bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Finland and the European Civil Code: A Case for Convergence?
Authors: Järvinen Leo
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The article participates in the discussion on the existence of legal cultural convergence within Europe and the importance of that convergence with regard to the prospect of drafting a European Civil Code for the European Union (EU) Member States. It offers a novel approach to tackle the problem: Instead of relying on broad and loose tests and theories for seeking convergence, it conducts structured and detailed comparisons between cultures, legal cultures, and legal systems. Namely, the study makes use of statistical information as well as tools of comparative law in reaching the conclusion whether or not legal cultural convergence can be said to exist between the Continental Europe and Finland.

Résumé: Le présent article contribue à la discussion portant sur l'existence d'une convergence des cultures juridiques au seing de l'Europe, mais également à l'importance de ladite convergence concernant une éventuelle possibilité de rédiger un avant-projet d'un code civil Européen pour les Etats membres de l'Union Européenne. Cet article propose une nouvelle approche pour aborder le problème: au lieu de faire usage de théories et de tests généraux et imprécis pour démontrer l'existence d'une telle convergence, cette étude conduit une comparaison détaillée et structurée entre diverses cultures, cultures juridiques et entre systèmes juridiques. Plus spécifiquement, cette étude utilise plusieurs statistiques mais également des outils de droit comparatif de manière à conclure si il existe une convergence ou non des cultures juridiques entre l'Europe continentale et la Finlande.

Zusammenfassung: Dieser Artikel nimmt teil an der Debatte über die Existenz von rechtskultureller Konvergenz innerhalb von Europa sowie über die Wichtigkeit dieser Konvergenz im Rahmen der Aussicht auf den Entwurf eines Europäischen Zivilgesetzbuches für die Mitgliedsstaaten der EU. Der Autor bietet einen ungewöhnlichen Ansatz das Thema anzugehen: Anstatt sich bei der Suche nach Konvergenz auf breit angelegte und ungenaue Untersuchungen und Theorien zu stützen, zieht er strukturierte und detaillierte Vergleiche zwischen Kulturen, Rechtskulturen und Rechtssystemen vor. Dementsprechend orientiert sich diese Untersuchung an statistischen Daten sowie an Werkzeugen der vergleichenden Rechtswissenschaft um festzustellen, ob eine rechtskulturelle Konvergenz zwischen Kontinentaleuropa und Finnland vorhanden ist.
Convergence and Unification of Nineteenth Century European Commercial Sales Law
Authors: Oosterhuis Janwillem
Published: April 2022

Abstract: In contemporary European contract law a patchwork of convergence, harmonization, and unification of commercial laws of contract can be witnessed. Why do certain commercial laws converge or even become unified, whereas others remain separate, national laws? In this paper, two theories from law and economics - namely competition between legal systems and game theory - are applied to nineteenth century European commercial sales law to determine whether or not these concepts can explain the convergence and unification of commercial laws. First, the concepts of convergence by competition and unification by coordination are briefly explained. Second, the convergence of one of the consequences of the seller's non-performance in a trade sale - immediate default upon the lapse of a delivery date - is examined for the legal systems of Prussia, France, and the Netherlands. Third, the convergence of another of the consequences of the seller's non-performance in a trade sale - a choice of remedies upon default - is examined for the jurisdictions within the German Confederation. Game theory is applied to a next step, the unification of German commercial sales law in the Allgemeines Handelsgesetzbuch, to highlight its explanatory force. The paper determines that these two concepts do not exclude but complement one another. Together they provide valuable tools to explain the convergence and unification of contemporary commercial laws. The paper concludes with comments on the future prospects for the convergence and unification of European commercial sales law.
Civil Liability of Expert Witnesses in Spain
Authors: Del Olmo Pedro
Published: April 2022

Abstract: In Spain, civil liability of legal experts is to be addressed by the general rules of the Spanish Civil Code, as there are not specific rules on that subject. These general rules contained in the Civil Code are apparently wide and generous in order to allow a claim for losses caused by expert witnesses, but - in sharp contrast with this first impression - the truth is that there are very few court decisions imposing civil liability on expert witnesses. There are some specific provisions regarding legal experts in the Criminal Code and some related case law, but those provisions does not give light on the general subject of legal experts' liability. In any case, I think that Jones v. Kaney should give place to contractual liability, if it were tried in Spain; in my view, any of the requirements of liability is particularly problematic in the case.
Comparative Commentary on Jones v. Kaney
Authors: Mcgrath Colm Peter
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This comparative commentary reflects on a number of themes that have emerged from the preceding papers on the liability of expert witnesses in various European systems in the context of the decision of the United Kingdom Supreme Court in Jones v. Kaney. It briefly surveys a number of other Common law jurisdictions before turning to the systems covered in the preceding papers. The nature of the relevant liability regime as falling within the general rules or as part of a specific, witness-focussed set of rules, the nature of the fault standard and the local perception of witness liability as problematic are all noted. Finally brief comments as to the future chances for harmonisation in this area are made.
The Interpretation Philosophy of Secured Transaction Law Conventions
Authors: Akseli N. Orkun
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Uniform secured transaction law conventions are critical instruments in efforts to reduce the cost of credit and increase cross-border investment and trade. They present neutral sets of rules. Their provisions need to be construed autonomously, considering their neutral and international character and the need to establish predictability, transactional certainty, and good faith. This article examines the interpretation philosophy of three significant uniform secured transaction law conventions, namely the United Nations Convention on the Assignment of Receivables in International Trade, UNIDROIT Convention on International Factoring, and UNIDROIT Convention on International Interests in Mobile Equipment.

Résumé: Les conventions relatives à la législation uniforme sur les operations garanties sont des instruments indispensables pour réduire le coût du crédit, et pour accroître l'investissement et le commerce transfrontalier. Les conventions édictent des règles neutres. Leurs dispositions doivent être interprétées de façon autonome, à la lumière de leur caractère neutre et international et afin d'assurer une prévisibilité, une certitude transactionnelle ainsi que la bonne foi. Cet article examine la philosophie d'interprétation de trois conventions: la Convention des Nations Unies sur la Cession de Créances dans le Commerce International, la Convention d'Unidroit sur l'Affacturage International, et la Convention d'Unidroit relative aux Garanties Internationales Portant sur des Matériels d'Equipement Mobiles.

Zusammenfassung: Die Konventionen zum Recht der Kreditsicherheiten spielen eine gewichtige Rolle für die Reduzierung von Kreditkosten und die Erleichterung von grenzüberschreitenden Investitionen und Handel. Sie stellen dabei neutrale Rechtsregeln dar. Die entsprechenden Vorschriften müssen demzufolge unter Berücksichtigung ihres neutralen und internationalen Charakters, sowie dem Grundsatz der Vorhersehbarkeit autonom ausgelegt werden. Der vorliegende Aufsatz untersucht die Auslegungsphilosophie von drei bedeutenden Konventionen zum Recht der Kreditsicherheiten, nämlich der UN Konvention über das Recht der Forderungsabtretung im internationalen Handel, der UNIDROIT Konvention über das internationale Factoring und der UNIDROIT Konvention über internationale Sicherungsrechte an beweglicher Ausrüstung.
Interpretation of Contracts in International Commercial Arbitration: Diversity on More than One Level
Authors: Cordero-Moss Giuditta
Published: April 2022

Abstract: There is a diffuse sentiment that international arbitration is more apt in understanding the interests of the parties than national courts are. Does this mean that arbitrators are more disposed than national courts to relying on the language of the contract and to disregarding possible interference from national law - including also principles such as the principle of good faith? Alternatively, do they more readily rely on considerations of good faith, on the economic interests that are at stake, on trade usages and the like than national courts do?

Considering the impact of different legal traditions on the interpretation of contracts, the limited harmonizing effect of transnational sources in this context, the peculiar drafting style adopted in international contract practice and the rationale therefor, as well as the legal framework for international commercial arbitration, this article highlights the interpretation dilemma faced by arbitrators. It concludes that within arbitration there is no unitary approach to interpretation of contracts.

Resumé: Il existe un sentiment diffus selon lequel l'arbitrage international est plus apte à comprendre les intérêts des parties que les cours et tribunaux nationaux. Cela signifie-t-il que les arbitres sont plus disposés que les cours et tribunaux nationaux à se baser sur le langage du contrat et à ne pas tenir compte des interférences possibles du droit national - y compris également des principes tels que celui de la bonne foi? Ou bien s'appuient-ils plus facilement sur des considérations de bonne foi, sur les interest économiques en jeu, sur les usages du commerce et autres usages similaires, que les cours et tribunaux nationaux?

Prenant en considération l'impact des différentes traditions juridiques sur l'interprétation des contrats, l'effet limité d'harmonisation des sources transnationales dans ce contexte, le style particulier de rédaction adopté dans la pratique des contrats internationaux et sa justification, ainsi que le cadre légal de l'arbitrage commercial international, le présent article souligne le dilemme de l'interprétation auquel les arbitres doivent faire face. Il conclut qu'au sein de l'arbitrage, il n'y a pas d'approche unitaire pour interpréter les contrats.
Consent in Licenses of Personality Rights
Authors: Gisclard Thibault
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Most of the legislation that has been enacted in many legal systems requires express consent to licenses of personality rights and often a written one. Tacit consent, a theory built on wrong grounds, is more rarely admitted. This refusal shall be approved, since not only its existence but also its scope is dubious. The personal component of personality rights obliges us to recognize a right to revoke one's consent. Such a right of withdrawal is not necessarily incompatible with the fundamental principles of the law of obligations. The right of withdrawal, which is recognized by many countries and even sometimes included in the law, is generally considered as a discretionary one, which has effects only for the future. Its exercise requires the restitution of the royalty as well as the indemnification of the damnum emergens, whereas the lucrum cessans should be only taken into account in case of an abuse of the right to withdraw one's consent.

Résumé: La plupart des lois qui ont été adoptées dans de nombreux systems juridiques afin de régir les licences d'exploitation de droits de la personnalité exigent un consentement exprès, et souvent un consentement écrit. En revanche, le consentement tacite, théorie créée sur des fondements inappropriés, est plus rarement admis, ce qui doit être approuvé, puisque non seulement l'existence, mais aussi la portée d'un tel consentement sont incertaines. La composante morale des droits de la personnalité oblige à reconnaître à leur titulaire le droit de révoquer son consentement aux licences de droits de la personnalité. Une telle faculté de revocation n'est pas nécessairement incompatible avec les principes fondamentaux du droit des obligations. La faculté de révocation, qui est reconnue dans de nombreux pays, et même quelquefois intégrée à la loi, est généralement considérée comme discrétionnaire, et n'a d'effet que pour l'avenir. Son exercice exige la restitution de la contrepartie perçue par le modèle, ainsi que l'indemnisation du damnum emergens, tandis que le lucrum cessans ne devrait être pris en compte qu'en cas d'abus de la faculté de révocation.
The Interrelation of Transparency and Availability of Collateral: German and Belgian Laws of Non-possessory Security Interests
Authors: Helsen Frederic , Morell Alexander
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This article compares German and Belgian laws with regard to security interests in corporeal movables, economically analysing the differences to reach a normative conclusion. Belgium is currently implementing a major reform in this field, which, combined with the different stance of both regimes on transparency of security interests, begs the question of whether the Belgian reform could serve as an example to Germany. This article starts by comparing the evolutions both legal systems have undergone in the last century and which have started from opposite positions. While Belgium principally opposed non-possessory security interests for fear that this would annihilate transparency, Germany allowed for a broad system of non-possessory security interests through retentions or transfers of title, without any kind of publicity. Both systems underwent significant changes, which can roughly be divided into two categories: allowing for a floating charge on the business and reacting to business' legal innovations. These evolutions brought into focus the trade-off that used to exist between transparency and extension of the collateral base. These legal evolutions have set the stage for reform in Belgium, a reform that is based on the principle of register publicity of security interests. Next, this article explores the threat posed to non-possessory security interests by the possibility of acquisitions in good faith, in both regimes. Following the legal comparison, this article analyses the identified differences from an economic point of view, finding three key areas in which transparency can be beneficial. First, transparency reduces the social cost of using secured credit. Second, it makes collateral more effective in performing its function by reducing the scope for acquisitions in good faith taking precedence over security interests. Finally, transparency can also make collateral more effective by optimizing the functioning of the floating charge. In its final part, the article briefly goes into the challenges posed by setting up register publicity, more specifically with regard to privacy issues and gatekeeping. This article concludes that now that technology allows for transparency and the collateral base to be complements, economically speaking, Germany could, in fact, benefit from a reform following the Belgian model.
Mandatorily Protected: The Consumer in the European Conflict of Laws
Authors: Bisping Christopher
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This article critically analyses three recent judgments, in which the European Court of Justice (ECJ) has extended the notion of consumer contract under Article 15 of the Brussels I Regulation (BIR). It is argued that this extension, which will equally affect choice of law in consumer contracts under Article 6 of the Rome I Regulation (RIR), is too far reaching and leads to a mandatory protection of consumers. Such protection was neither envisaged by the legislator, nor is it necessary as a policy to establish a sufficient level of consumer protection. The author argues that a return to the idea of the passive consumer brings about more appropriate results.

Resumé: Cet article analyse critique de trois arrêts récents, dans lessquelle la CJE a étendu la notion de contrat de consommation vertu de l'art. 15 règlement Bruxelles-I. Il fait valoir que cette extension, qui sera également affecter le choix de loi dans les contrats de consommation en vertu de l'art. 6 du règlement Rome-I, est trop grande portée et conduit à une protection obligatoire des consommateurs. Cette protection a été ni envisagée par le législateur, et il n'est pas aussi nécessaire pour établir un niveau suffisant de protection des consommateurs. L'auteur suggère que le retour à l'idée de consommateur passif apporte des résultats plus appropriés.

Zusammenfassung: Dieser Beitrag unterzieht drei neuere Urteile, in denen der EuGH den Begriff des Verbrauchervertrags in Art. 15 Brüssel-I Verordnung ausweitet, einer kritischen Würdigung. Er ist der Aufassung, dass diese Ausweitung, die gleichsam die Frage des anwendbaren Rechts gem. Art. 6 Rom-I Verordnung betrifft, zu weit geht und zu einem zwangsweise Schutz des Verbrauchers führt. Solch ein Schutz war weder vom Gesetzgeber vorgesehen noch ist er notwendig um einen angemessenen Verbraucherschutz sicherzustellen. Der Autor schlägt eine Rückbesinnung auf die Idee des passive Verbrauchers vor, da diese zu angemesseneren Ergebnissen führt.
Policy Interventions via Contract Interpretation
Authors: Kaehler Lorenz
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The paper addresses the various doctrinal and factual ways in which public policy considerations can influence the interpretation of contracts. This influence becomes especially relevant when there is an interpretive leeway due to vague concepts, gaps in the contract, or interpretive maxims such as the standard of a reasonable person. While its main advantage lies in its flexibility and its incentives for the drafting of the contract, its main disadvantage is the hidden way in which public policy interferes with private autonomy. This influence can in fact be observed and to a certain extent even normatively be justified as long as the intentions of the parties are not distorted.

Résumé: L'article traite des différentes manières doctrinales et factuelles par lesquelles des considérations d'intérêt public peuvent influencer l'interprétation des contrats. Cette influence prend une importance particulière en cas d'existence d'une marge d'interprétation due à des concepts vagues, une lacune dans le contrat ou des maximes interprétatives telles que la norme de la personne raisonnable. Alors que son intérêt principal réside dans sa flexibilité et ses avantages dans élaboration du contrat, son grand inconvénient est de constituer un moyen détourné d'intervention de l'intérêt public dans l'autonomie privée. Cette influence peut s'observer en fait et même jusqu'à un certain point se justifier sur le plan normatif pour autant que les intentions des parties ne soient pas faussées.
Supply Chain Liability of Multinational Corporations?
Authors: Rott Peter
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Recent years have seen numerous disasters in factories in countries like Bangladesh and Pakistan that produce goods, in particular garments, for retailers in industrialized countries without being part of their corporate structures. This article raises the question of whether and under what circumstances those retailers may still incur tort law liability for incidents in their supply chains. First discussing concepts of liability for third parties and of organizational torts, this article shows that courts have cautiously moved away from the dogma of strict separation of responsibilities between parent companies and subsidiaries towards a tort law based focus on liability based on control. On that basis, it argues that under suitable circumstances, this approach can also be applied to supply chains, which would impose a duty on retailers to organize their supply chains so as to avoid harm caused by their suppliers.

Résumé: De nombreuses catastrophes ont eu lieu ces dernières années dans des usines situées dans des pays comme le Bangladesh et le Pakistan et qui fabriquent des marchandises, en particulier des vêtements, pour des détaillants de pays industrialisés, sans faire toutefois partie de leurs structures de sociétés. Cet article pose la question de savoir si et dans quelles circonstances ces détaillants peuvent encore encourir une responsabilité civile pour des accidents survenus dans leurs chaînes de production. L'article traite d'abord des concepts de responsabilité pour autrui et des délits civils organisationnels, et indique ensuite que les tribunaux ont prudemment quitté le dogme de la stricte séparation des responsabilités entre les sociétés mères et les filiales pour s'orienter vers une responsabilité civile basée sur le contrôle. Sur cette base, il indique que dans des circonstances adéquates, cette approche peut aussi s'appliquer aux chaînes de production et imposerait une obligation de la part des détaillants d'organiser leurs chaîne de production de telle manière à éviter un préjudice causé par leurs fournisseurs.
EU Law and National Civil Procedure Law: An Invisible Pillar
Authors: Krans Bart
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The Europeanization of national civil procedure law consists out of several pillars. The influence of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is well known. A second pillar of the European influence on civil procedure law is the growing number of European regulations concerning the crossroads of civil procedure law and private international law. This article focuses on the Europeanization of national law by a third, ‘invisible pillar’. The European influence in the ‘invisible pillar’ concerns many topics, such as ex officio application law, burden of proof, means of proof, costs, the free choice of a lawyer, the threshold amount exempt from seizure and arbitration. The first part of this invisible pillar follows from the role of national civil procedure law in enforcing EU law. The European Court leaves the procedural law to the national courts. The second area of the invisible pillar concerns procedural rules in Directives. A close look at several Directives reveals that the list of procedural topics touched upon by Directives is far from small. Directives contain procedural rules relevant for various capita of the civil procedure law of the Member States. This article seeks to shine some light on parts of this pillar by examining three topics: ex officio application, costs and the free choice of a lawyer, and legal expenses insurance. These examples serve to demonstrate that this area covers a wide variety of topics. Three problems relating to this invisible pillar will be identified: uncertainty, external differences, and internal differences.
Public and Private Enforcement in the Field of Unfair Contract Terms
Authors: Steennot Reinhard
Published: April 2022

Abstract: In 1993, the European legislator enacted the European Directive on Unfair Contract Terms in order to protect consumers from terms creating a significant imbalance between the rights and obligations of the parties to the detriment of the consumer. This article deals with (1) the non-binding nature of an unfair contract term, (2) the possibility to prevent the further use of unfair contract terms by applying for an injunction, and (3) the possibility to act in a repressive manner by imposing administrative and/or penal sanctions on sellers and suppliers using unfair contract terms.

This article will show that national courts are required by the European Court of Justice (ECJ) to invoke the unfairness of a contract term of their own motion and must draw all the consequences of that finding in order to ensure that consumers are not bound by an unfair term. Although the jurisprudence of the ECJ, mainly based on the principles of equivalence and effectiveness, reinforces consumer protection, its impact in reality may not be exaggerated. As long as the case does not lead to court proceedings, the obligation, on behalf of the national courts, to invoke of their own motion the unfairness of a contractual term is not really helpful. Since (1) consumers are in most cases not aware of (the possibility to invoke) rules on unfair contract terms and (2) consumer protection associations often have only limited financial means to apply for injunctions, private enforcement mechanisms can in themselves not realize consumer protection from unfair contract terms. Therefore, public enforcement mechanisms should also be available in order to protect consumers.
Mass Collective Redress: Consumer ADR and Regulatory Techniques
Authors: Hodges Christopher
Published: April 2022

Abstract: A silent revolution has occurred in the delivery of mass consumer redress through the adoption of redress powers by public regulatory authorities in some EU states. In parallel with a similar impending revolutionary expansion in the coverage and functioning of consumer ‘alternative dispute resolution’ (ADR) bodies, especially ombudsmen, delivery of redress is being transformed from a faint hope to a reality in many situations. Analysis of the historical developments in Denmark and the United Kingdom shows a significant widening in the functions and powers of public enforcement authorities in both criminal and regulatory law. System design is, however, critical. Redress only occurs as a result of the adoption of both suitable powers and particular enforcement policies, coupled with directed activities of regulators. The new techniques function particularly well when the regulatory and ADR components are combined. Examples, issues, and wider opportunities are examined. These policies, mechanisms, and techniques should be adopted more widely across Europe.

Résumé: Une révolution silencieuse s’est produite dans le domaine de l’ouverture de recours collectifs pour les consommateurs grâce à l’adoption de possibilités de recours auprès d’autorités légales publiques dans certains pays de l’U.E. Parallèlement à une imminente expansion révolutionnaire similaire de la protection et du fonctionnement d’organismes de médiation [‘alternative dispute resolution’ (ADR)], pour les consommateurs, spécialement les ‘ombudsmen’, l’ouverture de recours, qui n’était dans beaucoup de cas qu’un faible espoir, est devenue une réalité. L’analyse de l’évolution historique au Danemark et au Royaume Uni indique un élargissement significatif des fonctions et compétences des autorités publiques chargées de l’application aussi bien en droit pénal qu’en droit règlementaire. Mais la conception du système est déterminante. Le recours n’est possible que si l’on adopte à la fois des compétences appropriées et des politiques spécifiques de mise en application, avec des activités dirigées de régulateurs. Les nouvelles techniques fonctionnent particulièrement bien lorsque les éléments régulateurs et les éléments d’ADR sont combinés. Des exemples, des questions et de plus amples opportunités sont examinés. Ces politiques, mécanismes et techniques devraient être adoptés plus largement à travers l’Europe.
Consumer Access to Justice: The Role of the ADR Directive and the Member States
Authors: Willett Chris , Fejos Andrea
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This article takes it to be vital to decide whether the Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) Directive provides a version of access to justice that is suitably sensitive to the consumer market. The Directive is deficient in this regard, at least to the extent that it does not make ADR processes mandatory or binding for businesses. Nevertheless, if Member States choose mandatory and binding processes, this may be compatible with the fundamental right to judicial protection, if emphasis is placed on efficiency benefits. If they choose voluntary processes/non-binding decisions, success will depend partly on incentives, sanctions, and monitoring at EU and Member State levels.

Résumé: Cet article juge primordial d’evaluer si la directive est a meme d’offrir un acces a la justice qui soit adapte aux particularites des consommateurs. A cet egard, la directive s’avere lacunaire, au moins dans la mesure ou elle ne rend pas la procedure REL (reglement extrajudiciaire des litiges) obligatoire ou contraignante pour les professionnels. Cependant,le choix par les Etats membres d’une procedure obligatoire et contraignante pourrait etre compatible avec le droit fondamental a la protection juridictionnelle, si l’accent est mis sur les avantages de l’efficacité. Si les Etats membres optent pour une procedure volontaire ou des decisions non contraignantes, le succes du systeme dependra en partie des incitations, des sanctions ainsi que du controle au niveau tant de l’UE que des Etats membres.
Releasing the Potential for a Value-Based Consumer Arbitration under the Consumer ADR Directive
Authors: de Oliveira Leonardo V.P. , Farah Youseph
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This article identifies the tension between the public and the private nature of arbitration and analyses how this tension prevents consumer arbitration of fulfilling important public functions. We conclude that the EU should thrive to introduce a system which facilitates justice for consumers, i.e., a system of dispute resolution which is committed to procedural and substantive public policy. The latter should be preferred over a system which is primarily concerned with the resolution of disputes between businesses and consumers however efficient and fair that system may be.

Résumé: Der Beitrag fokussiert das Spannungsverhaltnis zwischen der offentlichen und der privaten Natur der Streitschlichtung und analysiert, wie dieses Spannungsverhaltnis die Erfullung wichtiger offentlicher Funktionen durch Verbraucherstreitschlichtung verhindert. Wir kommen zu dem Ergebnis, dass die EU sich bemuhen sollte, ein System einzufuhren, das Gerechtigkeit fur Verbraucher fordert, d.h. ein Streitschlichtungssystem, das der verfahrensmasigen und materiell-rechtlichen offentlichen Ordnung verpflichtet ist. Solch ein System ist vorzugswurdig gegenuber einem System, das sich hauptsachlich auf die Losung von Konflikten zwischen Unternehmern und Verbrauchern konzentriert, unabhangig davon, wie effizient und fair dieses System sein mag.
A European Civil Code and National Private Law: Lessons from History
Authors: Jansen Corjo J.H.
Published: April 2022

Abstract: It is possible to distinguish three key historical motives underlying the formation of national civil codes: economic motives, reasons of state interest, and the interests of citizens. The question arises as to whether these motives can teach us something about the possibility of the successful implementation of a European Civil Code. The modern civil codes share a common legal tradition and, to some extent, a homogeneous legal culture, based on the reception of Roman legal rules and principles. A further question thus arises: Is it possible to derive inspiration from the ‘old’ ius commune for the formation of a European Civil Code?

Résumé: La formation des codes civils nationaux obéit historiquement à diverses considérations dont les trois principales sont celles d’ordre économique, celles tenant à l’intérêt de l’État et celles tenant aux intérêts des citoyens. L’identification de ces motivations peut conduire à se demander si elles recèlent des enseignements quant aux chances de succès de l’entreprise d’élaboration d’un Code civil européen. Les codes civils modernes s’inscrivent dans une même tradition juridique et partagent une culture juridique relativement homogène, toutes deux fondées sur la réception des règles et principes du droit romain. Cette observation soulève donc une autre question, celle de savoir s’il est possible de s’inspirer de ‘l’ancien’ ius commune pour élaborer le Code civil européen.
Consumer Insolvency Law in Estonia and Norway: Comparative Aspects
Authors: Lilleholt Kåre , Volens Urmas
Published: April 2022

The authors examine and compare the rules on consumer insolvency in Estonia and Norway. Under Estonian law, consumers may obtain debt adjustments under the 2003 Bankruptcy Act (in the form of a debt release) or under the 2010 Debt Restructuring and Debt Protection Act (in the form of debt restructuring). These two acts apply to both entrepreneurs and consumers. In Norway, a Debt Settlement Act was introduced in 1992, allowing for debt settlements for consumers. Debt adjustment under general insolvency legislation is not regarded as a viable option for consumers in Norway, it being a rather costly and cumbersome procedure. In Norway, each municipality is obliged to offer debt counselling services to consumers, while in Estonia, debt counselling services are available through non-governmental organization (NGOs) and through some municipalities on a voluntary basis. The number of instituted proceedings for debt settlements (Norway) and for debt restructuring (Estonia) are relatively low: in 2014, the numbers stood at 57 per 100 000 inhabitants in Norway and 2 per 100 000 inhabitants in Estonia. The difference between the two countries may to some extent be explained by differences in legislation and in organization of debt counselling, but the authors conclude that the explanation must probably be found also in cultural, sociological and political factors.
Trusts as Vehicles for Investment
Authors: Kulms Rainer
Published: April 2022

Financial markets have become the main drivers for legal change. Investors are interested in in funds which promise high returns while assuring protection from moral hazard and immunity against third party claims, irrespective of whether the fund is organized as a trust, a corporate entity or contractual investment scheme. Global finance has forced legislators into regulatory competition for the most investor-friendly regulatory pattern, including trusts or trust-like structures. Most civil law jurisdictions are newcomers to the law of trusts and fiducie. This provokes the policy question to what extent the market for investments into trusts should be regulated without frustrating investors and organizers of funds. The US regulatory approach towards investment trusts will be explored before the analysis moves to the European Union (EU)’s law on Undertakings for Collective Investment Schemes in Transferable Securities (UCITS). The transposition of the EU’s UCITS law by Ireland and the United Kingdom is assessed in order to explore the interface between trust law, the freedom of contract and mandatory capital market law. A regulatory choice emerges that supplements trust law by mandatory standard terms for the trust deed in the interest of market transparency and investor protection.
15th Annual Conference on European Tort Law
Authors: Bell Andrew J.
Published: April 2022

This report presents an overview of the proceedings at the 15th Annual Conference on European Tort Law, hosted by the European Centre of Tort and Insurance Law and the Institute for European Tort Law of the Austrian Academy of Sciences and University of Graz in Vienna, Austria, in 2016. It recounts briefly the key issues discussed and arguments made during the three core sections of the conference - the opening lecture, the reports on national tort developments, and the special session on liability for unknown risks.
Das Kindeswohl im spanischen Familienrecht. Eine vergleichende Analyse mit dem US-Recht
Authors: Perea José Manuel De Torres
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The general principle of law is the best interest of the child. This principle is inserted in a general clause in the Spanish Youth Protection Act of 15 January 1996. As a result, the Spanish judge is now able to apply this principle directly rather than subsidiary, which means that Spanish family law is now required to be interpreted from the perspective of the best interest of the child. The best interest of the child is now the central axis and has priority in the Spanish family law.

This paper studies the concept of best interest of the child in the Spanish legal system and its application in special cases that are discussed within Spanish law. These cases are: conflicts between the biologic family and the foster family, the open adoption, and the jurisdiction of judgments in matters of parental responsibility.
The New English Law on Penalty Clauses: An Italian Perspective
Authors: Patti Francesco Paolo
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The contribution aims to evaluate some problematic issues addressed by the UK Supreme Court decisions on penalty clauses, taking into account discussions among Italian scholars and rulings of Italian jurisprudence. The focus is put on the issue of whether the rule against penalties should be abrogated or extended, on the scope of application of the rule against penalties (i.e. if it is applicable to primary obligations), on the benchmark to assess whether the rule against penalties should be applied and, finally, on the interpretation of the expressions ‘imbalance in the parties rights’ and ‘contrary to the requirements of good faith’ established by the Unfair Terms Directive. In conclusion, in the light of the innovative judgment, an assessment of the relationship between contractual freedom and the need to protect the debtor of a penalty will be put forward.
A Polish Perspective on Liquidated Damages and the Fairness of Contract: Comment on Cavendish Square Holdings BV v. Makdessi and ParkingEye Ltd v. Beavis
Authors: Baginska Ewa , Slufinska Paulina
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The comment presents the interpretation of contractual clauses under scrutiny in Cavendish Square Holdings BV v Makdessi; ParkingEye Ltd v Beavis according to Polish law. The authors describe the regulation on liquidated damages, the limitations to the freedom of contract and the role of general clauses in the assessment of the fairness of a transaction. Using different concepts and general clauses a Polish court would probably reach the same outcome in Cavendish and uphold the validity of the disputed clauses; the result can be different in ParkingEye.
The European Court of Justice and the Comparative Law Method
Authors: Lenaerts Koen
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The European Court of Justice (the ‘ECJ’) must ensure the uniform interpretation of the laws of the EU, whilst deferring to the common constitutional traditions of the Member States and, where necessary, allowing room for value diversity. To that end, the authors of the Treaties vested the ECJ with the constitutional authority to engage in a comparative study of the laws of the Member States. The purpose of this article is thus to explore the comparative law method by examining, first, that constitutional authority, second, the ‘EU federal common law’, third, the relationship between that method and the extent of normative convergence between the legal orders of the Member States and, fourth, the so-called ‘evaluative approach’ adopted by the ECJ. It is submitted that the comparative law method is a valuable interpretative tool that enables the ECJ to strike a dynamic balance between ‘unity’ and ‘diversity’.

Résumé: La Cour de justice (‘CJ’) doit assurer l’interprétation uniforme du droit de l’Union européenne, tout en respectant les traditions constitutionnelles communes aux Etats membres et, si nécessaire, en faisant place à la diversité. Dans ce but, les auteurs des traités ont conféré à la CJ l’autorité constitutionnelle de procéder à une étude comparative des droits des Etats membres. L’objectif de cet article est, dès lors, d’examiner la méthode comparative en étudiant, premièrement, cette autorité constitutionnelle, deuxièmement, la 'EU federal common law', troisièmement, le rapport entre cette méthode et le degré de convergence normative entre les ordres juridiques des Etats membres et, quatrièmement, l’approche dite évaluative’, adoptée par la CJ. Il en est conclu que la méthode comparative est un outil précieux d’interprétation qui permet à la CJ de trouver un équilibre dynamique entre ‘unité’ et ‘diversité’.
Mixing Legal Systems in Europe; the Role of Common Law Transplants (Polish Law Example)
Authors: Kalisz Beata Gessel- Kalinowska Vel
Published: April 2022

Abstract: At least since the late 1960s, comparatists have been questioning the division of civil law jurisdictions into the German and French families, bearing in mind ongoing processes of amalgamation. Polish law is an example of a mixture, which firstly derives from the unique historical creation of the body of the legal system after First World War, which, in essence, survived until today. Further mixtures, being more typical to all European jurisdictions, were introduced through more or less massive transplants that related to the harmonization demands of the EU. Thirdly, the mixture was effected through the bottom-up process of Anglo-Saxonization of law, especially in its contractual dimension.

Résumé: Au moins depuis la fin des années soixante, les comparatistes se sont interrogés sur la division des systèmes de droit civil en familles allemandes et françaises, tout en gardant à l’esprit les processus d’intégration actuellement en cours. Le droit polonais est un exemple d’un mélange, qui provient tout d’abord de la création historique unique du corps du système juridique après la première guerre mondiale, qui, pour l’essentiel a survécu jusqu’à aujourd’hui. D’autres mélanges, plus typiques de tous les systèmes de droits européens, ont été introduits au travers de transpositions plus ou moins massives dues à une exigence d’harmonisation de l’UE. Troisièmement, le mélange s’est effectué sous la forme du processus, partant du bas vers le haut, de l’’anglo-saxonisation’ du droit, spécialement en matière contractuelle.
Sham Trusts: A Comparative Study
Authors: Perriello Luca Ettore
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The late economic crisis has given impetus to trusts settled in furtherance of unlawful purposes, namely, to put assets out of the reach of creditors. This scheme is particularly evident in the Italian scenario, where the courts have used the sham doctrine to tackle trusts in which settlors reserved to themselves massive powers, thereby turning trustees into marionettes in their hands. While doing so, the Italian courts have had a hard time to grasp the contours of sham. Meanwhile, in common law jurisdictions the concept of sham is going through a radical development, which undermines the canonical view based on parties’ intentions and properly focuses on trust functions under the circumstances. The intermeshing of legal orders might show that it is no longer possible to draw a clear dividing line between the civil law and common law approaches.

Résumé: La dernière crise économique a permis l’essor de trusts constitués dans un but illicite, principalement pour mettre des avoirs à l’abri des créanciers. Ce système est particulièrement évident dans le scénario italien, où les tribunaux ont adopté la doctrine du “simulacre” pour lutter contre les trusts dans lesquels les constituants se réservent d’énormes pouvoirs, en transformant les trustees en marionnettes qu’ils manipulent. Ce faisant, les tribunaux italiens ont eu beaucoup de difficultés à saisir les contours du simulacre. En attendant, dans les pays de common law, le concept de simulacre connaît une évolution radicale qui ébranle le point de vue canonique basé sur les intentions des parties et se concentre exactement sur les fonctions de trust au vu des circonstances. L’interaction d’ordres juridiques pourrait montrer qu’il n’est plus possible de tracer une ligne de séparation claire entre les approches de droit civil et de la common law.
Habitual Workplace. ECJ Grounds Ryanair over Aircrews Contracts
Authors: Poesen Michiel
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The ECJ’s judgment in joined cases Ryanair and Crewlink concerns the interpretation of the connecting factor of the place where the employee habitually carries out his work (the ‘habitual workplace’), which is decisive in determining jurisdiction over employment contracts under Article 19 of the Brussels I Regulation (now Article 21 of the Brussels I Recast Regulation). This issue arose in the course of proceedings commenced by aircrew. The referring court essentially asked whether the habitual workplace of aircrew can be equated to their ‘home base’. The notion of home base is objectively defined in a regulation concerning the harmonization of administrative proceedings in the aviation sector.

The ECJ points out that habitual workplace and home base cannot be equated. Then, the ECJ importantly adds that the home base of aircrew is a significant factor in determining the habitual workplace. Only if circumstantial elements suggest that the habitual workplace is located elsewhere than the home base, the latter can be disregarded.

Moreover, the ECJ’s interpretation of the notion of habitual workplace is relevant to the collision rules of the Rome Convention and the Rome I Regulation. Pursuant to said collision rules, the law of the country in which the habitual workplace is situated governs the employment contract if no choice of law is made by parties. Even if such choice has been made, that law acts as a corrective mechanism.

In conclusion, the annotated judgment provides national courts with an important tool to tackle social dumping in the aviation sector. National courts, from now on, can pierce employers’ strategies which aim to deprive aircrew of the rights conferred to them by the labour law of the Member State in which their habitual workplace is located.