bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Common infectious diseasesofchildhood
Authors: Hamaluba Mainga , Pollard Andrew
Published: November 2023

The incidence, spectrum, and presentation of infections in childhood vary considerably with age as a result of immunological maturation, microbial exposure, and the ability of children of different ages to communicate their symptoms.Newborns are particularly susceptible to infections as a result of immunological inexperience and immaturity as well as exposure antenatally, to maternal blood-borne infections (e.g. cytomegalovirus, toxoplasmosis, and varicella) and perinatally, to microbes in the birth canal (e.g. HIV, group B streptococci, etc.).
Gastroenterology problems for primary care
Authors: Hyer Warren
Published: November 2023

It has been estimated that >20% of all paediatric consultations are for gastrointestinal problems in childhood. This chapter willconcentrate on a practical approach to those problems mostlikely to present to general practice.Chronic abdominal pain is a common cause of parental concern, childhood morbidity, time off school, and hospital referral. Yet if a careful history and examination are performed, and if the nature of the symptoms are typical of functional abdominal pain, many referrals to hospital can be avoided and the child and parents reassured.
Paediatric neurology
Authors: Jayawant Sandeep
Published: November 2023

It is not possible to cover all of paediatric neurology in this short chapter on neurology. Some relevant topics that might be encountered in primary care are discussed briefly. References for further reading are suggested.
Autism for primary care
Authors: Gringras Paul
Published: November 2023

Children with early infantile autism were the offspring of highly organized, professional parents, cold and rational, who just happened to defrost long enough to produce a child Kanner Time, 25 July 1960Over the last 30 years there has been an explosion of research into the aetiology, prevalence, and treatment of autism. Increasing public interest and awareness over the last 10 years brings new challenges. With very little effort anyone can access hundreds and thousands of internet sites on autism. Many sites describe anecdotal case reports or non-peer-reviewed articles and parents often look to professionals to help them separate the wheat from the chaff. We have left behind damaging hypotheses from the fifties that suggested autism arose as a consequence of abnormal parenting, but despite recognizing a major genetic contribution, the causes of autism still remain poorly understood. Autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) affect at least 1 in 100 children (Baird et al 2006), and local services are struggling under the pressure of continuing new referrals.
Child health promotion programme
Authors: Simkiss Doug
Published: November 2023

In the late 1980s the British Paediatric Association set up a multidisciplinary working group chaired by David Hall to review routine health checks for young children. The report of this working party was published as a book in 1989. Health for all Children is now in its fourth edition and is the definitive text on these issues (Hall and Elliman 2003). Each new edition has seen a shift from a medical model of screening for disorders to an approach including health promotion, primary prevention, and active intervention for children at risk, whether for medical or social reasons. The fourth edition encompasses services to school age children, updating the Health needs of school aged children report (Polnay 1995).
Dextropropoxyphene
Authors: Glare Paul
Published: November 2023

Dextropropoxyphene (DPP), known as propoxyphene in the USA, is a synthetic opioid analgesic of the diphenylpropylamine class and derived from the synthetic strong opioid methadone. DPP is a base, with a pKa of 6.3. As an analgesic, DPP is controversial. It is a widely used and popular painkiller that was taken by the Apollo XI astronauts to the moon. Recently, it has earned a poor reputation in some quarters as an over-prescribed, minimally effective and potentially dangerous analgesic and much has been made of its abuse in suicides. Despite this, DPP still has its advocates who hold that it is effective, well-tolerated and liked by patients.
The lipophilic opioids: fentanyl, alfentanil, sufentanil and remifentanil
Authors: Hall Tony , Hardy Janet R
Published: November 2023

Fentanyl, alfentanil, sufentanil and remifentanil are synthetic opioid analgesics with high affinity for the mu opioid receptor. They have been widely adopted into anesthetic practice for various surgical procedures, for example, in cardiac surgery, and for long-term analgesia and sedation. As anesthetic agents they are generally administered by the intravenous route, although other routes of administration (epidural, intrathecal, transdermal, transmucosal, sublingual and subcutaneous) are used widely.
Diamorphine
Authors: Hardy Janet R
Published: November 2023

Diamorphine (di-acetyl morphine, heroin) is a semisynthetic derivative of morphine. It is not an active drug in its own right, but a pro-drug or opioid delivery system. The active metabolites, 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-AM) and morphine are responsible for the analgesic effects of the drug. Diamorphine was first produced commercially in the late 1890s as a treatment for a variety of respiratory conditions, including dyspnea, pharyngitis, laryngitis, bronchitis, asthma and tuberculosis. It was marketed by the Bayer Company under the trade name ‘heroin’. It was also recommended as a remedy for morphine dependence. In 1924 it was banned from medicinal use in the USA when its potential for abuse and addiction was recognized.
Opioids equianalgesia: dynamics and kinetics
Authors: Davis Mellar P
Published: November 2023

In the past two decades knowledge about opioid pharmacology has dramatically increased, which has altered our understanding of opioid–receptor interactions. The development of genetic studies with antisense mapping and cloning have improved our understanding of opioid pharmacokinetics, receptor gene expression, gene polymorphisms and individual differences in opioid responses. Such differences are influenced by opioid metabolism and receptor genetics. A better understanding of opioid pharmacology from published clinical experience apart from laboratory studies has improved prescribing guidelines. Opioid titration, rescue and around the clock dosing principles are founded on clinical experience, rather than the present day understanding of opioid receptor physiology.
Spinal opioids in cancer pain
Authors: Davis Mellar P
Published: November 2023

The initial use of spinal opioid infusions for cancer pain was reported in 1979. Intraspinal drug administration routes are either intrathecal or epidural. Some consider spinal drug infusions as the fourth step in the World Health Organization analgesic ladder. Spinal opioid strategies are based upon the theory that the action of opioids is regionally confined to the dorsal horn. This action is thought to be a means of improving analgesia and reducing toxicity, which improves the therapeutic index of opioids. The advantages to spinal opioids compared with spinal anesthetics for pain control is the lack of motor and sensory deficits with spinal opioids, which are dose limiting to spinal anesthetics.
Foreseeing Formulating an Accurate Prognosis
Authors: Lamont Elizabeth B
Published: November 2023

Physicians are routinely asked to make estimates of patient survival often through the question, ‘doc, how long do I have to live?’ In responding to such a question, physicians engage in at least two often separate tasks, (1) they must formulate a prognosis, or make a mental calculation of the patient’s expected survival, and (2) they must communicate the prognosis to the inquiring individual. These survival estimates, or prognoses, that physicians formulate and then communicate are important to both physicians and patients in all phases of a patient’s life because they guide both medical and non-medical decisions.
Pancreatic Cancer
Authors: Koch Moritz , Weitz Jürgen , Büchler Markus W
Published: November 2023

Pancreatic cancer is the fourth most common type of cancer in the USA and usually occurs at the age of 65 to 75 years, but younger patients can also be affected by this disease. Ductal adenocarcinoma is the predominant histopathologic tumour type and accounts for more than 85 per cent of all malignant tumours of the pancreas. Pancreatic ductal cancer has the poorest prognosis among all gastrointestinal cancers. The often late clinical presentation and the very aggressive tumour biology are mainly responsible for the poor outcome. At the time of diagnosis, more than 80 per cent of pancreatic cancer patients present with an advanced tumour stage due to local invasive infiltration or distant metastasis.
Hepatoma
Authors: Ng Kelvin K , Poon Ronnie T
Published: November 2023

Hepatoma, also known as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), is a common malignant disease in the world with a fulminant disease course, low resectability rate, high recurrence after hepatic resection and liver transplantation, poor response to systemic treatment and hence grave prognosis (Figure 15.1). It is the most common primary liver malignancy and ranks fifth in the overall frequency of malignancies in the world, with a global annual incidence of about one million new patients.
Brain Secondaries
Authors: Broadbent Andrew , Hruby George
Published: November 2023

In adults, brain metastases are about 10 times more frequent than primary brain tumours1 and when appropriately managed are the direct cause of death in only 30–50 per cent of those affected. They are detected either through the staging process, or more commonly following investigation of symptoms such as headache or focal weakness.Numerically, lung, breast, renal cell and colon cancers account for the majority of brain metastases.
Lung Secondaries
Authors: Currow David , Sanderson Christine
Published: November 2023

Metastases to the lung are a frequent complication of malignancy, occurring in 10–20 per cent of epithelial cancers, 50–70 per cent of sarcomas involving extremity, chest wall, or head and neck, and in up to 90 per cent of those dying of osteosarcoma.2 The natural history of metastatic lung disease varies enormously.
Spinal Cord Compression
Authors: Janjan Nora , Mahajan Anita , Chang Eric L , Mccutcheon Ian , Lin Edward , Das Prajnan , Krishnan Sunil , Chow Edward
Published: November 2023

The issues related to the treatment of spinal cord compression from cancer present a paradigm for the treatment of all metastatic disease. The profound consequence of paralysis from spinal cord compression to the patient and their caregivers involves significant suffering and financial burden. Although by definition incurable, patients with metastatic disease benefit greatly from therapeutic strategies that prevent spinal cord compression, and that diagnose and treat spinal cord compression early to maintain functional status.
Initial segments
Authors: Kaye Richard
Published: November 2023

The saturation properties of nonstandard models of PA discussed in the last chapter shed a great deal of light on the structure of these models. In this chapter we will describe one of their most celebrated consequences: Harvey Friedman’s theorem that any countable nonstandard model of PA is isomorphic to a proper initial segment of itself. The proof of this theorem in turn follows from more general considerations about when a model M⊂=PA can be embedded onto an initial segment of another model N⊂=PA.
Optimal control II: Applications
Authors: Pinch Enid R
Published: November 2023

The Pontryagin maximum principle is a useful necessary condition which we can now use to solve a range of control problems. We look first at the problem of controlling a linear system in a time-optimal manner. The truck problem (Example 4.2) is the simplest two-dimensional problem of this type. The general problem is dealt with in the next section. For the truck problem the control u = u(t) was subject to the constraint |u| ≤ K/m; in what follows the constraint has been normalized to |u| ≤ 1 but there is no loss of generality. As was explained earlier (in Example 4.1) we can also set ψ = −1 in any application of the Pontryagin theorem without loss of generality.
Patterns, waves and interfaces in excitable reaction-diffusion systems
Authors: Mimura Masayasu
Published: November 2023

Nonlinear reaction-diffusion models have been used widely to describe various phenomena in neurobiology, biophysics, chemical physics, population genetics, mathematical ecology and in other fields. One of the most striking features is the formation of propagating and non-propagating patterns. Under some circumstances, the system develops into qualitatively different states so that internal layers of interfaces are observed. Such interfaces exhibit a variety of geometrical patterns such as rotating spiral patterns in the Belousov-Zhabotinski reagent (Winfree 1980), dendritic patterns in solidifications (Caginalp 1986), pigmentation patterns on shells (Meinhardt and Klinger 1985) and animal coat marking (Murray 1981).
Reduced equivariant Conley index and applications
Authors: Smoller J , Wasserman A
Published: November 2023

In this article we sidestep the difficulties of defining and computing the Conley index of an isolated invariant set in an infinite-dimensional setting, by constructing a global Lyapunov-Schmidt reduction to a finite-dimensional space. This enables us to use the finite-dimensional version of the Conley Index Theory. In particular, we enrich this invariant by using the group structure, present from symmetry considerations, to obtain an equivariant Conley index. We use this equivariant Conley index to prove a general bifurcation theorem which is then applied to the symmetry-breaking problem for semilinear elliptic equations. (See the papers of Amann and Zehnder(1980), Chow and Lauterbach(1985), and Kielhofer(1988) for other ways of reducing to finite-dimensional problems in analogous situations.)
Bounds on two-terminal reliability
Authors: Shier Douglas R
Published: November 2023

As indicated in Section 2.5, the exact calculation of network reliability is #P-complete, meaning that an efficient method is unlikely to exist for carrying out this computation. Consequently, it is appropriate to discuss method for approximating network reliability. In particular, this chapter will discuss a number of methods for bounding the two-terminal reliability of a network. It will be useful to classify such bounds as either static or dynamic bounds. The lower-bound polynomials developed in Sections 3.3-3.4 are examples of dynamic bounds because they provide a sequence of approximations to the exact reliability. Section 4.1 surveys a variety of lower and upper bounds on reliability, while Sections 4.2-4.3 concentrate on bounds that derive from algebraic considerations. These algebraic bounds are dynamic estimates that are guaranteed to converge monotonically to the exact two-terminal reliability polynomial in a finite number of iterations. Moreover, the algebraic approach can be implemented to produce matched lower and upper bounds at each iteration. Thus at each step one can compute an interval guaranteed to contain the correct reliability value, and the width of this interval will progressively decrease. As a result, it is possible to monitor the interval of uncertainty and terminate the iterative process once the current interval is sufficiently small or the allocated computing resources have been expended.
State-space approximation
Authors: Shier Douglas R
Published: November 2023

The emphasis in the previous chapters has been on assessing the reliability of a binary system, whose components (nodes and/or edges) can be in either of two states (operating or failed). However, reliability is only one of a number of stochastic performance measures that might be of practical interest. For example, the number of node pairs that can communicate at a random instant might be more informative than simply whether or not all node pairs can communicate. Alternatively, we might be interested in the ‘fault tolerance’ of the system, measured by the expected number of disjoint paths joining two specified nodes. Since the exact calculation of these and other realistic performance measures is known to be #P-hard, there is reason to investigate methods for approximating such measures. While it might be thought that obtaining a good approximation to the performance of a network might be substantially easier than computing its exact value, this does not appear to be the case.
Some structure of groups of units
Authors: Clay James R
Published: November 2023

The intimate connection between the geneses of nearring theory and group theory provides fertile ground for harvesting interesting groups. Here, groups arise naturally in at least two ways within the field of nearrings with identity. First, there is the additive group of the nearring, and then there is the group of units of the nearring. As one studies any mathematical structure, one should always try to become familiar with the invariants of that structure. One such invariant for a nearring with identity is the group of units of that nearring. The groups of units are often particularly interesting for nearrings; it is a nice source for groups whose structure can be nicely described in classical group theoretic terms, for example, direct products, semidirect products, wreath products, and factor sets. The groups themselves are often rather complicated in structure, but yet not too complicated. This is a nice place to find the beauty of nearring theory. As well, it is a nice place to show how some rather classical group theoretic constructions arise in a natural setting.
Parallel Linear Algebra
Authors: Burrage Kevin
Published: November 2023

Perhaps one of the most crucial aspects in the development of parallel numerical methods for the solution of both initial value and boundary value problems is the incorporation of efficient parallel linear solution algorithms. These linear algebra aspects arise at the most fundamental of levels, when performing matrix-vector or matrix-matrix computations. They also arise when implicit methods are implemented, because the ensuing nonlinear equations are usually solved by a modified Newton technique which results in systems of linear equations. Thus a thorough understanding of the many facets associated with the solution of systems of equations is crucial to the reading of this monograph. Since only one chapter is devoted to these aspects, such a discussion cannot, by its very nature, be comprehensive and the reader should consult other books on this subject, such as Golub and van Loan (1989) and Dongarra et al. (1991) for a more thorough overview of numerical linear algebra.
Equationals
Authors: Chapman Jonathan , Rowbottom Frederick
Published: November 2023

Equationals are particular L′-formulae important for two reasons:

(i) they are preserved by a left-exact functor

(ii) a topos (with canonical structure) has equational axioms (see Chapter 7).

Some constructions on partial functions are introduced first, and used to interpret equationals categorically, allowing (i) to be shown.
Categories in a topos
Authors: Chapman Jonathan , Rowbottom Frederick
Published: November 2023

As Johnstone (1977, p. 47) says, a topos can be regarded as a ‘universe of discourse’, generalizing the category of sets. In particular, category theory can be developed relative to one. Two categorical approaches are well known:

(i) fibred categories (cf. Benabou (1985; in preparation), Celeyrette (1975), Grothendieck (1963), Johnstone (1983/84)

(ii) indexed categories (cf. Pare and Schumacher, and others (1978)).

Here we present a third: categories in a topos. While these could also be given in purely categorical terms, the presence of L′ allows them to be defined by simply writing down an indexed version of the usual definition of a category. Indices allow these structures to be large.
A representation theorem for geometric morphisms
Authors: Chapman Jonathan , Rowbottom Frederick
Published: November 2023

Most of this chapter deals with the central result (Section 8.2), in which topoi over S are shown to arise from topoi in S over ℒ, via global parts. Then this is extended to geometric morphisms over S. Finally, a similar result for cartesian closed categories is outlined.
The theory of a topos In S
Authors: Chapman Jonathan , Rowbottom Frederick
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we employ the canonical set theory of a topos ε in S, to give a set-theoretic description of the structure of εand to construct exponentials and finite colimits. If εhas copowers then (set-indexed) disjunctions, V, are available in the language.
Chapter VIII
Authors: Cofman Judita
Published: November 2023

Let P(x1, x2, ... , xn) be a given point of Σn, and let P’(x’1, x’2, ... ,x’i-1,0, x’i+1... , x’n ) be any point of the hyperplane Πi of Σn with equation xi= 0.
Two Major Theorems On The Primes
Authors: Rose H E
Published: November 2023

This chapter has a different character to the previous work; it consists entirely of the proofs of two important results—Dirichlet’s theorem and the prime number theorem (PNT). A preliminary discussion of these results is given in the introduction to Chapter 12. The individual methods used in these proofs are similar to those in the rest of this book, but difficulties may arise because of their length and complex structure. It is essential to have an overall view and not to get bogged down in details. As the first result has an easier derivation. its methods should be thoroughly understood before the second proof is tackled.
Elasticity and anelasticity: discrete viewpoint
Authors: Maugin Gerard A
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to justify theoretically the somewhat formal contents of Chapter 3 on the basis of microscopic considerations. There is, of course, no methodological obligation to do so as the success of a phenomenological theory is determined by its efficiency in macroscopic (which, for many of us, means engineering) applications. Nonetheless, it is intellectually satisfying to find an agreement between continuous and discrete descriptions in certain limit conditions.
Fourier-transform solution of a Boussinesq problem for a hexagonally aeolotropic elastic half-space
Authors: Sneddon I N
Published: November 2023

A solution of a basic Boussinesq problem relating to a hexagonally aeolotropic elastic half-space is derived by the use of two-dimensional Fourier transforms. An integral relation connecting the normal pressure on the bounding plane with the normal component of the displacement on that plane—analogous to Boussinesq’s relation in the isotropic case—is derived.
Asymptotic and other estimates for a semilinear elliptic equation in a cylinder
Authors: Flavin J N , Knops R J , Payne L E
Published: November 2023

We consider a semilinear elliptic equation in a cylinder of variable cross-section subject to zero conditions on the lateral boundaries. A second-order differential inequality is obtained for an L cross-sectional measure of the solution, where p is a positive integer. It is used to obtain an upper bound for the measure in terms of data, supposed specified on the plane ends of the cylinder (finite cylinder). A semi-infinite cylinder is then considered—the principal concern of the paper—and propositions are proved therefor; a global solution, when it exists, must decay at least exponentially in both cross-sectional and energy measures. These results, obtained without assuming that the solution tends to zero at large distances, depend crucially upon a lemma derived from the basic second-order differential inequality.
Linear dynamical stability in constrained thermoelasticity I. Deformation-temperature constraints
Authors: Chadwick P , Scott N H
Published: November 2023

Equations are derived governing an infinitesimal disturbance of a uniform equilibrium state Be of an unbounded body composed of a heat-conducting elastic material subject to a constraint linking the deformation and the temperature. No restriction is placed on the symmetry of the material and the freedom of choice of Be allows the presence of an arbitrary homogeneous prestrain. The stability of Be, in the context of linearized dynamics, is examined by studying the nature of plane-harmonic-wave solutions of the governing equations. It is found that, under very mild restrictions on the relevant material constants in Be, at least one of the four modes of wave propagation is always unstable, a conclusion which seriously undermines the legitimacy of the assumed type of constraint. The particular case of incompressibility at uniform temperature has been discussed by previous authors and is recapitulated here. Finally, an explanation of the inherent instability is provided by treating the constraint as a limit.
On the dynamical theory of rigid-viscoplastic materials
Authors: Naghdi P M , Srinivasa A R
Published: November 2023

This paper is concerned with the general constitutive aspects oi hnitely deforming rigid-viscoplastic materials. After a brief development of a partially active constraint appropriate for material response in a pre-plastic regime, quantitative results are presented in the context of basic formulation of spatial (or Eulerian) form of the various constitutive equations. This includes full discussion of the temporal continuity condition for the stress during transition from one type of material behaviour to another, the effect of internal constraints (which may be active only partially) on the stress response and the yield surface, as well as geometrical interpretation of the influence of the magnitude of the rate of deformation on the stress response. The nature of the latter rate effect is illustrated by a simple example utilizing a simplified constitutive equation for the stress.
The Basic Representation
Authors: Hoffman P N , Humphreys J F
Published: November 2023

The technicalities of these calculations have a certain appeal, but, on first reading, some may prefer to look at only what will be used later. This consists of the initial part of the chapter up to Theorem 6.2, the last two theorem statements, 6.11 and 6.12, together with the definitions preceding them and the examples after. The notes at the end refer to other methods of calculation, both in this book and in the literature.
Deeper Insertion, Evacuation and the Product Theorem
Authors: Hoffman P N , Humphreys J F
Published: November 2023

Since the algebra ΔQ is spanned by the Q-fuctions, the product Q  μ  Q  v is a linear combination of the functions Q  λ. Using the map och and Theorem 8.6, it can be proved that the coefficients involved are non-negative integers. The purpose of this chapter is to sketch a direct proof of this fact. But much more is done: the enumerative descriptions of these integers from Stembridge (1987, 1989) and Worley (1987) are given. This is the analogue of what is known as the Little-wood-Richardson rule for Schur functions, and for linear representations of S  n or (certain) representations of GL(n, C).
The Lanczos algorithm for a pure imaginary Hermitian matrix
Authors: Lawson Charles L , Gupta Kajal K
Published: November 2023

Consider the application of the block Lanczos algorithm to a pure imaginary Hermitian matrix for the computation of a few of its extreme eigenvalues and eigenvectors. If the algorithm is started with a Q-block that is real, the various intermediate quantities that appear during execution of the algorithm will be either real or pure imaginary. An implementation taking this into account can reduce the number of arithmetic operations required per iteration of the Lanczos algorithm.
The multifrontal method in a parallel environment
Authors: Suff L S , Gould N I M , Lescrenier M , Reid J K
Published: November 2023

The multifrontal solution of symmetric and positive-definite finite element problems may be represented by an assembly tree. The leaves correspond to the elements themselves and each interior node corresponds to the substructure consisting of all the elements corresponding to its descendants. The overall matrix may be assembled and factorized by performing merge and elimination operations at each node. These operations may be performed in any order, subject to the restriction that each node must wait for the completion of all operations at its children. This allows parallel execution of the operations at any two nodes that are not such that either is a descendant of the other.
Complex differentiation
Authors: Klimek Maciej
Published: November 2023

In this introductory chapter we shall establish the basic notation and terminology concerning the first and second order differential operators that will be used throughout this book. We shall also investigate some important relationships between these operators.
Products of groups of finite rank
Authors: Amberg Bernhard , Franciosi Silvana , Giovanni Francesco De
Published: November 2023

A group G has finite torsion-free rank if it has a series of finite length whose factors are either periodic or infinite cyclic.
Some further topics
Authors: Amberg Bernhard , Franciosi Silvana , Giovanni Francesco De
Published: November 2023

Which normal subgroups does a factorized group have? In particular, are there normal subgroups of G = AB contained in or containing one of the two factors A and B? The examples in Section 6.1 show that, if the group G = AB ≠ 1 is the product of two abelian groups, then one of the factors need not necessarily contain a non-trivial normal subgroup of G. On the other hand, Lemma 2.1.4 proves that such a normal subgroup exists if the group G is finite. In the first part of this section we are concerned with extensions of this fact to certain infinite groups.
The influence of analogue machines in the 1930s: the Manchester and Cambridge differential analysers
Authors: Croarken Mary
Published: November 2023

In contrast to the growth in popularity of desk calculating machines during the late 1920s and the 1930s which Comrie helped to promote, the use of mathematical instruments by British scientists did not increase on anything like the same scale. Planimeters, integraphs, and harmonic analysers continued to be manufactured, but the mathematical laboratories set up within university departments during the late 1920s and early 1930s were, in general, equipped with desk calculators and not mathematical instruments.
Essentials of Logic Programming
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

Logic programming has developed into a broad discipline within computing science. Besides its basic role as a declarative programming language, it is also contributing significantly to such fields as artificial intelligence, new-generation computing, software engineering and deductive databases. This new book presents the fundamentals of logic programming from both practical and theoretical viewpoints. It covers various extensions of the formalism, its relationship to Prolog, its formal semantics and its applications to program analysis and transformation. The text is illustrated with numerous diagrams. There are two distinguishing features of the book designed to make it adaptable to various forms of usage and accessible to various audiences. The material is organized into sixty modular themes, permitting many kinds of course to be based upon it; and it includes nearly seventy pages of detailed answers to all of the exercises posed in the themes.
Literature sources
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

The following sources of material relating to logic programming are certainly not exhaustive, but will provide a good introduction and pointers to other works.

Journal of Logic Programming New Generation Computing Logic and Computation Artificial Intelligence

Machine Intelligence Knowledge Engineering Review

Journal of Automated Reasoning Journal of the ACM Communications of the ACM

Journal of Theoretical Computer Science Journal of Symbolic Logic

Journal of Logic and Computation
Problem solving and logical implication
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

Our overall approach in any problem-solving exercise will be to supply as input some set S of sentences expressing our assumptions about the problem domain, and to require the problem solver to yield as output some sentence s expressing a conclusion about the problem domain. Our minimal requirement of the relationship between S and s is that the following shall hold: if S correctly expresses the assumptions then s correctly expresses the conclusion.
SLD-resolution
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

An un satisfiable set of input clauses will typically afford numerous ways of deriving the empty clause by resolution: there may be many ways of choosing parent clauses, while for each choice of parents there may be many ways of resolving them according to the various literals available for resolving upon. The history of research into resolution proof procedures (coupling the resolution principle with certain strategies) has been largely concerned with determining how to restrict these choices-in the interests of efficiency-without sacrificing completeness. In this context, note that for our purposes it is not sufficient merely to be assured that the empty clause be derivable-we usually want to derive it in every way that yields some distinct new answer to the problem.
Partial orders and lattices
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

Presently we shall want to examine the relationships between the various Hmodels of a definite program. The usual framework in which we investigate such matters is the theory of lattices, which are just particular kinds of partial order.

A (weak) partial order over a set S is any subset’(‘ of SxS having these properties:

The relation ( is termed ‘weak’ owing to its reflexivity, in contrast to a ‘strict’ partial order ‘<‘ which has to be irreflexive, asymmetric and transitive. Clausalform definitions of these basic properties of order relations can be found in the answers to Question 1 of Exercises 41.
Denotational semantics for def”mite programs
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

The general aim of a denotational semantics in the logic programming context is to attribute to each predicate symbol p in a program P some well-defined relation r. The chosen relation then represents the meaning of pin P-it is what p is considered to denote in this program.

Ideally we want to definer for pin the least redundant way, that is, to define the minimal r sufficient for the task. Moreover, we prefer this smallest r to be uniquely minimal, so that the meaning given to p shall be unambiguous. For the case where P is definite these requirements are met by the minimal model MM(P) which, for all n, attributes to the n-ary predicate symbols in P the smallest respective n-ary relations in Hn which jointly determine a model. Every other model would redundantly enlarge the relations’ extensions, thereby rendering them ‘more defined’ than necessary.
The SLD finite failure set
Authors: Hogger Christopher John
Published: November 2023

In this Theme we introduce the notion of a finite failure set. Relative to a given program P and a given inference system, this set comprises exactly those ground atoms q for which the query ?q finitely fails. We shall restrict our attention throughout to the case where Pis definite and the inference system is SLD.

Once we know what the finite failure set is relative to SLD inference, we shall also be able to say something about the execution by SLDNF of queries containing fail calls-subject, of course, to the assumption that the chosen computation rule is safe. We shall not say anything in this Theme about the more general situation where fail calls may occur also in clause bodies, for the position then is significantly more complicated.
Reduction
Authors: Hankin Chris
Published: November 2023

Convertibility is a symmetric relation and therefore does not correspond very closely to our intuitions about computing with terms. In this chapter we study a new relation on terms which better fits our intuitions. Having introduced the basic concepts, we present the Church-Rosser Theorem; this is a central theorem in the ,\-calculus and we study it in some detail. The other key theorem is the Standardisation Theorem; before presenting this we require the notion of a residual and a definition of head normal forms. We also show how constants may be added to the calculus and establish conditions under which the Church-Rosser property is preserved.
Further Reading
Authors: Hankin Chris
Published: November 2023

We have given a Computer Science perspective on the material covered in this book. Many of the fundamental results have been produced by logicians. Our inspiration in writing this book has been Barendregt’s encyclopaedic tome [5]. Most of the basic material presented here is treated in much more detail in [5] and the interested reader is urged to consult it. The classical presentation of the A-calculi is Church’s 1941 report [10]. One of the earliest textbooks in the field was Hindley, Lercher and Seldin’s Introduction to Combinatory Logic; while this is no longer available, [17] is a much-expanded treatment of the same material. The latter is written from a mathematical logician’s perspective, so it is short on comutational intuitions, but it is nonetheless a useful reference, particularly for material on typed calculi.
Logic, Computers, Turing, and von Neumannt
Authors: Robinson J A
Published: November 2023

The two outstanding figures in the history of computer science are Alan Turing and John von Neumann, and they shared the view that logic was the key to understanding and automating computation. In particular, it was Turing who gave us in the mid-1930s the fundamental analysis, and the logical definition, of the concept of ‘computability by machine’ and who discovered the surprising and beautiful basic fact that there exist universal machines which by suitable programming can be made to perform any computation whatsoever. This theoretical work of Turing’s had direct practical influence on the designs of the first modern general-purpose electronic digital computers in the mid-1940s. Von Neumann also had a prominent role in the emergence of these first machines, whose logical design has changed remarkably little in its general features during the almost fifty years since it was first formulated. The conventional wisdom is that von Neumann is primarily responsible for this design, which is accordingly known as the ‘von Neumann architecture’. Without detracting from von Neumann’s enormous importance, we maintain that this attribution somewhat distorts reality. The birth of the general-purpose computer, and with it computer science, owes far more to Turing than is usually acknowledged. Turing’s contribution was both direct (arising from his own activities in the 1940s) and indirect (because of his little-known but powerful intellectual influence on von Neumann, starting from the mid-l930s).
Utilizing Structure Information in Concept Formation
Authors: Handa K , Nishikimi M , Matsubara H
Published: November 2023

Inductive learning is a quickly growing area of machine learning, and the methodology of concept formation is to realize the task of inductive learning incrementally and without supervision. We have proposed a concept formation system CAFE, that creates a concept hierarchy from structured instances. The system uses a new classification algorithm mutual induction and an evaluation function known as concept-predictability. Our theory is that a system that deals with structures can not only expand possible domains of learning but also use structure information of instances as a domain theory, enabling accurate and fast learning. Such a system can even learn to neglect attributes that do not affect classification, provided appropriate structure information is given. We have evaluated CAFE in two domains (artificial and natural), and the results have proved our theory.
Learning Non-deterministic Finite Automata from Queries and Counterexamples
Authors: Yokomori T
Published: November 2023

In the recent theoretical research activity of inductive learning, in particular, of inductive inference, Angluin has introduced the model of learning called minimally adequate teacher (MAT), that is, the model of learning via membership queries and equivalence queries, and has shown that the class of regular languages is efficiently learnable using deterministic finite automata (DFAs) (Angluin 1987b). More specifically, she has presented an algorithm which, given any regular language, learns from MAT a minimum DFA accepting the target in time polynomial in the number of states of the minimum DFA and the maximum length of any counterexample provided by the teacher. The MAT learning model is reasonably accepted for the following reasons. First, the limit of the learning capability from only given example data is well-recognized. Actually, Gold shows that the time complexity of learning consistent DFAs from given data is computationally intractable (Gold 1978). Hence, learning models from more than given data are required to study the feasible learnability. On the other hand, there is another motivation for introducing the MAT learning model which comes from a more practical viewpoint. Suppose one wants to construct an expert system (or knowledge system) and (s)he is trying to collect inference rules by interviewing human experts.
Machine Learning and Biomolecular Modelling
Authors: Sternberg M J E , Lewis R A , King R D , Muggleton S
Published: November 2023

Two problems in biomolecular modelling have been tackled by the machine learning program, Golem. The program, based on inductive- based logic programming, takes as input observations and combines them with background knowledge to yield rules. The first system tackled was modelling the quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) of a series of trimethoprim analogues binding to E. coli dihydrofolate reductase. The Golem rules were a better model than standard regression approaches. More importantly, these rules described the chemical properties of the enzyme binding site that were in broad agreement with the crystallographic structure. The other system was the prediction of the secondary structure of proteins to identify regions that form a-helices. On a test set the prediction was 81% accuracy which is better than the results achieved by neural networks. The rules from Golem defined patterns of residues forming α-helices.
Game Mastery and Intelligence
Authors: Michie Donald
Published: November 2023

‘Brute force’ programs unable to understand or explain what they are doing have begun to hold their own with world-class human players in chess, checkers (‘draughts’), backgammon, GoMoku and Othello. AI workers have been obliged to ponder the separability of three phases of problem-solving behaviour: prior research and plan-formation; runtime performance, including planning on the fly; rationalizing the actions taken and the solutions found.
Putting knowledge-rich plan representations to use
Authors: Tate Austin
Published: November 2023

AI· planning research is now maturing and finding practical application in the commercial, industrial, engineering and defence sectors. This has led to a rapid expansion in the last couple of years of investment in this area. The plan representations which have emerged from the research have been found to be of benefit in a number of areas-even when the generation of a plan is not the primary concern. One way in which the research is being exploited is via the use of knowledge-based plan representations to underpin systems which can use ‘knowledge-rich’ plans to improve their monitoring, analysis and advisory capabilities.
A Concept Learning Algorithm with Adaptive Search
Authors: Saito Kazumi , Nakano Ryohei
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes a concept learning algorithm called RF4 which adaptively improves its concept learning efficiency. RF4 performs a depth-first search on the basis of five criteria for pruning undesirable formulae and five transformation rules for combining formulae. The attribute search order is determined dynamically by estimating each attribute’s probability of being a component of the concept. In a KRK chess endgame problem, after learning a few sets of training examples, RF4 quickly improved its learning efficiency as well as predictive accuracy. In a set of visual pattern recognition problems called Bongard problems, using primitive knowledge of graphical objects, RF4 solved 41 out of 100 problems efficiently; other learning algorithms, e.g. GOLEM, INDUCE, or FOIL solved much less. After solving the 41 training problems, the average time for RF4 to solve the same set of problems was reduced to about onethird. Through statistical tests, a piece of useful knowledge to improve the problem-solving efficiency was extracted from a set of probabilities used in RF4.
Making robots see
Authors: Blake Andrew
Published: November 2023

Progress in vision for robots over the past two decades since the seminal work of Ambler et al. (1975) exhibits several distinct strands. Firstly, deeper understanding of the applications of differential geometry (DoCarmo, 1976; Giblin and Weiss, I 987; Cipolla and Zisserman, 1992) and perspective geometry (Koenderink and Van Doorn, 1975; Koenderink and Van Doorn, 1978; Ullman, 1979; Longuet-Higgins and Pradzny, 1980; Huang and Tsai, 1981; Waxman and Ullman, 1985; Maybank, 1985; Faugeras et al., 1987; Murray and Buxton, 1990) to visual motion analysis allow the three-dimensional structure of the world to be analysed, on-the-fly, as a robot moves around its environment. Secondly, In this chapter, we report some recent progress, within the broad paradigm described above, towards building a visually guided robot arm that is able to grasp and transport objects across an obstacle-strewn environment. A CCD camera is mounted on the wrist of an ADEPT robot and a computer continually monitors visual signals.
A learnability model for universal representations and its application to top-down induction of decision trees
Authors: Muggleton S , Page D , Sato Masako
Published: November 2023

Automated inductive learning is a vital part of machine intelligence and the design of intelligent agents. A useful formalization of inductive learning is the model of PAC learnability. Nevertheless, the ability to learn every target concept expressible in a given representation, as required in the PAC-learnability model, is highly demanding and leads to many negative results for interesting concept classes. A new model of learnability, called universal learnability or U-learnability, recently has been proposed as a less demanding, average-case variant of PAC-learnability. This paper uses the U-learnability model to analyze a top-down decision tree induction algorithm. Specifically, this paper proves that an idealized variant of the well-known decision tree learning algorithm CART - one of the most successful existing machine learning algorithms - is a U-learner under a natural set of assumptions regarding target hypotheses.
ICL
Authors: Campbell-Kelly Martin
Published: November 2023

The history of ICL is synonymous with the history of the British computer industry. The company was formed by a series of mergers in response to the increasing market dominance of the large American corporations, particularly IBM. The struggles between these two giants, and the inherent problems and implications for government-industry relations of competing with US multi-nationals are examined in detail in Martin Campbell-Kelly's wide-ranging study. Tracing the technical history of the company and the evolution of its computers from the early punch-card machines of the 1880s to the present day, the book also considers the concerns of technological change, the economics of research and development, and current product-strategy issues, making it essential reading for business students as well as computer professionals.