bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The First Danish Deep-Sea Expedition on the Ingolf: 1895 and 1896
Authors: Wolff Torben
Published: April 2015

The Danish Ingolf Expedition took place in the summer months of 1895 and 1896, with C. F. Wandel as captain, a man with long experience in hydrographical work in the Arctic. The other scientific participants were the zoologists H. Jungersen, W. Lundbeck and H. J. Hansen during the 1895 cruise; C. Wesenberg-Lund replaced Hansen during the 1896 cruise. C. H. Ostenfeld was the botanist and M. Knudsen the hydrographer. The Ingolf (see Figure 1) was a naval cruiser. In both years the voyages were hindered by ice that had moved much further south than normal, even closing most of the Denmark Strait. In 1895, the best results were obtained south of Iceland and in the Davis Strait; in 1896 south and east of Iceland and as far north as Jan Mayen Island. A total of 144 stations were completed, all with soundings, trawlings and (for the first time) continuous hydrographical work associated with the deep-sea trawling (bottom measurements of temperature, salinity, chlorine contents and specific gravity). Eighty of the stations were deeper than 1,000 m. There were more than 800 hydrographical measurements, with about 3,300 registrations recordings added on the basis of the measurements. 138 gas analyses were performed on board with samples from the surface and the sea bottom.

The main result of the expedition was the final demonstration of probably the most important threshold boundaries in the world: the Wyville Thompson Ridge from East Greenland to Scotland with maximum depths of 600 m, separating the fauna in the Norwegian and Polar Sea to the north, always with negative below-zero temperatures except close to the Norwegian coast, from the fundamentally different general Atlantic deep-sea fauna to the south of the ridge with positive temperatures.

The results are published in the Ingolf Report, with fifteen volumes containing forty-three papers by nineteen Danish authors and fourteen papers by six foreign authors. The sieving technique was excellent—due to an apparatus designed by H. J. Hansen that kept the animals under water until preservation and using the finest silk for sieving. In this way, the expedition collected more smaller animals than had been acquired by previous deep-sea expeditions. Hansen's studies of the peracarid crustaceans and parasitic copepods and Lundbeck's report on the sponges were particularly noteworthy. The 130 photographs taken on board and on land by the ship's doctor William Thulstrup represent a cultural/historical treasure.
Osservazioni Intorno al Bosforo Tracio Overo Canale di Constantinopoli Rappresentate in Lettera Alla Sacra Real Maestá Cristina Regina di Svezia da Luigi Ferdinando Marsilii, 1681: First English Translation, with Notes
Authors: Soffientino Bruno , Pilson Michael
Published: April 2015

Count Luigi Ferdinando Marsigli (1658-1730) was a natural scientist and soldier of remarkable and idiosyncratic accomplishment. His first book reported observations and experiments that he carried out during and shortly after his one-year visit to Istanbul during 1679 and 1680. This work is recognized by oceanographers because it contains the first description of a simple laboratory-scale hydrological experiment to show how differences in the density of two water masses lead to two-layer flow. The range of observations and experiments that Marsigli made during that year, however, went well beyond this experiment, and are poorly known: he measured currents using the first example of a paddle-wheel current meter; he determined the water density in the Mediterranean and Black Sea; he estimated the depth of the Bosporus undercurrent; he made detailed meteorological observations and described the effect of weather on current and water levels; he described seasonal migrations of fish to and from the Black Sea, and illustrated the internal anatomy of a mollusk. We present here a complete English translation of Observations and set Marsigli's results in their historical as well as the modern context of the oceanography of the Bosporus region.
A Truly European Forest: A Historic Lower Silesian Palaeobotanical Collection (Late Cretaceous) at the Museum of Natural History (Berlin)
Authors: Mohr Barbara
Published: April 2015

A historical collection of late Cretaceous plant fossils from Lower Silesia, comprising about 520 specimens, now located at the Museum of Natural History, Berlin, and formerly in possession of the Prussian Geological Survey, has recently been traced back to its origins. Today this collection can be used as a nucleus to develop future scientific research projects. Due to the historical background of the specimens and the scattered locations of additional material from various geologic sites, such projects may have to be realised as a cooperative effort between scientists from several institutions of the Central European countries that were historically involved, namely the Czech Republic, Germany, and Poland.
The Natural History Society of New Brunswick Library: Supporting Geological Science
Authors: Buhay Diane , Miller Randall
Published: April 2015

The Natural History Society of New Brunswick (1862-1932) based in Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada, produced an impressive body of research, including significant geological discoveries. Research and public education output of the Society was prolific. George Matthew, the Society's leading geologist published more than 200 scientific papers. Between 1862 and 1917 the Bulletin of the Natural History Society of New Brunswick records more than 800 lectures read before the Society and public audiences. Lectures were often at the leading edge of scientific discovery, such as Matthew's 1890 report of the first authentic Precambrian fossil. This amateur society supported the research of its members by developing a significant library. The only other library in the city with scientific resources belonged to the local Mechanics' Institute, later acquired in part by the Natural History Society. It is clear from library reports and minutes that, from the beginning, the intent was to provide members access to a science library necessary to support their research activities. Both libraries were particularly important as the Great Fire of 1877 destroyed personal libraries while the Society and Institute libraries were untouched. The library was particularly strong in North American and British journals and classic works in early geology. Some of the research shortcomings of Society members may have been a result of the library's weakness in European technical literature. The library and collections of the Natural History Society of New Brunswick formed the basis for the present New Brunswick Museum.
Religious assumptions in Lord Kelvin's estimates of the Earth's age
Authors: Wilson Leonard
Published: April 2015

Lord Kelvin's estimates of the Earth's age were not necessary consequences of his physics. Religion influenced his physics and his arguments for a limited age of the Earth. Kelvin's primary aim was to destroy Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection by attacking the uniformitarian geology on which Darwin's theory was founded. His calculations of the age of the Earth contained a fundamental contradiction. He assumed that the Earth began as a hot liquid sphere, but Fourier's mathematics, which he used to calculate the rate of cooling, applied only to heat conducted through a solid. Kelvin's assumption of an initially hot liquid Earth was a necessary consequence of his thermodynamics. Energy could neither be created nor destroyed. The heat within the Earth must, therefore, be derived from its first creation by God. Kelvin never admitted the contradiction between the original hot liquid Earth and his calculation of its cooling on the assumption that the Earth was solid throughout, but in 1897 his imagined account of the initial Earth was a search for a solid Earth amenable to his calculations. The heat flow through the solid crust was very small in proportion to the total internal heat of the Earth. If Kelvin had included the total internal heat in his calculations, he would have arrived at much higher figures for the age of the Earth.
Proofs and Reputations: Sir James Hall and the Use of Classification Devices in Scientific Argument
Authors: Yearley Steven
Published: April 2015

The importance of classification and labelling in shaping people's perceptions has long been acknowledged and it is accepted that the imposition of a label can affect how someone is treated. Although the process of labelling has been studied in some areas of society, its role in the scientific community has gone largely unexamined. Labels may well be important though if they are used in the presentation of arguments, particularly over contentious issues.

Sir James Hall (1761-1832), commonly known as the originator of experimental geology and as a prominent member of the Edinburgh Huttonians, is strongly associated with two labels. He has traditionally been presented as either an experimentalist who confirmed the ideas of Hutton or as a Huttonian who deviated from his mentor's scientific system to incorporate diluvialism. Close analysis, however, reveals that his geological work was systematic and not a misunderstanding of Huttonianism. Similarly, it is proposed that Hall's reputations arose from labels used by other scientists in responding to his work. Since enduring reputations may be built up in this way, it is important that historians should be cautious in their acceptance and use of scientists' own labels.
Louis Hunton (1814-1838) - English Pioneer in Ammonite Biostratigraphy
Authors: Torrens H. , Getty T.
Published: April 2015

In any discussion of the historical development of what was later to be named Biostratigraphy it is often assumed that a modern basis for the subject had already been reached by the cumulative work in the subject up to 1815; culminating in that of William Smith (1769-1839) and Alexandre Brongniart (1770-1847). But to this time fossils had only been used to identify (and discriminate between) often repetitive lithological units or to establish a relationship between rock units in different areas. The practical demonstration that particular lithological units could be regularly subdivided with significant consequences, on the basis of their contained fossils was a later achievement over several generations. One of the first to free stratigraphical palaeontology from such a lithological control was the forgotten Englishman Louis Hunton (1814-1838).

In this paper Hunton's origins from a successful alum making family in the north-east of Yorkshire in the north of England and his short life and scientific work are described for the first time. The family business of alum making from the highly fossiliferous local alum shales, which were extracted open-cast, directly introduced Hunton to stratigraphical palaeontology. He followed up this work by study in London, where his pioneering paper was read to the Geological Society of London in 1836. He died less than 2 years later but had helped lay a foundation for major biostratigraphic advances by his insistence that only fossils collected in situ should be used in such work and then that the species, of especially ammonites, in his Yorkshire strata had particularly limited and invariable relative positions within that lithological sequence. His work is also compared with that of his contemporary W.C. Williamson and the conclusion reached that Hunton, because of his emphasis in the merits of ammonites, deserves more to be remembered as a pioneer of Jurassic biostratigraphy.
Benjamin F. Mudge: The First Kansas Geologist
Authors: Page Leroy
Published: April 2015

Benjamin Franklin Mudge (1817-79), originally from Massachusetts, was appointed State Geologist and Director of the First Geological Survey of Kansas in 1864. After failing to be reappointed in 1865 he became Professor of Natural Science at Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, whose president, Joseph Denison, was an old friend and fellow Methodist. Mudge taught courses in all areas of science and spent his summers geologizing in western Kansas. An avid collector, he sent fossil specimens to Edward Cope, O. C. Marsh, and others. In the summer of 1872 he discovered a Cretaceous bird, Ichthyornis dispar, described by Marsh at Yale as the first fossil bird known to have teeth. In 1873 the KSAC regents replaced Denison by John Anderson, who dismissed Mudge and two others in February 1874 after they complained to members of the legislature about misuse of college funds and tried unsuccessfully to defeat legislative confirmation of some of the regents. Mudge then was employed by Marsh to collect fossil vertebrates (1874-77). Assisted by Samuel Williston and other former students, he sent to Marsh a large number of specimens of marine reptiles, pterodactyls, and birds from the Cretaceous beds of western Kansas. In 1877 he was sent to Colorado, where he supervised the quarrying of dinosaur bones at Cañon City. Strongly religious and a staunch opponent of slavery and alcohol, Mudge was regarded highly as a teacher and collector. He published in 1875 a description of the geology of Kansas which contained the first geological map of the State. He also was cofounder and first president of the Kansas Academy of Science.
John Bulkley Perry and the "Taconic Question"
Authors: Dann Kevin
Published: April 2015

The Taconic controversy involved the most able minds and the most powerful egos of post-Wernerian geological science. Although John Bulkley Perry was as familiar with the "Taconic" rocks as his more famous contemporaries, his contributions have been overlooked by scholars of American geological history. During the years 1855-1870, Perry studied the Taconic strata, particularly in northwestern Vermont, and through the discovery of fossils, through fieldwork and correspondence with the principal Taconic proponent, Jules Marcou, and later via his few publications, Perry made original and significant contributions to the development of thought regarding the Taconic system of Ebenezer Emmons. The nature and timing of his publications, his extreme humility, his ultimate concern for theological questions, and his death at an early age were all factors in obscuring Perry's role in the history of the Taconic question.
Troublesome Partnership: Gouverneur K. Warren and Ferdinand V. Hayden on the Northern Plains in 1856 and 1857
Authors: Schubert Frank
Published: April 2015

Ferdinand V. Hayden's adamant opposition to military explorations and surveys developed during Hayden's participation in two expeditions commanded by Lieutenant Gouverneur K. Warren in 1856 and 1857. The attitudes formed during those years helped shape Hayden's position in the debates of the 1870's over the future of western exploration and the establishment of a United States Geological Survey.
An Early Geophysical Estimate of the Mean Density of the Earth: Schehallien, 1774
Authors: Ranalli G.
Published: April 2015

The Schehallien experiment, begun in 1774, represented one of the earliest attempts, after Bouguer's work in the Viceroyalty of Peru, to determine the mean density of the earth from the observed effects of topography on the direction of the plumb-line. The site chosen was a hill in Perthshire in the Scottish Highlands, and the work involved Nevil Maskelyne, the Astronomer Royal, who carried out the survey; Charles Hutton, the mathematician, who in 1778 published a method to compute the effect of a mass of known shape of the plumb-line; and John Playfair, who in 1811 published a detailed account of the lithology of the hill. Hutton's and Playfair's work foreshadowed in many respects modern aspects of gravity surveys such as terrain correction and density sampling.
American Contributions to the Geological Mapping of Hokkaido, Late Nineteenth Century
Authors: Aalto Kenneth
Published: April 2015

During 1861-1862 Raphael Pumpelly (1838-1923) was engaged by the Japanese Government (the Tokugawa Shogunate) to review mineral resources and advise on mining operations. Political pressures against the Government's employ of foreigners resulted in his investigation being confined to southern Hokkaido and, at the end of 1862, led to the termination of his contract. Pumpelly completed a geological sketch map with structural cross-sections, provided formation descriptions, interpretations of landforms, suggestions for mine development, and interpretations of the tectonic history of the island. Remarking on the general parallelism of Asian mountain ranges, major valleys, coastlines and the Japanese islands, Pumpelly envisioned a NE-SW-trending system of tectonic elevation and depression that governed the geomorphic configuration of the Northern Hemisphere worldwide. In 1878, under the new leadership of the Emperor following the Meiji Restoration, foreign specialists were welcomed to Japan in order to modernize government, science, and industry. Benjamin Smith Lyman (1835-1920) and Henry Smith Munroe (1850-1933) undertook geologic studies of Hokkaido, focusing on mineral resources, and produced a regional stratigraphy, structural synthesis and geologic map for the entire island. Their work, published by the development agency for Hokkaido (the Kaitakushi), served as a foundation for further studies by Japanese researchers, many of whom began as assistants to Lyman and Munroe.
The Meteorological Observations in Coimbra and the Portuguese Participation in Weather Forecasting in Europe
Authors: Leonardo António , Martins Décio , Fiolhais Carlos
Published: April 2015

In the early nineteenth century, regular meteorological observations started at the Faculty of Natural Philosophy of the University of Coimbra (FPUC). From 1854 to 1856 these observations were published in O Instituto, a journal of an academic society of the same name, founded in Coimbra in 1852. This new area of science aroused great interest, offering itself as unexplored territory waiting for scientific investigation. In reaction to the pioneering work at the Polytechnic School of Lisbon of Guilherme Pegado, who founded the first meteorological observatory in Portugal in 1854, the FPUC established a Meteorological and Magnetic Observatory in Coimbra. The main actor was, from 1863, the physicist Jacinto António de Sousa. In the twentieth century, the increasing need for weather forecasting, especially at sea, led to the creation of the Meteorological Services of the Navy in which Carvalho Brandão played a pivotal role. It was the beginning of an international cooperation that brought Jacob Bjerknes to Portugal. He addressed a conference at Coimbra recommending the creation of a meteorological station in the Azores, to relay observational data from vessels travelling in the Atlantic. The Portuguese meteorological services were scattered in various institutions until 1946, when the National Meteorological Services (NMS) were created. Based on articles published in O Instituto and on the activities of the academy with the same name, we provide an overview of the evolution of meteorology in Portugal until the establishment of the NMS, with particular emphasis on the work of the Meteorological and Magnetic Observatory at the University of Coimbra.
History of Field Observations on Volcanic Rocks of Western Mexico, Pre-Columbian to Recent
Authors: Swanson Eric
Published: April 2015

By the time the first detailed reports on western Mexico's volcanic rocks had begun to appear in the 1970s, most of the earlier observations on these rocks and most knowledge of those who made these observations were all but forgotten. A review of previous field observations in this region shows, however, a long history of geologic discovery reflecting or even preceding developments elsewhere.

Ethnological studies suggest that the Pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Sierra Madre Occidental (SMO) observed the characteristics of rock formations in their sierra homeland and understood something of the regional stratigraphic relationships. Late sixteenth and early seventeenth century explorers of the Spanish Colonial Period singled out volcanic rock known to them as piedra de malpaís for special recognition, and Padre Kino and his fellow explorers clearly recognized the volcanic origin of piedra de malpaís decades prior to similar observations in Europe. As the Spanish Colonial Period came to a close, Andrés Manuel del Río help organize a state-of-theart mining college in Mexico City where students were instructed in Werner's geognosy prior to their taking positions in Mexico's mining industry, most of it located in western Mexico's volcanic rocks.

Although the first part of the tumultuous period between Mexico's revolutions of 1810 and 1910 saw few advances in geological knowledge, the reign of President Porfirio Díaz produced a geologic map of Mexico, the founding of the Instituto de Geología, and an ‘American invasion’ of geologists and mining engineers who locally gathered information on the nature of volcanic rocks of western Mexico. During the same period, Instituto geologist Ezequiel Ordóñez established the general stratigraphic sequence in the SMO, recognized the widespread occurrence of rhyolite there, and applied the petrographic microscope to the study of SMO volcanic rocks. The first identification of ignimbrites in the SMO came as a result of the World War II-era search for strategic minerals, and NASA's push to put a man on the Moon supported a series of student mapping projects producing the SMO's first geologic maps showing individual ignimbrite units and calderas.
AMI Boué's (1794-1881) Valuation of Geological Research Regarding its Application to Human Civilisation
Authors: Schweizer Claudia , Seidl Johannes
Published: April 2015

Ami Boué held a holistic view in his approach to geological research. Thus, he emphasised the significance of geosciences for the development of civilisation and in several publications he outlined the connections between geological knowledge and understanding the development of civil infrastructure and agriculture. In the present paper, special consideration is given to Boué's approach to mineralogy and mining, both closely linked to geological knowledge, as well as to his construction of two geological maps of the terrestrial globe—the first of their kind. For these, he used his personal experience, his detailed knowledge of the geological literature, Elie de Beaumont's tectonic ideas, and numerous analogies between different parts of the world. He underscored the significance of mineralogy and mining in the era of industrialisation, but at the same time advised against too rapid an exploitation of mineral resources. By strongly promoting the training of miners in theoretical geological knowledge he tried to prevent worthless mining enterprises.
History of Geology in Egypt
Authors: Tawadros Edward
Published: April 2015

Napoleon Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt in 1798 carried out the first multidisciplinary exploration mission and formed the Institute of Egypt, the first scientific organization in Egypt. A few decades later, the German geographer and ethnographer Gerhard Rohlfs (1831-1896) led another multidisciplinary expedition in the Western Desert of Egypt. Georg Schweinfurth (1836-1925) independently explored various parts of Egypt over a period of more than fifty years and made major contributions in geology, paleontology, and archeology. The establishment of the Geological Survey of Egypt by the British in 1896 was a turning point in the history of geology in Egypt. The pioneering work of the early staff of the Survey established the solid foundation of the geology of Egypt. Progress in our geological ideas in recent years is credited to the advance in technology, the introduction of new exploration methods, and active international cooperation. A few problems have to be overcome before a real progress in our geological ideas takes place in the future.
Richard Kirwan (1733-1812)
Authors: Newcomb Sally
Published: April 2015

Kirwan's life can be seen as a succession of phases whose boundaries were flexible. Born to a Catholic, land-owning family in Ireland, his youth and education were very much a product of those conditions, which in his case included higher education in France. After his return to Ireland and marriage, he spent time in Ireland, England, and on the Continent. During that period he studied law, the practice of which required his conforming to the Irish Anglican Church, now better known as the (Protestant) Established Church of Ireland. After a first (to his mind) unsuccessful effort at chemistry, but finding law practice unrewarding, he returned to chemistry, which included mineralogy. His stellar decade in London from 1777 to 1787 followed, during which time his chemistry earned him the Copley Medal of the Royal Society and he emerged as one of the leading advocates of phlogiston, backed by reasoning that many found compelling. He returned to Ireland in 1787 and lived in Dublin until his death. His interest in chemistry continued, but geology became his focus as he challenged James Hutton's (1796-1797) theory of the Earth, basing his arguments in part on his laboratory experience with rocks and minerals. A position as Irish Inspector of Mines revealed his experience with practical geology and fieldwork. Although he continued with technical publications fairly regularly until 1803, and sporadically thereafter, he became more philosophical and published on languages, space, and time. He was elected President of the Royal Irish Academy, a position that he held from 1799 until his death in 1812.
Alexander Von Mörk and Poldi Fuhrich: The Conception of Heroes in Cave Exploration in the Early Twentieth Century
Authors: Mattes Johannes
Published: April 2015

The Austrians Alexander von Mörk (1887-1914) and Poldi Fuhrich (1898-1926) became two of the leading cave explorers in the early twentieth century. After qualifying as an academic painter, Alexander von Mörk fell as an officer in World War I. Poldi Fuhrich, who worked as a teacher, received international recognition during her lifetime as one of the very few female cave explorers. She died in a cave accident in Styria, Austria. Mörk and Fuhrich achieved iconic status as martyrs of cave science and became role models for speleologists. My research examines the parallels in the conception of these heroic figures and the ‘parameters’ of their memorial. How and to what end was their memory perpetuated and exploited by the following generation of explorers? Expedition diaries, protocols of caving clubs, and obituaries in newspapers are used as sources for analyses. The results show a strong correlation between the commemoration of the fallen soldiers of World War I and the conception of heroic figures in speleology. While the personality cult of Fuhrich declined in the mid-thirties due to the social exclusion of women from the scientific study of caves, Mörk was increasingly celebrated as a mythical and self-sacrificing founder and enthusiastic German nationalist. The commemoration of the deceased in cave science was related to the militarisation of club life during the twenties. This is reflected in the radicalisation of language, the usage of military equipment in cave exploration, and the nomination of military officers as club officials.
‘A Time for Engineers and a Time for Geologists’: Scientific Lives and Different Pathways in the History of Portuguese Geology
Authors: Mota Teresa , Carneiro Ana
Published: April 2015

For quite a while, scientific biography was relegated to a subordinate status in the history of science. In the last two decades, however, it has seen a revival, which can be explained both by its popularity among general audiences as it conveys a closer image of scientists and scientific practice, and science historians' reappraisal of biography as a literary genre and as a source for their research. When writing scientific biographies or using them as a source, however, historians have to contend with complex questions, such as the extent to which a particular biography is representative of larger patterns, and they face a variety of problems associated with the use of sources such as oral testimonies and obituaries. In this paper, the scientific lives of Joaquim Filipe Nery da Encarnação Delgado (1835-1908) and Francisco Luís Pereira de Sousa (1870-1931), both engineers working at the Portuguese Geological Survey, and Carlos Teixeira (1910-1982), a leading geologist working in the academia, will be analysed. Through this comparison, the authors aim to characterize the development of Portuguese geology in different contexts in the period spanning from the mid-nineteenth to the twentieth century.
The Iron Creek Meteorite: The Curious History of the Manitou Stone and the Claim for its Repatriation
Authors: Plotkin Howard
Published: April 2015

Canada's Iron Creek meteorite, a 320 lb (145 kg) Group IIIAB medium octahedrite iron, was long venerated by the First Nations in Alberta as their sacred Manitou Stone, but it was taken without authority from them by Methodist missionaries in 1866. That began the meteorite's long odyssey, as it was transferred first to the Methodist Mission in Victoria (now Pakan) Alberta; then to the Red River Mission in Winnipeg, Manitoba; then to the Wesleyan Methodist Church's Mission Rooms in Toronto, Ontario; then to Victoria College in Cobourg, Ontario; then to the campus of the University of Toronto in Toronto, Ontario; then to the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto; and finally to the Provincial Museum of Alberta (now the Royal Alberta Museum) in Edmonton. In recent years, a First Nations movement to repatriate the meteorite to a place near its original find site has been initiated. As of now, the meteorite remains on display at the Royal Alberta Museum's Syncrude Gallery of Aboriginal Culture, where it is a prized showpiece. The present paper explores the curious history and cultural significance of this fabled meteorite, its long odyssey, the issues surrounding the claims for its repatriation, the Royal Alberta Museum's present policy, and a possible way forward.
A summary of 19th and early 20th Century researchers of glacial Lake Agassiz, North America: from Noah's Flood to Upham's bathtub and beyond
Authors: Johnson Beth
Published: April 2015

During the last North American deglaciation, meltwater collected along the margins of the Laurentide Ice Sheet in proglacial lakes, the largest of these being glacial Lake Agassiz, which existed for over five thousand years starting ~13,950 cal. years B.P. Lake Agassiz was first described in 1823 by mineralogist William H. Keating of the Long Expedition at a time when diluvianism was often used to explain ancient lakes. Subsequent researchers also recognized the existence of an ancient lake, but the first connections of this lake to a possible glacial source came in 1873. Starting in 1879, Warren Upham spent the next fifteen years researching and publishing on Lake Agassiz, eventually publishing his seminal work, the U.S. Geological Survey's Monograph 25 The Glacial Lake Agassiz. Some of Upham's interpretations were later challenged by William A. Johnston, who favored a more complex lake history.
Spending some time in the field. Fieldwork in the Portugese Geological Survey during the twentieth century
Authors: Mota Teresa
Published: April 2015

The practice and methods of geological fieldwork in the Portuguese Geological Survey evolved during the middle part of the twentieth century. Between the 1920s and the 1940s, the Survey's field assistants played a key role in conducting geological fieldwork; special attention will be given to their training. In 1940, Georges Zbyzsewski (1909-1999) was hired as a geologist by the Survey and he was responsible for conducting the majority of fieldwork. Scientific collaborators from outside the Survey also began to play a key role in the institution. From the 1950s onwards, several new specialities were hired by the Survey, especially geologists and field assistants. The pace of geological fieldwork recorded an unprecedented increase. The characteristics of the teams that carried out this task in the Survey were instrumental in this achievement.
A State-Wide Earth Science Institute in Missouri
Authors: Johnson Clayton
Published: April 2015

One-hundred-fifteen secondary school science teachers in Missouri were trained in 1969-70 in an NSF-funded, state-wide institute in which eight colleges and universities participated. An inquiry approach to teaching and learning, in contrast to lecturing and reciting, was to be used by the newly trained teachers. Because of this, special attention was given, during the training period, to teacher attitudes and attitude change in relation to students and classroom situations. Evaluation showed that the greatest positive change in teacher attitude came during the early, very intensive part of the year-long program.
Educational Service of the Tennessee Division of Geology, 1831-Present
Authors: Luther Edward
Published: April 2015

The Tennessee Division of Geology has a close, long-term relationship with the educational establishment in Tennessee that has changed in nature over the years but remains strong. Gerard Troost, the first State Geologist, was a college professor, as was his successor, James M. Safford, and, more recently, L. C. Glenn. From 1909 to 1923 the affairs of the State Geological Survey were overseen by a Geological Commission that included, ex officio, the President of the University of Tennessee, the Chancellor of Vanderbilt University, and the Vice Chancellor of the University of the South; then, from 1923 to 1937, the Division of Geology was administratively part of the State Department of Education.

Since becoming part of the Conservation Department in 1937 the Division has served an educational function by publishing both scholarly and popular works on the geology of the state; by answering inquiries on every subject from paleontology to water-witching; by advising news media on geology-related stories; by giving talks to school, museum, and other groups; and by close cooperation with university geology departments on research projects. The Division has had a strong role in graduate education, particularly at the Master's level, by conducting field excursions for students, financing theses through student mapping projects, by loans of field equipment, and serving as informal thesis advisors. Long-term assistance to geology departments has also included part-time employment of professors as consultants, publication of studies by professors and students, and part-time teaching by Division staff members. Most of these forms of educational assistance have suffered in recent years, due to budget cuts and loss of staff positions.
The Contribution of New Zealand Geoscientists to the Development of Scientific Institutions
Authors: Fleming C.
Published: April 2015

The history of geology in New Zealand illustrates the ability of pioneer earth scientists to contribute to other scientific disciplines and to the foundation and administration of institutions for the promotion of science and research, thus exemplifying the late S.E. Hollingworth's conclusion "that geologists are particularly qualified to exercise sound judgement and to develop that capacity in non-technical aspects of administration and management". This tenet is illustrated by the careers and achievements of Walter B.D. Mantell, Ferdinand Hochstetter, Julius Haast, W. Lauder Lindsay, James Hector, and Colin Fraser.
Vertebrate Palaeontology in Queensland
Authors: Turner Susan
Published: April 2015

In the mid-nineteenth century European settlers discovered prehistoric vertebrates in the northern part of the Colony of New South Wales, which later became the State of Queensland in 1859. Most of these finds were dealt with by overseas professionals, of whom Richard Owen at the British Museum (Natural History) (BM(NH)) was pre-eminent. By the late nineteenth century Australian-based vertebrate palaeontologists, who were usually self-educated, were beginning to work on Australian material. At this time, under the direction of Charles Walter De Vis, the Queensland Museum in Brisbane became the focal point for this science in Queensland; a programme of collecting was initiated which continued as funds allowed. The early twentieth century saw a new phase of exploration undertaken with the specific objective of collecting, carried out by large overseas scientific institutions. Thanks mainly to individual donations, new finds kept appearing regularly in the first half of the twentieth century. As a result there were scientific contributions from a few notable people, Heber A. Longman for example. Yet vertebrate palaeontology in Queensland languished, following the fortunes of the Museum between wars and it did not flourish again until after the Second World War. Since then both trained and amateur palaeontologists have been on the increase, and greater financial assistance has been made available from private, and State and Commonwealth Government sources, allowing progress in this science to be made.
"A Better Style of Art": The Illustrations of the Paleontology of New York
Authors: Blum Ann
Published: April 2015

James Hall, like other authors and editors of 19th-century American state and federal surveys, learned first hand that publishing illustrations was time-consuming, frustrating and expensive. But illustrations were indispensible, providing the graphic communication of morphology that justified the author's taxonomic decisions. That essential information, however, passed through the hands of an illustrator and either an engraver or lithographer before it reached the scientific audience that would test and judge it. Artists and printers, therefore, needed close supervision; plates required careful proofing and sometimes cancellation. Hall, like his colleagues, vastly underestimated the time and expense that his project would entail.

The plates illustrating the Palaeontology reflected changes occurring in American science and printing. Over the decades spanned by the publication, picture printing techniques changed from craft to industry, and converted from engraving to lithography; so did the New York survey. Meanwhile, the scientific profession developed illustration conventions to which publications with professional intent increasingly conformed. These conventions combined standards of "accuracy" with issues of style to reflect both scientific activity and its social context. The early illustrations drawn by Mrs. Hall were no less "accurate" although clearly less polished than the collaborations between R.P. Whitfield and F.J. Swinton, or the later work of J.H. Emerton and E. Emmons, Jr. The artists and printers of the Palaeontology plates emulated and contributed to the emerging national style of zoological and paleontological illustration, and thus helped consolidate the "look" of American science.
Some Problems in the Publications of James Hall of Albany
Authors: Horowitz Alan
Published: April 2015

Multiple publication of the works of James Hall (1811-1898) causes problems in priority of taxonomic names and presents a nightmare of variorum editions that tax the patience of paleontologist and librarian. Criticism during Hall's lifetime did nothing to correct matters and the available evidence for evaluating the different editions of Hall's work is rapidly eroding.
James Hall and the Allens of Alfred
Authors: Sass Daniel
Published: April 2015

James Hall (1811-1898), New York's first distinguished paleontologist, was well acquainted with Alfred, New York, and its citizens. As an ambitious young man, he was assigned (1837-1843) to explore the newly created Fourth District, comprising most of western New York. He could not have anticipated meeting the Allen family and that the resulting social-scientific relationship would play an important role in his study of the Paleozoic Reticulate Sponges and endure for the rest of his life.
A History of Research on Hunter Fault System or "Lineament"
Authors: Dickins J.
Published: April 2015

The Hunter Fault System or "Lineament" separates the Permian and Triassic of Sydney Basin in New South Wales from the relatively complicated region to the north and east with exposed Carboniferous and older rocks and an increasing amount of identified Permian. David in his inimitable fashion grasped the essentials in 1907. He noted that the fold movements began towards the end of the Upper Permian with an important phase between the Upper Coal Measures and the Narrabeen Series. He also noted the main north-south component. The interest kindled by David was reflected in the work of Browne, Carey, Osborne, Raggatt, and Voisey. These workers established that the Carboniferous was affected by tectonic movement prior to the Permian and that the main ("orogenic") folding of the Permian/Triassic began with deposition of the Muree Formation and continued during the Upper Permian with overthrusting at the end of the Permian followed by strong rotational stress. This entire episode was called the Hunter-Bowen Movement by Carey and Browne in 1938. They also noted that the area of the subsequently developed Sydney Basin supplied sediment in the Carboniferous to the north and east. Raggatt, in his unpublished thesis of 1938 had already concluded that increasing compression led to upthrusting and eventually to torsion. Much of this seems to have been lost sight of in recent work. Current work confirms that the Permian/Triassic folding began with the Muree and that prior to this in the Permian a northwest to southeast graben was present to the south and west of the Hunter structure. Prior to the Permian the area of the Sydney Basin supplied detritus in the Carboniferous north and east of the Hunter structure apparently indicating a long-lived structure or lineament on which a reversal of movement took place.
Jean Baptiste De Lamarck - The First Environmentalist
Authors: Teichert Curt
Published: April 2015

In 1817, Jean Baptiste de Lamarck concluded that Man had the potential to destroy his own species by making the earth uninhabitable.
On the 1946 Discovery of the Precambrian Ediacabian Fossil Fauna in South Australia.
Authors: Sprigg Reg.
Published: April 2015

The discovery of the Ediacarian metazoan fossil fauna in South Australia on March 27, 1946, by the author represented the culmination of a decade of widespread and diligent search. It was not, as one authority has recorded,…"basically fortuitous." The find was made in the course of widespread mapping of the late Proterozoic-Cambrian succession and followed Sprigg's remapping, remeasurement and redefinition of Howchin's "Adelaide Series" through to the base of the fossiliferous Cambrian succession.
A Look Back at the Permian Reefs of West Texas and New Mexico
Authors: Rigby J. , Millward Ann
Published: April 2015

The Permian reef complexes of West Texas and New Mexico are among the classic carbonate sequences in the world and have significantly influenced geologic thinking for over half a century. Study of the reefs can be subdivided into 6 broad periods. The first period involved early exploration of the region, establishment of regional stratigraphic relationships and attempts at dating stratigraphic units. The Guadalupian Fauna typifies this early period. The second period, during the 1920-30's, was a time of early petroleum exploration in the region, following on discovery of the Kendrick Field in Winkler County, Texas, and resulted in attempts to explain the complicated subsurface stratigraphy. Development of a marginal reef model and research on facies relationships between the basin and shelf resulted in refinement of stratigraphic nomenclature.

The third period, here termed the King period, was a time of more intense study of the outcrops and their subsurface extensions. It was a time when facies became more clearly differentiated and when the great diversity and abundance of fossils in the region became appreciated. This period ended when World War II curtailed research in the region. The fourth period began after the war, with heightened interest in reefs and paleoecology. It was a time when carbonate petrology and paleoecology rose as major fields of interest. It was also a time of mega-paleontology. Tens of tons of fossiliferous limestones were processed at the U.S. National Museum and the American Museum of Natural History and collections of literally millions of fossils were assembled. The earlier publication of Geology of the Southern Guadalupe Mountains, Texas and the later publication of The Permian Reef Complex of the Guadalupe Mountains Region, Texas and New Mexico characterize the period.

The fifth period is marked by the return of industry investigators to study the reefs and associated rocks, perhaps spurred as much by Dunham's "Vadose pisolites in the Capitan reef" as by any single paper. The period was one of concern about origins of the distinctive pisolites of the complex, nature of the massive Capitan Limestone, diagenesis of carbonates and by concern for understanding the economically significant rocks of the backreef sequence. The sixth period, termed the Wisconsin phase, continued research along lines of the fifth period but was a time when faculty and students of the University of Wisconsin, and their associates, re-examined all facies of the Guadalupe Mountain reef complexes as a major effort, while industry became less broadly involved. Those efforts, and those now initiated by faculty and students of the University of Nebraska and Rice University, bring us essentially to date, but much still remains to be discovered and understood about the reef complexes.
Early Geologic Studies in the Lake Superior Region-the Contributions of H.R. Schoolcraft, J.J. Bigsby, and H.W. Bayfield
Authors: Morey G.
Published: April 2015

Charles Lyell published a geologic map of the Lake Superior region in 1845 as an appendix to his epochal Travels in North America. One of the published sources Lyell used to compile this map was an 1829 report by H.W. Bayfield, who as a surveyor for the Royal Navy spent the years 1823 to 1825 circumnavigating the lake. Bayfield's report, in turn, included the geologic observations of two other travelers on the lake: H.R. Schoolcraft and J.J. Bigsby, both of whom, like Bayfield, had taken part in some of the earliest government-sponsored explorations in the region. Although Schoolcraft had received some formal training in the natural sciences, Bigsby and Bayfield, like many other naturalists of the time, gained their knowledge of geology while pursuing their primary professional duties. Nonetheless, they were exceptionally good observers of geologic phenomena. Their efforts produced a geologic framework for the Lake Superior region, which is even today compatible with modern interpretations. At the end of the 19th century, though, their contributions had been all but forgotten, a result of a revolutionary change in the study of geology from a more informal and descriptive pursuit to a professionally oriented and theoretical science with its own organizational structure.