bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Emulation through Decoration: A Science of Government ?
Authors: Ihl Olivier
Published: November 2023

IF we include the Croix de Guerre of the First and Second World Wars, the official number of French men and women who have been awarded decorations and are ‘ presumed alive’ is estimated at over 2 million. How is this honours table made up? The Legion d’ honneur has more than 200,000 honorands, the Compagnons de la Liberation just under 1,000 members, including five towns and 18 regiments. There are over 560,000 holders of the rnedaille rnilitaire and 130,000 of the Ordre du Merite, to say nothing of the swelling battalions of the Merite Agricole, the Croix de Guerre, or the Palmes academiques. Just one look at these figures is enough to confer upon these modest emblems the status of a systematic instrument of governance.
Famify and Childhood
Authors: Bergonzi Bernard
Published: November 2023

Tom Arnold was born on 30 November 1823, eleven months after his brother Matthew. Their father, the elder Thomas, was an energetic, active, ambitious young schoolmaster; he had married in 1820 and his first child, Jane, was born the following year. He had already embarked on his life’s work as a teacher, though this description understates his intense commitment to the idea of education. His father, William Arnold, had risen from modest beginnings in public service to become Collector of Customs on the Isle of Wight, to which in time were added the further posts of collector of dues for Trinity House, and superintendent of postal services. Thomas was born in 1795, the youngest of seven children, and had a happy childhood on the island. He watched with fascination the many ships that the Napoleonic wars brought into the port of Cowes; his father started to give him lessons in history and geography, but, alas, he died of a heart-attack before Thomas was 6. His mother, Martha, who had been appointed postmistress after her husbands death, continued the lessons, helped by her sister, Susan Delafield.
London Again
Authors: Bergonzi Bernard
Published: November 2023

In his autobiography, Tom Arnold passes in silence over the family crisis of 1876, his return to Catholicism and his retreat to London. Writing to Josephine on 5 November, he refers to a return to Oxford, though in the event it was only a brief visit:

Not that my wife’s resentment is at all appeased; on the contrary she writes that she and I must henceforth live as strangers. Poor thing! I know the blow must have been terrible to her, although she has had abundant warning that this is what I should do some time or other.
Golden Autumn
Authors: Bergonzi Bernard
Published: November 2023

Two weeks after Julia’s death Tom Arnold wrote to Thomas Collinson, now a retired general of engineers. Collinson had known Julia in Van Diemen’s Land, and Tom recalls that he had advised against the marriage:

Your advice was quite sound, for in many ways we were quite unsuited to one another; and yet not only was it impossible for me to take it, for she had subjugated me by her beauty to that degree that I belonged much more to her than to myself—but now I thank God with all my heart for having given us to one another, and hope, and believe, that I shall see and know my darling again on the other side of the grave.
Conclusions: Defining the Majority
Authors: Felling Margaret
Published: November 2023

As I hope has been demonstrated, there is no single definition which can apply to all the irregulars. Among other things, this constitutes a defeat for the College’s attempts at categorizing its opponents. The ‘excluded middle’ includes a finely divided and extensive range of individuals of both genders and all levels of educational attainment, overlapping significantly with the College’s own membership, and representing the full diversity of opportunities and constraints characteristic of the early mod ern metropolis. There is an absence of boundaries, either by gender or according to the tripartite model of practice. The irregulars are, however, given density and stability in the shape of the numerous London barber surgeons and apothecaries who regarded it as their right to practise in such a way as to include physic. But even these, in their way, were protean, providing valuable information on an artisan culture in flux. Similarly, ‘ordinary’ medical practice was stabilized by being contractual, but the urban conditions which originated contractual medicine also ensured the constant irruption of deviations from the norm.
The Smart Theory of Moral Responsibility and Desert
Authors: Arneson Richard J
Published: November 2023

The ‘Smart’ of my title is J. J.C. Smart. He has proposed an austere version of compatibilism.1 The generic doctrine of compatibilism holds that the claim—that all human choices are events in the physical world that are caused either deterministically or indeterministically—is compatible with moral responsibility and desert.2 According to Smart’s version, one is morally responsible for a choice one makes just in case praising or blaming, rewarding or punishing one for making the choice would produce good consequences by altering the future behavior of oneself or others. Compatibilism of this ilk does not include the assertion that free will and the causation of choices are compatible, and indeed Smart repudiates the libertarian idea of free will on the ground that it is logically incoherent and does not consider whether some watered-down notion of free will might make sense. If compatibilism plus determinism equals soft determinism, Smart’s doctrine merits the label ‘hard soft determinism’.
Semiology
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

Non-linguistic domain of pure thought, or devoid of and outside of vocal signs, made up of absolute quantities. Linguistic domain of the vocal sign (Semiology). Here it is as pointless to try and approach ideas divorced from signs as signs divorced from ideas. This domain encompasses at one and the same time relative thought, relative vocal figures, and the relationship between the two.
Grammar: categories
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

A grammatical category, like the genitive category for instance, is something that it is quite impossible to grasp, a term truly devoid of meaning, in the way in which we use it everyday. Obviously we are not trying to deny that this category is necessary for the mind, nor that it is necessarily represented in the various languages that we shall examine, nor that it is unitary in its general, or specific scope, for a given language.
Alternation
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

In this case treating what is a detail as though it were an important distinction would be tantamount to abandoning the essential object of inquiry. Sometimes it is possible to make out the (‘phonetic’) conditions underlying each of the alternating terms, or at least one of the two . . . (note: all our work points to these being thoroughly morphological since they are instant).
Literal and figurative meaning
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

Another, possibly much more expressive term may be used, but the fact remains that sun is not a positive idea, an idea outside the language system, which makes up the image: this comes simply from its contrast with other, more or less appropriate terms, such as star, constellation, light, whole, aim, joy, encouragement,.
Question of synonymy (continued )
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

Let us put it differently: if a word does not correspond to the idea of a material object, there is absolutely nothing that can determine its meaning otherwise than negatively. If however the word is associated with a material object, it might be said that the object’s very essence is likely to bring the word a positive meaning. This is not the place for the linguist to lay down that objects can only ever be known through the idea we create of them, and the good or bad comparisons we establish.
New Documents (from the Orangery manuscripts)
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

The misapprehension that the school of thought founded by [Franz] Bopp fell into at the outset was to assign to languages an imaginary body and existence separate from individual speakers. An abstraction relating to language, even if justifiably made, never in practice allows for anything other than limited applications—it is a logical device—so professing allegiance to an abstraction endowed with a body was an even greater obstacle . . .
Early Documents (from the Engler edition)
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

It is not only acoustically but in articulatory terms that obstruents (plosives and silibants) form a single unit. The sound b only starts at the moment when contact is established; 3282.1¼921it does not begin with the movement of closure, but with the position of closure; the preceding operation bears acoustically not on the b, but on the previous phoneme. 3282.1¼931  Explosion, on the other hand, can only begin after an opening, however small, has been produced. It marks the start of the opening movement.
New Documents (from the Orangery manuscripts)
Authors: Saussure Ferdinand de
Published: November 2023

Immaterial nature, as for any value, of what makes up units of langue. It is not acoustic matter, a vocal substance that It is quite impossible to consider langue without considering sound and sounds. Sound change is a crucial factor, but that does not stop sound being in a sense not part of its nature etc. Take the example of the matter of which a coin is made. It is not that this matter cannot be studied, but it would be foolish to believe that that is what constitutes the coin.
The Decad, A Scribal Curriculum
Authors: Black Jeremy , Cunningham Graham , Robson Eleanor , Zólyomi Brá
Published: November 2023

The Decad is the clearest example we have of a curricular grouping of Sumerian literary compositions. As its name suggests, there are ten works in the group. Evidence for its existence comes from a variety of sources. First, there are two ancient catalogues of Sumerian literary works, one excavated at Nibru (Literary catalogue from Nibru), and one unprovenanced but strikingly similar to the first, which both start by listing the members of the Decad in the same order. Another one, from Sippar, shares the first nine of those entries. Second, several large tablets and four-sided day prisms contain sequences of two or more Decad compositions in identical order to the catalogues.
Introduction
Authors: Hunneyball Paul M
Published: November 2023

This book is about cultural change in seventeenth-century England, specifically the adoption of new architectural styles at provincial level. In its broad outline, the story of how the vernacular traditions and idiosyncratic splendours of Tudor design were abandoned in favour of more strictly classical models derived from continental Europe is well known. Although the pace of developments varied across the country, this period witnessed a decisive shift in taste in both buildings and sculpture too far-reaching to be explained purely in artistic terms. Rather, it involved a substantial overhaul of building practice and craftsmanship, and a major reassessment by patrons of their social and cultural priorities.
Stylistic Innovation: Processes and Constraints
Authors: Hunneyball Paul M
Published: November 2023

In June 1690 Henry Guy, the wealthy former Treasury Secretary, received the signal honour of a visit by William III to his country seat, Tring Park. The house itself was a striking example of the latest taste, but the equally progressive gardens which Guy had planted around it were even more eye-catching. Although constrained in scale by the lack of a park, the basic layout was one of great splendour and formality, developed around vistas which led from the mansion’s three show-fronts. One main axis of the gardens featured a lengthy double avenue graced with ponds and a canal. The other took in ornamental shrubbery, two huge parterres which sloped down to a second canal, wide lawns, and a profusion of pavilions.
Stylistic Dissemination: Strategies and Perceptions
Authors: Hunneyball Paul M
Published: November 2023

In 1698 the gentleman architect and commentator Roger North contemplated the relative merits of brand new and modernized houses.

There is more art to cover faults, than to compose perfections. The latter may be done by authentick patternes and rules; but the other hath no patterne nor rule, but is the product of original skill. Old houses will have, to the present esteem, gross faults; and an artist by disposing the adjacent parts, both hide[s], and with small additions render[s] them ornamentall; at least to such eyes as are not very nice, or who have no hints of the defect given to draw the observation that way. A juggler, to conceal the action of one hand; points with the other earnestly to the roof. This draws away the spectators’ eyes.
Community Projects and the Limits of Elite Display
Authors: Hunneyball Paul M
Published: November 2023

In about 1613 Sir Baptist Hicks, a wealthy London mercer, began to build him self a country seat on his recently acquired estate at Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire. He probably obtained the design in the capital, and its cupola-crowned porch, curvilinear gables, loggia, and prominent moulded string courses certainly had much more in common with recent developments around London and the Court than with the pattern of local gentry housing. At almost the same time, Hicks curried favour in the town by constructing a set of almshouses just down the road from his own front gates.
Carl Peters and German Imperialism 1856—1918
Authors: Perras Arne
Published: November 2023

Carl Peters (1856-1918) ranked among Germany's most prominent imperialists in the Bismarckian and Wilhelmine periods. In the 1880s he emerged as a leader of the colonial movement and became known as the founder of Deutsch-Ostafrika, a region many Germans regarded as the pearl of their overseas possessions. In Nazi Germany he was revered as a precursor of Hitler and ascended retrospectively to new glory as a pioneer in the struggle for Lebensraum. This scholarly biography examines Peters's nationalist agenda and sheds light on his colonial expeditions into East Africa. It seeks to explain how this young academic who had written about Schopenhauer and metaphysics eventually became a skilful agitator for a German world empire.
King or Pawn? Peters on Kilimanjaro(189I—1892)
Authors: Perras Arne
Published: November 2023

On 2 June 1891, Carl Peters arrived in Tanga, ‘booted and spurred’,2 to meet the newly appointed governor, Baron Julius von Soden. The two Germans disliked each other from the very beginning. Soden, a full-blooded bureaucrat whom the Africans soon nicknamed Bwana Karatasi3—Mr Paper—had served six years in the Cameroons before he was appointed governor of East Africa in April 1891. He thus ranked among Germany’s more experienced colonial administrators and he was highly suspicious of Peters’s grand designs.
Strugglingfor a Political Comeback (1897—1918)
Authors: Perras Arne
Published: November 2023

The Peters story did not end with the decision of the appeal chamber. True, for the moment he seemed ‘a dead man in political terms’. In July 1896, Peters moved to London, and there he revived his interest in King Solomon’s legendary gold mines at Ophir. From 1899 he undertook various expeditions to the Zambesi region to prove that Manicaland, Mashonaland, and Matabeleland, were indeed Solomon’s Ophir as described in the Bible. However Peters’s theories failed to find general acceptance.3 He also founded a mining company, called ‘Dr. Carl Peters’s Estates and Exploration Co.’ (later renamed ‘South East Africa Ltd.’), and established various mines in southern Africa. In 19 rn, however, he sold the enterprise to a British group of financiers. According to his own statement, he lost around 170,000 marks in the venture.4 Peters private life also changed. At the age of 54 he decided to give up his life as a single man and married Thea Herbers from Iserlohn.
Mill Numbers and Revenues 13OO–1540
Authors: Langdon John
Published: November 2023

It is a curious fact when studying the Middle Ages that it is usually easier to measure possessions than people. This is certainly the case with watermills and windmills, which are recorded in a great variety of document types for medieval England. Much of this derives from the increasing tendency for English government and manorial officials to keep records for practical purposes over the Middle Ages, a phenomenon described as ‘pragmatic literacy’. Coupled with England’s fortunate history of being able to preserve its records, this has meant that many critical series of documents have survived for assessing the fortunes of milling in later medieval England, especially from the late thirteenth century onwards.These include on the government side documents such as inquisitions post mortem, mentioned in the last chapter, and on the manorial side, accounts, surveys, extents, and court rolls.
Workers and Customers
Authors: Langdon John
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I am going to consider the other two groups of people who were intimately involved with the milling industry: those who derived employment from it and those who patronized it. As we have already seen, the reach of the milling industry in terms of its distribution across the countryside was very broad indeed. On the one hand, this required an extensive personnel to enable the industry to function smoothly and without undue interruptions. The fact that the diverse episodes of very inclement weather, catastrophic disease, political crises, and severe bullion shortage characterizing the period did not lead to a devastating loss of mills but, in many instances, were instead dealt with by certain adjustments (such as, say, converting water corn-mills to industrial uses or the selective culling of windmills) is powerful testimony not only to a determined entrepreneurial spirit but also to a ready supply of operating and service personnel and a basically loyal consumer base.
Britain 1815–1914
Authors: Gee Austin
Published: November 2023

4061. Bendall, Sarah (ed.) Baker’s map of the town and university of Cambridge, 1830 (Cambridgeshire Records Society, 13). Cambridge: Cambridgeshire Records Society, 1998. 4062. Berry, Allan W. Early nineteenth century Sudbury. Colchester: A.W. Berry, 2002. 106p. 4063. Cohen, Edward H. (ed.) ‘Victorian bibliography for 1999’, Victorian Studies, 43:4 (2001), 699-839. 4064. Daunton, Martin James; Rieger, Bernhard (eds.) Meanings of modernity: Britain in the age of imperialism and world wars. Oxford: Berg, 2001. x, 250p.
Medieval Wales
Authors: Gee Austin
Published: November 2023

8382. Dumville, David N. (ed. & transl.) Anna/es Cambriae, A.D. 682-954: texts A-C in parallel (Basic texts for Brittonic history, 1). Cambridge: Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse, and Celtic, University of Cambridge, 2002. xix, 24p. 8383. Griffiths, Ralph Alan. ‘After Glyn Dwr: an age of reconciliation?’, Proceedings of the British Academy, 117 (2002), 139-64. 8384. Stephenson, David. The Aberconwy chronicle (Kathleen Hughes Memorial Lectures on Mediaeval Welsh History, 2). Cambridge: Hughes Hall and Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse, and Celtic, University of Cambridge, 2002. iii, 19p. 8385. Turvey, Roger. The Welsh princes: the native rulers of Wales 1063-1283. Harlow: Longman, 2002. xxxi, 215p.
Ireland Since c.1640
Authors: Gee Austin
Published: November 2023

See also [M]: 9350, 9362, 9364 See also [G]: 3042; [H]: 4089; [I]: 5993, 6004; [L]: 8840, 8851, 8853; [M]: 9656 9339. Anon. ‘Major accessions to repositories relating to Irish history, 2000’, Irish Historical Studies, 32:128 (2001), 579-80. 9340. Anon. ‘Major accessions to repositories relating to Irish history, 2001’, Irish Historical Studies, 33:129 (2002), 110-14. 9341. Almqvist, Bo. ‘C.W. von Sydow agus Eire: Scolaire Sualannach agus an Leann Ceilteach’, Bealoideas, 70 (2002), 3-50. 9342. Andrews, Roddie. Requiem for a village: a history of the village of Monkstown. Newtownabbey: Hollybank, 1998. 171p. 9343. Bradley, Jim. ‘Strabane in the wider world-famous people from the area’, A129, 267-85.
Introduction
Authors: Wickham Chris
Published: November 2023

The Study Of Italian legal procedures in the twelfth century, at least in the lands between Rome and the Alps, is inescapably associated with two of the best known developments in medieval European history: the establishment of communal government in the cities, and the rise of the schools of Roman and canon law in Bologna. The fact is well known; what is less often recognized is that the effect that these had on Italian law was at the least inconsistent, and in many ways contradictory.
Lucca: The Developinent of Judicial Procedures
Authors: Wickham Chris
Published: November 2023

How and why city communes appeared in northern and central Italy, in the decades around 1100, has been the object of endless debate for a century and more. There are perhaps three main reasons for this. First, city autonomy has long been regarded by Italians as one of the major features of their country’s history, and therefore the moment of its initial affirmation has had an important place in the construction of a national historiography; major symbolic moments in a nation’s past always provoke intense and never-finished arguments among historians.
Pisa: Roinan Law in Practice
Authors: Wickham Chris
Published: November 2023

Lucca was part of the first wave of Italian city communes to develop and stabilize institutional structures, as a background to the court strategies we have been looking at. It was not in most ways particularly atypical in its history, and had reasonably close parallels in a dozen or more cities in Tuscany and the Po plain. It certainly paralleled Pisa, its close neighbour and rival, in many ways: for one, their common history as cities of the march of Tuscany left them both almost wholly dominant over their dioceses already by 1100 or so, and their rural societies developed in the twelfth century along very similar lines.
Linguistic Fieldwork among Speakers of Endangered Languages
Authors: Grinevald Colette
Published: November 2023

Colette Grinevald was previously Colette Craig. The title of this chapter was suggested to me by Nancy Dorian whom I wish to thank here for her generous sharing of ideas and materials, and whose pioneering work in the field of endangered languages, including its issues of fieldwork, I wish to acknowledge here. I also want to thank Roberto Zavala for all the brainstorming time and effort he invested in the production of the original version of this chapter. While I think of myself simply as a spokesperson for the fieldworker colleagues from various continents with whom I know I share the concerns expressed here (in particular North American, Latin American, European, and Australian colleagues on career tracks parallel to mine over the last decades), I am also sure others could have been more eloquent and I will therefore take full responsibility for the likely awkwardness and roughness of my own statements.
Indigenous Languages of Formosa
Authors: Tsukida Naomi , Tsuchida Shigeru
Published: November 2023

Han Chinese are subgrouped into three: Holo (75 per cent), Hakka (13 per cent), and mainlanders (10 per cent). Their languages are not endangered. The ancestors of the Holo, which is one of their self-appelations, and the Hakka began to migrate to Taiwan in the seventeenth century. The Holo are from the Fujian province and speak a type of Southern Min dialect of Chinese, which is often called Taiwanese.
Introduction: The French Wars, Industrialization, and the Professions
Authors: Ackroyd Marcus , Brockliss Laurence , Moss Michael , Retford Kate , Stevenson John
Published: November 2023

The social history of the professions has attracted considerable attention in recent years, moving on from the narrative and institutional history of individual professions common in the past to a wider appreciation of the place of the professions in the broader historical and social context. Echoing the perspective taken by some of the first generation of sociologists, notably Weber, Harold Perkin in particular has argued that professionalization—the process whereby the professions became autonomous institutions controlling a field of knowledge or expertise and entered through competitive examination—is a key factor in the emergence of what we think of as ‘modern’ society.1
Education
Authors: Ackroyd Marcus , Brockliss Laurence , Moss Michael , Retford Kate , Stevenson John
Published: November 2023

One of the most crucial aspects of a nascent medical practitioner’s early education was instruction in the classics. It was a long-established precept, from R. Campbell in The London Tradesman in 1747, through Robert Hamilton’s Duties of a Regimental Surgeon Considered of 1787, to the pseudonymous Aesculapius’s Hospital Pupil’s Guide, published in 1818, that doctors should know Latin and Greek.1 During the Royal Commission on the Scottish Universities in 1826, as Michael Moss and Derek Dow have outlined, much discussion took place as to the degree of classical knowledge required by candidates for the MD. Some promoted the idea that all medical students should have previously taken an MA and recommended an improved grounding in classics and languages. However, others feared that such stipulations would drive away students, cause a decline in numbers, and thereby make the institution less attractive to the best medical professors.2
Contextualism and the New Linguistic Turn in Epistemology
Authors: Ludlow Peter
Published: November 2023

According to the thesis of contextualism in epistemology, many of our knowledge attributions (including self-attributions) are context sensitive. That is, a particular knowledge attribution uttered in one context might be true, while more or less the same attribution, uttered in a context with different epistemic standards, might be false. Typically, one might think of contexts with lower epistemic standards as holding in informal chats in a bar, while higher standards might hold in a court of law or a discussion of skepticism in an epistemology class. This basic idea can be embodied in two apparently distinct formulations.
What Shifts? Thresholds, Standards, or Alternatives?
Authors: Schaffer Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Much of the extant discussion of epistemic contextualism focuses on the question of whether contextualism resolves skeptical paradoxes. Understand ably. Yet there has been less discussion as to the internal structure of context-ualist theories. Regrettably. Here, for instance, are two questions that could stand further discussion: (i) what is the linguistic basis for contextualism, and (ii) what is the parameter that shifts with context? The question of linguistic basis can be understood as a request for an explanation of how the truth conditions for knowledge ascriptions are sup-posed to shift with context. Is there some extra variable hidden in the syntax? Is ‘knows’ to be treated as a semantic indexical? Are there general indices of semantic evaluation that impact knowledge ascriptions? Or … ? (Here the range of options will depend on one’s overall view of the levels of linguistic structure-further discussion of this issue is under way in this volume.)
The Phonology of Polish
Authors: Gussmann Edmund
Published: November 2023

This book is the most complete phonology of contemporary Polish ever published. It is topic-oriented and presents the fundamental characteristics and problems associated with each topic, among them syllable structure, vowel-zero alternations, palatalizations, and other vowel and consonant changes. Professor Gussmann re-examines assumptions about phonological contrasts and alternations, and raises and addresses central questions in morphophonology. He takes morphophonology to be systematically separate from phonology. Palatalizations, he shows, are crucial to Polish, as both phonological and morphophonological phenomena: their detailed description leads him to a systematic presentation of vocalic alternations. The book develops a Government Phonology account of Polish, but is primarily a description of the language with the model subordinated to the organization of data. All the many examples used to illustrate the presentation are transcribed in standard IPA, and translated. This important book will interest all scholars and advanced students of Polish and Slavic phonology.
Palatalizations and the Vowel System
Authors: Gussmann Edmund
Published: November 2023

The chapter presents the phonology of palatals and palatalized consonants. The discussion is placed against the background of the earlier descriptions within the structuralist and the generative traditions which viewed the palatalization complex in largely divergent ways. What is common to all traditions is the mutual dependence of consonantal and vocalic units (phonemes, segments) and relations (rules). This insight is adopted here and consonantal palatalization phenomena are studied in close connection with vocalic variability (vowel alternations).
The Morphophonology of Polish Palatalizations
Authors: Gussmann Edmund
Published: November 2023

Based on the results arrived at in the preceding chapter we argue for a full-fledged morphophonological description of alternations involving palatals and palatalized consonants on the one hand and plain segments on the other. Morphophonological regularities, in contradistinction to phonological ones, are partly conditioned by grammatical (morphological) and lexical factors. This does not mean that they are necessarily erratic or irregular. Some of the alternations are regular and productive with both inflectional and derivational sufixes. The non-phonological conditioning is also seen in the absence of any non-arbitrary connection between the phonological environment and the nature of the changes the alternations reflect. We formulate several replacement statements which account for the alternations. A number of derivational suffixes are surveyed with a view to determining their palatalizational properties.
Morphophonology of Vowel Alternations
Authors: Gussmann Edmund
Published: November 2023

The mid vowel [ɛ] alternates with the back vowel [ɔ] and the low [a] before a non-palatalized coronal. The alternations are morphophonological as shown by the fact that the context of the alternations is often made opaque: the alternation is found in forms contradicting the context and is not found in others which meet the conditions specified. It is argued that the best method of handling the facts is by introducing relatedness statements into appropriate lexical entries.
Introduction
Authors: Chihara Charles S
Published: November 2023

The field of philosophy is divided into a number of specialties. Among these, there is philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, philosophy of logic, philosophy of art, philosophy of history, philosophy of religion, and so on. For practically any area X of intellectual study, there is a philosophy of X. As a general rule, one can say that the philosophy of X is aimed at achieving a kind of understanding of X that is unique to philosophy. One might call this sort of understanding “Big Picture understanding”.
Structuralism
Authors: Chihara Charles S
Published: November 2023

What has emerged from the preceding chapter is an inchoate view of pure mathematics that has much in common with the philosophical accounts of the nature of mathematics being developed and defended in great detail by Resnik and Shapiro—views that have been called “mathematical structuralism” or more simply “structuralism”. In this chapter, I shall examine various aspects of the structuralist philosophies of mathematics of both Resnik and Shapiro, with the aim of clarifying, by way of contrast with their accounts, my own view of mathematics. I hope, in this way, to avoid having to defend my views against misguided objections that are only suitably directed against structuralism.
Applications
Authors: Chihara Charles S
Published: November 2023

One test of a philosophical view of mathematics is to see whether it helps us to understand, at least in a general way, how mathematics is used or “applied” in the empirical sciences, logic, and everyday life. An adequate view of mathematics should facilitate obtaining insights into the role mathematics plays in our theorizing about the physical world and about valid scientific reasoning—it should not make scientific and everyday uses of mathematics a complete mystery. This chapter, then, is concerned with the sort of Big Picture first described in the Introduction: we want to see how mathematics fits in with science, logic, and everyday reasoning. We wish to see if the account of mathematics provided thus far allows us to see how mathematics is suited to play the sort of role it has been given in science, logic, and everyday life.
Field’s Account of Mathematics and Metalogic
Authors: Chihara Charles S
Published: November 2023

My anti-realist position throughout this work has been that the theorems of mathematics, literally and Platonically construed, are not true. Such a position may suggest to some that I am a (mathematical) “fictionalist”—where a fictionalist is one who holds that the assertions of mathematics express, for the most part, “untruths”, as do the sentences of works of fictions.1 Now the best-known fictionalist is Hartry Field, so it may be enlightening to the reader to learn just how my view of mathematics differs from Field’s. As I shall emphasize below, our views on mathematics are, in several respects, quite similar.
Conceptualizing ‘Transition’
Authors: Hohnen Pernille
Published: November 2023

Tremendous changes have taken place during the last fifteen years all over the former ‘Eastern bloc’, i.e. the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. These changes are by far the most important European political events in the second half of the twentieth century. However, the road to democracy and market economy has proved to be more difficult and involved more hardship, poverty, political conflicts, and civil wars than was anticipated by either Eastern or Western Europe when the Berlin Wall was pulled down in 1989.
From ‘Speculation’ to Trading
Authors: Hohnen Pernille
Published: November 2023

The market may not only be regarded as ‘a site’ but can also be seen as a specifically morally invested ‘practised place’ as well as a specific phase in the process of change within the economic field. Although illegal trading practices have long formed an important factor within the Lithuanian economy, it was not until Gariū nai was established that such practices and the people engaged in them became publicly recognized. The establishment of the market therefore entails and indicates fundamental processes of reorganization within the economic field.
Osorio and Machiavelli: From Open Hostility to Covert Approbation
Authors: Anglo Sydney
Published: November 2023

Long before Pole wrote his Apologia, the Emperor Charles V, for whom it was intended, had been offered Nifo’s De regnandi peritia. There is no evidence that Charles ever read that cynical manipulation of Machiavelli’s ideas, though he was later said to have been a devoted student of Machiavelli.1 On the other hand we do know that the Emperor had been deeply unimpressed by Pole’s diplomacy in 1539, and it is unlikely that the platitudinous political morality of the Apologia, written at the same period, would have pleased him better had it been presented to him. Yet, despite the fact that this critique remained in an unregarded manuscript version for more than two centuries, there is one tiny morsel of evidence to suggest that Pole was deemed knowledgeable concerning Machiavelli.
Writers on the Art of War
Authors: Anglo Sydney
Published: November 2023

The war epidemic which afflicted Europe in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries was accompanied by a marked increase in the publication of military books-ranging from up-to-date, practical, technical manuals to treatises on classical military institutions and procedures-and it is remarkable that, despite all the changes in organization, weaponry, and fortification since Machiavelli’s time, the military observations which filled his works continued to provide nourishment for many authors concerned with the art of war. All his books remained available; and intermediary sources, too, such as Fourquevaux’s Instructions sur le faict de la guerre and Diego de Salazar’s Tratado de re militari, were still being reprinted in the closing decades of the sixteenth century, as were the classical sources which formed the basis of Machiavelli’s thinking.
Systematic Fragmentation: The Vogue of the Political Aphorism
Authors: Anglo Sydney
Published: November 2023

Life is short, the Art is long, opportunity fleeting, experience treacherous, judgement difficult. The physician must be ready, not only to do his duty himself, but also to secure the co-operation of the patient, of the attendants and of externals.
Introduction to Part I
Authors: Vendler Z
Published: November 2023

The science of computational linguistics requires a variety of tools, both theoretical and practical. In order to process temporal information in natural language, we need core theories from linguistics, computational approaches to interpreting tense, aspect, and discourse structure, as well as temporal reasoning capabilities. The papers in this part cover the core linguistic theories dealing with tense and aspect, as well as computational approaches to interpreting them.
An Empirical Approach to Temporal Reference Resolution
Authors: Wiebe Janyce , ‘Hara Tom O , Mckeever Kenneth , M-Sandgren Thorsten O¨ Hrstro¨
Published: November 2023

Temporal information is often a significant part of the meaning communicated in dialogs and texts, but is often left implicit, to be recovered by the listener or reader from the surrounding context. Determining all of the temporal information that is being conveyed can be important for many interpretation tasks. For instance, in machine translation, knowing the temporal context is important in translating sentences with missing information. This is particularly useful when dealing with noisy data, as with spoken input (Levin et al. 1995). In the following example, the third utterance could be interpreted in three different ways.
Politics and Reform in Spain and Viceregal Mexico
Authors: Toledo Cayetana Alvarez De
Published: November 2023

This book examines the relationship between Spain and America in the seventeenth century through the life and thought of Juan de Palafox (1600-1659), a proteg of the count-duke of Olivares who became bishop of Puebla and Visitor General of New Spain. A witness to the catastrophic consequences of Olivares' plan to abrogate the political heterogeneity of the Spanish monarchy, and more sensitive than his patron to the constitutional diversity of the empire, Palafox developed an alternative programme for reform which involved delegating power to the American municipalities controlled by the creoles. His support for creole aspirations and attempt to carry out a radical plan for administrative decentralization threatened to overturn the established viceregal system and met with strong opposition in government circles. Faced with domestic revolt and war in Europe, ministers in Madrid chose to stand by the status quo and preserve a model of overseas government which, although in many ways defective and prone to abuse, at least seemed to offer the crown the measure of authority required for satisfying its growing financial requirements. Reform in America was sacrificed to the preservation of Spain's reputation in Europe. Yet the fact that Palafox failed in no way undermines the importance of his endeavour. By promoting a different political arrangement between Spain and the Indies, he thrust under the spotlight the main problem faced by Spanish statesmen of this period, that of ruling a composite monarchy at a time of mounting international pressure. This book contributes, therefore, to our understanding of the way in which the transatlantic relationship worked and developed; it redresses the deficit of studies of the Spanish practice of empire and raises questions that are relevant to other composite political structures. It does so at the same time as it revises and throws new light on the figure of Palafox, whose achievements and failures have been analysed so far almost exclusively with reference to his famous dispute with the Jesuits. By setting Palafox firmly in the context of his time, this study revises old commonplaces and assists current efforts to reconstruct the human fabric of the Spanish empire, a field of research which is only just beginning to receive the attention it deserves.
The New World
Authors: Toledo Cayetana Alvarez De
Published: November 2023

Back in Madrid from his European tour, Palafox took up his post as public prosecutor in the Council of the Indies. It was not long before he was promoted. On 14 July 1633, following the death of don Busto de Bustamante, he was appointed councillor and, under the direction of don Garcia de Haro y Avellaneda, second count of Castrillo, president of the Council from 1632, discovered the complicated art of governing a remote and unfamiliar New World. All those questions on the limits of political obligation and the best form of government which Palafox had addressed in relation to the European territories of the Spanish Monarchy, he would now have to raise with regard to the Indies. In order to fully understand his views on the overseas government and the reforms which he believed it required, it is first necessary to examine how the administration of the American territories operated, on what premises royal authority was exercised, and what were its conceptual and practical limitations; in other words we must examine the logic of empire in the seventeenth century. It is also important to take into account the objectives which the central government of the Spanish Monarchy, in particular the person at its helm, the count-duke of Olivares, set for itself concerning the New World in the 1620s and 1630s.
The Case for Referential Descriptions
Authors: Devitt Michael
Published: November 2023

De finite descriptions (‘de finites’) typically have the form, ‘the F ’, but may also have forms like ‘his F ’ (equivalent to ‘the F of him’). Indefinite descriptions (‘indefinites’) have the form, ‘a/an F ’. According to Russell’s theory of descriptions (1905), ‘the F is G ’ is equivalent to ‘there is something that is alone in being an F and it is G ’; and ‘an F is G ’ is equivalent to ‘there is something that is an F and it is G ’. So descriptions are to be understood in terms of quantifiers and the nominal ‘F ’. Under the impudence particularly of Keith Donnellan (1966, 1968), many now think that de finites are ‘ambiguous’, having not only the ‘attributive’ meaning captured by Russell1 but also a ‘referential’ meaning like that of a name or demonstrative. Under the impudence particularly of Charles Chastain (1975),2 some now think the same of indefinites.
Would You Believe It? The King of France is Back! (Presuppositions and Truth-Value Intuitions)
Authors: Fintel Kai von
Published: November 2023

This chapter is concerned with the contrast between two kinds of sentences involving de finite descriptions. When people are asked to assign truth-values, they feel ‘squeamish’ about The king of France is bald , while they confidently and without hesitation judge My friend went for a drive with the king of France last week to be false. This contrast has often been taken to show that the first sentence has no truth-value because its presupposition (that there is a king of France) is not satisfied, while the second sentence has no presupposition of existence (of a king of France) and is thus simply false.
Phonology
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R
Published: November 2023

Jarawara has a small inventory of phonemes just eleven consonants and four vowels. Syllable structure follows a simple (C)V pattern. There are contrastive long vowels, but with limited occurrence. Counting a long vowel as two moras and a short vowel as one mora, stress falls on the syllable containing the penultimate mora and every second mora before that, in a phonological word.
Grammatical Overview
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R
Published: November 2023

This chapter presents an introductory overview of the grammatical system of Jarawara. Each topic that is mentioned here is dealt with in more detail in a later chapter. All of the discussion here and in the chapters that follow is in terms of basic syntactic functions, referred to by abbreviatory letters: intransitive subject S transitive subject A transitive object O A copula clause shows quite different syntactic functions: copula subject CS copula complement CC Copula subject behaves in many ways like intransitive subject. For this reason, there is no specific mention of CS for many of the grammatical statements in the body of the grammar.
Predicate Structure: Secondary Verbs, Mood, and Negation
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with the remaining elements from the end of the predicate. 7.1 discusses the two secondary verbs ama ‘extended in time ‘ and awine/awa ‘seems ‘, which go in slot I. Then 7.2 considers the indicative mood suffixes together with other suffixes that are asso- ciated with slot J (imperative and interrogative mood suffixes are dealt with in chapter 15). Finally, the category of negation is discussed, in 7.3. In Jarawara this is shown by the predicate suffix - ra, which appears either in miscellaneous slot F6 d or in the post-mood slot, K, depending on which of tense-modal suffix, mood suffix, and secondary verb are included in the predicate.
Verbal Derivations: Causative and Applicative
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R
Published: November 2023

This chapter discusses two further predicate constituents the third order prefix (coming immediately before verb or auxiliary root) causative na-niha- ( 8.1), and the second order prefix (coming immediately before causative), applicative ka- ( 8.2). The causative prefix always increases the valency of a verb and can be added to intransitive or transitive roots. Applicative has a wide range of functions, one of which is to increase valency (only when used with an intransitive verb); it can also have when used with intransitive or transitive verbs a range of semantic effects.
Verbal Reduplication
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R
Published: November 2023

Reduplication is used a fair amount in derivation between word classes. A free noun may be formed from a verb by initial CV. (occasionally by initial CVCV.) reduplication, e.g. kokosi ‘whip’ from kosina- ‘to whip, spank’. Sometimes an object noun is incorporated, e.g. jama jo.jowi ‘broom’ from noun jama ‘thing’ and verb jowi na- ‘to sweep ’. There are also some examples of a verb being derived from an adjective, a possessed noun or a free noun by reduplication; e.g. hi.hinita -na- ‘to be empty of fish (said of a stream)‘ from adjective hinita ‘empty, alone ‘, tone.tone -na- ‘to be skin-and-bones‘ from possessed noun tone/tone ‘bone ‘, and fafanawina- ‘to be like a woman‘ from free noun fanawi ‘woman ‘.
Complement Clauses
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R
Published: November 2023

Some verbs, as predicate head, require just NPs as core arguments, whereas others may accept an NP or a complement clause in certain roles. For instance, in English one can say IA tried [ the pudding]O, with an NP in O slot, or IA tried [ to eat the pudding]O, with a complement clause in O slot. There are three main types of complement clause in English, each with distinctive meaning‘sing, that, and (for) to. In English, complement clauses most frequently occur in O slot, for example: For a full account of complement clauses in English, see Dixon (1991: 32-84, 207-66). Jarawara has just one type of complement clause that can function as core argument in the main clause.