bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Taj Mahal
Authors: Halamish Lynne Dale , Cassell Eric J.
Published: April 2022

This chapter discusses situations where it is challenging for a mourner to reach the end of their mourning period, which are losing an only child, losing both parents, or losing a spouse. It explores the concept of widowhood and how this can be navigated so the mourner can overcome his or her grief. It also explores how to help mourners leave feelings of guilt over their mourning period coming to an end.
Quicksand
Authors: Halamish Lynne Dale , Cassell Eric J.
Published: April 2022

This chapter discusses what happens when professionals in the medical or psychosocial fields can’t meet a patient’s every need, particularly when they are dying. Also explores what happens when a caretaker doesn’t have the psychical, financial, or emotional resources to help, and how they can say no.
The Petrified Woman
Authors: Halamish Lynne Dale , Cassell Eric J.
Published: April 2022

This chapter discusses how, when it comes to the human experience, there is no guarantee of a shared response to reality—a meeting between two people is a collision between two worlds. It explores how one can look past their own biases and opinions to see the other person clearly. This involves attentive listening and awareness of body language.
The Silent Woman
Authors: Halamish Lynne Dale , Cassell Eric J.
Published: April 2022

This chapter considers what it is to really pay attention, and how to listen with your whole heart. This ties into how sometimes patients or clients don’t communicate in ways the professional expects, and how nonverbal communication comprises between 85% and 93% of all human interaction. It explores how to pay close attention to body language, and how to reduce noise that can hamper clear communication.
Basil
Authors: Halamish Lynne Dale , Cassell Eric J.
Published: April 2022

This chapter explores what happens when a “label” is assigned to a patient in a ward, or to a client in a community, particularly when they are labeled difficult. Also explores how it is important to pay attention to a patient’s physical surroundings to gain additional first-hand information, in order to shake any biases the healthcare professional may have built up due to information received during a referral.
Inquiry in Practice
Authors: Allen Michael S.
Published: April 2022

This chapter addresses the question of philosophical originality, combating the widespread notion that late Vedāntic scholasticism offers nothing new or worthy of study. It begins by urging that we must be careful not to read scholastic texts through the lens of modern intellectual values. It then discusses the intellectual values implicit in Niścaldās’s text, drawing on the interpretation of inquiry developed in the previous chapter. It is argued that although The Ocean of Inquiry does not display doctrinal originality, it displays considerable stylistic, pedagogical, and “procedural” originality. This argument is supported with three “case studies” of inquiry as expressed through the teacher-student dialogues in The Ocean of Inquiry.
Donald Davidson’s Account of Semantic Interpretation. How Comprehensive is it? ‘All’, ‘Some’, and ‘Most’
Authors: Wiggins David
Published: April 2022

This chapter concerns the logic and truth-conditional semantics of the quantifier “most”. The chapter demonstrates the necessity to depart in this case from the standard way of treating generality within predicate logic. But an alternative way is provided by Frege. This can embrace both “most” and “all”. Questions are then raised about the connection between logical validity, so-called ‛structural validity’, and certain related Davidsonian claims. Finally the chapter touches upon the history of the logic of generality and the resemblance between the proposal advanced here and one of the several proposals made by Leibniz.
Names, Existence, and Contingency
Authors: Wiggins David
Published: April 2022

Timothy Williamson has offered a proof that any object that exists exists necessarily. Williamson’s conclusion depended crucially—as the Ontological Argument also depended—on the supposition that “exists” stands for a property of objects. According to Frege and Russell, ordinary grammar misleads us here. What we need in order to understand existence is not a first-level notion such as eat or growl but the second-level notion of the instantiation of first-level concepts. Among first-level concepts are individual concepts. Deploying these, the chapter shows how proper names can be fitted within the Russell/Frege account. It also offers a treatment of the problems presented by true sentences such as “Vulcan does not exist” or “Nausicaa does not exist”. These problems are best solved by deploying Frege’s idea that empty names depend for their sense upon the as if, and by reformulating in an entirely natural way the logical principles of existential generalization and universal instantiation.
Locke: ‘The Great Conduit’
Authors: Wiggins David
Published: April 2022

John Locke claimed that to abuse language is comparable to breaking or stopping the pipes whereby clean water is distributed to the public. Cultural conservatives will applaud Locke’s comparison. But linguists, regarding themselves as empirical scientists, may prefer to ridicule the snobbish prescriptions and proscriptions by which reactionaries seek to “fossilize” the parlance of yesteryear. How well do the parties to this contest understand one another? Conservatives despise or ignore the linguist’s interest in the sprawling actualities of everyday usage and speech-patterns. More reasonably, though, conservatives will also criticize the linguists’ particular brand of empiricism for refusing to recognize speaking and writing as an art—the art in which any language user can find a role for themself.
An Indefinibilist-cum-Substantivist Account of Truth and the Marks of Truth
Authors: Wiggins David
Published: April 2022

Philosophers and logicians have expended enormous effort upon the determination of the extension of the concept of truth. Remarkable discoveries have resulted. A different and no less important question is this: what are the marks of that concept? “Deflationists” and their various allies will regard any such approach to truth as sadly mistaken—and Tarski’s famous paper itself (they may say) illustrates this. Here, however, they misread Tarski, who saw himself as adding to the non-deflationary account of truth offered by his own teacher, Kotarbinski. The chapter seeks then to enumerate the marks of truth. Truth is the first and foremost dimension of assessment for beliefs, statements or utterances. Secondly, if s is true then s will under favourable circumstances command convergence. Thirdly, if s is true then s has a content which can be accepted or contested. Fourth (a mark which is wide open to misunderstanding) every truth is true in virtue of something. Finally, from Frege, “truth is the goal”—a claim pregnant surely with practical-cum-political import, or so history suggests. Think of the disasters which history reminds us have been attendant upon its neglect.
Writing Welsh History
Authors: Pryce Huw
Published: April 2022

This is the first book to explore how the history of Wales and the Welsh has been written over the past fifteen hundred years. By analysing and contextualizing a wide range of historical writing, from Gildas in the sixth century to recent global approaches, it opens new perspectives both on the history of Wales and on understandings of Wales and the Welsh—and thus on the use of the past to articulate national and other identities. The book’s broad chronological scope serves to highlight important continuities in interpretations of Welsh history. One enduring preoccupation is Wales’s place in Britain. Down to the twentieth century it was widely held that the Welsh were an ancient people descended from the original inhabitants of Britain whose history in its fullest sense ended with Edward I’s conquest of Wales in 1282–4, their history thereafter being regarded as an attentuated appendix. However, the book shows that such master narratives, based on medieval sources and focused primarily on the period down to 1282, were part of a much larger and more varied historiographical landscape. Over the past century the thematic and chronological range of Welsh history writing has expanded significantly, notably in the unprecedented attention given to the modern period, reflecting broader trends in an increasingly internationalized historical profession as well as the influence of social, economic, and political developments in Wales and elsewhere.
‘Our Ancestors the Ancient Britons’, 1540–1620
Authors: Pryce Huw
Published: April 2022

This chapter explores the defence and reaffirmation of ancient British origins and their refashioning as instruments for legitimizing both religious and dynastic change in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Particular attention is given, first, to the defence of Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History by the Welsh Renaissance scholars Sir John Prise and Humphrey Llwyd, and, second, to Bishop Richard Davies’s preface to the 1567 Welsh translation of the New Testament, which portrayed early British and Welsh Christianity as independent of the papacy in order to argue that the Protestant Reformation was a restoration of the Church’s pristine purity. In countering Polydore Vergil’s scepticism about Geoffrey’s account of ancient British history, Welsh scholars addressed themselves in Latin to a learned readership, especially outside Wales, and sought to demonstrate the merits of the British History related by Geoffrey and its relevance for Britain as a whole. In engaging with debates about the reliability of sources Prise and Llwyd laid particular emphasis on the importance of the Welsh language as authentic testimony to British antiquity, while in adapting the historical arguments of English Protestant apologists Davies privileged the Welsh on account of their being the direct descendants of the Britons, enjoying a special claim on the inheritance of the Britons’ apostolic Christianity.
From Druids to the Last Bard, 1707–70
Authors: Pryce Huw
Published: April 2022

This chapter discusses writing on Welsh history in the early and middle decades of the eighteenth century. It begins by outlining some of the new contexts in which this writing was produced, including a growth in print culture facilitated by increasing literacy and the foundation of Welsh societies in London such as the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion (1751). Second, it assesses the significance of two works, both composed by Anglican clergymen from Welsh gentry families, that gave fresh impetus to the quest for distant origins. One was Henry Rowlands’s Mona Antiqua Restaurata (first edition 1723), an account of the history and antiquities of Anglesey that portrayed the island as the principal seat of the Druids. The other was Theophilus Evans’s Drych y Prif Oesoedd (‘Mirror of the Primitive Ages’; first edition 1716), which traced the history of the Welsh from their alleged origins as descendants of Noah’s grandson Gomer to the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd in 1282 and gave an account of the early history of Christianity in Britain intended to demonstrate its conformity with the apostolic Church before its eventual corruption by Roman Catholicism. The third part of the chapter focuses mainly on the treatment of the Welsh past in mid-eighteenth-century editions of medieval poetry and poems on historical themes, notably by another Welsh Anglican cleric, Evan Evans (1731–88), which reflected the influence of Romantic Celticism in its privileging of the Welsh bards as sources for the authentic history of Britain.
Cultural Revival and Romantic History
Authors: Pryce Huw
Published: April 2022

This chapter explores what the multiple worlds inhabited by the Anglican clergyman Thomas Price (Carnhuanawc; 1787–1848) reveal about the variety of Welsh history writing, in both Welsh and English, between c.1820 and his death in 1848. The first part assesses the contexts in which this writing was produced, especially developments in print culture and the establishment of new ‘Cambrian societies’ in Wales dedicated to the promotion of the Welsh language and culture, especially through holding eisteddfodau. The second part examines a range of works by authors other than Price. These include J. H. Parry’s collection of biographies, The Cambrian Plutarch, and John Jones’s acerbic The History of Wales, both published in 1824, and a history of Anglesey by the antiquary Angharad Llwyd (1833). The third part assesses the significance of Price’s Hanes Cymru (‘History of Wales’), published in instalments 1836–42. Although conventionally devoting the bulk of his coverage to the origins of the Welsh and their history down to the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd in 1282, Price wrote a longer history of Wales than his predecessors mainly by deploying a wider range both of Welsh-language chronicles and of Welsh poetry and other literary texts than they had done. His work was also notable for its patriotic tone, as Price praised the exceptional achievements of the Welsh, especially their preservation of the Welsh language, and endowed them with European significance by asserting that Wales was the source of European chivalry.
Consolidation and Reappraisal, 1920–60
Authors: Pryce Huw
Published: April 2022

This chapter discusses efforts from the 1920s to 1950s both to professionalize the study and writing of Welsh history and to make it more accessible. It begins by outlining the main institutional developments that helped to sustain Welsh history writing, both within and beyond the University of Wales, and introduces some of the academic historians who helped to shape the field. There follows an assessment of historical writing framed largely in terms of political and ecclesiastical developments, including R. T. Jenkins’s account of eighteenth-century Wales. The rest of the chapter focuses on two new approaches that prioritized the study of society and the economy. First, it analyses interpretations of the Welsh past by the ‘Aberystwyth school’ of physical anthropologists and human geographers associated with H. J. Fleure (1877–1969), including E. G. Bowen’s emphasis on human agency in the making of landscapes and Iorwerth Peate’s concept of Welsh folk culture. Second, it assesses the economic turn in the study of Welsh history in all periods exemplified by works such as William Rees’s South Wales and the March 1284–1415 (1924), A. H. Dodd’s The Industrial Revolution in North Wales (1933), and Ben Bowen Thomas’s wide-ranging synthesis of economic and social developments from the Neolithic to the early twentieth century published in Welsh in 1941.
How to Do Public Policy
Authors: Hassel Anke , Wegrich Kai
Published: April 2022

How to Do Public Policy offers a guide to students and practitioners as to how to improve problem-solving with policies in a political world. It integrates insights from applied policy analysis and studies of the policy process to develop a framework that conceives policy-making as structured by two spheres of action—the ‘engine room’ of specialists and experts in government agencies, NGOs, research organizations, etc., on the one hand, and the political ‘superstructure’ of politicians, key public stakeholders, and the public, on the other hand. Understanding the different logics of the engine room and the superstructure is key for successful policy-making. The dual structure of policy-making provides a perspective on (interactive) policy analysis and policy-making (actor-centred policy-making) that moves from the focus on individual and specific measures, towards understanding and shaping the relation and interaction between policy interventions, the institutional context, and the stakeholders involved or affected. Part I of the book presents the basic analytical concepts needed to understand the policy process and the structures and dynamics involved in it, as well as to understand how and why actors behave the way they do—and how to engage with different types of actors. Part II moves further into the nuts and bolts of policy-making, including policy design, implementation, and evaluation. Part III introduces and explores three key aspects of the capacity to make good policies: engagement with stakeholders, the process of policy coordination in a context of interdependence, and the role of institutions.
Public Policy
Authors: Hassel Anke , Wegrich Kai
Published: April 2022

This introductory chapter gives an overview of the essential components of public policy. Starting from the quest for evidence-based policy-making in twenty-first-century states, the chapter introduces this book’s fundamental understanding of ‘how to do (good) public policy’. The core argument is that doing public policy requires the skills and capacities to understand the policy problem at hand and expertise regarding past and present policies related to this problem—what has been tried and tested, what failed, and what worked. But policy-makers and supporting analysts also need an understanding of the political process of getting to good policies. On the basis of a brief survey of the intellectual foundations of policy analysis, the chapter introduces an ‘interactive’ approach to policy analysis and how it relates to other branches of policy analysis. Finally, the chapter identifies the constituent components of how to do public policy, which structure the book: process, policies, and capacity.
How to Set the Agenda
Authors: Hassel Anke , Wegrich Kai
Published: April 2022

At the core of policy-making are decisions taken (or not) by governments or legislatures. These decisions arise because problems emerge, and political actors choose to address them. How do problems find their way onto a government’s to-do list? Governments’ agendas are often driven by events. Conflicts break out, disasters occur, a social problem makes the headlines, and parliamentary or international timetables dominate everyday decision-making. Also, governments are elected on a platform of policies and will aim to implement them. In addition, many actors and stakeholders in the engine room try to influence government agendas. They aim to draw attention to policy problems by providing evidence or organizing campaigns or protests. Sometimes, actors in the engine room seek to avoid broadening attention to ‘their’ issue because they benefit from the status quo. This chapter explores how policy problems catch the attention of policy-makers and who takes on responsibility for their solution. We also analyse how the different modes of agenda-setting have implications for the policy process itself and for problem definition.
How to Implement Public Policy
Authors: Hassel Anke , Wegrich Kai
Published: April 2022

Implementation is what happens ‘after a bill becomes a law’ (Bardach 1977) and encompasses tasks ranging from the specification of programme details (budget, jurisdiction, personnel) to the street-level delivery or enforcement of a policy. Implementation is critical for policy success and failure, and policy research has identified the structure of the implementation field (including, but not limited to, the administrative structure of the engine room) and the motivation and behaviour of the target population as key factors (beyond the design of the policy itself, covered in Chapter 4). Based on these fundamental insights and a short reflection on the changing context for implementation in the twenty-first century, this chapter identifies five recurring problems or challenges impeding successful implementation and discusses solutions to these problems that are voiced in academic publications and in applied policy analysis work. The chapter provides analytical clues for assessing the appropriateness of these strategies in different contexts, based on an understanding of the motivation of the actors involved. We highlight that implementation is a continuation of the political process at a different level, in which the interests and strategies of both superstructure and engine room actors matter.
How to Engage with Stakeholders
Authors: Hassel Anke , Wegrich Kai
Published: April 2022

While the ‘public’ in public policies implies decisions taken by governments, there are many other non-governmental actors in both the superstructure and the engine room. Knowing and understanding these private political actors—stakeholders—and how they interact in the policy process is a key precondition for successful public policy-making. In this chapter, we discuss the role of stakeholders in the policy process and analyse the potential for effective and productive involvement of private actors. We introduce stakeholder mapping as an essential tool in policy analysis. Moreover, we focus on the types of stakeholders and their organizational properties as a way to better understand their role in the policy process. Finally, we show the limits of stakeholder involvement and which red lines should be drawn in order to prevent capture of the policy process by private interests.
How to Coordinate Public Policy
Authors: Hassel Anke , Wegrich Kai
Published: April 2022

As the world becomes more open, problems, as well as the policies designed to address them, have become more complex. Policy problems are caused and shaped by developments in other domains and by actors who are not part of the problem’s policy space. The mismatch between the allocation of policy capacities (legal authority and resources) and the actual manifestation of policy problems creates interdependence. This chapter introduces various types of problems arising from policy interdependence and proposes ways to coordinate policies as potential solutions. The main types of policy interdependence problems are externalities, policy arbitrage, and free-riding. Coordination of policies is essential for responding to policy interdependence, but it is inherently difficult to achieve in light of power dispersion and fragmented authority. Hierarchical coordination is often unfeasible for addressing transboundary problems, but mechanisms of horizontal coordination, such as bargaining and mutual adjustment, come with their own limitations. Against this background, this chapter discusses options for increasing coordination capacity and their advantages and disadvantages
Introduction
Authors: Whitmarsh Tim
Published: April 2022

This chapter provides an introduction to and overview of the aims of the volume; it also surveys trends in Heliodorean scholarship. Scholarship has over the last forty years focused on Heliodorus’ sophistication in terms of Heliodorus’ handling of narrative, fictionality, allusion, aesthetic experience, and ethics; it has also addressed cultural-historical issues such as gender, race, and sexuality. The essays in this volume, written by an international team of Heliodorean specialists, are informed by the methodologies mentioned above, but approach the text instead through the medium of close reading, exploring the pleasures, subtleties, nuances, and difficulties of reading the Aethiopica at the level of detail. Each contributor has chosen a specific passage on which to focus; each of the ten books is covered.
Thisbe’s Intrigue
Authors: Grethlein Jonas
Published: April 2022

The article provides a close reading of Thisbe’s intrigue, as reported by Cnemon in 1.15–17. Thisbe’s scheme can be interpreted as one of the many doublets in the Aethiopica, to which John Morgan alerted us in one of his ground-breaking papers. It amplifies Demaenete’s earlier intrigue and recasts its players in new roles. Moreover, there is a meta-narrative dimension in the episode. Punning on the two meanings of apatē, Heliodorus gestures to an entwinement of deceit with aesthetic illusion. This entwinement of ethics with aesthetics is uncanny: while the reader can indulge in Thisbe’s manipulations, Thisbe’s presentation as author-like also intimates that the reader of the Aethiopica faces similar hermeneutic challenges in trying to come to grips with the main plot. Thisbe’s episode thus grants the reader a superior view of the characters’ misapprehensions and simultaneously questions her control over the text.
Theagenes’ Second Lament (2.4)
Authors: Trzaskoma Stephen M.
Published: April 2022

This chapter centres on Heliodorus 2.4.1–4, where the reader encounters a lament delivered by the hero Theagenes over his apparent loss of Chariclea at a point in the narrative almost immediately after another lament by the same character for the same reason. Following the lead of medieval readers such as Philagathos of Cerami, Michael Psellos, and one of the writers of the Digenes Akrites tradition, whose works reveal a keen interest in and specific mode of reception of the passage in question in connection with lamentation and grief, an interpretation is offered that connects the twin laments of Theagenes with other doubled features of Heliodorus’ narrative in the first book of the novel, creating an interwoven set of correspondences that function both structurally and narratively to ‘train’ readers to read the Aethiopica.
Allegory, Recognition, and Identity
Authors: Kim Lawrence
Published: April 2022

In this chapter, I offer a new interpretation of Aethiopica 3.12.1–3.15.1, where Calasiris and Cnemon discuss several issues pertaining to Homer: the identification of gods in the Iliad, the ‘symbolic’ interpretation of his verses, and the question of his origins. I argue that these three topics are intimately linked by the ‘allegorical’ logic Calasiris ascribes to each: one that posits a reality hidden under the veil of appearances and accessible only by symbols and hints. In such a context, Homer himself, and not just his poetry, is constituted as an allegorical text to be deciphered, the ‘truth’ of which Calasiris discovers and reveals by reading the symbols found on Homer’s very own person. Heliodorus suggests that identity be imagined as a secret, deeper truth analogous to the sacred knowledge concealed in enigmatic texts, and that the interest in this identity and its revelation is what binds his novel so closely to his epic model.
Calasiris on Zacynthus and His Dream of Odysseus (5.17–22)
Authors: Paschalis Michael
Published: April 2022

Based on the information provided by Strabo as well as by modern standards, the geographical location of Zacynthus and the route of the Tyrian ship from Kirrha (Krissa), the port of Delphi, towards the island are accurately described in the Aethiopica. The Zacynthian stop serves primarily to introduce Calasiris’ dream of Odysseus. The Heliodoran Odysseus is unconventional in more than one way: he feels almost obliged to appear on account of Calasiris’ hasty departure; his portrait is made up of an almost comic collage of Homeric allusions; his anger for having been slighted proves inconsequential; and Calasiris makes amends by sending a humble fisherman to Ithaca to pay due honours. If this is a case of heroic/literary succession, it was designed as a reversal of classical precedents.
Life, the Cosmos, and Everything (5.26–34)
Authors: Dowden Ken
Published: April 2022

The end of the first half of the novel resolves the narrative enigma of the opening, but not the problems of the principal characters: the last word is ‘worries’—there is more to do before reaching Ethiopia. The pirates they encountered had false goals, profit (kerdos) rather than real beauty or humanity; they could not manage a ship in a strikingly Platonic storm. And no one understands why they arrive safe in Egypt. Iliadic dissension amongst the pirates is sparked off by an attempt to view the forbidden, the truly beautiful (Charicleia as goddess). Never mind, Calasiris’ plan worked—if only one knew what it was. It is not only the characters whose reading skills are tested. The chapter closes with ‘remembering the daimonion’ and seeking deliverance, and with Charicleia iconically wrapped round the feet of the god.
Charicleia’s Dark Night of the Soul (6.8–11)
Authors: Konstan David
Published: April 2022

When in Book 6 Charicleia is separated from Theagenes, she sinks into deep despair. Roused from her abject depression by Calasiris, she emerges newly confident, taking decisions at her own initiative, like the plan that she and Calasiris disguise themselves as beggars. Her awakening represents a development in her character, even a new identity, expressed symbolically in Theagenes’ failure to recognize her when they are reunited. While in costume, Charicleia and Calasiris witness a necromancy, in which the revenant foretells a happy end to Charicleia’s wanderings. This prophecy from the underworld, the liminal space par excellence, relaunches the narrative and again marks a moment of transition and transformation. All these elements converge to suggest that Charicleia’s breakdown is a kind of initiation, by which she acquires the wisdom and fortitude to reach the promised land of Ethiopia.
Introduction
Authors: Heuser Beatrice
Published: April 2022

This chapter explains the undertaking of this volumes with its focus on the origins and evolution (that is, the genealogy) of ideas about war in their larger cultural context, and the question how ideas interact with practice. For ideas are both influenced by context – the reality of the practice of warfare in this case – and, if sufficiently widely known, they will have some influence on practice. This chapter also explains why this book covers mainly ‘Western’ ideas about war, with their six cultural tap roots: the Hebrew Bible, the literature of Ancient Greece and Rome, the key texts of Christianity, subsequent Germanic and Slav pagan influences, along with influences of Muslim theory and practice. The semantic field of the terms used for war in European languages is explored before arriving at a working definition.
Root Causes and Drivers of War
Authors: Heuser Beatrice
Published: April 2022

Is war eternal, is it part of nature, as is argued by some Realists? Four other explanations of war have been put forward: that war is intrinsic only to human nature, i.e. in human fallibility or sinfulness, the all too human vices of cupidity, anger, pride, and vanity, especially found in the ambitions of princes. Others have argued that war originates in the flawed internal constitution of a polity. Since about 1300, some have seen war as the product of a flawed inter-polity system, or as the outcome of flawed patterns of behaviour between entities (polities, states). Finally, some have identified specific ideologies (including religions), collective mentalities or culture as the sources of war, if they construct reasons for conflicts, and point to violent means to settle them, when other ideologies, mentalities and cultures would have chosen other means of settling conflicts. Thus wars of annihilation do indeed go together with racist or extreme religious ideologies. That democracies are always peaceful, by contrast, is not always true: driven by extreme nationalism, for example, they can prove quite bellicose.
Just War Traditions
Authors: Heuser Beatrice
Published: April 2022

The Euro-Mediterranean area created a notion of a tradition of seeing some wars as justifiable and hence ‘just’. The criteria that had to be fulfilled grew in number over time and included a legitimate authority to declare war; self-defence as a just cause; military interventions on behalf of allies acting in self-defence; peace as the only legitimate aim of a just war. The recourse to war had to be the last resort, and ills engendered by the war proportional to (or actually: inferior to) the wrong to be righted. Avenging wrongs was another permitted criterion, but it was open to debate whether the aim should be merely one of restoration or also of retribution and punishment? And: might both parties to a conflict believe that they had justice on their side? Admitting this in the absence of any court of justice led to the gradual abandonment of sovereign States’ limitations on going to war until the nineteenth century replaced just war criteria with raisons d’État or national interest, taken to its logical extreme by National-Socialist Germany, drawing in part on an alternative European and Middle Eastern tradition that saw expansionist wars as fully justifiable. With the double defeat of Germany in 1918 and 1945, this line of argument has become discredited. Regarding intra-State wars (insurgencies or civil wars), there are two divergent European traditions: one insisting on the right to rise up against a tyrannical government, the other criminalising insurgents as unjust parties by definition.
Who Fights?
Authors: Heuser Beatrice
Published: April 2022

Along with the waxing and waning of external threats and war aims beyond defence for which soldiers were to be employed, ideological reasons always played an important part in the configuration of armed forces. Humanity must have started with the total mobilization of populations, but then moved to varying degrees of role specialization. Armies were thenceforth configured along similar patterns: seasonal mobilization of most men, militias, limited military service for all young men even in peacetime, professional armies including mercenaries, or a mix of the above. The ideal of the citizen-soldier was never quite reality. Mercenaries were feared in late medieval and early modern times for looting if they were not paid, but they denigrated only in the age of nationalism. We see their return now in the form of private military companies. But there was also often a fear of undisciplined mass armies. Women, children, and sometimes, homosexuals were excluded from fighting in armies in most societies until recently. Irregular forces, often called guerrilleros, rebels, or brigands, were for millennia systematically treated as outlaws; as ‘insurgents’ they have only in recent times increasingly been integrated into the law of armed conflict.
Style
Authors: Dolven Jeff
Published: April 2022

The story usually told about English verse in the sixteenth century marches from a crude and awkward beginning, through a middle phase of increasing technical competence, to the golden age of the later Elizabethans. But the sixteenth century is rife with dead-end styles, more or less self-conscious, more or less ambitious proposals for setting the course of English poetry. This essay considers Wyatt’s broken lines, George Gascoigne’s poulter’s measure, the quantitative metre of Richard Stanyhurst’s Aeneid, Christopher Marlowe’s strong couplets, and Edmund Spenser’s archaisms. Together they make a portrait in the inverse of what has lasted best, the versatile pentameter bequeathed by Sidney and Shakespeare to the next century. Even those poems that seem to be most sure-footed in their march towards present-day tastes emerged from a rich matrix of thwarted possibility.
Allusiveness
Authors: Burrow Colin
Published: April 2022

This chapter argues that allusiveness was a central feature of sixteenth-century poetry. It discusses the relationship between allusion, imitation, and various forms of intertextuality, before exploring (in broadly chronological order) seven types of allusiveness: allusions to authorial names; the repurposing of an identifiable earlier text; allusions to proverbs; allusions to the verbal style of a prior author; ‘formal’ allusions through metrical structures; self-allusion; and parody and plagiarism. The chapter concludes that allusiveness is double-edged. Later sixteenth-century poets, concerned with parody and plagiarism, might appear to be ‘possessive authors’ who sought by allusion to imprint their own identity on an earlier tradition, but the act of alluding necessarily implies that all prior texts are part of a common store of writing to which other authors might allude.
Figuration
Authors: Crawforth Hannah
Published: April 2022

This chapter considers the poetic tropes that together form early modern understanding of figuration, notably the four ‘master tropes’—metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony. It situates the figurative poetic practice of Fulke Greville with reference to rhetorical theory, both ancient and modern. The work of Kenneth Burke, whose taxonomy of figuration in A Grammar of Motives (1945) underpins this chapter, here helps us to reconsider the performative nature of figuration and its connections to dramatic performance. Greville’s modern editor, the poet Thom Gunn, is a further touchstone for my readings of Caelica and Treatise of Human Learning (both posthumously published in 1633). Together, the insights of Burke, Gunn, and others can allow us to see the figurative practice of Greville’s sixteenth-century poetics afresh.
Satire
Authors: O’Callaghan Michelle
Published: April 2022

This chapter sets out the modal repertoire of satire and charts the different stylistic choices made by poets across the sixteenth century as they engage with Juvenal’s dictum that ‘it is hard not to write satire’. It begins with the multivocality of John Skelton’s early Tudor satire, with its medley of varied styles, and the responses to his Colin Clout in Reformist, avowedly Protestant satire. At the Henrician court, Sir Thomas Wyatt translated neoclassical satire into a distinctly English idiom. Vernacular moralising satire flourishes in the period before the 1590s, when poets, such as John Donne, Joseph Hall, and John Marston, turn to the Roman satirists transforming London into the Rome of Horace, Juvenal, and Persius.
Epic
Authors: Badcoe Tamsin
Published: April 2022

Poets, translators, and commentators of the sixteenth century positioned epic as the period’s most prestigious form. This chapter begins by attending to sixteenth-century evaluations of epic as well as recent critical assessments of epic poetry. It traces the manner in which the epic in English had its first sixteenth-century presence in translations, and observes how these labours, which are often incomplete and experimental, provide the groundwork for the earliest vernacular epics crafted later in the century. The chapter thus surveys the sixteenth-century verse translations of Virgil’s Aeneid and Homer’s Iliad, before offering reflections on Spenser’s Faerie Queene, Shakespeare’s Henry V, and a lesser-known elegy that stages a lament for what its author perceives to be the unwritten epic of the age.
Complaint
Authors: Stegner Paul D.
Published: April 2022

This chapter examines the development of complaint poetry in sixteenth-century England. Grouping complaint poetry according to subject matter, it first analyses complaints directed towards social, political, and religious conditions and then treats complaints that involve love and spirituality. It focuses on the incorporation and adaptation of conventional poetic forms, such as the sonnet and verse epistle, as well as rhyme schemes, especially rhyme royal, in early modern complaint. This chapter attends to how early modern authors use complaint and personae, particularly the voice of female complainants, as a means for authorial self-promotion. At the same time, it also considers how women writers deploy complaint to authorise their own literary voices and to express their discontent regarding social abuses.
Devotional Poetry
Authors: McEachern Claire
Published: April 2022

This chapter surveys the origins and kinds of religious poetry that emerged over the course of the sixteenth century, from its inception in the Psalm paraphrases of Miles Coverdale, Thomas Sternhold, Thomas Wyatt, and the Sidney siblings (amongst others) to the lyric meditations of such poets as Robert Southwell, Michael Drayton, Edmund Spenser, and Anne and Henry Lock. Tracing the difference between versifier and poet to the divisions between Calvin and Luther on the relative merit of original composition inspired by Scripture, the chapter surveys the various types of poetry that emerged in this moment: renderings of the Psalms, versifications of Scripture, meditations, narrative poetry based on biblical characters, and devotional sonnets.
Spenser
Authors: Ramachandran Ayesha
Published: April 2022

Providing an overview of Edmund Spenser’s ‘shorter poems’, this chapter places them in a dialogic relationship to The Faerie Queene and to each other, highlighting their revolutionary treatment of genre and poetic self-presentation. It highlights Spenser’s practices of generic innovation, imitation, multilingual intertextual allusion, translation, and his persistent interest in the appropriate place of poetry in the sociopolitical world. Focusing both on literary technique and the cultural politics of Elizabethan poetry, the chapter demonstrates how Spenser’s poetry reflects on the writing of epic, lyric, and court poetry. Most of all, it argues that the shorter poems are where Spenser gleefully flaunts his learning, his humanistic commitments, and the pleasure of poetic play—characteristics that locate him amongst the foremost European poets of his generation.
Daniel, Drayton, Chapman
Authors: Cleland Katharine
Published: April 2022

This chapter examines the literary careers of the sixteenth-century English poets, Samuel Daniel, Michael Drayton, and George Chapman. In particular, the chapter demonstrates how they vie with one another for the distinction of being England’s poet laureate. To do so, it traces the way their careers develop from early experimentations with such genres as pastoral, lyric, and epyllion before turning to the ultimate laureate genre, epic. In their quest to achieve laureate status, each poet intentionally dedicates his career to the formation of a uniquely English literary tradition that builds upon and revises its Classical and Continental predecessors. Daniel, Drayton, and Chapman’s wide-ranging experimentations with poetic form and genre profoundly impact the history of English poetry.
Mary Sidney Herbert
Authors: Wright Gillian
Published: April 2022

Mary Sidney Herbert, Countess of Pembroke, is widely recognised as one of the most skilled poets and translators in early modern England. Contextual factors (including her generic preference for translation, the restriction of many of her poetic texts to manuscript, and her close literary relationship with her brother, Philip) meant that historically her literary achievements were often misjudged and underestimated; and her poetry is still frequently omitted from, or treated as marginal to, the literary culture of her era. This chapter surveys the full range of Sidney Herbert’s poetry in print and manuscript, making a fresh case for its literary, political, and gendered significance, and exploring its close links with Edmund Spenser and Elizabeth I as well as Philip Sidney.
A New Player in the Game: Changing Electoral Competition in Germany
Authors: Wagner Aiko , Lichteblau Josephine
Published: April 2022

This chapter asks how electoral competition changed from 2013 to 2017 in East and West Germany. Following Sartori’s understanding of party systems as systems of interactions resulting from inter-party competition, it focuses on the content-related properties of the German party system. Combining data from the GLES 2013 and 2017 voter and candidate surveys, it investigates, first, the extent of electoral competition in terms of overlapping electoral support of party pairs and, second, how the establishment of the AfD changed the substantial structure underlying electoral competition in East and West Germany. Findings suggest that electoral competition in Germany is best described as three-dimensional. Whereas regional differences result from different voter preferences regarding policy issues, temporal differences are essentially the result of the changing relevance of the socio-economic and socio-cultural issue dimensions but also a newly emerged populist–pluralist divide.
Changing Crises, Changing Votes? Problem Priorities, Party Competence, and Electoral Behavior in Germany, 2009–2017
Authors: Kratz Agatha , Preißinger Maria , Schoen Harald
Published: April 2022

In Germany, the occurrence of several successive crises between 2008 and 2017—the economic and financial crisis, the Euro crisis, and the refugee crisis—went hand in hand with high electoral volatility. The chapter examines if these phenomena were related. An event-driven vote model suggests a causal chain connecting crises to vote switching through changes in individual problem priorities and party competence attributions. Using data from panel surveys, it is demonstrated that this chain was actually weaker than the event-driven vote model suggests. Problem priorities and party competence attributions were not purely event-driven but rather endogenous to political predispositions and policy preferences. Moreover, although changes in party competence attributions promoted vote switching, other influential factors limited their impact. In effect, the sequence of the three crises contributed to the high level of electoral volatility only moderately through changes in problem priorities and party competence attributions.
Media Biases and Voter Attitudes during the 2009, 2013, and 2017 Federal Election Campaigns
Authors: Schmitt-Beck Rüdiger , Staudt Alexander
Published: April 2022

The chapter examines the persuasive effects of newspapers and TV news on voters’ evaluations of the parties and their candidates. Merging data from rolling cross-section voter surveys and media content analyses, the chapter demonstrates that voters’ electoral attitudes were responsive to the amount of news coverage devoted to the electoral competitors (coverage bias) as well as the tonality with which they were addressed (statement bias); that these effects came about not only directly through personal media exposure but also indirectly in response to overall media coverage conveyed to voters by means of interpersonal communication; that they pertained to TV news more clearly than to the press; and that they affected apartisan voters more strongly than those identifying with a party. During the three election campaigns, these media effects manifested themselves primarily in short-term fluctuations of voters’ electoral attitudes. Thus, in all likelihood, they did not affect the outcomes of the elections.
The Internal Market
Authors: Lenaerts Koen , Van Nuffel Piet , Corthaut Tim
Published: April 2022

This chapter investigates the European Union's competence and substantive rules relating to the internal market. The internal market is defined as 'an area without internal frontiers in which the free movement of goods, persons, services and capital is ensured in accordance with the provisions of the Treaties' (Article 26(2) TFEU). The functioning of the internal market is to be ensured in the sense that all practices impeding the establishment of the internal market are to be eliminated as far as possible. Before the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty, the EC Treaty referred in this connection to the establishment of a 'common market', without defining that notion. In 1986, the Single European Act supplemented the task of establishing and ensuring the common market with the aim of progressively establishing an 'internal market' by the end of 1992, defined as an 'area without internal frontiers'. At the same time, the EC Treaty still referred to the 'common market' as a frame of reference for the compatibility of activities assessed under the Treaty provisions on competition and State aid. The Lisbon Treaty has replaced the words 'common market' throughout by 'internal market', which leaves the internal market as the sole expression of the objective of market integration pursued by the Union.