bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ma fille et mon chat, du droit d’avoir des enfants et un animal de compagnie
Authors: Cassegrain Bertrand
Published: March 2015

Les injustices dont sont victimes aujourd’hui les animaux domestiques ont mené certains partisans des droits des animaux à défendre l’idée selon laquelle la relation entre humains et animaux domestiques était intrinsèquement injuste et qu’il ne fallait pas permettre à ces derniers de se reproduire. Tout en s’inscrivant dans une théorie des droits des animaux « abolitionniste », cet article entend montrer que, sous réserve du respect de certaines conditions, il n’est pas nécessairement condamnable sur le plan moral d’autoriser la perpétuation des animaux domestiques – en particulier des animaux de compagnie. Ainsi, (1) je tenterai de montrer que s’il est vrai, toutes choses égales par ailleurs, qu’il est moralement acceptable de mettre au monde des enfants sur la base d’un désir égoïste (parce qu’avoir des enfants enrichit nos vies), alors il l’est aussi de laisser venir au monde des animaux de compagnie pour une raison semblable. (2) Le fait d’avoir un enfant ou un animal de compagnie ne mobilisent pas nécessairement les mêmes enjeux éthiques. Je ferai valoir que malgré certaines contraintes, la vie des animaux de compagnie peut tout à fait être enviable. Enfin, (3) j’indiquerai en quoi le premier argument fournit des pistes pour penser le statut légal des animaux de compagnie.
Right to Place: A Political Theory of Animal Rights in Harmony with Environmental and Ecological Principles
Authors: Panagiotarakou Eleni
Published: March 2015

The focus of this paper is on the “right to place” as a political theory of wild animal rights. Out of the debate between terrestrial cosmopolitans inspired by Kant and Arendt and rooted cosmopolitan animal right theorists, the right to place emerges from the fold of rooted cosmopolitanism in tandem with environmental and ecological principles. Contrary to terrestrial cosmopolitans—who favour extending citizenship rights to wild animals and advocate at the same time large-scale humanitarian interventions and unrestricted geographical mobility—I argue that the well-being of wild animals is best served by the right to place theory on account of its sovereignty model. The right to place theory advocates human non-interference in wildlife communities, opposing even humanitarian interventions, which carry the risk of unintended consequences. The right to place theory, with its emphasis on territorial sovereignty, bases its opposition to unrestricted geographical mobility on two considerations: (a) the non-generalist nature of many species and (b) the potential for abuse via human encroachment. In a broader context, the advantage of the right to place theory lies in its implicit environmental demands: human population control and sustainable lifestyles.
The Priority of Suffering Over Life. How to Accommodate Animal Welfare and Religious Slaughter
Authors: Zuolo Federico
Published: March 2015

Most contemporary Western laws regarding the treatment of animals in livestock farming and animal slaughter are primarily concerned with the principle that animal suffering during slaughter should be minimized, but that animal life may be taken for legitimate human purposes. This principle seems to be widely shared, intuitively appealing and capable of striking a good compromise between competing interests. But is this principle consistent? And how can it be normatively grounded? In this paper I discuss critically this principle (the priority of the minimization of animal suffering over animals’ right to life). I argue that this principle can be justified on the ground of respect for the value commitment toward animal welfare, which is held by many people. The advantage of this perspective is its inclusiveness: it can justify without contradiction the principle at stake and allow for the admissibility of religious slaughter while promoting animals’ interest in not suffering. This justification also has the advantage of being compatible with the cultural and religious pluralism of contemporary societies.
Grounding Animal Rights in Mutual Advantage Contractarianism
Authors: Taylor Matthew
Published: March 2015

Contrary to critics and advocates of contractarianism alike, I argue that mutual advantage contractarianism entails rights and protections for animals. In section one I outline the criteria that must be met in order for an individual to qualify for moral rights on the contractarian view. I then introduce an alternative form of ‘rights,’ which I call ‘protectorate status,’ from which an individual can receive protections indirectly. In section two I suggest guidelines for assigning animal rights based on two ways of categorizing animals. On the basis of the categorization according to benefit derived, I argue that animals used for companionship, security, hunting assistance, transportation, entertainment, medical service, nourishment, or clothing will tend to qualify for basic rights against starvation, predation, and disease. On the basis of the categorization according to species, I argue that, on top of the basic rights above, dogs tend to qualify for rights against abuse, and against frivolous medical experimentation, as well as further negotiated rights. Cows have the basic rights against starvation, predation, and disease, but squirrels and bears have no rights. In section three I argue that some animals qualify for protectorate status, which would establish various protections for different animals, but would also generally prohibit cruelty towards animals.
Alma e festa de uma cidade: devoção e construção na Colina do Bonfim
Authors: Santana Mariely Cabral de
Published: March 2015

Tendo como eixo central a festa do Senhor do Bonfim, este livro representa um mergulho na história da cidade de Salvador com o propósito de entender a relação existente entre devoção, festa e apropriação do espaço físico público para comemorações religiosas ou profanas. Procura definir o valor simbólico da festa e o seu reconhecimento como patrimônio cultural, avaliando também a sua dimensão concreta, apreendida através da cultura, no espaço da colina do Bonfim.
Effects of test stress during an objective structured clinical examination
Authors: Zhang Niu , Rabatsky Ali
Published: March 2015

Objective

The existence of test stress has been widely reported among professional students. To our knowledge, no studies exist that explore student stress response to objective structured clinical examinations. The aim of this study was to evaluate possible correlations between stress and objective structured clinical examination performance in a sample of chiropractic students.

Methods

A total of 116 students completed a 2-part questionnaire to assess test stress and the physiological symptoms and signs of stress. Heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic were measured during the physical examination laboratory class within the first 3 weeks and then again just prior to their objective structured clinical examination in week 5. Statistical tests were then performed for questionnaire data, heart rate and blood pressure differences, and correlation between the objective structured clinical examination grade and symptoms and signs.

Results

Questionnaire results showed that 5.1%–22.4% of students sometimes or often felt a certain degree of stress. More than 50% had 1 or more physiological symptoms and signs of stress. The objective structured clinical examination heart rate (75.23 ± 11.20 vs 68.16 ± 8.82, p < .001), systolic blood pressure (120.43 ± 9.59 vs 114.97 ± 11.83, p < .001), and diastolic blood pressure (73.00 ± 7.93 vs 69.32 ± 7.76, p < .001) were significantly higher than baseline. There were also negative linear correlations between objective structured clinical examination grades and physiological symptoms and signs and between objective structured clinical examination grades and feeling statement score.

Conclusion

The results support our hypothesis that chiropractic students experience stress when performing the objective structured clinical examination and that high levels of stress had a negative impact on performance.
Temporal and spatial variability of particle transport in the deep Arctic Canada Basin
Authors: Hwang Jeomshik , Kim Minkyoung , Manganini Steven J. , McIntyre Cameron P. , Haghipour Negar , Park JongJin , Krishfield Richard A. , Macdonald Robie W. , McLaughlin Fiona A. , Eglinton Timothy I.
Published: March 2015

To better understand the current carbon cycle and potentially detect its change in the rapidly changing Arctic Ocean, we examined sinking particles collected quasi‐continuously over a period of 7 years (2004–2011) by bottom‐tethered sediment trap moorings in the central Canada Basin. Total mass flux was very low (<100 mg m−2 d−1) at all sites and was temporally decoupled from the cycle of primary production in surface waters. Extremely low radiocarbon contents of particulate organic carbon and high aluminum contents in sinking particles reveal high contributions of resuspended sediment to total sinking particle flux in the deep Canada Basin. Station A (75°N, 150°W) in the southwest quadrant of the Canada Basin is most strongly influenced while Station C (77°N, 140°W) in the northeast quadrant is least influenced by lateral particle supply based on radiocarbon content and Al concentration. The results at Station A, where three sediment traps were deployed at different depths, imply that the most likely mode of lateral particle transport was as thick clouds of enhanced particle concentration extending well above the seafloor. At present, only 1%–2% of the low levels of new production in Canada Basin surface waters reaches the interior basin. Lateral POC supply therefore appears to be the major source of organic matter to the interior basin. However, ongoing changes to surface ocean boundary conditions may influence both lateral and vertical supply of particulate material to the deep Canada Basin.
Morphodynamics: Rivers beyond steady state
Authors: Church M. , Ferguson R. I.
Published: March 2015

The morphology of an alluvial river channel affects the movement of water and sediment along it, but in the longer run is shaped by those processes. This interplay has mostly been investigated empirically within the paradigm of Newtonian mechanics. In rivers, this has created an emphasis on equilibrium configurations with simple morphology and uniform steady flow. But transient adjustment, whether between equilibrium states or indefinitely, is to be expected in a world in which hydrology, sediment supply, and base level are not fixed. More fundamentally, water flows and all the phenomena that accompany them are inherently unsteady, and flows in natural channels are characteristically nonuniform. The morphodynamics of alluvial river channels is the striking consequence. In this paper, we develop the essential connection between the episodic nature of bed material transport and the production of river morphology, emphasizing the fundamental problems of sediment transport, the role of bar evolution in determining channel form, the role of riparian vegetation, and the wide range of time scales for change. As the key integrative exercise, we emphasize the importance of physics‐based modeling of morphodynamics. We note consequences that can be of benefit to society if properly understood. These include the possibility to better be able to model how varying flows drive morphodynamic change, to understand the influence of the sediments themselves on morphodynamics, and to recognize the inherent necessity for rivers that transport bed material to deform laterally. We acknowledge pioneering contributions in WRR and elsewhere that have introduced some of these themes.
Volcanic ash concentration during the 12 August 2011 Etna eruption
Authors: Scollo Simona , Boselli Antonella , Coltelli Mauro , Leto Giuseppe , Pisani Gianluca , Prestifilippo Michele , Spinelli Nicola , Wang Xuan
Published: March 2015

Mount Etna, in Italy, is one of the most active volcanoes in the world and an ideal laboratory to improve volcano ash monitoring and forecasting. During the volcanic episode on 12 August 2011, an eruption column rose up to several kilometers above sea level (asl), and the volcanic plume dispersed to the southeast. From the video‐surveillance system, we were able to estimate variations in the column height (peak value of 9.5 ± 0.5 km above sea level) with time. We derived the time‐varying discharge rate (peak value of 60 m3 s−1) and determined the ash concentration using a volcanic ash dispersal model. The modeled ash concentration was compared with lidar measurements using different particle effective radius, and differences are within the error bars. Volcanic ash concentrations range from 0.5 to 35.5 × 10−3 g m−3. The comparison highlights that to improve volcanic ash forecasting during volcanic crises it is necessary to take into account the time‐varying discharge rate of explosive eruptions.
Effects of crystallographic properties on the ice nucleation properties of volcanic ash particles
Authors: Kulkarni Gourihar , Nandasiri Manjula , Zelenyuk Alla , Beranek Josef , Madaan Nitesh , Devaraj Arun , Shutthanandan Vaithiyalingam , Thevuthasan Suntharampillai , Varga Tamas
Published: March 2015

Specific chemical and physical properties of volcanic ash particles that could affect their ability to induce ice formation are poorly understood. In this study, the ice nucleating properties of size‐selected volcanic ash and mineral dust particles in relation to their surface chemistry and crystalline structure at temperatures ranging from −30 to −38°C were investigated in deposition mode. Ice nucleation efficiency of dust particles was higher compared to ash particles at all temperature and relative humidity conditions. Particle characterization analysis shows that surface elemental composition of ash and dust particles was similar; however, the structural properties of ash samples were different.
An analysis of global aerosol type as retrieved by MISR
Authors: Kahn Ralph A. , Gaitley Barbara J.
Published: March 2015

In addition to aerosol optical depth (AOD), aerosol type is required globally for climate forcing calculations, constraining aerosol transport models and other applications. However, validating satellite aerosol‐type retrievals is more challenging than testing AOD results, because aerosol type is a more complex quantity, and ground truth data are far less numerous and generally not as robust. We evaluate the Multiangle Imaging Spectroradiometer (MISR) Version 22 aerosol‐type retrievals by assessing product self‐consistency on a regional basis and by making comparisons with general expectation and with the Aerosol Robotic Network aerosol‐type climatology, as available. The results confirm and add detail to the observation that aerosol‐type discrimination improves dramatically where midvisible AOD exceeds about 0.15 or 0.2. When the aerosol‐type information content of the observations is relatively low, increased scattering‐angle range improves particle‐type sensitivity. The MISR standard, operational product discriminates among small, medium, and large particles and exhibits qualitative sensitivity to single‐scattering albedo (SSA) under good aerosol‐type retrieval conditions, providing a categorical aerosol‐type classification. MISR Ångström exponent deviates systematically from ground truth where particle types missing from the algorithm climatology are present, or where cloud contamination is likely to occur, and SSA tends to be overestimated where absorbing particles are found. We determined that the number of mixtures passing the algorithm acceptance criteria (#SuccMix) represents aerosol‐type retrieval quality effectively, providing a useful aerosol‐type quality flag.
Advertising
Authors: Langman Lauren
Published: March 2015

Advertising has most famously been defined as any paid form of communication, designed to persuade a receiver to take some form of action. This definition only begins to scratch the surface of what advertising is, how it functions, and why it is the most sophisticated form of organizational power. The original meaning of advertising was “to warn” – stemming, as it does, from the French verb
avertir
in the early fifteenth century. This tells us something about the early function of advertising – it was used to identify and declare the organization's products and services, primarily through print. Advertising has now evolved in media and function; it now acts as an ambient aesthetic ambassador of the organization. Modern advertising does not merely announce product and service offerings; at its most sophisticated, advertising engages in “dream‐work” – elaborate and implicit stage‐setting though which human consciousness is produced.
African Americans and Consumption
Authors: Brown Nicole
Published: March 2015

African American consumerism deals with the meanings, beliefs, and values that African Americans associate with individual or group consumption. African Americans have a deep, complicated, and at times tumultuous relationship with consumerism that engages topics which include culture, citizenship, and identity. African American consumerism engages a unique historical context, which includes goals related to access to material goods/services, a desire for acknowledgement and treatment as first‐class citizens within the United States, and political and entrepreneurial endeavors. African Americans have a long history of engaging consumerism and consumer spaces as a way of expressing identities, protesting inequities, and resisting distorted narratives.
Global Justice Movement
Authors: Funke Peter N.
Published: March 2015

The Global Justice Movement (GJM) is an umbrella term for the diverse and amorphous set of associated and loosely networked organizations, groups, and movements – mostly from the political left – including anti‐war, labor, environmental, feminist, peasant, indigenous, and student groups, that oppose corporate globalization and neoliberal capitalism, imperialism, and war. The GJM, which arguably peaked around the turn of the twenty‐first century, signifies a new cycle of contention. Distinct yet related to past movements and protest cycles, the GJM embraces novel tactics and strategies as well as organizing models. Emerging in the wake of the implementation and consolidation of global neoliberal restructuring policies, the GJM has organized and mobilized for massive protests (e.g., the “Battle for Seattle” in 1999) and initiated the World Social Forum, which has spurred social forums across the globe. The “Arab Spring” and Occupy Wall Street, as well as more recent anti‐austerity protests, can all be seen as part or outgrowths of the GJM's cycle of protest.
Apple
Authors: Riegel Viviane
Published: March 2015

Apple Inc. is an American multinational company, established in 1976 by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne, that designs and markets consumer electronics, software, and personal computers. The company's products and services categories are: Macintosh computers,
iPod
,
iPhone
,
iPad
,
iOS
,
iTunes
, and
iCloud
. In 2013, it was considered the most valuable company in the
US
market and the most valuable brand in the world. Apple has established a unique reputation in the consumer electronics industry, with a customer base that is devoted to the company and its brand.
Barbie
Authors: Nairn Agnes
Published: March 2015

Barbie is a consumer and a cultural icon that continues to attract contradiction and controversy nearly six decades after her launch in 1959. At first sight, the 11.5‐inch plastic doll, owned by the Mattel Corporation, is a ubiquitous and timeless consumer success story. Two Barbie dolls are sold every second across 150 countries with more than one billion incarnations in existence; 90 percent of girls in the United States under the age of 10 own at least one, and the average number of Barbies per child is ten in the
USA
, seven in the
UK
and Italy, and five in France and Germany. As a collector's item, it also seems to be an appealing and enduring investment: the original 1959 Barbie that sold for
US
$3 in 1959 fetched €27,000 in 2006.
Birmingham School
Authors: Wolfson Todd
Published: March 2015

The Birmingham School (1964–2002), formally known as the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (
CCCS
) at the University of Birmingham, was an innovative academic enterprise, which led the emergence and development of the field of cultural studies across the latter half of the twentieth century. The scholars and scholarship of the Birmingham School impacted a host of disciplines and fields of study, from anthropology and sociology to political theory, media studies, education, and literary theory.
Brands and Branding
Authors: Schroeder Jonathan E.
Published: March 2015

Brands and branding have emerged as key concepts in marketing, management, and strategy, and the concept of branding, referring to the process of bringing attention to a product, company, concept, person, or cause, has become an everyday term. Research and thinking about brands and branding can be divided into four perspectives: corporate perspectives, consumer perspectives, cultural perspectives, and critical perspectives. These four perspectives demonstrate the growing interdisciplinary interest in brands and branding, and how brand research sheds light on basic issues of consumer agency, consumer behavior, and consumer culture.
Burning Man
Authors: Chen Katherine K.
Published: March 2015

Once an evening bonfire in San Francisco, Burning Man now attracts more than 69,000 to the Nevada Black Rock Desert. Named after the celebratory bonfire of a 40‐foot‐tall neon‐lit wooden statue located at the city's center, Burning Man promotes 10 countercultural principles that emphasize forming relations with others and prosumption, in which event goers, dubbed “participants,” collaboratively produce the event's activities. Studies of various phenomena at Burning Man, including emotional affect, identity, consumption, art, spirituality, and organizations, all emphasize participants' agency in meaning‐making activities. Recent research has documented the dissemination of Burning Man practices, including prosumption, into everyday life.
Children's Consumer Culture
Authors: Sparrman Anna
Published: March 2015

Children's consumer culture focuses on: cultural consumption, social and cultural contexts, lived cultures, symbolism, and meaning making. Interpretive analyses are made of advertising, children's use of money, policies, legislation, material and symbolic commodities, and historical contexts. Larger patterns of moral panics, globalization, gender, and age are investigated and questioned, as are the multidirectional influences between child and adult consumption. The notion of the consumer child draws on theories of child studies focusing on children as members of society. The area of children's consumer culture situates children's consumption in practices of everyday life, markets, and politics.
Consumption in Japan
Authors: Francks Penelope
Published: March 2015

Until relatively recently, Japanese people were better known for their saving than for their consumption. This was despite the substantial evidence of the role of consumer activity in the vibrant culture of early modern cities and the significance of the domestic market in the growth and industrialization of the economy thereafter. With the “economic miracle” that followed World War
II
, however, Japanese consumers, especially female ones, began to emerge from the shadows, as they developed a lifestyle incorporating both Japanese‐ and Western‐style goods, supported by sophisticated and demanding global shopping habits. Although the frenetic consumerism of the 1980s has since given way to a more sober approach to consumer spending, the distinctive and historically conditioned characteristics of Japanese consumption, ranging from the role of the small‐scale retailer and the emphasis on quality and safety to the enjoyment of street fashion, remain despite changed economic times.
Cool
Authors: Manzo Lidia K. C.
Published: March 2015

Cool, as a cultural category in its own right, has become somewhat fashionable. Its effects on human behavior and cultural artifacts can be seen in speech and dance, films and television shows, books and magazines, music, clothes, paintings, cars, computers, and even places like neighborhoods or streets. Cool has become, however, very much involved with commodities and the aesthetics of designer labels and niche brands. As faith in the revolutionary potential of “authentic” counterculture combined with the development of a new ideology of consumption, cool became the language of advertising and thus entered the mainstream as a marketing strategy.
Cooperatives
Authors: Esposti Piergiorgio Degli
Published: March 2015

A cooperative, commonly referred to as a “co‐op,” is a voluntary association that is organized for the mutual benefit of a particular social, economic, and/or cultural agenda(s). The venerable idea of cooperative enterprise originated in Europe during the Middle Ages. In fact, the merchant guilds and trade associations of the Hanseatic League were built on the idea of cooperation. While various forms of cooperation have always existed in civil societies, the modern cooperative movement has its roots in the early industrial revolution as a response to industrial capitalism. A byproduct of this response is the cooperative's dualistic nature: its economic goal of making a profit and its social goal of redistributing wealth. Some countries simply classify cooperatives as nonprofit organizations, under the social or civic economy.
Cultural Omnivores
Authors: Maguire Jennifer Smith
Published: March 2015

Cultural omnivores are people whose consumption tastes include both elite and popular genres. Survey research in Western consumer societies suggests that high‐status individuals, with higher levels of education and income, are more likely to have a greater diversity and volume of tastes than others. Interpretive research further highlights that omnivorousness is associated with a particular discerning disposition, which regards seemingly any genre as potentially worthy of aesthetic assessment. Issues highlighted include the relationship between social distinction and cultural democratization, and the social construction of cultural legitimacy through notions of the new and the authentic. Further research is required on how the sociohistorical factors underlying the rise of omnivorousness in the West translate into non‐Western contexts; on changing patterns of elite taste in emerging and maturing consumer cultures, such as those in India and China; and on the mechanisms involved in constructing, legitimating, and circulating new definitions and repertoires of good taste, and new, socially esteemed mentalities about taste and consumption.
Cultural Studies
Authors: Miller Toby
Published: March 2015

Since the 1970s, cultural studies has been both an irritant and a master trope in the humanities and qualitative social sciences, blending and blurring textual analysis with social and cultural theory and empirical ethnography, and focusing on the margins of power rather than reproducing established lines of force and authority. For example, rather than researching canonical works of art, governmental leadership, or quantitative social data, cultural studies devotes time to subcultures, popular media, music, clothing, environmental representations, and sport. It does so with strong commitments to class, gender, racial, sexual, and cosmopolitan equality and justice, bringing together and incarnating various tendencies that productively splinter the human sciences: Marxism, feminism, queer theory, and postcolonialism.
Culture Industries
Authors: Langer Beryl
Published: March 2015

The term “culture industry” was inherently critical when it was coined by Frankfurt School theorists in the 1940s. “Culture” denoted a plane of creativity that transcended the economic, “industry” an instrumental realm of mechanical production and economic calculation. The relationship between culture and industry changed in the second half of the twentieth century. The transition to consumer capitalism and new information technologies made the production and consumption of culture central to the economy. In current usage, the term “culture industry” denotes the sector of the economy in which profit is generated by the production of image and meaning.
Debt
Authors: Logemann Jan
Published: March 2015

This entry sketches the development of consumer debt and lending in the United States and other consumer societies since the late nineteenth century. It argues that consumer debt has become increasingly central to modern consumer economies, as consumer financing allowed for increased access to consumer goods at the cost of a precarious and at times financially restricting consumer lifestyle. This phenomenon has been particularly prominent in the United States, where the availability of credit has allowed consumers to partially compensate for a comparatively underdeveloped welfare state. Across modern consumer societies, however, growing consumer indebtedness raises questions about the sustainability of mass consumption economies.
Diderot Effect
Authors: Lorenzen Janet A.
Published: March 2015

According to Grant
McCracken
, when a familiar consumption pattern is disrupted, by a fine gift for example, individuals will seek to establish a new pattern of consumption which conforms to the level of quality and status represented by the gift.
McCracken
calls this the Diderot effect, named after French philosopher Denis Diderot who wrote an essay entitled “Regrets on Parting with my Old Dressing Gown; or, A Warning to Those who Have More Taste Than Money.” On receiving a new dressing gown as a gift from a friend, Diderot observed that it compelled him to redecorate his entire study because the new dressing gown made everything in the room look old and shabby by comparison. The Diderot effect is thus a mechanism for overconsumption: the attempt to purchase goods which fit together in some subjectively coherent way results in expansive consumer spending and continual trading up. Caught up in this process of the Diderot effect, individuals are also attempting to fulfill their ideal of a good life through the purchase of particular consumer goods.
Disneyization
Authors: Ryan J. Michael
Published: March 2015

Disneyization, a phrase popularized by Alan Bryman, is “the process by which the principles of the Disney theme parks are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as the rest of the world.” Disneyization comprises four central elements – theming, hybrid consumption, merchandising, and performative labor.
Do‐It‐Yourself (
DIY
)
Authors: Doane Randal , Rumbo Joe
Published: March 2015

The do‐it‐yourself (DIY) spirit associated with anti‐corporatism and alternative music scenes was first articulated in sociological circles in Vance Packard's celebration of the “do‐it‐yourself” handyman in
Status Seekers
. DIY in general refers to a range of consumer practices in which individuals or groups demonstrate self‐reliance in the production (and consumption) of material objects, representations, and cultural events. The articulation of the DIY and anti‐establishment spirit emerged in the late 1960s, and coincided with a shift from DIY material practices to the production, distribution, and consumption of culture. Advocates of lifestyle movements extolled the virtues of naturalness and authenticity, in newsletters and small‐batch consumer goods, for an ethically reflexive clientele. The DIY spirit was also manifest in the intentional communities of Haight‐Ashbury in San Francisco and elsewhere, as well as the Vortex Festival (1970 and 1971), the Rainbow Gathering (established 1972), and more recently the Burning Man Festival (established 1986). On remote sites, festival revelers constructed temporary autonomous spaces to celebrate free love, egalitarianism, cooperation, and altered states of consciousness.
Emotions and Consumption
Authors: Illouz Eva , Benger Yaara
Published: March 2015

Until the 1960s, the same assumptions that had governed the sphere of production were those that were used to understand the black box of the consumer and of consumption conceived as an economic practice. Consumption was the act of “buying” and it was viewed as a rational utilitarian practice conducted under capitalism's tendency to produce, standardize, and rationalize. In many ways, the field of consumer studies which subsequently developed was nothing but a vast attempt to revise and reject the assumption of a rational actor. Various paradigms – semiotic, postmodern, symbolic, and post‐Marxist – all conceived of consumption as a complex cultural practice, imbued with meaning, symbols, and rituals. One of the most effective critiques of the utilitarian paradigm of consumption has been the Bourdieuian notion of “habitus,” which locates consumer choices in “tastes” and systems of preferences that are shaped by class position, which translates in the body and in a matrix of cognitive and preconscious judgments.
Fair Trade
Authors: Finch Mary Beth
Published: March 2015

The fair trade movement is a values‐based consumer movement that strives to empower disadvantaged workers and promote more equitable international trade relations. It is based upon two central premises: on the one hand, unfettered capitalism leads to the exploitation of the most vulnerable participants in the global market; on the other hand, the market is the best avenue for improving the lives of disadvantaged workers. Fair trade is, thus, in the precarious and somewhat paradoxical position of being both “in and against the market.” Two primary goals of the movement are to create consumer demand for products made under nonexploitative conditions and to facilitate the process by which the workers who supply these products reach these consumers. Drawing upon Polanyi's analysis of market embeddedness, fair trade can be understood as attempting to “re‐embed” relationships between producers and consumers.
Flâneur
/
Flânerie
Authors: Wearing Stephen L.
Published: March 2015

The original
flâneur
was regarded as a new kind of urban dweller who had the time to wander, watch, and browse in the public spaces of the emerging modern city. However, in the act of strolling the
flâneur
did not just observe life but was seemingly engaged in a process of unearthing the myths and “collective dreams” of modernity while remaining detached from what he observed. He was unquestionably male, and
flânerie
was a way of experiencing and occupying space that was available only – or predominantly – to men. The challenge now is to envision a more nuanced version of the
flâneur
for tourism and the tourism experience – one that is capable of providing the basis for an understanding of lived tourist cultures.
Flea Markets
Authors: Stillerman Joel
Published: March 2015

Flea markets are open air or semi‐enclosed markets featuring used, antique, and new goods. Vendors make cash sales at simply decorated stalls. Markets offer vendors economic opportunities; vendors vary in skills; and sellers and buyers enjoy haggling, market environments, and socializing. Flea markets' unique qualities provide an antidote to sterile retail formats.
Franchising
Authors: Bills David B.
Published: March 2015

Franchising is a business arrangement in which a parent company contracts with one or more smaller firms to grant or sell to them the right to distribute its products, implement its processes, or use its trade name. The recent development of franchising in the United States and elsewhere is characterized by steady to rapid growth in the number of franchised establishments, their increased levels of employment and sales, and their proliferation beyond the restaurant and retailing sectors in which they have been historically most prevalent into virtually all areas of contemporary economies.
F
rankfurt School
Authors: Langman Lauren
Published: March 2015

For Marx, the defining moment of the nineteenth century was the rise of industrial capitalism, which had transformed the nature of work, governance, values, and indeed the routines of everyday life. Capitalism spread throughout the world; it overthrew dynastic rule, battered down traditions, ended the “idiocy of rural life,” and, above all, created vast wealth – at least for capitalists. However, this wealth was based on the sale of commodities that were produced by workers who sold their labor to capitalists for wages; thus labor became a commodity that greatly increased the value of raw materials turned into commodities for markets. But workers received very little of that increased value as wages; indeed, workers lived in poverty and destitution. Marx's fundamental concern was not simply the exploitation or poverty of the workers, but the alienation, objectification, and estrangement that left workers powerless, without recognition or dignity as human beings, bereft of community, and incapable of realizing their nature as members of the human species.
Generation Y
Authors: den Bergh Joeri Van
Published: March 2015

Generation Y is also known as “the Millennials.” Generational labels are often the result of popular culture. Some are linked to a historic event, others derived from drastic social or demographic changes or from a big turn in the calendar. Millennials belong to the third category.

The terms “Gen Y” and “Millennials” refer to those born between 1980 and 1996, although different authors use different data. It is the first generation to come of age in the new millennium. “Y” was chosen as a popular label as this generation is the successor of Generation X, but there are many synonyms, such as Generation Why, Generation Search, Generation Next, the Net generation, the digital natives, the dot‐com generation, Echo Boomers, etc. They are the children of Baby Boomer parents, which explains why there are so many in spite of the declining fertility rates.
Global Markets
Authors: Raju P. S.
Published: March 2015

The term “global markets” refers to the notion that companies have to increasingly look to international markets, beyond their traditional comfort zone, for growth and profitability. Theodore Levitt argued that standardization of many aspects of marketing was the cornerstone of globalization. However, researchers mostly agree that globalization in marketing today requires a judicious combination of both standardization and adaptation to local conditions to market effectively. A broad term, “global markets” is the subject of numerous books in global marketing management. Generally, these include discussions of various aspects of global marketing such as the global environment (economic, financial, cultural, political, and legal), marketing research and segmentation in global markets, global market entry strategies (exporting, licensing, contract manufacturing, joint ventures, etc.), marketing strategies for each element of the marketing mix (namely product, price, communication, and distribution/logistics), and other aspects of general management in global markets.
Hollywood
Authors: Dalecki Linden
Published: March 2015

Hollywood – a name coined by real estate developer H. J. Whitley in 1886 – refers both to the Los Angeles, California district developed by Whitley and to a set of evolving motion picture industry firms, players, practices, technologies, and modes of finance, production, and distribution that emerged in and around the district. The heavy concentration of activities in Hollywood (Los Angeles) related to the motion picture industry – and eventually to the mediated entertainment sector more generally – resulted in an economic cluster effect that continues to drive industrial efficiencies and offer access to specialized talent, technology, and other resources. Despite increasingly online workflows, contemporary Hollywood‐based entertainment media firms continue to maintain a global competitive advantage over entertainment media firms based elsewhere.
Homogenization and Heterogenization
Authors: Michael Ryan J.
Published: March 2015

Those who see the world as ever more homogenized argue that more of the world is growing increasingly similar. They see the global spread of things likeMcDonald's, Starbucks, Wal‐Mart, Puma, Lady Gaga, and Hollywood as evidence that local differences are being washed away by universal sameness. As global organizations, corporations, and political and economic domination – particularly that of the United States – increase their reach, the ability of local governments, cultures, and individuals to resist becoming the same is weakened.
Mass Media
Authors: Siciliano Michael , Gruys Kjerstin
Published: March 2015

Mass media have been a core social institution throughout modern history and in contemporary life. The term “mass media” refers to an array of technological systems, industries, cultural forms, and practices of production and consumption characterized by the transmission of information from a few producers to large groups of consumers. Technologically, mass media include the printing press, telegraphy, telephony, music recording, film projection, radio and television transmission systems, and the World Wide Web or internet. Cultural forms associated with mass media include cinema, recorded popular music, newspapers, broadcast journalism, popular literature, television programming, video games, computer software, and advertisements.
Medical Tourism
Authors: Glenn Cohen I. , Prall Ethan
Published: March 2015

This entry discusses medical tourism – the travel of patients from a “home country” to a “destination country” in order to receive medical treatment. The various forms of medical tourism are discussed as well as the legal and ethical issues they raise.
Modernization Theory
Authors: Martinez Martha A.
Published: March 2015

Modernization theory is a social science paradigm created after World War
II
by researchers in the United States to study and explain the social change from traditional to modern societies. Modern societies are defined as fitting the characteristics of mid‐twentieth‐century United States and Western Europe, while all other types of societies are characterized as traditional. The theory became the cornerstone of
US
foreign policy until the 1980s, based on the premise that a close relationship with Western countries would accelerate modernization in the rest of the world. Social scientists in Third World countries developed dependency theory as an opposing paradigm, insisting that it was contact with Western countries that created dependencies and slow rates of development. Neoliberalism and globalization have rendered the theory mostly obsolete, with the exception of environmental sociology. Environmental modernization theory states that the solution to environmental problems is the continuation of the modernization process. This latest application of modernization theory is criticized because it ignores the impact of conspicuous consumption.
Money
Authors: Polillo Simone
Published: March 2015

While money sits at the intersection of culture, politics, and economics, it is sociology that has generated some of the most novel insights over the past few decades. Like the broader field of economic sociology within which it is located, the sociology of money has grown by leaps and bounds, benefiting from the theoretically eclectic and multi‐method nature of the field. This growth was not achieved by defining the sociological study of money in opposition to mainstream economics. Rather, it resulted from theoretical concerns generated within sociology itself. This is partly because economists have long stopped treating money as a topic worthy of exploration in its own terms. Since the demise of the German Historical School at the turn of the twentieth century, economists have embraced marginal analysis, utility functions, and general equilibrium. Money subsequently ceased capturing the attention of the mainstream: when it was analyzed, it was in the context of critiques of monetary policy. Concerned with “real” as opposed to the “financial,” economists gave money little analytical attention.
Mothers/Motherhood
Authors: O'Donohoe Stephanie
Published: March 2015

By definition, “mother” is a relational identity, and as soon as others are aware of a pregnancy, mothers‐to‐be are subject to external scrutiny and embroiled in societal norms and cultural discourses of motherhood. Thus, mothering as an experience is intertwined with motherhood as an institution or ideal, with many studies highlighting women's concerns about being, and being seen to be, a good mother. The maternal and the material are also closely bound together, as consumption pervades experiences and practices of mothering, at least in contemporary Western cultures. The challenges of consumer “choice” are particularly evident for new and low‐income mothers, since lack of knowledge, experience, or buying power, combined with powerful discourses of the good/bad mother, make it difficult to “get
THINGS
right” (Miller). The incursion of the market into some paths toward motherhood, such as fertility treatment or adoption, is highly contested.
Narcissism
Authors: Paat Yok‐Fong
Published: March 2015

The concept of narcissism encompasses excessive self‐love, self‐aggrandizing, and self‐serving. While it has been studied as a bidirectional model that calls for two continua, in which one characterizes the grandiose sense of self and the other features vulnerable self‐confidence, it is regarded as a social maladjustment that can put a person at risk for relational strain and self‐destructive lifestyle. The consumption behaviors of narcissistic consumers parallel their extravagant personality in other aspects of their lives. Overall, their overemphasis on self‐importance and craving the spotlight are detrimental to their financial welfare and general well‐being.
Needs and Wants
Authors: Esposti Piergiorgio Degli
Published: March 2015

The terms “needs” and “wants” are part of the vocabulary of sociology, especially of the sociological branch devoted to the study of consumption and the economy, often with reference to the analysis and transformation of the modern consumer. A need is essential for organisms to live a healthy life. Deficiency of a need would cause a clear negative outcome, such as dysfunction or death. It is in this way that needs are distinguished from wants. Wants, however, are born to induce man, understood as a consumer, to the next desire, creating a vicious cycle, where the market and the self‐regulation of the latter play a crucial role.
Nostalgia
Authors: Autio Minna
Published: March 2015

“Nostalgia” comes from the Greek words
nostos
, meaning to return home, and
algia
, a painful condition. Thus, it refers to a sentimental yearning for the “dear departed past,” which causes longing for things missing from one's personal life (e.g., homesickness). In modern times, however, the meaning of nostalgia has evolved, and the concept has many connotations. In consumer research, nostalgia has mainly been interpreted as a positive feeling and experience – longing for a happy former time or place.
Pets
Authors: Blouin David D.
Published: March 2015

The term “pet” (also “companion animal”) is used to distinguish between different categories of animals (e.g., livestock, wild animals) and different human–animal relations. Although dogs and cats are by far the most prevalent, many other types of animal are kept as pets, including reptiles, birds, and fish. There are three criteria that differentiate pets from other animals: pets are allowed in homes, they are given names, and they are never eaten; they are animals that people treat the way they do infants and children. Indeed, many pet owners prefer to adopt baby animals and may be drawn to pets because they elicit parental tendencies. Pets, unlike other domestic animals, are valued for the emotional support they provide, not for their economic utility.
Popular Culture
Authors: Rubinfeld Mark
Published: March 2015

Focusing on six major critical approaches to understanding popular culture that address, in different ways, the cultural, economic, political, social, and technological dimensions of popular culture, this entry provides a thorough overview of popular culture's essences and influences through a comprehensive analysis of its forms and functions, products and productions, processes and practices, and symbolisms and significances.