Beginning in January 1999, pro-Indonesian militia, supported by Indonesian security forces.
Linkages
Authors: Leebron David W.
Published: April 2006

Trade and the environment. Trade and workers’ rights. Trade and competition policy. Trade and eighteen million tiny feet. It begins to resemble a question from an IQ test: which of the preceding pairs of issues does not fit? Increasingly, it seems there is no pairing with trade for which some argument cannot be made. The “trade and …” industry is booming.
From Politics to Technocracy—and Back Again: The Fate of the Multilateral Trading Regime
Authors: Howse Robert
Published: April 2006

As is known to every student of trade law and policy, the modern idea of free trade originates from the theories of absolute and comparative advantage developed by the classical political economists, Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Smith and Ricardo both addressed themselves to a sovereign unilaterally deciding its trade policy. They concluded that, with some qualifications or exceptions, a policy of liberalizing restrictions on imports would maximize the wealth of that sovereign.
Response to Steven L. Hoch's “B. N. Mironov and His 'Demographic Processes and Problems'”
Authors: Mironov Boris N.
Published: April 2006

A forum on Boris Mironov's Russian and English editions of The Social History of Imperial Russia, 1700-1917 (2000) offers the comments of four scholars on different aspects of Mironov's work. David L. Ransel introduces the forum with a consideration of whether Russian and western historical scholarship has been or should be converging, and he reviews the Russian-language response to Mironov's book. William G. Wagner discusses Mironov's key conclusions: that the imperial period was marked by the development of a more individualistic personality, the democratic nuclear family, civil society, and a state order based on the rule of law. He questions, however, the validity of the modernization paradigm as an adequate tool for analyzing these developments. Willard Sunderland comments on the use of the concept of empire in Mironov's book, calling attention to the assertion that imperial Russia was a “normal” European state and that it was not a “true colonial state.” The focus of the book, he argues, remains Russian society within the space of the empire, not the society of the empire as a whole. Steven L. Hoch considers Mironov's chapter on demographic processes, criticizing the use of demographic theory and its application to problems such as fertility and mortality. He also argues that Mironov accepts too uncritically the utility of the statistical data at hand. Boris Mironov responds to Wagnar, Sunderland, and Hoch in turn.
Invented Traditions: Primitivist Narrative and Design in the Polish Fin de Siècle
Authors: Manouelian Edward
Published: April 2006

Around 1900, Poland saw the outgrowth of a nativist primitivism, one that consciously redefined the periphery as a site of cultural resistance. Primitivism, as Colin Rhodes points out, “does not designate an organized group of artists, or even an identifiable style arising at a particular historical moment, but rather brings together artists’ various reactions to ideas of the primitive.” Within the subject ethnicities of central Europe at the turn of the century, “ideas of the primitive” that were taking shape in the then stillemerging discipline of anthropology were influencing various constructions of national and regional identity. The nationalist imperative of the new discipline was emphasized by Jan Karlowicz, who, writing in 1906, argued that “a people certain of its own existence may calmly study its own folklore from a purely scientific point of view. Tribes deprived of their independence and living in endless fear of suppression and decay, however, must, while reflecting upon the nature and conditions of folkloric tradition, consider practical questions as part of such inquiries. For whenever reference is made to national peculiarities and attributes, there constantly arises the question: to be or not to be.” Karlowicz's remarks point toward a deeply subjective primitivist discourse whose articulations, in critical writing about the applied arts as well as literary representations of rural popular culture, form part of what Eric Hobsbawm terms the “invention of tradition.”
The Nonconformists: Dobrica Ćosić and Mića Popović Envision Serbia
Authors: Miller Nicholas J.
Published: April 2006

There is little to debate about the nature of Serbian political life since the mid-1980s—it has been highly nationalized, to the point that one can argue that a consensus existed among Serbian public figures that the Serbs' very existence was threatened by their neighbors. This consensus links political, cultural, and intellectual elites regardless of their ideological background. It draws together figures representing great diversity in Serbia. This powerful movement has usually been either dismissed or demonized: dismissed as superficial, the product of the cynical adaptation of politicians to new times, or demonized as something inherent in Serbian political culture, a historically predetermined mind-set, ancient and therefore ineradicable. But there is too much evidence that nationalism in Serbia is neither superficial nor ancient. What of the large number of Serbian intellectual and cultural figures who traversed the path from socialism to nationalism after 1945? Were they collectively one of the most cynical generations in any society's modern history, or were they simply possessed by the ancient demons of Serbian nationalism? Neither explanation is satisfying. Instead, postwar Serbian nationalism began as a legitimate and humane movement, neither incomprehensible nor artificial, and it should be understood in the context of communism's effect on Serbian society and its failure to fulfill its own promises, particularly to bring modernization and a universal culture to the peoples of Yugoslavia.
Garden of the Empire: Catherine's Appropriation of the Crimea
Authors: Schönle Andreas
Published: April 2006

This paper investigates the ramifications of the garden trope, as Catherine the Great and Grigorii Potemkin applied it to the Crimea after Russia's annexation in 1783. Schönle argues that Catherine conceived of the province as a kind of garden and that she did so in order to bolster the identification of the Crimea with the garden of Eden and thus appeal to the paradise myth that became an intrinsic part of Russia's ideology of imperial power. The Crimean garden was meant to exemplify the benefits of her loving and protective rule, one that enables multicultural coexistence, eschews the risks of assimilationist imperial policies, and yet brings about a moral transformation of the subjugated population. In both its physical and ethnic geography, the Crimean garden claims universality in that it foregrounds an eclectic diversity of species and peoples. Catherine ascribed religious overtones to the garden trope, and she did so in opposition to a western Enlightenment definition of empire and civility.
A Little-Known Description of Charles IX's Coronation
Authors: Jackson Richard A.
Published: April 2006

Until recently one of the most neglected aspects of Western European history in the modern period has been the role of ceremonial in forming and reflecting the development of political thought and institutions. Medieval historians have long used the coronation ceremony extensively as source material, but Ernst H. Kantorowicz was really the first to show scholars how to use ceremonial in understanding the early modern age. The extent to which ceremonial is a significant source of political ideology was clearly demonstrated by Ralph E. Giesey in his The Royal Funeral Ceremony in Renaissance France, a study which shows how the French acted out crucial political conceptions in the period when the modern state was being born, and which elucidates some of the ways in which the development of ceremonial embraces political thought and acts.
Wyatt et le rondeau
Authors: Françon Marcel
Published: April 2006

Du Rondeau, Berdan a dit: ‘Before Clément Marot the rondeau … was a name loosely applied to a large number of forms having little more than the use of the refrain in common… . In the jardin de Plaisance, in rondeau form, L'Infortuné gives his directions:

Par et, pour, mats, donq, par, cart, quantNe se doibt rondeau commencerQui ne scait son fait despencerA bien conclure et rimacerOu de plat fauldra ou de cantActeurs seront celuy mocquantQui rondeau cuidera passerSans bien rentrer et compasser.Par et etc.Plusiers s'abusent en pensantQue rondeau soit bon pour rentrerMais non chascun couplet porterDoibt sens parfaict et suspenserClos et ouuert non suspensantPar et etc.'

Berdan indique, en note, qu'il cite ce texte d'aprés Fabri [Le Grand et Vrai Art de Pleine Rhétorique, introd.
A Note on the Albizzi and the Florentine Conquest of Pisa
Authors: Molho Anthony
Published: April 2006

Historians dealing with the political and cultural history of the Florentine Commune during the Renaissance have been fortunate in having at their disposal the extensive resources of the local Archivio di Stato. One can find among its riches abundant evidence concerning many facets of private activity and public policy of the Trecento and Quattrocento. The great attention that Florence has received in the historical accounts of the Italian Renaissance reflects not only Florentine erninence during that epoch but also the survival of so much evidence not existing for many other cities. Yet one real difficulty which confronts historians of the early Renaissance has been the lack of extensive sources dealing with individual members of the Florentine society, particularly those who were active and prominent in the agitated arena of communal politics. Some diaries, of course, have survived, but the number is small and more often than not they were penned by men whose detachment from daily involvement in the formulation and implementation of policies allowed them the leisure to maintain a continuing record of their political views and commitments.
The Reconquest of Padua in 1509 according to the Diary of Girolamo Priuli
Authors: Libby Lester J.
Published: April 2006

The manuscript diary of the patrician Girolamo Priuli reveals the hidden background of one of the decisive events in the contest between Venice and the great European coalition of Cambrai. The defeat of Agnadello in May 1509 shattered the armies of the republic and threatened the metropolis itself with conquest. One after another the towns of the Veneto voluntarily opened their gates to the invaders, and finally, early in June, Padua fell to the Austrian emperor. Only five weeks after this culminating disaster, however, the Venetians recaptured the city by a sudden coup and so changed the course of the war. When the allies of Cambrai failed to regain Padua by a prolonged siege, the League broke up, and Venice could deal with each of its enemies in turn. By 1515, the republic was able to make peace with its dominions nearly intact.
Poggio, San Bernardino of Siena, and the Dialogue OnAvarice
Authors: Oppel John W.
Published: April 2006

The early fifteenth century was the age of conciliarism, of a crisis in the church; it was a time of fragmentation. In such an age it may be difficult to tell the separate parties apart, to distinguish the defenders of the old order from its critics. Whatever the nature of the parties, each may claim to stand for its own particular version of reform. This paper deals with such a rivalry as it surfaces in On Avarice, one of the dialogues of a prominent curial humanist, Poggio Bracciolini (1380-1459). Though the point has never been noted, it will be seen that the essence of this work is to be found in the conflict between curial humanists or secretaries and mendicant friars, two groups whose fortunes had traditionally been closely identified with those of the papacy.
Hermes and the Sibyl: A Note on Ficino's Pimander
Authors: Purnell Frederick
Published: April 2006

In April of 1463 Marsilio Ficino put the final touches on what was to be one of his most important and influential writings, his Latin translation of the Corpus Hermeticum undertaken at the request of Cosimo de’ Medici. Revered as the work of the legendary Egyptian sage Hermes Trismegistus, an authority mentioned with respect by Saint Augustine and Lactantius, the Hermetic texts came to occupy a position of preeminence in philosophical, literary, and artistic circles during the next one hundred and fifty years, principally in the form into which they were cast by Ficino. The status of Hermes as a philosophical source and as a link in the chain of ‘ancient theologians’ who foretold the truths of Christian revelation continued well into the seventeenth century.
Il Cortegiano and the Choice of a Game
Authors: Greene Thomas M.
Published: April 2006

The narrative of the Libro del Cortegiano involves at once subdued drama and slightly risky play. It begins with a game whose purpose is to propose a second game which will occupy the company at Urbino for the rest of the evening. This elaborately two-tiered pastime suggests immediately the centrality and formality of play for this group, and throws the dramatic focus on the question of a given proposal's suitability. The reader doesn't know what criteria will determine the excellence of the winning invention, but he is allowed to participate in the consideration of each. Thus in this preliminary contest, Gasparo Pallavicino makes a proposal, and then Cesare Gonzaga another; then the buffoon Fra Serafino and the poet, the Unico Aretino, each makes a kind of non-proposal in bad faith, which has to be dealt with by the arbitress, Emilia Pia.
Machiavelli and Soderini
Authors: Bertelli Sergio
Published: April 2006

Machiavelli, like Christ, came into history only in his thirties. His youth is virtually unknown to us, until today. We find only a few facts in his father's Ricordi, which covers the period 1474-87; there we learn that at the age of seven Niccolò studied the ‘donatello’ (the short edition of the late-classical grammar of Donatus), first with Master Matteo, near S. Trinità bridge, then, from March 1477, with Battista di Filippo da Poppi, who taught in the church of St. Benedict. At ten, he went to live with Master Piero Maria, to study the Abacus (a short arithmetical treatise) and ‘librettine,’ the elementary calculating system. Lastly, in November 1481, Niccolò began to study Latin, under Pagolo da Ronciglione's direction. And that is all.
Imitation and Style in Angelo Poliziano's Iliad Translation
Authors: Rubinstein Alice Levine
Published: April 2006

In 1470 the fifteen year old Angelo Poliziano published his first major work, a Latin hexameter translation of Iliad 2 dedicated to Lorenzo de Medici. Poliziano was motivated to write this translation not only by a sincere and enduring interest in Homeric poetry, but also by a desire to display his extraordinary poetic and linguistic talent and thereby to win the attention and perhaps the patronage of Lorenzo de Medici. The translation of Iliad 2 was received with lavish praise, and Poliziano was soon invited into the Medici household where, under Lorenzo's official patronage, he continued to work on the translation. In 1472, he completed Iliad 3; in 1474, Iliad 4; and in 1475, at age 20, Iliad 5, the last book he was to do. What is most interesting is that the style of books 2 and 3 differs substantially from the style of books 4 and 5.
A Reassessment of the Character of Francesco Filelfo (1398-1481)*
Authors: Robin Diana
Published: April 2006

Francesco Filelfo's stature as the first important Western European professor of Greek after Guarino Veronese has long been recognized. At thirty-six Filelfo had already held academic posts at Padua, Venice, Bologna, Florence, and Siena. He spent the last four decades of his life, for the most part, in the service of the Visconti-Sforza Dukes of Milan. But even during these years the Este of Ferrara, the Gonzaga of Mantua, and the Malatesta of Rimini had entertained him too, and three successive popes had called him to Rome. At the same time his brush with death at the hands of an assassin in Florence and his battles with the Medici had made Filelfo the most notorious of the early humanists.
Medieval “Ars Dictaminis” and the Beginnings of Humanism: a New Construction of the Problem*
Authors: Witt Ronald
Published: April 2006

In the almost forty years since he first enunciated his thesis, Paul O. Kristeller's view that the Italian humanists were essentially rhetoricians has found wide acceptance. His analysis of the humanist movement, however, indicates that he includes among the humanists' interests the four other disciplines comprising, along with rhetoric, thestudia humanitatis:grammar, poetry, history, and moral philosophy. His decision to characterize the humanists as rhetoricians rather than as grammarians, poets, historians, or moral philosophers derives from his interpretation of the professional role played by the humanists in their society. For Kristeller the humanists performed the same professional functions in their world as the medievaldictatoresdid in theirs. Both groups were primarily teachers of rhetoric and chancery officials, and both devoted a substantial portion of their creative efforts to composing in two literary genres, the epistle and the oration.
Giotto's Peruzzi Chapel Frescoes: Wealth, Patronage and the Earthly City*
Authors: Codell Julie F.
Published: April 2006

Giotto's fresco cycles of the lives of St. John the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist in the Peruzzi Chapel in Santa Croce, Florence, have not enjoyed as much scholarly attention as the vast fresco cycle in the Arena Chapel. Scholars have analyzed the space depicted in the frescoes, the striking monumentality of the figures, and the depiction of architecture oblique to the picture plane; thematic content, however, has received less attention than form and space. In this essay, I will propose some religious and secular iconographic and thematic unities: themes of rebirth, resurrection, andcommunitas, which correlate with fourteenth-century Florentine attitudes toward wealth, historiography, and a belief in the spiritual role of the earthly city. The themes of the frescoes articulate the social and political structures of early fourteenth-century civic life, as Giotto transformed traditional subjects into images of contemporary significance in these frescoes.
Renaissance Collections of facetiae, 1499-1528: A New Listing
Authors: Bowen Barbara C.
Published: April 2006

This is the continuation of a check-list whose first part included II compilations composed and/or published between 1343 and 1490 (RQ 39 [1986], 1—15). The time-span from 1343 to 1528 was chosen because during that period each collection offacetiaehas its own individual flavor, a fact which has been insufficiently recognized because scholars studyingfacetiaehave usually been collectors of plots or of folklore motifs. The same joke is often told, certainly, by a variety of compilers, but with a different purpose and in a different context. After 1530 the joke-books will be almost uniquely collective, and will thus lose their interesting individual character.
Charlotte Guillard: A Sixteenth-Century Business Woman*
Authors: Beech Beatrice
Published: April 2006

In sixteenth-century Paris, businesses and crafts were still regulated by the guild system, which allowed women to take over the direction of the businesses after the deaths of their husbands, even in those businesses which were normally closed to women. One result of this was that many Parisian women led active and varied economic lives. A little noticed aspect is that some women became book publishers and printers. These women publishers and printers had to possess both scholarly training and managerial and business skills, in order to compete and survive in the publishing world. One such printer/publisher was Charlotte Guillard, who was active in Paris in the second quarter of the century, and whose life is instructive in that it illustrates what women could accomplish in business in sixteenth-century Paris.
The Extent and Nature of the Use of Classical Sources in Villalón's El scholástico
Authors: Kiger Jean Moore
Published: April 2006

El scholástico, written by Cristóbal de Villalón in the second quarter of the sixteenth century, is a typical philosophical treatise of the Renaissance, the most striking evidence of which is its very extensive employment of figures and learning from Classical literature. All but a handful of the 57I different names which appear in El scholástico, and a large majority of all materials used therein, originated in the period before A.D. 500.

A complex treatise, approximately two-thirds the length of the New Testament, El scholástico reflects at once a Renaissance ideal and a classical tradition in its setting, literary form, and format. The dialogue, which is essentially Ciceronian in style (although Villalón states that his models for the dialogue were Plato and Macrobius), represents a lengthy interchange between illustrious contemporary scholars of the University of Salamanca.
The Edifying Margins of Renaissance English Books
Authors: Slights William W. E.
Published: April 2006

When Horatio tells Hamlet, “I knew you must be edified by the margent ere you had done” (V.ii. 156-57), we find ourselves amused and bemused trying to imagine what conceiveable edification could be gleaned from a marginal gloss on the courtly gabble of Osric's invitation to the duel. Yet while Horatio was having his little joke about edifying margents, Renaissance commentators, scholarly annotators, translators, editors, printers, and authors of all kinds were busily constructing elaborate scaffolds of printed marginalia around texts both ancient and modern, ranging from Holy Writ to handbooks for New World entrepreneurs and manuals on the courtly art of self-defense. The ostensible and frequently advertised purpose of this marginal material was to make texts more accessible to the “general reader,” to provide the non-specialist working on a difficult text a place to stand that was grounded on more familiar books, ideas, and experience.
The Scholar as Hero in Ianus Pannonius' Panegyric on Guarinus Veronensis
Authors: Thomson Ian
Published: April 2006

Specialists in the Italian Renaissance know the importance of the great humanist Guarinus Veronensis (1374-1460) and are familiar with the salient points of his life. Still lacking is a series of up-to-date monographs on his more important students and the part they played in the spread of humanism in Europe. Recently, however, there have appeared in English several studies of Ianus Pannonius (1434-72), once described by Guarinus as "a studentboarder of mine, Pannonian by race but Italian in manners, an admirable, indeed a stupendous scholar.
The Mirror of Man's Salvation: Music in Devotional Life About 1500
Authors: Brown Howard Mayer
Published: April 2006

Composers working during the last quarter of the fifteenth century wrote many more motets than previous composers had done. At any rate, far more have come down to us. This apparent explosion of activity coincided with the founding, reorganization, or revitalization of a number of cathedral or princely chapel choirs. Moreover, the character of the motet as a musical genre also seems to have changed at about the same time. By far the largest number of motets composed before 1475 set texts celebrating the Virgin Mary, or else they were compositions written to celebrate particular political or social occasions.
Manipulating the Sacred: Image and Plague in Renaissance Italy*
Authors: Marshall Louise
Published: April 2006

The Infamous Black Death of 1348 signaled the reappearance of bubonic plague in Europe after long centuries of absence. Contemporary accounts vividly describe the shock and horror of universal and indiscriminate mortality. From Tournai, Gilles Li Muisis observed that “no one was secure, whether rich, in moderate circumstances or poor, but everyone from day to day waited on the will of the Lord.” In any given area, between one third to half of the population would die. Worse still, the Black Death was only the beginning of a worldwide pandemic, or cyclical series of epidemics, recurring at intervals of two to twenty years throughout Europe until well into the seventeenth century.
Fabius Maximus in Venice: Doge Andrea Gritti, the War of Cambrai, and the Rise of Habsburg Hegemony, 1509-1530*
Authors: Finlay Robert
Published: April 2006

As a consequence of its dismal experience in the War of Cambrai (1509-1517), the Venetian Republic adopted a military policy of avoiding battlefield encounters. As a commander in the war and as doge of Venice after 1523, Andrea Gritti was the foremost proponent of this strategy, earning for himself the appellation of "Fabius Maximus," the Roman general who opposed Hannibal by delay and defense in the Second Punic War. In the 1520s, the Republic aspired to play the role of a great power — or at least that of an independent, balancing force between France and the Spanish-Habsburg Empire; but its refusal to commit its troops to battle fatally weakened the political coalitions opposing Charles V and thereby significantly contributed to the rise of Habsburg hegemony in Italy. A major step toward Charles V's triumph was the infamous Sack of Rome in 1527, a calamity for which the Fabian policy of Venice bears some responsibility.
The WTO Legal System: Sources of Law
Authors: Palmeter David , Mavroidis Petros C.
Published: April 2006

Modern discussions of the sources of international law usually begin with a reference to Article 38 (1) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which provides:

The Court, whose function is to decide in accordance with international law such disputes as are submitted to it, shall apply:

a.

international conventions, whether general or particular, establishing rules expressly recognized by the contesting states;

b.

international custom as evidence of a general practice accepted as law;

c.

the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations;

d.

subject to the provisions of Article 59, judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations, as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law.
“Indigenous Peoples” in International Law: A Constructivist Approach to the Asian Controversy
Authors: Kingsbury Benedict
Published: April 2006

Over a very short period, the few decades since the early 1970s, “indigenous peoples” has been transformed from a prosaic description without much significance in international law and politics, into a concept with considerable power as a basis for group mobilization, international standard setting, transnational networks and programmatic activity of intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations.
War Crimes Law Comes of Age
Authors: Meron Theodor
Published: April 2006

The rapid and fundamental developments in the last few years on the establishment of individual criminal responsibility for serious violations of international humanitarian law have been such that it is now an appropriate time to assess their principal features.
Progress and Jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
Authors: Murphy Sean D.
Published: April 2006

In May 1993, the United Nations Security Council established the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY). Over the past five years, the ICTY has shifted from an institution lacking a basic structure, staff and other resources—not to mention indictees in custody—to a fully functioning tribunal pursuing (as of December 1998) twenty-two public indictments against fifty-six indictees; twenty-eight indictees are in custody, awaiting trial or serving a sentence; five have been convicted; one has pleaded guilty; one has been acquitted; several trials are under way; and several more are in pretrial stages. Although its ultimate success is not yet guaranteed, the ICTY is coming of age as a credible forum for the international prosecution of war crimes within its jurisdiction. The following account describes the ICTY’s current status, analyzes its jurisprudence (as seen in its most significant decisions), and briefly assesses its place in the development of international humanitarian law.
European Community—Maastricht Treaty—delegation of power to international organizations under Danish Constitution—right to democracy—power of Danish courts to review acts by Community organs
Authors: Oxman Bernard H. , Harck Sten , Olsen Henrik Palmer
Published: April 2006

Decision Concerning the Maastricht Treaty. 1998 Ugeskrift for Retsvaesen, H 800.

Supreme Court of Denmark, April 6, 1998.

In this case the Danish Supreme Court decided that the ratification and the incorporation into Danish law of the Maastricht Treaty creating the European Union are consistent with the Danish Constitution of 1953. It also reserved the right for Danish courts to review Community decisions for consistency with the Act on Denmark's accession to the EC Treaty. This decision is of vital importance to Denmark's relationship to the European Community (EC) and to the claims of direct effect and priority of EC law over national constitutions.
Contemporary Practice of the United States Relating to International Law
Authors: (Leich) Marian Nash
Published: April 2006

In January 1998, the Department of State released its Publication 10518, Consular Notification and Access: Instructions for Federal, State, and Local Law Enforcement and Other Officials Regarding Foreign Nationals in the United States and the Rights of Consular Officials to Assist Them. Prepared in the Office of the Legal Adviser, the booklet contains “instructions and guidance relating to the arrest and detention of foreign nationals, deaths of foreign nationals, the appointment of guardians for minors or incompetent adults who are foreign nationals, and related issues pertaining to the provision of consular services to foreign nationals in the United States.” The foreword points out that cooperation of federal, state and local law enforcement agencies in ensuring treatment of foreign nationals in accordance with the instructions not only will permit the United States to comply with its consular legal obligations domestically, but also will help ensure that the United States can insist upon “rigorous compliance by foreign governments with respect to United States citizens abroad.”
The 1997 Judicial Activity of the International Court of Justice
Authors: Bekker Peter H. F.
Published: April 2006

This Note summarizes the judicial work of the International Court of Justice during 1997, using the updated General List, pleadings filed, Orders and Judgments given and hearings held at the Peace Palace in The Hague to describe the Court’s current record.
Breard and the Federal Power to Require Compliance With ICJ Orders of Provisional Measures
Authors: Vázquez Carlos Manuel
Published: April 2006

Among the puzzling aspects of the Breard episode was the Clinton administration’s claim that the decision whether or not to comply with the Order of the International Court of Justice requiring the postponement of Breard’s execution lay exclusively in the hands of the Governor of Virginia. The ICJ’s Order provided that “[t]he United States should take all measures at its disposal to ensure that Angel Francisco Breard is not executed pending the final decision in these proceedings.” The Clinton administration argued that the Order was not binding, but it also took the position that, even if the order were binding, there would be no authority in the federal Government to require a postponement of the execution. As the administration explained to the Supreme Court:
An Enthusiastic Amateur: Lorenzo de' Medici as Architect
Authors: Brown Beverly Louise
Published: April 2006

Ottavio Vannini's Fresco, Lorenzo the Magnificent as a Patron of the Arts (Fig. I), forms part of a cycle painted around 1623 in the Palazzo Pitti to celebrate the marriage of Ferdinando II and Vittoria della Rovere. Lorenzo is seen surrounded by artists who proffer the fruits of their creative endeavor. Among them we immediately recognize the young Michelangelo, who presents a marble copy of an antique fawn's head, made, Vasari tells us, at Lorenzo's urging, and to the extreme left Giuliano da Sangallo, who holds under his arm a drawing from the façade of the Medici villa, Poggio a Caiano. The implication of Vannini's fresco is beyond doubt. By evoking the history of the early Medici, the Grand Dukes hoped to establish a framework within which their own glory might shine all the more brilliantly.
Reprinting Tudor History: The Case of Catherine of Aragon*
Authors: Travitsky Betty S.
Published: April 2006

Juan Luis Vives's Instruction of a, Christen Woman (hereafter ICW), the text Ruth Kelso has described as the most influential conduct book for women of the sixteenth century, was printed and reprinted in English over nine times during the course of the century: in 1529, 1531, 1541, 1547, 1557, and 1567 from the shop of the Erasmian printer Thomas Berthelet, in 1585 by Robert Waldegrave, and in 1592, by John Danter. In addition to the widely recognized significance of the often contradictory views of women expressed in ICW, these English editions are significant as an example of an early modern reconstituting of the historical record. Allusions to Catherine of Aragon within these editions reflect swings in Tudor court politics and trace the privatization of this once seemingly powerful woman as she was removed from court and public life.
Passage to Europe: Dostoevskii in the St. Petersburg Arcade
Authors: Dianina Katia
Published: April 2006

The St. Petersburg Passage—a shopping arcade and recreation complex, comprising restaurants, exhibitions, amateur theater, and the Literary Fund—was a remarkable center of public life in imperial Russia. Contemporary journalists wrote incessantly about the Passage, celebrating the various forms of popular entertainment that it offered. In his strange unfinished story “The Crocodile,” which also takes place in the Russian arcade, Fedor Dostoevskii parodies this trivial discourse of the daily press. Urban spectacles and their refraction in the mass-circulation media are the main targets of his caricature of westernized popular culture in Russia. The writer's response to Russian modernity, as it was taking shape in the age of the Great Reforms, is expressly negative. Dostoevskii believed that in a decade defined by the rise of civic consciousness, the Russian press should address vital social concerns at home instead of celebrating ephemeral cultural imports, such as the arcade and the newspaper feuilleton.
Raymond Gairard and Romanesque Building Campaigns at Saint-Sernin in Toulouse
Authors: Lyman Thomas W.
Published: April 2006

A restoration nearing completion at Saint-Sernin in Toulouse has shed light on the building sequence and the role of St. Raymond Gairard, credited by 15th- and 16th-century vitae with completing the "corpus" up to the windows before his death. New evidence suggests that Raymond's "corpus" included the inception of an ambitiously conceived tower façade and vestibule left unfinished in an unsuccessful post-Raymondine campaign to vault the nave in solid brick masonry. The correlation of different masonry types and footings with architectural carving such as bases, moldings, and capital styles, as well as masons' marks leads to the further conclusion that the choir with crossing and transepts was completed in several major campaigns, the last two of which were undertaken after Raymond's nave walls. If the Vita Raimundi excludes Raymond from participation in a "capitis membrum" as historians have believed, it either errs or uses "corpus" to denote the entire crossing and the nave together and "capitis membrum" to denote the crypt wall with its surrounding ambulatory. Whichever the case, the date of 1118 given for Raymond's death in the necrology is not consonant with the archaeological evidence, including the probable date of the transept sculpture toward 1100. Raymond, in this view, would have been most active between 1080 and 1100, the period suggested by primary documents, when he designed the ambitious five-aisled nave and west tower façade, and adopted exposed alternating stone and brick masonry to complete the transepts. The sculpture of Bernardus Gelduinus and the Porte Miègeville Master may both testify to his last active years.
The Marshall Field Wholesale Store: Materials toward a Monograph
Authors: O'Gorman James F.
Published: April 2006

Despite its central position in the history of architecture, H. H. Richardson's Marshall Field Wholesale Store remains a largely mythical building, known primarily from a limited number of photographs often reproduced and from Louis Sullivan's eulogy in the Kindergarten Chats. This paper presents a factual history and description of the building conceived by the client in 1881, designed in 1885, and quietly opened in 1887. It was U-shaped and red originally, rather than Sullivan's "four-square and brown." Since it was not innovative either in design or in technology (although aspects of both are remarkable), its historical reputation is attributed to its fortuitous location in time and place, the reputation of the architect, the cohesiveness of its design at an urban scale, its symbolic impact as an urban commercial structure, and the quality of its execution.
A European Profile of American Architecture
Authors: Lewis Arnold
Published: April 2006

European criticism of American architecture was superficial and condescending until the last quarter of the 19th century. After the Philadelphia Centennial in 1876 the quantity of studies increased slowly, but only by 1885 was a corresponding rise in quality noticeable. From this year through the wake of the Columbian Exposition held in Chicago in 1893, European architects and critics, particularly in London, Paris, and Berlin, studied closely the approaches and practices of architects in the United States and discussed their merits vigorously. For many, American work became a model of sensible, contemporary methodology and design, offering clues to the possible nature of architecture in the 20th century. For others, the buildings of the United States proved the cultural superiority of the "senior nations" of the Old World. If the value of American architecture was uncertain to Europeans, its characteristics were not. They treated it as a definable entity with recognizable traits, a distinctive national architecture distinguishable both in theory and practice from European work in general and their nation's work in particular. This body of criticism reveals those aspects of design Europeans considered typically American. Because they approached this architecture with presuppositions and assumptions shaped by European experiences, visitors frequently saw artistic and practical features hidden to or discounted by native commentators. They often discovered characteristics that American professionals did not consciously regard as characteristics. Their dissimilar vantage points and their need for comprehendible explanations encouraged them to risk interpretations of relationships between causes and final form; they attempted to explain why the Americans built as they did.
The Tuscan/Rustic Order: A Study in the Metaphorical Language of Architecture
Authors: Ackerman James S.
Published: April 2006

Sebastiano Serlio begins his account of the orders with a description of the Tuscan order that associates it with the practice of rustication, implying that the two should be joined because both originated in Tuscany. In the process of investigating how this marriage came about and what it means, this essay traces the Renaissance interpretations of the Tuscan order from Vitruvius and Alberti through Scamozzi and then undertakes to discover what Renaissance theorists knew about the ancient use, first of the Tuscan order, and then of Rustication. Returning to Serlio, it suggests that his association of the two traditions was adapted from the practice of Giulio Romano, and reflects an interest in the dialectic between nature and culture characteristic of the second, post-classical generation of 16th-century designers.
Kazuo Shinohara's "Savage Machine" and the Place of Tradition in the Modern Japanese Residence
Authors: Sanderson Warren
Published: April 2006

Although Kazuo Shinohara has achieved pre-eminence among Japan's living architects, he is almost unknown in the West. Until 1980 he concentrated upon the reinterpretation of traditional Japanese architecture in a deliberate quest for the quintessential modern Japanese dwelling. After summarizing the directions this architect took in his career between 1953 and 1980, and discussing Shinohara's Tanikawa (1974) and Ohtsuji (1976) residences in terms of a developing theory of the "savage machine," the author discusses this and the much more traditionally Japanese meanings inherent in Shinohara's 1978-1980 design of a residence for the Suzuki family in Tokyo. In conclusion, mention is also made of the directions taken by this architect since 1980.