bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Mourning Modernity
Authors: Pfau Thomas
Published: February 2013

This article looks at literary theory. It locates that problematic integral in modernity's dramatically altered experience and conception of time. While the centrality of time to modern theory is hardly in doubt, an acutely temporal dimension also shapes elegiac form and its broader aesthetic significance, in particular at the turn from Classicism to Romanticism. It then views the elegiac as the defining characteristic of aesthetic production in modernity. Mdernity's method-based ‘world-picture’ as it emerges from the canonical writings of Bacon, Descartes, and Leibniz for the most part understands time as merely ‘lapsing’ and incessantly receding into a ‘past’ now conceived as history. In Germany, the rise of modern aesthetics and literary theory correlates with a sustained revaluation of antiquity. The true object of ‘mourning’ is also addressed.
Textual Copying and Transmission
Authors: Da Rold Orietta
Published: February 2013

This article examines the copying and transmission of medieval texts in their manuscript culture in England during the Middle Ages. It considers the complicated process of the making of a manuscript from several perspectives including the difficult relationship between scribes and authors. It evaluates the different writing environments in which manuscripts were copied and circulated and analyses the difficulties associated with the transmission of the texts of two medieval authors, who are situated at the opposite ends of the medieval period: Ælfric of Eynsham in the tenth century and Geoffrey Chaucer in the fourteenth. The findings suggest that Ælfric and Chaucer share the same anxieties regarding scribes.
Writing, Authority, and Bureaucracy
Authors: Perkins Nicholas
Published: February 2013

This article explores how relationships of power are staged or created in the productive interplay between bureaucratic repetition and the imagination or between authoritative forms and the practice of everyday life in medieval writing in England. It explains that the earliest substantial English text to survive is the law-code of King Æthelberht of Kent and that the most ambitious bureaucratic projects of the Middle Ages was known as the Domesday Book. Alongside law-codes, other documents such as charters, writs, manumissions, and wills all provide information about administrative organization in Anglo-Saxon England and about the relationships between spoken and written languages, authoritative structures and religious practice.
The Verse of Heroes
Authors: Carroll Jayne
Published: February 2013

This article examines heroic poetry in medieval England, focusing on Widsith, Deor, Waldere, The Finnsburh Fragment, and Beowulf. It explains that these poems take as their subject figures, historical or imagined, from the time of the Germanic migrations or heroic age: that period from the fourth to sixth centuries characterized by the movement of various peoples into areas which were previously under Roman control. It describes how these poems depicted heroic-age figures and events and shows how poets from different times and places, working within different literary traditions, make significantly different choices in presenting the same basic material.
Change and Continuity
Authors: Millett Bella
Published: February 2013

This article examines the change and continuity of the English sermon before the year 1250. It explains that the early history of the English sermon is out of step with the history of the European sermon as a whole because the skills of reading and writing in this period were normally the preserve of clerical and monastic communities, and literacy among the laity was rare. It suggests that the political and institutional changes which followed the Norman Conquest had a major impact on sermon production in English and mentions that there is very little evidence for the production of new written sermon-material in English in the century after the Conquest. The earliest surviving manuscripts of sermons in Old English is the Vercelli Book.
Authority, Constraint, and the Writing of the Medieval Self
Authors: Kerby-Fulton Kathryn
Published: February 2013

This article examines the genres and the constraint in writing about the self in England during the medieval period. It explains that autobiography is a rare species in the Middle Ages and that despite the late antique models offered by diverse texts, the culture of the Middle Ages did not encourage autobiography that stood alone. It analyses the works of both male and female writers, both clergy and laity, who tried to make their way as medieval selves in an age that valorized interiority and devotion more than materiality.
Places of the Imagination
Authors: Turville‐Petre Thorlac
Published: February 2013

This article examines the place of imagination in medieval English literature, focusing on the Gawain poet. It explains that alliterative are particularly good at visualizing a scene in precise detail and the Gawain poet was able to see the psychological and spiritual condition of his three protagonists when they are at their most vulnerable and alone. It compares the imaginative aspects Sir Gawain and the Green Knight with the Parlement of the Thre Ages and narrative of the Old Testament Book of Jonah.
Trade and Investment
Authors: Weiss Friedl
Published: February 2013

This chapter begins by tracing the history and provides a summary survey of the ongoing parallel evolution of bilateral and plurilateral approaches to investment and trade. It examines investment-related provisions in various WTO Agreements and of investment provisions and case-law under Regional Free Trade Agreements (RTAs). It then analyses a number of building blocks for a possible future WTO-based Investment Agreement.
Compliance and Enforcement
Authors: Alexandroff Alan S. , Laird Ian A.
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the awards arising from international investment instruments and related jurisprudence concerning the challenge of domestic enforcement and execution. It focuses on five domestic court decisions: four court decisions involving challenges by states to the enforcement and/or execution of investment awards in national courts under the ICSID Convention; and one recent case of addressing the enforcement or execution of a BIT arbitration award.
Gender and Genocide
Authors: Joeden‐Forgey Elisa von
Published: February 2013

This article aims to shows that a consideration of gender is crucial to the understanding of the crime of genocide, because genocide is an historical process that is, at its core, about group reproduction. The perpetrators must either annul reproduction within the group or appropriate the progeny in order to destroy the group in the long run. While the perpetrators' ultimate aim is the material destruction of the target group, the means used to achieve this end tend to target men and women according to their perceived and actual positions within the reproductive process. As part of the killing, then, one finds in all genocides a shared set of tortures involving generative symbols and institutions (reproductive organs, infants and small children, and the bonds that promote family coherence).
Genocide and Memory
Authors: Stone Dan
Published: February 2013

This article explores the history of genocide by looking at collective memories, from the point of view of Western culture. Western culture is suffused with autobiographies, especially with traumatic life narratives about the legacies of abusive childhoods. For the individual victims of genocide, traumatic memories cannot be escaped; for societies, genocide has profound effects that are immediately felt and that people are exhorted never to forget. The discussion shows how genocide is bound up with memory, on an individual level of trauma and on a collective level in terms of the creation of stereotypes, prejudice, and post-genocide politics. Despite the risks of perpetuating old divisions or reopening unhealed wounds, grappling with memory remains essential in order to remind the victims that they are not the worthless or less than human beings that their tormentors have portrayed them as such.
Epistemology
Authors: Manning Patrick
Published: February 2013

This article poses questions and offers reflections on the most general type of thinking entailed in the study of world history. It addresses the common and contested ways of knowing the world and its past that are shared among us. It discusses the current state of epistemology in world history by giving brief and illustrative references to the development of global epistemology. The article focuses on current issues and current debates, regardless of whether they are new debates or old debates. The ‘historical record’ consists of the currently available evidence on past events. It can expand as more evidence is added with time and as new discoveries and new methods enable the retrieval of additional information on the past. But the historical record can contract as information is lost or forgotten. Finally and most common in usage is ‘history’ as representations of the past.
World Environmental History
Authors: Christian David
Published: February 2013

How can one best manage the unpredictable and rapidly evolving relationship between human beings and the biosphere? This question provides one of the great research agendas for the early twenty-first century. It is no longer enough to track human environmental impacts at the local or national level, a task taken up within the flourishing field of environmental history. This article explores how each thread in this complex story is woven throughout human history and how it covers the entire world. At its most ambitious, the new scholarly field of world environmental history aims at a comprehensive historical understanding of the complex and unstable patchwork of relations between humans and the biosphere. The discussion argues that current environmental issues have their roots in the very nature of the human species and history. The article also describes the Paleolithic era, the agrarian era, and the modern era.
Biological Exchanges in World History
Authors: McNeill J. R.
Published: February 2013

One important way in which people have altered environments, and thereby altered their own ecological contexts and their own history, is through biological exchange. Biological exchange can refer to any number of things. In this article, it means above all else the long-distance transfers of crops, domesticated animals, and disease-causing microbes, or pathogens. This choice is intended to emphasize biological exchanges that carried the greatest and most direct historical significance. The article aims to explore the role of the most important biological exchanges for human history. Biological exchange was sometimes carried out intentionally and sometimes accidentally. Faster and more frequent transport and travel continue to promote biological exchange. The long-term process of biological globalization continues, and will inevitably continue. In biological history, four or five centuries is the merest flash. In the long run, strange and unforeseen things will happen.
Senses of Place
Authors: Applegate Celia
Published: February 2013

Geographer Johann Rauw wrote that the German landscape made him think of ‘a great and splendid city with its suburbs, the city itself located within its walls and fortifications, the suburbs without’. The image, an elegant way of evading the muddle of borders, contrasts to his equally vivid image of walking the ‘circumference of Germany, as far as the German language is spoken’, a voyage marked by the cities and regions one would pass through. Place gives one an identity in the world. Knowing place has been a way of knowing Germany for the many hundreds of years in which some concept of Germany existed. The main purpose of this article is to focus on a few narratives and representations of German places that bring together multiplicity and familiarity. It looks at compendiums of places and travels among places in which the inventory of variety constitutes the wholeness of the culture.
Preaching the Reformation in Early Modern Ireland
Authors: Gillespie Raymond
Published: February 2013

This article shows how the Reformation was preached in early modern Ireland. It considers the problems of language and the similarities early Reformed preachers in Ireland had with their other contemporaries. It studies the resurgence of the reform process in the late 1580s and 1590s and the changes Reformed preaching went through during the 1641 war in Ireland. It also discusses the Restoration of the king and church in 1660; this led to a new structure that guided the way the pulpit was used in the late seventeenth century. The article ends with a discussion on stability in the social order that brought about the golden age of Irish Reformed preaching.
Veiled Speech: Preaching, Politics and Scriptural Typology
Authors: Killeen Kevin
Published: February 2013

This article takes a look at a set of responses to the continental crisis and the origins of the Thirty Years War in the sermon literature of the 1620s. It argues that the pulpits of England were full of what might be called a biblical Enemy Theory. It considers the case that there was a language of scriptural politics that dominated the early modern pulpit. The article finally examines the basis, the theological, and the exegetical of typology.
The Sermon Culture of the Glorious Revolution: Williamite Preaching and Jacobite Anti-preaching, 1685–1702
Authors: Claydon Tony
Published: February 2013

This article studies sermon culture during the Revolution. It first looks at Williamite preaching and shows that the advance of William and Mary to the English throne was one of the most severely preached events in Irish and British history. It notes that William made intense use of sermons to justify his armed advance to England and to legitimate his acceptance of James's crown. The article then looks at Jacobitism, the struggles Jacobites encountered under William and Mary's reign, and the formation of anti-preaching.
Archaeologists and Metal-Detector Users in England and Wales
Authors: Thomas Suzie
Published: February 2013

This article explores the history of the changing relationships between archaeologists and metal-detector users in England and Wales, including the competing political strategies of both groups to influence public opinion and new legislation. It discusses some of the key issues and events, both historical and contemporary, as an overview and introduction to these varied, and arguably still-changing, relationships. The article begins with an introduction to the terms metal-detector user, nighthawk, and Treasure. Following this, it highlights some early concerns about heritage protection. The article then describes some reactions to and from the metal detecting hobby, and presents some conclusions from the works of archaeologists and metal-detector users. It concludes by encouraging archaeologists to maintain more positive and cooperative links with the metal-detecting community.
Public Archaeology in Latin America
Authors: Funari Pedro Paulo A. , Bezerra Marcia
Published: February 2013

Latin America is a huge subcontinent encompassing a wide variety of physical landscapes and environments, and with different peoples, languages, and cultures, such as Portuguese, Spaniards, Hispanics, and Brazilians. This article deals with Hispanic and Portuguese Americas in both a contrasting and integrative way. The Iberian roots of Latin America explain many shared general traits, mores, customs, and ways of life. Perhaps the most important shared cultural outlook is a syncretic form of Roman Catholicism, but several others too are true, such as the Roman legal system, a Mediterranean approach to life, even a shared mixed experience in living with Muslims and Jews, as well as in the fight against both. There are some steps to be taken to preserve heritage and the rights of both Indigenous peoples and humanity, considering that human heritage is of universal interest. These efforts presuppose proximity, identification, and agreement.
From Heritage to Stewardship
Authors: Pace Anthony
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on the sustainable care of archaeological places. It discusses the extent to which constructs of ‘sustainable development’ and ‘sustainability’ are appropriate to the management of archaeological sites. The article begins by revisiting the nature of archaeological sites as resources, and by describing how heritage consumption is intricately linked to heritage transforms. It then reviews some core areas which inform ideas of sustainability in the care of archaeological sites: the ideas of sustainability and sustainable development; heritage value theory and, alternatively, the reaffirmation of conservation philosophy to define intrinsic values of monuments; the idea of stewardship as an alternative to that of heritage; and, finally, the terms of sustainability which best connect with stewardship. Throughout, a ‘post-heritage’ point of departure is adopted, to reiterate the primacy of conservation philosophy as a precautionary response to the transformative and damaging effects of heritage consumption.
Archaeology as a Profession
Authors: Darvill Timothy
Published: February 2013

The development of archaeology as a discipline, both in terms of its theoretical and philosophical foundations, and its methodological and practical frameworks, is discussed many times and from a number of perspectives. This article considers how archaeology in the Western world has become professionalized and what constitutes the archaeological profession. It focuses on the situation in Europe, North America, and Australasia. Archaeology is a global profession that shares many underlying tenets and ideals, although its application and deployment often have more regional aims and local characteristics. One key issue inextricably bound up with professionalization in archaeology is the matter of role specialization. Relationships between Indigenous people and archaeology are also a major strand running through archaeological practice, and the associated codes of practice and ethical principles, in Australasia. Much of the future development of the profession will probably hinge on the spread of specialization in archaeological work, responses to cultural diversity, pressures born of economic circumstances, and reactions to insights gained through the adoption of global perspectives.
Emptying the Magician's Hat
Authors: Purser Margaret
Published: February 2013

GIS technology is a powerful new tool in public archaeology, and using it fundamentally changes the dynamic between archaeologists and the communities with whom they are working. GIS data representations are inherently plastic and dynamic: they can be expanded effectively infinitely, and manipulated in myriad ways and combinations. The most pervasive impacts have emerged from the way that the process of doing GIS work articulates with some key trends linking heritage management practices and cultural landscape studies. One of the key challenges created by the shift to more dynamic and locally contextualized approaches to both heritage and landscape is in the area of engagement with local communities in all aspects of the larger heritage process. These were some of the goals and challenges driving the development of a participatory GIS project in Levuka, Fiji, created to provide a more locally controlled definition of the town's historical significance in the context of a nationally sponsored effort to nominate Levuka to the World Heritage List.
Class, Labour, and the Public
Authors: Gadsby David A. , Chidester Robert C.
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the approaches that historical archaeologists have taken towards class and labour, and the various ways in which this research has been shared with the public. It is within this socio-political and historiographical context that some historical archaeologists have studied working-class communities and issues of labour and capitalism over the past quarter-century. As archaeologists have realized about the topics of race and gender, the archaeology of class can have a profound impact on the public discourse. Practice and interpretation in archaeology are always political. The rise of postmodern thought in archaeology has brought about a shift in focus from ecological/adaptive approaches to those that stress social relations. It is the ethical duty of archaeologists and global citizens to ensure that the work is used to promote social justice.
Introduction
Authors: Glied Sherry , Smith Peter C.
Published: February 2013

The discipline of health economics builds on the insights of microeconomic theory and has developed a substantial empirical basis. It has contributed significantly to addressing and understanding the profound health issues confronted in almost all countries, and has a large impact on the development, implementation, and evaluation of health systems policy. This article helps to investigate areas of interest to policymakers. It discusses the best way to organize and compensate health care providers and describes the rapid growth in expenditure in most developed countries. It discusses the factors that have driven this growth, such as population aging, general economic growth, and the adoption and use of new medical technologies. It surveys the successes and lacunae of the health economics research endeavor and hopes that such successes will be replicated and extended in the future.
The Promise of Health: Evidence of the Impact of Health on Income and Well-Being
Authors: Jack William
Published: February 2013

This article summarizes the complex evidence base on the impact of health on income and well-being. There is strong evidence of a potentially strong impact of improved health on the productivity and well-being of individual workers. It focuses on the link between health and income and examines the mechanisms that underlie these associations. Other dimensions including education, social rank, and ethnicity, are also associated with better health. It estimates the causal impact of health on economic output. These estimates of the income-augmenting effects of health improvements are necessary as they provide more comprehensive data to improved health. The article outlines a number of mechanisms by which health innovations can affect incomes and presents empirical evidence to this issue.
The Global Health Workforce
Authors: Bärnighausen Till , Bloom David E.
Published: February 2013

This article addresses the role of the workforce in achieving health goals in developing country contexts. It reviews the health economics and health systems literature on the health workforce. It organizes the review according to three perspectives on health workers, which correspond roughly to chronological phases of academic publication: health workforce planning, the health worker as economic factor, and the health worker as necessary resource. This article describes the health policy backgrounds that led to each phase of research and then reviews relevant literature. However, the perspectives are useful in framing past research, structuring our exposition, and laying out a research agenda on the health workforce for coming years. It further discusses opportunities for future research on the health workforce abound and suggests that the transfer of existing approaches could lead to important insights.
The Economics of the Biopharmaceutical Industry
Authors: Danzon Patricia M.
Published: February 2013

This article summarizes the literature, and considers the issue of paying for research and development. It reviews research and development costs, regulation, productivity and incentives for innovation. It discusses market demand and pricing, effects of insurance, reimbursement regulation, alternatives to patents, and generics. Further, it reviews trends in promotion, regulation of promotion and its effects. It discusses global issues, including differential pricing and R&D for neglected diseases. The focus is on the US, as the home of the largest number of multinational pharmaceutical and smaller biotech companies. This article notes the important differences in regulatory and reimbursement systems in other countries. Finally it suggests that although there is large and growing literature on the pharmaceutical industry that has produced valuable information, important issues remain for future research.
Analyzing Uncertainty in Cost-effectiveness For Decision-making
Authors: Griffin Susan , Claxton Karl
Published: February 2013

Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is intended to help collective purchasers of health care to determine which interventions to prioritize, by ranking them according to the cost of each unit of “health benefit” they produce. The primary focus of this article is on the social decision-making approach where the decision-maker's objective is assumed to be the maximization of health gains subject to a given budget constraint. This article begins with the rationale for presenting a full characterization and analysis of uncertainty within any CEA. An overview of methods that can be used to conduct a CEA that accounts for uncertainty is provided, including the means to present and interpret the results. The benefits and limitations of the methods for analyzing uncertainty are considered in the context of providing information to decision-makers. The article concludes by discussing the additional questions that arise when the need for further research to support those decisions is considered.
Regulation
Authors: Parker Christine , Braithwaite John
Published: February 2013

This article first lays out a short history of regulation conceived in this broad way. It then considers whether ours is a society that regulates more because it has become a ‘risk society’. Next it uses Gunther Teubner's model of the ‘regulatory trilemma’ and a consideration of the key regulatory mechanisms to review the literature on the finer grain of how regulation works. Finally it returns to the pluralization of regulation as a crucial dynamic in creating spaces where ‘democratic experimentalism’ is emerging as a possibility.
Criminology Crime's Changing Boundaries
Authors: Nelken David
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on recent sociological work on developments in crime and crime control. It considers, in particular, the ways in which concern about different types of unacceptable behaviour is affected by changes in political and geographical boundaries. It discusses trends in crime, criminal justice, and criminology, and the relationship between these and the changing role of the state in national and international crime control. The advantage of putting these topics together in this way is that it allows us to trace connections and see unexpected links. A major theme running through this article is the need to relate transformations in crime control to shifts in forms of governance. Another issue that links the various parts of this article is the central importance of the victim. The move to define crime from the point of view of the victim was originally encouraged by the development of victim surveys which were invented in an attempt to deal with criminology's long-standing problem of measuring the unknown ‘dark figure’ of crime. This instrument made it possible to count and document crime independently of the actions of law enforcement agencies. It is shown that victims have now become an ever more important focus for crime prevention and the criminal process in general, as well as serving as the justification and legitimation for new forms of global criminological expertise.
Complex Polities
Authors: Feeley Malcolm M.
Published: February 2013

This article explores several of the more widely used constitutional devices used to structure political life in complex societies in ways that give voice to each distinct segment of society while at the same time fostering stable democratic government. Constitutional devices here are understood in a broad sense of the term, to include both formal provisions in constitutions and law, as well as established political ‘arrangements’ that are part of a ‘living constitution’. The emphasis, however, will be on planned structural devices — formal constitutional architecture — that have been consciously adopted with specific objectives in mind. These several devices are: consociational political arrangements; majoritarian democracy with limited government; federalism; devolution and decentralization; voting systems (e.g., single-member representative districts, proportional representation, preferential voting); and multiculturalism recognized in bills or charters of rights that extend rights to individuals or groups.
The Media
Authors: Baker Edwin
Published: February 2013

Authoritarian regimes regularly rely on murdering journalists, jailing editors, and censoring the media to remain in power and to carry out their objectives. In 2001, thirty-seven journalists were reportedly killed in connection with their work, two-thirds apparently by governments or their supporters who did not like to take the heat of criticism. Ruling elites in market-economy democratic states primarily rely instead on owning or controlling the media or creating conditions in which the media naturally represent the world in a manner congenial to these elites' interests. This article is organized as follows. Section 1 describes debates concerning the normative premises for freedom of the press, premises that reject the censorship required by authoritarian regimes and occasionally imposed by democratic states. Section 2 describes the more pragmatic controversies centring on legal responses to the more indirect democratic threats posed by ruling elites in democratic market societies. Beyond the rejection of overt censorship, it discusses the debates over what legal treatment of the press best supports democracy while appropriately taking account of other societal needs.
International Legal Sanction Processes
Authors: Paust Jordan
Published: February 2013

This article views international legal sanction processes as richly varied and dynamic, involving numerous types of participants, with various sanction objectives, operating in both formal and less formal fora or processes, utilizing various types of resources, with varied effects and long-term consequences. It identifies certain areas of debate and suggests a future scholarly agenda. With that in mind, it is evident that increasing attention to the creation, shaping, and efficacy of international law outside such traditional institutional settings should be part of a future scholarly agenda regardless of one's jurisprudential bias. The discussion covers participants in the sanction process, sanction objectives, formal fora, less formal processes, and more specific sanction strategies or problems.
Empirical Research in Law
Authors: Baldwin John , Davis Gwynn
Published: February 2013

This article considers the contribution to legal scholarship which has been and is being made by research strategies which fall under the broad heading of ‘empirical’. Empirical research in law involves the study, through direct methods rather than secondary sources, of the institutions, rules, procedures, and personnel of the law, with a view to understanding how they operate and what effects they have. It is not a synonym for ‘statistical’ or ‘factual’, and its intellectual depth and significance are not determined by the empirical label but can only be judged by reference to the same standards and the same yardsticks as would be applied to any other academic endeavour.
The Role of Academics in the Legal System
Authors: Twining William , Farnsworth Ward , Vogenauer Stefan , Fernando Tesón
Published: February 2013

This article considers the ways in which legal scholars relate to and participate in practical legal affairs. The discussion covers audiences and influence of legal scholars in the United Kingdom; the relationship between the American legal academy and the institutions; civil law systems; the nature of international legal scholarship; and the influence of international legal scholars on international law.
Information Extraction
Authors: Grishman Ralph
Published: February 2013

Information extraction (IE) is the automatic identification of selected types of entities, relations, or events in free text. This article appraises two specific strands of IE — name identification and classification, and event extraction. Conventional treatment of languages pays little attention to proper names, addresses etc. Presentations of language analysis generally look up words in a dictionary and identify them as nouns etc. The incessant presence of names in a text, makes linguistic analysis of the same difficult, in the absence of the names being identified by their types and as linguistic units. Name tagging involves creating, several finite-state patterns, each corresponding to some noun subset. Elements of the patterns would match specific/classes of tokens with particular features. Event extraction typically works by creating a series of regular expressions, customized to capture the relevant events. Enhancement of each expression is corresponded by a relevant, suitable enhancement in the event patterns.
Roman Perspectives on the Greeks
Authors: Barchiesi Alessandro
Published: February 2013

In turning to the vexed relationship between Latin and Greek literature, this article analyses a series of famous passages about Rome's debt to Greece, and calls on readers to be more critical and less accepting of the claims made by elite writers. Latin arguments about cultural indebtedness need to be contextualized in socio-historical terms. What are the stakes in sketching out a literary and cultural ‘reconciliation’ between Greeks and Romans when Greeks are subjects of Rome's empire? Does competition between Romans and the Italic peoples serve as an incentive for the aggressive and hegemonic promotion, by Romans, of a hybrid Graeco-Roman culture? The discussion holds that critics need to be more sensitive to the many different kinds of appropriation by Romans of Greek culture and to appreciate the importance of distinctions within Roman Hellenisms.
Hellenism in the Enlightenment
Authors: Cartledge Paul
Published: February 2013

This article moves past the Renaissance to the Enlightenment and, in particular, to the French Revolution, which crystallized an important, if not fully understood, moment in the history of Hellenism. It shows how the writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the inspiration for so many of the French revolutionaries, were simultaneously proto-democratic and pro-Spartan. In this respect, Rousseau marks a complex breakthrough in the political traditions of Hellenism, which were, for much of European history until the eighteenth century, anti-democratic and pro-Spartan.
Introduction
Authors: Graziosi Barbara , Vasunia Phiroze , Boys-Stones George
Published: February 2013

This article introduces the themes for the first part of this book, ‘Hellenes and Hellenism’. In the classic Victorian statement of political and social criticism, Culture and Anarchy, Matthew Arnold wrote that to get rid of one's ignorance and to see things as they are is the simple and attractive ideal which Hellenism holds out before human nature; and from the simplicity and charm of this ideal, Hellenism and human life is imbued with a kind of clarity and radiance. The rest of the article briefly describes related themes such as modernity, classical antiquity, Greek society, colonization, Alexander the Great, Hellenistic culture, Rome, Hebraism, Islam, the Renaissance, and the Enlightenment.
Urban Landscape and Architecture
Authors: Osborne Robin
Published: February 2013

That the idea of the polis came to stand as a reference point for Hellenic cultural ideals is not, as one might have thought, purely the result of later memory, or memorialization of the political structures that obtained during a rich and productive era in Greek cultural history. This happened, of course; but it built on a conscious attempt by its inhabitants to promote the polis as a centre for cultural identity. This article looks at how the city developed and how it was developed physically to reflect an ideal, ‘common’ identity, both cultural and political.
The Politics of the Sumposion
Authors: Hobden Fiona
Published: February 2013

Among other institutions important for displaying and shaping social identity, one thinks particularly of the formalized drinking-party, the sumposion, structured as a microcosm of polis life. This article notes that the symposium provides a safe context for what might otherwise be potentially subversive reflection on the city itself, but also, and at the same time, for the individual's reflection on himself as a member of the city. As it happens, the institution also illustrates in microcosm the way in which the historical polis perpetuates itself as an idea, or ideal of hellenicity: for it is quickly elevated from historical contingency to an enduring literary genre, still alive and well in the period of Roman occupation through writers such as Plutarch and Athenaeus.
Performance, Text, and the History of Criticism
Authors: Ford Andrew L.
Published: February 2013

This article asks how the Greeks negotiated issues of textuality and performance when developing their own critical approaches to their literature. In tackling this question, it engages with some of the issues set out in the previous articles in this part of the book. Beyond the different subjects, perspectives, and agendas, there is a determination, on the part of all contributors, to confront theory with practice, and to compare text with context. Greek literature may seem very close, but it sets us in dialogue with a remote, sophisticated, and only partly literate society. The discussion argues that the study of ancient criticism is unduly narrow unless it combines an awareness of the materiality of culture with an appreciation of how strongly performance traditions could shape the reception and valuation of such texts. It also explores a small piece of Aristotelian literary theory.
Numismatics
Authors: Meadows Andrew
Published: February 2013

This article describes the origins of Greek numismatics, the emergence of the discipline, die study, hoards, and future trends. In discussing Greek coins, it presents a vivid case study of a trajectory in Hellenic scholarship observed similarly in archeology. In the early days, when artistic or iconographical interests dominated, coins were often thought of as ‘medals’; today more attention is paid to their social context, including not just their use in exchange, but also, for example, the circumstances of their production.
Papyrology
Authors: Armstrong David
Published: February 2013

This article argues that manuscript studies is similar to papyrology. However, people are dealing with the more direct, and to that extent more ‘original’, sources, whose study expands the body of textual evidence for ancient Greece today – notably the papyri scraps of Oxyrhynchus, and the bookrolls of Herculaneum. It is true that new imaging techniques constantly improve the quantity and quality of the texts people can recover. However, upon reflection working with the Herculaneum papyri, it remains the case that, whether people are considering a medieval manuscript or a first-century papyrus, the evidence these provide is determined by their reception.
Textual Criticism
Authors: Battezzato Luigi
Published: February 2013

These are two typical problems in textual criticism: deciding whether a passage is authentic, and deciding what the original wording was. In fact, every reader of Greek texts is a textual critic insofar as he makes interpretative decisions: each reader examines the sense and wording of every sentence in order to interpret it. One could say that textual criticism is the branch of literary interpretation which aims at reconstructing the original wording of a text. The aim of reconstructing the ‘original’ is based on a virtuous hermeneutic circle. This article covers the concepts of ‘original’ text, recension, emendation, ‘open’ and ‘closed’ textual transmission, and the basic elements of stemmatic theory.
Psychoanalysis
Authors: Bowlby Rachel
Published: February 2013

The fact that people keep intruding into their own investigations of antiquity can, depending on the questions one asks, appear to be a nuisance. But many approaches turn this into a virtue by making their own presence in the examination of the Hellenic world the immediate object of their study. Freudian psychoanalysis, as this article argues, is a programmatic example of the process because, while it is fundamentally introspective, it is articulated through a reading of the classics. To this extent, though, Freud is only applying to the individual what cultures as a whole have done through their appropriation of Greece for their own past. Moving beyond the Freudian Oedipus, classical scholars too could turn their twenty-first century attention to ways in which Greek literature may offer new insights into post-Freudian subjective predicaments.
Finances
Authors: Félix Joël
Published: February 2013

The structural role of war on Ancien Régime finances can be seen in the overwhelming burden military and military-related expenses placed upon them. To be sure, this phenomenon would last well beyond the storming of the Bastille: the cost of funding revolutionary wars would leave a deep scar on European peacetime budgets well into the nineteenth century. Only in the aftermath of the revolutions of 1848 would the old expenditure structure start evolving from the typical fiscal-military state, spending between 70 and 80 percent of its expenses on the armed forces, to a modern social state where civil investment would grow steadily. The financial impact of war is also reflected in many attempts to assess the relative military capabilities of European states.
Dissent and Toleration
Authors: Linton Marisa
Published: February 2013

Religious differences generated tension throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The spectre of the Reformation and the religious wars of the sixteenth century continued to haunt the Catholic Church. As one historian puts it, the memory of that traumatic period provided “a graphic illustration of how religious heresy led to political upheaval, of how dissent from the one true faith could unravel into the tangled web of internecine conflict and bloody civil war.” Religious identity was linked closely with political loyalty to a sovereign or state. State authorities showed little acceptance of the idea that a king's subjects might have liberty of conscience and yet still be loyal citizens of the state. Though the incidence of burning heretics at the stake became a rare occurrence even in the countries where the Inquisition operated, and outright persecution diminished during the eighteenth century, people who belonged to religious minorities continued to be heavily discriminated against in most countries, and were confronted by problems regarding both their right to worship and their legal existence.
The Old Reich
Authors: Wilson Peter H.
Published: February 2013

Over the last thirty years it has become common to refer to the Holy Roman Empire as the “Old Reich” to distinguish it from Bismarck's Second Reich and Hitler's Third. The extent to which the Reich might be categorized as an Ancien Régime depends, of course, on how that term is defined. The concept of an old regime postdates the Reich, since it derives from the controversy surrounding the legacy of the French Revolution. Just as that Revolution has been central to debates on modern French history, so the problematic issues of statehood and national unity have dominated discussions about German development after the Reich was dissolved in 1806. These discussions have been shaped by the characteristics associated with an old regime.
Development of Comparative Law in Great Britain
Authors: Cairns John W.
Published: February 2013

In 1934, F. P. Walton claimed that interest in foreign law had increased greatly in the last fifty years. He also pointed out that ‘comparative law’now meant something different from evolutionary jurisprudence. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, that view of comparative law emerged in Britain as a scholarly domain still garners general agreement. The late-Victorian crystallization of comparative law reflected the period's increased focus on law as a national rather than universal discipline. As a discipline, however, it was full of tensions, and the significance ascribed to different dates arose from different emphases among comparatists. Despite such variation, most strands in the early development of British comparative law were closely linked to the experiences and needs of the British Empire.
Development of Comparative Law in East Asia
Authors: Kitagawa Zentaro
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the development of comparative law in East Asia, focusing on the area of private law. It also focuses primarily on Japan, although it also considers developments in Korea and China as well. The article also looks beyond the development of the discipline and outlines more generally some challenges and perspectives for comparative law in the near future. The modern legal systems of Japan, Korea, and China were once all shaped by the reception of Western legal models, albeit to varying degrees and in a variety of ways.
Development of Comparative Law in Latin America
Authors: Kleinheisterkamp Jan
Published: February 2013

Latin American law has largely been neglected by mainstream comparative law. The presumed ‘familiarity’ and the consequent perception of Latin American law as lacking sufficient originality, or rather exoticism, may explain why comparative works have often dedicated considerably more attention to Islamic, Hindu, and East-Asian law. The topics of both Latin American law as the object of comparative law, and comparative law as a subject in Latin American jurisprudence, have remained in the shade with the result that they have become battlegrounds for influence and domination. This article aims to provide a rough sketch of the development of comparative law in Latin America and its significance for, and impact on, the legal systems of the Latin American countries today.
The Functional Method of Comparative Law
Authors: Michaels Ralf
Published: February 2013

The functional method has become the mantra of comparative law. For its proponents it is the most, perhaps the only, fruitful method; to its opponents, it represents everything bad about mainstream comparative law. This article tries to reconstruct and evaluate functionalist comparative law by placing it within the larger framework of other disciplines, especially the social sciences. Such an interdisciplinary analysis yields three promises. First, the interdisciplinary look should enable a construction of a more theoretically grounded functional method of comparative law than is usually presented. Second, the interdisciplinary approach should help formulate and evaluate the concept in order to determine how functional the method really is. Third, comparison with functionalism in other disciplines may reveal what is special about functionalism in comparative law, and why some things about other disciplines would rightly be regarded as methodological shortcomings may in fact be fruitful for comparative law.
Comparative Legal Families and Comparative Legal Traditions
Authors: Glenn H. Patrick
Published: February 2013

The concept of legal families maintained the law of other peoples in the western view at a time of legal scientism and legal nationalism, in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It did so by accepting the idea of national legal systems and the possibility of a taxonomic description of them. As communication between the peoples of the world accelerated in the late twentieth century it became more and more evident that national legal systems could no longer be treated as autonomous and sovereign, as both new and ancient forms of non-state law asserted themselves. The notion of legal traditions allows a conceptual understanding of the relations of laws conceived as normative information. There can thus be multiple laws applicable in a given territory, with varying degrees of influence, since the concept of legal tradition is one which accommodates multiple sources of law and gradations in the force of their normativity.