bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Natural Language Processing and Intelligent Computer‐Assisted Language Learning (ICALL)
Authors: Lu Xiaofei
Published: January 2018

Natural language processing (NLP) is an interdisciplinary field of linguistics, computer science, and artificial intelligence that studies the use of computers to automatically analyze, understand, and generate human language in spoken or written form. The language processing capabilities of NLP technologies have myriad applications in computer‐assisted language learning (CALL), and the area of research that explores and implements such applications is referred to as intelligent CALL, or ICALL. This chapter provides an overview of three broad types of applications of NLP technologies in ICALL, the first based on analyses of authentic text in the target language, the second based on analyses of learner text, and the third using a composite of NLP technologies to build dialogue systems that allow learners to interact with conversational agents in meaningful and coherent ways. Both the theoretical motivations and the pedagogical affordances of these applications are discussed.
CALL(Computer‐Assisted Language Learning)
Authors: Kessler Greg
Published: January 2018

This entry presents an overview of the field of CALL (computer‐assisted language learning). This introduction to the field includes a brief history and evolution of CALL, which has benefited from dramatic technological developments. Current practices and concerns are addressed as well as pedagogical implications. Some anticipated future developments are also presented with a focus upon how teachers may prepare for the changing landscape of language teaching and technology use.
CALL(Computer‐Assisted Language Learning) Research
Authors: Hegelheimer Volker , Li Zhi , Dursun Ahmet
Published: January 2018

The technologies made available for teaching, learning, and researching of language have resulted in investigations of issues on computer‐assisted language learning. As new technologies emerge and are employed in language teaching and learning, new research opportunities to investigate questions about language learning and language teaching through technology arise. This chapter explores the roles CALL has played in learning and teaching, highlights relevant research, and suggests recommendations.
Social Networking
Authors: Jabbari Nasser , Boriack Anna W. , Barohona Elba , Padrón Yolanda N. , Waxman Hersh C.
Published: January 2018

Social networking or social media refers to computer‐mediated communication tools that enable users to connect through World Wide Web with a vast number of other users. Social networking allows faster and efficient flow of information among members of community groups around the world. The notion of utilizing social networking sites as resourceful settings for language‐learning purposes is important for two reasons: (a) the emerging new technologies (i.e., Web 2.0 tools) can enhance the opportunities for language learners to use their second language in authentic situations, and (b) the increasing tech‐savvy generation of language learners whose learning habits are incompatible with traditional language‐learning settings and approaches. Second‐language teachers can use social networking tools to improve the process of learning a second language as students engage and communicate with each other.
Speech Recognition
Authors: Liaw Meei‐Ling
Published: January 2018

In today's world where technology and media are growing fast, language educators have at their disposal a whole array of cutting‐edge tools to make their teaching more effective and far‐reaching. The application of speech recognition (SR) technology is certainly one of them. Although reliability and sophistication vary in commercial and educational speech applications, today's speech technology is laying firm groundwork for the ultimate goal of totally natural human/computer speech interaction. As the technology improves in its accuracy and accessibility, its uses for teaching and learning new languages are becoming common. In this entry, the core features of SR are first introduced to help readers understand how SR is becoming an important component of computer‐assisted language learning (CALL). Studies looking into the effectiveness of using SR‐based CALL for the learning and teaching of language skills are then reviewed. Finally, practical applications and recommendations that practitioners can employ with their students to take advantage of SR technologies are provided.
Situated Learning in
CALL
Teacher Education
Authors: McNeil Levi
Published: January 2018

Situated learning explains that thinking and learning are inseparable from the physical and social contexts in which they occur. Although bound by this common assumption, there are two broad views of the situated nature of knowing and learning. Both guide teaching approaches that attempt to connect concepts and skills with the situations that give them meaning and value but realize this focus in different ways. This summary discusses views of situated learning related to situated cognition and communities of practice and considers their implications for computer‐assisted language learning (CALL) teacher education.
Technology for Teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Writing
Authors: Pérez Cañado María Luisa
Published: January 2018

This entry focuses on the way in which technology has impacted the process and pedagogy of EFL writing. It will begin by identifying, classifying, and describing the chief technological aids which can be employed to teach EFL writing within the integrative CALL stage, together with their affordances. It will then summarize the effects which, according to the latest research, these tools have had on the writing process and its outcomes. Finally, it will gloss the most outstanding pedagogical implications which can be derived from the foregoing studies for the application of technology to EFL writing instruction.
Technology for Teaching English as a Second Language (
ESL
) Writing
Authors: Bloch Joel
Published: January 2018

The impact of technology on teaching writing has been discussed since Plato first argued that the technology of literacy can affect memory. The development of moveable type and the printing press further impacted both the writing process and how literacy affects society. However, it was the invention of the computer and the subsequent technologies developed later that have inexorably linked technology and the teaching of writing. Most significantly the personal computer facilitated the process approaches that were developed during the same period. The development of networks, first local and later the global Internet and Web, would impact how texts were created and shared. The Web has fostered new literacy spaces where new forms of digital literacies have emerged: blogs, wikis, emails, tweets, chats, fan fiction, and Vines are some of the technologically enhanced literacies that have developed, mostly outside the classroom. New spaces for language learning—Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), hybrid and flipped classes—have been created by connecting various forms of technology with potential learners. Faced with the growing number of digital literacies and technologically enhanced rhetorical contexts, teachers must decide the impact of each technology on student literacy and how to remedy the shortcomings of one technology, sometimes with the implementation of other technologies.
Technology for Teaching Reading
Authors: Cobb Tom
Published: January 2018

A written page is inherently technological, and any interaction with a text, from producing it to reading it, is an interaction with a technology. Modern communication technologies build upon and expand this interaction, providing a number of opportunities and challenges for readers, particularly of L2s. The challenges to reading in the modern technological or hypertext era include overload and fragmentation. The opportunities are in expanded access, text selection, reader preparation, reader scaffolding, identification of research issues in reading, and testing reading ability. The challenges are inherent in modern media and communication but the opportunities require understanding and intervention.
Technology for Teaching Vocabulary
Authors: López Jersus J. Colmenares
Published: January 2018

Technology for teaching vocabulary in TESOL refers to the pedagogical applications of digital tools, software, and Internet resources for helping learners acquire words—single words, multiword units, and so forth—in the target language. Other common interchangeable terms for this domain are the more general technology‐enhanced language learning (TELL) or computer‐assisted language learning (CALL), and more specific ones such as computer‐assisted vocabulary learning, or technology‐aided vocabulary learning. This brief summary offers a discussion of several issues concerning teachers' knowledge and decisions related to vocabulary acquisition, selection, and teaching with the help of technological resources.
Technology in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Teaching
Authors: Son Jeong‐Bae
Published: January 2018

Technology is widely used in the context of teaching English as a foreign language (EFL), which usually refers to teaching English to non‐native speakers of English in regions where English is not commonly spoken. This paper briefly explores the use of computer technologies in teaching EFL with a quick overview of the development of computer‐assisted language learning (CALL) and a focus on three research areas: computer‐mediated communication (CMC), Web‐based language learning (WBLL), and mobile‐assisted language learning (MALL). It also discusses online tools for language teaching and considers implications for EFL teaching with digital technologies.
Webheads
Authors: Stevens Vance
Published: January 2018

Since before the turn of the 21st century, educators in various Webheads offshoots have been engaged in helping each other pursue lifelong, just‐in‐time, informal learning through experimentation in use of social media, CMC (computer‐mediated communication), and connectivist tools. In addition to utilizing numerous online tools and spaces, Webheads in some guise have met synchronously online at least once weekly since 1998. Perhaps the most remarkable thing about this community is that it thrives completely on the generosity and openness of its members. Apart from a long‐standing grant of an online meeting space from
http://learningtimes.com
it operates without funding or institutional support. This framework has nurtured a wide range of professional development projects and collaborations as well as frequent and innovative connections among students in far corners of the world.
Weblogs
Authors: Bloch Joel
Published: January 2018

Weblogs, or blogs, are a form of online journaling allowing writers to create interactive, multimodal texts that can be shared online. With the development of the World Wide Web and a number of free hosting sites, blogging emerged in the late 1990s as one of the premier author‐centered Web 2.0 technologies that teachers could easily implement in the classroom. Writers could take advantage of the affordances of weblogs to create simple multimodal texts that could be written with whatever linguistic forms and rhetorical devices the students feel most comfortable using and then shared with audiences both inside and outside the classroom. Weblogs could be implemented for a number of rhetorical purposes in composition and language learning classes. They could be used as a heuristic for developing ideas that could be used in other forms of writing. They were a simple way of introducing multimodality and hypertext into the classroom. They could even be used as texts that could be borrowed by students in the creation of new texts. Their use has continually evolved as new supplemental technologies have emerged and as new attitudes toward language developed.
Oral Reading Fluency
Authors: Jeon Eun Hee
Published: January 2018

This entry provides a review of oral reading fluency research in first and second language settings. The significance of oral reading fluency as a prerequisite for reading comprehension is discussed and the challenges unique to using oral reading fluency assessments among second language readers are explained. The entry summarizes current study findings on L2 oral reading fluency and ends with sample exercise designed to develop oral reading fluency.
Silent Reading Fluency
Authors: Anderson Neil J
Published: January 2018

Silent reading fluency is an essential component of a second language reading curriculum. Second language program administrators and curriculum developers should consider explicit ways to establish appropriate silent reading fluency targets for students and provide explicit teacher training for how to increase silent reading fluency within the classroom. This entry provides rationale for why silent reading fluency instruction is needed and five possible classroom applications.
Authentic and Simplified Texts
Authors: Crossley Scott A.
Published: January 2018

This entry focuses on differences between authentic and simplified texts used in second language (L2) reading. The entry provides an overview of the theories for their use, the differences between the text types, and evidence from behavioral studies for the use of both authentic and simplified texts. In general, simplified texts differ from authentic texts in that they provide more accessible language that is lexically less sophisticated, syntactically less complex, and more cohesive overall. These differences tend to make the texts more readable and comprehensible (with some caveats). Pedagogical implications for these findings are discussed.
Comprehension Processes
Authors: Sadeghi Karim
Published: January 2018

The process of text comprehension is primarily a cognitive activity, the true nature of which is still disputed. This entry draws on current research on reading in clarifying the best picture of processes underlying discourse comprehension. In so doing, influential models of reading such as top‐down, bottom‐up, and interactive are surveyed, and two seminal theories proposed to account for comprehension processes (i.e., schema and construction‐integration theories) are discussed. Pedagogical recommendations are then offered to help better comprehension.
Discourse Structures
Authors: Grabe William , Zhang Cui
Published: January 2018

The entry outlines basic aspects of discourse structures in English texts. The entry reviews research foundations for the impact of discourse structures on reading comprehension abilities and reading development. The key research finding with regard to reading development is that discourse structure awareness provides a strategic resource that helps students comprehend more challenging texts, especially informational academic texts. The entry then addresses various ways in which students can be taught strategic awareness of discourse structures.
Interactive Reading Strategies
Authors: Kuzborska Irena
Published: January 2018

Reading is a complex process that involves an array of reading strategies interacting simultaneously and in combinations. Two major groups of strategies are fundamental in reading: strategies for decoding print words, or so‐called lower‐level strategies, and strategies for comprehending a text, or so‐called higher‐level strategies. Readers draw on both groups of strategies to construct meaning, but in line with their intended purpose, employ different combinations of reading a text. While every reader should aim for the rapid and automatic processing of both lower‐level and higher‐level strategies, they should also seek to develop their awareness of these strategies and when faced with reading difficulties, employ them skillfully and appropriately. This summary first clarifies the concept of a reading strategy and then describes the most fundamental reading strategies along with the teaching activities for developing a strategic English reader.
First Language and Second Language Reading
Authors: Grabe William , Jiang Xiangying
Published: January 2018

This article outlines the similarities and differences between reading in a first language (L1) and reading in a second language (L2). L1 and L2 reading comprehension abilities involve the same set of component reading abilities (for example, phonological processing, word recognition, syntactic processing, text meaning integration, inferencing, background knowledge use). However, there are a number of very important differences between L1 and L2 reading. These include linguistic proficiency differences, differences in amount of reading exposure, differences due to background knowledge, and differences due to motivational factors and sociocultural expectations. As L2 proficiency increases, the impact of many of these differences decrease.
Reading as a Social Process
Authors: Jacobs George M. , Shegar Chitra
Published: January 2018

This entry first explores seven ways in which reading is a social process. These ways encompas the social nature of language itself, the many people typically involved in the creation of reading materials, the way that texts portray the interactions of social forces, the interactive nature of the relationship of texts and readers, the role of family in the small children's reading, the impact of educational institutions on students' reading, and the role of peers in what, how, and how much students read. Then, the entry looks more closely at peers' impact on student reading. Two techniques that combine peer interaction and reading are explained, along with principles developed to promote effective peer interaction.
Teacher Preparation for Teaching Reading
Authors: Reynolds Kate Mastruserio
Published: January 2018

Educators teaching the skill of second language reading require specialized knowledge of linguistics, cognition, and reading as well as the ability to convert this information into practical daily instruction (i.e., performance). They need to be inculcated in the dispositions valued by the discipline while being taught in ways congruent with their future teaching. Constructivist‐aligned approaches and techniques for preparing L2 reading teachers by experienced teacher educators are outlined in this entry including demonstrations/modeling, experiential tasks and practical activities.
Advanced‐Level Readers
Authors: David Nick , Hoyos Deborah De
Published: January 2018

As ESL readers progress to more advanced proficiency levels, they face unique challenges. These challenges relate to the rhetorical and grammatical complexity of the texts read, the level of vocabulary comprehension required, the more advanced content faced, and the ways in which these readers must demonstrate their language proficiency. In order for advanced‐level readers to be prepared for the texts and tasks required of them, they should employ bottom‐up and top‐down approaches to reading, and effectively utilize reading strategies. Such strategy use can only take place when readers are metacognitively aware of their own reading practices. This enables readers to effectively and consciously select which reading strategies meet the unique challenges presented by each reading situation. Some examples of reading strategy categories that are useful across a broad spectrum of advanced reading tasks include previewing strategies (including skimming and scanning), vocabulary strategies (including understanding words using context and dictionary strategies), questioning, using a graphic organizer, and focusing on improving reading rate while maintaining comprehension. Advanced‐level readers and instructors can also benefit from better understanding the role that motivation plays in language study, and by implementing effective motivational practices in the language‐learning process.
Prior Knowledge Fuels the Deployment of Reading Comprehension Strategies
Authors: Mokhtari Kouider
Published: January 2018

New research suggests that while reading strategies instruction is necessary, it may not be sufficient for effective reading comprehension performance. The missing ingredient appears to be prior knowledge, which serves a unique role in the process of reading comprehension. It has been found to mediate or facilitate the impact of reading strategy instruction on reading comprehension performance.
Low‐Literacy‐Level Adolescent and Adult Learners
Authors: Rodrigo Victoria
Published: January 2018

The term low literacy refers to “low ability to read and write.” Since 1970 the demand for literacy instruction tailored to adolescent and adult learners with low‐literacy level has increased. The diverse origins and backgrounds of the adult learners posit a big challenge for the instructor in adult literacy programs. This entry succinctly introduces types of literacy levels, the variables that influence L2 literacy development, and useful approaches to teaching reading to low‐literate adult learners. Also suggested are activities that can help adult learners develop L2 reading skills and important guidelines for literacy instructors.
Measuring Reading Fluency
Authors: Zwick M. Jeffrey
Published: January 2018

Developing reading fluency in a first language (L1) is a topic that has received a considerable amount of attention. Developing reading fluency in a second language (L2), however, has received relatively little attention (Grabe, 2009). Anderson (2008) defines reading fluency as “reading at an appropriate rate with adequate comprehension.” For adult ESL learners, Anderson suggests a minimum rate of 200 words‐per‐minute (wpm) with at least 70% comprehension. Previous articles written on L2 reading fluency have focused primarily on reading rate development. This article seeks to combine rate development and comprehension development to effectively foster L2 reading fluency.
Initial Literacy Development for Learners of English
Authors: McCloskey Mary Lou
Published: January 2018

Literacy is a complex process that takes place in sociocultural contexts and involves multidimensional development of knowledge of language, background knowledge, schema, motivation, interest, and auditory and visual skills. Though there are differing points of view on what approaches to literacy development are most effective, learners who are developing initial literacy in English benefit from a balanced program that integrates rich exposure to and engagement in meaningful, purposeful oral language and print, while providing instruction in required reading skills and taking into account the cultural context. Effective programs provide reading opportunities and instruction in a context that applies principles of best practice in English‐language instruction, including: providing culturally relevant instruction; providing literacy instruction in an active learning environment; differentiating instruction for learners' individual needs; setting and communicating clear goals and providing frequent feedback; making learning purposeful and meaningful, promoting learner ownership; and designing learning for success.
Syllabus Design for Second Language Writing
Authors: Hedgcock John S.
Published: January 2018

Unlike the diverse legacy of syllabus design options in L2 education, models for L2 writing course design remain comparatively undertheorized and only indirectly influenced by research findings. Curricular models from mainstream composition and applied linguistics have marginally influenced syllabus design in L2 writing instruction, with the notable exceptions of EAP and ESP, which have been informed by traditions such as genre theory. This entry surveys the theoretical antecedents of syllabus design in L2 writing, synthesizes field‐tested course design procedures, and presents an inventory of essentials for guiding the syllabus design process and for evaluating its effectiveness.
Visual Design and Multimodal Composing
Authors: Hafner Christoph A.
Published: January 2018

Advances in digital technologies have greatly expanded the semiotic resources that are available to writers. As a result, the production and consumption of text is now seen as a process that depends on multiple modes of communication: for example, digital texts often involve the combination of images with sound, music, speech and writing. At the same time, the reading and writing experience of English language learners has changed considerably, resulting in language learning needs that go beyond the linguistic mode alone. This entry considers how English language teachers can take into account these developments by focusing on visual design and multimodal composing as an integral part of an English language curriculum for the digital age.
Teacher Written Feedback
Authors: Bitchener John
Published: January 2018

Teachers and supervisors of theses or dissertations typically focus their feedback to students on five key areas: the accuracy, completeness and relevance of the content; genre knowledge about different parts of the thesis/dissertation; the rhetorical structure and organization of the content; the coherence and cohesion of the argument; the linguistic accuracy and appropriateness of the written text. Ways of addressing such issues are discussed in this entry.
European Perspectives on Second Language Writing Pedagogy
Authors: Kuteeva Maria
Published: January 2018

English has been increasingly used as a medium of instruction in European universities, where it is often used as a lingua franca alongside national languages. Both students and teachers require support in the development of English language literacy, particularly writing skills. Writing is fundamental to knowledge construction, and the specificity of different European contexts inevitably impacts writing practices. The student writers often need to adapt their texts to multilingual and multicultural audiences. The teaching of second language writing in European contexts involves acquiring knowledge of texts and genres, understanding different contexts of writing, and developing pedagogical awareness required for working in multilingual environments. Implications for second language writing pedagogy are discussed with regards to texts and genres, students and teachers, and approaches to teaching writing.
Latin American Perspectives on Second Language Writing Pedagogy
Authors: Lengeling M. Martha , Crawford Troy , Pablo Irasema Mora
Published: January 2018

The perspectives of Latin Americans concerning second language writing pedagogy are based on social, historical, political, geographical, and cultural aspects as well as linguistic diversity and recent globalization. All have influenced the progression of how second language writing has been viewed and approached throughout the years. A traditional approach to second language writing has been based mostly on linguistic structures, and there is a need for rethinking how second language writing should be taught. Within this rethinking, first language literacy and its relationship to second language writing should be addressed across the curriculum at all levels and sectors of education in Latin America.
Undergraduate Writing
Authors: Findlay Luciana Junqueira
Published: January 2018

This entry focuses on research conducted on multilingual writers at Anglophone postsecondary institutions, mainly in the United States. Despite commonly held views that writing and reading are central to success in college, what different lines of inquiry have shown is that little writing may be done in undergraduate classes, in particular in lower‐level courses, although some academic majors may require more writing and reading assignments than others. Further, reading assignments in undergraduate courses are described as being generally disconnected from writing, including in composition courses. Research has also suggested that despite the many linguistic and often cultural and sociopolitical challenges multilingual writers might face, many of them develop strategies to cope with their literacy needs. In addition, the research shows that a strong support system and relationships with faculty and classmates can help these students succeed in college.
Professional Academic Writing
Authors: Flowerdew John , Wang Simon Ho
Published: January 2018

This entry focuses on scholars who use English as an additional language (EAL) under the pressure to publish their research work in English in mainstream international journals. It first discusses the contextual factors contributing to the dominance of English for research communication and reviews some key problems and issues facing novice scholars as they attempt to satisfy the gatekeepers of the international journals when submitting and revising their manuscripts. A number of research studies on these issues from various theoretical perspectives are then summarized. Finally, the entry presents a number of pedagogical options that have been either tested in practice or deserve more research efforts for development into practical solutions for the problems EAL scholars face.
Writing With Disabilities
Authors: Jemison Emily A. , Reed Deborah K.
Published: January 2018

Mastery of written expression is essential for academic achievement in all subject areas. Unfortunately, students with learning disabilities (LD) who are also English learners (EL) often exhibit difficulties in writing mechanics (e.g., spelling, punctuation) and grammar (e.g., sentence structure) as well as the process of writing (e.g., carrying out steps to plan, draft, and revise an essay). Struggling can lead students to avoid writing and, consequently, fall further behind their peers. After explaining the nature of the difficulties experienced by ELs with LD, evidenced‐based recommendations for teaching writing skills and strategies are presented.
Critical Approaches to Second Language Writing
Authors: Kubota Ryuko
Published: January 2018

Critical approaches to second language writing can be broadly identified as the
emancipatory modernist
position and the
problematizing practice
position. The former draws on Freirean critical pedagogy and exposes ideologies in curriculum and instruction through raising learners' critical awareness. The latter draws on postmodern skepticism of norms and differences regarding language, discourse, culture, gender, and race. While earlier discussions drew on critical pedagogy and explored whether and how politics and ideologies should be addressed in the writing classroom, later inquiries problematized the power dynamics inherent in a Western pedagogy that privileges standard English while advocating for appropriating the dominant norm as transformative resistance. Power has also been problematized in debates about the construction of cultural difference in rhetorical structures and issues of plagiarism. Pluralizing academic English has also attracted recent scholarly attention. A lasting challenge is to fill a gap between theory and practice to pursue a transformative mission.
Intercultural Rhetoric
Authors: Connor Ulla
Published: January 2018

Intercultural rhetoric (IR) is the study of written discourse between and among individuals with different cultural backgrounds. IR in L2 writing pedagogy examines the influences of language, culture, and education on the production of texts with the aim of advancing intercultural communication research as well as informing writers, editors, translators, instructors, and also language learners. A new multilayered model of IR includes three major tenets: (1) texts need to be seen in their contexts with meaningful contextual descriptions, (2) culture needs to be complexified to include disciplinary cultures in addition to national/ethnic cultures, and (3) dynamic, interactive patterns of communication are important to consider, which lead to convergences among cultural differences. It is recognized that intercultural rhetoric should not be seen in its 1996 contrastive rhetoric state. The field continues to expand, as its regularly held international conferences and resulting published volumes confirm.
English as a Lingua Franca in Written Discourse
Authors: Mauranen Anna
Published: January 2018

The position of English has altered dramatically in the world of writing over the last few decades: It has become the default lingua franca in textual landscapes all over the globe, and the majority of its users read and write English as an additional language. Together with the ubiquity of digital means of communication, this has meant a radically new environment of written text. Numerous established genres and practices, together with their concomitant linguistic and rhetorical preferences, have become revolutionized in just a couple of decades. Pedagogical challenges to the teaching of writing in English arise from the overwhelming use of English as a lingua franca, the relative novelty of many genres to teachers, and the changing roles of the teacher and the nonlocal determinants of writing, starting from mobile devices.
Writing as Language Learning
Authors: Manchón Rosa M. , Cerezo Lourdes
Published: January 2018

How and why writing in an additional language (L2) can represent a site for language learning has been the focus of an important body of theoretical and empirical research. These studies have investigated the language‐learning potential that may result from the act of writing itself (in individual and collaborative conditions), as well as from the processing of written corrective feedback on one's own writing. They have also addressed these potential learning outcomes mainly in terms of (1) L2 writers' engagement in language learning processes, and (2) the expansion and consolidation of L2 knowledge. Finally, these studies have allowed for a number of implications to be extracted that can inform pedagogical decision making in TESOL settings.
Transfer
Authors: James Mark Andrew
Published: January 2018

Transfer of learning has been a topic of widespread interest for over a century in diverse areas of scholarly work. This includes L2 writing education, where transfer of learning is an underlying goal. This entry discusses key research questions and findings about transfer of learning in L2 writing education (i.e., what learning transfers, where, when, and why learning transfers, and how learning transfer is conceptualized) and teaching‐related implications (i.e., use of teaching‐for‐transfer techniques, preparation of students for unsupportive transfer climates, building of students' transfer motivation).
Vocabulary and Second Language Writing
Authors: Coxhead Averil
Published: January 2018

Using words accurately and fluently in writing in a second language is not an easy task. A variety of factors can affect vocabulary use in writing, including a lack of the knowledge needed to produce a word in writing, a lack of opportunity to use lexical items in writing, learners' own beliefs about vocabulary learning and use, and the proficiency level of the learner. Teachers and learners need to concentrate on classroom and independent learning activities that support the development of the knowledge needed for writing and high interest topics for writing which elicit the use of target vocabulary.
Teacher and Tutor Conferencing
Authors: Ewert Doreen
Published: January 2018

Teacher and tutor conferencing are widely used in higher education to assist in the development of advanced writing. This holds true for second language (SL) writers as well, but as the diversity of SL writers in tertiary institutions grows, so does the need for varied responses in teacher and tutor conferencing. This entry describes evidence‐based characteristics of conferencing with SL writers, including common dilemmas that call for a greater awareness of the differences between SL writers and native English‐speaker writers. By becoming aware of the many possibilities for variation in SL writers and in conferencing, tutors and teachers can make informed decisions about how to adjust their conferencing practices to benefit all SL writers.
Large‐Scale Writing Assessment
Authors: Goodwin Sarah
Published: January 2018

Large‐scale writing assessments, or writing tests using standardized directions and procedures for test administration beyond the scope of one classroom or student group, are often high‐stakes situations and may influence important educational decisions. This entry focuses on their purposes, uses, and implications for teachers, for instance through concepts related to assessment literacy.
Use and Misuse of Writing Rubrics
Authors: Greve Curt , Morris William , Huot Brian
Published: January 2018

This article looks at the history of rubrics from the early part of the 20th century and how they have been used to make writing assessment fair and reliable. The authors take a neutral stance on the use of rubrics and argue that a rubric, or any assessment, is not superior to another; it depends upon the ways that they are used. By looking at theories of the sociocultural aspects of writing and literacy, the authors argue that in order for rubrics to be successful, they have to be locally developed and controlled assessments created in the classroom. This is necessary so as to make them meaningful for both teachers and students.
Reading and Writing Connections in Source‐Based Writing
Authors: Shi Ling
Published: January 2018

Academic writing is mostly source based, requiring sophisticated skills to connect reading and writing with analytic and critical‐thinking skills. While misuses of source texts are frequently associated with plagiarism, researchers have argued that inappropriate textual borrowing could stem from linguistic, cultural, and developmental challenges for second language students as language learners and novice writers. A pedagogy for source‐based writing is recommended to help students develop various intertextual skills through awareness‐raising discussions and focused skill‐building exercises on paraphrasing, quoting, and summarizing, combined with or in the context of completing meaningful reading and writing tasks. To guide students in writing a typical academic paper that requires their work to be presented in the larger context of academic or disciplinary discourse, an ethnographic approach is suggested. With this approach students, as participant observers, can explore source‐use skills through interviews of experienced writers and corpus analyses of published articles in the relevant disciplinary area.
Action Research for the Second Language Writing Teacher
Authors: Burns Anne
Published: January 2018

Action research is a source of professional development that enables writing teachers to increase specialist knowledge about writing, gain deeper understanding of students' writing needs and performance, and develop informed and locally relevant practices to meet those needs. Several areas shown to be important in the field of writing can be a focus for action research, including considering cross‐cultural aspects; analyzing written discourse, genre, text and syntax; raising awareness of writing processes; giving corrective feedback; and testing and assessing writing. Examples of action research by writing teachers that highlight these areas and illustrate implications for practice are presented. Other areas and examples that lend themselves to action research in writing programs are also briefly outlined.
Micro Listening Skills
Authors: Wilson JJ
Published: January 2018

Micro listening skills are a relatively new idea in English language teaching, having first come to prominence in the 1980s. This entry defines micro listening skills through contrasting them with macro listening skills and listening strategies, and provides a taxonomy of these skills. It then examines their impact on the profession, using a classroom scenario to show how micro‐skills have led to clearer goals in listening instruction, replacing the generalized objective of improving listening with the more specific goals of working on discrete skills. Finally, the entry places micro listening skills into the context of recent developments in language teaching.
Working Memory in Listening
Authors: Sakai Hideki
Published: January 2018

Working memory plays a crucial role in listening because listening comprehension involves a variety of real‐time cognitive processes. Working memory is a cognitive system that is responsible for processing information as well as temporary storage of the information. The relationship between working memory capacity and second language (L2) listening is not straightforward. High correlations between working memory capacity and L2 listening comprehension have been reported; however, the correlation may depend on which aspect of working memory is measured and whether other factors are taken into account.
Discourse Structure in Listening
Authors: Jung Euen Hyuk (Sarah)
Published: January 2018

In the comprehension of discourse, not only is background knowledge of the discourse topic crucial, background knowledge of the discourse structure is equally important. Discourse organization is usually indicated by text cues that clearly denote major and minor discourse segments and explicitly forecast upcoming information. This entry considers the underlying theoretical foundations and provides empirical support for the role of cues in discourse comprehension from both reading and listening comprehension research. Furthermore, it discusses the pedagogical implications for non‐native students' understanding of English‐medium instruction and provides suggestions for language learners and practitioners.
Research Methods for StudyingL2Listening
Authors: Yuksel Dogan , Inan‐Karagul Banu
Published: January 2018

This entry reviews research methods for studying listening, which is one of the most complex skills to operationalize and investigate because it entails multi‐layered physiological, cognitive, affective, and contextual factors. The review touches upon different classifications of research techniques, methods, approaches, and orientations for studying listening in the field of English language teaching with the aim of providing insights about the complex nature of listening. Following Vandergrift (2015), we have classified research onL2listening into two groups, namely product‐oriented listening research and process‐oriented listening research. These two lines of orientation utilize different methods, different tools for data collection and assessment, and offer different insights about the complex listening process. We discussed the pedagogical implications of these two research orientations as well.
Teaching Bottom‐Up and Top‐Down Strategies
Authors: Siegel Joseph
Published: January 2018

The skill of listening is complex and multifaceted. In order to describe the process of aural comprehension, two interconnected perspectives have been adopted: a bottom‐up perspective and a top‐down one. This entry discusses whether bottom‐up and top‐down listening strategies deserve attention in the TESOL classroom and suggests practical methods for incorporating them into listening lessons. The entry begins by considering the theoretical underpinnings of these two perspectives, with a view to exploring the discrete stages that listeners undergo in order to make sense of what they hear. It then moves on to describe how top‐down and bottom‐up strategies can be implemented in pre‐listening, listening, and post‐listening lesson stages.
Collaborative Listening
Authors: Cross Jeremy
Published: January 2018

This entry addresses the role of collaborative listening in mediating L2 listening development. First the notion is defined and then its significance in promoting text comprehension and learning to listen is discussed. Related theoretical insights providing the rationale for collaborative listening and associated empirical research to date are briefly outlined. Finally, pedagogical recommendations for implementing collaborative listening are presented.
Grammar in Listening
Authors: Newton Jonathan
Published: January 2018

This entry discusses the language acquisition processes that underpin grammar learning from listening and the ways that listening can be used in classroom instruction to foster grammar learning. Two main options for grammar learning from listening are described: implicit learning of grammar from extensive listening, and explicit learning of grammar from intensive listening. The first requires extensive amounts of meaning‐focused learning and draws on associationist accounts of second language acquisition to explain the grammar learning that results from it. The second typically involves activities on either side of listening which draw learners’ attention to grammatical features of the input.
Lexical Segmentation in Listening
Authors: Goh Christine C. M. , Wallace Matthew
Published: January 2018

Lexical segmentation (LS) is a key decoding process that contributes directly to perceptual processing, which in turn supports the parsing of spoken input into meaningful mental models. LS skills enable listeners to analyze sounds in the speech stream and match them to lexical and syntactic stores in memory, the product of which leaves listeners with a literal interpretation of an utterance. This entry explains processing issues faced by second language listeners, with particular reference to bottom‐up processing, and makes a case for developing LS through contextualized activities. It suggests a number of activities that give learners practice at differentiating between words in a speech stream and recognizing intonational features that can assist segmentation of units of meaning.
Text Types in Listening
Authors: Bloomfield Amber N.
Published: January 2018

There are several possible ways to define the type of a listening text. However, not all of these definitions provide a means of organizing texts along a continuum that captures a range of linguistic and auditory qualities, providing support both for making decisions about the likely challenges posed by different text types and for determining how to offer students a variety of texts. Considering a listening text's position on the dimensions of authentic–created, unscripted–scripted, and orality–literacy offers a host of information about the qualities that a listening text has and how difficult it is likely to be for second language listeners. Supplying texts from different points along these dimensions will allow language instructors to introduce their students to the range of qualities found in real‐world listening experiences while retaining some control over the level of difficulty of the texts.
Video in Listening
Authors: Cross Jeremy
Published: January 2018

This entry addresses the use of video in teaching and learning to listen. Initially, several key reasons for exploiting video in listening are outlined; then the importance of enhancing learners' ability to process the visual channel is briefly emphasized. Four areas of video‐related research—advance organizers, strategy instruction, visual processing, and captions—are then succinctly covered and associated recommendations for pedagogy are presented to round off the chapter.
Listening and Different Age Groups
Authors: Güvendir Emre , Hardacre Bahiyyih
Published: January 2018

Listening requires a number of subskills such as discriminating segmental sounds in a word and interpreting suprasegmental features of pacing, intonation, and stress. When it comes to recognizing such characteristics in a second or foreign language, language learners' performance in listening tasks also depends on the nature and quality of the listening input, along with their familiarity with pragmatics, dialectal accents, background noise, slurred speech, features that change how words sound in a sentence. Some of these listening subskills are better acquired by younger age groups. Proponents of the critical period hypothesis claim that children have a neurological advantage in language acquisition and, as learners' age at the time of exposure increases, proficiency in the target language generally declines. Extensive listening, strategy training, input variety, speech perception and auditory training, and metacognitive instruction can help older learners overcome difficulties and improve L2 listening comprehension and performance.