bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A New Navigation Computer
Authors: Richey Michael
Published: November 2009

Through the mediacy of Professor Torao Mozai and the courtesy of Captain T. Iimura of Omron Tateisi Electronics, Tokyo, I was lent a prototype Omron lop NC Astro-navigation computer to evaluate during the course of a singlehanded race in Jester from Newport, Rhode Island, to Bermuda and the subsequent voyage back to England. Although it has been developed as an all-purpose navigation computer, the particular requirements of single-handed oceanic navigation might, it was thought, provide a useful commentary on this kind of instrument; and the environment of a small boat, so close to the sea surface and inevitably inimical to electronic equipment, would be an austere test of the instrument's seaworthiness.

This note is intended for navigators and so far as possible computer terms will be avoided. (The instrument is named a computer by its makers and will be referred to as such, rather than as a calculator, throughout.) The computer weighs 2·5 kg. and measures 200 × 289 × 91 mm. It operates from either the mains or batteries, and can be used for 10 hours continuously without a battery recharge.
II—Results of the Study
Authors: Perkins C. S.
Published: November 2009

Recruitment and assessment of the sample. Recruiting and interviewing began in December 1974. Over 220 hours were spent interviewing the sample, which comprised 68 men. Senior officers were preferred because more informed criticism was expected from them. The watchkeeping record of well over two-thirds of the sample amounted to more than ten years' experience; these were masters, chief officers, second officers, uncertificated third officers, senior pilots and, in addition, two lecturers. Many nationalities were represented and the majority held masters' certificates or were attending the college studying for them. The recruitment of serving officers had a rather poor response, numbers being made up by officers on leave. These men came in for a day, a morning or an afternoon, and thus were not exposed to all the systems since such high exposure in a short time might have caused saturation. There was therefore a proportion of the sample which saw only part of the systems though the majority did see it all. There were men who saw just one system, possibly volunteers who did not particularly want to continue, or others who were snatched away from the college by commercial pressures. The approach to these men was important. The sample was exposed to a two-hour lecture period, usually on modern radio aids, and each group was shown the teaching exercises and an explanation of the research objectives as well as the systems.
III—Commentary
Authors: Butt J. A.
Published: November 2009

Traditionally, when some new concept or equipment comes along, one first makes a rough judgment based on a philosophical analysis. If this looks sensible the next step is usually to put the new device to sea and evaluate it there. The early philosophy, the users' reports and a simple economic evaluation usually lead to a sufficiently sound decision. A collision-avoidanoe radar of the new generation presents a substantial philosophical hurdle both to the marine superintendent ashore and to the man at sea, and it represents a fairly substantial capital expenditure. Deciding what is the ‘best buy’ becomes a complex matter for which traditional selection methods may be inadequate. Like others, in our efforts to provide the most useful installation at economic cost, we have attempted sea-trials of some of the new systems. It has proved most difficult to reach objective conclusions, mainly because normal trading does not permit a free choice of encounter situations or manoeuvres, and there is no ‘control’ experiment. In addition, user reports were sometimes dominated by lost confidence due to technical teething troubles. We therefore felt a need to break the problem down into its elements and to attempt a controlled and objective analysis of these elements.
The Dover Strait Information Service: Recent Progress
Authors: Emden R. K.
Published: November 2009

This paper, which was presented at a meeting of the Merseyside Branch of the Institute on 24 February 1976, is a sequel to Captain Emden's paper on the setting up of the Dover Strait Information Service which was published in the April 1975 issue of this Journal.

It will be recalled that in 1971 the Marine Division of the Department of Trade set in motion a number of activities designed to improve the safety of navigation in the Dover Strait. It is convenient to group these activities under three headings: scientific studies of marine traffic, surveillance and the Information Service, and future developments. It is the purpose of this paper to give an up-to-date report on each of these subjects.
Concorde Navigation
Authors: Calvert B. J. , Guest T. C. R.
Published: November 2009

This account of the practical steps taken by British Airways to provide the Concorde with a reliable navigation capability which meets the needs of supersonic flight on commercial routes covers: the features of supersonic flight which lead to new navigation requirements, the social and political constraints on supersonic flight, and the need for the crew both to be well informed of the progress of the flight and prepared for the possibility of return to subsonic flight. These factors have led to special techniques for route planning, flight planning, documentation (including charts), and accuracy of navigation.

All these techniques are based on a navigation system constructed from standard components, but meeting the aircraft's needs for accuracy and automation.
Navigation and the Schools: II.
Authors: Weatherston J.
Published: November 2009

Most professional navigators would agree that navigation could play a useful role in general education. How are teachers to be convinced of this and how are they to be persuaded that its introduction is desirable ? If navigation is to be introduced as an academic subject into the school curriculum we must endeavour to remove the mystique with which it is often surrounded and dispel the suggestion that it is an art rather than a science. The notion that successful sailormen must have a seafaring background has been proved wrong time and again; let us also dispense with the misconception that good navigators are born with a gift similar to that of a homing pigeon. Man has a natural instinct to explore and find his way; the purpose of navigation in education should be to exploit and develop this natural instinct to the full.
Sources of Latitude Error in English Sixteenth Century Navigation
Authors: Forty Gerald
Published: November 2009

An examination of accounts of sixteenth-century voyages shows that the estimations of latitude then arrived at by astronomical means were subject to widely varying error. The purpose of the present study has been to discover by practical experiments at sea, with replicas of instruments in use at the time, to what extent the size and irregularity of the errors can be attributed to the characteristics of the instruments and to what extent they arise from other causes. Observations were made from a 9-ton yacht under conditions not wholly dissimilar to those obtaining in some of the very small ships whose voyages are recorded.

The evidence for latitude errors is derived from published studies and from the writer's own analyses of three voyages made in northern waters by ships of the Muscovy Company: those of Stephen Borough of 1556 and 1557 and that of Arthur Pet and Charles Jackman of 1580. These were chosen because the masters in that Company's service received the best nagivational advice of the time3 and from the early 1550s onwards regularly recorded both latitude and compass variation. Furthermore, the relatively low altitude of the Sun in the higher latitudes was conducive to greater accuracy with a cross-staff.
The Effectiveness of Ship Routing off North West Europe
Authors: Cockcroft A. N.
Published: November 2009

Traffic separation was first introduced on a voluntary basis in the Dover Strait in September 1967, just over fifteen years ago. Compliance with the IMO provisions relating to traffic separation schemes has been mandatory for all ships during the last five years and for some ships for as much as ten years. It may therefore be appropriate to assess the effectiveness of routing off North West Europe by comparing collision statistics for five-year periods since 1957.

The results given in the following tables apply only to collisions involving trading vessels of over 100 g.r.t. under way and not engaged in any special activities. Collisions in harbours, rivers and congested port approaches where special circumstances apply are not included. The figures quoted for the Dover Strait have been checked against the results obtained by the National Maritime Institute but are based on different criteria, and there may be some discrepancies.

The area covered is the coastal region from the south-western approaches to the Ushant TSS to the approaches to the Elbe including all parts of the English Channel and the Dover Strait, but not including waters off the East Coast of England which are well clear of the traffic separation schemes and deep-water routes.

The numbers of collisions are based almost entirely on Lloyd's Weekly Casualty Reports. Information relating to encounter situations is based on voyage data supplemented wherever possible by information received from additional sources relating to the actual courses steered by each vessel. It is not claimed that the figures constitute a precise record but they should provide a good indication of changes in the incidence of collision off North West Europe.
Traffic Separation—What Next?
Authors: Emden R. K. N.
Published: November 2009

It is now generally agreed that the principles of traffic separation, in formulation of which this Institute has played an important part, are proving themselves a success and now that Imco traffic separation schemes have acquired a legal status, specifically under Rule 10 of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (1972), it is appropriate to take stock of the situation and to look ahead.

As far as the Dover Strait is concerned it can be surely said that the number of ships contravening the Regulations continues to decrease and, more important, that the number of collisions has been reduced. Nevertheless apparent infringements continue to occur at the rate of nearly one. every hour and there have already been three collisions this year. In the Dover Strait we have a daily throughput of 300 ships and an average crossing population of about 200 passages each day. Nevertheless the average tonnage of all ships is only about 2000; it may well be a small ship which will precipitate a disaster, and it is mainly with the problems of the small ship that I am now concerned. The aim of this paper is to suggest possible steps which may be taken to improve the safety of navigation and by promoting discussion it may be possible to obtain a clearer view of the mariner's needs, what is practical in the way of meeting these needs, and what new ideas may have to be introduced if there should be a demand for further action. These include passive measures, which must be handled administratively and ashore, and active measures, which directly concern the master's navigation of his ship.
The Estimation of Collision Risk for Marine Traffic in UK Waters
Authors: Lewison G. R. G.
Published: November 2009

The purpose of this paper is to present data and draw conclusions on the chances of collision in different areas of the waters around the UK. The subject of risk analysis has recently grown in importance, and it is often necessary for an operator to demonstrate that a proposed operation is acceptably safe before he will be given permission to begin. Risk estimates are generally of two basic types, backward and forward. Backward estimates are based upon the number of accidents that have occurred in a particular situation, and if there have been many there will be a fair degree of confidence that the risk has been accurately estimated. Forward estimates have to be made where there are so few actual accidents that no backward estimates are possible: they are based upon an analysis of the situation into a sequence of events, the probability of each being known by comparison with data obtained from other situations. Although these data may themselves be reliable, the final risk estimates will depend upon the comparability of the situations and also upon whether the sequence of events has been correctly identified.
Casualties to Tankers in the Baltic 1960–1975
Authors: Kostilainen Valter , Tuovinen Pekka
Published: November 2009

Data relating to a total of 74 tanker casualties in the Baltic area during 1971–5 have been analysed and compared with the earlier collected data on 268 tanker casualties. The discussion concerns local and seasonal distribution. The statistics also cover the nationality, age and size of ship involved. Emphasis is laid upon the need for a more efficient casualty reporting system and new methods of data collection are presented.

The Baltic, Gulf of Bothnia and Gulf of Finland form a limited sea-water basin, where the change of water is small and the evidence of man marked. One of the worst threats to the sea water is the oil leaked from ships. This oil gets into the water in ship casualties or by accidental or deliberate discharge of spill oil into the sea. The oil amounts leaking into the water are very large in ship accidents if the ship or ships in question are tankers in loaded conditions and tanks are damaged.
A Brief History of Sailing Directions
Authors: Cotter Charles H.
Published: November 2009

Sailing Directions nowadays implies ‘Pilots’, with which all mariners are familiar. However, the term in a broader sense embraces a wide range of printed and descriptive material of help to the seaman. In this paper, which was presented at a meeting of the Solent Branch of the Institute in December 1979, Dr Cotter traces the origins of the publications – pilot books, light lists, tide tables, and indeed charts – which are now available to the navigator. The paper has been abridged.

Men sailed the seas and made extended voyages, without benefit of instruments now considered vitally necessary, thousands of years before the invention of chart and compass, the pre-eminent instruments of navigation. To the question: ‘How did an ancient sea-trader shape his course in the confident expectation of reaching his destination safely?’ there is no complete answer. But we can be fairly certain that early seafarers learnt the techniques of their craft through observation and experience supplemented by verbal instruction and advice from their more-experienced contemporaries.
Direct Reduction of Astronomical Sights without Logarithms or Calculator
Authors: Sadler D. H.
Published: November 2009

In 1873 Marcq St Hilaire introduced the concept of the intercept method of constructing a position line, with the use of an assumed position chosen to facilitate calculation or tabulation. This same basic principle is here used to facilitate direct calculation without the use of logarithms or calculator; a simple table of a natural trigonometrical function is required and, preferably, some aid to multiplication. Apparently the method has not been proposed before, and it is ironic that it should be considered when the availability of calculators has essentially removed any requirement for it! It is put forward mainly for theoretical interest, but there may be a place for it for emergency use when (for some reason) neither conventional tables nor a calculator is available.
Ship Speed Measurement
Authors: Robinson C. A.
Published: November 2009

If an analysis is made of the speed of a ship using data recorded in log-books the results are extremely disappointing, and do not reflect the accuracies of the instrumentation in use. Even data from a satellite navigator, where the speeds should have an accuracy of better than I per cent, give a I-knot band in recorded speed; in a 20-knot ship this is 5. per cent. Such inaccuracies require explanation.

To begin with one must ask what is meant by ship's speed, and different interpretations come from different people. The navigator is concerned with speed over the ground, while the naval architect or marine engineer is mainly interested in the forward speed of the ship through the water. On the other hand a compiler of ocean current data will require both the speed over the ground and the speed made good through the water, but the latter must take leeway into account. Finally, a weather routing consultant is looking for the actual forward speed the ship can achieve through the water in the prevailing weather conditions. All users of speed data may require other related information, such as the ocean currents and the leeway characteristics of the ship, which can in fact only be compiled from ship speed data. At the present time all these different requirements have to be satisfied by the speeds measured at sea and recorded in the logbooks and their abstracts. Ships' officers compile these records, but by the nature of their work they are biased towards the navigational concept of speed.
Wheelhouse Design
Authors: Henderson Duncan M.
Published: November 2009

The basis of wheelhouse design is comprehended in that wonderful Anglo-Saxon word—sea-man-ship. For the design of a wheelhouse should be such that the three elements in a mariner's work—the sea, the man and the ship are linked together in the most efficient manner. At all times and in all positions in a wheelhouse the mariner should have a clear view of the scene outside and also have as many clues as possible to the direction of the ship's head—so that he may relate the ship's head and the outside situation as easily as possible.
Vertical and Lateral Separation
Authors: Proctor J. D.
Published: November 2009

It is generally assumed that the ideal distribution for the lateral or vertical distribution of aircraft on neighbouring tracks is as in Fig. 1, where A and B are the centre lines of the routes or altitudes. Navaids and altimeters seem to be designed with this distribution as the ideal. Where air traffic control is imperfect and there is an appreciable risk that two aircraft without longitudinal separation will be at the same nominal altitude on the same route, then I suggest that neither the distribution of Fig. 1 nor that of Fig. 2 is ideal but that Fig. 3 represents the ideal because it minimizes the risk of collision due to air traffic control failure. This hypothesis has implications for the design of navaids and altimeters and for the specification of vertical and lateral separation procedures.
Escape Time: The Crucial Factor in Collision Avoidance Situations and Systems
Authors: Wylie F. J.
Published: November 2009

Last year this Journal contained two articles by the writer in which he suggested the potential of fully automated radar plotting systems (FARP) in aiding collision avoidance. This was done by considering a number of past collisions and showing how different the behaviour of the ships involved might have been had they been using FARPs. This was an operational study and not a statistical analysis. He followed the line taken in previous articles starting as far back as 1965 and continuing in 1970 with some details of earlier automatic plotters and in 1972 with a comparison of manual and automatic plotting capabilities. In 1974 and 1975 there was a comparison of the different philosophies embodied in the later FARPs leading up to the studies of past collisions in 1977.
Patterns in Encounters Between Ships
Authors: Lang G. J. P.
Published: November 2009

As one of the perhaps ‘younger personnel’ mentioned by P. R. J. Rawlinson in his note (this Journal, 28, 243) I would like to make a few points. First and foremost, in agreeing with him, I can best quote the Preliminary to the Steering and Sailing Rules of the Rules and Regulations for Preventing Collision at Sea, 1965: ‘In obeying and construing these rules, any action taken should be positive, in ample time, and with due regard to the observance of good seamanship …’
Ship Routing—Present Status and Future Trends
Authors: Paton J.
Published: November 2009

Commander Paton's paper, here slightly condensed, was presented at the Fourth International Symposium on Vessel Traffic Services held in Bremen from 28 to 30 April 1981. The author is Hydrographic Adviser to the Department of Trade, but the views expressed here should not be taken to represent those of the Department. Commander Paton has also for some years been Chairman of IMCO's Working Group on routing matters.

Apart from some wartime measures, modern ship routing really dates from the early sixties, when the Institutes of Navigation in Britain, France and Germany set up a joint Working Group on traffic separation. The principal result of their labours was the Dover Strait traffic separation scheme, jointly submitted to IMCO by the British, French and German Governments and implemented in 1967. This was followed by various proposals for the North Sea, Baltic and elsewhere, considerable impetus being given by the Torrey Canyon disaster off the Scilly Isles in 1967.
Improvements in Transport through the Organization of Ship Movement
Authors: Wepster A.
Published: November 2009

For hundreds of years ships have roamed the oceans at random, serving the trades according to the prevailing supply and demand; each vessel taking care of itself, none caring about the whole transport and traffic pattern, but each one willing to assist and save unfortunate brothers in distress. This historic and very individualistic pattern of maritime transport operations, with as little interference, regulation and control as possible, is called by some ‘freedom of the sea’. In the minds of generations of seafarers there is instilled the idea that this utter freedom of operation was in essence the proper interpretation of being master under God. Away from the home port nobody could interfere in the way the ship was managed or the voyage proceeded. Even selling the ship abroad was a possibility on which the master could decide.
The Use of Globes in Navigation
Authors: May W. E.
Published: November 2009

To what extent, if at all, were globes used for practical navigation during the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries? Globes were discussed by several writers of the period, but, with the exception of John Davis, these were not practical seamen. What evidence is there that globes were ever actually used by navigators at sea?

The first recorded globe was made by Martin Behaim in 1490. The most celebrated makers who followed were Gemma Frisius in 1530, Gerhard Mercator in 1541 and Emery Molyneux in 1592.
Manœuvres in Fog Compatible with the Collision Regulations
Authors: Mitrofanov O. I.
Published: November 2009

The author, a Master Mariner and Section Chief of the All-Union Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography, Moscow, U.S.S.R., deals with the principle of clockwise rotation of the line of relative motion, as applied to simultaneous encounters with several ships. He presents arguments for a strict compliance with the well known dictum of Captain Oudet: ‘Encounters at sea are governed in such a way that each party knows what he should do and what the other should do.’ The paper was written in collaboration with the late Captain G. Shoomayko.
Automatic Radar Plotting Systems
Authors: Wylie F. J.
Published: November 2009

If I may continue Mr. Harrison's analogistic extravaganza for only a moment, I would like to say that whatever smoke, haze or fog there may have been in his vicinity it has prevented him from identifying the target at which I and my colleagues have been firing. I must also say that his bland assumption of the superiority of his own gunnery is hardly complimentary to the highly qualified and experienced support without which, as he well knows, no simple sailor would venture into such a technical action.

None of my comments made upon this subject thus far have denied the existence of errors, cyclic or otherwise, in the sources from which the radar data is drawn; nor have I disagreed with the evidence and the theories about the size and character of such errors, and the resulting prediction errors they might cause, which have been adduced by the various experts (in electronics), under the conditions and within the limits which they postulate.
The New Buoyage System
Authors: Haslam D. W.
Published: November 2009

Between April and about September 1977 almost all the present buoys in the southern North Sea, Dover Strait and eastern part of the English Channel will be changed and a completely new system introduced in an area much used by international shipping of all types. Why has this come about and how can the new system be recognized on charts and in the water? What are the most significant changes and where will the system be applicable? The answers to these questions are given in the Hydrographic Department's new publication NP 735, IALA Maritime Buoyage System A, Edition 1, 1976, which is now available from Admiralty chart agents. It should be studied carefully by all who go to sea or are concerned with marine operations in north-west European waters.
V—Weather Routing of Sailing Ships
Authors: Burger W.
Published: November 2009

If sailing vessels are to return to the oceans to carry freight, then, because of different hull and sail characteristics, the climatological routes will have to be re-assessed, probably by means of computer methods. Weather routing techniques for assisting a sailing vessel to follow the safest and most economic route across an area where barometric depressions are dominant will have to become more refined, and updated and transmitted by radio more frequently than is the case at present.
Recent Developments in Acoustic Underwater Navigation
Authors: Cestone J. A. , Cyr R. J. , Roesler Gordon , St. George E.
Published: November 2009

Acoustic transponders are employed in underwater navigation in situations in which a high degree of accuracy is required. Typical applications include underwater search, mapping, photography by a submersible or a towed vehicle and positioning of underwater work systems. The network of transponders, of which there may be only two or three, or which may be very extensive, is implanted by a support ship or by a submersible. The network can be located geographically by a satellite navigation equipment to an accuracy of 0·25 nm. This accuracy (or even accuracy within ± 1 mile) is sufficient to locate the network after a period of disuse. Acoustic navigation of a vehicle is accomplished relative to the network, to accuracies of the order of several feet.
Precision Navigation Updating by Means of Digital Area Correlation
Authors: Hessel A. , Eckl W.
Published: November 2009

To fulfill any specific task a certain navigation accuracy is in general required. If this requirement can be achieved by different systems the cost effectiveness will be decisive. Apart from missions which allow large position errors, medium or high navigation accuracies will normally be desired, obtained either by high technological standards or by an unsophisticated system with an updating procedure. The cost of highly sophisticated systems increases exponentially with increasing accuracy, so that our object was to find an appropriate updating system.
Reporting Near Misses at Sea
Authors: Taylor W. B. R.
Published: November 2009

It is suggested by D. Nicolson (this Journal29, 414) that there is a need for reporting near misses at sea, similar to the system which has been in force for air navigation since the late 1950's. He also suggests that the primary function of such a system would be as a training aid in nautical colleges and training establishments, but that it could also provide statistical evidence. While agreeing on the urgent need for a reporting system I would expect a different order of priorities.

An internationally established system of reporting near misses at sea could serve many valuable purposes. It would indeed provide a useful training aid if the reports were given in full detail. The system as suggested would not, however, be complete since it would not be international in character, and might only flourish in vessels whose officers still require to sit for further professional qualifications. To be statistically valid a reporting system would have to be international and apply to all types of craft, from the warship and passenger liner to the fishing vessel and yacht.
The Measurement of Ship Speed and Its Applications
Authors: Barker W. D. J.
Published: November 2009

Captain Barker's paper was presented at a one-day seminar on The Selection and Display of Navigational Information at Sea, jointly organised by the Royal Institute of Navigation and the Nautical Institute in London on 11 December 1980.

It does not seem so long ago since a shipmaster could not do better than proceed at utmost speed, mindful of sea conditions for heavy weather damage and of fog, for a successful conclusion to a commercial venture. Today the cost of bunkers may exceed the income earned on the freight. Commercial organizations carrying their own cargoes have always had to operate at speeds that relate to freight levels, but owners with their ships on charter, who were never very concerned in conserving bunkers, are now more closely scrutinized on the way they operate their ships, and particular attention is paid to the speed-consumption curve.
Monitoring Arctic Ice Movements with Satellite Doppler
Authors: Hittel Alexander
Published: November 2009

This paper was originally presented at the Second Symposium on Satellite-Doppler Positioning in Austin, Texas in January 1979.

The application of doppler satellite technology to ice-movement studies requiring high-quality positional determination ( ± 1 m) has proved of great value in remote areas of Canada. Potential oil and gas anomalies in the Arctic Islands, hundreds of kilometres from land, can now be successfully monitored with regard to ice-floe movement by remote methods on an almost daily basis. Extensive field tests conducted in the Calgary area during the fall of 1976 showed that daily movements as small as 1 m could be detected with high-quality satellite receivers using rigorous three-dimensional multi-station computer processing methods.
Routing in the English Channel
Authors: Cockcroft A. N.
Published: November 2009

Following the Amoco Cadiz disaster in 1978 proposals were put forward, and ultimately accepted by IMCO, for a revision of the traffic separation schemes off Ushant and the Casquets, the broad effect of which was to keep large tankers (and those carrying hazardous cargoes) further off the French coast. The modifications came in for some criticism and recent Anglo-French proposals have now secured IMCO agreement. Prior to that a purely United Kingdom working group sought to formulate a comprehensive and continuous routing scheme for the whole English Channel.

Captain Cockcroft who, as an observer for IAIN at IMCO and as RIN representative on the UK working group on Channel Routing, has played a leading part in these discussions, here describes some of the problems and considers issues raised by concepts such as ‘areas to be avoided’, and finally, within the context of traffic separation in straits, proposes alterations to the Collision Regulations which govern the crossing of traffic lanes and the use of inshore traffic zones.
Hyperbolic Origins
Authors: Powell Claud
Published: November 2009

In this paper Claud Powell, formerly of the Decca Navigator Company, discusses the antecedents of modern radio position-fixing systems whose position lines are of hyperbolic form. The paper was presented at an Ordinary Meeting held in London on 22 April with Rear-Admiral D. W. Haslam in the Chair.

Until very recently in human history, the fixing of position for navigational and kindred purposes depended principally upon the measurement of angles. An escape from the limitations of this essentially visual process had to await the development, through advances in electrical and later in electronic engineering, of what E. W. Anderson has termed the ‘timing of waves’. This classification covers virtually all the non-visual methods of deriving a line of position, for example the measurement of range by timing the roundtrip of a signal travelling at a known speed to a reflector or transponder and back; the measurement of ‘pseudo-range’ by comparing the times of signal transmission and reception according to local clocks; and the differential measurement of range to two known points some distance apart by timing the interval between the reception of synchronized signals transmitted from those points.
A Simple Radar for Navigation Accuracy Measurements
Authors: Nagaoka S. , Yoshioka E. , Muto P. T.
Published: November 2009

Recent growth in air-traffic movements is causing severe traffic congestion problems in terminal areas and en route. To meet these demands for more effective and safe utilization of airspace, separation standards in an air-traffic-control environment are being studied by the Review of the General Concept of Separation Panel (RGCSP) of the International Civil Aviation Organization.

One of the most effective ways of evaluating separation standards would be a mathematical method using a collision-risk model, for which we require data on the navigation accuracy of current aircraft as one of the parameters. At present, the data on navigation accuracy in the vertical dimension (height-keeping error) do not permit us to derive any definite conclusions on the distribution of navigational errors. In order to survey height-keeping errors we have developed a simple height-finding radar system, the Navigation Accuracy Measurement System (NAMS), based on a curve-fitting method. Thanks to this principle, NAMS has an advantage in its comparatively lower cost and simple structure.

The system consists of an antenna whose radiation pattern is a fan beam, a transceiver, a digitizer and a mini-computer. The antenna rotates about a horizontal axis and scans aircraft flying overhead. The height of an aircraft is estimated by processing the data obtained over several scans, using a mini-computer. This paper first outlines the characteristics of NAMS and then gives results of evaluation tests on its accuracy.
II. The Use of Inertial Techniques
Authors: Elias A. E. , Hamilton G. B.
Published: November 2009

Conventional survey methods for position and azimuth as practised in the Royal Artillery, although sufficiently accurate, were slow and expensive in manpower, while vehicle-navigation systems based on distance measurement by odometer and directional gyros were not sufficiently accurate. In the early 1970s therefore a General Staff Requirement was issued for an equipment designated PADS (Position and Azimuth Determining System) which would provide the necessary combination of speed and accuracy for gun batteries and observation posts, which may have to move frequently, by day or by night, in poor visibility. Precise knowledge of battery and target location, together with an azimuth reference, can help to achieve the first-salvo hit capability that is essential, not only from the point of view of surprise, but also to reduce risk of detection by shell-locating radar.
Some further observations regarding “cryoplanation terraces” on Alexander Island
Authors: Hall Kevin , André Marie-Françoise
Published: November 2009

Landforms with the appearance of cryoplanation terraces were studied on Alexander Island in an attempt to better understand their formation and growth. Developed on sub-horizontal sedimentary rocks, with 360° exposure around a nunatak, the terraces show a distinct equatorward orientational preference and an increase in terrace size with elevation. Available data fail to indicate any evidence of freeze-thaw weathering and information relating to present-day debris transport is singularly absent. Thermal data from the rock exposures showed variability that could cause thermal fatigue but no rates of change of temperature commensurate with thermal shock were recorded. Terrace development appears to be connected with lithological differences in the local sandstones, with growth along sedimentary junctions. Although presently in a permafrost environment, the available information on these landforms does not appear to be compatible with that generally accepted for cryoplanation terraces.
Late autumn to spring changes in the inorganic and organic carbon dissolved in the water column at Scholaert Channel, West Antarctica
Authors: Wang Xiaomeng , Yang Gui-Peng , López Damian , Ferreyra Gustavo , Lemarchand Karine , Xie Huixiang
Published: November 2009

The temporal changes in dissolved inorganic (DIC) and organic carbon concentrations (DOC) were monitored from late autumn to spring 2006 in the Scholaert Channel, West Antarctic Peninsula. Surface DIC spanned a small range (2163.3 to 2194.5 μmol kg-1), increasing from late autumn to winter and then decreasing in spring. An excess of DOC (7.0–63.6 μmol l-1), against a deepwater background concentration of 44 μmol l-1, existed in the surface mixed layer throughout the sampling period. Mass-balance budgeting indicates that the DIC dynamics were primarily governed by remineralization in winter and by primary production in spring despite very low biomass of both autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms. The net community production (7.3 mmol C m-2d-1) in spring was mainly partitioned to DOC accumulation (3.6 mmol m-2d-1) and downward export of particulate organic carbon (POC) (2.9 mmol m-2d-1) rather than POC accretion (0.8 mmol m-2d-1) in the surface mixed layer. The study area acted as a source of CO2to the atmosphere in winter (∼0.8 mmol m-2d-1) and a sink in spring (2.3–5.3 mmol m-2d-1), and hence was not a one-way CO2sink as had been previously hypothesized for marginal sea ice zones.
Shamanism, Totemism and Rock Art: Les Chamanes de la Préhistoire in the Context of Rock Art Research
Authors: Layton Robert
Published: November 2009

Les Chamanes de la Préhistoire: Transe et Magie dans les Grottes Ornées, by Jean Clottes & David Lewis-Williams, 1996. Paris: Éditions Seuil; ISBN 2-02-028902-4 hardback 249FF, 110 pp., 114 colour ills.

The Shamans of Prehistory: Trance and Magic in the Painted Caves, by Jean Clottes & David Lewis-Williams, 1996. New York (NY): Harry N. Abrams; ISBN 0-8109-4182-1 hardback, US$49.50, 120 pp., 116 colour ills.

Jean Clottes and David Lewis-Williams' recent book Les Chamanes de la Préhistoire builds on a body of rock art research which has come to dominate the field, marginalizing interest in other cultural themes such as totemism and records of everyday foraging. Shamanism and totemism are, however, two of the most pervasive indigenous theories of being to have been discussed in the anthropological literature. The word totem comes from the Ojibwa, a native North American people, while the word shaman comes from the Tungus of central Siberia. Their use cross-culturally to refer to types of religion (i.e. shamanism and totemism), is an artefact of anthropology. Shamanism can be applied to customs that are inferred to have arisen independently in different parts of the world; customs in a single circum-arctic culture area; or scattered survivals from an allegedly original human condition. The cross-cultural validity of shamanism has been considered by Eliade, Lewis, Hultkrantz and Vitebsky. Shamanism refers to the use of spirits as guardians and helpers of individuals, contacted through trance. The validity of totemism as a cross-culturally-valid category has been vigorously debated in anthropology. It is generally agreed to refer to the use of animals or plants as emblems or guardians of social groups celebrated in ritual. The rationale of totemism is that each group is identified with a different species; the significance of each species derives from its place in the cognitive structure. Group A is kangaroo because it is not emu or python. While Durkheim interpreted totemism as the original human religion, Lévi-Strauss persuasively argued that totemism is a product of human cognition, which has developed independently in North America, Australia and Africa.
Jupiter – friend or foe? III: the Oort cloud comets
Authors: Horner J. , Jones B.W. , Chambers J.
Published: November 2009

It has long been assumed that the planet Jupiter acts as a giant shield, significantly lowering the impact rate of minor bodies on Earth. However, until recently, very little work had been carried out examining the role played by Jupiter in determining the frequency of such collisions. In this work, the third of a series of papers, we examine the degree to which the impact rate on Earth resulting from the Oort cloud comets is enhanced or lessened by the presence of a giant planet in a Jupiter-like orbit, in an attempt to more fully understand the impact regime under which life on Earth has developed. Our results show that the presence of a giant planet in a Jupiter-like orbit significantly alters the impact rate of Oort cloud comets on Earth, decreasing the rate as the mass of the giant planet increases. The greatest bombardment flux is observed when no giant planet is present.
International assistance for victims of use of nuclear, radiological, biological and chemical weapons: time for a reality check?
Authors: Coupland Robin , Loye Dominique
Published: November 2009

The risks of the use of nuclear, radiological, biological or chemical (NRBC) weapons are heterogeneous. Each risk has its own implications for developing and deploying any capacity to assist victims of an NRBC event and, in parallel, for the health and security of the people bringing this assistance. At an international level, there are no plans for assisting the victims of an NRBC event which are both adequate and safe. Recognizing the realities of the contexts associated with each risk throws up numerous challenges; such recognition is also a prerequisite for addressing these challenges. The realities that have to be considered relate to:

1.

developing, acquiring, training for and planning an NRBC response capacity;

2.

deploying a response capacity in an NRBC event;

3.

the mandates and policies of international organizations pertaining to NRBC events.

The challenges that will pose the greatest difficulty for a humanitarian organization are those for which the solutions are ‘non-buyable’ and which involve making extremely difficult decisions. Attempting to assist victims of an NRBC event without a reality-based approach might generate ineffective and unacceptably dangerous situations for those involved.
BACCHUS temperature reconstruction for the period 16th to 18th centuries from Viennese and Klosterneuburg grape harvest dates
Authors: Maurer C. , Koch E. , Hammerl C. , Hammerl T. , Pokorny E.
Published: November 2009

In the scientific project “Klosterneuburg Wine and Climate Change in Lower Austria” (BACCHUS), we focused on developing a grape harvest date (GHD) time series for the period 1523–2007 in the area of and around Vienna, one of the northeasternmost regions in Europe where vines are grown professionally. Since grape harvest dates are strongly influenced by spring to (early) summer temperatures, especially in a vine‐growing region at a climatic border, we found highly significant correlation coefficients between homogenized multiple monthly mean temperatures at Vienna, Hohe Warte, and GHD. For example, correlation values reach −0.76 (p = 0.01) between GHD and April to July mean temperature or −0.79 (p = 0.01) between GHD and May to July mean temperature. This made it possible to reconstruct May to July mean temperatures, starting in 1523. The years from 1775 to 1850 were used as calibration period for determining the temperature sensitivity of GHD, as the running correlation coefficients (10 year moving window) were most pronounced in this period, varying between almost −1 and −0.7 (p = 0.05). We found warm decades in the 16th century, at the beginning of our series, which were as warm as the 1990s. Afterwards the mean May to July temperatures started to drop; the coldest decade of the record was from 1771 to 1780. A constant temperature increase for more than 30 years, as from the 1970s to the present, seems to be unprecedented during the last 470 years.
Role of NADPH oxidase‐2 in lipopolysaccharide‐induced matrix metalloproteinase expression and cell migration
Authors: Kim So‐Yeon , Lee Jin‐Gu , Cho Woo‐Sung , Cho Kyong‐Hyun , Sakong Jun , Kim Jae‐Ryong , Chin Byung‐Rho , Baek Suk‐Hwan
Published: November 2009

This study examined the hypothesis that the control of NADPH oxidase‐2 (Nox2)‐mediated reactive oxygen species (ROS) regulates the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and the migration of macrophages. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation of Raw264.7 cells and mice peritoneal macrophages increased the expression of MMP‐9, 10, 12 and 13 mRNA, and also increased Raw264.7 cell migration. Treatment with an antioxidant (N‐acetyl cysteine) or Nox inhibitors strongly inhibited the expression of MMPs by LPS and inhibited cell migration. LPS caused ROS production in macrophages and increased the mRNA expression of Nox isoforms Nox1 and Nox2 by 20‐fold and two‐fold, respectively. While Nox1 small interfering RNA (siRNA) did not inhibit LPS‐mediated expression of MMPs, Nox2 siRNA inhibited the expressions of MMP‐9, 10 and 12. Neither Nox1 nor Nox2 siRNA influenced the LPS‐mediated expression of MMP‐13. In addition, NAC or apocynin attenuated LPS‐induced ROS production and MMP‐9 expression. MMP‐9 expression and cell migration were controlled by ERK1/2–ROS signaling. Collectively, these results suggest that LPS stimulates ROS production via ERK and induce various types of MMPs expression and cell migration.
Antigen fusion with C3d3 augments or inhibits humoral immunity to AAV genetic vaccines in a transgene‐dependent manner
Authors: Logan Grant J , Wang Lina , Zheng Maolin , Coppel Ross L , Alexander Ian E
Published: November 2009

Genetic fusion of tandem repeats of the complement molecule C3d has been shown to considerably enhance immune responses to genetic vaccines. We have investigated the applicability of this approach to augment humoral immune responses toward vaccines delivered by recombinant adeno‐associated virus (AAV) vectors. C3d3‐fusion was found to markedly decrease antibody responses to merozoite surface protein 4/5 from Plasmodium yoelii and contrasted with greater than 50‐fold enhancement in responses when this strategy was similarly applied to another AAV‐encoded model antigen, hen egg lysozyme. These data indicate that the efficacy of the C3d3 strategy operates in an antigen‐dependent manner. Additional studies also showed that homologous recombination events between the C3d tandem repeats occurred during vector packaging and transduction resulting in expression of C3d1‐, C3d2‐, C3d3‐ and C3d4‐fused antigen. This is the first report to apply the C3d approach to augment responses against a recombinant viral vector system and the consequences of these findings are discussed.
Intracellular innate immunity in gouty arthritis: role of NALP3 inflammasome
Authors: Liu‐Bryan Ru
Published: November 2009

Gout is an inflammatory disease caused by the deposition of monosodium urate (MSU) crystals in the joint. Recent studies have significantly advanced our knowledge on the understanding of mechanisms underlying MSU crystal‐induced inflammation. MSU crystals act as a ‘danger signal’ that can be recognized by pattern recognition receptors both at cell surface and cytoplasm, indicating the importance of innate immunity in gout. This review focuses on the critical role of intracellular NALP3 inflammasome in MSU crystal‐induced inflammation.
Micro-Facts
Authors: Wareing Peter , Fernandes Rhea ,   Leatherhead Food International
Published: November 2009

Micro-Facts has proved to be a useful ready reference for practising food microbiologists and others concerned with ensuring the microbiological safety of foods. Micro-Facts 6th Edition is an invaluable tool for food microbiologists everywhere, as a source book of information relevant to the prevention of food-poisoning hazards worldwide.