bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Avian Life History Evolution in Relation to Nest Sites, Nest Predation, and Food
Authors: Martin Thomas E.
Published: April 2006

Food limitation is generally thought to underlie much of the variation in life history traits of birds. I examined variation and covariation of life history traits of 123 North American Passeriformes and Piciformes in relation to nest sites, nest predation, and foraging sites to examine the possible roles of these ecological factors in life history evolution of birds. Annual fecundity was strongly inversely related to adult survival, even when phylogenetic effects were controlled. Only a little of the variation in fecundity and survival was related to foraging sites, whereas these traits varied strongly among nest sites. Interspecific differences in nest predation were correlated with much of the variation in life history traits among nest sites, although energy trade—offs with covarying traits also may account for some variation. For example, increased nest predation is associated with a shortened nestling period and both are associated with more broods per year, but number of broods is inversely correlated with clutch size, possibly due to an energy trade—off. Number of broods was much more strongly correlated with annual fecundity and adult survival among species than was clutch size, suggesting that clutch size may not be the primary fecundity trait on which selection is acting. Ultimately, food limitation may cause trade—offs between annual fecundity and adult survival, but differences among species in fecundity and adult survival may not be explained by differences in food abundance and instead represent differing tactics for partitioning similar levels of food limitation. Variation in fecundity and adult survival is more clearly organized by nest sites and more closely correlated with nest predation; species that use nest sites with greater nest predation have shorter nestling periods and more broods,yielding higher fecundity, which in turn is associated with reduced adult survival. Fecundity also varied with migratory tendencies; short—distance migrants had more broods and greater fecundity than did neotropical migrants and residents using similar nest sites. However, migratory tendencies and habitat use were confounded, making separation of these two effects difficult. Nonetheless, the conventional view that neotropical migrants have fewer broods than residents was not supported when nest site effects were controlled.
Postglacial Vegetation and Climate of Grand Teton and Southern Yellowstone National Parks
Authors: Whitlock Cathy
Published: April 2006

Pollen records from northern Grand Teton National Park, the Pinyon Peak Highlands, and southern Yellowstone National Park were examined to study the pattern of reforestation and climatic change following late—Pinedale Glaciation. The vegetational reconstruction was aided by analyses of associated plant macrofossils and the modern pollen rain of the region. Radiocarbon—age determinations and tephrochronology provided a chronologic framework to help correlate pollen records among sites. The fossil records indicate that alpine meadow communities, with Betula and Juniperus, were present between ≈14 000 and ≈11 500 yr BP. This early assemblage implies a lowering of modern upper treeline by at least 600 m and a climate was ≈5—6° colder than present. Between 11 500 and 10 500 yr BP, increased temperature and winter precipitation allowed first Picea, and then Abies and Pinus cf. albicaulis to spread into areas underlain by andesite and nonvolcanic bedrock. By 10 500 yr BP, the fossil record in these areas resembled modern spectra from subalpine forest. In contrast, the Central Plateau of Yellowstone, which is underlain by infertile rhyolitic soils, was treeless prior to ≈10 000 yr BP. The absence of late—glacial subalpine parkland in this area is attributed to the same edaphic factors that limit Picea, Abies, and Pinus albicaulis from the rhyolite plateau today. Between 10 000 and 9500 yr BP, Pinus contorta forest developed throughout the region in response to further warming. Pseudotsuga and Populus were present between 9500 and 5000 yr BP, suggesting a warmer, drier climate than today and more frequent fires. In the last 5000 yr BP mixed forests of Picea, Pinus, and Abies have developed on andesitic and nonvolcanic terrain, and closed forests of Pinus contorta have persisted on rhyolitic substrates. The vegetational patterns are attributed to a combination of climatic and nonclimatic controls operating on different spatial and temporal scales. Climatic changes brought about by the retreat of Laurentide ice and the amplification of the seasonal cycle of radiation explain the broad patterns of vegetational change on millennial time scales. On shorter time scales and smaller spatial scales, substrate differences and migration history shaped the vegetational variability.
Temporal Variability Patterns and the Distributional Patterns of Stream Fishes
Authors: Horwitz Richard J.
Published: April 2006

The coefficients of variation of daily discharge and the logarithm of daily discharge were calculated from long term records in 15 river systems, including runoff—fed prairie rivers in Illinois and Missouri, groundwater— and spring—fed upland rivers in Southern Ohio, Southern Illinois and the Missouri Ozarks, and the snowmelt—fed Powder River in Wyoming. In almost all cases variability was lower in downstream sections. The patterns of temporal variability were consistent with the hydrology of the basins, with source of flow and size important determinants. Diversity patterns of fishes were tabulated for the same rivers from literature records. In all rivers, diversity increased rapidly from upstream to downstream sections, almost entirely the result of addition of new species with little replacement of the upstream fauna. Maximal species richness was usually in the lowest sections (order VI or greater). Headwater diversity was lowest in the rivers with the most variable headwaters, the increase in diversity downstream steepest for those rivers with the steepest decrease in variability, and the number of species in downstream sections was greater in rivers with more constant downstream sections. Longitudinal replacement rates were very low in all rivers studied, but were generally larger in the most temporally constant rivers. Literal replacement was moderate between small tributaries, but was low between major tributaries. The diversity gradients of individual feeding groups were similar to the gradient for all species, with an increase in richness from headwaters downstream in all groups with intermediate maxima sometimes seen. Piscivores showed consistently steeper diversity increases. These observations were related to hypotheses of factors controlling stream fish distributions. They are most consistent with hypotheses relating control to extermination—recolonization dynamics or the interspecific competition mediated by temporal variability and habitat structure.
Coral Reef Fish Communities: Unstable, High‐Diversity Systems?
Authors: Talbot Frank H. , Russell Barry C. , Anderson Gordon R. V.
Published: April 2006

We examined the pattern of development of assemblages of coral reef fishes on artificial reefs at One Tree Reef, Great Barrier Reef. Two sets of 8 reefs were built. To investigate the effects of habitat structure on species diversity, each set consisted of replicate pairs of 4 different reef types: plain (no holes), small—holed, medium—holed, and large—holed reefs. To examine seasonal differences in colonization, 1 set was established in summer (October 1971) and the other set in winter (July 1972). Visual censuses of the reefs' fish assemblages were made at monthly intervals over 32 mo (summer set) and 23 mo (winter set). We recorded a total of 105 resident species from the artificial reefs. Although less diverse, the fish assemblages differed little in terms of species composition from those of small natural patch reefs. Artificial reefs showed a high between—reef variability in species composition that was largely unrelated to habitat structure. Competitive interactions between species appeared unimportant in explaining the distribution of species between reefs. Likewise, possible positive associations between species were indicated for only a few species. Almost all settlement of the artificial reefs was by juvenile fishes. Recruitment was markedly seasonal and occurred mainly over summer (September—May). Juvenile recruitment patterns showed little year—to—year constancy. Most species tested showed nonrandom, clumped patterns of settlement on replicate reefs. More than half of species tested showed no significant differences on numbers of individuals which settled on different reefs, but the remainder showed significantly greater settlement on some reefs, suggesting habitat selection. For a few species, there was also greater recruitment to reefs already occupied by conspecifics, suggesting possible social facilitation of settlement. For most species, there were no significant interspecific interactions between adults and newly settling juveniles. Between—census variability in species composition was high and species turnover ranged from °17% of species/mo in winter to °39% in summer. Maximum times of persistence for most species were <12 mo, and for many individuals survivorship was of the order of only a few months. Much of the high turnover appears due to losses through predation. There was no evidence that a persistent species equilibrium was attained during colonization. Because of predation and the seasonally varying, uncertain nature of recruitment, we see the development of any long—term species equilibrium as unlikely. We suggest that nonequilibrium conditions are a characteristic of coral reef fish communities and that because of these conditions, high within—habitat diversities are maintained.
Ecological Biogeography of Arthropods on Spartina Islands in Northwest Florida
Authors: Rey Jorge R.
Published: April 2006

Experimental tests of the equilibrium theory of insular biogeography with the terrestrial arthropod fauna of small islands in Northwest Florida are described. Six islets composed of pure Spartina alterniflora (area: 56 m2 to 1023 m2; distance from mainland: 29 m to 1752 m) were defaunated with methyl bromide gas after intensive, inclusive censuses of their terrestrial arthropod inhabitants. Two additional islands and a large S. alterniflora stand on the mainland were not defaunated and served as controls. The recolonization process was monitored by weekly nonlethal censuses of all the sites. Four large cages were placed over other, similar, islands to determine the persistence of populations trapped inside the cages in the absence of immigration. In addition, six traps located in the study area showed the general movement patterns of arthropods. A distinction was made between transient and resident species colonizing the islands based partly upon 3 previous yr of data on the arthropod communities of the area. Recolonization of the defaunated islands was rapid. Allowing for seasonal variations typical of the area, the defaunated islands attained a species richness corresponding to the predefaunation levels in approximately 20 wk and oscillated about that level for the rest of the 53—wk experimental period. Extinction probabilities were inversely correlated with area, and immigration rates during the first 20 wk after defaunation were positively correlated with area. Extinctions and immigrations occurred at low levels following week 20, indicating turnover at approximately 0.14 species/wk. No statistically significant effect of isolation on island immigration rates could be demonstrated. Numbers of species collected on the traps were significantly affected by distance from the nearest large land mass and trap orientation. Only area proved to be significantly correlated with insular species numbers.
The Microbial Origin of the Allelopathic Potential of Adenostoma fasciculatum H & A
Authors: Kaminsky Ray
Published: April 2006

The release of phytotoxic compounds has been proposed to be involved in the inhibition of seed germination under the canopy of Adenostoma fasciculatum (McPherson and Muller 1969). McPherson et al. (1971) tentatively identified the phytotoxins as phenolic compounds; however, the soil extraction data presented in this study indicate that insufficient quantities of available phenolics are present in the soil to account for the lack of growth observed in the field. Soil from burned and unburned Adenostoma—dominated sites were exchanged and planted with herb seeds. While toxicity developed in soil from the unburned site, the resulting pattern of germination suggested that the toxicity originated from the soil and not from the shrub canopy. Treatments to disrupt the metabolism of soil microbes, and to isolate selectively the microbial fraction from the soil, as well as other experiments, lead to the conclusion that the soil toxicity was the result of phytotoxins of microbial origin. It is suggested that the role of Adenostoma in the suppression of herb growth may lie in its association with soil microbes that produce and release substances capable of inhibiting the germination and growth of plants.
In Situ Foraging Responses of Three Species of Littoral Cladocerans
Authors: Downing John A.
Published: April 2006

Laboratory experiments have suggested that ingestion rates should increase with food concentration, that these functional responses should be depressed by increases in the availability of alternate foods, and that feeding preference should be shown for the most abundant of available foods. To test these hypotheses, simultaneous measures of the foraging of three species of littoral Cladocera, on two spatially differentiated food sources, were made in situ. The species investigated were Sida crystallina (O. F. Muller), Chydorus sphaericus (O. F. Muller), and Alona affinis (Leydig). The uptake rates of suspension and periphyton were measured with a double isotope technique. In situ foraging responses were determined through regression analysis. Ingestion rates were related to concentration of food, concentration of alternate food, and body size. Functional responses in situ ranged from Holling's type 2 to feeding inhibition, and the increased abundance of alternate food depressed functional responses in some cases and elevated them in other cases. Variations in feeding preference were examined in two species of cladocerans. One species (Sida) responded in a complex manner, showing increased preference for the most abundant food in one circumstance and increased preference for the least abundant food in another circumstance. The other species (Chydorus) responded to the inhibitory effect of one food source by increasing feeding preference for the alternate food. Due to the complexity of the behaviors, a multivariate in situ approach is suggested for future studies.
Ecological Abstraction: The Consequences of Reduced Dimensionality in Ecological Models
Authors: Schaffer William M.
Published: April 2006

Real world ecosystems (as opposed to their mathematical counterparts) are often enormously complex associations of species which interact in diverse ways. As a matter of practical necessity, field ecologists can rarely specify, much less quantify, all of the interactions. Consequently, empirically derived equations purporting to describe the dynamics of such systems generally consider fewer than the total number of interacting species. The present paper calls attention to this reduction in dimensionality and explores some of its consequences. In particular, attention is called to what are termed the Abstracted Growth Equations, those of reduced dimensionality, and to the way that these expressions derive from the underlying n—variable equations. The degree to which the Abstracted Equations accurately describe the dynamics of the species of interest is shown to depend on the time scale of these species relative to that of the species which are omitted. A general result relating the product of the eigenvalues of the Abstracted Equations to the corresponding product for the n—variable equations is proved. It is further pointed out that the distinction between Abstracted and n—variable equations suggests experiments which at least in principle should enable the empiricist to estimate the importance of species and interactions which are omitted. The relationship between Abstracted and n—variable equations is also discussed with regard to measuring competition coefficients and related parameters, and also to the problem of determining whether or not higher order interactions are present in laboratory microcosms. The analysis concludes by comparing the stability properties of several simplified models of community interactions with those of the corresponding one—species Abstracted Equations. It is shown, for the case of difference equations, in particular, that analysis of the one—species models may often lead one to conclude that the system is stable, whereas in fact it is unstable due to overdamping. The final Discussion relates the results of the present paper to previous studies that anticipate the view presented here, and comments on the quarrel that has developed between those ecologists who believe in the existence of community—wide patterns of body size and the like and those who reject this view. It is suggested that the resolution of this dispute may depend on our ability to classify subsystems of species (i.e., guilds) with regard to the extent to which their internal organization is influenced by variation in the larger communities in which they are embedded. Finally, it is shown that Roughgarden's principal results for community coevolution can be deduced from the Abstracted Growth Equations of a particular subset of the entire community.
Colony Defense Strategies of the Honeybees in Thailand
Authors: Seeley Thomas D. , Seeley Robin Hadlock , Akratanakul Pongthep
Published: April 2006

The colony defense strategies of the three honeybee species in Thailand were studied to examine the influence of predation on tropical honeybee societies. Each species focuses its defenses upon different stages in the predation sequence of detection—approach—consumption. This radiation in defense strategies apparently reflects each species' preadaptation by worker size (small, medium—sized, or large) and nest site (cavity or tree branch) to a different pattern of colony defense. Wasps, birds, and primates probably have difficulty finding the small, dispersed colonies of Apis florea, whose nests are built low on the branches of dense, shrubby vegetation. Once found, however, they are easily approached and overpowered because their low, exposed nests are accessible and their small workers inflict relatively painless stings. When overwhelmed, the bees quickly abandon their nest; later, they return to salvage wax. Ants find A. florea nests easily and at least one species (Oecophylla smaragdina) easily kills these small bees. However, sticky bands of resin encircling the nests' slender substrate branches prevent ants from invading A. florea nests. Cavity—nesting colonies of Apis cerana are conspicuous with their medium—sized bees streaming in and out of low, clearly visible entrance holes in caves and hollow tress. However, gaining access to A. cerana nests is difficult. Large predators cannot pass through the small entrance opening and small predators are overpowered by entrance guards. But if a large predator can breach a nest cavity's walls, it faces an only moderately powerful stinging defense. Apis cerana colonies are relatively small and their workers are not fiercely aggressive. Predators easily find the large, sometimes aggregated colonies of Apis dorsata, whose nests hang in the crowns of the tallest forest trees. But only skilled fliers and climbers can reach these lofty nests. Those which do face massive stinging attacks from the large colonies of these relatively giant, ferocious bees. Nests of both open—nesting species, Apis florea and A. dorsata, are protected by a three— to six—layer curtain of bees over the comb. Apis cerana colonies lack these curtains but are protected by their nest cavity walls. A curtain of inactive guards requires a large labor force. The high worker: brood ratio in A. florea relative to A. cerana colonies suggests that the age polyethism schedules of the open— and cavity—nesting species are tuned differently to generate the appropriate proportions of guard bees. Each species' colony defense system consists of numerous interwoven lines of adaptation, including nest site, nest architecture, colony population, labor allocation to defense, age polyethism schedule, colony mobility, and worker morphology, physiology, and behavior. Predation has been a pervasive and powerful force in the evolution of these tropical bee societies.
Environmental Influences on the 137Cs Kinetics of the Yellow‐Bellied Turtle (Trachemys Scripta)
Authors: Peters Eric L. , Brisbin I. Lehr
Published: April 2006

Assessments of ecological risk require accurate predictions of contaminant dynamics in natural populations. However, simple deterministic models that assume constant uptake rates and elimination fractions may compromise both their ecological realism and their general application to animals with variable metabolisms or diets. In particular, the temperature—dependent metabolic rates characteristic of ectotherms may lead to significant differences between observed and predicted contaminant kinetics. We examined the influence of a seasonally variable thermal environment on predicting the uptake and annual cycling of contaminants by ectotherms, using a temperature—dependent model of 137Cs kinetics in free—living yellow—bellied turtles, Trachemys scripta. We compared predictions from this model with those of deterministic negative exponential and flexibly shaped Richards sigmoidal models. Concentrations of 137Cs in a population of this species in Pond B, a radionuclide—contaminated nuclear reactor cooling reservoir, and 137Cs uptake by uncontaminated turtles held captive in Pond B for 4 yr confirmed both the pattern of uptake and the equilibrium concentrations predicted by the temperature—dependent model. Almost 90% of the variance in the predicted time—integrated 137Cs concentration was explainable by linear relationships with model parameters. The model was also relatively insensitive to uncertainties in the estimates of ambient temperature, suggesting that adequate estimates of temperature—dependent ingestion and elimination may require relatively few measurements of ambient conditions at sites of interest. Analyses of Richards sigmoidal models of 137Cs uptake indicated significant differences from a negative exponential trajectory in the 1st yr after the turtles' release into Pond B. We also observed significant annual cycling of 137Cs concentrations, apparently due to temperature—dependent metabolism and its influence on ingestion and elimination rates. However, equilibrium concentrations of the radionuclide in the wild population were predictable from negative exponential models based on average annual temperature and its effects on intake and elimination rates, also suggesting that predicting ectotherm responses to long—lived contaminants (such as 137Cs) may be possible without complex ecophysiological modeling.
American Accounting Education, Textbooks and Public Practice Prior to 1900
Authors: Sampson Roy J.
Published: April 2006

Some later observers, impressed perhaps by rapid progress of the art after 1900, showed disdain for nineteenth-century methods. Five principal factors, however, produced a steady evolution and made accounting an element of importance in the nineteenth-century American business world.
The First Niagara Falls Power Project
Authors: Sharlin Harold I.
Published: April 2006

Harnessing the Niagara for large-scale commercial power exploitation was an entrepreneurial feat of major dimensions. The project also demonstrated the successful application of science to an economic problem. American investors proudly declined European financial assistance, but only too willingly solicited the advice of Europe's leading engineers.
George Gunton: Pioneer Spokesman for a Labor-Big Business Entente
Authors: Blicksilver Jack
Published: April 2006

The story of George Gunton is that of an astonishingly accurate economic prophet whose viewpoints have found wide acceptance a half-century after they were enunciated. Gunton is shown in this article not as a paid defender of big business but as an apostle of compromise, standing in the No Man's Land of a vast battleground. With equal fervor Gunton declared, “It is our industries that make us great,” but that laborers' wages were “as elastic as human wants … capable of as much expansion as the social character of man.” His numerous commentaries are a lucid clue to the relative importance of contemporary issues, and those commentaries are enhanced by Gunton's instinctive sense of history. Out of the confusion of contradictory evidence recorded at the Chicago Conference on Trusts, before the Industrial Commission, and elsewhere on the business and political stage Gunton framed his thesis of the essential interdependence of big business and organized labor. His convictions were, in total, unique, and his judgment and reconciliation of conflicting viewpoints have meaning and utility today.
Where Does Business History Go From Here?
Authors: Johnson Arthur M.
Published: April 2006

On October 27–28, 1961, the Harvard Business History Group sponsored a conference devoted to the theme “Business History as a Teaching Challenge.” The purpose was simple enough — get experienced, active practitioners in business history together with newcomers to the field in the expectation that interaction between the two groups would be mutually beneficial. This hope was realized, though the specific results were somewhat different — and perhaps more valuable — than those originally anticipated. The 50 participants found themselves more involved with a discussion of the appropriate subject matter of business history, past accomplishments, and future possibilities, than with current teaching problems and techniques. This development was not totally unanticipated, but the enthusiasm with which it was embraced came as a pleasant surprise. It therefore seems appropriate to precede the papers given at the conference with a brief summary of the present status and future prospects of business history in the light of the discussion and the written comments later submitted by participants.
The Premises Of Business Revisionism
Authors: Kolko Gabriel
Published: April 2006

The Revisionist trend in American business history has been shaped by values, premises, logic, and procedure that bear certain striking similarities to Marxism, most clearly seen in the Revisionists' acceptance of the inevitability of abuse in capital accumulation.
The Development of Personnel Management in the United States
Authors: Eilbirt Henry
Published: April 2006

Personnel management as we know it today grew out of welfare work, on the one hand, and Scientific Management on the other. It came to embrace added functions and concepts, the most important of which was that idealism and realism were compatible in dealing efficiently with human beings.
The Case of the Dying Kimono: The Influence of Changing Fashions on the Development of the Japanese Woolen Industry
Authors: Nakagawa Keiichirō , Rosovsky Henry
Published: April 2006

Recognizing the importance of the woolen industry in Japan's industrial development, this article explores the impetus given that industry by the gradual Westernization of Japanese tastes in clothing.
Alexander Turney Stewart and the Development of the Department Store, 1823-1876
Authors: Resseguie Harry E.
Published: April 2006

In detailing the business practices of an important 19th-century retailer, Mr. Resseguie contributes new material to the history of marketing.
The Scholastics, Usury, and Foreign Exchange
Authors: de Roover Raymond
Published: April 2006

Did the doctrine of usury hamper businessmen and retard economic growth during the Middle Ages? Professor de Roover suggests an answer through examination of the conceptual modification of the doctrine in relation to banking and foreign exchange.
The Origin and Evolution of Nineteenth-Century Asset Accounting
Authors: Brief Richard P.
Published: April 2006

The methods used to account for business assets in Britain and the United States during the nineteenth century are here examined in a context of interplay between “internal economic criteria” and “external constraints.”
The Railroads: Pioneers in Modern Corporate Management
Authors: Chandler Alfred D.
Published: April 2006

In coping with large-scale problems of management, the railroads had to devise new methods for mobilizing, controlling, and apportioning capital, for operating a widely dispersed plant, and for supervising thousands of specialized workers. In these activities, Professor Chandler argues, were created basic plans for the structural form of the modern American corporation.
Government and Business in Germany: Public Policy toward Cartels
Authors: Marburg Theodore F.
Published: April 2006

Through a careful analysis of public policy and opinion, Professor Marburg considers the nature, allowable range, and economic effects of those business associations designated “cartels” in German usage. Marked contrasts with American theory and practice in similar fields emerge.
British Long-Term Investment in Latin America, 1865-1913
Authors: Stone Irving
Published: April 2006

Following a review of the early period of British investment in Latin America (1822–1865) and a discussion of previous estimates of British capital exports to South and Central America before World War I, Professor Stone presents new and revised data concerning the composition and distribution of British holdings by amount, industry, and region.
Business Policy in a Dictatorship
Authors: Schweitzer Arthur
Published: April 2006

Assuming that large concerns usually do pursue a common external “political” policy, the author examines the opportunities and eventual failure of such a policy in the first phase of the Hitler regime. His distinction between an independent and dependent “political” policy by business under a dictatorship may also be relevant for less developed countries with dictatorial governments.
Costs of Constructing and Outfitting the Ship Charles W. Morgan, 1840–1841
Authors: Schultz Charles R.
Published: April 2006

In the manner of the Creole tradesmen of Louisiana, whose lagniappe to their patrons is legendary, the Editor offers a similar bonus to readers of the Review. Instead of trifling presents added to a purchase, however, our lagniappe will be notes and documents illustrative of the evolution of business enterprise.
The State and the Electric-Power Industry in Mexico, 1895–1965
Authors: Wionczek Miguel S.
Published: April 2006

Increased state participation in the economy has been a basic trend in twentieth-century Latin America. In the process, however, once-protected private interests may fall—as in this case-study from Mexico.
A “New Class” in China's Treaty Ports: The Rise of the Comprador-Merchants
Authors: Hao Yen-p'ing
Published: April 2006

Professor Yen-p'ing Hao analyzes the economic, social, political, and intellectual roles of a Chinese mercantile class which served as a link between China and the West.
The Refrigerator Car and the Growth of the American Dressed Beef Industry
Authors: Kujovich Mary Yeager
Published: April 2006

Mrs. Kujovich examines the impact of technological innovation upon the beef industry and the railroads. Utilization of the refrigerator car disrupted the old order in the relationship between the industry and the railroads, exploiting the competition between railroads to make possible the nationwide expansion of the western dressed beef industry.
The Removal of War Production Board Controls on Business, 1944–1946
Authors: Bernstein Barton J.
Published: April 2006

Inter-agency argument within the government and indecision and disagreement among businessmen over the demobilization of America's wartime economic controls are considered in this study of government-business relations.
The Multinational Spread of Japanese Manufacturing Investment since World War II
Authors: Yoshino M.Y.
Published: April 2006

Professor Yoshino traces the evolution of direct investment in overseas manufacturing by Japanese enterprises in the postwar era. Much of that expansion is of very recent origin, and the prospects are for the spread of considerably more Japanese investment abroad in the future.
Multinational Oil Companies in South America in the 1920s: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru
Authors: Wilkins Mira
Published: April 2006

Generalizations are always difficult, especially in the context of varied national experiences. But by looking at the evolution of oil company activity in the 1920s in South America and by examining the range of relevant business functions — marketing, refining, production, exploration, transportation — the author throws light on the development of business-government relations in that part of the world, where the hostility of host nations to multinational enterprises was to grow so strong.
The Concept of Profit in British Accounting, 1760–1900
Authors: Lee G. A.
Published: April 2006

Dr. Lee analyzes the process whereby the relatively unsophisticated accounting practices of the eighteenth century were transformed, by the end of the nineteenth, into something resembling the more regular and consistent methods of today. He concentrates primarily on net asset valuation and profit determination but also on the development of costing techniques.
Early Capitalism and its Enemies: The Wörner Family and the Weavers of Nördlingen
Authors: Friedrichs Christopher R.
Published: April 2006

The long, slow decline of the handicraft industries in Western Europe was attended by protracted hardship and misery for the artisan classes, short-term exploitative opportunities for crass merchants to whom the old medieval communal values were outdated cant, and confusion and eventual rout for the town fathers who attempted to maintain such values in the face of ineluctable economic change. Professor Friedrichs draws these conclusions from his research on woolen cloth weavers in the German town of Nördlingen in the seventeenth century and shows how, once the old values were no longer useful, the state itself took the initiative in the eighteenth century in facilitating the conversion of handicraft industry to the modern wage-labor system.
An American Businessman in the Soviet Union: The Reimer Report
Authors: Clawson Robert W.
Published: April 2006

In 1930 Jacob Reimer, along with sixteen other employees of International Harvester, went to the Soviet Union for one year to service agricultural implements and to train Soviet workers in their use. This document describes his experiences.
Scientific Management, Systematic Management, and Labor, 1880–1915
Authors: Nelson Daniel
Published: April 2006

Offering a significant revision of prevailing views, Professor Nelson examines the actual implementation of scientific management in industry and finds that it bore only a superficial resemblance to the system described by Taylor and his disciples. Rather than a “partial solution of the labor problem,” the Taylor system was a comprehensive answer to the problems of factory coordination, a refinement and extension of the earlier ideas known as systematic management.
The Selling of America: The Advertising Council and American Politics, 1942–1960
Authors: Griffith Robert
Published: April 2006

From its inception in the 1940s the Advertising Council was part of a broad, loosely coordinated campaign by American business leaders to contain the anticorporate liberalism of the 1930s and to refashion the character of the New Deal State. In this campaign the Council generally aligned itself with the more liberal wing of the business community, usually identified with the newly organized Committee for Economic Development (CED), rather than with the older and more conservative National Association of Manufacturers (NAM). Like the CED, the Advertising Council often espoused a “corporatist” ideology which emphasized cooperation between business and government; and like the Business Advisory Council, the National Petroleum Council, and other quasi-public corporatist bodies, it sought to establish close, reciprocal relationships with the executive branch. The Council enthusiastically supported the new foreign and national security policies of the Truman Administration, but strongly opposed its domestic programs. By contrast, the Council supported both the foreign and domestic policies of the Eisenhower Administration, and helped promote the administration's economic programs in a series of major advertising campaigns. Through its millions of “public service” advertisements, the Council sought to promote an image of advertising as a responsible and civic-spirited industry, of the U.S. economy as a uniquely productive system of free enterprise, and of America as a dynamic, classless, and benignly consensual society.
The Merchant, the Manufacturer, and the Factory Manager: The Case of Samuel Slater
Authors: Tucker Barbara M.
Published: April 2006

Early textile enterprises faced no trends with greater reluctance than the integration of operations within a single factory and, considerably later, the assignment of formerly family-dominated, entrepreneurial functions to hired factory agents. Samuel Slater, the classic pioneer of factory production of textile yarns, was slow to accept these trends, and only the obvious inability of either him or his family to cope with a rapidly growing and changing industry in the 1820s and 1830s forced him to integrate spinning, weaving, and finishing operations and to turn over broad responsiblity in individual factories to what is perhaps the earliest example of the professional manager.
Reforming the Regulatory Process: Why James Landis Changed His Mind
Authors: Ritchie Donald A.
Published: April 2006

In our day, when the question of how and to what extent and by whom economic activity should be regulated is wide open as between legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government and a galaxy of highly developed private interest groups, the traditional Progressive idea of the just and all-wise commission as final arbiter seems dated. Mr. Ritchie shows that it was an idea to which James M. Landis clung enthusiastically, largely as a result of his experience on the Securities and Exchange Commission, until his later experience as Chairman of the Civil Aeronautics Board and finally as a lawyer representing one of the parties at interest before the Board. From the mounting evidence that a successful regulatory function grows, if at all, out of an appreciation of the economic realities of the particular activity being regulated, may yet come a national policy to which all may repair. Piling up such evidence is one of the most valuable public services the historian can render.
Invention and Innovation in the British Pin Industry, 1790–1850
Authors: Dutton H.I. , Jones S.R.H.
Published: April 2006

During the six decades that extended from 1790 to 1850, British pin manufacturers were often slow to adopt new technology. Unfavorable economic conditions, particulary those spawned by the Napoleonic wars, were partly responsible for the lag between the invention and utilization of new techniques, but at other times, the shortcomings of inventors as salesmen of their inventions also contributed to the slow introduction of new technology. In this article Professors Dutton and Jones illustrate that the diffusion of new technology was (and is) anything but a costless and frictionless process, and they ultimately conclude that “this arcadian world of neo-classical simplicity would seem to be far removed from historical reality.”
Commercial Specialization in Philadelphia's Merchant Community, 1750–1791
Authors: Doerflinger Thomas M.
Published: April 2006

In this study of Philadelphia merchants in the latter half of the eighteenth century, Thomas M. Doerflinger subjects to critical scrutiny some heretofore accepted interpretations of the transition from general merchant to specialist. Specifically, he finds a surprisingly large degree of specialization in the period under study. In the course of this investigation, Dr. Doerflinger develops important ideas concerning the forces encouraging and inhibiting this transition.
Engineers and Government-Business Cooperation: Highway Standards and the Bureau of Public Roads, 1900–1940
Authors: Seely Bruce E.
Published: April 2006

Industrial standardization, when noted at all by historians, has usually been associated with the rise of large corporations in the late nineteenth century. In this article, however, Professor Seely contends that, in the highway industry, the introduction of uniform standards and specifications in the early twentieth century was spearheaded by federal engineers in the Bureau of Public Roads—the government's highway agency—through a variety of indirect and cooperative arrangements with state governments, trade associations, and professional organizations. Government leadership in the standardization of highway engineering practices and materials requirements, Seely concludes, suggests the significant role engineers played in the drive for uniformity. Linking nineteenth-century business-sponsored standardization efforts with the government-sponsored efforts of the twentieth century, engineers brought, despite a shift in institutional base, a singleness of purpose to the movement as a whole.
Entrepreneurship in Public Enterprise: General Enrique Mosconi and the Argentine Petroleum Industry
Authors: Solberg Carl E.
Published: April 2006

The economic history of Latin America offers an unusual paradox. For much of the twentieth century, nationalist governments have fostered the growth of state enterprise, but for the most part the proponents of such policies have received little attention. The Argentine petroleum industry is a case in point. While the state oil company Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales (or YPF) grew from relatively modest origins into the largest firm in the country, its most important architect, General Enrique Mosconi, has remained a little-known figure. In this article, however, Dr. Solberg takes note of Mosconi's career. He examines the forces that shaped it and that shaped his policies as the Director General of YPF. Mosconi's story, however, is not that of just another nationalist-turned-public servant, for his ideas and policies had far-reaching ramifications not only in the political economy of Argentina but also in that of other nations of Latin America.
Technology, Political Economy, and Professionalization: Central Themes of the Organizational Synthesis
Authors: Galambos Louis
Published: April 2006

In this suggestive essay, Professor Galambos surveys the large number of books and articles, published since 1970, that together point toward a new “organizational synthesis” in American history. Expanding upon an earlier, more tentative essay on the same subject published in the Autumn 1970 issue of the Business History Review, he contrasts the widely disparate postures adopted in recent years by historians studying organizational behavior. His survey reveals a rich diversity of opinion, less reliant than was previous scholarship upon abstractions drawn from the social sciences. This diversity of opinion, Galambos concludes, provides the organizational synthesis with much of its continued vitality, and makes possible “the kind of moral judgments that have always characterized the best historical scholarship.”
National Capital and National Development: Financing Chile's Central Valley Railroads
Authors: Oppenheimer Robert
Published: April 2006

In studying the economic growth of Latin America, historians of widely divergent viewpoints have tended to emphasize the role of foreigners in the developmental process. As a result, they have often overlooked the efforts of Central and South American entrepreneurs in mobilizing capital and adopting technology to foster the growth of their countries. Chile is a case in point. Like their counterparts throughout Latin America, mid-nineteenth-century Chilean businessmen have been generally portrayed as the followers of foreign interests that dominated the nation's economy. This interpretation, however, has ignored the activity of Chileans in building railroads and promoting various other sectors of their economy. In this essay, Dr. Oppenheimer offers conclusive evidence that Chilean businessmen, closely linked to government—but not foreigners—dominated the two firms that brought the iron horse into Chile's Central Valley.
British Marketing Enterprise: The Changing Roles of Merchants, Manufacturers, and Financiers, 1700–1860
Authors: Chapman Stanley D.
Published: April 2006

The Industrial Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, the American Revolution, and our emergence as an independent trading nation all worked profound changes upon the British marketing enterprise, but it is an oversimplification, according to Dr. Chapman, to conclude that manufacturers quickly or entirely replaced traditional British merchant banking houses even down to World War I. He develops three phases of a long-drawn-out process of change that served Britain's needs poorly throughout the nineteenth century.
Response to the Contributors to the Review Colloquium onScale and Scope
Authors: Chandler Alfred D.
Published: April 2006

I am extremely grateful for the valuable and challenging comments of the contributors to this review colloquium onScale and Scope. Their remarks have allowed me to clarify and to define more sharply the basic concepts, focus, and aims of the book. In discussing each reviewer's comments, I attempt whenever possible to place them in the larger context of my views on the development of industrial capitalism.
“On the Dump Heap”: Employee Medical Screening in the Tri-State Zinc-Lead Industry, 1924–1932
Authors: Derickson Alan
Published: April 2006

In the following article, Professor Derickson examines the motivation for and the results of employee medical screening of workers in a midwestern mining community. He argues that, contrary to the goals of the associative state as envisioned by Herbert Hoover and others, government and mine operator efforts to determine the extent of respiratory disease among mine workers in the Tri-State were neither impelled by a concern for workers' welfare nor conducive to the amelioration of their problems.
British Rail's “Business-Led” Organization, 1977–1990: Government-Industry Relations in Britain's Public Sector
Authors: Gourvish Terence R.
Published: April 2006

In attempting to meet government-mandated profitability and efficiency goals, the British Rail Board behaved not simply as the government directed, but rather according to internal needs and initiatives, as this careful examination of the implementation of sector management demonstrates. Even in the early days of movement toward privatization, the board tried to develop its own policies, and, though it soon became clear that full divestiture was to be the goal, events proceeded through various stages, rather than in a forced march along a government-designed path.
Structural Change and Competition in the United States Tire Industry, 1920–1937
Authors: French Michael
Published: April 2006

In this case study, Dr. French examines the responses to overcapacity in a mass production industry and traces the development of oligopolistic competition. Previous studies have emphasized technology and the growth of “big business,” but here the author argues that the structure of the U.S. tire industry must be understood in terms of large, medium, and small firms. He finds, moreover, that the extent of competition and cooperation was significantly influenced by the nature of the tire market. Dr. French provides new evidence on the relationships between structural factors and the dynamics of business policy, and points to the need for a more comprehensive account of the evolution and nature of oligopolistic competition.