bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sleepiness, sleep duration, and human social activity: An investigation into bidirectionality using longitudinal time-use data
Authors: Holding Benjamin C. , Sundelin Tina , Schiller Helena , Åkerstedt Torbjörn , Kecklund Göran , Axelsson John
Published: August 2020

Significance

We observe that a change from very alert to very sleepy can decrease social contact by approximately 70%. We also reveal moderators of this effect, such as time of day. This finding provides a perspective on, and possible mechanism as to, why sleep disturbances and other causes of sleepiness (such as medicine side effects or shift work), are associated with poorer health outcomes. It is especially urgent to understand the causes of decreased social activity, as rates of social isolation and loneliness are reported to be rising, as are rates of sleep disturbance. The results provide directions for future research, for example regarding whether interventions to alleviate sleepiness can be an effective way to improve both short- and long-term well-being.
Resolution of eicosanoid/cytokine storm prevents carcinogen and inflammation-initiated hepatocellular cancer progression
Authors: Fishbein Anna , Wang Weicang , Yang Haixia , Yang Jun , Hallisey Victoria M. , Deng Jianjun , Verheul Sanne M. L. , Hwang Sung Hee , Gartung Allison , Wang Yuxin , Bielenberg Diane R. , Huang Sui , Kieran Mark W. , Hammock Bruce D. , Panigrahy Dipak
Published: August 2020

Significance

Eicosanoid and cytokine storms are poorly characterized in cancer. Our study demonstrates the environmental carcinogen aflatoxin B
1
(AFB
1
) promotes hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) by triggering a debris-stimulated proinflammatory and proangiogenic “eicosanoid and cytokine storm” in the tumor microenvironment. The dual COX-2/sEH inhibitor PTUPB prevents AFB
1
-stimulated HCC growth by increasing macrophage phagocytosis of debris and suppressing the eicosanoid and cytokine storm, thus promoting resolution of inflammation. Enhancing endogenous clearance of debris via eicosanoid regulation, such as dual inhibition of COX-2/sEH, is a strategy to stifle inflammation and thus suppress tumor progression driven by carcinogens. sEH and dual COX-2/sEH inhibitors are in clinical development for multiple inflammatory diseases and thus may be rapidly translated for the prevention and treatment of carcinogen-induced cancers.
The formation of trapped surfaces in the gravitational collapse of spherically symmetric scalar fields with a positive cosmological constant
Authors: Costa João L
Published: August 2020

Given spherically symmetric characteristic initial data for the Einstein-scalar field system with a positive cosmological constant, we provide a criterion, in terms of the dimensionless size and dimensionless renormalized mass content of an annular region of the data, for the formation of a future trapped surface. This corresponds to an extension of Christodoulou’s classical criterion by the inclusion of the cosmological term.
A novel method for impact force estimation in composite plates under simulated environmental and operational conditions
Authors: Seno Aldyandra Hami , Aliabadi M H Ferri
Published: August 2020

During its lifetime, an aircraft structure is subjected to various impacts from various sources such as tool drops, hail, ground service equipment, etc. In modern composite structures, these impacts have a significant chance of generating barely visible damage (BVID) which may lead to catastrophic failure of a structure if left undetected to grow. However, BVID is difficult to detect during routine visual inspection without specialised non-destructive inspection and thus there is large interest in developing monitoring systems for estimating the location and severity of impact events. Currently, most systems and methods have been developed for controlled lab conditions and do not consider the wide range of impact parameters in real life operation (environmental conditions, vibration, impactor stiffness, angle, etc) which may severely compromise the accuracy of these methods. In this study we have explored two methods for maximum impact force estimation, deconvolution and a novel gradient method, for the purpose of reliable severity assessment in composite aircraft structures under simulated environmental and operational conditions. It is shown that both methods allow accurate and robust estimation of the maximum impact force from various cases of impacts (variation of impact energy, mass, stiffness, angle, temperature, source) using minimum initial data from a single impact case. From further testing it is demonstrated that the gradient method is robust towards the effects of impact localisation errors and noise. The gradient method also has much less computational and storage requirements and is thus more feasible to integrate with current data acquisition systems being developed for structural health monitoring. Thus, we conclude that the proposed gradient method is suitable for impact force monitoring and severity assessment in composite aircraft structures in the simulated environmental and operational conditions.
The relative entropy method for inhomogeneous systems of balance laws
Authors: Christoforou Cleopatra
Published: August 2020

General hyperbolic systems of balance laws with inhomogeneity in space and time in all constitutive functions are studied in the context of relative entropy. A framework is developed in this setting that contributes to a measure-valued weak vs. strong uniqueness theorem, a stability theorem of viscous solutions and a convergence theorem as the viscosity parameter tends to zero. The main goal of this paper is to develop hypotheses under which the relative entropy framework can still be applied. Examples of systems with inhomogeneity that have different characteristics are presented and the hypotheses are discussed in the setting of each example.
Recolonizing wolves and opportunistic foxes: interference or facilitation?
Authors: Ferretti Francesco , Pacini Giada , Belardi Irene , ten Cate Bouke , Sensi Marco , Oliveira Raquel , Rossa Mariana , Burrini Lucia , Lovari Sandro
Published: August 2020

The mechanisms of interactions among carnivore species range from facilitation (mainly through increased availability of prey carcasses) to competition. We assessed the potential for facilitative/competitive interactions between the two most widespread carnivores in the world, the wolf and the red fox, in a prey-rich area recently recolonized by the apex predator. One could expect that the superior competitor would ecologically suppress the inferior one, leading to avoidance of the former by the latter. In a Mediterranean coastal area (2017–2018), we assessed spatiotemporal and dietary interspecific overlap and investigated whether the recovery of wolves affected food habits of foxes. Spatiotemporal overlap was extensive (0.84–0.89). Wild ungulates were the staple of the wolf diet (~88–90%); foxes used mainly invertebrates and fruits (~78%), with ungulates being a substantial food category (13% of diet; 66% of occurrences among vertebrate prey). Interspecific dietary overlap was low (0.23), but extensive (0.89) for vertebrate prey. In comparison to a preceding wolf-free period, the volume and occurrence of large mammals in the diet of foxes showed a 2.8- to 3.5-fold increase. Apparently, foxes did not avoid wolves, which provided additional food to the foxes as prey leftovers. In a rich community, the presence of wolves may increase the food spectrum of foxes. Temporal variation of facilitation vs. competition should be assessed in relationship to spatiotemporal changes of predator–prey numbers.
Rebuilding
Authors: Jackson Rob
Published: August 2020

Enriching BioScience's role as a Forum for Integrating the Life Sciences, Arts in Science provides an occasional venue for poems, visual art, and other forms of artistic expression that explore and enliven our understanding of life. Through the contributions in this section, we hope to share with our readers the passion for nature that science inspires.

These contributions are from Rob Jackson, professor, Earth System Science; Senior Fellow, Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment; and Senior Fellow, Precourt Institute for Energy, at Stanford University, in California.
Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), American Academy of Neurology (AAN), and American College of Rheumatology (ACR): 2020 Guidelines for the Prevention, Diagnosis and Treatment of Lyme Disease
Authors: Lantos Paul M , Rumbaugh Jeffrey , Bockenstedt Linda K , Falck-Ytter Yngve T , Aguero-Rosenfeld Maria E , Auwaerter Paul G , Baldwin Kelly , Bannuru Raveendhara R , Belani Kiran K , Bowie William R , Branda John A , Clifford David B , DiMario Francis J , Halperin John J , Krause Peter J , Lavergne Valery , Liang Matthew H , Meissner H Cody , Nigrovic Lise E , Nocton James (Jay) J , Osani Mikala C , Pruitt Amy A , Rips Jane , Rosenfeld Lynda E , Savoy Margot L , Sood Sunil K , Steere Allen C , Strle Franc , Sundel Robert , Tsao Jean , Vaysbrot Elizaveta E , Wormser Gary P , Zemel Lawrence S
Published: August 2020

This evidence-based clinical practice guideline for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of Lyme disease was developed by a multidisciplinary panel representing the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), the American Academy of Neurology (AAN), and the American College of Rheumatology (ACR). The scope of this guideline includes prevention of Lyme disease, and the diagnosis and treatment of Lyme disease presenting as erythema migrans, Lyme disease complicated by neurologic, cardiac, and rheumatologic manifestations, Eurasian manifestations of Lyme disease, and Lyme disease complicated by coinfection with other tick-borne pathogens. This guideline does not include comprehensive recommendations for babesiosis and tick-borne rickettsial infections, which are published in separate guidelines. The target audience for this guideline includes primary care physicians and specialists caring for this condition such as infectious diseases specialists, emergency physicians, internists, pediatricians, family physicians, neurologists, rheumatologists, cardiologists and dermatologists in North America.
Palpitation referrals from primary care to a secondary care cardiology outpatient clinic: assessing adherence to guidelines
Authors: Pallikadavath Susil , Patel Roshan , Sarania Rishi , Ahmad Talal , Vali Zakariyya , Kandala Ngianga II , Sandilands Alastair
Published: August 2020

Background and aims

Palpitations are a common presentation in primary care. Guidelines have been developed to identify patients with palpitations who require further assessment by a cardiologist in secondary care. However, patients that do not meet guideline thresholds for referrals are still referred to secondary care services. This audit evaluated the adherence to referral guidelines at our trust and assessed the characteristics of patients who were referred appropriately versus those referred without meeting guideline referral thresholds (inappropriate referral).

Results

Palpitation referrals to a single cardiology outpatient clinic were assessed (n = 66). Half the patients referred for palpitations were referred inappropriately (n = 34, 51.5%). Patients referred inappropriately were more likely to have a benign diagnosis after assessment (91.2%). These patients also had significantly fewer investigations [mean difference of 1.1 (confidence interval: 0.6–1.6)]. Specialist investigations, such as cardiac event recorders (P < 0.05) and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (P < 0.05) were less likely to be used in inappropriately referred patients.

Conclusions

The results from this audit provide early evidence that there are a significant number of patients who are being referred that could be managed in primary care. Further studies are needed to confirm our findings in larger cohorts and to establish the underlying reasons for inappropriate referrals.
Human-specific microglial Siglec-11 transcript variant has the potential to affect polysialic acid-mediated brain functions at a distance
Authors: Hane Masaya , Chen Dillon Y , Varki Ajit
Published: August 2020

CD33-related Siglecs are often found on innate immune cells and modulate their reactivity by recognition of sialic acid-based “self-associated molecular patterns” and signaling via intracellular tyrosine-based cytosolic motifs. Previous studies have shown that Siglec-11 specifically binds to the brain-enriched polysialic acid (polySia/PSA) and that its microglial expression in the brain is unique to humans. Furthermore, human microglial Siglec-11 exists as an alternate splice form missing the exon encoding the last (fifth) Ig-like C2-set domain of the extracellular portion of the protein, but little is known about the functional consequences of this variation. Here, we report that the recombinant soluble human microglial form of Siglec-11 (hSiglec-11(4D)-Fc) binds endogenous and immobilized polySia better than the tissue macrophage form (hSiglec-11(5D)-Fc) or the chimpanzee form (cSiglec-11(5D)-Fc). The Siglec-11 protein is also prone to aggregation, potentially influencing its ligand-binding ability. Additionally, Siglec-11 protein can be secreted in both intact and proteolytically cleaved forms. The microglial splice variant has reduced proteolytic release and enhanced incorporation into exosomes, a process that appears to be regulated by palmitoylation of cysteines in the cytosolic tail. Taken together, these data demonstrate that human brain specific microglial hSiglec-11(4D) has different molecular properties and can be released on exosomes and/or as proteolytic products, with the potential to affect polySia-mediated brain functions at a distance.
Is IV iron sucrose a cost-effective option for treatment of severe anaemia in pregnancy as compared with oral iron?
Authors: Ray Shomik , Neogi Sutapa B , Singh Ranjana , Devasenapathy Niveditha , Zodpey Sanjay
Published: August 2020

Anaemia in pregnancy is a public health concern because it is strongly associated with maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality. An open label randomized controlled trial (RCT) was conducted in India across four government medical colleges, comparing intravenous (IV) iron sucrose and oral iron for the treatment of anaemia in pregnancy. This RCT failed to demonstrate superiority of IV iron sucrose compared with oral iron therapy in reducing adverse clinical (maternal and foetal/neonatal) outcomes in moderate-to-severe anaemia in pregnancy. However, IV iron sucrose seemed to reduce the need for blood transfusion among women with severe anaemia. The study objective was to conduct a cost-effectiveness analysis of IV iron sucrose over oral therapy for treatment of severe anaemia in pregnancy, alongside the RCT, to inform policy. The outcome of interest in our study was a ‘safe delivery’ defined by the absence of composite maternal and foetal/neonatal adverse clinical outcomes. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) was calculated from a limited societal perspective. IV iron sucrose was found to be more costly but more effective than the oral therapy for treatment of severe anaemia. The ICER was calculated at INR 31 951 (USD 445.2) per safe delivery. We considered a threshold of half the gross national income for decision-making. Considering this threshold of India (INR 57 230, USD 797.4), IV iron-sucrose remained cost-effective in 67% of the iterations in the model. At the current ICER, for every 32 severely anaemic pregnant woman treated with IV iron sucrose one additional pregnant woman will have a safe delivery. Such analyses can complement the national strategy to support evidence-based action.
1. Political obligation
Authors: Hyams Keith
Published: August 2020

This chapter discusses the justifications for political obligation. The most important historical justification for political obligation is what is often called consent theory or contract theory. Consent theorists claim that we should obey the law because we have consented to do so. Meanwhile, the theorist H. L. A. Hart argues that if we accept a benefit, then it is only fair that we should reciprocate and give something back; if we enjoy the protection of police and armies, if we use roads, hospitals, schools, and other government-run services, then we should reciprocate by obeying the law. Other theorists argue that political obligation is something that we are bound by simply for being a member of a political community. If we cannot justify an obligation to obey the law, then we may have to adopt some form of philosophical anarchism — the view that we have no obligation to obey the law.
4. Democracy
Authors: Christiano Thomas
Published: August 2020

This chapter looks at democracy. The term ‘democracy’ refers very generally to a method of group decision making that is characterized by a kind of equality among the participants at an essential stage. To evaluate the arguments of democratic theorists, we must decide on the merits of the different principles, and conceptions, of humanity and society from which they proceed. We can evaluate democracy along at least two different dimensions: instrumentally, by reference to the outcomes of using it compared with other methods of political decision making; or intrinsically, by reference to qualities that are inherent in the method — for example, whether there is something inherently fair about making democratic decisions about matters on which people disagree. A vexing problem of democracy is whether ordinary citizens are up to the task of governing a large society. The chapter then offers some solutions for the problem of democratic citizenship.
10. Global Poverty
Authors: Stemplowska Zofia
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the problem of global poverty. There is widespread extreme global poverty. There is also global affluence, which raises the question of what, if any, duties affluent individuals and institutions of that group have in relation to those in poverty. One of the most powerful arguments in support of the idea that there is a duty to aid that holds between individuals across the globe comes from philosopher Peter Singer. Singer thinks we should accept that we must rescue people at least when doing so does not require us to sacrifice anything of comparable significance. It may be that the only way to eradicate extreme global poverty is through a large-scale institutional change that will involve radically changing domestic, transnational, and international institutions. However, smaller-scale institutional change, such as that achieved through foreign aid, may help.
Introduction
Authors: Jubb Robert , McKinnon Catriona , Tomlin Patrick
Published: August 2020

This introductory chapter provides an overview of political theory. Political theory is the study of whether and what political institutions, practices, and forms of organization can be justified, how they ought to be arranged, and the decisions they ought to make. This is normative political theory. Normative theories are action-guiding, and so are theories about what we ought to do. There are two important things to remember when making claims in political theory. One is that moral and political values are relative to specific cultures in specific times and places, and so there is no universal truth about such matters. The second is that such values are radically subjective: individuals set their own moral compass and can choose how to live as they please. We should be clear about which of these positions we are invoking if we are sceptical of universal normative claims.
6. International Political Economy: Classical Theories
Authors: Jackson Robert , Sørensen Georg , Møller Jørgen
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the three most important classical theories within the field of International Political Economy (IPE): mercantilism, economic liberalism, and neo-Marxism. It considers the relationship between politics and economics, and between states and markets in world affairs, that IR has to be able to grasp. It suggests that IPE is about wealth, poverty, and power, about who gets what in the international economic and political system. The outlook of mercantilism has much in common with realism, while economic liberalism is an addition to liberalism. Mercantilism and economic liberalism thus represent views on IPE that are basically realist and liberal. The chapter concludes with a discussion about the original theoretical position of Marxism.
8. Social Constructivism
Authors: Jackson Robert , Sørensen Georg , Møller Jørgen
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the social constructivist theory of International Political Economy (IPE). It first discusses the rise of social constructivism and why it has established itself as an important approach in IR. It then considers constructivism as social theory, and more specifically as both a meta-theory about the nature of the social world and as a set of substantial theories of IR. Several examples of constructivist IR theory are presented, followed by reflections on the strengths and weaknesses of the constructivist approach. The chapter proceeds by exploring constructivist theories of international relations, focusing on cultures of anarchy, norms of International Society, the power of international organizations, a constructivist approach to European cooperation, and domestic formation of identity and norms. The chapter concludes with an analysis of some of the major criticisms of constructivism and by emphasising internal debates within constructivism.
11. Key Issues in Contemporary IR
Authors: Jackson Robert , Sørensen Georg , Møller Jørgen
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines four of the most important contemporary issues in international relations (IR): international terrorism, religion, the environment, and balance and hegemony in world history. It also considers the different ways in which these issues are analysed by the various theories presented in this book. The chapter begins with a discussion of what the issue is about in empirical terms, the problems raised and why they are claimed to be important, and the relative significance of the issue on the agenda of IR. It then explores the nature of the theoretical challenge that the issues present to IR and how classical and contemporary theories handle the analysis of these issues. The chapter addresses Samuel Huntington’s ‘clash of civilizations’ thesis, the influence of religion on politics, opposing views on the environment issue, and how throughout history different state systems have come to equilibrate on either balance of power or hegemony.
4. Historical Materialism
Authors: Herring Eric
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines historical materialism and its approach to understanding what constitutes security. It begins with an overview of of the social scientific, philosophical, and political dimensions of historical materialism and what it involves, including its diversity, value, and potential but avoidable pitfalls. It then describes key concepts of historical materialism and uses them to show how capitalism generally and in its recent neoliberal form aim to generate insecurity for labour and security for capital. It also discusses the relationships between historical materialism and approaches to security in a wider context (realism, liberalism, social constructivism, and gender) and to various perspectives on security (securitization and the sectoral approach, peace studies, Critical Security Studies, and human security). The chapter concludes with an overall assessment of the contribution of historical materialism to the scholarship and politics of security and insecurity.
6. Social Constructivism
Authors: Agius Christine
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the impact of social constructivism on Security Studies as well as its critique of the assumed orthodoxy of rationalist approaches to security and the international system. In particular, it considers the manner that social constructivists address the question of how security and security threats are ‘socially constructed’. The chapter first provides an overview of definitions and key concepts relating to constructivism, such as its emphasis on the importance of ideas, identity, and interaction, along with its alternative approach to thinking about security. It then explores Alexander Wendt’s three cultures of anarchy and compares conventional constructivism with critical constructivism. Finally, it analyses rationalist and poststructuralist critiques of constructivism.
7. Critical Security Studies: A Schismatic History
Authors: Mutimer David
Published: August 2020

This chapter provides a partial history of the label ‘Critical Security Studies’ and the way it has developed and fragmented since the early 1990s. It considers the primary claims of the major divisions that have emerged within the literatures to which the label has been applied: constructivism, critical theory, and poststructuralism. It looks at the 1994 conference held at York University in Toronto entitled Strategies in Conflict: Critical Approaches to Security Studies, which spawned a book called Critical Security Studies: Concepts and Cases (1997b), and Security: A New Framework for Analysis (1998), which was published to serve as a relatively comprehensive statement of ‘securitization studies’, or the Copenhagen School. The chapter argues that Critical Security Studies needs to foster an ‘ethos of critique’ in either the study or refusal of security. Finally, it examines Ken Booth’s views on poststructuralism as part of a broad Critical Security Studies.
10. Human Security
Authors: Persaud Randolph B.
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the concept of human security in descriptive, analytical, and empirical terms by drawing on both the scholarly and policy relevant literatures. It begins with a discussion of the development of human security, focusing on the emergence, contribution, and impact of the most important drivers of human security, especially in institutional terms. These include the United Nations Development Program’s 1994 Human Development Report (HDR), the Commission for Human Security, the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, the Millennium Development Goals, and the International Criminal Court. The chapter proceeds by considering the intellectual and institutional genealogy of human security. Finally, it analyses the most trenchant critiques of human security, which can be categorised into: too broad to be useful; national interest and co-optation; reformist tool of global capitalism; and neo-colonialism.
11. Gender and Security
Authors: Kennedy Caroline , Dingli Sophia
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the relationship between gender and security, distinguishing between ‘practical’ and ‘discursive’ aspects of such relationship and exploring the problematizing of gendered roles through Queer Theory. Practical aspects are exemplified by the concrete role of women in militaries, or as victims, bystanders, or helpers of military conflict or of militarization in general. Discursive aspects are exemplified by the traditional connections made between militarism and masculinity and between nurturing, peace, and femininity. The chapter first explains what gender means and why issues of gender are relevant to understanding security. It shows how understanding and placing notions of gender at the centre of any debate on security can help us comprehend the way men and women relate to insecurity, violence, and war. Theorists have often discussed gender and security by referring to war and peace, but the chapter stresses the need to pay attention to the post-conflict environment.
16. Environmental Security
Authors: Barnett Jon , Dabelko Geoff
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the concept of environmental security, focusing on how it has both broadened and deepened the issue of security. It first traces the origins of environmental security, showing that it is the product of a merger of international environmental agreements, efforts by the peace movement to contest the meaning and practice of security, the proliferation of new security issues in the post-Cold War era, recognition that environmental changes pose grave risks to human well-being, and the growing community of research practice that seeks to build peace through natural resource management. The chapter goes on to consider the different meanings of environmental security, along with four major categories of environmental security problem: how environmental change can be a factor in violent conflict or a risk to national security, how war and preparation for war can damage the environment, and how environmental change can pose a risk to human security.
19. Coercive Diplomacy: Countering War-Threatening Crises and Armed Conflicts
Authors: Jakobsen Peter Viggo
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines how coercive diplomacy has emerged as a strategy for states in dealing with the opponent without resorting to full-scale war. Coercive diplomacy involves the use of military threats and/or limited force (sticks) coupled with inducements and assurances (carrots) in order to influence the opponent to do something it would prefer not to. This chapter first explains what coercive diplomacy is and considers its requirements for success. It then shows how states have employed coercive diplomacy to manage crises and conflicts during the three strategic eras that followed the end of the Cold War. It also discusses the importance of the strategic context in shaping the use of coercive diplomacy by presenting two case studies, one relating to Iran’s nuclear ambitions, and the other relating to Russia’s military involvement in Ukraine.
20. Weapons of Mass Destruction
Authors: Wirtz James J.
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines how weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) work and the effects they might have if used on the battlefield or against civilian targets. The threat posed by WMD proliferation to state actors is of increasing concern, and it is even more alarming if these weapons are deployed for terrorism purposes. A chemical weapons attack against a major sporting venue, for example, could kill thousands of people, while a successful anthrax attack might place hundreds of thousands at risk. The chapter considers how WMDs such as nuclear weapons, chemical weapons, and biological weapons have been used in war and how they have shaped the practice of international politics.
21. Terrorism
Authors: Lutz Brenda , Lutz James
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the global threat posed by terrorism. Efforts to deal with terrorism can be considered within the framework of terrorism as warfare, terrorism as crime, and terrorism as disease. Which of these views is adopted often plays a role in determining what kinds of measures to use to counter terrorism. Terrorism is a technique of action available to many different groups; security measures that work with one group may not be effective with others. As a consequence, dealing with terrorism in today’s world can be a very complex process. The chapter first discusses concepts and definitions relating to terrorism before describing various types and causes of terrorism. It also analyses counterterrorism measures within the scope of prevention, response to attacks, international collaboration, and the effects of security. Three case studies involving the Palestinian Liberation Organization, the Ku Klux Klan, and the Irish Republican Army are presented.
22. Humanitarian Intervention
Authors: Bellamy Alex J. , McLoughlin Stephen
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the implications of humanitarian intervention for international security. It considers the debate between those who argue that the protection of civilians from genocide and mass atrocities is far more important than the principle of non-intervention in certain circumstances and those who oppose this proposition. This has become a particular problem in the post-Cold War world where the commission of atrocities in places like Rwanda, Bosnia, and Darfur prompted calls for international society to step in to protect the victims with military force if necessary. Humanitarian intervention causes problems for international security by potentially weakening the rules governing the use of force in world politics. The chapter first considers the case against humanitarian intervention before discussing the principle known as ‘Responsibility to Protect’ (R2P).
24. The Weapons Trade
Authors: Grillot Suzette R.
Published: August 2020

This chapter discusses the international weapons trade. It first provides a historical background on the global arms trade and highlights the ways in which the trade in defence and military equipment has shifted throughout the years until the present day. It then examines contemporary trends in the weapons trade and how weapons are illicitly traded. It also shows how the illicit arms trade is connected to the legal arms market and concludes by describing various attempts that have been made in recent years to control the global arms trade, as well as prospects for its future regulation. Three case studies are presented to highlight the main issues surrounding the international weapons trade: the first relates to the use of man-portable air defence systems (MANPADS) in terrorism, the second involves arms broker Victor Bout, and the third deals with the non-governmental organization known as the International Campaign to Ban Landmines.
26. Transnational Crime
Authors: Trinkunas Harold
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the threats posed by transnational crime to national security. Globalization and other international trends may have the unintended consequence of fostering the development of transnational crime. Initial state and international responses to transnational crime in the 1980s were driven in large part by the U.S. war on drugs. After providing an overview of relevant definitions and key concepts, particularly with respect to international crime and organized crime, the chapter considers both the reasons for and the nature of the increase in transnational crime since the end of the Cold War. It then looks at debates over the strength and nature of the ‘nexus’ between transnational crime and terrorism. It concludes by analysing how the government response to transnational crime has evolved over time, focusing on increased coordination and securitization between nations.
27. Cyber-Security
Authors: Dunn Cavelty Myriam
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the implications of cyber-security for national security. It first provides the necessary technical background on why the information infrastructure is inherently insecure, how computer vulnerabilities are conceptualized, who can exploit them, and how. In particular, it considers definitions and concepts relevant to information security, such as cyberspace, Big Data, and hacking. It then describes three interconnected cyber-security discourses: the first is about computer viruses and worms; the second deals with the interrelationship between cyber-crime and cyber-espionage; the third is concerned with the double-edged sword of fighting wars in the information domain and the need for critical infrastructure protection. Based on this, the chapter evaluates a range of protection measures from each of the three discourses. It concludes by suggesting that the level of cyber-risk is generally exaggerated.
12. The Second Nuclear Age: Nuclear Weapons in the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Walton C. Dale
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the role played by nuclear weapons in international politics during and after the cold war, making a distinction between the First Nuclear Age and the ongoing Second Nuclear Age. After providing a background on the First Nuclear Age, the chapter considers the various risks present in the Second Nuclear Age, focusing on issues related to nuclear deterrence, nuclear proliferation networks, strategic culture, and ballistic missile defences. It then discusses the assumption that arms control and disarmament treaties are the best means to further counterproliferation efforts. It also assesses the future of nuclear weapons and whether the world is facing a Third Nuclear Age before concluding with an analysis of the relevance of deterrence in the face of changing political and technological circumstances.
13. The Control of Weapons of Mass Destruction
Authors: Baylis John
Published: August 2020

This chapter explores a variety of questions on how to control the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). It begins with a discussion of the shift that took place during the cold war from disarmament to arms control, as well as the shift in relative importance that occurred in the early post-cold war era from arms control to more forcible means to tackle nuclear proliferation. It then considers the emergence of new ideas, first in the Clinton administration, and then in the Bush administration, that focused less on arms control and more on counterproliferation. It also examines a host of problems and dilemmas associated with counterproliferation, the Obama administration's policy of engagement and ‘tough but direct diplomacy’, and the challenges presented by new geopolitical tensions. Finally, it reflects on future prospects for strategic nuclear arms control.
18. Geopolitics and Grand Strategy
Authors: Ortmann Stefanie , Whittaker Nick
Published: August 2020

This chapter discusses the concept of geopolitics and its role in formulating and implementing a grand strategy. It first provides an overview of the relationship between grand strategy and geography before explaining how the meanings of grand strategy and geopolitics evolved in response to changing world historical contexts. It then considers the reasons why geopolitics and grand strategy are linked to the politics of great powers and why these concepts are currently making a comeback. In particular, it examines the revival of geopolitical thinking after the Second World War and how geopolitical reasoning informed containment as a grand strategy during the cold war. It also takes a look at the pitfalls and problems associated with formulating a grand strategy, especially in today's complex international environment. Finally, it argues that there is a need to rethink geopolitics with the ultimate goal of balancing ends and means.
21. A New Agenda for Security and Strategy?
Authors: Wirtz James J.
Published: August 2020

This chapter considers a range of issues that have often been neglected in national security agendas or perceived to be outside the purview of strategy. During the cold war, national security agendas were dominated by high politics, whereas low politics were rarely seen as a threat to national security. In the aftermath of the cold war, however, low politics started to garner more attention than high politics. This chapter proposes a conceptual framework based on a utilitarian assessment of environmental, resource, and population issues to determine whether there is a new agenda for security and strategy. It also examines how divergent demographic trends will shape strategy and strategic thinking and goes on to discuss commons problems, the direct environmental damage caused by military action, the spread of infectious diseases such as measles and malaria, and how countries are beginning to exhibit sensitivities and vulnerabilities to issues of low politics.
2. The Emergence of the Middle East into the Modern State System
Authors: Rogan Eugene L.
Published: August 2020

This chapter traces the origins and the entry of Middle East states into the international system after the First World War. The modern states of the Arab Middle East emerged from the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the post-First World War settlement. The fall of the Ottoman Empire left the Turks and Arabs ready for statehood, although unprepared for dealing with the international system. Indeed, the Palestine crisis brought to light Arab weaknesses in the international arena and in regional affairs that were a legacy of the way in which the colonial powers shaped the emergence of the modern Middle East. Ultimately, the emergence of the state system in the Middle East is a history both of the creation of stable states and of destabilizing conflicts.
9. Regionalism and Alliances in the Middle East
Authors: Fawcett Louise
Published: August 2020

This chapter describes the changing dynamics of regionalism and alliance-making in the Middle East, processes that are closely related to and reflect states' foreign and domestic policy choices. The Middle East is not a region without regionalism at the societal or interstate level. There have been multiple forces for cooperation, particularly in the Arab world, based upon common identity, interests and beliefs; multiple alliances that intersect the Arab and non-Arab world; and evidence of cooperation in both broader and narrower regional settings like the Gulf. Global as well as regional trends and influences also push the Middle East into new arenas of cooperation. However, outcomes are mixed: an array of factors including regime insecurity, local rivalries, and external influence inhibit attempts at regional cooperation. Events since the Arab Spring have presented opportunities but also further challenges for Arab regional institutions as new divides and regional alignments emerge.
11. Foreign Policymaking in the Middle East: Complex Realism
Authors: Hinnebusch Raymond , Ehteshami Anoushiravan
Published: August 2020

This chapter studies foreign policymaking by regional states in the Middle East based on a ‘complex realist’ approach. This acknowledges the weight of realist arguments but highlights other factors such as the level of dependency on the United States, processes of democratization, and the role of leadership in informing states' foreign policy choices. To illustrate this approach, the chapter examines decision-making by four leading states — Saudi Arabia, Iran, Turkey, and Egypt — in relation to the key events and crises of the last decade: the 2003 Iraq War; the 2006 Hezbollah War; and the post-2014 War with the so-called Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (IS). The cases indicate that, as realists expect, states' foreign policies chiefly respond to threats and opportunities, as determined by their relative power positions.
13. The Rise and Fall of the Oslo Peace Process
Authors: Shlaim Avi
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the landmark series of negotiations between Arabs and Israelis in the early 1990s, culminating in the Oslo accords (1993), which marked the first and so far, the only sustained effort at peaceful resolution of the Arab–Israeli conflict. These events, which dominated the regional panorama and captured the international imagination, assist one's understanding not only of the nature and direction of Middle East politics, but also their positioning within the emerging international order as outlined by then US President George H. W. Bush. At first, it seemed that the accords, in reconciling the two major parties to the conflict — the Israelis and the Palestinians — were a demonstration of an emerging and more liberal international system. Yet the fragility of this system, in the Middle East as elsewhere, was soon exposed.
16. The United States in the Middle East
Authors: Hudson Michael C.
Published: August 2020

This chapter assesses the evolution of US policy towards the Middle East. It begins with a historical sketch of US involvement in the area, discussing the traditional US interests. The chapter then considers US policy in the administrations of George W. Bush, Barack Obama, and Donald J. Trump. President Obama's attempt to reset relations with the region produced mixed results: he reached an agreement to limit Iran's nuclear program, the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), and oversaw the successful Bin Laden raid in 2011, but failed to offset continuing regional turmoil following the Arab uprisings and the rise of IS, or to make any progress on the Israel–Palestine question. While there are some observable continuities, President Trump has already upended US Middle East policy in several significant ways, as advisors attempt to restrain his apparent desire to undo his predecessor's legacy.
Integrative analysis of scRNA-seq and GWAS data pinpoints periportal hepatocytes as the relevant liver cell types for blood lipids
Authors: Hao Xingjie , Wang Kai , Dai Chengguqiu , Ding Zeyang , Yang Wei , Wang Chaolong , Cheng Shanshan
Published: August 2020

Liver, a heterogeneous tissue consisting of various cell types, is known to be relevant for blood lipid traits. By integrating summary statistics from genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of lipid traits and single-cell transcriptome data of the liver, we sought to identify specific cell types in the liver that were most relevant for blood lipid levels. We conducted differential expression analyses for 40 cell types from human and mouse livers in order to construct the cell-type specifically expressed gene sets, which we refer to as construction of the liver cell-type specifically expressed gene sets (CT-SEGS). Under the assumption that CT-SEGS represented specific functions of each cell type, we applied stratified linkage disequilibrium score regression to determine cell types that were most relevant for complex traits and diseases. We first confirmed the validity of this method (of delineating functionally relevant cell types) by identifying the immune cell types as relevant for autoimmune diseases. We further showed that lipid GWAS signals were enriched in the human and mouse periportal hepatocytes. Our results provide important information to facilitate future cellular studies of the metabolic mechanism affecting blood lipid levels.
The effects of eight serum lipid biomarkers on age-related macular degeneration risk: a Mendelian randomization study
Authors: Han Xikun , Ong Jue-Sheng , Hewitt Alex W , Gharahkhani Puya , MacGregor Stuart
Published: August 2020

Background

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a leading cause of vision loss. Whereas lipids have been studied extensively to understand their effects on cardiovascular diseases, their relationship with AMD remains unclear.

Methods

Two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analyses were performed to systematically evaluate the causal relationships between eight serum lipid biomarkers, consisting of apolipoprotein A1 (ApoA1), apolipoprotein B (ApoB), total cholesterol (CHOL), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), direct low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), lipoprotein A [Lp(a)], triglycerides (TG) and non-HDL cholesterol (non-HDL-C), and the risk of different AMD stages and subtypes. We derived 64–407 genetic instruments for eight serum lipid biomarkers in 419 649 participants of European descent from the UK Biobank cohort. We conducted genome-wide association studies (GWAS) for 12 711 advanced AMD cases [8544 choroidal neovascularization (CNV) and 2656 geographic atrophy (GA) specific AMD subtypes] and 5336 intermediate AMD cases with 14 590 controls of European descent from the International AMD Genomics Consortium.

Results

Higher genetically predicted HDL-C and ApoA1 levels increased the risk of all AMD subtypes. LDL-C, ApoB, CHOL and non-HDL-C levels were associated with decreased risk of intermediate and GA AMD but not with CNV. Genetically predicted TG levels were associated with decreased risk of different AMD subtypes. Sensitivity analyses revealed no evidence for directional pleiotropy effects. In our multivariable MR analyses, adjusting for the effects of correlated lipid biomarkers yielded similar results.

Conclusion

These results suggest the role of lipid metabolism in drusen formation and particularly in AMD development at the early and intermediate stages. Mechanistic studies are warranted to investigate the utility of lipid pathways for therapeutic treatment in preventing AMD.