bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Defining the Prisoner of War in International Law: A Comparative Approach
Authors: Morieux Renaud
Published: November 2019

The present-day category of the prisoner of war, in the form inherited from the international conventions of the twentieth century, needs to be deconstructed. One way of doing this is to confront official legal and administrative labels, and the ways in which they operated. This chapter considers the limits of international legal norms, which fail to encapsulate the complexity of the category. The focus is on groups whose very belonging to the category of the prisoner of war was questioned in the eighteenth century. Were the distinctions between ‘civilian’ and ‘combatant’ meaningful? How did they operate in practice? Were concepts of national belonging, ethnicity, religion, gender, or class important criteria for determining the treatment of captives? This chapter emphasizes the contingency of the category ‘prisoner of war’, its lack of clarity, and the dependence on particular situations to give it specific definition.
Hate or Love Thy Enemy? Humanitarian Patriotism
Authors: Morieux Renaud
Published: November 2019

In the eighteenth century, the principle of a moral universalism in time of war triumphed: war was fought on the moral ground as well as on the battlefield. This chapter argues that the language of humanitarian patriotism encapsulates the tensions within the discourse that aimed to make war more ‘civilized’ by treating the enemy ‘humanely’. The chapter demonstrates the political, moral, and practical ambiguities that were entailed by the act of bringing relief to enemies in wartime. Public discussion revolved around the ‘just’ treatment of alien enemies in captivity. The study of philanthropic campaigns for improving the treatment of prisoners of war and the sending of missionaries into prisons demonstrate the particularity of the prisoner of war, as an enemy and a fellow human being.
The Anatomy of the War Prison
Authors: Morieux Renaud
Published: November 2019

Chapter 4 turns to prison buildings. These spaces of detention were, until the last quarter of the eighteenth century in Britain, and for the whole period in France, not purpose-built for prisoners of war. This absence of specialization tells us something important about the distance between the legal construction of the category of the prisoner of war and actual practices of internment. The chapter shows that war prisons must be understood in the same conceptual framework as prison ‘reform’ in the eighteenth century. Paying attention to the materiality of the prisons also entails looking at the multiple ways in which prisoners reconfigured these spaces, adapting or even destroying them.
Applications to conservation biology
Authors: Botsford Louis W. , White J. Wilson , Hastings Alan
Published: November 2019

This chapter describes how models can aid in managing populations to prevent extinction, given uncertainty about their state. From previous chapters, it is clear that avoiding extinction requires keeping both abundance and the replacement rate high. However, for both, the question remains, how high? The question of how high abundance should be to achieve a certain risk is addressed by existing population viability analyses (PVA). By contrast, the problem of maintaining high replacement has received little attention. This chapter describes how uncertainty in population parameters and the frequency spectrum of the environment both affect estimates of the probability of extinction, including examples of PVAs that pay greater attention to those complications. Additionally, an example is provided of tracking both abundance and replacement to avoid extinction for many different populations of a single taxon, Pacific salmon. Finally, the role of portfolio effects (diversity in variance among populations) is explored.
'Black but Human'
Authors: Fracchia Carmen
Published: November 2019

The African presence in imperial Spain, of between 10-15 per cent of the population, was due to the institutionalization of the transatlantic slave trade that brought between seven- to eight hundred thousand Africans as slaves to Spain and Portugal. If we add those slaves born in these European territories and the three to four hundred thousand Moor, Berber and Turk slaves, there were approximately two million slaves living in the Iberian Peninsula during this period. The Afro-Hispanic proverb ‘Black but Human’ that provides part of the book’s title, serves as a lens through which to explore the ways in which certain visual representations of slavery both embody and reproduce hegemonic visions of subaltern groups, and at the same time provide material for critical and emancipatory practices by Afro-Hispanic slaves and ex-slaves themselves. It thus allows us to generate critical insights into the articulations of slave subjectivity by exploring the links between visual regimes and the early modern Spanish and New World discourses on slavery and human diversity. My book provides a complex new reading of neglected moments of artistic production in Hapsburg Spain establishing their importance as relays of power and resistance. We could claim that the ‘Black but Human’ topos encodes the multilayered processes through which a black emancipatory subject emerges and a ‘black nation’ forges a collective resistance, and the ways in which these moments are articulated visually by a range of artists. Thus, this proverb is the main thread of the six chapters of this book.
Dodds and Educational Policy for a Defeated Germany
Authors: Phillips David
Published: November 2019

This chapter examines the work of E.R. Dodds during preparations for the post-war occupation of Germany. In 1940, Dodds joined Arnold Toynbee’s ‘Foreign Research and Press Service’, which had moved to Oxford, and he began to work on the history of education in Germany. Arnold’s group eventually became the Foreign Office Research Department (FORD), and Dodds produced for it lengthy memoranda to inform others working on the subject. He also lectured at many meetings and published a pamphlet, Minds in the Making, a study of the hollowness and barbarity of Nazi ideology and its effects on education. For FORD he also chaired committees on re-education and on textbook production. In 1947, he led a delegation to Germany of the Association of University Teachers, which produced a damning report on the state of German universities. He proved to be one of the most significant people involved in shaping educational policy as it developed in the British Zone of Germany.
Population fragmentation causes inadequate gene flow and increases extinction risk
Authors: Frankham Richard , Ballou Jonathan D. , Ralls Katherine , Eldridge Mark D. B. , Dudash Michele R. , Fenster Charles B. , Lacy Robert C. , Sunnucks Paul
Published: November 2019

Most species now have fragmented distributions, often with adverse genetic consequences. The genetic impacts of population fragmentation depend critically upon gene flow among fragments and their effective sizes. Fragmentation with cessation of gene flow is highly harmful in the long term, leading to greater inbreeding, increased loss of genetic diversity, decreased likelihood of evolutionary adaptation and elevated extinction risk, when compared to a single population of the same total size. The consequences of fragmentation with limited gene flow typically lie between those for a large population with random mating and isolated population fragments with no gene flow.
Global climate change increases the need for genetic management
Authors: Frankham Richard , Ballou Jonathan D. , Ralls Katherine , Eldridge Mark D. B. , Dudash Michele R. , Fenster Charles B. , Lacy Robert C. , Sunnucks Paul
Published: November 2019

Adverse genetic impacts on fragmented populations are expected to worsen under global climate change. Many populations and species may not be able to adapt in situ, or to move unassisted to suitable habitat. Management may reduce these threats by augmenting genetic diversity to improve the ability to adapt evolutionarily, by translocation, including that outside the species’ historical range, and by ameliorating non-genetic threats. Global climate change amplifies the need for genetic management of fragmented populations.
The Cue-dependency of the “Reminiscence Bumps” in Autobiographical Memory and Memory for Public Events
Authors: Koppel Jonathan , Berntsen Dorthe
Published: November 2019

The reminiscence bump most commonly refers to the disproportionate number of autobiographical memories, in adults aged ≥40 years, dating from youth and early adulthood. Whereas the bump in autobiographical memory has primarily been studied by psychologists, it has been paralleled in the sociology literature in a spike in recall for public events that occurred at a similar period of the lifespan. This chapter reviews findings illustrating that the temporal location of the bump (in autobiographical memory) and the frequency with which it is found (in memory for public events) vary according to the cueing method used to elicit the memories. For instance, in autobiographical memory, the bump is earlier when memories are elicited through cue words than when memories are elicited through requests for important memories. In memory for public events, the bump is more frequently attained when recall is tested through open-ended recall than when it is tested through knowledge tests. It is argued that these findings indicate that retrieval processes play a large role in the bump in each domain, and therefore challenge most existing theoretical accounts, which stress encoding processes. The relevant retrieval processes in each domain are then discussed. Finally, the implications of the reviewed findings, in particular those concerning autobiographical memory, are discussed as they relate to models of the organization of autobiographical memory.
The Associative Nature of Episodic Memories
Authors: Mace John H. , Clevinger Amanda M.
Published: November 2019

This chapter concerns the associative nature of episodic memories, putting forth a thesis on the associative form of episodic memories that contains four main propositions: (1) episodic memories always activate other episodic memories; (2) these activations always follow orderly pattern of associations; (3) whereas more than one type of association can be found among episodic memories, the fundamental form is conceptual, where memories are associated (or activated) by their common content; (4) conceptual forms dominate, they are the fundamental (or default) form, and they are the most enduring form. In addition, this chapter unveils a theoretical view which argues that there are mechanisms that create and maintain conceptual associations.
The Empathic Screen
Authors: Gallese Vittorio , Guerra Michele
Published: November 2019

Why do people go to the movies? What does it mean to watch a movie? To what extent does our perception of the fictional nature of movies differ from our daily perception of the real world? The authors, a neuroscientist and a film theorist, propose a new multidisciplinary approach to images and film that can provide answers to these questions. According to the authors, film art, based on the interaction between spectators and the world on the screen, and often described in terms of immersion, impressions of reality, simulation, and involvement of the spectator’s body in the fictitious world he inhabits, can be reconsidered from a neuroscientific perspective, which examines the brain and its close relationship to the body. They propose a new model of perception—embodied simulation—elaborated on the basis of neuroscientific investigation, to demonstrate the role played by sensorimotor and affect-related brain circuits in cognition and film experience. Scenes from famous films, like Notorious, The Shining, Full Metal Jacket, Persona, The Silence of the Lambs, and Toy Story are described and analyzed according to this multidisciplinary approach, and used as case studies to discuss the embodied simulation model. The aim is to shed new light on the multiple resonance mechanisms that constitute one of the great secrets of cinematographic art, and to reflect on the power of moving images, which increasingly are part of our everyday life.
Cut and Harmony
Authors: Gallese Vittorio , Guerra Michele
Published: November 2019

This chapter deals with montage. The subheadings are “Calumet City,” a discussion of parallel montage in Jonathan Demme’s The Silence of the Lambs from the authors’ perspective; “Continuity,” in which continuity editing is addressed in relation to several film scholars and authors, including Joseph Anderson, Lev Kuleshov, and Jean Epstein; “Action, action, action!,” where the role of action in montage is addressed by referring to early American film theory, introducing and discussing authors such as Victor Freeburg, Hugo Münstenberg, Henry Albert Phillips, and Epes Winthrop Sargent; and “The mirror crack’d,” which introduces and discusses the empirical neuroscientific results of the authors’ high-density electroencephalography experiment on montage, where continuity editing and jump-cuts are compared.
Christa Wolf’s Cassandra
Authors: Rabinowitz Nancy Sorkin
Published: November 2019

Christa Wolf’s Cassandra: A Novel and Four Essays was published in English in 1984. Wolf makes Cassandra the focalizing voice of her text. Through her, Wolf reevaluates epic narrative. She demonstrates that the writing of epic is male writing; everyday life and women’s lives must be sought in the gaps. Because epic as a genre bolsters the patriarchy, and the hero as a model for youth to follow encourages violence, her protagonist is Cassandra, a woman intellectual who does not want to perform the tasks of woman in her time/place. The essays are even more clearly political; Wolf identifies with Cassandra and connects East Germany and the Cold War to Greece and Troy. She ends her essay with a question that we might also take up: ‘What is Cassandra’s message today?’
Feminist at Second Glance? Alice Oswald’s Memorial as a Response to Homer’s Iliad
Authors: Hahnemann Carolin
Published: November 2019

A few years before Caroline Alexander became the first woman to translate Homer’s Iliad into English (2015), Alice Oswald published her book-length poem Memorial: An Excavation of the Iliad (2011). Although Oswald’s poem differs profoundly from retellings of Homeric myth in the vein of feminist revisionism, such as Christa Wolf’s Cassandra and Margaret Atwood’s Penelopiad, her approach can nevertheless be regarded as feminist: (a) she erases the Homeric hero’s male prerogative of achieving immortality through his glorious deeds in battle and his begetting of a succession of equally heroic sons; (b) she locates the cause of the war not in a woman’s betrayal of her husband, but in a pervasive sense of male restlessness; and (c) she puts even greater emphasis than Homer on the devastating effects that the war has on women.
The Forecast is Hurricane
Authors: Murnaghan Sheila , Roberts Deborah H.
Published: November 2019

Along with its heroine Penelope, the Odyssey presents an array of ‘other women’, female figures such as the Sirens, Calypso, and Circe, who impede Odysseus’ progress and stand as rivals to Penelope, but who cannot prevent Odysseus’ return to his much-prized wife. In this chapter, we consider the legacy of these figures, and especially of Circe, in poems by modern and contemporary female writers, including Margaret Atwood, H.D., Carol Ann Duffy, Louise Glück, Linda Pastan, and Augusta Davies Webster. While these authors may differ in their stances towards feminist politics and efforts to define a feminist poetics, their choice to speak through mythical figures who have considerable powers but are ultimately sidelined and abandoned yields searching, often sharply critical accounts of ancient and modern gender arrangements.
Introduction
Authors: Stock Paul
Published: November 2019

The Introduction defines the purposes and parameters of the book. British history and European history are often studied and taught as distinct fields, and the Introduction discusses more persuasive approaches which seek to assimilate the two, as well as the book’s own unique contribution to this process. It summarizes existing scholarship on the history of the idea of Europe, pointing out some disadvantages while also explaining how the book seeks to mitigate them. The Introduction ends with an account of the book’s scope and some reflections on how its themes relate to modern controversy about Britain and Europe.
Review of basic quantum physics
Authors: Kenyon Ian R.
Published: November 2019

Basic experimental evidence is sketched: the black body radiation spectrum, the photoeffect, Compton scattering and electron diffraction; the Bohr model of the atom. Quantum mechanics is reviewed using the Copenhagen interpretation: eigenstates, observables, hermitian operators and expectation values are explained. Wave-particle duality, Schrödinger’s equation, and expressions for particle density and current are described. The uncertainty principle, the collapse of the wavefunction, Schrödinger’s cat and the no-cloning theorem are discussed. Dirac delta functions and the usage of wavepackets are explained. An introduction to state vectors in Hilbert space and the bra-ket notation is given. Abstracts of special relativity and Lorentz invariants follow. Minimal electromagnetic coupling and the gauge transformations are explained.
Quantum statistics
Authors: Kenyon Ian R.
Published: November 2019

Indistinguishability of like particles, and the fermion and boson exchange symmetries discussed.Pauli exclusion principle and features of multi-electron atoms, including selection rules are discussed. Degeneracy pressure and the formation of compact stellar objects is analysed. Quantum exchange force between electrons and its contribution to ferromagnetism is outlined. Fermi-Dirac and Bose-Einstein statistics, includng the chemical potential are derived. The conditions for Bose-Einstein condensation are deduced; condensates and their stability are considered.
Cavity quantum physics
Authors: Kenyon Ian R.
Published: November 2019

The model of a cavity-enclosed 2-state atom with transition frequency near resonant with a cavity mode is introduced. For conditions where their coupling dominates the Jaynes–Cummings model is described. Rabi flopping of energy between atom’s excited state and the cavity mode is recounted. Hybrid states and the AC Stark effect are discussed. Experiments with Rydberg atoms revealing the quantum nature of the cavity-atom state are discussed. Then mechanisms for trapping ions are outlined and the use of a single mercury ion as the pendulum of an optical clock is described. This relies on shelving to make non-demolition measurements on the ion. Then the measurement of (g-2) for the electron using an electron in a Penning trap is related. The quantity of interest, is the difference between the cyclotron and spin precession frequencies: its measurement by a different non-demolition technique is detailed. Finally the Purcell effect is presented, by which the lifetime of an atomic state in a cavity can be shortened or lengthened.
Talking Books
Authors: Richards Jennifer
Published: November 2019

This chapter explores the printed books of the sixteenth century as ‘talking books’; it also explores how the voice is implicated in the printing process. It focuses on the work of two print-aware authors, John Bale and William Baldwin, who worked with the most influential ‘talking book’ in England in the 1540s: Erasmus’s Paraphrases. It explores Bale’s attentiveness to the physical voice of Anne Askew in his editions of her Examinations (1546, 1547), arguing that he uses print to turn the written form of her oral testimony into a script for oral readers. It attends to Baldwin’s representation of the voices of illiterate working men, medieval magistrates, and an array of untrustworthy characters, including some noisy cats, to create careful ‘listeners’ who are aware of the manipulative authorial voice that lies behind literary voices on the page as well as the risks of affective ‘mishearing’.
Thomas Nashe On and Off the Page
Authors: Richards Jennifer
Published: November 2019

This chapter shifts attention from the literariness of Thomas Nashe’s style to its performability. It recalls the role performance played in his education, and his links to the theatre. It considers what was so meaningful about live performance that he tried to recreate its effect in printed prose. It explores the theatricality of his prose: his use of the rhetorical sentence to represent live thinking; his use of direct address in Summers last will and testament and The Unfortunate Traveller; and his imitation of the university play Pedantius in Have with you to Saffron Walden. Nashe’s attempt to bring the flat page to life with thought, wit, and emotion explains his criticism of Gabriel Harvey, whose pamphlets he represents as material objects that can be reduced to their constituent parts with no loss.
Conclusion
Authors: Richards Jennifer
Published: November 2019

The Conclusion looks forward to future cross-disciplinary work on the physical voice. It reflects on why a literary scholar might be interested in the physical voice, recalling that literary texts are full of voices that make reference to the real voice off the page. It also suggests why a Renaissance literary historian might have something distinctive to offer future work on the voice, recalling the inter-relationship in this period between voice and printed books. It recognizes that a new technological revolution is well underway that is changing our relationship with print. It briefly considers how the digital medium uses or ignores voice, and asks whether a new history of oral reading can enable us to imagine different ways of interacting with—and immersing ourselves in—the print/digital books of the future.
The Agent of Monarchy
Authors: Hammersley Rachel
Published: November 2019

Chapter 3 explores the ways in which Harrington maintained and extended his family’s long-standing connections with the Stuarts. He did so first as ‘agent’ to the Prince Elector Palatine Charles Louis, son of Elizabeth of Bohemia, handling his funds and delivering a Humble Remonstrance on his behalf. This role may have led to the choice of Harrington as gentleman of the bedchamber to the captive Charles I. In both cases Harrington was in an ambiguous position with regard to the division at the heart of the Civil War, since Charles Louis sided with Parliament rather than his uncle, and though Harrington worked as a close personal servant to Charles I, it was Parliament who appointed him to this position. These activities suggest that a more robust explanation is required as to how Harrington reconciled his royal service with his belief that England was ripe for republican government.
Harrington’s Republicanism
Authors: Hammersley Rachel
Published: November 2019

Chapter 4 focuses on the nature of Harrington’s republicanism and the key features of his ‘equal commonwealth’. It begins by examining the complex publishing history of Oceana and the political and intellectual context in which that work was written. It then traces Harrington’s commitment to key features of commonwealth government: his use of republican models ancient and modern, his adoption of the neo-Roman understanding of liberty and his conflict with Thomas Hobbes on this issue, and his commitment to government in accordance with reason and the public good. Harrington’s understanding of, and emphasis on, the concepts of empire and authority are then explored. Finally, the central features of his equal commonwealth are set out: the agrarian law to ensure equality at the foundation, and then a bicameral legislature, rotation of office, and the Venetian ballot to secure equality and prevent corruption in the superstructure.
Innovation in Substance: ‘Empire follows the Balance of Property’
Authors: Hammersley Rachel
Published: November 2019

Chapter 6 focuses on Harrington’s innovative theory regarding the relationship between land and political power. It asserts the novelty of the theory, as claimed by Harrington and acknowledged by others, as well as its relationship to Harrington’s wider innovation of designing a large state republic. The chapter then elucidates the key elements of Harrington’s theory, its implications for his typology of government, and its application to England. Once a government suited to the distribution of property is established within a state it must be preserved by means of an agrarian law, and again the details of this provision are explored. The chapter also pays attention to Harrington’s distinctive imperial policy which emphasized colonial expansion within, rather than beyond Europe, and his consequent emphasis on the importance of the army rather than the navy. Thus Harrington’s innovative theory about property and power is presented as generating various other novelties.
Engaging with Politicians
Authors: Hammersley Rachel
Published: November 2019

Harrington’s theory about the relationship between land and political power was mentioned several times in parliamentary debates in February 1659 and used to refute calls for a return to the government of King, Lords, and Commons. Nonetheless, Richard Cromwell’s position as chief magistrate was deemed compatible with Harringtonian theory. Harringtonian arguments were also brought to bear on the various constitutional proposals put forward that year, not least the army idea of a select senate. In addition, it was proposed that a parliamentary committee be established to discuss Harrington’s distinctive solution to the ongoing crisis, and several Harringtonian petitions were delivered to Parliament. While Harrington may not have achieved his aim of getting his model implemented, his ideas were widely discussed during the final year of the interregnum, and he gained some influential converts.
Life After 1660
Authors: Hammersley Rachel
Published: November 2019

Harrington’s political writings appear to have ceased with the Restoration of Charles II, but his alleged involvement with the Bow Street commonwealth club led him to be arrested in November 1661, interrogated and imprisoned. While he was eventually released, the experience affected his health, and there is no evidence of his engaging in writing or politics after this time. At some point during the 1660s he married Anne Darrell, who is described by Aubrey as his ‘old sweet-heart’. He lived out the last years of his life in Little Ambry, Westminster, dying on 11 September 1677 and being buried in St Margaret’s Church, Westminster. His ideas remained alive in the minds and writings of his friends, and were given new life by the publication in 1700 of Toland’s edition.
Liddell and Scott in Historical Context
Authors: Stray Christopher
Published: November 2019

‘Liddell and Scott has become so familiar to scholars of Greek that they tend to take it for granted. However, behind this monumental and impartial familiarity is a complex history of scholarly controversy and commercial book production. This chapter sets the first eight editions of the Lexicon (1843–97) in a number of contemporary contexts: the institutional and intellectual world of Oxford in the 1830s and 1840s; the emergence of classical dictionaries using vernaculars rather than Latin for glosses; the relationship of the Lexicon with other dictionaries; the development of the book through successive editions and abridgements; the reputation of the Lexicon; and its printing and publishing history. The chapter aims to explore these separate contexts, and to suggest how they interacted.
Medical Vocabulary, with Especial Reference to the Hippocratic Corpus
Authors: Craik Elizabeth
Published: November 2019

This chapter considers the emergence of Hippocratic lexicography. The study of medical texts, and to a limited extent the study of medical vocabulary, has attracted much interest recently, and can be viewed as an academic growth area. The proliferation of new subject areas—women’s studies, sociology, environmental issues, ethnography—which impinge on issues of human health and well-being has caused scholars to look anew at the rich source material to be found in medical writings. The situation has changed greatly since the first edition of the Lexicon in 1843 and even since the ninth in 1925–40: ancient medicine, once viewed as the esoteric pursuit of eccentrics or the province of retired physicians, has become a mainstream area of academic specialization. There is now a large and growing constituency of young, and not so young, scholars who need a lexicon to consult for aid in reading these unfamiliar and frequently difficult texts.
Introduction
Authors: Peskin Michael E.
Published: November 2019

This chapter provides an introduction and summary of the book.
Symmetries of Space-Time
Authors: Peskin Michael E.
Published: November 2019

This chapter discusses preliminary concepts needed for the book: relativity and relativistic kinematics, natural units, elements of group theory, discrete symmetries of space-time
Deep Inelastic Electron Scattering
Authors: Peskin Michael E.
Published: November 2019

This chapter describes the parton model of the inelastic scattering of electrons from protons, tests of this model, and the use of this model to understand the internal structure of the proton.
The Gluon
Authors: Peskin Michael E.
Published: November 2019

This chapter describes the description of the proton as a bound state of partons. After a review of the properties of parton distribution functions, it introduces the evidence for a component of the proton responsible for its binding. It introduces the model of strong interactions as mediated by a spin 1 gluon and presents the evidence for this model from event shapes in electron-positron annihilation to hadrons.
Partons and Jets
Authors: Peskin Michael E.
Published: November 2019

This chapter discusses the predictions of Quantum Chromodynamics for event shapes in electron-positron annihilation to hadrons, and in for the evolution of parton distributions, and the comparison of these predictions to experiment. It introduces the notion of a jet of hadrons associated with a hard-scattered parton.
QCD at Hadron Colliders
Authors: Peskin Michael E.
Published: November 2019

This chapter discusses the properties of proton-proton collision events at high energy and the predictions of QCD. It describes the prediction of jet production in proton-proton collisions and the comparison of this prediction to experiment.
Integrating Frege’s Theories
Authors: Perry John
Published: November 2019

I argue that Frege could have and should have added the level of sense to his Begriffsschrift scheme, retained circumstances as the references of sentences, and added the level of denotation, relabelled, ‘extension’ for the purposes of logic. I claim the resulting theory would retain the insights of the theory of sense and reference, but be far more flexible, and would allow for an innocent account of the attitudes.
Episodes and Attitudes
Authors: Perry John
Published: November 2019

I argue that the flexible theory does not give completely adequate account. We need to bring in utterances and cognitive episodes to handle some of the challenges to innocent theories. And we need to add what I call roles to the level of sense, to handle indexicality in language and self-knowledge in cognition. I discuss Frege and Kaplan’s account of ‘today’ and ‘yesterday’.
Introduction
Authors: Dalivalle Margaret , Kemp Martin , Simon Robert B.
Published: November 2019

The Introduction sets the scene for the rest of the book, namely, the case of the lost and found masterpiece by Leonardo da Vinci, the Salvator Mundi. The book aims to set out a comprehensive analysis of this essential addition to Leonardo‗s oeuvre, which emerged in 2005. The aim is to serve as an introduction to the study of this painting and a reference for future explorations which it is hoped this text will provoke. The book considers three facets of the story but does not cover every aspect, leaving the case open for further discussion.
Visual Magic
Authors: Dalivalle Margaret , Kemp Martin , Simon Robert B.
Published: November 2019

Chapter 5 reviews the visual evidence on the basis of the stripped picture before the infilling of lost areas of paint. Pentimenti are apparent, most conspicuously in the repositioning of the thumb of the blessing hand. Infrared reflectography reveals detailed changes in the drapery and a few spolveri which indicate the use of a cartoon and shows the use of Leonardo’s hand-print method to soften the modelling of flesh. The vortex curls and the understated anatomy of the hands are typical of Leonardo’s post-1500 style, as is the insistent blurring of the contours of the face. The interlace pattern of the textile bands is founded on an angular geometry of the Islamic kind and reflects Leonardo’s visit to Venice in 1500. The transparent orb is of rock crystal and is marked by gaps or ‘inclusions’, exhibiting optical effects of the kinds that fascinated him, not least the translucency of semi-precious minerals. The crystal orb refers in an innovative way to the crystalline sphere of the fixed stars, thus transforming Christ from the saviour of the world to the saviour of the cosmos. The other optical effect in the painting involves his notions of the working of the eye, with the hands shown more definitely than Christ’s face, akin to a ‘depth of field’ effect in photography. The optical softening of features also acts to render his emotional impact as suggestive and ineffable rather than overtly defined.
‘A Peece of Christ done by Leonardo’ and ‘A lords figure. in halfe.’
Authors: Dalivalle Margaret , Kemp Martin , Simon Robert B.
Published: November 2019

Chapter 7 opens the third section of the book, which discusses the collecting and reception of Leonardo da Vinci in Stuart Britain. The chapter summarizes the key documentation, placing it in historical context. It focuses on the presence of two paintings of Christ, as Salvator Mundi, attributed to Leonardo da Vinci documented in the collection of King Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria. It reviews the historical backdrop of seventeenth-century England, outlining the key documentation of the two paintings, and signals the central problems: how can we distinguish between these two paintings, and can they be identified? The chapter discusses the sale of the royal art collection, 1649–53, and its documentation, and introduces the individuals through whose hands the two paintings passed.
‘A Pitiable Sight’
Authors: Dalivalle Margaret , Kemp Martin , Simon Robert B.
Published: November 2019

Chapter 11 considers access to Leonardo’s Salvator Mundi in England c. 1630–50. It proposes that the painting was inaccessible in the queen’s private apartments in the 1630s, which accounts for its invisibility in surviving documentation and its escape of campaigns of iconoclasm focused on royal chapels during the civil wars of the 1640s. It proposes the painting first came into public view in 1649, when it was put on display at the Commonwealth Sale. This is attested by lists prepared for foreign buyers by agents in London. The chapter expands to include works attributed to Leonardo from the collection of Charles I, in the hands of French and Flemish dealers in the 1650s.
‘Orts, Scraps, and Fragments’: Translation, Non-Translation, and the Fragments of Ancient Greece
Authors: Goldschmidt Nora
Published: November 2019

This chapter shows how a wide range of writers—including Richard Aldington, Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, C. P. Cavafy, and James Joyce—deployed contemporary interpretations and translations of fragments of Ancient Greek. A wealth of newly discovered source texts on papyrus was uncovered in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Together with recent scholarly commentaries on fragmentary Greek authors, these were taken up by modernist writers, foregrounding the difficulties of textual and cultural transmission. The chapter emphasizes the remoteness of the ancient texts and examines how modern attempts to downplay this historical difference, as in Liddell and Scott’s celebrated dictionary, could perversely prove to be barriers to understanding. The chapter contends that attempts to express the meaning of an alien and irrecoverable ancient past can be more estranging even than non-translation.
The Direct Method: Ezra Pound, Non-Translation, and the International Future
Authors: Beasley Rebecca
Published: November 2019

This chapter explores how literary non-translation might be considered as an instance in a broader reevaluation of translation as a social, political and pedagogical practice in the wake of the First World War and the rise of internationalism during the 1920s. What kind of literature would be produced by ‘the international mind’ of that decade, to use the popular phrase coined by Nicholas Butler? While the increased discussion and popularity of international languages like Interlingua, Esperanto, and Basic English might suggest that translation between languages was replaced by translation into a new or modified international language, writers appear to have been more interested in preserving the diversity of national languages by incorporating non-translated elements into their texts. The chapter explores these issues through analysis of Ezra Pound’s connections with The Future magazine.
Cyclical change and problems of projection
Authors: van Gelderen Elly
Published: November 2019

In diachronic change, specifiers are reanalysed as heads and heads as higher heads. When the older specifiers and heads are renewed, a linguistic cycle emerges. Explanations provided for these cycles include structural and featural economy (e.g. van Gelderen 2004; 2011). Chomsky’s (2013, 2015) focus on labelling as unconnected to merge makes it possible to see the cycles in another way, namely as resolutions to labelling problems. The Labelling Algorithm (LA) operates after merge is complete, when a syntactic derivation is transferred to the interfaces. When a head and a phrase merge, the LA determines that the head is the label by Minimal Search. Where two phrases merge, the LA cannot find the head and one of the phrases has to either move or share features with the other. This chapter argues that, in addition to Chomsky’s resolutions to labelling paradoxes, reanalysing a phrase as a head also resolves the paradox. It also shows that the third factor principle minimal search is preferable over feature-sharing. The change from phrase to head is frequent, as eight cross-linguistically attested changes show. In addition, in the renewal stage of a cycle, adjuncts are frequently incorporated as arguments showing a preference of set-merge (feature-sharing) over pair-merge.
Weak elements in cycles
Authors: Garzonio Jacopo , Rossi Silvia
Published: November 2019

The diachronic development of Modern Italian pronouns, in particular of the 3pl dative loro ‘to them’ (Cardinaletti 2010; Egerland 2010), could be seen as the first step in a linguistic cycle in which elements become more and more structurally deficient, going from strong XPs, through weak deficient XPs, and finally to clitic X°s. However, historical data from Old Tuscan varieties show that there is much distributional instability and variation which is not easily accommodated in Cardinaletti and Starke’s (1999) tripartite typology. It will be claimed that the diachronic development of dative loro can be captured in terms of a close interaction between the internal structure of pronouns (where reanalysis as upward movement and the Head Preference Principle derive different degrees of structural deficiency), and general rules governing sentence structure.
Bare singular nouns in Middle Norwegian
Authors: Kinn Kari
Published: November 2019

Old Norwegian allowed bare singular count nouns (BSNs) to a greater extent than Modern Norwegian. This chapter discusses BSNs in the transitional period between these two language stages, Middle Norwegian. It is shown that although BSNs are not very frequent in Middle Norwegian, they do occur, especially with indefinite interpretation; their distribution also seems compatible with previous suggestions that the indefinite article went through a stage of marking specificity. On the basis of these findings it is argued that a nominal structure different from that found in Modern Norwegian was retained until quite late, at least in some speakers.
On the relative cycle
Authors: Poletto Cecilia , Sanfelici Emanuela
Published: November 2019

This chapter investigates linguistic cycles in order to shed light on the general principles of language change, in the light of certain recent developments in syntactic theory, in particular Kayne’s (2016) proposal that all heads are necessarily silent. If this approach is on the right track, it would have major consequences for economy-based theories of language change that make heavy use of spec-to-head reanalyses. Instead of a spec-to-head reanalysis, we propose that cycles can be accounted for in terms of a change in the silent nominals that an item can be paired with. The testing ground of our claim is provided by the history of Italian relativizers.
Reforming French
Authors: Schneider Robert A.
Published: November 2019

This chapter demonstrates the force and novelty of the movement among a generation of writers to raise the French vernacular to expressive heights that would surpass the prestige of Latin and Greek and rival contemporary Italian. The chapter also identifies leading writers who opposed this movement—whose opposition, indeed, only reinforces the conclusion that it was a veritable movement. It shows that it was not simply a matter of their writings but also their participation in a whole range of informal associations that underpinned this movement. The chapter finally turns to one of the most notable efforts of these writers: their commitment to the project of translating mostly ancient texts into a French that would appeal to an enlarged French readership.
Introduction
Authors: Saunders Max
Published: November 2019

Multiple introductions are warranted to this complex and unusual series. The first section describes its origins, its polymath editor C. K. Ogden, some of his related editorial ventures, and the books by some of the more prominent contributors. The distinctive futurological angle is discussed, together with its generally progressive orientation, and commitment to intelligent debate. The importance of the scientific approach is introduced, as a main thread running through the series and this study. Two superb, influential science volumes are introduced: the initial book, J. B. S. Haldane’s Daedalus; or, Science and the Future (1923); and J. D. Bernal’s The World, the Flesh, and the Devil (1929). Some cardinal intellectual contexts are established: how the series addresses time, eugenics, and modernity. Its organization is considered. The contemporary impact is assessed, leading to a discussion of the value of studying past predictions for thinking not only about the past but about the nature of prediction. The second introductory section places the series in the history of futurological thinking from the fin de siècle to the present. It starts from a contrast between today’s data-driven professionalized group foresight exercises and individual imaginative projections.
Higher-Order Uncertainty
Authors: Dorst Kevin
Published: November 2019

You have higher-order uncertainty iff you are uncertain of what opinions you should have. This chapter defends three claims about it. First, the higher-order evidence debate can be helpfully reframed in terms of higher-order uncertainty. The central question becomes how your first- and higher-order opinions should relate—a precise question that can be embedded within a general, tractable framework. Second, this question is nontrivial. Rational higher-order uncertainty is pervasive, and lies at the foundations of the epistemology of disagreement. Third, the answer is not obvious. The Enkratic Intuition—that your first-order opinions must “line up” with your higher-order opinions—is incorrect; epistemic akrasia can be rational. If all this is right, then it leaves us without answers—but with a clear picture of the question, and a fruitful strategy for pursuing it.
Evidence of Evidence as Higher-Order Evidence
Authors: Eder Anna-Maria A. , Brössel Peter
Published: November 2019

In everyday life and in science we acquire evidence of evidence and based on this new evidence we often change our epistemic states. An assumption underlying such practice is that the following EEE Slogan is correct: ‘evidence of evidence is evidence’. We suggest that evidence of evidence is best understood as higher-order evidence about the epistemic state of agents. In order to model evidence of evidence the chapter introduces a new powerful framework for modelling epistemic states, Dyadic Bayesianism. Based on this framework, it then discusses characterizations of evidence of evidence and argues for one of them. Finally, the chapter shows that whether the EEE Slogan holds, depends on the specific kind of evidence of evidence.
Return to Reason
Authors: Titelbaum Michael G.
Published: November 2019

This chapter discusses responses to the author’s “Rationality’s Fixed Point (or: In Defense of Right Reason).” Among other things, the chapter: explains how the author understands rationality; explains why akrasia is irrational; intuitively overviews the argument from the Akratic Principle to the Fixed Point Thesis; explains why you can’t avoid this argument by distinguishing the rational from the reasonable, ideal rationality from everyday rationality, or substantive from structural norms; responds to the suggestion that misleading higher-order evidence creates rational dilemmas; explains why the Fixed Point Thesis doesn’t assume objectivist or externalist notions of rationality; dismisses complaints about agents who aren’t able to “figure out” what’s rational; then responds to an objection that peer disagreement undermines doxastic justification. Finally, the chapter modifies the author’s steadfast position on peer disagreement to take into account cases in which peer disagreement rationally affects an agent’s first-order opinions without affecting higher-order ones.
Catholic Doctrines on the Jewish People after Vatican II
Authors: D'Costa Gavin
Published: November 2019

The book explores Roman Catholic doctrines after the Second Vatican Council regarding the Jewish people (1965–2015). It establishes the emergence of the teaching that God’s covenant with the Jewish people is irrevocable. What does this mean for Catholics regarding Jewish religious rituals, the land, and mission? The book examines early magisterial documents that seem to contradict current teachings. The apparent contradiction is historically contextualized. It argues two points. First, that earlier teachings accept the positive value of Jewish rituals within certain conditions. This can be applied, in principle, to contemporary religious Jewish rituals. These earlier traditions also show a positive valuation of Jewish cultic practices within the early Christian church. The book examines new Catholic approaches to the Old Testament. Despite different New Testament teachings about the land, it is argued that the promise of the Land to the Jewish people, with various conditions, can be regarded as valid for Catholics. The book also examines the Holy See’s shifting attitude to the modern State of Israel and its pragmatic silence on the theology of land. The book proposes a form of minimalist Catholic Zionism: affirming the land without excluding a just Palestinian resolution. The book explores unresolved Catholic teachings on ‘mission’ and ‘witness’. The centre of this debate concerns the new assumption that Christians should not erase God-given Jewish identity. The book asks: could Hebrew Catholics witness to this reality while also testifying to the compatibility and unity of the two covenants?