bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effects of False-Alarm vs. Miss-Prone Automation and Likelihood Alarm Technology on Trust, Reliance, and Compliance in a Miss-Prone Task
Authors: Davenport Randy B. , Bustamante Ernesto A.
Published: January 2012

We investigated the effects of false-alarm prone (FP) vs. miss-prone (MP) automation and the effects of likelihood alarm technology (LAT) on trust, reliance, and compliance. One hundred participants completed simulated unmanned aerial vehicle missions consisting of two primary tasks and a secondary weapon-deployment task aided by automation. It was predicted that MP automation would increase trust, LAT would increase trust, FP automation would increase reliance, and MP automation would increase compliance whereas LAT would decrease compliance when used with a FP system. Results indicated that trust was higher with the FP system, reliance was higher with the FP system, and compliance was higher with the MP system. This paper further informs the relationships among trust, reliance, and compliance, and it adds to our understanding of operator behavior in miss-prone tasks. Practical applications of this research include improving automation design and choosing the appropriate type of automation to implement for specific situations.
Human Factors Training in Aviation Maintenance: Impact on Incident Rates
Authors: Reynolds Rosemarie , Blickensderfer Elizabeth , Martin Adria , Rossignon Kevin , Maleski Vaida
Published: January 2012

Since 1999, aircraft maintenance personnel in the European Union (EU) have been required to take human factors training. This training is not required in the United States (US). The relative rates of maintenance-related incidents in the US and the EU were compared prior to and after the implementation of mandatory human factors training in the EU. Prior to 1999, the rates of maintenance-related error for the EU and the US were not statistically different. In the years following the implementation of mandatory human factors training in the EU, the difference in rates for the US and the EU became statistically significant. Our results suggest that human factors training may be valuable in reducing maintenance-related error in aviation.
Distribution of Peripheral Vision for a Driving Simulator Functional Field of View Task
Authors: Park George D. , Reed Catherine L.
Published: January 2012

Although previous studies have assessed the allocation of central and peripheral vision in functional field of view (FFOV) tasks, few studies have directly assessed changes in the FFOV within a driving environment. By modifying a typical FFOV task paradigm with central and peripheral target tasks occurring in a low-fidelity driving simulation, a method of assessing the allocation of peripheral vision resources was developed. Two experiments were conducted to: 1) validate the FFOV task in a driving simulation environment, 2) assess peripheral attention distribution due to the simulation background, and 3) assess peripheral attention distribution due to a basic vehicle steering task. In Experiment 1, the central and peripheral task performance of 17 college undergraduates (8 males, 9 females) was compared when provided a blank white screen versus the driving simulation background (i.e., driver's vehicle moving on a winding road towards a distant horizon). In Experiment 2, the central and peripheral task performance of 27 college undergraduates (19 male, 8 female) was assessed when provided the same driving simulation background as in Experiment 1, but with the additional task of controlling the vehicle's lane position. Both experiments used a central, two-choice object recognition task that varied in object display speed (160, 260 ms) with a concurrent peripheral target detection task that varied in eccentricity (10, 20, 30° visual angle) and radial position (4 cardinal, 4 oblique). Results from both experiments indicated a successful replication of a FFOV task with poorer peripheral task performance as peripheral targets increased in display speed and eccentricity. Analysis of peripheral target localization accuracy performance suggested a lower visual field dominance and a differentiated pattern of peripheral attention allocation for the driving environment and when the participants were performing the steering task.
The Operating Room as Classroom: Understanding Cognitive Challenges Facing Surgical Trainees
Authors: Lio Cindy H. , Carswell C. Melody , Strup Stephen E. , Roth John S. , Grant Russell
Published: January 2012

Naturalistic observations of two fifth-year surgical trainees in the OR revealed that they struggled with specific tasks during several seemingly straightforward laparoscopic surgical procedures. Retrospective think-aloud reports of the trainees and their attending surgeons on those tasks in video clips and NASA-TLX ratings further shed lights on trainees' specific challenges. Results showed that trainees' inadequate cognitive skills rather than poor technical skills could be their greatest hindrance in performing those tasks. Specifically, the trainees seemed to focus their attention on immediate urgent tasks and failed to plan strategically for action sequences or manipulations. NASA-TLX results further showed that trainees and attending surgeons differed in their perceptions of effort, performance, and frustration in performing those isolated tasks. These preliminary data suggested that a gap exists between trainees and the more experienced surgeons on their attention allocation strategies, which may indicate the need to emphasize cognitive skills training such as multitasking during the practice of surgical skills outside the OR.
Development of a Novel Measure of Situation Awareness: The Case for Eye Movement Analysis
Authors: Moore Kristin , Gugerty Leo
Published: January 2012

Situation awareness (SA) is a measure of an individual's knowledge and understanding of the current and expected future states of a situation. While there are numerous options for SA measurement, none are currently suitable in dynamic, uncontrolled environments. The current research explored the relationship between direct measures of SA and eye tracking measures as a first step in the development of an unobtrusive measure to be used in environments not suited for existing SA measurement methods. Results showed that the more individuals fixated on an important aircraft in an air traffic control task, the higher their SA for that aircraft. The study also provided evidence that the way operators allocate attention (i.e., distributed widely or narrowly) affects their SA, as well as their task performance. The results indicate that eye tracking may be a viable option for measuring SA in environments not conducive to current direct SA measurement techniques.
Modeling the Workload-Performance Relationship
Authors: Cassenti Daniel N. , Kelley Troy D. , Carlson Richard A.
Published: January 2012

Human factors research is often focused on the mental workload that is required to perform a task or set of tasks with the goal of reducing workload to make systems easier to manage. The Improved Performance Research Integration Tool (IMPRINT) includes an algorithm to predict mental workload. The algorithm was developed using subject matter expert ratings of workload tasks. We aimed to enhance this capability by developing algorithms using data from four new studies investigating change in performance as demands on mental resources increase. The results indicate three task types of similar difficulty and one task type of much greater difficulty. We then map these to our hypothesized workload function. Finally, we propose a way forward in modeling performance as a function of workload in IMPRINT.
Workload Causes Chaotic Fluctuation of Human Voice
Authors: Shiomi Kakuichi
Published: January 2012

The chaotic fluctuation of human voice is possible to calculate by SiCECA (Shiomi's Cerebral Exponent Calculation Algorithm) which adopt time-local definition of chaotic characteristics of time series. As results of experiments, follows were observed in chaotic fluctuation of human voice.

The chaotic fluctuation of human voice, named CE (Cerebral exponent) showed correlation with speaker's psychosomatic condition. The value dependency on individuals was very small. If influences of recording equipments and environment are properly estimated, CE will be useful to evaluate speaker's arousal level.
Anticipating Workload: Which Facets of Task Difficulty are Easiest to Predict?
Authors: Sublette M. , Carswell C.M. , Grant R. , Seidelman W. , Clark D. , Seales B.
Published: January 2012

Prospective workload measures are used to assess individuals' expectations about tasks they are facing, how difficult they think the tasks will be and how well they expect to perform. In this study, 43 participants used the NASA-TLX subjective workload scale to predict the difficulty of surgical training tasks. The goal of the study was to determine the accuracy of their predictions and whether the act of assessing tasks before performing them affected their judgments post-performance. Regarding initial performance, results showed that participants formed prospective judgments that were consistent with their retrospective judgments, but they underestimated physical demands. After only minimal practice, however, their retrospective judgments deviated from both the experimental group's initial predictions and the control group's initial retrospective assessments. Anticipating mental demand was particularly challenging. No significant differences were found between the control and experimental conditions for post-performance assessments, suggesting that pre-performance assessment of workload has no effect of post-performance judgment of task difficulty.
On the Development of Training Principles for Intuitive Decision Making
Authors: Boydstun A. S. , Patterson R. , Pierce B. , Park L. M. , Shannan J. , Shannan J. , Shannan J. , Shannan J.
Published: January 2012

Many decisions made in real-world situations involve a form of intuitive pattern recognition. One way to investigate training principles for developing this type of decision making utilizes implicit learning in an immersive environment, where training stimuli are generated by a finite-state algorithm. In the current study, we investigated the effects of manipulating training-sequence length and algorithmic complexity in an immersive implicit-learning paradigm. Results: training-sequence length interacted with algorithmic complexity such that performance was best when training-sequence length was long and the algorithm was simple, and when training-sequence length was short and the algorithm was complex. When training intuitive decision making, training-sequence length should be matched to algorithmic complexity.
A Novel Information Trail Model for Information Transformation in Cognitive Work Systems
Authors: Pennathur Priyadarshini R. , Bisantz Ann M.
Published: January 2012

This paper presents a new model and methodology, called information trail model for documenting and understanding cognitive and sociotechnical elements when humans in a work system use artifacts and transform information to achieve their goals. In a complex system, humans create and manage complexity by self-organizing and engaging in action-stimulating behavior (stigmergy). In the model, humans create artifacts and work practices, and transform information to organize themselves purposefully. The transformation and stringing together of traces of information creates information trails for work goals, resulting in the information trail model. Different individuals create and represent the trails of information in a multitude of artifacts. Information trails capture latent work practices and information transformed by humans. Hence, the trails embed the emergent strategies that humans may use. Design implications of the information trail model are discussed.
User-centered Systems Engineering & Knowledge Management Framework for Design & Modeling of Future Smart Cities
Authors: Ahram Tareq Z. , Karwowski Waldemar , Amaba Ben
Published: January 2012

Employing human factors and user-centered systems engineering methodology and design principles to the development of smart cities has the potential of establishing a novel field of research. This paper introduces a novel human factors knowledge management framework for collaborative education, design and modeling of the next generation of smarter cities. A conceptual framework and practical applications of systems engineering approaches to support smarter cities development is proposed. The human systems component in collaborative systems engineering aims to ensure that human considerations for learners and designers have a prominent place in the integrated design and development of sustainable, smarter cities throughout the total system lifecycle. Future challenges that collaborative human and systems engineering techniques are likely to face in this domain are also discussed.
Harnessing the User's Mental Power to Enhance Website Creativity: The Meta-design Approach to Web Personalization
Authors: Zeng Liang , Proctor Robert W. , Salvendy Gavriel
Published: January 2012

Use of the meta-design approach to facilitate web personalization is proposed, so as to enhance website creativity under the paradigm of Web 2.0. Then, a study is reported that investigates the influence of user-driven personalization on website creativity and on web user behavior. Results showed that a web service that supports creative personalization features by way of the meta-design approach can significantly enhance user-perceived creativity of the site and thus trigger more of the user's intention of adoption/use. Additionally, perceived attractiveness (PA) is found to be a significant predictor of web user behavior. The provision of user-driven personalization facilitated by the meta-design approach opens another source for website creativity, and the endeavor of engaging customers in the co-creation process would foster consumer acceptance of the web service.
Violations-Inducing Framing Effects of Production Goals: Conditions under which goal setting leads to neglecting safety-relevant rules
Authors: Kluge Annette , Badura Björn , Urbas Leon , Burkolter Dina
Published: January 2012

Violations are a problem for safety-critical organizations, which need to trust in their workers' compliance with rules and regulations. In two studies we investigate the impact of the framing of production outcome goals. The first study was designed in accordance with the classic framing experiments by Kahneman and Tversky (1983) as a paper-based case with two groups ( N=72) reading a story in which they are to envisage themselves in the position of the production supervisor, who decides to comply with or violate a safety-relevant rule in order to meet the production goal. The two groups differ in the framing of the production outcome goals in terms of losses or gains. In contrast to our assumptions and to previous findings, we were unable to replicate the framing effect for a production setting, but 35–45% of participants in both groups were willing to violate the normative rule, independently of the framing. In the second experiment ( N = 39), the experimental groups acted out the role of the supervisor and were trained to use two different start-up strategies for the plant. In the final trial, participants were told that their salary would depend on their performance in this last trial. As a result, in the loss framing conditions, significantly more participants violated the normative rule than in the gain framing condition. Finally, we discuss the implications of framing effects for production settings and their impact on the probability of choosing to violate normative rules.
Risk Exposure Assessment of Dairy Parlor Workers
Authors: Patil Anuja , Gilkey David , Rosecrance John , Douphrate David
Published: January 2012

Modern dairy operations have evolved into a highly specialized and precise industrialized process timed critically for maximum milk production. Milking cows is a series of carefully sequenced work tasks that can be characterized as rapid, repetitive, forceful and include awkward postures of the hands, wrists, forearms, arms and shoulders. Exposure assessment using Strain Index (SI) and HAL (Hand Activity Level) was conducted in six dairy parlors at five locations throughout the Colorado region for this pilot study to evaluate the utility of these ergonomic assessment methods in dairy parlors and to estimate risk for upper extremity (UE) musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) among dairy parlor workers. Results from our pilot study suggest that dairy parlor work is stressful to the UE with increased risk for developing MSDs.
The Effect of Warning Design and Personalization on User Compliance in Computer Security Dialogs
Authors: Mendel Jeremy , Mayhorn Christopher B. , Hardee Jefferson B. , West Ryan T. , Pak Richard
Published: January 2012

To combat the rise in internet-based crime, computer security warnings must be optimized to improve user compliance. Past research has shown various methods for improving warning efficiency but little research has examined the effectiveness of these methods on computer-based warnings. At present, a subset of the data from a proposed factorial design has been collected from seventy participants who encountered one of two computerized warnings: a control warning similar to these that are currently in use or an experimental warning that contained a number of physical and content improvements. The techniques used to improve the design of the experimental warning included color, borders, symbols, improved message clarity, the addition of a warning source and warning personalization. Compliance rates and reaction time responses were collected for each of the two warnings. Preliminary results indicated that the warning improvement increased compliance, though not at a statistically significant level. Potential directions for computer security software design, user training, and future research are discussed.
Information Visualizations as Complex Decision Support Systems
Authors: Price Margaux M. , Pak Richard
Published: January 2012

Older adults are faced with complex decision tasks that impose high working memory demands. A representative task is choosing a prescription drug plan from a multitude of options that must be evaluated along many factors. The combined effect of the quantity of complex information, and reduced working memory capacity puts older adults at a disadvantage. However, research with younger adults suggests that the working memory burden of decision tasks can be reduced using well-designed graphic decision aids. The current study examines the feasibility of using information visualizations as a decision support system for complex decision tasks. Findings from this study will be used to make recommendations for visualizations as complex decision support systems.
The User Experience of Crowds — A Human Factors Challenge
Authors: Kendrick Victoria L. , Haslam Roger A.
Published: January 2012

Crowds are such an integral part of our everyday lives, yet research considering how the user experience of crowds can be enhanced, remains relatively underdeveloped. As with any other user interaction, the key human factors considerations of user safety, performance, comfort and satisfaction apply. A review of literature highlighted that important factors influencing the operation of crowds have been studied relatively independently, tending to focus on specific crowd situations, but rarely accounting for the interaction of factors and similarities and differences between crowd types. Focus groups exploring individual experiences of crowds revealed differences and priorities varying with age and expectations. This initial study contributes towards modeling contributory factors to the crowd experience, moving towards a more holistic understanding.
Training Novices on Hierarchical Task Analysis
Authors: Felipe Sarah K. , Adams Anne E. , Rogers Wendy A. , Fisk Arthur D.
Published: January 2012

Understanding how best to provide training for task analysis remains unspecified. This study examined how different training methods affect knowledge acquisition, focusing on content learned and errors made by novices in the initial phase of learning Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA). Participants were assigned to one of three types of declarative instructions: procedures, decision/actions, and concept map, which were representative of different types of diagrams (matrix, network, hierarchy). After instructions, participants performed task analyses of five different tasks. Questionnaire data (declarative knowledge) and task analyses (procedural knowledge) were coded on five criteria: hierarchical representation, stating high-level goal, stating plan, stating subgoals, and satisfaction criteria. Results indicated that various aspects of the task analyses were influenced more by the nature of the task than the differences in training material at this early stage of learning. Participants recognized the importance of mentioning the high-level goal, redescribing goals into subgoals, and the plan. However, the hierarchical aspect and considering satisfaction criteria were not prevalent in either recall test or the task analyses produced. Participants in the concept map condition did identify a larger number of subgoals, but further studies are needed to understand this effect. This study informs research about various types of diagrams that are useful for training and adds to the literature on training HTA itself.
Quantifying Active Safety System Performance at Pedestrian Detection
Authors: Smith Kip
Published: January 2012

This practice-oriented paper discusses a novel approach to quantifying the quality of pedestrian detection by in-vehicle night-vision technology. The MaxiMin metric of similarity between sets is sufficiently general to be applicable to a broad range of sensor systems and is not limited to infrared systems. The metric is an asymmetric variant of the Hausdorff Distance that incorporates two sets of weights. The first applies a greater weigh to false negatives (misses) than to false positives (false alarms). The second uses pedestrian height as a proxy for proximity and, hence, risk. The discussion of the mathematics of the metric is followed by a pair of illustrative examples and a discussion of how the metric can inform the design and active safety systems.
The Effect of Hazard Perception Training on Traffic-Scene Movies Categorization
Authors: Borowsky Avinoam , Meir Anat , Oron-Gilad Tal , Shinar David , Parmet Yisrael
Published: January 2012

Recently we have developed an innovative hazard perception training methodology, the Act and Anticipate Hazard Perception Training (AAHPT) that exposes young-inexperienced drivers to a large variety of traffic-scene movies. Trainees are asked to act (i.e., respond) each time they perceive a hazard. Trained and untrained young-inexperienced drivers, as well as experienced drivers were tested on 58 short video clips of hazardous situations and were asked to respond each time they detected a hazard. Finally, all drivers observed six traffic-scene movies and were asked to categorize them according to the similarity in their hazardous situations. In general, the trained young-inexperienced drivers were more aware of potential hazards than the untrained control group. Conclusions and implications of the categorization task are discussed.
Adaptive Automation Effects on Operator Performance during a Reconnaissance Mission with an Unmanned Ground Vehicle
Authors: Cosenzo Keryl , Chen Jessie , Reinerman-Jones Lauren , Barnes Michael , Nicholson Denise
Published: January 2012

We simulated a generic military crew station and examined the workload and performance of robotics operators when interacting with a ground robot in the two modes of robotic autonomy, teleoperation or semi-autonomous. We examined the effect of autonomy and invocation strategies on performance. The operator had either full teleoperation (manual) or semiautonomy (static) regardless of task load. In a third condition, the robots autonomy changed based on task load (adaptive). The operator had to identify hostile targets during the mission and maintain situation awareness (SA) of his local environment and the overall mission via a SA map. Results showed that when task load increased from low to high, participants' SA performance was better in the adaptive and static automation conditions than the manual condition; their threat detection performance degradation was less in manual and adaptive than in the static condition. On the other hand, when task load shifted from high to low, threat detection performance was better in the adaptive than the other two conditions.
Human Systems Integration: A Discrete Event Simulation of Operational Utility for Control of Multiple Small Unmanned Aerial Systems
Authors: Colombi John M. , Ward Jill R.
Published: January 2012

Recently, small unmanned aircraft systems have become ubiquitous in military battlefield operations due to their intelligence collection capabilities. However, the operator's interaction with the system and the system's environment reduces potential surveillance time, thus encouraging further research into human system integration (HSI). Single operator-focused discrete event simulation serves to evaluate Human Computer Interaction (HCI) for multi-vehicle employment. The model incorporates statistical time measurement for operational tasks, as well as empirical models of HCI performance. Paired t-tests show statistical benefit in surveillance time of employing autonomous relay navigation and managing multiple pairs of small unmanned aerial systems for beyond line-of-sight missions.
Too Good to be Bad: The Effect of Favorable Expectations on Usability Perceptions
Authors: Raita Eeva , Oulasvirta Antti
Published: January 2012

The most common measurements in the task-based usability evaluation paradigm include behavioral (e.g., completion times or errors) and subjective measures (e.g., ratings). Previous work has shown that success and performance in the test tasks do not dictate subjective usability perceptions, which instead are affected by appraisals of the system such as those of its aesthetic appeal. While these appraisals are an outcome of the exposure to and the interaction with the system, less is known about the effect of predispositions (expectations) formed before any exposure. To understand how expectations influence usability perceptions, we devised an experiment wherein 36 subjects read a positive or a negative product review for a novel mobile device (while a control group read nothing) before a usability test. The results demonstrate a surprisingly strong amplifying effect of the positive expectation on the post-experiment ratings, which, interestingly, held even in a condition where the users failed in all of the tasks. We briefly discuss implications of this finding.
Design Specifications for the Scenario-Based Training Automated Collection and Evaluation System (SBT-ACES)
Authors: Stagl Kevin C. , Schatz Sae , Fowlkes Jennifer , Santarelli Thomas
Published: January 2012

Evaluation is a powerful mechanism for realizing engaging, effective and efficient training. The data distilled from summative and formative evaluations can be used to iteratively improve synthetic learning environments, scenario-based content, and assessment tools, thereby enabling more personally meaningful learning experiences. In this paper, we leverage the science of training, psychometric theory, and artificial intelligence to inform the design of the Scenario-Based Training - Automated Collection and Evaluation System (SBT-ACES). SBT-ACES provides instructors with an integrated analytics toolset to facilitate the collection, manipulation, analysis and visualization of evaluative data from a federation of systems, titled the Instructional Support System (ISS). The ISS is a constellation of applications, databases and devices supporting Marine Air Ground Task Force (MAGTF) training via the Digital Virtual Training Environment (DVTE), a laptop-based simulation suite deployed worldwide. A machine learning component within the ISS can leverage post-synthesized SBT-ACES data to continuously tune training such that, over time, accumulated evidence enables content to be adaptively tailored to optimize trainees' learning experiences.
The Effects of Alarm System Reliability and Reaction Training Strategy on Alarm Responses
Authors: Bliss James P. , Chancey Eric
Published: January 2012

Research has shown that humans react predictably to unreliable alarm systems and that some variables may mediate the relationship between alarm reliability and performance. Researchers have identified alarm design and operator training strategies to improve task operator reactions. The goal of the current project was to train task performers to use sensor activity patterns to improve subsequent alarm reactions. Eighty participants monitored a simulated security screen while completing a primary word search task. During low- and high-alarm reliability sessions motion sensors activated in various rooms, requiring acknowledgement. Alarms then activated, requiring participants to respond or ignore them. Participants received spatial, temporal, single sensor, or no training. They were also aware of alarm system reliability levels. Analyses revealed quicker reactions for trained participants and to high reliability alarms. Results suggest that single sensor training was most beneficial and that participants who received temporal training relied on alarm reliability as a cue.
Training Issues in Military and Defense
Authors: Madhavan Poornima
Published: January 2012

The purpose of this symposium is to provide an in-depth discussion of some of the key training issues in the defense and military fields. The massive scale and diversity of physiological and psychological needs of personnel in these fields render the training challenges in these domains unique from any other. Training in maintenance, in tactics, and in piloting or control of aircraft or ships, present several issues of interest to the human factors community that are discussed in this session. The symposium is comprised of four papers presented by scientists and practitioners with extensive experience in designing training methodologies specific to military and defense. The range of topics discussed in this session include: game-based training techniques for counterinsurgency operations, intelligent tutors for ship handling skills, and techniques for training emotion management and self-development for military personnel. The symposium concludes with a discussion of computer-based language and culture training for deployed troops with particular emphasis on culturally generalizable politeness and etiquette norms.
The Anchoring Heuristic in Intelligence Integration: A Bias in Need of De-Biasing
Authors: Wickens Christopher D. , Ketels Shaw L. , Healy Alice F. , Buck-Gengler Carolyn J. , Bourne Lyle E.
Published: January 2012

In information integration tasks, anchoring is a prominent heuristic, such that the first few arriving information sources (cues) tend to be given greater weight on the final integration product, than those cues following. Such a bias may be particularly problematic when the situation is dynamic, such that earlier arriving cues are more likely to have changed, and hence are less reliable for the final integration judgment. Such is often the case in military intelligence, when enemy intentions are inferred from multiple sources. We describe results of a simulation of such intelligence gathering in which anchoring is prominently manifest, in the processing of seven sequentially delivered cues bearing on enemy threat. In Experiment 1, an anchoring bias was present. In Experiment 2, a simple “de-biasing” wording inserted in the instructions and emphasizing the age of intelligence information induced more optimal weighting of the most recent cues, but did not eliminate anchoring.
Individual Differences in Complex Task Performance: Interaction Effects of Risk-Taking Behavior and Cognitive Variables
Authors: Burkolter Dina , Kluge Annette , Brand Matthias
Published: January 2012

While individual differences and their influence on training and performance have been widely examined in fields such as industrial or educational psychology, they have not been a strong focus of human factors research. The present study aims to investigate the relationship between individual characteristics and complex task performance with special consideration of interaction effects. Fifty engineering students participated in a four-hour training session on a simulated process control task and a testing session one week later. Before the training session, the following individual characteristics were assessed: risk-taking behavior, general mental ability (GMA), and need for cognition (NFC). Interaction effects of risk-taking behavior and GMA, as well as of risk-taking behavior and NFC, on performance were found. Twenty to 30% of the variance in system control performance was accounted for by the individual characteristics and their interaction effects. Findings suggest that interaction effects should be systematically investigated in future research concerning individual differences in the context of human—system interaction.
Distance Estimation Training: A Proposed Model of Transfer
Authors: Hall Allyson R. , Jones Keith S.
Published: January 2012

Distance estimation is neither universally good nor universally bad. Rather, the level of accuracy generally depends on the task being performed. When misestimation does occur, training protocols have been implemented to improve one's ability to estimate distance. Unfortunately, results are mixed with regards to the effects of distance estimation training on subsequent task performance. Consequently, reliable statements regarding the conditions within which transfer will occur are limited. As a result, the ability to apply these mixed findings to real world situations is hampered. As a solution, a transfer model was created using the Two Visual Systems Hypothesis as a foundation. Interestingly, one area of the model lacks evidence. Specifically, the effects of perceptual-motor recalibration training on subsequent ventrally-guided distance estimation tasks are unclear.
A Study of Bicycle Design as it Affects Safety of Operation
Authors: Purswell Jerry L. , Terrell Robert , Greene Jeff , Lundquist David
Published: January 2012

This paper presents the results of studies concerned with bicycle design and safety of operation. One study concerned the relationship between handlebar design, i.e., racing, regular and hi-rise, to bicycle control. It was found that the popular racing style handlebars used on the popular ten-speed bicycle produces problems in sensing visual and auditory information and responding to this information as compared to the regular handlebar design.

A second study concerned the braking capability of bicycles, the control while braking, and the grip strength required for braking. Serious problems were found in both the adequacy of brake design in relation to grip strength of riders and in the control of the bicycle during hard braking.
A Comparison between Standard and Reduced Detail Maps in a Tactical Operations Systems
Authors: Granda Thomas M.
Published: January 2012

For the past several years the Army Research Institute has been developing and testing SIMTOS—a simulated tactical operations system. SIMTOS may be described as a physical simulation of an Army command post in a controlled exercise environment. A major goal of SIMTOS is the examination of data handling by high level decision making personnel. In a typical SIMTOS experiment a group of senior military officers with tactical command experience are randomly divided into two groups, i.e., a standard and an experimental group. All Ss undergo two phases of simulated tactical operations—a planning phase and a combat phase. During each phase, mission criteria and subobjectives are imposed on the Ss. The two groups are evaluated in both phases of the experiment in regard to final scoring criteria based upon an ad hoc military school solution to the entire tactical exercise, and in respect to more immediate criteria (e.g., time to initiate action, number and types of information requests made to computer based data, etc.) related to the variable that defines the experimental group.

To date the major research efforts associated with SIMTOS have been concerned with; (a) identification of minimum essential information requirements for offensive and defensive tactical operations planning; and, (b) evaluations of various methods of displaying information. The findings from these studies, coupled with information generated from a user workshop on displays and supported by field data, suggest that current Army requirements for tactical displays may be too stringent. That is, the display requirements may call for an excess amount of data with too great a level of detail.

Tactical maps are a very good example of displays that may provide an excess of information. This presentation will describe the results of a study aimed at determining whether a set of tactical maps which are considerably reduced in detail can be used as effectively for tactical decision making as a set of standard Army tactical maps. Performance of the “standard map” and “reduced detail map” groups will be discussed in terms of general independent variables such as “tactical effectiveness” as well as task specific criteria such as; (a) area captured; (b) friendly troop attrition; (c) enemy attrition, etc.

The implications of these results to other aspects of decision making and display research (e.g., management information systems) will be discussed.
Pattern and Motion Characteristics of Visually Time-Compressed Target Detection in Static Noise
Authors: Moll Jeffrey D. , Williges Robert C.
Published: January 2012

An experiment was performed testing different pattern and motion cues for enhancement of detection rates in visual search for linear target patterns imbedded in heavy static noise. Eight subjects participated in a factorial, within-subject design which included the number of spots in the target pattern, the rate of advancement of the target pattern on the display, the successive spot duration in the target pattern, and the interspot distance for successive spots in the target pattern. Time required to detect and designate targets was used as the dependent variable. Displays were presented via a computer-controlled plasma panel equipped with a touch-sensing device for target pattern designation. Analyses of the data revealed that both the rate of advancement of the target pattern and the spot duration were important factors for facilitating rapid detection of targets when spatial definition was poor, but such cues were less critical when spatial definition of the targets was enhanced. Results were discussed in terms of the relationship among pattern and motion cues in the target detection task.
Methods for Measuring Reduced Work Capacity as a Function of Continuing Work: A Critical Review
Authors: Rabideau Gerald F. , Maddux Barbara J.
Published: January 2012

This paper reviews applied experimental work done through 1973, covering more than 40 studies, with the objective of determining which techniques which offer the greatest prospects of measuring the effects of “driver fatigue” vis a vis level of operator alertness and the performance of safety-critical highway vehicle driving behaviours. Criteria for evaluating applicability of measuring techniques should include their individual validity, reliability, the ease of obtaining measures without interfering with the driver's actual state, and their practicality in terms of personnel, equipment, and space required for each. This review also examines the more important deficiencies of prior methodological approaches. Recommendations are made for a “package” of measuring techniques most appropriate to this problem.
Effects of time, Rate of Information Presentation and Physical Threat Stress on Perceptual-Motor Performance
Authors: Owens Jerry M. , Gibson Richard S. , Harris Steven D.
Published: January 2012

The effects of time, rate of information presentation and physical threat stress were investigated through the use of on-line computer techniques to measure performance on three simultaneously occurring tasks. The three tasks consisted of complex discrimination, psychomotor coordination, and warning light monitoring. Thirty-six male naval aviation officer candidates were randomly assigned to 4 groups of 9 S s each. Stress was produced by the threat of a mild electric shock if the appropriate response was not made within 3 seconds after the occurrence of the warning light. No-stress groups also performed the same monitoring task but without the threat of shock. The presentation rate of the stimuli associated with the psychomotor coordination task was either varied or held constant as the three tasks were performed for 43.2 minutes. The variables of stress and presentation rate acted primarily to determine S's allocation of attention to the three tasks in the early part of the test session. With increased time on task, total performance improved, but the initial differences in the speed and accuracy measures of group performance diminished. These results were found to be consistent with the assumptions of capacity models of attention and also denote the importance of the duration of experimental test sessions as a procedural consideration.
Comparing Adjectival and Nonadjectival Rating Scale Responses against Performance Criteria
Authors: Helm Wade R.
Published: January 2012

Twenty-one student naval test pilots participated in a dual task experiment for the purpose of comparing the utility of adjectival and nonadjectival rating scales. Modified versions of the Cooper-Harper and McDonnell pilot rating scales were compared with the nonordinal, nonadjectival rating scale developed by Schufeldt. The primary task was a serially presented four-choice discrimination task with three levels of presentation rate. The secondary task was verbal requiring short term and long term memory dependent responses. Analyzing task demands in bits of information processed per second, provided a comparison of S's potential information processing load with his actual performance and subjective ratings. Results do not provide support for the superiority of any one rating scale in reflecting S's actual performance.
Human Factors Considerations for the U.S. Army Test Bed Aircraft System
Authors: LeCocq Andrew D.
Published: January 2012

This paper will discuss an extensive human factors program conducted as part of a study contract for the U. S. Army Electronics Command. The purpose of the study was to determine the hardware requirements for a test bed helicopter that would be used by the Army for flight testing various possible combinations of gross and imaging sensors.

The initial phases of the human factors program included several different analysis efforts such as a functional/task analysis, information flow analysis and a functional/task allocations. Also a major portion of the effort was the controls/displays analysis and definition which included the rear cockpit consoles design and installation, the front cockpit reconfiguration and several unique control/display interface equipment items. A full sized helicopter cockpit was mocked up during the program which aided the various analyses efforts considerably. Also, some preliminary flight tests were performed as part of the study effort.

The end product of the study consisted of documentation of the overall human factors approach as well as the definition of the final recommended cockpit, design.
Human Factors in Industry - Getting the Point Across
Authors: Lucas Richard L.
Published: January 2012

Industry is currently experiencing an increased interest in human factors information and the application of this knowledge. The greatest surge seems to be not in classic “product” applications but in “process” approaches. The application of human factors techniques to the manufacturing act and the particular problems of groups with such interests are discussed in this paper.
Prediction of Target Detection Thresholds on the Basis of Physiological Considerations
Authors: Bernstein Arthur
Published: January 2012

This paper presents a physiological math model which predicts the liminal contrast required to detect a target as a function of target size, background brightness and exposure time. The model is based on the premise that target detection occurs when the difference in response of cells across a target/background brightness contour is greater than some threshold. This premise is supported by recent physiological and psycho-physical measurements.

A logical “wiring diagram” for the retina is conceived which resembles the actual anatomy of the retina. The photo-receptor cells, bipolar cells and ganglion cells in the model are given simple mathematical response functions. The target detection requirement for a minimum threshold response difference across a contour is used to develop a mathematical expression of threshold target brightness as a function of background brightness. There are two major parameters in the expression for threshold target brightness: 1) Photo-receptor sensitivity to incident luminance, 2) The threshold response difference required for target detection. The expression for threshold target brightness fits the experimental data well.

The model is expanded to explain the variation of the sensitivity and threshold parameters with target size and exposure time. The resulting model is self-consistent and closely agrees with the experimental data for background luminance levels of less than one foot lambert and exposure times less than .1 sec.

The results presented in this paper indicate that a coupling of psycho-physical measurements with physiological and anatomical findings leads to both a greater understanding of the physiological processes involved and a more powerful formulation of the psycho-physical results.
Preview of the Special Issue of Human Factors on “Human Resources as Criteria for System Design and Organization Planning”
Authors: Askren William B.
Published: January 2012

A special issue of Human Factors will be published in early 1975 on the topic, “Human Resources as Criteria for System Design and Organization Planning” The theme of the special issue, and abstracts of each of the six articles are presented.
Analysis and Design of Child Resistant Closures
Authors: Hill Percy H.
Published: January 2012

In an attempt to show that the design of child resistant closures requires some fresh new thinking, this paper points out the magnitude of the problem involving injuries to children from ingestion and contact with harmful products. The Poison Prevention Packaging Act of 1970 is discussed in some detail. The nature of children under five years of age is developed from both a physiological and psychological point of view. This leads to the writing of design criteria for future closure designs. Present closure devices are critically analyzed and a number of new directions in closure design are illustrated and discussed.
A Study of Moving Base Simulation Motion Cues Utilizing Washout Technique
Authors: Kirkpatrick Mark , Shields Nicholas , Brye Ronald , Vinz Frank L.
Published: January 2012

The present study was conducted to derive data on non-visual motion thresholds utilizing washout technique, and to develop specific threshold values for use as washout parameters. It describes the results of acceleration detection studies carried out using the NASA MSFC General Purpose Simulator which provides six degree-of-freedom cab motion. A series of experiments was performed to test the hypothesis that constant velocity visual cues might suppress non-visual deceleration sensitivity.

The psychophysical method employed was the forced-choice procedure which theoretically yields a pure sensitivity measure. The MSFC General Purpose Simulator was programmed to provide velocity ramps in three axes – pitch, fore–aft translation, and vertical translation. Data were collected with and without a constant velocity visual input. Comparison of the current results with classical data suggested significantly greater sensitivity of the human observer to fore-aft accelerations than has generally been reported, sensitivity tending to depend on motion direction and sign of velocity change.