bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Trieres grecques, pheniciennes et egyptiennes
Authors: Basch Lucien
Published: May 2006

En 1953, P. Amandry résumait ľopinion commune au sujet des adversaires sur mer des Grecs pendant les guerres médiques en écrivant: ‘la marine phénicienne de cette époque est mal connue’. Mon but principal, dans une étude publiée en 1969, était de combler cette lacune irritante: je crus pouvoir démontrer ľexistence, en Phénicie, ďune architecture navale originale et, surtout, ďun type de trière différent du type grec. Ce n'est que de façon incidente que je crus pouvoir attribuer les trières de Nechao au modèle phénicien, ce qui permettait de conserver les conclusions raisonnables de J. A. Davison quant à la date de ľadoption de la trière en Grèce sans mettre en doute la véracité du récit ďHérodote au sujet de ľexistence de trières en Egypte vers 600.

Il n'est pas indifférent de noter que M. A. B. Lloyd, en abordant ľexamen du même probléme, a suivi une démarche très différente: son but principal, en 1972, était ľétude de la marine saïte. Etant donné qu'il n'envisageait pas la possibilité de types de trières différents, qu'il n'acceptait pas la date traditionnelle de ľinvention de la trière à Corinthe que fournit apparemment Thucydide (704 av. J.-C.) et qu'il considérait également comme authentique ľinformation ďHérodote, il ne lui restait plus qu'à déterminer une nouvelle date de naissance de la trière, soit le milieu du 7e s. A ce moment, M. Lloyd ignorait ľexistence de mon article de 1969, auquel il devait consacrer une réfutation en 1975: souhaitant maintenir intégralement ses conclusions de 1972, M. Lloyd était contraint de soutenir que la trière phénicienne, telle que je ľavais décrite, n'avait jamais existé.
Politics and theOresteia
Authors: Macleod C. W.
Published: May 2006

As a drama and a poem theEumenidesis often regarded with unease. It brings theOresteiato a conclusion; but its account of Athens and the Areopagus seems to many readers inspired more by patriotism (of whatever partisan tinge) than a sense of dramatic unity. Hence much attention has been devoted to Aeschylus' supposed political message in the play; as a result, the question of its fitness to crown the trilogy recedes into the background or even vanishes. On the other hand, those whose concern is with Aeschylus' poetry tend to ignore his ‘politics’. The purpose of this paper is twofold. First, it seeks to vindicate Aeschylus the artist: to show, that is, how the founding of the homicide court and the cult of the Semnai on the Areopagus in Athens properly marks the end of the troubles of the Argive Atridae, and how the sufferings and guilt of individual men and women are resolved in a city's institutions. In pursuing this aim, it also has to consider, and try to define, the relation of the tragedian to his audience and to contemporary society. My concern, then, is with the individual and the community, both within the play and behind it.
A Fragment by Onesimos
Authors: Williams D. J. R.
Published: May 2006

The purpose of this note is to make known a fine pair of joining fragments, one in the Louvre, the other in a private collection in Oxford, which come from the outside of a cup by Onesimos. The Louvre fragment, Cp. 11342, listed in the second edition of J. D. Beazley's Attic Red-figure Vase-Painters but not previously figured, gives part of a male leaning to the right on a knotted stick. He is draped in an himation with a two-line border pattern. His chest is frontal but he twists to the right, his right arm reaching across and down to the right, while his left, comfortably tucked in the material of the himation, rests on the top of the stick. The new Oxford fragment adds the head of the youth, his right shoulder and the tops of two of the billows of the himation as it passes over the upper part of the left arm.
Herodas ii 12 ff. (Headlam)
Authors: Killeen J. F.
Published: May 2006

Headlam wrote: ‘ἔτι ἄγχϵι in conjunction with 1.18 n. suggests amatory capabilities[1] … [Battaros'] powers of “wrestling” being compared with Mennes' old victories at boxing. Either this or Blass' supposition that he is a street rowdy will suit τοῦ ἡλίου δύντος: the former hypothesis suits better the character of Battaros…’ I have no doubt that the word ἄγχϵι, like the πύξ which it matches in 1. 11, is a double-meaning one, and contains the sense: ἔτι οἴός τε ἐστὶ γυναικὶ συγγίγνεσθαι. That, as a buffoon's method of raising a laugh, the punning use of ἅγχω and a congener in their agonistic and erotic senses would not be alien to the proceedings of even a real court, let alone the fictional court of a literary genre having affinities with Old Comedy, is shown by Dem. liv 20 (Contra. Con. 1263.5), where it is assumed that defendants on a charge of assault will try τὸ πρᾶγμα ‥ εἰς γέλωτα καὶ σκώμματ᾽ ἐμβαλεῖν (liv 13 = 1261.13).
Posidonius' system of moral philosophy
Authors: Dihle A.
Published: May 2006

Seneca devoted two of his letters to Lucilius to a problem which had been treated quite differently in previous philosophical doctrine. Letter 94 is written against philosophers who believe that there is no need for praecepta, for single precepts and moral sentences or proverbs concerning individual and specific situations in human life. Moral progress rests solely and entirely upon the knowledge of some basic decreta which belong in the context of a scientific theory and provide sufficient help for every occasion in human life. The second letter, 95, deals polemically with those who admit nothing but praecepta in their educational programme and who reject every kind of dogmatic knowledge. The first group is represented by Aristo the Stoic, whose contempt of praecepta is also attested by Sextus Empiricus. For the other group, Seneca does not quote an authority. He does not mention Cynics and Sceptics who rejected moral and general dogmatism alike, and it seems to be very likely that he was thinking of his own teacher Sotion and the Sextian school who had no interest in ethical theory, but were very famous for their use of moral and psychagogic sentences.

Seneca's own opinion is far from being original. He says that both—praecepta and decreta—are useful and even necessary, and this position was already held by Cleanthes, Panaetius and the majority of Stoics, by Aristotle and other philosophers.
Anachronism in Greek tragedy
Authors: Easterling P. E.
Published: May 2006

Anachronism-hunting has been out of fashion with scholars in recent times, for the good reason that it can easily seem like a rather trivial sort of parlour game. But given that Greek tragedy draws so heavily on the past, a close look at some examples may perhaps throw light on a far from trivial subject, the dramatists' perception of the heroic world.

So long as anachronism was treated as an artistic failing the debate was bound to be unproductive; one can symphathise with Jebb's view (on Soph. El. 48 ff.) that Attic tragedy was ‘wholly indifferent’ to it. And one can see why later scholars have objected to the very idea of anachronism as irrelevant and misleading. Ehrenberg, for example, wrote in 1954: ‘It is entirely mistaken to distinguish between mythical and thus quasi-historical features on the one hand and contemporary and thus anachronistic on the other. There is always the unity of the one poem or play, displaying the ancient myth, although shaped in the spirit of the poet's mind and time.’
The Recognition Decrees for the Delphian Soteria and the Date of Smyrna's Inviolability
Authors: Elwyn Sue
Published: May 2006

Seven inscriptions have been classified as recognition decrees for the Delphian Soteria. One of these is so fragmentary as to defy analysis. In a second, only the end of the decree survives, and relatively little can be learned from it. The other five decrees have been the subject of considerable disagreement since Pomtow's publication in 1914.
Fifth-century contractors' marks at the Argive Heraion
Authors: Pfaff Christopher
Published: May 2006

This article presents three single-word inscriptions carved on blocks of the large retaining wall that supported the Classical temple of Hera at the Argive Heraion. Two of the inscriptions record the name Kleomachos, while the third presumably records the first three letters of a name beginning Epi… The inscriptions, which include local Argive letter forms characteristic of the mid-fifth century, appear on ordinary wall blocks in places where they could not have been read when the terrace was completed. From the evidence of similar inscriptions at Delphi, it is argued that the inscriptions at the Argive Heraion should be identified as the marks of local contractors responsible for supplying building material to the site at a time when the sanctuary was entering a major phase of expansion.
Theodoret of Cyrus and the Speakers in Greek Dialogues
Authors: Lim Richard
Published: May 2006

The modern convention for printing dialogues includes printing the names of the speakers on the margin at the beginning of their statements. But this practice was virtually unknown in ancient Greek dialogues. Instead, the most common convention for showing the shift from one speaker to another is through punctuation such as the colon, the παραγράφος or a horizontal stroke. Recently, N. G. Wilson has attributed the inclusion of the names of the speakers at the transitional points in Greek dialogues to Theodoret of Cyrus (mid-fifth century CE; composed Eranistes in 447) who, in this view, ‘deserves the credit for devising a literary convention that is now regarded as essential’.
Torture and rhetoric in Athens
Authors: Mirhady David C.
Published: May 2006

In a short article published one hundred years ago, J.W. Headlam presented the thesis that in Athenian law the function of the challenge to torture slaves was to propose an alternative method of trial outside the dikastêrion, a kind of ordeal. The thesis met immediate opposition and despite a brief rejoinder by Headlam to his first critic it has been rejected by those writing on Athenian law up to now, including G. Thür, whose monograph is by far the most important work on the subject. However, the significance of the issue compels us not to let it drop. For it touches not only upon the use of torture, which affects our understanding of the position of slaves, but also upon the Athenian rules of evidence, indeed, their entire method of dispute resolution. The purpose of the present paper is, first (I) to revive Headlam's thesis in a modified form and (II) to answer the criticisms against it. I shall argue that Headlam was essentially correct with regard to the judicial function of the challenge, but his association of it with the trial by ordeal was misplaced. Finally, (III) I shall touch upon the influence of rhetoricians in Athens, for they appear responsible for some of the disagreement.
Sophocles and the cult of Philoctetes
Authors: Harrison S. J.
Published: May 2006

Amongst the legendary heroes who appear in leading roles in the surviving plays of Sophocles, it is noteworthy that Oedipus, Ajax and Heracles all received some form of divine worship in Attica, not to mention localities more readily associated with each of them. Sophocles is not unaware of this aspect of each of these figures, but where the future prospect of their cult is alluded to in the plays, such allusions are not always prominent or explicit; though the future cult of the Oedipus of the Oedipus Coloneus is crucial for the play, it is only directly mentioned in a few passages, while the Ajax of Ajax is seen as a future receiver of cult only in a single unusual scene of supplicating his dead body, and it is unclear in the Trachiniae whether the audience is intended to supply a future cult on Oeta and apotheosis for Heracles. I should here like to argue that in Philoctetes Sophocles again consciously employs a hero destined to receive worship after his death, and that this is subtly suggested at the end of the play.
Imaginary Greek mountains
Authors: Buxton Richard
Published: May 2006

It is hardly controversial to assert that recent work on Greek mythology is methodologically diverse. However, there is one body of writing which seems to have become a reference point against which scholars of many persuasions–not excluding orthodox positivist philologists and adherents of psychoanalysis–feel the need to define their own position. I mean structuralism. G.S. Kirk and, later, W. Burkert have conducted their dialogues with it; C. Segal and more unreconstructedly R. Caldwell have tried to accommodate Lévi-Strauss and Freud under the same blanket; a glance at bibliographical citations in studies of tragedy over the last twenty years will show how J.-P. Vernant and P. Vidal-Naquet have moved from the periphery to the centre (much as Finley did some time ago in ancient history). The polemical attitudes being struck by M. Detienne (from within the movement) and C. Calame are directly generated by over-confident structuralist attempts to map out the mental territory they claimed as their own.
Greeks abroad: social organisation and food among the ten thousand
Authors: Dalby Andrew
Published: May 2006

This study of the Ten Thousand on their way home will consider, with regard to some important aspects of their social behaviour, whether they were adopting and adapting the Greek city way of life, or that of a mercenary army, and whether other possible models may help us to understand their problems and their success.

The Ten Thousand had been part of an army and many of them would form part of one again. The assumption that in the meanwhile they were really just like an army justifies the space given to them by Parke, by Marinovich and by Griffith in books which are studies of Greek mercenary warfare. Of course the men's aim when they were Cyrus's mercenaries (like the aims of other mercenaries) had been to follow what instructions had come to them from above and to take home, individually, what pay and profit they could. But once Cyrus was killed they were no longer mercenaries nor employed by any authority, and their aim, decided by themselves, was to find a way home. Their entirely different status, and their ability to succeed in these new circumstances, mean that it is unwise in investigating the patterns of behaviour either of mercenaries or of the Ten Thousand to assume without question that the two patterns will be the same.
Designer History: Plato's Atlantis Story and Fourth-Century Ideology
Authors: Morgan Kathryn A.
Published: May 2006

The myth of Athens and Atlantis in Plato'sTimaeusandCritiascan be, and has been, interpreted on a number of different levels. On the most fundamental, philosophical level the myth sets into narrative motion the paradigm of the ideal state elaborated in theRepublic.Gill, in a series of publications, has done much to throw light on the nature of this invention: its relationship with modern categories of fiction and with antecedent historiography. Yet the extent to which the myth of Atlantis is embedded in larger fourth-century political and historiographical concerns has been insufficiently appreciated. In what follows, I shall attempt to reconstruct some of these concerns. I shall argue, first, that the narrative set-up of the Atlantis myth corresponds to the conditions specified in theRepublicfor the successful creation of a charter myth (the ‘Noble Lie’) for the ideal city, and that this is a valuable indication of the truth status of the myth and of the function it is expected to perform. This function is not merely a matter of abstract philosophical interest, since there are close parallels between the Atlantis myth and contemporary panegyric versions of Athenian history; in Section III, therefore, I shall explore these parallels through an examination of some Isocratean orations. Sections IV and V will investigate how such panegyric history illuminates areas of ideological concern for Athenians in the first half of the fourth century, most notably worries about legitimating the constitution(politeia)under which they lived, and about the attitude that should be taken towards Athenian maritime interests in the Aegean. The Atlantis myth creates a vision of Athens that is true to Plato's political ideals, but which is animated by contemporary historicaltopoi.The result is a narrative for an audience of philosophicalcognoscentithat both rejects and transforms suchtopoi, and sparks a second-order consideration of the forces at work in the construction of history.
Egyptian Bronze Jugs from Crete and Lefkandi
Authors: Carter Jane B.
Published: May 2006

John Boardman has pointed to the squat bronze jugs with lotus handles from early Iron Age contexts in Crete and at Lefkandi on Euboia as Egyptian imports ‘certainly straight from Egypt itself with no eastern intermediaries’. On close inspection, however, the Egyptian antecedents of these jugs pose a chronological, and even a philosophical, puzzle; whatever the solution, the jugs found in Crete and at Lefkandi surely do not furnish convincing evidence for early direct connections between Egypt and the Aegean.
An unusual victory list from Keos:IGXII, 5, 608 and the dating of Bakchylides
Authors: Schmidt Desmond
Published: May 2006

This paper discusses the interpretation of an important historical document:IGXII, 5, 608, a victory list from Iulis on ancient Keos. Since its discovery in 1883 it has always been described as a chronologically ordered official victory list of Kean athletes who have won at each of the major games. The surviving portion contains one complete list prefixed by the words ‘these won at Nemea’, and preceded by fourteen other names, which must, following the usual order, belong to Isthmian victors. Since the two lists together name two athletes for whom Bakchylides wrote victory songs, Argeios (odes 1 and 2) and Lachon (odes 6 and 7), it has long been used as a means of dating the first pair of poems, as well as the victories mentioned on the inscription not celebrated by Bakchylides. More recently, it has been used to fix the death of that poet to just after 452, in spite of a clear reference to him in Eusebios'Chronicleunder the year 431. It is the contention of this paper that this unique victory list has been misclassified and misinterpreted. It is not a chronologically ordered official victory list; it is rather an honorific victory list in which the entries are arranged by decreasing order of importance. This interpretation, and its various repercussions, destroys many of the currently accepted views about the dating of Bakchylides.
The funeral of Astyanax in Euripides'Troades
Authors: Dyson M. , Lee K.H.
Published: May 2006

The penultimate scene of Euripides'Troades, lines 1123–1250, presents the dressing of a child's corpse for burial. Even as the body is being carried away for interment, firebrands are seen on the heights of Troy (1256–9). All that remains is the commencement of the final burning of the city while the remaining Trojan captives are ordered off for embarkation and exile. The end of the play, therefore, enacts the annihilation of a city and its total abandonment; in such a context the funeral which immediately precedes surely makes a crucial contribution to the significance of the play and deserves close study.
The genealogy of theboukoloi: how Greek literature appropriated an Egyptian narrative-motif
Authors: Rutherford Ian
Published: May 2006

The subject of this paper is the relationship between the Demotic Egyptian Inaros-Petubastis Cycle and the Greek novel. I will not argue that the Greek novel as a whole arose from Egyptian literature; that theory has been rightly laid to rest by scholars working in the area, most recently by Susan Stephens and the late Jack Winkler in their edition of the fragments of the novel. What I want to do, rather, is to draw attention to a single motif that might have made its way from Egyptian narrative fiction to the Greek novel; to explore the background of this motif in Egyptian literature; and to discuss the mode through which this motif was appropriated by the Greek novelists. This motif concerns theboukoloi, outlaw shepherds who inhabit the Egyptian Delta and oppose central Egyptian authority.
The name of the tree: recountingOdysseyxxiv 340-2
Authors: Henderson John
Published: May 2006

Bringing it all back home,Odysseyxxiv holds an encounter with narration in the relative calm of Laertes' garden, a final and significant retrospection and re-narration of narrative. Always ‘une mise en scène du Père’, Narrative invites us to relive with Odysseus the ‘inferential walk’ on which his father once took him through the trees of his childhood. We explore with and through him the force of narration in forming his (or any?) life-story. Of the signs that persuade father to recognize son, the scar on Odysseus’ thigh has sutured healthy readings; the fruit-trees in Laertes’ orchard have scarcely picked their weight. This essay explores the sign of the trees, beginning with its interaction with the scar, as the staging of an exemplary model of cultural/narrative productivity.
A wedding scene? Notes on Akropolis 6471
Authors: Stafford Emma J.
Published: May 2006

The iconography of this well-preserved lekythos (PLATE III) has provoked little discussion. Beazley enters it as an ‘unexplained subject’ and declines to identify any of the figures; Brouskari and Delivorrias read it as a ‘wedding scene’, identifying the female standing at the far right as Aphrodite. Commenting on the Berlin amphoriskos by the Heimarmene Painter (Plate IV), Shapiro notes that Aison's lekythos offers a close parallel for the group of Helen and Aphrodite, but he takes the observation no further. Elements of the scene do indeed fit into the ‘adornment of the bride’ iconography, documented in Oakley and Sinos' collection of images of the Athenian wedding.
The Cadusii in history and in fiction
Authors: Syme Ronald
Published: May 2006

Lands and peoples on the northern edge of an empire never fail to arouse curiosity; and their first entry into history exhibits sharp contrasts. The Hyrcani made a notable impact when Alexander in the year 330 invaded their country.

Hyrcania permits a fairly close definition. It occupied the southeastern corner of the Caspian (a sea which frequently took that name). To the north was the wide steppe, inhabited by the Dahae, on the east the region Margiana. To the south Hyrcania extended into the Elburz mountains; and under the last Achaemenid it formed one satrapy with Parthyene, its neighbour on the southeast. Belonging to the narrow neck between the Caspian and the Salt Desert, Hyrcania lay beside the highroad from Ecbatana to Bactra. Hence a vital link for successive imperial powers.
Battle narrative and politics in Aeschylus' Persae
Authors: Goldhill Simon
Published: May 2006

InJHScvii (1987), I argued that the Festival of the Great Dionysia needed to be seen in the context of fifth-century Athenian culture and that the plays which make up a major part of this festival could be seen as offering a profoundly questioning attitude towards what might be called fifth-century Athenian democraticpolisi ideology. One play which seems to fit uneasily into that description of Athenian tragedy—as indeed it fits uneasily into many general arguments about Athenian theatre—is Aeschylus'Persae. In this brief paper I want to suggest some ways in which the social and political context I outlined in my earlier paper may help us to understand certain elements of thePersaewhich have worried critics.
Archaic Greek foundation poetry: questions of genre and occasion
Authors: Dougherty Carol
Published: May 2006

From the eighth to the sixth centuries BCE the Greeks settled an astounding number of new cities on foreign lands from the Black Sea to the coast of Spain, and these new civic foundations generated narratives designed to record and celebrate a city's origin. In general, the Greeks loved to speculate about beginnings; the births of heroes, the origins of cults, and the founding of cities all formed part of their aetiological repertoire. While tales of city foundations appear prominently in archaic literature, I will argue that foundation (orktisis) poetry does not, as is commonly assumed, function as an autonomous literary genre in the archaic period. Genre is determined by type of occasion, not by content, at this time, and there is no evidence for any one specific occasion for whichktisispoetry was intentionally composed and performed. Instead, the foundation narrative always functions as part of a larger project; we find it embedded in many different poetic genres. For these reasons, thektisisis better understood as a literarytoposor theme which adds geographical detail and aetiological focus to a variety of poetic contexts and thus is performed on more than one occasion.
Area Studies and the Disciplines: A Rejoinder
Authors: Harbeson John W.
Published: May 2006

Robert Bates’ letter entitled “Area Studies and the Discipline” (American Political Science Association, Comparative Politics 1, Winter 1996, pp. 1-2) uses the occasion of the SSRC’s abolishing of area committees to announce that “within the academy, the consensus has formed that area studies has failed to generate scientific knowledge.” As someone who has done some of his most important work on African development issues, Bates deplores declining investment in area studies as a “loss to the social sciences, as well as to the academy,” at an inopportune moment, “just when our [political science] discipline is becoming equipped to handle area knowledge in a rigorous fashion.”
History of Pluralistic Medical Systems: A Sociological Analysis of the Ghanaian Case
Authors: Twumasi Patrick A.
Published: May 2006

This paper addresses itself to the history of pluralistic medical systems in Ghana. Case studies of the systems (traditional and modern-scientific) as evolving traditions with unique premises and techniques will be discussed. Modes of medical institutionalization, recruitment, training, and allocation of resources will be explained. Finally, this paper will attempt to explain the nature of the interrelationship between the two medical orientations in terms of their consequences in health care. The essay will focus on how medical systems are used by consumers and how medical systems are created, maintained, and reformed by professional authorities.
Rhodesia's “Pro-Settlement Groups” and the Anglo-Rhodesian Constitutional Dispute
Authors: Kirk Tony
Published: May 2006

The present political uncertainty in Rhodesia has complex origins. Until 1965 the country was a member of the British Commonwealth. It enjoyed “Responsible Government” (in the constitutional sense) which allowed its politicians much latitude in running affairs to suit their own desires. The black majority of the population had virtually no voice in the government. Britain retained a few residual legal rights arising from the situation when Rhodesia was colonized in 1890. In 1965 the Rhodesian politicians representing the white population of under 250,000 renounced their obligations in terms of these British rights and proclaimed their country a sovereign, independent power. The British government responded to the unilateral declaration of independence (U.D.I.) by imposing an economic blockade on Rhodesia. Rhodesia's financial assets abroad were frozen and its export trade embargoed. Its access to foreign money markets to raise investment capital was blocked.
Towards A New Constituency for a More Active American Foreign Policy for Africa
Authors: Baker Ross K.
Published: May 2006

To make a case for greater American involvement in Africa is to take cognizance of what has gone before — eclectic embrace followed by selective disengagement. The Nixon Administration has opted for a policy of designating certain target countries for bilateral assistance and political cultivation. The itineraries of American public figures from the Vice President and Secretary of State to the astronauts and Mrs. Nixon tell us where the emphases are being placed: on the two long-standing areas of concern, Liberia and Ethiopia; on Africa's most populous state, Nigeria; on one of its larger states, Zaire, and on the home of one of Africa's senior pragmatic statesmen, Kenya. Somewhat more peripheral interest is maintained in Ghana, which has moved into the column of “reasonable” regimes. Most recently the situation in Sudan has dazzled U.S. policymakers with visions of picking up chips from the Soviets and conjuring up the type of Cold War determinant of involvement popular in the 1960s.
Humanitarian Relief in Africa 1991: A Press Briefing
Authors: Spangler Scott
Published: May 2006

The conflict in the Gulf has understandably overshadowed events in sub-Saharan Africa. But we believe the crisis overtaking many countries on that continent warrants our meeting here today.
The Semitic Impact on Black Africa: Arab and Jewish Cultural Influences
Authors: Mazrui Ali A.
Published: May 2006

Contemporary Africa's Triple Heritage of indigenous, Islamic, and Western legacies is just the modern culmination of a much older Triple Heritage —the heritage of indigenous, Semitic, and Greco-Roman influences on Africa. The ancient Semitic strand has now narrowed and focused more firmly on Arab and Islamic influences; the ancient Greco-Roman strand has now expanded to encompass wider European and American intrusions.
Islam and Politics in West Africa
Authors: Nyang Sulayman S.
Published: May 2006

The role of Islam in West African politics goes back to the beginnings of the encounter between Islamic culture and traditional African political leadership in the medieval period. When Arabo-Berber culture arrived in the West Soudan, African rulers in Ghana, Soudan, and other smaller kingdoms of the time were very much influenced by their traditional African world view. According to this world view, rulers were thought to be a link between the living and the dead, on the one hand, and between the temporal and the spiritual on the other. Indeed, it is because of this fusion of politics and primordial religion in the old Africa that the well-known American student of African religions, James W. Fernandez, wrote in the early 1960s that the “African, it can be argued, inherited a traditional disposition to shift back and forth from a political to a religious mode of address.”
Election 1999: Prospects for the Consolidation of Democracy in South Africa
Authors: Shubane Khehla , Stack Louise
Published: May 2006

The African National Congress (ANC) emerged from South Africa’s 1999 election in a greatly strengthened position. Now, not only is the constitutionally obligatory five-year period of a government of national unity over—which means that the ANC as the majority party is entitled to rule the country on its own—but the ANC increased its already strong majority in Parliament to just short of two-thirds.

In this article, we first discuss the context of the political debate in which the election took place, as well as the outcome of the election. We then examine the prospects for the consolidation of democracy in South Africa in light of the election results and in relation to the issues surrounding electoral procedure, a dominant party system, and opposition politics within the context of a still very much racially divided society.
The 1999 Election and New Orientations in Opposition Politics in South Africa
Authors: Booysen Susan
Published: May 2006

South Africa’s 1999 election presented the country’s opposition parties with a number of serious challenges. For the three years before this second democratic election, opposition parties had been building up their hopes for 1999 as the year when the African National Congress (ANC) colossus might start shedding support and create space for opposition growth. Instead, the 1999 election fragmented the opposition, halved the size of the single biggest opposition party, annihilated opposition parties in most of the ANC-controlled provinces, and strengthened the ANC in the two opposition-controlled provinces. It also brought enhanced cooperation between the ANC and precisely those opposition parties that might have given credibility to a realigned opposition movement.
Polls Apart: South African Women and the 1999 General Election
Authors: Vincent Louise
Published: May 2006

More than one million more women than men registered to vote in South Africa’s second democratic election in 1999. The election saw 29.8 percent of seats in the national legislature (or 119 out of 400) going to women (up from 27 percent in the previous Parliament and in stark contrast to the less than 3 percent of women parliamentarians prior to 1994). Eight ministers and eight deputy ministers in South Africa’s new Parliament are women. The new cabinet has women in charge of nontraditional portfolios, such as foreign affairs, public service, mineral and energy affairs, communications and land affairs, in addition to health and housing. This doubles the number of female members compared to the previous executive.
Between a Rock and a Hard Place: The Marginalization of Colored and Indian Interests in South African Politics
Authors: Addis Megan
Published: May 2006

South Africa’s second democratic national election has been heralded as generally “free and fair” and a significant step toward the consolidation of the nation’s 1994 democracy. However, five years after the replacement of apartheid with full citizen participation and the recognition of equal rights for all, South Africa remains largely divided by race. Despite the overall peacefulness and tolerance that marked the election on June 2, 1999, and the general assumption that the country is moving away from race-based politics, the issue of race proved to be far from insignificant in both the campaigns of the various political parties and the patterns of voter support. Although most parties went to extensive lengths to prove their commitment to multiracialism and claimed support across the racial spectrum, few had much success in transcending the historical divisions of the electorate.
Zambia Seeks a Route to a Fuller Independence
Authors: Leech John
Published: May 2006

There is much about the Central African republic of Zambia to make it indistinguishable to the casual Western observer among the multitude of black independent fragments into which the monolith of colonial Africa was blown by the wind of change. Its borders are all too familiarly arbitrary and just as paradoxically treasured; its population, though of one ethnic group, is divided in loyalty by strong tribal and regional affinities which nurture the ghosts of ancient feuds never entirely laid by the 60-year interregnum of alien rule; its economy is dependent upon primary product export and thus at the mercy of markets well beyond its control; the frailities of the new princes of the political kingdom have become all too clear in the eight years since the last unlamented duty at the midnight stroke in the independence stadium; and the expectations so feverishly aroused in the popular breast in the euphoric march to freedom remain, for many, as distant a prospect as ever.
Rwanda: The Rationality of Genocide
Authors: Lemarchand René
Published: May 2006

The image of Rwanda conveyed by the media is that of a society gone amok. How else to explain the collective insanity that led to the butchering of half a million civilians, men, women and children? As much as the scale of the killings, the visual impact of the atrocities numbs the mind and makes the quest for rational motives singularly irrelevant. Tribal savagery suggests itself as the most plausible subtext for the scenes of apocalypse captured by television crews and photojournalists.

Ironically, just as “tribalism” is being reaffirmed by the media as the bane of the continent, Rwanda’s descent into hell makes it a society not unlike others in Europe and Asia where genocide has been intrinsic to their recent historical experience.
Background To Genocide: Rwanda
Authors: Newbury Catharine
Published: May 2006

Readers of Issue know better than to accept the images of tribalism and ancient hatreds propagated in much of the American press during the early days and weeks of the genocide in Rwanda. And the media (or at least some journalists) came around eventually to a recognition that far from mindless tribal violence, this was planned and calculated genocide. Still, in North America it is the deaths and brutality that have most mesmerized public attention; there has been too little discussion of the political, social, and economic context in which the genocide occurred.
American Teachers in African Universities: The Case of Law
Authors: Paul James C. N.
Published: May 2006

This paper is concerned with the role and responsibilities of Americans who go to African universities to profess, and with the rationale of such undertakings.

In some ways, this may seem to be a threadbare topic. The values to be achieved from such transcultural experiences have long been assumed. At least since World War II and Senator Fulbright’s great initiatives, teaching abroad has been a favored activity. Yet recently we have taken a more skeptical view. The Fulbright and other programs are in some disarray in Africa today, and there is no longer much enthusiasm, in official “development circles,” for exporting university teachers.
Negritude: Some Dissident Voices
Authors: Ischinger Barbara
Published: May 2006

Only eight years ago Janheinz Jahn stated in Neo-African Literature that the critics of nigritude were all writing in English—not in French. Jahn was referring to writers like Ezekiel Mphahlele, Gerald Moore and Wole Soyinka, whose criticism he regarded as “based on an inadequate translation.” 2 The most important movement in the literary evolution in French-speaking Africa had, according to Jahn, only been criticized out of ignorance and misunderstanding. Today, criticism of Negritude has become a major issue in those French-speaking countries which were among its strongest supporters originally. It should be mentioned, however, that certain French African writers—among them Ferdinand Oyono and Ousmane Sembene—have opposed Negritude since the 1950s.
The African Redefined: The Problems of Collective Black Identity
Authors: Anise Ladun
Published: May 2006

In 1960, Wellesley College invited eminent scholars (Africanists!) and diplomats to discuss the question: “Does Africa Exist?” The symposium was organized to resolve “Whether or not Africa really exists as any sort of political, economic, cultural, or other concept.“ The challenge facing the experts was to determine whether Africa constitutes an entity, whether it has a real ethnic, geographical, economic, cultural, or political identity. Fortunately, most of the speakers agreed with the late Ralph Bunche that “There is an Africa seen as a continent, as a physical entity which takes concrete political and economic shape.“ That Africa, Bunche argued, is exploding onto the international political scene with an increasingly militant and demonstrable renaissance in terms of heightened and unified aspirations for true selfdetermination, human rights, rapid economic transformation, and the assertion of a collective dignity and unity for all peoples of African descent.
The West and Elections in Nigeria
Authors: Sesay Amadu , Ukeje Charles
Published: May 2006

The end of the cold war has made democratization, and its barest essential component elections, imperative for all nondemocratic forms of government. This is to be expected, given the dismal failure of the socialist alternative even in the first socialist country, the former Soviet Union. The United States, which is not only the foremost democracy in the world but also the only superpower, has been in the vanguard of democracy salesmanship. Africa, the continent with the least democratic space, has not been left out, as witnessed by President Bill Clinton’s unprecedented tour of the continent in March 1998.

Understandably, Nigeria, arguably the most important country in Africa, was left out of the tour, since it was then under the obnoxious, undemocratic, and oppressive military regime of the late General Sani Abacha.
Nigeria’s Economy: Opportunity and Challenge
Authors: Lewis Peter
Published: May 2006

Among the more pressing and enigmatic challenges for Nigeria’s new civilian regime is the reconstruction of the nation’s benighted economy. The long-standing distortions of the petroleum-led economy have been exacerbated by more than a decade of misrule, international isolation, and economic decline. The current political transition offers Nigeria an opportunity to rejoin the global economy while establishing new foundations for economic revival. The legacy of decay from recent dictatorships weighs heavily on this process. The burdens of political repression and unaccountable governance have been compounded by stagnant economic performance, deepening popular immiseration, widening inequalities, and spiraling corruption.
United States Policy Toward South Africa
Authors: Easum Donald B.
Published: May 2006

The decolonization process set in motion by the spectacular change of government in Lisbon in April 1974 produced a geopolitical earthquake across all of southern Africa. Its repercussions were deeply felt in the Republic of South Africa, where the government was forced to undertake a fundamental reassessment of South African relations with Mozambique, with Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), and with Namibia (South West Africa).
The Impact of the Women's Decade on Policies, Programs and Empowerment of Women in Kenya
Authors: Nzomo Maria
Published: May 2006

The 1985 Nairobi Conference to close the United Nations decade dedicated to women of the world caught Kenyan women (and men) by storm. Indeed, the majority of Kenyan women did not know, until the eve of this conference, that there had been an entire decade dedicated to them, and committed to the achievement of Equality, Development, and Peace. However, the Kenyan policy makers and the enlightened among Kenyan women, especially leaders of women's organizations, were not only fully aware of the decade's developments, but had in various ways participated and contributed to it. On its part, the Kenya government by the end of the decade, had adopted a Women in Development (WID) policy position and created and/or promoted national machineries to develop and coordinate programs for women.
The Army reforms of Diocletian and Constantine and their modifications up to the time of the Notitia Dignitatum
Authors: Nischer E. C.
Published: May 2006

When Diocletian ascended the throne of the Caesars on September 17, 284, there was still in the field against him an army under the command of Carinus, the elder son of Carus. Carinus was killed by one of his own officers in the battle of the Margus (285), and Diocletian was thus left undisputed master of the Empire. Of all the emperors who up till now had reigned in Rome none had succeeded in emancipating himself so completely from outside influence, whether wielded by the Senate or by the Praetorian Prefect or by any one else, as did this native of Illyria. It was left for him to deprive the Senate of the last of its fictitious prerogatives—prerogatives which had extended even into the domain of army administration—and to become in the fullest sense of the term the founder of an absolute monarchy.
The so-called puteal in the Capitoline Museum at Rome
Authors: Snyder G. A. S.
Published: May 2006

The original purpose served by this curious panel of mosaic and marble (plate I), which is decorated with scenes from the life of Achilles, has not yet been determined, nor has any successful attempt been made either to date it or to assign it definitely to any school or centre of art. The mosaic which occupies the centre and corners is probably rightly attributed to the Cosmati, who made the ‘ambon’ in S. Maria in Ara Coeli, of which this panel formed a part. The circular band of marble, decorated in relief, is generally regarded as the top of a puteal or well-head although, as has been observed, it is hardly consistent with the practical sense of the Greeks and Romans to cover with decoration a surface of marble so liable to rough usage. More probably the band formed the border of a large shallow bowl, a possibility not considered heretofore owing to the difficulty of close examination arising out of its post-classical use.
The British Frontier in the Age of Severus
Authors: Collingwood R. G.
Published: May 2006

Now that Septimius Severus can no longer be credited with the original construction of any one of the lines which at various times marked the British frontier, it is necessary to ask what meaning, if any, can be attached to the statements of ancient writers who ascribe to him the building of the British Wall. It may therefore be worth while to collect the available evidence as to the state of the frontier in the time of Severus, and the structural work which he may have carried out upon it.
The Castra Peregrinorum
Authors: Reynolds P. K. Baillie , Ashby T.
Published: May 2006

The account of the Castra Peregrinorum which follows, has been compiled by Mr. Baillie Reynolds mainly from notes taken by me in 1904–9. These notes have proved inadequate in some details, largely owing to the circumstances of the discovery of the remains, which were found at considerable intervals of time and of space, so that a comprehensive view of them could never be obtained.
Some Historical Roman Coins of the First Century A.D.
Authors: Mattingly H.
Published: May 2006

Obv. Head of Caligula, bare, r. c caesar avg germ p m tr pot cos.

Rev. Head of an Emperor, radiate, r. Star, 1. and r. in field.

No legend.

av. 8; 119 gr. B.M.

Struck at Lugdunum, A.D. 37, soon after the accession of Caligula (March 18th)—the first issue of the new reign. The features of the Emperor on the rev. are those of Tiberius, as seen on coins of about the years A.D. 22–23. Other specimens of this aureus show features which suggest Augustus rather than Tiberius and, in the next issue, this rev. type gives place to a radiate head r. without stars and with legend ‘divvs avg pater patriae.’
On the use of Masks in Roman Comedy
Authors: Gow A. S. F.
Published: May 2006

Since the appearance of C. Hoffer's dissertation De personarum usu in P. Terenti comoediis (Halis Saxonum, 1877) the view that masks were not worn at the original performances of the plays of Plautus and Terence has become universally accepted. This dissertation is usually cited by recent writers, who have for the most part been content to accept Hoffer's conclusions in their entirety, and the only independent investigators since the publication of the dissertation have also arrived at very similar conclusions.
Roman Colchester
Authors: Wheeler R. E. Mortimer , Laver Philip G.
Published: May 2006

Colchester lies at the head of an inland promontory which emerges from the undulating Essex lowlands to meet the tidal waters of the Colne estuary. On the northern and eastern sides this promontory is clasped by the winding course of the main stream, and on the south by a tributary known as the Roman River which, bending northwards, slightly restricts the otherwise open approach from the west. The eastern end of the area thus enclosed rises commandingly above the sharply-cut river valleys and the seaward marshes, which are of sufficient extent to seclude it from the risks of an open shore. The combined accessibility and security of the site at an early date attracted both the landsman and the sea-going trader, who doubtless unloaded his Gallic cargoes at wharves not far from those still frequented by a modest coastal traffic. It is no longer disputed that somewhere within the natural limits of this favoured region lay the great oppidum of the Trinovantes.