bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
From Caracalla to Diocletian
Authors: Salway Peter
Published: November 2023

As one contemplates the third century, the feeling that a real change has come over the Roman world is overwhelming. In the first half of the second century the empire was still expanding; in the second half despite the pressure on the Danube that at times looked very dangerous, the empire stood triumphant and unshaken. In the third century all seems changed. Inflation, military insurrection, one murdered emperor following another, open autocracy, and the simultaneous breaching of the imperial defences in both east and west look like the beginning of the end. Yet we are powerfully conditioned by hindsight.
Constantine the Great
Authors: Salway Peter
Published: November 2023

Some of the parallels between Constantius I and Septimius Severus in Britain were certainly not literary inventions. The last campaign of each was his war in northern Britain. And the coincidences went further: both had their sons with them; both returned to York after a victorious campaign, and there died. In the Severan case, however, the succession was clear, but the subsequent struggle between Caracalla and Geta inevitable. In 306 Diocletian’s newly established constitutional system ought to have made the succession indisputable. Constantius’ Caesar, Flavius Valerius Severus, should have become the western Augustus without question, and a new Caesar should have been appointed to replace him. Unfortunately, old traditions reasserted themselves. It is not clear that Galerius originally planned to have any western colleague at all in the same rank as himself, but the army at York forestalled whatever was intended. They proclaimed Constantine as Augustus, encouraged by a Germanic king, Crocus, who had been put in command of a cohort of Alamanni, a fact that may have influenced Constantine in his subsequent liking for German troops and officers. He certainly made much in later years of the origin of his rule in distant Britain, across the Ocean, and liked to dwell on the notion of a divine mission that had swept his power from the far west of the empire to its extreme east.
The Middle of the Fourth Century
Authors: Salway Peter
Published: November 2023

The immense personality and prestige of Constantine held the whole empire firm in his grip while he lived. His death in 337 started a chain of events that were to prove very serious for Britain. It began with an outbreak of murderous squabbling in the imperial family. Britain’s early fourth-century age of peace and prosperity began to dissolve in the 340s, but for a brief moment the island seemed to have escaped the consequences of Constantine’s death. They were momentous. For three months there was no Augustus at all: the instigators of a major army revolt in Constantinople refosed to accept any of the proposed appointments to imperial rank other than the sons of Constantine themselves. The troops proceeded to dispose summarily of various other members of the imperial family and of a number of appointees left by the late emperor. His second son, Constantine II, had formally held the rank of Caesar since he was a month old, demonstrating how far imperial attitudes to the succession had reverted to former practices. Out of the chaos, this Constantine emerged as the senior Augustus, personally controlling Britain, Gaul, and Spain. Another brother, Constans, held Italy, Africa, and the Illyrian provinces, and a third, Constantine II, had Constantinople and most of the east. All three assumed the rank of Augustus.
The Restoration of Order
Authors: Salway Peter
Published: November 2023

Whether or not Valentinian had intended to turn to Britain as part of his programme of strengthening the frontiers, his attention was forcibly drawn to the island by a spectacular and unforeseen climax in the harassment by barbarians. Struck by a serious illness in 367, Valentinian discovered that names of possible successors to himself were being bandied about. His answer was to appoint his 8-year-old son, Gratian, as co-emperor with himself and Valens. The sequel suggests that some very shrewd and well-informed minds were at work among the enemies of Rome. We should not ignore the fact that in recent times a substantial number of Germans had been appointed alongside Romans at the top levels in the military hierarchy. This continued to be the practice. Thus, in the middle of the fourth century a profound knowledge of Roman military affairs must have been built up in professional Germanic military circles, amongst a class of men not all of whom may have seen service under the empire. It is not necessary to postulate treachery to account for the barbarians’ capacity to assess accurately the effects on military readiness for external attack of political events within the empire, though this was indeed suspected in 354. As long ago as the first century, some of the most dangerous enemies of Rome had been men like Arminius and Civilis, who had previously commanded auxiliary units in the Roman army. The situation in the fourth century, however, was of a different order of magnitude.
The Collapse of Imperial Rule in Britain
Authors: Salway Peter
Published: November 2023

The death of Theodosius left the empire to his two sons Arcadius and Honorius, both already invested with the rank of Augustus. This is often taken as the point at which the division into eastern and western empires became final. To consider the division as absolute from this date is in fact a simplification that makes much subsequent history more difficult to comprehend than is necessary, but, in the context of the reign of Honorius and the story of the collapse of imperial control in the west, it has sufficient truth to be a vital factor in the events that concern this book. Honorius’ reign, from 395 to 423, is a rare period in which the cumulative effect of changes that we have observed occurring over a long period combined with a series of crises to create a genuine turning-point in western history, nowhere more dramatically than in Britain. At the death of Theodosius the frontiers of the empire were still maintained, and within them the vast structure of Roman society and the Roman way of life stood largely intact. Both within and without the empire Rome’s prestige and position in the world were not seriously doubted. By the time Honorius died, the western Roman world had been shattered into fragments, never to be restored.
Postscript to Roman Britain
Authors: Salway Peter
Published: November 2023

If we do not take the revolt of Britain from the rule of Constantine III as marking the end of Roman Britain, then we shall have to admit that there is insufficient evidence to determine conclusively when the phenomenon that we have been studying as ‘Roman Britain’ came to a close. The literary evidence for specific events and for the actions-even the existence-of individual people in Britain after 410 is exceedingly scrappy and difficult to interpret, while the archaeology is subject to widely differing interpretations. However, there is just enough material that can safely be put together to indicate that by the middle of the fifth century Britain had changed beyond recognition. It is also clear that it had evolved on very different lines from most of Roman Gaul. By the 44os-at the latest-a distinctively ‘post-Roman’ society had emerged in Britain. Recent research strongly suggests that the society we have been studying disintegrated fairly rapidly after the revolt, to such an extent that it is, in fact, right to take 409 or 410 as marking the end of Roman Britain. That being so, it is not the task of this book to pursue the narrative of Britain far into the fifth century-that is a matter for the historians of post-Roman, Celtic, and Anglo-Saxon Britain-but to see what the nature of this disintegration can tell us about the late Roman society that had just collapsed.
The Economy
Authors: Salway Peter
Published: November 2023

The ‘economics’ of the ancient world is an area in which we are more in danger of anachronism than perhaps any other. Though emperors intervened from time to time in one ‘economic’ field or another-debasing or reforming currency, trying to control prices or the movement of labour, imposing or altering taxes-few, if any, of their measures had an economic motive in the sense employed in modern government. It was in terms of revenue and politics that emperors considered the economy of provinces, not in the context of any general economic theory aimed at a common good. No one attempted to co-ordinate the economic lite of the Roman world. If we are to avoid being unhistorical, ancient economics can only be viewed as the separate activities of enormous numbers of individuals pursuing their own activities, some of their own free will, some under compulsion. This chapter might, indeed, have been better entitled ‘Wealth and Work’ than ‘The Economy’, though nowadays a section on economics is expected from historians of any culture. The sum of all this activity does add up to a whole, however incoherent and constantly changing, but that whole must be recognized as the undirected and largely accidental thing that it was.
Religion and Society
Authors: Salway Peter
Published: November 2023

Religion, in all its many aspects, was so embedded in the culture of the ancient world that it is impossible to consider one without the other. Already in the second century BC the Greek politician and historian Polybius had assessed the position of religion in Roman society as the cement of the Roman state. But religion was much more than just a matter of public observance and political loyalty. It permeated every side of life, and took many different forms. Our period saw the defeat of the old public religion of the Olympian gods, and the emergence of new religions demanding personal commitment. Some were based on private devotion; others evolved into highly organized societies of their own. At the same time, the equally personal and very ancient belief in the local deities of family, home, and place retained an immense hold over the mind.
A Reformer in the Kremlin
Authors: Keep John L H
Published: November 2023

Unlike Lenin, Stalin left no ‘last testament’. This meant that the succession would be settled simply by bargaining between his closest associates rather than by any legal means. On 5 March 1953, when Stalin died at his dacha outside Moscow, those who gathered at his bedside had mixed emotions. On one hand they were relieved of anxiety lest they become victims of the new purge that Stalin had been preparing. On the other hand they had good reason to be afraid, both of each other and of the popular reaction to their takeover.
The Lubianka and the Kremlin
Authors: Keep John L H
Published: November 2023

As the Committee for State Security (KGB) managed to preserve its secrets once the USSR collapsed, much remains obscure about the history of the organization that played such a cardinal role in sustaining the Party’s dictatorship. The relationship between the Lubianka and the Kremlin (more correctly, Old Square, the location of the CPSU CC and its apparatus) was complex.
The Party in Disarray
Authors: Keep John L H
Published: November 2023

To the outward eye Brezhnev’s eighteen-year rule saw the Party reinforce its position as motor of the political process. It maintained intact both its institutional structure and its mechanism for super vising government and society. The nomenklatura system of appointment to positions of authority was backed up by a host of controllers, who kept constant watch on officials’ performance.
An Economy in Trouble
Authors: Keep John L H
Published: November 2023

The ‘first’ economy would not undergo the radical transformation it needed for some twenty years after Brezhnev took over. Under his regime only patchwork repairs were attempted to the centralized system of planning and resource allocation. They were thwarted by powerful vested interests and had little practical impact. Not only the country’s leaders and managerial elite but also many professional economists with advanced views underestimated the gravity of the problems they faced. By the mid-1980s the USSR was in what Gorbachev would call a ‘precrisis situation’.
Agrarian and Environmental Dilemmas
Authors: Keep John L H
Published: November 2023

Khrushchev’s successors took over his basic strategy for ensuring a rapid growth of agricultural output but applied it in a more consistent manner. There was less ‘campaigning’ and bureaucratic interference in farm management, but no major change of the organizational pattern inherited from Stalin. Investment allocations were increased and agricultural prices raised, but farms still found it hard to cover their costs. Only in two years (1976, 1978) did the grain harvest exceed the target under the plan, and in the early 1980s the situation in this respect was so bad that statisticians were forbidden to publish the actual figures.
Social Breakdown, Cultural Renovation
Authors: Keep John L H
Published: November 2023

The term ‘crisis’ is contested by some Western scholars, who would prefer the less value-laden term ‘disequilibrium’. Likewise, the vast majority of Soviet citizens (outside minority areas, at least) failed to appreciate the seriousness of the country’s situation by the mid-198os. Though few accepted at face value the official line that the people’s well-being was in the forefront of the authorities’ concern, many considered themselves fortunate in enjoying blessings supposedly denied to ordinary folk in the West and attributed shortcomings to the pressing needs of defense against the ‘imperialist’ menace. Nevertheless a sizeable proportion of educated people-not just intellectuals but functionaries, too-did realize that Soviet society was seriously sick.
The Russian National Movement
Authors: Keep John L H
Published: November 2023

At the beginning of the twentieth century the Russian people lagged behind many others in the tsarist realm (Poles, Finns, even Baits and Ukrainians) in the development of a modern national consciousness. The social elite identified with the multi-national empire; in the terminology of the day, their thinking was rossiiskiirather than russkii. Ordinary folk either opted for a social (class) orientation or else had none at all, in that their horizons were limited to the local community.
The Restless Empire
Authors: Keep John L H
Published: November 2023

The more perspicacious Soviet leaders recognized that the principal threat the regime faced came from the national minorities. Census data showed that overall they were growing more rapidly than Russians. Efforts to promote the ‘growing together’ of all nations of the Union on the basis of adherence to common Soviet values were meeting with intermittent success at best. The ideal of their eventual ‘merger’ was becoming a mirage, as remote as the achievement of a world-wide Communist order. For this reason during the 1970s it was rarely mentioned in public discourse and gave way to the less menacing term ‘complete unity’.
The power of persuasion
Authors: Taylor Kathleen
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 1, we saw how intensive, personal, painful, and terrifying brainwashing can be when force is used in the quest for thought control, as for example in some cults. However, brainwashing has also been alleged in two very different fields of human endeavour: advertising and the media, and education. Both seek to change minds, though for different reasons, and both are thought to wield considerable power. Unlike brainwashing by force, however, they generally employ less coercive methods, relying instead on stealthier forms of persuasion. Both are framed within, and transmit, a set of beliefs about the world, an ideology. That ideology defines the social roles of individuals as State subjects, teaching them their proper place in the status quo.
Science and nightmare
Authors: Taylor Kathleen
Published: November 2023

In The Search for the ‘Manchurian Candidate’, first published in 1977, the investigative reporter John Marks describes how the US government’s Central Intelligence Agency spent years—and vast amounts of taxpayers’ money—searching for foolproof methods of brainwashing people. Despite acknowledging that much CIA research into mind control was far ahead of its academic counterpart, the behavioural sciences, Marks concluded that to the best of his knowledge the search had failed—so far. ‘Spurred by the widespread alarm over communist tactics, Agency officials had investigated the field, started their own projects, and looked to the latest technology to make improvements. After 10 years of research, with some rather gruesome results, CIA officials had come up with no techniques on which they felt they could rely.’1
Purpose and Plan
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

It must have been around 1950. I was accompanying Einstein on a walk from The Institute for Advanced Study to his home, when he suddenly stopped, turned to me, and asked me if I really believed that the moon exists only if I look at it. The nature of our conversation was not particularly metaphysical. Rather, we were discussing the quantum theory, in particular what is doable and knowable in the sense of physical observation. The twentieth century physicist does not, of course, claim to have the definitive answer to this question. He does know, however, that the answer given by his nineteenth century ancestors will no longer do. They were almost exactly right, to be sure, as far as conditions of everyday life are concerned, but their answer cannot be extrapolated to things moving nearly as fast as light, or to things that are as small as atoms, or—in some respects—to things that are as heavy as stars.
The Reality of Molecules
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

1. Chemistry. In 1771 work was completed on the first edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, ‘a Dictionary of Arts and Sciences compiled upon a new plan… by a Society of Gentlemen in Scotland.’ The entry atom, written by William Smellie, a man renowned for his devotion to scholarship and whisky [Kl], reads as follows. ‘Atom. In philosophy, a particle of matter, so minute as to admit no division. Atoms are the minima naturae [smallest bodies) and are conceived as the first principles or component parts of all physical magnitude.’ Democritus might have disagreed, since his atoms were not necessarily minute. Epicurus might have objected that the atom has structure-though it cannot be divided into smaller parts by physical means.
Field Theories of Gravitation: the First Fifty Years
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

It did not take Einstein long to realize that the collaboration with Grossmann [E1] had led to some conclusions that defeated the very task he had set himself. Let us briefly recapitulate the developments in his thinking about gravitation up to the spring of 1913. Late in 1907 he discovered the singular position of gravitation in the theory of relativity. He realized that the question was not how to incorporate gravitation into the special theory but rather how to use gravitation as a means of breaking away from the privileged position of covariance for uniform relative motion to covariance for general motion. In his Prague days, the analysis of the motion of light in an inhomogeneous gravitational field taught him that the light velocity depends on the gravitational potential and that therefore the framework of the special theory of relativity was too narrow [E2]. Toward the end of his stay in Prague, the technical concept of general covariance took shape in his mind and the fundamental role of the metric tensor as the carrier of gravitation became clear. The first steps toward the tensor theory of gravitation, taken with Grossmann, led him to conclude that the gravitational field equations can be covariant only with respect to linear transformations.
The Field Equations of Gravitation
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

On November 25, 1915, Einstein presented to the physics-mathematics section of the Prussian Academy of Sciences a paper in which ‘finally the general theory of relativity is closed as a logical structure’ [El]. The title of that paper is identical with the heading of the present chapter, in which it is described how his field equations reached their final form. Einstein was still a professor at the ETH when he presented his report to the Vienna meeting discussed in Chapter 13. However, by then he had already decided to leave Zürich. In the spring of 1913, Planck and Nernst had come to Zürich for the purpose of sounding out Einstein about his possible interest in moving to Berlin. A combination of positions was held out to him: membership in the Prussian Academy with a special salary to be paid, half by the Prussian government and half by the physics-mathematics section of the Academy from a fund maintained with outside help, a professorship at the University of Berlin with the right but not the obligation to teach, and the directorship of a physics institute to be established.
A Loss of Identity: the Birth of Quantum Statistics
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

This episode begins with a letter dated June 1924 [Bl], written by a young Bengali. His name was Satyendra Nath Bose. The five papers he had published by then were of no particular distinction. The subject of his letter was his sixth paper. He had sent it to the Philosophical Magazine. A referee had rejected it [B2]. Bose’s letter was addressed to Einstein, then forty-five years old and already recognized as a world figure by his colleagues and by the public at large. In this chapter I describe what happened in the scientific lives of these two men during the six months following Einstein’s receipt of Bose’s letter. For Bose the consequences were momentous. Virtually unknown before, he became a physicist whose name will always be remembered. For Einstein this period was only an interlude.* He was already deeply engrossed in his search for a unified theory. Such is the scope of his oeuvre that his discoveries in those six months do not even rank among his five main contributions, yet they alone would have sufficed for Einstein to be remembered forever.
Einstein’s Proposals for the Nobel Prize
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

Einstein’s Nobel prize proposals enable us to catch glimpses of what, in his judgment, were and were not important issues in his time. In what follows, the reader will find neither a dissertation on the virtues, follies, and harm of prizes and awards, nor a gossip column about personalities. Nine of the following entries refer to physics proposals. Unless noted otherwise, they are all addressed to the Nobel Committee in Stockholm in the form of letters. There are also seven proposals for the peace prize directed to the Starting in Oslo. One entry deals with correspondence about a Nobel prize in medicine for Sigmund Freud, another concerns a literature prize for Hermann Broch.
An Einstein Chronology
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

August 8. Hermann Einstein (b. 1847) and Pauline Koch (b. 1852) are married in Cannstatt. March 14, 11:30 a.m. Albert, their first child, is born in the Einstein residence, Bahnhofstrasse 135, Ulm. June 21. The Einsteins register as residents of Munich. November 18. E.’s sister Maria (Maja) is born. The first miracle: E.’s enchantment with a pocket compass. First instruction, by a private teacher. E. starts taking violin lessons (and continues to do so to age thirteen). E. attends public school in Munich. In order to comply with legal requirements for religious instruction, he is taught the elements of Judaism at home. E. enters the Luitpold Gymnasium.** The religious education continues, at school this time, where Oberlehrer Heinrich Friedmann instructs E. until he is prepared for the bar mitzvah.
The Abstract Nature Of Mathematics
Authors: Whitehead Alfred North
Published: November 2023

The Study of mathematics is apt to commence in dis­ appointment. The important applications of the science, the theoretical interest of its ideas, and the logical rigour of its methods, all generate the expectation of a speedy introduction to processes of interest. We are told that by its aid the stars are weighed and the billions of molecules in a drop of water are counted. Yet, like the ghost of Hamlet’s father, this great science eludes the efforts of our mental weapons to grasp it—“Tis here, ‘tis there, ‘tis gone’-and what we do see does not suggest the same excuse for illusiveness as sufficed for the ghost, that it is too noble for our gross methods. ‘A show of violence,’ if ever excusable, may surely be ‘offered’ to the trivial results which occupy the pages of some elementary mathematical treatises.
Dynamics
Authors: Whitehead Alfred North
Published: November 2023

The World had to wait for eighteen hundred years till the Greek mathematical physicists found successors. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries of our era great Italians, in particular Leonardo da Vinci, the artist (born 1452, died 1519), and Galileo (born 1564, died I 642), rediscovered the secret, known to Archimedes, of relating abstract mathematical ideas with the experimental investigation of natural phenomena. Meanwhile the slow advance of mathematics and the accumulation of accurate astronomical knowledge had placed natural philosophers in a much more advantageous position for research.
Periodicity In Nature
Authors: Whitehead Alfred North
Published: November 2023

The Whole life of Nature is dominated by the existence of periodic events, that is, by the existence of successive events so analogous to each other that, without any straining of language, they may be termed recurrences of the same event. The rotation of the earth produces the successive days. It is true that each day is different from the preceding days, however abstractly we define the meaning of a day, so as to exclude casual phenomena. But with a sufficiently abstract definition of a day, the distinction in properties between two days becomes faint and remote from practical interest; and each day may then be conceived as a recurrence of the phenomenon of one rotation of the earth.
Quantity
Authors: Whitehead Alfred North
Published: November 2023

In The previous chapter we pointed out that lengths are measurable in terms of some unit length, areas in term of a unit area, and volumes in terms of a unit volume. When we have a set of things such as lengths which are measurable in terms of any one of them, we say that they are quantities of the same kind. Thus lengths are quantities of the same kind, so are areas, and so are volumes. But an area is not a quantity of the same kind as a length, nor is it of the same kind as a volume. Let us think a little more on what is meant by being measurable, taking lengths as an example.
Public Financing of Campaigns
Authors: Brecher Charles , Horton Raymond D , Cropf Robert A , Mead Dean Michael
Published: November 2023

The November 1989 election was a milestone in New York City’s political history. For the first time the campaigns of candidates for municipal offices were financed partly by public funds. With this historic election, New York City joined a small number of other cities and states that provide partial public financing of campaigns. The campaign financing program was created under the New York City Campaign Finance Act, signed into law in March 1988.
Bargaining and Budgeting
Authors: Brecher Charles , Horton Raymond D , Cropf Robert A , Mead Dean Michael
Published: November 2023

This chapter addresses issues involving two of the most important aspects of New York City government, municipal budgeting and collective bargaining. The issues are highlighted by the repeated failure of collective bargaining to resolve municipal wage policy in time for adoption of a realistic annual operating budget. The delays in resolving labor settlements mean that city officials must allocate resources and determine related policy issues without having the benefit of knowing what labor costs will be in a given year. This threatens the integrity of the city’s budgeting and financial planning processes.
Municipal Wage Policy
Authors: Brecher Charles , Horton Raymond D , Cropf Robert A , Mead Dean Michael
Published: November 2023

On June 30, 1990, contracts between the city of New York and most of its unionized employees expired. The relatively new Dinkins administration began its first round of collective bargaining. Its initial settlements with the United Federation of Teachers in early October 1991 and two other large municipal employee unions a few weeks later were widely criticized as too generous, adding to the city’s mounting fiscal woes.
The Uniformed Services
Authors: Brecher Charles , Horton Raymond D , Cropf Robert A , Mead Dean Michael
Published: November 2023

Chapter 11 explained how an input—output approach can serve three purposes in the analysis of municipal services: it can further understanding of the expenditure—services relationship, facilitate performance evaluation, and help identify options for service improvement. This chapter applies the approach to the city of New York’s four uniformed services—sanitation, fire, police, and correction—with an emphasis on evaluation and options for improvement.
The Department of Parks and Recreation
Authors: Brecher Charles , Horton Raymond D , Cropf Robert A , Mead Dean Michael
Published: November 2023

Standing before the stony panorama of New York City’s concrete skyscrapers and asphalt streets, the average New Yorker would be surprised to learn that fully one-sixth of the city is public parkland and that a larger portion of its land is reserved for parks than in any other large American city. (See Tables 14.1 and 14.2.) In fact, the average share devoted to local parks among the nation’s largest cities is only about 6 percent, less than half the equivalent figure for New York City.
Introduction
Authors: Peterson Christopher , Maier Steven F , Seligman Martin E P
Published: November 2023

Over the last thirty years, we have witnessed a vast change in how the social sciences explain our behavior. As students, we were taught that people were pushed and pulled by their inner and outer environments. The details of this pushing and pulling became the preferred explanation of our actions. We learned such explanations as: Organisms persist in their responses, if these are reinforced by the occurrence of positive events or the cessation of negative ones. Organisms display their habits when their biological drives are high and will repeat responses that have been followed by the reduction of biological needs.
Learned Helplessness and Social Problems
Authors: Peterson Christopher , Maier Steven F , Seligman Martin E P
Published: November 2023

There are two stories about learned helplessness in people. The first one has to do with the attempts in the experimental laboratory to produce a phenomenon akin to that observed in dogs following un­ controllable shocks. The second one has to do with the extrapolations of the helplessness phenomenon to explain all manner of failures of human adaptation. There are some striking differences between these stories. As we described in Chapter 4, basic helplessness research has been controversial. In contrast, the applications for the most part have been enthusiastically accepted. But here’s an even more interesting wrinkle: the most thoroughly worked through application of learned helplessness has been to depression, and this is precisely the most controversial. In Chapter 6, we touched on some of the reasons for this controversy.
Geochemical Self-Organization
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J
Published: November 2023

This monograph offers an interdisciplinary approach to the analysis of geological systems which become spatially organized through the mediation of chemical processes. The treatment is based on a mathematical approach. The intended readership includes researcher and advanced undergraduate and graduate students in all branches of geology as well as scientists and mathematicians concerned with nonlinear dynamics, numerical analysis, self-organization, nonlinear waves and dynamics, and phase transition phenomena. The work could also serve as a basis for a special topics course in mathematics, chemistry or physics.
Introduction
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J
Published: November 2023

The traditional view of geology is that observed structures are due to an externally imposed pattern. For example, sedimentary rock layering is attributed to seasonal variations in the rate and character of deposition. This view has succeeded in explaining many observed patterns. However, not all repetitive geological patterns can be directly attributed to a “template,” that is, to causes external to the rock system in which the patterns have formed.
Metamorphic Differentiation
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J
Published: November 2023

Metamorphic differentiation is the spontaneous intensification of contrast leading to compositionally distinct, heterogeneous patterns of alternating domains of mineralogy and/or fabric arising in metamorphic rocks; these patterns are not necessarily related to a preexisting layering, sedimentary bedding or other feature. Layering or banding is the most commonly observed pattern (Fig. 11-1), although spotted and orbicular structures are also found (see Chapter 13 for further details). In this chapter we advocate the view that these patterns arise via a dynamic of self-organization involving coupled mechanochemical processes. Quantitative models are set forth and methods for analyzing them are presented. Preliminary numerical simulations of the reaction-transport-mechanical equations are shown to have many of the features dis¬ played by metamorphic layering.
Diagenetic Differentiated Mechanochemical Structures
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J
Published: November 2023

There appears to be a variety of meter and submeter-scale self-organization phenomena involving mechanochemical coupling in diagenetic systems. In this chapter we focus on stylolites, marl/limestone sequences, banded compaction/cementation alternations, and other roughly planar diagenetically differentiated structures.
Geodes, Concretions, Agates and Orbicules
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J
Published: November 2023

Roughly spheroidal objects of supragrain dimension are observed to develop under a variety of conditions including igneous, metamorphic, and diagenetic. Examples include orbicular granite, concretions, geodes, and agates. They are noteworthy from the point of view of self-organization in that they may have internal compositional distributions or morphologies which suggest that autonomous patterning processes have played a role.
Compartmentation Of A Sedimentary Basin
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J
Published: November 2023

Recent observations on the existence of arrays of basin compartments suggest that they may be examples of kilometer-scale self-organization. A compartment is defined to be a domain of rock of relatively high permeability surrounded by rock of relatively low permeability (Fig. 15-1). The phenomena of interest are such compartments and basin-scale arrays of them as suggested in Fig. 15-2. Basic notions of the compartments and their surrounding seals are introduced, emphasizing aspects of self-organization that appear to operate in association with their development. The nonlinear dynamics of episodic fluid release from these compartments is discussed in the next chapter. While it is likely that many of the phenomena discussed here can operate deep in the crust or in the mantle, this chapter will focus on sedimentary basins.
Episodic Fluid Flow and the Fracturing/Healing Cycle
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J
Published: November 2023

A number of mechanisms exist for creating elevated pore fluid pressures. If pressures exceed a critical value, a rock may fracture. As a consequence, fluid pressures may drop through fracture-induced enhancement of permeability. When pore fluid pressures drop sufficiently, fractures at depth heal or close. If the fluid-pressurizing mechanism is still in operation, pressures may again rise, completing one cycle.
Plotting against Castro
Authors: Vandenbroucke Lucien S
Published: November 2023

In November 1959, Castro’s revolution was barely eleven months old. In the opinion of Washington policymakers, however, it had lasted long enough. Following Castro’s takeover of Cuba, relations between the United States and its small island neighbor had rapidly deteriorated. Convinced that the United States was hostile to his revolution, Castro quickly began confiscating American property on the island. In the summer and fall of 1959, he accused the United States of encouraging the counterrevolutionary activities of antiCastrist exiles and charged that the United States threatened Cuba with “economic strangulation.”1 U.S. political leaders, in return, increasingly were alarmed by Cuba’s antiAmerican rhetoric and the active participation of Communists in Cuba’s new regime.
The Helicopters That Couldn’t
Authors: Vandenbroucke Lucien S
Published: November 2023

On March 22, 1980, President Carter received his first full briefing on planning for a rescue mission as he spent the weekend at the presidential retreat at Camp David. By then the hostage crisis had dragged on for more than five months. From then on, in the words of National Security Adviser Brzezinski, “the rescue option began to take on a kind of inevitability.” With Carter at the briefing were Vice President Mondale, Secretary of Defense Brown, Secretary of State Vance, CIA Director Turner, JCS Chairman Jones, Brzezinski and his deputy Aaron, and White House Press Secretary Jody Powell. For several hours General Jones presented the plan, which he described as “exceptionally complex.” In contrast, however, to the skepticism the JCS had evidenced in November 1979 about the possibility of rescuing the hostages, Jones was positive about the rescue plan. After months of planning and training, the military was confident it had finally developed a workable plan and a force that could execute it.
Radiative Transfer In Clouds
Authors: Liou K N
Published: November 2023

Clouds reflect, absorb, and transmit solar radiation. The amount of solar flux reflected, absorbed, and transmitted by clouds is a function of the optical depth, the geometry governing the sun, and the direction of detection. Under the planeparallel assumption, a number of the radiative transfer methodologies that have been introduced in Chapter 3 can be used to determine the radiative properties of clouds. As shown in various sections in that chapter, the fundamental radiative transfer equation has been developed for an ensemble of molecules and/or particulates. In the case of clouds, the basic scattering and absorption properties of cloud particles are determined by particle size distribution. Clouds can also reflect and transmit the thermal infrared (ir) radiation emitted from the surface and the atmosphere and, at the same time, emit ir radiation according to the temperature structure within them. Although Chapter 2 provides a comprehensive discussion of the transfer of irradiation in clear atmospheres, the general effects of scattering by cloud particles on ir radiation transfer have not been addressed.
The Cell Membrane: Molecular Structure
Authors: Wolken Jerome J
Published: November 2023

Cells are the basic units of life. Cells are enclosed by a cell membrane that encapsulates all the intracellular components, organelles, of the cell. The cell membrane provides the means for cells to separate their external environment from their internal environment. The cell membrane has selective properties and allows for the differential diffusion of ions and the exchange of gases. The cell membrane was at one time envisaged as only a passive barrier for diffusion and permeability, but it is now known to play an active role in chemical transport, energy transduction, and information transfer to and from the cell.
Sensory Innervation of the Viscera
Authors: vero F Cer , Foreman R D
Published: November 2023

The autonomic nervous system has been regarded traditionally as a motor system with the specific responsibility of regulating the internal environment. Visceral afferent fibers are also an integral part of this system, through they have not always been regarded as such because their anatomical and physiological properties were indistinguishable from those of somatic afferent fibers. Both were viewed as part of the sensory equipment of the body. It is impossible, however, to understand integrative autonomic functions without reference to the afferent signals that trigger and modulate autonomic reflexes and without knowledge of the peripheral and central sensory systems responsible for signaling visceral pain.
From Historiography to Class Ideology
Authors: Reed Adolph L
Published: November 2023

The Historiographical Tendency that Baker and Gates exemplify has attained prominence partly for institutional reasons. Its popularity reflects the broader appeal of literary studies-and lines of inquiry rooted in the concerns of literary studies - in the academy of the 1980s and 1990s. This appeal has been notable in Afro-Americanist scholarship, which has become sharply inflected toward the study of literature and associated interpretive rubrics. As in other academic pursuits, this development is most immediately the product of a familiar professional dialectic. The interpretive orientation that emerged in literary studies in the 1980s, typically under the flags of deconstruction and poststructuralism, has several features that support its proliferation. It is a selfcontained discourse that, not unlike Straussianism in the history of political thought, has its own relatively esoteric lexicon and an elaborate canon of critical texts-characteristics that impose entry costs high enough to confer a technicistic legitimacy. Yet militant antipositivism and skepticism regarding linear argument or grand narrative undermine both internal and external consistency as criteria for evaluation. Successful interpretation, therefore, is not simply a function of straightforward application of method, and adjudication of interpretive claims necessarily is idiosyncratic.
Parties and Policies
Authors: Medding Peter Y
Published: November 2023

The State of Israel, as was pointed out in chapter 1, inherited from the Yishuv a working multiparty system that reflected social diversity and intense ideological differences over a whole range of issues. What is more they were anchored in separate and distinctive political sub communities or enclaves. Ideology per se was of great significance as the parties struggled to imprint their particular weltan schauung upon the identity and character of the future state.
A Lagrangian Transportation Problem Relaxation Method For Solving Problem A Of L. V. Kantorovich
Authors: Thompson Gerald L
Published: November 2023

The remarkable seminal paper [1] by Leonid Kantorovich was first published in Russia in 1939, but 21 years passed before it was translated into English and published in Management Science. Even then many of the important contributions of the paper have been overlooked, at least in the Western literature. The purposes of this chapter is to review the contributions of the paper in the light of later developments in mathematical programming and operations research. Emphasis will be placed on the first problem stated in [1].
Some Numerical and Practical Problems in Linear Programming
Authors: Hollatz Horst
Published: November 2023

The first birth of linear programming was in 1939. L. V. Kantorovich [1] worked on mathematical applications in economics and found a method for solving a class of production planning models written as linear programming problems. The second birth of linear programming was in 1946. G. B. Dantzig [2] devised the simplex method for solving general linear programming problems, which is now the commonly used method. It is possible to solve problems with thousands of variables and constraints in reasonable time with this method, although the worst-case behavior of the simplex method was shown in 1972 by V. Klee and G. J. Minty [3] to be exponential. Ten years later K. H. Borgwardt showed that the average-case behavior of the simplex method is polynomial [4].
Combinatorial Optimization: Accuracy Versus Complexity And Stability
Authors: Leifman Lev J
Published: November 2023

We present our ideas using the example of optimal scheduling under resource constraints, which is one of the best-known problems of combinatorial optimization. It is a “certified” NP-complete problem, so its exact solution is possible only in a few very special cases; any real-life scheduling problem admits only approximate solution by heuristic methods. We consider a network G(X; U), which is a finite acyclic digraph with sets X and U of vertices (events) and arcs (activities), respectively. To simplify the presentation, we assume that all activities use a single kind of resources (to consider the real-life case of several kinds of resources, we would need to make only technical changes without introducing any new principles).
Fields Of Convex Polyhedra And The Pareto-Smale Optimum
Authors: Vershik A M , Chernyakov A G
Published: November 2023

The theory of extremal problems has always been closely connected with analysis and geometry. In the 1930s and 1940s this connection was developed in the fundamental papers of L. V. Kantorovich, where the ideas of duality, developed in the functional analysis of those years, were successfully applied in the theory of nonclassical extremal problems. The main domain of analysis that, at present, interacts with the contemporary theory of extremal problems, theory of games, and mathematical economics, is global analysis and, in particular, singularity theory. (We note that the actual models used in these domains have given rise to new problems of global analysis, the theory of multivalued mappings, etc.)
Introduction: The Governmental Process in Cities
Authors: Svara James H
Published: November 2023

Cities in the United States are under increasing pressure to find effective ways to meet their problems and respond to the needs of citizens. With diminishing outside assistance, officials in city government are challenged to determine the purpose and direction of their government and to generate the resources to carry out their mission. They must not only find more revenues locally to address their problems, they must also discover the resources within themselves to give leadership to their city, provide quality services,. and manage shrinking budgets with greater efficiency.
Councils: Counterweight Versus Senior Partner
Authors: Svara James H
Published: November 2023

The city council links the people with government in a variety of ways. Members of the city council fill the representational function in city government. They speak for and make decisions on behalf of the citizens of the community, committing the body politic to certain courses of action. Derived from representation is the legislative function. “Lawmaking” defined broadly consists of policy leadership, enactment of ordinances and resolutions, debate, criticism, and investigation. By implication, there is a third function common to legislative bodies controlling the executive.
Administrators: Servants, Knaves, or Responsible Professionals?
Authors: Svara James H
Published: November 2023

The final group of officials to consider are those who occupy appointed positions as administrators in local government. Administrators-managers, professionals, and highly skilled staff--in government have substantial influence over policy both through the recommendations they make and through their decisions about distributing services and implementing policy, their manipulation of information and expertise, and their discretion in the discharge of their duties. Administrators also determine how productively the resources of city government--staff, funds, equipment, property-are applied to accomplishing the city’s purposes.
Conceiving the Relationship of the Social World and the Individual
Authors: Rogoff Barbara
Published: November 2023

It is important to be clear about the relationship between the efforts and development of the individual and the arrangements and history of the sociocultural world. This chapter argues that individual effort and sociocultural activity are mutually embedded, as are the forest and the trees, and that it is essential to understand how they constitute each other.