bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Influence of Self-Concept on Change in Client Behaviors: A Review
Authors: Littrell Jill , Magel Don
Published: March 2007

Social workers are constantly seeking useful data regarding methods of behavior change. Changes in self-concept can mediate changes in overt behavior. Self-concept has been reawakened as a focus of empirical research. Several literatures (self-perception theory, cognitive dissonance theory, and the availability heuristic literature) suggest ways of changing the self-concept. This article reviews existing literature and discusses the guidelines for changing self-concept that derive from empirical research in the previously mentioned literatures. The manner in which these guidelines explain the success of particular intervention techniques is delineated. Suggestions for new social work practice interventions are proffered, as are examples from the authors'practice experience.
The Affective Impact of a Clinical Social Worker's Interviewing Style: A Series of Single-Case Experiments
Authors: Nugent William R.
Published: March 2007

A series of studies was conducted to investigate the immediate affective impact that a clinical social worker's interviewing style has on clients. In Experiment 1, four simulated interviews were conducted using B1-B2-B1-B2 single-case designs. In Experiment 2, three further B1-B2-B1-B2 single-case-design studies were conducted in order to demonstrate the replicability and generalizability of results from Experiment 1. In all of the interviews the outcome measures involved a combination of qualitative and quantitative assessments. The results illustrate that certain practitioner interviewing styles may cause immediate and profound affective responses among clients.
A Statewide Survey of Licensed Clinical Social Workers' Use of Practice Evaluation Procedures
Authors: Gerdes Karen E. , Edmonds Rita M. , Haslam Darryl R. , McCartney Trina L.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the approaches and methods used by licensed clinical social workers (LCSW) in the state of Utah to evaluate their own practice. The examination focused on the extent to which LCSWs used an empirical approach versus pragmatic indicators (e.g., client statements, practitioner observations, intuition, and inferences) to evaluate their practice. The questionnaire was adapted and modified from other studies to create two indexes: (a) the Empirical Practice and Evaluation index (EPE); and (b) the Pragmatic Self-Evaluation index (PSE). Ninety-six LCSWs returned questionnaires (56% return rate). Respondents were more comfortable with and more inclined to use pragmatic indicators, rather than empirical methods, to evaluate their practice effectiveness. The authors propose that social workers employ both empirical and pragmatic approaches to practice evaluation.
The Scientific Evaluation of New Claims
Authors: Curtis George C.
Published: March 2007

In the scientific world, the burden of proof for new claims is on the claimant. This is consistent with probabilities, because most new suggestions do turn out to be false. There is no single path from claim to proof This article illustrates four typical stages of the process, using the example of a claim for effectiveness of a new treatment. They are labeled "Tentative or Suggestive Evidence, " "Promising or Interesting, " "Probably Effective, " and "Established Effectiveness. " Each is based on characteristic levels of evidence. A few clues for identifying naive enthusiasts or outright frauds who try to shortcut these stages include claims of being ignored or rejected by an "establishment" that is too self-interested or set in its ways to consider new approaches; claims of special skills that others lack; vagueness about how the treatment has been evaluated and tested; and expressions such as "amazing, " "unique, " "special, " and "never dreamed of. "
Intensive Case Management and Rehospitalization: A Survival Analysis
Authors: Patterson David A. , Lee Myung-Shin
Published: March 2007

This study evaluated the efficacy of an intensive-case management program in extending community tenure and reducing rates of rehospitalization for mentally ill outpatients. The study group was composed of 196 individuals with a history of state psychiatric hospitalization. One subgroup of subjects was composed of all clients currently receiving intensive case management (ICM) services (n = 108). A second subgroup, the control group, was made up of randomly selected clients (n = 88) eligible for intensive case management services. Survival analysis models were tested to derive a model that contained the maximum number of significant covariates predictive of community tenure (survival) until rehospitalization. After statistically controlling for these covanates, clients in the control group were 41.2% less likely to be rehospitalized (survival). Clients most at risk of rehospitalization were ICM clients who received shorter intervals of intensive case management; higher levels of services per month; and had experienced brief, frequent prior hospitalizations.
The Importance of Context in Understanding Homelessness and Mental Illness: Lessons Learned From a Research Demonstration Project
Authors: Mowbray Carol T. , Bybee Deborah
Published: March 2007

Research reports on the housing outcomes for persons who are homeless and mentally ill have focused on client characteristics, program type, and services as independent variables, with mixed results. From social work practice, evaluation theory, and public policy perspectives, context is an important variable. Yet, it has received scant research attention in studies of the outcomes of persons who are mentally ill and homeless. This article summarizes research results from a demonstration project providing outreach or linkage services to this target population, illustrating the significant impact of context variables (site and recruitment source) on client characteristics, implementation, qualitative and quantitative service assessments, and housing outcomes. The discussion suggests how these contextual factors may operate, and it goes on to make recommendations to improve social work research and practice concerning the important dimensions of context that should be assessed.
Women Addicts and the Threat of AIDS
Authors: Suffet Frederic , Lifshitz Marcia
Published: March 2007

The response of women addicts to the threat of AIDS is reported in this article. Data were derived from the AIDS section of broad-scale ethnographic interviews with 30 patients in a New York City comprehensive care program and supplemented by interviews with 10 staff members. All of the women were mothers or pregnant. All had been addicted to heroin, with most having been intravenous (IV) users. The fear of AIDSfor themselves and their children was pervasive, as nearly all the women knew at least one person who had died of AIDS. Their past IV use was considered a risk by some women; the present risk was curtailed by being on a program that administered methadone. Strategies used by the women to reduce the risk of sexually transmitted infection included assessing whether a potential male partner used IV drugs, a reduction in the number of sexual partners, monogamy or celibacy, and condom use. Most male partners refused to use condoms, and many of the women acceded to this. About half the women were tested for HIV, and in this regard, the responses described by Weitz's 1989 study-vigilance and avoidance-were manifest.
Current Issues, Problems, and Trends to Advance Qualitative Paradigmatic Research Methods for the Future
Authors: Leininger Madeleine
Published: March 2007

Paradigmatic research has great potential to discover some of the most covert, complex, and difficult human problems and concerns. There remain, however, a number of critical issues and problems related to the misuse of qualitative methods and a lack of knowledge about the purposes, goals, and proper uses of the qualitative paradigmatic methods. Moreover, there are still too few researchers who have been prepared and mentored to use the nearly 20 different kinds of qualitative research methods in light of specific epistemic and ontologic philosophies related to specific research methods. In addition, many researchers tend to violate data analysis by using quantitative criteria instead of qualitative criteria to establish the credibility and accuracy of findings. These problems and many others reflect a general lack of substantive knowledge about qualitative methods that is leading to serious abuses and misuses of methods. It is, therefore, time to rectify past problems and to address realistic issues related to qualitative methods in order to move forward new and important discoveries in different disciplines.
Justice, Care, and Integrated Concerns in the Ethical Decision Making of Nurses
Authors: Sherblom Stephen , Shipps Therese B. , Sherblom John C.
Published: March 2007

Past research on the ethical decision making of nurses has used Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning, which does not adequately ad-dress issues of caring. The present study builds on the work of Gilligan, Brown, and colleagues to describe issues of moral concern, including justice, care, and integrated concerns. Nurses in the present study articulated justice concerns for fairness, patients' rights, and autonomy. They also stated care concerns for a patient's needs, pain, emotional support, and relationship. Beyond these, nurses expressed concerns that integrated a principled approach (justice) to caring for patients (care) in dealing with issues of deceit and trust, advocacy, and patient dignity in dying. Whereas many earlier studies reported low moral reasoning scores for nurses, the present analysis shows nurses involved in complex and sophisticated ethical considerations and decisions. The analysis also reveals professional constraints on those ethical decisions.
Adults' Anticipation of Adults' Anticipation of the Loss of their Parents
Authors: Fitzgerald Michael
Published: March 2007

The present study employed qualitative methods involved in grounded theory research to discover and explain the experiences of adult children who anticipate the loss of their parents. A sample of six adults volunteered to participate, and data were collected through unstructured interviews. Data analysis was conducted using the constant comparative method associated with grounded theory. Adults who anticipate the loss of their parents were seen to engage in three main processes, each containing component parts-discerning life and death, evaluating relationships with parents, and preparing to outlive-as they endeavored to reconcile themselves to inevitable loss.
Rediscovering Glaser
Authors: Melia Kath M.
Published: March 2007

This article seeks to shed some light on the difference of opinion that has developed between the cooriginators of the grounded theory approach to qualitative data analysis. The author has worked with grounded theory and has followed the developments in the methods books written independently by Glaser and Strauss since the publication of The Discovery of Grounded Theory in 1967. What had to date appeared to be an ongoing process of refinement of the strategies for the handling of data and the development of theory has developed into nothing short of a head on clash between Glaser and Strauss.
Grounded Theory Method: Philosophical Perspectives, Paradigm of Inquiry, and Postmodernism
Authors: Annells Merilyn
Published: March 2007

The understanding of grounded theory method is partly dependent on an awareness of the method's ontological, epistemological, and methodological perspectives; the traditional symbolic interactionist theoretical underpinnings; and the identification of the relevant paradigm of inquiry within which the method resides. An analysis of these factors suggests that grounded theory method has traditionally been sited in a postpositivist inquiry paradigm but is evolving and moving toward the constructivist inquiry paradigm. The suggestion is made that the postmodern status of the method is also evolving.
The Possibilities and Pitfalls of Doing a Secondary Analysis of a Qualitative Data Set
Authors: Hinds Pamela S. , Vogel Ralph J. , Clarke-Steffen Laura
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this article is to identify the general methodologic and data set-specific challenges that must be overcome when attempting a secondary analysis of qualitative data. Two separate examples of secondary analyses of qualitative data sets are also described, including one unsuccessful beginning.
A Systemic Perspective of Life-Prolonging Treatment Decision Making
Authors: Shidler Sarah
Published: March 2007

This ethnographic, ethnomethodological study prospectively examined eight life-prolonging treatment decisions in two long-term care centers in Quebec. This study distinguishes itself from prior empirical studies in this domain by the qualitative methods and the systemic perspective used. The results, contrasting with prior studies, illustrate that the participation of long-term care residents in their life-prolonging treatment decisions is not dependent simply on the communication between the physician and his patient. Infact, the opportunity of long-term care residents to participate in their life-prolonging treatment decisions can be facilitated by effective communication between members of a system of persons found in this setting. These results shift the focus of future inquiry for both research and clinical practice, from the communication between physician and resident to the patterns of communication between all persons in the clinical setting who know the resident's treatment wishes.
Analyzing Data: Maintaining Rigor in a Qualitative Study
Authors: Rose Karen , Webb Christine
Published: March 2007

Establishing the rigor of their method is essential for all qualitative researchers. Taking a reflexive approach, this article considers the process of data analysis adopted by a nurse researcher conducting a study into the experiences of informal careers of terminally ill cancer patients. The personal and historical antecedents that led the researcher to use a particular data analysis strategy, drawing on previous academic experience in anthropology and literary criticism, are discussed. An example of how an extract from a poem might be analyzed is compared with how an extract from an interview transcript was analyzed. The rigor of the method is defended by defining the stages of the process, while arguing that there should be room for creativity within data analysis.
Struggling with the Labeled Self: People with Traumatic Brain Injuries in Social Settings
Authors: Nochi Masahiro
Published: March 2007

The sense of loss of self that individuals with traumatic brain injuries (TBI) experience when they interact with society is explored in this article. An individual with TBI believes that others possess the power to label him or her. The labels, whether their connotations are negative or positive, often contradict the individual's self-definition, making him or her feel that he or she is not understood. Many individuals with TBI devise strategies to maintain or create a shared meaning of selfin society. They try to control information about themselves or change the terms applied to them. Through these strategies, people with TBI redefine themselves as objects of medical intervention while excluding brain injuries from their identities, or the essential parts of themselves.
An Academic and Industrial Collaboration on Course Design
Authors: Gates Rosemary L.
Published: March 2007

This article describes a course design that resulted from an academic and in dustrial collaboration. Unlike most simulation courses, the one described here was developed and taught by university professors and business professionals. One aim of designing the course was to find a way of teaching students that would better prepare them for writing in the workplace. A second aim was for the design-team members, through the experience of planning and teaching, to learn more about writing in the workplace and the teaching of writing. This article gives background on the development of the collaboration and on the decision to design and teach a simulation course, then describes the course and its results.
Will we Teach Leadership or Skilled Incompetence? The Challenge of Student Project Teams
Authors: Holmer Leanna L.
Published: March 2007

Without sufficient instructor attention to process, student project teams can reinforce poor leadership, learning, and human relations skills. Students learn to confuse mediocre with excellent performance and to accept dysfunctional behavior as appropriate and necessary. This article presents strategies for helping student teams combat defensive routines and foster high standards of team performance. These include emphasizing the importance and challenge of process learning, reviewing team development concepts, reviewing and practicing communication skills, providing coaching for individual students, and giving graded feedback on process quality.
Evaluating Business School Undergraduates’ Situation Analytical Ability
Authors: Lim Ghee-Soon
Published: March 2007

This research attempts to ascertain the feasibility of quantitatively measuring business school undergraduates’general ability in analyzing business situations effectively. As a first step toward establishing an international test model that business schools worldwide can emulate, the researchers designed a new educational test instrument— Case Reasoning in Management (CRiM)—and administered it to 120 business under-graduates (evenly distributed across four levels of study). Results show that under-graduates at a higher level of study and those who have achieved better academic results in the business curriculum tend to perform better on CRiM. The researchers also measured undergraduates’tolerance for ambiguity, creative thinking, stress resilience, and the Big Five personality of intellect and found that these personal factors are positively related to the test scores. As expected, English language score, gender, age, family income, and high school results are not related to performance on the test. However, because a convenience sample with students from only one university and similar ethnic background was used, this research can at best be a pilot study. Future research should rigorously examine the generalizability and predictive validity of CRiM on a global basis.
Preparing to Teach in Developing Nations: Toward a Checklist
Authors: Hunt David Marshall , Beaty David T.
Published: March 2007

Each year thousands of American professors seeking a change ponder whether to take on the challenges of visiting teaching positions at universities in far-off, exotic, and foreboding places, from Uganda to Ecuador to Indonesia. However, there are few guidelines available to help an instructor anticipate the hurdles and challenges of teaching in developing or Third-World nations. This article provides a checklist and discussion on tips for preparing yourself for teaching abroad and for preparing for the culture of the host country. Overseas assignments can be very enriching. However, as expatriate business personnel have learned, successful overseas tours often are predicated on effective preparation for both the assignment and the cultural experience. And, family members need to be included in the decision and preparation process.
Invisible Minorities: Coming out of the Classroom Closet
Authors: Shallenberger David
Published: March 2007

Eager to celebrate and incorporate the minority experience into the classroom, instructors often forget the "invisible minorities"—those who are stigmatized for a characteristic or quality that is not apparent. Gay men and lesbians, incest survivors, and recovering alcoholics are examples. This article addresses why instructors should include these groups, some defining characteristics, and specific teaching suggestions for management and organizational behavior faculty, based on experience with courses in invisible minorities in California and Illinois.
The Choice of a Leader to Write about is Not a Random Event
Authors: Sommers David I.
Published: March 2007

This article presents a simple strategy and exercise for getting students to examine their thoughts and feelings about leaders and leadership. Students are asked to write a brief biographical sketch on a leader of their choice. When the papers are returned, students engage in a series of tasks designed to reveal their leadership values, idealizations, and identifications.
Can Leaders and Subordinates be Friends? A Classroom Approach for Addressing an Important Managerial Dilemma
Authors: Taylor Robert R. , Hanlon Susan C. , Boyd Nancy G.
Published: March 2007

Although the norm of formal, impersonal leader-subordinate relationships often prevails in contemporary organizations, it is proposed that the leadership role may be enhanced by the development of closer, less formal relationships. Using the Leader-Subordinate Friendship Questionnaire (LSFQ), the managerial dilemma of balancing such relationships is addressed. The questionnaire provides a tool for integrating the concept of leader-subordinate friendship into organizational behavior theory and practice by developing a forum for classroom discussion that can be applied to all levels of instruction, including both academic and consulting environments.
A Paradox of Preparation
Authors: Gregersen Hal B. , Oddou Gary , Ritchie J. B.
Published: March 2007

A paradox occurs as students acquire today's content knowledge and think that they are prepared for "tomorrow." However, their future reliance on "yesterday's" knowledge can present the challenge of either using irrelevant ideas or acquiring new information. The degree to which students overcome tomorrow's challenge of knowledge obsolescence depends in part on higher education's teaching them how they learn what they learn. In our experience, we have developed the Analysis of Learning Project to help students understand better how to learn how they learn. We describe this tool, its use, and the challenges of its implementation.
The Culture Connection: Uncovering OB Concepts in Organizations
Authors: Smits Stanley J. , Bleicken Linda M. , Icenogle Marjorie L.
Published: March 2007

The organizational culture audit is presented as an organizational behavior class assignment designed to challenge executive MBA students to use their firsthand knowledge of the work environment to improve their sensitivity to behavior. The assignment, based on Schein's model, is described in terms of the instructional methods used to operationalize it. The authors conclude by sharing their observations of the benefits and problems associated with its use.
An Introduction to Probe: Practical Organizational Behavior Education
Authors: Nirenberg John
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this article is to introduce the concept of practical organizational behavior education (PROBE) as demonstrated by a real-time, experiential, student- centered methodology. This allows students from diverse backgrounds to create theory from their experience and to conclude the course with a strong understanding of what principles work for them in an organizational setting and those that do not. Although aspects of experiential exercises and student-centered education have been used before, when combined with real risk, these innovations make a powerful methodology for teaching organizational behavior in transcultural, cross- cultural, and multicultural settings.
Realtime: An Intergroup Problem-Solving Exercise
Authors: Garcia Joseph E. , Lovelace Kathi J.
Published: March 2007

This article presents a practical exercise that demonstrates the complexity and richness of intra- and intergroup relations to students. In this exercise, students are divided into teams to solve a puzzle for which they lack full information. The teams are dependent on each other for information to complete their puzzles and are challenged with varying restrictions in interteam communications as they seek necessary information. Variations on the exercise and materials to run the exercise successfully are also presented.
Deconstructing the Organizational Behavior Text
Authors: Summers Debra J. , Boje David M. , Dennehy Robert F. , Rosile Grace Ann
Published: March 2007

Although the pedagogy of organizational behavior (OB) has made some progress in addressing gender, racial, and cultural diversity in the past decade, it remains essentially noncritical-politically, economically, socially, and ecologically. It continues to uphold positivist conventions, reinforce modernistic illusions of objectivity, and resist reflexivity. This article advocates that OB pedagogy in method and content, in particular teaching that involves the textbook as a basis of instruction, becomes more reflexive and self-critical, more aware of its presuppositions, interests, and limitations. This article demonstrates a postmodernistic strategy to counter the overly totalizing and positivist currents in OB teaching and texts—the deconstruction of taken-for-granted assumptions and principles. To this end, one of the top-selling textbooks in OB is subjected to deconstruction. The case for deconstruction as a potentially powerful classroom tool, an active and inclusive learning strategy that encourages readers to engage in dialogue with OB teachers and the authors of OB texts, is made.
Variations in the Hemodialysis Treatment Process
Authors: Jones Katherine R.
Published: March 2007

The Medicare end-stage renal disease (ESRD) program costs more than $2 billion a year. Costs per treatment vary significantly across hemodialysis facilities, yet the relationship of these cost differentials to case mix and outcomes is uncertain. This study analyzed treatment variations in 527 chronic hemodialysis patients dialyzing in four freestanding and three hospital-based facilities. Results indicated that patients receiving care in the hospital-based units received a more costly routine dialysis treatment as well as more intensive nursing care during the treatment process than did patients in freestanding units. Policy and clinical implications of the findings are discussed.
Stressors Associated with Coronary Bypass Surgery
Authors: Yarcheski Adela , Knapp-Spooner Carrie
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this investigation was to attempt to replicate the findings of a study by Carr and Powers (1986) which examined differences between patient and nurse perceptions of the severity of stressfulness associated with hospital- and illness-related stressors. The samples consisted of 24 patients who experienced coronary bypass surgery and 24 nurses who cared for them during their hospitalization. AU participants responded to the Stressor Scale developed by Carr and Powers (1986) specifically for patients undergoing coronary bypass surgery. Findings indicated that the major findings of the original study were replicated. Three one-way analysis of variance statistical procedures indicated that cardiothoracic nurses rated all stressors and hospital-related and illness-related stressors as statistically significantly more stressful for coronary bypass patients than did the patients themselves.
Hospital Discharge Preparation for Homeward Bound Elderly
Authors: Brown Diane Storer
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study was to explore hospital discharge preparation for elderly patients returning to their homes, and to examine knowledge and satisfaction outcomes. A descriptive correlational design was used in an urban health maintenance organization medical center. The convenience sample included 140 English-speaking patients with medical diagnoses. Knowledge scores were obtained for those patients who went home with a regime change, and the majority were discharged with changes in diet medications, treatments, or activities. Medication knowledge was identified as an area that needed improvement, low scorers for medication knowledge tended to be older, less ambulatory, and had more secondary diagnoses. Patients were satisfied with the instruction that they received and perceived themselves to be prepared to continue their care at home. The ability of elderly patients to learn instruction for their continued health care is still unclear Patients may have been too ill to learn, or length of stay may have been too short, or patients may not have had the need to learn what health care providers considered essential.
Strike-through Contamination in Saturated Sterile Dressings
Authors: Popovich Deborah M. , Alexander Doris , Rittman Maude , Martorella Christopher , Jackson Letitia
Published: March 2007

This multisite study examined the risk of strike-through contamination of 4" x 4" gauze sponges using a shortcut method of saturating sterile sponges directly on their wrappers. Sterile gauze sponges were saturated directly on their wrappers on hospital over-bed tables of postoperative general surgical patients. Cultures were taken at 0.5, 1, 3, and 5 minutes after saturation to ascertain whether strike-through contamination occurred Saturated sponges showed significant microorganism growth when compared to expected zero microorganisms at all sampling times following saturation Although microorganisms identified in strike-through contamination were not microbiologically orpathogenically threatening, the basic principle of asepsis was violated There was no significant difference in strike-through contamination between sponges saturated on coated wrappers and sponges saturated on uncoated wrappers. Clinicians should be aware that coated wrappers do not provide a moisture-proof barrier against strike-through contamination. The findings suggest the shortcut method should not be used for saturating sponges.
Gaining Control
Authors: Jerrett Mary D. , Costello Edith A.
Published: March 2007

A qualitative study examined parents' experiences of coming to terms with and becoming effective managers of their children's asthma. Grounded theory technique (Strauss & Corbin, 1991) was used to examine the parents' stories. Through this technique, in-depth interviews were conducted with 39 parents and these participants unraveled the process of accommodating their children's severe asthma. The basic social process was one of gaining control Participants experienced three phases: being out of control, which meant seeking help, "running around," and trying to make sense of the situation; being involved, which meant searching out, trying out new ways and means, and making changes; and being in control, which they described as being able to take charge, make alliances, and become competent in coping with their child's illness. Participants' experiences provide testimony to interventions that nurses can use to help parents through the process of successful asthma management.
Motherhood Experiences from the Perspective of First-Time Mothers
Authors: Mcveigh Carol
Published: March 2007

This study explored the early motherhood experiences of 79 first-time mothers. AU women reported normal pregnancies and deliveries, delivered healthy infants at term and were surveyed at 6 weeks postpartum using the inventory of Functional Status After Childbirth Mothers' written comments were subjected to a content analysis, and much of their commentary revolved around the "conspiracy of silence' that appeared to exist about the realities of motherhood Most commented that no one had prepared them for the unrelenting demands of infant care, the level of fatigue they would experience, the loss of personal time and space, and the realities of 24-hour-a-day infant care. The women also cited their partners as their main support person during the early weeks of mother-hood. Although maternal child health nurses and midwives are well placed to offer prenatal education and long-term professional support postpartum. perhaps what is needed is active, anticipatory preparation for motherhood that begins long before the first pregnancy becomes a reality.
On the Edge of Chaos
Authors: Dubinskas Frank A.
Published: March 2007

Chaos theory provides a metaphor for complex and unpredictable yet patterned change in organizations. Modeling transformation, organizations become systems in constant flux with periods of temporary stability. Treating stability as unusual forces examination of the boundaries of stability and what creates conditions for change. Implications for cultural models and organization theory are discussed.
A Three-Dimensional Statistical Micromechanical Theory for Brittle Solids with Interacting Microcracks
Authors: Ju J.W. , Tseng K.H.
Published: March 2007

A three-dimensional statistical micromechanical theory is presented to in vestigate effective elastic moduli of brittle solids with many randomly located, penny- shaped microcracks. The macroscopic constitutive relations are statistically and microme chanically derived by taking the ensemble average over all possible realizations which feature the same statistical distribution of microcracks. Approximate analytical solutions of a two-microcrack interaction model are presented to account for pairwise microcrack interaction among many randomly located, aligned microcracks. Therefore, the ensemble- averaged stress perturbations due to microcrack interaction can be constructed in closed- form. The overall effective compliances of microcrack-weakened brittle solids are derived by further taking the volume average of the ensemble-averaged stress-strain relations over the entire mesostructural domain of a representative volume element. Some numerical ex amples are given to illustrate the behavior of the proposed method. Comparison with some existing methods is also appended. Finally, a higher-order ensemble-average formulation of microcrack interaction is briefly discussed. The proposed framework is fundamentally different from existing "effective medium methods" which do not depend on microcrack locations and configurations. It is emphasized that no Monte Carlo simulations are neces sary in the proposed framework.
Comparative Analysis of Crime: Estonia, the Other Baltic Republics, and the Soviet Union
Authors: Leps Ando
Published: March 2007

Factors that influence crime are many and varied. This paper examines the differences in crime rates between the various regions of the Soviet Union with particular attention directed to the Baltic republics. Over the years, crime has increased considerably throughout the country. It is particularly high in the Baltic states of Estonia and Latvia, although it has declined in Transcaucasia. In the case of Estonia, for example, the crime rate during the postwar years (1946-1950) was high. This was a result of the introduction of socialist methods of production that were alien to Estonia and to the influx of people who had fled the Soviet Union to save themselves from starvation. During the years 1951-1955 the crime rate decreased in Estonia, but in later years, especially since the early 1980s, it has grown steadily.
Empowerment Cognitions and Empowerment Acts
Authors: Eylon Dafna , Bamberger Peter
Published: March 2007

By distinguishing between empowerment cognitions and empowerment acts, the effect of gender is tested on (a) the impact of empowerment and disempowerment acts on subordinates’ empowerment cognitions, and (b) the direct impact of these acts on subsequent job satisfaction and performance. A total of 135 master of business administration students participated in a three-session simulation of the empowerment process. Findings indicate that although empowerment cognitions are affected by empowerment and disempowerment acts for both men and women, the impact of empowerment acts on job satisfaction and performance varies by gender.
Perspectives
Authors: pfeiffer j. william
Published: March 2007

In the last issue of G & OS (December 1976) the Perspectives feature focused on the potential advantages of the International As sociation of Applied Social Scientists (IAASS) and the accreditation of behavioral science practitioners. In this issue, John Jones focuses on the disadvantages of accreditation in general and IAASS in particular.
The Emotional Dimensions of the Problem-Solving Process
Authors: Hill Barbara , Lippitt Lawrence , Serkownek Kenneth
Published: March 2007

Problem-solving procedures and processes are a major concern to people working with groups and organizations. Some attention has been paid to the phases and steps involved. The authors report that predictable affec tive responses are evoked during each phase of a generic problem-solving process: needs assessment (hopeful, energetic); goal setting (confusion, dissatisfaction); action planning (involvement, accomplishment); im plementation (stage fright, joy); evaluation (pride, sadness). There are also particular interventions that a consultant or leader can make that are helpful in relation to the task and affective climate; these vary from phase to phase relative to the affective climate.
OD in India
Authors: jones john e.
Published: March 2007

Continuing the series of reports on applications of behavioral science to organizations in various countries, this issue presents two views of OD in India from Indian practitioners. The first is, in a way, S. Sundaramurthy's personal reflections on his struggle to become an OD practitioner. The second, by Udai Pareek, is decidedly more optimistic and provides some historical perspective on attempts to adopt OD technology without violating OD values.
Managing Change: Attitudes, Targets, Problems, and Strategies
Authors: Powell Gary N. , Posner Barry Z.
Published: March 2007

Various conceptual approaches to successful organizational change are reviewed and their relative merits discussed. A systematic situation- based approach for selecting an appropriate change strategy is outlined. This model focuses on initial attitudes toward change, identification of relevant target groups or levels, and analyses of problem types. Several examples and applications are presented.
Conflict-Management Training: A Cognitive/Behavioral Approach
Authors: Warehime Robert G.
Published: March 2007

This approach to conflict-management training provides systematic training in coping skills. Trainees are encouraged to look at conflict from the viewpoint of management of personal reactions (thoughts, feelings, and behaviors) rather than solely from the problem-solving perspective. This orientation involves conceptual input and feedback interwoven with trainee self-examination and practice of new behaviors in a structured human relations training context. The rationale for this approach is offered along with suggested activities for self-examination and skills development.
Cognitive Style and Interpersonal Behavior: A Review with Implications for Human Relations Training
Authors: Mezoff Bob
Published: March 2007

We can increase the effectiveness of human relations training (HRT) by recog nizing the differential effectiveness of various kinds of training with different "types" of participants. This article helps to explain why one kind of HRT may be effective for some. people yet unproductive for others. The individual difference variable explored here is the cognitive style knowm as field-dependence-indepen dence (FDI). The literature on FDI is reviewed for two purposes: (1) to under stand interpersonal behavior in the HRT setting better and (2) to hypothesize the relationship s that might make for successful or unsuccessful matches between participants of varying cognitive styles and HRT programs of varying degrees of structure. FDI has been found to be a crucial differentiating variable in determining the effectiveness of matching strategies in the fields of education and psychotherapy. Two questions are (1) Are participant satisfaction and learning influenced by cognitive style? (2) What behaviors or interpersonal styles might we expect from persons of varying cognitive styles?
The Validity of Hersey and Blanchard's Theory of Leader Effectiveness
Authors: Hambleton Ronald K. , Gumpert Ray
Published: March 2007

This study examined the use and validity of Hersey and Blanchard's Situa tional Leadership Theory. Several predictions were made from theory: that high performing managers will be rated higher than low performers on leader effectiveness and flexibility of style, both in self-report and by subordinates and superiors, and will show greater knowledge and use of Situational Leadership; and that managers will generally rate subordinates' job performance more highly when applying the theory correctly. Subjects were 65 managers, 189 subordinates, and 56 supervisors. The results support the validity of the theory, suggesting that when it was applied correctly, the gain in subordinate job performance was both practically and statistically significant. No definite causal relationship could be established, however, because of research design constraints.
Evaluating Selected Organization Development Interventions: The State of the Art
Authors: Terpstra David E.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study was to assess comparatively the state of the art of evaluation of four major organization development (OD) intervention types— laboratory training, survey feedback, team-building, and process consultation. A review of the OD literature from 1965 to 1980 yielded 67 studies which were analyzed along the following dimensions: (a) evaluator characteristics, (b) subject characteristics, and (c) methodology/design characteristics. Deficiencies and needs within each of the four OD intervention types were highlighted. It was concluded that only through better and more methodologically sound evaluation practices can the field of OD achieve the degree of respectability critical for continued growth and development.
Performance Rating Validity: The Relationship of Objective and Subjective Measures of Performance
Authors: Alexander Elmore R. , Wilkins Ronnie D.
Published: March 2007

Substantial research has been conducted on how various factors such as personal traits of ratees and raters, organizational contexts, and rating format affect per formance ratings. However, a question receiving considerably less attention has been the degree to which actual differences in job performance account for variations in performance ratings. This study examined the relationship be tween subjective and objective performance measures for vocational/rehabilita tion counselors. No relationship was found between the subjective and objective measures. Evidence was found to suggest that the subjective measure reflected more the quality of the interpersonal relationship between the supervisor and the subordinate as opposed to either the quality or quantity of the subordinate's performance.
Pure Science Versus Science-Action Models of Data Feedback: A Field Experiment
Authors: Bullock R.J. , Bullock Patti F.
Published: March 2007

Although feedback methods have been a critical element in OD research, little is known about the impact of different feedback methods. This research investigates the theory, practice, and impact of two feedback models of orgnizational change. The "pure science" approach emphasized the psychometric quality of the data, but accomplished no positive change. The "science-action" approach, which maintained the psychometric quality of the data and the intervention team and added an active change agent role, resulted in substantial change. The article discusses several important implica tions for research and practice of OD interventions using feedback.
Evaluation of Problem-Solving Groups
Authors: Greenbaum Howard H. , Kaplan Ira T. , Metlay William
Published: March 2007

This article states the case for evaluating the effectiveness of problem-solving groups, develops a model of group problem-solving behavior, and applies the resulting conceptual framework to 16 actual evaluations of quality circle programs published between 1981 and 1986. It recommends that problem-solving groups be evaluated to improve their effectiveness, that evaluations be comprehensive- attending to feedback variables and to input and process variables, as well as to the commonly measured output variables, and that self-report data-collection pro cedures be supplemented by more objective measures.
Participant Perceptions of Positive and Negative Influences on Large-Scale Change
Authors: Covin Teresa Joyce , Kilmann Ralph H.
Published: March 2007

Individuals who have participated in large-scale change programs were asked to identify issues that have a highly positive impact or a highly negative impact on the change process. Managers, researchers, internal consultants, and external consultants listed over 900 issues that they believe have an impact on the ultimate success of large-scale change programs. Content analysis was utilized to group responses into meaningful categories. These categories of issues as well as differences in the responses of the four groups of individuals surveyed are discussed. The research provides an overview of key issues for consideration in the management of large-scale change efforts.
Methods of Upward Influence, Motivational Needs, and Administrators' Perceptions of Their Supervisors' Leadership Styles
Authors: Chacko Harsha E.
Published: March 2007

This study examines the relationship between the techniques of upward influence used by administrators, their motivational needs, and the way they view their supervisors' leadership styles. Subjects of the study were 144 randomly selected heads of departments at two-year and four-year higher educational institutions. Methods used by department heads to influence their supervisors include reason, coalition, higher authority, bargaining, friendliness, and assertiveness. Results showed that reason and coalition were the most prevalent methods, and there was a relationship between need for achievement, perceived initiation of structure, and the use of these two methods. Results also suggest that subordinates are more likely to use assertiveness and higher authority to influence supervisors who exhibit leadership styles that are low in initiation of structure and low in consideration.
An Analysis of Strategies for Announcing Organization-Wide Change
Authors: Smeltzer Larry R.
Published: March 2007

A prescriptive model for announcing organization-wide change is presented within speech act theory framework. The model considers the nature of change and organizational dynamics that influence the communication strategy. The communication strategy includes the message, channel, and timing Semistructured interviews in 43 organizations determined that what most differentiated between effective and ineffective strategies were (a) a large number of inaccurate rumors about the change and (b) employees learning about the change from a source other than management. Timing of the announcement most differentiated between effective and ineffective strategies. Employees reacted negatively to euphemisms and overly positive announcements.
Attributions for Participation and Nonparticipation in Gainsharing- Plan Involvement Systems
Authors: Hatcher Larry , Ross Timothy L. , Collins Denis
Published: March 2007

Gainsharing plans often provide highly structured suggestion systems that allow employees to participate in work-related decisions. However, individuals differ in their willingness to become involved in this suggestion-making process. To better understand the reasons for this, interviews were conducted with 149 supervisors and nonmanagement employees in five gainsharing companies. Nonmanagement suggestion contributors as well as their supervisors said that the desire to improve performance, make the work easier, and become involved in work decisions were important determinants ot an employee's decision to contribute suggestions. Both groups viewed the desire for influence as being more influential than the desire for bonuses. Nonmanagement noncontributors and their supervisors indicated that apathy and negative attitudes toward the plan, management, and the company were important determinants of an employee's decision not to contribute suggestions. The discussion includes implications for practice and a tentative model describing the multiple determinants of behavior under gainsharing.