bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Authors: Brereton Avril V. , Tonge Bruce J.
Published: January 2020

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition that currently affects 1 in 68 children. Early signs of communication, social, and behavioral differences act as red flags for autism at 2 years of age or even earlier. The diagnosis is made when the child has difficulty understanding and using language or relating socially, and has repetitive play, interests, and behavior. This lifelong condition can be associated with the emergence of comorbid mental health problems such as anxiety, depression, and attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Ongoing support for children, adolescents, and adults with ASD and their often highly stressed families is important.
Attention‐Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Adolescence
Authors: Axelrod Michael I.
Published: January 2020

In the late 1980s, attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was considered primarily a problem of childhood. More recently, clinical and research attention has been paid to ADHD as a lifelong condition emerging in early childhood and persisting through adulthood. This entry focuses on ADHD during adolescence.
Peer Influence in Adolescence
Authors: Brown B. Bradford , Anistranski Joseph A.
Published: January 2020

Peer influence is considered a major determinant of adolescents' behavior and adjustment. A series of developmental changes coalesce to heighten the salience of peers, and by extension peer influence, at the outset of this stage. After early adolescence, evidence suggests that influence declines, leveling off as individuals approach adulthood. Peer influence is multidimensional and multidirectional, moderated by several personal and contextual factors. Peers exert influence in numerous ways, not all of which are intentional. The colloquial focus on peer pressure belies more common strategies such as reinforcement and behavior display (often called modeling). Scholars have given more attention to peer influences on health‐compromising than health‐promoting behavior, but there is growing evidence of its impact in both domains. Recent studies trace the neurological correlates of peer influence. More research is needed to understand how culture affects peers' impact on adolescents and to explore how social media are transforming peer relationships and influence.
Friendship in Adolescence
Authors: Bukowski William M. , Bagwell Catherine , Castellanos Melisa , Persram Ryan J.
Published: January 2020

Friendship is a desired and meaningful form of human relationship that can be seen at nearly every point in the life cycle. Friendship is characterized by shared activities, reciprocated positive affect, similarity in interests and values, and the use of productive conflict resolution strategies. Persons ascribe multiple relationship features to their friendships including security, intimacy, and support. Friendship serves several basic functions. Beyond providing opportunities for companionship, friendship is a source of validation, protection from victimization and from suboptimal family experiences, and opportunities for healthy moral development.
Peer Rejection and Loneliness
Authors: Rotenberg Ken J.
Published: January 2020

This entry addresses the relationship between peer rejection and loneliness during adolescence. Concurrent relations have been found between peer rejection and loneliness during the course of adolescence for males and females and in various cultures. Longitudinal studies confirm that peer rejection predicts, and thus is a probable cause of, loneliness. The research supports the conclusion that the following contribute, in part, to the relationship between peer rejection and loneliness: social behaviors of withdrawal and aggression, the transition from elementary to middle school, self‐defeating attribution style, and hypersensitivity to social rejection. Research also shows that the quality and quantity of peer friendships affect the relationship between peer rejection and loneliness. Measurement and methodological limitations in the studies are discussed, including the lack of complete longitudinal designs and failure to consider reciprocal relations. Suggestions for future research on the relationship between peer rejection and loneliness are made, including distinguishing between social and emotional loneliness and including chronicity of loneliness in the research design.
Cyberbullying in Adolescence
Authors: Allison Kimberley R. , Luo Aileen , Bussey Kay
Published: January 2020

The entry defines cyberbullying and discusses problems with the extant definition. Although cyberbullying shares many similarities with traditional (offline) bullying, there are also considerable differences between the two forms of bullying. These similarities and differences are examined. This is followed by a brief description of the main theories that have been used to guide cyberbullying research. Adolescents are involved in cyberbullying episodes as perpetrators, victims, and witnesses, each type of which is explored. Finally, future research directions are outlined.
Parent–Child Relationships
Authors: Suizzo Marie‐Anne
Published: January 2020

The parent–child relationship undergoes significant transformations during adolescence due to major developmental changes that occur across all domains of adolescents' lives. During this period, adolescents are striving to establish their autonomy and identity. Their relationship with their parents becomes more egalitarian and reciprocal. Although conflicts and negative interactions increase in early adolescence, by later adolescence, distress decreases and the parent–adolescent relationship begins to stabilize. Closeness and warmth may remain strong although these emotions are not expressed in the same ways. The quality of the parent–child attachment formed during early childhood shapes the trajectory of the relationship during adolescence. Parents balance efforts to encourage and support their children's autonomy with setting limits and monitoring their adolescents' activities. Parents socialize their adolescents by teaching them the beliefs, values, and customs associated with their particular ethnic, cultural, and racial group. The field of parent–adolescent relationships is constantly evolving. Current research on parent–adolescent relationships focuses on the bidirectional aspects of the relationship, gender differences, ethnic and cultural differences, fathers' roles, homosexual parents, step‐parents, and grandparents. Technological and methodological advances and changes in political and social landscapes are expanding opportunities to gain knowledge and develop theories with implications for parents, adolescents, practitioners, and policy makers.
Divorce and Remarriage
Authors: Thorsen Maggie L. , Sawyer Eleanor
Published: January 2020

Considerable attention has been paid to the negative consequences of parental divorce and remarriage for adolescents by scholars, practitioners, and parents alike. In general, research finds that youth who have experienced parental marital transitions have poorer outcomes on several aspects of psychological, behavioral, academic, and social well‐being. Exposure to stressors during the divorce and remarriage process contributes to challenges for teens' adjustment and helps to explain their diminished well‐being. However, family and individual characteristics may act as protective factors during this process, and help to account for some of the variation in adolescents' adjustment to parental divorce and remarriage. This entry discusses methodological challenges for conducting such research, and suggests some future directions.
Abuse and Neglect of Adolescents
Authors: Ford Julian D.
Published: January 2020

Adolescence is a time of especially high risk for abuse and neglect, compared to earlier in childhood or subsequently in adulthood. Adolescents who are currently exposed to abuse or neglect or have been earlier in childhood are at risk of developing psychosocial problems that include, but extend well beyond, posttraumatic stress disorder, and that encompass a wide range of psychiatric disorders and behavioral, cognitive, relational, legal, educational, and medical problems. Abuse and neglect require adolescents to adapt biologically and psychosocially in survival‐focused ways that fundamentally undermine their ability to achieve the essential capacities for self‐regulation in adolescence that are the foundation for health across the lifespan. A developmental trauma disorder framework offers a potential unifying conceptual and clinical approach to understanding the adverse impact of abuse and neglect on adolescents.
Young Parents
Authors: Sipsma Heather L. , Callands Tamora , Kershaw Trace S.
Published: January 2020

Young parents face unique physical and psychosocial health challenges. The adverse health risks associated with early pregnancy and possible poor parental and child outcomes have prompted the public health community to reduce unwanted pregnancies and childbirth among young parents. This entry explores factors associated with increased risk for young parenthood and describes current knowledge of these individuals' parenting and relationships. Other aspects of young parents, including their mental health and sexual risk behaviors, are then addressed in order to understand these other associated challenges for parents and practitioners. Finally, this entry explores the current knowledge on breastfeeding among young parents, as this behavior is an important opportunity to build healthy families.
Youth Unemployment
Authors: Mahadeo Rahsaan , Mortimer Jeylan T.
Published: January 2020

Understood as how to “make a living,” work is an integral aspect of identity. When those whose identities are still in the early stages of development are denied access to work, their inability to make a living warrants concern. Understanding youth unemployment requires examination of factors extending well beyond the individual. Structural macrolevel forces affect youths' experiences in searching for work and set in motion a host of consequences that shape youths' transition to adulthood. Describing the causes and consequences of youth unemployment both helps to raise awareness of an important social issue and documents the need for action. Hence, this entry concludes with a discussion of some implications for future research and public policy.
Transitions Into Employment
Authors: Lindstrom Lauren , Lind John , Gee Kevin A.
Published: January 2020

Preparing young people for transitions into employment is a priority for emerging and advanced economies, as reflected in the United Nations' 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. However, the specific process and outcomes of this transition vary based on regional and national contexts, labor market demands, and institutional differences between national transition systems. Policies and programs such as vocational education and apprenticeships have been developed to increase academic, technical, and other employability skills and reduce the number of youth who are neither employed nor enrolled in education or training (NEET). Inequities in employment opportunities exist based on social class, race, disability, and gender. Additional research is needed to understand the systems and services that can best support transition to the workforce for all young people.
Gangs
Authors: Lowe C. Cory , Lane Jodi
Published: January 2020

Youth gangs have long existed in the United States and have tremendous consequences for individuals and communities. This entry reviews youth gangs in the context of the United States and includes common definitions of youth gangs, their history and prevalence, characteristics of gang members, the factors associated with gang formation and gang joining, the consequences of gang membership, and strategies that have been used to prevent, suppress, or otherwise intervene in gang activities and the lives of gang‐involved youths.
Religious Engagement
Authors: Richert Rebekah A. , Saide Anondah R.
Published: January 2020

The study of religious engagement in adolescence examines the extent to which individuals benefit (or do not benefit) from their commitment to a set of religious beliefs, participation in religious behaviors, and sense of belonging to a religious group. Current research has documented positive benefits of religious engagement, with greater self‐esteem and psychological well‐being as well as lower levels of engagement in violent and other risky behaviors. However, high or low levels of religiosity on the part of an adolescent can result in being discriminated against and/or ostracized if those levels of religiosity are not shared by those around them (i.e., their peers, parents, and community).
Work
Authors: Mont'Alvao Arnaldo , Mortimer Jeylan T. , Staff Jeremy
Published: January 2020

Participation in the labor market during adolescence can have short‐ and longer‐term impacts on health, well‐being, and socioeconomic attainment. However, declining job opportunities over the past few decades, especially in the aftermath of the Great Recession, have diminished employment prospects for many teenagers interested in acquiring part‐ or full‐time work experiences. This entry reviews the latest trends in adolescent employment around the world. While most research on this topic has been conducted in the United States, this entry includes studies conducted in European and South American countries. It also describes bases of adolescent selection to work, and the varying impacts of paid work on adolescent development, depending on its intensity and quality. Finally, this entry suggests fruitful lines of future inquiry, especially research on how changing patterns of adolescent employment affect the character of school‐to‐work transitions of contemporary teenagers and the potential lasting effects of economic recessions on adolescents' work trajectories.
Poverty
Authors: Ferguson Kim T. , Evans Gary W. , Lipschutz Hannah K.
Published: January 2020

Globally, about 145 million adolescents live in extreme poverty. This has significant consequences for all aspects of adolescents' health and well‐being, including their current and future physical and mental health; educational opportunities and achievements; work opportunities, flexibility, and pay scales; residential stability, housing, and neighborhood quality; and opportunities for healthy relationships with parents, peers, colleagues, employers, and future partners and children. These impacts of poverty on adolescent health and well‐being are discussed in this entry, with the aim of identifying potential opportunities for change for poor adolescents across the globe.
Mentoring
Authors: Hagler Matthew , Burton Samantha , Rhodes Jean
Published: January 2020

Youth mentoring relationships are characterized by close, trusting intergenerational ties that promote positive psychological, behavioral, academic, and occupational outcomes for mentees. Formal mentoring occurs when youth (typically identified as “at risk”) and mentors enroll in a program and are matched by program staff, while informal mentoring, or natural mentoring, occurs between caring, nonparent adults and younger mentees. This entry reviews the characteristics, outcomes, and moderating factors of formal, informal (or natural), and new, hybrid models of youth mentoring. It also provides a theoretical and empirical overview of the underlying processes of mentoring, and commentary on implications and future directions for research, practice, and policy.
Social Influences on Adolescent Substance Abuse
Authors: Angosta Joanne , Wang Carol , Neighbors Clayton
Published: January 2020

This entry explores changes in social influence during adolescence and its effects on substance abuse. This developmental period is influential in the initiation of substance use and its potential progression to abuse. This entry describes social–psychological theories related to social influence. It also reviews typical changes in the impact of social influence, such as the increasing influence of peers over family members throughout adolescence. It discusses how both proximal and distal sources of social influence affect adolescent health attitudes and behaviors. Finally, it reviews how the relationship between social influence and changing structure, access, and motivations affects substance use behavior in adolescents.
Callous and Unemotional Traits in Adolescence
Authors: Bartoli Alice Jones , Wilkinson Hannah , Wendt Guilherme Welter
Published: January 2020

Callous–unemotional (CU) traits are associated with particularly problematic antisocial behavior. They are characterized by a profile of impaired affective empathy, reduced concern about others, and lack of feelings of guilt. Adolescents with CU traits have a severe and persistent pattern of antisocial behavior, and are at greater risk of substance misuse and later serious offending compared to antisocial individuals without these traits. Research into CU traits indicates a potential pathway to antisocial behavior, distinct from those without the traits, including differences in the heritability of antisocial behavior and distinct neurobiological and psychophysiological response profiles. These biological differences may explain the cognitive–affective profile associated with CU traits, such as impaired affective empathy and reduced sensitivity to punishment. At present there is no best practice recommendation for intervention for antisocial behavior associated with elevated CU traits in youth. However, emerging intervention research with adolescents, parents, schools, and in youth justice settings are starting to yield promising results.
Involvement in Clubs and Organizations
Authors: O'Donnell Alexander W. , Pegg Karlee J. , Barber Bonnie L.
Published: January 2020

Clubs and organizations are important contexts for positive adolescent development. They are best conceptualized as social contexts that afford adolescents opportunities to develop relationships with like‐minded peers and adults. There is an important interplay between involvement in clubs and organizations and positive developmental outcomes, with research suggesting that involvement in clubs and organizations can protect adolescents from engaging in antisocial behaviors, improve academic performance, enhance self‐esteem and well‐being, and provide a context for adolescents to explore their identity. Importantly, the entry discusses how some of the positive developmental outcomes attributable to involvement in clubs and organizations can be explained by positive social influences. Additionally, family and economic factors that can contribute to adolescent participation in clubs and organizations are outlined. The entry concludes by detailing several methodological limitations of the current research field, including selection biases, with corresponding future research directions.
Gaming
Authors: Blumberg Fran C. , Montgomery Anne , Graver Cleve A. , Oates Caroline , Blades Mark
Published: January 2020

Contemporary digital games use sophisticated computer technology to generate realistic‐looking environments and convincing challenges. Games can be designed for recreational purposes, for academic and training purposes, and to promote physical or psychological well‐being. Two thirds of US households include at least one person who plays video games for at least 3 hours a week. Games are often categorized by genre, including shooter, fighting, and action games; adventure games; role‐playing games; sports games; and “serious” games in educational contexts. Games encourage involvement by giving players the opportunity to interact with the features of the game, feedback on the effectiveness of their performance, and “immerse” themselves in the game, that is, be a feeling presence within the game. The positive outcomes from game playing include enhanced cognitive skills, collaboration between players, and increased prosocial behaviors. New areas of research include a greater focus on how users become more adept at playing any individual game over a period of time, and the effects of ever more sophisticated modes of game delivery, like virtual reality.
Music
Authors: Saarikallio Suvi
Published: January 2020

Music is young people's own playground for social–emotional development. Music listening is a medium that is easily available for the whole age group, and music psychology research has identified a range of developmentally relevant needs and functions that music serves in the lives of the young. Music serves as a means for identity construction, social expression of identity, and peer group identification. It offers possibilities for training self‐determination and gaining a sense of agency. And it is the soundtrack of adolescent emotionality, offering access to experiences that range from embodied enjoyment to self‐reflective affect regulation through mental contemplation. This entry discusses music as a part of adolescents' social–emotional development, summarizing recent literature and current trends in studying how music functions as a meaningful, health‐relevant aspect of broader social–emotional development.
Online Behaviors
Authors: Subrahmanyam Kaveri
Published: January 2020

As the internet and other technologies have assumed a central role in young people's lives, it is clear that online venues have become an important context for adolescent development. Even as the technologies have changed rapidly, youth have primarily used them for peer communication. This entry shows that youths' online behavior intersects with the main transitions of adolescence, and is psychologically connected to developmental tasks such as intimacy, identity, and sexuality. It also examines the relation between adolescents' online behavior and well‐being and demonstrates that technology presents both risks and opportunities for adolescence.
Adolescence and Social Media
Authors: Magaldi Danielle , Appel Remi , Berler Matthew
Published: January 2020

Social media is changing life for adolescents. This entry explores the impact and prevalence of social media use during adolescence in the key areas of identity formation, friendships, mental health, cyberbullying, and sleep. It presents the ways in which social media use both supports and thwarts aspects of adolescent development in each of these areas.
Trauma Disorders in Adolescence
Authors: Porche Michelle V. , Koslouski Jessica B. , Oblath Rachel
Published: January 2020

Over half of adolescents have experienced a traumatic event in their lifetime and these experiences can have immediate and ongoing impacts on mental health, including diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder, acute stress disorder, adjustment disorder, reactive attachment disorder, and disinhibited social engagement disorder. Adolescents who have experienced trauma may face a greater risk of developing related disorders if the trauma first occurred in early childhood and is chronic and cumulative; individual characteristics, culture, and context are associated with expression of, and risk for, trauma symptoms. While exposure rates for trauma are high for adolescents, the prevalence rates for trauma disorders such as PTSD are relatively low at approximately 6%. Evidence‐based treatments such as cognitive–behavioral therapy have been found to be effective for trauma disorders. The majority of youth who experience psychiatric disorders do not receive mental health services; however, when they do, they most often receive those services in schools.
Narrative Identity
Authors: McLean Kate C. , Syed Moin
Published: January 2020

Narrative identity is a subjective recollection of the personal past, which serves to integrate a life. Narrative identity emerges in adolescence, with clear precursors in childhood and with consequences for mental health and well‐being in adolescence and adulthood. This entry reviews the theoretical foundation of the field, major dimensions of narrative identity, narrative identity's development, and current and future research.
Ethnic and Cultural Identity
Authors: Worrell Frank C.
Published: January 2020

Cultural identities include a broad set of identity constructs related to demographic subgroups such as ethnicity, gender, race, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status, to name a few. However, ethnic identity and racial identity are two of the most frequently studied cultural identities. This entry begins with a brief review of definitions of ethnic identity and racial identity. Next, the major models of ethnic identity and racial identity are briefly discussed as well as the instruments operationalizing the models, and the integrated conceptualization of ethnic–racial identity is also reviewed. Finally, theoretical considerations for future research are presented.
Sexual Identity
Authors: Crowell Katherine A.
Published: January 2020

Sexual identity refers to the process of consideration, exploration, recognition, acceptance, and eventually expression of various aspects of one's sexuality. Since the early 1970s, scholars have placed increasing importance on understanding the self as a sexual being and have recognized sexual identity development as an essential aspect of human development. This entry reviews major theoretical trends in sexual identity development from childhood through emerging adulthood. Additionally, themes that have emerged in the empirical literature such as related health risks and resilience factors among sexual‐minority youth, gender differences in sexual identity formation, racial/ethnic and non‐heterosexual identity intersectionality, and recent trends including heterosexual identity development are summarized.
Religious Identity
Authors: Etengoff Chana , Rodriguez Eric M.
Published: January 2020

Religious identity refers to how individuals develop their personal sense of religious and/or spiritual identity over the course of their lifetimes. Researchers often equate religion with the concrete rituals and behaviors of traditional, established religious institutions, as well as with official denominational doctrine. Alternatively, spirituality becomes synonymous with one's personal faith and ethical beliefs, including private behaviors such as prayer and personal morality. However, there is a lack of consensus among researchers as to the inclusive scope of religious identity (e.g., behavior and belief), or to the driving force behind religious identity development. Many prominent psychological theorists argue that religious identity is learned within family and community contexts (e.g., nurture), while others theorize that religious development is genetically driven (e.g., nature). This entry aims to address the debates on religious identity origins (e.g., nature vs. nurture), religious identity development from childhood to adulthood, and cultural contexts of religious identity development.
Occupational Identity
Authors: Sica Luigia Simona , Sestito Laura Aleni
Published: January 2020

Occupational identity is a core construct in career and lifespan development. A number of studies have shown that occupational identity achievement relates positively to psychological adjustment, career success, and life satisfaction. Occupational identity is a crucial component of the sense of self, emerging during late adolescence and early adulthood, when overall identity becomes a core developmental task. However, despite the normative nature of occupational identity development across the late adolescent and young adulthood period, appreciable variability is observed in the pathways and timing of occupational identity progress from person to person and across different cultural and socioeconomic contexts. Recently, new approaches have been developed to address contemporary career challenges, and they are commonly aimed at helping individuals to develop their occupational identity.
Identity Distress
Authors: Berman Steven L.
Published: January 2020

Identity distress refers to severe feelings of apprehension, worry, and emotional upheaval in regard to the inability to resolve a number of issues related to identity such as career choice, long‐term goals, and value orientations. A certain degree of discomfort over selecting the most appropriate roles, goals, and values that could give one's life a sense of direction and purpose is normative and developmentally appropriate. However, for a large minority of young people, these feelings of distress can be overwhelming and debilitating, ultimately interfering with rather than facilitating the resolution of identity dilemmas. The prevalence of this problem is discussed, and the psychological correlates of identity distress, cross‐cultural findings, and the development of intervention efforts examined.
Positive Identity Development
Authors: Johnson Sara K. , Hudani Naaila P.
Published: January 2020

Identity broadly refers to a cognitive structure that incorporates all of a person's answers to the question “Who am I?” Identity may be considered positive when a person
has
an identity (some sense of who they are and what they are about), they feel positively about this identity (there are aspects of their identity that they feel good about), and the content of their identity is positive in some way. Positive identity development can be promoted through most settings of adolescents' lives. Indirect methods of promoting such development include shaping environments in ways that are associated with positive identity development (i.e., creating the conditions under which positive identity development can happen), and helping adolescents develop skills to navigate the identity development process in a positive way. Positive identity development may also be directly promoted through intervening in specific identity processes or promoting particular identity content.
Racism, Discrimination, and Prejudice
Authors: Fish Jillian , Syed Moin
Published: January 2020

Within the psychological literature, there are numerous definitions of racism available. However, some fail to acknowledge concepts that are often bound up with racism, discrimination, and prejudice—such as power and privilege. In briefly discussing the history of race as a social construct, this entry seeks to understand the function that discrimination and prejudice serve in society. Additionally, shedding light on the process of racial formation provides context for the evolution of racism from overt and blatant to concealed and ambiguous, and embedded throughout society. In highlighting the various forms of racism, discrimination, and prejudice, this entry provides an overview of adolescents' experiences with implicit, subtle, explicit, and institutional racism, and implications for their development and psychological well‐being.
Immigration Issues
Authors: Chan Wing Yi , Miller Jessica L. , Arce M. Alejandra , Murtaza Zahra
Published: January 2020

Applying Lerner's positive youth development framework, this entry synthesizes the existing literature on immigrant‐origin adolescent development in six domains: competence, confidence, connection, character, caring and compassion, and contribution. It also emphasizes the importance of ecological systems in immigrant‐origin adolescent development and provides theoretical and methodological recommendations for future research.
Development of Autonomy
Authors: Campione‐Barr Nicole
Published: January 2020

Broadly defined, autonomy is considered to be the quality or state of self‐governing. This entry explores the ways in which autonomy develops across the first two decades of life and considers differences in theoretical definitions of the construct, as well as its different subtypes: emotional, behavioral, and cognitive. Finally, current and future advances in the field of autonomy development research are discussed.
Empathy and Perspective Taking
Authors: Van der Graaff Jolien , Overgaauw Sandy , de Wied Minet , Branje Susan
Published: January 2020

Both empathy and perspective taking are deemed to play important roles in adolescents' social and moral development. Yet, the literature on empathy and perspective taking in adolesence is fragmented, due to the use of various definitions, labels, and measures. This entry defines the constructs of empathy and perspective taking, and outlines how these are assessed in adolescent research. Theories and empirical evidence regarding gender differences and development of empathy and perspective taking, including neurobiological changes, are reviewed. Further, the entry discusses socialization influences, and the role of empathy and perspective taking in adolescents' social adjustment and psychopathology.
Self‐Regulation
Authors: Gestsdóttir Steinunn , Geldhof G. John
Published: January 2020

Research on adolescent self‐regulation has grown immensely since the end of the 20th century, but the field has suffered from a paucity of theories that comprehensively describe the nature and role of self‐regulation during this part of the lifespan compared with any other period. As such, adolescence researchers operationalize self‐regulation in diverse ways. This diversity may outwardly appear to reflect poor cohesion in the field, but it also provides researchers with a unique opportunity to gather a holistic, comprehensive understanding of self‐regulation during adolescence. This entry offers an overview of the nature and role of self‐regulation in adolescence, integrates different conceptions of self‐regulation that are prevalent in the adolescent development literature, and discusses the developmental processes that shape the self‐regulatory skills of young people and the function of self‐regulation in healthy adolescent development.
Gender Roles
Authors: Klein Nicole Aydt
Published: January 2020

As children move into adolescence, they examine, question, and further develop their understanding of their own gender and of broader societal gender roles. Traditionally defined, gender roles are societal expectations about the behaviors and activities that are considered acceptable or desirable for people based on their actual or perceived sex. Within this framework, individuals are understood to be either male or female (gender binary), are then expected to behave in ways that are masculine (e.g., logical, aggressive, emotionless) or feminine (e.g., intuitive, passive, emotional). As with many broad ideas about the whole of a population applied to the individual, strict gender roles can be confining. Focusing attention on how simplistic gender roles can be limiting, researchers and laypeople have expanded thoughts about gender and gender roles to challenge stereotypes by including multilayered concepts about gender identity.
Cross‐Cultural Perspectives on Dating and Marriage
Authors: Connolly Jennifer , McDonald Kyla P.
Published: January 2020

The entry describes adolescent romantic relationships from a cross‐cultural perspective. Research findings demonstrate cultural differences with respect to the developmental timing and age at which youth enter romantic relationships, as well as their views on romantic interactions including sexual behaviors. Specifically, youth from non‐Western cultures appear to enter relationships later in development and have more conservative views toward sex‐related issues compared to youth from Western cultures. Results also indicate that there is a heightened prevalence of dating aggression reported by youth who are members of cultural minority groups and in cultures where adolescent marriage is common. This entry highlights the influence of culture‐related mediators in the development and course of youth romantic relationships including societal norms, gender roles, acculturation, globalization, and the media. This research can help developmental scientists initiate programs to promote healthy youth romantic relationships.
Dating Violence
Authors: Chen May S. , Reyes H. Luz McNaughton , Foshee Vangie A.
Published: January 2020

Increased interest in dating and romantic relationships is a normative part of adolescent development that typically contributes to positive youth development. However, involvement in romantic relationships that are violent can have a negative impact on adolescents' health and well‐being. This entry defines and describes the prevalence of adolescent dating violence, the onset and development of dating violence over time, and the consequences of being a victim or perpetrator. In addition, it provides a summary of the risk and protective factors for dating violence and the prevention programs that have been found to be effective in reducing dating violence. Ongoing issues and controversies in the dating violence literature, as well as potential areas for future research, are highlighted throughout the entry.
Sexual Assault and Coercion
Authors: Cruise Tracy K. , Aeilts Audrey K.
Published: January 2020

Adolescence is a time of great transition, with pubertal changes accompanying cognitive, emotional, and social advancement. As youth begin exploring dating and romantic relationships, they are also faced with a greater risk of sexual assault. Adolescents may have histories of childhood sexual abuse, but the majority of sexual assaults during adolescence are perpetrated by peers. Middle school and high school students are sexually coerced by peer acquaintances at school and in other settings, as a result of which they suffer acute and long‐term physical, psychological, and behavioral consequences, including likely subsequent revictimization. Effective prevention and intervention strategies should be more easily accessible at school and more trauma‐focused treatment offered by outside mental health providers.
Risky Sexual Behavior
Authors: Moilanen Kristin L.
Published: January 2020

Risky sexual behaviors in adolescence include experiencing early sexual debut, engaging in unprotected intercourse, accumulating high numbers of partners, and other sexual practices that increase the likelihood of consequences such as sexually transmitted infections or off‐time pregnancies. Historical trends in this research and in adolescent sexual practices are discussed. A review of the literature summarizes research on the correlates of high‐risk sexual behaviors, organized by the self‐system, family system, and extrafamiliar system of Kotchick and colleagues' ecological model. The limitations produced by this literature's theoretical diffusion are addressed, as are future directions toward conceptual synthesis.
Anxiety Disorders in Adolescence
Authors: Shaw Zoey A. , Huang Meghan , Li Y. Irina , Starr Lisa R.
Published: January 2020

Anxiety disorders, including separation anxiety disorder, selective mutism, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, agoraphobia, and generalized anxiety disorder, are among the most prevalent psychological disorders in children and adolescents. Adolescence is a period characterized by numerous changes in academic, occupational, familial, and peer‐relational contexts, developmental processes that play important roles in the development and maintenance of anxiety disorders. This entry reviews the developmental epidemiology and assessment of adolescent anxiety disorders. Moreover, it discusses interpersonal processes in the development and maintenance of anxiety, and it reviews issues of comorbidity and treatment of adolescent anxiety disorders.
Adolescent Suicide
Authors: Stewart Sunita M. , Zullo Lucas
Published: January 2020

Suicide is the second leading cause of death among adolescents in the United States, and a significant public health problem. This entry reviews key issues in suicide risk research and management in the developmental context of adolescence. It describes risk factors and theoretical frameworks to organize them, and considers processes that are of significant current interest, including contagion and media influences, and evidence‐based approaches to manage suicidal thoughts and behaviors. It delineates challenges for research and intervention development, and innovative directions in current approaches.
Attention‐Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Childhood
Authors: Antshel Kevin M.
Published: January 2020

Attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is most often diagnosed in childhood. Defined by impairing symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity–impulsivity, ADHD negatively affects functioning in a variety of domains including educational, social, and familial. ADHD develops from the confluence of genetic and environmental risk factors acting together to increase the predisposition. ADHD is considerably heterogeneous with regard to symptom expression, psychosocial functioning, and outcomes. A variety of evidence‐based treatments exist for ADHD, including medications and behavioral therapies.
Transitions to Higher Education
Authors: Huguenel Brynn M. , Conley Colleen S.
Published: January 2020

The transition into higher education is internationally recognized as a critical developmental period characterized by changes in contexts, identities, relationships, roles, and responsibilities. Further, it typically coincides with the developmental progression from late adolescence to emerging adulthood, which brings its own challenges and opportunities for success as well as struggle. This confluence of disruption and change can contribute to psychological upheaval or reveal resilience. The entry begins with a discussion of the current state of higher education enrollment, and describes the transition to higher education within various key domains, including considerations of identity and development in emerging adulthood, relational and financial changes during this transition, and the impact on mental health. The entry concludes with a discussion of institutional programs aimed at supporting the transition into higher education, and recommendations for future programming.
Enuresis
Authors: Christophersen Edward R. , Kapalu Christina Low
Published: January 2020

Enuresis (night wetting and day wetting) has both biological and behavioral underpinnings. This entry addresses the biological and behavioral factors associated with enuresis and discusses the available treatment options. Treatment of enuresis should begin with a physical evaluation, and then address the more frequent etiologies with the available behavioral and medication treatment options.
Adhesive Hydrogels for Maxillofacial Tissue Regeneration Using Minimally Invasive Procedures
Authors: Salzlechner Christoph , Haghighi Tabasom , Huebscher Isabella , Walther Anders Runge , Schell Sophie , Gardner Alexander , Undt Gerhard , da Silva Ricardo M. P. , Dreiss Cécile A. , Fan Kathleen , Gentleman Eileen
Published: January 2020

Minimally invasive surgical procedures aiming to repair damaged maxillofacial tissues are hampered by its small, complex structures and difficult surgical access. Indeed, while arthroscopic procedures that deliver regenerative materials and/or cells are common in articulating joints such as the knee, there are currently no treatments that surgically place cells, regenerative factors or materials into maxillofacial tissues to foster bone, cartilage or muscle repair. Here, hyaluronic acid (HA)‐based hydrogels are developed, which are suitable for use in minimally invasive procedures, that can adhere to the surrounding tissue, and deliver cells and potentially drugs. By modifying HA with both methacrylate (MA) and 3,4‐dihydroxyphenylalanine (Dopa) groups using a completely aqueous synthesis route, it is shown that MA‐HA‐Dopa hydrogels can be applied under aqueous conditions, gel quickly using a standard surgical light, and adhere to tissue. Moreover, upon oxidation of the Dopa, human marrow stromal cells attach to hydrogels and survive when encapsulated within them. These observations show that when incorporated into HA‐based hydrogels, Dopa moieties can foster cell and tissue interactions, ensuring surgical placement and potentially enabling delivery/recruitment of regenerative cells. The findings suggest that MA‐HA‐Dopa hydrogels may find use in minimally invasive procedures to foster maxillofacial tissue repair.
Sodium/Potassium‐Ion Batteries: Boosting the Rate Capability and Cycle Life by Combining Morphology, Defect and Structure Engineering
Authors: Huang Huijuan , Xu Rui , Feng Yuezhan , Zeng Sifan , Jiang Yu , Wang Huijuan , Luo Wei , Yu Yan
Published: January 2020

Carbon‐based materials have been considered as the most promising anode materials for both sodium‐ion batteries (SIBs) and potassium‐ion batteries (PIBs), owing to their good chemical stability, high electrical conductivity, and environmental benignity. However, due to the large sizes of sodium and potassium ions, it is a great challenge to realize a carbon anode with high reversible capacity, long cycle life, and high rate capability. Herein, by rational design, N‐doped 3D mesoporous carbon nanosheets (N‐CNS) are successfully synthesized, which can realize unprecedented electrochemical performance for both SIBs and PIBs. The N‐CNS possess an ultrathin nanosheet structure with hierarchical pores, ultrahigh level of pyridinic N/pyrrolic N, and an expanded interlayer distance. The beneficial features that can enhance the Na‐/K‐ion intercalation/deintercalation kinetic process, shorten the diffusion length for both ions and electrons, and accommodate the volume change are demonstrated. Hence, the N‐CNS‐based electrode delivers a high capacity of 239 mAh g−1 at 5 A g−1 after 10 000 cycles for SIBs and 321 mAh g−1 at 5 A g−1 after 5000 cycles for PIBs. First‐principles calculation shows that the ultrahigh doping level of pyridinic N/pyrrolic N contributes to the enhanced sodium and potassium storage performance by modulating the charge density distribution on the carbon surface.
A Self‐Assembled Plasmonic Substrate for Enhanced Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer
Authors: Hou Shuai , Chen Yonghao , Lu Derong , Xiong Qirong , Lim Yun , Duan Hongwei
Published: January 2020

Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) has found widespread uses in biosensing, molecular imaging, and light harvesting. Plasmonic metal nanostructures offer the possibility of engineering photonic environment of specific fluorophores to enhance the FRET efficiency. However, the potential of plasmonic nanostructures to enable tailored FRET enhancement on planar substrates remains largely unrealized, which are of considerable interest for high‐performance on‐surface bioassays and photovoltaics. The main challenge lies in the necessitated concurrent control over the spectral properties of plasmonic substrates to match that of fluorophores and the fluorophore–substrate spacing. Here, a self‐assembled plasmonic substrate based on polydopamine (PDA)‐coated plasmonic nanocrystals is developed to effectively address this challenge. The PDA coating not only drives interfacial self‐assembly of the nanocrystals to form closely packed arrays with customized optical properties, but also can serve as a tailored nanoscale spacer between the fluorophores and plasmonic nanocrystals, which collectively lead to optimized fluorescence enhancement. The biocompatible plasmonic substrate that allows convenient bioconjugation imparted by PDA has afforded improved FRET efficiency in DNA microarray assay and FRET imaging of live cells. It is envisioned that the self‐assembled plasmonic substrates can be readily integrated into fluorescence‐based platforms for diverse biomedical and photoconversion applications.