bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Earliest Cultures in the Western United States
Authors: Krieger Alex D.
Published: April 2006

Nearly all writers on the antiquity of man in America assume that the oldest archaeological sites contain chipped-stone projectile points and therefore cannot exceed an age of some 12,000 to 15,000 years, the estimates usually given to such projectile-point types as Sandia and Clovis. Suggestions of older sites, with radiocarbon dates ranging from some 21,000 years to as much as “greater than 37,000 years,” with simpler artifacts and an absence of stone projectile points, are generally viewed with suspicion if not abhorrence.

A recent paper by E. H. Sellards considers seven localities in the western United States and Baja California which, because of geological position and radiocarbon dates, are probably too old to contain stone projectile points. The writer agrees with Sellards that these localities are archaeological (except for that at Texas Street in San Diego, California), but disagrees that those in coastal locations are different from those in inland locations for “ecological” reasons such as food supply and availability of stone. The differences may be explained in that those sites on the shores of extinct lakes were never covered by overburden, whereas those which were covered by alluvium or sand are known to us now only by varying amounts of exposure by erosion or excavation (or both).
The Intermontane Western Tradition
Authors: Daugherty Richard D.
Published: April 2006

The hypothesis of an Intermontane Western tradition is advanced as a conceptual framework within which it is possible to achieve a greater understanding of the cultural histories of the Plateau, Great Basin, and Southwest culture areas, including broad and specific relationships and also the developing differences.

Geographically, the Intermontane Western tradition extended throughout the intermontane region between the Cascade-Sierra Nevada ranges on the west, and the Rocky Mountains on the east, and from southern British Columbia on the north to northern Mexico on the south. Temporally, the Intermontane Western tradition existed throughout the post-glacial period.

Within the major tradition, the Southwest Agricultural, Desert, and Northwest Riverine Areal traditions are seen developing, partly in response to environmental changes.
Early Cultures in Northwestern America
Authors: Swanson Earl H.
Published: April 2006

The major problem in studying Early Man in northwestern America would appear to be the definition of adequate criteria for the identification of cultures. What is needed is recognition of cultures rather than technological tool-making traditions. A useful approach is to establish a model of relationships between environments and cultures. A basic assumption is that both environment and culture are continuous and that present environments permit recognition of past cultures. The identification of multiple environments in northwestern America permits the deduction that there were also multiple early cultures. Some proof of the models is to be seen in the presence of archaeological continuums rather than in layer-cake sequences. In the Northwest the layer-cake sequences should be expressive of intercultural relationships, and such relationships should occur on the margins of environmental areas. As a consequence of the models, three basic early cultures have been defined, with one potential culture as yet undefined. These are: (1) Old Cordilleran culture, (2) Mountain-Plains culture, and (3) Bitterroot culture, which may have been antecedent to the Desert culture. All three cultures are virtually equal in geologic time, though not necessarily in absolute time. A number of problems remain, but the approach is suggested as a means of recognizing that there are cultures probably equivalent in time to any previously recognized elsewhere in the New World.
New Data on the Antiquity of Polychrome Painting from Venezuela
Authors: Zucchi Alberta
Published: April 2006

The existence of a new early tradition of polychrome painting (Caño del Oso) has been revealed through recent archaeological excavations in the western Venezuelan Llanos. This tradition seems to be much older than Tocuyano, which up to the present yielded the oldest absolute dates not only for Venezuela, but also for the Caribbean, Central America, and Mesoamerica. The chronological position of the Cano del Oso polychrome pottery, its characteristics, and the lack of stylistic relationships with Tocuyano, enabled the formulation of 2 hypotheses regarding the place of origin of the technique: Venezuela or Colombia. Likewise it permitted the assumption that within Venezuela, polychrome painting spread from one local group to another independently from other ceramic traits.
Reply to Sheffer
Authors: Boserup Ester
Published: April 2006

Sheffer's contention that I have skewed data to suit my purposes is denied. I suggest that it is, rather, he who misuses my data.
The Applied Science Center for Archaeology
Authors: Rainey Froelich
Published: April 2006

The Applied Science Center for Archaeology of the University Museum in Philadelphia is now experimenting with devices that will facilitate the task of precise location and even discovery of cultural strata. The Geohm resistometer and the proton magnetometer are both being used satisfactorily, and further development of a new sonic device has begun. The Center has also been studying new techniques for the determination of trace elements in metals and ceramics, and the thermoluminescence method for dating pottery and other fired objects. In cooperation with the already established radiocarbon laboratory, a project is underway to acquire and date tree samples of very great age. The Center is also gathering and cross-indexing information on completed analyses carried out with the various dating devices and techniques. This information is drawn from both published and unpublished materials.
A Formative-Period Painted Pottery Complex at Ancón, Peru
Authors: Mendieta Ramiro Matos
Published: April 2006

The well-known archaeological site at Ancon, Peru, represents the timespan from preceramic through the end of the Formative period. Recent investigations have permitted definition of five ceramic phases, of which Ancon C is of particular interest here because it marks the appearance of zoned and unzoned painted decoration. These techniques were added to the preexisting ceramic complex, characterized by limited frequency of decoration by incision. A burial equating with Ancon C contained a variety of grave goods, including a complete olla with zoned red decoration, covered with a basket and containing among other objects a wooden figurine with articulated arms. The estimated date is around 1200 B.C. These associations expand the definition of the cultural complex on the central Peruvian coast in the pre-Chavin period and raise questions about the origin and diffusion of the traits, which have also been reported from Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, and Mesoamerica.
A New Look at Geochronology in the Upper Great Lakes Region
Authors: Quimby George I.
Published: April 2006

A revision of Great Lakes geologic history involving the temporal position of Glacial Lake Algonquin and some post-Algonquin lake stages requires corresponding revision of certain archaeological interpretations. Indications are that the Paleo-Indian occupations of the upper Great Lakes area are somewhat earlier than heretofore supposed.
Archaeological and Other Evidence: A Fresh Look at the “Laurentian Iroquois”
Authors: Trigger Bruce G.
Published: April 2006

Prehistorians frequently must depend on archaeological evidence alone in forming judgments. It is evident from prehistoric studies, however, that difficulties are likely to arise when archaeological evidence is credited as being, of itself, a completely adequate basis for reconstructing every aspect of prehistory. This paper outlines the challenge that historical and linguistic evidence have posed to one explanation based solely on archaeological data. The problem concerns the ethnic identity of the so-called Laurentian Iroquois, who inhabited the St. Lawrence Valley in the 16th century. The archaeological material from this period has been identified as “Onondaga” or “Onondaga-Oneida,” but the vocabularies that were collected by early explorers in this area do not appear to be those of any of the languages of the Five Nations Iroquois. This particular confrontation of archaeological and linguistic evidence has resulted, not in the confirmation of current archaeological theories, but in the awareness of a broader range of alternative hypotheses than has been entertained hitherto.
The Proper Way to Report Birds in Print
Authors: Hargrave Lyndon L.
Published: April 2006

The improper publication of bird names in archaeological reports may lead to misunderstanding of texts. Standardized procedures for printing bird names have been in general use by ornithologists for about 100 years but are discussed here for the archaeologists. Examples are given so distortion of facts may be avoided and clarity of interpretation may be better maintained.
The Ceramics of Huistla, a West Mexican Site in the Municipality of Etzatlán, Jalisco
Authors: Glassow Michael A.
Published: April 2006

Test excavations at the site of Huistla in Jalisco, Mexico, yielded a series of ceramic types which is similar to types or wares found in the coastal lowland strip of Nayarit and Sinaloa. These affiliations indicate an occupation during a period sometime between about A.D. 800 and 1200. A reappraisal of the Aztatlán complex, recently divided into a series of local phases by Kelley, Winters, and Grosscup, leaves the impression that, while subdivision of the complex is justifed in light of their new data, certain continuities in ceramic design styles between these phases still give substance to the Aztatlán complex.
Neutron Activation Analysis of Some Cuicuilco and Teotihuacán Pottery: Archaeological Interpretation of Results
Authors: Bennyhoff J. A. , Heizer R. F.
Published: April 2006

Neutron activation was used by Johnson and Stross to determine the manganese content of the clay used in 11 sherds from Cuicuilco and Teotihuacán in the Valley of Mexico. The results indicate that three distinctive sherds of negative ware from Cuicuilco differ from local Late Preclassic wares but are similar to pottery of the Tzacualli phase made locally at Teotihuacán. Trade between the Chimalhuacan settlement at Cuicuilco and the Tzacualli town at Teotihuacán is thus indicated.
Settlement Pattern and Chinampa Agriculture at Tenochtitlan
Authors: Calnek Edward E.
Published: April 2006

Archival source materials and colonial period maps have been employed to reconstruct the settlement pattern characteristic of the chinampa districts of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan. The evidence includes detailed descriptions of a number of individual residential sites and chinampa holdings, which can be drawn to scale on street maps of the modern city. Genealogies and census data have been employed to determine the average size and social composition of typical urban households. Rough estimates of the economic value of urban chinampa holdings in relation to individual households, and to the urban population as a whole, indicate much higher levels of non-agricultural economic specialization, and a more complete dependence of the city on agrarian support areas outside the city than previously supposed.
A Simpler Simplified Procedure for Photographing Obsidian
Authors: Rovner Irwin
Published: April 2006

The need to coat obsidian artifacts for photographic purposes can be eliminated through the use of a light polarizing filter attached to the camera lens.
Spatial Analysis: Multiple Procedures in Pattern Recognition Studies
Authors: Hietala Harold J. , Stevens Dominique E.
Published: April 2006

The analysis of the spatial distributions of artifacts on archaeological floors has potential for the recognition and interpretation of cultural patterns represented by prehistoric remains. This study emphasizes the use of multiple procedures for the separate problems of pattern detection, estimation, and prediction. Aggregative and segregative definitions are proposed for three artifact class associational modes. Definitions are also proposed for general and special pattern prediction problems. An application to the Mousterian site of Rosh Ein Mor in Israel, shows that multiple procedures can be extremely advantageous in the interpretation of general complex patterns.
A Prehispanic Irrigation System near Santa Clara Xalostoc in the Basin of Mexico
Authors: Sanders William T. , Santley Robert S.
Published: April 2006

A major theoretical issue in studies of the cultural ecology of Central Mexico has been the role of irrigation in the evolution of the state in that area. A major methodological problem has been the location and dating of prehistoric canal systems. A recent discovery near Xalostoc, of a stratified canal system (representing three distinct periods) in the exposed profiles of contemporary adobe extraction pits, offers an ideal situation for dating of prehistoric canals. All three are apparently Pre-Coyotlatelco in date and the settlement history suggests that some of them are contemporary with Teotihuacan.
A Canadian Shield Pictograph Classification Design
Authors: Dee Maurer John , Patrick Whelan James
Published: April 2006

During the past five years rock painting researchers concluded that a means of cataloging and classifying rock paintings was necessary. Research at the University of Winnipeg has led to the development of a punch card code and card design for Canadian Shield rock paintings that may also be applicable to other forms of pictography within the region. This design went through many stages of development and many problems were encountered by the developers. Despite the problems a set of basic computer-oriented categories for the comparison and correlation of rock paintings has been developed.
A Linguistic Look at the Olmecs
Authors: Campbell Lyle , Kaufman Terrence
Published: April 2006

This paper explores the hypothesis that the archaeological Olmecs, at least in part, were speakers of Mixe-Zoquean languages. The hypothesis is supported by not only geographical and temporal correlation, but by Mixe-Zoquean loan words in other Mesoamerican languages, many of which refer to things diagnostic of the Mesoamerican culture area. Also the cultural inventory revealed in Proto-Mixe-Zoquean vocabulary provides additional support.
Science in Archaeology: The Saints Go Marching In
Authors: Dumond Don E.
Published: April 2006

The New Archaeology has been said to involve a new view of culture and a heightened appreciation of the way to do science. By way of examining these claims, a review is made of three well known studies in which archaeologists popularly assigned to that movement attempt to relate the distributions of archaeological materials to patterns of post-marital residence. One of the studies is found to be possibly successful, the others probably unsuccessful, and the conclusion is that no such relationship is demonstrated. Although the conceptual framework of the studies is impressive, at least two of them are found to suffer from an insufficiency of rigor in testing their hypotheses. It is suggested that the conceptual framework is not peculiar to the New Archaeology, and that the shortcomings in testing relate to a misapprehension of scientific method.
Late Anasazi Farming and Hunting Strategies: One Example of a Problem in Congruence
Authors: Cordell Linda S.
Published: April 2006

Data derived from site survey and excavation in central New Mexico indicate that there is a lack of congruence, or agreement, between material recovered through excavation and expectations derived from environmental, ethnographic and site location information. It is argued that the lack of congruence should not be dismissed but may provide useful insights into past subsistence technology.
Osteological Identification of Sandhill Crane versus Turkey
Authors: Hargrave L. L. , Emslie S. D.
Published: April 2006

Bones of two cranes, the sandhill crane [Grus canadensis] and the whooping crane [Grus americana], can occur in archaeological sites in North America. Fragments of these bones are frequently and easily confused with similar bone fragments of the common turkey [Meleagris gallopavo]. To preclude these errors, identification techniques are provided for major elements of the sandhill crane and turkey.
Fish Remains in Archaeology: A Comment on Casteel
Authors: Wing Elizabeth S. , Hammond Norman
Published: April 2006

Casteel's contention that fish remains can yield information on territorial exploitation can be expanded to include inferences about the necessary technology.
The Ecological Approach to Archaeology: Are We Really Trying?
Authors: Butzer Karl W.
Published: April 2006

Explicit methodological statements on the needs for and goals of an “ecological” study of man’s past first appeared in the 1950’s. Since this time it has become fashionable to operate archaeological projects with symbiotic teams from diverse disciplinary backgrounds. Although government agencies and private foundations have shown a measure of sympathy toward the support of “non-anthropologists” engaged in archaeological projects, there has been little reflection on how successful such ventures have been.
A Measure of Settlement Pattern Change and Stability
Authors: Robbins Michael C. , Diehl Richard A.
Published: April 2006

A counting index of the average degree of extreme settlement pattern change and stability is presented. Data from regional archaeological settlement pattern surveys in the Basin of Mexico are used to illustrate it.
Cognitive Models for Archaeological Interpretation
Authors: Kehoe Alice B. , Kehoe Thomas F.
Published: April 2006

Anthony F. C. Wallace's concepts of cognitive maps and of culture as primarily the organization of diversity are utilized to discuss the significance of a Wisconsin burial mound group, the Hilgen Spring Park site.
Edge Abrasion during Biface Manufacture
Authors: Sheets Payson D.
Published: April 2006

Nance intended to demonstrate that certain small, bifacially chipped obsidian artifacts from the California Late horizon were used for cutting purposes, and were therefore not projectile points. However, both categories of edge abrasion noted by Nance, attrition and striation, may also appear on the edges of bifacially flaked artifacts during the process of manufacture. The purpose of abrading a biface edge is to strengthen the edge preparatory to pressure or percussion flaking. Criteria to distinguish edge abrasion during manufacture from abrasion deriving from use are presented.
The Use of Water and Water Pumps in Archaeological Excavations
Authors: Sense Richard G.
Published: April 2006

If an archaeological site is situated near a dependable source of water, a water pump with attached hoses can be utilized to deliver water to screen excavated fill. Screening with water results in the recovery of more and a greater variety of artifacts and non-artifactual materials, and saves time and money. Gasoline-engine powered centrifugal pumps are recommended for most projects.
Ceramic Patterning and Social Structure at Two Late Historic Upper Creek Sites in Alabama
Authors: Dickens Roy S. , Chapman James H.
Published: April 2006

This study examines the variability in Ocmulgee Fields ceramics from 2 nearly contemporaneous Upper Creek Indian sites at Horseshoe Bend National Military Park in central Alabama. The intent is to demonstrate that differences between the 2 pottery assemblages reflect differences in the social settings at the 2 sites. Frequencies of ceramic types and of selected attributes are tested for statistical significance using chi-square, and the strength of the assumed relationships are evaluated using 1 or more measures of association. The tests support a contention that ceramic vessels in use at the temporary, warrier-refugee settlement of Tohopeka were more frequently of utility forms and were generally larger and less decorated than vessels in use at the permanent, family-structured settlement of Nuyaka. It is suggested that similar studies of ceramics from sites for which the historical record is not as complete as it is for the Horseshoe Bend sites might reveal potential distinctions in social structure and behavioral patterning that would be developed primarily from the archaeological record.
Changing Holocene Environments at the Koster Site: A Geo-Archaeological Perspective
Authors: Butzer Karl W.
Published: April 2006

Geomorphologic and sediment-stratigraphic study of the Koster site has been carried out in the broader context of the lower Illinois Valley. Accumulation of reworked loess in an overdeepened tributary valley began at Koster shortly after 10,000 B.P., and continued through Holocene times with major sedimentary breaks. The Illinois floodplain began to stabilize ca. 5000 B.P. after rapid aggradation, but remained a dynamic environment that developed its present patterns after 2500 B.P. Valley-margin hillside vegetation was considerably more xeric during the periods 1200-950 B.P., 2100–1900 B.P., and ca. 9700–5000 B.P., with hillside woodland reduced to hill prairie or parkland ca. 8500–7700 B.P. These dramatic Holocene environmental changes suggest that interpretative archaeological models for cultural adaptations through time must consider the environment as a critical variable, rather than as a constant.
Genesis I.1; Or, Teaching Archaeology to the Great Archaeology-Loving Public
Authors: Fagan Brian M.
Published: April 2006

The problem of teaching archaeology to large, lay audiences has received little attention from specialist anthropologists. A very diverse audience with specific attitudes to archaeology takes such courses. Few people are interested in more specialist training, although most beginning courses emphasize this aspect of archaeology. The paper describes some of the basic course content desirable in an introductory course and some of the methods that can be used to teach it. It concludes that the specialist training of professional archaeologists and the reward system of the discipline make it difficult for them to face the challenge of teaching beginning students.
The Fishweirs at Atherley Narrows, Ontario
Authors: Johnston Richard B. , Cassavoy Kenneth A.
Published: April 2006

A systematic underwater survey of the Atherley Narrows, in southern Ontario at the outlet of Lake Simcoe, has revealed the remains of numerous wooden stakes preserved in the bottom sediment. Some of these stakes are aligned in patterns across the channel and are believed to be the remains of fishweirs. Radiocarbon ages on stakes indicate that at least 2 of these structures date from the Late Archaic period.
A Test of Paleodemographic Models
Authors: Hall Roberta L.
Published: April 2006

Paleodemography is a useful adjunct to archaeological reconstruction, but as a research tool it is relatively new and requires further study. This paper reports on a project in which the life-table method of modeling demographic processes, based on a sexed and aged sample from the community ossuary, was tested against census records of the population structure. Data were taken from cemetery headstones in a township in central Indiana, spanning the period from its first settlement by Euroamerican farmers in 1830 through 1972. Life-expectancy estimates produced from the life tables were essentially identical to those produced from federal census data. Paleodemographic models of population structure were statistically different from census tabulations but were similar in form, representing a "smoothed" estimate of age structure.
Early Boundary Maintenance in Northwest Yucatan, Mexico
Authors: Kurjack Edward B. , Andrews V E. Wyllys
Published: April 2006

Walls surrounding three sites in northwest Yucatan, Mexico, were observed in aerial photography. The walls are thought to have been constructed during the Pure Florescent (Terminal Classic) period and to postdate the architectural complexes at the sites they surround. The photographs also show causeways connecting satellite communities with major centers; these are interpreted as Classic period attempts at boundary maintenance. The apparent trend toward increased severity of such activity through time is considered the result of demographic, social, and ecological factors.
Chronology of the Farmington Complex
Authors: Ritter Eric W. , Hatoff Brian W. , Payen Louis A.
Published: April 2006

Recent geomorphic investigations in central California coupled with a re-evaluation of radiocarbon determinations from one Farmington complex locus provide a base for a more explicit definition of the age of this alleged Paleoindian manifestation. Flaked stone implements were apparently buried in gravels deposited during terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene times when channel filling occurred in the Sierra Nevada foothill drainages. The radiocarbon dates do not support the geologic interpretations. However, because of the charcoal"s stratigraphic context the dates are considered the product of later events.
Multivariate Statistical Analysis of a Regional Subsistence-Settlement Model for Owens Valley
Authors: Bettinger Robert L.
Published: April 2006

Despite their growing importance in the study of prehistoric human ecology, regional subsistence-settlement models continue to be developed and justified largely on intuitive grounds. This shortcoming can be at least partially overcome by using multivariate statistical techniques to clarify and refine these models. Such an approach is illustrated using classical factor analysis and discriminant analysis to explicate and improve a regional subsistence-settlement model previously developed for Owens Valley, eastern California.
A Quantitative Analysis of Superimpositions in the Rock Art of the Coso Range, California
Authors: Wellmann Klaus F.
Published: April 2006

All superimpositions encountered in a sample of 106 panels of proto-Shoshonean petroglyphs in the Coso Range (T22S-R40E). California, were quantitatively analyzed. The relative numbers of superimpositions in three of the nine subject categories (patterned-body anthropomorphs, other humans, and boat-shaped sheep) were higher than expected. Some designs (other humans, boat-shaped sheep, medicine bags) formed the overlying elements significantly more often, and others (patterned-body anthropomorphs, other elements) were seen more frequently as underlying subjects. Boat-shaped sheep and patterned-body humans constituted the most commonly encountered pairs of motifs linked in superimpositions; the high incidence of this particular linkage provides visual support for the postulated occurrence of a late intensification of ritual activities designed to help increase the supply of game animals. The data also contribute some new information about the possible iconographic roles of two controversial design motifs, the “shields” and the “medicine bags.”
Broken K Revisited: A Short Discussion of Factor Analysis
Authors: Lischka Joseph J.
Published: April 2006

The use of factor analysis in archaeology has increased considerably in recent years as archaeologists have recognized the advantages of using a statistical technique that can elicit otherwise unrecognizable patterns in a set of data. But there are several questions relating to scaling transformations and reliability assessments that must be answered within the context of specific research designs before reliable results can be obtained. A re-analysis of pottery type distributions at Broken K Pueblo is used to illustrate these questions. The factor solutions produced by the re-analysis exhibit relatively low reliability levels, indicating that the ratio of specific and error variance to common variance in the data is somewhat high.
Bahamas Prehistory
Authors: Sears William H. , Sullivan Shaun O.
Published: April 2006

A program of surveys and test excavations has located 53 prehistoric open midden sites in the Bahamas and procured a large artifact sample from them. Sites in the central Bahamas, concentrated in the eastern islands of the area, are characterized by the shell-tempered Palmetto Series pottery. While sharing specific modes with Antillean cultures, it is an indigenous development, originating in the Caicos where the earliest sites have only ceramics imported from the Antilles. Distribution of sites and ceramic analyses suggest a movement of Antillean Arawaks to the Caicos to secure salt. An indigenous cultural tradition developed there by shortly after 1000 A.D. and spread rapidly to the central Bahamas. Factors affecting the limits of cultural expansion were the temperature and rainfall requirements of bitter manioc agriculture, which eliminated the northern Bahamas, and perhaps, in part, a time factor affecting expansion to the west.
Additional Cautions on the Use of the Glo Survey Records in Vegetational Reconstructions in the Midwest
Authors: King Frances B.
Published: April 2006

Data from the United States General Land Office Surveys are frequently used to reconstruct the vegetation existing at the time of European settlement as a basis for biotic models. The vegetation recorded in those surveys had been influenced not only by climatic conditions considerably colder and more moist than the present, but by frequent, widespread burning as well. The effect of such burning on the distribution and composition of forest vegetation was as great as the climatic effects and must be taken into account when building prehistoric vegetational models in the Midwest.
A Permutation Technique for the Spatial Analysis of the Distribution of Artifacts into Classes
Authors: Berry Kenneth J. , Kvamme Kenneth L. , Mielke Paul W.
Published: April 2006

A permutation test for assessing intrasite patterning of artifact distributions in archaeological space is presented. This test requires none of the usual assumptions about the data; permits either exact locational or counts/grid data in one-, two-, or three-dimensional space; and provides an exact method for testing any hypothesis concerning the nonrandom allocation of artifacts into classes within a site.
Cultural Ecology Reconsidered
Authors: Blanton Richard E.
Published: April 2006

This is a response to Santley's criticisms of my suggestions concerning Monte Albán, the ancient Zapotec capital. It consists of first questioning his cultural ecological theoretical base, then showing that his interpretation of the nature of Monte Albán and its hinterland is faulty.
Sunken Fields and Prehispanic Subsistence on the Peruvian Coast
Authors: Parsons Jeffrey R. , Psuty Norbert P.
Published: April 2006

A series of hypotheses concerning the subsistence role of prehistoric sunken field agriculture are developed and evaluated in light of distributional studies of sunken fields along the entire Peruvian coast and excavations at one sunken field locality in the Chilca Valley. Our data suggest that (1) sunken fields occupy distinctive natural topographic lows; (2) sunken field agriculture developed late in the prehispanic sequence; (3) sunken field cultivation was a minor field system which, except at Chilca, was never extended to anywhere near the limits of its small potential; and (4) the factors which stimulated the initial construction of sunken fields at Chilca remain poorly understood.
The Pillage of Prehistory
Authors: Sheets Payson D.
Published: April 2006

The pillaging of archaeological sites throughout the world for salable items is increasing at an alarming rate. Recent information on looting in Mesoamerica, North America, and the Mediterranean area is summarized, and the weaknesses of the UNESCO and U.S.-Mexico treaties are outlined. Also described is a new and extremely destructive form of looting in Mesoamerica. It involves amassing many thousands of dollars from private investors for a project to decimate a chosen site, using explosives and power equipment, and then subdividing the loot among the sponsors. It is time for the SAA to act to stop the wanton destruction of the prehistoric record.
On the Evolution of “Tribal” Social Networks
Authors: Saitta Dean J.
Published: April 2006

Braun and Plog's approach to understanding change in “tribal” social networks is critiqued with respect to (1) certain bridging arguments about the social meaning of particular evidential trends, and (2) certain conceptual biases regarding the nature of “tribal” social relations. Aspects of an alternative strategy for making sense of “tribal” social dynamics are discussed.
Return Rates and Intensity of Resource Use in Numic and Prenumic Adaptive Strategies
Authors: Bettinger Robert L. , Baumhoff Martin A.
Published: April 2006

Criticisms of our model of the recent spread of Numic speakers into the Great Basin center on the ambiguity of linguistic evidence and apparent similarities between Numic and Prenumic settlement and subsistence patterns. We argue that the linguistic data are only one part of a larger body of ethnographic data that support the hypothesized spread of Numic speakers and that the adaptive similarities noted between Numic and Prenumic are only of the broadest sort and do not vitiate the assumptions of our model. In particular, we suggest that it is the intensity with which a resource is used, not the mere use of that resource, which is important in understanding competitive replacement among adaptive strategies.
The Implications of Nahua (Aztecan) Lexical Diversity for Mesoamerican Culture-History
Authors: Luckenbach Alvin H. , Levy Richard S.
Published: April 2006

This paper describes the results of an investigation of internal Nahua lexical diversity and speculates on the possible implications for Mesoamerican culture-history. Data for glottochronological calculations were obtained from 25 different Nahua communilects ranging in location from Sinaloa in western Mexico to El Salvador. The absolute chronology derived from this lexicostatistical technique proved highly sensitive to a number of discontinuities in the Mesoamerican sequence. Nahua linguistic divergences correlated with such significant events as the demise of the "Classic civilizations," Toltec and Aztec expansionist periods, and the Spanish conquest. Although the correlation between absolute and glottochronological years remains theoretically controversial, the results of this and other similar studies indicate a high potential for the practical applications of this technique in holistic anthropological research.
Periodic Markets in Precolumbian Mexico
Authors: Hassig Ross
Published: April 2006

Considerations of markets in Precolumbian Mexico have failed to analyze the significance of periodicity for Precolumbian market systems. This essay examines periodicity and argues that the several types of recorded Precolumbian markets are qualitatively different; the 5-day market was basic, while 9-, 13-, and 20-day markets were ritual in nature, tied to specific and infrequent days, and played little or no part in market articulation.
Where the Rich Folks Lived: Deranging Factors in the Statistical Analysis of Tikal Settlement
Authors: Haviland William A.
Published: April 2006

In a recent statistical study of settlement patterns at Tikal, Guatemala, Arnold and Ford failed to find evidence for the concentric zonation model which specifies that high-ranking persons generally lived closer to the site center than persons of lesser rank. However, their conclusions are invalidated by their exclusion from consideration of the houses occupied by the wealthy and powerful members of Tikal society. Attention is called to other deranging factors which need to be considered before a valid test of the concentric zonation model can be carried out Tikal, or at any other large and complex site.
A Comment on Nomenclature in Faunal Studies
Authors: Olsen Sandra L. , Olsen John W.
Published: April 2006

The study of faunal remains from archaeological sites has been described using a variety of terms including: zooarchaeology, archaeozoology, osteoarchaeology, and ethnozoology. With such a broad spectrum of terms in current usage, we feel that the contradictions and errors inherent in some of this nomenclature need to be corrected. We prefer the term zooarchaeology, as a contraction of the word zoologico-archaeology proposed by Lubbock in 1865, to define the study of animal remains from archaeological sites and their relationship to humans.
Another Example of a “Truncated” Initial Series
Authors: Houston Stephen D.
Published: April 2006

Michael Closs's decipherment of an Initial Series from the Xcalumkin area is corroborated by an inscription from Oxkintok, Yucatán, Mexico.
A Middle Formative Irrigation System near Santa Clara Coatitlan in the Basin of Mexico
Authors: Nichols Deborah L.
Published: April 2006

A major theoretical issue in studies of prehistoric societies in the Basin of Mexico concerns the relationship between irrigation and the development of prehistoric settlement systems. Locating and dating the remains of prehistoric water control systems, however, presents a major methodological problem. The discovery of a series of stratified prehistoric canals in the exposed profiles of contemporary borrow pits near Santa Clara Coatitlan provided an excellent opportunity for dating a prehistoric irrigation system. Results of recent excavations, reported on in this paper, demonstrate that these canals are part of a middle Formative floodwater irrigation system, which is the earliest confirmed evidence, to date, for the use of irrigation in the Basin of Mexico.
Archival Reports of Poor Crop Yields in the Early Postconquest Texcocan Heartland and Their Implications for Studies of Aztec Period Population
Authors: Offner Jerome A.
Published: April 2006

One type of evidence which Sanders has used to show the excessive nature of the population estimates proposed for central Mexico by Borah, Cook, and Simpson is an estimation of the agricultural productivity of the Teotihuacan Valley. This estimation assumes an equivalence of contemporary with preconquest agricultural productivity, but such an assumption may be too optimistic since sixteenth-century crop yields from tribute fields in five towns in the Valley of Mexico indicate a curiously low level of maize productivity. These yields are presented and discussed, and Sanders’ population estimates are seen to be more accurate than those of Borah, Cook, and Simpson.
Recent Research in Central Asia
Authors: Kohl Philip L.
Published: April 2006

This article summarizes recent prehistoric research in western Central Asia (Western Turkestan) or the area of internal drainage towards the Caspian and Aral Seas, stretching from the Pamir massif and Fergana valley in the east to the Caspian in the west, and from the Aral in the north to the Hindu Kush watershed in Afghanistan and the eastern extension of the Alborz chain and the Iranian plateau in the south (Figure 1). This vast area contains distinct ecological zones ranging from high intermontane valleys to piedmont and alluvial plains, yet despite this diversity and its inevitable consequences for cultural development, certain shared features unite the area into a logical unit of analysis. Western Turkestan is a land of interior drainage with access to no seas other than the landlocked Caspian and Aral basins.
A Critique of Some Recent North American Mortuary Studies
Authors: Braun David P.
Published: April 2006

Interpretations of prehistoric social organization based on multivariate statistical analyses of burial practices are becoming increasingly common in the North American archaeological literature. Unfortunately, these analyses and interpretations can incorporate weaknesses ranging from faulty data coding and the mis-application of statistical procedures to biases in the statistical and logical procedures employed. These problems are discussed in light of recent analyses (Tainter 1975a, 1975b, 1977a, 1977b, 1978) which use burial data from six Woodland sites in the riverine midwestern United States to develop a model of social change for the period A.D. 200-800. The results of these particular analyses are shown to be, at best, highly ambiguous and, at worst, contradictory to the proposed interpretations. This paper summarizes the weaknesses in these analyses, both to show the absence of support for the particular proposed interpretations and to illustrate how inappropriate methods can negate potentially useful mortuary research.
The Zooarchaeology of the Storehouse and the Dry Well at Monticello
Authors: Crader Diana C.
Published: April 2006

Recent excavations at Thomas Jefferson’s Virginia plantation, Monticello, have uncovered the remains of several structures and features including a storehouse and a dry well. Zooarchaeological analysis of the associated fauna indicates that differences in species composition, body part representation, and associated modifications exist between these two sites. These differences are undoubtedly related to social status and wealth and can be used to support the notion that the storehouse was probably also used as a slave dwelling.
The Design and Function of the Intervalley Canal: Comments on a Paper by Ortloff, Moseley, and Feldman
Authors: Farrington I. S.
Published: April 2006

Ortloff, Moseley, and Feldman fail to understand the basics of canal hydraulics and irrigation hydrology. They estimate nonpermissible velocities, calculate a critical state of flow, and assume a discharge without considering the field requirements. Their claim that tectonic movements caused canal abandonment is rejected. There is no geomorphological evidence for such events. Other research is described which indicates that the canal was designed with a stable channel and was intended to transport the required discharge to state fields. Its breakdown is attributed to the effect of a large discharge flowing down a steep slope.
Maize Recovered at La Ponga, an Early Ecuadorian Site
Authors: Lippi Ronald D. , Bird Robert McK. , Stemper David M.
Published: April 2006

Recent archaeological excavations at a Machalilla (“Early Formative”) site on Ecuador's south coast have resulted in the recovery of charred maize kernel and cupule fragments. A detailed study of the Machalilla maize described here suggests that two primitive varieties were present on the coast of Ecuador by 1200 B.C. Previously published reports that have attempted to establish the presence of maize during the preceding Valdivia phase are reviewed briefly, and their incompleteness is discussed.
Holocene Mangrove Formations on the Santa Elena Peninsula, Ecuador: Pluvial Indicators or Ecological Response to Physiographic Changes
Authors: Ferdon Edwin N.
Published: April 2006

Evidence indicates that several temporally distinct periods of prehistoric occupation of the now dry Santa Elena Peninsula of Ecuador coincided with periods of mangrove formation on the Peninsula. This article challenges the premise behind the hypothesis that such hydrophytic vegetation indicates greater rainfall during these periods. An alternative hypothesis is suggested, based upon the argument that known coastal uplift and probable accompanying physiographic changes first created, and later destroyed, the edaphic requirements for such a formation. The need to invoke a hypothesis of climatic shifts is thus dispensed with.
Comments on the Meadowcroft Rockshelter Radiocarbon Chronology and the Recognition of Coal Contaminants
Authors: Tankersley Kenneth B. , Munson Cheryl Ann
Published: April 2006

Early 14C dates from Meadowcroft Rockshelter have engendered debate on the antiquity of human occupation in North America. Although the investigators of this important site conclude that particulate and nonparticulate contamination have not affected the radiocarbon dates, several points of confusion remain in regard to the question of coal contamination. We clarify these issues, provide comparative data from other sites, and recommend specific tests that are necessary to negate or support the issue of "dead carbon" contamination of radiocarbon samples.
Obsidian Hydration Dating of Tecep Phase Occupation at Nohmul, Belize
Authors: Hammond Norman
Published: April 2006

In spite of deranging factors that have retarded full acceptance, the obsidian hydration dating method has potential for archaeology. Its application to 16 obsidian samples from a Tecep phase burial (A.D. 800-1100+) at the Maya site of Nohmul, Belize, suggests late persistence of occupation and allows for resolution of a stratigraphic problem.
Another Pinch of Salt: A Comment on Mackinnon and Kepecs
Authors: Marcus Joyce
Published: April 2006

This comment corrects statements attributed to me by MacKinnon and Kepecs (1989). What I said was that the rise of the Maya state could not be explained by a massive need for salt imported from great distances, not because salt was archaeologically invisible, but because I was skeptical about any monocausal explanation; furthermore, I did not see that such a massive salt need even existed during the period of state formation.
Anthropology 3: An Experiment in the Multimedia Teaching of Introductory Archaeology
Authors: Fagan Brian M. , Michaels George H.
Published: April 2006

The introductory archaeology course at the University of California at Santa Barbara has undergone a dramatic metamorphosis in the past two years. The course has gone from a largely passive, lecture-centered learning experience to a much more student-centric one. One aspect of that shift has been the incorporation of interactive computer exercises and simulations. While a substantial change in itself, the incorporation of computer exercises is only a small part of the total transformation of the course. The key to the successful use of the new technology in the course was a fundamental shift in our approach to teaching the material. Some elements of that shift include: reducing lecture time; increasing opportunities for one-on-one interaction between instructors and students; mixing small-group and individual exercises; and creating a more democratized information network incorporating instructors, teaching assistants, computer resources, readings, and students into a learning community.
A Graph-Theoretic Approach to the Evolution of Cahokia
Authors: Peregrine Peter
Published: April 2006

Many researchers have linked the evolution of the prehistoric center Cahokia to its location near the confluence of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Illinois rivers. It is possible to evaluate this idea mathematically through the graph-theoretic concept of centrality. The analysis suggests that Cahokia was located at the point of highest centrality in the Mississippi River drainage.
The Treatment of Human Remains on Navajo Lands
Authors: Klesert Anthony L. , Andrews Michael J.
Published: April 2006

Recent key federal and tribal legislation often has proved inadequate for dealing with human remains. Because of this the Navajo Nation, in cooperation with the Bureau of Indian Affairs, has developed a policy establishing a working set of procedures for cultural resource managers and developers to follow in the identification, verification, and ultimate disposition of human remains on Navajo Tribal Trust land. These procedures attempt to address legal and human concerns of next of kin, local residents, the Navajo Tribe as a whole, and the federal government. The policy does not expressly advocate the scientific study of human remains prior to or instead of reburial, but this alternative is allowable under the policy, given the acquisition of appropriate consent. This paper discusses the procedures (formally adopted by Navajo Tribal Resolution) along with suggestions for their modification for use elsewhere and under other circumstances.
Measurement of Archaeological Diversity and the Sample-Size Effect
Authors: Rhode David
Published: April 2006

Assemblage diversity is an important part of the structure of the archaeological record, but measuring this parameter often is difficult if samples of assemblages differ in size. Two methods, here called the sampling approach and regression approach, currently are used to assess the sample-size effect. The approaches differ in method and in results. The sampling approach is better suited to analysis of assemblage diversity among samples when the underlying population structure is well known, while the regression approach is more useful for examination of the sample-size effect when the underlying population structure is known poorly.