bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Religiosity and Its Meaning in Psychiatric Patients* Delusions
Authors: Choe Kwi-soon
Published: September 2024

The purpose of this phenomenological case study is to describe how the religiosity emerges from the delusional thoughts of 24 psychiatric patients and to explore its meaning in their life. This suggests conceptual framework on religiosity through the literature reviews centered around Eliade, Otto, and Tillich. The suggested conceptual framework of this study consists of four Desires: Desire to become the center of the world, Desire to fulfill spiritual(or the greatest) power, Desire to be above himselfTherself, and Desire to express himself/herself.Here, the data about the delusional thoughts of psychiatric patients is analyzed by the two desires, desire to become the center of the world and desire to fulfill spiritual(or the greatest) power because delusion are not behavior, but thought, desire to be above himself/herself and desire to express himself/herself are expressed by the behavior rather than thought itself in psychiatric patients' life.The result of this study is that the religiosity of psychiatric patients is not different from that of the so called “Normal persons". So when taking care of the psychiatric patients, the nurse must consider psychiatric patients* delusions as not meaningless, but as meaningful. So the nurse can expand his or her understanding about Psychiatric patients' delusion regarding religiosity. Therefore this understanding will help the nurse to take good care of their patients.
Łojasiewicz inequalities near simple bubble trees
Authors: Malchiodi Andrea , Rupflin Melanie , Sharp Ben
Published: September 2024

abstract: In this paper we prove a gap phenomenon for critical points of the $H$-functional on closed non-spherical surfaces when $H$ is constant, and in this setting furthermore prove that sequences of almost critical points satisfy {\L}ojasiewicz inequalities as they approach the first non-trivial bubble tree. To prove these results we derive sufficient conditions for {\L}ojasiewicz inequalities to hold near a finite-dimensional submanifold of almost-critical points for suitable functionals on a Hilbert space.
The Roles of Public Higher Education Expenditure and the Privatization of the Higher Education on U.S. States Economic Growth
Authors: Curs Bradley R. , Bhandari Bornali , Steiger Christina
Published: September 2024

Previous empirical literature finds that government expenditure on higher education has a negative, or null, effect on U.S. economic growth rates. This empirical result may be driven by omission of an important variable—the privatization of higher education. Using state-level panel data from 1970 to 2005, this analysis investigates whether the exclusion of the privatization level of the higher education system within a state potentially biases the estimated relationship between state higher education spending and economic growth. The results indicate that the omission of the size of the private higher education system may negatively bias the estimated relationship between higher education spending and economic growth. Specifically, states with a large market share of students in private higher education institutions have a negative relationship between higher education spending and economic growth, while states with large public shares are found to have a positive relationship.
Earmarks and State Appropriations for Higher Education
Authors: Delaney Jennifer A.
Published: September 2024

This study considers the relationship between federal academic earmarks and state appropriations for higher education. Often referred to as "pork," federal academic earmarks are both controversial and understudied. Using a unique panel dataset which spans 1990-2006, this study conducts a panel analysis with two-way state and year-fixed effects. It finds a positive, significant relationship between federal spending on academic earmarks and state spending on higher education appropriations. The effect is large in magnitude. For every dollar increase in federal earmarks received by institutions within a state, state appropriations for higher education increase by $1.98 to $4.75, depending on the measure of appropriations used. Additional analyses show that the relationship is a recent phenomenon, appearing most strongly after 1997.
Rearranging Deck Chairs in Dallas: Contextual Constraints and Within-District Resource Allocation in Urban Texas School Districts
Authors: Baker Bruce D.
Published: September 2024

The goal of this study is to simultaneously explore resource allocation across schools within large urban school districts and across all schools within major metropolitan areas that include those urban districts in the state of Texas. This study uses a three-year panel, from 2005 to 2007, for Texas elementary schools in the Houston, Dallas, Austin, and San Antonio Core Based Statistical Areas. Large city districts evaluated include Houston, Dallas, Ft. Worth, San Antonio, and Austin. We find that within the state of Texas, the relative competitive position of urban core districts varies widely. We find that on average current spending in the metropolitan areas surrounding these large urban districts is progressively distributed with respect to poverty rates. In Dallas, spending fell well below that of surrounding districts and was less progressively distributed. In San Antonio, spending fell below surroundings, but was progressively distributed. Austin and Fort Worth also progressively distributed spending. Houston, while spending more on elementary schools than surrounding districts, provided a relatively flat distribution of that spending, advantaging lower poverty schools to the disadvantage of higher poverty ones.
Assessing the Cost of Instructional Coaching
Authors: Knight David S.
Published: September 2024

School-based instructional coaching is an increasingly popular approach to professional development used to support in-service learning for teachers. However, little is known about the cost of coaching. The following study aims to fill this gap. First, the study describes a framework for measuring the cost of an instructional coaching program; second, this cost framework is applied to three schools with instructional coaching programs during the 2009–10 school year. While model developers suggest a cost of $2,298 per teacher, the study found average cost per teacher at three schools to range from approximately $3,260 to $5,220. Third, a cost framework is developed and applied to three schools utilizing traditional approaches to professional development and average costs are presented for comparison. The study found that instructional coaching is between 6 to 12 times more expensive than traditional approaches to professional development. Because schools are making large investments in coaching programs, research should explore whether instructional coaching is cost-effective. By presenting a framework for measuring costs and reporting costs of a specific program, this study lays the groundwork for cost-effectiveness studies.
Simulating Alternative Approaches to Addressing Fiscal Resource Tensions and Quality in U.S. Public Higher Education
Authors: Roebber Paul J. , Meadows G. Richard
Published: September 2024

Severe fiscal tensions threaten U.S. public higher education. Many policy solutions have been suggested, but it is difficult to subject these qualitative ideas to rigorous empirical evaluation. In this work, we employ an agent-based model of a representative state-funded public university system (including a flagship campus, an urban campus, and several regional-comprehensive campuses) to examine approaches aimed at optimizing institutional performance in an era of declining state funding. These options include imposing fiscal austerity in staff compensation, incentivizing faculty productivity, increasing faculty teaching loads, improving operating efficiency, raising admission standards, and increasing the delivery of online instruction.

No solution is found that stabilizes tuition costs relative to present conditions, but scenarios that facilitate faculty productivity and incorporate online instruction also lead to improvements in funded research activity and student outcomes compared to current trends. Further productivity enhancements would be possible if a means to streamline academic decision-making processes in the conduct of regular university business (in shared-governance context) could be found. These factors combine in the best cases so that graduation rates, research funding, and system quality improve.

In contrast, fiscal austerity in the form of direct cost cutting saves money for the state but results in significant increases (70% to 180%) in real (inflation-adjusted) tuition and fees at the several campuses over the course of 40 simulation iterations relative to 2009–10 levels. Further, this reliance on fiscal austerity alone is highly damaging to institutional performance. Declines in faculty productivity, resulting from worsening compression of faculty compensation, lead to reductions in external-grant funding, six-year graduation rates, and system quality. Growing enrollments in response to demographic pressure offset the most deleterious effects of reduced support, without which, an unsustainable spiral of declining enrollment and rapid tuition rises can occur. Overall, the simulation results suggest that efforts to maintain system affordability and quality in the face of long-term funding constraints are best directed towards incentivizing productivity improvements.
Learning to Count: School Finance Formula Count Methods and Attendance-Related Student Outcomes
Authors: Ely Todd L. , Fermanich Mark L.
Published: September 2024

School systems are under increasing pressure to improve student performance. Several states have recently explored adopting student count methods for school funding purposes that incentivize school attendance and continuous enrollment by adjusting funding for changes in enrollment or attendance over the course of the school year. However, no empirical evidence existed to support these policy changes. This exploratory article empirically tests the relationship between state student count methods and three measures of attendance-related student outcomes from different federal data sources. Our analysis finds that states with high incentive student count methods have statistically and practically higher graduation rates and lower dropout and repeated absences rates. States considering a transition away from existing student count method policies should proceed with caution and consider potential equity and administrative implications.
Past, Present, and Possibilities for the Future of the Pell Grant Program
Authors: Mullin Christopher M.
Published: September 2024

An increase of over 100% in program expenditures for the Pell Grant program over a five year period of time, from $14.7 billion in the 2007–08 award year to $33.4 billion in the 2011–12 award year, places an otherwise popular program under scrutiny. This article considers the factors and options informing federal policy related to the Pell Grant program that are being considered to limit further growth of program costs, if not reduce them. To best understand the current context and pending options, I revisit the past of the Pell Grant program by first noting the evolution of federal student aid policy, the basic structure of the Pell Grant program, and then documenting trends in the Pell Grant program from its beginning to the 2006–07 award year. I then examine factors that have contributed to growth in the program between 2007–08 and 2011–12, focusing on legislative changes and contextual factors, and ultimately present a typology of proposed and enacted options to maintain or reduce program costs. The article closes with considerations related to the future of the Pell Grant program.
The Unaddressed Costs of Changing Student Demographics
Authors: Kaplan Leslie S. , Owings William A.
Published: September 2024

This article discusses the impact of changing student demographics on financing education and on our national wellbeing. We begin by examining the research of current student demographics and their relationship to learning and education costs. We then calculate a 1% cost factor from the average per-pupil expenditure based on the 2011 Digest of Education Statistics for various demographic groups in the U.S. This article provides a quantitative starting point for additional research, policy, and instructional discussions into what the actual education costs may be and how this may affect funding legislation at the local, state, and federal levels.
State Higher Education Performance Funding: Data, Outcomes, and Policy Implications*
Authors: Tandberg David A. , Hillman Nicholas W.
Published: September 2024

As states explore strategies for increasing educational attainment levels, attention is being paid to performance funding. This study asks, “Does the introduction of performance funding programs affect degree completion among participating states?” Utilizing a quasi-experimental research design we find limited evidence that performance funding significantly increases baccalaureate degree completions.
School District Income Taxes and School Inputs: The Case of Ohio
Authors: Nguyen-Hoang Phuong
Published: September 2024

This study is the first to explore the relationship between school district income taxes and school inputs (expenditures and student–teacher ratios) using Ohio as a case study. The study employed reduced-form expenditure functions on a data panel of 609 school districts between 1990 and 2010. Treating for the endogeneity of school district income taxes, we found that income tax adopters in Ohio spent $0.20 of a dollar of the tax revenue on operating purposes, and they spent four-fifths of this $0.20 on instructional services that were likely to induce gains in student achievement. Also, we found ambiguous evidence on the effect of income tax revenues on student–teacher ratios.
Do Countywide LEAs Allocate Expenditures Differently from Community-centric LEAs?: Evidence from National Center for Education Statistics Common Core Data
Authors: DeLuca Thomas A.
Published: September 2024

As K–12 (kindergarten through twelfth grade) local education agencies (LEAs) face continued fiscal pressure, noninstructional service consolidation advocates point to states like Florida, with its countywide school systems, as an example of LEAs exploiting scale economies to reduce per-pupil spending, especially in administration and other noninstructional services. This exploratory study uses National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Common Core Data (US Department of Education 2009, 2011) to compare per-pupil spending in states where school districts are organized either by single-LEA counties (e.g., Florida, Maryland) or multiple LEAs per county (e.g., Kansas, Michigan, New York). The findings suggest that, when comparing NCES Comparable Wage Index– adjusted per-pupil spending between the two organizational models, per-pupil spending is significantly lower in general administration and business services, which is expected. However, the results also show statistically significant lower instructional spending in single-LEA counties compared with multiple-LEA counties. Interestingly, when focusing on the proportion of current operating expenditures (COE) allocated to instruction, the findings suggest that local districts in states with single-LEA counties allocate a higher proportion of their COE to instruction than multi-LEA counties.
A Simulation of Pell Grant Awards and Costs Using Prior-Prior Year Financial Data
Authors: Kelchen Robert , Jones Gigi
Published: September 2024

We examine the likely implications of switching from a prior year (PY) financial aid system, the current practice in which students file the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) using income data from the previous tax year, to prior-prior year (PPY), in which data from two years before enrollment is used. While PPY allows students to gain information about the cost of college earlier, financial aid awards could be less targeted if annual household income fluctuates dramatically. We study this question using data from more than 70,000 students at nine institutions over a five-year period spanning the Great Recession. We find that 60%–70% of students do not see any changes to their Pell awards under PPY in this case study, and the neediest students rarely see large changes. About 7%–15% of students see large declines in their Pell awards under PPY, and the effects vary by institutional and student characteristics. Our simulation of the potential costs of switching to PPY results in an estimated increase in Pell program costs of four percentage points.
A Tale of Two Decades: New Evidence on Adequacy and Equity in Pennsylvania
Authors: Steinberg Matthew P. , Quinn Rand
Published: September 2024

Over the last four decades, legal mandates and legislative reforms have compelled states to improve the equitable distribution of state resources across school districts, and, more recently, to increase state expenditures to more adequately fund education. However, there is limited evidence on the extent to which differences in the resource, legislative, and political climates in a state over time may generate improvements in educational spending or whether spending in districts that serve the most disadvantaged students improves relative to their more advantaged counterparts. To gain insight into the relationship between a state’s educational funding climate and district spending, we turn to the case of Pennsylvania, which, in the previous two decades, has experienced dramatically different funding climates. While state expenditures on education were relatively flat between 1991 and 2001, the 2001 through 2011 period was characterized by increasing expenditures dedicated to improving adequacy and equity across districts in the state. Using panel data on Pennsylvania districts, we aim to uncover the extent to which differences across the two decades resulted in changes in adequate per-pupil spending and improvements in how districts that serve different student populations spent their educational resources. We find that Pennsylvania’s districts were more equitably and adequately spending educational resources by the end of the second decade period compared with the end of the first period; however, spending disparities persist across districts that serve different populations of students. Indeed, while adequacy improved among districts that serve larger shares of disadvantaged students and those located in rural communities, larger districts and urban districts did not improve relative to smaller districts and suburban districts, respectively.
School Districts’ Expenditure Responses to Federal Stimulus Funds
Authors: Bourdeaux Carolyn , Warner Nicholas
Published: September 2024

Between 2009 and 2011, school districts across the country received federal stimulus funds to shore up their budgets during the recession. The hope was that this support would serve as bridge funding during the recession, and that jurisdictions would then replace the federal funds as state and local tax bases grew stronger. However, the research on the intergovernmental grant phenomenon known as the “flypaper effect” has taken some interesting turns which have implications for the allocation of federal stimulus funds during and after periods of recession. Most notable are a series of findings that there are asymmetries in response to the growth and decline of certain types of inter-jurisdictional grants rather than a symmetric response, and further that the type of asymmetry may vary depending on the grant type. The federal stimulus funding for education, while allocated for a common purpose, was distributed through different grant types, which provides a unique opportunity to test for potential differences in flypaper effect given different funding mechanisms. This research examines the impact of the stimulus funds drawing on panel data of Georgia’s 180 school districts to examine the impact of these grants. Our findings show that stimulus funds distributed through the traditional formula programs were more likely to flow into instructional salaries and also were more likely to be replaced when the federal funding was withdrawn (an asymmetric response), while the budget stabilization funds were not allocated to instructional salaries and further went into the budget and came out symmetrically.
Advancing Understanding of Affordability in Washington State: An Interactive Model Exploring Student Higher Education Financing
Authors: Fridley James L. , Sharpe Rachelle E.
Published: September 2024

abstract:
Higher education affordability is a complex concept that reflects resources available from multiple parties, the remaining cost of education, and the ability of students and families to pay the balance. States play a key role in determining the affordability of higher education for students attending public institutions. Yet decisions are made without viewing affordability for students by income levels and coordinating the various sources of funding.

Washington State had comparatively lower college tuition rates until the Great Recession when reduced state revenues and increased demands in other areas of state government led to significant reductions in funding to public institutions and corresponding tuition increases. However, in recent years the state has either held tuition flat or reduced tuition while backfilling revenue for the public institutions. Despite the state’s commitment to need-based financial aid, enrollments of eligible students have exceeded grant program funding. In addressing these challenges, the state has not had a tool that provides information from multiple data sources to readily respond to policy and funding choices and describe the impact on student affordability.

The Affordability Interactive Model was developed to support Washington policy makers and encourage a shared understanding of affordability including the interconnectivity among available resources. The model displays the various higher education financing components (including parental income, savings, student work, grant aid, and student debt) by income level. The user can select the sector of attendance and academic year and manipulate variables as policies are explored to evaluate the impact on affordability. The policy tool is the first of its kind in providing a visual tool that is interactive and informative in exploring policies affecting affordability for students. The model has been a critical tool used in Washington in the development of a state affordability framework to support reinvestments in higher education and target policies to improve affordability for all students (WSAC, 2015a).
Opting Out of the Bill: Voluntary Adequacy Funding in Maryland
Authors: Finch Maida A. , Goff Peter , Houck Eric
Published: September 2024

abstract: The key to anticipating local response to state finance policy is to bridge knowledge of the state context with the specifications of the individual reform. Yet it is precisely this unique blend of social, political, and economic factors in any given state that makes the impact of school finance reforms difficult to predict, especially as these factors continue to change over time. Using longitudinal data for all public school districts in Maryland, we address this challenge by examining the impact of a voluntary education finance reform intended to reduce inequities in spending across wealthier and poorer counties. We find that following finance reform implementation, local district expenditures increased an average of 11%. However, we also observe a differential response whereby wealthier counties increased their contribution beyond what the reform stipulated while districts which received greater amounts of state aid, allocated less money to schools. When drafting plans for state policy regarding education finance reform, policymakers may wish to consider the results presented here and in other research to anticipate the magnitude of differential local response and use simulations to incorporate this response into the predicted policy outcome.
Financial Crisis Management in Higher Education: Responses by 20 Private Colleges and Universities to the 2007–2009 Financial Crisis
Authors: Dorantes Andrew R. , Low Justin R.
Published: September 2024

abstract:
As a result of the Great Recession, higher education in the United States suffered from the most significant financial crisis since the Great Depression (Breneman 2008; Zumeta 2010). This crisis affected all institutions of higher education since it challenged three major revenue sources: net tuition income, endowment income, and gift income (Hamill 2010; Masterson 2008b).

This study investigated how 20 private colleges and universities, primarily located in the western part of the United States, responded to the 2007–2009 Great Recession and whether and to what degree the adaptive and interpretive strategies they used contributed to their financial recovery. The results of this study describe the characteristics of more and less resilient institutions and how they responded to the Great Recession. The results of this study are based on an investigation of 20 private colleges and universities and are not generalizable to the total population of educational institutions in the United States.
State Fiscal Effort and Juvenile Incarceration Rates: Are We Misdirecting our Investment in Human Capital?
Authors: Ellison Jessica McGrath , Owings William , Kaplan Leslie S.
Published: September 2024

abstract:
The relationship between lack of a high school diploma and juvenile incarceration is well known. This study investigated whether an increase in state fiscal effort for education is associated with decreased juvenile incarceration rates. Each state’s and the District of Columbia’s educational fiscal effort and its relation with state juvenile incarceration rates over a 25-year time period was examined at 5, 10, 15, and 20-year lag intervals to account for effect delays. A statistically significant inverse association between state educational fiscal effort and state juvenile incarceration rates across the United States was found using a GEE with raw data at a 5-year time lag. Statistically significant associations were found using Pearson’s Product Moment analysis in 10 states as well. On average across the U.S., a 1% increase in fiscal effort is estimated to provide a potential average yearly savings of $4,953,967.25 per state.
The Relationship Between Magnet Status and Neighborhood Home Values in Chicago
Authors: Evans Chad , Malin Joel R.
Published: September 2024

abstract:
Research has demonstrated that families are consistently willing to pay more for homes situated in catchments with better quality schools. However, few have considered whether other school characteristics are capable of capitalizing home values in this way. Using data from the city of Chicago, we investigate whether traditional magnet schools may place upward economic pressure on adjoining neighborhood home prices. We also examine this possibility for Chicago’s “magnet clusters”—which are themed schools and connote magnet status, but utilize locally zoned boundaries. After controlling for neighborhood composition, only traditional magnet schools, with broader enrollment policies, were consistently associated with higher home values. We find, however, that this relationship operates mostly through systematic differences in school quality, not differences in school typology per se.
Advocacy Coalitions and Colorado's Legalization of Recreational Marijuana: A Discourse Analysis
Authors: Houck Eric A. , Midkiff Brooke
Published: September 2024

abstract: This paper examines the use of education as an issue in passing Colorado's Amendment 64 legalizing the use of recreational marijuana in the state. We utilize political, discourse, and budgetary analysis to examine the role of educators in the coalition advocating for passage of Amendment 64 and projected revenues per pupil for 2014-2016. We find that although education was a topic used by advocates, educators themselves were not significant political actors in the Amendment 64 coalition. We find that tax revenue receipts did not meet politicians' projections. We note how the interaction of the tax outlined in Amendment 64, combined with additional taxes levied via Proposition AA has possibly kept recreational marijuana users in alternative markets. We conclude that the use of education as an issue in passing Amendment 64 aligns with a long tradition of politicians utilizing schools as a feel-good selling point for controversial fiscal policymaking.
Equity and Unrestricted Funds in Special Education
Authors: Conlin Michael , Jalilevand Meg
Published: September 2024

abstract: A state's special education funding structure affects both the level of special education services provided and how equitably these services are distributed across districts. Irrespective of the funding system, districts in almost all states use unrestricted funds to pay for special education services not covered by revenue designated for special education. This study focuses on how district wealth and the provision of special education services are related to this use of unrestricted funds. Using a unique panel dataset that includes detailed annual district level financial and enrollment information for 604 local and intermediate school districts in Michigan, our main findings are that: (i) the financial burden associated with using unrestricted funds for special education expenditures is significantly greater for the poorest districts due to their larger fraction of special need students; and (ii) students receiving special education services vary with district wealth and this variation is likely attributable to both compositional differences of special need students and financial incentives that create differences in the special education identification and services. While unable to quantify the compositional and incentive effects, our results clearly document large inequities in special education funding across Michigan school districts.
Expenditures on the Professional Development of Teachers: The Case of Minnesota
Authors: Alexander Nicola A. , Jang Sung Tae
Published: September 2024

abstract: We examined professional development spending among Minnesota school districts and explored: (1) the level and variation in spending among districts; (2) associations between expenditures on professional development and district characteristics, including ethnic divergence between faculty and students; and (3) associations between professional development spending, district context, and student outcomes. We found that, on average, district policymakers in Minnesota spent $1,438 for each teacher’s professional development, devoted 1% of their operational expenditures to that endeavor, and contributed $15 to the development of each teacher for every $100 expended per student. Bigger districts tended to expend more dollars on the professional development of their teachers, but spending levels were not significantly associated with student outcomes. While the number of students served is significantly associated with expenditures on professional development, the “need” for professional development as measured by the ethnic divergence between faculty and students was not significantly associated with spending on professional development. However, the ethnic divergence between faculty and students within the district were significantly and negatively associated with student outcomes.
Does Increasing Career and Technical Education Coursework in High School Boost Educational Attainment and Labor Market Outcomes?
Authors: Dougherty Shaun M. , Gottfried Michael A. , Sublett Cameron
Published: September 2024

abstract: Most research on the effects of participation in career and technical education (CTE) in high school has looked exclusively at labor market outcomes, overlooking potential educational benefits. In this study, we capitalize on rich statewide administrative data and a change in graduation requirements in Arkansas to understand how increased CTE exposure affects high school graduation, college going, and labor market outcomes, including initial employment and wages. Under a policy shift, students were required to take six elective courses in high school that aligned with career readiness, a category that includes all CTE courses. We document that in response to this policy, schools changed their course offerings, and that change in offerings induced subsequent changes in CTE course taking. We use this variation in offerings to estimate the effects of CTE course taking and find that taking more CTE coursework in high school positively impacted educational and labor market outcomes.
The Inequities of Special Education Funding in North Carolina
Authors: Needham Chris , Houck Eric A.
Published: September 2024

abstract: North Carolina special education funding utilizes a dollar allotment per identified student, applying a funding cap based on a percentage of district average daily membership. While representing an attempt to reduce over-identification of students with special needs the funding cap has led to large systematic disparities in district fiscal resources. Utilizing the equity framework for analysis of school finance resources developed by Berne and Stiefel and the theory of budget maximization articulated by Niskanen this article measures the scope of inequality of special education funding across districts. Results of the study indicate that over a 13-year period, 2005–2017 an average of 62% of North Carolina districts faced underfunding each year. Focusing on the top 10% of districts in terms of underfunding, the average amount of underfunding was $915.09, requiring an average of 37% of local revenue to eliminate the deficit. Nationally, while no two states have the same special education funding mechanism around 50% have some form of restriction on the amount of funding a district can receive. Therefore, as states struggle to balance budgets, dealing with finite resource allocations, this article reemphasizes the need for all states to provide equitable and adequate special education funding to all districts.
Undergraduate Students' Willingness to Pay for Online Courses
Authors: Manley Kelly , Han Yongseung , Ryan Michael , Serkan Christopher
Published: September 2024

abstract: This paper uses student survey data from a regional university in the southeastern U.S. to gauge the impact of a variety of socio-demographic and personal preference variables to determine which factors are most significant on the demand side of the market, and specifically on the willingness to pay for online classes. While gender was not a significant factor in willingness to pay, students in the bachelor program were willing to pay more for online classes than the students in the associate program. We also found that willingness to pay for online classes increased with work hours, yet decreased with commuting time. Given the student responses on willingness to pay, we derived the demand curve and the marginal revenue curve for online classes to find that a revenue-maximizing price premium for an online course is approximately $150 per course, which is lower than the average amount ($226.3) that a student is willing to pay. We also find that a student expectation of a better grade is the most distinctive factor in the choice of an online course.
An Analysis of the North Carolina Education Lottery, 2007–17
Authors: Hart Walter H. , Westine Carl W. , Watson Jim R.
Published: September 2024

abstract: State-sponsored lotteries are a popular way for legislatures to voluntarily increase revenue, with proponents typically suggesting that lotteries supplement educational funding. While lotteries are widely viewed as a solution to revenue challenges, questions exist over the extent to which they actually benefit schools. This study focuses on the impact of the North Carolina Education Lottery (NCEL) during its first decade, with specific attention to effects on the original beneficiary programs and per pupil funding. Using a decade-long trend of data in North Carolina, and a hierarchial linear model structured as a hierarchial growth model with annual observations nested in counties, we found that large increases in the sale of lottery products did not result in similar increases for the original, legislatively-mandated beneficiary programs as funds were used for other educational purposes. We also found that lottery revenues were not associated with per pupil expenditures.
Nuclear Reaction: The History of Financing a Rural Ohio School District Heavily Exposed to Nuclear Power Plant Valuation from 1970-2020
Authors: Parmigian Guy L.
Published: September 2024

abstract: This historical case study is about financing a rural school district who hosted a nuclear power plant within its geographic boundaries, and who relied heavily on the ad valorem taxation of the plant for revenues. The host school district's extraordinary reliance on the nuclear power plant for revenues meant that it was highly exposed to ebbs and flows in market conditions that impacted the plant, including taxation and utility regulation. The study examines these ebbs and flows through three electric market environments, or "eras," and their relational impact on school district revenues from 1970–2020. The study recommends reforms, including reexamination of assessment rates on nuclear power plants in light of a neo-regulated market environment. This study also has implications for any school district who depends on one taxpayer or industry as a major source of revenues.
Federal Spending for Higher Education: The Impact of Budget Reconciliation
Authors: Adair John Lucas , Katsinas Stephen G. , Grant Phillip D. , Bray Nathaniel
Published: September 2024

abstract: This secondary data analysis of federal budget data sought to understand the impact of U.S. Senate reconciliation measures on higher education funding. Reconciliation is a process by which the U.S. Senate passes budgetary measures by only requiring a simple majority. Using data from federal budgets that stretched from the end of the Carter administration to the end of the Obama administration, this study shows that higher education receives more overall funding from the federal government when a budget is passed, rather than through a reconciliation bill. In the 30 years where a budget was passed, higher education mandatory spending saw an increase of 242 percent. In the seven years a conciliation bill was passed, mandatory spending for higher education decreased by 346percent. There appears to be no connection between American political party and the decision to use reconciliation in higher education, as Democratic controlled Senates have passed reconciliation bills three times, with two increasing higher education funding and one decreasing. Republican controlled Senates have passed reconciliation twice, with one increasing and one decreasing funding to higher education. Our analysis shows that advocates for higher education should seek policy reform in the traditional budget passage process, rather than through reconciliation.
The Social Benefits of Widening Participation in Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa
Authors: Oketch Moses
Published: September 2024

abstract: This paper links endogenous development, externalities, and higher participation in education with issues of student finance and equity in sub-Saharan Africa. The paper is based on new panel data for 43 African countries for 2000-2017, offering new findings for this recent period during which per capita growth in Africa has picked up significantly and about which there is great curiosity. The findings provide evidence that the external effects of lower levels of education lower fertility rates, and that secondary education supports democratization (improvement in political rights). Together with prior literature the above builds a strong social scientific case about how these external effects of basic education lower the explosive population growth in sub-Saharan Africa through the education of women. This paper goes further to explore the role of government expenditure per student, a powerful driver of lower fertility and more democratization at the primary and secondary levels but not at the higher education level. The problem with inefficiency in financing higher education as large and costly per student room and board grants are provided to the children of the wealthy (who are likely to attend college anyway) with little resource recovery is found to lower its cost effectiveness in achieving per capita growth and development.
The Effect of Higher Education on Youth Unemployment in European Regions During a Period of Economic Instability
Authors: Hermannsson Kristinn , Scandurra Rosario , Graziano Marcello
Published: September 2024

abstract: This paper examines the impact of higher education on youth unemployment. Following the 2008 financial crisis, youth unemployment returned to the fore as a serious concern among policy makers in Europe. A crucial difference from previous recessions is that this time around supply of higher education opportunities was much higher than in the 1980s, and indeed higher education participation rates grew rapidly in many regions during this period. Drawing on previous work on youth unemployment and the economic impacts of education we identify a variety of channels through which higher education is likely to influence youth unemployment. We examine this issue using a macro-panel of European regions for the period 2002-2012. This decade was characterized by variation in economic activity and higher education rates. Our results suggest that expansion of higher education during this period had a mitigating effect on youth unemployment and not recognizing this external benefit of education risks underestimating the effects of macroeconomic shocks on young people.
Do Civic Returns to Higher Education Differ Across Subpopulations? An Analysis Using Propensity Forests
Authors: Skinner Benjamin T. , Doyle William R.
Published: September 2024

abstract: We investigate how college participation may differentially influence civic behaviors among individuals who were between 18 and 20 years old in 2012. Using data from the High School Longitudinal Study of 2009, we consider two direct measures of civic behavior, voter registration and volunteerism. We generate our estimates with propensity forests, a machine learning algorithm that can mitigate bias when using observational data and supports investigation of heterogeneous treatment effects. Overall, we find that college-goers are more likely to register to vote and volunteer, though, conditional on volunteering at all, likely to volunteer fewer hours. We find limited evidence of heterogeneous returns across various groups, suggesting that civic returns to higher education are broadly shared by those who attend.
Rethinking the U.S. Post-Secondary Education Model: The Relationship between Earning Career and Technical Industry Credentials and the Virginia Economy
Authors: Hendricks Anjanette , Myran Steve , Owings William A. , Katsioloudis Petros , Kaplan Leslie S.
Published: September 2024

abstract: Nationally, the labor market is seeking workers to fill the increasing number of high salary job vacancies, but those qualified to fill them are in limited supply. The skills and third-party industry credentials earned in secondary Career and Technical Education (CTE) programs seem a perfect fit for the student, employer, and economy. However, widely held misperceptions of CTE and unfamiliarity with industry credentials perpetuate this skills crisis while undermining high school students' economic potential. Using a non-experimental, quantitative study employing ex post facto data, a Likert survey, and a closed-ended question survey, this study shows CTE industry credentials' economic value in dollar terms for students and for a state's treasury, in this case Virginia's, in potential income tax revenue for the next five years.
How Hard-to-Staff Rural School Districts Use State Funds to Address Teacher Shortages
Authors: Tran Henry , Smith Douglas A.
Published: September 2024

abstract: States have increasingly relied on financial policies to address teacher staffing challenges, particularly in high need areas. Case in point, South Carolina developed the Rural Recruitment Initiative (RRI) to provide funding for recruitment and retention efforts in rural and other underserved districts facing severe teacher staffing challenges. While strategic initiatives are necessary to improve rural educator staffing across the state, little is known about the program's use or efficacy. This mixed-method study employs a concurrent triangulation design to understand better how the RRI policy was implemented within districts vis-à-vis their existing HR strategies. It also explores the potential influence of RRI on teacher staffing outcomes for districts receiving funds. Our analysis indicates districts have opted to spend resources on recruitment in a reactive effort to fill vacancies, with minimal effort on retention. Fixed-effects regression results suggests that for the last five years (from 2010 to 2017), the state has been experiencing a growing annual teacher turnover rate and, while those districts that receive RRI funds appear to see less escalation, it currently remains insufficient to resolve their human capacity problems.
Connecting to the Test: Investigating Gaps in E-Rate Subsidies for Internal Connectivity during California’s Transition to the Common Core State Standards
Authors: Hashim Ayesha K.
Published: September 2024

abstract: Internet connectivity has become a critical resource for teaching and learning. The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) is a prime example, with schools expected to implement online assessments and use online resources for instruction. Yet there is little known about the extent to which local education agencies (LEAs) and schools are taking advantage of policies that subsidize spending on internet connectivity. This article assesses the gaps in LEA access to subsidies for internet connectivity provided under the Federal Communication Commission’s E-Rate program. This analysis is situated in California, an early-adopting state of the CCSS and one of the largest recipients of E-Rate subsidies. This article focuses on Category 2 subsidies earmarked for building high-density, wireless internal connectivity networks necessary for supporting multiuser, online testing in schools. Drawing on longitudinal data from the 2006–07 to 2016–17 school years, the growing LEA demand for Category 2 subsidies following California’s adoption of the CCSS in 2010–11 is documented. At the same time, there are notable gaps in LEA applications and funding for these subsides across attributes such as enrollment size, rural location, per-pupil revenues, prior success in funding, and for LEAs with lower enrollments of free and reduced-price lunch eligible students. In further analysis, this article shows that LEAs that were denied Category 2 subsidies incurred greater spending on non-capitalized equipment post-CCSS adoption and experienced a decline in ELA and math test scores that started even prior to the denial of funding for Category 2 subsidies, suggesting a somewhat challenging transition to the CCSS. However, unfunded LEAs did not perform as poorly in ELA and math once online testing for the CCSS started. This article discusses how the FCC’s Modernization Order has addressed funding gaps in E-Rate and considerations for future reforms to the program.