bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
2 Sacra Facultas and the Coming of German Modernity
Authors: Howard Thomas Albert
Published: September 2006

This chapter begins with an examination of the 18th-century university and the forces of inertia and novelty, stagnation, and innovation that characterized it. German universities were in major decline in the 18th century, intellectually ossifying and beset by myriad administrative and financial difficulties. At the same time, the century witnessed the establishment of several important new universities — particularly the University of Halle (1694) in Prussia and the University of Göttingen (1737) in Hanover — that introduced vigorous new impulses to higher education. These ‘reform universities’ are examined for their incipiently modernizing characteristics. The statutory, curricular, and scholarly contributions made to them by theologians, foremost August Hermann Francke (1663-1727) at Halle and Johann Lorenz von Mosheim (1694-1755) at Göttingen are emphasized.
5 Theologia between Science and the State
Authors: Howard Thomas Albert
Published: September 2006

This chapter examines the conflicted renown of 19th-century German academic theology even as it charts the theological faculty’s steady diminution as a component of the overall university system. Five principal lines of inquiry contribute to this broader task. First, the chapter calls attention to how dominant intellectual, political, and social trends of the mid- and late 19th century affected university development. Second, in an effort to penetrate the internal dynamics of university theology, it focuses on Protestant theological education, that is, to what young theology students actually were supposed to learn during their university years. Third, it examines a number of histories of universities written in the late 19th and early 20th century, along with various documents from university commemorative celebrations and from international exhibitions on German higher education. Fourth, it examines the reactions of a number of foreigners to German universities, broaching also the broader international influence of German theology. Finally, it considers several issues that precipitated a crisis of identity for theology in the late 19th century.
6 Conclusion: Janus Gazing
Authors: Howard Thomas Albert
Published: September 2006

The theological faculty’s passage into modernity has been characterized as ‘Janus-faced’ on a number of occasions. The expression has helped convey both the scholarly virtuosity attained by Protestant academic theology in the 19th century and also theology’s institutional diminution (and near eviction) in the context of the expanding and modernizing university system. Adolf von Harnack’s eloquent and successful apologia for the theological faculty in the Preussische Jahrbücher (1919) marked in many respects a culminating statement for 19th-century university theology: the theological faculty’s public, national vindication despite much criticism and amid dizzying social and political changes. It is argued that modern theological phenomena require both synchronic and diachronic contextualization, for the consideration of a remoter past helps bring into relief the shared assumptions and general tendencies of any given present.
The Politics of Public Service Bargains
Authors: Hood Christopher , Lodge Martin
Published: September 2006

The traditional understandings that structure the relationships between public servants and the wider political system are said to have undergone considerable change. But what are these formalized and implicit understandings? What are the key dimensions of such bargains? In what conditions do bargains rise and fall? And has there been a universal and uniform change in these bargains? This book offers a distinct perspective to answer these questions. It develops a unique analytical perspective to account for diverse bargains within systems of executive government. Drawing on comparative experiences from different state traditions, it examines ideas and contemporary developments along three key dimensions of any Public Service Bargain: reward, competency, and loyalty and responsibility. The book points to diverse and differentiated developments across national systems of executive government, and suggests how different ‘bargains’ are prone to cheating by their constituent parties. It explores the context in which managerial bargains — widely seen to be at the heart of contemporary administrative reform movements — are likely to catch on and considers how cheating is likely to destabilize such bargains.
1 Introducing Public Service Bargains
Authors: Hood Christopher , Lodge Martin
Published: September 2006

This chapter introduces the notion of Public Service Bargain (PSB) and points to variations in its three dimensions: reward, competency, and loyalty and responsibility. Based on these variations, it discusses the centrality of PSBs for politics and points to the intellectual origins of the idea. The distinction between trustee- and agency-bargains is introduced.
3 Agency‐Type Public Service Bargains
Authors: Hood Christopher , Lodge Martin
Published: September 2006

This chapter discusses the way in which ‘agency’ bargains need to be understood in their rather specific meaning under the law of agency. It then discusses under what circumstances democratic political systems favour agency-type bargains. Agency bargains vary on two key dimensions: on the extent of specific direction under which public servants operate, and on whether delegated agency bargains are single- or multiple-principle. Four variants of agency bargains are explored, namely serial and personal loyalist variants of agency bargains, and simple and complex forms of delegated agency bargains.
8 How Public Service Bargains Change and Fall
Authors: Hood Christopher , Lodge Martin
Published: September 2006

This chapter explores how public service bargains can weaken or collapse, focusing on the ways in which different types of bargain provide incentives for different ways of cheating and strategic behaviour. Varieties of cheating behaviour across different trustee and agency bargains are considered, while highlighting the various forces and strategies that can keep cheating in check. It is argued that making any PSB cheat-proof requires particular and demanding social conditions.
9 Public Service Managerialism and Public Service Bargains: Control, Blame Avoidance, and Cheating
Authors: Hood Christopher , Lodge Martin
Published: September 2006

This chapter uses the public service bargain perspective to analyze the contemporary theme of managerialism and demands for changing controls over public services. It shows what managerialism means for public service bargains and points to the demanding conditions of such a bargain, given the incentives to cheat that affect the various parties to this type of bargain. Given its vulnerability to cheating, the managerialist type of bargain seems likely to emerge and ‘stick’ only in some traditions and cultures.
How Things Might Have Been
Authors: Mackie Penelope
Published: September 2006

What are the essential properties of ordinary individuals such as people, cats, trees, and tables? The question is notoriously difficult, yet must be answered to obtain a satisfying account of the ways in which such individuals could and could not have been different from the way that they are. The book provides a novel treatment of this issue, in the context of a set of debates initiated by the revival of interest in essentialism and de re modality generated by the work of Kripke and others in the 1970s. Via a critical examination of rival theories, it argues for ‘minimalist essentialism’: an unorthodox theory according to which ordinary individuals have relatively few interesting essential properties. The book therefore presents a challenge to stronger versions of essentialism, including the view that ordinary individuals have non-trivial individual essences; versions of Kripke’s necessity of origin thesis; and the widely held theory of ‘sortal essentialism’, according to which an individual belongs essentially to some sort or kind that determines its conditions for identity over time. The book includes discussion of the rivalry between the interpretation of de re modality in terms of identity across possible worlds and its interpretation in terms of counterpart theory. It provides a detailed defence of the apparently paradoxical claim that there can be possible worlds that differ from one another only in the identities of some of the individuals that they contain, and hence that identities across possible worlds may be ‘bare’ identities. The book also contains a discussion of the relation between essentialism about individuals and essentialism about natural kinds, and a critical examination of the connection between semantics and natural kind essentialism.
Preliminaries
Authors: Mackie Penelope
Published: September 2006

This chapter characterizes essentialism, and distinguishes essentialism about individuals from essentialism about natural kinds, arguing that the first does, but the second need not, involve de re (as opposed to de dicto) modality. It is argued that given certain plausible assumptions, essentialism about individuals involves a commitment to necessary a posteriori truth, although the commitment is not inevitable. The implications of the concepts of possible worlds and identity across possible worlds (‘transworld identity’) are discussed.
Individual Essences and Bare Identities
Authors: Mackie Penelope
Published: September 2006

This chapter introduces the question of whether ordinary individuals have non-trivial individual essences: essential properties that are not only necessary but also sufficient for their identities in all possible worlds. It argues that the issue is important, for if there are no such non-trivial individual essences for ordinary individuals, we are forced to choose from what may seem to be an unpalatable list of options: either the identities of these individuals across possible worlds can be ‘bare’ identities, or their transworld identities can be ‘extrinsically determined’, or — unless we abandon de re modal claims about such individuals entirely — we must interpret those de re modal claims in terms of counterpart theory rather than identity across possible worlds. Two arguments for non-trivial individual essences are considered. The first is an ‘indiscernibility argument’ that is related to an argument presented by Robert Adams for ‘primitive thisness’. The second is based on an argument presented by Graeme Forbes. The distinction between ‘trivial’ and ‘non-trivial’ individual essences is explained, and the relation between the theses that there can be ‘bare’ transworld identities and that there can be ‘haecceitistic’ (non-qualitative) differences between possible worlds is discussed.
Origin Properties and Individual Essences
Authors: Mackie Penelope
Published: September 2006

Graeme Forbes has argued that many ordinary persisting things (including people, animals, and plants) can be attributed non-trivial individual essences that include distinctive features of their origins. According to Forbes, this enables us to interpret de re modal claims about such individuals in terms of identity across possible worlds without embracing ‘bare identities’. This chapter considers various problems that Forbes’s proposal confronts, and concludes that there are no plausible candidates for non-trivial individual essences of the type that his theory requires. A version of Chisholm’s Paradox about identity across possible worlds, and of the ‘Four Worlds Paradox’ identified by Nathan Salmon are discussed.
Extrinsically Determined Identity and ‘Best‐Candidate’ Theories
Authors: Mackie Penelope
Published: September 2006

This chapter discusses the proposal that identities across possible worlds may be determined by ‘extrinsic’ features, and compares this with an analogous ‘best-candidate’ account of identity over time, according to which the identity of an object that exists at one time with an object that exists at another time may depend on the presence or absence of ‘competing candidates’. It argues that even if a best-candidate account of identity over time is acceptable, the ‘extrinsic determination’ account of identity across possible worlds should be rejected in favour of either a ‘bare identities’ or a counterpart-theoretic account.
Sortal Concepts and Essential Properties I: Substance Sortals and Essential Sortals
Authors: Mackie Penelope
Published: September 2006

This chapter examines versions of so-called ‘sortal essentialism’. This is the view that some sortal concepts (roughly, concepts that provide criteria of identity or principles of individuation) represent essential properties of the things to which they apply. This chapter argues against Baruch Brody’s version of sortal essentialism, which appeals to a version of an ‘overlap requirement’ on de re possibilities, in order to argue that substance sortals — sortal concepts that must apply to an object throughout its existence if they apply to it at all — are essential sortals.
A Theory of Political Obligation
Authors: Gilbert Margaret
Published: September 2006

Does one have special obligations to support the political institutions of one’s own country precisely because it is one’s own? In short, does one have political obligations? This book argues for an affirmative answer, construing one’s country as a political society of which one is a member, and a political society as a special type of social group. The obligations in question are not moral requirements derived from general moral principles. They come, rather, from one’s participation in a special kind of commitment: a joint commitment. This theory is referred to as the plural subject theory of political obligation since, by the author’s definition, those who are party to any joint commitment constitute a plural subject of some action in a broad sense of the term. Several alternative theories are compared and contrasted with plural subject theory, with a particular focus on the most famous — actual contract theory — according to which membership in a political society is a matter of participation in an agreement. The book offers plural subject accounts of both social rules and everyday agreements, and includes discussion of political authority and punishment.
The Membership Problem
Authors: Gilbert Margaret
Published: September 2006

Does membership in a political society obligate one to support the political institutions of that society? Dubbed the membership problem, its terms are given some initial clarification. Among other things, a society is construed as a social group in a relatively narrow sense illustrated with examples. The membership problem is carefully distinguished from several distinct but closely resembling problems familiar from the literature of political philosophy. Importantly, it concerns obligations that are genuine but not necessarily best referred to as moral obligations.
Obligations: Preliminary Points
Authors: Gilbert Margaret
Published: September 2006

People speak of ‘obligations’ in a variety of contexts. This chapter offers a partial characterization of the broad class of obligations with which this book is concerned. This class is important from the perspective of practical reasoning, since reason requires one to fulfill such an obligation all else being equal: they provide one with sufficient reason to act in a certain way. Further, they are independent of one’s inclinations or self-interest. This class includes directed obligations, which are a matter of one person’s owing an action to another, but does not include imputed obligations.
Objections to Actual Contract Theory
Authors: Gilbert Margaret
Published: September 2006

In spite of its long history and evident appeal, an actual contract theory of political obligation now tends to be rejected. This chapter focuses on two standard objections to the theory, the no-agreement objection, which depends on the empirical claim that most people have not agreed to uphold any political institutions; and the no-obligation objection, which argues that even if they had, not all of the agreements made would obligate the participants. It invokes the possibility that one or more parties entered a pertinent agreement or supposed agreement in coercive circumstances, and the possibility that the agreement is to uphold morally suspect political institutions. The no-agreement claim is clearly a problem for the theory given the tests proposed in chapter 3; the no-obligation objection may be open to rebuttal. The chapter concludes with a brief examination of some contemporary alternatives to actual contract theory: arguments that appeal to subjective identification and relationships, with reference to those offered by John Horton, Joseph Raz, and Nancy Hirschmann.
Summary and Prospect
Authors: Gilbert Margaret
Published: September 2006

The book’s argument is summarized and its conclusions are brought to hear on two classic situations of crisis: Socrates awaiting the death penalty in prison, and Antigone in her conflict with the ruler of her political society, Creon. Emphasis is given to the point that though obligations of joint commitment are absolute in the sense discussed, and supersede one’s personal inclinations and self-interest as such, it is possible for other considerations to ‘trump’ them. Antigone believed there were such considerations in her case; Socrates seems not to have thought so. A number of avenues for further empirical investigation and moral inquiry are noted.
Justification without Awareness
Authors: Bergmann Michael
Published: September 2006

Virtually all philosophers agree that for a belief to be epistemically justified, it must satisfy certain conditions. Perhaps it must be supported by evidence, or perhaps it must be reliably formed, or perhaps there is some other ‘good-making’ features it must have. But does a belief’s justification also require some sort of awareness of its good-making features? The answer to this question has been hotly contested in contemporary epistemology, creating a deep divide among its practitioners. Internalists insist that such awareness is required for justification whereas externalists insist that it is not. The first part of this book argues that internalism faces an inescapable dilemma: either it leads to vicious regress problems and, ultimately, radical skepticism or it is entirely unmotivated. The second part of the book begins by developing the author’s own externalist theory of justification, one imposing both a proper function and a no-defeater requirement. It concludes by demonstrating the failure of two prominent critiques of externalism: that it is infected with epistemic circularity and that it cannot respond adequately to skepticism. Together, the two parts of the book provide a decisive refutation of internalism and a sustained defense of externalism.
A Dilemma for Internalism
Authors: Bergmann Michael
Published: September 2006

According to internalists, for a belief to be justified it is not enough that it has certain virtues (such as being reliably formed or supported by the evidence), the person holding it must be aware that he has those virtues. This awareness requirement, which internalists think is necessary for justification, comes in two forms: strong and weak. This chapter argues that internalists face the following dilemma: if they endorse the strong awareness requirement, they are faced with regress problems leading to extreme skepticism; if they endorse the weak awareness requirement, they lose the main motivation for their internalism.
No Escape
Authors: Bergmann Michael
Published: September 2006

Internalists are typically careful to design their views to escape the famous dilemma for foundationalism posed by Wilfrid Sellars. Because the Sellarsian dilemma is similar in ways to the dilemma proposed in Chapter 1, this might make such internalists think that their views can escape this dilemma as well. This chapter argues that even those most sensitive to the Sellarsian dilemma — Richard Fumerton, Timothy McGrew, Laurence BonJour, and Evan Fales — fail to escape the dilemma proposed in Chapter 1.
Mentalism
Authors: Bergmann Michael
Published: September 2006

This chapter argues against both mentalism and the mentalist account of internalism. Mentalism is the view that a belief’s justification supervenes on the believer’s mental states: holding fixed their mental states holds fixed the justification of their beliefs. A mentalist account of internalism says that internalism is equivalent to mentalism. In arguing against the mentalist account of internalism, the dilemma proposed in Chapter 1 is defended, which relies on that account’s falsity. Further support for externalism is offered, whose two main competitors are internalism and mentalism.
Variations on the Einstein Theme
Authors: Brown Harvey R.
Published: September 2006

This chapter begins with a brief discussion of Einstein's operationalism. It then discusses the clock hypothesis, the conventionality of distant simultaneity, David Malament's 1977 result, the Edwards-Winnie synchrony-general transformations, and the Ignatowski transformations.
Unconventional Voices on Special Relativity
Authors: Brown Harvey R.
Published: September 2006

This chapter begins with a discussion of Einstein's writings. It argues that the special relativity of 1905 was not a constructive theory, and part of the reason is the role that rods and clocks play in Einstein's attempt to operationalize inertial coordinate systems. It is evident that Einstein harboured a sense of unease about their status in his theory. The chapter then considers the publications of Hermann Weyl, Pauli and Eddington, W. F. G. Swann, L. Jánossy and J. S. Bell.
What is Special Relativity?
Authors: Brown Harvey R.
Published: September 2006

This chapter begins with a discussion of Minkowski's geometrization of special relativity (SR). It then discusses Minkowski space-time, what absolute geometry explains, and special relativity. It is argued that Einstein's contribution was not to establish a clear-cut divide between kinematics and dynamics, but the demonstration (a) of the full operational significance of the Lorentz transformations, and (b) that the latter could be obtained by imposing simple phenomenological constraints on the nature of the fundamental interactions in physics.
The View from General Relativity
Authors: Brown Harvey R.
Published: September 2006

In his 1923 book The Mathematical Theory of Relativity, Arthur Eddington distinguished between two chains of reasoning in general relativity. The first familiar one starts with the existence of the four-dimensional space-time interval ds, whose meaning is the usual one associated with the readings of physical rods and clocks and possibly light rays. The other less familiar chain of reasoning ‘binds the physical manifestations of the energy tensor and the interval; it passes from matter as now defined by the energy-tensor to the interval regarded as the result of measurements made with this matter.’ This chapter takes up the challenge of outlining this second chain of reasoning. In developing this reasoning, it argues that the dynamical underpinning of relativistic kinematics that has been defended in this book is consistent with the structure and logic of GR.
Asceticism and Christological Controversy in Fifth-Century Palestine
Authors: Horn Cornelia B.
Published: September 2006

This book explores anti-Chalcedonian asceticism in Palestine, an area that has so far been relatively neglected in academic studies. Anti-Chalcedonian asceticism in Palestine is significant because it was in Jerusalem in the middle of the 5th century that monks who opposed the Council of Chalcedon first attempted to establish a dissenting anti-Chalcedonian ecclesiastical hierarchy. The monk Peter the Iberian, in particular, was a key force in this project because of his high-level political connections to the members of the imperial court in Constantinople. The beginnings of anti-Chalcedonian history in Palestine constitute the fist tangible manifestation of the schism between the adherents and opponents of the Council of Chalcedon, a schism which endures until today. This study also offers a further contribution in the field work carried out on site in the Middle East, which traced the footsteps of Peter the Iberian and his followers into the regions of modern Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Turkey, and Sinai/Egypt.
Introduction
Authors: Horn Cornelia B.
Published: September 2006

This introductory chapter begins with a description of the main focus of this study, namely the career of Peter the Iberian, drawing on the extant historical, literary, and hagiographical sources. Peter the Iberian is introduced as a key figure in the Christological controversies and as one of the most influential ascetic leaders of the anti-Chalcedonian movement in 5th-century Palestine. An overview of the chapters included in this volume is presented.
5 The Sign of Perfection: The Anti‐Chalcedonian Ascetic as Bearer of the Cross
Authors: Horn Cornelia B.
Published: September 2006

This chapter shows that Abba Isaiah and Philoxenus of Mabbugh were influential contributors to anti-Chalcedonian theological and ascetico-spiritual perspectives in Palestine. They provided an immediate context for the theology and spirituality of Peter the Iberian, John Rufus, and their anti-Chalcedonian ascetic followers in the Gaza area. The importance of the Cross in the spiritual theology of these two teachers and leaders is discussed.
Individuality in Classical Physics
Authors: French Steven , Krause Décio
Published: September 2006

This chapter presents a summary of the history of classical statistical mechanics, emphasizing the underlying assumptions regarding particle individuality. It is argued that the relevant sense of individuality is articulated within the theory in two different forms: transcendental individuality and space-time individuality. Huggett’s claim that classical statistics is metaphysically neutral is analyzed with regard to individuality, and it is shown that a form of space-time individuality is presupposed. This is articulated in the context of a ‘field theoretic’ re-writing of the theory free of any underlying presupposition of ‘transcendental individuality’. Hence, classical statistical mechanics supports (at least) two different accounts of particle individuality, and hence we have a weak form of underdetermination of the relevant metaphysics by the physics. Talk of ‘space-time’ individuality leads into a discussion of the individuality and identity of the space-time points themselves, covering the debate between Grünbaum and Stein, and the recent work of Hoefer and others.
Quantum Statistics and Non-Individuality
Authors: French Steven , Krause Décio
Published: September 2006

This chapter presents the history of quantum statistics, from its beginnings in Planck’s work, through the development of Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac statistics, to the more recent work on forms of parastatistics, focusing on the role played by considerations of particle identity and individuality. The new physics was taken to imply that quantum particles are non-individuals in some sense. This provides the framework for a novel account of Bohr’s view of particle individuality, which further illuminates his complementarity interpretation as well as Born and Schrödinger’s broadly structuralist approaches. Schrödinger’s view that identity does not apply to quantum particles is emphasized, as is Weyl’s incorporation of this view into his treatment of aggregates of particles.
Names, Nomological Objects and Quasets
Authors: French Steven , Krause Décio
Published: September 2006

This chapter begins with a broad discussion of the use of names in science and their role in physical theories. The philosophy of names is outlined, covering the ‘Descriptivist’, ‘Non-descriptivist’, and ‘Hybrid’ accounts. The claim that Kripke’s theory of rigidly designating names is tied to classical statistics is critically assessed, and it is argued that a form of the ‘Hybrid’ account can accommodate quantum particles understood as named individuals for which distinguishing descriptions cannot be given. Toraldo di Francia and Dalla Chiara’s theory of quasets is presented as the formal counterpart to this view. This is compared with Krause’s theory of quasi-sets in Chapter 7.
The Mathematics of Non-Individuality
Authors: French Steven , Krause Décio
Published: September 2006

This chapter presents the theory of quasi-sets, and argues that this offers an appropriate set-theoretic formalism for non-individual quantum objects. The basic idea is that in a quasi-set, there may exist elements for which the traditional concept of identity does not apply — these elements are called the ‘m-atoms’. Thus, a quasi-set may have a cardinal but not an associated ordinal. The other elements can be regarded as standard elements of a set. Hence, the theory encompasses a copy of Zermelo-Frankel set theory with Urelement. A number of alternatives are also presented with a view to possible physical applications, such as allowing the cardinality of a quasi-set to vary in time and thereby accommodating aspects of relativistic quantum theory. The formal framework is also applied to the development of quantum statistics, which can be naturally captured by the theory.
Non-Reflexive Quantum Logics
Authors: French Steven , Krause Décio
Published: September 2006

Traditionally by ‘quantum logic’, one understands the study of the lattice of the subspace of Hilbert space. Here, ‘quantum logic’ is taken to be the underlying logic of quantum physics. Following Schrödinger’s idea that the standard concept of identity cannot be applied to quantum objects, a kind of ‘non-reflexive’ logic called Schrödinger logic is presented, in which the reflexive law of identity is taken not to apply. First order Schrödinger logics are presented, and extended to higher order logics and also to an intensional logic. Classical semantics is presented, and a weak completeness theorem is sketched. The last part of the chapter covers a logic of sortal predicates for which a quasi-set semantics is delineated. This completes the formal framework capable of accommodating quantum non-individuality and thus the initial understanding of Born, Heisenberg, and Schrödinger, as well as the second horn of the above metaphysical underdetermination, can be formally represented.
The International Struggle Over Iraq
Authors: Malone David M.
Published: September 2006

Spanning the last quarter century, this book examines the impact the United Nations Security Council has had on Iraq - and Iraq’s impact on the Security Council. Told largely in chronological fashion, five phases of the story are here discerned. The first phase deals with the Council’s role as Cold War peacemaker during the Iran-Iraq war. The second phase involves its response to Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. The third phase is characterized by ‘creeping unilateralism’, occurring within the context of a more multidisciplinary approach to peace operations. The fourth phase covers the period between 9/11 to the bombing of UN headquarters in Baghdad in August 2003. The fifth phase focuses on the Council’s efforts to find its feet in Iraq, and its contemplation of reform in its way of doing business.
1 Introduction
Authors: Malone David M.
Published: September 2006

This introductory chapter begins with a brief description of the UN Security Council’s involvement in Iraq. It then provides background information on the Iraqi state, Saddam Hussein, the mood in the UN Security Council, post-Cold War US multilateralism, and the split between the P-5 (Permanent Five members of the Security Council). An overview of the chapters included in this volume is presented.
5 Sanctions Enforcer: Economic Sanctions and the Oil‐for‐Food Program
Authors: Malone David M.
Published: September 2006

This chapter examines the inspections-plus-sanctions approach to Iraqi disarmament, which characterized the enforcement aspects of this third phase of UN involvement in Iraq. The sanctions regime against Iraq stands as a paradigm of both the virtues and vices of the sanctions approach. It was the Iraq sanctions regime that demonstrated the utility and the challenges of Security Council subsidiary bodies operating as delegated regulators, through a supervisory committee established to monitor implementation of the sanctions. Although Haiti and other cases provided lessons, it was also the Iraq sanctions regime that demonstrated most clearly how a cunning target government could turn sanctions to its own ends, and how terrible the resulting cost to civilians might be.
6 Weapons Inspector: UNSCOM, UNMOVIC and the Disarming of Iraq
Authors: Malone David M.
Published: September 2006

This chapter analyzes the disarmament of Iraq following the First Gulf War. Disarmament controlled by inspections and monitoring was the cornerstone of the vision set out for Iraq by SCR 687 in 1991. Weapons inspections were the administrative mechanism for the verification of Iraqi disarmament, with sanctions and the threat of force providing the incentive for Iraq to disarm. But for over a decade, Saddam Hussein successfully obscured the degree to which actual disarmament had been achieved, an uncertainty assessed very differently by Paris and Washington. The establishment of the UN Special Commission (UNSCOM) and the UN Monitoring, Verification, and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC) is discussed.
Temporal Supervenience
Authors: Sattig Thomas
Published: September 2006

This chapter serves as an introduction to the themes of the book. The thesis of temporal supervenience is that all facts about ordinary time, all facts shaped by our ordinary temporal discourse, logically supervene on facts about spacetime; what goes on in spacetime fully determines what goes on in ordinary time. Temporal supervenience has many aspects, corresponding to various kinds of supervenient temporal phenomena. Among the most basic phenomena are persistence and change through ordinary time. The problem of temporal supervenience with respect to these phenomena has two components. The first component is to specify the spatiotemporal supervenience base of persistence and change. How do objects occupy spacetime? And how are properties instantiated across occupied spacetime? The second component is to build an explanatory bridge from the supervenience base to the supervenient phenomena. Such a bridge requires an ‘analysis’ of temporal existence and temporal instantiation, that is, a semantic account of ordinary temporal predications such as ‘a was F’. The problem of temporal supervenience thus connects the metaphysics of time with the semantics of temporal discourse. Before the supervenience of ordinary temporal facts on spacetime facts can be explained, the shape of ordinary time needs to be clarified. This is a further task of Chapter 1. Tenserism and A-time are criticized in the context of temporal supervenience with the aim of promoting detenserism as the correct account of tense and B-time as the true shape of ordinary time.
Three‐Dimensionalism and Four‐Dimensionalism
Authors: Sattig Thomas
Published: September 2006

Part of the problem of temporal supervenience is the problem of spatiotemporal location: how are objects located in spacetime? This chapter provides a detailed statement of various answers to this problem. The main answers are three-dimensionalism and four-dimensionalism. The three-dimensionalist holds that an object occupies many temporally unextended regions of spacetime, whereas the four-dimensionalist holds that an object occupies only a single temporally extended region of spacetime. Subsequently to stating these accounts of spatiotemporal location, the chapter discusses the relationship of three-dimensionalism and four-dimensionalism to other theses and theories, including the theory of temporal parts, endurantism, perdurantism, eternalism, and presentism.
Multicultural Nationalism
Authors: Hussain Asifa M. , Miller William L.
Published: September 2006

This book is a pioneering study of how multiculturalism interacts with sub-state nationalism in Britain. It gives equal attention to Scotland’s largest ‘visible’ and ‘invisible’ minorities: ethnic Pakistanis (almost all of them Muslim) and English immigrants; and to the Islamophobia and Anglophobia of majority Scots. Rising Scottish self-consciousness could have threatened both these minorities. But in reality, problems proved to be solutions, integrating rather than alienating. In the eyes of the minorities, the devolution of power to a Scottish Parliament has made Scots at once more proud and less xenophobic. English immigrants also felt that devolution has defused tensions, calmed frustrations, and forced Scots to blame themselves rather than others for their problems. Muslims suffered increased harassment after 9/11, although less in Scotland than elsewhere. Consciously or unconsciously, they continued to use Scottish identities and even Scottish nationalism as tools of integration. Conversely, nationalism in Scotland did not increase the majority’s Islamophobia as it did in England and elsewhere. The book is based on extensive quotations from focus-group discussions with minorities, in-depth interviews with elites, and statistical analysis of large-scale surveys of minorities and majorities.
1 Multicultural Nationalism
Authors: Hussain Asifa , Miller William
Published: September 2006

This chapter reviews the definitions or types of nationalism, including the distinction between ‘ethnic’ and ‘civic’ nationalism, and the less common and apparently self-contradictory concept of ‘multicultural nationalism’. It argues that identities are not only chosen, multiple, and fluid, but also used for purposes, for integration, as well as for differentiation. This chapter also describes two key Scottish minorities: ethnic Pakistani Muslims and English immigrants, reviews the historical and political setting, and describes the plan of the book.
2 What Is Best and Worst about Scotland
Authors: Hussain Asifa , Miller William
Published: September 2006

When asked what is best or worst about Scotland, one minority places more emphasis on racism, the other on freedom, the friendliness of majority Scots, and the relatively low numbers of ethnic minorities. English immigrants complain the most about Scottish bigotry and racism; ethnic Pakistanis strongly praise freedom and friendliness; and ethnic Pakistanis feel alienated by high concentrations of minorities.
3 Islamophobia—In England and Scotland
Authors: Hussain Asifa , Miller William
Published: September 2006

Since 9/11, multiculturalism has been under attack and Islamophobia has increased. Questions were placed in the 2003 British Social Attitudes Survey and its Scottish counterpart to compare the level of Islamophobia in Scotland and England. Islamophobia was significantly higher in England. Analysis showed that the majority population in Scotland differed significantly from the majority in England. In particular, English nationalism encouraged Islamophobia while Scottish nationalism did not. Unlike elite-level nationalists, street-level nationalists in Scotland were not particularly inclusive or multiculturalist compared to the majority of Scots. Street-level Scottish nationalists were less Islamophobic than the majority of English, and far less Islamophobic than street-level nationalists in England.
9 After Devolution: Parliament and People
Authors: Hussain Asifa , Miller William
Published: September 2006

‘Multicultural nationalism’ comes very close to being an oxymoron: devolution increased national self-consciousness and 9/11 added to the problems of multiculturalism everywhere, including Scotland. But in practice, potential problems proved to be solutions. Since England has a key role in defining Scottish identity, Scottish nationalism stimulates Anglophobia but not Islamophobia, and Muslims can use Scottish nationalism as a tool of integration. 9/11 made life worse for Muslims in Scotland, but not as much as elsewhere. Thus, 9/11 and the ‘war on terror’ bound Muslims more closely to Scotland. Although both minorities criticized the governing performance of the new Scottish Parliament, both felt that its street-level impact has been more positive than negative. English immigrants feel that devolution has defused tensions, and Muslims self-consciously distinguish between the positive impact of devolution and the concurrent, negative impact of 9/11. Against the odds, multiculturalism and sub-state nationalism have not merely coexisted, but actually interacted positively within post-devolution Scotland.
The Good Will Reading Meshes With Major Ideas of Kant's Ethics
Authors: Dean Richard
Published: September 2006

This chapter argues that reading ‘humanity’ in the humanity formulation as good will provides the best fit between the humanity formulation and other major themes of Kant’s ethics. An analysis of Kant’s most significant claims about value in Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals shows that good will and humanity are equivalent. Since all of Kant’s claims about value must be read in light of his position that value is just a way to describe the choices that rational beings would make, it is especially significant to note that he often describes humanity as a moral ideal that must be pursued at all costs. Taking the end in itself to be good will also explains why the duty to aid others in pursuing their ends does not include their immoral ends, and allows for stronger connections between the different formulations of the Categorical Imperative.
How Duties Follow from the Categorical Imperative
Authors: Dean Richard
Published: September 2006

Kant recognizes that even if one accepts the humanity formulation as a basic moral principle, there is a further task of applying the principle to derive more specific categories of duties. Kant refers to the more complete system of duties as a ‘metaphysics of morals’. It is argued that the key concept in moving from the basic moral principle to a set of duties is the concept of Achtung, or respect for moral law and for persons who act on moral law. Unlike the proposals of some other commentators, the strategy suggested in this chapter does not depend on any brute claims about the value of persons, and so it succeeds in preserving Kant’s position that rational choice is conceptually prior to value.
Reforming Early Retirement in Europe, Japan and the USA
Authors: Ebbinghaus Bernhard
Published: September 2006

Since the 1970s, early exit from work has become a major challenge in modern welfare states. Governments, employers, and unions alike once thought of early retirement as a peaceful solution to the economic problems of mass unemployment and industrial restructuring. Today, governments and international organizations advocate the postponement of retirement and an increase in activity among older workers. Comparing eight European countries, the USA, and Japan, this book demonstrates significant cross-national differences in early retirement across countries and over time. The study evaluates the impact of major variations in welfare regimes, production systems, and labor relations. It stresses the importance of the ‘pull factor’ of extensive welfare state provisions, particularly in Continental Europe; the ‘push factor’ of labor shedding strategies by firms, particularly in Anglo-American market economies; and the role of employers and worker representatives in negotiating retirement policies, particularly in coordinated market economies. Over the last three decades, early retirement has become a popular social policy and employment practice in the workplace, adding to the fiscal crises and employment problems of today’s welfare states. Attempts to reverse early retirement policies have led to major reform debates. Unilateral government policies to cut back on social benefits have not had the expected employment results due to resistance from employers, workers, and their organizations. Successful reforms require the cooperation of both sides. This study provides comprehensive empirical analyses and a balanced approach to both the pull and the push factors needed to understand the development of early retirement regimes.
Chapter 4 Ever Earlier Retirement: Comparing Employment Trajectories
Authors: Ebbinghaus Bernhard
Published: September 2006

The chapter analyzes the main trends and cross-national variations in early exit from work for eight European countries, Japan, and the USA. Participation levels and employment rates of older workers between age 55 and 64 have declined. Cohort-adjusted early exit rates for both men and women show not only a rise in early retirement over the 1970s and early 1980s, but also substantial cross-national differences. Early exit from work is widespread in Continental Europe, less so in Scandinavia, Anglophone market economies, and in Japan.
Chapter 6 The Production‐Push Factors: The Political Economy of Labor Shedding
Authors: Ebbinghaus Bernhard
Published: September 2006

This chapter analyzes the economic ‘push’ factors that lead to early exit from work. Some firms co-sponsor early retirement via occupational pensions in order to facilitate restructuring. Deindustrialization, mass unemployment, and privatization have increased structural push, with early exit spreading widely across sectors. Two varieties of capitalism can be observed: early exit is used by firms to adapt to regulated labor markets in Continental coordinated market economies, it is more cyclical and infrequent in Anglophone flexible labor markets, while Japan and Sweden are exceptional cases that integrate older workers.
Putnam's Model‐Theoretic Arguments
Authors: Taylor Barry
Published: September 2006

This chapter sets out the relevant core of Putnam’s case. Section 3.1 extracts three arguments from Putnam’s writings: the Arguments from Cardinality, Completeness, and Permutation. Of these, section 3.2 argues that only the second is of direct relevance. Section 3.3 examines attempts to frame constraints based on causal and psycho-behavioural reductions of reference. Section 3.4 investigates the Translational Reference Constraint (TRC), a constraint on reference which does not rely on a reduction of reference but makes essential use of translation (from object language to metalanguage) to sort out the models which get reference right. The claims made in this section, however, require foundation in a theory of translation, sufficient to sustain the assumptions it makes about that controversial and opaque notion. This foundation is supplied in section 3.5, whose general tenor is Davidsonian, its key notion being that of a ‘hermeneutic theory’, i.e., a Davidsonian theory of interpretation cast into model-theoretic terms. With Translational Truth Constraint (TTC) now identified as the most fundamental constraint on intendedness, it remains to see if it will suffice to rule out as unintended all the models of ideal theory whose existence the Completeness Theorem guarantees. The issue is examined in section 3.6.
Formal Theories of Truth and Putnam's ‘Common‐sense Realism’
Authors: Taylor Barry
Published: September 2006

This chapter discusses formal theories of truth: the redundancy theory and its ilk, distinguished by the attempt to characterize truth in terms of its structural properties, in the context of the position adopted by Putnam in his John Dewey Lectures, here styled ‘Common-sense Realism’. This position is described, combining two principles called the Thesis of the Internality (according to which the elements of a representational system are internally related to their content) and the Thesis of World-Embeddedness (which holds that content is dependent on the world in a more than causal way), with a formal account of truth. It is argued that Common-sense Realism, along with all theories comprising a formal account of truth, should be committed to the flames, because they are cut off from exploiting the Fregean model of meaning, based on a recursion on truth.