bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Observations on the laternal vaginae and birth canals in the marsupials Isoodon macrourus and Perameles nasuta (Mammalia)
Authors: Lyne A. G. , Hollis D. E.
Published: August 2009

The laternal vaginae in the bandicoots Isoodon macrourus and Perameles nasuta wer long, straight and tabular, and consisted of a mascular sheath, an intermediate connective tissue layer and a luminal epithelium. The muscle layer had an inwardly projecting longitudinal ridge in I. macrourus but not in P. nasuta. In both species, a glassy layer was present immediately below the epithelium which was usually stratified columnar in type, although a non‐keratinzing squamous type occured in small regions in some P. nasuta during pregnancy. The distance between the lateral vaginae in the birth canal region increased during pregnancy and reached a maximum at birth. The birth canal lacked an epithelial lining and was patent in some animals for more than half the lactation period. The allantoic stalks were often retained within the birth canal region throughout the lactation period and in some animals during the next pregnancy and even during the early part of the subsequent lactation
The role of tendon elasticity in the locomotion of the camel (Camelus dromedarius)
Authors: Alexander R. McN. , Maloiy G. M. O. , Ker R. F. , Jayes A. S. , Warui C. N.
Published: August 2009

Several ofthe distal leg muscles ofcamels have very short or even rudimentary muscle fibres. This makes it possible to calculate the elastic extensions of tendons that occur in running, from the leg positions observed in films. A series of experiments have been performed for this purpose on the dissected legs of a camel. The initial conclusions derived from them are modified in the light of estimates of the forces that act on the tendons, and of measurements of the elastic properties of one tendon. Evidence for movement at the intertarsal and tarso‐metatarsal joints. and the corresponding joints of the fore leg, is examined. The importance of the various tendons as elastic energy stores in running is assessed.
Hormone induced chromatophore changes in the European tree frog, Hyla arborea, in vitro
Authors: Nielsen Hans Ingolf , Bereiter‐Hahn Jürgen
Published: August 2009

The colours of the European tree frog,Hvlu urhorea, depend on three types of chromatophores: in dermo‐epidermal direction melanophores, iridophores, and xanthophores. The ability ofthis species to assume a wide range ofcolours implies that very extensive changes in the chromatophores take place, which in turn require control by several regulating factors. The responses of the different chromatophore types to hormones with known melanophore‐affecting abilities (α‐MSH, β‐MSH, ACTH, melatonin) were tested in an in vitro system (freshly explanted skin) using reflectance microspectrophotometry, light microscopy and time‐lapse cinemicrography.

α‐MSH, β‐MSH and ACTH all induce a rapid dispersion of melanosomes during the 10 min after addition. The degree of pigment dispersion induced by ACTH is slightly less than after stimulation with α‐MSH or β‐MSH.

The iridophores react to MSH or ACTH treatment with a contraction of the entire cell (causing a reduction in reflecting area), and a change in orientation of the platelets, causing a decrease in selective reflectance. The iridophores appear to be especially sensitive to ACTH. A very striking feature of the iridophores when studied with time‐lapse cinematography is their strong pulsations (approx. once per minute).

The xanthophores react to MSH and ACTH with a contraction. These cells appear to be sensitive to β‐MSH in particular.

Melatonin strongly counteracts the effects of α‐MSH, β‐MSH and ACTH on all chromatophores.

These studies confirm the dynamic nature not only of the melanophores, but also of the iridophores and xanthophores, as pointed out by Schmidt (1920) and Nielsen (1978a). Furthermore the differences in the time course of the stimulation of the different types of chromatophores by various hormones may provide an experimental basis for the explanation of colour changes in Hyfa arboreu.
Variation in the trunk musculature of caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona)
Authors: Nussbaum Ronald A. , Naylor Bruce G.
Published: August 2009

Variation in the trunk musculature of 28 species of caecilians. representing 24 of the 33 genera and all five families. is summarized. All forms examined have the same muscles in similar positions. Existing variation largely conforms to the current classification of the group. and some variation may be attributable to different modes of locomotion. such as burrowing versus swimming. Caecilian trunk musculature is more similar to that of salamanders than to that of frogs. but the similarity is probably syrnplesiomorphous. Trunk musculature so far has provided no clues to lissamphibian relationships.
The dynamics and regulation of small rodent populations in the woodland ecosystems of Killarney, Ireland
Authors: Smal C. M. , Fairley J. S.
Published: August 2009

Populations of Wood mice Apodemus sylvaticus and Bank voles Clelhrionomys glareolus were studied by mark‐recapture techniques in five different woodlands but concentrated on an oak Quercus petraea wood and a yew Taxus baccata wood, where food supply was also investigated. Much of the yew wood was on limestone pavement which was greatly creviced thus providing static and quantifiable cover. Indices of the intensity with which food was being searched for were obtained on all areas by seed‐removal experiments.

Trappability varied within the populations and seasonally, being highest in summer. Unusually high densities of mice were recorded in the yew wood but not elsewhere; vole densities were always low. There was an inverse relationship between range length and density: mean range length in the yew wood was exceptionally low. Males generally ranged further than females, voles further than mice. Females outnumbered males in the oak wood, where cover was minimal, when the population was low. In the two areas with most cover, males outnumbered females. In a further area, where numbers were initially exceedingly low, the population consisted entirely of males for almost a year. Sexes differed in habitat preference but numbers, especially of males, were significantly correlated with cover. Voles usually bred for shorter periods than mice. Overwinter breeding and increased overwinter survival followed good seed years. Individuals recruited when food was plentiful lived longest. In seed‐removal experiments rate of removal increased with shortage of natural seed.

Food and intraspecific aggression were the probable major factors in regulating population size, of mice at least. Cover probably modifies intrinsic mechanisms by reducing numbers of encounters between individuals.
Note on rhinoceros salivary glands
Authors: Cave A. J. E.
Published: August 2009

Limited observations are submitted upon the anatomy of the hitherto undescribed salivary gland formations in the rhinoceros genera Rhinoceros, Diceros and Ceratotherium.
The Comb‐footed spider genera Theridion, Achaearanea and Anelosimus of Israel (Araneae: Theridiidae)
Authors: Levy G. , Amitai P.
Published: August 2009

Israeli thendiid spiders of the genera Theridion, Achaearanea and Anelosimus have been revised. A relative richness in species is presented providing thereby updated information on the little known Mediterranean spider fauna. All type and non‐type material previously described from the Middle East, deposited in several European collections has been re‐examined, along with species from adjacent regions considered pertinent to the study undertaken. Altogether 21 species are recognized. Systematic, ecologic and all available zoogeographic information on taxa treated are discussed along with recent, pertaining literature. The presence of seven species formerly reported from Israel has been confirmed and the occurrence of another four species unknown hitherto from this region, has been proved. Some of these have never been adequately described or illustrated.

Ten new species are described: Theridion ochreolus, T. agaricographus, T hierwhonticus, T. jordanensis, T. negebensis, T. gekkonicus, T. dafnensis, T. vallisalinarum, T. pustiliferus and Anelosimus giladensis. The male of Theridion melanostictum is described for the first time. Keys, illustrations of diagnostic characters and records of distribution are provided for each species, all readily applicable also in adjacent countries. These may provide clues for better understanding of zoogeographic patterns of the Palearctic fauna, including those of the Old World Desert belt extending south and east of the Mediterranean region.
Ontogeny of social behaviour related to feeding in the Crab‐eating fox (Cerdocyon thous) and the Bush dog (Speothos venaticus)
Authors: Biben Maxeen
Published: August 2009

This study examines the development of social interactions involved in food apportionment in two captive parent‐raised litters of Crab‐eating foxes (Cerdocyon thous) and three of Bush dogs (Speothos venaticus), by presentation of live prey items and a regular food ration. Cerdocyon pups are initially very aggressive over food but, with experience, gradually develop the adult pattern of respecting ownership of food, without determining access by means of a dominance hierarchy. Adults mediate food transfers between pups and facilitate the learning process as well as the distribution of food resources.

Speothos pups never fight over or defend food and show no important ontogenetic changes in response to feeding situations.
Ecology of Physaloptera capensis (Nematoda : Spiruroidea) infecting the Springhare Pedetes capensis (Mammalia) in Botswana
Authors: Butynski Thomas M.
Published: August 2009

Incidence and intensity of the stomach nematode Physaloptera capensis in relation to the age, sex, reproductive status, physical condition, density and habitat of its host, the Springhare, were investigated in the Republic of Botswana (August 1971‐August 1973). All data indicate that this nematode is a benign parasite of the Springhare. Infections were not randomly distributed within the Springhare population. Mean number of worms per Springhare was 83 and 34% of all Springhares were parasitized. Adults, females and lactating females showed significantly heavier infections than juveniles, males and non‐lactating females, respectively. Infection was directly associated with the amount of grass cover in the Springhares' habitat but independent of the density and physical condition of Springhares. Possible causes of differences in rates of infection among Springhares of different age/reproductive classes and from populations of different density are mentioned. It is suggested that numbers of P. capensis may be regulated mainly by density‐independent environmental factors operating upon rates of transmission.
The biology of Portia fimbriata, a web‐building jumping spider (Araneae, Salticidae) from Queensland: intraspecific interactions
Authors: Jackson Robert R.
Published: August 2009

Portia fimbriata (Doleschall) is an unusual salticid because it spins webs and uses its own webs and those of other species in predation. However, the courtship and threat displays of this species are more like those of typical, cursorial salticids than like typical web‐building spiders. During male‐female interactions, males perform leg‐waving and leg‐shaking displays, with legs I and II extended stiffly forward, while distant from the females. Before mounting they tap the females with their legs; and after mounting they tap, scrape and stroke the females' abdomens. Copulation takes place on or near the female's web or on the webs of other species. Hunched‐legs displays, with legs I–III highly flexed and held to the side of the body, occur in male‐male interactions. Also, during male‐female and female‐female interactions, females perform hunched‐legs displays, strike, charge, ram, embrace, grapple with and leap at conspecifics. Sometimes they lose legs while grappling. After female‐female interactions associated with maternal webs, if the resident decamps, the intruder eats the eggs left behind on a suspended leaf, spins a new egg‐case over the destroyed one, and oviposits. Adult and sub‐adult males co‐habit in webs with sub‐adult females for as long as 48 days and mate when the spiders mature.
Behavioural ecology of the Greater one‐horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)
Authors: Laurie Andrew
Published: August 2009

In the Chitawan Valley of Nepal there were estimated to be between 270 and 310 Greater one‐horned or Indian rhinoceroses (Rhinoceros unicornis L.). Population densities reached 4.85 rhinos/km2 in the favoured areas of high diversity of early successional vegetation types on the valley floor. The overall population composition was 32.3% adult females, 19.9% adult males, 21.2% sub‐adults and 26.6% calves. Females first calved at a mean age of 7.1 years and the median intercalving interval was 2.8 years. Causes of death included poaching, tiger predation on calves and fighting among males. The population was increasing.

Rhinos fed from 183 species of plants belonging to 57 botanical families but grass (50 species) made up between 70 and 89% of their diet according to the season. Considerable seasonal variations in food availability resulted in movements of rhinos between vegetation types. Rhinos' ranges were smallest in the areas of greatest vegetational diversity.

Rhinos rarely formed groups. The most common type consisted of sub‐adults–mainly males. Ten auditory displays were distinguished and visual displays, although less striking, included baring the lower incisor tusks. Scents were carried in the dung, the urine and the pedal scent glands. Squirt urination and foot‐dragging displays were performed by breeding males only.

There was some degree of range exclusivity among breeding males but no true territoriality. Poor visibility and the relatively unpredictable distribution of resources in time and space have perhaps selected against a territorial mating system. Relationships between ecology and social organization are discussed with reference to other rhino species.

Threats to the continued survival of the Indian rhino include poaching, agricultural encroachment and erosion. In order to spread the risk of a catastrophe, reintroductions of rhinos to other protected areas are proposed.
Histochemical and ultrastructural studies on the salivary glands of Helix aspersa (Mollusca)
Authors: Moreno F. J. , Pi∼nero J. , Hidalgo J. , Navas P. , AND J. Aijon , Lopez‐Campos J. L.
Published: August 2009

A histochemical and ultrastructural study was carried out on the salivary glands of adult specimens of Helix aspersa. Histochemically four cell types were distinguished: mucocyte I, mucocyte II, pseudochromosome cell and protein cell. The first secretes neutral and acid mucins. Mucocyte II and pseudochromosome cells produce acid mucins and the protein cell secretes neutral mucins and proteins.

The ultrastructural data for differentiating these four cell types is discussed. Mucocytes I have a characteristic arrangement of rough endoplasmatic reticulum and basal infoldings. Mucocytes II have pseudocrystalline formations in the rough endoplasmatic reticulum and intraluminary ducts. Pseudochromosome cells have typical granules with a reticular central zone. Protein cells have serous homogenous secretion.

The epithelium of the salivary ducts is described.
Seasonal and age changes in the thymus gland of the Red fox, Vulpes vulpes,
Authors: Twigg G. I. , Harris Stephen
Published: August 2009

Seasonal and age changes in thymus weight and histological structure were examined in the Red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Growth in the fox thymus slowed down after birth compared with the last third of foetal existence, but the gland still grew rapidly to reach a peak first year weight when the cubs were 20 weeks of age. From this point the thymus in both sexes decreased markedly in weight to reach a low point by the beginning of the first breeding season. During this involution lobule structure broke down and adipose tissue and connective tissue was laid down in the gland. Recovery of the thymus towards the second year weight maximum was accompanied by the regaining of lobule structure and the gland resembled that of the juvenile again. The male thymus increased in weight from the middle of the mating season, but recovery in the female thymus was delayed until the end of lactation. Involution occurred prior to the second breeding season. Thereafter, the gland never attained the high weights seen in the first two years of life, but histological changes still occurred even in old animals. The thymus gland of animals infected with sarcoptic mange is described.
Structure and function of the chelae and chela closer muscles of the shore crab Carcinus maenas (Crustacea: Brachyura)
Authors: Warner G. F. , Chapman D. , Hawkey N. , Waring D. G.
Published: August 2009

Major and minor chelae of Carcinus maenas were investigated with respect to mechanical advantage, angles of pennation and sarcomere lengths of the closer muscle fibres, maximum pinching forces induced by nervous stimulation and maximum stress in the closer muscles. Major chelae differed from minor chelae in all these factors. Mean mechanical advantages of major and minor chelae were 0·36 and 0·26, respectively. Angles of pennation were greater at the distal ends of closer muscles and declined proximally: in half open major and minor chelae distal to proximal angles were about 35–26° and 29–19°, respectively. Mean sarcomere lengths in closer muscles of fully closed major and minor chelae were significantly different at 7·6 and 6·0 fim, respectively; there was great variation within chelae and between crabs. Major chelae pinched more strongly than minor chelae due to higher mechanical advantages, larger closer apodemes and greater stress in the muscle. Mean maximum stresses in major and minor chelae were 677 and 474 kN/m2, respectively. The biggest stress recorded–1057 kN rrr2–was in a major chela. Pinching forces induced by injecting a high K+ and caffeine ringer were about 20% weaker than nervously stimulated pinches.
Hole‐drilling in crustaceans by Eledone cirrhosa (Mollusca: Cephalopoda)
Authors: Nixon Marion , Boyle Peter
Published: August 2009

Eledone drills holes in the carapace of crustaceans with the tooth‐covered salivary complex in conjunction with salivary secretions.
Natural history of Theba pisana in Israel (Pulmonata: Helicidae)
Authors: Heller Joseph
Published: August 2009

Theba pisana in southern Israel is a semelparous species with an annual life cycle. Young snails hatch in early winter, grow rapidly in spring and by summer they reach, first adult shell‐size, then adult shell‐weight. Shell‐size is negatively related to density, suggesting that, as in some other landsnails, there may be a density‐dependent inhibition of growth. Summer forces the snails into 3–4 months of aestivation.

After the first winter rains the snails, awakened perhaps by the sudden drop in barometric pressure, emerge from aestivation. Only now are most of the spermatozoa and mature oocytes formed (maturation of gametes actually starts some two weeks before the first rains), and the snails copulate. No evidence of precocious breeding was found. The snails sometimes dig a few “sham” holes, perhaps to discourage egg‐eating predators, before finally depositing their eggs (mean clutch size: 80 eggs) in the last hole.

In mid‐winter, the snails die. In a habitat where the sheltering conditions of the vegetation offer the snails more protection, the dying off process of the population is stretched over a few more months. This could, perhaps, be the first step towards the evolution of a bi‐annual cycle, such as is typical of T. pisana in some other areas of its distribution.
Gut contents of the ascidian Pyura praeputialis: endogenous and exogenous components
Authors: Goddard C. K. , Hoggett Anne K.
Published: August 2009

The gut material of Pyura praeputialis consists of two components: exogenous seston and endogenous mucus in which the seston particles are embedded. It has not heretofore been possible to separate these components; it follows that quantification of each component had not been possible.

A method is described for separating the endogenous and exogenous components. It allows an estimate of how much mucus is produced and what proportion is resorbed. It also allows an estimate of how much seston is ingested and what proportion is digested.
Genetic variability in two West Indian anoles (Reptilia, Iguanidae): relation to field thermal biology
Authors: Hertz Paul E. , Zouros E.
Published: August 2009

Meristic and electrophoretic characters were used as independent estimators of genetic variability within populations of two West Indian Anolis lizard species. The species which uses flexible regulatory behaviours to maintain thermal homeostasis, A. roquet on Martinique, exhibited much less within‐population electrophoretic variability than did the species which is behaviourally passive to changes in the thermal environment, A. gundlachi on Puerto Rico. The data suggest that the high genetic variability in A. gundlachi may be an adaptation to its coarse‐grained perception of seasonal variation in the thermal environment, whereas A. roquet's low genetic variability may be adaptive because its flexible regulatory behaviours provide a temporally fine‐grained perception of the thermal environment. Meristic characters did not demonstrate any interspecific difference in the amount of within‐population genetic variability. Discordance in the results of the meristic and electrophoretic analyses suggest either that the two character sets sample dramatically different genetic phenomena or that environmental effects on the development of meristic characters render them unreliable as indicators of the genetic variability within geographically proximate populations.
Significance of the gonoduct in the classification of echiurans (Phylum Echiura)
Authors: Sexena Renu
Published: August 2009

The gonoducts of 21 species have been studies. The reliability of the gonoduct as a taxonomic tool has been assessed at different levels of the hierarchy, employing the variations in respect of the number of genital pores, and the modifications in the body of the females for lodging the males in the case of sexually dimorphic echiurans. Special reference has been made to sexually dimorphic echiurans and their position in the taxonomy of the phylum.
Live weights of Fallow deer (Dama dama) in British deer parks
Authors: Pemberton J. M. , Dansie O.
Published: August 2009

A total of 313 Fallow deer from six parks were caught and weighed in the two winters 1979–80 and 1980–81. Mean live weights for the sex‐age classes caught are presented for each park, and the variation in weights between parks is discussed.
Attachment between Harbour seal (Phoca vitulina) mothers and pups*
Authors: Renouf Deane , Lawson John , Gaborko Linda
Published: August 2009

Behavioural interactions between Harbour seal mothers and pups at Miquelon revealed that the following behaviour of the pup generally ensures that the pair stay together, though the mother takes over this rôle when necessary. This relationship held true when the animals were hauled out on the sandflats, and when they were in the water. Our results imply, contrary to suggestions in the literature, that the pup is able to distinguish its mother from other females. The tendency of the pup to follow its mother is discussed in the context of imprinting as a bonding mechanism.
Feeding specializations of the Mexican burrowing toad, Rhinophrynus dorsalis (Anura: Rhinophrynidae)
Authors: Trueb Linda , Gans Carl
Published: August 2009

Of the several, unrelated anuran taxa that feed underground, the Neotropical pipoid, Rhinophrynus dorsalis, seems to be the most specialized ant‐ and termite‐feeder. The snout is covered with a curious and apparently unique epidermal armour. The buccal and oesophageal linings are ornately folded. The lips effect a double closure along the long, wedgeshaped, edentate maxillary arch. Peculiar submandibular glands seem to enhance the seal of the lips. The results of morphological, cinematographic, and muscle stimulation studies reveal that Rhinophrynus has a mechanism of tongue protrusion basically distinct from that of other frogs that project their tongues by means of a lingual flip. In Rhinophrynus, the intrinsic tongue muscles act to stiffen the organ, exerting hydrostatic pressure on the fluid contents of the lingual sinus. Actual protrusion of the tongue through the buccal groove involves shifting the organ forward via protraction of the hyoid by muscles extrinsic to the tongue—a mode that is unique among anurans and one highly suited for securing small insect prey in subterranean burrows.
The skin of Ichthyophis (Amphibia: Caecilia): an ultrastructural study
Authors: Fox Harold
Published: August 2009

The skin of the adult Ichthyophis spp. has been investigated using light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy, and the various epidermal and dermal integral cellular components of this genus, of the order Caecilia, are compared and contrasted with those of members of the Anura and Urodela among the Amphibia. In general the epidermis of Ichthyophis is typically amphibian in appearance, though in terms of size the cells are large and of urodelan dimensions. Apart from the epithelial cells, in addition the epidermis includes a number of specifically different cells, some doubtless arising in situ, possibly from the stratum germinativum, others entering the epidermis from elsewhere.

The dermis of caecilians is unique among living amphibians in possessing scales located in pockets, and for completeness their gross structure and arrangement are described and existing information on their ultrastructure is summarized. The cellular composition and arrangement of the dermal glands are described and the glandular components in the Amphibia are compared.
The breeding migration of Smooth and Palmate newts (Triturus vulgaris and T. helveticus) at a pond in mid Wales
Authors: Harrison J. D. , Gittins S. P. , Slater F. M.
Published: August 2009

The breeding population sizes of newts at Llysdinam Pond in 1981 are estimated at around 800 Palmate and 300 Smooth newts. Females were more numerous than males with sex ration of 3.0: 1 for Palamte and 2.6: 1 for Smooth newts. The movement of males of both species into the pond preceded that of females, and female Palmate newts moved out of the pond significantly later than the other classes. The number of females of both species leaving the pond was much less than the number entering, apparently as a result of mortality whilst in the pond. Females leaving the pond were significantly lighter than those entering, and for female Palmate newts the weight loss in only partly attributable to loss of egg load. Temperature and humidity were important factors influencing the number of newts active during the inward migration period, but had little effect on activity during the outward migration.
Hair structure of the Woolly mammoth, Mammuthus primigenius and the modern elephants, Elephas maximus and Loxodonta africana
Authors: Valente A.
Published: August 2009

The structure of overhairs from a Wooly mammoth, Mammuthus primigenius, 10–13 thousand years old, is compared with that of its living relatives, Elephas maximus and Loxodonta africana. The hair profile, cross‐sectional appearance, wholeamount and cuticular scale cast of the haris of the three species were examined and a selected array of photographs representing the hair structure of each species are presented. In general there is little variation between the three in the gross structure of the overhairs.
Observations on a British hairworm, Parachordodes wolterstorffii (Nematomorpha: Gordiidae)
Authors: Cham S. A. , Seymour Malcolm K. , Hooper D. J.
Published: August 2009

Males of the nematomorph Parachordodes wolterstorffi from the New Forest, Hampshire, England have been examined entire, in thick sections and in cuticle preparations by light (differential interference contrast) and scanning electron microscopy. Surface features, internal organization and cuticular fibres are described and illustrated. Surface ornamentation is very varied. The fibres are made up of two fibrils twisted together left‐handed and are arranged in up to 45 layers. Fibres in alternate layers from right‐ and left‐hand helices round the worm. Helicity and stiffness of fibres, body pressure, attachment to substratum and phylogeny are discussed.
Polyvillous cells of the epidermis: transportive elements of lamprey skin
Authors: Whitear M. , Lane E. B.
Published: August 2009

Polyvillous cells are differentiated bipolar cells in the epidermis of Lampetra spp., which are not innervated and are interpreted as a type of ionocyte. They bear numerous apical microvilli, capped by mucus. In some examples the apex bulges at the surface of the epidermis, in others it is sunken into a crypt or may even appear to be internal to the cell. It is supposed that these variations correlate with the maturity of the individual cell. Cytological features aiding recognition of the polyvillous cells by electron microscopy are the presence of numerous membrane fragments in the secretion above the short irregular apical microvilli, coated apical invaginations or vesicles, mitochondria with well developed cristae and internal granules, and in many cases a plasma membrane which appears more electrondense than that of the neighbouring epithelial cells
Oligovillous cells of the epidermis: sensory elements of lamprey skin
Authors: Whitear M. , Lane E. B.
Published: August 2009

The epidermis cf Lampetra spp. contains several kinds of differentiated cell; one innervated variety is characterized by bearing a group of large apical microvilli which project from the surface of the skin. In Lampetra planeri such oligovillous cells are numerous under the oral hood of the ammocoete larva, on the papillae fringing the dorsal fin and bordering the gill vents of the adult, and at the tip of the male genital papilla. Elsewhere on the head, body and fins they are present but more scattered, which appears to be the condition also in adult anadromous Lampetra fluviatilis. There are differences in the number and dimensions of the microvilli found on oligovillous cells, but each is supported by a stout core of actin filaments extending a variable distance down into the cytoplasm. Under the apex of the cell there are microtubules and numerous vesicles which are thought to be concerned in the renewal of the membrane on the microvilli. Beside and proximal to the nucleus is a system of channels of rough endoplasmic reticulum, and a stack of membranous cisternae which appears to have been derived from the endoplasmic reticulum. A nerve fibre is associated with the base of the cell which is indented by a spur‐like process from the neurite. Typical “synaptic vesicles” are not found in the cell but irregular vesicular or canalicular profiles are associated with the cell membrane adjoining the neurite spur. The space between the cell and neurite membranes contains extracellular material with a characteristic appearance of prickle‐like densities on the cell side meeting densities on the neurite membrane. Variations in the cytology of oligovillous cells can be explained in terms of a cycle of development and de‐differentiation. Certain cells with vesicles throughout the cytoplasm and with a narrow apex without microvilli are interpreted as degenerate examples. The oligovillous cells are thought to be chemosensory receptors.
The distribution and effect of intracellular rickettsia‐ like micro‐ organisms infecting second‐ stage juveniles of the Potato cyst‐ nematode Globodera rostocbiensis
Authors: Walash J. A. , Shepherd A. M. , Lee D. L.
Published: August 2009

For the first time rickettsia‐like micro‐organisms are illustrated infecting most tissues of second‐stage juveniles of Globoderu rostochiensis. They were seen only inside host cells, except for the few degenerating forms in the intestinal lumen. They were most common in the non‐contractile (sarcoplasmic) region of body wall muscles. A study of the oesophageal glands of the nematode suggested that micro‐organisms present within these glands would be unlikely to pass out of them and that the nematode would not act as a vector of these micro‐organisms to its host plants. No micro‐organisms were found in the genital primordia of the nematodes. Stored, hatched juveniles appeared to contain more microorganisms than newly hatched juveniles, indicating an increase in the intensity of the infection subsequent to hatching. No obvious signs of pathogenicity were observed in the nematodes. Uninfected juveniles apparently live longer than infected ones in viro, probably because infected juveniles exhaust their lipid reserves sooner than uninfected juveniles. The possible effect of the micro‐organisms on their nematode hosts and their potential as biological control agents are discussed.
Size and shape in the phylum Phoronida
Authors: Abele Lawrence G. , Gilmour Tom , Gilchrist Sandra
Published: August 2009

The lophophorate phylum Phoronida consists of about 13 species, which differ in body length and width, number of longitudinal muscles, lophophore geometry and number of lophophore tentacles. In absolute terms large species have a larger body width, more tentacles, more longitudinal muscles and greater coiling of the lophophore than small species. However, size and shape analyses suggest that with increasing size: (I) the body surface area to volume ratio increases because body length increases faster than body width; (2) the relative number longitudinal muscles decreases, and (3) the relative feeding surface area of the lophophore decreases because tentacle diameter is constant while tentacle number increases at the same rate as body length and tentacle length increases more slowly than tentacle number. Coiling and spiraling of the lophophore in large species may be an attempt to compensate for this last relationship. We suggest that the habits, mode of growth and feeding mechanism of phoronids constrain size‐related changes in shape.
Histological, histochemical and ultrastructural studies on the bulbus arteriosus of the sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus and Pungitius pungitius (Pisces: Teleostei)
Authors: Benjamin M. , Norman D. , Santer R. M. , Scarborough D.
Published: August 2009

The bulbar wall has three layers. Its lining consists of squamous‐columnar endothelial cells that store neutral mucopolysaccharides and are PAS‐positive. They do not contain large amounts of acid phosphatase, acid mucopolysaccharides, glycogen or lipids. A morphometric analysis shows that 32% of the cell volume in Pungitius and 12% in Gasterosteus is occupied by specific granules, 100–600 nm in diameter. According to X‐ray probe micro‐analysis, these granules bind chromium ions, even though the endothelial cells do not contain catecholamines. Rootlets, packed with plasmalemmal vesicles, extend from the endothelial cells into the middle layer of the bulbus. Here, smooth muscle cells alternate with elastic fibres. The staining reactions of bulbar elastica are compared with those in the mammalian aorta and the ligamentum nuchae. The outer layer of the bulbus is visceral pericardium and beneath its covering mesothelial cells are numerous collagen fibres, non‐myelinated nerves, occasional fibroblasts and melanocytes. Scanning electron microscopy shows that the bulbar lining is thrown into longitudinal folds, but that there are no trabeculae subdividing the lumen.

Many features of the bulbus arteriosus may be related to the low systolic pressures of teleosts and to the proximity of their heart and gills. In contrast to mammals, only a small part of the arterial system can act as a windkessel. The bulbus is thus more distensible than the mammalian aorta and must lie within the pericardial cavity so that its greater excursions can be accommodated. Perhaps because the bulbus is so distensible, it has elastic fibres rather than lamellae. This in turn may affect the organization of the smooth muscle cells which do not form “span muscles” as in some mammalian aortae. Like most cells in the bulbus, they are joined to others by desmosomes. Evidently, firm cohesion is important in highly distensible vessels.
Feeding behaviour of the bats Nycteris grandis and Nycteris thebaica (Nycteridae) in captivity
Authors: Fenton M. B. , Gaudet C. L. , Leonard M. L.
Published: August 2009

The feeding and hunting behaviour of Nycteris grandis and N. thebaica was observed in captivity at the Sengwa Wildlife Research Area in Zimbabwe in January and February 1982. Both species preferentially selected katydids and beetles over moths, and relied heavily on acoustic stimuli emanating from prey to detect targets. Nycteris grandis readily consumed frogs and bats and appeared not to use the calls of male frogs or the echolocation calls of other bats to locate prey. Both species produced echolocation calls during attacks on prey, increasing the rates of pulse repetition as they closed with targets and suggesting the use of echolocation in hunting. The echolocation calls of N. grandis are described along with general observations of the behaviour of both species.
The biology and functional morphology of Eufistulana mumia (Bivalvia: Gastrochaenacea)
Authors: Morton Brian
Published: August 2009

Eufistulana mumia Spengler 1783 (Gastrochaenidae) is one of the rarest of all bivalves, a preserved specimen only once having been previously reported upon (Fischer, 1866). Eufistulana lies buried in subtidal sediments, entombed, except for a siphonal orifice, in an adventitious tube of its own construction. The tube comprises four layers secreted in stages by an equal number of pallial glands, housed in the reflected middle folds anteriorly, the reflected inner folds further posteriorly and the siphons. The process of tube formation is discussed. The larva probably settles on a calcareous substrate, possibly an empty shell, and then proceeds to construct a vertical tube when the initial site of settlement has been penetrated. Periodic dissolution of the original tube basally, possibly by a gland in the foot, is followed by growth downwards with a concomitant secretion of new tube material. At the end of a phase of growth a new base to the tube is secreted.

The true shell of Eufistulana is modified with the anterior face very reduced, laterally expanded and, in life. covered by reflected middle folds. The posterior face is elongate and covered by reflected inner folds. The ventral margin is widely emarginate. The pedal gape is small and the foot reduced, the sole acting as a sucker attaching the animal to the tube and leaving a characteristic impression. There is a tiny, papilla‐like anterior pedal projection to the foot. A septum in the tube separates tissues contained within the shell from the siphonal region, possibly restricting entry into the basal region of sediment and small, shelter‐seeking, invertebrates. Similarly, the tips of the siphons possess glands that produce a secretion which probably deters would be inhabitants of the siphonal region of the tube.

The major specializations of Eufistulana to its mode of life are pallial. In other respects it is a typical bivalve with little reduction of the pedal apparatus and few modifications to the organs of the mantle cavity. The labial palps are small implying little food selection in the mantle cavity. The intestine is adapted for handling large amounts of sediment.

Soft deposits have been colonized in a number of ways by a number of bivalve lineages. Eufistulana is an example of another way in which this habitat has been exploited, albeit from an ancestor that was probably a borer.
The flight mechanism of the pigeon Columbia livia during take‐off
Authors: Simpson Sharon F.
Published: August 2009

High‐speed film analysis of the mechanism of take‐off of a pigeon ascending nearly vertically reveals the pattern of movements of the wing segments and the bones within them during each of the five phases of the wingbeat cycle. Differences in the type and extent of wing movements between the upstroke and downstroke portions of the first and successive wingbeat cycles are explained with reference to the upward vertical jump made during the first wingbeat cycle. The presence during pigeon take‐off of a non‐steady state pattern of airfoil action similar to that seen in some insects at the beginning of the downstroke was verified.
Reproductive strategies in female Mountain and Dorcas gazelles (Gazella gazella gazella and Gazella dorcas)
Authors: Baharav Dan
Published: August 2009

Observations of reproduction in four gazelle populations in the semi–arid and arid habitats of Israel during three years have revealed intra– and interspecific differences. In the eastern Lower Galilee of northern Israel, female Mountain gazelles (Gazella gazella gazella) reproduce during every month of the year, conceive first at six months of age and exercise long parental care. Females of a population 80 km to the north (Upper Galilee) maintain a seasonal reproductive pattern, conceive first at 18 months of age and have a short parental care period. The latter pattern is similar to the Dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas) females of the southern Negev Desert. Interspecific similarities in reproduction of these two populations is attributed to the lack of free water during lactation in both environments where females rely on water available in plant tissue only. The importance of the daily accessibility to water during lactation in female gazelles is discussed. It is suggested that the timing of births and the ability of female gazelles to conceive while lactating are not species‐specific characteristics but simply a matter of short‐term adaptation to changing environmental conditions common understanding today that animal reproductive strategies are a function of prevailing environmental conditions.
Locomotion in ground beetles (Coleoptera carabidae): An interpretation of leg structure in functional terms
Authors: Forsythe T. G.
Published: August 2009

Recordings of maximum running speeds and maximum horizontal pulling (= pushing) forces have been obtained for 72 species of cursorial and fossorial ground beetles (Carabidae: Coleoptera) belonging to 19 tribes and 12 supertribes. Fore leg, pro‐ and meso‐femoral and tibial and mid leg measurements have also been made and all these parameters have been correlated with body lengths. It was found that those species (mainly Carabinae group I, i.e. Nebriini, Notiophilini, Loricerini, Elaphrini, Cicindelini) with relatively long, slender pro‐and mesofemora, long pro ‐ and mesotibiae and small meso‐coxal articulations were faster runners (i.e. sprinters) but weaker horizontal pushers. In contrast, species (mainly Carabinae group II, i.e. Broscini, Trechini, Pogonini, Bembidiini, Patrobini, Pterostichini, Zabrini, Callistini, Oodini, Licinini, Harpalini) with relatively short, broad pro‐femora, short (slender) mesofemora, short pro– and mesotibiae, and larger meso‐coxal articulations were stronger horizontal pushers but were slower runners. Carabinae group III (Scaritini), however, which have very short, narrow pro‐ and mesofemora, very short pro‐ and mesotibiae, and large meso‐coxal articulations were found to be very strong horizontal pushers but very slow (relatively) runners.

The Carabini (including Cychrini), however, resemble Carabinae group II in their running and pushing abilities although their legs are structurally similar to those of Carabinae group I (i.e. relatively long and slender with small meso–coxal articulations). In fact, species of Carabini are fast walkers, their prey is generally slow moving (i.e. slugs, snails and caterpillars) and they hunt in restrictive habitats such as weed patches, meadows or woodland grass which produce a considerable amount of environmental resistance. Most Carabini have a heavy, powerful body which seems to be well adapted to overcoming this resistance.
The effect of female body condition on egg laying in Lesser black‐backed gulls Larus fuscus
Authors: Houston D. C. , Jones P. J. , Sinly R. M.
Published: August 2009

Female Lesser black‐backed gulls, culled from a moorland nesting site in Lancashire for public health reasons, were examined to compare their body condition with the number and quality of eggs that they would lay. The clutch size and stage of the laying cycle of each bird were determined by examining their ovaries. Fat condition was obtained by extraction of the whole carcass with chloroform and an index of protein condition was obtained from the lean dry weight of the flight muscles. Oviduct eggs were analysed for the amounts of fat and protein present in the yolk and albumen.

Lesser black‐backed gulls are not fully indeterminate layers. Most females develop only enough enlarged ova to produce the normal clutch of three eggs, with some birds able to lay an additional one or two replacement eggs if necessary. The female's protein reserve, but not her fat reserve, declined during egg formation and was correlated with the total number of eggs she could potentially have laid. Similarly egg quality, as measured by yolk weight and protein content, was correlated with female condition but not her fat reserves. Albumen weight was not correlated with body condition.

It is shown that egg production is a demanding process in Lesser black‐backed gulls and breeding success is influenced by the amount of the female's protein reserve both through its effect on egg quality and on her ability to lay replacement eggs if necessary.
The food and feeding ecology of the giant petrels Macronectes halli and M. giganteus at South Georgia
Authors: Hunter S.
Published: August 2009

Giant petrels are the chief scavenging seabirds in the Southern Ocean. Quantitatively analysed regurgitations from chicks of both Macronectes halli and M. giganteus at Bird Island, South Georgia throughout the chick rearing period consisted predominantly of adult Macaroni penguins Eudyptes chrysolophus. Significant quantities of burrowing petrels and krill were taken but the amount varied in different years. Only male M. halli fed regularly at fur seal carcases. Although 10 species were found in regurgitations, squid were unimportant in the diet. Fish are possibly more important during the winter.

Intersexual differences in diet were of greater significance than interspecific ones with males taking more carrion and females more crustaceans. Chicks were fed during both day and night and in both species males received significantly more food than females during the fledging period. M. giganteus chicks received more than M. halli at all ages.

Despite their extensive reliance on carrion both species take a variety of prey and this may be especially important during the winter when penguin and seal carrion is scarce.
Resources and reproductive performance in Mute swans Cygnus olor
Authors: Scott D. K. , Birkhead M. E.
Published: August 2009

Around Oxford, breeding pairs of mute swans maintained territories throughout most of the year and these territories varied considerably in potential food availability in the form of aquatic vegetation, bread supplied by the public and pasture for grazing. On territories with abundant aquatic vegetation females laid earlier larger clutches than on those with little aquatic vegetation. Clutches were also larger on territories with a high potential bread supply. In addition, adult females were heavier on territories with a high diversity of aquatic vegetation. However, contrary to expectation, there were no direct relationships between territory quality measures and other aspects of reproductive performance including number of young fledged, egg volume, cygnet weight or size, or adult male weight. Instead, the number of young fledged was related to clutch size; egg volume was related to laying date; and cygnet weight was related to age and egg volume. Adult male weight was positively related to age.