bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Design considerations in corrosion prevention by electrodeposits and organic coatings
Authors: Smith Tony
Published: February 2008

It is clear that for satisfactory service and resistance to corrosion, it is necessary not only to choose the right metal to be electrodeposited, and the right thickness of deposit, but also to ensure that the design of the basic article to be plated is such that a reasonably uniform deposit can be achieved without too much difficulty. The more complex the shape to be plated, the higher will be the cost, either because the total weight of metal over the whole article will have to be greater in order to provide the minimum thickness in the most difficult places, or because special plating jigs and anodes will be required to achieve a uniform deposit. The designer should therefore strive to avoid deep or narrow recesses, sharp edges and corners, sharp points, and generally complex shapes; he should aim to provide relatively simple shapes without sudden changes of contour or cross‐section, and generous radii on all corners and edges, both external and re‐entrant. Ideally, the worse the throwing power of the solution to be used for electroplating, the more simple should be the shape to be plated. Fig. 1 illustrates some of the points mentioned.
Inhibition of pitting corrosion of Pb in alkaline chlorate and perchlorate solutions by some inorganic anions
Authors: Abd El Wanees S. , Abd El Aal E.E. , Abd El Aal A.
Published: February 2008

The potentiodynamic anodic polarization curves for the lead electrode were obtained in 0.1 mol L‐1 KOH solution in the absence and presence of C103‐ or C104‐ as aggressive ions at different concentrations. Lower concentrations of these ions have no significant influence on the passive film, while higher concentrations raise the active dissolution current density, and cause destruction of passivity and initiation of pitting corrosion. The critical pitting corrosion potential varies with the concentration of the aggressive ions according to sigmoidal curves. These curves were explained on the basis of the formation of passivitable, active and continuously propagagting pits depending on the range of the aggressive ion concentration. Additions of increasing concentrations of chromate, phosphate, sulphate and carbonate ions cause a shift of the critical pitting potential in the noble direction accounting for increase resistance to pitting attack (inhibition). The pitting corrosion potential varies with the concentration of the inhibitive ions, in the presence of a constant concentration of the aggressive ions, according to curves of sigmoidal shape. From these curves one can determine the minimum concentration of the inhibitive ions necessary for inhibition of pitting corrosion to occur.
ASEPTIC CARTONS
Authors: Rawlings Carl
Published: February 2008

Aseptically packed products have now become a way of life, representing a dramatic change from the negative reaction expressed by consumers initially with the introduction of French UHT milk in 1983. Long‐life products now cover a wide spectrum of goods, from milk to soup. The particular experience of Bowater PKL is used as an illustration.
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS IN FOOD CONSUMPTION
Authors: Frank Judith , Wheelock Verner
Published: February 2008

Using data from five developed countries — the UK, the USA, Norway, Italy and Belgium — food consumption trends are examined. The movement towards healthier eating (internationally) is documented and discussed, and underlying factors which influence the consumer are mentioned. The five countries selected demonstrate many of the typical characteristics of the developed world's eating habits. Probable future trends are listed.
MICROBIOLOGICAL QUALITY ASSURANCE PROCEDURES IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY
Authors: Kilsby D.C.
Published: February 2008

In spite of microbiological Quality Assurance (QA), which has been employed for many years to guarantee the quality of food products in their early stages, food poisoning outbreaks are still increasing. Although food handlers must be educated still further in matters of hygiene, QA (on the microbiological analysis of food) should not be allowed to rest on its laurels, and its present limitations and possible improvements in its specifics and applications are treated here.
CONSUMER ATTITUDES TOWARDS MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS
Authors: Woodward Judith
Published: February 2008

Trends in the intake of meat and meat products are brought into focus here. Whilst price has always been a major consideration, this is now being strongly challenged as a determinant of consumption as concern for health gradually increases in the public awareness. These issues are observed from various angles including age and income, but it is still difficult to present a conclusive view of future tendencies.
IMITATION DAIRY PRODUCTS – THE IDENTITY PROBLEM
Authors: Walker David
Published: February 2008

In January 1988, the Institute of Trading Standards Administration published a report, Imitation Dairy Products — The Identity Problem, highlighting problems facing the dairy industry and consumers alike, given the profusion of alternative foodstuffs which “mimic” their dairy counterpart. Based on the report the principal causes for concern are reviewed in some detail.
MICROBIAL QUALITY OF ICE CUBES: A SURVEY
Authors: Murphy Fiona J. , Mepham Philip
Published: February 2008

A survey of licensed premises in Leeds was carried out during 1986. The quality of ice was investigated and survey sheets were completed. Hygienic practices were found to be poor and contamination of the ice was found to have occurred, largely due to staff not following manufacturers' instructions in the use of ice‐making machines, and to handling the ice as opposed to using a utensil. A wider study is recommended.
FOOD LAW HARMONISATION WITHIN THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY
Authors: Jukes D.J.
Published: February 2008

With the agreement to achieve an “internal market” by the end of 1992, the European Community has introduced a new timetable for food law harmonisation. This timetable is only the latest attempt to harmonise European food law. Many delays have occurred since the first Directive was agreed in 1962. The first attempts at harmonisation, the different programmes which have been formulated and the development of case law at the European Court are examined and then aspects of the current policies are discussed.
THE POTATO MARKET IN BRITAIN
Authors: Hinton Lynn
Published: February 2008

It is demonstrated that larger producers are not only more efficient in the use of resources but they also market higher quality potatoes. These producers, few in number compared with the total, grow a large proportion of the potatoes now; but the important question is, do recent policy developments give such producers the freedom to expand quickly enough, which is synonymous with our achieving efficiency in the potato sector as a whole? Changes in the size structure of potato production have been slow. At the same time yield increases mean that we can get the same production from a smaller area. The implications of the declining production area and for the reducing number of producers, and for freeing successful growers to expand, suggest a policy of quota and price support is in conflict with a free market economy which would ensure an efficient and viable potato sector through competition within it.
CONCEPT TESTING: A DISCUSSION
Authors: Chapman Alison
Published: February 2008

Concept development, evaluation and testing in the new (food) product development situation are reviewed. An analysis is made of why, how and when to concept test, based on previous authors' work and various pre‐product launch situations. Emphasis is made of concept testing's validity and its use as an aid in successful product development. The use of concept testing during the reformulation of existing products is considered in depth — an area which has previously lacked adequate appraisal. The flexibility of concept testing is highlighted in particular case study examples, reflecting a feeling that concept testing should not be isolated within the new product development process.
RETAILING POLICIES FOR EGGS: THE IMPLICATIONS OF CHANGES IN CONSUMER ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOUR
Authors: Lewis Barbara R. , Bashin Anita
Published: February 2008

Consumption of fresh food such as fish, wholemeal bread, fruit and vegetables is rising, but this is not the case with eggs, whose sales are falling. Changes in the structure of egg retailing and in consumer eating habits are considered. The role of fresh foodstuffs generally in a company's competitive strategy are considered.
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LAWS AND REGULATIONS ON COMPOSITIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR YOGURT IN EC MEMBER STATES
Authors: Pappas Christophoros P.
Published: February 2008

Differences in laws and regulations concerning the basic materials, optional ingredients and food additives authorised in yogurt manufacture in each EC member state were studied. Not many differences exist regarding the basic materials. However, considerable differences exist with respect to optional ingredients and food additives. Legal provisions for different yogurt types and other requirements were also studied.
BRIEFING ON LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES
Authors: Verner Wheelock J.
Published: February 2008

The current position on Listeria monocytogenes is reviewed.
Models for determining depot location
Authors: Eilon  , Watson‐Gandy C.D.T.
Published: February 2008

A model for the location of depots is described; the model being a reconciliation between the ‘Feasible Set’ approach and the ‘Infinite Set’ approach, both of which have distinct advantages.
Integrated distribution systems: a management perspective
Authors: LA LONDE BERNARD J. , GRABNER JOHN R. , ROBESON JAMES F.
Published: February 2008

The paper focuses on three main issues. First, an attempt is made to define more clearly alternative approaches to the development of integrated distribution systems. There follows a discussion of some of the primary reasons or causes for increased management interest in effective distribution during the 1950s and 1960s.
THE ANALYSIS OF EUROPEAN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Authors: Wills Gordon , Magrill Leonard , Cooper Allen
Published: February 2008

Efficient, or seemingly efficient, distribution of goods and services is something most of us take for granted most of the time in western advanced economic systems. Yet, as catastrophes and wars have repeatedly shown, a distribution system is a sophisticated and often fragile institutional phenomenon. In the face of such fragility and sophistication we tend to over‐compensate; we tend to generate excess capacity to meet almost any demand. Our understanding of channels of distribution and the complex relationships within them is accordingly adolescent rather than mature. During the coming decade, as the economies of the nine E.E.C. countries seek to adapt to their rapidly changing environments, there seems little room for doubt that greater maturity will be necessary and that it will emerge. Here we seek to discuss two conceptual constructs as the basis for understanding movement from adolescence to early maturity. Firstly, we explore the total systems approach; then we shall take a look at the use of comparative analytical method.
TRANSPORT REPLACEMENT POLICY: STATUS REPORT
Authors: Cooke Peter
Published: February 2008

The costs of physical distribution, like the costs of production or marketing, consist of a number of elements whose prices are frequently determined independently and without apparent reference to each other. In the same way that production costs can be controlled by varying the inputs of capital, raw materials and labour according to their current cost relationships; or the efficiency of a marketing programme maximised through judicious adjustment of the marketing mix, so can the costs of physical distribution be minimised by scientific warehouse location, inventory control, transport mix analysis, containerisation and route planning. Widespread application of operational research techniques, industrial engineering and marketing research mean that the spectacular savings available in the past in marketing and production have been achieved.
The Marketing/Logistics Interface
Authors: SCHARY PHILIP B. , BECKER BORIS W.
Published: February 2008

This monograph progresses from a consideration of definitional issues to the development of a conceptual model for marketing‐logistics interaction and finally to a discussion of the issues of implementation of the model within the context of marketing strategy. Thus, following an introduction, Part II begins with definition of the field and examines the position of physical distribution in relation to marketing. Part III discusses the relationship of physical distribution and macro‐marketing, and is thus concerned about the social, aggregative goals of logistics systems, including the costs of distribution. Part IV continues this argument, examining specifically the influence of physical distribution on channel structure. Part V then focuses on the assumptions underlying the customer service function, asking how physical distribution can influence final demand in the market place. Part VI presents a conceptual model of marketing‐logistics demand stimulation. The operational issues concerned with its implementation are shown in Part VII; and a summary of the relevant points is presented in Part VIII. The concern has been not with presenting either new computational models nor empirical data but with presenting a new perspective on the marketing‐logistics interface. There is a need to reduce the barriers between these fields and to present more useful ways for co‐operation.
The Advantages of Air Cargo Distribution in Perspective
Authors: Slater A.G.
Published: February 2008

One of the most difficult dilemmas facing industry today is the increasing cost of distribution. This is true for both incoming and outgoing supplies. The major trends in the last decade have been: the increase in industrial and consumer purchasing power; rapidly developing technology which has given rise to economies of large‐scale production; and there has been an increasing significance placed upon manufacturing productivity improvements. These trends have resulted in lower production costs; the need for geographically wider markets; and the acquisition of those management skills that are necessary to support such developments. In the last few years certain management emphasis has been placed upon minimising the rapid upward trend in administration and distribution costs. These have often more than offset any cost reduction achieved in production, with the result of a marginal price increase to the final customer. Those fields in which most advances have been made are automatic data processing and machine accounting. But the highest cost increases have often occurred within the physical distribution system. Since international marketing has developed to satisfy the extensive industrial and consumer needs, it is imperative that management realise the impact of distribution costs upon both inputs to the manufacturing process and the final product or services which they offer. The need has, therefore, arisen for senior management to tackle these problems, and air cargo distribution has recently begun to be considered, and will be increasingly important in the future.
A Note on the Application of Linear Programming to a Distribution System Orientated Toward Service
Authors: Haessler Robert W.
Published: February 2008

A recent article by Marien developed a linear programming model for determining the minimum cost pattern for purchasing and shipping commodities subject to a constraint in the level of service provided. The approach taken is first to describe the problem in terms of network theory. Although this is theoretically correct it leads to an unnecessarily complex discussion of what is basically a very simple problem. More importantly it leads to a mathematical model for the sample problem presented that has 23 constraints when only 4 are needed. This fact can be extremely important to anyone who is considering using the model on a “real” problem involving many more product‐shipment combinations. Following is an alternate representation of the problem in a form which lends itself much more readily to extension to larger problems and to matrix generation.
A Manufacturer's View on Servicing
Authors: Jobson Roger
Published: February 2008

In the context of a brief look at the satisfaction of family grocery needs in the remainder of this decade, which should by now be fairly predictable, and more speculatively, beyond 1980, this paper introduces the current situation as a basis on which to project likely development.
Communications Forum
Authors: Kitchin P.D.
Published: February 2008

The transport route used is one of the variables in international marketing. This short paper will discuss the impact on the choice of route resulting from two factors—namely, the use of c.i.f. values (values including carriage insurance and freight) for tariff liability purposes; and the act of joining a customs union.
Developing Customer Service Policies
Authors: Christopher Martin , Wills Gordon
Published: February 2008

Customer service levels are seen as the linchpin of an effective marketing logistics strategy for any company. Careful consideration is given to the components of customer service and each element is examined to identify its cost and revenue aspects. Segmented customer service policies are reviewed and taxonomic criteria proposed. The trade‐offs within the total logistics mix which are concomitant with changes in service offered are examined. Equally, a distinction is drawn between subjective service levels (i.e., displayed availability at point‐of‐purchase/use) and objective service levels. Control procedures to monitor the operational management of service levels decided upon are enumerated and procedures for interpreting customer complaints described. Experimental approaches are proposed by which managements can seek to move towards more cost effective service policies.
Location Analysis: the Decision‐making Process
Authors: Westwood J.B.
Published: February 2008

The location of economic facilities has existed as a problem for some considerable time, yet its emergence as an integral part of total distribution planning seems quite recent. The development of techniques to solve particular, well defined problems has resulted in a wide range of algorithms, heuristics and simulation programs. Several of these are “packaged” by consulting organisations and indeed are quite successful in solving that part of the problem which can be represented in the required format. The role of location in the concept of total distribution is, however, rather more complex. For this reason, it is instructive to examine the progress of locational analysis from its origins in analytical geometry through the work of the economic geographers to the current emphasis on the systems approach to distribution. It is then possible to investigate how the historical development of the problem has influenced the decision‐making process, and to what extent this influence is now desirable.
Distribution and Environmental Concerns: The Beverage Container Problem
Authors: Gudger Charles M. , Bailes Jack C.
Published: February 2008

The growth of one‐way distribution systems and throw‐away packaging has contributed to the world's excess consumption of resources and energy and to the increased generation of solid waste. The state of Oregon has demonstrated that costs and wastes in the area of beverage distribution and packaging can be reduced substantially even in the throw‐away oriented United States. This article reviews the contribution of beverage container packaging to the overall problems of resource usage, and waste management, and presents empirical data on Oregon's experience. Finally, the article considers the implications of mandatory beverage container deposits for decisions concerning manufacturing location and physical distribution.
A Profile of the UK Distribution Executive and his Organisational Responsibilities
Authors: Buxton Graham , Lee Let
Published: February 2008

One of the basic problems hindering effective implementation of the physical distribution management (PDM) concept in many companies today is organisational rigidity. By this is meant the inability and unwillingness of management to respond to the changing demands of new concepts and new techniques inherent in the successful adoption of PDM in existing corporate organisations. This rigidity manifests itself in two related ways: firstly, in the relationships structure within an organisation, and the place of physical distribution relative to other functional areas in management, such as marketing, production, finance, etc., and secondly, in the characteristics of distribution executives and their perceived role within an organisation.
A Simple Model for Multi‐stage Distribution
Authors: Lockett A.G. , Westwood J.B.
Published: February 2008

The analysis of multi‐stage distribution has been carried out along three dimensions, depending on the characteristics of the particular problem. These are location, transportation and inventory and while simple problems can be successfully solved using any one of the three approaches, it is fair to say that the analysis of a complex distribution system has been limited by computer storage and the time required by the search and optimising procedures. In this paper we develop a simple inventory‐type model and test it on a small set of data. The results are encouraging and the model can easily be extended to handle a more realistic size of problem.
Inventory Models: An Alternative
Authors: Lancioni Richard A. , Lex Frank
Published: February 2008

The control of inventory in physical distribution management is perhaps one of the most difficult tasks for the industry practitioner. Inventory is one of the largest cost elements in distribution and an error in judgment may result in serious trouble for the firm. According to Bowersox the basic function of inventory is to increase profitability through manufacturing and marketing, but the exact quantities of inventory to be carried are not often agreed to by management. Some departments such as marketing may want an abundance of inventory, while finance desires that levels be kept down. Because of such conflicts the exact determination of what levels of inventory a firm should carry is not easily performed.
Developing Distribution Channels and Systems in the Emerging Recycling Industries
Authors: Guiltinan Joseph P. , Nwokoye Nonyelu G.
Published: February 2008

Introduction Although the social and economic benefits of recycling are widely recognised, the development of effective recycling programmes has not proceeded at a swift pace. In large measure, this is due to technological problems and to the lack of effective and efficient performance of those distribution functions which are of primary importance in recycling.
Inventory Carrying Costs: Significance, Components, Means, Functions
Authors: La Londe Bernard J. , Lambert Douglas M.
Published: February 2008

Inventory carrying costs comprise a number of different cost components and generally represent one of the highest costs in the physical distribution system. This, combined with the fact that inventory levels are influenced by the configuration of the logistics system, demonstrates the need for an accurate assessment of inventory carrying costs if the appropriate cost tradeoffs are to be made within the firm. Currently, most of the companies that consider the costs of holding inventory use estimates or traditional industry benchmarks. In fact, many corporations do not consider inventory carrying costs in decision making although such costs are substantial and real. Although a number of authors have addressed the types of costs that should be considered and have estimated that such costs range from 12% to 35%, there is not a generally accepted methodology for determining inventory carrying costs or for that matter even a framework for developing such costs. The purpose of this article is to present a methodology, based on existing literature in the fields of accounting, distribution and production, that can be used by managers to determine the cost of carrying inventory for their companies. In addition to providing a framework that can be applied in the “real world”, some specific uses for the inventory carrying cost figure are explored.
Personality Typologies of the Retail Service Innovator
Authors: Van Auken Stuart
Published: February 2008

Introduction The fact that innovativeness is not a generalised across‐product category phenomenon serves to open it to individual market analysis. Consider, for example, that the characteristics of the appliance innovator and grocery product innovator are not identical. As a result, studies of an idiosyncratic nature appear to be highly desirable. Yet, studies of the innovator in the retail service sector have been extremely limited. For example, the only published studies in this area have involved word‐of‐mouth communication patterns for an automotive diagnostic service and the degree of innovator overlap between grocery product and service innovators.
A Generalised Distribution Model and its Applications
Authors: Ravindran Arunachalam
Published: February 2008

Introduction In this paper, a generalised distribution problem is considered which differs from the classical transportation problem in the following respects:
Solving the Dynamic Warehouse Location Problem
Authors: Khumawala B.M. , Clay Whybark D.
Published: February 2008

A very important concern of physical distribution managers is deciding the location of warehouses (distribution centres or depots). It is, therefore, not surprising that this location problem has been receiving considerable research attention and indeed, some impact has been made in actual industrial warehouse location decisions. The interested reader is referred to the expository articles, which describe both the theoretical developments and some practical applications of the theory.
Physical Distribution as a Business Risk
Authors: Ray David
Published: February 2008

Business Risk Business risk is the risk, facing the investor, that a company's management will be able to generate sufficient net operating profit, after tax and before payment of fixed interest. The bottom line profit, i.e. net of interest, takes into account financial risk as well; however here we are not concerned with the financial gearing of the company, but solely in assessing business risk.
World Register of Current Research
Authors: Walters David
Published: February 2008

The Register of Current Research in the field of Physical Distribution Management has been compiled from the response to a request for such information made to Universities in 23 countries throughout the world. The last register was published in 1972 in this journal.
A Logistics Review for the Small Company
Authors: Love Thomas J. , Gilmour Peter
Published: February 2008

In general small companies have not taken advantage of the potential of integrated physical distribution management to reduce costs, improve customer service and increase profits. This is because the most publicised corporate distribution studies have used, as the tool for analysis, large computer simulation models. This paper reviews the distribution operation of Castrol (Australia) Pty. Ltd. a relatively small company involved in the blending and distribution of oil products. All analyses discussed were carried out on a pocket calculator. The procedures described provide a framework for other small companies to follow when evaluating their distribution operations.
Marketing Logistics and Consumerism
Authors: Wills Gordon
Published: February 2008

Consumerism today, like trades unionism some century ago, is a pre‐dominantly middle class concern. It provides an avenue for the articulate who are dis‐satisfied with the economic balance of power in our society and/or its emphasis on materialism, to walk along. That it should have become so is a matter for deep concern to marketing professionals since it was supposedly their philosophy and belief that they were in communion with customers and their role in a business was to ensure that it was meeting those customers needs and wants. We must surely share with Peter Drucker the judgement that “consumerism is the shame on the total marketing concept”. That consumers should need to formalise their viewpoint by the development of such an institutional process as consumerism has become, is an indictment of what marketing claimed to be in the business.
Consumerism and Technological Change: Tne Case of the Automatic Checkout
Authors: Bloom Gordon F.
Published: February 2008

In 1966, the Kroger Company, America's third largest supermarket chain invited a group of equipment manufacturers to attend a seminar devoted to the subject of technological needs of the food industry. At the top of the list of suggested ideas generated at that conference was the automatic checkout. Today, almost ten years later, the technology of the automated checkout has been perfected and operating equipment is now being tested in supermarkets in various parts of the United States. But instead of finding that consumers welcome this cost‐saving innovation in food distribution, the supermarket industry today finds itself embroiled in an unforeseen battle with consumer activists who are violently opposed to an important aspect of the new checkout system—the removal of price from food packages.
Problems of Goods Movement in Urban Areas: The Chichester Study
Authors: Turner C.G , Blundell G.F.
Published: February 2008

For more than a decade the number and size of freight vehicles on British roads has been growing. A broad indication of the extent of this growth is set out in Table I.
Franchisee Satisfaction: Causes and Consequences
Authors: Lusch Robert F.
Published: February 2008

A trend has been developing in the United States towards the use of vertical marketing systems. Of the many types of vertical marketing systems, franchising has become one of the most dominant. This is evidenced, in part, by the nearly one‐third of retail sales in 1973 that were through franchised retailers (US Department of Commerce, 1974). The success of the franchise form of distribution hinges upon franchisors and franchisees both contributing skills and resources, frequently however franchisees and franchisors become dissatisfied with the other's contributions and actions. This dis‐satisfaction in some cases leads to substantial friction. Although it is not clear that conflict (friction) will always decrease channel efficiency it is probably safe to assume that continued conflict would be dysfunctional in a franchise channel. It is therefore the purpose of this article to discuss and empirically test several propositions about the franchisee's satisfaction with his franchisor.
Physical Distribution: Has It Reached Maturity?
Authors: Johnson James C. , Borger Donald L.
Published: February 2008

In 1966, Professor Donald J. Bowersox mused that the acceptance of the physical distribution (logistics) concept was in “semi‐maturity”. The question then becomes—now, more than a decade later, has the concept of physical distribution reached maturity? Today, most senior executives at least recognise that physical distribution activities generally represent a significant expense item to their firms. While their respective views of the importance of physical distribution vary, most can empathise with this anonymous observation: “Line executives are a happily blessed race who radiate confidence and power. They stride confidently. They can develop a new pathway to greater profits by using decisive words and gestures. However, each line executive usually has one or more logisticians riding on his back. He knows that, at any moment, the logisticians may lean forward and whisper, “No, you can't do that”.”
Distribution Systems Analysis
Authors: Davis Jeremy
Published: February 2008

This paper is concerned with the application of systems analysis to problems of physical distribution. The principles of systems analysis and the concepts of the systems approach are outlined. Physical distribution is described as a set of major subsystems. The objective of this analysis is to provide a generalised framework for the solution of physical distribution problems. It may be noted that in the United Kingdom, systems analysis has come to be used in a narrower sense and to be concerned primarily with the design and specification of computer systems. In this paper, it is used in the wider sense, and for an appreciation the reader's attention is drawn to collections of papers by Emery, Opfner and Beishon and Peters. The use of a problem solving methodology is not unique to systems analysis except in the sense that systems analysis defines a particular process of problem solution. Similar processes are used in industrial engineering, method study, operational research, value analysis and management accounting. Other analyses of physical distribution systems are equally valid. That presented in this paper identifies a series of distribution units in the chain of distribution. It seeks to define the subsystems within each unit. The approach relies heavily on a series of diagrams which is intended to give a visual image of the relationships between elements in the chain.
The Product Life Cycle: Vehicle for Fashioning & Purchasing Strategy
Authors: Rink David R.
Published: February 2008

Development of Research ProblemThe needs, wants, and desires of industrial customers are fulfilled in a market environment epitomised by exchanges between buyers and sellers. Both of these parties execute strategic moves which are intended to perpetuate their existence as well as optimise the use of available resources. While the over‐riding ambition of the investigator was to identify a model‐form which might serve as a reference for substantiating certain strategic moves by corporate purchasing executives, the more immediate desire was to test empirically the validity of applying such a theory to purchasing. The conceptual model‐form was hypothesised by Berenson. He posited it would answer some of the questions raised by purchasing executives concerning guidelines for establishing purchasing strategy as well as for setting priorities among strategies. The concept was the product life cycle (PLC) theory.
How to Cut Transportation Costs Whilst Maintaining Service Levels—A Case Study
Authors: Corkindale David
Published: February 2008

A case study is presented which shows how savings of some 16% in annual running costs were achieved for a large, internal transportation system. The method of analysis and implementation that were used are believed to be applicable to a wide variety of transportation systems. The original system consisted of the total area served being split into separately operating sub‐areas. There was little sharing of jobs and facilities between areas. The new system created larger operating areas so that greater sharing of facilities ensued. The estimation of the ideal operating area size has to balance increased unloaded travel time between jobs against greater potential utilisation of facilities. A simple mathematical model was derived to enable the necessary calculations to be undertaken. This also produced a measure of “service” for judging the performance of alternative systems.
A Frame of Reference for Managing Working Capital in Retailing
Authors: Lusch Robert F. , Kenderdine James M.
Published: February 2008

Between 1970 and 1976 the competitive and economic environment in which retailers operated experienced a turbulence unprecedented in recent history. During this period the compression of institutional life cycles coupled with dramatic shifts in consumer life styles plagued many retailers. In addition, a web of other factors, such as steadily increasing interest rates and inflation, a heightening of inter‐type competition and the competitive entry pressure created by a large inventory of vacant retail space, made it increasingly difficult to both assess and predict the environment. These environmental conditions have intensified pressures on retailers to improve their profit performance, both to insure survival in an increasingly uncertain environment and to provide a basis for future growth. At the same time, these conditions have exacerbated the retailer's problems in trying to obtain new capital. Unable to generate sufficient capital internally to finance both market repositioning and new growth, retailers have found themselves in many instances unable to afford the costs of new debt (if indeed they had the capacity to support it). At the same time, investor uncertainty, regarding both the future and the ability of retailers to adapt to it, has reduced the flow of new equity capital into retailing to a bare trickle. In short, retailers during this period have recognised the critical need to manage capital more efficiently.
Multinational Procurement: Corporate Parent versus Subsidiary Perceptions
Authors: Toyne Brian
Published: February 2008

The international purchasing function is a critical element in the multinational enterprise's (MNE's) formulation of functionally integrated international policy and strategy and the implementation of strategy. A firm should have some understanding of the markets in which it operates as a consumer or buyer, since possible changes in resource or supplier markets can affect decisions related to the firm's marketing, production, and integration strategies. The supply consideration of MNEs represents risk and opportunity and may, as a result, have a significant influence on net income flows, both in the short and long run. Davis et al provides empirical evidence for assuming that the MNE's international procurement process influences and is influenced by its technological process, R & D, and product categories.
Measuring Customer Response to Stock‐Outs
Authors: Miklas W.E.
Published: February 2008

Traditionally, the distribution activities of a firm have been regarded solely as a cost of doing business. Because of this orientation, the analytical techniques applied to the solutions of problems in this area have tended to be optimising models aimed at reducing total cost subject to various constraints. Typically, service levels were incorporated either as an absolute level requirement so that the specific demand restricted the optimising technique or as an opportunity cost of lost sales with this cost included as a part of the total objective function to be minimised.
Optimising the Location‐Allocation Problem with Multiple Objectives
Authors: Lee Sang M. , Sharp Franz Lori
Published: February 2008

The location‐allocation problem involves multiple shipping destinations, with known demands for a given product and known transportation costs from sources to destinations. The problem is to determine the number of facilities and their locations in order to best service the shipping destinations. This paper presents an approach to facility location which allows the analysis of multiple conflicting goals as an extension of previous solution approaches. Specifically, the paper applies the branch and bound integer goal programming approach to the location‐allocation problem.
Distribution Capacity Planning: The Long‐Term Problem
Authors: Cadotte Ernest R.
Published: February 2008

How large should a distribution facility be initially? What size additions to the facility should be planned and when? For example, should a regional distribution centre be built to accommodate the projected inventory volume at the time of its completion or the projected volume some five, ten or fifteen years in the future? Should investments in the building and the materials handling system coincide or be planned separately? Finally, can planned expansions be economically postponed by temporarily leasing outside space or by temporarily expanding the work force to achieve above‐capacity utilisation of the existing facility?
Key Issues in Procurement Strategy in Advanced Technology Organisations
Authors: Schill Ronald L.
Published: February 2008

Recent years of shortages, inflation, and rapid advances in technologies causing product obsolescence and tremendous cost decreases—such as integrated circuits—have had pronounced effects on procurement strategy. This article examines several key issues which will shape procurement strategy in advanced technology organisations over the next decade.
Shipper Attitudes Toward Freight Transportation Choice: A Factor Analytic Study
Authors: McGinnis Michael A.
Published: February 2008

Several variables are widely regarded as affecting the shippers' transportation choice process. Early analyses of transportation choice by Meyer et and by Friedlaender emphasised rates and inventory costs as important determinants of transportation choice. Later, Ballou and DeHayes discussed the effect of transportation reliability on inventory levels, particularly that variation in delivery times increases inventory levels even when average delivery time remains constant. The Baumol and Vinod model of transportation choice considered freight rates, speed, reliability (variance in speed) as well as loss and damage. Finally, Neuschel recognised the logistics concept requires that the economics of transportation must be balanced with company policies and customer considerations such as manufacturing, warehousing, and customer service.
The Export Shipping Manager in the UK
Authors: Davies G.J. , Gray R.
Published: February 2008

The place of the international physical distribution function (or shipping function as it is conventionally called in the United Kingdom) has been largely neglected in the area of logistics or physical distribution studies. This neglect, in particular of the export shipping function, is surprising in a country such as the United Kingdom which is so dependent upon international trade. The export shipping function cannot be regarded as merely an extension of the domestic physical distribution function. In many instances it has separate personnel who undertake a range of functions which may, individually, be just as closely associated with finance and accounting as with physical distribution. The separate tradition of the export shipping function means that it may not be conveniently accommodated into a logistics framework which attempts to integrate the domestic and international movement of goods.
Scheduling: Bibliography & Review
Authors: King John R. , Spachis Alexander S.
Published: February 2008

Scheduling is defined by Baker as, “the allocation of resources over time to perform a collection of tasks”. The term facilities is often used instead of resources and the tasks to be performed may involve a variety of different operations.
The Importance of Logistics in the UK Economy
Authors: Childerley Angela
Published: February 2008

In recent years, interest in logistics has been growing rapidly, mainly because it is believed to be one of the few areas remaining in business where substantial economies may be made. Despite this interest, comparatively little attention has been directed towards establishing the overall importance of logistics in the UK—an omission this paper seeks to rectify. Logistics is defined by Bowersox as: “… a term which denotes a total approach to the management of the distribution process including all of those activities involved in physically moving raw materials, in process inventory and finished goods inventory from point of origin to point of use or consumption”. In other words, logistics combines the traditionally defined areas of materials management and physical distribution, as shown in Figure 1.
Do Managers Really Know what Service their Customers Require?
Authors: Marr Norman E.
Published: February 2008

Ask any manager what aspects of customer service are important to his customer and he may be able to tell you. An examination of the replies received from the various management roles will, however, often show a misunderstanding of what are important aspects of customer service to the customer.
The Effect of Range Size on Distribution Costs
Authors: McLaren K.G.
Published: February 2008

Increasing specialisation and segmentation of the market, combined with the reduced growth in some areas, has resulted over the last few years in a big increase in product ranges, particularly in frozen foods. This growth has tended to reduce the volume of the major lines by fragmentation and has produced an increasing number of lines whose sales are very small. At the same time costs have been rising steadily in most areas, not least in physical distribution, which accounts for between 15 per cent and 25 per cent of total costs. It is the view of many people responsible for distribution that one significant cause of the rise of distribution costs has been the proliferation of product lines and the consequent complexity of operations which result from this.
A Case Study in Comparing Overseas Shipping Alternatives via Simulation
Authors: McDermott Dennis R. , Stinson Joel , Koprowski Eugene
Published: February 2008

Physical distribution managers are being increasingly challenged in today's global economy by the complexities of international distribution. In this activity, a particular need exists in co‐ordinating the roles of marketing, production and distribution so that adequate support is given to allow the achievement‐of sales goals in the most efficient manner. Generally, very significant time lags exist between the time a customer need is identified and the project is made available, in the case of consumer products, on the retailer's shelf. If a US firm manufactures products overseas for import to US markets, for example, such time lags are three months or more, thus making the planning process very critical in attaining the objective of adequate product availability at the lowest cost.
A Multicriteria Warehouse Location Model
Authors: Green Gary I. , Kim Chang S. , Lee Sang M.
Published: February 2008

Determination of new warehouse locations is an important managerial decision. The problem typically involves a number of considerations such as cost per distance of distribution to and from the warehouse, volume of distribution, fixed and variable site costs, service performance of the warehouse and potential increases in demand (or service), as well as many other factors. The economic significance of warehouse location decisions is increasing, particularly due to expected increases in transportation costs, competition for market share and changing demand patterns.
The Declining Rate of Return on Capital in US Retailing
Authors: Ingene Charles A. , Lusch Robert F.
Published: February 2008

Retailing is the marketing institution with which consumers have the most immediate and frequent contact. As such, consumers should be concerned with how the behaviour and performance of retailers will impact on them. While the consumer may not be explicitly aware of it, the rate of return (RoR) on capital invested in retailing has both instantaneous and temporal impacts on consumer well‐being. When the RoR is high, relative to the cost of capital, retail prices are probably higher than they need be. However, this high RoR may persuade other investors (i.e. potential retailers) to enter the market, thereby eventually lowering prices and increasing product availability.
Physical Distribution from the Practitioner's Point of View
Authors: Granzin Kent L.
Published: February 2008

Although one recent study concluded that physical distribution has reached semi‐maturity, the structure of the field has yet to be clearly defined. Despite the attempts of practitioners and academicians alike to portray PD, writers in the field have not provided a comprehensive, databased description of its structure which can be widely referred to the various firms engaged in distribution.That is, we still do not have generalisable empirical evidence on what constitutes the areas of PD and how they are related to one another.