bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Proportional reasoning and the linguistic abilities required for hypothetico‐deductive reasoning
Authors: Lawson Anton E. , Lawson David I. , Lawson Chester A.
Published: October 2006

The hypothesis is advanced that a necessary, though not sufficient, condition for the acquisition of proportional reasoning during adolescence is the prior internalization of key linguistic elements of argumentation, essentially those used in hypothetico‐deductive reasoning. This hypothesized internalization, which does not occur in all individuals, results in some who have acquired the ability to reflect upon the correctness of self‐generated answers in a hypothetico‐deductive manner, and others who have not. As an initial test of the hypothesis, 46 subjects (Ss) (mean age = 21.03 years) were classified into additive, transitional, or proportional reasoning categories based upon responses to a proportions task. Group differences were found in which proportional Ss performed better than transitional Ss who in turn performed better than additive Ss on a number of items testing Ss' abilities to identify, generate, and use the linguistic elements of argumentation. Further it was found that some Ss who were successful on the linguistic items failed the proportions task, but no Ss who were successful on the proportions task failed the linguistic items. This result supports the hypothesis that the internalization of linguistic elements of argumentation is a prerequisite for proportional reasoning and by inference other advanced reasoning schemata as well. Implications for science instruction are drawn.
A research methodology for studying how people think
Authors: Larkin Jill H. , Rainard Barbara
Published: October 2006

Although science education intends to help students learn to think, research in this area does not usually use psychological research on how people think. The purpose of this article is to describe one type of research, commonly called information‐processing psychology. Its goal is understanding how people think while doing complex tasks. It uses detailed data, usually from individual subjects, and develops precise yet powerful models of human performance, often by using a computer. After describing information‐processing research, we illustrate it with two studies. The first shows how computer models are used to explain thinking. A computer program models the knowledge needed to understand and use a physics textbook. The second study shows how information‐processing approaches can be used systematically but more simply. This study clarifies why students find it so difficult to master the “factor‐label” method for converting chemical units. The article concludes with a discussion of guidelines and suggestions for using information‐processing ideas.
Scientific problem solving by expert systems
Authors: Good Ron
Published: October 2006

Human expert problem solving in science is defined and used to account for scientific discovery. These ideas, attributed largely to Herbert Simon, are used in a description of BACON.5, a machine expert problem solver that discovers scientific laws using data‐driven heuristics and “expectations” such as symmetry. Trial‐and‐error search of data‐driven scientific discovery is drastically reduced when the BACON.5 system is altered to include expectations, such as symmetry, which have been influential in “real” (i.e., human) discoveries of scientific laws. A discussion of the implications of BACON.5‐type research for traditional science education research recognizes the importance of a qualitative understanding of the relationships among “pieces” of a physical or biological system.
Attitudes toward science of gifted and nongifted fifth graders
Authors: Harty Harold , Beall Dwight
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this investigation has been to explore whether differences existed between gifted and nongifted fifth graders and between genders and related subgroups with respect to attitudes toward science. Both groups (N = 25) were matched on the demographic characteristics of school‐site, race, sex, and socio‐economic background. Gifted students were found to have more positive attitudes toward science than nongifted students; however, no significant differences were found. In all cases, boys (all boys, gifted boys, and nongifted boys) exhibited more positive attitudes toward science; again, no significant differences were uncovered between the boys and their counterpart group or subgroups. The item which consistently reflected the most positive rating (gifted students, all boys and gifted boys, and all girls and nongifted girls) was “usefulness of things done in science class.” Items where discrepancies surfaced included “usefulness of science when playing at home” where nongifted students and gifted girls were significantly more positive than their counterparts, and “spending more time doing science experiments” where all boys and gifted boys were significantly more positive than their counterparts.
The effect of changes in item sequence on student performance in a multiple‐choice chemistry test
Authors: Hodson Derek
Published: October 2006

It is standard practice to arrange items in objective tests in order of increasing difficulty, on the assumption that such an arrangement increases student motivation and produces more reliable tests. The validity of this assumption was investigated in the context of a multiplechoice chemistry test. Fifty items were arranged in three sequences of difficulty: random (R), easy‐to‐hard (E‐H) and hard‐to‐easy (H‐E). The mean test score was significantly higher for the test sequenced E‐H than for the test sequenced H‐E. Item difficulty index was raised by placement of the easier items toward the beginning of the test and lowered by placement of these items toward the end of the test. Test reliability was largely independent of item sequence.
The development of formal thought during pretertiary science courses in Papua New Guinea
Authors: Wilson Audrey Hendry , Wilson James Michael
Published: October 2006

All students beginning either the two‐year National High School or the one‐year Preliminary Year program in Papua New Guinea in 1980 undertook a test of formal operational thought at the beginning of their programs. At the end of the programs they undertook the same test again. Piagetian cognitive levels obtained were compared with grades in science courses. Results showed: (1) considerable numbers of students at a “transitional” level on each occasion, (2) low correlations between cognitive level and science grades, and (3) significant development in levels of cognitive thought during the National High School program. It is suggested that a knowledge of the cognitive level of students could be of particular value to teachers at this stage.
Predictive validity of five cognitive skills tests among women receiving engineering training
Authors: Wittig Michele Andrisin , Sasse Sharon Hennix , Giacomi Jean
Published: October 2006

This article addresses two sets of theoretical and practical issues related to increasing the percentage of women engineers. First, the measurement of women's aptitude for and changes in skills during engineering training was assessed. Five cognitive skills tests were administered in a one‐group pretest‐posttest design to 24 baccalaureate women enrolled in an eleven‐month engineering training course. Significant increases in skills were shown on three of the five assessments. Scores on a mathematics anxiety scale and a measure of conservation of horizontality are also reported. Second, the relationship of academic and demographic information and cognitive skills to degree of success in the program is reported. Pretraining spatial visualization scores predicted posttraining GPA group membership. The results are compared and contrasted with those of studies of male undergraduates. Implications are drawn concerning the ways in which evaluations of such programs can contribute to our understanding of the changes in skills that occur with training in engineering and of the factors that predict success in such programs.
TCIQ: An identification by intensity and frequency of “potent” testing cues in science
Authors: Kermis William J.
Published: October 2006

Everyone experiences some anxiety while taking an examination. High‐test‐anxious (HTA) and low‐test‐anxious (LTA) students are described by two characteristic differences: frequency and intensity of anxious responses and attentional direction to testing cues. The purposes of this study were threefold: (1) to report “potent” testing cues (i.e., 90% response agreement for both intensity and frequency) that were identified by HTA and LTA students; (2) to report differences between HTA and LTA students for frequencies and intensities of responses to testing cues; and (3) to report differences between HTA and LTA students of attentional direction to testing cues. A pool of 396 males and females who were enrolled in physical geology completed the State‐Trait Anxiety Inventory. A random sample consisting of 93 HTA and 40 LTA subjects completed the Test Cues Identification Questionnaire (TCIQ). The TCIQ consists of 28 disruptive items and 27 helpful items. Subjects responded with both frequency and intensity ratings for all of the 55 items in the TCIQ. Results revealed that 22 items were viewed by subjects as “potent” testing cues. Empirical evidence obtained did not support previous theoretical reports of differences between HTA and LTA students for either frequency and intensity of anxious responses or attentional direction to the set of disruptive and helpful testing cues. Although test anxiousness did not appear to be associated with those two characteristics differences, a discriminant analysis revealed 24 items in the TCIQ which significantly, χ2 (24) = 47.59, p < 0.004, separated HTA and LTA subjects responses. Apparently, HTA and LTA students differ in their responses to specific disruptive and helpful cues but not in their responses to the set of testing cues as was previously postulated.
Measuring thinking with standardized science tests
Authors: Morgenstern Carol Faltin , Renner John W.
Published: October 2006

According to the Educational Policies Commission, the central purpose of education in this country is to lead students to develop the ability to think. No standard way exists to measure whether or not the schools are achieving that purpose. The EPC identified 10 rational powers as constituting the essence of the ability to think. The research reported here was done to ascertain which rational powers are measured by commercially‐available, standardized tests in science. A universe of standardized tests was defined and 12 specific tests were randomly selected for analysis. All instruments were validated by a panel of experts, as was a training program for the four teacher‐evaluators who applied previously‐evaluated criteria to each test item to determine which rational powers had to be used in responding to the item. Seven of the 12 standardized tests analyzed in the research required that students use only the rational power of recall in responding. In fact, approximately 90% of the items analyzed from all tests required only recall. Students were required to use other rational powers only rarely when responding to a test item and the use of the rational powers of comparing, imagining, and analyzing was not necessary on any of the test items examined. The conclusion was drawn that the producers of standardized tests are not concerned with measuring student achievement of the rational powers.

The purpose which runs throught and strengthens all other educational purposes—; the common thread of education—; is the development of the ability to think.
Changing attitudes toward energy conservation: The effect of development advancement on the salience of one‐sided and two‐sided persuasive communications
Authors: Koballa Thomas R.
Published: October 2006

Tested was the effect of a one‐sided and two‐sided persuasive message on the attitudes toward energy conservation of 85 preservice elementary teachers categorized as developmentally or nondevelopmentally advanced with respect to the topic of the message. The study addressed the following questions: (1) Are one‐sided and two‐sided systematically designed communications more effective in persuading nondevelopmentally advanced and developmentally advanced persons, respectively? (2) Do positive attitude gains between pre‐ and posttests, if any, dissipate within four weeks following the treatment? The important finding was that the two‐sided communication was more effective than the one‐sided communication regardless of subjects' level of developmental advancement when attitude change is measured immediately following the treatment. Secondly, positive attitude change dissipated four weeks after exposure to the two‐sided communication for developmentally and nondevelopmentally advanced subjects, alike. Thirdly, while the attitudes of nondevelopmentally and developmentally advanced subjects exposed to the one‐sided communication did not change immediately after exposure, the nondevelopmentally advanced subjects exhibited a positive shift in attitude four weeks following the presentation of the communication.
The effect of grouping of laboratory students on selected educational outcomes
Authors: Lawrenz Frances , Munch Theodore W.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to discover if grouping students in the laboratory on the basis of their formal reasoning ability affected (1) their science content achievement, (2) their formal reasoning ability, (3) the learning environment in the laboratory, and (4) the relationships between individuals in a particular group. The laboratory groups for three physical science classes for preservice elementary teachers were arranged as follows: (1) one class with students of unequal reasoning ability grouped together, i.e., one highly developed formal reasoner per group (the heterogeneous group), (2) one class with students of similar reasoning ability grouped together (the homogeneous group), and (3) one class arranged in groups according to the desires of the class members (the student choice group). The three classes were compared using pre‐and post‐scores on content and formal reasoning instruments and scores for classroom environment and social relationships. Results indicated that the groupings as described had significantly different effects on science content achievement but not on any of the other questions posed above. The students in the class with laboratory teams grouped by student choice had significantly lower science content scores than the students in the classes with teams formed using either the heterogeneous or homogeneous grouping procedures. The difference between the heterogeneously and homogeneously grouped classes was not significant at the 0.05 level.
The effects of cognitive development and age on elementary students' science achievement for structured inductive and semi‐deductive inquiry strategies
Authors: Yore Larry D.
Published: October 2006

This study explored Morine and Morine's (Discovery: A challenge to teachers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice‐Hall, 1973) assumptions regarding age and cognitive development of learners successfully utilizing two types of inquiry, specifically structured inductive and semi‐deductive. Two groups of elementary school students from grades one, three and five were individually assessed on six conservation tasks and a multiplicative classification task. The two groups were instructed on two different science topics utilizing different inquiry strategies. Achievement data from topic specific tests were analyzed by an ANOVA technique. The results indicated that age made a significant difference on achievement for both inquiry strategies. The significant contributions were due to the differences between grade one and grades three and five. The differences between grade three and grade five were not significant. The effect of cognitive development was more noticeable in the less structured semi‐deductive strategy in which four conservation tasks and the multiplicative classification tasks were significant.
The effects of two teaching strategies utilizing manipulatives on the development of logical thought
Authors: Cohen Herbert G.
Published: October 2006

Scientific literacy has many components: concept/content knowledge; science process ability; and reasoning ability. This latter component permits an individual to understand the content. According to Piaget, experience is one of the factors mediating the development of reasoning. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study was to investigate what effects two different teaching strategies would have on the development of logical structures. A secondary purpose was to examine the effects of gender on logical development. Four intact classes took part in this study; two (Control) classes receiving instruction involving working at desks and manipulation of materials based on predetermined behaviors and not children's interests; while the other two (Experimental) classes received instruction encouraging them to work on the floor and to examine whatever phenomenon they were exploring by moving about and/or moving and manipulating the apparatus, and to use them in a variety of ways dependent on their own interests. Data were collected using a battery of six Piagetian‐type tasks. The chi‐square one‐sample procedure was used to determine if there was any direct treatment effect and also to see if gender had any effect on the development of reasoning. It was determined that gender had no effect, while treatment did effect the development of reasoning, experimental subjects outperformed control subjects. It was concluded that teachers must take an active role when their students are using manipulatives; they should act as guides encouraging students to examine materials from many vantage points and to utilize materials in ways which seem appropriate to the students' interests and level of understanding.
Cognitive style and the effects of two instructional treatments on the acquisition and transfer of the ability to control variables: A longitudinal study
Authors: Strawitz Barbara M.
Published: October 2006

Long‐term retention effects of two methods of instruction used one year earlier to teach field‐dependent (FD) and field‐independent (FI) sixth‐grade students to control variables and to transfer this ability to novel tasks were investigated. The study also examined whether or not uninstructed seventh‐grade students had acquired this ability on their own. Results indicated that Treatment I produced better retention over time for both FD and FI students than did Treatment II. Treatment II was more effective for FI students than for FD students. Significant main effects for treatment and cognitive style were found on each controlling variables task when the abilities of instructed and uninstructed seventh‐grade students were compared. Field‐dependent students who had received Treatment I significantly outperformed FD students who had received Treatment II and FD students who had received no instruction on how to control variables. Field‐dependent students who had received Treatment II performed about as well as their counterparts who had received no instruction. Field‐independent students who had received Treatment I significantly outperformed FI students who had received Treatment II on two of three measures and FI students who had received no instruction on all measures. Field‐independent student who had received Treatment II significantly outperformed FI students who had received no instruction on two of three measures.
Studies on anxiety about teaching science in preservice elementary teachers
Authors: Westerback Mary E.
Published: October 2006

During a sequence of science content courses designed for elementary teachers, anxiety about teaching science as measured by the State‐Trait Anxiety Inventory was reduced. Each study: 1977–; 1978, 1978–; 1979, 1979–; 1980, and 1980–; 1981, was a separate descriptive study. The overall patterns were similar in all four years. Initial anxiety about teaching science was high and changed in a positive direction in all studies. Variations from year to year were attributed to staffing arrangements, grading practices and course sequences. Both the X and Y forms of the STAI were used. There appears to be a high degree of relationship between them, but the Y form was preferable because it is more reflective of anxiety than depression and has better psychometric properties.
A new science and engineering career interest survey for middle school students
Authors: Donovan Edward P. , Fronk Robert H. , Horton Phillip B.
Published: October 2006

This study describes the development and validation of a science and engineering (S/E) career interest survey (CIS). This 56 question survey was developed to measure the overall S/E career interests of 7th through 9th grade students. In the CIS, a S/E career is characterized as one which requires the completion of at least a four‐year college program with a major in science, science education, or engineering. The CIS is divided into four major parts. In Part I (30 questions), students are expected to select from occupational activities, while in Part II (20 questions) they are to select from various occupations. Part III (5 questions) and Part IV together make up the CIS internal verification scale. The CIS test‐retest reliability coefficients for one week and eight months were calculated as 0.96 (n = 57, grades 7–9) and 0.78 (n = 1937, grade 8), respectively. The KR‐21 estimate for the CIS was calculated as 0.92. Criterion‐related validity coefficients were calculated in two ways: (a) CIS scores were correlated with the Kuder GIS science subscale (r = 0.75, n = 45, grades 7–9), and (b) CIS scores were correlated with a CIS internal verification scale (r = 0.59, n = 127, grades 7–9). Evidence to support the construct validity of the CIS was collected by two methods: (a) for 7–9 grade students (n = 45), the CIS score was found to correlate 0.75 with the scientific subscale and −0.42 with the artistic sub‐scale, of the Kuder GIS. (b) the second method compared the scores of known groups. Test results for students in grades 7‐9 (n = 127; n = 1937) showed a statistically significant difference between the scores of boys and girls on S/E career interest. The readability of the CIS was seventh grade level.
A misconception in biology: Amino acids and translation
Authors: Fisher Kathleen M.
Published: October 2006

A persistent error has been observed among students in introductory biology and genetics. In interviews and examinations, many students express the belief that amino acids are produced by genetic translation (protein synthesis). The evidence suggests that at least four underlying factors contribute to error occurrence: (1) strong word association between the terms “amino acids” and “proteins”, (2) confusion resulting from familiar and unfamiliar levels of generality and specificity, (3) conflict resulting from the dual roles of some proteins as participants in and products of translation, and (4) lack of knowledge about the actual origins of amino acids in cells. Implications for teaching are discussed.
Content, format, gender and grade level differences in elementary students' ability to read science materials as measured by the cloze procedure
Authors: Williams Richard L. , Yore Larry D.
Published: October 2006

Present instructional trends in science indicate a need to reexamine a traditional concern in science education: the readability of science textbooks. An area of reading research not well documented is the effect of color, visuals, and page layout on readability of science materials. Using the cloze readability method, the present study explored the relationships between page format, grade level, sex, content, and elementary school students ability to read science material. Significant relationships were found between cloze scores and both grade level and content, and there was a significant interaction effect between grade and sex in favor of older males. No significant relationships could be attributed to page format and sex. In the area of science content, biological materials were most difficult in terms of readability followed by earth science and physical science. Grade level data indicated that grade five materials were more difficult for that level than either grade four or grade six materials were for students at each respective level. In eight of nine cases, the science text materials would be classified at or near the frustration level of readability. The implications for textbook writers and publishers are that science reading materials need to be produced with greater attention to readability and known design principles regarding visual supplements. The implication for teachers is that students need direct instruction in using visual materials to increase their learning from text material. Present visual materials appear to neither help nor hinder the student to gain information from text material.
Characteristics of male and female students who experienced success or failure in their first college science course
Authors: Deboer George E.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to identify correlates of success for male and female students in their first collegiate science course. The factors that were examined included the personality variables of persistence, future orientation, and the tendency toward reckless and rash behavior, as well as cognitive attributions for success and failure. In addition, two scales from the Omnibus Personality Inventory that focused on the direction of a student's academic orientation were examined for their relationship to science achievement. Level of success x gender ANOV As showed no interactions for cognitive attributions or for the direction of academic orientation. Interactions for persistence, reckless and rash behavior, and future orientation indicated that these factors were more important to the science success of women than to that of men.
Relationships between middle school students' science concept structure interrelatedness competence and selected cognitive and affective tendencies
Authors: Harty Harold , Hamrick Linda , Samuel K. V.
Published: October 2006

An investigation was conducted to determine the relationships between Concept Structure Interrelatedness Competence (ConSIC) and 10 predictor variables of which 6 comprised a cognitive cluster and 4 made up an affective set. Data were collected from 105 middle school students and treated by way of stepwise multiple regression, linear multiple regression, and product‐moment correlation techniques. The findings revealed that previous experience with concept structure interrelatedness and verbal scholastic aptitude accounted for the greatest amount of variance in predicting ConSIC. Significant positive correlations were also found between ConSIC and science achievement‐course grades, scholastic aptitude‐verbal, scholastic aptitude‐quantitative, previous experience with concept structure interrelatedness, and self‐concept of science ability. Positive significant correlations also surfaced among all of the affective variables (attitudes toward science, interest in science, science curiosity, and self‐concept of science ability). Implications have been discussed in terms of classroom science teaching, science content analysis, curriculum design, and content selection.
Science laboratory behavior strategies of students relative to performance in and attitude to laboratory work
Authors: Okebukola Peter Akinsola
Published: October 2006

The relationship between science laboratory behavior strategies of students and performance in and attitude to laboratory work was investigated in an observational study of 160 laboratory sessions involving 600 class five (eleventh grade) biology students. Zero‐order correlations between the behavior strategies and outcome measures reveal a set of low to strong relationships. Transmitting information, listening and nonlesson related behaviors exhibited low correlations with practical skills and the attitude measure. The correlations between manipulating apparatus and observation with practical skills measures were found to be strong. Multiple correlation analysis revealed that the behaviors of students in the laboratories observed accounted for a large percentage of the variance in the scores on manipulative skills and a low percentage on interpretation of data, responsibility, initiative, and work habits. One significant canonical correlation emerged. The loadings on this canonical variate indicate that the practical skills measures, i.e., planning and design, manipulative skills and conduct of experiments, observation and recording of data, and attitude to laboratory work made primary contributions to the canonical relationship. Suggestions as to how students can be encouraged to go beyond “cookbook‐like” laboratories and develop a more favorable attitude to laboratory work are made.
Aptitude treatment effects of laboratory grouping method for students of differing reasoning ability
Authors: Lawrenz Frances , Munch Theodore W.
Published: October 2006

This study examines aptitude treatment effects in an inquiry/learning cycle based physical science class for elementary education majors. The aptitude was formal reasoning ability and the students were arranged into three groups: high, middle, and low ability reasoners. The treatment was method of forming groups to work in the laboratory. Students in each of three classes were grouped according to reasoning ability. In one class the laboratory groups were homogeneous, i.e., students of similar reasoning ability were grouped together. In the second class the students were grouped heterogeneously, i.e., students of different reasoning ability were grouped together. In the third class, the student choice pattern, the students chose their own partners. The findings were that there were no aptitude treatment interaction for achievement or for gain in formal reasoning ability, that grouping students of similar cognitive ability together for laboratory work in the class was more effective in terms of science achievement than grouping students of differing cognitive ability together or than allowing students to choose their own partners, and that students at different levels of reasoning ability experienced differential gains in that ability over the semester.
Generating a desired state for master's degree programs in science education through grounded theory research
Authors: Spector Barbara S.
Published: October 2006

This is the report of a two‐year study using qualitative research methods to assess the training needs of science teachers in southern Florida. The respondents included individuals and groups comprising the educational enterprise and those outside the enterprise with the ability to influence policy in science education and implementation of that policy in Florida. The study resulted in recommendations describing the desired state for graduate training leading to a master's degree in science education and has implications for noncredit inservice activities.
Changes in perceptions of science for third, seventh, and eleventh grade students
Authors: Yager Robert E. , Yager Stuart O.
Published: October 2006

Similar results from four studies dealing with third, seventh, and eleventh grade students and their views of science teachers, science classes, usefulness of science study, and what it is like to be a scientist are reviewed and analyzed. The studies include the affective data from the 1977 NAEP report, the 1982 NAEP information, an Iowa follow‐up study, and a study limited to one large school district. The analysis permits a synthesis of information on the failures of school science to affect student perceptions positively. Relatively few areas are identified which illustrate positive effects of science programs on students. Primary problems identified are: (1) science is less fun and exciting the longer students stay in school; (2) teachers are viewed as providers of information; the more preparation a teacher has and the more advanced the class, the less likely is a teacher ever to admit not knowing; (3) students do not feel more successful and/or more curious as they progress through a science program; (4) the school program does not provide increasingly accurate information and/or encouragement for science career choices.
The effect of schooling upon understanding of selected science terms
Authors: Yager Robert E. , Yager Stuart O.
Published: October 2006

Eight science terms were studied as to their meanings for 9‐, 13‐, and 17‐year‐old students randomly selected from a single school district in the midwest. The results indicate that the school is ineffective in increasing numbers of students who master the select terms between seventh and eleventh grade. On three of the eight terms 9‐year‐olds perform as well as 17‐year‐old students. Although there is growth between ages 9 and 13 on degree of mastery for five terms, some of these differences can be attributed to increasing student abilities to read, increases in student experiences with school science and testing procedures, maturation and development of reasoning for students across grades, and the relative emphasis of science content/terminology for the various age levels.
High school students' understanding of food webs: Identification of a learning hierarchy and related misconceptions
Authors: Griffiths Alan K. , Grant Bette A. C.
Published: October 2006

Developing an understanding of the nature of food webs is an important topic in today's biology curricula. The relationships represented in a food web are rule‐like in nature. Hence, it should be possible to construct a learning hierarchy for this concept. A hierarchy leading to the ability to determine how a change in the size of one population can affect another population in the same web but not on the same chain was hypothesized. Data from 200 subjects were extremely consistent with the hierarchy. A second major focus related to the identification of specific misconceptions held by subjects for food webs. The need to identify students' misconceptions of important concepts has been expressed widely in the recent science education literature. In the present article, an argument is presented for the usefulness of learning hierarchies in this work. Specific misconceptions and the frequencies of their occurrence are reported.
A naturalistic study of children and their parents in family learning courses in science
Authors: Ostlund Karen , Gennaro Eugene , Dobbert Marion
Published: October 2006

During the 1960s and 1970s a number of family learning projects evolved, most of which focused on pre‐schoolers and their parents. The goal of some of these programs was to provide enjoyable, structured experiences in which parents and their children learned together. Recently, a number of institutions have been sponsoring enrichment science classes or learning experiences for parents and older children. The study described here is based on a project funded by the National Science Foundation (DISE No. 07872) which was attempting to show that it was possible to increase scientific literacy of two different age groups by simultaneously exposing parents and their middle school children to short courses in science. The project is an outgrowth of a study previously reported (Gennaro, Bullock, & Alden, 1980) carried out at the Minnesota Zoological Gardens. The study is based on data obtained during the first two years of the project and used various data gathering procedures such as the use of questionnaires, interviews, observations, and cognitive testing. It was found that children register for the courses primarily because of interest in the subject matter of the courses and that parents register because of their desire to nurture the child and the child's interest in the subject matter of the course. Both parents and children made significant gains in learning as measured by subject matter tests. Participants reported that the experience was both enjoyable and valuable. Children's attitudes toward their parents and the course were significantly higher if the children perceived a highly cooperative learning environment with their parents. Parents who scored in the medium or high range on the pretest had significantly more interactions with their children concerning information about course tasks than those who scored low on the pretest.
Applications of mathematical learning models to student performance on general chemistry: Microcomputer drill and practice programs
Authors: Zitzewitz Barbara S. , Berger Carl F.
Published: October 2006

Four drill and practice programs in general chemistry (Butler & Hough, 1982) were altered to keep records of response, scores, and response times as students used the programs. Mathematical learning models were applied to the resulting score and time data. When data for groups of students using the same programs were analyzed using the polynomial fit model of Kerlinger and Pedhazur (1973), significant results were found and in most cases the linear fit provided the only significant explanation for the variance in the data. The performance of individual students on selected programs was also analyzed using a linear model, a simple exponential saturation model, and a more complex model which incorporated ability and motivation factors into the exponential saturation model (Aldridge, 1983). Most of the students improved their performance linearly with time and none exhibited patterns characteristic of the Aldridge model. In some cases, the simple exponential saturation model provided an explanation of the data as probable as that of the linear model. The implications of the findings for science teaching are discussed.
Effects of microcomputer‐administered diagnostic testing on immediate and continuing science achievement and attitudes
Authors: Waugh Michael Leonard
Published: October 2006

This investigation had three purposes: (1) to document any immediate and continuing benefits associated with the use of microcomputer‐administered testing; (2) to determine what type of student might benefit most from microcomputer‐administered diagnostic testing; and (3) to document the feasibility of microcomputer‐administered diagnostic testing. The subjects of the study were enrolled in a biology course based on the BSCS Blue text. A random half of the students received behaviorally‐stated performance objectives, while the remaining half received behaviorally‐stated performance objectives in conjunction with microcomputer‐administered diagnostic testing. The results of this study indicate that microcomputer‐administered diagnostic testing can positively influence the immediate, but not the continuing, achievement of students in science. In addition, neither student aptitude nor achievement motivation level were found to interact with treatment or influence achievement. Affective data indicate that students react favorably to the use of objectives, computers, and diagnostic testing. Cost summary data reveal that when the expense of administering diagnostic testing by microcomputer is prorated over a five‐year period, the cost of a diagnostic test is reduced to approximately three cents.
Controversy versus concurrence seeking in multi‐grade and single‐grade learning groups
Authors: Johnson David W. , Johnson Roger , Pierson W. Todd , Lyons Virginia
Published: October 2006

The effects of controversy and concurrence seeking and participation is age‐homogeneous and age‐heterogeneous cooperative learning groups were compared on achievement, achievement motivation, perspective‐taking accuracy, and interpersonal attraction. In addition, the interaction among students within the cooperative learning groups was observed. One‐hundred‐twelve 4th‐, 5th‐, and 6th‐grade students were assigned to conditions on a stratified random basis controlling for age, sex, reading ability, and homerooms. In all conditions, students studied two controversial issues with materials representing both pro and con views. In the controversy condition each small group was divided into two halves representing the pro and con sides. In the concurrence‐seeking condition each small group studied pro and con materials on alternating days and were told to learn the material without arguing or disagreeing with one another. In the multi‐age conditions 4th‐, 5th, and 6th‐graders were placed in the same learning groups, while in the single‐age conditions students were placed in small groups with peers of the same age. The results indicate that controversy promoted higher achievement, greater achievement motivation, and more accurate perspective taking than did concurrence seeking. Multi‐age learning groups had greater achievement motivation than did the single‐age groups.
A comparison of cognitive skills between completes and dropouts in a college physics course
Authors: Hudson H. T.
Published: October 2006

Separate tests of mathematics skills, proportions and translations between words, and mathematical expression given the first week of class were correlated with performance for students who completed a college physics course (completes) and students who dropped the course (drops). None of the measures used discriminated between completes and drops as groups. However, the correlations between score on the test of math skills and on both of the measures involving mathematical reasoning (proportions, and translations) were dramatically different for the two groups. For the completes, these correlations were slightly negative, but not significant. For the drops, the correlation was positive and signficant at the p < 0.01 level. This suggests the possibility that the students who complete the course tend to have independent cognitive skills for the “mechanical” mathematical operations and for questions requiring some degree of reasoning, while, in contrast, the same skills for students at high risk for dropping overlap significantly. The study also found that when students are given the results of mathematics skills tests in a diagnostic mode, with feedback on specific areas of weakness and time to remediate with self study, the correlation between mathematics and physics is lower than previously reported values.
Studies of information processing rates in science learning and related cognitive variables. II: A first approximation to estimating a relationship between science reasoning skills and information acquisition
Authors: Anderson O. Roger , Callaway J.
Published: October 2006

Performance in science reasoning tasks is a significant objective in modem science instruction and increasing emphasis is being placed on the development of higher cognitive processes in science education. An empirical analysis of the relationship between science reasoning skills and the amount of information acquired during science learning as predicted by a neuromathematical model of information processing is presented. As the neuromathematical model includes a variable representing verbal ability, it is to be expected that a direct relationship exists between the amount of knowledge gained as predicted by the model and reasoning ability. The purpose of this research is to derive a formal quantitative statement for the relationship between knowledge acquisition predicted by the neuromathematical equation and scientific reasoning skills. A linear regression equation is obtained relating performance on a science reasoning task to the amount of information acquired as predicted by the neuromathematical model. This research provides a first approximation to providing a theoretical and empirical link between information processing and higher cognitive thought processes in science education.
Two schemes of intellectual development: A comparison of development as defined by william perry and jean piaget
Authors: Perry Bruce , Donovan Michael P. , Kelsey Linda J. , Paterson John , Statkiewicz Walter , Allen Robert D.
Published: October 2006

The theories of Jean Piaget and William Perry provide two different theories of intellectual development with several similiarities, but also with critical differences. In this study a comparison was made to determine whether the two theories describe operation of the same mental structures or two fundamentally different aspects of intellectual development. The results, based upon individual interviews of all participants, indicate that the two theories outline different and independent processes for assessing intellectual development.
A comparison of the actual and preferred classroom learning environment in biology and chemistry as perceived by high school students
Authors: Hofstein Avi , Lazarowitz Reuven
Published: October 2006

The actual and preferred students perception of classroom learning environment was measured using a modified Hebrew version of the Learning Environment Inventory (L.E.I.). This version was content validated and analyzed for its reliability. This measure was administered among Chemistry (N = 1080) and Biology (N = 400) students and the perception of the actual and preferred learning environment was compared using multivariate analysis methods (Hotelling T2 and discriminant analysis). On the whole, significant differences were found between the two samples. It is suggested that these differences can be attributed to the different curricula and different instructional methods used in chemistry and in biology classes. It is suggested that the findings obtained in this study could serve both future science teachers and curriculum writers in the development and implementation of learning activities in the context of science curricula.
The effect of simulation games and worksheets on learning of varying ability groups in a high school biology classroom
Authors: Spraggins Charles C. , Rowsey Robert E.
Published: October 2006

High school biology students who were taught by the simulation game method had comparable achievement gains to the students who were taught using worksheets. The three simulation games used in this study were able to teach factual information as well as the worksheet activities. This effect was constant across ability and sex. There were no significant differences in the retention scores of high ability students utilizing gaming. Also, there was no significant difference in the scores of low ability students utilizing worksheets and low ability students using games. Students' sex was significantly related with retention in the three‐way interaction of treatment by ability by sex. Low ability females using simulation games scored higher on retention than low ability females utilizing worksheets. Low ability males utilizing worksheets scored higher on retention than low ability males using simulation games.
Analyzing hierarchical relationships among modes of cognitive reasoning and integrated science process skills
Authors: Yeany Russell H. , Yap Kueh Chin , Padilla Michael J.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this research was to search for a learning hierarchy among skills comprising formal operations and the integrated science processes. Ordering theoretic and probabilistic latent structure methods were used to analyze data on five process skills and six logical thinking skills collected from 700 science students. Both linear and branching hierarchical relationships were identified within and across the two sets of skills. Most of them fit the logical hierarchies which have guided curriculum development and classroom practices in the past. But a few run counter to our present logic and understanding of these skills.
The effects of teachers' wait‐time and knowledge comprehension questioning on science achievement
Authors: Riley Joseph P.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this experimental study was to investigate the effects of varied teacher wait‐time durations and cognitive questioning levels on student achievement. Thirty preservice teachers taught a science lesson in which the length of wait‐time and percentage of high and low cognitive questions were prescribed. The lessions were audio‐taped to insure fidelity to the scripted lessons. At the end of the lesson a criterion referenced test was administered. The results of this test were used as the dependent variable. Analysis of achievement results indicated significant differences attributable to teacher wait‐time and cognitive questioning level.