bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
RBF as a Microbial Treatment Process
Authors: Gollnitz William D. , Clancy Jennifer L. , Whitteberry Bruce L. , Vogt Jeffrey A.
Published: February 2018

Ten production wells drilled in a highly productive sand and gravel aquifer and recharged by an adjacent river were evaluated for potential Giardia and Cryptosporidium contamination. The goal of this study was to determine whether riverbank filtration could achieve significant reduction to a level at which no additional engineered filtration would be required for pathogenic protozoa. Pathogen monitoring was conducted sporadically over 10 years. Intensive monitoring was conducted for a 20‐month period at 10 “flowpath wells” and two production wells. Algae, diatoms, and other surface water indicators were found in 57% of 128 groundwater samples. Of 285 groundwater samples collected and analyzed for Giardiao or Cryptosporidium, no pathogens were detected. No correlation existed between Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and surface water indicators. All surrogates demonstrated a minimum 4‐log reduction. Even though there is hydrologic influence, riverbank filtration is highly effective in removing pathogenic protozoa.
An Enhanced Backwashing Technique for Improved Filter Ripening
Authors: Amburgey James E. , Amirtharajah Appiah , Brouckaert Barbara M. , Spivey Neal C.
Published: February 2018

The increased passage of particles through granular media filters immediately following backwashing is commonly known as the filter‐ripening period, and several strategies have been developed through the years to reduce the effect of this vulnerable period of the filtration cycle on finished water quality. A new filter‐backwashing strategy aimed at reducing particle passage into the effluent water—the extended terminal subfluidization wash—has been developed and evaluated on both pilot‐ and full‐scale filters at a direct biological filtration plant. The filter‐ripening sequence (FRS) is described with new clarity based on the interpretation of experimental results. The numerous mechanisms and stages of the FRS are described in detail and may benefit future attempts to model the entire filtration cycle from a fundamental perspective.
Use of Available Water Is Key to Water Rights Forfeiture
Authors: Stiegler Mayo H
Published: February 2018

The Supreme Court of Idaho has ruled that a junior water appropriator could defeat a senior appropriator's resumption‐of‐use defense to a statutory forfeiture of water rights only by establishing that the junior appropriator had used the available water for a beneficial purpose after the statutory period of nonuse.
Water Utility Security: What's in Store in 2004?
Authors: Dennis Steve
Published: February 2018

This article discusses several key aspects of water utility security that include establishing and maintaining key relationships with customers, local law enforcement, municipal employees, neighboring water utilities, and local fire and hazardous materials response teams; staying close to your drinking water regulatory agencies and other security sources; building a water security culture within your organization; and, activating vulnerability assessment and emergency response plans.
Rapid Analytical Techniques for Drinking Water Security Investigations
Authors: States Stanley , Newberry Jessica , Wichterman Jennifer , Kuchta John , Scheuring Michele , Casson Leonard
Published: February 2018

The events of Sept. 11, 2001, forever changed the climate of the United States and exposed the nation's vulnerabilities. In response, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) prepared detailed guidance for drinking water utilities to follow in cases of suspected or actual incidents of intentional contamination of public water systems. Under the USEPA protocol, water utility personnel, as the authority onsite, would conduct an initial investigation or site characterization. Key to this preliminary assessment is the use of rapid analytical techniques for field screening. The Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Water and Sewer Authority and the University of Pittsburgh School of Engineering evaluated a number of analytical methods that utility staff or emergency response teams could use to generate preliminary data during the site characterization phase. The technologies included rapid immunoassays, rapid enzyme tests, rapid polymerase chain reaction methods, field‐deployable gas chromatography‐ mass spectrometry, and acute toxicity screening. Research results indicated that, although analytical capabilities are rapidly improving, field‐screening technologies are not a substitute for standard laboratory analyses and the data such technologies provide should be considered presumptive. The rapid analytical techniques currently available can aid in assessing hazards and directing appropriate operational and public health responses. However, additional studies are needed to determine matrix effects, the influence of interferences, the incidence of inaccurate results, and the limitations of detection capabilities.
Treating Microfiltration Backwash
Authors: Le Gouellec Yann A. , Cornwell David A. , Macphee Michael J.
Published: February 2018

A recent project focused on the recycling challenges posed by the potential presence of the pathogen Cryptosporidium in microfiltration (MF) residuals. After reviewing the various methods available for treating MF backwash streams, clarification was selected because it (1) is successful in treating spent filter backwash water from conventional plants, (2) is economical, and (3) is familiar to water plant operators and US regulators. Successful results from bench‐scale treatability tests guided the pilot‐ and full‐scale studies. Microbial performance indicators for the pilot test included inactivated Cryptosporidium oocysts and aerobic endospores. At a sedimentation overflow rate of 0.25 to 0.5 gpm/sq ft (0.6 to 1.2 m3/m2/h) and with the appropriate coagulant type and dosage, coagulation/clarification of MF backwash streams produced a recycle quality similar to the original raw water. Unlike spent filter backwash water from conventional water treatment plants, polymer alone was not sufficient to treat MF backwash because the feedwater had not been previously coagulated with a metal salt coagulant.
As(III) oxidation using chemical and solid‐phase oxidants
Authors: Ghurye Ganesh , Clifford Dennis
Published: February 2018

The effectiveness of seven oxidants—chlorine (Cl2), permanganate (MnO4−), ozone (O3), monochloramine (NH2Cl), chlorine dioxide (ClO2), a manganese dioxide‐based solid‐oxidizing media, and 254‐nm ultraviolet radiation—for arsenite [As(III)] oxidation to arsenate was studied. The effect of water chemistry variables including pH, temperature, and interfering reductants (manganous and ferrous ions, sulfide, and total organic carbon [TOC]) was investigated. Cl2 and MnO4− provided complete oxidation in less than 1 min under all conditions tested. The effectiveness of O3 was significantly attenuated in the presence of TOC. Both ClO2 (an otherwise powerful oxidant) and NH2Cl were ineffective for As(III) oxidation. When dissolved oxygen (DO) was not limiting, the solid‐oxidizing media provided complete oxidation. However, with low DO and interfering reductants, incomplete oxidation was observed. The adverse effect of interfering reductants was eliminated either by supplying enough DO or reducing the flow rate. UV light alone (254 nm) was not effective, but complete As(III) oxidation was observed when the feedwater was spiked with 1 mg/L of sulfite.
AWWA's Taste and Odor Committee: Seeks to Understand and Solve Taste and Odor Problems in Drinking Water
Authors: Khiari Djanette
Published: February 2018

This article describes AWWA's Taste and Odor Committee, whose mission is “to advance and disseminate knowledge that will improve the water industry's ability to understand and solve taste and odor problems.” Understanding and solving taste and odor problems requires extensive knowledge in numerous disciplines such as limnology, biology, chemistry, engineering, psychology, sensory science, and others. This variety is reflected in the makeup of the committee, which draws experts from a cross section of professional affiliations (utilities, consultants, government, academia, and industry). Committee members are extremely knowledgeable in this field and are aware of the issues facing the drinking water industry.
Provider of Water to 17 Homes Is Not a Public Utility
Authors: Stiegler Mayo H.
Published: February 2018

Unless water service is available to all members of the public who may require it, a provider of water to a specific limited community is not a “public utility,” according to the Superior Court of Pennsylvania.
Using Strategic Risk Management: To Maximize the Benefit–Cost Ratio of Community Water Projects
Authors: Louis Garrick E.
Published: February 2018

Infrastructure projects in rural communities usually cost more and benefit fewer people than similar projects in urban or large communities. Because they have relatively low ratios of benefits to costs, small‐scale investments in water and sanitation infrastructure are difficult to justify by standard benefit‐cost ratio criteria. Strategic risk management (SRM) enhances standard cost‐benefit analysis by including economic, social, and environmental benefits and subtracting the value of volunteer labor from costs. When the life‐cycle benefits of small projects are factored in, their benefit‐cost ratio increases, as does their appeal as public investments. SRM was applied to a program in Virginia (Self‐Help Virginia [SHV]) that helps residents of small rural communities secure funding and implement solutions for local development problems. Since its establishment in 1998, SHV has helped small and low‐ to moderate‐income communities build water and sanitation infrastructure, spending just $3.1 million on projects conventionally estimated to cost $8.8 million. Program funds pay for the hardware required, and the community provides labor and other resources needed to complete the project, gaining skills, experience, and other benefits in the process. SRM is a perfect match for SHV programs because the risk‐based approach includes both these overlooked benefits as well as the hidden costs of risk avoidance when an infrastructure problem goes unresolved. For state‐level decision‐makers, the enhanced cost‐benefit analysis provided by SRM makes small‐scale projects more competitive and easier to justify. Utility managers can use SRM analysis to better evaluate competing projects and effectively leverage their investments.
Modeling DOC Removal Enhanced Coagulation
Authors: Kastl George , Sathasivan Arumugam , Fisher Ian , Van Leeuwen John
Published: February 2018

Enhanced coagulation is proposed by the US Environmental Protection Agency as a best available technology to remove dissolved organic carbon (DOC). In this article, an improved model of DOC removal by enhanced coagulation is proposed based on Langmuir isotherm theory. For the purpose of the model, DOC is assumed to comprise three fractions: humic acid, nonpolar, and nonsorbable. The nonsorbable fraction is not removed. Removal of the humic acid fraction is dependent on pH, whereas that of the nonpolar fraction is not. This model, which includes five coefficients, was fitted to data from experiments on various Australian and US waters. It predicted the final DOC for a given metal coagulant and water within a standard deviation of the error of either 5.5% or 0.15 mg/L of DOC over the valid combinations of coagulant dose and pH. Generally at a given pH alum was found to remove more DOC at lower doses than ferric coagulant, whereas at higher doses, ferric coagulant removed more DOC than alum.
Protecting Watersheds from Cryptosporidium in Manure: A Literature Review
Authors: Finstein Melvin S.
Published: February 2018

The presence of the parasite Cryptosporidium in watersheds poses a serious health problem and a challenge to water utilities. Several waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis, the disease caused by the parasite, have occurred world‐wide and, in 1993 an outbreak in Milwaukee, Wisconsin involved an estimated 403,000 people. The oocyst associated with Cryptosporidium is extremely resistant to disinfection through chlorination. If water utilities hope to gain or maintain a US Environmental Protection Agency grant of a filtration avoidance determination, they must demonstrate that their watersheds are being adequately protected from Cryptosporidium. A major source of the parasite has been traced to beef and dairy farms where manure from infected animals is spread across fields and eventually drains into surface water supplies. In this article, the author reviews the diverse and scattered literature related to the methodologies of managing manure to accomplish oocyst inactivation. The article specifically explores slurry storage, anaerobic digestion, and composting and the two main factors affecting oocyst survival, which are temperature and ammonia levels. An Expanded Summary in this issue offers a condensed review of the literature; a full discussion of the literature can be found online at www.awwa.org/communications/e‐journal/index‐pastissues/2004/February.
Arizona's Conservation Measures Must Include End Users
Authors: Stiegler Mayo H.
Published: February 2018

The Court of Appeals of Arizona has ruled that the Arizona Department of Water Resources (ADWR) must include conservation provisions in its groundwater management plans that are directly applicable to the end users of the water (the customers of municipal and private water providers).
Trust and Cooperation: Are They of Value in Today's Security‐conscious Water Industry?
Authors: Jacobs Jack , Smull Liesel
Published: February 2018

Small systems face a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEAP) deadline of June 2004 for completion of their vulnerability assessments. This article describes how two small water systems, Lehigh County Authority (LCA) and Whitehall Township Authority (WTA) in the Lehigh Valley Region of Eastern Pennsylvania, because of a long history of cooperation, were able to save 20 to 30% by doing joint vulnerability assessments. Through open discussion, the utilities were able to share details about their systems, operational procedures, ideas, and challenges, and were able to learn important lessons about their respective vulnerabilities and gain some insights about how the other utility handled similar problems.
Arsenic removal from drinking water using the coagulation/microfiltratin process
Authors: Chwirka Joseph D. , Colvin Christian , Gomez Juan D. , Mueller Paul A.
Published: February 2018

The US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has promulgated the Arsenic Rule and lowered the arsenic maximum contaminant level from 50 μg/L to 10 μg/L. Many water systems will be faced with implementing a treatment technology for removing arsenic to meet the compliance deadline of January 23, 2006. Coagulation/microfiltration (C/MF) technology has been recognized by the USEPA as an emerging technology for the removal of arsenic from drinking water. During the past five years, the authors have implemented several pilot tests to evaluate the performance of the C/MF process. This pilot testing has shown that C/MF is a robust and cost‐effective technology for arsenic treatment. This article presents a summary of the process concepts, chemistry, and design considerations for the use of C/MF technology.
Urban and Agricultural Water Conservation in California
Authors: Weimer Michele
Published: February 2018

This article discusses how, by obtaining sustainable water savings through on‐going demand management programs, the state of California and specifically the El Dorado Irrigation District (EID) will extend the existing water supply. The article gives an overview of EID's conservation program, discusses the components of its urban and agricultural water conservation programs, lists statistics on annual water savings of its specific programs, and discusses its grant funding programs.
Diversity Key In Strategic Planning
Authors: Pope Annette Redding
Published: February 2018

This article discusses how the Cleveland Water Division (CWD) included a diverse team of managers in its strategic business planning (SBP) process to address the diverse workforce issues. The diverse team ensured that the points of view of management as well as of front‐line employees were considered. The team, consisting of six males and five females from different educational backgrounds, work and life experiences, national heritages, ages, and genders, took a comprehensive look at the SBP priorities established by the division and ensured that viewpoints from all levels were considered.
Peer's Law
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr discusses the January 2004 Washington, D.C. water quality problem concerning unsafe levels of lead, using it as an example of the need for effective communication and coordination among any and all agencies having responsibility for drinking water and public health in a community or region. Also, Hoffbuhr stresses the importance of a continual community outreach program rather than involving the public only during a crisis.
Water Conservation in Georgia: Bringing Efficiency into Mainstream Thinking
Authors: Elfner Mary A. , McDowell Robin John
Published: February 2018

Georgia, like many states, faces an increase in water demand while having only limited water resources. Georgia also has the pressing problems of explosive population growth, severe drought, and saltwater intrusion along its coastline. In addition, several of its river basins are shared by Florida and Alabama, who have their own water demands and concerns. This article explores these issues and the actions the Georgia Legislature and state departments have taken to find a balance between developing and preserving water resources. Some of the steps include developing a statewide Water Conservation Plan and imposing a moratorium on issuing new groundwater irrigation permits in the lower Flint River Basin and new surface water permits in the entire basin. The state also instituted the Flint River Drought Protection Act (FRDPA) of 2000, which provides financial incentives for farmers to voluntarily suspend irrigation in severe drought years. Also, Georgia has entered into “compacts” to negotiate with Alabama and Florida and develop equitable formulas to share the water in its river basins. Although several steps have been taken, there have been difficulties along the way. Because of problems with the irrigation auctions (a component of the FRDPA), the Georgia Environmental Protection Division was sued (the suit was later dismissed), and negotiations between Georgia and Florida reached an impasse in October 2003. Yet, despite the obstacles, water is being conserved in Georgia, and the water conservation planning process continues.
Committee Report: Characterization of Inorganic Coagulant/Polymer Blends using refractive index and specific gravity measurements
Authors:   Polyelectrolytes Standards Committee
Published: February 2018

A proposal for a quality control procedure for inorganic coagulant/synthetic organic polymer blends will potentially fill a void where no AWWA standard or published quality control procedures currently exist. There are two broad classes of chemicals used for coagulation of particulate pollutants in drinking water treatment–inorganic metal salts and organic coagulant polymers. Metal salt coagulants include alum, ferric chloride, ferric sulfate, polyaluminum chloride (PACl), polyaluminum hydroxysulfate (PAHS), and aluminum chlorhydrate (ACH). Coagulant polymers include epichlorohydrin‐dimethylamine (epi‐DMA) polyamines and poly‐diallyldimethylammonium chloride (DADMAC) polymers. The mechanisms by which inorganic salts and organic polymers coagulate particles can be different. Consequently the simultaneous use of an inorganic salt and a coagulant polymer can sometimes result in better performance than either chemical is capable of producing alone, especially in high‐turbidity waters.
Update on Industry Consolidation Trends
Authors: Maxwell Steve
Published: February 2018

The water services industry has been experiencing a dramatic rearrangement of ownership and increasing consolidation for several years now, a trend that has been most pronounced in the treatment equipment sector. This ongoing trend is also having an effect on the utility side of the business as vendor companies change strategies and directions. In addition, the drinking water utility business continues to undergo consolidation itself. In the Journal's November 2003 Market Outlook column, these consolidation trends were reviewed and the evolving growth strategies of the major equipment and service companies in the industry were described. At that time, it appeared that several of the major foreign players in the water market were beginning to reconsider, or reverse, their U.S. expansion strategies. Both of the French water giants (Veolia and Suez) as well as some of the large British companies had already begun to divest some of the U.S. water equipment or chemicals businesses. This month's column reviews the events and transactions of the last several months and updates the discussion regarding the ongoing consolidation trend.
Xenobiotics: What Are They and Why Are We So Concerned About Them?
Authors: Sakaji Richard H. , Book Steven , Hultquist Robert , Haberman Richard
Published: February 2018

This article discusses xenobiotics, classified as other types of chemicals that don't appear to fit into an existing list of collectives such as volatile organic chemicals (VOCs), synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs), inorganics, metals, radionuclides, and pesticides. Topics covered include: principles developed to provide safe drinking water may not apply to future supplies; how current drinking water standards apply to xenobiotics; and, the challenge of regulating xenobiotics.
Dear Mayor
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr writes an imaginary letter to the “Mayor and Town Council,” describing the deplorable state of the water system's infrastructure. He comments on the run‐down condition of the storage tank, pipe, leakage, frozen water mains, and how badly the system needs repairs and rehabilitation. He points out how money has been budgeted for other improvements which can't be used efficiently because the water system that these improvements rely on isn't functioning properly. He ends the letter by submitting his resignation as water utility manager, saying that he's “going to work for a town that actually values its water system.”
Modeling RBF Efficacy for Mitigating Chemical Shock Loads
Authors: Ray Chittaranjan
Published: February 2018

Riverbank filtration (RBF) offers several advantages over the direct use of surface water. A number of dissolved and suspended contaminants of surface water—including pathogens and microscopic particles—are removed during passage of surface water through the river sediment–aquifer system. Many dissolved chemicals undergo biogeochemical reactions and dilution, leading to reductions in concentrations of parent species. This research examined the potential of RBF systems to attenuate chemical shock loads that may result from chemical spills or spring flooding in agricultural watersheds. Scenarios simulated both horizontal and vertical wells, with riverbed and bank hydraulic properties varying as a function of river stage. The solute transport equation considered a range of reaction parameters. Sensitivity analysis showed that the hydraulic conductivity of the riverbed or bank materials had a pronounced effect on filtrate quality. For materials with low hydraulic conductivity, the effect on filtrate quality would be minimal, and the lag time between the contaminant peak concentrations in the surface water and the pumped water would be significant. However, further biogeochemical modeling is needed to predict the fate of contaminants during their transit to the pumping wells. Use of backup vertical wells or selected laterals of a collector well could effectively mitigate the risks.
Modeling Bacterial Growth in Drinking Water: Effect of Nutrients
Authors: Jegatheesan Veeriah , Kastl George , Fisher Ian , Chandy Joseph , Angles Mark
Published: February 2018

This article presents a model of growth of naturally occurring heterotrophic bacteria in the bulk water phase in the absence of disinfectant. The model considers growth with carbon, phosphorus, and nitrogen balance, death and lysis of bacteria, and conversion of less biodegradable organic carbon to assimilable organic carbon. Experimental data from two raw and two treated waters were used to test the model. The model describes the increase of live and dead bacterial cells in the water phase, and its output closely matches the experimental data. Such a model has the ability to characterize water nutrient status as well as to predict behavior of indigenous heterotrophic bacteria. The ability to predict bacterial population dynamics with respect to nutrients is beneficial for water treatment optimization. The model, based on microbiological measurements, helps to characterize treated water quality and project performance in terms of water quality into a distribution system.
AWWA, NDWAC Urge Progress on CCL Process
Authors: Scharfenaker Mark
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA's) notice that it intends to carry forward, without any additions or deletions, the 51 contaminants remaining on the first contaminant candidate list (CCL1) to comprise the second CCL (CCL2). AWWA expressed strong concerns and urged the USEPA to get serious about developing a robust CCL process for assessing occurrence and health effects of unregulated contaminants. AWWA's comments on the draft CCL2 addressed agency efforts to develop and apply a more scientifically rigorous process for creating CCLs than the relatively quick‐and‐dirty process employed to create the first one in 1998 that the USEPA has again, by default, relied on to draft the second.
From Functional‐ to Process‐based Utility Management
Authors: Gaha James A. , Chilton Richard A.
Published: February 2018

This article states that if the goal of a utility is to achieve desired service levels for its customers in the most cost‐effective way, then holding onto functional organizational approaches will be an impediment. To respond successfully to ever‐increasing demands from customers and regulators, utilities need to turn to a holistic management approach and move from a functional‐based to a process‐based organization. This change cannot happen overnight as business and asset capabilities have to change incrementally and in phases. Once this change is adopted, successfully responding to increases in demand, regulatory requirements, infrastructure deterioration, and political and economic forces will not be as overwhelming.
The Challenges of New Technology Development in the Water Industry
Authors: Maxwell Steve
Published: February 2018

This article is the first of two articles (August and September 2004 issues of the Journal AWWA) that review the challenges facing technology developers in the water industry and outline key strategies for the successful startup, development, and management of technology ventures. The article discusses key barriers to technology development in the water industry that include: regulatory barriers; marketing barriers; technical barriers; and, financial barriers.
Finding the Right Marketing Specialist
Authors: Elliott John W.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses how most companies that sell industrial products and services are finding the pace of the economic recovery too slow and are looking into using the most powerful marketing tools available. Topics covered include: make sure the firm you select is experienced in the industrial market; look for a PR or marketing firm that speaks your language; and, find a marketing or publicity firm that shares your attitude and sensibilities. The article provides a list of tips for hiring a marketing firm.
Tap water beats out bottled water in Birmingham taste test
Authors: Vann Michael
Published: February 2018

This article describes a taste test sponsored by Birmingham Water Works (BWW) in Birmingham, Alabama to compare the taste of its water with that of bottled water. During the two‐day, blind taste test, testers sampled BWW's tap water as well as a top brand of bottled water and a well‐known distilled water. Results showed that 65% of the participants preferred the taste of Birmingham's tap water over the other two choices. The article presents an outline of the BWW “Taste of Life” Taste Test Plan.
Guidelines for Calculating System Development Charges
Authors: Goff Randy , Hathhorn Wade E.
Published: February 2018

Many water utilities impose system development charges (SDCs) to pay for the costs incurred by new developments connecting to a system. This article describes the purpose of SDCs and the criteria that should be followed when developing a methodology for calculating SDCs that can help a utility determine fees that are both cost‐based and equitable. This methodology also ensures that customers are avoiding double payment, which could occur when an SDC is imposed on customers and then they are also required to pay debt service on new or existing infrastructure (including both revenue bonds and general obligation bonds).
From Slow Sand to High‐Rate Processes, Filtration Remains the Primary Protection
Authors: Alvarez Matt , Amirtharajah Appiah
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the history and evolution of water filtration from the first major breakthroughs more than 100 years ago, through the early 1900s when filtration helped end cholera and typhoid epidemics; the 1950s and ′60s when filtration dramatically improved water quality by pretreatment and filter media design; the 1970s and ′80s when microfiltration was introduced and became widely accepted and the Surface Water Treatment Rule was promulgated; and, with the beginning of the new century regulations have gotten increasingly stringent, which has resulted in continued improvement of filtration processes.
Microbes Continue to Be a Detection Challenge
Authors: Hoffman Rebecca , Marshall Marilyn
Published: February 2018

This article discusses how microbial contaminants in water, even with greater research efforts and improvements in technology, still remain a critical issue. The article explains that although significant advances have occurred in pathogen detection and in the control of waterborne disease over the past 90 years, waterborne disease has not been eradicated. Future challenges focus on the evolution of new technologies for identification and viability of organisms found in drinking water. Reliable occurrence data cannot be generated until methods‐development issues have been resolved and standard methods and quality assurance practices have been improved and implemented.
from drought response to water management tool Conservation continues to Evolve
Authors: Deister Ane D. , Witter David
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the evolution of water conservation from practices to resolve episodic water shortages to official water supply best management practices. The new conservation ethic was shaped over time in response to various historical, cultural, and political forces.
Effect of Oxidants on the Properties of Fe(III) Particles and Suspensions Formed from the Oxidation of FE(II)
Authors: Lytle Darren A. , Magnuson Matthew L. , Snoeyink Vernon L.
Published: February 2018

Oxidation of ferrous iron, Fe(II), to ferric iron, Fe(III), is an important reaction in drinking water treatment and distribution systems, and the ferric particles that form are a major source of consumer complaints about colored water. Ferrous iron is found naturally in many groundwaters and can be released from distribution system materials. Bench‐scale experiments were conducted to study the effects of pH; oxidant type (oxygen, chlorine, and chlorine dioxide); and oxidant concentration on the properties of Fe(III) particles and suspensions formed from Fe(II) oxidation. The color and turbidity per unit mass of iron of suspensions formed from oxygen were more than twice those of suspensions formed from chlorine and chlorine dioxide at all pH values. Similar observations were made during tests with oxygen and chlorine using natural groundwaters at two field locations. Particles formed from chlorine and chlorine dioxide were less dense and had a greater capacity to adsorb orthophosphate. Experimental observations were explained using a model that considers differences in Fe(III) particle formation and growth pathways. These research findings have practical implications related to both water treatment (iron removal) and distribution system issues.
Setting IOC Reporting Limits for Drinking Water Compliance—The California Approach
Authors: Kimbrough David Eugene , Cardenas Miriam , Eaton Andrew , Milea Alexis , Osborn Kenneth
Published: February 2018

Establishing meaningful reporting limits presents one of the more vexing problems associated with chemical monitoring under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). At very low concentrations, relative errors can be large, leading to an increase in false‐positives and false‐negatives. Even when a pollutant is correctly identified at concentrations in the region of detection, results can be inaccurate and imprecise. The California Division of Drinking Water and Environmental Management, the primacy agency for SDWA enforcement, established a study group to develop a new approach for reporting limits for metals based on the minimum reporting level (MRL) concept. A voluntary interlaboratory study was conducted to determine an appropriate basis for setting MRL values. Forty‐seven drinking water laboratories accredited by the state received a series of prepared solutions containing analytes of interest. Only analytic methods approved by the US Environmental Protection Agency for SDWA compliance monitoring were used. The major determinative of reporting limits was how many laboratories had the capability of producing accurate results at any given concentration. Other practical considerations included the toxicity and occurrence of the elements.
Chlorite Ion Interference in the Spectrophotometric Measurement of Chlorine Dioxide
Authors: KÖrtvÉlyesi Zsolt , Gordon Gilbert
Published: February 2018

The presence of the Cl2O4− complex, which forms in chlorine dioxide (ClO2) solutions in the presence of chlorite ion, can result in significant error in the spectrophotometric measurement of ClO2. In this article, the significance of the Cl2O4− complex is demonstrated and the formation constant (Keq) and the molar absorptivity of this complex are reported. Based on the Keq and the molar absorptivity values, two methods are proposed to correct for the presence of the complex. By using the equation suggested in this article, the error of the determined ClO2 concentrations is reduced to the level of errors associated with the spectrophotometric measurements.
Discussion of: Rapid Analytical Techniques for Drinking Water Security Investigations
Authors: Hrudey Steve E. , Rizak Samantha
Published: February 2018

Based on an article published in the Journal of the American Water Works Association in January 2004, “Rapid Analytical Techniques for Drinking water Security Investigations” (States et al), this discusssion puts forth a framework for hazard detection and judgment of evidence. It is based on the question asked in this discussion about how likely a positive result from analytical testing will correctly reflect the presence of a hazard in the drinking water supply.
Sequential Disinfection of adenovirus type 2 with UV‐Chlorine‐Chloramine
Authors: Ballester Nicola A. , Malley James P.
Published: February 2018

Bench‐scale experiments determined the inactivation rates of adenovirus serotype 2 with low‐pressure, high‐output ultraviolet (UV) light, chlorine (Cl2), and preformed chloramines. Studies with sequential chloramines were also done to mimic water treatment practices. Sequential experiments with adenovirus serotype 2 suspended in laboratory‐grade water and natural waters containing ammonia were exposed to either UV light followed by Cl2/chloramines or the reverse sequence. Adenovirus log reductions were quantified through cell culture techniques. A free Cl2 C × T (concentration × time) of 1.22 mg‐min/L resulted in a 3.72‐log reduction, a preformed chloramine C × T of 264.5 mg‐min/L resulted in a 1.2‐log reduction, a sequential chloramine C × T of 40.5 mg‐min/L resulted in a 1‐log reduction, and a UV dose of 40 mJ/cm2 resulted in a 1‐log reduction. Up to 4‐log reductions were achieved with a UV dose of 40 mJ/cm2 followed by a sequential chloramine C × T of 27.2 mg‐min/L. This suggests that sequential disinfection may be the best option for dealing with UV‐resistant organisms such as adenoviruses.
Miasma
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr gives a brief history of cholera, the miasmatic theory of how it was spread (through the night air), the discovery in 1849 by Dr. John Snow that cholera was carried in water not air, and the tracking of its spread to a well in London during a cholera outbreak in 1854 known as the Broad Street Pump. He sums up by urging today's scientists not to get side‐tracked by the more recent exotic contaminants, and to keep focusing on eradicating cholera which is still found in developing countries.
UCMR data suggest no standards for several chemicals
Authors: Scharfenaker Mark
Published: February 2018

This article discusses how early indications from the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) indicate that robust new occurrence data collected by water suppliers under the Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR) will likely justify not regulating at least five targeted chemicals. As USEPA officials explained during the meeting, their approach for evaluating which, if any, Contaminate Candidate List (CCL2) contaminants ultimately qualify for a final regulatory determination requires the agency to establish a potential health reference level (HRL) and a known or likely level and frequency of occurrence for each, noting that the law requires no fewer than five to be considered in each RD cycle. USEPA's health and occurrence findings on the 14 contaminants it is evaluating as potential regulatory determination (RD2) candidates are briefly summarized in this article. The 14 contaminants include: 1,1,2,2‐Tetrachloroethane; 1,3‐Dichloropropene; 2,4‐ and 2,6‐Dinitrotoluene (DNT); Boron; DCPA degradates; DDE; DPTC; Fonofos; Metolachlor; MTBE; Perchlorate; and, Terbacil.
Evaluation and Rehabilitation of Older, Circular Prestressed Concrete Tanks
Authors: Sagan Vincent E. , Brainerd Michael L.
Published: February 2018

Although some older circular prestressed concrete tanks are now showing the ill effects of exposure after many years of dependable service, their service lives are not over. Through condition appraisal, the cause of the deterioration and distress can be identified. After the condition appraisal, rehabilitation strategies can be developed and evaluated. This article discusses how to implement a cost‐effective rehabilitation plan and perform regular upkeep to extend the service life of circular prestressed concrete tanks. Topics covered include: circular, prestressed concrete tank construction; common types of deterioration and distress; evaluating distress and deterioration: the condition appraisal; rehabilitation as a viable alternative to replacement; and, the importance of regular upkeep.
Sources of financing for your water technology business
Authors: Maxwell Steve
Published: February 2018

This column provides a quick overview of the different sources of financing that are available to entrepreneurs and owners in the water industry as well as some of the pros and cons of each. Sources of financing mentioned in the article include: personal investment; friends, family, and business associates; personal credit cards or lines of credit from commercial banks; wealthy individuals; angels; venture capitalists; private equity investment groups; grants and sources of government financing; and, IPOs.
City's Attempt to Detach Annexed Land From Water District Fails
Authors: Stiegler Mayo H.
Published: February 2018

The Missouri Court of Appeals has ruled that a city had failed in its attempt to detach recently annexed land from a water district so that the city could provide water services to the area.
Where Were You?
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr reflects on the signing of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) 30 years ago, and considers the impact the SDWA has had on our drinking water over the past 30 years. He mentions the successes of the SDWA, but also points out the inflexibility of such legislation. He considers the partnership formed between the federal and state governments and local water utilities as more successful at protecting the public health than the SDWA, and which also provided the framework to actually make the SDWA as successful as it has been.
Rapid Screening for Chemical Weapons Infiltration in Drinking Water
Authors: Wu Jisen , Greenlee James , Syage Jack
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the development by the city of Houston, Texas, of an early warning capability based on photoionization/mass spectrometry (PI/MS) screening technology. The PI/MS at Houston currently screens for the factory‐loaded chemical weapons compounds as well as new ones, such as atrazine and dursban, added by plant personnel. The instrument's screening library can be expanded routinely for both standard and nonstandard compounds, providing an additional tool for identifying compounds that are not routinely monitored in drinking water samples. The PI/MS analyzer screens distribution water and raw water samples from all the city's plants, and is also used as a quick screening method to test water from all components of the system. The high‐throughput capabilities are important in the event of an emergency or heightened security concern in which a greatly increased number of samples may need to be quickly screened. The short sampling times and automated analysis are also advantageous for maximizing staff resources.
Notice of Broken Water Main Not Needed to Allow Nuisance Claim
Authors: Stiegler Mayo H.
Published: February 2018

A Wisconsin appellate court has ruled that a city was not required to have received notice of a broken water main in order for a sewerage district to recover damages from the city for creating a nuisance.
Profiling Groundwater Wells—an Alternative to Treatment
Authors: Masters Robert
Published: February 2018

This article discusses how data from a groundwater well's profile can be used to modify the well so that raw water with undesireable chemical qualities is prevented from entering the well. A case study is presented of the town of Goodland, Indiana, where the town's raw water had concentrations of sulfur that caused taste, odor, and other problems in the distribution system.
Urban Reuse: Bringing Water Treatment Where It's Needed Most
Authors: Guendert Dawn , Jordan Ed
Published: February 2018

This article discusses how new membrane bioreactor (MBR) technology makes remote treatment of wastewater feasible for many communities, thus alleviating the need to expand old, centralized wastewater systems in an urban location where expansion can be disruptive and costly. The article discusses how MBR systems provide high‐quality treatment and offers three case studies of MBR satellite treatment facilities in Kissimmee, Florida, in Woods Valley, California, and in Park Place, Georgia.
Standards: A Core AWWA Mission
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr describes the historical background of the AWWA Standards and their development from 1881 to the present. He also announces the adoption on January 18, 2004 by the AWWA Board of Directors of the new Distribution Systems Operation and Management Standard, ANSI/AWWA G200‐04. He states that the draft source water protection standard is currently on the AWWA website, along with ANSI/AWWA G200‐04, for review and comment.
Customer‐Responsive water and sanitation services
Authors: Seppälä Osmo T. , Rajala Riikka P. , Katko Tapio S.
Published: February 2018

Water services and utilities in industrialized countries have recently changed from being supply‐oriented to being demand‐ and customer‐oriented. A study of four Finnish utilities showed that customers expect more information about their services and utilities than they are currently receiving. Yet in Finland few customers are involved in utility operations and decision‐making. Although some water utilities are already fairly customer‐oriented, they are still far from true customer‐responsiveness, in which customers are recognized as full stakeholders. Should private ownership and operation of water utilities be strongly promoted worldwide, customers' interests may easily be forgotten. Also, changes in utility operations brought about by security concerns and infrastructure vulnerability issues may force utility managers to re‐think customer involvement and open public information strategies. In the future, the provision of water services will be based more on the ethics, values, rights, responsibilities, and expectations of all relevant stakeholders.
Developing Regional Early Warning Systems for US Source Waters
Authors: Gullick Richard W. , Gaffney Leah J. , Crockett Christopher S. , Schulte Jerry , Gavin Andrew J.
Published: February 2018

Drinking water supplies drawn from raw water sources are susceptible to deterioration in quality caused by accidental, intentional, or natural contamination events. Early warning systems (EWSs) provide utilities with extensive monitoring feedback and near real‐time data to guide response decisions and safeguard supplies. On riverine systems, where water quality can change rapidly, multiple monitoring stations may be needed and communication and management operations may be coordinated among many utilities, creating a regional EWS. Previously, the only regional EWSs in the United States were on the Ohio River and the Lower Mississippi River. Recent years have seen the development of regional EWSs on several U.S. rivers, including the Upper Mississippi, Schuylkill, Delaware, Allegheny, Monongahela, and Susquehanna. Although each EWS has been tailored to meet system‐specific needs and limitations, these systems share the common goals of providing prompt notification of significant watershed events, disseminating information and tools to aid water supply decisions, and improving communications among water suppliers, emergency responders, and users. The successful development of these regional systems depended on key steps that planners of prospective EWSs may want to emulate. These included early and extensive involvement of key stakeholders (particularly the participating water suppliers), identification of a capable organization to serve as the coordinating entity, adoption of a phased approach that could be expanded over time, and procurement of adequate funding to ensure system startup and sustain operations.