bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The status of Benthalbella infans (Pisces: Myctophoidei), its development, bioluminescence, general biology and distribution in the eastern NOrth Atlantic
Authors: Merrett N. R. , Badcock Julian , Herring Peter J.
Published: August 2009

Evidence of comparative and developmental morphology is presented from 99 specimens from the Atlantic and Indian Oceans to establish the conspecificity of Benthalbella dubius with B. irfans. The development of the species is described from the early post‐larva (12.5 mm) through metamorphosis (60–80 mm) to the sexually mature adult (112–143 mm). Benthalbella infans is shown to be a hermaphrodite with simultaneous maturation of ova and spermatozoa, in common with other alepisauroid fishes. A fecundity estimate gave 2300 ova. The morphology and histology of the light organs are described, at cellular and sub‐cellular levels, and the luminous tissue is shown to be derived from muscle blocks. The significance of these findings is discussed, the properties of the bioluminescent emission defined and measures of intensity recorded. Stomach contents were analysed. The significance of changes in body and eye orientation at ossification is discussed in relation to behaviour and specifically to that of feeding. The horizontal and vertical distribution of B. infans considered in the light of collections made in the eastern North Atlantic. The possibility of racial differences within the species is discussed, although no major niorphological differences were observed between Atlantic and Indian Ocean specimens. The diurnal depth distribution of the species is indicated (90–1500 m); post‐larvae are shown to occupy the shallower reaches of the range, descending with advancing development. Evidence of vertical migration was observed only in adults and juveniles.
Directional bias as a component of social behaviour with special reference to the Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos
Authors: Simmons K. E. L. , Weidmann U.
Published: August 2009

Three types of “shake”, given by male Mallards, Anas platyrhynchos, during Social Display, exhibit a crious “directional bias” in that the first sideways turn of the head tends to be made towards one of the females present. An investigation of the phenomenon by means of film suggests that directional bias reliably reflects a male's “interest” in a particular female. Evolutionary implications and the possible role of directional bias in social communication are briefly discussed.
Structure of and seasonal change in the coat of Red deer (Cervus elaphus)
Authors: Ryder M. L. , Kay R. N. B.
Published: August 2009

The structure of, and seasonal change in, the coat of Red deer (Cervus elalphus) kept indoors is described. Changes in coat length, the grouping of different types of wool fibre in the skin, and changes in follicle activity determined from histological preparations, were studied in samples of the coat and skin taken monthly for two years.
A new species of Anuropus from the Galapagos region (Isopoda: Flabellifera: Cirolanidae)
Authors: Lincoln R. J. , Jones M. B.
Published: August 2009

A new species of Anuropus, A. pacificus is described from the Galapagos region. It differs markedly from the other species of Anuropus especially in the structure of the head region. The head is bilobed with the dorsal surface and margins convex, and with a small vertical “rostrum” level with the anterior margin. The antennules are extremely large, strongly angular, and located in a deep excavation of the front of the head and the anterior peracon tergite. Present material was sorted from regurgitated food of the Waved albatross from Hood Island, Galapagos.
Factors influencing the breeding of the rabbit flea (Spilopsyllus cuniculi): A spring‐time accelerator and a kairomone in nestling rabbit urine with notes on Cediopsylla simplex, another “hormone bound” species
Authors: Rothschild Miriam , Ford Bob
Published: August 2009

Accelerated impregnation and maturation of the rabbit flea coincides with the spring peak litter‐size of the rabbit, but its breeding performance falls off before that of the domestic host. A kairomone nestling factor, which boosts copulation, impregnation and development of fleas feeding on the newborn young, is also present in relatively feeble amounts in baby rabbit urine. This urine boosts pairing of matured (=“primed”) fleas united in tubes away from a host, but impregnation is increased only if fleas are feeding on newborn young while exposed to the urine.

Undeveloped fleas matured on the pregnant doe require a transfer to another host before they will pair, whereas fleas matured on the nestlings copulate without a transfer. A variable time‐lag between transfer and copulation of fleas, dependent on the “priming” qualities of the preparatory host, suggests that a chemical intermediary is involved.

If the antennae of the females are coated with vaseline, the maturation of these fleas is delayed feeding on nestlings, but not on the prepartum doe. This delay is less marked during the spring acceleration than at other times of the year.

The breeding of a North American species of hare flea (Cediopsyllu simplex (Baker)) parasitizing Sylvilagus floridanus (Allen) is also controlled by the sex hormones of the host.
On the regulatory nature of individual growth: some observations from freshwater snails
Authors: Calow P.
Published: August 2009

Various types of growth models are assessed. Results derived from observations made on growth in the freshwater snail, Planorbis contortus, suggest that in certain instances models based on a mechano‐reductionist philosophy are acceptable whereas in others they are untenable. In the latter case a holistic representation is more biologically satisfying. Q10 values provide a useful assessment and summary of an individuals regulatory capacity with respect to growth when temperature disturbances are experienced. Another parameter, kcorr is developed to carry out this function when other, particularly food supply, disturbances are involved.
Some factors affecting the location of Arthritica crassiformis (Bivalvia: Leptonacea) commensal upon Anchomasa similis (Bivalvia: Pholadidae).
Authors: Morton Brian
Published: August 2009

Arthritica crassiformis Powell is found in New Zealand waters commensally associated with the pholad Anchomasa similis (Gray). Its location on the host is highly specific and is occasioned by the complex needs of the commensal and the facilities and limitations imposed by the tunnelling activity of the host. Other species of pholad because of different morphological adaptations do not serve as hosts. With increasing size of the host, the number of commensals/host increases which is due to (a) retention of young individuals within the parental burrow and (b) by colonization from the external environment.

A. crassiformis typically, however, occurs in pairs and is probably a protandric consecutive hermaphrodite. The young are incubated in the interlamellar spaces of the ctenidia of the parental female. This anatomical adaptation together with others including strong rejectory tracts suit the commensal for a life with an active tunnelling host.

The ciliary currents of the mantle cavity of A. similis are described.
Effects of the light regime and breeding experience on budgerigar reproduction
Authors: Putman R. J. , Hinde R. A.
Published: August 2009

Female budgerigars, provided with nest‐boxes and exposed to male vocalizations, lay more rapidly under a 14 L: 10 D photoregime than under regimes involving shorter light periods, though some birds will lay even when kept under continuous darkness. The photoperiod affects principally the interval between nest‐box entry and egg‐laying. Birds with previous breeding experience lay sooner than naive birds.
Subcutaneous air pouches in the Marabou stork (Leptoptios curmeniferus)
Authors: Akester A. R. , Pomeroy D. E. , Purton M. D.
Published: August 2009

Dorsal and ventral subcutaneous, dilatable air pouches play a part in the social life of the Marabou stork. Inflation of the ventral pouch indicates the dominance of an individual over its neighbours whilst inflation of the dorsal pouch indicates apprehension. Both are inflated simultaneously during courtship. Air enters the ventral pouch by a complicated route within the left orbit. The dorsal pouch most probably receives air by way of the first anterior dorsal secondary bronchus of the lung and the cervical air sac.
A tracking technique for comparing individual home ranges of small mammals
Authors: Randolph Sarh E.
Published: August 2009

The tracking technique consists of feeding marker bait to small mammals whilst in captivity, releasing them, and subsequently collecting and examining faeces deposited by them in containers in the study area. This technique allows a large number of individually marked animals to be tracked simultaneously over a short period of time, without restricting the movements of the animals in any way. This provides estimates of home range size that are considered to be more realistic than previous estimates, and allows the dynamic aspect of home range to be measured.
The fine structure of the pallial eyes of Laternula truncata (Bivalvia: Anomalodesmata: Pandoracea)
Authors: Adal M. N. , Morton Brian
Published: August 2009

The structure of the pallial eyes of Laternula truncata (Lamarck 1818) has been studied using the light and electron microscopes. The eye is complex and can be‐ considered to be‐ the most advanced yet described for a bivalve mollusc. The cornea consists of modified flattened epithelial cells with an external border of microvilli. The cornea covers a large, circular, multinucleate lens. The lens comprises (1) centrally located translucent lens cells, (2) laterally located supporting cells from which cell processes interdigitate with processes from the lens cells. The retina is two layered and inverted. The proximal and distal retinae are made up of concentrically arranged laminae derived from the membranes of ciliary basal bodies. The cilia comprise a base and feet, but no root system and have a 9+0 arrangement of filaments.

The pigment cup or tapetum is bounded by a sclerotic coat and is three layered, each layer possessing characteristic pigment granules. From the base of the eye arises a large optic nerve.

The eye possesses an eye appendage, the epithelium of which is invaginated on its internal border to form a groove within which are found some 28 cilia. The cilia, it is thought, make contact with the microvilli of the epithelium when the appendage is touched. Such an action serves to protect the delicate eye from damage.

The structure of the eye is compared with that of other molluscs, particularly members of the Bivalvia.
Ecological studies on crater lakes in West Cameroon. Debundsha Lake
Authors: Green J. , A. Corbet Sarah , Betney Elaine
Published: August 2009

Cape Debundsha receives 10 m (400 inches) of rain per year, and the water of the small crater lake on the cape has one of the lowest conductivities in Africa (11–13 µmho/cm/20 C). The lake has a maximum depth of 13·5 m. At the time of our visit in April 1972 the lake was stratified with a depletion of oxygen in the hypolimnion. The phytoplankton was dominated by Botryococcus, and the zooplankton was dominated by the ostracod Oncocypris debundshae. Both these organisms are closely associated with the surface film. Other zooplankters included Thermocyclops hyalitws, and in deeper water during the daytime the larvae of Chaoborus ceratopogones.

The fauna of the lake includes 12 species of testacean rhizopods, six species of rotifers, two oligochaetes, one snail, seven crustaceans, 15 insects and three acarines. Of the last group two species were new to science and one had been found only once previously. The ectoproct polyzoan, Lophopodella carteri, is recorded for the first time from West Africa, and the second time from Africa. The general impression of the fauna is one of sparseness, with an unusually high proportion of larval Odonata.
The air space of an egg: an embryonic “cold nose”?
Authors: Simkiss K.
Published: August 2009

Experiments have been performed to measure the cooling rates of air space and equatorial regions of the incubated egg. The air space has a low specific heat so that it cools faster than the rest of the egg when an incubating bird leaves the nest. This rapid cooling of the air space reduces the water loss that would occur when a bird leaves the nest by 50% when compared with the water loss from an equivalent area of the rest of the shell. The overall influence of the air space is probably to reduce water losses during incubation by 10–15%.
Reproduction and “March madness” in the Brown hare, Lepus europaeus
Authors: Lincoln G. A.
Published: August 2009

The reproductive physiology of hares was studied in 760 animals shot throughout the year, and these observations were related to seasonal changes of behaviour in an attempt to explain the significance of “March madness”.

The hare was found to have a prolonged breeding season; at least some pregnant females were found in all months from January to August, and fertile males in all months except October and November. The nadir of the reproductive cycle occurred in October with no breeding amongst the females, and the males showing regressed accessory glands and involuted testes containing minimal amounts of testosterone. At this time hares were solitary and it was rare to see them active during the day.

After the autumn rest period, the first indication of a new reproductive cycle occurred in November with an increase in the size and activity of the testes. This trend continued during December, January and February by which time the reproductive tract was again fully functional. During this time there were striking changes in behaviour and matings were witnessed. Females resumed breeding in January with a marked synchrony in the timing of the first ovulation of the season. Mating preceded ovulation, and the first pregnancy normally resulted in a single fetus, although pregnancy failure was common at this time. By March and April the hares showed full reproductive activity with 100% of females pregnant and most carrying three or more fetuses. Many aspects of behaviour (March madness) reached a peak at this time, and in males this was closely related to a depletion of sperm reserves in the epididymis and the secretions of the accessory gland reservoir. During May, June and July, the females continued to be highly fertile. There was, however, already a reduction in the overt behaviour characteristic of spring, and there was a conspicuous drop in testicular testosterone production.

The reproductive cycle ended in July and August with a reversal of the changes seen earlier in the year. The testes regressed rapidly in August and sperm production ceased by September; the sperm reserves in the epididymis became progressively depleted and sperm were degenerating by October. There was a reduction in litter size towards the end of the breeding season and no pregnancies were observed after the end of August.

Of the hares under one year old shot in the spring only about 16% were apparently conceived during the period of spring madness, with the majority arising from matings in May, June and July. The age at puberty was influenced by the date of birth.

March madness appears to represent the rutting behaviour of male hares and is induced by the greatly increased testosterone production which occurs in spring. The behaviour is probably important in stimulating the females into breeding activity at the beginning of the new season.
Feeding activity of a phthiracarid mite (Arachnida: Acari)
Authors: Dinsdale D.
Published: August 2009

The oribatid mite, Phthiracarus sp., feeds by tearing‐out material from the spongy mesophyll of decaying spruce needles with a pair of retractile chelicerae. A pair of dentate rutella localize this tearing activity and limit particles to a manageable size. Mastication is achieved by movements of the chelicerae against each other and the rutella, the process being aided by a pair of palps.
Some physiological and behavioural changes associated with oestrus and pregnancy in the squirrel monkey (Satmiri sciureus)
Authors: Travis J. C. , Holmes W. N.
Published: August 2009

Peak values in the karyopyknotic index of vaginal smears from the squirrel monkey occurred at intervals of 10.9±0.1 days. The urinary excretory rate of a metabolite similar to preg‐nanediol increased when ovulation was induced by exogenous gonadotropin therapy. Small amounts of this metabolite were excreted during lactation, periods of anoestrus and during the follicular phases of normal oestrous cycles. Significantly larger amounts were excreted during the 157 days gestation period and during the luteal phase which persisted for one week after a peak karyopyknotic index value was observed. Changes in the pattern of urinary electrolyte excretion were not correlated reliably with changes in ovarian differentiation. Sexual motivation was greatest at mid‐cycle, became less after conception and persisted at a low level throughout gestation and lactation. The occurrence of oestrus was seasonal and independent of physical contact with males. The development of secondary sexual characteristics in the male was synchronized with the onset of seasonal oestrus in the females.
Ultrastructure of the secondary gill lamella of the icefish, Chaenocephalus aceratus
Authors: Hughes G. M. , Byczkowska‐Smyk A.
Published: August 2009

The basic structure of the secondary lamella is similar to that found in most fishes, but the water/blood barrier is relatively thick (c. 8 pm) of which about 90% is epithelium. The marginal channel is larger than channels between pillar cells which appear to have contracted.
A new genus and species of freshwater planarian from Australia (Platyhelminthes: Turbellaria)*
Authors: Ball Ian R.
Published: August 2009

A new genus and species of freshwater planarian is described from Australia. Its taxonomic affinities are discussed and a synopsis of the known genera of freshwater triclads of Australia is provided.
Reproduction in Nephrops norvegicus (Decapoda: Nephropidae)
Authors: Farmer A. S. D.
Published: August 2009

During the period October 1969 to April 1972 a comprehensive study of the reproductive biology of the Norway lobster, Nephrops norvegicus (L. 1758), was made in the Irish Sea. Where possible comparison has been made with data from other areas. The results of the present investigation show that most females are berried annually, egg‐laying taking place in August and September, and hatching in April to June of the following year. Moulting and copulation occur in mature females during May to August. In contrast males do not show a marked reproductive cycle, spermatogenesis occurring throughout the year. The method of fertilization is discussed, and it is suggested that this may be internal. Copulatory and egg‐hatching behaviour is described, together with details of egg‐laying and incubation in the laboratory. A pre‐zoeal larval stage is described for the first time, bringing the total number of larval instars to four. The terminology of the larval stages is revised.
Diet of Rana cancrivora in fresh water and brackish water environments
Authors: Elliott Annie B. , Karunakaran Letha
Published: August 2009

Rana cancrivora Gravenhorst inhabits both fresh water and brackish water swamps and ditches in Singapore. Food items in the gut of frogs from both habitats have been examined. The diet of frogs collected near brackish water was predominantly crustacean and included crabs (Sesarma spp.), while the diet of those collected near fresh water comprised mainly insects. Gut contents of frogs included all the small animal species found in the respective environments, the choice of prey appearing to be limited only by size.
The epidermis and its degeneration in the larval tail and adult body of Rana temporaria and Xenopus laevis (Amphibia: Anura)
Authors: Fox H.
Published: August 2009

The tail epidermis of the larva and the body epidermis of adults of Rana temporaria and Xenopus laevis are described in terms of electron microscopy.

The activity of lysosomes (determined by the localization of acid phosphatase) in relation to autolysis and the process of cellular cornification, is considered during the periods of climactic disappearance of the larval tail and skin sloughing of adults. The results obtained generally correspond for both genera.

Larval tail epidermal cells completely disappear at metamorphic climax; those of the adult, which are shed, are replaced throughout life after each periodic sloughing. Nevertheless the mechanisms of their epidermal cell loss are comparable, though the level of lysosomal activity in larval tail epidermal cells is higher than in the adult body epidermis. This higher activity of lysosomal enzymes may facilitate the heavy necrosis which ensues in the larval tail at metamorphic climax.
Osmotic properties of the perivitelline fluid and some properties of the chorion of Atlantic salmon eggs (Salmo salar)
Authors: Eddy F. B.
Published: August 2009

The chorion and perivitelline fluid of Atlantic salmon eggs were investigated by chemical and physical methods. The turgor pressure of the chorion in water hardened eggs was about 60 mm Hg. With newly stripped eggs in fresh water a similar pressure was achieved after about one day but the process of water uptake could be osmotically inhibited by adding high molecular weight substances to the external medium. Perivitelline fluid contained about 58 % water the remainder being a high molecular weight substance consisting mainly of protein but also containing significant quantities of carbohydrate and lipid. The functions of the chorion are discussed with reference to salmon eggs and also to marine pelagic fish eggs such as those of the plaice.
Reproductive condition in two Malayan freshwater viviparid gastropods
Authors: Berry A. J.
Published: August 2009

Siamopaludina martensi and Filopaludina sumatrensis have typical viviparid reproductive systems with dimorphic spermatozoa and copulatory right tentacle in the male, and a large pallial brood‐pouch in the female. Females outnumber males as in several other viviparids. Brood‐pouches contained overall monthly averages of 0–14 developing young in S. martensi, 9–23 in F. sumatrensis, more than half of which were well‐developed, later juveniles. Brood‐pouch counts and ovary condition of both species varied in broad accordance with monthly rainfall, giving an irregularly seasonal pattern of annual change resembling those of several terrestrial Malayan snails. Juveniles emerge from the brood‐pouch mostly at night. Alteration of aquarium conditions leads to temporarily accelerated release of young but does not permanently raise brood‐pouch counts or rates of release.
Seasonal and age variation of circulating immunoreactive luteinizing hormone in captive Herring gulls, Lams argentatus
Authors: Scanes C. G. , Cheeseman P. , Phillips J. G. , Follett B. K.
Published: August 2009

A study of the seasonal variation of circulating immunoreactive hormone (ir LH) was undertaken in captive Herring gulls (Lams argentatus) by estimating the hormone concentration in monthly plasma samples with a radioimmunoassay to chicken LH.

In the mature gulls (in 4th or 5th year), the ir LH concentration increased significantly through the spring (from 0.71 to l.94ng/ml in males and from 0.59 to 2.34ng/ml in females). The ir LH peak in the females may occur marginally later. In younger birds, only a slight elevation of the hormone level was apparent. A subsequent small summer peak of ir LH was found only in mature male gulls. Another major feature of the annual secretion pattern was the dramatic increase found in all groups of gulls in the sample taken at the end of November. This level had fallen to near basal values only a month later in all birds except the mature male gulls.

Throughout the winter, spring and summer, the circulating ir LH in the immature birds remained below that found in their mature counterparts.
Blood cell indices of five species of auk (Alcidae) from Newfoundland, Canada
Authors: Bradley L. Wayne , Threlfall William
Published: August 2009

Descriptions and measurements are given for the circulating blood cells of four species of alcids, namely Alca torda, Uria aalge, Uria lomvia, and Fratercula arctica. Differential white cell counts were also made on the blood of these birds and on the blood of a fifth species, Cepphus grylle. Great variations were noted in the percentage of each cell type found in individual birds, while means and first and third quartiles varied between species. The results indicate that the blood picture of individual birds of the species examined, would be of little value in assessing “condition” of birds in either field or in the laboratory. Red blood cell counts were made for F. arctica adults, while haematocrit values and clotting times were determined for this species and for U. aalge (adults and chicks).
Reflecting elements in cephalopod skin and their importance for camouflage
Authors: Messenger J. B.
Published: August 2009

Attention is drawn to the fact that cephalopod skin contains reflecting elements (irido‐phores, leucophores) in addition to the well‐known chromatophores; and the reflexion of monochromatic light from small areas all over the arm, head and body skin in Octopus vulgaris and Sepia officinalis is demonstrated. It is emphasized that the chromatophores of these species contain pigments only at the yellow‐red (‐black) end of the spectrum so that no combination of their activities could cause the skin to take on the blue or green tinge occasionally seen in the living animal. The function of the chromatophores in cryptic “colouration” is largely limited to tone‐matching, colour‐matching being dealt with by the reflecting elements. These, when they are revealed by retraction of the overlying chromatophores, automatically reflect incident light of whatever wavelength and thus enable what is probably a colour‐blind animal to take on the colour as well as the tone of its surroundings.
A new species of Gobius (Teleostei: Gobiidae) from the western English Channel, with a key to related species in the British and Irish fauna
Authors: Miller P. J.
Published: August 2009

A gobiid fish known for some time from the English Channel, and found also at Madeira, is described as Gobius gasteveni sp. nov., and its affinities believed to be with species grouped about G. auratus Risso. Changes in abundance and the possibility of recovery are discussed for this offshore species in the Channel, but little is otherwise known concerning its biology. A key to the British and Irish species of Gobius L. and Thorogobius Miller summarizes those now recognized around the British Isles as the following (listed in chronological order of genus and species description): Gobius nigerL., 1758; G. paganellusL., 1758; G. cruentatus Gmelin, 1789; G. cobitis Pallas, 1814; G. couchi Miller & El‐Tawil, 1974; G. gasteveni sp. nov., and Thorogobius ephippiatus (Lowe, 1839).
Species variations in the foetal growth rates of eutherian mammals
Authors: Frazer J. F. D. , Huggett A. St. G.
Published: August 2009

While the larger cetaceans have the greatest known specific foetal growth rates (Huggett & Widdas, 1951), examination has shown that among land mammals of a particular Order, Sub‐order or even Genus, there may be marked variation in rates.
The infrastructure of the orthochromatic mucous cells of some British lumbricids (Annelida)
Authors: Richards K. Sylvia
Published: August 2009

The infrastructure of the orthochromatic mucous cells of 11 British lumbricids is described. The prominent secretory globules show species variation with standard fixation.

In four genera the core material exhibits consistent and characteristic electron dense ultrastructural patterning, the four types being described, and species within these genera show specific differences. Such patterned globules are termed heterogeneous, in contrast to the homogeneous globules of the other two genera. The generic and specific ultrastructural patterns line up well with, and support, the modern, revised lumbricid taxonomy.

The electron dense heterogeneity is first visualized at the mature Golgi face and the patterning is eliminated after proteolytic enzyme treatment, suggesting that the dense areas within the globule reflect the protein sites within the mucus, the final elaboration of which takes place within the polarized Golgi.

No mucus extrusion mechanisms were observed and it is suggested, from the positioning of the supporting cell tonofilaments and the body wall musculature, that extrusion accompanies locomotory activities.

A suggestion as to the possible function of a type of mucus with clear specific differences, as evidenced by the ultrastructure, is advanced.
Vagility in an island population of the House mouse
Authors: Berry R. J. , Jakobson M. E.
Published: August 2009

The chance of encounter—and hence mating—between two animals may be limited by social as well as spatial factors, thus dividing a population into a series of discrete territories with little movement between them. Only within the sub‐units will random mating take place, and drift may cause a considerable amount of non‐adaptive genetical change if the units are very small. Work on House mouse (Mus musculus) populations in the laboratory and particular ecological situations have suggested that the effective breeding size of these units may be as small as four. This would mean that a considerable amount of random change would be expected in mouse populations. However, a six year study (1964–69) of movement and territoriality on the 244 acre (100 ha) Welsh island of Skokholm during which over 3000 animals were marked and released, showed that more than 20% of individuals breed in an area other than the one in which they were born, i.e. a considerable amount of population churning takes place. This conclusion is supported by evidence of the spread of three rare biochemical variants in the population. Chance seems to play little part in the determination of the genetical constitution of the Skokholm mice. In general, estimates of the size of effective breeding units must always be qualified by an understanding of the ecology of the population in question.
Some observations of Octopus joubini reared in an inland aquarium
Authors: Bradley Elspeth A.
Published: August 2009

Octopus joubini Robson were hatched and reared in a closed circulating sea‐water system. Mortality was greatest during the period of hatching. The longest surviving octopus lived for 128 days—it had increased its weight × 5, from 0·04–0·19 g, mantle length × 3, from 3–9 mm, head width × 2, from 3–5 mm. Observations of (1) general behaviour, (2) feeding behaviour, (3) social behaviour of the newly hatched octopuses (0–3 days) and the three longest surviving octopuses (93–119 days) are described. In particular it was observed that the older octopuses would readily grasp and eat small live crabs when these were made to touch the suckers or arms. On no occasion did the attacks appear to be visually elicited. This result is discussed with reference to the memory and learning experiments using O. vulgaris. Possible reasons for the limited survival are also discussed.
Detailed analysis of fighting in polecats (Mustelidae) using ciné film
Authors: Poole Trevor B.
Published: August 2009

The phenomenon of fighting was investigated under laboratory conditions using polecats (Mustela putorius, M. furo and interspecific hybrids). Diadic interactions between male polecats were recorded on 16 mm cine film in an unfamiliar area of 16 m2, one individual having been introduced ten minutes before its opponent.

The behaviour patterns involved in fighting are described and their frequencies of occurrence, duration and average bout lengths specified. Biting, which occupied 41% of the animal's time in fighting, and attacking, which made up 27% of the bouts of behaviour, were the most important actions involved in fighting. Polecats most commonly bite their opponent's neck and bites in this region were the longest in duration. Success in gaining a bite was influenced by the opponent's behaviour at the time of the attack.

Polecats fight when one individual bites its opponent and the opponent retaliates by biting; bite was shown to be the commonest response to being bitten. The length of a fight appears to be determined by the levels of motivation to bite of the two opponents, while biting and being bitten operate as a positive feed back mechanism. The fight terminates when the more aggressive opponent ceases to make spontaneous attacks. The reasons why one individual wins a fight are that it consistently spends more time than its opponent in biting, it persists for longer in making spontaneous attacks and its method of attacking is more efficient.
Storage lipids in the lizard Lacerta vivipara: a quantitative study
Authors: Avery R. A.
Published: August 2009

Lipids in various tissues of Lacerta vivipara were measured at three times of the year: immediately after hibernation, mid‐season, and immediately prior to hibernation. Lipid deposits in the abdominal fat bodies and the caudal fat bands fluctuated seasonally, but at any time showed a marked positive allometry with body length and weight; the functional significance of this relationship is not known. Carcass lipid and liver weight were isometric with body length and weight.
Extrusion, retraction and respiratory movements in Helix pomatia in relation to distribution and circulation of the blood
Authors: Dale B.
Published: August 2009

The mechanism of extrusion of a representative terrestrial pulmonate Helix pomatia has been investigated using pressure recording devices. Extrusion is essentially a hydraulic process which is achieved in a step‐wise manner; each step, consisting of two distinct phases, being an exaggeration of a respiratory cycle apparent in the extended animal. The effect of extrusion, retraction and respiratory movements on the distribution and circulation of blood has also been investigated. Extrusion in other gastropods, factors affecting cardiac output and the adaptations which facilitate retraction, are discussed.
Notes on the biology of the mayfly Povilla adusta in West Africa
Authors: Corbet Sarah A. , Sellick Richard D. , Willoughby N. G.
Published: August 2009

A study of the mayfly Povilla adusta Navas in five West African lakes showed at least one population (in Barombi Mbo) with a clear lunar periodicity of emergence, and at least one without, at Kainji Lake. The seasonal distribution of Povilla eggs in fish stomachs at Kainji implies a delayed effect of lake level on adult numbers. The relatively small size and short generation time (probably three months) of Povilla in Barombi Mbo, by comparison with the same species in Lake Victoria, may be related to the higher temperature of Barombi Mbo. The eggs of bdelloid rotifers were found attached to Povilla larvae from some of the lakes.
The nerves in frog skin
Authors: Whitear Mary
Published: August 2009

In the epidermis of frog skin, most nerves are situated at the top of the basal layer. More superficial nerve fibres are usually adjacent to flask cells; it is concluded that this is not a functional association, but a consequence of the pattern of moulting. There are nerve fibres in the walls of the granular glands; mucous glands appear to have no intrinsic innervation although nerves pass within a short distance of their walls. The smooth muscle bundles of the dermis are innervated, and have a physical attachment to the overlying epidermis.
Experiments on whether schooling by their prey affects the hunting behaviour of cephalopods and fish predators
Authors: Neill S. R. J. , Cullen J. M.
Published: August 2009

The experiments investigated the effects of a school of live prey fish on the hunting behaviour of squid, cuttlefish and pike (ambush predators) and perch (a chasing predator). The hunting behaviour of all species is described, including some previously unrecorded actions.

For all species the increasing shoal size from one fish to six, to 20, decreased the success of the predators' attacks per encounter with a prey. This was partly because attacks on larger shoals lasted longer, and fish became increasingly difficult to catch as a hunt went on. However, for some of the species there was a clear effect of the shoals at the start of the hunt. For other species it was less conclusive.

The disruptive effect of the shoals was shown to act for the ambush predators by interfering with the “optimal” sequence of an attack and causing avoidance actions together with so‐called irrelevant behaviour. For the perch, shoals seemed to disrupt by forcing the predator continually to switch targets during his pursuit.

The artificiality of the experiments is discussed in relation to field observations. The relatively high incidence of avoidance and irrelevant behaviour seems to be an artefact, but the main results are quite compatible with field studies. In nature fish predators may be able to get sufficient food by restricting their attacks to individuals which are conspicuous either by an abnormal appearance or by becoming separated from the school. An individual prey fish no doubt gains a considerable advantage from the school by burying itself in the crowd. Our experiments show that a shoal can provide further protection in hampering the attack of a predator.
Social factors influencing reproduction in wild lions
Authors: Bertram Brian C. R.
Published: August 2009

The paper summarizes seven years of records of the reproductive history of two wild prides of lions (Panthera leo L.) in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. These records are analyzed to demonstrate ways in which lion reproduction is influenced by their social group and by changes in that group.

Females gave birth at any time of year; they did so sooner if their previous litter died. Females synchronized births with other pride members. Takeover of the pride by new males resulted in a drop in the birth rate. Most cubs died, before two years old. Birth synchrony resulted in better cub survival. The arrival of new males resulted in an increase in cub mortality. Females came into oestrus synchronously with other pride members. Males had a much longer effective reproductive life if they had male companions.

The proximate causes of these features of lion reproduction are considered, and the evolution of aspects of the organization of reproduction in lions is discussed.
Hybridization between Red deer (Cervus elaphus) and Sika deer (Cervus nippon) with particular reference to stocks in N.W. England
Authors: Lowe V. P. W. , Gardiner A. S.
Published: August 2009

Sika deer (Cervus nippon Temminck) from Japan were introduced into Great Britain and Ireland first in 1860, and, for a time, were much sought after by owners of deer parks. Later, they were introduced or allowed to escape into various parts of the country, and feral populations have become established in Scotland, England and Ireland.

Hybridization between Sika and Red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) has occurred frequently in deer parks but has been reported only recently from feral and wild stocks.

In part of north‐west England, there have been reports of hybrids from time to time ever since the 1920s, but these have become commonplace only recently. Since the Red deer inhabiting other parts of the region are all of the native race (Cervus elaphus scolicus Lönnberg) and no other population of this race exists elsewhere in England, work was begun to assess the threat to the survival of both the race and the species posed by Sika deer and, more particularly, by the hybrids on Cartmel Fell.

Using multivariate methods of analysis on a range of skull measurements (see page 556) obtained from samples of both species and their hybrids, an attempt was made to find some means of distinguishing the hybrids from the species irrespective of the extent to which introgression had occurred. This was largely successful using canonical variate analysis, but only when the sets of data used to construct the basic matrix were both homogeneous and biologically relevant, i.e. of the same age and sex, and where the samples were obtained from the races involved in the hybridization. The present classification of the subspecies of Sika deer received little support from this study. Many of the subspecies as described in the literature were found to be indistinguishable from some of the hybrids, which suggests that some revision may be necessary.
A contribution to the functional analysis of the foot of the Tokay, Gekko gecko (Reptilia: Gekkonidae)
Authors: RUSSELL ANTHONY P.
Published: August 2009

The foot of gekkonid lizards, because of the wide range of variation it displays within the family, is an ideal system on which to carry out a functional anatomical study. The wide range of variability and adaptation of the foot is unparalleled in other lizard groups. The Tokay (Gekko gecko (Linnaeus) 1785) has been used as a basis for a broader study of the comparative and functional anatomy of the foot within the family Gekkonidae.

The acquisition of adhesive pads by Gekko has resulted in the development of a very distinctive mode of locomotion which has become modified both to deploy and, at the same time, protect the delicate subdigital setae. Analysis of the structure and function of the foot has been carried out in two stages: firstly a description of the mechanical units and then an interpretation of their function, with the aid of high speed cinematographic data. The skeletal elements of the foot exhibit several features which reflect the specialized method of locomotion and these are related to remarkable adaptations exhibited by the associated muscular, vascular and tendon systems.

The functional significance of scansorial plates is discussed and the relationship between size and locomotory ability within the family Gekkonidae is also considered. Some ideas as to the selective advantage of the particular locomotory modifications under discussion are presented, but further consideration of this topic must wait until subsequent papers deal with a larger proportion of the family.
Feeding mechanisms and feeding strategies of Atlantic reef corals
Authors: LEWIS J. B. , PRICE W. S.
Published: August 2009

The feeding behaviour of 35 species of Atlantic reef corals was examined in the laboratory and in the field. Observations were made during the day and at night, using freshly hatched brine shrimp nauplii and finely ground, filtered fresh fish as food sources. Three feeding strategies were observed: Group I–feeding by tentacle capture only; Group II–feeding by entanglement with a mucus net or mucus filaments; Group III–feeding by a combination of tentacle capture and mucus filament entanglement. Group I included corals of the families Poritidae and Pocilloporidae which were normally expanded during both day and night. Group II included corals of the family Agaricidae which were normally expanded at night and contracted during the day. Group III included corals of the other families examined which, with the exception of Dendrogyra cylindrus, were normally expanded only at night.

Feeding responses were elicited by both chemical and tactile stimuli. A preparatory feeding posture was assumed in response to chemical stimuli and consisted of horizontal positioning of the tentacles, elevation of the oral disk to form a cone‐like mouth, a wide mouth opening and secretion of mucus by the epidermis of the oral disk. Following the assumption of the preparatory feeding posture, food capture and ingestive movements were elicited by tactile stimuli. However, food capture and ingestive movements were also elicited by chemical stimuli alone in those species which were normally contracted during the day.

While expanded corals captured food with their tentacles or with mucus filaments, contracted corals were able to feed by capturing fine particulate matter with mucus filaments only and thus acted as suspension feeders. By a combination of feeding strategies, reef corals were able to feed both day and night and a wide range of potential food ranging from fine particulate matter to large zooplankton was available to them.
Postcava structure in elephant and rhinoceros
Authors: CAVE A. J. E.
Published: August 2009

The mammalian postcava is vulnerable to lumen diminution or collapse under sudden increase of intra‐abdominal pressure. Against such collapse its dorsal wall receives an extrinsic protection from the abdominal parietes. Its ventral wall, however, develops an intrinsic protective mechanism in the form of a specialization of its histological architecture. This specialization is most readily noticeable in large‐bodied mammals and details of it are given for four such forms, viz., Asiatic elephant (Elephas), Sumatran rhinoceros (Didermocerus), Black rhinoceros (Diceros) and White rhinoceros (Ceratotheriurri).
The basicranial axis in certain fossil hominoids
Authors: ASHTON E. H. , FLINN R. M. , MOORE W. J.
Published: August 2009

The publication of accurate sagittal diagrams of the skulls of certain australopithecine fossils has permitted biometrical comparison of their basicranial axis, together with its anterior extension to the nasion, its posterior extension to the opisthion and the two associated angles, to be made with the corresponding regions in monkeys, apes and Man.

Univariate study has shown that after appropriate correction for differences in overall size, each of these quantities effects discrimination between certain extant primate groups. All can be separated if the measurements are taken seriatim. Australopithecus transvaalensis and Australopithecus boisei are thus distinguished both from extant groups and from each other.

Multivariate study (generalized distances and canonical coordinates) shows that both these fossils are distinct from all living groups which, in turn, are separate from one another.

Such unique characterization of the basicranial axis in the Australopithecinae parallels taxonomic distinctiveness already established in respect of their teeth, their occipital condyles and several regions of their postcranial skeleton.
A note on foetal growth and development of the giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa
Authors: Skinner J. D. , Hall‐Martin A. J.
Published: August 2009

The growth of the foetus of the southern giraffe is discussed. Gestation period is calculated as 457 days being the mean of 48 observations of other workers. Birthmass is taken as 102 kg from measurements on wild giraffe. This is almost twice as great as some published figures for captive giraffe. However, subspecies also differ. Foetal growth followed a typical “J” shaped curve when plotted from the mass of 24 foetuses. The increase in vertebral column length followed a straight line. Crown/rump measurements could not always be accurately taken.
The genitalia and associated glands of five British species belonging to the family Chthoniidae (Pseudoscorpiones: Arachnida)
Authors: Legg Gerald
Published: August 2009

The male and female genitalia and accessory glands of five British species of pseudoscorpion of the genus Chthonius are described. The taxonomic significance of the genitalia is considered.

The male and female genitalia of five species representing the genus Chthonius are fundamentally similar in form. However minor differences do occur which are of possible taxonomic significance at both the sub‐generic and specific levels. Thus, the two species C. kewi and C. tetrachelatus of the sub‐genus Ephippiochthonius have a number of characters in common which differ from those of the remaining three species, C. ischnocheles, C. tenuis and C. orthodactylus of the subgenus Chthonius (s.st). Other genital characters can be used to separate the five species.

Such small differences in the genitalia suggests that spermatophore formation and deposition in the four species C. tenuis, C. tetrachelatus, C. kewi and C. orthodactylus is not different from that of C. ischnocheles (Legg, 1973). What differences that do occur, for example, the thickening of the roof of the medial diverticulcum, size of the males and the pheromone produced by the lateral glands, probably are aids to species isolation.