bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Mstislav Dobuzhinsky and ukiyo-e: new visual horizons
Authors: Shiells Svitlana
Published: May 2018

For Western modern artists Japonisme was like a new religion – a stimulus that offered salvation from the conservative grasp of academism and unimaginative realism. Fin de siècle Eastern European artists also gradually developed a strong fascination with Japan and its culture. This paper examines one of the most enthusiastic advocates of Japonisme – a Russian-Lithuanian artist Mstislav Dobuzhinsky. Placing Dobuzhinsky’s art in the broader context of Eastern European Japonisme, this paper examines the role of Japanese stimuli in Dobuzhinsky’s artistic pursuits. Starting from the early 1900s, Dobuzhinsky’s art was visibly recast under the influence of Japanese aesthetics. The paper argues that Japanese aesthetics brought electrifying new ideas into Dobuzhinsky’s art and not only played a seminal role in the formation of his style but may have ignited his interest in graphics.
A Revelação no pensamento de Martin Buber
Authors: Aquiles von Zuben Newton
Published: May 2018

Este artigo pretende apresentar o conceito de revelação no pensamento de Martin Buber como ponto axial e fundante da ontologia da relação ao concretizar a “interpresencialidade” no encontro com o Tu Eterno. A revelação é um dom de Deus, a presença de Deus ao homem sem um conteúdo doutrinal sob forma de legislação revelada. É o fenômeno pelo qual o homem não sai do momento de encontro supremo do mesmo modo que entrou. À interpelação, o homem responde pela fé (emunah). É no “entre-dois” — zwischen — que ocorre o evento da revelação (Offenbarung) e a fé (Glauben). A noção de “presença”, em seu sentido denso, expressa o mistério do encontro entre Deus e o homem. A palavra de revelação é esta: Eu sou presente como aquele que sou presente (Ehyeh Asher Ehieh) (Êxodo 3:12).
Quem precisa de Direitos? O fenômeno violência em contraposição aos direitos e à moralidade cristã
Authors: Domingues Gleyds Silva , Domingues Ana Carolina Silva
Published: May 2018

A proposta deste artigo é analisar o fenômeno violência em contraposição aos direitos fundamentais e à moralidade cristã. Para tal finalidade busca-se compreender a forma como este fenômeno se evidencia na realidade social, na tentativa de sinalizar sobre o grau de impacto que exerce nas relações humanas, na medida em que os direitos e a moralidade são violados. Em relação aos direitos, observa seu impacto no ato de transgressão do que é mais valioso ao ser humano, a dignidade e a vida. Na moralidade cristã, o que se busca é ressaltar que a prática da violência causa estranhamento por se distanciar de normas sociais que regem o comportamento e que são aceitas e legitimadas no âmbito da cultura. Compreende-se que a violência é um fato social complexo e polissêmico e, por isso, exige certo grau de interpretação quanto ao seu alcance e presença. O artigo elege como problemática a seguinte questão: em que medida o fenômeno violência ao infringir os direitos fundamentais e a moralidade cristã continuam sendo acomodados e maximizados na realidade social, sem que ocorra uma reeducação do ser humano biopsicossocial e espiritual? Neste sentido, o entendimento a ser construído sustenta-se nos estudos de teóricos sobre o fenômeno da violência, dos direitos e da moralidade. O método de pesquisa adotado é o da análise do discurso por contemplar os processos de significação que são impressos nos discursos defendidos. Não se quer apresentar um estudo finalístico sobre o fenômeno, mas contribuir com as investigações nesta área, reconhecendo que pela natureza interdisciplinar impressa neste artigo, o esforço e o desafio são ainda maiores.
Post-traumatic stress symptoms are associated with better performance on a delayed match-to-position task
Authors: Caulfield Meghan D. , Myers Catherine E.
Published: May 2018

Many individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) report experiencing frequent intrusive memories of the original traumatic event (e.g., flashbacks). These memories can be triggered by situations or stimuli that reflect aspects of the trauma and may reflect basic processes in learning and memory, such as generalization. It is possible that, through increased generalization, non-threatening stimuli that once evoked normal memories become associated with traumatic memories. Previous research has reported increased generalization in PTSD, but the role of visual discrimination processes has not been examined. To investigate visual discrimination in PTSD, 143 participants (Veterans and civilians) self-assessed for symptom severity were grouped according to the presence of severe PTSD symptoms (PTSS) vs. few/no symptoms (noPTSS). Participants were given a visual match-to-sample pattern separation task that varied trials by spatial separation (Low, Medium, High) and temporal delays (5, 10, 20, 30 s). Unexpectedly, the PTSS group demonstrated better discrimination performance than the noPTSS group at the most difficult spatial trials (Low spatial separation). Further assessment of accuracy and reaction time using diffusion drift modeling indicated that the better performance by the PTSS group on the hardest trials was not explained by slower reaction times, but rather a faster accumulation of evidence during decision making in conjunction with a reduced threshold, indicating a tendency in the PTSS group to decide quickly rather than waiting for additional evidence to support the decision. This result supports the need for future studies examining the precise role of discrimination and generalization in PTSD, and how these cognitive processes might contribute to expression and maintenance of PTSD symptoms.
Quantitative estimation of soil salinity by means of different modeling methods and visible-near infrared (VIS–NIR) spectroscopy, Ebinur Lake Wetland, Northwest China
Authors: Wang Jingzhe , Ding Jianli , Abulimiti Aerzuna , Cai Lianghong
Published: May 2018

Soil salinization is one of the most common forms of land degradation. The detection and assessment of soil salinity is critical for the prevention of environmental deterioration especially in arid and semi-arid areas. This study introduced the fractional derivative in the pretreatment of visible and near infrared (VIS–NIR) spectroscopy. The soil samples (n = 400) collected from the Ebinur Lake Wetland, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR), China, were used as the dataset. After measuring the spectral reflectance and salinity in the laboratory, the raw spectral reflectance was preprocessed by means of the absorbance and the fractional derivative order in the range of 0.0–2.0 order with an interval of 0.1. Two different modeling methods, namely, partial least squares regression (PLSR) and random forest (RF) with preprocessed reflectance were used for quantifying soil salinity. The results showed that more spectral characteristics were refined for the spectrum reflectance treated via fractional derivative. The validation accuracies showed that RF models performed better than those of PLSR. The most effective model was established based on RF with the 1.5 order derivative of absorbance with the optimal values of R2 (0.93), RMSE (4.57 dS m−1), and RPD (2.78 ≥ 2.50). The developed RF model was stable and accurate in the application of spectral reflectance for determining the soil salinity of the Ebinur Lake wetland. The pretreatment of fractional derivative could be useful for monitoring multiple soil parameters with higher accuracy, which could effectively help to analyze the soil salinity.
Overview of Aquatic Toxicity Testing under the U.S. EPA Oil Research Program
Authors: Barron Mace G. , Conmy Robyn N. , Holder Edith , Meyer Peter , Wilson Gregory J. , Principe Vanessa E. , Willming Morgan M.
Published: May 2018

2017-063 ABSTRACT

The U.S. EPA Office of Research and Development is developing baseline data on the ecotoxicity of selected petroleum products, chemical dispersants, and other spill mitigating substances as part of its Oil Research Program. Two diluted bitumens (dilbits) from the Alberta Tar Sands region are being tested for acute and chronic toxicity to standard freshwater and marine organisms given their spill potential during shipment within the United States. Separately, crude oils representing a range of characteristics and representative dispersants are being tested to evaluate acute and chronic toxicity to marine organisms in support of proposed regulatory amendments to Subpart J of the U.S. National Contingency Plan. Water accommodated fractions (WAF) of oil are prepared using traditional slow-stir methods and toxicity tests follow U.S. EPA standard effluent testing guidelines, modified for testing petroleum products. WAFs are characterized for petroleum hydrocarbons including alkyl PAH homologs. Future research plans include evaluating oil spill mitigating substances such as surface washing and bioremediation agents. The results of the research program will assist the U.S. EPA in assessing toxicity of unconventional oils (dilbits), and establish baseline toxicity data for selected crude oils and spill mitigating substances in support of planning and response activities.
Alliance forProgress (1961–69)
Authors: Field Thomas C.
Published: May 2018

The Alliance for Progress (1961–69) was a Cold War regional foreign aid initiative aimed at countering the radicalizing effects of the 1959 Cuban revolution in Latin America. The Alliance was based on anti‐communist academic theories of Third World modernization, and its aid funding was conditioned strictly on political reforms within participating countries. Targeting 2.5 percent growth over a ten‐year “decade of development,” President John F. Kennedy's Alliance envisioned $20 billion of US public and private investment flowing into Latin America over ten years. Scholarly views on the Alliance have been divided, with historians balancing its political and economic successes in avoiding a second Cuba and achieving annualized growth rates of around 3 percent against its ultimate failure to shore up democracy in a region soon beset by a wave of militarycoups d'état.
A
nschluss

(1938)
Authors: Zander Patrick G.
Published: May 2018

The
Anschluss
is the term used to describe the military occupation and formal absorption of the Republic of Austria into the German Reich during March of 1938. Italy, Britain, and France, together known as the “Stresa Front,” constructed a diplomatic alliance to preserve the independence of Austria. However, fractures between these nations made Austria increasingly vulnerable to German aggression. By 1938 Adolf Hitler was openly making threats against the Austrian government and attempting to get Austrian Nazi Party members in control of its government. Eventually Hitler decided that the weakness of the Stresa Front made it possible for him to absorb Austria into the German Reich by force. The
Anschluss
represented the first formal conquest by Adolf Hitler of a foreign nation in the series of annexations by Germany that would lead to the Second World War.
Bilateral Diplomacy
Authors: Rana Kishan S.
Published: May 2018

Bilateral diplomacy covers the way relations between pairs of countries are managed. It differs from multilateral diplomacy, including regional variants, in the partners engaged, but not in the intrinsic techniques. It is a principal task of foreign ministries, embassies, and consulates. Three decades of globalization and enhanced interdependence among states have intensified bilateral diplomacy, which means that an ever‐widening range of subjects are part of the global dialogue, that foreign ministries work with many state and non‐state actors, that volatile, unpredictable international events demand a rapid response, and that domestic and external issues have telescoped, making foreign policy issues more open to publics and attracting their interest. As a consequence of these developments foreign ministries and embassy networks function in new ways, and the forms of diplomatic representation are changing. In spite of this, many fundamental diplomatic methods have remained unchanged. The 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations remains the bedrock of bilateral diplomacy. Diplomatic systems engage in continual adaptation and innovation, using new modes of communication, but the essence of bilateral diplomacy remains unaltered.
B
lair,
T
ony (1953–)
Authors: Blair Alasdair
Published: May 2018

Tony Blair served as prime minister of the United Kingdom from May 2, 1997, until June 27, 2007, having been elected the youngest leader of the Labour Party on July 21, 1994. In office he had the distinction of winning three consecutive general election victories and being the party's longest‐serving prime minister to date. As prime minister he proved to be a divisive leader through moving the Labour Party to the center of British politics and establishing important social and constitutional changes, while at the same time supporting US foreign policy by committing the United Kingdom to participate in the invasions of Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq in 2003. The catastrophe of the Iraq War has overshadowed his significant domestic and foreign policy achievements.
BoerWar (1899–1902)
Authors: Surridge Keith
Published: May 2018

The British fought against two semi‐independent Boer republics which sought to free themselves from British oversight. One republic, Transvaal, had become economically powerful owing to the discovery of gold in 1886 and, to the British, threatened the balance of power in the region. Whether gold was the reason for the war has been debated by commentators and historians ever since. The war started badly for the British but they recovered under new military leadership. Faced, however, with a guerrilla war, the British, under Lord Kitchener, complemented their military operations by destroying Boer farms and introduced concentration camps for Boer and African civilians, many of whom consequently died. Boer resistance was worn down, forcing them to surrender. Diplomatically, Britain's isolation led to a fundamental change when Lord Lansdowne signed the Anglo‐Japanese alliance in 1902 and also made concessions to the US.
BrezhnevDoctrine
Authors: Lesaffer Randall
Published: May 2018

The Brezhnev Doctrine was promulgated to justify the invasion of Czechoslovakia by the troops of five Warsaw Pact countries in August 1968. With the invasion, the Soviet Union and its allies purported to end the liberal reforms the local communist party had initiated since March 1968 and which they considered a threat to the stability of their regimes and the integrity of the communist bloc. The Brezhnev Doctrine claimed the right and duty of socialist countries to interfere, if necessary by force, in another socialist country to safeguard the socialist revolution in that country or protect the interests of international socialism against attack from within or without by hostile, counterrevolutionary forces. Its major legal implication was that this right of international socialist solidarity superseded the principle of non‐intervention and the prohibition to use force from general international law. Under Mikhail Gorbachev (1931–), the Brezhnev Doctrine was revoked. This was the single most crucial step in surrendering Soviet hegemony over East and Central Europe as it created the conditions for liberalization and democratization in the different member‐states of the Warsaw Pact without fear of Soviet military intervention.
Bullitt,William (1891–1967)
Authors: Doenecke Justus D.
Published: May 2018

Diplomat William Bullitt (1891–1967) first became prominent during World War I as a well‐known correspondent of thePhiladelphia Public Ledger. Once the United States entered the war, he became in turn chief of the Bureau of Central European Information (1917–18) and confidential American emissary to Russia, in which capacity he tried unsuccessfully to secure Allied acceptance for V. I. Lenin's peace terms. The 1920s saw him employed in the movie industry but in 1933 President Roosevelt appointed him special assistant to secretary of state Cordell Hull, then ambassador to the Soviet Union (1933–36). As ambassador to France (1936–40), he first favored Franco‐German cooperation, then militant resistance to Hitler's policies. Though strongly supporting Roosevelt's interventionist measures in 1940–41, he split with FDR over the role of diplomat Sumner Welles and never received another appointment. As a private citizen, he continually warned that the Soviets sought world domination.
C
arter,
J
immy (1924–)
Authors: Dumbrell John
Published: May 2018

President Jimmy Carter's (1924–) early presidential diplomacy was focused on the areas of human rights and regional peace‐making. Diplomatic achievements during this time included the signing of the Camp David Accords between Israel and Egypt and the successful negotiation of the Panama Canal Treaty. The initial phase of the Carter presidency ended in 1979 with the Iranian Revolution and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, events that revealed strained relations between executive branch agencies and led to the resignation of secretary of state Cyrus Vance. The era of détente had clearly ended by the time Carter left office in January 1981.
Cecil,William (LordBurghley) (1520/1–98)
Authors: Sowerby Tracey A.
Published: May 2018

William Cecil, Lord Burghley (1520/1–98) was Elizabeth I's (r. 1558–1603) closest adviser for four decades. He collaborated with the queen on foreign policy in his capacity as a privy councilor and principal secretary (1559–72, 1590–96). He was heavily involved in diplomatic correspondence, diplomatic instructions, and the selection of Elizabethan diplomats. His policies were focused on preserving the queen and her faith from her Catholic detractors.
C
hamberlain,
A
usten (1863–1937)
Authors: Webster Andrew
Published: May 2018

Sir Austen Chamberlain (1863–1937) served as British foreign secretary in the Conservative government of Stanley Baldwin from 1924 until 1929. His importance in diplomacy derives from his role as one of the three architects of the so‐called “Locarno era,” alongside Aristide Briand of France and Gustav Stresemann of Germany. This was a period characterized by increasing international stability and even relative harmony in Europe, named after the Treaty of Locarno of December 1925 and following from the new security settlement that it embodied. For his achievements, Chamberlain was awarded the 1925 Nobel Prize for Peace.
Cold War Diplomacy
Authors: Snyder David J.
Published: May 2018

The Cold War was both a diplomatic
contest
between the United States and the Soviet Union and also a
context
in which diplomatic relations among other states occurred. The mainspring of Cold War diplomacy was the conflict between the Americans and the Russians, but many kinds of diplomatic endeavor took place outside of this bipolar framework.
Demetrias: The Coup of 192bce
Authors: Hoyos Dexter
Published: May 2018

The coup in 192bceby the Aetolian League to seize control of Demetrias, a major fortress city on the gulf of Pagasae in eastern Greece, precipitated the Rome–Syria War of 191–188 against the wishes of both Rome and the Seleucid king Antiochus III. Tensions and dissatisfaction had been growing among many Greek states, especially the Aetolian League, over Rome's dominant position in Greece and the Aegean. Rome's diplomatic efforts to block Antiochus's expansionism in the Aegean region in turn exacerbated tensions between these two powers. The coup at Demetrias forced the king's hand – but in challenging Rome, the Aetolians and Antiochus III brought their world under the unexpected hegemony of Rome.
Cultural Diplomacy
Authors: Mori Jennifer
Published: May 2018

Cultural diplomacy (CD) is a set of actions and practices which employ the exchange of values, traditions, beliefs, and other aspects of national or international culture to create or strengthen relationships, improve communication or cooperation, and promote mutual interest. CD may function independently, though often appears as an adjunct to political and economic diplomacy.
F
errante d'Aragona (1424/31–94)
Authors: Senatore Francesco
Published: May 2018

Ferrante d'Aragona (1424 or 1431–94) was king of Naples from 1458. After the death of Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milan (1466), Ferrante was one of the most important Italian politicians and a protagonist of European history. He was among the first European sovereigns to employ resident ambassadors, in Rome, Florence, and Milan, and he maintained relations with Aragon, Burgundy, France, Hungary, and the Muslim states. His objectives were the neutralization of the Angevin party, which claimed the kingdom of Naples, and hegemony for the Neapolitan kingdom in Italy and the Mediterranean.

Ferrante was brought up in a multilingual environment and had a juridical education. But his education was furthered by experience in practical affairs rather than by schooling in humanism.
Field of Cloth of Gold (1520)
Authors: Richardson Glenn
Published: May 2018

The Field of Cloth of Gold was a meeting between Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France in June 1520. Some 12,000 people were involved in the encounter which lasted for two weeks. It was, in effect, a tournament with associated banquets, at which the two sides celebrated an alliance organized between them by Cardinal Wolsey as part of a papal “universal peace” among Christian princes made in 1518. The meeting was characterized by extravagant entertainments, gift‐giving, and displays of military skill as each side tried to persuade and intimidate the other into cooperation on its own terms. It was a piece of political theater that became a byword for Renaissance royal extravagance and ostentation.
First World War (1914–18)
Authors: Sharp Alan
Published: May 2018

This entry offers an overview of diplomacy in the First World War under a series of headings: inter‐allied negotiations; the search for new allies; dealings with neutrals; and the events leading to the armistices of 1918. Traditional diplomacy came under critical scrutiny with alternatives prescribed by American president Woodrow Wilson and the Russian revolutionary leader Vladimir Ilych Lenin.
French Religious Wars, Treaties of (1562–98)
Authors: Fett Denice
Published: May 2018

The term “French Wars of Religion” (1562–98) describes a series of several brief, indecisive religious civil wars fought between the Catholic French Crown and French Protestants, known as Huguenots. In the late sixteenth century there were nine total wars, some of which lasted only a few months. In many cases each “war” was ended with some type of negotiated truce, peace, or treaty between the French Crown and its Huguenot subjects. However, these treaties failed to resolve any of the problems that caused the wars themselves.

Although each war was brief and indecisive, collectively the wars led to the collapse of central authority in France and to widespread religious conflict in a period of virtual anarchy. With varying provisions of toleration, the treaties inflamed Catholics but failed to provide Huguenots with enough guarantees. In an environment of religious absolutes, the Crown's hopes for a negotiated political solution proved impossible.
Gentz,Friedrich (1764–1832)
Authors: Cahen Raphaël
Published: May 2018

Born in Silesia to a Franco‐Prussian family, Friedrich Gentz (1764–1832) studied law and philosophy in Königsberg with Immanuel Kant before entering the Prussian civil service in Berlin. After the French Revolution, he became a famous translator and an active member of the post‐Enlightenment movement. Around 1800 he published various essays on the theory of international law such asPerpetual Peace,but decided to quit Berlin because of debts and dissatisfaction with Prussian neutrality in the Napoleonic Wars. In 1802, he became an adviser to the Habsburgs in Vienna as well as a political and literary hub during the wars, before playing the same role as secretary of the Vienna Congress and of all the congresses that constituted the Concert of Europe. As one of the main theorists of, and participants in, the Congress system, he also figured in the Carlsbad Decrees and served as an orientalist in charge of Austrian relations with the provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia and the Ottoman Empire. He died in 1832, already forgotten.
Great Game in
A
sia
Authors: Fraser T. G.
Published: May 2018

Captured in Kipling's
Kim
, the Great Game linked the affairs of the British and Russian empires with the fate of central Asia and Afghanistan for much of the nineteenth century. It gave rise to the First and Second Afghan Wars.
HenryVIII(1491–1547)
Authors: Sowerby Tracey A.
Published: May 2018

The diplomacy of Henry VIII (1491–1547, r. 1509–47) was strongly influenced by two factors: competition with the French king and Holy Roman emperor and, in the latter half of his reign, by his marital and religious policies. He engaged in intermittent wars with France and Scotland during his reign and was responsible for a significant expansion in the use of resident diplomats as well as several innovations in diplomatic practice.
Institute of Pacific Relations
Authors: Mimaki Seiko
Published: May 2018

The Institute of Pacific Relations (IPR) was founded in 1925 as one of the earliest transnational NGOs in the Asia‐Pacific region. The IPR provided an international forum for discussing various regional issues, and soon developed into the largest multilateral organization in the region, and drew together leading intellectuals from both within and outside the region. Given the emergence of a peaceful Asia‐Pacific, IPR members believed that their mission should be to build a “Pacific Community,” where more equal partnership between Western powers and non‐Western powers would be achieved.

Deepening international crises in the 1930s, however, changed the atmosphere of the IPR: IPR members came under heavy influence of governments and the two conferences held during World War II were attended by a large number of government officials. The heightened political tensions of the Cold War caused the IPR to close its doors in 1961.
International Court of Justice
Authors: Baetens Freya , Kluwen Tim
Published: May 2018

The International Court of Justice (ICJ or the Court) is the judicial organ of the United Nations. This entry first sets out the historical background: how the ICJ took over from its predecessor, the Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ). Second, the ICJ's objectives and competence are addressed followed by, third, the structure of the Court in terms of its composition and registry. The fourth section provides an overview of the three forms of jurisdiction (contentious, incidental, and advisory) while the fifth presents an insight in ICJ procedure. Sixth, this entry examines compliance and enforcement issues relating to ICJ decisions and, seventh, outlines some of the criticisms faced by the ICJ and proposals for reform, focusing on the applicable law before the ICJ, fact‐finding and evidence, working methods, and the ICJ's suitability as a forum within the current context of international adjudicatory proliferation, to conclude with, eighth, the continued significance of the ICJ.
Iroquois Diplomacy
Authors: Jon Parmenter
Published: May 2018

Concern for peacemaking resides at the core of Iroquois culture. After the arrival of Europeans in North America, the combination of Iroquois political acumen and the geographical location of their homelands astride key water‐routes linking the Atlantic to the continental interior made Iroquois conventions pervasive in cross‐cultural diplomacy in northeastern North America. Through the end of the American Revolution, the Iroquois engaged actively with competing empires on the periphery of their homelands, balancing skilled negotiations conducted by a large and experienced corps of diplomats with calibrated direct involvement in warfare that preserved their well‐known reputation for military strength. Post‐revolutionary Iroquois diplomacy witnessed efforts to protect remaining homelands from the depredations of settler governments. The legacy of traditional Iroquois diplomacy continues in the contemporary era through calls from Iroquois political activists for the return of treaty‐making as a critical means of restoring their sovereign standing eroded by colonialism.
I
talian Wars – Treaties of 1494–1559
Authors: Shaw Christine
Published: May 2018

There were over fifty treaties directly relating to the Italian Wars of 1494 to 1559. Only one of them involved solely Italian powers, and only one of the major leagues was formed on the initiative of Italian states. France was a party to two‐thirds of the treaties, and most of the remainder were directed against France, a reflection of the importance of the dynastic ambitions of the French kings in initiating and continuing the conflicts throughout the wars, but the final Treaty of Cateau‐Cambrésis left Spain as the unchallenged dominant power in Italy.
L
ippmann,
W
alter (1889–1974)
Authors: Doenecke Justus D.
Published: May 2018

Journalist Walter Lippmann (1889–1974), an extremely influential American columnist, began his writing on foreign policy as contributing editor of the
New Republic
. An interventionist before the United States entered World War I, he was chosen by Wilson's alter ego, Colonel Edward H. House, to coordinate the Inquiry, a task force entrusted with long‐range planning for the postwar world. Though instrumental in framing the Fourteen Points, he strongly opposed the Versailles Treaty and the League of Nations. As editor of the
New York World
(1922–31) and columnist for the
New York Herald Tribune
(1931–63), he was strongly anti‐interventionist until the Munich Agreements of 1938. During World War II he called for retaining the American–British–Russian alliance intact after the conflict. In 1947 he sharply criticized George F. Kennan's containment policy. As columnist for the
Washington Post
(1963–67) and
Newsweek
(1962–71) he vehemently opposed the Vietnam War.
L
isbon
T
reaty
Authors: Blair Alasdair
Published: May 2018

The Lisbon Treaty was signed by the then twenty‐seven European Union (EU) member‐states on December 13, 2007, and entered into force on December 1, 2009. Although it was the most significant reform to the EU since the Maastricht Treaty, it was the product of a long and drawn‐out series of negotiations that had commenced at the Laeken European Council of December 2001 when EU leaders committed to make the EU “more democratic, more transparent and more efficient.” The so‐called Laeken Declaration sparked a series of discussions to reform the EU's decision‐making processes and to review the policies and structures within it. This led to a proposal for an EU Constitutional Treaty which faced popular unrest among the electorate of many EU countries who were, among other factors, concerned about the very use of the term “constitution.” When French and Dutch voters rejected the Constitutional Treaty in 2005 it was clear that the treaty could not succeed. Two years later in 2007 the baton to reform the EU was taken up by the German chancellor Angela Merkel who sought to inject new impetus into the discussions. This in turn led to the creation of an intergovernmental conference (IGC) that was chaired by Portugal in the second half of 2007 and which concluded with agreement on the Lisbon Treaty.
Liudprand ofCremona (c.920–c.972)
Authors: Nash Penelope
Published: May 2018

Liudprand of Cremona (c. 920–c. 972) entered the court of King Hugh of Italy in 931, undertook diplomatic missions initially for King Berengar II of Italy, and then for the East Frankish king Otto, later Emperor Otto I. Otto appointed him bishop of Cremona in 962. He traveled as ambassador to Constantinople on three or possibly four occasions. His three main works areAntapodosis(Tit‐for‐Tat),Liber de rebus gestis Ottonis(A Chronicle of Otto's Reign), andRelatio de legatio Constantinopolitana(Liudprand as Emissary).Antapodosiscovers the period from 887 until 949 and depicts God's support of the good and his punishment of the wicked kings and queens of Italy, Byzantium, and Burgundy, and their followers. TheLiberportrays the activities of Emperor Otto I between 961 and 964. Otto was crowned emperor by Pope John XII at Rome in 962, and then Otto, finding him treacherous, deposed him and appointed Pope Leo VIII in John's place. TheRelatioprovides a vivid portrait of Constantinople in 968 and 969. The brilliant, witty, and at times acerbic writings of this diplomat and erudite Latin, Greek, biblical, and ecclesiastical scholar are a major source for the history, lives, and political maneuvers of the aristocrats of northern Italy, Burgundy, southern Italy, and Byzantium from 887 until Liudprand's death in 972.
Machiavelli,Niccolò (1469–1527)
Authors: Fournel Jean‐Louis
Published: May 2018

The experience of Machiavelli in the Florentine Chancery from 1498 to 1512, where he was in charge of foreign policy, was important in developing his understanding of how a new political situation had arisen from a state of near‐permanent warfare. Machiavelli came to be convinced that the Florentine republic could disappear unless diplomacy and warfare were placed at the center of its policy. This was a new way of thinking about government and it also stimulated a new school of political writing. Diplomacy was an apprenticeship in this school because it required a great deal of writing every day, and effective writing demanded direct, clear, and efficient prose in order to be understood. The new type of writing adopted by Machiavelli was a break from the traditional forms of political treatises and explains the reception he received throughout Europe.
M
atsuoka
Y
osuke (1880–1946)
Authors: Doenecke Justus D.
Published: May 2018

Japanese diplomat Matsuoka Yosuke (1880–1946) began his diplomatic service by holding minor posts in China (1904–12), Russia (1912–13), and the United States (1913–16), after which for three years he served as secretary to the foreign minister. In 1918 he held an administrative post in Siberia and in 1919 was a senior staff officer at the Paris Peace Conference. From 1921 to 1930, he was often vice president of the South Manchurian Railroad (SMR), but was then elected to Parliament. In 1932–33 he represented his nation at the League of Nations, followed by an abortive attempt to form an anti‐parliamentary political movement, and becoming SMR president. From July 1940 to July 1941 he was Japan's foreign minister, during which time he fostered Japan's membership in the Tripartite Pact. His inactivity during the war with America did not prevent him from Allied imprisonment, where he died in 1946.
Monroe Doctrine
Authors: Jacobs Matthew D.
Published: May 2018

As Latin Americans gained their independence from the Spanish Empire during the 1820s, US foreign policy‐makers worried over the prospect of potential recolonization attempts by European powers. In an effort to forestall such events, President James Monroe, in close consultation with secretary of state John Adams, declared during a December 1823 congressional address that the Western Hemisphere was to be off limits for future European interventionism. While not recorded at the immediate time as a major moment in American diplomacy, the Monroe Doctrine became a seminal statement of US foreign policy for later generations.
Morality and Diplomacy
Authors: Bjola Corneliu
Published: May 2018

This entry seeks to understand the ethical prescriptions on the basis of which diplomats can address moral dilemmas in their work. To this end, the entry reviews the main arguments underlying theories of meta‐, normative, and applied ethics and teases out their implications for diplomatic practice. It will be thus argued that moral dilemmas cannot be fully solved, but their limitations can be mitigated by taking note of meta‐ethical constraints and by anchoring considerations of normative and applied ethics to the specific context of the case.
Morgenthau,HansJ. (1904–80)
Authors: Rafshoon Ellen G.
Published: May 2018

The political scientist Hans Joachim Morgenthau (1904–80) was America's foremost proponent of a realist theory of international relations. Morgenthau escaped Nazi‐occupied Europe in the 1930s and spent the majority of his career at the University of Chicago. In 1948, he publishedPolitics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, which was the most widely read foreign affairs textbook in American universities during the Cold War. The book sharply criticized America's Wilsonian approach to international relations and argued that power and self‐interest spark inevitable conflict among nations. A public intellectual, Morgenthau shared his pungent political commentaries with diverse audiences. Although he was considered a hawk on military matters, Morgenthau emerged as the leading academic opponent of the Vietnam War. In his later life, he turned to issues affecting world Jewry.
Nansen,Fridtjof (1861–1930)
Authors: Vogt Carl Emil
Published: May 2018

Fridtjof Nansen (1861–1930) was a Norwegian scientist, polar explorer, humanitarian, and diplomat. He was a prominent member of the League of Nations assembly, becoming the League of Nations high commissioner for repatriation of prisoners of war in 1920 and in 1921 high commissioner for Russian refugees, and later for refugees. The Nansen passport, an ID document for refugees without citizenship, is named after him. Nansen also led European famine relief to Soviet Russia from 1921 to 1923. In 1922 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
Nobel Peace Prize
Authors: Vogt Carl Emil
Published: May 2018

The Nobel Peace Prize is awarded annually by the Norwegian Nobel Institute to the person who, as its founder Alfred Nobel explained it, “shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses.” The first Nobel Peace Prize was awarded in 1901, shared by two pioneering peace activists, Henri Dunant and Frédéric Passy. Since 1901, there have been many high‐profile awardees, including political activists, NGOs, and heads of state. The prize is probably the most prominent peace award in the world, which has consequences for the public and private diplomacy of states – particularly when the Nobel Peace Prize choice is a controversial one – and to a certain degree ensures Norway occupies a prominent place in global affairs.
Powell,Colin (1937–)
Authors: Taylor Samantha A.
Published: May 2018

Colin Powell (1937–) served in the US Army from 1957 to 1994, retiring at the rank of major general. During that time, he served two tours in Vietnam, acted as Ronald Reagan's national security adviser from 1987 to 1989, and he acted as the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff for presidents George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton from 1989 to 1994. Between 2000 and 2004, he served as secretary of state for George W. Bush, and retired in 2004.
Reagan,Ronald (1911–2004)
Authors: Chiampan Andrea
Published: May 2018

Ronald Wilson Reagan (1911–2004) was the fortieth president of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Praised and criticized for his social conservatism, appealing rhetorical style, and fervent anticommunism, Reagan's foreign policy witnessed both increased tension with the Soviet Union and the beginning of the peaceful demise of the Cold War. Thus, this brief entry focuses mainly on Reagan's role in the making of the so‐called “second Cold War,” the president's relationship with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, the nuclear arms race, and the ending of the Cold War. Furthermore, this entry aims to offer a brief overview of the historiographical debate concerning the administration's renewed covert and overt interventionism in Central and Latin America, in part unveiled by the Iran–Contra scandal (1985–87) that threatened to bring down the administration in its second term (1984–89).
RooseveltCorollary
Authors: Barber Christopher Ernest
Published: May 2018

The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine was a particular foreign policy outlook towards Latin America that United States president Theodore Roosevelt promoted from 1904 until the end of his term in 1909. The corollary was based on notions of justice and maintaining peace as well as a desire to strengthen the United States' position as the guardian of the Western Hemisphere. It placed a mandate for the enforcement of public debt in the Caribbean and Central American states in the hands of the American government, legitimating intervention. Ultimately, the corollary stated Roosevelt's intention to employ his big stick approach to foreign policy by positioning the United States as the policeman of Western Hemispheric order over the developing Latin American states, while keeping European powers out of the region.
S
alisbury,
L
ord (1830–1903)
Authors: Bray Dominic M.
Published: May 2018

Lord Salisbury (1830–1903) was in control of British foreign policy for the majority of the last quarter of the nineteenth century. His pragmatic approach to Great Power rivalries ensured Britain retained what he believed to be her essential interests through pragmatic compromises and occasionally confrontation. Salisbury's policy was characterized as being one of “splendid isolation” in order to ensure British freedom of action. However, this characterization has now been challenged by recent research.
SevenYears' War (1756–63)
Authors: Schumann Matt
Published: May 2018

The Seven Years' War (1756–63) was an outgrowth from the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–48), involving many of the same rivalries, but in a different configuration. It pitted an unlikely Anglo‐Prussian coalition against a historically unprecedented alliance of France, Austria, Russia, and Sweden, with Spain entering during the last campaign. The war involved greater financial and military commitments than its predecessor, and it comprised several regional conflicts. Its two main theaters were North America (1754–60) and Europe (1756–63), though campaigns in the West Indies, Africa, India, Southeast Asia, and all over the world's oceans, may qualify the Seven Years' War as the first global conflict. Its legacies include recognition of Prussia and Russia as leading European powers, the rise of the British Empire particularly in India, Pontiac's Rebellion and recognition of the rights of non‐Englishmen in British North America, and major contributions to the Partitions of Poland, the American War of Independence, the GermanFürstenbundof the 1780s, and the French Revolution.
Stresemann,Gustav (1878–1929)
Authors: Webster Andrew
Published: May 2018

Gustav Stresemann (1878–1929) was chancellor of the German Weimar Republic from August to November 1923, during the French occupation of the Ruhr Valley, and foreign minister from August 1923 until his death in October 1929. As one of the three architects of the so‐called “Locarno era” of 1925–29, alongside Aristide Briand of France and Austen Chamberlain of Britain, he secured German membership in the League of Nations in 1926. His early death at the age of fifty‐one undoubtedly contributed to the descent towards authoritarian rule which followed.
S
ukarno (1901–70)
Authors: Allès Delphine
Published: May 2018

Sukarno (formerly spelled Soekarno) was born in Surabaya (West Java, Indonesia) on June 6, 1901. Considered to be the father of the Republic of Indonesia, he proclaimed the country's independence on August 17, 1945. While he remained president of Indonesia until 1967, he is mostly remembered for his anti‐imperialist struggle and vocal international stances, which progressively resulted in Indonesia's marginalization on the international scene. Yet, the most consensual dimensions of Sukarno's diplomatic doctrine – non‐alignment and the promotion of an “independent and active” foreign policy – still form the core of Indonesia's foreign‐policy narrative. They have remained a central reference in the country's diplomacy, despite Sukarno's demise in the aftermath of the failed September 30, 1965,
coup d'état
and the subsequent changes in the country's ideological and strategic orientations.
TokugawaIeyasu (1543–1616)
Authors: Hesselink Reinier H.
Published: May 2018

Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543–1616) was the founder of the Tokugawa dynasty that stood at the apex of a military government orbakufuruling Japan from 1600 until 1868. The system Ieyasu put in place thus survived more than two and a half centuries. Only in foreign policy was he unsuccessful in determining the future of Japan.
T
reaty of
P
ortsmouth (1905)
Authors: Yanagihara Masaharu
Published: May 2018

The Treaty of Portsmouth concluded the 1904–5 Russo‐Japanese War. The negotiations conducted between the two countries at Portsmouth, Maine, from August 10 to September 2, 1905, were acrimonious and protracted. The treaty was signed on September 5 and ratifications were exchanged on November 25 of the same year. The main points of the treaty were: the recognition of Japan's paramount interests in Korea; the withdrawal of the military forces of both sides from Manchuria; the cession by Russia to Japan of its leases on Port Arthur and Dalian (Talien); the transfer of the South Manchuria railway between Changchun(Kwangchentze) and Port Arthur; the cession to Japan of the southern part of Sakhalin Island; and the granting of fishery rights to Japan along the coast of Russian possessions in East Asia. An Agreement on the Delimitation of Sakhalin between Russia and Japan was signed three years later, on April 10, 1908.
T
reaty of
S
himonoseki (1895)
Authors: Yanagihara Masaharu
Published: May 2018

The Treaty of Shimonoseki concluded the 1894–95 Sino‐Japanese War. Peace negotiations began officially on March 20, at Shimonoseki in Japan. Japan's representatives were Itō Hirobumi and Mutsu Munemitsu; China was represented by Li Hongzhang and Li Jingfang. The treaty of peace was signed on April 17, 1895. The main points of the treaty provided for the recognition of “the full and complete independence and autonomy of Korea,” the cession to Japan of the southern portion of the Liaodong Peninsula and the island of Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands, the payment of a war indemnity of 200 million taels, and the promise to conclude a treaty of commerce and navigation. The Liaotung Peninsula was returned to China after the “Triple Intervention” of Russia, France, and Germany, who insisted that it not be ceded.
Treaty ofVersailles (1919)
Authors: Webster Andrew
Published: May 2018

The Treaty of Versailles, signed on June 28, 1919, formed the peace agreement between the victorious Allied and Associated Powers and a defeated Germany which concluded the First World War. Negotiated during the first six months of 1919 at the Great Peace Conference held in Paris, the Versailles treaty was the subject of enormous controversy even before it was signed and has since continued to be widely reviled as a vindictive document which led directly to a second world war. However, the current scholarly consensus is far more measured in balancing the treaty's very real shortcomings with the immensity of the challenges it was expected to solve. The Versailles treaty should be appreciated as an essentially moderate and flexible document, negotiated by rational statesmen who sought to achieve the best compromise possible under the pressures of extraordinary social and political upheaval.
T
utu,
D
esmond (1931–)
Authors: Morgan Eric J.
Published: May 2018

Desmond Tutu is a retired Anglican bishop and human rights activist who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1984. Tutu was a prominent leader in the struggle against apartheid in South Africa during the 1970s and 1980s, advocating peaceful change through mass action and international sanctions campaigns. Tutu was instrumental in the country's transition to a multiracial democracy after the end of apartheid as chair of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, and continued his tireless activism in support of international human rights following his retirement from the church in 1996.
US–Japan Commercial Treaty (1858)
Authors: Henning Joseph M.
Published: May 2018

The US–Japan Commercial Treaty of 1858 (also known as the Treaty of Amity and Commerce) established commercial relations between the United States and Japan. It opened four new Japanese ports, restricted interior travel by foreigners, banned the opium trade, set tariff rates, and extended the system of extraterritoriality. An unequal treaty that limited Japanese sovereignty, it served as a model for European nations in their subsequent treaty negotiations with Japan.