bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Investigation of Intergranular Oxidation in Type 310 Stainless Steel
Authors: Keith R. E. , Siebert C. A. , Sinnott M. J.
Published: August 2009

Stainless steels are among those classes of alloys subject to preferential attack at grain boundaries by atmospheric oxygen at elevated temperatures. Boundary oxidation becomes important in high-temperature applications of thin sheet. The present investigation was undertaken in order to establish the effects of time and temperature on intergranular oxide penetration and to determine whether appreciable differences in composition exist between the intergranular oxides and the external scales. Intergranular penetration of oxides has been noted in 18-8 stainless steel by Baeyertz (1), who identified the intergranular material metallographically as consisting of a Cr2O3-rich phase and a glassy silicate phase. Other investigators, (2, 3, 4) have reported the presence of intergranular oxidation both in ferrous and non-ferrous systems. Rhines (5) has reported that in the case of copper-base binary alloys, intergranular segregation of solute oxides tended to disappear at higher temperatures, being replaced by a uniform oxide dispersion. It has been known for some time that the external scales formed on stainless steels are usually composed of two phases, one having a rhombohedral crystal structure and the other, a face-centered-cubic crystal structure (6). The rhombohedral phase has been shown to consist of solid solutions of Fe2O3 and Cr2O3 compounds which can perhaps best be denoted by FexCr2−xO3, where 0 ≤ x ≤ 2. The cubic phase is a spinel, which has been variously identified as NiCr2O4, FeCr2O4, Fe3O4, or MnCr2O4 (6, 7). These spinels in the pure state have lattice parameters ranging from 8.299 kX for NiCr2O4 to 8.428 kX for MnCr2O4 (see Table I). Recent work (8) shows that the system Fe(Fe2−xCrx)O, where 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, has lattice parameters which vary in an irregular fashion between 8.350 and 8.390 kX, a range which covers most of the reported lattice parameters for stainless steel scale spinels. In addition to this iron-chromium spinel phase, however, it has been shown (9) that MnCr2O4 exists as a separate phase in the chromium-nickel stainless steels. Thus, three separate phases, all of which were found in this investigation, are to be expected as being stainless steel scale components—FexCr2−xO3, Fe(Fe2−xCrx)O4, and MnCr2O4.
The Effects of Speed in the Mechanical Testing of Plastics Testing
Authors: Dietz A. G. H. , McGarry F. J.
Published: August 2009

The mechanical test behavior of most plastics materials is so complex that it is necessary to divide the subject into reasonably natural categories to discuss it effectively. For this purpose, a primary division between destructive and nondestructive tests may be made, and each of these divisions, in turn, may be further divided on the basis of the time scale of the test concerned. In both primary divisions there exist tests which may be termed long-time, short-time, and dynamic. Obviously this second categorization into three sub-groups is not so absolute as the first. The concept is felt to be qualitatively valid, however, and will be pursued here. The reason why plastics are time-dependent or sensitive in their mechanical behavior can be found in their molecular structure (1). Unlike crystalline materials, plastics rarely possess any repetitive, ordered geometrical pattern of structure. The long chain molecules describe tortuous, three-dimensional paths throughout the bulk of the material, resulting in a thoroughly tangled and entwined structure. When such an affair is loaded, it can deform in three ways: (1) primary valence bond deformation, (2) valence bond rotation, and (3) displacement of a chain segment with respect to its neighbors. All of these three mechanisms can be initiated simultaneously, but the latter two require a much longer time, comparatively, for their effects to be evident, despite the fact that their magnitudes greatly overshadow the valence bond deformation effect if the load is allowed to act for an appreciable interval. As a consequence, the externally measured deformation of a plastic specimen consists of the summation of the three effects, the individual parts of which are not easily dissociated and identified. The existence of a distribution of relaxation mechanisms with distinctive time scales further complicates the situation. Add to this the fact that the fracture strengths of many plastics depend upon the rate of deformation or load application employed, and it becomes obvious that the only practical way to assess the time influence on mechanical properties is to observe those properties under the rate conditions of interest. A review and discussion of the various methods for so doing, and the results which they reveal, constitute the balance of this paper.
Preliminary Data Obtained in Constant Strain Rate Tests
Authors: Ruggers George R.
Published: August 2009

Preliminary data on the speed of testing of plastics have been obtained in the Ordnance Corps' Plastics Laboratory using a constant ϵ rate tension test instead of the usual constant rate of crosshead motion test. The data were obtained by the use of a three-coil transformer attached to the specimen. The output voltage of this coil was determined by the length of iron core inserted within the coils. A similar transformer was set up so that the core was inserted at a constant predetermined rate. The output voltages of these two transformers were compared, and any error present was corrected by the automatic speeding up or slowing down of the crosshead motion. In this fashion, the stressing was performed so as to result in a constant ϵ rate. The maximum deviation as shown by ϵ—time curves was within 1 per cent. Details of the construction and operation of this equipment are contained in a report by S. Strella. Five materials were tested at both constant rate of ϵ increase and at constant crosshead speed. Three specimens of each material were run by each method. Although most of the tests were conducted at a speed one tenth of that recommended by the ASTM the results obtained at the ASTM speed confirmed the findings. A straight polystyrene showed that ϵ values at various stresses, the breaking ϵ, and the breaking stress were all in better agreement when tested at a constant ϵ rate increase. A standard phenolformaldehyde material, which is similar to the polystyrene in being a rather brittle material but which differs in that it is crosslinked, showed similar results.
Evaluation of Methods Available for Measurement of Surface Luster of Electroplated Coatings
Authors: Bowman G. B.
Published: August 2009

Decorative coatings in the field of electroplating have one thing in common—surface reflection or, better, image reflection—whether the plated article is finished in silver, gold, brass, copper, nickel, or chromium. Every prospective purchaser examines the article before he buys. One of his first interests, although he may not be aware of it, is to see his own image reflected. His judgment of a perfect plated article is based on whether this image reflection is perfect in all details. Should the image be blurred by the polishing lines of the basis metal, his interest soon wanes and he passes onto the articles that have that magic touch, ranging from a small item such as a cigarette lighter or a large object such as a bumper faceplate on a new car. This human interest of a prospective buyer overshadows all other properties of the decorative coating at the time of purchase. He is not concerned with the physical properties of the coating (that is, the number of hours of salt spray resistance, the internal stress, ductility, thickness, hardness, etc.) as they are of secondary interest at the time. The public has been educated to know, and expect from the electroplating industry, that a very smooth finish will have the desired physical properties to insure lasting service from the plated parts. Exact image reflection has been for years one of metal finishing's firsts. The electroplating industry has been striving to obtain the exact methods of measuring this property and the necessary steps that must be taken to insure the final results, and still keep the costs of manufacturing at a safe level to maintain a profitable margin.
Introduction
Authors: Pajak Theodore P.
Published: August 2009

Since the last symposium sponsored by ASTM Committee C-19 on Structural Sandwich Constructions held in June, 1951, there have been great advances in the uses and applications of sandwich construction in the commercial as well as the military fields of industry. This increase in popularity of structural sandwich construction is largely due to the recognized advantages of sandwich such as high strength to weight ratio and good stiffness factor as well as growing confidence in the integrity of sandwich structures by industry. The different segments of industry interested in structural sandwich constructions have expended considerable energy and resources in research and development so as to improve the performance of sandwich components and to expand the field of applications. The aircraft industry has concentrated on problems associated with supersonic flight conditions such as thermal resistance and stability and the new problem of sonic fatigue. The building industry's efforts have been mainly in the interpretation of the codes as they affect the introduction of new types of materials. This problem is complicated by the multitude of Federal, state and municipal regulations in existence. So as to introduce sandwich structures in the building industry, it has been necessary to conduct research and development programs in such phases as weathering, durability, stability and fire-resistance as well as keeping in mind the economical aspects. Since there are many agencies and segments of the industry involved in the fabrication and utilization of sandwich structures, ASTM realizes the continuing need for standardization of test methods and procedures. As a result of this demand, Committee C-19 on Structural Sandwich Constructions was established to standardize existing test methods as well as to introduce new test methods that will be of value to industry. Committee C-19 sponsored this symposium with the expectation that it will better acquaint the industry of what is being accomplished in the way of standardization of test methods and also to inform all those interested of the progress that has been made and to act as a “sounding-board” as to what lines of endeavor need further emphasis.
Empirical Studies of Bonded Joints for Sandwich Construction
Authors: Sheridan M. L. , Merriman H. R.
Published: August 2009

Adhesive bonded sandwich construction has proved to be a most efficient structure. The efficiency is unsurpassed for panel type construction in which the core stabilizes the faces, permitting the faces to be stressed up to their full material capabilities. However, the details of the panels, that is, the segments other than the face-to-core construction, tend to limit the efficiency of the bonded sandwich panel with respect to an optimum weight. All loads must be put into, or taken out of, the panels through the edge or insert details, and it is these features that account for much of the total weight of the panels. Mathematical methods have been offered by Volkerson (1), Goland and Reissner (2), and DeBruyne (3) for the analysis of bonded lap joints. Attempts to substantiate the resulting solutions have been only partially successful. The latest efforts at the U. S. Forest Products LABORATORY have shown also that as yet there is no reasonable method for the analysis of bonded joints Two features of bonded details should be considered in defining an analytical method; the elastic behavior of the elements within the detail, and the maximum strength capabilities of the detail itself. The latter feature could include the strength capabilities of the several elements within the detail. It is the limiting strength or behavior of one of these elements which establishes the maximum strength of the whole detail. The elastic behavior can be studied empirically by the use of suitable strain measuring devices and by direct observation of details under stress. Likewise, maximum strength behavior can be investigated by tests in which the details are loaded to destruction. A sufficient understanding of test data would permit the development of proper assumptions. These assumptions would lead to a suitable theory or approximation for rational analysis of bonded details.
Performance of Residual Fuels in High-Speed Diesel Engines
Authors: Jones D. R. , Kipp K. L. , Goodrich J. E.
Published: August 2009

Appreciable savings in fuel costs can be achieved by using residual fuels in railroad diesel engines. Experience with residual fuels in large-bore, low-speed engines has been generally reported as satisfactory except for high-cylinder-liner and piston-ring wear. Extensive tests conducted by California Research Corp. on residual fuels in small, high-speed laboratory diesel engines showed that under high-load conditions, residual fuels gave thermal efficiencies and engine deposits comparable to distillate fuels. At low power outputs, however, combustion was poor, causing excessive deposits to build up on injectors and exhaust valves. This was due largely to poor spray atomization of the high-viscosity residual fuels at the marginal injection conditions existing at low loads. Use of a two-fuel system which supplied distillate fuel at low loads proved to be a practical way of utilizing residual fuel. Improving atomization by using much higher injection pressures gave satisfactory combustion of light residual fuel at light loads. In long-term tests under conditions simulating railroad freight service, deposits were obtained comparable to distillate fuel operation. Wear, however, was appreciably higher than encountered with distillate fuel. To investigate the high wear obtained with residual fuels, wear tests were carried out in single-cylinder laboratory engines equipped with radioactive piston rings. Data on the effect of operating conditions on wear showed that increasing jacket temperature and engine load reduced wear. In residual fuels, sulfur was found to have the same absolute effect on wear as in distillate fuels. However, because wear was much higher with residual fuels, the relative effect of sulfur was substantially less than with distillate fuels. Removal of abrasive contaminants in residual fuel by filtration or centrifuging significantly reduced wear. Viscosity by itself was found to have little or no effect on wear in these laboratory tests. Limited field test data in diesel locomotives confirm laboratory engine data regarding combustion performance, deposition tendencies, and high wear of residual fuels.
Introduction
Authors: Rosenbaum E. J.
Published: August 2009

In the foregoing, incidental to the major subject, something has already been given on the applications of spectroscopy to the study of oils. This is a rather large subject in its own right. The papers in this session are by experts in the field of infrared spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. There is another branch of spectroscopy that has a definite role in the study of petroleum oil which is not formally on the program. I am referring to ultraviolet absorption spectroscopy. Some reference should be made to that subject in order to round out the program. Ultraviolet absorption spectroscopy has some very real advantages and also some disadvantages for the study of the composition of high molecular weight products such as we are considering here. Among the advantages one might cite the availability of good, reliable apparatus at a relatively low price and also the fact that there are many types of molecules that absorb quite strongly in the ultraviolet region.
The Composition of Petroleum Distillates as Revealed by Their Sulfonates
Authors: Brown A. B. , Knobloch J. O.
Published: August 2009

A heavy naphthenic and a light paraffinic distillate have been treated with fuming sulfuric acid. The sulfonic acids formed have been desulfonated. The structures of the oils thus obtained have been determined through physical measurements before and after exhaustive hydrogenation.
Prevention of Ozone Attack on Rubber by Use of Waxes
Authors: Ferris S. W. , Kurtz S. S. , Sweely J. S.
Published: August 2009

The tendency for stretched rubber, when subjected to outdoor exposure, to form cracks perpendicular to the direction of stress was originally known as sun-cracking. The work of Newton (10) showed that light was not necessary and identified ozone as the causative agent. That ozone is the principal factor there seems to be no doubt, but we cannot assert that it is the sole factor. Some test specimens, for example, have been found to crack in the shade, but not in the sun, and some investigators suspect that certain atmospheric pollutants may have a modifying effect. It has been known since 1881 (8) that addition of wax to the rubber compound will provide protection against this type cracking. Garvey and Emmett (6) found that oils or oil-like materials would also effect improvement, but by far the major portion of work has been done with petroleum waxes. The two broad classes of petroleum waxes are paraffin and microcrystalline. The value of the literature—and this applies to many fields other than ozone cracking—is sharply limited by the tendency to characterize waxes as either paraffin wax or microcrystalline wax. As a matter of fact, the composition of petroleum waxes is complex, so that there are large differences in composition between different paraffin waxes and different microcrystalline waxes, with resultant differences in their performance when added to rubber.
Quantitative Measurement of Rate of Ozone Cracking
Authors: Veith A. G.
Published: August 2009

The problem of ozone attack on unsaturated rubbers has been recognized for some time but quantitative studies of this problem have only recently appeared in the literature. This is in great part due to the intractable nature of the phenomenon in regard to measuring the extent of cracking. In recent years several workers have been active in this field. Shaw and Adams (1) employed both electrical resistivity and creep under intermittent load to measure the attack of ozone. Rugg (2) used a microscopic technique to measure crack depth. Gable and Leeper (3) reported on the effect of a series of antiozonants on continuous creep in ozone. Buckley and Robinson (4) described a technique for determining the short-range creep of butyl rubber in ozone with a strain gage apparatus. Earlier Newton (5) and Crabtree and Kemp (6) contributed to an understanding of the action of ozone on rubbers. The work to be described in this report covers two main points (a) securing a controlled ozone atmosphere in which to carry out tests and (b) a description of some of the preliminary results of a program intended to provide basic information on the phenomenon of ozone cracking.
Microscopical Studies of Failure in Polymers
Authors: Newman Sanford B.
Published: August 2009

Microscopical techniques have been applied to studies of failure mechanisms in plastics. The studies were concerned with crazing, erosion due to wetting and drying, and failure in tension as a function of a number of variables. The light-optical techniques included phase-contrast, microinter-ferometric, and schlieren as well as brightfield techniques. Electron microscopy of surface replicas was also employed. An attempt was made to correlate the observations with mode of failure.
Introduction
Authors: Mulhall V. R.
Published: August 2009

This symposium, the eighth in a series on insulating oils presented over a period of 13 years, fits naturally into the general theme of previous symposia but emphasizes the growing interest in high-voltage cables and reflects the trend towards operating voltages of 300 kv and higher. The theme of this symposium is insulation for high-voltage cables or, more specifically, the composite insulation system of oil-impregnated paper. Of necessity the subject deals with solid as well as liquid materials but with special emphasis on the petroleum-oil component. Thus the previous interest in transformer applications has been expanded to include insulated cables. The need for a symposium on this subject has been apparent for several years in order to direct the interests of the Committee D-27 membership towards the development of test methods and interpretation of test results for these applications and to explore, in greater depth, the needs of the manufacturers and the industrial and utility users of finished cable. Perhaps the main achievement of the symposium was to make the oil technologists more aware of some of the problems which now exist and which may be expected in the future in the application of cable oils, especially with the advent of extra-high voltages. The first two papers are concerned with the traditional oil-impregnated paper-insulation system. It has been predicted that, as operating voltages increase and technology advances, this system will very quickly recede into obsolescence. These two papers present information to refute this statement. Author Wm. A. Del Mar expresses the need for effective cooperation within the industry and suggests the direction in which such cooperation must move to achieve the goal of improved quality at elevated operating voltages. Author R. B. Blodgett, in an extensive review, provides an interpretation of the test methods which in his opinion, are most important for the evaluation of cable oils and correlates in detail the observed properties of oil with the necessary properties of an insulation system suitable for use in a 345-kv cable. The third paper by Messrs. A. M. Gates and R. W. Gillette defines, from the viewpoint of the ultimate user, a presently existing problem associated with the continuing purchase of acceptable cable oils and proposes that complete, self-sufficient continuity specifications must be established. The authors contend that with the present state of knowledge, such an accomplishment is not impossible.
Introduction
Authors: Reese J. P.
Published: August 2009

The aircraft and building construction industries are making widespread use of the structural sandwich panel, made possible through simultaneous developments in the structural adhesive and the light-weight core material fields. Considerable savings in weight, assembly time, and costs have been realized, with the added advantages of improved appearance and smoothness. From the inception of the ASTM Committee C-19 on Structural Sandwich Constructions in 1948, the main emphasis has been on development of standard test procedures so that sandwich material properties could be determined in a manner that would have the same meaning to everyone using the data. This has also been reflected in the two symposia sponsored by Committee C-19 in 1951 and 1956, the subject matter being—in the main —material properties, test methods, and design criteria. Although the emphasis in the beginning was on material properties and test methods, the problem of durability under environmental conditions was recognized early and resulted in the organization of subcommittee III on Permanence, Durability, and Simulated Service. In 1955 a series of exposure programs for sandwich panels was initiated at two ASTM exposure sites, Kure Beach, N. C., and State College, Pa. It was the completion of the first of these 3-yr programs that prompted the concept of this Symposium on Durability and Weathering of Structural Sandwich Constructions.
Effect of Environmental Exposure on Adhesive-Bonded Structures
Authors: Tuckerman A. J.
Published: August 2009

This paper describes a test program conducted by Northrop Corp., the major subcontractor to Raytheon Manufacturing Co. in the development and production of the Army Ordnance Hawk missile airframe. Hawk fins and elevons were subjected to various types of environmental exposure to determine the adequacy of the adhesive bonding. Laboratory specimens were also exposed to provide data on field exposure for comparison with data on laboratory exposed specimens. The environmental evaluation was conducted in three phases: thermal cycling of a Hawk fin and elevon, weathering of Hawk fins and elevons, and weathering of laboratory test specimens. The following environmental conditions were included in the evaluation: humidity up to 100 per cent relative humidity, salt-laden air, tropical conditions other than humidity, and temperature exposure from −80 F to 160 F (extended) and 400 F (short time). The Tropical Exposure Station of the Naval Research Laboratory was selected for field exposure of fins and elevons because the environment of the Panama Canal Zone, where the station is located, is the most severe known. Visual examination and physical testing of the Hawk assemblies and of the laboratory specimens after environmental exposure yielded gratifying results. No serious deleterious effects of weathering in laboratory and field exposures were detected by visual inspection. Physical strength of specimens was also found to be satisfactory after the environmental exposures.
Service Experience with Sandwich Construction—Some Approaches to Problems in Aircraft Applications
Authors: Reese J. P.
Published: August 2009

The developments after World War II in the fields of structural metal-bonding adhesives and lightweight core materials gave the aircraft and missile designer a new structural form—sandwich construction. Through structural and environmental laboratory testing, he has learned much about this material and has gained confidence in its ability to perform satisfactorily. However, performance of the sandwich in service is the real key to its usefulness and limitations and provides the final data needed for objective evaluation. This paper presents some of the service history and experience which The Martin Co. has encountered in applying adhesive-bonded sandwich structure to aircraft and missiles over the past 15 years. It is hoped that the knowledge gained from these experiences will result in improved designs, intelligent utilization, and increased confidence in the structural sandwich. To a limited degree, the performance of structural adhesives under environmental conditions can be determined through laboratory tests. Military specifications [1, 2] describe tests and establish requirements for salt spray exposure, humidity exposure, and immersion in various aircraft fluids, which the materials are required to meet before they are accepted for military use. However, these tests are primarily screening tests and do little for the prediction of service life and performance.
Temperature Rise in Structures Due to Solar Heating
Authors: Rider D. K.
Published: August 2009

The increasing use of outdoor housings for temperature-sensitive apparatus, coupled with the growing interest in adhesive-bonded structures for building constructions, aircraft, armaments, etc., has prompted a growing concern over the effects of solar heating on such structures. Vagaries of local weather conditions provide little cause for confidence in short-term outdoor exposures as a means for determining extremes of temperatures which may occur in structures over extended periods of time and in a variety of geographical locations. Potential minimum temperatures can be established solely on the basis of observed minima for the area concerned, taken from records of the Weather Bureau. Maximum temperatures of exposed structures are, on the other hand, subject largely to the absorption of thermal energy from the sun, a quantity which can vary widely due to a number of natural and manmade factors. Much has been written regarding the intensity of solar radiation and its effect on climate, but relatively little information is available to the designer and the materials engineer regarding the temperatures which may occur in structures due to solar heating. The little that does appear in the literature generally concerns specific items, for example, wooden aircraft wings, roof structures, transformers, etc. In this paper, the author will review the more important factors involved in solar heating and will summarize available temperature data on various exposed structures from published and unpublished sources. Following this, an attempt will be made to suggest temperature maxima for consideration in design and in simulated exposure tests for sandwich and other structures which may be exposed to the weather.
Some Low-Temperature Properties of Aluminum-Alloy Weldments
Authors: Lucas W. R. , Cataldo C. E.
Published: August 2009

The tensile properties of weldments in five aluminum alloys, 5052, 5086, 5456, 2014-T3, 2014-T6, were studied at temperatures ranging from ambient to −320 F. The behavior of weldments is compared and contrasted to that of the wrought alloys. The observed effects of such factors as welding process, welding variables, filler material, and weld bead configuration on low-temperature behavior are reported. It is demonstrated that the properties of the wrought material cannot be extrapolated to the weldment and that the behavior of weldments is not understood sufficiently to allow prediction of their low-temperature behavior. Thus, testing of aluminum-alloy weldments under anticipated use conditions is still required. The test equipment is described.
Effect of Carbon Content on the Notch Properties of 43XX-Vanadium Modified and 5 per cent Chromium Sheet Steels
Authors: Klier E. P.
Published: August 2009

The notch properties of 43XX-vanadium modified steel containing 0.21, 0.30, 0.41, 0.50, and 0.60 per cent carbon have been measured for several tempered conditions at temperatures from −320 to 85 F. Five per cent chromium steels containing 0.24 and 0.39 per cent carbon heat treated to hardnesses in the Rockwell hardness C 40 to 50 range were likewise tested. In the 43XX-vanadium modified steels reduced carbon content promoted notch toughness. In the 5 per cent chromium steels the reverse effect was observed. The fracture characteristics of the steels are discussed briefly.
Summation
Authors: Hurlich A.
Published: August 2009

The need for holding a symposium on Low-Temperature Properties of High-Strength Aircraft and Missile Materials is easy to demonstrate. Until relatively recently, liquefied gases were produced primarily for such commercial applications as steel processing, chemical synthesis, welding, inert atmosphere packaging, medical uses, and refrigeration. These low-temperature liquids could be adequately contained and transported in tanks and piping made from low-strength materials such as annealed stainless steels, nickel-bearing low-carbon steels, commercially pure or low-alloy aluminum, and other materials that are readily weldable and which retain a high order of base metal and weld joint ductility and resistance to brittle fracture at extreme subzero temperatures. However, with the recent advent of nuclear weapons, of high-speed rocket propelled aircraft, and finally, of large cryogenic fueled missiles of intermediate, intercontinental, and interplanetary ranges, it became necessary to employ materials having the highest possible strength to weight ratios in order to meet the design and performance requirements established for these systems. Let us look first at the magnitude of the problem facing the cryogenics engineer. The information contained in Table I regarding the production of liquid oxygen and nitrogen was obtained from the U. S. Bureau of Census while that on liquid hydrogen was obtained from a number of sources. It is unlikely that the Bureau of Census data include the quantities of liquid nitrogen and liquid oxygen consumed by the United States missile program since that information is not released by the Defense Department and is not included in commercial production figures.
Zircaloy-2 Corrosion In-Pile in Aqueous Homogeneous Reactor Solutions
Authors: Jenks G. H.
Published: August 2009

A correlation and analysis of many of the data obtained at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) for the in-pile corrosion of Zircaloy-2 in oxygenated uranyl sulfate solutions is described. These data were obtained in a program of in-pile loop and autoclave experiments in which a variety of solution compositions, solution velocities, fission power densities, and temperatures were tested. The experiments had the objective of obtaining information which would enable the prediction and control of corrosion in homogeneous reactors. The correlations were based on the following equation for the relationship between corrosion rate, R (mil per year), and fission power density in solution, P(w per ml), 1/R = K1/KPα + 1/K, where α is a factor by which the effective power density at a corroding surface is greater than that in solution, owing to uranium sorption on the surface; K1 and K are other factors evaluated from the data. A semi-empirical model for the radiation effects on the corrosion which leads to this equation is described. A brief review of experimental methods and results is also given. Considerations of the experimental corrosion data at 280 C and of probable relative and absolute values of α led to the conclusions that a relationship of the above form was obeyed up to the highest power density tested (110 w per ml), and that the values of K and K1/K were essentially independent of changes in solution composition. On the bases of the reasonable assumptions that the general relationship, with K and K1/K independent of solution composition, was obeyed at other temperatures, and that the values of α in certain experiments did not change appreciably with change in temperature, it was concluded that over the temperature range investigated (225 to 330 C) the data obtained in all experiments were reasonably well represented by the equation: 1/R=2.3Pα+2.3×10−11exp⁡(11,500T).⁢⁢ The value of α is dependent upon solution composition and velocity, and values ranging from unity to about 14 were observed. Conditions under which values of α near unity can be maintained in a reactor can be estimated from the results of this work.
Effect of Hydride Morphology on the Tensile Properties of Zircaloy-2
Authors: Babyak W. J. , Bourgeois W. F. , Salvaggio G. J.
Published: August 2009

The effects of hydrogen concentration and hydride morphology on the tensile properties of alpha-annealed and beta-quenched Zircaloy have been experimentally determined at 78 and 500 F for unnotched and notched specimens. Three hydrogen levels, approximately 15, 275, and 550 ppm by weight, with the precipitated hydride either predominantly at grain boundaries or uniformly distributed within the grains, were investigated. Generally, the effects of hydrogen are not deleterious at 500 F, and at 78 F the deleterious effects are less pronounced when the hydrides are uniformly distributed rather than concentrated at grain boundaries. An evaluation of the integrity of Zircaloy-2 containing hydrogen is made based upon the measured ductility and notch sensitivity. Fracture of hydrided Zircaloy-2 under tension was observed metallographically to proceed by initiation of cracks in the hydride platelets and by propagation through the ductile metal.
Neutron Irradiation and Cold Work Effects on Zircaloy-2 Corrosion and Hydrogen Pickup
Authors: Burns W. A. , Maffei H. P.
Published: August 2009

Nearly 200 pre-autoclaved and weighed coupons of reactor-grade Zircaloy-2 in the annealed, 10, 20, and 40 per cent cold-worked condition have been exposed to the fast neutron flux of the Engineering Test Reactor (ETR) in nominal 540 F pH 10 water for up to 125 days. Flux intensity varied from 0.17 to 1.04 × 1014 nv (>1 Mev), and integrated neutron exposures ranged from 0.3 to 8.2 × 1020 nvt. Comparisons of weight gain and hydrogen pickup results among irradiated specimens and with unirradiated control coupons were used to broaden the area of present knowledge relative to the combined effects of neutron irradiation and cold work on surface chemical reactions and hydrogen absorption in Zircaloy-2. In general, exposure to the in-core coolant environment of the ETR causes an order-of-magnitude increase in average corrosion rates, similar to the effect of superheated steam at a temperature approximately 200 F above the irradiation temperature. In-reactor weight-gain data exhibit an apparent saturation effect with increasing flux intensity, and measured weight gains have been confirmed by optical measurements of oxide film thickness. Direct visual observations and photography at magnifications up to 40 × of irradiated coupons oxidized to weight gains as high as 150 mg/dm2 showed the surfaces to be smooth, glossy, and dark gray or blue-black in color. Some of the coupons appeared to be streak stained, but there were no indications of blistering, spalling, or light-colored oxide even at sharp edges and corners. No significant or consistent variation of weight gain with cold work has been found for material exposed in- or out-of-reactor. No significant effect of flux intensity or integrated flux on hydrogen sorption was observed.
Factors Limiting the Use of Zirconium Alloys in Superheated Steam
Authors: Klepfer H. H. , Douglass D. L.
Published: August 2009

New experimental results and data from the literature are utilized to establish the upper temperature of usefulness of zirconium alloys. Three basic engineering assumptions are used: (1) service life requirements are on the order of four years; (2) tubular fuel cladding for rod-type fuel is considered with a maximum wall thickness of 0.127 cm; and (3) heat fluxes are above 157 w/cm2. The interrelation of three basic factors, corrosion rate, corrosion embrittlement by hydrogen and oxygen, and strength, are considered. An upper limit for an acceptable corrosion rate for long-term service of 1 mg/dm2 per day is set primarily by the effect of heat-transfer on corrosion. For the best alloys anticipated, this requirement (even without considering transient conditions) limits cladding surface temperatures to less that 540 C. Oxygen embrittlement of the alloy substrate by oxide film dissolution is not expected to be a limiting factor. Corrosion hydrogen embrittlement was studied in detail and found to limit acceptable service to cladding surface temperatures of less than 525 C for established experimental alloys. Hydrogen embrittlement may not be a limiting factor if alloys corrosion resistant enough to be acceptable above 600 C could be developed. Zirconium alloys designed for higher strength to overcome their inherent rapid loss of creep strength at temperatures above 540 C are expected to be more susceptible to corrosion hydrogen embrittlement. The results of this study indicate that there is good promise for developing zirconium alloys for fuel cladding application at temperatures up to 475 C.
High-Strength Steel Forgings
Authors: Henning H. J.
Published: August 2009

This paper describes the existing state-of-the-art for production forgings manufactured from steels treatable to strengths in excess of 200,000 psi. The need for increasing cleanliness with an increasing strength requirement is emphasized, particularly for those applications where design criteria require high transverse ductility. Economical vacuum arc melting has been largely responsible for bringing reliable, reproducible high-strength steel forgings to a production level of activity. Experience in forging a variety of alloys has highlighted relative levels of uniformity and reliability. Some of the more often selected high-strength steels are discussed from the standpoint of ease of forging, uniformity of strength response, and general quality. Data are given on cleanliness, transverse ductility, and other important properties for such alloys as Ladish D-6ac, AMS 6427, and AISI 4340. Methods for achieving high strengths vary from the standard quench and draw to the more complex thermal-mechanical treatments. The latter treatments, while readily applied to flat products, are difficult to impart to most forgings because complex shapes do not lend themselves to uniform levels of reduction. Mechanical property values obtainable in forgings produced from maraging steel are discussed. These steels represent a potential for the highest strengths obtainable in the steel family. The highest ductilities, however, are obtained by forging sequences that require added manufacturing steps. Since this represents added cost, data useful for specifying practical levels of properties are presented.
The Physical Properties of Rocks and Probable Applications
Authors: Udd J. E.
Published: August 2009

The physical properties of rocks may be used for three purposes. First and most valid, they may be used for comparisons and classifications based on their behavior under various types of loads. Secondly, an effort may be made to correlate the elastic properties for engineering and geophysical purposes. Finally, a knowledge of these properties is essential in connection with the design of rock structures. This paper summarizes the results of several years' work at McGill University and describe the testing procedures that are used. A summary table of the physical properties of several rocks from various Canadian mines is included, and our plans for future additions to the table are discussed. A few examples have been chosen to demonstrate their use when applied to actual problems.
Recent Techniques for Insulation in Space Environment
Authors: Light J. S.
Published: August 2009

Weight and performance needs of space programs have given impetus to the use of new thermal isolation techniques. Uses are currently ranging from the control of thermal environment in spacecraft with internal energy releases and limiting temperature changes in static storable fuels to insulating cryogens in bulk for lone-term employment in space. Aspects of such applications are discussed in this paper.
The Mass Spectrometry of Hydrocarbons
Authors: Brown R. A.
Published: August 2009

The current status and prospective developments in the mass spectrometry of hydrocarbons is discussed in terms of (1) instrumentation and (2) analysis of hydrocarbons. The most widely used mass spectrometer is the general analytical spectrometer, which has an upper mass limit of about 600, and can be equipped to analyze gas Chromatographic fractions. High resolution, double focusing instruments which have an upper mass limit of about 2000, are being used in a rapidly expanding number of laboratories. Correlative behavior and other aspects of mass spectra are reviewed. Examples are cited to illustrate how these data are used for identification. Mass spectra were instrumental in elucidating the structure of numerous of C20–C35 isoparaffins, cycloparaffins, and alkylbenzenes. Two applications of hydrocarbon type analysis are illustrated: Compositional information for (1) an α-olefin mixture and (2) concentrates of aromatic hydrocarbons. Continued extension of the mass spectrometer appears to depend upon improved instrumentation, more efficient separation techniques, and expanded mass spectral data.
Applications of Gas Chromatography to Hydrocarbon Analysis
Authors: Dietz J. M.
Published: August 2009

The gas Chromatograph, because of its simplicity, sensitivity and speed, has become a useful tool of the hydrocarbon analyst. Three recent developments (1) the use of ionization detectors rather than thermal conductivity cells, (2) the use of open tubular columns rather than packed columns, and (3) programmed temperature gas chromatography have increased the instrument's ability to analyze trace elements, complex mixtures, and samples of a wide-boiling nature. In this paper some present applications are reviewed, and applications to stream analysis, and determinations of vapor-liquid ratio, knock characterisitcs, inhibitors, and composition of crude oil are suggested.
The Analysis of Gasoline and Blended Fuels by an Integrated Methods Approach
Authors: Lawrey D. M. G.
Published: August 2009

The analysis of gasoline at three levels of complexity — research, process development, and quality control, is reviewed. Present methods including mass spectrometry and capillary gas chromatography are discussed. The author concludes that advances in analytical techniques are being delayed by the absence of pure standards and a lack of component resolution. He recommends that consideration be given to integrated methods which could split the analyst's effort into two major parts: (1) perfection of unit laboratory techniques, and (2) fabrication of computer program packages which will (a) interpret the engineer's needs in terms of an analytical route, (b) calculate results by preferred techniques, and (c) present the data in a form immediately usable to the engineer.
The Evolution of Astm Tests and Specifications for Asphaltic Paving Materials
Authors: Abson Gene
Published: August 2009

I should like to think that the chairman of this symposium committee selected me on the basis of some achievement other than that of having reached a ripe old age! Nevertheless, I must admit that my experience goes back to the summer of 1919 and that since my graduation from college in 1920, my career has been devoted entirely to the science of bituminology and, incidentally, continuously with the same consulting organization which I now head. In this paper I should like to outline the development of asphaltic paving mixtures from their beginning and to trace the history of test methods and specifications pertaining to that field. From almost the very beginning ASTM has played an active part in the development of these standards.
Fused Silica as an Aerospace Material
Authors: Hallse R. L. , Rizley J. H.
Published: August 2009

The mechanical, physical, and electrical properties of fused silica are reviewed and compared with those of other ceramics. Particular attention is directed toward the thermal shock resistance of fused silica as compared to alumina, Pyroceram 9606, and beryllia. Techniques for fabricating specific shapes out of fused silica are discussed and the advantages of slip casting are pointed out. The strength of slip-cast fused silica is analyzed in light of typical missile and aerospace requirements. It appears that for most radome applications the strength of slip-cast fused silica is adequate. A successful method of attachment, always a problem with low expansion ceramics, is presented. The factors affecting the transmission of electomagnetic radiation through dielectrics at microwave frequencies are discussed, and the relative advantages and disadvantages of fused silica radomes are pointed out. Data are presented that show fused silica to have exceptional electrical properties for radome applications. The results of recent rain-erosion tests on slip-cast fused silica are presented. Such variables as surface condition, specimen geometry, and attachment are discussed. It appears that, by the use of proper design, rain erosion need not be a problem with fused silica. An explanation of the somewhat unusual rain erosion characteristics of slip-cast fused silica is included. Applications are cited in which the outstanding thermal shock resistance, stable electrical properties, and exceptional dimensional stability of fused silica are being utilized in aerospace applications.