bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
‘From the Author’s own Original Manuscript’
Authors: Batt Jennifer
Published: August 2020

This chapter explores the frantic burst of publishing activity that followed Queen Caroline’s patronage of Stephen Duck. This activity was instrumental in shaping how Duck and his work would be viewed during his life and beyond. Duck’s verse was initially published without his, or his patrons’, consent; as it quickly became a bestseller, it was followed onto the market by a slew of rival, pirated, and spurious pamphlets. Duck and his patrons had very little control over how work issued in his name was presented to the reading public, and, as this chapter reveals, their complaints very quickly became embroiled in a fiercely contested dispute about authority, authenticity, and accuracy. Duck’s patrons and supporters found it difficult to gain a hearing; their sincere statements were crowded out by competing assertions issued by energetic, innovative, and financially motivated booksellers and printers. As this chapter argues, the more that Duck’s supporters tried to object to the unauthorized reproduction of Duck’s verse, the more opportunities they created for others to raise doubts about Duck’s capabilities as a poet.
‘Some Gentleman-like Title, as that of The Revd’
Authors: Batt Jennifer
Published: August 2020

This chapter focuses on the career change that defined the last decade or so of Stephen Duck’s life: his decision to join the clergy. This decision, and the advancements that Duck subsequently received in the Church, were controversial to those onlookers who had always viewed him and his talents sceptically. Even some of those who had been able to tolerate a thresher having pretensions to poetry found Duck’s new ambition to be a priest to be risible. As this chapter explores, though Duck did have his supporters as he pursued this new career, his progress was not always smooth. He was involved in a protracted and highly personal row which focused on his class position; he discovered that advancement in the Church was as tied to patronage as anything in the literary realm; and the career that must have seemed at the beginning to offer him such possibilities may, possibly, have contributed to his death. This chapter concludes by exploring the narratives that developed to explain Duck’s probable suicide.
The Value of Conditionals
Authors: Williamson Timothy
Published: August 2020

This introductory chapter sketches the near-ubiquitous role of conditional statements, questions, and commands in human cognitive life and decision-making. It emphasizes that the standard way of instantiating a known or hypothesized generalization ‘Every F is a G’ is with a conditional, ‘If this is an F, it is a G’; this matters in both everyday life and science. The chapter also sketches how conditionals are passed from one context to another by memory and testimony. These features of our use of conditionals suggest desiderata for the semantics of conditionals. In particular, various kinds of computational complexity and context-sensitivity would tend to unfit conditionals for the cognitive role they are expected to play.
Consequences of the Suppositional Rule
Authors: Williamson Timothy
Published: August 2020

This chapter argues that the Suppositional Rule is a fallible heuristic, because it has inconsistent consequences. They arise in several ways: (i) it implies standard natural deduction rules for ‘if’, and analogous but incompatible rules for refutation in place of proof; (ii) it implies the equation of the probability of ‘If A, C’ with the conditional probability of C on A, which is subject to the trivialization results of David Lewis and others; (iii) its application to complex attitudes generates further inconsistencies. The Suppositional Rule is compared to inconsistent principles built into other linguistic practices: disquotation for ‘true’ and ‘false’ generate Liar-like paradoxes; tolerance principles for vague expressions generate sorites paradoxes. Their status as fallible, semantically invalid but mostly reliable heuristics is not immediately available to competent speakers.
Heuristics within Heuristics
Authors: Williamson Timothy
Published: August 2020

Since the suppositional heuristic is quite abstract, in practice further applications of heuristics may be needed to implement it. One strategy is to partition the relevant space of possibilities into separate, comparatively homogeneous cells, apply the suppositional heuristic to each, and combine the results. The effect is typically to equate the probability of the conditional with the conditional probability locally but not globally; however, the outcome is then sensitive to which partition is used. This chapter discusses such a strategy, and also the problems raised by conditionals embedded in the antecedents or consequents of conditionals, which lead to applications of the suppositional heuristic to simpler sentences as a subroutine within its application to the complex sentence.
Conditional Testimony
Authors: Williamson Timothy
Published: August 2020

This chapter shows how reliance on testimony in conditional form can produce violations of the Suppositional Rule, including realistic cases where speakers rationally accept both ‘If A, C’ and ‘If A, not C’ in the same context. Attempts to explain away the phenomena in terms of sensitivity to the epistemic context or failure of conditionals to express propositions fail to do justice to the phenomena. Cases of slightly less than perfect trust in conditional testimony are particularly hard for such views to handle properly. The neglect of the interplay between the primary suppositional heuristic and the secondary testimonial heuristic has led to widespread misinterpretation of Gibbard’s Sly Pete case and similar examples.
Thought Experiments and ‘Would’
Authors: Williamson Timothy
Published: August 2020

In The Philosophy of Philosophy, the author used counterfactual conditionals to analyse the logical connections underlying thought experiments. That analysis was conducted in the framework of something like Lewis’s semantics of counterfactuals; this chapter adjusts it to the present account of counterfactuals as contextually restricted strict conditionals. The main line of argument goes through as before, but with some improvements in flexibility: anaphora between antecedent and consequent no longer requires complications in the treatment of natural language sentences, and ‘unintended’ worlds can be treated as excluded by the contextually relevant restriction, so that they do not falsify the counterfactual at issue.
Conclusion
Authors: Williamson Timothy
Published: August 2020

This brief chapter draws some methodological morals from the preceding arguments. Semantics must beware of what scientists call overfitting the data, complicating the theory to fit data which may be unreliable, a process which tends not to yield equilibrium. One source of unreliability is human reliance on heuristics for assessing sentences, since their truth-value in a context is not epistemically transparent to us. This non-transparency explains why the role of heuristics cannot be reduced to standard Gricean mechanisms in pragmatics, which typically work off literal truth-conditions: but sameness of truth-conditions is not transparent to speakers, and heuristics may treat sentences with the same truth-conditions differently. Semantics needs to take into account the role of heuristics as a distinctive source of error in its (apparent) data
Stress
Authors: Sutton Adrian P.
Published: August 2020

The concept of stress is introduced in terms of interatomic forces acting through a plane, and in the Cauchy sense of a force per unit area on a plane in a continuum. Normal stresses and shear stresses are defined. Invariants of the stress tensor are derived and the von Mises shear stress is expressed in terms of them. The conditions for mechanical equilibrium in a continuum are derived, one of which leads to the stress tensor being symmetric. Stress is also shown to be the functional derivative of the elastic energy with respect to strain,which enables the stress tensor to be derived in models of interatomic forces. Adiabatic and isothermal stresses are distinguished thermodynamically and anharmonicity of atomic interactions is identified as the reason for their differences. Problems set 2 containsfour problems, one of which is based on Noll’s insightful analysis of stress and mechanical equilibrium.
Dislocations
Authors: Sutton Adrian P.
Published: August 2020

Plastic deformation involves planes of atoms sliding over each other. The sliding happens through the movement of linear defects called dislocations. The phenomenology of dislocations and their characterisation by the Burgers circuit and line direction are described. The Green’s function plays a central role in Volterra’s formula for the displacement field of a dislocation and Mura’s formula for the strain and stress fields. The isotropic elastic fields of edge and screw dislocations are derived. The field of an infinitesimal dislocation loop and its dipole tensor are also derived. The elastic energy of interaction between a dislocation and another source of stress is derived, and leads to force on a dislocation. The elastic energy of a dislocation and the Frank-Read source of dislocations are also discussed. Problem set 6 extends the content of the chapter in several directions including grain boundaries and faults.
The force on a defect
Authors: Sutton Adrian P.
Published: August 2020

This chapter is based on Eshelby’s static energy-momentum tensor which results in an integral expression for the configurational force on a defect. After elucidating the concepts of a configurational force and an elastic singularity the mechanical pressure on an interface, such as a twin boundary or a martensitic interface, is derived. Eshelby’s force on a defect is derived using both physical arguments and more formally using classical field theory. It is equivalent to the J-integral in fracture mechanics. The Peach–Koehler force on a dislocation is rederived using the static energy-momentum tensor. An expression for an image force is derived, where a defect interacts with a free surface.
Cracks
Authors: Sutton Adrian P.
Published: August 2020

Loaded slit cracks are modelled as continuous distributions of dislocations with infinitesimal Burgers vectors. Cauchy-type singular integral equations for the density of Burgers vector in these distributions are solved using the theory of Chebyshev polynomials. The elastic fields of mode I elastic slit cracks are derived and the stress intensity factor is defined. Other defects may interact with cracks such as dislocations. This leads to the concepts of shielding and anti-shielding of cracks by dislocations. The Dugdale–Bilby–Cottrell–Swinden model of a mode I crack completely shielded by a plastic zone is derived. By introducing a dislocation free zone between the plastic zone and the crack tip the crack tip is only partially shielded, enabling more brittle tendencies to be described. Griffith’s energy criterion for the growth of an existing crack is seen as necessary but not sufficient. The Barenblatt crack introduces the influence of interatomic forces at the crack tip.
Open questions
Authors: Sutton Adrian P.
Published: August 2020

Four areas requiring further research are introduced and possible PhD projects are identified. They are (i) workhardening, (ii) electroplasticity, (iii) mobility of dislocations and (iv) hydrogen-assisted cracking. In each case the topic is introduced and key questions are identified. Self-organised criticality and slip bands are considered in the discussion of work hardening. The impact of drag forces is considered in the discussionof dislocation mobility. Possible mechanisms for hyfrogen-assisted cracking include hydrogen-enhanced decohesion (HEDE), adsorption-induced dislocation emission (AIDE) and hydrogen-enhanced localised plasticity (HELP).
Formalized Evaluation
Authors: Espeland Wendy
Published: August 2020

This chapter analyzes rankings as a powerful, formal mode of evaluation. After raising a series of questions that are important for understanding evaluation more broadly, it illustrates their generative effects by applying them to rankings. In doing so it emphasizes the importance of neo-liberalism as the context for rankings, the distinctive cognitive relationships that rankings produce, the expertise that they challenge, their relationship to markets, and their effects on those who live with their judgments. It concludes by suggesting that such formal modes of evaluation represent a quest to limit the uncertainty and ambiguity that humans face.
Weathering Winner-Take-All
Authors: Velthuis Olav , Doorn Niels van
Published: August 2020

Over the last decade, the global sex industry has been radically transformed by the rise of webcam sex platforms. This chapter shows how rankings are constitutive of competition in this new, emerging part of the sex industry. The ranking algorithms are highly contested among performers, in particular because of their opaque nature and the strong winner-take-all dynamics which they propel. Creating deep uncertainty and anxiety among performers, the algorithms are widely seen as unfair. However, the wider assemblage of market devices constituted by webcam sex platforms enable performers to circumvent the rankings at least to some degree. Moreover, on discussion forums where performers negotiate strategies to make a living, they actively share experiences of algorithms on competing platforms, discuss which algorithm suits their interests best, and consider vacating to rival platforms. Indeed, how market competition is organized within platforms, is constrained by competition between platforms.
The Freedom of Criticism
Authors: Small Helen
Published: August 2020

This chapter turns to the terrain of cultural criticism, with a predominantly literary focus. It develops an account of the attraction of Arnoldian criticism (with its ‘free play of ideas’) to the strong ironies, comic flair, and ‘sarcastic turns’ of cynicism—modes of argument that challenge and assist Arnold’s critical authority, and that become the subject of his most explicit critical reflection when he writes about a German literary cynic, of the generation before him, for whom he had a keen affection: Heinrich Heine. The chapter traces the process by which the kinds of cynicism that Arnold admired and (finally) found wanting in Heine became components of the style and content of his own public moralism, increasingly targeted to the work of describing and attacking the opponents of ‘culture’. The final section of the chapter considers a late reanimation of Arnold’s cynicisms in the context of his encounters with American democratic culture.
Random Genetic Drift in Small Populations
Authors: Hartl Daniel L.
Published: August 2020

Chapter 6 deals with the consequences of random genetic drift in finite populations and includes details of the diffusion approximations and their solutions as well as conditional diffusion processes. It includes probabilities of fixation and conditional times to fixation for neutral and nonneutral alleles. Various scenarios of mutation, migration, and selection are examined with regard to the stationary distributions of allele frequency. The Ewens sampling formula and its importance is discussed, as well as its implications for the distribution of the number of alleles in samples. An analysis of allozyme polymorphisms supports the hypothesis that most amino acid polymorphisms in natural populations are slightly deleterious.
Molecular Population Genetics
Authors: Hartl Daniel L.
Published: August 2020

Chapter 7 is an introduction to molecular population genetics that includes the principal concepts of nucleotide polymorphism and divergence, the site frequency spectrum, and tests of selection and their limitations. Highlighted are rates of nucleotide substitution in coding and noncoding DNA, nucleotide and amino acid divergence between species, corrections for multiple substitutions, and the molecular clock. Discussion of the folded and unfolded site frequency spectrum includes the strengths and limitations of Tajima’s D, Fay and Wu’s H, and other measures. The chapter also discusses an emerging consensus to resolve the celebrated selection–neutrality controversy. It also includes examination of demographic history through the use of ancient DNA with special emphasis on the surprising findings in regard to the ancestral makeup of contemporary human populations. Also discussed are the population dynamics of transposable elements in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Population Genetics of Complex Traits
Authors: Hartl Daniel L.
Published: August 2020

Chapter 8’s focus is on the genetic architecture of complex traits determined jointly by multiple genes and environmental factors. Sometimes called quantitative genetics, the basic concepts include components of genetic and environmental variance, genotype-by-environment interaction, genotype-by-environment association, correlation between relatives, and broad-sense and narrow-sense heritability. It distinguishes between physiological and statistical epistasis, and it shows why the former can be large while the latter may be negligible. Various types of artificial selection are considered, and individual truncation selection is examined in detail, culminating in the famous prediction equation R = h2S. Special topics include genomic selection, correlated response, selection limits, and the heritability of liability of threshold traits.
Complex Traits in Natural Populations
Authors: Hartl Daniel L.
Published: August 2020

This chapter could as well be titled “Population Genomics,” although many aspects of population genomics are integrated throughout the other chapters. It includes estimates of mutational variance and standing variance, phenotypic evolution under directional selection as measured by the linear selection gradient, and phenotypic evolution under stabilizing selection. It explores the strengths and limitations of genome-wide association studies of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and expression (eQTLs) to detect genetic influencing complex traits in natural populations and genetic risk factors for complex diseases such as heart disease or diabetes. The number of genes affecting complex traits is considered, as well as evidence bearing on the issue of whether complex diseases are primarily affected by a very large number of genes, almost all of small effect, and how this bears on direct-to-consumer and over-the-counter genetic testing. The population genomics of adaptation is considered, including drug resistance, domestication, and local selection versus gene flow. The chapter concludes with the population genomics of speciation as illustrated by reinforcement of mating barriers, the reproducibility of phenotypic and genetic changes, and the accumulation of genetic incompatibilities.
Spiritual Traditions and the Virtues
Authors: Wynn Mark R.
Published: August 2020

This book develops a philosophical appreciation of the spiritual life. Specifically, it aims to show how a certain conception of spiritual good, one that is rooted in Thomas Aquinas’s account of infused moral virtue, can generate a distinctive vision of human life and the possibilities for spiritual fulfilment. Among other matters, the text examines the character of the goods to which spiritual traditions are directed; the structure of such traditions, including the connection between their practical and creedal commitments; the relationship between the various vocabularies that are used to describe, from the insider’s perspective, progress in the spiritual life; the significance of tradition as an epistemic category; and the question of what it takes for a spiritual tradition to be handed on from one person to another. So, while the discussion aims to make some contribution to the discipline that we standardly call the philosophy of religion, it has a rather different focus from some familiar ventures in the field, in so far as it starts from a consideration of the nature of spiritual goods and of traditions that seek to cultivate such goods. In his account of the virtues, Aquinas suggests how it is possible for our relations to the everyday world to be folded into our relations to the divine or sacred reality otherwise understood. In this sense, he is offering a vision of how it is possible to live between heaven and earth. This book considers how that vision may be extended across the central domains of human thought and experience, and how it can deepen and diversify our understanding of what it is for a human life to be lived well.
Concluding Remarks
Authors: Wynn Mark R.
Published: August 2020

This brief concluding section notes one further dialectical context within which the main themes of this book may be located. Secular critiques of religion commonly suppose that theistic accounts of the world, if true, would establish a distinction between humanly endorsed values and the values that are in some way embedded in the nature of things—so undermining the freedom of human beings to live according to their own sense of what is good. This section responds to this objection, noting how it rests on a misreading of the structure of religious commitment, as that has been understood here.
Japanese Private Universities in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Breaden Jeremy , Goodman Roger
Published: August 2020

Private higher education is an increasingly significant, ramified, and yet still conspicuously understudied topic. This chapter sets out various established and emerging models of private higher education, explaining key variables such as the relationship with state authority, diversity of institutional structures and modes of governance, and the interplay of social and commercial missions. It then asks where the Japanese system fits within these models and suggests a number of features which Japan shares with other countries. One of these features is the reliance of the state on the demand-absorbing role of private institutions—not one which is peripheral to the public system but rather the dominant mode of higher education provision and especially important in periods of rapid growth in participation rates. The chapter proceeds to develop a more Japan-specific profile of the private sector, establishing the definitional scope of private higher education in Japan and placing the numerical dominance of the private sector in direct contrast with its absolute disadvantage in terms of public investment. It also explains that, despite this handicap, private institutions do enjoy certain privileges in terms of governance structures, taxation, and scope of operations, and also boast distinctive educational strengths. To provide a context for understanding these features, the chapter also provides an in-depth history of the Japanese private university. This is offered as a conscious alternative to more orthodox historical accounts which tend to place national universities in the limelight and treat their private counterparts as a cast of supporting characters.
MGU 2008–18
Authors: Breaden Jeremy , Goodman Roger
Published: August 2020

This chapter continues the ethnographic account of the private university known as ‘MGU’ introduced in the previous chapter. It starts by explaining the most major reform project undertaken at MGU in the mid-2000s: the establishment of a graduate law school. It sets this story in the context of the history of law education in Japan and outlines the system of new graduate law schools introduced in 2004 before telling the story of the establishment and disestablishment of the MGU Law School itself. It gives an outline of the new graduate law schools and then tells the story of the establishment and disestablishment of the MGU Law School. It concludes that in the case of MGU, it was almost certainly better institutionally that the university had opened a law school rather than it had not, even though it closed after only a few years. The rest of the chapter looks at the other reforms which MGU introduced from the mid-2000s. These included reductions in admissions quota, full-time staff and fees, and the rationalization of facilities. Teaching and the student experience were taken much more seriously by the academic staff. Changes were also made in courses and course names. These and other reforms aside, there was also a significant generational shift within MGU’s owning family, as a new generation emerged and as the family itself sought to lead by example in the reform process. Overall, these responses helped MGU to survive the severe challenges it had faced in the mid-2000s and set if on an apparently stable course for the 2020s.
Introduction
Authors: Wilson T. K.
Published: August 2020

How has political violence changed over the long term? This introduction makes the case for looking closely at specific acts—or ‘repertoires’—of violent action. Only through such a fine-grained approach can the distinctively modern quality to contemporary violence be isolated analytically: including its frequently impersonal nature—the killing of strangers referenced in the book’s title. The definitional and geographical parameters of the study are briskly sketched: and the overall structure delineated. An early emphasis is placed here on both ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors in shaping modern political violence. Push factors concern chiefly the rise of the modern western state undergirded by bureaucracies of extraordinary coercive power and reach. ‘Pull’ factors refer to the technological and social changes that open up radically new opportunities and possibilities for violence.
The Resources of Civilization
Authors: Wilson T. K.
Published: August 2020

Borrowing from a phrase of Gladstone’s, this chapter offers thematic reflections on the long-term trajectory outlined in Chapters One and Two. It notes the general aggregation of coercive state power up until the advent of the ‘network society’ of the late twentieth century. Frustratingly for analysts, risk managers, and prophets, the early twen ty-first century looks set to remain open-ended. In any longer-term perspective, the domestic strength of Western governments remains massively impressive. Their coercive capabilities and bureaucratic information-processing capacities remain intact, if they have not actually been enhanced by the information-processing revolutions. States, in short, may not be intrinsically much weaker than they were before the 1990s. And the conspiracies they face remain, if anything, more primitive. But public moods are certainly more febrile: more alarmist, more confused, and more embittered.
The Epistemic Innocence of Irrational Beliefs
Authors: Bortolotti Lisa
Published: August 2020

Ideally, we would have beliefs that satisfy norms of truth and rationality, as well as fostering the acquisition, retention and use of other relevant information. In reality, we have limited cognitive capacities and are subject to motivational biases on an everyday basis, and may also experience impairments in perception, memory, learning, and reasoning in the course of our lives. Such limitations and impairments give rise to distorted memory beliefs, confabulated explanations, elaborated delusional beliefs, motivated delusional beliefs, and optimistically biased beliefs. In the book, Bortolotti argues that some irrational beliefs qualify as epistemically innocent, where the notion of epistemic innocence captures the fact that in some contexts the adoption, maintenance or reporting of the beliefs delivers significant epistemic benefits that could not be easily attained otherwise. Epistemic innocence is a weaker notion than epistemic justification, as it does not imply that the epistemic benefits of the irrational belief outweigh its epistemic costs. However, it clarifies the relationship between the epistemic and psychological effects of irrational beliefs on agency. It is misleading to assume that epistemic rationality and psychological adaptiveness always go hand-in-hand, but also that there is a straight-forward trade off between them. Rather, epistemic irrationality can lead to psychological adaptiveness and psychological adaptiveness in turn can support the attainment of epistemic goals. Recognising the circumstances in which irrational beliefs enhance or restore epistemic performance informs our mutual interactions and enables us to take measures to reduce their irrationality without undermining the conditions for epistemic success.
Optimistically Biased Beliefs
Authors: Bortolotti Lisa
Published: August 2020

In this chapter, the author argues that optimistically biased beliefs that agents tend to have about themselves and their future have the potential for epistemic innocence. Such beliefs—inflated beliefs about the agent’s self-worth and rosy predictions about the agent’s health prospects or romantic relationships—are not sufficiently sensitive to the evidence available to the agent and count both as ill-grounded and impervious to counterevidence. However, optimistic beliefs also play a role in supporting agency. When agents believe that they are skilled and that things are going to go well for them, they are more motivated to continue to pursue their goals in the face of inevitable obstacles and setbacks. Persistence in goal pursuit sometimes translates in successful performance. Moreover, optimistic agents are more motivated to change their behaviour to achieve the goals they believe to be attainable, and thus cope better with crises in their health or relationships.
The Significance of Epistemic Innocence
Authors: Bortolotti Lisa
Published: August 2020

In the concluding chapter, the author revisits the significance of the epistemic innocence framework in the light of the applications of epistemic innocence to distorted memory beliefs, confabulated explanations, elaborated delusional beliefs, motivated delusional beliefs, and optimistically biased beliefs in the preceding chapters. The somewhat counterintuitive conclusion is that some of the beliefs regarded as paradigmatic instances of epistemic irrationality can be attributed significant epistemic benefits, in the sense that they either enhance or restore epistemic functionality. The wider implications of the epistemic innocence project for research in philosophy and psychology are reviewed, and the limitations acknowledged.
Reading Metamorphosis in Ovid’s Metamorphoses
Authors: Barchiesi Alessandro
Published: August 2020

The influence of the Metamorphoses on Western culture is of such magnitude that the preceding tradition is at risk of vanishing from sight. Nonetheless, Ovid’s poem obviously stems from the Greek tradition. On many points, Ovid’s sources have been mapped and precursors pointed out. This chapter’s exposé turns the perspective in a most illuminating way: instead of looking for similarities, it uses the conclusions of previous research to define more closely what actually makes Ovid different from his precursors. In this way, the chapter is able to define a number of instances where Ovid on the one hand utilizes tradition, but on the other hand also transforms it and approaches metamorphosis in new ways. The instances the chapter maps span a wide register: state of origin and destination of the transformation, kinds, causes, and reversibility of metamorphosis, aetiological and genealogical functions, issues of continuity and communication, et cetera. Applying this perspective, the chapter paves the way for a number of new, future studies.
HAC Arethusa TENUS (Met. 5.642)
Authors: Ntanou Eleni
Published: August 2020

Arethusa is a symbol who in Ovid’s Metamorphoses is transferred from Elis to Sicily and transformed into a Romanized figure. This chapter demonstrates how Ovid uses Arethusa’s geographical transition to thematize her transposition into a different cultural context—that of Italy, as well as a new generic frame—that of epic. The chapter explores how the delineation of space in the Arethusa story and the altering of her identity contribute to the narrative of Met. 5, as well as to the broader poetic mapping of the ever-changing world in the Metamorphoses. Ovid activates in the spatial context of Arethusa’s story the possibilities offered by Arethusa’s past in colonial myths and in pastoral poetry in order to renew the poetics of epic. The story of Arethusa’s and Alpheus’ travel was traditionally deployed in ancient geographical treatises and in the mapping of the world stemming from colonialism. Ovid picks up Arethusa’s association with migration and her metapoetic symbolism to renew the epic genre, by systematically mapping out Arethusa’s travel.
The Bavarian Commentary and the Beginning of the Medieval Reception of the Metamorphoses
Authors: Böckerman Robin Wahlsten
Published: August 2020

This chapter explores the earliest material witnesses to the medieval reception of Ovid’s Metamorphoses and shows what they can tell us about what attracted the medieval reader to Ovid’s great work. The earliest witnesses consist of two families of freestanding commentaries, both of which seem to stem from Bavaria around the year 1100. This chapter demonstrates how the commentaries make use of several different interpretative strategies. These include, of course, explanations focussed on the mythological background, but also comments on the grammar and vocabulary of the Metamorphoses, as well as explanations focussing on neoplatonic cosmography and Euhemeristic interpretations of Ovid’s work. As this is the first documented stage of adapting, and in that sense transforming, Ovid’s Metamorphoses for later readers, the categories of commentary discerned also lay the foundation for relating and understanding later stages of the tradition.
Generality and Objectivity in Frege’sFoundations of Arithmetic
Authors: Demopoulos William
Published: August 2020

This chapter argues for two principal contentions, both of which mark points of divergence from the neo-Fregean position first developed in Crispin Wright’s monograph Frege’s Conception of Numbers as Objects, and developed further in an extended series of works by Wright and Bob Hale. First, that Frege can be regarded as addressing the apriority of arithmetic in a manner that is independent of the ideas that numbers are logical objects or that arithmetic is analytic or a part of logic. Second, that Frege can secure the objectivity of arithmetic in a way that is independent of the idea that numbers are logical objects.
Logicism and Second-Order Logic
Authors: Boolos George S.
Published: August 2020

This chapter outlines an argument to the effect that there is no reduction of arithmetical truth to logical truth, where “logic” is understood to be elementary (first-order) logic, or any system of logic whose theses form an effectively generable set. It suggests, however, that it leaves open the possibility of a significant reduction of arithmetic to something that might be called a system of logic. By investigating metatheoretic differences between first- and second-order logic, it explores the extent to which second-order logic might play a role in facilitating such a reduction.
Quandary and Intuitionism
Authors: Schiffer Stephen
Published: August 2020

This chapter offers a sustained commentary on Crispin Wright’s paper “On Being in a Quandary: Relativism, Vagueness, Logic Revisionism.” It begins by giving a brief introduction to the issues surrounding vagueness and the sorites paradox before going on to reconstruct the main argument of Wright’s paper “Vagueness: A Fifth Column Approach”. It then proceeds to endorse Wright’s principal reasons for discounting epistemicist and supervaluationist treatments of vagueness. The chapter then develops a critique of Wright’s technical notion of quandary and of his attempt to solve the Sorites Paradox along intuitionistic lines. Despite venturing some criticisms, the chapter concludes that Wright is correct in thinking that vagueness needs to be explained in terms of the sort of quandary state one is in when one takes a proposition to be borderline.
Inferentialism, Logicism, Harmony, and a Counterpoint
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: August 2020

Inferentialism is explained as an attempt to provide an account of meaning that is more sensitive (than the tradition of truth-conditional theorizing deriving from Tarski and Davidson) to what is learned when one masters meanings. The logically reformist inferentialism of Dummett and Prawitz is contrasted with the more recent quietist inferentialism of Brandom. Various other issues are highlighted for inferentialism in general, by reference to which different kinds of inferentialism can be characterized. Inferentialism for the logical operators is explained, with special reference to the Principle of Harmony. The statement of that principle in the author’s book Natural Logic is fine-tuned here in the way obviously required in order to bar an interesting would-be counterexample furnished by Crispin Wright, and to stave off any more of the same.
CCCP
Authors: Hale Bob
Published: August 2020

This chapter is concerned with Crispin Wright’s critique, in his 2002 “The Conceivability of Naturalism,” of the well-known argument developed in Saul Kripke’s Naming and Necessity against the identity of pain with C-fibre firing. Kripke argued that if the identity held it would do so necessarily, so that the identity theorist would have the task of explaining away the apparent conceivability of pain without C-fibre firing and C-fibre firing without pain. Wright identified a principle underlying Kripke’s argument (the “Counter-Conceivability Principle,” to the effect that a clear and distinct conception of a situation is the best possible evidence of its possibility), and suggested that Kripke’s deployment of it against the identity theory resulted in failure. The present chapter raises some doubts about the details of Wright’s diagnosis of the flaw in Kripke’s argument, and makes a contribution of its own to our understanding of the aetiology of modal illusion.
Circus Workers and Trade Unions
Authors: P R Nisha
Published: August 2020

Circus has always figured in the common sense as a place of extreme exploitation with dangerous working conditions, wretched living conditions, miserable wages, irregular working hours, physical and mental harassments, and insecure employment and life. But, strangely, if we look at the history of trade unions in India we would hardly find a circus workers’ union. This chapter talks about the Akhil Bharat Circus Karmachari Sangh organized under the Communist Party in late 1960s, which succeeded to an extent to establish a workers’ circus—owned, worked, and managed by the workers. The chapter also discusses the emergence of the only existing circus workers’ union in India now, the Indian Circus Employees Union, under the tutelage of Indian National Congress.
A randomized trial of iPad distraction to reduce children’s pain and distress during intravenous cannulation in the paediatric emergency department
Authors: Ali Samina , Ma Keon , Dow Nadia , Vandermeer Ben , Scott Shannon , Beran Tanya , Issawi Amir , Curtis Sarah , Jou Hsing , Graham Timothy A D , Sigismund Leanne , Hartling Lisa
Published: August 2020

Objectives

We compared the addition of iPad distraction to standard care, versus standard care alone, to manage the pain and distress of intravenous (IV) cannulation.

Methods

Eighty-five children aged 6 to 11 years requiring IV cannulation (without child life services present) were recruited for a randomized controlled trial from a paediatric emergency department. Primary outcomes were self-reported pain (Faces Pain Scale-Revised [FPS-R]) and distress (Observational Scale of Behavioral Distress-Revised [OSBD-R]), analyzed with two-sample t-tests, Mann–Whitney U-tests, and regression analysis.

Results

Forty-two children received iPad distraction and 43 standard care; forty (95%) and 35 (81%) received topical anesthesia, respectively (P=0.09). There was no significant difference in procedural pain using an iPad (median [interquartile range]: 2.0 [0.0, 6.0]) in addition to standard care (2.0 [2.0, 6.0]) (P=0.35). There was no significant change from baseline behavioural distress using an iPad (mean ± SD: 0.53 ± 1.19) in addition to standard care (0.43 ± 1.56) (P=0.44). Less total behavioural distress was associated with having prior emergency department visits (odds ratio [95% confidence interval]: −1.90 [−3.37, −0.43]) or being discharged home (−1.78 [−3.04, −0.52]); prior hospitalization was associated with greater distress (1.29 [0.09, 2.49]). Significantly more parents wished to have the same approach in the future in the iPad arm (41 of 41, 100%) compared to standard care (36 of 42, 86%) (P=0.03).

Conclusions

iPad distraction during IV cannulation in school-aged children was not associated with less pain or distress than standard care alone. The effects of iPad distraction may have been blunted by topical anesthetic cream usage.

Clinical trials registration

ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02326623.
Explainable Deep Learning Reproduces a ‘Professional Eye’ on the Diagnosis of Internal Disorders in Persimmon Fruit
Authors: Akagi Takashi , Onishi Masanori , Masuda Kanae , Kuroki Ryohei , Baba Kohei , Takeshita Kouki , Suzuki Tetsuya , Niikawa Takeshi , Uchida Seiichi , Ise Takeshi
Published: August 2020

Recent rapid progress in deep neural network techniques has allowed recognition and classification of various objects, often exceeding the performance of the human eye. In plant biology and crop sciences, some deep neural network frameworks have been applied mainly for effective and rapid phenotyping. In this study, beyond simple optimizations of phenotyping, we propose an application of deep neural networks to make an image-based internal disorder diagnosis that is hard even for experts, and to visualize the reasons behind each diagnosis to provide biological interpretations. Here, we exemplified classification of calyx-end cracking in persimmon fruit by using five convolutional neural network models with various layer structures and examined potential analytical options involved in the diagnostic qualities. With 3,173 visible RGB images from the fruit apex side, the neural networks successfully made the binary classification of each degree of disorder, with up to 90% accuracy. Furthermore, feature visualizations, such as Grad-CAM and LRP, visualize the regions of the image that contribute to the diagnosis. They suggest that specific patterns of color unevenness, such as in the fruit peripheral area, can be indexes of calyx-end cracking. These results not only provided novel insights into indexes of fruit internal disorders but also proposed the potential applicability of deep neural networks in plant biology.
Fetal safety of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine use during pregnancy: a nationwide cohort study
Authors: Andersson Niklas Worm , Skov Lone , Andersen Jon Trærup
Published: August 2020

Objective

The antimalaria 4-aminoquinoline drugs chloroquine and HCQ are used in the treatment of a wide range of CTDs. Data to inform on the safety of their use in pregnancy are limited.

Methods

In a Danish nationwide cohort study from 1996 through 2016, we identified 4-aminoquinoline–exposed pregnancies from a cohort of 1 240 875 pregnancies to investigate the associated risks of major birth defects, preterm birth, and small size for gestational age (SGA). Distinct study cohorts of propensity-score–matched 4-aminoquinoline-exposed and unexposed pregnancies (in a 1:1 ratio) were established for each outcome analysis. The association with the outcomes was assessed by prevalence odds ratios (ORs) estimated through logistic regression. The associated risks for chloroquine and HCQ were individually assessed through additional analyses.

Results

A total of 1487 pregnancies exposed to 4-aminoquinolines (1184 chloroquine- and 303 HCQ-exposed) were identified. Among the 983 pregnancies exposed to 4-aminoquinolines in the first trimester, 34 infants (3.5%) were diagnosed with major birth defects as compared with 36 (3.7%) among the matched unexposed pregnancies (prevalence OR, 0.94; 95% CI: 0.59, 1.52). Exposure to 4-aminoquinolines in pregnancy was neither associated with an increased risk of preterm birth (prevalence OR, 0.97; 95% CI: 0.73, 1.28) or SGA (prevalence OR, 1.18; 95% CI: 0.93, 1.50), compared with unexposed pregnancies. No significant associations between exposure to chloroquine or HCQ individually and risk of the outcomes were identified.

Conclusion

Among pregnancies exposed to 4-aminoquinolines (chloroquine and HCQ), no increased risk of major birth defects, preterm birth, or SGA was identified.
Creeping Crimmigration in CEAS Reform: Detention of Asylum-Seekers and Restrictions on Their Movement under EU Law
Authors: Majcher Izabella
Published: August 2020

This article analyses freedom-restricting measures set forth in the Reception Conditions Directive and its proposed recast; it does so through the lens of the concept of crimmigration, understood as convergence between criminal and (administrative) immigration and asylum law. To tackle “secondary movements” within the European Union (EU), the proposed amendment of the Directive establishes a broad understanding of the risk of absconding, which can justify detention, and expands the restrictions on asylum-seekers’ freedom of movement. The article argues that asylum detention under EU law pursues penal law objectives, such as deterrence and retribution. Restriction on freedom of movement, on its part, may amount to systematic surveillance. This observed crimmigration phenomenon is detrimental to migrants and refugees because the incorporation of criminal law objectives into asylum law has an asymmetric form. Although states subject non-citizens to increasingly punitive measures, the administrative label of immigration detention and restrictions on movement allows them to evade due process guarantees, which typically accompany criminal law proceedings. As the article proposes, appropriate interpretation and application of the principles of lawfulness and proportionality with respect to detention and restrictions on freedom of movement will help circumscribe the scope of the phenomenon of crimmigration under the EU asylum legislation.
Rosa26 docking sites for investigating genetic circuit silencing in stem cells
Authors: Fitzgerald Michael , Livingston Mark , Gibbs Chelsea , Deans Tara L
Published: August 2020

Approaches in mammalian synthetic biology have transformed how cells can be programmed to have reliable and predictable behavior, however, the majority of mammalian synthetic biology has been accomplished using immortalized cell lines that are easy to grow and easy to transfect. Genetic circuits that integrate into the genome of these immortalized cell lines remain functional for many generations, often for the lifetime of the cells, yet when genetic circuits are integrated into the genome of stem cells gene silencing is observed within a few generations. To investigate the reactivation of silenced genetic circuits in stem cells, the Rosa26 locus of mouse pluripotent stem cells was modified to contain docking sites for site-specific integration of genetic circuits. We show that the silencing of genetic circuits can be reversed with the addition of sodium butyrate, a histone deacetylase inhibitor. These findings demonstrate an approach to reactivate the function of genetic circuits in pluripotent stem cells to ensure robust function over many generations. Altogether, this work introduces an approach to overcome the silencing of genetic circuits in pluripotent stem cells that may enable the use of genetic circuits in pluripotent stem cells for long-term function.