bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A
lopen (
c
.600?–after 650)
Authors: Knowles Brett
Published: January 2012

The Hsian‐fu monument records that in 635 the Persian Nestorian bishop Alopen arrived at Chang‐An, the Chinese capital: “At the time of T'ai Tsung,…there was a Bishop named Alopen…. He conveyed the true Scriptures…. In the ninth year of Cheng‐Kuan [635
ce
] he arrived at Chang'an” (The Hsian‐fu monument, 781
ce
). He was given a high‐ranking escort into the city and received at the Imperial Palace as an honored guest. The monument also notes that he brought Christian texts with him and that these were translated in the Imperial Library and examined by the emperor T'ai‐tsung himself. In an Edict of Universal Toleration three years later, the emperor ordered the construction of a monastery for Alopen and his fellow‐monks and the propagation of the scriptures throughout the empire. This marked the beginning of more than two centuries of Nestorian Christian activity in China.
American Christianity
Authors: Pasquier Michael
Published: January 2012

The story of Christianity in America spans over 500 years and includes a diversity of religious groups, ideas, and events that have shaped the national narrative of the United States and the transnational narrative of the Americas. The experiences of Christians in America have depended upon an assortment of factors related to ethnicity, race, region, gender, class, and nationality, as well as denominational affiliations and theological differences. Yet, in addition to the legacy of religious pluralism, the history of American Christianity also consists of inter‐denominational movements that have contributed to the formation of common traits among many Americans.
American Revolution, Christianity and
Authors: Lillback Peter
Published: January 2012

The discovery and colonization of America had several causes. One of the chief was religious in nature. The journals of Christopher Columbus include concerns for the advance of the Christian faith as well as an evident dependence upon the promises of Scripture, particularly prophecies of Isaiah. Roman Catholicism, brought by Columbus and his successors to the New World, was paralleled by the Protestant faith brought by explorers from Protestant countries such as England, the Netherlands, and Sweden in the 16th century.
Amish
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Recognizing that not all Amish are the same, this article focuses on the Old Order Amish. Its members are largely a North American group of Christians, an off‐shoot of the Mennonites who are descendants of Europe's Anabaptists of the 16th century. The Amish are named after Jacob Ammann, a Swiss Mennonite bishop who broke away from the Mennonites in 1693 to form the Old Order Amish. He wanted to take people back to what he thought his Mennonite forebears believed and practiced. For one, he believed that Mennonites in his day were not strict enough with those who did not always follow the practices and customs that good Mennonites were expected to uphold. He also argued that the Mennonites were too lenient in exercising the practice of
Meidung
, a practice that socially ostracizes (shuns) members who break church laws. It is based on Romans 16:17 and I Corinthians 5:9–13.
A
nderson,
R
ufus (1796–1880)
Authors: Olabimtan Kehinde
Published: January 2012

American Congregational mission administrator and theorist, Rufus Anderson was born to a pastor at Yarmouth, Maine. He studied at Bradford Academy and Bowdoin College, where he earned an A.B. degree in 1818. While studying at Andover Theological Seminary, he served as a personal assistant to Jeremiah Evarts at the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM), Boston. On graduating in 1822, he applied to the Board for missionary service in India. The Board thought he would be more useful in the office at Boston and retained him there as assistant secretary. Anderson spent the next 44 years in the service of ABCFM, assuming the office of secretary to the Board in 1823 until his retirement in 1866. He married Liza Hill in 1827.
Angels
Authors: Oderberg David S.
Published: January 2012

The word “angel” derives from the Greek
angelos
, meaning “messenger”; the Hebrew is
mal′ach
. In Scripture it applies generally to priests, prophets, and even Christ, connoting their being sent by God. Its specific meaning in Scripture and theology, however, is that of a purely spiritual being, i.e. disembodied though capable of taking human form, created by God and of a nature superior to man.
Anglo‐Saxon Art and Architecture
Authors: Whytock Jack C.
Published: January 2012

Anglo‐Saxon art and architecture comprises the works produced by the Anglo‐Saxon or Germanic peoples in Britain from the 6th and 7th centuries to the Norman Conquest of 1066. These groups had settled in England after the Roman occupation. Anglo‐Saxon art and architecture is distinctly Christian, yet adapts the characteristics of the tribes' pagan art with its focus upon design, color, and interlacing patterns. This art form quickly declined after the Norman Conquest, when Romanesque art and architecture became the norm. The golden age of Anglo‐Saxon art occurred between the 9th and the 11th centuries and was concentrated in the south. Winchester was the key center.
Anointing of the Sick
Authors: Lang David P.
Published: January 2012

The Anointing of the Sick (called “Extreme Unction” prior to the Second Vatican Council) is one of the seven sacraments of the Catholic Church. It serves a prominent role in the administration of the so‐called “Last Rites” (along with confession of sins, if deemed appropriate, and Viaticum, the reception of Holy Communion for the heavenward journey). Despite the terms “Extreme Unction” and “Last Rites,” the Anointing of the Sick is not restricted to those in immediate danger of dying from disease or traumatic injury. Although such people might be the typical recipients of this sacrament, the elderly whose death is more remote, as well as anyone facing serious surgery, can also receive it. This sacrament is conferred through anointing with oil on the forehead and hands, together with a special prayer for deliverance. Because it functions as a kind of medicine for the soul, its main purpose is to remedy spiritual weaknesses resulting from the spiritual sickness of sin. Nevertheless, like the sacrament of Penance, it can remove the guilt of sin under the proper conditions. Other interior gifts bestowed include inner peace, courage amidst the trials of old age and illness, and fortification against temptations to disheartenment. This sacrament restores bodily health only to the extent conducive for eternal salvation; however, this effect would occur, not in a direct and miraculous manner, but merely indirectly, by aiding natural causes (a repercussion on the body of the soul's revitalization).
A
nthony of
P
adua,
S
aint (
c
.1195–1231)
Authors: Hayes Patrick J.
Published: January 2012

Doctor of the Church (
Doctor evangelicus
), sometimes called St. Anthony of Lisbon, after the city of his birth, and where he is still venerated. The
legendae
give a mixed record of his early years, mostly owing to confusion over his heritage as a son of a nobleman. He was baptized as Fernando de Bulhões — the son of Teresa Taveira and Martim de Bulhões. He studied at Lisbon, and entered the Canons Regular of St. Augustine, staying with them at Coimbra until 1220. Alerted to the fate of recently martyred Franciscans in Morocco, he was inspired to leave his priory and follow them as a friar minor, taking the name Anthony, though not, perhaps, before his own ordination as a Canon Regular. Given the Augustinians' assiduous life of study and teaching, Anthony became one of the most learned of any Franciscan then living, so noteworthy, in fact, that St. Francis was later to appoint him to the position of lector within the Order. Anthony's own hopes for martyrdom were dashed, however, due to a protracted illness in Morocco which forced a return to the Iberian peninsula, though his wayward sea vessel ended up depositing him in Sicily.
Antilegomena
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

The early Christians initially had no New Testament (NT). For example, the Berean Christians checked the correctness of Paul's preaching by consulting the Old Testament (Acts 17:11). They had no NT books because the first NT book (1 Thessalonians), written by Paul, did not appear until about
ad
51. The other NT books were penned over the next 40 years, the last one being the book of Revelation in about
ad
95.
Apollinarianism
Authors: Allen Michael
Published: January 2012

A christological tendency that involved the denial of a human soul or mind within the God‐man and was deemed heretical by Diodore of Tarsus, Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory Nazianzen, and an ecumenical council. Concerned about the tendency of many in his day to classify Jesus as merely an extraordinary prophet or elite human, Apollinarius (c.310–390) posited the assumption of human flesh without the assumption of human intellect in the incarnation (
Demonstration of the Divine Incarnation
, written in 376). As Christ had no human intellect, he therefore lacked free will, which Apollinarius assumed necessarily led to sin. Though his proposal featured a heavy emphasis upon the divinity of Christ and guarded Christ from being a sinner, Diodore and others noticed that it shortchanged the soteriological necessity of Christ's full humanity.
Apologetic Worldviews
Authors: Solganick Harvey E.
Published: January 2012

Apologetics typically has been called “a defense of the faith,” based upon the passage of Scripture in 1 Peter 3:15: “sanctify Christ as Lord in your hearts, always being ready to make a
defense
to everyone who asks you to give an account for the hope that is in you, yet with gentleness and reverence …” (New American Standard Bible). The word derives from the Greek
apologia
, meaning “to speak away the accusation.” Originally utilized in court defense as a method, the field of apologetics has become more than defending the faith, instead producing an evangelical worldview based upon one's style of witnessing. Plato used the trial of Socrates as a model for Greek judicial apologetics when Socrates was accused of blasphemy toward the gods and corruption of the youth through a response of dialectical reasoning in
The Republic
and in
The Apology
. However, many issues arise concerning the application of apologetics today as underlying theory, pragmatic usage in evangelism, or the rhetorical intention of the apologist. How much is apologetics defending the faith, proving the faith, refuting opposition, or persuasively proposing a view of the faith by the apologist? Is one way of doing apologetics better than another way? Can all the views of apologetics be synthesized into one worldview? For this reason, several worldviews of apologetics have been proposed since the Bible does not specifically outline an apologetic worldview: classical, evidentialist, presuppositional, reformed, and fideist. These worldviews have been established by famous Christian apologists throughout the centuries, including Anselm of Canterbury, Thomas Aquinas, Augustine of Hippo, Athanasius of Alexandria, Joseph Butler, Irenaeus of Lyons, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, C. S. Lewis, Origen, William Paley, Blaise Pascal, and Cornelius Van Til. Contemporary apologists include such theologians as Norman Geisler, Ravi Zacharias, Kenneth Boa, Paul Copan, John Frame, R. C. Sproul, J. P. Morland, Peter Kreeft, Ronald Nash, Josh McDowell, William Lane Craig, Gary Habermas, J. I. Packer, William Dembski, and others.
Apologetics
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

The concept of apologetics comes from the Greek
apologia
, meaning the act of defending some postulate or belief. Very early in the life of the Christian church, certain individuals were apologists who defended the veracity of Christianity's teachings. St. Paul saw himself in that light when he said, “I am appointed for the defense [
apologia
] of the gospel” (Phil. 1:17). Similarly, St. Peter wrote to the Christians of his day urging them “always be ready to give a defense [apologia] to everyone who asks you a reason for the hope that is in you …” (1 Pet. 3:15). Following Paul and Peter, other Christians engaged in apologetics, for example, the great apologist Justin in the 2nd century. On account of his strong defense of Christianity, he suffered martyrdom under Emperor Marcus Aurelius when he was executed in
ad
166. For his apologetic posture, historians continue to call him Justin Martyr.
Apophatic Theology
Authors: Gabriel Andrew K.
Published: January 2012

Apophatic theology derives its name from the Greek wordapophanai, meaning “to say no.” Though regularly contrasted with “kataphatic theology,” which seeks to make positive statements about God, apophatic theology cannot be completely equated with negative theology, as is often done. While negating concepts that might be applied to God, apophatic theology affirms that the truth of who God is lies beyond both affirmations and negations about God. It does not, however, imply theological agnosticism. Rather, it leads one to the attitude of wonder and praise of the transcendent God and to knowledge of God by means of a union with God. Hence, it is understandable that the idea of apophatic theology is often allied with mysticism, which, by means of emptying the mind of ideas of God, seeks an individual experience of God which lies beyond such descriptions.
Apostasy
Authors: Whitlark Jason
Published: January 2012

Apostasy, generally stated within a religious context, is a
falling away
from core religious convictions of a community, or
abandonment
of the community altogether. The potential for apostasy in Christianity arises from the notion, common to many early forms of Christianity, that final salvation is still in the future and requires perseverance in one's religious commitments to experience it. Thus early Christians affirmed the necessity of ongoing fidelity, which would have characterized both their religious heritage, one is to have no other gods before Yahweh, and their cultural heritage, the reciprocal bonds of benefactors and beneficiaries were intended to create enduring fidelity to the relationship. Among the early Christians, three general and interrelated categories of apostasy can be identified arising from embracing vices, embracing heresy, and avoiding persecution. A central concern with apostasy among the early Christians who faced waves of persecution in the 2nd and 3rd centuries and thus defections was whether and upon what basis were the lapsed to be readmitted into the church. There was a range of opinions. The early Christian document of Hebrews does not allow for the apostate to repent and supposedly to reenter the community, whereas
The Shepherd of Hermas
allows for a second repentance but no more. Repentance entailed readmittance into the worshiping and sacramental life of the church. Out of the struggle over the readmittance of the lapsed, the penitential system developed in order to provide a way for the baptized Christian to reenter the church and have access to the sacraments. Present‐day conversation about apostasy has been primarily shaped by debates within the Reformed tradition between Arminians and Calvinists as to whether the apostate was ever a genuine believer. Current debates also struggle to understand how to relate statements in the Scriptures that give assurance of one's final salvation with warnings against falling away that lead to eschatological condemnation. Rhetorically, are the warnings against apostasy
real
dangers for true believers or do they merely function to keep authentic members of the community from being presumptuous concerning their status? Ecclesiologically, is the church a mixture of authentic and inauthentic Christians who are not easily distinguished? Pastorally, what is the basis for personal assurance of final salvation? The debates also focus on how to understand such theological concepts as election, God's sovereignty, and anthropological assumptions about human religious ability.
Apostle
Authors: Bertone John A.
Published: January 2012

The wordapostle, from the Greekapostellō, has etymologically a very general sense of meaning. It can refer to anyone who is sent forth, dispatched and entrusted with a purpose. It can also be interpreted more restrictively asdelegate, particularly in the New Testament, that is, one who is sent with a specific mission to proclaim the Gospel message and who represents the duplicate voice of Jesus, the sender.
Aramaic
Authors: Pannell Randall J.
Published: January 2012

Aramaic (ă‐ră‐mā'

k), often designated as “biblical Aramaic” (BA), is one of three primary languages in which significant portions of the Scripture are written. It is the minor of the three. The name “Aramaic” is derived from a Hebrew word,
’ă‐ră‐mî

t

(cf. Ezra 4:7; Dan. 2:4
a
; also 2 Kings 18:26; Isa. 36:11), taken from the name of the Aramean people. BA occurs in five passages in the Old Testament (Masoretic Text): Genesis 31:47; Ezra 4:8–6:18; 7:12–26; Jeremiah 10:11; Daniel 2:4
b
–7:28. Grammarians in the 19th century referred to BA as “Chaldee” or “Chaldean.”
Biblical Archaeology
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Archaeology is the scientific study of the material remains of past ages. The past is reconstructed through the use of the scientific method. The concern of archaeology is to secure knowledge. Seeking to understand native burial mounds, Thomas Jefferson conducted the first scientific excavation in 1784. In the early 1800s, archaeologists began unearthing remains of human activities from the past. Archaeological excavations have revealed an abundance of knowledge about ancient man. Prior to the rise of archaeology, knowledge of the cultural and sociological events of the ancient past was based primarily upon material that had been recorded and transmitted in manuscripts from one generation to the next. Once man began to copy inscriptions on ancient monuments and to dig in search of buried cities of the ancient world, sources for knowledge of ancient times increased exponentially. The finding of material remains can be classified into two parts:
first
, the study of the remains of ancient buildings, monuments, pottery, statues, and other expressions of the cultural and social forms of ancient periods;
second
, the study of inscriptions on monuments, or written accounts in manuscripts, lawsuits, letters, treaties, or other forms of writing recorded in the past and rediscovered in modern times. Although both archaeology and paleontology involve study of the past, the latter differs from the former in that it is the study of life in past geologic ages (i.e., pre‐historic bones). Archaeologists may consider the finds of paleontology if a relationship exists between the objects and the activities of ancient man.
Architecture
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

The synagogue and the Temple were the two key institutions of Judaism between 586
bc
until the time of the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in
ad
70. Since the church in Palestine was almost entirely Jewish, the early church still worshipped in the Temple until it was destroyed. Although the synagogue endured as an institution of Judaism, Christians were expelled from the synagogues throughout Palestine and the lands of the dispersion. For nearly three centuries, the church gathered in private homes for fellowship and worship, as opposed to public structures. The Apostle Peter's house in Capernaum is early archaeological evidence of meeting places of the early church.
Argentine Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Argentina is ranked as one of the largest Catholic countries of the world and, superficially at least, gives the appearance of being one of the staun‐chest. Roman Catholicism has always been the official or state religion and the church is subsidized by the state. Even the colors of the national flag are supposedly based on the blue and white of Virgin Mary's gown. Moreover the church is one of the most powerful institutions in Argentine politics.
Arius (
c
.256–336)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Arius lived from c.256 to 336. He was a tall, cultured, handsome ascetic and popular preacher in Alexandria, Egypt, where, according to reports, he especially impressed women. He was born in Libya and studied theology at the exegetical school in Antioch. In 313, he became presbyter in the well‐known district of Baucalis in Alexandria.
Armenian Apostolic Church
Authors: van Lint Theo Maarten
Published: January 2012

Christian presence in Armenia predates the establishment of Christianity as the official state religion. The Armenian Apostolic Church claims autocephaly, based on the alleged ministries in Armenia of the apostles Thaddaeus and Bartholomew. Thaddaeus is connected with the early Armenian version of the SyriacDoctrine of Addai, while Bartholomew's cult in Armenia dates from the 7th century. The story of the conversion by Thaddaeus of the late 1st century King Sanatruk, and that of the martyrdom of his daughter Sandukht, probably date from the 4th century.
ArmenianGenocide, the
Authors: Arkun Aram
Published: January 2012

During World War I, the Ottoman Empire, the ancestor of today's Republic of Turkey, attempted to annihilate Armenians living within its borders, as well as in neighboring countries, through deportation and massacres. This event is considered genocide according to the United Nations definition formulated in 1948.
Ascension Day
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Christians believe that on the third day after Jesus' crucifixion, he rose bodily from the dead. After his physical resurrection, he spent 40 days in the land where he had lived for 33 years. The New Testament records that during those 40 days he appeared to and among people at least a dozen times. St. Paul states that he not only appeared to his disciples but also to some 500 other individuals (1 Cor. 15:6). Luke says that Jesus even ate fish with his disciples (Luke 24:42–43). These appearances and interaction with people were some of the “many proofs” (Acts 1:3) by which he demonstrated that he had indeed risen from the dead. Then, at the end of 40 days, he ascended bodily into heaven.
A
sian Church Music
Authors: Lim Swee Hong
Published: January 2012

Asian church music as an indigenous congregational expression in Christian worship was first documented in the pioneering work of two individuals, Daniel T. Niles and I‐To Loh, through their editorial endeavors in two groundbreaking hymnals, the
East Asian Christian Conference Hymnal
(Tokyo, 1963) and
Sound the Bamboo Hymnal
(Hong Kong, 1990, 2000) respectively. It is through Niles' contribution that the world church caught the first glimpse of a distinct repertoire of musical resources. Quite unlike traditional western hymnody, Asian melodies were juxtaposed with a western harmonic treatment. Through this approach, his effort served to present an accessible, unified, and homogenous Asian hymnody. Indeed, this work was well received and led to several reprints until the early 1970s. However, as Asian churches became more receptive to local influences, Loh became the champion for a different approach in Asian hymnody. As a result, the
Sound the Bamboo
Hymnal
contained a wide variety of musical styles within a single hymnal. This time round, Asian church music exhibited a greater sense of diversity unlike the earlier more homogeneous style of
East Asian Christian Conference Hymnal
.
Assemblies of God
Authors: Rance DeLonn
Published: January 2012

Assemblies of God autonomous national churches emerged out of Pentecostal revivals that began at the turn of the 20th century in various parts of the world. The “Assemblies of God” movement is most frequently associated with a network of local and national classical Pentecostal churches affiliated with the World Assemblies of God Fellowship.
Assumption
Authors: Nichols Larry
Published: January 2012

Also called the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary (BVM), this doctrine holds that Mary, having completed her life on earth, was in body and soul assumed into heavenly glory. The Latin text for these words is “Immaculatam Deiparam semper Virgínem Mariam, expleto terrestris vitae cursu, fuisse corpore et anima ad caelestem gloriam assumptam.” The doctrine was defined by Pope Pius XII on November 1, 1950, in his apostolic constitution
Munificentissimus Deus.
Pius XII also declared that to deny this doctrine would invoke the very wrath of God because this was to be regarded as divinely revealed dogma.
Assurance
Authors: Neste Ray Van
Published: January 2012

Assurance of faith or salvation refers to the conviction or persuasion of conversion with the promise of a place in heaven. The degree to which such assurance can be obtained has been debated among Christians and it was a key point of debate between the Reformers and Rome. The Catholic position at the Council of Trent stated that this assurance could not be obtained apart from an unusual special revelation. Martin Luther and other Reformers argued that it is possible for an individual to know that he has received salvation. While there has been some debate among Protestants, most agree that a person may be genuinely saved and still lack full assurance (1 John 5:13). The level of subjective assurance can vary, but it is available as the individual believes the gospel and sees the work of the Spirit in his life (Rom. 8:15–17; Gal. 4:6). Arminian theology generally holds that the most an individual might have is assurance at a given moment, since a believer may forfeit salvation in the future. Reformed theology generally affirms that true faith will persevere and grounds assurance in the faithfulness of God.
Athenagoras
Authors: Hartog Paul
Published: January 2012

Athenagoras was a late 2nd century Christian apologist. A manuscript ascription line describes him as “Athenagoras the Athenian, philosopher and Christian,” although corroborating evidence of his provenance is lacking. Methodius of Olympus briefly refers to Athenagoras in his discourse on the resurrection (1.7); the 5th century biographical material found in Philip of Side is suspect. Athenagoras' most famous work is entitled aPlea on Behalf of Christians(alternatively known as theSupplicatioorLegatio). This apology was written around 177ceand addressed the three anti‐Christian accusations of atheism, cannibalism (“Thyestean feasts”), and incest (“Oedipean intercourse”). Most of the work is a refutation of the first indictment, and Athenagoras cites materials from pagan philosophers and pagan poets in support of the reasonableness of monotheism. He seems to manifest a rather thorough knowledge of Greek literature, although scholars have debated how many of his citations came from secondaryflorilegia. Athenagoras briefly responds to the remaining accusations by highlighting the irreproachable character (at least ideally) of Christian morality in contrast with pagan morality. The most renowned passages in thePleaare the “incipient” Trinitarian explanations of the Godhead (chapters 10 and 12). The Arethas Codex (914ce), which contains thePlea, also contains a work entitledOn the Resurrection, which it attributes to Athenagoras as well. Some modern scholars have challenged this attribution, although others have defended Athenagoran authorship by highlighting the genre, audience, occasion, and topic of the treatise (thus attempting to explain the vocabulary and conceptual dissimilarities with thePlea).On the Resurrectionargues in a two‐pronged fashion. Beginning with the character of God, the work argues that God desires to resurrect the body and he is able to do so, so the task will certainly be accomplished. The treatise then reasons that since humans act as both body and soul, the body must be resurrected in order that reunified persons may be judged for their present actions performed in the body.
Augsburg Confession
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther nailed his Ninety‐Five Theses to the door of All Saints Church on the campus of Wittenberg University in the small town of Wittenberg. It was a document that questioned the sale of indulgences. Luther declared that indulgences, promoted by the pope, taught Christians a false way of salvation. The Ninety‐Five Theses ignited the Protestant Reformation, and the papacy in Rome did its best to extinguish the flames that Luther had sparked. One year later, in October, 1518, Luther was summoned to meet with Cardinal Cajetan in Augsburg in order to have him recant and reject his criticism of the pope's abuses in the church. Luther did not succumb, and the flames of the Reformation did not abate.
B
acon,
R
oger (
c
.1214–1292)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

This renowned philosopher scientist was born in about 1214 and died in about 1292. He obtained his higher education at Paris and Oxford. Later, he lectured on Aristotle at Oxford, and between c.1237 and c.1247 he served as an arts lecturer at the University in Paris, then the apex of European universities. Between about 1247 and 1257 he returned Oxford, and from about 1257 (when he became a Franciscan friar) to about 1270 he was in Paris again. From about 1270 to his death, sometime after 1292, he returned to Oxford.
Badarak (Patarag)
Authors: Hovhanessian Vahan
Published: January 2012

Badarak
is a classical Armenian word used to define the celebration of the Eucharist or Divine Liturgy in the Armenian Church. The word is a translation of the biblical Hebrew and Greek words that mean “animal sacrifice” and “offerings.” Armenian Church fathers adapted the term in their theological treatises to refer to the voluntary sacrifice of our Lord — through His birth, ministry, suffering, crucifixion and death — for the sake of our salvation. Armenians use the term Badarak as the title of the Eucharistic celebration, emphasizing an essential aspect of this liturgical commemoration — the Lord's redeeming sacrifice (1 Cor. 5:7, Eph. 5:2; Heb. 9:26). Remembering the Lord's sacrifice and giving thanks to him through the public celebration of the Badarak is the Armenian people's response to the Lord's command to “Do this in remembrance of me” (1 Cor. 11:24–25).
Baptism
Authors: Gagnon Robert A. J.
Published: January 2012

Although water rituals were common in other religions of antiquity, water baptism took on a distinctive prominence in early Christianity as the sole or primary entry rite into the faith. According to Ephesians 4:5, “one baptism” is one of the marks of the unity of the church. Yet, ironically, it has come to symbolize the disunity of the church throughout history, owing to disagreements at several points: meaning (sacrament or symbol), mode (submersion, immersion, pouring, and/or sprinkling), and recipients (whether or not to include infants and very young children). The fact that the practice of water baptism has become a source not just of disagreement but also of division is attributable to the fact that in the church water baptism came to overshadow the reality that it only symbolized and partly mediated; namely, being “baptized in the Holy Spirit.” (As proof of this observation, most readers will expect this entry to be almost entirely about a water ritual.) Although consciousness of being “baptized in the Holy Spirit” made a resurgence in the modern era through the Charismatic and Pentecostal movements, it has been weakened by two misunderstandings: that baptism in the Spirit is an experience distinct from true conversion and that it requires as its almost exclusive manifestation speaking in tongues.
Baptist Theology
Authors: Beck Peter
Published: January 2012

Baptist theology has its origins in the four ecumenical councils and the Protestant Reformation that affirm the conclusions of the councils of Nicaea (
ad
325), Constantinople (381), Ephesus (421), and Chalcedon (451). As descendants of the Protestant Reformation, Baptists also draw much of their theology from that tradition. Broadly speaking it can be said that Baptists hold to the five
solas
of the Reformation:
sola Scriptura
,
sola gratia
,
sola fide
,
solus Christus
and
soli deo gloria.
For 400 years Baptists have held these biblical truths as the inviolable basics of their faith.
B
ar‐
H
ebraeus,
G
regory (1226–1286)
Authors: Amar Joseph P.
Published: January 2012

Gregory “Bar‐Hebraeus,” born in Milatia (Meletine), Asia Minor, in 1226, and known in Arabic as Abu'l Faraj, was a prelate of the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch. He is celebrated for his prodigious learning and for encouraging understanding and mutual respect among Christian denominations. The son of the Jewish physician Aaron, hence his title, “Bar‐Hebraeus,” “Son of the Hebrew” (
Bar 'Ebroyo
in Syriac and
Ibn al‐'Ibri
in Arabic), he studied medicine, philosophy, mathematics, and law in Antioch, Tripoli, and Beirut. He converted to Syriac Orthodoxy and entered monastic life, whereupon he took the religious name “Gregorius.”
B
ar
S
alibi,
D
ionysius (
d
. 1171)
Authors: Amar Joseph P.
Published: January 2012

Dionysius Bar Salibi is one of three towering literary figures in West Syriac tradition responsible for what some scholars refer to as the Revival of Syriac Letters in the late 12th and early 13th centuries; with Michael the Syrian (d. 1199) and Gregory Bar Hebraeus (d. 1286), Bar Salibi composed works of such quantity and erudition that both his younger contemporaries called him “the star of his age.” Baptized Jacob, he took the name Dionysius when he was consecrated bishop of Marash in 1154. As other ecclesiastical scholars of the age, he set about collecting and writing commentaries on the works of earlier Syriac writers which were threatened with extinction due to the increased dominance of Arabic. In addition to major commentaries on the Old and New Testaments and theological works on the Trinity, incarnation, and the sacraments, he wrote a monumental commentary on the
Kephalia gnostica
which is still extant. Ever the controversialist, Jacob wrote polemical treatises against not only the perennial theological enemies of the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Nestorians and Chalcedonians, but also against Jews and Muslims; he even wrote against his miaphysite coreligionists, the Armenians.
B
arnhouse,
D
onald
G
rey (1895–1960)
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Donald Grey Barnhouse was born into a devout Methodist family in Watsonville, California. His father, Theodore Barnhouse, was married to Jennie Carmichael, and worked as a carpenter and contractor. Donald was the youngest of five children, and the only boy born to Theodore and Jennie.
Basil the Great (330–379)
Authors: Dawson Connie J.
Published: January 2012

Basil the Great, Bishop of Cappadocia Caesarea, was one of the three Cappadocian Fathers and ranks among the greatest figures in church history. The other two Cappadocian Fathers of the East were his younger brother, Gregory Nyssa, and his close friend, Gregory Nazianzus. Basil was born in Caesarea, Cappadocia (now Asia Minor), in central Turkey. He was the third of ten children, born into a wealthy and prestigious family with a strong Christian heritage. His father's family suffered persecution under Maximinus, and his mother was the daughter of a martyr. Basil's childhood was greatly affected by his grandmother Macrina the elder, and his early education was under the tutelage of his father who was a lawyer and teacher of rhetoric. The brilliant young scholar's academic career led him to Athens in 351 where he developed a lifelong friendship with Gregory Nazianzus and also became friends with the future emperor, Julian, known in Christian tradition as “the Apostate.”
Beauty
Authors: Garrett Stephen M.
Published: January 2012

Contemporary philosophical aesthetics and theology alike all but dismiss the motif of beauty as an essentialist notion with minimal explanatory power. This dismissal appears to be in part because of the relegation of beauty to the ornamental and innocuous pleasant, signifying the beautiful as an escape from the pain of reality. On a popular level, beauty has lost its force in the marketplace of ideas since it has come to mean whatever the “beholder” wants the term to mean and has little ability to convey meaning beyond the realm of personal taste. Beauty, though, has not always been relegated to the margins and is being reasserted today in Christian theology through the revival of theological aesthetics.
B
eguines
Authors: Huey Whitney
Published: January 2012

The Beguines were a movement that was begun by religious laywomen in the 13th century and which flourished in the Low Countries. The derivation of the word “beguine” is debated. Men who lived a similar life were known as “beghards.” Beguines were often suspected of heresy because of their attempt to live lives of absolute apostolic poverty outside of the traditional orders of the church, belonging to no particular order and following no particular rule. They often lived together in “beguinages,” or communities of Beguines, in which they developed their own rules. The role of the Beguine was to serve the community in humility just as Christ did while he was on earth. Beguines often came from wealthy backgrounds, and they left vernacular writings that have significantly contributed to the understanding of laywomen's mysticism. The decline of the Beguines is due in great part to the condemnation of the Spiritual Franciscans' position on apostolic poverty by John XXII which came after the Council of Vienne in 1311, under Pope Clement V; the council issued a bull stating that the Beguines were not nuns, were not an approved order, and therefore were heretical. All beguinages were ordered to be dissolved. Beguines were never completely eradicated and continue, albeit in very small numbers, today. Among the most notable medieval Beguines are the mystics Marguerite Porete, Hadewijch of Antwerp, and Mechthild of Magdeburg. Marguerite Porete wrote
The Mirror of Simple Souls
, and was condemned for the Free Spirit heresy. Her writings are known to have influenced Meister Eckhart and he in turn influenced the writings of other Beguines, thus the two began a theological conversation. Mechthild of Magdeburg wrote
The Flowing Light of the Godhead
, a book detailing her seven visions of God. Hadewijch of Antwerp produced a large body of work including letters, poetry, and visions.
B
ellarmine,
R
obert (1542–1621)
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Robert Bellarmine, a distinguished Italian Jesuit, was born the son of a noble family in Monte‐pulciano in southeast Tuscany on October 4, 1542, and died of failing health on September 17, 1621. In 1560, he began his studies at the Collegio Romano. He then studied Thomistic theology at the University of Padua. In 1569, Bellarmine taught divinity at the University of Louvain and was ordained priest the following year. In 1576, he was recalled to Italy and assigned the chair of Controversies recently founded at the Collegio Romano (where he originally studied theology). Bellarmine established Thomistic theology as foundational for the Jesuit order and eventually for all theological education of Roman Catholicism (although his doctrine of free will is closer to Molina). The series of lectures delivered at the Collegio Romano became Bellarmine's most influential writings under the title
Disputationes de Controversiis Christianae Fidei Adversus Huius Temporis Haereticos
(1586–1593; “Disputations Concerning the Controversies of the Christian Faith against the Heretics of this Time”).
De Controversiis
was an articulate and uncompromising systematization of Roman Catholic doctrine. His work could rightly be considered the most detailed defense of Romanist teaching; it was influential in Europe, and was a serious challenge to Protestantism especially in Germany and England. Bellarmine was a resolute opponent toward Protestantism and quickly became the leading apologist of the Catholic Church during the Counter‐Reformation. As a shrewd controversialist on the side of Rome, he refined the futurist interpretation of Jesuit Francisco Ribera of Salamanca, Spain against the dominant historical interpretation of the Protestant Reformers.
B
ellini,
G
iovanni (1430–1516)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Venetian painter, considered the greatest of the group known as
Madonnieri
(Madonna Painters) who specialized in painting the Madonna in a variety of settings that includes trees and landscapes, as in
Madonna of the Meadow
(1505), but always holding the Holy Child upright. The Madonna always appears grave and pensive, usually with a white coif covering her hair beneath a blue hooded mantle. She holds the robust infant in her arms or on her knees. Mary adopts the classic devotional pose as she gazes on the Word made Flesh and meditates on the mystery enshrined in the vision before her. She is the corporeal ciborium, the earthly bearer of the Godhead. Occasionally there are other figures kneeling accompanied by their saintly patrons, but the Virgin remains impassive and unheeding. Bellini excelled in creating the mood in the painting and he was more interested in the atmosphere rather than the action.
Benedictines
Authors: Peters Greg
Published: January 2012

Details of Benedict's life come primarily from the second book of the
Dialogues
of Gregory the Great and from Benedict's own
Rule for Monks
. Born in c.480 in Nursia, just outside Rome, Benedict was educated in Rome before adopting a life of asceticism. He spent three years living as a hermit at Subiaco before becoming abbot of a nearby monastery. In time Benedict learned that these monks were, in Gregory's words, “mad with anger” at Benedict for his insistence on living a well‐disciplined monastic life. After an attempt on his life, Benedict returned to his hermitage at Subiaco where he was soon joined by numerous disciples, purportedly organizing them into 12 monasteries. Benedict subsequently retired to Monte Cassino with a number of followers, founding there a true cenobitic monastery following his own monastic rule.
B
ennett,
D
ennis (1917–1991)
Authors: Streett R. Alan
Published: January 2012

Dennis Bennett was an Episcopal priest dubbed by
Time
magazine “the Father of the Modern Charismatic Movement.” On April 3, 1960, Father Bennett announced to the congregation of St. Mark's Church, a thriving church in Van Nuys, California, that he recently had been baptized in the Holy Spirit and spoke in tongues. Controversy soon resulted and rather than divide the church Bennett resigned as rector of St. Mark's and was immediately appointed to a small church in the Pacific Northwest, St. Luke's Episcopal Church in Seattle, Washington. The assignment was considered a demotion and punishment for rocking the denominational boat.
Berkeley,George (1685–1753)
Authors: Spiegel James S.
Published: January 2012

George Berkeley was an early modern Irish philosopher and Anglican bishop. He made contributions to diverse fields, including political philosophy (Passive Obedience, 1712), physics (De motu, 1721), mathematics (The Analyst, 1734), and economics (Querist, 1735–1737). But he is most famous for his philosophical work, in particular his doctrine of “immaterialism,” a brand of metaphysical idealism which asserts that “to be is to be perceived.”
B
ernard of
C
lairvaux (1090/1091–1153)
Authors: Posset Franz
Published: January 2012

A French saint, Bernard of Clairvaux was born in Fontaines, near Dijon, to a noble family. He was schooled at Châtillon. In 1113 he entered the monastery at Cîteaux with 30 of his relatives and friends. Soon he became the founding abbot of Clairvaux. During his lifetime about 700 monks lived at Clairvaux. He rejected five offers of bishoprics. He described himself as the “chimera of his century.” As a monastic theologian he understood the Bible as the “Word of salvation” and Christ as the center of his spirituality: to know nothing but Jesus the crucified Christ (1 Cor. 2:2). This motif was made visible in the later iconography, showing Bernard being embraced by the crucified Christ. He acquired a profound knowledge of the Bible and the church fathers. His spirituality contributed to the transition from the Romanesque image of Christ the King to the Gothic image of the suffering Christ. He adhered to the principles of “grace alone” and “faith alone” for salvation. Inspired by the ancient Greek maxim “know yourself” he pursued the knowledge of self as a sinner and the knowledge of God as the sinner's savior. His devotion to the Virgin Mary found expression in the later iconography of Bernard receiving mystical mother's milk onto his lips.
B
ernini,
G
ianlorenzo (1598–1680)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Italian architect, sculptor, and painter, the leading figure in the Italian Baroque period. His major religious work was the triumphal gilt bronze baldacchino over the high altar of St. Peter's (1642–1643) which was inspired by the twisted marble columns of the Old St. Peter's which themselves harked back to the columns of the Beautiful Gate in Jerusalem. The whole structure is over 100 feet high and is surmounted by a wind‐blown canopy. His much later
Cathedra Petri
(1657–1666) shows the four fathers of the church, two Latin, Saints Ambrose and Augustine, and two Greek, Athanasius and Chrysostom, upholding the throne of St. Peter which is illuminated by a brilliant gold stained glass with the image of the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove.
Bible Translations
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J.
Published: January 2012

The original writings making up the canon of sacred Christian Scripture were written in Hebrew and Aramaic (the Old Testament) and Greek (the New Testament). The four pillars that support trust in the faithful preservation of the Scriptures are: 1) the inspiration; 2) the canon; 3) the transmission; and 4) the translation of the Bible. Christians believe that the writings included in the canon, and only these, bear the mark of divine inspiration (2 Tim. 3:16; 2 Pet. 1:21). Over a process of several hundred years the church recognized these inspired writings and collected them into a canon containing 66 books, 39 in the Old Testment and 27 in the New Testament.
A
frican
A
merican Theology
Authors: Buchanan Deborah J.
Published: January 2012

Long before the first books on black theology were written, enslaved Africans in America and their descendants sought to articulate their beliefs and understanding of God, and their experience of God in the midst of suffering. Utilizing songs, stories, and other creative means, enslaved Africans delved into theodicy, anthropology, Christology, and other theological themes. The sections below will chronicle the development of black theology in the church, community, and academy; it will also examine the methods, sources and contributions of black theology to Christianity and the field of theology.
B
loesch,
D
onald
G
. (b. 1928)
Authors: Emerick Christopher C.
Published: January 2012

Donald Bloesch was born on May 3, 1928 in Bremen, Indiana, USA. His father ministered in a local German evangelical church affiliated with the Evangelical Synod of North America. Bloesch's grandfathers also ministered in this Synod, as did Reinhold Niebuhr, a close friend of Bloesch's father. After a series of mergers, the Evangelical Synod eventually incorporated with the United Churches of Christ (UCC). Bloesch remains an ordained (since 1953) and occasionally dissatisfied member of the UCC. Upon graduating high school, Bloesch entered Elmhurst College and then continued his studies at Chicago Theological Seminary. After completing the Bachelor of Divinity degree, he pursued doctoral studies at the University of Chicago Divinity School, where he studied under Charles Hartshorne and Wilhelm Pauck, among others, successfully defending his dissertation, “Reinhold Niebuhr's reevaluation of the apologetic task,” in 1956. The following year he began teaching at the University of Dubuque Theological Seminary, where he remains on the faculty as professor of theology emeritus.
B
öhme,
J
akob (1575–1624)
Authors: Johnson Wendell
Published: January 2012

A German Lutheran mystic and pantheist, Jakob Böhme was born in Alt‐Seidelberg (near Görlitz in Silesia) in 1575. Böhme's parents (Jakob and Ursula) apprenticed him to a shoemaker in Görlitz, where he became a master cobbler in 1599. He prospered in his trade and married Katharina Kuntzschmann, the daughter of a master butcher. The union produced four sons and two daughters.