bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Protection of the natural environment in time of armed conflict
Authors: Bouvier Antoine
Published: January 2010

Since the early 1970s, the steady deterioration of the natural environment has given rise to widespread awareness of man's destructive impact on nature.

This awareness of the vital importance for humanity of a healthy environment and the determined efforts of numerous environmental protection agencies have led over the years to the adoption of a large body of laws for the protection and preservation of the natural environment.
Custom in international humanitarian law
Authors: Bruderlein Claude
Published: January 2010

The purpose of this study is to analyse the normative character of custom in international humanitarian law (IHL), on the basis of the theory and jurisprudence of public international law, in order to arrive at a better understanding of the conduct of States in conflict situations. In so doing, an attempt will be made to determine the possibilities for developing custom in IHL, especially in view of the increasing concern shown by international public opinion for the plight of victims of armed conflicts. The paper will begin with a review of the questions raised by custom as an independent source of humanitarian law (point 1) and go on to take a closer look at the constituent elements of custom in humanitarian law (point 2). It will end with a comparative study of the two approaches to custom in IHL, concentrating on the consequences that the development of custom may have in the future (point 3).
The 125th anniversary of the International Review of the Red Cross
Authors: Sommaruga Cornelio
Published: January 2010

The International Review of the Red Cross is 125 years old — an age which might well be called venerable, unless the term “honourable” is preferred, but in any case a surprising age for a publication.

Periodical publications which have lasted for so long are rare indeed, and the number of such international and multilingual reviews can be counted on the fingers of one hand.
The 125th anniversary of the International Review of the Red Cross — A faithful record — I. Protection and assistance
Authors: Meurant Jacques
Published: January 2010

Officers, soldiers, medical personnel and the inhabitants of areas near and far from the theatre of war — these are the categories of people whom writers should address to explain, in the language best suited to each, the basic humanitarian ideas and sentiments which it is so urgent to impress on their minds and hearts.

(Bulletin international des Sociétés de secours aux militaires blessés. No. 1, October 1869.)
The Issues — The ICRC's position
Authors: The Review
Published: January 2010

The Review Conference of the 1980 United Nations Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons which May be Deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects will be held in Vienna from 25 September to 13 October 1995.

This Conference offers a unique opportunity for a thorough analysis of the problems caused by the use of certain weapons, with landmines heading the list. It should also specify measures to be taken to prevent the manufacture and use of new weapons from creating serious problems in future.
Review Conference of the 1980 Weapons Convention
Authors: Khlestov Nikolay
Published: January 2010

The United Nations General Assembly welcomed, in its resolution 48/79 of 16 December 1993, the request made to the organization's Secretary-General by a State party to the 1980 Weapons Convention (France) to convene a conference to review, in accordance with Article 8(3), the provisions of that Convention. In paragraph 6 of the same resolution, the General Assembly encouraged the States party to ask the Secretary-General to set up a group of government experts to prepare such a conference. The States did so and the group of experts that was subsequently brought together held three meetings in 1994 and one in 1995. Pursuant to a decision by the group, the Review Conference is to be held in Vienna from 25 September to 13 October 1995.
The International Committee of the Red Cross and the protection of war victims
Authors: The Review
Published: January 2010

In its recent issues the International Review of the Red Cross announced the publication of a work entitled Le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge et la protection des victimes de la guerre by François Bugnion, Deputy Director of the ICRC Department of Principles, Law and Relations with the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.

The book has already become the reference work par excellence on the International Committee of the Red Cross in that it analyses, in a combined historical and legal approach, the process whereby the international community came to entrust the Committee with tasks and areas of competence relating to the protection of war victims. It also highlights the interaction between the development of ICRC practice and that of international humanitarian law.
The International Review of the Red Cross at the service of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
Authors: Sommaruga Cornelio
Published: January 2010

The last few years have been a momentous period in the life of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. One milestone was the adoption of its new Statutes by the Twenty-fifth International Conference of the Red Cross (Geneva, October 1986). Furthermore, the increasingly universal nature of the Movement and the desire to present a united front in the face of the changes and upheavals taking place in the modern world, and the “solidarity of image” which exists between the various components of the Movement and which was stressed in Resolution No. 8 of the Council of Delegates (Rio de Janeiro, November 1987), have all had an appreciable influence on the Movement's information policy—and hence that of the ICRC.
Development of National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and co-operation
Authors: The Review
Published: January 2010

This year marks the 125th anniversary of the founding of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. The theme for World Red Cross and Red Crescent Day on 8 May was “125 years at work…and still developing”. This theme was chosen to underline the universalization of the Movement and the continuous growth in its activities on behalf of the victims of armed conflict and natural disaster. But development is also an expression of the solidarity between the Movement's components as soon as it is necessary to bring immediate assistance to the victims of man-made or natural catastrophy and to put forward medium or long-term plans aimed, in accordance with the Movement's Fundamental Principles, at preventing these calamities and ensuring the welfare of communities.
Bangladesh Red Crescent: Development and co-operation
Authors: Quoreshi Ali Hassan
Published: January 2010

Development means attaining the capability to act today, so as to be able to cope with a specific situation tomorrow: in other words, development in its true perspective, in its universal context. A developed organization or institution is therefore one which is able to carry out its tasks efficiently. Development is achieved in a planned and systematic manner, through a continuing process that meets the changing needs and priorities of the future.
Red Cross of Cape Verde: Development of National Societies and co-operation: The viewpoint of the Red Cross of Cape Verde
Authors: dos Reis Dario L. R. Dantas
Published: January 2010

Cape Verde, a small archipelago formed by ten islands and eight islets, is located 455 km off the west coast of Africa, between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. It has an area of 4,033 sq km and a population of 320,000.

The dry climate and sparse rainfall characteristic of these volcanic islands, which constitute a prolongation into the Atlantic of the arid Sahel region, are extremely unfavourable to agriculture.
Libyan Red Crescent: The need for a practical approach to development within the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
Authors: El Sherif Ahmed Abdullah
Published: January 2010

At this stage of the discussion on development within the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, I shall limit my remarks to a number of general considerations and shall conclude with an attempt to define development, giving an interpretation of its principal aspects.
Red Cross of Yugoslavia: Reflections on the Red Cross, Red Crescent and development
Authors: Red Cross of Yugoslavia
Published: January 2010

The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement is the most outstanding expression of development. It was created 125 years ago and now covers the whole world. It has increased its membership many times over, substantially enlarged its functions and developed new methods and forms of action. By continually adapting to the changing world and to new requirements, the Movement has not only preserved the place that it had at the beginning of its existence, but has also acquired the high reputation and position it holds today. The Movement has thus shown its capacity for far-reaching development, and this must be taken into account in defining the Movement's concept of development today.
Secretariat of the League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies: A concept of development for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
Authors: Nunes Luis
Published: January 2010

The League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies has a long tradition of development work. At every new stage the objectives set are therefore not simply the outcome of a purely intellectual process, but are reviewed and adapted in the light of this tradition.
REFUGEES AND CONFLICT SITUATIONS
Authors: The Review
Published: January 2010

The protection of refugees and displaced persons is guaranteed by many universal and regional instruments of international law. The rules are there, but for several years the humanitarian organizations charged with implementing them have constantly had to face new situations brought about by the scale and frequency of mass population movements, especially in the Third World, and new types of violence which affect both the status and the possibilities for protection of the people concerned. Very often, the solutions arrived at by these bodies have taken the form of assistance rather than protection, the one not always easily distinguishable from the other.
ICRC action in aid of refugees
Authors: Krill Françoise
Published: January 2010

The refugee does not enjoy special protection in IHL except in several provisions which will be considered below, nor is there any particular definition of a refugee as a person protected by IHL. The refugee is above all a civilian person and is protected as such by the relevant provisions of IHL. The sole criterion, for the purposes of the Fourth Geneva Convention, is in fact the absence of protection by any government. The term “refugee” is thus given a broad connotation. In international public law there are two defined categories of refugee, to which a third category is usually added by analogy.
Thoughts on the relationship between International Humanitarian Law and Refugee Law, their promotion and dissemination
Authors: Patrnogic Jovića
Published: January 2010

From the beginning of the 20th century up to the present, international law has been marked by a profound evolution: it has been progressively humanized. Those responsible for drafting international law have clearly understood that it could no longer disregard the fate of human beings and leave to States and their internal laws the protection of fundamental human rights, both in peacetime and during armed conflicts.
Lebanese Red Cross: caught up in the maelstrom
Authors: Issa-el-Khoury Alexandra
Published: January 2010

October 1965: At the XXth International Conference of the Red Cross in Vienna the delegates stood and listened in deep silence to the solemn proclamation of the Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross, which they subsequently adopted unanimously in a storm of applause. I swore then that I would be faithful to those Principles for the whole of my Red Cross life. It seemed easy enough at the time; it was only what Red Cross workers had been doing ever since the Red Cross was founded.
The First Geneva Convention
Authors: Pictet Jean
Published: January 2010

In ancient times some of the great commanders were accompanied on their campaigns by their personal doctors. The Romans had at least one doctor for each cohort (about 500 to 600 men), and a legion, which consisted of ten cohorts, had a medicus legionis, probably a sort of chief medical officer. At the time of the Crusades, the Sultan Saladin gave an example of humanity by authorizing the doctors of the adverse party to care for the Christian prisoners and then to return through the lines. Arab doctors treated Saint Louis. But it was not until the sixteenth century that an organized medical service was started in European armies. It was still, however, sadly inadequate.
The Geneva Conference of August 1864 as seen by the Geneva press
Authors: Durand André
Published: January 2010

The Geneva Conference of August 1864 was held behind closed doors. A drawing published in the satirical paper the Carillon de Saint-Gervais is indicative of the reaction of journalists to this decision. It depicts three characters, symbolizing three Geneva newspapers, the Journal de Genève, La Démocratic suisse and the Carillon de Saint-Gervais, locked out of the International Congress whose door bears a sign saying “no entry”. The caption translates as follows: Tribune open to the press, courtesy of the International Congress”. This was probably the first manifestation of a certain reserve which has been apparent on occasion in relations between the humanitarian agencies and the media. Happily, times have changed. Nowadays, information and dissemination have become essential components of the policy of the International Committee of the Red Cross, and it may safely be assumed that a cartoonist illustrating an International Conference would now show the doors wide open.
Special aspects of the use of the red cross or red crescent emblem
Authors: Bouvier Antoine
Published: January 2010

The emblem of the red cross was one of the most remarkable innovations of the Convention of 1864. Ever since then there have been discussions, questions and controversy as to its nature and purpose, the persons it is meant to protect, and the rules that should govern its use.
Neutrality and Impartiality—The importance of these principles for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and the difficulties involved in applying them
Authors: Harroff-Tavel Marion
Published: January 2010

Of all the seven Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, neutrality and impartiality are perhaps the least well understood. They are often confused with each other and give rise to controversy. How can a National Society that is an auxiliary of the public authorities possibly be called neutral? Isn't neutrality sometimes synonymous with passivity or indifference? Can the ICRC regard itself as neutral when it points publicly to violations of international humanitarian law? Does impartiality mean sharing relief equally between the victims on both sides of a conflict? Is it possible to give humanitarian assistance to only one of the parties without violating the principles of neutrality and impartiality? These are questions that have occurred to every man and woman working in the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.
The 1864 Geneva Convention, a link between the ICRC and the United Nations
Authors: Martenson Jan
Published: January 2010

It is an honour and a privilege for me to speak to you today, as we celebrate the 125th anniversary of the Geneva Convention.

This commemoration is of special significance in that the Geneva Convention—which deals with the situation of war wounded—was the first text providing for international humanitarian action and regulating individual behaviour in certain defined circumstances.
The international challenges facing humanitarian law today, 125 years after its creation
Authors: Andries André
Published: January 2010

As part of its activities to mark the 125th anniversary of its foundation on 4 February 1864, the Belgian Red Cross has been taking stock of its work to date and future possibilities for Red Cross action in various domains.

From 15 to 22 April 1989, the French-language Community of the Belgian Red Cross held a series of one-day symposiums in which Society volunteers and officials as well as many outside individuals and associations took part.
The law of armed conflict and its application in Colombia
Authors: Villa Hernando Valencia
Published: January 2010

Like war itself, which was one of the first and will undoubtedly be the last of mankind's social activities, the effort to regulate violent confrontations has a long history. Indeed, the laws of war in ancient China, 400 and 500 years before Christ, the chivalry of mediaeval knights, and the modern law of armed conflict, which started to take shape in the mid-nineteenth century, are but a few examples of the countless attempts made by different political regimes and legal systems to humanize the use of weapons as a means of settling disputes between States, and even between rulers and those they govern. Colombia is no stranger to this civilizing tradition. On the contrary, its history contains a number of illustrious precedents. The fact that they have fallen into oblivion makes them no less binding on the parties to the conflict ravaging the country at present.
Imam Al-Awzai and his humanitarian ideas (707-774)
Authors: Zemmali Ameur
Published: January 2010

Mention of Abd-ar-Rahman Al-Awzai (707-774), the Imam of the people of Syria, is found in many ancient Arabic texts such as Ibn an-Nadim's al-Fihrist and Ibn Abi Hatem ar-Razi's al-Jorh wa at Taâdil. More recent texts include the work on Al-Awzai by Dr. Sobhi Mahmassani on Al-Awzai (Beirut, 1978). This article gives a brief account of Al-Awzai's life and several of his ideas on the relationship between those who govern and those who are governed, and especially his contribution to the branch of learning of the siyar or the law of war.
Communication in the world today: one-way distribution or two-way sharing
Authors: Boiton-Malherbe Sylvie
Published: January 2010

A hazy or changeable concept, communication in its modern form as a technique for sending and receiving messages does not fit into any single or standard discipline. It extends outside the areas in which attempts are made to confine it, from the range of application of the humanities to the operational zones of telecommunications empires. After the ethnologists and sociologists, the linguists and the systems experts, the cyberneticists and the psychiatrists had attributed diverse meanings to it, communication in the broad sense and in its day-to-day reality entered its operational period in the 1980s with the new technology of information and communication.
1. Communication and dissemination: Moroccan Red Crescent: Practical aspects of information and dissemination
Authors: Badreddine Ben Saoud
Published: January 2010

What is the true impact of Red Cross and Red Crescent information in the world today?

The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement's information policy, long a source of controversy, is considered by some to be insufficiently developed and in need of greater attention.

Since its foundation over 125 years ago, the Movement has constantly had to adapt its image to the changing times. This is no easy task for those in charge of shaping its multifaceted image and devising ways to alleviate human suffering, a source of perpetual violence.
3. Communication, recruitment of members and fund-raising: The Netherlands Red Cross: Communication to raise funds for humanitarian activities
Authors: Vergeer Marcel P.L.
Published: January 2010

Ask any number of Dutchmen out in the street the name of a nonprofit organization and 93 out of 100 will spontaneously answer: the Netherlands Red Cross. And when you ask these 93 people for their appreciation of Red Cross activities, 92 of them will say: “Very good!”

I suppose your reaction will be: “That's fantastic! That means the Netherlands Red Cross has to invest hardly any energy in raising funds! The money comes rolling in automatically, so to speak.”
5. The Red Cross, the Red Crescent and the media: Salvadorean Red Cross Society: Information services and the media: an ongoing dialogue
Authors:   Salvadorean Red Cross Society
Published: January 2010

The Salvadorean Red Cross Society was founded on 13 March 1985. It has been in existence for 105 years, and so has a long record of service in the emergency situations that have arisen in El Salvador. These range from everyday emergencies in which it gives first aid, provides an ambulance service for sick and injured persons and processes and distributes blood, to major national disasters, especially earthquakes, and the internal conflict that has now been raging for more than then years.
Finnish Red Cross: Support for information services in developing National Societies
Authors: Korhonen Helena
Published: January 2010

The strength of the Red Cross and Red Crescent resides in its structures, in its humanitarian mandate as defined in the Geneva Conventions and in the values enshrined in international humanitarian law. The Movement's Fundamental Principles further define its aims and give widely accepted guidelines for its activities. The National Societies with their local branches and volunteers provide the physical network that completes the structure and now covers the entire world.
The customary law of non-international armed conflict - Evidence from the United States Civil War
Authors: Hoffman Michael Harris
Published: January 2010

James Surget made no impact on history. He did, however, make an impression on Washington Ford. The latter sued him in 1866 regarding the destruction of 200 bales of cotton.

In May 1862, Ford owned a plantation in Mississippi, a state then in rebellion against United States authority. The local commander of rebelling forces ordered his troops to burn all cotton along the Mississippi River that was vulnerable to capture by the United States army. Surget assisted in the destruction of Ford's cotton. Ford sued him to recover for its value.
Gustave Moynier and the peace societies
Authors: Durand André
Published: January 2010

As soon as the Red Cross was founded, the question of its relationship with war was raised. Indeed, it could be argued that placing the protection of war victims on an institutional basis and creating a reserved area off-limits to violence was tantamount to an official recognition of warfare or a tacit acceptance of the use of force. Some even wondered whether the attempt to regulate warfare without trying to eliminate it was not serving the purposes of the military and political leaders responsible for waging war, who would be able to invoke the notion of “clean warfare” to justify themselves in the eyes of public opinion and before history.
ICRC activities during the Second World War: The ICRC infiltrated by the Nazis?
Authors: ICRC Press Division
Published: January 2010

A group of researchers in the United States who have set themselves the task of locating the fortunes deposited in Swiss banks by victims — mostly Jewish — of Nazi persecution have laid their hands on a series of documents originating from the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), the American intelligence service which was the predecessor of the CIA. These documents, bearing dates in 1944 and 1945, contain allegations concerning individuals who worked for the ICRC during the Second World War.
Neutrality as a Fundamental Principle of the Red Gross
Authors: Haug Hans
Published: January 2010

The word “neutral” comes from the Latin ne-uter and means: neither one thing nor the other. An institution or a movement is neutral when it refrains from participating in a conflict or altercation and abstains from any interference. Refraining from participation and abstaining from interference can be for various reasons: it may be a question of self-preservation and self-assertion, of the judgement that good and bad, true and false are to be found on both sides, of holding back in the interests of a higher purpose or a special task. Neutrality may however have its origin in indifference, fear and cowardice. Neutrality in itself is therefore not a virtue.
Training the armed forces to respect international humanitarian law: The perspective of the ICRC Delegate to the Armed and Security Forces of South Asia
Authors: Roberts David Lloyd
Published: January 2010

This paper will briefly examine the legal obligation placed on States to respect international humanitarian law and to train their armed forces in the subject. The practical problems this can create and how they might be overcome will also be addressed. The approach taken by the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) to training in general and the particular approach being used in South Asia will be discussed.
The Protocols additional to the Geneva Conventions
Authors: de Preux Jean
Published: January 2010

The world now has a population of 5 billion, as against 1 billion in 1863 when the Red Cross was founded and the codification of the law of armed conflicts was initiated. For almost a century, the Red Cross concerned itself successively with soldiers wounded in action, victims of naval warfare, prisoners of war and civilians abandoned in wartime to the arbitrariness of foreign rule.
Comments on the Geneva Protocols
Authors: Aldrich George H.
Published: January 2010

My views concerning the negotiation of the 1977 Protocols were set forth some 13 years ago in my contribution to the book published in honor of Jean Pictet, and I do not want to repeat them here. But perhaps, from the perspective of the intervening years, there may be a few things I could usefully add.
Adoption of the 1977 Additional Protocols
Authors: Blishchenko Igor P.
Published: January 2010

The adoption of the 1977 Protocols additional to the 1949 Geneva Conventions for the protection of war victims was an event of great historic significance. In 1977 the States were convinced that developments in weaponry had made it necessary to adopt new rules of conduct in armed conflicts: methods of using conventional weapons were being perfected and the resulting casualty rates were approaching those of weapons mass destruction, affecting everyone without exception and also damaging the environment, and thus threatening the survival of entire nations. This fact persuaded the States to agree upon new rules of conduct in armed conflict.
The prohibition of reprisals in Protocol I: Greater protection for war victims
Authors: Obradovic Konstantin
Published: January 2010

It is not without reservations that I am responding to the invitation from the Review for ‘veterans’ of the Diplomatic Conference on the reaffirmation and development of international humanitarian law applicable in armed conflicts (hereafter the Diplomatic Conference) to commemorate the signing 20 years ago of the Protocols additional to the Geneva Conventions. On 8 June 1977, all of us who contributed in one way or another to the drafting of those texts felt a sense of relief at having finally achieved our task. We also felt a kind of exhilaration at the thought that we had successfully completed an important undertaking that would benefit war victims. The two Protocols represented a major leap forward in the law of armed conflict. It should not be forgotten that practically two-thirds of the international community have now ratified these instruments. Yet compliance with them regrettably remains far from satisfactory. I need hardly recite the tragic litany of conflicts over the past 20 years that bear out this deficiency. The case best known to me is that of the “Yugoslav wars” (1991–1995). They constitute the clearest example of the yawning gap between the law itself and the degree to which it is implemented. What is even more worrying is that all of this is taking place in a world where the demise of “totalitarianism” has left the world with what is, for all practical purposes, a single centre of power. This centre comprises those States which, since the International Peace Conference held in 1899 in The Hague, have been inspired by their democratic traditions and their attachment to human rights and the rule of law to play a leading role in developing, affirming and reaffirming what today constitutes international humanitarian law applicable in armed conflicts. I therefore believe that this divergence between the letter of the law and the conduct of those responsible for implementing it results from a lack of determination on the part of governments to “ensure respect” for that law throughout the world. I am in no doubt whatsoever that they have sufficiently efficacious means at their disposal to do so. What is missing, unfortunately, is the political will.
Persuading States to accept humanitarian treaties
Authors: Gasser Hans-Peter
Published: January 2010

At the close of the Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law (Geneva, 1974–1977), the representatives of the States party to the 1949 Geneva Conventions adopted, on 8 June 1977, two Protocols additional to those Conventions. Following a preparatory period including intense negotiations that lasted for nearly ten years, the new treaties were accepted, despite considerable obstacles, by the plenipotentiaries without a vote and without opposition. Though the solutions adopted for particularly controversial problems could not always suit everyone concerned, the diplomats, legal advisers and military experts who had taken part nevertheless had every reason to return to their capitals with a feeling of satisfaction.
The philosophy of international law: Suárez, Grotius and epigones
Authors: Villa Sergio Moratiel
Published: January 2010

Francisco Suárez, “the prince of modern jurists”, was accused by some of being a great anti-monarchist, even the first regicide, because he was the first “convinced and avowed republican”.

He incorporated Platonist, Aristotelian, Augustinian and Thomist ontology, metaphysics and theodicy within a legal framework; in urisprudence, he introduced the world of ideas into the material world; his discourse on law is valid for his own day and for all time. In dealing with abstract questions, he developed a philosophy of law that is applicable to concrete situations.
Humanitarian standards for internal strife — A brief review of new developments
Authors: Gasser Hans-Peter
Published: January 2010

In his book “A Memory of Solferino”, Henry Dunant set out two proposals for action on the international level to alleviate the suffering of war victims: the first was to have governments adopt an international treaty to be respected in time of war, and the second was to establish an organizational framework for ensuring compliance with such international obligations. Dunant seemed to realize that only the combination of international, treaty-based obligations and an organization to implement them could induce governments to act in the way he wished. The outcome of his proposals was of course the adoption of the Geneva Convention of 1864 on the one hand, and the founding of the Red Cross Movement on the other.
Humanitarian action and peace-keeping operations
Authors: Sommaruga Cornelio
Published: January 2010

The ICRC President, Mr. Cornelio Sommaruga, and his special adviser, Mr. André Pasquier, took part on 5 and 6 March 1993 in the 25th session of the Academy for Peace and International Security in Monaco, chaired by the Academy's President, Professor René-Jean Dupuy.
Opening message to the Second World Red Cross and Red Crescent Conference on Peace
Authors: Hay Alexandre
Published: January 2010

As we get down to the work of this Conference, I would like to say how grateful the International Committee of the Red Cross is for the opportunity of sharing with the whole Red Cross and Red Crescent movement a few general thoughts on the theme of peace and more particularly on the contribution to peace which may be expected of the ICRC.
Foreword by the former President of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
Authors: Cassese Antonio
Published: January 2010

The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (“the International Tribunal”) was established over four years ago in response to the mass killings, widespread and systematic rape and “ethnic cleansing” being practised in the former Yugoslavia on a scale and of a ferocity not seen on the European continent since the end of the Second World War. The United Nations Security Council considered that this situation constituted a threat to international peace and security. It therefore established the International Tribunal as a subsidiary judicial organ, in the belief that this would help halt and redress such violations.
The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Its role in the African context
Authors: Wembou Djiena
Published: January 2010

In the face of the atrocities committed in Rwanda between April and July 1994, the international community committed itself to ensuring respect for international humanitarian law and trying those responsible for breaches of it. Thus, on 8 November 1994, the United Nations Security Council adopted resolution 955 creating the International Criminal Tribunal for the prosecution of persons responsible for genocide and other serious violations of international humanitarian law committed in the territory of Rwanda and of Rwandan citizens responsible for such acts committed in the territory of neighbouring States.
Violations of international humanitarian law and measures of repression: the International Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
Authors: Quintana Juan José
Published: January 2010

The International Conference for the Protection of War Victims, held in Geneva from 31 August to 1 September 1993, urged all States to make every effort to

“ensure that war crimes are duly prosecuted and do not go unpunished, and accordingly implement the provisions on the punishment of grave breaches of international humanitarian law and encourage the timely establishment of appropriate international legal machinery …”.
The International Committee of the Red Cross and the implementation of a system to repress breaches of international humanitarian law
Authors: Dutli María Teresa , Pellandini Cristina
Published: January 2010

The fundamental instruments of international humanitarian law are well known. They are principally the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 1977, as well as an extensive framework of customary law. These instruments deal with issues of vital importance in times of armed conflict including protection of the wounded, sick and shipwrecked, prisoners of war and civilian internees, as well as the protection of the civilian population as a whole.
Arguments for restricting cluster weapons: Humanitarian protection versus “military necessity”
Authors: Prokosch Eric
Published: January 2010

Concerned about the terrible toll of land-mine injuries around the world, six organizations issued a call in October 1992 for an international ban on the use, production, stockpiling and transfer of antipersonnel mines. Other organizations have taken up the call, and the campaign is already having a big impact. One result of the pressure will be the convening, pursuant to a request by France, of a review conference on the 1980 Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May be Deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects. This renewed interest in controlling indiscriminate and excessively injurious weapons should not be confined to mines but should extend to other classes of modern antipersonnel weapons as well.
Greater solidarity for a more humane approach to development
Authors: Sommaruga Cornelio
Published: January 2010

“To unite Red Cross Societies throughout the world in a concerted effort to prevent, mitigate and alleviate the suffering caused by disease and major disasters”. This was the primary aim of the League of Red Cross Societies (now the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies) whose seventy-fifth anniversary we have just celebrated. The League, it will be recalled, was founded in response to the wishes of National Red Cross Society leaders and eminent representatives of the medical world — inspired by President Woodrow Wilson's ideals — to submit to Societies programmes of action in the general interest of humanity and coordinate their efforts in dealing with the scourges of that time.
Reversing the spiral of vulnerability
Authors: Forster Jacques
Published: January 2010

What can be done to counter the innumerable attacks on human dignity? This vexing question is today a global issue. Over the past 75 years — ever since the founding of the League of Nations and the International Labour Organisation — it has given rise to increasing concern. Indeed, the history of our century, with its seemingly endless succession of wars and economic crises, has furnished constant reminders of its urgency. The problem is currently taking on a new dimension in many States and international organizations, and it is in this context that “improving the situation of the most vulnerable”, the strategic aim of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, should be situated.
Vulnerability and capacity assessment in Europe
Authors: Sallin Lena
Published: January 2010

The Swedish Red Cross initiative to organize a workshop to exchange experience on vulnerability and capacity assessment in Europe and discuss the feasibility of conducting the assessment in a consistent manner was sparked by the report of the Working Group on the Implementation of the Strategic Work Plan for Europe (formed at the Fourth European Regional Conference in The Hague, in May 1992), which recommends that the European National Societies proceed with identifying vulnerable groups in their respective countries and initiate a discussion on future cooperation on vulnerability and capacity assessment.
The role of the Federation in communicable disease prevention and control
Authors: Msuya Cleopas Sila
Published: January 2010

As late as the 1970s, conventional wisdom in epidemiology held that communicable diseases were on their way out as the predominant contributor to the world's morbidity profile, and were being replaced by noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) comprising degenerative diseases such as diabetes, circulatory disorders and cancers, and by accidents. Except for the developing countries, most of the rest of the world was already experiencing this so-called “epidemiological transition” from the terrible epoch of famines and pestilence that lasted from the dawn of mankind to the middle of this millenium, followed by the age of epidemics that culminated with the influenza pandemics of the earlier part of this century, to the prevailing situation since the 70s where diseases largely due to changed lifestyles — lack of exercise, high-fat diet, smoking and other substance abuses — predominate.
Responding to global change
Authors: Weber George B.
Published: January 2010

The closing years of this century will be challenging ones indeed for all Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Vulnerability is increasing for much of the world's population as political and economic changes accelerate. Constraints on the resources that may be applied to meet the needs of the vulnerable are also becoming more numerous.
Recognition of the Bahrain Red Crescent Society (Circular No. 487 to the Central Committees)
Authors: Naville Marcel A.
Published: January 2010

Ladies and Gentlemen,

We have the honour to inform you that the International Committee of the Red Cross, on 14 September 1972, officially recognized the Bahrain Red Crescent Society.

The new Society formally applied for recognition by the International Committee on 16 October 1971. Its request was supported by various documents including its Statutes, the Bahrain Government Decree recognizing the Bahrain Red Crescent as a National Society auxiliary to the public authorities, a report on the Society's activities, and a copy of a letter containing a Bahrain Government statement of adherence to the Geneva Conventions.
Recognition of the Lesotho Red Cross Society (Circular No. 484 to the Central Committees
Authors: Naville Marcel A.
Published: January 2010

We have the honour to inform you that the International Committee of the Red Cross has officially recognized the Lesotho Red Cross Society with effect from 7 September 1971.

The new Society formally applied for recognition by the International Committee on 11 March 1971. Its request was supported by various documents including a copy of its Statutes and of the Act of 9 November 1967, a report on its activities and a letter containing a statement of adherence to the Statutes of the International Red Cross, received on 7 September 1971.
Protection of Journalists on Dangerous Missions in Areas of Armed Conflict
Authors: Pilloud Claude
Published: January 2010

Since some years, concern has been expressed on the part of various press associations on the dangers attending reporters who, in order to collect news material in the exercice of their profession, move into territories where hostilities are in progress.
During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 - The Birth of Red Cross Solidarity (II)
Authors: Segesvary Victor
Published: January 2010

The term “material relief” covers the very considerable aid provided by various Societies to wounded and sick soldiers of the belligerent countries. It included medical supplies and equipment, clothing, blankets and foodstuffs.
Anti-Personnel Mines
Authors: Cauderay Gérald C.
Published: January 2010

The problems associated with the use of anti-personnel mines, especially in Cambodia, Afghanistan, Kuwait and Angola, to mention but a few of the countries where they have been deployed in large numbers and in areas where they constitute a threat to civilians long after hostilities have ceased, call for closer examination.
Humanitarian policy and operational activities: ICRC activities for refugees and displaced civilians
Authors: Maurice Frédéric , de Courten Jean
Published: January 2010

The Red Gross has been involved with refugees for many years, in fact ever since the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement began assisting the victims of wars, revolutions and other disturbances. All the Movement's institutions take part at some stage in dealing with refugees, deportees and persons displaced within their own countries, for instance by providing protection in the countries of origin at the time of exile, setting up reception facilities in transit or first asylum camps and supplying material and medical aid, or by carrying out tracing activities and organizing family reunifications, not forgetting the support lent to those engaged in the often interminable and humiliating procedure of applying for asylum.
International Conference for the Protection of War Victims — What is to follow up the “follow-up”?
Authors: Khlestov Nikolay
Published: January 2010

The International Conference for the Protection of War Victims, held from 30 August to 1 September 1993 in Geneva, the “cradle” of humanitarian law, was an important event in international life. It gave an opportunity to diplomats of practically every nation not only to consider general issues of international humanitarian law, but also to discuss what to do in order to react adequately to the challenges of today, above all the escalation of armed conflicts and violations of international humanitarian law.
50th Anniversary of the ITS: The International Committee of the Red Cross and the International Tracing Service in Arolsen
Authors: Reynard Paul
Published: January 2010

The International Committee of the Red Cross was very pleased when the management and administration of the International Tracing Service (ITS) were transferred to it on 6 June 1955. In his address during the signing ceremony, the Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany, Mr. Konrad Adenauer, congratulated the ICRC on its willingness “to take over this task in accordance with the spirit of the Geneva Conventions”. In reply the President of the ICRC, Mr. Paul Ruegger, thanked the Federal German Chancellor and representatives of the member States of the International Commission for the ITS for the reliance placed in his institution.
The First “Prisoners of War Agency” Geneva 1914–1918
Authors: Chenevière Jacques
Published: January 2010

On the morning of September 12th, 1914, I presented myself at 3, rue de l'Athénée, the surprisingly modest headquarters of the International Committee of the Red Cross. Gustave Moynier, who was then unknown to me, one of the founders of this Genevese institution fifty years earlier, of which he had been President until 1910, said that he was also its door-keeper, because it was he who had the keys to the small, three roomed flat. It was there where the Committee's as yet by no means very considerable records were kept.
Nuclear weapons: a weighty matter for the International Court of Justice: Jura non novit curia?
Authors: Condorelli Luigi
Published: January 2010

It is easy to heap scorn on the Advisory Opinion handed down by the International Court of Justice on 8 July 1996 on the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons. No great cerebral effort is required; one need only choose any of the numerous and often harsh criticisms to be found in the declarations and the separate or dissenting opinions that all fourteen judges present took care to formulate, whether they agreed with the whole of the decision or voted against any of its paragraphs.
The Opinion of the International Court of Justice on the legality of the use of nuclear weapons
Authors: David Eric
Published: January 2010

Of the 51 opinions handed down by the Court of the Hague (28 by the Permanent Court of International Justice and 23 by the International Court of Justice), there is little doubt that the two delivered on 8 July 1996 in response to requests submitted by the WHO World Health Assembly and the United Nations General Assembly will become landmarks in the history of the Court, if not in history itself.
The Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on the legality of nuclear weapons
Authors: Fujita Hisakazu
Published: January 2010

The Advisory Opinion handed down by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on 8 July 1996 concerning the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons contains many elements that are of fundamental interest from the standpoint of international humanitarian law. Indeed, humanitarian law, which has developed to a remarkable extent since the Second World War, has always lacked an express ruling on nuclear weapons.
The International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion in the Nuclear Weapons Cases — A first appraisal
Authors: McNeill John H.
Published: January 2010

There were two requests for advisory opinions from the International Court of Justice — the first from the World Health Organization (WHO), and the second from the United Nations General Assembly.
The principles of international humanitarian law (III)
Authors: Pictet Jean
Published: January 2010

The word “neuter” comes from the Latin ne-uter, which means, neither the one, nor the other. Neutrality is an essentially neutral notion. It qualifies above all the abstention of someone who remains outside a conflict who does not openly express an opinion of either side.

In international law, neutrality is the opposite of belligerency. It is the position adopted, in relation to two Powers at war, by a State not taking part in the struggle. The status of neutrality regulated by juridical rules and in particular by the Hague Conventions involves rights and duties. In short, it implies refraining from taking part officially, either directly or indirectly, in hostilities. In the first place, therefore, it is a concept of an essentially military character. However, as a result of a recent evolution in events and thought, some people tend to think that neutrality should also have effect in the economic sphere, in view of its importance today in the war potential of countries.