bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
AI and Discriminatory Intent
Authors: Hass Binesh
Published: July 2024

To what extent should we permit predictive sentencing? The use of such instruments has prompted a range of concerns, including accessibility (we must be able to assess the reasons used by courts), transparency (we must know which facts are used against us), and legal guidance (we must be able to use the law to guide our conduct, which isn’t possible if the AI instrument is either too complex or too opaque). Mostly critics have complained that such instruments may lead to indirect forms of discrimination. This chapter argues it may lead to direct discrimination.
Collective Intelligence over Artificial Intelligence
Authors: Huang Saffron , Siddarth Divya
Published: July 2024

As it stands, our default plan for governing AI is through layered technocracy, between slow-moving nation-states, patchwork global governance institutions, and unaccountable private entities. We need to do better. Collective intelligence (CI) systems may offer the way forward. CI requires collective cognition (e.g. aggregating beliefs, goals or values), collective coordination (synchronising actors/activities), and collective cooperation (given different goals, enabling maximally desirable shared outcomes). This chapter argues that it’s all achievable.
Dialect and Literature
Authors: Townend Matthew
Published: July 2024

This chapter explores the interconnections between dialect study and creative literature between the 1840s and 1870s. It examines both fiction (especially discussing works by Elizabeth Gaskell, George Eliot, and Ben Brierley) and poetry (William Barnes, Alfred Tennyson, and Edwin Waugh). It explores the use made by creative writers of works of dialect scholarship (such as grammars and glossaries) and also the reverse use made by dialectologists of poetry and fiction. The chapter concludes with an examination of the ways in which Thomas Hardy and Gerard Manley Hopkins each turned towards dialect as a creative lexical resource out of which to refashion poetic diction.
The explanatory power of the subjacency principle
Authors: Graffi Giorgio , Riolfi Alessandro
Published: July 2024

This chapter deals with the role of the subjacency principle in the development of generative grammar. Initially, the fundamental role it plays in some of Luigi Rizzi’s works between the 1970s and 1980s is presented. Then, its subsequent and gradual replacement by other, empirically more adequate hypotheses and principles is examined. After a brief review of the current status of the subjacency principle within the Minimalist Program, attention is devoted to some recent proposals deducing locality effects from performance-related factors, Relativized Minimality effects, and labeling mechanisms, respectively. The picture that emerges from this survey is that not only did the subjacency principle seminally capture a conspicuous and heterogeneous set of previously unaccountable linguistic facts, but it also had the unquestionable merit of paving the way for subsequent theoretical development which could not possibly have occurred without the enormously productive research program which had been triggered by its explanatory power.
Digital Ecosystems, Emergent Harms, and the Need for a Holistic Approach in Competition Law
Authors: Esayas Samson Y.
Published: July 2024

This chapter examines how the practice in competition law of identifying and isolating relevant product/service markets as a target of regulation creates enforcement challenges in a context of increased commercialization of personal and big data. The challenge stems from the shift from offering standalone products/services to ecosystems of several, with personal data central in connecting the different markets. These shifts obscure the boundaries between previously distinct relevant markets and may lead to emergent competitive harms stemming from multiple and systematic practices across seemingly separate markets within the broader ecosystem. These risks are ‘emergent’ because they may not be attributed to specific conduct in a relevant market. The discussion through emergent properties reveals the similarities in the application of competition and data privacy laws, particularly their atomized approach, the challenges they encounter with big data and the need for a holistic approach to address these challenges. The chapter further highlights how market power assessment and existing metrics fail to capture new dimensions of power stemming from a firm’s position within a network and its capacity to foster economic connections. To effectively address the challenges posed by digital ecosystems, this chapter advocates for a holistic approach in competition law application that considers competitive fields and power dimensions beyond specific relevant markets and the potential for dominant digital players to stifle competition through multiple cross-market practices. The chapter concludes by highlighting enforcement trends in competition law concerning digital platforms and discussing how the Digital Markets Act might fill the enforcement gaps linked to ecosystems.
Excessive Data Collection and Unfair Privacy Policies as Forms of Abuse of Dominance
Authors: Esayas Samson Y.
Published: July 2024

This chapter examines the extent to which excessive data collection and unfair privacy policies of dominant undertakings could amount to exploitative abuses under Article 102 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union'. The chapter begins by examining the interplay between competition law and the data-centric provisions of the Digital Markets Act (DMA) in addressing some of these privacy-related practices. While the DMA tackles key data and privacy issues associated with major digital platforms, Article 102 remains crucial in addressing broader privacy and data-related practices of dominant firms. This includes curbing excessive data collection and ensuring a broader range of choices concerning user privacy. Subsequently, the chapter addresses the prospectus and challenges of applying the case law on Article 102 to excessive data collection and unfair privacy policies. The discussions reveal the difficulty of applying the case law on excessive pricing to excessive data collection, especially considering the technicality of the test using price-cost margins. Instead, the chapter suggests that the case law on unfair contract terms is better suited to privacy-related practices. Resorting to unfair terms shifts the focus from purely ‘excessive’ data collection to the broader context, including how users’ personal data and privacy are addressed in the terms of service and privacy policies. Next, the chapter explores the question of whether and to what degree breaches of data privacy rules can contribute to breaches of competition rules or represent deviation from competition on the merits. The chapter ends by highlighting some of the implications for the interface between the two legal regimes from the potential application of competition law to data-related exploitative abuses.
Civil Proceedings and National Security
Authors: Grange Kate , Stone Caroline
Published: July 2024

Chapter 16 is the first chapter in Part III of the book, covering national security and civil proceedings. It is divided into two sections: the first section deals with Closed material proceedings (CMPs) and the withholding of disclosure on public interest grounds; the second deals with jurisdictional hurdles in civil claims. The first section on CMPs begins with an overview of the Justice and Security Act 2013 (JSA), which introduced a statutory regime for the use of CMPs in civil proceedings. It then proceeds to explain the operation of the JSA, and CMPs made under it, in detail. In particular, after examining the jurisdiction to make a CMP in ‘relevant civil proceedings’ it explains the three-stage process: s. 6 declaration, s. 8 application, and s. 7 review. The authors consider the application of Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights in JSA proceedings and other aspects of the regime before considering the scope for appeals and, finally, the annual report and review requirements. The first section concludes with a detailed examination of other potential mechanisms for withholding disclosure in civil proceedings: public interest immunity (PII), the Haralambous jurisdiction, confidentiality rings, Carnduff strike-out applications, and Norwich Pharmacal claims. The second section examines the main jurisdictional hurdles that are encountered in civil litigation involving national security issues: state immunity, foreign act of state, Crown act of state, and justiciability.
National Security in Family Law Proceedings
Authors: Giovannetti Lisa , Wilkin Richard
Published: July 2024

Chapter 26 is in Part VII of the book, dealing with national security and family law. It looks at the approach of the family justice system to cases concerning a child’s welfare which also have national security implications. It begins with an overview of the types of proceedings in which such issues arise before examining in more detail the Radicalisation Guidance issued by the then President of the Family Division, Sir James Munby, in 2015. In view of the significance of the concept of “radicalisation” in such cases, the authors then consider the definition of that term in detail. They consider in further detail the approach taken where national security issues arise in public law proceedings under the Children Act 1989 and public law proceedings pursuant to the inherent jurisdiction and in wardship cases. The consequences of wardship for public authorities are reviewed before consideration is given to private law proceedings. Following this review of the field, the authors turn to consider procedural matters, beginning with disclosure and third party orders. There follows an examination of how national security material is managed through Closed material procedures and the use of special advocates. Finally, the authors explain the process of disclosure of documents and information from family proceedings into other proceedings.
National Security and Education Law
Authors: Greaves Mark , Hannett Sarah , Wills Aidan
Published: July 2024

Chapter 27 is in Part VIII of the book dealing with national security and education. It begins with an introduction explaining the nature and scope of the “Prevent” duty placed by section 26(1) of the Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015 on specified authorities to have due regard to the need to prevent their students from being drawn into terrorism. Against that background, the authors review in more detail the specified authorities covered by the duty before turning to the relevant statutory obligations placed on schools: maintained schools, independent schools (including academies) and early years childcare providers. The chapter then examine in detail the monitoring of schools and the regulation of teachers and governors before turning to consider the duties applied to higher education institutions and further education institutions.
The Blame Game and Backstage Politics
Authors: Boswell and John , Rhodes R. A. W.
Published: July 2024

This chapter focuses on the blame game in governing elite networks between ministers, chiefs of staff, special advisors, and senior civil servants. The authors refer to this elite group as ‘the court’. They distinguish between the ‘backstage’ politics of the court and ‘frontstage’ politics played out in the media spotlight, elections, parliament, and the TV studio. Section 2 of this chapter outlines an interpretative approach that focuses on the patterns of actions and beliefs and on the contingencies that bear down on the actions of governing elites. It describes the authors’ historical ethnographic method and the sources on which they have drawn. Section 3 presents a vignette of the COVID crisis in the UK, focusing on the blame game around Matt Hancock, the secretary of state for health and social care. Section 4 discusses what the vignette contributes to our understanding of the blame game and its many and significant consequences. Finally, Section 5 suggests that the chapter contributes to the analytical, methodological, and personal gaps in the study of blame.
Blame Avoidance in Polarized Societies
Authors: Sulitzeanu-Kenan Raanan , Amitai Yair
Published: July 2024

How do blame generation and avoidance function in affectively polarized societies? The concept of blame rests on two implicit assumptions: first, the existence of a cohesive electorate that shares a set of common values and a general agreement over factual realities; second, this electorate holds politicians accountable for their policies and actions. This chapter contends that affective polarization erodes these assumptions. In affectively polarized societies, the electorate is sharply divided within two adversary political camps, which detrimentally reduces the scope of consensus in the society. This turns the electoral competition into a struggle between identities rather than policies and outcomes. Under these conditions, blame could operate significantly differently from what the current blame-avoidance literature predicts. The chapter concludes by presenting a research agenda that offers a theoretical and empirical framework for future studies on the implications of affective polarization on blame generation and avoidance.
Power Lies at the Heart of Change
Authors: Green Duncan
Published: July 2024

This chapter analyses the forms of power at play in efforts to achieve change. Empowerment, the driving force behind Amartya Sen’s definition of development, is one of the most ubiquitous buzzwords in the lexicon of development activists. Many, however, shy away from the word from which the term derives: power. The chapter explores various forms of power, including ‘visible’, ‘hidden’, and ‘invisible’ power, and the ‘four powers’ model (power within, with, to, and over) and how these play out in dynamics of change. Finally, the chapter looks into the reasons as to why change does not happen, by examining three underlying components for resistance: institutions, ideas, and interests.
Shifts in Social Norms Often Underpin Change
Authors: Green Duncan
Published: July 2024

This chapter discusses the importance of social norms—the explicit or implicit rules specifying what behaviours are acceptable in society. What people see as normal, desirable, or aberrant determines their sense of right and wrong, and can both drive and hold back the search for social justice. Norms come in all shapes and sizes, whether social, legal, or moral; and they exhibit a subtle contradiction, which they share with institutions like the state or transnational corporations: they are both static and changing. At any given moment, most norms appear fixed; people see them as a ‘given’, a pre-existing, eternal, social reality. With this sense of fixity, norms provide stable standards of conduct to guide the choices of those subject to them. Yet, at the same time, norms are a continuously evolving system. Even law—the most codified, formal subset of norms—is constantly changing. The chapter looks at how activists understand, engage with, and attempt to reform norms on issues such as gender rights, female genital cutting, and early marriage.
Party Status to Armed Conflict in International Law
Authors: Wentker Alexander
Published: July 2024

This book analyses why it matters and how it is established that a State, international organisation, or armed group is a party to an armed conflict under international law. International lawyers have spent much time thinking about what constitutes an armed conflict. Yet, wrapped up in the question of whether there is an armed conflict is often a question of who is engaged in that conflict, since States, international organisations, and armed groups tend not to go to war alone. Although ever-present in historical and recent conflicts, that question has received little attention. Against this background, Part I of the book shows that party status is central to all levels of the international legal regulation of armed conflicts. In response to widespread cooperation practices in armed conflict, Part II develops a common analytical framework for identifying parties to conflicts with multiple parties on the same side. This framework is rooted in the general structure of the legal system regulating armed conflict and informed by international practice. The book then demonstrates that the proposed framework for identifying co-parties also allows for a refined account of the allocation of obligations in armed conflict. This account may contribute to mitigating the risk of diffused responsibilities in cooperative settings and harnessing the potential of cooperation for increased protection capacity. Overall, the analysis of party status aims to enhance our understanding of the architecture of the international legal regulation of armed conflict and how it can respond to the complex realities of contemporary armed conflicts.
Language, Literature, and the Book
Authors: Khair Tabish
Published: July 2024

Based on excerpts from Jean-Paul Sartre’s Les Mots, this chapter looks at the relationship of language, as in societies with primary orality, and language, as used in writing. It argues for a definition of abstract language as a distinctively human activity, and examines how literature uses the possibilities—let’s say, of assonance and dissonance—opened up in the process of putting words down on paper and reading the words again in another time and space. It illustrates some of the issues with reference to efference copies. It stresses the historical impact of the written and then the printed word. It argues for the importance of what is often called ‘oral literature’, but illustrates the ways in which literature—in writing—is different and distinctive, and cultivates an agnostic mode of reading. It suggests that a shift of focus from literature as ‘read’—and read on specific material devices—is problematic and potentially disabling.
The Battle for Sabarimala
Authors: Das Acevedo Deepa
Published: July 2024

The Battle for Sabarimala tells the story of one of contemporary India’s most contentious disputes: a long-running struggle over women’s access to the Hindu temple at Sabarimala. In 2018, the Indian Supreme Court ruled that the temple, which had traditionally been forbidden to women aged ten to fifty because their presence offended the presiding deity, was required to open its doors to all Hindus. The decision in Indian Younger Lawyers Association rocked the nation: protests were launched around India and throughout the diaspora, a record-setting human chain called the ‘Women’s Wall’ was coordinated, and dozens of petitions were filed asking the Supreme Court to review, and potentially reverse, its landmark opinion. Perhaps most significantly, IYLA led the Court to openly reconsider the Essential Practices Doctrine that has been a mainstay of Indian religious freedom jurisprudence since 1954. In this first monograph-length study of the dispute, legal anthropologist Deepa Das Acevedo draws on ethnographic fieldwork, legal analysis, and media archives to tell a multifaceted narrative about the ‘ban on women’. Reaching as far back as the eighteenth century, when the relationship between temple deities and the government was transformed by an ambitious precolonial ruler, and coming up to the litigation delays caused by the coronavirus pandemic, Das Acevedo reveals the complexities of the dispute and the constitutional framework that defines it. That framework, Das Acevedo argues, reflects two distinct conceptions of religion-state relations, both of which have emerged at various stages in the—still unresolved—battle for Sabarimala.
Conclusion
Authors: Das Acevedo Deepa
Published: July 2024

The “Conclusion” sketches the afterlife of the IYLA litigation stage of the dispute over women’s entry. It discusses the review petition and reference question regarding the Essential Practices Doctrine, and the effects of the coronavirus pandemic on Sabarimala’s operations.
Orlando
Authors: Woolf Virginia
Published: July 2024

Orlando tells the tale of an extraordinary individual who lives through centuries of English history, first as a man, then as a woman; of his/her encounters with queens, kings, novelists, playwrights, and poets, and of his/her struggle to find fame and immortality not through actions, but through the written word. At its heart are the life and works of Woolf’s friend and lover, Vita Sackville-West, and Knole, the historic home of the Sackvilles. But as well as being a love letter to Vita, Orlando mocks the conventions of biography and history, teases the pretensions of contemporary men of letters, and wryly examines sexual double standards.

This new edition discusses Woolf’s stylistic aims, the biographical parallels, and the work’s literary context, and includes the original illustrations.
What Is a Music Producer?
Authors: Count  , O'Connor Seán M.
Published: July 2024

Producers are vital to the quality and success of modern recorded music and yet their role and compensation is often misunderstood. This chapter provides a professional producer’s view on both the nature of the producer’s role and the damage to the economics of the music industry generally, and to the livelihood of producers in particular, wrought by digital tools of production and distribution. While these tools were supposed to “democratize” creative production, whatever value they may have added for amateurs has come at a steep quantifiable downturn to the professional music industry. The chapter explores legal developments that accelerated this downturn, with special focus on the plight of producers, and offers three areas of reform that could help.
Perceptual Learning
Authors: Dosher Barbara Anne , Lu Zhong-Lin
Published: July 2024

Experience significantly influences how sensory stimuli are processed and the quality of sensory-based decisions and human performance. This is true for all sensory modalities. Perceptual learning research, especially but not restricted to the visual domain, has focused on not just learning but its specificity as well. This chapter provides a sketch of some of the principles of perceptual learning based on an analysis of behavioral experiments, physiology and brain imaging studies, and computational models. It highlights several theoretical contrasts, including the trade-off between plasticity and stability; the significance of signal and noise; the role of retuning and reweighting (improved readout) in learning; and the importance of top-down influences such as task or goal, attention and reward, as well as bottom-up factors in learning. Each of these reveals some principles of learning and memory in the perceptual domain. The training applications inspired by laboratory research, some of which are beginning to yield potential translations, highlight the motivation for considering not just perceptual learning but also generalizability.
Memory for Space
Authors: Becker Suzanna
Published: July 2024

Humans’ sense of space helps provide the scaffolding upon which autobiographical memories are built. This allows humans to situate event memories in particular locations and underlies many aspects of cognition. Spatial memory draws upon a hierarchy of representations, from simple sensory features, body motion cues, and heading direction to complex features indicative of boundaries, landmarks, environmental geometry, and scenes. Humans preferentially encode features into spatial memory that are most relevant for orienting, navigating, and future planning. To navigate in unfamiliar environments, people encode the most immediately relevant cues into spatial working memory and use path integration to update spatial representations. In familiar spatial environments, people rely on their habitual knowledge, drawing on well-learned associations between local landmarks and bodily responses such as “turn left at the corner store.” Alternatively, humans use higher level spatial knowledge in a range of different reference frames, from viewpoint-specific snapshots to viewpoint-invariant cognitive maps, to navigate in more flexible ways, allowing for detours and shortcuts. A hierarchical network of brain regions including the hippocampus engages when people employ cognitive maps. In addition to being used for planning routes, this hierarchical spatial memory network drives many other aspects of cognition, including autobiographical memory retrieval, spatial perception, mental imagery, and episodic future thinking.
Content Reinstatement
Authors: Zhao Yufei , Kuhl Brice A.
Published: July 2024

Episodic remembering is fundamentally related to the reinstatement of patterns of neural activity evoked during the initial encoding of memories. This chapter reviews the phenomenon of reinstatement, with a focus on reinstatement of content information (“what” is being remembered). It first reviews evidence for, and properties of, content reinstatement across different brain regions (sensory cortex, the hippocampus, and frontoparietal cortex). Next, it considers how reinstatement is related to objective and subjective behavioral measures of memory retrieval, including memory accuracy and memory vividness. Finally, it considers how memory reinstatement influences reinstated memories, separately considering reinstatement that occurs during deliberate retrieval, memory encoding, and offline periods of rest or sleep.
Autobiographical Memory
Authors: Fan Carina L. , Simpson Stephanie , Sokolowski H. Moriah , Levine Brian
Published: July 2024

Autobiographical memory—memory for one’s personal past—is a multifaceted mnemonic activity that evolves throughout the life span and interacts with numerous other cognitive functions. Retrieving personal past events engages processes of cue specification, search, and elaboration of details within the specified event. The retrieved content varies from specific episodes unique in time and place to more general representations of autobiographical facts (personal semantics). As expected given this complexity, autobiographical memory is mediated by distributed brain networks, with key regions in the medial temporal lobes and their connections to both anterior and posterior cortical regions supporting different levels of specificity in memory retrieval. These patterns only partially overlap with those evoked by laboratory-based episodic memory paradigms. Whereas most empirical work on autobiographical memory focuses on the recall of particular past events, more recent research concerns individual differences in the way that people tend to remember their past. The formal study of autobiographical memory dates to the 19th century, but research in this field is burgeoning, particularly in relation to brain network connectivity. New paradigms that bridge the gap between traditional laboratory memory tasks and rich, naturalistic autobiographical memories will enhance the understanding of memory as it operates in everyday life.
Neural Mechanisms of Memory
Authors: Amer Tarek , Davachi Lila
Published: July 2024

At its most fundamental level, any change in neural responses after compared to before any experience can be labeled a memory. The ability to form and access memories of experiences involves complex neural mechanisms at both the cellular and systems levels. Animal and human (including lesion and neuroimaging) studies have evidenced a critical role for the hippocampus and connected brain regions in these processes. This chapter reviews the role of the hippocampus in the different stages of long-term memory, namely encoding, consolidation, and retrieval. Specifically, this chapter illustrates how the hippocampus, in conjunction with other brain regions, supports these processes, giving rise to humans’ rich experience of remembering.
Interference Theory
Authors: MacLeod Colin M.
Published: July 2024

Interference profoundly influences learning and remembering, functioning as the major cause of forgetting. This chapter surveys the history of research on interference in learning and memory from the earliest empirical work at the dawn of experimental psychology to the most recent work in cognitive modeling. Several forms of interference at the time of learning are examined, most notably proactive and retroactive interference, which are respectively negative influences from learning that took place before or after a target episode. Also considered is interference that takes place at the time of remembering, notably output interference. Other mechanisms that may contribute to forgetting—particularly decay and inhibition—are briefly considered, and the role played by changes in context is highlighted. Overall, the goal is to characterize how interference influences both learning and remembering.
Systems Consolidation, Transformation, and Reorganization
Authors: Moscovitch Morris , Gilboa Asaf
Published: July 2024

This chapter reviews the literature on systems consolidation by providing a brief history of the field to place the current research in proper perspective. It covers the literature on both humans and nonhumans, which are highly related despite the differences in techniques and tasks that are used. It is argued that understanding the interactions between hippocampus and neocortex (and other structures) that underlie systems consolidation depends on appreciating the close correspondence between psychological and neural representations of memory, as postulated by multiple trace theory and trace transformation theory. The chapter evaluates different theories of systems consolidation in light of the evidence reviewed and suggests that the concept of systems consolidation, with its central concern with the time-limited role the hippocampus plays in memory, may have outlived its usefulness. It is suggested that this concept be replaced withone of interactive memory reorganization and a program of research on the psychological processes and neural mechanisms that underlie changes in memory across the lifetime—a natural history of memory change.
Memory and Aging
Authors: Light Leah L.
Published: July 2024

Deliberate memory for personally experienced events generally declines during the course of normal aging. However, different aspects of memory have different age trajectories. Episodic memory is one of a constellation of intercorrelated cognitive abilities that show age-related changes, including speed, working memory, cognitive control, and sensory function. This chapter examines the nature of age-related changes in episodic, semantic, and procedural memory, focusing on episodic memory. After characterizing these changes, the chapter situates memory aging in the context of other cognitive abilities. Age-related changes in the representation of new experiences, the role of strategic processes at encoding and retrieval, and the ways that prior knowledge can mitigate or exacerbate memory decline are discussed.
Expertise and Memory
Authors: Campitelli Guillermo , Hambrick David Z. , Guida Alessandro
Published: July 2024

The study of memory is central to scientific understanding of expertise. Memory processes underpin skilled performance in complex tasks, whether choosing a move in a chess game, playing a musical instrument, or diagnosing a medical patient. Moreover, acquiring expertise changes memory structures. This chapter reviews major perspectives on expertise and used the umbrella term knowledge structure to refer to all the types of memory structures proposed in theories of memory based on expertise research, including chunks, templates, retrieval structures, and semantic knowledge. Those theories postulate that knowledge structures reside in the long-term memory store and accept the traditional dual models of the macrostructure of memory (i.e., models that postulate the existence of a short-term [or working] memory store and a long-term memory store). This chapter also presents a recent proposal in the field of expertise research that suggests knowledge structures constitute the macrostructure of memory, and it reviews brain imaging studies investigating the interrelation between memory and expertise. The effect of individual differences in traditional measures of working memory capacity on expertise is discussed. The chapter concludes with thoughts on productive directions for future research.
Cognitive Aging and the Transition to Early Alzheimer’s Disease
Authors: Mormino Elizabeth C. , Jagust William J.
Published: July 2024

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has historically been defined as a clinical–pathological entity, with a characteristic neurocognitive profile accompanied by postmortem findings of β-amyloid in the form of plaques and tau in the form of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). β-amyloid plaques are found mainly in association cortex and tau NFTs in medial temporal components of the episodic memory system. Measurement of AD brain pathology using positron emission tomography (PET) has played an important role in research. Neuropathological studies have long shown that these proteins often accumulate in older cognitively normal (CN) individuals; now this pathology can also be detected with PET scans. Early pathology in the absence of overt cognitive impairment and clinical symptoms has been interpreted to represent a “preclinical” asymptomatic stage of AD. The ability to measure early AD pathology among CN individuals has provided an opportunity to understand age-related cognitive decline and offers a strategy to explore early intervention.
Elements of Effective Learning
Authors: Karpicke Jeffrey D. , O’Day Garrett M.
Published: July 2024

This chapter seeks to understand effective learning strategies at the level of principles of learning and memory, fundamental truths about how learning and memory operate. Learning and memory are adaptive abilities for coordinating actions in a complex environment. Viewing learning as coordination, rather than as the storage of knowledge and experiences, is essential for understanding effective strategies. Three elements of effective learning are described. Effective learning occurs when retrieval cues are available that permit people to express their knowledge (cue availability), when those retrieval cues are diagnostic of target knowledge (cue diagnosticity), and when elaborative study methods have prepared learners to use potential retrieval cues by promoting organization and distinctiveness (elaboration). Each element of effective learning is illustrated with examples from foundational research. The final section evaluates several strategies that leverage elements of effective learning and offers examples of how students might use the strategies in educational settings.
Collaborative Remembering and Collective Memory
Authors: Rajaram Suparna
Published: July 2024

A trip down the memory lane is often a social experience. To understand how recalling the past with others shapes one’s memory, it is important to appreciate the reciprocal influences between the collective and the individual. This chapter focuses on cognitive research that examines individual and collective memories that develop in a social context. The studies reviewed in the chapter are typically experimental in nature, although some studies involved other research techniques such as surveys. The theoretical explanations reviewed identify cognitive mechanisms that operate when people engage in collaborative remembering. A confluence of these cognitive mechanisms not only influences the group memory product but also produces post-collaborative changes in what people remember and how they organize these memories. The chapter also discusses research on collaborative remembering across the life span, collaborative memory for emotional information, and the social transmission of false memories. Although collaborative memory studies have used mainly small groups, the chapter also includes recent research that uses larger groups and social networks to understand social transmission of memory. Finally, the chapter focuses on the nature of collective memory. Although collective memory has been a topic of long-held interest in sociology, anthropology, and history, recent research has brought to light psychological perspectives. In the context of studying the cognitive bases of social remembering, the chapter discusses experimental studies that are particularly relevant for understanding the relationship between collaborative remembering and collective memory.
Eyewitness Memory
Authors: Mickes Laura , Wixted John T.
Published: July 2024

In some respects, the story of eyewitness memory has remained unchanged for decades. For example, because memory is malleable, eyewitness memory evidence (like all types of forensic evidence) can be contaminated, and the legal system’s failure to appreciate that fact has led to many wrongful convictions. In other respects, the story of eyewitness memory has changed in recent years, and this chapter focuses on that story. For decades, the field mistakenly believed that sequential lineups were diagnostically superior to simultaneous lineups; that confidence was, at best, only weakly predictive of accuracy; and that suboptimal estimator variables (e.g., short exposure, weapon focus) reduced the reliability of eyewitness identifications. But none of that is true. As it turns out, simultaneous lineups are superior to sequential lineups, initial confidence (before contamination) is highly predictive of accuracy, and estimator variables are largely irrelevant once initial confidence is taken into account.
The Limits of Pluralism
Authors: Kurki Milja
Published: July 2024

This chapter explores the implications for pluralism and the limits of pluralism in the context of current global challenges such as climate change/Anthropocene and calls for decolonization of knowledge structures. This chapter highlights the importance of exploring and amplifying the classical critiques of positivism, empiricism, and rationalism in ensuring and extending methodological pluralism. It details how the post-positivist critique can be refracted in different ways around the world. It considers the dominance of quantitative methods and positivism in general as not straightforward globally unless one starts from and accepts the dominance of particular kind of American or Anglo-European political science. The chapter explains how relationality, the idea of the pluriverse and the changing nature of scientific knowledge in the 21st century are opening up new avenues for engaging with political worlds.
A Matter of Perspective
Authors: Shugars Sarah
Published: July 2024

We are living in a golden age for social science—a time when researchers have both unprecedented access to human data and the computational power to interrogate those data. Innovation has proceeded with remarkable speed; new methods regularly deliver novel insights with increasingly improved accuracy. These data and tools have greatly impacted the social sciences by allowing researchers to ask new questions in meaningful, new ways and to revisit classic questions with renewed rigor. While computational capacity is no longer the insurmountable barrier it once was, the opportunity presented by this methodological innovation underscores the urgent need to address another long-standing limitation of scientific advancement: the relative homogeneity of the research community. Methodological pluralism—diversity of both methods and methodologists—is essential for ensuring the collective creativity necessary to fully leverage the tools and data available to researchers. How we ask and answer questions matters. How we conceive of questions, what data and tools we bring to those questions, and how we interpret our findings are all intimately interconnected with researcher perspectives and identities. If social science ultimately aims to understand the human experience, it cannot do so without full consideration for the diversity of that experience. This paper therefore details recent innovations in computational social science and machine learning, highlighting the connections between researcher perspectives, methodological choices, and data interpretation. With a particular focus on text and network methods, we illustrate the role of researcher choice in shaping scientific advancement and demonstrate the need for human interpretation of algorithmic output. By interrogating the role of human researchers in scientific discovery we showcase the value of methodological pluralism and argue that diversity is an essential and necessary condition for scientific advancement.
The Origins and Significance of Coastal Resource Use in Human Evolution
Authors: Marean Curtis W.
Published: July 2024

Coastal resource use has gone from a neglected topic prior to the year 2001 to a key research question in human evolution today. Over that time several hypotheses and theories have developed to explain the late appearance of coastal foraging in human evolution and how it impacted the diet, behavior, culture, and sociality of humans. The lunar schedule theory states that exploiting the intertidal zone effectively requires an understanding of the relationship between lunar phases and tides and foraging returns. This required complex cognition, language, and culture, so coastal adaptations were not possible until the evolution of these traits. The aquatic nutrition theory argues that aquatic foods contain crucial nutrients that are rare in terrestrial food webs. It has been suggested that their use may have stimulated complex cognition in human evolution. The aquatic sociality theory, developed from comparative hunter–gatherer ethnography and human ecology, posits that coastal hunter–gatherers generally have greater complexity in material culture, economy, and sociality, with higher levels of intergroup conflict, than typical terrestrial hunter–gatherers. This theory proposes that the transition to a coastal adaptation was transformative on human evolution and created a new selection regime that may have driven the evolution of modern humans. A review of the evidence is consistent with the evolution of a coastal adaptation by 120–110 ka in South Africa, while early modern humans in North Africa and Neanderthals in Europe developed less intensive use of coastal resources by that time.
Connectivity and Demography in the Insular and Coastal Mediterranean
Authors: Leppard Thomas P. , Cherry John F.
Published: July 2024

The islands and coasts of the Mediterranean are often assumed to have been unusually well connected during their long prehistory. Much of the empirical evidence for this Mediterranean “connectivity” comes from material culture and by tracking the expansion of styles and traditions in stone, ceramic, metal, and glass. However, two burgeoning types of information that should have direct relevance for mobility and demographic structure, paleogenomic data and summed radiocarbon probability distributions, have not been incorporated into this discussion. The authors attempt to do so here, assessing in particular how patterns of population growth and movement can be traced when they move beyond purely material proxies for connectivity. Their initial conclusions suggest that how one thinks about Mediterranean connectivity should take population size, distribution, and mobility into account more effectively.
The Coastal Archaeology of South America
Authors: Dillehay Tom D. , Oyuela-Caycedo Augusto , Gaspar Maria Dulce , Bonomo Mariano , Orquera Luis , Ocampo Carlos
Published: July 2024

Indigenous coastal communities in the Pacific, Caribbean, Atlantic, and Patagonian regions of South America sustainably fished, harvested shellfish and other marine species, and hunted sea lions for millennia. Considerable variation exists in the types of coastal archaeological sites found in these regions, ranging from small to large shell middens and shell rings to sedentary maritime villages to massive sambaqui (mortuary mounds). The authors summarize the environmental setting, chronology, and type of coastal and inland sites, and their function and meaning, extending from the western Pacific coast of Colombia to the Caribbean shores and the eastern Atlantic areas of Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina, as well as the southwest Pacific coastlines of Tierra del Fuego and Chile. They present information that early peoples exploited several of these areas by at least 8000 years ago after sea levels and shorelines stabilized, with complex social and economic institutions appearing after about 5000–4000 years ago. In late Holocene and colonial times, several of these areas were inhabited by sedentary peoples moving around seasonally and using an array of littoral and inland habitats.
Tourism Troubles
Authors: Mollett Sharlene
Published: July 2024

On the Panamanian Caribbean coast and the Bocas del Toro archipelago land grabbing and domestic service are mutually constituted and embedded in tourism development in Panama. As land insecurities grow, particularly for local Indigenous and Afro-Panamanian peoples, ongoing dispossession is not simply about land but is simultaneously about land, people, and their bodies. In Bocas, land enclosures are infused with imaginaries that take for granted Black female servitude and Black landlessness. Such imaginaries seemingly lock economically “poor” Afro-Panamanian women into particular kinds of work. The chapter entangles feminist political ecological assertions that struggles over nature are embodied struggles with intersectional and relational understandings of land and body. It shows how a logic of elimination operates within the legal geographies of residential tourism development, and in so doing highlights the historical and contemporary ways in which Afro-Panamanian women are naturalized as criadas (maids), a process that accompanies land enclosure. Blending ethnographic and historical data collection, the chapter illuminates how Afro-Panamanian women’s livelihood struggles reflect both their acquiescence to residential tourism development and their resilience in the face of anti-Black patriarchal coloniality in Bocas. It argues that Afro-Panamanian women’s desire for inclusion and belonging in the Bocas del Toro’s tourism enclave—a project that seeks to eliminate Indigenous and Black relations to coastal lands and foster their embodied subjection to foreign nationals—simultaneously reflects their struggles for the right to remain on the coast.
Warfare
Authors: Dosquet Émilie
Published: July 2024

This chapter provides a first overview and an introduction to the character of tactical warfare during the Seven Years’ War: how did belligerents fight on four continents and major oceans, and what are the points of convergence and divergence between the ways of waging war in these different theatres? The European armies of the mid-eighteenth-century shared broad technological similarities. Significant change in weaponry and war materials was impeded by several constraints which were not only technological. Throughout the Seven Years’ War, opponents had to adapt tactically to changing environments, material conditions, adversaries, strategies, martial practices, and tactical choices. Thus, this global is an ideal observatory of the multiple facets of mid-eighteenth-century European warfare.
Armies
Authors: Conway Stephen
Published: July 2024

This chapter focuses on the professional land forces of the major European belligerents, employed both in European campaigns and in the wider theatres of a conflict that also affected North America and the Caribbean, West Africa, and South and East Asia. It considers whether, in this area of inquiry, change or continuity is more striking. The final section provides a brief account of the processes of demobilization, the social problems created by the transition of armies to a peacetime establishment, and the military reforms inspired by the experience of the war.