bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Vertical Integration and Political Control in Eastern Europe: The Polish and Romanian Cases
Authors: Nelson Daniel N.
Published: April 2006

The legitimacy of ruling Communist parties rests, in large part, on their alleged identity with the working masses. Ties to the citizenry are crucial for these parties if they are to retain Marxist credentials and, thereby, their rationale for taking power and maintaining an authoritarian system. All political systems, authoritarian ones included, seek willing obedience from citizens if for no other reason than efficiency. But as a subset of authoritarian polities, Communist states have an additional burden. No ultimate truth, national interest, or religious purity sanctioned their road to power, although national interests are increasingly used by many Communist parties to attain greater credibility with citizens. Instead, Communists' identity with the interests of working people constitutes the primary rationale for their hold on government.
Soviet Rewriting of 1917: The Case of A. G. Shliapnikov
Authors: Holmes Larry E.
Published: April 2006

The career of Aleksandr Gavrilovich Shliapnikov dramatically illustrates the interrelationship of politics and historical writing in Soviet Russia from the early 1920s until 1931. During that formative period, the Bolshevik Party sought uniformity in its ranks by the general suppression of dissent and a corresponding requirement that its historians regard their craft chiefly as an extension of party policy. Although Bolshevik historians increasingly felt compelled to justify the party's past and present policies, Shliapnikov resisted. He continued to advocate many of the opinions he had held in the early 1920s as a leader of the Workers' Opposition. Although he was condemned for his behavior, he began an equally controversial career as a historian of the 1917 Revolution.
The Rumanian Campaign of 1916: Its Impact on the Belligerents
Authors: Torrey Glenn E.
Published: April 2006

As the First World War entered its third year in August 1916, an equilibrium of sorts had been established. Bloody battles at Verdun, the Somme, and the Isonzo, and the offensive of Brusilov had amply demonstrated that neither group of belligerents had the capability of delivering a “knockout blow” to the enemy, to use Lloyd George's phrase. It was for this reason that so much importance was attached to the impending intervention of Rumania, strategically located astride the flanks of both warring coalitions and possessing an army of six hundred thousand men. It was widely believed that Rumania's adherence to the Entente would have a decisive impact on this stalemate. Paul von Hindenburg captured this conviction when he wrote: “Judging by the military situation, it was to be expected that Rumania had only to advance … to decide the world war… .“
Ethnicity Without Power: The Siberian Khanty in Soviet Society
Authors: Balzer Marjorie Mandelstam
Published: April 2006

Western discussion of Soviet nationality issues frequently centers on large national groups and their varying potential for dissent. The fate of smaller groups, particularly those within the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, is less often explored and is sometimes obscured by assumptions of forced acculturation. Rather than viewing the dominant Soviet Russian culture as a shark eating small fish cultures like the Siberian Khanty, it is more appropriate to decipher a range of acculturation options and experiences. Sharks can get indigestion, and all the economic and political changes introduced in small Siberian societies do not eliminate questions of ethnicity. Sometimes they exacerbate them.

This article focuses on the cultural survival and ethnic consciousness of the Khanty, a Ugrian speaking group who live predominantly in the Northern Ob River area of sub-arctic Siberia and who numbered 20,934 in 1979. They are traditionally hunters, fishers, and semi-nomadic reindeer breeders whose locale and trade over centuries have led them into contact with several ethnic groups, including the Russians. Within the Soviet political framework, the Ob-Ugrian Khanty and Mansi share an Autonomous District (Okrug). This places them midway between Siberian groups without a formal administrative unit based on nationality (for example, some Amur River peoples) and the two largest Siberian groups, the Buriat and the Yakut, each numbering over 325,000, with their own Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics (ASSRs) within the RSFSR.
The Socialist Market: A Debate in Soviet Industry, 1932–33
Authors: Davies R. W.
Published: April 2006

The discussions surveyed here took place between June 1932 and March 1933, mainly in the columns ofZa industrializatsiiu, the official newspaper of the People's Commissariat of Heavy Industry (Narkomtiazhprom). A number of contributors, headed by M. I. Birbraer, a prominent member of the newspaper staff, advocated major changes in the economic mechanism. Dozens of officials, managers, economists, and journalists from industry, trade, and finance participated. The wide-ranging debate was brought to an end on April 5, 1933, when G. K. Ordzhonikidze, Politburo member and People's Commissar for Heavy Industry, dismissed V. S. Bogushevskii, the editor of the newspaper, for “political mistakes.”

An examination of these discussions in their political and economic context helps our understanding of several significant aspects of the Soviet economic system of the early 1930s.
The Diplomatic Forms of Ivan III's Relationship with the Crimean Khan
Authors: Croskey Robert M.
Published: April 2006

The final stage of Muscovy's subordination to the Tatars is a murky topic in Russian history. In the first half of the fifteenth century, the Golden Horde fragmented and new political entities emerged: the Great Horde, the Nogai Horde, the Khanates of the Crimea, Kazan', and Astrakhan'. The Great Horde claimed the same supremacy as the Golden Horde, and the khans of the Great Horde demanded the tribute and the submission which Muscovy formerly had given the khan of the Golden Horde. As the power of the Great Horde in turn weakened, Muscovy was able to emerge from its submission to the Tatars and function as an independent state.
The Microfilmed Collections of Russian Archival Materials in the Danish and Swedish National Archives
Authors: Ragsdale Hugh
Published: April 2006

The national archives of Denmark and Sweden have engaged Soviet archives in extensive and probably unique exchanges of copied materials. These two archives consequently hold substantial quantities of Soviet archival records, records sometimes of extraordinary value, which in some cases are scarcely accessible in any other part of the world, including the Soviet Union. Approximately 40 percent of the holdings of Soviet documents in the Danish National Archive come from the Arkhiv vneshnei politiki Rossii. The fact that it is very difficult to gain access to this institution considerably enhances their importance. The Swedish holdings are similar.

The Russian documents in both archives were acquired in two phases, and phase one was common to both. In 1928, archivists and historians from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden formed a joint Scandinavian committee for the exploration of the Russian state archives (Den Nordiske Faelleskomite for Udforskning af de russiske Statsarkiver).
Readership in Early Nineteenth-Century Russia: Recent Soviet Research
Authors: Beaven Miranda
Published: April 2006

One expanding area of research in the well-established Soviet field of scholarship known as knigovedenie (book studies) is that of the history of readership. Its newness is indicated by the fact that not until 1974 was a separate section for materials on the history of reading established in the annual surveys of book studies that appear in the basic journal Kniga: issledovaniia i materialy. As far as the early nineteenth century is concerned, the Decembrists have perhaps attracted most attention, and the one monograph broad enough to be considered a general study (Al'tshuller and Martynov) follows that trend by discussing a panorama of readers who have in common their reading of Decembrist literature. But early in the book one encounters a keynote statement which sets the study in a wider context and expresses a view increasingly held by scholars irrespective of their geographic interests: “One very important aspect of … [Decembrist poetry] has escaped attention.
The Litigious Daughter-in-Law: Family Relations in Rural Russia in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Farnsworth Beatrice
Published: April 2006

Russian folk wisdom regarded the daughter-in-law, the snokha (a word that also meant sister-in-law), as a source of family friction. Unable to coexist in the cramped quarters of the peasant hut, or izba, where a mother-in-law ruled over the stove and a father-in-law kept watch on the family purse, the daughter-inlaw supposedly made evident her discontent. A host of proverbs and folk sayings attest to the idea of the snokha as troublemaker: the saying that the daughter-in-law “likes the family hands but resents the family pot” summed up this resentment. According to this view, the daughter-in-law took but did not give.

Twentieth-century historians, influenced perhaps by Soviet interpretations as well as by literary impressions, see the peasant daughter-in-law in the prerevolutionary era not as a source of friction but rather as a helpless victim of family hostility: a husband's beatings, a mother-in-law's tyranny, a father-in-law's sexual harassment.
On Barriers to Pluralism in Pluralist Poland
Authors: Morawska Ewa
Published: April 2006

Having crushed the Solidarity movement’s unprecedented attempt to pluralize postwar Polish society, General Wojciech Jaruzelski, the first secretary of the Polish United Workers’ party (Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza or PZPR) ordered a special commission of the party’s Central Committee to study the causes of the political crises that have repeatedly convulsed Poland during forty years of Communist rule and have resulted in the downfall of successive first secretaries and their principal associates. After several months of labor, the commission declared that one of the main causes was that the authorities ignored popular opinion and discouraged local initiatives for independent action and reforms. To show that it had learned its lesson, the PZPR adopted “socialist pluralism” as one of the principal points of its program for “normalization” and “renewal” soon after martial law was lifted in 1982.
Russian Formalist Sociology of Literature: A Sociologist's Perspective
Authors: Greenfeld Liah
Published: April 2006

Russian formalism has been of interest in the west for at least three decades since the publication of Victor Erlich's authoritative study of the school in 1954. Almost every year significant new contributions are made to the analysis of the formalists’ scholarship; their multiplex theory, with all of its different, and at times seemingly contradictory, aspects, is elucidated, and many of these aspects are successfully incorporated in modern criticism and literary theory in the west. I will not dwell upon the better known “internalist” aspects of the formalists' work, nor will I try to summarize their theory. Several leading members of the school systematically attempted to create a coherent theoretical framework for thesociologyof literature. In this article I will look at the sociology of the Russian formalists from the point of view of a sociologist, analyze it, and suggest that the formalist sociology of literature makes a valuable contribution not only to our understanding of literature, but also to the understanding of social reality and to the discipline of sociology.
A Russian Tarzan, or “Aping” Jocko?
Authors: Leblanc Ronald D.
Published: April 2006

The ape—the Tarzan ape—has risen to its full height and has overwhelmed us. The ape has caressed the Russian reader. The reader is captive in the ape's paws.

Andrei SoboV, “Vplenu u obez'ian” (1924)

“If one were to write a Russian Tarzan and place him entirely within present-day Russian conditions,” Viktor Shklovskii asserted in the midst of the veritable Tarzan “craze” that swept across the Soviet Union during the early 1920s, “he would probably not prove to be successful.” Long before Edgar Rice Burroughs's popular series of Tarzan novels was ever published, however, a nineteenth century Russian tale had already treated this same theme of the child who, having been raised among apes in the jungle, returns to civilization to face the dilemma of choosing between two vastly different cultures: the comfortable but corrupt society of men or the company of primitive but noble and loving beasts.
"Red Star" Another Look at Aleksandr Bogdanov
Authors: Adams Mark B.
Published: April 2006

In recent years, there has been a minor explosion of interest in Aleksandr Bogdanov and other radical Russian intellectuals of pre-Stalinist days. After being in limbo for half a century, their ideas seem almost fresh and vibrant: Set against subsequent Soviet history, their aborted visions of a socialist future seem to give a sense of what might have been. And who knows—in the Gorbachev period, as the Soviet Union sorts out its problems and policies, some of their ideas might enjoy a new lease on life. For these and other reasons, they have recently attracted special interest.

Of course, in Bogdanov's case, there is much to be interested in. Born Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Malinovskii in 1873, Bogdanov trained as a physician in Moscow and Khar'kov, worked briefly as a psychiatrist, and published widely on philosophy, politics, social theory, social psychology, economics, and culture.
Dreaming Right and Reading Right: Five Keys to One of Il'f and Petrov's Ridiculous Men
Authors: Zholkovsky Alexander
Published: April 2006

In the current poststructuralist and reader-response era, interpretations, especially “correct” ones, are no longer fashionable. Il'ia Il'f and Evgenii Petrov have also lost some of their luster in the wake of the rediscovery of Mikhail Bulgakov and Andrei Platonov, or, for that matter, the Russian Vladimir Nabokov, and the recent general revision of the postrevolutionary literary canon. When Il'f and Petrov do receive critical attention, the focus invariably turns on the ambiguity of their message, pro-Soviet yet provocative, their deliberate literariness, and intertextuality. These same qualities, however, that earn the “in” authors their literary laurels are, in the case of Il'f and Petrov, viewed as evidence of moral compromise and stylistic shallowness.
One More Look at the Problem of Transliteration
Authors: Edgerton William
Published: April 2006

In the United States we are saddled with three different systems for the transliteration of Russian, and none of the three is satisfactory enough to replace the other two. The so-called Popular System gives general readers a rough idea of how to pronounce Russian words within the sound system of English, but it does not accurately reflect the original Russian (for example, does voskresenie represent BOCKPeceHbe or BOCKPeceHИe?) The International Scholarly System is exact and simple: in its American variant (which uses x instead of the continental European ch to transliterate the Russian x) each Russian letter is represented by a single Latin letter. It is ideal and widely accepted for works in linguistics and for literary studies that are aimed at an international scholarly audience.
The Creation of an Imaginative Caucasian Geography
Authors: Layton Susan
Published: April 2006

In a study of English letters from the seventeenth century into the romantic era, Marjorie Nicolson analyzed the rise and persistence of topoi of mountain poetry. Beginning in the 1720s, such celebrated poets as James Thomson proved able to create compelling verse about peaks that they knew only from their reading; and even after seeing stupendous rocky terrain themselves poets tended to produce works conditioned to some extent by previous literary representations. Such a dynamic, whereby one text becomes the model for another in a continuing process, also figures in the depiction of the Caucasian landscape by Russians, starting with Gavrila Derzhavin. Most Russian mountain poetry is concentrated in the 1820s, when a conception of the southern borderland as sublime wilderness was firmly established by Aleksandr Pushkin in Kavkazskii plennik and then elaborated in verse by such secondary writers as K. F. Ryleev, S. D. Nechaev, V N. Grigor'ev, and V G. Tepliakov.
The Issue of Serbian Textbooks in the Origins of World War I
Authors: Jelavich Charles
Published: April 2006

Geography and history textbooks used in Serbia contributed to the origins of World War I in probably the first instance in which one country used the contents of textbooks as one of its justifications for declaring war on another. Much has been published about Austro-Hungarian reactions to provocative statements by prominent individuals in Serbian newspapers and journals; however, no study has been made of the textbooks to which reference is made in the Habsburg ultimatum of 23 July 1914. The ultimatum listed ten specific demands, including one for the suppression of publications that incited “hatred and contempt” of the monarchy and threatened its “territorial integrity.” Point three, which is the focus of this study, called for the elimination “without delay from public instruction in Serbia both as regards the teaching body and the methods of instruction, all that serves or might serve to foment propaganda against Austria-Hungary.“

Alexander Musulin, the counselor in the foreign ministry who drafted the ultimatum, characterized the Serbian reply as “the most brilliant specimen of diplomatic skill that I know.” It stated in essence that Serbia was ready to satisfy Austria-Hungary's demand upon receiving proof of the charges. Concerning textbooks, the reply noted that Austria “made no representation except one concerning a schoolbook, and that on that occasion the Imperial and Royal Government received an entirely satisfactory explanation.”
Response: Camp Literature: Archetype for Dissent
Authors: Gruenwald Oskar
Published: April 2006

I would like to thank the Slavic Review, and its fair-minded editor, Sidney Monas, for allowing me to break the silence on certain taboo themes and respond to critics—civilities practiced mostly in the breach in the societies we study. Due to space limitations, I shall respond fully to Robert Hayden, who raises many issues, apart from the problem of definition, and trust that in the process I may encompass also Matt Oja's thoughtful remarks. Hayden's critique of my article on Yugoslav camp literature is based on two premises, which he fails to prove: that camp literature is not well defined and hence includes a good deal of official writings, or, alternatively, that it lacks internal consistency; and that the very concept of camp literature “misrepresents the political and intellectual currents in the country.” Much of his commentary is an ad hominem argument. Curiously, much of it, even if inadvertently, substantiates my central thesis: Yugoslav prison and camp literature represents a catalyst in the current processes of liberalization, democratization, and humanization in both politics and culture in post-Tito Yugoslavia.
Shamanic Elements in Some Early Eighteenth Century Russian Woodcuts
Authors: Farrell Dianne E.
Published: April 2006

While several authorities have held that the shamanism of indigenous Finno-Ugric and Turkic peoples influenced the Russians with whom they lived in close proximity, particularly via pagan Slavic volkhvy or sorcerers, little concrete evidence of that influence persisting in the seventeenth or eighteenth centuries has been discovered. However, several early eighteenth century woodcuts (lubki) which refer to sorcery reveal concrete links to shamanic cosmology and practice in what are otherwise enigmatic textual references and visual symbols.
Readings of Imperial Rome from Lomonosov to Pushkin
Authors: Kahn Andrew
Published: April 2006

The legacy of ancient writers to western culture since the Renaissance has long been acknowledged as a cornerstone of contemporary humanism. Yet within the vast territory of studies of the classical tradition there remains a large piece of uncharted terrain, and that is Russia, the significance of whose participation in the reception of antiquity has been largely excluded from investigation by foreign scholars and has only recently energized Russian scholars, particularly in the field of medieval studies.
Ivan IV's Personal Mythology of Kingship
Authors: Hunt Priscilla
Published: April 2006

Ivan IV was the head of a theocratic state and an ardent participant in the spiritual culture of his church. He nevertheless seems to have deliberately flaunted the religious standards which were the basis of his legitimacy, especially during theOprichnina(1564-1572). He reveled in blasphemy and his cruelties often manifested the ironic twist of what is termed "glumlenie": he denigrated his victims, ostentatiously violating their status by immersing them in inverted worlds of carnival. Although scholars have explored Ivan's motivations, no one has adequately explained the contradiction between his affirmation of his official status as model Christian and his blasphemous and immoral behavior.
The Komsomol and Young Peasants: The Dilemma of Rural Expansion, 1921-1925
Authors: Tirado Isabel A.
Published: April 2006

The Communist Youth League (Komsomol) was founded in 1917-1918 in urban centers. Its leadership's perception of the peasantry and its quest to maintain a respectable proportion of workers in the membership impeded expansion in rural areas: in the name of “proletarian purity,” many leaders and activists opposed the blanket admission of all but the poorest peasants into their midst. But demographic realities made the Komsomol's outreach to young peasants imperative: peasants made up eighty percent of the Russian population; their children nineteen years of age or younger accounted for half of the rural population in the mid-1920s. More important, the state and the Party had reduced their rural personnel at the end of the civil war and the Komsomol found itself pressured to fill the gap.
Bureaucratic- or Self-Government: The Early Nineteenth Century Russian City
Authors: Mironov Boris
Published: April 2006

While the topic of local government in Russia before the reforms of the 1860s was popular in prerevolutionary historiography, it did not attract much attention from Soviet historians; historians in the west have shown greater interest in the problem. The necessity of using a narrow, class approach forced Soviet historians to interpret the problems of local government in a simplistic and one-sided fashion. The a priori assumption that an independent local government was impossible, especially under absolutism, and the importunate desire to interpret each reform, each action of the crown as a realization of class goals by an exploiting gentry have, in my opinion hampered investigation of the correlation between crown rule and estate self-government in the local government system.
Boris Eikhenbaum in OPOIAZ: Testing the Limits of the Work-Centered Poetics
Authors: Any Carol
Published: April 2006

Boris Eikhenbaum spent nearly a decade working within Opoiaz, the Petersburg branch of Russian formalism, to develop a work-centered poetics. Faced with the inadequacy of traditional mimetic, expressive, and pragmatic views of literature, he and his colleagues tried to address literary works without recourse to extraliterary facts. Any intrinsic poetics, however, encounters difficulties, for it must avoid even the most obvious cultural and historical explanations of any work taken as literary. In its struggle against crudely reductive interpretations of literature, Opoiaz had constantly to guard against sliding back into an external approach. This article will suggest that it was largely Eikhenbaum who played the role of guard dog, nudging the evolving Opoiaz view of literature back toward the literary work itself. How successful he was in this effort (and by extension, perhaps, the successes and shortcomings of workcentered literary theories in general) is the question to be examined here. Eikhenbaum's own shift, beginning in 1927, toward a study of literature that privileges the author, may tell us as much about the limitations of objective theories of literature as about the political inadmissibility of Russian formalism under Stalin.
A House Divided: A Roll-call Analysis of the First Session of the Moscow City Soviet
Authors: Clark Terry D.
Published: April 2006

The March 1990 elections to republican and local Soviets in the USSR resulted in the transfer of power from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) to the nascent democratic movement in a number of republics and localities. Among these was the Moscow City Soviet (Mossoviet). Of the 472 people's deputies elected to the Mossoviet, the clear majority were elected under the umbrella of the political bloc Democratic Russia. Running on a platform calling for the rejection of continued CPSU control of political life in the Soviet Union and Moscow, Democratic Russia's candidates won decisively in a majority of the electoral districts.
Justifying the Margin: The Construction of “Soul” in Russian and African-American Texts
Authors: Peterson Dale E.
Published: April 2006

The scholarly world has little noted nor long remembered the interesting fact that the emancipation proclamation of a culturally separate African-American literature was accompanied by a generous acknowledgment of Russian precedent. In 1925 Alain Locke issued the first manifesto of the modern Black Arts movement, The New Negro. There could not have been a clearer call for the free expression of a suppressed native voice: “we have lately had an art that was stiltedly selfconscious, and racially rhetorical rather than racially expressive. Our poets have now stopped speaking for the Negro—they speak as Negroes.“ Even so, this liberating word of the Harlem Renaissance was uttered with a sideward glance at the prior success of nineteenth century Russia's soulful literature and music. Locke himself cited the testimony of his brilliant contemporary, the author of Cane, a poetic distillation of the pungent essence of slavery's culture of oppression: “for vital originality of substance, the young Negro writers dig deep into the racy peasant undersoil of the race life.
Soviet Karelian: The Language That Failed
Authors: Austin Paul M.
Published: April 2006

On January 1, 1938 virtually every trace of anything Finnish, including the language, disappeared in the Karelian ASSR, where until the day before Finnish had been one of the two official languages (with Russian) and the language of instruction in schools and of a wide variety of published materials—newspapers, literary journals and almanacs, J educational texts, translated belles lettres (both Russian and foreign) and official documents.

The history of Finnish in the Karelian ASSR dates from the Peace of Tartu (1920) which established the Finnish-Soviet border. It also stipulated that the "language of administration, legislation and public education" in the newly formed Karelian Workers Commune should be the "local popular language and designated Finnish that language. This might seem strange, since in 1923 there were in Soviet Karelia only 1,051 Finns, half of whom lived in the capital, Petrozavodsk.
The Markovo Republic: A Peasant Community during Russia’s First Revolution, 1905-1906
Authors: Schneer Matthew
Published: April 2006

On 31 October 1905, at the height of Russia’s first revolution, the peasant assembly (skhod) of Markovo, a village in the northwestern corner of Moscow province, issued a resolution (prigovor) marking the birth of the “Markovo Republic” and the election of P.A. Burshin, the village elder (starosta), as its first president. This manifesto announced that henceforth the peasants would refuse to obey the established authorities, pay taxes or rents, or provide any conscripts for the draft. Eight months later, when provincial Governor Dzhunkovskii arrived in Markovo on an inspection tour of the rebellious countryside, local peasants, hoping to plead their case, greeted him with the traditional welcome of bread and salt. Dzhunkovskii rebuffed both the welcome and the pleas. Instead, he rode off to a prominent local landlord’s estate and agreed to send in troops to forcibly replace the communal leaders and end on-going rent strikes. Two weeks later cossacks arrested the elders and effectively dissolved the Markovo Republic.
Beyond Psychohistory: The Young Stalin in Georgia
Authors: Suny Ronald Grigor
Published: April 2006

Within Russian and Soviet studies psychohistory has had few practitioners and a negligible effect, with the notable exception of Robert C. Tucker, an eloquent theorist of Soviet politics and a preeminent biographer of Stalin. His strategy for uncovering the unknown early Stalin has involved borrowing from the methodologies of psychoanalysis with the aim of showing how the pathology of the adult Stalin was rooted in the child. Yet his approach has found few adherents.

Stalin is without doubt one of the least hospitable subjects for the psychohistorian. Not particularly introspective, he left no intimate letters, no secret diary, and few witnesses to his inner life. Moreover, Bolshevik political culture was hostile to open personal expression and imposed on Stalin and other adherents an enforced modesty.
The Master and Margarita and the Poetics of Aporia: A Polemical Article
Authors: Rosenshield Gary
Published: April 2006

Despite some early critical reservations, Bulgakov’s The Master and Margarita has become one of the icons of postrevolutionary Russian literature. The bibliography of scholarly commentary on the work—mostly adulatory, and in some cases even hagiographical—is vast. Bulgakov has become, especially for western critics, the epitome of the artistmartyr. Persecuted by the Soviet writing establishment, he was able, through his long suppressed satiric masterpiece, The Master and Margarita (published for the first time in 1966-67), to survive and turn the tables—aesthetically and morally speaking—on his former oppressors. Life is short, art is long; or as Woland expressed it, manuscripts do not burn.

Indeed, there is ample justification for such a hagiographical approach. By 1928, when Bulgakov was drafting the first plans for The Master and Margarita, his literary prospects were already growing dim. In the 1930s, no longer able to publish original fiction, he survived by adapting works for the theater and by translating.
Legal Rights of Women in Russia, 1100-1750
Authors: Weickhardt George G.
Published: April 2006

This study will trace the evolution of rights of women to acquire and own land in Russia during the period 1100-1750. While detailed studies of particular periods are valuable, only with a chronological comparison can one appreciate the overall direction in which women's legal rights were developing and, specifically, whether they were contracting or expanding. Taking the long view in legal history is particularly important because changes in legal rules and legal status are often gradual, even glacial, and such change may be perceptible only over centuries. An overview is also important for the placement of past and future studies of particular periods in context. While it would be more conventional to conclude at the end of the Muscovite period rather than in the early empire, there were developments in women's rights in the Muscovite period which reached logical conclusions only in the mid-eighteenth century, such as the consolidation of a widow's rights to her husband's property.
The Scare of the Self: Sentimentalism, Privacy, and Private Life in Russian Culture, 1780-1820
Authors: Schönle Andreas
Published: April 2006

This century may be called the century of openness in the physical and moral sense: look at our sweet beauties! … Before people used to hide in dark homes behind the cover of high fences. Nowadays, one sees bright homes everywhere with large windows facing the street: please look in! We want to live, act, and think behind a transparent glass

–Nikolai Karamzin, Moia ispoved
Words Matter: Linguistic Conditions for Democracy in Russia
Authors: Anderson Richard D. , Chervyakov Valery I. , Parshin Pavel B.
Published: April 2006

How does language influence politics? Usually when this question is posed, it is understood to concern relations within a polity among communities whose members speak different languages. Our concern, however, is what contribution politicians’ language may make to the choice between authoritarianism or democracy. Of course, we reject any reduction of that determination to language alone.

The study of change in political Russian during the Soviet and post-Soviet era has concentrated on the consequences of variation incontent.As Meyer observed, during the Soviet period scholars mainly evaluated the degree to which “routine thinking in terms of the official doctrine … [exerted] an effect on actions taken or not taken…” Remington called attention to the existence in the Soviet period of “two interdependent but opposed codes,” one for “the ritualized world of public life” and the other for private interaction—a difference that, as early as 1960, Tucker had traced back to origins in tsarist Russia.
The Russian Orthodox Church versus the State: The Josephite Movement, 1927-1940
Authors: Shkarovskii Mikhail V.
Published: April 2006

Russia is embarking upon a new path of historical development. Today, as the country gradually liberates itself from the vestiges of a nondemocratic society, it seems especially propitious to trace the subordination in the 1920s and 1930s of Russia's most important social institutions to a nascent totalitarian regime. The Russian Orthodox Church belongs on the list of such institutions. During its long history it frequently exerted a stabilizing, consolidating effect on the nation, especially during times of national crisis; even during the civil war it maintained a neutral position.
The Contemporary Law of Superior Responsibility
Authors: Bantekas Ilias
Published: April 2006

In the bloody aftermath of World War I it became apparent that those in military or civilian authority provided a cornerstone for the good conduct of those under their command, and hence should carry some liability for their actions. A Commission established by the allies after World War I to assess the responsibility of German officers rightly assumed that a combination of power to intervene, knowledge of crimes and subsequent failure to act should render those concerned liable for the crimes of their subordinates. Despite United States and Japanese dissent, die latter arguing that highranking officials could not be held personally accountable under international law in accordance with the abstention theory of responsibility, trials instituted at the German Supreme Court in Leipzig recognized the existence of concrete duties pertaining to military commanders. Undoubtedly, two precursors to the Leipzig proceedings, the Hague Conventions IV (1907) and X (1907) created affirmative command duties in relation to the conduct of subordinate persons, establishing the doctrine of “command responsibility.”
Enforcement and Countermeasures in the WTO: Rules are Rules-Toward a More Collective Approach
Authors: Pauwelyn Joost
Published: April 2006

In the thirty cases that have led to the adoption of dispute settlement reports in the World Trade Organization (WTO), the enforcement tool of last resort—countermeasures—has been invoked five times. This number is more—in five years—than in the forty-seven-year history of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the WTO’s predecessor. In addition, on six occasions WTO members have invoked the expedited procedure to solve disagreements concerning compliance with dispute setdement reports, a procedure newly introduced with the establishment of the WTO. In another case, compliance procedures are looming.
Autonomous Institutional Arrangements in Multilateral Environmental Agreements: A Little-Noticed Phenomenon in International Law
Authors: Churchill Robin R. , Ulfstein Geir
Published: April 2006

Since the early 1970s a considerable number of multilateral agreements have been concluded in the environmental field that establish a common pattern of institutional arrangements. The purpose of these arrangements is to develop the normative content of the regulatory regime established by each agreement1 and to supervise the states parties’ implementation of and compliance with that regime. These institutional arrangements usually comprise a conference or meeting of the parties (COP, MOP) with decision-making powers, a secretariat, and one or more specialist subsidiary bodies. Such arrangements, because of their ad hoc nature, are not intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) in the traditional sense. On the other hand, as the creatures of treaties, such conferences and meetings of the parties, with their secretariats and subsidiary bodies, add up to more than just diplomatic conferences. Because such arrangements do not constitute traditional IGOs and yet are freestanding and distinct both from the states parties to a particular agreement and from existing IGOs, we have chosen to describe them as “autonomous.” They are also autonomous in the sense that they have their own lawmaking powers and compliance mechanisms.
Genetic variation ofUsnea filipendula(Parmeliaceae) populations in western Germany investigated by RAPDs suggests reinvasion from various sources
Authors: Heibel Esther , Lumbsch H. Thorsten , Schmitt Imke
Published: April 2006

Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers were characterized for 25 specimens ofUsnea filipendulato evaluate the genetic diversity of populations reinvading formerly uninhabited regions in Northrhine‐Westphalia due to decreasing sulfur dioxide levels. With six 10‐mer randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) primers, a 66 character by 25 specimens matrix was generated. Phenetic analysis (UPGMA) showed no obvious groupings. The reinvading populations are distributed over the phenogram and are not genetically closely related. The results suggest that the reinvading populations of this usually sterile species are derived from different sources and do not consist of a particular clone capable of re‐entering the area.
Phylogeny of the Bangiophycidae (Rhodophyta) and the secondary endosymbiotic origin of algal plastids
Authors: Oliveira Mariana C. , Bhattacharya Debashish
Published: April 2006

The Rhodophyta (red algae) are composed of the subclasses Bangiophycidae and Florideophycidae. Two evolutionarily interesting features of the Bangiophycidae are: (1) they are the ancestral pool from which the more morphologically complex taxa in the Florideophycidae have arisen and (2) they are the sources of the plastids, through secondary endosymbioses, for the Cryptophyta, Haptophyta, and the Heterokonta. To understand Bangiophycidae phylogeny and to gain further insights into red algal secondary endosymbioses, we sequenced the plastid‐encoded small subunit ribosomal DNA (rDNA) coding region from nine members of this subclass and from two members of the Florideophycidae. These sequences were included in phylogenetic analyses with all available red algal plus chlorophyll a + c algal plastid rDNA coding regions. Our results are consistent with a monophyletic origin of the Florideophycidae with these taxa forming a sister group of the Bangiales. The Bangiophycidae is of a paraphyletic origin with orders such as the Porphyridiales polyphyletic and distributed over three independent red algal lineages. The plastids of the heterokonts are most closely related to members of the Cyanidium–Galdieria group of Porphyridiales and are not directly related to cryptophyte and haptophyte plastids. The phylogenies provide strong evidence for the independent origins of these “complex” algal plastids from different members of the Bangiophycidae.
Phylogenetic analysis of Silphium and subtribe Engelmanniinae (Asteraceae: Heliantheae) based on ITS and ETS sequence data
Authors: Clevinger Jennifer A. , Panero Jose L.
Published: April 2006

The phylogenetic relationships of Silphium and subtribe Engelmanniinae were examined using DNA sequence data. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and the external transcribed spacer (ETS) region were sequenced for 39 specimens representing the six genera of subtribe Engelmanniinae (Berlandiera, Chrysogonum, Dugesia, Engelmannia, Lindheimera, and Silphium), plus five additional genera identified as closely related to the Engelmanniinae by chloroplast DNA restriction site analysis, and three outgroups. Phylogenetic analysis supported the monophyly of Silphium with Lindheimera as sister. Silphium can be divided into two sections based upon two well‐supported clades that correspond to root type and growth form. These results also supported the expansion of subtribe Engelmanniinae to include Balsamorhiza, Borrichia, Rojasianthe, Vigethia, and Wyethia. We hypothesize that subtribe Engelmanniinae originated in Mesoamerica and later radiated to the United States. We suggest that the cypsela complex, which is present in Berlandiera, Chrysogonum, Engelmannia, and Lindheimera, arose only once and was subsequently lost in Silphium.
Heritability of stigma position and the effect of stigma‐anther separation on outcrossing in a predominantly self‐fertilizing weed, Datura stramonium (Solanaceae)
Authors: Motten Alexander F. , Stone Judy L.
Published: April 2006

A polymorphism for anthocyanin production was used as a genetic marker to document the relationship between anther–stigma separation and outcrossing rate in the predominantly self‐fertilizing weed Datura stramonium. White‐flowered plants that differed in anther–stigma separation were placed into populations consisting exclusively of purple‐flowered plants. Self vs. outcross origin of progeny was evident in the hypocotyl color of the seedlings. Outcrossing rates measured for single flowers were significantly positively correlated with anther–stigma separation, albeit with some scatter around the regression line, especially for flowers with exserted stigmas. We also performed an 8 × 8 diallel cross to determine whether anther–stigma separation is genetically determined. Heritability in two field plots was ∼0.3 and in the greenhouse was ∼0.2. Maternal effects, epistasis, and dominance appeared to be relatively unimportant. Genotypes performed consistently across the three environments, although total plant size varied more than fivefold. It appears that the mixed‐mating system of D. stramonium has a heritable basis and would be capable of responding to selection.
Fate of oxygen losses from Typha domingensis (Typhaceae) and Cladium jamaicense (Cyperaceae) and consequences for root metabolism
Authors: Chabbi Abad , McKee Karen L. , Mendelssohn Irving A.
Published: April 2006

The objective of this work was to determine whether radial oxygen loss (ROL) from roots of Typha domingensis and Cladium jamaicense creates an internal oxygen deficiency or, conversely, indicates adequate internal aeration and leakage of excess oxygen to the rhizosphere. Methylene blue in agar was used to visualize the pattern of ROL from roots, and oxidation of a titanium‐citrate solution was used to quantify rates of oxygen leakage. Typha's roots had a higher porosity than Cladium's and responded to flooding treatment by increasing cortical air space, particularly near the root tips. A greater oxygen release, which occurred along the subapical root axis, and an increase in rhizosphere redox potential (Eh) over time were associated with the well‐developed aerenchyma system in Typha. Typha roots, regardless of oxygen release pattern, showed low or undetectable alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) activity or ethanol concentrations, indicating that ROL did not cause internal deficiencies. Cladium roots also released oxygen, but this loss primarily occurred at the root tips and was accompanied by increased root ADH activity and ethanol concentrations. These results support the hypothesis that oxygen release by Cladium is accompanied by internal deficiencies of oxygen sufficient to stimulate alcoholic fermentation and helps explain Cladium's lesser flood tolerance in comparison with Typha.
Cortical development in roots of the aquatic plant Pontederia cordata (Pontederiaceae)
Authors: Seago James L. , Peterson Carol A. , Enstone Daryl E.
Published: April 2006

Adventitious roots of marsh‐grown Pontederia cordata were examined to determine cortical development and structure. The innermost layer of the ground meristem forms the endodermis and aerenchymatous cortex. The outermost layer of the early ground meristem undergoes a precise pattern of oblique and periclinal cell divisions to produce a single or double layer of prohypodermis with an anchor cell for each radial file of aerenchyma cells. At maturity, endodermal cell walls are modified only by narrow Casparian bands. The central regions of the ground meristem become proaerenchyma and exhibit asymmetric cell division and expansion. They produce an aerenchymatous zone with barrel‐shaped large cells and irregularly shaped small cells traversing the aerenchyma horizontally along radii; some crystalliferous cells with raphides are present in the aerenchyma. The walls of the hypodermis are modified early by polyphenols. The outermost layer of the hypodermis later matures into an exodermis with Casparian bands that are impermeable to berberine, an apoplastic tracer dye. The nonexodermal layer(s) of the hypodermis has suberin‐modified walls. Radial files of aerenchyma are usually connected by narrow protuberances near their midpoints, the aerenchyma lacunae having been produced by expansion of cells along walls lining intercellular spaces. We are terming this type of aerenchyma development, which is neither schizogenous nor lysigenous, “differential expansion.”
Evidence for natural selection in a fern hybrid zone
Authors: Kentner Edward K. , Mesler Michael R.
Published: April 2006

Morphological characters, chloroplast DNA, and allozymes were used to analyze the distribution of individuals within a hybrid population of the fernsPolystichum munitumandP. imbricansin northwestern California. Microsites within the population were characterized according to soil moisture and light levels reaching the plants. In sites with low soil moisture and high light levels, all of the ferns were genetically and morphologically likeP. imbricans.In contrast, ferns with the genetic and morphological identity ofP. munitumpredominated in moist shady sites. Intermediate sites supported very fewP.munitum, a wide variety of hybrid recombinants, and a majority of ferns withP. imbricanscharacteristics. The pattern of variation within the population is noteworthy because of the close proximity of the habitat extremes and the long‐range dispersal of fern spores. We conclude that natural selection along environmental gradients must be a major factor in determining the ecological and genetic associations within the hybrid zone. The results of this study are evaluated in the context of the fern life cycle and compared to the assumptions of models explaining the establishment and maintenance of hybrid zones, which vary in the role attributed to environmentally mediated natural selection.