bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
OTEC Closed-Cycle Engineering Status
Authors: Avery William H. , Wu Chih
Published: November 2020

Engineering analyses and component design studies during the period 1974–977 indicated the feasibility of constructing and operating floating OTEC plants and plantships in a variety of configurations ranging in power from 40 to 500 MWe. In August 1979, an at-sea test of a complete OTEC power system (Mini-OTEC) demonstrated performance in good accord with engineering predictions and established a firm basis for scale-up to larger sizes (Owens and Trimble, 1980). Heat exchanger operation at a level equivalent to 1-MWe power generation was demonstrated 1 year later in the OTEC-1 program. In 1981, a complete land-based OTEC power plant was constructed and operated under Japanese direction at the island of Nauru on the equator in the mid-Pacific ocean. During the period 1977-1980, a U.S. plan was developed, supported by public laws PL 96-310 and PL 96-320, to demonstrate OTEC feasibility at a 100-MWe level by 1985 and 500 MWe by 1990. Testing was to start with a pilot demonstration at 40 MWe (net). Preliminary design of baseline demonstration plants at this power level for moored operation off Punta Tuna, Puerto Rico, and for grazing operation west of equatorial Brazil with on-board ammonia production was completed in 1980 (George and Richards, 1980). Conceptual designs of larger plants and power systems for demonstration at the baseline level were also completed. In accord with the requirements of the Congressional actions, a Program Opportunity Notice (PON) was issued in September 1980 by DOE that offered cost-sharing support for innovative OTEC systems designs that contractors believed would be commercially viable if government cost sharing were made available during development of demonstration vessels. The PON asked for proposals for a development program to design, construct, and test a 40-MWe (net) closed-cycle OTEC system, which would be conducted in six phases beginning with conceptual design and continuing to preliminary design, engineering design, construction, deployment and operation, and, finally, transfer of ownership and contractor operation. The schedule was set to be consistent with the goal established by PL- 96-310 of demonstration of 100-MW OTEC operation by 1985. DOE stated its intent to fund five to eight awards for the first phase, with DOE providing $900,000 as its share of each contract awarded (Dugger et al., 1983).
Introduction: Hypotheses and Theories
Authors: Dryfoos Joy G.
Published: November 2020

Many children are growing up in the United States today without a hope of enjoying the benefits that come with adulthood. They are not learning the skills necessary to participate in the educational system or to make the transition into the labor force. They cannot become responsible parents because they have limited experience in family life and lack the resources to raise their own children. The gap between achievers and nonachievers is expanding. A new class of “untouchables” is emerging in our inner cities, on the social fringes of suburbia, and in some rural areas: young people who are functionally illiterate, disconnected from school, depressed, prone to drug abuse and early criminal activity, and eventually, parents of unplanned and unwanted babies. These are the children who are at high risk of never becoming responsible adults. There is growing concern in this nation about the future status and work potential of these high-risk youth. This concern has been heightened in direct proportion to the awareness that at least one-quarter of future labor force requirements will not be met unless these ill-equipped young people are helped. We cannot say that their problems are being ignored. The press and television are full of stories dramatizing the difficulties of young people, and hundreds of local, state, and national conferences address these issues and make recommendations about amelioration. There are literally thousands of programs addressed to preventing or ameliorating various problem behaviors. In fact, each problem area (e.g., school achievement, drugs, pregnancy, delinquency, suicide, mental health) has its own specialized constitutency, meetings, publications, and “gurus.” One might well ask, if all of these resources are being used to combat the separate problems, why is the status of high-risk youth deteriorating? An array of explanations can be offered in response to this critical question. Success is elusive because the programs as interventions are too fragmented and weak to have enough impact. They do not create change either in the individuals who exhibit the behavior or in the institutions responsible for the environment in which the behavior is learned.
Prevalence of School Failure and Dropping Out
Authors: Dryfoos Joy G.
Published: November 2020

In this chapter, we turn to the risk behavior that appears to underlie many of the problems addressed so far. Low achievement in school has been shown to be an important predictor of substance abuse, delinquency, and early sexual intercourse. And as we will see, not only are many of the antecedents of poor school performance the same as those for other problem behaviors, so are the consequences. Moreover, low academic achievement is both a predictor and a consequence of other kinds of risk behavior, as well as being a problem in itself. Understanding the epidemiology of school failure and dropping out is fundamental to this book’s argument: that high-risk behaviors are interrelated and, therefore, interventions must be comprehensive. School failure is a process rather than a single risk event. A young person initiates hard drug use or has early unprotected sexual intercourse or first commits a delinquent act at a specific time and place. Usually these actions are voluntary and follow a personal decision (although they are heavily influenced by the social environment). Low achievement results from an array of forces, many of which are outside the control of the child. The quality of the school is, of course, a major factor, as are the actual classroom practices and attitudes of the teacher. Estimates of the risk of other problem behaviors can be projected based on individual characteristics. Children with certain attributes are more likely than others to get involved in certain behaviors. This is not necessarily the case for estimating the risk of school failure since the probabilities are conditioned by both individual characteristics and the quality of the school. Children from disadvantaged households have been shown to succeed in excellent schools, while some schools are so inadequate that success is an exception. Unlike the other behaviors, risk of educational failure is measured routinely for almost all children at frequent intervals. Report cards inform children about their progress and, in aggregate, these marks produce a grade point average for each student.
The Overlap in High-Risk Behaviors
Authors: Dryfoos Joy G.
Published: November 2020

The previous four chapters have reviewed the consequences, antecedents, and numbers of adolescents at risk of behaviors in four distinct fields of study: delinquency, substance use, teenage pregnancy, and school failure. It should be apparent that these fields are interrelated since the same variables have emerged time and time again as consequences or antecedents of the diverse behaviors. In this chapter, the commonalities among these fields are analyzed and synthesized. First, we address the question of common antecedents or predictors of behavior. Then, we focus on the overlap in high-risk behavior. How many young people “do it all,” and how many don't do any of it? From the wealth of data presented in the preceding chapters and from studies that look at the co-occurrence of these behaviors, a “synthetic estimate” is created that quantifies target groups for comprehensive interventions. Chapters 3 to 6 presented summaries of the antecedents of the separate problem behaviors (see Tables 3.7, 4.7, 5.7, and 6.7). A large number of variables were identified in each category. However, some of the antecedents or predictors applied only to one or two of the behaviors. A summary of the four diverse fields of study yields six common characteristics that predict each of the problem behaviors: . . . 1. Age: Early initiation or occurrence of any behavior predicts heavy involvement in the behavior and more negative consequences. 2. Expectations for education and school grades: Doing poorly in school and expecting to do poorly in school are associated with all of the problem behaviors. 3. General behavior: Acting out, truancy, antisocial behavior, and other conduct disorders are related to each of the problem behaviors. 4. Peer influence: Having low resistance to peer influences and having friends who participate in the same behaviors are common to all of the behaviors. 5. Parental role: Having insufficient bonding to parents, having parents who do not monitor, supervise, offer guidance, or communicate with their children, and having parents who are either too authoritarian or too permissive are all strongly associated with the behaviors. . . .
The Well-Watered Acropolis at Athens
Authors: Crouch Dora P.
Published: November 2020

Persons with some knowledge of the Athenian acropolis are likely to be aware of the very early Mycenaean spring in the north-northwest quadrant, and of the still flowing Klepsydra Spring at the northwest corner, as well as remember stories about Poseidon’s salt spring adjacent to the Erechtheum. Yet to connect the presence of water on the Acropolis with the urban history of Athens has not been explicitly done to date, even though the Acropolis has been the focus of settlement from earliest times until today. It is the purpose of this section to set out what is known about water utilization at the Athenian Acropolis, thereby suggesting firm ecological reasons why settlement should have taken place on and near the Acropolis (Fig. 18.1). Travlos’ map series of the city of Athens (1960) centered on the Acropolis show us that this hill has always been the focus of settlement, a fact well known to the ancient Athenians themselves (Thucydides, 2:15.3– 6). I suggest that not only the defensive capabilities of the Acropolis but specifically its water supply made it the logical choice of location for groups who intended to live securely and to dominate the region. The number and diversity of water sources here is impressive. In each era it has been necessary to cope with the water that occurred naturally and to save for later use the rain and spring waters that drew settlers to this rocky outcropping. Let us note the locations of water on the Acropolis at several levels, with references to published accounts of some of the features and descriptions (based on surface reconnaissance and discussion with experts) of those for which I have not been able to find such accounts. Discussion of the geology of the Acropolis will be found with the paragraphs about the salt spring. After this topographical discussion, we will look briefly at the chronology of water on the Acropolis, followed by a concluding discussion of urban history. Immediately to the left of the Propylaea, inside the Acropolis wall, are rectangular cisterns dug into the rock of the surface, with rock-cut drainage channels leading to them from the central pathway.
Profile of Individual Water User
Authors: Crouch Dora P.
Published: November 2020

One way to show our understanding of ancient Greek management of water is to follow an ordinary person in her daily patterns, observing when and how she uses water. This schedule ignores differences that derive from local geology, climate, or customs, but rather tries to set out the common patterns. 1. At daylight. Wake up. Go to room or alcove set aside for excreting and do that. Rinse with previously used water. Then go to courtyard, pull up bucket of water from cistern, pour into louter, and wash face and hands. Save water for re-use (Fig. 13.3). 2. First meal. Fix breakfast, using water from cistern for any cooking. Water donkey, dog, house plants, with water from cistern or re-usable water from cooking or bathing. 3. Work. Morning and mid-afternoon to late day: A. Do family laundry—use giant pithos or scrub-board at edge of courtyard, filled from downspout from roof or with buckets of water from the cistern; hang clothes to dry on poles or rope strung between posts (columns) supporting roofs around courtyard. Alternate: laundry might be done communally at a large tank that received the overflow from a fountain near the agora, and the wet clothes carried home and spread out to dry, as above (Fig. 17.5). B. Or do craft activity such as making pottery, using courtyard and water from cistern. C. Or go out to farm. Excrement and garbage were probably carried daily to the farm for fertilizer. An important farming task was to monitor the irrigation of timber lots, fields, orchards, and vineyards with waste water from the town or with spring or river water or dispersed rainwater. D. Or do shopping and/or selling. Periodically carry craft items to Agora to sell them. If need be, rinse items such as vases in public fountains to show off their best colors. In Athens, women participated in the markets, selling lettuce and other farm or craft products, but in some Greek cities shopping and selling were solely masculine activities. 4. Recreation. A. Talk with cousin from the country who waters his donkey at the public trough in the Agora. B. On the way home stop at neighborhood fountain to chat with other people fetching water to drink (Fig. 21.1). C. On special occasions (marriage, birth) go to a sanctuary for a ritual bath. (Fig. 6.1).
Communities of Learning
Authors: Schwehn Mark R.
Published: November 2020

Thus far I have tried to show that our present-day conception of the academic vocation is based at least in part upon the transmutation of ideas that were originally religious in origin and implication. In the next two chapters, I shall try to show why a reconception of the academic vocation should involve the reappropriation of certain religious virtues. I do not, however, intend this to be an atavistic undertaking: I have no patience for nostalgic returns to medieval syntheses of one sort or another. I shall accordingly argue in this chapter that what I take to be one of the main currents in contemporary thought—the resurgence of the question of community—both invites and to some extent warrants a religiously informed redescription of academic life and the academic vocation. In the next chapter, I will endeavor to provide just such a redescription as a corrective to the Weberian account I have already analyzed. The resurgent interest in the question of community is an exceptionally broad phenomenon that embraces social and political theory, jurisprudence, theology, literary criticism, cultural anthropology, even the history and philosophy of science. I shall, however, restrict my attention here to the manner in which the community question impinges upon activities and aspirations that are central to the tasks of higher education—teaching, learning, knowledge, and truth. At the risk of drastic oversimplification, I will summarize this more restricted development as follows: over the course of the last twenty or so years, the question of community has replaced the epistemological question as foundational for all other inquiries. The answers to basic human questions, such as, What can we know? or How should we live? or In what or whom shall we place our hope? have come to depend, for a large number of intellectuals, upon the answer to a prior question, Who are we? As a way of both documenting and deepening our sense of this decisive shift in the current climate of opinion, I propose to consider briefly two very influential books that appeared within four years of one another, Richard Rorty’s Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature and Parker Palmer’s To Know As We Are Known.
The Structures and Identities of the Elasticity Matrices
Authors: Ting T. T. C.
Published: November 2020

The matrices Q, R, T, A, B, N1, N2, N3, S, H, L, and M introduced in the previous chapter are the elasticity matrices. They depend on elastic constants only, and appear frequently in the solutions to two-dimensional problems. The matrices A, B, and M are complex while the others are real. We present their structures and identities relating them in this chapter. In Chapter 7 we will show that A and B are tensors of rank one and S, H, L, and M are tensors of rank two when the transformation is a rotation about the x3-axis. Readers who are not interested in how the structures of these matrices and the identities relating them are derived may skip this chapter. They may return to this chapter when they read later chapters on applications where the results presented here are employed.
Getting Started
Authors: Thrall Grant Ian
Published: November 2020

The business geographer performing market analysis for real estate should become skilled in the advances of geographic technology, as well as geographic and real estate analysis and procedures. And the client should become skilled in judging the analyst's work. In this context, the eighteenth-century poetic essay by Alexander Pope (1688-1744) is appropriate (see box 10.1). The left column is particularly relevant to the analyst practitioner, while the right column is particularly relevant to the client who is making his or her judgmental decision. The client, whether an investor, financier, or developer, should know enough about business geography and real estate market analysis to correctly understand the evaluation and report, know which questions to ask of the analyst, and know how to translate the report into correct judgment. The client making the judgmental decision should not have his or her vision clouded by details of the choice made for which data source to use for population projections, nor should the judgmental decision be steered off course by the choice between which desktop GIS software to use. Instead, the client has other considerations, such as How do I select and work with a business geographer performing market analysis for real estate projects? and When and how should a business geographer consultant be used? This chapter gets the reader started in these tasks. Financiers, investors, developers hire business geographers to provide a variety of services, including choosing the appropriate data, software, and methods to use, and rely on their professional skills of execution and ability to complete and present the report in a manner that will improve their judgment. The business geographer brings objectivity, professionalism, and both broad and specialized experience with similar projects. How should a business geographer be chosen? First, the prospective client should decide what project(s) the analyst is to evaluate. The type of projects a business geographer might be engaged to work on include; . . . Determining the highest and best-use for a given site Selecting the location and evaluating the viability at that location for a specific type of development Constructing an expansion strategy and location strategy for individual outlets of a new or existing chain of retail stores. . . . The client should decide whether outside expertise should be sought or whether the real estate market analyst functions should instead be performed in house.
Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics
Authors: Beris Antony N. , Edwards Brian J.
Published: November 2020

After having devoted five chapters of this book to the discussion of equilibrium thermodynamics and conservative dynamic phenomena, it is now high time that we entered into the realm of irreversible transport processes. As mentioned in chapter 1, most of the physical systems which engineers wish to model exhibit dissipative phenomena. Therefore, although the techniques touched upon in the previous chapters are mathematically profound and well-suited for diverse analyses for conservative systems, it is in this chapter and the next that the major engineering applications will find their foundation. Granted, in describing irreversible phenomena on the continuum level a certain amount of phenomenology is necessarily introduced; yet we hope to illustrate here how the application of thermodynamic knowledge to the irreversible system can reduce this phenomenology to the bare minimum. The objective of this chapter is similar to that of chapter 4; we wish to present a brief, yet sufficiently thorough, discussion concerning the theory of non-equilibrium thermodynamics applied to irreversible processes. There already exist several outstanding references on the subject [De Groot and Mazur, 1962; Yourgrau et al., 1966; Prigogine, 1967; Gyarmati, 1970; Woods, 1975; Lavenda, 1978; Truesdell, 1984]. Thus, the objective of our discussion here is mainly to introduce the principles that are subsequently used to formulate the dissipative bracket, as outlined in the next chapter. Moreover, the presentation of the subject is biased towards the presentation of the concepts that we consider as most helpful to continuum modeling. For example, the notion of internal variables is introduced early on, in §6.2. As we shall see, the inclusion of internal variables in the non-equilibrium description of the system has profound implications concerning the roles of the various thermodynamic variables and the definitions of the various state functions, in particular, the entropy. Indeed, the definitions of these functions hinge upon the notion of time scales which become of chief importance in the discussion of irreversible thermodynamics. In the philosophy of equilibrium thermodynamics, it is assumed that the time scale for changes in the system is sufficiently large as compared to the intrinsic time scales of any internal variables within the system.
Incompressible Viscoelastic Fluids
Authors: Beris Antony N. , Edwards Brian J.
Published: November 2020

In Part I, we discussed in detail the foundations of the bracket description of dynamical behavior, demonstrating how the generalized bracket is linked to the theories of both Hamiltonian mechanics and irreversible thermodynamics. Now it is time to discuss the various applications towards seemingly complex systems which are the main focus of this book. Specifically, we want to look at a variety of microstructured media of immediate concern in science and industry, and to illustrate the advantages of using the generalized bracket formalism over traditional techniques when developing system-particular models. As we shall also see, there are certain advantages to be gained even when we are simply expressing existing models in Hamiltonian form. The first subject that we wish to address is that of viscoelastic fluid dynamics. As the name implies, viscoelasticity characterizes the materials that possess properties intermediate to those of an elastic solid and a viscous fluid. The most characteristic property is that of limited (“fading”) memory: viscoelastic materials partially resume their previous deformation state upon removal of the externally applied forces; the smaller the duration of the application of the forces, the better the recovery. Materials of this type contain a certain degree of internal microstructure (e.g., polymeric solutions and melts, advanced composites, liquid crystals, etc.), and are very important in the processing industry where one wishes to combine the “processability” of the medium's fluidity with the “structural quality” of the internal architecture to obtain high strength/ low-weight final products. We can distinguish two types of viscoelasticity: viscoelastic solids and viscoelastic fluids characterized by the ability or lack of ability respectively, to support shear stresses at finite deformations. In the following we shall focus on the analysis of viscoelastic fluids although the approach followed applies and/or can be extended in a straightforward fashion to viscoelastic solids as well. For a description of solid viscoelasticity, the interested reader may consult one of the many excellent monographs in the area [Eringen, 1962, chs. 8, 10; Ferry, 1980; Sobotka, 1984; see also Tschoegl, 1989].
Transport Phenomena in Viscoelastic Fluids
Authors: Beris Antony N. , Edwards Brian J.
Published: November 2020

In chapter 8, we applied the bracket formalism to the relatively old problem of incompressible and isothermal viscoelastic fluids. In addition to these assumptions concerning the state of the fluid medium, we therein assumed that the polymer concentration (in the case of polymer solutions) was constant. Although even in this case we were able to find some new results, it is through new applications altogether that the major advantages of this technique will be applied to the fullest extent. Thus, in this chapter we wish to study three new applications of the generalized bracket to outstanding problems concerning viscoelastic fluids. The first section of this chapter is concerned with the complications induced in viscoelastic-fluid modeling by considering compressible and non-isothermal systems. In the second section, we present the analysis of simultaneous concentration and deformation changes associated with the bulk flow of dilute polymer solutions in a form also suitable for the description of flow-induced phase separation. In the third and final section we focus our attention on the solid-surface/polymer interactions which may lead to an apparent “slip velocity” or “adsorption layer” at the interface. We consider §9.3 as the culmination of chapters 8 and 9, and therefore we present it last despite the fact that the natural order for chapter 9 would have been the reverse of what is given below, going from the simplest to the most complex. This last section is the perfect example of our theme of consistently abstracting microscopic information to the macroscopic level of description. Because of the abundance and variety of thought on the issue of flow-induced polymer migration, §9.2 is very inconclusive at this point in time. Its presence here is solely to stimulate additional thought upon this issue. In industrial applications involving polymers, rarely does the engineer deal with an isothermal, and, consequently, incompressible fluid. Most processes are performed at extremely high temperatures, and much heating and cooling design goes into the successful process. Indeed, even if industrial processes were performed at constant temperature, one would still need to handle non-isothermalities since polymers produce large degrees of viscous heating during flow.
Formal Models of Strategy Choice
Authors: Siegler Robert S.
Published: November 2020

Pittsburgh has many beautiful old houses, most of which have thick plaster walls. The walls are good in the sense that they effectively reduce noise coming from other rooms, but bad in the sense that they sometimes force me to interact with plasterers. My experience with plasterers has not been fun. The ones who have come to do repairs on my house haven’t put drop cloths below where they worked, have resisted or ignored requests not to smoke in the house, and have flicked cigarette ashes wherever they went. Several of them smelled bad and had alcohol on their breath, even at 8:00 A.M. On the other hand, they were really good at plastering. They fixed cracks and holes quickly and without apparent difficulty. The finished product, once painted, matched the surrounding wall or ceiling remarkably well. My own attempts at plastering have been much less successful. These attempts have taught me quite a bit, but unfortunately not how to do the job. I have learned that plastering requires many good strategy choices. Home plastering kits indicate how much plaster powder and water to mix together, and roughly when to apply the mixture, but that is only the beginning of the problem. When exactly has the plaster jelled sufficiently to apply it? If it’s too watery, it will run; if it’s too thick, it will be wavy, and soon will crack. The instructions also do not illustrate the wrist movements for applying the plaster. The package directs the reader to apply the plaster with “flexible,” “supple,” and “smooth” movements, but what does that mean? Despite considerable time spent thinking about how to plaster, and some time spent watching plasterers, my decisions invariably lead to wavy, cracked surfaces resembling those of an artistically challenged kindergaitner. I occasionally have asked the plasterers who came to my house how they know when the plaster is ready and how it should be applied. Their replies: “You just look at it.” “You can see when it’s ready.” “You put it on smoothly.” True enough, I’m sure, but not helpful.
How Children Generate New Ways of Thinking
Authors: Siegler Robert S.
Published: November 2020

Cognitive variability ultimately depends on people’s constructing novel ways of thinking even when we already possess reasonable alternatives. If we did not supplement existing approaches with new ones, there would be no variation in the approaches we use to solve a single problem, nor any need to choose adaptively among the alternatives. But how do we generate new approaches, and what leads us to do so when existing approaches already are adequate? This is the focus of the present chapter. Despite the obvious importance of constructing new ways of thinking, we know little about how the process occurs. For every study focusing on how children generate new approaches, there must be a hundred that focus on how the thinking of different-age children differs. Both conceptual and methodological considerations have contributed to this imbalance. Conceptually, the staircase approaches that have been dominant for the last 30 years have depicted generation of new ways of thinking as a rare event, too rare to be studied systematically. The outcomes of the generative process could be observed, as in the studies of age-related differences in reasoning, but not the generative process itself. Methodologically, standard developmental approaches, whether cross-sectional or longitudinal, are not well suited to studying the process of change. Developmental psychologists’ reliance on such approaches in part reflects the conceptual blinders imposed by the staircase conceptions of development. If generation of new approaches is a rare event, then these methods might be the best possible. Expedience also plays a role; cross-sectional methods in particular are cheaper and easier to use than methods more specifically designed to get at the process of change. Habit also plays a role; the standard methods are so prevalent, and have been for so long, that they almost inevitably are the first methods that come to mind when thinking about how to study a developmental issue. However, they are not the only methods for studying development, nor the ones best suited to studying change processes. An alternative approach that seems especially promising for studying change is the microgenetic method.
Growth: Real and Spurious
Authors: Hardin Garrett
Published: November 2020

One of the Rothschilds is credited with saying that "Compound interest is the eighth wonder of the world." How so? Because interest makes money grow, supposedly without limit. Ecologists regard the claim as arrant nonsense, for it implies a denial of Epicurean conservation. Like putative records of lifeless money in savings banks, real populations of living organisms grow by compound interest, but this biological reality does not move scientists to reverence. Biologists know that the growth of animals or plants does not violate conservation principles; biological growth merely involves the transfer of matter from the nonliving world to the living. Though new arrangements of matter— new chemical molecules—are created, the quantity of matter/energy remains the same. Before delving deeper into population theory (the topic of the next chapter) we need to see what scientific sense can be made of growth phenomena in the world of finance. In developing the argument there will be quite a bit of manipulation of numbers, but no great precision in numbers is called for. The conclusions reached will be robust, a curious academic word that means that the illustrative data can be varied over quite a wide range of values without affecting the practical conclusions. To accept compound interest at face value is to be confronted with an apparent creation of wealth. A bank account earning 5 percent compound interest per year doubles in value every 14 years. Let us indicate the initial deposit by D and time (in units of 14 years) by t. (For instance, when the number of years is 28, t = 2.) The value of the account at the end of time t is given by a simple equation: Since time (t) is written as an exponent of the number 2 we speak of this as an exponential equation and say that the value of the account grows exponentially. (There are other ways of representing the growth function, but they too involve exponents.) Figure 8-1 is a graph of the exponential growth of a bank account that draws compound interest.
From Jevons's Coal to Hubbert's Pimple
Authors: Hardin Garrett
Published: November 2020

In a commercial society like ours it is understandable that money-makers should be the ones who pay the greatest attention to the implications of economics. Historians have been a breed apart, with most of them (until recently) paying little heed to the ways in which economics affects history. Yet surprisingly, a basis for the eventual integration of economics, ecology, and history was laid in the nineteenth century. The Victorian who tackled history from the economic side was William Stanley Jevons (1835-1882). The distinction made in the previous chapter between living in a area and living on it was a paraphrase of what Jevons wrote about the material basis of English prosperity: "The plains of North America and Russia are our cornfields; Chicago and Odessa our granaries; Canada and the Baltic are our timber forests; Australia contains our sheep farms, and in South America are our herds of oxen;.. . the Chinese grow tea for us, and our coffee, sugar, and spice plantations are in all the Indies. Spain and France are our vineyards, and the Mediterranean our fruit-garden.'" A century before the term "ghost acres" was coined, Jevons had clearly in mind the idea behind the term. Half a century before Jevons was born—in fact in the year the Bastille was stormed by French revolutionaries (1789)—an English mineral surveyer by the name of John Williams had asked, in The Limited Quantity of Coal of Britain, what would happen to the blessings of the industrial revolution when England no longer possessed the wherewithal to power the machinery that produced her wealth? Optimism is so deeply engrained a characteristic of busy people that this warning, like most first warnings, was little noted. It remained for Jevons to rouse the British public in 1865 with the publication of his book, The Coal Question. Jevons's life coincided in time with the period when the nature and significance of energy (in its prenuclear formulation) was becoming manifest to physical scientists. Since energy was needed to turn the wheels of industry, and coal was the most readily available source of energy, Jevons reasoned that the continued political dominance of Great Britain was dependent on the bounty of her coal. This naturally led to the double question, How long would English coal and the British Empire last?
Making Room for Human Will
Authors: Hardin Garrett
Published: November 2020

Anything to be done about human populations necessarily depends on the will to do it. But what does the word will mean? Much has been written about it, but most of the rhetoric is nonsense. Rather than add one more explicit (and probably faulty) definition to the roster I will treat "will" ostensively, that is by pointing to passages that throw some light on its meaning (Box 18-1). The contributions of academics are commonly belittled by "practical" people, who trust more in the guidance of intuition. In a classic statement John Maynard Keynes argued that such guidance often came through unconscious memory. Because of the heavy demands on their time, politicians seldom read any work of substance after the age of thirty. Their responses are, Keynes said, distilled "from some academic scribbler a few years back." Looking at the situation with a different orientation in time, we argue that it is worthwhile for the inventor or scholar to try to get his views accepted by those who are young and powerless now because some of them may have political power two decades from now, when their days of leisurely reading are long past. In the unending development of human civilization what men think will happen can influence what does happen. The connection between the original ideas and their conversion into action is not rigid, determinative, or well understood: but there is a connection, and this appeals to the ambitions of social inventors. Consequently, as Dennis Gabor says, "The future cannot be predicted, but futures can be invented." As concerns the size of future populations, humanity's problem is to invent the answer. What size do we want human populations to be? On what assumptions do our answers rest? Precisely how can human consent be engineered? There is no pure population problem: the problem is one of population and resources. The well-being of a population depends on the ratio of the size of the population to the magnitude of available resources. What the future holds for population considered by itself is simple enough, as Malthus knew: the perpetual threat posed by population's ability to increase exponentially. But resources? Malthus stubbed his toe on this one, and people are still arguing. The arguments center around the concept of scarcity and the relevance of statistics to predicting the future.
The Global Pillage: Consequences of Unmanaged Commons
Authors: Hardin Garrett
Published: November 2020

Great is the power of words when manipulated by a master who has his finger on the public pulse. In the 1960s the Canadian Marshall McLuhan evidently tapped a major stream of consciousness when he proclaimed the coming of "the global village," a world in which nearly instantaneous communication would weld together the aspirations of mankind. A sharing world. A land of heart's desire. Unfortunately his image took no account of the effects of scale or the consequences of the rules of distribution. When these variables are plugged into the equation, the dream of a bucolic global village dissolves into a nightmare of global pillage. Humanity has now completed some political experiments that reveal the nightmare. How will our time be remembered a hundred years from now? It is at least plausible that the twentieth century will be commemorated as the era in which Marx's ideas were at last given a fair trial and found wanting. From the spring of 1917, when Lenin returned to Russia to stir things up, to the cataclysms of the autumn of 1989 was seventy-two years—the biblical lifetime of a man. Three generations. Quite enough time to allow Marxism in its various forms to reveal its inherent deficiencies. Yet, when the end came, almost everyone was surprised at the speed with which nearly 300 million people revealed their disillusionment and set about trying to put the pieces together into a better political pattern. We wonder of course why Marx's ideas were so resistant to the intellectual cold showers that beat against them for three score years and ten. The literary critic Lionel Trilling put his finger on a force that caused "intellectuals" to cling to the Left during the period between the two world wars. As Trilling expressed the-mind-set of these influential people: "One need not be actually for Communism; one was morally compromised, turned toward evil and away from good if one was against it."1 To use James Coleman's term, adopting the Marxist position was the most fashionable way to practice "conspicuous benevolence." Supporters of free enterprise were almost uniformly painted as promoters of unmitigated selfishness. Only one thread of Marxist thought need be followed here, a thread that is intimately involved in the theory of population.
Historical Perspectives on Climate Change
Authors: Fleming James R.
Published: November 2020

This intriguing volume provides a thorough examination of the historical roots of global climate change as a field of inquiry, from the Enlightenment to the late twentieth century. Based on primary and archival sources, the book is filled with interesting perspectives on what people have understood, experienced, and feared about the climate and its changes in the past. Chapters explore climate and culture in Enlightenment thought; climate debates in early America; the development of international networks of observation; the scientific transformation of climate discourse; and early contributions to understanding terrestrial temperature changes, infrared radiation, and the carbon dioxide theory of climate. But perhaps most important, this book shows what a study of the past has to offer the interdisciplinary investigation of current environmental problems.
Many-Body Algebraic Theory
Authors: Iachello F. , Levine R. D.
Published: November 2020

For molecules with many atoms, the simultaneous treatment of rotations and vibrations in terms of vector coordinates r1, r2, r3, . . . , quantized through the algebra . . .G ≡ U1(4) ⊗ U2(4) ⊗ U3(4). . . . . . .(6.1). . . becomes very cumbersome. Each time a U(4) algebra is added one must go through the recoupling procedure using Racah algebra, which, although feasible, is in practice very time consuming. An alternative treatment, which can be carried out for molecules with any number of atoms, is that of separating vibrations and rotations as already discussed in Sections 4.2-4.5 for triatomic molecules. For nonlinear molecules, there are three rotational degrees of freedom, described by the Euler angles α, β, γ of Figure 3.1, and thus there remain 3n − 6 independent vibrational degrees of freedom, where n is the number of atoms in the molecule. For linear molecules, there are two rotational degrees of freedom, described by the angles α, β, and thus there remain 3n − 5 independent vibrational degrees of freedom, some of which (the bending vibrations) are doubly degenerate. In this alternative treatment, the algebraic theory of polyatomic molecules consists in the separate quantization of rotations and vibrations. Each bond coordinate is then a scalar, and the corresponding algebra is that of U(2). In polyatomic molecules, the geometric symmetry of the molecule also plays a very important role. For example, the benzene molecule, which is the example we discuss in this book has the point group symmetry D6h. A consequence of the symmetry of the molecule is that states must transform according to representations of the appropriate symmetry group. In terms of coordinates, this implies that one must form internal symmetry coordinates. These are linear combinations of the internal coordinates.
Universal and Doubly Universal Systems
Authors: Smullyan Raymond M
Published: November 2020

We now turn to two theorems (Theorems A and B below) that will play a major role in this study. We will give three different proofs of them in the course of this volume, since each proof reveals certain interesting features of its own. . . . Theorem A. If( A1 , A2 ) is semi-D.U. and A1 and A2 are both r.e., then A1 and A2 are both universal sets. Theorem B. I f ( A1 , A2 ) is semi-D.U. and A1 and A2 are both r.e., then (A1, A2) is D.U. . . Of course, Theorem A is a trivial corollary of Theorem B, but our proofs of Theorem A reveal facts not revealed by our proofs of Theorem B. We give our first proofs in this chapter. After each proof, we establish a metamathematical corollary: Theorem A yields the result of Ehrenfeucht-Feferman [1960] that for any consistent axiomatizable Rosser system S for sets in which all recursive functions of one argument are strongly definable, all r.e. sets are representable in S. Theorem B yields the stronger result of Putnam-Smullyan [1960]— that any such system S is an exact Rosser system for sets. This result is apparently incomparable in strength with Shepherdson’s result that any consistent axiomatizable Rosser system for binary relations is an exact Rosser system for sets. Both results, of course, yield different proofs that every consistent axiomatizable extension of (R) is an exact Rosser system for sets. §1. Generativity and Universality. We have shown that every universal set is generative. Our first proof of Theorem A will be based on the converse. Theorem 1. Every generative set is universal. We will, in fact, prove something considerably stronger which will have other applications as well. Consider a collection C of r.e. sets.
Productivity and Double Productivity
Authors: Smullyan Raymond M
Published: November 2020

Now we will give the promised applications of the (strong) recursion and double recursion theorems to the theory of productivity and effective inseparability (and also to double productivity—a double analogue of productivity—which we will define). §1. Weak Productivity. We recall that a set α is said to be co-productive under a recursive function g(x) if for every number i, such that ωi is disjoint from α , the number g(i) is outside both a and ωi. This, of course, implies the folloωing weaker condition: C1: For every i, such that ωi is disjoint from α and such that ωi contains at most one element, the number g(i) is outside both α and ωi
Structures and Properties of Rubberlike Networks
Authors: Erman Burak , Mark James E.
Published: November 2020

Rubber elasticity is an important sub-field of polymer science. This book is in many ways a sequel to the authors' previous, more introductory book, Rubberlike Elasticity: A Molecular Primer (Wiley-Interscience, 1988), and will in some respects replace the now classic book by L.R.G. Treloar, The Physics of Rubber Elasticity (Oxford, 1975). The present book has much in common with its predecessor, in particular its strong emphasis on molecular concepts and theories. Similarly, only equilibrium properties are covered in any detail. Though this book treats much of the same subject matter, it is a more comprehensive, more up-to-date, and somewhat more sophisticated treatment.
Swelling of Networks
Authors: Erman Burak , Mark James E.
Published: November 2020

In the preceding chapter, the stress-strain behavior of networks was described for the case where the swollen network was assumed to be a thermodynamically closed system (such that solvent molecules did not enter or leave the network during deformation). In this chapter, a more general thermodynamic analysis will be given for the case where the network-solvent system will be regarded as semiopen. In such systems, the solvent may enter or leave the network depending on the chemical potential of the solvent and the extent of deformation of the network. In the first section, we will describe general thermodynamic relations for network-solvent systems, followed by a discussion of isotropic swelling of networks in the second section. This topic has already been treated in classic books, and the reader is referred to them for background information. In this chapter, we discuss more recent improvements and approaches, and newer experiments in this field. In the third section of the chapter, we will describe the effects of an externally applied deformation on networks immersed in solvent. Again, the study of deformation of immersed networks goes back to approximately the mid-1940s, and only more recent developments will be included in this chapter. Also, we will consider in detail, in this chapter, the swelling of nonionic networks only. The effects of ionic groups on network chains are discussed in the following chapter in relation to critical phenomena and phase separation in swollen networks. We conclude with a discussion of sorption of linear and cyclic diluents into networks. Also covered is their extraction and, in the case of the cyclic molecules, their trapping within the network structure.