bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Repeated separations of 2‐year‐old squirrel monkeys from familiar mother surrogates
Authors: McGrogan H. J. , King J. E.
Published: June 2005

Six squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) during their first year of life were isolated and repeatedly separated from cloth mother surrogates. Subsequently, they were returned to the colony for 1 year and received visual access to normally reared squirrel monkeys. At 2 years of age, the surrogates were reintroduced to the monkeys under conditions identical to those of their first year through cycles of separation and reunion of the surrogate. These monkeys displayed increased high‐energy activity, indicative of the classic protest response upon separation, but did not display a depressive phase. Also, during the 2‐year test, the monkeys manifested enhanced levels of several self‐directed behaviors compared to a group of socially reared control monkeys.
A note on the status of “Adapis” priscus Stehlin, 1916
Authors: Schwartz J. H. , Tattersall Ian
Published: June 2005

Reappraisal of the morphology of the type (and only) lower jaw of the Swiss middle Eocene primate “Adapis” priscus shows that it is wrongly attributed to the genus Adapis. Indeed, its closest affinities do not lie with other European primates of the early Tertiary, but rather with the North American genus Smilodectes, to which we transfer the species priscus. The presence in Europe of a species of Smilodectes emphasizes that the separation of the Eocene primate faunas of Europe is substantially less complete than generally believed.
Induction of marginal zinc deficiency in female rhesus monkeys
Authors: Golub Mari S. , Gershwin M. Eric , Hurley Lucille S. , Hendrickx Andrew G. , Baly Deborah L.
Published: June 2005

Although severe zinc deficiency has been previously induced in rhesus monkeys, marginal zinc deprivation, a state more analogous to that found in human populations has not been characterized. To address this issue, zinc deficiency was induced in mature female rhesus monkeys by restriction of dietary zinc in a semipurified diet based on sprayed egg white as the protein source. Groups of monkeys were fed dietary levels of 0.5, 2, 4, 8, 12, 20, or 100 ppm zinc. Plasma zinc concentration fell from an initial level of 92–148 μg/100 ml to levels between 40 and 90 μg/100 ml in monkeys fed 8 ppm zinc or less. This reduction in plasma zinc concentration was associated with alterations in peripheral blood lymphocyte mitogen responsiveness, taste sensitivity, and behavior similar to those seen in human zinc deficiency. However, in contrast to studies of severe zinc deprivation, our animals did not manifest alopecia, dermatitis, anorexia, or weight loss. It was concluded that marginal dietary zinc deficiency can be readily produced in primates and that depressed zinc levels achieved by this selective dietary restriction can lead to quantitative physiological changes without overt pathology. These findings are important for the development of a relevant animal model of marginal zinc deficiency.
Visual and social responses in infant rhesus monkeys
Authors: Mendelson Morton J.
Published: June 2005

This paper reviews a program of research on the development of visual functions and social responsiveness in infant rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). One study involved a clinical examination of simple visual reflexes (e.g., orienting) and more complex visuo‐motor responses (e.g., gaze aversion and reaching). Such responses changed dramatically over the first two weeks of life. Two other studies used infrared corneal‐reflection techniques to monitor visual scanning: One determined when infant monkeys become sensitive to the direction of aconspecific's gaza. By week three, rhesus monkeys scanned faces looking back at them less than faces looking away. The other study investigated whether, like human infants, Young monkeys shift from scanning external contours of a pattern to scanning internal details. Unlike human infants, however, young monkeys shifted from proportionally more internal scanning to proportionally more external scanning. As a whole, the studies demonstrated rapid development of visual functions and visually cued social responses and raised important questions for future research.
Puberty in male Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata): Social and sexual behavior in a confined troop
Authors: Rostal David C. , Eaton G. Gray
Published: June 2005

The social and sexual behaviors of four groups of males (4, 5, 9, and 10 years old) were compared throughout one complete mating season in a confined troop of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). The aim of this research was to document social behavior changes that occurred during adolescence and to relate them to changes in sexual behavior that occurred at puberty. The 4‐year‐old males all mounted females and ejaculated but they had significantly fewer ejaculations and female partners than did the older males. The 4‐year‐old males also showed a pattern of delayed development in tail carriage and courtship, and they played more frequently than the older males. There were no significant differences in the frequency of aggression among the groups, but both 4‐year‐old and 5‐year‐old males were displaced by adult males and females more frequently than were the older males. We concluded that the development of adult patterns of social behavior in this genus is not climactic, but occurs slowly one to two years after physiological puberty has been reached.
Karyotypic evolution in Aotus
Authors: Galbreath Gary J.
Published: June 2005

Great karyotypic diversity exists within the platyrrhine genus Aotus. Primarily by comparing banded karyograms of different forms of Aotus, the pattern of karyotypic evolution can be assessed. Out‐group comparisons are used to establish primitive and derived states of particular chromosomes, and a parsimonious cladogram is constructed. Other karyotypic changes are then positioned at appropriate nodes of the cladogram. The resulting phylogenetic hypothesis is entirely self‐consistent, is in accord with out‐group comparisons, does not invoke hybridization between ancestral forms, and, importantly, indicates a single origin for each rearrangement of euchromatic segments. Moreover, it is consistent with the hypothesis, derived from pelage studies, that the more southerly Aotus taxa constitute a holophyletic group. The reconstructed ancestral karyotype had a diploid number of 54. There has been little loss of euchromatic material during Aotus evolution.
Physiological and social influences on mounting behavior of troop‐living female monkeys (Macaca fuscata)
Authors: Gouzoules Harold , Goy Robert W.
Published: June 2005

Female mounting behavior was studied in a troop of Japanese macaques during one breeding season. Of 79 sexually active females, mounting behavior during consortships was shown by 50 females; 13 only with males, 20 with both males and females, and 17 only with females. Several factors associated with reproductive state influenced the expression of mounting activity. Recency of parturition influenced the mounting by females regardless of the type of partner. Females that had not given birth the previous spring (four to six months prior to the period of observation) were more likely both to mount partners and to produce an infant the following spring. These findings suggest the existence of a common factor, perhaps associated with lactation, inhibitory both to expression of mounting and to female fertility. Additionally, females that mounted were more likely to do so in consortships that followed than in those that preceded conception. This last finding suggests that, in this social context, the endocrine conditions of early pregnancy facilitated mounting to a greater extent than those associated with the cyclic ovary. Separate statistical analyses examined possible influences of age, dominance rank, and kinship on the likelihoods of mounting and being mounted. None of these factors influenced female mounting. Results suggest that the expression of mounting by females was more influenced by reproductive state than by social characteristics of the partner.
Use of females by male olive baboons (Papio anubis)
Authors: Strum Shirley C.
Published: June 2005

Wild male olive baboons (Papio anubis) used females and infants as agonistic buffers. Male residency status determined whether a male used females or whether they were used against him. The success of the strategy depended on the cooperation of the female and the context of the interaction. Female cooperation correlated with preexisting social affiliation with the male user. Male choice of female or infant buffers represented a compromise between the potential effectiveness of each in different situations and the social and spatial availability of females and infants. Nonreproductive social relationships may provide long‐term strategic benefits to the individuals who invest in them.
Diet and dominance among female vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops)
Authors: Whitten Patricia L.
Published: June 2005

Behavioral observations of free‐ranging female vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) suggest that priority of access to food enhances individual fitness. Seventeen adult females living in two social groups were observed for 26 months in the Samburu/Isiolo Game Reserves, northern Kenya. Priority of access to feeding and sitting sites was associated with significant differences in diet and reproduction. Food species distribution altered rank‐related differences in diet. Rank‐related differences in diet occurred when food items were clumped in distribution, but not when they were randomly distributed. The relation of individual food items to reproduction influenced rank‐related differences in reproduction. Rank was significantly correlated with birth rate when a preferred food species was clumped in distribution.
Seasonal breeding in rhesus monkeys: Influence of the behavioral environment
Authors: Herndon James G.
Published: June 2005

The accepted model of breeding seasonality in rhesus monkeys states that females become reproductively active in response to an environmental cue and that males become sexually active in response to ovulating females. This model must be modified to include direct responses of the male to the physical environment, endocrine responses of males to sexual activity, and responses of the female to the sexual activation of fellow group members. The complex set of social stimuli that influences the breeding readiness of both sexes may serve to delimit more precisely the annual periods of conception and birth than would be the case if each individual responded only to the changing physical environment.
Brief report: Infant‐killing and infant disappearance following male takeovers in a group of free‐ranging howling monkeys (Alouatta palliata) in Costa Rica
Authors: Clarke Margaret R.
Published: June 2005

Events surrounding an infant‐killing following a male takeover are described for a group of free‐ranging howling monkeys in Costa Rica, and additional evidence is presented for infant disappearances following three previous male takeovers. Infant‐killing is best interpreted in this context as a male reproductive strategy, as infant‐killing did effectively shorten the interbirth interval, and only infants of high‐ranking females died or disappeared following a male takeover. Due to the exclusive access of the dominant male to high‐ranking estrous females, an incoming male who had lived as a peripheral male before taking over the group would run little risk of eliminating his own offspring in the course of killing the offspring of high‐ranking females.
Brief report: Newborn adoption in a confined group of Japanese macaques
Authors: Fuccillo R. , Scucchi S. , Troisi A. , D'Amato F. R.
Published: June 2005

In a group of Japanese macaques, a multiparous high‐ranking female gave birth to an infant and, two days later, adopted a neonate abandoned right after birth by a primiparous low‐ranking female. Both infants were reared successfully. Whereas the “selfish” explanation does not accord with the evidence from the present case, the “altruistic” explanation cannot be discarded definitively. However, the context and the consequences of the adoption suggest reproductive error on the part of the adoptive mother as the most likely explanation.
Ramapithecus and Sivapithecus from China: Some implications for higher primate evolution
Authors: Rukang Wu , Oxnard Charles E.
Published: June 2005

The pattern of overall dental dimensions in over 900 teeth of ramapithecines from Lufeng in China is examined using frequency distribution histograms and fitted normal curves, and compared with data for extant hominoids. A prior study has demonstrated unequivocally that at least two groups of animals must have existed at Lufeng [Wu and Oxnard, 1983; Oxnard, 1983a]. The present investigation confirms this finding in more detail. In addition it shows that one fossil group possesses smaller teeth with a lesser degree of sexual dimorphism and approximately equal numbers of adult males and females, and the other possesses larger teeth with a rather larger degree of sexual dimorphism and a female‐male ratio that may have approximated from as low as 2:1 to as high as 4:1. Comparisons of patterns of difference along the tooth row demonstrate that both these forms differ from modern apes in their sexual dimorphism, the smaller form being more like humans than the larger, which is more like apes, especially orangutans. Comparisons of the areas of the canine teeth with each of the other functional segments of the tooth row again show that the smaller form is basically similar to modern humans and that the larger resembles extant great apes. Comparisons of other functional dental areas seem to relate to dietary and masticatory functions. Thus the cutting areas are large relative to the chewing areas in omnivorous humans, whereas in the essentially vegetarian great apes this ratio is smaller. The smaller fossil resembles the human condition and may have been somewhat omnivorous; the larger one more resembles the apes and may have been somewhat more vegetarian. However, these comparisons also show that the way in which the larger form resembles the apes is associated with special development of the canines, which is different from that in any modern ape. Comparisons show that the canines in the larger form project far beyond the normal line of tooth crowns. Finally, comparisons show that canine sexual dimorphism in height is marked in the larger form. Neither of these last two features is true of the smaller fossil. These findings have implications for our understanding of the evolution of early pongids and hominids, and for the evolution of primate sexual dimorphisms and dental mechanisms.
Brief report: Crocodile predation on a crab‐eating macaque in Borneo
Authors: Galdikas Biruté M. F. , Yeager Carey P.
Published: June 2005

An immature crab‐eating macaque (Macaca fascicularis), which was sitting on the river bank near the Orangutan Research and Conservation Project base camp in the Tanjung Puting Reserve, Kalimantan Tengah, Indonesia, was seized by a crocodile which rapidly emerged from the water and then resubmerged with the monkey in its jaws. As crocodile populations are in a decline throughout Borneo, crocodile predation on crab‐eating macaques was probably more frequent in the past. This predation may have influenced development of some behaviors with an antipredator function in M. fascicularis.
Fruit eating and seed dispersal by howling monkeys (Alouatta palliata) in the tropical rain forest of Los Tuxtlas, Mexico
Authors: Estrada Alejandro , Coates‐Estrada Rosamond
Published: June 2005

The frugivory and ranging habits of howling monkeys living in the rain forest of Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, Mexico, were studied for 5 consecutive years with the aim of investigating the role of seed dispersal agents played by the howling monkeys. The howling monkeys' consumption of fruit occupied half of their feeding time, and 80% of this time was spent feeding on mature fruit. Observations confirmed use of 19 tree species and a preference for a few species of Moraceae and Lauraceae. Fruit exploitation was very seasonal; only two species provided fruit year‐round. Home range size was about 60 ha, and animals in the troop (N = 16) showed a day range of 10–893 m. Monthly collection of fecal samples during 2 years indicated that 90% of the seeds (N = 7,928) in the samples belonged to eight tree species and to one liana; the rest belonged to 15 unidentified species of vines. Germination success for the seeds in the feces was about 60% and for control seeds was 35%. Howling monkeys created diverse seed shadows in the vicinity of their leaf and fruit sources, and while they dispersed the seeds of some plant species, they also produced a great deal of fruit and seed waste for others.
Social influences on sexual maturation of female Saguinus oedipus oedipus
Authors: Tardif S. D.
Published: June 2005

The hypothesis tested was that Saguinus oedipus oedipus females housed with adult males would mature, sexually, at an earlier age than females remaining in their natal family groups. Six females were housed with strange, unrelated males. Five females remained in their natal groups. Blood samples were taken twice weekly, and the plasma was assayed for progesterone. Sexual maturation was operationally defined as that age at which plasma progesterone levels became consistently detectable. Females housing with males did mature at an earlier age than females remaining in their natal groups. In addition, it was noted that the presence or absence of a healthy, reproductive mother in the natal group was not related to the daughter's maturation age. However, whether the natal group, as a whole, inhibited maturation of young females, or an unrelated male accelerated maturation, or both, remains unknown.
Low potency of intact male rhesus monkeys after long‐term visual contact with their female partners
Authors: Zumpe Doris , Michael Richard P.
Published: June 2005

We have examined the possibility that prolonged visual contact between future sexual partners, in the absence of any direct sexual contact and mating activity, is sufficient to produce the familiar‐female phenomenon and is associated loss of male potency. For 1 year, 32 intact, feral‐reared male rhesus monkeys were housed so that 14 males were in constant visual contact with their four future testing females, and 18 of the males were without any visual contact with females. After 1 year, each male was then tested once with each ovariectomized, estrogen‐treated female (128 tests). Males in the group having prolonged prior visual contact (group II) were significantly less potent than males without prior visual contact (group I), and this difference was not related to plasma testosterone levels, prior history, time since capture, or presumed age. Group II males had fewer ejaculations during tests and ejaculated with fewer partners, and this appeared to be because they required significantly more stimulation (mounting and thrusting) to reach ejaculation. The data suggested that the familiar‐partner phenomenon was not restricted to the male and was associated with increased social affinity and decreased agonistic tension between partners. Under natural conditions, the phenomenon may encourage troop transfers and outbreeding, and in laboratory studies, prior visual contact between testing partners should be regarded as a potentially uncontrolled source of variation.
Female mate choice in vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus)
Authors: Keddy Anne C.
Published: June 2005

Female mate choice was examined in a captive group of vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus). Male‐female interactions were examined under both dyadic and group conditions to determine whether females mate with different males under the two conditions. Results showed that all females preferred to mate with the alpha male under both dyadic and group conditions. Alpha females, however, were more successful than subordinate females in rejecting the sexual solicitations of subordinate males. Thus female dominance status played an important role in determining the degree to which females exercised mate choice.
Influence of acute stress and the adrenal axis on regulation of LH and testosterone in the male rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta)
Authors: Hayashi Kevin T. , Moberg Gary P.
Published: June 2005

In order to determine the mechanism by which stress may affect the secretion and function of luteinizing hormone (LH) in primates, the response of the adrenal and gonadal axes was followed in male rhesus monkeys during brief restraint in primate chairs and during various hormone treatments. To further assess the responsiveness of the gonadal axis, gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) was administered during the experiments. Corticosteroid levels were elevated throughout the first restraint trial as compared to those in subsequent trials. LH was elevated in the first sample of the first trial as compared to that in the following trials. The responses of LH to GnRH were equivalent in all trials, while the testosterone response to GnRH was attenuated in the first trial. A single injection of adrenocorti‐cotropin (ACTH, 40 IU), while increasing circulating corticosteroids similarly to that observed during the first restraint trial, failed to cause an acute initial release of LH. However, ACTH did lower the testosterone response to GnRH. Following 5 days of ACTH treatment (40 IU twice daily), basal LH was suppressed, and the testosterone response to GnRH was decreased. Following 5 days of cortisol injections (100 mg twice daily), basal LH and testosterone were suppressed, but again only the testosterone response to GnRH was attenuated. Acute restraint stress, acting by some mechanism other than the activation of adrenal axis, stimulates a transient release of LH. While the stress‐stimulated release of corticosteroids failed to affect the LH response following GnRH administration, it did act directly on the testes to prevent the normal release of testosterone. Finally, chronic elevation of corticosteroids, produced by ACTH or cortisol administration, suppressed basal serum LH and attenuated the response of testosterone to GnRH.
Aspects of fight interference in free‐ranging and compound‐dwelling rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)
Authors: Kaplan Jay R. , Chikazawa Dennis K. , Manuck Stephen B.
Published: June 2005

Patterns of fight interference (agonistic aiding) were compared among three groups of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) living in two settings: (1) two groups at Cayo Santiago (Caribbean Primate Center); and (2) one group at the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center (YRPRC). A total of 1,227 interference episodes were recorded in 1,650 hours of observation. The only significant intergroup difference was the increased tendency of males at YRPRC to aid aggressors rather than victims. Among other findings, females aided relatives, interfered against target animals dominant to themselves, aided juveniles, and aided victims more consistently and frequently than did males. Importantly, female interference became more male‐like in pattern when aid was given to nonrelatives. Neither the dominant males nor males in general displayed a unique or consistent tendency to interfere in fights in a manner which could be interpreted as controlling aggression. The males' interference patterns also did not suggest they were forming coalitions to either attain or defend status rankings. It is concluded that, overall, observations of compound‐dwelling and free‐ranging rhesus monkeys reveal similar relationships. Further, while female rhesus monkeys interfered in fights in a manner consistent with the control of aggression and protection of kin, the motives of male interferers remain unknown; however, their behavior is consistent with the hypothesis that they were reducing intermale tensions while, at the same time, minimizing physical risk.
Do line‐transect surveys systematically underestimate primate densities in logged forests?
Authors: Skorupa Joseph P.
Published: June 2005

The rate at which social groups of primates are encountered in disturbed rain forest may be biased relative to undisturbed rain forest. A recently reported case study revealed a 25% reduction in postlogging raw encounter rates even though the true density of primates remained at the prelogging level. If biased raw encounter rates are typical of disturbed forests, and if they translate into equally biased line‐transect density estimates, results of many comparative surveys might prove misleading (ie, apparent declines of primates in disturbed forest may not be real). Here a set of line‐transect density estimates from logged forest are tested for systematic bias by comparing them to range‐mapping density estimates, and the response of a Fourier series detectability function to several hypothetical patterns of bias in raw encounter rates is illustrated. Tests of line‐transect density estimates from logged forest provide no evidence of systematic bias. The Fourier series results suggest that biased raw encounter rates may often be ameliorated by line‐transect density estimators. Available evidence suggests that line‐transect density estimates or similarly transformed encounter rates usually provide reliable comparative results within the limits of a particular study's resolution. In contrast, conclusions drawn directly from comparative raw encounter rates (without transforming them into density estimates) are more prone to error.
Fatal intragroup kidnapping in yellow baboons
Authors: Shopland Jennifer M. , Altmann Jeanne
Published: June 2005

The fatal kidnapping of a 5‐day‐old baboon (Papio cynocephalus) in Amboseli National Park, Kenya, is described. Although pulling and rough handling of primate infants by nonmothers are frequently observed, records of fatal intragroup kidnappings are rare. In the instance described here, the mother, a healthy, primiparous female, did not retrieve the infant from the kidnapper, a higher‐ranking juvenile female of the same group, until he died 3 days later, presumably from starvation or dehydration. This incident is compared with other fatal intragroup kidnappings in nonhuman primates and related to adaptive interpretations.
Description of ultrasonic vocalizations of the mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus) and the fat‐tailed dwarf lemur (Cheirogaleus medius)
Authors: Cherry James A. , Izard M. Kay , Simons Elwyn L.
Published: June 2005

Ultrasonic (>20 kHz) vocalizations were recorded from two species of prosimian primates, Microcebus murinus and Cheirogaleus medius. Three types of ultrasonic calls were emitted by isolated or paired M. murinus: 1) “chirps,” short‐duration (30 msec) calls with a sharp onset at 40 kHz followed by rapid and steep declines in frequency and intensity; 2) “twitters,” characterized by a brief pulse at 25 kHz prior to the onset of repeating, frequency‐modulated units; and 3) “long whistles,” monotone signals with a frequency of 20 kHz. Partially ultrasonic “whines” were recorded from C. medius during interactions between mothers and infants. These calls began with a short, high‐intensity component at 25 kHz and then dropped gradually in frequency before leveling off at 15 kHz. Study of the acoustic behavior and the structure of vocalizations in these species may lead to a better understanding of animal communication at high frequencies.
Adrenal myelolipoma in the cottontop tamarin (Saguinus o. oedipus)
Authors: Pearson G. R. , Kirkwood J. K. , Scullion F.
Published: June 2005

Two cases of myelolipoma in the cottontop tamarin (Saguinus o. oedipus) were found unequivocally within the adrenal gland, supporting an earlier suggestion that the adrenal gland was the possible origin of a juxtarenal myelolipoma in the same species. In the present study a 30‐mm‐diameter myelolipoma was present in the adrenal gland in case 1, whereas in case 2 the myelolipoma was only detected on histological examination. In case 1, changes in the adrenal gland were considered to be of minor clinical significance, whereas in case 2 the myelolipoma was an incidental finding.
Reactions of nuclear‐family–reared rhesus macaques to the births of younger siblings
Authors: DiGregorio Gayle , Suomi Stephen J. , Eisele Carole E. , Chapman Sharon A.
Published: June 2005

A group of juvenile rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) living in a nuclear‐family laboratory environment was studied to determine their responses to the births of siblings. The frequencies of interactions with family members (mothers, fathers, and new siblings) and nonfamily (peers, unrelated infants, and unrelated adults) were studied over both the year preceding and the year following sibling birth. The frequencies of specific behaviors in each of those interactions and the frequencies of interactions in each area of the nuclear‐family unit (home cage, play area, or other families' cage) were also examined. After new siblings arrived, several measures of interactions with mothers, fathers, and new siblings increased significantly; by contrast interactions with peers decreased substantially over the post‐birth year. Although the frequency of interactions in home cages remained stable over the 2‐year period, interactions outside of the subjects' home cages decreased significantly after siblings were born. An additional subject group whose mothers became pregnant but failed to deliver viable offspring showed no significant changes in total levels of interactions with peers; they did, however, exhibit increases in some interactions with unrelated infants and adults. Female juveniles interacted with new siblings significantly more often than did males when siblings were less than 6 months old, but as siblings grew older (6–12 months), females' levels of interaction with them fell to a level equal to that of males. In the nuclear‐family social structure, the birth of a sibling resulted in an increased emphasis on family interactions at the expense of peer interactions.
Terrestrial locomotion and back anatomy in vervets (Cercopithecus aethiops) and patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas)
Authors: Hurov Jack R.
Published: June 2005

This comparative study addressed the problem of relationships between locomotor behavior and back anatomy in the cursorial monkeys, Cercopithecus aethiops and Erythrocebus patas. Analysis of cine‐film revealed that patas and vervet monkeys differed significantly in the degree to which they used their backs to increase stride length during galloping. C. aethiops showed increased ranges of sagittal back motion as galloping speed increased almost fivefold; E. patas failed to show significant increases in amplitudes of sagittal back motion despite a five‐to‐sixfold increase in galloping speed. Comparison of epaxial anatomies demonstrated conservative morphologic features which could not be used to explain interspecific differences in sagittal movement patterns of the back. However, when compared to patas monkeys, vervets possessed thicker intervertebral discs, relative to vertebral bone, and reduced dorsoventral diameters of their theracic cages. These anatomic differences were explained on the basis of theoretical bio‐mechanics as being necessary structural prerequisites for enhancing sagittal back mobility. The present analysis of locomotor behavior involving the back and epaxial morphologies was integrated with observations of interspecific differences in limb anatomies and comparative anatomic studies of other mammalian species to develop a general description of strategies used by patas and vervet monkeys to increase stride length during galloping.
Scratching, dominance, tension, and displacement in male baboons
Authors: Easley Stephen Phillip , Coelho Anthony M. , Taylor Linda L.
Published: June 2005

This paper reports a study designed to test the hypothesis that a relationship exists among dominance rank, tension, and scratch behaviors in anubis baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis). Our study was conducted on two groups of male baboons, each containing eight unrelated individuals who were approximately 6 years of age and who shared common rearing histories. Focal animal sampling was used to collect behavioral data. Hand scratching, foot scratching, avoid, tension, allogrooming, autogrooming, and manipulation were measured as acts performed per hour of sampling. Dominance matrices were constructed based on net difference of avoid behavior performed and received (adjusted for time sampled). Individual status ranks were grouped into two status classes, high and low. Analysis of variance models demonstrated significant differences in the performance rate of scratching behaviors by dominance rank class, as well as differences in scratching performance by tension class. Individuals in the high status class had significantly higher rates of total scratching, hand scratching, foot scratching, and tension behavior performance than their counterparts in the low status class. No significant difference was found between status classes or tension classes for performance rate of allogrooming, autogrooming, or manipulation behavior. The frequency of scratching and general level of activity were not significantly correlated. The results are interpreted to indicate the possibility that scratching may function as a displacement behavior, which subjectively appears to communicate heightened frustration, anxiety, or arousal.
Prevalence of glucose intolerance in free‐ranging Macaca fascicularis of Mauritius
Authors: Dunaif Andrea , Tattersall Ian
Published: June 2005

Oral glucose tolerance tests (OGTTs) were carried out on 30 free‐ranging long‐tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) on the island of Mauritius, following the suggestion that severe glucose intolerance and diabetes mellitus might be prevalent in this macaque population. OGTTs revealed no evidence of frank diabetes mellitus in the sample. However, 13% of individuals showed impaired glucose tolerance, with preserved insulin secretion, suggesting the presence of the target tissue resistance to insulin characteristic of human noninsulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). The macaques with impaired glucose tolerance were neither obese nor aged. Glucose levels at all time points of the OGTT in normal macaques in our free‐ranging sample were lower than reported in captive populations, perhaps due to greater physical activity. Our observations demonstrate that a genetic predisposition to glucose intolerance does exist in M. fascicularis, and that this condition, well documented in laboratory macaques, is not simply an artifact of captivity.
Wounding patterns in three species of captive macaques
Authors: Ruehlmann Thomas E. , Bernstein Irwin S. , Gordon Thomas P. , Balcaen Peter
Published: June 2005

The incidence of wounding in captive groups of rhesus (Macaca mulatta), pigtail (M. nemestrina), and stumptail (M. arctoides) macaques was studied for 21 months. Groups were monitored daily for evidence of wounding. Wounded animals were captured, treated by veterinary staff, and returned following recovery. Records were kept on the age, sex, and species of the recipient, along with the type and location of wound. In each species of macaque, adult males incurred the highest frequency of wounds and multiple wounds of any age‐sex class. This contrasted with previously reported behavioral data indicating low frequencies of aggression received by adult males, especially contact aggression and bites. These discrepancies indicate wounding frequencies do not necessarily correspond with behavioral measures of aggression. Inhibition of aggression directed toward infants and the selective avoidance of bites directed to vital body regions were presented as possible mechanisms that modify intragroup aggression. Increased wounding in the birth season under captive conditions suggests that the pattern of increased wounding reported during the breeding season under freeranging conditions may reflect xenophobic responses to immigrating males, rather than direct male‐male competition for estrous females.
Behavioral responses of unrelated rhesus monkey females paired for the purpose of environmental enrichment
Authors: Reinhardt Viktor , Houser Dan , Eisele Stephen , Cowley Douglas , Vertein Russell
Published: June 2005

An attempt was made to socialize unrelated and unfamiliar adult rhesus monkey females that had lived in single cages for more than one year. Partners first were given the opportunity for noncontact familiarization in partitioned double cages. They were then transferred into an ordinary double cage. Clear‐cut rank relationships were evident within the first 90 minutes of pair formation in 94% (17/18) of dyads tested. Only 28% (5/18) of pairs resorted to fighting (in no case with infliction of serious injury), while 50% (9/18) engaged in social grooming or hugging during this initial phase of pair formation. Eighty‐three percent (15/18) of pairs were compatible, with none of the partners showing signs of depression and none inflicting serious injury on the other. Seventeen percent (3/18) of pairs were incompatible (two cases of depression, one serious tail injury) and were separated. It was concluded that the barren environment of singly caged rhesus monkey females can be enriched with little risk by carefully making them compatible companions.
In vitro bioactive luteinizing hormone assay shows cyclical, seasonal hormonal changes and response to luteinizing‐hormone releasing hormone in the squirrel monkey (Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis)
Authors: Yeoman Richard R. , Aksel Sezer , Hazelton Julianne M. , Williams Lawrence E. , Abee Christian R.
Published: June 2005

Studies on the reproductive mechanisms of the squirrel monkey have been hampered by inadequate measurements of luteinizing hormone (LH). The mouse interstitial cell bioassay, which measures testosterone production as the endpoint, was validated for use in the squirrel monkey by parallel responses of serum to LH standards and by in vivo responses to an LH‐releasing hormone (LHRH) analogue. The LH surge profile, as determined by daily blood sampling, was found to be of 1–2 days duration and comparable in amplitude to those of other primates. A 9.7‐day ovulatory cycle length was also calculated and was similar to previous estimates based on other hormonal and behavioral methods. A 150‐fold decrease in basal LH was found in the nonbreeding season, as was a decreased LHRH response. This assay makes possible future studies on hypothalamic‐ovarian mechanisms in this species.
Cerebral palsy in a macaque monkey
Authors: Fitch H. , Coen R. , Lindburg D. , Robinson P. , Hajek P. , Hesselink J. , Crutchfield S.
Published: June 2005

Magnetic resonance imaging was used to document brain lesions symptomatic of cerebral palsy in the macaque monkey exhibiting poor motor control and periodic episodes of ocular nystagmus and convulsive twitching. Neuroanatomic deficits most likely resulted from hemorrhage or ischemic infarction at or near the time of birth. Extreme maternal dependency and retarded behavioral development were documented at 3 and 12 months of age. Both social and motor behavior improved significantly when observed at 30 months of age after therapy.
Distribution of erythrocytic allozymes in two sibling species of greater galago [Galago crassicaudatus E. Geoffroy 1812 and G. garnettii (Ogilby 1838)]
Authors: Masters Judith C. , Dunn David S.
Published: June 2005

This study investigated the use of erythrocyte enzymes as indicators of the presence or absence of gene flow between the sibling species G. crassicaudatus and G. garnettii. Fifty‐five animals deriving from 14 different source populations were included in the analyses. In addition to hemoglobin, eight enzyme systems were examined: acid phosphatase, adenylate kinase, carbonic anhydrase II, esterase D, glucose‐6‐phosphate dehydrogenase, 6‐phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, peptidase A, and peptidase B. of these, adenylate kinase, glucose‐6‐phosphate dehydrogenase, hemoglobin, peptidase A, and peptidase B showed no interspecific or intraspecific variation. Esterase D was polymorphic in certain populations of G. crassicaudatus but not in others or in G. garnettii. Acid phosphatase and 6‐phosphogluconate dehydrogenase were polymorphic in G. garnettii but monomorphic in all G. crassicaudatus populations. The taxa showed fixation for different alleles at the carbonic anhydrase II locus, indicating a lack of gene exchange between the taxa. We suggest that acid phosphatase, 6‐phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, and carbonic anhydrase II may be used as genetic markers in the identification of these two taxa.
Dental eruption schedules of wild and captive baboons
Authors: Phillips‐Conroy Jane E. , Jolly Clifford J.
Published: June 2005

Dental eruption schedules previously used to age wild baboons have in the past derived from studies of captive animals housed under standard conditions and fed standard laboratory diets. This paper reports for the first time eruption schedules derived from wild baboons, the yellow baboons (Papio hamadryas cynocephalus) of Mikumi National Park, Tanzania, and compares these schedules with those of other baboon subspecies inhabiting both similar and dissimilar environments. Eighteen males and twelve females from the Viramba groups, ranging in age from 21 to 103 months, were trapped, and dental impressions and notes were made of the state of eruption of each tooth. Eruption of all teeth were delayed at Mikumi relative to the baboon standards derived from the captive animals at the Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, San Antonio, Texas. Teeth of the canine‐premolar 3 complex and third molars were most delayed, erupting up to a year and a half later than their counterparts from captive animals. Comparison with data on hamadryas baboons from Erer‐Gota in Ethiopia revealed that both the hamadryas and yellow subspecies of baboons, with different genetic backgrounds and living under markedly different environmental conditions, followed the same schedule. This constancy of developmental schedules suggests that these Mikumi data may reasonably be used as standards for other wild baboon populations and that acceleration of dental maturation, as well us maturation of other somatic systems in captivity, is another manifestation of the short‐term adaptive plasticity of the baboon species as a whole.
Induction of atresia of the dominant follicle in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) by the local application of estradiol‐17β
Authors: Hutz Reinhold J. , Dierschke Donald J. , Wolf Richard C.
Published: June 2005

Estradiol‐17β (E2), administered systemically to rhesus monkeys during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, induces atretic changes in the microenvironment of the dominant follicle (DF), which results in its demise. It has been proposed that this effect of E2 represents a direct action at the ovarian level. The present study was designed to test this hypothesis, using local treatment with E2. After identification of the DF during laparoscopy on day 6 of the cycle, female monkeys were laparotomized and their ovaries exposed. Either corn oil (20 μl, controls) or E2 (100 μg ) in oil vehicle (experimentals) was injected into the ovary near the DF. In control animals, preovulatory release of gonadotropins and ovulation were normal in five of six animals, with cycle and luteal phase lengths of 27.8 ± 2.2 days and 14.6 ± 2.5 days, respectively (x̄ ± S.D.). Conversely, in only one of six animals in the experimental group did ovulation occur at the expected time (P < 0.05). In the other five treated animals, E2 induced atresia of the DF and significantly extended cycles (35.4 ± 5.4 days) without affecting luteal phase lengths (12.0 ± 1.4 days). Concentrations of estrogen in peripheral sera of some animals were increased transiently at 6 h after injection of E2 but returned to normal by 12 h; this duration of estrogen exposure is far less than the 24 h required to induce atresia of the DF in previous studies. At 6 h after injection of E2, there was a statistical difference between controls and experimentals in concentrations of circulating estrogen; however, these changes were apparently not enough to alter pituitary secretion of follicle‐stimulating hormone or luteinizing hormone. These data support the hypothesis that E2 can induce atresia of the DF in rhesus monkeys by acting locally at the ovary.
Inferring patterns of aggression from red howler monkey injuries
Authors: Crockett Carolyn M. , Pope Theresa
Published: June 2005

Venezuelan red howler monkeys in a semideciduous habitat typically survive injuries and disabilities. Intraspecific physical aggression was the most frequently observed and inferred cause of injury. Thirty‐eight percent of 119 howlers of all ages examined during capture had scars or other evidence of “damage.” Overall, the sexes did not differ significantly in total number of injuries or number of individuals classified as “damaged.” The incidence of injury was not independent of age‐sex class. The subadult male class had the highest percentage of “damaged” individuals. However, when total injuries per age class were examined for each sex separately, only females showed a pattern that was significantly different than expected based on age (i.e., exposure to injury factors). Subadult females experienced more injuries than expected, whereas adult females had fewer injuries. Troop status (resident troop, natal troop, or extratroop) was not significantly related to the number of injuries in adult and subadult males. Thin finding was not surprising, because adult and subadult males of all status classes are involved in aggression related to breeding competition. Extratroop females had more injuries than expected, and natal females had the fewest injuries. The higher incidence of injuries on subadult females and extratroop females is consistent with aggression‐mediated emigration of some females and observed resistance to female immigration by resident females. Overall, 74% of injuries were located on anterior‐ventral portions of the body, consistent with the face‐to‐face fighting observed in howlers. Sociobiological costs of aggression in red howlers are difficult to assess because many howlers, despite frequent and severe injury, subsequently survive and reproduce. We recommend caution in inferring mortality from injuries, especially when social mobility and emigration out of the study area are common.
Formula‐fed and breast‐fed baboons: Weight growth from birth to adulthood
Authors: Glassman David M. , Coelho Anthony M.
Published: June 2005

The objective of this study was to compare the immediate and long‐term effects of type of infant diet (formula‐fed vs. breast‐fed) on the weight growth of baboons. Longitudinal (serial) weight data were collected from 44 savannah baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis) for the total preadult period of growth from birth to approximately 8 years of age. Fifty percent of the sample (11 females and 11 males) were fed a standard infant formula by a nursery care technician for the first 18 weeks of postnatal life. The remaining 11 females and 11 males were breast‐fed by their mothers for an equivalent period of time. After 18 weeks of age the animals were removed from their infant environments (either nursery or mother‐reared) and assigned to one of four age‐cohort social groups. Each age‐cohort group was balanced for infant treatment and gender. The animals remained in these social groups for the duration of the project and were provided nutritionally identical postweaning diets. No significant weight differences were found between the two rearing conditions for either gender during the initial 15 weeks of growth. Following this period, however, females of breast‐fed environments averaged greater weight at all ages than their bottle‐fed peers. The intensity of the adolescent growth spurt was also slightly greater among the female breast‐fed group. No postinfant average weight‐per‐age disparity was observed between the male treatment groups.