bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Case series of 406 vernal keratoconjunctivitis patients: a demographic and epidemiological study
Authors: Leonardi Andrea , Busca Francesca , Motterle Laura , Cavarzeran Fabiano , Fregona Iva A. , Plebani Mario , Secchi Antonio G.
Published: April 2006

Purpose:  To evaluate the specific allergic sensitization and epidemiological characteristics of vernal keratoconjunctivitis (VKC).

Methods:  This retrospective non‐comparative case series included 406 VKC patients. Data included patient and family histories, and results of allergic tests. Annual incidence and prevalence rates were calculated for a cohort of 128 VKC patients from the greater Padua area.

Results:  The great majority of VKC patients were male (76%), with a male : female ratio of 3.3 : 1. A skin prick test, specific serum IgE or conjunctival challenge was positive in 43%, 56% and 58% of patients, respectively. In the cohort of patients from the Padua area, the prevalence of the disease was 7.8/100 000, with a higher rate in young males (57/100 000) compared with young females (22/100 000), and lower rates in people over 16 years of age (3.8/100 000 in males, 1/100 000 in females). The incidence of VKC was 1/100 000, with a higher rate in males under 16 years of age (10/100 000) compared with females (4.2/100 000). In people over 16 years of age, the incidence of the disease was 0.06/100 000, with no difference between males and females.

Conclusion:  An IgE‐mediated sensitization was found in only half of the VKC patients. Vernal keratoconjunctivitis is not a rare event in the paediatric population but is an extremely rare new disease in adults.
Fog collection as a source of fresh water supply in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Authors: Gandhidasan Palanichamy , Abualhamayel Habib I.
Published: April 2006

In order to harvest water contained in fog, the topographical features and the climatic conditions of 27 cities in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia were studied. The topography, altitude and orientation are some of the factors that determined the selection of the site. It was identified that the southwest of the region in the kingdom was the most suitable location for the fog‐collection process. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of fog water collection and the site, three identical standard fog collectors (SFCs) with two different local collection materials were designed and manufactured. Experiments were conducted at two different locations in the area close to Abha, namely Soodha. The maximum amount of water collected was 22.9 L/m2 in a day and 7.25 L/m2 in a 2‐h period. It was found that there was a high probability of fog when the relative humidity was higher than 95%. The results from the chemical analyses of eight sets of fog water samples collected were compared with World Health Organization drinking water standards. It was found that the level of heavy metals was negligible and the level of Fe was marginally high for the first flush only. The study indicates that in terms of both quality and magnitude of yield, fog is a viable source of water and can be successfully used to supplement water supplies in the fog‐prone regions of the kingdom.
The Moral Basis of Animal-Assisted Therapy
Authors: Zamir Tzachi
Published: April 2006

Is nonhuman animal-assisted therapy (AAT) a form of exploitation? After exploring possible moral vindications of AAT and after establishing a distinction between "use" and "exploitation," the essay distinguishes between forms of animal-assisted therapy that are morally unobjectionable and those modes of it that ought to be abolished.
How dear is my enemy: Intruder-resident and resident-resident encounters in male sand fiddler crabs (Uca pugilator)
Authors: Pratt Ann E. , McLain Denson Kelly
Published: April 2006

Male sand fiddler crabs (Uca pugilator) defend territories that consist of a breeding burrow and a display area where they wave their claw to attract females. Burrow-holding males engage in agonistic contests with both intruding males that attempt burrow take-overs and with other territory-holding neighbors that apparently attempt to limit waving or other surface activities of rivals. Contests employ one or more behavioral elements that range from no claw contact to use of the claw to push, grip, or flip an opponent. We placed each observed element into one of six groups ranked by intensity, which was based on the degree of claw contact and apparent energy expenditure. In the field, contests with intruders began at higher intensity and escalated more rapidly than did those with neighbors. Thus, U. pugilator males exhibit a dear enemy response toward neighbors. However, resident-resident contests increased in intensity when burrows were close, neighbors faced each other when exiting burrows, and neighbors were of similar size. Proximity and orientation determine the ease with which a neighbor may be engaged. Also, neighbors that are close and of similar size pose a greater threat to mating opportunities, favoring heightened intensity of contests.
Therapeutic potential of iron chelators in diseases associated with iron mismanagement
Authors: Weinberg Eugene D
Published: April 2006

A considerable array of diseases are now recognized to be associated with misplacement of iron. Excessive deposits of the metal in sensitive tissue sites can result in formation of destructive hydroxyl radicals as well as in stimulation of growth of neoplastic and microbial cell invaders. To counteract potential iron damage, hosts employ the iron chelators, transferrin and lactoferrin. These proteins have been recently developed into pharmaceutical products. Additionally, a variety of low molecular mass iron chelators are being used/tested to treat whole body iron loading, and specific diseases for which the metal is a known or suspected risk factor.
Involvement of the nitric oxide/soluble guanylate cyclase pathway in the anti-oedematogenic action of Pfaffia glomerata (Spreng) Pedersen in mice
Authors: Teixeira Chirlei G L , Piccoli Andressa , Costa Philipe , Soares Luciano , da Silva-Santos José E
Published: April 2006

Pfaffia glomerata is used in southern American countries against inflammatory diseases. We have explored the ability of a crude hydroalcoholic extract of P. glomerata root (HEPG) to prevent the oedematogenic action of several inflammatory agents in mice. We have examined also the duration of its effects and the mechanisms involved. The oral or intraperitoneal treatment of mice with HEPG (1, 10, 30, 100 or 300 mg kg−1) reduced, in a dose-dependent manner, carrageenan-induced paw oedema in the early (1–4 h) and late (48 h) periods. In the early period, the ID50 value (the median dose that caused 50% inhibition) of HEPG was 60.5 (28.5–128.71) and 20.4 (14.8–28.3) mg kg−1 after oral and intraperitoneal administration, respectively. This effect was still evident when HEPG was administered up to 6 h before carrageenan. HEPG inhibited also paw oedema induced by histamine, serotonin, bradykinin, substance P and bacterial lipopolysaccharide. In addition, oral administration of HEPG increased the levels of nitrate and nitrite in the blood of mice. Further, its anti-oedematogenic action against carrageenan was prevented fully by NG nitro-L-arginine-methyl-ester (10 mg kg−1, s.c.), as well as by methylene blue (20 mg kg−1, s.c.) or 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-alpha]quinoxalin-1-one (2 mg kg−1, s.c.). The results indicated that stimulation of endogenous production of nitric oxide, followed by soluble guanylate cyclase activation, was implicated in the anti-oedematogenic action of HEPG.
DISTRIBUTION DES FLAVONOIDES CHEZ LES BRUNIACÉES
Authors: Jay M.
Published: April 2006

A very particular flavonoid content, compared with the classical systematic data, allows to attribute a relatively isolated place in the order of the Rosales, to the family of the Bruniaceae, chemically studied for the first time.
WHAT IS A NEW TAXON?
Authors: Bullock A. A.
Published: April 2006

A ‘new taxon’ is not, or only rarely, a newly evolved taxon whilst a new species is new only in a nomenclatural sense or, as it was phrased in earlier generations “new to science”. The indication “nom. nov.” must be regarded as a technical term indicating a new name replacing an old one which is illegitimate under the Code.
SUR L'ILLÉGITIMITÉ DU GENRE PHRAGMOGRAPHIUM (STILBELLACEAE)
Authors: Morelet Michel
Published: April 2006

The genus Phragmographium Morris, is illegitimate and must be rejected because it is a later homonym of Phragmographum P. Henn. (Ascomycete). Morrisographium is proposed as a new name and the fungus must be named Morrisographium pilosum (Earle) Morelet.
TYPIFICATION OF THE GENERIC NAMES GYMNOCARPIUM AND PHEGOPTERIS
Authors: Holttum R. E.
Published: April 2006

The genus Gymnocarpium Newman should be typified by the species Polypodium robertianum Hoffm. Then Phegopteris Fée, as typified by Polypodium phegopteris L., is legitimate.
CEPHALOCEREUS VERSUS CEPHALOPHORUS (CACTACEAE)
Authors: Hunt D. R.
Published: April 2006

The generic name Cephalophoms Lemaire 1838 (before May) is without any possible doubt a provisional name, not validly published under Art. 34 of the Code. It should not be taken up in preference to the generally accepted Cephalocereus Pfeiffer (5 May 1838).
SOLL DER GATTUNGSNAME KRASCHENINNIKOWIA TURCZ. GESCHÜTZT WERDEN?
Authors: Schaeftlein H.
Published: April 2006

Seit der Ersetzung des als jüngeres Homonym regelwidrig gewordenen Gattungsnamens Krascheninnikowia Turcz. ex Fenzl 1840 durch Pseudostellaria Pax 1934 hat sich der neue Name völlig eingebürgert. Insbesonders wurde eine Revision der Gattung auf ihm aufgebaut und eine Reihe neuer Art‐ und Varietätsnamen wurde veröffentlicht, so daß nun die Rückkehr zum früheren Gattungsnamen mehr nomenklatorische Umstellungen erfordern würde als seinerzeit die Einführung des neuen. Die beantragte Konservierung von Krascheninnikowia Turcz. würde sich daher nicht empfehlen. Angeschlossen werden literaturkritische und nomenklatorische Ausführungen über Krascheninnikowia.
TYPIFICATION OF THE GENUS HEXAGONA
Authors: Fidalgo Maria Eneyda P. Kauffmann
Published: April 2006

A brief historical review of the genusHexagonaFr. and discussion of its typification are presented. The indication ofHexagona crinigeraFr. as lectotype is considered to be the most suitable. The genusHexagonaFr. should be restricted to the group of species included by Fries in 1838 in his first section, around which allied species should be grouped.

While studying the genusHexagonaI found the question of its typification a most difficult and serious problem. Several non‐congeneric species have been designated by different authors as the type. Different interpretations of the International Code of Nomenclature favored diversified conclusions, making the situation more and more confused. I decided to study this problem with the hope of clarifying the situation with some new evidence.
NOMENCLATURAL PROBLEMS AROUND HIBISCUS L.
Authors: van den Brink R. C. Bakhuizen
Published: April 2006

Hibiscus L. was first typified by Ph. Miller who restricted the genus to the single species Hibiscus malvaviscus L. In order to retain present usage it will be necessary to conserve Hibiscus L. with the type H. syriacus L. and to conserve Malvaviscus Cav. with the type Hibiscus malvaviscus L. as proposed in Taxon 15: 43. 1966.
SOLANUM VERBASCIFOLIUM L., MISIDENTIFICATION AND MISAPPLICATION
Authors: Roe Keith E.
Published: April 2006

The common unarmed pantropical species of Solanum traditionally known as S. verbascifolium L. must be called S. erianthum D. Don. The Linnaean type specimen of S. verbascifolium is no 248.1 of the Linnaean herbarium (LINN) and belongs to the prickly subgenus Leptostemonum.
FLORA REIPUBLICAE POPULARIS BULGARICAE
Authors: Kuzmanov B. A. , Kozuharov S. I.
Published: April 2006

Aims and scope of the Flora Reipublicae Popularis Bulgaricae, of which three volumes have so far appeared (1963, 1964, 1965), are discussed with reference to herbarium collections, previous literature and general organizational questions. The fourth (Cactaceae‐Crassulaceae) and fifth (Rosaceae‐Leguminosae) volumes are in preparation.
HILL'S THE BRITISH HERBAL (1756‐1757)
Authors: Stearn William T.
Published: April 2006

John Hill's The British Herbal was published in 52 parts between 24 January 1756 and 28 January 1757. Each part normally consisted of two sheets (8 pages) and three plates or of three sheets (12 pages) and two plates. A detailed list of contents of the parts and of the precise dates of publication is given, based on announcements in a London daily newspaper, the Public Advertiser.

Hill's nomenclature and taxonomy, and especially the status of his names under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, are briefly discussed.
KEY COMMUNALITY CLUSTER ANALYSIS AS A TAXONOMIC TOOL
Authors: Crovello Theodore J.
Published: April 2006

The technique of Key Communality Cluster Analysis developed by Robert C. Tryon is introduced into the biological literature. The value of this technique to biosystematics is illustrated by a study using taxa of the dicotyledonous family Limnanthaceae. Cluster analysis of characters emerges as an efficient way to comprehend the relationships not only among individual characters but among clusters of characters. Five major clusters were found among the 35 characters employed. The method can be used as a context for the generation of ideas and hypotheses on the origin and selective role of the observed character‐clusters. Such hypotheses could then be verified or disproved by subsequent experiments. It can also be used to understand results obtained from a complementary taximetric analysis. Its relationship with other methods of character analysis is discussed.
THE PRESENT STATUS OF BIOSYSTEMATICS
Authors: Böcker Tyge W.
Published: April 2006

Biosystematics should not develop into a superior synthetic science; it should deliver material for the modern taxonomic synthesis. It should not only continue to produce chromosome numbers, but also to provide taxonomists with information about chromosomal behaviour during meiosis, ecotypical variation, sterility barriers, etc. However, it should not only act as a supporting branch of science, but it should keep its own face, stamped by experimental work. Specialisation in the field of evolution in plants is needed, thereby obtaining a deeper understanding of variation and evolution in relation to the environment. Divergent as well as convergent evolution must be understood just as well as the phenomenon of ‘adaptation’.
SEED BANKS AS A MEANS OF IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF SEED LISTS
Authors: Thompson P. A.
Published: April 2006

Criticisms of the quality of Seed Lists issued by Botanic Gardens, have been directed towards failures either to identify accurately the seed offered, or to ensure its viability or to provide information on its origin.

These shortcomings can be remedied only by spending more time on each seed sample than at present. One way of gaining this time is to prolong seed viability to a maximum by providing good storage conditions. This avoids the necessity for frequently repeated collections of seed with the advantage that documentation on any particular collection remains relevant for a long period.

No single storage condition suits all species and experiments at Kew are directed towards establishing optimum needs of different species. with the aim of maintaining viability in store of seventy‐five percent or more of the species involved for at least ten to fifteen years. This would allow the establishment of a bank of seed which could be built up from year to year with time for adequate documentation of every species.
CHROMOSOME CHANGES — A DISCUSSION
Authors: Smith Ben W.
Published: April 2006

Evolutionary studies, one of the main aims of “biosystematics” frequently do not provide the practical information required for classification. A truly phyletic classification is probably unattainable in view of the sheer numbers of organisms systematists have to deal with. Chromosomal changes, however, are often of importance as characters in more conventional taxonomy. The evolutionary direction of the changes is mostly difficult to assess.
CHEMICAL AND NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON ALECTORIA (LICHENES) II
Authors: Hawksworth D. L.
Published: April 2006

Studies on type specimens show that the following nomenclatural changes are necessary: A. divergescens Nyl. (= A. acanihodes Hue), A. jubata (L.) Ach. (= A. prolixa sensu Mot.). The identities of A. fusconitida Lamb ex Mot. nom. nud., A. pacifica Stizenb., and Bryopogon hosseusianus Gyeln. are discussed; and A. lanea (Ehrh. ex Hoffm.) Vain. is shown to be a synonym of A. pubescens (L.) R. H. Howe and not the correct name for A. nitidula (Th. Fr.) Vain.. The name A. prolixa (Ach.) Nyl. is rejected in accordance with Articles 69 and 70; the combination A. sarmentosa subsp. vexillifera (Nyl. in Kihlm.) D. Hawksw. stat. nov. is made; and a new variety, A. sulcata var. barbata D. Hawksw. var. nov., is described from Formosa and Sikkim.
DEUX ACCEPTIONS D'ASTER SUBULATUS
Authors: Bosserdet Pierre
Published: April 2006

L'acception traditionnelle d'Aster subulatus, sur la seule foi de la diagnose de la Flora boreali americana ne correspond pas au type de Michaux (Herb. Mus. Paris).

Il est donc nécessaire de donner un autre nom à la plante actuellement nommée A. subulatus. Nous l'appelons: Aster ensifer, et en donnons une diagnose et une description.

Le nom de A. subulatus reste valable pour les plantes répondant à la diagnose et à la description ici publiées de la plante de l'herbier Michaux.
THE ALGAL GENERA MACROPORELLA, SALPINGOPORELLA AND PIANELLA (DASYCLADACEAE)
Authors: Gušić Ivan
Published: April 2006

Pianella Radoičić, 1962, according to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (1966), should be considered a later synonym of Salpingoporella Pia, 1918. Consequently, all species which have been assigned to Pianella should be included in the older genus Salpingoporella, which may be defined, essentially, as a Macroporellu but with clearly euspondyl arrangement of the branches.
ZONALAPOLLENITES PFLUG 1953 AND RELATED GENERA
Authors: Pocock Stanley A. J.
Published: April 2006

Considerable confusion has arisen over the validity and content of the genera Zonalapollenites and Tsugaepollenites. The problem is discussed and it is concluded that the latter generic name is junior synonym of the former. Since no type species was proposed for Zonalapollenites it is proposed that Zonalapollenites igniculus Potonié ex Pflug 1953 be regarded as type species.
COMPUTER GRAPHIC PLOTTING AND MAPPING OF DATA IN SYSTEMATICS
Authors: Adams Robert P.
Published: April 2006

The use of the computer to map and/or plot systematic data is examined in the areas of automatic plotting of taxa's distributions and computer graphic analysis of geographic variation and population differentiation. Automatic plotting of distributional data is discussed in reference to earlier work and present applications in conjunction with the development of the Rapid Access Plant Information Center (RAPIC) of Colorado, (USA). In the area of computer graphic analysis of geographic variation, the following techniques are discussed: contour mapping (2 and 3 dimensional); shading by overprinting; contoured factor analysis; and contoured surface trend analysis. A technique of composite overlay mapping is introduced to systematics and several applications are discussed.
“ADANSONIA”, FÊTES CHAMPÊTRES ET LINNÉENS FRANÇAIS
Authors: Aymonin Gérard G.
Published: April 2006

In France, several “Sociétés Linnéennes” still enjoy a scientific activity, especially at Bordeaux, Caen and Lyon. Information is given on the membership and the nature of the first “Société Linnéenne de Paris”: field meetings around Paris between 1822 and 1827 are reported. The birth of the tradition took place about 1790. The various clubs for french Linnaeans and their correspondents were “branches”, “colonies”, “sociétés affiliées”; women were admitted since 1822. The publications of the Society dealt with various theoretical and technical sciences. The second Parisian Linnaean Society, created by H. E. Baillon, is also briefly discussed.
COMMENTS ON RULES OF PUBLICATION AND USE OF CULTIVAR NAMES
Authors: Baum Bernard R.
Published: April 2006

It is proposed that Article 48 and Note of Article 51, of the International Code of Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants — 1969, be deleted, and that Article 44 be amended. This proposal is based on the principle that a cultivar name never loses its importance even if the cultivar is not grown any more. It is also strongly recommended that Registries be done on a world‐wide basis. A few examples taken from oat cultivars are given to illustrate the problem.
CHROMOSOME NUMBERS IN THE MELIACEAE
Authors: Styles B. T. , Vosa C. G.
Published: April 2006

A detailed chromosome study has been made of 58 species in 30 genera of the tropical family Meliaceae. The results largely confirm observations, by other investigators on similar tropical woody groups, that high chromosome numbers are common and that polyploidy is a frequent phenomenon. Although the chromosomes are, in most species, very small and metacentric, some differences in chromosome size and shape are detectable. Many genera seem to have a high base number and/or several different numbers. The Meliaceae, unlike some other tropical woody groups, are particularly interesting because of the considerable range of chromosome numbers they exhibit. Differences in number have been observed between even closely related species in the economically important timber genera Swietenia, Cedrela and Toona, and this has an obvious bearing on future tree breeding and tree improvement studies. The taxonomic significance of chromosome numbers is discussed.
NOTES AND TYPIFICATION FOR TWO SPECIES OF BONAMIA (CONVOLVULACEAE)
Authors: Austin Daniel F.
Published: April 2006

Two species of Bonomia which have been confused with the genus Maripa are discussed. Typification for Bonamia trichantha is clarified and a new synonym given. The lectotype is chosen for B. maripoides with a plate of type labels showing handwriting samples of Choisy, Hallier, and Martius. Ecological data and exsiccatae derived from herbarium material and field studies in Brazil are provided.
A NEW LECTOTYPIFICATION OF THE GENUS XANTHOSOMA SCHOTT (ARACEAE)
Authors: Nicolson Dan H.
Published: April 2006

The genusXanthosomahas been arbitrarily lectotypified onX. jacquiniiSchott, an illegitimate name.Xanthosoma jacquiniiSchott may be considered either as validly published in 1832 (an illegitimate renaming ofArum xanthorrhizonand a synonym ofX. sagittifolium(L.) Schott), or as not validly published until 1856 (an illegitimate later homonym ofX. jacquiniiSchott ex Kunth (1841) and a synonym ofX. undipes(Koch) Koch. In view of the arbitrary designation ofX. jacquiniias “type species” and the confusion surrounding application of the binomial, it is proposed thatX. sagittifolium(L.) Schott be accepted as the lectotype species.
THE TYPIFICATION OF OLEANDRA ARTICULATA (FILIC.)
Authors: de Joncheere G. J.
Published: April 2006

The basionym of Oleandra articulata (Sw.) Presl, namely Aspidium articulatum Sw. must be typified as indicated by Maxon (1914) thus continuing current usage. Morton's arguments (1968) to change the lectotype are rejected.
A SIMPLE TECHNIQUE FOR MEASURING PHENETIC SIMILARITY IN SOLANUM USING EDGE‐PUNCHED CARDS
Authors: Roe K.
Published: April 2006

Edge‐punched cards were used in a simple method to detect phenetic relationships among the 27 species of Solanum section Brevantherum. Data from species descriptions were placed on two sets of punch cards, one for measuring the character correlations among species, the other for detecting modal character states of the group and helping with key construction. A matrix of phenetic similarity was compiled by sorting the deck of character cards and comparing each species with every other to determine the number of character states shared by species pairs. Simple analyses were performed which are expressed graphically. Phenetic distance of each species from a hypothetical ancestor is illustrated. Punch card methods have the advantage of allowing constant contact with actual character states during the study.
MÜSSEN WIR GANDOGER WIRKLICH NOCH GERECHT WERDEN?
Authors: Meyer F. K.
Published: April 2006

The new names, epithets and combinations published by Gandoger in his Flora Europae are not validly published because:

‘genera’ are subordinated to genera in the sense of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.

‘Species’ are subordinated to species in that same sense.

names of second category genera are used as the first part of binary combinations.

epitheta of second category species are used as the second part of binary combinations.

names and epithets of unequal rank are used as the first part of binary combinations thus creating the impression of genera of the first, second and third order (category).

All these names are inadmissible because not validly published as provided for by Articles 5, 12, 23 and 33 of the Code.
APROPOS OF THE WORD “VERTICILLASTER”
Authors: Baranov A. I.
Published: April 2006

The term verticillaster denotes a false or spurious verticel (whorl). The word is a masculine noun of the second declension derived from the word verticillus with the suffix ‐aster.
TRAINING OF SYSTEMATISTS FOR THE SEVENTIES
Authors: Turner B. L.
Published: April 2006

It is suggested that the most meaningful problem for most systematists working at the graduate or doctoral level is that of monographic‐type studies of relatively small genera, subgenera or sections (i.e., ca 20–40 species) in which the taxa are studied as populations in the field and with phyletic considerations as a conceptual basis for arrangements. A considerable degree of specialization is acknowledged as being desireable in one or more of the following areas: (1) classical systematics; (2) cytogenetical systematics; (3) chemical systematics and (4) numerical systematics. However, most workers will need a broad exposure to area (1) since this is fundamental to the other three; indeed, it is argued that classical monographic studies of poorly studied taxa in remote regions using populational data should be given priority‐focus over the next 30 years. Relatively few systematists should become highly discipline‐oriented with respect to approach (i.e., cytogenetic, chemical or numerical) since most workers will be employed as teacher‐researchers at smaller institutions where time and equipment are minimal resources. As regards recognition of potentially successful doctoral candidates it is concluded that if a student's work gives him pleasure he will be successful, no matter what his training for the seventies.
RECENT TRENDS IN NUMERICAL TAXONOMY
Authors: Sneath P. H. A.
Published: April 2006

Recent trends in numerical taxonomy, with special reference to the classification of flowering plants, are reviewed. These advances are discussed under the following broad headings: the choice and scoring of characters and OTU's; the estimation of taxonomic resemblance; the representation of taxonomic structure; cladistics; and discrimination and identification. There is considerable activity on problems involving homology, numerical coefficients of resemblance, and clustering methods. The numerical study of cladistics is also of special interest, but it poses some very difficult problems. It is now evident that numerical methods can yield acceptable classifications, and they much increase taxonomic understanding of the groups that are examined. They are also valuable in many other branches of systematics.
SPECIATION
Authors: Lewis Harlan
Published: April 2006

A discussion of speciation subsumes that we know what a species is, which operationally is true. Populations that are physiologically incapable of gene exchange and are phenotypically distinguishable pose no problem at the species level. When barriers are not absolute or when they are complete but the phenotypic differences are inconspicuous one must consider the quantitative and qualitative nature of the barriers to gene exchange relative to the number and conspicuousness of the phenotypic differences. In this context barriers to gene exchange and their origin are discussed with special emphasis placed on ecological differentiation and its role in the maintenance of the distinction between species. Speciation involving chromosomal alteration differs markedly from that resulting from genetic divergence alone and the products of the two modes are compared. The argument is made that an understanding of the mode of speciation can be of help in the interpretation of patterns of variation.
SUMMIT GARDEN, PANAMA CANAL ZONE: ITS ROLE IN BOTANICAL RESEARCH
Authors: Croat Thomas B.
Published: April 2006

Summit Garden in the Panama Canal Zone has been important for its contributions to research in plant introduction and utilization, horticulture and general botanical science. Many famous men of botany have been contributors to its endeavors. Botanical research waned following the war when the Garden became essentially a beautiful public park. With the establishment of Summit Herbarium & Library this year, scientific research is again active at the Garden.
ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TAXONOMY AND EVOLUTION
Authors: Cronquist Arthur
Published: April 2006

If the taxonomic system is to reflect the totality of similarities and differences among organisms, it must have an evolutionary foundation. Too rigid an adherence to the rule of monophylesis, however, would wreak havoc with our system. Similarities due to evolutionary parallelism provide some evidence of relationship, because the greater the genetic and phenetic similarity between two groups, the greater the likelihood that they will produce similar mutations, have similar evolutionary potentialities, and undergo parallel evolutionary change. A workable taxonomic system can provide only a muddy reflection of phylogeny.

If the evolutionary diversification of any large taxonomic group were profoundly influenced by the nature of the supply of mutations, if the supply of mutations differed in the various subgroups, if the fixation of many of these mutations did not depend wholly on survival value, and if the evolutionary barriers between different ecologic niches or adaptive zones were in general low, then we might expect that group to show ecological and adaptive correlations most commonly at the lower taxonomic levels such as genera and species, whereas the higher taxa would tend to embrace a wide array of ecological types. These ecologically varied higher taxa would tend to be characterized in large part by features of doubtful adaptive significance, and the critical taxonomic characters for many of them would be so beset by exceptions that the recognition, characterization, and definition of the groups would often be difficult. The taxonomic pattern of the angiosperms, especially the dicotyledons, is precisely that which would be expected under the foregoing set of postulates.
HISTORICAL PROBLEMS FOR THE WORKING TAXONOMIST
Authors: Ewan Joseph
Published: April 2006

Since the precise origins of a type or critical collection and its subsequent history at the hands of persons who have annotated a specimen are critical in making taxonomic decisions, closer attention must be made to historical problems. Suggestions are offered apropos of four problems: (1) locating the literature, (2) locating the type, (3) establishing the type‐locality as precisely as possible, and (4) deciphering handwritings on labels.

Library details include the (a) need to verify dates of issue, (b) need to check translations which may provide valuable annotations and supplement the original, (c) need to search for ancillary materials which may be nursery catalogues or other ephemera: these may help fix the date of a discovery or give other taxonomic history.

In the search for the type the life and travels of an author may be important. An author like A. A. Heller who kept a personal herbarium, but who moved from city to city, or an author like A. W. Chapman who assembled two or more herbaria, each destined to lodge in a different institution, presents special problems. Destruction of a type necessitates the search for an isotype. This search should not be forsaken without a thorough canvass of collections which may contain an isotype.

Precision in fixing a type locality may be lost when insufficient attention is paid to the collector's travels. Endemic taxa, for example, restricted to certain soils, or to particular geographic features may be involved. Travel narratives of other members of an expedition may also elucidate obscure place names which are possibly wanting on modern maps. Sequences of collector's numbers may or may not be significant in tracing routes since one must consider the possibility of mixed collection numbers.

Handwriting is an important consideration, and there are several guides kept by prominent herbaria, and some maintain sample files. The practice of copying collection labels with each exchange of a specimen often has involved miscopying or abbreviating the original information, and so presents a common source of erroneous records. It must be recognized that handwriting modifies during the lifetime of the collector, and this necessitates checking against letters or contemporary holographic records. Fallacious and inaccurate conclusions may follow hasty research.
PROTISTAN PHYLOGENY: MULTIPLE WORKING HYPOTHESES
Authors: Tappan Helen
Published: April 2006

The method of the “multiple working hypothesis” is best applied to “those subjects in which, while much is known, more remains to be known,” a description which certainly is applicable to the Phylogeny of the Protista. Although various proposed phylogenies have been stoutly defended by their authors as unassailable, each has been based on one or another line of evidence, generalization or previous assumption which is contested strongly by others.

Previous workers have regarded the Protista as animals or as plants, as one distinct kingdom, or as including representatives of two, three or as many as 13 kingdoms. Classifications and phylogenetic interpretations have been based on various aspects of morphology, cytology, ultrastructure, biochemistry, physiology, life cycles, or the fossil record. Each resulting classification has much supporting evidence but leaves unanswered other vexing problems.

The present symposium includes only a sampling of the types of approach currently being used, but may aid in stimulating additional interest and study of the highly diverse and intriguing organisms known as the Protista.
THE “IGNORANT MAN” TECHNIQUE OF SAMPLING PLANT POPULATIONS
Authors: Ward Daniel B.
Published: April 2006

Comments are made regarding the impropriety of using non‐random data in analytic tests requiring the assumption of randomness. The distinction is made between the biological population and that portion of it for which measurement is desired. A technique is proposed that permits the selection of randomly chosen plants from natural plant populations with less labor than is required by conventional methods. A table is provided of ranked random numbers, for employment by this technique.
THE PHYLOGENY OF EUCARYOTIC ALGAE
Authors: Fott Bohuslav
Published: April 2006

The phylogeny of eucaryotic algae can be best illustrated by establishing lines of algal evolution leading from simple unicells to an elaborated tissue thallus. These evolutionary lines of algal morphological progress represent the Classes. The single grades of algal advance in a class represent a lower taxonomic rank, the Order, which is thus defined morphologically by the level of plant body construction. It represents a particular degree of morphological differentiation and a step in the phylogenetic progress. One or more parallel evolutionary lines may occur within the highest rank of taxa, the Division. Apart from the procaryotic Cyanophyceae, nine classes evolved in parallel within the plants called algae: 1. Chlorophyceae (the ancestors of higher land plants), 2. Conjugatophyceae, 3. Charophyceae, 4. Chrysophyceae, 5. Xanthophyceae, 6. Bacillariophyceae, 7. Phaeophyceae, 8. Dinophyceae, 9. Rhodophyceae. Flagellates that cannot be placed with respect to their morphology and structure in monadoid orders of algal classes, are excluded from the system and termed “residual flagellates”: Euglenales, Cryptomonadales, Vacuolariales, Dictyochales and other orders of colorless flagellates.
NOTES ON THE TYPIFICATION OF THE NAME VITALIANA PRIMULIFLORA (PRIMULACEAE)
Authors: Ferguson I. K.
Published: April 2006

Vitaliana primuliflora Bertol. is based on the same type as Primula vitaliana L. Linnaeus in Sp. Pl. 143 (1753) included two geographical elements in his Primula vitaliana, one, from Italy based on a plate of Sesler and the other from the Pyrenees on a specimen in the Burser Herbarium. Recent authors have typified the name differently. It is proposed here that the name Primula vitaliana L. and therefore Vitaliana primuliflora Bertol. be based on Sesler's plate.
CLASSIFICATION AND EXPLANATION IN BIOLOGY
Authors: Lehman Hugh
Published: April 2006

In this paper I argue in favor of the use of the “biological” species concept rather than either a “typological” concept or a “morphological” concept. In simple form my argument is as follows: Biologists are not merely interested in storing data but in finding satisfactory explanations for that data. Taxonomy is an integral part of this theoretical enterprise. The most satisfactory theory at present for understanding (providing explanations for) biological phenomena is the synthetic theory of evolution. Development of this theory requires use of the biological species concept rather than the other species concepts. The basic limitation on the use of this concept is noted and some objections to the use of the concept are considered.
ON THE APPLICATION OF NOMENCLATURE TO THE TAXONOMY OF HYBRIDS
Authors: Baum Bernard R.
Published: April 2006

Hybrid formulas should only be used for indication of F1 hybrids between different taxa. They should definitely not be used for relatively well established taxa even if those taxa are of hybrid origin, because of the unlikelihood of repetition of exactly all the conditions and all factors that have been involved in their creation, and therefore the improbability of their creation de novo.

I became interested in the problem of the nomenclatural treatment of hybrids during my studies in the genus Avena (Gramineae). I should like to outline a more refined procedure to which I shall refer in my studies of both cultivated and wild groups. This procedure might also be useful for general application concerning nomenclatural treatment of hybrids.
BIGNONIA CRUCIGERA: A CASE OF MISTAKEN IDENTITY
Authors: Gentry Alwyn H.
Published: April 2006

A lectotype is chosen for Bignonia crucigera L. which proves to be synonymous with Pithecoctenium echinatum (Jacq.) Baill. The new combination Pithecoctenium crucigerum (L.) A. Gentry is proposed for this wellknown neotropical species.
THE DEFINITION OF SYSTEMATIC CATEGORIES IN BIOLOGY
Authors: Legendre Pierre
Published: April 2006

Biological taxonomy, now combined with cytogenetics and mathematical philosophy, has become a new synthetic theory of evolution. The purpose of this paper is to derive a comprehensive, united series of formal descriptions of the results of evolution, which are the systematic categories as understood by biosystematics. In a first move, differences between individuals are found by comparing their chromosomal arrangements, and algebraic measures of feasibility of pairing are derived. Individuals are also compared with regard to their genes, and an algebraic measure of genic similarity between individuals is defined. A chain is also defined, which unites in clusters the groups of individuals which are equivalent with regard to a relation which is to be defined in each case. With these mathematical tools, a species is defined as a group of individuals which cluster when one applies on them a relation showing their possibility of crossing freely. A genus is defined as a group of species which cluster after a chain is formed on pairs of species between which there is a calculated possibility of occasional hybridization. A local population is defined as a group of organisms located within pairing distance of each other. A subspecies is defined as a major subdivision of the specific gene pool which corresponds to a geographical subdivision of the species' range. The usefulness of the semispecies as a category different from the subspecies is discussed according to biosystematic principles. It is also suggested that an environmental multi‐dimensional space could be of major usefulness for determining the major adaptive peaks reached by supra‐generic taxa.
THE VOLUMES ON CRYPTOGAMS OF “ENGLER UND PRANTL”
Authors: Stafleu Frans A.
Published: April 2006

An analysis of the order in which the volumes on cryptogams of Engler und Prantl, Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien, came off the press. The contents of the Lieferungen and their approximate dates of publication are ascertained on the basis of notices in Naturae novitates and other contemporary literature. These findings were checked against a copy in original wrappers.
A QUICK METHOD FOR COMPUTING WAGNER TREES
Authors: Whiffin Trevor , Bierner Mark W.
Published: April 2006

A simplified method for computing Wagner Trees is presented, with discussion of the type of characters used. The application of this method, and its use in inducing phylogeny, is given using Helenium L. sect. Tetrodus (Cass.) DC. as an example.
TERTIARY FLORAS OF INDIA AND THEIR BEARING ON THE HISTORICAL GEOLOGY OF THE REGION
Authors: Lakhanpal Rajendra N.
Published: April 2006

Geologically India is divisible into three units (1) Peninsular, (2) Extra‐Peninsular and (3) Jndo‐Gangetic Plain. The Tertiary floras of India can conveniently be divided into two groups — Palaeogene and Neogene. As known today, Palaeogene floras are found only in the Peninsular India, while Neogene occur in both the Peninsular and extra‐Peninsular regions. They are predominantly tropical floras, made up of genera now largely confined to the Old World.

A notable feature of the Indian Palaeogene is the occurrence of a few southern hemisphere taxa which may recall the pre‐Cenozoic relationships between India and the Gondwana continents to the south.

The London Clay flora shows noticeable general resemblance with the Indian Palaeogene. This feature is discussed taking into account the Tertiary plant fossils known from northern Africa. Phytogeographic comparison is also made with the Malaysian region. It is envisaged that there were large scale migrations and intermingling of floras over Malaysia, India, Arabia and Eastern Africa during Neogene time. Records of Dipterocarpaceae provide significant evidence. Water seems to have been a major factor in controlling the distribution of plants at low latitudes throughout the Cenozoic era.

The palaeogeography of India during the Early Eocene and Miocene epochs has been reconstructed on the joint evidence of plant and animal fossils.

Much work remains to be done before we shall have a clear understanding of the sources and migrations of the plants which have survived in southern Asia throughout Tertiary times to the present.
SPARGANIUM SIMPLEX HUDS., A SUPERFLUOUS NAME
Authors: Reveal James L.
Published: April 2006

Sparganium simplex Hudson (1778) is a superflous name; the correct name for the simple‐stemmed Bur‐reed is Sparganium emersum Rehmann (1871).
HERBERT FULLER WERNHAM (1879–1941), A CENTENARY COMMEMORATION
Authors: Stearn William T.
Published: April 2006

The brief but productive career of the British phanerogamic botanist Herbert Fuller Wernham is described and a list of his publications given.
EDWARD NATHANIEL BANCROFT'S OBSCURE BOTANICAL PUBLICATIONS AND HIS FATHER'S PLANT NAMES
Authors: Mabberley D. J.
Published: April 2006

The plants newly described by E.N. Bancroft, particularly in newspapers, are identified; of these, Cassia porturegalis (Leguminosae) is C. italica (Mill.) Spreng., a name published in 1800. Resulting from a search of early Jamaican botanical literature, overlooked binomials are identified, as are the overlooked names of other Caribbean plants: Psidium wrightii Krug & Urban, non Wright (Myrtaceae) becomes P. parvifolium (Griseb.) Griseb. Names published by Bancroft senior are considered and appended is a list of a further 80 overlooked names of New World plants: all are identified except for some species of Alloplectus, Opuntia, Passiflora and Zea, which remain obscure, while Chaetanthera tenella gives way to C. ramosissima (Compositae).
THE UNNECESSARY CONSERVATION OF GENERIC LECTOTYPES
Authors: Wilbur Robert L.
Published: April 2006

It is contended that the proposed conservation of such lectotypes as that of Bombax ceiba L. for the genus Bombax is unnecessary. To insist that the type of a genus must conform completely with the generic protologue is an unreasonable requirement. The lectotype of the genus Jatropha L. (Euphorbiaceae) is discussed as another example of this proposed but ill‐advised requirement. It is argued that such proposals for conservation be rejected.
ADENANTHERA BICOLOR MOON AND THE OPERATION OF ARTICLE 32
Authors: Tjaden W. L.
Published: April 2006

The proposal by R. D. Meikle to amend Article 32 (Taxon 28(5/6): 600–601, 1979) should be rejected. It has an arbitrary purpose in intending to validate a name in a sense contrary to what its author arguably intended, and contrary to general usage of that name. Further, it does not achieve the intended result, although it may be mistakenly held to do so.
TYPIFICATION OF CLIMACIUM AMERICANUM BRID.
Authors: Vitt Dale H. , Horton Diana G.
Published: April 2006

Auf Grund der Nennung von Richard's Namen in Bridel's Originalbeschreibung von Climacium americanum Brid. wird ein Lectotyp für diese Art in Richard's Herbarium (PC) ausgewählt, zumal Bridel's Herbarium (B) ein zur Typifizierung von C. americanum geeignetes Examplar nicht enthält. Die Nennung von Richard's Namen durch Bridel im Zusammenhang mit der Flora Boreali‐americana unterstützt die Ansicht, daß Richard auch als Autor zumindest des Bryophyten‐Teiles dieses Werkes in Frage kommt.
ERICALES REVISITED
Authors: Watson Leslie
Published: April 2006

Attention is drawn to the similarity between two classifications of Ericaceae. The later of these is here held to be an extension with minor modifications of the earlier one, which was derived with the aid of a computer.
THE IDENTITY AND DISTRIBUTION OF OPUNTIA AURANTIACA LINDLEY
Authors: Moran V. C. , Zimmermann H. G. , Annecke D. P.
Published: April 2006

Lindley's original description of Opuntia aurantiaca, which is an economically important weed in South Africa and eastern Australia, is accurate but he was mistaken in recording that Gillies originally collected the plant and that it came from Chile. These errors are the basis of confusion about the identity and distribution of this cactus. Evidence is presented to show that O. aurantiaca is an introduced floral element in Argentina and Uruguay and a study of the biography of the botanist Nicholas Nugent, indicates that the West Indies may be the original distributional centre of this plant.