bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Desminopathy
Authors: Goldfarb Lev G , Olivé Montse , Vicart Patrick , Goebel Hans H
Published: December 2010

Desminopathy is one of the newly identified myopathies caused by mutations in
desmin
(
DES
), an intermediate filament, or
αB‐crystallin
(
CRYAB
), a chaperone for

DES

. The condition is defined as skeletal and cardiac myopathy characterised by the presence of chimeric aggregates in muscle fibre areas that consist of

DES

,

CRYAB

and other proteins. Identification of pathogenic mutations, analysis of underlying disease phenotypes and successful modelling of these conditions in cell cultures and transgenic mice specified critical pathogenic events. As the range of desminopathy clinical manifestations is extremely wide and myopathology not specific, diagnostic criteria need to be reliably outlined and molecular testing readily available to ensure prevention of sudden death from cardiac arrhythmias and other complications.

Key Concepts:

Desminopathy is associated with mutations in desmin (
DES
) and αB‐crystallin (
CRYAB
) genes.

DES
is a muscle‐specific type III intermediate filament; most of the known disease‐associated
DES
mutations affect domains that are crucial for filament assembly.

CRYAB
serves as a chaperone for
DES
and, if mutated, causes a disease identical to desminopathy.

In humans and transgenic mice,
DES
and
CRYAB
mutants invoke accumulation of chimeric intracellular aggregates containing
DES
,
CRYAB
and other cytoskeletal proteins.

DES
mutations show diverse pathogenic effects depending on the structural relationships these mutations disrupt and the type of inheritance.

Desminopathy is a skeletal and cardiac myopathy. Muscle imaging (CT and MRI) is helpful in identifying characteristic patterns of skeletal muscle involvement.

Atrioventricular conduction abnormalities and arrhythmias are regularly present in desminopathy patients; they require urgent implantation of a permanent pacemaker or an implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD).

Respiratory insufficiency can be a major cause of disability and death and may require continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP).

Molecular testing of patients for
DES
and
CRYAB
mutations is available and should be used to ensure prevention of sudden death from cardiac arrhythmias and other complications.
Genetics of Glaucoma
Authors: Liu Yutao , Allingham R Rand
Published: December 2010

Glaucoma is the major cause of blindness worldwide. Primary open‐angle glaucoma (POAG) and angle closure glaucoma (ACG) are the most prevalent forms of glaucoma and are the most common causes of glaucoma‐related blindness worldwide. It has become increasingly clear that a host of genetic and environmental factors contribute to the glaucoma phenotype. The genetic discussion covered in this review includes POAG, pigment dispersion glaucoma (PDG), exfoliation glaucoma (XFG), childhood glaucomas and angle closure glaucoma. Numerous chromosomal loci and genetic associations have been reported for different types of glaucoma. This article examines the current status of investigations into the genetic architecture of the glaucomas and how this evolving understanding may contribute to the clinical management of patients with this disease.

Key Concepts:

Glaucoma is characterised by the progressive loss of retinal ganglion cells that is associated with a characteristic optic neuropathy and visual field loss.

POAG (primary open‐angle glaucoma) is the most common type of glaucoma and is characterised by the presence of glaucomatous optic neuropathy without an identifiable secondary cause.

XFG (exfoliation glaucoma) is the most common identifiable form of open‐angle glaucoma.

PCG (primary congenital glaucoma) is the most common childhood glaucoma with a developmental abnormality of the anterior chamber angle.

Genetic linkage analysis has been widely used to search for genes that account for Mendelian diseases inherited as either autosomal dominant or recessive traits.

Genetic admixture mapping is widely used to localise disease‐associated genetic variants that differ in prevalence across populations.

Genome‐wide association study (GWAS) is a powerful method used to identify common genetic variants that are associated with the specific diseases or trait.

Genetic association analysis has been widely used to determine whether a genetic variant is associated with a disease or trait.
Pathogenesis of Polyglutamine Diseases
Authors: Pennuto Maria , Sambataro Fabio
Published: December 2010

Polyglutamine (polyQ) diseases are neurodegenerative disorders caused by expansion in specific genes of a trinucleotide repeat, cytosine–adenine–guanine (CAG), which encodes glutamine. In 1991, CAG repeat expansion in the androgen receptor was linked to spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA), thus indicating for the first time a causative role of polyQ expansion in neurodegenerative disorders. Subsequently, polyQ expansions in eight other genes were shown to be responsible for different neurodegenerative diseases, including Huntington disease, dentatorubral‐pallidoluysian atrophy and six types of spinocerebellar ataxia. PolyQ diseases share several features, such as the phenomenon of genetic anticipation, and that to be late‐onset and progressive disorders. Despite these and other common features, specific populations of neurons are vulnerable in each disease. Approximately 20 years after the discovery of expanded polyQ as a leading cause of neurodegeneration, why selective neuronal populations degenerate in each disorder is still an enigma.

Key Concepts:

Polyglutamine diseases are a family of late onset, genetically inherited neurodegenerative disorders.

Polyglutamine diseases are caused by expansion of the CAG trinucleotide repeat encoding glutamine in nine different genes.

Expansion of polyglutamine confers a novel, toxic gain of function to the mutant protein.

The length of the polyglutamine tract correlates with disease onset and dictates disease severity.

Polyglutamine proteins are ubiquitous. None the less, expansion of polyglutamine tracts causes selective neuronal dysfunction and degeneration.

Specific populations of neurons degenerate in each polyglutamine disease, giving rise to different clinical disease manifestations.
Ecological Role of Viruses in Aquatic Ecosystems
Authors: Hewson Ian , Chow Cheryl , Fuhrman Jed A
Published: December 2010

Over two decades of research have indicated that viruses play crucial roles in aquatic food webs as active constituents of the microbial loop and in the population ecology of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms. Over the past 5 years, there has been a sharp increase in reported aquatic virus research, notably in the areas of freshwater viral ecology, viruses of eukaryotic microorganisms and viral genetic diversity. Recent studies of the interactions between viral infection, bacterivory and grazing have demonstrated the complex dynamics of viral infection within aquatic ecosystems. These reports have helped solidify our understanding of the environmental controls on viral abundance, impacts of viral infection upon host community structure and have elucidated new roles of viruses in biogeochemical cycles – such as photosystem gene expression. Previously unrecognised groups of viruses (
ribonucleic acid
viruses and single‐stranded
deoxyribonucleic acid
viruses) have also been revealed as diverse and active components of marine virioplankton assemblages.

Key Concepts:

Viruses are the most numerically dominant organisms on earth, and their abundance varies between habitats, often according to local primary productivity.

Both viral activity and bacterivory contribute significantly to bacterial mortality in aquatic ecosystems, which in turn influence global‐scale biogeochemical cycles.

Methodological advances, such as metagenomics and genomics, have greatly facilitated studies of marine viruses and resulted in key discoveries on viral diversity, viral–host gene transfer and viral influence on host cell physiology.

Photosystem genes are common in cyanophage and are hypothesised to enhance viral production rates.

Viral‐induced mortality may be a key factor in controlling or terminating algal blooms.
Genome‐wide Association Studies of Cancers
Authors: Ku Chee Seng , Naidoo Nasheen , Hartman Mikael , Pawitan Yudi
Published: December 2010

Advances in high‐throughput genotyping technologies have enabled the efficient systematic screening of single‐nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) throughout the human genome for disease associations in genome‐wide association studies (GWAS). Many human complex diseases have been interrogated by GWAS; these include autoimmune and chronic inflammatory diseases, neurological and neuropsychiatric diseases, cardiovascular diseases and cancers among others. Presently, more than 60 cancer GWAS have been published and numerous novel SNPs and genetic loci were found to be associated with various cancers such as breast, prostate and colorectal cancers. These SNP associations were supported by robust statistical evidence. The GWAS of cancers have so far focused only on SNPs. Other germline genetic variations such as small insertions and deletions (indels), copy number variations (CNVs) and tandem repeat polymorphisms should also be investigated for their associations with cancers in the future.

Key Concepts:

Cancer is similar to other complex diseases in that it is a consequence of complex interactions between multiple genetic factors and environmental exposures.

The genetic susceptibility of cancer has been previously established by epidemiological, twin and familial aggregation studies.

The implication of a genetic component in the aetiology of cancer has driven enormous research endeavours to identify the genetic risk factors.

The candidate gene association and linkage analysis approaches to identifying these genetic risk factors has, however, generated inconsistent results in the past.

Notable advances have been achieved in recent years by genome‐wide association studies (GWAS) – where several hundred–thousand single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) throughout the human genome are interrogated for disease associations.

Numerous novel genetic loci or genes have been implicated in a variety of cancers by GWAS.

This significant progress in dissecting the germline genetic component of cancers is credited to the development of high‐throughput genotyping technologies, which has enabled GWAS to be done more efficiently on thousands of samples.

Similar to other complex diseases, most of the GWAS‐identified SNPs for cancers have small effect sizes (OR <1.5) and collectively only account for a small fraction of the heritability of cancers.

Several practical steps to further uncover additional genetic loci for cancers include (a) extending GWAS in different populations, (b) meta‐analysis, (c) subgroup analysis and (d) a second tier of replication.

In addition, other approaches should also be considered such as investigating rare variants or less common SNPs, targeted resequencing of the GWAS‐identified loci, copy number variations and homozygosity mapping analysis.
Prochlorococcusand Other Photosynthetic Picoplankton
Authors: Moore Lisa R
Published: December 2010

The smallest yet most abundant photosynthetic organism on earth is the marine cyanobacterium,Prochlorococcus, which represent a key component in marine ecology and global biogeochemical cycles. This tiny cell is extremely successful, dominating throughout the surface photic zone of the subtropical and tropical low nutrient, oligotrophic regions of the world's oceans from ∼45 °N to 40 °S. It has evolved to be an oligotrophic specialist, through a reduction in cell size, a streamlined genome and a reduced cellular requirement for the limited resources available in this environment. The ability to examine the abundance and distribution ofProchlorococcusin the wild, and measure its genomic and metabolic properties in the lab and field, has madeProchlorococcusa model system for advancing our understanding of the ecology of marine microbes.

Key Concepts:

The smallest photosynthetic cells in the oceans (picophytoplankton) dominate numerically and contribute significantly to primary production on a global scale.

Prochlorococcusis a cyanobacterium with a reduced cell size and streamlined genome providing it with advantages over other phytoplankton in oligotrophic oceans around the world.

The ability to measure genomic and metabolic properties in natural populations and isolates, and the ability to follow population dynamics, makesProchlorococcusan excellent model system for studying microbial ecology on all scales.
Remipedia and the Evolution of Hexapods
Authors: von Reumont Björn M , Burmester Thorsten
Published: December 2010

With more than a million species that have already been described, the hexapods (insects and allies) constitute the largest animal group. Still their origin and phylogenetic affinities are matter of intense debate. Although previous morphological work generally considered the millipedes as sister taxon of the hexapods, molecular phylogenetic analyses agree that hexapods are actually closely related to crustaceans. Recent studies have provided evidence that the Remipedia, enigmatic crustaceans that have been discovered only 30 years ago in anchialine cave systems, may be the closest living relatives of hexapods. Support for this hypothesis comes from similar brain architecture, presence of an insect‐type respiratory haemocyanin in remipedes and phylogenomic studies. Thus hexapods may have evolved from a Remipedia‐like marine crustacean. These data evokes doubt on the generally described hypotheses in textbooks that might present an outdated picture of arthropod phylogeny.

Key Concepts:

Hexapods are the most successful animal group, but their relationship to other arthropods and evolutionary origins are matter of debate for more than a century.

Molecular phylogenetic studies have demonstrated that crustaceans are the closest living relatives of hexapods.

Crustaceans are most likely paraphyletic in terms of hexapods, thus one crustacean taxon is more closely related to the hexapods than the other crustaceans.

Brain morphology, haemocyanin structure and evolution, and phylogenomic studies suggest that the crustacean class Remipedia are the closest living relatives of hexapods.

Remipedia live in anchialine caves, which connect the inland ground water body with the salt water from the ocean.

Remipedia harbour a mixture of ancestral and derived morphological characters.

First hexapods may have evolved from marine Remipedia.

Remipedia thus occupy a key position for understanding hexapod evolution.
Nucleic Acid Structural Energetics
Authors: Vieregg Jeffrey R.
Published: December 2010

Nucleic acids perform many functions essential for life, and exhibit a correspondingly diverse array of structures. This article provides an overview of nucleic acid structure, as well as the forces that govern its formation. The current state of knowledge of nucleic acid thermodynamics is discussed, as well as techniques for predicting and designing structures of interest. Experimental methods used to determine the structure of nucleic acids and the thermodynamics of their reactions are also surveyed.
Electrochemical Detection Methods Following Liquid Chromatography, Capillary Electrophoresis, and Microchip Electrophoresis Separations
Authors: Hulvey Matthew K. , Lunte Susan M. , Fischer David J. , Kuhnline Courtney D.
Published: December 2010

Electrochemical detection has proved to be an invaluable tool for analytical applications in a variety of research areas including environmental analysis, materials research, bioanalysis, and neuroscience. While some electrochemical techniques function as stand‐alone methods, a few techniques, including amperometry, conductivity, and voltammetry, have been found to be useful as detectors for separation‐based methods. Electrochemistry (EC) has the ability to provide chemical reduction/oxidation (redox) information about the analytes of interest and can be utilized for direct, quantitative analysis if the number of electrons in the redox process is known. Additional advantages of electrochemical detection include low detection limits, high selectivity, portability, low cost, and the ability to miniaturize the system without a loss in sensitivity. This article focuses on the principles and applications of EC detection in liquid chromatography (LC), capillary electrophoresis (CE), and microchip electrophoresis (ME) systems. Topics include an overview of electrochemical detection schemes and electrode materials, a brief introduction to LC, CE, and ME, and discussions of applications of the above‐mentioned detection schemes to these separation methods.
Matrix Methods in Analytical Spectroscopy
Authors: Roach Carol A. , Neal Sharon L. , Vincent‐Finley Rachel E.
Published: December 2010

The goal of this article is to survey the matrix methods that spectroscopists and data analysts are using to recover chemical information from electronic and vibrational spectral measurements. After an introduction, we review the principles of the spectral measurements at the focus of this article as it defines notation and describes several types of spectral measurements that are either acquired or analyzed in matrix format. These include steady‐state, dynamic, and correlation data. Next, we provide a rigorous mathematical description of the most important numerical methods for matrix analysis. Finally, five classes of matrix analysis methods that have been applied to molecular spectra are surveyed: exploratory data analysis, pattern recognition, spectral calibration, curve resolution, and multiway data methods. Short discussions about software alternatives and future developments are also included. A description of the notational conventions followed and algorithm listings are also provided.
Ultrahigh‐Pressure Liquid Chromatography: An Emerging Technique
Authors: Gilpin Roger K. , Stinson Jelynn , Gilpin Charles S.
Published: December 2010

An overview of ultrahigh‐pressure liquid chromatography (UHPLC) is presented that covers both theoretical and practical aspects of the technique. The push to use higher eluent pressures is the direct result of a new column technology based on the use of smaller diameter separation media and narrower bore diameters in combination with faster linear flow velocities. The topics discussed include the general aspects of the technique, as well as specific information about instrumentation, column design, and nonlinear effects. An important consideration when carrying out UHPLC separations compared to conventional HPLC separations is eluent heating due to compression and decompression heating. In many instances, the amount of heat generated is large and cannot be ignored. Models to predict heating under different operation conditions are discussed.
Scanning Near‐Field Ultrasound Holography
Authors: Avasthy Shraddha , Shekhawat Gajendra , Dravid Vinayak P.
Published: December 2010

Nondestructive metrology of nanoscale structures, embedded defects, and buried patterns in microelectronic devices is a daunting challenge. Similarly, noninvasive nanoscale imaging of subcellular components, spatiotemporal transfection of pathogens, and environmental pollutants in a biological cell is an equally formidable problem. Various traditional imaging methods using optics, acoustics, electron beams, X‐rays and the like are either invasive or are incapable of achieving nanoscale lateral resolution. We have developed an innovative scanning near‐field ultrasound holography (SNFUH) approach as a promising solution to this challenge. SNFUH exploits viscoelastic contrast between subsurface structures and matrix for imaging the “
phase
” component of ultrasound scattering. The experimental setup is a modified scanning probe microscopy (SPM) platform, wherein ultrasonic waves are excited at the probe tip and in the sample bulk, using transducers. Ultrasonic plane waves launched from the bottom of the specimen experience perturbations due to changes in viscoelastic properties and/or geometry of the embedded structures. These perturbations are detected and imaged via SNFUH's optoelectronic feedback system. The SNFUH system has already been used to image nanoscale structures in microelectronic and biological specimens, and further development and understanding will considerably aid in the development of nanoscale noninvasive metrology fields.
Kinetic Isotope Effects in Enzymes
Authors: Kohen Amnon , Roston Daniel , Stojković Vanja , Wang Zhen
Published: December 2010

Kinetic isotope effects (KIEs) have progressed to become one of the most useful analytical techniques to study enzymatic reactions and can answer a variety of questions ranging from the basic mechanism of a reaction to the structure of a transition state (TS) and the role of quantum mechanical tunneling. Here, we briefly discuss the development of the theory behind KIEs with an emphasis on how it guides the interpretation of experimental data. We then present some of the instrumentation and techniques commonly used for KIE experiments, followed by a number of different examples from the enzymology literature wherein KIEs have been used to probe chemical transformations, with an emphasis on the effects of quantum mechanical tunneling on KIEs.
Quality Control and Assurance of Neutron Activation Analysis
Authors: Bode Peter
Published: December 2010

Quality assurance is a proactive operation to minimize the probability of errors in an analysis procedure. It also includes quality control, the operation by which the occurrence of errors is inspected once the analysis has been completed. Quality assurance procedures are described for individual steps in neutron activation analysis, namely, preparation of the test portion, selection of analytical protocol, calibration, instrument performance checks, irradiation, decay, measurement, spectrum analysis and interpretation, internal and external quality control, as well as for ensuring the technical competence of the personnel involved. The emphasis is on the procedures for instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA), since it is the most widely applied method of neutron activation analysis (NAA).
Dispersive Solid‐Phase (Micro)Extraction
Authors: Cárdenas Aranzana M Soledad
Published: December 2010

Dispersive solid‐phase extraction (DSPE) is a sample treatment technique focused on selectivity enhancement. It was conceived as a quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe approach for the determination of pesticides in fruits and vegetables. Its applicability in this field as a standard method has been recognized by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists. The method involves the extraction of the analytes of interest with acetonitrile, the partitioning being promoted by the presence of salts, typically anhydrous sodium sulfate and sodium chloride. After centrifugation, a reduced amount of dispersive sorbent (in the milligram range) is added. The sorbent is selected to preferably interact with the endogenous matrix components rather than with the analytes of interest. In this way, the organic extract is cleaned up, retaining the target compounds in the liquid phase. Instrumental analysis can be done using the organic phase with or without conditioning. Since its publication, several modifications have been introduced in order to extend its applicability to a wide range of sample–analyte binomials. Recently, a miniaturized version of the DSPE technique has been proposed for analytes preconcentration, the compounds being analyzed after their transference to the organic solvent.
Ion Mobility Spectrometry
Authors: Arce Lourdes
Published: December 2010

Ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) is known to be a fast technique for the detection of volatile compounds. In IMS, a gas‐phase sample is ionized using an ionization source. The ions move in a weak electrical field toward a detector. During the drift they collide with a drift gas flowing in the opposite direction. Therefore, they are slowed down depending on their size, shape, and charge. As a result, different ions reach the detector at different drift times, which is a characteristic of the ions considered. The number of ions reaching the detector is a measure of the concentration of the analyte. Ions with greater mobility reach the collector electrode earlier than heavier ions that have a lower mobility. The current induced in the ion collector is an output signal from IMS detector. Its time dependence is calleddrift time spectrum. With regard to electric field direction, it is possible to measure spectra of positive or negative ions.

IMS can be manufactured in small, rugged, and portable designs and it has been used in several critical mission circumstances from security screening and military preparedness. Perhaps the most visible are the IMS analyzers that have been deployed in airports around the world to detect traces of explosives in passengers' carry‐on luggage.
Trends in Immunoassay Techniques
Authors: Gómez‐Hens Agustina , Aguilar‐Caballos María Paz
Published: December 2010

This article attempts to provide an overview of different approaches proposed to improve the performance of immunoassay techniques, most of which are used in routine clinical analysis and are finding wide acceptance in other analytical areas, such as environmental and food analysis. The term
immunoassay
here encompasses all the methods that involve the formation of antigen‐antibody complex to attain the separation and/or detection of analytes, including conventional immunoassays, immunosensors, and immunoaffinity techniques. Advances in the production of antibodies, in the availability of new labels, and in the immobilization of immunoreagents, which are allowing the improvement of the selectivity, sensitivity and robustness of these assays, are described. The recent use of different nanomaterials as labels, nanoscaffolds, and separation media in immunoassay techniques is especially emphasized. Also, the development of new approaches to increase the usefulness of immunoassays for multianalyte detection is shown through the different microarray systems proposed. The efforts carried out to miniaturize immunoassays are described by discussing the usefulness of microfluidic systems. Finally, recent achievements in immunoextraction, alone or in combination with other separation techniques, such as liquid chromatography and capillary electrophoresis, are also included.
Customer Equity
Authors: Lemon Katherine N. , Lemon Loren J.
Published: December 2010

Customer equity is defined as the total lifetime value of a firm's current and potential customer base. The customer equity (CE) construct can be utilized via both a conceptual framework (CE framework) and a mathematical model (CE model) which will allow a firm to evaluate various marketing initiatives, either conceptually or by a potential‐ROI analysis, in order to create, manage, and grow the firm's CE. The CE framework utilizes three primary elements that drive the creation and dynamic growth of CE:
v
alue, brand, and relationship. With insights derived from the CE framework and CE model, a firm can tailor its marketing efforts to meet unfulfilled customer expectations, and identify and exploit situations in which the firm has a competitive advantage vis‐à‐vis its competitors. This allows the firm to make a more disciplined and informed decision on which marketing initiatives to implement and at what levels.
Competitor Analysis
Authors: Shankar Venkatesh
Published: December 2010

Competitor analysis refers to the strategic evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of current and potential competitors for a focal brand in its market(s) or for a focal strategic business unit (SBU) or firm in the corresponding industry(ies). Competitor analysis is part of a marketing plan and can be done at the product‐market level, the SBU level, or the firm level. The main purpose of competitor analysis is to develop business and marketing strategies that are based on sustainable competitive advantage. When applied at the brand level, competitor analysis is useful in deciding whether to launch a new product and in formulating brand‐positioning strategy. A good competitor analysis should include assessments of both current and potential future competitors. The most direct or relevant competitors can be identified based on an analysis of the market structure, which includes such considerations as similarity of served needs, substitutability, cross‐price elasticity, switching costs, and perceptual positions. Competitor analysis is performed at intervals of a year or less. The term, competitor analysis, is used interchangeably with competitive analysis, although competitive analysis typically refers to the assessment of a business situation with a view to develop a sound business or marketing strategy relative to competitors.
Customer Relationship Management
Authors: Kumar V.
Published: December 2010

Customer relationship management (CRM) refers to building one‐to‐one relationships with customers that can drive value for the firm. This manuscript discusses proven CRM strategies that companies can use as means of effective customer management (CM). The continuing evolution of CM is made possible by understanding the interactive relationships that develop between firms and customers and among customers themselves. Firms will increasingly be able to customize marketing messages to larger target audiences on the basis of the customer's expected response and the customer's value to the firm. By following the CRM strategies discussed here, firms can reduce overall marketing costs, increase overall customer response rates, and, most importantly, increase overall customer and firm profitability.
Customer Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction
Authors: Brown Steven P. , Zahn William
Published: December 2010

Customer satisfaction constitutes the conceptual centerpiece of marketing thought and practice. Research on customer satisfaction is briefly reviewed from three distinct perspectives: the philosophical, the psychological, and the managerial. From the philosophical perspective, customer satisfaction is seen as the fundamental objective and purpose of a business. The psychological perspective has been dominated by the disconfirmation of expectations paradigm, and a broadened conceptual framework for psychological models of satisfaction is needed. From the managerial perspective, customer satisfaction is seen as a fundamental requirement for realizing the benefits of retaining current customers. Managerial research on customer satisfaction has demonstrated linkages with an array of financial performance metrics and provided validation for the philosophical idea that delivering satisfaction is the fundamental purpose of a business.
Customer Solutions
Authors: Bharadwaj Sundar G.
Published: December 2010

Customer solutions are a strategic imperative for firms competing in a business environment that is highly competitive and where current offerings are perceived as commodities. However, a vast majority of firms have failed with their solutions strategy since consumers have perceived such offerings as bundles of products and/or services in the guise of solutions. Drawing on in‐depth research of buyers in firms, this article provides guidelines on (i) designing effective customer solution, (ii) the organizational processes needed, and (iii) the type of customers for whom solutions are appropriate.
Demand Elasticity
Authors: Prasad Ashutosh
Published: December 2010

The price elasticity of demand is a well‐established concept with many implications for pricing strategy. This concept together with the interrelated concepts of cross‐price elasticity and income elasticity of demand is covered. First, the price elasticity is defined and several illustrative examples of the same are provided. This is followed by a discussion on the economic theory relating elasticity and optimal pricing in monopoly and competitive markets. Recent empirical findings regarding the determinants of pricing are mentioned. Next, the topic of cross‐price elasticity of demand is introduced and its application to market structure analysis is presented. The article concludes by relating income elasticity to the remaining elasticities.
Ethical Marketing and Marketing Strategy
Authors: Laczniak Gene R. , Murphy Patrick E.
Published: December 2010

This article begins with a definition of ethical marketing and its relationship to marketing strategy. In the body of this work, seven basic perspectives for the ethical practice of marketing are outlined. Each basic perspective is discussed with reference to the American Marketing Association Statement of Ethics as well as exemplary corporate policies and behaviors that can serve as illustrations of ethical marketing approaches.
Integrated Marketing Communication Strategy
Authors: Villarreal Ricardo
Published: December 2010

Integrated marketing communications (IMC) is an organized method of thinking about a brand's overall marketing communications strategy that evolved into a way of thinking in the early 1990s. Although it has its detractors and supporters, academics have identified a number of trends that helped lead to the formulation of a general IMC concept. Additionally, there are identifiable key features, benefits, orientations, and challenges. Despite a lack of consensus on what IMC is and how it should be defined, IMC plays an important role in marketing strategy.
Later Mover (Nonpioneer) Advantage
Authors: Golder Peter N.
Published: December 2010

Later mover (or nonpioneer) advantage results from the challenges faced by first movers and the associated opportunities created for later movers. First movers face five key disadvantages relative to later entrants: free‐rider effects, technological discontinuities, missing consumers' ideal point, shifting consumer tastes, and incumbent inertia. Rewards for first movers are much lower than reported in studies initially supporting a first‐mover advantage. First movers long‐term survival rate is 36%, average market share is 6%, and market leadership rate is 9%. Overall, both first movers and later entrants should not expect that entry timing alone will be a major factor in either firm's long‐term success. Instead, all firms should focus on persistently developing their new products and new markets, and then relentlessly innovating and pursuing associated market opportunities to capitalize on their past successes.
Mass Customization Strategies
Authors: Sharma Arun
Published: December 2010

Mass customization is a strategy that enables the practice of customer‐centric marketing by providing customers with product offerings that are individually tailored to their specific needs. To successfully apply a mass customization strategy, marketers must shift from a supply‐side orientation to a demand‐side orientation and change product development and manufacturing processes.
Disintermediation
Authors: Sisodia Rajendra
Published: December 2010

Disintermediation refers to the removal or elimination of existing intermediaries from a supply chain. The purpose in doing so is to be more efficient and effective by reducing costs and serving customers better. Reintermediation refers to the addition of new intermediaries in a supply chain (subsequent to disintermediation typically), with the purpose again being to increase efficiency and effectiveness.
Positioning Analysis and Strategies
Authors: Umesh U. N.
Published: December 2010

As the world becomes a globalized economy, billions of people continue to hold on to their individual values and expectations. Firms that cater to these individuals need to position their products and brands to satisfy their specific needs. A single product is unlikely to satisfy the needs of billions of people, suggesting a need for multitudes of offerings by one or more firms. An organization's offering occupies a distinct and valued place in the mind of the customer, relative to competitive offerings. Customers can also be firms that buy from other firms. The challenge to firms is to create a sufficiently broad offering that will be viewed as suitable by a large group of customers so as to achieve economies of scale, rather than creating a separate unit for every single customer. Mispositioned offerings can fail as they will not satisfy the needs of customers, and there are eager competitors waiting in the wings to cater to their specific needs.
Trademarks, Proprietary Marks, and Brands
Authors: Zerrillo Philip C.
Published: December 2010

The modern day “brand” is an outgrowth of the trademark as well as the proprietary mark. While the former protected the
makers
of goods from those who would trade‐off of their quality craftsmanship, the latter was used to protect the
owners
of goods and assist in sorting out who had rightful title in cases of shipwreck or piracy. Over time the primary emphasis of brand law has migrated from protecting the consumer from the tort of fraud, toward protecting the assets (brands) of the brand owner.

Brands serve a vital purpose for the modern firm as they distinguish the goods of one seller from those of another, and thus provide a basis for differentiation. This differentiation serves to reduce the importance of price in the customer decision process as the goods or services are not so easily compared. In reducing price sensitivity or, better yet, enhancing the price and volume premiums of the mark owner, the brand has great value to the firm and thus has equity. While brand equity is often a substantial portion of a firm's financial valuation, it must be maintained and cared for by continuous marketing efforts.
Focus Groups and Depth Interviews
Authors: Rook Dennis W.
Published: December 2010

Historically, marketers gathered marketplace data through extensive surveying or polling that generated statistical measures of consumers' demographic characteristics, product and media consumption behavior, purchase intentions, and so on. However, the explanatory power of the survey data is limited by its largely descriptive, factual, and somewhat mechanical qualities. The subtler factors that explain why, for example, women like Brand X significantly more than men often lie below the surface and are likely to elude blunt survey instruments with their direct questions, fixed‐format responses, and few degrees of freedom. At around the same time that intellectual grumbling about survey research was gaining momentum in the 1930s, psychological theories, insights, and methods began to migrate into marketing thought and quickly expanded and enriched marketing's domain. No longer wedded so strongly to quantitative survey methodology, various types of what came to be known as
qualitative research
came quickly onto the marketing scene. Within the qualitative research arena, individual marketing researchers designed their studies around talking with and interviewing consumers either on an individual basis or in group discussions. Over time, the former research approach became known as
individual depth interviews
(or
IDIs
) and the latter are most commonly called
focus groups
. This article traces the origins of these two pervasive qualitative methods, identifies their similarities and differences, and discusses current issues that surround their uses in marketing‐research today.
Questionnaire Design
Authors: Agrawal Jagdish
Published: December 2010

Conducting surveys by using a questionnaire is a dominant method of collecting data for academic research, for public institutions, and for business organizations. A questionnaire, containing a list of predesigned questions, affects both the quality and quantity of data. A well‐designed questionnaire could motivate respondents to complete the survey and reduce the sampling error by increasing the response rate and, therefore, the sample size of the study. At the same time, it also helps to reduce nonsampling errors arising due to the nature of responses. In other words, a poorly designed questionnaire is likely to make a significant impact on the findings and conclusions of a research study. Therefore, it is very important to follow the best practices of questionnaire design in terms of following certain steps when designing a questionnaire and practicing certain “do's” and “don't's” of questionnaire design. Following the steps of questionnaire design beginning from the identification of data needed to the last step of pilot testing of the questionnaire will increase the likelihood of getting quality data in the desired quantity. Designing a good survey essentially requires keeping the interests of both the researcher and the respondents in mind.
Sampling Techniques
Authors: Kamakura Wagner A.
Published: December 2010

Marketing researchers are seldom able to study the entire population of target consumers, and must therefore draw inferences about the population from a sample. To ensure that these inferences are unbiased, the sample must be representative of the population. If the sample is randomly drawn, the researcher may also assess the estimation error associated with these inferences. This article discusses the steps involved in drawing samples from a population, and describes the most common probability and nonprobability sampling methods.
Experimental Design
Authors: Oppewal Harmen
Published: December 2010

Experiments aim to test causal relationships between independent and dependent variables while ruling out any alternative explanation of the relationship observed in the experiment. To achieve this, experimentation involves standardization and control of external factors, and random assignment of test units to experimental conditions. Experiments that are using existing groups of test units are called
quasi‐experiments
. Field experiments involve the implementation of experimental procedures within a real or realistic setting, which reduces control but enhances external validity.
Purchase, Scanner, and Media Panels
Authors: Mulhern Frank J.
Published: December 2010

Purchase, scanner, and media panels are collections of individuals or households who agree to provide detailed information on their behavior over a period of time. Participants in these panels provide marketers with detailed information on purchase behavior or media use. Panels are designed to represent the demographic and ethnic population of the nation, and range in size from a few thousand to tens of thousands of participants. In purchase panels, participants record information about what they buy. Typically, participants, upon returning from a shopping trip, enter their purchase information into either a diary or an online data collection system. Scanner panels are a special type of purchase panels, where participants are enrolled in a program that automatically captures data on their purchases at retail stores. Scanner panels overcome the limitation of requiring participants to input information manually. Information is necessary on media consumption behavior for the advertisers to successfully place ads where they will be seen by target audiences. That information comes from media panels that consist of households who agree to have their media use tracked by electronic devices.
Comparative Evaluation of Survey Methods
Authors: Wang Tuo
Published: December 2010

A researcher has the option of choosing a method from a menu of different methods of doing surveys: face‐to‐face interview at home or mall‐intercept interview, mail survey, online survey, and telephone survey. Each of these methods is characterized by distinct advantages and disadvantages. The major criteria used to evaluate these methods are response time in collecting data, cost of obtaining data per respondent, quality of data obtained from each method, and flexibility in designing the survey, including incorporation of audio/video materials. The mall‐intercept interview and web surveys are recommended when the data are needed within a short period of time. Web surveys are also the least expensive method of collecting survey data. On the other hand, the face‐to‐face interview has been shown to generate the highest quality of data. Face‐to‐face interviews, followed by web surveys, are also very flexible in terms of adapting the data collection process to the special needs of the research project and the characteristics of survey respondents. Therefore, a researcher has to decide what is important in a given study regarding the four dimensions and choose a method that best meets the desired criteria of the research project.
Comparative Scaling Technique
Authors: Swaminathan Vanitha
Published: December 2010

Scaling is a process by which questions are used to assign numerical values to measure subjective properties of an object. Comparative scaling techniques are techniques in which respondents are asked to compare a set of stimulus objects directly with one another. An example is when two versions of a new product are compared with each other prior to new‐product introduction.
Field Work/Data Collection Process
Authors: Grimm Pamela
Published: December 2010

Field work is a process of data collection using survey methods such as face‐to‐face interviews; telephone, postal, and online surveys; or observation. Each of these methods require different amount of field work and different degrees of skills and effort to administer the data collection process, execute the task of actual collection of data, and to finally get the data ready for analysis. If the survey method requires interviewer(s) to conduct the actual survey, they need to be trained regarding sampling procedure, means to get cooperation from respondents, role of verbal and nonverbal cues in influencing respondents, and other procedures and skills. They also need to ensure the security of data especially to protect the respondent's privacy and confidentiality. Because administration of data collection and actual collection of data require personnel with specialized skills and administrative capacity, most firms tend to subcontract the task of collecting data to other vendors who are equipped to handle this task. A very important sourcebook of information called
The Green Book
contains a list of such research vendors.
Concept of Causality and Conditions for Causality
Authors: Oppewal Harmen
Published: December 2010

The concept of causality has been debated over the centuries but remains one of the most valuable types of knowledge because it tells what can or should be done to obtain a desired consequence or to avoid an undesirable outcome. Causality concerns relationships where a change in one variable necessarily results in a change in another variable. There are three conditions for causality: covariation, temporal precedence, and control for “third variables.” The latter comprise alternative explanations for the observed causal relationship. Spurious relationships occur when covariation between variables suggests a causal effect but where this covariation is, in fact, the result of an underlying shared cause.
Content Analysis
Authors: Price Linda L.
Published: December 2010

Content analysis is distinct from a hermeneutical approach, and is used to analyze symbolic content of communication, both qualitatively and quantitatively, in a wide variety of communication types. By addressing the need for and accounting for some level of interpretive ambiguity, content analysis is useful in determining commercially relevant patterns, frequencies, and potential categories. It also allows unobtrusive appraisal of communications, can be integrated with other qualitative and quantitative methods, and can link message content to source characteristics, and to environmental and other variables.

The researcher seeks to use content analysis to establish sufficiently exhaustive criteria for selection that can account for each variation in communication content, and then apply these criteria such that subsequent analysis by others would obtain comparable results for the same messages.