bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Virginity Loss in Reel/Real Life: Using Popular Movies to Navigate Sexual Initiation1
Authors: Carpenter Laura M.
Published: October 2009

This study examines virginity‐loss movies as tools for navigating early sexual life. Data come from qualitative content analyses of 25 movies and in‐depth interviews with 61 socially diverse women and men, focusing on 28 participants who reported using movies to make sense of virginity loss. Films are open to multiple interpretations and young people use them creatively, both prospectively and retrospectively. Discrepancies between participants’ personal stories and the scripts in nominated films were patterned by gender and “nonideal” experiences were resolved more positively in movies than in real life. Such discrepancies may increase feelings of distress after “imperfect” virginity‐loss encounters.
“It Depends on How You Define Integrated”: Neighborhood Boundaries and Racial Integration in a Baltimore Neighborhood1
Authors: Rich Meghan Ashlin
Published: October 2009

There are a significant number of racially integrated neighborhoods in the United States, many of which have been stable over time. However, very little is known about the characteristics of these neighborhoods and of the residents who live in them. With data taken from a larger study of an integrated neighborhood in Baltimore, Maryland, this article discusses homeowners’ perceptions of their community and racial integration. Fifty semi‐structured interviews were completed with 67 homeowners to investigate their perceptions and experiences of race, class, and change in their community. This study shows that statistical racial integration and perceptions of racial integration are two different factors. Residents define true racial integration as both residential and social. As a result, homeowners reported that their neighborhood is both segregated and integrated—a type of “qualified” integration. Perceptions of racial integration are also affected by inconsistently defined neighborhood boundaries and racial clustering, block by block.
Class, Culture, and Participation in the Collegiate Extra‐Curriculum
Authors: Stuber Jenny M.
Published: October 2009

With larger percentages of high school students entering higher education, it becomes increasingly important to look at how processes occurring on college campuses contribute to social stratification. Using in‐depth interviews with 61 students, I ask: How does social class structure students’ participation in the collegiate extra‐curriculum? I argue that the collegiate extra‐curriculum is an important site for stratification because it is there that students gain access to social and cultural resources valued by the privileged classes. I find that upper‐middle‐class students arrive on campus with cultural resources that motivate their participation and social resources that facilitate their involvement. Among working‐class students, limited financial factors constrain their involvement, while social and cultural resources further curtail their interest in such activities. These findings contribute to theories of social and cultural reproduction by showing that those who have more valued social and cultural resources at the outset are in a better position to gain additional such resources throughout their college careers. Moreover, these analyses show that symbolic and cultural hierarchies are sustained by the interdependent relationship between social and cultural capital.
Cultural Sociology, Modes of Inquiry, and Political Analysis: A Rejoinder to Steensland
Authors: Smith Philip
Published: October 2009

Closely bounded research programs are both common and effective in sociology. Describing such programs as operating with a “restricted code” is deeply problematic. These matters aside, the remarkable rise of cultural sociology in fact reflects adaptation to sociology’s disciplinary norms and core thematic concerns. Steensland (2009) might better have reversed his argument: faced with the achievements of cultural analysis, the slumbering giant called “mainstream sociology” should wake up.
Myiasis after study trip to French Guiana
Authors: Schreiber Heike A. , Renkl Andreas C. , Lapinski Witold , Scharffetter‐Kochanek Karin , Weiss Johannes M.
Published: October 2009

Cutaneous myiasis is usually a harmless tropical disease caused by infestation with larvae from a variety of flies. Because of its rare occurrence in Europe, it is often misdiagnosed. Increased travel to tropical regions has correspondingly increased the number of cases observed in Europe. The furuncular type of cutaneous myiasis in a 31‐year‐old biology student was diagnosed upon his return from French Guiana. The student cultured one of the larvae to obtain a botfly. This case is discussed in the light of the current literature on pathogenesis, incidence and therapy of cutaneous myiasis.
Occupational exposure to non‐artificial UV‐light and non‐melanocytic skin cancer – a systematic review concerning a new occupational disease
Authors: Schmitt Jochen , Diepgen Thomas , Bauer Andrea
Published: October 2009

Background: Although UV exposure is the most important risk factor for cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and basal cell carcinoma (BCC), a systematic review analyzing the risk of occupational UV exposure is missing.

Methods: Based on a systematic literature search in PubMed (until 05/2009) supplemented by hand search, the association between occupational UV exposure and SCC and BCC was analyzed. Literature search and data abstraction was done independently by 2 reviewers. The association between occupational UV exposure and cancer risk is presented as odds ratios (OR).

Results: We identified 25 relevant epidemiologic studies (5 cohort studies, 17 case‐control studies, 3 cross‐sectional studies). 12 studies described a positive association between occupational UV exposure and risk of SCC with OR > 3 in 6 studies and OR 1.5–2.0 in another 6 studies. 3 studies did not find a relevant association (OR: 1.0–1.4). A significant positive association between occupational UV exposure and BCC was reported in 5 studies; 11 studies did not find a significant association.

Conclusions: The association between occupational UV exposure and SCC is well and consistently documented epidemiologically (approximately 2‐fold increased risk), so that the criteria for a new occupational disease are fulfilled. The association with BCC is unclear due to significant methodological limitations in the published studies.
The future of primary paediatric care in Europe: reflections and Report of the EPA/UNEPSA Committee
Authors: Barak S , Rubino A , Grguric J , Ghenev E , Branski D , Olah E ,   The EPA/UNEPSA Committee on Challenges and Goals of Paediatrics in the 21st Century
Published: October 2009

Background:  Changes in the scope of the field of paediatrics and the variability in primary paediatric care (PPC) and practice throughout Europe motivated the European Paediatric Association and Union of National European Paediatric Societies and Associations (EPA/UNEPSA) to establish a working group to discuss definitions of paediatric coverage in terms of age limits, find common denominators in the provision of PPC and examine the challenges and goals of 21st century paediatrics relevant to the continent. These issues were presented at the 2008 Europaediatrics in Istanbul, where a consensus declaration was drawn up and accepted by the EPA/UNEPSA Executive Committee.

Aim:  To present an outline of the essential elements of the 2008 EPA/UNEPSA Executive Committee consensus declaration.

Conclusion:  The definition of basic characteristics and the establishment of requirements for optimal PPC and practice are important steps in overcoming the differences among European countries and pave the way for an acceptable formulation of standardized high‐quality paediatric medical care in Europe.
Effects of invasive alien kahili ginger (Hedychium gardnerianum) on native plant species regeneration in a Hawaiian rainforest
Authors: Minden V. , Jacobi J. D. , Porembski S. , Boehmer H. J.
Published: October 2009

Questions: Does the invasive alien Hedychium gardnerianum (1) replace native understory species, (2) suppress natural regeneration of native plant species, (3) increase the invasiveness of other non‐native plants and (4) are native forests are able to recover after removal of H. gardnerianum.

Location: A mature rainforest in Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park on the island of Hawai'i (about 1200 m a.s.l.; precipitation approximately 2770 mm yr−1). Study sites included natural plots without effects of alien plants, ginger plots with a H. gardnerianum‐dominated herb layer and cleared plots treated with herbicide to remove alien plants.

Methods: Counting mature trees, saplings and seedlings of native and alien plant species. Using non‐parametric H‐tests to compare impact of H. gardnerianum on the structure of different sites.

Results: Results confirmed the hypothesis that H. gardnerianum has negative effects on natural forest dynamics. Lower numbers of native tree seedlings and saplings were found on ginger‐dominated plots. Furthermore, H. gardnerianum did not show negative effects on the invasive alien tree species Psidium cattleianum.

Conclusions: This study reveals that where dominance of H. gardnerianum persists, regeneration of the forest by native species will be inhibited. Furthermore, these areas might experience invasion by P. cattleianum, resulting in displacement of native canopy species in the future, leading to a change in forest structure and loss of other species dependent on natural rainforest, such as endemic birds. However, if H. gardnerianum is removed the native Hawaiian forest is likely to regenerate and regain its natural structure.
Effect of Uric Acid on Gentamicin‐Induced Nephrotoxicity in Rats – Role of Matrix Metalloproteinases 2 and 9
Authors: Romero Freddy , Pérez Mariela , Chávez Maribel , Parra Gustavo , Durante Paula
Published: October 2009

Abstract: In this work, we aimed to study the effect of uric acid on gentamicin‐induced nephrotoxicity. Male Sprague‐Dawley rats were assigned to one of six groups (six rats each) which received intraperitoneal injections for 9 days: (S)saline; (UA)Uric acid alone; (G)Gentamicin alone; (G + UA)Gentamicin + uric acid; (G rec)Gentamicin recovery and(G + UA rec)Gentamicin + uric acid recovery.In (G rec) and (G + UA rec), rats recovered for 7 days after the last injection. Urine and blood samples were taken on day 0 and at the end of every stage. Kidneys were harvested for histological scoring, determination of renal malondialdehyde (MDA), zymography and western blots for matrix metalloprotease (MMP)‐2 and MMP‐9. Uric acid alone did not provoke changes in biochemical and histological parameters when compared to controls. Gentamicin alone increased significantly plasma creatinine and blood urea nitrogen and caused a moderate histological damage. When combined with uric acid, these conditions worsened. MMP‐9 activity and expression was decreased in rats from groupG + UAas compared with rats from groupG, while activity of MMP‐2 was similarly increased in both groups when compared to controls. The increase in renal MDA induced by gentamicin was not altered when it was combined with uric acid. During the recovery stage, all biochemical parameters returned to normal levels, though a trend for delay of tubular damage recovery was observed in groupG + UA recwhen compared with groupG rec. The results indicate that uric acid worsens gentamicin‐induced nephrotoxicity. The mechanism is likely to implicate down‐regulation of MMP‐9.
Betulin Elicits Anti‐Cancer Effects in Tumour Primary Cultures and Cell LinesIn Vitro
Authors: Rzeski Wojciech , Stepulak Andrzej , Szymański Marek , Juszczak Małgorzata , Grabarska Aneta , Sifringer Marco , Kaczor Józef , Kandefer‐Szerszeń Martyna
Published: October 2009

Abstract: Betulin is a pentacyclic triterpene found in many plant species, among others, in white birch bark. The aim of the study wasin vitrocharacterization of the anticancer activity of betulin in a range of human tumour cell lines (neuroblastoma, rhabdomyosarcoma‐medulloblastoma, glioma, thyroid, breast, lung and colon carcinoma, leukaemia and multiple myeloma), and in primary tumour cultures isolated from patients (ovarian carcinoma, cervical carcinoma and glioblastoma multiforme). In this study, we demonstrated a remarkable anti‐proliferative effect of betulin in all tested tumour cell cultures. Neuroblastoma (SK‐N‐AS) and colon carcinoma (HT‐29) were the most sensitive to the anti‐proliferative effect of betulin. Furthermore, betulin altered tumour cells morphology, decreased their motility and induced apoptotic cell death. These findings demonstrate the anti‐cancer potential of betulin and suggest that they may be applied as an adjunctive measure in cancer treatment.
QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS AND STORAGE STABILITY OF BAKED AND FRIED CHICKEN NUGGETS FORMULATED WITH WHEAT AND RICE FLOUR
Authors: JACKSON V. , SCHILLING M.W. , FALKENBERG S.M. , SCHMIDT T.B. , COGGINS P.C. , MARTIN J.M.
Published: October 2009

A randomized complete block design was utilized to evaluate the effects of baking and frying on the quality and sensory acceptability of chicken nuggets formulated with rice and wheat flour. It was also determined if reheating method (baking versus microwaving) affected sensory quality and if storage time (90 days) impacted product quality. Substitution of wheat flour with rice flour did not affect (P > 0.05) product quality or consumer acceptability, but frying improved (P < 0.05) sensory acceptability when compared with baking. Sensory descriptors and acceptability testing revealed that microwave reheating negatively affected baked treatments but did not impact fried treatments. Chicken nugget treatments could be stored for 90 days without negatively affecting product quality. This research revealed that rice flour could be utilized in the formulation of chicken nuggets and that chicken nuggets could be prepared by baking if they were also reheated in an oven.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Rice flour was an acceptable substitute for wheat flour in the formulation of baked and fried chicken nuggets, and these nuggets could be consumed by individuals who either have celiac disease or a wheat allergy. Baked chicken nuggets had good sensory quality if they were reheated in an oven, but sensory properties that are important to quality were diminished if the nuggets were reheated in the microwave. Fried chicken nuggets were highly acceptable to consumers and had excellent sensory properties whether they were reheated using the microwave or the oven. Sensory and instrumental quality of baked and fried chicken nuggets that were formulated with rice or wheat flour did not change over 90 days of storage.
DETECTION OF OLIVE OIL ADULTERATION WITH RAPESEED AND SUNFLOWER OILS USING MOS ELECTRONIC NOSE AND SMPE‐MS
Authors: MILDNER‐SZKUDLARZ SYLWIA , JELEŃ HENRYK H.
Published: October 2009

The study analyzed the effectiveness of two types of electronic nose systems to detect adulteration of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) with rapeseed and sunflower oils. Tested methods included volatile analysis with the electronic nose based on MOS sensors (HS‐E nose) and by direct coupling of SPME to MS (SPME‐MS). Volatile compounds were analyzed also by SPME‐GC/MS. Samples of EVOO were mixed with different proportions, ranging from 5 to 50% (v/v), of seed oils and fingerprints of volatile profiles of all samples were generated. In order to obtain as much chemical information as possible and to find a volatile marker to detect adulterations of EVOO with seed oils, principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares (PLS) analyses were applied to the data. The application of PCA and PLS analyses to the data from two electronic noses and SMPE‐GC/MS were sufficient to differentiate the adulterated samples from pure EVOO. Excellent results were obtained in the prediction of the percentage of adulteration by PLS analysis. SPME‐GC‐MS analysis with subsequent PCA yielded good results; however, it was time‐consuming. The two electronic noses, with subsequent PCA treatment of data, offering the advantages of rapidity and reliability, enabled detection of olive oil adulteration with different contents of seed oils.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Virgin olive oil is highly appreciated by consumers due to its nutritional benefits. Thus, its adulteration with low‐grade olive oils or cheaper vegetable oils could potentially be very profitable for sellers or raw material suppliers and may yield large economic profits. In this way, authentication of virgin olive oils has become an interesting subject from both commercial and health perspectives. It has been proved that the two proposed types of electronic nose systems facilitate reliable detection of rapeseed and sunflower oils in extra virgin olive oil. Both MOS and MS electronic noses are faster than the conventional SMPE‐GC/MS analysis. These well‐correlated methodologies, offering the advantages of rapidity and reliability, opened up a new way of detecting adulteration of virgin olive oils.
Gender Differences in Food Preferences of School‐Aged Children and Adolescents
Authors: Caine‐Bish Natalie L. , Scheule Barbara
Published: October 2009

BACKGROUND: Schools have the opportunity, through the National School Lunch Program and Local School Wellness Policies, to have a significant impact on healthy eating behaviors. An understanding of children's and adolescents' food preferences in relation to gender and age will facilitate the successful creation of both healthy and financially viable school menus. The purpose of this study was to identify food preferences with respect to gender of school‐age children and adolescents in an Ohio school district.

METHODS: A survey was administered to 1818 3rd‐ to 12th‐grade students in 1 rural northeast Ohio school district. Students filled out an anonymous questionnaire about their preferences for 80 different foods using a 5‐point rating scale. The student data were grouped according to school level attended: elementary (3rd‐6th), middle (7th‐8th), and high school (9th‐12th). An exploratory factor analysis identified entrée and side dish factors. Cronbach's alpha was used to measure each factor's internal reliability. Differences in mean scores by gender and grade for each of the entrée and side dish factors by gender and grade were identified using analysis of variance (ANOVA).

RESULTS: Boys preferred the meat, fish, and poultry foods over girls; girls preferred fruits and vegetables over boys (p < .05). Furthermore, gender differences in preferences were also demonstrated with respect to school level.

CONCLUSIONS: Food preferences differed between genders and these gender differences varied among elementary, middle, and high school students. Gender differences should be considered when providing food choices to boys and girls at all ages.
Synthesis, Kinetic Characterization and Metabolism of Diastereomeric 2‐(1‐(4‐Phenoxyphenylsulfonyl)ethyl)thiiranes as Potent Gelatinase and MT1‐MMP Inhibitors
Authors: Gooyit Major , Lee Mijoon , Hesek Dusan , Boggess Bill , Oliver Allen G. , Fridman Rafael , Mobashery Shahriar , Chang Mayland
Published: October 2009

Gelatinases (MMP‐2 and MMP‐9) have been implicated in a number of pathological conditions, including cancer and cardiovascular disease. Hence, small molecule inhibitors of these enzymes are highly sought for use as potential therapeutic agents. 2‐(4‐Phenoxyphenylsulfonylmethyl)thiirane (SB‐3CT) has previously been demonstrated to be a potent and selective inhibitor of gelatinases, however, it is rapidly metabolized because of oxidation at the para position of the phenoxy ring and at the α‐position to the sulfonyl group. α‐Methyl variants of SB‐3CT were conceived to improve metabolic stability and as mechanistic probes. We describe herein the synthesis and evaluation of these structural variants as potent inhibitors of gelatinases. Two (compounds 5b and 5d) among the four synthetic stereoisomers were found to exhibit slow‐binding inhibition of gelatinases and MMP‐14 (MT1‐MMP), which is a hallmark of the mechanism of this class of inhibitors. The ability of these compounds to inhibit MMP‐2, MMP‐9, and MMP‐14 could target cancer tissues more effectively. Metabolism of the newly synthesized inhibitors showed that both oxidation at the α‐position to the sulfonyl group and oxidation at the para position of the terminal phenyl ring were prevented. Instead oxidation on the thiirane sulfur is the only biotransformation pathway observed for these gelatinase inhibitors.
Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors: Glycosylsulfanilamides Act as Subnanomolar Inhibitors of the Human Secreted Isoform VI
Authors: Winum Jean‐Yves , Montero Jean‐Louis , Vullo Daniela , Supuran Claudiu T.
Published: October 2009

A series of sulfonamides incorporating sugar moieties and the sulfanilamide scaffold have been investigated for their interaction with the secretory isoform of the zinc enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1), CA VI. This isoform is secreted in saliva, tears, and milk of mammals – where it plays important physiological roles – even if little is understood at this moment regarding its inhibition, due to the lack of potent and/or selective inhibitors. Here we report a series of low nanomolar and subnanomolar CA VI inhibitors, belonging to the glycosylamine–sulfanilamide class. The glucose, ribose, arabinose, xylose, and fucose derivatives showed excellent CA VI inhibitory activity, with Kis in the range of 0.56–5.1 nm, whereas the least active derivatives, incorporating gallactose, mannose, and rhamnose scaffolds showed inhibition constants in the range of 10.1–34.1 nm. Many of these sulfonamides were also selective inhibitors for their interaction with CA VI over the physiologically dominant and ubiquitous isoform CA II, with selectivity ratios of 4.11–35.93 for inhibiting the secreted over the cytosolic isozyme. Because of their high water solubility and high affinity for CA VI over CA II, these compounds are useful tools for better understanding the secreted CA isoform CA VI.
Quantifiers and Discourse Processing
Authors: Paterson Kevin B. , Filik Ruth , Moxey Linda M.
Published: October 2009

Quantifiers are ubiquitous in natural language and, in addition to providing information about quantity, they serve important discourse functions. We outline several theoretical accounts of the functions that quantifiers perform in a discourse and the factors governing their interpretation, focusing on two specific topics that have received substantial attention from researchers working in linguistics and psychology. The first topic concerns the interpretation of pronominal anaphora in different quantification contexts, and we review evidence showing that the focusing effects of positive and negative quantifiers license different patterns of pronominal reference. The second topic concerns the interpretation of quantifiers that function as anaphors in a discourse, and we consider recent experimental evidence in relation to two current and highly influential theories of semantic interpretation.
The Comparison Between Active and Passive Types of Social Support: The Emotional Responses1
Authors: Teoh Ai Ni , Chia Meng Swang Clara , Mohanraj Virasamy
Published: October 2009

Social support was manipulated in previous experimental studies in different ways, including active support and passive support. The present study compared the effects among active support, passive support, and alone conditions on emotional changes by randomly assigning 61 participants to either one of the support conditions. Consistent with the hypothesis, passive support produced a lower level of positive affect and attentive than active support and alone, reduced level of active than alone, as well as a decrease in determined and pleasantness appraisal than active support after a stressful task. Implications of the findings were discussed in terms of the definition of social support and the manipulation of social support in laboratory settings.
Compartmentalisation: flood consequence reduction by splitting up large polder areas
Authors: Klijn F. , Asselman N. , Van der Most H.
Published: October 2009

River and coastal floodplains are often protected by vast systems of connected embankments. In the Netherlands, about 55% of the country is protected in this way, by some 3600 km of primary defences. The protection level is probably the highest in the world, and annual mean flood risks are low. Nevertheless, the consequences of a major flood event might be unacceptable. This is a reason to consider whether and how the consequences of floods could be reduced in a cost‐effective manner. Splitting up large polder areas into smaller portions, the so‐called compartmentalisation, would reduce the area subject to flooding, and thus the economic damage, the number of people exposed and the fatality risk. We carried out a policy analysis for the national authorities in order to establish whether, where and under which conditions a further compartmentalisation of the country would be desirable. This paper gives some results, discusses our experiences in four case studies and finally focuses on the fundamental questions of assessment and the trade‐off between better flood protection and the benefit/cost ratio of reducing consequences.
Efficiency out of disorder: Contested ownership in incomplete contracts
Authors: Annen Kurt
Published: October 2009

In many situations, irreconcilable disagreements between players lead to costly ownership disputes over assets—for example, in case of joint ownership. This article studies the role of such disputes in a situation where two players have to make a transaction‐specific investment and when contracts are incomplete. I show that potentially contested ownership may mitigate the inefficiency of investments due to the incompleteness of contracts generating an exchange surplus that comes closer to the first‐best surplus as compared to any other ex ante distribution of ownership typically discussed in the literature following the influential work by Grossman, Hart, and Moore. If the contest is an all‐pay auction, each player makes a transaction‐specific investment as if he or she owns the asset. This article can explain why shared ownership—as for example in equity joint ventures, family firms, start‐up partnerships, and so on—is an important part of today's corporate landscape.
Credible discovery, settlement, and negative expected value suits
Authors: Schwartz Warren F. , Wickelgren Abraham L.
Published: October 2009

We introduce discovery into a model of settlement and negative expected value (NEV) suits under asymmetric information. The option to conduct discovery has several important effects. First, because discovery is cheaper than litigation, it reduces the defendant's incentive to settle under asymmetric information. Second, discovery must be credible. Because discovery is more valuable the greater the uncertainty it resolves, this introduces a credibility constraint on pre‐discovery settlement offers. This can further reduce the probability and size of a defendant's pre‐discovery settlement offer. Lastly, discovery reduces the ability of NEV plaintiffs to use asymmetric information to extract significant settlements from defendants.
How You Named Your Child: Understanding the Relationship Between Individual Decision Making and Collective Outcomes
Authors: Gureckis Todd M. , Goldstone Robert L.
Published: October 2009

We examine the interdependence between individual and group behavior surrounding a somewhat arbitrary, real‐world decision: selecting a name for one’s child. Using a historical database of the names given to children over the last century in the United States, we find that naming choices are influenced by both the frequency of a name in the general population, and by its ‘‘momentum’’ in the recent past in the sense that names which are growing in popularity are preferentially chosen. This bias toward rising names is a recent phenomena: In the early part of the 20th century, increasing popularity of a name from one time period to the next correlated with a decrease in future popularity. However, more recently this trend has reversed. We evaluate a number of formal models that detail how individual decision‐making strategies, played out in a large population of interacting agents, can explain these empirical observations. We argue that cognitive capacities for change detection, the encoding of frequency in memory, and biases toward novel or incongruous stimuli may interact with the behavior of other decision makers to determine the distribution and dynamics of cultural tokens such as names.
The Rules of Information Aggregation and Emergence of Collective Intelligent Behavior
Authors: Bettencourt Luís M. A.
Published: October 2009

Information is a peculiar quantity. Unlike matter and energy, which are conserved by the laws of physics, the aggregation of knowledge from many sources can in fact produce more information (synergy) or less (redundancy) than the sum of its parts. This feature can endow groups with problem‐solving strategies that are superior to those possible among noninteracting individuals and, in turn, may provide a selection drive toward collective cooperation and coordination. Here we explore the formal properties of information aggregation as a general principle for explaining features of social organization. We quantify information in terms of the general formalism of information theory, which also prescribes the rules of how different pieces of evidence inform the solution of a given problem. We then show how several canonical examples of collective cognition and coordination can be understood through principles of minimization of uncertainty (maximization of predictability) under information pooling over many individuals. We discuss in some detail how collective coordination in swarms, markets, natural language processing, and collaborative filtering may be guided by the optimal aggregation of information in social collectives. We also identify circumstances when these processes fail, leading, for example, to inefficient markets. The contrast to approaches to understand coordination and collaboration via decision and game theory is also briefly discussed.
Human cutaneous C fibres activated by cooling, heating and menthol
Authors: Campero M. , Baumann T. K. , Bostock H. , Ochoa J. L.
Published: October 2009

Differential A‐fibre block of human peripheral nerves changes the sensation evoked by innocuous cooling (∼24°C) of the skin from ‘cold’ to ‘hot’ or ‘burning’, and this has been attributed to activity in unidentified unmyelinated fibres that is normally masked or inhibited by activity in Aδ cold fibres. Application of the TRPM8 agonist menthol to the skin evokes ‘burning/stinging’ as well as ‘cold’, and the unpleasant sensations are also enhanced by A‐fibre block. In this study we used microneurography to search for C fibres in human skin activated by cooling and menthol, which could be responsible for these phenomena. Afferent C fibres were classified by activity‐dependent slowing as Type 1A (polymodal nociceptor), Type 1B (mechanically insensitive nociceptor) or Type 2 (cold sensitive), and their responses to heating and cooling ramps were measured before and after topical application of menthol preparations (2–50%). The only C fibres activated by menthol were the Type 2 fibres, which discharged vigorously with innocuous cooling and were strongly activated and sensitized to cooling by menthol. Unlike an Aδ cold fibre, they continued to discharge at skin temperatures down to 0°C, and most (13/15) were also activated by heating. We propose that the Type 2 C fibres, although resembling Aδ cold fibres in their responses to innocuous cooling and menthol, have a more complex sensory function, colouring with a ‘hot‐burning’ quality the perceptions of low and high temperatures. Their bimodal thermoreceptive properties may help account for several puzzling psychophysical phenomena, such as ‘innocuous cold nociception’, ‘paradoxical heat’ and the thermal grill illusion, and also for some neuropathic pains.
Ion‐dependent gating of kainate receptors
Authors: Bowie Derek
Published: October 2009

Ligand‐gated ion channels are an important class of signalling protein that depend on small chemical neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine,l‐glutamate, glycine and γ‐aminobutyrate for activation. Although numerous in number, neurotransmitter substances have always been thought to drive the receptor complex into the open state in much the same way and not rely substantially on other factors. However, recent work on kainate‐type (KAR) ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) has identified an exception to this rule. Here, the activation process fails to occur unless external monovalent anions and cations are present. This absolute requirement of ions singles out KARs from all other ligand‐gated ion channels, including closely related AMPA‐ and NMDA‐type iGluR family members. The uniqueness of ion‐dependent gating has earmarked this feature of KARs as a putative target for the development of selective ligands; a prospect all the more compelling with the recent elucidation of distinct anion and cation binding pockets. Despite these advances, much remains to be resolved. For example, it is still not clear how ion effects on KARs impacts glutamatergic transmission. I conclude by speculating that further analysis of ion‐dependent gating may provide clues into how functionally diverse iGluRs families emerged by evolution. Consequently, ion‐dependent gating of KARs looks set to continue to be a subject of topical inquiry well into the future.
Activity‐dependent synaptic plasticity of NMDA receptors
Authors: Rebola Nelson , Srikumar Bettadapura N. , Mulle Christophe
Published: October 2009

Activity‐dependent, bidirectional control of synaptic efficacy is thought to contribute to many forms of experience‐dependent plasticity, including learning and memory. Although most excitatory synapses contain both AMPA and N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate receptors (AMPARs and NMDARs), most studies have focused on the plasticity of synaptic AMPARs, and on the pivotal role of NMDA receptors for its induction. Here we review evidence that synaptic NMDARs themselves are subject to long‐term activity‐dependent changes by mechanisms that may differ from that of synaptic AMPARs. The bidirectional modulation of NMDAR‐mediated synaptic responses is likely to have important functional implications for NMDAR‐dependent forms of synaptic plasticity.
Detection and extraction of weak signals buried in noise
Authors: Mohideen Abdul Razak M.
Published: October 2009

The autoregressive method of detection of weak signals from stationary background noise and their time of occurrence and extraction is discussed. The background noise is decomposed into an autoregressive model of finite order. The coefficients in the model are optimized using a least-squares error minimization technique. The coefficients are used to predict the present and future values of the background noise. The predicted noise is subtracted from the original signal. The signal of interest can be easily identified from the subtracted signal, which has a high signal-to-noise ratio compared to the original signal and possesses a large amplitude near the time of occurrence (onset time) of the signal of interest. An example of detection and extraction of a weak synthetic signal buried in noise is discussed.
Chip Calorimetry for Fast and Reliable Evaluation of Bactericidal and Bacteriostatic Treatments of Biofilms
Authors: Buchholz F. , Wolf A. , Lerchner J. , Mertens F. , Harms H. , Maskow T.
Published: October 2009

Chip calorimetry is introduced as a new monitoring tool that provides real-time information about the physiological state of biofilms. Its potential for use for the study of the effects of antibiotics and other biocides was tested. Established
Pseudomonas putida
biofilms were exposed to substances known to cause toxicity by different mechanisms and to provoke different responses of defense and resistance. The effects of these compounds on heat production rates were monitored and compared with the effects of these compounds on the numbers of CFU and intracellular ATP contents. The real-time monitoring potential of chip calorimetry was successfully demonstrated by using as examples the fast-acting poisons formaldehyde and 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP). A dosage of antibiotics initially increased the heat production rate. This was discussed as being the effect of energy-dependent resistance mechanisms (e.g., export and/or transformation of the antibiotic). The subsequent reduction in the heat production rate was attributed to the loss of activity and the death of the biofilm bacteria. The shapes of the death curves were in agreement with the assumed variation in the levels of exposure of cells within the multilayer biofilms. The new monitoring tool provides fast, quantitative, and mechanistic insights into the acute and chronic effects of a compound on biofilm activity while requiring only minute quantities of the biocide.
Absorption, Pharmacokinetics, and Safety of Triclosan after Dermal Administration
Authors: Queckenberg Christian , Meins Jürgen , Wachall Bertil , Doroshyenko Oxana , Tomalik-Scharte Dorota , Bastian Bärbel , Abdel-Tawab Mona , Fuhr Uwe
Published: October 2009

We evaluated the pharmacokinetics and safety of the antimicrobial agent triclosan after dermal application of a 2% triclosan-containing cream to six volunteers. Percutaneous absorption calculated from urinary excretion was 5.9% ± 2.1% of the dose (mean ± standard deviation). The amount absorbed suggests that daily application of a standard adult dose would result in a systemic exposure 890 times lower than the relevant no-observed-adverse-effect level. Triclosan can be considered safe for use in hydrophobic creams.
Comparative Efficacies of Two Antimony Regimens To Treat
Leishmania braziliensis
-Induced Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Rhesus Macaques (
Macaca mulatta
)
Authors: Grimaldi G. , Porrozzi R. , Friedrich K. , Teva A. , Marchevsky R. S. , Vieira F. , Miekeley N. , Paumgartten F. J. R.
Published: October 2009

This study compared the efficacies of two
N
-methylglucomine antimoniate (MA) dose regimens for treating macaques with
Leishmania braziliensis
-induced chronic skin disease. Whereas all animals treated with the full dose (20 mg MA/kg/day) were cured, 50% of the monkeys receiving a low-dose regimen (5 mg MA/kg/day) relapsed. The antimony concentrations in macaque plasma and tissue samples were greater in the full-dose group than in that receiving a subtherapeutic MA regimen. Our data also suggest the presence of drug-induced hepatic pathology.
Allelic Exchange and Mutant Selection Demonstrate that Common Clinical
embCAB
Gene Mutations Only Modestly Increase Resistance to Ethambutol in
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Authors: Safi Hassan , Fleischmann Robert D. , Peterson Scott N. , Jones Marcus B. , Jarrahi Behnam , Alland David
Published: October 2009

Mutations within codon 306 of the
Mycobacterium tuberculosis embB
gene modestly increase ethambutol (EMB) MICs. To identify other causes of EMB resistance and to identify causes of high-level resistance, we generated EMB-resistant
M. tuberculosis
isolates in vitro and performed allelic exchange studies of
embB
codon 406 (
embB
406) and
embB
497 mutations. In vitro selection produced mutations already identified clinically in
embB
306,
embB
397,
embB
497,
embB
1024, and
embC
13, which result in EMB MICs of 8 or 14 μg/ml, 5 μg/ml, 12 μg/ml, 3 μg/ml, and 4 μg/ml, respectively, and mutations at
embB
320,
embB
324, and
embB
445, which have not been identified in clinical
M. tuberculosis
isolates and which result in EMB MICs of 8 μg/ml, 8 μg/ml, and 2 to 8 μg/ml, respectively. To definitively identify the effect of the common clinical
embB
497 and
embB
406 mutations on EMB susceptibility, we created a series of isogenic mutants, exchanging the wild-type
embB
497 CAG codon in EMB-susceptible
M. tuberculosis
strain 210 for the
embB
497 CGG codon and the wild-type
embB
406 GGC codon for either the
embB
406 GCC,
embB
406 TGC,
embB
406 TCC, or
embB
406 GAC codon. These new mutants showed 6-fold and 3- to 3.5-fold increases in the EMB MICs, respectively. In contrast to the
embB
306 mutants, the isogenic
embB
497 and
embB
406 mutants did not have preferential growth in the presence of isoniazid or rifampin (rifampicin) at their MICs. These results demonstrate that individual
embCAB
mutations confer low to moderate increases in EMB MICs. Discrepancies between the EMB MICs of laboratory mutants and clinical
M. tuberculosis
strains with identical mutations suggest that clinical EMB resistance is multigenic and that high-level EMB resistance requires mutations in currently unknown loci.
Clinical Significance of Enteric Protozoa in the Immunosuppressed Human Population
Authors: Stark D. , Barratt J. L. N. , van Hal S. , Marriott D. , Harkness J. , Ellis J. T.
Published: October 2009

Globally, the number of immunosuppressed people increases each year, with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) pandemic continuing to spread unabated in many parts of the world. Immunosuppression may also occur in malnourished persons, patients undergoing chemotherapy for malignancy, and those receiving immunosuppressive therapy. Components of the immune system can be functionally or genetically abnormal as a result of acquired (e.g., caused by HIV infection, lymphoma, or high-dose steroids or other immunosuppressive medications) or congenital illnesses, with more than 120 congenital immunodeficiencies described to date that either affect humoral immunity or compromise T-cell function. All individuals affected by immunosuppression are at risk of infection by opportunistic parasites (such as the microsporidia) as well as those more commonly associated with gastrointestinal disease (such asGiardia). The outcome of infection by enteric protozoan parasites is dependent on absolute CD4+cell counts, with lower counts being associated with more severe disease, more atypical disease, and a greater risk of disseminated disease. This review summarizes our current state of knowledge on the significance of enteric parasitic protozoa as a cause of disease in immunosuppressed persons and also provides guidance on recent advances in diagnosis and therapy for the control of these important parasites.
Delusional Infestation
Authors: Freudenmann Roland W. , Lepping Peter
Published: October 2009

This papers aims at familiarizing psychiatric and nonpsychiatric readers with delusional infestation (DI), also known as delusional parasitosis. It is characterized by the fixed belief of being infested with pathogens against all medical evidence. DI is no single disorder but can occur as a delusional disorder of the somatic type (primary DI) or secondary to numerous other conditions. A set of minimal diagnostic criteria and a classification are provided. Patients with DI pose a truly interdisciplinary problem to the medical system. They avoid psychiatrists and consult dermatologists, microbiologists, or general practitioners but often lose faith in professional medicine. Epidemiology and history suggest that the imaginary pathogens change constantly, while the delusional theme “infestation” is stable and ubiquitous. Patients with self-diagnosed “Morgellons disease” can be seen as a variation of this delusional theme. For clinicians, clinical pathways for efficient diagnostics and etiology-specific treatment are provided. Specialized outpatient clinics in dermatology with a liaison psychiatrist are theoretically best placed to provide care. The most intricate problem is to engage patients in psychiatric therapy. In primary DI, antipsychotics are the treatment of choice, according to limited but sufficient evidence. Pimozide is no longer the treatment of choice for reasons of drug safety. Future research should focus on pathophysiology and the neural basis of DI, as well as on conclusive clinical trials, which are widely lacking. Innovative approaches will be needed, since otherwise patients are unlikely to adhere to any study protocol.
Passage through
Ixodes scapularis
Ticks Enhances the Virulence of a Weakly Pathogenic Isolate of
Borrelia burgdorferi
Authors: Adusumilli Sarojini , Booth Carmen J. , Anguita Juan , Fikrig Erol
Published: October 2009

Lyme disease is the most common tick-borne illness in the United States. In this paper we explore the contribution of
Ixodes scapularis
ticks to the pathogenicity of
Borrelia burgdorferi
in mice. Previously we demonstrated that an isolate of
B. burgdorferi
sensu stricto (designated N40), passaged 75 times in vitro (N40-75), was infectious but was no longer able to cause arthritis and carditis in C3H mice. We now show that N40-75 spirochetes can readily colonize
I. scapularis
and multiply during tick engorgement. Remarkably, tick-transmitted N40-75 spirochetes cause disease in mice. N40-75 spirochetes isolated from these animals also retained their pathogenicity when subsequently administered to mice via syringe inoculation. Array analysis revealed that several genes associated with virulence, including
bba25
,
bba65
,
bba66
,
bbj09
, and
bbk32
, had higher expression levels in the tick-passaged N40-75 spirochete. These data suggest that transmission of a high-passage attenuated isolate of
B. burgdorferi
by the arthropod vector results in the generation of spirochetes that have enhanced pathogenesis in mice.
Partial Protection againstHelicobacter pyloriin the Absence of Mast Cells in Mice
Authors: Ding Hua , Nedrud John G. , Wershil Barry , Redline Raymond W. , Blanchard Thomas G. , Czinn Steven J.
Published: October 2009

The goal of this study is to evaluate the contribution of mast cells toHelicobacter pyloriimmunity in a model of vaccine-induced protection. Mast cell-deficientKitlSl/KitlSl-dand control mice were immunized withH. pylorisonicate plus cholera toxin and challenged withH. pylori, and the bacterial loads, inflammatory infiltrates, and cytokine responses were evaluated and compared at 1, 2, and 4 weeks postchallenge. In vitro stimulation assays were performed using bone marrow-derived mast cells, and recall assays were performed with spleen cells of immunized mast cell-deficient and wild-type mice. Bacterial clearance was observed by 2 weeks postchallenge in mast cell-deficient mice. The bacterial load was reduced by 4.0 log CFU in wild-type mice and by 1.5 log CFU in mast cell-deficient mice. Neutrophil numbers in the gastric mucosa of immuneKitlSl/KitlSl-dmice were lower than those for immune wild-type mice (P< 0.05). Levels of gastric interleukin-17 (IL-17) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) were also significantly lower in immuneKitlSl/KitlSl-dmice than in wild-type mice (P< 0.001). Immunized mast cell-deficient and wild-type mouse spleen cells produced IFN-γ and IL-17 in response toH. pyloriantigen stimulation. TNF-α and CXC chemokines were detected in mast cell supernatants after 24 h of stimulation withH. pyloriantigen. The results indicate that mast cells are not essential for but do contribute to vaccine-induced immunity and that mast cells contribute to neutrophil recruitment and inflammation in response toH. pylori.