bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Analysis of General Aviation Accidents during Operations under Instrument Flight Rules
Authors: Bennett C. Thomas , Schwirzke M. , Harm C.
Published: January 2012

The purpose of this analysis was to describe some of the errors that pilots make during flight under instrument flight rules (IFR). The data suggest that there is less risk during the approach and landing phase of IFR flights, as compared to operations under visual flight rules. During the 1980s, there was a large increase in the number of single-pilot IFR (SPIFR) accidents. Most of these were the result of an increase in air taxi accidents. But, because of the increase in air taxi operations, there was no change in the SPIFR rate. SPIFR accident rates continue to be higher than dual-pilot IFR, reflecting the high work load of IFR operations. Night SPIFR continues to be dangerous; its rate is almost 10 times the rate of day IFR, and twice that of day non-IFR operations. The relatively static nature of the statistics for IFR accident rates may be accounted for by (1) the fact that there has been little change in general aviation cockpit technology during the last 25 years, (2) training techniques have not had an impact on pilot operations, and/or (3) current display technology promotes certain types of pilot errors that are virtually immune to training.
Response Covariation as a Design Consideration in Developing Workplace Safety Interventions
Authors: Streff Fredrick M. , Kalsher Michael J.
Published: January 2012

Accidents are among the leading causes of death in the U.S. and billions of dollars are expended annually for treatment of injuries, insurance costs, lost work-time, and other related costs (Accident Facts, 1989). Recent applications of interventions employing incentives and feedback have been successful in increasing safety-related behavior, but they are often expensive to administer over extended periods of time and their effects are often transient. Non-reward strategies emphasizing participation and commitment show great promise since they compare favorably to reward programs in terms of effectiveness, are less costly to administer, and in general, show stronger maintenance of effects. However, most studies employing commitment procedures have targeted only a single behavior, thus reducing their potential effectiveness.

The notion of response classes suggests that certain safety behaviors may covary together and that interventions aimed at a single “target” behavior may also impact other “non-target” behaviors. The results of the present study show that safety glasses use (“target response”) increased following introduction of a pledgecard commitment intervention. A concomitant increase in safety belt use (“non-target response”) also occurred, although both safety behaviors eventually returned to baseline levels following termination of the intervention. The significance of these findings may prove valuable to the development of more efficient and cost-effective safety programs for promoting safety both on and off the job, especially when it is possible to predict collateral effects so that they may be promoted or prevented.
Predicting the Effects of Stress on Performance
Authors: Hancock P.A. , Chignell M.H. , Vercruyssen M.
Published: January 2012

This paper examines a number of ways in which a recent model of stress and human performance may be operationalized to allow experimenters and practioners to assess and predict operator capability in stressful conditions. Particular focus is given to the limits of task capability, as the model emphasizes the task itself as the primary source of stress on the performer. The importance of a model with such predictive capability forms the premise of the work, while the assessment of the present status of this and other models of stress forms the summary.
Headlight Use
Authors: Johnson Daniel
Published: January 2012

Headlight use around dawn, midday and dusk on city and rural roads, as well as freeways, and when the weather was clear, cloudy and rainy was measured. The percentage of 14,220 vehicles using headlights, parking lights only, or no lights was recorded, as was ambient lighting. Direction of travel (into the sun vs. away from it) as a factor affecting headlight use was evaluated. The need for an automatic warning advising drivers to turn on headlights at critical combinations of ambient lighting, road speed, and windshield wiper use is discussed.
New Challenges for Iterative Software Design of a Panel-Oriented Interface
Authors: Myers Greta L. , Larnerd Deborah A. T.
Published: January 2012

Gould's (1987) iterative design principle was applied to the design and development of a large, complex interface. Specific challenges we faced in implementing his recommended design approach included the sheer volume of panels in the interface, communication across the design team, excess baggage stemming from the previous interface, management of design changes, and translation into multiple languages. Our methods of facing those challenges are documented, and the lessons we learned in the process are detailed.
Mathematical Description of Crew Response Times in Simulated Nuclear Power Plant Emergencies
Authors: Kantowitz Barry H. , Bittner Alvah C. , Fujita Yushi
Published: January 2012

Response time data were collected from experienced nuclear power plant crews in a pressurized water reactor simulator. Four different estimation techniques were used to fit three-parameter Weibull distributions to the data. Fits were excellent with the four techniques showing good agreement. Results yielded only weak support for the Human Cognitive Reliability model that relates these fitted distributions to skill-, knowledge-, and rule-based behaviors.
An Integrated Embedded Training and Decision Aiding Design Methodology
Authors: Ryder Joan M. , Zaklad Allen L , Glenn Floyd A. , Zachary Wayne W.
Published: January 2012

Although both decision aiding and embedded training are new technologies, useful methods and tools are available for development of each. However, while the two technologies are philosophically related, they are programmatically distinct in the military system acquisition process and existing design methodologies are not easily combined. This research is developing an integrated methodology for decision aid and embedded training design that will identify: (1) the steps or sequence of the analysis and design processes, (2) the intermediate results that must be generated at each step, and (3) the tools and databases needed to support successful completion of each step. Furthermore, it will take advantage of the partial overlap in analysis requirements (e.g., identifying human cognitive requirements for system operation) and the potential need for similar functions or components (e.g., process prediction, advice generation) to achieve economies in the design process.
Advanced Technology for Aviation Maintenance Training: An Industry Status Report and Development Plan
Authors: Johnson William B.
Published: January 2012

This paper reports the status of a FAA project to support the application of advanced technology systems for aircraft maintenance training. The first phase of the research was to assess the current use of such technology in airlines, manufacturers and approved aviation maintenance technician schools. The findings of the assessment are reported. The second phase of the research will build a prototype intelligent tutoring system for aircraft maintenance training. The preliminary prototype specifications and rationale are discussed.
Organizational Context for Aircraft Maintenance and Inspection
Authors: Taylor James C.
Published: January 2012

Improving and maintaining the airworthiness of the aircraft relied on by today's U.S. commercial carriers requires cooperation among organizational entities. A rapid but systematic assessment of maintenance worker interaction, gained by observation and unstructured interviews of air transport maintenance workers during heavy maintenance checks at 7 U.S. air carriers and repair stations, led to several preliminary conclusions. Characteristics of the typical maintenance organization and patterns of cooperation and coordination among structural configurations must be modified to address present and future needs of the aging fleet.
Examining Human-System Interactions: The HSYS Methodology
Authors: Hill Susan G. , Harbour Jerry L. , Sullivan Christopher , Hallbert Bruce P.
Published: January 2012

HSYS is a model-based methodology developed to examine the many factors which influence Human- SFStem interactions. HSYS is built around a linear model of human performance, called the Input-Action model, which describes five sequential steps: Input Detection, Input Understanding, Action Selection, Action Planning, and Action Execution. HSYS is structured in an hierarchical tree which presents a logical structure for examining potential areas where human performance, hardware or other system components are less than adequate. The HSYS tree consists of five major branches which correspond to the five major components of the Input-Action model. Initial validation was begun by studying accident reports via HSYS and identifying sources of error. The validation process has continued with accident investigations in operational settings.
Assessment of Workload in a Field Environment
Authors: Sams Michelle R. , Christ Richard E.
Published: January 2012

This study evaluated the impact on crew workload of adding the STINGRAY weapon system to the Bradley Fighting Vehicle (BFV). Four BFV crews participated in force-on-force offensive and defensive missions in a baseline BFV (without STINGRAY) and a BFV with STINGRAY. Workload was assessed through operator ratings, post-mission debriefs, and video and audio recordings. A signficant relationship between workload and force effectiveness was demonstrated (i.e., higher levels of workload were associated with lower levels of force effectiveness). Results indicate that workload was dependent on mission type (offensive, defensive) and the mode of operation (baseline, STINGRAY-automatic, STINGRAY-semiautomatic, and STINGRAY-manual). Crew strategies to reduce workload included reallocation of some of the Bradley commander (BC) tasks to the gunner. The utility of the workload techniques employed in the study is discussed.
Empirical Models Based on Data from Several Experiments
Authors: Han Sung H. , Williges Robert C. , Williges Beverly H.
Published: January 2012

A procedure is described for calculating empirical models based on the combined data collected in a series of sequential experiments. A hypothetical example involving ten independent variables is used to illustrate these procedures. Issues related to the comparability of data from several experiments, the use of both continuous and discrete variables in the model, the specification of additional data needed to calculate a second-order polynomial, and the procedure for determining the optimal combination of variables are discussed. Necessary rules for combining data from several studies are suggested. Mathematical criteria of efficiency, variance of coefficients, and orthogonality are used to evaluate this procedure.
A Usability Testing Method Employing the “Trouble Model”
Authors: Asahi Toshiyuki , Miyai Hitoshi
Published: January 2012

This paper proposes a technique to apply the protocol analysis method to usability testing. The “trouble analysis” method is offered for data analysis tasks. These techniques involve a procedure to improve time efficiency and convenience. As a criterion for data analysis, a “trouble model”, which consists of 22 trouble categories, is also offered. Most of the problems in a user-interface can be identified by extracting troubles from the verbal protocols using the model. In the trouble analysis technique, analyses of the human cognitive/thought processes, which usually requires expert knowledge and a lot of time, are not taken into consideration. Quick and easy detection of problems is first considered. The “trouble analysis” technique contributions to usability testing were empirically verified through 9 tests, employed on different kinds of products. The evaluation extent limitation, and user behavior during trouble situations, are also discussed.
Evaluation of Concurrent Thinking Aloud Using Eye-tracking Data
Authors: Rhenius Detlef , Deffner Gerhard
Published: January 2012

In a series of studies we addressed the two questions of: 1) Do verbalizations reflect concurrent thought, and 2) Does concurrent thinking aloud differ from normal thinking? The design of experimental tests was based upon Ericsson and Simon's model of thinking aloud, incorporating variations of how information is represented in short term memory. Eye-movement recordings were used as a source of additional data, allowing us to go beyond a mere analysis of solution time and accuracy. Comparing verbalizations and eye-movement data, we arrived at a positive answer to the first of our initial questions. The second question was approached on several levels, always involving a comparison of ‘think-aloud groups’ with silent controls. We found no differences with respect to accuracy, but longer solution times in think-aloud groups. In a final experiment, the influence of thinking aloud on concurrent task performance could be narrowed down to an effect which only persists through the early stages of familiarization with tasks. We conclude that concurrent verbalization is a viable tool in the study of cognitive processes.
Verbal Protocol Analysis in three Experimental Domains Using Shapa
Authors: Sanderson Penelope M.
Published: January 2012

SHAPA is an interactive verbal protocol analysis tool based on Ericsson and Simon's (1984) recommendations for verbal protocol analysis (Sanderson, James, and Seidler, 1989). It provides a “shell” for carrying out protocol analysis. This paper shows how SHAPA has been used in three different domains: (1) the control of a complex continuous process, (2) a task where subjects give navigational information to active or passive listeners, and (3) the control of a simple city transport system. These examples show how SHAPA can help researchers collect data about the frequencies with which certain categories of verbalization occur and determine the patterns into which they fall.
The Value of Thinking-Aloud Protocols in Industry: A Case Study at Microsoft Corporation
Authors: Denning Susan , Hoiem Derek , Simpson Mark , Sullivan Kent
Published: January 2012

Thinking-aloud protocols traditionally have been used by academic researchers as a qualitative data collection method. This method is currently gaining acceptance in industry usability testing. The Usability Group at Microsoft has adopted the thinking-aloud protocol as a primary method for obtaining data from users. We have found the method valuable not only because it is valid for gathering qualitative data, but also because it is responsive to the constraints we face and the organizational culture we work within. The issue of validity has been discussed in detail by researchers such as Deffner & Rhenius and Ericcson & Simon. Our case study further pursues the validity of thinking-aloud protocols and also discusses how this method allows the researcher to work within industry constraints and incorporate changes into the product within a small time frame. Finally, our case study demonstrates how thinking-aloud protocols fit in well with Microsoft corporate culture where understandable and persuasive results are needed. This case study will have particular relevance for usability practitioners in industry.
Attention Theory as a Guide to Part-Training for Instruction of Naval Air-Intercept Control
Authors: Andre Anthony D. , Lintern Gavan
Published: January 2012

Air-intercept control is a complex Navy combat task which requires a radar operator to advise a pilot of optimum headings for avoiding, meeting, or intercepting other aircraft. The goal of the research reported here was to explore procedures for teaching some critical elements of air-intercept control with a pc-based version of the training simulation that is normally used for instruction. Principles derived from attention theory, and in particular Multiple Resource Theory (Wickens, 1984), were used to guide the development of two part-training strategies. In one strategy, specific skill-based elements of the task were taught in isolation and were then recombined into the whole task. In another strategy, an abstract procedural task was added by isolating those features that contributed to the spatial and temporal coherence of the whole task. A transfer of training design was used to test these two part-training conditions. The procedural-based version of the task emerged as a training strategy that could help students develop resistance to potentially disruptive effects of making the task more difficult. The results are viewed as supporting an approach to training that attempts to alleviate resource overload so that learning may proceed with maximum efficiency while, at the same time, allowing critical task elements related to time-sharing skills to be practiced.
Development of Automatic Processing with Alphanumeric Materials
Authors: Eggemeier F. Thomas , Granitz Andrea B. , Rogus Timothy E. , Geiselman Eric E.
Published: January 2012

This research investigated the development of automatic processing with alphanumeric materials that are representative of those processed by operators of some complex information systems. According to automatic processing theory, consistently mapped (CM) components of complex skills can be automatized with extensive practice, such that they are performed rapidly and accurately with minimal effort. Experiment 1 compared the effects of 3200 training trials in a memory search paradigm with alphanumeric materials under CM and variably mapped (VM) conditions. Dissimilar target and distractor sets were used. The results were consistent with the development of automatic processing in the CM condition. Experiment 2 examined the effect of similar target and distractor sets on CM performance. The results of Experiment 2 indicate that target/distractor similarity significantly affected CM performance. Such similarity therefore represents an important factor to be considered in the design of training programs to support the development of automatic processing with complex alphanumeric materials.
The Effects of Training on Statistical Reasoning
Authors: Jones Scott F. , Cooke Nancy J.
Published: January 2012

The methods which people use to reason about everyday events and the strategies they employ have received much attention throughout the years. One aspect of this history is the debate about whether learning rules or examples most facilitates transfer of knowledge to a different domain. This research attempted to answer this question through two experiments. The first experiment concentrated on defining the dimensions along which subjects perceived problems which embodied statistical heuristics. The results identified a contextual dimension along which subjects classified the problems. The second experiment was conducted to determine if the contextual dimension or the problem domain dimension could best account for transfer of training. The results indicated that the training transferred to all novel problems, however, training did not transfer to a different set of problems presented to the subjects as a phone survey. Explanations for this lack of transfer are discussed.
A Comparison of Two Types of Training Interventions on Team Communication Performance
Authors: Lassiter Donald L. , Vaughn Jeremy S. , Smaltz Virginia E. , Morgan Ben B. , Salas Eduardo
Published: January 2012

The purpose of this research was to examine the effects of different types of training interventions on team communication. Forty-five teams of two persons each viewed one of three training videotapes (control, knowledge, and skills), then performed a low-fidelity helicopter simulation exercise. Trained raters were used to rate teams in terms of levels of their communications and mission performances. Finally, attitudes concerning aircrew coordination were measured before and after training using the Cockpit Management Attitude Questionnaire (CMAQ) developed by Helmreich, Wilhelm, & Gregorich (1988). Results indicated that team communication skills were affected by the type of training intervention the team received. Specifically, the communication of teams in the skills group was significantly better than that of the other two groups. No significant effect of training intervention was found for the mission performance or the attitude data, although a significant correlation was found between team communication performance and team mission performance. These results are discussed in terms of their relevance to the design of training interventions for enhancing team training and performance.
Does Crew Coordination Behavior Impact Performance?
Authors: Stout Rene'e J. , Cannon-Bowers Janis A. , Salas Eduardo , Morgan Ben B.
Published: January 2012

It has been well established that human error and poor management of cockpit resources contribute to aircraft accidents. For this reason, there has been a recent proliferation of aircrew coordination training programs, yet the effectiveness of these programs has not been shown definitively. The present investigation demonstrated the link between crew coordination behavior and mission effectiveness, thus supporting the continued development of programs aimed at training aircrew coordination skills. The results further suggest that interventions concentrate on pilot coordination skills, since these skills appear to be most important to mission performance.
Factors Related to Skill Degradation and their Implications for Refresher Training
Authors: Rullo JoAnn C. , McDonald L. Bruce
Published: January 2012

The purpose of this paper is to present a proposed form, the Refresher Training Requirements Rating Form (RTRRF), which is believed to be capable of assisting training professionals in determining which tasks to include in a refresher training program. This form is based on the literature on skill retention and degradation. The variables included in the rating scale are those that have been consistently found to have either some direct effect on the retention of tasks, or a major impact on the decision to regularly retrain a task. Additional applications of the rating scale are also discussed.
Towards the Real-time Measurement of Mental Workload
Authors: Humphrey Darryl G. , Kramer Arthur F. , Sirevaag Erik J.
Published: January 2012

The primary goal of this study was to explore the utility of event-related brain potentials (ERP) as real-time measures of mental workload. To this end, subjects performed two different tasks both separately and together. One task required that subjects monitor a bank of constantly changing gauges and detect critical deviations. Difficulty was varied by changing the predictability of the gauges. The second task was mental arithmetic. Difficulty was varied by requiring subjects to perform operations on either two or three columns of numbers. Two conditions that could easily be distinguished on the basis of performance measures were selected for the real-time evaluation of ERPs. A bootstrapping approach was adopted in which one thousand samples of n trials (n = 1 to 75) were classified using several measures of P300 and Slow Wave amplitude. Classification accuracies of 90% were achieved with 15 trials. Results are discussed in terms of potential enhancements for real-time recording.
Maintenance of Correct Accommodations in Red, Green, and white Light Environments
Authors: Trautman Edward , Trautman Mary Ann , Ellingstad Vernon
Published: January 2012

This project explored the practical importance of ambient color as a concern for maintaining human visual accommodation. Correct accommodation and regression toward resting point accommodation were considered in broadband red, broadband green and white environments. The involvement of voluntary control of accommodation was manipulated by requiring extended performance on a difficult visual task across four light levels. Declining light levels and increased time-on-task were found to degrade the accuracy of accommodation, while manipulation of ambient color produced differences attributable to chromatic aberration. Differential abilities associated with red, green or white conditions were not apparent, as no statistically significant interactions were evidenced. Results of these and other related findings generally suggest that, allowing for chromatic aberration of the lens, the human eye maintains visual accommodation equally well across varied color conditions. Maintenance of correct accommodation and regression to the resting point of accommodation do not appear to be influenced by ambient color.
Visual Enhancements and Geometric Field of View as Factors in the Design of a Three-Dimensional Perspective Display
Authors: Barfield Woodrow , Lim Rafael , Rosenberg Craig
Published: January 2012

This study investigated the effect of providing visual enhancements to a three-dimensional (3D) perspective display on the observers ability to judge the azimuth and elevation which separated two computer-generated images. The 3D perspective scenes were modeled after displays presented previously by McGreevy and Ellis (1986) but with several visual enhancements designed to assist users in performance of the experiment tasks. The visual enhancements included: (1) the capability to rotate the perspective scenes in near real-time and, (2) the presentation of solid shaded objects in the computer-generated scenes. The results provide information on the magnitude of the errors which occur when observers are required to make directional judgements using perspective displays and on the effectiveness of several visual enhancements on the accuracy of directional judgements using a 3D perspective display.
Graphical Information Processing: The Effects of Proximity Compatibility
Authors: Carswell C. Melody
Published: January 2012

The Proximity Compatibility Hypothesis (PCH) proposes that in designing displays, we should try to match the proximity (unity or similarity) of a display's components to the level of mental integration required of information represented by those components. Thus, for tasks demanding integration of information from several channels, we should display the task-relevant information in a perceptually unitary and homogeneous fashion. For tasks requiring independent processing of multiple information sources, unity and homogeneity should be minimized. The present study tested these predictions using thirteen bivariate graphs that varied in terms of the unity and homogeneity of dimensional pairings. All thirteen graphs were used to perform four tasks, with a different group of fifteen subjects performing each task. These tasks included two integration tasks, an independent processing task, and a task that combined both integration and independent processing demands. As predicted by the PCH, subjects performed the more integrative tasks better when using graphs that contained homogeneous elements combined into a single object. When less integrative tasks were performed, multi-object displays were associated with superior performance. However, the PCH failed to predict an interaction between the effects of object integration and homogeneity for the two integration tasks. While homogeneous object displays were used efficiently for both tasks, the benefits of heterogeneous object displays were specific to the task requiring logical rather than computational integration.
Status or Recommendation: Selecting the Type of Information for Decision Aiding
Authors: Crocoll William M. , Coury Bruce G.
Published: January 2012

Decision aiding systems are becoming an important part of command and control. Selecting the best type of decision aiding information remains an important design decision. The research reported in this paper assesses the is to determine if a decision aid in an aircraft identification task should provide a recommendation for action or status information about the identity of the aircraft. Thirty-two subjects were equally divided into four groups: a control group where no decision aiding information was provided; a group who received only status information; a third group who received only recommendation information; and a fourth group who received both status and recommendation information. Results indicated that, in general, providing decision aiding information reduced the time required to identify the aircraft. Differences among the three types of decision aiding information occurred under those conditions when the decision aid was incorrect. When the decision aid provided inaccurate information, the group receiving only status information was least affected by the decision aid and was best able to correctly identify the aircraft. Recommendations for selecting the type of decision aiding information are discussed.
Selective Attention with Auxiliary Automobile Displays
Authors: Noy Y. Ian
Published: January 2012

Emerging intelligent vehicle-highway systems technology will have a profound impact on the design of future driver interfaces. A series of experiments was conducted to investigate basic human factors issues relating to the design and use of auxiliary in-vehicle displays. A total of thirty healthy male and female student volunteers drove in a moving-base driving simulator and performed auxiliary cognitive tasks on a CRT display. Measures of driving performance, attentional behaviour, auxiliary task performance and workload indicated that performing auxiliary tasks while driving can significantly degrade performance. The effects were manifested even more strongly in subjects' attentional responses. Multiple Resource Theory predictions were not upheld, indicating that the nature and extent of intrusion were relatively robust with respect to task resource structure. Finally, the results provided no evidence that the payment of bonuses was effective in shifting relative resource allocation between these tasks.
Aiding Type and Format Compatibility for Decision Aid Interface Design
Authors: Barnett Barbara J.
Published: January 2012

Three key issues with respect to decision aiding interface design were investigated within a tactical situation assessment paradigm: aiding type (situation assessment vs. response), display formats (verbal vs. spatial), and performance under stress (4-second vs. 8-second presentation). It was hypothesized that aiding would improve performance, particularly under conditions of time stress. Further, it was hypothesized that the spatial format would be more compatible with the cognitive demands of the spatially-demanding situation assessment paradigm, and therefore performance would benefit more from these formats. Results indicated a strong detrimental effect of time stress (lower optimality and confidence ratings). No difference was found between the two types of aiding (situation assessment vs. response). However, a clear advantage for the spatial format was observed. Responses for the spatial formats were faster and confidence ratings were higher, particularly in the situation assessment condition. Under high time stress, spatial aiding improved performance over both the verbal aiding and unaided formats. In fact, spatial aiding under time stress improved performance to equal that of the low-stress condition. Collectively, these results provide support for display format/task processing compatibility, particularly where task performance is time-limited.
Psychological Distress in Relation to Employee Age and Job Tenure
Authors: Murphy Lawrence R.
Published: January 2012

The present study examined psychological distress among workers at various stages of career development, with special reference to the first year of job tenure, the organizational socialization period. Measures of psychological and physical health, as well as demographic data, were obtained from 3,151 employed persons who participated in a national health interview survey conducted by the Census Bureau in 1978. Analysis of covariance was performed in which employee age and job tenure were predictor variables, and gender, marital status, educational level, and number of physical health conditions entered as covariates. The results indicated that distress was highest among workers with less than 6 months tenure, and distress levels decreased progressively with longer tenure. Employee age moderated these effects, however, in that older workers with less than 6 months tenure reported higher levels of distress than younger workers with similar tenure. Older workers also showed a delayed decrease in psychological distress with longer tenure than younger workers. The results identify organizational socialization as a critical period with respect to employee mental health.
Longitudinal Analysis of Age Changes in Speed of Behavior
Authors: Reynolds Sara L.
Published: January 2012

From 1973 to 1989, 1318 subjects ranging in age from 20 to 96 years completed auditory reaction time (RT) tasks as part of the extensive test battery of the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. In addition to central tendency, higher moments of reaction time frequency distributions (variability and skewness) were analyzed to (1) determine changes in the shape of the frequency distribution not revealed by analysis of central tendency alone, which could explain a portion of the slowing effect, and (2) examine differences in cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches. Cross-sectional results revealed significant age increases for median simple reaction time (SRT) and median disjunctive reaction time (DRT), as well as SRT and DRT variance. Males were significantly faster and less variable than females for both SRT and DRT tasks. SRT distributions were much more positively skewed than DRT distributions, and DRT distributions became more positively skewed with age. Increased variability appears to account for a sizable portion of the age-related performance slowing. Longitudinal analyses produced slightly different results, the most distinctive being the fading of age and sex differences over longer periods of time for median RT, variance, and skewness. Findings from this research have human factors implications for task design, personnel selection, accident analysis, and demographic norms.
Quantitative Guidelines for Telephone Information Systems
Authors: Han Sung H. , Williges Beverly H. , Williges Robert C.
Published: January 2012

The results of four sequential experiments were combined into integrated empirical models using data bridging. The resulting regression models can be viewed as quantitative design guidelines for telephone-based information systems. A total of ten independent variables involving environmental, hardware, dialogue, and user factors were considered across the four sequential studies that evaluated a telephone-based interface. Three dependent variables including total search time, user added keypresses, and message transcription accuracy were evaluated in each separate study. Polynomial regression was used to generate an integrated second-order empirical model for each of the three dependent variables. The major contributors to total search time were the time delay between the presentation of each menu item (input timeout) and the structure of the menus. Age of the user and menu structure were the primary contributors to user added keypresses required to recover from errors. Overall, the accuracy of message transcription was influenced primarily by background music, presentation rate of the synthesized speech, and the age of the user. Total search time in this sequential type of information delivery system is primarily dialogue driven. Critical dialogue parameters for this system were input timeout and the number of alternatives in menus. Due to the small number of errors in searching for information, the need to minimize user added keypresses for error correction was not of primary design importance. Accuracy of speech message transcriptions was primarily dependent upon the acoustical environment of the listener. Overall, the use of integrated empirical models offers several advantages including a basis for generalization across several studies and the ability to conduct specific interface design tradeoffs.
Using Menus to Access Computers via Phone-Based Interfaces
Authors: Miller Marta A. , Elias Jeffrey W.
Published: January 2012

Phone-based interfaces allow users easy access to information stored in distant computers. Applications include gaining credit card information, information about financial aid and registration at universities, and banking services. One interface tool that is often used in these applications is the menu. Unfortunately, the use of menus in these types of interfaces is not well investigated. The current study was developed to investigate issues related to the use of menus in auditory interfaces using computer synthesized speech as the output medium. Variables of interest included: 1) menu-page configuration (organized versus random); 2) menu-hierarchy configuration (top-down versus bottom-up); 3) individual differences in short-term memory capabilities; and 4) user anxiety. Subjects performed 20 menu selection trials from one of four menu arrangements. Subjects were given a digit-span task to assess short-term memory capacity and a Sternberg task to assess speed of recall from short-term memory. Finally, subjects were given the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory to assess subject trait and state anxiety. Results suggest that menu performance is a more complex process than VDT menu performance. Short-term memory abilities contributed a major portion of the variance in menu performance. User interest in the menu task also accounted for a good deal of the variance in menu performance and interest was found to be correlated with user anxiety. These results and the results of the menu configuration variables are discussed in terms of possible implications for phone-based menu use and design.
A Preference Evaluation of Three Dialing Plans for a Residential, Phone-Based, Information Service
Authors: Virzi Robert A.
Published: January 2012

Three dialing plans for accessing an audio-response system were prototyped using HyperCardTM and placed in a head-to-head comparison. The study was designed and executed so that we could make specific recommendations for improving the user interface of an existing system which placed certain constraints upon the design (e.g., 4-digit codes were required). Because this system was intended for residential use, preference measures were considered more important than performance measures in choosing a user interface for this service. Some of the results are generally applicable and are of interest to other designers of phone-based, audio-response systems. In particular, we found a strong dislike for a mnemonic dialing plan that required users to dial letters mixed with numbers. The most preferred plan used numbers only and allowed users to minimize the number of keys pressed. This plan also supported a gradual transition from novice to expert use.
Auditory versus Visual Presentation of Help Messages
Authors: Savage Pamela A. , Kemp David G. , Payne David E.
Published: January 2012

The primary goal of this research was to examine the relative effectiveness of help messages presented aurally versus those presented visually. Additional goals were to evaluate help messages baselined for a next-generation product and to identify improvement opportunities for these messages. Three formats were evaluated: paper instructions (user card), visual help messages presented on a computer-simulated telephone's display screen, and auditory help messages. Thirty-six subjects performed two different tasks using a computer-based on-screen simulation of a telephone. Dependent measures consisted of time to complete the tasks, error rate, and subjective measures of how easy the tasks were and how well subjects liked the instructions they received. An analysis of variance indicated that tasks performed using auditory help messages had a significantly lower error rate than did those tasks performed using visual instructions. No significant differences were found among the formats for task completion time or task ease, but there was a significantly greater preference for instructions that included display help messages accompanied by a user card.
Designing Usable Documentation: New Directions for Human Factors
Authors: Angiolillo Joel S.
Published: January 2012

The Human Factors community has virtually ignored one of the most important components of the extended user interface, user documentation. Last year at the 34th Annual Meeting in Orlando there was only one paper on either the design or use of documentation. By comparison, there were approximately a hundred papers related to screen design for video display terminals. The same disparity shows up in the Human Factors Journal. Last year there were no papers on documentation and eleven on accessing information from video display terminals.

This lack of research in the human factors of documentation is surprising for several reasons: First, documentation is ubiquitous and it is big business. Just about every software package and every piece of hardware comes with its own manual today. Second, the importance of documentation to the usability of a product is not a secret. Alphonse Chapanis, in his presidential address delivered at the Eighth Annual Meeting of the Human Factors Society, told the audience “A very large and important area of human factors engineering [has been] almost entirely neglected. This area consists of the language and the words that are attached to the tools, machines, systems, and operations with which we are concerned.” Third, there is no shortage of interesting applied research questions in this area. To name a few:

— When and why do users turn to a manual? — Does format affect perceived usability? How? — How do people access information in a document? How can that access be made easier? — How do technical writers create technical instructions? — How can documentation be better integrated with online help and error support systems?

Although all the participants on the panel have been actively studying the use of documentation, the focus of the panel will not be a recounting of past research. Rather the panelists will offer us direction, based on their extensive experience, for the next decade and beyond. Where are we going? What do we need to know so that we can build a science of documentation? Why have so many human factors practitioners shied away from documentation? How can we make significant improvements to the usability of documents? What form will the documentation of the year 2000 take, and how can human factors contribute to its usability?
Usability Testing: Where are We and Where are We Going?
Authors: Dumas Joseph S.
Published: January 2012

Four years ago a group of usability test specialists held a panel discussion about this relatively new technique (“Usability testing in the real world,” Mills, 1987, SIGCHI Bulletin, 43–46). One of the objectives of that panel was to expose professionals in the usability community to testing methods. That panel assumed that the topic of testing would be new to its audience. Since that time, the number of laboratories that conduct tests has exploded. While no one seems to know for sure, there appear to be in excess of 100 labs in the U.S. alone. Yet, there is no formal organization for people who do testing. This panel session focuses on the current status of testing and its future. The panel will assume that the audience is at least somewhat familiar with the principles of testing.

The primary objective of the panel is to make the case that usability testing is a method that is evolving and changing. It is changing because product development processes are changing and because its strengths and weaknesses are more obvious now. The panel's second objective is to provoke a discussion about usability testing and testing methods. The panel will focus on several themes:

• Usability tests are becoming less formal. The typical evolution of a human factors method is that it becomes more structured and formal over time. Usability testers, however, have had to adapt to changes in the product development process. More functions than ever are being implemented in software. More flexible software tools have made it possible to withhold freezing the components of user interface until very late in the design process. Consequently, conducting quick, informal tests is becoming more typical because the formal test to verify usability often comes too late to influence the product design. • Usability testing is moving beyond testing the user interface itself. With the introduction of object-oriented programming and contextual design there is more interest in understanding users' cognitive processes. There is also renewed interest in understanding how testing fits with other methods for improving usability. • Usability testing can improve managerial and organizational process. Usability tests reveal more than just flaws in product designs. They also can identify problems in the design process. When test results point to poor management practices and groups that are not cooperating, they can lead to changes in the way organizations develop products. Viewed from this perspective, a usability test has benefits beyond the improvements to the product being tested. It can be used to evaluate management practices in addition to competence in applying effective technical practices.
Perceived Difficulty and User Control in Mouse Usage
Authors: Hill Greg W. , Gunn William A. , Martin Shirley L. , Schwartz David R.
Published: January 2012

This study was conducted to determine the relative perceived difficulty of performing different mouse tasks (pairings of mouse actions with button combinations). Right-handed individuals with various types of computer experience used a 3-button mouse to perform 49 simple target acquisition tasks. Perceived difficulty judgments varied with tasks. Significant groupings of tasks along the difficulty dimension were also apparent. For most mouse tasks, the left and center buttons were judged to be relatively easier to use than the right button. Additionally, chorded use of the left and center buttons was perceived to be easier than use of the right button alone. The results suggest that systems should not rely upon the right mouse button as a default setting for system-related functions. Other considerations for mouse usage are discussed.
Twenty-two Tips for a Happier, Healthier Prototype
Authors: Rudd James , Isensee Scott
Published: January 2012

With the recent development of a number of powerful end-user interface (EUI) prototyping tools, the typical software usability department has never before had such a golden opportunity to take a lead role in product development. However, there is more to establishing a successful EUI prototyping effort than simply possessing a background in EUI design and having access to a prototyping tool. Indeed, it has been our experience that the success of a prototyping effort is dependent on many factors - some obvious, some not so obvious, and others learned only through postgraduate training at the School of Hard Knocks. The purpose of this paper is to describe 22 tips we believe will help ensure a successful prototyping effort.