bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Usability of the Stylus Pen in Mobile Electronic Documentation
Authors: Park Eunil , Del Pobil Angel , Kwon Sang
Published: November 2015

Stylus pens are often used with mobile information devices. However, few studies have examined the stylus’ simple movements because the technical expertise to support documentation with stylus pens has not been developed. This study examined the usability of stylus pens in authentic documentation tasks, including three main tasks (sentence, table, and paragraph making) with two types of styluses (touchsmart stylus and mobile stylus) and a traditional pen. The statistical results showed that participants preferred the traditional pen in all criteria. Because of inconvenient hand movements, the mobile stylus was the least preferred on every task. Mobility does not provide any advantage in using the stylus. In addition, the study also found inconvenient hand support using a stylus and different feedback between a stylus and a traditional pen.
Optimized Route Selection Method based on the Turns of Road Intersections: A Case Study on Oversized Cargo Transportation
Authors: Meng Lingkui , Hu Zhenghua , Huang Changqing , Zhang Wen , Jia Tao
Published: November 2015

For oversized cargo transportation, traditional transportation schemes only consider road length, road width, the transportation cost as weight values in analysis and calculation of route selection. However, for oversized trucks, turning direction at road intersections is also a factor worth considering. By introducing the classical algorithm of Dijkstra into the model of road network, this research considers the size of turning angle at intersections as the weight value of the edge in the auxiliary network based on the weight values of road corners, upon which the shortest path analysis is performed. Then, an optimal path with minimum time cost was eventually obtained. The proposed algorithm was analyzed and compared with the traditional shortest path algorithm and it reported that our method could reduce the time for oversized trucks to pass through intersections. In addition, the proposed algorithm could be adapted to the complex and diverse road networks and provide a reliable scheme for route selection of oversized trucks.
Pharmacokinetics of Ginkgolide B after Oral Administration of Three Different Ginkgolide B Formulations in Beagle Dogs
Authors: Zhao Jie , Geng Ting , Wang Qi , Si Haihong , Sun Xiaoping , Guo Qingming , Li Yanjing , Huang Wenzhe , Ding Gang , Xiao Wei
Published: November 2015

Ginkgolide B (GB), an important active constituent of Ginkgo biloba extract, has been used in clinical applications for the treatment of dementia, cerebral insufficiency or related cognitive decline. To investigate the main pharmacokinetic characteristics of three different GB formulations in beagle dogs, a simple, specific and sensitive LC-MS/MS method was established and validated. The separation of the analytes was achieved on an Agilent Eclipse Plus C18 column (1.8 μm, 2.1 × 50 mm) with a mobile phase consisting of water and acetonitrile. The flow rate was set at 0.4 mL/min. Quantitation was performed using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) in negative ion mode, with the transitions at m/z (Q1/Q3) 423.1/367.1 for GB and m/z 269.3/170.0 for IS. The linear calibration curve of GB was obtained over the concentration range of 2–200 ng/mL. The intra- and inter-day precisions were <15% and the accuracies were within ±12.7%. The validated method was applied to compare the pharmacokinetic characteristics of GB in healthy beagle dogs after oral administration of three formulations (HME08, GB capsule prepared by hot-melt extrusion technology; LL06, GB pellet prepared by liquid layer technology; conventional GB tablet). The Cmax values of GB from different formulations in beagle dog plasma were 309.2, 192.4 and 66.6 µg/L, and the AUC values were 606.7, 419.1 and 236.2 µg/L·h, respectively. The data suggested that the exposure level of GB from HME08 and LL06 in beagle dog plasma was greatly improved compared with conventional tablets. This study should be helpful for the design and development of oral GB preparations.
A Review of LIDAR Radiometric Processing: From Ad Hoc Intensity Correction to Rigorous Radiometric Calibration
Authors: Kashani Alireza , Olsen Michael , Parrish Christopher , Wilson Nicholas
Published: November 2015

In addition to precise 3D coordinates, most light detection and ranging (LIDAR) systems also record “intensity”, loosely defined as the strength of the backscattered echo for each measured point. To date, LIDAR intensity data have proven beneficial in a wide range of applications because they are related to surface parameters, such as reflectance. While numerous procedures have been introduced in the scientific literature, and even commercial software, to enhance the utility of intensity data through a variety of “normalization”, “correction”, or “calibration” techniques, the current situation is complicated by a lack of standardization, as well as confusing, inconsistent use of terminology. In this paper, we first provide an overview of basic principles of LIDAR intensity measurements and applications utilizing intensity information from terrestrial, airborne topographic, and airborne bathymetric LIDAR. Next, we review effective parameters on intensity measurements, basic theory, and current intensity processing methods. We define terminology adopted from the most commonly-used conventions based on a review of current literature. Finally, we identify topics in need of further research. Ultimately, the presented information helps lay the foundation for future standards and specifications for LIDAR radiometric calibration.
Optimizing the Reliability and Performance of Service Composition Applications with Fault Tolerance in Wireless Sensor Networks
Authors: Wu Zhao , Xiong Naixue , Huang Yannong , Xu Degang , Hu Chunyang
Published: November 2015

The services composition technology provides flexible methods for building service composition applications (SCAs) in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). The high reliability and high performance of SCAs help services composition technology promote the practical application of WSNs. The optimization methods for reliability and performance used for traditional software systems are mostly based on the instantiations of software components, which are inapplicable and inefficient in the ever-changing SCAs in WSNs. In this paper, we consider the SCAs with fault tolerance in WSNs. Based on a Universal Generating Function (UGF) we propose a reliability and performance model of SCAs in WSNs, which generalizes a redundancy optimization problem to a multi-state system. Based on this model, an efficient optimization algorithm for reliability and performance of SCAs in WSNs is developed based on a Genetic Algorithm (GA) to find the optimal structure of SCAs with fault-tolerance in WSNs. In order to examine the feasibility of our algorithm, we have evaluated the performance. Furthermore, the interrelationships between the reliability, performance and cost are investigated. In addition, a distinct approach to determine the most suitable parameters in the suggested algorithm is proposed.
La correspondance des francs-maçons russes au XVIIIe siècle
Authors: Kotchetkova Natalia
Published: November 2015

While a part of the broader 18th century Russian epistolary culture, letters written by freemasons have their own specificity. The article focuses on the letters written by A. M. Kutuzov, I. V. Lopuhin, N. N. Trubetzkoy, I. P. Turgenev and other members of the so-called Novikov circle. This friendly correspondence, generally written in Russian, reflects the correspondents' literary and social interests, as well as their attention to the "inner man".
« Je vous laisse carte blanche » : quelques remarques sur la correspondance de Tolstoï et Tchertkov dans les années 1884-1887
Authors: De Giorgi Roberta
Published: November 2015

Tolstoy's correspondence with Vladimir Chertkov sheds a new light on the relationship between the two men during their common work for the publishing house Posrednik. In response to Chertkov 's demand, Tolstoy agreed to write many short stories for non-educated Russian readers. As shown by their correspondence, Tolstoy often accepted stylistic or even plot changes, which where suggested to him by Chertkov.
Postzygotic barriers isolate sympatric species of Cyrtandra (Gesneriaceae) in Hawaiian montane forest understories
Authors: Johnson Melissa A. , Price Donald K. , Price Jonathan P. , Stacy Elizabeth A.
Published: November 2015

PREMISE OF THE STUDY:

Recent reviews of reproductive isolation (RI) in plants propose that boundaries between closely related species are maintained predominantly through prezygotic mechanisms. However, few experimental studies have explored how boundaries are maintained in long‐lived species. Hawaiian Cyrtandra presents an intriguing challenge to our understanding of RI, as it comprises 60 shrub or small tree species that are almost exclusively restricted to wet forests, where sympatry of multiple species is common.

METHODS:

We assessed the relative strengths of pre‐ and postzygotic barriers among four species of Cyrtandra occurring at the extremes of the main Hawaiian Island's natural island‐age gradient, Kaua‘i (4.7 Myr) and Hawai‘i Island (0.6 Myr), to contrast the strengths and stages of reproductive isolation among species at different stages of divergence.

KEY RESULTS:

A combination of F1 seed germination, F1 seedling survival, and F1 seedling growth isolated (61–91%) three of the species from sympatric relatives. In contrast, the fourth species was isolated (59%) from its sympatric relative through phenological differences alone. Significant postzygotic barriers in between‐island crosses were also observed in one species.

CONCLUSIONS:

Results suggest that boundaries between sympatric Cyrtandra species in Hawaii are maintained predominantly through postzygotic barriers. Observations from between‐island crosses indicate that postzygotic barriers can arise in allopatry, which may be important in the initial divergence of populations. Future studies of RI in Cyrtandra should include a broader range of species to determine if postzygotic isolating barriers are foremost in the maintenance of species boundaries in this large genus.
Enhanced model for determining the number of graphene layers and their distribution from X-ray diffraction data
Authors: Andonovic Beti , Ademi Abdulakim , Grozdanov Anita , Paunović Perica , Dimitrov Aleksandar T
Published: November 2015

A model consisting of an equation that includes graphene thickness distribution is used to calculate theoretical 002 X-ray diffraction (XRD) peak intensities. An analysis was performed upon graphene samples produced by two different electrochemical procedures: electrolysis in aqueous electrolyte and electrolysis in molten salts, both using a nonstationary current regime. Herein, the model is enhanced by a partitioning of the corresponding 2θ interval, resulting in significantly improved accuracy of the results. The model curves obtained exhibit excellent fitting to the XRD intensities curves of the studied graphene samples. The employed equation parameters make it possible to calculate thej-layer graphene region coverage of the graphene samples, and hence the number of graphene layers. The results of the thorough analysis are in agreement with the calculated number of graphene layers from Raman spectraC-peak position values and indicate that the graphene samples studied are few-layered.
A Career in Inquiry
Authors: Cohen Helen S.
Published: November 2015

This article, based on the 52nd Eleanor Clarke Slagle lecture given at the 95th American Occupational Therapy Association Annual Conference & Expo, explores the concept of inquiry as the basis for a career and as an activity of daily living. Using the heliocentric theory and the space program at NASA as examples, the broad concept of inquiry is discussed, because it has led to important changes in society over the course of history. The article describes how a career as a clinician–scientist can be grounded in the concept of inquiry and explains how all occupational therapists and occupational therapy assistants can base their own careers in inquiry, using examples from the early history of the profession of occupational therapy and from work by current investigators. Practical suggestions applicable to every clinician are provided.
Strong ELA increase causes fast mass loss of glaciers in central Spitsbergen
Authors: Małecki J.
Published: November 2015

Abstract. Svalbard is a heavily glacier covered archipelago in the Arctic. Its central regions, including Dickson Land (DL), are occupied by small alpine glaciers, which post-Little Ice Age (LIA) changes remain only sporadically investigated. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of glacier changes in DL based on inventories compiled from topographic maps and digital elevation models (DEMs) for LIA, 1960's, 1990 and 2009/11. The 37.9 ± 12.1 % glacier area decrease in DL (i.e. from 334.1 ± 38.4 km2 during LIA to 207.4 ± 4.6 km2 in 2009/11) has been primarily caused by accelerating termini retreat. The mean 1990–2009/11 geodetic mass balance of glaciers was -0.70 ± 0.06 m a-1 (-0.63 ± 0.05 m w.e. a-1), being one of the most negative from Svalbard regional means known from the literature. If the same figure was to be applied for other similar regions of central Spitsbergen, that would result in a considerable contribution to total Svalbard mass balance despite negligible proportion to total glacier area. Glacier changes in Dickson Land were linked to dramatic equilibrium line altitude (ELA) shift, which in the period 1990–2009/11 has been located ca. 500 m higher than required for steady-state. The mass balance of central Spitsbergen glaciers seems to be therefore more sensitive to climate change than previously thought.
“thi all vores lærdom er dog mesten halfverk og stumpeviis”: en islandsk litteraturhistorie fra det 18. århundrede
Authors: Ingólfsdóttir Guðrún , Sigurðardóttir Þórunn
Published: November 2015

Apparatus Literariam Islandicam: An Icelandic History of Literature from the Eighteenth CenturyThis article discusses an Icelandic literary history, compiled in the first half of the eighteenth century. The author was Jón Ólafsson from Grunnavík, who is best known for his work at the Arnamagneana collection in Copenhagen. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European intellectuals began to write literary histories where literature was classified and defined in a novel manner, and which included precise information on various authors and their literary products. Jón Ólafsson’s history is a part of this effort. In his work, he deals with Icelandic poets and literati from the Middle Ages to his own time. The work demonstrates many of the main characteristics of literary histories of this period. The author borrows, for example, the methods of the Danish literary historian Albert Thura, but he is also influenced by Icelandic intellectuals such as Árni Magnússon, Þormóður Torfason and Páll Vídalín. Jón Ólafsson’s narrative style is, however, rather peculiar and his text is partly based on Icelandic oral tradition. An interesting part of Jón Ólafsson’s work is a chapter on female intellectuals and poets, but there he follows Thura’s example. Jón Ólafsson’s history has never been printed; neither has it been widely used by scholars. The authors of this article are preparing an edition of the work.
Toward daily climate scenarios for Canadian Arctic coastal zones with more realistic temperature‐precipitation interdependence
Authors: Gennaretti Fabio , Sangelantoni Lorenzo , Grenier Patrick
Published: November 2015

The interdependence between climatic variables should be taken into account when developing climate scenarios. For example, temperature‐precipitation interdependence in the Arctic is strong and impacts on other physical characteristics, such as the extent and duration of snow cover. However, this interdependence is often misrepresented in climate simulations. Here we use two two‐dimensional (2‐D) methods for statistically adjusting climate model simulations to develop plausible local daily temperature (Tmean) and precipitation (Pr) scenarios. The first 2‐D method is based on empirical quantile mapping (2Dqm) and the second on parametric copula models (2Dcopula). Both methods are improved here by forcing the preservation of the modeled long‐term warming trend and by using moving windows to obtain an adjustment specific to each day of the year. These methods were applied to a representative ensemble of 13 global climate model simulations at 26 Canadian Arctic coastal sites and tested using an innovative cross‐validation approach. Intervariable dependence was evaluated using correlation coefficients and empirical copula density plots. Results show that these 2‐D methods, especially 2Dqm, adjust individual distributions of climatic time series as adequately as one common one‐dimensional method (1Dqm) does. Furthermore, although 2Dqm outperforms the other methods in reproducing the observed temperature‐precipitation interdependence over the calibration period, both 2Dqm and 2Dcopula perform similarly over the validation periods. For cases where temperature‐precipitation interdependence is important (e.g., characterizing extreme events and the extent and duration of snow cover), both 2‐D methods are good options for producing plausible local climate scenarios in Canadian Arctic coastal zones.
Affirmative Action
Authors: Anderson Terry H.
Published: November 2015

Affirmative Action is a governmental policy that has attempted to improve the employment, educational, and business opportunities of underprivileged classes, often women, minorities, or indigenous peoples, through preferential treatment in job hiring, college admissions, and the awarding of government contracts. While it can be successful in promoting underprivileged people in a society, it also has been vigorously debated since its implementation in various countries.
Americanization
Authors: Negrine Ralph
Published: November 2015

At its simplest, the idea of Americanization draws attention to the existence of practices that were first developed in the United States and that have subsequently been used in other political systems and have become absorbed and assimilated into their election and political communication practices.
Common Good
Authors: Steiner Jürg
Published: November 2015

How communication is related to the common good depends on whether one argues from the theory of rational choice or from the theory of deliberation. From the former theory, politics is bargaining about self‐interest and power. Talking about the common good is nonsensical, but there is still a notion of the common good, which is reached when bargaining has come to an end and nobody can hope for a better deal. By contrast, the deliberative model is talk‐centered with actors arguing with each other about the common good with the force of the better argument prevailing. Practical politics is usually a combination of the two ideal types.
Media Democracy
Authors: Donges Patrick
Published: November 2015

Media democracy is a common but also controversial characterization of modern democracies. The term claims that the media, the communication in the media, and the distinctive media logics have a key influence on the structures, actors, processes, and contents of democratic will formation and decisions. To date, media democracy does not have the status of an elaborated theoretical concept. Moreover, the balance of potential increases and losses in the democratization of (mass‐) media‐dominated public policy is ambivalent. The state of the debate is that political systems are never completely mediatized and that the dichotomy of one political versus one media logic must be reconsidered for future studies.
Social Movements
Authors: della Porta Donatella , Mattoni Alice
Published: November 2015

Social movements are (a) mostly informal networks of interaction, based on (b) shared beliefs and solidarity, mobilized around (c) contentious themes through (d) the frequent use of various forms of protest. Communication assumes a central role in the articulation of each of these definitional aspects. Early studies on the topic underlined the weak position of social movements with regard to mass media, on the one hand, and the role of movement‐near media as a space of alternative communication, on the other hand. Recent developments in the literature underline the agency of social movements in the making of political communication flows, positioning them in a multilayered media environment. At the same time, research has flourished on the role of Internet tools and web platforms in the strategic and expressive activities of social movements. Future research would benefit from cross‐media, cross‐time and cross‐country comparisons on the use of media in social movements.
Cultivation Theory
Authors: Morgan Michael , Shanahan James , Signorielli Nancy
Published: November 2015

Cultivation theory argues that a primary function of mass communication is the stabilization and perpetuation of dominant social structures and power arrangements, not change. Cultivation analysis findings illustrate the long‐term, more general, and pervasive consequences of cumulative exposure to television's messages. The phenomenon of mainstreaming in cultivation theory shows that, in relation to political issues, television cultivates common perspectives. Cultivation analyses consistently find that heavy television viewers are more likely to say they are “moderate,” and to avoid calling themselves either “liberal” or “conservative.”
Authoritarianism
Authors: Dobek‐Ostrowska Bogusława
Published: November 2015

Authoritarianism is a broad set of beliefs, practices, and institutional arrangements that highlight the subordination of people under unaccountable and often unquestioned authorities. The term is used in social science in different contexts, as a personality type, an ideological concept, a political regime, and a method of meaning construction. Authoritarianism as a type of political regime is located between totalitarianism and democracy.
Professionalization
Authors: Holtz‐Bacha Christina
Published: November 2015

The notion of professionalization as used in the field of political communication has shifted from the narrow focus on communication experts (consultants) and the election environment to a broader perspective that understands professionalization as a process of adaptation in view of changes of society and the media. In this respect, professionalization is a dynamic development that involves political communication processes in general and is not limited to election campaigns.
Posters, Political
Authors: Geise Stephanie
Published: November 2015

Fulfilling central functions in campaigns, the political poster is a specific, well‐established medium of visual political communication rich in traditions and still important in contemporary political discourse. Although displaced in the United States since the 1960s by TV commercials and now playing a secondary role there—with few exceptions such as Fairey's Barack Obama HOPE posters—the political poster has lost little in actuality in Europe (e.g., France, Austria, Switzerland, Germany, Turkey) and South America and is increasingly important in developing countries (e.g., India, South Africa) that lack a conventional mass‐media infrastructure. Since its early development, the poster's functions for political communication have changed little. Posters have always been a medium of flash communication, transferring textually or pictorially highly condensed information and actualizing political issues and actors. During political campaigning, political posters obtain an overview of political actors, parties, candidates, and most relevant campaigning topics. As scientific resource, they provide a vivid insight into historical and contemporary political communication.
Pharisee Effect
Authors: Neiva Eduardo
Published: November 2015

Although conventional wisdom supposes that religious arguments determine the outcome of electoral disputes, significant empirical evidence and theoretical reasons counter this supposition. It is not always the case that religious messages shape an unbeatable strategy, when political campaigns are planned and arguments crafted for the general public. The public rejection of religious proclamations as a political plan of action defines the pharisee effect. Hence, even in a political region inclined to favor religiosity, campaigns built around religious fervor do not, necessarily, succeed.
Third‐Person Effect
Authors: Wei Ran , Lo Ven‐hwei
Published: November 2015

The third‐person effect is a simple but intriguing theoretical proposition. It has generated a robust stream of research in the past 30 years. Political communication is one of the topical areas in which third‐person effect research is growing. The literature sheds light on the perception of effects concerning a range of political messages and media, and has documented some real‐world effects of the perception on multiple political behaviors. This chapter reviews a growing body of research that examines public perceptions of media effects
vis‐à‐vis
direct media effects in political communication. The propositions and empirical studies in the existing research are synthesized and critiqued as a means of attaining a deeper understanding of the third‐person effect as a robust research stream and its potential as a full‐blown theory.
Pseudo‐Event
Authors: Kepplinger Hans Mathias
Published: November 2015

The termpseudo‐eventis explained, distinguished from the termmedia event, and split into two terms: staged event and mediated event. After clarifying the termevent, the relationship between pseudo‐events (staged and mediated events) and so‐called genuine events is outlined. In addition the relationship between these types of events and the concept ofmediatizationis explained. Empirical data illustrate the development of media coverage on these types of events.
Spin Doctoring
Authors: Valentini Chiara
Published: November 2015

Spin doctoring is a derogatory term to define public relations activities for political institutions, political actors or corporations that emphasize or exaggerate the most positive aspects of something. The term does not indicate a profession, like public relations, or a neutral activity, like political communication, but is a biased expression used by journalists to discredit the work of public relations experts. The term is commonly used to refer to campaigns and communications that are based on deception and manipulation. Governments, political actors, and corporations are using this technique to protect their image from criticism, to achieve consensus and public support and to sell their ideas and opinions. In politics, the concept of spin doctoring is tied to the process of mediatization, which has made politicians and political institutions more concerned for their appearance and how they are represented in mass media than the political reality.
Public Interest
Authors: Hanretty Chris
Published: November 2015

Normative media theory and public policy provide different ways in which the media contribute to the
public interest
, which may be defined either as the aggregate of the individual interests or preferences we reveal when choosing between the different media available to us in the marketplace or as the common interest we all share in media that enable us to carry out our role as citizens by providing a broad range of viewpoints and accurate information about different topics. These issues can be explored at a theoretical level, and in relation to public policy, where the idea of public interest is used by regulators, public broadcasters, courts, and professional journalists' associations.
Science Communication and Politics
Authors: Kusafuka Minako , Fujigaki Yuko
Published: November 2015

The term “science communication” encompasses a wide variety of activities. These fall into three categories—science outreach, science journalism, and risk communication—although the boundaries between them are not always clear. Science outreach aims at enhancing public awareness and understanding of science. Science journalism is concerned with the communication of science to the public through media such as science journals, newspapers, broadcasts, and the Internet. Risk communication normally involves disseminating information about risks to humans and the environment, including both the risks inherent in everyday life and risks that arise in acute situations, such as natural and industrial disasters and pandemics. More broadly, this category also includes activities to assess and communicate the ethical, legal, and social implications of science and technology. Such activities often take the form of public debate involving people potentially affected by science and technology. As science and technology have become increasingly complex, penetrating into every aspect of social life, science communication activities of all kinds have grown in importance, taking on broader political implications.
Ritual, Political
Authors: Stępińska Agnieszka , Kołodziejczak Małgorzata
Published: November 2015

Political ritual is a repeated and culturally standardized activity related to a political sphere and/or performed by political actors. It expresses and communicates feelings, concerns, and ideas central for and shared by the community. The fundamental building blocks of ritual are mythic stories, symbolic acts, and words that bring diverse ideas together. Regardless of its level of complexity, every ritual follows some sort of schema or script that consists of techniques, elements, and formats. Political rituals may be used to integrate a society, to develop an identity, to create an image of the world, or—instrumentally—to legitimize or delegitimize political power.
Media Advocacy
Authors: Waisbord Silvio
Published: November 2015

Media advocacy is the strategic use of the media to promote behavioral and social changes and advance policy initiatives. It aims to use the media to raise awareness and promote critical thinking and debate about specific issues that need public and legislative attention.
Word of Mouth (
WOM
)
Authors: Boni Federico
Published: November 2015

Word of mouth (WOM) is a “pass‐along” process of interpersonal communication, a means of “social diffusion” which has particularly powerful effects especially in its ability to influence people as messages are “passed” and transmitted from person to person. Based on the traditional model of the “two‐step flow of communication,” according to which media messages are mediated through interpersonal relationships, word of mouth includes face‐to‐face discussions as well as so‐called “word of mouse,” online interactions based on social media.
Media Event
Authors: Boni Federico
Published: November 2015

Media events are live broadcastings of preplanned historic events. A typology of media events divides them into three categories:contests, representations of conflicts as in political debates or in a sporting event;coronations, rites of passage celebrating a particularly important moment of the political hero; andconquests, events that subvert an institutionalized rule, viewed as charismatic missions. The three categories are connected to Weber's three types of authority—rationality, charisma, and tradition—while for their ritual and ceremonial characteristics media events have become central in political integration. Recently, a broader view of media events has taken into consideration more categories of media events, including divisive rituals, conflicts, and disasters.
Relative Deprivation
Authors: Osborne Danny
Published: November 2015

Feeling relatively (rather than objectively) deprived affects how people respond to inequalities. Since documenting this effect, research on relative deprivation has shown that feeling personally deprived motivates individual‐based reactions, whereas feeling that one's group is deprived gives way to group‐based responses to inequality. Subsequent work has examined the antecedents and consequences of feeling relatively deprived, while also highlighting the critical role that affect plays in mediating the relationship between relative deprivation and distinct outcomes. This entry gives an overview of the literature in this area and concludes with a discussion on promising directions for future research.
Extremism, Political
Authors: Landtsheer Christ'l De
Published: November 2015

Extremism is the holding of attitudes, opinions, and beliefs that differ from established norms, have potentially dangerous consequences, and/or are held by a relatively small percentage of people. Political extremism applies to those political groups that subscribe to a radically, antipluralist, homogeneous vision of the national community and reject the basic democratic values. It emerges from the left or the right of the ideological and partisan spectrum, and it has multiple forms.
Popular Culture
Authors: Corner John
Published: November 2015

Research into political communication has often given primary focus to the production and the reception of political publicity and of political journalism. However, the impact of a much broader range of cultural products and experiences on political consciousness is now seen to deserve more attention, even if the dominant character of these products is sometimes not “political” in the conventional sense, and perhaps often not designed to be taken seriously.
Spiral of Silence
Authors: Ho Shirley S.
Published: November 2015

The spiral of silence theory describes the process in which people who perceive their opinion to be in the minority are unwilling to express it due to fear of isolation from society. This article gives an overview of the spiral of silence theory. It describes the underlying processes and key assumptions of the theory. It reviews the empirical research findings, focusing on the factors that explain people's willingness to speak out in addition to fear of isolation, the refinement of the measurement procedures for the theory, the test of the major assumptions of the theory in different cultural contexts, and the specification of the contingent conditions which can bring out the key aspects of the theory. With the proliferation of new media, this article reviews recent studies that concentrate on whether the spiral of silence is applicable to computer‐mediated communication contexts when explaining public opinion expression.
Social Justice
Authors: Deranty Jean‐Philippe
Published: November 2015

Social justice concerns the fairness with which the goods and burdens arising from collective life are shared among members of society. The main questions that are raised by the problem of social justice therefore relate to the different dimensions involved in the distribution of social goods: What are the different types of social goods to be distributed? What are the principles underpinning a fair distribution? What are the agents and processes ensuring that the distribution of social goods is fair?
Civic Engagement
Authors: Dahlgren Peter
Published: November 2015

Civic engagement points to a fundamental dimension of democracy: that citizens must involve themselves if it is to work. The concept is somewhat slippery, with a number of definitions in circulation. In recent decades discussions have highlighted problematic declines in civic engagement in the democratic societies. The declines are understood as a response to the inabilities of governments to function adequately and to respond suitably to citizens. Also, these declines are portrayed as a consequence of mechanisms of inequality and exclusion, exacerbated by neoliberal developments. At the same there is a considerable reengagement under way; much of it is within the realm of alternative politics. For both mainstream and alternative politics, the media have always had a central position, one which has been enhanced by the Internet and Web 2.0. At the same time there is considerable debate on the actual role played by the Web in this regard.
News Values
Authors: Preston Paschal
Published: November 2015

This entry sketches out the various meanings and uses of the concept of news values. It traces the history, evolving meanings, and role of the concept in research focused on understanding what makes the news. It locates the concept in terms of the various layers of research seeking to understand the factors and forces which serve to shape news culture (a key aspect of political communication) in modern western democracies.
Public Affairs
Authors: Sanders Karen B.
Published: November 2015

Public affairs is a field of study and practice engaged in the understanding and execution of strategic communication on behalf of an organization chiefly in relation to influencing the policy environment to bring it into alignment with its goals. Its activities are oriented toward the scanning of the sociopolitical environment to identify and prioritize key issues for an organization, where it overlaps with the field of issue management. It also seeks to build and maintain relationships with key policy stakeholders, where it overlaps with public relations, to achieve a favorable policy and regulatory environment. Its preoccupation with policy elite perceptions also creates common ground with corporate communication's focus on reputation management.
Priming
Authors: Marquis Lionel
Published: November 2015

Priming occurs when previously encountered information (“a prime”) remains temporarily accessible for encoding a target object or retrieving it from memory. The application of this framework to the area of mass communication is discussed. It is argued that “media priming” consists in enhancing thechronicaccessibility of the mental constructs related to topics of media coverage. In turn, this selective “preactivation” of concepts facilitates their subsequent use in evaluations of political objects. In particular, subjects of intense media coverage will tend to outweigh other considerations as ingredients of a political candidate's evaluations. A critical assessment of media priming suggests that it applies to a wider range of situations than is commonly assumed in political science research. However, only few concrete instances qualify as priming in its original psychological meaning, and the need for a proper theory of media priming, is stressed.
Political Communication Imaginary
Authors: Sampedro Víctor
Published: November 2015

A political community is always based on an imaginary that refers to the symbolic ties binding representatives and the people whom they represent. Politicians, journalists, and their publics share a narrative (a vocabulary, metaphors, scripts) about the public virtues and the proper roles to be displayed by both the “professionals” of political communication and lay citizens. Political imaginary has evolved following the dominant ideals of the public spheres that emerged from technological innovations, cultural shifts, and the changing nature of social ties (Edelman, 1988).
Institutions, Political
Authors: Sampedro Víctor
Published: November 2015

Traditional media face a crisis of business model and political role while needing to fit in to the changing institutions of the digital economy and politics. Considering the press and the media as political institutions implies recognizing that they are both partially autonomous from external pressure and interdependent with other institutions. Different media systems and journalistic practices or ideologies exhibit some degree of internal homogeneity, which exert power over other social spheres or sectors. Academic debates focus on the stability of media institutions and their dependence on politics, economics, and cultural production. The 20th‐century institutional regime of the press was shaped to fit into mass politics and markets. Multimedia corporations, polls, and general elections constituted the dominant institutional framework. Digital technologies underlined the shortcomings of this old media regime. The Internet fosters an institutional rearrangement to build a networked public sphere that is still emerging and under debate. This entry looks at the implications for political institutions.
Negotiations
Authors: Harris A. W.
Published: November 2015

The distinction between negotiation and bargaining is represented. Three separate approaches to negotiation are introduced to help in providing a broad outline of the subject. The first approach seeks to achieve a “Pareto‐optimal” outcome for all parties. The second strives to secure a just outcome for each party. The third seeks to assure that all parties engage in “integrative” bargaining, with each party actively seeking to assist other parties obtain what they need, in order to achieve an agreement.
Propaganda
Authors: Michael Sproule J.
Published: November 2015

Propaganda
denotes persuasive undertakings particularly of a kind projected through mass media on behalf of powerful organizations. Especially in the English language,
propaganda
also connotes the covert diffusion of questionable content to benefit the undeserving. Although
propaganda's
etymology dates to sectarian religious conflicts in 16th‐ and 17th‐century Europe, the term entered the modern political lexicon when the muckrakers began to expose antidemocratic promotions orchestrated by railroads and other large organizations, and later when
propaganda
became a recognized label for wartime and cold‐war communication by enemies foreign and domestic. Because of
propaganda's
strong polemical associations, administrators, professionals, and scientists more frequently describe their work as amounting to
information
,
communication
, or
persuasion
. In contemporary criticism and pedagogy,
propaganda
serves variously as an organizing principle or as a term subsumed under analytic frameworks built around such alternate expressions as
spin
,
doublespeak
, or
critical thinking
.
Parliament
Authors: Marschall Stefan
Published: November 2015

Parliaments are traditional representational bodies in liberal democracies that—being directly elected—build reciprocal linkages between citizens and political elites. The general role and relevance of parliaments depend on their capability to communicate and to create a public space. In modern mass‐media societies, parliaments are in danger of losing their communicative powers due to a structural marginalization of parliamentary communication. Whether new channels such as online communication could increase parliaments' communicative resources needs to be addressed by research. In doing so, studies on parliaments could profit from a closer cooperation with communication and media research.
Transnational Political Communication
Authors: Gagliardone Iginio
Published: November 2015

Transnational political communication involves interactions among state and non‐state actors across national boundaries. The study of this subject is relatively recent, but increasingly relevant, as non‐state actors such as nongovernmental organizations and multinational corporations proliferate and use a variety of media to influence policies and politics across borders. Different from public diplomacy, transnational political communication is less concerned with how states communicate to foreign publics, and focuses more on how foreign governments and publics can become targets of communications initiated by actors outside of their boundaries. In an increasingly multipolar world, transnational political communication has also become the terrain where competing conceptions of society and the social good struggle for hegemony and to assert themselves in a crowded market of ideas.
Charisma
Authors: Campus Donatella
Published: November 2015

Charisma is regarded either as an attribute possessed by some political leaders or as a relational phenomenon that links together leaders and followers. Both in classic and in modern accounts of charismatic leadership communicative skills are among the resources employed by charismatics to persuade followers and maintain their loyalty and devotion. The advent of the mass media era poses also the crucial question: Can charisma be amplified and manufactured through political marketing techniques?
Digital Public Sphere
Authors: Schäfer Mike S.
Published: November 2015

The emergence and existence of a digital public sphere has been an issue of intense theoretical debate and numerous empirical studies. Scholars have tried to establish whether and to what extent an online equivalent, or substitute, for the seemingly deficient “old” public sphere has developed. They have analyzed whether participation in online and social media is open and visible to all, how communication is structured in terms of content, reciprocity and style, and what effects such debates have on participants as well as decision‐makers. Overall, they have shown that the digital public sphere tends to successfully make diverse actors and their positions visible, and at least sometimes influences other fora and collectively binding decision‐making. Studies have also shown that although digital public spheres exhibit a range of communicative styles, they only rarely conform to ideas of rationality and civility as advocated by participatory, deliberative theory.
Legitimacy, Democratic
Authors: Parkinson John
Published: November 2015

Legitimacy is the moralization of authority. Democratic legitimacy specifies that what makes the exercise of authority moral is that its
source
is “the people” in some sense; its
procedures
are democratic ones; and its
outcomes
clearly relate to the preferences of the people concerned. However, beneath that definition lie several controversies related to disagreements about the concept of democracy, and the relative weights given to democratic procedures versus good outcomes.
Civil Disobedience
Authors: Celikates Robin
Published: November 2015

This entry gives an overview of current debates about civil disobedience as a practice of political contestation that is located between legal protest, on the one hand, and more radical, for example revolutionary, forms of opposition, on the other. It examines the definition, justification, and role of civil disobedience, especially from the point of view of democratic theory.
Alienation, Political
Authors: Knobloch Katherine R.
Published: November 2015

Political alienation denotes estrangement from one's government and political community. The concept of alienation was first introduced by social theorists in the 19th century and experienced a revival in the 1950s and 1960s as political theorists and researchers sought to understand the connection between government, political psychology, and public participation. During this time, several dimensions of political alienation were identified. Among the most important dimensions are political efficacy, isolation, knowledge, and trust. These dimensions can be applied to contemporary debates in political communication and help define routes for future research.
Secrecy
Authors: Pérez Francisco Seoane
Published: November 2015

Secrecy applies to all deliberate attempts to conceal information from the public glare. In liberal democracies, where the principle of publicity empowers citizens to hold their governments accountable, the legitimacy of secrecy is usually restricted to the areas of national security and foreign affairs. However, secrecy has also a relevant role in political deliberations, as the publicity of negotiations usually leads to a politicization that might prevent consensual outcomes. Even in political regimes where publicity and transparency are the norm, secrecy and confidentiality play an underestimated role. Journalists rely on anonymous sources to publicize corruption in government. Such is the importance of secrecy in denouncing corruption that some legal systems offer reporters the privilege of maintaining the confidentiality of their sources. Surprisingly, the publication of government wrongdoings is not necessarily conducive to public outcry, as some corrupt leaders continue receiving electoral support. Contrary to what transparency lobbyists believe, there is not a straight causal relationship between publicity and accountability.